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N -



Jo HNS ON's
UNIVERSAL CyCLOPEDIA
T R E A S U R Y
USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPS, PLANS, AND ENGRAVINGS.
- ED TO RS-IN-CH | EF.
FRED ERICK A. P. BARNARD, S.T.D., LL.D., L.H.D., M. N.A.S.,
PRESIDENT OF COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW YORK;
A R NOLD GUY OT, PH.D., LL.D., M. N.A.S.,
PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, COLLEGE OF NEw JERSEY.
ASSOCIATE EDITO RS. s
MARTIN B. ANDERSON, LL.D.,
President of the University of Rochester, N.Y.;
John G. BARNARD, A. M., LL.D., M. N.A.S.,
Col. U. S. Engineers, Bvt. Major-Gen. U. S. A.;
CHAs. F. CHANDLER, PH.D., M.D., LL.D., M.N.A.S.,
Prof. Anal. Chem., School of Mines, Columbia College;
CHARLES P. KRAUTH, S.T.D., LL.D.,
Vice-Provost of the University of Penn.;
GEORGE P. MARSH, LL.D.,
Envoy Extr. and Minis. Plenipo. of the U.S. at Rome, Italy;
JOHN S., NEwBERRY, M.D., LL.D., M. N.A.S.,
Prof. of Geology and Palaeontology, Columbia College;
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Commodore, in charge of Signal Bureau, Navy Dept. ;
WILLARD PARKER, M.D., LL.D., -
Professor of Surgery, Columbia College, Med. Dept.;
PHILIP SCHAFF, PH.D., S.T. D.,
Baldwin Prof. of Sac'd Lit., Union Theo. Sem., N. Y.;
JULIUS H. SEELYE, S.T.D.,
- Prof. Mental and Moral Phil., Amherst College, Mass.;
ALEXANDER. H. STEPHENS, LL.D.,
Of Georgia, Member 43d Congress, U. S. A.;
ABEL STEVENS, A. M., LL.D.,
Editor of The Methodist, New York;
THOMAS O. SUMMERs, S.T.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Syst. Theol., vänderbilt TJniv., Tenn.;
- • 3 WILLIAM P. TRow BRIDGE, A. M., M. N. A. S.,
Washburne Prof. of Ch. Hist., Union Theo. Sem., N.Y.; Higgin Prof. of Dynamical Eng’ing, Yale College, Conn.;
THEODORE D. WooDSEY, S.T. D., LL.D.,
Ex-President of Yale College, Conn.
AARON L. CHAPIN, S. T. D.,
President of Beloit College, Wisconsin;
HENRY DRISLER, LL.D.,
- Jay Professor of Greek, Columbia College;
THEODORE W. Dwig HT, LL.D.,
Professor of Municipal Law, Columbia College;
OCTAVIUS B. FROTHINGHAM, A. M.,
Pastor Third Unitarian Society, N. Y. City;
As A GRAY, M.D., LL.D., M. N. A. S.,
Fisher Professor of Natural History, Harvard University;
HoRACE GREELEY, LL.D.,
Founder of the New York Tribune;
WILLIAM T. HARRIs, A.M., LL.D.,
Ed. of The Journal of Speculative Phil., St. Louis, Mo.;
Roswell, D. HITCHCOCK, S.T.D., LL.D
ASSISTANT EDITORS,
LINUs P. BROCKETT, A. M., M.D., CHARLEs W. GREENE, A. M., M.D.,
CHARLEs G. LELAND, A. M., CLEMENS PETERSEN, A. M.
WITH NUMEROUS CONTRIBUTIONS FROM WPITERS OF DISTINGUISHED EMINENCE IN EVERY DEPARTMENT
OF LETTERS AND SCIENCE IN THE UNITED STATES AND IN EUROPE.
& 4.
Cºlºr cá * . c. *
Not tº #swell #out }olumes, including Auſſellis,
V OL U M E I.
A — E.
A. J. J O H. N S O N & s O N.
11 GREAT JONES STREET, NEW YORK :
W. D. CUMMINGS, PITTSBURG, PA. C. F. ALDEN, BOSTON, MASS.
H. D. WATSON, SAN FRANCISCO, CA.L.
M D C C C L XX V. -

ENTERED ACCORDING To ACT of CoNGRESS, IN THE YEAR ONE THousAND EIGHT HUNDRED AND SEVENTY-Four,
By A. J. JOHNSON, IN THE OFFICE OF THE LIBRARIAN OF CONGRESS, AT WASHINGTON. -
AIL RIGHTS RESERVED.
ELECTROTYPED BY PRINTED BY
WEST COTT , & THOMSON. S. W. GREEN, 18 JACOB STREET,
Philadelphia . New York.
PARER. MANUFACTURED BY - BOUND BY
THE SEYMOUR PAPER COMPANY., JAMES SOMERVILLE,
New York. - New York.
N
w
.
º
T-
º
-
the great philanthropist and public educa-
tor—whorn only to know was to love—this
TJNIVERSAL CycLoPAEDIA, which he planned and
assisted in editing in part, is reverently dedi-
cated by his devoted friend and household
º
corn panlon, THE PUBLISHER.
§§
º ãº
Wr vº
§§ º
º -
*
Tº -
sº-rºwº-N º -




PUBLISHER'S ANNOUNCEMENT.
-Z
WITH profound gratitude to the American people for the unprecedented favor heretofore ex-
tended to him—a favor which has manifested itself in the purchase of more than half a million
copies of his previous publications—the Publisher now takes pleasure in laying before the same
generous public the entirely new and very elaborate work herewith presented, entitled JOHNSON's
NEW UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA. In doing this he respectfully solicits the continuance of the
liberal patronage which has been thus far bestowed on him, and which he has endeavored to
deserve by faithfully laboring to meet the intellectual wants of an enlightened and cultivated
people. He does not claim perfection for this work, though it has been prepared without regard
to labor or expense. Still, whatever imperfections the critical eye may discover in it, no one
who gives it a candid examination can fail to concede that it possesses, in many important par-
ticulars, such a superiority over any other encyclopædia yet published as must make it invaluable,
if not indispensable, to the scholar, the man of business, and the general reader. •
To explain the principles which have governed the preparation of this work belongs properly
to the province of the Editors. The Publisher may, nevertheless, be permitted to observe, that
in bringing together the vast amount of material here accumulated, recourse has been had to
every accessible source of authentic information. The most recent publications, not only in Eng-
lish, but in all the leading languages of the continent of Europe (particularly the German, French,
and Italian), have been constantly consulted. And in order to guard against the possibility of
being betrayed into error by relying too implicitly on printed authorities, all articles compiled from
such sources have been subjected to the scrutiny of accomplished critics in the departments of
knowledge to which they severally belong. A very important feature in the plan, moreover, which
has been systematically pursued throughout, has been to place all the most important subjects
in the hands of living authorities of distinguished eminence, to be originally treated expressly
for this work. Each of the articles thus specially prepared is attested by the signature of its
author; and, immediately following this Announcement, a list of the many eminent Writers who
have been already thus engaged is given in full.
The original suggestion of this work is due to the late Hon. HoRACE GREELEY, LL.D., for more
than ten years the intimate friend of the undersigned, and for the last two years or more of his life
a member of his family. It has been dedicated to his memory, therefore, not only in testimony
to the warm personal regard which, during this long period, he won to himself by his many kindly
traits of character; but also in just recognition of his early participation in the preparation of the
work itself, and of the fact that it may, without impropriety, be said to owe to him its existence.
As an indefatigable laborer and prolific writer for the daily press (to say nothing of the more
permanent monuments of literary industry which he created in the course of a long and “busy
life”), dealing constantly with topics of immediate and stirring interest in the political, industrial,
and social world, where the whole force of an argument or trustworthiness of a conclusion must
depend constantly on the correctness of the assumed premises, Mr. Greeley had long felt the need
of a comprehensive book of general reference better adapted to his needs, and to the needs of all
active workers like himself, than any then in existence. His experience taught him that the
existing encyclopædias, all of which have their merits, fail to meet the wants of the class of busy
and practical men to which he belonged, for several reasons. In the first place, they are generally
too voluminous: occupying a whole shelf in a library, instead of a corner of a writing-table, they
cannot be consulted without disarrangement, loss of time, and serious inconvenience. Secondly,
since many of their articles have much the form of treatises, the important facts in them of which
the busy man is in need are spread over a large surface, and can only be found by a search
involving vexatious delay. And thirdly, in respect to accuracy of statement and freshness of
V.
3.
vi PUBLISHER'S ANNOUNCEMENT.
information, these works are very unequal. Even in the new editions of the most approved ency-
clopædias—editions professedly rewritten throughout—errors of long standing continue in many
instances to be perpetuated, and statistical and scientific statements which belong to a period
long passed by are often presented. - *
The busy man's cyclopædia, according to Mr. Greeley, should be something different in every
one of the particulars here specified. It should be, first of all, a table-book : that with him was
a sine qua non. It should, furthermore, be pre-eminently a book of facts, and to a very limited
extent, if at all, a volume of discussions or of critical opinions. Finally, it should be severely
and uniformly accurate; and should be brought up, in every article, to the actual state of
knowledge at the date of publication. With Mr. Greeley, to perceive a mode in which the
world might be benefited was to feel an irrepressible desire to secure the benefit. In many
earnest conversations, two years or more before the end of his useful life, he urged upon the
undersigned himself to undertake the publication of a work of such a character as is here briefly
outlined; promising to contribute personally a large share of the literary labor which the prep-
aration of the work would require. The magnitude of the pecuniary responsibility involved in so
vast an enterprise prevented an immediate acquiescence in this proposal; and it was only after it
had been repeatedly presented that the undersigned finally yielded to these pressing solicitations,
and consented to assume the heavy burden. Some of the words used by the zealous originator
and early advocate of the scheme, in the conversations above referred to, are still remembered;
and now that he has passed away for ever, they may perhaps be read with interest, as illustrating
his peculiarities of expression in earnest social intercourse with his daily associates. The decis-
ion of the undersigned to comply in this matter with the wishes of his distinguished friend was
reached during a drive with Mr. Greeley in the Central Park of New York City in December, 1870;
and in the course of that memorable drive, Mr. Greeley said, emphatically, “I want just three
books constantly at my elbow when I am writing: Johnson's Family Atlas of the World, Webster's Dic-
tionary, and an Encyclopædia of not more than four volumes—three would be better; and this book
should have every general article abridged as much as possible, or, as they say in Vermont, “boiled
down.’” In another explanation of his views as to the kind of condensation to be given to the
work, he said, “I don’t care upon whose shoulders Humboldt's cloak may have fallen, or if he
had one, even; but I simply want to know when and where he was born, what he did, and when
he died. The rest would be good for nothing except to lumber up the book. The lives and labors
of men are the best kind of history, and the history that is needed; but lengthy dissertations upon
them in a book of reference would be misplaced.” - -
The preparation of the work having been resolved on, and Mr. Greeley having promised it
from the beginning the aid of his counsel and his pen, it might naturally have been anticipated
that he would cheerfully assume, or perhaps claim as due to him of right, the position of its
Editor-in-chief. This, however, would have been impracticable with him, considering the nume-
rous and absorbing duties already pressing upon him; which did not prevent him, however, from
allowing his name to be placed as that of an associate on the editorial staff. He gave to the
matter probably as much thought as if he had been in the chief direction, but he had not time to
attend in person to the practical execution of the working plans. As soon as the proper literary
assistance could be secured, repeated consultations took place between the Editors and the Pub-
lisher in the private room of Mr. Greeley at the residence of the undersigned in this city; and in
these conferences he unfolded his views in so lucid and masterly a manner as strongly to impress
all who heard him with admiration of his comprehensive grasp of the Subject, and to convince
them of his own wonderful fitness to contribute personally to the successful execution of the
scheme. -
Before the business arrangements for prosecuting the work had been actually completed, it
occurred to the undersigned that there might be some advantage in transferring the responsibility
of the publication to some other well-known publishing house in this city or elsewhere; reserving
only to himself the task of managing the sale. Messrs. Charles Scribner & Co. of New York, and
afterwards Messrs. James R. Osgood & Co. of Boston, were applied to, but without success; for
while, on other accounts, they were not indisposed to regard the proposition favorably, they hesi-
tated to stake upon a single enterprise so large an amount of capital as seemed likely to be
required to carry out this work with the thoroughness contemplated. This caused, however, only
a temporary delay. After having put his hand to the plough, the undersigned had at no time
the idea of looking back; and when it became evident that, if the work was to be carried through,
the entire responsibility must rest upon himself alone, he came to the deliberate conclusion
that his shoulders were broad enough to bear it. In point of fact, however, the cost of the
publication has proved even more serious than was at first anticipated. The design from the
beginning having been to make a good book, no other consideration has been at any time allowed
to interfere for a moment with it. The circle of eminent contributors has been constantly
extending; and it is believed that no similar work has ever been produced in this country, or
elsewhere, in which the literary labor of preparation has been more liberally compensated. At
|
PUBLISHER'S ANNOUNCEMENT. vii
this very time arrangements are nearly completed by the Editors, by means of which the future
volumes of the work will be enriched by a largely increased number of articles from distinguished
foreign contributors; and some of these articles have already been received. Judging from the
experience of the past, it is a reasonable estimate to say that the complete work will involve an
outlay which cannot fall much below $200,000, and may materially exceed that large sum.
The active labor of preparing the work was vigorously set on foot as early as the spring of 1871,
under the direction, at first, of two editors only, but with an able and thoroughly competent staff
of regular writers, and the promised aid of many eminent special contributors. Mr. Greeley entered
upon that part of the task which he had chosen for himself with even more than his wonted
enthusiasm; and notwithstanding the multiplicity of his cares and the endless demands upon his
time, his proper department never dragged so long as he was able to hold a pen. Even in the
midst of the excitements which followed his nomination to the presidency in 1872, and under the
oppressive heats of one of the most exhausting seasons ever known, he prepared the elaborate
article on the “Confederate States,” which will be found in this volume—an article which was
probably the last important literary production of his life. In putting this, which proved to be
his final contribution to the present work, into the hands of the undersigned, he remarked, with
that simplicity which was his most striking characteristic, “I hope it will be acceptable, for I
have done my best to tell the truth, and not to offend the people of either the North or the South.”
As the work advanced, and its magnitude began to be more fully appreciated by its conductors,
the principle of the division of labor which had guided its execution from the beginning was
brought more distinctly out, and made more efficacious, by enlarging the editorial corps, and
incorporating into it men not only thoroughly competent to direct the several departments of
which they assumed the charge, but known to be so by the public. Time also was given to such
of these gentlemen as had not been engaged until after some progress had been made in preparing
the electrotype plates, to revise thoroughly all of the work which had thus been put into shape,
and to propose additions or emendations with the most perfect freedom; and all the suggestions
of improvement made by them were unhesitatingly adopted without regard to expense. This has
to some degree retarded the appearance of the volume, which it had been originally designed to
lay before the public some time in 1873; but the Publisher has the satisfaction of believing that
the delay thus occasioned has been vastly more than compensated, in having secured for the work
the careful scrutiny and approval of the body of able and distinguished men whose names appear
on the title-page as Editors and Associate Editors. It is not without a feeling of natural pride
that the Publisher calls public attention to the galaxy of talent there exhibited ; each depart-
mental editor having been engaged in consequence of the honorable eminence already achieved
by him in some one of the many paths of letters or science. No name has been included in the
list merely to give an adventitious lustre to the book. All are the names of active workers, and
they are placed there to give the public a secure guaranty of the trustworthiness of the varied
information which these volumes embrace. - - -
There remains, in conclusion, One pleasant duty to discharge, that of making public and hon-
orable mention of the efficient services rendered by those whose superior practical skill has
clothed the work of the literary laborers in its visible garb ; among whom should be named
Mr. L. F. Thomas of Philadelphia, Pa., who read the proofs; Messrs. Westcott & Thomson of the
same city, who set up the type and made the plates; Messrs. Redman & Kenny of New York,
who prepared nearly all the graphic illustrations; Mr. C. X. Craig, who engraved the maps; and
Messrs. T. W. Baker and F. S. Jones, who in a variety of ways have lent most valuable aid in
furthering this colossal undertaking.
The first volume of the work is now before the public, who will be able to judge for themselves
how nearly it approaches to that ideal of excellence which should be the object of all human
effort, but which no human effort can be expected ever completely to attain. One merit it may
nevertheless claim, which is not likely to be disputed—that, having been prepared under the
supervision of an editorial corps in which every section of the country and every leading religious
denomination is represented, no shadow of political prejudice, or taint of sectional jealousy, or
trace of sectarian bitterness, will be found to disfigure its pages.
With these preliminary observations, which the occasion seemed to require, the undersigned
has now only to make his best obeisance to the public and retire behind the scene; confident that
the verdict which will presently be pronounced upon the fruit of so much care and labor and out-
lay as have been lavished on this work, will be as favorable as it is certain to be just, and as it must
be final. ! -
Faithfully,
A. J. JOPHNSON,
PUBLISHER OF ATLASES, MAPS, AND BOOKS.
11 GREAT JONES STREET, NEw York
(near Broadway),
June, 1874. *
PREFACE.
WHEN a new book of general reference is presented for the first time to the public, it
becomes its originators to state the reasons which have induced them to undertake the
labor of its preparation, and to explain the principles which have guided them in the
performance of their task. There are many encyclopædias already in existence, from the
merits of which the present Editors are by no means disposed to detract. They, like most
men whose lives are given to study, have made much use of works of this description,
and have learned by experience to appreciate their value. But the same experience has
taught them that there are certain particulars in which all the works of this class with
which they are acquainted are more or less unsatisfactory.
In explanation of what is here meant, it must be premised that no cyclopædia, however
it may be named, can be, in the strictest sense, universal, and that therefore every such
work must sometimes fail to respond to the demands of the inquirer. The misfortune is,
that the particulars as to which these works are thus occasionally disappointing are too
often precisely those on which information is most frequently needed in the ordinary
affairs of life. In statistics, for example, they deal much in aggregates and little in details.
In geography they are full upon countries, and provinces, and capitals, and populous cities;
but whatever lies beyond this they leave to the gazetteers. And while, as to the men whose
names have come down to us from other times, the information they furnish leaves little
to desire, in regard to those who have made themselves conspicuous among the living gen-
eration, they are either silent, or their notices are imperfect and few.
But, in the second place, the information which these works contain is often scattered
through too large a space: facts of detail, of which the need is immediate and pressing,
are so submerged beneath the multitude of words that the hurried inquirer finds his time
and his patience alike too limited to permit him to study them out. The works of this
class which have cost their editors the largest labor and their publishers the largest outlay
—such, for instance, as the “Encyclopædia Metropolitana” and the “Encyclopædia Britan-
nica”—have, as a necessary consequence of their ambitious design, and in virtue of the
very pains expended in carrying this faithfully out, sacrificed to a great degree their every-
day usefulness. For quiet perusal, with abundance of leisure, they are invaluable; but
they are libraries rather than books of reference. They are in no proper sense diction-
aries, but groups of systematic treatises loosely linked together; and though their general
titles are arranged in alphabetic order, they can only be conveniently consulted for the
purposes of occasional reference by the aid of an independent index.
But, thirdly, these elaborate and costly works have not only the character of a library,
they have almost the bulk of a library. They fill many volumes, and occupy so large an
amount of space as to unfit them altogether for table use. A condition indispensable to
the usefulness of a book of reference is, nevertheless, that it shall be always near the
inquirer's hand—on the table of the student, on the desk of the merchant, on the bench
of the artisan;–a condition which deprives every voluminous cyclopædia, however great
in other respects may be its merits, of its principal practical value for the every-day uses
of practical men. - e - -
Another fault of most works of this class is, that the information they give cannot
always be trusted. In this respect they are very unequal. An article, for example, in
1X
X . - r PREFACE.
the “Encyclopædia Britannica,” which bears the signature of Thomas Young, or Henry
Brougham, or Sir John Herschel, will of course command universal confidence; but
besides such as these, there are in the same work many articles of unknown authorship,
derived probably, in most instances, from previous similar publications, and originally
affected by unsuspected errors which they continue to perpetuate. *
Finally, it is too often the case that books of general reference are behind the actual
state of knowledge at the date of their publication. In the progress of the sciences, in
the growth and decline of industries, in the incessant social and political mutations which
| time brings with it, any occasional résumé of the aspects of human affairs must largely
lose in value in proportion as the point of time for which it is true recedes into the past.
Every inquirer, therefore, who has sought from books of reference information as to mat-
ters of living interest, must have been often disappointed to find that, while they tell him
So very much, they fail to tell him precisely what he wants to know.
Entering thus upon their task with a lively recollection of the particulars in which
they have found the books of general reference at their command to fail them at their
need, the Editors of this one have faithfully labored, not wholly they trust without success,
to avoid the faults here signalized. To this end, considering in the outset that no work,
however comprehensive its scope, can be absolutely exhaustive of all human knowledge,
they have aimed to give the largest space to matters concerning which the need of exact
information is most generally and most frequently felt; keeping in view, at the same time,
the wants of the student in his closet, and those of the practical man in the daily affairs
of life. - -
They have, secondly, treated all large subjects analytically, exhibiting each elementary
topic under its own head in alphabetic order. Titles are thus multiplied and separate
articles abridged. The work becomes its own index, and is made to combine the character
of a dictionary with that of a cyclopædia. Upon topics of principal importance or of
immediate and living interest, nevertheless, it has not been considered incompatible with
this plan to introduce systematic essays; but these when admitted are practically indexed,
by including their subordinate titles in the alphabetic arrangement, with cross-references
to the principal articles. The accuracy of the information conveyed,in these more elabo-
rate essays is in all cases attested by the signatures of their writers, who will be recognized
in general as the highest authorities on the subjects thus treated. In the list of these
valued contributors, elsewhere given, will be noticed the names of very many gentlemen
of distinguished eminence in letters and science in the United States and in Europe; and
negotiations recently completed, or now in progress, with foreign writers no less eminent,
will largely extend this list for the future volumes.
In the articles of the class by far most numerous, however, the principle has been
adhered to of compressing the largest number of facts or truths into the Smallest possible
compass. These articles are therefore very brief, but pithy in proportion to their brevity.
Comments, discussions, speculations—even, as a rule, criticisms upon the chefs d'oeuvre of
art or letters—have been avoided. These have no fit place in a book of reference, of which
the proper object is to give facts of positive knowledge, and not the opinions of men about
such facts. This was the principle laid down by the eminent man with whom, as the Pub-
lisher has elsewhere stated in a narrative of deep interest, the project of this work origin-
ated. “Give me the facts—I will find you the words,” seems always to have been the
unuttered motto of HoRACE GREELEY. And the only book of reference which Mr. Greeley
required was a book of facts. The character of the present work will be found to have
been largely controlled by this fundamental principle of its projector. Had he lived to
rejoice with us in its publication, it might have been more largely so; but the present
editors have remembered that to most men facts are sometimes made more useful, and
principles more intelligible, by concise illustrations of their significancy. -
Still, the condensation given to the articles in general has made it possible to introduce
an amount of information in detail, principally geographical, biographical, and statistical,
quite beyond what will be found in any other cyclopædia.
1. As to Geography. So far as the United States are concerned, this work is a complete
gazetteer. Every township in every State or Territory will be found recorded in its proper
place, with its population according to the census of 1870; and every town of more than
PREFACE. xi
—”
one thousand inhabitants has been written up expressly for this work by a competent
authority resident on the spot, wherever such could be found. The larger towns, and the
States themselves, have been made the subjects of elaborate articles by accomplished
experts, whose names, attached to the articles, will be a sufficient guaranty of the fidelity
with which they have been prepared. -
Nor has foreign geography been a subject of less careful or less conscientious attention,
although it has not been followed into so minute detail as that of our own country. Com-
pact notices are given of all towns numbering more than five thousand inhabitants; in
which are exhibited all the important statistical facts relating to them, whether industrial,
educational, Social, religious, or in any manner otherwise interesting. Every important
country has been treated, by specially competent writers, in a variety of aspects, including
its physical geography; its political divisions; its growth or decline in population; its
geology, natural history, and mineral resources; its agriculture and manufactures, and
their characteristic products; its commerce and commercial marine; its inland navigation
and railway communications; its political institutions; its systems of civil and criminal
jurisprudence; its postal and telegraphic service; its provision for the maintenance of
religion, the support of education, the cultivation of art, and the encouragement of
Science; its methods of organized benevolence; its literature, ephemeral and permanent;
its military and naval strength; and finally, in brief outline sketch, the history of its past,
as a key to its actual condition. Provinces and large towns have been treated in accord-
ance with the same plan, in so far as it is applicable to them; and, for the volumes which
are to follow, arrangements recently concluded will secure a more effectual execution of
the plan than is shown even in the thorough and carefully studied articles contained in
the present. Hereafter, foreign countries and their principal towns will be described by
eminent foreign writers, members of the geographical and statistical societies of European
capitals, or gentlemen of distinguished reputation whose studies have been specially
devoted to these subjects. Some of the articles prepared under these arrangements for the
ensuing volume have already been received.
2. As to Biography. In this department, the present work may fairly claim a certain
merit, not only for what it has added of matter wholly new, but also for what it has
omitted. Many names handed down from the distant past, which have long encumbered
the dictionaries of biography without sensibly enhancing their value, will be looked for in
the present publication in vain. They are names of men who were no doubt useful in their
day, but who have been long since nearly swallowed up in that practical oblivion which
awaits the great majority of mankind, however prominent among the men of their own
generation. The space thus gained has been more usefully filled, by introducing in large
number the biographies of living men, whose names are constantly encountered in journals
or heard on people's lips, but of whom little is generally known beyond those facts of their
history which have secured for them honorable distinction, or simple notoriety. The
materials for these biographical notices have been gathered by writers perfectly well
acquainted with their subjects; and the statements they embrace may be accepted as entirely
authentic. It may probably be remarked that some of the names here given are not those
of men entitled to permanent pedestals in a national Walhalla. To this entirely just
observation the reply may be, that the object of these volumes is not to dispense laurels, .
nor to distinguish, among the candidates for immortality, those who are most deserving.
Their single object is to furnish to the people such information as the people need—
information, moreover, of a kind which the people have heretofore had no ready
means of obtaining. But though among the names which appear in these volumes for
the first time there are doubtless some which may have for the world, and even for the
American portion of it, only a temporary interest, and which will therefore, sooner or
later, drop from the places here assigned them, there are none, it is believed, concerning
which the men of the present generation are not likely more or less frequently to
desire information. They are names of men who have been, or who are now, con-
spicuous in public affairs, or prominent as religious teachers and leaders, or influential
as writers or journalists, or distinguished as members of the Bar or Bench, or widely
known as philanthropists, scholars, educators, engineers, naturalists, physicists, chemists,
or devotees of abstract or applied science. It is of course not to be expected that a first
xii PREFACE.
attempt to gather the biographies of noted living men shall have included all who are
fairly entitled to notice, or shall fail to have included some whose claims to such distinc-
tion are doubtful. The Editors can only promise that omissions and errors of this nature
shall be corrected so soon as discovered. -
3. As to Law. It is at once the duty and the interest of every member of an organized
political society to acquaint himself with his rights as a citizen, and with the obligations
under which he lies to his fellow-citizens and to the government under which he lives.
Keeping this proposition in view, the Editors have felt that it would add very greatly to
the practical value of a book which is likely to be a hand-book and a table-book in the
dwellings of the people, if there were here presented, more fully than they are elsewhere
to be found except in works strictly professional, all the leading principles of municipal
law, with clear explanations of the various modes of proceeding in law and in equity,
and with descriptions of the most important legal forms and written instruments. This
has been done with a thoroughness which will be understood, when it is stated that the
present volume alone contains more than two hundred important articles belonging to
this class. . . .
Nor has what is called public law, or the law which is supposed to regulate the
intercourse of nations, received less careful attention. The present Cyclopædia is be-
lieved to be the first of its class, published in this country, which has embraced in its
plan a provision for the full and systematic unfolding of the principles of international
law. The treatment of this weighty subject belongs in regular order to the second vol-
ume, but the work has been already completed, and is from the hand of a recognized
master of the science. Questions of international obligation and international courtesy
have been in our time of so frequent occurrence, that an authoritative exposition of the
principles according to which they should be settled cannot fail to possess a high value for
every citizen.
4. As to Pathology and Medicine. The Editors of this work are by no means inclined
to favor the maxim that every man should be his own physician. But they are satisfied
that a little of that kind of pathological knowledge which may enable a man to identify
a disease, and a little of that acquaintance with therapeutics which may qualify him to
judge what it is best to do for the patient before the professional practitioner can arrive,
may often be the means of alleviating suffering, and perhaps of Saving life. It is cer-
tainly better to use remedies with some knowledge of them, than to attempt their use,
as is often done, with no knowledge of them at all. A book of reference, therefore, which
is destined to lie on the table in many dwellings remote from towns or villages, where
hours must often intervene before, in a case of emergency, medical aid can be obtained,
will be largely increased in its usefulness if, in its preparation, there shall have been intro-
duced into it such simple descriptions of the symptoms of the most frequently occurring
diseases, and such suggestions as to the means to be earliest resorted to in order to palliate
their violence, as can be understood and employed by any person of ordinary intelligence.
In the preparation of the present work this object has been constantly kept in view. The
diseases of children have received special attention; and it is confidently believed that
this feature of the work will add much to its acceptability among the people.
5. As to Physics, Chemistry, Natural History, and the sciences generally, exact and ap-
plied. The design of the present Cyclopædia having been to make a work pre-eminently
practical, it may be fairly claimed as a merit that it has given a larger proportion of its
space to the Sciences of nature, and their numerous applications, than is usual in works
of its class. The fact is here simply noted, without descending to particulars or enlarging
upon the importance of this feature. The most cursory inspection of the pages of the
work will show the extent of its prevalence. -
The foregoing points embrace the principal peculiarities which distinguish the present
Cyclopædia from those which have gone before. Some few still remain which deserve a
moment's attention. •
First among these may be mentioned the careful attention which has been given to
subjects distinctively American. In all the encyclopædias published abroad—and hun-
dreds of copies of these are annually sold in the United States—these subjects are very
imperfectly exhibited, or are left unnoticed altogether; nor has this defect been adequately
PREFACE. - xiii
repaired in any similar publication in our own country. In the preparation of the present
work, no time or labor has been spared to secure a satisfactory presentation of whatever
relates to the political or social history of the American people and the eminent men by
whom this history has been adorned; to the form and principles of our government; to
our laws and usages; our systems of education and educational institutions; our religious
organizations; our public charities; our methods of agriculture; our artificial channels
of transportation; the statistics of our population, commerce, manufactures, and mining;
the characteristic features of our physical geography, with their accompanying varieties
of climate, soil, and productions; the languages, habits, and habitations of the aboriginal
occupants of the continent; the scattered traces yet remaining of extinct races which
preceded these; and numerous topics of a kindred nature which are likely to interest
especially the American reader. The present volume will furnish ample evidence of the
steadiness with which this object has been kept in view.
Something may be claimed, in the next place, for the sincerity with which it has
been endeavored to keep this work entirely free from every kind of bias. In books of
general reference there must unavoidably be embraced many subjects on which opinions
differ; and—a thing of much greater consequence—on which feelings are even more
widely at variance than opinions. To this class belong grave questions of public policy,
momentous events in the history of the still living generation, and the doctrines which
distinctively divide the differing schools of religious thought. In regard to all these,
the Editors have steadily endeavored that the views of every party, section and denomi-
nation should be presented fairly, and with entire respect for the views of others. To the
end that this desirable result might be more surely attained, they have associated with
themselves a number of distinguished gentlemen, who will be recognized as fairly repre-
senting the different portions of our country geographically, and its principal religious
denominations. Security has thus been provided that every class of opinions shall be
expounded by its friends; while, by the simple expedient of never admitting any para-
graph or sentence which, to any member of the editorial staff, seemed, either in statement
or in spirit, objectionable, the work has been kept, it is hoped, free from liability to any
just imputation of prejudice or partiality. A similar impartiality has thus likewise been
secured for it in the collection of the numerous biographical notices which it contains
of conspicuous members, still living, of different religious denominations; the associate
editors representing such denominations having undertaken, each within his own, to
gather such notices, and all of them having largely contributed in this department with
their own hands. -
The means, thirdly, which have been employed to ascertain with exactness the statis-
tics of towns, villages, public works and public institutions, and to gather facts of local
history and personal interest, have been probably without example in the conduct of any
similar enterprise. Communications have been opened with some hundreds of local cor-
respondents scattered throughout all the States and Territories of the United States,
involving the interchange of letters to the number of many thousands, besides the trans-
mission of a still larger number of forms for the registration of the information gathered.
The necessary manuscript correspondence has been too voluminous to be maintained in
any other way than by dictation to phonographic clerks or other rapid writers. In the
management of this very laborious branch of the business, the Editors have to acknow-
ledge their obligations to the energetic Publisher, by whom the principal burden of it
has been borne, and who has thus left them a larger freedom to maintain the necessary
correspondence, also very heavy, with the special writers occupied with topics of greater
importance and wider scope. - -
For the preparation of articles compiled from printed authorities, an able staff of edi-
torial assistants and other writers has been employed in the office, whose time is given
exclusively to this work. A comprehensive library has been provided expressly for their
use, embracing every cyclopædia, general or special, and every dictionary or compendium
of art, science, law, medicine, theology, biblical literature, mythology, history, archaeology,
technology, geography, natural history, biography, etc. etc., known to have been published
in this country, in England, or on the continent of Europe, within the last twenty years. To
these have been added the proceedings of geographical and statistical Societies, periodical
xiv. PREFACE.
journals devoted to these sciences, the reports and public documents published under the
authority of governments, relating to population, commerce, agriculture, manufactures,
Coinage, currency, etc., and in general all publications entitled to be regarded as authentic
Sources of information as to important matters of fact. All the articles prepared by the
writers in the office have passed under the critical scrutiny of three or four, at least, of the
editorial staff, before being finally given to the press. With these ample provisions to
Secure accuracy and to guard against errors of ignorance or inadvertency, it is to be hoped
that the faults of this work will consist rather in its unavoidable omissions than in any
Seriously mistaken statements. -
As additional evidence of the thoroughness with which the work of this Cyclopædia
has been, at least in intention, conducted, it may be further remarked, that the number of
specially qualified writers engaged in it is unprecedentedly great. No argument is necessary
to secure assent to the proposition, that an article upon any important subject prepared by
one who, through the study and investigation of a lifetime, has made the subject his own,
must be at once more clear in its method and more instructive in its details, than any
that can be compiled by an ordinary writer, even with the best printed authorities before
him. The rule has been, therefore, to place such subjects in such hands; and this has
been followed out so persistently that, in not a few instances, after articles in themselves
quite unexceptionable had been already prepared by the office-writers, and had even been
set up in type, they have been subsequently cancelled and set aside in favor of new arti-
cles by living authorities upon the same subjects, whose co-operation had been later
secured. In regard to changes of this nature, in many instances involving delay and no
slight expense, the Editors feel bound to acknowledge—and they do here publicly acknow-
ledge—the unfailing cheerfulness with which the Publisher has received all their sugges-
tions, and the prompt liberality with which he has carried them into effect.
After saying so much of the pains taken with the literary labor of the Cyclopædia, it
may seem like descending to matters comparatively trivial to speak of the work as a pro-
nouncing dictionary. This, however, is a feature in it which will strongly recommend it to
most readers; for nothing is more embarrassing, either in public speaking or in ordinary
conversation, than the uncertainty which is often felt as to the proper mode of accenting
an unfamiliar word. In this book the place of the accent is marked in the title of every
article, and thus the essential guide is given to its just pronunciation.
One important observation remains to be made in conclusion. No cyclopædia, however
correctly it may represent the state of the world’s knowledge or of its material condition
at the date of its publication, can continue to do so for a long period of years. Works of
this kind, nevertheless, have often been reprinted from the same plates unaltered, for a
quarter of a century or more; long before the end of which period, in regard to all mat-
ters to which time brings change, they cease to be authorities altogether. With the present
work it is proposed to pursue a different plan. Editions will be printed from month to
month, as the demand may require; but no edition will be published without such cor-
rections in the plates as the progress of time may render necessary. The book will there-
fore always, so far as vigilance can accomplish that result, be kept up in its record of facts
to the date of its delivery to purchasers; and its latest issues will stand on a level, in point
of authority, with its earliest. It follows that whatever errors may be found to have
escaped notice in the present issue, will be corrected as soon as discovered; and the Editors
will feel themselves under obligations to any who will call their attention to such as they
may chance to observe. - -
By means of this system of continual emendation, by Supplying Omissions, by adding
immediately on their announcement new facts which the progress of discovery may bring
to light, and by entirely rewriting, from time to time, such articles as are capable of being
improved by reconstruction, the Editors trust that the work may not only preserve its
original value, but that it may even, with lapse of time, grow more and more useful to the
public for whose benefit it has been designed, and to whose judgment it is now submitted.
FREDERICK A. P. BARNARD,
ARNOLD GUYOT,
.NEW YORK, June, 1874. EDITORS.
ORGANIZATION OF THE EDITORIAL STAFF,
*** The following statement shows the subjects to which the different members of the editorial staff have severally
given their more particular attention, not only in themselves preparing articles relating to those subjects, but also in
securing contributions from others, and in carefully scrutinizing all such contributions with a view both to ensure accu-
racy and to exclude anything which might seem objectionable.
~f
DIFECTING EDITOR-IN-CHIEF:
PRESIDENT BARNARD.
ADVISORY EDITOR-IN-CHIEF:
PROFESSOR GUYOT.
DEPARTMENTs
(see Title-Page):
Public Law, Intercourse of Našions, etc. . . . . . . . . PRES. WOOLSEY.
Municipal, Civil, and Constitutional Law, etc. . . . . . . . PROF. DWIGHT.
English and Foreign Literature, etc. . . . © - tº tº . . g . HON. M.R. MARSH.
Grecian, and Roman Literature, etc. . . e g e C. g e . PROF. DRISLER.
Presbyterian Church—History, Doctrine, Biographies, etc. . o e e . PROF. HITCHCOOK.
Philosophy, Psychology, etc. . ſº tº e e wº tº © º tº FION. M.R. H.A.R.R.I.S.
Social Science, Political Economy, etc. . . . . . . . . . Pars. CHAPIN.
American History, Southern Geography, Statistics, etc. . g º ë . Hon. MR. STEPHENS.
The Fine Arts, Liberal Christianity, Biographies, etc. tº g . REV. M.R. FROTHINGHAM.
Ecclesiastical History and Biblical Literature . g tº g & g e . PROF. SCHAFF.
Mathematics and Physics, Protestant Episcopal Church, Education, etc. . d |PRES. BARNARD.
Physical Geography, Foreign Geography, Meteorology, Climatology, etc. . . . . PROF. GUYOT.
Civil and Military Engineering, Biographies, etc. - . & º . . . ſº GEN, BARNARD.
Naval Affairs, Naval Construction, Navigation, Biographies, etc. . t tº ſº COM. PARKER.
Mechanics, Mechanical Engineering, etc. . Q ſº s Q e g PROF. TROWBRIDGE.
Chemistry, its Applications, etc. e g & wº . g g * & PROF. CHANDLER.
Botany, Vegetable Physiology, Natural History, etc. . . g g © * . PROF. GRAY.
Geology, Palæontology, Zoology, etc. . . . e e & tº • . . PROF. NEWBERRY.
Medicine, Surgery, the Collateral Sciences, etc. . • . . e * g * . DR. PARKER.
American History, Statistics, Agriculture, etc. . . . . . . HoN. M.R. GREELEY.”
Baptist Church—History, Doctrine, Biographies, etc. . o * tº & . PRES. ANDERSON.
Congregational Church–Ehical Science, Biographies, etc. . . tº & e PROF. SEELYE.
Philosophical and Church Dogmatics; Lutheran Church—Biographies, etc. . PROF. KRAUTH.
Methodist Church South—History, Doctrine, Biographies, etc. tº & e . DR. SUMMERS.
Methodist Chwrch North—History, Doctrine, Biographies, etc. . . . . . DR. STEVENS.
ASSISTANTS.:
LINUS P. BROCKETT, CHARLES W. GREENE, -
CHARLES G. LELAND, CLEMENS PETERSEN.
*The latest labors of Mr. Greeley's life were given to this work, to which he contributed largely. It is with
justice, therefore, that his name is preserved in the list of its Editors.
xy
CONTRIBUTORS TO THE FIRST VOLUME
OF
JOHNSON'S ILLUSTRATED UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA, ETC.
Names of additional contributors to the Second and Third Wolumes will be found in the list immediately following
the present.
Besides the writers here mentioned, more than fifteen hundred gentlemen connected with the press in
the principal centres of population scattered throughout the United States have already furnished for this Cyclopædia
succinct accounts of the cities, towns, and villages in which they respectively reside; and the number of these con-
tributions is daily increasing, and will continue to increase to the end of the work.
Abbot, Henry L., M. N. A. S., Willett's Point, N. Y.,
Maj. U. S. Eng., Bwt. Brig.-Gen. U. S. A., Bwt. Maj.-Gen. Vols.
Armitage, Rev. Thomas, S.T.D., New York,
President of American Bible Union.
Baird, Rev. John G., A. M., New Haven, Conn.,
ASSist. Secretary State Board of Education of Connecticut.
Barker, George F., M.D., Philadelphia,
Professor of Physics, University of Pennsylvania.
Barnard, Hon. Henry, LL.D., Hartford, Conn.,
Editor of the American Journal of Education.
Barry, William F., U. S. A., Fortress Monroe, Va.,
Col. U. S. Artillery, Bwt. Maj.-Gen. U. S. A.
Beard, Richard, A. M., Lebanon, Tenn.,
Professor of Theology in Cumberland Univ.
Beatty, Ormond, LL.D., Danville, Ky.,
President of Centre College.
Benedict, B. L., Esq., Burlington, Vt.,
City Directory and Free Press.
Berri, William, Jr., Esq., Brooklyn, New York,
Editor of The Carpet Trade.
Betts, Rev. Beverley R., A. M., New York,
Librarian of Columbia College.
Bishop, J. B., Esq., New York,
Ed. Staff of the New York Tribune.
Blake, John R., A.M., Mecklenburg Co., N. C.,
Prof. of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in Davidson Coll.
Blake, William P., A. M., Ph.B., New Haven, Conn.,
Former Prof. of Mineralogy and Geology, College of California.
Blodget, Hon. Lorin, Philadelphia, Pa.
Bradley, Hon. J oseph P., LL.D., Newark, N.J.,
Associate Justice Supreme Court of the United States.
Brühl, G., M.D., Cincinnati, O.
Camp, William A., Esq., New York,
Manager of the Clearing House, New York City.
Chase, George, LL.B., New York,
Assistant in Columbia College Law School.
Chase, Thomas, A. M., West Haverford, Pa.,
Professor of Philology and Literature in Haverford College.
Child, Francis J., Ph.D., Cambridge, Mass,
Boylston Prof. Rhetoric and Oratory, Harvard University.
IB -
Clark, J. Nelson, M.D., York, Pa.,
President of Cottage Hill College.
Clinton, J. W., Esq., Clinton, Ia,
- Agent Cornell College.
Coffin, John H. C., A. M., M. N. A. S., Wash., D.C.,
Editor of the United States Nautical Almanac.
Comfort, George F., A. M., Syracuse, N. Y.,
Prof. Of Mod. Languages and AEsthetics, Syracuse University.
Cook, Clarence, Esq., New York,
Art Critic New York Tribune.
Cope, Prof. Edward D., A. M., M. N. A. S., Haddon-
field, N. J.
Cullum, George W., U. S. Engineers, New York,
Col. U. S. Engineers, Bwt. Maj.-Gen. U. S. A.
Dalton, John C., M.D., M. N. A. S., New York,
Prof. Of Physiology and Hygiene, School of Med. Columbia Coll.
Dana, James D., LL.D., M.N.A.S., New Haven, Conn.,
Silliman Prof. of Geology and Mineralogy, Yale College.
De Peyster, Gen. J. Watts, A. M., New York.
Dillmann, Christian F. A., Ph. D., Berlin, Germany,
Professor of Exegetical Theology in Berlin University.
Drown, Thomas M., M.D., Philadelphia, Pa.,
Mining Engineer; Sec. American Inst. of Mining Engineers.
Egleston, Thomas, A. M., E. M., New York,
Prof. of Mineral. and Metall., Sch. of Mines, Columbia Coll.
Elliott, Ezekiel B., Esq., Washington, D.C.,
Chief Clerk Bureau of Statistics, Treas. Dept., Wash., D.C.
Eve, Paul F., M. D., Nashville, Tenn.,
Prof. of Operative and Clinical Surgery, Univ. of Nashville.
Fairchild, Rev. E. H., Berea, Ky.,
President of Berea College.
Fogg, A. G., Esq., Concord, N. H.,
- Editor of New Hampshire Gazetteer.
Foster, John G., New York,
Lt.-Col. U. S. Engineers, Bwt. Maj.-Gen. U. S. A.
Garfield, Hon. James A., Hiram, Ohio,
Maj.-Gen. Wols., Rep. in Cong. for the 19th Cong. Dist. Ohio.
Gibbons, James S., Esq., New York.
Gill, Theo., M.D., Ph.D., M.N.A.S., Washington, D.C.,
Librarian of the Smithsonian Institution.
Gillmore, Quincy A., New York, -
Lt.-Col. U. S. Engineers, Bvt. Maj.-Gen. U. S. A.
XVII
xviii
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORs.
Gilman, Daniel C., Ph.D., Oakland, Cal.,
President of the University of California.
Gilman, Rev. Edward W., S.T. D., New York.
Gilmore, Joseph H., A. M., Rochester, N. Y.,
Prof. of Logic, Rhetoric, etc. in the University of Rochester.
Grier, William M., S.T. D., Due West, S. C.,
President of Erskine College.
Hagner, Gen. Peter V., U. S. Ordnance, Watervliet
Arsenal, West Troy, N. Y.
Hampton, Gen. Wade, Columbia, S. C.
FIartshorne, Henry, A. M., University Penna.,
Professor of Hygiene, University of Pennsylvania.
T. N., S.T. D., Paxton, Ill.,
Pres. of Augustana Coll. and Theol. Seminary.
Hendrix, Rev. W. W., McKenzie, Tenn.,
President of Bethel College.
Higginson, Col. Thomas W., Newport, R. I.
Hasselquist,
Hilgard, Eugene W., Ph.D., M.N.A.S., Ann Arbor,
Mich.,
Prof. of Geology, Zoology, and Botany, University of Michigan.
Hilgard, Julius E., M. N. A. S., Washington, D.C.,
Assist. Superintendent of the U. S. Coast Survey.
Hillman, Prof. S. D., Carlisle, Pa.,
Dickinson College.
Hinsdale, B. A., A. M., Hiram, Ohio,
President of Hiram College.
Hodge, Archibald A., S.T. D., Allegheny City, Pa.,
Professor of Theology in Allegheny Seminary.
Homes, Henry A., LL.D., Albany, N. Y.,
Librarian of the State Library, Albany.
Hughes, Thomas, Q.C., London, England,
Late Member for Frome of the House of Commons.
Jacobi, Abraham, M.D., New York,
Clinical Prof. of the Diseases of Children, School of Medicine,
Columbia College.
Jacobi, Mary C. Putnam, M.D., New York.
Jacobs, William, A.M., Philadelphia.
Johnson, Samuel W., A. M., M. N.A.S., New Haven,
Conn.,
Prof. of Agricultural and Analytical Chemistry, Yale College.
Joy, Charles A., Ph.D., New York,
Professor of Chemistry, Columbia College.
Leonowens, Mrs. Anna H., New Brighton, N. Y.,
Author of The English Governess at the Siamese Court.
Longley, Abner T., Esq., Washington, D.C.,
Department of Agriculture.
March, Francis A., LL.D.; Easton, Pa.,
Prof. of the Eng. Language and Com. Philology, Lafayette Coll.
Mayer, Alfred M., Ph.D., M. N. A. S., Hoboken, N.J.,
Prof. of Physics, Stevens Technological Inst., Hoboken, N. J.
Meigs, Montgomery C., M.N.A.S., Washington, D.C.,
Quartermaster-Gen., Brig.-Gen., Bvt. Maj.-Gen. U. S. A.
Middleton, N. Russell, LL.D., Charleston, S. C.,
President of College of Charleston.
Moore, Joseph, A. M., Richmond, Ind.,
President of Earlham College.
Morgan, Hon. Lewis H., LL.D., Rochester, N. Y.
Morton, Henry, Ph.D., M. N.A.S., Hoboken, N.J.,
Pres. Stevens Technological Institute, Hoboken, N. J.
Newcomb, Simon, M. N. A. S., Washington, D.C.,
Professor of Astronomy, U. S. Naval Observatory.
\
Newton, Hubert A., LL.D., M. N.A.S., New Haven,
Conn., -
Professor of Mathematics, Yale College.
Northrop, Hon. Birdsey G., A.M., New Haven, Conn.,
Secretary of the State Board of Education.
O'Conor, Charles, LL.D., New York.
Oliver, James E., A. M., Ithaca, N. Y.,
Professor of Mathematics, Cornell University.
Osgood, Prof. Howard, S.T. D., Upland, Pa.,
Crozer Theological Seminary.
Parton, James, Esq., New York,
Author of People's Book of Biography, etc.
Perine, George E., Esq., Engraver, New York.
Pierce, C. Newlin, Dentist, Philadelphia, Pa.
Plympton, George W., C. E., Brooklyn,
Prof. of Natural Philosophy, Polytechnic Institute; of Chem-
istry, Long Island Medical College; of Mechanics, Cooper
Union, New York.
Pomeroy, Prof. John N., LL.D., Rochester, N. Y.
Richardson, Wilson G., A.M., Mecklenburg Co., N.C.,
Prof. of Ancient and Modern Languages, Davidson College.
IRood, Ogden N., A.M., M. N.A.S., New York,
Professor of Mechanics and Physics, Columbia College.
Russell, A. J., C. E., Ottawa, Canada,
Crown Timber Agent.
Schem, Alexander J., Hoboken, N. J.,
Ed. of Deutsch Amerikanisches Conversations Lex.
Shedd, William G. T., S.T. D., New York,
Prof. of Biblical Literature in Union. Theological Seminary.
Sheppard, Charles E., Esq., Bridgeton, N.J.,
Attorney and Member of Board of Trade.
Shields, Charles W., S.T.D., Princeton, N.J.,
Professor of History in the College of New Jersey.
Shreve, Samuel H., C. E., Esq., Toms River, N. J.
Shurtleff, Hon. Nathaniel B., Boston, Mass.,
Ex-Mayor.
Simmons, George C., Esq., New York,
Clerk U. S. Board of Engineers.
Smith, Asa D., S.T.D., LL.D., Hanover, N. H.,
President of Dartmouth College.
Smith, John Jay, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.,
Superintendent Laurel Hill Cemetery.
Smith, O. L., S.T.D., Oxford, Ga.,
President of Emory College.
Somerville, James, Esq., New York,
Bookbinder.
Spooner, Alden J., Esq.,
Iate Editor of Long Island Star.
Stevens, J., Esq., Granville, Ohio,
Denison University.
Stockbridge, Hon. Henry, Baltimore, Md.
Studer, Jacob H., Esq., Columbus, O,
& Author of History of Columbus, O., etc.
Sumner, William G., A. B., New Haven, Conn.,
Professor of Political and Social Science, Yale College.
Tenney, Sanborn, A. M., Williamstown, Mass,
Professor of Natural History, Williams College.
Thomas, John J., Esq., Union Springs, N. Y.,
Editor of The Country Gentleman.
Thomas, Prof. Joseph, M.D., LL.D., Philadelphia, Pa.,
Author of Dictionary of Biography and Mythology.
Tillman, Samuel D., LL.D., New York,
Prof. of Mechanical Philosophy and Technology, Am. Inst.
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.
xix
Tryon, George W., Jr., Philadelphia, Pa.
Tuttle, Hudson, Esq., Berlin Heights, O.
Tyler, William S., S. T. D., Amherst, Mass.,
Williston Prof. of the Greek Lan, and Lit. in Amherst College.
Van Name, Addison, A.M., New Haven, Conn.,
- Librarian of Yale College.
Verrill, Addison E., A. M., M. N. A. S., New Haven,
Conn.
y Professor of Zoology, Yale College.
Ward, Rev. William H., S.T.D., New York,
- - Editor of Independent,
Watson, James C., Ph.D., M. N. A. S., Ann Arbor,
Mich.,
Professor of Astronomy, University of Michigan.
Welling, James C., LL.D., Washington, D.C.,
President of Columbian College.
Whedon, Daniel D., S.T.D., LL.D., New York,
Editor of the Methodist Quarterly Review.
White, Hon. Andrew D., LL.D., Ithaca, N. Y.,
President of Cornell University.
White, Richard Grant, Esq., New York.
Winter, William, Esq., New York,
Ed. Staff of the New York Tribune.
Winthrop, Hon. Robert C., LL.D., Boston, Mass.
Youmans, Prof. Edward L., M.D., New York,
Editor of the Popular Science Monthly.
Zachos, J. C., Esq., New York,
Curator of Cooper Union.
CONTRIBUTORS TO THE SECOND AND THIRD WOLUMES,
Articles for the Second and Third Volumes of this work will be contributed by many of the writers mentioned in
the foregoing list; and others are in progress of preparation, or have already been prepared, by those whose names
are given below.
Abbe, Prof. Cleveland, Washington, D.C.,
Meteorologist, Weather Signal Office.
Abbot, Ezra, S. T. D., LL.D., Cambridge, Mass.,
Bussey Prof. of New Testament Criticism and Interpretation.
Abbott, Miss Louisa M., Burlington, Vt.
Adams, Hon. Charles F., Sr., D.C.L., LL.D., Boston,
Mass.
2 Late U. S. Minister to London.
Adams, Col. Julius W., C. E., New York,
President of the American Society of Civil Engineers.
Adams, William, S. T. D., LL.D., New York,
Dean of the Faculty of the Union Theological Seminary.
Adler, Felix, Ph.D., Ithaca, New York,
Prof. of Hebrew and Oriental Literature and History in Cornell
l University.
Adler, Rev. Samuel, Ph. D., New York City,
IRabbi of Temple Emanu-El, Fifth Avenue.
Agnew, Cornelius R., M.D., New York.
Albee, John, Esq., Cambridge, Mass.
Alexander, Stephen, LL.D., Princeton, New Jersey,
Professor of Astronomy in the College of New Jersey.
Allen, Hon. Elisha, H., Chief Justice of Sandwich
Islands. -
Allen, Frederick D., Ph.D., Cincinnati, Ohio,
Professor of Greek in the University of Cincinnati.
Alvord, Gen. Benjamin, Washington, D.C.,
Paymaster-General of the U. S. Army.
Anderson, Rev. R., Boston, Mass.
Andree, Prof. Karl, Ph.D., Dresden, Saxony.
Andree, Richard, Ph.D., Leipsic, Saxony,
Professor in the University of Leipsic.
Andrews, George L., West Point, N. Y., *
Prof. of the French Language in the U. S. Military Academy.
Andrews, Rev. S. J., S.T. D., Hartford, Conn.
Arnold, Albert N., S.T. D., Chicago, Ill.,
Prof. of New-Testament Greek in Bap. Theol. Sem. of Chicago.
Arnold, John W. S., M.D., New York,
Prof. of Physiology in the N. Y. University Medical College.
Atterbury, Rev. W. W., New York,
Secretary of New York Sabbath Com., Bible House.
Aucaigne, Prof. Felix, A. M., LL.B., New York,
Foreign Editor of New York Com. Advertiser, Correspondent of
Washington and Paris papers.
Austin, Coe F., Esq., Closter, N. J.
Axon, William E. V., Esq., Manchester, England.
Bacon, Rev. Leonard, S.T.D., LL.D., N. Haven, Conn.,
Lecturer on Church Polity and Am. Church. History, Yale Coll.
|Badeau, Gen. Adam, - -
TJ. S. Consul, London, England.
Bailey, William W., Esq., A. M., Providence, R. I.
Baird, Prof. Spencer F., M.N.A.S., Washington, D.C.,
Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Balch, Thomas, Esq., Newport, R. I.
Ball, Rev. George H., New York,
Editor of the Baptist Union.
Ball, John, F.R.S., M.R.I.A., etc., London, England.
Barnes, P., Esq., Pittsburg, Pa.
Beauregard, Gen. G. T., New Orleans, La.,
President New Orleans and Carrollton R. R. Company.
Behm, E., Gotha, Saxony, -
Assist. Editor of Petermann's Geographischen Mittheilungen.
Bellows, Rev. Henry W., S.T.D., LL.D., New York,
Pastor of the Church of All Souls, Fourth Avenue.
Benton, Col. James G., U. S. Ordnance.
Bergh, Henry, Esq., New York,
Pres. of the N. Y. Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.
Bermingham, Edward J., M.D., New York.
| Bessels, Emil, Ph.D., New York,
Astronomer to the Polaris Arctic Expedition.
Billings, John S., M.D., Washington, D.C.,
Assistant Surgeon U. S. Army.
Birch, Samuel, LL.D., London, England,
Of the British Museum.
Bird, Rev. F. M., Indianapolis, Ind.
Bishop, Hon. Charles R., Sandwich Islands. ,
Blackie, Prof. George S., M.D., New York.
XX
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORs.
Blunt, George W., Esq., New York,
Member of the Board of Commissioners of Pilots.
Bolton, H. Carrington, A. M., Ph.D., New York,
Assist. in Analytical Chemistry, School of Mines, Col. Coll.
Brace, Charles L., New York,
Secretary Children's Aid Society.
Brachelli, Prof. Hugo F., Ph.D., Vienna, Austria,
Court Counsellor and President of Department of Statistics of
the Imperial Ministerium, Vienna, Austria.
Brackett, Col. Albert G., U. S. Army, Fort Sanders,
Wyoming Ter.
Bradford, Lt.-Com. Robert F., U. S. Navy.
Brand, Rev. William F., A.M., Emmorton, Md.,
Rector of St. Mary's Church, Emmorton.
Brewer, Thomas M., M.D., Boston, Mass.,
Ed. of the History of North American Birds.
Brialmont, Alexis, Belgium,
General Belgian Army.
Briggs, Rev. Charles A., New York,
Provisional Professor of Hebrew and the Cognate Languages,
Union. Theological Seminary.
Brittan, Miss Harriet G., Calcutta, Hindostan.
Brown, Edward, Esq., Brooklyn, N. Y.
Brown, Rev. S. Gilman, S.T. D., LL.D., Clinton, N.Y.,
President of Hamilton College.
Bryant, William Cullen, LL.D., New York,
Editor of the New York Evening Post.
Buck, Gurdon, M.D., New York.
Burgess, John W., LL.B., Amherst, Mass.,
Professor of History and Political Science in Amherst College.
Buttz, Prof. Henry A., A. M., Madison, N.J.,
Professor of Greek in the Drew Theological Seminary.
Caland, P., Belgium.
Caldwell, R. C., Esq., London, England.
Cameron, Henry C., Ph.D., Princeton, N.J.,
Professor of Greek in the College of New Jersey.
Chadbourne, Rev. P. A., S.T.D., Williamstown, Mass.,
President of Williams College.
Chandler, William H., A. M., Ph.D., Bethlehem, Pa.,
Professor of Chemistry in the Lehigh University.
Chapin, Rev. Edwin H., S.T.D., New York, sº
Pastor of the Fourth Universalist Church, Fifth Avenue, N. Y.
Chesbrough, E. S., C. E., Chicago, Ill.,
Chief Engineer City of Chicago. -
Church, Prof. John A., E. M., New York,
Associate Editor Army and Navy Journal, New York.
Clark, Alonzo, M.D., New York,
Professor of Pathology and Practical Medicine, Medical
Department Columbia College, N. Y.
Clymer, Meredith, M.D., New York.
Cockrill, Sterling, Esq., Pine Bluff, Ark.
Colyar, Hon. A. St. Clair, Nashville, Tenn.
Comstock, Gen. Cyrus B., U. S. Engineers.
Cooke, Josiah P., A. M., Cambridge, Mass.,
Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in Harvard University.
Cooke, M. C., Esq., A. M., F. R. S., London, England,
Author of Handbook of British Fungi.
Cooper, Prof. G., M.D., Ph. D., San Francisco, Cal.
Cornwall, Henry B., E. M., Princeton, N.J.,
Prof. of Analytical Chemistry, Mineralogy, etc., College of N. J.
Cowdin, Elliot C., Esq., New York.
Craven, E. R., S.T.D., Newark, N. J.
Crosby, Rev. Howard, S.T.D., LL.D., New York,
Chancellor of the University of the City of New York.
Curry, Jabez L. M., S. T. D., LL.D., Richmond, Va.,
President of Richmond College.
Curtis, Edward, M. D., New York,
Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics, Medical
Department of Columbia College, N. Y.
Curtius, Prof. Ernst, Ph.D., M.R.A.S., Berlin, Prussia,
Perpetual Sec. of the Acad. of Sciences, Berlin,
and Professor in the University.
Daly, Hon. Charles P., LL.D., New York,
Chief-Justice Court of Common Pleas, New York.
Dana, Richard H., LL.D., Boston, Mass, -
Author of Two Years Before the Mast.
Davidson, Thomas, Esq., A. M., St. Louis, Mo. -
Davis, Adm. C. H., LL.D., U. S. N., Washington, D.C.,
Superintendent of the Naval Observatory.
Dawson, Benjamin F., M.D., New York.
Dawson, Prof. John W., LL.D., F.R.S., Montreal,
Principal of McGill College, Montreal, Canada.
Dawson, Rev. Thomas M., A. M., Brooklyn, Cal.
Day, Edward C. H., Esq., New York,
Prof. of Geology and Physiology in the New York Normal Coll.
Delafield, Francis, M.D., New York.
Delesse, A., Paris, France,
Professor of Mining Engineering in the School of Mines, Paris.
Detmold, William, M.D., New York,
Professor Emeritus of Clinical and Military Surgery, Medical
Department Columbia College, N. Y.
Dewey, Rev. Orville, S. T. D., LL.D., Sheffield, Mass.
Dexter, Ransom, A. M., M.D., Chicago, Ill.,
Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy and Zoology in the
University of Chicago.
Dixon, W. J., Esq., London, England.
Dole, Rev. George T., Stockbridge, Mass.
Dorner, Rev. Isaac A., D.D., Berlin, Germany,
Professor in University of Berlin.
Draper, Henry, M.D., New York,
Prof. of Analytical Chemistry in the Medical School of New
York City University.
Draper, John W., M.D., LL.D., New York,
Prof. of Chemistry, etc., in the Univ. of the City of New York.
Duveyrier, Henry, Paris, France;
- * w Author of Travels in Sahara.
Eaton, Daniel C., LL.B., New Haven, Conn.,
Professor of Botany, Yale College.
Egle, William H., M.D., Harrisburg, Pa.,
Author of History of Pennsylvania.
Elliott, Maj. Geo. H., U. S. Engineers.
Elliott, H. R., Esq., Closter, New Jersey.
Emerson, George B., LL.D., Boston, Mass.
Englemann, Geo., M.D., M.N.A.S., St. Louis, Mo.
Ernst, Capt. Oswald H., U. S. Engineers, West Point,
N.Y.,
Instructor in Practical Military Engineering, etc., in the
U. S. Military Academy.
Farlow, Prof. Wm. G., M.D., Cambridge, Mass.,
Assistant Professor of Botany in Harvard University.
Farquhar, Com. Norman H., U. S. Navy.
Feuchtwanger, Lewis, M.D., New York.
Field, David Dudley, LL.D., New York.
Field, Rev. Henry M., S.T.D., New York,
. Editor of the New York Evangelist.
Fisher, Rev. Ebenezer, S.T.D., Canton, N.Y.,
President of St. Lawrence University Theological School.
Fisher, George J., M.D., Sing Sing, New York,
President of the New York State Medical Society.
Fisher, George P., S.T.D., New Haven, Conn.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Yale.College.
Fiske, John, Esq., LL.B., Cambridge, Mass.;
Assistant Librarian, Harvard University.
Flint, Austin, M.D., New York.
Forshey, Prof. Caleb G., C. E., New Orleans, La.
Foster, Frank P., M.D., New York.
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORs.
Fox, Hon. Gustavus V., Lowell, Mass.,
Late Assistant Secretary of the Navy.
Fraser, John, Esq., Glasgow, Scotland,
Assistant Editor Evening Star, Glasgow.
Frizell, Joseph P., Esq., C. E., Boston, Mass.
Frost, Benjamin D., C. E., North Adams, Mass.,
Chief Engineer of the Hoosac Tunnel.
Gardiner, Frederic, S.T.D., Middletown, Conn.,
Prof. of the Literature and Interpretation of the Old
Testament, Berkeley Divinity School.
Garnett, Thomas, Esq., London, England.
Garrison, William Lloyd, Esq., Boston, Mass.
Geddes, Hon. George, Fairmount, N. Y.,
Late Senator State of New York.
George, W. S., Esq., Lansing, Michigan,
Editor of Lansing State Republican.
Gibbons, James S., Esq., New York.
Gibbs, Wolcott, M.D., LL.D., M. N.A.S., Cambridge,
Mass.,
Rumford Professor of the Application of Science to the Useful
Arts in Harvard University.
Gifford, George, Esq., New York.
Gihon, Commander Albert H., M.D., U. S. Navy.
Godet, Rev. Frederic, S.T. D., Neuchatel, Switzerland,
Professor of Theology.
Godet, Rev. George, Neuchatel, Switzerland.
Goessman, Ch. A., Ph. D., Amherst, Mass.,
Professor of Chernistry in the Mass. Agricultural College.
Goodale, George L., A. M., Cambridge, Mass.,
Assistant Prof. of Vegetable Physiology in Harvard Univ.
Gould, Benjamin A., Ph.D., M. N. A. S., Cordoba,
Buenos Ayres,
Director of the Observatory of the Argentine Republic.
Graham, Hon. William A., Hillsboro’, N. C.,
Eormer Governor of North Carolina.
Gregg, Rt. Rev. Alexander, S.T.D., Galveston, Tex.,
Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, Diocese of Texas.
Green, Com. S. D., U. S. Navy.
Green, William H., D.D., Princeton, N.J.,
Professor of Oriental and Old-Testament Literature in the
Princeton Theological Seminary.
Gubernatis, Prof. Angelo de, Florence, Italy.
Haael, Hugo, Ph. D., St. Louis, Mo.
Haldeman, Miss Eliza S., Columbia, Pa.
Haldeman, Prof. S. S., Columbia, Pa.
Hall, James, LL.D., M. N. A. S., Albany, N. Y.,
Palaeontologist to the Nat. His. Surv. of the State of New York.
Hamilton, Allan McLane, M.D., New York.
Hammond, William A., M.D., New York,
Late Surgeon-General, U. S. A.
Hamy, Ernest T., M.D., Paris, France,
Member of the Society of Anthropology, Paris.
Hayden, Prof. Ferdinand V., M.D., M.N.A.S., Wash-
ington, D.C.,
Chief of the U. S. Western Exploring Expeditions.
Hayes, Isaac I., M.D., New York,
Commander of the Kane Search Expedition of 1860.
Hearn, E. D., A.M., London, England,
Editor of the Mining Journal.
Henry, Prof. Joseph, LL.D., M. N. A. S., Washing-
ton, D.C.,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Herrick, Rev. J. R., S.T.D., South Hadley, Mass.
Herrick, Mrs. S. R., Baltimore, Md.,
Associate Editor of the Southern Review.
Hewitt, Abram S., Esq., A. M., New York,
Secretary of the Cooper Institute.
Hickok, Laurens P., S.T.D., LL.D., Amherst, Mass.,
Late President of Union College, Schenectady.
Hilgard, Theodore C., M.D., New York.
Hill, Walter N., Providence, R. I.
Hitchcock, Charles H., A. M., Ph.D., Hanover, N.H.,
Hall Prof. of Geology and Mineralogy, Dartmouth College.
Hitchcock, Edward, A. M., M.D., Amherst, Mass.,
Professor of Hygiene and Physical Education in Amherst Coll.
Holder, J. B., M.D., New York,
Curator of the Museum of Natural History, Central Park.
Holley, Alexander L., C. E., Brooklyn, N. Y.
Holyoake, George Jacob, Esq., London, England.
Horsford, Prof. Eben N., M.D., Cambridge, Mass.,
Tate Professor of Chemistry in Harvard University.
Hough, Prof. George W., LL.D., Albany, N.Y.,
Director of the Dudley Observatory.
Houston, Col. David C., U.S. Army.
Howard, Benjamin, A.M., M.D., New York.
Howard, Gen. Oliver O., LL.D., U.S. Army, Wash-
ington, D.C., -
-
Late Chief of Freedmen’s Bureau.
Hubbard, Stephen A., Esq., Hartford, Conn.,
Editor of the Hartford Courant.
Hudson, E. D., Jr., M. D., New York.
Hudson, Frederic, Esq., Concord, Mass.
Humphrey, Rev. Zephanias M., S.T. D., Philadel-
phia, Pa.
Hunt, T. Sterry, F. R. S., LL.D., M. N. A. S., Boston,
Mass.,
Prof. of Geology in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Hurst, John F., S.T.D., Madison, N.J.,
President of Drew Theological Seminary.
Inglis, David, LL.D., Brooklyn, N. Y.
Johnson, John, LL.D., Middletown, Conn.,
Fisk Prof. Emeritus of Natural Science in the Wesleyan Univ.
Johnson, Oliver, Esq., New York,
Managing Editor Christian Union.
Jordan, Gen. Thomas, New York.
Kelley, Hon. William D., Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.,
Member of House of Representatives, 43d CongreSS.
Relton, Col. John C. (Brev. Brig. Gen.), U. S. Army.
Rendrick, Asahel C., S.T. D., LL.D., Rochester, N.Y.,
Munro Prof. of the Greek Lan. and Lit. in Rochester Univ.
Kennedy, Hon. J. C. G., LL.D., Washington, D.C.,
State Supt. of the Cefisus Bureau, Department of the Interior.
Keyes, Emerson W., Esq., New York,
American Popular Life Insurance Company.
Kingsley, Rev. Charles, M.A., London, England,
Canon of Westminster,
Kirkwood, Daniel, LL.D., Bloomington, Ind.,
Prof. of Nat. Philos. and Astron. in the University of Indiana.
Kohl, J. G., Bremen, Germany,
Librarian Public Library of Bremen.
Rrackowizer, Ernst, M.D., New York.
Kroeger, A. E., Esq., St. Louis, Mo.
Lamar, Hon. Lucius Q. C., M. C., Oxford, Miss., tº -
M. C. from the 1st Congressional District of Mississippi.
Latimer, James E., S. T. D., Boston, Mass., * * *
Prof. of Histor. Theol. in the Boston Univ. Theological School.
xxii
Lattimore, Samuel A., A. M., Rochester, N. Y.,
Professor of Chemistry in Rochester University.
Leitner, G. W. de, A. M., Ph.D., London, England,
Principal of the Government College, Lahore, India.
Lesley, J. P., A. M., M. N. A. S., Philadelphia, Pa.,
Director of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania.
Levasseur, Emile, Paris, France,
Member of the Institute of France.
Lewis, Tayler, LL.D., L. H. D., Schenectady, N.Y.,
Nott Prof. of the Oriental Languages in Union University.
Lines, Robert B., Esq., Washington, D.C.
Lowell, James R., D. C. L., LL.D., Cambridge, Mass.,
. . Prof. of Belles Lettres in Harvard University.
Luce, Capt. Stephen B., U.S. Navy.
Mallet, Prof. E. J., Jr., Golden City, Col.,
Dean of the Faculty of the Colorado School of Mines.
Marsh, Othniel C., A.M., M.N.A.S., New Haven, Conn.,
- Professor of Palaeontology in Yale College.
Marvin, Com. Joseph D., U.S. Navy, Annapolis, Md.
Matile, George A., LL.D., Washington, D.C.,
* Author of various works on History, Archaeology, etc.
Matthews, Stanley, LL.D., Cincinnati, Ohio.
Maunoir, Charles, Paris, France,
General Secretary of the Geographical Society of Paris.
May, J. Wilder, Esq., Boston, Mass. -
McAlpine, Hon. William J., C. E., Albany, N. Y.
McCollester, Rev. S. H., A. M., Akron, Ohio,
President of Buchtel College.
McCormick, Lieut.-Com. Alexander H., U. S. Navy,
Annapolis, Md.
McCosh, James, S. T. D., LL.D., Princeton, N.J.,
- President of the College of New Jersey.
McCrady, John A. B., Cambridge, Mass.,
Professor of Zoology in Harvard University.
McFarland, Rev. H. H., Brooklyn, N. Y.
McLean, Charles F., Ph. D., LL.D., New York.
. Mead, Rev. C. M., S.T. D., Andover, Mass.
Meade, Com. Richard W., U. S. Navy.
Mendell, Col. George H., U. S. Army.
Merrill, Col. William E., U. S. Engineers.
Milliken, Joseph, A. M., Columbus, Ohio,
- Professor in the Ohio Mech. and Agric. College.
Mitchell, Prof. Weir, M.D., M.N.A.S., Philadelphia, Pa.
Moffatt, Rev. James, S. T. D., Princeton, N.J.,
Prof. of Ecclesiastical History in the Princeton Theol. Sem.
Montague, William L., A. M., Amherst, Mass.,
Professor of French, Italian, and Spanish in Amherst College.
Morgan, H. J., Esq., Ottawa, Canada,
- Office of Sécretary of State.
Morris, Prof. George S., Ph. D., Ann Arbor, Mich.,
Professor of Modern Languages and Literature in the
TJniversity of Michigan.
Morse, Prof. E. S., Salem, Mass.
Murray, Prof. David, Yeddo, Japan,
Commissioner of Education to the Japanese Government.
Neumann, Gustav, Neustadt Eberswalde, Prussia,
Author of the “Geograph of the Prussian State,” and “Geog-
raphy of the German Empire.”
Newton, Gen. John, U. S. Engineers, New York.
Niemann, Capt. August, Gotha, Saxony,
Ed. for Genealogy and Diplomatics of the Almanach de Gotha.
Olmsted, Frederick Law, C. E., New York,
- Architect and Chief Engineer N. Y. Central Park.
Ordronaux, John, M. D., LL.D., New York,
Prof. of Medical Jurisprudence, School of Law, Columbia Coll.,
and State Commissioner of Lunacy.
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.
–4
Osgood, Rev. Samuel, S.T. D., LL.D., New York.
Otis, Prof. Fessenden N., M.D., New York.
Otis, George A., M.D., U. S. Army.
| Owen, Hon. Robert Dale, Indiana.
Packard, Prof. A. S., Jr., M.D., Salem, Mass.,
Professor in the Peabody Academy of Science.
Paine, Henry D., M.D., New York. -
Palmer, Prof. E., LL.D., Cambridge, England,
Professor of Persian Literature in the Univ. of Cambridge.
Parrott, Capt. Robert P., Cold Spring, N.Y.,
Superintendent West Point Foundry.
Parsons, Theophilus, LL.D., Cambridge, Mass.,
Late Dane Professor of Law in Harvard University.
Peabody, Miss Elizabeth P., Cambridge, Mass.,
Author of Spiritual Culture, etc.
Pearse, John B., Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.
Pease, Rev. L. M., New York.
Peaslee, Edmund R., M.D., LL.D., New York,
Professor in Medical Department, Dartmouth College.
Peck, William G., LL.D., New York, -
Prof. of Mathematics and Astronomy, Columbia College.
Peirce, Rev. B. K., S. T. D., Boston, Mass.,
Editor of Zion’s Herald.
Petermann, Prof. August P. D., Gotha, Germany,
Editor of “Petermann's Geographischen Mittheilungen.”
Phelps, William F., A. M., Winona, Minn.
Phillips, Charles, LL.D., Mecklenburg Co., N. C.,
Prof. of Mathematics and Engineering in Davidson College.
Pickering, Edward C., B.S., M.N.A.S., Boston, Mass.,
Thayer Prof. of Physics in the Mass. Institute of Technclogy.
Porter, Noah, S.T. D., LL.D., New Haven, Conn.,
President of Yale College.
Post, Truman M., S.T.D., St. Louis, Mo.
Pourtalès, Count L. P., Cambridge, Mass.,
Assist. in the Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard Univ.
Pratt, Prof. Orson, Salt Lake City, Utah.
Pressensé, Rev. Edmond de, S. T. D., Paris, France,
Membre de L'Assemblée Nationale de France.
Proctor, Richard A., B.A., F. R. A. S., London, Eng.,
Secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society.
Pumpelly, Prof. Raphael, M. N. A. S., St. Louis, Mo.,
Late State Geologist of Missouri.
Putnam, Prof. F. W., Salem, Mass.,
Professor in the Peabody Academy of Science.
Pynchon, Rev. Thomas R., S.T.D., Hartford, Conn.,
Scovill Professor of Chemistry and Natural Science.
Quackenbos, Prof. Geo. P., LL.D., New York.
Quinby, Isaac F., LL.D., Rochester, N. Y.,
Harris Prof. Of Math. and Nat. Philos. in Rochester Univ.
Quintard, Rt.Rev. Charles T., S.T.D., Sewanee, Tenn.,
Bishop of the Prot. Episcopal Church, Diocese of Tennessee.
Ramsay, Com. F. M., U.S. Navy, Washington, D. C.
Rand, Rev. Wm. W., New York,
Publishing Secretary American Tract Society.
Raymond, Prof. Robert R., A.M., Brooklyn, N. Y.
Raymond, Rossiter W., Ph. D., New York,
Professor of Mining Geology in Lafayette College; U. S.
Commissioner of Mining.
Reclus, Elisée, Canton de Vaud, Switzerland,
Author of La Terre, etc., Member of the Geographical and
Meteorological Societies of Paris.
Reclus, Onésime, Paris, France, -
Author of Geographie Generale, Geographie de la France,
|Rédacteur du Tour du Monde,
Riddle, Hon. Albert G., Washington, D.C.,
Former M. C. Of Ohio.
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.
xxiii
Riley, C. V., Esq., Ph.D., St. Louis, Missouri,
State Entomologist to the State of Missouri.
Riley, Rev. Isaac, New York.
Ripley, George, Esq., New York,
Iiterary Critic New York Tribune.
Robin, Rev. E., Paris, France,
Delegate Prison Reform Association.
Robinson, Ezekiel G., S. T. D., LL.D., Providence,
R. I., •
President of Brown University.
Robinson, Solon, Esq., Jacksonville, Fla.,
Author of Facts for Farmers.
Rodgers, Lieut. Raymond P., U. S. Navy, Annapolis.
Rodriguez, Juan C., Esq., New York,
Editor of O Novo Mondo.
Rogers, Prof. Fairman, A. M., M. N. A. S., Philadel-
phia, Pa.
Rougemont, Frederick de, Neuchatel, Switzerland.
Russell, Charles P., M.D., New York.
Rutherfurd, Lewis M., Esq., M. N. A. S., New York.
Sandham, Alfred, Esq., Montreal, Canada, -
Secretary of Y. M. C. Association.
Satterthwaite, Thomas E., M.D., New York.
Schaeffer, Prof. Edward M., M.D., Washington, D. C.
Schlaginweit, Dr. Emil, M. R. A. S., Munich, Bavaria,
Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Bavaria.
Schmidt, Henry I., S.T.D., New York,
Gerhardt Prof. of the German Language, Columbia College.
Schurz, Hon. Carl, LL.D., St. Louis, Mo.,
TJ. S. Senator for Missouri.
Seelye, Lucius C., A. M., Northampton, Mass.,
President of Smith College.
Seguin, Edward C., M.D., New York, -
Lecturer on Pathological Anatomy, Med. Dept. Columbia Coll.
Sexton, Samuel, M.D., New York.
Shaler, Prof. N. S., S. B., Cambridge, Mass.,
Professor of Palaeontology in Harvard University, and Director
of the Geol. Survey of Kentucky.
Sheafer, H. C., Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.,
Editor of Philadelphia Bulletin.
Short, Charles, A.M., LL.D., New York,
- Professor of Latin in Columbia College.
Silliman, Benjamin, M.D., M. N. A. S., New Haven,
- Professor of Chemistry in Yale College.
Smith, Edward, M.D., F.R.S., London, England.
Smith, E. N., Esq., Amherst, Mass.
Smith, George, Esq., London, England.
Smith, Hamilton L., LL.D., Geneva, N. Y.,
Prendergast Prof. of Astron. and Nat. Philos. in Hobart Coll.
Smith, J. Lawrence, M. D., LL.D., Louisville, Ky.,
Late Prof. of Chemistry, Medical School Univ. of Louisville.
Smith, Richard S., U. S. Naval Academy,
Professor of Drawing in the U. S. Naval Academy.
Smith, Stephen, M.D., New York,
Member of the New York City Board of Health.
Spofford, Ainsworth R., Esq., Washington, D.C.,
Librarian of CongreSS.
Staunton, Rev. William, S.T.D., New York.
Stearns, William A., S.T. D., LL.D., Amherst, Mass.,
President of Amherst College.
Stevens, J. A., Esq., New York,
Late Secretary Chamber of Commerce.
Stevens, Simon, Esq., New York.
Stevenson, Rev. W. Fleming, Dublin, Ireland.
St. John, Samuel, M.D., New Canaan, Conn.,
Professor of Chemistry and Medical Jurisprudence, Medical
Department of Columbia College.
Stone, Livingston, Esq., Charlestown, N. H.,
Assistant to the U. S. Fish Commissioner.
Summers, Thomas O., Jr., A.M., M.D., Greensborough,
Ala., -
Prof. of Chemistry and Physiology in the Southern Univ.
Sumner, Lt.-Com. George W., U. S. Navy, Washing-
ton, D.C.
Taylor, Hon. Edward W., Houston, Tex.,
President of State Agricultural Society.
Thayer, Hon. M. Russell, Philadelphia, Pa.
Thurber, Prof. George, New York,
Editor of the American Agriculturist.
Thurston, Robert H., C. E., Hoboken, N.J.,
Prof. of Mechanical Engineering in the Stevens Techn. Inst.
Todd, Sereno Edwards, Esq., Closter, N.J.,
Author of several agricultural books.
Toner, J. M., M. D., Washington, D. C.
Torrey, Miss Eliza, New York.
Townsend, Luther T., S. T. D., Boston, Mass.,
Harris Professor of Practical Theology in the Boston Univer-
sity School of Theology.
Trall, R. T., M.D., Florence Heights, N. J.
Trowbridge, John, B.S., Cambridge, Mass.,
Assistant Professor of Physics in Harvard University.
Trumbull, Hon. J. Hammond, LL.D., M. N. A. S.,
EIartford, Conn.
Tuckey, Miss Janet, London, England,
Pupil of Dr. Birch, British Museum.
Twining, Prof. A. C., LL.D., New Haven, Conn.
Tyndall, John, LL.D., F.R.S., London, England,
Prof. of Natural Philosophy and Supt. of Royal Institution.
Wambery, Dr. Herman, Pesth, Hungary.
Van Amringe, J. Howard, A. M., New York,
Professor of Mathematics in Columbia College.
Vanderpoel, S. O., M.D., New York,
Health Officer Port of New York.
Van der Weyde, Prof. P. H., Ph. D., M.D., N.Y.,
Editor of the Manufacturer and Builder.
Van Lennep, Rev. Henry J., M.D., Smyrna, Asia
Minor,
Author of Travels in Little-known Parts of Asia Minor.
Van Zandt, C. L., Esq., New York,
President of the Am. Bank Note Company.
Vinton, Francis L., E. M., New York,
Prof. of Civil and Mining Eng., School of Mines, Colum. Coll.
Waddel, John N., S.T. D., Oxford, Miss., -
Chancellor of the University of Mississippi.
Waller, Elwyn, Esq., E. M., New York,
Assist. to the Prof. of Anal. Chem. School of Mines, Colum. Coll.
Washbourne, Hon. Emory, LL.D., Cambridge, Mass.,
Bussey Professor of Law in Harvard University.
Webb, Gen. Alexander S., LL.D., New York,
President of the College of the City of New York.
Webb, Gen. James Watson, New York.
Webster, David, M.D., New York.
Weld, Mason C., Ph.B., Closter, N. J.,
Late Assistant Editor American Agriculturist.
wells, Hon. David A., LL.D., Norwich, Conn.,
Late U. S. Special Revenue Commissioner.
Wells, Samuel R., Esq., New York,
Editor Phrenological Journal.
Wheeler, Rev. Francis B., Poughkeepsie, N. Y.
Wheeler, Col. J. H., Washington, D.C.
White, Lt.-Com. H. C., U. S. Navy.
Whitney, Prof. James A., New York.
xxiv.
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.
Whitney, Prof. Josiah D., LL.D., M. N. A. S., San
Francisco, Cal.,
State Geologist State of California; Sturgis-Hooper Professor
of Geology in Harvard University.
Whitney, William D., Ph.D., LL.D., M. N.A.S.,
New Haven, Conn.,
Prof. of Sanscrit and Comparative Philology in Yale College.
Whittier, John Greenleaf, Esq., Amesbury, Mass.
Wilbur, Hervey B., M.D., Syracuse, N. Y.,
Superintendent State Asylum for Idiots.
Willey, Henry, Esq., New Bedford, Mass.
Williams, Hon. Isaiah T., New York.
Willis, J. R., Esq., Halifax, N. S.,
Sec. of Board of Com. of Schools, Cor. Member Phil. Acad. of
Science, Boston Natural History Society, and Liverpool
G. B. Microscopic Society.
Wilson, Com. F. D., U. S. Navy.
Wilson, George H., Esq., New York,
Secretary Chamber of Commerce.
Wilson, William D., LL.D., L.H.D., Ithaca, N.Y.,
Prof. of Moral and Intellectual Philosophy in Cornell Univ.
Wines, Rev. Enoch C., S.T.D., LL.D., New York,
Secretary of the Prison Association of New York.
Wood, De Volson, C. E., Hoboken, N.J.,
Prof. of Math. and Mechan. in the Stevens Technological In.
Woodcock, William P., Jr., M.D., Sing Sing, N. Y.
Woodward, Col. Joseph J., M.D., M. N. A. S., Wash-
ington, D.C.,
Assistant Surgeon U. S. Army.
Worman, Prof. James H., A.M., New York,
Of McClintock and Strong's Biblical Encyclopædia.
Wyckoff, William C., Esq., New York,
Scientific Editor New York Tribune.
Wynkoop, Gerardus H., M.D., New York.
Young, Charles A., Ph.D., M.N.A.S., Hanover, N.H.,
Appleton Prof. of Natural Philosophy in Dartmouth College.
Yule, Maj.-Gen. Henry, C. B., London, England,
Late of the Royal Engineers, Bengal.
—a dºh. <>-9 _*-
~ w w-
f
The following is a partial list of the (more than fifteen hundred) editors of newspapers who are contributors to our
Cyclopaedia, of the cities, towns, and villages in which their respective papers are published.
Bickham, W. D., Esq., Dayton, Ohio,
- Editor of Dayton Journal.
Bradner, F. H., Esq., Cleveland, Ohio,
Commercial Editor of Cleveland Leader.
Byington, A. H., Esq., Norwalk, Conn., -
Editor of Norwalk Gazette.
Chamberlain, S. M., Esq., Buffalo, New York,
º Of the Courier and Republic.
Chittenden, H. A., Jr., Esq., Milwaukee, Wis.,
Editor of Journal of Commerce.
Clarkson, R. P., Esq., Des Moines, Iowa,
- Editor of Iowa State Register.
Coxworth, W. J. S., Esq., Allentown, Pa.,
Editor of Lehigh Valley Daily News.
Crandall, F. A., Esq., Erie, Pa.,
Editor of Gazette.
De Costa, Wm. H., Esq., Charlestown, Mass.,
Publisher of Advertiser.
Dingley, F. S., Esq., Lewiston, Me.,
Editor of Lewiston Journal.
Donnell, Jas. D., Esq., Paterson, N.J.,
Editor of Paterson Press.
Doyle, James A., Esq., Savannah, Ga., -
Associate Editor of Savannah Daily Advertiser.
Errett, Russell, Esq., Pittsburg, Pa.,
... " Editor of Pittsburg Commercial.
Fleming, W., Esq., Fort Wayne, Indiana, -
Editor of Sentinel.
Foote, F. W., Esq., Elizabeth, New Jersey,
Editor of Daily Journal.
Gordon, A. E., Esq., New Brunswick, New Jersey,
. Editor of New Brunswick Times.
Halford, E. W., Esq., Indianapolis, Indiana,
Editor of Indianapolis Journal.
Harding, H. R., Esq., Cambridge, Mass.,
* - Editor of Cambridge Press.
Henderson, H. A. M., Esq., Frankfort, Ky.,
- Editor of Kentucky Freemason.
Heistand, John A., Esq., Lancaster, Pa.,
Editor of Daily and Weekly Examiner.
Lane, S.A., Esq., Akron, Ohio,
Editor of Beacon.
Mann, Donald, Esq., Hoboken, New Jersey,
Editor of Hudson County Democrat.
McGill, J. D., Esq., Georgetown, D.C.,
Editor of Georgetown Courier.
Miller, W. H., Esq., Kansas City, Mo.,
Editor of Journal of Commerce.
Onderdonk, Henry M., Esq., Hempstead, N. Y.,
Editor of The Hempstead Inquirer.
Quimby, W. E., Esq., Detroit, Michigan, -
Managing Editor of Free Press.
Reed, Wm., Esq., Fall River, Mass.,
Editor of Daily Evening News.
Richardson, H. W., Esq., Portland, Me.,
Editor of Portland Advertiser.
Robinson, J. T., Esq., Adams, Mass.,
Editor of Transcript.
Rowell, E. T., Esq., Lowell, Mass.,
Editor of Lowell Daily Courier.
Schram, N. H., Esq., Newburgh, N. Y.,
Editor of Newburgh Telegraph.
Simmons, W. E., Jr., Esq., Charleston, S.C.,
Late Editor of News and Courier.
Skeels, R. M., Esq., Lockport, New York,
- Editor of The Daily Union.
Snowden, E., Esq., Alexandria, Va.,
Editor of Alexandria Gazette.
Stickney, N. F., Esq., Gloucester, Mass., -
Editor of Gloucester Telegraph.
Strong, Tim. F., Jr., Esq., Fond du Lac, Wis.,
Editor of Fond du Lac Journal.
Tefft, B. F., Esq., Bangor, Maine,
Editor of Northern Border.
Water, S., Esq., La Fayette, Indiana,
Editor of La Fayette Journal.
Waldo, G. C., Esq., Bridgeport, Conn.,
Editor of Daily Standard.
Wittington, Nathan N., Esq., Newburyport, Mass.,
Editor of Newburyport Herald.
Wolfe, J. M., Esq., Omaha, Neb., - -
Editor of Omaha Directory.
Woodruff, O., Esq., Newark, New Jersey,
Associate Editor of Newark Daily Advertiser.
JOHNSON'S
N E W I L L U S T R A T E D
UNIW E R S A. L () Y O L () PAEI) IA.
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º | - l | º º |\º
A.
As the first letter of all known phonetic alphabets, except osition. A1 (or “A No. 1") is often applied in mercantile
the Abyssinian (or Ethiopian), in which it forms the thir- affairs to denote any article of the very highest class. In
teenth, and the Runic, in which it is the tenth. The cause | registering vessels, A designates the character of the hull
of its being placed at the head of all the principal European of the vessel, while the figure 1 marks the efficient state
and Asiatic alphabets is not certainly known, but is prob- of her anchors, cables, stores, etc. In Latin, A stands for
ably to be found in the fact that the original sound of the several proper names, especially for the praenomen Aulus.
letter (similar to that of our ainfar) is the most easily form- A, Ab, or Abs, a Latin particle signifying “from,”
ed of all the vowels, requiring for its utterance scarcely any || “. off,” “away,” and forming the prefix of a multitude of
effort, and the slightest possible change in the position of En glish words, as abduct, to “lead or take away;” abstract,
the vocal organs, except simply opening the mouth; it is to ºdraw away or from;” avert, to “turn away.”
accordingly the first sound that children usually utter. A Aa, the name of several rivers or streams in Germany,
with a stroke above it (4), in the ancient Greek, denoted swºrland. Holland, Russia, and France, it is supposed
the first numeral, but a with the stroke beneath stood for to signify ºwater ” and to be etymologically related to the
1000. A in Latin stands for 500, and with a stroke over Latin aqua. Thé Icelandic word for ºriver” is a. In
(A) for ten times that number (or 5000). A is also used to Swedish this primitive form becomes à, and in Danish
mark a note in Music (which see). A is frequently used aa, and these syllables become very often the termination
as an abbreviation. (See ABBREv1ATIons.) In logic, A is of names of rivers in the three countries mentioned.
the sign employed to denote a universal affirmative prop- Aach, or Ach, another form of the same, * *

2 - AACHEN.—ABACUs.
part of several geographical names, as Aachen (the Ger-
man of Aix-la-Chapelle), Biberach, etc.
Aachen. See AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.
Aagard (CARL FREDRIK), a Danish painter, born in
1833, at first gave his attention to decorative painting, but
afterwards turned to landscape painting. One of his most
celebrated pictures is a scene from a zoological garden, which
was exhibited at Stockholm in 1866. - -
Aal/borg (i.e. “Eel Castle” or “city”), a seaport of
Denmark, in Jutland, on the south shore of the Lymfiord,
through which vessels pass into the Cattegat, and 63 miles
N. W. of Aarhuus. The number of vessels arriving here
annually amounts to about 400. Pop. in 1870, 11,721.
Aa'len, a town of Würtemberg, on the Rocher, 48 miles
by rail E. N. E. of Stuttgart. Pop. in 1871, 5552. *
Aa'li Pash'a (MEHEMED EMIN), a Turkish statesman,
was born in 1815 at Constantinople, was appointed minis-
ter of foreign affairs Aug. 15, 1845, which position he filled
three times within the period from 1846 to 1853. In Dec.,
1845, he became chancellor of the divan, in 1846 pasha, and
in 1852 for the first time grand vizier, which position, he
afterwards held several times. In 1855 he represented Tur-
key at the conferences of Vienna and Paris, and signed the
treaty of Paris of Mar. 30, 1856. In May, 1864, he pre-
sided at the conference of European powers for settling the
Rumanian question. In 1867, while the sultan undertook
a tour over the Continent, Aali Pasha was appointed regent
of the empire. In the same year he went to Candia to set-
tle the difficulties on that island amicably. He was also
well known as a poet. Died Sept. 6, 1871.
Aalten, a town of the Netherlands, province of Guelder-
land, on the Aar, 29 miles E. of Arnhem. Pop. in 1867, 6160.
Aar, a river of Switzerland, rising in the Grimsel and
Schreckhorn Mountains in the canton of Berne, forms the
remarkable fall of Handeck, traverses the lakes of Brienz
and Thun, and enters the Rhine opposite Waldshut. Length,
175 miles. It is navigable from Thun to its mouth. AAR
is also the name of several rivers of Germany.
Aaſrau, a town of Switzerland, capital of Aargau, on
the river Aar, 63 miles by railway W. of Zürich. It has
manufactures of silk and cotton stuffs, mathematical in-
struments, etc. . In 1798 it was the capital of the Helvetic
republic. (See SwitzERLAND.) Pop. in 1870, 5449.
Aard-Wark, i.e. “ earth-pig” (Orycter’opus Capen/sis),
an animal of the class z-e:- -
Mammalia, order Eden- - - - -
tata, abounds in Cape
Colony. It is a planti-
grade, is about five feet
long, including the tail,
burrows in the ground if
pursued, and quickly en-
ters sofar that it is beyond
the reach of the pursuer.
It feeds on ants, seeking
its prey by night; it read-
ily breaks down the walls sº
of the ant-hills, catching Aard-Wark.
the insects with its long prehensile and slimy tongue.
flesh is often used as food.
Aard-Wolf, i.e. “ earth-wolf” (Prot’eles crista/tus), a
carnivorous digitigrade quadruped of the class Mammalia,
is a native of Caffraria. It is about equal in size to a fox,
and resembles a hyaena in structure and other respects, hav-
ing the fore legs longer than the hind legs. It is called
earth-wolf" because it digs burrows or holes in the ground,
in which it passes the day. It is considered by some as a
connecting link between the hyaena and the dog.
Aar'gau [Fr. Aargovie], a canton in the N. part of
Switzerland, is bounded on the N. by Germany, on the E.
by Zurich, on the S. by Lucerne, and on the W. by Basel
and Solothurn. Area, 543 square miles. The chief rivers
are the Aar and the Limmat. It consists chiefly of fertile
and well-cultivated hills. Fruit of all kinds is produced in
large quantities, and many cattle are raised here. It has
important cotton factories. There are mineral springs
at Baden and Schinzmach. In 1871 the population was
198,873, of whom 107,703 were Protestants, 89,180 Roman
Catholics, 449 belonged to other Christian churches, and
1541 were Jews. The canton was organized in 1803. The
constitution is dated from 1841, and was revised in 1852
and in 1862. The income in 1867 amounted to 2,046,685
francs, the expenses to 2,581,685 francs, and the debt was
estimated at 1,000,000 francs. It contributes 14,762 men
to the federal army. Capital, Aarau. (See MüILER, “I)er
Aargau,” 1870.)
Aar'huus, a seaport of Denmark, in North Jutland,
on the Cattegat, 37 miles S. E. of Viborg. It has a cathe-
f Žººr-º-º:
º
º
Its
dral, a museum, a library, and various manufactories. Pop.
in 1870, 15,025.
Aar’on [Heb. TTTR, the first high priest of the Israel-
ites, was a descendant of Levi, probably in the eighth or
ninth generation. He was three years older than his brother
Moses (Ex. vii. 7), and apparently (Ex. ii. 4) some years
younger than their sister Miriam. An impulsive and elo-
quent man, he was appointed spokesman to Moses, whom
he assisted in the deliverance of the Israelites from the
bondage in Egypt. He died on Mount Hor, which is still
called the “Mountain of Aaron,” and was succeeded in the
priesthood by his son Eleazar.
Aaron (SAMUEL), a Baptist minister and educator, born
in 1800 at New Britain, Pa., was ordained in 1829, and
held pastorates at New Britain and Norristown, Pa., and
at Burlington and Mount Holly, N. J. He also gained
great reputation as a teacher in various schools, especially
at Treemount Seminary, near Norristown, and the Mount
Holly Institute. He was the author of various text-books.
Died April 11, 1865.
Aar's ens, or Aarssens, van (FRANCISCUs), born at
The Hague in 1572, was the son of the Dutch statesman
Cornelis van Aarsens (1543—1624). The younger Van
Aarsens was sent to the court of France as resident in 1598,
and as ambassador in 1609, and in 1627; to Venice from
1609 to 1615, and again in 1619; to England in 1626 and
in 1640, when he negotiated the marriage between the
prince of Orange (William II. of Nassau) and the princess
Mary, daughter of Charles I. of England. Died in 1641.
Aa'sen (IVAR ANDREAs), a Norwegian writer, born
Aug. 5, 1813, at Orsteen, was at first a school-teacher, but
subsequently devoted himself wholly to the study of the
Norwegian dialects. He was supported in this study by
the Drontheim Association of Sciences, which furnished
him the means of visiting all parts of the country. He
wrote “Det Norske folkesprogs grammatik” (1848), “Ord-
bog over det Norske folkesprog” (1852; new and much
improved ed. 1873), and “Norske ordsprog” (1856).
Aas’vaer is the name of a group of small islands under
the Arctie polar circle, about 10 miles from the Norwegian
coast, which until recently were entirely unnoticed. The
owner leased them for a small price to two poor fishermen.
At present they are one of the most important fishing-
places in Europe. About Dec. 10, when the herrings arrive,
over 10,000 fishermen come here, and in two or three weeks
catch about 200,000 kegs of herrings. From Jan. 1 to Dec.
1 the islands are almost deserted, being inhabited by only
a few families. -
Ab, the eleventh month of the Jewish civil year, and
the fifth of the ecclesiastical year.
Abab/de, a village of Middle Egypt, on the east bank
of the Nile, 8 miles S. of Beni Hassan. Near it are the
ruins of the ancient Antinoë (or Antinoëpolis), a city built
by the emperor Hadrian (or Adrian) in honor of his favor-
ite Antinois. - -
Ababdeh, a negro tribe of nomads in Upper Egypt
and Nubia, are chiefly employed as guides through the
deserts. • . .
Ab/aca, or Manila Hemp, is the fibre of the leaf-
stalk of a species of plantain (Muſsa troglodyta'rum, other-
wise called Muſsa teac'tilis), growing abundantly in the
Philippine Islands, from which many thousand tons are
annually exported. Of the fibres of this tree a cordage is
made which has the property of floating on water;. sea-
water does not rot it, and it therefore requires no tarring.
A portion of the fibre which is fine and white is manufac-
tured into a kind of linen. It is an excellent material for
paper. - -
Aback', in sea-language, denotes the position of the
sails when laid flat against the mast, either by the force
of the wind or for the purpose of avoiding some imminent
danger.
Ab/aco, or Great Abaco, the largest of the Bahama.
Islands, is 80 miles long, its N. E. point being in-lat 26°
18' N., lon. 76° 57' W. Area, about 96 square miles. Carle-
ton is the chief town, and its southern point is in lat.
25° 51' N., lon. 77° 09' W. LITTLE ABACO lies W. of the
northern part of Abaco.
Ab/acot, an antique cap of state, worn formerly by
the kings of England. It was made in the shape of a
'double crown. -
Ab/acus [Gr. &Bać, gen. 33akos], a calculating instru-
ment which was used in mercantile transactions by the
ancient Greeks and Romans, and is sometimes used in
schools by the moderns. One form common in the U. S.
for teaching children addition and multiplication consists
of a frame somewhat like that of a slate, with twelve
wires running through it, and twelve beads or Small balls




ABAD–ABAUZIT. 3
on each wire. Ab'acus Pythagor'icus was anciently a name
for the multiplication table. In architecture, abacus sig-
#:
placed between the en-
tablature and the capi-
tal of a column. The pi |||||||||
old Ionic as well as the
Tuscan abacus is simi-
lar to the Doric (as here
represented), but the new
Ionic resembles the Co-
rinthian. -
Abād, an affix of
Persian origin, signify-
ing “abode,” and occur-
ring in the names of
many cities in the East;
as Hyderābād, the “abode or city of Hyder.”
Abād' is also the name of several kings who reigned
in Moorish Spain. Abād I. was the first Moslem king of
Seville. He began to reign in 1023, and died in 1042.
Abād III., the last of this dynasty, died in 1095.
Abad’don, a Hebrew name applied to the angel of the
bottomless pit; the same as the Asmodeus of Tobit iii. 8,
and the Apollyon of Rev. ix. 11.
Abaft’, a sea-term signifying at or towards the stern of
a vessel.
Abaissé, or Abaissed (i. e. “lowered”), a term in
Doric Abacus.
k=#EEEEE - ww
T（Tjirº Žºff:fff;
"E-E-> º
-> E"> S. É=
> SE: -
====E;
*
heraldry applied to any armorial figure when it is de-
pressed or placed below the centre of the shield.
Ab/ana, the name of one of the rivers of Damascus
mentioned in the Bible (2 Kings v. 12). Its identification
with the modern Barada is now generally accepted. (See
PoRTER’s “Five Years in Damascus,” 1855.)
Abancay’, a town of Peru, in the department of Cuzco,
is situated on the river Abancay, 74 miles W. S. W. of
Cuzco. It has large sugar-refineries. Pop. estimated at
about 5000. ”
Abancourt, d? (CHARLES FREROT), a distinguished
French engineer, born in Paris, resided many years in
Turkey in the employ of the French government. Several
of the maps of Eastern Europe prepared by him have a
high reputation. Died at Munich in 1801.
Abancourt, d? (CHARLEs XAVIER Joseph FRANQUE-
VILLE), a minister of Louis XVI. of France, was born at
Douai in 1758. He was a nephew of the celebrated Calonne.
He was massacred at Versailles Sept. 9, 1792.
Aban/donment [from the Fr. abandonner], in law, is
used in several senses, depending upon the subject to which
it is applied: r
1. In Insurance.—In this branch of the law it is applied
to recovery by the insured in case of loss. Loss is either total
or partial. In certain cases of partial loss the insured may,
at his election, transfer the entire property to the insurers,
and claim a total loss. The insurers would thus become
the owners of the property in its impaired condition. This
act is abandonment, and the “total loss” thus occasioned
is termed constructive. It is applicable particularly to
marine insurance. The subject is governed by rules differ-
ing somewhat in England and in America. The general
principle is, that a serious injury must have happened by a
marine peril to the ship or cargo (the value must have usu-
ally been diminished more than one-half), or the purposes
of the voyage as to the ship must have been substantially
defeated, as in the case of an embargo for an indefinite
time. The act of abandonment must be exercised not upon
mere conjecture, but upon credible information, and with-
out delay. No particular form is necessary.
2. As to Personal Property.—An owner may cast away
or otherwise relinquish personal property, so as to cause
his ownership to cease. This may readily occur in the case
of property at sea. The intent is a principal subject of
inquiry. Property in this condition is otherwise called
** derelict.”
3. Real Estate.—Abandonment in this branch of the law
applies to incorporeal rights, such as easements. There can
be no abandonment of the ownership of the land itself. This
must be parted with by some recognized mode of convey-
ance, such as a deed, or the principle of estoppel must be
invoked or the rules of the statute of limitations.
4. In the legal relation of husband and wife the word
abandonment is frequently employed as an equivalent to
desertion. It is in some instances defined by statute.
Abar'ca (JoAQUIN), a Spanish bishop and leader of the
absolutist party, born in 1780, was, on account of his zeal-
ous advocacy of the principles of absolutism, made a bishop
by Ferdinand VII. Subsequently he became prime minister
of Don Carlos, but after a time fell into disfavor for being
too moderate. He was banished, and died in 1844 in a con-
vent near Turin, Italy.
Aba’rim (meaning “regions beyond”), a mountain-
range of Moab, on the E. side of Jordan, opposite Jericho,
mentioned in Num. xxvii. 12 and elsewhere. Pisgah is
either the same as Abarim or a part of it. This line of
mountains rises to the height of nearly 3000 feet above the
Mediterranean, and more that 4000 feet above the Dead Sea.
As seen from Jericho or the Mount of Olives, the summit of
the range is apparently almost level. But recent explorers
report considerable inequalities of surface. The highest of
the peaks, still called Mount Neba or Nebbeh, is thought to
be the Nebo from which Moses viewed the Land of Promise
(Deut. xxxiv. 1–4).
Abascal’ (Josſ. FERNANDo), a Spanish commander,
born at Oviedo in 1743. He entered the army in 1762,
served against the French and the English, became intend-
ant of New Galicia, and in 1804 was appointed viceroy of
Peru. He was an able and popular ruler, and accomplished
much for the people of Peru. In 1812 he was made a mar-
quis. He was recalled in 1816. Died at Madrid June 30,
1821. &
Abatement [from the Fr. abattre, to “strike away”]
is a legal term applied in various branches of the law.
1. Title to Real Estate.--Here it refers to the wrongful
entry of a stranger upon land after an ancestor’s death, and
before the entry of an heir or devisee, and thus keeping
him out of possession. The wrong-doer is termed an
abator. -
2. Nuisances.—In this case it means the act of destroy-
ing or removing a nuisance, which may take place without
legal process. No unnecessary damage must occur, and the
act must be done without a breach of the peace.
3. In respect to legacies and creditors’ claims the word
means a proportionate reduction of them where there are
not sufficient assets to make full payment. • ,
4. In actions the word has two significations: (1.) In
respect to pleadings. A defendant may assert by a “plea
in abatement” that the plaintiff’s action ought to cease by
reason of some informality or irregularity. It is called a
dilatory plea, because it does not meet the case upon the
merits. Such pleas are not favored in modern law, and
there is a tendency to confine them by statute within mar-
row limits. If the cause is abated on such grounds, a new
action may be brought. (2.) In respect to the termination
of a litigation by the occurrence of some event during its
progress, such as the death or disability of a party. In a
court of law the regular effect of the death of a party was
to cause the action to abate altogether. In a suit in equity
proceedings were suspended, and might be revived by es-
tablished methods. Similar rules were applied to disabili-
ties, such as the marriage of a female party to an action.
The effect of this doctrine is largely modified in codes of
procedure in this country, and in England by the “Com-
mon-Law Procedure” act. Under these statutory regula-
tions an action may, after the death of a party, be con-
tinued by or against his representatives, on motion to the
court in which the action is pending. The application is
subject to regulations to prevent unnecessary delay. There
are certain actions in which there can be no revival. An
instance is that of a cause of action for a personal wrong
(tort). This is said to “die with the person.” In other
words, it cannot be prosecuted by or against the executors
or administrators of a party sustaining or inflicting the
Wrong. T. W. DWIGHT.
Abatement, in heraldry, denotes symbols of disgrace
introduced into a coat-of-arms; these are scarcely.mentioned
by any heraldic writers except the English. A delf tenné is
the sign of a revoked challenge; a point-à-point denotes a
coward; a gusset sinister denotes drunkenness.
Abattis, or Abatis [Fr.], in fortification, a bulwark or
obstruction formed by trees felled and placed side by side,
so that their tops are directed towards the enemy. Some-
times the ends of the branches are cut off and sharpened.
Abattoir, a public establishment in which cattle, sheep,
etc. are killed with such sanitary arrangements as will guard
the population of a city against the nuisances of private
slaughter-houses. This improvement originated in Paris
in 1807. The principal abattoirs for the city of New York
are near Jersey City, N. J.
A Battuta. [It..], a term in music signifying in strict
or measured time.
Aba-Ujvar, a county of Hungary, is bounded by the
counties of Zips, Saros, Zemplin, Torna, and Borsod. Area,
1109 square miles. The country consists entirely of pic-
turesque mountains. The soil, which is very fertile, yields
wine in abundance. Gold, silver, iron, and copper are
found here. Pop. in 1869, 166,666. Chief town, Kaschau.
Abauzit (FIRMIN), a celebrated French Protestant phil-














4 ABBADIE–ABBOT OF MISRULE.
osopher and mathematician, was born at Uzès, Languedoc,
Nov. 11, 1679, was educated at Geneva, travelled in Eng-
land and Holland, and wrote several works on theology, an-
tiquities, etc. He was a friend and correspondent of Sir
Isaac Newton, who esteemed him highly, and he was pro-
foundly versed in many branches of learning and science.
Died in Geneva Mar. 20, 1767.
Abbadie (JACQUES), D. D., a French Protestant di-
vine, born in Béarn in 1658. He removed to England
in 1688, preached in London, and became dean of Killaloe
in Ireland. His chief work is a “Treatise on the Truth
of the Christian Religion” (in French, 2 vols., 1684), which
was received with favor by both Protestants and Roman
Catholics. Died in London Nov. 7, 1727.
Abbadie, d” (ANToINE and ARNOULD MICHEL), two
brothers and French travellers, born in Dublin in 1810 and
1815, who explored Abyssinia and Upper Egypt between
1838 and 1848, travelled up the White Nile, and even visited
Darfoor. Their moro important works are “Nouvelles du
haut fleuve Blanc,” “Note sur la route du Darfour,” “Sur
les négres Yambo,” “Géodésie d’Ethiopie,” etc. (1860–63),
and “Douze ans dans la Haute-Ethiopie” (2 vols., 1868).
Their collection of Ethiopic and Amharic manuscripts,
numbering 234, was until recently the largest collection in
Europe. - *
Abbandonamen’te [It..], in music, signifies “with
self-abandonment,” despondingly.
Abbas’, or, more fully, Abbās-Ibn-Abd-il-Moot'-
talib, a paternal uncle of Mohammed, and the ancestor of
the dynasty of Abbassides, was born at Mecca, about 566
A. D. He fought against Mohammed at the battle of Bedr,
but was afterwards converted, and rendered important ser-
vices to that prophet.
Abbās I. 3 or Shāh Abbās, surnamed THE GREAT, a
king of Persia, born in 1557, was a son of Mohammed Mirza.
He began to reign about 1584, and distinguished himself by
his ability and energy. In 1605 he defeated the Turks in a
great battle, and recovered the Persian provinces which they
had occupied. Died in 1628.
Abbās-Mir’za, a son of Fatah Ali Shah, king of
Persia, was born in 1783. He commanded the Persian
army which was defeated by the Russians in 1811. He was
a prince of superior talents, and promoted the introduction
of European culture and military tactics into Persia. He
died before his father, in 1833.
Abbās Pacha, viceroy of Egypt (the third of the pres-
ent dynasty), a grandson of Mehemet Ali, was born at Yedda,
in Arabia, in 1813. He succeeded his uncle Ibrahim Pacha.
Nov. 9–10, 1848, and died in July, 1854. He was succeeded
by his uncle, Saïd Pacha.
Abbassides (pronounced ab-bas'sidz; sing. Abas-
side, ab-bas'sid), or Abbasides [Lat. Abbas’idae; called
by the Arabs BENI ABBAs, i. e. “sons or descendants of
Abbās”], the name of a celebrated dynasty of caliphs who
reigned at Damascus, and afterwards at Bagdad, from 762
to 1258 A. D. They traced their genealogy to Abbās, the
uncle of Mohammed. To this dynasty belonged the caliphs
Harun-al-Raschid and Al-Mamun.
Abbatu'cci (CARLO, or CHARLEs), a Corsican general,
born in 1771. He served in the French army under the
republic, and was killed at Huningue in 1796.
Abbatucci (CHARLEs), a son of Jean Charles, born in
1816, became under Napoleon III. counsellor of state, and
was in June, 1872, elected to the National Assembly as the
candidate of the Bonapartist party.
Abbatucci (GIACOMO PIETRO, or JACQUEs PIERRE), a
Corsican, born in 1726, became a general of division in the
IFrench service. Died in 1812.
Abbatucci (JEAN CHARLEs), a French lawyer, a nephew
of Carlo, noticed above, was born in Corsica, in 1791. He
became in 1848 a partisan of Louis Napoleon, who appointed
him minister of justice in 1852. Died in 1857.
Abbatucci (SfâvKRIN), son of Jean Charles, was in
1871 elected member of the National Assembly, and in Au-
gust resigned his seat in order to give to Rouher, the leader
of the Bonapartist party, an opportunity to be elected.
Abbé, #’bà’, a French term formerly applied to ecclesi-
astics and students of theology who were supported by the
revenue of monasteries.
to literary pursuits or were employed as tutors in wealthy
families. Before the Revolution the king had the power
to nominate 225 abbés commendataires, whose offices were
sinecures. (See ABBOT.)
Abbeolzu'ta, or Abbekuta (i.e. “under the rock”),
a large town of Western Africa, and capital of the king-
dom of Yorruba or Yarriba, is built on granite hills around
a rock 250 feet high, and is situated on the left bank of the
They often devoted themselves.
Ogoon River, 120 miles N.W. of Benin. The negro bishop
Crowther has established a newspaper here in the Egba lan-
guage; the number of Christians is estimated at 2000. It
was founded in 1825 by some fugitives, and has rapidly in-
creased. Pop. estimated at 100,000.
Ab/bess [Lat. abbatis'sal, the superior of a convent of
women, corresponding in rank and authority to an abbot,
except that she cannot exercise the functions of the priest-
OCl.
“Rºbeville, âb'vèl’, a fortified city of France, situated
on the river Somme, in the department of Somme, on the
Northern Railway, 36 miles by rail N. W. of Amiens. It
contains a fine cathedral and manufactories of woollen
cloths, etc. Abbeville has in late years been made famous
by the discovery of many interesting relics of pre-historic
man in the valley of the Somme at that place. Pop. in
1866, 19,385.
Ab/beville, a county in the W. N. W. of South Caro-
lina, bordering on Georgia. Area, 960 square miles. It
is bounded on the S. W. by the Savannah River, and on the
N. E. by the Saluda, and is intersected by the Greenville
and Columbia R. R. Generally fertile and well watered.
Gold is found in the county. Cattle, grain, cotton, and
wool are raised. Pop. 31,129. Capital, Abbeville.
Abbeville, the capital of Henry co., Ala., finely situ-
ated 3 miles from Yattanabbee Creek and 100 miles S. E.
of Montgomery. It has two churches, one academy, and
one weekly paper. Pop. of township, 1267.
M. A. SHEEHAN, ED. “HENRY County REGISTER.”
Abbeville, a post-village, capital of Wilcox co., Ga.
Abbeville, a post-village, capital of Vermilion parish,
La. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 545.
Abbeville, a post-village of Lafayette co., Miss., on
the Central Mississippi R. R., 56 miles N. by E. of Grenada.
Abbeville, the capital of Abbeville co., S. C., is 97
miles W. by N. of Columbia, on a branch of the Green-
ville and Columbia R. R. It has some manufactures, a male
and female academy, three schools, five churches, a library,
two newspapers, a Bible society, and various public build-
ings. Pop. of Abbeville township, 3034.
J. C. HEMPHILL, ED. “MEDIUM.”
Abbey (RICHARD), a Methodist clergyman and author,
born in Genesee co., Y., Nov. 16, 1805, removed to
Illinois in 1816, and to Natchez, Miss., in 1825. In 1844
he entered the ministry in the Methodist Church, and is
now (1873) a member of the Mississippi Conference of the
Methodist Episcopal Church South. He has been an ex-
tensive newspaper and review writer. His first book,
“Letters to Bishop Green on Apostolic Succession,” was
published in 1853, and was soon followed by the “End of
the Apostolic Succession,” a written debate with Yerger
and Smedes on High-Church doctrines. His “Ecclesiasti-
cal Constitution” was published in 1856, “Creed of All
Men,” against deism, appeared in 1855, “ Church and Min-
istry” in 1859, and “ Diuturnity” in 1866. In 1868 he
published anonymously “Ecce Ecclesia,” and in 1872 “The
City of God and the Church-Makers.” He has also pub-
lished “Baptismal Demonstrations,” “Divine Assessment,”
“Strictures on Church Government,” “The Divine Call to
the Ministry,” etc. In 1858 he was elected financial secre-
tary of the Southern Methodist Publishing House.
Abbia/ti (PHILIPPo), a skilful Italian painter, born at
Milan in 1640; died in 1715.
Abbitib/bie, or Abbitib'be, a lake, river, and trad-
ing-station in British North America, near James's Bay,
into which the river flows.
Abbon the Crooked (in Latin, Ab/bo Cer'nuw8), a
French monk of St.-Germain-des-Prés, described the siege
of Paris by the Northmen (885–887) in an epic poem which
has been translated into French by Guizot. Died in 923.
Abbon of Fleury [in Latin, Ab/bo Floriacen'sis], an
eminent French monk, born near Orleans in 958, was one
of the most learned men of his age. He became abbot of
Fleury. Died in 1004.
Ab/bot [Lat. ab'bas; Fr. abbé; from the Hebrew abba,
“father”], the superior of a convent or monastery, and an
ecclesiastic of high rank in the Roman Catholic Church.
Abbots were ranked as prelates of the Church next to the
bishops, and had the right to vote or speak in the general
councils. . In England there were formerly a number of
mitred abbots, who sat and voted in the House of Lords.
Abbot, a post-township of Piscataquis co., Me. It
has manufactures of lumber, carriages, etc. Pop. 712.
Abbot, a township of Potter co., Pa. Pop. 534.
Abbot of Misrule, or Abbot of Fools, called in
Scotland the “Abbot of Unreason,” a title given in the
Middle Ages to the master of revels, and especially to the
person appointed to preside over Christmas festivities.
ABBOT-ABBOTT. 5
Abbot (ABIEL), D.D., born at Andover, Mass., Aug. 17,
1770, graduated at Harvard in 1792, was a Congregational
minister in Haverhill, Mass. (1795–1803), and in Beverly,
Mass., until 1827, when he sailed for Cuba. Died of yellow
fever at Staten Island, N. Y., June 7, 1828. His “Letters
from Cuba” (1829), and a volume of his sermons (1831), with
a memoir, have been published.
Abbot (ABIEL), D.D., born at Wilton, N. H., Dec. 14,
1765, graduated at Harvard in 1787. He studied theology,
was tutor at Harvard (1794–95), minister of the Congrega-
tional church at Coventry, Conn. (1795–1811), and of the
Unitarian church, Peterborough, N. H. (1827–48). He
published a “History of Andover,” Mass. (1829), etc.
Died Jan. 31, 1859.
Abbot (BENJAMIN), L.L.D., an eminent teacher, was
born at Andover, Mass., Sept. 17, 1762, and graduated at
Harvard College in 1788. He was principal of Phillips
Academy at Exeter, N. H., for fifty years (till 1838).
Among his pupils were Daniel Webster, Alexander H.
Everett, Edward Everett, Lewis Cass, Jared Sparks, and
George Bancroft. Of fine character and courtly manners,
he had great power over his pupils. He died Oct. 25, 1849.
Abbot (CHARLEs), LorD ColchESTER, born Oct. 14, 1757,
Speaker of the British House of Commons (1802–17), was
made peer in 1817, and died May 8, 1829.
Abbot (EZRA), born in Jackson, Me., April 29, 1819,
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1840, became in 1856 as-
sistant librarian in Harvard College, in 1872 professor of
New Testament criticism and interpretation in the Cam-
bridge Divinity School; published “Literature of the Doc-
trine of a Future Life” (1864–71). He has also served as
assistant and editor of such works as Norton’s “Gospels,”
Hackett's revision of Smith’s “Bible Dictionary,” Noyes'
“New Testament,” and Hudson’s “Concordance.” He
has also published many review articles, etc.
Abbot (FRANCI's ELLINGWooD), born at Boston, Mass.,
Nov. 6, 1836, graduated at Harvard, and was (1870–73)
editor of the “Index,” a journal devoted to the interests
of Free Religion. He also published articles on the
“Philosophy of Space and Time,” “The Conditioned and
the Unconditioned,” “Philosophical Biology,” etc., in the
“North American Review” and other periodicals.
Abbot (GEORGE), D. D., born in Surrey Oct. 29, 1562,
was educated at Oxford. He became bishop of London in
1610, and archbishop of Canterbury in Jan., 1611. He was
noted for his liberal principles, and was a rival or oppo-
ment of Laud. Died Aug. 4, 1633. -
Abbot (GoRHAM DUMMER), LL.D., a younger brother
of Jacob Abbott, was born Sept. 3, 1808, graduated at
Bowdoin College in 1826, and took a part of the theologi-
cal course at Andover in the class which graduated in 1831.
He was pastor for three years at New Rochelle, N.Y., and
for thirteen years principal of the Spingler Institute in
New York City. He has published “The Family at Home,”
“Nathan Dickerman,” “Mexico and the U. S.” (1869), and
other works. Died July 31, 1874.
Abbot (HENRY L.), an American officer, born Aug. 13,
1831, at Beverly, Mass., graduated at West Point 1854,
major of engineers Nov. 11, 1865, served as assistant on
Pacific R. R. surveys, 1854–57, and was associated with
General Humphreys on the hydrographic survey of the
delta of the Mississippi, 1857–61, the results being set forth
in an elaborate report, “Physics and Hydraulics of the
Mississippi River.” In the civil war served in the Manas-
sas campaign, 1861; engaged at Blackburn’s Ford and Bull
Run (wounded and brevet captain); in the construction
of the defences of Washington, 1861–62; in the Virginia
Peninsula, 1862; engaged at Yorktown (brevet major) and
the Seven Days' operations before Richmond; as chief to-
pographical engineer of Banks's expedition to the Gulf of
Mexico, 1862–63.; as colonel of the First Connecticut Ar-
tillery Volunteers, in command of siege artillery before
Petersburg, 1864–65 (brevet lieutenant-colonel U. S. A.,
and brevet brigadier-general U. S. V.); engaged in various
actions; as chief of artillery of expedition to Fort Fisher,
1865; and in command of a brigade in the defences of
Washington, 1863–65. Brevet colonel and brigadier-gen-
eral U. S. A. Mar. 13, 1865, and brevet major-general
U. S. W. Since the war he has been superintending de-
fences and in command of engineer battalion and torpedo
school of practice at Willet's Point, N.Y., member of en-
gineer boards, and observer on solar eclipse expedition to
Sicily, 1870–71. He is the author of professional papers,
and a member of American Academy of Sciences and other
associations. G. W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Abbot (JoBL), DR. See APPENDIX. -
Abbot (ROBERT), D.D., a learned English bishop, a
brother of Archbishop George Abbot, was born in 1560.
He became a popular preacher, and in 1615 bishop of Salis-
bury. Died Mar. 2, 1617. He left several theological, con-
troversial, and political works, once highly valued for their
learning. - -
Abbot (SAMUEL), a wealthy merchant of Boston, born
at Andover, Mass., was one of the founders of the theolog-
ical seminary at Andover, towards the building of which
he gave $20,000 during his lifetime and $100,000 at his
death. He also contributed large sums for various other
charitable purposes. Died April 30, 1812, aged eighty.
Abbot (WALTER), U.S. N., born in 1843 in the State
of Massachusetts, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1861,
became an ensign in 1862, a lieutenant in 1864, a lieutenant-
commander in 1866, served on board the steam frigate Mis-
sissippi at the passage of Forts St. Philip and Jackson and
the capture of New Orleans in 1862, and on board the iron-
clad New Ironsides from 1863 to 1865 in her numerous en-
gagements with the forts off Charleston, and in the fight
with Fort Fisher at Wilmington, N. C. Died at Funchal,
Madeira, in the winter of 1873.
IFoxHALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Ab’botsford, the seat of Sir Walter Scott, is situated
on the right bank of the Tweed, about three miles from
Melrose Abbey. It is surrounded by beautiful scenery.
This estate was purchased in 1811 by Sir Walter, who ex-
pended a large sum of money in the érection of a pictu-
resque and irregular pile of buildings, which has been cha-
racterized as “a romance in stone and lime.” The expense
of this building was the chief cause of Scott's failure in
1826. (See Scott, SIR WALTER.)
Ab/bott (AUSTIN). See APPENDIx.
Abbott (BENJAMIN), a noted Methodist preacher, was
born in Pennsylvania in 1732. He travelled and preached
extensively in his native State, in New Jersey, Delaware,
and Maryland, and was one of the chief founders of his
denomination in those States. His native eloquence was
extraordinary. His autobiographical records, embodied in
Firth’s “Life of Abbott,” are among the most remarkable
of the early writings of Methodism. He was a man of little
education, but of saintly character. Died in 1796.
Abbott (BENJAMIN WAUGHAN). See APPENDIx.
Abbott (CHARLEs), LORD TENTERDEN, an eminent Eng-
lish judge, born at Canterbury in 1762. He published in
1802 a “Treatise on the Law of Merchant Ships and Sea-
men,” which is a standard work; became a judge in the
court of common pleas in 1816, and lord chief-justice of
the king's bench in 1818. In 1827 he was raised to the
peerage as Lord Tenterden. Died in 1832.
, Abbott (JACOB), a prolific and popular writer, was born
at Hallowell, Me., Nov. 14, 1803, graduated at Bowdoin Col-
lege in 1820, studied theology at Andover, Mass., from 1822
to 1824, was tutor in Amherst College from 1824–25, and
professor of mathematics in the same institution from 1825
to 1829, was principal of the Mount Vernon School (for
young ladies) in Boston from 1829 to 1834, when he was
ordained and took charge of the Eliot church in Roxbury
(till 1836). For several years he made his home in New
York City, though frequently absent in foreign countries.
He now (1873) resides at the old family homestead in Farm-
ington, Me. His reputation as an author was established
by the “Young Christian Series,” consisting of “The Young
Christian” (1832), “The Corner-Stone” (1834), “The Way
to Do Good,” “Hoaryhead,” and “McDonner.” But he is
best known as the author of “The Rollo Books” (28 vols.),
“The Franconia Stories” (10 vols.), “Harper's Story-
Books” (36 vols.), and other juvenile works, some of
which have been translated into various languages.
Abbott (Rev. JoHN STEvENs CABOT), brother of Jacob,
was born at Brunswick, Me., Sept. 18, 1805, graduated at
Bowdoin College in 1825, at Andover Theological Semi-
nary in 1829, and was settled as minister in Worcester,
Roxbury, Nantucket, and New Haven. Since 1866 he has
resided in Fair Haven, Conn. Among his works may be
'named “The Mother at Home” (1833), and “History of
Napoleon Bonaparte,” 2 vols. 8vo, “History of the Civil
War” (1865), and his American histories (about 25 yols.).
Among the most important of his recent works is his “His-
tory of Napoleon III.” (1868).
Abbott (LYMAN), third son of Rev. Jacob Abbott, was
born in Roxbury, Mass., Dec. 18, 1835, graduated at the
New York University in 1853, practised law for a time in
New York City, studied theology with his uncle, Rev. John
S. C. Abbott, was settled in the ministry at Terre Haute,
Ind., from 1860 to 1865, was connected with the Freedmen's
Commission from 1865 to 1868, then accepted the pastorate
of the New England Congregational church in New York
City, which he resigned in 1869, and now (1873) resides at
Cornwall, on the Hudson, engaged in literary pursuits.
Since 1871, he has edited for the American Tract Society
its “Illustrated Christian Weekly,” the only illustrated re-

6
ABBOTT–ABBREVIATIONS.
ligious weekly paper in the country. Besides other literary
work, he has published “Jesus of Nazareth, His Life and
Teachings” (1869), “Old Testament Shadows of New Tes-
tament Truths” (1870), “Morning and Evening Exercises,
selected from the Writings of Henry Ward Beecher” (1871),
“Laicus, or the Experiences of a Layman in a Country
Parish” (1872), and is now engaged in carrying through
the press of Harper & Brothers a “Popular Religious Dic-
tionary” of about 1200 pages. -
Abbott (RoRERT 0.), M.D., brevet colonel and surgeon
. S.A., born in 1824, entered the army as assistant sur-
geon in 1849.
In 1862 he became medical director of the
Fifth Corps, and in the summer of that year medical direc-
tor of the department of Washington—a difficult position,
the duties of which he performed with great honor and ad-
ministrative ability and rare professional skill.
Died, in
consequence of overwork, June 10, 1867.
Ab/bott’s, a township of Bladen co., N. C. Pop. 716.
: Ab'bott’s Creek, a post-township of Forsyth co.,
N. C. Pop. 753.
Abbrevia/tio Placito/rum (“abbreviation of plead-
ings”), in legal history, an abstract of ancient pleadings
made prior to the Year Books.
(See YEAR BOOKs.)
Abbreviations. [Lat. abbreviationes, from abbre'vio,
abbrevia’tum, to “shorten” (from bre/vis, “short”)], cus-
tomary contractions of words
in order to save time and space.
and phrases used in writing,
They are formed by the
omission of some letters or words, or by the substitution
of arbitrary signs.
In mediaeval manuscripts abbrevia-
tions are so numerous that special study and training are
required to decipher them.
The following are the more important abbreviations in
COIn IſlOD U180 :
did, ama, “ of each.”
A. A. A. G., Acting Assistant
Adjutant-General.
A. A. G., Assistant Adjutant-
General.
A. B., Artium Baccalaureus,
Bachelor of Arts.
A. B. C. F. M., American
Board of Commissioners for
Foreign Missions.
Abp., Archbishop.
A. C., Ante Christum, before
Christ; also Arch-Chancel-
lor.
Acct., account. .
A. D., Anno Domini, “in the
year of our Lord.”
Ad. or Adv., adverb.
Adj., adjective.
Admr., administrator.
Admx., administratrix.
AEt. or aetat., &tatis, of age.
A. G., Adjutant-General.
A. H., Anno Hegirae, “in the
year of the Hegira, ’’ (flight
of Mohammed).
Ala., Alabama.
A. M., Anno Mundi, “in the
year of the world.”
A. M., Ante Meridiem, “be-
fore noon.” .
A. M., Artium
Master of Arts.
Anon., anonymous.
Ans., answer.
Apr., April.
A. Q. M., Assistant Quarter-
master.
A. R. A., Associate of the
Royal Academy (London).
Ari., Arizona.
Ark., Arkansas.
A. U. C., Ab Urbe Condita,
“from the Founding of the
City” (i. e. Rome).
Aug., August.
A. V., Authorized Version.
A. Y. M., Ancient York Ma-
SOD1. -
B.A. or A. B.,Bachelor of Arts.
Bart. or Bt., Baronet.
Bbl., barrel.
B. C., before Christ.
B.C.L., Bachelor of Civil Law.
B. D., Bachelor of Divinity.
B. L., Bachelor of Laws, le-
gum baccalaureus.
Magister,
- Bp., Bishop.
Brig.-Gen., Brigadier-Gen-
eral.
Bro., brother.
Bush., bushel. [Beata Virgo.
B. V., Blessed Virgin, Lat.
C., centum, a “hundred;”
also “centigrade.”
C., Consul; also chapter.
Ca., circa, about.
Cal., California.
Cal. or Kal., Kalends.
Cantab., Cantabrigiensis, “ of
Cambridge.”
Cantuar., of Canterbury.
Cap., capitulum, “chapter.”
Capt., Captain.
C. B., Companion of the
Bath; also Cape Breton.
C. C., Caius College.
c. c., cubic centimetre.
C. C. P., Court of Common
Pleas.
C. E., Civil Engineer.
Cent., centum, “hundred.”
Cf., confer, compare.
C. G. H., Cape of Good Hope.
Chap. or ch., chapter.
Chron., Chronicles.
C. J., Chief-Justice.
C. M., common metre.
Co., company; also county.
C. O. D., cash on delivery.
Col., Colonel ; also Colorado.
Coll., college.
Com., Commodore, Commis-
sioner.
con., contra, “ against.”
Cor., Corinthians.
Cor. Sec., Corresponding Sec-
retary.
Cos., cosine.
Coss., Conswles or Consuli-
bus, “ consuls” (of Rome).
Cr., creditor.
Crim. Con., criminal connec-
tion or conversation.
C. S. A., Confederate States
of America.
Ct. or Conn., Connecticut.
|Cwt., a hundredweight.
Cyc., cyclopaedia.
d., penny, pence, demariw8.
D., five hundred; also Dena-
rius.
D. A. G., Deputy Adjutant
General.
Dak., Dakota.
Dan., Daniel, Danish.
D. C., District of Columbia;
also da capo, “from the be-
ginning.”
D. C. L., Doctor of Civil
Law.
D. D., Doctor of Divinity.
D. D. S., Doctor of Dental
Surgery.
Deal., deacon.
Dec., December.
Deg., degree.
Del., Delaware; also deline-
avit, “he designed” (on
engravings).
Dept., department.
Deut., Deuterónomy.
D. F., Fidei defensor, “De-
fender of the faith.”
Dft., defendant.
D. G., Dei gratid, “by the
grace (or favor) of God.”
Dist., district. .
Do., ditto, “the same.”
Doz., dozen.
Dr., Doctor; also debtor.
D. T., Dakota Territory. .
D. W., Deo volente, “God
willing.”
Dwt., pennyweight.
| E., east.
Ebor., Eboracum, York.
Eccl., Ecclesiastes.
Ecclus., Ecclesiasticus.
E. D., Eastern District (of
Brooklyn, N.Y.).
Ed., editor, edition.
Edin., Edinburgh.
E. E., Errors excepted.
e.g., exempli gratiâ, “for ex-
ample.”
E. I., East Indies.
E. I. C., East India Company.
E. M., Mining Engineer.
Encyc., encyclopaedia.
E. N. E., east north-east.
Eng., English, Engineers.
Eph., Ephes., Ephesians.
E. S. E., east south-east.
Esth., Esther.
Esq., Esquire.
et al., et alii, “ and others.”
etc., et caetera, “ and the
rest;” i. e. other such
things; and so forth.
Et seq., et sequens, “and the
following.”
Exr., executor.
Exod., Ex., Exodus.
Exon., Eaconia, Exeter.
Exx., executrix.
Ez., Ezra.
Ezek., Ezekiel.
F. or f., franc, florin, farthing,
foot.
F. and A. M., Free and Ac-
cepted Masons.
F. or Fahr., Fahrenheit.
IF. A. S., Fellow of the Anti-
quarian Society; Fellow of
the Society of Arts.
F. A. S. E., Fellow of the
Antiquarian Society of Ed-
inburgh.
F. B. S., Fellow of the Botan-
ical Society.
F. D., Fidei defensor, “De-
fender of the faith.”
Feb., February.
F. F. W., first families of Wir-
ginia.
F. G. S., Fellow of the Geo-
logical Society.
Fla., Florida.
F. L. S., Fellow of the Lim-
maean Society.
R. R. A. S., Fellow of the
Royal Astronomical (or
Asiatic) Society.
F. R. C. P., Fellow of the
Royal College of Physi-
Cl8lDiS.
F. R. C. S., Fellow of the
2. Royal College of Surgeons.
|Fri., Friday.
F. R. G. S., Fellow of the
Royal Geographical Soci-
ety.
F. R. S., Fellow of the Royal
Society.
F. R. S. E., Fellow of the
Royal Society of Edin-
burgh.
F. S. A., Fellow of the Soci-
ety of Antiquarians.
F. S. S.; Fellow of the Statis-
tical Society.
F. Z. S., Fellow of the Zoo-
logical Society.
Ga., Georgia.
Gal., Galatians.
gal., gallons.
G. B., Great Britain.
G. C. B., Grand Cross of the
Bath.
G. M., Grand Master.
Gen., General, Genesis.
Ger., German.
Gov., Governor.
Gr., Greek. -
G.T., Good Templars; Grand
Tyler.
|Gtt., guttae, “drops.”
Hab., Habakkuk.
Hag., Haggai. *
H. B. C., Hudson’s Bay Com-
pany.
H. B. M., His or Her Britan-
nic Majesty. -
Hdkf., Handkerchief.
h. e., hoc est, “this is.”
Heb., Hebrews.
hhd., hogshead.
Hist., history.
H. I. H., His or Her Imperial
Highness.
H. M. S., His or Her Ma-
jesty's Ship.
Hon., Honorable.
Hos., Hosea.
H. R., House of Representa-
tives.
H. R. H., His or Her Royal
Highness.
H. S. S., Historiae Societatis
Socius, Fellow of the His-
torical Society.
I., Is., Isl., island.
Ia., Iowa.
Ibid. or Ib., ibidem, “in the
same place.”
Id., idem, “the same.”
Id., Idaho.
i. e., id est, “that is.”
I. H. S., Jesus Hominum Sal-
vator, “Jesus Saviour of
men.”
Ill., Illinois.
incog., incognito, “unknown.”
Ind., Indiana. *
Ind. Ter., Indian Territory.
In lim., in limine, “at the
outset.” .
In loc., in loco, “in the place.”
I. N. R. I., Jesus Nazarenus
Reac Judæorum, “Jesus of
Nazareth, King of the
Jews.”
Inst., institute.
inst., instante mense, “in the
present month.”
Int., interest.
I. O. O. F., Independent Order
of Odd Fellows.
I. O. S. M., Independent Or-
der of the Sons of Malta.
Isa., Isaiah.
It., Italian.
J. A., Judge Advocate.
Jam., Jamaica.
Jan., January.
ABBREVIATIONS.
7
Jas., James.
J. C., Juris Consult.
J. C. D., Juris Civilis Doc-
tor, Doctor of Civil Law.
J. D., Juris Doctor, Doctor
of Law.
Jer, Jeremiah.
Jno., John.
Jona., Jonathan.
J. P., Justice of the Peace.
Jr. or Jun., Junior.
Jud., Judith.
J. U. D., Juris wtriusque
Doctor, Doctor of both
Canon and Civil Law.
Judg., Judges. f
J. W. D., Juris wtriusque Doc-
tor, Doctor of Civil and
Canon Law.
K., King.
Kal. or Cal., Calends.
Kan., Kansas.
K. B., Knight of the Bath.
R. C., King's Counsel.
K. C. B., Knight Commander
of the Bath. -
K. G. C. B., Knight Grand
Cross of the Bath.
R. G., Knight of the Garter.
K. P., Knight of St. Patrick.
K. T., Knight of the Thistle.
Kt., Knight.
Ky., PCentucky.
La., Louisiana.
Lam., Lamentations. .
Tat., latitude.
Lat., Latin.
L. D., Lady Day.
Lev., Leviticus. -
L. H. D., Literarum Humani-
orum Doctor, Doctor of
Literature—conferred only
by the Regents of the Uni-
versity of the State of N. Y.
L. I., Long Island.
Lib., liber, book.
Lib., lb., l., libra, a “pound.”
Lieut., Lieutenant.
LL.B., Bachelor of Laws.
LL.D., Legum Doctor, “Doc-
tor of Laws.”
L. S., Locus Sigilli, “Place
of the seal.”
Lon., longitude.
L. R. C. P., Licentiate of the
Royal College of Physi-
cians.
L. R. C. S., Licentiate of the
Royal College of Surgeons.
L. S. D., Libri, Solidi, De-
marii, “pounds, shillings,
[and] pence.”
M., Monsieur, mille (a “thou-
_ Sand”), a mile ; noon.
M., 10,000.
M. A., Master of Arts.
Macc., Maccabees.
Mad. or Mme., Madame.
Mag., magazine.
Maj.-Gên., Major-General.
Mal., Malachi.
Mar., March.
Masc., masculine.
Mass., Massachusetts.
Matt., Matthew.
M. B., Bachelor of Medicine.
M. C., Member of Congress.
Md., Maryland. '
M. D., Medicinæ Doctor,
“Doctor of Medicine.”
Mc., Maine.
M. E., Methodist Episcopal.
M. E. S., Methodist Episcopal
South.
M. H. S., Massachusetts His-
torical Society.
Messrs. or M.M., Messieurs,
“gentlemen.”
Mic., Micah.
Mich., Michigan.
Miss., Mississippi.
Mlle., Mademoiselle.
Mme., Madame.
M. N. A. S.,Member of the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences.
Mo., Missouri.
Mon., Montana.
Mons., Monsieur.
M. P., Member of Parliament.
M. R. C. S., Member of the
Royal College of Surgeons.
M. R. I. A., Member of the
Royal Irish Academy.
MS., manuscript.
MSS., manuscripts.
Mt., mount.
Mus. D., Doctor of Music.
N., north, or noon.
N. A., North America.
N. A. S., National Acad.of Sci.
N. B., Nota, Bene, “mark
well;” also North Britain
and New Brunswick.
N. C., North Carolina.
N. E., north-east, New Eng-
land.
Neb., Nebraska.
Neh., Nehemiah.
Nem. Con., Nemine contradi-
cente, or Nem. Diss., We-
nine dissidente, “no one
contradicting or opposing.”
Nev., Nevada. -
N. F., Newfoundland.
N. G., New Granada.
N. H., New Hampshire.
N. J., New Jersey.
N. M., New Mexico.
N. N. E., north north-east.
N. N. W., north north-west.
No., Numero, “Number.”
N. O., New Orleans.
Nov., November.
N. P., Notary Public; also
New Providence Island.
N.S., Nova Scotia, New Style.
N. T., New Testament.
Num., Numbers.
N. W., north-west.
N. W. T., North-west Terr.
N. Y., New York.
N. Z., New Zealand.
0., Ohio.
Ob., obiit, “ died.”
Obad., Obadiah.
Obdt., obedient.
Obs., obsolete.
Oct., October.
Ol., olewm, oil.
Ol. or Olym., Olympiad.
Or., Oregon. .
0. S., Old Style.
O. T., Old Testament.
Oxon., Oaconiensis, “Oxo-
nian * or “ of Oxford.”
0Z., ounce.
P., Père, “father.”
Pa., Pennsylvania.
Parl., Parliament.
P. C., Privy Councillor.
P. E. I., Prince Edward’s
Island. -
P. E., Protestant Episcopal.
Per Ann., Pr.. An., Per An-
num, “by the year.”
Per Cent., Per Centum, “by
the hundred.”
Pet., Peter.
Ph. D., Philosophiæ Doctor,
“Doctor of Philosophy.”
Phil., Philippians, Philip.
Phila., Philadelphia.
Philem., Philemon.
Philom., Philomathes,
lover of learning.”
Philomath., “a lover of learn-
ing.”
Pinxt. or prºt., pinacit, “he
painted.” -
Pk., peck.
<< a.
Minn., Minnesota.
pl., plu., or plur., plural.
plff, plaintiff.
plupf, pluperfect.
P. M., Post Meridiem, “after
noon.” .
P. M., Postmaster.
P. O., Post-office.
P. of H., Pat. of Husbandry.
Pop., population.
Port., Portuguese.
P.P., Patres, “fathers.”
pp., pages.
P. P. C., pour prendre congé,
“ to take leave.”
P. R., Porto Rico.
Pres., President.
Priv., privative.
Prof., Professor.
Pro tem., Pro tempore, “for
the time.”
Prob., problem.
Prov., Proverbs.
Prox., Proacimo or Proacimo
mense, “in the next month.”
Ps., Psalm.
P. S., postScript, privy seal.
Pub. Doc., public document.
Pxt., pinacit, painted it.
q., farthing (quadrang).
Q., Queen, question, Quintus.
Q. C., Queen’s Counsel.
Q. d.,. Quasi dicat, “As if he
should say.”
Q. E. D., Quod Erat Demon-
strandum, “ which was to
be demonstrated.”
Q. E. F., Quod Erat Facien-
dum, “which was to be
done.”
Q. M., Quartermaster.
Q.P., “as much as you please.”
Qr., quarter, farthing.
Q. S., Quantum Sufficit, “a
sufficient quantity.”
Qu., query. .
V. or g. v., quod vide,
“which see,” or quantum
vis, “as much as you
please.”
R. (Reac), “King,” or Regina,
“Queen.”
R. A., Royal Academician, or
Royal Artillery.
R. C., Roman Catholic.
R. E., Royal Engineers.
Rec. Sec., Recording Secre-
tary.
Ref. Ch., Reformed Church.
Reg. Prof., Regius Professor.
Rev., reverend, Revelation.
R. I., Rhode Island.
R. M., Royal Marines.
R. M. S., Royal Mail Steamer.
R. N., Royal Navy.
Ro. or Robt., Robert.
Rom.; Romans.
R. R., Railroad.
R. R.S., Railroads. ,
R. S. D., Royal Society of
Dublin.
R. S. E., Royal Society of
Edinburgh.
R. S. V. P., répondez, 8'il vous
plait, “Reply, if you please.”
Rt. Hon., Right Honorable.
Rt. Rev., Right Reverend.
S., South, Saint, or shilling.
S. A., South America.
Sam., Samuel.
Sans., Sanscrit.
S. C., South Carolina.
Sc. or Ss., scilicet, “to wit;”
also sculpsit, “he engraved
it’’ (on engravings).
S. E., south-east.
Sec., Secretary.
Sept., September.
Ye, Yº, The, That. (This
sin., sine.
S. J., Society of Jesus.
S. J. C., Supreme Judical
Court.
S. M., Sa Majesté, His or
Ber Majesty.
Sp. or Span., Spanish.
S. P. Q. R., Senatus Popu-
lusque Romanus, “the Ro-
man senate and people.”
Sq. or Seq., sequens, the fol-
lowing; Sqq., sequentes, the
same in plural.
Sq. ft., square foot.
Sq. in., Square inch.
Sq. m., square mile.
SS., saints; also “esses,” a
collar worn by knights and .
others in heraldry.
Ss. or Sc., scilicet, “to wit,”
“namely.”
Ss., semis, “half.”
S. S., Sunday School.
S. S. E., south south-east.
S. S. W., south south-west.
St., Saint and street.
S. T. D., Sacrosanctæ Theol-
ogiae Doctor, Doctor of The-
ology. -
S. of T., Sons of Temperance.
S. T. P., Sacrosanctæ Theol-
ogiæ Professor, Professor
of Theology.
S. W., south-west.
Syr., Syriac.
T. E., Topographical Engi-
neers.
Tenn., Tennessee. .
Tex., Texas. -
Text. Reg., Teactus receptus.
Thess., Thessalonians.
Tit., Titus. . -
U. G. R. R., Underground
Railroad.
Ult., Ultimo, witàmo mense,
“in the last month.”
U. P., United Presbyterian.
U. S., United States. -
U. S. A., United States Army.
U. S. A., United States of
America.
U. S. N., United States Navy.
U. S. P., United States Phar-
macopoeia.
U. S. S., United States ship
or steamer.
U.T., Utah Territory.
V. or vs., versus, against.
Va., Virginia.
W. D. M., Verbi Dei Minis-
ter, “preacher of the word
of God.”
Ven., Venerable. -
W.-G., Vicar-General. '
Viz., Widelicet, “namely.”
V.-P., Vice-President.
vs., versus, “against.”
Vt., Vermont. * -
W., west. -
Wash., Washington.
W. I., West Indies.
Wis., Wisconsin.
W. N. W., West north-west.
W. S. W., west south-west.
W. T., Washington Terri-
tory. -
W. Va., West Virginia.
Wy., Wyoming Territory.
X, Xpwarás, Christ.
Xmas., Christmas;
Christian, etc.
Yr., year, your.
Zech., Zechariah.
Zeph., Zephaniah.
&, and. r
&c., et castera, or and So forth.
use of Y originated in the
Xtian,
Anglo-Saxon character p, which was equivalent to the mod-
ern th: In manuscripts this
character degenerates into a
form like a black letter y (g), which was retained after its
origin and real sound had been lost sight of.)
8 -
ABBREVIATOR-A2BECKET.
Abbreviator, a notary of the papal court and of the
church councils, whose business is to prepare briefs and per-
form various important services as secretary. The number
of these notaries was formerly about seventy-two.
Abbt (THOMAs), an eminent German author, born at Ulm
in 1738. He became professor of mathematics at Rinteln
in 1761, and contributed to the improvement of the German
language. His chief works are “Wom Verdienste” (“On
Merit,” 1765) and “Wom Tod fürs Waterland” (“On Dying
for [one's] Fatherland,” 1761). Died in 1766.
Abd, an Arabic word which signifies “servant” or
slave, and forms the prefix of many Oriental names, as
. ABD-ALLAH, “ servant of Allah,” ABD-ER-RAHMAN, “ser-
vant of the Merciful” (i.e. of God).
Abd-el-Hamid (DU CourET), a French traveller,
born in 1812, set out in 1834 for the East, visited Egypt,
travelled up the Nile, through Abyssinia, to the shores of
the Red Sea, and returned along the Red Sea to Cairo. In
consequence of the Eastern habits contracted on his travels,
he embraced Mohammedanism, and assumed the name of
Abd-el-Hamid. After having been imprisoned in Persia
for political reasons, he was released through the interven-
tion of France, and returned to his native country in 1847.
In 1848 he was despatched by the government to Timbuctoo.
He published the result of this exploration in “Mémoire à
Napoléon III.” (1855); he also published “Médine et la
Mekke” (3 vols., 1855).
Abd-el-Kā’der (i. e. the “servant of the Powerful,”
in other words, the “servant of God”), a distinguished
Arab chieftain, born near Mascara, in Algeria, in 1807.
Pſis father, Mehi-ed-Deen, was a maraboot, or religious
noble, of no little influence. Algeria having been invaded
by the French in 1830, Abd-el-Kader was chosen emir
(prince) by the Arabs of that country. He defeated the
French at Macta in 1835. A treaty of peace was con-
cluded in 1837. In 1839 hostilities were again renewed,
and in the war which followed, against a power so much
superior to his own, Abd-el-Kāder displayed extraordinary
energy, combined with a marvellous fertility of resources,
but he was at length, in 1847, obliged to yield to over-
whelming odds: he laid down his arms on condition that
he should be sent to Alexandria, or St. John d’Acre. But,
in direct violation of the terms of capitulation, he was
taken to France, where he was detained as a prisoner until
1852. In 1860, when the Christians of Syria were threat-
ened with massacre by the fanatical Mohammedans of that
country, Abd-el-Kāder, with extraordinary diligence and
at the risk of his own life, protected many thousands of
those defenceless people so long as the danger lasted. In
1864 he paid a visit to Egypt, where he was well received
by the viceroy, and received from M. de Lesseps a piece of
land. He also joined the order of Freemasons. In 1865
he visited Constantinople, where he was received with great
honors. In 1867 he attended the Universal Exhibition of
Paris. Abd-el-Kāder has written in the Arabic language a
:ork which he sent to the French Academy, and which was
anslated into French by Dugat, under the title “Rappel
à l'Intelligent, avis à l’Indifferent” (1858). Abd-el-Kāder
contributed important notes and commentaries to DAUMAs’
“Tues Chevaux du Sahara.” Died at Paris Nov. 11, 1873.
(See “Life,” by CHURCHILL, London, 1867.)
Abd-el-Latif', an Arabian historian and physician,
born at Bagdad in 1162. He wrote a valuable work on the
history, antiquities, and geography of Egypt, of which De
Sacy published a French version. Died about 1230.
Abd-el-Wahāb’, the founder of the sect of Wahab-
ites or Wahābees, was born in Nejed, Arabia, in 1691. He
recognized the Koran, and endeavored to reform the Mo-
hammedan religion, which he affirmed had become cor-
rupted. Died in 1787. (See WAHABEEs.)
Abde/ra [Gr. 'Agóñpa], an ancient city of Thrace, noted
as the birthplace of the philosopher Democritus. The stu-
pidity and ignorance of the people of Abdera was proverbial.
Abd-er-Rahman III., surnamed AN-NASIR-LIDIN-
ILLAH, or AL-NASSER-LIDíNILLAH, a celebrated caliph, was
born about 888 A. D. He began to reign at Córdova in
912. He was an able and successful warrior, and was dis-
tinguished as a patron of learning and the arts. During
his long reign the power and glory of the Moslem empire
in Spain were raised to the highest pitch. Died in 961.
Abdica/tion [Lat. abdica/tio], a term applied to the
act of resigning a throne, which has frequently occurred.
The Roman emperor Diocletian voluntarily abdicated in
305 A. D., and the German emperor Charles W. in 1556.
Many sovereigns have been compelled to abdicate by the
hostility and violence of their subjects, as James II. of.
England (1688), Charles X. (1830) and Louis Philippe
(1848) of France, Ferdinand of Austria (1848), and Isa-
bella of Spain (1870).
Abdo’men [Lat. abdo’men (gen. abdom/inis), from
abdo, abdere, to “hide”], that portion of the trunk of the
human body which lies below the diaphragm. It contains
the liver, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys, as well as the
stomach, the small intestines, and the colon. The abdomen
is lined by a serous membrane, the peritoneum, which is
folded over the viscera, allowing them a certain freedom of
motion, but retaining them in their proper relations to each
other by means of the mesenteric fold. The external wall
of the abdomen is conveniently divided by writers into
thirteen “regions,” by means of four imaginary transverse
lines and five vertical ones. The first transverse line
crosses the point of the ensiform cartilage; the second is
on the lowest ribs; the third goes from the anterior superior
spinous process of the ilium on one side to the same point
on the other; the fourth is on the upper margin of the
pubic bone.
side towards the shoulder-joint from the insertion of Pou-
part's ligament into the pubes; the second and fourth lines
ascend from a point on the crest of either ilium vertically
towards the posterior border of the axilla; the third line
passes along the spinous processes of the vertebrae. Of the
thirteen regions, five are anterior, four are lateral, and four
are posterior. From above downward, the anterior are the
epigastric, umbilical, hypogastric, and right and left in-
guinal regions. The lateral regions are the right and left
hypochondriac and the right and left iliac. The posterior
regions are the inferior dorsal and lumbar regions of either
side.
ABDOMEN, in entomology, the hindmost of the three
regions into which the body of an insect is divided. It is
composed, typically, of eleven rings or segments, more or
less distinct from each other, but the number is often only
ten. It contains a portion of the intestines and the sexual
organs. In the perfect insect its segments have attached to
them no legs or wings. In many insects its last segments
bear appendages of various uses and forms, as pincers,
stings, ovipositors, etc. In some insects the abdomen is not
well differentiated from the thorax. .
Abdomina’les [the plu. of the Latin adjective abdom-
ina/lis, “belonging to the abdomen’], or Abdominal
Fishes, in the Linnaean classification, an order including
all osseous fishes of which the ventral fins are beneath the
abdomen and behind the pectoral fins. In the system
of Cuvier the name is given to an order of more limited
extent, a subdivision of the Malacopterygii or soft-rayed
fishes, having the ventral fins, if present, beneath the ab-
domen and not attached to the bones of the shoulder. It
includes the Cyprinidae (carp, etc.), Esocidae (pike, etc.),
Siluridae, Salmonidae (trout, salmon, etc.), Clupeidae (her-
ring, etc.), Cyprinodontidae, etc. The order is not recog-
nized by all naturalists. 4.
Abduction [from the Lat. ab, “away,” and duco, duc-
tum, to “lead”], in law, the forcible or fraudulent carrying
away of a person. It is usually confined to females re-
moved with a view to their marriage or seduction. It is
allied to the word kidnapping, which would include the case
of males. Abduction is an offence severely punished by
statute law, both in England and in this country.
Abd-ul-Aziz’ [written in French Abdoul-Aziz, and
in German Abd-ul-Asis], a son of Mahmood II., was born
in 1830, and succeeded his brother, Abd-ul-Medjid, as Sul-
tan of Turkey, June 25, 1861. He reduced the imperial
civil list from seventy-five million piasters to twelve million,
abolished, among other barbarous practices, that of assas-
sinating the sons of the princesses, favored the introduc-
tion of Western manners and customs, and he has done
much to destroy the old and cherished traditions of the
Turks. (See TURKEY.)
Abd-ul-Medjid' [written in French Abdoul-Medjid,
and in German Abd-ul-Medschidj, Sultan of Turkey, the
eldest son of Mahmood II., was born in 1823. He suc-
ceeded his father July 1, 1839, when his capital was men-
aced by the victorious army of Mehemet Ali, viceroy of
Egypt. This danger was averted by the intervention of
England and other great powers in July, 1840. He favored
religious liberty and the reforms which his father had in-
itiated, but his good-will was partially frustrated by the
resistance of his fanatical subjects. He died June 25,
1861, and was succeeded by his brother, Abd-ul-Aziz. (See
TURKEY.)
Abeceda’rians, a sect founded in the sixteenth cen-
tury by a person named Storck, who professed that learn-
ing was not necessary, not even the knowledge of the
alphabet (A B C, hence their name), for the proper under-
standing of the Scriptures; and some went so far as to
maintain that it was not even desirable to know how to
read.
A?Beck’et (GILBERT ABBOT), a humorous English writer
The first and fifth vertical lines run on either .
A?BECKET-ABERDEEN. - - 9
and lawyer, born in London about 1810. He contributed
to the London “Times” and “Punch.” . Among his works
is “The Comic Blackstone” (1844–46). Died in 1856.
A?Becket (THOMAs). See BECKET.
Abed/nego [“slave of Nego,” the second god of the
Babylonians], the name given in Babylon to Azariah (Dan.
i. 7), one of Daniel's three friends.
Abeel' (DAVID), D.D., an American missionary, born at
New Brunswick, N. J., June 12, 1804. He published “A
Journal of a Residence in China, 1829–33,” “A Missionary
Convention in Jerusalem, 1838,” and “The Claims of the
World to the Gospel.” Died at Albany Sept. 4, 1846.
A/beken (BERNHARD RUDOLPH), a German writer, born
at Osnabrück Dec. 1, 1780, became in 1808 tutor to the
sons of the poet Schiller, and afterward director of the gym-
nasium in Osnabrück. He published “Cicero in seinen
Briefen” (“Cicero in his Letters,” 1835), which is highly
commended, and has been translated into English. Died
at Osnabrück Feb. 24, 1866. •.
A/bel, the second son of Adam and Eve, was killed by
his brother Cain. He is regarded as a type of faith and as
the first martyr. (See Genesis iv. and Hebrews xi. 4.) w
Abel (CLARKE), an English surgeon and naturalist, born
in 1780. He served as naturalist to Lord Amherst's embassy
to China in 1816, and published a “Narrative of a Journey
in the Interior of China” (1818). Died at Cawnpore, India,
Nov. 24, 1826. -
Abel (JosłPH), an historical painter, born near Linz on
the Danube in 1768, worked in Rome and Vienna. Among
his works is “Prometheus Bound.” Died in 1818.
Abel (NIELs HENRIK), an eminent mathematician, born
at Findö, in Norway, in 1802. He gained distinction by his
discoveries in the theory of elliptic functions, and was highly
eulogized by Legendre. Died in 1829. -
Abelard [Lat. Abaelardus], or Abailard (PIERRE), a
celebrated French philosopher and dialectician, born near
Nantes, in Bretagne, in 1079. He studied dialectics under the
Nominalist Roscellinus and the Realist William de Cham-
peaux, and afterwards theology under Anselm of Laon. He
taught in various places, largely in Paris, drawing around
him great numbers of pupils from different parts of Europe.
He sought to avoid the extremes of Nominalism and Real-
ism, though his doctrine is not far removed from strict Nomi-
malism. He had marvellous subtlety; he was able to foil
the first masters of his age in logic; and was as audacious
in propounding his notions as he was ingenious in defend-
ing them. But he lacked moral courage; he loved truth
less than he thirsted for fame; his vanity and selfishness
had no bounds; and his treatment of one of his pupils, the
beautiful and accomplished Eloise, whom he first seduced,
afterwards married, and then deserted, leaves upon his
memory an indelible stain. He was one of the most promi-
ment founders of Scholasticism, and exerted a larger influ-
ence upon the intellectual activity of his time than any other
man. He died in 1142. The most complete work on Abelard
is Charles de Rémusat’s “Abélard,” Paris, 1845. (See also
Cousin’s “Introduction to the Works of Abelard;” BERING-
Ton’s “History of Abelard and Heloise,” and WRIGHT's
“Abelard and Eloise,” N. Y., 1853.) J. H. SEELYE.
Abel, von (KARL), a German statesman, born at Wetz-
lar in 1788, was a leader of the absolutist and ultramon-
tane party. He became Bavarian minister of the interior
in 1838, and was removed from office by the influence of
Lola Montez in 1847. Died at Munich in Sept., 1859.
Aſbelites, or Abe'lians, a sect of Christians who
lived in Northern Africa in the fourth century. They en-
joined marriage without carnal intercourse, in order not to
propagate original sin, claiming in support of their practice
the example of the patriarch Abel. They adopted children,
who were brought up to the same kind of marriage. They
were extinct before the time of Augustine.
Aben, Ebn, or Ibn, a prefix to many Arabic proper
names, denoting “son of.”
Abenaquis. See ABNAKIs.
Aben'cerrage, the name of a noble Moorish family
of Granada, in Spain. The implacable feud between this
family and the Zegris formed the subject of several Spanish
and French dramas. -
A/bendberg, a mountain of the Bernese Alps, in the
Swiss canton of Berne, rises abruptly from the S. shore of
Lake Thun, and has an altitude of about 5000 feet above
the sea. On its southern slope is an asylum for cretins,
founded about 1842.
Aſben Ez'ra, a Spanish Jew and eminent commentator
on the Bible, born at Toledo about 1090–1100. He excelled
as a mathematician, linguist, physician, and poet. Died
about 1167–76. The dates are uncertain.
years at home in retirement.
A/bensberg, a small town of Bavaria, 18 miles S. W.
of Ratisbon, has a castle and a mineral spring. Here Na-
poleon defeated the Austrians April 20, 1809.
A/ber, a Cymric term signifying “meeting-place of
waters,” occurs as a prefix to names of places in Great
Britain—e.g. Aberdeen. It is probably etymologically re-
lated to the Persian ab, “water.” The corresponding Gaelic
term is Inver—e.g. Inverness.
Aberbrothwick. See ARBROATH. &
Ab’ercorn, DUKEs of, marquesses of Abercorn (in the
Irish peerage, 1790), Viscounts Hamilton (in the peerage
of Great Britain, 1786), earls of Abercorn (1606), barons
of Paisley (1587), of Abercorn (1603), of Hamilton, Mount-
castle, and Kilpatrick (in the peerage of Scotland, 1606),
Wiscounts Strabâne (1701), Barons Strabane (1616), Mount-
castle (in the Irish peerage, 1701), marquesses of Hamilton
(in the Irish peerage, 1868), and dukes of Chatelhérault (in
France, 1548), one of the most prominent noble families of .
Great Britain. -
Abercorm (JAMES Hamilton), FIRST DUKE of, born
Jan. 21, 1811, succeeded his grandfather as marquis of
Hamilton in 1818, and became lord lieutenant of Ireland in
1866, which position he held until 1868, when he was cre-
ated duke of Abercorn. He is at present lord lieutenant of
Donegal co., Ireland, and major-general of the Royal Arch-
CI’S.
Abercrombie (JAMEs), a British general, born in 1706,
who in 1758 took command of near 50,000 men in New York,
in order to recover the forts which the French had taken.
On the 8th of July he attacked Ticonderoga, but was re-
pulsed by the French with great loss, and was soon removed
from the command. Died April 28, 1781.
Abercrombie (JAMEs), D. D., an eloquent Episco-
palian clergyman and scholar, born Jan. 26, 1758, preached
in Philadelphia, where he died June 26, 1841.
Abercrombie (John), M.D., an eminent Scottish phy-
sician, born at Aberdeen in 1780. He graduated as M. D.
in 1803, practised in Edinburgh, and attained the reputa-
tion of being the first consulting physician in Scotland.
He published “Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers
of Man” (1830), and “The Philosophy of the Moral Feel-
ings” (1833), which were highly esteemed. Died in 1844.
Abercrombie (John J.), an American officer, born in
1798 in Tennessee, graduated at West Point in 1822, colonel
Seventh Infantry Feb. 25, 1861, and Aug. 31, 1861, briga-
dier-general U. S. volunteers. He served chiefly on the
Western frontier (1822–61); as adjutant First Infantry
(1825–33); in the Black Hawk war in 1832; in the Florida
war, 1837–40; engaged at Okee-cho-bee (brevet major); in
the war with Mexico, 1846–48; engaged at Monterey
(wounded and brevet lieutenant-colonel), Vera Cruz, Cerro
Gordo, and aide-de-camp to Major-General Patterson, 1846–
47; as superintendent of recruiting service, 1853–55. In
the civil war served in the Shenandoah campaign, 1861–
62; engaged at Falling Waters; in the Virginia Peninsula,
1862; engaged at Fair Oaks (wounded) and Malvern Hill,
and till 1864 in command of troops before Washington,
D. C. Brevetted brigadier-general U. S. A. for long and
faithful services, and retired from active service June 12,
1865. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Ab’ercromby (JAMEs), BARON DUNFERMLINE, born in
1776, was a son of General Sir Ralph Abercromby. He
was chosen Speaker of the House of Commons by the
Whigs in 1835, and resigned in 1839, when he passed into
the House of Lords. Died in 1858.
Abercromby (Sir RALPH), a distinguished British
general, born in Clackmannanshire Oct., 1734, entered the
army in 1758. After the peace of 1783 he passed ten
He distinguished himself in
the disastrous campaigns in Holland in 1794 and 1795.
In 1795 he took command of an expedition sent to the
West Indies, where he captured several islands from the
French. He was the second in command of the army
which the duke of York led to Holland in 1799, and was
appointed in 1800 commander-in-chief of the expedition
to Egypt, which was then occupied by the French under
Bonaparte. The British army, which landed early in Mar.,
1801, was attacked by Menou, near Alexandria, on the 21st
of that month. In this action the French were defeated,
but Sir Ralph was mortally wounded, and died on the 28th
of Mar., 1801. He was distinguished for superior talents,
bravery, and humanity. A
Ab/erdeen’, or Aberdeen'shire, a county of Scot-
land, is bounded on the N. and E. by the North Sea, on
the S. by Kincardine, Forfar, and Perth, and on the W. by
Inverness and Banff. It has an area of 1970 square miles.
The Grampian range of mountains extends along the
southern boundary of this county, which contains several
high peaks. Among these are Ben-Macdhui, 4390 feet,
10
ABERDEEN-ABERRATION.
and Cairngorm, 4060 feet high. It is drained by the Dee
and the Don. The principal rocks are granite and mica-
slate. More cattle are raised in Aberdeen than in any
other county in Scotland. Pop. in 1851, 212,032; in 1871,
244,607.
Aberdeen, a city and seaport of Scotland, and the
capital of the county of Aberdeen, is on the North Sea, at
the mouth of the river Dee, 93 miles N. N. E. of Edin-
burgh. It is a handsome city, with spacious streets and
granite houses, and is celebrated as a seat of learning.
Among the principal public buildings are the town-house,
several churches, and Marischal (pronounced mar'shal)
College, founded in 1593. Aberdeen has a good harbor
and an extensive trade, the chief articles of export being
fine cotton and woollen fabrics, granite, grain, cattle, and
fish. Here are flourishing manufactories of cotton and
woollen goods, combs, machinery, etc. Old Aberdeen,
which is near the mouth of the Don, about 1 mile N. of
the new city, is the seat of King's College and University,
founded in 1494. Pop. of the parliamentary burgh in
1871, 88,125. -
Aberdeen, capital of Monroe co., Miss., is on the W.
side of the Tombigbee River, and connected by a branch
railroad with the Mississippi and Ohio R. R. It buys and
ships 16,000 bales of cotton yearly. It has a fine court-
house, one of the best river bridges in the South, a female
college, and a great trade. It contains five steam-mills
and a steam cotton-compress, and is but 18 miles from the
famous Greenwood Springs. It has a tri-weekly newspaper.
Pop. 2022. S. A. JonAs, ED. AND PUB. “BxAMINER.”
Aberdeen, a thriving post-village of Huntington
township, Brown co., O., on the Ohio River opposite Mays-
ville, Ky., and 60 miles above Cincinnati. Pop. 871.
Aberdeen (GEORGE HAMILTON Gordon), FourTH EARL
OF, a British statesman, born in Edinburgh Jan. 24, 1784,
graduated at Cambridge in 1804. He began his public life
as a Tory, was sent as ambassador to Vienna in 1813, and
was raised to the British peerage as Viscount Gordon in
1814. In 1828 he became secretary of state for foreign
affairs in the cabinet of the duke of Wellington, with whom
he resigned in Nov., 1830. He was reappointed to that
office by Sir Robert Peel in 1841, gradually abandoned the
high Tory principles, and favored a pacific foreign policy.
In 1846 he resigned office with Sir Robert Peel, after whose
death (1850) he was regarded as the chief of the Peelite
party. He became, in Jan., 1853, prime minister in a cab-
inet formed by a coalition of parties. In 1854 England was
involved in a war against Russia, to which measure Lord
Aberdeen gave a reluctant support. Either from this
cause, or because the war was conducted with ill success,
the ministers became very unpopular. Lord Aberdeen re-
signed in Feb., 1855, and was succeeded by Lord Palmer-
ston. Died Dec. 14, 1860.
Aberdeen (GEORGE JoHN JAMEs), FIFTH EARL of, old-
est son of the preceding, born Sept. 28, 1816, was for a
number of years, as Lord Haddo, a member of the House
of Commons, where he voted with the Liberals. He suc-
fººd his father in the peerage in 1860. Died Mar. 22,
4. &
Aberdeen, EARLs, Wiscounts Formantine, Barons Had-
do, Methlie, Tarves, and Kellie (in the Scottish peerage
since 1682), Wiscounts Gordon (in the peerage of the United
Kingdom since 1814), and baronets (in the Scottish peer-
age since 1642), one of the most prominent noble families
of Great Britain, an offshoot of the ancient Scotch family
of the Gordons.—Sir John Gordon of Haddo was in 1642
created baronet by Charles I. for services rendered to that
monarch in the battle of Turriff-Sir George Gordon of
Haddo was lord high chancellor of Scotland when in 1682
he was created an earl. He was an uncompromising oppo-
nent of William of Orange. Died in 1720.
Abergavenny, commonly pronounced ab-er-gā/ne, a
market-town of England, in Monmouthshire, on the Usk,
which is here joined by the Gavenny, and crossed by a fine
bridge, 13 miles W. of Monmouth. *
Abergavenny, EARLs of, and Viscounts Nevill (in
the peerage of Great Britain, 1784), barons of Avergavenny
since the time of Henry III., a prominent noble family in
the peerage of Great Britain.--WILLIAM NEv1LL, FIFTH
EARL OF, was born Sept. 16, 1826, and succeeded his father
in 1868. His oldest son and heir is REGINALD WILLIAM
BRANSBY, Wiscount Nevill, born Mar. 4, 1853.
Ab/ernethy (JoHN), a dissenting minister, born at
Coleraine, in Ireland, in 1680. He was for many years
pastor of a Presbyterian church at Antrim, and incurred
the censure of the synod by his independent spirit. About
1730 he removed to Dublin, where he preached to an inde-
pendent congregation. Died in 1740.
Abernethy (John), an eminent English surgeon, born
in London in 1765, was a grandson of the preceding, and
a pupil of John Hunter. He was chosen assistant surgeon
of St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London, in 1786, and
eventually chief surgeon of the same. As a lecturer on
anatomy and surgery he gained immense popularity. He
published in 1809 an important work, “On the Constitu-
tional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases,” the doc-
trines of which have greatly contributed to improve the
science of surgery. Many anecdotes are related of his
eccentric manners and of his witty or petulant speeches to
his patients. Died in 1831.
Aberra/tion [Lat. aberra’tio, from ab, “from,” and
er'ro, erra/titm, to “wander”], a term variously employed:
in optics it denotes the unequal deviation of rays of light
when refracted by a lens or reflected from a concave mirror.
There are two kinds of optical aberration—viz., Chromatic
(from the Greek xpåpa, “ color”) Aberration, or Aberration
of Refrangibility, and Spherical Aberration, or Aberration
of Sphericity. In astronomy also there is the Aberration
of the Celestial Bodies, sometimes (but less correctly) term-
ed the Aberration of Light. -
1. Chromatic Aberration, or Aberration of Refrangibil-
ity.—A convex lens may be regarded as a number of
prisms having their bases in contact. Hence, when a sheaf
of rays of white light passes through it, the rays undergo
not only refraction, but also decomposition; and since the
variously colored rays into which white light is divided by
a prism possess different refrangibilities, it follows that
when light is converged by a convex lens it is refracted to
different foci. The violet rays, being the most refrangi-
ble, form a focus nearest to the lens; while the red rays,
being the least refrangible, form a focus farthest from the
lens. Thus, in place of one focus, there are, in reality, an
almost infinite number—viz., one for each of the differently
refracted rays (the rays even of the same general color
being not all refracted equally), and in the order of violet,
indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. Hence the rays
do not meet at the same focus of the lens; and this devia-
tion of the foci is called the chromatic aberration of a lens.
2. Spherical Aberration, or Aberration of Sphericity.—
Lenses and mirrors are usually ground with spherical sur-
faces, and so long as the aperture does not exceed eight or
ten degrees, the rays of homogeneous light refracted or re-
flected by different parts of them meet very nearly at the
same focus of the lens or mirror. But as the aperture of a
spherical mirror increases, the rays reflected from the edges
cross each other at a point on the axis nearer to the mirror
than those which are reflected from portions of the mirror
near its centre. Thus, the rays are deviated from the true
focus of the mirror. Again; with regard to spherical lenses
of large aperture, the rays which pass through the lens
near its circumference are refracted to a point nearer to the
lens than those which pass through its central portion. In
the case of mirrors this deviation of light from the focus is
called spherical aberration by reflection, while in the case
of lenses it is called spherical aberration by refraction. It
may be remedied by giving lenses and mirrors parabolic
surfaces—a plan which is almost invariably followed in the
construction of specula for astronomical purposes.
3. Aberration of the Celestial Bodies, often (but less cor-
rectly) termed the Aberration of Light, in astronomy, an
apparent displacement of a celestial object, due to the pro-
gressive motion of light. This aberration is caused—1, by
the motion of the earth in its orbit; and 2, by the motion
of the observed celestial objects. It was discovered by
Bradley in 1727. This astronomer reasoned that if the
earth’s motion bears only an appreciable relation to the
velocity of light, we ought to expect that the rays from a
star would seem to come from a point nearer than is actu-
ally the case to that point in the heavens towards which
the earth's course is directed. The phenomenon he had
observed corresponded exactly with this explanation. The
change of place due to the velocity of light, estimated from
the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, corresponded (within the
limits of observational error) with the observed changes in
the apparent positions of the fixed stars. It follows, from
a consideration of the earth's path, that each star appears
to describe a small ellipse about its true place. This fact is
of great importance in its direct bearing on observational
astronomy, but it is perhaps no less important on account
of the evidence it supplies as to the motion of the earth.
The correction of the observed position of a celestial
object for aberration gives the true position for the mo-
ment when the light which makes it visible left it; but this
is not the true position for the moment of observation, ex-
cept on supposition that the observed object is at rest. If
the body itself is in motion, then, in addition to the correc-
tion of position for aberration, there must be a correction
for the amount of proper motion which has taken place in
the interval since the light which makes it visible left it.
In order to make this correction we must know the rate of
ABERT-ABINGER.
11
proper motion and the distance of the body. If the abso-
lute proper motion of the body is given in miles, or length-
measure, and not the apparent in angular measure, and is
parallel to the motion of the earth, then the whole correc-
tion may be treated as aberration, by taking the sum or the
difference of the velocities per second of the two bodies,
according as they are in the opposite or in the same direc-
tion, and comparing this with the velocity of light. If the
velocities of the two bodies are in the same direction and
equal, their difference is zero, and the correction is nil.
Hence, a body moving in the same direction as the earth,
and with the same velocity, is unaffected in apparent po-
sition by aberration. The same will be true of a body not
moving in the same direction as the earth, provided that
when its velocity is decomposed into rectangular compo-
ments, one of which is parallel to the earth’s motion, this
latter component velocity is equal to the earth's velocity
and in the same direction.
It follows from the foregoing that the bodies of a group
or system, as observed the one from the other, are unaffected
by aberration in consequence of any common motion in
which all participate alike, but that they suffer displace-
ment from this cause only in consequence of their relative
motions. The moon partakes of the annual motion of the
earth round the sun, but suffers no aberration on that ac-
count; and so the sun, though it may have a proper motion
in space, is unaffected by this cause in its apparent posi-
tion, as viewed from the earth or from any other member
of the solar system, since this motion is one in which all
the bodies of the system equally participate.
F. A. P. BARNARD.
A/bert (John J.), an American officer, born 1785 in Mary-
land, graduated at West Point 1811, chief of Topographical
Engineers July 7, 1838, rank of colonel. Upon resigning
from the army, April 1, 1811, he became a lawyer, and as
a private of the District of Columbia militia was engaged
in the battle of Bladensburg, Md., in 1814. After his re-
appointment as brevet major of Topographical Engineers,
Nov. 22, 1814, he was on various surveys of harbors, rivers,
and coasts, and Mar. 19, 1829, placed in charge of topo-
graphical bureau, Washington, D. C., being also Indian
commissioner, 1832–34, and member of several scientific,
historical, and geographical societies. He was retired from
active service Sept. 9, 1861, and died Jan. 27, 1863, at Wash-
ington, D. C., aged 78. G. W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Abert (WILLIAM STRETCH), a son of Colonel J.J. Abert,
was born in the District of Columbia, graduated at West
Point in 1855, entered the artillery, became in 1861 captain
in the Sixth Cavalry and colonel of volunteers, serving
throughout the civil war with great honor, and receiving a
brevet of lieutenant-colonel U. S. A. In 1867 he was made
major of the Seventh Cavalry. Died at Galveston, Tex.,
of yellow fever, Aug. 25, 1867.
Ab’eryst’with, a market-town, seaport, and fashion-
able watering-place of Wales, at the mouth of the Ystwith,
34 miles N. E. of Cardigan. It has good hotels. Pop. in
1871, 6898.
Abey’ance [Norman Fr. abbaiaunce, “expectation;”
literally, “gaping” or waiting with open mouth], a legal
term signifying “in expectation or suspense.” It is used
to indicate the condition of property where there is no per-
son in whom its ownership is vested. In the law of real es-
tate it is generally applied to a fee, which is said to be in
abeyance when there is no particular owner of the inherit-
ance. It has been laid down that a fee can be in abeyance
only while there is a freehold estate (or life interest) in the
land vested in some person. It is denied by writers of high
authority that a fee can be in abeyance. The tendency of
modern law certainly is to discountenance this theory, and
to reduce the cases of abeyance to the narrowest possible
limits. The term has been applied in some instances to
personal property, as in case of captures at sea in time of
war, as to the title after capture and before condemnation
in the prize court. -
Ab'gar, or Ab/garus [Gr. 'Agyapos], written also Aba-
garus, Agbarus, and Augarus, a name common to
several kings of Edessa, in Mesopotamia. The fourteenth
of these kings, Abgar Uchomo, is said to have been in corre-
spondence with Christ. The genuineness of this correspon-
dence has found defenders even in the nineteenth century.
Abgil'lus (John), son of the king of the Frisii, became
a Christian, and accompanied Charlemagne in several of his
expeditions. He received the title of Prester, or Priest, on
account of the excessive severity of his life. He is not to
be confounded with the Mongolian Prester John of the
eleventh century.
A/bib (after the Babylonian captivity called Nisan),
the first month of the Hebrew Sacred year, and the seventh
of the civil year. -
Abida-Jebel, a volcanic mountain of Abyssinia, in
Mudaito; lat. 10° 9' N., lon. 41° E.
A/bies [Lat. abies, a “fir tree”], the name of a genus of
coniferous trees which have leaves growing singly on the
stem, as the fir and the spruce. The Abies eaccelsa produces
the valuable timber called “white deal,” also Burgundy
pitch and frankincense; the Abies balsamea yields the balm.
of Gilead, or Canadian balsam. The famous cedar of Leb-
anon, which affords excellent timber, is called Abies cedrus
by some botanists. Several species of Abies are highly
prized as evergreen ornamental trees—viz. Abies eaccelsa
(the Norway fir), Abies alba (white spruce), Abies mobilis
(noble silver fir), Abies pectinata (European silver fir), and
Abies balsamea (balsam ſir). The Abies balsamea, Abies
Canadensis (hemlock spruce), Abies alba, Abies Fraseri, and
Abies migra are natives of the Eastern U. S., while the most
magnificent species of the genus, Abies Douglasii, Abies
Menziesii, Abies mobilis, Abies grandis, and Abies amabilis,
grow on the western coast of North America. It has been
proposed to divide this large genus into three—Abies, for the
spruces; Tsuga, for hemlock-firs; and Picea, for the true firs.
Ab’ila, capital of the tetrarchy of Abilene, identified,
some fifty years ago, with Sãk, on the right bank of the
Barada, near the point where it breaks through the Antili-
banus range of mountains towards the plain of Damascus.
It was on the great road between Heliopolis and Damascus,
32 miles from the former city and 18 miles from the
latter. There was another Abila E. of the Jordan, a few
miles S. of the Yarmuk (or Hieromax), the northern bound-
ary of Gilead. *
Abile/ne, an ancient tetrarchy, whose capital was
ABILA (which see). It is impossible to fix its limits. St.
Luke (iii. 1) speaks of it as the tetrarchy of Lysanias, who
was apparently a son of the Lysanias mentioned by Jo-
sephus. (See KRAFFT’s “Topographie Jerusalems,” 1847.)
Abilene, a post-village, capital of Dickinson co., Kan.,
on the Kansas River and Kansas Pacific R. R., 95 miles by
railroad W. of Topeka. It has one weekly newspaper. It
is a great point for shipping cattle castward by rail.
Abim'elech (“the royal father”). I. A king of Gerar,
a city of the Philistines in the time of Abraham (Gen. xx.
1, 8q.). II. Another king of Gerar in Isaac’s time (Gen.
xxvi.), perhaps a son of the foregoing. III. A son of
Shechem (Judges ix.), was for three years (B. C. 1322–
1319) a self-constituted king over a great part of Israel.
Ab’ingdon, a market-town of England, in Berkshire,
on the Ock where it joins the Isis, 51 miles W. N. W. of
London. It sends a member to Parliament. Pop. of the
parliamentary borough in 1871, 6583; of the municipal
borough, 5805.
Abingdom, a city of Knox co., Ill., on the Chicago
Burlington and Quincy R. R., 85 miles N. E. of Quincy.
It is surrounded by a rich agricultural district, and is the
seat of Hedding College, controlled by the Methodist Epis-
copal Church, and of Abingdon College, sustained by the
Christian denomination. It has four hotels, three churches,
one plough-factory, two steam-mills, and one wagon-fac-
tory. The city has three public parks, and one weekly
newspaper. Pop. in 1870, 948.
W. H. HEATON, ED. AND PROP. “KNOx Co. DEMOCRAT.”
Abingdon, a post-twp. of Harford co., Md. Pop. 2598.
Abingdon, the capital of Washington co., Va., in a
township of its own name, on the Virginia and Tennessee
R. R., 315 miles W. S. W. of Richmond. It has three fe-
male colleges of high grade, an extensive iron-foundry, and
is the birthplace of several distinguished men. It has a
weekly paper. The county was organized in 1776, and is
the first spot of earth named in honor of the Father of his
Country. Emory and Henry College is in this county, and
a large male academy, both flourishing institutions. The
Maury Literary Society of Abingdon has a valuable library.
Immense deposits of salt and gypsum are found here, and
a very large part of the salt used in the Southern States
during the war was obtained from salt-wells bored in this
vicinity. Pop. of township, 3163; of village, 715.
Gio. R. DUNN, PUB. “ABINGDON VIRGINIAN.”
Abingdon, a township of Gloucester co., Va. Pop.
4506. -
Abingdom, EARLs of, Baron Norreys (1572, in the
English peerage), a noble family of Great Britain. The
first earl was created in 1682.-MONTAGU BERTIE, the sixth
earl, was born June 19, 1808, and succeeded his father in
1854. . He is lord lieutenant of Berkshire.
Ab/inger (Sir JAMES Scarlett), LORD, born in Ja-
maica, 1769, was educated at Cambridge and the Middle
Temple, and was called to the bar in 1791. He became one
of the most accomplished barristers of his time. . In 1818
he entered Parliament as a Whig, but afterwards became a
12
ABINGTON.—ABOLITION OF SLAVERY.
decided Tory. In 1827, and again in 1829, he was attorney-
general. He was raised to the peerage in 1834, and was ap-
pointed chief baron of the exchequer. He died April 7, 1844.
Ab’ington, a township of Mercer co., Ill. Pop. 931.
Abington, a post-township of Wayne co., Ind. P. 833.
Abington, a post-township of Plymouth co., Mass.,
on the Old Colony R. R., 18 miles S. by E. of Boston, has
four post-villages (North, East, Centre, and South Abing-
ton), manufactures of boots, shoes, and tacks, one national
and two savings banks, three weekly newspapers, eleven
churches, and forty-two schools. The Hanover branch
and the Abington and Bridgewater R. R. traverses this
town, which is the largest in the county. Pop. 9308.
ARTHUR P. Ford, ED. “Journ AL.”
Abington, a township of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 2362.
Abington, a post-twp. of Montgomery co., Pa. P.2440.
Abipones, a tribe of Indians living in the Gran Chaco,
in the Argentine Confederation. They lived formerly W. of
the Paraná, between lat. 28° and 30° S., between Santa Fé
and Santiago del Estero, but at present have removed
towards Corrientes. The Abipones are of high stature,
good swimmers, and tattoo themselves. Long lances and
arrows with iron points are their weapons. In 1783 their
number was estimated at 5000, but they have been reduced
to 100 at the present day. They are related to the Tobas.
Abka'sia, or Aba'sia, a narrow territory in Western
Asia, belonging to Russia, lies between the Caucasus Moun-
tains and the Black Sea, which bounds it on the S. W.
Area, estimated at 3486 square miles. Pop. about 80,000.
The inhabitants, under the emperor Justinian, became
Christians, but subsequently embraced Mohammedanism.
Ab/lution [Lat. ablutio, from ab, “from,” and lu/o,
lw’tum, to “wash”], a religious ceremony of the Roman
Catholic Church, signifies the washing of the sacramental
cup and of the hands of the priest.
Abna’lri, or Abenaqui, frequently called Tarran-
tenes or Taranseems, a name given to the former tribes
of Algonquin Indians of Maine and vicinity. They were
once formidable enemies of the Indians of Southern New
England and of the colonists, siding with the French against
the English, but the latter overcame them and expatriated
the greater part. Their remnants are Catholics, their an-
cestors having been converted by the labor of Sébastien
Rale (1658–1724) and others. Rale compiled a dictionary
of their language (published in 1833). Their history has
been written by Maurault (1866) and by Wetromile (1866).
Ab’ner (the “enlightener”), the uncle of Saul, the first
king of Israel. Abner became commander-in-chief of Saul’s
army, and for some time after the death of the king he was
the chief support of Ishbosheth, his successor; but subse-
quently went over to the side of David, then king of Judah.
With David he found such favor that the jealousy of Joab
was aroused, and Abner was slain by him B. C. 1046.
Abo [Sw. pronunciation, Ö/bool, a Russian city and sea-
port, on the Aurajoki near its entrance into the Gulf of
Bothnia; lat. 60° 26' 58' N., lon. 22° 17' E. It was built
by Eric IX. of Sweden in 1157, was subsequently taken by
the Russians, and in 1809 was, with the whole of Finland,
ceded to Russia. It was the capital of Finland until 1819,
and is now the see of a Lutheran archbishop. The Uni-
versity of Abo, having been destroyed by fire in 1827, was
rebuilt at Helsingfors. Pop. in 1867, 18,109.
Åbo - Björneborg, a government of Finland, is
bounded by the governments of Wasa, and Tawastehus,
and by the Gulfs of Finland and of Bothnia. Area, 9895
square miles. The chief occupation of the inhabitants is
commerce and shipbuilding. The government has also
some factories. Pop. in 1867, 319,784. Chief town, Abo.
Åbo, Peace of, concluded August 17, 1743, between
Sweden and Russia, put an end to the war begun by Swe-
den at the instigation of France in 1741. During this con-
test, and through the misconduct of the Swedish generals,
the Russians gained entire possession of Finland. The
greater part of this territory they offered to restore on con-
dition that Sweden should elect the prince of Holstein-
Gottorp successor to the throne. This condition the Swedes
complied owith, and the treaty of peace was accordingly
signed at Abo. -
Aboite, a post-township of Allen co., Ind. Pop. 906.
Abolition of Slavery. Ancient servitude of the
constrained, involuntary kind appears to have risen, flour-
ished, decayed, and passed away without provoking any
organized moral or religious opposition. That, so far at
least as Europe was affected, was irrespective of race or
color; for, though the Egyptians and Arabs bought and
held negro slaves, they were not known in Europe till in-
troduced into Spain by the Moorish invasion and conquest.
After the slavery of negroes had been firmly planted in,
and quite generally diffused over, the New World, slaves
began to be taken to Europe by their American masters,
and legal opinions for a time affirmed the validity of their
bondage in countries where no law forbade it; but this was
arrested, so far at least as Great Britain was concerned, by
the famous decision of Lord Mansfield, who, in the case
of the negro Somerset, brought to England from the West
Indies by his master, held that slavery can only exist by
virtue of positive law, and that, there being no such law in
England, the master, though a Briton, forfeited all right in
and power over him by taking him to that country.
The first systematic agitation for the overthrow of sla-
very began with certain American Quakers—John Wool-
man and Anthony Benezet of Philadelphia being conspicu-
ous among them—about the middle of the last century.
Benezet published in 1762 a book in exposure and denun-
ciation of the slave-trade. His friend William Dillwyn
removed to England some time afterwards, and there en-
listed Granville Sharpe and others in the cause. The agi-
tation soon after arising in this country against the Stamp
Act and other arbitrary measures of the British govern-
ment, incited many Americans to consider questions of
natural right, and thus to condemn and oppose slavery.
Hence, Thomas Jefferson, himself a slaveholder, yet op-
posed to slavery, had no difficulty in inducing a majority ;
(sixteen to seven) of the Congress which met next after {
the acknowledgment of our independence to vote to"exclude
slavery (in March, 1784) absolutely and for ever from all }
the Union not included in any State. The proposition did :
not then prevail, since the votes of a majority (seven) of ;
all the States were required to enact it, and the absence of
a delegate from New Jersey reduced the States voting yea;
to six, against three voting may — North Carolina being
divided. The proposition, restricted to an inhibition of
slavery in the territories already ceded by the States to :
the Confederation, was renewed in 1787, when it was unani- :
mously passed, and it was reiterated with like unanimity
by the first Congress which assembled under the Federal
Constitution, when it received the approval of President;
Washington. !
Meantime, the convention which formed that Constitu-
tion had authorized Congress to prohibit the importation
of slaves after twenty years; and this was done—Congress
having forbidden, in 1794, our people to engage in carry-
ing slaves to other lands, absolutely outlawing all partici-
pation in the slave-trade by our people, and all importa-
tion of slaves into this country, by an act passed March
2, 1807—twenty-three days before the British Parliament,
after a struggle which had lasted nearly a quarter of a
century, did likewise.
A British society for the suppression of the slave-trade
was organized by Dillwyn, Granville Sharpe, and Thomas
Clarkson in 1787, to whom William Wilberforce, already
in Parliament, soon lent his powerful aid. William Pitt,
then prime minister, admitted the justice of their cause,
and gave them a cold and hesitating support; Charles
James Fox, his great rival, was its hearty supporter; so
was Edmund Burke. Yet bill after bill for the suppression
was defeated either directly or by postponement until after
Pitt's death and Fox's accession to the premiership, when
(in June, 1806) a resolve pledging the House to the meas-
ure passed the Commons by 100 yeas to 41 nays, and a bill
founded thereon was next winter carried through both
Houses, and received the royal assent Mar. 25, 1807.
Great Britain was slowly followed in this step by Sweden,
Denmark, Holland, France, and several of the South Ameri-
can republics. Spain and Portugal reluctantly promised
to do likewise, but were tardy in fulfilling their compact,
even though they had accepted money or favor from Great
|Britain as a consideration therefor. The slave-trade was
first declared a felony by act of Parliament in 1811, while
acts passed in 1824 and 1837 made it piracy, punishable
by transportation for life.
So soon as the slave-trade had been placed under the
ban of the law, its British adversaries reorganized for a
war upon slavery itself, against which they had hitherto
put forth no combined or systematic efforts. Mr. Wilber-
force presented their petition to the House of Commons in
1823, when it was defeated; Mr. Brougham took the lead
in their behalf in 1830; and the struggle for parliamentary
reform which followed the death of George IV. and the
accession of William IV. brought a large adhesion of
strength to their cause; so that in May, 1833, Mr. Stanley
(the late earl of Derby) introduced, as secretary for the
colonies, resolves which proposed the total (though gradual)
emancipation of the slaves held in the British colonies, and
a payment to their owners of £20,000,000. These resolves
passed both Houses, and were followed by a bill of like
tenor, which likewise passed and received the royal as-
sent Aug. 2, 1833. It took effect Aug. 1, 1834, but an
ABOLITION OF SLAVERY.
13
apprenticeship system was engrafted upon the measure,
whereby the slavery of some was virtually prolonged for
four, and that of others for six years. Experience proved
this apprenticeship tainted with all the vices of slavery, re-
lieved by scarcely any of its advantages; so the last traces
of slavery were, by common consent, effaced from British
soil Aug. 1, 1838. :
The more northern of our States are justly entitled to the
credit of having first in modern times discerned and pro-
claimed the wrong and mischief of slaveholding. Abolition
received in Great Britain powerful and, for a time, com-
manding influence in Church and State; but the slave-
holders were distant colonists, not directly represented in
Parliament, and their defeat would not disturb the exist-
ing social order in the mother-country. Not so in the
original New England States, New York, New Jersey, and
Pennsylvania. Rhode Island, then eminently commercial,
was long the focus of an extensive slave-trade, wherein some
of her first families were involved ; and slaves were held as
firmly, though not so numerously, in New York and Penn-
sylvania as in Virginia and the Carolinas before the Revo-
lution. Soon after the Declaration of Independence, Mas-
sachusetts adopted a bill of rights, which her highest court
soon decided was incompatible with slavery, which was
thereby outlawed. In Pennsylvania, an abolition society,
whereof Dr. Franklin was a member, was organized in
1780, and did not cease its earnest efforts until it had seen
that State made a home for freemen only. In New York
a similar organization was effected somewhat later, and
the State was brought to decree the emancipation of her
slaves by the constitution of 1821, though, with regard to
some who were then minors, the liberation did not take
effect till about 1830. In New Jersey the work was still
more gradual, but hardly a handful were held in a nominal
bondage after that date. Slavery had ceased to be a power
north of Delaware and Maryland as early as 1820, save
through the political, commercial, and social ligaments
which bound the North and the South closely together,
and made the wishes and supposed interests of the latter
potent throughout the former.
As in England the early efforts of the abolitionists were
directed against the African slave-trade exclusively, and a
general crusade against slavery disclaimed, so in this coun-
try the anti-slavery spirit was long contented with resist-
ing the extension of slavery into regions previously un-
scourged by it. There were, indeed, unconditional aboli-
tionists, of whom Benjamin Lundy, William Lloyd Gar-
rison, Alvan Stewart, Nathaniel P. Rogers, Lewis Tappan,
and Elijah P. Lovejoy may be deemed representative
pioneers; but their school was limited in numbers, and
had little immediate influence on legislation or govern-
ment, since an overwhelming majority of those earnestly
opposed to slavery held that the spirit, if not the letter, of
the Federal Constitution forbade all interference by Con-
gress with the internal polity of a State, and restricted to
moral influence the efforts of the citizens of one State to
subvert or modify the institutions of another State. But
when, in 1818, the Territory of Missouri framed a consti-
tution and applied for admission into the Union as a
State—said constitution recognizing and upholding sla-
very—the representatives of the free States very generally
resisted such admission until she should provide at least
for gradual emancipation. The Senate opposed any such re-
strictions, but a compromise was ultimately effected where-
by Missouri was admitted as a slave State on condition that
slavery should never exist in any territory of the U. S.
north of the parallel of 36° 30' N. latitude. The House
consented to this by barely three majority (90 to 87), nearly
all the nays being cast by Northern opponents of slavery.
(See Missouri CoMPROMISE.). On the admission of the re-
public of Texas into the Union in 1845 the Missouri Com-
promise line of division was agreed upon and extended
through all the public domain then acquired. In 1846,
pending the war with Mexico, Mr. David Wilmot of Penn-
sylvania introduced into the House a proposition to pro-
hibit for ever slavery from all new territory that might be
acquired from Mexico, at the termination of that war. This
proposition became celebrated as the Wilmot Proviso, and
gave rise to continued and heated discussions in the House
and the Senate until 1850, when another compromise, as it
was called, was effected. (See SLAVERY COMPROMISE OF
1850.) The agitation was renewed again in 1854, when a
bill was introduced into the Senate by the Hon. Stephen A.
Douglas for the organization of State governments in the
Territories of Kansas and Nebraska, and providing for the
repeal of the so-called Missouri Compromise act of 1820.
The bill was adopted by the Senate by a large majority,
but in the House it encountered very strong opposition,
passing finally by a vote of 113 to 100. The question
whether slavery should exist within the States to be formed
under this act was thus referred to the people of the Terri-
tories themselves, and was left to be decided by what, in
the popular parlance of that day, was called “squatter
sovereignty.” As the Territories were thinly peopled, there
consequently arose a rapid migration towards them, espe-
cially towards Kansas, from both North and South, each
section aiming to secure a predominance in the popular
vote and in the constitutional convention. Occasional col-
lisions between these rival colonists naturally occurred, at-
tended in some instances with serious violence; and the
struggle for power was protracted through several years.
Both parties prepared and presented constitutions to Con-
gress embodying their respective views. The election of
Mr. Lincoln as President in 1860 finally decided the con-
troversy, and Kansas was admitted as a free State in 1861.
The same event occasioned the withdrawal from their seats
in Congress of the Senators and members of the House
from seven of the Southern States, and gave the advocates
of slavery restriction by Federal legislation a majority in
the Senate for the first time since the government was or-
ganized. The House was still more decidedly anti-slavery.
As the war went on, defeats, even more than victories, dif-
fused and intensified among Unionists the hatred of sla-
very; so that when Mr. Lincoln (Sept. 22, 1862) proclaimed
that if the revolted States should still continue in rebellion
he would, on the 1st of January ensuing, declare free all
who were held as slaves within those States, public senti-
ment was ripe for sustaining that policy. Secession being
still rampant, the President issued his second proclamation
on the day appointed; after which no Federal commander
was at liberty to remand slaves who had fled from their mas-
ters to find protection within the Union lines. From that
date the war for the Union became, what in essence it had
necessarily been from the outset, a struggle for freedom to
all, and European rulers, who had smiled upon the Con-
federacy in the earlier stages of the contest, were repelled
from taking its part openly when it was seen that its fate
involved that of American slavery.
The Thirty-seventh Congress initiated the work of direct,
outright emancipation by an act proposed by Senator Wil-
son of Massachusetts, abolishing slavery in the Federal
District, and paying the owners an average compensation
of $300 for each slave liberated. This bill passed the Sen-
ate, April 3, 1862, by 29 yeas to 14 nays, and the House,
April 10, by 92 yeas to 39 nays. This was followed by an
attempt to proffer a like compensation to the so-called
Border States if they would consent to emancipation; but
it was strenuously opposed by their representatives and by
the entire Democratic party, and ultimately failed in the
House for lack of a two-third vote to take it up out of its
order on the last day of the session. A bill prohibiting
absolutely all slaveholding in any Federal territory became
a law, by the President’s approval, June 19, 1862. Asbill
decreeing the freedom of all slaves of persistent rebels
found in any place occupied or commanded by the forces
of the Union, forbidding their rendition to their masters,
and providing that negroes might be enlisted to fight for
the Union, after undergoing sundry transmutations ulti-
mately passed the House by 82 yeas to 42 nays, and the
Senate by 27 yeas to 12 nays, and became a law, by the
President's approval, July 17, 1862. -
A constitutional amendment (the thirteenth), abolishing
and prohibiting evermore the enslavement of human be-
ings, was proposed in the Senate by Mr. Henderson of
Missouri at the former session, when it passed that branch,
April 8, 1864, by 38 yeas to 6 nays—six Senators not voting.
Being sent to the House, it failed to command the requisite
two-thirds—yeas, 85; nays, 66; when Mr. Ashley of Ohio
kept it alive by changing his vote to may and then moving
a reconsideration. When that Congress reassembled, Dec.
6, 1864, for its final session, Mr. Lincoln had been trium-
phantly re-elected and the civil war was plainly near its
end. The President, in his annual message, recommended
a reconsideration and passage of the amendment aforesaid;
and this was accomplished, Jan. 31, 1865, by 119 yeas to
57 nays—12 chosen as Democrats or Conservatives voting
with all the Republicans in the affirmative—every Repub-
lican present and voting; eight Democrats absent. . By the
ratification of three-fourths of the States, and by the utter
collapse of the civil war, this amendment became a part of
the supreme law of the land, and its authority has never
been contested. By its force slavery was banished from
the U. S., as it had already been from every portion of
this continent except Brazil and the Spanish islands of
Cuba, and Porto Rico. In Brazil an act was passed in
Sept., 1871, freeing all the slaves belonging to the govern-
ment, and securing freedom to all those born after the date
of the enactment. (There has not yet been published any -
complete history of the abolition of slavery; the best work
on the abolition of the slave-trade is CLARKSON’s “History
of the Abolition of the Slave-Trade,” 2 vols., 1808.)
- HoRACE GREELEY.
14
;
ABOLITIONISTS-AlBSCESS.
Aboli’tionists, a name applied to those persons—
more particularly in the U.S.—who were distinguished for
their zeal against the institution of slavery. (See ANTI-
SLAvKRY SoCIETY, by HoN. HoRACE GREELEY, LL.D.)
Aboºmey, an African town, capital of the kingdom of
Dahomey; lat. 7° 30' N., lon. 1940' E. It contains sev-
eral royal palaces. Pop. estimated at from 50,000 to 60,000.
Abo/ny, a town of Hungary, in the county of Csongrad,
47 miles S. E. of Prague. Pop. in 1869, 10,232.
Aborig’i-mes [a. Latin word derived from ab, “from,”
and ori'go (gen. ori/ginis), “source,” “origin”], the earliest
original inhabitants of a country—that is, those who occu-
pied it at the period when it began to be known, and who
either were (according to a once prevalent opinion) indig-
enous to the soil, or had immigrated thither before the dawn
of history. Some of the ancients supposed they had always
inhabited the same soil, and sprang from it, as the Athe-
nians, who thence called themselves autoch/thomes (from air-
rós, “itself,” and x9öv, “earth,” “soil,” “land”); i.e. sprung
from the land or soil itself. But the Romans and modern
nations use the word aborigines to designate those inhabit-
ants of a country of whose origin nothing certain is known.
Thus the Indians of America are properly called aborigines,
because they were found there at its discovery, and as to
their origin we have only their own tradition (which is not
uniform) that their ancestors came from a distant region in
the North-west.
Abor/tion [Lat. abortio], the premature birth or exclu-
sion of the human foetus. It is doubtful whether the act
of causing an abortion is an offence at common law unless
the mother is quick with child, on the untenable ground
that life does not begin until that period. The early stat-
utes took the same distinction. Later legislation in Eng-
land wholly discards it, and makes it a felony to procure
the miscarriage of a female by unlawful means at any
period of her pregnancy. The laws of the various States
in this country still maintain to some extent the older rule.
About (EDMOND), a popular French novelist and polit-
ical writer, born at Dieuze (Meurthe) Feb. 14, 1828. In 1868
he wrote, as one of the contributors to the “Gaulois,” a
series of witty and satirical letters, in consequence of which
that paper was suppressed by the authorities; but he was
nevertheless assisted by the imperial government, which in
1870 appointed him councillor of state. At the beginning
of the war he was for a short time war-correspondent for the
“Soir.” Sept. 14, 1872, he was arrested by the Germans,
but was released Sept. 21. He published in 1855 a work on
modern Greece, “La Grèce contemporaine,” which was much
admired. He had been sent to the French school of art in
Athens by his government. Among his works are novels
entitled “Tolla” (1855), “Germaine” (1857), a political
treatise on “The Roman Question ” (1860), “ Madelon ’’
(1863), “Le Progrès” (1864), “La vieille roche” (3 vols.,
1865–66), “L’infame '' (1867), “Les mariages de province”
(1868), “L’A B C du travailleur” (1868). His “Le Roi
des Montagnes” (1856) is one of his best works.
Aboville (FRANÇois MARIE), Count, a French general,
born at Brest Jan. 23, 1730. He directed the artillery at
Yorktown, Va., in 1781, and was inspector-general of artil-
lery under Napoleon I. Died Nov. 1, 1819.
Abrabanel’, or Abarbanel’s sometimes written
Barbanelia (Is AAc), a celebrated Spanish rabbi, born in
Lisbon in 1437, was liberally educated. He was greatly
distinguished for his intellectual powers and various eru-
dition. Having been banished from Portugal in 1481, he
found refuge in Spain until 1492, when the Jews were ex-
patriated. He died at Venice in 1508. His commentaries
on the Holy Scriptures were once highly esteemed.
Abracadab'ra, a term probably of Persian origin, was
in former times highly prized as a magical formula, and
supposed to be efficacious in the cure of fevers.
A/braham, originally Abram, an eminent Hebrew
patriarch, called the “Father of the faithful,” was born at
Ur, in Chaldea, according to Hales, 2153 B.C.; according
to Ussher, 1996 B.C. (Bunsen says he lived about 2850 B.C.).
“Abraham ” signifies “the father of a numerous people.”
He migrated to Canaan, where he led a nomadic life in
tents, was greatly renowned for piety and wisdom, and was
called a friend of God. He died at the age of 175 years.
(See Genesis xi.-xxv.; Acts vii.; Hebrews xi. 8–17.)
A/braham-a-Sanc'ta-Claſra, a popular German
preacher and Augustine friar, whose name was ULRICH
MEGERLE, was born in Suabia June 4, 1644. He was ap-
pointed preacher to the imperial court at Vienna in 1669,
and published many religious works. His sermons were
seasoned with witty, humorous, or whimsical expressions.
Died Dec. 1, 1709.
A/brahamites, the name of a sect of Bohemian deists,
who are said to have rejected all parts of the Bible except
the Ten Commandments and the Lord’s Prayer. They were
suppressed in 1783. *. -
A/braham Osh'ki, a Jew of Portuguese descent, who
translated the Bible, word for word, into Spanish. It was
published in 1553 at Ferrara, and although the first edition
is now seldom met with, it is still esteemed in Spain both
by Christians and Jews.
Abran’tes, a fortified town of Portugal, in Estrema-
dura, on the Tagus, 73 miles N. E. of Lisbon. Grain, oil,
and fruit are sent from it to the market of Lisbon. Pop. in
1863, 5590.
Abrantes, DUKE of. See JUNOT.
Abrantes, DUCHESS OF (Madame JUNOT), born in Mont-
pellier Nov. 6, 1784, was married to General Junot about
1800. Her family was related to that of Bonaparte, to whom
her mother had shown great kindness before he became a
general. In 1806 she accompanied her husband to Lisbon,
and in 1807 General Junot was made duke of Abrantes.
On the restoration of the Bourbons she was kindly received
by Louis XVIII. She distinguished herself as an author-
ess, and wrote, besides other works, “Memoirs, or Histor-
ical Souvenirs of Napoleon, the Revolution, the Directory,”
etc. (18 vols., 1831–34). Died June 7, 1838.
Abrax'as Stones, the name of certain gems (found in
Syria and Egypt) on which are engraved the word Abraxas
and several symbols or fantastic figures. They were once
prized as amulets and talismans.
Abridg’ment [Fr. abréger, to “shorten”], a condensa-
tion or compendium of a book or literary work. In the
law of copyright an abridgment, when fairly made, is re-
garded as a new work, and accordingly its publication is
not an infringement of the copyright. A distinction is
taken in the legal decisions between an abridgment and
a compilation. The latter is more readily regarded as an
infringement, as the words of an author are reproduced,
while in a true abridgment the thoughts are expressed in
other words and in a condensed form.
Abro'lhos (i. e. “open your eyes”), a group of small
rocky islands which belong to the province of Espirito
Santo, Brazil. The largest of these, Santa Barbara, 40
miles from the coast, has a lighthouse in lat. 17° 58' S., lon.
380 42' W. -
Abru’zzo, the northern part of the former kingdom of
Naples, but now included in the kingdom of Italy. It is
bounded on the N. E. by the Adriatic. It is divided into
three provinces—viz. Chieti, formerly called Abruzzo Ci-
teriore (or Citra); Teramo, formerly Abruzzo Ulteriore (or
Ultra) I.; and Aquila, formerly Abruzzo Ulteriore II.
Ab/salom, the third son of King David, by Maacah, a
Syrian princess, was remarkable for his personal beauty.
Having, by his popular arts and fair speeches, gained the
favor of the people, he rebelled against his father and
raised a large army, which was defeated by the army of the
king. Retreating from this battle, Absalom was killed by
Joab, although David had given orders that his life should
be spared. (See 2 Samuel xiii.-xix.)
Ab/salon, called also Axel, an eminent prelate and
general, born in Iceland in 1128, was a liberal patron of
learning, and was distinguished for his wisdom in coun-
cil. He was one of the ministers of the Danish king Wal-
demar I., and became archbishop of Lund in 1178. Died
in 1201. tº t
Ab’s cess [Lat. absces'sus, from abs, “away from,” and
ce/do, to “go,” because the pus separates itself from the
rest of the body], in surgery, is a circumscribed collection
of pus in any part of the animal organism, as distinguished
from “purulent infiltration,” which designates such a col-
lection not circumscribed. The term “diffuse abscess” is,
however, applied, though improperly, to purulent infiltra-
tion. An “acute abscess” is one which is the result of
active inflammation. “Cold abscess” is the result of
chronic inflammation. The tendency of an acute abscess is
to “point” or “come to a head;” that is, from the outward
pressure of the accumulating pus, the walls yield mechani-
cally in the direction of least resistance. In favorable
cases the evacuation of the pus, natural or artificial, is the
initiation of recovery; but if the abscess be of the “cold.”
variety, or be deep-seated and extensive, or be associated
with metastatic symptoms or septicaemia, the question of
recovery becomes a much more complicated one. Deep-
seated abscesses, when they traverse considerable tracts of
the body and “point” at a distant part, are called “con-
gestive abscesses”—a term which is very properly passing
out of use. Such abscesses are often for a long time diffi-
cult of detection, and their treatment taxes, too often in
vain, the best skill of the surgeon. In general, abscess is
detected by observation of the general and local symptoms.
The general symptoms are fever and subsequent rigors; the
#
ABSCISSA—ABSTRACT SCIENCE.
15
local are “pain, heat, redness, and swelling,” followed by
softness and fluctuation of the fluid contents. (See PUs.)
Abscis'sa [from the Lat. abscindo, abscissum, to “cut
off”], a term used in geometry to denote a segment cut off
from a straight line by an ordinate to a curve.
Abse/cum, or Absecon, a post-village of Atlantic
co., N.J., on the Camden and Atlantic R. R., and near Ab-
secum Bay, 7 miles N. W. of Atlantic City. Absecum
lighthouse is a brick structure, standing on the S. side of
Absecum Inlet; lat. 39° 21' 55" N., lon. 74° 24′ 32' W.
It shows a fixed white dioptric light of the first order, 165
feet above the Sea.
Absentee, a term applied to capitalists and proprie-
tors of land who do not reside on their estates, but spend
their incomes in other countries. This practice is very
prevalent among the Irish nobility and gentry, and some
political economists ascribe the poverty of Ireland partly
to this absenteeism. -
Absinthe [Fr. for “wormwood”], a liqueur much used
in France, prepared from alcohol mixed with volatile oil
of wormwood, oil of anise, and other ingredients. It has
peculiarly intoxicating effects, which are due to the oil of
wormwood, the state resulting from its use being very dif-
ferent from the result of alcohol poisoning. Trembling,
vertigo, fearful dreams, and epileptiform convulsions are
among its severer consequences. Absinthe-drinking is one
of the most dangerous forms of stimulation yet invented—
the more so because its immediate consequences are usually
more agreeable than those of alcohol.
Ab’sis, or Ap'sis [Gr. & bus, an “arch”], a name given
formerly to that part of a church in which the clergy were
seated or the altar was placed. It was either circular or
polygonal on the plan, and covered with a dome.
Ab/solute [from the Lat. ab, “from,” and solu'tw8,
“loosed,” a “part” (from sol/vo, solu'tum, to “loose”)],
originally, loosed or freed from all conditions, absolutely
independent ; hence, positive, unconditional, unlimited.
As a scientific term it is the reverse of relative, as absolute
velocity. In metaphysics it represents the unconditioned
infinite and self-existent. Absolute monarchy is that which
is not limited or restricted by constitutional checks.
Absolute Alcohol. See ALCOHOL, by C. F. CHANDLER.
Absolution [Lat. absolutio], in canon law, is the par-
don and remission of sins which a Roman Catholic priest
pronounces to a penitent offender.
Absor/bents [for etymology, see ABSORPTION], a term
applied to a set of vessels of a peculiar character in the
animal body. (See LYMPHATICS.)
Abso'rokas, a tribe of Américan savages. (See CROWs.)
Absorp/tion [Lat. absorpſtio, from ab, “from,” and
sor/beo, sorp/tum, to “sip or suck”] is the function by
which nutritive matter is absorbed into an animal or plant.
Plants absorb carbonic acid gas by their leaves and other
green parts, and it is supposed that this absorption takes
place principally through the 8tomata of the leaves, and
both by the upper and under surface of the leaf; in some
plants much more powerfully by the one surface than by
the other. But plants also derive their nourishment par-
tially, although not principally, from their roots, and it is
at the extremities of their fibrils that absorption takes place
most rapidly, by capillary attraction and a process called
ENDosMosB (which see). Absorption in animals is known
to be largely by endosmose, and that process, mechanical
rather than vital, is affected, it is believed, only indirectly
by the nervous energy. .
Abs/tinence [from abs, “from,” and te’neo, to “hold,” to
“keep ’’l, the act or state of abstaining from food, drink, etc.
Abstinence, Total, that is, from all indulgence in
the use of intoxicating beverages, was practised in early
ages by the Nazarites and Rechabites, mentioned in Scrip-
ture. Some of the Hebrew prophets rigorously inveigh
against the prevalence of drunkenness, yet hardly indicate
total abstinence as the proper remedy. The EssENEs (which
see)—a Jewish sect contemporary with the Messiah—were
distinguished for temperance in eating and drinking, es-
chewing generally the use of flesh and wine. Mohammed
peremptorily forbade the use of wine as a beverage by his
followers. In the feudal ages, societies designed to shield
their members and others from the evils of drunkenness
were often formed, but not on the basis of absolute disuse
of stimulants. The discovery of alcohol by an Arabian
chemist about 1000 A. D. had, through the art of distilla-
tion, greatly expanded and intensified the evils of intem-
perance, especially in Northern Europe, where beer had
generally been the most potent stimulant attainable by the
masses. The discovery and settlement of America, largely
increasing the average rewards of manual labor, especially
on this continent, rendered intemperance more common, by
increasing the ability of the common people to purchase
or South America.
alcoholic stimulants; and this country, especially through-
out the half century succeeding its Declaration of Inde-
pendence, was hardly equalled in the prevalence of intoxi-
cation even by the British and Scandinavian kingdoms,
and was unapproached by any other nation.
The earliest known organization of a total abstinence
society in the U. S. was “The Temperate Society of Mil-
ton and Northumberland” (Saratoga co., N.Y.), founded
by Dr. Billy J. Clarke in 1808, which at its commence-
ment had forty-three members. Distilled liquors and wines
were absolutely prohibited by its rules, but not the mode-
rate use of beer. In 1813 was formed the “Massachu-
setts Society” for the suppression of intemperance. In
1826 the American. Temperance Society was organized.
The evils resulting from the free use of ardent spirits were
So general and glaring that kindred societies were soon
formed in many cities, villages, and rural townships, the
movement being strongly aided, especially among zealous
Christians, by Dr. Lyman Beecher’s “Six Sermons on In-
temperance.” Dr. Eliphalet Nott, president of Union
College, was also early and honorably distinguished as a
pioneer in the temperance cause. It was not till 1833 that,
at a national meeting of the friends of temperance, held in
Philadelphia, the principle of “total abstinence from all
that may intoxicate” was propounded, only to be voted
down; but it was again proposed, and adopted, at a
national convention held at Saratoga Springs in August,
1836, and became henceforth the basis of the temperance
movement, to which a great impulse was given by the
“Washingtonians” (in good part reformed drunkards),
who began their work in 1841, and for a time seemed
destined to sweep all before them. The first State to pro-
hibit the sale of intoxicating beverages was Maine, in
1851. The other New England States soon followed her
-example. New York had already (in 1846) authorized the
voters of her several cities and townships to forbid such
sale by a popular vote; but her court of appeals pro-
nounced this unconstitutional, as it likewise did (in 1859)
a law of absolute prohibition enacted in 1855. Chief-
Justice Shaw of Massachusetts held that every citizen
injured or annoyed by the proximity of a grogshop might
lawfully abate it as a nuisance, but his two associates, on
appeal, overruled him. -
Partial, if not general, prohibition was enacted in seve-
ral Western States, but here, as elsewhere, most imperfectly
enforced. The Washingtonian effort gradually spent its
strength and faded out, being succeeded by new organiza-
tions, whereof the “Sons of Temperance,” “Good Tem-
plars,” “Rechabites,” “Good Samaritans,” and “Cadets
of Temperance ’’ are still active and flourishing.
The total abstinence movement in Great Britain first
attracted public attention in 1831. The “pledge” to drink
no intoxicating liquors was first adopted by a national
gathering at Manchester in 1834. It has never yet become
so influential in that as in this country, and its upholders
have only ventured to ask of Parliament a “permissive”
act—that is, one allowing any locality to forbid and outlaw
the liquor traffic by a majority vote—and this has never
been conceded. The votaries of total abstinence in Great
I}ritain are generally found in the humbler walks of life.
In Ireland total abstinence was first effectively com-
mended by Father Mathew, who, by his simple expositions
and exhortations, persuaded millions of his countrymen
and fellow-Catholics to take the pledge, which many of
them have since broken. Since his death, in 1856, the re-
form has decidedly lost ground in Ireland, while it has as
yet made little headway in any part of Continental Europe
HoRACE GREELEY.
Abstinents, a Christian sect of Gaul and Spain in the
latter part of the third century A. D., who condemned mar-
riage and the use of flesh-meats and wine, declaring that
they were made by the devil, and not by God.
Ab/stract [from the Lat. abs, “from,” and tra/ho,
trac/tum, to “draw”], literally, that which is drawn away
or separated (or viewed separately) from all external cir-
cumstances or conditions, and hence opposed to CONCRETE
(which see).
Abstrac/tion (see preceding article), the intellectual
process by which the mind separates one of the attributes
of an object from the others, and thinks of it exclusively.
An idea or notion of an abstract or theoretical nature is
sometimes called an abstraction. - -
Abstract Science (metaphysics, logic, mathematics)
starts from a proposition, not derived from experience, but
found as an axiom in the human understanding; from
which proposition a whole system is evolved by inference
and deduction. All discoveries, as far as they are not in-
cidental, are made by application of abstract science (ex-
periment), as all inventions are made by application of
knowledge of the real object (experience).
16
ABSURDUM, REDUCTIO AD–ABYSSINIA.
Absurd’um, Reduc’tio ad, a term used in geom-
etry to denote a mode of demonstration, in which the truth
of a proposition is demonstrated by proving that the con-
trary is absurd or impossible.
Abt (FRANZ), a German composer, born at Eilenburg
Dec. 22, 1819. He became in 1855 first chapelmaster to the
duke of Brunswick. His works are chiefly songs, which
enjoy great popularity in Germany and the U. S.
Abu (also written in English Aboo), an Arabic word,
signifying “father,” occurs as a prefix to many Oriental
names. -
Abu, a mountain of India, in Rajpootana, connected
with the Aravulli range, is about 5000 feet above the level
of the sea. It is a celebrated place of pilgrimage for the
Jainas, who have four temples at Dilwara, near the middle
of the mountain. One of these is said to be the most su-
perb of all the temples of India.
Abubekr', or Aboo-Bekr, a caliph, the first of
Mohammed's successors, was born in Arabia, about 570
A. D. His original name was ABD-EL-KAABA, which was
exchanged for ABoo-BEKR (i. e. “father of the virgin'”),
because his virgin daughter Ayesha was married to the
prophet. He began to reign in 632 A.D., and died in 634,
leaving a high reputation as a man and a ruler.
Abugirgeh, a large Fellah town of Middle Egypt,
about 2 miles W. of the Nile and 122 miles above Cairo.
Abukir’, a village of Egypt, on the site of the ancient
Canopus, and on the sea-coast at the west side of Abukir
Bay, 15 miles N. E. of Alexandria. Here is a castle.
Abukir Bay is on the coast of Lower Egypt, between
the village and castle of Abukir and the Rosetta mouth
of the Nile. In this bay Admiral Nelson gained a decisive
victory over the French fleet, Aug. 1, 1798, and the Turks
were defeated by the French under Napoleon I., July 25,
1799.
Abulca/sis, or Abulka'sis, written also Abul-
Kasem, Khalaf Ebn Abbas, a celebrated Arab phy-
sician and surgical writer, born near Córdova, in Spain.
His principal work was published in 1778, under the title
of “Abulcasis de Chirurgia.” The portion of it devoted
to surgery is regarded as the most valuable treatise of the
kind that has come down to us from early times. Died
about 1110. -
Abulfa'raj [Lat. Abulfara'gius] (GREGORIUs), a learned
historical writer, born in Armenia in 1226, became maph-
rian or primate of the eastern division of the Jacobite
Christians in 1266. He wrote in Syriac and Arabic several
valuable works, among which is a “History of the Dynas-
ties.” Died in 1286.-There was also a famous Oriental
poet, Ali Abulfaraj (897–997).
Abul-Fazl, an eminent Oriental historian, who in 1574
became vizier or prime minister of the great Mogul emperor
Akbar. He was a wise and liberal statesman. He was as-
sassinated about 1600. Among his important works are a
history of Akbar, called “Akbar Nameh,” and “Institutes
of Akbar” (“Ayeen Akbari”).
Abulfe’da, a Moslem prince and celebrated Arabian
author, was born at Damascus about 1273. He fought with
distinction for the sultan of Syria against the Tartars or
Mongols, and was rewarded with the title of prince of Ha-
mah. He wrote an important work entitled “An Abridg-
ment of the History of Mankind,” and another, “The De-
scription of the Countries,” which is regarded as the best
Arabic work on geography that is extant. Died in 1331.
Abu Sambul, Abusimbal, or Ipsambul, a ruined
place in Nubia, on the W. bank of the Nile, 1014 miles
above Cairo and 8 miles above the Second Cataract. It
contains two of the best-preserved specimens of the great
rock-hewn temples of ancient Egypt. It has also four
sitting colossal statues, which are not only the largest, but
are considered the finest, specimens of Egyptian plastic
art. One of these figures is fifty feet high as it sits.
Abutment, the part of a pier or wall from which an arch
springs, and which resists the lateral or outward pressure.
(See BRIDGE, by GEN. J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.)
Aby'dos, an ancient city of Upper Egypt, on the left
bank of the Nile, 5 or 6 miles from the river, and about 100
miles below Thebes. Here are the ruins of a temple of
Osiris and a temple of Memnon, in which Mr. Bankes dis-
covered in 1818 the celebrated tablet of Abydos, now in the
British Museum.
Aby’dus, or Aby/dos [Gr. "Agvöos], an ancient city of
Asia Minor, on the Hellespont opposite Sestos, was cele-
brated as the place where Xerxes and his vast army crossed
over to Europe on a bridge of boats, 480 B.C. It was also
celebrated for its connection with the story of Hero and
Leander. *
Ab’yla and Cal/pe, the names of the pillars of Her-
from Tigre by Kassa.
cules, standing on both sides of the Straits of Gibraltar.
The former was in Africa. -
Abyssinſia [Arab. Habesh], in a wider sense, is the
name commonly given by European geographers to the
entire Ethiopic plateau which rises on the W. of the Red
Sea, extending to the S. W., and descending on the N. to
the lowlands of Nubia, and on the W. to the plains of Sen-
maar and Kordofan. On the E. it is bounded by Adal, and
the southern part, which is as yet almost entirely unex-
plored, extends for an unknown distance into the interior
of Africa. The population is estimated by the Catholic
bishop of Massaja at 12,000,000, of which over 9,000,000
are Sidamas and Gallas. w
Abyssinia, in a more limited application, comprises the
three former kingdoms of Tigre, Amhara, and Shoa. It is
bounded on the N. E. by the Red Sea, on the S. by the
country of the Gallas, and on the N. W. by Nubia. Its
area is estimated at about 158,000 square miles, and the
population at 4,000,000. The country ascends from the W.
in broad terraces, which in the E. descend abruptly, and
reach a height, in some places, of 8000 feet. The plateaus
are encircled by mountain-ranges of 12,000 to 14,000 feet
in height. The low and waterless district of the savage
Danakil tribes separates the fissured plateau, with its mighty
streams and ravines (which occasionally widen into deep
valleys), from the sea, which is only accessible from three
points—Massowa, in the N., Amphilla Bay, about 100 miles
farther to the S. E., and Tajurrah, in the S. The hydro-
graphic centre of the country is Lake Tsana or Dembea,
which is crossed by the Abai, the chief river of Abyssinia.
The next river of importance is the Atbara, which flows in
a north-westerly direction towards the Nile, and receives
the Tacazze from the S. E. The beds of the upper Abai,
of the Atbara, and of the Tacazze are surrounded by three
mountain-ranges, of which that in the E. of the upper Ta-
cazze forms the orographic crown of the country. The
mountains consist mostly of porphyry, basalt, and lime-
stone. Its wild, romantic character the country owes to a
grand volcanic action of the later tertiary period. The hot
springs in the interior, occasional eruptions on the coast
of the Red Sea, as well as earthquakes (1854), prove that
volcanic action is not entirely extinct as yet. The surface
of the country is, however, subject to much greater changes
to-day in consequence of the action of the mountain-streams,
which for thousands of years have carried to the valley of
the Nile the fertile soil of the plateaus. Deeper and deeper
they dig into the rocks, and transform the narrow ravines
into broad valleys. The vegetation of the valleys is of an
exceedingly luxuriant, tropical character. But in conse-
quence of fevers, serpents, and beasts of prey it is not
well adapted to habitation. The plateau, however, with very
few animals, and swept by strong winds, has a healthy, tem-
perate climate and a fertile soil. It has but few forests, and
in some parts is entirely without trees, but a rich grass covers
the ground, which is traversed by many springs and brooks
throughout the year. All the different kinds of grain of the
East and of Europe, such as corn, barley, rye, oats, etc.,
grow here exceedingly well; while the lowlands produce
cotton, sugar-cane, and tobacco, and the best coffee grows
wild everywhere. The eastern plains of the sub-alpine re-
gion are occupied by lawless hordes of Mohammedan Asebo
Gallas, who make almost uninterrupted incursions into the
plateaus, which are inhabited by Christians.
The most important city of the country is Gondar, which
is also the residence of the abuna. Other cities are Adowa,
(the capital of Tigre), Antalo, Ankobar (the capital of Shoa),
Angolola, and Aliya Amba.
The Abyssinian peasant is an industrious workman. The
soil, indeed, needs only to be scratched to produce three har-
vests a year, and cattle of all kinds thrive finely. But as
the rural districts are subject not only to large tributes,
but also to constant robberies from all sides, the peasants
generally suffer greatly from poverty.
Most of the inhabitants belong to the ABYSSINIAN CHURCH
(which see). Some of the border districts have been occu-
pied by Mohammedans, who appear to be advancing. The
Falasha are a peculiar Jewish tribe, living in the Sainen
Mountains and in several other districts. The Roman
Catholic Church, which in the course of the sixteenth cen-
tury was several times on the point of gaining a great in-
fluence, began its missionary operations again in 1833, and
was vigorously supported by the influence of France. The
great hopes which the conversion of a prominent Abyssin-
ian prince raised in the missionaries were, however, not ful-
filled; the membership in 1872 did not exceed a few hun-
dred, and in that year the missionaries were again expelled
The first Protestant missionary who
labored among the Abyssinians was Gobat (subsequently
Anglican bishop of Jerusalem), who was followed by many
others; none of whom, however, have succeeded in firmly
establishing Protestantism in Abyssinia.
ABYSSINIAN CHURCH.
17
Płistory.—The Abyssinians, who, according to Arabian
traditions, emigrated from Yemen, are a mixed race. Even
at the present day the inhabitants of the different provinces
differ widely both in their language and in their physiog-
nomy. In history the Abyssinians first appear in the em-
pire of Axum. Under a family of kings who claimed to be
descended from Solomon and the queen of Sheba, and who
ruled to the end of the fourth century, the country advanced
greatly. In the middle of the fourth century Christianity
was introduced. The advance of the Mohammedans, how-
ever, broke off every connection with the remainder of the
Christian world, and left the country entirely to Coptic in-
fluences. As the patriarch, according to law, must neces-
sarily be a Copt, and generally was an ignorant monk, the
clergy, who had formerly not been wanting in theological
and scholastic learning, could not reach a high state of edu-
cation. In 1603 the combined efforts of the Portuguese (who
had saved the empire from total destruction by the Moham-
medans and Gallas) and of the Jesuits succeeded in convert-
ing the royal family to Catholicism. Civil wars were the
result, as the people remained true to their old faith; and
only when the connection with the Church of Rome was fully
severed (about 1630) did the country again become quiet.
The power of the imperial family, the Hazie, was gradu-
ally reduced to a mere shadow, until in the present century
its authority was totally set aside by Ras Ali, the governor
of Amhara. Nominally, the Hazie continued, however, to
rule until Lij Kassa was crowned as negus negw88ić (king
of kings) in 1855. Kassa, descended from noble but poor
parents, was made by the favor of the regent Menene, the
mother of the nominal king, Ras Ali, governor of the prov-
ince of Kuara. Impelled by ambition, he soon rebelled and
seized the province of Dembea. After several years of quiet,
varied by a few successful raids into the neighboring low-
lands, he undertook a great expedition against Egypt, which
was a complete failure. This induced Menene to take up
arms against him again, but the royal troops were com-
pletely beaten. After several more victories over Gocho,
the most powerful chief of Gondar, and over Ras Ali him-
self, Kassa was in possession of the whole of Amhara. Then,
after he had also defeated Ubić, the independent prince of
Tigre, at Deraskye (1855), he was master of the whole of
Abyssinia, and was crowned king under the name of Theo-
dore II. Increasing vanity and pride now took the place
of the pleasing manners which had gained him the affection
of those around him, especially of the Europeans. He still
continued, however, to be a good ruler as long as his friend
and adviser, the Englishman John Bell, who had come to
Abyssinia in 1842, remained with him. The attempts at
reform to which Bell tried to encourage him remained
almost entirely fruitless, although Theodore destroyed the
power of the feudal nobles and of the priesthood. When
in 1860 he had lost his friend Bell in a war against the
rebels, he became a bloodthirsty tyrant and the scourge of
his people. For three years terrorism kept the country in
subjection; then, unable to bear his extortions for the main-
tenance of the army, numbering 150,000 men, the people
rose in a general rebellion. Wherever Theodore came with
his army the people fled into the mountains, and only re-
turned after he had left. He found nowhere an open enemy,
but famine reduced his army so quickly that it only num-
bered 7000 men when the difficulties with England began.
The English-Abyssinian War.—Walter Plowden, who at
one time had just as much influence with Theodore as Bell,
had been sent to Gondar as English consul, and had in
1849 concluded a commercial treaty with Ras Ali. Theo-
dore intended to send an embassy to England. Lord Clar-
endon answered through Powell that Queen Victoria would
receive the embassy if Theodore would desist from his plan
of conquering Egypt. This caused the first bitterness, for
the king's favorite plan was the restoration of the ancient
Ethiopian empire. After Plowden’s death in 1860, Came-
ron was sent as English consul to Abyssinia. Theodore
sent him with a letter to Queen Victoria to open negotia-
tions for a war with the Turks. (The story that he wanted
to marry Victoria was invented by the French newspapers.)
One Bardel was sent for the same purpose to Paris. "Cam-
eron himself remained in Africa, and sent the letter by
mail. Before an answer could be expected he returned to
Abyssinia. Theodore, who meanwhile had been strongly
prejudiced against the Europeams by the imprudent eon-
duct of the French consul Lejean, and the unfavorable re-
ception which Bardel had received in Paris, regarded the
conduct of Cameron as an insult. At this time the mis-
sionary Stern, who was in the service of an English mis-
sionary society, by an error of etiquette angered the king,
who punished him severely. Imprudently Stern told the
Frenchman Bardel that he had written a book, “Wander-
ings among the Fellashas of Abyssinia,” which might
bring him into trouble. Bardel translated the most insult-
ing portions of it to the king, who in the greatest rage im-
prisoned Stern and Rosenthal, another missionary who was
guilty of a similar offence. As no answer came from
Queen Victoria, Cameron, according to orders from his
government, asked for permission to return to his post at
Massowa. In answer to this, Theodore put him and his
companions in chains (Jan. 4, 1864), and brought him in
November to the mountain-fortress of Magdala. This
caused the British government to answer Theodore's letter,
and to charge the Syrian Hormuzd Rassam with its de-
livery. He had to wait, however, until July, 1865, before
he received permission from the king to enter Abyssinia.
In Jan., 1866, he met Theodore, and so far won his favor .
that the prisoners were released, and were permitted to de-
part. Suddenly, however, Rassam and those just released
were again imprisoned, because Theodore had understood
Queen Victoria’s letter as proposing that Rassam should
remain with him in exchange for the prisoners, and there-
fore considered Rassam’s intention to leave immediately as .
a breach of treaty. The efforts of several German scholars
residing in Abyssinia, as Dr. Schimper and Zander, suc-
ceeded in bringing about a reconciliation. But still the
whole party were kept in captivity, which, though not
severe, could still only be broken by force of arms. As
Theodore did not answer a letter demanding the release of
the prisoners, Lord Stanley sent the king on Sept. 9, 1867,
his ultimatum, which Rassam, however, did not deliver,
fearing that the consequences might be fatal to the pris-
oners. The English government resolved therefore to send
an armed expedition from Bombay, and gave Sir Robert
Napier the command. Colonel Merewether, the British
resident in Aden, and the Swiss WERNER MUNZINGER:
(which see) had for some time been engaged in trying to
discover the best means to secure the success of the difficult
undertaking. At the head of a large reconnoitering party
they found the best road to the plateau, and established
friendly relations with the natives, in which they were
most efficiently aided by the German missionary Dr. Krapf.
Therefore, when Napier landed, Jan. 3, 1868, at Mulkutto,
in the shallow bay of Annesley—which Colonel Merewether
had transformed into a convenient harbor by building a long
pier—he found almost all obstacles removed. In Senafeh
the army, consisting of 4000 Englishmen and 8000 East
Indians, with 10,000 mules and twenty elephants for the
transportation of the artillery and the provisions, first
gained a footing in the highlands. Thence they moved in
a southerly course to the fortress of Magdala, which was
considered almost impregnable, and into which Theodore
had retired, being pressed on all sides by rebellious princes.
The difficulties of the ground, as well as the extreme care-
fulness of Napier, caused the army to advance but slowly.
On the 10th of April the first action took place, at Arogy,
in which Theodore's troops were driven back into the fort-
ress. Theodore now released the prisoners, but Napier
demanded an unconditional Surrender, and, as that was
refused, proceeded on April 14 to storm the fortress, which
was taken with but little trouble. Theodore was found.
dead on a hill, having killed himself. Napier conducted
the difficult retreat with great success, and took the prince
Alamayu, the only legitimate son of Theodore, to Eng-
land. After the British had left, the country returned to
the old state of anarchy, from which Theodore had for a,
time raised it. In 1869, Gobazie, prince of Amhara, pro-
claimed himself king, but only ruled as far as his arms
prevailed. He was in 1871 defeated in a great and deci-
sive battle near Adowah by Prince Kassa of Tigre, who
early in 1872 was crowned with great solemnity as Em-
peror John of Ethiopia, but was likewise unable to break
the opposition of a number of the independent princes. In
Sept., 1872, Kassa was involved in serious difficulties with
the khedive of Egypt, which led to the occupation of some
mountain-districts (which were claiméd by Kassa as be-
longing to Abyssinia) by Werner Munzinger, who had
been appointed by the khedive governor of Massowah.
After his victory over Gobazie, the new emperor had ap-
pointed Prince Voromya as ras of Amhara; who, however,
when the emperor returned to Adowa, endeavored to make
himself independent.
again, took Gondar without resistance, and compelled Vo-
ronya to sue for pardon. Ten days after this had been
granted to him, Voronya escaped from the residence of
the emperor, and again placed himself at the head of his
troops. Early in 1873 he was, however, again defeated;
the emperor once more entered Gondar, and his rule over
Amhara, and Tigre was regarded as more firmly established
than at any previous period.
1871; it contains a complete list of all printed works on
Abyssinia; ANDRáE, “Abyssinien,” 1869; MARKHAM, “A
History of the Abyssinian Expedition,” 1869.)
* = A. J. ScHEM.
Abyssin'iam Church. Abyssinia was converted to
Christianity in the early part of the fourth century. The
The emperor subdued Amhara’
(See Holton, “Abyssinia,”
~
2
18
r—
ACACIA—ACADEMY.
A
church is national and independent, and with regard to
doctrine Monophysitic. The visible head or abuna (“our
father”) is ordained by the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria.
Circumcision is practised in the Abyssinian Church, pre-
ceding baptism. Communion is administered daily to the
2 laity, and confession is rigidly enforced, even among priests.
The efforts made, both by the English and Roman Catholic
churches, to elevate the religious tone of the Abyssinians
have hitherto, owing in part perhaps to political influences,
been attended with but little success.
Aca/cia [from the Gr. &kii, a “sharp point,” on account
of the prickles or thorns on the tree], §ſ
a genus of plants of the natural order ğſ,
º \; W 22:32:
% &g
§§
º
y, ſº
Leguminosae, found in Asia, Africa, *ś. Wººd
America, and Australia. This genus ޺ sº & ºft
comprises many beautiful and useful º º *ś %
trees, among which is the Acaſcia 㺠§
Arab(ica, producing the gum-arabic
& te º 62. Sº - º SS
of commerce. The bipinnated foliage º & § %xº
of some species of acacia is sensi- ºg § |S
e S; #|Nº § §§§
tive to the changes of the weather. *% ºs§§
* tº Nº.
Several of the species are valuable #º
for timber, and the seeds of the Aca- W
cia concinna are used as soap, and |
form an article of commerce.
Acad'emy [Gr. 'Akaðmuta; Lat.
acade’mia; Fr. académiej, a word originally applied to an
Athenian garden or grove and to the School of philosophy
which Plato founded in that place, which was in a suburb of
Athens. The name is supposed to have been derived from
Academus or Hecademus, a mythical person who, according
to Greek tradition, presented the garden to the people of Ath-
ens. The modified systems or schools of philosophy which
the successors of Plato adopted were designated by the titles
of the Middle and the New Academy. The word academy is
also applied to a society of authors, savants, or artists found-
ed for the improvement of literature, science, or art. The
first institution of which we read, at all corresponding to
this idea, was the Museum, a society of scholars established
at Alexandria, by Ptolemy Soter in the third century B. C.,
which concentrated in that city all that was most eminent
in science, philosophy, poetry, or criticism. The Jews in
different cities, the Constantinopolitan emperors, and the
Arabian caliphs founded societies of the same description.
Charlemagne, among his various efforts for the propagation
of literature, collected an association of learned men, who
read and compared the works of antiquity, and gave them-
selves in their academic intercourse the assumed names of
different ancient authors. But this institution was dis-
solved at the death of Alcuin; mor do we find any memorial
of a similar society, except a few among artists, chiefly in
France, until after the taking of Constantinople by the
Turks, when the Greek scholars driven into Italy held
literary meetings, which gradually assumed a more regu-
lar form. In 1560 a society called the Academia, Secre-
torum Naturae, was founded at Naples in the house of
Baptista Porta, but was abolished by a papal interdict.
It was, however, succeeded by the Academia, Lyncei at
Rome, of which Galileo was a member, the objects of
which, like those of the former, were chiefly connected with
the pursuit of natural history. From the beginning of the
seventeenth century academies multiplied in Italy. Among
the most eminent of those bearing a philosophical charac-
ter was the Academy del Cimento at Florence in that cen-
tury; and in more recent times the Academy of Sciences at
Bologna, deserves to be mentioned with honor. But Italy
has been most prolific in academies of literature and phi-
lology, which form by far the greatest number in the cata-
Hogue of 550 such institutions which have been enumerated
as existing or having existed in that country. A general
and somewhat ridiculous fashion prevailed in the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries, among literary men of that
country, of forming themselves into societies for the promo-
tion of literary objects, to which they gave fanciful sym-
bolic names, every member assuming in his own person some
analogous appellation. Among the most celebrated was the
Academy (It. Académia) degli Arcadi at Rome, of which
the meetings were held in a meadow, and the members en-
acted shepherds and shepherdesses. It was founded about
1690, and still subsists, having various affiliated societies
in other places. The Academia degli Umidi, one of the
oldest of these associations, became afterwards the Floren-
tine Academy. The Academia degli Intronati (“of the
Deafened”), degli Umoristi (“of the Humorists”), and
others with similar quaint appellations, have acquired
celebrity in Italy. Of her philological academies the most
illustrious is the Academia della Crusca (i.e. “Academy of
the bran”%), founded at Florence in 1582, which by its
Acacia Arabica.
* In allusion to its office of winnowing or purifying the
national language. *
famous dictionary established the Tuscan dialect as the
standard of the national language. It is now incorporated
with the Academia, Fiorentina. §
The first institution of this kind in France, the Acadé-
mie Française, was founded in 1635, by Cardinal Riche-
lieu. It was formed for the purpose of refining the French
language and style, and, although in its first period it was
chiefly remarkable for the adulation which it bestowed on
its vain though able founder, it became in process of time
by far the most celebrated and influential of all European
literary societies. It consisted of forty members, and a place
among them was eagerly sought after for a long period as
one of the highest honors which could be attained by an
author. Like that of La Crusca, it published a dictionary
of the national language in 1694. The Royal Academy of
Sciences was founded by Louis XIV. in 1666, and pub-
lished 130 volumes of memoirs up to the year 1793, when
it was abolished by the Convention. The Academy of
Painting and Sculpture, and that of Inscriptions and
Belles-Lettres, were the other two principal academies of
Paris. The latter was founded by Colbert in 1663, and re-
modelled in 1701. At the Revolution all four were abol-
ished, and in 1795, at the suggestion of Condorcet, the
National Institute of France was established in their stead.
It consisted of four classes, arising out of the four acade-
mies of which it was composed. According to its reorgani-
zation by Napoleon in 1806, these classes were remodelled,
and each of them consisted of a certain number of sections,
each furnished with a specified number of acting and cor-
responding members. The first class, or that of sciences,
had sixty-three members and 100 correspondents; that of
languages, forty, and sixty correspondents; that of history
and antiquities, forty, and sixty correspondents; that of the
arts, twenty-eight, and thirty-six correspondents. The first,
third, and fourth each named eight foreign associates. In
1816 the Institute was again remodelled by Louis XVIII.
The four classes again took the name of academies, and be-
came more independent of one another, their joint property
being managed by a commission of eight members, two
from each, under the superintendence of the minister of
the interior. The first academy (that of sciences) retained
the same number of members ; the second and third were
reduced to thirty-eight and thirty-seven respectively; the
fourth was increased to forty. To the Academy of Inscrip-
tions and Belles-Lettres and that of Sciences was added a
class of free academicians, of the number of ten, with no
privilege except that of attendance. The Academy of Arts
had the right to choose its own number of free members.
Of similar institutions in Germany, the oldest was the
Academia Naturae Curiosae, a scientific association, founded
in 1662 in Franconia, afterwards taken under imperial pro-
tection, when it received the name of the Academia Caesareo-
Leopoldina. The Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin was
founded in 1700 by Frederick I. of Prussia; Leibnitz was
its first director. Other German academies of Sciences are
those of Göttingen, established in 1750; the Bavarian
Academy at Munich, established in 1759, chiefly for his-
tory, and in 1829 divided into three sections; and the Saxon
Association of Science, founded in 1846, and divided into
two classes. The Imperial Royal Academy of Sciences at
Vienna originated in 1846. Turkey established a similar
institution in 1851, and Egypt in 1859. The Imperial
Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg was founded by
Catherine I., and endowed by Catherine II. With great
munificence, but established on the French model. She
separated from it the Academy of Arts.
In England the name of academy has been chiefly con-
fined to associations for promoting the arts. The Royal
Academy of Arts was founded in 1768, and consists of forty
members. It has separate professors of painting, architec-
ture, anatomy, and perspective, and a council of nine is
elected annually. The Academy of Ancient Music was
founded by private association in 1710; the Royal Academy
of Music, under the patronage of George III., but dissolved
shortly after. The present Academy of Music was founded
in 1822. The principal literary and philosophical societies,
answering in character to the branches of the French In-
stitute, are: 1. The Royal Society of London, which is con-
fined to objects of a scientific character. It had its origin
as early as 1645, but was established by royal charter in
1662. Its acts have been published under the name of
“Philosophical Transactions” from 1665 to the present day.
2. The Antiquarian Society, which was established in 1751,
and whose acts are published under the title of “Archæ-
ologia.” 3. The Society of Arts, which originated in 1718.
4. That of Literature, which was founded in 1823. Besides
these, there are numerous societies which bear the name of
the peculiar branch of science to which their exertions are
confined. The Royal Society of Edinburgh obtained a
charter in 1783, and another, with more liberal provisions,
in 1811.


ACADIA—ACANTHURUS CHIRURGUS.
19
Among the most valuable published transactions of
academies and similar societies, besides those already
mentioned, are those of Colbert’s “Académie des Inscrip-
tions et Belles-Lettres” (50 vols. 4to, from 1701 to 1793);
those of the Institute being continuations of the memoirs
of the former academies of which it was composed; those of
the Royal Academy of the Sciences and Belles-Lettres at
Berlin; at first in Latin, then in French (from its remodel-
ling in 1744 by Frederick the Great), now in German; the
“Acta” of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg; the
“Commentarii” of the Academy of Bologna ; and the “An-
tichità d’Ercolano,” published by the Herculanean Academy
of Naples. The “Vetenskaparnes Sällskap" at Stockholm
has published over 100 vols. of its valuable “Transactions.”
The American Academy of Sciences and Arts was founded
in 1780 by the council and house of representatives of Mas-
sachusetts. The National Academy of Sciences of the U. S.,
incorporated by the Thirty-seventh Congress in 1863, was
limited by the original charter to fifty members, citizens of
the U. S., fifty foreign associates, and a variable number of
honorary members. Its stated meetings are held twice a
year. Special meetings are held on call. Committees pur-
sue at all times investigations required by the government.
The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia was
founded in 1812. Besides a valuable scientific library, it
contains one of the best natural-history collections in the
world, especially rich in birds. (See MILITARY ACADEMY,
and also NAVAL ACADEMY, by R. S. SMITH.) J. THOMAS.
Aca/dia. [Fr. Acadie], sometimes called Arca/dia,
Acca/dia, or Ca' die, the peninsula, now called Nova
Scotia. It was settled by the French in 1604. Acadia,
originally included New Brunswick and a part of Maine.
It was the subject of frequent quarrels between the French
and English on account of the valuable fisheries near its
coast, and was finally ceded to England in 1713. The in-
habitants having refused to take the oath of allegiance to
the British king and to bear arms against the French, the
governor and his council resolved to remove them to the
other British provinces. The French settlers, 18,000 in
number, were forced to give up their property, and were
sent off in such haste that many families were separated.
This event has furnished the subject of “Evangeline,” one
of Longfellow’s most admired poems.
Acajut/la, a town and seaport in the Central American
republic of San Salvador, is situated on the Pacific Ocean,
12 miles S. of Sonsonate. It consists, besides the custom-
house and the dwelling of the captain of the port, of a
large warehouse, almost entirely in ruins at present, and a
few huts and sheds. Under the Spanish rule it was for a
long time the only port on the W. coast between Acapulco
and Realejo; at present it is, second in importance in San
Salvador, and has over one-third of the foreign trade of
this republic. The chief article of export here is Peru-
vian balsam, of which 20,000 pounds are annually exported.
Acale/phae (or, in English, Ac/alephs, and some-
times Acale’phans), [from the Gr. &ka Añºm, a “nettle”],
(in the singular Acade/pha or Ac/aleph), a class of
radiated animals according to the system of Cuvier. They
are commonly called jelly-fishes or sea-nettles, and some-
times sea-blubber. The body of these animals is composed
of a transparent, gelatinous substance, and in one section
of the class, the true Medusae, the body is entirely unsup-
ported by any hard framework. The quantity of solid
matter contained in them is very small, over ninety-nine
per cent. being water; they may therefore be described as
almost “living water.” If one of them be taken from the
sea and laid upon the surface of a dry board or rock, it de-
liquesces very rapidly. One of these, weighing fifty ounces
when taken from the water, has been found not long after-
wards to be nothing but a little dry cellular tissue, weigh-
ing only five or six grains. All the senses in the Acalephae
save that of touch are thought to be wanting. They pos-
sess, however, a muscular and a nervous system, as well as
a distinct digestive apparatus. The digestive organs are
lodged in a common centre or a longitudinal axis. From
this centre proceed ray-like processes, with tentacular ap-
pendages presenting a great variety of form. In these are
the peculiar nettling organs, which are generally composed
of an oval capsule containing a spirally-coiled filament,
which is suddenly thrown out whenever the animal is in
any way disturbed. These filaments are lined to their very
extremities by barbules, which are arranged in such a man-
ner as always to point backward when the filament is pro-
jected. A system of vessels from the gastric cavity pro-
ceeds through the body. The existence of blood has not yet
been detected. The acalephs have no teeth; in some of the
animals of this class, such as the Physalia (or Portuguese
man-of-war), food is obtained by suction through the flask-
like appendages which hang down beneath, each possessing
an orifice and a sucker. The Acalephae are of various forms
and sizes; many of them are shaped somewhat like an
umbrella when spread.
; While most of them are
extremely small, the
larger sometimes attain
# a length of three feet or .
*H more. The phosphores-
# cence of the sea is in part
# caused by multitudes of
minute Acalephae. The
larger acalephs subsist
on Small fish and other
marine animals; they are
*=# propagated by eggs, etc., .
according to the process
of alternate generation.
The eggs produce a brood
totally different from the
i parent, and resembling
: Infusoria, which attach
themselves to some sta-
tionary object and as-
sume a polyp-like form,
# and by gemmation pro-
duce a progeny which in
time attains to the origi-
º nal form, or, in other
= Nº words, becomes like the
=|\º grandmother. (See AL-
|HAft| TERNATE GENERATION.)
They possess the power,
º º º also, of multiplying by
º ºfe i gemmation alone, little
ones being almost ready
formed from the sub-
stance of the parent,
mostly from the walls of
the peduncle or from the
surface of the ovaries,
# and being very similar
to their parents. These
animals are classified ac-
cording to the different
powers of locomotion
º which are exhibited in
them. They are grouped in three orders—the Ctenophorae,
Discophorae, and Hydroids, ranking in the order named,
the Hydroids being the lowest in development. In some
instances the Hydroids closely approach the character of
the polyps; but others are plainly acalephs, and there are
many intermediate gradations. -
Acanthaſ cege [so named from Acanthus, one of its
general, a natural order of monopetalous exogenous plants,
having irregular didynamous flowers, and particularly
known by their calyx being imbricated in two broken
whorls, and by their seed growing from hooks on the pla-
centa. Several species of this order have beautiful flowers,
like the Thumbergia. The U. S. have several genera.
Acanthas' pis [Gr. &kavòa, a “spine,” and &arts, a
“shield”], a genus of buckler-headed fishes found by Dr.
Newberry in the corniferous limestone of Ohio. It some-
what resembles Cephalaspis, the buckler or carapace bear-
ing similar denticulated spines, but the cranial plates are
covered with a peculiar vermicular ornamentation, and
were not ankylosed together.
Acan'thophis [from the Gr. &Kav6a, a “thorn,” and
6%ts, a “serpent’], a genus of venomous serpents allied to
the viper, and natives of Australia. They have a horny
spine at the end of the tail. The genus includes the dread-
ed death adder, Acanthophis antarctica, one of the most
venomous of known reptiles.
Acanthopteryg’ians [Gr. &kav60s, a “thorn,” and
Trépuš (gen. Irrépuyos), a “wing ” or “fin "j, one of the two
primary divisions of the Osseous fishes in the system of
Cuvier. This order, which includes the perch and mack-
erel, is characterized by the bony spines which are formed
from part of the rays of their dorsal, anal, and ventral
fins. This order is the most extensive of those generally
recognized by naturalists among fishes.
Acanthu'rus# Chirur/gus, or Sea-Surgeon, owes
its name to the sharply-pointed and keen-edged spine on
the side of the tail, which cuts and wounds like a surgeon’s
lancet. The scales of this fish are very small, and the sin-
gle spine on each side of the tail is movable and set in a
Jongitudinal groove. Its food is of a vegetable nature.
It is found on the Atlantic coasts of tropical America and
Africa, and is tolerably plentiful in the Caribbean seas.
---
*º-ºº-º-
H== -
Acalepha.
* Literally “thorn-tailed,” from the Gr. &kav6a, a “thorn,”
and oipá, a “tail.” +












*
20
A can'thus [from the Gr. &kav6a, a “thorn ?”), the sys-
tematic name of a
genus of herba-
ceous plants, na-
tives of Southern
Europe, belonging.
to the natural order
Acanthaceae. The
most remarkable
species of this ge-
nus are the Acan-
thus mollis and the
Acanthus spinosus,
which have large
white flowers and shin-
ing leaves of a beautiful º
form. This foliage is W.
Said to have suggested
to the architect Callim-
achus the first idea of
the ornate and beauti-
ful capital which forms
i
i
Eº
t
the most striking feature *Nº ||
in the Corinthian order &#; -
of architecture. Leave y modified,
A Capel’la, or A la Capel/la, in music, means “in
the church style;” it is equivalent to alla breve, a time-
signature which frequently appears in church music. It
likewise denotes that the instruments are to play in unison
with the voices, or that one part is to be played by a num-
ber of instruments.
Acapul’co, a seaport-town of Mexico, on the Pacific
Ocean, and in the state of Guerrero, 190 miles S. S. W. of
Mexico; lat. 16° 55' N., lon. 99° 48' W. The harbor is
nearly landlocked, and is one of the best in the world.
The climate is hot and unhealthy. It formerly commanded
the whole trade between the Spanish dominions in America
and those in the East Indies. Since the discovery of the
California gold-mines it has again become one of the most
important ports of Mexico. The harbor is so deep that
large ships can anchor close to the granite rocks. The
steamers which ply between Panama and San Francisco
touch here regularly. The greater part of the town was
destroyed by an earthquake in 1852. Pop. about 3000.
Acari/dae or Acar’ida [for etymology see ACARUs],
a family of Small animals, including the acarus or mite
and other minute insects belonging to the order Arach-
nida. Their food consists of both animal and vegetable
substances. Some of them are free and lead a wander-
ing life, while others are parasitic, living on other ani-
mals.
nished with distinct mandibles, and are often found in
Those of the former class have their mouths fur-
great numbers in old cheese, brown sugar, and dried fruit,
and in the cabinets of entomologists. One of the most
destructive of these is the Acarus destructor. Those of
the latter, class are possessed of a sucker, by which they
adhere to the skins of animals, where they are supplied
with nourishment.* A few species of the Acaridae are
aquatic, and have their legs furnished with hairs, by means
of which they swim with facility. The Acaridae are propa-
gated by eggs, and are extremely prolific. When mature
they usually have eight legs, the young or imperfectly de-
veloped animals having only six. It was an Acarus whose
appearance under the electrical experiments of Mr. Crosse
startled the public several years ago with the supposition
that it was generated or created by the electrical fluid.
From its discoverer it was called Acarus Crossii. (See
SPONTANEOUs GENERATION.)
A car'ina [for etymology see ACARUs], a sub-order of
spider-like insects, inferior in rank to true spiders, includ-
ing the ticks, the mites (Acaridae), and other families,
having the various articulations merged into or closely
joined to the abdomen. -
Acarna’nia, a district of ancient Greece, bounded on
the N. by the Ambracian Gulf, on the E. by the river
Achelous, and the S. and W. by the Ionian Sea. Accord-
ing to tradition, it was named from Acarnan, the son of
Alcmaeon. It is mostly occupied by well-wooded hills or
mountains. Acarnania and Ætolia constitute a nomarchy
or province of modern Greece, with an area of 3025 square
miles. Pop. in 1870, 121,693.
Ac/arus [from the Gr. &kapās, “that which cannot be
cut on account of its smallness” (from a, negative, and
keipo, to “cut”)], a genus of minute animals, including
the common mite found in figs and other dry provisions
(the Acarus domesticus), and many other species. (See
ACARIDAE.) The itch is caused by an acarus which was
* For an account of the parasitic Acaridae the reader is re-
ferred to Kuechenmeister’s “Manual of Parasites,” vol. ii.
A CANTHUS–ACCENT.
formerly known as the Acarus scabiei, but which is now
usually called Sarcoptes hominis. -
Acºca Lauren’tia was the name of a woman to whose
grave the ancient Romans brought sacrifices on the occa-
Sion of a festival, on the tenth day before the calends of
January. According to a Roman legend, she married the
rich Tarrutius, and upon her death left her whole property
to the Roman people; while, according to another legend,
she was the nurse and foster-mother of Romulus and
Remus.
Accelerando, in music, signifies, with gradually in-
creasing velocity of movement.
Acceleration [Lat. accelera/tio, from ad, “to" (im-
plying “addition ”), and cel'ero, celera/tum, to “ hasten”],
a continuous increase of the velocity or rate of motion of
a moving body. The measure of velocity is, in general,
the space through which that velocity, if unvarying, would
carry a body in a unit of time (in mechanics, one second).
When motion is uniform, the spaces passed over in sué-
cessive units of time are equal. When it is accelerated or
retarded, these spaces increase or diminish, and cannot be
taken as measures of the velocity at either the beginning
or the end of the period. In order, therefore, to compare
the successive velocities of an accelerated or retarded body,
the spaces must be taken which are passed over in consec-
utive equal but indefinitely small intervals of time. If these
minute spaces increase, the velocity is accelerated; if they
diminish, it is retarded. Their differences show whether
retardation is uniform or otherwise. If they increase, it
is increasing; if they diminish, it is diminishing. Thus,
the differences of these differences, or the second differences,
indicate the character of the variation. If the second dif.
ferences are positive, the acceleration is increasing or the
retardation is diminishing, and vice versé. If the second
differences are zero, the acceleration or retardation is uni-
form. The simplest case of a force producing a uniform
acceleration is that afforded by the action of the earth on
falling bodies. The increase of velocity in this case is pro-
portional to the time, and nearly equal to 32.2 feet per second.
AccELERATION OF THE FIXED STARs denotes the appar-
ent greater diurnal motion of the stars than of the sun,
the cause of which is that the sun’s apparent yearly motion
takes place (though much more slowly) in a direction con-
trary to that of its apparent daily motion. Compared with
the Sun, the stars thus seem to gain about three minutes
fifty-six seconds each day, coming by that interval earlier
each successive twenty-four hours, to the meridian.
ACCELERATION OF THE MOON, or ACCELERATION OF THE
Moon's MEAN MOTION, is one of the most remarkable pe-
culiarities of the lunar motions. It was noticed by Halley
that when the ancient eclipses are compared with mod-
ern lunar observations, the moon is found to be moving
faster now on her course round the earth than in former
days. The explanation of this peculiarity was long sought.
for unsuccessfully by the leading professors of the New-
tonian system of astronomy. Indeed, it may be said even
now that the acceleration of the moon is a problem but par-
tially solved. We owe to Laplace the first successful attempt
to explain the difficulty. He showed that the moon’s mo-
tion is accelerated through the slow process of diminution
which the eccentricity of the earth's orbit is undergoing.
Owing to this change, there results (on the whole) a slight
diminution of the sun's influence upon the moon’s motions.
The influence of the earth being thus increased, the same
effect accrues as would follow from a slight increase in the
earth’s mass; in other words, a slight decrease in the moon’s
period of revolution. But it has been recently shown that
Laplace's explanation accounts for only about one-half of
the moon’s actual acceleration. The remaining half remains
still unexplained.
ACCELERATION OF THE PLANETs. The motion of the
planets in their orbits. is variable, being quicker or slower
according as the planet is at a less or a greater distance from
the sun. Hence, in moving from the apogee to the perigee
of the orbit, the motion of a planet is accelerated, and on
the contrary, in moving from the perigee to the apogee, the
motion is retarded. - F. A. P. BARNARD.
Ac/cent [Lat. accen/tus, from ad, “to ” or “according
to,” and ca/no, can’tum, to “sing” or “sound”]. In Eng-
lish, accent usually denotes the greater stress which is laid
on some one syllable of a word, as, for example, in nation,
protect', evident, formidable. In our language the accent
is never placed farther from the end of a word than the
pre-antepenultimate (as in eac'quisitely, hospitable, for’mi-
dable). Even this is comparatively rare, and the pronun-
ciation of such words is attended with some difficulty to
many speakers. The accent on the antepenultimate (as in
educate, ev'ident, mortal/ity), on the penultimate (as in
devotion, maſtion, etc.), and on the ultima (as in eachort',
proceed’), is of continual occurrence. -


ACCENTOR-ACCIDENT.
2] .
In French, accent denotes not a stress of voice, but for the
most part simply a quality of sound; thus, e with the acute
accent (6) represents a sound nearly similar to the English
a in fate; with the grave accent (e) it indicates a sound
nearly like our e in met, and with the circumflex (6) a sound
similar to the last, but still more open. A with the circum-
flex (á) is pronounced like our a in far or farther (à), while
a without any accent approaches very nearly to our a in
fat (ā). The grave accent on the preposition à (“to *) is
merely used to distinguish this word from the verb a (“has”),
which is always written without the accent.
In German, accent is essentially the same as in English;
in Italian, Spanish, and most other European languages
(including the modern Greek), it is similar, or very nearly
similar, to that of our tongue. --
With regard to the ancient Greek accent, there is a great
diversity of opinion among scholars. The most probable
theory seems to be that the acute accent of the Greeks
caused the syllable on which it was placed to be sounded
in a higher key than the other syllables, but without any
greater stress or force of utterance, and that “when a high-
tone ultima, followed by other words in close connection,
dropped down to a lower key, it was written with a grave
accent instead of the acute.” (See on this subject an inter-
esting paper read by Prof. Hadley before the American
Philological Association, July 27, 1870.) The acute fol-
lowed by a grave on the same long syllable combined to
form the circumflex. They were at first probably written
separately, as in the word gºwa, but afterwards the two
were joined, as in orópa. The invention of the Greek signs
of accent is due to Aristophanes of Byzantium, a cele-
brated grammarian, who lived and taught in Alexandria,
and who flourished about 260 B.C. (or about 200 B.C., ac-
cording to some writers).
ACCENT in music is analogous to accent in language. It
consists of a stress or emphasis given to certain notes or
parts of bars in a composition, and may be divided into
two kinds—grammatical and rhetorical or aesthetic. The
first kind of accent is perfectly regular in its occurrence,
always falling on the first part of a bar. It is true that
long or compound measures of time have, besides the chief
accent in every bar, some subordinate accent, but these are
only slightly marked. As a general rule, we may observe
that the grammatical or regular accent must not be exag-
gerated. It should be marked only so far as to give a clear
sense of rhythm. The aesthetical accent is irregular, and
depends on taste and feeling, exactly as do the accent and
emphasis used in oratory. In vocal music well adapted to
words, the words serve as a guide to the right use of aesthet-
ical accents.
Accenºtor [Lat. the “warbler”], a genus of warblers,
% t ſº
%;
Accentor.
including the hedge-accentor or sparrow (Accentor modul-
Čaris), a familiar and abundant European bird, five and a
half inches long, brown above, steel-colored beneath. Its
song is fine, but short. It has been introduced into the
U. S. The Accentor Alpinus of the Alps is a larger bird.
Accepſtance, an engagement to pay a bill of exchange.
(See BILL OF ExCHANGE, by PROF. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.)
Accep’tants, or Constitutionists, a name given
in 1713 to the Jesuits in France who accepted the constitu-
tion or bull Unigenitus issued by Pope Clement XI. The
Jansenists, who rejected the pope's bull, were called Ap-
pellants or Recusants, and appealed to a general council.
% .
& %| i. /,
º º
ſº
:::::::s
They were imprisoned and persecuted, but after the death
of Louis XIV., the regent, the duke of Orleans, prevailed on
the greater part of the recusant bishops to accept the bull
with certain modifications. The Appellants continued their
resistance after the Unigenitus became national law (1730).
Acces/sary, or Acces’sory [from the Lat. ad, “to,”
and cedo, cessum, to “go ºl, in criminal law, a participant
in a felony who is not the chief actor, and is not pres-
ent at its commission, but yet in some way is connected
with it, either before or after the fact (or act committed).
An accessary before the fact is one who, though not present,
procures, counsels, or commands another to commit it. An
accessary after the fact is one who, knowing a felony to
have been committed, receives, relieves, comforts, or assists
the felon.
In offences below the grade of felony there are no acces-
saries. All implicated are regarded as principals. By the
common law of England the same rule is applied to the case
of treason. In manslaughter, as defined by common law,
there can be no accessary before the fact.
Acces/sion [Lat. accessio, from ad, “to,” and cedo, ces-
sum, to “go”], in law, a species of title to property borrowed
from the civil (or Roman) law, and defined to be the right
to all which one's own property produces, whether that prop-
erty be movable or immovable, and the right to that which
is united to it by accession, either naturally or artificially.
By this principle the increase of an animal belongs to its
owner, or a building becomes the property of the man on
whose soil it is erected. An important instance of the ap-
plication of this doctrine is found in the manufacture by
one person of materials belonging to another. The prop-
erty in its manufactured state belongs, in general, to the
owner of the materials. A leading exception to the prin-
ciple is, that if the manufacturer, acting in good faith,
without the consent of the owner, changes the identity of
the materials, as if he converts grapes into wine or grain
into whisky, he will become the owner of the manufac-
tured article. This rule would not be applied in favor of a
wilful wrong-doer. The word “accession” is also used to
indicate the fact of succession in government, such as the
“ accession * of a new dynasty in monarchies, as in the case
of the House of Hanover in England. T. W. Dwight.
Accessory, or Accessary, in painting, a term ap-
plied to everything introduced into a picture that is not an
essential part. In an historical painting the human or ami-
mated figures are the principal objects, and all the others
are accessories.
Ac/cidens, or Per Accidens (i. e. “by accident’’),
a Latin phrase used by the older philosophers to denote an
effect not following from the nature or essence of the thing,
but from some accidental quality. It is opposed to
per se: thus, fire burns per 8e; heated iron burns per
accidens.
Ac/cident [from the Lat. ad, “to,” and ca/do, to
“fall,” to “happen "J, in logic, is, one of the predi-
cables; in its strictest logical sense it is that which
may be absent from or present in the subject, the es-
sence of the species to which the subject belongs re-
maining the same. Thus, if it be predicated of a man
that he is “walking,” or that he is “a native of Paris,”
the first expresses what is termed a separable accident,
the latter an inseparable; i. e. the individual may
cease to walk, but cannot cease to be a native of Paris,
but neither of these alters the species, man, to which
the individual belongs. It is to be observed with re-
gard to the accident, as well as the other predicables,
that they exist only relatively to each other, so that
the same quality may be accidental when predicated
of the species which is a property when predicated of
the individual. Thus, “malleability " is an accident
of the subject “metal,” because many metals are not
malleable. But it is one of the properties of gold, iron,
etc., as distinguishing these from the non-malleable
g->
metals.
Accident. This is an important topic in equity
jurisprudence. It has been defined to be such an un-
foreseen event, misfortune, loss, act, or omission as is
not the result of any negligence or misconduct in a party.
It is, however, difficult to bring all the cases in which the
court assumes jurisdiction within the bounds of a definition.
Some of the leading cases of interference by the court are—
1. Where negotiable or other instruments have been lost,
and there is no adequate remedy in a court of law. 2.
Where a clause has been inadvertently omitted from or in-
serted in an instrument. The court in such a case makes
the instrument conform to the intent of the parties. 3.
|Penalties and forfeitures. In this class of cases the court
relieves against the penalty or forfeiture where the injury
occasioned by the breach of duty is susceptible of complete






22
ACCIDENT—ACCOUNT. |
compensation, as in the case of an omission to pay rent on
an appointed day. There would be no relief in case of a
wilful wrong, nor where the forfeiture is in the nature of a
statutory remedy for a breach of duty. 4. Cases of omis-
sion, through inadvertence or want of knowledge of facts,
to defend an action. The court has power to allow the me-
cessary steps still to be taken. It is a general rule that
the court will not interfere in favor of a mere volunteer,
such as a donee or devisee in a will. Thus, if a seal were
accidentally omitted from a conveyance made without con-
sideration, or a clause were omitted from a will, there would
be no relief. It is a further rule that relief will not be
granted as against a purchaser who has acquired legal
rights in good faith and for a valuable consideration.
Accident, a post-township of Alleghany co., Md. Pop.
1006. -
Acciden/tal Col’ors are colors depending on the hy-
persensibility of the retina of the eye for complementary
colors. If we look for a short time steadily with one eye
upon any bright-colored spot, as a wafer on a sheet of white
paper, and immediately after turn the same eye to another
part of the paper, a similar spot will be seen, but of a
different color. If the wafer be red, the imaginary spot
will be green; if blue, it will be changed into yellow ; the
color thus appearing being always what is termed the com-
plementary color of that on which the eye was fixed.
Accidentals, in music, are those flats and sharps
which are prefixed to the notes in the course of a move-
ment, and are not indicated by the signature at the com-
mencement.
AccIDENTALs, in painting, are those fortuitous or chance
effects, occurring from luminous rays falling on certain
objects, by which they are brought into stronger light than
they otherwise would be, and their shadows are conse-
quently of greater intensity. This sort of effect is to be
seen in almost every picture by Rembrandt, who used them
to a very great extent. There are some fine instances of
accidentals in Raphael’s Transfiguration, and particularly
in the celebrated picture, the Wotte of Correggio, in which
the light emanates from the infant Christ. With these
effects may be classed such accidental lights as those from
a forge or a candle, or some such object, of which the use
is extremely important to the painter of still-life.
Accip/itres [from the Lat. accip’io, to “take ’’I, the
plural of the Latin accip/iter, the name given by Linnaeus
to an order of carnivorous birds, including the eagle, vul-
ture, hawk, and owl. More recent Ornithologists have
named this order RAPTOREs. This order comprises all the
true birds of prey, though the shrikes and a few other
birds, from their habits, almost deserve the latter title. As
may be seen in the accompanying illustrations, the beaks
ſº
7:S
£º
Head and Foot of Head and Foot of Pere- Head and Foot of
the Osprey. grine Falcon. American Spar-
row-hawk.
and claws of the Accipitres are marvellously adapted, by
their sharpness and curvature, to the predatory habits of
these birds.
Acclama/tion [Lat. acclama/tio], a term used in pub-
lic and deliberative assemblies. A motion or proposition is
adopted by acclamation when the assent is so nearly unani-
mous that the counting of votes is omitted. The different
modes of electing a pope are called scrutiny, acclamation,
and inspiration.
Acclimation [from the word climate], the adaptation |
of a human being to a climate different from that to which
he is accustomed. Such adaptation is accompanied by a
change in the organism, assimilating it to those of natives
of the country which the acclimatized person has adopted.
Certain tropical climates, it would appear, can never be
safely endured by any native of cold or temperate regions.
The British troops in Bengal never become truly acclimated,
but the ill-health and mortality increase with the length of
stay in that climate. The same experience has been met
with in West Africa, and elsewhere. On the other hand, the
French island of Réunion, which is very unhealthy even
for planters and merchants and most others, has a healthy
and hardy peasantry of French descent, whose immunity
from disease is probably to be ascribed to their abstinence
from alcoholic stimulants and from all excesses—an absti-
nence which is enforced by their utter poverty. This im-
portant Subject has only of late received careful attention.
Acclimatization, the adapting an animal or plant
to a foreign climate. Although many plants and animals
have a remarkable capacity of adapting themselves to
changes of climate, yet such changes are often attended
with maladies called “diseases of acclimatization.” Special
associations (called “acclimatization societies”) for accli-
matizing animals, plants, etc. have been formed in many
countries. Instead of “acclimatization,” the French use
the word “acclimatation.”
The acclimatization of foreign field and singing birds in
the U. S. has been attempted near most of our larger cities
with considerable, success. The “Acclimatization Society”
of Cincinnati in 1873 imported many hundred pairs of
German birds at great expense. The object is not only to
naturalize foreign Songsters, but to increase the number of
birds destructive of insects injurious to vegetation. Simi-
lar societies exist at Sandusky, St. Louis, and other points,
both in the Northern and Southern States. Among the
birds imported are the blackbird (a singer), thrush, golden
finch (very beautiful and a Sweet singer), green-bird, bull-
finch (easily tamed and trained), redbreast, starling (a fine
singer), lark, greenfinch, goldfinch, knotpecker, the wagtail,
the magpie, hedge-sparrow, titmouse, nightingale, redtail,
German quail (a singer), and fence-sparrow.
Accolade, a ceremonious act by which, in former
times, knighthood was conferred. It was an embrace and a
gentle blow or “dub’’ on the shoulder of the new-made
knight, made by the sovereign.
Accol'ti (BENEDETTo), an Italian writer and lawyer,
born at Arezzo in 1415, became chancellor of the republic
of Florence in 1459. He wrote a Latin history of the cru-
sade which Godfrey of Bouillon conducted to Palestine.
This was the basis of Tasso's great poem. Died in 1466.
Ac/comac, a county in the E. part of Virginia, bor-
dering on Maryland. Area, 480 square miles. It is part
of a peninsula, the “Eastern Shore,” and is bounded on
the E. by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the W. by Chesa-
peake Bay. The surface is level and the soil moderately
fertile. Corn, oats, and wool are raised. Capital, Drum-
mondtown or Accomac Court-house. Pop. 20,409.
Accomac Court-House, a post-village, the capital
of Accomac co., Va., 95 miles E. by N. of Richmond.
Accommodation iPaper. See BILL OF ExcBANGE.
Accom/plice [ad-con-plicare, to “fold up together”],
one of several persons associated in a crime. In its broad-
est use it includes all who are connected with the offence,
whether as principals or accessaries; but it is generally ap-
plied to those who are admitted to give evidence against
their fellow-criminals.
Accord' [from the Fr. accorder, to “harmonize”], or
Accord and Satisfaction, in law, an agreement be-
tween an injured party and the one who has caused the
injury that the latter shall give, and the former receive,
something in satisfaction of the Wrong inflicted. The “ac-
cord” is an agreement as to the thing to be done, and the
“satisfaction ” is the performance of the agreement. This
agreement, if executed, is a bar to any suit brought on
the original cause of action. The subject is governed by
well-settled rules, such as that the thing to be done must
not be uncertain, that it must be advantageous to the in-
jured party, and that the agreement must be fully carried
into effect. Under these rules it would not be a valid ac-
cord to give the injured party something to which he was
already entitled, as, for example, to pay a portion of a debt.
Accord, in music, is synonymous with concord, the
relation of two sounds which are agreeable to the ear.
Accor/dion, a musical instrument, in which the tones
are produced by the vibration of metallic springs moved
by wind, which is applied by a bellows. It was invented
by Damian, a Viennese, about 1829.
Accountſ [remotely from the Lat. ad, “together,” and
compw/to, to “reckon”], a computation or calculation; a
statement of the receipts and payments of one who acts in
a fiduciary relation, as an executor or a trustee, or a state-
ment showing in detail the transactions between merchants
or others who have dealt together. An account current is
one that is open, running, and unsettled. An account
stated is one which has been adjusted between the parties,
and a balance struck. An account may also become stated
without any express agreement, and by implication, as
where one of two merchants who have dealt together draws


ACCRA-ACETATE.
up a formal statement of their dealings and sends it to the
other, and the latter receives it and retains it without ob-
jection for a reasonable time. He is thus presumed to as-
sent to its correctness.
Account, or account render, is the name of a common-
law action which lay against one who by virtue of his posi-
tion or office ought to have rendered an account and refused
to do so. This action is now almost obsolete. A court of
equity has much more complete power to grant relief in all
cases of mutual accounts, and in cases where the taking of
an account is incidental to other matters over which that
court has jurisdiction. Some of the instances in which an
account may be taken on the one ground or the other are
agency, general average, apportionment, contribution be-
tween sureties, waste, trusts, express or implied, including
administration, guardianship, and partnership. In suits
for an account both parties are deemed to be substantially
plaintiffs for many purposes, and an affirmative decree may
be made for the defendant, if a balance be found in his
favor, as well as for the plaintiff. T. W. DWIGHT.
Accra, or Ac/ra, a small territory in Africa, on the
Guinea coast, belongs for the most part to England. It is
about lat. 5° 30' N., lon. 0°12' W. The English portion
has about 3000 inhabitants, chiefly negroes.
Accre’tion [from the Lat. ad, “to,” and cresco, cretum,
to “grow”], the gradual accumulation of soil along the
banks of a river or the sea, formed by the washing of the
water. In the case supposed the increase belongs to the
owner of the adjacent land. If the increase be sudden,
the alluvion formed upon the sea-shore or navigable river
belongs to the state.
Ac/crimgton, a manufacturing town of England, in
Lancashire, is situated in a deep valley between several
hills, and at the junction of two railways, 13 miles E. of
Preston and about 22 miles N. by W. of Manchester. It
has increased rapidly in population and importance, and is
considered the centre of the cotton-printing business. It
has also extensive manufactures of cotton cloth, and coal-
mines in which many of the inhabitants are employed.
Among the public buildings is a fine Gothic church built
in 1838. Pop. in 1851, 7481; in 1861, 19,688.
Accuba’tion [Lat. accuba'tio, from ad, “to,” “upon,”
and cu'bo, to “lie ’’), the reclining posture in which the an-
cient Greeks and Romans took their meals. Two or three
couches were spread around the dining-table, each of which
was capable of containing three persons. The guests lay
on their left sides, their heads or elbows being supported
by pillows, the feet of the first being behind the back of
the second, and those of the second behind the third. The
middle place was generally deemed the most honorable.
Ac/cum (FRIEDRICH), a German chemist, born at Bücke-
burg in 1769. Having removed to London in 1793, he
became professor of chemistry in that city about 1802.
He promoted the use of gas for illumination by a valuable
work entitled a “Practical Treatise on Gas Light” (1815).
He wrote other works. Died in Berlin in 1838.
Accu'mulated [from the Lat. ad, “to,” “up,” and
cu'mulo, cumula’tum, to “heap”] Force is the power of a
moving body to overcome resistance. When a force acts
on a body so as to produce its motion, the force must be
in excess of the resistance to the motion, and, as power
is imparted to the body at each instant, this is termed ac-
cumulated force. Thus, if a strong man should pull on a
rope attached to a ship at rest, but floating free in still
water, his efforts at first would seem unavailing, because
his strength would be so slight compared with the vis
inertise (which is proportioned to the weight) of the ship.
If, however, he continue to pull steadily, the force applied
will gradually impart a Slow motion to the vessel. This is
an example of the accumulation of force, which, however,
is less manifest in this instance, owing to the fact that not
merely the vis inertiae of the vessel, but also the weight and
friction of the opposing water, are to be overcome. But
let us suppose a mass of iron or lead of many thousand
tons to be suspended by a huge chain or cable extending
to an immense height.* In this case, as there would be no
appreciable resistance from the air, the constant applica-
tion of a very small force would at length, by accumulation,
communicate a rapid motion and prodigious momentum to
the huge mass in question—a momentum which a force a
thousand times as great could not suddenly overcome, and
indeed could only overcome at all by a continual applica-
tion, and consequent accumulation, of force in an opposite
direction. -
* It is obvious that if the chain or cable were not very long,
the weight soon after it began to move (acting like a pendulum)
would necessarily rise considerably higher than the point at
which it was first suspended; hence a great part of the force ap-
plied would be lost in overcoming the attraction of gravitation. .
23
Accusative. See DECLENSION, by J. THOMAS.)
Aceph'ala [“ without a head,” from the Gr. a, priv.,
and kebaxi, the “head “l, a term applied to a class of mol-
-| lusks called otherwise Conchifera or Lamellibranchiata.
(See CoNCHOLOGY, by GEORGE W. TRYoN, JR.)
Aceph'ali [etymology the same as the preceding], a
term applied in the early Christian Church to bishops ex-
empt from the jurisdiction of their patriarchs.
Aceph'alocysts [from the Gr. a, priv., Rebaxi, “head,”
and kúatus, a “bladder”] are hydatids without head or
visible organs, and were formerly considered to be parasitic
animals, but more recent observations establish the fact that
they are scolices or larvae of cestoid worms, especially of
the tape-worm. They are found in various parts of the
body of man, as the liver, cavity of the abdomen, etc., .
and consist of simple sacs filled with a transparent liquid.
These sacs are oval or approaching to spherical, and vary
in size from the head of a pin to that of a child. They
appear to increase by gemmation, developing smaller cysts
between the laminae of the parent, which are discharged
from its inner or outer surface. They are composed of a
homogeneous substance resembling albumen. (See T. S.
CoEBOLD’s “Entozoa,” 1864, p. 259 et seq.).
Acer'ra (anc. Acer'rge), a town of Italy, in the prov-
ince of Caserta, 8 miles by railway N. E. of Naples. It
has a cathedral and a seminary. The sluggish channels of
the Lagni render the place unhealthy. Pop. in 1861, 10,971.
Ace’sius, a bishop of Constantinople, lived about 320–
340 A. D. He favored the Novatian doctrine. Constantine
said to him, “Place a ladder, O Acesius, and ascend alone
into heaven.” (SoCRATES i. 10.)
Acetab'ulum [a Latin word signifying a “vinegar cup
or cruet”], a term applied to the suckers on the arms of the
cuttle-fish and other dibranchiate cephalopods, which have
been, hence, recently termed Acetabulifera. These suckers
are called by Aristotle kötvNow (“cups”), which has sometimes
been erroneously translated “joints.” In anatomy, acetab-
ulum signifies the cavity of the hip-joint. In entomology,
it is the socket on the trunk of an insect in which the leg
is planted. - -
Aç’etal [from the Lat. ace’tum, “vinegar”], a colorless,
inflammable liquid obtained by the action of spongy pla–
tinum upon the vapor of alcohol. It is convertible by slow
combustion into acetic acid.
Aç’etate [Lat. ace/tas, -atis]. The acetates are a class
of salts composed of acetic acid and various oxides. They
are all soluble in water, and, for the most part, crystallize
readily. Many of these are extensively used either in
dyeing or for medical purposes. The following are among
the most important: Acetate of Aluminium.—This salt
exists only in solution, being decomposed by evaporation.
It is largely used in dyeing and calico-printing as a mor-
dant, and is prepared by precipitating alum with acetate
of lead, sulphate of lead being thrown down, and a mixture
of acetaté of aluminium and sulphate of potassium remain-
ing in solution. Acetate of Ammonium.—The neutral ace-
tate is a white crystalline salt, readily soluble in water and
alcohol, and evolving ammonia, on evaporation, so that it
is difficult to obtain it in its crystalline form. Its solution
is known in pharmacy as Spiritus Mindereri. Acetate of
Copper.—Copper forms several acetates; the normal salt.
is known as crystallized verdigris. It forms dark, bluish-
green prismatic crystals, which are efflorescent and very
poisonous. There are three basic acetates of copper,
named, respectively, the sesquibasic, the dibasic, and the
tribasic. These are all contained in common verdigris,
which is largely used both as a pigment and as a mordant
in dyeing. It is obtained by submitting metallic copper
to the joint action of air and acetic acid. Aceto-arsemite
of Copper.—A beautiful but very poisomous green pigment,
known in commerce as arsenic green, imperial green, Paris
green, and Schweinfurt green. It is insoluble in water, and
is prepared by boiling verdigris and arsenious acid together.
Acetate of Iron.—Iron forms two acetates; the only one of
importance, however, is the ferric acetate, which is gener-
ally prepared by mixing persulphate of iron with acetate
of lead. It has not been obtained in the crystalline state,
but forms a red-brown solution, which decomposes on ebul-
lition. A very crude mixture of the ferrous and the ferric
acetate, known as pyrolignite of iron, is largely used as a
mordant in dyeing black. Acetate of Lead.—Lead forms a
normal and several basic acetates. Normal acetate of lead
(known as sugar of lead) is a white crystalline salt, having
a sweet astringent taste. When oxide of lead is digested
with a solution of normal acetate, the tribasic acetate is
formed in long, silky needles. A solution of this salt is fre-
quently used on account of its power of precipitating many
vegetable substances, such as gum and coloring matters.
It is used in medicine under the name of Goulard water or
24
ACETIC ACID—ACHEEN.
Ggulard extract (liquor plumbi subacetatis). Acetate of
Potassium is a very deliquescent salt, and is obtained with
difficulty in a crystallized state; it melts to a limpid liquid
below redness. It exists in the juices of many plants, and
is prepared artificially for medicinal purposes by neutral-
izing acetic acid with carbonate of potassium. Acetate of
Sodium.—An efflorescent crystalline salt, prepared by Satu-
rating acetic acid with carbonate of sodium. On evapora-
tion it separates into large transparent prisms. It is simi-
lar in its medical properties to the acetate of potassium.
Acet/ic Aç'id [Lat. aq'idum aceticum] is the most
common of the vegetable acids, and is the essential princi-
- ple of vinegar. It is composed of carbon, oxygen, hydro-
gen, and water. It occurs in the juices of many plants, and
in some animal secretions. It is produced by the decom-
position and oxidation of many organic bodies. It is pre-
pared from weak alcoholic liquids, as wine, cider, and beer,
by oxidation, “acetous fermentation,” and by the destruc-
tive distillation of wood, “ pyroligneous acid.”
The chemical formula of acetic acid is HC2H8O2. Alco-
hol may be converted into acetic acid by bringing it into
contact with spongy platinum, from which it absorbs oxy-
gen. (See FERMENTATION.) Crystallizable or glacial acetic
acid, the most concentrated form of acetic acid, is obtained
by distilling dry acetates with concentrated sulphuric acid.
Acetic Anhydride, Anhydrous Acetic Acid, or
Oxide of Acetyl, obtained by the action of oxychloride or
chloride of phosphorus on acetate of potassium, a colorless,
very mobile, strongly refracting liquid, possessing a power-
ful odor. -
Acetic Ethers are acetates of the alcohol radicals, such
as acetate of ethyl (C2H5O2H3O2); acetate of methyl, “aether
lignosus” (CH3C2H3O2), found in crude wood vinegar;
acetate of amyl (C5H11C2H3O2), made by distilling acetate
of potassium, fusil oil, and sulphuric acid. (For other
members of the group see WATTs’s “Dictionary of Chem-
istry,” i. 21.)
Ac/etone, or Pyro-acetic Spirit, a limpid, mobile
liquid of agreeable odor and biting taste, like that of pep-
permint. It mixes with water, alcohol, and ether, and dis-
solves many camphors, fats, and resins. Acetone is the
representative of a class of organic bodies, called ketones,
which are derived from the aldehydes by the replacement
of one atom of hydrogen by an alcohol radical.
Aldehyde. Acetone.
C2H40. C2H3(CH3)0.
Ac/etyl, Acetox/y 1, or O'thyl, a radical not yet
isolated, but supposed to exist in acetic acid and acetates.
Acetyl is C2H3O.
Acetic acid, C2H30 O
H | * *
Acetate of potassium, C2H30 O
EC e
Acetic anhydride, C2H30 }
C2H30 ſ C. F. CHANDLER.
Achae’an [an adjective derived from ACHAIA (which see)]
League, a confederation of Grecian cities formed about
280 B. C. Previous to the invasion of Macedonia by the
Gauls, the Achaeans had performed an insignificant part
in the history of Greece, but soon after that event four
Achaean towns formed a league for mutual protection.
Aratus of Sicyon induced his native town to join the league
(251 B. C.), and was himself made strategos (general-in-
chief) of the confederacy. Corinth joined the league in
243 B. C., and was soon followed by Epidaurus, Megara,
and several other cities. Philopoemen, called the “last of
the Greeks,” became strategos of the league in 208 B. C.
In 191 B. C. the confederacy included Sparta, Athens, and
nearly all the cities of the Peloponnesus, and for fifty years
maintained the cause of Grecian independence against the
AEtolians and against the encroachments of Rome. The
confederates, under Diaeus, were defeated at Corinth by
the Roman general Mummius, and Southern Greece was
made a Roman province under the name of Achaia (146
B. C.). The Achaean confederacy may be said to fur-
nish the most perfect example of the federative system
which ancient Greece affords, and its history forms one of
the most glorious chapters in the annals of ancient times.
Achae/ans [Gr. Axalot], one of the four races of inhabit-
ants of ancient Greece. The name is often extended in the
IIomeric poems to the whole Greek people. The Achaeans
proper inhabited parts of Thessaly, and in the Pelopon-
nesus they anciently occupied Argos, Laconia, and the
neighboring regions, whence they were, for the most part,
expelled by the Dorians, the exiles settling along the north-
ern shore of the Peloponnesus, and founding there a new
community. They remained an obscure people till the
founding of the ACHAEAN LEAGUE (which see).
Achaſia [Gr. Axata], a state of ancient Greece, in the
N. part of the Peloponnesus, was bounded on the E. by
Sicyonia, on the N. by the Bay of Corinth, and on the S.
by Arcadia and Elis. It was about 65 miles long from E.
to W. The surface was hilly or mountainous. (See ACHAEAN
LEAGUE.) Achaia and Elis constitute a nomarchy or prov-
ince of modern Greece. Area, 1908 square miles. Pop. in
1870, 149,561. In the days of the New Testament writers,
Achaia signified the whole Peloponnesus.
Achard (Louis AMáDáE EUGENE), a French novelist,
born in 1814, was for a time contributor to the “Courrier
de Paris” in 1845, and after the revolution of 1848 became
a political writer in the camp of the royalists. He wrote,
among other works, “Belle Rose” (5 vols., 1847), “L’eau
qui dort” (1860), “Miss Tempête’” (1861), “Histoire d'un
homme” (1863), “Madame de Sarens” (1865).
Achaſtes, a friend and companion of Æneas, was noted
for his fidelity. The proverbial phrase fidus Achates is
often applied to a man who is a devoted follower of his chief.
Acheen', an independent kingdom in the N. W. part of
Sumatra, has an area of about 25,500 square miles. It was
formerly much larger, but in recent times its power and ex-
tent have considerably decreased. The interior is entirely
unknown. The E. coast consists of large fertile plains,
while on the W. are high mountain-ridges. The chief pro-
ductions are rice, cotton, tropical fruits, pepper, and vege-
tables. Horned cattle, horses, and goats are raised in large
quantities and of an excellent breed. The inhabitants are
Mohammedans, and are divided into Acheenese, Pedeerese,
and Malays. The former are found all over the empire,
and are again divided into three tribes. The Pedeerese
are found in the region of Pedeer on the N. coast, which
formerly was a powerful kingdom. They are of a much
darker complexion than the Achcenese. The Malays come
from the southern coasts of Sumatra, and prevail in some
parts of the S. W. They are of small stature, dark com-
plexion, more agile and ingenious than the neighboring
tribes, but also sensual, treacherous, and proud. They are
good sailors, very fond of cockfights, and addicted to the
use of opium and betel. Their language is a Malay dialect.
The estimates of the population range between 450,000 and
2,000,000. The sultan is nominally the highest authority,
but in reality the government is in the hands of a shah-
bandar appointed by him. The Sultan has generally very
little authority, because he has not the means to make him-
self felt. In many kampongs (i. e. villages), especially
those situated at a distance from the capital, and which
have become wealthy through trade, he possesses no au-
thority whatever. Each of the three subdivisions of the
Acheenese proper has two chiefs, whose position is heredi-
tary, and who bears the title panglima or tiv wanku. The
sultan must consult with these six chiefs on anything that
he intends to undertake, and must ask for their consent,
which they only give after consultation with the chiefs of
the second grade. These six chiefs of the Acheenese elect
the new sultan from the reigning family, and have the right
to depose him if he acts contrary to the popular custom, or
does anything injurious to the public welfare. Every vil-
lage has its own chief, called panghulu, imam, or datu, and
in a larger kampong a rajah. He must consult with the
members of his community on every question, and report
the result to his panglima. - ->
The income of the sultan consists of 5 per cent. of the
value of all goods, imported into the capital, Acheen, and
the duties levied on the goods imported in the provinces,
as well as on the sale of pepper. In return, he must pay
each of the panglimas five catti, gold (each at 480 Spanish
dollars). The panglimas, however, deliver just as much as
they please of the money raised in the Sultan's name, and
this explains the lowness of his finances. To improve his
financial affairs he carries on trade, and his mercantile
affairs are conducted by the shahbandar, who of course does
not neglect his own interest.
Acheen was visited by the Portuguese in 1506, by the
Dutch in 1595, and by the English in 1612. In 1659 the East
India Company established a factory at the capital. In 1818
a long internal war was brought to a close by the interference
of Sir Stamford Raffles in favor of the Sultan Jamhar, who
in return granted the English valuable trading privileges to
the exclusion of the other European nations. In 1824, Eng-
land exchanged her possessions in Sumatra against Malacca,
and the protectorate over Acheen was transferred to Hol-
land, which, however, engaged not to destroy the independ-
ence of Acheen. This provision was revoked by a treaty of
Feb. 5, 1871. In the beginning of 1873 a war arose between
the Dutch and Acheen. In the memorial published by the
Dutch government in April the treachery of the Sultan is
declared to be the cause. He is accused of having Solicited
the aid of the Dutch against some native tribes, and at
the same time the aid of other European powers, especi-
ally Turkey, France, and Italy, against the Dutch. In con-
ACHELOUS–ACHTKARSPELEN.
25
sequence of this, the Dutch governor was instructed to de-
mand a satisfactory explanation and guarantees for the
future conduct of the sultan, and only to declare war if
these demands were not complied with. As they were re-
fused, the governor declared war on Mar. 26, 1873. The
first operations of the Dutch were not successful, but they
were to be resumed in the fall on a large Scale.
The city of Acheen, the capital of the above state, in
lat. 5° 35' N., lon. 95° 19' E., is rapidly decaying. Ac-
cording to an old estimate, it had 30,000 inhabitants, which
number, however, is at present by far too large. It is situ-
ated on a river, about one mile from the sea-shore. The
harbor is guarded by a small fort with four or five can-
nons. Some coasting trade is carried on with Malacca,
Singapore, and Penang.
Achelo/us [Gr.’AxeX®os], now As' pro-Potſamo, the
largest river of Greece, rises in Mount Pindus, flows nearly
southward, forms the boundary between Acarnania, and
AEtolia, and enters the Ionian Sea, after a course of about
100 miles.
Aſchenbach (ANDREAs), a German landscape and
marine painter of the Düsseldorf school, was born at Cas-
sel in 1815. He obtained a medal of the first class in Paris
in 1855.
Achenbach (HEINRICH), a German statesman, born
Nov. 23, 1829, became in 1858 privatdocent, and in 1860
professor at the University of Bonn, in 1866 chief council-
lor in the Prussian ministry of commerce, in 1872 secretary
of state in the ministry of public worship, and on May 14,
1873, minister of commerce. He has also been since 1866
a member of the Prussian Diet. While professor in Bonn
he published valuable works on the agrarian relations of the
Germans in ancient times, on German and French mining
laws, and founded an excellent periodical exclusively de-
voted to mining law. 4
Achenbach (OswalD), a landscape painter, a brother
of Andreas, was born at Düsseldorf in 1827. In 1863 he
became professor of painting in the academy of his native
city.
Ache/nium [from the Gr. a, negative, and xatvo, to
“gap,” to “open ‘’J, a term applied by botanists to a dry,
hard, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit or pericarp, as that of
the rose and the ranunculus.
Aſchenwall (GOTTFRIED), a distinguished German
writer on statistics, born at Elbing in 1719, is reputed to
have originated statistical tables. He became professor of
philosophy at Göttingen about 1750. He first introduced
the term “Staatswissenschaft,” by which he proposed to
include all the knowledge essential to statesmanship. Died
in 1772.
Ach/eron [Gr.’Axépov, gen. 'Axépovros], the ancient name
of a river of Elis, an affluent of the Alpheus. It was also
applied in mythology to a river of the infernal regions.
Acheron'tia [from Ach/eron, in the Greek mythology
a river of the dead], ſº
or HDeath’s = h e a d
Moth, is a genus of
lepidopterous insects
belonging to the family
Sphingidae. There is
found in England and
other European coun- an
tries a species of this gº
genus (the Acheron'tia Yº!
at'ropos), having on
the back of the thorax
a remarkable represen-
tation of a human skull,
and it has hence received the name of death's-head moth.
This is a very handsome insect, and is from four and a half
to five and a half inches in expanse of wing. If disturbed
or handled, it makes a peculiar Squeaking noise, the only
known example, it is said, of a lepidopterous insect having
what may be called a voice. It is much dreaded by the
ignorant and superstitious, who consider its appearance to
be ominous of evil... It does not hesitate to attack bee-
hives, devouring the honey and putting the bees to flight.
Though possessing no weapons of defence that have yet
been discovered, it appears to suffer no harm from its armed
enemies. Its larva is a large caterpillar about five inches
in length, with beautiful markings; the color is a kind of
greenish-yellow, and the back is traversed by lines partly
blue and partly white, speckled with black spots. The
caterpillar feeds mostly on the leaves of the potato plant;
and it retires deep into the earth, and changes into a chry-
salis in the month of September. It emerges the following
June or July, transformed into a perfect insect. This moth
Death's-head Moth.
is seen most frequently in the mornings and evenings of
autumn.
Acheru/sia. I. A lake in Epirus, into which the river
Acheron flows. II. A cavern in Bithynia, near the city of
IHeraclea ; through it Hercules is said to have dragged Cer-
berus up to the light of day.
A = Cheval [Fr., meaning “on horseback” or “as-
tride”], as a military term, indicates the position or situ-
ation of a body of troops astride, as it were, of a river or
road, etc., which separates or divides one portion from an-
other. -
Achill, àk/il, or Eagle Island, an island off the W.
coast of Ireland, forming part of the county of Mayo. It is
about 15 miles long by 12 miles broad. Area, 55 square
miles. Pop. about 5000. On the coast is a sheer precipice
2200 feet high.
Achil/les [Gr. 'Axixxeſs], a famous Grecian Warrior, the
hero of Homer’s “Iliad,” was the son of Peleus, king of
Thessaly, and the sea-nymph Thetis. . From the name of
his father, he was often called PELI'DES. At the siege
of Troy he was pre-eminent for courage, strength, and
swiftness, but, having been offended by Agamemnon, he
refused to fight. But when his friend Patroclus had been
killed, he returned to the war to avenge his death. He
slew Hector and many other Trojans. According to a
poetic legend, his mother, by dipping him in the river
Styx, had rendered him invulnerable except his heel, by
which she held him. He was killed with an arrow by Paris,
who shot him in the heel.
Achil/Hes? Ten/dom [Lat. ten/do Achil/lis] connects
the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles of the calf of the leg
with the heel-bone. It is capable of resisting a force equal
to 1000 pounds weight, and yet is sometimes ruptured by
the contraction of these muscles in Sudden extensions of
the foot. The name was given in allusion to the death of
Achilles, the Grecian hero, by a wound in the heel. An-
cient surgeons regarded wounds or serious bruises of the
Achilles tendon as fatal. In modern surgery, however,
tenotomy, or the division of this or other tendons, is a not
infrequent operation, especially, in the treatment of club-
foot. In that form of this affection called Talipes equi'nus
the tendo Achillis is unnaturally shortened, so that the heel
in standing does not touch the ground.
Achil/li (GIov ANNI GIACINTo), DR., an Italian Protestant,
formerly a Dominican friar, was born at Viterbo, in 1803.
He left the Catholic communion about 1839, and issued an
Italian version of the New Testament, which is regarded,
by some, as the best in that language. In 1850 he went to
England, and became involved in a lawsuit (in 1852) which
was brought against Dr. John Henry Newman for slander.
The case was tried before Lord Campbell, and a Verdict
given for the plaintiff, Dr. Achilli. Dr. Achilli has also been
professor of the Italian language and literature in the Eng-
lish College at Malta.
Achromat/ic [“without color,” from a, priv., and
xpóga, “ color”], a term applied to lenses and telescopes
through which objects appear colorless, or without the dis-
coloration which arises from the unequal refrangibility of
the rays of light. (See next article.)
Achro/matism [for etymology, see preceding article].
(See ABERRATION, CHROMATIC.) A prism offlint glass will
cause a certain amount of refraction and of dispersion, and
if a similarly-shaped prism of the same glass be placed be-
hind it, in the reverse position, the refraction and disper-
sion in one direction by the first prism will be exactly
neutralized by the refraction and dispersion in the opposite
direction by the second prism, and as a result there Will be
no refraction and no color. But suppose a prism of crown
glass, having the same dispersion as the one of flint glass,
be placed behind the latter in the reverse position, the two
dispersions, being opposite and equal, will neutralize each
other, and the result will be white light; but the mean re-
fractions being different, they will not neutralize each other,
and the beam of light will pass through achromatic, or
almost free from color, but refracted more or less. As a
lens may be looked upon as a combination of prisms with
curved surfaces, achromatic lenses may be produced in the
same way as achromatic prisms. Absolute achromatism is
perhaps unattainable by art, owing to the spectra from dif-
ferent dispersive media not having an exact proportionality
to one another. This is called irrationality of dispersion.
It may be remedied in some degree by introducing a third
lens of plate glass in addition to the flint and grown glass
lenses. An under-corrected lens is one in which the cor-
recting lens of flint does not quite accomplish the purpose,
and the violet ray will come to a focus a little within the
red. In an over-corrected lens the error is of the opposite
kind, and the order of colors will be inverted.
Achromatic Telescope. See TELESCOPE.
Achtkarspe/ien (the “eight parishes”), a town of

26
ACHTYRKA—ACOMA.
the Netherlands, in the province of Friesland. Pop. in
1867, 9285.
Achtyrſka, a town of Russia, in the government of
Kharkov, 69 miles N. E. of Kharkov, on the Worskla River.
Pop. in 1867, 17,411.
Aci, or Aci Reale, a town and seaport of Sicily, in
the province of Catania, at the mouth of the river Aci, near
the foot of Mt. Etna, and 7 miles by rail N. E. of Catania.
It is built mostly of lava, and has many fine edifices. Here
are mineral springs and the Cave of Polyphemus. Pop. in
1872, 35,787.
Aç'id [Lat. acidus, “sour”], in chemistry, a term ap-
plied to an important class of compounds. The various
acids usually have the following properties: (1) solubility
in water; (2) a sour taste; (3) the power of turning vegeta-
ble blues to red; (4) the power of decomposing carbonates,
and displacing the carbonic acid with effervescence; (5)
the power of neutralizing more or less the alkalies, at the
same time losing most of their own characteristic proper-
ties, forming salts. (See SALTs.) A great number of acids
are compounds of oxygen with various elements. Others
contain chlorine, iodine, or other elements, instead of oxy-
gen. (See CHEMISTRY.) Various theories have been ad-
vanced to account for the peculiar properties of acids.
That of Dulong, proposed in 1816, is now generally ac-
cepted. It is known as the binary or hydrogen theory of
acids. All acids are considered salts of hydrogen (Ger–
hardt)—i.e. compounds of hydrogen with simple or com-
pound acid radicals; thus:
Hydrochloric acid H(Cl),
Hydriodic acid H(I),
Hydrocyanic acid H(CN) or H(Cy),
Nitric acid H(NO3),
Sulphuric acid H2(SO4),
Phosphoric acid H3(P04).
Salts, according to this theory, are produced by repla–
cing the hydrogen by metals or basic radicals; thus, hydro-
chloric acid and potassic hydrate form potassic chloride
and water : HC1 + KHO = R. Cl–H H2O. Nitric acid and
ammonic hydrate yield ammonic nitrate and water: H(NO3)
+ (NH4)HO = (NH4)(NO3) + H2O. Sulphuric acid and
calcic hydrate yield calcic sulphate and water: H2(SO4) +
Caliz02 = Ca(SO4) + 2.H2O. Phosphoric acid and sodic
hydrate yield sodic phosphate and water: H3(PO4) + 2Na
HO = Na2H(PO4) + 2.H2O. Acids are monobasic, bibasic,
tribasic, etc., according as they contain one, two, or three
atoms of replaceable hydrogen. Acids may produce several
classes of salts, according as they contain more or less atoms
of hydrogen. Hydrochloric acid forms one salt with potas-
sium, KCI. Sulphuric acid forms two—the neutral, K2(SO4),
in which both atoms of H are replaced by K; the acid, in
which only one is replaced, KHGSO4). Phosphoric acid
forms three classes, thus: K3(PO4), K2H(PO4), KH2(PO4).
An atom of a monatomic radical replaces one atom of
hydrogen, as shown above in the case of K,(NH4) and Na.
An atom of a diatomic radical, as calcium, replaces two
atoms of H, as shown above in the case of sulphuric acid
and calcic hydrate. This is further illustrated by the fol-
lowing formulae :
Acids. Radicals. Salts.
HC1 R! R(Cl).
& & Ca// Ca(Cl2).
& & Birtſ Bi(Cl3).
H2(SO4) IC/ R2(SO4).
& 4 IK! . RH(SO4).
&&. Ca// Ca(SO4).
H3(PO4) IC/ R3(PO4).
&&. 6& K2H(PO4).
& & && RH2(PO4).
&&. Ca// Ca3(PO4)2.
&&. &&. Ca2H2(PO4)2.
& & &&. CaFI4(PO4)2.
Compound ethers are salts in which the hydrogen of the
acid is replaced by the alcohol radicals. (See ETHER.)
Ethyl chloride (C2H5)(Cl; amyl nitrate (C5H11)/(NO3);
ethylene iodide (C2H4)"I2.
Acids are of three types:
H2
(1) The water type: water = #} 0, #} 02, #} O3;
nitric acid Goy O; sulphuric acid Gº") 02; phos-
phoric acid º)" } O3. w
(2) The hydrochloric acid type: hydrochloric acid HCI;
hydriodic acid HI; hydrocyanic acid H(CN).
(3) The ammonia type: ammonia NH3= N H; cyanic
H
acid (carbamide) N º o)", succinamide N { # 4H402)”;
sulphocyanic acid N { # sy.
(4) Intermediate acids are formed from two or more
atoms of two different types. Sulphamic acid (SO3H3N) is
derived from º } ; chlorhydrosulphuric acid (SO3HCI)
from #} . (See AMIC ACIDs.)
(See a very interesting paper on normal and derived
acids by G. F. BARKER, in the “American Journal of Sci-.
ence.” [2] xliv., 1867, p. 384.) C. F. CHANDLER.
Acidim/eter [from the Lat. ac’idum, an “acid,” and
the Gr. werpov, “measure *], an instrument for determining
the strength of an acid by its saturating power. It usually
consists of a glass tube graduated into a hundred equal
parts, and containing an alkaline liquor of known strength,
the proportion of which requisite to saturate a given quan-
tity of any acid is the equivalent of that acid. (See CHEM-
ICAL ANALYSIS and WOLUMETRIC ANALYSIs.)
Ack/land (Lady HARRIET CAROLINE Fox), a daughter
of the earl of Ilchester and wife of Major John D. Ackland
of the Twentieth regiment of foot in the British army, was
born in 1750, and accompanied to America her husband,
who was wounded and made prisoner at Saratoga, Oct. 7,
1777. She attended upon her husband (who died in the
following year) with great constancy and heroism. Died
July 21, 1815.
Ackſley, an incorporated town of Hardin co., Ia, at
the junction of the Dubuque and Sioux City and Central
R. Rs. of Iowa, 132 miles W. of Dubuque. It has a weekly
newspaper. ED. INDEPENDENT.
Acknowl'edgment [from the English word know-
ledge], in law, the act by which one who has executed an in-
strument declares or acknowledges, before some authorized
officer, that it is his act or deed. The term is also applied
to the officer’s certificate of this fact endorsed on the instru–
ment. The general object of an acknowledgment is two-
fold: first, to comply with the recording acts, so that the
instrument may be lawfully recorded; secondly, to give the
instrument such authenticity that it may be put in evidence
in courts of justice, without further proof of its execution.
As a general rule, it is not necessary to the validity of the
instrument, though the laws of some of the States provide
that a wife’s conveyance of real estate or release of dower
is invalid unless on a private examination apart from her
husband she acknowledges that she executed it freely and
without fear or compulsion of her husband. This rule is
borrowed in its substance from an English practice under
a so-called statute of fines. The officers generally author-
ized to take acknowledgments are judges and clerks of
courts, mayors, justices of the peace, commissioners of
deeds, and notaries public.
Acknowledgments of conveyances of real estate should
correspond in form with the requirements of the law of the
State where the land is situated, though that law sometimes
permits them to be valid if they conform to the law of the
place where they are executed. T. W. D WIGHT.
Ac’land (HENRY WENTwo RTH), M.D., D.C.L., F. R. S.,
born in 1815, was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, where
he took his degree of M. D. in 1848. He was one of the
founders of the University Museum, and became in 1858
regius professor of medicine. He accompanied the prince
of Wales to America in 1860, and has published “The
Plains of Troy’ (1839) and a valuable, “Memoir on the
Visitation of Cholera in Oxford in 1854,” besides numerous
scientific and medical papers.
Acoeme/tae (i. e. the “sleepless”), [from the Gr. a, priv.,
and koup.40p.at, to “fall asleep”], an order of monks, some-
times called Watchers, which was founded at Constantinople
early in the fifth century. They performed divine service
day and night, and were divided into three classes, each of
which had its share of duty. They established many mon-
asteries and were held in high estimation. Studius, a Ro-
man noble and a member of this order, built a monastery
called Studium, and the monks were styled Studitæ. Hav-
ing afterwards favored the doctrines of Nestorius, their
credit declined. - -
Ac/olyte [from the Gr. &kóAov60s, a “follower”], a func-
tionary who, in the Roman Catholic Church, assists the
priest in the performance of religious services. According
to Roman Catholic authorities, acolytes formed the second
of the inferior orders of clergy in the primitive Church,
subdeacons being the first. 2 It is now the fourth of the
minor orders.
Aco’ma, a village of Valentia co., N. M., supposed by
some to be Acuco, mentioned by the Spanish historians. It
is inhabited by Indians, is built on a high sandstone rock,
ACOMA—ACOUSTICS.
and is reached by a spiral staircase cut in the rock. It has
a church and a missionary station, but has at present no
priest.
Acoma, a township of McLeod co., Minn. Pop. 392.
Aconca/gua, the highest peak of the Andes, is in Chili,
lat. 32° 38' 30" S., lon. 70° 0' 30" W. Its height is 22,478
feet above the level of the sea.
Aconca/gua, a province of Chili, is bounded on the N.
by Coquimbo, on the E. by the Argentine Republic, on the
S. by Santiago and Valparaiso, and on the W. by the Pacific.
Area, 4932 square miles. This province is the most moun-
tainous part of Chili, and contains the highest peak of the
Chilian Andes, Aconcagua. The climate is very dry, and
owing to the high mountain-ranges there is very little veg-
etation in this province. Pop. in 1863, 130,253. Chief
town, San Felipe.
Ac/onite [Lat. Aconi’tum], a plant of the genus Aconi'-
tum and the order Ranunculaceae. The Old World contains
many species of this genus, some of them, particularly
Aconitum feroa of India, very poisonous. The Atlantic
U. S. have two native species. The Aconitum Napellus, or
monkshood, a native of Europe, Asia, and the Rocky Moun-
tains of the U. S., is the plant which yields the aconite used
in medicine. This plant abounds in the deadly alkaloid
aconitine, but when administered in suitable doses is useful
in rheumatism, neuralgia, and in fevers. This remedy, in
minute quantity, is a favorite with homoeopathists, but was
employed by physicians before the rise of homoeopathy.
The “winter aconite” (Eranthis) of Europe is a closely re-
lated plant, and has similar properties.
Ac/orus Cal'amus (sweet flag), a medicinal plant of
the order Araceae. Its aromatic stem (rhizoma) is used as
a stomachic and tonic. It is a native of both continents,
and is known as “sweet flag.”
Acos/ta (GABRIEL), a Jewish reformer, born in 1587 in
Oporto, Portugal, was educated in the Catholic religion, but
went to Holland, where he embraced the faith of his fathers,
and changed his name to Uriel. He was condemned and
persecuted as a heretic by the rabbis, and died by suicide
in 1647. His autobiography was published in Latin and
German in 1847.
A cotyle d'onous Piants [from the Gr. a, priv., and
kotwanööv, a “seed-leaf”], plants without cotyledon or seed-
lobes. The term is synonymous with CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS
(which see), for the latter plants are propagated by spores,
and not by true seeds. A few seed-bearing plants, like the
dodders, have, however, no cotyledons.
Acous/tics. The term acoustics is derived from the
Greek &kovarukós, from &koúto, to “hear”—“belonging to
the sense of hearing.” Acoustics has for its object the
study of the nature, the production, and the perception of
sound.
Strictly speaking, sound is a sensation which is produced
when vibrations of a certain character are excited in the
auditory apparatus of the ear. These vibrations are gene-
rated by progressive tremors in the atmosphere, called
sound-waves, the nature of which we shall briefly consider.
Let it be premised that the particles of the air, and of all
elastic media, are ordinarily maintained in a state of equi-
librium and rest by mutually repellent forces. If any par-
ticle be disturbed from its position of equilibrium, it must
be by an impulse received from some body foreign to the
medium ; and when so disturbed it is, solicited to return by
a force directly proportioned to the distance, or amplitude,
of its displacement from that point. Also, the velocity
with which it will be animated on reaching in its return
the point of original rest will be directly proportioned to
the extreme amplitude of its displacement; so that, in vir-
tue of its inertia, it will make an equal and similar excur-
sion in the opposite direction. When in its return from
this it reaches once more the point of equilibrium, it will
have passed over the entire range of its movement in both
directions; and this is said to constitute one complete
oscillation or double vibration.
From the law of force above stated the following deduc-
tions are made by the help of the calculus. Put a to rep-
resent the extreme amplitude of displacement; V, the
maximum velocity of the vibrating particle (the velocity with
which the particle passes the point of equilibrium, expressed
by the distance such velocity, continued uniformly, would
carry a body in one second of time); T, the time of a com-
plete double vibration; and it, the ratio of the circumference
to the diameter of the circle. Then V- 2.É. and T-2: ;
from which last expression it appears that the time of vibra-
tion is constant, whatever be the amplitude of displace-
ment, since a varies directly as V.
But in an elastic medium one particle cannot be dis-
placed from the position of equilibrium without disturbing
* - 27
the equilibrium of its nearest neighbors. . The neighboring
particle towards which it is driven will begin, almost, but
not quite in the same instant, to move in the same direction;
and this will disturb the next, and through it the third, and
so on, the tremor being rapidly propagated throughout the
médium. The distance to which this tremor will have
reached when the particle first disturbed has completed one
entire double vibration is the length of the sound-wave, or
of one complete undulation. - •
The relation between vibration and undulation may be
made more clear by the following illustration. Since WT
is the distance accomplished in time, T, with velocity, V,
and since VT = 2ira, it follows that if, with radius, a = CA
or CB, we dèscribe a circle, ADBE, a particle p' will de-
scribe the circumference, AIDBE,
FIG. 1. with velocity V continued uni-
D form, in the same time, T, in
t F which the vibrating particle p
performs a complete double vi-
bration on the diameter AB.
If p' leaves D in the same in-
stant in which p passes C, the
two will be together at B, and
again at A; and it is further
provable that, at any inter-
mediate instant, the line join-
H' ing p and p’, as FG or HK,
will always be parallel to CD,
and perpendicular to AB. Also, that if the arcs of revolu-
tion be reckoned from D, and the time from D to F, or from
D to H, be called t, the distance y= CG or CK, of p from
the point of equilibrium, C, will always be representable by

the formula y = a sin 2.É. ; and the velocity, v, of the same
particle will always be v =V cos 2.É.
Now the rapidity of the propagation of the tremor through
the elastic medium is, for all tremors producing the sensa-
tion of sound, vastly greater than the velocity v or V ; and
this velocity of propagation is uniform, although the sev-
eral velocities of the particles of the medium which succes-
sively take up the tremor, diminish with the increase of
distance from the origin, because of the diffusion of the
exciting force through a constantly increasing number of
particles. This diminution for moderate distances may be
disregarded. If the foreign body which disturbs p be, for
instance, the limb of a tuning-fork making 500 double vibra-
tions per second, the time of describing CB will be but the
2000th part of a second. During this time the tremor in
the air will advance more than six inches, while CA will
hardly exceed ºth of an inch. The velocity of propaga-
tion in this case, therefore, exceeds the mean velocity of
vibration more than 240 times. But if we consider the
movement of p through CB to be made up of an indefinite
number of exceedingly minute elementary motions, these
elementary motions will have all the different velocities cor-
responding to the possible values of FG between C and B;
and each one of these velocities will be successively trans-
mitted along the line of propagation, one behind the other;
so that, when p reaches B and comes to rest, all these
velocities will still be living in a row of particles extending
over a distance of six inches, the largest being foremost,
and the least, which is zero, being that of the particle p
itself. As p returns towards C, it leaves its next neighbor
towards the right partially unsupported, and that neigh-
boring particle follows it. There occurs then a second
series of propagated movements, all the molecules moving
in the returning direction, though the tremor advances,
forming the wave of dilatation, as the former was the wave
of compression. Sound-waves may accordingly be repre-
sented graphically by a curved line, as in Fig. 2, where the
FIG. 2. NLTT
- M-TTS, N
__” SLL^
portion of the curve above the horizontal straight line rep-
resents the wave of compression, and the part below the
wave of dilatation. The ordinates to the different parts of
this curve represent the velocities animating the particles
in the different parts of the wave; those above being ad-

.vancing velocities, and those below, receding. The dis-
tance between M and N is the length of a complete undu-
lation, commonly represented by A. Then if a. (Fig. 3) be
FIG. 3.
C A
e e s e e e e o e o 6 c e o e e o e º 'º e º O & ©
S--~~
º:
*— —”
28
ACOUSTICS.
taken to represent any distance from the point of rest, C,
of the disturbing or sounding body, the distance, y, of the
particle at a from its place of equilibrium will be expressed
by the formula
- = a sin 22 (+–*):
3) = a Sln Zºr (f ...) 5
and the velocity animating that particle at the instant by
the formula,
=V cos2 (£ ;)
v C - T T A} .
For examples under the first formula, let t = n T; i.e. let
p have made an exact number of complete oscillations;
then by giving different values to ac we ascertain the condi-
, tion of corresponding points along the line. Thus if a = 0,
we have y = 0; or p is at this moment in its position of
w A A A 3A
5’ 4? 2? T4 A, 238,
and substituting these values, we have the corresponding
values of y equal to — a 1%, -a, 0, -- a, 0 , ; positive signs
indicating displacement to the right, and negative signs
the reverse.
For examples under the second formula, let t = n T, as be-
for d out 2 –?, ?, *, *, *, *, * sivel
ore, and put a 3 -a, -a, -a-, 3, −, successively.
We shall then have v- + , V, -}V, -}V, ++, V, - 3 V,
V, 0, for the corresponding velocities; positive signs indi-
cating movement towards the right, and negative signs the
reverse. The signs of displacement and movement for the
same particle are half the time alike and half the time un-
like.
Velocity of the Propagation of the Sound-waves in the
Air.—This has been the subject of a considerable number
of experiments, of which we give below the most important.
In 1822 a determination of this kind was undertaken by
Some members of the French Academy; the stations selected
were at Montlhéry and Villejuif, the distance being 18622.27
mêtres. Cannon were alternately discharged at the two
stations at night, and the time which elapsed between the
flash and the perception of the sound noted. On the first
night twelve and seven shots were heard—on the second
only one. The result was, that at a temperature of 0° C.
sound travels with a velocity of 331.2 mêtres per second. It
is somewhat strange that to this important experiment only
two nights were devoted.* We have besides this, the more
careful experiments of Moll and Van Beek f in the following
year, who obtained for their result at 0°C., 332.05 metres per
second; and finally we must add the experiments of Bra-
vais and Martins, f who measured the velocity of sound in
a slainting upward direction from the Lake of Brienz to a
station on the Faulhorn, obtaining as result at 0° C. a.
velocity of 332.37. This last experiment is interesting as
showing that sound travels with the same velocity in an up-
ward direction as on a level, as is required by the formula
of Laplace.
. Recently several pieces of apparatus have been devised
by which the velocity of sound can be measured when the
distance travelled over is only a few feet; so that it is now
possible to make this experiment in a small apartment.
Suppose that we generate a sharp, short sound at the open
extremity of a tube, the other end being closed by a mem-
brane; the sound-impulse, reaching the closed end of the
tube, would announce its arrival by giving the membrane
a little push outward; and if we had fastened on it a pen-
cil, this might be caused to make a mark on a sheet of
paper at the same instant. Let us now imagine that we
had, near each other, two such tubes, the second one being
longer than the first, but bent so that both still terminated
side by side, each with its membrane and pencil, and that
finally our sheet of paper, instead of being stationary,
were in motion. Then, under these circumstances, the
sound-wave travelling through the shorter tube would
make its mark first, and the paper would have a chance to
move a few inches before receiving the pencil-mark due to
the companion wave; and if we knew the rate of the
paper’s motion, it is evident that we could easily calculate
the velocity with which the sound had travelled through
our apparatus. This general explanation will give an idea
of the principle involved in a number of new contrivances,
with some of which it is even possible to experiment at
various temperatures and on other gases than our atmos-
phere. A simple and cheap apparatus of this kind was,
in 1866, devised by Dr. Ernst Neumann,? a school-teacher
in Dresden; the difference in the paths of the sound-waves
was about twenty feet, although the length of the appa-
equilibrium. Making a successively =
* “Ann. de Chim, et de Phys.” T. xx., p. 210.
+ Pogg. “Ann.” Bd. V., s. 351,469.
£Pogg. “Ann.” Bd. lxvi., s. 351.
Pogg. “Ann,” czxviii., s. 307.
ratus was only three; the sound was generated by the dis-
charge of a child’s brass cannon. The paper was attached
to a circular disk arranged with a handle, which enabled
the experimenter to revolve it with a velocity of only one
turn per second, which was roughly accomplished by watch-
ing a seconds pendulum, consisting of a ball attached to a
string having a length such as to cause it to vibrate sec-
onds. The mean of a number of experiments gave a re-
sult far more accurate than would have been expected.
|Using the same general idea, but causing the sound-waves
to act on little gas-burners connected with the two mem-
branes, in the same year Ivan Zoch] in Erlangen contrived
a far more delicate instrument, with which he obtained re-
sults rivalling those of the French Academy in 1822,
although in his case the difference of the paths was only
three or four feet. With it he measured the velocity in
various gases, and by driving a current of air through,
during the experiment was actually able to ascertain the
change due to this cause. A somewhat similar idea was
used in this fruitful year by Prof. Quincke'ſ of Berlin, in
a very beautiful contrivance, where, unlike the two pre-
ceding, the signal was given not to the eye, but to the ear,
the two sounds being made to destroy each other, produ-
cing silence in a manner presently to be explained. With
this instrument Dr. Seebeckº has proved that in small
tubes sound travels slower than in the open air, partly, as
it would seem, owing to friction, and partly to loss of heat
developed by the sound-wave itself through conduction by
the walls of the tube. He has also shown that in 8m all
tubes the velocity is less in the case of deep notes than
with those which are higher.
Laplace's formula for the velocity of sound in gases and
vapors is
= \lº K.
q) d K;
v = the number of mêtres traversed by the sound-wave in
a second of time; g = the accelerating force of gravity =
9.8088 mêtres; h = the height of the mercury in the ba-
rometer reduced to the height it would have at 0°C. ; d =
the specific gravity of the gas, mercury at 0° being taken
as unity; K = the quotient of the specific heat of the gas
at a constant pressure, divided by its specific heat at a con-
stant volume = 1.42. It is seen from this formula that the
velocity is directly proportional to the square root of the
pressure the gas is under, and inversely proportional to the
square root of its specific gravity. It is evident also that
the veiocity is independent of the height of the barometer,
for a change in the barometer affects not only h in the nu-
merator, but also d in the denominator, in such a way that
the value of the fraction remains constant. No term re-
lating to the distance of the sounding body enters the for-
mula; hence the velocity is independent of the distance—
that is, of the amplitude of the sound-wave. The follow-
ing is a convenient formula for calculating the velocity of
sound in air at various temperatures:
w = 333. MV/1+ at ;
a = coefficient of expansion of air for 1° C. = 0.003665; t =
the temperature in degrees of the centigrade scale; M.
standing for mêtres. It was also found experimentally
that sound moves quicker with the wind and slower against
it; the final velocity being in the one case equal to the
sum, in the other equal to the difference, of the velocity of
wind and that of the sound-wave itself. In gases, the ve-
locity of sound, of course, as indicated by the formula, in-
creases with the temperature; in air this increase is about
two feet per second for each degree centigrade. The Veloci-
ty of sound in oxygen gas at 0°C. is 1040 feet; in carbonic
acid, 858 feet; in hydrogen, 4164 feet.
In 1827, Colladon and Sturm determined experimentally
the velocity of sound in fresh water. The experiment was
made on the Lake of Geneva, and it was found to be 4714
feet per second at a temperature of 15° C. , Laplace has
also given a formula for the velocity of Sound in liquids:
g as before = 9.8088 mêtres, and A is the amount which a
column of the liquid one mêtre long shortens under a pres-
sure equai to its own weight; it hence is necessary to de-
termine the compressibility of the liquid in order to employ
this formula, as the velocity is inversely proportional to
| Pogg. “Ann.,” crxviii., S. 497.
| Pogg. “Ann.,” czxviii., S. 177. e
* Pogg, “Ann.” czxxix., s. 104. Compare also the experi-
ments of Regnault on this subject (“Comp. Rend.” t. lxvi., p.
209); also those of Kundt (Pogg. “Ann.,” cxxx, S. 337); and
finally those of Schneebeli (Pogg. “Ann.,” cz.xxvi., S. 296).
A COUSTICS.
29
the square root of the compressibility. The velocity of
sound in alcohol at 20° C. is 4218 feet; in ether, at 0°,
3801; in sea-water, at 20° C., 47.68. -
The velocity of sound in solids can be calculated by this
º formula, and can also be experimentally determined;
that in
At 20 C.O At 100°.
Gold is 5,717............ 5,640
Ilead “ 4,030........... 3,951
Copper “ 11,666............ 10,802
Iron “16,822............ 17,386
The Intensity of Sound varies inversely as the square of
the distance of the sounding body from the ear; it is also
proportional to the Square of the amplitude of the sound-
wave. Thus far, we can hardly be said to possess a pho-
mometer, or instrument for the purpose of comparing the
relative intensities of two sounds or sets of sound-waves;
hence we must regard with interest a step recently taken
in this direction by Prof. A. M. Mayer of Hoboken, who, by
employing small vibrating flames and the principle of in-
terference, succeeded in solving this problem in certain
cases. For details we must refer the reader to the original
article, published in the January number of the “American
Journal of Science and Arts,” 1873.
Reflection of Sound.-The waves of sound can be reflected
like the Wayes of light, and obey the same law, the angle
of incidence being equal to the angle of reflection; this can
be proved indirectly with the aid of spherical or parabolic
mirrors, though, from the circumstance that the sound-
Waves are large relatively to such reflecting surfaces as can
be used, the experiments are far more difficult than with
the almost infinitely shorter waves of light. The author
has recently contrived a new method by which the reflec-
tion of sound can be studied, and the relative reflecting
powers of different substances examined. A circular disk
with open and closed sectors, or with sectors of different
materials, is made to revolve rather slowly near a sound-
ing-reed, in such a way that the sound is from time to time
reinforced by reflection. The result is, that a sound re-
sembling “the beats” is produced, these alternations of
sound and comparative silence disappearing when the disk
is made complete, or when its alternate sectors are com-
posed of substances having the same power of reflection.
The same apparatus can be used to determine the relative
powers of different bodies for the transmission of sound.
Echoes are cases of the reflection of sound, and the wonder-
ful power of very long tubes in conveying sounds to a great
distance is due to the same property. r
Refraction of Sound.—Sound-waves can be refracted or
bent out of their course by denser or rarer bodies in a man-
ner corresponding to light; this can be demonstrated by the
use of a large lens of carbonic acid enclosed in a thin mem-
brane, when it will be found that the sound-waves from a
watch will be concentrated just as a glass lens concentrates
the rays of light. Recently, the refraction of sound has
been directly studied with a prism, according to the method
which has long been used in light. Prof. C. Hajech gene-
rated sound-waves in the interior of a box b, by the aid of a
bell which was struck by clockwork; travelling along a tube
t, they reached the prism P, and were refracted by it as in-
dicated in Fig. 4. The amount by which they were bent out
of their path was ascertained by moving the ear over the
graduated circle ce, which was in an adjoining room, till
the position of maximum intensity had been ascertained.
The sides of the prism were made of thin membrane, of
paper, or finally of sheets of mica. Experiments were per-
formed on hydrogen, ammonia, illuminating gas, carbonic
acid, and on Sulphurous acid gas. Besides these gases, two
2
FIG. 4.
©
Iiquids were also employed—ordinary water and water satu-
rated with common salt. Amongst other results it was found
that the same prism refracted waves of different lengths (or
different tones) alike. The results of these measurements
corresponded with those indicated by the known velocities
of Sound in the substances employed, taken in connection
with the explanation of refraction as given in the undula-
tory theory of sound.
Sowmd-waves rendered Visible.—Quite recently this feat
has been accomplished by the German physicist Töpler, who
employed the snap of an electric spark for the generation
of the sound-wave, and then illuminated it by the instan-
taneous light of a second spark. He was thus not only
able to see with distinctness a simple sound-wave, but also
to observe its reflection, "refraction, and the interference of
two sound-waves. (Pogg, Ann., cyxxi., s. 180, 1867.)
Inflection of Sound-waves.—From the circumstance that
the sound-waves are not minute relatively to the obstacles
they encounter, it happens that they manifest this property
of travelling around corners in a high degree. The corre-
sponding experiments with light require some care, but the
inflection of sound-waves is something that we with diffi-
culty escape from, obstacles placed in their path casting but
little acoustic shadow. -
Interference of Sound-waves.—Thus far, we have occu-
pied ourselves, with single sets of waves, and have supposed
the particles of air to be acted on by only one wave at a
time. It will, however, more commonly happen.that it is
necessary to deal with particles which are at the same in-
stant being acted on by more than a single wave. Let us
take the simplest case, and suppose our particles acted on
by two equal and similar sound-waves; now, it may hap-
pen under these circumstances that the two waves agree in
their action, any particular layer of air being at the same
moment subjected to a condensation or rarefaction from
both these sources. When this happens the motion of its
particles will be twice as great, and we shall hear a louder
sound. But something else is equally likely to occur: it
may happen that just at the moment when the layer ought
to be condensed by one wave, its companion attempts to
rarefy or expand it; these two motions will then neutralize
each other, and instead of sound we shall have silence.
This can be illustrated with two similar organ-pipes which
give exactly the same note; sounding them both together
may give a louder tone, or one which is quite faint. If
closed organ-pipes are used, the silence, as far as the mu-
sical note is concerned, is quite coffiplete, nothing but the
hoarse noise which is always mingled with it being percep-
tible. We can combine both these experiments into a single
one by employing organ-pipes which give slightly different
tones; if now both sets of waves start fairly together, the
condensations and rarefactions being in harmony, this state.
of things cannot long remain, owing to the inequality in
their length, as is shown in Fig. 5, where condensation is
marked heavily, rarefaction lightly. Already at 1 the con-
densation coincides with the rarefaction; farther on, at 2,
the old state of things has returned; and the condition at
3 is the same with that at 1. Hence, in this experiment
we must expect to have alternations of sound and silence,
the tone rising and swelling to a maximum, then dying
away again to repeat itself, etc. These alternations are
called beats, and furnish even to the unmusical ear a very
FIG. 5.
§ –2-
| | | | | | | | | |
| || || ||
accurate means of judging of the identity of musical tones.
Having considered briefly these general properties of sound-
waves, we pass on to some of their distinguishing charac-
teristics. Among the most important of these is—
Length of Sound-waves.—The pitch of the note, other
things being equal, depends on the length of the wave;
long waves give low notes—short waves, those that are
high. The longest waves, in the air at a temperature 0°C.,
which are capable of producing the sensation of sound,
have a length of about 66 feet. The tone, from a musical
point of view, is imperfect, and in order to remove this de-
fect entirely it is necessary to shorten the wave to about
27% feet. On the other hand, when the waves are reduced
to a length of three or four tenths of an inch, they again
become inaudible; to have a useful musical effect their
length must be increased to about 3.2 inches. Instead of
speaking of the length of the sound-waves, which evidently
must vary with temperature, it is more customary to use
the number of vibrations producing a given sound; thus, as
sound travels at the rate of 1090 feet per second in the air
at 0°C., it follows that a wave 66 feet long will execute in
a second 16% vibrations, and one which is 27# feet long,
forty vibrations, etc. We give below a table, arranged in
octaves, of the number of vibrations of the notes used in
IlliS1C : *


30 ACOUSTICS.
- 16%. 33 66 132 264 528 1056 2112 4.224 The ear is so constructed as to be able to take up these
--- 2- E = | pendulum-like vibrations, which then produce appropriate
C C C C "c c. c. c. c sensations in the brain, but it is not capable of directly
— — - taking up vibrations which are executed according to laws
C, C, C C of off cºrr c” cºrn, different from that of the pendulum. Let us take a simple
Cºr Cſ C C C’ o'ſ of 17 cºrrr cºrrºr case, and suppose the air acted on by two pendulum-like
C2 C1 C C C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 sets of impulses, due to the joint action of two tuning-forks,
c-3 c_2 c-1 C0 c1 c2 cº C4 c5 one of which in a second executes twice as many vibrations
ut–2 ut—1 uti utz uts uta ut; uté ut'ſ as the other. The particles of air will then obey a new
As will be seen, several modes of notation are employed,
the last being the French—that preceding, the method
proposed by Sondhaus for scientific purposes. In large
organs C with 16; vibrations is reached, the effect being
imperfect; the piano reaches a with 3520 vibrations, and
sometimes c with 4224. The highest note employed in the
orchestra is d8, with 4752 vibrations (piccolo flute). The
practical range in music is from 40 to 4000 vibrations, em-
bracing seven octaves. The human ear is, however, able
to reach eleven octaves; that is, the sensation of sound is
produced by vibrations varying from 16% up to 38,000 in a
Second.
It is not difficult to measure the length of the sound-
waves or the number of vibrations producing them ; a very
simple means is with the sirene of Cagniard de Latour.
This instrument consists of a circular revolving disk C F
(Fig. 6), which is provided with fifteen small apertures
cut in its substance in a slanting direction; below this
disk is a second one, which is stationary, and also provided
with a similar set of holes. When air is driven through
the apparatus by a wind-bellows the upper disk is set in
rotation after the manner of a reaction mill, which has the
effect of rapidly opening and closing the set of apertures,
so that when a sufficient velocity of rotation has been at-
tained, the pulses of air rushing through produce a low
musical note, the pitch rising with the velocity or number
FIG. 6.
of vibrations communicated to the air in a second. Upon
the axis is an endless screw, E H, which, acting on a toothed
wheel, S, registers the number of turns made by it in a given
time, say in fifteen seconds. In using this apparatus it is
only necessary to raise the pitch of the note furnished by
it till it is in unison with the note whose number of vibra-
tions we wish to determine. If, then, this unison is main-
tained for fifteen seconds, we cam, without calculation, read
the required number of vibrations directly on the dial-plate
of the sirene; then, by dividing the velocity of sound in
the air by this number, we have the length of the wave.
In the case of a tuning-fork the number of vibrations can
be still more directly ascertained by attaching to one of its
arms a small piece of fine wire or a minute portion of a
feather, and causing this to act as a pen on a revolving
cylinder. This latter is covered by a sheet of paper which
has been smoked by burning camphor, and when -set in
revolution registers the vibrations made by the tuning-fork
on the lampblack surface. Seconds marks are simultane-
ously impressed on the smoked paper by an electro-mag-
netic attachment; so that afterwards it is not difficult to
obtain the desired result with a high degree of accuracy.
There are also other methods of measuring the length of
sound-waves, based on the principle of interference, and
quite recently Prof. Mayer of Hoboken has succeeded in
measuring wave-lengths directly in the air. (American
Journal of Science and Arts, for Nov., 1872, p. 387.)
The Form of a Sound-wave.—In all that has preceded,
and also in the formulas for the sound-wave, we have as-
sumed that the particles of air swing backward and forward,
obeying the law of the pendulum; and this is true for pure,
simple tones, such as those furnished by tuning-forks.
law, and will assume positions and velocities which are the
Tesultants due to the action of the two original forces, and
the form of the wave will be entirely altered. When this new
kind of wave strikes upon the ear it is instantly analyzed
into its two constituents, which independently affect their
corresponding nerve-fibrils, and a peculiar sensation is pro-
duced, due to the presence of two distinct sensations; in-
deed, as Helmholtz, to whom we owe these interesting facts,
has shown, it is possible after some practice to actually
recognize the two original constituents. If we add a third,
a fourth, or any number of new sets of impulses, the law
changes with each, and also the resulting form of the wave,
and consequently the final sensation. Conversely, if by
any other means we generate waves having forms not mor-
mal, and present them to the ear, they will instantly be
analyzed into a sufficient number of normal forms to meet
the requirement, and a corresponding number of sensations
will be produced. For example, reed-pipes, or a reed alone,
furnish waves with an abnormal form, and the sound from
them is analyzed, as Helmholtz has shown, by the ear into
sixteen to twenty sets of normal waves or pure simple tones.
We may add here that, as in this example, it is not neces-
sary that these distinct sets of waves or notes should be in-
dependently generated, but merely that the original wave
should have a form capable of being analyzed into these
simple constituents. Even the form of the wave furnished
by the sirene is not normal; along with its proper or fun-
damental note the octave is virtually present in an amount
which is often somewhat embarrassing. These higher notes,
which accompany the proper or fundamental tone, are called
over-tones, or harmonicals, and it is their presence which
determines the quality of the sound, or its timbre or clang-
tint. In the case of tuning-forks the over-tones are absent,
hence the hollow and somewhat poor character of the
sounds they emit; with closed organ-pipes they are scarcely
present to any extent, though more so with open pipes,
where the first and second over-tones can be distinctly re-
cognized—i.e. the octave and the twelfth. In reed-pipes
they are present in great abundance and strength, so as
quite to change the character of the fundamental note; the
same is true of stringed instruments. It is the presence of
these over-tones which enables us to distinguish between
different instruments, even when sounding the same funda–
mental note, and finally which, as we shall see, enables us
to recognize the voices of different persons under similar
conditions. Our inability to distinguish at once the pres–
ence of particular over-tones is simply the result of want of . .
practice, and is shared alike by the musical and unmusical.
This can be corrected by practice, or by the use of the
resonators contrived by Helmholtz. These instruments
have usually the form of a hollow sphere, open at both ends
of its diameter; one of these openings has a shape adapting
it for insertion into the ear; the other aperture is larger,
its size being determined by experiment. The size of this
opening and the capacity of the sphere are so related that
when the sphere is placed in connection with the ear the
experimenter is rendered comparatively deaf to all notes
but one, the strength of this latter being greatly exalted by
the instrument. The analysis of which we have just spoken
was to a great extent effected by the aid of these con-
trivances, a large number of these spheres being of course
necessary for purposes of investigation. We may add here
that Mr. R. Koenig, so celebrated for his beautiful acoustic
apparatus, has pushed this matter one step farther, and by
connecting these resonators with manometric capsules and
small gas-flames has succeeded in rendering visible the phe-
nomena of which we have been speaking, thus enabling a
person who is deaf still to pursue these investigations.
Cause of Dissonance or Discord.—This peculiar effect,
which sometimes attends the reception of two or more sets
of sound-waves, has also recently been explained by the
investigations of Helmholtz, which have thrown a flood of
light on this obscure subject. It has for a long time been
known that when two sets of sound-waves are simultaneously
presented to the ear, the relation between their length being
in some simple proportion, such as 1 : 2, 2:3, 3 : 4, or 4: 5,
an agreeable effect is produced, the sounds seeming to melt
into each other, producing what is known as consonance;
while, on the other hand, more complicated relations often
generate discord. To account for this, many fanciful theories
have been proposed, of which we will merely allude to that
of Leibnitz, who imagined that the mind delighted in the
;

ACOUSTICS.
31
wº-
perception of simple mathematical relations, and was dis-
pleased by the reverse ! It is hardly necessary to say that
this is not the true explanation, which we must seek in cer-
tain relations of the nerves of sensation to external stimu-
lating causes. The nerves of vision, touch, and hearing are
endowed with the following property: when stimulated, the
sensation produced is at the first instant at a maximum, and
rapidly becomes less intense; if, however, the nerves are
allowed to rest for small intervals of time, they quickly re-
gain their former sensitiveness, and this process may be
repeated indefinitely. If, now, we expose the eye, for ex-
ample, to light, we obtain the maximum sensation; then
the periodic withdrawal and return of the light may readily
be so arranged as to produce in succession a long series of
these maxima of sensation, which quickly become disagree-
able, and even may be dangerous: it is the case of a flicker-
ing light, whose bad effects are so well known. The sensa-
tion of tickling is strictly analogous to the above, and is
produced by corresponding causes. The nerves have, how-
ever, another well-known property: after stimulation the
sensation produced is found to remain, or “persist,” for a
minute interval of time with undiminished strength; so
that in the case of light and sound, if the successive stimu-
lations follow each other at sufficiently rapid intervals, these
evil effects are naturally abolished, and only continuous
sensations are perceived. Discord is, then, as Helmholtz
has ascertained, due to the presence of the beats, or to rapid
alternations of sound and comparative silence, they corre-
sponding to the flickerings of a flame. When from any
cause these beats follow each other at the rate of about 33
in a second, the discord is at its maximum, becoming more
tolerable with twice this number, and finally disappearing
altogether as their number is increased to about 120 in a
second. On the other hand, if the beats follow quite slowly
—for example, at the rate of three to five in a second—the
effect is not unpleasant, and can even be employed in music,
suggesting as it does the idea of trilling. Discord is then
due to the production of beats by the interference of the
over-tones, which almost always accompany the funda-
mental notes, and, as has been shown by calculation, this
can be entirely or partially avoided only by the use of such
simple ratios as those above indicated. For further details
we must refer the curious reader to the original work of
Helmholtz (“Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen,” 1865).
Effect of Communicating Motion to the Source of Sound
or to the Ear.—In all the foregoing it has been tacitly as-
sumed that during experiment the position of the source
of sound and of the recipient ear remained invariable;
when this ceases to be true, certain curious changes are
produced, which recently have grown into importance, ow-
ing to their correspondence with certain optical phenomena
by which it is possible to study the motion of the fixed stars
towards or away from our planet. Let us suppose that the
sounding body is stationary, and that the ear of the ob-
server is moved with some rapidity towards it; then it will
result that in a given time the observer will receive a larger
number of impulses than at first, and that the pitch of the
sound will be correspondingly elevated. The same effect
will be produced by moving the sounding body towards a
stationary ear. And from the same cause it is evident that
motion of the ear away from the source of sound will lower
the pitch of the note, etc. These ideas were first brought
forward by Christian Doppler in 1842, and since then have
been repeatedly subjected to the test of experiment. Dr.
Ballat in Belgium, with the aid of a locomotive and a party
of musicians, proved their correctness in a quantitative
manner, and Dr. Mach has contrived an apparatus with a
moving reed-pipe by which they can be studied in an ordi-
nary room; and finally by the use of tuning-forks Prof. Mayer
of Hoboken has succeeded in illustrating them before large
audiences. (American Journal of Science and Arts, April,
1872, p. 267.)
The Voice.—As the human vocal organs are built essen-
tially on the plan of a reed-pipe, it is desirable at the start
to understand the construction and action of one of these in-
struments. A reed organ-pipe consists, then, of two parts, a
vibrating tongue or reed, and a variously shaped pipe. When
connected with a wind-bellows the reed is thrown into vi-
brations, and after the manner of a sirene permits the air to
pass through in a series of puffs, which, linking themselves
together, generate a musical tone. The waves furnished by
the reed are not, however, normal in form, but, as pre-
viously explained, have a form such as would be generated
by the joint action of a fundamental normal tone or wave,
combined with a set of shorter waves or over-tones: in
other words, practically it furnishes a fundamental note
with a series of strong over-tones, the particular funda-
mental note and corresponding set of over-tones depending
on the construction of the reed itself and the manner in
which it is tuned. The function of the pipe is to strengthen
any or all of these notes; thus, conical pipes strengthen
all the over-tones up to a certain height, excluding those
that are not much longer than the aperture of the pipe
itself, while cylindrical pipes strengthen the odd over-
tones, or those whose rates of vibration are related to each
other as 1, 3, 5, etc. Hence, the pitch of the note is de-
termined by the rate of the reed's vibrations—the quality,
or clang-tint, of the sound by the shape and size of the
pipe. In the human vocal organs the reed is supplied by
two vibrating membranes at M (Fig. 7), called the vocal
cords. For the production of sound it is necessary that
they should be stretched, and that at the start the opening
between them should be closed. Air is then forced through
them from the lungs; they are set in vibration, and allow
it an interrupted passage, exactly as in the case of a
reed, as has been shown by experiments on the living and
dissected larynx, or with the aid of artificial vocal cords
made of sheet india-rubber. The pitch of the voice de-
pends on the extent to which the membranes are stretched.
Müller, by increasing the tensive force half an ounce up to
eighteen ounces, raised the tone with one of his dissected
preparations more than two octaves. The pitch depends
also to some extent on the strength of the current of air
employed, rising as the latter is increased. The human
voice includes not quite four octaves, though no one single
voice would be able to compass a scale of this extent. The
pitch also, other things being equal, depends on the length
of the vocal cords; that of men is about 18 millimëtres, with
women it is only 12. The clearness of the voice depends
on the accurate closure of the slit between the cords, from
time to time, while they are in operation. Theory and ex-
periment alike point to the fact that when the vocal cords
are set in action waves having an abnormal form are gene-
rated, corresponding to a fundamental note with a set of
FIG. 7.
ºf:=º
> E=#s
gºº::
aegºš
:-
ÉÉ
É
§º;
######## -
########:
:::5; - Hºt
*: :E:-
SET ::
††† Sº-º..T- - .--
over-tones. The function of the cavity of the mouth and
nose CC (Fig. 7) is to strengthen or weaken the fundamental
tone and various sets of the over-tones; and in this action
the size of the opening of the mouth also plays an import- .
ant part; thus, the quality of the sound uttered, or its
clang-tint, depends finally on the shape and size of the
cavity.of the mouth and nose. This cavity, then, corre-
sponds to the pipe of a reed organ-pipe. The vocal cords
retaining all the time the same tension, by altering the
shape and size of the cavity of the mouth and its opening
we can generate sounds having a different clang-tint, as,
for example, Ah, O, etc. It is not even necessary to set
the vocal cords into action if a complex sound consisting
of many tones is supplied from some outward source ; thus,
we were recently informed by President Barnard of Columbia
College that by taking advantage of the complex sounds or
noise of a railroad car, and by varying suitably the cavities
just referred to, he has succeeded in producing musical
notes in rapid succession, such as the notes of any familiar
melody, at pleasure.
The Vowel-sounds are the simplest which can be uttered
by the human voice, and have frequently been made the








*
32
ACOUSTICS.
subject of investigation. In 1831, Willis in England found
that by mingling certain tones produced by reed-pipes he
could to some extent imitate the vowel-sounds. (Pogg, Ann.
Bd., xxiv., s. 397.) In this mode of working there is the
obvious difficulty that reed-pipes furnish large sets of notes,
so that it is not possible to obtain very accurate knowledge
by such experiments. More recently, Helmholtz, with the
aid of his resonators above described, succeeded in analyz-
ing the vowel-sounds, although they present greater diffi-
culties than most other sounds of equal complexity. This
results from the circumstance that, from childhood upward,
we all have been accustomed to regard the tones of the
vowel-sounds as independent wholes, making no attempt
to ascertain their musical components, since in the case
of a vowel-sound the clang-tint is all important, and is in-
deed the only means by which we judge of its identity.
Helmholtz ascertained that vowel-sounds are produced by
the presence of a fundamental note mingled with its higher
over-tones in various proportions; he even was able to prove
that the intensity of the highest of these over-tones varies
somewhat in different individuals, being greater in voices
that are shrill than in those whose sound is softer. Having
finished this labor, he undertook the artificial reconstruction
of the vowel-sounds from pure constituents. These are best
furnished by vibrating tuning-forks. One of these instru-
ments, alone by itself, furnishes a tone which at a little dis-
tance is quite inaudible, but by causing it to vibrate directly
in front of a hollow metallic cylinder of exactly the right
capacity, its sound is greatly strengthened, and can be dis-
tinctly heard in a room of large dimensions. The cylinder
is of course entirely closed with the exception of a circular
opening at the end near the fork. When the fork is thus
caused to vibrate in connection with a resonator, the sound
is instantly extinguished if the aperture in the cylinder be
closed, but as it is gradually opened the sound correspond-
ingly gains in intensity; so that it is evidently in the power
of the experimenter to reguláte the loudness of the tone
produced. A tuning-fork, however, soon ceases to vibrate,
and accordingly must be provided with a contrivance to
obviate this difficulty. By placing it between the arms of
an electro-magnet having the form of a horseshoe, it can
be caused to vibrate for any period of time, provided the
magnetic attraction is intermittent, and always exercised
at exactly the right moment. This is accomplished by
breaking and re-establishing the electric current with the
aid of another tuning-fork, which vibrates at exactly the
same rate; and the second fork, being also provided with
a similar electro-magnet, is able independently to maintain
itself in vibration for any length of time, as is the case
with the vibrating attachment so often found on electrical
apparatus for medical purposes. It would not be possible
with this arrangement to sustain in vibration a third fork
whose rate was a little slower or faster than that of its two
companions; but if its rate should be exactly twice, three,
or four times as great, this end could easily be accomplished;
for then, though the attractive impulses might be fewer than
desirable, at least they would always be rightly timed.
Hence, it is evident that a series of forks whose rates of
vibration are as 1, 2, 3, etc. can be kept simultaneously in
vibration by a contrivance of this nature. This was, then,
the plan actually employed by Helmholtz; keys being con-
nected by strings with the valves of the resonators, and
being opened by the pressure of the fingers, the proper.
notes were obtained with the desired strength. Helmholtz’s
vowel-sound apparatus, as made by Mr. Koenig of Paris,
consists of eight tuning-forks with their resonance-cylin-
ders, the fork which establishes and regulates the current
being on a separate stand. These forks give the following
notes: Utz, Utø, Solº, Utá, Mia, Sola, Utö, Si3. When all
these forks are set in vibration, their resonance-cylinders
remaining closed, only a low humming sound is heard, but
by pressing one or more keys the corresponding notes are
called forth with any desirable degree of strength. The
German vowel-sound w can be approximately imitated by
sounding the Utz fork alone, or better by adding the two
first over-tones—i.e. the octave and twelfth, Utö and Solg.
O is obtained with a weak Utz and strong Uta; Utø, Sola,
and Mia mingling to a small extent. The German a, with
Uts and Mia strong; Uts, Uta, Solá having a moderate
strength. In the same language the ae is given by Miš and
Solà strong, with the notes UtA, Uts, Solà weaker; and
finally the e by the aid of Sols, Siš, and Utø strong; Utø
and Uta being weaker.
Of course, since only pure musical notes are employed,
they can only reproduce the musical constituents of the
vowel-sounds; hence the effect resembles the sound of the
vowels as sung rather than pronounced. Corresponding
with these remarkable experiments, Helmholtz also found it
possible to imitate with the same apparatus certain varie-
ties of organ-pipes; at least to reproduce the musical con-
stituents of their tones, though of course the noise with
which they are often accompanied was absent; he in addi-
tion imitated the nasal tones of the clarionet by the use of
a portion of the forks, while the joint action of the whole
set gave the softer tones of the bugle-horn. For exciting
the apparatus into action he used only two of Grove’s cups,
though other experimenters have since then found it some-
what difficult of manipulation, and lately an attempt has
been made by Appun to replace it by a series of reeds pro-
vided with resonators, with which it has been found possi-
ble to reproduce some of the sounds in question (w and a).”
We must here mention the remarkable results attained in
the last century by Prof. v. Kempelen in Vienna with his
speaking machine, which more recently has been greatly
perfected by the two Fabers, uncle and nephew.f Some
months ago the latter exhibited in Columbia College this
wonderful apparatus, which is capable of uttering not only
syllables, but words and sentences, with a certain mechan-
ical precision. In it the human vocal organs are directly
imitated by vibrating plates of ivory, and it is remarkable
that it is operated on by only fourteen keys or stops, which
give the five vowels and the nine consonants, l, r, w, f, 8, b,
d, g, sch. The other consonants are produced partly by
combinations of the above, and partly by increasing the
strength of the current of air from the bellows. For the
purpose of causing the machine to speak French, an extra
attachment is provided, whereby more nasal tones can be
generated. Mr. Faber has also connected with it a singing
attachment, in which, by means of quick changes in the
form of the vocal cords, the musical scale can be executed.
Consonants.-These sounds are generally regarded not as
constituted of notes having any particular musical relation
to each other, as in the case of the vowel-sounds, but rather
as consisting of different varieties of noise. Thus, as ex-
amples of explosive noise we have? and b, t and d, k, g, q;
of frictional noise, 8, 2, 8ch, l, f, v, m, m, and h; of intermit-
tent noise, r. If The mechanical mode by which the conso-
nants are produced is to a considerable extent understood,
but their actual acoustic elements resist all attempts at com-
plete analysis. That they have an acoustic character can-
not, however, be doubted, and some progress has been made
towards ascertaining the natural pitch of their predominant
notes. Thus, upon repeating (in German) the consonants
b, k, t, f, s, it will be found that b is the deepest in tone, 8
the highest; and that, taken together in the above order,
they constitute a series of perceptible musical gradations.
For further information we must refer the reader to the
original investigations of Dr. Oskar Wolf, who seems to
have succeeded in actually determining the pitch of the
predominating constituent in the case of most of the conso-
nants. 3
The Ear.—The sensation of sound is produced by the
stimulation of certain nerve-fibrils in the interior of the
ear, and this result is brought about by the sound-waves in
the following manner: These waves first strike upon the
external ear, and possibly are, to some slight extent, con-
centrated by it; afterwards they travel along the tube
D (Fig. 8), and reach the tympanum or drum of the ear at
FIG, 8.
C. This consists of a thin membrane which closes the ex-
ternal passage, and which is capable of being set in vibra-
tion or of responding to an immense variety of wayes or
impulses. It may here be remarked that a catholicity of
this kind has not thus far been observed in experiments on
membranes artificially stretched, whose range is found to
be far more limited. There is also some reason to believe
that the tympanum is capable of a certain degree of “ag-
commodation” to the sounds that are presented to it, fol-
lowing the well-known analogy of the eye in this respect,
Attached to the inner side of the tympanum is a series of
# “Sprache und Ohr,” by Dr. Oskar Wolf, page 11: gº
+ “fier Mechanismus der menschlichen Sprachenebst IBeschrei-
bung einer Spréchenden Machine von Wolfgang V. Eempelen,”
"Vienna, 1791.
j: See the work of G. Gattfied Weiss, Braunschweig, 1868.
# *Sprache und Ohr,” Dr. Oskar Wolf, Braunschweig, 1871.

ACOUSTICS.
33
three small bones, called respectively the malleus, c, the
incus, and the stapes, o (the hammer, the anvil, and the
stirrup. See Figure 8). These bones are rather closely
bound together, and transmit the vibrations of the tym-
panum finally to the stirrup, which is destined to commu-
nicate them to the inner ear. The portion we are now en-
gaged with has a communication with the mouth by means
of the Eustachian tube, E, which is closed except in the
act of swallowing; its function is to preserve an equilib-
rium between the pressure of the air in the middle ear and
that on the other side of the drum. While the middle ear is
filled with air, the inner ear is filled with a liquid, and is com-
pletely enclosed for protection in solid bone. In Fig. 9 a sec-
FIG. 9.
*
3:
tion of the inner ear is given. SSS are the semicircular
canals cut open; W is the vestibule; o and rare the foramen
ovale and the foramen rotundum ; C is a section of the coch-
lea. We give in addition a plan of the ear, after Helmholtz
(Fig. 10), the cochlea, for the sake of clearness, being sup-
posed to be unrolled. A is the vestibule, C the cochlea, a
FIG. 10.
the foramen ovale, b the foramen rotundum, f the nerves
of hearing. The sacs at d contain attached to their walls
small crystals of carbonate of lime in contact with the
nerves, and their function, as it appears, is to render us
sensible of simple short sounds or shocks, which probably
would not affect the vibratory apparatus presently to be
described. They act as drags on the nerves when the latter
vibrate with the water in which they are bathed, and thus
produce sensation. This is the simplest portion of the ap-
paratus for hearing, and is found in many of the lower ani-
mals, where the more complicated arrangements are en-
tirely absent. These sacs contain also, in connection with the
nerves, certain microscopic hairs, that are quite elastic and
brittle, and probably capable of being set into vibration
when the particular notes to which they are tuned are pre-
sented to them, just exactly as a tuning-fork can be set in
vibration by the waves proceeding from a second fork of
the same pitch. (See Fig. 11.) In the cochlea, we also find
a membrane (the organ of Corti) with a great number of
fine microscopic cords stretched in it, which probably have
the same function. The reader will find, by opening a piano
and pressing the foot on the right-hand pedal, that if then
the vowel-sounds, for example, are pronounced in a loud,
clear voice over the strings, it will result that the strings
which are capable of giving the notes of which they are
built up will be set in vibration, and will echo back some-
what faintly the original sounds. And so it is probably in
this portion of the ear; these microscopic strings, being
thus set in vibration, stimulate the nerves connected with
them and produce corresponding sensations. If the sound
is compound or the form of the wave abnormal, this sound
is analyzed into its constituents, since the cords (and rods)
can only execute normal vibrations; which circumstance
explains much that was said under the head “Form of the
Wave;” and we see finally that the clang-tint is the sensa-
tion produced by the simultaneous action of two or more
of these strings upon their appropriate nerves. The coch-
lea, contains about 3000
FIG. 11. of these strings, and if,
- with Helmholtz, we sup-
pose that 200 of them
are useful for rendering
/ us sensible of tones not
used in music, there will
remain for the musical
tones proper 2800 for
the seven octaves, or
400 for each octave, 33%
for each half tone. Now,
according to the experi-
ments of E. H. Weber,
skilful musicians can
distinguish ºr of a half
tone, which is a small-
er quantity than corre-
sponds to the number
of these strings. It
would appear, then, that
in this case two of these
strings are at the same
time excited into action,
and the musician by
practised attention is
able to notice which of
§ § # them vibrates the more
§ ##### strongly.
§ As rendering the above
# # # # i; # views more probable, we
ń # º § jº § may mention the experi-
§ º º # ments of Von Hensen
Ālālāśāś $º.
§:
- on the ears of certain
minute forms of crabs, which he enclosed in an artificial
ear corresponding to the labyrinth. The ears of these
crustaceans are partially external, and consist of sets of
hairs capable of vibration, connected with the nerves, as
in the case we have just been considering. When differ-
ent notes were sounded, Von Hensen was able with the
microscope to notice that certain hairs responded, etc.”
The functions of certain portions of the ear are still in-
volved in much obscurity; this is the case, for example,
with the three semicircular canals, concerning whose object
and use we possess as yet no certain information. Among
the fishes the myxine has one of these canals, the lamprey
has two, the higher forms, three; and it appears that in
birds of prey they become highly developed.
In closing this article it may be proper briefly to men-
tion the results obtained with the phonautograph of Scott
and Koenig. This may be regarded as a gigantic ear, en-
dowed with the power of permanently registering the vi-
brations of its own tympanum. It consists of a parabolic
mirror, M (see Fig. 12), of zinc, which concentrates the
sound-waves, and causes them to set in vibration a thin
membrane, t, which is provided with a “pen?” attached to
its centre. The vibrations are in this way finally inscribed
on the surface of a revolving cylinder, C, which is covered
with paper smoked by burning camphor. The figure gives
a view of this apparatus seen from above. With this
instrument Roenig suc-
ceeded in obtaining the
autographic curves due
to single notes, or to the
joint action of several
within the compass of an
octave. Donders, how-
ever, was able, after much
trouble, to obtain the
complex curves due to
the vowel-sounds. For
. w (German) it was a
* . - common sine curve, as
#|-> it should be; this was
§º. * also true , for ii and i,
C the instrument being
FIG. 12.
able to reproduce neither the weak over-tones of the first,
nor the high over-tones of the second. The form of the
curve altered with the pitch of the voice uttering the
vowel, but changes in dialect produced only slight modi-
fications. With diphthongs the duration of the sound and
modifications due to change from one diphthong to another
were rendered visible. Consonants spoken just before a
vowel altered only the beginning of the curve, and pro-
# Von Hensen, “Studien über das Gehoerorgan der. Dekapo:
den;" Von Siebold u. Kölliker, “Zeitschrift für wiss. Zoologie,”
Bd. xiii. - • ‘











3
*A
34
ACQUACKANONCK–ACTA ERUDITORUM.
duced only a corresponding modification when uttered
immediately after the vowel.%. The ‘duration of a in the
Word daag = 42, in dagen = 37, in dag = 16 vibrations,
each single vibration consuming gig of a second, so that
the actual durations were, 0.16, 0.142, 0.061 of a second of
time. - O. N. RooD.
Acquack/anonck, a township of Passaic co., N. J.
Pop. 4368.
Acquaviva, a town of Italy, in the province of Bari,
16 miles S. S. W. of Bari. Pop. in 1861, 65.17.
Ac/qui, a town of Italy, in the province of Alessandria,
On the Bormida, 21 miles by rail S. S. W. of Alessandria.
Here are sulphurous springs, which are much frequented,
and ruins of an old Roman aqueduct. Acqui has several
fine buildings and silk-factories, and is a bishop’s see. Pop.
in 1861, 6824.
Acquin/ton, a township of King William co., Va.
Pop. 2960.
Acquit/tal [from the Old Fr. acquiter, to “forsake”], in
law, a release from a contract or other obligation; more
usually employed in criminal practice, where it denotes a
judicial deliverance from a charge of guilt, either by a ver-
dict of not guilty by a jury upon a trial, termed “acquittal
in fact,” or by mere operation of law, as where one has
been charged simply as accessary, and the principal is ac-
quitted. An acquittal is a bar to any future prosecution
for the same offence. In the U.S. this is secured by a con-
stitutional provision that “no person shall be twice put in
jeopardy for the same offence.” The judicial construction
of this clause prevents a second trial for the same offence
after an acquittal.
A/cre [from the Ang-Sax. acer or aecer, a “field,” ety-
mologically allied to the Lat. ager and Ger. Acker], a
superficial dimension of land, is equal to 4840 square
yards. The English acre is the same as that of the U. S.
A French acre contains about one arpent and a half.
Acre, Ak'lúa, or St. Jean d’Acre [Phoenician
Accho, and called by the Greeks Ptolema'is], a city and
seaport of Syria, is on the Mediterranean, 30 miles S. of
Tyre, and 8 miles N. of Mount Carmel; lat. 32° 54 N.,
lon. 35° 6' E. The “key of Palestine,” it has been the
scene of many famous sieges and battles. It was taken by
the Crusaders in 1104, and retaken by the Saracens in
1187. In 1191 it was recovered by the Crusaders (under
Guido of Jerusalem, Philip of France, and Richard the
Lion-hearted of England), and held by them till they were
finally driven out of Palestine in 1291. Bonaparte be-
sieged it for sixty days in 1799, but failed to take it. In
1840 it was bombarded and captured by the English fleet.
Pop. variously estimated at from 20,000 to 50,000.
Acre"lius (ISRAEL), a clergyman, born at Ostaker, Swe-
den, Dec. 25, 1714, was educated at Upsal, and was ap-
pointed in 1749 a provost to take charge of the Swedish
congregations on the Delaware. After a sojourn in America,
of seven years, he returned to Sweden in 1756. He wrote
a description of the Swedish colonies in America (1759).
Died April 25, 1800. s
Ac/robat [Iiterally, “one who goes or moves upon his
extremities (toes),” from &rpos, “extreme,” and 33rms, “one
who treads or goes”], a term applied to a rope-dancer or
to a person who entertains the public by performances on
the tight rope or slack rope, and by gymnastic feats of
agility, such as vaulting and tumbling.
Acrob’ates (i. e. the “acrobat”), a genus of Australian
marsupials, includes the “pigmy acrobat,” “dwarf phalan-
ger” or “opossum mouse” (Acrobates pygmaeus), which in its
character and habits resembles the flying squirrel. It is
two inches long, and its tail is of about the same length.
Acrocerau’nia [from Škpov, a “peak” or “promon-
tory,” and kepavvös, “thunder”], the ancient name of a
chain of mountains on the western coast of Greece, and
extending into the sea by a bold promontory; so called
because violent thunder-storms are said to be frequent in
that region. The modern name is Chimara. The Acroce-
raunian promontory is Cape Linguetta; lat. 40° 27' N.,
lon. 19° 18' E.
Ac/ro-Corin'thus, a steep rocky hill near the city of
Corinth, in Greece, is about 2000 feet high. On this hill
stood the acropolis or citadel of Corinth. The view from
the top is very extensive and beautiful.
Acroš'enous [from the Gr. &kpov, “summit,” and yévo,
to “be born"], a name applied to certain cryptogamous
plants (acrogens), as ferns and mosses, in which the stem
increases by the coherence of the bases of the leaves and
by elongation at the summit, and not in diameter by the
* F. C. Donders, “Zur Klangfarbe der Vocale;” Pogg. “ .”
1864, czziii., S. 527, 528. 8 ;” Pogg. “Ann
addition of fresh matter to their outside, as in exogens, or
to their inside, as in endogens.
Acro/lein, Acryl'ic-AI'dehyde, C8H40=C(CH2)"H
* |
COH,
an intolerably pungent body produced by the dehydration
of glycerine. It is always produced when neutral fats con-
taining glycerine are subjected to destructive distillation,
and is the chief cause of the offensiveness of that opera-
tion.
Acron’ycal [from the Gr. -ákpos, “extreme,” and vöß,
“night”]. A star or planet is said to be acronycal when
it is opposite to the sun, or passes the meridian at mid-
night. It rises acronycally when it rises as the sun sets,
and sets acronycally when it sets as the sun rises.
Acrop'olis [from the Gr. &kpov, a “peak” or “sum-
mit,” and tróAts, “city”], the name given to the citadel of
an ancient Grecian city, usually built on the peak or top of
a hill. The Acropolis of Athens was especially celebrated,
and was adorned with the temple of Minerva or Athena,
called the Parthenon, and the Erechtheum, the ruins of
which still excite the admiration of all travellers.
Acros/tic [Gr. &kpóorrixov, from &kpos, “extreme,” and
artyos, “order,” “line,” “verse”], a term applied to a poem
so contrived that the first, last, or other series of letters of
the lines shall form some name or phrase. Sir John Davies
wrote twenty-four hymns to Astraea, each of which is an
acrostic on Elizabetha Regina (Queen Elizabeth). On a
somewhat similar principle, in the poetry of the Hebrews
the initial letters of the verses were made to correspond to
the letters of the alphabet in their proper order. The
I19th Psalm affords perhaps the most remarkable example
of this. Every line in the first division of the psalm be-
gins with N (aleph), and in the second division with a
(beth), and so on.
Acs, a village of Hungary, in the county of Komorn,
on the right bank of the Danube, has a beautiful palace of
the prince of Liechtenstein, and in the Hungarian revolu-
tion was the scene of several battles, of which that of Aug.
3, 1849, was the most important. Pop. in 1869, 3933.
Act [Lat. ac’tus (from a 'go, ac’tum, to “do”)], in dra-
matic literature, is a division of a drama, ; it is again sub-
divided into scenes. The Greek dramas of the old model
were naturally divided into separate portions by the choric
odes (or stasima), which occur at intervals, during which
the stage was left to the sole occupation of the chorus.
Nevertheless, the Greek writers do not notice this division
in express terms; nor do we know the origin of the famous
rule of Horace, that every dramatic piece should be re-
strained within the limits of five acts, neither more nor
less. The division into acts must be in great measure ar-
bitrary, although rules have been laid down by various
writers to define the story or plot which should be contained
in each of them. Thus, Vossius gives it as a rule that the
first act should present the intrigue, the second develop it,
the third be filled with incidents forming its knot or com-
plication, the fourth prepare the means of unravelling it,
which is finally accomplished in the fifth.
ACT, a term applied in legal and political language to a
law or statute which is approved and ordained by the legis-
lature, as an act of Parliament, an act of Congress. The
proposed law is called a bill until it has passed through the
first, second, and third readings, and has been approved by
both houses of Parliament (or Congress) and signed by the
executive.
ACT, in the English universities, is an exercise per-
formed by students before they receive a degree. The stu-
dent who is said “to keep the act,” and is called the re-
spondent, chooses certain propositions, which he defends
by syllogisms. Several other students, called “opponents,”
who are nominated by the proctor, try to refute his argu-
ments.
Act of SETTLEMENT, in Great Britain, is the title of the
statute 12 and 13 of William III., c. 2, by which the crown
was limited to the House of Hanover, and all Roman
Catholics were excluded from the throne.
Ac/ta Diurna (“Daily Acts”), the name of an official
gazette or journal published by authority in ancient Rome.
It contained brief notices of the transactions of public as-
semblies, legal tribunals, etc., Julius Cæsar was the first to
order that the Acta Diurna should be drawn up in regular
form and published.
Ac/ta Erudito/rum (“Acts of the Learned”) was a
literary journal founded at Leipsic in Germany in 1682 by
Otto Mencke and others. It had a high reputation, and
was continued until 1782.
+ “Sakoontală" (a drama by Kālidasa), Pºff the most ex-
quisite production of the poetic genius of the Hindoos, was di-
vided into seven acts.
ACTA. MARTYRUM-ACTION.
35
Ac/ta Mar’tyrum (“Acts of the Martyrs”), a collec-
tion of the lives of Christian martyrs. The most noted is
that of Ruinart, Paris, 1689, commemorating the martyrs
of the first four centuries.
Ac/ta Sanctorum (“Acts of the Saints”), a collection
of the lives of Christian saints of all ages. The most ex-
tensive collection is that of the Jesuit Bollandists, which
begins with January and follows the calendar. The first
volume appeared in 1643; the fifty-fourth, which comes
down to Oct. 14, in 1793; the fifty-fifth in 1845; the six-
tieth, which comes down to Oct. 29, in 1867.
Actae'on [’Akratov], in Greek mythology, a grandson of
Cadmus, was a famous hunter. • It is said that he was
changed into a stag and killed by his own hounds because
he had seen Diana bathing.
Ac/tian Games, games celebrated at Actium, in
Greece, in honor of Apollo. They were restored by Au-
gustus to commemorate his victory over Antony at Actium
(31 B. C.). -
Actin/ia [from the Gr. &Kris or &kriv, a “ray”], a genus
or sub-order of * l
radiated marine
animals, of the
class Zoophyta,
and order Acti-
noida, often call-
ed Sea-anemones.
They are gene-
rally attached to sº
rocks or shells,
are of a soft, ge- -
latinous texture, § -2%.
and have nume. **ś
#
ºš º
rous tentacula, ; º º
by which they | º
seize their prey. ~
Some species of
Actinia are very -
beautiful, and resemble flowers. Among the most remark-
able genera of the order Actinoida is the BUNODEs (which
SCC).
Xe timism [from the Gr. &kriv or &kris, a “ray”]. The
effects produced by the rays of the sun are of three kinds,
illumination, warming, and chemical change. The first two
of these are obvious enough, and are always perceived
wherever the solar rays penetrate. The chemical changes
produced by light occur only under certain conditions, and
are not obvious to common observation. Certain salts have
very long been known to undergo decomposition in the sun-
light, or even in the diffuse light of day; and among these
the salts of silver are especially remarkable. To this prop-
erty, the so-called indelible inks, of which silver nitrate is
the basis, owe the permanency of the traces left by them.
The chloride, bromide, and iodide of silver are more sensi-
tive still.
When a beam of compound light is dispersed by the
prism, the most energetic action upon silver salts is found
in the violet rays of the spectrum; but this effect, as shown
by Stokes, extends very far into the darkness beyond the
violet.
that these non-luminous chemical rays become luminous
when certain substances are presented to them. Such sub-
stances among others are solution of quinine sulphate, in-
fusion of horse-chestnut bark, glass tinted yellow by oxide
of uranium, and fluor spar. This phenomenon was named
by its discoverer, fluorescence. (See FLUORESCENCE.) The
heating effects of the spectrum, on the contrary, are found
to be more remarkable in the red than anywhere else
among the luminous rays; while the maximum heating
effect is entirely outside the spectrum and in the dark.
This discovery, made long ago by Sir William Herschel, is
a counterpart to the more recent one of Stokes just men-
tioned; and both taken together show that the sunlight, as
dispersed by the prism, spreads through a wide space, in
which the rays exciting vision occupy only the middle part.
The luminous, heating, and chemical effects of light
being so broadly different, it was natural, in the earlier
stages of this investigation, to ascribe them to agencies or
forces essentially differing from each other in physical cha-
racter. It was common, therefore, to say that the sunlight
is made up of three independent species of rays, the color-
ific, the calorific, and the chemical. Instead of the word
chemical, Dr. Draper, of New York, proposed, in 1842, to
substitute the term tithomic to distinguish the rays of the
class last mentioned; this term being derived, by a fancied
analogy, from the beautiful myth of Tithonus and Au-
rora. Sir John Herschel, a little later, suggested the term
actinic, which ultimately prevailed. To the three kinds of
rays above mentioned, Dr. Draper, in 1844, proposed to add
a fourth, under the name phosphorogenic rays; that is to
º
Actinia.
%
7.
Stokes made the additional remarkable discovery-
Say, rays which cause certain substances, which have been
acted upon by them, to continue, for some time afterwards,
to phosphoresce, or to give light in the dark. Dr. Draper
believed it to have been established by his experiments,
that these rays, though imparting to material bodies the
light-producing power, are themselves totally distinct from
Iight. The more recent labors of this eminent investigator
have led him, however, to the conclusion—which is the
doctrine now generally received—that, physically consid-
ered, the sunlight is homogeneous, the variety of effects
produced by it being consequences of the different degrees
of rapidity with which the vibrations of the luminiferous.
ether are performed, and being especially dependent on the
nature of the surface and of the substance upon which the
rays are received.
Tyndall has recently made some interesting additions to
our knowledge of the actinic properties of light, in experi-
ments upon the vapors of a variety of volatile compounds
which when highly rarefied are instantly decomposed by
it. In the course of these experiments he has incidentally
demonstrated the cause of the blueness of the sky, or of
distant mountains seen through a large body of interven-
ing air. This tint is owing to the presence in the air of ex-
ceedingly minute particles of precipitated vapor.
The actinic properties of light have formed the basis of
an art having an almost endless variety of useful applica-
tions. (For particulars in regard to this, see PHOTOGRAPHY,
and also LIGHT, CHEMICAL EFFECTs of.)
F. A. P. BARNARD.
Actinom’eter [from the Gr. &ktív, a “ray,” and perpov,
a “measure”], an instrument for measuring the actinic or
chemical rays of light. (See ACTINISM.) Several methods of
doing this have been proposed; thus, a sensitive surface
of chloride of silver is found to darken, when exposed to
the light, in proportion to the intensity of the light and the `
duration of exposure; and since this darkening is produced
entirely by the actinic. rays, the depth of tint produced by
exposure for a few (say five) minutes will give an approxi-
mate idea of the intensity of the actinism present. The
difficulty in this case is to prepare chloride of silver paper
which shall always have the same degree of sensitiveness.
Dr. Draper employed for the above purpose the reaction
originally observed by Gay-Lussac and Thénard, that chlo-
rine and hydrogen, when mixed in equal volumes, do not
combine in the dark, while they unite to form hydrochloric
acid when exposed to the actinic rays of light. Draper dis-
covered the important law that this action varies in direct
proportion to the actinic intensity of the light and to the
time of the exposure. Other actinometers have been pro-
posed, based upon other chemical reactions; thus, a solu-
tion of chloride of gold and oxalic acid will remain clear in
the dark, but precipitates gold when exposed to actinic rays.
Action [from the Lat. ago, actum, to “perform,” to
“move”], in law, means a proceeding before a court of
justice by one person against another to obtain redress for
the infringement of a right, in the manner prescribed by
law. This definition would exclude such proceedings as
mandamus and prohibition. The word is not properly ap-
plied to courts of equity, but the corresponding proceeding
is there termed a suit. Actions are distinguished into civil
and criminal. A civil action is instituted for the enforce-
ment of a private right or the redress of a similar wrong.
In reference to the place in which they are to be brought,
they are either local or transitory. Civil actions are either
real, personal, or mixed. Criminal actions are prosecuted
in the name of the state against some person charged.
with the commission of a crime. The distinction between
real and personal actions refers to the point whether the
recovery of land is sought, or damages by way of compen-
sation, or specific personal property. An action is local
when by a rule of law it must be brought in a particular
locality, such as a county. Actions not sºlocalized are
termed transitory. -
The number of actions under these rules is quite con-
siderable. The distinctions between them are sometimes
subtle and perplexing. There is a marked tendency in this
country to modify or to do away with them, and to estab-
lish a single form of civil action, embracing proceedings
both in law and in equity. The New York code of pro-
cedure assumes to give a definition sufficiently comprehen-
sive to include both an action at law and a suit in equity.
It abolishes all the old forms of action, and recognizes but
one action, termed a “civil action.” The rule of this code
has been extensively followed in the Western States, and
has had much influence upon legal opinion in England.
T. W. DWIGHT.
ACTION, a series of events forming the subject of an epic;
thus, the adventures of Æneas form the action of the
“AEmeid.” Epic action should have three qualifications:
It should be but one, should be entire, and should be great.








36
ACTIONS FOR PIANOS—ADAM.
ACTION, in oratory, signifies gesture, or the adaptation of
the countenance and gesture, of the speaker to his subject
and sentiments. This 8ermo corporis (“language of the
body’’), as Cicero calls it, is a very important part of ora-
tory. Demosthenes said that, action was “the beginning,
the middle, and the end of the orator’s office or art.”
ACTION, in painting and sculpture, is the state of the sub-
ject as imagined in the artist’s mind at the moment chosen
for representation.
ACTION, in mechanics, denotes the effort which a power
or body exerts upon another body. It is an axiom in
Amechanics that action and reaction are always equal.
Thus, if an anvil be struck with a hammer, the resistance
of the former to the latter is exactly equal to the force with
which the hammer acts upon the anvil.
Actions for Pianos are mechanical devices by which
the impulse given-the key is transmitted to a hammer which
strikes the string. The action also regulates the motion of
the hammer after the stroke, preventing any reaction or re-
bounding. Actions made by different makers differ some-
what in the details of their construction. They have been
. . brought to a high degree of perfection.
Ac/tium [Gr. "Akrvov), (now called A'zio), a promon-
tory and town of ancient Greece, in Acarnania, near the
entrance of the Ambracian Gulf. Here occurred the great
naval battle of Actium (31 B. C.), between Octavius Caesar
and Mark Antony; the former gained a decisive victory.
Active Voice. See GRAMMAR.
Ac/ton, a piece of defensive armor, formerly worn in
the shape of a shirt with short sleeves. It was made of
leather, to which pieces of iron were sewed.
Acton, a post-township of York co., Me. Pop. 1008.
Acton, a post-township of Middlesex co., Mass., on the
Fitchburg, the Nashua Acton and Boston, the Hudson
branch, and the Lowell and Framingham R. R.S. It has
valuable stone-quarries, and South Acton is an important
manufacturing village. Total pop. 1593.
Acton, a township of Meeker co., Minn. Pop. 486.
Acton (Lord JoHN EMERIC EDWARD DALBERG), born in
1834, was elected to Parliament for Carlow in Ireland in
1859. He belonged to the liberal Catholic party, in whose
interest he founded in 1861 the “Home and Foreign Re-
view.” In 1865 he was returned to Parliament, and in
1869 created a baron.
Ac/tor (fem. Ac/tress), a stage-player, or performer
of dramas. Actors are supposed to have originated in an-
cient Greece. By the ancient Romans they were regarded
as a disreputable class. After the fall of the Roman em-
pire the dramatic art and profession was abandoned or lost
for several centuries. The first actors in England were ser–
vants of the mobility, and performed for the diversion of
their masters. In the Middle Ages the monks exhibited a
species of drama called mysteries or miracle plays, the sub-
ject of which was usually some miracle or marvellous event
in the history of the Church.
Acts of the Apostles, the fifth book of the New
Testament. (See APOSTLES, ACTS OF..)
Ac'upuncture [Lat. acupunctu'ra, from a 'cus, a
“needle,” and pun/go, punc'tum, to “prick’], or Acu-
punctura/tion, a term applied to the surgical operation
of puncturing a diseased part with needles. This method
is extensively used in Japan and China for the cure of many
diseases, and has been successfully applied in the treatment
of rheumatism. Steel needles are made use of, about three
inches long, and set in handles. The surgeon, by a rotary
movement, passes one or more to the desired depth in the
tissues, and leaves them there from a few minutes to an
hour.
the first prick—a fact of which the quacks of the sixteenth
century did not fail to take advantage. According to Car-
dan, they travelled from place to place practising acupunc-
ture, and before inserting the needle they rubbed it with a
peculiar kind of magnet, either believing or pretending that
this made the operation painless. The relief to pain afforded
by this simple operation is sometimes astonishing, and the
wounds are so minute as to be harmless if skilfully made.
Acush'net, a post-township of Bristol co., Mass., has
manufactures of lumber, boxes, cigars, and boots and shoes,
but is chiefly agricultural. Pop. 1132.
Acute’ [Lat. acw’tus, from ac'uo, acu'tum, to “sharpen,”
to “point” (literally, “pointed,” hence “sharp,” “severe”)],
a term applied to diseases having severe or violent symp-
toms, attended with danger, and terminating favorably or
otherwise within a few days.
Ac/worth, a post-township of Sullivan co., N. H. Gi-
gantic crystals of beryl occur here. There are manufactures
of wooden ware, woollens, boots and shoes, etc. Pop. 1050.
Ad, a Latin preposition signifying “to,” “at,” “by,”
Saws.
Their insertion is accompanied by no pain except.
“on,” “towards,” “near,” “with,” etc. In compound
words the d is usually changed to correspond with the fol-
lowing letter; thus, ad becomes ac before c, al before l, ap
before p, etc.
Ada, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bacs, on the
river Theiss, 30 miles S. of Szegedin. Pop. in 1869, 9344.
A/da, a county, in the S. W. part of Idaho, includes
Boisée Valley. It is intersected by the Boisée River, and
bounded on the S. by the Lewis (or Snake) River. The
surface is mountainous. Gold is found in this county.
Grain, potatoes, and butter are produced. Pop. 2675.
Capital, Boisée City. * .
Ada, a post-village of Kent co., Mich., in a township
of its own name. Pop. of township, 1427.
Ada, a post-village of Hardin co., O., on the Pittsburg
Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R., 57 miles W. of Crestline.
It has a college, the North-western Ohio Normal School,
three churches, numerous manufactories, and one weekly
newspaper. BENT L. THOMPson, E.D. “RECORD.”
Adagio, ä-dá'je-o [composed of ad, “at,” and agio,
“ease,” “leisure *], an Italian musical term, signifies a slow
movement or measure of time.
Adair’, a county in the central part of Iowa. Area,
576 square miles. It is drained by Middle River and by
affluents of Nodaway River. The surface is undulating or
nearly level. Grain, wool, hay, and butter are produced.
Pop. 3982. Capital, Fontanelle. --
Adair, a county in the S. part of Kentucky. Area, 450
square miles. It is traversed by Green River. The soil is
moderately fertile and extensively covered with forests. It
contains abundant water-power. Cattle, grain, tobacco,
and wool are produced. Pop. 11,065. Capital, Columbia.
Adair, a county in the N. N. E. part of Missouri.
Area, 570 square miles. It is intersected by Chariton .
River, and by the North Fork of Salt River. The surface
is undulating and the soil generally fertile. Cattle, grain,
tobacco, and wool are produced. It is intersected by the
St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. R. Pop. 11,448.
Capital, Kirksville.
Adair, a township of Camden co., Mo. Pop. 637.
Adair (JAMEs), a trader who resided among the North
American Indians for forty years, mostly among the Chicka-
IHe was the author of a work on the American In-
dians (1775), in which he attempted to show the resem-
blance between their customs and those of the Jews.
Adair (JoBN), an American general, born in South Caro-
lina in 1759. He commanded a body of Kentuckians at the
battle of New Orleans in 1815, and was governor of Ken-
tucky from 1820 to 1824. He was U. S. Senator (1805–06)
and member of Congress (1831–33). Died May 19, 1840.
Adair (Sir RoBERT), born in London May 24, 1763. He
became a Whig member of Parliament. in 1802, ambassador
to Vienna in 1806, and represented Great Britain at Con-
stantinople from 1809 to 1811. Died Oct. 3, 1855.
Adal', a narrow tract of Eastern Africa, bordering on
the Red Sea, and extending from Massowa to the Strait of
Bab-el-Mandeb. It is inhabited by nomadic tribes of
Donakila (or Danakil), and is considered a part of Abys-
sinia by some geographers.
A/dalbert (HEINRICH WILHELM), a Prussian prince, à,
cousin-german of William I., born in Berlin Oct. 29, 1811.
He entered the army in his youth, and obtained the rank
of lieutenant-general. He became in 1848 admiral and
commander-in-chief of the navy. Died June 6, 1873.
Ada/lia, or Satalieh (anc. Attalia), a seaport of Tur-
key in Asia, in Anatolia, on the gulf of the same name, 175
miles S. E. of Smyrna, in lat. 36° 52' 2" N., lon. 30°45'
E. It is built on the slope of a hill, has narrow, dirty
streets, and a small but good harbor. Tropical fruits are
exported hence. Pop. estimated at 13,000, of whom about
3000 are Greeks.
Ad'am. [Heb. DTN, i.e. “man”], the first man (see Gen.
. i., ii., and iii.), is supposed to have been created, according
to the Hebrew chronology, 4004 B.C., and according to the
Greek chronology, 5411 B.C., though some writers contend
that his date should be placed much earlier. He was origi-
nally placed, with Eve his wife, in the garden of Eden,
whence they were expelled for voluntary disobedience to
the Divine command. - -
Adam (ADOLPHE CHARLEs), a celebrated French com-
poser, born July 24, 1803, published numerous popular
operas and ballets, of which the most celebrated are “Le
postillon de Longjumeau,” which was played for the first
time in 1836, and gained great applause; “Le roi d'Yvetot.”
(1842), “Richard in Palestine” (1849), and “La jolie fille
de Gand” (1839). Died May 3, 1856.
Adam (ALBRECHT), a German painter of battles, born
ADAM—ADAMS.
37
at Nördlingen April 16, 1786, entered the service of Eugène
de Beauharnais, with whom he witnessed the Russian cam-
paign of 1812. Died Aug. 28, 1862.
Adam (LAMBERT SIGISBERT), an eminent French sculp-
tor, born at Nancy in 1700. Some of his works adorn the
garden of Versailles. He became professor in the Royal
Academy at Paris in 1744. Died in 1759.-NICOLAs Sá-
BASTIEN, a skilful sculptor, a brother of the preceding, was
born at Nancy in 1705. Among his works is “Prometheus
JBound.” Died in 1778. i
Adam (RoPERT), the most celebrated British architect
of the eighteenth century, was born in 1728, went to Italy
in 1754, and from Italy to Dalmatia, where he visited the
ruins of the palace of the emperor Diocletian, on which he
published “The Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Dio-
cletian at Spalatro” (1764). Among his most prominent
works are the university building and St. George’s church
in Edinburgh, the buildings known as the Adelphi in Lon-
don, besides many private residences. He died in 1792,
and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Ad'amant [Lat. ad'amas; Gr. &8áuas, “ that cannot be
subdued or broken,” from a, negative, and Sap.60, to “sub-
due *], the ancient name of the diamond, is also a word
used to denote a sūbstance of extraordinary hardness and
strength or durability.
Ad’amites, an heretical sect who are said to have
sprung up in the second century, who rejected marriage,
and appeared in public naked. This name was also as-
sumed by a sect of fanatics who arose in Bohemia in the
fifteenth century and advocated a community of Wives.
They still exist in Bohemia, and are said to be guilty Of
great excesses, though outwardly discreet.
Ad/ams, a county of the W. part of Illinois. Area,
760 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Missis-
sippi River, which separates it from Missouri. The sur-
facé is undulating; the soil is exceedingly fertile. The
county is intersected by the Chicago Burlington and Quincy
R. R. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are produced. Coop-
erage, flour, metallic wares, etc. are among the manufac-
tures. Pop. 56,362. Capital, Quincy.
Adams, a county of Indiana, bordering on Ohio. Area,
324 square miles. It is watered by the Wabash and St.
Mary's rivers, is well timbered and nearly level, and the
soil is productive. Grain, wool, hay, and dairy produce 3,176.
the staples. It is intersected by the Cincinnati Richmond
and Fort Wayne R. R. Pop. 11,382. Capital, Decatur.
Adams, a county of the S. W. of Iowa. Area, 432
square miles. It is drained by the Nodaway River and
other streams. Coal is mined here. Grain, hay, wool, and
butter are produced. Pop. 4614. Capital, Quincy.
Adams, a county in the S.W. of Mississippi, has an area
of about 440 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the
Mississippi River, and on the S. by the Homochitto. The
surface is nearly level; the staple products are maize, cot-
ton, cattle, and wool. Pop. 19,084. Capital, Natchez.
Adams, a county in the S. central part of Nebraska,
intersected by the Little Blue River. It is traversed by
the Burlington and Missouri River R. R. Grain and hay
are raised. Pop. 19. Capital, Juniata.
Adams, a county in the S. part of Ohio, has an area of
500 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Qhio River,
and drained by Brush Creek. The surface is hilly. Iron,
building-stone, cattle, grain, tobacco, wool, and flour are
produced. Pop. 20,750. Capital, West Union.
Adams, a county of Pennsylvania, bordering on Mary-
land, has an area of about 530 square miles. It is drained
by the Conewago Creek and the head-streams of the Mo-
nocacy River. The South Mountain range extends along the
north-western boundary. Copper and marble are found.
The surface is uneven. Cattle, grain, wool, and hay are
produced, and carriages, leather, lime, flour, saddlery, etc.
are manufactured. Pop. 30,315. Capital, Gettysburg.
Adams, a county of Wisconsin, bounded on the W. by
the Wisconsin River, has an area of about 650 square miles.
The surface is mostly covered with forests, which furnish
valuable lumber. Grain, wool, hay, and butter are pro-
duced. Pop. 6601. Capital, Friendship.
Adams, a township of La Salle co., Ill. Pop. 1662.
Adams, a township of Allen co., Ind. Pop. 2388.
Adams, a township of Carroll co., Ind. Pop. 1149.
Adams, a township of Cass co., Ind. Pop. 807.
Adams, a post-township of Decatur Co., Ind. Pop. 2162.
Adams, a township of Hamilton co., Ind. Pop. 2178.
Adams, a township of Madison co., Ind. Pop. 1564.
Adams, a township of Morgan co., Ind. Pop. 1207.
Adams, a township of Parke co., Ind. Pop. 3286.
Adams, a township of Ripley co., Ind. Pop. 2703.
Adams, a township of Dallas co., Ia. Pop. 1015.
Adams, a township of Delaware co., Ia. Pop. 730.
Adams, a township of Keokuk co., Ia. Pop. 866.
Adams, a township of Mahaska, co., Ia. Pop. 835.
Adams, a township of Wapello co., Ia. Pop. 1363.
Adams, a post-township of Berkshire co., Mass., con-
tains several large manufacturing villages, among which
are North and South Adams. The Pittsfield and North
Adams and the Troy and Boston R. R.S. terminate at North
Adams. Adams has extensive manufactures of cotton and
Woollen goods, prints, ginghams, warp, twine, cassimeres,
paper, nitro-glycerine, boots and shoes, etc. It has two
national banks and three savings banks. Here is Mount
Greylock, 3600 feet high, the highest point in Massachu-
Setts. North Adams is also the western terminus of the
Hoosac Tunnel. It has two weekly newspapers and one
quarterly. Adams has an abundant supply of water from
water-works. It has fourteen churches and four large .
hotels. It also contains a natural bridge, and the “Sand
Springs,” a well-known place of summer resort. A con-
siderable number of Chinese are employed in the boot and
shoe factories. Pop. 12,090.
J. T. RoPINSON, ED. “TRANSCRIPT.”
Adams, a township of Hillsdale co., Mich. Pop. 1797.
Adams, a township of Houghton co., Mich. Pop. 670.
Adams, a post-township of Mower co., Minn. Pop. 576.
Adams, a township of De Kalb co., Mo. Pop. 879.
Adams, a post-village and township of Jefferson co.,
N.Y., on the Rome Watertown and Ogdensburg R. R., 156
miles W. N. W. of Albany. Adams village is the seat of
Hungerford Collegiate Institute; it also contains two banks,
one weekly newspaper, a foundry, a malt-house, two tan-
neries, a cabinet-shop, a sash-and-blind factory, saw and
grist mills, and two carriage manufactories. There are
eight churches in the town. Pop. 1352; of Adams town-
ship, 3348. HATCH & ALLEN,
PUBS. “JEFFERSON COUNTY JOURNAL.”
Adams, a township of Champaign co., O. Pop. 1238.
Adams, a township of Clinton co., O. Pop. 883.
Adams, a township of Coshocton co., O. Pop. 1113.
Adams, a township of Darke co., O. Pop. 2291.
Adams, a township of Defiance co., O. Pop. 1220.
Adams, a township of Guernsey co., O. Pop. 762.
Adams, a township of Lucas co., Q. Pop. 959.
Adams, a township of Monroe co., O. Pop. 120I.
Adams, a township of Muskingum co., O. Pop. 727.
Adams, a post-township of Seneca, co., O. Pop. 1537.
Adams, a township of Washington co., O. Pop. 1786.
Adams, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 973.
Adams, a township of Cambria, co., Pa. Pop. 836.
Adams, a township of Adams co., Wis. Pop. 425.
Adams, a township of Green co., Wis. Pop. 1007.
Adams (CHARLES BAKER), an American naturalist, born
at Dorchester, Mass., Jan. 11, 1814. He graduated at Am-
herst College in 1834, served as tutor in the same institu-
tion during the years 1836–37, was professor of chemistry
and natural history in Middlebury College 1838–47, when
he became professor of zoology and astronomy in Amherst
College, which post he held till his death, which occurred at
St. Thomas, West Indies, Jan. 19, 1853. He was a man of
comprehensive grasp, with great capacity also for details.
He wrote reports upon the geological survey of Vermont,
also “Contributions to Conchology,” and, in connection
with Prof. Gray of Brooklyn, prepared an elementary
treatise upon geology, which has had much favor.
Adams (CHARLES FRANCIS), L.L.D., D. C. L., an American
diplomatist, the son of John Quincy Adams, was born in
Boston Aug. 18, 1807. He graduated at Harvard in 1825,
studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1828. In 1848
he was nominated for the office of Vice-President by the
Freesoilers, who supported Mr. Van Buren for the presi-
dency. He published the “Life and Works of John
Adams” (10 vols., 1850–56). Having joined the Repub-
lican party, he was elected a member of Congress in 1858,
and again in 1860. In the spring of 1861, he was ap-
pointed minister to England, the duties of which position
were, during the American civil war, very arduous and
critical. He performed these duties with much ability and
prudence, and returned home in 1868. In 1871 he was ap-
pointed one of the arbitrators on the Alabama claims.
Adams (DANIEL), M. D., was born at Townsend, Mass.,
Sept. 29, 1773, and graduated at Dartmouth in 1797. He
was prominent in New Hampshire politics, and was widely
known as an educator, editor, and physician, and as the
author of an excellent arithmetic and other school-books.
Died at Keene, N. H., June 8, 1864.
38
ADAMS.
Adams (HANNAH), born at Medfield, Mass., in 1755,
was one of the first women of America to engage in literary
pursuits. She was a person of great excellence of character,
and possessed real merit as a writer. She wrote a “View
of all Religions” (1784), “History of New England” (1799),
“Evidences of the Christian Religion” (1804), “History of
the Jews” (1812), “Letters on the Gospels,” an “Autobi-
ography,” and otherworks. Died at Brookline, Mass., Nov.
15, 1831. She was the first person whose remains were
buried at Mount Auburn.
Adams (HENRY A.), U. S. N., born in 1833 in Pennsyl-
vania, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1851, became a
passed midshipman in 1854, a master in 1855, a lieutenant
in 1856, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a commander in
1866. While attached to the sloop-of-war Levant in 1856
he took part in the engagement with the Barrier Forts at
the mouth of the Canton River, China. He served on board
the Brooklyn at the passage of Forts St. Philip and Jack-
son and the capture of New Orleans in 1862, and partici-
pated afterwards, while attached to the North Atlantic
blockading squadron, in both attacks on Fort Fisher. Of
his services at Fort Fisher, Admiral Porter, in his official
despatch of Jan. 28, 1865, writes: “I recommend the pro-
motion of Lieutenant-Commander H. A. Adams, without
whose aid we should have been brought to a stand-still
more than once. He volunteered for anything and every-
thing.” Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Adams (ISAAC), born in 1803 at Rochester, N. H., in-
vented in 1828 the well-known Adams printing-press, which
he further improved in 1834. This press is now in very
general use.
Adams (Rev. JASPER), D.D., was born at Medway, Mass.,
in 1793, graduated at Brown University in 1815, was pro-
fessor of mathematics there (1819–24), was president of
Charleston College, S. C., in 1824 and again in 1827–36, of
Geneva College in 1825–27. He was (1838–40) a professor
of geography, ethics, etc. at West Point. Died Oct. 25, 1841.
Adams (John), the second President of the United
States, was born in Braintree, Mass., on the 19th of Oct.,
1735, O. S. He graduated at Harvard College in 1755,
studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1758. For this
profession he was well fitted by a clear, sonorous voice, a
ready fluency of speech, and a quick conception. In 1764
he married Abigail Smith, a woman of superior intelligence.
His attention was drawn to political affairs by the passage
of the Stamp Act in 1765, and he offered on that subject a
series of resolutions which were very popular. He removed
to Boston in 1768, became one of the most courageous and
prominent advocates of the popular cause, and was chosen
a member of the General Court (the legislature) in 1770.
He was one of the delegates that represented Massachu-
setts in the first Continental Congress, which met in Sept.,
1774. In a letter written at this crisis he declared : “The
die is now cast; I have passed the Rubicon. Sink or swim,
live or die, survive or perish with my country, is my unal-
terable determination.” He distinguished himself in Con-
gress by his capacity for business and for debate, and ad-
vocated the movement for independence when the majority
of the members were inclined to temporize and to petition the
King. In May, 1776, he moved and carried a resolution in
Congress that the Colonies should assume the duty of self-
government. In June a resolution that the United States
“are and of right ought to be free and independent” was
moved by Richard Henry Lee, seconded by Mr. Adams,
and adopted by a small majority. Mr. Adams was a mem-
ber of the committee of five appointed June 11 to prepare
a declaration of independence, in support of which he made
an eloquent speech about July 2. He was the chairman of
the board of war appointed in June, 1776, and was sent as
commissioner to France in 1778, but returned in July, 1779.
Having been appointed as minister to negotiate a treaty of
peace and commerce with Great Britain, he went to Europe
early in 1780. Conjointly with Franklin and Jay he nego-
tiated a treaty, the preliminary articles of which were
signed Nov. 30, 1782. He was employed as minister to
the court of St. James from 1785 to 1788, and during that
service wrote his “ Defence of the American Constitutions”
(1787). In 1789 he became Vice-President of the United
States, and about that time identified himself with the Fed-
eral party, by which he was re-elected to the office of Vice-
President in 1792.
In 1796, Mr. Adams was chosen President of the United
States, receiving seventy-one electoral votes, while his com-
petitor, Thomas Jefferson, received sixty-eight votes. He
sympathized with the anti-Gallican party, and pursued the
policy of neutrality between France and England. In-
volved in a quarrel with the French Directory, which in-
terfered with the maritime interests of the Americans, he
sent Mr. Murray as minister to France early in 1799, in
order to avert a war. This act gave much offence to the
Federalists, and broke the unity of that party. Among the
unpopular measures for which Mr. Adams was held respon-
sible were the Alien law, and the Sedition law. In 1800
he was the Federal candidate for the office of President, but
he was not cordially supported by Gen. Hamilton, the
favorite leader of his party. Receiving sixty-five electoral
votes, he was defeated by Thomas Jefferson, who received
seventy-three votes.
Mr. Adams then retired from public life to his large estate
at Quincy, Mass., and gave his attention partly to agricul-
ture. The general neglect and odium which he experienced
were at last compensated by the election of his son John
Quincy to the presidency of the United States. He died on
the 4th of July, 1826, on the same day with Thomas Jeffer-
son. It is a curious coincidence that three Presidents of the
United States (Monroe being the third) have died, on that
anniversary. J. THOMAs.
Adams (JoBN), LL.D., eminent as a classical teacher,
was born in Canterbury, Conn., Sept. 18, 1772, and gradu-
ated at Yale College in 1795. After presiding over Plain-
field Academy, and Bacon Academy in Colchester, Conn.,
he was made principal of Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass.,
May, 1810, resigned that position after great success in 1833,
and died April 24, 1863. Prof. Thomas C. Upham and
many other distinguished scholars and philanthropists were
among his pupils at Andover.
Adams (John CoucH), an English astronomer, born in
Cornwall June 5, 1819, was educated at Cambridge. In 1841
he began to search for the causes of the irregularities in the
motion of Uranus. He ascertained that they were caused
by the attraction of a planet then unknown, and thus par-
takes with Leverrier the honor of the discovery of Neptune,
for which he received the Copley medal in 1848. He be-
came Lowndean professor of astronomy at Cambridge in
1858.
Adams (JoBN QUINCY), the sixth President of the
|United States, was born in Braintree, Mass., on the 11th of
July, 1767. He was eldest son of President John Adams
and his wife, Abigail Smith, who was descended from the
family of Quincy. In 1778 he was placed at a school in
Paris, and in 1780 passed to the University of Leyden.
He returned home in 1785, and finished his education at
Harvard College, where he graduated in 1788, after which
he studied law with Theophilus Parsons, and was admitted
to the bar in 1791. Having gained distinction by some
political essays, he was appointed minister to The Hague
in 1794. In 1797 he married Louisa Catherine Johnson of
Maryland, and in the same year was sent as minister to
Berlin, from which he was recalled in 1801, when the Re-
publicans obtained power.
He was elected a Senator of the U. S. by the Federalists
in 1803, but voted for Jefferson’s embargo in 1807, and
thus separated himself from the Federal party, and lost his
seat in the Senate in 1808. Before this date he had distin-
guished himself as a public speaker, and had been appointed
professor of rhetoric at Harvard College (1805). In 1809
he was sent as minister to Russia. He was one of the com-
missioners that negotiated the treaty of peace with Great
Britain, signed Dec. 24, 1814, and he was appointed minis-
ter to the court of St. James in 1815. In 1817 he became
secretary of state in the cabinet of Monroe, in which posi-
tion he remained eight years. In 1824 four candidates for
the presidency were presented—John Q. Adams, Andrew
Jackson, Henry Clay, and William H. Crawford—all of
whom professed to be Democrats. Mr. Adams received
eighty-four electoral votes, Jackson ninety-nine, Crawford
forty-one, and Clay thirty-seven. As neither had the re-
quisite majority, the election devolved on the House of
Representatives, which chose Mr. Adams. This result was
due to the influence of Henry Clay, and when Mr. Adams
nominated him as secretary of state, the friends of Jack-
son accused Adams and Clay of “bargain and corruption,”
but the charge is not generally credited. His administra-
tion was opposed by a powerful party, formed by a coa-
lition of the Jacksonians with the friends of Crawford.
This party had a majority of the members of Congress,
and, uniting on General Jackson as their candidate, tri-
umphed in the election of 1828, when Mr. Adams received
only eighty-three electoral votes out of two hundred and
sixty-one, which was the whole number. $ -
In 1830 he was chosen by the voters of his native dis-
trict to represent them in Congress, in which he distin-
guished himself by his application to business, his asser-
tion of the right of petition, and his resolute opposition to
what he considered to be the encroachments of the slave-
power. “With unwavering firmness,” says W. H. Seward,
“against a bitter and unscrupulous opposition, exasperated
to the highest pitch by his pertinacity—amidst a perfect
tempest of vituperation and abuse—he persevered in pre-
senting these petitions [against slavery] one by one, to the
ADAMS-ADDA.
39
amount sometimes of two hundred in a day.” He con-
tinued to represent the same district in Congress for seven-
teen years, during which he maintained a position inde-
pendent of party. He was seized with paralysis in the
Capitol on the 21st of Feb., 1848, and died on the 23d
of that month. In religion he was a Unitarian. He left
many writings in prose and verse, which have been pub-
lished; also a voluminous diary of his public life. He
had an only surviving son, Charles Francis Adams, noticed
above. J. THOMAs.
Adams (John QUINCY), a grandson of the preceding,
and son of Charles Francis Adams, noticed above, was
born at Boston, Mass., Sept. 22, 1833, graduated at Har-
vard in 1853. He was the Democratic candidate for gov-
ernor of Massachusetts in 1867 and 1868, but was both
times defeated. He was also a candidate for the vice-pres-
idency in 1872, on the ticket with Charles O’Conor.
Adams (John R.), D. D., born in Plainfield, Conn.,
graduated at Yale College in 1821, was three years a
teacher in Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., was Presby-
terian and Congregational minister in various towns of
New Hampshire, New York, Massachusetts, and Maine;
was chaplain during the civil war in the 5th Maine and
121st New York regiments. For his services he received
public acknowledgments from the governor of Maine. Died
April 26, 1866, at,Northampton, Mass., aged sixty-four.
Adams (JULIUs W.). See APPENDIX.
Adams (NEHEMIAH), D.D., an American theologian,
was born at Salem, Mass., Feb. 19, 1806, graduated at
Harvard in 1826, and at Andover Theological Seminary in
1829. He first settled at Cambridge in 1829, and in 1834
became pastor of the Essex street church in Boston. He
resigned his pastorate in 1870. He published several the-
ological and other works, and a “South-side View of Sla-
very” (1854), which was severely condemned by the oppo-
nents of slavery. He has had a high reputation for scholar-
ship and pulpit eloquence.
Adams (SAMUEL), a celebrated American patriot and
orator, born in Boston Sept. 27, 1722, was a second cousin
of President John Adams. He graduated at Harvard Col-
lege in 1740, and became a merchant, but was not success-
ful in that business, which he soon abandoned. In 1765 he
was chosen to represent Boston in the General Court of
Massachusetts, in which he distinguished himself by his
courage, energy, and oratorical talents, and acquired great
influence. Before the Revolution he was an unflinching
advocate of the popular cause, and took such an active
part in political meetings that he was one of the two lead-
ing patriots who were excepted from a general pardon of-
fered in 1775. He was a member of the first Continental
Congress, which met in Sept., 1774, and he signed the De-
claration of Independence in 1776. He remained in Con-
... gress about eight years, was afterwards elected to the senate
of Massachusetts, and was a member of the State conven-
tion which ratified the Federal Constitution in 1788. His
political affinities connected him with the Republican (or
Jeffersonian) party. He was elected governor of Mas-
sachusetts in 1794, was re-elected twice, and retired to pri-
vate life in 1797. Having survived his only son, he died in
Oct., 1803. In religion he was a decided Calvinist. In the
letters and other writings of John Adams occur several pas-
sages which express a high opinion of the talents and
merits of Samuel Adams, in whose productions he says
may be found “specimens of a nervous simplicity of rea-
soning and eloquence that have never been rivalled in
America..” (See W. W. WELLs’s “Life and Public Services
of Samuel Adams,” 3 vols. 8vo, 1865.)
Adams (SETH), a brother of Isaac Adams, the inventor,
was born at Rochester, N. H., April 13, 1807, has been for
many years associated with his brother in the manufac-
ture of the Adams printing-press, and since 1849 has been
extensively engaged in sugar-refining in Boston, Mass.
He has given considerable sums of money to Bowdoin Col-
lege.
Adams (WILLIAM), D.D., LL.D., a son of John Adams
(principal of Phillips Academy, Andover), a distinguished
Presbyterian divine, born in Colchester, Conn., Jan. 25,
1807, graduated at Yale College 1827, and at Andover The-
ological Seminary 1830. He was ordained at Brighton,
Mass., Feb., 1831, settled over the Central Presbyterian
church in New York City, Nov., 1834, and over the newly-
formed Madison Square Presbyterian church, Feb., 1853.
An acknowledged leader in the New School branch of the
Presbyterian Church, he took a prominent part in the re-
union of the two branches in 1870. He has published
many sermons, addresses, and articles in reviews, besides
the following volumes: “The Three Gardens—Eden, Geth-
Semane, and Paradise, or Man's Ruin, Redemption, and
Restoration,” 1856; “Thanksgiving : Memories of the
Day, and Helps to the Habit,” 1867; “Conversations of
Jesus Christ with Representative Men,” 1868. In 1873 he
was chosen president and professor of sacred rhetoric in
the Union Theological Seminary, N. Y.
Adams (WILLIAM T.), a popular American writer,
known under the pseudonym of OLIVER, OPTIC, born in
Medway, Mass., July 30, 1822, has published numerous
works for children. Among these may be named “The
Riverdale Series” and “Young America Series.” His
journal, entitled “Our Boys and Girls,” founded in I867
as a weekly, and subsequently published as a monthly, has
obtained a large circulation.
Adams Centre, a post-village of Adams township,
Jefferson co., N. Y.
Adam’s Creek, a twp. of Craven co., N. C. P. 1352.
Ad'amson (JoHN), an English author, born in 1787.
He wrote a “Memoir of Camoens” (1820) and “The His-
tory, Antiquities, and Literature of Portugal” (2 vols.,
1842–46). Died in 1855.
Adam’s Peak, a mountain in Ceylon in lat. 6° 52' N.,
lon. 80° 32' E., which has a height of about 7000 feet. It
is considered by the Booddhists as the holy centre of the
world. A temple is situated on the highest portion of the
peak, under which the footprints of Booddha, and Sripa-
dam (i.e. “luck”) are said to be seen. Booddha is said to
| have left those traces upon his last visit to the earth. The
Brahmans and Mohammedans also consider it a holy
mountain—the former, because they consider Booddha as
an avatar (incarnation) of Vishnoo; the latter, because
they ascribe the footprints to Adam, who is said to have
here mourned for 1000 years his czpulsion from Paradise,
standing on one foot.
Ad’amsthal, a village of Moravia, Austria, 9 miles N.
of Brünn. In the neighborhood is the curious calcareous
cavern Regeiskala, which belongs to the large system of
caverns which is found to the N. of Brünn. Adamsthal is
growing considerably, and is much visited by tourists.
Ad'amstown, a post-borough of Lancaster co., Pa.
Pop. 431. -
Adamsville, a twp. of Marlboro’ co., S. C. Pop. 1407.
Ada’na, a city of Asia Minor, on the river Sihoon, about
20 miles from the sea and 18 miles E. of Tarsus. It has
some trade in grain, wine, cotton, etc. Here are interest-
ing ancient remains. Pop. estimated at 25,000.
Adamson (MICHEL), a celebrated French naturalist,
born at Aix April 7, 1727, was educated at the college of
Plessis. He went to Senegal in 1748 to explore the matural
history of that region, in which he passed five years in his
arduous and dangerous enterprise, and collected an im-
mense number of animals and plants. He published, after
his return, a “Natural History of Senegal” (1757), and
“The Families of Plants” (1763), in which he opposed the
artificial system of Linnaeus. ... In 1759 he was elected a
member of the Academy of Sciences. He expended the
labor of several years on an encyclopædia entitled “The
Universal Order of Nature,” which he left in manuscript,
perhaps unfinished. A part of his mature life was passed
in extreme poverty, but he afterwards received a pen-
sion from the state. He was a man of noble but eccentric
character, and was regarded as a naturalist of the first
order by Cuvier, who composed a eulogy on him. Died
Aug. 3, 1806.
Adanso'nia, a genus of plants of the natural order
Sterculiaceae, was named
in honor of the great
naturalist, M. Adanson.
The Adanso'nia digita/-
ta, or baobab, is found
in tropical Africa, and is
# one of the largest trees
# in the world. It does not
# grow very high, but its
# trunk is often more than
twenty feet in diameter.
The fruit of the baobab
is called monkey-bread.
Adanson saw a tree of
this species which he
Adansonia.
estimated to be 5000 years old.
A/dar, the name of the sixth month in the civil year
of the Jews, which included part of February and March.
Ad/da (anc. Ad’dwa), a river of Northern Italy, rises
in the Waltellina, among the Rhaetian Alps, and enters
Lake Como, which is an expansion of this river. After
issuing from that lake it flows nearly southward through
Lombardy, and empties itself into the Po 7 miles above
Cremona, Length of river and lake, about 130 miles.

40
ADDAX—ADELUNG. • . tº
Ad/dax, the O'ryac. (or Ad/daa) nasomacula’tus of the
naturalists, is a large ante-
lope found in Nubia, Kor-
dofān, and other parts of
Northern or North Cen-
tral Africa. Its broad
spreading hoofs enable the
animal to obtain a firm
foothold upon the dry and
yielding sand. Its horns,
which are from three to
four feet long, are beauti-
fully twisted into a spiral, ºft.
having two turns and a tº
half. The general color º
of the addax is a milk- Ny
white, but there is a black
patch of hair on the fore-
head, and it has a dark
brown mane, with more or less of reddish-brown mixed
with gray on the head, shoulders, and part of the back.
Ad’der, a common name of the viper, or of any venom-
ous serpent belonging to the family Viperidae. The name
is popularly applied to several non-venomous snakes.
Ad/dington, a county of Canada, in the S. E. part of
Ontario, bordering on Lake Ontario, has an area of 576
square miles. It is drained by the Napanee River, and
contains several small lakes. Among the staple produc-
tions are lumber and wool. Capital, Bath. Pop. in 1871,
21,312.
Ad/dison, a county in the W. part of Vermont. Area,
750 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by Lake Cham-
plain, and drained by Otter Creek. The surface in the E.
is mountainous, but the soil near the lake is level and fer-
tile. Quarries of white and variegated marble are worked
in this county, which is intersected by the Rutland and
Durlington R. R. Cattle, grain, wool, and hay are pro-
duced, and lumber, cooperage, saddlery, carriages, cte. are
manufactured. Capital, Middlebury. Pop. 23,484.
Addison, a post-township of Du Page co., Ill. Pop.
1613. It is the seat of a teachers’ seminary.
Addison, a township of Shelby co., Ind. Pop. 2677.
Addison, a township of Washington co., Me. P. 1201.
Addison, a township of Oakland co., Mich. Pop. 1063.
Addison, a post-village and township of Steuben co.,
N. Y. The village contains many important manufactur-
ing establishments, and is in a highly flourishing condition.
It has one weekly paper. Pop. 2218.
G. H. HoLLIS, ED. “ADVERTISER.”
Addison, a post-township of Gallia co., O. Pop. 1340.
º
|
º §§ §
º
§
º §
Addax.
t
Addison, a post-township of Somerset co., Pa. Pop.
1456.
Addison, a post-township of Addison co., Vt. P. 911.
Addison, a post-township of Washington co., Wis.
Pop. 1833. . -
Ad/dison (José PH), an English humorist, moralist, and
author of great merit and celebrity, was born at Milston,
near Amesbury, in Wiltshire, on the 1st of May, 1672. He
was a son of Lancelot Addison. In 1687 he entered Queen’s
College, Oxford, from which he passed to Magdalen Col-
lege in 1689. He became a good classical scholar, and as
a writer of Latin verse probably excelled all his contem-,
poraries. At an early age he enjoyed the friendship and
patronage of Dryden, Lord Somers, and Montagu (Lord
Halifax), the last of whom persuaded him to enlist as a
Whig in the civil service of the state. Having in 1699 re-
ceived a pension of £300, he visited France and Italy, and
wrote a charming “Letter from Italy,” in verse, addressed
to Lord Halifax (1701). He lost his pension on the death
of William III. (1702), and returned home in 1703. His
next work was “The Campaign,” a poem on the battle of
Blenheim (1704), which was greatly admired, and was re-
warded with the office of commissioner of appeals. He
afterwards produced his interesting “Travels in Italy,” and
“Rosamond,” an opera. He was appointed under-secretary
of state in 1706, and was elected to Parliament in 1708.
His diffidence disqualified him for public speaking, but this
defect was compensated by his success as a political writer.
He became in 1709 secretary to Lord Wharton, lord lieu-
tenant of Ireland, and contributed to the “Tatler,” of which
his friend Richard Steele was the editor.
On the 1st of Mar., 1711, Addison and Steele began to
issue daily “The Spectator,” the most elegant and famous
periodical and miscellany that ever appeared in England.
Addison wrote the best of the essays, which form an epoch
in literary history and have exerted a powerful and salutary
moral influence. Among his literary merits are grace and
propriety of diction, elegant taste, genial philosophy, and
colloquial powers.
inimitable humor. “As an observer of life, of manners, of
all the shades of human character,” says Macaulay, “he
stands in the first class.”
“The Spectator” ceased to appear daily in Dec., 1712,
but was revived as a tri-weekly paper in 1714. Among his
other works are the tragedy of “Cato ” (1713), which was
received with great applause, an ingenious “Dialogue on
Medals,” and a series of able political papers called “The
Freeholder” (1715). In 1716 he married the proud and
uncongenial countess-dowager of Warwick, and early in
1717 was appointed Secretary of state. He resigned this
office in 1718, and died June 17, 1719, leaving only one
child, a daughter. His marriage appears not to have been
happy. Addison was greatly distinguished for his wit and
Lady Mary Montagu, who had con-
versed with the most eminent wits, pronounced him “the
best company in the world.” “His humanity,” says Ma-
caulay, “is without a parallel in literary history. The
highest proof of human virtue is to possess boundless power
without abusing it. No kind of power is more formidable
than the power of making men ridiculous; and that power
Addison possessed in boundless measure. But it would be
difficult, if not impossible, to find, in all the volumes which
he has left us, a single taunt which can be called ungenerous
or unkind.” “Whoever wishes,” says Dr. Johnson, “to
attain an English style, familiar but not coarse, and elegant
but not ostentatious, must give his days"and nights to the
volumes of Addison. . . . He not only made the proper use
of wit himself, but taught it to others. He has restored
virtue to its dignity, and taught innocence not to be ashamed.
This is an elevation of literary character ‘above all Greek,
above all Roman fame.’” (See JoHNSON’s “Lives of the
Poets;” MACAULAY, “Critical and Historical Essays;”
ATKIN, “The Life of Addison,” 1843.) J. THOMAs.
Addison’s Disease [named from its discoverer, the
late Dr. Addison of Guy’s Hospital, London], or Supra-
renal Melasma, a rather rare disease, the most obvious
symptom of which is a gray-black or bronze color of the
skin, gradually coming on. The chief lesion discovered
after death is a cheesy degeneration of the supra-renal cap-
sules, the result of a peculiar chronic inflammation. Pa-
tients usually suffer from extreme debility, depression of
spirits, pain in the epigastrium and back, often accompanied
by dyspepsia, vomiting, diarrhoea, and grave nervous symp-
toms. No remedy is known, and the disease, though care-
ful nursing is extremely useful, is probably never cured.
A/del, a post-village, the capital of Dallas co., Ia, 25
miles W. of Des Moines. One of the best water-privileges
in the State is to be found here. It is the centre of two
projected railroads. The surrounding country is rolling
and highly productive. There are two weekly newspapers.
Pop. 711; of Adel township, 1563.
J. E. WILLIAMS, ED. “ GAZETTE.”
Ad/elaide, a city, the capital of South Australia, is
situated on both sides of the river Torrens, 8 miles from
its entrance into the Gulf of St. Vincent. It was founded
in 1836. The streets are wide and rectangular. It is the
seat of an Anglican and a Roman Catholic bishop, and con-
tains a government-house, an assay-office, a theatre, ex-
tensive manufactures, and several banks. Pop. in 1871,
27,208. Port Adelaide, situated about 6 miles N. N. W. of
the city, is the centre of the commerce of the colony. The
harbor admits vessels drawing eighteen feet of water. It
has a heavy trade in copper, grain, and wool. Adelaide
is connected by railways with Dry Creek, Victor Harbor,
Gawlertown, Kapunda, and Kooringa. -
Adel/phia
[i. e. “brotherhood;” from the Gr. 38eXóós,
a “brother ”], a collection of the stamens
of a flower into a bundle. Linnaeus em-
# ployed this term for those plants in which
the stamens, instead of growing singly,
combine into one or more parcels or
brotherhoods; thus, Monadelphia signified
stamens all connected into one parcel; Di-
adelphia, into two parcels, and so on.
A/delsberg, a market-town of Carniola,
Adelphia. Austria; , A Short distance from the town
is the Adelsberg Grotto, which is one of
the most peculiar caverns of the world. It consists of five
different parts, and is full of beautiful formations, which
are partly suspended from the ceiling (stalactites), in part
hang down upon the wall like draperies (incrustations),
and part arise from the ground in the form of obelisks or
columns (stalagmites).
A/delung (FRIEDRICH), a German philologist, born at
Stettin Feb. 25, 1768, became a resident of St. Petersburg,
and preceptor to the grand duke, who was afterwards the
emperor Nicholas. He wrote on the Sanscrit language and
literature. Died Jan. 30, 1843.



ADELUNG—ADJUTANT-GENERAL.
Adekung (Johann CHRISTOPH), an eminent philologist,
an uncle of the preceding, born in Pomerania Aug. 8, 1732.
His reputation is founded chiefly on his “Attempt at a
Complete Grammatico-Critical Dictionary of the German
Language” (“Versuch eines vollständigen grammatisch-
kritischen Wörterbuches der Hochdeutschen Mundart,”
1774–86). This is considered to be superior to Dr. John-
son’s Dictionary in definitions and etymology. Among his
other works is one on language, entitled “Mithridates oder
allgemeine Sprachen-Kunde.” Died at Dresden Sept. 10,
Aſden, a seaport of Arabia, in Yemen, is on the Gulf
of Aden, at Cape Aden, in lat. 12° 46' 15" N., lon. 45° 10'
E. It was a magnificent emporium in the Middle Ages,
and, being favorably situated near the entrance of the Red
Sea, was the chief mart of the products of Asia. From
these advantages, and its climate, rendered cool and de-
lightful by the sea-breeze (although the rugged volcanic
hills with which it is surrounded, without a particle of
vegetation, make it anything, but attractive in appear-
ance), it was named, after the Oriental manner, Aden (i. e.
“Eden’’). The British obtained possession of it in 1839,
since which time the population and trade of the place
have rapidly increased. It has a good harbor, a dry and
healthy climate, and one of the most important and ad-
vantageous positions on the route from Europe to India,
whether by the ràilway from Alexandria to Suez, or by
the Suez Canal and the Red Sea. Aden resembles Gib-
raltar in its position on a rocky promontory and in its
military importance; it has been strongly fortified by the
British. . Its area is about 19 square miles. The exports
in 1871–72 were £885,919, and imports £1,404,169. The
population, which in 1838 was not over 1000, is variously
estimated at from 20,000 to 50,000.
Aden, Cape, a rocky promontory at the S. extremity
of Arabia, adjoining the town of Aden, rises to the height
of 1776 feet. It is joined to the mainland by a low sandy
isthmus less than a mile wide.
Aden, Gulf of, that part of the sea lying between
Arabia, and Adel, and extending from the Strait of Bab-el-
Mandeb to the Indian Ocean or Arabian Sea. On some
maps this is marked as the Arabian Gulf. Length, about
500 miles. -
Adept’ [Lat. adeptus, from ad, “for,” and aptus,
“fitted”], a term applied to a person who is skilful or well
versed in any art or science; formerly applied especially to
an alchemist who was supposed to have discovered the
Secret of turning base metal into gold, or to have found the
philosopher's stone.
Aſ dermö, a town of Sicily, at the foot of Mount Etna,
17 miles N. W. of Catania. Pop. in 1861, 12,877.
A’dersbach Rocks, a remarkable group of high and
detached sandstone rocks, near the village of Adersbach,
in the N. E. part of Bohemia. They present fantastic
forms, and occupy an area of several miles in extent. One
of the pinnacles is over 200 feet high.
Adet (PIERRE AUGUSTE), a French chemist and poli-
tician, born at Nevers in 1763. He was sent by the French
Directory as ambassador to the United States in 1795, but
he suspended his functions in 1797, for the alleged reason
that the American government had violated its neutrality.
Died in 1832.
Adhe'sion [Lat. adhe'sio, from ad, “to,” and hae/reo,
haº'sum, to “stick”], the attractive force which causes the
Smooth surfaces of two substances to adhere together, or
which causes a fluid and solid to unite. The amount of
adhesion between solid surfaces is measured best by the
adhesion balance of J. J. von Prechtl. Capillary attrac-
tion is an instance and particular manifestation of adhe-
S1011.
ADHESION, a term used in botany to denote the union of
contiguous parts, as when the petals adhere and form a
monopetalous corolla; the calyx often adheres to the ovary,
and then seems as if it grew from the apex of it. This
tendency causes great diversity of appearance in the organs
of plants.
Adiaph’orites [from the Gr. 38táčopos, “indifferent”],
a name given to Melanchthon, and those who agreed with
him in submitting, in things indifferent, to an imperial edict.
When Charles W. in 1548 issued an edict called the Interim,
relating to disputed religious doctrines, the Protestants be-
came involved in a controversy in which this name origi-
nated.
Ad’ige [Lat. Ath/esis], a river in Italy, rises among the
Alps in the Tyrol, where it is called the Etsch. Flowing
southward, it passes by Trent, and enters Lombardy. After
passing by Verona, it flows nearly south-eastward, and falls
into the Gulf of Venice about 13 miles N. E. of Adria. It
is a rapid stream, about 220 miles long. It is navigable
vesicles filled with fat or oil.
41
from its mouth to Trent, but the velocity of the current
impedes navigation.
Ad’ipocere [Lat. adipoce/ra, from ad’eps (gen.o.d'ipis),
“fat,” and ce/ra, “wax”], a substance which results from
the decomposition of animal bodies, and resembles sperma-
ceti, or a mixture of wax and fat. Human bodies buried
in wet ground are often reduced to this condition.
Adipose [Lat. adipoſsus, from ad"eps (gen. ad'ipis),
“fat’], of the nature of fat, fatty. Adipose tissue is an
animal membrane which contains the fatty matter. It
presents an aggregation of very small spherical pouches or
This tissue is organized and
vital, but the fat is not. -
Adiron/dac Mountains, a group of mountains, the
highest in the State of New York, occupy parts of the
counties of Hamilton, Essex, Franklin, and Clinton, and
are in the N. E. part of the State. The highest summit,
Mount Marcy, which is in Essex county, is 5370 feet above
the level of the sea. These mountains, being of primitive
formation, are remarkable for grand and picturesque sce-
nery. They are covered with forests of maple, ash, beech,
pine, hemlock, cedar, and other trees, and abound in game.
A number of lakes occur among the Adirondacs, which are
also drained by the Saranac and Ausable rivers. The Ad-
irondacs are a favorite resort for summer recreation. The
waters abound in trout, and deer and other game is to be
found in the forests. Iron ore and lumber are obtained
here. º
Adirondac, a former village of Newcomb township,
Essex co., N. Y., about 1800 feet above the level of the
sea, and 100 miles N. N. W. of Albany. Here are rich
beds of magnetic iron-ore, and several iron-works, now
abandoned. The village was near Lake Sandford, which
is 11 miles long and is navigable. -
Ad/it [Lat. ad/itus, from ad, “to,” and eſo, i/tum, to
“go’], a horizontal passage and entrance into a mine, de-
signed partly to drain water from it. Adits occur chiefly
in mountainous regions, and are sometimes several miles
long.
Adja/cent Angle, an angle contiguous to another, so
that one side is common to both angles.
Adjective [Lat. adjectivum, from ad, “to,” and jacio,
jactum, to “cast,” to “put "l, in grammar, the name of a
class of words which are joined to nouns, in order to qual-
ify the general ideas expressed by the nouns.
Adjourn/ment, a term applied to the postponement
of the proceedings of the U. S. Congress, or of either house
of the British Parliament, from one time to another speci-
fied time. It differs from prorogation, which is an act of
.royal authority, whereas the power of adjournment is
vested in each house respectively.
Adjutant [Lat. adjuſtans, from adju/to, to “assist”],
the title of a military officer who assists the superior officer
of an army, regiment, etc. He carries orders from the
chief to the subordinate officers, and collects the reports
which are made by the latter to the former. He inspects
escorts and guards, keeps the journal or account-book of
the regiment or division, and acts as secretary to his chief.
In the U. S. a regimental adjutant ranks as first lieutenant. ,
Adjutant (Cico'nia ar'gala), an East Indian bird, al-
lied to the stork, is called argala by the natives. It is
about five feet high, has long legs and an enormous bill,
and can swallow a cat or a small leg of smutton with the
greatest facility. It is very useful as a scavenger, clean-
sing the streets and public squares of various offal and
dead animals. The famous marabou feathers are obtained
from the adjutant and a kindred species, the marabou
(marabout) of Africa. :
Adjutant= General, the principal organ of the com-
mander of an army in publishing orders. The same organ
of the commander of a division, brigade, geographical di-
vision, or department is styled assistant adjutant-general.
The laws of the U. S., however, provide for but one adju-
tant-general, with the rank of brigadier-general (colonel
after vacation of office by present incumbent), made by
regulations chief of a bureau of the war department, and
charged with the recruiting service, records, returns, etc.;
two assistant adjutants-general, with the rank of colonel;
four with the rank of lieutenant colonel; and thirteen with
the rank of major. The bureau duties of adjutarits-gen-
eral and assistants are—publishing orders in writing; mak-
ing up written instructions, and transmitting them; recep-
tion of reports and returns; disposing of them; forming
tables showing the state and position of corps; regulating
details of service; corresponding with the administrative
departments relative to the wants of troops; corresponding
with the corps, detachments, or individual officers serving
under the orders of the same commander; and the method-
42
AD. LATUS—ADMIRALTY.
ical arrangement and care of the records and papers of his
office. The active duties of adjutants-general consist in
establishing camps; visiting guards and outposts; muster-
ing and inspecting troops; inspecting guards and detach-
ments; forming parades and lines of battle; the conduct
and control of deserters and prisoners; making reconnais-
sances; and in general discharging such other active duties
as may be assigned them.
ADJUTANT-GENERAL of a State. See MILITIA.
Ad Laſtus (i. e. “at the side,” implying readiness to
assist), a term applied to persons sent, as aids, with an am-
bassador, especially when the latter is unable to speak the
language of the court to which he is ordered. In Austria
the term is applied to generals who are given as aids to the
commandant of an army corps or province.
Ad/ler (GEORG J.), Ph. D., a German philologist, born
at Leipsic in 1821, came to the U. S. in 1833. He was for
some time professor of German in the University of New
York. He wrote several German and Latin school man-
uals, and an excellent German and English dictionary.
Died in New York Aug. 24, 1868.
Ad/Herberg (VLADIMIR FEODoRovITCH), Count, a Rus-
sian general and minister of state, born in 1793, served in
the campaigns of 1812–14, was major-general in the Turkish
campaign of 1828, and was made lieutenant-general in
1833. He also held the positions of general director of the
mails, minister of the imperial house, and chancellor of the
Russian orders. Of his sons, Alexander and Nicholas are
both lieutenants-general and adjutants-general to the em-
peror. Nicholas was appointed governor-general of Fin-
land in 1866. - *
Ad’lercreutz (CARI, JoHAN), Count, a Swedish gen-
eral, born April 27, 1757, served against Russia in 1788,
and in the Finnish war of 1808. On Mar. 13, 1809, in con-
sequence of several unpopular actions of the king, Gus-
tavus IV., he arrested the king in the name of the people,
which act gained him great popularity. Died Aug. 21,
I815. -
Ad/Her Sal/vius (Johan), a celebrated Swedish ambas-
sador and diplomatist, was born in Strengnäs, Sweden, in
1590, and died at Stockholm in 1652. He was sent by Gus-
tavus Adolphus on various missions of importance, and
during the Thirty Years' war he enjoyed the fullest con-
fidence of that monarch. After the conclusion of peace
he returned to Sweden, and was created a councillor and
baron. Throughout his life a firm friendship existed be-
tween him and the celebrated chancellor Oxenstiern.
Ad/iersparre (GEORGE), Count, a Swedish officer and
statesman, born Mar. 28, 1760, took part in the wars of
1788 and 1808 against Russia, and in the deposition of
Gustavus IV. He received many indications of favor from
the new king, but was dissatisfied with the result of the
revolution, because he had not gained as much influence
as he desired. He published from 1830–33 a number of
secret documents, as well as his correspondence with Charles
XIII. and others, in consequence of which he was sentenced
to pay a fine. He nevertheless continued to publish these
documents. Died Sept. 23, 1835.
Ad Lib/itum (i.e. “at (or according to) pleasure”),
often employed by physicians in giving directions about
taking some harmless medicine; also used in music to in-
dicate that a certain part may be played according to the
taste of the performer. -
Admetus [Gr. "Aöpinros], son of Pheres, who was the
mythical founder and first king of Pherae in Thessaly. He
was one of the Argonauts, and took a part in the Caly-
donian Hunt. He won the hand of Alcestis by coming to
the suit in a chariot drawn by boars and lions, that being
a condition imposed by the bride's father, Pelias. The god
Apollo procured from the Fates a grant that Admetus might
be exempt from death if his father, mother, or wife should
die for him. The touching story of Alcestis and her devo-
tion, death, and restoration to life is the subject of one of
the most celebrated tragedies of Euripides.
Administraſtion [from the Lat. ad, “for,” and min-
istro, ministratum, to “be a servant”]. This word literally
signifies “management” or the conduct of business. It is
often used to indicate the action of the executive depart-
ment of government, as distinguished from the legislative
and judicial. It sometimes is employed with reference to
trust funds, but its technical meaning is the management
or disposition, according to law, of the personal estate of
an intestate or of a testator having no executor. The
common-law distinction between heirs on the one hand and
executors and administrators on the other, should be noted.
When an owner of real estate died, his estate devolved upon
his heirs, who were persons related to him by blood; when
an owner of personal property died, leaving a testament or
will, that branch of his estate devolved upon his executors,
if such were named; if there were none, then upon admin-
istrators appointed by a court of justice. Administration
in this sense was in England under the control of the ec-
clesiastical courts until 1857, when it devolved upon a
newly-created court of probate. In the U. S. it is gene-
rally vested in special tribunals termed probate, or orphans',
or surrogates’ courts. By such a court administration is
conferred on the person or persons entitled to it by the
local rules of law. It is in general committed first to the
widow or husband, then to the children, and then to the
other next of kin, in a prescribed order. The court has
power of selection among the next of kin in equal degree.
These provisions are substantially copied from early Eng-
lish statutes. The person thus entrusted with the admin-
istration is called an administrator. The court grants him
“letters of administration” as evidence of his authority.
He represents the deceased. He must make an inventory
of the personal estate, collect the assets, and convert the
property into cash, pay the debts, render an account, and
distribute the balance in his hands among the persons en-
titled to it. He is a trustee, and under the control of a
court of equity as well as of the probate court.
When the deceased leaves a will, but there is no executor,
the person to whom administration is granted is termed an
administrator “with the will annexed” (cum testamento
anneaco). In this case the will is to guide the administra-
tor in his duties. Should an administrator die before his
duties are fulfilled, another is appointed to perform the res-
idue of his functions, called “administrator de bonis mom.”
While an administrator exercises full control over the
personal estate of the deceased, his authority is confined
to it unless it is insufficient to pay debts; in which case
the probate court generally has by statute the right to di-
rect him to sell enough of the real estate to satisfy them.
Letters of administration confer no power to bring ac-
tions in foreign states. Where there are assets in another
state or country, a subordinate or ancillary administrator is
appointed, who acts under the direction of the foreign court,
and remits according to its order any funds which he may
receive to the principal administrator. T. W. DwighT.
Ad’miral [Fr. amiral], the title of a naval officer of the
highest rank, derived from the Arabic amir or emir, “com-
mander.” The English word was formerly amiral, as in
Milton’s “Paradise Lost.” Vice-admiral is the title of the
officer next in rank to the admiral; and a rear-admiral is
the third in the scale.
The grades of rear-admiral and, commodore in the U. S.
navy were first established by act of July 16, 1862, which pro-
vides that the number of each.grade shall not exceed 9 rear-
admirals, 18 commodores, 36 captains, 72 commanders, 144
lieutenant-commanders, 144 lieutenants, 144 masters, and
144 ensigns. Squadrons would be commanded by rear-ad-
mirals, and theindividual vessels thus: Firstrates by commo-
dores; second, rates by captains third rates by commanders;
fourth rates by lieutenant-commanders. By act of Congress
of Dec. 21, 1864, the President was authorized to appoint
from the rear-admirals one vice-admiral, who shall be the
ranking officer in the navy of the U. S., and whose relative
rank with officers of the army shall be that of lieutenant-gen-
eral in the army. This grade was created for and bestowed
upon Rear-Admiral Farragut. By act of July 25, 1866, it was
provided that the number of officers of each grade on the
active list should be 1 admiral, 1 vice-admiral, 10 rear-ad-
mirals, 25 commodores, 50 captains, 90 commanders, 180
lieutenant-commanders, 180 lieutenants, 160 masters, 160
ensigns, and in other grades the number now allowed by law.
The rank of admiral thus created was bestowed upon Vice-
Admiral David Farragut. It is now (1874) held by David D.
Porter. A law was passed at the 3d session of the 42d U. S.
Congress abolishing the grades of admiral and vice-admiral
in the navy. It provides that vacancies occurring in the
grades of admiral and vice-admiral shall not be filled by
promotion or in any manner, and that when the offices of
said grades shall become vacant, the grades shall cease to
exist. REVISED BY J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Ad/miralty [from the word admiral], the tribunal
which has cognizance of maritime causes. This court was
established in England about the time of Edward III., and
was at first held before the lord high admiral or his deputy.
At present, admiralty jurisdiction is there exercised by the
judge of the admiralty, who holds an instance or a prize
court by means of separate commissions; the former being
the ordinary admiralty court, and the latter being a special
tribunal instituted in time of war to take cognizance of
matters pertaining to prizes. In the U. S. exclusive ad-
miralty and maritime jurisdiction is by the Constitution
delegated to the Federal courts. -
It was for a long time an unsettled question whether the
word as there used had the limited sense employed in the
early English statutes of 13 and 15 Rich. II., restricting

ADMIRALTY-ADRIA.
43
admiralty jurisdiction, or whether it had a wider significa-
tion. The latter view has finally prevailed, principally
owing to the arguments of Mr. Justice Story; and the
word embraces not only cases occurring on tide-waters, but
on navigable streams above tide-water, including the great
lakes. It rests with Congress to determine upon what court
the jurisdiction shall be conferred. It has accordingly vested
it in the first instance in the district court. No distinction
is taken here between the instance and the prize court.
Admiralty jurisdiction is either civil or criminal. Its
civil jurisdiction embraces cases of maritime contracts
(such as affreightment, repairs of ships, bottomry bonds,
pilotage, seamen’s wages, and salvage), general average,
collisions, and maritime trespasses in general. The prin-
ciples and course of practice of the court in civil cases are
in the main derived from the Roman or civil law.
Admiralty, the office of lord high admiral of England;
also the department of the navy or the commissioners who
control the navy. The chief minister of marine in Great
Britain is styled first lord of the admiralty.
Admiralty Islands, a cluster of islands in the Pacific,
N. E. of Papua. The largest is nearly 60 miles long, and is
in lat. 2° S., lon. 147° E.
Admis'sions [from the Lat. admitto, admissum, to
“send to,” to “suffer one to enter”], in the law of evi-
dence, are acknowledgments or concessions by a person of
the existence of certain facts. When they relate to the mat-
ter in dispute, they are admissible in evidence against the
party making them. They may be made either by a party
to an action or by some one identified with him, as by a
partner. The admissions of an agent will affect his prin-
cipal. Those made by a predecessor in interest will affect
his successor. Thus, the admissions of an ancestor will
charge an heir. In form, an admission may be either di-
rect or implied from conduct, or in some instances even
from silence. The effect of an admission is usually only to
raise a presumption against the party, which he may rebut;
but some admissions are regarded as of so high a character
that the law will not allow them to be contradicted. (See
ESTOPPEL, by PROF. T. W. DwighT, LL.D.)
Ado'be, the name of the sun-dried bricks of which
houses are built in Mexico, Arizona, California, and Central
America. The adobe brick is made of sandy loam, and the
houses are usually only one story high.
Adol’phus (or A'dolph) of NASSAU was elected em-
peror of Germany in 1292, as successor to Rudolph of
Hapsburg. In 1298 the German princes transferred the
imperial crown to Albert, but Adolphus refused to abdicate.
A war ensued between these rivals, and Adolphus was killed
in battle in July, 1298.
Adol’phus Fred/erick, duke of Holstein-Gottorp and
king of Sweden, was born May 14, 1710. He was elected
bishop of Lubeck in 1727, crown-prince of Sweden July 3,
1743, and became king on April 5, 1751. The Swedish
nobles continued their arrogance under him to the utmost,
so that at last he threatened to resign. In consequence of
this the parliament revoked the restrictions of the royal
prerogatives. Died Feb. 12, 1771.
Adol’phus (JOHN), an English historian and lawyer,
born in 1766. He was noted for eloquence, and practised
with great success in criminal causes. His defence of Thistle-
wood, accused of treason, in 1820, was highly commended.
His principal work is a “History of England from the Ac-
cession of George III.” (7 vols., 1805–45). Died July 16,
1845.
Ad’onai [an ancient plural of Heb. Tits, “Lord,” with
suffix denoting a pronoun of the first person; cf. Fr. mon-
sieur], a term applied in the Hebrew Scriptures to God.
Owing to the veneration of the Hebrews for the most sacred
name of the Deity, Jehovah (or Yahveh) was not pronounced
in reading the Scriptures; but Adonai was read instead of
it wherever it occurred. When the Hebrew text came to be
vocalized, the proper pointing of Adonai, "JTS, was given
to TTi (? Jehovah), so that the true pronunciation of the
latter name has been lost.
Adonic Verse is composed of a dactyl and a spondee
(or of a dactyl and a trochee). It is specially adapted to
lively poetry, but is seldom used alone, being generally com-
bined with other metres. The beautiful and well-known
Latin hymn, however, commencing with
“Plaudite coeli,
Rideat aether,” etc.,
affords an instance in which this metre runs through the
whole piece.
Ado/mis [Gr. "A8ovis], a youth who was celebrated in
ancient poetic legends as a model of youthful beauty and a
favorite of Venus. Addicted to the pleasures of the chase,
he was killed by a wild boar. An annual festival in honor
of Adonis, called Adonia, was celebrated in Asia Minor and
other countries bordering on the Mediterranean. He was
called Thammuz by the Hebrew writers.-ADONIS was also
the name of a river which rose in Mount Lebanon, and
flowed through Phoenicia into the sea.
Adonis, a genus of herbaceous plants, of the natural
order Ranunculaceae, natives of Europe. Several species
of this genus are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers.
Ad/onists, a name given to Some biblical critics who
maintain that the Hebrew points usually annexed to the
consonants of the word Jehovah are not the proper points
belonging to that word.
Adop’tian Conſtroversy, The9 originated in Spain
near the end of the eighth century. Felix, bishop of Urgel,
and Elipandus, archbishop of Toledo, advanced the doctrine
that Christ was by nature and generation the Son of God
only as regards his divine nature, but as to his human
nature he was merely the Son of God by adoption. Those
who espoused these views were called Adoptionists (in Lat.
Adoptioni). They have been called the Nestorians of the
West. No particular notice was taken of them so long as
they confined the propagation of their opinions to Moham-
medan territory, but when they undertook to spread the new
doctrine in the Frankish empire, Charlemagne promptly
put a stop to it by convening two synods, one at Ratisbon
(792), another at Frankfort (794), both of which condemned
Adoptianism as heresy. Elipandus, who still adhered to
his views, died in 799. Felix recanted at the Council of
Aix-la-Chapelle in 799, and died in 816.
Adop/tion [from the Lat. ad, “to,” “for,” and optio, a
“ choice”], in law, is the taking a child of other parents as
one's own. The practice, which was common in ancient
Rome, was recognized by the civil law, and is found in
countries and states where that law and its modifications
still prevail. In some other states the matter is regulated
by statute. The parents, guardians, next of kin, or other
legal representative of the child, must in general give con-
sent after notification of the intent to adopt. Adopted
children do not, in most countries, inherit property coming
from collateral relatives of the adoptive parents. Adop-
tion is usually authorized by a probate court or other es-
tablished authority after due notice. The adoption of an
adult person is known in the civil law as adrogation.
Ador/mo (ANToNIO), a doge of Genoa, was driven out
and re-established three times in succession. It was by his
persuasion that the Genoese agreed to the treaty, signed
Oct. 26, 1396, which rendered them subjects of Charles VI.
of France. The violence of the Genoese, however, Soon un-
did what Adorno had advised them to do.
Adour, a river of South-western France, rises in the
Pyrenees and flows north-westward. After passing by
Dax, it pursues à S.W. direction, and enters the Bay of
Biscay a few miles below Bayonne, which is on its bank.
Length, about 200 miles. It is navigable to Dax.
Adowah, or Adoa, the capital of the Abyssinian
province of Tigre, is situated in a well-cultivated and popu-
lous plain near the ruins of Axoom, the former capital of
Abyssinia. It is the most important commercial town of
Abyssinia. Pop. about 5000.
A/dra (anc. Abde'ra), a seaport of Spain, in Andalusia,
46 miles S. E. of Granada. Here are extensive lead-mines.
Pop. about 7400.
A drain’ (RoPERT), LL.D., born at Carrickfergus, Ire-
land, Sept. 30, 1775, served as an officer in the rebellion of
1798, was badly wounded, escaped to the U. S., was pro-
fessor of mathematics in Rutgers College (1810–13), Colum-
bia College (1813–25), and the University of Pennsylvania
(1827–34). Died at New Brunswick, N. J., Aug. 10, 1843.
Adramy/ti (the ancient Adramyt’tium), a seaport of
Asia Minor, on the Gulf of Adramyti, 83 miles N. of
Smyrna. It exports olives, wool, and gall-nuts. Pop. about
8000.
Adraste/a [Gr.’A8páo reta, perhaps from a, negative, and
8,8párko, to “escape,” because her punishments were cer-
tain], a Greek surname or epithet for the goddess Nemesis,
who administered retribution for iniquity.—Also, a nymph
of Crete, to whom, with Ida and the Curetes, Rhea entrusted
the infant Zeus in the Dictaean grotto.
Adras/tus [Gr. "A8pao ros], a king of Argos and a con-
temporary of Theseus, was the father-in-law of Polynices.
IIe commanded the famous expedition called the war of the
“Seven against Thebes,” the object of which was to restore
Polynices to the throne of Thebes. This enterprise, which
was not successful, was a favorite theme of ancient epic and
tragic poets. &
A/dria, or Ha'dria, an ancient town of Italy, situ-
ated between the Po and the Adige, in the province of
Rovigo, 13 miles E. of Rovigo. It was in ancient times a
*
44 - ADRIAN–ADVERB.
Seaport on the Adriatic, but it is now 14 miles from that
sea. Pop. 12,803. -
A/driam, the county-seat of Lenawee co., Mich., is a
flourishing city, distinguished for the elegance of its public
and private buildings. Its streets are wide and lined by
shade trees. It is situated on rolling ground, and is inter-
sected by the S. branch of the river Raisin, which, besides
affording perfect drainage, furnishes water-power. The
city is divided into four wards, which are represented by
two aldermen each in the city council, of which body the
mayor is chairman. It possesses a handsome central pub-
lic school building costing $100,000, built of brick and
Sandstone. There are also four branch school buildings in
the different wards. The total valuation of school property
is not less than $250,000. The schools are controlled by a
board of six trustees, two of whom are elected annually.
The annual expenditures for education, including interest
and payment of bonds, amount to about $25,000. Adrian
possesses a well-organized paid fire department employing
two steam fire-engines, one hook-and-ladder truck, and a
mounted Babcock fire-extinguisher; total valuation of ap-
paratus, horses, and real estate, $50,000. Manufactures
are railroad, lanterns, car trimmings, locks, and all kinds
of brass and malleable iron work, employing 100 men and
$250,000 working capital. The Adrian Car and Manufac-
turing Company manufactures railway and street cars, em-
ploying from 200 to 300 men and $300,000 actual capital. The
leading car-shops of the Lake Shore and Michigan South-
ern R. R. are also located here. Adrian is situated on the
main line of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern R. R.,
30 miles W. of Toledo and 74 miles S. and W. of Detroit,
between which cities and Chicago it is the principal pas-
senger point. Another railroad, connecting with the Grand
Trunk at Grand Trunk Junction, and having St. Louis
as its objective point, is rapidly being constructed. The
city has a national bank, two daily and weekly, and two
exclusively weekly papers, one in the German language.
Among its other industries are 3 large foundries and 1
machine-shop, 1 paper-mill, manufacturing both printing
and wrapping paper, and employing 30 hands and $75,000
capital; 1 woollen mill, 2 steam sash and blind and turning
establishments, and numerous wagon and blacksmiths’
shops. It has 5 large hotels, and several minor ones. Its
mineral spring and hotel is much frequented. The Masonic
Temple, a prominent building, cost $100,000. The opera-
house, which is handsomely frescoed and is capable of
seating 1500 persons, cost in its erection and equipment
$30,000. Adrian College, a leading Methodist institution,
is healthfully located on the western boundary of the city.
On Monument Square is a beautiful marble shaft surmount-
ing a freestone base, on the different panels of which are
the names of those soldiers from Adrian who lost their lives
in the civil war. Surveys have been made for a system of
water-works to cost $100,000. A street railway from the
dépôt to the college is projected. Pop. 8438; of Adrian
township, exclusive of part of the city, 1451.
APPLEGATE & FEE, PUBs. “TIMES AND ExPOSITOR.”
Adrian, a township of Monroe co., Wis. Pop. 603.
Adrian, emperor of Rome. See HADRIAN.
A/drian [Lat. Adrianus] I., a native of Rome, was
elected pope in 722. His dominions were invaded by the
king of the Longobards, against whom Adrian was de-
fended by Charlemagne. Under this pontiff Rome enjoyed
more than usual prosperity. Died in 795.
Adrian IV. (NICHOLAs BREAKSPEAR); the only Eng-
lishman who ever attained the dignity of pope, was born
near St. Albans. He became cardinal-bishop of Albano in
1146, and was chosen pope in 1154. He was a strenuous
asserter of papal supremacy. Died in 1159.
Adrian VHe, a native of Utrecht, and a preceptor of
the emperor Charles V., succeeded Leo X. in 1521. He
favored reform, and was honest and virtuous. Died in 1523.
Adriano/ple [anciently Adrianopolis ; Turk. Ed-
Tenehl, a large city of European Turkey, on the river Ma-
ritza (the ancient Hebrus), 130 miles W. N. W. of Constan-
tinople. The name is derived from the Roman emperor
Hadrian, who founded a city here. It was the capital of the
Ottoman empire from 1366 until 1453. Here is the famous
mosque of the sultan Selim, which is said to be the finest
Moslem temple extant, and has four lofty minarets. Among
the other public structures are a palace, the bazaar of Ali
Pasha, and an aqueduct by which the city is supplied with
water. Here are extensive manufactures of silk, cotton, and
woollen stuffs. Among the exports are opium, leather,
wool, and attar of roses. Adrianople is the residence of the
governor-general of the vilayet Edreneh, and of a Greek
bishop. Pop. estimated at from 100,000 to 150,000.
Adriat'ic Sea [Lat. Mare Adriaticum], a portion of
the Mediterranean, lying between Italy on the "one hand
and Illyria and Albania on the other. The name was de-
rived from the town of Adria. It is about 500 miles long
from N. W. to S. E., and has a mean width of about 100
miles. The N. W. part of it is called the Gulf of Venice,
and at the S. E. end it is connected by the Strait of Otranto
with the Ionian Sea. The N. E. coast is rocky, and begirt
with a great number of islands. The depth and extent of
the Adriatic have been greatly diminished by deposits of
sand and mud and by the formation of alluvial tracts along
the shore. The encroachment of the land is most remark-
able on the W. and N. W. coasts of the Gulf of Venice.
Adul' tery [Lat. adulterium], criminal sexual inter-
course between a married person and one of the opposite
sex, whether married or single. This act has been pun-
ished by the laws of some nations with great rigor—among
the ancients often with death. In the English law the act
is not treated as a temporal crime, but left to the cogni-
Zance of the spiritual courts. A civil action for damages
may by common law be brought by a husband against one
who has committed adultery with his wife. This is called
an action “for criminal conversation.” It is also a ground
of divorce—at first partial, but now, by statute, total. In
Some of the States of this country adultery has been made
a crime, while in others the English law in its substance
still prevails, and only the civil proceedings are allowed.
Advancement [Old Fr.], in law, is a provision of
money or other property, made by a parent for a child in
advance or anticipation of the estate or distributive share
to which such child would be entitled on the parent's
death. An expenditure for the education and maintenance
of a child is not regarded as an advancement. It must
be made with a view to a portion or settlement in life.
The parent’s intent is the main subject of inquiry. In the
English law of real estate it only applies in case of several
female heirs, who take the interest called coparcenary. In
the American law of descent the subject is of general ap-
plication. The effect of an advancement is to reduce the
child’s share to that extent, estimating the value as of the
time of the receipt. An advancement differs from a debt
in that the latter can be recovered by action, while the
former can only be deducted from a distributive share. It
is at the option of the person advanced to bring in to the
general distribution the amount received or not. In the
English law the act of bringing it in is termed hotchpot.
The doctrine strictly applies only to cases of intestacy.
There is a cognate doctrine termed “ademption,” appli-
cable to the case of property left by will. In this country
the subject is often governed by statute, sometimes estab-
lishing distinct rules for real and personal estate. The
word “advancement” is also used in the law of trusts to
indicate that a purchase of land made in the name of a
wife or child or other person as to whom the purchaser
stands in the place of a parent shall actually belong to
such person, and shall not, by the fiction of a resulting trust,
revert beneficially to the purchaser. T. W. DWIGHT.
Advancement of Science. The British Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science was founded in 1831
by Sir David Brewster, Sir John Herschel, Sir Humphry
Davy, and others. The American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science was formed in 1847.
Ad’vent [Lat. adven’tus, from ad, “to,” and we'nio,
ven/tum, to “come,” referring to the coming of Christ], a
term applied by the Church to the period of four weeks
preceding Christmas. The Catholics, and some Protestants,
observe Advent by abstaining from public amusements and
nuptial festivities. The Greek Church lengthens the period
to six weeks.
Ad’ventists, a body of Christians found chiefly in the
U. S., whose distinctive characteristic is a belief in the
speedy advent or second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. In
1833, William Miller of Massachusetts was led by the study
of the prophecies of the Bible to the belief that the second
advent and the final judgment would occur in 1843. He
had at one time about 50,000 followers; and notwithstand-
ing the failure of this and other predictions fixing a def-
inite date, there are, it is believed, about 20,000 members
of the Adventist churches, who at present do not presume
to foretell the period of the second advent, but live in ex-
pectation of that event. They generally practice adult im-
mersion, believe in the necessity of a change of heart and
a godly life, in the ultimate annihilation of the wicked,
and in the sleep of the dead until the final judgment.—
There is a separate organization of Seventh-Day Advent-
ists, which in 1872 had 40 ministers, 46 licentiates, 204
churches, and 4801 members.
Ad/verb [Lat. adverbium, from ad, “to,” and verbum, a
“word”], one of the parts of speech in grammar. Adverbs
are in all languages indeclinable (though sometimes subject
to the change of form known as comparison), and are used
*
**
ADVERSE POSSESSION.—AEGIUM.
45
to express modifications of verbs, adjectives, or other ad-
verbs, as to place, time, cause, manner, intensity, certainty,
conditionality, quality, quantity, etc. The function of an
adverb is often performed by sentences or parts of sen-
tences. Most English adverbs are formed by adding the
suffix ly to an adjective or its root, though many are not
thus formed.
Adverse Possession. See DISSEIZIN.
Ad/vocate [from the Lat. ad, “to,” and voco, vocatum,
to “call”], a word which in the ecclesiastical and civil law
courts corresponds to counsellor or counsel in common law
courts. The term by which the members of the bar in
Scotland (following the civil law) is known is the Faculty
of Advocates. In a popular sense, the word denotes a de-
fender or protector generally, especially one who pleads for
his client in open court.
Advocate, Lord, is in Scotland the title of an im-
portant public functionary, the public prosecutor of crimi-
nals and the senior counsel for the Crown in civil causes.
He is sometimes styled king's (or queen’s) advocate, and is
the first law-officer of the Crown for Scotland.
Advocate of the Church [Lat. advocatus ecclesiæ],
in the Middle Ages a canon or a layman, often a prince or
baron, who assumed the protection of a bishop’s see, a
monastery, or a particular church. Sometimes the offices
was hereditary, when it appears to have implied the duty
of defending the Church’s rights by force of arms. Oftener,
perhaps, it was held by an advocatus causarum, a person
appointed by a prince to defend the Church temporalities
in secular courts of law. They often administered justice
in the name of the Church. They collected tithes and other
revenues, and were frequently priests who enjoyed lucrative
benefices. The people suffered so severely from their op-
pressions that Pope Urban III., in 1186, undertook to re-
form the abuse; but so great was the opposition of the
Church and nobles that it was not for many years that the
evil was modified.
Advocates, Faculty of, is the title of the associated
members of the legal profession in Scotland. This society
was formed in 1532.
Advocates” [,ibrary, the largest library of Scotland,
belongs to the Faculty of Advocates, and is located in Ed-
inburgh. It was founded in 1682 by Sir George Macken-
zie, and contains about 200,000 volumes. It ranks as the
fourth library in the number of volumes in Great Britain.
Advoca/tus Diab'oli (i. e. the “devil's advocate”), a
phrase applied in the Roman Catholic Church to a person
whose business is to magnify the faults or detract from the
merit of those who are proposed to be canonized as Saints.
He is opposed by an advocatus Dei, or “God’s advocate.”
An advocatus diaboli nearly prevented the canonization of
Saint Charles Borromeo in 1610.
Advow’son, in English law, the right of presentation
to an ecclesiastical benefice or a vacant living in the
Church. The lord of a manor by building a church ac-
quired the right of nominating the minister, and as long
as this right continues annexed to a manor it is called an
advowson appendant. Most of the benefices of the Eng-
lish Church are presentative advowsons, which are re-
garded as property, and are bought and sold. Of nearly
12,000 church benefices, about one-half belong to the
Crown, the bishops and other higher clergy, the universi-
ties, etc.; the remainder are in the gift of private persons.
In most cases, however, the bishop has a right to reject the
appointee if he chooses. -
Ad/ytum [Gr. 38vrov, “inaccessible”], Whe innermost
shrine of a temple or sacred building, accessible only to
certain priests and others duly initiated. Of a similar
character was the “holy of holies” in the Temple of Jeru-
salem. The adytum, or cella, was the place where the deity
worshipped was believed to be especially present. Some
Writers have called the innermost recesses of the human
spirit the “adytum.”
AEchmal’otarch [from the Gr. aixuāAøros (from atxui,
the “point of a spear,” and &A60, to “be taken”), “taken
with the spear,” and &pxo, to “rule”], the title of the gov-
ernor of the captive Jews residing in Chaldaea, Assyria, and
the adjacent countries. He was called by the Jews them-
selves roschgaluth, “chief of the captivity.”
AE'dile [Lat. aedi/lis, from ae/des, a “temple” or “build-
ing”], a Roman magistrate who superintended the temples
and other public buildings, the public games and spectacles,
and performed various other duties. Two curule aediles
were annually elected. There were also “plebeian aediles.”
Colonies and other towns had a diles. This office was one
of dignity and honor, though reckoned as a minor magis-
tracy. (See SCHUBERT, “De Romanorum AEdilibus,” 1828.)
Aë'don [Gr. 'Amöðv], in Greek mythology, a daughter
of Pandareus of Ephesus. According to the Odyssey, she
was the wife of Zethus, king of Thebes. Envious of Niobe,
her brother Amphion’s wife, she attempted to slay the eld-
est son of the latter, but by mistake killed her own child,
Itylus. Zeus chänged her into a nightingale, whose sad
notes are the expression of Aëdon’s woe. There are other
and different traditions as to Aédon’s crime and suffering,
but in all she is transformed into the nightingale.
AEge'an Sea [Lat. Ægae'um Ma’re; Gr. Aiyaíow TéAayos,
perhaps from ałyts, a “squall,” though other etymologies
have been given], or Grecian Archipelago, the name
given by the ancients to that part of the Mediterranean
between Asia Minor and Greece. Its length from N. to S.
is about 400 miles, and its breadth about 200. . It is very
deep, and encloses numerous islands, several of which are
of volcanic origin, while others are composed of white
marble. Many of them rise to the height of 1600 feet.
AEgidius Colon/na, an eminent schoolman, born at
Rome in 1247 of an illustrious stock. He was the pupil
of Aquinas and Bonaventura, and became an Augustinian
hermit. In 1292 he became prior-general of his order.
He went to France, where Philip the Bold made him tutor
for his son, afterwards Philip the Fair. In 1296 he became
archbishop of Bourges. For many years he taught with
applause in the University of Paris, and was called Doctor
Fundatissimus and princeps theologorum. Died Dec. 22,
1316. He left a great number of writings, most of which
are now in MS.
AEgi/na [Gr. Atyiva.], Egina, or Engia; an island of
Greece, in the Gulf of Ægina (Saron'icus Sinus), 16 miles
S. S. W. of Athens. . It is 8 miles long, and nearly the same
in width. It is of an irregularly triangular shape. Area,
41 square miles. The western half is a fertile plain; the
remainder is diversified by mountains, hills, and Valleys,
which produce almonds, wine, olive oil, etc. This island
is celebrated for its architectural remains. (See AEGINETAN
SculpturEs.) Pop. 6000. At the N. W. end of the island
is the modern town of Egina. Mount St. Elias, the highest
point of the island, is in lat. 37°42' N., lon. 23° 30/ E.
The island is difficult to approach.
AEgina, Gulf of (the ancient Saron'icus Si'nus), is a
portion of the AEgean Sea lying between Attica, and the
Morea.
AEgine/tan Sculptures.
It contains the islands of Ægina and Salamis.
The small island of Ægina
contains very interest-
ing remains of ancient
sculpture. On an emi-
nence in the eastern
part of the island stand
# the ruins of a temple,
usually called the tem-
à ple of Jupiter Panhel-
# lenius, but now be-
# lieved to have been a
* temple of Athena.
§ Among these ruins a
§ series of statues, six-
* teen in number, were
* excavated by a com-
pany of Germans,
Danes, and English-
men in 1811, and are
now in the Glyptothek
at Munich. The various figures that have been discovered
seem true to nature, as in the old Greek style, with the
structure of bones, muscles, and even veins, distinctly
marked; but the faces have that unpleasant, forced smile
which is characteristic of all sculpture before the time of
Phidias. (See MüLLER, “AEgineticorum Liber,” 1817.)
AEgi/ra [Gr. Atyetpal, one of the twelve cities of the an:
cient Achaean confederation in Greece. It probably stood
near the sea and on the river Crius, though its site is not
well known at present. It was chiefly famous for its tem-
ples of Zeus, Apollo, Artemis, and Aphrodite Urania (the
# heavenly Venus,” a goddess who was especially worshipped
here), as well as of other divinities. This town is called
Hyperesia by Homer.
AEgis/thus [Gr. Atya 90s], in classic mythology, a son of
Thyestes, and an adopted son of Atreus. He seduced Clytem;
nestra, while Agamemnon was absent, and was her accom”
plice in the murder of that king. He was killed by Orestes.
AE/gium [Gr. Atyvov; now Vostitza], a city of ancient
Greece, belonged to the Achaean League, and after 373 was
the chief city in that confederation, of which it was long the
capital. It had a good harbor to the W. of the river Seli-
mus. Remains of its ancient buildings are yet to be seen.
The modern town is a place of some importance. It is
surrounded by gardens. On Aug. 23, 1817, it was visited
by an earthquake which destroyed two-thirds of the houses.

46
AEGLE MARMELOS—AERARIANS.
AE/g}e^* Mar/melos, the scientific name of a remark-
able fruit tree growing in the central and southern parts of
India, and belonging to the natural order Aurantiaceae. It
sometimes attains the size of a large apple tree, which in
shape it may be said to resemble, being broad and spread-
§§
ſº Yº
& Vº
\|}
º
Qºş
º
ing, rather than high. The fruit is always of a somewhat
irregular form, and when mature varies in size from five to
eight or nine inches in diameter. At the season when it is
fully ripe there are no leaves on the trees, which, with their
naked branches supporting here and there a fruit of Such
AEgle Marmelos.
magnitude, present a singular and striking appearance. It
is popularly known in India as the bél or bael (sometimes
incorrectly written bhel) fruit. It has a hard but rather
thin shell or rind, resembling in consistency the shell of a
squash, and contains a soft, yellowish pulp of a peculiar
flavor, esteemed delicious by many, and abounding in a
bland, transparent mucilage (with which the seed-cavities
in particular are filled), which, it is said, renders this fruit
singularly beneficial in dysentery and other complaints at-
tended with irritation of the bowels. The seeds are situ-
ated in a small cavity which they do not nearly fill, the re-
maining space being occupied by the transparent mucilage
already described. The half-ripe fruit, dried, has recently
been introduced into the British pharmacopoeia under the
name of Bela; it is mildly astringent, and is said to be
very efficacious in cases of diarrhoea, and dysentery. The
ripe fruit is an excellent aperient, being very gentle and
for the most part effectual in its operation. If the culture
of this valuable fruit could be successfully introduced into
the West India Islands and the southern parts of North
America, it might richly repay the expense and labor in-
curred in making the experiment.
AEgospotſami [Gr. Aiyos rotagot], a small river and a
town in the Thracian Chersonese, where the Spartan Ly-
sander defeated the Athenian fleet in 405 B.C. This victory
ended the Peloponnesian war. A large aérolite fell near
this place about 465 B.C.
AEgyp’tus [Gr. Atyvirros], a son of Belus and a brother
of Danaus, became king of Arabia, and conquered the
country which derived from him the name of Egypt. Ac-
cording to a legend, he had fifty sons, who were murdered
(except one) by the daughters of Danaus. (See DANAIDEs.)
AE/lia Capitoli'na, a name given to the colony which
was planted by the emperor Hadrian at Jerusalem; this
title it retained until the time of the Christian emperors.
Aelst, or Aalst, van (EVERT), a skilful Dutch painter,
born at Delft in 1602. His subjects were dead game, golden
and silver vessels, etc. Died in 1658.-His nephew WIL-
LIAM, born in 1620, painted flowers, fruits, and still-life with
Wonderful success. Died in 1679.
Aeltre, or Aaltere, a large trading village in the Bel-
gian province of East Flanders, 13 miles W. of Ghent. Pop.
in 1866, 6520.
AEne'as [Gr. Alvetas], the hero of Virgil’s “AEneid,”
was, according to tradition, the son of Anchises and the
goddess Venus. He was one of the most valiant defenders
* AE'gle [Gr, Atyxm, “Splendor” or “glorious beauty”], the
name of one of the Hesperides, was probably applied to this tree
as meriting a place in the fabled garden which, according to the
poets, was assigned to the care of those celebrated nymphs.
of Troy against the Greeks. According to Virgil, he, after
many adventures and disasters, settled in Italy, and married
Lavinia, the daughter of King Latinus. The origin of the
Roman state is traditionally ascribed to him and his heirs.
AEme/id [Lat. Aneſis] is the title of Virgil’s great epic,
the most celebrated and beautiful poem in the Latin lan-
guage. It is regarded as an imitation of Homer’s “Iliad”
and “Odyssey,” and, in the opinion of most critics, is infe-
rior to them in originality and sublimity.
AEo/lia [Gr. Atoxia], or AE'olis [Gr. Atoxis], a region
of Asia Minor, so called from the AEolians, who settled there
and founded several cities on different parts of the coast.
It was more especially in Lesbos, and along the neighbor-
ing shores of the Gulf of Elea, that they finally concentrated
their principal colonies, and formed a federal union, called
the AEolian League, consisting of twelve states and several
inferior towns. The soil of this country is very fertile.
AEo/lian Harp, a simple musical instrument, the
sounds of which are produced by the vibration of strings
moved by wind. It is formed by stretching strings of cat-
gut, tuned in unison, across a wooden box, which is placed
in an open window. Athanasius Kircher (1602–80) was
the inventor.
AEo/lians [so named from Aº'olus, a son of Hellen], one
of the primitive tribes of the ancient Greeks. They were
the dominant race of Thessaly and Boeotia. They founded
on the western coast of Asia Minor many states or cities,
among which were Smyrna and Mitylene. The AEolic dia-
lect was harsh, and approached the character of the Doric.
It preserved the digamma for a long time. The fragments
of Alcaeus and Sappho present the typical AEolic language.
(See AEOLIA.) -
AEol’ipile, or AEol’ipyle [from the Lat., A'olus, the
“god of the winds,” and pi'la, a “ball”], a hollow metallic
ball, having a small orifice with which a curved tube is con-
nected. When filled with water and heated, steam passes
out violently. It was thought by the ancients to illustrate .
the origin of the winds; hence the name.
AE’olus [Gr. Aloxos], in Greek mythology, the god who
controlled the winds and reigned in the AEolian Islands.
(For an account of his actions and kingdom, see VIRGIL's
“AEmeid,” book i., 51–63.)
AE’on [Gr. aidºw], a Greek word signifying an age, a
period of time; also eternity. The Gnostics used the word
aeons in a peculiar sense, as distinct entities or virtues that
emanated from God before time began.
AEra/rians [Lat. aerarii), a class of inhabitants of an-
cient Rome who did not belong to any of the tribes or cen-
turies, and who had no civic rights except the protection
of the state. Any citizen, no matter how high his rank,

AERARIUM.–AñRONAUTICS.
47
for bad conduct might be degraded to the rank of an aera-
rian by the censors, but the punishment was not in all cases
a lifelong one. The Caerites seem to have been aerarians;
at any rate, the disfranchisement of a citizen was sometimes
called “ in Cºeritum tabulas referri,” or “being placed in
the list of Caerites.” Persons declared infamous became
aerarians. This class is also believed to have included a
large number of small retail merchants, who came to Rome
from the provinces without authority, and were received
into no tribe. AErarians paid a heavy tax, but were ex-
empt from military duty.
AEra/rium, the public treasury in the temple of Saturn
at Rome, in which money and the public accounts and
archives were kept. Besides the regular treasure, there
was an aerarium sacrum, or reserve, and later a military
treasury. The funds belonging to the populus, or patri-
cians, was called publicum, and kept in a separate treasury,
though in the same building.
A/ērated Bread [from the Lat. ačr, “air”], an un-
fermented bread, the ingredients of which are wheat flour,
salt, carbonic acid, and water. The carbonic acid is tho-
roughly mixed with the flour and water in air-tight vessels
by means of machinery especially adapted to this purpose,
so that it is as light as the best fermented bread.
A/ērated Waters are extensively used to allay thirst
in feverish conditions. The most common of these is car-
bomic acid water, incorrectly called soda-water, for it sel-
dom contains soda. It is prepared by placing chalk or
marble in a vessel with water and sulphuric acid, when the
carbonic acid is evolved in the form of gas. The latter is
afterwards forced into water under pressure, so that the
water dissolves about five times its own volume of the gas.
It forms a brisk, sparkling liquid, with a pungent but
pleasant taste. The use of leaden reservoirs for ačrated
water is not without danger of poisonous effects. When
copper lined with silver or tin is used, it requires, for safety,
to have the liming renewed at least as often as once in two
years. Carbonic acid water is, when iced, a most refresh-
ing drink in sea-sickness and in many cases of disease.
The effervescing draughts called soda powders and seidlitz
powders are other forms of ačrated beverages. In the
former, bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid are added to
water in a tumbler, and a refreshing draught instantane-
ously prepared. Seidlitz powders contain tartrate of soda
and potassa and bicarbonate of soda in one paper, and tar-
taric acid in the other; and when both are added to water,
effervescence ensues, and the liquid is then taken.
agreeable and useful purgative aérated water is the effer-
vescing solution of citrate of magnesia in carbonic acid
water, the invention of an American pharmacist. Aérated
waters are also produced naturally. Water, as it comes
from a spring, tastes differently from the same water after
being boiled; and this is due to the unboiled water con-
taining the gases oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid—
especially the latter—dissolved in it. Rain water has a
mawkish taste, chiefly because of the impurities dissolved
in it; but when that rain water trickles down through the
earth, it is filtered and purified, and absorbs more or less
air and gas. When it is dashed from ledge to ledge of rock,
it becomes still more thoroughly ačrated. Many spring
waters are aërated in a pećuliar way, which confers upon
them important medicinal properties; these will be noticed
under the head of MINERAL WATERs, by C. F. CHANDLER.
Aë'rial Perspective, in painting, is the art of giv-
ing due gradation to the strength of light and shade and
the colors of objects, according to their distances; or the
laws which regulate the apparent distances of bodies, as
modified by the variations in the transparency of the air or
in the brightness of the light.
AE/rians, an heretical sect founded in the fourth century
by AErius, a native of Pontus. They were Homoiousians
(i.e. they maintained that the Son was similar to the Father
in essence, but not identical with him).
7 Aérodynam'ics [Lat. ačrodinam'ica, from the Gr. &#p,
“air,” and Sövaults, “power”], the dynamics of the air, and
of gaseous bodies generally; the phenomena exhibited by
gaseous bodies, whether at rest or in motion under the ac-
tion of forces. These phenomena are seldom treated inde-
pendently; but are in part common to all fluids, gaseous or
liquid. As peculiar to gases, they present themselves in
innumerable special forms; e.g. the transmission of sound;
the movements of projectiles; of the pendulum; of rail-
way trains, etc. Also in pneumatics, in aéronautics, in the
application of the force of the wind as a mechanical power,
and to navigation, etc.
Aeróe, à/rö'eh, or Arroe, a Danish island in the Bal-
tic, 10 miles S. of Funen, is 14 miles long and about 5 miles
wide. It is fertile and well cultivated. Pop. about 12,400.
Aérolites. See METEORs, by PROF. H. A. NEWTON.
A more
Aérom 'eter [from the Gr. &#p, “air,” and ºrpov, “a
measure”], an instrument formerly used to make the neces-
sary corrections in pneumatic experiments to ascertain the
mean bulk of gases. - e
- à r on a u 'tic s
[from the Gr. &ip,
“air,” and vavrijs,
a “ sailor”]. The
credit of the in-
vention of the bal-
loon (1783) is con-
ceded to Stephen
and Joseph Mont-
º £EE. . . .
- sº - # golfier, sons of a
§: sº # paper - maker at
####### iº sºff Annonay, near
###sº º - g
######º º Lyons, France;
E_* ºf sº §ºś but the principles
§:####### É
- Żºłż=#
º:#### #########
==E::=º:
E==zº
šš.
Sº º: on which a bal-
ſº loon could be con-
§º:=# structed were al-
ready pretty gen-
erally known to
scientific men. The Jesuit Francis Lana of Brescia in
1670 projected a balloon which, though impracticable of
construction, was founded upon the fundamental principle
established by Archimedes that a body will float upon or be
suspended in a fluid denser than itself. Curiously, the
Jesuit anticipated recent visionary schemes of application
to offensive warlike purposes, in the prediction that “no
walls or fortifications could them protect cities, which might
be completely subdued or destroyed, without having the
power to make any sort of resistance, by a mere handful
of daring assailants, who should rain down fire and confla-
gration from the region of the clouds.”
The Montgolfier balloon by which, June 5, 1783, the first
public ascent was made, was a spherical bag consisting of
pieces of linen, merely buttoned together, suspended from
cross poles; two men kindled a fire under it, and kept feed-
ing the flames with small bundles of chopped straw; the
loose bag gradually swelled, assuming a graceful form, and
in the space of five minutes it was completely distended,
and made such an effort to escape, that eight men were re-
quired to hold it down. On a signal being given, the stays
were slipped, and the balloon instantly rose with an accel-
erating motion till it reached some height, when its velocity
continued uniform, and carried it to an elevation of more
than a mile; but its buoyant force being soon spent, it re-
mained suspended only ten minutes, and fell gently in a
vineyard, at the distance of about a mile and a half from
the place of its ascension.
The substitution of hydrogen (the lightest of all gases,
generated by the application of dilute sulphuric acid to
iron filings) for smoke (or the heated products of combus-
tion) was soon after tried by M. Charles of Paris with ulti-
maté success. But hydrogen is troublesome to make, and,
moreover, expensive. Coal gas (carburetted hydrogen),
easily obtained from gas-works, has almost superseded it in
modern times, though much heavier (about two-fifths the
density of air). The balloon itself is made of varnished
silk or calico or rubber cloth, and enveloped in a netting to
which the suspending cords of the car are attached.
The balloon offered to scientific men a ready method of
exploring, for scientific purposes, the higher regions of the
atmosphere. Of the earlier ascents perhaps the most note-
worthy are those made by Biot and Gay-Lussac. The latter
(Sept. 15, 1804) ascended to the height of 23,040 feet or 4%
miles above the level of the sea, and 1600 feet higher than
the loftiest pinnacle of our globe. But this feat was sur-
passed by Messrs. Glaisher and Coxwell in an ascent from
Wolverhampton in 1862. The precise elevation they
reached could only be guessed, but it could scarcely be less
than 35,000 feet, and might possibly extend to 37,000 feet,
or seven miles.
Mr. Glaisher, who is the greatest authority on the phe-
nomena of balloon ascension, having ascended higher than
any other and always for scientific purposes, has given the
following table for the diminution of density of the air:
At the height of 1 mile the barometer reading is § in.
-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-
==#EE:::==Tº se:ſº
2 miles {{
{& 3 “ {{ {& 16.7 “
{{ 4 “ {{ {{ 13.7 “
{{ 5 & & {& {{ 11.3 «
{{ 10 “ {{ {{ 4.2 “
{{ 15 “ {{ {{ 1.6 “
{{ 20 46 {{ {{ 1.0 {{ less.
Concerning temperature the result of all his mid-day ex-
periments is thus expressed: e
“The change from the ground to 1000 feet high was 4°
57 with a cloudy sky, and 6° 2' with a clear sky. At 10,000
feet high it was 2° 2' with a cloudy sky, and 2° With a clear
sky. Åt 20,000 feet high the decline of temperature was .




































48
AïRONAUTICS.
1° 1' with a cloudy sky, and 1%. 2' with a clear sky. At condite data and the difficulty of defining them analytically
30,000 feet the whole decline of temperature was found to
be 62°. Within the first 1000 feet the average space passed
through for 19 was 223 feet with a cloudy sky, and 162 feet
with a clear sky. At 10,000 feet the space passed through
for a like decline was 455 feet for the former, and 417 feet
for the latter; and above 20,000 feet high the space with
both states of the sky was 1000 feet nearly for a decline of
19. As regards the law just indicated, it is far more mat-
ural and far more consistent than that of a uniform rate of
decrease.” (British Quarterly, Oct., 1871.)
One of the most important determinations to be made,
especially in connection with ağrial navigation, is that of
the atmospheric currents. So long as, without power of
self-propulsion, the balloon is committed to the air to be
borne as it lists, it is scarcely correct to talk of navigation.
That there is some degree of certainty in air-currents may
be indicated by a curious fact mentioned by M. Flamma-
rion (a distinguished French ačronaut)—namely, that the
traces of his various voyages are all represented by lines
which had a tendency to curve in one and the same general
direction. “Thus,” says he, “on the 23d of June, 1867,
the balloon started with a north wind directly towards the
south-south-west, and, after a while, due South-west, when
we descended. A similar result was observed in every ex-
cursion, and the fact led me to believe that above the soil
of France the currents of the atmosphere are constantly
deviated circularly, and in a South-west-north-east-south
direction.” (Id.
On the 12th of Jan., 1864, Mr. Glaisher left the earth,
where a south-east wind was prevailing. At a height of
1300 feet, he was surprised to enter a warm current, 3000
feet in thickness, which was flowing from the south-west,
that is, in the direction of the Gulf Stream itself. At the
elevation in question the temperature, according to the
usual calculation, should have been 4° or 5° lower than
that at the ground, whereas it was 33° higher. In the re-
gion above, cold reigned, for finely-powdered snow was
falling into this atmospheric river. Here, therefore, was
a stream of heated air previously unsuspected, which, if
its course is steady, as it appears to be during winter, con-
stitutes a prodigious accession to our resources, and adds
another to the many meteorological blessings the World en-
joys. (Idem.) s
“The meeting with this south-west current” (writes Mr.
Glaisher) “is of the highest importance, for it goes far to ex-
plain why England possesses a winter temperature so much
higher than our northern latitudes. Our high winter tem-
perature has hitherto been mostly referred to the influence
of the Gulf Stream. Without doubting the influence of
this natural agent, it is necessary to add the effect of a par-
allel atmospheric current to the oceanic current coming
from the same regions—a true aërial Gulf Stream.” (Idem.)
It is the result of meteorological observations made at the
Smithsonian Institute and elsewhere that in the temperate
zones of our continent the resultant direction of all the
winds is from the west. During the time of Sailing vessels
the average length of a voyage from America to England
was scarcely more than one-half of that in the opposite
direction. All thunder-storms come to us from the west.
The higher clouds are perpetually seen moving eastward.
From the published letters of Prof. Henry to Mr. Wise,
the aëronaut, concerning his proposed ačrial voyage across
the Atlantic, the following extracts are made:
“All the observations that have been made on the motion
of the atmosphere, as well as the deductions from theoretical
considerations, lead to the conclusion that the resultant mo-
tion of the air around the whole earth, within the temper-
ate zones, especially about the middle of them, is from west
to east, and therefore, provided a balloon can be sustained
at a sufficient height and for a sufficient length of time, it
would, under ordinary circumstances, be wafted across the
Atlantic. But the question is, Can the balloon be sustained
at a sufficient height and for a sufficient length of time to
make the journey 2 This is a question that can be deter-
mined only by actual experiment. . . . I had no doubt
of the fact that, if your balloon can be sustained in the air
sufficiently long, a voyage might be made across the Atlan-
tic; but this is the point which, it would appear to me, from
my partial knowledge of what has been accomplished in the
art of ballooning, is yet to be satisfactorily established. No
one, however, has had more experience in the art than your-
self, and you ought not to venture on the hazardous jour-
ney without the fullest assurance that the balloon can be
sustained at the requisite elevation for, Say, ten days.”
(New York Times, July 11, 1873.)
In the above (as is believed) is found the sole basis for
the motion of reaching by balloon the European continent
from ours. Some attempts have been made to apply mathe-
matical analysis to the determination of the general direc-
tion of the winds, but the imperfect knowledge of the re-
are insuperable obstacles. -
A determinate current—a “gulf stream”—might afford
8ome slight basis of calculation for an aérial voyage, but
scarcely enough to form the basis of balloon navigation.
Self-propulsion has been aimed at by hundreds of invent-
ors, few of whom have possessed knowledge of the real data
or difficulties of the problem. . Among such, however, should
not be included M. Dupuy de Lôme, the celebrated naval
constructor, who is said to have received a grant from the
French government to enable him to construct a fish-like
machine to be worked by a screw, and assisted by a sort
of swimming bladder. (British Quarterly.) -
An exhaustive mathematical investigation of M. Gustave
Lambert (“De la Locomotion Mécanique dans l’air et dans
l’eau,” Paris, 1864) is presumed to be an exponent of the
scientific basis upon which M. de Lôme founds his project.
A pamphlet of nearly 100 large and closely-printed octavo
pages cannot here be summarized. We must content our-
selves with a statement of a practical result, premising that
the idea of a flying machine is pronounced impracticable;
that while the aërial ship must be self-sustaining, spherical
or spheroidal forms (such as now in ordinary use) are inap-
plicable. Self-sustenation being attained, the problem is
asserted to be identical with the naval problem; hence the
balloons should have forms analogous to those of very sharp-
built ships. Their length should be ten to twelve times their
greatest transverse dimensions. The feebleness of tonnage
compared with the volume of air displaced, imposes enormous
dimensions. Thus for the driving screw (or helix) 15, 20, or
even 25 mêtres of radius may be necessary. The figures sug-
gested for the very smallest type are as follows: Cross-sec-
tion, 200 square mêtres (about 46 feet diameter); length,
120 mêtres (400 feet); tonnage, about 15 tons; speed, 40
mêtres per second (88 miles per hour); engine, 360 horse-
power, driving a screw of 4 arms of 15 mêtres radius at a
rate of 45 revolutions per minute. The carcass of the bal-
loon, or rigid framework, “is arranged upon the tubular
principle of Stevenson.” The covering to consist of an
exterior gummed envelope, made very smooth, and an in-
terior envelope (containing hydrogen) divided into air-tight
compartments. As the total weight diminishes by the con-
sumption of the fuel, air is admitted into these compart-
ments in place of the hydrogen. The screw shaft extends
from end to end, traversing, through packing boxes, the
partitions; by which mutual points of support are obtained.
It is believed that such a structure need not weigh more
than 5 tons; and hence 10 tons will be allowed for the
navigators, the engine, the water, and the fuel. The author
admits that if ordinary marine engines are taken as types
the allowance is greatly inadequate; but he thinks a high-
pressure cylinder engine of 60 horse-power can be made
to weigh only 6 tons, by which a speed of 20 to 25 metres
per second (44 to 55 miles per hour, equal to that of a “gale
of wind”) may be had. There will remain 4 tons (of ton-.
nage) to spare, of which one tom is assigned to naviga-
tors and water and three tons to fuel, by which a run of 50
hours’ duration may be made. The author supposes that,
for ordinary voyages, 55 miles per hour will (except in
cases of strong head-winds) allow supply 'stations to be
reached in much less than 50 hours; generally in 10 hours.
Furthermore, with the apparatus as just described, it would
be possible to go, with fair wind, from Paris to New York.
This assertion (in the author's language) “is neither hazard-
ous, utopian, nor rash; it is a solution which the reader may
verify with the figures before him.” The author anticipates
that ultimately engines of very high pressure, of 400 horse-
power, and weighing but 5 or 6 tons, may be counted upon,
and even that a “steam-turbine * can be realized, by which
the weight of cylinders, cranks, and connecting rods will be
dispensed with ; and finally that if gun (or explosive) pow-
ders can be substituted for steam, a speed of 100 metres per
second (220 miles per hour) may be realized, and 24 hours’
fuel-supply carried.
The author whose results we have thus epitomized con-
cludes by what he entitles “Proposition pratique” to form
a “Société pour la locomotion aérienne” with a capital of
five millions of francs, by which to make experimental con-
structions.
Mr. Glaisher, whose aéronautic experience has been al-
ready alluded to, expresses no such hopes. He tells us that
he has attempted no improvement in the management of
the balloon, that he found it was wholly at the mercy of the
winds, and that he saw no probability of any method of
steering it ever being discovered. (British Quarterly Rev.)
but Mr. Glaisher's field of thought and observation has
been, as regards aérial navigation, quite diverse from our
author's, and the problem is not to be decided by an ipse
diacit of this kind.
At the commencement of the French Revolutionary war,
about ten years after the production of the Montgolfier
AERONAUTICS.
49
balloons, an Aérostatic Institute was formed by command
of the French Directory (at the suggestion of Guyton de
Morveau) in the Ecole Polytechnique, and under its super-
intendence reconnoitring war balloons were constructed by
a M. Couté, and supplied to each republican army in the field.
The army of the Rhine and Moselle was provided with
two—viz., the “Hercule” and “Intrépide;” another named
the “Céleste” was prepared for the use of the army of the
Sambre and Meuse; the “Entreprenant” for the army of
the North; and a fifth was destined for the army of Italy.
That attached to the army of the Sambre and Meuse, under
Gen. Jourdan, was first used May, 1794, by Col. Coutelle,
at Maubeuge, before Mayence, in reconnoitring the ene-
my’s works. This balloon, which was 27 feet in diameter,
and took at first fifty hours to inflate, was retained to the
earth by two ropes, and the aëronauts communicated their
observations by throwing out weighted letters to the gen-
eral beneath. After this method of reconnoitring had been
successfully practised four or five days, a seventeen-pounder
gun was brought down to a neighboring ravine, and (being
thus masked) suddenly opened fire upon the balloon. Sev-
eral shots were fired without effect, and the machine was
them hauled down; but the next day the gun was forced to
retire and the reconnoissances were then carried on as be-
fore. After two or three weeks, the balloon was removed
to Charleroi, distant from Maubeuge about 36 miles. To
save the expense and trouble of another inflation, it accom-
panied the troops at a sufficient height to allow the cavalry
and baggage wagons to pass beneath, ten men marching
on either side of the road, and each man holding a separate
rope attached to the balloon, which was thus retained at its
proper elevation. After making one observation on the
way, the balloon arrived before Charleroi at sunset, and the
captain had time before close of day, to reconnoitre the
place with a general officer. Next day they made a second
observation in the plain of Tumet, and at the battle of
Fleurus, which took place on the following day, June 17,
1794, the balloon was employed for about eight hours, hov-
ering in rear of the army at an altitude of 1300 feet. (Prof.
Paper, R. E., vol. xii.)
This notable instance of the successful employment of a
reconnoitring balloon is thus commented upon in the French
history, “La Guerre de la Révolution de France:” “ Ce fut
à cette bataille (Fleurus), que l’on fit, pour la première fois,
l'essai d'un arêostat, avec le secours duquel le Général
Jourdan put étre parfaitement instruit des dispositions et
des mouvemens d’ennemi; aimsi, cette découverte regardée
jusqu'alors comme un objet de pure curiosité, dut étre, dēs
cet instant, rangé parmi les inventions utiles.” (Idem.)
We hear too of balloons at a battle near Liege and in the
sieges of Mayence and Ehrenbreitstein in 1799. That we
hear no longer of them during the Napoleonic wars is evi-
dence that no adequate results were obtained from them.
An attempt was, however, made to revive them in the
African campaign of 1830, but there was no opportunity for
making use of them. The Austrians are said to have em-
ployed reconnoitring balloons before Venice in 1849, and
the Russians in observing from Sebastopol. The French
again made use of them in the late Italian campaign of
1859, but this time the service was in charge of civilian
aéronauts, the MM. Godard. Ascents were made from
Milan, Gargonzola, Castenedolo, and the Castiglione Hills;
and, according to the Times Paris correspondent (in the
letter dated 11th of Jan., 1862), they proved great failures,
as judged from a military point of view. (Idem.)
The balloon was tried for our service in the recent civil
war. Ascents were made from our lines on the north of the
Potomac, during the fall of 1861, with no material results.
It formed a part of our equipage and impedimenta during
the Virginia, peninsula campaign, including the siege of
Yorktown and the operations before Richmond. The writer
is not aware of a single official report recording any mate-
rial service rendered by the balloon, but numerous news-
paper paragraphs concerning it have been quoted, like the
following referring to the battle of the “Seven Pines,” or
“Fair Oaks,” of June 1, 1862: “During the whole of the
engagement on Sunday morning, Prof. Low’s balloon hov-
ered over the Federal lines at an altitude of about 2000 feet,
and maintained successful communication with Gen. Mc-
Clellan at his head-quarters. It is asserted that every
movement of the Confederates armies was distinctly visible,
and instantaneously reported.” (Times, June 17, 1862.)
The balloons in use were of two sizes—the Smaller of about
30 feet diameter containing 1300 cubic feet, and the larger of
double this capacity. The latter size I believe are found
preferable. While encamped before Richmond, Capt. F.
Beaumont, R. E., spent some time in our camp (part of
which as a guest of the writer) and paid particular atten-
tion to our balloons. I avail myself of his labors (vide
Prof. Paper, R. E.; vol. xii.) for a description: -
“The balloons were made of the best and finest descrip-
tion of silk, double sewn and prepared with the greatest
care; the summit of the balloon containing the gas valve
being made of either three or four folds of cloth, to ensure
sufficient strength in that part subject to the greatest strain.
The varnish, on which the success of the apparatus much
depends, was a secret of Mr. Low’s, the chief ačronaut, his
balloons kept in their gas a fortnight or more, and their
doing so he laid to the fact bf the varnish being particu-
larly good; there was always a small amount of leakage,
still at the end of a fortnight sufficient gas remained in the
balloon to enable him to make an ascent without its being
replenished. In balloons for military purposes this is an
important point, as they must be kept ready to ascend at
any moment. I have little doubt, however, that many well
prepared varnishes could be found to answer the purpose
as well; the network covering the bag was gathered in, in
the usual manner, and ended in a series of cords attached
to a ring, hanging about level with the tail of the balloon,
and from this hung the wickerwork car, the ring being
about level with a person’s chest when standing upright in
the car. The string for working the valve passed through
the centre of the balloon, and coming out at the tail was
loosely tied to the ring, to which were fastened the guys,
three in number ; thus the car, though swayed about by the
motion of the balloon, hung always nearly vertically be-
neath it. e
“The gas generators, two in number, were nothing more
than large tanks of wood, acid proof inside, and of sufficient
strength to resist the expansive action of the gas; they
were provided with suitable stop-cocks for regulating the
admission of the gas, and with man-hole covers for intro-
ducing the necessary materials. The gas used was hydro-
gen, and indeed for practical purposes, all things consid-
ered, there is none other that is nearly so suitable; its
low specific gravity makes it a sine qua non for a military
aëronaut, as independently of the ease with which it is pro-
duced, when a balloon is attached to the earth it is of the
first importance that it should offer as little resistance to
the air as possible, as its stability depends upon this point.
The hydrogen was generated by using dilute sulphuric acid
and iron; any old iron, such as bits of the tires of wheels,
old shot broken up, etc., was used; so that it was necessary
to provide only the sulphuric acid, which in large quantities
is cheap, and with proper precautions very easy to carry.
“The gas generated passed through a leathern tube into
a lime purifier, and thence in a similar manner into a sec-
ond, the action of the lime simply absorbing the carbonic
acid and other extraneous gases, and sending the hydrogen
quite, or very nearly pure, into the balloon. On leaving
the generator its temperature was high, even the leathern
pipe being so hot that the hand could hardly bear to touch
it, but after passing the second purifier it was delivered,
barely warm, into the balloon. The whole of the appa-
ratus was so simple that nothing more remains to be said
about it.
“In using it the balloon is unpacked and laid in well-or-
dered folds on a carpet spread on the ground to receive it;
the tail is then placed ready for connection with the last
purifier, properly charged with lime and water, and the
connection by leather pipes between the purifier and the
generator having been established, the latter is charged;
care must be taken not to complete the communication be-
tween the last purifier and the tail of the balloon until a
clear stream of hydrogen is obtained, so as to avoid getting
foul air into the machine. Under ordinary circumstances,
in three hours from the time of the machine being halted,
it can be prepared for an ascent; but this, should circum-
stances require it, might be shortened by employing two
generators and making a suitable alteration in the purify-
ing arrangement. Such alteration, however, would rarely
be necessary, as the balloon, when inflated, can, unless in
very windy weather, be very readily carried; twenty-five
or thirty men lay hold of cords attached to the ring and
march along, allowing the machine to rise only sufficiently
to clear any obstacle that there may be in the Way.
“Each generator required four horses to draw it, and
each balloon, with the tools, etc., four horses. The sul-
phuric acid it is essential to keep in a carriage to itself,
but two horses will draw a sufficient quantity of concen-
trated acid to last for a long time. The undermentioned is
a resumé of the balloon corps and apparatus with General
McClellan’s army :
“Balloon Corps.
1 chief aeronaut, requiring 2 in-
I captain, assistant do., structed men
50 non-commissioned officers and privates, &
“Apparatus.
2 generators, drawn by 4 horses each.
2 balloons, “ “ 4 horses each (including
spare ropes, etc.).
2 horses.
tools,
1 acid cart, <& 66
4. Y
50
AEROPHYTES.
“When the machine is inflated it is kept to the ground
by a series of sand-bags which are hooked on to the net-
work, so that they can be disengaged at a moment's notice;
thus confined, with the Sentry to guard it, the machine re-
mains unhurt in any weather short of a very violent wind
storm, in which case it should be hauled down altogether.
“When it is required for an ascent, the captain and some
thirty of his men get round the balloon and carry it to the
appointed place; the weight to be lifted having been put
into the car, the ballast is so adapted, that including a
couple of bags of sand, which it is not safe to go up with-
out, there should be a buoyancy of, say, 20 or 30 pounds;
the three guy ropes having been attached the men leave go
of the car together and seize the ropes, one of which is led
through a snatch-block attached to a tree, or some securely
fixed object; the ropes are then paid out, and the machine
rises to the required height; the motion of the guy ropes
is regulated by the aéronaut through the captain on the
ground. Of course, on the proper manipulation of the
ropes the convenience and safety of the aëronaut depend.”
The following extract gives such an accurate idea of
what could be seen that I quote farther:
“Most anxious inquiries were made from the observers
in the balloon, as to the difficulties that lay on the road to
Richmond. Were there any fortifications round the place?
Where were the camps, and for how many men 2 Were
there any troops in movement near the present position ?
and many other questions of equal importance. Now these
questions were difficult to answer; and even from the bal-
loon many of them could only be replied to with more or
less uncertainty. From the balloon to the Chickahominy,
as the crow flies, was about two miles; thence on to Rich-
mond, eight more. At the altitude of 1000 feet in clear
weather an effective range of vision of ten miles could be
got; thus the ground on the opposite side of Richmond
could be seen; that is to say, houses, and the general occu-
pation of the land became known. Richmond itself was
distinctly seen, and the three camps of the Confederates
could be distinguished surrounding the place.
“Looking closer the wooded nature of the country pre-
vented the possibility of saying whether it were occupied
by troops or not, but it could be confidently asserted that
no large body was in motion. In the same way, on seeing
the camps round the place one could form a very rough es-
timate of the number of men they were for, but it was im-
possible to say whether there were men in them or not.
Earthworks, even at a distance of eight miles, could be
seen, but their character so far off could not be distinctly
stated, though one could with certainty say whether they
were of the nature of field or permanent works. The
pickets of the enemy could be made out quite distinctly
with supports in rear, thrown forward to the banks of the
stream. The country from its thickly wooded character
was peculiarly unfitted for balloon reconnoissances; had it
been a plain like Lombardy, the position of any consider-
able body of troops would have been known; as it was, it
was only possible to say that they were not in motion; this
could be confidently asserted, as though they might remain
hid in the woods while stationary, in marching they must,
at some time or other, come into open ground and be seen.
“During the battle of Hanover Court-house, which was
the first engagement of importance before Richmond, I
happened to be close to the balloon when the firing began.
The wind was rather high, but I was anxious to see, if
possible, what was going on, and I went up with the father
of the aéronaut. The balloon was, however, short of gas,
and as the wind was high, we were obliged to come down.
I then went up by myself, the diminished weight giving
increased steadiness, but it was not considered safe to go
higher than 500 feet on account of the unsettled state of the
Weather. The balloon was very unsteady, so much so that
it was difficult to fix my sight on any particular object; at
that altitude I could see nothing of the fight. It turned
out afterwards that the distance was, I think, over twelve
miles, which, from 1000 feet, and on a clear day, would in
a country of that mature have rendered the action in-
visible.” -
With some considerable experience at Yorktown and be-
fore Richmond, the writer can only say that, while no means
of obtaining information in war should be neglected, the
slight amount obtained by the balloon did not compensate
for the enormous expense and incumbrance which it in-
volved. An ascent of 1000 feet was the maximum aimed
at—probably the maximum practicable; for the weight of
the rope becomes a limiting element to higher ascensions
by captive balloons. In reality I doubt whether more
than 600 or 700 feet were ever attained; a very slight wind
sufficing to carry the balloon off at a large angle with the
vertical through the point of attachment. With modern
firearms three miles’ distance from the enemy is about a
minimum for so large an object, for though the hitting of
the balloon may involve no great risk to the observer (since
it would descend slowly) its injury should be guarded
against. The view at three miles' distance from 600 feet
height is anything but a “bird’s eye” one; but at least it
surmounts all adjacent obstacles. But suppose the enemy's
position lies in a wooded country and extends for several
miles. How much of it will be exposed by such a view 7
If a fortification or a line of battle, with a clear front, is
the object, there will be improved vision; but to make out
anything really specific and useful, a telescope (not a mere
binocular) of high power and (hence) small field is indis-
pensable. Now the motion of the balloon renders the use
even of the opera-glass difficult; of the telescope absolutely
impracticable. Only once in all his ascents (before York-
town) did the use of a telescope appear practicable, and of so
little service had it always proved it had been left behind.
Descending to obtain one and reascending, a breeze had
disturbed the dead calm in which only it can be used. Some
information was obtained from it before Yorktown—much
more from the trenches. Before Richmond it rendered no
service worthy of record. (To those who would study more
fully the military uses of the balloon, I refer to the able
and exhaustive articles by Captain BEAUMONT and Lieu-
tenant GROVER, “Prof. Papers R. E.,” vol. xii.)
We hear of no use of the balloon for reconnoitring pur-
poses during the recent Franco-German war; but it at least
proved itself to have a use. During the German siege up-
wards of fifty of these aérial packets sailed, from the be-
leaguered metropolis with despatches for the outer world,
They conveyed about two and a half millions of letters, re-
presenting a total weight of about ten tons. Most of them
took out a number of pigeons, which were intended to act
as postmen from the provinces. One called Le Général
Faidherbe was furnished with four shepherd's dogs, which
it was hoped would break through the Prussian lines, carry-
ing with them precious communications concealed under
their collars. The greater number of these balloons were
under the management of seamen, sometimes solitary ones,
whose nautical training, it was maturally supposed, would
qualify them more especially for the duties of ačrial navi-
gation. More than one fell into the hands of the enemy,
having dropped down right amongst the Prussians. In
some of these cases the crews were generally made prison-
ers, but in others they effected their escape; and more than
once their despatches were preserved in a very remarkable
way—in one instance being secreted in a dung-cart, and in
another being rescued by a forester, and conveyed to Buffet,
the aëronaut of the “Archimède,” who had been sent out in
search of them, and had traversed the hostile lines on his
errand. Many of these postal vessels were carried to a con-
siderable distance, some landing in Belgium, Holland, or
Bavaria; whilst one, “La Ville d’Orléans,” was swept into
Norway, and came to anchor about 600 miles north of
Christiania. A few, unhappily, never landed at all. Le
Jacquard, which left the Orléans railway station on the
28th November, with a bold sailor for its sole occupant,
disappeared like many a gallant ship. It was last observed
above Rochelle, and probably foundered at sea, as some
of its papers were picked up in the Channel. “Le Jules
Favre" (the second of that name), which set out two days
subsequently, has arrived nowhere as yet; and one of the
last of these mail-balloons, the “Richard Wallace,” is miss-
ing, as much as if it had sailed off the planet into infinite
space. So long as these machines continued to be launched
by day, they were exposed to a fusillade whilst traversing
the girdle of the Prussian guns, the bullets whistling round
them even at an elevation of 900 or 1000 mêtres. To avoid
this peril it became necessary to start them by night, al-
though the disadvantages of nocturnal expeditions, in
which no light could be carried, and consequently the
barometer could not be duly read, were held by many to
outweigh all the dangers attaching to German projectiles.
(British Quarterly, Oct., 1871.)
Another event so exceptional as the siege of Paris may
again justify the use of balloons for similar services, and
in open countries they may perhaps occasionally serve use-
fully for military reconnoissances. To science they do not
appear (as now constructed) capable of adding much to the
little (something indeed), they have already given, even
though Sir John Leslie (“Encyc. Brit.”) directs us to “a
skilful and judicious application of balloons for a more
essential improvement of the infant science of meteor-
ology.” When the “balloon of the future”—that in short
which M. Lambert confidently predicts, shall have ap-
peared, then, indeed, science, commerce, social and busi-
ness intercourse, and the art of war, may all hail it as an
important adjunct; till then we must wait.
J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
A’êrophytes, or Aé'rial Plants [from the Gr. &#p,
the “atmosphere,” and burów, a “plant”], are plants which
grow in air only, as distinguished from terrestrial plants, or
AïROSTATIC PRESS—AETHIOPS.
51
those which grow in earth, and hydrophytes, or those which
live under water. The epiphytal orchids and many lichens
are aërial plants, deriving sustenance from the air and its
vapors. They are to be distinguished from parasites, like
mistletoe, which feed on, and not merely grow on, trees, etc.
Aérostat/ic Press, a machine used to extract the col-
oring-matter from dyewoods and other substances by at-
mospheric pressure. For this purpose a vessel is divided
by a horizontal partition pierced with small holes. . Upon
this the substance containing the coloring-matter is laid,
and a cover, also perforated, is placed upon it. The liquid
which is to dissolve the coloring-matter is then poured on
the top, and the air being drawn from the under part of the
vessel by an air-pump, the liquid is forced through the sub-
stance by the pressure of the atmosphere.
Aérostat/ics. See AiRODYNAMICs.
AEs/chines [Atarxiv.ms], a celebrated Greek orator, born
at Athens 387 B.C., was the greatest rival of Demosthenes.
IHe served with distinction at the battle of Mantinea (362
B. C.), and was in early life an opponent of Philip of Mace-
don. Having been sent with other negotiators on an em-
bassy to the Macedonian court in 347 B. C., he afterwards
became a friend of Philip and an adversary of Demosthenes,
who accused AEschines of receiving a bribe from the king
of Macedon. He made a famous oration against Ctesiphon,
because the latter proposed to reward Demosthenes with a
golden crown, but he was defeated in his contest by the
matchless eloquence of his rival, and was exiled in 330 B.C.
He then retired to Rhodes, where he taught rhetoric with
applause. Three of his orations are still extant; they have
been edited by Franke (1860) and others. Died in 314 B.C.
AEs’chylus [Gr. AtaxiſNos], an excellent Athenian tragic
poet, born at Eleusis, in Attica, in 525 B.C. He was the most
ancient of the three great tragic poets of Greece. He fought
with distinction at the battle of Marathon (490 B.C.), and
again at the battle of Salamis. In 484 he gained his first
prize in tragedy. He composed, it is said, about seventy
tragedies, and gained thirteen prizes, but he was defeated
by Sophocles in 468 B.C., soon after which he went to Syra-
cuse, where he was honored by King Hiero. He died at
Gela, in Sicily, in 456 B.C. According to a commonly re-
ceived tradition, he was killed by a falling tortoise which
an eagle dropped. Only seven of his tragedies are extant—
viz., “Prometheus Bound,” “The Seven against Thebes,”
“The Persians,” “Agamemnon,” “The Female Suppli-
ants,” “Choēphori,” and “Eumenides.” His “Oresteia,”
which is certainly one of the most powerful works of art
which the human mind ever created, is the only complete
trilogy which has been left to us. It consists of the three
tragedies, “Agamemnon,” “Choēphori,” and “Eumen-
ides,” and shows in the most striking manner how the
Greek tragedies which we possess must be considered only
as parts of greater compositions—as acts of dramas rather
than 'as dramas. Its idea is to show the redeeming influ-
ence of the state in the life of mankind.
Æscula/pius [Gr. 'AgrkAmmtés], in classic mythology, the
god of medicine, was a son of Apollo. The poets feigned
that he raised the dead to life—that he thus offended Pluto,
who complained to Jupiter, who killed AEsculapius with a
thunderbolt. He was afterwards worshipped as a god, and
a temple was erected to him at Epidaurus. According to
IHomer, he had two sons, Machaon and Podalirius. His de-
scendants were called Asclepiadae.
AEs/culin, or Esculin (C21H24O13), a crystalline fluores-
cent glucoside obtained from the bark of the horse-chestnut
and other trees of the genera Adsculus and Pavia. It pos-
sesses a bitter taste, and is converted by boiling hydro-
chloric or dilute sulphuric acid into glucose and a bitter
crystalline substance called aesculetin, C9H604C21H24O13 +
3.H2O = 206H12O6 + C9H604.
AEsir, à’sir (the Norse plural of As or Asa, a word of
uncertain derivation, but probably allied to the Sanscrit as,
to “be,” and applied as a name to the gods as “beings,”
par excellence), the general name of the beneficent deities
of the Norsemen. The principal AEsir are Balder, Frey,
Freyia, Frigga, Heimdall, Odin, Thor, Tyr, Vali, and Vidar,
which will be noticed under their respective heads.
AE’sop [Lat. Æso'pus; Gr. Atarotros], a celebrated fabu-
list, born about 620 B.C., is supposed to have been a na-
tive of Phrygia. He was a slave in his youth at Athens,
but afterwards obtained his freedom in consideration of his
wit. A statue executed by Lysippus was erected to AEsop
by the Athenians. Many of the fables which in popular
collections are ascribed to Æsop are spurious.
AEso'pus (CLODIUS), a famous Roman tragic actor, was
a friend of Cicero, and flourished about 75 B. C. His action
was grave, dignified, and impassioned. He retired from the
stage in 55 B.C.
AEstiva/tion [from the Lat. 28/tivo, 328tiva’tum, to
“spend the summer,” to “retire for the summer season ºl,
a bótanical term, used to denote the manner in which the
parts of a flower are folded in the bud before it has opened.
The various forms of aestivation are called valvate, imbri-
cated, contorted, induplicate, reduplicate, etc.
AEsthet/ics [Gr. ata:0mrukós, “fitted for perception”].
The word and its cognates were applied by the Greeks in
relation to the philosophy of perception. In modern phil-
osophy the term is used to demote the scientific classification
of the faculties through which we apprehend the beautiful
and the sublime, and which give us the experience of the
resulting emotions. It involves also the statement and dis-
cussion of the laws which should preside over and condition
all forms of artistic production, the application of these
general laws to the special branches of the fine arts in re-
spect to criticism, and the history of the development of
these laws in practice. The principles of aesthetics were in an-
cient times discussed by Plato, Plotinus, and St. Augustine;
and in their application to poetry by Aristotle and Horace;
and in relation to eloquence by Quintilian, and to style by Lom-
ginus. The term was first used in its modern sense in the
eighteenth century by Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, pro-
fessor of philosophy at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. He taught
that there is in the mind, a power or faculty for the appre-
ciation of the beautiful—a power whose existence is not de-
pendent on that of the intellect, though the latter may be
necessary in order properly to direct and develop the
aesthetic faculty. Psychologists have classed the operations
of the mind under three general heads—namely, the Intel-
lect, the Sensibilities, and the Will. The proper object of
the first is Truth; of the second, Beauty in its various
forms, including harmony; and of the third, Good or Vir-
tue. AEsthetics would consequently come under the second
division, relating as it does to objects or qualities which
appeal at once to the sensibilities, without any direct refer-
ence to the intellectual power.
There may be said to be two distinct schools, which differ
radically respecting the true principles of aesthetic develop-
ment and culture. The one, starting with the standard
works of art, or with the most perfect models which nature
offers us, and selecting from each what appears most pleas-
ing or graceful, seeks, by means of these, either by direct
imitation or indirect suggestion, to create a new work,
which shall combine as many as possible of the elements
of the original models. It is obvious that the merits of
such a work cannot in any case rise above the aggregate
of the merits of the productions after which it has been
copied. The other school, recognizing the fact that it is
possible for transcendent genius to create forms of beauty
which shall not only excel in their combined effect, but in
their individual elements, everything that has ever been
seen in nature or in art, seeks to cultivate the faculty of
ideal conception, using the works of mature or the models
of the great masters simply to improve the art of expres-
sion; or, in other words, the power to translate, as it were,
our ideal conceptions into forms which can be understood
and appreciated by the common mind. Those of this school
would say that such works as the Apollo Belvedere, or Dan-
necker's celebrated statue of Christ, could never, in the first
instance, be formed from actual nature—that, in fact, the
very power of selecting the most beautiful forms, or the
most beautiful elements of any particular form, implies the
existence of an ideal faculty; for if the mind has not some
standard in itself, but is wholly dependent on what it sees
for its conception of beauty, why should it not copy the
faulty as well as the beautiful? It is, in fact, by trying
what it sees by the ideal standard in itself, that it knows
how to select the one and reject the other. -
AEsthetics cannot yet be considered a complete and Sys-
tematically developed science, though several of the best
minds of the last and present century have done much to
investigate and explain its principles. Among the most
important works on this subject are the following: FREED:
RIGH THEoport VISCHER’s “Aesthetik, oder die Wissenschaft
des Schönen" (“AEsthetics, or the Science of the Beauti-
ful”), which is perhaps the best and most complete work
on asthetics that has yet appeared; HEGEL’s “Aesthetik,”
contained in his complete works, published after his death;
Cousin’s “Le Vrai, ie Beau et le Bon " (“The True, the
Beautiful, and the Good”); WEISSE’s “System der Aesthe-
tik,” 2 vols., Leipsic, 1830; JourFRoy’s “Cours d’Esthé-
tique,” Paris, 1842; Rugg's “Neue Worschule der Aes.
thétik,” 1837; ZIMMERMANN, “Geschichte der Aesthetik.
Vienna, 1858; and DIPPEL, “Handbuch der Aesthetik,
1873. (See ALTson, “On Taste,” 1784; BURRE, “ The Sub-
lime and Beautiful,” 1756; BASCOM, “Asthetics,” 1862;
H. N. DAy, “The Ścience of Æsthetics;” and especially
RANT, “Kritik der Urtheilskraft.”)
- REVISED BY M. B. ANDERSON.
AEthiops. See ETHIOPS MINERAL.
52
AïTIANS–AFGHANISTAN.
Aé’tians, the followers of Aëtius, who was in the fourth
century a deacon, and afterwards a bishop. He was an
Arian, but was considered a heretic by both orthodox and
Arians. His doctrine and followers were condemned in
359 A. D. -
Aë'tius, sometimes incorrectly written ÆTIUS, an emi-
ment Roman general, born in Moesia, before 400 A. D. As
commander of the Roman army in Gaul, he gained im-
portant victories over the Visigoths, Huns, and other bar-
barians about 425–430 A. D. Aëtius and Theodoric com-
manded the army which in 451 checked the victorious
hordes of Attila, the Hun, and defeated him in a great bat-
tle at Châlons. He was suspected of treachery by the em-
peror Valentinian III., who killed him with his own hand
in 454 A. D.
AEt/ma, a township of Logan co., III. Pop. 920.
AEtna, a township of Mecosta co., Mich. Pop. 335.
AEtna, Mount. See ETNA.
AEto'lia [Gr. AtroAtaj, a state or country of ancient
Greece, was bounded on the N. by Thessaly, on the E. by
Locris and Doris, on the S. by the Gulf of Corinth, and
on the W. by the river Achelous. It was intersected by
the river Evenus, the modern Phidaris or Fidaris. The
surface is partly mountainous, the scenery magnificent,
and the climate delightful. The range of Mount Pindus
extends along the northern part. The ancient AEtolians
were a warlike, barbarous, and rude people in the age of
Pericles. AEtolia, now forms, conjointly with Acarnania, a
nomarchy of the kingdom of Greece. (See ACARN ANIA.)
Affected, or Adfected, a term used in algebra : ap-
plied to an equation, it signifies that two or more several
powers of the unknown quantity enter into the equation ;
as, a 3– aw” + bac-c = 0, in which there are three different
powers of ac.
Affet’to, or Affetuo’so, in music, a term prefixed to
a movement, showing that it is to be performed in a smooth,
tender, and affecting manner.
Affida/vit [Late Lat. from ad, “to,” fides, “faith,” dedit,
“he gave * (i. e. “he made oath’’)], an oath in writing made
before some person who has authority to administer an oath;
a statement in writing signed by the party making it, and
sworn to before some authorized officer, who appends and
signs an official statement to that effect, termed a “jurat.”
By an extension of its original meaning it is made to in-
clude also cases where an affirmation, authorized by law, is
taken instead of an oath. An affidavit is made eac parte
and without cross-examination. It is much used in making
various motions in court, and in proving conveyances ex-
ecuted before subscribing witnesses, so as to have them
recorded. An affidavit is called eactra-judicial when, though
taken before an officer authorized to administer oaths, it is
not itself required or authorized by law.
Affin'ity [from the Lat. ad, “to,” “on,” and fi/nis,
“boundary"), in law, is the relationship contracted by
marriage between a man and his wife's kindred, and be-
tween a wife and her husband’s kindred. Affinity is used
in contradistinction from consanguinity, which expresses
relations that originate in the blood.
Affinity, a term used in biology to denote that the re-
lation which organisms bear to one another is very close,
and depends on some essential correspondence between im-
portant organs. The term is used in contradistinction to
analogy, in which the points of resemblance are of less im-
portance. Thus the foliage of Lath/yrus misso'lia resembles
that of grass, but there is no real affinity between the dico-
tyledonous Lathyrus and the monocotyledonous grass.
Affinity, Chemical, the attractive force which unites
two or more chemical substances so as to form a compound
which differs from either of them; or the mutual propen-
sity which certain kinds of matter have to combine with
each other exclusively or in preference to any other con-
nection. “This term,” says Liebig, “is decidedly fallacious
if it be intended to convey the meaning that such sub-
stances are related to each other.” This force or propen-
sity acts only at insensible distances—that is, only when
the two bodies are in contact. The action of affinity is
often modified and increased by heat and light, as in the
case of potash and sand, which will only unite when raised
to a red or white heat; and the gases chlorine and hydro-
gen will not combine unless they are exposed to the light.
Many surprising changes in the properties of matter are
produced by affinity, as when the poisonous chlorine unites
with sodium to form common table-salt. The poisonous
prussic acid is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and nitro-
gen, neither of which is noxious by itself. Elements differ
greatly in the strength and range of their affinities. Oxygen
has an affinity for nearly all the other elements.
Affirma’tion [Lat. affirma/tio, from ad, “to,” and
fir’mo, firma/tum, to “make firm,” to “bind’’), in law, a
declaration made by a witness as a substitute for an oath
in a court of justice. This formula is used by Quakers
and others who have conscientious scruples against oaths.
In the U. S. the use of affirmations instead of oaths has
become very common, experience seeming to have shown
that the value of evidence and the force of obligations are
not diminished thereby.
Affla’tus [from the Lat. ad, “to,” “upon,” and flo,
fla’tum, to “blow”], a term sometimes used to signify in-
spiration or the gift of prophecy, especially in reference to
those who uttered oracles at Delphi.
Affre (DENIS AUGUSTE), archbishop of Paris, was born
at St.-Rome-de-Tarn in 1793. He became vicar-general
at Paris in 1834, and archbishop in 1840. During the in-
surrection of June, 1848, he made a generous effort to end
the carnage by a personal appeal to the insurgents, but
while he was speaking to them hostilities were renewed
between the insurgents and the military, and he was mor-
tally wounded by a ball. He left an “Essay on the Egyp-
tian Hieroglyphics” (1834), and other works.
Afghanistan’ is the Persian name of the country of
the Afghāns, which is called by the natives Wilajet (i. e.
the “mother country”). It is situated between lat. 29°
and 36° N. and lon. 62° and 72° E., forming a small quad-
rilateral, which historically, geographically, and linguisti-
cally forms the connecting link between India and Western
Asia. It is bounded on the N. by Bokhara, on the E. by
British India, on the S. by Beloochistan, and on the W. by
Persia. The area is estimated (Behm and Wagner, “Be-
völkerung der Erde,” Gotha, 1872) at 250,900 square miles.
The ground rises towards the N. E. to 6000 feet above the
sea-level, and descends gradually towards the S. W. to 1600
feet. In the N. are the wild snow-covered mountains of
Hindoo-Koosh, and farther on the ancient Paropamisus,
which is divided at present into the Kohi-Baba—from
which the Helmund descends—and Ghur Mountains. The
boundary between the Indian and Persian systems is formed
by the desolate mountain-range of Takht-i-Suleiman. The
depression in the S. W., in which Lake Hamoon is situated,
is exactly opposite in character to the N. and E., which, in
consequence of the mountainous nature of the country, have
no large rivers. Besides the Helmund, the Cabul is the
only river of any consequence which flows through the east-
erm mountains towards the Indus.
In consequence of the difference in the height and direc-
tions of the mountains, great contrasts are found in the
climates of the different parts. In the sheltered valleys all
kinds of tropical fruits, tobacco, and cotton are grown,
while in the northern plateaus snow-storms are of frequent
occurrence. The same contrasts are found in the animal
kingdom. Bears, wolves, and foxes are found, together
with lions, tigers, and camels. The mountains are rich in
valuable minerals and metals (iron, lead, gold, sulphur).
The population is estimated (Behm and Wagner, “Be-
völkerung der Erde,” Gotha, 1872) at 4,000,000. The
large majority of the inhabitants are Afghans, who belong
to the Indo-European race, and are divided into an eastern
and a western group. Besides the Afghans, there are also
remains of the original Iranian inhabitants (Tadshiks) and
Indian tribes, who, like the Afghans, belong to the Sunnite
Mohammedans; the Turanian Hezareh and the Turkish
Kazzilbash, who, like the Persians, are Shiitic Moham-
medans. The proud and powerful race of the Afghans
rules over all these. The Afghans are divided into many
tribes, who recently have become united under one ruler,
but seem to be opposed to a real union, although they do
not lack a national pride. For trade and industry the
Afghan has no taste; his element is war.
cities are Cabul, Kandahar, Balkh, Herat, Peshawer, and
Ghuzni. (For the language of the Afghans, see AFGHAN
LANGUAGE.)
History.—Herodotus was acquainted with Afghanistan.
He calls the inhabitants Pactyans. The warlike tribes who
rule the country at present first entered the country at the
time of the Persian-Mongolian rule, and did not begin
to act together until the middle of the eighteenth century,
when, under Ahmed-Shah (1747–73), the founder of the
Durani or Abdali dynasty, they threw off the rule of the
Persians, whom they had always hated on account of their
religion. Bloody civil wars devastated the country, until
with the death of Kamram the Durani monarchy, which
had existed for seventy-six years, totally collapsed in 1829.
With the exception of Herat the country passed into the
hands of the Baraksai. Three brothers divided the country,
of whom Dost Mohammed was the most powerful. The
perpetual war, however, did not cease. In the W., Persia
tried to capture Herat; in the E., Dost Mohammed was
at war with Lahore; and on Oct. 1, 1838, the British
governor-general of India, Lord Auckland, under various
The chief
AFGHAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE-AFRICA.
53
pretexts, declared war against Afghanistan. In the spring
of 1839 the Anglo-Indian army advanced with great losses
through the pass of Bolan to Kandahar, and in August took
possession of the deserted city of Cabul for the British pro-
tegée, Shud-Shah, the lawful heir to the throne. Dost
Mohammed was compelled to surrender to the British, but
his son Akbar raised a revolution throughout the country;
in consequence of which the British were compelled to leave
the country in Jan., 1842. Hunger, cold, and the fanatic
Ghildshees completely destroyed the retreating army.
Generals Nott and Pollock, however, again invaded the
country, dispersed the disorderly troops of Akbar, de-
stroyed Ghuzni and Cabul, and quickly retreated. The
British now thought that they had completely humbled
the Afghans, and that there was no risk in releasing Dost
Mohammed. This energetic prince quickly restored his
power in Cabul, and as early as 1846, conjointly with the
SIKHs (which see), again commenced operations against
the British. The defeat of his allies (1849) forced him to
relinquish all hopes in this direction. On the other hand,
he extended the empire in the N. as far as Balkh (1850),
and brought the southern tribes under his rule by the cap-
ture of Kandahar. To gain Herat and to settle his west-
ern boundaries, he concluded an offensive and defensive
alliance with the British, and was led into a war with Per-
sia (1856–57), which had violated its treaties with England.
The hostilities were, however, soon ended by a treaty,
according to which Herat, which had been occupied by the
Persians in Oct., 1856, was given to Ahmed Khan, a Ba-
raksai chief. Dost Mohammed renewed his alliance with
the British, and he and his heirs were recognized as sov-
ereigns. The country enjoyed several years of quiet, until,
in 1860, Ahmed Khan had a little difficulty with the son
of Dost Mohammed, Afzul Khan of Kunduz, about some
border districts. This was soon settled. But when Ahmed
Khan, at the instigation of the Persians, advanced in 1862
at the head of a large body of troops towards Farrah and
Kandahar, Dost Mohammed marched against him, having
formed the plan not only to extend the northern part of the
Afghan empire in the E. to Balkh, but in the W. even to
Chardjuy.
and enclosed Herat, which surrendered after a long siege
on May 26, 1863, shortly after Ahmed Khan had died
within its walls. But Dost Mohammed also died on May
29, before he had entered the city. His death put an end
to the prospect of a speedy consolidation of the Afghan
empire.
The Persian government, as soon as it heard of the defeat
of its faithful ally, Ahmed Khan, and the death of Dost
Mohammed, sent an envoy to Shere Ali, the son and heir
of Dost Mohammed, who in opposition to the policy of his
father wished to remain at peace with Persia, and effected
a reconciliation. In other respects, Shere Ali was not so
fortunate. Immediately after the death of Dost Mohammed
disturbances arose in every quarter. Afzul Khan, the
brother of Shere Ali and the governor of Balkh, refused to
make the customary signs, of submission, and proceeded
immediately to actual hostilities. He soon captured Cabul
and Kandahar, and was recognized by the governor-gen-
eral of India, not as sovereign of Afghanistan, as he de-
sired, but as ruler of Cabul and Kandahar. He died,
however, soon after this recognition. The civil wars were
only ended in Jan., 1869, when Shere Ali defeated his half-
brother Azeem and his nephew Abdul Rhaman Khan at
Ghuzni so decisively that they were compelled to seek
refuge in the British territory. In July, 1869, new diffi-
culties arose on the frontiers of Turkistan. But the chief
danger for Afghanistan does not lie so much with the na-
tive tribes of Asia, as with Russia, on the one hand and
England on the other, both of whom are desirous of obtain-
ing Herat. Shere Ali chiefly owes his success to subsidies
in money and arms furnished by England, which hoped to
find in him a trustworthy ally to check the Russian ad-
vance in Central Asia. Lord Mayo gave Shere Ali a grand
reception in British India, and held a conference at Um-
ballah in Mar., 1869. Shere Ali was formally recognized
as sovereign of Afghanistan by England—an act which
created a great sensation both in Persia, and Russia. In
1871, Afghanistan was again the seat of civil war, Mehemed
Yakub, a son of Shere Ali, having revolted. In May the
rebels took possession of the important city of Herat, but
a reconciliation was very suddenly brought about by Eng-
lish influence, as Yakub is less devoted to English inter-
ests than his father. But, while England assists Shere Ali,
Russia favors the pretensions of his rival, Abdul Rahman,
and pays him a yearly subsidy. In 1872, in consequence
of the advance of the Russian forces towards Afghanistan,
Earl Granville on Oct. 8 despatched a note to the British
ambassador at St. Petersburg to demand assurances from the
Russian government that it would not encroach upon the
country which Afghanistan claimed as her own. These de-
He repelled the enemy beyond the boundary.
mands were conceded in 1873, and thus dispelled the fears
which were entertained as to an Oriental war between Russia.
and Great Britain. (See EYRE, “The Military Operations
at Cabul,” 1843; KAYE, “History of the War in Afghanis-
tan,” 1861; MoHAN LAL, “The Life of Dost Mohammed
Khan,” 1846; BELLEW, “Journal of a Political Mission to
Afghanistan,” 1862; WAMBáRY, “Centralasien,” 1873; and
the accounts of travels by Connolly, Burnes, Masson, Fer-
rier, Bellew, Wambéry, and others.) A. J. SCHEM.
Afghan Iſlanguage and Literature (Pushtu, Pash-
tó, or Puxtw). The Afghan language is, like all mountain
languages, a harsh, guttural tongue—so much so that
Mohammed is reported to have said that the “Pushtu is
the language of hell.” It has until recently been classed
by all the leading authorities, as Dorn, Lassen, and F.
Müller, under the Iranian group of languages of the Indo-
European family. But Dr. Ernst Trumpp (“Grammar of
the Pashtó Language, or Language of the Afghans, com-
pared with the Iranian and North-Indian Vernaculars,”
1873), who is at present considered the highest authority
on the Pashtó language, and Prof. M. Haug of Munich,
entirely disagree with those who hold this opinion. While
Dr. Trumpp wishes to give it an intermediate position be-
tween the Iranian and Indian groups, Dr. Haug makes it a
separate branch of the great Indo-European family.
The Afghan language has thirty-nine sounds, ten of
which are confined to words which have been introduced
from the Arabic ; it is written with Arabic characters. It
is not until very lately that we meet with any literary at-
tempts, and then only imitations of Persian models, partly
of a romantic-epical and partly of a lyrical form. One of
the earliest, and at the same time most learned, poets is
Abdurrahman, from the district of Peshawer, a learned
Suffee. Others are—Mirza Khan Anssari, a poet of the
first half of the seventeenth century; Khushhal Khan
Khattak, his contemporary, who took up his abode in
India; but especially Ahmed Shah Abdali, the founder of
the Durani dynasty. Historical and religious documents
are also not wanting, but none are older than the fifteenth
century. The former works on the Afghan language, as the
“Grammar” (1840) and the “Chrestomathy’ (1847) by
Dorn, a “Grammar of the Pukhtu,” “Dictionary of the
Pukhtu,” and the anthology, “Gulshan-i-rôh ’” (“Selec-
tions from the Poetry of the Afghans,” 3 vols., 1860–61),
by Raverty, and Müller's “Die Conjugation des Afghan-
verbums ” (1867), have been entirely superseded by the
new work of Prof. Trumpp, which has already been re-
ferred to. - A. J. SCHEM.
Afium', or Afium-Kara-Hissar (“black castle of
opium ”), a city of Asia Minor, in Anatolia, 53 miles S. E.
of Kutaieh. It is on a mountain-side, is the residence of a
pasha, and has a large trade in opium, whence its name.
Here are numerous mosques, a citadel, and manufactures
of carpets, arms, saddlery, etc. Pop. estimated at 50,000.
Afragoſia, an Italian town, in the province of Naples,
noted for its manufactures of straw bonnets. Pop. in 1861,
16,129.
Afrancesa/dos, a name given to those Spaniards who,
supported the French cause, or recognized Joseph Bona-
parte as king, in 1808–13. They were proscribed or treated
with severity by Ferdinand VII. after he was restored to
the throne.
Africa [called also Libya (Gr. Atg4/m) by the ancients,
who appear, however, to have been acquainted with the
northern and north-western portions only], the third in
point of size of the great divisions of the globe. The an-
cient Romans at first applied the name Africa only to that
part of the continent with which they were best acquainted,
the part about Carthage. This became the Roman prov-
ince of Africa; and when, in later times, the name came
to be applied to the whole continent (previously called
Libya, though that name was often very loosely employed
to designate the north-eastern part of the continent), the
province of Africa was often called Africa Propria, Africa
Wera, or Africa Provincia. This province may be roughly
stated to have occupied the old Carthaginian home terri-
tories, and was sometimes known as Zeugitana. Its pres–
ent native name, Frikiah, is obviously connected with that
now given to the whole continent. Some of the ancient
geographers reckoned Africa as a part of Europe. In form
the continent of Africa, somewhat resembles an imperfect
triangle, having its base towards the north and its apex
towards the south. Its whole length from Cape Bianco on the
N. (lat. 37°20' N., lon.9° 48' E.) to Cape Agulhas (lat. 34°49'
8” S., lon. 20° 0' 7" E.) is 5100 miles; and its greatest breadth
from E. to W. (i. e. from Cape Guardafui at the entrance of
the Red Sea at Bab-el-Mandeb (lat. 11° 50' N., lon. 51° 21'
E.) to Cape Verde on the Atlantic (lat. 14°44' N., lon. 17° 32'
W.) is more than 4500 miles. Behm and Wagner (“Bevölke-
rung der Erde,” Gotha, 1872) estimate the area at 11,600,000
54
AFRICA.
square miles. Africa is bounded on the N. by the Mediter-
ranean, on the E. by the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, on the
S. by the Southern Ocean, and on the W. by the Atlantic.
It presents the appearance of a vast peninsula, united to
the adjacent Asiatic continent at its north-east extremity,
between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, by the Isth-
mus of Suez, a narrow strip of land. Its coast-line is
16,200 miles in length, and is nowhere deeply indented
with bays or gulfs, except the Gulf of Guinea, on the west-
ern coast. The other principal indentations are—the Gulf
of Sidra, on the northern, the Bights of Benin and Biafra,
on the westerm, and Sofala, and Delagoa Bays, on the east-
ern coast; Capes Spartel and Bianco, on the N., Cape
Verde, on the N. W., Cape Agulhas, on the S., and Cape
Guardafui, on the E., are its more prominent projections.
Among the few islands which, from their proximity, may
be considered to belong to this continent, are the Bis-
Sagos, in Senegambia, near the mouth of the Rio Grande ;
Fernando Po, in the Bight of Biafra ; Prince's Island and
the islands of St. Thomas and Annobon, in the Gulf of
Guinea; the Querimba and Bazaruta Islands, and the isl-
ands of Zanzibar and Pemba, on the eastern coast. The
Canary and Cape Verd Islands, near the north-western
coast, are farther off than the others; Madagascar, the
Comoro Islands, and Socotra are off the eastern coast, Mad-
agascar being separated from the mainland by the Mozam-
bique Channel, which is 250 miles broad in its narrowest part.
Political Divisions.—In 1872 the area and population
of the political divisions of Africa were, according to Behm
and Wagner, as follows:
Mountains, Table-lands, etc.—The entire southern half
of Africa consists of an immense plateau, which descends
in the S. W. and E. in terraces to narrow coast-countries,
and which has only lately become known. The interior
consists of a plateau running from S. to N., and in some
parts is not more than from 2000 to 3000 feet high. It is
generally very level, and is partly open desert (Kalahari)
and partly wooded, rich in water, fertile, densely populated,
and well cultivated. On the eastern border of the central
basin, beyond the coasts of Mozambique and Zanzibar, is
the territory of the great lakes, while under the equator and
nearer to the E. coast are found a series of high mountain-
ranges (Mountains of the Moon) with high, snow-clad peaks
(IKilimandjaro, 18,000 feet). In Central Africa, we meet
with the plateau of Soudan, beyond the Niger, as the N. W.
extremity of the South African plateau, and the alpine
region of Abyssinia as the N. E. extremity. In the N. are
found the Atlas Mountains, with the plain of Beled-el-
Jerid, which forms the stepping-stone to the desert.
Countries. Square Miles. | Population.
Morocco ......................................... 259,600 2,750,000
Algeria ............ 258,300 2,921,246
Tunis ............................................. 45,700 2,000,000
Tripoli, with Barca and Fezzan....... 344,400 750,000
Egypt ............................................ 659,000 8,000,000
Desert of Sahara............................. 2,436,000 4,000,000
Mohammedan countries of Central
Soudan ....................................... 631,000 || 38,800,000
French Senegambia........................ 96,500 209,162
Liberia. ............................... 0 & - e - - - - - - - 10,000 718,000
Dahomey. ...................................... 4,000 180,000
British possessions in Western Sou-
dam ..... ....................................... 17,100 577,313
Portuguese possessions in Western
Soudan ..............................--------- 35,900 8,500
Other territory in Western Soudan.. 658,000 36,807,000
Abyssinia. .........-----------................... 158,000 3,000,000
Other territory in Eastern Africa.... 1,341,000 || 26,700,000
Portuguese possessions in Southern -
Africa—a. Eastern Coast............... 383,000 300,000
b. Western coast.............. 313,000 9,000,000
Cape Colony 221,300 682,600
Natal.............................................. 17,800 269,362
Orange Free State.................... * c e º a tº a 42,400 37,000
Transvaal Republic......................... 114,300 120,000
Other territory in Southern Africa.. 934,000 5,591,000
Territory on the equator................. 1,522,000 || 43,000,000
Cape Verd Islands........................... 1,650 67,347
St. Thomas and Principé................. 450 19,295
Fernando Po and Annobon............. 490 5,596
Ascension......... .------ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
St. Helena....................................... 47 6,860
Tristan d’Acunha ................... * - - - - - - e. 45 53 .
Socotra. .......................................... 1,700 3,000
Abd-el-Kuri * 60 100
Zanzibar ...... • * * * * * * * see see w see e. e. e. a s is e º e s - e. e. e. e. e. (50 380,000
Madagascar .................................... 228,500 5,000,000
Comoro (with Mayotte).................... 1,070 64,600
Arco, etc........ e e º e s s a e © tº e º tº e & © e º 'º - © e º 'º - e. • * * * * * * 150
Reunion............................... tº º e º 'º - e º e º e 970 209,737
Mauritius and dependencies............ 700 322,900
Other islands....................... “...------ 420 19,639
Total, inclusive of the desert
of Kalahari....................... 11,600,000 | 192,520,000
Deserts.-The great deserts of Africa are the Sahara and
those of Nubia and Libya, situated N. of the Soudan and
Abyssinia, the two together constituting the largest desert
in the world. The Sahara is upwards of 3500 miles in
length, and nearly 1400 miles in its greatest breadth, run-
ning almost across the whole breadth of Northern Africa
between the parallels of 15° and 35° N. lat. Its entire area
has been estimated at 1,500,000 square miles—a space equal
to nearly twice the surface of the Mediterranean. The at-
tempt to furnish water along the routes across this vast
desert by means of artesian wells appears to be a success.
In South Africa, about the tropic, is the desert Kalahari.
Jęivers and Lakes.—The rivers of Africa, although many
of them are large, have, until a very recent period, afforded
no certain inlet to its central regions, and the trade of Eu-
ropeans has thus been confined to narrow districts along the
coast. The Nile is the only river in Northern Africa flowing
into the Mediterranean; it is also the longest river in Africa,
having a course of probably not less than 4000 miles. There
are no other rivers of any magnitude, so far as known, in
Northern or North-western Africa. The most considerable
in Eastern Africa are the Zambezi (or Quillimane) and the
Juba. The former rises in the interior, and enters the
Mozambique Channel by several mouths. It is said to
have a course of 900 miles, and to be navigable during the
rains for 200 or 300 miles from the sea. The Juba, rising
in Abyssinia, falls into the Indian Ocean at the town of
Juba, on the coast of Zanguebar, in lat. 0° 15' S., lon. 43°
39' E. It is said to be likewise navigable for boats to a
great distance from the sea. The other principal rivers of
Eastern Africa are the Hawash, in Abyssinia; the Atbara
(with its affluent, the Takatze); the Bahr-el-Abiad, or White
Nile, and the Bahr-el-Azrek, or Blue Nile; the last three
are branches or affluents of the Nile. The principal rivers
of Western Africa, beginning at its northern limit and pro-
ceeding south, are the Senegal, Gambia, Casamanza, Cacheo,
the Jeba (or Geba), the Rio Grande, the Nunez, the Sierra
Leone, the Adiri (or Volta), the Quorra, or Joliba (Niger),
the Zaire (or Congo, one of the largest in Africa), the Co-
anza, and the Gariep (or Orange) rivers.
Among the largest lakes of Africa that have been fully
explored is Lake Tchad (Chad, or more correctly, accord-
ing to Barth, Tsad). It is situated nearly in the centre
of the continent, in the territory of Bornu, in lat. about
13° N. and lon. 15° E. It is about 220 miles long, and,
at its widest part, about 140 miles broad; and receives two
rivers—the Yeou, from the west, and the Shary, from the
south. The other known lakes of Africa are the Debo, in
Soudan, in the same latitude as Tchad, and under the fifth
meridian of W. lon., traversed by the Niger; the lake of
Dembea, in Abyssinia, traversed by the Bahr-el-AZrek;
and Lake Nyassa, in South-east Africa, about which little is
known. It was seen in 1859 by Livingstone, according
to whom it is 50 miles long. Among the other large lakes
are the Victoria Nyanza, discovered by Capt. Speke in 1858
(supposed by him to be the principal source of the Nile),
lying under the equator; the Albert Nyanza, W. of Victoria
Nyanza, first seen by Sir Samuel Baker in 1864; and the
Tanganyika, S. of Albert Nyanza. Lakes are also met with
in the ranges of Mount Atlas, the largest of which is called
Lowdeah. Another large lake was discovered in Southern
Africa by Dr. Livingstone, in 1849. It is called by the
natives N’gami (the Ng is pronounced like the Spanish N),
the “Great Water;” it is said to be about 70 miles in length,
and is both the source and recipient of several fine streams.
Among the former is the Zouga, which flows from the lake,
first in a N. E. and then in a S. S. E. course. It is described
by Dr. Livingstone as a beautiful stream ; the banks are
covered with gigantic trees, including a species of Adam-
sonia, some individuals of which measured from seventy to
seventy-six feet in circumference. The water of the river
is soft, cold, and remarkably clear. It rises and falls peri-
odically, the cause of which is unknown.
Geology.—The geology of Africa is known as yet only
from a few cursory observations made at points distant
from each other. The part passed over by Dr. Livingstone
presents a variety of schists, shales, sandstone, and tufa,
overlying granitic and trap rocks. In one place, towards
the eastern side of the continent, coal is found under the
sandstone. The lofty barrier of limestone along the West-
ern boundary of Egypt reappears in the rugged hills of the
Sahara; it sometimes contains marine shells. Limestone
is also found along the lower skirts of the Atlas Mountains.
The strata occupying the surface over the desert of Sahara
are very modern, showing that the sea covered this area at
a very recent date. The high table-lands of the interior of
Africa apparently include representatives of all the older
geological formations, and show that the nucleus of the
continent is of very ancient date. In Southern Africa the
geological structure has been determined with considerable
accuracy, and triassic strata have been found there in great
AFRICA.
55
force. They have furnished some remarkable fossil reptiles,
which have been grouped by Owen into a new family
(Dicynodontia), which, with beaks much like those of tur-
tles, have immense canine teeth implanted in the upper jaws.
Of the precious metals, gold has long been found in Africa.
Probably the richest gold-mine is at Nataku in Western
Africa, the gold occurring in lumps, grains, and spangles.
Gold-dust is found on the Barra, on the W. coast. Iron
occurs in Morocco, Algeria, and Abyssinia, and in the
mountains of Central and South Africa. Copper and lead
are also found in Southern Africa. Large diamond-fields
have recently been discovered in great abundance near the
Waal River. Of other minerals, salt, manganese, and differ-
ent nitrates have been found in large quantities.
Climate.—The climate of Africa, as far as its continental
character prevails, and particularly in the rainy zone, is en-
tirely uniform, and in consequence of the position of the
continent (four-fifths in the tropics), of the large extent of
the Sahara, within the hot zone, of the extensive table-lands
of Southern Africa, and of the deficient water-supply and
the limited area of the forests, it is exceedingly dry and
hot.
test region on the globe, but exhibits great contrasts of
temperature. While the days often reach a temperature of
120° to 125° Fahrenheit, the nights sometimes have only
55°. The region of the tropical or summer rains extends
from lat. 16° to 21° N. North of the equator the rainy
season lasts from April to October, in the S. from October
to April. In the extreme northern and southern parts of
Africa the four seasons of the temperate zone are found.
Vegetation.—In those regions where dampness and heat
are combined, especially in the valleys of the large rivers,
the vegetation is exceedingly luxuriant and rich in pecu-
liar forms. Among the more prominent plants are the
baobab, the shiah butter tree, the dragon tree, the date and
fan palms, the oil-palm, various species of aloes, numerous
Spices, and drugs, dyewoods, and timber trees, and the
coffee and india-rubber tree. Among the productions are
cotton, indigo, bananas, wheat, corn, rice, European and
tropical fruits. Dourra and teff are grains resembling mil-
let. Wide areas abound in thorny leguminous trees and
shrubs. Gourds, heaths, geraniums, and amaryllids are
characteristic plants of the S.
Zoology.—The animal life is distinguished by large and
clumsy forms. The elephant and rhinoceros and the hip-
popotamus (which is peculiar to this continent) are found
here. Among the Carnivora, the lion, leopard, hyaena,
ichneumon, and civet are met with. Throughout Africa, the
graceful family of the antelopes, in over sixty species, is
found, sometimes in herds of 100,000. The camel, the Bar-
bary horse, and the ass are the beasts of burden mostly used
in Africa. Numerous genera of apes and monkeys are
found. The zebra, quagga, and dauw, and the giraffe, the
tallest existing mammal, in Central and Southern Africa,
are peculiar to the continent. Among the birds the ostrich
is the most remarkable. , Numberless flocks of parrots and
bright-colored, noisy birds enliven the forests. Among rep-
tiles, the crocodile is found in all the large rivers and lakes
of Africa. Various species of serpents and lizards are also
met with. Among insects, the termites, with their cone-
like habitations, are most destructive. They attack and de-
molish everything, except metals and stones, that comes in
their reach. Besides the termites, locusts cause great de-
struction of property. They travel about in large swarms,
and woe to the fields that they alight upon; not a vestige
of green remains after they have left. But they are also
used as food by many of the native tribes.
Population.—The population is estimated by Behm and
Wagner (“Bevölkerung der Erde,” Gotha, 1872) at
192,520,000. The densest population is found in the Sou-
dan, on the Gulf of Guinea, from the Senegal to Lower
Guinea, also on several other parts of the coast, on large
rivers (as the Nile), and, according to recent reports, in some
parts of the interior of Southern Africa. To the N. of the
Soudan, inclusive of Abyssinia and the territory of the Nile,
the Caucasian race (with both dark and light-colored repre-
sentatives) predominates, comprising the Berbers, Abyssin-
ians, Egyptian Copts, and the Turks. The rest of the con-
tinent S. of these countries is inhabited by the Ethiopian
or negro race. In the extreme S. are the Cafirs, the Bush-
men, and the Hottentots. European colonists are found
almost all along the coast, especially in Cape Colony,
Algeria, and the islands.
Approacimate Religious Statistics.-Mohammedanism and
Fetishism are the prevailing religions of Africa, except
in Abyssinia, where a corrupt form of Christianity ex-
ists; in Madagascar, where the conversion of the queen
(1869) and the prominent men of the country has secured
the Christianization of the island; in the republic of Li-
beria, the government of which is under the controlling in-
fluence of the Protestant denominations of the U. S.; and
The interior of Africa is in all probability the hot-
was doubled by the Portuguese.
in the colonies of the European nations. Human sacrifices
are offered among some of the negro nations, but rarely,
except on great occasions. The number of Mohammedans
in Africa is from 60,000,000 to 100,000,000. The Jews are
numerous in Morocco, Algeria, and Abyssinia; their aggre-
gate number in all Africa is from 700,000 to 800,000. The
estimates of the Roman Catholic population greatly vary
(from 1,000,000 to 4,000,000), as it is doubtful how large a
portion of the Portuguese colonies may be set down as
nominally Catholic. The Protestant population before the
conversion of Madagascar was estimated at about 700,000;
it exceeded in 1873 that of the Roman Catholic. In Abys-
synia and Egypt about 3,500,000 are connected with the
Abyssinian and Coptic churches. -
Languages.—Recent discoveries have shown that a scien-
tific classification of the African tribes can be made neither
by distinction of color nor of languages. Many tribes have
changed their original language for another, or have mixed
it considerably with other languages, while some of the
darkest races, as the Wolof on the Senegal, are decidedly
related to the Caucasian race. Prof. F. Müller (“Linguis-
tiche Ethnographie,” in Behm, “Geogr. Jahrb.,” 1868) di-
vides the languages into five large families: I. The languages
of the African negroes, in twelve groups: the Teda, Maba,
JBornu, Bagrimma, Houssa, Logone, Wandala, Wolof, and
Mande languages, the Mena languages, the languages of
the Nile, the languages of the Niger, those of Sierra Leone,
and those of the Gold Coast. II. The languages of the
Central Africans, in two groups: Fulah and Nuba lan-
guages. III. The language of the Hottentots, in four
groups: Nama, Kora, dialect of the Cape, and the lan-
guage of the Bushmen. IV. The Cafir languages, in three
groups: the eastern group, comprising the true Cafir lan-
guages, the languages of Zambezi and of Zanzibar; the
central group, comprising the Setchuana and Tekeza; and
the western group, comprising the Bunda, Herera, Londa,
Congo, Mpongwe, Dikele, Isubu, and Fernando Po. V.
The Caucasians of Africa, in two groups: the Hamitic lan-
guages, comprising the Egyptians, the Bedja, Somauli,
Dankali, and Galla ; the Semitic languages, comprising
the Ethiopic (Geez), Tigre, Amharic, and Arabic.
Commerce.—The commerce of Africa, owing to the bar-
barous state of the country and to the large dimensions of
the slave-trade, has never been of any great importance.
But in recent times, since the civilized nations have
adopted measures to suppress this inhuman traffic, a great
progress has been made. The principal articles of export
are gums, timber, wax, ivory, palm oil, gold, hides, feathers,
etc. A considerable inland trade is carried on with iron
goods, clothing, salt, beads, and small shells called cowries,
which are also used as a circulating medium. The Maria
Theresa dollar, which circulates in Abyssinia, along the
shores of the Red Sea, and some parts of the Soudan, is
the only coin used in Africa, with the exception of the Eu-
ropean colonies.
History of Discovery.—The peninsular form of Africa is
supposed to have been known to the ancients, and it is
even supposed by some that the Phoenicians circumnavi-
gated this continent long before the earliest historical rec-
ords. In modern times Africa has been the object of
many researches and explorations. In 1446, Cape Verde
In 1486, Bartholomew
Diaz discovered the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498, Vasco
da Gama doubled it. Since the middle of the sixteenth
century other nations, especially Englishmen, Frenchmen,
and Germans, have also taken part in the exploration of
Africa. In 1788 the foundation of the African Association
of London gave new life to the exploration of this conti-
ment. Among the more prominent travellers in the last
ten years of the eighteenth and in the nineteenth century
are Hornemann (to Murzuk and on the Niger); Lander (on
the Niger); Mungo Park (1795–97 and 1805–06) on the W.
coast; Burckhardt in the region of the Nile; Denham, Clap-
perton, and Oudney to Bornu (1822–24); Clapperton in 1825
through Upper Guinea to Sokota; in 1849, Richardson, Barth,
and Overweg from Tripoli to the Niger and Benue, who were
followed by Vogel in 1853. Barth alone returned in 1856;
Vogel was murdered by order of the Sultan of Wadai, and
Richardson and Overweg died on the Way. Equal in im-
portance to these travels in the N. of Africa are those of
Livingstone in the S. In 1849 he reached Lake N’gami
from the S., in 1851 the Liambye, and during the years
1852–56 he travelled from the Liambye to Loanda on the
W. coast, and thence through the continent to the mouth
of the Zambezi, when he discovered the Victoria Falls,
which are said to exceed in beauty the Falls of Niagara.
From 1858–64, Dr. Livingstone, together with his brother
Charles, explored the lakes Nyassa and Shirwa, and three
times traversed for a great distancé the upper course of
the Shire. In 1865 he set out on a new journey to reach
the equator and to find the sources of the Nile. Dec.
*
56
AFRICAN ASSOCIATION.—AGAPETA.
6, 1866, the men belonging to his expedition returned and
reported him murdered by the natives. But subsequent
explorations and two letters—one dated Dec. 14, 1867, and
the other in 1869—showed these reports to be untrue. In
1870, Henry Stanley, in the employ of the “New York
Herald,” set out to discover Livingstone, and was so for-
tunate as to find him in 1872. Upon his return, Mr. Stan-
ley brought with him the journal and several letters of Dr.
Livingstone, which throw an important light upon the re-
gions of Central Africa. Livingstone awaited the Supplies
which were sent him by Stanley in Ujiji, and then set out
again. In 1857–59, Burton and Speke discovered the lakes
Tanganyika and Victoria, Nyanza or Ukerewe, and in
1860–63, together with Grant, Speke discovered the pas-
sage of the Nile from the Victoria, Nyanza. In 1864, Baker
discovered Lake Albert Nyanza, and ascertained that it is
connected with Lake Victoria, Nyanza. In 1869, Baker
undertook a new expedition up the Nile to suppress the
slave-trade and to extend the Egyptian domain, and on
his return, June, 1873, reported to have been entirely suc-
cessful. Other explorers are the Dutch lady Tinne, Carlo
Piaggia, and the two brothers Poncet, Petherick (on the
Bahr-el-Gazal) and Du Chaillu (in equatorial Africa).
Among the German explorers are especially to be named
Dr. G. Schweinfurth, Heuglin, Kinzelbach, Munzinger,
Steudner, Baron von der Decken, Krapf, Karl Mauch, who
discovered large gold-fields in Southern Africa, and Ger-
hard Rohlfs, who explored Morocco, Algeria, Tripoli, and
the countries of the Soudan. At the close of 1872 a new
society for the exploration of Africa, was formed in Ger-
many, which began its operations by sending out an expe-
dition for the exploration of the Congo, under Dr. Güss-
feldt. Gerhard Rohlfs had also set out again for these
regions. In South-eastern Africa, P.Carl Mauch had con-
tinued his explorations in 1872, and had discovered, in lat.
20° 15' S. and Ion. 26° 30' E., the ruins of an ancient city,
which he thought to be Ophir, together with the ruins of
the queen of Sheba's palace, and a temple built by her in
imitation of that of Solomon. g
Literature.—Compare, besides the works of the explorers
already mentioned, PETERMANN and HAssFNSTEIN, “Inner-
afrika, nach dem Stande der geogr. Kenntnisse in den
Jahren 1861–63.” (1863); WIVIEN DE ST.-MARTIN, “Le
Nord de l'Afrique dans l'antiquité” (1863). On the coun-
tries of the Nile, see the works of RüPPEL, RUSSEGGER,
WERNER, and KNOBLECHER; also KLöDEN, “Das Stromsys-
tem des oberen Nil” (1856); BEKE, “The Sources of the
Nile” (1860). For the Soudan compare the works of LAN-
DER and CAILLIf ; also MAGE, “Voyage dans le Soudan
occidental” (1868), and HoRTON, “Physical and Medical
Climate and Meteorology of the West Coast of Africa.”
(1867). On Eastern Africa compare GUILLAIN, “Docu-
ments sur l’histoire, la géographie, et le commerce de l’Af-
rique orientale” (1856), and KRAPF, “Reisen in Ostafrika.”
(1858). Central and South Africa is described in BURTON,
“The Lake Regions of Central Africa,” (1860); ANDERs-
son, “Travels in South-west Africa;” L. MAGYAR, “Travels
in Southern Africa;” FRITsch, “Drei Jahre in Südafrika.”
(1869); and “Die Eingebornen Südafrikas” (1872).
A. J. SCHEM.
African Association, a society formed in London
in 1788 to assist enterprising men in their attempts to ex-
plore Africa. It was united with the Royal Geographical
Society in 1831.
African Company. A company by this name was
incorporated in Great Britain in 1754 for the purpose of
promoting trade with Africa. It was obliged to support
all English fortifications between Cape Blanco and the Cape
of Good Hope, in return for which it received an annual
salary of £13,000. It was deprived of its charter in 1821.
African Methodist Episcopal Church, The,
was organized in 1816 by colored Methodists, who had
been down to that date under the care of the Methodist
Episcopal Church. They elected Rev. Richard Allen their
first bishop in 1816. Their doctrines are substantially the
same as those of the parent Church. They report (1872)
620 ministers and 200,000 members. They have four high
academies, one university, and two weekly journals. (See
METHODISM, by REv. ABEL STEVENs, A. M., LL.D.)
African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church,
The 2 was formed in 1820 by a secession of African Meth-
odists from a congregation of the Methodist Episcopal
Church in New York City. They held their first annual
conference in 1821; it was composed of 22 preachers, and
reported 1426 church members. In 1838 the conference
elected Rev. Christopher Rush its first bishop, with the
title of superintendent. Its superintendents are elected
quadrennially by the general conference. They report (in
1872) 700 ministers and 164,000 church members. Their
doctrines and ecclesiastical system are mostly copied from
those of the Methodist Episcopal Church.
ODISAſ, by REv. ABEL STEvens, A. M., LL.D.) *
Africa/mus (SExTUs JULIUs), a Christian writer emi-
nent for his learning, died about 232 A. D. He wrote a
general chronology of the world from the creation to 221
A. D., in which he fixes the date of the creation at 5499 B.C.
Afton, a post-township of Washington co., Minn. It is
(See METH-
the seat of an academy. Pop. 825.
Afton, a post-village and township of Chenango co.,
N. Y., on the Albany and Susquehanna R. R., 28 miles
E. N. E. of Binghamton. It has six churches, a spoke
factory, a Sash-and-blind factory, and other shops, and a
fine suspension bridge across the Susquehanna, which in-
tersects the township. The bridge has 362 feet span. Pop.
of township, 1931. -
Afton, a township of De JKalb co., Ill. Pop. 873.
Afton, a township of Cherokee co., Ia. Pop. 263.
Afton, a township of Howard co., Ia. Pop. 474.
Afton, a post-village, capital of Union co., Ia., on the
Burlington and Missouri River R. R., 180 miles W. of Bur-
lington and 50 miles S. W. of Des Moines. It has two
weekly papers, a fine court-house, and is the centre of an
extensive country trade. Pop. 961.
J. F. BISHOP, E.D. of “AFTON NEws.”
Afze/lius (ARVID AUGUST), a Swedish poet and histori-
cal writer, born May 6, 1785. He published, besides other
works, a “Legendary History of the Swedes.” Died Sept.
25, 1871.
A/ga, a Turkish title, signifying “lord,” is given to a
superior military commander, and to others as an honorary
title. *
Ag'ades, Ag'adez, or Ag/dies, a city of Central
Africa, capital of the kingdom of Asben, is in an oasis of
the Sahara; lat. 16° 30' N., lon. 8° 12' E. It formerly had
a population of about 50,000, which is now greatly reduced.
It is visited by merchants from Soudan, and others from
Northern Africa. Pop. about 7000.
Agalmat/olite [from the Gr. &ya Apia, “image,” and
Atôos, “stone”], a name applied to a number of soft, fine-
grained minerals which the Chinese carve into images.
They are hydrated, aluminous, or magnesian silicates, as
pyrophyllite, biharite, pinite, talc, etc.
Agſama, the name of a lizard, employed by Cuvier to
designate the first section of the iguanian sauria, or Aga-
midae, which section is characterized by the absence of
palatal teeth. The agamoid lizards include several genera,
which are numerous in species. They are distributed over
the warmer parts of America, Africa, Asia, and Australia.
Most of them have a lax skin, which they can inflate with
air. One of the most remarkable animals of this family is
the CHLAMYDos AURUs (which see).
Agamem’non [Gr. Ayap.éuvov), the Son of Atreus, king
of Mycenae, was a brother of Menelaus. He had the chief
command of the Greeks at the siege of Troy, where he
quarrelled with Achilles. He, as well as his brother, was
often called ATRI'DEs (i. e. “son or descendant of Atreus”).
After his return from Troy to his own kingdom he was
murdered by his wife Clytemnestra and AEgisthus. He
was the father of Orestes, Electra, and Iphigenia.
Agamen’ticus, Mount, in York co., Me., is about 4
miles from the ocean, above the level of which it rises 673
feet. It is an important landmark for seamen ; lat. 43°
13.4 N., lon. 70° 41.2' W. It is in York township.
Ag'ami (the Psophia of the naturalists), a genus of
South American birds, called trumpeters from a peculiar
sound which they utter. The Psophia crep'itans is equal
in size to a large pheasant, but has longer legs and neck.
It can be perfectly domesticated. s
Ag'apae [from the Gr. &yárm, “brotherly love”], love-
feasts, or feasts of charity, in use among the early Chris-
tians. After the celebration of the communion, the obla-
tions which had been made in the church, consisting of
meat and bread, which the rich had brought from their
houses, were consumed at a common feast.
Agapem'one [from the Gr. &yám, “love,” and uoví,
“abode”], a community of famatics and free-lovers formed
in 1846 at Charlynch, in Somersetshire, England, by Henry
J. Prince, who was previously a clergyman of the Anglican
Church. His disciples, known as “Lampeter Brethren,” or
“Family of Love,” hold their property in common, live in
splendid style, and pass their time in voluptuous ease. Mr.
Prince makes extravagant pretensions as an apostle or re-
former in religion, and it is said that he is styled “God in-
carnate” by his followers, who are sometimes called Prince-
ites.
Agapeſtae [from the Gr. &yatriros, “beloved”], the title
given to the virgins and widows who among the primitive
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AGAPETUS I.-AGE.
57
Christians devoted their time to the service of bishops and
ministers.
Agapeſtus I. was elected pope of Rome in 535. Died
in 536 A. D. - - -
Agapetus II. became pope in 946, and died in 955 or
956. -
A/gardh (KARL ADoIPH), a Swedish naturalist, born in
Scania Jan. 23, 1785, was ordained a priest in 1816. He
wrote, besides other works, “Species of Sea-weeds” (“Spe-
cies Algarum,” 1820–28) and “Systematic Arrangement of
Sea-weeds” (“Systema Algarum,” 1824). He became bishop
of Karlstad in 1834. Died Jan. 28, 1859.
Ag'aric [Lat. Agar'icus, from the Gr. &yapuków], a genus
of fungi, the species of which are very numerous. True
agarics have radiant gills, while Boleti have tubes beneath
the cap or pileus. The Agaricus campestris or common
mushroom and some others are delicate articles of food;
the Agaricus muscarius and other species are dangerous
poisons; many of the deliquescent species are called toad-
stools; numerous small ephemeral species appear to be
harmless. The Agaricus olearius is remarkable for being
phosphorescent. The common mushroom is frequently cul-
tivated, both in the open garden and in sheds. The term
agaric is also applied to various Polypori and other fungi
which grow on the trunks of trees. From some of these
“punk,” “touchwood,” or “amadou.” is prepared.
Aga'sias of Eph'esus, a Greek sculptor, who is sup-
posed to have lived about 400 B. C. Among his works is a
fine statue called “The Gladiator” or “Borghese Fighter,”
which is now in the Louvre.
Ag'assiz (Louis JoHN RUDOLF), M. D., Ph. D., LL.D.,
an eminent Swiss naturalist and geologist, born in the parish
of Motier, near Lake Neuchâtel, May 28, 1807, was the son
of a Protestant minister. He studied the medical Sciences
at Zurich, Heidelberg, and Munich, where he graduated.
His first work was a Latin description of the fishes which
Martius and Spix brought from Brazil, published in 1829–31.
He devoted much time to the study of fossil fishes, and was
appointed professor of natural history at Neuchâtel in 1832.
During a visit to Paris he formed friendships with Cuvier
and Humboldt. His reputation was increased by a great
work in French, entitled “Researches on Fossil Fishes”
(5 vols., 1832–42, with more than 300 plates), in which he
made important improvements in the classification of fishes.
Having passed many summers among the Alps in researches
on glaciers, he propounded some new and interesting ideas
on geology and the agency of glaciers in his “Etudes sur
les Glaciers” (1840) and his “Système Glaciaire” (1847),
which are among his principal works.
In 1846 he crossed the Atlantic on a scientific excursion
to the U. S., in which he soon resolved to fix his permanent
residence. He accepted, about the beginning of 1848, a
chair of zoology and geology at Harvard; he explored the
natural history of the U. S. at different times, and gave a
new impulse to the study of nature in this country. He
rejects the Darwinian theory of organic development. In
1865 he conducted an expedition to Brazil, and explored
the lower Amazon and its tributaries, in which it is stated
that he discovered more than 1800 new species of fishes.
He became in 1868 a non-resident professor of natural his-
tory at Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. Early in Dec.,
1871, he accompanied the Hassler expedition, under Prof.
Pierce, to the South Atlantic and Pacific oceans and the
western coast of America. Among his important works are
“Outlines of Comparative Physiology” (1848); a “Journey
to Brazil” (chiefly written by his wife, 1868); and “Con-
tributions to the Natural History of the United States,” an
expensive work which is to extend to ten vols. 4to, of which
the first four volumes appeared 1857–62. Probably no one
except Hugh Miller has done more to popularize science in
our time than Agassiz, and no other teacher has trained so
many young and rising naturalists. Yet it may be observed
that some of his favorite opinions (e.g. of the absolute im-
mutability of species) are not now held by many living nat-
uralists. More, however, than almost any other leader in
modern science, Agassiz has insisted upon a theistic view
of creation, as opposed to the idea of the self-evolution of
uncreated nature. “He is not merely,” says Mr. Whipple,
“a scientific thinker; he is a scientific force; and no small
portion of the immense influence he exerts is due to, the en-
ergy, intensity, and geniality which distinguish the nature
of the man. In personal intercourse he inspires as well as
performs, communicates not only knowledge, but the love
of knowledge.” He died at Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 14, 1873.
Agassiz, Mount, a remarkable mountain-peak of
Arizona, is an extinct volcano, about 70 miles N. E. of
Prescott. It is 10,000 feet or more above the level of the
sea, and belongs to the range or group of San Francisco
Mountains. As a place of Summer resort it has every at-
traction—scenery, water, climate, elevation, and proxim-
ity to one of the greatest natural curiosities in North
America, the Great Cañon of the Colorado.
Ag/ate [from Acha'tes, a river of Sicily, where they were
first found], a mineral much used for ornamental purposes,
is a variety of quartz marked with veins or layers, which
are different in color and often concentric. This structure
is due to the mode of formation, in successive layers on the
walls of cavities, usually in volcanic rocks. Agates are
found in all countries, and are much used for ornaments
and utensils, such as seals, ring and pin stones, vases, cups,
mortars, etc. Many of the polished agates are very beau-
tiful, and their preparation has created an important in-
dustry at Oberstein in Germany. Here great skill is dis-
played in cutting and polishing agates, and still more in
coloring them. A large part of the Oberstein agates come
originally from South America.
Ag'atha, SAINT, a Silician virgin and martyr, who was
put to death in 251 A. D. -
Agathar'chus ['Ayā9apxos], a Greek painter who lived
about 480 B.C., is regarded as the inventor of scene-paint-
ing, or the first who applied the laws of perspective to the
art of painting.—Another painter of this name lived about
sixty years later, and was patronized by Alcibiades.
Agaſthias, surnamed ASIANUs, a Greek historian and
poet, was born at Myrina, in Asia Minor. He became a
resident of Constantinople about 554 A.D., and wrote a
history of contemporary events, which is extant. Died
about 580. sº
Agath/ocles [Gr.’Aya.0okAºs], a tyrant of Syracuse, born
in Sicily, was originally a potter. He raised himself by his
talents to a high military rank, and also distinguished him-
self as an orator. Having massacred a large number of the
prominent and respectable men of Syracuse, he obtained the
supreme power in 317 B. C. He afterwards waged war
against the Carthaginians, over whom he gained several
victories in Africa, but was subsequently defeated by them.
In 306 B.C. a. peace was made, which secured to both par-
ties their former possessions. Died in 289 B.C. His death
is ascribed to a poisoned toothpick, given to him at the in-
stigation of his grandson Archagathus.
Ag'athon, or Ag'atho ['Ayá009], an eminent Greek
tragic poet, born at Athens about 450 B.C., was a friend
of Plato and Euripides. He gained a prize for one of his
tragedies in 416 or 417 B. C. Plato expressed a high opin-
ion of his works, of which only small fragments are extant.
Died about 400 B. C.
Aga’ve [from the Gr. &yavós, “illustrious,” “noble”], a
genus of plants of the order Amaryllidaceae; they are na-
tives of tropical America. The most remarkable species of
this genus is the Agave Americana, commonly called Amer-
ican aloe, or century plant. The latter name originated in .
an incorrect opinion that it bears no flowers until it has
attained the age of one hundred years. The spike, which
often rises to the height of about thirty-six feet, sometimes
bears as many as 4000 flowers. The agave never survives
long after efflorescence. The Agave Americana is employed
for fences in Southern Europe; it has become naturalized
in Italy and the north of Africa. By maceration of the
leaves of this and other species are obtained fibres, which are
used, under the name of Sisal hemp, for the manufacture of
ropes, hammocks, etc. Another species, the Agave Meact-
cana, when the innermost leaves have been torm out, affords
a juice which yields sugar; and which, when diluted with
water and subjected to fermentation, becomes an intoxica-
ting drink called pulque. It is made likewise from the
Agave Americana, and from several other species; and a
spirituous liquor (aguardiente) is distilled from it. . The
roots of Agave saponaria are used in Mexico for washing,
forming a lather with salt water as well as with fresh.
Paper has been made from the fibre of some of the species.
Ag'awam, a post-village of Hampden co., Mass., on the
W. side of the Connecticut River, in a fertile township of its
own name, 98 miles W. S. W. of Boston. It has manufac-
tures of paper and woollens. Pop. of township, 2001.
Agde (anc. Ag'atha), a town of France, department of
|Hérault, on the river Hérault and Canal du Midi, 2 miles
from the Mediterranean, and 18 miles by rail E. of Bézières.
It is mostly built of black basalt, and is popularly called the
Black Town. Here is a college, also a school of naviga-
tion. Pop. in 1866,9586. It has an active trade in wine, oil,
silk, grain, etc. Its harbor is in lat. 43° 17' N., lon. 3°28'
E., and is accessible to ships of 200 tons.
Age [Lat. ae/tas], a word used in various significations:
1, it denotes the whole duration of the life of a man or
other creature; 2, a certain period or division of human
life, which, according to Shakspeare, is divided into seven
ages; 3, the time when a person is authorized by law to act
for himself, and is released from the control of his parents
58
AGEN–AGENT.
or guardians. According to the laws of England and the
U. S., a person becomes of age when he or she is twenty-
one years old. Before this age one cannot vote or make a
valid will. A citizen of the U. S. cannot be a Senator be-
fore the age of thirty, nor President before the age of thirty-
five. In Great Britain men are eligible to Parliament at
twenty-one. The natural divisions of human life are in-
fancy, childhood, boyhood (or girlhood), adolescence, man-
hood (or womanhood), and old age. The age of puberty is
fourteen or fifteen. The sixty-third year is called the grand
climacteric. Some trees are believed to live to an age of
4000 years or more. The average life of a horse is from
twenty-five to thirty years; of an elephant, probably about
two hundred; of a dog, from twelve to fifteen. Fishes are
remarkable for longevity, and a carp (it is said) has been
known to live two hundred years.
AGE, in chronology and history, is sometimes used as
synonymous with century, and sometimes also with a gen-
eration. Writers differ in respect to the period included
under what is called the Middle Ages, but they are com-
monly understood to begin about the time of Charlemagne,
and to extend to the fifteenth century.
AGE, in literature, is a period usually bearing the name
of some powerful person who flourished during that time.
Among the most memorable of these are the age of Peri-
cles, the Augustan age, the age of Leo X., and the age of
Elizabeth (or Elizabethan age). -
In geology, an AGE is the second great division of time—
e.g. the Devonian Age, the time in which the Devonian
system of rocks was deposited—or intervals in the life-his-
tory of the globe marked by the prevalence of certain forms
of animal or vegetable life; e.g. the Age of Mammals = the
Tertiary; the Age of Reptiles = the combined Triassic, Ju-
rassic, and Cretaceous Ages of geological time.
AGE is a term used to designate the successive epochs or
stages of civilization in universal history or mythology.
The Greek and Roman poets imagined a series of four
ages—the Golden, the Silver, the Brazen, and the Iron.
An ancient and widespread tradition commemorates the
pristine innocence, peace, and happiness of the primeval
Golden Age, under the reign of Saturn. The other three
were regarded as successive degrees of declension from that
primitive state. The pre-historic ages in modern anthro-
pology are usually called the older and newer stone ages
(palaeolithic and neolithic ages) and the age of bronze.
Agen, ä'zhāN’ (anc. Agin/num), a town of France, cap-
ital of the department of Lot-et-Garonne, on the right
bank of the Garonne, 85 miles by rail S. E. of Bordeaux.
It is pleasantly situated in a fertile country, and has an
active trade in brandy, prunes, leather, wine, madder, and
other articles. Here is a public library; also manufac-
tures of Serge, cotton prints, and linen goods. Joseph
Scaliger was born in the vicinity of Agen. Pop. in 1866,
18,222.
A/gency, a post-village of Wapello co., Ia., in a town-
ship of its own name. Pop. 630; of township, 1223.
Agency, a township of Osage co., Kan. Pop. 1865.
Agen’ da [from a 'go, ac’tum, to “act” or “do”], a
Latin word signifying “to be done,” or “what ought to be
done,” has been applied by theologians to practical duties
as distinguished from the credenda (“to be believed”), or
doctrines that must be accepted as articles of faith.
Agénois, é'zhá'nwā’, a former district of France, in
Guienne, had an area of about 1080 square miles. It is
now comprised in the department of Lot-et-Garonne.
Age/nor [Gr. Ayivopl; in classic mythology, a king of
Phoenicia and a son of Neptune, was the father of Cad-
mus, Phoenix, and Europa. e
A/gent [from the Lat. ago, to “act”], in law, one who
acts for another. This.is an extensive topic, and must be
treated with a brevity scarcely admitting even a sketch of
its rules. Many of its principles closely resemble the cor-
responding topic in the Roman law (mandat), so that they
are.9f quite general application in the jurisprudence of
civilized countries. Agency may be created by express
words or by implication. There are cases in which an ex-
press authority in writing is necessary by statutory law.
It is a general rule that when an act is to be done under seal
the agent's authority must be of the same grade. Should
a person act, as agent without authority, the subsequent
ratification of the act will make it valid and binding on the
person for whom it was done, in the same manner as if he
had originally directed it. An agency is often implied
from the course of business. A wife who sells goods in her
husband's shop, or receives payment of a debt due him with
his knowledge and without objection, may be deemed to be
his agent, and may bind him in subsequent transactions of
a similar kind. An agency is in general revocable either
by the principal’s own act, executed with sufficient noto-
riety, or by some event which renders the performance of
the act impracticable. Thus, the death of the principal,
in general, causes an instantaneous revocation. There is
a class of powers, termed “powers coupled with an in-
terest,” which in their nature are irrevocable. There must
be in this case an interest on the part of the agent in the
property over which the power is to be exercised. An il-
lustration is the pledge of goods for a debt, with a power to
sell in default of payment. The leading points in agency
are the relations of principals to third persons, those of the
agent to third persons, and the mutual relations between
the principal and agent. -
I. The Relations of the Principal to Third Persons.—It is
a rule that when an agent acts within the scope of his em-
ployment he may bind his principal. This is on the prin-
ciple of identity. There is another class of cases where
the agent is not acting within the scope of his employment,
but the principal has given him the appearance of authority, .
and the third person with whom he deals has no adequate
means of distinguishing between his apparent and actual
authority. In this case the principal is liable under a rule
that where one of two innocent persons must suffer, that
one should sustain the loss who has put it in the power of
the wrong-doer to commit the wrong. It is in substance
the doctrine of ESTOPPEL IN PAIs (which see). Under this
doctrine usage has great effect upon the power of agents to
bind their principals. There is a large number of agents
who have known and recognized functions, such as factors,
brokers, and cashiers of banks. It is the well-settled rule
that these persons, acting within the usage of their busi-
ness, may bind their principals, notwithstanding instruc-
tions to the contrary, unless these restrictions are brought
to the knowledge of the persons with whom they deal. It
is a general rule that when a power is conferred upon an
agent, he has by implication such incidental authority as is
necessary to carry his power into effect. An authority
created by writing must be followed, and an act in excess
of it is unauthorized and not binding on the principal.
The mode of execution deserves notice. The agent should
purport to bind his principal. This rule, is particularly
applicable to sealed instruments. . Should an agent have a
so-called power of attorney to execute a conveyance of land,
the deed should purport to be the act of the principal by
the agent, and should be subscribed in that manner; other-
wise it would be at most the agent’s deed, and not that of
the principal. Where there is no technical rule in the way,
a principal may be liable even though undiscovered, as he
must be deemed to be identified with the agent. On the
general principles of the law of contracts, the principal can
take advantage of a contract made in his behalf with a
third person, and enforce it by action in his own name,
even though he were not at the time disclosed, subject to
the qualification that the rights of the other party to the
contract are not prejudiced. A principal is liable for the
fraudulent or wrongful acts of his agent acting within his
employment. He cannot take the benefit of the agent's
acts and avoid their burdens. So complete is the identifi-
cation of these parties that notice to an agent on the sub-
ject of his employment is legally notice to the principal,
although it be not in fact communicated. This rule often
operates with great severity upon innocent principals, im-
puting legal fraud when none has been in fact committed.
II. The Relations of the Agent to Third Persons.—If the
agent having power to bind his principal does so expressly,
he is not liable. But if he exceeds his authority, or, acting
within it, fails to disclose his principal, he becomes person-
ally responsible. In the case first supposed he is deemed
to have entered into an implied contract that he has the
necessary authority, and is liable accordingly. In the other
case, the third person, on discovering the principal, has an
election either to charge the agent or the principal. This
doctrine may perhaps be qualified if the agent contracts in
writing, on account of the rule that parol evidence is in-
admissible to alter a written instrument. The agent, in
turn, may have a right of action upon a contract made
in his own name with a third person, though in fact made
for the benefit of his principal. It is a general rule that
an action does not lie against an agent to test the right of
the principal to a fund, but the action should be brought
against the principal himself. But in the case of duress
of goods (see DUREss), if payment is made to an agent
under protest, an action may be brought against him to
recover back the money. This doctrine assumes much im-
portance in its application to duties collected upon imports;
so that a law of Congress regulates the mode in which the
protest should be made.
III. The Relation of Principal and Agent as between
Themselves.—The rules governing this relation are quite
different. The agent is bound to obey the instructions of
the principal. If in violating them he binds the principal
to third persons, he is personally liable to make compen-
AGESILAUS II.-AGNUS DEI.
59
sation for his breach of duty. His relation is a fiduciary
one. He is subject to the rule that he cannot deal in his
principal's affairs for his own benefit. When directed to
sell, he cannot become a purchaser; when ordered to buy,
he cannot become a seller. This rule springs from the
relation, and is applied with as much rigor to agents who
act gratuitously as to those who receive compensation. An
agent having discretion to exercise cannot delegate his au-
thority; he cannot substitute another in his place. Where
the business requires it, he may employ subordinates in
the execution of his duties. It is not uncommon to insert
a clause in a written delegation of agency (power of at-
torney) allowing substitution; this is valid. An agent
should keep separate accounts, and distinguish his princi-
pal’s money from his own; otherwise he might become
personally responsible for its loss. The measure of his
liability ordinarily is reasonable care, which is determined
by that diligence which prudent men usually exercise in
the conduct of their own affairs. For his services he is
in general entitled to a reasonable compensation. He is
sometimes paid by commissions; this is usual in the case
of a broker. He has earned his commissions when he has
brought the purchaser and seller together. He cannot be
deprived of them by a failure on the part of his employer,
through wantonness or caprice, to enter into the contract
which he has succeeded in negotiating for him.
The law of agency underlies, to a considerable extent, the
law of partnership. The rules whereby one partner can
bind his associates by contracts within the scope of their
business are but applications of the doctrines of agency to
this special branch of the law. (For information of a more
Special nature concerning particular cases of agency, con-
sult ATTORNEY, BROKER, FACTOR, PARTNERSHIP, etc.)
- T. W. DWIGHT.
Agesilaſus ['AymartAaos] II., a celebrated Spartan gen-
eral and king, was a son of King Archidamus II. He be-
gan to reign at the death of his brother Agis in 399 B.C.,
two years after which war was renewed between the Spar-
tans and the king of Persia. Agesilaus commanded the
army which invaded Asia Minor, and gained several vic-
tories, but in the mean time the Athenians, Thebans, and
other Greek peoples had formed a coalition against Sparta,
to defend which the king was recalled by the ephori in 394
or 395 B. C. He maintained his reputation in this war,
which was ended by a treaty of peace in 378. Sparta was
again involved in a war with the Thebans, who under
Epaminondas gained a decisive victory at the great battle
of Leuctra, 371 B. C., at which, however, Agesilaus was
not present. He afterwards defended the city of Sparta
with success when it was besieged by Epaminondas. He
died about 360 B.C., aged 84 years.
gglu’tinate [from the Lat. ad, “to,” and glu’tino,
glutina’tum, to “glue” or “ cement "I Languages, a
term applied, in comparative philology, to languages
which are in a certain state of development intermediate
between those which are strictly monosyllabic like the
Chinese, and those which are inflectional like the Greek or
Latin. Examples of languages in the agglutinated state are
found among the Indian languages of America and the
Turanian languages of Asia. In the Aryan languages con-
jugation and declension are doubtless the result of glueing
on pronouns to verbs and nouns; but in them these termi-
nations have coalesced, so as to form practically a single
word, and the primitive parts have therefore, in a greater
or less degree, lost their original and independent force. In
the Turanian languages, however, the declension and con-
jugation can still be taken to pieces, and the affixes are
seem to be distinct from the roots to which they are ap-
pended, as in Turkish, etc. (See MAx MüLLER’s “Lec-
tures on the Science of Language,” first series, lect. viii.)
Agh'mat, a fortified town of Morocco, on the N. de-
clivity of Mount Atlas, 24 miles S. of Morocco. Pop.
about 6000.
Aghrim, or Aughrim, awg’rim or awh/rim, a parish
of Galway, Ireland, 13 miles N. E. of Loughrea. Here
the army of William III. gained a decisive victory over
that of James II., July 12, 1691.
Agincourt, à'zhāN'koor', or Azincourt, #'zāN/koor',
a village of France, in the department of Pas de Calais,
18 miles E. of Montreuil, and 10 miles N. W. of St.-Pol.
Near this place the English king, Henry V., who had
about 15,000 men, gained a complete victory over the
French army of about 60,000 on the 25th of Oct., 1415.
... A^gio [in Italian, aggio, a word originally signifying
“ease,” “convenience,” “accommodation ”] was used in
Italy to denote the difference between the real and nominal
values of money, or the percentage difference between the
values of the current and standard money of a place. The
premium or discount on foreign bills of exchange is some-
times called agio.
e
Agis IV., of Sparta, born about 264 B. C., was a wise
and meritorious ruler. He began to reign conjointly with
Leonidas in 244 B. C., when Sparta was in a degenerate
condition. He attempted to restore the old Spartan insti-
tutions and to reform the corrupted morals of the people.
He also proposed to improve the condition of the poorer
citizens by an agrarian law. Condemned by the ephori
on a charge of subverting the laws, he was strangled in
240 B. C.
Agna dello, än-yá-del/lo, a village of Northern Italy,
10 miles E. of Lodi. Here the French duke of Vendôme
defeated Prince Eugène Aug. 16, 1705, and Louis XII. of
France the Venetians May 14, 1509. Pop. about 1600.
Agnano, än-yá/no, a lake of Italy, 3 miles W. of Na-
ples, is about half a mile in diameter. It occupies the crater
of an extinct volcano, and is near the Grotto del Cane,
from which noxious gases arise.
Ag/nate [from the Lat. ad, “to,” and nas/cor, natus, to
“be born "J. In Roman law, agnates are those who descend
through males from a common ancestor, in opposition to
cognates—i.e. all the descendants of a common ancestor,
whether through males or females. Thus, in France, by
Salic law, the hereditary crown passed by right of agnation,
females being excluded.
Ag'nes Cit’y, a township of Lyon co., Kan. Pop. 143.
Ag/nes, SAINT, a Roman virgin, who is said to have
suffered martyrdom under Diocletian, in 303 A. D.
Agneſsi (MARIA GAETANA), an Italian woman of ex-
traordinary learning and intellect, was born at Milan Mar.
16, 1718. About the age of twelve she could converse in
Greek, Latin, and other languages on abstruse subjects
of philosophy and mathematics. During the illness of her
father, who was a professor of mathematics at Bologna, she
lectured in his place. She published a work called “Ana-
lytical Institutions” (1748), which displays mathematical
genius of a high order. Died Jan. 9, 1799. -
Agnes Sorel, mistress of King Charles VII. of France,
was born 1409, became in 1431 lady of honor to the duch-
ess of Anjou, and so fascinated the king by her beauty
that he appointed her lady of honor to the queen. She
exercised a most beneficial influence over the king, whom
she stimulated to action against the English, who then
invaded France. She died Feb. 9, 1450, as it is supposed,
by poison administered by the dauphin.
Ag’ni, or Ag/mis [etymologically related to the Latin
ig’nis], in Hindoo mythology, the god of fire. He was a
deity of great importance among the early Aryans, but
after the rise of the gods of the Hindoo triad he sank into
a very subordinate position. He is sometimes represented
with two faces, three legs, and seven arms, with his head
surrounded by flames, and is generally painted of a deep-
red color. By some he has been made to correspond to the
Vulcan of classic mythology, but he does not anywhere
appear as an artificer, like that deity. His principal cha-
racters are those of a purifier and bearer of incense to
heaven, thus being made a mediator between man and the
gods. His two faces are supposed to be a type of fire in its
two characters—beneficent (or creative) and destructive—
and his seven arms to indicate the seven prismatic colors.
Agnoë'tae [from the Gr. &yvoéo, to “be ignorant”], in
ecclesiastical history, the name of a sect in the sixth cen-
tury who maintained that Christ in his human nature was
ignorant of many things, particularly of the day of judg-
ment. Another and earlier sect of this name denied the
omniscience of God.
A/gnolo, d” (BACCIO), a distinguished Italian architect
and sculptor in wood, was born at Florence in 1460. He is
said to have been the first who ornamented the windows of
palaces with frontons or frontispieces. Died in 1543.
Agno/men [from the Lat. ad, “to,” and no’men, a
“name”]. Besides the praenomen, nomen, and cognomen,
the ancient Romans sometimes had a fourth name (agno-
men), which was derived from some illustrious action or
remarkable event. Thus, two Scipios had the name Afri-
canus given them on account of their victories over the Car-
thaginians in Africa. The younger of these celebrated gen-
erals had a second agnomen—viz. AEmilianus—because he
was the son of L. Paulus AEmilius, and adopted into the
family of the Scipios. Fabius Cunetator (i.e. “Fabius the
delayer”) was so called because by his cautious policy and
prudent delays he, and he alone, of all the Roman generals,
was able to oppose Hannibal successfully when that gen-
eral was at the height of his victorious career.
Agnone, àn-yo'nā, a town of Italy, in the province of
Campobasso, 20 miles N. W. of Campobasso. Copper-ware
is made here. Pop. in 1861, 9255.
Ag/nus Deſi, the name applied to the fifth and last
section of the Roman Catholic mass, beginning with the
60
AGONIC–AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
words “Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi” (i.e. “Lamb
of God, who takest away the sins of the world”). It is.
also applied to the figure of a lamb bearing a cross, which
is stamped on a compound of balsam, chrism, and wax,
or on silver, and often worn by Roman Catholics.
Agon’ic [from the Gr. a, “without,” yovía, an “angle”]
Line is the name applied to the line which joins all the
places at which the magnetic needle points due north and
south. The plane of the magnetic meridian of a place,
which is the vertical plane passing through the two poles
of a magnetic needle freely suspended at that place, does
not, generally speaking, coincide with that of the geograph-
ical meridian, a vertical plane passing through the place
and the north and south terrestrial poles. The angle formed
by these planes is termed the magnetic declination. At cer-
tain places these planes coincide, and such placés are called
places of no declimation. The line which joins all these
places is termed the line of no declination, or the agonic line.
A line of this kind passes through the eastern part of South
America to Hudson’s Bay, thence towards the North Pole
to the White Sea; passing southward, it cuts. Arabia, and,
after traversing the Indian Ocean and the eastern portion
of Australia, goes through or near the South Pole to join
itself again. It is not fixed in position, but is at present mov-
ing slowly westward on our continent. There is a second
agonic line which has been observed near China and Japan.
Agonis’ tici, an ascetic sect of Christians who lived in
Northern Africa, in the fourth century. They renounced
labor and matrimony. Their name, derived from the Greek
&ygoviarms (agonis’ tes), a “wrestler,” appears to have been
given in allusion to their wrestling with “the world, the
flesh, and the devil.”
Agos/ta, or Augus’ta, a seaport of Sicily, in the pro-
vince of Catania, and on the Mediterranean, 14 miles N.
of Syracuse. It has a good harbor, defended by two forts,
and exports salt, olive oil, wine, and honey. In 1693 it was
nearly destroyed by an earthquake. Pop. in 1861, 9223.
Agoua'ra (Procyon cancrivorus), the crab-eating rac-
coon of South America, is larger than the common raccoon,
has a shorter tail, and more variable colors. It is commonly
of a blackish-gray, with six rings around the tail. In habits
it resembles the common raccoon.
Agouti, Ā-goo/tee (Dasyproc'ta), a genus of rodent
mammals related to the porcupines. The common agouti
(Dasyprocta agowti) is a native of Brazil, Paraguay, Gui-
ana, and the neighboring countries. Formerly, in these
districts it existed in great numbers, but from its frequent
ravages on the Sugar-cane, potatoes, and yams, it has in
many parts been hunted out and almost exterminated. It
is between the size of a hare and a rabbit, has long hind
legs, round ears, bright black eyes, and a short, stumpy tail,
which, as well as the rump and thighs, is covered with long,
coarse, bristly hair, whence the name Dasyprocta (from the
Gr. Soo'ſs, “rough,” and irpokrós, “tail” or “hinder parts”).
The agouti is an omnivorous animal, eating almost all kinds
of vegetables, fruits, roots, meats, etc. Its habits are all
quick and active, and even while eating it continually turns
its head from side to side, in order to guard against danger.
The animal is easily domesticated, but as it is specially fond
of using its teeth on all kinds of furniture; it is but little
valued as a pet. It gnaws with great rapidity, taking but
a few minutes to cut its Way through an ordinary door.
Add to this that its playfulness and all its amusing qualities
seem to be lost in its do- gº -
mestic state. In some -
countries its flesh is eat-
en, but a prejudice gen- ſº fº zº
erally prevails against it. Aſ º
There are several other ſº # º
species, such as the black º Sºº
agouti (Dasyprocta cris- &ºt § # =#===
tata), whose range is ==== º
nearly the same with ` --~~~~
that of the common Black Agouti.
agouti, but is perhaps more limited. The agoutis are said
to have been the largest mammals inhabiting the West In-
dia Islands at the time of their discovery.
A/gra, or Akbarābād’, a city of Hindostan, in the
North-west Provinces, and capital of the division of the
Same name, is on the right bank of the river Jumna, 134
miles by rail S. S. E. of Delhi, and 754 miles by rail N. N. E.
of Bombay; lat. 27°11' N., lon. 78° E. It was the capital of
the Mogul and Mohammedan emperors of India from 1504
to 1647, and was once a large and splendid city, but a great
part of it is now in a ruinous state. The houses are mostly
built of red sandstone. Here are several magnificent edifices,
the most celebrated of which is the Taj Mahal, a mausoleum
erected by the emperor Shah Jehan (1627–66) in honor of
his favorite queen. This edifice, the finest in India, and
perhaps in the world, is built of white marble, surmounted
with a dome seventy feet in diameter, and adorned inter-
nally with exquisite mosaics of cornelian, lapis lazuli, and
jasper. It cost above £3,000,000. Among the articles ex-
ported from Agra are cotton, sugar, salt, and indigo. Many
houses in Agra were destroyed by the Sepoys during the
mutiny of 1857. At that time the population was 125,262.
Ag/ram, or Zag' rab, a royal free city of Croatia, and
the capital of that country, on the left bank of the Save,
172 miles S. of Vienna. It is the seat of a Roman Catho-
lic archbishop, and has two gymnasia, two Realschulen,
two normal schools, two theological seminaries, besides
many other institutions of learning. Six annual fairs are
held here. Pop. in 1869, 19,857.
Agra'rian Law [Lat. lea: agra’ria, from a 'ger, a
“field”]. This term originated in the ancient republic of
Rome, and signified a law enacted to distribute or regulate
the public land, ager publicus. Such laws were opposed by
the patricians, who had appropriated to their own use the
lands acquired by conquest, and who had long enjoyed the
privilege of occupying them as tenants, on the condition
of paying to the state a tithe of the produce. The consul
Spurius Cassius first proposed to divide a portion of public
land among the poor citizens, but the measure was defeated
by the aristocrats. In 367 B.C. an agrarian law was origi-
nated by Licinius Stolo, ordaining that no man should pos-
sess more than 500 jugera (330 acres) of the public domain,
and that such public land as any man occupied in excess
of 500 jugera should be distributed among the poor citizens.
Tiberius Gracchus was the author of an important agrarian
law. These and later agrarian laws were never executed.
In Sparta, the attempt of King Agis IV. to enforce an
agrarian law led to his murder by the ephori (240 B.C.).
Agreement. See CoNTRACT, by PROF. T. W. Dwig HT.
Agric/ola (CNEIUs JULIUs), a Roman general and
statesman, born at Forum Julii (Fréjus), in Gaul, June 13,
37 A. D. He was appointed governor of Aquitania, by Wes-
pasian in 73, and became consul in 77. About a year later
he was sent as governor to Britain, which he conquered,
and governed with much ability and moderation. By a wise
and humane policy he promoted the civilization and pros-
perity of the natives. He erected a chain of forts from the
Clyde to the Frith of Forth. He was recalled about 85
A. D. by Domitian, who was jealous of him. Died Aug.
23, 93 A. D. ' He was the father-in-law of the historian
Tacitus, who wrote a Life of Agricola.
Agricola (JoHANN), originally SCHNEIDER or SCHNIT-
TER, a German theologian, born at Eisleben April 10, 1492,
studied at Wittenberg, and became a friend of Luther, with
whom he was afterwards involved in a doctrinal contro-
versy. He obtained a chair at Wittenberg in 1536. Ag-
ricola and his followers were called Antinomians (opposers
of the law), because they maintained that a Christian is
not bound to obey the Mosaic law. He wrote many theo-
logical works, and published a valuable collection of Ger-
man proverbs. Died in Berlin Sept. 22, 1566. r
Agricultural Chemistry is the study of the chemical
relations of those substances which compose the products
of the farm. Since the chemistry of these substances is
most intimately connected with their physical, geological,
and physiological aspects, the term agricultural chemistry,
as commonly understood, embraces a wide range of matu-
ral Science in its applications to vegetable and animal pro-
duction. The object of agriculture is to develop from seed
and soil the largest possible value of useful plants and use- .
ful animals at the smallest cost. Nothing is plainer than
that the farmer should accurately understand the nature
of those materials and agencies which build up. his crops
and increase his herds. He should know whence the ma-
terials of his crops may be drawn, what ones are placed at
his disposal naturally in surplus, and what must be pro-
vided by his own care. He should know how to control or
work in harmony with the energies whose action is essen-
tial to his success. Agricultural chemistry inquires, first
of all, what the plant and animal are made of. It finds
that both, when living, consist largely of water, to the ex-
tent of forty to ninety per cent., which is indispensable to
their existence as a vehicle for the process of circulation or
transfer of nutriment. The dry plant or animal may be
divided into matter volatile by heat, ninety to ninety-nine
per cent., and one to ten per cent. of ash. The volatile or
combustible matter is either organized—i. e. possesses a
structure, or is a tissue of organs, inimitable by the art of
man, through whose mechanism the principle of vitality
operates—or else it consists of substances which are the
direct results of chemical changes in the organized matter.
Muscle-fibre and wood-fibre are of the former, sugar and
urea are of the latter kind. The volatile matters are thence
termed organic; they consist of carbon compounds, most of
which are highly complex in their atomic constitution.













AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
61
The most important organic matters of our staple field-
crops are few in number—being, 1. The amyloids, com-
pounds of carbon with hydrogen and oxygen, the last two
being in the proportions in which they exist in water—
viz., cellulose or wood-fibre, starch, the sugars and the
gums; 2. The pectoids, also compounds of carbon, hydro-
gen, and oxygen, comprising pectose—the hard pulp of
fruits and roots—and pectine, pectosic and pectic acids—
the gummy or gelatinous matters of ripe and cooked fruits;
3. The fats and fixed oils; 4. The organic acids, oxalic,
malic, citric, and tartaric; 5. The albuminoids, albumen,
casein, fibrim, and their analogues, which, besides carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen, contain fifteen to eighteen per cent.
of nitrogen, with one-half to one per cent. of sulphur.
The ash of the plant consists of phosphates, sulphates,
chlorides, silicates, and carbonates of potassium, Sodium,
calcium, magnesium, and iron.
The growth of a plant is the development of a germ or
seed when acted upon by the solar ray, with access of
water, air, and soil. The organic matters above enume-
rated as constituents of crops are exclusively generated and
organized by the plant. Carbonic acid gas supplies car-
bon, water furnishes hydrogen and oxygen, while nitrogen
is derived partially from minute quantities of ammonia
mingled with the air. Nitrogen is, however, chiefly ob-
tained from the nitrates of the soil. All the ash-elements
come exclusively from the soil. The agriculturist cannot
aid the nourishment of his crops except through the soil,
and there he can only influence the supplies of water, of
nitrogen, and of ash-elements. Carbon, the most abun-
dant ingredient of all crops, making up forty-four to forty-
eight per cent. of the dry matter, is furnished so fully by
the atmospheric carbonic acid that additional supplies from
the soil are not directly advantageous. The atmosphere
contains, it is true, but a very small proportion of this gas
—one-twenty-five hundredth of its bulk—but this is con-
siderably in excess of the wants of the most luxuriant
growth. -
The fertility of the soil depends, chemically—1, upon
the presence in it of all the ash-elements and of nitrates
in proper quantity; and 2, on their occurrence there in
such states of combination as give a constant and regulated
supply. Numerous experiments have demonstrated that a
soil destitute of any one of the following substances—viz.,
phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, potash, lime, magnesia,
oxide of iron—is absolutely barren by virtue of such de-
ficiency. It is also certain that a soil which contains the
usual amount of potash, but only in the form of feldspar,
or of phosphoric acid, but only as apatite, or of magnesia,
but only as serpentine, is infertile, because these substances
do not yield their elements to the solvent agencies of the
soil or plant rapidly enough to serve as plant-food.
Alumina is an abundant element of soils, but it is always
absent from agricultural plants; and recent investigations
also appear to show that silica, which is present in many
plants, is an accidental ingredient, and in no manner
essential to their growth or perfection. Soda likewise ap-
pears to be unessential to most of the vegetative processes;
for, although it is perhaps never entirely absent from culti-
vated plants, it often occurs in them in extremely minute
quantity, so that the soda which is indispensable to the
blood and milk of animals must be obtained, in part at
least, directly from mineral sources.
Nitrates and ammonia-salts—which are the natural sup-
plies of nitrogen to crops—rarely are, and never need be,
present in the soil in more than the minutest proportion.
It is only requisite that they be generated or gathered
there as rapidly as crops remove them. The process of nit-
rification, whereby inert or inassimilable nitrogen existing
in the Soil or in the air is converted into nitric acid, is one
of the utmost agricultural importance, though still largely
involved in mystery.
The great bulk of any soil is chemically indifferent in the
nourishment of the present crop. The weight of an aver-
age loamy soil is about 4,000,000 pounds per acre for each
foot of depth. A crop of grain of thirty-three bushels re-
moves but 140 pounds of ash-elements—viz., forty pounds
in the seed and 100 pounds in the straw. A hay-crop of
two tons carries off but 260 pounds of ash-ingredients.
These quantities, if assumed to come from two feet of depth,
are respectively but 1-30,000th and 1-57,000th of the entire
mass of soil. Hellriegel’s experiments give results which
warrant us in concluding that 55 pounds of potash, 17 of
soda, 17 of magnesia, 23 of lime, 55 of phosphoric acid, 11
of sulphuric acid, 8 of chlorine, and 54 of nitrogen (in the
form of nitrates), are all that need be present, in soluble
condition, in 1,000,000 pounds of soil, in order to establish
there a fertility equal to the production of 33 bushels of
barley-grain and 2000 pounds of straw per acre. In other
Words, the 140 pounds of ash-elements may be taken from
1,000,000 pounds of a soil in which but 186 pounds exist
in soluble condition, and in which, therefore, the propor-
tion of real plant-food—nitrogen, but not water, included—
is but 1-4000th. Good soil, in the practical sense, how-
ever, yields, and may contain, a larger proportion of imme-
diately available plant-food than one part in 4000, but
rarely more perhaps than ten times that amount.
As cropping removes these substances from the soil, they
are replaced more or less rapidly and completely by weath-
ering, whereby, under the influence of moisture, carbonic
acid and oxygen, aided by heat and by the alternations of
heat and cold, the rock-dust of the soil is gradually fluxed
into soluble pabulum, and charged with nitrates.
The soil is endowed with absorptive qualities which en-
able it to retain in a state of comparative insolubility certain
ash-elements, especially those which are in general the
least abundant—viz., phosphoric acid and potash—even
when applied to it from external sources in the most solu-
ble form and in large quantity. This absorption of plant-
food by the soil is accompanied by a corresponding libera-
tion of other substances, especially of lime and sulphuric
acid. The impalpable matter of the soil, consisting largely
of aluminous and ferruginous silicates, is mainly the seat of
these absorptions; sand, silica, carbonate of lime, humus,
and even pure clay (kaolinite), being destitute of the power
in question.
Soils may be fully supplied with all the nutritive ele-
ments in proper quantity and form, and yet be infertile.
This may happen on account of faults in physical condi-
tion, whereby they are rendered uncongenial to plants. A
certain medium porosity, admitting of access and efflux of
water, and a quality of being suitably warmed by the sun
and of carrying heat through the cool of the night, are no
less indispensable to high productive power than an ap-
propriate chemical condition.
Manures improve the soil by supplying one or several of
those ingredients required by plants which are deficient
either by reason of yearly removal of crops or from original
poverty of composition. Practice has taught that phos-
phates and nitrogen in assimilable form are most com-
monly the substances which strikingly benefit land, and
chemical analysis shows that of these the former is ordina-
rily the least abundant ingredient of soils, and the latter is
one which is not only not abundant, but one which rapidly
wastes by solution in rain-water, being daily carried off in
immense quantities, through springs and rivers, into the
Se2,.
The action of fertilizers is not, however, fully explained
by their affording a direct supply of lacking nutritive ele-
ments; manures operate indirectly to feed crops, by their
chemical effects upon the soil. It has been abundantly
demonstrated that common salt, gypsum, and other saline
matters may react on the soil to convert potash and mag-
nesia, for instance, into soluble forms, and thus to give the
same result as would follow an immediate application of
the last-named substances. -
Certain manures which are used in large doses, such as
stable-dung, peat, marl, and lime, also influence the fer-
tility of the Tsoil, by amending its texture or otherwise
modifying its physical characters. +
It is theoretically possible to produce a maximum crop
of any given kind, continuously and perpetually, upon the
same plat of land. In practice, however, it is far easier,
and therefore far cheaper, to alternate or rotate crops.
A hoed crop implies surface-tillage, several times repeated
during the growing season, thus effectually exposing the
upper soil to the oxidizing influence of the air. A field
put into grass or clover is to some extent under opposite
conditions. In the one case, organic matters Waste rap-
idly; in the other, they accumulate in the soil. In the
first instance, the surface-soil tends to lose that porosity
and attractiveness for moisture due to the presence of
humus, which is a quality of the utmost significance in cli-
mates subject to drouth. In the second instance, the soil
gains in these respects. On the other hand, the lower soil,
which under hoed crops is yearly broken up by repeated
ploughing, may settle down to injurious compactness in a
pasture or meadow. Deep-rooted crops affect the soil very
differently from those whose radication is confined to near
the surface. The reasons for rotation thus become, to
some extent, apparent. Agricultural chemistry is compe-
tent to show, further, that some plants, while occupying
the soil, enrich it, and, though yielding the farmer a large
and valuable harvest, yet actually manure the land for a
subsequent crop. Clover has long been known as a plant
of this kind... A good clover-crop, when made into hay,
removes from the soil twice or thrice the ash-elements and
nitrogen that are contained in a good wheat-crop, and yet
the good clover-crop will develop in a soil, where the good
wheat-crop can only be raised by help of manure. More
than this, the good clover-crop not only grows on the un-
aided soil, but Îikewise fertilizes that soil, so that it can
62
subsequently make the good wheat-crop. The enriching
effects of clover are absolute in respect of nitrogen. The
clover plant, is able, in a given time and on a given sur-
face, to assimilate nitrogen, much more rapidly, or to a
much greater amount, than the wheat plant can. It there-
fore flourishes better on a limited supply, or gives a full
crop where wheat would make perhaps but half a crop;
and, besides, leaves in the soil where it has grown more
nitrogen in its roots and stubble than an entire wheat-crop
contains. In respect of ash-elements, the clover plant can
add nothing to the soil in the way of quantity, but it
strongly influences their quality. It transmutes the in-
soluble matters into soluble, and collects largely, by its
deep-penetrating roots, from stores of food which the
wheat plant can scarcely reach. When its roots decay,
these substances remain where a succeeding wheat-crop
can at once utilize them. This enriching process has again
its narrow limits. If we keep land in clover, it becomes
“clover-sick,” probably from exhaustion of the deep-lying
plant-food, and this disease is hard to cure, because of the
inaccessibility of the subsoil to fertilizing applications.
By judicious rotation of crops a soil of moderate quality
may be made to yield fair harvests without loss of product-
ive power. In order thus to economize in the fullest de-
gree the resources of soil and crop, the farmer needs an
accurate knowledge of their mature, such as can only be ob-
tained by encouraging the study of agricultural chemistry.
In studying the utilization of vegetable products for
obtaining the various amimal matters which are employed
as food, etc., agricultural chemistry enters into a higher
and more difficult field. Here it has been obliged, by nu-
merous experiments, to test much of the empirical know-
ledge which agricultural practice had too vaguely supplied,
and also finds itself under the necessity of investigating
the most purely scientific questions of physiology. Although
many useful practical results have been obtained, this de-
partment of our knowledge is extremely incomplete, and,
save in technical details, is too closely allied to the general
subject of animal nutrition to require notice in these pages.
Of useful books on agricultural chemistry, those of
LIEBIG and BoussiNGAULT take pre-eminence; the former
by their brilliant suggestiveness, the latter by their ac-
curate experimental study of many points of the highest
practical interest. In Germany, Wolf F, HEIDEN, KNop,
and MAYER have recently published excellent systematic
treatises. Great Britain has produced no extended work
since J. F. W. JoHNSTON’s “Lectures,” which are still
valuable, though far behind the time. In the United
States, two books by S. W. JoHNSON have been received
with favor. (See LIEBIG, “Agricultural Chemistry,” 1841;
“Modern Agriculture,” 1859; “Natural Laws of Hus-
bandry,” 1863, etc.; BoussiNGAULT, “Economie Rurale,”
1851; “Mémoires de Chimie Agricole,” 1854; “Agronomie,
Chimie Agricole,” etc., 1860–68; Wolf F, “Naturgesetzliche
Grundlagen des Ackerbaues,” 1856; “Landwirthschaftliche
Fitterungslehre,” 1861; HEIDEN, “Düngerlehre,” 1868;
KNOP, “Lehrbuch der Agricultur Chemic,” 1868; MAYER,
“Agricultur Chemie,” 1871; JoHNSTON, “Lectures on Ag-
ricultural Chemistry and Geology,” 1847; JoHNSON, “How
Crops Grow,” 1868; “How Crops Feed,” 1870.)
- S. W. JoHNSON.
Agricultural Geology—geology applied to agricul-
ture—embraces whatever can be learned in regard to the
nature of the substructure of any district with reference to
drainage and water-supply, the origin, physical structure,
and mineral constituents of soils, the distribution and prop-
erties of mineral fertilizers, etc. It is chiefly valuable as
teaching the probable resources of a district in soil, subsoil,
mineral manures, etc. To the farmer it is often desirable
that he should know the results likely to be obtained from
deep ploughing and deep draining. These depend greatly
on the nature of the rock, the dip and compactness of the
strata, and the form of the surface in reference to the strati-
fication. In a majority of cases, the subsoil is derived from
the underlying rock, and the soil is derived from the sub-
soil; so that for the most part the soil indicates the rock.
Thus in any estimate of the fertility of land the nature of
the underlying rock comes into consideration, for both the
depth and texture of the soil depend, to a considerable ex-
tent, on the rock beneath, and the productiveness is depend-
ent on these. Thus, soils formed from rocks which abound
in phosphates are often of extraordinary fertility. Even the
fossils and shells that are found in, and are characteristic
of, rocks increase the value of the land where they occur.
Agricultural Schools. See ScIENTIFIC SCHOOLs.
Agricultural System, a theory of political economy
invented by F. Quesnay (physician to Louis XV.), who
taught that those only increase the wealth of a country who
develop the resources of the earth, such as the products of
the vegetable and mineral kingdoms.
AGRICULTURAL GEOLOGY-AGRICULTURE.
+
T
Agriculture [Lat. agricultu'ra, from a 'ger, gen.
a'gri, a “field” or “land,” and co’lo, cultum, to “till;” lit-
erally, the “tillage (or cultivation) of land”] is the art of
increasing and assuring, by human effort and care, the pro-
duction and growth of such material substances as con-
tribute to the sustenance or enjoyment of our race, whether
directly or through the nourishment of such animals as
minister to the comfort and well-being of mankind. Its
origin and progress are nearly identical with those of
civilization. The absolute savage gathers and consumes
the seeds, nuts, roots, etc. that gratify his appetite or
renew his wasted strength; he may collect and save them
in seasons of plenty to minister to his needs in time of
want, but he never thinks of planting or tilling with intent
to increase his stores. Save under the immediate pressure
of hunger or cold, he has no habit of working—no days or
hours set apart for industry. Were it otherwise, he would
cease to be a savage. -
The barbarian is primarily a careless, nomadic cattle-
breeder or shepherd. Having captured and domesticated
certain animals, he spares a part of them for weeks, or
months, or years, that they may be available in time of
greater need. Some of them—the horse and the dog, for
instance—he values and preserves, though, unless sorely
pressed by hunger, he rejects them as food. Some rarely
found, like the beaver, otter, mink, etc., he prizes for their
fur, whereby he may defend himself against cold, and
sometimes increase his personal attractions. The breeding
and rearing of the horse, cow, sheep, camel, reindeer, ass,
hog, etc. form the earliest and rudest department of bar-
barian industry. Poorly and scantily fed or sheltered,
these animals increase slowly, and thousands of them are
often swept off by the unusual severity of winter. Land is
lightly valued by the ruder herdsmen: if one locality does
not serve, they seek and find another. A great dearth or
famime has sometimes set in motion tribe after tribe, until
a hunt for food became a migration, then an irruption,
overturning dynasties and subjugating races more polished
but less warlike than their conquerors. -
Though the origin of agriculture is lost in the darkness
which shrouds pre-historic times, it can hardly be doubted
that men first sowed seeds in the annually-inundated lower
valleys of the Nile and other great rivers, which, cradled
in distant mountains, are swelled by melting snows more
slowly and equably than others. These valleys are often
more or less extensively seeded by grains or nuts brought
down by the floods; and when such seeding failed or
proved inadequate, observation would soon teach those
whose subsistence depended on the process to supplement
or eke out Nature's niggard, capricious bounty by human
providence and industry. Nature had presented a pattern
whereon man might profitably improve. After a time the
sower strewed his seeds over the face of the stilled and
slowly-receding flood, knowing that the softened soil be-
neath would retain and cover the germs which the Sun would
speedily quicken: hence the Hebrew proverb, “ Cast thy
bread upon the waters, and thou shalt find it after many
days.” Such seeding required no animal or mechanical
power, no implement but the human hand and arm, while
the annual inundation supplied in abundance the elements
of growth. Such was probably the infancy of agriculture.
But the area naturally inundated is Small and limited,
while, under favoring circumstances, population tends ever
to increase. To cultivate more acres was indispensable;
and the most facile, rather than the most fertile, were first
selected for such use. But here the earth required break-
ing up and pulverizing; so the aid of strong, docile ani-
mals was soon invoked, and rude implements devised to
render their muscular strength serviceable. The yoke and
the plough were thus called into existence—both rude, as
the yoke still measurably is; the original plough being a
forked stick or tree-top, with one prong left five or six feet
long for a beam, and the other shortened to a foot or two,
and sharpened, to serve as a coulter and share. Asia,
Africa—may, even Spain and Portugal—have made but
moderate improvements thereon to this day; while West-
ern Europe and the United States have left the primitive
plough almost out of sight. Yet it was not till the begin-
ning of the eighteenth century that Jethro Tull persuaded
a few British farmers that iron was the true, chief material
for ploughs; and only the enlightened cultivators of the
present century have substituted steel for iron.
The ruling classes in most nations of antiquity wronged
themselves by degrading labor. In the Brahminical
hierarchy, which has so long petrified a large portion of
the human race, priests rank above soldiers, and soldiers
form a caste which looks down on the tillers of the soil.
Nearly all the ancient kingdoms of Semitic origin or genius,
the Hebrews excepted, concurred substantially in this mis-
taken estimate. Greece should have been more enlightened,
but her ruling caste also, in the days of her glory, Was a
AGRICULTURE.
63
caste of warriors, while her soil was tilled mainly by slaves.
Rome, in the days of her republican vigor, was a community
of cultivators, every citizen being allotted land (usually
about six acres), which he was expected to till with his own
hands, as was done by some of her greatest warriors and
wisest statesmen. But wars of conquest soon filled the re-
public with slaves captured in battle, and rural labor, as
well as household service, was devolved on them, render-
ing tillage menial and (in the general regard) degrading:
Agriculture drooped and withered under this burden, and
Italy, naturally the garden of Europe, drew a great part
of her bread for ages at first from Sicily, then from Egypt
and other distant regions, which ignorance, neglect, and
wretched husbandry could not render sterile or unfruitful.
Feudalism in the West, Islamism in the East, planted
themselves on the ruins of the mighty but corroded fabric
of Roman power; and it was not till the Crusades had
somewhat shattered the claims of feudalism that any sub-
stantial progress in agriculture was made since the ages
of Moses and Homer. The average serf of Western
Europe, at the date of the Norman conquest, and for
generations thereafter, was nowise more fortunate, and was
barely more efficient, than the Hebrew cultivator of the age
of Samson or of David.
The law given by Moses, the book of Job, and the paint-
ings still fresh and vivid in the Egyptian pyramids, to-
gether carry us back nearly or quite five thousand years,
and show us that the plough has been in use for more than
that number of years. Moses ordained that the soil should
lie fallow every seventh year—a rude but tolerably certain
mode of restoring, by rest and atmospheric influences, its
exhausted fertility. Isaac, the son of Abraham, is said to
have reaped a hundred-fold in one instance—a wondrous
product if the crop were the most prolific known to West-
*
ern Asia in that age. Indeed, historians agree that a yield
of five bushels per acre of wheat was the full average of
antiquity, if not beyond it. Rye, barley, and oats did
better, though not much. Even middling husbandry, with
modern implements and methods, yields at least twice as
much per acre, and thrice as much per bushel of seed, as did
that of Europe and Asia from ten to forty centuries ago. In
the production of the grape, the olive, the apple, fig, etc.,
as also in the rearing of cattle, the ancients stood more
nearly on a plane with us, save that their stock was inade-
quately and capriciously fed and sheltered in winter,
whence great losses were from time to time encountered.
A very few eminent breeders kept choice animals, but the
great majority thought no more of blood in cattle than of
grafting their apple trees or underdraining their marshes.
In Greece, agriculture scarcely attracted the notice of the
intellectual, powerful, and cultivated minority, who were
intent on war and politics, art and music; and no work of
noticeable ability survives to attest Greek devotion to, or
interest in, the improvement of the soil. Rome was less
sterile in this respect; her writers on agriculture proffered
suggestions which, though more than two thousand years
old, may still be pondered with profit by practical farmers.
The original allotment of land to each Roman citizen
ranging from two up to six acres, the advantage of
thorough over shiftless cultivation is especially insisted on
by them, while the advisability of early planting, tilling,
harvesting, etc. is forcibly commended. Slavery having
degraded labor, while luxury enervated the richer classes,
Roman agriculture sank into decay, and Italy was for
centuries largely supplied with bread-grain from abroad.
The Northern barbarians who overturned and divided the
Roman empire were but rude cultivators, and despised
the arts of peace, as only befitting serfs and slaves. Of
course they did nothing to improve the wretched methods
of cultivation which they found in vogue in Greece, Gaul,
Iberia, and Italy. But the Saracens, who soon wrested
a great part of Southern Europe from the grasp of their
degenerate offspring, introduced irrigation and kindred arts
from Northern Africa, and made the Spanish peninsula
flourish as it had never done till then. The fact that
their revenue in Spain amounted in the tenth century to
$30,000,000 (equal to twenty times that amount in our day)
indicates an efficiency and a thrift in cultivation, as well
as manufactures, unknown to their modern successors.
So long as Europe bent to the yoke of feudalism, agri-
cultural improvement was scarcely possible. The tillers
of the soil were mainly tenants at will, bound to rush to
arms at the call of their lord, and liable to be dispossessed
at his nod. They usually paid their rents in kind, and one
who grew unusually large crops would have been promptly
required to increase his quota of rent. Leases for fixed
terms, or for two or more lives, gradually replaced the
older methods, the landlords at length discovering that
their own true interest required that the tenant should be
incited to improve his processes, enlarge his fields, and in-
crease his crops.
The condition of the masses under the feudal system.
precluded efficient cultivation. Sunk in the grossest igno-
rance, grovelling in superstitious fear of a haughty priest-
hood, taking the law from the mouths of their landlords or
feudal masters, they had neither means nor will to improve
their holdings and methods. Wheat they seldom ate; their
scanty crops of this grain were required by their masters;
rye, barley, and oats afforded their meat and their drink—
beer or mead being their only luxury. Even the aris-
tocracy of most European countries, but especially of Eng-
land, knew few edibles but these, esculent vegetables being
as yet few and poor. Says “The British Cyclopaedia:” “It
was not till the end of the reign of Henry VIII. that any
salads, any carrots, or other edible roots were produced in
England. . The little of these vegetables that was used was
formerly imported from Holland and Flanders.” Butcher's
meat had been and was abundant and cheap, only because
most of the country was uncultivated, lay in common, and
was ranged over by cattle that received little care and less
fodder. The invention of printing, the discovery of
America, the dayspring of inquiry and mental freedom in-
augurated by Martin Luther, rung the knell of feudalism.
The New World supplied some excellent edibles to the Old
—Indian corn and the potato foremost among them. . No
other grain but rice yields food for man so bounteously as
the maize; no other root is so generally acceptable as the
potato, though several others yield a larger bulk or weight
per acre. Even if the maize were already known to China.
and the far East, its value to Europe was not lessened.
And even tobacco, though making a heavy draft upon the
soil, has largely contributed to enhance the gains of the
husbandman, since many communities pay as much an-
nually for this seductive narcotic as for bread. .
Modern agriculture dates from the invention of printing,
and the consequent multiplication of books and of readers.
“The Book of Husbandry,” the first English work of de-
cided merit devoted to tillage, was first published in the
reign of Henry VIII. (1534), and is attributed to a judge
named Fitzherbert. It is eminently practical in its incul-
cations, and nearly as minute in its descriptions as its
lineal successor, Mr. Stephens’s “Book of the Farm.” . It
was soon followed by several others of like purpose, which
are often judicious, though sometimes fantastic, in their
recommendations. The introduction of red clover and the
turnip into Great Britain, about 1645, probably did more
for her farmers than all the books ever printed had thus
far done. It is said that Lord Bacon, having assiduously
collected all the works treating of agriculture known in his
day, after dipping into them sufficiently to form an opinion
of their contents, at length consigned them to the flames,
saying that they laid down rules arbitrarily and with no
regard to principles. We presume this sweeping criticism
contemplated the writings of German and French, as well
as British, writers on the art of cultivating the soil.
Jethro Tull, a gentleman farmer of Berkshire, whose
“Horse-hoeing Husbandry” appeared in 1731, seems to
have been the first author who contemplated the farmer's
calling with the eye of genius. He had for thirty years
been drilling in his crops with decided advantage, and he
tells others how to profit by his example. He insisted on
the advisability of repeated ploughings before seeding, and
of sowing in drills so wide apart as to admit of cultivation
with a horse-hoe. Underdraining being as yet unknown,
he laid his land in ridges, with shallow ditches interven-
ing; he sowed but three pecks of seed to the acre; he hoed
his wheat in the fall, and again in the spring; and, making
the ridges of this year on the ground allotted to the ditches
of last year, he grew thirteen crops of wheat in succession
on the same field, and maintained that the soil was nowise
exhausted thereby. He thus anticipated the Loisweden
practice of our day, which consists in marking off a
(drained) field into strips three feet in width, cultivating
these in alternate years, and tilling the fallow spaces be-
tween the strips of grain. It is claimed for this practice
that the crop is as large as when all the ground is sown,
and that wheat after wheat may thus be grown ad infini-
tum. / Tull sowed turnip seed in the same drills or ridges,
at depths of one, two, and four inches respectively, calcu-
lating that the lowest would germinate in spite of any but
the severest drouth, and that, the young plants appearing
at different times, a part of them must at all events escape
the fly. British agriculture owes, very much to the turnip,
which grows luxuriantly in its moist, cool climate, yet is
there left in the ground, scarcely touched by frost, until
gnawed away gradually by sheep, which are thus fattened
more cheaply than they otherwise could be. sº
The breeding of choice sheep and cattle received signal
attention in Great Britain during the last century, and the
improvements thus effected have been maintained and ex-
tended. The Durham and Alderney breeds of cattle, the
Leicester, Cotswold, and other excellent breeds of long or
64
AGRICULTURE.
coarse-woolled sheep, are among the trophies of that cen-
tury. The Merino was brought from its native Spain by
George III, in 1788, but experience proved it unsuited to
the British isles, where mutton is of more consequence than
wool.
The high price of grain, caused by the persistent wars
between France and England for twenty-five years prior
to 1815, stimulated the progress of British agriculture.
Scotland participated fully in this improvement, whereby
millions of acres were reclaimed from heath and bog or
rugged pasture, and made largely productive of grain and
roots. Underdraining was greatly promoted by an act
of Parliament providing that money should be advanced
from the public treasury to defray its cost, upon the secu-
rity of a first mortgage on the property thus reclaimed.
The progress of agriculture since 1800 has been so rapid
that its recent triumphs outweigh all that preceded them.
The use of dissolved bones as a fertilizer is hardly yet sev-
enty years old, yet it has increased the annual grain-har-
vest of Great Britain by millions of bushels. For a gene-
ration the farmers of this and other countries saw cargo
after cargo of bones taken from their shores to fertilize
British fields, without even asking what this should sug-
gest to them; but now they use all the bones attainable
(mainly in the shape of superphosphate), and look around
for more. Guano—whereby the fields of Peru and Chili
were fertilized long before Columbus dreamed of a shorter
passage westward to China and Japan—first found its way
to Great Britain in 1841; its annual application already
costs that country millions of dollars, and is still increas-
ing. Lastly, the employment of steam in the direct service
of agriculture, not only in threshing and winnowing, but
in ploughing and tilling as well, is among the great and
beneficent improvements of boundless scope and promise
for which mankind are indebted to the intelligent and ener-
getic cultivators and mechanicians of Great Britain.
American agriculture, like that of continental Europe,
has too generally been content to follow and to copy where
it might have pointed and led the way. Wrestling with
giant forests, with stumps and roots, and often with a
rocky or a sandy soil, with his capital absorbed in the pur-
chase of his generally superabundant acres, the average
American cultivator has been content to do as his grand-
father did, heedless of all suggestions of improvement.
Underdraining, deep-ploughing, the use of commercial fer-
tilizers, etc., he instinctively dislikes, and resists so long as
resistance is possible. Thus far the substantial triumphs
of American agriculture have mainly been the trophies of
mechanical genius. Thus, the cotton-gin of Eli Whitney
has done more to diffuse comfort and plenty throughout the
civilized world than any single achievement of an Ameri-
can farmer. Our people were among the first to reduce
the weight and lessen the draft of the plough, and they
have been among the foremost in its gradual transmutation
from a rude implement, constructed mainly of wood, to
one far more effective, whereof barely the handles are of
wood, while the land-side, as well as the share, and nearly
or quite all besides, are made of polished and excellent
steel. In axes, Scythes, hoes, spades, and nearly every
other instrument of manual effort on a farm, our country
may boast a decided superiority. In the profitable substi-
tution of animal for manual exertion, however, have our
most signal triumphs been won. By ploughing instead of
hoeing Indian corn we have immensely increased the area.
cultivated, while reducing the cost of the product. Under
our prompting the sickle has been superseded by the cra-
dle in cutting all the smaller grains, and this again by the
reaper, which cuts acres more rapidly than roods could be
cut with the cradle. The mower (always akin to, and
sometimes identical with, the reaper) has so reduced the
cost and fatigue involved in our hay-harvest that cattle are
kept far more cheaply in our old States, estimating their
cost in hours of labor, than they could be prior to the last
twenty or thirty years. Horse-rakes, hay–tedders, with
fanning-mills and kindred devices for separating grain
from chaff, threshers of many diverse patterns, corn-husk-
ers, potato-diggers, etc., have immensely economized our
labor and increased the bulk and value of our annual har-
vests. Underdraining, subsoiling, irrigation, etc. have
as yet been naturalized among us entirely by the efforts of
an enlightened but nowise numerous minority, but their
benefits are so signal and indubitable that the many cannot
long hesitate to adopt them.
In the use of steam in ploughing we are deplorably
backward, owing in good part to our recent great and ex-
hausting civil war. But for this a thousand portable steam-
engines would doubtless have been tearing up our fields
ere this, as is the case already in Great Britain, and must
soon be here. As it is, we may fairly boast of one step in
advance of our great rival. On the plantation of Mr. Ef-
fingham Lawrence, fifty miles below New Orleans, on the
west bank of the Mississippi, the largest steam-engines
yet constructed by Messrs. John Fowler & Co., the British
makers of steam-ploughs and other cultivating machinery,
are steadily and profitably employed, not merely in plough-
ing that glutinous, leathery clay to a depth of twenty-six
to twenty-eight inches, but similar engines, worked entirely
by blacks till recently slaves, are lifting and pulverizing to
a depth of fully two feet the spaces which separate the
rows of growing cane; and doing the work so thoroughly,
when the cane is about one foot high, that it needs no
further tilling till matured—the plants pushing their roots
quickly into the mellow earth, and thence drawing suste-
nance for a growth so luxuriant as to smother and choke
out all future weeds. So far as is known to this writer, no
earlier cultivation of growing crops by steam has been
seen on this planet.
And this is a hint by which thousands must profit. But
few years can elapse before the vast prairies of the West
and South-west will be cultivated largely, if not mainly,
by steam—the same locomotive being employed to plough,
seed, till, harvest, thresh, winnow, and perhaps transport
the grain to the nearest steamboat wharf or railroad sta-
tion. Working on untired through day and night, con-
suming mothing when idle, and thoroughly pulverizing
fifty acres per day to a depth unattainable by horse-power,
the steam-engine will prove here, as elsewhere, the might-
iest friend and most useful servant ever vouchsafed to hu-
man genius at the call of an urgent need.
Early History of Agriculture.—As the Greeks and Ro-
mans appear to have arrived at as great a degree of perfec-
tion in legislation as the moderns, so they may be said to
have attained great excellence in the art of agriculture.
Till within the present century very little difference existed
between the most approved agriculture of climates analogous
to that of Italy and the agriculture of the Romans as de-
scribed by Cato, Columella, and other ancient writers. The
chief superiority of the moderns consists in their machinery,
and especially in their knowledge of the sciences connected
with this pursuit; the last, though extremely important,
being of very recent date, and as yet by no means generally
diffused. By science are not only acquired more enlightened
and greatly improved methods of treating the soil, but su-
perior breeds both of plants and animals have been origin-
ated; by improved machinery a more perfèct tillage has
been produced, and also a more complete separation of the
produce of the soil from the refuse of the plants and other
impurities.
In Great Britain the history of agriculture begins with
the Roman Conquest. Julius Caesar found the inhabitants
in a state of semi-barbarism, but Agricola left them in pos-
session of all the arts of civilization known to the Romans.
Agriculture declined with the invasion of the Saxons, but
was preserved through the dark ages after the establish-
ment of Christianity by the intelligence of the members of
religious establishments, who gradually became possessed
of the greater part of the landed property in the country.
The culture of the land will be found to have depended in
every country principally on its climate and civilization,
, though partly, also, on its government and population. In
the warmer climates, where nature produces fruits in the
greatest abundance for the food both of men and animals,
and where very little care is required to procure shelter
or clothing, agriculture has made little progress, because
it is comparatively unnecessary for the prosperity of the
inhabitants. On the other hand, in climates of a directly
opposite character agriculture has made equally slight prog-
ress, owing to the almost insurmountable obstacles opposed
to it. It is therefore only in intermediate climates, where
the soil admits of labor by man throughout a great part of
the year, that agriculture is calculated to attain the highest
degree of perfection.
Literature of Agriculture.—The literature of agriculture
begins with the works of the Romans, of which Columſ EL-
LA’s work, “I)e Re Rustica,” may be considered the most
comprehensive and valuable. VIRGIL’s “Georgics,” a poem
unequalled of its kind in any language, may be said to
teach, with all the attractions of the most exquisite poetry,
everything that was then known of the art of agriculture.
In the dawn of modern agriculture, the principal writers
were—Crescentius in Italy, Herrera in Spain, Olivier de
Serres in France, Hereshbachius in Germany, and Fitz-
herbert in England. (For the recent literature of scientific
agriculture, the reader is referred to the bibliography at
the end of AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.) At the beginning
of the present century the most comprehensive author on
agriculture in Italy was Fillippo Re; in France, Tessier;
in Germany, Mayer; and in England, Marshall. About
the best work from which a general idea may be obtained
of the agriculture of France and corresponding climates is
“Maison, Rustique du xixe siècle, ou Encyclopédie d’Agri-
culture pratique,” complete in one volume, 8vo.; and the
AGRICULTURE, DEPARTMENT OF-AHLQUIST.
65
sº-
corresponding British works are Loupon’s “Encyclopedia
of Agriculture;” STEPHENs’s “Book of the Farm;” MoR-
Ton’s “Cyclopedia of Agriculture;” and WILSON’s “British
Farming.” HoRACE GREELEY.
Agriculture, Department of, was established by
Congress in 1862 in Washington, D. C. By means of an-
nual and monthly reports it diffuses information deemed
advantageous to the agricultural interests of the country.
It purchases and propagates seeds and plants, which are dis-
tributed to the people of the U. S. It is under the com-
missioner of agriculture, who is appointed by the President
and confirmed by the Senate. It has a fine building, which
stands W. of the grounds of the Smithsonian Institution.
Connected with it are a museum, chemical laboratory, prop-
agating gardens, and a library. Its monthly reports of
the prospects of the staple crops are especially valuable.
At the propagating gardens plants received by exchange
from foreign governments and botanic gardens are tested
with a view to introducing new and useful plants into this
country. * -
Agrigen’tum (now Girgen/ti), an ancient city of Sicily,
situated on the slope of a mountain on the S. coast of the
island. It was founded about 582 B.C., and once had about
200,000 inhabitants. Here are magnificent ruins, among
which are the temple of Concord (said to be the most perfect
extant structure of the early Greek architecture), and the tem-
ple of Olympian Jupiter, about 350 feet long. (See GIR-
GENTI.)
Ag/rimony [Lat. Agrimo'nia], a genus of herbaceous
plants of the natural order Rosaceae. The Agrimonia Ew-
patoria, a native of Europe and the U. S., has been used in
medicine. Several species grow in the Southern U. S.
Agrippa, King. See HEROD AGRIPPA.
Agrip/pa (HENRY Corner.IUs), a celebrated German
physician, philosopher, and astrologer, was born at Cologne
Sept. 14, 1486. He cultivated many departments of know-
ledge, and engaged in various pursuits in many countries
of Europe. He acquired fame by his talents and his sup-
posed skill in occult science, but he was regarded as an im-
postor and heretic by some of his contemporaries. He
lectured on theology at Cologne and other places, and
practised medicine in France. Among his works is a satire
“On the Vanity of the Sciences” (in Latin, 1530). Died
Feb. 18, 1535.
Agrip/pa (MARCUs VIPsANIUs), an eminent Roman
statesman and general, born in 63 B. C. He became in his
youth a friend of Octavius (afterwards the emperor Augus-
tus), to whom he rendered important military services, es-
pecially at the battle of Actium, where he commanded the
fleet, in 31 B. C. Agrippa and Maecenas were the principal
ministers and advisers of Augustus after he had obtained
the supreme power. He married Julia, the daughter of
Augustus, about 21 B. C., and had several sons, two of
whom were adopted by the emperor. Died in 12 B.C.
Agrippi/na I., a Roman lady, the daughter of M.
Vipsanius Agrippa and his wife Julia, was married to the
famous Germanicus. Her virtue is highly commended.
Died about 32 A. D.
Agrippina II., a daughter of the preceding, was born
about 14 A. D. She was the mother of the emperor Nero,
and was notorious for her profligacy and her crimes. . Her
third husband was the emperor Claudius, whom she killed
by poison. She was put to death by her son Nero in 60 A.D.
Ag/telek, or Bar’adla, the name of one of the largest
and most remarkable stalactitic caverns of Europe, is in the
county of Gömör, in Hungary. Here is a labyrinth of cav-
erns, one of which is 96 feet high, 90 feet wide, and extends
about 900 feet in a direct line.
A/gua, Wolcan’ de (i.e. “volcano of water”), a moun-
tain of Central America, in the state of Guatemala, situated
about 25 miles S. W. of Guatemala; so called from the fact
that it sometimes pours forth torrents of water. The old
town of Guatemala has been twice destroyed by it. Its
crater is 15,000 feet above the sea-level.
Aſguas Calien/tes (i.e. “ warm springs”), a state of
Mexico, is bounded on the N. by Zacatecas, on the E. by
Guanajuato, on the S. by Lake Chapala, and on the W. by
Xalisco. Area, 2217 square miles. The surface is partly
level and partly hilly, and in the N. are branches of the
Sierra Nevada. The soil is very fertile, but poor in min-
erals. Pop. in 1868, 140,630. -
Aguas Calientes, a town of Mexico, the capital of
the state of its own name, is on a plain or table-land 6000
feet above the level of the sea, and 250 miles N. W. of the
city of Mexico. It has numerous churches and three con-
vents, and is surrounded by gardens and orchards of olives,
pears, figs, etc. Hot Springs occur in the vicinity. Pop.
about 39,000.
A/gue [probably from the Fr. agu, an old form of aigu,
“sharp,” in allusion to the violence of the disease] is the
common name for the INTERMITTENT FEVER (which see).
Aguilar' de la Fronte’ra, a town of Spain, on the
Cabra, 22 miles S. S. E. of Córdova, is noted for the white-
ness of its houses and the cleanness of its streets. It has
several fine public squares, a town-hall, and a dismantled
Moorish castle. Pop. 11,836.
Aguilar (GRACE), a Jewish authoress of Spanish ex-
traction, was born at Hackney, near London, June 2, 1816.
Among her numerous works are “Women of Israel,”
“Home Scenes and Heart Studies,” and “Home Influence,
a Tale.” She died at Frankfort Sept. 16, 1847.
Agulhas, Cape, the most southern point of Africa, is
about 100 miles E. of the Cape of Good Hope. A light-
house was erected on it in 1849; lat. of lighthouse, 34°49'
8” S., lon. 20° 0' 7" E.
Agusti'na, called the “Maid of Saragossa,” died at
Cueta, Spain, in 1857. She greatly distinguished herself
during the siege of Saragossa by the French in 1809, and
as a reward for her services was made a lieutenant in the
Spanish army, and received numerous decorations. Byron
extols her in “Childe Harold,” canto i., stanzas 54, 55, 56.
Agym/ians [from the Gr. a, neg., and yūvm, a “woman”],
a Gnostic sect of the seventh century who condemned mar-
riage and the use of certain kinds of meat.
Aſhab [Heb. Achab], eighth king of Israel, who reigned
B. C. 915–895. His wife was Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal,
the usurping king of Tyre. He dwelt at Jezreel, which he
adorned with splendid buildings. The story of his weak-
ness, his idolatry, and the stern opposition of the prophet
Elijah is related in the first book of Kings. Ahab was
killed in battle with Benhadad, king of Damascus.
Ahanta, a negro kingdom in Upper Guinea, which was
formerly independent, but was conquered by Ashantee. It
is one of the healthiest, richest, and most civilized districts
on the coast, having a fertile and well-cultivated soil. The
chief productions are sugar-cane, rice, and timber. The
chief articles of export are palm oil, ivory, and gold. In
1683, Frederick William, the great elector, attempted to
start a colony here, but in 1718 Prussia sold all her pos-
sessions on the Gold Coast to the West India Company in
Amsterdam. The Dutch took possession of several other
districts in this neighborhood, but in 1872 ceded all their
possessions on the Gold Coast to Great Britain.
Ahasue'rus, the name of one Median, and two Persian
kings mentioned in the Old Testament. The Ahasuerus of
Esther was probably Xerxes, the invader of Greece, who
reigned from 486 to 465 B. C. He invaded Greece in 480,
and is supposed to have married Esther the year after.
A/haz [Heb. Achaz, “possessor”], twelfth king of Judah
after its secession from Israel, reigned B. C. 740–726. His
reign was greatly disturbed by the attacks of Rezin, king
of Damascus, and Pekah, king of Israel, as well as those
of the Edomites and Philistines. Ahaz called to his aid.
the powerful Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, who over-
threw the enemies of Judah, but made Ahaz his vassal, and
carried off rich treasures from the temple and palaces of
Jerusalem. Ahaz was an idolater. A statement in 2 Kings
xvi. 2 as to his accession would make his son and succes-
sor, Hezekiah, to have been born when he was eleven years,
old, but this must be a transcriber’s error or the date. Of al.
viceroyship.
Ahazi'ah, ninth king of Israel, succeeded his father
Ahab, and ruled under the direction of Jezebel, his mother,
B. C. 895–894.—Also the name of the sixth king of Judah,
B. C. 884–883. A famous error of some transcriber (2 Chron.
xxi. 5, 20) makes him younger than his own son.
Ahith/ophel [Heb. Achithophel, “foolish ’’l, a Hebrew
politician and councillor of David. He took the side of
Absalom in his rebellion, but, foreseeing the failure of the
enterprise, went home and hanged himself.
Ahi’feld (Joh ANN FRIEDRICH), an eminent €erman
preacher, born Nov. 1, 1810, became in 1847 clergyman in
Halle, and in 1851 in Leipsic, and gained in both places the
reputation of an excellent pulpit orator. He published
several collections of sermons; all of which have had a large
Sale.
Ahl/quist (AUGUST ENGET.BERT), a celebrated Finnish
philologist, born Aug. 7, 1826, not only made the Finnish
language his especial study, but also made it his object to
raise it to the rank of a written language, and to create a
national Finnish literature. For this purpose he travelled
under the greatest difficulties through, Northern Russia and
Siberia to acquaint himself with the tribes of the Uralian-
Altaic race living there. At present he is professor of Fin-
nish language and literature in the University of . Hel-
singfors. His chief works are “An Attempt at a Moksha-
5
66
AHLWARDT-AIKEN.
Mordwinian Grammar” (1862), a “Grammar of the Wotish
Language,” and a description of his travels in Siberia.
(1853–58). He has also written many poems in the Finnish
language, and made several translations from the German
of Schiller. *
Ahl/wardt (THEODoRE WILHELM), a German Oriental-
ist, born July 4, 1828, became in 1861 librarian and professor
of Oriental languages at the University of Greifswalde. He
published “Chalef el Ahmars Qasside’” (1859), besides sev-
eral historical works.
Ah/med IV., sometimes called Abd’ula Håmid, a
Turkish sultan, born in 1725, succeeded to the throme in 1773.
His reign is chiefly notable on account of the two disas-
trous wars with Russia, in which Turkey lost the Crimea,
a portion of Circassia, with some other territories, and a
number of important fortresses. Died in 1789.
Ah/medábād’ (i. e. “the abode of Ahmed ”), a city
of British India, in the presidency of Bombay, is on the
river Subbermuttee, 16 miles by rail N. N. W. of Surat;
lat. 23° 1' N., lon. 72° 48' E. It was formerly a large and
magnificent capital, but is now much decayed. Here are
several beautiful mosques and other remains of its ancient
splendor. It was founded by Ahmed Shah in 1412. Pop.
estimated at 130,000. -
Ah/mednug'gur (i. e. the “fort of Ahmed ”), a city
and fortress of British India, in the presidency of Bombay,
on the Seena, 162 miles by rail E. of Bombay. It was
taken by General Wellesley in Aug., 1803, and the fortress
is now held by a British garrison. Pop. about 20,000.
Ah/med poor’-Barra (i. e. “great Ahmedpoor’’), a
town of Hindostan, situated in a fertile tract 30 miles S. W.
of Bhawlpoor. It has manufactures of matchlocks, gun-
powder, cottom, and silk stuffs. Pop. about 20,000.
Ah/mood, a town of British India, in the presidency
of Bombay, 12 miles N. by W. of Baroach. Pop. about
13,000. -
Ahn (JoBANN FRANZ), a German writer and author of a
new method of learning foreign languages, born at Aix-la-
Chapelle Dec. 15, 1796, published a “Practical Course for
the Quick and Easy Acquisition of the French Language”
(167th ed. 1870), and other similar works, which have
found an immense circulation. His method has been imi-
itated by many other writers. Died Aug. 21, 1865.
Ah/napee, a post-village of Kewaunee co., Wis., in a
township of its own name. Pop. of township, 1544. -
Ah/rens (HEINRICH), an eminent German, born July 14,
1808, lectured in Paris in 1833 on the history of German
philosophy since the time of Kant, and became in 1834 pro-
fessor of philosophy in Brussels, in 1850 professor of ab-
stract law and political economy at Graz, in 1859 of prac-
tical philosophy and political science at Leipsic, and in
1863 was elected representative of the university in the
first chamber of Saxony. His principal works are “Cours
de droit maturel ” (6th ed. 1869; German ed. 1846); “Philo-
sophie des Rechts” (1851–52; 6th ed. 1870); “Juristische
Encycl.” (1855–57), which has been translated into several
foreign languages.
Ah/riſman, the principle of evil among the ancient Per-
sians. (See ORMUzd.) -
Ai, the native name of the Bradypus tridactylus, or three-
toed sloth, an edentate mammal of South America. There
are Several varieties of this animal. It takes its name from
the loud cry which it makes while moving in the forests.
It is very tenacious of life, and will move its legs long after
it has been disembowelled and beheaded. In habits it re-
Sembles the other sloths.
Aſi (a “ruin”), a city of Palestine, which was destroyed
by Joshua. Its site is not positively known.—Also a city
of Ammon, destroyed by the Babylonians.
Aid, a post-village of Lawrence co., O., in a township
of the same name. Pop. of township, 1476.
Aid'an, SAINT, first bishop of Lindisfarne, was born in
Ireland, and was sent as a missionary bishop to Northum-
bria by the bishop of Toma about 635 A. D. He was suc-
cessful in establishing Christianity, being aided by the king
and nobles. His life was adorned by charity, humility, and
all the Christian virtues. Died Aug. 31, 651.
Aides-de-Camp, confidential officers selected by gen-
eral officers to assist them in their military duties, are ex-
officio assistant adjutants-general (act Mar. 2, 1821). They
are in the U. S. service attached to the person of the gen-
eral, and receive orders only from him. Their functions
are difficult and delicate. Often enjoying the full confidence
of the general, they are employed in representing him, in
Writing orders, in carrying them in person if necessary, in
communicating them verbally upon battle-fields and other
fields of manoeuvre. It is important that aides-de-camp
| plied with the daily papers and periodicals.
should know well the position of troops, routes, posts,
quarters of generals, composition of columns, and orders
of corps. It is necessary that their knowledge should be
sufficiently comprehensive to understand the object and
/purpose of all orders, and also to judge in the varying cir-
cumstances of a battle-field whether it is not necessary to
modify an order when carried in person, or if there be time
to return for new instructions. (Scott’s Military Diction-
ary.) The existing law of the U. S. allows six aidés-de-
camp (colonels) to the general; two and a military secre-
tary (lieutenant-colonels) to the lieutenant-generals; three
(captains or lieutenants) to a major-generał ; and two (lieu-
tenants) to a brigadier-general.
Aidin', or Guzel-Hissar (anc. Tral/les), a town of
Asiatic Turkey, in Anatolia, on the river Mender (Mean-
der), about 68 miles S. E. of Smyrna, with which it is con-
nected by railroad. It has a large trade, being next to
Smyrna in commercial importance, and is the residence of
a pasha. Here are several fine mosques and synagogues.
American missionaries have established here a flourishing
Protestant mission. . Pop. estimated at 15,000.
Aido/ne, a town of Sicily, in the province of Caltani-
setta, 20 miles E. S. E. of Caltanisetta. Here are mineral
springs. Pop. in 1861, 5229.
Aiguebelle, a small town of France, in Savoy. Pop.
about 1100. Here the combined French and Spanish armies
defeated Duke Charles Emmanuel III. of Savoy in 1742.
Aiguebelle, d” (PAUL ALEXANDRE NEVEUE), a French
naval officer in the service of China, was born Jan. 7, 1831.
He took part with the Franco-Chinese corps against the
Tai-Pings, and took in 1864 the important city of Hang-
Chow-Foo. He entered the Chinese service, was created a
mandarin of the first rank, organized an important military
arsenal at Foo-Chow-Foo, and in June, 1869, he launched
the first man-of-war of the new navy built on the European
plan. He was then made grand admiral of the Chinese
fleets, which title was expressly created for him.
Aigues Mortes, a town of France, in the department
of Gard, 19 miles from Nîmes. Pop. in 1866, 3932. The
large saline works of Peccais are in the neighborhood. An
interview between Francis I. of France and the emperor
Charles W. took place here in 1538.
Aiguille [Fr., a “needle”], the name of numerous sharp-
pointed peaks in the Alps.
Aiguillon (ARMAND WIGNEROD DUPLESSIs RICHELIEU),
DUKE OF, a French statesman, born in 1720, was governor
of Alsace, and afterwards of Brittany. He gained the
favor of the king's mistress, Madame du Barry, and through
her influence was made prime minister. Upon the acces:
sion of Louis XVI. he was removed from office and banished
from court, and died in 1782.
Aiken, a county of South Carolina, formed in 1873 from
parts of Barnwell, Edgefield, Lexington, and Orangeburg
counties. It is bounded on the W. by the Savannah River.
Area, 900 square miles. The principal minerals are kaolin
(which is largely exported) and burr mill-stone. Cotton
goods, paper, and pottery are manufactured.
John S. SHUCK, Ed. “AIKEN Journ AL.”
Aikſen, the county-town of the county of the same name
in South Carolina, is noted as a resort for invalids, especially
those suffering from pulmonary complaints. Being situated
on a plateau 600 feet above the level of the sea and 400 feet
higher than the city of Augusta, which is 17 miles distant,
and the soil being sandy and porous, the system of natural
drainage is almost perfect, rendering the atmosphere pecu-
liarly dry and elastic. The dew-point is invariably low.
The climate is a mean between the dry, cold region of Min-
nesota and the moist, temperate section of Florida, and has
proved efficacious in restoring health to invalids in thou-
sands of cases. It is easily accessible by means of the South
Carolina R. R., on which it is located. The appearance of
the town, with its broad streets, 150 feet wide, is pleasing
and attractive. Besides public or free schools, there are
several private schools, seven churches (Methodist, Baptist,
Catholic, Presbyterian, and Episcopalian, and colored
Methodist and Baptist), two weekly newspapers and one
daily, a lyceum hall, and a reading and club room Sup-
The hotels,
of which there are two capable of accommodating over 100
guests each, and the private boarding-houses, are well kept
and adapted to the requirements of invalids. Each year
the number of visitors increases as the characteristics of
this locality become better known. During the season of
1872–73 some 1850 names were registered. Pop. of town-
ship, 2259. John S. SHUCK, ED. “AIKEN Journ AL.”
Aiken (CHARLEs AUGUSTUs), D. D., LL.D., was born
at Manchester, Vt., Oct. 30, 1827, graduated at Dartmouth
College in 1846, and at Andover Theological Seminary in
AIKEN.—AINSWORTH.
67
1853, was pastor of a Congregational church in Yarmouth,
Me., from 1854 to 1859, professor of the Latin language
and literature at Dartmouth from 1859 to 1866, professor
of Latin in the College of New Jersey from 1866 to 1869,
president of Union College from 1869 to 1871, and is now
professor of Christian ethics and apologetics in the Prince-
ton Theological Seminary. He translated and edited the
book of Proverbs in the American edition of Lange's
“Commentary,” and has published several articles in the
“Bibliotheca Sacra,” and “Princeton Review.”
Aiken (WILLIAM), born in Charleston, S. C., in 1806,
graduated at South Carolina College in 1825. He was
prominent in public affairs, was governor of South Caro-
lina (1844–46), and a Democratic member of Congress
(1851–57). He was a man of great wealth, being pro-
prietor of Jehossee Island, where he formerly employed
1000 slaves in rice-culture. He was distinguished while in
public life by his wisdom and moderate views, and has con-
tributed largely to the cause of education and to benevolent
objects. While in Congress in 1857 he lacked but one vote
of becoming Speaker of the House of Representatives.
Aik'in (JoHN), M. D., an English writer, born in Lei-
cestershire Jan. 15, 1747. He produced, conjointly with
his sister, Mrs. Barbauld, an instructive juvenile book
called “Evenings at Home” (1792–95), which had great
popularity. He practised medicine in London and other
places. Among his numerous works is a biographical dic-
tionary, entitled “General Biography” (10 vols. 4to,
1815). He edited the “Monthly Magazine” (1796–1806).
Died Dec. 7, 1822.
Aikin (LUCY), a daughter of the preceding, born Nov.
6, 1781, wrote, besides other works, a memoir of her father
(1823), and “Life of Joseph Addison” (1843). Died Jan.
29, 1864.
Aïiºman (WILLIAM), a distinguished Scottish painter,
born at Cairnby Oct. 24, 1682; died in London June 7,
I731.
Ailan'thus, or Ailan’tus (i. e. “tree of heaven’’), a
tree which is a native of China, and has remarkably large
pinnate leaves. It grows rapidly, and is often planted as
an ornamental or shade tree in the cities of Europe and
the U. S. The foliage is handsome, but it causes much an-
noyance by the rapid spread of suckers from the parent
tree. The staminate flowers, which are borne on distinct
trees, have an offensive odor that often produces headache
and nausea. The female plants are free from this objection,
and the clusters of winged fruit which they bear are quite
ornamental, so that they should always be chosen for shade
trees. Besides the above (Ailanthus glandulosus) there are
several other species, chiefly tropical. They belong to the
order Simarubaceae.
Ailanthus Silkworm (the At/tacus cyn/thia of the
naturalists) is so named
from its feeding on the
leaves of the ailanthus
tree. The silk obtained
from this worm is ex-
tensively used in China.
and it is even thought
by some that it will,
for most purposes, ulti-
mately supersede the
culture of the common
silkworm, as it is much
hardier and not subject
to many diseases to
which the other is lia-
ble. In addition to
this, the tree is easily
cultivated, being readily acclimatized in most temperate
countries. The eggs are hatched in a similar manner to
those of the common silkworm, and the larvae, after being
fed through their first moult with picked leaves, are trans-
ferred to the trees, and there left.
Ailly, Peter of, an eminent French prelate, born in
Picardy in 1350. He became archbishop of Cambray in
1395, and a cardinal in 1414. He denounced and wished
to reform some abuses in the Church. He was called
“Malleus Haereticorum ” and “Aquila Doctorum.” Died
about 1420.
Ailred (AEthelred or Alured), SAINT, Cistercian
abbot of Rievaulx, Yorkshire, born in England in 1109,
was educated in Scotland. He wrote numerous sermons,
histories, and other works, part of which were edited by
Twisden (1652), by Camerarius (1631), and by one Gibbon
(Douai, 1631). Died Jan. 12, 1166.
Ail'sa, MARQUESSEs of (1831), Barons Ailsa (1806, in the
United Kingdom), earls of Cassilis (1509); Barons Ken-
nedy (1452, in Scotland); baronets (1632, in Scotland), a
Ailanthus Silkworm.
prominent family of Great Britain.—ARCHIBALD KENNEDY,
the third marquess, born Sept. 1, 1847, succeeded his father
in 1870. - -
Ail'sa Craig, an island 10 miles from the coast of Ayr-
shire, Scotland. It is a crag of trap-rock of a somewhat
columnar character. It is 1098 feet high, and 2 miles only
in circumference. It is not inhabited. It gives his title
to the marquis of Ailsa, its proprietor.
Ailu'rusº Ful/gens, the scientific name of an animal
of the class Mammalia, order Carnivora, family Ursidae,
found in the mountains of Nepal. By the inhabitants of
that country it is termed panda, chitwa, and wah, the Jast
name having been given it on account of its peculiar cry.
It is about the size of a large cat, and is remarkable for its
singularly rich and beautiful fur, which is mostly of a bright
chestnut-brown, but deepens into a fine rich black on the
chest and outside of the legs. It has a short head and a
thick muzzle. The head is of a whitish fawn-color, with a
ruddy chestnut spot under each eye. The tail is of the same
color as the body, being marked with a series of dark rings.
“The coat of the panda is not only handsome in appear-
ance, but is very thick, fine and warm in texture, being
composed of a double set of hairs—the one forming a thick
woolly covering to the skin, and the other composed of long
glistening hairs, that pierce through the wool and give the
exquisitely rich coloring to the surface of the fur.” Cuvier
regarded the panda, as the most beautiful of known quad-
rupeds. It is much to be regretted that these animals do
not exist in sufficient numbers to render their fur an ar-
ticle of commercial value. The food of the panda is chiefly
of an animal character, consisting of birds, their eggs, the
smaller mammalia, etc. Its habits are partly arboreal.
Aimard (GUSTAVE), a French novelist, born about 1818,
came to America, at an early age, and after a short stay
travelled throughout Southern Europe. Among his works
are “Les Trappeurs de l’Arkansas.” (1858), “Les Aven-
turiers” (1863), “L’Araucan'' (1864), etc.
Aimé-Martin (Louis), a French writer, born in 1786,
became in 1815 secretary of the Chamber of Deputies. He
published, among other works, “Lettres à Sophie sur la
physique, la chimie et l’histoire naturelle” (1810), and
“L'éducation des mêres de familles” (1834). He also pub-
lished the complete works of Bernardin de St.-Pierre, with
a biography of the author. Died June 22, 1847.
Ai’mon, or Ay/mond, a French Benedictine of Fleury,
wrote a “Historia, Francorum,” extending from 253 to 654;
also a life of Abbo of Fleury, and other works. Died in
1008.
Ain, a department of Eastern France, is bounded on the
N. by the departments of Saône-et-Loire and Jura, on the
E. by Haute Savoye, on the S. by Isère, and on the W. by
Rhône and Saône-et-Loire. Area, 2239 square miles. The
department is watered by the Rhône and the Saône, which
flow along its boundaries, and by the Ain. The western
part consists of a large plateau, which is very fertile. In
the E. large mountain-ranges prevail, which contain iron,
asphaltum, and the best lithographic stones in France. It
it is subdivided into 5 arrondissements, 35 cantons, and 450
communes. Pop. in 1872, 363,290. Chief town, Bourg-in-
Bresse.
Ain’milier (MAXIMILIAN EMANUEL), a German painter,
born at Munich Feb. 14, 1807, is noted as the restorer of
the art of painting on glass. Among his works are the
windows of the cathedrals of Ratisbon and Cologne. Died
Dec. 8, 1870.
Ai'nous, a race inhabiting the Koorile Islands and
the north of Japan. They have mainly attracted attention
from the greatly exaggerated, though not utterly false,
statements of travellers, that their bodies were entirely
covered with hair; from which circumstance they are often
called “hairy Kooriles.” They are said to be of a mild
and amiable disposition. They worship the Sun and moon,
but have no priests or places set aside for religious services.
They have a written language, which seems to be Aryan.
They are certainly not Turanian.
Ains/worth, a post-village of Washington co., Ia.
Ainsworth (ROBERT), an English classical scholar, born
near Manchester in 1660, taught school in London. He
published a well-known Latin dictionary (1736). Died
April 4, 1743.
Ainsworth (WILLIAM FRANCIs), an English physician
and geologist, born at Exeter Nov. 9, 1807. He accom-
panied Colonel Chesney on an expedition to the Euphrates
in 1835. He published “Researches in Assyria” (1842),
and “Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia,
Chaldea, etc.” (2 vols., 1842).
* Ailurus signifies “having a waying tail,” like that of a cat;
from atóAos, “quickly moving” or “waving,” and otpá, a “tail.”

68
AINSWORTH-AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.
Ainsworth (WILLIAM HARRISON), an English novelist,
born in Manchester Feb. 4, 1805. He published “Rook-
wood” (1834) and “Jack Sheppard” (1839), the latter of
which had an extraordinary success, and “The Tower of
London.” In 1845 he became the proprietor of the “New
Monthly Magazine.” His numerous stories have had great
popularity.
Aintab', a town of Asiatic Turkey, on the S. slope of
Mount Taurus or Alma-Dagh, about 60 miles N. of Aleppo,
and 92 miles N. E. of Antioch. It is well built, and has
manufactures of leather, woollen cloths, etc. The American
Protestant missionaries have had for years a flourishing
mission among the Armenians of this town. Pop. 43,410.
Air [Gr. &#p, from &o, to “breathe;” Lat. a'ar] was con-
sidered an element by the ancient philosophers, but it is
now known to be a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen with
some other gases. (For information respecting the prop-
erties and phenomena of the air, see Acoustics, by Prof.
O. N. RooD, A. M.; BAROMETER, by F. A. P. BARNARD;
and PNEUMATICs.)
Air (in painting). See AiRIAL PERSPECTIVE.
Air, a town of Africa. See Asp1N.
Air-Bed, a sleeping apparatus made of air-tight cloth
or vulcanized india rubber, divided into compartments and
inflated with air. The coolness, cleanness, and elasticity of
this bed render it desirable for the use of the sick.
Air-Bladder, or Swimming-Bladder, an organ
in fishes which enables them to modify their specific gravity,
and to move easily upward or downward, by increasing or
diminishing the volume of air (in some instances replaced
by nitrogen) in the bladder. This air is supposed to be ob-
tained by secretion. The mackerel and some other species
of fish have no air-bladder. It is the analogue of the lungs
of air-breathing animals.
Air-Cells, in birds, are cavities connected with the res-
piratory system, and are distributed over the inside of the
chest and abdomen. They also penetrate the bones and
quills. Communicating with the lungs, they give a great
extension to the surface with which the air inhaled comes
in contact, and serve to increase the muscular energy and
the animal heat, and to diminish the specific gravity.
AIR-CELLs, in plants, are spaces in the cellular tissue,
containing air. They occur chiefly in aquatic plants.
Air/drie, a market-town and parliamentary borough
of Scotland, in the county of Lanark, 11 miles E. by N.
of Glasgow, with which it is connected by railway. It is
well built and lighted with gas. The growth and prosperity
of Airdrie have been increased by mines of iron and coal
which are worked in the vicinity. Pop. in 1861, 12,922.
Aire-sur-12Adour, an old town of France, on the
river Adour, 20 miles S. E. of Mont de Marsan, is the seat
of a bishop, has a cathedral and a college. It was once the
capital of the Visigoth kings. Pop. in 1866,4885.
Aire-sur-la-Lys, a fortified town of France, in Pas
de Calais, on the river Lys, 10 miles S. E. of St.-Omer. It
has a Gothic church, and manufactures of woollen stuffs,
hats, and soap. Pop. in 1866, 8803.
Air-Gun, an instrument for projecting bullets or other
missiles by means of the elastic force of condensed air. A
strong reservoir of metal is constructed, into which air is
forced by a condensing syringe. The reservoir may be of
any form, but it is most conveniently disposed of by pla-
cing it within the stock. The bullet should fit the barrel
very exactly, so as to leave no windage. On pulling the
trigger, the condensed air escapes through the valve and
rushes with violence into the barrel, propelling the bullet
before it; and the instant the finger is withdrawn from the
trigger, the valve is closed by the pressure of the air in the
magazine, which remains in a somewhat less condensed
state for the next discharge. Thus the same supply of air
in the magazine will serve for several successive discharges,
but the force becomes weaker and weaker after each. The
force with which a projectile is propelled from an air-gun
is commonly much less than that produced by an ordinary
discharge of gunpowder, but they may be so made as to
be very formidable weapons. - •
Air/lie, EARLs of, Barons Ogilvy of Airlie (1491), Barons
Ogilvy of Alyth and Lintrathem (1639, in the Scotch peer-
age), a prominent family of Great Britain. The first earl of
Airlie was created in 1639.-DAv1D GRAHAM DRUMMOND
OGILVY, the tenth earl, was born May 4, 1826, and suc-
ceeded his father in 1849.
Air-Plants, a term applied to certain epiphytic tropi-
cal plants, which hang in festoons from forest trees, and are
able to live suspended in the air, without the presence of
earth or water. The family of Orchidaceae furnishes some
beautiful specimens of air-plants.
Air-Pump, a machine by which a partial vacuum is
formed and air is exhausted from a vessel, was invented
by Otto Guericke in 1654, and subsequently improved by
several persons. It consists of a circular brass plate, on
which is placed a bell-glass, called a receiver, and two-ver-
tical brass cylinders, each of which is furnished with a pis-
ton. By means of a hole in the centre of the plate, and a
connecting tube, a communication is formed between the
receiver and the cylinders. The movement of the piston
expels the air from the cylinders, into which a portion of
air then rushes from the receiver, and a valve is placed at
the mouth of the connecting tube, so that no air can re-
turn into the receiver. Another valve in the piston opens
outward and permits the air to escape. The air-pump is
used in many scientific experiments to demonstrate the
pressure of the atmosphere and various other properties
of air.
Air’y (GEORGE BIDDELL), C. B., LL.D., D. C. L., F. R. S.,
born at Alnwick, Northumberland, June 27, 1801, graduated
I3. A. at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1824, being senior
wrangler. In 1826 he became Lucasian professor of phil-
osophy, and in 1828 Plumian professor of astronomy. In
1835 he was appointed astronomer-royal, and placed in
charge of the Greenwich Observatory. Dr. Airy has at-
tained a very high rank as an astronomer and physicist,
and has written much upon weights, measures, coinage,
railways, and other kindred subjects. He has made im-
portant improvements in astronomical and philosophical
instruments. He wrote the article “Gravitation ” in the
“Penny Cyclopaedia,” and “Trigonometry,” “Figure of
the Earth,” and “Tides and Waves” in the “Encyclopædia
Metropolitana;” also “Mathematical Tracts,” “Ipswich
Lectures on Astronomy,” “Errors of Observation,” trea-
tises on “Sound,” “Magnetism,” etc., besides very nume-
rous and important monographs and papers for periodicals.
Aisne, a river of the N. part of France, rises in the
department of Meuse, flows nearly westward, passes by
Soissons, and enters the Oise near Compiègne. Length,
about 150 miles. The canal of Ardennes connects it with
the Meuse.
Aisne, a department in the N. of France, is bounded
on the N. by the department Nord, on the E. by Ar-
dennes and Marne, on the S. by Seine-et-Marne, and on
the W. by Oise and Somme. Area, 2839 square miles. It
is traversed by the Oise, the Aisne, and the Marne rivers.
The soil is fertile, and the manufacturing industry in this
department is very large. Wheat and hay are among the
staple productions. It is subdivided into 5 arrondisse-
ments, 37 cantons, and 837 communes. Chief town, Laon.
Pop. in 1872, 552,439. -
Aissé (MADEMOISELLE), a Circassian woman, born in
1693, was bought at the age of four years by the French
ambassador in Constantinople, who brought her to France.
Her position in society, together with her romantic adven-
tures, gave her quite a celebrity in the last century. Died
in 1733. Her letters were published, with. notes, by Wol-
taire in 1787, and with notes by Mad. St.-Beuve in 1846.
Ait’kin, a county in the central part of Minnesota.
Area, 720 square miles. It is bounded on the S.W. by Lake
Mille Lacs, and the N. by Cass and Itasca counties. It is
traversed by the Northern Pacific R. R. The surface is un-
dulating. Pop. 178. :
Aitze/ma, van (LIEUWE), a Dutch historian, born at
Doccum in 1600, wrote a “History of the Netherlands from
1621 to 1668" (15 vols.), which is highly commended.
Died in 1669.
Aix, aks (anc. A'quae Sea:'tiae), a city in the S. E. part of
France, in the department of Bouches-du-Rhône, 33 miles
by rail N. of Marseilles. It was formerly the capital of
Provence, and was a celebrated seat of learning in the
Middle Ages. It is the seat of an archbishop, has a fine
cathedral, a city hall (hôtel de ville), a museum, a royal
college, and a public library containing about 100,000 vol-
umes. Here are manufactures of silk and cotton, and warm
mineral springs, from which it derived its ancient name.
Pop. in 1866, 28,152.
Aix, a small town of France, in Savoy, in a delightful
valley 8 miles N. of Chambéry. It is near Lake Bourget,
and has thermal springs, which are much frequented.
Here are some ancient Roman ruins. Pop. in 1866, 4430.
Aix-la-Chapelle [Lat. A/quis Gra'mum; Ger. Aa'-
chem], a city of Rhenish Prussia, is situated on the frontier
of Belgium, and on the railway which connects Liege and
Cologne, 44 miles by rail W. S. W. of the latter. It was
once a famous city, and the capital of the empire of Char-
lemagne, who made it his favorite residence. It is a well-
built, handsome city, with a cathedral founded in 796 A.D.,
a large town-hall, an elegant theatre, a public library, and
several hospitals. Here are celebrated mineral springs, the
AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, CONGRESS OF-AKHLAT.
69
temperature of which is about 112° Fahrenheit. They are
considered efficacious for the cure of the gout, rheumatism,
and cutaneous diseases. This city has important manufac-
tures of fine broadcloths, needles, and pins. The cathedral
contains the tomb of Charlemagne and a collection of relics,
which attract a multitude of visitors. The successors of
Charlemagne and the emperors of Germany were crowned
here from the ninth century until 1531. P. in 1871, 74,238.
Aix-la-Chapelle, Congress’ of. This congress
was held in 1818 for settling the affairs of Europe after the
war of 1815. The king of Prussia and the emperors of
Russia and Austria were present in person. The different
representatives were Metternich, Wellington, Castlereagh,
Hardenburg, Bernstorff, Nesselrode, and Capo d'Istrias,
with Richelieu on behalf of France. Their deliberations
resulted in the withdrawal from French territory of the
army of occupation, and prepared the way for what was
afterwards known as the “Holy ALLIANCE * (which see.)
Aix-la-Chapelle, TREATIES of. I. Treaty of 1668.
This treaty was concluded May 2, 1668, between Louis XIV.
of France on the one side, and the “Triple Alliance,” in-
cluding England, Sweden, and Holland, on the other. At
the death of Philip IV., Louis laid claim, in the name of
his wife, and under the laws of succession of Brabant and
Namur, to a large portion of the Spanish Netherlands. He
had already seized several strongholds and fortresses, when
Holland, becoming alarmed at his rapid progress, concluded
the triple alliance with England and Sweden. Louis, rather
than resort to a war against so powerful a league, deter-
mined to accept mediation; and a treaty of peace was
concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle, by which France retained
possession of Charleroi, Valenciennes, and other strong
towns, which she had already seized.
II. Treaty of 1748. This treaty ended, in 1748, the
Austrian war of succession, in which all the great powers
of Europe were, either on one side or the other, engaged.
Several German princes had disputed the claim of Maria.
Theresa to the throne of Austria, and from this cause the
war arose. It lasted with various success for eight years
(from 1740 to 1748); at the end of which time a peace was
concluded which left the different states with nearly the
same possessions as before.
Aiza’ni, an ancient town of Asia Minor, now in ruins.
Among its ruins, the theatre, with accommodations for over
12,000 spectators, is in a fine state of preservation.
Ajaccio, ä-yāt'cho, or Ajazzo, ä-yāt’so, a seaport,
the capital of Corsica, is on the W. coast, in lat. 41° 54/
N., lon. 8° 44' E. It has a good port defended by a cit-
adel. It has also a cathedral and a library of 18,000 vol-
umes. Wine and olive oil are exported from this town.
Napoleon Bonaparte was born here on Aug. 15, 1769. A
magnificent monument, representing the emperor Napoleon
I., surrounded by his four brothers, was finished in 1865.
Pop. in 1866, 14,558.
Aj'alom, a town of Palestine belonging to the Levites,
in the land of Dan. It was probably on the spot now oc-
cupied by the village of Yālo. Over the valley in which
this town was situated" the moon stood still while Joshua,
pursued the five kings.
Ajanſ, a region of Eastern Africa, whose coast extends
from Cape Guardafui indefinitely southward.
Ajax [Gr. Aias], surnamed THE GREATER, the son of
Telamon, a Grecian hero, was king of Salamis. He acted
a prominent part at the siege of Troy, and exceeded the
other Greek warriors in strength and stature. Having been
defeated by Ulysses in a competition for the armor of
Achilles, he became insane and killed himself.
Ajax, the Son of Oileus, surnamed THE LESSER, to dis-
tinguish him from Ajax the son of Telamon, was king of
Locris. He was one of the Greek heroes that fought at the
siege of Troy, and excelled all the Greeks in swiftness, ex-
cept Achilles. According to tradition, he offended Minerva,
by his impiety, for which he was drowned on his homeward
voyage from Troy.
Ajmeer, Ajmere, or Rajpoota'na, a city of
British India, in the North-west Provinces, capital of a
division and a district of the same name, is 220 miles S. W.
of Delhi, and situated in a picturesque valley. It contains
several massive temples and mosques; also an English and
Oriental school. Pop. estimated at 25,000.
Ak'abah, a fortified village of Arabia, near the N. ex-
tremity of the Gulf of Akabah. (See ELATH.) -
Akabah, Guif of a portion of the Red Sea, lying in
the N. W. part of Arabia, and bounded on the W. by the
peninsula of Sinai. It is about 100 miles long, and has
high and steep shores.
Akan, a post-township of Richland co., Wis. P. 675.
Ak'bar, or Ak/ber (written also Achar and Ack-
bar), Mohammed, surnamed JALĀL-ED-DEEN, a famous
and excellent Mogul emperor, was born at Amerkote, in the
valley of the Indus, in 1542. He was a son of Humāyoon,
whom he succeeded in 1556. He displayed great military
talents and political wisdom, and extended his dominions
by the conquest of Bengal and part of the Deccan. Under
his reign the Christians and Jews were tolerated and pro-
tected. He encouraged literature and promoted commerce.
He ordered a complete survey and census of his empire, the
result of which, with minutely detailed statistics, was re-
corded in a book called “Ayeen Akbery” (“Institutes of
Akbar”), which is very celebrated. Akbar was greatly
distinguished for his justice, humanity, and magnanimity.
He died in 1605, and was succeeded by his son Selim, sur-
named Jehān-Geer.
A/ken, a town of Prussia, in the province of Saxony,
on the left bank of the Elbe, 24 miles S. E. of Magdeburg,
has factories of beet-sugar and chemicals. Pop. in 1871,
5273.
A/kenside (MARK), M.D., an English didactic poet of
high reputation, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne Nov. 9,
1721. He studied medical sciences at Edinburgh, graduated
as M. D. at Leyden in 1744, and practised in London, where
he settled in 1748. His success as a physician was hindered
in some degree by his reserve or lack of affability. His
reputation is founded chiefly on “The Pleasures of the
Imagination,” in blank verse (1744), which was received
with great favor. It was commended by Dr. Johnson “as
an example of great felicity of genius and uncommon am-
plitude of acquisitions.” He wrote several shorter poems
and medical treatises. His “Treatise on Dysentery '' (in
Latin, 1764) proved him to be an excellent classical scholar.
He was appointed a physician to the queen in 1760. Died
June 23, 1770. His character is represented as estimable
and dignified in a high degree.
A/kerblad (Johan DAVID), a Swedish antiquary and
Orientalist, born in 1760. He visited Jerusalem in 1792,
and the Troad in 1797, gained distinction by deciphering
the demotic writing of ancient Egypt, and wrote a “Letter
on the Egyptian Inscription of Rosetta.” (1802). Died
Feb. 8, 1819.
Akerman’, sometimes written Akjerman, or Ak-
lºerman, a fortified town of Bessarabia, on the right bank
of the Dniester, about 4 miles from the Black Sea, and 28
miles S. W. of Odessa. It has a port, numerous factories,
and an extensive trade in salt, etc. A treaty concluded at
Akerman on Sept. 4, 1826, exempted the Danubian prov-
inces from all but a nominal dependence on Turkey. Pop.
in 1867, 29,343. Lat. 46°12' N., lon. 30° 22' E.
Ak’erman (AMos T.), attorney-general of the U. S. for
a short time under Gen. Grant, was born in N. H. in 1823,
but for fourteen or fifteen years previous to his appointment
had been a citizen and practising lawyer of Georgia. He
sided with the Confederates in the late war, but after the
surrender of the Southern arms he advocated the sanction
of the reconstruction measures of Congress, was a member
of the State convention of 1867–68, and acted a prom-
inent part in shaping the new constitution formed by that
body.
Aſker’s, a township of Tuscaloosa co., Ala. Pop. 367.
Aſkers (BENJAMIN), commonly known as PAUL AKERs,
an American sculptor, born at Sacarappa, Me., July 10,
1825, went to Boston in 1840, and made busts of Long-
fellow, Samuel Appleton, and others. Mr. Akers lived
much in Italy, and executed some of his finest works there.
The pieces dome in America were chiefly portrait busts and
medallions, which were highly esteemed as likenesses and
as works of art. He died in Philadelphia, May 21, 1861.
A man of fine sensibility and pure genius, he lived up to
the highest ideal of his art, and was beloved by many
friends.
Akhalies, a class of religious warriors among the Sikhs
in Hindostan. They deny God, believe in fate, and are very
famatical and turbulent. (See NANEKISM.)
Akhaizikh, Akaizik, or Akisſka, a city of Asiatic
Russia, in Georgia, on an affluent of the Koor, about 92
miles W. of Tiflis. . It contains a mosque and several
churches, and has some trade in silk and honey. Many of
the inhabitants are Armenians. The Russians defeated the
Turks near this place in 1828, and it was ceded to Russia
in 1829. Pop. in 1867, 15,977.
Ak-Hissar (i. e. “white castle”), written also Elk-
Hissar (the ancient Thyati'ra), a town of Asia Minor, in
Anatolia, 53 miles N. E. of Smyrna. It contains several
bazaars and about 1300 houses. Here are many ancient
remains. Pop. about 10,000.
Akhlat', a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Armenia, on the
N. W. shore of Lake Wan, 203 miles S. E. of Trebizond.
70
AKIBA—ALABAMA.
It was formerly the seat of the Armenian kings, and is at
present the seat of an Armenian bishop. Pop. about 4000.
Ak’iba (BEN JosłPH), a Jewish rabbi of great learning
and influence, was president of the school of Bene Barak
in the second century A. D. Having joined the rebellion
of Barchochebas, he was flayed and burned by the Romans
at the age of 120 years.
Akmol/linsk, a province of Russia, in Central Asia, is
situated S. of the government of Tobolsk. Area, 244,280
square miles. It consists of a plateau, in the N. level, and
in the S. mountainous, having very little rain. It is fre-
Quently visited by heavy snow-storms. Chief town, Ak-
mollinsk. Pop. in 1867, 226,788.
Alz'ron, a post-township of Peoria co., III. Pop. 1185.
Akron, a post-township of Tuscola co., Mich. P. 585.
Akron, a village in Erie co., N. Y., one of the most im–
portant centres of production of hydraulic cement. It is
in Newstead township, and on the Niagara Falls branch of
the N. Y. Central R. R., 14 miles W. of Batavia. Pop. 444.
Akron, a flourishing city, capital of Summit co., O., on
the Ohio Canal, 36 miles S. of Cleveland, on the highest
point of land between Lake Erie and the Ohio River. The
Atlantic and Great Western, the Cleveland Mount Vernon
and Columbus, and the Valley R. Rs. pass through the city,
which contains 2 woollen, 2 paper, and 7 flouring-mills, 4
foundries, 1 rolling-mill, I blast-furnace, I forge, 3 plan-
ing-mills, 2 manufactories of reapers and mowers, 1 of
pearl barley, 1 of oatmeal and farina, 1 of knives and sic-
kles, 1 of rubber goods, 1 of chains, 1 of matches, and 3 of
sewer-pipes, 2 oil-refineries, 3 machine-shops, I manufactory
of boilers, 2 of ploughs, I of woollen cards, 1 of horse hay-
rakes, 1 of stoves, 1 of iron fences, 10 of stone-ware, 1 of
blank-books. It has also 4 printing-offices, 1 daily and 3
weekly papers, 4 banks (with an aggregate capital of
$1,300,000), 3 public parks, a beautiful cemetery, a public
library, and a high school. It is the seat of Buchtel Col-
lege, and has all the adjuncts of an enterprising and pros-
perous inland city. Pop. 10,006. -
- S. A. LANE, E.D. “BEACON.”
. Akshehr’, or Ak-Sheher (i.e. “white city”), a city
of Asiatic Turkey, in Raramania, about 70 miles N. W. of
Konieh, contains near 1500 houses. It is the ancient Phil-
omelion of Strabo.
Ak'su, a town of East Toorkistan, on a river of its own
name, 250 miles N. E. of Yarkand. It has manufactures
of woollen stuffs and jasper, and is visited by many cara-
vans from all parts of Central Asia. Pop. about 60,000.
Ak’yab, a town of British Burmah, at the mouth of the
Aracam River, 550 miles S. E. of Calcutta. Its situation is
healthy and very advantageous for commerce, with a com-
modious and safe harbor. It has a large trade, especially
of rice, large quantities of which are exported hence. Pop.
about 10,000, mostly Bengalese and Chinese. Here is a
Protestant missionary station.
Al, the Arabic definite article, forms a prefix to many
Oriental names, as Al-Mansoor, “the victorious,” Al-Amin,
“the faithful,” etc.
A’la [a Latin word signifying a “wing ”], a Roman
military term, denoting the wing of an army. At first,
when the whole legion consisted of Roman citizens, it was
applied to the body of horsemen who served with the foot-
soldiers, but after the admission of socii, whether Latini or
Italici, it was applied to the troops of the allies, both horse
and foot, which were stationed on the wings. At a still
later time, the alae were composed of foreign troops serving
with the Roman armies; while under the empire the term
was given to bodies of horsemen raised generally in the
provinces, and serving apart from the legion. (See WING...)
Alaba’ma, a river of the U. S., is formed by the Coosa
and the Tallapoosa, which unite about 10 miles above
Montgomery, in Alabama. It flows nearly westward to
Selma, and afterwards in a general S. W. direction, and
unites with the Tombigbee to form the Mobile River. It is
navigable for large steamboats through its whole extent,
which is about 300 miles. It traverses a fertile region, of
which cotton and maize are the staple products.
Alabama (signifying, in the Creek language, “Here we
rest”), one of the Southern States of the Union, the twenty-
first in the order of its admission. Its extreme limits are be-
tween lat. 30° 15' and 35° N., and between lon. 84° 56' and
88° 48' W. from Greenwich, but the main body of the land
of the State lies between lat. 31° and 35° N., and between
lon. 85° 10' and 88° 31' W. from Greenwich. The extreme
length of the State from N. to S. is 336 miles, and it varies
in breadth from 148 to 200 miles. Its boundary on the N.
is the State of Tennessee on the line of the 35th parallel of
N. lat. ; on the E. the State of Georgia, the Chattahoochee
River forming the dividing line from West Point to the 31st
parallel, about 120 miles, and for the small south-western
section of the State, the Perdido River, which separates it
from Florida, forms the eastern boundary for nearly 60
miles; the southern boundaries are the State of Florida
from the Chattahoochee to the Perdido River, and the Gulf
of Mexico from the mouth of the Perdido to the State line
of Mississippi. On the W. it is bounded by the State of
Mississippi, the Tennessee River forming the extreme north-
western boundary, and causing a slight deviation westward
in the boundary. Its area is 50,722 square miles, or 32,462,080
acres. Negotiations are now in progress for the acquisi-
tion from Florida of the seven counties lying between the
Chattahoochee or Apalachicola and the Perdido, which will
give it about 200 miles of coast, and the excellent harbor
of Pensacola. The surface of the State is generally level,
'except in the northern portion, through which the Blue
Ridge extends, but nowhere attains any great elevation.
From this broken but very beautiful portion there is a
gradual declination towards the S., the surface expanding
into broad prairies with gentle swells, and reaching in the
vicinity of Mobile Bay a level but very little above that of
the Gulf of Mexico. The principal rivers are the Tennessee,
the Mobile, Tombigbee, Alabama, Coosa, Black Warrior,
Perdido, and Chattahoochee, all of them, except the Ten-
nessee, having numerous affluents. The Tennessee sweeps
across the entire northern section of the State from the
N. W. to the N. E. corner, forming an irregular curve, or
rather an obtuse angle, at Guntersville, where it is about
forty miles S. of the northern line of the State. It receives
no considerable tributary on its southern side, and only
Elk River, Flint River, and Paint Rock River, three small
streams, on the northern side in its course through the State.
The Chattahoochee, a large stream, but having no consid-
erable tributaries in the State, forms a part of its eastern
boundary, and discharges its waters into the Gulf. The Per-
dido, a smaller but considerable stream, rises in Escambia
county, and falls into Perdido Bay after a course of about
100 miles. The Escambia and Choctawhatchie rivers, with
their affluents, drain a portion of the southern part of the
State, and discharge their waters into Pensacola and Choc-
tawhatchie Bays on the Florida coast. But much the
greater part of the waters of the State finds their way into
Mobile Bay through the Mobile River and its tributaries.
The Tombigbee, the Alabama, the Coosa, the Cahawba, the
Tallapoosa, and the Black Warrior are all, directly or in-
directly, affluents of the Mobile. The Tombigbee, coming
from Mississippi, receives the waters of the Black Warrior,
and at 50 miles above Mobile Bay unites with the Ala-
bama, which had already received the Coosa, the Talla-
poosa, and the Cahawba. After the junction of the Tom-
bigbee and the Alabama the united rivers receive the name
of the Mobile River. The Tensaw River, a considerable
stream, unites by natural canals with both the Alabama and
the Mobile rivers, but finally makes its way, as an inde-
pendent and parallel stream, to Mobile Bay. The Black
Warrior is navigable for light-draft steamers for 285 miles,
and the Alabama for 300 miles. The Tensaw, Chattahoo-
chee, Tennessee, and Perdido are all navigable for a con-
siderable distance. The whole extent of steamboat river
navigation in the State is nearly 1500 miles. Mobile Bay,
the main outlet of the navigable waters of the State, is in
the extreme south-western part, is about 30 miles long, and
from 3 to 8 broad, and has fifteen feet of water at low tide
at its main entrance. The Smaller bays, Grand, Bonsecours,
and Perdido, are not of much commercial importance,
being shallow, though mostly landlocked.
Geology and Soil.—The southern portion of the State,
extending for 132 miles northward from the Gulf of Mexico
and 40 from the Florida State line, and embracing an area
of 11,000 square miles, belongs to the alluvial, diluvial, and

gle.
a soil of the most extraordinary fertility. In this region,
ALABAMA.
71
tertiary formations, and has a light but productive soil,
easily tilled and well adapted to raising fruits. Corn and
cotton also do well on this soil. There are extensive forests
of pine, and excellent timber and considerable quantities of
tar and turpentine are produced in this region. On the low
lands near the Gulf the cypress and several varieties of the
oak abound. The pine forests afford good natural pas-
turage for cattle. North of this tract, and extending 102
miles northward on the W. side and 60 on the E. side of the
State, is the region known as the Cotton Belt, underlaid
mostly with the Jurassic limestone, with some chalk, mostly
prairie land, declining very slightly towards the S.—a fer-
tile region well adapted to agriculture, and in the past
largely devoted to the culture of the great Southern staple,
cotton. In the eastern and north-eastern part of the State
we find the great mineral region, an extension of the
eozoic rocks from Virginia, North and South Carolina, and
Georgia, in which gold has been found in paying quanti-
ties for so many years. These primitive rocks extend no
farther, however, than Eastern Alabama, and do not quite
reach the banks of the Tallapoosa River, occupying a por-
tion of Lee, Chambers, Tallapoosa, and Randolph counties.
Contiguous to them on the N. N. W. and W. are carbonif-
erous rocks, the bituminous coal region occupying a tract
of 4332 square miles. In this region are also many other
valuable minerals. West of this is a belt of about 35 miles
in width from N. to S. underlaid by palaeozoic rocks, with
a broken surface and a poor soil, but a healthy region,
affording great facilities for manufacturing from its abun-
dant water-power. In the extreme northern part of the
State we come to the valley of the Tennessee, a limestone
region, with broken surface, but with many rich and fertile
valleys, and scenery of great beauty. Here are found lands
adapted to grazing, as well as those which yield large crops
of cotton, corn, cereals, and fruits.
Mineralogy.—The State is rich in minerals. Gold was
discovered in Randolph county in 1836, and mined so suc-
cessfully that $213,750.66 of it had been coined at the U. S.
mint and its branches to June 30, 1872, and the greater
part previous to 1859. The gold is generally found com-
bined with silver, but there is also in the mineral districts :
argentiferous galena in considerable quantities. Copper is
also found, but not in ores sufficiently rich to make its
mining profitable, though it has been attempted in Baine
county. Among other minerals scattered through the State
the mineralogists report syenite, steatite, cobalt, vivianite,
carite, calcite, dolomite, and quartz crystals as existing in
considerable quantities. Potter's, porcelain, and fire clays,
and materials for the production of hydraulic lime; litho-
graphic stone, manganese, sulphate of baryta, slate, and red
ochre, as well as various building stones, are found in such
quantities as to make their exploitation profitable. The
granite of Coosa county is superior, for statuary and mon-
umental purposes, to any other in the U. S., and the white
marble of the same county, and the variegated marbles of
Talladega and the adjacent counties, are not surpassed on
this continent. -
But the most valuable portion of the mineral wealth of
Alabama, consists in her mines of coal and her abundant
iron ores. The coal-fields contain seams of bituminous
coal from one to eight feet thick, of several varieties, some
well adapted for the generation of steam, others equal to
the Liverpool coals for the production of gas and coke, and
still others, of the splint coal variety, admirable for smelting
iron ores. In close proximity to the latter are extensive
beds of iron ore ; the Red Mountain extends across the
State for more than 100 miles, having in its whole course a
stratum of solid red iron ore from two to eight feet thick.
Very extensive beds of the brown hematite iron ore of the
best quality are found in Bibb, Shelby, Jefferson, Talladega,
St. Clair, and Claiborne counties. The iron manufactured
from these ores is of excellent quality. There are numerous
mineral springs, mostly of chalybeate and sulphur waters,
in the State. -
Wegetation.—Extending over more than four degrees of
latitude, and to a point within seven degrees of the tropics,
Alabama combines the vegetable products of the temperate
and semi-tropical regions. In the N. the white, red, cup,
pin, and post oak, the hickory, chestnut, poplar, cedar, elm,
mulberry, and pine, are the principal forest trees. Below
latitude 33° the trees are festooned with the long Spanish
moss, and the forests begin to assume a more semi-tropical
character. In Marengo and Greene counties there were ex-
tensive canebrakes, where the cane, a species of bamboo, had
made large tracts almost impassable by its dense growth.
In the midst of these canebrakes gigantic cedars in groves
or islands, of sombre foliage, towered up through the jun-
These canebrakes have now been cleared, and reveal
below 33°, the deciduous trees very generally give place to
the live-oak, the cypress, the loblolly, the yellow piñe, the
magnolia, and other forest trees of the Gulf region, while
the apples, pears, plums, and hardy peaches are partially
replaced by the fig, the pomegranate, the olive, the apricot,
the scuppernong grape, and the orange. The northern part
of the State is best adapted to the culture of the grasses,
the cereals, and maize, though in the more fertile valleys
considerable cotton is raised. The central and most of the
southern portion is admirably adapted to cotton, and the
State produced, until recently, more of that staple than
any other of the Southern States. Large quantities of
maize are also grown in the central counties. In the S. W.
the Sugar crop is usually successful, and considerable rice is
grown on the wet and low lands. At one time indigo was
raised somewhat extensively and successfully in that por-
tion of the State, but the competition with the East Indian
crop, raised by ryot labor, made it so little profitable that
other crops were substituted for it. The Ramie is now
grown largely in some of the southern counties. Tobacco
is also a crop of some importance. -
200/ogy.—There are still great numbers of deer in the
northern counties, and wild turkeys are abundant. Wild
pigeons, partridges, rabbits, gray squirrels, and other game
are plentiful, while opossums, raccoons, wild-cats, wolves
(the prairie wolf), foxes, and bears are occasionally met
with. Along the rivers and bays wild ducks and teal, and
in their season rice-birds, etc., afford abundant employment
for the sportsman. Lizards and snakes abound in the
swampy regions, and the moccasin and milk snake are par-
ticularly venomous. In some of the streams and bayous
the alligator is found, though less abundant than in Lou-
isiana. Fish are abundant in Mobile Bay and in most of
the rivers, and many of them are of excellent quality and
flavor. , " -
Climate.—This varies with the latitude and elevation. In
the northern counties the climate is delightful. The tem-
perature is seldom below 32° Fahrenheit in winter, and the
elevation is sufficient to prevent the intense heats of a South-
ern summer. Huntsville and Florence on the Tennessee
River are favorite resorts for invalids. There is some
malaria in parts of the valley of the Tennessee, as well as
in some of the other river valleys. In the central counties
the heat is greater, but not oppressive. In 1869 the highest
temperature in the central counties was Aug. 22, 105° Fah-
renheit; the lowest, Feb. 28, 20° Fahrenheit; and the
average mean temperature of the year 62° Fahrenheit.
The average monthly rainfall was 4.58 inches, February
being the wettest, and May the dryest month. In the south-
ern counties there is more malaria and a greater tendency
to fevers. The heat is at times intense, but the nights are
rendered comfortable by the Gulf breeze. In the central
and southern portions of the State, though there is no lack
of water, much of it is not potable or is of very poor
quality. In some of the cities and large towns this evil
has been remedied by boring artesian wells, which often
furnish an ample supply of excellent water. The wells and
springs of the northern counties are of the very best
quality.
Agricultural Products.-Our latest dates of these are for
the year 1871, except cotton, of which the estimate for
1872 is 507,430 bales, or 235,955,240 pounds. According
to the careful estimates of the agricultural department,
the crop of maize or Indian corn of 1871 was 19,080,000
bushels, 1,315,862 acres being cultivated in that crop, and
its estimated value was $17,558,600; of wheat the crop was
832,000 bushels, raised from 132,063 acres, and having an
estimated value of $1,297,720; of rye, only 24,000 bushels,
raised on 2608 acres, and valued at $43,200; of oats, 672,000
bushels, raised on 50,149 acres, and worth $584,640; of bar-
ley, 6000 bushels, occupying 387 acres, and worth $6600;
of potatoes (probably Solanum tuberosum), 157,000 bushels,
from 1847 acres, worth $166,420 (the census return of
sweet potatoes in the State in 1870 was 1,871,360 bushels);
of tobacco (in 1870), 152,742 pounds; and of rice, the same
year, 222,945 pounds (both returns undoubtedly far below
the truth); hay, in 1871, 18,600 tons, from 13,984 acres,
and valued at $362,700; of sugar (cane) in 1870, 31 hogs-
heads, and of molasses (came), 166,009 gallons; of Sorghum
molasses, 267,269 gallons; of butter (in 1870), 3,213,753
pounds; of cheese, the same year, 2732 pounds, and of
milk sold, 104,675 gallons; of beeswax (in 1870) 22,767
pounds, and of honey, 320,674 pounds. The number of
acres of improved land in farms, in 1870, was 5,062,204; of
unimproved lands included in farms, 8,380,332 acres of
woodland, and 1,518,642 acres of other unimproved lands.
The cash value of farms the same year was $67,739,036,
and of farming implements and machinery, $3,286,924.
The estimated value of farm products for the census year
(ending June, 1870) was $67,522,335. The value of orchard.
products in that year is stated at $37,500; of market-gar-
dens, at $139,636; of forest products, $85,933; of home
manufactures, $1,124,513; of animals slaughtered or sold
72
ALABAMA.
for slaughter that year, $4,670,146. The number of horses
in the State in Feb., 1872, was estimated by the agricul-
tural department at 106,700, and their value at $9,297,838;
the number of mules at 101,600, and their value at
$10,752,328; the number of oxen and other cattle at
337,800, and their value at $3,847,542; the number of milch
cows at 180,700, and their value at $3,402,581; the number .
of sheep at 188,100, and their value at $342,342; the num-
ber of swine at 981,000, and their value at $3,590,460.
Manufactures.—Alabama has only recently given much
attention to manufactures, and though her manufacturing
establishments are now increasing with considerable rapid-
ity, she still ranks low in the amount of her manufactured
products. In 1860 there were 1459 manufacturing estab-
lishments in the State, of which 336 were saw-mills, 140
blacksmith-shops, 236 grist-mills, 132 tanneries and leather-
. . dressing establishments, 110 boot and shoe shops, 27 tur-
pentine distilleries, 123 carriage, wagon, and cart factories,
and 32 saddlers’ shops, or in all 1136; so that eleven-four-
teenths of the whole were occupied with the simple and
ordinary mechanisms of an agricultural State. The total
capital invested in manufactures in 1860 was $9,098,191 ;
the cost of raw material was $5,489,963; the number of
hands employed, 7889; the annual cost of labor, $2,132,940;
and the value of products for the year 1859, $10,588,571.
During the war of 1861–65 some of the cities and larger
towns of Alabama were largely engaged in the manufac-
ture of war material—iron plates, cannon, firearms, pow-
der, steamboats, etc.—as well as in the packing of pro-
visions. In 1870 the statistics of her manufactures
were—number of establishments, 2231; capital invested,
$5,713,607; cost of raw material, $7,643,784; number of
hands employed—males, 7489, females, 860—total, 8349;
annual cost of labor, $2,211,638; value of products in
1869, $13,220,655. The manufacture of iron, of machinery,
and of cotton goods had received a remarkable impulse, and
there had been a general increase in all the higher branches
of industry. The manufactured product of the 13 cotton
manufactories in 1870 was $1,088,767, and several large
factories have since been erected.
Railways.-In Jan., 1872, there were 1671 miles of com-
pleted railways in Alabama, of which 786 miles had re-
ceived aid from the State, either in direct bonds or in
endorsements, to the aggregate amount of $15,420,000.
The aggregate cost of the nine railroads which make up
this aggregate for road and equipment cannot be exactly
ascertained, but it does not vary much from $64,000,000.
Most of the Alabama railroads are portions of great trunk
roads connecting the Northern or Southern Atlantic States
with the ports of the Gulf or the Mississippi River, and in
Some cases destined to form links in the connection with
the Pacific coast or with Mexico. Thus, the Alabama, and
Chattanooga R. R. forms one of the important links in
that great combination of railroads now extending from
the St. John’s River in the province of New Brunswick
almost in an air-line to Meridian, Miss., and destined
by the speedy completion of its few remaining gaps soon
to reach the Rio Grande. The Selma, Rome and Dalton
is another and perhaps still more direct link in the same
line, soon to connect directly with New Orleans. The
Mobile and Montgomery and the Montgomery and West
Point are portions of a line which, with the completion of
two or three insignificant gaps in South Carolina, will con-
nect by a very direct line New Orleans and points still far-
ther south-west with Richmond, Yorktown, and Norfolk.
The Selma and Meridian and the Montgomery and Eufau-
la lines form portions of the railroad chain extending from
Brunswick, Ga., which, crossing the Mississippi at Wicks-
burg, takes the name of the Southern Pacific, and following
mainly the 32d parallel of latitude will reach the Pacific
coast in Southern California. The Mobile and Ohio is the
terminal link in a line of railroad which, with but one
short gap, extends from Duluth on Lake Superior to
Mobile. The Memphis and Charleston, crossing the up-
per portion of the State, forms an important section of the
long line which now connects Little Rock, Ark., and Mem-
phis, Tenn., with Richmond, Washington, New York, and
New England, and which will soon be extended westward
along the 35th parallel of latitude to the Pacific. Another
road, as yet incomplete, is destined to connect Mobile
and Charleston, S. C. Two shorter roads connect respect-
ively Selma and Montgomery with the fine port and har-
bor of Pensacola, which by the consent of Florida is soon
to become a port of Alabama; while other roads already
finished make a continuous railroad connection between
Pensacola, Selma, and Montgomery in the South, and
Nashville, Louisville, Evansville, Indianapolis, Chicago,
Milwaukee, and the upper peninsula of Michigan in the
North. No State in the Union is more indissolubly linked
to every other portion by the iron bands of its railways
than Alabama. t
property, was $201,855,841.
Financial Condition.—The assessed valuation of property
in Alabama in 1870 was $155,582,595, of which $117,223,043
was real estate, and $38,359,552 personal property; the cen-
sus valuation the same year, which approximates more nearly
to the actual value, though considerably below it on personal
The total taxes of that year,
aside from the national taxation, were $2,982,929, of which
$1,456,024 were State taxes, $1,122,971 county, and $403,937
town, city, and ward taxes. The entire public debt other
than national, in Jan., 1872, was $20,219,136, of which
$15,420,000 was the State debt, mostly incurred in aiding
railroads; $1,704,173 was county debt, and $3,094,963 was
the debt of towns and cities. The average wealth to each
individual of the population of the State in 1870 was
$202.46; the rate of taxation per $1000, $14.77; the rate
of taxation per head, $2.99; and the ratio of public debt
to the population, $20.30 per head. The taxes are levied
on real estate, and on the following articles of personal
property: real estate bonds, town property, stocks of goods
and merchandise, horses, mules, sheep, and hogs. There
are also licenses, and a poll-tax of about $1.50 for school
purposes. - *
The foreign commerce of the State is mostly conducted
through its principal port, Mobile; the imports into that
§. and district for the year ending June 30, 1872, were
$1,761,402, and the exports (a large proportion being cot-
ton) for the same year were $13,938,605. Probably cotton,
etc. to the value of about $2,000,000 was exported through
New Orleans by way of Memphis, and through Pensacola and
Savannah by railroads and the Chattahoochee River. The
vessels belonging to the customs district of Mobile in the
year ending June 30, 1871, were 42 schooners, 32 sloops, 52
steamers, 96 unrigged vessels, or 222 vessels in all, having
a total tonnage of 18,047 tons. For the year ending June
30, 1872, there were 78 sailing vessels, 34 steamers, and 92
unrigged vessels, having a total tonnage of 13,808 tons.
For the year ending June 30, 1870, 105 American and for-
eign vessels entered the port of Mobile, the tonnage of
which was 70,249 tons, and the crews numbered 1739 men.
The same year 128 vessels cleared from the port, having a
tonnage of 79,738 tons, and crews numbering 1865 men.
In addition to these, 9 ocean steamers, having an aggregate
tonnage of 13,115 tons, entered and cleared from the port
the same year. There are no means of ascertaining the
internal commerce of the State.
Banks.-There were in Jan., 1873, nine National banks
in Alabama—viz. the First National Bank of Mobile, capital
$300,000; the National Commercial Bank of Mobile, capital
$500,000; the First National Bank of Montgomery, cap-
ital $208,208; the Merchants, and Planters’ National Bank
at Montgomery, capital $100,000; the National Bank of
Huntsville, at Madison, capital $100,000; the Selma City
National Bank, capital $250,000; the Gainesville National
Bank, at Gainesville, capital $100,000; the First National
Bank of Tuscaloosa, capital $60,000; and the National Bank
of Birmingham, capital $50,000. There were also at the
same time two State banks, both located in Mobile, having
an aggregate capital of $1,000,000, and five sayings banks,
with capital and accumulations amounting to $672,000, all
of them doing a discount as well as a deposit business.
There were also twenty-two private banking-houses, be-
sides three agencies of the National Freedmen’s Savings
Bank and Trust Company, acting as bankers in the State.
Insurance.—There are two life insurance companies char-
tered by the State, organized in 1868 and 1871, having an
aggregate capital of $500,000 and aggregate assets of
$1,074,311; and eleven fire insurance companies, with an
aggregate capital of $1,385,000 and aggregate assets of
$1,406,000. The greater part of the underwriting, both of
life and fire insurance, is, however, in the hands of agencies
of companies from other States and countries.
Population.—Alabama appears for the first time in the
census of 1820, when her population was 127,901, and her
relative rank among the States in population was nine-
teenth. In 1830 it was 309,527, and she ranked fifteenth;
in 1840 it was 590,756, entitling her to the twelfth place;
in 1850 it was 771,623, and she still maintained the twelfth
place; in 1860 it was 964,201, but owing to the rapid
growth of the Western States she was now thirteenth. In
1870, owing to her heavy losses during the war, the popu-
lation had only increased to 996,992, and she held the six-
teenth place in population. In 1820 there were 41,879 slaves
and 571 free colored persons in the State; in 1830, 117,549
slaves and 1572 free colored; in 1840, 253,532 slaves and
2039 free colored; in 1850, 342,844 slaves and 2265 free
colored; in 1860, 435,080 slaves and 2690 free colored; in
1870 there were no slaves, but 475,510 free colored persons.
The number of white persons at these dates was—in 1820, .
85,451; in 1830, 190,406; in 1840, 335,185; in 1850,
426,514; in 1860, 526,271; in 1870, 521,384. In 1860
there were 160 Indians, and in 1870, 98 Indians. But a
ALABAMA.
73
very small portion of the population are of foreign birth
or parentage. Only 9962 are reported as foreign born,
16,981 as having both parents foreigners; 20,765 as hav-
ing a foreign father, and 18,060 a foreign mother; and
Fº enumerations vary but little from these numbers.
n the matter of sex, of the entire population 488,738 are
males, and 508,254 females; of the native population,
482,470 are males and 504,560 females; of those of foreign
birth, 6268 are males and 3694 females; of the whites,
255,023 are males and 266,361 females; of the colored,
233,677 are males and 241,833 females; a further distinc-
tion is made between negroes, of whom 213,987 are males
and 219,711 females, and mulattoes, of whom 19,690 are
males and 22,122 females. The density of population for
the whole State is 19.66 persons to the square mile; but the
density map of the ninth census report shows that while
the eastern, north-eastern, and a small district of the north-
ern and western portions have a population of about thirty
to the square mile, the remainder of the State, except the
city of Mobile, has not more than eight or nine inhabitants
to the square mile.
Education.—The number of children of school age (be-
tween five and twenty-one years) in the State in 1871 was
387,057; of these 77,139 (38,600 males and 38,539 females)
reported themselves as having attended school during some
part of the year 1869–70. Table xii. of the ninth census
gives the reported attendance upon the schools of the State
as 75,866 (37,223 males and 38,643 females), under the
charge of 3364 teachers (2372 males and 992 females). The
attendance on schools is said to have increased somewhat
since 1870, but no statistics are given. The income of all
educational institutions in the State in 1869–70 was
$976,351, of which $39,500 was from endowments, $471,161
from taxation and public funds, and $465,690 from other
sources, including tuition. Of this income $629,626 be-
longed to the public schools, of which there were 2812,
which had 3008 teachers and 67,263 pupils that year.
This income was composed of the following items: from
endowments, $8000; from taxation and public funds,
$447,156; from other sources, $174,470. In IS71 the funds
were increased from taxation to the extent of over $90,000,
and in 1872 about $110,000 more. Of these public schools,
14 were normal schools, or rather normal classes, mostly
connected with the colleges, having 25 teachers and 488
pupils; 4 were high schools, with 6 teachers and 170 schol-
ars; 10 were grammar schools, with 10 teachers and 200
scholars; and 2784 were graded and ungraded common
schools, with 2967 teachers (817 females) and 66,405 pupils.
Of the Schools not public, 9 were colleges and universities,
besides 7 other female colleges and seminaries, with 65 in-
structors and 667 students. The colleges had 63 professors
and teachers, 1026 students, and $108,800 income, of which
$31,500 was from endowment. There are 46 academies,
with 132 teachers, 3086 pupils, and $142,750 of income.
There are 2 theological and I medical professional school,
the former having 4 instructors and about 25 students, and
the latter 7 instructors and 30 students. The University
of Alabama, at Tuscaloosa, was liberally endowed with
lands by the U. S., the greater part of which have been
sold, and yield a large income for its support. It still owns
about 500 acres, and has new, large, and commodious build-
ings for instruction and dormitories, an observatory, a presi-
dent's mansion, and five houses for professors. Its coal-
lands yield an annual rental of sufficient coal for fuel. The
university has been, however, since the war, in a greatly
depressed condition, and has had but a small number of
students. Some changes were made in its officers and or-
ganization in 1871, since which it is reported to be doing
better. Howard College, at Marion, is a flourishing college,
though insufficiently endowed. It is under the control of
the Baptists, and in 1872 had 6 professors, 121 students,
and a library of 5000 volumes. The East Alabama College,
at Auburn, which in 1871–72 established a scientific, indus.
trial, and agricultural department, and received the Con-
gressional agricultural land-grant to the State, is under the
control of the Methodist Episcopal Church South, and in
1871–72 had 7 professors and 98 students in the collegiate de-
partment, and 3 professors and 59 students in the scientific
department. The Southern University, at Greensborough,
founded in 1855, is also under the control of the Methodists.
Spring Hill College, at Spring Hill, near Mobile, is a Ro-
man Catholic institution, founded in 1835. In 1872 it had
18 instructors and 52 students. The other colleges of the
State are Florence University (Presbyterian) and Wesleyan
College (Methodist) at Florence, La Grange College (Presby-
terian) at La Grange, and Talladega College at Talladega.
The seven female colleges are respectively under the control
of the Presbyterians, Methodists, Episcopals, Baptists, and
the Methodist Episcopal Church South. They are all pros-
perous, and had an aggregate in 1872 of 58 teachers and
667 students. There are two theological seminaries in the
State—the theological department of Howard College (Bap-
tist) at Marion, and the Ecclesiastical Seminary of the dio-
cese of Mobile (Roman Catholic) at South Orange. The
Medical College of Alabama, at Mobile, organized in 1856,
has 11 instructors, and gives a free course of lectures.
There is one institution for the deaf and dumb and the blind,
at Talladega, having, in 1871, 4 teachers, 64 pupils (50
deaf mutes and 14 blind), and $12,005 income. Besides
these there were 83 day and boarding Schools, having 97
teachers, 3129 pupils, and an income of $70,870; and 17
parochial and charity schools, with 52 teachers and 1256
scholars, and a reported income of only $500. The manage-
ment of educational affairs in the State is in the hands of a
State board of education, consisting of the State superin-
tendent of public schools, who is its presiding officer, and
two members from each of the eight Congressional districts,
who are elected by the people for four years. The governor
is an eac officio member of the board, but has no vote. The
State superintendent is elected on the State ticket for
four years. The board of education are also a board of
regents of the State University, and appoint its president
and faculties. There is a county superintendent for each
of the sixty-five counties, elected by the voters of the county,
and in each county these superintendents, with two other
persons, constitute the county boards. There are also town-
ship boards, consisting of three trustees, who are the con-
tracting parties in engaging teachers, who must, however,
have the certificate of the county board before they can
teach. The school fund (from the sale of school lands)
amounted in 1872 to $3,051,746.92. It is invested so as to
yield 8 per cent. interest. The other sources from which
school income is derived are—special appropriations by the
State or individuals, escheated estates, military exemptions,
an annual appropriation of one-fifth of the revenue, and a
poll-tax of $1.50. In Jan., 1872, the amount devoted to
public schools was about $855,000. After paying the other
expenses of the school department, there remained a divi-
dend of $1.33 for each child of school age.
In 1869–70 there were in the State 383,012 persons over
ten years of age who could not write, and 349,771 of these
could not read. Of these, 22,856 were white males and
20,773 white females between the ages of ten and twenty-one
years; while 48,430 whites were over twenty-one years of
age; 50,007 were colored males and 51,530 colored females
between the ages often and twenty-one years; while 189,36]
were colored persons over twenty-one years of age. In
Mobile, while there were 5473 children attending school,
there were 7916 of ten years old and over who could not
read, and 9106 of the same age who could not write. Of
these, 1004 were whites and 8102 colored.
Libraries.—Of these, of all classes, there were in 1870 in
the State 1430, containing an aggregate of 576,882 volumes.
Of these, 1132 were private libraries, containing 490,305
volumes, while 298, containing 86,577 volumes, were public
libraries. Among these, 1 was the State Library, having
3000 volumes; 4 were town or city libraries, having only
800 volumes in all; 33 were court or law libraries, with
7785 volumes; 12 were college or school libraries, having
23,300 volumes; 239 were Sabbath-school libraries, with
49,517 volumes; and 9 were church. Iibraries, with 2175
volumes. * e *
Newspapers and Periodicals.--The ninth census gives to
Alabama. 89 periodicals of all classes, having an aggregate
circulation of 91,165, and issuing annually 9,198,980 copies.
In 1860 there were 96 periodicals, with an aggregate circu-
lation of 93,595, but issuing annually only 7,175,444 copies.
Of those published in 1870, 9 were daily newspapers, hav-
ing a circulation of 16,420; 2 tri-weekly, with a circulation
of 700; 2 semi-weekly, with a circulation of 2870; and 76
weekly, with a circulation of 71,175. Of these, 87 Were
political, having a circulation of 88,665, and issuing an-
nually 9,068,980 copies; and 2 were religious, having a CII’-
culation of 2500, and issuing annually 130,000 copies.
Churches.—The statistics of the census of 1870 in regard
to churches in all the Southern States are necessarily in-
complete, and at best only an approximation to the facts.
The census reports 2095 church organizations of all de-
nominations; 1958 church edifices, 510,810 sittings, and
$2,414,515 as the value of church property. These aggre-
gates are unquestionably considerably below the truth. It
reports 786 Baptist churches, 769 church edifices, 189.650
sittings, value of church property $535,650 (the “Bap-
tist Almanac" for 1873 gives the number of associations as
44; of churches, 1162; of ordained ministers, 574; of com-
municants, 74,871); of minor Baptist organizations it reports
3 churches, 3 church edifices, 550 sittings, $1000 of church
property; of the Christians, 19 churches, 19 church edifices,
5750 sittings, $10,050 of church property; of Congrega;
tionalists, 4 churches, 2 church edifices, 650 sittings, $7800
of church property (the “Congregational Quarterly” for
Jan., 1873, reports, for 1872, 5 churches, 6 ordained min-
74
ALABAMA.
isters, 204 communicants); of the Protestant Episcopal
Church, 50 churches, 38 edifices, 15,520 sittings, $264,600
of church property (the “Church Almanac" for 1873 reports
I diocese, 30 clergymen, 42 parishes, 3046 communicants);
of Jews, 2 congregations, 2 synagogues, 1650 sittings,
$300,000 of ecclesiastical property; of Methodists, 991
churches, 892 edifices, 218,945 sittings, $787,265 of church
property (the “Methodist Episcopal Church Minutes” re-
port for 1872, 84 itinerant ministers, 165 local preachers, 131
church edifices, 9052 communicants; and the Methodist
Episcopal Church South, the same year, 228 itinerant min-
isters and local preachers, 483 churches, and 25,514 mem-
bers); of Presbyterians (Church South), 145 churches, 143
edifices, 50,215 sittings, $322,550 of church property; of
other Presbyterian bodies, 57 churches, 57 edifices, 17,400
sittings, $37,150 of church property; of Roman Catholics,
there were I diocese, 20 congregations, 19 church edifices,
6730 sittings, $409,000 of church property; of Universalists,
6 congregations, 2 edifices, 550 sittings, $1400 of church
property; of union churches, 12 congregations, 12 edifices,
3200 sittings, $8550 of church property.
Constitution.—The present constitution of Alabama was
adopted in 1866, but has been largely amended. The
governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, auditor,
treasurer, and attorney-general are chosen by the electors
on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. All
hold office for two years, except the auditor, whose term is
four years. The house of representatives must not ex-
ceed 100 members, apportioned according to the population,
but each county has at least one member. The senators are
elected from senatorial districts; they must not be less than
25 or more than 33 in number, and serve for four years,
while the representatives are elected for but two years.
They must be electors and residents of the State, and the
senators must in addition be twenty-seven years of age or
upward. In all elections by the people the vote is by bal-
lot. All male citizens, twenty-one years of age, who have
resided in the State for six months next preceding the elec-
tion, and have taken the oath to support the Constitution
and laws of the U. S. and of Alabama, are entitled to vote.
All persons resident in the State, born in the U. S., or per-
sons who have legally declared their intentions to become
citizens of the U. S., shall be citizens of Alabama. Tem-
porary absence from the State does not cause a forfeiture of
residence. All able-bodied male citizens between the ages
of eighteen and forty-five are liable to military duty. One
major-general and three brigadier-generals are appointed
by the governor, subject to confirmation by the senate.
The adjutant-general and other staff officers are appointed
by the governor. The militia is divided into two classes,
the volunteer and the reserve force. Officers and men re-
ceive no pay when not in active service.
Judiciary.—The judicial power is vested in a supreme
court, circuit courts, chancery courts, courts of probate, and
such inferior courts as the General Assembly may estab-
lish from time to time. The Supreme court has appellate
jurisdiction only, and must be held at the seat of govern-
ment twice every year. The State is divided into circuits,
each of which must include not less than three nor more
than eight counties, and a judge is chosen for each circuit,
whose term of office, like the supreme, and chancery court
judges, is six years.
which he is chosen, and hold court in each county of his
district twice every year. The circuit court has original
jurisdiction in all matters civil and criminal within the
State not otherwise excepted by the constitution, but in civil
eases only when the sum in controversy exceeds $50. There
are now twelve circuit districts in the State. There are
three supreme court judges, twelve circuit court judges, and
five chancellors of the court of chancery. The judges of
these higher courts can hold no other office of profit and
trust under the State or U. S. during their term of office.
Judges of the lower courts, justices, and constables are
elected by the people in each county. The clerk of the su-
preme court is appointed by the judges. The other clerks
of courts are elected by the people for six years. The at-
torney-general must reside at the seat of government. A
solicitor must be appointed for each county.
Principal Towns.—Mobile, the only considerable seaport
of the State, and next to New Orleans the most important
commercial city of the Gulf States, is situated on Mobile
Bay, and had a population in 1870 of 32,034. Montgom-
ery, the capital of the State, situated on the Alabama
River, had in 1870 a population of 10,588. The other
towns and cities of the State having between 3000 and
7000 inhabitants are—Selma, on the Alabama, 6484; Hunts-
ville, on the Tennessee, 4907; Eufaula, on the Chattahoo-
chee, 3185. Those having between 1000 and 2000 inhab-
itants are—Talladega, 1933; Tuscaloosa, on the Black
Warrior, 1689; and Tuscumbia, on the Tennessee, 1214.
Representatives in Congregg.—Under the new apportion-
He must reside in the circuit for
ment of Dec. 14, 1871, Alabama is entitled to eight repre-
sentatives in Congress. They are all chosen by districts.
Population Population Populati
Countries. #. *. Pºon
Autauga....................... 11,623 16,73 15,023
Baker........................... 6,194
Baldwin ....................... 6,004 7,530 4,414
Barbour........................ 29,309 30,812 23,632
Bibb............................. 7,469 11,894 9,969
Blount ......................... 9,945 10,865 7,367
Bullock........................ 24,474
Butler.......................... 14,981 18,122 10,836
Calhoun....................... 13,980 21,539 17,163
Chambers..................... 17,562 23,214 23,960
Cherokee ..................... 11,132 18,360 13,884
Choctaw....................... 12,676 13,877 8,389
Clarke.......................... 14,663 15,049 9,786
Clay............................. 9,560
Cleburne...................... 8,017
Coffee........................... 6,171 9,623 5,940
Colbert ........................ 9,574 11,311 9,322
Conecuh....................... 12,537
COOSa 11,945 19,273 14,543
Covington.................... 4,868 6,469 3,645
Crenshaw..................... 11,156
Dale. .......................... 11,325 12,197 6,382
Dallas.......................... 40,705 33,625 29,727
De Kalb....................... 7,126 10,705 8,245
Elmore......................... 14,477
Escambia...................... 4,041
Etowah........................ 10,109
Fayette........................ 7,136 12,850 9,681
Franklin...................... 8,006 18,627 19,610
Geneva......................... 2,959
Greene ........................ 18,399 30,859 31,441
Hale............................. 21,792 - v3
Henry.......................... 14,191 14,918 9,019
Jackson........................ 19,410 18,283 14,088
Jefferson...................... 12,345 11,746 8,989
Lauderdale................... 15,091 17,420 17,172
Lawrence..................... 16,658 13,975 15,258
Lee.............................. 21,750
Limestone.................... 15,017 15,306 16,483
Lowndes...................... 25,719 27,716 21,915
Macon.......................... 17,727 26,802 26,898
Madison....................... 31,267 26,451 26,427
Marengo........... * * * * * * e º e e º 'º 26,151 ^ 31,171 27,831
Marion......................... 6,059 11,182 7,833
Marshall...................... 9,871 11,472 8,846
Mobile 49,341 41,131 27,600
Monroe......................... 14,214 15,667 12,013
Montgomery................. 43,704 35,904 29,711
Organ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,187 11,335 10,125
Perry........................... 24,975 27,724 22,285
Pickens........................ 17,690 22,316 21,512
Pike............................. 17,423 24,435 15,920
Randolph..................... 12,006 20,059 11,581
Russell......................... 21,636 26,592 19,548
Sanford........................ 8,893
Shelby......................... 12,218 12,618 9,536
St. Clair....................... 9,360 11,013 6,829
Sumter......................... 24,109 24,035 22,250
Talladega....... ------------- 18,064 23,520 18,624
Tallapoosa * @ e 16,963 23,827 15,584
Tuscaloosa................... 20,081 23,200 18,056
Walker........................ 6,543 7,980 5,124
Washington................. 3,912 4,669 2,713
Wilcox...................... * e e 28,377 24,618 17,352
Winston........... s s e < * * * * * * * * 4,155 3,576 1,542
History.—The first settlement made in the limits of this
State by whites was in 1702, when Bienville erected a fort
near Mobile Bay. In 1711 a small French colony was
planted on the present site of Mobile, and in 1713 was
fully organized. In 1763 all the territory now comprised
in the State lying N. of the 31st parallel, and extending
westward to the Mississippi River, was ceded by France to
Great Britain, and by the treaty of peace with Great
Britain in 1783 became a part of the territory of the U. S.
It was attached to Georgia, except a strip 12 miles wide,
adjoining the State of Tennessee, which was claimed by
South Carolina. In 1802 the territory from the Chatta-
hoochee to the Mississippi, lying between the 31st and
35th parallels, was ceded to the U. S. by Georgia and
South Carolina, and organized as Mississippi Territory.
As yet, however, this territory had no access to the Gulf
except through French or Spanish territory, the peninsula
of Florida and the Gulf coast to the mouth of Amite
River, and thence across to the Mississippi, extending
northward to the 31st parallel, having been ceded by
France to Spain. During the war of 1812 with Great
Britain that part of the Spanish territory lying between the
Perdido and Pearl rivers was occupied by the U. S. troops
as a precautionary measure, and finally annexed to Missis-
sippi Territory. The difficulties growing out of this seizure
were subsequently settled by the purchase of the entire
territory held by Spain in 1819. In 1813 and 1814 the
Creek Indians inhabiting the present State of Alabama be-
came very troublesome, and finally attacked and captured
Fort Mimms on the Alabama River, near its junction with
the Tombigbee, Aug. 30, 1813, and killed 380 whites who
w
ALABAMA-ALABAMA, CLAIMS.
had taken refuge there. Gen. Jackson at once marched
into the Creek country with a strong force, and, following
up the Indians very promptly, reduced them to complete
subjection in a series of engagements in which their loss
was 1617 killed, and his 100 killed and 400 wounded.
After the battle of Horseshoe Bend, Mar. 27, 1814, in which
the Creeks lost about 600 killed, they signed a treaty of
peace in which they gave up three-fourths of their terri-
tory. Emigration to the fertile lands along the Alabama
River and its tributaries now increased, and in 1817, Mis-
sissippi having been admitted into the Union as a State,
Alabama was organized as Alabama Territory, and on the
2d of Aug., 1819, adopted a constitution under which it was
admitted to the Union Dec. 14, 1819, having at that time
127,901 inhabitants. Alabama, was actively concerned,
with Georgia and Mississippi, in effecting the removal of
the Indian tribes in those States to the present Indian
Territory. As one of the largest slaveholding States in the
Union, Alabama uniformly acted up to what were consid-
ered the interests of its section, taking strong ground in
favor of the annexation of Texas, resisting all measures
for the restriction of slave territory, and opposing with
great vehemence what its political leaders characterized as
Northern aggressions. In the presidential campaign of
1860, when it became probable that Mr. Lincoln would be
elected, or at all events that Mr. Breckinridge would be
defeated, an active correspondence was maintained between
the political leaders in Alabama, and those of other South-
ern States as to the best measures to bring about the seces-
sion of the Southern States and the formation of a South-
ern confederacy. Gov. Moore of Alabama sent a com-
missioner to the convention of South Carolina, which met
Dec. 17, 1860, urging them to secede. He had issued his
proclamation for an election of delegates to a convention
in Alabama, on Dec. 6. The delegates were elected on the
24th of that month, and met at Montgomery Jan. 7, 1861,
and the ordinance of secession was passed Jan. 11, 1861—
yeas 61, mays 39; and before adjourning the convention
called for delegates from all the Southern States to meet
at Montgomery, Ala., on the 4th of Feb., 1861, to organize
a Southern confederacy. That convention met, organized
a provisional government, elected Jefferson Davis Presi-
dent of the Confederacy, and Alexander H. Stephens Vice-
President, and the new President having chosen his cabi-
net and a Confederate Congress being provided for, they
adjourned, making Montgomery, for the time, the capital
of their Confederacy. In July, 1861, the capital and Con-
gress were removed to Richmond. Gov. Moore had already
(in Jan., 1861) seized the U. S. arsenal and arms in Mobile,
had occupied with State troops Fort Morgan in Mobile
Bay, and had taken possession of the revenue cutter Cass.
In the progress of the war Alabama took an active part,
though the northern portion of the State contained a strong
Union party. Several severe battles were fought within the
limits of the State—notably, the naval actions and the cap-
ture of the forts in Mobile Bay in Aug., 1864, the siege and
capture of Mobile in Mar. and April, 1865, and the capture
of Selma and other towns by Gen. Wilson in April, 1865.
There were also minor conflicts at Athens, Montevallo,
Scottsboro’, Talladega, and Tuscumbia. After the close of
the war Alabama was in the same condition with the other
Southern States. President Johnson appointed a pro-
visional governor June 21, 1865, and pending measures of
reconstruction the State was placed under military control.
On the 25th of Sept., 1865, a State convention met and an-
nulled the ordinance of secession, and in December follow-
ing the provisional governor was withdrawn and the State
allowed to manage its own affairs, subject only to some
slight supervision of the military authorities. In Aug.,
1867, Gen. Pope, commanding the third military district,
ordered an election of delegates to a State convention to
prepare a new constitution and civil government for the
State. The convention met Nov. 5, 1867, and the consti-
tution was submitted to the people Feb. 4, 1868. There
was much opposition to it, and many of those opposed
stayed away from the polls. The result was, that though
the constitution received a majority of the votes cast, it did
not receive a majority of those registered, and hence was
deemed to have been rejected. Most of its provisions have,
however, since been engrafted on the existing constitution.
The State was admitted to a representation in Congress by
an act passed over the President's veto June 25, 1868.
There was great suffering in consequence of the desola-
tion of the country by the war, the failure of crops, and
the difficulty of readjusting labor on the new basis, during
the transition period of 1865–67; and subsequently the
number of disfranchised persons at first, though these were
mostly soon restored to their political rights, the attempts
of a few misguided men to coerce the newly enfranchised
people of color by threats, and the suspicions entertained by
many of these against their former masters, led to some
75
disturbances and outrages, and to fears of more. Happily,
ere long better counsels prevailed; the necessity of retriev-
ing her position as a State financially, socially, and politi-
cally led the citizens of Alabama to unite to preserve peace
and order, and with returning prosperity a better state of
feeling took the place of the old bitterness, and mutual
toleration led the way to mutual regard. The State officers
and legislature granted the State credit somewhat too freely
for their existing financial condition to some of the great
railroad enterprises of the State, as they found to their
cost in 1870 and 1871; but fortunately, the error, though
complicated by the mismanagement of the officials of a
neighboring State, was not irretrievable, and the judicious
management of the governor and his advisers and the leg-
islature relieved the State from what seemed at first a seri-
ous embarrassment. On the whole, Alabama has passed
through the crucial period of her history, the period of re-
construction, with less disturbance or disorder than most
of the Southern States; and with the return of financial
prosperity, and the development of the mineral, agricul-
tural, manufacturing, and commercial resources of the
State by the great railroad lines now traversing it, there is
every reason to believe that she will enter on a new and
more rapid period of growth and advancement. There will
be occasional troubles, of course, but these will be adjusted
without the interference of the general government and
without serious disorder. In the autumn and winter of
1872–73 there was a marked instance of such an adjust–
ment. The two political parties which divide the State
were so evenly balanced that both claimed a majority in
the Legislature, a part of whose members were elected in
Nov., 1872; and so strenuous was their opposition to each
other that there was a bolt at the very commencement of
the session. One party, calling themselves Conservatives,
assembled at the capitol in Montgomery, were duly organ-
ized by the officers of the previous legislature, and secured
a quorum in both houses. The other party, claiming to be
Republicans, organized as a legislature in the U. S. court-
room at Montgomery, but Mr. Lindsay, the retiring gov-
ernor of the State, himself a Conservative, refused to rec-
ognize the court-room legislature. The incoming governor,
Mr. David P. Lewis, who was elected as a Republican, rec-
ognized each in turn; at first, there seemed to be danger
of collision, but after some bitterness and denunciation
the two legislatures were fused into one, and a spirit of
harmony gained the ascendency.
Governors of the State.
William W. Bibb......... 1819–20 | Henry W. Collier....... 1849-53
Thomas Bibb.............. 1820–21 | John A. Winston........ f853–57
Israel Pickens............ 1821–25 | Andrew B. Moore....... Í857–61
John Murphy............ 1825–29 . John Gill Shorter....... f861–63
Gabriel Moore............ 1829–31 | Thomas H. Watts....... 1863–65
John Gayle................. 1831–35 | Lewis E. Parsons, Prov. 1865–65
Clement C. Clay.......... 1835–37 || Robert M. Patton....... 1865–68 .
Arthur P. Bagby......... 1837–41 || William H. Smith...... 1868–70
Benjamin Fitzpatrick. 1841–45 || Robert B. Lindsay...... 1870–72
Joshua L. Martin........ 1845–47 | David P. Lewis........... 1872–
Reuben Chapman....... 1847–49
Electoral and Popular Vote at Presidential Elections.
No. of º
year. Electoral |** ***, *| Popular vote for each Candidate.
Votes. date.
1820 3 |Monroe. Unanimous for Pres’dt Monroe.
1824 5 Jackson. Jackson, 9443; Adams, 2416;
Crawford, 1680; Clay, 67.
1828 5 |Jackson. Jackson, 17,138; Adams, 1938.
1832 7 Jackson. Unanimous for Pres'dt Jackson.
1836 7 Van Buren. Van Buren, 20,506, White, 15,612.
1840 7 Van Buren. Vº Buren, 33,991; Harrison,
,471.
1844 9 |Polk. Polk, 37,740; Clay, 26,084.
1848 9 Cass. Cass, 31,363; Taylor, 30,482.
1852 9 Pierce. Pierce, 26,881; Scott, 15,038.
1856 9 |Buchanan. Bººn, 46,739; Fillmore,
28,552.
1860 9 |Breckinridge. Breckinridge, 48,831; Bell, 27,875;
- Douglas, 13,651.
1864 - No vote. No vote.
1868 8 |Grant. Grant, 76,366; Seymour, 72,088.
1872 10 Grant. Grant, 90,272; Greeley, 79,444.
L. P. BROCKETT.
Alabama, a township of Columbia co., Ark. P. 866.
Alabama, a township of Sacramento co., Cal. P. 336.
Alabama, a post-township of Genesee co, N. Y. It
contains fine water-power, and the “Oak Orchard” acid
mineral springs, nine in number. Their waters are largely
used for their tonic effect. One-fourth of the township is
occupied by the Tonawanda Indian Reservation. P. 1805.
Alabama Claims. The protracted negotiations, the
treaty of Washington resulting therefrom, and the arbitra-
tion at Geneva by which this treaty was in part executed,
may justly be deemed as forming the most important eaw8e
célèbre of modern diplomacy. The claims themselves were
76
ALABAMA CLAIMS.
made by the government of the U. S. in favor of certain of
its citizens and of itself upon the government of Great
Britain, on account of the acts of certain warlike vessels
which sailed from British ports in the interest or employ
of the Confederate States during the war of the rebellion in
the U. S. The treaty of Washington describes them as
“ differences [which] have arisen between " [the two gov-
ernments], “and still exist, growing out of the acts com-
mitted by the several vessels which have given rise to the
claims generically known as the Alabama claims.” The
Confederate cruisers in respect of which the U. S. made any
reclamations before the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva,
should be separated into two classes: first, those which were
substantially fitted out and adapted to warlike use in Great
Britain, so that they actually commenced their hostile
careers by sailing from a British port; and secondly, those
which commenced their hostile careers in the Confederate
service within other territorial jurisdictions.
First Class.-The Florida was an iron screw gunboat.
The contract for her was made in 1861 by Bullock, the Con-
federate agent in England having the matter in charge,
with a firm of builders in Liverpool. Her object and des-
tination were well known at that place, but the formal pre-
tence was kept up that she was designed for the Italian
navy. She sailed for Nassau on the 23d of Mar., 1862, with
a crew of fifty-two men, all British except three or four, of
whom only one was an American. She was in every respect
a man-of-war, except that her armament was not in place,
but she could have been put in complete preparation for
battle in twenty-four hours. While she was preparing to
sail, shot, shells, etc. were sent by river from Liverpool to
Hartlepool, and there shipped on board the steamer Bahama,
which left for Nassau, and there joined the Florida. All
these facts were from time to time diligently brought to the
attention of the British authorities by Mr. Adams, the
American minister, and by Mr. Dudley, the American con-
sul at Liverpool. At Nassau certain abortive proceedings
against the Florida were undertaken by the colonial gov-
ernment. She sailed from Nassau on the 8th of August,
having cleared for St. John, New Brunswick. At the same
time, a schooner laden with the shot, shell, and other mu-
nitions of war sailed from Nassau, and met her at a neigh-
boring island, where the transfer was made, and the Florida.
immediately set out on a hostile cruise. On the 4th of Sep-
tember she ran. through the blockading squadron into Mo-
bile, by pretending to be a British man-of-war and flying
the British flag. On the 26th of Jan., 1863, she escaped
from Mobile. Her career as a Confederate cruiser ended
Oct. 7, 1864. Three of her captures, the Clarence, the
Talcony, and the Archer, were fitted out and armed as her
tenders, and aided in the work of destruction. During her
cruises she was repeatedly received into British ports, and
permitted to repair and to take in full supplies of provis-
ions and coals. She and her tenders captured and destroyed
American merchant-vessels and cargoes amounting in value
to many millions of dollars.
The Alabama was built for speed, and not intended for
fighting, and was manned by British subjects. She was a
wooden steam sloop of about 1040 tons register, built for
the Confederate States by Laird & Sons at Birkenhead, in
England, and was called “No. 290,” from her number in
the list of steamers constructed by that firm. She was
barque-rigged, was furnished with two engines of 350 horse-
power each, and was pierced for twelve guns. Strict pre-
cautions were taken to keep her destination a secret, but
the suspicions of the agents of the U. S. having been excited
before she was quite finished, the minister of the U. S. re-
quested the British government to detain her. The British
ministers consulted the Crown lawyers, and after some delay,
caused by the illness of the queen's advocate, an opinion
was given in favor of detaining her. In the mean time, the
“No. 290” had escaped, under a pretext of a trial trip, near
the end of July, 1862. She was not equipped, with guns
and warlike stores when she left the Mersey, but received
them at Terceira, whither they were conveyed by another
vessel. In August, 1862, Capt. Semmes took command of
the steamer, which he named the Alabama, and began his
cruise with a crew of eighty men. He burned the merchant-
vessels which he captured, being unable to take them into
any port of the Confederate States in consequence of the
blockade. The Alabama, never entered any port that was
possessed by the Confederate States.
It is stated that she captured sixty-five vessels, and de-
stroyed property valued at $6,000,000. Much greater than
this amount was the damage inflicted on ship-owners of the
U. S. by the heavy insurance for war-risks to which they
were subjected, and by the difficulty in obtaining freight for
their vessels.
After a long cruise in the Pacific Ocean, she returned to
Europe, and entered the port of Cherbourg to refit and ob-
tain a supply of stores, June 11, 1864. A few days later
the war-steamer Kearsarge, of seven guns, commanded by
Capt. Winslow of the U. S. navy, arrived at Cherbourg.
Capt. Semmes came out of the port and offered battle on
the 19th of June. When the vessels were about one mile
apart, the Alabama began to fire rapidly and wildly, while
the guns of the Kearsarge were served with cool precision
and effect. Both vessels during the action moved rapidly
in circles, swinging round an ever-changing centre. After
they had described seven circles, the Alabama began to sink
and raised a white flag. Capt. Semmes, who had lost thirty
killed and wounded, escaped in the English yacht Deer-
hound. Capt. Winslow lost three killed and wounded, and
took sixty-five prisoners. The Alabama went to the bottom.
The Georgia was built for the Confederates on the Clyde.
She sailed early in 1863, and proceeded to a point off the
French coast, where she met the steamer Alar, which had
been sent from Liverpool with her arms, ammunition, etc.
Some steps were taken by the British government to pre-
vent her escape, but they were too late. After a warlike
career of about a year, she returned to Liverpool, and was
there sold by the Confederate agents, Mr. Adams remon-
strating in vain against this proceeding. Shortly after the
sale she left the port, and was captured by the U. S. cruiser
Niagara.
The Second Class.-The Sumpter, the Nashville, the
Retribution, the Tallahassee, the Chickamauga. These were
all armed and equipped in, and sailed from, Confederate
ports. The claims made in respect of them were based upon
allegations that they were received into British ports, and
permitted to augment their supplies of coal and supplies, in
excess of the maximum amount permitted by the queen's
proclamation of neutrality; and also in respect of the Ret-
ribution, that she was permitted to take captured cargo into
one of the Bahamas, and there sell or dispose of it without
any judicial process. The case of the Shenandoah was quite
different. She was originally a British steamer, called the
Sea-King, and had been engaged in the East India trade.
She sailed Oct. 8, 1864, for Bombay in ballast, with a crew
of forty-seven men. She was not then armed and equipped
or fitted out as a man-of-war. On the same day another
steamer, the Laurel, sailed from Liverpool, ostensibly for
Nassau, having on board a number of Confederates and a
quantity of guns, gun-carriages, and other munitions of
war. These steamers met at Funchal, in the island of Ma-
deira, where the transfer was made. Here she was taken
command of by Captain Waddell of the Confederate service,
and manned. A small part only of the original crew con-
sented to remain with her, and she sailed with less than
one-half of her regular force of men. On the 25th of Jan.,
1865, she arrived at Melbourne, where she was permitted
to repair and to coal. She also at the same place enlisted
a large number of men, augmenting her crew by forty-five
new enlistments. This was done so openly that it was the
common talk of the town, and was freely commented upon
by the local papers. The tribunal of arbitration decided
that the colonial authorities did not exercise due diligence
in preventing these enlistments. Leaving Melbourne, she
proceeded to the Arctic regions, and there, beyond the reach
of any U. S. cruisers, she made great havoc among the
American whaling ships. This was continued for several
months after the complete overthrow of the Confederacy.
She finally arrived at Liverpool on the 6th of Nov., 1865,
and was surrendered to the British government, and by it
delivered over to the U. S.
A diplomatic correspondence arose at once from the fore-
going events. We can only state in the briefest manner
the points which were urged by either side. It should be
carefully borne in mind that the protracted negotiations
growing out of the recognition of the Southern States as
belligerents by the queen's proclamation of neutrality on
the 13th of May, 1861, had no necessary connection with
the Alabama claims. Although the two alleged causes of
complaint were often mingled, and perhaps deemed insepa-
rable, in the popular opinion of Americans, yet they were
entirely distinct, and were finally and definitively held to
be so by the treaty of Washington. During the war the
immediate object of all communications made on the part
of the U. S. was to induce the British government to inter-
fere and prevent the escape of the Confederate cruisers; the
remote object of the same communications, and the sole
purpose of those made after the war, was to present and
urge a demand for compensation.
Mr. Secretary Seward and Mr. Adams placed themselves
upon the fundamental position that a neutral nation is
bound by the principles and doctrines of the international
law, independent of any mere municipal regulations, to use
all the means in its power to prevent its territory from
being made the base of military operations by one belligerent
against the other. To this it was added that if further legis-
lation was necessary to enable the authorities to carry out
their international duties, it was always within the power
ALABAMA CLAIMS;
77
of the Parliament to enact the needed statute, and that an
international obligation therefore rested upon that body to
pass the act. The British government took issue with all
these propositions; they denied all international duty an-
tecedent to or beyond the existing statute; this statute,
they claimed, was the limit of their power and responsi-
bility. The statute referred to, known as the Foreign En-
listment act, was passed in 1819. In substance it provides
“ that if any person within any part of the United King-
dom shall . . . equip, furnish, fit out, or arm * any vessel,
or attempt to equip, etc. any vessel, or procure any vessel
to be equipped, etc., or knowingly aid in equipping, etc.
any vessel, with intent that it may be employed in the ser-
vice of one belligerent, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor,
and shall be fined and imprisoned, and the vessel, with its .
arms, etc., shall be forfeited. Lord Russell refused to go
beyond this statute, and declared that the executive as such
could not act, and that all proceedings under it must be
judicial. To this end he demanded from Mr. Adams such
preliminary technical proofs as would warrant a conviction
by the courts. There was thus thrown upon Mr. Adams
and Mr. Dudley the duty of acting as police agents and
detectives for the British government in obtaining the evi-
dence which the local officials did not busy themselves with
discovering. At last, a construction was given to this statute
by the English courts in the case of the Alexandra which,
upon the theory before urged by Lord Russell, rendered the
British government powerless. Like the Florida and the
Alabama, she was constructed for the Confederates, in every
respect a man-of-war ready for action, except that her guns
and ammunition were not on board. She was proceeded
against under the statute, which makes it the offence “to
equip, furnish, fit out, or arm any vessel.” The judge at the
trial held that each one of these words means the same
thing, and, as the Alexandra was not actually armed in a
British port, the law was not violated. This ruling was
sustained on appeal by the higher court. As the govern-
ment had denied all international obligation, so this decis-
ion removed all municipal duty to interfere with the oper-
ations of the Confederate agents. Such was the course of
the negotiations during the war.
In the year 1868 a change in the sentiments of British
statesmen was apparent, and it was conceded that the mat-
ter was one for amicable adjustment. Under the influence
of these opinions a convention was signed on the 14th of
Jan., 1869, by Mr. Reverdy Johnson, the American min-
ister, and Lord Clarendon, the British secretary for foreign
affairs. It provided that “all claims upon the part of indi-
viduals, citizens of the U. S., upon the government of Her
Britannic Majesty, and all claims on the part of individuals,
subjects of Her Britannic Majesty, upon the government of
the U. S.,” arising since Feb. 8, 1853, shall be referred to
commissioners or arbitrators to be settled. This treaty was
rejected by the U. S. Senate, receiving but one vote in its
favor. The reasons for this action were many : the most
important were, that the treaty was expressly limited to
claims of individual citizens, and ignored the existence of
any on the part of the U. S. as a nation, and that it pro-
vided for the payment of claims against the U. S.
The long negotiations were ended by the treaty of Wash-
ington. The operative clause in this treaty is found in Art.
I., which after reciting the “differences existing,” as quoted
before, proceeds: “Now, in order to remove and adjust all
complaints and claims on the part of the U. S., and to pro-
vide for the speedy settlement of such claims, the high con-
tracting parties agree that all the said claims growing out
of acts committed by the aforesaid vessels, and generically
known as the Alabama claims, shall be referred to a tribu-
nal of arbitration,” etc. This language is broad and without
limit. A correspondence had taken place between Mr.
Secretary Fish and Sir Edward Thornton, the British min-
ister to the U. S., in Jan., 1871, preliminary to the negotia-
tion of this treaty, in which Mr. Fish wrote, Jan. 30th, that
“the removal of the differences which arose during the re-
bellion, and which have existed since, growing out of the
acts committed by the several vessels which have given rise
to the claims generically known as the Alabama claims, will
also be essential to the restoration of cordial relations.”
To this suggestion Sir Edward Thornton acceded, and a
joint high commission was agreed upon to negotiate the
treaty. It will be noticed that the language of Mr. Fish's
note is the same as that found in the first article of the
treaty. The high commission consisted, on the part of the
U. S., of Hamilton Fish, the secretary of state, Robert C.
Schenck, the American minister to Great Britain, Samuel
Nelson, one of the justices of the Supreme Court, Ebenezer
R. Hoar, and George H. Williams; and on the part of
Great Britain, of Earl de Grey and Ripon, president of the
queen’s council, Sir Strafford Northcote, M. P., Sir Edward
Thornton, Sir John Macdonald, and Professor Montague
Bernard. They completed the treaty of Washington on
the 8th of May, 1871. In the deliberations the U. S. com-
missioners claimed compensation for “direct losses * in the
destruction of vessels and cargoes, and in national expend-
iture in the pursuit of the Confederate éruisers, and for
“indirect injury” in the transfer of American shipping to
the British flag, in the enhanced rates of insurance, in the
prolongation of the war, and in the addition to the cost of
the war; they proposed that Great Britain should pay a
lump sum, to be agreed upon, for all these claims." The
British commissioners in answer proposed arbitration. The
American commissioners would not agree to arbitration
“unless the principles which should govern the arbitrators
were first agreed upon.” Finally, the latter suggestion was
accepted; arbitration was adopted, and the rules which
should govern the arbitrators were agreed upon. Articles
I. to XI. of the treaty relate to the Alabama claims. The
first describes, as has been shown, the matters submitted for
decision ; the others describe the constitution of the tri-
bunal, its procedure, and the form of its decision. The
Seventh contains the important three rules, as follows:
First. That a neutral government is bound, first, to use
due diligence to prevent the fitting out, arming, or equip-
ping, within its jurisdiction, of any vessel which it has
reason to believe is intended to cruise or carry on war
against a power with which it is at peace; and also to use
like diligence to prevent the departure from its jurisdiction
of any vessel intended to cruise or carry on war as above,
such vessel having been specially adapted in whole or in
part within such jurisdiction to warlike use. Secondly.
Not to permit or suffer either belligerent to make use of
its ports or waters as the base of naval operations against
the other, or for the purpose of the renewal or augmenta-
tion of military supplies or arms, or the recruitment of
men. Thirdly. To exercise due diligence in its own ports
or waters, and as to all persons within its jurisdiction, to
prevent any violation of the foregoing obligations and
duties; it being a condition of this undertaking that these
obligations should in future be held to be binding inter-
nationally between the two countries.
These rules Great Britain denies to have been parts of
the international law when the acts complained of were
done, but for reasons of comity only consents that they
retroact and apply to those acts, and be made the basis of
decision. The article concludes as follows: “The high
contracting parties agree to observe these rules as between
themselves in future, and to bring them to the knowledge
of other maritime powers, and to invite them to accede to
them.” In pursuance of the treaty, the following persons
constituted the tribunal of arbitration: Count Edward
Sclopis, named by the king of Italy; Mr. Jacob Staempfli,
named by the president of the Swiss Confederation; Wis-
count d'Itajuba, named by the emperor of Brazil; Mr.
Charles Francis Adams, named by the President of the
U. S.; and Sir Alexander E. Cockburn, named by the queen
of Great Britain. Each sovereign litigant was to present
its claim to the tribunal in the form of a printed “case,”
and subsequently in an answer termed a “counter-case.”
Each case was to contain the facts and arguments relied
upon by the party, and the counter-case was to be a reply
to the case of the adversary. The American case was sepa-
rated into six parts; it gave a minute history of the acts
of the British government towards the U. S. during the
rebellion, and of the fitting out and subsequent operations
of each Confederate cruiser; and discussed the questions of
international law involved in the controversy, and con-
cluded with a demand of the compensation to be awarded.
The British case was separated into ten parts, and covers a
similar ground to the American case, though from a differ-
ent point of view. Both were supplemented by many vol-
umes of evidence. Two very distinct questions arose upon
these papers: (1) What matters were submitted by the
treaty to the arbitrators? and (2) By what rules and prin-
ciples of law were the arbitrators to be guided in deciding
the matters submitted to it? The consideration of the first
and preliminary one of these questions gave rise to a con-
troversy which for a while threatened to interrupt the
whole scheme of arbitration. In Part VI. of the American
case the U. S. presented the items of damage to which it
claimed to be entitled. Quoting the language used by the
American high commissioners, the case described claims
for “direct” losses or damages, and other claims for
“indirect” losses. The “ direct” were said to include
“losses growing out of the destruction of vessels and their
cargoes by the insurgent cruisers, and the national expend-
itures in pursuit of those cruisers.” The “indirect” were
said to embrace “the loss in the transfer of the American
commercial marine to the British flag,” “the enhanced pay-
ments of insurance,” “the prolongation of the war,” and
the “addition to the cost of the war.” The presentation of
these so-called indirect claims caused a great opposition in
England. The government denied that they were included,
78
ALABAMA INDIANS-ALAMO, THE.
or intended to be included, in the terms of the treaty. Fresh
negotiations were opened; a supplemental treaty was pro-
posed; the controversy was continued after the meeting of
the tribunal, and for a while it seemed possible that the
whole proceeding would be a failure. The British agent
asked for an adjournment of the tribunal for eight months,
to allow formal negotiations. Finally, on the 19th of June,
Count Sclopis, president of the tribunal, announced that
the arbitrators, without deciding the question whether these
claims were included in the treaty, “ had arrived, collect-
ively and individually, at the conclusion that these claims do
not constitute, upon the principles of international law ap-
plicable to such cases, good foundation for an award of
compensation or computation of damages between na–
tions.” The difficulty was then ended and the arbitration
Went on. -
The argument upon the merits which was presented by
the litigant nations to this high tribunal was most able and
exhaustive. There is not space to present it even in the
briefest outline. It turned mainly upon the true meaning
of the phrase “due diligence” used in the three rules. The
counsel on the part of Great Britain was Sir Roundell
Palmer, then the acknowledged leader of the English bar,
and afterwards made lord high chancellor with the title of
Lord Selborne. The counsel on the part of the U. S. were
William M. Evarts and Caleb Cushing. The final decision
of the tribunal was announced Sept. 14. The arbitrators
decided unanimously in favor of Great Britain in respect
of the Georgia, Sumpter, Nashville, Tallahassee, and Chicka-
mauga, and similarly in respect of the Retribution, by a
vote of three to two. They all decided (Sir Alexander
Cockburn for reasons peculiar to himself) that Great Brit-
ain was liable for the original fitting out and escape of the
Alabama, and for her subsequent free admission into British
ports. The same conclusion was reached in respect to the
Florida, Sir Alexander Cockburn alone dissenting. The
ruling as to these vessels applied also to their tenders. The
tribunal was unanimous that no liability arose in respect of
the Shenandoah prior to her arrival at Melbourne; but three
of the arbitrators, Count Sclopis, Mr. Staempfli, and Mr.
Adams, held that the colonial authorities failed to exercise
due diligence to prevent the enlistment of men at that port,
and that Great Britain was liable for captures made after
her departure thence. The tribunal, in making their award,
formulated and announced the following general principles,
a portion of which lie at the basis of the whole decision,
while a portion apply only to the estimate of the quantum
of damages: “Due diligence should be exercised by neu-
tral governments in exact proportion to the risks to which
either one of the belligerents may be exposed by failure to
fulfil the obligations of neutrality on their part.” The
effects of a violation of neutrality, as committed by the
Alabama and other such cruisers, were not done away with
by a commission subsequently issued by the Confederate
government. “The government of Great Britain cannot
justify itself for its failure in due diligence on the plea of
the insufficiency of the legal means of action which it pos-
sessed.” The claim of the U. S. for the national cost of
pursuing the Confederate cruisers cannot be distinguished
from the general expenses of the war, and is therefore an
indirect loss which cannot be allowed. Prospective injuries
to shippers and ship-owners, such as loss of future profits,
are equally uncertain and indirect. All double claims for
the same losses are rejected, but interest is allowed. Upon
these principles the tribunal awarded, for actual losses of
ships and cargoes and interest, the sum of $15,500,000. It
is thus seen that the tribunal wholly overruled the position
maintained by Great Britain from the beginning, that its
statute was the sole criterion of its power and duty. In
like manner the tribunal brushed away all claims by the
U. S. for indirect and mational losses, and strictly confined
its judgment to the compensation of American private citi-
zens for losses of ships, cargoes, freight, and wages.
* J. N. PºſLRoy.
Alabama Indians, a remnant of the once powerful
tribe of that name, reside in Polk co., Tex. They are under
the care of the State, but are also assisted by the general
government. They are peaceable and quite industrious.
They use the English language, but no woman is allowed
to speak to a stranger. They retain the dress and many
of the peculiar habits of the aborigines, but the women are
clothed somewhat like their white neighbors. The people
are remarkably tall, strong, and well formed. They num-
ber about 260. Their language was of the Creek family.
Alabas'ter [Lat. alabastri'tes and alabas'ter; Gr.
&Aá8aa’rpos], a name applied to two kinds of white mineral.
substances which are similar in appearance, but different in
composition. The alabaster proper is a fine-grained variety
of gypsum or sulphate of lime; the finest quality of this
is found near Wolterra, in Tuscany; the other is a crystal-
line carbonate of lime, and is harder than the first. Both
are manufactured into ornaments.
Alabaster, a post-township of Iosco co., Mich. Pop.
235.
Alabaster Box, or Alabas' trum, a vessel for con-
taining precious perfumes, used by the ancients in various
countries. They were made commonly of onyx-alabaster,
but other materials were used. When the Woman broke the
“alabaster box of ointment” to anoint the feet of Jesus, as
mentioned in the Gospels, it is probable that she had a ves-
sel with a long tapering neck, which was sealed, and that
she broke off the neck to get at the perfume. Alabastra
of this form were not unfrequent.
Alabaster Cave, in Placer co., Cal., is a remarkable
cavern 8 miles S. E. of Auburn, and 1 mile from the
North Fork of the American River. This cave contains
beautiful chambers incrusted with alabaster of various
tints. It also contains a lake of undetermined extent.
Alach’ua, a county in the N. part of the peninsula of
Florida. Area, about 1000 square miles. It is bounded
on the N. by the Santa Fé River, on the W. by the Suwa-
nee. The surface is rolling or nearly level; the soil is gen-
erally fertile. Sea-island cotton, grain, wool, molasses, and
sugar are produced. Bog-iron ore has been found. It is
intersected by the Florida R. R. Capital, Gainesville. Pop.
17,328. -
Alago'as, a maritime province of Brazil, is between
9° and 10° S. lat. It is bounded on the N. and W. by Per-
mambuco, on the E. by the Atlantic, and on the S. by Ser-
gipe and the river San Francisco. Area, 15,300 square miles.
The surface is partly mountainous; the soil of the valleys
and lowlands is fertile, and produces cotton, sugar, maize,
etc. Capital, Maceio. Pop. of the province in 1867, esti-
mated at 300,000, of whom 50,000 were slaves.
Alagoas [Port. “the lakes”], a town of Brazil, in the
province of the same name, on the Lake Maysuaba, was
until 1839 the capital of the province. It was formerly a
large amd important city, but since the change of the seat
of government it has declined very much. It has a con-
siderable trade in tobacco. Pop. about 4000.
Alagon’, a river of Spain, enters the Tagus about 2
miles N. E. of Alcántara. Length, about 120 miles. It is
noted for its fine trout and other fish.
Alaiedom, a township of Ingham co., Mich. Pop.
1296.
Alain de Lille [Lat. Ala'nws de In'8wlis], a French
philosopher and ecclesiastic, surnamed THE UNIVERSAL
DoCTOR. He was born in 1114. He wrote many works in
prose and verse, and was one of the most learned men of
his time. Died about 1200.
Alais (anc. Ale/sia), a town of Southern France, in
Gard, on the Gardon, and at the foot of the Cevennes, 31
miles by rail N. W. of Nîmes, with which it is connected
by a railway. It is in a productive coal-field, and has
several manufactories, a college, and a school of mines.
Pop. in 1866, 19,964. -
AI'amance', a county in the central part of North
Carolina. Area, about 500 square miles. Is drained by
Haw River and Alamance Creek. The surface is undulat-
ing, the soil productive. Very valuable iron ore abounds.
Grain, tobacco, and wool are raised. It is intersected by
the North Carolina R. R. Capital, Graham. Pop. 11,874.
Alame'da, a county in the W. part of California. Area,
820 square miles. . It is bounded on the W. by San Fran-
cisco Bay, and drained by Alameda and Calaveras creeks.
The surface in the E. part is mountainous, being occupied
by the Coast Range; the soil of the lowlands is fertile.
There are numerous warm mineral springs. Cattle, grain,
and wool are produced, and saddlery, harness, and me-
tallic wares are manufactured. Capital, San Leandro. Pop.
24,237. , ,
Alameda, a post-township of Alameda co., Cal. It
has a weekly newspaper. Pop. 1557.
A1/amo, a post-township of Kalamazoo Co., Mich. Pop.
1148.
Alamo, a post-village, capital of Crockett co., Tenn.
Alſamo, The [alamo is the Sp. for “poplar' treel, a
celebrated fort at San Antonio, Tex. A small body of
Texans, mostly from the U. S., here bravely resisted a
Mexican force of ten times their number from Feb. 11 to
Mar. 5, 1836, and nearly all perished rather than surrender
to a foe whom they despised. The six who finally sur-
rendered were murdered by the Mexicans; Travis, Crº-
kett, and Bowie were here killed. In consequence of this
heroic defence, Alamo is styled the “Thermopylae of Amer:
ica..” “Remémber the Alamo P’ became the war-cry of
the Texans in their struggle for independence.
ALAMOS, LOS—ALAUDA.
79
A’lamos, Los, a town of Mexico, province of Sonora,
110 miles N. W. of Cinaloa, has rich silver-mines in the
vicinity. Pop. in 1865, about 6000.
O
Aſland Islands, or O’land, a numerous group of
small islands in the S. part of the Gulf of Bothnia, near
the Baltic, belong to the grand-duchy of Finland, govern-
ment of Abo. About eighty of them are inhabited. Pop.
about 15,000. They were ceded to Russia by Sweden in
1809. The Russian fortifications here were destroyed by
the English and French troops in 1854, and by a separate
convention annexed to the treaty of Paris. (April, 1856) the
emperor of Russia agreed “that the Aland Isles should
not be fortified,” etc.
Alamgia/ceae [from Alan'gium, one of its generaj, a
natural order of plants closely allied to the Myrtaceae. It
consists of Indian species having aromatic roots and eat-
able fruit. Their long, strap-shaped petals afford one of
the principal distinctions between them and the true
myrtles.
Ala’ni, an ancient warlike tribe of unknown origin,
who made incursions into the Roman empire as allies of
the Goths and Vandals. They invaded Asia, Minor in the
reign of Aurelian, and co-operated with the Vandals in the
invasion of Gaul in 406 A. D. r
Alapayevsk, a town of Russia, in the government of
Perm, 200 miles E. of Perm. It has large iron-works. Pop.
in 1867, 5447. -
Alarcon' y Mendo’za, de (Don Juan RUIz), an
eminent Spanish poet and dramatist, born in Mexico about
1590. He became a resident of Spain in 1622, after which
he obtained the office of reporter of the royal council of the
Indies. A volume of his dramas was published in 1628.
Among his works, which present a faithful delineation of
Spanish manners, and are commended for elevation of senti-
ment, are “Las Paredes Oyen’” (“Walls have Ears”) and
“La Verdad Sospechosa” (“Suspicious Truth”), which
Corneille imitated in his “ Monteur.” Died in 1639.
Ai’aric [Lat. Alari/cus], a celebrated conqueror, a Vis-
igoth, was born about 350 A. D. Soon after the accession
of Arcadius as emperor of the East, Alaric invaded Thrace,
Macedonia, and other provinces, in 395 A. D. He took
Athens and entered the Peloponnesus, from which he was
driven out by Stilicho. Hostilities were then suspended by
a treaty, and Arcadius appointed Alaric governor of Illyria.
in 396. He invaded Northern Italy in 402, but was defeated
by Stilicho at Pollentia, and Verona. Stilicho having been
killed in 408, Alaric renewed the invasion of Italy, which
the emperor Honorius was unable to defend. The army of
the Visigoths invested Rome, then the richest and most im-
portant city in the world, but they were induced to retire
by the payment of 5000 pounds of gold and 30,000 pounds
of silver. After unsuccessful efforts to negotiate, Honorius
rejected the terms of Alaric, who in 410 took Rome, and
permitted his soldiers to pillage it for six days. He was
marching to Sicily when he died at Cosenza, in 410 A. D.
(See SIMONIS, “Kritische Untersuchungen über die Ges-
chichte Alarich's,” 1858.) -
Alaric III., king of the Visigoths,
began to reign in 484 A. D., at the
death of his father Euric. His domin-
ions included parts of Spain and of
Gaul. He was killed in battle by the
hand of Clovis, king of the Franks, in
507.
A Las’ co, Alas’ co, or Alas’ko
(John), a Polish Protestant, born in
1499, became Catholic bishop of Wes-
prim in 1529. He was afterwards con-
verted, went to London, preached there
a few years, but on the accession of
Queen Mary, in 1553, he retired for
safety to Germany. He wrote several
theological works. Died Jan. 13, 1560.
Ala Shehr (the ancient Philadel-
phia, founded about 200 B.C. by At-
talus Philadelphus), a walled city of
Asia Minor, at the N. E. base of Mount
Trmolus, 93 miles E. of Smyrna. Here
are five Christian churches and nu-
merous ancient ruins. Pop. about /ſ/.
15,000. * +
Alas/ka, or Alias/ka, a Terri-
tory forming the N. W. part of North
America, is bounded on the N. by the Arctic Ocean, on
the E. by British America, on the S. by the Pacific Ocean,
and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean, or Sea of Kamtchatka,
and Behring's Strait, by which it is separated from Asia.
It lies between lat. 54° 40' and 71° 23' N., and between
Žon. 14.1° and 168° W. (except a narrow strip S. of Mount
St. Elias). Area, 580,107 square miles. The most north-
ern extremity is called Point Barrow. The peninsula of
Alaska, which is about 350 miles long and 25 miles in
average width, extends south-westward into the Pacific.
The south-eastern part of Alaska is a long, narrow strip of
land extending along the sea-coast from Mount St. Elias to
the parallel of 54° 40' N., and bounded on the N. E. by a
mountain-ridge which is parallel to the Pacific. This strip
is only about thirty-three miles wide. This territory, which
includes a great number of large and Small islands in the
Pacific and in Behring's Strait, was formerly called Russian
America. It was purchased by the U. S. from Russia in
1867 for $7,200,000.
The surface of the southern and western parts is moun-
tainous, but the northern coast on the Arctic Ocean is flat.
The principal rivers are—the Colville, which flows north-
ward into the Arctic Ocean ; the Kooskovime, which flows
south-westward, and after a course of about 300 miles enters
the Kamtchatka, Sea ; and the Yukon (or Kwichpak), which
traverses the central part of Alaska and falls into Norton
Sound. The length of the Yukon (or Youkon) is estimated
by some writers at 2000 miles. -
The climate is humid, and less severe than that on the
Atlantic coast in a corresponding latitude. The mean an-
nual temperature at Sitka is about 42°, and it is said that
the mercury seldom falls below zero at Kodiak. The high-
est mountain-peak is Mount St. Elias, which is a volcano;
its height is estimated at nearly 18,000 feet. Mount Fair-
weather is of nearly equal height, and there are several other
VOlcanoes.
The parts of Alaska, which are near the Pacific Ocean are
mostly covered with forests of spruce, cedar, fir, etc., which
grow to a great size. It is stated that some of these trees
attain a height of 200 feet or more. Here occurs a species
of Cupressus, called yellow cedar, which is an excellent tim-
ber for shipbuilding. The value of this region consists
chiefly in its fisheries, timber, and furs, and perhaps in its
coal, the value of which is not determined. The coal is of
tertiary origin. Among the fishes that abound here are the
salmon and the cod. The majority of the native inhabit-
ants are Esquimaux. The principal wild animals are the
clk, deer, bear, and seal. In the session of 1872 Congress
annexed this territory to Washington Territory as a coun-
ty. (See WASHINGTON TERRITORY.) (See F. WHYMPER,
“Travels and Adventures in Alaska,” 1869; and DALL,
“Alaska and its Resources,” 1870.) Pop. of Alaska in
1870, 29,097 (whites and half-breeds), besides about 65,000
Indians. REVISED by L. P. BROCKETT.
Alaºtri, a town of Italy, in the province of Rome, 45
miles E. S. E. of Rome. It is the seat of a bishop. Here
are some of the finest and best preserved cyclopean or poly-
gonal walls in Italy. Pop. 11,370.
Alatyr', a town of Russia, in the government of Sim-
birsk, at the junction of the Alatyr and Soora Rivers, 70
miles N. W. of Simbirsk. Pop. in 1867, 8085. -
(M23 ºf
ſº º
2-ºxº
ºº::=º &ººg
- zºº -R-
Alauda crisiața the Crested Lark.
celebrated song-bird of Europe. The flesh of the skylark
is esteemed a delicacy, and traps and nets of many kinds
are employed for its capture. Its food consists of grass-
hoppers and other insects, worms, spiders, and grubs of
various kinds. The beautiful Alauda cristata, or crested
lark, is one of the most common birds of Europe and


80
ALAVA—ALBANY.
Northern Africa.
genus, see LARK.
Al’ava, one of the Basque Provinces in Spain, is
bounded on the N. by Biscay and Guipuzcoa, on the E.
by Navarre, on the S. by Logroño, and on the W. by
Burgós. Area, 1205 square miles. The country is moun-
tainous, but fertile, especially along the shores of the Ebro.
The chief products are fruit, wine, grain, and hemp. Here
are also several mineral springs. Chief town, Vitoria. Pop.
in 1867, 102,494.
Alb, or Albe [Lat. al/ba, from al/bus, “white”], a long
white linen vestment worn by the clergy of the Roman
Catholic Church while they are performing the service. It
sometimes has a cross embroidered upon the breast. At the
end of the tunic and around the wrists are ornaments
called “apparels.”
Alb (called also the Swabian Alps), a chain of
mountains which extends about 75 miles, and forms the
watershed between the Danube and the Neckar, and is
mostly comprised in Würtemberg. The average height of
this range is nearly 2200 feet. Some remarkable caverns
occur in the limestone formation of this chain.
Alba, DUKE of. See ALVA.
AI/ba (the ancient Al’ba Pompe/ia), a town of Italy,
province of Cuneo, on the Tánaro, 30 miles S. E. of Turin.
Wine, silk, grain, and oil are the staple productions of the
district, in which are also quarries of marble and rock-salt.
Pop. of the town in 1861, 6367.
Alba, a township of Henry co., Ill. Pop. 295.
Albace/te, a province of Spain, comprises the N. part
of the kingdom of Murcia and a portion of New Castile.
It is bounded on the N. by Cuenca, on the E. by Valencia,
on the S. by Murcia, and on the W. by Ciudad Real. Area,
5972 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by the
Sierra de Alcaraz, and the surface is diversified by moun-
tains, hills, and fertile valleys. It is drained by the river
Segura, which rises within its limits. Among its staple
products are grain, wine, tobacco, oil, cattle, and sheep.
Capital, Albacete. Pop. in 1867, 221,444.
Albacete, a town of Spain, capital of a province of
the same name, 172 miles by rail S. E. of Madrid. It
stands on a fertile plain, has manufactures of knives
and other steel goods, and considerable trade. Large
cattle-fairs are held here in September. Pop. in 1860,
17,088. …”
Al’ba Lon’ga, a very ancient city of Latium, in Italy,
was founded, according to tradition, by Ascanius, the son
of AEneas, several centuries before the foundation of Rome.
It was situated near the Alban Lake, about 16 miles S. E.
from Rome. Its remains have been discovered.
AI'ban [Lat. Alba/mus], SAINT, the first person who
suffered martyrdom in England for the Christian religion.
His death occurred about 286 A. D.
Albanen'ses [from Alba, a town of Piedmont], that
division of the Catharists who believed in absolute dualism.
They taught that the world was created by the Evil Spirit.
(See CATHARI.)
Alba'ni (ALESSANDRO), an Italian cardinal, a nephew
of Pope Clement XI., was born at Urbino in 1692. He
made a rich and celebrated collection of statues and other
works of art at Rome. Died in 1779.
Albani (FRANCESCo), an eminent Italian painter, born
at Bologna, Mar. 17, 1578, was a pupil of Denis Calvart
and L. Caracci. He excelled in painting the female form
and rural prospects. Among his best works are highly
finished oil pictures of “The Toilet of Venus,” “Diana
Bathing,” and “The Four Elements or Seasons.” His
For other species of this interesting
wife and children, who were remarkable for their beauty,
served him as models for angels and cupids. Died Oct. 4,
1660. -* -
Alba’nia, the ancient name of a country bounded on
the E. by the Caspian Sea, and comprising the modern
Daghestan and Shirvan. Its inhabitants were often de-
feated, but never conquered, by Rome.
Alba/mia (called Shkiperi by the natives, and Arna-
outlik by the Turks), the south-western part of European
Turkey, lies between lat. 39° and 43° N., and is bounded
on the W. by the Adriatic and Ionian seas. Its length N.
and S. is about 290 miles, and its width varies from 40 to
90 miles. It nearly coincides with the ancient Epirus.
The surface is mountainous, being occupied with nine
ridges that are nearly parallel. The highest peaks rise
about 8000 feet above the level of the sea. Among the re-
markable features of Albania, are its subterranean rivers
and its beautiful lakes.
wool, horses, timber, and maize. The Albanians are rude
and warlike mountaineers, more addicted to robbery than
The chief articles of export are
industry. They are probably descended from the ancient
Illyrians and Epirotes. Philologists are not agreed respect-
ing the affiliations of their language, which has several
strongly marked dialects, and is probably Indo-European.
The inhabitants are often called Arnaoots or Arnaouts, and
Skipetar. Pop. estimated at 1,300,000. Besides these, a
large number of Albanians live in Greece and other parts
of the Levant.
Albano, a lake and mountain in Italy, about 14 miles
S. E. of Rome. The lake, which is six miles in circumfer-
ence, occupies the crater of an extinct volcano, and is 1000
feet deep or more. The lake has no natural outlet, but dis-,
charges its waters through an artificial tunnel cut through
tufaceous rock. This tunnel or “emissary” was undertaken
by the Romans in 397 B. C. It is one of the most remark-
able remains of ancient Roman engineering. It is 6000
feet long. Alba Longa stood on the N. E. margin. From
the E. shore of this lake rises Mount Albano or Monte
Cavo, which is over 3000 feet high, and commands an ex-
tensive and magnificent prospect. On its summit are the
ruins of the temple of Jupiter Latialis.
Alba/no (anc. Alba/num), a city of Italy, on or near
Lake Albano, and on the Via Appia, 18 miles by rail S. E.
of Rome. It occupies the site of Pompey's villa, is cele-
brated for beauty of scenery, and is a favorite summer
residence of the wealthy citizens of Rome. Here is a
museum of antiquities and a large convent. Pop. 5200.
Al’bany, or Al’bainn, an ancient name of the High-
lands of Scotland. It is supposed that. Albany, or Albion
(see ALBION), was the original name given to the whole
island by its Celtic inhabitants, and that it was afterwards
restricted to the north-western part of Scotland, when the
Celts had retired from the other parts of Britain. The title
of duke of Albany was given to the second sons of several.
kings of Scotland and England.
Albany, a small maritime division of Cape Colony,
South Africa, about 450 miles E. of Cape Town, is about
65 miles long and from 30 to 40 miles wide. It is traversed
by Great Fish River. The soil produces maize, barley,
cotton, and other commodities. Capital, Grahamstown.
Pop. in 1865, 16,264.
Albany, a county in the E. part of New York. Area,
482 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Hudson
River, and on the N. (partly) by the Mohawk. The Nor-
manskill and Catskill creeks afford good water-power in
this county. The surface is mostly hilly; the soil near
the streams is fertile, but in some parts is Sandy and
sterile. Magnesian limestone, marl, gypsum, and iron are
found. The county is intersected by several important
railroads, terminating at Albany, the capital. Grain, Wool,
hay, milk, butter, and cheese are the staples, and the manu-
factures are extremely various and important. Pop. 133,052.
Albany, a county of Wyoming Territory, bordering on
Colorado. It is intersected by the North Fork of Platte
River, and also drained by the Laramie River. The Sur-
face is partly mountainous, and occupied by the Black
Hills. Taramie Peak, the highest point in this county,
rises over 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. Valuable
lignitic coal is found, and iron ore abounds. Stock-raising
is an important pursuit. The soil in some parts is fertile,
especially in Laramie Plains. The Union Pacific R. R.
passes through the county. Cattle and wool are the sta-
ples. Capital, Laramie. Pop. 2021.
Albany, a city and capital of Dougherty co., Ga., is on
the right bank of Flint River, on the South-western R. R.,
106 miles S. S. W. of Macon. It is also the northern ter-
minus of a division of the Atlantic and Gulf R. R., and is
the present terminus of the Brunswick and Albany R. R.
It has two weekly papers. Large quantities of cotton are
here shipped by rail. The Flint River is navigable to this
point only at high water. Pop. 2110.
C. W. STYLES, ED. or “ALBANY NEws.”
Albany, a post-village of Whiteside co, Ill., in a town-
ship of its own name, on the Mississippi, 177 miles N. by
W. of Springfield. Pop. of village, 606; of township, 805.
Albany, a post-village, the capital of Clinton Co., Ky.,
126 miles S. of Frankfort. Pop. 163.
Albany, a post-township of Oxford co., Me. Pop. 651.
Albany, a township of Stearns co., Minn. Pop. 231.
Albany, a post-village, the capital of Gentry cog Mo.,
on Grand River, 52 miles N. E. of St. Joseph. It has
manufactures of furniture, brooms, wagons, harness, lum-
ber, etc.; five churches, two newspapers, graded Schools, a
grist-mill, a foundry, and a machine-shop. Three railroads
are under construction to this point. Pop. 607.
R. N. TRAVER, E.D. of “ALBANY NEWs.”
Albany, a township of Carroll co., N. H. Pop. 339.
ALBANY.
81
Albany, in Aſbany co., is the capital of New York, and
is situated on the W. bank of the Hudson River, 145 miles
N. of New York City, and 164 miles (or 201 by railroad)
W. of Boston, in lat. 42° 39' 49” N., lon. 73° 44' 33' W.
The place was first settled by the Dutch in 1614 as a
trading-post, and after Jamestown was the earliest settle-
ment by Europeans within the limits of the thirteen States.
Fort Orange, or Aurania, was erected here in 1623. The
village was successively called Beverwyck and Williamstadt.
In 1664 it was called Albany, for the duke of York and
Albany, afterwards James II. Till the Revolution it was
the centre of a large Indian trade. The colony continued
to be inhabited by the Dutch, brought over largely by the
Van Rensselaer family, who secured twenty-four miles
square on both sides of the river, and leased the land.
Feudal tenure was abolished in 1787. After the Anti-rent
war the State prohibited in 1846 leases of land for a longer
period than twelve years. It was incorporated as the city of
Albany in 1686 and became the capital of the State in 1797.
The site of the city extends from the bank of the river,
with two miles of frontage, over the alluvial plain, and after
a few hundred feet rises up on the sides of the hills to and
upon the table-land 150 to 200 feet high. The slope is
divided by three or four valleys, worn by former streams
into the clay-beds on which the city is built; these valleys
have been largely filled up and covered with houses. The
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view of the city from the E. bank of the river is picturesque
and imposing, from the full exposure of the public edifices,
with their domes and steeples, the Helderberg and Catskill
Mountains being visible in the S. W. The corporate limits
reach to Schenectady in a strip of land thirteen miles long
and a mile wide. The principal streets are Broadway and
Pearl street, which run parallel with the river, and State
street, 100 feet wide, which ascends the hill to the Capitol,
and thence narrower to the limits of the city proper west-
ward. Washington avenue runs parallel to it, commencing
from in front of the City Hall, and continues as the Sche-
nectady turnpike.
The chief public edifices and institutions are the Cap-
itol, of which the corner-stone was laid in 1806; the State
Hall for State offices and the City Hall for city offices, both
of marble and fronting on small parks near the Capitol;
the State Museum of Natural History, chiefly of geology,
with a cabinet of Indian curiosities, and is in the same
building with the collection of implements and productions
of the field of the State Agricultural Society; the State
Library, containing, with the law department, over 90,000
volumes; the Bureau of Military Record, containing me-
morials of past wars; the Dudley Observatory, inaugurated
in 1856, possessing the best astronomical instruments and
Scheutz’s tabulating machine, and now having also a
physical observatory; the Medical College, which, with the
Law School and the Observatory, now has an organic con-
nection with Union College at Schenectady, under the name
of Union University; two public hospitals, and a State
normal school. The Albany Institute is a society first
formed in 1791 for the advancement of science, and pub-
lishes its transactions. There is a public high school, one
academy for boys, and three for girls. In 1870 there were
10,737 children attending school, and 2398 persons over ten
years of age who could not read or write. There are sixty
places of worship; the largest and most imposing church
being the cathedral of the Immaculate Conception. There
is also a Young Men’s Association (founded 1833), a Young
Men's Christian Association (1857), numerous Catholic so-
Tºxtºn,
dalities, and other benevolent societies. The Roman Cath-
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olic diocese of Albany (founded in 1847) includes all the
State N. of 42° N. lat., and E. of the E. lines of Tioga,
Tompkins, and Cayuga counties; the Protestant Episcopal
diocese of Albany (founded in 1868) is bounded on the W.
by that of Central New York. The city contains numerous
lodges of Masons, Odd Fellows, and other social and beney-
olent organizations. The Sisters of Mercy and of Charity,
and the Christian Brothers, have institutions here. The
Academy of the Sacred Heart at Kenwood, but within the
city limits, occupies a building of immense size. At pres-
ent (1873) the Rt. Rev. John J. Conroy, D.D., is the Ro-
man Catholic bishop of Albany, and the Rt. Rev. Francis
McNeirny is his coadjutor. The present bishop of the
Protestant Episcopal diocese of Albany is the Rt. Rev.
William Croswell Doane, S. T. D.
The penitentiary, opened in 1848, was under the charge
of A. Pilsbury to 1873, receiving annually, mostly for short
terms, over 1000 prisoners, and has almost uniformly been
more than self-supporting. Washington Park is an exten-
sion of a small parade-ground with that name on the W.
side into a park of 250 acres, with a lake and carriage
drives of several miles. The Rural Cemetery, about four
from the city northward, contains 230 acres, and is admired
for its picturesque beauty and its monuments, especially
Palmer's statue of the “Angel at the Sepulchre.”
The advantages of Albany for trade are derived from
the fact that it is near the head of tide-water and naviga-
tion, and is the eastern terminus of the Erie Canal and the
southern terminus of the canal from Lake Champlain.
There are six or seven railroads leading from Albany; the
Hudson River and the Harlem to New York City, the Bos-
ton and Albany to Boston; the Rensselaer and Saratoga, to
Vermont and Canada ; the New York Central to Buffalo;
and the Albany and Susquehanna to Binghamton on the
Erie R. R., besides steam and horse railroads to Troy. The
river is crossed by two railroad bridges, and a company is
incorporated for a third, over which teams will also pass.
The most prominent manufacture has hitherto been stoves,
including now hollow-ware, averaging annually $2,500,000
in value. Latterly, nine shoe-factories have been estab-






82
ALBANY–ALBEMARLE.
lished. There are thirty-three brewers and maltsters, and .
several manufactories of aniline colors, furniture, flour,
brick, oilcloth, paper collars, safes, pianos, jewelry, soap,
candles, boilers, machinery, etc. The lumber-market in
the value of its lumber is second to mone, the quantity re-
ceived being valued at $13,000,000 a year. Its cattle-trade
is of the greatest importance, being the central market for
New York City and New England, and its stock-traffic
amounts to $20,000,000 a year. Grain and the products
of the extensive local manufacturing interests are also ex-
ported. Lumber is brought chiefly from Michigan, Canada,
Pennsylvania, and Northern New York. Commerce is facil-
itated by a large number of slips for vessels, by a large
dock, and by a pier, forming a great canal basin. There
is also a very large grain elevator, owned by the New York
Central R. R. The various receipts by canal amounted to
$15,806,259; clearances by canal, $4,753,971. The city has
a board of trade and a board of lumber-dealers. Albany
is a port of survey in the U. S. customs district of New
York. On June 30, 1870, there were 24 schooners, 40
sloops, 57 steamers, and 194 unrigged vessels belonging to
this port. Albany has 8 national banks, with large assets
exclusive of the stock. It has 11 savings banks. Albany
has twelve miles of street railway. In 1873 there were 4
stock-and-mutual fire insurance companies, besides 1 purely
mutual and 1 life insurance company. It has 10 weekly, 2
semi-weekly, I monthly, and 7 daily periodicals.
The city is supplied with water by gravitation from an
artificial lake in the Sand Plains about 5 miles W. Some
will also be pumped from the river in future. Tho fire de-
partment has seven steam fire-engines and a fire-alarm
telegraph system.
A magnificent edifice for a new Capitol is building, back
of the present one, of New England granite, the corner-
stone of which was laid June 24, 1871. It covers more
than three acres of ground, being 290 feet wide by 390 feet
long, and may cost at least $10,000,000 before completion.
With the basement it will be four stories high, besides the
mansard story. It is in the Renaissance style, and has, in
addition to high pavilions and turrets, a main tower 320
feet high. The entire structure will weigh 150,000 tons.
The population in 1790 (according to the Federal census)
was 3506; in 1800, 5349; in 1810, 10,762; in 1820, 12,541;
in 1830, 24,238; in 1840, 33,762; in 1850, 50,762; in 1860,
62,367; in 1870 (old limits, 69,422), 76,216. In the latter
year parts of Watervliet and Bethlehem were annexed to
Albany, and a part of Albany to Watervliet. The U. S.
census gives the population both before and after the change.
H. A. HoNES, State Library, Albany, N. Y.
Albany, a post-village, capital of Linn co., Or., on the
Oregon and California, R. R., is situated on the right (E.)
bank of the Willamette River, at the mouth of the Cala-
pooya, 28 miles by rail S. of Salem. The situation is beau-
tiful. Small steamboats can ascend to this point for eight
months in the year. Albany has a collegiate institute, a
brick court-house, two weekly newspapers, and three or
more churches. Pop. of precinct, 1992.
Albany, a post-township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 1510.
Albany, a township of Bradford co., Pa. . Pop. 1379.
Albany, a post-township of Orleans co., Vt., 32 miles
N. E. of Montpelier. It has an academy, three villages,
six churches, and manufactures of lumber, boots, shoes,
etc. Pop. 1151. -
Albany, a post-township of Green co., Wis. Pop. 1374.
Albany, a township of Pepin co., Wis. Pop. 275.
Albany (Lours.A), CountESS OF, a daughter of the Ger-
man prince Stolberg-Gedern, born Sept. 22, 1753. She be-
came in 1772 the wife of the Pretender Charles Edward
Stuart, a grandson of James II. of England. Her husband
having died in 1788, she was mistress of the poet Alfieri.
Died Jan.*29, 1824. (See ALFIERI.)
Al/batross (Diomedea), a genus of web-footed birds
of the family Laridae, re-
markable for their great
size and powers of flight.
The wandering albatross
, (Diomedea eacwlans) is
the largest of all oceanic
birds,having wings which
measure twelve feet or
more from tip to tip, but
are narrow in proportion :
to their length. This
bird is sometimes seen #3%
by voyagers over 100
miles from land. It feeds
chiefly on fish. “Some-
times for a whole hour
Albatross.
together,” says the duke of Argyll, “this splendid bird
will sail or wheel round a ship in every possible variety of
direction, without requiring to give a single stroke to its
pinions.” There has been much discussion as to the means
which enable the albatross to maintain this remarkable
kind of motion; and the matter is not well explained. The
above bird, known also as the man-of-war bird and the
Cape sheep, is found near the coasts of most seas, but
especially near those of Asia, and Africa. Besides the
above, there are the sooty albatross, Diomedea fuliginosa,
of Eastern Asia, and the Diomedeſ, chlororhynchus; and
still other species are described.
Albay, a town in Luzon, one of the Philippine Islands,
258 miles S. E. of Manila, is the capital of a province.
Pop. about 13,000. Pop. of the province, about 204,840.
Al’bee, a township of Saginaw co., Mich. Pop. 197.
Al/bemarle, a town of France. See AUMALE.
Albemarie, a county near the central part of Vir-
ginia, has an area of about 700 square miles. It is bounded
on the N. W. by the Blue Ridge, and on tho S. by the
James River. It is drained by the Rivanna and Hard-
ware Rivers. The surface is finely diversified by hills and
valleys. The soil is generally fertile. This county is in-
tersected by the Chesapeake and Ohio R. R. It was the
native place of Thomas Jefferson. Grain, tobacco, and wool
are the staples. Pop. 27,544. Capital, Charlottesville.
Albemarle Sound, in the N. E. part of North Caro-
Iina, extends from the mouth of the Roanoko River 60
miles eastward to a narrow island which separates it from
the Atlantic. Its average width N. and S. is about 12 miles.
It communicates by narrow inlets with Pamlico and Curri-
tuck Sounds. The water in it is nearly fresh. Its greatest
depth is 24 feet; average depth, 20 feet.
Albemarie (GEORGE Monk), DUKE, OF, a famous Eng-
lish general, chiefly known to history as the principal agent
in the restoration of the Stuarts in 1660, was born of an
ancient Devonshire family near Torrington Dec. 6, 1608.
IHe joined the army in order to escape punishment for mis-
handling a sheriff who was about to arrest his father for
debt. In 1625 he engaged in the expedition against Spain,
and took part at the attack upon Rhé, and served ten
years in the Netherlands. In the campaign against the
Scots he served as lieutenant-colonel. He led a regiment
against the Irish, and was governor of Dublin until peace
was struck by the marquess of Ormond in 1643. In the
civil waſ Monk was taken prisoner by Fairfax in 1644, and
imprisoned in the Tower, and only regained his liberty
after a confinement of two years by taking the Covenant.
He was given a command by the Parliamentarians, but
drew upon him suspicions of treachery, and cleared himself
with difficulty before Parliament. After the defeat of the
royalist cause Cromwell appointed Monk a lieutenant-gen-
eral and chief of artillery, in which capacity he did such
service at the battle of Dunbar that Cromwell made him
general-in-chief of the army in Scotland. In 1652 he took
art in the commission which drew up a pact of union
º, England and Scotland, and went to Scotland as
governor in 1654; in which position he had great difficulties
in maintaining his rule against the Presbyterians. The
royalists had already some hopes of his support, and
Charles sent him secret overtures in 1656. Monk delivered
this letter up to Cromwell. After the death of the dictator,
Monk declared in favor of Richard Cromwell, and assumed
the authority of a defender of public order only when
Iambert threatened to establish a military despotism. On
the 1st of Jan., 1660, he marched over the border with 6000
men, joining Fairfax at York, and marched into London
on the 3d of February, without drawing Sword from Scab-
bard. At first he kept every one in the dark as to his in-
tentions. . On Feb. 28 he recalled the Presbyterian members
expelled from Parliament in 1648, thus creating a majority
for the king. He held negotiations with Charles, and Par-
liament declared the latter king on the 8th of May. Charles
gave Monk the offices of privy councillor, chamberlain, and
jord lieutenant of Devon and Middlesex, besides creating
him duke of Albemarle. In 1666 the duke of Albemarle
commanded the naval expedition against Holland, was
beaten by De Ruyter in the three days’ conflict at Dunkirk,
but defeated the Dutch admiral at North Foreland. Died
Jan. 3, 1670.
Albemarle, EARLs of (WISCOUNTS BURY and BARONS
AsHFoRD), one of the prominent families of England.-The
first earl of this family, ARNOLD vAN KEPPEL, born in
1669, was a Dutch favorite of William, prince of Orange,
with whom he went to England in 1688. After that prince
became King William III., Van Keppel was created earl of
Albemarle, and was a rival of the duke of Portland in com-
peting for royal favor. Died in 1718.--The sixth earl,
GEORGE THOMAS KEPPEL, born June 13, 1799, was member


ALBEMARLE–ALBERT NYANZA.
83
of the House of Commons for East Norfolk from 1832 to
1835, and for Lymington from 1847 to 1850. He succeeded
his brother as earl of Albemarle on Mar. 15, 1851. He is
a lieutenant-general in the British army.
Albemarle, a post-village, the capital of Stanley co.,
N. C., is situated in a township of its own name, about 60
miles S. by W. from Greensboro’. Pop. of township, 1600.
Alberic I., a ruler of Rome, was born in the beginning
of the tenth century, the son of a Lombardian noble. He
became margrave of Camerino, and, through his marriage.
with the celebrated Marozia, ruler of Rome. He was ban-
ished by John X. from Rome, and was murdered in 925.
His son, Alberic II., was a powerful and wise ruler, and
died in 954, after a reign of twenty-three years. He was
succeeded by his son, Ottaviano, who was elected pope
under the name of John XII. in 956.
Albero/mi (GIULIO), CARDINAL, an ambitious Italian,
born near Piacenza May 31, 1664. He began his public
career as envoy of the duke of Parma to the court of Mad-
rid, and, having gained the favor of Philip V., became
prime minister of Spain in 1715. His foreign policy was
so audacious and violent that nearly all the powers of Eu-
rope combined against Spain. Among his offensive acts
was the invasion of Sardinia in time of peace. He was
removed from office in 1719, and banished from Spain.
Died Jan. 26, 1752. (See BERsANI, “Storia del Cardinale
Giulio Alberoni,” 1862.) -
Al’bers (Joh ANN FRIEDRICH HERMANN), an eminent
German physician, born Nov. 14, 1805, became in 1831
professor of pathology in Bonn, established a celebrated
asylum for insane and nervously affected persons in Bonn,
and in 1856 became director of the pharmacological cabi-
net of the university. Died May 12, 1867. He has pub-
lished, among other works, “Handbuch der allgemeinen
Pathologie” (2 vols., 1842–44), “Lehrbuch der allgemeinen
Arzneimittellehre” (1853), and “Die Spermatorrhöe” (1862).
Albert, a town of France, in the department of Somme, ,
18 miles N. E. of Amiens, has cotton-factories and paper-
mills. Pop. in 1866, 4019. -
Al’bert, a county in the S. E. part of New Brunswick,
bordering on Chiegnecto Channel. The coal-like mineral
called Albertite is found here, and petroleum has been ob-
tained. Area, about 650 square miles. Capital, Hopewell
Cape. Pop. 10,672.
Albert, crown prince of Saxony, born April 23, 1828,
took part in the campaign in Sleswick-Holstein in 1849,
was made lieutenant-general in 1853, and general in 1857,
commanded the Saxon army in the war against Prussia in
1866, received the command of the twelfth army corps after
the admission of Saxony into the North German Union, in
which position he took part in the battles of Rezonville,
Gravelotte, and Sedan in the German-French war of 1870,
and received the command of the fourth army (of the
Meuse). In July, 1871, he was created field-marshal of
the empire, and soon after field-marshal of Russia.
Albert [in German, commonly Albrecht] I., archduke
of Austria, born in 1248, was a son of the emperor Ru-
dolph of Habsburg. He was elected emperor of Germany
in 1298, but his title was contested by Adolphus of Nassau,
who had occupied the throne. These rivals fought a battle,
in which Adolphus was killed. Albert, who was noted for
his cruelty and avarice, was assassinated May 1, 1308, by
his nephew, John the Parricide.
Albert W., a son of Albert IV., was born in 1397, and
became duke of Austria, in 1404. He was chosen king of
Hungary in 1437, and emperor of Germany in 1438. His
title as emperor was Albert II. Died in 1439.
Albert, archduke of Austria, a son of the emperor
Maximilian II, was born in 1559. He was appointed
governor of the Netherlands in 1596 by Philip II. of
Spain, whose daughter Isabella, he married about 1598.
In 1600 he was defeated by Maurice of Nassau, who fought
for the Dutch republic. The war was suspended in 1609
by a long truce. Died in 1621.
Albert I., margrave of Brandenburg, surnamed THE
BEAR, was born about 1106. He was the founder of the
IIouse of Brandenburg. Died about 1170.
Albert III., of Brandenburg, born in 1414, was sur-
named ACHILLES and ULYSSEs, on account of his courage
and wisdom. Died in 1486.
Albert (OF BRANDENBURG), first duke of Prussia, a
grandson of the preceding, was born in 1490. He was
elected grand master of the Teutonic Order in 1511, and
was the last who held that office. In 1525 he became a
Protestant, and duke of Prussia, which he held as a fief of
the king of Poland. Died in 1568. *
Albert (PRINCE), or, more fully, Albert Francis
Augustus Charles Emmanuel, prince of Saxe-Co-
burg-Gotha and consort of Queen Victoria of England, was
born near Coburg Aug. 26, 1819. He was a son of Duke
Ernest I. His marriage with Victoria was celebrated in
Feb., 1840, soon after which he obtained the rank of field-
marshal in the British army. He patronized science and
art, was a liberal promoter of benevolent institutions, and
acquired great influence in public affairs as the prudent
and trusted adviser of the queen. In 1857 he received the
title of prince consort. Died Dec. 14, 1861. His death was
lamented as a national loss. (Compare MoRTON, “The
Prince Consort's Farms” (1863), GREY, “The Early Years
of the Prince Consort” (1867), and “Leaves from the
Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 1848–61.”)
Albert Edward, prince of Wales, the eldest son of
Queen Victoria, was born Nov. 9, 1841. He is the heir-
apparent to the British throne. In 1860 he visited the
U. S. He married, Mar. 10, 1863, the princess Alexandra,
of Denmark. His children by this marriage are—Prince
Albert Edward Victor Christian, duke of Cornwall, born
Jan. 8, 1864; Prince George Frederick Ernest Albert, born
June 3, 1865; Princess Louisa Victoria, Dagmar, born Feb.
20, 1867; Princess Victoria Alexandra Olga Mary, born
July 6, 1868; Princess Maud Charlotte Mary Victoria,
born Nov. 26, 1869; and Prince Alexander John Charles
Albert, born April 6, died April 7, 1871. |
Albert, a French revolutionist and mechanic, whose
original name was ALEXANDRE MARTIN, was born at Bury
(Oise) April 27, 1815. He founded in Paris in 1840 a jour-
nal called “L’Atelier” (“The Workshop'), and was a mem-
ber of the provisional government formed in Feb., 1848.
Albert (FREDERICK RUDOLPH), archduke of Austria,
eldest son of Archduke Charles, was born Aug. 3, 1817. In
1851 he was appointed military and civil governor of Hun-
gary, which position he retained until 1860. In 1859 he
was sent to Berlin to bring about an understanding between
the two great powers of Germany, and in 1863 was created
field-marshal.
Alber'ta, a township of Benton co., Minn. Pop. 158.
Albertinel’Ii (MARIOTTo), an eminent Italian painter,
born about 1475, was a pupil of Roselli, and a friend and
imitator of Fra Bartolommeo, with whom he painted sev-
eral pictures. Among his most celebrated paintings is the
“Visitation of Mary and Elizabeth’’ in Florence, “The
Virgin Mary with Saint Domenico’’ in the Academy at
Florence, “Saint Catherine” and the “Virgin Mary with
the Child” in the Louvre. Died about 1520.
Albert Lea is the shire-town of Freeborn co., Minn.
It is 128 miles W. of the Mississippi River, at the intersec-
tion of the Southern Minnesota and the contemplated line
of the St. Louis and Minneapolis R. Rs. It has several
small manufactories, public park, library association, high
school, and two newspapers. It is beautifully situated be-
tween two lakes, one of which bears its name, and the sur-
rounding country of undulating prairie and timberischarm-
ingly picturesque. An abundance of game has made it a
popular resort for pleasure-seekers. Pop., of Albert Lea.
township, 1167. D. G. PARKER, PUB. OF “STANDARD.”
AI’bert Mausole'um, erected in commemoration of .
Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria. The first stone
of this building, at Frogmore, was laid by Queen Victoria.
in Mar., 1862, and the remains of Prince Albert were re-
moved from St. George's Chapel to the mausoleum in De-
cember of the same year.
AI'bertson’s, a post-township of Duplin co., N. C.
Pop. 667.
Alber/ti (LEON BATTISTA), an eminent Italian architect,
poet, and writer on art, was born at Genoa (or, as some say,
at Florence) in 1404. He was employed as an architect by
Pope Nicholas V., completed the Pitti Palace at Florence,
and designed the church of St. Francis at Rimini. His
“Treatise on Architecture” (“Dé Re AEdificatoria,” 1485)
is highly commended. Died April, 1472.
Al’bert Nyan’za (written also Albert N’Yanza), a
large lake of Africa, and one of the sources of the White
Nile, is situated under the equator, about 90 miles W. of
Victoria, Nyanza. It is 300 miles long or more, and is 92
miles wide where it is crossed by the equator. The north-
ern extremity is in lat. 2° 45' N. The southern part has
not been fully explored. The surface of this lake is 2720
feet above the level of the sea. On the eastern side it is
enclosed by rocky cliffs of granite and porphyry, the aver:
age height of which is about 1500 feet, and by isolated
peaks, which are supposed to rise 5000 feet or more above
the lake. Near the western shore is a range called the Blue
Mountains, about 7000 feet high. The scenery around this
lake is described as extremely beautiful. The Water is
fresh, sweet, and very deep. The Albert Nyanza was dis-
covered and named by Sir Samuel White Baker, who with
his wife reached Vacovia, on the eastern shore, in Mar,
84
ALBERTUS MAGNUS–ALBRIGHTS.
1864, after several years of arduous and perilous adven-
tures. “It was,” he says, “a grand sight to look upon
this vast reservoir of the mighty Nile, and to watch the
heavy swell tumbling upon the beach, while far to the
south-west the eye searched as vainly for a bound as
though upon the Atlantic. It was with extreme emotion
that I enjoyed this glorious scene.” Embarking in a boat,
he explored the lake to Magungo, which is near its northern
extremity, and in lat. 2° 16' N. The lake here was about
16 miles wide. The Somerset River, or Victoria, Nile, which
is the outlet of Lake Victoria, Nyanza, enters Lake Albert
near Magungo. Ascending the Victoria Nile, he discovered
a grand cataract, 120 feet high (perpendicular), which he
named Murchison Falls. (See Sir S. W. BAKER, “The Al-
bert Nyanza, Great Basin of the Nile,” 1866.)
Alber’tus Mag/nus (i. e. “Albert the Great”), some-
times called ALBERT DE BOLLSTADT. He was born in Ba-
varia in 1193, and became a Dominican friar. In 1254 he
was chosen provincial of the Dominican Order, and in 1260
became bishop of Ratisbon. He lectured for many years
at Cologne, and wrote numerous works on theology, logic,
philosophy, and other subjects. He was reputed one of the
most learned men of the Middle Ages, and was regarded
as a magician by some of his contemporaries. Died in
1280. Thomas Aquinas was one of his disciples.
Al’bi, or Al’by [Lat. Albi'ga], an old city of France,
capital of the department of Tarn, on the river Tarn, and
on a hill 42 miles N. E. of Toulouse. It has a museum of
natural history, a college, a normal school, a cathedral, a
public library, and a theatre; also manufactures of coarse
linens, tablecloths, and cotton goods. Here is an arch-
bishop's see. The Albigenses derived their name from this
town, which suffered much in the religious wars of France.
Pop. in 1866, 16,596.
Al/bia, the county-seat of Monroe co., Ia., on the Bur-
lington and Missouri River R. R. where it is crossed by
the Central R. R. of Iowa, 100 miles N. W. of Burlington,
and about 65 miles S. E. of Des Moines. It has one national
bank and two weekly papers. Two other railroads are pro-
jected to the place. The county is mostly underlaid with
coal of a good quality, and mines are being opened in nu-
merous places. The country around it is rich and product-
ive. Pop. 1621. -
JAMES HAYNES, ED. “SPIRIT of THE WEST.”
Albigen'ses [from Albi'ga, the Latin name of Albi, a
town of France], a name given to several sects of reformers
in the south of France which called themselves Catharists.
In 1208, Pope Innocent III. proclaimed a crusade against
these reformers and against Raymond VI., count of Tou-
louse, one of their principal leaders. A large army was
led against them by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester.
The war was carried on with great bitterness of feeling on
both sides, and with little intermission till 1229, when a
treaty between the contending parties was concluded at
Paris. Many of the Albigenses emigrated to other coun-
tries, while others perished in the Inquisition, which was
established about the same time that the pope proclaimed
his crusade. The name gradually disappears in the early
part of the fourteenth century. (See FABER’s “Inquiry
into the History and Theology of the Ancient Wallenses
and Albigenses,” London, 1838.)
Al/bin, a township of Brown co., Minn. Pop. 194.
Albiºni (FRANZ JoSEPH), an able German statesman
and lawyer, born in Rhenish Prussia May 14, 1748. He
passed some years in the service of the emperor Joseph II.,
after whose death (1790) he became chief minister of the
elector of Mentz, whom he served with fidelity until 1802.
Died Jan. 8, 1816. -
Albi'no [Port., from the Lat. al"bus, “white”], a per-
son who has a great deficiency or an absence of pigment
in the hair, skin, and eyes. The complexion is very light,
the hair often Snowy white, the eyes red. Albinism in
the human species may be observed in white and black
races, and in the negro is sometimes partial, patches of the
skin having the normal color. Albinism is frequent among
Zuni Indians and other tribes in Arizona. A degree
of nyctalopia (day-blindness) is common among albinos.
Elephants, birds, mice, and other animals sometimes ex-
hibit the phenomena of albinism, which is often hereditary.
Al/bion, the ancient Celtic name of Great Britain.
The name, said to signify “white island,” is supposed by
some, though without good reason, to have been given on
account of the chalky cliffs of Kent.
Albion, a post-village, capital of Edwards co., Ill., in
a township of the same name, and on the New Albany
Mt. Carmel and St. Louis R. R. It has a high and healthy
location, good Schools, a chemical laboratory, a wagon-fac-
tory, and two newspapers. Pop. of village, 613; of town-
ship, 2856. J. E. CLARKE, PUB. “ALBION INDEPENDENT.”
Albion, a post-village, the capital of Noble co., Ind.,
in a township of its own name, about 26 miles N. W. of
Fort Wayne. Pop. of township, 598. -
Albion, a township of Butler co., Ia. Pop. 1039.
Albion, a township of Howard co., Ia. Pop. 682.
Albion, a post-township of Kennebec co., Me. Pop.
1356. -
Albion, a post-village of Calhoun co., Mich., on the
Kalamazoo River and Michigan Central and N. C. M. R. R.,
37 miles S. of Lansing and 96 miles W. of Detroit. It is
the seat of Albion College, under the control of the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church. The village has four fine primary
school buildings, besides an excellent central School; a
national bank, two weekly papers, two large flouring and
other mills, two door, sash, and blind factories, a tannery,
an extensive agricultural tool manufactory, machine-shop
and furnace, a library, five churches, and two benevolent
societies. Pop. of Albion township, 2409.
S. W. Col. E, PUB. “ALBION MIRROR.”
Albion, a post-township of Wright co., Minn. P. 281.
Albion, the capital of Orleans co., N. Y., on the Erie
Canal and the New York Central R. R., 30 miles W. of
Rochester, has a brick court-house, a jail, a furnace, two
banks, two newspapers, two public parks, six churches, a
free library, and several important manufactories. It is
the seat of a fine academy, and of Phipps' Union Seminary.
It is in Barre township. Pop. 3322.
- C. G. BEACH, E.D. “ORLEANS REPUBLICAN.”
Albion, a township of Oswego co., N. Y. It has manu-
factures of leather, lumber, etc. Pop. 2359.
Albion, a post-borough of Erie co., Pa. Pop. 452.
Albion, a thriving village and township of Dane co.,
Wis., is situated in an important tobacco-growing region.
Albion Centre is the seat of Albion Academy, also of a
prosperous Sabbath school publishing-house, both under
the patronage of the Seventh-Day Baptist denomination.
It has one sepmi-monthly paper, and is three miles from
Edgerton, on the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R. Pop.
of township, 1142. -
REv. J. E. N. BACKUs, PUB. of “GEM.”
Albion, a township of Jackson co., Wis. Pop. 1991.
Al/bite [from the Lat. al/bus, “white,” and the Gr.
Atºos, a “stone”], a silicate of alumina and soda, sometimes
called soda felspar. It is a constituent of granite, being
associated with true felspar, from which it may be distin-
guished by its greater whiteness and translucency. It also
occurs in syenite and greenstone. -
AI'boim [Lat. Alboi'nws], the founder of the Lombard
kingdom in Italy, was a son of Alduin, whom he succeeded
in 543 A. D. He conducted an army of Longobards into
Italy in 569, and conquered the northern provinces. He
married Rosamund, a daughter of King Cunimund, whom
he had killed. Alboin was assassinated in 573 A. D., at
the instigation of Rosamund. -
Albo'ni (MARIETTA), a popular Italian singer, born at
Cesena Mar. 10, 1824, was a pupil of Rossini. She per-
formed with great applause in Paris and London in 1846–
47, and afterwards visited the U. S. She was married to
the count de Pepoli. Her voice is a contralto, in the high-
est degree sweet and sonorous.
AI Boråk’ (i. e. “the lightning,” so called on account
of its fleetness), the name of a creatuſe on which Moham-
med is said to have made journeys to the celestial regions.
Albornoz’ (GII, ALVAREz CARILLO), or AEgid’ius de
Albornoz', a Spanish cardinal, born at Cuenca. He was
appointed archbishop of Toledo by Alfonzo XI. of Castile,
whose life he saved in a battle against the Moors. In 1853,
Pope Innocent VI. sent him as legate to Italy, where he
distinguished himself by his military and political talents,
and restored the authority of the pope over many cities.
Died Aug. 24, 1367. r
Al/brecht, the name of many German princes. (See
ALBERT.)
Al/brechtsberger (Johann GEORG), one of the most
learned contrapuntists of modern times, born Feb. 3,1736,
became director of the choir of the Carmelites in Vienna,
organist to the court in 1772, musical director at St. She-
phen's cathedral in Vienna in 1792, and died Mar. 7, 1809:
He published “Gründliche Anweisung, zur Composition”
(1790; 3d ed. 1821).
AI'bright (JACOB), an American divine of the Lutheran
Church, born in Montgomery co., Pa., in 1759. He founded
in 1808 the EvangBLICAL ASSOCIATION (which see). Died
in 1808. -
Al/bright’s, a township of Alamance co., N. C. Pop.'
625. 4
ALBUERA, LA—ALBURG.
85
Albue'ra, La., a village of Spain, in Estremadura, on
a small river of its own name, 13 miles S. E. of Badajos.
Here on the 16th of May, 1811, the British general Beres-
ford defeated the French marshal Soult, who lost nearly
9000 men. The allies lost about 7000.
Albufe/ra, a lake of Spain, 7 miles S. of Valencia, is
11 miles long, and abounds in fish and wild fowl. It is
near the sea, with which it is connected by a narrow chan-
nel. The Spaniards were defeated near this lake in 1812
by the French under Marshal Suchet. *-
Albu’men [from al/bus, “white”], a Latin term signi-
fying the “white of an egg,” denotes in chemistry an or-
ganic compound of great importance, which, besides be-
ing the characteristic ingredient in the white of an egg,
abounds in the serum of the blood, in chyle, lymph, the
juice of flesh, and forms an important part of the skin,
muscles, and brain. In Bright’s disease it is found in con-
siderable quantity in the urine. “It is obvious,” says Lie-
big, “that albumen is the foundation, the starting-point, of
the whole series of peculiar tissues which constitute those
organs which are the seat of all vital, actions.” Albumen
is also found in small quantities in most vegetable juices.
When heated to a temperature from 140° to 160°, albu-
men coagulates and becomes insoluble in water. It is also
coagulated by alcohol and most of the acids. According
to Liebig, the albumen of blood is C216H338N51S3068. Lie-
berkühn considers it C12H112N18S022. -
The fibrine of the muscles and the albumen of blood con-
tain the same elements in the same proportion.
Egg albumen differs from serum albumen by being pre-
cipitated by ether and by turpentine, and being almost in-
soluble in strong nitric acid. When injected into the veins
of dogs or rabbits it passes into the urine unchanged, while
serum albumen injected in the same way does not appear
in the urine at all.
Coagulated albumen is white, opaque, and elastic. It
dries to a brittle, translucent, horny mass, which when
placed in cold water swells up to its original form.
Albumen is a weak acid, apparently dibasic. Its salts
with the alkaline metals are soluble; they are obtained by
adding the caustic alkalies or alkaline carbonates directly
to albumen. The other albuminates are insoluble, and are
obtained by precipitation: Potassic albuminate = R'2C2
H110N18SO22; calcic albuminate = Caſ'Cºz H110N18SO22.
The white of egg is recommended as an antidote to cor-
rosive sublimate, mercuric chloride, as it forms mercuric
albuminate, which is insoluble in water. As it is, however,
slightly soluble in saline solutions, the physician should
also secure vomiting, to remove the mercury from the stom-
ach. Albumen is much used for clarifying syrups and other
liquids. When boiled with them, it coagulates to flocks,
entangling the suspended impurities, and carrying them
either to the surface as a scum or to the bottom as a sedi-
ment. In cooking, the white of egg is employed; in sugar
refining, bullock's blood. Albumen is also used for prepar-
ing the surface of paper for photographic printing, and
for making a cement with lime.
Egg and serum albumen are now manufactured in large
quantities by simply drying the natural fluids in thin
layers in warm air, taking care that the temperature shall
not be so high as to coagulate the albumen, and thus render
it insoluble. The chief application of this albumen in the
arts is in calico-printing. . It is employed in fastening cer-
tain colors upon the fibres of cotton cloth, especially pig-
ments such as ultramarine, chrome yellows, and oranges,
Guignet’s green, etc., and also the aniline colors. The pig-
ments or colors are simply mixed with a solution of albumen,
printed on the cloth, and fixed by steaming, which coagu-
lates the albumen and renders it insoluble. A dark-colored,
inferior quality of serum albumen, sold under the name of
“dried blood,” is used by sugar refiners to clear the solu-
tions of raw sugar. C. F. CHANDLER.
Albu’minoids, or Pro/teids, an extensive class of
organic bodies found in animals and plants. They form the
chief constituents of blood, muscles, nerves, glands, and
other organs of animals; and though present in plants in
much smaller proportions than cellulose, starch, sugar, etc.,
they still play a most important part in plant life. Their
exact constitution has not been determined. Analysis shows
them to contain— -
Carbon, 52.7 to 54.5. .
Hydrogen, 6.9 “ 7.3.
Nitrogen, 15.4 “ 16.5.
Oxgyen, 20.9 “23.5.
Sulphur, 0.8 “ 1.6.
They are amorphous, more or less soluble in water, inso-
luble or nearly so in alcohol, insoluble in ether, soluble in
excess of strong acetic acid, soluble in alkalies, and soluble
in strong mineral acids. Nitric acid produces yellow xan-
thoproteic acid. Strong alkalies change them to leucine,
tom, as in organic disease of the heart.
tyrosine, oxalic acid, carbonic acid, ammonia, etc., accord-
ing to the temperature. From their solutions they are pre-
cipitated by excess of mineral acids, by potassic ferrocyanide
with acetic or hydrochloric acid, by acetic acid in presence
of a considerable quantity of alkaline or alkaline earthy
salt, gum arabic or dextrine, by mercuric nitrate, Millon’s
reagent. -
They have been classified as follows:
I. Albumens, soluble in water : 1. Serum albumen; 2.
Egg albumen.
II. Globulins, insoluble in water, soluble in very dilute
acids and alkalies, soluble in dilute solutions of sodic chlor-
ide and other neutral salts: 1. Myosin; 2. Globulin ; 3.
Fibrinogin; 4. Vitellin. .
III. Derived albumens, insoluble in water and in solu-
tions of sodic chloride; soluble in dilute acids and alkalies:
1. Acid albumen; 2. Alkali albumen, or albuminate casein.
IV. Fibrine, insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in di-
lute acids and alkalies, and in neutral saline solutions.
V. Coagulated proteid.
VI. Amyloid substance, or lardacein.
VII. Peptones, produced by the action of the gastric
juice on all albuminoids.
For further information on this important class of bodies
see HoPPE-SEYLER, “Handbuch der Physiologisch-Chemi-
schen Analyse;” the eleventh English edition of Fownes'
“Manual of Chemistry;” and the “Handwórterbuch der
Chemie,” 2t Auf II., p. 124. C. F. CHANDLER.
Albuminu'ria [from albumen and the Lat. wri'na,
“urine”] is the presence of albumen in the urine, constitu-
ting a very important symptom of disease. Albumen is
sometimes observed in small proportion in the urine of per-
sons apparently healthy. Artificial obstruction (by vivi-
section and ligation) of the emulgent veins, in the lower
animals produces albuminuria, thus illustrating the fact
that passive engorgement of the kidney may cause this symp-
Albuminuria has
been reported as following the injudicious use of oil of tur-
pentine, in which case it results from an active congestion
of the kidney. Albuminuria is sometimes associated with
dyspepsia, in which case it may be either a temporary and
probably unimportant symptom, or a precursor of Bright's
disease—a malady which is among the most formidable of
all with which we have to deal. This symptom has also
been observed in malarial and typhoid fevers, pneumonia,
smallpox, scarlet fever, measles, erysipelas, peritonitis, con-
sumption, pregnancy, rheumatism, leucocythaemia, purpura,
and a great variety of other conditions. In most cases it
results from a degeneration of the kidney, characterized by
swelling, opacity, and molecular decay of the renal epithe-
lium. -
Albuminuria is best detected either by slightly acidula-
ting and then boiling the urine in a test-tube, or by adding
nitric acid. In either case the albumen coagulates into a
white, semi-solid mass. Albuminuria is best treated by
attention to hygienic conditions. -
Albufiol’, a town of Spain, in the province of Granada,
near the Mediterranean, 35 miles W. by S. of Almería. It
is well built and has several convents. Pop. about 5000.
Albuquer/que, a town of Spain, in the province of
Badajos, 26 miles N. of Badajos. It has a castle, and manu-
factures of cotton and wool. Pop. about 7500.
Albuquerque, a post-town, the capital of Bernalillo
co., N. M., on the Rio Grande, 75 miles S. W. of Santa Fé.
It has a trade in wool, hides, grain, and wine. Gold, silver,
iron, lead, copper, and coal are found near this place, which
is 5032 feet above the sea-level. Pop. 1307.
Albuquerque, or Alboquerque, d” (AFFONSO), Sur-
named THE GREAT and THE PORTUGUESE MARS, a celebrated
general, born at Alhanda, near Lisbon, in 1452, was rela-
ted to the royal family. After he had distinguished him-
self in several expeditions to Africa and the East Indies, he
was appointed viceroy of the Indies in 1509. He took the
city of Goa in 1510, and conquered Malacca, in which he
obtained booty of great value, in 1511. In 1513 his fleet
entered the Red Sea, which had never before been navi-
gated by Europeans. He captured the rich emporium of
Örmuz in 1515. Having been removed from command, he
died at Goa. Dec. 16 of that year. He is said to have been
eminent for justice and other virtues, which, combined With
his military skill, greatly increased the power of Portugal
in India.--ALBoque RQUE (BRAS AFFONSO), a natural son Of
the preceding, was born at Alhandra in 1500. He was a
naval officer, and was noted for his integrity and public
spirit. He wrote a narrative of his father's, campaign;
entitled “Comentarios do grande Affonso d’Alboquerque”
(1557). Died in 1580.
Al/burg, a post-township of Grand Isle goº, Vt. This
township has a celebrated mineral spring which is of a de;
cidedly alkaline character, and contains lithia. It is useful
86
ALBURNUM–ALCIBIADES.
in gout and rheumatism, and other diseases. It has been
recommended for cancer, but has no marked effect on that
disease. Alburg has an academy, and is on the Vermont
Central R. R. . Pop. 1716.
Albur'num [from the Lat. albus, “white”], or Sap-
wood, is that part of the wood of exogenous trees which
is most recently formed and is contiguous to the bark. It
consists partly of tubes through which the sap ascends, and
is of a white or pale color, whence its name is derived. It
gradually hardens with age, and is converted into duramen
or heart-wood, which is more valuable than alburnum.
Alcaeſus [Gr. 'AAkaios], a celebrated Greek lyric poet,
born at Mitylene, flourished about 600 B. C. In the violent
contests between the democracy and the nobles of Lesbos
he took side with the latter. He wrote in the AEolic dialect,
and invented the metre called Alcaic. His poetry is im-
passioned and full of enthusiasm. Horace admired and im-
itated the odes of Alcaeus, who, among the nine lyric poets
of the Alexandrian canon, was recognized as the second,
or, as some say, the first. He is said to have been a friend
and admirer of Sappho, to whom some of his verses were
addressed. His works are lost except small fragments.
Alcaſic Meſtre, in Greek and Latin poetry, was named
from Alcaeus, the reputed inventor. The greater alcaic
verse consists of two iambic feet, a long catalectic syllable,
a choriambus, and an iambus. The lesser alcaic is two
dactyls, followed by two trochees.
Alcaide. See ALCAYDE.
Alcala' de Guadai/ra, a town of Spain, in the prov-
ince of Seville, 9 miles S. E. of Seville, has a Moorish cas-
tle, and considerable trade in grain. Pop. about 7400.
Alcala' de Hena’res, a city of Spain, in the prov-
ince of Madrid, on the river Henares, 21 miles by rail E.
of Madrid, was built in 1083 near the site of the ancient
Complutum. It was the seat of a celebrated university
founded by Ximenes, which has been removed to Madrid.
. After this removal, Alcalá (which had 22,000 inhabitants
in 1768) rapidly declined. Cervantes was born here in
1547. The celebrated Complutensian Bible was printed at
Alcalá in 1514. Pop. about 8600.
Alcala' la Real', a city of Spain, in the province of
Jaen, stands in an elevated glen about 2700 feet above the
sea, and 24 miles S. W. of Jaen. It has a court-house,
several convents, a hospital, etc. Pop. 6738.
Alcal/de [probably a corruption of the Arabic al cadi,
“the judge”], the title given by the Moors, Spaniards, and
Spanish American nations to a judicial or administrative
officer, is sometimes erroneously confounded with alcayde.
Alcalde pedaneo signifies justice of the peace.
Alcam’ enes [Gr. 'AAkapevils], an eminent Athenian
sculptor, a pupil of Phidias, flourished about 420 B. C.
He was equal in celebrity to any sculptor.of his time ex-
cept his great master. Pausanias states that he was living
in 400 B. C. -
Al/camo, a town on the island of Sicily, in the province
of Trapani, 24 miles S. W. of Palermo, has a college and
picturesque ruins of an old castle. Pop. in 1872, 20,890.
Alcañiz’, al-kān-yeeth", a town of Spain, in the prov-
ince of Pernel, on the Guadalupe River, 57 miles S. E. of
Saragossa. Pop. about 7500. --
Alcántara, a town of Spain, in the province of Ca-
ceres, is situated on the left bank of the Tagus, near the Por-
tuguese boundary. Here are ruins of a grand bridge built
by the emperor Trajan in 103 A. D., of which a triumphal
arch forty feet high still remains. The duke of Alva here
defeated the Portuguese in a great battle on Aug. 25, 1580.
Pop. about 4100.
Alcântara, Order of, also called the Order of
Saint Julian, a religious order of Spanish knighthood,
founded in 1156 at Alcántara for the defence of the Chris-
tians against the Moors. In 1495 the office of grand-
master of this order was united to the Spanish crown.
Their crest was a pear tree.
Alcatraz' (or Alctra’ces) Island, of California,
sometimes called Pelican Island, is in the bay, 24 miles
N. of San Francisco. Length, 1650 feet; height, 130 feet.
It is fortified, and commands the entrance of the Golden
Gate. On its summit is a lighthouse 36 feet high, in lat.
370 49' 27’’ N., lon. 122° 24, 1971 W.
Alcava'la, or Alcaba'la, a tax formerly imposed in
Spain and her colonies on all property sold, and payable as
often as it changed hands. This tax, which was at first 10,
and afterwards 14 per cent. ad valorem, was very injurious
to the prosperity of the country. -
Alcay’de, or Alcaide [from the Arabic al, “the,” and
cadi, a “magistrate”], a term applied by Spaniards, Moors,
and Portuguese to a jailer or inferior magistrate.
Alca’zar (or Alcazer) de San Juan’, a town of
Spain, in the province of Ciudad Real, 47 miles N. E. of
Ciudad Real, has manufactures of soap, nitre, and gun-
powder. Pop. 7942. -
Alca’zar Kebir’ (“the great castle”), a city of Mo-
rocco, 83 miles N. W. of Fez. Pop. in 1864, about 25,000.
Near it is a bridge (Alcántara) where Sebastian, king of
Portugal, was defeated and killed Aug. 4, 1578.
Alces’tis [Gr. "AAkmarts), in classic mythology, was a
daughter of Pelias and the wife of Admetus, king of Thes-
saly. The poets feigned that she prolonged the life of her
husband by suffering voluntary death as his substitute, and
was rescued from Hades by Hercules. The story of her
devotion is the subject of one of the tragedies of Euripides.
Al’chemy [for etymology, see below] is commonly un-
derstood to mean the occult science or art of transmuting
the baser metals into gold. Some writers suppose that
alchemy originated in Egypt, the ancient name of which
was Chem (“dark,” “mysterious”), and that it was intro-
duced into Europe by the Arabs. The origin of alchemy
seems to be connected with the widespread notion that the
manifold forms of matter have a common basis, and that.
the individual properties of material bodies are due to for-
mative force separable in thought, if not in fact, from this
common substratum. Hence it followed that if this first
matter could be dissolved or separated from all special
formative forces, and the special “form * of gold or other
precious substance discovered and got under control, these
or any material body could be produced at will. From this
point of view we may understand the reason of the alchem-
ists’ search for the “universal solvent * and for the special
“forms” of things. The union of the materia prima and
the “form” of gold would produce the actual metal. In
like manner, if the vital principle or form of the bodily
organization could be found and controlled, the tendencies
to disease and decay in the bodily organization could be
resisted. Hence the search after the elixir of life and the
philosopher's stone. . It was this search after “forms” and
the materia prima which so vitiated the method of the Mid-
dle Age investigators. It was a reaction against this false
analysis of Aristotle which led to the bitter opposition to
his name and doctrines which marked the rise of modern
science in Europe. When belief in the reality of the Aris-
totelian analysis passed away, alchemy ceased.
In the Middle Ages the alchemists expended immense
labor and time in experiments, the object of which was to
discover the philosopher's stone and an elixir vitae (the
elixir of life) which could cure all diseases and restore old
people to youth. Many useful discoveries were the results
of these visionary pursuits, in which the most eminent men
of those times took part. Roger Bacon (1214–92) was a
believer in the doctrine that base metals can be transmuted
into gold. The works which he wrote on alchemy are the
oldest extant European writings on that subject. Among
the other famous alchemists were Basil Valentine, R. Lully,
and Paracelsus. As late as the sixteenth century many men
of superior intellect devoted their time and money to al-
chemy, and hoped to discover the grand arcanum. Accord-
ing to Liebig, “The great (Francis) Bacon, Luther, Benedict
Spinosa, and Leibnitz believed in the philosopher's stone,
and in the possibility of the transmutation of metals.”
(Familiar Letters on Chemistry.) The same writer affirms.
that “Alchemy was never at any time anything different
from chemistry. It is utterly unjust to confound it, as is
generally done, with the gold-making of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries. Among the alchemists there was
always to be found a nucleus of genuine philosophers, who
were often deceived in their theoretical views; whereas, the
gold-makers, properly so called, knowingly deceived both
themselves and others.” REVISED BY M. B. ANDERSON.
Alcia/ti [Fr. Alciat], (ANDREA), an eminent Italian
lawyer, born in 1492 at Alzato. He lectured on law at
Bourges from 1528 to 1532, after which he was professor
of law at Bologna, Pavía, and Ferrara. He wrote, besides
other works, “ Commentaries on the Digest' and a book of
emblems. Died in 1550. Erasmus said of him, as Cicero
said of Scaevola, “He was the most jurisprudent of orators,
and the most eloquent of lawyers.”
Alcibiades [Gr. 'AAkt3táðms], a famous Athenian gen-
eral and politician, born of a noble family about 450 B. C.,
was a son of Cleinias. He was educated at the house of his
relative, the illustrious Pericles, and inherited a large estate.
Pericles was a second cousin to the mother of Alcibiades.
From nature he received great personal beauty and tran-
scendent abilities, with strong passions and proclivities to
licentious habits. As a favorite pupil and companion of
Socrates he enjoyed in his youth great advantages for the
cultivation of his mind. (See SOCRATES.) . In 420 B.C. he
began his political career as the leader of the democratic
party and an opponent of Nicias, who advocated peace with
ALCIPHRON−ALCOTT.
87
Sparta. Having induced the Athenians to send a great ex-
pedition (in 414 B.C.) against Syracuse, the ally of Sparta,
he was chosen to command it, in conjunction with Nicias
and Lamachus. Soon after the fleet had reached Sicily,
Alcibiades was recalled to defend himself against a charge
of sacrilege, but he escaped to Sparta, and in his absence
was condemned to death by the people of Athens. He ac-
quired much influence with the Spartans, whom he aided
in their operations against his native country, but several
jealous Spartan leaders having conspired against him, he
fled to the Persian satrap Tissaphernes, and again changed
sides. The next scene in the drama of his eventful and way-
ward career presents him as the commander of the Athenian
fleet, in 411 B. C. He defeated the Spartans at Abydos in
4II, and at Cyzicus in 410 B.C. Having by these and other
victories restored the naval supremacy of Athens, he returned
in triumph to the capital in 407, and regained his popularity.
He was removed from the command in 406, in consequence
of a reverse which his fleet suffered in his absence, and he
again went into exile. He sought refuge in Phrygia, where
he was assassinated by night in 404 B.C. (See PLUTARCH,
“Life of Alcibiades;” GROTE, “History of Greece,” vol.
viii.; THIRLwAIL, “History of Greece.”)
AI’ciphron ['AAktópov], a Greek epistolary writer, who
is supposed to have lived about 180–200 A. D. He repre-
sented the manners and opinions of various classes of soci-
ety in fictitious letters, the style of which is admired as a
specimen of Attic purity.
Alciſra, an ancient walled town of Spain, on an island
in the river Jucar, in the province of Valencia, 25 miles S.
of Valencia, has two fine stone bridges, besides an iron rail-
way bridge. Near it is a curious cavern. Pop. 14,022.
Alcmae'on, a Greek philosopher, a native of Crotona,
and a pupil of Pythagoras, lived about 530 B.C. He is
said to have been the first anatomist who dissected animals.
Alc'man [Gr.’AAkpáv], a celebrated Spartan lyric poet,
born at Sardis, was originally a slave. He flourished about
650 B.C., and became a free citizen of Sparta. He wrote
songs called “Parthenia,” also bridal-hymns and other
erotic poems which were greatly admired. According to
some writers, he was the inventor of erotic poetry. Some
small fragments of his works are extant.
Alcmeºne [Gr. 'AAkkávn], a daughter of Electryon and
Anaxo, the daughter of Alcaeus. She is said to have been
the mother of Heracles by Zeus. Hera, jealous of Alcmene,
delayed the birth of Heracles for seven days, that Eurys-
theus might be born first, and thus be entitled to greater
rights, according to a vow which Zeus had made. There
are different accounts of her death. According to Plutarch,
Agesilaus opened her tomb at Haliartus in Boeotia, and
carried her remains to Sparta.
Aiſco, a kind of dog found wild in Mexico and Peru.
It has been domesticated, and is described as having a very
small head, with large and pendulous ears. It is not known
whether it has escaped from domestication or is a native of
these countries. e
AI'cohol [from the Arabic definite article al, “the,”
and kohol, originally a “powder of antimony,” used for
painting the eyebrows, afterwards applied to anything
very subtle], a limpid, colorless liquid, which has a hot,
pungent taste, and is the essential principle of all spirituous
liquors and intoxicating drinks. It is the product of the
fermentation of sugar or Saccharine substances, and is ex-
tracted by distillation from spirituous liquors, such as
whisky and brandy, which contain nearly fifty per cent.
of water. Pure alcohol is very inflammable, has a strong
affinity for water, is a powerful solvent, boils at 173° Fahr-
enheit, and has never been congealed by the greatest de-
gree of cold that could be produced. It is composed of
carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, the proportions being about
52 per cent. of the first, 35 of the second, and 13 of the last.
Its symbol is C4H80%, or, C2H60 (according to the new no-
menclature). In medicine, alcohol is used as a stimulant
or excitant, mostly in the form of wine, brandy, or whisky.
In pharmacy, alcohol is extensively used as a solvent; its
solutions are called tinctures. The strongest alcohol that
can be procured is termed absolute alcohol or anhydrous
alcohol; it is prepared by removing the last few per cent.
of water by quicklime. - -
Alcohol may be produced synthetically by causing
strong sulphuric acid to absorb ethene gas (olefiant gas),
by which ethyl-sulphuric acid is produced, C2H4+ H2SO4
= H.C2H5.S04. On distilling this acid with water, alcohol
is obtained, while dilute sulphuric acid is left in the retort
or still, H.C2H5.S.04+ H20 = C2H60 + H2SO4.
- C. F. CHANDLER.
Alcoholom’etry [from alcohol, and the Gr. perpov, a
“measure”] is the method of obtaining the amount of ab-
solute alcohol in a given quantity of spirits. This may be
done—(1) by determining the specific gravity of the spirits,
provided they contain nothing besides water and alcohol.
The specific gravity of water being 1, that of pure or ab-
solute alcohol is 0.7938 at 60° F. Tables have been care-
fully prepared showing the percentage of alcohol corre-
sponding to different gravities between these extremes. (See
SPECIFIC GRAVITY.) If the spirits contain sugar, etc., they
must be purified by distillation before determining the
gravity. (2) The percentage of alcohol may be determined
by observing the boiling-point. Water boils at 212° F., ab-
solute alcohol at 173° F. (3) By observing the tension of
the vapor. The first method is always employed in practice.
Alcohols. The term alcohol, originally limited to
spirit of wine, is now applied to a large class of bodies,
Some of which are solids. They are all similarly consti-
tuted, being Saturated hydrocarbons, in which one or more
hydrogen atoms are replaced by an equal number of mole-
cules of hydroxyl (.0FI). They may also be regarded as
compounds of hydroxyl with alcohol radicals. Thus, pro-
pane yields three alcohols: propane, C3H8; propyl alcohol,
(C8H1)(OH) monatomic; propene alcohol, (C3H6)”(OH)2
diatomic ; propenyl alcohol, (C3H5)”(OH)3 triatomic. The
last-mentioned is glycerine. The simplest alcohol is methyl
alcohol or wood-naphtha, CH3.0EI. Common alcohol comes
next in order, C2H5.0H. Cetyl alcohol (C16H33 OH), de-
rived from spermaceti, and ceryl alcohol (C27H55.0EI), de-
rived from Chinese wax, are white crystalline solids. Those
alcohols containing one molecule of OH are called mona-
tomic. Other series of hydrocarbons yield similar alco-
hols; phenol or carbolic acid, C6H5(OH), is the alcohol of
benzol, C6H6. Diatomic alcohols contain two molecules of
OFI; those derived from the marsh gas or methane series
of hydrocarbons are called glycols. Triatomic alcohols
contain three molecules of OH; glycerine or propenyl al-
cohol, C3H5(OH)3, is the last example. Tetratomic, pent-
atomic, and hexatomic alcohols are known. Manna sugar,
or mannite (C6H1406 = C6H3(OH)6), is a hexatomic alcohol,
derived from the hydrocarbon sextane, CsPſia. Glucose or
grape-sugar is the aldehyde of this alcohol. (See ALDE-
HYDE.) Cane-sugar (C12H22O11) is intimately related to
glucose, as it corresponds.to two molecules of glucose, less
one molecule of water; it is called a polyglucosie alcohol.
Starch and cellulose (C18H30015) are regarded as being the
oxygen-ethers or anhydrides of the polyglucosic alcohols.
By replacing the OH in alcohols by chlorine, bromine,
etc., haloid ethers are produced; thus:
Common or ethylic alcohol = C2H5.0}{.
Ethyl chloride = C2H5O1.
Methenyl alcohol (triatomic) = CH(OH)3.
Methenyl chloride, chloroform = CHCl3.
By replacing the hydroxyl by acid radicals, compound
ethers are produced:
Amyl alcohol, C5H11.0FI.
Amyl acetate, *C5H11.C2H302.
Propenyl alcohol, glycerine, C3H7(OH)3.
Glyceryl tristearate, stearine, C3H7(C18H5502)3.
C. F. CHANDLER.
Alco/na, a county in the N. E. part of Michigan. Area,
about 630 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by Lake
Huron, and traversed in the S. W. part by the Au Sable
River. It is an almost solid forest of pine timber, but has
excellent farming lands. Oats and potatoes are the staples.
Capital, Harrisville. Pop. 696.
Alcona, a post-township of Alcona co., Mich. P. 146.
Alco/ra, a town of Spain, in the province of Castellon,
11 miles N. W. of Castellon. It has potteries and distilleries
of brandy. Fruits are the chief articles of export. Pop.
about 6000. º
Al’corn, a county in the N. part of Mississippi, border-
ing on Tennessee. It is drained by the Big Hatchie River,
which rises within its limits. The surface is undulating or
nearly level; the soil is fertile. Capital, Corinth. This
county is intersected by the Memphis and Charleston R. R.
Cattle, grain, cotton, and wool are the staples. Pop. 10,431.
Al’cott (AMos BRONSON), an American ideal philosopher,
and one of the principal contributors to the “The Dial,”
was born at Wolcott, Conn., Nov. 29, 1799, and now resides
at Concord, Mass. He has acquired some reputation as an
educational reformer, but is chiefly distinguished for his con-
versational powers. He has held formal “conversations”
in many of our principal cities on a wide range of specula-
tive and practical themes, and has published two yolumes
of essays—“Tablets,” 1868; “Concord Days,” 1872.
Alcott (Louis.A MAY), an American writer, daughter
of the preceding, was born in 1833. She has published a
number of very popular works for children, and youth;
among these may be named “Little Women” (1867), “The
Old-Fashioned Girl” (1869), “Little Men, or Life at Plum-
field” (1871), and “Work” (1873).
88
ALCOTT–ALDEN.
Alcott (WILLIAM ALEXANDER), M. D., an American
writer on education, was born at Wolcott, Conn., Aug. 6,
1798. He contributed to several journals, lectured at
Various places on education, hygiene, and other subjects,
and published a number of popular works, among which
are “The House I Live In,” “The Young Man’s Guide,”
“The Library of Health,” “The Young Woman’s Guide,”
and “Moral Reform.” Died Mar. 29, 1859.
Ai/cove [Fr. alcove; Sp. alcoba; etymology uncertain],
in architecture, a recess in an apartment, separated by an
estrade or partition of columns, and occupied by a bed
: º ; a recess in a library or a lateral apartment for
OORS.
Alco’y, a town of Spain, in the province of Alicante,
30 miles N. of Alicante. It is built on uneven ground
among the hills, and has manufactories of paper and
woollen goods. About 200,000 reams of paper are made
here annually. A large part of this paper is consumed in
the form of cigars (papelitos). Pop. in 1860, 25,196.
Al/cuin, or A1/cwin, an English prelate and scholar,
whose full name was FLACCUs ALBINUs ALCUINUs, was born
at York about 735 A. D. He went in 782 to the court of
Charlemagne, of whom he became the confidential friend
and adviser. He is said to have founded schools at Aix-
la-Chapelle and Paris. . In 796 he was appointed abbot
of St.-Martin at Tours. He is regarded as the most learned
man of his age. He died May 19, 804, leaving many let-
ters, poems, and works on theology, etc.
Alcy'one, or Halcy'one [Gr. 'AAkvěvn], in classic
mythology, a daughter of AEolus and the wife of Ceyx.
She was so inconsolable for the death of her husband that
she threw herself into the sea. Tradition adds that Ceyx
and Alcyone were changed into kingfishers to reward their
mutual devotion.
Alcyo/nium [Gr. 3Akvávtov, from 'axicv6v, a “king-
fisher,” so called from its supposed resemblance to the
nest of a kingfisher], a genus of zoophytes belonging to
the order Alcyonaria, presents a curious polype mass and
star-like pores, through which polypes protrude them-
selves. The Alcyonium digitatum abounds on the shores
of Great Britain. The Alcyonium carneum is found along
the American coast from Cape Cod northward.
Aldan’, a river of Siberia, the largest tributary of the
Lena, rises in the Yablonoi Mountains, near the frontier
of the Chinese empire. Flowing north-eastward, and after-
Wards in a N. W. direction, it enters the Lena about lat.
63° N., and nearly 60 miles below Yakutsk. Length, es-
timated at 1300 miles. - -
Aldan Mountains, a chain of mountains in the E.
part of Siberia, connected with the Stanmovoi Mountains,
and extending about 400 miles, from lat. 61° 20' N. to 67°
30' N. . The highest summit of these is Mount Kapitan,
about 4200 feet high. Some geographers give the name a
more extensive application—to all the mountain-ranges in
the N. E. of Asia. t
Ald/borough, EARLs of, viscounts of Aldborough
(1766), Wiscounts Amiens (1777), and barons of Balting-
lass (1763, in the Irish peerage), a prominent family of
Great Britain. The first earl was created in 1777.-BEN-
JAMIN O'NEALE STRATFORD, the sixth earl, was born June
10, 1808, and, succeeded his father Oct. 4, 1849.
Aldeb’aran [from the Arabic al., “the,” and dabaran,
“following,” because this star follows the Pleiades], the
name of a star of the first magnitude in the constellation
of Taurus, otherwise called a Tauri. It is the brightest
star of a group called the Hyades.
Aldegonde, SAINT. See MARNIx.
. . Al’degre’ver, or Aldegraef (HEINRICH), a distin-
guished German painter and engraver, born at Soest, in
Westphalia, in 1502, was a pupil and imitator of Albert
Dürer. Among his numerous engravings are “The Labors
of Hercules” and a portrait of Luther. Died about 1562.
Al/dehyde [from al, first syllable of alcohol, and dehyd,
first two of de-hydrogena’tus, “deprived of hydrogen’],
compounds formed by depriving alcohols of hydrogen. The
term aldehyde was first applied to acetic aldehyde, pro-
duced from common alcohol by limited oxidation, effected
by (1) imperfect combustion, as when a spirit-lamp burns
out for want of alcohol; (2) by the action of potassic di-
chromate and sulphuric acid; (3) by the action of chlorine
and water. Thus, -
Alcohol. Oxygen. Aldehyde. Water.
C2H60 + O == C2H40 +' H2O.
Acetic aldehyde is a limpid, colorless liquid of a peculiar
ethereal odor, which when concentrated is very suffocating.
• By exposure to the air it absorbs oxygen, and passes into
- Aldehyde. Acetic Acid. &
C2H40. -- 0 = C2H402.
It reduces oxide of silver to the metallic state. This alde-
hyde has been prepared in large quantities during the past
few years, to be used in the manufacture of aldehyde green,
one of the most beautiful of the aniline colors.
The aldehydes are intermediate in composition between
the alcohols and the corresponding acids. By the loss of
hydrogen the alcohol becomes an aldehyde; by the addition
of oxygen the aldehyde becomes an acid :
Common ethylic alcohol, C2H60.
Acetic aldehyde, C2H40.
Acetic acid, C2H402.
By substituting an alcohol for hydrogen in an aldehyde,
a ketone is produced, acetic ketone or acetone = C2H8
(CH3)0.
Among the other more important aldehydes may be men-
tioned acrylic aldehyde or acrolein (C8H40), a very offen-
sive liquid produced by the dehydration of glycerine. It
is always found in the destructive distillation of oils and
fats containing glycerine, and is the chief cause of the very
pungent odor produced. Chloral (C2HCl30), produced by
the prolonged action of chlorine on alcohol, is trichlorinated
acetic aldehyde. By combining with water it produces the
“ chloral-hydrate ’’ so 'extensively used of late on account
of its hypnotic effects. It is supposed to be transformed
by the alkali of the blood into chloroform and formic acid,
thus:
Chloral-hydrate. Potassic-hydrate. Potassic-formiate. Chloroform. Water.
C2HC130.H2O + KHO = KCHO2 + CHCl2 + H2O.
Bitter-almond oil (CºH60) is benzoic aldehyde.
Aldehydes possess three characteristic properties: (1)
they unite with alkaline bisulphites; (2) they unite with
aniline; (3) when fused with caustic potash they give off
hydrogen, forming the potassic salt of the corresponding
acid. . . " C. F. CHANDLER.
Al’den, a post-township of McHenry co., Ill. Pop. 722.
Alden, a post-township of Hardin co., Ia. Pop. 739.
Alden, a post-township of Freeborn co., Minn. Pop.
81.
Alden, a post-township of Erie co., N. Y. It is trav-
ersed by the New York Central and the Buffalo division
of the Erie R. R. Its station on the latter road, is 14
miles E. of Buffalo. Pop. 2547.
Alden, a post-township of Polk co., Wis. Pop. 390.
Alden (BRADForp R.), an American officer, born May,
1811, in Meadville, Pa., was descended from the famous
Pilgrim Alden, who came out in the Mayflower and mar-
ried the beautiful Priscilla Mullems, and his father, Roger
Alden, was a major in the Revolutionary army. He grad-
uated at West Point in 1831, captain Fourth Infantry June
14, 1842, served at Florida posts 1832–33, assistant in-
structor in various departments of the Military Academy
1833–40, aide-de-camp to Major-General Scott 1840–42, in
military occupation of Texas 1845, commandant of cadets
at Military Academy 1845–52, on frontier duty on the Pa-
cific 1853, engaged as acting colonel commanding two
volunteer battalions (which he had raised) on an expe-
dition against the Rogue River Indians, engaged at Jack-
sonville, Or., Aug. 24, 1853 (severely wounded). After
his resignation, Sept. 29, 1853, he travelled three years in
Europe, endeavoring to regain his health. Subsequently,
while on a visit to Western Pennsylvania, he became satis-
fied, by his extensive explorations, of the abundance of
petroleum, and was among the first to appreciate and give
effect in 1859 to the value of this discovery. After repeated
efforts to serve in the civil war, the paralysis caused by his
wound compelled him to desist. Devoting himself to the
study of literature and art, in which he was accomplished,
to the culture of Christianity, of which he was a bright
exemplar, and to works of active benevolence, for which .
he was famed, he spent his after years till he died, Sept.
10, 1870, at Newport, R.I., aged fifty-nine.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Alden (JAMEs), U. S. N., born June 19, 1809, in Maine,
entered the navy as a midshipman April 1, 1828, became
a passed midshipman in 1834, a lieutenant in 1841, a com-
mander in 1855, a captain in 1863, a commodore in 1866, a
rear-admiral in 1871. He served in the Mexican war, and
participated in the capture of Vera Cruz and Tobasco. In
command of the steamer South Carolina, he engaged the
batteries off Galveston, Tex., Aug. 3, 1861, and commanded
the steamer Richmond in the engagement with Forts St.
Philip and Jackson, and at the capture of New Orleans,
April 24, 1862, and during the passage up and down the
Mississippi River by Vicksburg, June 28 and July 15,
1862; in the engagement at Port Hudson, Mar. 14, 1863,
commanded the Brooklyn at the great victory over forts,
rams, and gunboats in Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864, and in
both the Fort Fisher fights, Dec., 1864, and Jan., 1865.
Of his conduct in these affairs, Rear-Admiral David D.

ALDEN-ALEMANNI.
Porter, in his official report of Jan. 28, 1865, speaks in
terms of exalted admiration, and concludes his remarks
thus: “I consider him able and worthy to fill the highest
rank, and I know that the government has no one in its
navy more full of energy, zeal, or intelligence in his pro-
fession. I shall feel much disappointed if Captain Alden
is not promoted to a rank he has won more than once dur-
ing this rebellion. I am sure the department will appre-
ciate all I have said of this gallant officer. His record
speaks for him.” In 1869 he was appointed chief of the
bureau of navigation, and in 1871 was appointed to the
command of the European station. He retired from active
service in 1873.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Alden (JoHN), one of the Pilgrim Fathers who came
over in the Mayflower, in 1620. He was a magistrate of
Plymouth Colony for more than fifty years. He was born
in 1599, and died at Duxbury Sept. 12, 1689.
Alden (Joseph), D. D., LL.D., was born at Cairo, N.Y.,
Jan. 4, 1807, and graduated at Union College in 1829,
studied theology at Princeton, and was ordained pastor of
a Congregational church at Williamstown, Mass. (1834),
was a professor in Williams College (1835–52), in Lafay-
ette College, Pa. (1852–57), president of Jefferson College
(1857–67), and since 1867 principal of the New York State
Normal School at Albany.
Alden (Rev. NoAH), a prominent advocate of religious
liberty in Massachusetts. He represented the town of Bell-
ingham in the convention which formed the constitution
of that State. He was also a member of the convention
which ratified the Constitution of the U. S. In 1766 he be-
came pastor of the Baptist church at Bellingham, where he
exercised his ministry with great influence and success for
about thirty years.
Alden (TIMOTHY), D. D., born at Yarmouth, Mass., Aug.
28, 1771, graduated at Harvard in 1794. He was pastor
of a Congregational church in Portsmouth, N. H. (1799–
1805), and was for many years afterwards a prominent
educator in Portsmouth, Newark, New York, Boston, Cin-
cinnati, etc. He was the founder and first president (1817–
31) of Alleghany College, Meadville, Pa. He published a
collection of epitaphs (5 vols., 1814), “An Account of Mis-
sions among the Senecas” (1827), and other works. Died
at Pittsburg, Pa., July 5, 1839.
Al’denhoven, a market-town of Prussia, in the Rhime
province. Here the Austrians defeated the French on Mar.
1, 1793, and the French defeated the Austrians on Oct. 2,
1794. Pop. in 1871, 2898.
Al’der [Lat. Al/mws], a genus of trees and shrubs of the
natural order of Betulaceae or Amentaceae. They are na-
tives of the temperate parts of Europe and North America.
The wood of the common alder of Europe (Alnus glutinosa)
is used by turners and joiners, affords good charcoal for the
manufacture of gunpowder, and is valuable for mill-wheels
and the piles of bridges. The alder is prized as an orna-
mental tree in landscapes. The Alnus cordifolia, a native
of Italy, is a large and beautiful tree. The alders of the
Eastern U. S. are shrubs or small trees, but Alnw8 Oregona
of the W. coast grows to the height of sixty to seventy feet.
AI’derman (originally signifying an “older” or
“senior ’’ man), the title of a municipal officer or magis-
trate in the corporations of England and the U. S. The
London court of aldermen exercises judicial and legislative
authority in the corporation. In New York City the term
is applied to the members of the city council, who are
elected by the people. In some cities they are magistrates;
in others councillors. -
Alderney, aul’der-ne, or Aurigny, an island in the
English Channel, 7 or 8 miles from Cape la Hogue (France),
belongs to England. It is about 4 miles long, and less than
2 miles wide. Guernsey, another of the Channel Islands,
is about 15 miles from this place. The people of Alderney
are mostly of French extraction. This island produces a
celebrated breed of small cows. It is separated from France
by the Race of Alderney, a strait about 8 miles wide, the
navigation of which is dangerous in stormy weather. It is
politically a dependency of Jersey. Pop. in 1871, 2718.
Al/dershott Camp, a permanent camp formed in
1855 for the improvement of the British army in tactics
and in evolutions on a large scale. It is situated on Alder-
shott Heath, on the confines of Surrey, Hampshire, and
Berkshire. The area of ground appropriated to this pur-
pose is about 7000 acres. Pop. in 1871, including Frimley
and Farnborough, 35,864.
Al/dine Editions, the name given to the editions of
Greek and Roman classics which were issued by Aldus
Manutius and his descendants in Venice between 1490 and
1600. These editions are highly prized for the correctness
89
—&
of the text and the beauty of the typography. (See MA-
NUTIUs.) -
Aldobrandi’ni, a celebrated noble family of Florence.
Among its most prominent members were Salvestro, born
1499, died 1558; Ippolito, born 1536, died 1605, who was
elected pope in 1592 as Clement VIII, ; his brother Tom-
maso, the fourth son of Salvestro; and Francesco, who was
created a prince by his uncle Clement VIII. “Aldobrandine
Wedding” is the name of a painting which probably dates
from the time of Augustus, and was found in 1606 on the
site of the former garden of Maecenas. It was named after
Prince Aldobrandini, who first came into possession of it.
Ald'rich (HENRY), D. D., an English scholar and com-
poser of sacred music, was born at Westminster in 1647.
He was one of the ablest champions of Protestantism in the
reign of James II., and became dean of Christ Church,
Oxford, in 1689. He composed anthems which are used in
the English cathedrals. Died Dec. 14, 1710.
Aldrich (THOMAS BAILEY), a poet, born in Portsmouth,
N. H., Nov. 11, 1836. He lived in his youth in Louisiana,
and then in New York, where he was for a time a clerk,
then a proof-reader, and afterwards attained eminence as
a writer and editor. He has been connected with “The
Home Journal,” the “Atlantic Monthly,” and other peri-
odicals, and has published “The Bells” (1854), “The Course
of True Love” (1858), “Pampinea' (1861), several yol-
umes of poems, “The Story of a Bad Boy” (1869), “Mar-
jorie Daw” (1873), and other works.
Ald/ridge (IRA), a negro tragedian, born in Maryland
in 1804, was in his youth a personal attendant of Edmund
Kean. He performed with success in England and other
countries of Europe. He received medals or tokens of
honor from the king of Prussia and the emperor of Austria.
Died Aug. 7, 1867.
Aldrovan'dus (ULYsses), an eminent Italian naturalist,
born at Bologna Sept. 11, 1522. He graduated as doctor
of medicine in 1553, and became professor of natural his-
tory at Bologna in 1560. Having expended much time
and money in collecting specimens and in the study of na-
ture, he began in 1599 the publication of his “Natural His-
tory '' (13 vols.), of which three volumes on birds and one
on insects appeared during his life. The other volumes
were edited by several persons after his death. His “ Nat-
ural History" is a laborious and ill-digested compilation.
Died Nov. 10, 1607. -
Ale, a sort of beer, a fermented liquor produced from
malt. Ale contains more alcohol than common beer, and
is a favorite beverage of the British. . Scotch ale and Bur-
ton ale have a high reputation. There are three varieties
of malt liquor in general use in this country—ale, porter,
and lager beer. All are prepared from malt, which is bar-
ley which has been allowed to germinate (sprout), and has
then been dried by artificial heat. Hops are added to give
the aromatic bitter flavor. The lower the temperature at
which the malt is dried the lighter will be the color of the
malt and the beverage. Ale and lager beer are made from
light, porter from dark-colored malt. Ale and porter are
fermented at temperatures of from 65° to 90° F. while
lager beer is fermented at from 46° to 50° F.
In the manufacture of ale the first fermentation is checked
at such a point as to leave a considerable quantity of sac-
charine matter in the liquor. By the subsequent ferment-
ation in the barrels or bottles this is changed to alcohol
and carbonic acid; the latter substance causing the cha-
racteristic effervescence. (See BEER, by C. F. CHANDLER.)
Alean'dro [Lat. Alean/der], (GIROLAMo), a learned
Italian cardinal, born at Motta Feb. 13, 1480. He was ap-
pointed librarian of the Vatican in 1519, and was sent by
Leo X. as papal nuncio to Germany in 1520, to counteract
the influence of Luther. He showed a violent animosity to
Luther at the Diet of Worms. Died Jan. 31, 1542.
Ale’do, a post-village, the capital of Mercer co., Ill., on
a branch of the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R.,
120 miles N. W. by N. from Springfield. It has two
weekly papers, is the seat of a college, and is in a fine
agricultural district. Coal is found in the vicinity. Pop.
1076. H. BIGELow, Ed. or “RECORD.”
Alegam’be (PHILIP), a learned Flemish Jesuit, born
at Brussels Jan. 22, 1592. He removed to Rome, where he
became superior of the order of Jesuits. He wrote a vali-
able contribution to the biography and bibliography of the
Jesuit authors, entitled “Bibliotheca Scriptorum Societatis
Jesu” (1643). Died Sept. 6, 1652.
Aleman'ni (i.e. “all men’’), the name of certain Ger-
man tribes who formed a confederacy against the Romans
about 200 A.D., and at that time lived on the Main. They
invaded Gaul in the reign of Julian the Apostate, who
gained a victory over them in 357 A. D. Having been de-
90
ALEMBERT, D'—ALEXANDER.
feated by Clovis in 496, their confederacy was dissolved.
From this word is derived the French Allemand, signifying
“German.”
Alembert, d” (JEAN LE ROND), a celebrated French
geometer and philosopher, born in Paris Nov. 16, 1717,
was an illegitimate son of M. Destouches-Canon and
Madame de Tencin. Having been abandoned by his
mother in the street, he was nursed by the wife of a gla-
gier, and continued to live with her for about forty years.
He, received from his father an annual pension of 1200
livres, and was educated in the Mazarin College, which he
entered in 1730. His favorite study was mathematics. In
1741 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences, and
in 1743 produced his celebrated “Treatise on Dynamics,”
which opened a new epoch in mechanical philosophy, by
the demonstration of the principle “ that there is an abso-
lute equality at all times between the entire amount of
force applied and the sum-total of the effects produced.”
His treatise “On the Theory of the Winds” gained the
prize of the Academy of Berlin in 1746. In 1752, Fred-
erick the Great offered him the presidency of the Royal
Academy of Berlin, which he declined. D'Alembert was
associated with Diderot as joint editor of the famous “En-
cyclopédie,” for which he wrote an admirable “Prelimi-
nary Discourse ’’ and many mathematical articles. He
was admitted into the French Academy in 1754. He
formed a liaison with the accomplished Mademoiselle
I’Espinasse, who lived with him twelve years. He showed
his independence and indifference to riches by refus-
ing, in 1762, the invitation of Catherine II. of Russia,
who offered him a salary of 100,000 francs to direct the
education of her son. In 1772 he was elected secretary of
the French Academy. He was an intimate friend of Wol-
taire, and assumed toward Christianity the attitude of a
skeptic—i. e. a doubter and candid inquirer—while he
openly avowed his hostility to the Church of Rome. His
moral character is generally represented as noble and be-
nevolent. Among his works are “Researches on some Im-
portant Points of the System of the Universe” (3 vols.,
1754–56), “Mélanges of Literature and Philosophy,”
“Elements of Philosophy” (1759), and eulogies on the
members of the French Academy who died between 1700
and 1772. He died in Paris on the 29th of Oct., 1783. An
edition of his works was published by Bossange in 5 vols.
Švo, 1821. “His literary works,” says Lacroix, “con-
stantly directed to the perfection of reason and the pro-
pagation of correct ideas, were highly appreciated by all
good judges. They are all remarkable for a pure diction,
a neat style, and strong or pithy thought.”
Alemb’ic [from the Arabic article al, and the Gr. &pguë,
a “eup or pot”], an apparatus formerly used by alchemists
and chemists in the process of distillation and sublimation.
It has been superseded by the retort and receiver.
Alemtejo, or Alente’jo (“beyond the Tagus”), a
province of Portugal, is bounded on the N. by Beira, on
the E. by Spain, on the S. by Algarve, and on the W. by
Estremadura, and the Atlantic. Area, 9416 Square miles.
It is intersected by the Gaudiana River, and is washed by
the Tagus, which forms part of the northern boundary.
The climate is hot and dry, the surface is hilly, and the
soil of the northern and eastern valleys is fertile. The
chief productions are wheat, maize, barley, grapes, rice,
and figs. Capital, Evora. Pop. in 1868, 332,237.
Alençon, a city of France, capital of the department
of Orne, is situated on the Sarthe and in a plain, 65 miles
by rail W. S. W. of Paris. It is well built and handsome,
has a cathedral, a public library, and a church about 1000
years old. Here are manufactures of various articles, in-
cluding muslin, leather, and a celebrated lace called Point
d’Alençon. Pop. in 1866, 16,115.
Aleppo, called by the Arabs Ha'leb (anc. Chal'ybon
and Beroe/a), an important city of Syria, and one of the
chief emporiums of the Ottoman empire, is on the Kowek,
about 55 miles E. of Antioch; lat. 36°11' N., lon. 37° 10'
E. It is surrounded by limestone hills, and presents a pic-
turesque appearance. The houses are well built of stone,
two or three stories high, mostly in the Saracenic style, with
richly ornamented walls and ceilings. In the environs are
celebrated gardens about twelve miles in extent. Aleppo
has a castle, a Mohammedan college, and many Christian
churches. It has an extensive trade in cotton and silk
stuffs, tobacco, wine, oil, indigo, etc., and is visited by
large caravans from Bagdad, Diarbekir, Mosul, and Ar-
menia. It was a great emporium of trade during or before
the Middle Ages. Its prosperity was greatly injured by
the earthquake of 1822, which destroyed a large part of
the city. The population, which before that event was
more than 200,000, was about 100,000 in 1867.
Aleppo, a post-township of Greene co., Pa. Pop. 1382.
Alesh'ki, a town of Russia, in the government of
Tauria, 8 miles E. of Kherson. Pop. in 1867, 8484.
Ale’sia (AAeoria), the fortified capital of the Gallic tribe
Mandubii, was built, according to a legend, by Hercules.
Here the last desperate battle for freedom was fought by
the Gauls, under Vercingetorix, against the Romans, under
Julius Caesar, in 52 B.C. The Gauls were completely de-
feated and the city destroyed. Alesia was rebuilt, and
again destroyed by the Northmen in 864. It was on the
present Mont Auxois, at the foot of which the modern town
of Alise is situated. -
Ale/sius [Gr. &Aetvo, “to be a wanderer”], the name
given, probably by Melanchthon, to Alexander Alane, who
was born in Edinburgh April 23, 1500, was canon of St.
Andrew’s, turned Protestant, went to Germany in 1532,
and again in 1540; was made professor at Leipsic, and died
there Mar. 17, 1565. He wrote much and ably. It was he
who translated the Book of Common Prayer into Latin.
Alessandresſku (GREGORY), a celebrated Rumanian
poet, born in 1812, was sent in consequence of political
agitations to a convent, where he wrote his most celebrated
work, “The Year 1840, * in which he gives expression to
the hopes of his party. In 1859 he was for a few months
minister of finance, since which time he has belonged to
the liberal opposition, which he has effectively aided with
his poems and fables. A second edition of his collected
works appeared in 1863. -
Alessan’dri (BASIL), the most prominent Rumanian
poet of modern times, born in 1821, took part in the lib-
eral movement of 1848, was minister of foreign affairs for
a few months in 1859–60, and has since resided a part
of the time in Yassy and part of the time in Paris.
Among his works are “Doinas’ (1853), “Doine, si lacri-
mivare” (1863), and “The Popular Ballads of Rumania”
(2 vols., 1853). - - -
Alessan’dria, a province of Northern Italy, is bound-
ed on the N. by Novara, on the E. by Pavia, on the S. by
Genoa, and on the W. by Cuneo and Torino. Area, 1952
square miles. The country consists partly of large fertile
plains and partly mountains, and is traversed by the
Tanaro, the Scrivia, and the Bormida. Chief town, Ales-
sandria. Pop. in 1871, 683,473.
Alessandria (sometimes called Del’la Pa'glia, from
its first houses having been roofed with straw), a fortified
city of Italy, the capital of the province of the same name,
is situated on a plain on the river Tánaro, and on the rail-
way from Turin to Genoa, 46 miles E. S. E. of Turin. It
is well built, has a cathedral, a royal college, several hos-
pitals, and about fourteen churches. Here are manufac-
tures of silk, linen, and woollen goods, and other articles.
Two miles S. E. of this place is the village and battle-field
of Marengo. The citadel is regarded as one of the largest
and strongest fortresses in Europe. Pop. in 1872, 57,079.
Aleutian (or Aleu'tan) Islands, a group of 150 or
more islands, sometimes called the Catharine Arch-
ipelago, in the North Pacific, extending in a row from
the peninsula of Alaska towards the S. point of Kamt-
chatka. They are rocky and volcanic, having some active
volcanoes, and are inhabited by rude natives, who subsist
by fishing and hunting. The inhabitants are of a race
essentially Esquimaux. These islands belong to the U.
S. Onemak or Unimak, the largest of the Fox Islands,
is about 50 miles long. Pop. about 1200.
Ale/wife [supposed to be a corruption of the Indian
Alewife.
name aloof], (the Alo'sa tyran'nits), a species of American
fish, belonging to the family Clupeidae, and nearly allied to
the herring and the shad. It abounds in the Chesapeake
Bay, and is found along the Atlantic coast of the U. S. As
many as 5000 barrels have been caught in one year in the
waters of Massachusetts. In the spring the alewives as-
cend the rivers to deposit their eggs. e
Alexan/der, a county forming the S. extremity of Il-
inois. Area, 245 square miles. It is situated between the
)hio and the Mississippi rivers, at their confluence. ... The
surface is flat, and partly subject to inundation. Cairo,
which is in this county, is the southern terminus of the Il-
linois Central R. R. Grain, wool, and potatoes are the
staples. Capital, Cairo. Pop. 10,564.

ALEXANDER—ALEXANDER. I.
91.
Alexander, a county of the N. W. of North Carolina.
Area, 300 square miles. It is drained by the South Yadkin
River. The surface is hilly. Grain, tobacco, and wool are
the staples. Capital, Taylorsville. Pop. 6868.
Alexander, a post-township of Washington co., Me.
Pop. 456.
Alexander, a post-village and township of Genesee co,
N. Y., on the New York Central and Rochester division of
the Erie R. R. It containes a seminary, a flouring-mill,
and three churches. Pop. 1605.
Alexander, a township of Athens co., O. Pop. 1511.
Alexander [Gr. 'AAéčavôpos ; surnamed THE GREAT, the
third Macedonian king of the name, the most famous of all
military heroes, was the son of Philip, the celebrated king
of Macedon, and Olympias, the daughter of the king of
Epirus, who claimed descent from Achilles. At the age
of fourteen, Alexander was placed under the instruction
of Aristotle, and soon distinguished himself by his rare
intellectual powers and by his rapid advancement in every
kind of knowledge. His descent from Achilles, for whose
character and achievements he cherished an enthusiastic
and misplaced admiration, appears to have given his mind
an early direction towards military glory. Among all
books the “Iliad” was his favorite, and we are told that
every night a copy of that poem was placed, along with
his sword, under his pillow. King Philip had such con-
fidence in his son’s courage and capacity that he left him,
although only sixteen years of age, the regent of his king-
dom during his expedition against Byzantium. At the age
of eighteen years, Alexander greatly distinguished him-
self in the battle of Chaeronea, and the victory won by
the Macedonians on that occasion was due, in, no small
measure, to the valor of the young prince. On the death
of Philip, in 336 B.C., Alexander, not yet twenty years
of age, succeeded to the throne. Several of the states
which his father had subjugated deemed this a favorable
opportunity for recovering their liberty, but the courage
and celerity of Alexander defeated all their schemes.
While, however, the young king was engaged in reducing
the Triballi, the Thebans raised the standard of revolt.
He instantly directed his march towards Boeotia; Thebes
was taken by storm, the houses were levelled to the ground,
and the citizens who had escaped slaughter in the assault
sold as slaves, excepting only the posterity of Pindar, the
celebrated Theban poet, and those who had opposed the
rebellion. Not long after, at an assembly of the Grecian
states held at Corinth, Alexander was chosen generalissimo
of the Greek and Macedonian troops destined for the in-
vasion of Persia. Early in the spring of 334 B. C. he en-
tered Asia with an army of about 35,000 men, including
4500 cavalry. At the river Graniſcus the Persians sought
to prevent his passage. The Macedonians, though"fighting
at a great disadvantage, gained a signal victory. At Gor-
dium he attempted to untie the famous knot, for he had
been told that the empire of the world had been prophesied
to him who should succeed in this attempt. But having
for some time tried in vain, he at last drew his sword and
cut it, saying that this was the only way to untie it. It is
said that those whose office it was to decide upon the in-
terpretation of the prophecy, either sincerely or from mo-
tives of policy, declared that the Macedonian king had
fulfilled it. Having received reinforcements in 333 B.C.,
he engaged Darius, the Persian king, who commanded at
the river Issus an army of 600,000 men. The Persians
were defeated with immense slaughter; the mother, wife,
and two daughters of Darius were taken captive, but were
treated with the greatest respect and kindness by the con-
queror. After this great success scarcely any of the cities
of Asia presumed to offer resistance to his victorious arms.
But Tyre, then a powerful maritime and commercial city,
had the courage or temerity to oppose his progress. The
city was taken after a most determined resistance, which
lasted seven months, but the conqueror fixed an indelible
stain upon his reputation by his merciless cruelty towards
the conquered Tyrians, thousands of whom were cruelly
slaughtered, and the rest, numbering nearly 30,000, were
Sold into slavery. Gaza. Soon after met with a similar fate.
Alexander then advanced into Egypt, where the people,
weary of the Persian domination, welcomed him as a
liberator. In Egypt, on one of the principal mouths of
the Nile, he founded a city called Alexandria.
He next visited the temple of Jupiter Ammon, situated
on an oasis in the desert of Libya, with the hope, it is said,
that the god would acknowledge him to be his son. This
having been done through the priest of the temple, he
again turned his thoughts to the invasion of Persia, where.
Darius had succeeded in collecting another army of more
than a million men, with not less than 40,000 cavalry.
Alexander had scarcely more than 40,000 infantry and
7000 horse. The opposing armies met at Gaugamela, not
far from Arbela, in 331 B. C. The Persians were defeated
with prodigious slaughter. Not long afterwards, Darius
was murdered by Bessus, one of his satraps. As the dying
king, covered with wounds, lay extended in his chariot,
Alexander came up ; at the tragic spectacle the conqueror
could not restrain his tears. He caused the body of Darius
to be taken to Persepolis, where it was interred in the
tombs of the Persian kings. Bessus having been taken
and put to death, Alexander carried his victorious banners
beyond the Jaxartes (now called the Sihon, or the Sir
Daria), subdued Sogdiana, and married Roxana, the
daughter of a Bactrian prince whom he had conquered.
After this he turned his thoughts to the invasion of India.
He crossed the Indus 32.7 B. C., formed an alliance with
Taxiles (or Taxilus, as the name is sometimes written), an
Indian king, and advanced to the banks of the Hydaspes
(now the Jhylum), where he encountered Porus at the head
of an immense army, accompanied by a multitude of ele-
phants. After a sanguinary battle, the Indian king was
totally defeated and taken prisoner. Alexander's favorite.
horse, Bucephalus, having been mortally wounded in this
battle, the conqueror founded a town on the spot where he
was buried, which he called Bucephala. Taking one city
after another, he had advanced as far as the Hyphasis (now
called Gharra), when his troops, alike uninfluenced by his
menaces and his entreaties, positively refused to go any
farther. Being thus under the necessity of returning, he
committed the fleet which he had ordered to be built on the
Hydaspes to Nearchus, while he himself proceeded by land.
through what is now Beloochistān to Susa. His army en-
countered in this march incredible hardships and suffering,
so that many soldiers perished from thirst and hunger.
Having arrived at Susa, he married as his second wife a
daughter of Darius. As he was forming schemes for the
extension and improvement of his empire, he died, 323
B. C., at Babylon, in the thirty-third year of his age.
It would be unjust to Alexander to regard him merely
as a great and successful military hero. He possessed some
moral qualities of a high order, especially generosity and
magnanimity. Many of his views of state policy were
liberal and enlightened. But all that was most excellent
and admirable in his character was impaired and vitiated
by mistaken ideas of the dignity and glory which belonged
to a great king. As his passions were stronger than his
intellect, extraordinary as the latter undoubtedly was, they
gradually acquired, during his long career of uninter-
rupted success, an almost unlimited ascendency over him.
His uniform prosperity may be said to have been his great-
est misfortune. Being a stranger to the “sweet uses of
adversity,” it was impossible for him to see his own cha-
racter and conduct in their true light. After his unparal-
leled successes had turned his brain, regarding himself as
little less than a god, he could not brook the slightest free-
dom of speech, even from his most faithful and most mer-
itorious officers. In a paroxysm of ungovernable rage he
slew his friend and foster-brother Clitus, who had once
saved his life, after which a grief, scarcely less violent
than his anger had been, took possession of his soul, so
that if he had not been restrained he would probably have
taken his own life. Pope (in “The Temple of Fame”)
sums up his career and character in one short line—
“The youth who all things but himself subdued.”
(See ARRIAN’s “History of Alexander's Expeditions;”
QUINTUs CURTIUs’s “Life of Alexander;” WILLIAMs's
“Life and Actions of Alexander the Great,” 1829; DROY-
SEN, “Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen von Macedonien,”
1833; GEIER, “Alexandri Magni historiarum scriptores
aetate suppares,” containing the fragments of contempora-
neous historians, 1844; THIRLWALL’s “History of Greece.”)
- J. THOMAs.
Alexander H. (Pope), SAINT, a Roman by birth, became
bishop of Rome in 108 A. D. Died in 117.-ALEXANDER
II. (ANSELMo BADAG10) was elected pope &n 1061. He de-
clared William the Conqueror the true heir to the English
crown. Died in 1073.−ALEXANDER III. (ROLANDo RANUe-
CIO BANDINELLI), one of the ablest men that ever sat on the
papal throne, was a native of Sienna. He was elected pope
in 1159. He was involved in a long contest with Frederiek
Barbarossa, and with the anti-popes who were supported
by that emperor. Having been twice compelled by his
enemies to leave Rome, he was in 1163 acknowledged pope
by a council at Tours. The emperor, whom he had ex-
communicated in 1167, made his submission soon after the
battle of Legnano, and was absolved. Thomas à Becket,
who had been encouraged by Alexander in his resistance
to Henry II. of England, was, after his assassination,
canonized by the pope. According to Voltaire, Alexander
roclaimed that no Christian should be held as a slave.
#. is said to have been the first who reserved to the Hoky
See the right of canonization. Died Aug. 1, 1181. (See
92
ALEXANDER I-ALEXANDER.
REUTER, “Geschichte Alexanders III. und der Kirche
sciner Zeit,” 1860, 2 vols.)—ALExANDER IV. (RINALDO DI
ANAGNI) became pope in 1254. Died May 12, 1261.--AL-
ExANDER W. (PIETRO FILARGO) was chosen pope in 1409.
Died May 3, 1410.-ALEXANDER WI. (RODRIGO LENZUOLI
BoRGIA), born at Valencia, in Spain, in 1430, was a nephew
of Pope Calixtus III. Before his election to the papacy
he had several illegitimate children, among whom were the
infamous Caesar and Lucretia. Borgia. He became a car-
dinal in 1456, and was chosen pope in 1492. Among the
events of his pontificate was the death of Savonarola.
Died Aug. 18, 1503. His character was an infamous com-
pound of cruelty, treachery, licentiousness, and other vices.
—ALExANDER VII. (FABIO CHIGI) was born at Sienna Feb.
13, 1599, and became pope in 1655. He embellished Rome
with architectural works. Died May 22, 1667.-ALEXAN-
DER VIII. (PIETRO OTToBoni) was born in Venice April 19,
1610, and elected pope in 1689. He assisted the Venetians
in a war against the Turks. Died Feb. 1, 1691.
Alexander I., king of Scotland, a younger son of
Malcolm Canmore, began to reign in 1107. He was an
able ruler. He died in 1124, and was succeeded by his
brother, David I.-ALEXANDER II., born in 1198, succeeded
his father, William the Lion, in 1214. He married a sister
of Henry III. of England in 1221. He is said to have
been a wise and able prince. Died in 1249.-ALEXANDER
III., of Scotland, born in 1241, was a son of the preceding,
and became king in 1249. He married, in 1251, Margaret,
a daughter of Henry III. of England. His reign was
peaceful and prosperous. He fell with his horse over a
precipice, and was killed in 1286.
Alexander I. (or Alexan/der Pav'Iovitch), em-
peror of Russia, the son of Paul I. and Maria, a princess
of Würtemberg, was born at St. Petersburg in Dec., 1777.
He married, in 1793, Elizabeth, a daughter of the crown
prince of Baden, and succeeded his father, who was assassi-
nated in Mar., 1801. He promoted civilization, education,
industry, and trade. His foreign policy was pacific until
he joined a coalition against Napoleon in 1805. In Decem-
ber of that year the Russian and Austrian armies were de-
feated at Austerlitz. After the Russian armies had sus-
tained several other defeats, the war was ended by the
treaty of Tilsit in 1807. Alexander then became the friend
and ally of Napoleon, and declared war against England.
But, alarmed by the insatiable ambition of Napoleon, he
resolved on a change of policy, and formed an alliance
with England and Sweden. Russia was invaded in 1812
by Napoleon, who took Moscow, but his army was soon
compelled to retreat, and nearly all perished with cold and
hunger or were taken prisoners. After the abdication of
Napoleon, Alexander entered Paris with the victorious
armies in 1814, and exhibited more generosity and clem-
ency towards the French than the other allies showed. He
again entered Paris in triumph in July, 1815, and in the
same year formed, with the emperor of Austria and the
king of Prussia, a coalition called “the Holy Alliance,”
the tendency of which was reactionary and hostile to the
cause of liberty. The professed object of this alliance was
to promote religion and peace. As he advanced in years
be became more contracted and less liberal, a prey to
hypochondria and suspicion. His projects of reform were
abandoned, a rigid censorship of the press was maintained,
and all liberal or progressive tendencies were repressed.
He died without issue at Taganrog, Dec. 1, 1825, and was
succeeded by his brother Nicholas. (See RUSSIA.)
Alexander II., surnamed NICOLAEVITCH (i. e. “the son
of Nicholas”), emperor of Russia, the eldest son of Nicholas
I., was born April 29, 1818. His mother was a sister of
William I. of Prussia and emperor of Germany. He mar-
ried in 1841, Marie, a daughter of the grand duke of Hesse-
Darmstadt, and ascended the throne on the 2d of Mar.,
1855, during the Crimean war, which Russia waged against
France, England eand Turkey. The war was terminated by
the treaty of Paris, signed in Mar., 1856. His domestic
policy has been more moderate and liberal than that of his
ancestors. He is commended for punishing official corrup-
tion and liberating public instruction from military dis-
cipline and control.
reign was the emancipation of about twenty million serfs,
which was decreed in 1861. (See RUSSIA.)
Alexander ALExANDROVITCH, grand duke of Russia.
and cesarevitch, the second son of the emperor Alexander
II., was born Mar. 10, 1845. He married in Nov., 1866,
Marie Sophie Frederike Dagmar, who is a daughter of
Christian IX., king of Denmark, and who then assumed
the name of Marie Feodorovna. He became, after the
death of his elder brother Nicholas, in 1865, the heir-ap-
parent to the throne. He has two sons—Nicholas Alexan-
drovitch, born in 1868, and George Alexandrovitch, born
in 1871.
Among the memorable events of his
Alexander (ARCHIBALD), D.D., an eminent divine, born
near Lexington, Rockbridge co., Va., April 17, 1772. He
became president of Hampden–Sidney College in 1796, and
pastor of a Presbyterian church in Philadelphia in 1807.
In 1812 he was chosen the first professor of the Theological
Seminary of Princeton, N. J., then just founded. He was
distinguished as a pulpit orator and as a writer on the-
ology. Among his works are. “Outlines of the Evidences
of Christianity” (1824), a “History of the Israelites,” and
“Outlines of Moral Science” (1852). The first of these
works has been translated into several languages. He mar-
ried, in 1802, Janetta, Waddell, a daughter of a well-known
blind preacher. Died Oct. 22, 1851.
Alexander (BARTON STONE), an American officer, born
in 1819 in Kentucky, graduated at West Point 1842, and
Mar. 7, 1867, lieutenant-colonel of engineers. He served
as assistant engineer, repairing fortifications, 1842–47, in
the war with Mexico 1848, at the Military Academy as
treasurer and erecting buildings 1848–52, constructing
military asylum (Soldiers’ Home) near Washington, D.C.,
1852–55, altering Smithsonian Institution 1854, building
Chelsea. Marine Hospital, Mass., 1855–59, and erecting
Minot's Ledge lighthouse, entrance to Boston harbor, 1855–
61. In the civil war was aide-de-camp, with the rank of
lieutenant-colonel, chiefly employed in the construction of
the defences of Washington, D. C., 1861–66, in Manassas
campaign 1861, engaged at Blackburn’s Ford and Bull
Run (brevet major), in Virginia peninsula campaign 1862,
engaged at Yorktown (brevet lieutenant-colonel), West
Point, Chickahominy, Fair Oaks, Gaines's Mill, and Gold-
en’s Farm, as consulting engineer of Major-General Sheri-
dan’s army in Shenandoah Valley 1864, present at Cedar
Creek, and in preparation of bridge equipage, devising
defensive works, and member of various boards 1861–66.
He was made brevet colonel and brigadier-general Mar. 13,
1865, for meritorious services. Since the war he has had
charge of most of the public works in Maine till Jan. 7,
1867, when he became senior engineer and member of the
Pacifié board of engineers for fortifications.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Alexander (JAMES WADDELL), D.D., an eminent divine,
was born near Gordonsville, in Louisa co., Va., Mar. 13,
1804. He graduated at Princeton in 1820, and became in
1833 professor of rhetoric at the College of New Jersey
(Princeton). From 1844 to 1849 he was pastor of the
Duane street Presbyterian church in New York. From
1849 to 1851 he was professor of church history in the
Princeton Theological Seminary. In 1851 he took charge
of the Fifth avenue Presbyterian church in New York City,
and died July 31, 1859. He was a man of various culture,
and had uncommon unction and power as a preacher. He
published numerous articles in the “Princeton Review,”
and a number of volumes, such as “Discourses on Chris-
tian Faith and Practice” and “Sacramental Discourses.”
Alexander (John HENRY), an American savant, born
at Annapolis, Md., in 1812, published a “Treatise of
Mathematical Instruments” (1835), “Contributions to the
History of Iron’” (1840), “Introits” (1844), “Dictionary
of Weights and Measures” (1850), “International Coin-
age” (Oxford, 1857), and other works. Died at Baltimore
Mar. 2, 1867. (See his Life by W. PINKNEY, 1867.)
Alexander (Joseph ADDISON), D.D., was born in Phila-
delphia April 24, 1809. He graduated at the College of
New Jersey in 1826. He was chosen adjunct professor of
Latin in 1833. In 1838 he went into the Theological Sémi-
nary as associate professor of Oriental and biblical litera-
ture, and in one chair and another continued to serve the
institution till his death at Princeton, Jan. 28, 1860. He
made extraordinary attainments in the Semitic and other
languages. He was also an impressive preacher. He wrote
much for the “Princeton Review.” His most important
works are commentaries: “Isaiah’’ (2 vols. 8vo, 1846),
“Psalms” (3 vols. 12mo, 1850), “Acts” (1 vol., 1857),
“Mark” (1 vol., 1858). “Matthew’’ was published post-
humously in 1860.
Alexander (NATHANIEL), born in Mecklenburg, N.C.,
in 1756, graduated at Princeton in 1776, served in the Re-
volutionary army, and afterwards practised medicine. He
was member of Congress (1803–05) and governor of North
Carolina (1805–07). Died at Salisbury, N. C., Mar. 8,
1808.
Alexander (STEPHEN), LL.D., a distinguished astron-
omer, born at Schenectady, N. Y., Sept. 1, 1806, grad-
uated at Union College in 1824. He became professor of
astronomy at the College of New Jersey in 1840, and obtain-
ed in 1845 an additional chair of mechanics. He has ac-
quired distinction as a writer on astronomy.
Alexander (WILLIAM), earl of Stirling, a Scottish
poet, born in 1580. He wrote, besides several dramas, a

ALEXANDER—ALEXANDRIA.
93
didactic poem entitled “Doomesday” (1614), which was
much admired. He was appointed secretary of state for
Scotland in 1626. Died in 1640. -
Alexander (WILLIAM), styled LORD STIRLING, an Amer-
ican general, born in New York in 1726. He claimed the
earldom of Stirling, but did not succeed in obtaining the
estate belonging to it. Having espoused the popular cause
in the Revolution, he served with distinction at Long
Island, Germantown, and Monmouth, and obtained the
rank of major-general. He also promoted the cause by
exposing the intrigues of Conway. Died Jan. 15, 1783.
Alexan/der Ba'las, a usurper of the throne of Syria,
was a person of low origin, and lived in the second century
B. C. He pretended to be the son of Antiochus Epiph-
ames, and with the aid of Rome and several Greek
princes defeated his rival Demetrius Soter in 150 B. C.,
and Demetrius was killed in the flight. After a short
reign he was defeated by his father-in-law, and in 146
B.C. was murdered by an Arabian emir with whom he had
taken refuge. - •
Alexander John H., prince of Rumania, born Mar.
20, 1820, was elected in 1858 to the assembly of Moldavia,
became in the same year minister of war of the united
principalities, was elected in 1859 first prince of Moldavia,
and then prince of Wallachia, in both cases by a unani-
mous vote, but had to pledge himself to complete the union.
of the two principalities, and then resign in favor of some
European prince. But he was not recognized by Turkey
until Dec. 23, 1861, as prince of both principalities, on
which day the union of the two principalities under the name
of Rumania was proclaimed. But in consequence of sev-
eral unpopular measures the most prominent men of Ru-
mania, planned a revolution, and in the night of Feb. 23,
1866, entered his apartments and forced him to sign his
resignation. After that time he lived in Vienna as a pri-
vate citizen. He died in 1873.
Alexander Karageorgevitch, prince of Servia, the
son of GERNY GEORGE (which see), the first prince of Ser-
via, born Oct. 11, 1806, was elected prince of Servia in
1842. Russia protested against his election, but Mar. 27,
1843, he was again elected, and this time by a unanimous
vote.
wards the foreign powers, he became obnoxious to the
people, and was deposed Dec. 11, 1858. In 1868 he was
accused of complicity in the murder of Prince Michael, his
successor, and was sentenced in 1871 by the authorities of
Austria, where he had resided since his deposition, to eight
years' imprisonment and the costs. -
Alexan/der Nev'ski (or Nev'skoi), a Russian prince
and hero, born in 1219, was a son of the grand duke Yar-
oslaf II. He gained in 1240 a signal victory over the
Swedes on the Neva ; hence his surname. On the death of
his father, about 1246, he became grand duke of Vladimir.
Died in 1263. By the Russians he is regarded as a saint.
Alexan/der of Aphrodis’ias, a celebrated Greek
commentator on Aristotle, lived at about the close of the
second century after Christ. Like his masters, Herminus
and Aristocles the Messenian, he tried to free the Peripa-
tetic philosophy from the syncretism of Ammonius and
others, and to restore the true interpretation of Aristotle's
works. -
Alexan/der Seve'rus, a Roman emperor, born about
205 A. D. His original name was ALEXIANUs BASSIANUs,
but when upon his removal to Rome he was created caesar,
pontiff, consul, and princeps juvenis elect by his cousin,
the emperor Elagabalus, he assumed the name M. AURE-
LIUS ALEXANDER, and added SEVERUs afterwards. In 222
A. D., upon the death of his cousin, Alexander was pro-
claimed emperor by the praetorians, and confirmed by
the senate. In 232 he gained a great victory over the
Persians; in 234 he marched into Gaul against the Ger-
mans, but was waylaid and murdered by some mutinous
soldiers in 235.
Alexan/dra (CAROLINE. MARIE CHARLOTTE LOUISE
JULIE), princess of Wales, a daughter of Christian IX.,
King of Denmark, was born in 1844. . She was married in
Mar., 1863, to Albert Edward, prince of Wales.
Alexan/dri, or Aleksandri (VASILIo), a Moldavian
poet and littérateur, born at Yassy in 1821, was educated
in Paris. He produced, in French and Moldavian, a
number of dramas which were performed with success at
Yassy. In 1852 he published “Popular Ballads of Ruma-
nia.” His novels, songs, and ballads have been much
admired. •
Alexan/dria [classical accentuation, Alexandri'a Gr.
'AAeëévôpetal, an ancient and celebrated city and seaport of
Lower Egypt, named from Alexander the Great, by whom
it was founded in 332 B. C. It was situated on a low and
narrow tract which separates Lake Mareotis from the
In consequence, however, of his peace policy to-
s
Mediterranean, near the western mouth of the Nile, and
117 miles N. W. of Cairo. Lat. of Pharos, the Alexandria
lighthouse, 31°12' 9". N., lon. 29° 53' E. Soon after its
foundation it became the capital of the Grecian kings who
reigned in Egypt, and one of the most populous and mag-
nificent cities in the world. It was a great emporium of
commerce, for which its position between Europe and In-
dia was very advantageous. Before, as well as after, the
Christian era this city was a celebrated seat of learning
and philosophy. Here was founded the greatest library of
antiquity (see ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY), and the celebrated
Museum. Among the principal edifices was the Sera-
peion, or temple of Serapis. In front of the city stood
a famous lighthouse called Pharos, on an island of the
same name. It is supposed that during its greatest pros-
perity Alexandria had 600,000 inhabitants, a majority
of whom were Greeks and Jews. Even after Egypt had
been conquered by the Romans, this city was second only
to Rome in size and importance. About the period 300–
640 A. D. it was a great focus of Christian theology and
sectarianism. It was captured by the Saracen caliph
Omār about 640, after which its prosperity declined. The
disgovery of a passage to India by the Cape of Good
Hope (1497) contributed to its ruin, so that the population
was reduced in 1778 to 6000. The principal remains of its
ancient grandeur are—a granite monolith erroneously
called Pompey's Pillar; the Catacombs; and two obelisks
named Cleopatra's Needles, one of which, about seventy-
two feet high, is standing, and the other lies prostrate.
The modern city, which has again become populous and
important, is built near the site of the ancient, and on a
mole or isthmus connecting the main land with the island
of Pharos. It is connected with Cairo by a canal and rail-
way, and with Suez by a railway, which is continued from
Cairo. Here are a palace of the pasha, a custom-house, a
large naval arsenal, and medical, naval, and other Schools.
Some of the new streets present the aspect of a European
city, but in the Turkish quarter the streets are narrow and
dirty. In consequence of steam navigation, Alexandria
has āgain become a great emporium of the commerce be-
tween Europe and India. The chief articles of export are
grain, sugar, drugs, cotton, gums, rice, dates, and hides.
Steamers ply regularly between this port and Brindisi,
Malta, and Constantinople. Eleven newspapers afe pub-
lished here in the Italian, Greek, and French languages.
Pop. in 1871, 219,602; among whom there are 25,000
Greeks, 20,000 Italians, 15,000 French, 8000 Germans and
Swiss, and a large number of other foreigners. Its new
artificial harbor, with a breakwater 2 miles long, commeneed
in 1871, is one of the most important works of the kind in
the Mediterranean. REVISED BY A. J. SCHEM.
Alexandria, a town of Russia, in the government of
Kherson, 148 miles N. E. of Kherson. Pop. in 1867, 10,434.
Alexandria, a town in Wallachia. Pop. 8596.
Alexandria, a county in the N. E. part of Virginia.
Area, about 36 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E.
by the Potomac, which separates it from the city of Wash-
ington. The surface is hilly. This county was formerly a
part of the District of Columbia, and was retroceded to
Virginia in 1844. Grain is the chief crop. Capital, Alex-
andria. Pop. 16,755.
Alexandria, the capital of Glengary co., Ontario, is
about 130 miles N. E. of Kingston.
Alexandria, a twp. of Calhoun co., Ala. Pop. 1689.
Alexandria, a township of Leavenworth co., Kan. P.
1179.
Alexandria, the capital of Rapides parish, La., is on
the S. bank of the Red River, 350 miles by water N. W. of
New Orleans. It has a convent of the Sisters of Mercy,
four well-established and prosperous institutions of learn-
ing, five churches (Catholic, Episcopalian, Methodist, color-
ed Methodist, and colored Baptist), a large three-story brick
hotel, two well-organized companies of firemen, three ship-
ping warehouses, a large number of stores, and two weekly
papers. It has two weekly packets to New Orleans, besides
which the Shreveport, Jefferson, Tex., and other boats, some
thirty-five in all, stop here. In 1872 Alexandria shipped
8265 bales of cotton, 3662 hogsheads of Sugar, and 5845 bar-
rels of molasses, besides large quantities of hides, peltries,
moss, beeswax, tallow, pecan-nuts, and fruit. Pop. 1218.
E. R. BIoss AT, ED. “Louisian A DEMOCRAT.”
Alexandria, a post-village, capital of Douglas 99-,
Minn., in a township of the same name, 140 miles W. N. W.
of St. Paul, on the proposed line of the St. Vincent branch
of St. Paul and Pacific R. R. It has a weekly paper, a
U. S. land-office, and steam grist and saw mills. The Yil.
lage is pleasantly situated on one of the many beautiful
lakes which abound in that part of the State. Pop. of
Alexandria township, 503. -
- JosłPH GILPIN, ED. “POST.”
ſº
94
ALEXANDRIA—ALFIERI.
Alexandria, a township of Benton co., Mo. Pop. 921.
Alexandria, a post-village of Clarke co., Mo. It has
one weekly newspaper. Pop. 688.
Alexandria, a post-township of Grafton co., N. H. It
has manufactures of lumber. Pop. 876. -
Alexandria, a township of Hunterdon co., N. J. Pop.
3341. º -
Alexandria, a post-village of Jefferson co., N.Y., in
a township of its own name, on the St. Lawrence River,
25 miles N. by E. of Watertown. Alexandria Bay is a port
which is visited by steamboats. It has a lighthouse. The
township embraces a part of the Thousand Isles, and is a
great summer resort. It contains a glass-factory and
eight churches. Pop. of township, 3087. . .
Alexandria, a post-borough of Huntingdon co., Pa.
Pop. 556.
Alexandria, a city, port of entry, and capital of Alex-
andria co., Va., is pleasantly situated on the right bank of
the Potomac, 7 miles below Washington. The river is here
1 mile wide, and forms a good harbor, which is deep enough
for the largest ships. The streets are regular and well
paved, and the principal thoroughfare is traversed by a
horse railway. The city contains a court-house, a new and
very handsome market-house, fifteen churches, several
banks, has two daily and three weekly newspapers, an
efficient steam fire department, and is lighted with gas
and supplied with water. An extensive cotton-factory has
been in operation for a number of years, with flouring-
mills, machine-shops, plaster-mills, and other industries.
The city is noted for the number and excellence of its in-
stitutions of learning, and has a large public library. It
is the terminus of a number of railroads; one crosses the
State to the North Carolina, border; another, to connect
with the Ohio River, is being constructed; one to Rich-
mond, vič Fredericksburg; and a short line affords hourly
communication with Washington. Alexandria, enjoys an
extensive coal-trade by the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal
from the Cumberland region, a large number of vessels
being employed in the shipment of the product of the
mines to Northern ports. Pop. 13,570.
- E. S.Now DEN, ED. “ALExANDRIA GAZETTE.”
Alexan/drian Liſbrary, the largest and most cele-
brated library of antiquity, was founded by Ptolemy Phil-
adelphus, king of Egypt, about 275 B. C. He purchased
many books at Athens, Rome, and other places. This
library is said to have been partially destroyed by fanat-
ical Christians about 395 A. D. According to some au-
thorities, it was burned in 642 A. D. by order of the caliph
Omár, who argued that if books agree with the Koran they
are unnecessary, if they differ they should be destroyed.
(See BITSCHL, “Die Alexandrinischen Bibliotheken,” 1838.)
Alexandrian (or Alexandrine) School is the name
given to a certain type of thought and culture which began
to prevail in Egypt about 300 B.C. The intercourse of the
Jewish and Greek colonists who had previously settled in
that country had given rise to a blending of the peculiar
religious ideas of each. The Gnostics, whose system was
a mingling of Oriental with Christian thought, originated
chiefly in Alexandria; and Philo-Judaeus, generally re-
garded as the founder of Neo-Platonism, was also a native
of that city. Athanasius, Gregory of Nazianzus, and other
eminent Christian Fathers favored the Alexandrian School,
and adopted to a certain extent the doctrines of the Neo-
Platonists. This school was likewise renowned for the cul-
ture of mathematics and physical science, and numbered
among its disciples Euclid, Aristarchus of Samos, and, ac-
cording to some writers, Archimedes. The celebrated critic
Aristarchus is said to have passed the greater part of his
life in Alexandria, where he founded a school. With regard
to eorrectness and elegance of expression the Alexandrian
writers were highly distinguished, but they were deficient
in life and spirit. In a school where imitation and rule
took the place of inspiration, each generation became more
artifieial and lifeless than its predecessor, and both prose
and poetry often became labored affectation. Special works
on the history of the Alexandrine School have been writ-
ten by MATTER, 2 vols., 2d. ed., 1840–44; BARTHáLEMY ST.- :
HILAIRE (1845), and SIMON (2 vols., 1844–45).
Alexan/drine, a poetical metre or verse, formed of
twelve syllables, which was first used by a French poet of
the twelfth century, named Alexander of Paris. The sec-
oná line of the following couplet from Pope’s “Essay on
Criticism,” part ii., line 156, furnishes an example:
“A needless Alexandrine ends the song,
Which, like a wounded Snake, drags its slow length along.”
See also Virgil’s “Georgies,” iii., 424.
Alexandrine Age, a name applied to a period during
which Alexandriá, was the principal centre of literature and
science in the world.
ucation.
It extended from about 300 B.C. to
600 A. D., and was represented by many eminent gram-
marians and critics, who excelled in correctness and ele-
gance of style, but were deficient in genius and originality.
Alexandro/pol (called also Huenri or Guenri), a
fortified town of the Caucasus, in the government of Eri-
van, on the Arpa-Chai River, 85 miles S. W. of Tiflis.
The fort, which lies about 2000 feet from the city, 300 feet
above the level of the river, commands the entire vicinity,
and can hold 10,000 men. Alexandropol is an important
strategical point, as it is the key to Armenia. Pop. in
1867, 17,272. -
Alexan/drov, a town of Central Russia, in the gov-
ernment of Vladimir, 70 miles W. N. W. of the city of Vla-
dimir. It contains a convent founded by Ivan IV., who is
said to have also established here the first printing-press in
Russia. Pop. in 1867, 5810.
Alex'is (or Alex’ius) CoMNENUs, the name of sev-
eral emperors who reigned at Trebizond (Trapezus) in the
thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. They be-
longed to the same family as the Alexis Commenus men-
tioned below. -
Alexis (or Alexius) I., CoMNENUs, emperor of Con-
stantinople, born in 1048. Having distinguished himself
by his military talents, he was proclaimed emperor by his
soldiers about 1080, in place of Nicephorus, who was them
deposed. He showed himself an able and a crafty ruler.
Some writers censure him for his failure to support the
operations of the first Crusade, which occurred in his reign.
He died in 1118, and was succeeded by his son John.
Alexis ALEXANDROVITCH, grand duke of Russia, a.
younger son of the emperor Alexander II., was born in
Jan., 1850. He visited the U. S., making an extensive
tour in 1872, and meeting nearly everywhere a warm re-
ception among the Americans.
Alexis MICHAELoviTCH, czar of Russia, was born Mar.
10, 1629, and succeeded his father Michael in 1645. He
promoted civilization and improved the laws. He was the
father of Peter the Great. Died Jan. 29, 1676.
Alexis PETRovrTCH, or PETRow ITSCH, a Russian prince,
a son of Peter the Great, was born in 1690. He showed
such a hostility to the reforms of his father that the latter
resolved to exclude him from the throne. While Peter was
travelling in Western Europe in 1717, Alexis fled to Vienna
and Naples. He was soon brought back, and condemned
to death on a charge of treason or rebellion. He was found
dead in prison in July, 1718. Scarcely a doubt can be en-
tertained that he was poisoned by the order of his father.
His son Peter became emperor in 1727.
Alex’isbad, a watering-place of Germany, in the Harz
Mountains, 9 miles from Ballenstädt, was established as a
watering-place by the duke of Anhalt-Bernburg in 1810.
It has two springs—the Selke spring, which contains no
carbonates, and very little carbonic acid gas, but large
quantities of chloride and sulphate of iron, and is only used
for bathing; and the Alexis spring, containing carbonate
of iron, is used for drinking. The scenery in the neighbor-
hood is beautiful.
Alex/ius, SAINT, the son of a noble Roman, who lived
at the time of Pope Innocent I. (402–416). He married at
the wish of his father, but fled after the marriage, and after
having lived for a long time as a hermit, he returned and
devoted himself to a life of charity, and only made himself
known a short time before his death. His life was dra-
matically treated in the Middle Ages in most of the Eu-
ropean languages. -
Alfalu, a town of Austria, in Transylvania. Pop. in
1869, 5041.
Alſie'ri (WITTORIO), Count, the most popular Italian
poet of his time, was born at Asti, in Piedmont, Jan. 17,
i?49, and inherited a large fortune. He was sent to the
Academy of Turin, in which he learned little, and which
he quitted about 1764. Recoiling with disgust and resent-
ment from the stupid pedantry and tyranny of his teachers,
he plunged into dissipation and neglected the cultivation
of his mind. He passed many years in travel, for which he
had a strong passion, and visited nearly all the countries
of Europe, impelled by morbid unrest and love of excite-
ment, rather than a rational resolution to complete his ed-
He began his literary career by the drama of
“Cleopatra,” which was performed with applause in 1775.
About this time he entered a more regular course of life,
and devoted himself with passionate ardor to study and
composition. It is stated that he commenced the study
of Greek after he was forty years old. His literary Stic- .
cess was promoted, as he affirms, by the influenee of the
countess of Albany, the wife of the Pretender Charles Ed-
ward Stuart. (See ALBANY, COUNTESS OF.) He passed
many years in her society at Florence and Rome, and in
France. He composed numerous tragedies, comedies, sat-
95
ALFONSINE TABLES-ALGAROVILLA.
ires, and lyrical poems. His reputation is founded chiefly
on his tragedies, among which we notice “Virginia,” “Fi-
lippo II.,” “Orestes,” “Abel,” “Mary Stuart,” “Myrrha,”
“Octavia,” and “Saul.” His dramas, which display great
energy of language and intensity of passion, and abound
in noble sentiments, were welk adapted to reform the na-
tional literature, which had become effete, insipid, and des-
titute of manly vigor. “The aim of his works,” says Mad-
ame de Staël, “is so noble, the sentiments which the author
expresses accord so well with his personal conduct, that his
tragedies ought always to be praised as actions, even when
they may be criticised as literary works.” (Corinne.) Alfieri
was liberal in politics, and ardently desired to improve the
political and social condition of Italy by his writings.
Among his works are an “Essay on Tyranny,” five odes on
the American Revolution, and his interesting Autobiogra-
phy. He died at Florence Oct. 8, 1803. His complete
works were published at Pisa in 22 vols. 4to, 1808. A new
edition of his dramatic works was published by Milanesi
(1855, 2 vols.). His life was written by TEZA,(1861).
Alfon'sine (or Alphon'sine) Tables, the name of
the astronomical tables prepared by the order of Alfonso
X. of Castile and Leon, at a cost of 400,000 gold ducats—
say, $800,000. They were published in 1252. They were
first printed in 1483, and were the first printed tables that
ever appeared. For about three centuries they were all
that astronomy had to depend on.
Alfon’so III. of Asturias, surnamed THE GREAT, began
to reign in 866 A. D. He enlarged his dominions by vic-
tories over the infidels of Spain. Died in 910.
Alfonso H. of Castile (or Alfonso VI. of Leon), sur-
named THE BRAVE, was a son of Fernando I. He became
king of Leon in 1065, and of Castile in 1073. Aided by
the famous Cid, he defeated the Moors in several battles.
He died in 1109.-ALFONso VIII. of Castile (sometimes
called ALFONSo III.) was born about 1155, and became
king in 1158. He defeated the sultan Mohammed An-Nāsir
in a great battle in 1212. Died in 1214.—ALFONso XI. of
Castile, born in 1311, succeeded his father, Fernando IV.,
in 1312. He gained a great victory over the sultan Abool-
Hassan at Tarifa, in 1340. Died in 1350.
Alfonso X.2 king of Leon and Castile, surnamed EL
SABIO (“the Wise’), was born in 1221. He succeeded his
father, Fernando III., in 1252. He was one of the most
learned men of his time, and was distinguished as a patron
of literature and science, but he was not prosperous in
political and military affairs; his reign was disturbed by
rebellions. Under his auspices an excellent code of laws
was given to Spain, and the Bible was translated into Cas-
tilian. He wrote several works in verse and prose which
are highly commended. Died April 4, 1284.
Alfonso H.2 king of Naples and Sicily, born about
1385, was a son of Fernando I. of Aragon, whom he suc-
ceeded in 1416. On the death of Joanna II., queen of Na-
*. (1435), that kingdom was claimed by Alfonso and
ené of Anjou. After a long war between these rivals,
Alfonso obtained the throne of Naples in 1442. He died
June 27, 1458, and was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand I.
Alfonso [Port. Affon'so] I., the first king of Portugal,
born about 1100, was a son of Henry of Burgundy. He
inherited from his father the title of count of Portugal.
Having gained a great victory over the Moors at Ourique
in 1139, he then assumed the title of king. He afterwards
took Lisbon, and became master of all Portugal. He died
Dec. 6, 1185, and left the throne to his son, Sancho I.
Al/ford, a post-township of Berkshire co., Mass. It
has valuable marble-quarries. Pop. 430.
Alford (HENRY), D. D., an English poet and theolo-
gian, born in London in 1810. He became a fellow of
Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1834, incumbent of Quebec
street chapel, London, in 1853, and dean of Canterbury
in 1856. His most popular poetical work is “The School
of the Heart, and other Poems” (1835), which was highly
commended by the “Edinburgh Review” for Jan., 1836.
He gained a high reputation as a biblical critic by his
edition of the Greek New Testament (1844–52). A revised
edition of it appeared in 4 vols. (1859 et seq.). He pub-
lished also a small volume entitled “The Queen’s English,”
which attracted some attention. Died Aug. 13, 1871.
Alford (John), born in 1686, was the founder of a pro-
fessorship of natural religion, moral philosophy, and civil
polity in Harvard College, and also a benefactor of Prince-
ton College and other institutions. Died at Charlestown,
Mass., Sept. 29, 1761. -
Al/fordsville, a township of Robeson co., N.C. P. I041.
Al/fred, surnamed THE GREAT, written also Ælfred,
Alured, or AIvred [Lat. Ælfre/dwg], king of the West
Saxons in England, was born in Berkshire in 848 or 849
A. D. He was a younger son of Ethelwolf, and Succeeded
his brother Ethelred in 871, when he found the country in
a miserable condition. In the preceding reign the king-
dom had been invaded and ravaged by an army of Danes,
whom the Saxons were unable to resist. After the acces-
sion of Alfred these piratical incursions were continued or
renewed, and nearly all of the kingdom was conquered by
the Danes. Alfred was forced to flee from his court and
conceal himself in the hut of a cowherd. Having by
furtive measures raised a small army, he attacked and
routed the Danes at Eddington in 878. Soon after this
battle the Danish king Godrum (or Guthrun) surrendered
himself, was converted to Christianity, and remained a
peaceable subject of Alfred, who now directed his attention
to civil affairs. He founded or improved the British navy,
rebuilt cities and forts, established Schools, compiled a code
of laws, and reformed the administration of justice. In
that age of ignorance he was distinguished as a Scholar, as
well as a patron of learning. He translated several works
from the Latin into Anglo-Saxon. About 886 he was
recognized as the sovereign of all England. His kingdom
was again invaded in 894 by an army of Northmen under
Hastings, who is said to have had a fleet of 300 ships.
Alfred defeated them in several battles, and finally drove
them out of the island. He died in 901, and was succeeded
by his son, Edward the Elder. Alfred is regarded as the
wisest and greatest of all the kings of England. He was,
says Freeman, “a saint without superstition, a Scholar
without ostentation, a conqueror whose hands were never
stained with cruelty, a prince never cast down by adversity,
never lifted up to insolence in the day of triumph.”. (See
also SHARON TURNER, “History of the Anglo-Saxons.”)
Alfred, a post-village, the capital of York co., Me., in
a township of its own name, on the Portland and Rochester
R. R., 32 miles W. by S. of Portland. It has manufac-
tures of lumber and woollen goods, and contains a Shaker
village. Pop. of township, 1224.
Alfred, a post-village and township of Alleghany co.,
N. Y., has a sash, blind, and door factory, cheese-box
factory, one academy, and one weekly paper. It is the seat
of Alfred University, a Seventh-Day Baptist institution.
Pop. of township, 1555.
N. V. HULL, ED. “SABBATH RECORDER.”
Alfred (or Alured) of Beverly, an English priest
and historian, born about 1100. He wrote a history of
Britain in Latin, which is supposed to be an abridgment
of the work of Geoffrey of Monmouth.
Al/freton, a market-town and parish of England, in
Derbyshire, 12 miles N. N. E. of Derby. It is supposed to
have been named in honor of Alfred the Great. Pop. in
1871, 11,805. - -
AIfs/borg, a township of Sibley co, Minn. Pop. 264.
Al/gae (the plu. of Lat. alga, a “sea-weed”), the scien-
tific name of the sea-weeds, etc., a division of cryptoga-
mous plants belonging to the class Thallogens, and com-
prising many species which grow in salt or fresh water,
and are greatly diversified in form, size, and structure.
Some are too small to be seen by the naked eye, while the
stem of the “giant kelp” of the W. coast of America. Some-
times attains a length of from 1000 to 1500 feet. Having
no true roots, they sometimes adhere to rocks or the Sea.
bottom, and sometimes they float on the surface. Naviga-
tors sometimes meet with masses of gulf-weed (Sargassum)
many miles in extent. An area of this kind in the Atlantic
is said by Maury to be as large as the Mississippi Valley.
There are several such areas in the ocean, called SARGASS0
SEAs (which see). Algae are cellular in structure, are use:
ful as manure, and some species, like Irish moss, are used
as food. Kelp or barilla, made by burning sea-weeds and
other marine plants, yields soda and iodine. The Algae
proper are divided into three groups—the green-spored, the
red-spored, and the brown-spored Algae, each containing
many orders.
Algan'see, a post-twp. of Branch co., Mich. P. 1421.
Algar'di (ALEssanDRO), an eminent Italian sculptor
and architect, born at Bologna about 1600, studied design
under the Caracci. His masterpiece in Sculpture is a co-
lossal work in relief in St. Peter's church, Rome, the sub-
ject of which is Pope Leo forbidding Attila to enter Rome.
#e was, according to some critics, equal or superior to any
sculptor of his age. Died in 1654.
Algarot/ti (FRANCEsco), Count, an eminent Italian
writer, born at Venice Dec. 11, 1712. He was a skilful
connoisseur of the fine arts, and wrote, besides other
works in prose and verse, “Letters on Painting,” which
are highly commended. He removed to Berlin, where he
passed many years, enjoying the favor and intimacy of
Frederick the Great, who gave him the title of count in 1740.
He corresponded with Voltaire. Died at Pisa in 1764.
Algarovil'la, an astringent substance procured from a
96
tree called Juga marthº, which grows in New Carthagena,
in South America. It is a powerful agent for tanning
leather.
Algar’ve, the southernmost province of Portugal, is
bounded on the N. by Alemtejo, on the E. by Spain, and
on the S. and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Area, 1872 square
miles. The surface is mostly mountainous. The main
exports are wine, salt, dates, and other fruits. The chief
towns are Faro and Lagos. Pop. in 1868, 177,342.
Al’gebra [supposed to be derived from the Arabic al,
“ the,” and gabara (or jabara), to “bind,” to “consoli-
date ’j, an important branch of mathematics, sometimes
called universal arithmetic, but it may be more properly
described as a calculus of symbols. The symbols it em-
plays are of three kinds: (1) those of quantity, known or
unknown, which consist of ordinary numbers and letters
of the alphabet; (2) those of operation, amongst which
are +, −, X, -ī-, aſ, etc.; and (3) mere abbreviations for or-
dinary words. (See SIGN.) The combination of these sym-
bols according to fixed laws leads to algebraical expres-
sions or formulae, in which actual computations are indi-
cated rather than performed. The universality of algebra
as compared with arithmetic consists in the fact that in
the latter, computations being effected as they arise, all
traces of the intermediate steps are obliterated, and the
result is applicable to a single case only; whereas in al-
gebra, the formulae contain implicitly the answers to an
unlimited number of questions. Again, to the equivalence
of two algebraical formulae always corresponds a general.
theorem, which arithmetic can only verify in particular
cases. Thus, from the algebraical identity,
(a + b) (a — b) = a” — b%, -
we learn that the “product which results from multiplying
the sum by the difference of any two numbers is equal to
the difference of their squares.” 4.
The systematic notation, to which algebra owes its chief
power as an instrument of research, has been of very grad-
ual growth, and is still being extended. In the first known
treatises on the subject, by Diophantus, who probably lived
in about the fourth century of our era, the few symbols
employed are mere abbreviations for ordinary words. The
Arabians, who obtained their algebra from the Hindoos,
did little or nothing towards its extension, though their
treatises, after being carried into Italy by a merchant of
Pisa, Leonardo Bonacci (1202 A.D.), gave rise to import-
ant improvements. Scipio Ferreus of Bomonia is said to
have solved the first problem of the third degree (1505);
but it was Tartaglia, or rather Cardan, who first gave the
general solution of a cubic equation, and employed letters
to denote the unknown quantities, the given one being
still mere numbers. Without extending algebraic notation,
Ferrari, a disciple of Cardan, discovered the general solu-
tion of a biquadratic equation, and thus, unknown to him-
self, reached the barrier which, as has since been proved,
will ever remain impassable to the searcher for general
solutions of equations of the fifth and higher degrees.
(See EQUATIONs.) Towards the middle of the sixteenth
century algebra was introduced into Germany, France, and
England, by Stifelius, Peletarius, and Robert Recorde, re-
spectively. In doing so, the latter also invented the very
convenient symbol of abbreviation =, and Stifelius the far
more important symbols of operation +, −, w. In the
same century, through her far-famed son Vieta, France
contributed still more to the progress of the science. Vieta.
introduced letters as symbols for known as well as for un-
known quantities, and by the increased power thus acquired
he laid the foundation of the general theory of equations.
In this direction he was followed by Girard, Harriot, Des-
eartes, and others; in short, the science now advanced rap-
idly towards its present state of perfection. It would be
fruitless here to attempt to trace its progress. (The reader
who wishes to do so may consult with advantage HUTTON's
“Mathematical Tracts,” vol. ii., BoxNYCASTLE's transla-
tion of BossuT’s “Histoire des Mathématiques,” or the
works of MonTUCLA.) The last great improvement in al-
gebraic notation, that of determinants, is of quite recent
date. (See DETERMINANTs, by PROF. H. A. NEwToN.)
Algeci'ras, or Algezi/ras, a seaport-town of Spain,
in the province of Cadiz, 6 miles W. of Gibraltar, from
which it is separated by the Bay of Gibraltar; lat. 36° 8'
N., lon. 5° 26' 5" W. Pop. in 1860, 18,216. Leather and
charcoal are exported from this port. Here occurred a
naval battle between the English and French in July, 1801.
Al’ger (CYRUs), born at West Bridgewater, Mass., in
1782, became in 1809 an iron-founder in South Boston, and
became famous as a founder of cannon. He was also dis-
tinguished for his benevolence and public spirit. Died
Feb. 4, 1856.
Alger (Rev. HoRATIO, JR.) was born at North Chelsea.
(now Revere), Mass., Jan. 13, 1834, and graduated at Har-
gins to ripen in the oases of the Sahara.
ALGARVE–ALGERIA. 2-
vard in 1852. He studied divinity at Cambridge, and in 1864
was ordained over the Unitarian church at Brewster, Mass.
He published “Bertha's Christmas Vision” (1855), “Paul
Preston’s Charge” (1865), besides other volumes of prose
and poetry and contributions to periodical literature.
Alger (WILLIAM ROUNSEVILLE), an American writer,
born at Freetown, Mass., Dec. 11, 1823, graduated at Har-
vard in 1847. He has been a clergyman and a diligent
and various author. Besides his most important work,
“A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life”
(1861), his “Genius of Solitude" (1867) and “Friend-
ships of Women” (1870) have been admired. He has
also translated a volume of Oriental poetry from the Ger-
man. His last work relates to the drama.
Alge/ria is the name of a country on the North African
coast which since 1831 has belonged to France. It is situ-
ated between Tunis on the E. and Morocco on the W., while
in the S. it extends indefinitely into the Sahara. In the
main, the French rule may be said to be established over
the territory from lat. 37° to 32° N., and from lon. 2° W. to 8°
E. The coast, which is mostly high and steep, has but few
and poor harbors, although the rocky promontories form
many inlets of the sea. At a distance from the coast the
country forms a plateau with an elevation of 2000 to 3000
feet, which gradually declines in the S. towards the Sahara.
In regard to formation of the ground, three divisions are
distinguished. Along the coast is the zone of the Tell, or
Little Atlas, a mountainous region with many coast-streams,
fertile valleys, and deep gaps. The principal plain of this
zone is the Metidjah, immediately south of Algiers, 50 miles
by 20, fertile, well watered, and covered with an abundant
vegetation. To the S. of the Little Atlas lies the Shott or
Sbakh, the zone of the large, arid plains, which are mostly
covered only by a long dry grass called halfo. (Stipa ma—
crochloa, the esparto grass of commerce), but in summer
present a most remarkable appearance, from the shining
crust of salt which covers the beds of the saline lakes. In
the S. the Greater Atlas separates the Shott from the third
zone, the Sahara, whose loose sand extends to the wooded
heights of the southern slopes of the mountains. The en-
tire area is estimated at 258,000 square miles.
The climate of Algeria is warm and of a very uniform
character. The winter, from September to April, is the
rainy season of the country, but this rainy season is often
interrupted by a period of good weather lasting many
weeks. The summer is almost entirely without rain. The
plants and animals are those of the temperate and sub-
tropical zone. The coast produces vegetables, such as
cauliflowers and artichokes, which are exported in large
quantities to Europe. Other products are wheat, barley,
tobacco, and tropical fruits of all kinds. The dwarf fan-
palm, with its rankling roots, has long been a plague to the
agriculturist, but recently it has been extensively used for
industrial purposes. Forests of palms, cedars, and cork-
oak, as well as different kinds of shrubs, cover the Little
Atlas. The grasses and reeds of the Shott afford rich nour-
ishment for the beautiful Arabian horses and large herds
of asses, mules, and sheep. The fruit of the date-palm be-
The beasts of
prey, which formerly were very numerous in Algeria, are
almost entirely exterminated, hyaenas and jackals occur-
ring now and then. Among the valuable minerals of the
country are iron, copper, lead, marble, sulphur, and salt.
The total number of Europeans, without the army, in
1866, was 217,990, of whom the majority live in the cities;
of these, 122,119 were French, 58,540 Spaniards, 16,655
Italians, 10,627 English and Maltese, 54.36 Germans, and
4643 of other nationalities. The three provinces of Algeria
had, according to the census of 1866, the following popula-
tion: Algiers (39,120 square miles), 200,060; Qran (111,830
square miles), 146,302; and Constantine (107,367 square
miles), 139,910; so that there is, inclusive of 2,434,974 na-
tives, and exclusive of 67,774 soldiers, a total population
of 2,921,246. The population remains stationary, as immi-
gration has almost ceased in late years. The native Jews
were estimated in 1866 at 33,952. The native Mohammed-
ans are chiefly divided into Arabs and Kabyles. . In 1857
the number of the former was estimated at 1,385,000, the
number of mountain Kabyles at 580,000, and Kabyles of
the plains at 379,000; but other statements of the numerical
strength of these two races widely differ. Both Kabyles and .
Arabs live in tribes, the total number of which in Algeria
is 1864. As regards the religion of the inhabitants, there
were, according to the census of 1866, 211,195 Catholics,
5002 Protestants, 33,952 native Jews, 1785 European Jews,
17,232 members of othér Christian sects or persons of un-
known religion; the remainder, more than 2,600,000, were
Mohammedans. The Roman Catholics have an archbishop
at Algiers, and bishops at Oran and Constantine. For the
Protestants there are consistories at Algiers, Oran, and
ALGHERO–ALGIERS.
Constantine, under which both the Lutheran and Reformed
churches are placed. The highest authority for the Mo-
hammedan worship are the muftis of the two principal
mosques at Algiers. There are lyceums at Algiers, Bona,
Constantine, Philippeville, and Oran. At the head of the
administration is (since 1870) a civil governor-general, who
directs the action of both the civil and the military author-
ities in the settled districts, the territory of the Algerian
Sahara and the adjoining districts, inhabited chiefly by
nomad tribes, remaining under exclusive military rule. The
country under civil government is divided into three prov-
inces, Algiers, Constantine, and Oran, at the head of each of
which is a prefect. The imports of Algeria in 1869 amounted
to 118,000,000 francs, the exports to 154,000,000. The aggre-
gate number of vessels entered and cleared was, in the same
year, 6.232, of 1,125,343 tons. The commercial navy con-
sisted of 152 sailing vessels, of 4609 tons.
History.—Numidians in the E. and Moors in the W.
ruled in ancient times in Algeria, until by the capture of
Carthage (146 B.C.) the foundation for the Roman power
in Northern Africa, was laid. Extensive ruins of forts, .
cities, roads, and aqueducts, buried in the deserts at the
present, show what a high state of civilization the country
reached at that time. Algeria, then supplied Rome to a
great extent with grain. The conquest of the country by
the Wandals, and subsequently by the Arabs, cast it back
into barbarism. Although the nomadic tribes accepted
Mohammedanism, and although there were some well-
cultivated districts and thriving cities, still no well-regu-
lated, lasting state could be formed. Christianity, which
had flourished in the early centuries, was entirely sup-
pressed. In 1505 the emir of the Metidjah, being hard
pressed by the Spaniards and Portuguese, called to his aid
the renowned pirates Horuk and Khaireddin Barbarossa,
who by cruelty and treachery made themselves rulers of
the country. Being again attacked by the Spaniards,
Khaireddin acknowledged the supremacy of Turkey. He
received Turkish assistance, and now begins a new period
in the history of Algeria, during which it was a constant
terror to the navigation and the coasts of the Mediter-
ranean. Several expeditions against Algeria by the Chris-
tian powers were either unsuccessful or remained without
lasting results. The Turkish authority was gradually re-
stricted, until in 1705 the ruler or dey of Algeria made him-
Self entirely independent. Large French fleets held the Al-
gerians partly in check during the rule of Napoleon I. But
after the restoration of peace the Algerian piracies recom-
menced on a large Scale, and at length called forth ener-
getic measures on the part of the Christian countries. The
U. S. took the lead. On June 20, 1815, the fleet under
Commodore Decatur won a brilliant victory at Cartagena,
and forced the dey to sign a treaty of peace, in which the
flag of the U. S. was recognized as inviolable. In the
next year the city of Algiers was bombarded by the Eng-
lish, and the dey compelled to surrender all the Christian
slaves. But soon the piracies were again resumed, and
the pirates even ventured into the German Ocean. A con-
flict which arose in consequence of a disputed claim of
France on Algeria at length put an end for ever to this
state of affairs. A personal insult offered by the dey to
the French consul induced the French government to send
out a fleet, which began the blockade of the Algerian ports
on June 12, 1827. But as nothing was effected in this way
during three years, a large expedition was fitted out, which
set sail on May 25, 1830. The city of Algiers was besieged,
and surrendered after a bombardment of three days on
July 5. The French captured in the city about 1500 can-
non and 50,000,000 francs. But the real difficulties had
but just begun, for every inch of land was only gained by
a fight with the Kabyles. The French committed many
blunders and cruelties, so that provinces, like Constantine
and Oran, which had already declared their submission,
again revolted. The marabouts commenced to preach the
holy war against the oppressors, and Abd-el-Kader placed
himself at the head of the natives. The French authority
decreased more and more, and even the energetic duke of
Rovigo, who was appointed governor in Dec., 1831, was
not able to improve the situation, but only made matters
worse by his unparalleled cruelties. Only when Abd-el-
Kader, who, as the head of thirty hostile tribes, had been
elected emir of Mascara, signed a treaty of peace in 1834
did the province of Algiers (and that province only) have
peace for a short time. Soon the French again began hos-
tilities, and were severely defeated on the river Makta
(1835). In Dec., 1835, the French took Mascara, but Abd-
el-Kader was in a short time more powerful than ever, so
that the French were forced to make peace with him (1837),
giving him, under French sovereignty, the administration
of the entire west of Algeria, with the exception of the
large cities. Oct. 13, 1837, Constantine was taken by the
French, and then the French rule was firmly established in
97
the east. In 1839, Abd-el-Kader again opened the war,
and devastated the French colonies on the lowlands. Mas-
cara, and Saida were taken by the French, and Abd-el-
Kader was compelled to fly to Morocco, where the French
followed him, forcing the Sultan of Morocco, after several
decisive victories, to sue for peace. But Abd-el-Kader
again succeeded in raising fresh forces, and continued to
devastate the French border districts, until a conflict with
Morocco (Dec., 1847) compelled him to surrender to the
duc d'Aumale (Dec. 21), as he found the passes of Karbens,
through which he had hoped to escape, occupied. A large
number of expeditions under Pelissier, Jussuf (a chief of
Turkish troops, who had joined the French in 1832), and
others secured for the French the oases of Laghuat, Tug-
gurt, Wadi-Suf, and Wargela. In 1856–57, Random un-
dertook a large and successful expedition against the
Kabyles. From Oct., 1865, to the beginning of 1867, Al-
geria was the scene of new insurrections under the leader-
ship of Si Lala and Si-Hamed-ben-Hamza, the latter of
whom was a commander of the Legion of Honor. The
great events of 1870 in Europe produced a sensation in
Algeria. When the news of the surrender of Napoleon
and the continued defeats of the French army under Mc-
Mahon, whom the Arabs had considered invincible, be-
came known among the southern tribes, their hopes of
throwing off the French rule were again revived. The
first disturbances arose in the S. E. part of the province
of Constantime; as the rebels were in want of war-material,
the troubles spread slowly, but in October the situation
became more dangerous, as large hordes of Arabs from the
extreme S. of Oran began to move towards the E. In
Mar, 1871, the Arab chief Sidi-Mokrani was said to be
within twenty-five leagues of the city of Algeria, with
40,000 men, having declared war against France. Sidi-
Mokrani was killed in May, but nevertheless several dis-
tricts remained in insurrection. In October several tribes
recommenced hostilities in Constantine, but in November
order was again restored throughout Algeria.
The history of the French administration in Algeria indi-
cates anything but success. The colony has cost, and still
costs, large amounts of money, without giving to France
anything in return except the belief that it is a good train-
ing-school for French generals. In 1858 an attempt was
made to give the colony a separate ministry under Prince
Napoleon, who was followed by Count Chasseloup-Laubat
in 1859. But as early as Dec. 11, 1860, the old system was
again taken up, and yielded as small results as before. In
1863, Napoleon addressed a letter to the governor-general,
Pelissier, which indicated an intention to try a radical
change of administration. Algeria was to be treated as an
Arabic kingdom, rather than a French colony, and the
tribes should be made the owners of the lands they occu-
pied. In May, 1865, Napoleon himself visited Algeria,
and in a proclamation addressed to the whole population
the sentiments of his letter, to Pelissier were repeated.
The hopes of the emperor were, however, not fulfilled, the
new system remaining as unsuccessful as its predecessors.
In 1870 the European inhabitants demanded the aboli-
tion of the military rule, under which they had thus far
been placed, in common with the natives, and which was
regarded as the chief impediment to the prosperity of the
colony. The republican government in Paris immediately
granted their demand. The military rule was abolished
for all the districts occupied by the settlements of the Eu-
ropeans and their descendants. A civil governor, assisted
by a colonial council, is the highest authority, and the col-
ony is represented by six deputies in the National Assem-
bly of France. The transition from military to civil rule
was attended by some revolutionary troubles, which, how-
ever, did not last long. (See MACCARTHY, “Géographie
Physique, économique et politique de l'Algérie,” 1858;
NETTEMENT, “Histoire de la conquête d'Algerie,” 2d ed.
1871.) A. J. SCHEM.
Alghe'ro, or Alghe'ri, a fortified town and seaport
of the island of Sardinia, is on the W. coast, 15 miles S. W.
of Sassari. It has a cathedral and several convents. Wine,
grain, tobacco, coral, etc. are exported from it. Pop. in
1861, 8092. - t
Algiers’ [Arab. Al-Jezair'; Fr. Alger], a seaport and
city of North Africa, on the Mediterranean; lat. 36° 47'
3” N., lon. 3° 4' 5" E. It was formerly the capital of
the dey of Algiers, but since 1830 has been the capital
of the French colony of Algeria. Built on the slope of a
steep hill which rises to the height of 500 feet, it pre-
sents from the sea an imposing appearance, which is partly
owing to the whiteness of the houses. The old streets are
mostly narrow and crooked, but several straight and ele-
gant streets have been made since the French became
masters of the city. The houses are built of stone and
brick, have flat roofs, and are annually whitewashed.
7
98
ALGIERS–ALICANTE.
Among the public buildings are numerous mosques, several
Roman Catholic churches, a fine cathedral and exchange,
and a public library. The beauty and prosperity of the
city have been much improved by the French, and its com-
merce has been greatly increased. Among the articles of
export are wheat, coral, animal skins, and olive oil. Steam
vessels ply frequently between Algiers and Toulon and
Marseilles. This city was for three centuries the rendez-
vous of the Algerine pirates, who, though few in number,
defied the power of the greatest nations of Europe. It was
bombarded by the English admiral Lord Exmouth in July,
1816, when a large part of the city was reduced to ruins,
and was taken by the French in July, 1830. Pop. without
the military, was estimated in 1866 at 52,614.
Algiers, a suburb of New Orleans, is a post-village on
the Mississippi River, opposite New Orleans. It has im-
portant drydocks and yards for ship and boat building. It
is the northern terminus of the Louisiana and Texas R. R.
Steam ferryboats ply between Algiers and the city proper.
Algo'a Bay is on the S. coast of Africa, in Cape Col-
ony, about 425 miles E. of Cape Town. Here is a good
harbor, and a flourishing seaport called Port Elizabeth,
situated at the mouth of the Baasher River.
Al/gol, a star in the constellation of Perseus, is remark-
able for its periodical variation in brightness.
Algo/ma, a district which forms the north-western por-
tion of the province of Ontario in Canada. It borders on
Lakes Huron and Superior. It has recently become fa-
mous for its rich silver-mines, and also contains copper, tin,
and iron, and abundance of timber. Pop. in 1871, 4807.
Algoma, a township of Kent co., Mich. Pop. 1959.
Algoma, a township of Winnebago co., Wis. P. 807.
Algo'na, a post-village, the capital of Kossuth co., Ia,
on the East Fork of the Des Moines River, and on the Iowa
division of the Milwaukee and St Paul R. R., 51 miles W. of
Mason City, and about 120 miles N. by W. of Des Moines.
It has two weekly newspapers. Pop. 860; of Algona town-
ship, 2157. J. H. WARREN, ED. “UPPER DEs Moines.”
Algomac, a post-village of St. Clair co., Mich. P. 754.
Algon’kins, one of the two great families of Indians
that formerly occupied the Valley of the Mississippi and
the regions east of it. The Indians of New England were
Algonkins. The Chippewas are at present the most num-
erous tribe of the Algonkins. Their migration eastward
(some 1200 years ago) is supposed to have been later than
that of the Iroquois. (See PARKMAN’s “The Jesuits in
North America,” and BALDWIN’s “Ancient America,”
1872.)
Algon/quin, a post-township of McHenry co., Ill. It
contains the villages of Algonquin, Cary, and Crystal Lake.
The first is noted as a milk-shipping station, about 65,000
gallons being monthly sent to Chicago; also celebrated for
its fine water-power and three flouring-mills, and its min-
eral spring. Crystal Lake is a fine summer resort; the
Iake of the same name is a beautiful sheet of water, from
which ice is harvested for the Chicago market. Pop. 2157.
G. E. EARLIE.
Algonquin, a township of Ontonagon co., Mich. P. 54.
Al/gorithm [Fr. algorithme; It. algoris'mo, formed
from the Arabic al, “the,” and the Gr. &pv6ºos, “number,”
with the insertion of the letter g between the article and
initial vowel of arithmos], the art of computing in refer-
ence to some particular subject or in some particular way,
as the algorithm of numbers, of surds, etc.
Algreen-Ussing (TAGE), a contemporary Danish jur-
ist and statesman, born at Frederiksborg, in Seeland, in
1797. He became in 1848 procurator-general for the king-
dom of Denmark, and professor of law at Copenhagen.
He has published several legal works. Died in 1870.
Alguazil’, or Alguacil’, the name given in Spain to
an inferior officer appointed to execute the law, correspond-
ing to a constable, bailiff, or policeman. -
Al-Hak'em-Ibn-At’tā (called Al-Moken/na,
- Mokanna, or - Mukanna, i. e. “the veiled one’), an
impostor who in 774 A.D. announced himself as a prophet
and lawgiver in Khorassàm. Having been attacked by the
troops of the caliph Mahdi in 780, he set fire to his castle
and consumed himself to ashes. His story is the subject
of Moore’s “Veiled Prophet of Khorassān.”
Alha'ma (i. e. “the bath”), a town of Spain, in the
province of Granada, in a beautiful valley 23 miles S.W.
of Granada. Here are celebrated warm Springs. Pop.
6931. -
Alham'bra (the “red citadel”), a famous palace and
citadel of the Moorish kings of Granada, was built 1248–
1314 in a suburb of the city of Granada. It is surrounded
by beautiful gardens and groves of aromatic trees. The
interior of the palace is exceedingly gorgeous, and richly
ornamented with arabesques, filigree, and fretwork. Among
the portions now standing are the Court of the Lions and
the Court of the Fish-pond. The former, which is built
of white marble and alabaster, is named from a fountain
in its centre supported by twelve lions, and surrounded by
a gallery resting on columns and arches which are admi-
rably light and elegant. This place capitulated to the Span-
iards in 1491, and was entered in triumph by Ferdinand
and Isabella in 1492. (See IRVING, “The Alhambra,” 1832.)
Alhaurin’ el Gran’de, a town of Spain, in the prov-
ince of Malaga, 15 miles S. W. of Malaga. Marble and
granite quarries are worked in the vicinity. Pop. 5514.
Aſli, pasha of Yanina, born in 1741, was the son of an
Albanese chief. Upon the death of his father, who had
been robbed of all his possessions by his neighbors, his
mother placed him, when only sixteen years old, at the
head of their partisans. At first he was unsuccessful, ow-
ing to a want of funds, but at last defeated his enemies and
returned in triumph to Tepelen, his native town. The day
after his return he murdered his brother, and then impris-
oned his mother in the harem, where she soon died, he having
accused her of this crime. He now rendered some import-
ant service to Turkey, so that he was first appointed in
the place of Dervendshi Pasha, who had to look out for the
safety of the highways, and then pasha of Tricala in Thes-
saly. He seized the city of Yamina by means of a forged
firman, and then forced the inhabitants to demand him as
ruler from the Sultan. He was for a time in correspondence
with Napoleon, but afterwards occupied the places on the
Albanian coast belonging to Napoleon. In 1803 he was
made governor-general of Rumelia. In 1820, in conse-
quence of his treasonable intercourse with France and
Russia, an army was despatched against him, but owing
to the Greek revolution, which he used for his own ends, he
succeeded in keeping Yanina until 1822, when he surren-
dered, having been promised amnesty. He was neverthe-
less executed, and his head was sent to Constantinople.
A/li, or A/li-Ibn-A/bi-Tâ’lib', surnamed THE LION
of GoD, an Arabian caliph, a cousin-german of the prophet
Mohammed, was born at Mecca in 602 A. D. He mar-
ried Fātimah, a daughter of Mohammed, whose doctrines
he adopted and enforced with great ardor and courage.
In 632 his rival, Abu-Bekr, was chosen caliph, after a con-
test which caused a schism and the formation of the sects
of Sunnites and Shiites, the latter of which were parti-
sans of Ali. He succeeded Othmān as caliph in 655, and
was assassinated about 661 A. D. His son Hassan be-
came caliph. Ali was distinguished as an author of max-
ims and proverbs. His religious party, the Shiites, are
especially numerous in Persia and Turkestan. . His de-
scendants have ruled in Egypt, Spain, Western Africa, and
Syria. The sentences ascribed to him were published by
Fleischer (1837); a new edition of his “divan’’ (lyrical
poems) was published at Boulāk, mear Cairo, in 1840.
Alia, a town of Italy, on the island of Sicily, in the
province of Palermo, is situated on a high mountain, 28
miles S. E. of Palermo. Pop. in 1861, 5425.
Ali-Bey, a celebrated chief of the Mamelukes, born
in Abkhasia in 1728. He was taken to Egypt at an early
age, and raised himself from a servile condition by his
ability, became bey of the Mamelukes, and in 1757 bey
of Egypt, and succeeded in becoming independent of
Turkey. He attempted to restore the ancient Egyptian
empire, and had almost conquered Syria when his chief
general, his adopted son, was bribed by the Turks, and
drove him from Egypt. He succeeded in getting up an-
other army, but after a few victories was again defeated
and captured, and died a few days after, in 1773.
Alibert (JEAN Louis), a distinguished French medical
writer, born in Aveyron May 26, 1766. He was first physi-
cian-in-ordinary to Louis XVIII. after 1815. He wrote,
besides other able works, a “Description of the Diseases of
the Skin.” (1806–25), which is commended for its style and
other merits. Died Nov. 6, 1837.
A1/ibi [Lat., meaning “elsewhere”], in law, is the ab-
sence of a person accused of crime from the place where the
offence is charged to have been committed. If established,
it is a defence to the accusation.
Alican/te, a province in the south-eastern part of
Spain, is bounded on the N. by Valencia, on the E. by the
Adriatic, and on the S. and W. by Murcia. Area, 2118
square miles. The country consists partly of fertile plains
and partly sterile mountains. Pop. in 1867,426,656. Chief
town, Alicante. -
Alicante (anc. Lucentum), a fortified city and Seaport
of Spain, the capital of the above province, is on the Medi-
terranean Sea; lat. 38° 20' N., lon. 0° 26' W. It is well
built, with high and substantial stone houses, and contains

2
**
§
*
ALICATA—ALIZARINE.
several hospitals, one college, and a theatre. Wine, grain,
soda, oil, oranges, etc. are exported from this place, which
is the chief seaport of Valencia. Pop. in 1860, 31,162.
Alica'ta, or Lica'ta, a seaport-town of Sicily, in the
province of Sicily, on the S. coast, 25 miles S. E. of Gir-
genti. It exports grain, wine, sulphur, etc. Near it are
the ruins of the ancient Gela. Pop. in 1861, 14,338.
A/lien [from the Lat. alienus, “belonging to another”
(alius)]. An alien by English law is a person born out of
the allegiance of the king. In this country he is one born
out of the jurisdiction of the U. S., who has not been mat-
uralized or made a citizen under their laws. By the com-
mon law the children of public ministers born abroad
are citizens, for their fathers owe allegiance to no foreign
power. By the laws of Congress, children of American
fathers born abroad, where such fathers have resided in
the U. S., are American citizens. (See CITIZEN.) It has
been claimed that, independent of this statute, such children
are American citizens. (The arguments against this view
are stated with great cogency and learning by the venera-
ble Horace Binney in an article upon “The Alienigenae of
the U. S.”) Aliens are subject to certain disabilities affect-
ing their exercise of political rights. After naturaliza-
tion they are ineligible to the office of President and
Vice-President of the U. S. The principal disability
affecting aliens concerns the acquisition of the title to
real estate. There are two general modes of acquisition
—by purchase and by descent. An alien may acquire
title by purchase (including conveyance and devise) in the
absence of statutes to the contrary, and can hold it sub-
ject to a proceeding by the state termed “office found.”
This is in substance an inquiry through an authorized offi-
cer into the fact of alienage; and if that be found, the land
is adjudged to belong to the state. An alien can convey
no better title to a citizen than he himself possesses. This
defect in the title can be cured by a private act of the
State legislature. In the case of descent no title at all
passes to the alien, and no inquest of office is necessary. A
citizen brother can inherit from a brother, though their
father be an alien, owing to the common-law rule that in-
heritances never ascend, and it is accordingly not necessary
to trace title through the alien father. This disability is
wholly removed in a number of the U. S., and modified in
others. Where the disability is not removed, legislation is
almost universal in favor of resident aliens, allowing them,
if they intend to become citizens, to acquire land for a
limited period, and to dispose of it and to transmit it to
heirs. Aliens are capable of acquiring, holding, and
transmitting personal property in the same manner as citi-
zens, and may freely resort to courts of justice to maintain
and protect their rights. Under the laws of Congress they
are not, however, entitled to take out a copyright. Aliens
have been distinguished in time of war into friends and
enemies. An alien enemy cannot make a contract with a
citizen. It is illegal in its inception, and cannot be
enforced even after peace. Nor can such an alien prose-
cute actions of any kind while the war lasts, though, if
there be no illegality in the claim, the right to sue revives
in time of peace. An alien becomes a citizen through
naturalization. The difficulties growing out of this sub-
ject have led to the negotiation of various treaties between
the U. S. and foreign powers. (See NATURALIZATION.)
T. W. DWIGHT.
Align/ment [from the Fr. aligner, to “arrange in a
line "I, a military term, signifies the arrangement of men
in line. The alignment of a camp is the rectilinear dispo-
sition of the tents. The word sometimes denotes the laying
out or regulation of a street by a straight line.
F Aliment. See FooD, by EDw ARD SMITH, M.D., LL.B.,
Alimentary Canal, the cavity in the body of an ani-
mal in which food enters to be digested before it is con-
veyed by the nutritive vessels into the system. In some
animals it is a simple cavity, with only one opening; in
others it is a proper canal, with an outlet or anus distinct
from the inlet or mouth, and is a continuous passage of
variable dimensions from the mouth to the amus. The
principal portions of the alimentary canal of Mammalia.
are the oesophagus, a duct or tube leading from the mouth
to the stomach; the more expanded cavity of the stomach;
the small intestines, which are long and convoluted; and
the large intestines. The canal is lined throughout its
whole length with mucous membrane. Its entire length
in man is about thirty feet. -
Al’imony [Lat. alimonia], in law, an allowance grant-
ed by a court to a wife from the husband's estate, either
during a litigation between them or at its termination.
Originally, it was only granted in suits for separation, but
now by statute it is usual to make the allowance in pro-
ceedings for divorce dissolving the bonds of matrimony.
In England the ecclesiastical court had jurisdiction of this
subject until 1857, when it was vested in a court of divorce.
In this country the jurisdiction is conferred in general on
courts of equity. Alimony is of two sorts—pendente lite,
and permanent. (1.) The object of the first is to enable the
wife to carry on a litigation with her husband, or to sus-
tain herself during its pendency. It is immaterial whether
the proceedings be instituted by or against her. Should
the wife have sufficient means of her own, no allowance of
this kind will be made. The amount rests in the sound
discretion of the court, and is subject to increase or dimi-
mution. (2.) Permanent Alimony.—This is a periodical al-
lowance given from the husband’s estate as the result of
the litigation in the wife’s favor. No allowance is made
when the proceedings terminate unfavorably to her. The
amount varies with the husband's wealth and position, and
is commonly from one-third to one-half of his income. It
is subject from time to time to variation by the action of
the court, depending upon the circumstances of the case.
The court has ample power to make its decree effectual,
and may have recourse to the writ of me eaceat to prevent
the husband’s withdrawal from the State without proper
security for its payment. Should the husband depart to
another State, the parties might become “citizens of dif-
ferent States,” within the view of the U. S. Constitution;
so that she could enforce her claim to alimony in the Fed-
eral courts. The ordinary rule that the domicil of the wife
follows that of the husband would not be applicable to this
case, even though the case were one of judicial separation
rather than of total divorce. - T. W. DWIGHT.
AIisal, a township of Monterey co., Cal. Pop. 2723.
Alisma/ceae [from the Gr. &Augua, a “water-plant”], a
natural order of endogenous plants, natives of temperate
climates. They are herbaceous, and usually grow in
swamps or shallow waters. Among the genera of this
order are Alis'ma and Sagitta'ria (arrowhead).
Aliso is the name of a fortification erected by Drusus
in the year II at the entrance of the Eliso into the Lupia
(Lippe). It was the scene of several severe contests be-
tween the Romans and the Germans.
Al’ison (ARCHIBALD), a Scottish writer, born in Edin-.
burgh Nov. 13, 1757, was educated at Oxford. He took
orders in the Church of England in 1778, and became
curate of Kenley, in Shropshire, in 1790. In 1800 he re-
moved to Edinburgh, where he preached for many years.
His chief works are “Essays on the Nature and Principles
of Taste” (1784), and two volumes of sermons (1814). Died
May 17, 1839.
Alison (Sir ARCHIBALD), BART., D. C. L., a son of the
preceding, was born at Kenley, in Shropshire, Dec. 29,
1792. He graduated in the University of Edinburgh,
studied law, and was called to the bar in 1814. In 1832
he published his “Principles of Criminal Law,” a work of
standard authority. His chief work is a “History of Eu-
rope during the French Revolution” (10 vols. 8vo, 1833–
42), which comes down to 1815, and has had a great popu-
larity. “Its merits,” says the “Edinburgh Review” for
Oct., 1842, “are minuteness and honesty—qualities which
may well excuse a faulty style, gross political prejudices,
and a fondness for exaggerated and frothy declamation.”
He wrote a continuation of this History to the year 1852,
a “Life of John, duke of Marlborough” (1847), and other
works. In politics he was ultra Conservative. Died May
23, 1867.
Alison (WILLIAM PulTENEY), M.D., a physiologist, a
brother of the preceding, was born in Edinburgh in 1790.
He became professor of the institutes of medicine at Edin-
burgh in 1828, and professor of the practice of medicine
in 1832. He published “Outlines of Physiology and Pa-
thology” (1833), and other works. Died in 1859.
Aliz’arine [from al-izari, the commercial name of
madder in the Levant] is the coloring-matter of madder
(Rubia tinctorum). e
Hobiquet and Colin, by treating madder with strong sul-
phuric acid, producing a black mass, which they called
Charbon de garance. On heating this, it yielded a sublimate
of alizarine crystals. -
Preparation.—Several processes have been employed for
the extraction of alizarine, more or less pure, from madder.
Kopp's plan, which has been applied on a larger scale by
Schaaf and Lauth of Strasburg, consisted in treating the
madder with an aqueous solution of sulphurous acid, by
which both alizarine and purpurine, another coloring-mat-
ter, were dissolved. On adding 3 per cent of sulphuric
acid to the solution, and heating to 95° or 104°Fahrenheit,
the purpurine was precipitated. In the filtrate from the
purpurine the alizarine was precipitated in an impure state.
This was extensively sold under the māme of “green ali-
zarine.” From the washings a brown alizarine of inferior
Alizarine was discovered in 1824 by
t
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:
:
100
ALKALI–ALKALIMETER.
quality separated. The green alizarine was sometimes puri-
fied by dissolving it in rectified petroleum, withdrawing the
alizarine by agitating with soda lye, and precipitating it by
sulphuric acid. It was thus obtained comparatively pure
in yellow flakes, which dried to a yellow powder. Another
process for extracting alizarine was based upon the obser-
vation of Leitenberger that purpurine is soluble in water
from 77° to 131° Fahrenheit, while alizarine requires a
much higher temperature. Alizarine is largely sold to the
calico-printers in the form of a yellowish-brown paste,
under the name of “madder extract;” also in the form of
a dry powder. It may be crystallized from solution in
red prisms or by sublimation in yellow needles.
Properties.—It is but slightly soluble in water, except
under pressure at temperature much above the boiling-
point. One hundred parts of water dissolve
at 212° Fahrenheit, 0.034 alizarine.
3020 <& 0.035 & &
392 o << 0.820 & &
437 o {& 1.700 6&
4829 & 4 3.160 & 4
It is soluble in alcohol and in ether, forming yellow solu-
tions. It is also soluble in wood-naphtha, benzol, bisulphide
of carbon, turpentine, glycerine, and petroleum. In sul-
phuric acid it dissolves with a deep-red color, and is pre-
cipitated unchanged on adding water. It is soluble in
caustic alkalies and alkaline carbonates, forming a violet
solution, from which it is precipitated by acids. Akaline
solutions of alizarine form, with soluble lime and baryta.
salts, precipitates of a beautiful purple color; with alum-
ina, salts, a red; with iron salts, a purple precipitate. If
a piece of cotton cloth which has been printed with the
common alumina and iron mordants is placed in water
holding a little alizarine in suspension, it will be found on
heating the whole that the cotton will become permanently
dyed in shades of red and purple. Alizarine is a feeble acid,
forming, as above shown, soluble salts with the alkaline
metals, insoluble colored salts with most other metals.
Turkey-red, madder-pink, and the various shades of purple
and chocolate on calico, are compounds of alizarine with
metallic bases. -
Origin of Alizarine.—Little if any alizarine exists in
the living madder root, and after the root is gathered it is
found that the alizarine increases in quantity by keeping
for several years. It is now believed that the alizarine is
produced from a substance called rubian or rubianic or
ruberythrinic acid, a glucoside, by a peculiar fermentation
induced by a peculiar madder ferment called erythrozone:
Rubian. Alizarine. Glucose.
C26H32016(?) = C14H804 + 2C6H12O6.
Rubian undergoes the same change under the influence of
dilute acids.
Artificial Alizarine.—One of the greatest triumphs of
modern chemistry was the artificial production of alizarine
by Graebe and Liebermann in 1869. By a careful study of
an extensive class of bodies, Graebe established the exist-
ence of a peculiar series of compounds called quinones,
which contain the phenyl nucleus, and in which two atoms
of oxygen are united together by a common bond, form-
ing a dyad radical (O2)”, which aids in binding together
two adjacent carbon atoms. The molecular structure of
the lowest quinone, that derived from quinic acid or from
'benzol, is shown in the following graphic formulae:
Benzol. Quinone.
PH H o
! l,
C C
Z // \
H–C C–H H-6 C–O
||
H-8 8-H BI-C C–O
\ / N
C C
l |
H BI
In studying the quinones, Graebe noticed certain gen-
eral characteristics, which he attributed to their peculiar
molecular structure. Thus, two of the hydrogen atoms as-
sociated with the oxygen radical (O2)” may be replaced
by HO, H2N, or HSO3, the product being an acid, an amide,
or a sulpho-acid. The following table illustrates the most
important relations in this connection of the quinones:
Primary Hydrocarbons. Quinones. - Acids.
Benzol. Quinone. Quinonic Acid.
C6H6. C6H4 = (O2)”. (HO)2 -: C6H2 - (02)”.
Naphthalene. Naphtho-quinone. Naphtho-quinonic Acid.
C10H8. C10H6= (O2)”. (HO)2 = C10H4= (O2)".
Five years before, Martins and Griess, while investiga-
ting some derivatives of naphthalene, discovered a body
very similar but not identical with alizarine; and Graebe
had obtained a body from a naphtho-quinone derivative
which resembled aližarine in some respects. Graebe came
therefore to the conclusion that alizarine belonged to the
quinone series, and, associated with Liebermann, he began
his investigation upon it. The starting-point was to as-
certain the primary hydrocarbon from which the alizarine
could be constructed. They therefore subjected alizarine
from madder to the process devised by Bayer for the
conversion of phenol into its hydrocarbon, benzol. They
passed alizarine vapor over heated zinc-dust, and obtained
the hydrocarbon anthracene, C14H10. It only remained to
change the anthracene into its quinone, and then into its
quinonic acid, to form the alizarine:
Anthracene, C14H10.
Anthraquinone, C14H8 = (02)”.
Anthraquinonic acid or alizarine, (HO)2 = C14H6 = (02)”.
A body, anthracenuse, had been prepared years before
by Laurent and Anderson, which Graebe and Liebermann
now recognized as the quinone of anthracene, C14H8 = (02)”.
They heated this with bromine, by which they replaced H2
by B2H2, obtaining bibrom-anthraquinone, C14H6Br2 =
(O2)”. To replace the Br2 by hydroxyl (HO)2, they heated
it with caustic potassa, KOH, and thus obtained the potas-
sium salt of the new acid, from which the acid was pre-
cipitated by hydrochloric acid as a yellow powder indenti-
cal with the alizarine derived from madder. The practical
importance of this discovery attracted to it the attention
of numerous chemists, and simpler processes, avoiding the
use of the expensive bromine, were soon devised. An
abundant supply of anthracene is obtained from the re-
fuse coal-tar of gas-works, and in a few months anthracene,
which had never been seen except as a chemical curiosity,
became a regular article of commerce. (See ANTHRACEN.E.)
The annual consumption of madder in dyeing and calico-
printing is estimated to exceed $10,000,000. Large tracts
in Holland, Alsace, Italy, and the Levant are devoted to
its culture. It not only supplies dyestuffs, but in Alsace
it yields a large proportion of the alcohol of commerce;
the root containing sugar, which is extracted and subjected
to fermentation.
This brilliant discovery of Graebe and Liebermann seems
destined to effect a very serious change in the agricultural
system of people as remote from each other as the shores
of the North Sea and Asia Minor. In addition to a lizarine,
an anthra-purpurine has been obtained from anthracene,
which is apparently identical with madder purpurine, and
another color called pseudo-purpurine:
Alizarine, (HO)2= C14H6 = (O2).
Anthra-purpurine, (HO)3 = C14H5 = (O2).
Pseudo-purpurine, (HO)4= C14H4= (O2).
Thus, we now have four classes of beautiful colors derived
| from coal: 1, Phenol colors; 2, Aniline colors; 3, Naph-
thaline colors; 4, Anthracene colors. Theoretically, 1
pound of alizarine would require 0.60 pound anthracene,
which would be obtained from 30 pounds of coal-tar, re-
quiring 660 pounds of coal. In practice, the yield is less
than half this amount. There are now about twenty fac-
tories, chiefly in Germany and Switzerland, engaged in the
manufacture of alizarine. (For further details with regard
to alizarine, consult “I)ie Farbestoffe,” von P. SCHüTZEN-
BERGEN, uebersetzt von Dr. H. SCHRöDER, Berlin, 1873.)
C. F. CHANDLER.
Al’kali [from the Arabic definite article al, and kali,
the plant from which soda was first obtained], a chemical
term applied to an important class of bases which combine
with acids to form salts, turn vegetable yellows to red, and
vegetable blues to green, and unite with oil or fat to form
soap. The proper alkalies are potash, soda, lithia, caesia,
rubidia, and ammonia, which are extremely caustic. Potash
is called vegetable alkali, soda is called mineral alkali, and
ammonia, volatile alkali. Lime, magnesia, baryta, and
strontia, having some properties of alkalies, are called alka-
line earths. The alkalies and alkaline earths are metallic
oxides, except AMMONIA (which see). When an alkali and
an acid combine in due proportion they are said to neu-
tralize each other; they really produce metallic salts:
|KOH + HCl = }{Cl + H2O.
NaOH + HNO3 = NaNO3 + H2O.
(See ACIDs, by PROF. C. F. CHANDLER, PH. D., LL.D.)
Alkalim'eter [from alkali, and the Gr. uérpov, a “meas-
ure”], an instrument used to ascertain the proportion of
pure carbonate of potash or of soda in a commercial sample
of those articles, and to test the strength and purity of
soda-ash, potash, etc. It consists of a graduated glass tube
divided into 100 degrees (numbering from the top), and
filled with diluted sulphuric acid, which is poured into a
given quantity of the solution of the alkali until it is neu-
tralized. If this process empties the tube to the eightieth
degree, it shows that the article contains 80 per cent. of
pure aikali. This process is called alkalimetry. The same
instrument is also used to test the strength of acids, by
filling the tube with a solution of alkali and reversing the
process. (See VoIUMETRIC ANALYSIS.) -
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ALKALIMETRY--ALLEGHANY.
101
Alkalimetry. See preceding article.
A1/kaloids [from alkali, and the Gr. etSos, “form *], an
important class of substances of organic origin, having the
qualities of alkalies more or less strongly marked, and be-
ing capable of forming salts with acids, like the inorganic
bases. They are often substitution products of ammonia.
They are divided into two classes—natural and artificial.
The natural alkaloids are found in plants and animals.
They are composed essentially of carbon, hydrogen, and
nitrogen; besides which a great number contain oxygen.
The alkaloids have generally an energetic action on the
animal system, and hence are employed as medicine; in
comparatively large doses they are often powerful poisons.
They have generally a bitter taste, and form in many in-
stances the active principles of the plants in which they are
found. Such are morphine, found in opium; quinine and
cinchonine, in cinchona bark; strychnine, in nux vomica ;
hyoscyamine, in henbane; atropine, in belladonna; caf-
feine or theire, in coffee and tea, etc.
The animal alkaloids are few, the more important being
urea, found in the urine of the Mammalia; and kreatine
and kreatinine, two of the constituents of the juice of
flesh. The artificial alkaloids are those organic bases
which are formed in the researches of chemists. Recently
several of the natural alkaloids have been manufactured on
a small scale without the intervention of the living plant
or animal. Urea can be formed from the simplest form of
dead organic nitrogenous matter. Coniine, the alkaloid
of hemlock, has been prepared artificially. (See AMINES,
UREA, etc.)
Alkana, or Alkan'na [Sp. alca/#a], a name of the
coloring-matter obtained from the plant Lawsonia inermis,
of the order Lythraceae, which is used by the Oriental ladies
to color their nails and teeth. -
Al’kanet (Anchw'sa), a genus of herbaceous plants
found in Europe, belong to the natural order Boragina-
ceae. They have five stamens. Some of the species are
cultivated for the beauty of the flowers. The root of the
Anchusa tinctoria affords a resinous red coloring-matter,
and is used to color pomades, lip-salves, hair-oils, etc.
Al-Katif', or El-Chatif, a town of Arabia, on the
bay of the same name, which is part of the Gulf of Persia.
It has a fort, a bazaar, and a citadel which is said to have
been built by the Portuguese. Pop. about 6000.
Alkmaar', or Alckmaer', an old and important forti-
fied town of Holland, in the province of North Holland, 20
miles N. N. W. of Amsterdam, and 5 miles from the ocean.
It is well built, and is traversed by several canals, by which
it carries on an active trade in butter and cheese. It is said
to be the greatest mart for cheese in the world. Here are
manufactures of soap, leather, sail-cloth, etc. This town
was defended with success against the Spaniards in a long
siege which began in 1573. Pop. in 1867, 11,609.
Allºmaar, van (HENRY), a Low-German poet who
lived about 1475–1500. He was the author or translatof
of a very popular poem and satire entitled “Reinecke
Fuchs” (“Reynard the Fox”), which he published in
Low German at Lübeck in 1498. He professed that he
translated this from the Walloon and the French, but no
such original is extant.
Alkoran. See KoRAN, by PROF. TAYLER LEWIS, LL.D.
Al’la Bre’ve, à l’lá brá’vå, in music, the name of a
movement whose bars or measures consist of the note
called a breve, equal therefore to two semibreves or four
minims. It is sometimes marked thus, (?.
Alla Capella, the same as ALLA BREVE (which see).
AI'lah, the Arabic name of the Supreme Being, the
only true God, as distinguished from the deities worshipped
by idolaters. -
Allard (JEAN FRANÇors), born in 1785, went to Egypt
in 1815, and thence to Persia, where Abbas Mirza gave him
the title of colonel, but with no command. For that rea-
son he went to Lahore, where he gained the confidence of
the maharajah of the Sikhs, who made him commander-
in-chief of his army, which he organized according to Eu-
ropean custom. He died in 1839.
A1/lahābād’ (i. e. “the city of God”), an ancient and
holy city of Hindostan, the capital of the North-western
Provinces, is at the confluence of the Ganges and the
Jumna, 498 miles by rail N. by W. of Calcutta; lat. 250
25' 26" N., lon. 81° 51' E. Many thousand pilgrims
annually resort to this place to bathe in the sacred rivers
which here unite. The houses of the natives are mostly
mean. This city is important as a military point, and is
advantageously situated as an emporium of trade on the
East Indian Railway, and also on the Grand Trunk road.
A large part of the city was reduced to ruins by the hos-
tile operations between the mutinous Sepoys and the
British in 1857. Pop. in 1861, 64,785.
Allamakee', a county which forms the N. E. corner
of Iowa, has an area of 667 square miles. The soil is
fertile, and the surface undulating and well timbered.
Grain, wool, hay, and dairy products are the staples.
Carriages and wagons are manufactured. Capital, Lan-
sing. Pop. 17,868.
Al’Han (DAVID), a Scottish painter of domestic and
humorous subjects, was born at Alloa Feb. 13, 1744, and
was called the “Scottish Hogarth.” He studied and
worked for many years in Rome, whither he went in 1764.
Among his works are “The Origin of Painting,” which
represents a Corinthian maiden drawing her lover's profile
on the wall; and illustrations of Allan Ramsay’s “Gentle
Shepherd.” Died Aug. 6, 1796.
AIlan (Sir HUGH), born in Ayrshire, Scotland, in 1810,
emigrated at an early age to Canada, where he became, in
conjunction with his brother Andrew, proprietor of a line
of steamships. In 1870 they had eighteen steamships ply-
ing between Montreal and Great Britain. He was one of
the canal commissioners “inspecting the internal naviga-
tion ” of Canada (1870–71), and in 1873 became prominent
in operations in support of the Canadian Pacific Railway.
Allan (Sir WILLIAM), an eminent Scottish historical
painter, born in Edinburgh in 1782. He worked some
years in St. Petersburg, visited Circassia, and Turkey, and
returned to Edinburgh in 1814. He received 1000 guineas
for his picture of “Circassian Captives.” In 1835 he was
elected academician of the Royal Academy of London,
and in 1840 succeeded Wilkie as limner to Her Majesty
for Scotland. Among his works are “The Death of Re-
gent Murray,” “Peter the Great Teaching Shipbuilding to
his Subjects,” “Rnox Admonishing Queen Mary,” and two
pictures of the battle of Waterloo. Died Feb. 22, 1850.
Allan/toin (CANAH603), a colorless crystalline substance
found in the allantoic fluid of the foetal calf and in the
urine of the sucking calf. It is produced artificially by
boiling uric acid with lead dioxide and water.
Allan’tois [from the Gr. &AAãs, &AAávros, a “ sausage,”
and eiðos, a “form *], a thin membranous sac developed
during incubation in the eggs of birds and reptiles, and in
the embryo of viviparous animals during gestation. (For
its development and uses, see EMIBRYOLOGY, by PROF. J. C.
DALTON, M. D.)
Allatoo/ma, a post-village of Bartow co., Ga., on the
Western and Atlantic R. R., 40 miles N. W. of Atlanta.
Gen. J. E. Johnston, when pursued by Gen. Sherman, made
a stand in the strong position of Allatoona Pass, in May,
1864, until his flank was turned. The Union general
Corse defended this place with success against the assault
of a superior force in Oct., 1864, while Gen. Sherman, from
the top of Kenesaw Mountain, signalled that he should
hold out to the last.
Al’legan, a county of the W. S. W. of Michigan, bor-
dering on Lake Michigan, contains 840 square miles. It
is traversed by the navigable Kalamazoo River. The sur-
face is undulating or nearly level; the soil is fertile, and
produces good timber, fruit, grain, wool, hay, and cattle.
Lumber, brick, carriages, etc. are manufactured. Capital,
Allegan. Pop. 32,105.
Allegan, a post-village, capital of the above county,
on the Kalamazoo River, and on the Kalamazoo division
of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern R. R. and Mans-
field. Coldwater and Lake Michigan R. R. It has a national
and private bank, two newspapers, two foundries, five
hotels, the Holly water-works, car-works, and twenty-four
other manufactories propelled by water and steam, an
academy, two Masonic and two Odd Fellows’ lodges, nine
churches, and the library of the Allegan literary and library
association. Pop. 2374; of Allegan township, 3642.
D. C. HENDERSON, ED. “ALLEGAN Journ AL.”
Allega/ny, a county of the W. S. W. of New York,
bordering on Pennsylvania. Area, 1033 square miles. It
is intersected by the Genesee River. The soil is generally
fertile and adapted to grazing. Bog-iron ore and limestone
are found. This county is traversed by the New York and
Erie R. R. Cattle, grain, wool, and hay are produced, and
metallic wares, leather, lumber, flour, carriages, etc. are
manufactured. Capitals, Belmont and Angelica. P. 40,814.
Allegany, a post-village and township of Cattaraugus
co., N. Y. It contains a Roman Catholic college and Fran-
ciscan convent, and has important manufactures. Pop. of
village, 746; of township, 2485.
Allegha’ny, a river which rises in Potter co., Pa.,
makes a short circuit in New York, and returns into the
former State. Flowing afterwards in a S. S. W. direction
through the hilly oil-regions, it unites with the Mononga-
hela at Pittsburg, forming the Ohio. It is navigable for
small steamboats 150 miles or more above Pittsburg. It
102
ALLEGHANY—ALLEIN.
is over 400 miles long, and its waters are remarkably clear
and pure. *
Alleghany, a county situated in the north-west part
of Maryland, bordering on Pennsylvania and West Vir-
ginia. Area, 800 square miles. The Potomac River and
its north branch form the southern boundary of this county,
which is traversed by several ridges of the Alleghany Moun-
tains. Between these are fertile valleys called glades,
adapted to pasture and dairies. Iron ore, excellent bitu-
minous coal, limestone, and hydraulic cement are abun-
dant. Coal is extensively mined. Grain, wool, hay, fruit,
and dairy products are the staples, and lumber, leather,
firebrick, and metallic wares are manufactured. The water-
power is very extensive. Garrett county was cut off from
it in 1873. Capital, Cumberland. Pop. 38,536.
Alleghany, a county of the N. W. of North Carolina,
bordering on Virginia. It contains important deposits of
copper ore. The Alleghany Mountains pass through it.
Grain and wool are raised. Capital, Gap Civil. Pop. 3691.
Alleghany, a county in the W. of Virginia. Area,
500 square miles. It is drained by Jackson's River, which
unites with the Cow Pasture River on the E. border to
form the James River. The main Alleghany ridge forms
the N. W. boundary of this county, which is traversed by
other mountain-ranges, and contains fine scenery and val-
uable mineral springs. The Chesapeake and Ohio R. R.
, and the James River Canal connect this county with Rich-
mond. Grain, tobacco, and wool are raised. Capital,
Covington. Pop. 3674.
Alleghany, a township of Davidson co., N. C. P. 436.
Alleghany, a township of Armstrong co., Pa. P. 2568.
Alleghany, a township of Blair co., Pa. Pop. 1913.
Alleghany, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 890.
Alleghany, a township of Cambria co., Pa. P. 1230.
Alleghany, a township of Potter co., Pa. Pop. 625.
Alleghany, a township of Somerset co., Pa. P. 1133.
Alleghany, a township of Venango co., Pa. P. 1485.
Alleghany, a township of Westmoreland co., Pa. P.
1710. *
Alleghany, a township of Craig co., Va. Pop. 938.
Alleghany, a post-township of Montgomery co., Va.
Pop. 2504. - -
Alleghany College. See CoILEGES.
Alleghany Mountains, or Alleghanies, a name
sometimes used as synonymous with the Appalachian sys-
tem of mountains. (See APPALACHIAN MoUNTAINs.) In a
more restricted sense it is applied to the parallel ranges
which traverse Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, and
form the most prominent features in the physical geogra-
phy of those States. The general direction of these ridges
is nearly N. E. and S. W., and their mean height about
2500 feet. Among their highest summits are the Peaks
of Otter, in Virginia, rising to 4200 feet above the sea.
These ridges are remarkable for the parallelism of their
direction and the uniformity of their outline and altitude,
and enclose several beautiful and fertile valleys. The
rocks of the Alleghanies are the Silurian and Devonian
limestones and sandstones, and the group of strata called
the coal-measures.
Alleghany Springs, in Montgomery co., Va., 3 miles
from Shawsville, on the Virginia, and Tennessee R. R., and
77 miles S. W. of Lynchburg, are a popular resort for in-
valids and others. The springs are highly saline, and pro-
duce laxative, tonic, or alterative effects, according to the
method of use. They are especially recommended for dys-
peptics. Eight miles distant. are the sublime Puncheon
Run Falls, and the scenery near is wild and picturesque.
Alleghe’ny, a county of the W. S. W. of Pennsylvania.
Area, 750 square miles. The Allegheny and Monongahela
rivers unite near the centre of the county, and form the
Ohio. The surface is diversified by hills, valleys, rolling
uplands, and deep ravines, which present a variety of pic-
turesque scenery. The soil is fertile and the land nearly
all arable. Among the products of this county are bitu-
minous coal, iron, and limestone. In population and man-
ufactures this county exceeds all others in the State except
Philadelphia. Cattle, grain, wool, and hay are staples.
The manufactures are extremely varied and important.
Capital, Pittsburg. Pop. 262,204.
Allegheny, a city of Allegheny co., Pa., separated
from Pittsburg by the Allegheny River. Five fine bridges
connect the two cities. It contains over 100 large manu-
facturing establishments, including extensive iron and
steel rolling-mills, locomotive-works, cotton and woollen
mills, 10 foundries, 8 machine-shops, 10 tanneries, 2 flour-
ing-mills, salt-works, white-lead works, etc. It has 45
churches, including 15 Presbyterian of the different
branches, 9 Methodist Episcopal, 10 Roman Catholic, 2
Protestant Episcopal, 2 Baptist, 3 Methodist, 2 Lutheran,
I Disciples, 1 Congregational. There are in Allegheny 3
theological seminaries, numerous benevolent and reforma-
tory institutions, the Western Penitentiary, 2 national
banks; a soldiers’ monument, costing over $40,000; a
beautiful park, embellished with costly fountains, statues,
etc.; 2 beautiful cemeteries—Union Dale and St. Mary's; 1
public library, a fine market-house, 4 horse railroads, and
very extensive water-works. Allegheny City is growing
very rapidly. Pop. 53,180. W. D. CUMMINGS.
Alle'giance [Fr. allégeance], in law, is the tie or obliga-
tion which binds a citizen or subject to a state. The com-
mon law distinguishes between natural and local allegiance.
The former is that which a citizen owes to the state of
which he is a member; the latter is due from a person
who is not bound by the rules of natural allegiance, but
who is temporarily subject to the laws of the state by
which the allegiance is claimed. Under this theory a for-
eigner temporarily residing in a country is subject to its
laws. Under such circumstances, should he conspire to
overturn the government he may be guilty of treason.
When he departs his allegiance is at an end. Natural al-
legiance, on the other hand, cannot be shaken off at the
will of the citizen. Should he abandon thre country to
which he belongs, and engage in war on the part of a for-
eign state against it, he might, in strictness, if taken
prisoner, be treated as a traitor. Such a treatment would,
under some circumstances, be extremely harsh, as where
the state had encouraged emigration, and the consequent.
assumption by an emigrant of relations naturally leading
to a duty to take sides in a controversy with an adopted
country. The doctrines of allegiance are of feudal origin,
and it has been found difficult to reconcile them with the
requirements of modern times. The U. S. in their legis-
lation upon naturalization have proceeded upon the theory
that a citizen of a foreign country might, at his will, shake
off his allegiance and become a citizen here. The Eu-
ropean nations have quite uniformly denied that there is
any such general rule of public law, whatever may be the
opinion of individual jurists. The perplexing and irritat-
ing questions thus raised have been for the most part re-
cently disposed of by treaties between the U. S. and the
leading foreign nations. (For these treaties see NATU-
RALIZATION.) T. W. DWIGHT.
Al’legory [Gr. &AAmyopia; Lat. allegoria], a figure of
speech which may be termed a prolonged metaphor; a nar-
rative in which abstract ideas are personified, as Bunyan's
“Pilgrim’s Progress,” which furnishes one of the finest
examples of allegory to be found in literature. Allegory
is not confined to literature, but may also be employed in
painting, sculpture, and pantomimic representations. It
differs from symbol with respect to the relation between
idea and form. In a symbol the form is naturally indi-
cative of the idea, as when a lion rising from its couch is
taken as a representative of the awakening spirit of de-
mocracy, while in an allegory idea and form are entirely
disconnected, as when a city is represented by a female
figure. Mere allegory without any power of symbolization
is tiresome, and often stupid. -
Allegret’to [a diminutive of the It. allegro, “lively”]
is a musical term which denotes a movement or time
quicker than andante, but not so quick as allegro.
Alle/gri (GREGORIo), an Italian composer of sacred
music, born in Rome about 1580. He was a singer in the
pope's chapel and a pupil of Nanini. His masterpiece is
the “Miserere,” which is annually performed in the pon-
tifical chapel during Passion Week. Died in 1652.
Alle'gro (i. e. “lively,” “cheerful”), in music, one of
the principal degrees of movement; a term which signifies
that the piece to which it is prefixed is to be performed in
a brisk and lively manner. The word is sometimes used
as a substantive, and a name of an entire musical com-
position.
Al/lein, or A1/leine (JosłPH), an English non-con-
formist minister and writer, born at Devizes in 1633, was
educated at Oxford. . He was ejected from a curacy at
Taunton in 1662, after which he was persecuted by im-
prisonment in Ilchester jail, and was fined for preaching.
His death was hastened by ill-treatment, and he died Dec.
22, 1668. Among his works is an “Alarm to the Uncon-
verted” (1672), which is highly esteemed.
Allein, or Alleine (RICHARD), an English non-con-
formist and Puritan, born in Somersetshire in 1611, edu-
cated at Oxford, was rector of Batcombe in that county,
but was ejected in 1662. He published “Vindiciae Pieta-
tis” (“Vindication or Defence of Piety,” 1663), and other
works. Died Dec. 22, 1681.
ALLEN.
Al/len, a county of Indiana, bordering on Ohio. Area,
638 square miles. The St. Joseph and St. Mary rivers
unite in this county to form the Maumee. It is also drained
by the Aboite River and several creeks. The surface is
nearly level; the soil is very fertile. Cattle, grain, wool,
and hay are staple products. Machinery, flour, carriages,
metallic wares, etc. are among the manufactures. It is in-
tersected by the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R.,
and the Toledo Wabash and Western, Fort Wayne Jack-
son and Saginaw, and Fort Wayne Muncie, and Cincin-
nati R. Rs. Capital, Fort Wayne. Pop. 43,494.
Allen, a county in the S. E. of Kansas. Area, 432
square miles. It is intersected by the Neosho River, and
drained by Elm and Deer creeks. The surface is undulat-
ing; the soil is fertile. Excellent timber abounds. The
county contains a large proportion of prairie, and is well
adapted to the raising of stock. Grain, wool, potatoes,
and hay are staple products. It is traversed by the Leav-
enworth Lawrence and Galveston R. R. The most valu-
able mineral found here is coal. Capital, Iola. Pop. 7022.
Allen, a county of Kentucky, bordering on Tennessee.
Area, 300 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the
Pig Barren River. The surface is generally level, and the
soil moderately fertile. Limestone caverns are found in
this county. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are produced.
Capital, Scottsville. Pop. 10,296.
Allen, a county in the W. N. W. of Ohio. Area, 405
square miles. It is intersected by the Auglaize and Ottawa
rivers. The surface is generally level and well timbered;
the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, wool, hay, and lumber
are produced. Carriages and wagons are manufactured.
This county is traversed by the Dayton and Michigan
and the Pittsburg and Chicago R. R.S. Capital, Lima.
Pop. 23,623.
Allen, a township of Pope co., Ark. Pop. 225.
Allen, a township of Lasalle co., Ill. Pop. 877.
Allen, a township of McLean co., III. Pop. 1224.
Allen, a post-township of Miami co., Ind. Pop. 1042.
Allen, a township of Noble co., Ind. Pop. 1754.
Allen, a township of Polk co., Ia. Pop. 732.
Allen, a township of Warren co., Ia. Pop. 788.
Allen, a post-township of Hillsdale co., Mich. Pop.
1759. -
AIIen, a township of Worth co., Mo. Pop. 1352.
Allen, a post-village and township of Allegany co.,
N. Y. Pop. 794.
Allen, a township of Darke co., O. Pop. 781.
Allen, a township of Hancock co., O. Pop. 969.
Allen, a township of Union co., O. Pop. 1198.
Allen, a township of Northampton co., Pa. Pop. 2040.
Allen, a township of Washington co., Pa. Pop. 815.
Allen, a township of Morgan co., West Va. Pop. 766.
Allen (CHARLEs), LL.D., a jurist, was born at Worces-
ter, Mass., Aug. 9, 1797, and was admitted to the bar in
1818, was a judge of various State courts of Massachu-
setts between 1842 and 1859, and chief-justice of the Mas-
sachusetts superior court (1859–67). From 1849 to 1853
he was a Free-Soil member of Congress. He published
fourteen volumes of legal reports (1861–68), and was long
an influential lawyer and an able jurist. Died Aug. 6,
1869.
Allen (DAVID OLIVER), D. D., an American divine,
born at Barre, Mass., in 1800. He graduated at Amherst
College in 1823, and labored as a missionary in India from
1827 to 1853, in which latter year he returned to America.
He published a “History of India” in 1856. Died July
17, 1863. -
Allen (ELIZABETH AKERs), known as “Florence Per-
cy,” was born in Strong, Me., Oct. 9. 1832. Her first hus-
band was the sculptor Akers. She is now the wife of E.
M. Allen of New York. She published in 1867 a volume
of poems of decided merit, and has contributed much to
periodical literature. -
Allen (ETHAN), GENERAL, born at Litchfield, Conn.,
Jan. 10, 1737. He became an owner of iron-works at Sal-
isbury, Conn., and in 1766 removed to Vermont, where he
became a leader in the popular resistance to the claims of
New York. The province of New York declared Allen an
outlaw, and offered £150 for his arrest. On the outbreak
of the Revolution, Allen heartily joined the movement,
and on the 10th of May, 1775, he surprised and captured
the fort at Ticonderoga, summoning its astonished com-
mandant to surrender “in the name of the great Jehovah
and the Continental Congress.” This capture gave the
army a valuable supply of artillery and stores. He had.
| ment did good service at the battle of Bennington.
103
but eighty-three men under him, among whom was Bene-
dict Arnold. On the 25th of Sept., 1775, he attacked Mon-
treal with a small force, but was captured and sent to
England as a prisoner. He was treated with great cruelty,
and was not exchanged till 1778. The British authorities
tried in vain to bribe him to induce the Vermonters to
join their cause, but he skilfully contrived by his negotia-
tions to keep the British troops out of Vermont. He pub-
lished pamphlets against the New York domination, a
narrative of his captivity (1799), a “Vindication of Ver-
mont” (1779), and “Allen's Theology, or the Oracles of
Reason’’ (1784), an attack upon the Christian religion.
He professed to believe in the transmigration of souls. He
was courageous, humane, and generous, but ambitious,
rash, and eccentric. Died of apoplexy near Burlington,
Vt., Feb. 12, 1789. (See his “Life” by HUGH MooRE
(1834), and by H. W. DE PUY (1853).)
Allen (HEMAN), L.L.D., born at Poultney, Vt., Feb. 23,
1779, graduated at Dartmouth 1795, became a lawyer, was
chief-justice of a Vermont State court (1811–14), member
of Congress (1817–18), U. S. minister to Chili (1823–28),
and held various other important positions. He was a
nephew of Ethan Allen. Died at Highgate, Vt., April 9,
I852.
Allen (HENRY), an enthusiast, born at Newport, R.I.,
June 14, 1748, founder of the “Allenites.” He maintain-
ed that Adam and Eve before the fall had no corporeal
bodies, and denied the resurrection of the body. He
preached in Nova Scotia, and published some hymns and
religious treatises. Died Feb. 2, 1784.
Allen (IRA), GENERAL, born in Cornwall, Conn., April
21, 1751, was a younger brother of Ethan Allen. Emigrating
in 1772 to Vermont, he became a prominent and public-
spirited citizen.
He
bore a prominent part in settling the early difficulties of
Vermont with the neighboring States. In 1795 he went
to France to purchase arms for his State, but was taken
on the voyage home, carried to England, and there sus-
tained with success an eight years' lawsuit on the charge
of attempting to supply the Irish with arms. He was
afterwards imprisoned in France. He wrote a “Natural
and Political History of Vermont” (1798) and other works.
Died Jan. 7, 1814. .
Alien (Jose,PH. W.), an English landscape painter, born
at Lambeth, in Surrey, in 1803. He was the principal
scene-painter at the Olympic Theatre, and is said to have
corrupted his style in landscape by the “brilliant effects”
which are only adapted to the stage. He had previously
painted rural scenery with success. Died Aug. 30, 1852.
Allen (NATHAN), M. D., LL.D., of Lowell, Mass., born
at Princeton, Mass., April 25, 1813, graduated at Amherst
in 1836. He has published several valuable pamphlets on
the laws of life and health, as well as the causes affecting
the changes and increase of population.
Allen (PAUL), born at Providence, R.I., Feb. 15, 1775,
graduated at Brown University in 1796, studied law, and
removed to Philadelphia, where he engaged in journalism,
serving as editor and correspondent to various journals.
He published a volume of poems (1801), “Lewis and
Clarke's Travels” (1814), “Life of Alexander I.” (1818),
and other works. His “History of the Revolution ” (1819)
was written by John Neal and others. He was for a time
insane. Died at Baltimore (where he was an editor of the
“Morning Chronicle’”) Aug. 18, 1826.
Allen (PHILIP), born in Providence, R.I., Sept. 1, 1785,
graduated at Brown University in 1803. He was an ex-
tensive cotton-manufacturer, and built the first Watt steam-
engine ever made in Providence; was governor of Rhode
Island (1851–53), and U. S. Senator (1853–59). Died Dec.
16, 1865.
Allen (RICHARD), first bishop of the African Methodist
Episcopal Church in the U. S. He was originally a
preacher in the Methodist Episcopal Church, and was or-
dained deacon by Bishop Asbury in 1799. He was elected
bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Church in 1816.
Died in Philadelphia in 1831. (See METHODISM.)
Allen (RICHARD L.), born in Hampden co., Mass., Oct.,
1803, was a merchant of New York in 1832, and became
a farmer on the Niagara River. With A. B. Allen, his
brother, he established the “American Agriculturist,”
which became a very successful paper. He was the author
of “The Diseases of Domestic Animals” (1848), “Ameri-
can Farmer's Muck-Book,” etc. Died at Stockholm, Swe-
den, Sept. 22, 1869.
Allen (ROBERT), an American officer, born in 1812 in
Ohio, graduated at West Point in 1836, and, July 20, 1866,
assistant quartermaster-general (rank colonel), and briga-
dier-general U. S. volunteers, May 13, 1863. Served in the
*
While he was colonel of militia his regi-
104
ALLEN–ALLIA.
artillery till May 11, 1846, and subsequently in the quarter-
master's department; on engineer duty in 1836, and in
Florida war in 1837–38, in emigrating Cherokees to the
West in 1838, in quelling the Canada border disturbances
in 1840–41, in garrison in New York harbor in 1841–46, in
the war with Mexico in 1846–48 on quartermaster duty,
being present at the battles from Vera Cruz to the city of
Mexico (brevet major), on quartermaster duty at New Or-
leans and New York in 1848–49, as chief quartermaster of
Pacific division in 1849–52 and 1854–61. In the civil war
served as chief quartermaster at St. Louis, Mo., in 1861–
63, and at Louisville, Ky., 1863–66; from which points he
directed the furnishing of transportation and supplies for
the various armies operating in the Mississippi Valley
(brevet lieutenant-colonel and brigadier-general July 4,
1864), and for several expeditions, including those against
the North-west Indians; as chief quartermaster of the
division of the Pacific in 1866–69, and senior assistant in
quartermaster-general’s office in Washington, D. C., since
69. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Allen (SAMUEL), a London merchant, born about 1635,
was one of the proprietors of New Hampshire under
Mason's patent, and was governor of the colony (1691–
99). His claim involved him and his heirs in expensive
litigation. Died May 5, 1705. •
Allen (SoCoMoM), an American patriot and preacher,
born in Northampton, Mass., Feb. 23, 1751, was a brother
of Moses, noticed above. He served as a major in the
Revolutionary war. Died Jan. 20, 1821.
Allen (STEPHEN), born in New York City in 1767, be-
came mayor of the same in 1821. He was distinguished
for his public spirit and public services, being one of the
persons who originated the enterprise of supplying New
York with Croton water. He was a victim of the burning
of the steamer Henry Clay in July, 1852.
Allen (STEPHEN), D. D., an eminent divine and educa-
tor of the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born in Maine
in 1810, graduated at Bowdoin College in 1835, entered
the ministry in the Maine Conference in 1839, and has de-
voted much of his life to education in his native State,
particularly as principal of the Maine Wesleyan Seminary.
Allen (THOMAs), an American patriot, born at North-
ampton, Mass., Jan. 17, 1743, was a brother of Moses,
noticed above, and the father of William Allen (1784–1868).
FIe was the first minister in Pittsfield, where he began to
preach in 1764. In the Revolution he served as chaplain
in the American army. Died Feb. 11, 1810.
Allen (WELD N.), U. S. N., born Mar. 27, 1837, in
Maine, graduated at the Naval School in 1856, became a
lieutenant in 1861, a lieutenant-commander in 1863, a com-
mander in 1871, served during the summer of 1861 at Fort
Dahlgren near Alexandria, and was for some weeks in
command of that important post. In 1862 and 1863
served on board the gunboat Kanawha, and in 1864 com-
manded the steamer New London, Western Gulf blockad-
ing squadron. In 1865, while attached to the steam-sloop
Tuscarora, Allem led the men of that vessel in the assault
upon Fort Fisher, and was wounded in the left arm.
EoxHALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Allen (WILLIAM), a lawyer, who was chief-justice of
Pennsylvania before the Revolution, and a royalist after
it began. He aided Dr. Franklin in founding the College
of Philadelphia. Died in 1780.
AHen (WILLIAM), F. R. S., an English chemist and phi-
lanthropist, born in London Aug. 29, 1770, was a friend
of Sir H. Davy. He was elected F. R. S. in 1807, and in
conjunction with W. H. Pepys made researches on respi-
ration, etc. He devoted much time to benevolent enter-
prises, and as a minister of the Society of Friends travelled
in France, Germany, and Russia, in which latter country
he had an interview with the emperor Alexander in 1822.
In 1825 he founded two manual-labor Schools at Lindfield,
Sussex. Died Dec. 30, 1843. *
Allen (WILLIAM), D. D., a learned clergyman and au-
thor, was born at Pittsfield, Mass., Jam. 2, 1784. He gradu-
ated at Harvard in 1802, was licensed to preach in 1804, in
1810 succeeded his father as pastor in Pittsfield, was chosen
president of Dartmouth College in 1817, and was president of
Bowdoin College from 1820 to 1839. His last days were spent
at Northampton, Mass., where he died July 16, 1868. He
published numerous volumes, both of prose and of poetry.
His best known work is an “American Biographical and
Historical Dictionary '' (1809; 2d ed. 1832; 3d ed. 1857).
Allen (WILLIAM HENRY), a naval officer, born at Provi-
dence, R.I., Oct. 21, 1784. He served with distinction under
Decatur when the latter captured the Macedonian, in Oct.,
1812. Having obtained the command of the Argus, Cap-
tain Allen took several prizes from the English. He was
mortally wounded in a battle between the Argus and the
Pelican Aug. 14, 1813.
Allen (WILLIAM HENRY), M. D., LL.D., was born at
Readfield, Me., Mar. 27, 1808, educated at Bowdoin Col-
lege, Me., 1833, was professor of Latin and Greek in
the Cazenovia Methodist Seminary, N. Y., from 1833 to
1835, professor of chemistry and natural philosophy in
Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa., from 1836 to 1846, pro-
fessor of philosophy and English literature at the same
institution from 1846 to the close of 1849, president of
Girard College, Philadelphia, from 1850 to 1863, president
of the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania during 1865
and 1866, and was reappointed president of Girard College
in 1867, which office he still sustains with eminent ability.
In 1872 he was elected president of the American Bible
Society. He is author of “A Manual of Devotion for
Girard College of Orphans,” and of numerous and able
addresses, reviews, etc.
Allen (WILLIAM HowARD), an officer of the U. S. navy,
was born at Hudson, N. Y., July 8, 1790. He commanded
the Argus after William Henry Allen was mortally wound-
ed, in 1813. Nov. 8, 1822, he was killed by pirates whom
he attacked near Matanzas.
Allen (WILLIAM STICKNEY), an American journalist,
born at Newburyport, Mass., in 1805, was for nearly twelve
years editor of the “Newburyport Herald.” He removed
in 1837 to Missouri, where he afterwards edited the “St.
Louis Republican.” Died June 16, 1868.
A1/lendale, a post-village and township of Ottawa co.,
Mich. Pop. 799.
Allendale, a post-village of Bergen co., N. J., on the
Erie R. R., 26 miles from New York. Large quantities of
berries are here shipped to New York.
Allendale, a township of Barnwell co., S. C. P. 1847.
Al/ien’s, a township of Winston co., Ala. Pop. 553.
Allen’s Creek, a township of Hanover co., Va. Pop.
2844. -
Allen’s Factory, a post-township of Marion co., Ala.
Pop. 587.
Allen’s Fresh, a post-township of Charles co., Md.
Pop. 4584.
Allen’s Grove, a township of Mason co., Ill. P. 1199.
Allen’s Grove, a post-township of Scott co., Ia.
Pop. 646.
Al’ienstein, a Prussian town, province of East Prussia,
situated on the Alle, 65 miles S. of Königsberg. Pop. in
1871, 5514. -
Al/lenstown, a township of Merrimack co., N. H., on
the Suncook Valley R. R., has manufactures of cottons,
twine, brick, etc. Pop. 804.
Al’Hensville, a post-township of Person co., N. C.
Pop. 1120.
Al’ientom, a post-township of Wilcox co., Ala. P. 1954.
AI'lentown, a borough of Allegheny co., Pa. P. 772.
Allentown, a city, capital of Lehigh co., Pa., on the
right bank of the Lehigh River, 60 miles N. by W. of Phila-
delphia. It is on the Lehigh Valley R. R. The Lehigh
and Susquehanna R. R., leased by the Central R. R. of New
Jersey, runs on the opposite bank of the river. The East
Pennsylvania R. R. connects at this place with the Lehigh
Valley R. R. Some seven trains run daily to New York.
There are ten blast-furnaces at this place, two large rolling-
mills, foundries and machine-shops, large tanneries, shoe
manufactories, tube-works, woollen-mills, fire-brick works,
etc. There is a fine court-house, a prison costing $250,000,
three national banks, public school property worth $300,000,
and five weekly and two daily newspapers. It is the seat
of Muhlenberg College. Pop. 13,884.
W. J. S. Coxworth, ED. “LEHIGH WALLEY DAILY NEWS.”
A1/ler, a river of Germany, an affluent of the Weser,
rises near Magdeburg and flows north-westward. It is
about 150 miles long.
A1/lerton (ISAAC), one of the “Pilgrim Fathers,” left
London in 1608, and went to Holland. He came to New
Plymouth in the Mayflower's first voyage. He was a man
of some wealth, and was at first a man of influence, but
was afterwards unpopular. He became a merchant of New
Amsterdam (New York), residing at Marblehead, New
Haven, and other points. The second of his three wives
was Fear, a daughter of William Brewster. Died in 1659.
AII-Hal/low, the old English name for All Saints’
Day (the 1st of November).
AI'lia, or A'lia, according to Livy, a small stream
which entered the Tiber 11 miles above Rome, was the
scene of the battle in which Brennus and the Gauls de-
feated the Roman army, about 388 B. C. It has not been
identified in modern times.
ALLIANCE—ALLODIUM.
AIIiſance, Stark co., O., at the crossing of the Pitts-
burg Fort Wayne and Chicago and the Cleveland and Pitts-
burg R. R.S., is a very thriving and prosperous town, con-
taining many extensive manufactories of horse-rakes,
reapers, pumps, terra-cotta ware, steam-hammers, tin
presses, besides rolling-mills, white-lead works, etc. etc.
Two newspapers are published here. It has one national
bank, extensive gas-works, excellent public Schools, a col-
lege, and good libraries. Pop. 4063.
W. H. PHELPs, PUB. “ALLIANCE MonTTOR.”
Alliance, Holy. See HoDY ALLIANCE.
A1/Hibone (SAMUEL AUSTIN), LL.D., an author, born in
Philadelphia April 17, 1816. His principal work is a
“Critical Dictionary of English Literature and Authors”
(3 vols., 1859–70), an excellent work, of very great value to
the student; also a “Dict. of Poetical Quotations” (1872), etc.
Al/lier, a river of France, is the most important affluent
of the Loire. It rises in the S. of France, near the source
of the Loire, flows nearly N., and enters that river at
Nevers. Its entire length is about 260 miles.
Allier, a department of France, is bounded on the N.
by Cher and Nièvre, on the E. by Saône-et-Loire, on the
S. by Puy-de-Dôme, and on the W. by Creuse and Cher.
Area, 2822 square miles. It is intersected by the Allier,
and bounded on the N. E. by the Loire. The soil is fertile.
The chief productions are wine, grain, timber, cattle,
horses and sheep. Iron, coal, and marble are found here.
It is subdivided into 4 arrondissements, 28 cantons, and
317 communes. Chief town, Moulins. Pop. in 1872,
390,812. -
Alligaſtor [corrupted from the Sp. el lagarto, the
105
These are hatched by the heat of the sun and the
decaying vegetable matter. The name alligator is also fre-
quently applied to the muggur of India. The common
alligator of the Southern States is the Alligator Mississip-
piensis, but among the so-called alligators of Florida, a
true crocodile has been discovered.
AI'ligator, a township of Tyrrel co., N. C. Pop. 778.
Alligator, a township of Chesterfield co., S. C. P. 659.
Alligator Pear. See AvoCADo PEAR.
Alligator Swamp, an extensive marshy tract in
North Carolina, occupies a large part of the peninsula be-
tween Albemarle and Pamlico sounds.
A1/lingham (WILLIAM), born at Ballyshannon, Ireland,
about 1828, published “Poems” (1850), “Day and Night
Songs” (1854), “Lawrence Bloomfield in Ireland” (1864),
in which year he obtained a literary pension.
Allio/li (Joseph FRANZ), a German Catholic theologian,
born at Sulzbach Aug. 10, 1793. He became professor of
theology at Munich in 1826, resigned in 1835, and became
soon after canon at Ratisbon. His German translation of
the Bible (6 vols., 6th ed. 1839–45) was approved by the
pope, and has had a very wide circulation. He also pub-
eggs.
lished a “Manual of Biblical Antiquities” (1841). Died
May 22, 1873.
Al/lison, a township of Lawrence co., Ill. Pop. 855.
A1/lison (FRANCIs), D. D., a Presbyterian minister,
born in Ireland in 1705, came to America in 1735. He was
for many years vice-provost and professor in Philadelphia
College. Died Nov. 28, 1777.
Alliso'nia, a village of Franklin co., Tenn., on the Elk
River and on the Nashville and Chat-
tanooga R. R., 77 miles S. E. of Nash-
ville. Here is an abundant water-
power.
º Še
ſº
-g
ſ !| -
º -
“lizard ”], a genus of American saurian reptiles (nearly
allied to the crocodile) which abound in the rivers and
swamps of the Southern U. S. They have broader heads,
more numerous teeth, and more obtuse snouts than croco-
diles. Various reptiles of this genus are called caymans
in South America. They all hibernate in the winter or
dry season, when they bury themselves in the mud. The
alligator is about fourteen feet long, including the tail,
which is a powerful weapon for defence. It is a fierce and
voracious animal, and sometimes attacks and kills men
both on water and land, but it cannot turn quickly on land.
During the heat of the day it is often seen basking in the
sun on the dry ground. Its back and sides are defended
by hard mailed plates, which are proof against a rifle-ball.
The alligator is an oviparous animal, its eggs being Small,
but numerous. The parent deposits them in the sand of
the river-side, scratching a hole with her paws, and placing
the eggs in a regular layer therein. She then covers these
with sand, grass, mud, etc., and deposits another layer on
top of them, and so on until she has laid from fifty to sixty
Allison’s Mills, a township of
Jackson co., Ala. Pop. 564.
Allitera/tion [from the Lat. ad,
“to,” and litera, a “letter”], in com-
position, the frequent recurrence of
the same letter, or of words beginning
with the same letter, as “When friends
were few and fortune frowned.” It is
often used in proverbial phrases, as,
“Wilful waste makes woeful want,”
and in poetry for the production of
effect, as in this line of Gray: “To
high-born Hoel's harp or soft Llewel-
lyn’s lay.” In the Celtic and early
Gothic languages alliteration was a
recognized ornament of poetry, and
was used instead of rhyme.
AI'lium [from the Gr. &Aéopat, to
“ avoid,” because of its offensive
smell], a genus of herbaceous plants
of the natural order Liliaceae, natives
of the temperate and cold regions of
the northern hemisphere, including
the garlic, onion, leek, and chive.
They have mostly bulbous roots, um-
bellate flowers, narrow and fistulose
leaves, and a peculiar Smell and taste
called alliaceous.
Al'Ioa, a seaport and market-
town of Scotland, in the county of
Clackmannan, on the left (N.) bank
of the Forth, and at the head of its
frith, 28 miles W. N. W. of Edin-
burgh. It has a good harbor and an
active trade. Glass, ale, whisky, woollen goods, and leather
are manufactured here, and coal is an important article of
export. Steamboats ply daily between Alloa and Edin-
burgh. Pop. 6676.
Allob/roges, a nation of ancient Gaul which occupied
the territory now comprised in Dauphiny, Savoy, and Pied-
mont. They were allies or peaceable subjects of Rome.
Allocu'tion [Lat. allocuſtio, from ad, “to,” and lo'gwor,
locuſtus, to “speak”], a formal address; a term used espe-
cially by the court of Rome, and applied to a speech which
the pope addresses to the college of cardinals on some po-
litical or ecclesiastical subject. The pope often resorts to
this method to define his position or explain his policy, or
reserve a claim which he cannot enforce in the present cir-
cumstances. . - -
Allo/dium, or Allo/dial Ten’ure, in feudal law,
freehold estate, land held by an individual in his own
absolute right, and free from feudal tenure or obligation.
There is no allodial land or property in England, the laws
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ALLOMERISM-ALLSTON.
of which declare that the king is the original proprietor
and lord paramount of all the land in the kingdom.
Allom/erism [from the Gr. &AAos, “ different,” and pºepos,
a “portion ” or “share”], a term denoting constancy of
crystalline form under variation in the proportion of the
constituents of a compound. Thus, an alloy of zinc and
antimony containing 36 per cent. of the latter metal crystal-
lizes in needles which do not vary in angular measurement,
though the antimony be increased 20 per cent.
Allop'athy [from the Gr. &AAos, “other,” “different,”
and trä90s, an “affection ”I, a supposed theory of medicine,
according to which remedies are used whose effects are op-
posite to the symptoms of the diseases treated. The term
allopathy was formed after that of homoeopathy, and both
terms were introduced by Hahnemann. The two terms are
contrasted, the one teaching that medicines must produce
a similar affection to the disease itself, the other a different
affection. The idea of this method of medication is at least
as old as Hippocrates, who used the expression, “Tā évavria
row évavríov ša ruv iiwara’—“opposites are remedies of op-
posites.” It has been contrasted in modern times especi-
ally with the maxim of Hahnemann, “ similia similibus
curantwr,” or “like cures like,” which is the fundamental
principle of homoeopathy—an idea which is also advanced
by Hippocrates. It is altogether an error to designate the
prevalent and ancient science and practice of medicine as
allopathy. The teachers and adherents of this science insist
that its scope legitimately embraces all positive truth con-
cerning disease and its treatment; no more to be narrowed
down to an exclusive principle, such as that of allopathy,
than astronomy can be made synonymous with the nebular
theory, or zoology with the theory of development.
Allo'ri (ALEssaNDRO), a skilful Italian painter, born
in Florence in 1535, excelled in the science of anatomy.
Among his masterpieces are “The Last Judgment” and
“Christ disputing with the Doctors.” Died in 1607.
Allori (CRISTOFANO), an eminent painter, a son of the
preceding, was born at Florence in 1577. He was a good
colorist, and excelled in portraits. Among his works, which
are exquisitely finished, is a Magdalene. Died in 1621.
All’otta’va, in music, is a direction to play an octave
higher or lower.
Allot/ment Sys’tem, or Allotment of Land, an
expression commonly used in England in reference to small
portions of land cultivated as gardens by peasants and
other poor laborers, who hold the land as tenants. Allot-
ment, as a legal term, may be defined as the grant or allow-
ance of a portion of land too inconsiderable to be the subject
of a formal conveyance.
Allot/ropy, or Allot/ropism [from the Gr. &AAos,
“other,” and rporá, “ conversion *], in chemistry, a term
applied to the diversity of form and properties which some
elements exhibit under certain circumstances, as, for ex-
ample, when exposed to a great heat or to an electric dis-
charge. Many chemists believe that every element is ca-
pable of existing under several allotropic modifications.
Among the substances which afford examples of allotropy
are sulphur, phosphorus, oxygen, and carbon. If the solid
and brittle sulphur be heated to 480° F., and then poured
into water, it ceases to be brittle and becomes very elastic.
Sulphur in its ordinary state is slightly soluble in turpen-
time and some fixed oils, but in its elastic condition it be-
comes insoluble in those oils. Phosphorus affords a re-
markable illustration of the same principle. In ordinary
circumstances, when freshly prepared, it is a pale yellow
solid, resembling wax. In this form it is extremely com-
bustible, requiring to be kept under water to avoid taking
fire spontaneously. But if this same substance be excluded
from air and kept several days at a temperature of about
450° Fahrenheit, it becomes red, and ceases to be readily
combustible, so that it need not be kept under water to
prevent its taking fire. Oxygen, which in its common
state has no odor, may, by an electric discharge through
a glass tube or bottle containing air, be transformed into
ozone, which has a peculiar odor and other new properties.
(See OzoNE.) The diamond and graphite are allotropic
forms of carbon.
Allouez (CLAUDE JEAN), a Jesuit, born in France in
1620, went to Quebec in 1658 as missionary to the Algon-
kins, settled on Lake Superior in 1665, at Kaskaskia, Ill.,
in 1676, and visited numerous tribes in the North-west.
Died in 1690. He was bitterly disliked by La Salle.
AIIow/ances, Officers”, are the payments made to
officers in the British army for special duties. An officer
commanding and paying a company receives a contingent
allowance for the expense of repairing arms, etc. An offi-
cer sent on duty from one place to another has a travelling
allowance of so much a mile. A somewhat similar system
is observed in the U. S. army.
Carolina, 1856–58.
Al/loway Kirk, an old ruined church in the parish of
Ayr, near the mouth of the river Doon, is the scene of
Burns's poem of “Tam O’Shanter.” A monument has been
erected here to the memory of Burns, who was born near
the kirk.
Allox'an (C4N2H2O4), a white crystalline substance
formed by the action of cold strong nitric acid on uric
acid. It is converted by baric hydrate into alloxanic acid,
H2. C4N2H2O5. • -
Alloxan'tin (CSN4H4O7.3Aq), a colorless crystalline
compound produced by the action of hot dilute nitric acid
on uric acid; also by the action of deoxidizing agents, as
H2S, on alloxan. *
Alloy’ [Fr. alloyer, to “mix” (as metals), probably
from the Lat. ad legem—that is, “with legal tolerance;”
Fr. loi, “law "], a mixture or compound of two or
more metals fused together; sometimes a compound of
precious metal with a metal of less value; thus, in coin-
age, the term alloy is applied to a baser metal mixed with
gold or silver in order to make it harder. Chemists apply
this term to all combinations obtained by fusing metals
together; thus, brass is an alloy of copper and zinc ;
bronze is an alloy of copper and tin; pewter is an alloy of
tin and lead. In many cases the metals do not unite in
definite or invariable proportions. The density—or, in
other words, the specific gravity—of an alloy is sometimes
greater and sometimes less than the mean of its compo-
nents. Most alloys have greater cohesion than either of the .
metals of which they are composed, so that a bar of an
alloy will bear a greater longitudinal strain than a bar of
either metal. British gold coin contains 11 parts of pure
gold and 1 of copper; the law of the U. S. requires that in
1000 parts of coin there must be 900 parts of gold; and the
intent of the law is, that the alloy shall be of copper only;
but, as in parting silver from native gold it has been here-
tofore impossible to separate the whole, except at an ex-
pense too great to be economical, it has been permitted to
allow the residual silver to be counted as part of the alloy,
provided the proportion of silver be not greater than one-
half. The more effectual processes introduced of late years
into the U. S. assay offices have made it possible to make
the parting nearly complete; and it is now provided that
the silver shall not exceed one-tenth part of the whole alloy.
A compound of mercury with another metal is an amalgam.
All Saints?IDay, or All Hallows [Ang-Sax. all, and
hálig, “holy”], a festival of the Roman Catholic, Anglican,
Lutheran, and the various Oriental churches. Observed on
the 1st of November, in honor of the saints in general.
All Souls’ Day, a festival of the Roman Catholic
Church, observed on the 2d of November, in order to alle-
viate the sufferings of the Souls in purgatory.
AII’spice, a common name of , pimento, or Jamaica
pepper, the dried berry of the Euge'nia pimenta, which is
a native of the West Indies. It is called allspice because
it is supposed to combine the flavor of several spices.
All'ston (Joseph), an American planter, born in 1778,
became governor of South Carolina (1812–14). He mar-
ried Theodosia, the only child of Aaron Burr. Died Sept.
10, 1816.
Allston (RoRERT F. W.), an American officer and gov-
ernor, born April 21, 1801, in All Saints' parish, S. C.,
graduated at West Point in 1821, served as lieutenant of
artillery on topographical duty till he resigned, Feb. 1,
1822, to become a rice-planter on the Great Pedee River;
surveyor-general of South Carolina 1823–27, member of the
house of representatives of South Carolina 1828–32, of the
senate 1832–56, presiding 1847–56, deputy adjutant-gen-
eral of South Carolina, 1831–38, and governor of South
He was much interested in agriculture
and public education, and wrote valuable memoirs upon
both subjects. Died April 7, 1864, on his plantation, near
Georgetown, S. C. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Allston (WASHINGTON), an American painter of celeb-
rity, both at home and abroad, born Nov. 5, 1779, on his
father's plantation, at Waccamaw, S. C.; died at Cam-
bridge, Mass., July 9, 1843. Being of delicate constitu-
tion, he was sent to school at Newport, R.I., at the age
of seven. There he formed the acquaintance of Edward
Malbone, the miniature painter, a kindred spirit, two
years his senior, whose taste, enthusiasm, and unusual
culture stimulated the lad’s ambition and fixed the bent
of his genius. On graduating from Harvard College in
1800, he went to Charleston, and at once began his art-life
under the influence of his Newport friend, whom he found
there. The opportunities for intelligent study of good
masters were small at that time, but zeal and patience used
them all. The young man scorned no helps, but copied
the best he could find, and felt grateful, especially to
Robert Edge Pine, whose portraits of General Gates,
AL.LUVION.—ALMA.
107
Charles Carroll, Baron Steuben, and Washington were
much admired as examples of color. In 1801, Allston,
accompanied by his friend Malbone, is in London, a stu-
dent of the Royal Academy, whereof Benjamin West was’
president. West became his intimate friend, and so re-
mained to the last. London opened to the young artist a
new world of opportunity and sympathy. His three years
there were full of improvement and delight. Then the
Louvre in Paris offered to him its superb gallery, rich with
gems of Italian art. This prepared him for Italy, where,
principally in Rome, he spent four years in close compan-
ionship with Thorwaldsen the sculptor; and Coleridge the
poet. In 1809 he returned, richly freighted, to his native
country, but soon went back to London with his wife, a
sister of Dr. William E. Channing. There he produced
his first great work, “The Dead Man Restored to Life by
the Bones of Elisha.” The picture obtained the prize from
the British Association, and was afterwards purchased by
the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts. Allston's repu-
tation was made. Other great paintings followed: “St.
Peter Liberated by the Angel,” “Uriel in the Centre of the
Sun,” “Jacob's Dream,” with smaller things between—
all eagerly sought by purchasers. But toil and confine-
ment, and sorrow from the death of his wife, impaired
his health; in 1818 he came to America again. The
next twelve years were passed in Boston, where, in
spite of a feeble body and a saddened mind, he painted
the “Jeremiah,” “Saul and the Witch of Endor,” “Mir-
iam,” “Beatrice,” and other pieces exquisite in color and
feeling. In 1830, Allston married, as his second wife, a
daughter of Chief-Justice Dana of Cambridge, Mass.;
and at Cambridge he thenceforth lived, writing and paint-
ing, in great seclusion, but enjoying the Society of a group
of intimate and noble friends. To this period of his ac-
tivity belong “Spalatro's Vision” and “Rosalie,” the for-
mer one of his most weird, the latter one of his loveliest
creations. The work which he meant should be his mas-
terpiece, and on which he bestowed immense labor in the
latter years of his life, “Belshazzar's Feast,” was never
finished. It was after a week of steady, severe labor on
it that the artist gently expired from an attack of heart
disease. The sketch, probably never intended by the
painter to be exhibited, is in the Athenaeum Gallery in
Boston.
If Allston had not been a painter, he might have been
distinguished as an author. The few writings from his
pen that have been published indicate a rare penetration
and refinement of mind. His novelette, “ Monaldi,” de-
serves to be still read and admired for its literary excel-
lence. His poems were light and incidental productions,
and have been forgotten. He prepared a course of lec-
tures on art, which were published after his death.
Allston had the poetic temperament; his passion was
for beauty—not for the sensuous beauty that charms the
eye, so much as for the intellectual beauty that enchants
the soul. Neither the landscape nor the human face in-
terested him so much as the forms that stood before his
imagination. He was of a thoughtful, interior, specula-
tive cast of mind, meditative and dreamy. His sensibility
to spiritual impressions was acute; he was a lover of the
supernatural and the mysterious, with a love of the roman-
tic. He never wholly outgrew his liking for ghost-stories,
and the awful, the grand, the wild possessed an unfailing
attraction for him to the end of his life. This peculiarity
of his mind displays itself in the subjects of his greatest
paintings—“Uriel,”“Saul and the Witch of Endor,” “The
Vision of the Bloody Hand,” “The Dead Man Coming to
Life”—and not less in his last and most ambitious piece,
“Belshazzar's Feast;” the great feature of which was the
awful handwriting on the wall, glaring down on the scene
of revelry, making the light of the candles dim and strik-
ing consternation into royal hearts. Conceptions like these
transcend any artist's power of execution, and much of the
disappointment with Allston's work arises probably from
the sense of inadequacy of the performance. The grandeur
is there, the impression of intellectual power is always
conveyed, the spiritual influence of a subtle imagination
is always felt; but the skill to tell satisfactorily the won-
derful story is wanting. It is when he descends from such
ambitious flights and paints a “Rosalie,” a “Beatrice,” a
“Lorenzo and Jessica,” that the exquisite quality of his
art appears. These are creations of the fancy too, pure
dreams of the poet, attempts to catch and portray what
the eye cannot perceive, and only the most ethereal touch
can feel. Their charm is indescribable. It is not in
the composition, which is not always admirable, nor in
the drawing, which is now and then deficient in freedom
and grace, nor even in the color, rich and mellow as it is:
it lies rather in the refined delicacy of sentiment which
pervades the work, spiritualizing whatever the master
touches. His most tremendous creations are touched with
this subtle grace. They are never appalling or grotesque;
they are always, in some aspects, lovely.
The technical excellence of Allston’s art was its color.
Leslie is quoted as saying that the harmony of tint in the
“ Uriel” suggested the best pictures of Paul Veronese;
and the appellation given him in Rome, “the American
Titian,” proved that the artists there discovered in his can-
was something more than the adroit use of pigments, some-
thing of the strange art of mingling them that in the great
master was so inimitable. Artists could even rejoice in the
melancholy incompleteness of the “Belshazzar,” because it
allowed them an opportunity to study the painter's method.
The personal qualities of Allston were exceedingly at-
tractive. His high-toned moral integrity, his enthusiasm,
his utter singleness of mind, his maidenly purity of heart,
fascinated all who approached him. He was free from
envy and jealousy and guile. Artists revered him. Horatio
Greenough, a man of culture as well as an artist, said,
“He was a father to me in what concerned my progress of
every kind.” And Washington Irving wrote of him: “To
the last he appeared to retain all those elevated, refined,
and gentle qualities which first endeared him to me—a
man whose memory I hold in reverence and affection as
one of the purest, noblest, and most intellectual beings
that ever honored me with his friendship.”
Allston was slight in form, and carried about him an air
of refined dignity that at once attracted attention. His
countenance wore an expression of serene abstraction.
His brow was broad, his eye large; his white hair fell long
upon his shoulders in his latter years. In the public street
he seemed wrapped in thought till a friend spoke to him,
and then he seemed the soul of love. Before his death, in
1839, his paintings, those that were in America, forty-two
in number, were collected a short time for exhibition. The
best of them are in private galleries; some of the very
best are in England. Mr. Allston was chosen a member
of the Royal Academy soon after his return from his first
long residence in England. O. B. FROTHINGHAM.
Allu’vion [from the Lat. ad, “to,” and luo, to “wash”],
the soil imperceptibly formed by the constant washing of
the waters along the banks of a river or the sea. (See
AccRETION.) It differs from “avulsion,” as the latter is not
gradual, but sudden and perceptible.
Allu’vium, a geological term, signifies gravel, sand,
and other matter washed down by rivers and floods, and
spread over land that is not permanently submerged. Such
deposits, which belong to the post-tertiary formation, often
accumulate at the mouths of large rivers and form deltas.
(See DELTA.) All the land of Lower Egypt is alluvial. It
has been estimated that the Mississippi annually carries
down a quantity of sediment sufficient to cover 144 square
miles with a stratum one foot deep. Alluvial soil is fre-
quently the most fertile part of the earth’s surface.
Al’Iyl, Ac/ryl, or Propyle’nyl (C3H5), the third term.
in the homologous series CnH2n-1. Oil of garlic is the
sulphide of allyl (C3H5)2S. Oil of mustard is the sulpho-
cyanate of allyl, C3H5.CNS.
Al’lyn (ROBERT), D. D., an eminent clergyman and
educated in the Methodist Episcopal Church, born at
Ledyard, Conn., Jan. 25, 1817, graduated in 1841 at the
Wesleyan University, Conn.; mathematical teacher in
Wilbraham Academy, Mass., 1841–43, joined the New En-
gland Conference 1842, was elected principal at Wilbraham
1845, principal of the Providence Conference Academy
1848; commissioner of public instruction for Rhode Island
1854, served three terms in the Rhode Island legislature,
appointed professor of ancient languages in Ohio Uni-
versity at Athens 1857, president of the Wesleyan Fe-
male College, Cincinnati, O., 1859, and president of McKen-
dree College, Ill., 1863–73.
Al'ma, a small river of Russia, in the Crimea, flows
W. and enters the sea about 20 miles N. of Sevastopol.
On its banks the allied armies of England and France,
commanded by Lord Raglan and Marshal St.-Arnaud, de-
feated the Russians on the 20th of Sept., 1854. -
Alma, a post-township of Marion co., Ill. Pop. 794.
Alma, a post-village, the capital of Wabaunsee co.,
Kan., in a township of its own name, about 65 miles W. of
Lawrence, situated at the crossing of the prospective Man-
hattan Alma and Burlingame, and the Mill Creek Valley and
Council Grove R. Rs. It contains several stores, wagon
and other shops, one flouring-mill and one saw-mill, run
by water-power. The town is at the junction of four
creeks, each furnishing water-power. Boring for coal is
now going on, which geological experts say is to be found
at a depth of about 350 to 400 feet. The town is growing
very rapidly. Six important mail-routes centre at this
point, and stages arrive and depart daily. One newspaper
is published here. Pop. of Alma township, 890.
A. SELLERs, PUB. “NEWS.”
108 2"
ALMA-ALMEIDA-GARRETT, DE.
Alma, a post-township of Allegany co., N. Y. It has
manufactures of lumber. Pop. 766.
Alma, the county-seat of Buffalo co., Wis. It has one
weekly paper. It is on the Mississippi River, 60 miles N.
of La Crosse, and within 4 miles of the celebrated Beef
Slough Boones. It has manufactures of bricks, wagons,
flour, etc. Pop. of village, 565; of township, 1049.
- ED. OF “ExPRESS.”
Alma, a township of Jackson co., Wis. Pop. 731.
Al'mack’s, a suit of assembly-rooms in King street,
St. James, London, was formerly celebrated as à fashion-
able place of resort for the aristocracy. Annual balls were
given in these rooms, the managers of which were ladies
of high rank, who conducted them with great exclusive-
ness. These rooms were built in 1765 by a person named
Almack, an anagram of McCall, his original name. The
desire of admission to the balls and parties at Almack's
was so eager that it is said votes in Parliament have been
purchased by tickets offered to the wives and daughters of
members.
Almaden', or Almaden' del Azo'gue (i. e. “the
mines of quicksilver”), a town of Spain, in the province
of Ciudad Real, 50 miles S. W. of Ciudad Real. Here
are mines of quicksilver (cinnabar), which are said to be
the richest and most ancient in the world, producing an-
nually about 2,000,000 pounds. They were worked by the
ancient Spaniards, and afterwards by the Romans. Al-
maden has a practical school of mines and three hospitals.
The mines were rented in the sixteenth century by the
Fuggers, the famous bankers of Antwerp, and in 1843 the
Rothschilds obtained the contract from the Spanish gov-
ernment. Pop. 8645.
Al'maden, a township of Santa Clara co., Cal. Here
are important mines of mercury and valuable mineral
springs. Pop. 1647.
Almaden Quicksilver-mines, The, of Santa
Clara, co., Cal., are named after those of Almaden in Spain,
the latter being the most important in the known world.
The Santa Clara mines are the New Almaden, Providence,
Enriquita, and Guadalupe. The first mentioned is 14
miles from San José and 65 miles S. of San Francisco, in a
region remarkable for its picturesque scenery. The ore
(cinnabar) has from time immemorial been known to the
Indians, who used it for making vermilion paint. Some
Mexicans having bribed them to disclose the profound
secret of its place, a company was formed in 1846, which
began to work the mine. The presence of this deposit has
been of incalculable benefit to California, since enormous
quantities are employed in gold, and silver mining. The
metallic mercury is separated from the ore by a simple pro-
cess of distillation.
Al'magest [from the Arabic al., “the, ’’ and the Gr.
pléyworros, “greatest”], a name given by the Arabs to Ptole-
my’s great work on astronomy, which was written in
Greek, and translated in the ninth century into Arabic.
Alma/gro, a city of Spain, in the province of Ciudad
Real, 14 miles S. E. of Ciudad Real. It is well built, has
a town-hall, two hospitals, and one Latin School. Large
quantities of lace are made here; also brandy, soap, and
earthenware. Pop. 10,273.
Almagro, de (DIEGO), a Spanish soldier of fortune,
and one of the conquerors of Peru, was a foundling, and
was named after the city in which he was found in 1475.
At an early age he went to America, where he is said to
have enriched himself by plunder. Pizarro, Almagro, and
Luque in 1525 united in an enterprise to conquer Peru, in
which they were successful. (See PIZARRo, FRANCIsco.)
In 1535, Almagro invaded Chili and gained some victories
over the natives, but his progress was hindered by the en-
mity and perfidy of Pizarro. He returned from Chili in
1536, and took Cuzco, which Pizarro claimed as part of
his possessions. In April, 1538, Almagro was defeated in
battle and taken prisoner by Pizarro, who put him to
death.
Almagro, de (DIEGO), a son of the preceding, was
born about 1520. He became the leader of a party which
was hostile to Pizarro, whom they assassinated in 1541.
He then took the title of captain-general of Peru, but he
was defeated in battle by the royal army under Vaca de
Castro, and was executed in 1542. e
Alma/li, a large town of Asiatic Turkey, in the S. part
of Anatolia, on the river Myra, 25 miles from the Mediter-
ranean Sea. It is beautifully situated in a valley, contains
several factories and mills, and has a prosperous trade.
The appearance of the town is uncommonly picturesque.
Pop. about 20,000.
AI'ma Maſter (i.e. “fostering or propitious mother”),
a name used to express the relationship of a university to
its “foster-children” (alumni) who have been educated in it.
Al’manac, or Almanack [Arab. the “register”], an
annual publication containing a calendar of the days and
months of the year, the time of the sun’s rising and set-
ting, a notice of the eclipses of the sun and moon, and
other astronomical phenomena. To these essential topics
are often added predictions of the weather, and sometimes
useful information of different kinds. The origin of alma-
macs is very ancient. They correspond in some respects
to the Fasti of the Romans. The first printed almanac
was that of George von Burback, resident at Vienna, in
1460. Regiomontanus began in 1474 a series of almanacs
in their present completed form. In the sixteenth and
Seventeenth centuries they were often used as organs of
political parties, were filled with the absurdities of astrol-
ogy and vain prognostications, and were enlisted in the
service of superstition and imposture. Among the most
widely-known almanacs of the present time is the “Gotha
Almanack,” which was first published in German in 1763.
It is also published in French. It contains statistics re-
specting all nations, with much political information.
The first American almanac was that of William Brad-
ford of Philadelphia, published in 1687. In 1732, Frank-
lin first published his celebrated “Poor Richard’s Almanac.”
The “American Almanac ’’ appeared in Boston from 1828
to 1861. At present over 100 almanacs are published in
the U. S., embracing every possible subject, a number of
which appear in foreign languages, especially the German.
Almanac, Nautical, an annual work devoted to as-
tronomical phenomena and used in navigation. The
“British Nautical Almanac" was planned by Maskelyne,
and first published in 1767. A similar French work, enti-
tled “Connaissance des Temps,” was commenced by Picard
in 1678, and has been continued to the present time. There
is an excellent almanac published in Berlin under the title
of Ephemeris. The “American Nautical Almanac,” which
first appeared in 1853, has a high reputation. It is pub-
lished annually by the U. S. navy department through the
board of navigation. It is a large volume, published for
the use of the navy, and sold at cost to others. (See EPHEM-
ERIs, by PROF. J. H. C. CoFFIN, LL.D.)
Alman'sa, or Alman’za, a town of Spain, in the
province of Albacete, 52 miles by rail E. of Albacete. It
has manufactures of linen and cotton fabrics, brandy,
leather, and soap. Near this town the French under the
duke of Berwick defeated the British and Spanish armies,
April 25, 1707. Pop. 7900.
Aiman’sor (ABU JAAFAR), the second caliph of the
family of the Abbasides, was born in 712. He ruled from
754–775, persecuted the Christians in Syria and Egypt,
founded Bagdad, and promoted arts and sciences.
Almas, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bacs, 16
miles W. N. W. of Maria-Theresienstadt. Pop. in 1869,
8193. . º
AI’meh, or Al'mah, written also Almé (plu. Awa-
lim), a name applied to the professional female singers
and dancing-girls of Egypt. The singers are hired to per-
form in the harems of the rich. The common dancing-girls
are a different and less respectable class, belonging to a
tribe called Ghawazi. They perform lascivious pantomimes
in the streets.
Almei'da, or Almey/da, a fortified town of Portugal,
in Beira, and on the Coa, 83 miles N. E. of Coimbra. It is
an important stronghold. Here Lord Wellington defeated
the French general Massena, Aug. 5, 1811. Pop. about
1150.
Almeida, a town of Brazil, province of Espirito Santo,
is on the ocean, about 20 miles N. of Victoria. It was
founded by the Jesuits in 1580. Pop. about 4000.
Almeida, die (Don FRANCISCO), a famous Portuguese
commander and viceroy of India, was born in Lisbon about
1450. He was a son of the count of Abrantes. Having
gained distinction in wars against the Moors, he was ap-
pointed viceroy of India in 1505. He built several forts on
the Indian coast, and extended the dominion of Portugal
by his conquests. In 1507, Albuquerque was sent to India
with a commission to supersede Almeida, but the latter re-
fused to resign. He gained a decisive victory over the
Egyptian fleet near Diu in 1508, and resigned his office
about the end of that year. As he was returning to Por-
tugal, he was killed by some Caffers near the Cape of Good
Hope Mar. 1, 1510.
Almeida-Garrett, de (Jožo BAPTISTA), a Portuguese
poet and politician, born Feb. 4, 1799, minister of public
education 1820–24, was compelled to leave the country
several times, and was elected a member of the Cortes in
1836. Died in 1854. Among his works (16 vols., 1854–55),
the most celebrated are the epic-lyrical poems “Camões”
and “Adozinda,” the satirical poem “Dona Branca,” as
well as several dramas.
ALMENA-ALMY.
109
Alme/na, a post-township of Van Buren co., Mich.
Pop. 980. - .
Al/mer, a township of Tuscola co., Mich. Pop. 671.
AImeri'a, a province of Spain, forms the E. part of the
former kingdom of Granada. It is bounded on the N. by
Murcia, on the E. and S. by the Mediterranean, and on the
W. by Granada. Area, 3299 square miles. It contains
rich mines of silver and lead. Grain, silk, and wine are
the chief productions. Capital, Almeria. Pop. in 1867,
352,946. -
Almeria, āl-mâ-ree/ā, a city and port of Spain, on the
Mediterranean, 104 miles E. of Málaga, is the capital of a
province of the same name. Under the reign of the Moor-
ish kings it was one of the richest and most important
towns in the kingdom of Granada. It has a safe harbor,
defended by two forts, and a fine cathedral. Wine, silk,
cochineal, and other articles are exported from this port.
Pop. in 1861, 29,426.
AImi'ra, a post-township of Benzie co., Mich. P. 393.
AI'mohades [Arabic, Al-Mowahidoon, i. e. “unita-
rians,” or advocates of the unity of God, as taught in its
original purity by Mohammed], a Mohammedan dynasty
that reigned in Spain and Northern Africa from 1129 to
1269. It was founded by Abu-Abdillah Mohammed, sur-
named AL-MAHDI, “the director.” The Almohades were
the conquerors and successors of the Almoravides. The first
Almohade who took the title of sultan was Abd-el-Mumen.
Almoji’a, a Spanish town in the province of Málaga,
10 miles N. W. of Málaga, is noted for its baths. Pop. 7041.
Almonacid', a town of Spain, in the province of To-
ledo, on the Tagus. Here the French under King Joseph
defeated the Spaniards under Vanegas on Aug. 11, 1809.
Al'mond (Amyg’dalus), a genus of plants of the nat-
ural order Rosaceae, composed of trees and shrubs nearly
allied to the peach. The common almond (Amyg'dalus com-
mu'mis) is a tree from twenty-five to thirty feet high, a
native of Barbary, but it now abounds in the south of Eu-
rope, from which great quantities of the fruit (kernels)
are exported. Sweet almonds, which contain a large pro-
portion of bland fixed oil, are an agreeable article of food.
Bitter almonds contain a peculiar principle called amyg-
dalin, and yield a poisonous oil. The leaves of the almond
contain prussic acid. The dwarf almond tree is culti-
vated for the beauty of its flowers, which resemble the
blossoms of the peach, but are generally double.
Almond, a township of Clay co., Ala. Pop. 967.
Almond, a post-village and township of Allegany co.,
N. Y. It contains an academy, a mowing-machine factory,
four churches, several quarries, mineral springs, and has
manufactures of boots, shoes, etc. Pop. 1686. .
Almond, a post-township of Portage co., Wis. P. 651.
Almond/bury, a large village, township, and parish
of England, in the West Riding of Yorkshire. The village
is on the Calder, 36 miles S. W. of York, and has cotton
and woollen mills. Pop. in 1871, 12,268.
Almon/de, van (PHILIPPUs), sometimes written Al-
lemon'da, a Dutch admiral, born at Briel in 1646. He
was the second in command under De Ruyter when the
latter was killed in 1676, and contributed to the victory
which Van Tromp gained over the Swedes, in 1677. He
commanded the Dutch fleet which, aided by the English,
defeated the French at La Hogue in 1692. Died in 1711.
Al/mond’s, a township of Stanley co., N. C. P. 792.
Almonds, Oil of. Both sweet and bitter almonds
yield by pressure a fixed oil, which is of a light-yellow
color and odorless. It consists chiefly of olein; is soluble
in 25 parts of alcohol. It is used in medicine, having a
mild laxative property. It is sometimes given to new-
born infants, mixed with syrup of roses. One hundred
pounds of almonds yield about fifty pounds of oil. Bitter
almonds, macerated with cold water and distilled, yield a
volatile oil known as the “oil of bitter almonds,” or hy-
dride of benzoyl. This does not pre-exist in the almonds,
but is produced, together with hydrocyanic or prussic acid,
from the glucoside amygdalin under the influence of the
ferment emulsin:
Amygdalin. Water. Hº! * Glucose.
C20H2:NO11 + 2.H2O = . Cºhé0 + HCN + 2C6H12O6
It is a colorless, limpid oil, smelling of bitter almonds.
When freed from prussic acid it is not poisonous. It
oxidizes to benzoic acid, CHIH602. It is regarded as the
aldehyde of the benzoic group. It is also produced by the
action of manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid on albu-
men, fibrine, caseine, and gelatine. It has been used to a
considerable extent for flavoring confectionery and for
scenting soap. For the former purpose the prussic acid
which it usually contains makes it dangerous. For the
latter purpose it has been entirely superseded by the much
cheaper nitrobenzol or essence of mirbane (C6H5NO2),
also called artificial oil of bitter almonds, which possesses
the same odor.
Al/moner [Fr. awmónier; Lat. eleemosyna’rius], an
officer whose duty is to distribute alms for a king or other
person of rank, or for a monastery. The grand almoner
of France was a functionary of high rank, and usually a
cardinal. This office was abolished during the Revolution.
In England there is a lord high almoner, who distributes
the bounty of the queen twice a year.
Al/mont, a post-township of Lapeer co., Mich. P. 2298.
Al/monte, a village of Lanark co., Ontario, on the
Brockville and Ottawa R. R., 6 miles N. of Carlton Place.
It has one weekly newspaper, and large manufactures of
woollen goods. Pop. about 2500. -
Almon/te (Don Juan NEPOMUCENO), a Mexican general
and statesman, born in 1804, of Indian descent, was at-
tached to the embassy in London in 1824 and 1832, minis-
ter of war under Bustamente, and in 1841 minister pleni-
potentiary. He distinguished himself in the war against
the U. S., was sent to Washington in 1853, and in 1857 to
Paris. He went to Mexico with the French expedition in
1862, and was declared president in Juarez's place, but was
not able to gain recognition. He entered the capital with
the French army June 10, 1863, and was made president
of the government junta. Died Mar. 22, 1869, in Paris.
Almoſra, or Almoſrah, a town and important fort-
ress of Northern Hindostan, is situated among the Him-
alayas, 85 miles N. of Bareilly, and at a height of 5337
feet above the sea.
Al/moravides [a corruption of the Arabic Almorabi-
tun, signifying those “bound” or “devoted” to the ser-
vice of God], the name of a Moslem or Arabian dynasty,
that reigned in Northern Africa and Spain. It was found-
ed by Adballah-Ibn-Yaseen about 1050, and continued to
reign until 1145, when the last Almoravide sultan was
conquered by the Almohades.
Alm’quist (KARL JoNAS LUDWIG), a Swedish poet and
prose writer, born in 1793. He published histories, works
on grammar, romances, epic poems, etc. Among his works
are “Amorina,” a romance, and a collection of poems en-
titled “Book of Thorn Roses” (i. e. “Sweet Briars”).
Died Oct. 26, 1866.
Alms/houses, institutions for the reception and sup-
port of indigent and sick persons who are unable to main-
tain themselves. Almshouses (officially called “work-
houses” in England and “poorhouses” in Scotland) have
been long maintained in the latter country, in a few of the
larger towns, at the public expense, but there was no gem-
eral statutory provision to that effect until 1845. In Eng-
land public provision was made for the poor in 1535,
houses for their reception were established by statute in
1563, and the employment of the poor in compulsory labor
was inaugurated in 1601. Workhouses in London were
established in the reign of William and Mary, and the
workhouse system has been since extended by numerous
statutes. A similar system was introduced into Ireland in
1838. All paupers who are able to earn their subsistence
are compelled to do so. On the continent of Europe out-
door relief is much more frequent, the helpless and home-
less poor being cared for in the hospitals. In most of the
U. S., almshouses are maintained by county or municipal
authorities. In Massachusetts, almshouses, with farms at-
tached, are maintained in nearly all the towns, though
some of the smaller towns board their paupers in private
families. The “ State paupers” of Massachusetts, chiefly
of foreign birth, who have no legal residence in any town,
are maintained in the State almshouses, of which that at
Tewksbury is the principal. Among the other celebrated
institutions of this character may be mentioned that on
Blackwell’s Island, N. Y., that on Deer Island, near Bos-
ton, and the Philadelphia county almshouse, West Phila-
delphia, Pa. (See PAUPERISM.)
AI/mug Tree, a name found in the Old Testament, is
supposed to denote a species of sandal-wood.
Almuñecar', a seaport-town of Spain, in the province
of Granada, and on the Mediterranean, 33 miles S. of
Granada. It exports fruits and other articles. Pop, about
6000.
AI’my (John J.), born in Rhode Island April 25, 1814,
became in 1829 a midshipman in the U. S. navy, a lieuten-
ant in 1841, served in the Mexican war and in the Nic-
aragua and Paraguay expeditions, became a commander
in is 61, a captain in 1865, and a commodore in 1869.
During the civil war he was an officer of the blockading
squadron, and subsequently chief signal-officer of the
navy.
110 ALMY—A
LPHABET.
AI’my (WILLIAM), an American philanthropist, born
Feb. 17, 1761, was a member of the Society of Friends.
He lived at Providence, R.I., and amassed a large
ticated alpacas are kept by the Peruvians, who export great
, quantities of their wool. This wool, which varies in color,
fortune in the cotton manufacture. He endowed a º
large boarding-School at Providence. Died Feb. 5, sšº:
1836. gººd
AI’ma, a post-township of Lincoln co., Me. #/ *š * º
Pop. 747. £ºft ºf WA
Alm'wick, a market-town of England, in the Aiº, º SS | º
county of Northumberland, on the river Alne, 32 sº º §§ ºss w \
miles N. of Newcastle. It is well built of stone, º % ºsº *
and has a town-hall, a theatre, a mechanics’ insti- - # º Üſ º t
tute, etc. Pop. in 1871, 7055. #ilſ; \ \º i
Alnwick Castle, the seat of the duke of | | \\ \ /
Northumberland, adjoining the above town, is one *
of the most magnificent baronial castles in Eng- |
land. It is supposed to be 1200 years old or more,
and has belonged to the Percy family since the *
reign of Edward II. In 1830 it was repaired at
a cost of £200,000. Malcolm III., king of Scot- |
land, while besieging this castle in 1093, was kill-
ed, with his eldest son, by the earl of Northum-
berland. William the Lion of Scotland, having
laid siege to it in 1174, was defeated and made
'll W. \
!// :
º
t º *
|º
prisoner. §º º
-- * º-2. #Sºs à §
Alſoč, a genus of endogenous plants of the 㺠:-º-º:
- - - - - *E-sºº `- "Jºººº... ?:=
order Liliaceae, natives of Africa, and other warm ==%ft Fºss -
regions, and chiefly valuable for their medicinal =======ºss 㺚šºss-
y - ------ **** -e'-- 㺠--> *
properties. The drug called aloes is obtained
from several species, among which the Aloe So-
cotrina, found in the island of Socotra, affords
the best quality. (See ALOES.)
Aloe, American. See AGAVE.
*Al'oes, a stimulating, purgative drug having a bitter
taste, is the inspissated juice or extract obtained from the
leaves of several species of the aloe. It is imported from
Bombay, Socotra, the Cape of Good Hope, the West Indies,
etc. “Cape aloes” is obtained from the Al'oe Spica'ta;
“Socotrime aloes,” from the Al'oe Socotri'na; and “Bar-
badoes aloes,” from the Al'oe vulga'ris. Aloes is much
used combined with other cathartics; from its stimulating
effect upon the lower bowel it is unsuitable for those suf-
fering from piles. Heated with nitric acid, aloes yields
chrysammic acid. (See WooD and BACHE’s “Dispensa-
tory.”)
Aloes Wood, called also Agila or Eagle Wood,
is the inner part of the trunk of the Aquila’ria ova'ta and
the Aquila'ria agal/lochwm, trees which are natives of trop-
ical Asia. It is supposed to be the lign-aloes of the Bible.
Aloes wood contains a fragrant resinous substance, which
emits a pleasant odor when burned, and is highly prized
as a medicine by the Orientals. -
Alſogi, a sect of religionists opposed to the Montanists,
was formed about 160 A. D. They were styled Alogi, a
name of double meaning, signifying their rejection of
writings in which the Logos is mentioned, and also that
they were without reason.
Aloiſadae (i.e. “sons of Aloeus”), in Greek mythology,
Otus and Ephialtes, two giants of extraordinary strength
who attempted to storm Olympus, and were condemned to
suffer in Tartarus.
Alom/pra, the founder of the reigning dynasty of
Burmah, was born about 1700. He revolted against the
king of Pegu in 1753, was victorious in several battles,
and became master of Burmah, in which he founded Ran-
goon. Died May 15, 1760.
Alopecia. See BALDNEss.
Aio'ra, a city of Spain, in the province of Málaga, 17
miles N. W. of Málaga. Soap and oil are manufactured
here. Pop. 6818.
Alosa. See SHAD.
A/lost, or Aalst, an ancient walled town of Belgium,
in East Flanders, on the navigable river Dender, 18 miles
by rail W. N. W. of Brussels. It contains the church of
St.-Martin, one of the largest and finest in Belgium, a
town-hall, a college, and an academy of design. Here are
cotton-mills, copper-foundries, distilleries, and manufac-
tures of lace, leather, etc. Alost has an active trade, and
exports hops, corn, and oil. It was formerly the capital of .
Austrian or imperial Flanders. Pop. in 1866, 18,978.
Aloysius (SAINT) of Gonzaga. See GONZAGA.
Alpa'ca (the Auche'nia pa/co, supposed by several Zool-
ogists to be only a domesticated variety of the guana'co), a
ruminant animal nearly allied to the lama, and belonging
to the family Camelidae, is a native of the mountains of
Peru and Chili. It is rather smaller than the lama, and
has a long neck, which it carries erect. Flocks of domes-
-------
is remarkable for its length, fineness, silken texture, and a
lustre almost metallic. It is longer and straighter than
that of sheep. The most extensive manufactures of al-
paca cloth are in England, which imports annually about
3,000,000 pounds of this wool. It first became an article
of commerce in England in 1829. The alpaca has also
been introduced into Australia, whence the wool was first
obtained in 1859. A great part, however, of the so-called
alpaca goods of commerce are made of the wool of the
Cotswold, Leicester, and other long-wooled breeds of sheep.
Alp-Arslām" (i. e. “strong lion”), written also Alp-
Arselan, a famous Persian Sultan of the Seljookide dy-
nasty, was born in Turkistan in 1030. He ascended the
throne in 1063, and embraced Islamism. Under the direc-
tion of his wise vizier, Nizām-ul-Mulk, Persia enjoyed
great prosperity, many colleges were founded, and learn-
ing was promoted. In 1071, Alp-Arslān defeated and took
prisoner Romanus Diogenes, emperor of Constantinople,
whom he treated generously. He was assassinated in
Dec., 1072.
Alpeſna, a county in the N. E. of Michigan, bordering
on Lake Huron, has an area of about 700 square miles. It
is drained by the Thunder Bay River, and is heavily tim-
bered. Oats, barley, potatoes, and lumber are produced.
Capital, Alpena. Pop. 2756.
Alpena, a city, the capital of Alpena co., Mich., at the
head of Thunder Bay. It manufactures 125,000,000 feet of
lumber yearly, contains a large hemlock-extract factory,
two weekly papers, an excellent harbor, and is situated
about 210 miles N. by W. from Detroit on Lake Huron.
Pop. of township, 26.12. -
A. C. TEFFT, ED. of “ALPENA County PIONEER.”
Alpes, Basses. See BASSES-ALPES.
Alpes, Hautes. See HAUTES-ALPEs.
Alpes-Maritimes, a department forming the S. E.
extremity of France, bordering on Italy. It is bounded
on the N. and E. by Italy, on the S. by the Mediterranean
Sea, and on the W. by War and Basses-Alpes. Area, 1518
square miles. It is drained by the river War. The surface
is diversified by mountains and fertile valleys. This de-
partment includes the county of Nice, which was ceded by
Italy to France in 1860; also the arrondissement of Grasse,
detached from the department of War. It is partly covered
with forests of valuable timber. Among its staple pro-
ducts are grapes, olives, oranges, lemons, figs, and silk.
The chief towns are Grasse, Antibes, Cannes, and Nice,
which is the capital. It is divided into 3 arrondissements,
25 cantons, and 146 communes. . Pop. in 1872, 199,037.
AI'pha and Ome/ga, the names of the first and last
letters of the Greek alphabet, A, Q. These words occur in
the book of Revelation as a title of the Lord Jesus Christ.
The two letters were used-by the early Christians as Sym-
bols of faith, and were sometimes marked on coins, tombs,
ornaments, etc. -
Al/phabet, a word formed of the first two Greek let-
ters (a, 8, alpha, beta), and used to denote the entire series
of letters (arranged in a certain order fixed by custom)
















































* . ALPHAEUS–ALPS.
111
with which any language is written. Nearly all the mod-
ern European tongues, deriving their letters, for the most
part, from the ancient Romans, have, with slight excep-
tions, the same characters (though pronounced differently),
arranged in precisely the same order as the Roman (or
Latin) alphabet. . The ā (ae), 3 (oe), and ü (we), occurring
in the German, Danish (or Norwegian), Swedish, and Hun-
garian, but not found in the other languages, are to be con-
sidered as diphthongs, or at least as compound characters,
rather than single letters. W is not found in the Italian,
Spanish, or Portuguese alphabet, nor in French, except in
words or names of foreign origin. K is scarcely used in
French, Spanish, or Portuguese, except in a few words of
foreign derivation. The Italians discard not only w and
k, but also ac and y. The ancient Romans used k and y in
a very few words, but w was entirely unknown to them.
It was originally written vy, whence the English name of
the letter, w and v, like i and j, having formerly been
equivalent to each other.
The order of the letters is the same in the alphabets of
most of the European languages; in the Greek, however,
the letters, though nearly corresponding in power, and
often similar in form, to those of the Roman alphabet, are
arranged very differently, g (y) being the third and 2 (£)
the sixth in the order of the letters; and ac (;), instead of
being almost at the end, as in our alphabet, is near the
middle, not to mention other differences. In Russian, He-
brew, Arabic, and Sanscrit the order of the alphabet varies
still more from the Roman, while many of the letters differ
not only in form, but in power, from those of the languages
of Western Europe.
Not only the origin of letters, but also the successive
steps or stages by which they were brought to their present
perfection, is involved in great obscurity. According to
a commonly-received theory, all writing was in the first
instance ideographic (from the Gr. eiðéa, an “image,” and
ypába, to “write” or “paint”), that is, representing images
or scenes directly to the eye (and hence called picture-
writing), instead of being phonetic, i.e. representing sounds
or words which are merely the signs of ideas. Picture-
writing, which even a few years since prevailed very ex-
tensively among our aboriginal tribes, was doubtless one
of the earliest arts known to the human race. To convey,
for example, the idea that one, man had killed another,
they would represent the figure of a dead man stretched
upon the ground, and another man standing by erect, with
some deadly weapon in his hand. Since, however, this
kind of writing would only be adapted to represent images
or scenes, and not thoughts, as mankind advanced in cul-
ture and required a more perfect instrument for communi-
cating their ideas, phonetic writing, representing sounds
by means of signs (which we term letters), was at length
invented. But between the primeval ideographic writing
and the fully-developed phonetic method there was, we
have every reason to believe, an intermediate stage—
namely, symbolic writing. Thus, the ancient Egyptians
represented, it is said, a siege by a scaling-ladder, a battle
by two hands holding a bow and shield, etc. In the pro-
gressive steps towards a perfect system of writing by
phonetic signs, it seems probable that those signs were at
first used to represent entire syllables. But such a system
would obviously require many different characters, render-
ing it extremely complicated and difficult to learn. To
obviate this difficulty, signs were at last employed to repre-
sent the simple elementary sounds produced by the human
VOIGe.
There is reason to believe that the forms of the letters
were first suggested by Some animal or object whose name
had as its initial sound that which was to be represented
by the letter. Thus, in Hebrew, the word áleph, an “ox,”
has for its initial syllable the sound of the first letter, and
this letter was originally represented by the mere outline
of the head of an ox; so also beth, a “house,” having b
for its initial sound, that letter was formed after a rude
picture, in outline, of a house; and so on. (For a presen-
tation of the most remarkable alphabets, see the notices
of the various languages under their respective heads, as
ARABIC, GREEK, HEBREW, etc., etc.) J. THOMAs.
Alphaeſus (in John xix. 25 called Clopas), the father
of the apostle James the Less, and also possibly of Jude.
Alpharet’ta, a small post-village, the capital of Milton
co., Ga., about 100 miles N. W. of Milledgeville. Pop. 126.
AI'phen, van (HIERONYMUs), a popular Dutch poet and
jurist, born at Gouda in 1746. He became treasurer-general
of the United Provinces. He produced, besides otherworks,
“Poems and Meditations” (1777), “Short Poems for Chil-
dren” (1781), which are highly commended, and an admired
imaginative poem on “The Starry Heavens” (“De Star-
renhemel,” 1783). Died in 1803.
Alphe'us, or Alphei'us [Gr. 'AAbstós], the modern
Rouphia, a celebrated river of Greece, in the Morea. It
rises in Arcadia, flows westward by Olympia, and enters
the Mediterranean after a course of about 100 miles.
Flowing through a formation of cavernous limestone, it
Sometimes sinks and is lost in a subterranean channel.
Alpheus, in classic mythology, a river-god and a son
of Oceanus. According to the poetical legend, he loved
the nymph Arethusa, who fled from him to the island of
Ortygia, and was transformed into a fountain. Alpheus
pursued her under the sea and was united to the fountain.
Al’pine, a county of the E. part of California, border-
ing on Nevada. Area, estimated at 1000 square miles. It
is drained by the Carson River, by the North Fork of the
Mokelumne, and by the North Fork of the Stanislaus
River. The surface is mountainous, the county being
traversed by the great Sierra Nevada. . It contains rich
mines of silver. It was formed in 1864. Cattle, grain, and
wool are produced. Capital, Silver Mountain. Pop. 685.
Alpine, a post-township of Clarke co., Ark. Pop. 828.
Alpine, a post-township of Kent co., Mich. Pop. 1445.
Alpine Chub, a society for the promotion of Alpine
discovery, was formed in England in 1858. Three mem-
bers of this club, Mr. Hudson, Lord Francis Douglas, and
Mr. Haddo, perished with their guide in the descent of
the Matterhorn in July, 1865. Other Alpine clubs were
formed in Austria, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany. In
1873 an American Alpine club was formed.
Alpine Plants are those plants, usually of a somewhat
arctic character, which are found in elevations approach-
ing perpetual snow in the Alps and in other regions in
different parts of the world. On the Andes, near the
equator, at an elevation of from 12,000 to 15,000 feet above
the sea, many kinds of plants are found resembling in
their general appearance those which occur in Switzerland
at an elevation of 6000 feet; and these, again, resemble,
or are even identical with, the species which in Lapland
grow upon hills of very little elevation, or which are found
at the level of the sea. Similar plants occur also in all
lofty mountain-ranges at elevations varying greatly with-
in narrow geographical limits. When the alpine plants of
Central Europe are spoken of, those are meant which grow
at an average height of 6000 feet, marking what, in the
language of science, is called a zone. This on the Riesen-
gebirge falls as low as 4000 feet, and rises in the Southern
Alps and Pyrenees to 9000 feet, and even higher. Although
rich in forms peculiarly its own, this zone contains many
plants which are likewise found on much lower hills. But
the number of these diminishes as the elevation increases.
Hence the spaces clear of snow in the highest regions pos-
sess a characteristic flora, the plants of which are distin-
guished by a diminutive habit, and an inclination to form
a thick turf, frequently also by a covering of wool, whilst
their stems are often partly or altogether woody, and their
flowers are in many instances remarkably large, of bril-
liant colors, and very odoriferous. In the Alps, gentians,
saxifrages, rhododendrons, and various species of primrose
abound. With the phanaerogamous plants are associated a
number of delicate ferns and exceedingly beautiful mosses.
Many alpine plants are limited to a very small district.
Alpi/nus, or Alpin (PROSPER), M. D. [It. Pro8'pero
Alpi'nï], a celebrated Italian botanist, born at Marostica,
in the Venetian state, Nov. 23, 1553. Having passed sev-
eral years in Egypt, he published in Latin a work “On
the Plants of Egypt” (1591), and obtained a chair of bot-
any at Padua in 1593. He made important contributions
to the science of botany. Among his works is one “On
Exotic Plants.” Died Feb. 5, 1617.
Alp'nach, or Alp/macht, a Swiss village in the can-
ton of Unterwalden, at the foot of Mount Pilatus, 8 miles
S.S. W. of Lucerne. Here was the famous slide of Alpnach,
a wooden trough or railway on which timber was moved
down with great velocity from a height of 2500 feet. Pop.
in 1870, 1630. -
Alps [Lat. Alºpes; Fr. Alpes ; Ger. Al’pen ; etymology
uncertain], the most remarkable system of mountains in
Europe in regard to both extent and elevation, may be
said to extend from the Mediterranean between Marseilles
and Nice irregularly eastward to near 18° E. lon. and 45°
30' N. lat. They form a crescent-shaped chain, and
stretching across the country cover a part of France, the
greater part of Switzerland, and a considerable portion of
Northern Italy and Austria. They culminate in Mont
Blanc, and form the watershed or dividing line between
the rivers that flow into the Mediterranean and those which
discharge their waters into the German Ocean and Black
Sea. Several important rivers of Europe take their rise in
Alpine valleys; the largest are the Rhine, Rhone, and
Danube. This system of mountains is included between
the parallels of 44° and 48° N. lat. and 6° 40' and 18° E.
112
ALPUJARRAS–ALTAI.
lon., and covers an area of about 95,700 square miles. It
is estimated that the Alps, with their various windings, have
an extent from W. to E. of about 700 miles, and a breadth
varying from 50 to 200 miles. The bases of the northern
and the southern sides are encircled by an extensive series
of lakes, those on the former side being from 1200 to 2000,
and those on the latter from 600 to 700°feet above the level
of the sea, while in the interior some are found at an ele-
vation of 6000 feet. The different ranges have an average
elevation of above 7700 feet, from which altitude over 400
peaks rise into the limits of perpetual snow. From these
snowy heights descend, under various forms, the destructive
avalanches. In the numerous valleys of these lofty regions
are collected the immense quantities of snow which form
the long streams of ice called glaciers. (See GLACIERs,
by J. BALL, F. R. S.) The Alps are generally divided into
three parts, which are distinguished as the East, the West,
and the Middle Alps. I. WEST ALPs.-The principal ranges
included within these are: 1. The Maritime Alps, commen-
cing not far from Genoa, extend westerly along the coast of
the Mediterranean to near Barcelonette in France, and at-
tain in their highest part an elevation of nearly 10,000 feet.
2. The Cottian Alps, culminating in Monte Viso, 12,600
feet high. 3. The Graian Alps, forming the boundary be-
tween Savoy and Piedmont, and rising in Mont Iseran to
an elevation of 13,272 feet, and in Mont Cenis to 11,785
feet. II. MIDDLE ALPs, Central Chaim.—1. The Pennine
Alps, between the plains of Lombardy and the valley of
the Rhône. Their most lofty peaks are—Mont Blanc,
15,784 feet high, and Grand Cervin, 14,815 feet high. 2.
The Helvetian Alps, extending from the pass of the Simp-
lon along St. Gothard (10,000 feet) to the pass of Splügen.
3. The Rhaetian Alps, between the Inn, the Adda, and the
Upper Adige. Northern Chain.—1. Bernese Alps, between
the Rhône and the Aar. The highest summits are Fin-
steraarhorn, 14,025 feet, Jungfrau, 13,114 feet, and Schreck-
horn, 13,393 feet high. Southern Chain.-1. Oertler Alps,
between the Adda and the Adige, the highest peak being
Oertlerspitze, 12,823 feet high. 2. The Tridentine Alps,
between the Adige and the Piave. III. EAST ALPs.-The
principal chains of these are: 1. The Noric Alps, highest
summit Gross-Glockner, 12,957 feet high. 2. The Carmic
Alps. 3. The Julian Alps. 4. The Dinaric Alps. Gene-
rally speaking, the Alps are lowest where the system is
broadest, and highest where the system is narrowest.
The passes over the Alps are called, in French, cols.
They are about sixteen in number, and now most of them
can safely be travelled over by carriages. One of the most
noteworthy is the Great St. Bernard, connecting the valley
of the Rhône with Piedmont. It was crossed by Napoleon
in 1800. Its highest summit is about 8170 feet. The Little
St. Bernard connects Geneva, Savoy, and Piedmont. This
is the pass by which some suppose Hannibal to have crossed
into Italy. Its highest point is about 7190 feet above the
level of the sea, and is now but little used. The Splügen
Pass, connecting the sources of the Rhine with the Adda,
was used by the Romans in their intercourse with the
countries bordering on the Danube and the Rhine, by the
Germans in the Middle Ages, as well as by modern tourists.
In some places bridges, terraces, and long galleries are
constructed of stone to afford protection against the ava-
lanche and whirlwinds. The latter are not only destruc-
tive in themselves, but frequently set the former in motion.
The Alps, with the exception of Switzerland, are rich in
minerals, and offer one of the finest fields in the world for
the geologist. It has been shown that the highest central
mass, the primary Alps, consists chiefly of the crystalline
rocks, gneiss and mica-slate, with a small proportion of
granite. Representatives of the carboniferous and Jurassic
formation appear among the Central Alps. In the Pen-
nine, Graian, and Rhaetian Alps are found large masses
of serpentine. Quartz-porphyry is found in the N. of
Piedmont and in the upper valley of the Adige; and in
the E. of Piedmont, on the N. and S. sides of the chief
range, extensive deposits of clay-slate and grauwacke,
mixed with transition limestone, occur. Precious stones
are found in considerable numbers. Among these is the
well-known rock-crystal of St. Gothard. Most of the min-
ing and smelting is done in the eastern part of the Alps;
gold and silver are found in Tyrol, Salzburg, and Carinthia;
copper exists in the French Alps, in Tyrol, and in Styria.
The amount of iron and lead extracted from the mines of
Carinthia and Styria is about 745,000 hundredweight per
annum. Large quantities of quicksilver are extracted from
the mines in Carniola. Salt exists in almost every part.
Coal is found in abundance in Switzerland and Savoy, and
hot springs are numerous. Many animals inhabit the
Alps. Among them are the chamois, the ibex, marmots,
wolves, bears, lynxes, wild-cats, and various species of
birds. Of the domestic animals, goats and oxen abound,
but horses, sheep, dogs, etc. are found in small numbers.
Fish are found in some of the lakes at an elevation of 6000
feet. The inhabitants of the Alps are industrious and
simple-hearted, but the spirit and manners of the neigh-
boring plains have penetrated the larger valleys; the true
Alpine life has passed away, and the simplicity and cha-
racteristic industry of the Alpine farms are now preserved
only in the higher valleys. REVISED BY A. GUYOT.
Alpujar’ras, a mountain region or range of Spain, in
Granada, between the Sierra Nevada and the Mediterranean.
The direction of the range is nearly parallel to the sea-coast.
The highest peaks rise to the altitude of about 7000 feet.
Rich pastures abound on the slopes and in the valleys of
the northern side of the range.
Alrau/nen, or Airu'mae, a name given by the ancient
Germans to certain prophetic women who were employed
in sacrificing victims, and were supposed to have magical
or supernatural skill. Also applied to small images carved
out of mandrake roots, and exhibiting a rude imitation of
the human form. These were venerated or superstitiously
prized by the Germans and other northern nations.
Alsace and Alsace=Lorraine. See ELSASS and
ELSAss–LoTHRINGEN.
Alsace, a post-township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 1294.
Alsa/tia, a name formerly given to Whitefriars, Lon-
don, which was used as a sanctuary by criminals in the
early part of the seventeenth century. This privilege was
abolished by an act passed in 1697. (See WHITEFRIARs.)
Alsatia. See ELSAss and ELSASS-LOTHRINGEN.
Al Se’gno, in music, a notice to a performer that he
must return and commence again that part of the movement
to which the sign S, is prefixed.
AI'sen, an island belonging to the Prussian province
of Sleswick-Holstein, in the Baltic, near the coast of Sles-
wick, is 18 miles long, and has an area of 106 Square miles.
It is remarkable for its picturesque and beautiful scenery,
is very fertile, and produces excellent apples. Christian
II. of Denmark, who was deposed in 1523, was imprisoned
here for nearly seventeen years. Pop. in 1860, 23,188.
Al Sirat' (literally, the “road” or “passage”), a bridge
as narrow as the edge of a razor, supposed by the Moham-
medans to extend from this world over hell to paradise.
Al’sop (CHARLEs RICHARD), born in 1802, graduated at
Yale in 1821, became a lawyer of Middletown, Conn., was
mayor of that city (1843–46), and State Senator in 1855,
besides holding other responsible positions. Died Mar. 5,
1865.
Alsop (RICHARD), born at Middletown, Conn., Jan. 23,
1761, was versed in Greek, Latin, French, and other lan-
guages. In conjunction with Theodore Dwight and others,
he edited the “Echo,” a satirical publication, the first num-
ber of which was issued at Hartford in 1791. He published
a “Monody on the Death of Washington’’ (1800), and
translated from the Spanish Molina’s “Natural and Civil
IIistory of Chili.” Died Aug. 21, 1815.
Al'stead, a post-township of Cheshire co., N. H., has
five churches, and manufactures of paper, edge tools, lum-
ber, etc. Pop. 1213.
AI'ston (John), celebrated as the introducer of an im-
proved system of printing books for the blind with 'em-
bossed or raised Roman capital letters, was a merchant of
Glasgow, Scotland, who died in 1846. He was long a
director of an asylum for the blind in that city.
Alston (WILLIS), a native of North Carolina, repre-
sented a district of that State in Congress from 1803 to
1815, and from 1825 to 1831. . He was chairman of the
committee of ways and means during the war of 1812–14.
Died April 10, 1837.-His father, WILLIS ALSTON, was a
member of Congress 1799–1803. -
Alstroeme’ria, or AI'stroemer’s Lily, a genus of
plants of the order Amaryllidaceae, natives of Peru and
Čhili. Several species of this genus have beautiful flowers,
and are cultivated in gardens. The tubers of the Alstroe-
meria Salsilla are cultivated for food in the West Indies.
AI'strömer, or Alstroemer (KLAUDIUS or KIAS), a
Swedish naturalist, was born at Alingsås Aug. 9, 1736. He
was a pupil of Linnaeus, who named in his honor a genus
of plants, Alstroemeria. He travelled in Spain and other
countries, and published a “Discourse on the Breeding of
Fine-woolled Sheep” (1770). Died Mar. 5, 1796.
Alt, in music, a term applied to the high notes of the
scale. •
Ait, or A1/tem, a German word signifying “old,” forms
the préfix of numérous names in Central Europe, as “Alt-
Ofen” (“Old Ofen”). -
Altai’, or A1/ta Yeen Ooo'la (i. e. “the golden
mountain”), the name of a system or range of mountains
ALTAMAILA—ALTMUHL.
113
of Central Asia, near the S. border of Siberia. They extend
from the sources of the Irtish to Lake Baikal. One range,
called the Little Altai, forms the boundary between Siberia.
and Chinese Tartary. According to some authorities, the
Altai proper extends from 84° to 100° E. lon., and lies be-
tween 48° and 54° N. lat. The Obi and other large rivers
rise in the Altai Mountains, and flow northward. On the
west the range terminates in the Katoonsk or Katoonya
mountains, a small isolated group, in which Mount Bie-
lookha or Beluka rises to the height of 11,063 feet. Their
flanks in many places are covered with magnificent forests
of cedar. A large portion of this system of mountains is
covered with perpetual snow. Rich mines of gold, silver,
and copper have been opened in them. Porphyry and sev-
eral kinds of precious stones are also found.
Altamaha', a river of Georgia, formed by the union
of the Oconee and Ocmulgee in the central part of the State.
Flowing south-eastward through sandy plains, it enters the
Atlantic 12 miles below Darien, after a course of about 140
miles. It is navigable for vessels of thirty tons.
Altamont, a post-township of Alleghany co., Md.
Pop. 1133.
Altamont, a post-village, capital of Grundy co.,
Tenn., about 120 miles S. W. of Knoxville.
Altamu’ra, a handsome town of Southern Italy, in
the province of Bari, at the foot of the Apennines, 33 miles
S. W. of Bari. It is defended by a castle, and has a fine
cathedral. It was formerly the seat of a university. Here
is the site of the ancient Lupatia. Pop. in 1861, 17,198.
AI’tar [Lat. alta're], a table or elevated place on which
the ancient Jews and pagans offered sacrifices. The first
altar mentioned in history was built by Noah immediately
after the Flood. Altars were sometimes erected as me-
morials of some great event by the religious personages
of Sacred history. The ancient Greeks and Romans used
a great number of altars, each of which was dedicated to
Some particular deity. They were constructed of different
materials and in various forms. The name is also applied
to a part of the furniture of Christian churches. The altar
of Episcopalian churches is the communion-table. In the
Prayer Book of Edward VI. (1549), the word altar was re-
tained in the communion service, but “table” was substi-
tuted a few years later for the word altar. The Lutheran
Church retains the altar.
Alt/dorf, or AI’torf, a town of Bavaria, on the river
Schwarzbach, 13 miles E. S. E. of Nuremberg, had a uni-
versity from 1623 to 1809. Pop. in 1867, 3317.
Altdorf (Switzerland). See ALTorf.
Alt/dorfer (ALBRECHT), an eminent German painter
and engraver, a pupil of Albert Dürer, born at Altdorf, in
Bavaria, in 1488. He is called by the French “Le Petit
Albert” (in allusion, doubtless, to the great Albert Dürer).
His works are characterized by a romantic spirit. A
painting of the victory of Alexander over Darius is called
his masterpiece. He left many engravings on copper and
on wood. Died in 1538.
Alte'a, a seaport-town of Spain, in the province of
Alicante, on the Mediterranean, 38 miles N. E. of Alicante.
Pop. 5193.
A1/tena, a town of Prussia, in Westphalia, on the
Lenne, 18 miles S. E. of Dortmund. It has manufactures
of iron and steel. Pop. in 1871, 7122.
Altenburg, Saxe, German duchy of. See Saxe-Al-
TENIBURG.
Altenburg, a walled town of Germany, capital of Saxe-
Altenburg, is 24 miles by rail S. S. E. of Leipsic. It is the
seat of the higher courts, and contains seven churches, one
theatre, and several hospitals. Limen goods, brandy, por-
celain, and optical instruments are made here. Pop. in
1871, 19,966.
Altenes'sen, a town of Prussia, in the Rhine province,
has some iron-works. Pop. in 1871, 10,099.
Altengaard', a seaport-town of Norway, capital of
the province of Finmark, on the Alten, at the head of a
fiord, 53 miles S. S. W. of Hammerfest. It is often visited
by Russian vessels.
Al’ ten-Oet/ting, or AIt'ötting, a small town of
Bavaria, near the river Inn, 42 miles S. W. of Passau. It
is visited by great numbers of Roman Catholic pilgrims,
who are attracted thither by an image of the Virgin Mary,
called the “Black Virgin.” Several German emperors
: their court here in the Middle Ages. Pop. in 1867,
408.
Al’ tenstein, a castle in Saxe-Meiningen, Germany,
near the watering-place Liebenstein. Near this castle is
the beech tree where Luther was captured and taken to the
Wartburg on May 4, 1521.
AIt’enstein, von (KARL), BARON, a Prussian minister
of state, born at Anspach Oct. 7, 1770. In 1815, he ren-
dered important services to Germany by the recovery of
works of art and literature which the French had removed
to Paris. He was appointed minister of public instruction
and worship in 1817, and held that office for many years.
Died May 14, 1840. &
Al/teratives [from the Lat. al/tero, altera/tum, to
“change ’’), a term applied to medicines which are often
irritant or poisonous in full doses, but which almost im-
perceptibly alter disordered secretions, acting specially on
certain glands, or upon absorption in general, when given
repeatedly in small doses. Thus, mercury is an irritant
capable of producing salivation and other distressing
symptoms; but if small doses are given at intervals, they
produce alteration in disordered actions, which may result
in an improvement in the nutrient functions, and they may
effect these changes without otherwise affecting the consti-
tution or inducing salivation. So iodine, also an irritant
in large doses, and poisonous in some forms, is most useful,
when given in proper doses, in correcting a scrofulous con-
dition, promoting the absorption of tumors, etc. Prepara-
tions of arsenic are powerful alteratives in some cases of
skin-disease. So also are the decoctions of certain plants,
which, taken in large quantities of water, operate partly
by their solvent properties, and partly by their stimulant
effect on the organs of the body. Properly speaking, any
medicine is an alterative which, when given either in large
or small quantities, has the power of gradually correcting
or modifying a diseased condition. The term “alterative”
is less used than formerly, and physicians differ as to the
propriety of using drugs of this class.
Al/ter E/go (“my other self”), a term used in the for-
mer kingdom of Naples to signify the king's deputy, who
was authorized to perform the functions of royalty during
the compulsory absence of the king.
Alter/mate [Lat. alterna’tus, from alter'no, alterna’tum,
to “interchange”] Generation, in biology, is that mod-
ification of generation in which the young do not resemble
the parent, but the grandparent, or even some more remote
ancestor, so that the successive series of individuals seem
to represent two or more different species alternately re-
produced. The salpa, a floating gelatinous molluscoid ani-
mal, is an example; it may be found as a solitary individ-
ual, pregnant with numerous minute salpa of a more sim-
ple structure, which continue after birth to be united
together in the form of a long chain floating on the sea.
In each individual of this chain there is generally devel-
oped an egg from which is hatched a solitary salpa, of the
form and organization of its grandparent (i. e. the parent
of the chain of aggregate salpae); thus the species is rep-
resented by an alternation of simple and aggregate Salpae.
(See PARTHENOGENESIs and CESTOID WoRMs.)
Althae’a [Gr. 3A9ata, from &A90, to “heal”], a genus of
plants of the natural order Malvaceae, natives of Europe
and naturalized in the U. S. It includes the hollyhock
(Althaea ro'sea) and marshmallow (Althaea officina’lis),
which is used in medicine as a demulcent or emollient.
Althaea, or shrubby althaea, is also a common name of the
Hibiscus Syriacus.
Althen (EHAN or JEAN), a Persian who gained distinc-
tion by introducing Turkey madder into France, born in
1711, taken captive by the Arabs in his youth, and sold
as a slave in Smyrna, whence he escaped to France with
seeds of madder, 1761. He made successful experiments in
the cultivation of that plant, which was afterwards exten-
sively cultivated and became very profitable. Died in 1774.
Althorp, LORD. See SPENCER. - *
Altin' Nor, or Altyn' Nor (i.e. “sea of gold”), or
Teletskoi, a lake of Siberia, in the S. part, is about 320
miles S. of Tomsk, and is traversed by one of the head-
streams of the Obi. It is about 48 miles long and 8 miles
in average width.
AI/titude [Lat. altitu’do, from al/tus, “high *), a sci-
entific synonym for height. In astronomy, it signifies the
height of a star or other body above the horizon—that is,
the angle of elevation of a celestial body. This altitude
is expressed in degrees, the greatest possible altitude being
90 degrees. It is measured in observatories by means of
a telescope attached to a graduated circle, which is fixed
vertically. The altitude of a triangle is measured by a
straight line drawn from the vertex perpendicular to the
base; that of a cone by a straight line drawn from the
vertex perpendicular to the plane of the base.
Alt/miihl, a river of Bavaria, rises near the village of
Hornau, flows S. E. and E. and enters the Danube at Kel-
heim, after a course of 100 miles. The Ludwigs Canal
connects this river with the Regnitz, and opens communi-
cation between the Danube and the Rhine.
8
<
about 150 miles S. S. W. of St. Louis.
114
ALTO—ALUMINIUM.
AI/to, a township of Lee co., III. Pop. 832.
Alto, a township of Fond du Lac co., Wis. Pop. 1448.
AI/to, in music, the counter-tenor part, or that imme-
diately below the treble; the deepest and lowest kind of
musical voice in females and boys. -
Altomiin'ster, a place of pilgrimage in Northern
Bavaria, has a nunnery which was founded by the Scotch-
man Saint Alto in the eighth century. Pop. about 1000.
Alſton, a city and port of entry in Madison co., Ill., on
the Mississippi River, 21 miles above St. Louis and 3
miles above the mouth of the Missouri. It stands on a
high limestone bluff. It is connected with Chicago by the
Chicago Alton and St. Louis R. R., and its trade is facili-
tated by the St. Louis Alton and Terre Haute R. R. The
city has important manufactures. Large quantities of
grain, hay, fruit, stone, and lime are shipped here. It has
two national banks and a female seminary. Alton con-
tains a large Roman Catholic cathedral and ten churches.
One daily and two weekly papers are issued here. It has
an excellent system of public schools, has a large number
of factories, foundries, glassworks, etc., and is connected
by horse railroad with Upper Alton, 2 miles distant.
Upper Alton is the seat of Shurtleff College. Pop. 8665.
L. A. PARKs & Co., PUBs. “ALTON TELEGRAPH.”
Alton, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. P. 500.
Alton, a township of Waseca, co., Minn. Pop. 429.
Alton, a post-village, the capital of Oregon co., Mo.,
Pop. 76.
Alton, a post-township of Belknap co., N. H., on the
Dover and Winnipiseogee R. R. It has a savings bank and
some manufactures. Pop. 1768.
Al/tona, the most populous and important city of the
Prussian province of Sleswick-Holstein, is on the right
bank of the Elbe, one or two miles below Hamburg. It is .
connected by railroad with Kiel, and has an extensive
trade by the navigation of the Elbe. Many of the mer-
chants of Hamburg reside in Altona, which contains an
observatory, a gymnasium, and a library of 12,000 vol-
umes or more. Here are important manufactures of to-
bacco, soap, chemicals, leather, ropes, etc. . . Altona is a
free port, accessible to large vessels. In 1869, 1185 ocean
vessels entered the port. Pop. in 1871, 74,131.
Alto'na, a post-village of Knox co., Ill. Pop. 902.
Altoma, a post-township of Clinton co., N. Y. P. 2759.
Alton Bay, N. H., on Lake Winnipiseogee, arid at the
terminus of the Dover and Winnipiseogee R. R., 96 miles
from Boston, is a place of summer resort. It is connected
by steamer with Centre Harbor.
. Alton-Shee, d” (EDMoND), CoMTE, a French demo-
crat, born in 1810. He promoted the revolution of Feb.,
1848, after which he acted with the socialists and radical
reformers. -
Altoo/na, a growing city in Blair co., Pa., on the
Pennsylvania. R. R., 237 miles W. of Philadelphia, and
117 E. of Pittsburg, at the E. base of the Alleghany
Mountains, which the railroad here crosses. It contains
fifteen churches, one national bank, one daily and three
weekly newspapers; the principal offiees and extensive ma-
chine-shops of the Pennsylvania R. R., in which locomo-
tives and cars are manufactured, and in which over 2000 men
are employed; large individual car-works, several extensive
planing-mills, one large rolling-mill, partly in the city;
extensive water-works, costing over $300,000; mechanics’
library, containing about 3000 volumes. Pop. 10,610.
E. B. McCRUM, ED. “ALTooxA TRIBUNE.”
AIt’orf, or AIt'dorf, a town of Switzerland, the capi-
tal of the canton of Uri, is near the S. extremity of the
Lake of Lucerne, and at the foot of the Grunberg. Here
is an old tower which is said to mark the place where
William Tell shot the apple off his son’s head. Pop. in
1870, 2724. -
AI’to-Rilie’vo (i. e. “high relief”), a term used in
sculpture to designate the mode of representing objects by
figures which stand completely out from the ground, being
attached to it only in a few places, and in others worked
almost entirely round like single statues. This branch of
art was brought to the highest perfection by Phidias in
the metopae of the Parthenon, which are now in the British
Museum. Figures which have only a slight projection from
the ground are said to be in basso-rilievo (or bas-relief).
Altran’städt, a town of Saxony, at which Charles
XII. of Sweden concluded a treaty with Augustus, elector
of Saxony, in 1706. A treaty was also signed here in 1714
between the emperor Charles VI. of Germany and Louis
XIV. of France. -
AI’tringham, a market-town of England, in Cheshire,
is on the Cheshire Midland R. R. and on Bowden Downs,
8 miles by rail S. W. of Manchester.
town, and has some cotton factories. It is a resort for in-
valids, because of the salubrity of the air. Pop. 6648.
Alt'stätten, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
St. Gall, 8 miles S. E. of St. Gall. Pop. in 1870, 7575.
Altu'ras, a county in the S. part of Idaho, borders on
Nevada and Utah. It is intersected by the Lewis or Snake
River, and also drained by the Malade River. The surface
is generally mountainous. Gold and silver are found in
this county in quartz rocks. The silver ore is particularly
rich. Wheat, oats, and barley are produced. Capital,
Rocky Bar. Pop. 689. -
Alturas, a village of Rockland co., N. Y., on the Erie
R. R., 28 miles from New York. It has a public park of
twelve acres, and is the seat of Alturas Home Institute,
an industrial School for young women.
AIt'wasser, a town and watering-place of Prussia, in
the province of Silesia. It has iron-foundries, coal-mines,
and porcelain-factories. Pop. in 1871, 6985.
Al’udels (plu.), [a word of Arabic origin], pear-shaped
glass or earthen vessels used as receivers in the distillation
of certain substances, especially mercury and hydrochloric .
acid. They are generally arranged in the form of a chain
on an inclined surface.
Al'um [Lat. alw'men]. Common alum is a double salt
of great importance, the chemical name of which is “sul-
phate of alumina and potash.” It occurs in colorless
octahedral crystals, having a sweet astringent taste. It is
a powerful styptic, and is applied sometimes as a mild
caustic. Its formula is KOSO3 + Al2O33S03 + 24HO (or,
by the new notation, K2Al24S04.24H2O). Alum is large-
ly manufactured, and is much used in preparing skins, as
a mordant in calico-printing, and in glazing paper, and
occasionally for the adulteration of bread.
Ammonia alum, (NH4)2Al24S04.24H2O, containing am-
monium in place of potassium, has of late largely replaced
potash alum in the arts, owing to the low cost of the am-
monic sulphate prepared from gas liquor. The term
alum is now applied to a class of isomorphous double sul-
phates containing a monad sulphate, a trivalent sulphate,
and 24 molecules of water. The monad metals which are
known to form alums are potassium, sodium, lithium, ca-
sium, rubidium, thallium, and silver, and also ammonium,
etc.; the trivalent metals aluminium, iron, chromium, man-
ganese. Next to the alums above mentioned, the most
common is potassic-chrome alum, K2Cr4SO424H2O. Am-
monio-ferric alum is used in medicine and the arts.
AI’um Bagh, a fort in Oude, about 4 miles from
Lucknow, was originally a palace surrounded by a fine
garden and a park. During the mutiny of 1857 it was
used as a fort by the Sepoys, from whom it was taken by
the British under Outram and Havelock. It was after-
wards defended with success by Sir James Outram and a
garrison of 3500 men against the Sepoys.
Alu’mina, the oxide of aluminium, is the most abun-
dant of all the earths, and is the principal constituent of
clay. In 100 pounds of alumina there are 52.94 of alumin-
ium and 47.06 of oxygen. Its symbol is Al2O3. In its
common state this earth is a soft white powder, without
taste, and in the crystalline form it occurs as Sapphire and
ruby, two of the hardest and most valuable of the precious
stones. An impure alumina, which is found in the islands
It is a very neat
of the Grecian Archipelago, Asia Minor, and Chester,
Mass., is the emery used as a polishing-powder for glass
and metals, on account of its hardness. The clay of arable
land is mostly produced by the disintegration of felspar,
which is a compound of alumina, potash, and silica. Alumina
has two properties which render it of great importance
in the useful arts: one is that its silicate forms with Water
a plastic material adapted for pottery; the other is its
strong affinity for coloring and extractive matter, by which
it is useful as a mordant in printing calico and in dyeing.
Alumin/ium, or Alu’minum, a white metal which
is the base of alumina, was discovered by Wöhler in 1828.
Its symbol is Al; its equivalent is 13.7 (by the new nota-
tion, 27.4). Aluminium is ductile, tenacious, and very mal-
leable, and remarkable for its sonorousness and levity. The
specific gravity of aluminium when fused is only 2.56, but
when it has been hammered or rolled it is 2.67. As this
metal is not found in nature in a separate or metallie state,
it was formerly very rare, and cost as much as gold, but the
price has been reduced to ten dollars a pound or less. It
is now obtained from a mineral called cryolite, which is a
double fluoride of aluminium and sodium, and is imported
in large quantities from Greenland. . When this cryolite is
mixed with an excess of soda and heated, the metal is
readily separated. It is also obtained from bauxite, a min-
eral found near Les Baux, Provence, in the department of
Bouches-du-Rhône. It is not oxidized by exposure to air
ALUMNUS—AMADEUS VIII.
115
and moisture, and is not tarnished by sulphuretted hydro-
gen. Fused with copper, it forms useful alloys resembling
fine brass, though much more beautiful, and specially
adapted for gun-metal. An alloy with silver is also much
used.
Alum'nus, plu. Alumni (fem. Sing. Alum'na, plu.
Alumnae), a Latin word signifying a “foster-child,” is
applied in modern times to the graduates of a university
or college, in order to express the relation between them
and their ALMA MATER (which see). In Germany there
were recently institutions called alumnat, founded for the
gratuitous education of poor boys, termed alumni.
Alum Ridge, a township of Floyd co., Va. Pop. 1035.
Alum Root, a name of two species of plants, natives
of the U. S., the Gera'nium macula'twm and the Heuche'ra
America'na. Their roots are astringent, and are used in
medicine.
Alum Shale, Alum Slate, or Alum Schist, con-
sists of clay, combined with much iron pyrites and some
bituminous or carbonaceous matter. From it the alum of
commerce is obtained by a double decomposition, induced
by burning the alum schist slowly until its condition is
sufficiently changed, leaching, and then adding sulphate of
potash or ammonia to the solution.
A1/unite, or Alum-stone, a mineral found in various
localities, which was formerly largely used for the prepara-
tion of Roman alum. It is a basic sulphate of aluminium
and potassium, K2Al64SO4.6H2O.
Alu'nogen, a mineral which has the composition of a
simple sulphate of aluminium, Al2.3S04.18H2O.
Alu'ta, called also Alt, a rapid river of Transylvania,
rises in the Carpathian Mountains, flows southward through
Wallachia, and enters the Danube at Nicopolis. Length,
341 miles. -
Al’va, or AI'ba (FERNANDo ALVAREz DE Toledo),
DUKE OF, a celebrated Spanish general, was born of a
noble Castilian family in 1508. He entered the army in
his youth, and accompanied Charles V. in his campaign
against the Turks in 1530. In 1547 he gained a decisive
victory over the German Protestants at Mühlberg. In
1555–56, as commander-in-chief of the army of Philip II.,
he defeated the French and papal forces in Italy. As a
general he was inclined to pursue a Fabian policy. He
was distinguished for cool determination and remorseless
cruelty. In 1567 he was sent by Philip II. to the Nether-
lands with an army of about 10,000 veterans, to suppress
the revolt of the Protestants. He established the “Council
of Blood,” beheaded Count Egmont after a mockery of a
trial, and commenced a reign of terror and sanguinary per-
secutions of persons suspected of heresy. To defend the
country against this bloody despotism, William, prince of
Orange, raised an army in 1568, but the duke of Alva
avoided a battle, and by delay compelled William to retire
from the contest, because he could not pay his troops.
Although Alva defeated or outgeneralled the Dutch pa-
triots in war, he utterly failed to subdue or pacify them,
and he was recalled in 1573. He boasted that he had put
to death 18,000 persons in the Netherlands, besides those
killed in battle. In 1580 he invaded and conquered Por-
tugal. Died Jan. 12, 1583. (See PREscott, “Philip II.,”
vol. ii.; MoTLEY, “History of the Dutch Republic.”)
Al’va Plantaſtion, a post-township of Aroostook co.,
Me. Pop. 496.
Alvara’do, a post-village of Washington township,
Alameda co., Cal., on Alameda Creek, 6 miles from San
Francisco Bay. Salt is here procured for market. P. 315.
Alvara’do, de (PEDRO), a Spanish general and adven-
turer, born at Badajos, went to America in 1518. He served
with distinction under Cortez in the conquest of Mexico,
and in 1520 was selected by Cortez to command in the city
of Mexico during the absence of his chief, who marched
against Narvaez. He conducted a successful expedition
against Tehuantepec and Guatemala in 1523, and was ap-
pointed governor of Guatemala. After a voyage to Spain,
he led an army across the Andes into the province of
Quito, which he found already occupied by Pizarro. This
chief induced Alvarado to retire by the payment of a large
sum of money. Alvarado was killed in a fight with some
natives in 1541.
Alvarez (FRANCISCO), a Portuguese priest, born at
Coimbra, went to Abyssinia in 1515 in company with the
Portuguese ambassador, Düarte Galvam. He passed about
six years in that country, which he explored, and returned
to Portugal in 1527. An interesting account of his travels
was published in 1540, entitled a “True Account of the
Country of Prester John.” Died about 1540.
Alvarez (Don Josá), an eminent Spanish sculptor, born
at Priego, in the province of Córdova, in 1768. He gained
a prize in 1799, after which he pursued his studies in Paris.
He removed to Rome, where he passed many years, and
was intimate with Canova. Among his works are “Or-
pheus Sleeping,” “Antilochus and Memnon,” and “Grupo
Colosal de Zaragoza,” which represents a scene in the
defence of Saragossa. He was appointed court-sculptor to
Ferdinand VII. Died at Madrid in 1827.
Alvarez (JUAN), a Mexican general, born in 1790. He
was a leader of the insurgents who took arms against
Santa Anna in the spring of 1854, and drove him from
power in Aug., 1855. Alvarez became president of Mex-
ico in October, but he resigned in December of the same
year. During the French invasion of 1863–66 he was one
of the most determined opponents of Maximilian and his
party. Died in 1863.
Al’verson (JAMEs LAwRENCE), LL.D., born at Seneca,
N. Y., in 1816, graduated at Wesleyan University in 1838,
was a successful teacher in the institutions at Elmira, Caze-
novia, and Lima, N. Y., and was professor of mathematics
in Genesee College (1849–64). Died Sept. 12, 1864.
AI’vinczy, or AI'vinzy, von (Jose.PH), BARON, an
Austrian general, born in Transylvania, Feb. 1, 1735. He
served with distinction in the Seven Years' war, and ob-,
tained the rank of lieutenant-field-marshal in 1789. In
the summer of 1796 he took command of an army of about
55,000 men sent to oppose Bonaparte in Italy. He was
defeated at Arcola in Nov., 1796, and at Rivoli in Jan.,
1797, soon after which he was superseded in the command.
Died Sept. 25, 1810.
Alvi’so, a post-township of Santa Clara co., Cal. Pop.
588. r
Al/vord (BENJAMIN), A. M., an American officer, born
Aug. 18, 1813, at Rutland, Vt., graduated at West Point
1833, paymaster-general U. S. A. Jan. 1, 1872, and brig-
adier-general U. S. volunteers April 15, 1862. He served
chiefly at frontier posts 1833–54, in Florida war 1835–37
and 1841–42, engaged at Camp Izard, Olaklikaha, Thlono-
tosassa, and Big Cypress Swamp, as assistant professor at
the Military Academy 1837–39, in Cherokee nation 1839–
40, adjutant Fourth Infantry 1840, in military occupa-
tion of Texas 1845–46, in the war with Mexico 1846–47,
engaged at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma (brevet cap-
tain), Paso Ovejas, National Bridge, Cerro Gordo (Aug. 15),
Las Animas (brevet major), and Huamantla, and, upon
being transferred from the infantry to the pay department,
as chief paymaster of the department of Oregon 1854–62. In
the civil war was in command, as brigadier-general of vol-
unteers, of the district of Oregon. Brevet lieutenant-col-
onel, colonel, and brigadier-general U. S. A. Aug. 9, 1865, for
faithful and meritorious services. Since has been paymas-
ter in New York City 1865–67, and chief paymaster of the
district of Omaha, and Nebraska, 1867–72; and is now
paymaster-general U. S. A., head-quarters at Washington,
D. C. Author of a memoir on the “Tangencies of Circles
and of Spheres,” 1855, “The Interpolation of Imaginary
Roots in Questions of Maxima and Minima,” 1860, and of
numerous essays and reviews, 1833–73.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Alyat’tes [Gr. 'AAvárrms], a king of Lydia, who ascend-
ed the throne about 618 B. C., was the father of Croesus.
During a battle between him and Cyaxares of Media an
eclipse of the sun occurred, and made such an impression
that they ceased fighting and made a treaty of peace.
Some astronomers identify this eclipse with that of 610
B. C. Died about 560 B. C.
Al/zei, an old city of Germany, in the grand duchy of
Hesse, on the Selz, 19 miles S. of Mayence. It has a real-
schule. Alzei and the vicinity is the scene of the events
of the Nibelungenlied. Pop. in 1867, 5102.
AI’zog (Johan NES BAPTIST), a German Catholic theo-
logian, born at Ohlau, in Silesia, in 1808, became in 1853
professor of ecclesiastical history at Freiburg. His “Man-
ual of Universal Church History '' (“Handbuch der Uni-
versalkirchengeschichte,” 1840; 9th edit. 1872, two vols.)
has been translated into the principal European languages.
Amade/us [It. Amede'o or Amade'ol, the name of
nine counts and dukes of Savoy, the first of whom was a
son of Count Humbert, and lived in the eleventh century.
—AMADEUs W., count of Savoy, a son of Count Thomas II.,
was born in 1249. He succeeded his uncle Philip in 1285,
increased his dominions by marriage, and was the first
prince of Savoy that made any considerable figure in his-
tory. Died in 1323.—AMADEUs VI., of Savoy, was born in
1334, and became count in 1343. He was an able and
successful ruler, defeated the French in battle in 1354, and
added a part of Piedmont to his dominions. Died in 1383.
Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy, a grandson of the
preeeding, was born in 1383, and succeeded his father in
1391. He received the title of duke from the emperor,
116
Sigismund in 1416. In 1434 he resigned his power to his
son Louis, and retired to the monastery of Ripaille. Hav-
ing a high reputation for wisdom, he was chosen pope by
the Council of Bâle in 1439, and took the name of Felix
V. As Eugenius IV., who had been deposed by that coun-
cil, was still recognized as pope by a strong party, a schism
ensued in the Church. Felix V. resigned the papacy in
1448, and died in 1451. -
Amade/us [It. Amede'o j Fr. Amédée], king of Spain,
a son of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy, was born May
30, 1845. He received the title of duke of Aosta, and
married, in May, 1867, Marie Victoire Charlotte, a daugh-
ter of the prince dal Pozzo della Cisterna. On the 16th
of Nov., 1870, the Spanish Cortes, by a vote of 191
against 98, elected him king of Spain, the throne of which
had been vacant for two years. It had been offered to
several foreign princes, who declined. Amadeus accepted
it, and arrived at Madrid Jan. 2, 1871. Feb. 11, 1873, he
abdicated the throne and the republic was proclaimed.
Am’adis of Gaul, or Am’adis de Gaul’a, a cele-
brated hero of romance, was called a son of the fabulous
King Perion of France. The story of his adventures, en-
titled “Amadis de Gaula,” was written by Vasco de Lo-
beira, a Portuguese, in the twelfth century. This work,
which has been translated into several languages, is com-
monly admitted to be the best of all the romances of chiv-
alry. There were other fictitious heroes of romance, call-
ed Amadis of Greece and Amadis of Trebizond.
Amador', a county of the E. central part of Califor-
nia. Area, about 600 square miles. It is bounded on the
N. by the Cosumne River, and on the S. and S. E. by the
Mokelumne. The surface is hilly or mountainous. This
county contains mines of gold and copper, and quarries or
beds of marble. Cattle, grain, wool, and wine are pro-
duced. Capital, Jackson. Pop. 9582. - -
Amador, a post-village of Amador co., Cal., on Ama-
dor Creek, 6 miles N. W. of Jackson.
Amador, a township of Chisago co., Minn. Pop. 77.
Am’adou (“German tinder”), a name given to several
species of fungus called agarics, growing on oak and ash
trees in Europe. The hard amadou (Polypſorus ignia'rius)
and the soft amadou (Polyporus fomenta'rius) are used for
tinder, and applied to wounds as styptics. Some varieties
are prepared for tinder by charging them with saltpetre.
A’mager, a small island of Denmark, adjoining the
harbor of Copenhagen, is partly occupied by a suburb of
that city. Area, 22 square miles. Here are gardens which
supply that capital with vegetables, and a large chemical
factory. Pop. 6500.
Am’alek, a grandson of Esau and one of the chief-
tains of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 12, 16). A remnant of his
posterity existed in the time of Hezekiah (1 Chron. iv. 43).
Amal’elºites, a nomadic and warlike people, occupy-
ing, at the time of the Exodus, the Sinaitic peninsula.
and the wilderness between Egypt and Palestine. Op-
posing the march of the Israelites, they were signally de-
feated at Rephidim. Centuries later, they were severely
punished by Saul, and finally destroyed by David.
Amal’fi, an ancient and decayed city and seaport of
Southern Italy, on the Gulf of Salerno, 25 miles S. E. of
Naples. During the several centuries of the Middle Ages
it was a great commercial emporium and the capital of a
republic. It is the seat of an archbishop. Its situation
is rocky and very picturesque. Amalfi was the birthplace
of Masaniello and of Flavio Gioja, called the inventor of
the mariner's compass. Pop. in 1861, 4186.
Amal’ gam [perhaps from the Gr. 14Aayua, a “poul-
tice”], a combination or alloy of mercury with another
metal. Some amalgams are definite chemical compounds.
Glass plates are converted into mirrors or looking-glasses
by covering one surface with an amalgam of tin. Gold
and silver are dissolved in mercury, and form amalgams
which are used in the processes of gilding and plating
various objects.
Amalgama/tion, the act or process of combining
mercury with another metal, applied especially to the pro-
cess of separating gold and silver from the quartz rock
in which they are found imbedded. The quartz is first
crushed, and then shaken in a barrel or machine in con-
tact with mercury, which unites with and collects the small
particles of gold or silver. The precious metal is after-
wards easily separated from the amalgam by the application
of heat. -
Ama/lie, or Ame/lia (ANNA), duchess of Saxe-Wei-
mar, a daughter of the duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel,
was born Oct. 24, 1739. She was married in 1756 to Ern-
est, duke of Saxe-Weimar, who died in 1758. She was a
generous patron of men of genius, and attracted to her
AMADEUS—AMARYLLIDACEAE.
court the greatest German authors, including Goethe,
Wieland, Schiller, and Herder. She died April 10, 1807.
Amalie (MARIE FRIEDRIKE AUGUSTE), duchess of Sax-
ony, a sister of Frederick Augustus II., was born in 1794.
She wrote a number of dramas which were performed with
success, among which are “The Marriage Ring,” “The
Coronation Day,” and “Falsehood and Truth.” Died Sept.
18, 1870.
Amalthe'a, or Amaltheia [Gr. Apax9eta], in classic
mythology, the name of the nurse of Jupiter. This nurse
was supposed to have been a goat, the horn of which,
broken off by Jupiter, was endowed by him with magical
power, and became famous as the cornucopiae, or the “horn
of plenty.” -
Amambaſhi, or Amamba’y, a South American
mountain-range, is about 200 miles long, and forms the
watershed between the Paraná and the Paraguay rivers.
The river Amambahi rises in this range, flows eastward
about 100 miles, and enters the Paraná.
Amana, a township of Iowa co., Ia. Pop. 1441.
Aman/da, a township of Allen co., O. Pop. 1376.
Amanda, a post-village and township of Fairfield co.,
O., 130 miles from Cincinnati. Pop. of township, 1547.
Amanda, a township of Hancock co., O. Pop. 1469.
Amaniſta [Gr. 3paviraj, a genus of fungi nearly al-
lied to Agar'icus, from which is derived a poisonous prin-
ciple called amanitine. The Amanita musca’ria, a native
of Europe, is very poisonous, and is used to kill flies.
Amapa'la, a city and seaport of Honduras, is situated
on Tigre, the most important island of the Bay of Fonseca,
which contains a number of excellent harbors. The chief
articles of export are tobacco, hides, precious woods, and
indigo. Pop. about 1000.
Amar (J.P.), a French Jacobin notorious for his cruelty,
was born at Grenoble in 1750. He became a member of
the Convention in 1792, voted for the death of the king,
and in Oct., 1793, presented to the Convention a report
which condemned to death twenty-two Girondists. He
contributed to the ruin of Robespierre on the 9th Thermi-
dor, 1794. Died in Paris in 1816.
Am’aramth [Lat. amaran/thw8 ; Gr. 39.4pavros, i. e.
“unwithering,” from a, priv., and wapaïvo, to “wither”], a
flower which does not wither or fade; also the poetical
name of an imaginary flower, considered as an emblem of
immortality; a genus of plants of the order Amarantha-
ceae, has in some species richly colored flowers, that are
scarious, persistent, and not liable to wither. The Ama-
ran'thus cauda'tws (“prince's feather”), “love-lies-bleed-
ing,” and other exotic species are cultivated in the
gardens of the U. S. Several other unsightly species are
naturalized as weeds.
Amarantha/ceae [from Amaran/thus or Amaran/tus,
one of the general, a natural order of plants comprising
about 300 species, which are mostly natives of tropical
countries. They are herbaceous or fruticose, with simple
leaves, and dry persistent flowers in heads or spikes. This
order includes, besides the genus Amaranthus, the Gom-
phrena globosa (globe amaranth), the purple flowers of
which retain their beauty for several years.
Am’arapoo/ra, or Umm erapoora, a fortified city
of Burmah, on the Irrawadi River, about 8 miles N. E. of
Ava. It was formerly the capital of Burmah, and had a
population of about 170,000; but after the seat of govern-
ment was removed in 1819 it rapidly declined. The houses
are mostly built of bamboo. Pop. in 1870, estimated at
90,000.
Am/ara-Sing/ha, or -Sin'ha, an eminent Hindoo
poet and grammarian, of unknown period, is supposed by
some to have lived about 50 B.C. He belonged to the sect
of Buddhists, and wrote works which were all destroyed
by the Brahmans, except his “Amara Kosha,” which is a
vocabulary of about 10,000 Sanscrit words.
Amaſri (MICHELE), an Italian historian, born at Paler-
mo in 1806. His chief work is “The War of the Sicilian
Vespers” (2 vols., 1842), which was very popular, but was
proscribed by the government. He escaped to France, and
acted a prominent part in the revolution of Sicily in 1848.
After the defeat of the Italian patriots in 1849 he became
a resident of Paris. During the dictatorship of Garibaldi,
in 1859, he was minister of foreign affairs; subsequently
he became a member of the Italian senate, and in 1863
minister of public instruction. He resigned in 1864. Among
his other works are a “FIistory of the Mussulmans of
Sicily” (1853–72, 3 vols.), and “I Diplomi Arabi del Ar-
chivo Fiorentino” (1863). -
Amaryllida’ceae (so called from Amaryl/lis, one of its
genera), a natural order of endogenous herbaceous plants,
AMARYLLIS-AMAZONAS.
117
which generally have beautiful flowers and bulbous roots.
The species of this order are very numerous, and most
abundant in tropical regions, especially near the Cape of
Good Hope. It comprises the Amaryllis, the Narcissus,
the Fourcroya, the Nerine, the Coburgia, the Agave, Snow-
drop, etc. The U. S. have several genera.
Amaryl/lis (gen. Amary1/lidis), a genus of bulbous-
rooted plants of the natural order Amaryllidaceae. ... They
have beautiful flowers, with six stamens. The Amary/lis
formosis'sima and Amaryl/lis amab'ilis are cultivated in
gardens, and much admired. The Atamasco lily (Amaryllis
Atamasco) is a native of the U. S. * *
Ama'sia, Amasieh, or Amasiyah, a city of Asia
Minor, on the Yeshil-Irmak, 355 miles E. of Constantino-
ple. It contains nearly 4000 houses, many of which are
of stone, a strong citadel, and a fine mosque. Silk is pro-
duced here and is exported. Strabo was a native of Ama-
sia, which was formerly the capital of the kings of PONTUS
(which see). Pop. between 20,000 and 25,000.
Ama'sis, a famous king of Egypt, who succeeded
Apries about 570 B. C., was more friendly to the Greeks
and other foreigners than his predecessors. Under his
reign Egypt enjoyed peace and prosperity. He built some
magnificent monuments at Memphis, his capital. He died
about 525 B.C., and was succeeded by his son, Psammen-
itus.
Am'athus [Gr. 'Apiagods], an ancient city of Cyprus,
especially addicted to the worship of Venus, who was
hence called Amathusia. -
Ama’ti (ANDREA), an Italian who lived at Cremona
about 1550, made excellent violins, which are equal or su-
perior to any made in the present time.—ANTONIO, a son
of the preceding, was born about 1565. He was a cele-
brated maker of violins. Died 1635.-NICOLö, ANTONIO
(1550–1635), and GERONIMO, all excelled in the art, but
Nicolò, junior (born Sept. 3, 1596, died Aug. 12, 1684),
excelled the rest of the family in the number and quality
of his violins. -
Amatitlan’, or Amatitan’, a town of Central Amer-
ica, in Guatemala, 19 miles S. W. of the city of Guate-
mala, and near the lake of the same name; lat. 14° 28'
39” N., lon. 90° 37' 50" W. The houses are made of
mud, and are only one story high. Wells of boiling hot
water occur in this vicinity. The chief business of this
town is the production of cochineal. Pop. about 7000.
Ama/to, d” (GIov ANNI ANTONIO), an Italian historical
painter and theologian, called THE ELDER, was born at
Naples in 1475. He painted religious subjects, and no
others, in a style which resembled that of Perugino.
Among his works is a “Dispute on the Sacrament.” Died
in 1555.--His nephew of the same name, surnamed THE
YoUNGER, born at Naples in 1535, was an able painter.
He excelled in coloring. Died in 1598.
Amauro'sis [Gr. &uaúpworts, from &gavpów, to “darken”],
a term formerly much employed to designate total or par-
tial blindness dependent upon diseases of the optic nerve,
either at its origin, in its course, or in the retina; the last-
mentioned seat of the disease being by far the most fre-
quent. If the local disease be temporary or functional, the
sight will probably be regained, but in the majority of
cases there is no such hope. It may arise from many
causes, one of the most remarkable of these being the ex-
istence of Bright’s disease; and in cases resulting from
this cause there is an organic change in the structure of
the retina, readily discernible by the aid of the ophthal-
moscope. Amaurosis sometimes comes on at once, but is
generally gradual in its attack. The treatment varies with
the extremely various pathological conditions. Active
treatment is seldom called for, and no item in the cure of
this disease is more important than strict attention to the
hygienic condition. -
Amau’ry (or Amal’ric) I. [Lat Amalri'cus], king of
Jerusalem, a son of Baldwin II., was born in 1135. . He
began to reign at the death of his brother, Baldwin III.,
in 1162 or Il63. In 1168 he invaded Egypt, from which
he was soon forced to retreat by Saladin, who in turn in-
vaded Amaury’s dominions in 1170. Died July 11, 1173.
Amaury II., sometimes called Amaury de Lusi-
gman, became king of Cyprus as heir of his brother Guy,
and took the title of king of Jerusalem in 1194. His do-
minions were occupied by the victorious Saracens, so that
his reign was only nominal. Died in 1205.
Amaxichi, the capital of the Ionian island of Santa
Maura (or Leucadia), is on its E. coast. It has a light-
house, and a harbor adapted for small vessels. It is the
residence of a Greek archbishop. Pop. about 4000. Earth-
quakes often occur here. The remains of cyclopean walls
are found in the vicinity.
Amazi'ah, king of Judah, succeeded his father Joash
about 837 B.C. He waged war with success against the
Edomites, and reigned twenty-eight or twenty-nine years.
He was killed by conspirators in 809 B.C.
Am/azon, Marañon’, or Orellana, a South Amer-
ican river, and the largest river on the globe, rises among
the Andes in Peru. It is formed by the union of several
large head-streams called the Beni, Apurímac, Ucayale,
and Tunguragua, which last is the most western branch,
and is sometimes called the Upper Marañon. Geographers
have not unanimously decided which of these is the main.
stream. The Apurímac, the most southern of all the
branches, rises about lat. 15° S.
According to the statements of recent explorers, this
river is known under three different names in different
parts of its course; from its mouth to the mouth of the Rio
Negro it is called the Amazon or Amazonas; from the
mouth of the Rio Negro, through Ecuador, to Tabatinga,
on the borders of Ecuador, it is known as the Solimoës or
Solimoens; and from Tabatinga to its source in the Andes,
it is called the Marañon. The Amazon, from its junction
with the Napo in Ecuador, has a nearly due eastern course,
varying therefrom not more than two or three degrees
throughout its whole length; it is therefore almost wholly
in the same latitude, which is not the case with any other
river of large size on the globe. It is also entirely within
the tropics, and only about three or four degrees from the
equator, but the climate is not so hot and sickly as might,
from this, be supposed, the average temperature being 84°,
and the extremes 72° and 92°. The waters of the river,
owing to the white clay which they contain, are turbid and
of a milky color. Those, however, which rise in the woody
plains have their waters black or of a dark amber color,
and in some cases of a deep green, being dyed by the veg-
etable matter found so abundantly along their banks. This
mighty stream, flowing through Ecuador and the boundless
forests of Brazil, and increased to an immense volume by
the great tributaries that enter it from the right and from
the left, empties itself into the Atlantic Ocean under the
equator. Its whole length is about 3500 miles, and the
area of the countries which it drains is estimated at
2,264,000 square miles or more. It is said to be four miles
wide at the mouth of the Japura, more than 1000 miles
from the sea. The navigation of the Upper Amazon is
obstructed by cataracts. One of the most interesting facts,
indeed, connected with the Amazon, is the smallness of its
fall; at a distance of 3000 miles from its mouth the eleva-
tion is only 210 feet; the descent is therefore considerably
less than an inch to the mile. According to Lieut. Hern-
don, the river and its Ucayale branch are navigable for a
distance of about 3300 miles from the ocean. The Tungu-
ragua is likewise navigable for many miles above the mouth
of the Ucayale. Vessels can also pass from the Amazon,
through the Rio Negro and the Casiquiare, into the Ori-
noco. It is estimated that the Amazon and its affluents open
to the ocean 10,000 miles of interior navigation for large
vessels. The tide ascends it over 400 miles, and about the
time of full moon the great tidal wave which passes round
the globe from E. to W. rushes into the mouth of the river
with such violence that it raises the water nearly fifteen
feet high. This wave, which is very dangerous to small
vessels, is called bore in English and pororoco by the na-
tives. . The river abounds, in some parts, in turtles, whose
eggs yield a valuable oil. The principal affluents from the
right are the Ucayale, the Yurua, the Purus, the Madeira,
the Tapajos, and the Tocantins. Those that enter it from the
left are the Napo, the Putumayo, the Japura, and the Rio
Negro. During the rainy season the Amazon overflows its
banks and submerges a large extent of country. It is well
supplied with fish, and flows through a region of great fer-
tility, which is densely covered with primeval and almost
impassable forests, in which jaguars, panthers, pumas, mon-
keys, tapirs, and other wild animals abound. The river
encloses numerous large islands, besides that named Joan-
nes or Marajo, which is 150 miles in diameter. This island
divides the mouth of the river into two channels, one of
which is nearly 100 miles wide. The mouth of the Amazon
was discovered by Yanez Pinçon in 1500, but the first Eu-
ropean who explored the river was Orellana, in 1539.
Among the recent voyages of exploration are those of
Lieutenant Herndon in the employ of the U. S. govern-
ment, in 1850, of the Brazilian government in 1862–64, and
of Prof. Agassiz, who discovered 1163 new species of fish,
in 1867. Since 1867 the river has been opened for trade to
all nations. The dense forest that covers the whole valley
of the Amazon is a remarkable feature. (See HERNDON and
GIBBON, “Exploration of the River Amazon,” 2 vols., 1853–
54; AGASSIZ, “A Journey in Brazil,” 1867; and the pub-
lications of ORTON, HARTT, C. B. MARKHAM, WALLACE,
MYERS, and HASSAUREK.) A. J. SCHEM.
Amazo’nas, or Al’ to Amazo’nas, a province in
118
AMAZONAS–AMBLYOPSIS.
Northern Brazil, is bounded on the N. by Dutch and Brit-
ish Guiana and Venezuela, on the E. by the province of
Para, on the S. by Bolivia and Matto Grosso, and on the
W. by the United States of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.
Area, about 574,000 square miles. It consists chiefly of
forests, inhabited by independent tribes of Indians. The
entire civilized population amounted, according to a cen-
sus of 1862, to 40,259; according to an official work pub-
lished in 1867 (“I’Empire du Brésil”), to 95,000 free per-
sons and 5000 slaves. Capital, Barra do Rio Negro.
Amazonas, a department of Peru, is bounded on the
N. by Ecuador, on the E. by Loreto, on the S. by Junin,
and on the W. by Caxamarca and Libertad. The soil is
fertile, but, owing to the thinness of the population, very
little is done to cultivate it. Straw hats of a superior
quality are made here and exported. Chief town, Chacha-
poyas. Pop. about 38,000.
Am’azons [Lat. Ama'zones; Gr. 'Auagóves, perhaps
meaning “without breasts;” they are said to have cut off
the right breast, which interfered with their aim in arch-
ery], female warriors; a semi-fabulous nation of martial
women which was celebrated by the ancient Greek poets.
According to tradition, they lived in Asia Minor, and
fought against the Greeks at the siege of Troy, where they
were commanded by their queen, Penthesile/a. Another
queen of the Amazons, named Thalestris, is said to have
made amorous overtures to Alexander the Great. The
battles of the Amazons were favorite subjects with ancient
Greek painters and sculptors.
Ambaleſma, a town in the United States of Colombia,
in the state of Cundinamarca, on the Magdalena, about 50
miles W. of Bogotá. Excellent tobacco is produced in the
neighborhood. Pop. about 9700. tº
Ambal/la, a city in the East Indies, in the North-
western Provinces. Pop. about 22,000. Here a treaty
was concluded between the governor-general of India, Lord
Mayo, and the emir Shere Ali of Afghanistan in 1869.
Ambarva’lia [derived from a Latin term, ambi’re
ar’va, i. e. to “go round the fields”], applied to a religious
festival observed by the ancient Romans in the month of
May, in order to propitiate Ceres and invoke her blessing
on the coming harvest. It was so called from the victims
being carried round the fields by the priests.
Ambas'sador, or Embassador [[Fr. ambassadeur;
It, ambasciato're; originally, a “servant” or “minister”],
a diplomatic minister of the highest order, sent by a prince
or nation to the court of another power to manage special
affairs of state. He is expected not only to be the agent
of his government, but to represent the power and dignity
of his sovereign or his country. By the law of nations he
and his suite are entitled to peculiar privileges and immu-
Inities. They, as well as other diplomatic agents, are ex-
empt from the control of the municipal laws of the country
in which they perform their duties, and are not amenable
to punishment for acts which are only mala prohibita (i.e.
“evils or offences [merely] prohibited by statute”), and
not mala per se (i. e. “things evil or criminal in them-
selves”). They are usually exempt from direct taxation,
and are allowed to import goods without paying custom-
house duties. The word ambassador is recognized as an
official title of the highest rank of diplomatic service of
the U. S. (See INTERNATIONAL LAw No. I., by PREs. T. D.
Woolsey, S. T. D., LL.D.)
Ambaſto, a town of Ecuador, 65 miles S. S. W. of Quito,
has an active trade in grain, sugar, and cochineal. It was
destroyed in 1698 by an eruption of Cotopaxi, but was soon
rebuilt. Pop. estimated at 13,000.
Am’ber[Lat. 8we’cinum; Fr. ambre; Gr. #xerroovi, a fossil
resin, usually of a pale-yellow color, sometimes nearly trans-
parent. It is found in many parts of the world in deposits
of Cretaceous or more recent age, and is now known to be
the resinous exudation from several species of extinct co-
niferous trees, of which one, called Pinites succinifer, is Sup-
posed to have produced the greater part. Over 800 species
of insects have been found preserved in amber, and leaves
or other fragments of 163 species of plants. Amber is ex-
tensively used for ornaments, and especially for the mouth-
ieces of pipes, the consumption being greatest in Eastern
urope, Turkey, Persia, etc. Fine pieces of it are worth
more than their weight in gold. The largest mass known
is in the Cabinet at Berlin; its weight is eighteen pounds,
and it is valued at $30,000. Most of the amber of com-
merce is obtained from the shores of the Baltic, between
Königsberg and Memel. Small pieces are frequently found
in the green sand of Gay Head and New Jersey, and in the
cretaceous coals of the far West. Amber was highly prized
and much used by the ancients. It was one of the chief
articles of commerce among nations. It was the special
object of many of the voyages of the Phoenicians, and it
| ceedingly diffusive.
was an article of exchange long anterior to the dawn of
history, as we know by its frequent occurrence in the re-
mains of the lake-dwellings of Switzerland.
Amber exhales a fragrant odor when burned, and was
formerly in high repute as a medicine. An acid obtained
from it (succinic) is a useful agent in chemical operations.
When rubbed, amber becomes strongly electro-negative,
and the first exhibition of electric force which received in-
telligent attention was the attraction exerted on light bodies
by amber. This force, at first supposed to be possessed by
| amber alone, took the name of that substance, #Aektpov,
from which “electricity” is derived.
Amber, a post-township of Mason co., Mich. P. 392.
Am’berg, a walled town of Bavaria, on the river Wils,
39 miles E. of Nuremberg, was formerly the capital of the
Upper Palatinate. It is well built, and has a gymnasium,
a normal school, and a large public library; also a royal
manufactory of muskets, and several breweries and potter-
ies. The French Republican army under Jourdan was de-
feated near this town by the archduke Charles, command-
ing the Austrians, in 1796. Pop. in 1871, 11,688.
Am/bergris [from the Fr. ambregris, i. e. “gray am-
ber”], a peculiar perfume, a gray substance found float-
ing on the sea or lying on the sea-coast, and in the intes-
times of the spermaceti whale (Physeter macroceph'alus).
It is supposed to be a morbid secretion of this animal.
When heated or dissolved in alcohol it emits a peculiar and
agreeable odor, not easily described or imitated, and ex-
It has also the remarkable power of
increasing the odor of other perfumes. The price of it is
about five dollars an ounce. It affords about 85 per cent.
of a peculiar fatty and crystalline substance called ambrein.
The specific gravity of ambergris is about 0.8.
Ambergris (so called from the ambergris found on its
shores), a barren island in the Gulf of Mexico, belonging
to Yucatan, is 30 miles long from N. E. to S. W., and 3
miles wide. .
Ambert, a town of France, in the department of Puy-
de-Dôme, on the river Dore, 37 miles S. E. of Clermont. It
has extensive manufactures of paper and silk ribbons.
Pop. in 1866, 7519. 3. 4.
Ambidex/ter [from the Lat. am/bo, “both,” and deacº-
| ter, “right-handed ”I, a person who uses both hands with
equal facility. The proportion of such persons in the world
is small. The term is sometimes applied to a double-dealer,
and to a juror who takes a bribe from each party in a law-
suit.
Ambi’ orix, a famous Gallic chief who ruled over the
Belgic tribe of Eburones, and waged war against Julius
Caesar. By insidious measures and stratagem he gained a
decisive victory over the Roman generals Sabinus and
Cotta, whose army he annihilated in 54 B.C., during the
absence of their commander. He was afterwards signally
defeated by Caesar. (See CAESAR’s “Gallic War,” book v.)
Am’bitus [from the Lat. am/bio, ambitum, to “go
round ’’), a term used by the ancient Romans to designate
the going about and soliciting votes by candidates for office.
The practice of offering one's self as a candidate in an open
and honorable way was called am' bitus popula’ris. An-
other kind, which was common, but disreputable, consisted
in cajolery, bribery, etc.
Ambleteuse, a decayed seaport of France, on the Eng-
lish Channel, 6 miles N. of Boulogne, and about 25 miles
from the English coast. Here James II. of England landed
after his abdication in 1689, and here Napoleon I. erected
a granite column in honor of the grand army in 1805.
Amblyop/sis [from the Gr. &ngxºis, “blunt,” “dulled,”
and Šipts, “vision”], the term applied to a genus of blind
º
Amblyopsis Spelaeus. .
fish. One species of this genus (Ambylop's is spelse'us) is
found in the great Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. The eyes
of this fish, though seemingly absent, exist in a rudiment-
ary state, enclosed beneath the epidermis. The amblyop-
sis is quite small, the largest specimens averaging from
four and a half to five inches in length. The body is
nearly white, and partly covered with scales. Prof. Cope,
describing the habits of these fish, says, “They are easily
taken by the hand or net if perfect silence be preserved,
for they are unconscious of the presence of an enemy ex-
cept through the sense of hearing. This sense is, however,
evidently very acute, for at any noise they turn suddenly


AMBO-AMEN.
119
downward and hide beneath stones, etc. on the bottom.”
Their food consists in a great part of the crayfish found in
the cave, but they sometimes feed on other fish, in the pur-
suit of which they show remarkable activity, thus proving
that the tactile sense is well developed. According to Prof.
Cope, the amblyopsis belongs to the order Haplomi, its
nearest kindred being minnows, pickerels, and herrings.
The Amblyopsis spelgeus is not confined to this cave alone,
but has also been found in two or more places north of the
Ohio. (See an interesting account of the Blind Fishes of
the Mammoth Cave in the “American Naturalist” for
Jan., 1872.)
Am"bo [Gr. &#8ov), a reading-desk or pulpit which was
common in ancient Christian churches, and is still found
in Oriental churches. The Gospels and Epistles were read
from the ambo.
Amboina. See AMBOYNA.
Amboise (anc. Ambacia), an old town of France, in
the department Indre-et-Loire, on the railway from Orleans
to Tours, 14 miles by rail E. N. E. of Tours. It is cele-
brated as the place of imprisonment of Abd-el-Kader from
1848–52. Here the “Conjuration d'Amboise,” a conspiracy
of the Huguenots against the Guises, was formed in 1560.
It has been the residence of several of the kings of France.
Pop. in 1866, 4.188. -
Amboise, d” (GEORGEs), CARDINAL, a French states-
man, born at Chaumont-sur-Loire in 1460. He became
archbishop of Rouen in 1493, and a faithful adherent of
the duke of Orleans, who, on ascending the throne as Louis
XII. in 1498, chose him for his prime minister. He be-
came a cardinal in 1499. He was an able administrator
and a prudent counsellor.
death, Mar. 25, 1510.
Am"boy, near the centre of Lee co., Ill., at the crossing
of the Illinois Central and Chicago and Rock Fall R. R.S.,
94 miles almost due W. of Chicago. It has one weekly
paper, seven churches, a fine public hall, four free-school
buildings, two flouring-mills, three grain elevators; the
Illinois Central shops, employing over 400 hands; is division
head-quarters of the Illinois Central road from Dumleith
to Centralia; was laid out in 1854. Pop. 2825; of Amboy
township, 1279. -
W. H. H.AskELL, ED. “AMBox Journal.”
Amboy, a post-township of Hillsdale co., Mich. Pop.
160 -
Amboy (N. J.). See South AMBoy.
Amboy, a township of Oswego co., N. Y. Pop. 1431.
Amboy, a township of Fulton co., O. Pop. 1089.
Amboy/na, or Amboi'na. IMalay, Amboon' or Am-
bwn], the most important, though not the largest, of the
Moluccas or Spice Islands, situated E. of Booro, in lat 3°
46' S., lon. about 128° E. It is about 30 miles long, and
has an area of 282 square miles. The surface is mountain-
ous, and granite rock occurs on the summits of some of the
mountains. The staple production is cloves, the trade in
which is monopolized by the Dutch. About 500,000 pounds
of cloves is the average quantity annually produced here.
This island belongs to the Dutch. Pop. 30,000.
Amboyna, the capital of the Dutch government of |
Amboyna, is on the island of the same name, and is de-
fended by Fort Victoria. It is regularly built, has a pub-
lic garden and a good harbor. Pop. about 9000.
Ambra’cia, a town of ancient Greece, on the site of
the modern Arta, was the capital of Epirus during the
reign of King Pyrrhus, who was killed 272 B.C.
Am"briz, a small native kingdom on the W. coast of
Africa. Its capital is Quebranza. The port of Ambriz,
about 70 miles N. of Loando, at the mouth of the Ambriz
River, has considerable trade.
Am/bros (AUGUST WILHELM), a German composer, born
Nov. 17, 1816, became in 1869 professor of music in the
University of Prague. . Among his works are overtures to
“Genofeva” and “Othello,” and a “History of Music”
(“Geschichte der Musik,” vols. i.-iii., 1862–68).
Am"brose [Lat. Ambro'sius], SAINT, one of the Latin
Fathers of the Church, was born in Gaul about 340 A. D.
He was a son of the Roman prefect of Gaul, and is sup-
posed to have been born at Treves. Having studied law,
he was appointed governor of Liguria and Milan about
370, and distinguished himself in that position by his wis-
dom and moderation. On the death of the bishop of Milan,
in 374. A. D., a violent contest ensued between the Catholics
and Arians about the choice of his successor. By general
consent, Ambrose, who was not obnoxious to either party,
was elected bishop, although he had never been a priest.
He accepted the office with reluctance, and performed its
duties with great ability and zeal. He favored the Catho-
lics and earnestly opposed Arianism, but he does not ap-
He retained power until his
pear to have been a violent persecutor. On several occa-
sions he manifested moral courage by denouncing the sins
and checking the arrogance of temporal rulers and poten-
tates. The emperor Theodosius the Great having ordered
a massacre of the Thessalonians in 390, Ambrose forbade
him to enter the church, and extorted from him the per-
formance of a public penance. Died in 397 A. D. He was
the author of a method of singing called the “Ambrosian
Chant,” and left numerous religious works and letters. He
is commended by Villemain as “a man who, amidst the
turbulence and instability of the empire, never had a foible
or a stain on his character, and whose. magnanimity was
adequate to all trials.”
Ambro'sia [from the Gr. &ugporos, “immortal’’], in
classic mythology, “the food of the gods,” which was
supposed to confer immortal youth. According to a poet-
ical legend, it was sometimes given to mortals who were
favorites of the gods, and was used by Jupiter and Venus
to anoint their hair. Ambrosia is also the name of a genus
of Weeds, one species of which, common in the U. S., is
known by the name of hogweed or Roman wormwood.
Ambro'sian Chant, the choral music of the early
Christian Church, derived its name from Saint Ambrose,
bishop of Milan, who introduced it into the Western Church
about 386 A. D. The style of singing was Greek; the mu-
sical notation was, no doubt, borrowed from the Greek, and
adapted to the church services to relieve their monotony.
The Ambrosian chant is the foundation of church music.
Ambrosian Library, a library founded at Milan in
1609 by Cardinal Federigo Borromeo, and named in honor
of Saint Ambrose, the patron Saint of that city. It con-
tains over 90,000 printed volumes and 15,000 manuscripts,
including some rare palimpsests discovered by Angelo Mai,
and a MS. of Virgil enriched by marginal notes of Petrarch.
Ambula/cra [from the Lat. am/bulo, to “walk”], a
name of the peculiar organs of locomotion of the starfish
and sea-urchin ; the narrow longitudinal portions of the
shell of the sea-urchim (Echinus), which are perforated by
small orifices, giving passage to tentacular suckers.
Am/bulance [probably from the Lat. am/bulo, to
“walk” or “move slowly,” because a gentle motion was
necessary for the wounded], a military term applied in
France to a movable hospital which is attached to each
division of an army, and furnished with apparatus for the
relief of the sick and wounded. It was invented or im–
proved by Baron Larrey. The name is now commonly
given to a covered vehicle by which wounded men are re-
moved from the field of battle. Improvements were made
in the construction of ambulances by the Americans in the
civil war of 1861–65, the excellence of which was recog-
nized by their use during the Franco-German war of 1870.
Ambulance Corps, a body of men employed in the
British army in the Crimean war to drive ambulances and
attend the sick and wounded. The experiment was not
successful, and the ambulance corps was superseded by the
land transport corps. In the late civil war of the U. S.
the officers and men of the ambulance corps were detailed
from the line.
Amelan'chier, a genus of plants of the natural order
Rosaceae, comprises a small number of species, natives of
Europe and North America. The Amelanchier Canadensis,
called June-berry or service-berry, is a shrub or small tree
which bears a pleasant fruit, and is sometimes cultivated
in the U. S.
Ame/lia (anc. Ame’ria), a town of Italy, 22 miles S. W.
of Spoleto, has a cathedral and is a bishop’s see. Ameria
was one of the oldest cities of ancient Umbria, and has
well-preserved cyclopean walls. Pop. about 5000.
Ame/lia, a county of S. E. Virginia, has an area of 300
square miles. It is bounded by the Appomattox River on
nearly all sides except the S. The surface is diversified,
the soil fertile. The county is intersected by the Richmond
and Danville R. R. Grain, tobacco, and wool are produced.
Capital, Amelia Court-house. Pop. 9878.
Amelia, a township of Orangeburg Co., S. C. P. 2040.
Amelia Court-house, a small post-village, the cap-
ital of Amelia co., Va., on the Richmond and Danville
R. R., 36 miles W. S. W. of Richmond.
Amelia Island, in the Atlantic, is a part of Nassau
county, which forms the N. E. extremity of Florida. It is
16 miles long and 4 miles wide. The town of Fernandina
is near the N. extremity. Amelia Island light, in lat. 30°
40° 23' N., lon. 810 28' 20" W., is at the N. end of the
island. The lighthouse is of brick, 58 feet high, and shows
a flashing white light 112 feet above the sea.
Amen' [Heb. ſps, signifying “So be it,” or “Let it be
irrevocably fixed;” Gr. 'Apºv, “verily,” “of a truth”] has
been adopted in the service of the Christian Church as a
120
AMENDE HONORABLE – AMERICA.
response and an expression of assent at the end of a
prayer. In some passages of the New Testament at the
beginning of an emphatic declaration, it is translated
“verily.”
Amende Honorable, in French law, a form of in-
famous penalty to which criminals who offended against
public decency or morality were condemned. The simple
amende honorable consisted of a confession in open court
made by a bareheaded and kneeling criminal. The amende
honorable in figuris was made by a culprit kneeling in his
shirt, with a torch in his hand and a rope round his neck.
In modern speech the term is applied to a public recanta-
tion or apology.
Amend/ment, in law, is the correction of an error
committed in any process, or the alteration of the record
or of any pleadings in a civil or criminal cause. The de-
ficiency of means of amendment in pleading at common
law led to the statutes of amendments and jeofails.
AMENDMENT, in legislation, is an alteration in the words
of any bill, motion, or resolution. Any member may move
an amendment to a bill or resolution after it has been
read twice, and it is usual to take a vote on the amend-
ment first, and next on the main question. An opponent
of a bill has a right to move an amendment to it by a mo-
tion to strike out all after the enacting clause, and to sub-
stitute a contrary principle. Either house of Parliament
(or Congress) has a right to amend a bill which has been
approved by the other, but such amendments must receive
the assent of both houses before the bill can become a law.
The term amendment is also applied to an alteration of
the Constitution of the U. S. To render an amendment
valid it must be first proposed by two-thirds of both houses
of Congress, and must be ratified by the legislatures of
three-fourths of the several States. The most recent of
these changes in the organic law is the Fifteenth Amend-
ment, which ordains that no man shall be disfranchised on
account of color or race. (See CoNSTITUTION.)
Ame’nia, a post-village and township of Dutchess co.,
N. Y., on the New York and Harlem R. R., 85% miles N.
N. E. of New York. It has a distributing post-office, five
iron-mines, yielding in the aggregate some 250 tons of ore
per day, and a condensed-milk factory, using nearly 6000
quarts of milk per day. It has five churches, a seminary,
one weekly paper, and a national bank with $500,000 cap-
ital. Pop. of township, 2662.
C. H. Scott, J.R., PUB. “AMENIA TIMES.”
Amenites. See OMISH.
Amenoſphis (or Am’enoph) [Gr. 'Auevööts], I., a
powerful king of Egypt, the second of the ten kings of the
eighteenth dynasty, began to reign about 1500 B.C.
Amenophis (or Amenoph) II., the sixth king of
the eighteenth dynasty, is regarded by some authors as
identical with Memnon, who fought against the Greeks at
the siege of Troy. (See MEMNON.)
Amenophis III. was a grandson of the preceding,
and the eighth king of the eighteenth dynasty. He came
to the throne about 1400 B. C. His reign was long, and
greatly promoted the prosperity of Egypt, which he
adorned with many noble monuments. He is supposed
to have built the palace of Luxor (El-Ukser) at Thebes,
which was his capital. His military exploits are recorded
on the obelisk which now stands in the Place de la Con-
corde in Paris. According to Bunsen, Amenoph III. was
the king whom the Greeks called Memnon.
Amenta’ceae [from the Lat. amenta'eeus, “having an
amentum ”], a name given by Jussieu to a natural order of
exogenous trees or shrubs having their flowers arranged
in amenta or catkins. It included the birch, willow, alder,
and other common trees. By recent botanists this order
has been broken up into the Betulaceae, Salicaceae, and
others.
Amen’tum [a Latin word meaning a “thong”] is ap-
plied in botany to a kind of inflorescence (also called cat-
kin) which occurs in the willow, poplar, and birch. It
differs from a spike in being deciduous.
Amer’ica [so called from Amerigo Vespucci, a Floren-
time navigator in the Spanish service, who visited South
America in 1499], one of the grand divisions of the globe,
being smaller than Asia, but larger, perhaps, than both
Europe and Africa, taken together. It is the only one of
these divisions that is washed by all the four great oceans
—the Northern, the Southern, the Atlantic, and the Pacific.
It extends from Point Barrow, lat. 71° 24′ N., to Cape
Horn (on Horn Island), lat. 55° 58' 40" S. (the continen-
tal portion reaching only to Cape Froward, on the Straits
of Magellan, in lat. 53° 53' 7” S.). The continent may be
said to consist of two vast peninsulas, called, respectively,
North and SouTH AMERICA, which are connected by the
Isthmus of Panamá or Darien (in its narrowest part only
28 miles wide). The American continent, stretching as it
does from N. to S. for about 9000 miles in a nearly straight
line, is the longest continuous body of land on the globe.
Its greatest breadth in South America is between Cape St.
Roque in Brazil and Cape Parina in Peru, between ſat. 4°
and 7° S., a distance of over 3250 miles. In North Amer-
ica its greatest breadth is over 3100 miles, between Cape
Canso in Nova Scotia, and Cape Lookout in Oregon. Amer-
ica is bounded on the E. by the Atlantic, and on the W. by
§: Pacific, and is separated from Siberia by Behring's
trait. -
The physical features of this portion of the globe are on.
the most gigantic scale, for here are found the greatest
rivers and lakes, the largest valleys, the loftiest mountains
(with the exception of the Himalayas), and the finest for-
ests in the world. Here (particularly in the Andes) also is
exhibited the greatest development of volcanic phenomena
in the world. The whole number of active volcanoes on
the earth is estimated at about 270. Of these, 190 (over
two-thirds of the whole) occur on the coast and islands of
America.
As the northern limits of America are not yet accurately
ascertained, and as the statements of the area of most of
the large political divisions widely differ, the area of
America can only be roughly estimated. The following
table (see Behm and Wagner, “Bevölkerung der Erde,”
Gotha, 1872) exhibits the area and population of each po-
litical division, according to the latest official censuses
and the most recent scientific calculations:
NAMEs of Countries. Square Miles.* Population.*
INorth America.................... 8,657,000 || 51,964,000).
Greenland.................................. 759,800 10,000
British America........................ 3,524,200 3,888,557
Bermudas................................. 24 11,796
St. Pierre and Miquelon............ 81 3,971
United States (with Alaska)...... 3,611,800 38,877,000
Mexico - 761,600 9,173,052
Central America................. 188,000 || 2,671,000
Guatemala................................. 40,780 1,180,000
Honduras. 47,080 350,000
San Salvador 7,340 600,000
Nicaragua................................. 58,170 350,000
Costa Rica. 21,500 165,000
British Honduras...................... 13,500 25,635
TVWest India Islands........... 92,000 4,214,000
Spanish p ions 49,475 2,068,870
British “ ................... 12,625 1,054,116
French “ ................... 1,000 306,244
Dutch “ ................... 400 35,482
Danish “ ................... 122 37,821
Swedish “ ................... 8 2,898
Bepublic of Hayti..................... 10,200 572,000
Republic of San Domingo......... 17,800 136,500
South America................... 6,959,000 |25,675,000
Brazil..... 3,252,900 10,000,000
French Guiana 35,080 25,151
Dutch Guiana........................... 59,800 59,885
British Guiana 99,900 152,932
Venezuela................................. 368,200 1,500,000
United States of Colombia......... 357,200 3,000,000
Ecuador..................................... 219,000 1,300,000
Galapagos Islands...................... 2,955 Uninhabited.
Peru.......................................... 510,000 2,500,000
Bolivia, 535,900 2,000,000
Chili & 132,615 2,000,000
Argentine Republic (with the
Gran Chaco and the Pampas
Argentinas)........................... 871,700 1,812,000
Patagonia................................. 376,300 24,000
Paraguay ..................... 63,800 1,000,000
Uruguay......... * - e e s a r < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 66,700 300,000
Falkland Islands....................... 4,741 686
Aurora Islands.......................... 210 | Uninhabited.
South Georgia Islands................ 1,570 Uninhabited.
Total America ..................... 15,896,000 84,524,000
AMERICA, NoFTH, exclusive of Central America, extends
from the Arctic Ocean to lat. 16° N. It is bounded on the
N. by the Arctic Ocean, on the E. by the Atlantic Ocean
and Gulf of Mexico, on the S. by the Gulf of Mexico and
Central America, and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. Its
contour is more irregular than that of South America, be-
ing deeply indented by gulfs, bays, etc. The length of the
eastern coast, from Hudson’s Strait to Florida Channel, is
about 13,700 miles; on the Pacific its length is estimated at
10,500, on the Arctic Ocean at 3500 miles; thus making
a total of 27,700 miles of coast-line for North America.
Along the E. coast of the continent some important changes
of elevation are being wrought.; in some places the coast is
rising, and in others subsiding. The area of North Amer-
ica is estimated at 8,657,500 square miles.
* As most of the following figures are not official statements,
but estimated, no regard could be taken in summing up the
totals of the grand divisions to any hundreds, tens, and units.
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AMERICA. .
121
Face of the cº, Mountains, etc.—In North America.
the mountains and plains almost balance each other. To
the N. of the basin of the Gulf of Tehuantepec, in lat. 17°
N., a mountain-range rises, which becomes wider the farther
N. it proceeds, and up to lat. 21° N. occupies almost the
entire country between the two oceans. This is the table-
land of Anahuac. It is cut up by several rows of hills into
plateaus, between which volcanic peaks rise to a great
height. Among the highest are the peak of Orizaba (17,809
feet), Cofre de Perote (14,310 feet), and the Popocatepetl
(17,744 feet). Northward from the 21st degree of N. lat.
the character of the mountains begins to change, and the
isolated peaks become connected mountain-chains. . Three
chains branch off from this point: the north-western branch,
the Cordillera of Sonora, runs along the coast of the Gulf
of California to its northern point in lat. 33° N.; the cen-
tral branch, or Sierra Madre, goes farther N.; the Eastern
Cordillera is low until it reaches the Rio del Norte, after
that it becomes higher and higher, until it reaches the
region of the head-waters of the Rio del Norte, where it
again joins the central branch and forms with it a wild
mountainous region. These chains enclose the plateau of
New Mexico, which rises to a height of 4000 to 6000 feet.
Between the parallels of 35° to 40° N. lat., the Rocky Moun-
tains attain as a whole their greatest elevation, a large
number of peaks exceeding 14,000 feet, while the passes re-
tain an elevation of 8000 to 11,000 feet. Farther N., from
42° to 45° N. lat., the Wind River Mountains, with their
northern prolongation, form a remarkable hydrographical
centre, from which flow the waters of the Columbia and
Colorado rivers on the W., and on the E. those of the Mis-
souri and its branches, the Yellowstone, Wind River, and
South Platte. It is in this region of mountain lakes, of
boiling springs and geysers, that a national park has been
reserved by an act of Congress around the Yellowstone
Lake. The western branch, the Wahsatch Mountains, en-
closes a wide plateau, with an elevation of 4000 to 5000
feet, which contains its own system of lakes and rivers.
The most important of its lakes is the Great Salt Lake.
The western border of this plateau is formed by the Sierra
Nevada, and the Cascade Mountains, which run along the
ocean and enter Alaska. The highest peaks in this range
are Mount Fair Weather (14,735 feet) and Mount St. Elias,
in lat. 60° 17' 35" N. (about 16,000 feet). To the N. E. of
the Wind River Mountains are the Black Hills, rising iso-
lated from the plains, in lat. 46° N. The most northern
branch is the most important, and runs in a N. W. direc-
tion to the Arctic Ocean. Between lat. 42° and 53° N.
many peaks reach above the line of perpetual snow.
Among the highest of these are Mount Hooker (15,700 feet)
and Mount Brown (16,000 feet). From lat. 52° N. the
range gradually descends to 4200 feet, then branches off
into several chains, and terminates at the Mackenzie at an
elevation of only 2100 feet. Among the isolated systems
of North America, the most prominent are the Coast Range
in the W., and the Appalachian system in the E. The
Coast Range begins at Cape San Lucas in Lower Cali-
fornia, and running parallel to the coast has openings at
only two points for rivers to pass through, and continues
through Vancouver and the other islands in that region.
The Appalachian system (also called from one of its parts
the Alleghanies) is separated from the other mountains of
this continent by large plains, the plain separating it from
the Rocky Mountains being, with the exception of the great
desert plain of Africa, the largest in the world. The high-
est peak in this system is Mitchell’s Peak, in North Caro-
lina, 6707 feet. Mount Washington, the highest peak of the
White Mountains, rises to a height of 6288 feet. Farther
N. a rocky plateau extends between the Atlantic and the
lower St. Lawrence; Mount Katahdin, its highest peak, is
5385 feet high. To the N. of the St. Lawrence the rocky
plateau of Labrador rises to a mean elevation of 2000 feet.
Geology.—The geology of North America is so compli-
cated that no detailed description of it could be compressed
into the necessarily limited space of this article. It may,
however, be very briefly sketched as follows: N. of the St.
Lawrence is a belt of old crystalline rocks—Laurentian and
Huronian—which stretches from Labrador to Lake Supe-
rior, and thence northward. The Adirondacs in New York,
and a similar space on the S. shore of Lake Superior, may
be said to form part of this eozoic belt. This is the old-
est known portion of the earth’s surface, and has not been
submerged since the beginning of the Silurian age. New
England is, for the most part, underlaid by metamorphic
rocks, which are of Laurentian, Silurian, Devonian, and
carboniferous age. S. of the great lakes, and between the
Atlantic and the Mississippi, is an extensive district, chiefly
of palaeozoic age, having been elevated above the ocean at
the close of the carboniferous period, when the Alleghanies
were raised. ” This area is skirted on the Atlantic coast by
a belt of trias, which fills, the valley of the Connecticut, un-
derlies much of New Jersey, and holds the coal of Eastern
Virginia and North Carolina. Outside of the triassic area,
and reaching around from New York to the mouth of the
Mississippi, are more or less broken belts of cretaceous and
tertiary strata. W. of the Mississippi the great area of
“ the Plains" is underlaid on the E. by carboniferous and
permian, more westerly by triassic, Jurassic, and cretaceous
rocks, with broad areas of fresh-water tertiary of miocene
and pliocene age. The Rocky Mountains have axes of
granite and crystalline slates, flanked in some localities by
Potsdam sandstone, more generally by carboniferous and
more recent strata; all of which, even to the tertiary, are
more or less upheaved. Volcanic rocks also abound in this
chain. W. of the Rocky Mountains is a high plateau
reaching to the Sierra Nevada, and extending N. and S.
from the city of Mexico far into the Canadian territory.
This plateau is cut by the cañons of the Colorado and its
tributaries to the depth of over 6000 feet, and is shown to
include representatives of almost the entire geological series.
The western part of the plateau exhibits a great prevalence
of modern volcanic rocks, and from the number and richness
of its veins of silver may be called the silver belt of the
continent. The Sierra Nevada has a granitic axis, flanked
by metamorphosed triassic and Jurassic slates, which con-
tain quartz veins rich in gold. The “placer” or surface
deposits of gold skirt the western base of the Sierra Nevada
for 700 miles, and have yielded nearly $1,000,000,000 since
1848. The Coast Mountains of California are mainly com-
posed of cretaceous and tertiary strata, are more recent
than the Sierra Nevada, and are richer in mercury than
in gold and silver. The mercury is contained in metamor-
phosed cretaceous rocks.
The geological structure of Mexico is essentially the same
as that of the adjacent portions of the U. S., with the same
richness in the precious metals. The only noteworthy ele-
ments in the mineral resources of Mexico not found farther
N. are the tin of Durango and the triassic anthracite of
Sonora.
In the region about Hudson’s Bay, and farther N., Silu-
rian rocks have been found in various localities. On Mel-
ville’s Island carboniferous strata occur, while on Disco
Island, Greenland, on the lower Mackenzie and Yukon
rivers, tertiary rocks are exposed. These contain great
quantities of fossil leaves, which prove that in the miocene
epoch a luxuriant vegetation covered all the shores of the
Arctic Sea, and that the climate was then as mild as that
of the State of Virginia is now. In the glacial epoch ice
covered the continent as far S. as the 40th parallel, grind-
ing down the rocks and spreading the drift over most of
the country N. of this line.
Copper is abundant, especially in Mexico and on the
shores of the great lakes. In the latter locality it has been
chiselled out from its native bed in masses weighing as
much as 150 tons of nearly pure metal. Quicksilver occurs
in Mexico and California. Probably the richest lead dis-
trict in the world is that on both banks of the Mississippi,
between 41° and 44° N. lat. Over 54,000,000 pounds have
been extracted at this point in a single year. The coal-
fields of North America are immense, extending over an
area in the U. S. alone of more than 150,000 square miles;
large beds occur also in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, the
Rocky Mountains, and on the Pacific coast. Both bitu-
minous and anthracite coal exists; the former is most abun-
dant, but the latter is found in large beds in Eastern Penn-
sylvania, where millions of tons are mined every year.
Since 1862 great quantities of petroleum have been obtained
in Western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Canada, and
other districts. Iron is abundant. Antimony, zinc, co-
balt, arsenic, titanium, and chrome are also found. Salt
is found abundantly in various localities. -
Bays, Gulfs, Lakes, and Rivers.-By the indentations of
the bays, gulfs, and rivers the interior of North America is
at once laid open to the commerce of the world. On the
E. coast we first meet with Baffin's Bay, which separates
British America from Greenland; Hudson’s Bay, which
opens into the Atlantic by Hudson's Strait; the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, connecting the great lakes with the Atlantic ;
the Bays of Fundy, Cape Cod, Delaware, and Chesapeake;
Long Island, Pamlico, and Albemarle sounds; the Gulf
of Mexico, Gulf of Campeche, Bay of Honduras, and Mos-
quito Bay—all on the E. coast. The indentations on the
Pacific coast are neither so large nor so numerous as those
on the E.; among the more important are the Gulf of Te-
huantepec, Gulf of California, San Francisco Bay, Straits
of Juan de Fuca (opening into Puget's Sound, St. George's
Channel, and Admiralty Inlet), Queen Charlotte's Sound,
Cook’s Inlet, and Bristol Bay. To the N. of the basin of
the Mississippi is found the region of the great lakes and
of the St. Lawrence River. These lakes form together the
greatest mass of fresh water found in any one spot on the
globe. They are five in number. Lake Superior has an
N
122
AMERICA.
area of more than 31,400 square miles; Lake Erie has an
area of 10,000 square miles, and is connected by canals
with the Hudson and the Mississippi; Lake Ontario, from
which the St. Lawrence passes, has an area of 7300 square
miles; Lake Huron covers 23,800 square miles; and Lake
Michigan 25,600 square miles. Other large lakes in North
America are Lake Winnipeg, Athabasca, Great Slave, and
Great Bear lakes in British America; Lake Champlain and
Great Salt Lake in the U. S.; Lake Nicaragua in Central
America; and Lake Chapala in Mexico. Besides these,
numerous other beautiful sheets of water of Smaller sizes
occur, especially N. of 42° N. lat. No other continent is
more favored with large rivers than North America, nearly
every portion being accessible from the sea. In the N. the
Mackenzie River empties into the Arctic Ocean, and the
Saskatchawan into Hudson’s Bay; the St. Lawrence east-
ward into the Atlantic; and the Mississippi and Rio
Grande del Norte southward into the Gulf of Mexico.
The Columbia and Colorado of the West take their rise in
the western declivities of the Rocky Mountains; the for-
mer, after a course of 1200 miles, empties directly into the
Pacific ; the latter, after flowing 1000 miles, empties into
the Gulf of California. In lat. 32° 30' N., Frazer's River
empties opposite to Vancouver's Island into the Pacific.
The Atlantic slope is drained by a large number of rivers
of different lengths. The largest river-system in North
America is that of the Mississippi. Its most important
tributaries are the Arkansas, Red River, the Illinois, the
Ohio, and the Missouri, which in itself forms another great
river-system. The most important tributaries of the Mis-
souri are the Yellowstone and the Platte River.
Islands.-South-east of Florida, in the recess formed by
the narrowing of the continent at Central America, lies an
extensive archipelago called the West Indies. This group
extends E. into the Atlantic to about 60° W. lon., whence
it turns almost directly S. and reaches to the mouth of the
Orinoco River, thus enclosing the Caribbean Sea on the N.
and N. E. The larger of these islands are Cuba (the most
western), Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico. Near the
mouth of the St. Lawrence are the islands of Newfound-
land, Cape Breton, Prince Edward, Anticosti, etc. Besides
these, Long Island and the Bermuda's are the only islands
of any account on the E. coast. The principal ones on the
Pacific coast are Vancouver's; Queen Charlotte’s and King
George III.'s Archipelagoes, W. of British America; and
Prince of Wales, Sitka, and Admiralty on the coast of
Alaska, and the Aleutian Islands reaching westward to-
wards Asia. A large number of barren islands lie in the
Arctic Ocean of which but little is known.
Climate.—In comparing the climate of the western with
that of the eastern continent, we must compare not the E.
with the W. coast, but E. with E. and W. with W.; which
comparison will show that the difference of temperature
lies not between the two continents, but between the oppo-
site shores of each continent. Take, for example, Nain in
Labrador: while the mean temperature of this place is 25°
F., at Archangel, on the western coast, it is 44°. This dif-
ference of 19° between the eastern and western coasts of
the New World is but very little less than the difference
between the eastern coast of the New and the western
coast of the Old, for the temperature of Gothenburg, in
Sweden, is only 21° higher than that of Nain. This dif-
ference decreases the farther S. we go. But, generally
speaking, the climate of North America is 10° lower than
the same parallels in Western Europe. On the E. side and
middle of the continent N. of 50° N. lat. it is so intensely
cold that it is almost uninhabitable. In Mexico and Cen-
tral America, the climate is similar to that of the torrid
zone, being very changeable; the table-lands of the former
generally have a delightful climate. In Canada, the change
from winter to summer is very sudden, the spring being of
short duration.
|Vegetable Productions.—North America, abounds in im-
mense forests, in which are found vast numbers of large
and valuable trees. One of the most noted is the Sequoia
gigantea, belonging to the cedar family and a native of
California, which is one of the greatest wonders of the
vegetable world. It sometimes attains a height of 400
feet and a diameter of from 30 to 40 feet. By the Span-
iards it is called the Palo colorado. Another remarkable
tree is a species of pine or fir in Oregon, which grows from
200 to 300 feet in height, and has a girth of from 60 to 80
feet. The forests contain pine, oak, ash, hickory, red
beech, the lofty Canadian poplar, several species of chest-
nut, walnut, several species of maple (among them the
sugar-maple), cedar, cypress, juniper, hemlock, basswood,
palmetto, dogwood, willow, catalpa, wild-cherry, tulip tree
(or American poplar), elm, Sycamore, magnolia, gum, lo-
cust, etc. The most important farinaceous plant peculiar
to the New World is maize or Indian corn. It extends
over a large part of North America, but is found mostly
in the Central U. S. It is also naturalized, or nearly so, in
the warmer parts of the Old World. Cacao, vanilla, pi-
mento, copaiba, jalap, cinchona, tobacco, sweet potatoes,
and the cochineal plant (Cactus cochinilifer), are also indig-
enous. Wheat, barley, peas, oats, and rice are cultivated
With success throughout the greater portion of the conti-
ment. Many vegetables, besides various fruit trees, are
grown. Among the latter are the orange, lemon, apple,
peach, etc.; the principal native fruits are of the nut
kind. Coffee, sugar, and cotton are staple products. The
vine generally succeeds when properly cultivated. An in-
teresting native cereal is the Zizania aquatica, the wild
rice of the North-west, yielding an important supply of
food to the native tribes. The true potato (Solanum tu-
berosum) is a native of both North and South America.
Zoology.—The number of ferocious animals found in
America is comparatively very small. Of those found
the principal ones are the polar, black, and grizzly bears.
The former (sometimes called the white bear) is the largest
of his genus, and is an inhabitant of the Arctic regions,
being seldom seen S. of 55° N. lat. The latter is a native
of North America, and is found in the regions of the Rocky
Mountains, from New Mexico to as far N. as 61° N. lat.
Besides these may be mentioned the cougar or panther,
lynx, and wild-cat. The bison, or American buffalo, roams
over the prairies W. of the Mississippi in immense herds,
but is rapidly disappearing in consequence of the advance
of civilization. The musk-ox is smaller, seldom weighing
more than 300 pounds. The deer family is represented by
several species, the largest being the moose, whose height
is about six feet. A single specimen of the antlers of these
animals has been found to weigh over 50 pounds. Reindeer
are numerous in the frozen regions. Among the Rocky Moun-
tains are found peculiar sheep and a goat-like antelope; the
former are covered with short, fine, and flexible wool, and
are much larger than the domestic sheep; the latter, in-
habiting the highest cliffs of the mountains, are covered
with long hair, beneath which is a very fine wool. Among
the wolves, the prairie-wolves are found in great numbers
on both sides of the Rocky Mountains. Among the do-
mestic dogs are the Newfoundland dog, Mackenzie River
dog, the Arctic dog, etc. Of the foxes there are several
kinds—viz., the red, gray, Arctic, etc. The other prin-
cipal quadrupeds are beavers, otters, raccoons, badgers,
opossums, weasels, hares, muskrats, marmots, squirrels,
porcupines, gophers, and antelopes. There are numer-
ous species of reptiles, the rattlesnake being among the
most dangerous. The alligator, a native of the Southern
U. S., attains a length of from fourteen to sixteen feet.
Tortoises, sea-turtles, toads, and frogs abound. Several
hundred species of birds are found, the greater number
of which are peculiar to this continent. The wild turkey,
one of the principal native birds, formerly existed in large
numbers, but is rapidly disappearing. Wild pigeons are so
numerous in some localities as to darken the air when they
fly over, and to break the limbs of the trees on which they
roost. Among the rapacious birds are the bald eagle, the
sparrowhawk, the swallow-tailed hawk, falcon, vulture,
turkey-buzzard, and owl. Among the gallinaceous birds
are turkeys, pheasants, grouse, and quails. The represen-
tatives of the Grallae are cranes, herons, flamingoes, spoon-
bills, rails, and purple gallinules. Swans, wild-geese,
ducks, pelicans, etc. constitute the principal water-fowls.
Some of the smaller birds are larks, Orioles, buntings,
magpies, jays, cedar-birds, thrushes, shrikes, mocking-
birds, robins, grosbeaks, blue-birds, parrots, woodpeckers,
humming-birds, kingfishers, chuckwills-widow, whippoor-
wills, etc. Of fish there are almost endless varieties; the
chief ones are sturgeon, salmon, salmon-trout, shad, white
fish (peculiar to the great lakes), mackerel, herring, hali-
but, sheepshead, trout, bass, perch, pike, blue-fish, etc.
Population, Races, etc.—The aboriginal races of Mexico
and Central America still constitute an important part of
the population. Many of the North American Indians are
yet in existence, but they are fast disappearing before the
advance of the white man. Almost all the authorities on
the subject agree with the traditions of the Indians and
Esquimaux that an immigration of the native race took
place at an early period—probably from Asia. In spite
of the difference existing between many tribes in different
localities, one race seems to have inhabited the whole con-
tinent, to which the Esquimaux bear the same relation as the
Lapps and Samoyedes to the other Mongolians of the Old
World; and this race resembles most closely the Mongo-
lians. According to ancient Chinese legends, an early Mon-
golian emigration and Chinese colonization appear very
probable; while the original languages, in spite of their
great variety, in their uniform formation resemble those of
Eastern Asia more than any others. Much is still in the
dark with respect to the original inhabitants. Their cha-
racter at the present day shows a great capability of being
AMERICA.
123
civilized, as they had their own civilization in Mexico and
Central America, and in South America in Peru and New
Granada, and as is shown by the fact that under the Jes-
uits, the Quakers, and the Moravian Brethren some have
attained a considerable degree of civilization. The African
race constitutes a large portion of the population, espe-
cially of the southern part of North America. It was in-
troduced for the purpose of slavery, but seems to prosper
better than in its native continent. From 1789 to 1860
(i. e. while it was in slavery) it increased in the U. S. 28
per cent. every ten years, or 5 per cent. less than the Cau-
casian race; while in San Domingo, where it was in a free
state, its increase from 1793 to 1868 was larger than that
of the Caucasian race, while the natives have decreased
everywhere. The Caucasian race is only represented in
North America by the Germanic and the Romanic families,
the latter chiefly in Mexico and the Central American re-
publics, the former in the U. S. and British America.
Among the 40,000,000 of the Germanic family, the Anglo-
Saxons predominate largely, constituting over two-thirds
of the population as regards the descent, and over three-
fourths with regard to the language.
History.—If we except the reputed early visits of the
Danes and Norwegians to Greenland in the ninth and
tenth centuries, America was first made known to the
civilized world by Christopher Columbus, who set sail
under the patronage of Ferdinand and Isabella from Palos
on the 3d of Aug., 1492, with a view of finding Eastern
Asia by a western passage. He first landed at San Sal-
vador, on the 12th of October. During the ensuing months
he visited Cuba, Hispaniola, and other islands. But the
continent of North America, was first discovered by John
Cabot and his son Sebastian in 1497, one year before
Columbus reached the continent of South America. The
Cabots sailed under the patronage of Henry VII. of Eng-
land, and touched the first year at Labrador, and the next
at Newfoundland. Gaspar de Corteréal, a Portuguese no-
bleman, who made two voyages to the coast of Labrador,
is supposed to have been murdered on his second voy-
age, as he never returned. In 1512, Ponce de Leon dis-
covered Florida. . In 1524, Giovanni Verrazzano, a Floren-
time navigator, under the patronage of Francis I. of France,
explored more than 2000 miles of the coast of the present
U. S. and British America. A few years later, Jacques
Cartier made several voyages and explored Newfoundland,
and first ascended the St. Lawrence. Not many years sub-
sequent a French fortress was erected near the present site
of Quebec. While these discoveries were being made, Cor-
tez discovered and conquered Mexico. Within the last
twenty-five years it has been clearly established that there
is a communication, by water between the Atlantic and
Pacific by an Arctic sea. But the passage has never been
made by vessels alone, the voyage in question having been
partly effected by means of sleds and partly by sailing.
As the discovery and exploration of North America by
Europeans advanced, it became a political dependency of
several European nations, in particular of Spain, France,
England, Holland, and Denmark. In 1776 most of the Eng-
lish colonies established an independent American common-
wealth under the name of the United States of America;
they have since become one of the greatest states of the
globe. In 1821 Mexico became independent of Spain.
The remainder of North America, comprising about one-
half of its extent, is either a dependency of European
powers, or, like the greater portion of Greenland, is with-
out any organized government.
CENTRAL AMERICA is that narrow strip of land which
unites North and South America, but which properly be-
longs to the former. It lies between the parallels of about
7° and 18° of N. lat. It is about 800 or 900 miles long,
its breadth varying from 20 miles in its narrowest to 400
in its widest part. It is bounded on the N. by Mexico, on
the E. by the Caribbean Sea, on the S. by New Granada,
and on the W. by the Pacific. Its area, according to Behm
and Wagner, is 188,370 square miles.
Face of the Country, Mountains, etc.—Central America
consists almost entirely of mountainous regions, but the
mountains are entirely distinct from those of North and
South America. They are separated from the cordilleras
of South America by a row of hills ranging in height from
300 to 1000 feet, while in the W. the Mesa de Tarifa (600
feet high) separates the Isthmus from the North American
continent. N. of Panama rises the plateau of Veragua, in
which the Silla de Veragua (8000 feet high) is the highest
point. Farther N. is the plateau of Costa Rica, with an
average height of 2000 feet, and that of Cartago, 4400 feet.
Numerous peaks of 10,000 feet and over are interspersed.
In the N. the plateau gradually descends, until it forms
the plain of Nicaragua. To the N. of this plain rises the
table-land of Honduras, with an average height of 4000
feet. Apart and on the S. of the plateau are two rows of
volcanoes, the highest of which are San Miguel, a peak of
15,000 feet, San Vincente, San Salvador, and Izalco. A
mountain of not quite 2000 feet connects the table-land of
IHonduras with that of Guatemala, rising to an average
height of 5000 feet. Here also are a number of high vol-
canoes, among which are the Pacaya, the two volcanoes of
Guatemala, those of Amilpas, 12,200 feet high, Quezalte-
nango, 12,300 feet, and the more distant Soconusco.
Geology.—The central axis of the Isthmus is composed
of crystalline and volcanic rocks. These are flanked on
either side by strata of tertiary age, which contain, in
some places, valuable beds of lignite. Gold, silver, lead,
and mercury are found in many localities, and rich mines
of all these are known to exist in Costa Rica and Hondu-
ras; but the obstacles presented by the climate, the gov-
ernments, and the population of these countries have lim-
ited their productiveness. The ancient inhabitants of Cen-
tral America, who constructed the cities of which the ruins
have been so frequently described, possessed large quanti-
ties of gold, as we know from the numbers of gold images
and implements found in their sepulchres. The explora-
tion of the graves of Chiriqui was at one time an exciting
industry. Jasper and marble are worked in Honduras,
and sulphur is collected near the volcano of Quezaltenango.
Large quantities of salt are produced on the Pacific coast,
and also from the salt springs, which are numerous.
Bays, Gulfs, and Rivers.--Central America is intersected
by numerous streams of considerable size, but necessarily
short from the narrowness of the country. All the longer
streams are on the northern and eastern sides of the moun-
tains, and flow into the Atlantic. Among these the USu-
masinta is the largest, and the San Juan, which forms the
outlet of Lake Nicaragua, is next in size. Among the
bays and gulfs, the most important are the Gulf of Hon-
duras on the E. coast, the Bay of Panama, the Gulf of
Dulce, Coronada Bay, Gulf of Nicoya, and the Gulf of
Fonseca on the Pacific coast. Besides Lake Nicaragua,
which has an area of 3400 square miles, we find in Central
America, the lakes of Managua in Nicaragua, Ilopongo in
San Salvador, Amatitlan (or Atitlan) in Guatemala, and
the Yojoa in Honduras.
Climate.—In Central America, the year consists of two
seasons—viz., the wet and the dry. In the former the sun
is always vertical, and is seldom seen, the skies being filled
with clouds and falling rain, while in the latter the tem-
perature does not rise near so high, but hot and dry
weather prevails, with a clear and more healthy atmos-
phere. In the higher regions, where the land is more
open, few noxious vapors are generated, and health is
comparatively good, but in the low marshes, where de-
composition is rapid, many contagious diseases prevail.
Yegetable Productions.—Central America is remarkably
adapted to the growth of vegetables and tropical fruits.
Indian corn, Sweet potatoes, Sugar-cane, indigo, tobacco,
cacao, the cactus, mandioca, and bananas flourish. Many
other tropical fruits, among them the cherimoya (said by
Humboldt to be the most delicious fruit in the world), grow
abundantly. In the large forests mahogany, logwood, lig-
numvitae, pimento, Sarsaparilla, vanilla, black balsam, etc.
are met with. There are not less than ninety-seven differ-
ent kinds of trees growing luxuriantly in the forests of
Panama that are fatal to animal life.
Zoology.—The zoology of Central America is very simi- "
lar to that of the other divisions of America. Its birds
are chiefly remarkable for their brilliant plumage. Among
them are many species of humming-birds and the quezal.
Serpents are numerous, many of them being dangerous.
Two species of locusts, a brown and a green, are known
here. The former is very destructive. Fish abound in the
seas, rivers, and lakes.
History.—In 1502, Columbus visited the E. coast of Cen-
tral America, and passed along the shores of Honduras,
Mosquito territory, Costa Rica, and Veragua, but being op-
posed in his undertakings, both by the inhabitants and his
crew, he was forced to return home. In 1523, Pedro Alva-
rado was despatched by Cortez to conquer Central America,
and within two years had subdued the whole country. After
that it remained subject to Spain till 1823, when it was
formed into a federal republic and became independent;
but in 1833 the republic of Central America was dissolved,
and the separate republics of Guatemala, Honduras, San
Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica were formed. Since
then several attempts have been made to reunite these five
republics in a confederation, but they were not successful.
Only a small portion of Central America (British Hondu-
ras) is a European dependency.
Inhabitants.-The population of Central America con-
sists of whites and creoles; mestizoes, or the offspring of
whites and Indians; aboriginal natives, and a few blacks.
It is estimated that one-twelfth of the inhabitants are
whites, four-twelfths mixed races, and seven-twelfths In-
124
AMERICA.
dians.
ignorant, and superstitious. -
SouTH AMERICA, a vast triangular-shaped, piece of land,
with its apex S., extends from lat. 12° 30' N. to Cape Horn,
in lat. 55° 59' S., a distance of about 4800 miles, its great-
est breadth from E. to W. being about 3300 miles. Its
area is estimated by Behm and Wagner at 6,958,600 square
miles. At least three-fourths lie within the temperate zone.
Its coast-lines, particularly the western, have but few in-
dentations, except near the S., where both on the E. and W. .
sides there are many inequalities. Here also lies an ex-
tensive group of mountainous islands, forming the archi-
pelago of Tierra del Fuego. . These islands are indented on
all sides by numerous bays and narrow inlets. -
Mountains and Volcanoes.—The mountains of South
America. comprise four great systems; the most remark-
able of these are the Andes, which stretch along the Pacific
coast from N. to S., in a continuous chain, for a distance
of about 4200 miles in a nearly straight line. . This range
is of no great width, but of very great altitude, ranking in.
this respect next to the Himalayas, the highest point of the
former, the Sorata, being 24,800 feet high, and the highest
of the latter, Everest, 29,000 feet, high. The second sys-
tem is that of Parime or Parima, also called the Highlands
of Guiana, consisting of numerous irregular groups of
mountains of about 2000 feet in height, which separate the
plains of the lower Orinoco from those of the Rio Negro
and the Amazon. The culminating peak of this range is
Maravaca, about 8200 feet high. The third system is
generally known by the name of the Coast Chain of Vene-
zuela, the culminating point of which is the Silla de Carac-
cas, 8600 feet high. The fourth is that of Brazil, which
consists of two great ranges running nearly parallel to the
coast, and numerous other smaller ranges stretching far
into the interior and crossing the country at different.
angles. It may be well to remark that all the higher
mountains of South America, are confined to the Pacific
and Atlantic coasts, while the interior is occupied by a
series of low, level plains, with an elevation of near 1000
feet, that reach from one extremity of the continent to the
other. The active volcanoes of South America are about
thirty in number. They all occur among the Andes, and
consist of three distinct series—those of Chili, those of.
Peru and Bolivia, and those of Quito. The loftiest of these
mountains is Sahama, one of the Peru and Bolivian series,
23,000 feet high. The heights of the others vary from
13,000 to 18,000 feet.
Plains.—The plains of South America are of vast extent,
stretching for hundreds of miles with but few perceptible
inequalities. During the rainy season they are covered
with verdant grasses, but when the dry season comes on
the grass dies out entirely in some sections, so that they
present the appearance of a desert. These great plains are
variously designated the Pampas of Buenos Ayres, the
Selva's of the Amazons, the Llanos of the Orinoco, etc.
The Pampas of Buenos Ayres are about 900 miles in
breadth, cover an area of about 315,000 square miles, and
have an elevation of about 1000 feet above the sea. The
several regions of these plains are marked by the growth
of different kinds of vegetation, such as thistles, lucerne,
grasses, etc. The thistles in some cases grow so large and
have such formidable spines that they form an almost
impenetrable barrier, individual stalks being ten or twelve
feet high. Thousands of cattle and horses roam over these
grassy plains, where they find inexhaustible quantities of
food. The Selva's of the Amazon, in the centre of the con-
tinent, are so densely covered with wood (hence their name)
that the country in some parts, were it not for the rivers,
would be impenetrable. They extend along the Amazon for
about 1500 miles, and vary in width from 350 to 800 miles.
The Llanos of the Orinoco and Venezuela are also very ex-
tensive, occupying a tract of about 153,000 square miles.
They lie between the deltas of the Orinoco and the river
Coqueta, and present a remarkably level surface. It is
stated that there is scarcely an eminence one foot high in
the space of 270 square miles. Trees are not very numer-
ous, except on the banks of the Orinoco, where the forests
are dense. Besides these, there is also the desert of Pata-
gonia, occupying an estimated area of 100,000 square miles.
This is the most barren of all the plains in America.
Rivers and Lakes.—Of the three most important rivers
of South America, the Amazon, the Orinoco, and the Plata,
the first is the largest on the globe. It takes its rise among
the Andes, and after a course of 4000 miles empties its waters
into the Atlantic directly under the equator. Its waters are
navigable from its mouth, which is 96 miles in width, for a
distance of about 2300 miles. The Orinoco rises among the
Parime Mountains, and has a course of about 1400 miles.
This river has many affluents. that are large streams. It is
connected with the Amazon by one of its affluents, the Rio
Negro, by means of a natural canal, called the Cassiquiare.
Generally speaking, the inhabitants are immoral,
breeze that is always blowing up the river.
This is one of the most remarkable phenomena in physical
geography. The Plata (Rio de la Plata) is more of an es-
...tuary than a river, and is formed by the confluence of the
Paraná and Uruguay Rivers. . It is about 185 miles long,
and at its mouth, between Punta del Este and Cape San
Antonio, it is near 130 miles wide. The navigation of this
stream is obstructed by frequent shoals, and its waters are
so turbid that they tinge the sea for a distance of near 200
miles from its mouth. There are many other important
rivers in South America, of less magnitude than those just
enumerated, but equal, if not superior, in size to Europe's
largest streams. The principal ones are the San Francisco,
the Rio Negro, Colorado, Essequibo, etc. But few lakes of
any considerable size exist in South America, the chief one
being Titicaca, which is situated on the frontiers of Bolivia
and Peru, and covers an area of about 4000 square miles.
It is at an elevation of about 12,800 feet above the level of
the sea, and in some parts is 120 fathoms deep. There are
many small lakes on the table-lands of the Andes and in
the elevated mountain-valleys. . Their water is of the purest
blue and green colors, and in many of them intensely cold,
being near the line of perpetual congelation.
Climate.—The climate of South America is neither so
extremely hot in the N. nor so intensely cold in the S. as-
one would be led to suppose from its geographical position.
This may be attributed to the operation of the trade-winds,
the influence of the lofty Andes, and other physical causes.
The burning heat felt in the plains of Arabia is wholly un-
known in the new continent. Throughout the entire basin
of the Amazon the climate is greatly moderated by the
But in some
of the deep recesses, where the dense forests ward off the
breeze, it is almost suffocating. Brazil and all the coun-
tries west of it have an equable and temperate climate.
The mean temperature of Rio Janeiro is 74° F. The
southern portion of the continent is so acted on by the
Antarctic breezes and immense tracts of surrounding ocean
that its climate is rendered cool and moist. The strip of
land on the W. coast lying between about 7° and 32° S.
lat. and 65° and 68° W. lon. is an exception to this, as rain
never falls there.
Geology.—The geology of South America is as yet but
imperfectly known, but it may be briefly sketched as fol-
lows: In the southern part of the continent, E. of the
Andes, the surface is mainly occupied by drift and the loess-
like deposits of the Pampas, the latter containing the
remains of the great edentates, Megatherium, Glyptodon,
etc.—a fauna almost peculiar to South America, and now
represented by her sloths, armadilloes, and ant-eaters. N.
of Paraguay, and S. of the Amazon, is a broad area under-
laid by crystalline and palaeozoic rocks, a part of which are
of carboniferous age. The valley of the Amazon forms a
great plain, of which the longest diameter is E. and W.,
lying between the palaeozoic highlands which have been
referred to and a somewhat similar region of old metamor-
phic and probably palaeozoic rocks in Northern Brazil and
Venezuela. The immediate banks of the great river are
composed of soft, horizontally stratified red sandstone and
shales, shown by Prof. Orton to be of tertiary age, and
not drift as supposed by Agassiz. Along the coast, near
the mouth of the Amazon, cretaceous rocks were found by
Hartt and others, containing Ammonites, Inoceramus, etc. of
species common to the chalk of Europe. The country bor-
dering the upper Orinoco, both by its geological structure
and by its minerals (gold, itacolumite, etc.), shows a marked
resemblance to the southern portion of the Alleghany belt
in North America. At the northern end of South America
we find near the mouth of the Magdalena tertiary rocks
with beds of lignite; higher up, and near Bogotá, Creta-
ceous strata, with ammonites of European species; still
farther inland, crystalline rocks and the famous emerald-
mines. The great chain of the Andes is composed mainly
of granite and crystalline slates, with vast masses of tra-
chyte, porphyry, basalt, and other rocks of purely igneous
origin. On the W. flanks of the chain carboniferous, triassic,
Jurassic, cretaceous, and tertiary strata have been recog-
nized; all of which are more or less disturbed, and locally,
like the underlying granite, are metalliferous. All the
southern extremity of South America shows marks of gla-
cial action, but the view advanced by Prof. Agassiz, that
the valley of the Amazon was once occupied by a glacier, is
not generally accepted by geologists. Many parts of South
America contain rich deposits of the precious metals and
gems, but the most precious minerals of all, coal and iron,
are far less abundant here than in North America. Brazil
furnishes gold from several districts. Beautiful topazes are
also found there, and the most productive diamond-mines
in the world are in Brazil. Gold and emeralds are obtained
in Venezuela. Chili, Ecuador, and Peru are famous for
their mines of silver, and Chili now produces half the cop-
per consumed in the world. Extensive though not rich de-
AMERICAN-AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES.
125
posits of mercury are also found at various points on the
W. coast.
Vegetation.—As there is such a variety of climate in
South America, no special character can, with propriety,
be given to its vegetation. The most distinguishing fea-
ture are the great forests.
the entire continent, and in some places are so dense that
to force an entrance, even with an axe, to any considerable
distance, is almost an impossibility. Many of the largest
trees are adorned with the most brilliant flowers. In
almost every part of tropical America vegetation is exhib-
ited on the grandest scale. In certain districts, that are
specially favored with due proportions of heat and moist-
ure, the magnitude of the trees and variety and beauty of
the flowers are extraordinary. Fruits, such as Oranges,
lemons, limes, cocoanuts, pineapples, mangoes, bananas,
pomegranates, mammoons, goyabas, jambas, aracas, man-
gabas, and others, grow in great profusion. Many of the
most important and most widely known varieties of fruit
are, however, naturalized, rather than strictly native pro-
ducts. The bitter quassia, rosewood, tonka-beam, indigo,
coffee, sugar-cane, maize, and the cacao tree (from the seed
of which chocolate is made) are important productions.
Tapioca and cassava are also made from the root of the
Janipha Manihot. Several medicinal plants of great value
are natives of this country, among which are cinchona,
or Peruvian bark, ipecacuanha, copaiba, the balsams of
Peru and Tolu, and many others. Among the remarkable
plants we may mention the wax-palm, the vegetable-ivory
palm, the maté or Paraguay tea, and the guarana (both
containing theine, the active principle of tea and coffee,
and both similarly used); also the vanilla-plant; several
caoutchouc-yielding trees; several cow trees, yielding a
valuable milk-like latex or juice; varnish trees, and an
immense number of orchidaceous epiphytes. In short, the
botany of South America is very rich, and is by no means
yet thoroughly known. Its palm trees are numerous and
useful, but are not equal in commercial importance to those
of the Old World. Towards the S. the character of the
forests is greatly changed by the coldness of the climate.
Zoology.—South America has but few formidable beasts
of prey. The most ferocious one peculiar to the country is
Felis onca, or jaguar. It is larger and stronger than the
panther, but inferior in both these respects to the Bengal
tiger. The puma, or American lion, is also found. Mon-
keys of the family Cebidae and of an inferior type are abun-
dant both in species and individuals. Of the winged mam-
mals the most remarkable are the vampire bats. These ani-
mals are mostly confined to Guiana, Colombia, and Brazil,
where they are very troublesome, attacking and sucking the
blood of both men and beasts while they are asleep. In the
low, marshy places are found the anaconda and boa-constric-
tor. Lamas, alpacas, and vicuñas are peculiar; horses, asses,
sheep, oxen, alpacas, goats, and swine are the chief domestic
animals. Horses and cattle have greatly increased; the
former can be bought for a few dollars, and the latter are
mostly valued for their hides and tallow, the flesh being
generally thrown away. South America is especially rich
in birds; the most remarkable one in respect to size is the
condor; one of the largest specimens yet captured measured
about fourteen feet between the tips of the wings. It sel-
dom exceeds eleven, however, the body being from three to
three and a half feet in length. It frequents the most in-
accessible cliffs of the Andes. Eagles, falcons, vultures,
and other rapacious birds are found. Many birds of bright
plumage also exist. Alligators, lizards, electric eels, and
snakes are numerous. Fish abound in the seas, lakes, and
rivers. Immense numbers of centipedes, scorpions, spiders,
ants, termites, and locusts occur. The latter are especially
numerous in Buenos Ayres, sometimes covering the earth
for a distance of -200 miles, and eating every vestige of
green substance that protrudes from the ground. The mos-
quito and chigoe are also much dreaded. .
Races of Men.—Many of the aborigines still exist in
South America. The aboriginal Araucanians of Chili are
more advanced in civilization than the other Indians. They
associate in small communities, are industrious workers,
weave and dye cloth with much skill, have fewer vices
than the other tribes, and are firm and courageous. They
are fond of spirituous liquors, and manufacture a drink
called chicha. Like other Indians of South America, they
have long been acquainted with the art of working the
metals, particularly gold and silver. The Indians of the
Pampas have a dark complexion, are low in stature, and ill
made, but they are muscular and athletic, and are remark-
ably good horsemen. They do not cultivate the soil or ap-
ply themselves to any sort of labor, but lead a roving life,
are cruel and ferocious in disposition, and generally settle
disputes with the knife. In the southern extremity of the
peninsula, below the 38th parallel, is found the Patago-
nian, whose stature and bulk, though very remarkable,
They cover the greater part of |
have been much exaggerated. The average height of this
race is about six feet. The head and features are large, and
the complexion of a dark copper-brown. They lead a no-
madic life, and subsist on the flesh of the animals they
kill.
History.—The first discoverer of . South America was
Columbus himself, who landed at the mouth of the Orinoco
in 1498. Alonzo de Hojeda, an enterprising Spanish cava-
lier, with a fleet of four ships, soon followed in the track
of Columbus, and having reached South America near the
equator, passed the mouths of the Essequibo and Orinoco
rivers, and examined the greater part of the coast of
Venezuela. On this expedition Hojeda was accompanied
by Amerigo Vespucci, who was a native of Florence. He
(Vespucci), being an experienced mariner and a man of
considerable talent, published in the year 1500, after their
return, an account of their voyage and explorations, and
thus his name became inseparably associated with the new
continent. Nearly the whole of South America was until
the beginning of the nineteenth century a dependency of
Spain and Portugal. About 1810 the war of independence
began in the Spanish colonies, which, after about ten years,
ended in the complete overthrow of Spanish rule and the
establishment of a number of republics. Brazil also be-
came (in 1823) independent of Portugal, but retained the
monarchical form of government, and now is the only
monarchy on the entire American continent.
Literature.—See HUMBoIDT, “Examen critique de l'his-
toire de la géographie du Nouveau Continent” (5 vols.,
1836–39); MACGREGOR, “The Progress of America from
the Discovery of Columbus to the year 1846” (2 vols.,
1847); SQUIER, “The States of Central America” (1857);
WAPPAUs, in the new edition of Stein’s and Hörschel-
mann’s “Handbuch der Geographie und Statistik” (1855
seq.); KołłL, “Geschichte der Entdeckung von Amerika”
(1861); “Naturalist's Directory of North America and the
West Indies” (published by the Essex Institute, Salem,
Mass., 1865); J. DISTURNELL, “Influence of Climate in
North and South America, etc.” (1867); DR. D. G. BRIN-
ToN, “The Myths of the New World” (1868); B. F. DE
CoSTA, “The pre-Columbian Discovery of America by the
Northmen, illustrated by translations from the Icelandic
Sagas” (Albany, 1868). REVISED BY J. S. NEWBERRY.
American, a township of Sacramento co., Cal. P. 416.
American Antiquities. Under this appellation are
commonly included the various remains of aboriginal forti-
fications, mounds, etc., as well as those of architecture and
art, whether existing in North, Central, or South America.
This name is obviously too general and of too extensive an
application for a work in which the various articles are de-
signed to be distributed as much as possible under separate
heads, so as to adapt it to convenient and ready reference.
The various architectural and other remains, therefore, of
Mexico and Central and South America will be noticed re-
spectively under MEXICAN ANTIQUITIES, CoPAN, PALENQUE,
PERUVIAN ANTIQUITIES, TIAHUANICO, etc. But as there is
no other more appropriate head under which the peculiar
though widely extended remains found in the valley of the
Mississippi and its tributaries can be treated, it is proposed
to describe them in the present article.
Most of these monuments are mounds and walls of earth.
They are usually found overgrown by the primeval forests,
and in the living and decaying trees which cover them we
have a record that they have been abandoned at least a
thousand years. As they are plainly the relics of a se-
dentary people, very different in their habits and modes of
life from the Indians who occupied all the country at the
time of the advent of the whites, they have been generally
regarded as the work of a distinct and now extinct race, to
whom the name of Mound-Builders has been given. Be-
sides the mounds and other earth-works left by the Mound-
Builders, one occasionally finds very wide walls laid up of
rough stones without mortar, some of which will be refer-
red to farther on. We have proof also that the Mound-
Builders worked the copper-mines of Lake Superior, lead-
mines near Lexington, Ky., and oil-wells in Canada and
North-western Pennsylvania. (Newberry.)
The remains of the Mound-Builders are spread over a
vast extent of country. They are found on the sources
of the Alleghany, in the western part of the State of
New York, and in nearly all the Western States, including
Michigan and Iowa. They were observed by Lewis and
Clarke on the Missouri, 1000 miles above its junction with
the Mississippi. They line the shores of the Gulf of Mexico
from Texas to Florida, whence they extend through Ala-
bama and Georgia into South Carolina. They are espe-
cially numerous in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Mis-
souri, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, Missis-
sippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and Texas. Many of
these remains were evidently designed as works of defence
\
126
**
AMERICAN INDIANS-AMERICAN INSTITUTE.
or as watch-towers in war. No inconsiderable number
appear to have been formed as sepulchral monuments or
places of burial for the dead; while others seem obviously
to have been constructed as temples or places of worship
and sacrifice. Among those evidently works of defence
are the fortifications found in Ross Co., O., near the village
of Bourneville. These occupy the summit of a lofty hill,
the sides of which are remarkably abrupt, so as to be at
some points absolutely inaccessible. The defences consist
of a wall of stone, now in ruins, carried around the hill a
little below its brow, and extending across the neck which
connects the hill with the range beyond. On the eastern
side, where the declivity is least abrupt, the wall is stronger
and higher than on the other sides, except across the neck
(which is about 700 feet wide), where it is strongest of all.
In this portion of the wall are three gateways about eight
feet wide. In one place on the western side, where the ab-
ruptness of the hill makes it wholly inaccessible, the wall
is discontinued for some distance. Everything, indeed,
connected with these works clearly indicates that they were
designed for purposes of defence. It may be added that the
space enclosed within the wall is more than 140 acres, while
the entire line of the fortifications measures about two and
a quarter miles. The enclosure is abundantly supplied with
water, which can readily be obtained at the depth of a few
feet by digging, and is also found in two considerable ponds
or small lakes, one of which covers about two acres. An-
other work of a similar character, in the southern part of
Highland co., O., is known as Fort Hill. The fortifications
are on the summit of a hill 500 feet high. They are com-
i. of mingled earth and stone. Mcasured from the
ottom of the ditch, from which the earth used in building
the embankment has been excavated, the wall is in some
places fifteen feet high, while the average breadth of the
base is from thirty to forty feet. That these fortifications
were constructed several centuries ago is rendered more than
probable by the fact that a chestnut tree twenty-one feet in
circumference was found growing some years since on the em-
bankment, and an oaktree twenty-three feetin circumference,
though now fallen and much decayed, had evidently grown
upon the earth of the fortifications. The entire length of
the wall at Fort Hill is more than a mile and a half: it en-
closes a space of about fifty acres. Among the remains,
which give evidence of their having been constructed, for
religious purposes, are a large number consisting of an em-
bankment or wall of earth in the form of a perfect circle,
adjacent to which there is often a square or parallelogram
made with an embankment similar to that of the circle. In
Ross co., O., east of the Scioto River, near Chillicothe, are
works of this description. The circle is 1050 feet in diam-
eter, the side of the adjoining rectangle being about 900
feet. The wall of the latter is about twelve feet high, with
a base of fifty feet, without any ditch on either side. The
wall of the circle is somewhat lower. Nearly similar to the
above, and of about the same extent, are the celebrated re-
mains at Circleville, O., though they have (or rather had,
for the lines have become almost obliterated by the repeated
cultivation of the ground) this peculiarity, that the circle
is formed by a double embankment, with a ditch between.
One of the most remarkable works of this kind is the
Great Serpent, situated on the summit of a hill in Adams
co., O. . It extends 700 feet, terminating in a triple coil at
the tail. The line of the body is gently and gracefully
undulating, and the entire length, if extended in a straight
line, would not be less than 1000 feet. Its jaws are widely
distended, and it seems attempting to swallow an oval
figure (perhaps designed to represent an egg) which is 160
feet long and 80 wide. The embankment which forms the
body of the serpent is five or six feet high, with a base of
from twenty to thirty feet. It would seem that it might
have been designed as some mystical emblem. No small
number of the remains consist of mounds, generally nearly
conical in their form, at other times resembling a parallelo-
gram. Of the former class is the great mound at Grave
Creek, in Ohio, about twelve miles below Wheeling. It is
about 70 feet high and 1000 feet in circumference at the
base. In 1838 a shaft was sunk from the apex to the base;
two sepulchral chambers were found constructed of logs,
and covered with stones; the lower chamber contained two
skeletons, the upper but one, in an advanced stage of decay.
It is supposed that as a general rule each mound was raised
over a single individual, although some may have been de-
signed as general cemeteries.
Near Cahokia, in Illinois, is a very extensive earthwork
in the form of a parallelogram, 700 feet long by 500 wide
at the base, with a height of 90 feet. The top is level, hav-
ing an area of near five acres.
Many implements and ornaments have been found in the
mounds. They are usually composed of stone, though some-
times of copper, more rarely still of shell or bone. The cop-
per is always in its native state—never alloyed, nor even
cast—and shows specks of silver, such as are found only in
the copper of Lake Superior. The stone implements—ex-
cept the flint spear and arrow heads—are wrought with
much care and skill. Pottery is found in most of the
mounds; it is sometimes graceful in form and highly orna-
mented, oftener coarse and rude. Masses of galena, calc-
spar, quartz crystals, sheets of mica, and marine shells
found in the mounds, with copper and stone implements
composed of materials brought from distant localities, in-
dicate some internal but no foreign commerce. Fragments
of coarse cloth have been discovered, but all fine fabrics
are wanting, perhaps from the lapse of time. No bones
taken from the mounds indicate that their builders had
domestic animals. In many instances the human skele-
tons have almost entirely disappeared, attesting their great
antiquity. No tablets or inscriptions yet discovered indi-
cate that the Mound-Builders had a written language, and
the inscriptions on rocks so common in the country they
occupied, and usually referred to them, are of rude execu-
tion, mythical character, and of doubtful parentage; SO
that they throw little light on the history of this ancient
Iſa,C62.
From all the facts before us, we can at present say little
more than this: that the valley of the Mississippi and the
Atlantic coast were once densely populated by a sedentary,
agricultural, and partially civilized race, quite different
from the modern nomadic Indians, though possibly the
progenitors of some of the Indian tribes; and that after
many centuries of occupation they disappeared from our
country at least one thousand, perhaps, many thousands,
of years before the advent of the Europeans. The pre-
historic remains found so abundantly in Arizona appear
to be related to the civilization of Mexico; and the remnants
of semi-civilized Indian tribes now found there are perhaps
descendants of the ancient builders of the great houses and
cities whose ruins are there found. (See SQUIER, “Memoir
of the Ancient Monuments of the West,” and “Aborig-
inal Monuments of the State of New York,” 1849; BALD-
wrN, “Ancient America,” 1872; DAVIs, “The Monuments .
of the Mississippi Valley;” Foster, “Pre-historic Races of
the U. S.” (1873). REVISED BY J. S. NEWBERRY.
American Indians. See INDIANs, by J. HAMMOND
TRUMBULL, LL.D. -
American Indians, Languages of.
LANGUAGES, by J. HAMMOND TRUMBULL, LL.D
American Institute. The American Institute was or—
ganized on the 19th of Feb., 1828, by a few prominent busi-
ness-men of the city of New York, who were strongly im-
pressed with the importance of fostering American manu-
factures; and they proposed to direct immediate attention
to this subject by a public display of the best specimens of
domestic skill and industry. In October of the same year
the first exhibition was held in the Masonic Hall, then lo-
cated on Broadway, and at its close gold and silver medals
valued at more than $1000 were awarded to the successful
competitors. As the expenses incurred at this exhibition
were less than the receipts for the admission of visitors,
the association wisely inferred that industrial expositions
by judicious management could be made self-sustaining, and
accordingly it took measures for ensuring a permanent or-
ganization. -
By an act of the N. Y. legislature, passed May 2, 1829,
the American Institute of the city of New York was incor-
porated “for the purpose of encouraging and promoting do-
mestic industry in this State and in the U. S. in agriculture,
commerce, manufactures, and the arts, and any improve-
ments therein, by bestowing rewards and other benefits on
those who shall make such improvements or excel in any
of the said branches; and by such other ways and means
as to the said corporation, or the trustees thereof, shall ap-
pear most expedient.” Under this act, and without ex-
ternal aid, the Institute continued its operations, depending
chiefly for support on the attractions of its annual fairs, yet
from time to time enlarging the sphere of its usefulness,
until its beneficial influence was felt and acknowledged
throughout the whole country. Forty-one exhibitions have
been held, a number far exceeding that of any other, or-
ganization in the world. A single comparison will show
the actual progress made in this department of the Insti-
tute. Its first exhibition (in 1828) was open for three
days, and the number of entries of articles for competition
was less than one hundred; its exhibition in 1872 Con-
tinued for nearly three months, and the number of entries
exceeded 1400, and embraced more than 5000 different ar-
ticles. - -
Although several public displays illustrating progress in
the useful arts had been made previous to the foundation
of the American Institute, yet it is fairly entitled to the
credit of having first inaugurated the system of self-sus-
taining annual exhibitions, which has since been success-
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AMERICANISM-AMEs.
127
fully imitated by other associations. . Its persistent efforts
in fostering the genius of invention which has wrought
such magical changes in the material condition of this
and other lands, probably suggested the plan of inter-
national expositions. Doubtless these have accomplished
much by their general diffusion of practical knowledge;
nevertheless, as financial investments not one of them has
been remunerative.
One feature peculiar to the competitive displays of the
American Institute which deserves especial commendation
is the requirement of satisfactory practical tests of steam-
engines, pumps, and other working machinery, also of
harvesters and other agricultural implements, in which
the power expended in the operation of each is carefully
measured, thus furnishing a criterion for impartial awards.
It was early found that the interests of agriculture re-
quired a free and frequent interchange of opinions as to
the best methods of tilling the soil; accordingly the Farm-
ers’ Club was established. For many years it has held
weekly meetings, at which communications from all parts
of the Union are read and made the subjects of interesting
discussions. Full reports of these discussions appear in
leading metropolitan weekly journals, and by this means
it is estimated that in the year 1872 each meeting interested
not less than a million readers. Through the agency of
this club many farmers, even in most remote States, have
been supplied with improved varieties of cereals and other
seeds, the number of packages gratuitously distributed by
mail in a single year having reached 12,000.
The Polytechnic Association is another important branch
of the Institute, which holds weekly sessions for the pur-
pose of examining new inventions and discoveries, and of
discussing all questions relating to technology. To these
and other organizations under the control of the Institute
the public have free access.
During each winter the Institute gives a course of scien-
tific lectures, which is free to the members and their fami-
lies. The high character of each course has been main-
tained by selecting as lecturers professors in colleges and
other gentlemen of acknowledged ability and culture. The
library of the Institute contains about 10,000 volumes, the
most of which relate to science and its useful applications.
By vote of the members works of fiction are now excluded.
Since the year 1841 the Institute has made annual re-
ports of its transactions to the legislature. The volumes
printed by their authority have been widely circulated
throughout the State and among kindred associations in
this country and Europe. Within the last ten years these
volumes, containing an average of 1200 pages each, have
been increasing in interest and value. It has been the aim
of the corresponding secretary, under whose supervision
they are prepared, to give in each a summary of progress
in Science and art, both at home and abroad, and at the
same time to exclude from them all discussions on abstract
questions or disputed points which might tend to excite
religious, political, or social prejudices.
The Institute had about 3000 members in 1873, and the
value of its property was then estimated at $300,000. It
has never received a bequest or endowment, but in antici-
pation of such an event the legislature of New York, by an
act passed April 21, 1866, enlarged its powers, and directed
that all donations, bequests, and devises hereafter made for
its benefit should be taken and held by a board of regents,
among whom are the governor of the State and the mayor
of the city of New York.
The exhibition buildings owned and occupied by the In-
stitute in 1873 extend from Second to Third avenue, and
from Sixty-third to Sixty-fourth street, their length being
610 feet, and the extreme width 200 feet. They are, how-
ever, of a temporary character, and it is proposed to erect
at no distant day a permanent fire-proof structure of such
ample dimensions as to accommodate under one roof all the
departments of the Institute.
It will be seen by this brief sketch that the American
Institute is exactly adapted to meet certain intellectual
Wants of almost every class of citizens, and at the same
time to give material aid to the inventor and manufacturer.
It does not seek to educate the young, but rather to diffuse
among those who have arrived at maturity a knowledge
of the latest triumphs of science, the most important im-
provements in the arts, and the best machines and methods
for increasing material productions. Its mission is not
limited to its own members, for its highest aim is the pub-
lic good.
The names of those who have labored long and faith-
fully for its success are too numerous to be here enumerated.
Prominent among its early friends were Thaddeus B.
Wakemann, its first corresponding secretary, who held that
office for twenty years, and Gen. James Tallmadge, for
twenty years its president. Among those who have more
recently increased its fame and influence by their pens and
personal efforts we may mention the late Horace Greeley,
president of the Institute from 1866 to 1871, and the dis-
tinguished scientist and divine, the Rev. F. A. P. Barnard,
LL.D., who at this time (1873) most worthily fills the same
responsible post. SAMUEL D. TILLMAN.
Amer’icamism, a term applied to certain peculiar ex-
pressions or forms of the English language prevailing in
the U. S.; such as fall, for “autumn;” clever, for “kind.”
or “obliging;” to fic, instead of to “arrange” or “put in
order,” to “dress;” go ahead, etc., etc. It may, however,
be remarked that some of the so-called “Americanisms”
are nothing more than old English words, the original sig-
nification of which has become partly or wholly obsolete in
England, while it is still retained in America; for example,
sick, sickness, instead of the modern English “ill,” “ill-
ness;” and ride, which originally signified to be conveyed
either in a carriage or on horseback, but limited to the lat-
ter exclusively by the present English usage. Both of
these words are often used in the common translation of
the Bible in what we may call their American signification.
Others are words which in England are provincial or local,
but which are in extensive, if not universal, use in the
U. S.; to wilt, in the sense of to “droop” or “wither,” is
an instance of this kind. It is an obvious error to call
those words “Americanisms” which have been introduced
as the name of something which does not exist or is com-
paratively little used in England, as prairie, molasses, etc.
The following are some of the most remarkable Ameri-
canisms extensively prevailing in the U. S. : Baggage, used
instead of the English word “luggage” to denote the trunks
or what contains the wearing apparel, etc. of one who is
travelling.—Boss (a corruption of the Dutch bags, a “mas-
ter”), one who has the employment or direction of a set of
workmen.—Creek, which signifies in England a small arm
or inlet of the sea, is used almost universally in the U. S.
for a “ small river.”—Hack, signifying, according to Eng-
lish usage, a horse let out for hire, is employed in the U. S.
for a “hackney coach,” of which it is doubtless an abbre- .
viation.—Sleigh is in universal use in the U. S. for what
the English call a “sledge.”— Woods is almost invariably
used in America instead of the English words “wood’” and
“forest.”
Many expressions are reproachfully termed American-
isms which have the sanction of some of the best English
writers; we may cite, among others, talented, which Cole-
ridge condemned as an Americanism, but which is as legiti-
mately formed as gifted, a word fully sanctioned by the
usage of the best English authors; and in this connection,
which, if not a very elegant expression, has at least the
merit of brevity, and was used by Hazlitt long before the
reproach of its being an Americanism was attempted to be
fastened upon it. (See BARTLETT's “Dictionary of Ameri-
canisms;” PICKERINg’s “Vocabulary of Words and Phrases
peculiar to the U. S.;” Low ELL’s Introduction to the “Big-
low Papers,” second series.) -* J. THOMAS.
American River, in the N. central part of California,
formed by the union of its North and South Forks in the
western part of El Dorado county; it flows in a S. W. direc-
tion, and empties into the Sacramento River a short dis-
tance above Sacramento City. Gold is found along the
banks of this river and its forks.
Amerſicus, capital of Sumter co., Ga., on the South-
western R. R., 70 miles S. S. W. of Macon, has six churches,
one female college, one male high School, several common
schools, one large carriage manufactory, and 150 stores and
shops of all kinds. It has one weekly paper and one na-
tional bank. Pop. 3259.
John R. WoRRIL, FOR ED. OF “SUMTER REPUBLICAN.”
Americus, a post-village and township of Lyon co.,
Ran., on the Missouri Kansas and Texas R. R., 8 miles
N. W. of Emporia. The Neosho River furnishes valuable
water-power. Pop. of township, 884.
Americus, a post-village, capital of Jackson co., Miss.,
near the Pascagoula River, about 150 miles S. E. of Jack-
SOI). -
Americus Vespucius. See WESPUCCI.
A/mersfort', or A/mersfoort', a town and port of
the Netherlands, in the province of Utrecht, on the river
Eem, 12 miles N. E. of Utrecht. It has a Jansenist semi-
nary, a Latin school, and manufactures of cotton and wool-
len stuffs. Tobacco, grain, and dried herrings are exported
from this town. Pop. in 1867, 13,258. -
Ames, a post-village of Washington township, Story
co., Ia., on the Iowa division of the Chicago and North-
western R. R. It has one weekly newspaper, and is the
seat of the State Agricultural College. Pop. 636.
Ames, a post-village of Canajoharie township, Mont-
gomery co., N. Y., is the seat of an academy. Pop. 150.
Ames, a township of Athens co., O. Pop. 1229.
128
AMES-AMHERST.
Ames (ADELBERT), an American officer, born Oct. 31,
1835, at Rockland, Me., graduated at West Point 1861,
lieutenant-colonel Twenty-fourth Infantry July 28, 1866, .
and brigadier-general U. S. volunteers May 20, 1863;
served in the artillery in the Manassas campaign 1861, en-
gaged at Bull Run (wounded and brevet major), in defences
of Washington 1861–62, in command of battery in the Vir-
ginia Peninsula 1862, engaged at Yorktown, Gaines’ Mill,
and Malvern Hill (brevet lieutenant-colonel), as colonel
Twentieth Maine Volunteers Aug. 29, 1862, in Maryland
campaign 1862, engaged at Antietam, in Rappahannock
campaign 1862–63, engaged at Fredericksburg, Chancel-
lorsville, and Beverly Ford, in Pennsylvania campaign
1863, engaged at Gettysburg (brevet colonel), in operations
in the department of the South 1863–64, in command of a
division in the operations before Petersburg 1864, engaged
at Port Walthall Junction, Cold Harbor, and Darbytown
road, in expeditions to Fort Fisher 1864–65, engaged in
the assault and capture of the place (brevet brigadier-gen-
eral U. S. A. and brevet major-general U.S. volunteers),
and in operations in North Carolina 1865–66. Breveted
major-general Mar. 13, 1865, for gallant and meritorious
services in the field. Since the war was made provisional
governor of Mississippi June 15, 1868, in command of fourth
military district, department of Mississippi, 1869. Re-
signed Feb. 23, 1870, and was elected to the U. S. Senate
from Mississippi on the reconstruction of that State, and
took his seat April, 1870.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Ames (EDw ARD R.), D. D., a bishop of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, born at Athens, O., May 20, 1806. He was
educated at Ohio University, was tutor at McKendree Col-
lege (1823–29), began to preach in 1830, and was appointed
a bishop in 1852. Since 1861 he has resided in Baltimore.
Ames (FISHER), L.L.D., an eminent orator and states-
man, born in Dedham, Mass., April 9, 1758. He graduated
at Harvard College in 1774, after which he studied law in
the office of William Tudor of Boston, and was admitted
to the bar in 1781. In several political essays which he
wrote for the newspapers of Boston about 1785 he dis-
played practical wisdom and literary ability of a high
order. He was a member of the convention of Massachu-
setts which in 1788 ratified the Federal Constitution, and
he advocated its adoption in an eloquent speech. Having
identified himself with the Federal party, he was elected a
member of Congress in 1789 by the voters of the district
which included Boston. He supported the administration
of Washington, spoke frequently in Congress, and soon ac-
quired a national reputation as an orator of the foremost
rank. Among the most memorable of his parliamentary
efforts was a powerful speech in support of Jay’s treaty
with England, April, 1796, which has been preserved. At
the close of this speech an opponent of the treaty moved
to postpone the vote on the question, giving as a reason
that the members were too much excited to make a just
and rational decision. After he had served four-terms in
Congress he retired to private life in 1797, on account of
his delicate health. He married Frances Worthington
of Springfield in 1792. In 1799 he pronounced a eulogy
on Washington before the legislature of Massachusetts.
He was elected president of Harvard College in 1804, but
he declined that position. He died on the 4th of July,
1808, leaving several sons. His character was eminently
pure and honorable. He was distinguished for his wit, his
colloquial powers, and his brilliant imagination. His ora-
tions abound in happy metaphors and illustrations. His
works, consisting of orations, essays, and letters, were pub-
lished by his son, Seth Ames, in 2 vols., 1854.
Ames (Joseph), born in Roxbury, N. H., in 1816, be-
came an artist, studied in Rome, painted excellent portraits
and genre, pictures, became a resident of Boston, Mass.,
and afterwards of Baltimore, and died in New York City,
Oct. 30, 1872. Among his best works are portraits of
Pius IX., Rufus Choate, and Ristori as “Medea,” “Maud
Muller,” and “The Old Stone Pitcher.”
Ames (NATHAN P.), an American machinist, born in
1803, was remarkable for his sound judgment and practical
ability. He owned extensive manufactories of firearms,
bronze statuary, cannon, machinery, and edge-tools at
Chicopee Falls and Cabotville, Mass. Died April 23, 1847.
Ames (OAKES) was born in Easton, Mass., Jan. 10,
1804. His father was a blacksmith, and the son was
brought up to the same trade. The elder Ames had estab-
lished his reputation as a maker of shovels; and his two
sons, Oakes and Oliver, Jr., continued the manufacture of
these and other implements, chiefly agricultural, upon a
large scale, and acquired great wealth. He was a member
of Congress from Massachusetts (1862–73), and his opinion
upon financial matters had great weight. Mr. Ames was
largely interested in the building of the Union Pacific R. R.
and in the Credit Mobilier enterprise. Died at North Easton,
Mass., May 8, 1873. •
Amesbury, a township of Washington co., Me. Since
1850 depopulated.
Amesbury, a post-township of Essex co., Mass., ex-
tending from the navigable Merrimack, River, its southern
boundary, to the State of New Hampshire, is 40 miles by
rail N. of Boston. There is a horse railroad extending to
Newburyport, 5 miles distant, and also a branch railroad
connecting with the Eastern R. R. Here are extensive
manufactures of flannels, carriages, boots, and shoes, cassi-
meres, broadcloths, etc. It has two weekly newspapers and
seven churches. Amesbury is the residence of the poet
Whittier. It has a national and a savings bank. Pop. of
township, 5581. W. H. B. CuPRIER, ED. “WILLAGER.”
Am’ethyst [Gr. 3 webworros, from a, priv., and weóðako, to
“make drunk”], a purple variety of rock-crystal or quartz,
colored by manganese, so named from its reputed virtue of
preventing intoxication. It is found in Brazil, Ceylon, In-
dia, and many other places, and is worn in the form of
seals and ornamental articles. The Oriental amethyst is a
variety of spinel, and is a more valuable gem than the com-
mon amethyst. tº .
Amha’ra, the central division of Abyssinia, capital
Gondar. (See ABYSSINIA.)
Amhar’ic Laia’guage, so called from the province of
Amhara, has been, since the extinction of the ETHIOPIC
LANGUAGE (which see), the chief language of Abyssinia,
and is spoken by the majority of the population in the
countries between the rivers Tacazze and Abai, and in the
former kingdom of Shoa, while in the countries in the N.
E. of Abyssinia, N. of the Tacazze, the Tigre language
predominates. Among the Semitic languages, the Amharic
is nearest related, both grammatically and lexicographi-
cally, to the Ethiopic, but is by no means a new form of
the Ethiopic, but rather a descendant of the Old Amharic,
which is closely allied to the Ethiopic. Although the Am-
haric has retained many peculiarities of the Old Semitic, it
still represents a later stage of development of the southern
Semitic than does the Ethiopic. In all its phonetic rela-
tions the Amharic has degenerated very much, while many
of its grammatical forms have been abolished, and have
been only in part replaced by new forms. After the Am-
haric language had been used for many centuries by the
people, and after the extinction of the Ethiopic, it became
a written language, the Ethiopic alphabet being employed,
while for the sounds peculiar to the Amharic new characters
were introduced by a modification of the Ethiopic characters.
Although the Amharic cannot be called a literary language
in the true sense of the word, still many works have been
written in it within the last three centuries, partly transla-
tions and explanations of biblical and other Ethiopic books
and vocabularies, partly short historical works, dogmatical
and ethical compendia, formulae for confession, etc. for the
people, and partly medical and magical treatises. In the
Ethiopic-Amharic books of the history of the native kings
some of the older Amharic poems are given. But of these
works very little is known in Europe. Up to the present
time, only missionary works have been printed. The Am-
harie has been treated grammatically and lexicographically
by LUDoIF (1698), more completely by IsINBERG (Lexicon,
1841; Grammar, 1842).
Am/herst, a town and seaport of British Burmah, is
on the E. shore of the Bay of Bengal, 30 miles S. S. W. of
Maulmain. It was founded in 1826. The harbor is ex-
posed to the S. W. monsoon. Pop. about 30,000.
Amherst, a village of Cumberland co., Nova Scotia, is
situated near the N. W. extremity of the Bay of Fundy, on
the Intercolonial R. R. It has one weekly newspaper, a
considerable lumber-trade, agriculture, coal-mining, manu-
facturing, and shipbuilding. Pop. about 2000.
Amherst, a county of the central part of Virginia, has
an area of 418 square miles. It is bounded on the S. W.
and S. E. by the James River, and on the N. W. by the
Blue Ridge. The surface is diversified, and presents beau-
tiful scenery where the James River passes through the
Blue Ridge. Grain, tobacco, and wool are produced. Cap-
ital, Amherst. Pop. 14,900.
Amherst, a post-township of Hancock co., Me. P. 350.
Amherst, a post-village and township of Hampshire
co., Mass., on the New London Northern R. R., 85 miles N.
of New London, and on the Mass. Central R. R., 82 miles
W. of Boston. It is the seat of Amherst College and of
the Mass. Agricultural College. (See AMHERST COLLEGE.)
The town has one high school, four grammar schools, four
intermediate and nine primary Schools. It has one na-
tional and one savings bank, nine churches, two newspa-
pers, three paper and two planing mills, one manufactory
of leather, four of children’s wagons, one of palm-leaf hats,
A.MHERST-AMIC ACIDS.
129
and one of planes. Amherst is also one of the healthiest
and best agricultural towns in Mass. The village is sit-
uated upon an elevation which affords a beautiful view of
the fertile and picturesque valley of the Conn, and of the
surrounding mountains—the Holyoke range to the S. W.,
and on the N. Mettawampe, Sugar Loaf, and others. Pop.
of township, 4635. , W. H. HoRBIE.
Amherst, a post-township of Fillmore co., Minn. Pop.
III.5. -
Amherst, one of the three shire-towns of Hillsborough
co., N. H., a beautiful village 48 miles from Boston, 11
from Nashua, and 30 from. Concord, on the Wilton R. R.
It has Congregational, Baptist, and Methodist churches,
court and town-house, high school house and a fine hotel.
The township contains Babboosuck Lake and a mineral
spring. It is a fine summer resort. It has one weekly
paper, and was the birthplace of Horace Greeley. Pop.
of township, 1353.
E. D. Boy LSTON, PUB. “FARMERs’ CABINET.”
Amherst, a township of Erie co., N. Y. It contains a
copious sulphur spring, natural gas-works, which yield
illuminating gas, and has also quarries of hydraulic lime-
stone. Williamsville, the principal village, contains an
academy, four churches, and a number of manufactories.
Pop. 4555.
Amherst, a post-township of Lorain co., O. Pop. 2482.
Amherst, the county-seat of Amherst co., Va., 13
miles N. of Lynchburg, on the W. C. W. M. and G. R. R. It
contains two churches (Episcopal and Methodist), a high-
school, one newspaper, and a fine public hall. Pop. of town-
ship, 3632. ED. “ FNTERPRISE.”
Amherst, a post-township of Portage co., Wis. P. 982.
Amherst, EARLs of, and Viscounts Holmesdale (1826,
in the peerage of the United Kingdom) and Barons Am-
herst (1788, in the peerage of Great Britain), a noble fam-
ily of Great Britain.
Amherst (JEFFERY), called Lord Amherst, a British
general, born in Kent Jan. 29, 1717. He entered the army
in 1731, became a colonel in 1756, and a major-general in
1758. He rendered important services in the war against
the French which resulted in the conquest of Canada in
1760, and at the end of that war was appointed com-
mander-in-chief of the British army in America. He be-
came governor of Virginia in 1763, was created Baron
Amherst in 1776, and was commander-in-chief of the army
in England from 1776 to 1782. In 1796 he obtained the
rank of field-marshal. Died Aug. 3, 1797.
Amherst (WILLIAM PITT), FIRST EARL OF, a nephew
of the preceding, was born in England Jan. 14, 1773. He
was sent as ambassador to China in 1816, and reached
Pekin, but he failed to effect the object of his mission, as
he refused to comply with the degrading ceremonies which
Chinese etiquette prescribed, and was not admitted into the
presence of the emperor. He was governor-general of In-
dia in 1823–26, and was created an earl in 1826. Died
Mar. 13, 1857.-His son, WILLIAM PITT, born Sept. 3, 1805,
succeeded him as second earl.—His eldest son, WILLIAM
ARCHER, Wiscount Holmesdale, born Mar. 25, 1836, was
from 1859 to 1868 member of the House of Commons for
West Kent, and was in 1868 re-elected as member for Mid-
Kent. -
Am'herstburg, a town of Essex co., Ontario, Canada,
on the Detroit River, 5 miles from its entrance into Lake
Erie, and 225 miles W. S. W. of Toronto. It contains.a.
court-house, five or more churches, and one newspaper-
office. Pop. in 1871, 1936.
Amherst College, one of the leading colleges in the
United States, is situated in Amherst, Hampshire co.,
Massachusetts. It was founded in 1821, and at its semi-
centennial in 1871 it had 1936 alumni, of whom 1450 are
supposed to be living. Of the 1936 graduates up to the
last triennial, 751 were ministers, 75 missionaries in foreign
lands, 129 doctors of medicine, 186 lawyers, and 208 pro-
fessors and teachers; 195 served in the late war, and 26
sacrificed their lives in the service. The college edifices, 12
in number, have been erected at a cost of $300,000. The
pecuniary value of the scientific and archaeological collec-
tions cannot be estimated at less than $125,000, and the
whole property of the institution, including permanent
funds, professorships, scholarships, prizes, etc., is more
than a million of dollars. All this is the gift of private
charity and munificence, with the exception of about
$50,000 granted by the State. The donors have been the
Christian men and women of Massachusetts. The largest
benefactors are Hon. Samuel Williston and Dr. William J.
Walker; the former has given $150,000, and the latter a
quarter of a million. The Hitchcock Ichnological Cabinet,
the Adams Collection in Conchology, and the Shepard
Mineralogical and Meteoric Collections, are known the
world over as of unsurpassed value and excellence. The
Barrett Gymnasium, with its accompanying system of ex-
ercise and instruction, constitutes a feature peculiar to this
institution; all the students, unless excused for special
reasons, are required to exercise half an hour daily, chiefly
in the light gymnastics, under the direction of a professor
who is an educated physician, and who has charge of their
health and physical culture. The faculty of Amherst Col-
lege at present consists of 21 persons, including the presi-
dent, 12 professors, 3 lecturers, 4 instructors, and an assist-
ant librarian. The number of students in 1871, the year
of jubilee, all in the four classes of the regular college
course, was 261–65 seniors, 49 juniors, 76 sophomores, and
71 freshmen. The annual income is about $50,000. The
presidents of the college have been Rev. Zephaniah Swift
Moore, D.D. (1821–23); Rev. Heman Humphrey, D.D.
(1823–45); Rev. Edward Hitchcock, D.D., LL.D. (1845–
54); and Rev. William A. Stearms, D.D., LL.D.
The Massachusetts Agricultural College, although the
offspring of Amherst College, and situated in the same place
for the purpose of securing the advantage of its scientific
treasures, has no organic connection with it, having a sepa-
rate faculty and a distinct board of trustees, elected by the
legislature of the State. It was opened for students in the
fall of 1867, and held its first commencement, with the
graduation of its first class, in the summer of 1871. It has
three college halls, two boarding-houses, the Durfee Plant-
house, and a botanic museum, besides the buildings per-
taining to the farm, which consists of over 300 acres. The
students work on the farm a certain number of hours
each week, under the direction of the superintendent and
the professor of agriculture. They also receive regular
military exercise and drill under the professor of military
science and tactics. The real estate of the college cost
about $200,000. Its permanent funds, derived from the
sale of lands given by Congress, from grants by the State,
and from private donations, amount to half a million. The
faculty, as exhibited in the catalogue of 1871, consists of
28 persons, including the president, Dr. William S. Clark, 7
professors, 2 instructors, 16 non-resident lecturers, a gar-
dener, and a farm superintendent. There were then 147
students—30 seniors, 34 juniors, 27 sophomores, 32 fresh-
men, 22 select, and 2 resident graduates. (See “History
of Amherst College,” by Prof. W. S. TYLER, D.D., 1872.)
- W. S. TYLER.
Amherst Islands, a group in the Yellow Sea, near
the S. W. coast of the peninsula of Corea. -
A/mia Cal’va, the scientific name of a species of fish.
found in the fresh waters of North America. It is one of
the few living ganoids, is interesting from its relationship
to the ancient fossil fishes, and remarkable for the cellular
structure of its air-bladder, which somewhat resembles the
lung of a reptile. It is known as the “dog-fish” or “law-
yer,” and is worthless as food.
Amian'thus [Gr. 3p.tavros, “undefiled,” from a, priv.,
and pºtativo, to “defile ”], a delicate and fibrous form of ser–
pentine, so called because cloth made of it can be purified
by fire. It is sometimes called mountain flax. The cloths
in which the ancients wrapped the bodies that were burned
on the funeral pyre were sometimes made of amianthus.
Am/ic Ac/ids, acids in which a portion of the hydroxyl
(OH) has been replaced by amidogen (NH2). When dry
ammonia gas is passed over a thin layer of sulphuric an-
hydride (SO3), the gas is absorbed, and a white crystalline
compound results which contains N2H3S03 = (NH4)2SO4–
H2O, or ammonic sulphate, less one molecule of water. On
dissolving it in water it fails to give the reactions of sul-
phuric acid; it is the ammonium salt of a new acid, sul-
phamic acid. Its relation to sulphuric acid is thus shown:
Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 == #3} S02,
e e H
Sulphamic acid, H.NH2.SO3= #, } S02.
Sulphamic acid is monobasic, and forms numerous salts:
Ammonic sulpha mate, NH4. NH2-SO3,
Potassic. & 4 K.NH2.S08,
Baric &&. Ba(NH2.S03)2.
Dry carbonic anhydride (CO2) unites with dry ammonia
(NH3), forming ammonic carbamate, NH4...NH2. CO3=
N2H3CO2, or equivalent to ammonic carbonate, (NH4)2CO3,
less H2O. This salt contains carbamic acid, the relation
of which to carbonic acid is thus shown:
Carbonic acid, H2CO3 –53) C0,
Carbamic acid, HNH2CO,-º, CO.
Ammonic carbamate exists in common ammonic carbonate,
and was formerly called anhydrous carbonate of ammonia.
It dissolves readily in water, and by combining one mole-
9
*
130
cule of water passes into ammonic carbonate, NH4...NH2:-
CO2 + H2O = (NH4)2CO3.
When both molecules of hydroxyl in a bibasic acid are
replaced by amidogen, a neutral amide results. Carbamide
or urea, (NH2)2CO, is such an amide. Bibasic acids may
thus form an amic acid or a neutral amide, according as
one or both molecules of hydroxyl are replaced by amid-
ogen. Tribasic acids may form two amic acids and a neu-
tral amide. Monobasic acids containing only one hydroxyl
yield no amic acids, only neutral amides.
C. F. CHANDLER.
Am'ice, or Amic’tus, an upper garment worn by the
Romans over the tunic; also a linen vestment worn over
the shoulders of Roman Catholic priests during the cele-
bration of the mass.
Amiſci (GIovaNNI BATTISTA), an Italian optician and
Savant, born at Módema Mar. 25, 1784. He was skilful in
the fabrication of mirrors and lenses for telescopes and
microscopes. He was for many years director of the ob-
servatory of Florence, where he gained distinction as an
observer. He wrote on double stars and other topics of
astronomy. The achromatic microscope which he con-
structed was considered a valuable improvement. Died
April 10, 1863.
Am'ides, compounds derived from ammonia, NH3, by
the replacement of one or more atoms of H by a metal or
by a compound radical, acid, or basic. According to the
character of the replacing body, they are either—
1. Amides proper, in which one or more hydrogen atoms
are replaced by an acid radical; as,
Acetamide, N.C2H30.H.2,
Diacetamide, N.(C2H3O)2.H.
2. Amines, in which one or more hydrogen atoms are
replaced by a basic radical; as,
Potassamine, N.K.H.2,
Diamylamine, N.(C5H11)2.H.
3. Alkalamides, in which hydrogen is replaced by both.
acid and basic radicals; as,
Mercurobenzamide, N.Hg. C7H50.H.,
Ethylformamide, N.C2H5.CHO.H.
Monamides are derived from one molecule of ammonia,
- NHHH.
Diamides 6& - &&. two {& 6& N2H2H2H2.
Triamides & 4 &&. three & « N3H3B3H3.
Amines and alkalamides present corresponding classes.
According as one-third, two-thirds, or all the hydrogen
of the ammonia is replaced, the amide, diamide, or triam-
ide is said to be primary, secondary, or tertiary. Amides
are well illustrated by *
C2H30
Acetamide, N.C2H30.H2 = N × H
H
It is a white crystalline solid, which melts at 172° F., and
boils at 4309 F. - Heated with acids or alkalies, it unites
the elements of water, forming acetic acid and ammonia,
N.C2H30. H2 + H2O = NH3 + H.C2H402. It is formed by the
action of heat on ammonic acetate, and, by other methods:
NH4.C2H302 = N.C2H30. H2 + H2O. It acts both as a base
and as an acid. By uniting. with hydrochloric and nitric
acids it forms compounds analogous to ammonic salts,
while by admitting silver in place of hydrogen, silver-acet-
amide is produced. (See AMINEs.) C. F. CHANDLER.
Amidine. See STARCH. . - -
Amid/ogen [contracted from ammonia and the Gr.
yevváo, to “produce”], a compound of one atom of nitro-
gen and two atoms of hydrogen. Its symbol is NH2. It
has not been obtained in a separate state, but may be
traced in combination with other substances, with which it
forms important organic compounds called amides. Potas-
siamide, NH2K, is a compound of the metal potassium
with amidogen. Ammonia is a compound of NH3 with
H. (See AMIC ACIDS, AMIDES, and AMINEs, by C. F. CHAN-
DLER.) -
Amiens (ane. Samarobri’va and Ambia’ni), an ancient
and important town of Northern France, capital of, the
department of Somme, is on the river Somme, and on the
Paris and Boulogne R. R., 81 miles by rail N. of Paris.
It was once very strongly fortified, and still has a citadel.
It is the seat of a bishop, and contains a magnificent Gothic
cathedral 415 feet long, 182 feet wide, having a spire 420
feet high, which was founded in 1220 and finished in 1288.
Among its other fine edifices are the hôtel de ville, Château
d’Eau, and the library, containing 60,000 volumes. Here
are extensive manufactures of cotton velvet, serges, plush,
and other cotton and woollen stuffs. The river, which is
here divided into many canals, affords water-power for
mills and manufactories. Amiens was the native place of
Peter the Hermit and of Delambre. An important treaty,
called “the Peace of Amiens,” was signed here by the
French and British in Mar., 1802. On Nov. 27, 1870, the
mans took possession of the town.
mochitto.
AMICE—AMLWCH.
German general Manteuffel obtained here a great victory
over the French army of the Loire, and soon after the Ger-
Pop. in 1866, 61,063.
Amſines, amides in which the radical replacing hydro-
gen is basic, an alcohol radical. They are monamines,
diamines, triamines, etc., according as they are formed
from one, two, three, or more molecules of ammonia. The
nitrogen may be replaced by phosphorus, arsenic, anti-
mony, etc., giving rise to phosphines, arsines, stibines, etc.
The natural organic bases, alkaloids, found in plants,
probably belong to this class of bodies. The amines have
of late acquired great theoretical and practical import-
ance. They are basic compounds, resembling ammonia to
a greater or less degree in odor, alkaline reaction, and
readiness to form salts with acids. A few examples will
best illustrate the class: Ethylamine, NC2H1 = NH2(C2H5),
a mobile liquid which boils at 66° F. It has a pun-
gent odor, very like that of ammonia, turns reddened
litmus blue, forms a cloud with hydrochloric acid, pro-
duces salts with acids very similar to the corresponding
ammonic salts, is readily soluble in water. Diethylamine,
NH(C2H5)2, and triethylamine, N(C2H5)3, are similar com-
pounds. When triethylamine is mixed with ethyl iodide,
C2H5I, a crystalline tetrethyl-ammonium-iodide, (C2H5)4.I,
is formed, analogous to ammonium iodide, NH4I. On treat-
ing this compound with precipitated silver oxide suspended
in water, a tetrethyl-ammonium hydrate is formed, which
resembles in many respects potassic and sodic hydrates.
Its solution is strongly alkaline, very bitter, destroys the
skin, Saponifies the fats, decomposes many metallic salts,
precipitating hydrates. With acids it forms neutral salts.
Its chloride unites with platinic chloride, forming orange-
yellow octahedra. The analogy with ammonia is shown
by the following symbols:
Ethylamine, NH2(C2H5), ammonia, NH3.
Diethylamine, NH(C2H5)2. -
Triethylamine, N(C2H5)3.
Tetrethyl-ammonium, N(C2H5)4, ammonium, NH4.
& & iodide, N(C2H5)41, ammonium iodide, NHAI.
66 hydrate, N(C2H5)4(OH), ammonic hydrate,
NH4(OH).
Phenylamine or aniline, C6H1N = N (C6H5).H.2, is a very
important member of this class. (See ANILINE.)
Diamines represent two molecules of ammonia in which
two, four, or six atoms of H are replaced by one, two, or
three molecules of a diatomic radical :
Ethylen-diamine, N2(C2H4)” H4.
Diethylen-diamine, N2(C2H4)"2 H2.
Triethylen-diamine, N2(C2H4)”3.
(See ETHYLENE BASEs.) Triamines, triglyceryl-triamine,
Na(C3H5)”3, tetramines, and pentamines are supposed to
exist. (See Ros ANILINE.) C. F. CHANDLER.
Amite, a river rising in the S. W. part of Mississippi,
enters Louisiana, flows southward to Ascension parish,
where it turns towards the E., and falls into Lake Maure-
pas. Length, about 100 miles. •
Amite, a county of Mississippi, bordering on Louis-
iana, has an area of about 700 square miles. It is traversed
by the Amite River, and bounded on the N. W. by the Ho-
The surface is somewhat diversified; the soil is
adapted to cotton. Cattle, rice, wool, and corn are also
produced. Capital, Liberty. Pop. 10,973.
Amite, a post-village, capital of Tangipaho parish, La.,
on the Amite River, and on the New Orleans Jackson and
Great Northern R. R., 68 miles N. N. W. of New Orleans.
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 910.
Am'ity, a post-township of Livingston co., Ill. P. 790.
Amity, a post-village of Page co., Ia, in a township
of its own name, 115 miles S. W. of Des Moines. Pop. of
township, 1010.
Amity, a post-township of Aroostook co., Me. P. 311.
Amity, a township of Allegany co., N. Y. It has con-
siderable manufactures. Pop. 2087.
Amity, a township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 1646.
Amity, a township of Erie co., Pa. Pop. 924.
Am'ityville, a post-village of Huntington township,
Suffolk co., N. Y., is on the South Side R. R. of Long Island,
29 miles from the N. Y. ferries. Pop. 500.
Am/ieth, or Ham/leth, an ancient prince of Jutland,
who is considered a fabulous personage by some writers.
He is said to have lived about 150 B.C. His story is re-
lated by Saxo Grammaticus, and was formerly considered
the foundation of Shakspeare’s “Hamlet.”
Am/Iweh, a seaport and parliamentary borough of
North Wales, is on the N. coast of the island of Anglesey,
15 miles N.W. of Beaumaris. It owes its growth and
prosperity to the Parys and Mona copper-mines. Pop. in
1871, 7034. - . -
AMMAN–AMMONIA.
131
Am’man, or Am/mon (the ancient Rabbah, the capi-
tal of the Ammonites), a ruined city of Syria, in the pasha-
lic of Damascus, is picturesquely situated on the Zurka, an
affluent of the Jordan, 55 miles E. N. E. of Jerusalem. Here
was an important city in ancient times, originally named
Rabbah, which was besieged and taken by the army of
King David. (See 2 Samuel xi. and xii.) After it had been
once ruined, it was rebuilt by Ptolemy Philadelphus, and
called Philadelphia. It has extensive ancient remains. As
late as 300 A.D. it was a remarkable city, having a mag-
nificent theatre and temples. It was one of the cities of
the Decapolis. g
Am’man (Johann CoNRAD), M. D., a Swiss physician,
born at Schaffhausen in 1669, practised at Haarlem, in
Holland. He acquired distinction by his successful efforts
to teach the deaf and dumb to speak, and wrote on that
subject an essay called “Surdus Loquens” (the “Deaf
Speaking,” 1692). Died in 1724.
Amman (JosT or JUSTUs), an eminent Swiss engraver
and designer, born at Zurich in 1535. He removed about
1560 to Nuremberg, where he worked for many years, and
illustrated numerous books with his designs. He engraved
on copper and on wood. Among his works are “Portraits
of the Kings of France from Pharamond to Henry III.”
(1576), and wood-cuts of “Reinecke Fuchs.” Died in 1591.
Ammana’ti, Ammana/te, or Ammana’to (BAR-
TOLOMMEO), an eminent Italian sculptor and architect, born
at Florence in 1511, was a pupil of Sansovino. He was
patronized by Pope Julius III., who employed him to adorn
the Capitol (in Rome) with sculptures. He completed the
Pitti palace of Florence. . Among his best works are a
bridge called Ponte della Trinità at Florence, and three
statues which adorn the tomb of Sannazar at Naples. Died
about 1590.
Am’ meline, a white crystalline, feebly basic substance,
resulting from the action of acids or alkalies on melam,
is considered to be an amic acid of cyanuric acid. Its
composition is C3N5II50.
Am’men (DANIEL), U. S. N., born May 15, 1820, in
Ohio, entered the navy as a midshipman July 7, 1836,
became a passed midshipman in 1842, a lieutenant in 1849,
a commander in 1863, a captain in 1866, a commodore in
1872. During the latter part of 1861, and all of 1862, he
commanded the gunboat Seneca in the South Atlantic block-
ading squadron; he bore a conspicuous part in the battle
of Port Royal, Nov. 7, 1861, where he gained the admira-
tion of his officers and men for his skill, coolness, and in-
trepidity. He engaged afterwards in all the operations of
Dupont's command on the coasts of Georgia and Florida.
In an official report to Flag-officer Dupont of Dec. 6, 1861,
Commander C. R. P. Rodgers writes: “I have to thank
Lieutenant-commanding Stevens for the most earnest, cor-
dial, and efficient co-operation, and also Lieutenants-com-
manding Ammen and Bankhead, whose vessels were always
in the right place, and always well handled.” And again
in a despatch of Jan. 3, 1863, Rogers says: “Lieutenant-
commanding Ammen will make a separate report of the
Seneca, and Ellen at Seabrook before I met him. It is un-
necessary for me to say to you that his work was thoroughly
done.” He was engaged as commanding officer of the
monitor Patapsco with Fort McAllister, Mar. 3, 1863, and
complimented by his superior officer, Captain Percival
Drayton, for his services during the action; in the iron-
clad attack on Fort Sumter, April 7, 1863, and commended
by Flag-officer Dupont in his despatch of April 15, 1863,
for “the highest professional capacity and courage;” in
both attacks on Fort Fisher Dec., 1864, and Jan., 1865, and,
for the “cool performance” of his duty on these occasions
recommended for promotion by Rear-admiral David D.
Porter; in 1866 and 1867 a member of the board assembled
to examine volunteer officers for admission into the regular
navy; in 1869 appointed chief of the bureau of yards and
docks, and on Oct. 1, 1871, chief of bureau of navigation,
in the discharge of which duty he is now engaged.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Ammen (JACOB), an American officer and teacher, born
Jan. 7, 1808, in Botetourt co., Va., graduated at West
Point 1831, and became, July 16, 1862, brigadier-general
U. S. volunteers. While a lieutenant of artillery he served at
the Military Academy as an assistant instructor, 1831–32 and
1834–37; at Charleston harbor 1832–33, during South Caro-
lina's threatened nullification, and at Fort Trumbull, Conn.,
1833–34. After his resignation from the army, Nov. 30,
1837, he was professor of mathematics in Bacon College,
Ky., 1837–39, of mathematics in Jefferson College, Miss.,
1839–40 and 1843–48, of mathematics in the University of
Indiana, 1840–43, and of mathematics and astronomy in
Georgetown College, Ky., 1848–55; and civil engineer at
Ripley, O., 1855–61. During the civil war he was captain
and lieutenant-colonel of the Twelfth Ohio Volunteers,
Lecce, in the kingdom of Naples, Sept. 27, 1531.
colonel of the Twenty-fourth, and brigadier-general U. S.
volunteers, serving in the West Virginia campaign 1861;
engaged at Cheat Mountain and Greenbriar, in the Ten-
nessee and Mississippi campaign, engaged at battle of Shi-
loh and siege of Corinth, in various movements of the army
of the Ohio, 1862–63, and in command of several districts
in Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee, till he resigned, Jan.
14, 1865. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Am/mergau' Mys’tery [Ger. Ammergauer Passions-
spiel], the name given to the representation of our Saviour's
Passion which since 1634 has taken place every ten years at
the village of Ober-Ammergau, in Bavaria. The custom
originated in a vow made by the inhabitants, on their de-
liverance from the plague, to celebrate the Passion Tragedy.
every tenth year. The last took place in 1870, but was in-
terrupted by war, and finished in 1871. (See Holla ND,
“Das Ammergauer Passionsspiel im Jahre 1870," 1870.)
Ammiaſmus Marcelli'nus, an eminent Roman his-
torian, born at Antioch, was of Greek extraction. He
served in the army in his youth (about 350 A.D.), and in
the expedition which the emperor Julian conducted against
Persia. Having abandoned the military profession, he
settled at Rome, and there composed in Latin his “His-
tory of the Roman Empire,” in 31 books, of which 13 are
lost. The entire work comprised the period from 96 A. D.
to 378 A.D. His history is highly prized for its impar-
tiality and other merits. (Best ed. by Wagner and Erfurdt,
1808, 3 vols.) He is supposed to have been a pagan. Died
about 395. A. D. -
Ammira/to (SCIPIONE), an Italian historian, º
€ 00-
came a resident of Florence in 1569, and was patronized by
the grand duke Cosimo. In 1596 he obtained a prebend in
the cathedral of Florence. He wrote, besides other works,
a “Discourse on Cornelius Tacitus” (1594), and a “History
of Florence” (“Istorie Fiorentine,” 2 vols., 1600–41), which
is regarded by some critics as the most accurate work on
that subject. He has been styled the modern Livy. Died
Jan; 30, 1601. -
Ammod’ytes [from the Gr. &upoètºrms, a “ sand-bur-
rower”], the name of a Linnaean genus of apodal fishes,
characterized by a compressed head narrower than the
body, and both elongated. The sand-eel is an example of
this genus.
Am/mon, or Ham’m on [Gr. "Aunov], an ancient pa-
gan deity worshipped in Egypt, Greece, and other coun-
tries, was called Amun by the Egyptians, and Jupiter Am-
mon by the Romans. He was sometimes represented in
the form of a ram. There was a great temple of Ammon
in the oasis of Siwah or Ammonium in the Libyan Desert,
and another at Thebes, which city was called No-Ammon
by the ancient Hebrews. Alexander the Great visited the
temple of Ammon in the oasis (B. C. 331), and assumed
the title of the son of Ammon. Remains of this temple
still exist.
Ammon, von (CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH), an eminent
German Protestant theologian and pulpit orator, born at
Baireuth Jan. 16, 1766. . He became professor of theology
at Göttingen in 1794, obtained a chair at Erlangen in 1804,
and removed in 1813 to Dresden, where he was appointed
court-preacher to the king of Saxony. He was a man of
great and varied erudition, and belonged to the Rationalist
school in theology. His most important work is “Fortbil-
dung des Christenthums zur Weltreligion” (4 vols., 1833–40).
Died May 21, 1820. *. -
Ammo/nia [for etymology see below], or Volatile
Alkali, an important chemical compound in the form of
a transparent, colorless, and pungent gas, is formed by the
union of one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of hydrogen.
Its symbol is NH3. Priestly, who first obtained it in a
separate state, called it alkaline air. The name ammonia
is derived from sal-ammoniac, which was formerly procured
near the temple of Ammon, in Libya, by burning camel's
dung. It is now obtained as a by-product by the distilla-
tion of bituminous coal in making gas, and from refuse ani-
mal matter in preparing bone-black, etc. . It combines with
acids to form salts. As it supplies to plants the nitrogen
they require, it is one of the most important ingredients in
manures. (See GUANo.) A solution of this gas in Water
is used in medicine, and is called spirits of hartshorn or
liquor ammonie. One volume of water will dissolve or ab-
sorb 500 volumes of ammonia. Liquid ammonia has been
employed as a motive-power by Tellier, and for the produc-
tion of artificial cold by Carré. (See ICE.) This gas can
also be liquefied by pressure and cold, and then becomes a
colorless iiquid, with the properties of ammonia much in-
tensified. The smelling salt, or volatile salt of hartshorn,
used as a restorative in faintness, is a carbonate of ammo-
nia. Ammonic sulphate, (NH4)2SO4, is manufactured II].
large quantities, by boiling “gas-liquor ” with lime, and
132
AMMONIAC–AMNESTY.
conducting the ammoniacal gas which is liberated into Sul-
phuric acid. On evaporating the solution, the sulphate is
obtained as a white salt. It is extensively used in the
manufacture of alum in place of potassic sulphate, as a con-
stituent of artificial fertilizers, and for the preparation of
other ammoniacal salts. Ammonic nitrate is used for the
preparation of nitrogen monoxide (N2O), laughing-gas.
Ammonic chloride, NH4C1, has long been known as sal-am-
moniac. The “ammonia type” is one upon which a few inor-
ganic and many organic compounds areformed. (See AMIDES,
AMINEs, etc., by PROF. C. F. CHANDLER, PH. D., LL.D.)
Ammo'niac [Lat. ammoni/acum], a gum-resin used in
medicine, is imported from Africa and India. It is ob-
tained from the Dore/ma ammoni’acum, an umbelliferous
plant containing a milky juice, which by drying is con-
verted into this gum. It is used as an expectorant, and
sometimes applied externally as a plaster.
Ammoniſtes [from Am’mon, and the Gr. Atôos, a
“stone;” so named from
their resemblance to the
horns of Jupiter Ammon;
English Am/monite], an ex-
tinct genus of mollusks be-
longing to the order Cepha- º
lopoda, and one of the most Wº. **s
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striking features in the fau-
na, of the mesozoic ages.
The ammonites were dis-
coid, chambered, spiral
shells, sometimes four feet
in diameter, and often beau-
tifully ornamented exteriorly. The internal structure was
similar to that of the Nautilus, except that the siphon was
external, and the septa (partitions between the chambers)
were arched outward, and were convoluted at their mar-
gins, so that their intersecting with the walls of the shell
produced beautiful foliated figures. The ammonites began
in the trias, were immensely multiplied in the Jurassic and
cretaceous ages, and became entirely extinct at the close
of the latter. More than 500 species have been described,
and they are found.in the mesozoic strata of all parts of the
world. Beautiful ammonites occur in the cretaceous rocks
of the country bordering the upper Missouri, in the Indian
Territory, and in Texas. The old genus Ammoniſtes has
been lately much subdivided by Prof. Alph. Hyatt, Prof.
von Hauer, and others. (See “Bulletin Mass. Comp. Anat.
Cambridge,” and article AMMONITIDAE, by J. S. NEwBERRY.)
Am’m omites, an ancient Semitic tribe or nation, de-
scendants of Ben-Ammi, a son of Lot. They inhabited the
east side of the Jordan, between the rivers Arnon and Jab-
bok, and adjoining the northern part of Moab. Their
chief city was Rabbah. (See AMMAN.) They frequently
waged war against the Israelites, and were conquered by
Jephthah, and afterwards by King David. (See 2 Samuel
xi. and xii.) About 164 B.C. they were defeated by Judas
Maccabaeus. They are called “the children of Ammon ’’
in the Old Testament.
Ammonit’idae, a family of cephalopodous mollusks,
of which the genus Ammonites is the type. The genera of
this group are all extinct, beginning with Goniatiºtes in the
Devonian and carboniferous, followed by Ceratiſtes and
Ammonites in the trias; Ammonites in great development
in the Jurassic and cretaceous; Bacult/tes, Scaphi/tes, An-
cylo'ceras, Crio'ceras, Helico'ceras, Hetero'ceras, Ptycho'-
ceras, Hamiſtes, Turrili' tes, etc., being exclusively cretace-
oùs, and the family ending with them. *
The shells of the Ammonitidae are all chambered, an
were generally, though not always, external; the animal
inhabiting the last and largest, called the body-chamber.
The series of smaller chambers are supposed to have served
as a float, by which the specific gravity of the animal was
harmonized with that of the surrounding medium, and this
shell maintained in a position best suited to its movements.
The septa are arched outward at the centre, and ruffled
at the margins; are nearly simple in the earliest stages
of growth, most convoluted at full maturity, more simple
again in old age. The ornamentation of the external Sur-
face, which consists of ridges, knobs, and spines, and is
often very elaborate, follows the same law.
In most of the Ammonitidae the shell is a discoid spiral,
but the cretaceous genera exhibit great diversity of form; as
Ammonites, with a symmetrical spiral coiled in the same
plane; Scaphites, Ancyloceras, Crioceras, and Toaco'ceras,
showing a gradual unrolling of the coil, until in Baculites
the shell is quite straight. In Helicoceras it forms an open
elevated spiral; in Turrilites, an elongated comical closed
spire, like that of a gasteropod, but sinister, turned to the
left.
The life-history of the Ammonitidae is very peculiar and
interesting. After a long term of existence, during which
-ing Sand.
they show a modest simplicity of structure and little di-
versity of form, in the mesozoic ages the family is expanded
and developed in the most wonderful way, their numbers
being enormously increased, their size becoming gigantic,
their forms being almost infinitely varied, their structure
more complicated, their ornamentation more elaborate, di-
versified, and beautiful. The cretaceous period was the golden
age of the Ammonitidae, when they attained such numbers,
size, variety, and beauty as to far eclipse all other tribes of
shelled mollusks, living or extinct. Their greatness ended
here, however. Like the flowering of a plant or the splen-
dor and extravagance of an over-civilized nation, their
extraordinary development seems to have been exhaustive
of the vital energies, as in the age next succeeding their
grand climacteric, so far as now known, they had no rep-
resentative. -
The peculiar features in the career of the Ammonitidae
are best seen in contrast with that of their nearest relatives,
the Nautilidae. The latter began their existence in the ear-
liest palaeozoic seas as mollusks, with straight (Orthoceras)
or coiled (Nautilus) shells, of which the structure was very
simple. Of this family the Orthocerata are extinct, but
the genus Nautilus has held its undeviating way through
all past ages, and is now represented by living species
which can hardly be distinguished from those that lived
millions of years ago. The full explanation of the differ-
ence in the history and fate of these two closely allied
families is perhaps beyond our reach, but it seems prob-
able that we have here another illustration of tho truth
which underlies the diversity of fate in human individuals
and nations, as well as of species, genera, and orders in
the life-history of the globe—viz., simplicity of structure
and habit promotes longevity by its adaptation to general
and prevailing circumstances in time and space, while a
highly specialized organization will flourish only in special
and rare conditions. J. S. NEWBERRY.
Ammo/nium (NH4), a hypothetical metal which is
supposed to exist in the salts of ammonia, and to be com-
posed of one volume of nitrogen and four of hydrogen.
It is the analogue of potassium and sodium, but has never
been obtained in a separaté state; a supposed amalgam of
ammonium, however, may be formed by the action of the
galvanic battery on a globule of mercury surrounded by a
solution of ammonia, and by the action of sodium amal-
gam on a solution of ammonium chloride.
Ammo/nium Ba’ses, compounds analogous to NH4.-
H.0, ammonic hydrate, in which the H atoms are replaced
to a greater or less extent by basic radicals, such as ethyl,
C2H5, amyl, C5H11, etc. (See AMINES, by C. F. CHANDLER.)
Ammo/nium, or Am/mon, the ancient name of an
oasis in the Libyan Desert, about 300 miles W. S. W. of
Cairo. It is now called El Siwah. Here was a cele-
brated oracle and temple of Jupiter Ammon, in a grove of
palms; also royal palaces and the “Fountain of the Sun,”
the water of which was cold at noon and warm at midnight.
The ruins of the temple may still be seen.
Ammo’nius, surnamed SACCAs (because in his youth
he was a porter and carried sacks), a Greek philosopher,
born in Alexandria, was the founder of the school called
Neo-Platonic about 193 A. D. Though born of Christian.
parents, he went over to paganism. Among his pupils were
Longinus, Origen, and Plotinus. He left no writings, and
died about 243 A. D. **
Ammonoo'suc, Lower, a river of New Hampshire,
rises in Coos county, near Mount Washington, and flowing
south-westward through Grafton county, enters the Con-
necticut River. It is about 100 miles long.
Ammonoosuc, Upper, a river of Coos Co., N. H.,
which empties into the Connecticut at Northumberland.
It is about 75 miles long.
Ammoph’ila (i. e. “delighting in sand ’’), [from the
Gr. &ppos, “sand,” and buxéo, to “love”], (the Calama-
grostis of Gray), a genus of grasses nearly allied to
Arundo, and distinguished by a spikelike panicle, and by
the glumes being nearly equal, keeled, and longer than the
palae of the single floret. The Ammophila arundinacea,
called sand-reed, mat-grass, or marum, grows on the Sandy
shores of Europe, and is of great utility in fixing the shift-
It is also used to make mats.
Ammuniſtion [from the Lat. ad, “for,” and munitio,
“defence”], a military term applied to cannon-balls, shells,
bullets, fuses, cartridges, grenades, gunpowder, and all the
projectiles and explosive substances used in war. The am-
munition of field artillery consists of shot, loaded shells,
case-shot, shrapnel, cartridges, priming-tubes, matches,
and rockets. An infantry soldier generally carries sixty
rounds in his cartridge-box. t
Am/nesty [from the Gr. 3pwmatta, “non-remembrance”],
an act of oblivion of past misconduct granted by the gov-












AMNION.—AMPERE.
*—
ernment to those who have been guilty of some offence. It
is usually granted to whole communities or classes of in-
dividuals who have taken part, or are supposed to have
participated, in some movement against lawful authority;
it may be granted either before or after conviction, and its
effect is entirely to efface the crime and cause it to be for-
gotten by the law. An instance is an act of amnesty in
England in the 20th Geo. II. c. 52, called “an act for the
king's most gracious general and free pardon.” This sub-
ject has recently excited much interest in the U. S., owing
to a provision in the fourteenth amendment to the Constitu-
tion creating certain disqualifications as to holding office by
persons who have participated in rebellion, and at the same
time allowing their removal by a special vote of the Con-
gress. Such a removal is in the nature of an act of amnesty.
Am/nion, or Am/nios [etymology doubtful], the soft,
delicate, and most internal membrane containing the waters
which surround the foetus in utero; also called agni'ma twº-
nica. It secretes a fluid called liquor amºnw. (See EM-
BRYology, by PROF. J. C. DALTON, M. D
Amºnios, in botany, a thin, semi-transparent, gelati-
mous substance in which the embryo of a seed is suspended
when it first appears, and by which the embryo is probably
nourished in its first stagés. -
Amoe/ba Dif”fluens, an organism of the order Rhiz-
opoda, is one of the lowest animal structures with which
zoologists are acquainted. It is a mere gelatinous mass of
a rounded form, capable of emitting processes and lobes
from all parts of its body, and retracting them at will. This
animal abounds in the bottom of fresh-water ponds, and
is well known to amateur microscopists under the name of
Proteus. With the exception of a clear pulsating space, it
appears to be a structureless mass of sarcode.
Amol’, a city of Persia, in the province of Mazande-
ran, on the river Heraz, about 12 miles from its entrance
into the Caspian Sea, and 85 miles N. E. of Teheran. A
bridge of twelve arches crosses the river here. Pop. esti-
mated at from 35,000 to 40,000.
Amo/mum [from the Gr. &uopios, “blameless,” “with-
out fault”], a genus of plants of the order Zingiberaceae or
Scitamineae, and of the Linnaean class Monandria. They
are natives of the tropical parts of Asia and Africa, and pro-
duce aromatic seeds called cardamom and grains of Paradise.
Amoo’, or Amu, also called Amoo Darya (anc. Oacus;
Arab. Gihon), a river of Western Asia, rises on the Belur
Tagh, nearly 15,000 feet above the level of the sea, receives
many affluents from the mountains of Turkestan and the
Hindukush, flows through Turkestan, and falls into the
Aral Sea. The length of its course is 1610 miles. Ac-
cording to the treaty of peace concluded in July, 1873, be-
tween Russia and Khiva, this river will hereafter constitute
the boundary-line between Khiva and Bokhara.
Amoor', Amur, or Saghalien, a large river of
Eastern Asia, formed near lat. 53° N. and lon. 122° E.
by the union of the Shilka and the Argoon, the latter of
which forms for about 400 miles the boundary between Si-
beria and the Chinese empire. The Amoor flows alter-
nately eastward and south-eastward, forming the boundary
between China and Siberia, until it arrives at a point about
lat. 48° N. It afterwards pursues a general N. E. direction
through the Littoral province of Siberia, and enters the
Sea of Okhotsk or Gulf of Saghalien. Its length, exclusive
of the branches, is estimated at 1800 miles. It is stated
that steamboats have ascended from its mouth to the junc-
tion of the Shilka and Argoon. The navigation is ob-
structed by ice until May. In the lower part of its course
it traverses a fertile country, covered with extensive forests
of oak, ash, elm, maple, pine, etc. The largest tributary
of the Amoor is the Soongari, which enters it on the right.
Amoor, Country of the [Ger. Amurland], the name
given to a part of Mantchooria which in 1858 was ceded by
China to Russia. It includes the island of Saghalien and
the whole tract on the left side of the Amoor lying between
43° and 54° N. lat., and containing an area of 276,000 square
miles. It is divided into the province of the Amoor and
the Littoral province. The area of the province of the
Amoor is 109,000 square miles; and the pop. in 1867,
22,297. The winters are very severe, and navigation is
generally closed from the end of October to the beginning
of May. The soil is fertile, and in the more sheltered
parts many plants of Southern Asia grow luxuriantly.
The forests are magnificent, abounding in Oaks and nut-
bearing trees. Fur-producing animals are very numerous,
and the rivers yield great quantities of fish. Gold-fields
have been recently discovered, and coal is abundant in the
island of Saghalien.
Amoret/ti (CARLo), an Italian naturalist and writer,
born at Oneglia, near Genoa, Mar. 13, 1741. He produced
a good biography of Leonardo da Vinci (1784), and a work
133
on the natural history and geography of Lakes Como, Mag-
giore, and Lugano, called a “Journey from Milan to the
Three Lakes” (1794). In 1797 he became librarian of the
Ambrosian Library of Milan. Died Mar. 24, 1816.
Amor'gos, or Amor'go [Gr. 'Agopyäs], a fertile isl-
and in the Archipelago, 18 miles S. E. of Naxos, belongs
to the kingdom of Greece. It is 13 miles long and 6 miles
wide, and contains a small town called Amorgos. The sur-
face is mountainous. The poet. Simonides was born here.
It has a good harbor; lat. of E. end, 36°54' N., lon. 26°
6' E. Pop. about 3700. - -
Am/orites (“mountaineers”), a powerful nation of
Canaan that occupied the country on both sides of the
Jordan in the time of Moses, and resisted the Israelites in
their march towards the Promised Land. Moses defeated
their two kings, Sihon and Og, who reigned at Heshbon
and Bashan respectively. Og is said to have been the last
“remnant of giants” (Deuteronomy iii. 11). The Amor-
ites were afterwards subdued by Joshua, but he was not
able to exterminate them. They appear to have been long
hostile to the Israelites, but in Solomon’s time were reduced
to a tributary condition.
A/mos, one of the minor Hebrew prophets, was a con-
temporary of Isaiah, and lived about 785 B. C. He was a
herdsman and a gatherer of sycamore fruit. He denounces
the prevalent idolatry in vigorous and eloquent terms,
using many images taken from rural and pastoral life.
Amoskeag', a manufacturing village of Hillsborough
co., N. H., on the Merrimack River, which here falls 54
feet in a mile and a half, thus affording great water-power.
It is now a part of the city of MANCHESTER (which see).
Amo/tion [from the Lat. a (ab), “away,” and moveo,
motum, to “move”], in law, the removal of an officer of a
corporation from his office. It differs from disfranchise-
ment, which refers to the removal of a member. Amotion
may accordingly take place without disfranchisement.
A/moy, a seaport-town of China, on an island of the
same name, in the province of Fo-Kien, and on the Chan-
nel of Formosa; lat. 24° 28' N., lon. 118° 4' E. It is sit-
uated at the mouth of a river which passes by the large
city of Chang-Choo-Foo, of which Amoy is the port.
Amoy is one of the chief commercial towns of China, and
its merchants are noted for their enterprise. It was taken
by the British in 1841, and has been open to the trade of
all nations since 1843. Among the articles of import are
cotton, cotton goods, iron, sugar, camphor, and pepper.
The chief articles of export are tea, sugar, porcelain, silks,
and paper. Amoy is one of the chief centres of the Prot-
estant missions in China. Pop. estimated at 300,000.
Ampel’ic Acid, a white solid produced by the action
of nitric acid on schist oils.
Am/pelin, a substance resembling creasote, obtained
from schist oil. -
Ampelop’sis [from the Gr. &pireAos, a “vine,” and Šipts,
“resemblance”], a genus of creeping, vine-like, woody
plants, to which the Virginia, creeper or American wood-
bine (Ampelopsis quinquefolium) belongs. This is one
of the most beautiful of our hardy creeping ornamental
plants. It is highly esteemed in England, and is better
adapted to the climate of America than the ivy, and is
also more rapid in its growth, and has handsomer foliage.
The leaves are deciduous, but they die in a blaze of crim-
son glory when touched by the frost, so that the plant is
lovely even in death. It is of the order Vitaceae.
Ampère (ANDRá MARIE), an eminent French natural
philosopher and mathematician, born at Lyons Jan. 20,
1775. He produced in 1802 an interesting essay “On the
Mathematical Theory of Games of Chance.” He became
inspector-general of the University (1808), professor of
analysis in the Polytechnic School (1809), chevalier of the
Legion of Honor (1809), and a member of the Institute
(1814). Having made important discoveries in electro-
magnetism, he published in 1822 a “Collection of Obser-
vations on Electro-Dynamics,” a work which displays re-
markable sagacity. “The vast field of physical science,”
says Arago, “perhaps never presented so brilliant a dis-
covery, conceived, verified, and completed with such rapid-
ity.” He further explained his discoveries in this depart-
ment of science, to which he gave the name of electro-
dynamics, in his “Theory of Electro-Dynamic Phenom-
ena deduced from Expériments” (1826). Among his
other works are treatises on optics and an “Essay on the
Philosophy of the Sciences,” etc. (1834). He was a man
of genial disposition, and noted for simplicity of charac-
ter. (See his “Journal et Correspondance,” an interesting
record of his domestic and private life.) Died in Marseilles
June 10, 1836.
Ampère (JEAN JACQUES ANTOINE), an accomplished
scholar and littérateur, a son of the preceding, born at
134
AMPHIBIA—AMPLIFICATION.
Lyons Aug. 12, 1800. He enjoyed in his youth the society
of Madame Récamier, and devoted much attention to
English and German literature. In 1833 he succeeded An-
drieux as professor of French literature at the College of
-France. He became a member of the Academy of In-
scriptions in 1842, and a member of the French Academy
in 1847. He travelled extensively in Egypt, the Levant,
and the U. S. Among his works are “Literature and,
. Travels” (“Littérature et Voyages,” 1833), “Literary
History of France before the Twelfth Century” (3 vols.,.
1839), an “Essay on the Formation of the French Lan-
guage” (3 vols., 1841), “Greece, Rome, and Dante” (1850),
and “Roman History at Rome’” (“Histoire Romaine à
Rome,” 4 vols., 1856–64).
pungent. Died Mar. 27, 1864.
Amphib’ia [Gr. &pºigta, from &udo, “both,” and 8wów,
to “live”], a term applied to animals that live both on the
land and in the water. In the Linnaean system it included
all reptiles and cartilaginous fishes, although some reptiles
would be drowned if they remained very long under water.
: This classification has been modified by the removal of
the cartilaginous fishes from the class of Amphibia. Cuvier
applied the term to such mammals as the seal and walrus,
which inhabit both the land and water. .
Naturalists now divide the Reptilia of the olden zoolo-
gists into two classes—viz., Reptilia, which includes the
lizards, snakes, and turtles; and Amphibia, which com-
prises the serpent-like cecilians, salamanders, and batra-
chians (frogs and toads). Most amphibians pass through
a metamorphosis like that of the frog, which emerges from
the egg as a tadpole, when it is fishlike in form and breathes
by gills, being truly aquatic; subsequently the tail and
gills disappear, legs and lungs are developed, and the ma-
ture animal, though perhaps inhabiting the water, is an
air-breather. In some amphibians the first or embryonic
condition continues unchanged through life, as Menobran-
chus, Menopoma, etc., the water-puppies and young alliga-
tors of the Western rivers. The largest of these aquatic
earnivorous salamanders is Sieboldia, which inhabits the
lakes of Japan, and attains a length of three feet. Though
now regarded as dull and disgusting creatures, this latter
group of amphibians once stood at the head of all then ex-
isting members of the zoological series. The amphibians
first appeared in the carboniferous age, and the lagoons in
the coal-marshes swarmed with aquatic salamanders, some
of which were six feet in length, very active, and preda-
ceous, and the monarchs of the animal world of that age.
More than twenty species of amphibians have been ob-
tained by Dr. Newberry from the cannel coal of one mine
in Ohio. The amphibians had their golden age in the
trias, when Labyrinthodon, with a body as large as that of
an ox, and teeth four inches long, ruled the animal kingdom.
In the succeeding age (Jurassic) the sceptre passed from
the amphibians to the true reptiles. J. S. NEwBERRY.
Amphib’ole [from the Gr. &ndigoxos, “equivocal”], a
name given by Haüy to hornblende, on account of its re-
semblance to augite. (See HoRNBLENDE.)
Amphic’tyon [Gr. 'Auduktijov, an ancient and perhaps
fabulous hero and king of Attica, supposed to have been a
son of Deucalion.
Amphictyon’ic Coun'cil, a celebrated congress or
politico-religious court of the confederated tribes of an-
cient Greece, which met twice every year—in the temple
of Apollo at Delphi in the spring, and at Thermopylae in
the autumn. It was composed of the deputies of twelve
tribes—viz., Thessalians, Boeotians, Dorians (or Spartans),
Ionians (or Athenians), Locrians, Dolopians, Magnetes,
Malians, Achaeans, Phocians, AEmianians, and Perrhaebians,
who each sent one or two members. The predominance of
northern and Pelasgic tribes proves the great antiquity
of this institution, which in course of time declined, and
in the age of Demosthemes had lost its authority. The
members of this council bound themselves by an oath that
“they would not destroy any Amphictyonic city nor cut
off its streams in war or peace.” One great object of the
council was the protection of the temple at Delphi. (See
TITTMANN, “Ueber den Bund der Amphiktyomen,” 1852.)
Amphil’ochus, a brother of Alcmaeon, took part in
the march of the Epigoni to Thebes, and of the Greeks
to Troy. After his death he was raised among the gods.
Amphiſon [Gr. 'Audiov), in classic mythology, a Theban .
prince and musician, a son of Jupiter and the husband of
Niobe. According to the poetic legend, he availed himself
of his skill in music to build the walls of Thebes, and the
stones, attracted by the sound of his lyre, moved and ar-
ranged themselves in the proper, position.
Amphiox’us [from the Gr. &mdo, “both,” and bétis,
“sharp’], the name of a genus of fishes (Leptocardii), so
They are
called because they are sharp at both ends.
BHis style is very brilliant and,
recognized as vertebrate animals only by their gelatinous
dorsal cord, which supports a medullary spinal cord. They
are without brain or true heart, and have various other ex-
ceptional characters. The genus is often called Branchios-
toma. The popular name is lancelet. One species is found
in the marine waters of the Southern U. S. -
Amphip'olis [from the Gr. &pſpí, “around,” and tróAts,
“city”], an ancient and important city of Thrace or Mace-
donia, was founded by an Athenian colony about 437 B. C.
It was situated at the mouth of the river Strymon, which
here enters the Strymon/ious Sinºus, the modern Gulf of
Contessa. The waters of the river are said to have once
surrounded the town (whence the name). In the Middle
Ages it was called Popolia. Its site is now occupied by a
small Turkish town called Yenikeui. -
Amphisbae’na [Gr. &pſhiagawa, from &pſbís, “on both
sides,” and Baívo, to “go’], a genus of serpent-like rep-
Amphisbaena Fuliginosa. .
tiles, of which the head and tail are so similar in appear-
ance that it is difficult on a cursory inspection to determine
at which extremity the head is situated. They are found
in Brazil, the West Indies, etc., and, according to the state-
ments of respectable naturalists, are able to creep forward
or backward with nearly equal facility. Several species
are known. They burrow in the earth, have rudimentary
eyes, and are usually classed with the saurians.
Amphis'sa, a town of ancient Greece, in Locris, was
situated 7 miles from Delphi, on the site of the modern
town of Salona. Here was a temple of Athena, containing
an image of the goddess. -
Amphithe’atre [Gr. 3pºw8éarpov, from &pſhi, “around,”
and 9éarpov, a “theatre”], a spacious and uncovered edifice
of an elliptical or circular form, in which the ancient Ro-
mans witnessed the exhibition of public games and the
combats of gladiators and wild beasts. It was constructed
so that all the spectators could behold the performance,
which was exhibited in an open level space called the
arena, surrounded on all sides by tiers of seats, which rose
higher as they receded from the arena. The most famous
of these edifices was the Flavian Amphitheatre, or Colos-
seum of Rome, which was built by the emperors Vespasian
and Titus, finished about 80 A.D., and is still standing.
It is about 620 feet long, 513 feet wide, and 157 feet high.
The longest diameter of the arena was 287 feet. It is said
to have had seats for 80,000 spectators, and standing-room
for 20,000 more. The exterior was adorned by three rows
of columns—Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Colosseum
is regarded by many as the most august and imposing ruin
in the world. - -
Amphithe’rium [from épêts, “on both sides,” and
9mptov, * beast;” named probably in allusion to its double
or doubtful character], a genus of fossil insectivorous mam-
malia found in the oolitic strata in Oxfordshire, England.
It presents many points of analogy with the living marsu-
pial genus Myrmecobius.
Amphitriſte ['Apóttpirm], in the Greek mythology, a
Nereid, a goddess of the sea, the wife of Neptune and the
mother of Triton. She is represented sitting in a car of
shells drawn by tritons, or on a dolphin. - -
Amphit'ryon, [Gr. 'Audurpiſtov], in classic mythology, a
son of Alcaeus. Having accidentally killed his uncle Elee-
tryon, he was banished from Mycenae. He married Alcmena,
who was the mother of Hercules. -
Am/phora [from the Gr. &pſhi, “on both sides,” and
dépo, toº bear,” from its being borne by its two handles], the
ilatin name of a vase with two handles which was used by
the ancient Greeks and Romans to hold wine and oil. It
was also a liquid measure, containing about eight and a
half gallons among the Greeks, and six among the Romans.
Amplifica’tion [Lat., amplifica’tio, from am'plus,
“large,” and faſcio, to “make”], in rhetoric, is the en-
largement and expansion of a subject or discourse by the
use of epithets and illustrations and the enumeration of
circumstantial accessories, with a view to produce a deeper
impression. Cicero was much inclined to amplify his ora-
tions. . Exaggeration is a vicious kind of amplification.

AMPLITUDE—AMSTERDAM.
135
Am’plitude [Lat. amplitu’do, from am' plus, “large,”
“great”], in astronomy, is the angular distance of a heavenly
body, when it rises or sets, from the east or west points of
the horizon. The amplitude of a fixed star remains the
same all the year, but that of the sun changes daily, and
on a given day varies according to the latitude of the ob-
Serye]".
AMPLITUDE, in mechanics and physics, is used in refer-
ence to oscillating and vibrating bodies, to indicate the dis-
tance between the extreme positions assumed by the body.
Thus the amplitude of oscillation of a pendulum is the angle
between the extreme positions of the line joining the centres
of suspension and oscillation.
Ampu'dia, de (PEDRO), a Mexican officer who ob-
tained the rank of general in 1840. He fought against the
Texans in 1842, and commanded the Mexican troops which
defended Monterey in 1846 against Gen. Taylor, to whom
he surrendered in September of that year.
Ampul’la, a Roman vessel of glass or earthenware,
used for holding oil, wine, etc., was nearly globular in form.
Many of these are preserved in the collections of antiqua-
ries. In the Catholic Church an ampulla is a vessel which
contains wine for the sacrament. Ampulla Remensis (in Fr.
la Sainte Ampoule) was a famous vessel of holy oil which,
according to tradition, was brought from heaven by a dove,
and was used to anoint Clovis when he was crowned at
Rheims in 496 A. D.
Ampulla’ria [from the Lat. ampulla, a “flask”], an
Ampullaria Dubia.
interesting genus of gasteropod mollusks, called apple-
shells, idol-shells, pond-snails, etc. Fifty or more species
are known, mostly tropical, and all inhabiting fresh water
and mud, though some are occasionally found in salt and
brackish waters. They are remarkable for their tenacious
hold on life, many being able to live away from the water
for years. One species is occasionally found alive in hol-
low logs of mahogany and logwood from Honduras. The
Ampwºllaria dubia is brought from the Nile.
Amputation [from the Lat. amputo, amputatum, to
“prune,” to “lop off”], in surgery, is the removal, by
operation, of any part of the body or limbs on account of
disease or injury, such as would endanger life if the part
were allowed to remain. The term of late denotes more
especially such removal of a limb, but is still sometimes
used for the excision of a tumor or gland.
Amputations are properly resorted to not only after
severe and very dangerous injuries, but in such diseases as
gangrene, cancer, etc., which are without rational prospect
of cure by other means. In general, cases where the
chances of cure will probably be much increased by this
operation afford legitimate subjects for its exercise. This
rule would include some cases of intractable ulcers of the
leg, of aneurism, and of diseased bones and joints. In-
curable and unsightly deformities, where they put the pa-
tient to great inconvenience, may in some circumstances be
removed by the knife. An amputation in which a bone is
cut off is said to be “in the continuity.” . An amputation
at a joint, when no bones are divided, is in “the contigu-
ity;” the latter operation is not often performed, though it
has had recent advocates. Amputations are chiefly either
“flap" or “circular” operations. The “flap" operation,
in some of its many modifications, is probably the most
frequently employed. One, two, or even three flaps have
been employed, the size, shape, and thickness of these flaps
of skin and flesh varying with circumstances. In general,
they ought to be large enough to cover amply the end of
the stump, and not so large as to be redundant after the
wound shall have healed. The flap amputation, practised
by certain mediaeval surgeons, and revived by Lowdham
of England nearly 200 years ago, was made general by
Liston, and has since his time been variously improved
and modified.
“Circular amputation” is performed by first dividing
the skin and superficial fascia by a sweep of the knife
around the limb, dissecting up the skin for two or three
inches, and at that part dividing the muscles down to the
bone. The flesh is removed from the bone to allow the saw
to be applied. --
The danger attending amputation is generally in propor-
tion to the nearness of the operation to the trunk, as well
as to the size of the limb. Thus, amputation at the hip-
joint is the most doubtful of all in its results; but even
this, in some cases, especially in military surgery, may im-
prove the chances of life under severe injury. Amputations
at the joints are by most surgeons considered as more seri-
ous than in the continuity of the limbs. Of the foot alone
several different modes of amputation are in use, as Lis-
franc's, Chopart's, Syme’s, and Pirogoff’s amputations.
Amrit', the richest place in ruins on the whole Phoe-
nician coast (Syria), near the city of Tortosa. It is the
ancient Marathus, and was discovered in the seventeenth
century by Pococke, but was not explored until the present
century, by Ernest Reman. The most important ruin found
here is “El Maabed” (i.e. “the temple”).
Am'rita [from the Sanscrit a, signifying “without,”
and mrita, “ dead,” also “death”], sometimes incor-
rectly written Amreeta, in Hindoo mythology, is the
name applied to the water of immortality, which is said to
have been obtained by the churning of the ocean. The
term amrita or amrit is sometimes given to the food as well
as the drink of the gods, and likewise to any delicious
drink. - -
Amrit'sir, or Amritsur, written also Umritsir, the
sacred city of the Sikhs, in the Punjāb, in Northern India,
40 miles E. of Lahore; lat. 31° 40' N., lon. 749.56° E. It
is said to contain 399 Hindoo places of worship. Here is
a magnificent temple of the Sikhs, on an island, in a large
tank or reservoir, called “the Pool of Immortality,” which
is visited by many pilgrims. Runjeet Singh built here the
large fortress of Govindghur, which is one of the most re-
markable objects in the place. Amritsir has manufactures
of shawls, silk stuffs, and cotton goods; also an extensive
transit trade with India and Central Asia. Pop. in 1866,
about 180,000.
Am’rou Ben el As, a famous Arabian warrior, born
about 600 B. C., at first opposed Mohammed, but became
a zealous proselyte, aided in the conquest of Syria, con-
quered Egypt, of which he became emir, taking Alexan-
dria in 640 A.D., and Tripoli three years later. He became
an opponent of Ali. He was a man of energy and prudence.
Died in 663.
Ams’dorf, von (NIKOLAUs), a Reformer, born in Sax-
ony Dec. 3, 1483. He became a zealous Lutheran, and
accompanied Luther to the Diet of Worms in 1521. He
was afterwards an opponent of Melanchthon, and was much
addicted to controversy about doctrines. In 1542 he was
appointed bishop of Naumburg. He wrote numerous po-
lemical works. Died May 14, 1565.
Ams’ler (SAMUEL), a skilful engraver, born in Switzer-
land in 1791. He became professor of engraving in the
Academy of Fine Arts in Munich. He engraved many of
the works of Raphael and Thorwaldsen, and reproduced
the former with peculiar fidelity. Among his best works
are the “Triumph of Alexander the Great,” after Thor-
waldsen, a “Holy Family,” and a “Burial of Christ,” both
after Raphael; also a “Christ,” after Dannecker. Died in
1849.
Am'sterdam', formerly Amstelredamme, or Am-
stel damme (“the dike or dam of the Amstel”), [Lat.
Amsteloda'mum', an important commercial city and capital
of the kingdom of Holland, is situated at the junction of
the Amstel with the Y, and near the Zuyder-Zee, through
which it has access to the ocean; lat. 52° 22' N., lon. 4°
53' E. It is the largest city of Holland and its constitu-

136 AMSTERDAM—AMYLAMINES.
tional capital, but the royal court is at The Hague. Am-
sterdam stands on flat, marshy ground, into which piles,
fifty feet long, are driven to form a foundation for the
houses, which are mostly built of brick. The city is divided
into ninety islands by a number of canals, which are crossed
by 280 bridges. A part of the old ramparts have been
pulled down, and twenty-eight windmills for grinding grain
have been erected on the bastions. The principal streets
are the Heerengracht, JKeizergracht, and Prinzensgracht,
each of which is about two miles long and describes a semi-
circle. Canals occupy the middle of these streets, which
are scarcely surpassed in elegance by those of any capital
in Europe. Among the grand public buildings of this
metropolis is the palace or town-hall, a stone edifice 282
feet long and 235 feet wide, resting on 13,659 piles, driven
into the ground to the depth of 70 feet. This palace con-
tains a remarkable hall 120 feet long, 60 feet wide, and
100 feet high, lined with white Italian marble. The city
has a beautiful justiciary hall, a modern building of Gre-
cian architecture. The most beautiful church of Amster-
dam is the Nieuwe Kerk (founded in 1408), which is 350
feet long and 210 wide. This Nieuwe Kerk and the Oude
Kerk, which has a remarkable organ, belong to the Re-
formed Church. Much of the water-supply of Amsterdam
now comes from the sand-dunes of the coast. Amsterdam
is liberally supplied with hospitals and other charitable in-
stitutions. Among the important educational and literary
institutions are the Athenaeum Illustre, which has a bo-
tanic garden, a school of anatomy, and chairs of art, law,
medicine, and theology; the city Latin school; the Royal
Academy of Fine Arts, founded in 1820; the Arti et Ami-
citiae society of painters; the naval school; the Royal Dutch
Institution for science, literature, and art; the antiquarian
Society; and the society of literature and fine arts, called
Felix Meritis. The Museum of Pictures, the Museum van
der Hoop, and the Feodor Museum (since 1866) contain rich
collections of the works of the Dutch masters. The Six
collection of pictures belonging to the Six family is one of
the finest private collections in Europe.
The chief manufactures are tobacco, soap, canvas, glass,
jewelry, cordage, machinery, steam-engines, etc. Its com-
merce is more important than its manufactures. That great
trade which in the sixteenth century placed Amsterdam at
the head of the commercial cities of Europe gradually de-
clined, partly from the rise of other ports, but principally
from the difficulties of navigation caused by the silting up
of the Zuyder-Zee, and, above all, the Pampus Bar. Large
vessels were obliged to discharge their cargoes outside, and
were then floated over the bar by means of camels, which,
when the water was pumped out of them, raised the vessel
with them. To remedy this, the North Holland Canal was
cut to the Helder, a distance of 51 miles. It is 124 feet
broad at the surface and 31 feet at the bottom, and is avail-
able for vessels drawing 18 feet of water. But even this
great highway is now inadequate, and moreover is obstruct-
ed in winter by ice. To maintain the rank of Amsterdam
as one of the great commercial entrepôts of Europe, one of
the most remarkable engineering works of modern times
was commenced in 1863, and is now far advanced towards
completion—the direct connection of the port of Amster-
dam with the North Sea, 15 miles distant, by a canal ter-
minating in an artificial harbor on that sea. (See CANAL.;
also “Prof. Papers Corps of Engineers,” No. 22.)
Amsterdam is the terminus of railways which connect it
with Utrecht, the Helder, Haarlem, Rotterdam, and the
cities of Prussia. The chief articles of export are butter,
cheese, sugar, coffee, oil, spices, colors, etc. In 1868, 1465
vessels, of 430,739. tons, entered the port of Amsterdam,
and 1508 were cleared.
Amsterdam was founded about 1250, before which it was
a mere fishing-village, with a castle, the residence of the
lords of Amstel. It was fortified in 1482, and became a
part of the United Provinces in 1578, after which its com-
merce and population rapidly increased. Between 1630
and 1750 it was the foremost commercial city of Europe.
This city was the native place of Spinoza, Admiral de
Ruyter, Swammerdam, and other eminent men. Pop. in
1857, 259,873; in 1867, 267,627; and in 1870, 281,805, of
whom about 59,000 are Catholics, 35,000 Lutherans, 4000
Mennonites, 1000 Remonstrants, and 30,000 Jews.
REVISED BY J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
- Amsterdam, a township of Hancock co., Ia. P. 259.
Amsterdam, a post-village and township of Mont-
gomery co., N. Y., on the Mohawk River and on the Cen-
tral R. R., 33 miles N. W. of Albany. It has 6 churches,
19 manufactories, 4 banks, 1 horse railroad, and 2 weekly
newspapers. Pop. 5426; pop. of township, 7706.
- C. P. WINEGAR, ED. of “RECORDER.”
Amsterdam, a post-village and township of Botetourt
co., Va., 50 miles W. of Lynchburg. Pop. of township, 3828.
Amuck', or Amook, a word used among the Malays.
Men who are rendered insane and desperate by the habit-
ual use of opium or hasheesh run along the streets armed
with a dirk, and kill or wound all persons in their reach.
This is called “running amuck.” It is generally delibe-
rately planned, and is the Malay mode of suicide. Where
a Japanese would commit hari-kari, the Malay runs amuck
—i.e. by attacking all he meets he seeks and finds death
at the hands of others.
Am/ulet [Lat. amule' tum], an object worn on the per-
son as a charm, and supposed to have power to protect
the wearer against evil spirits, sickness, and other real
or imaginary evils. Amulets were worn by the ancient
Egyptians, Greeks, and Jews. The Greeks and Romans
wore a variety of gems and Small figures of heroes, deities,
and animals. Amulets were also used by the early Chris-
tians, but that form of superstition was condemned by the
Council of Laodicea, about A. D. 360. They are common
among the Turks at the present day. An astrological am-
ulet called talisman was highly prized by the Arabs.
Am/urath, or Mu'rad I., sultan of the Turks, born
in 1326, succeeded Orkhan, his father, in 1359, took Ad-
rianople in 1361, and waged with success long and bloody
wars, chiefly with the Christians, in what is now European
Turkey. He was assassinated June 15, 1889.
Amurath II. succeeded his father, Mohammed I., in
1421, attacked Comstantinople in 1423, contended with va-
rying success for many years against the Hungarians under
Hunyady, and against Scanderbeg. He gained a great
victory at Kosovo in 1488. Died Feb. 9, 1541.
Amurath III., one of the most cruel of the sultans,
born in 1545, came to the sultanate in 1574. His reign
was marked by long wars with Austria and Persia, and
with the janizaries at home. Died Jan. 17, 1595.
Amurath (Murad) IV., sultan of Turkey, born about
1610, succeeded his uncle Mustafa in 1623. He had a pas-
sionate temper, which was rendered more violent and dan-
gerous by habitual drunkenness. He amused himself by
shooting from his palace windows at passengers in the
streets. The most important event of his reign was the
capture of Bagdad by his army in 1638. Died in 1640.
Amussat (JEAN ZULáMA), a French surgeon and writer,
born in Deux-Sèvres in 1796. He invented and improved
several surgical instruments, and published some able pro-
fessional treatises, among which are “Researches into the
Nervous System" (1825), and a “Memoir on the Torsion
of Arteries” (1829), which obtained a prize of the Insti-
tute. Died in 1856.
Amwell, a township of Washington co., Pa. Pop. 1879.
Amy/clac [Gr. 'Apºkaa..], an ancient town of Laconia, on
the Eurotas, 20 stadia. S. E. of Sparta, was famous in the
heroic or legendary age as the abode of Tyndarus and
Leda and Castor and Pollux, who were called Amyclaci
Fratres (Amyclaean Brothers). This town was conquered
by the Spartans about 775 B. C. -
Amyg/dalin, or Amyg’daline, a white crystalline
principle which is contained in the bitter almond, and
under the influence of emulsine and water yields hydrocy-
anic acid and the volatile oil of bitter almonds. The Sym-
bol of amygdalin is C20H2:NO11. (See ALMONDS, OIL OF.)
Amyg’daloid [from the Gr. &plºyöasov, an “almond,”
and eiàos, a “form *], having the form of an almond; ap-
plied in geology to certain volcanic rocks in which once
existed oval cavities or cells now filled with nodules of
some crystalline mineral deposited from an infiltrated so-
lution. These nodules are composed of agate, chalcedony,
calcareous spar, etc., and are commonly found in a basis
of basalt, greenstone, or other trap rock. Empty cells often
occur in the same rocks that contain these nodules, the
cavities in each case having been originally formed and
filled with gas or steam. - -
Amyg’dalus [from the Gr. &uºyèaxos, the “almond
tree”], a genus of plants of the order Rosaceae, consists
of trees whose fruit is a drupe. It comprises the almond
(Amyg'dalus commu'mis) and the peach (Amyg'dalus Per'-
&ica). . -
Am/yl (C5H11), a compound radical belonging to the
alcohol series, exists in amylic alcohol, C5H11.O.H., or fusel
oil. It forms a series of compound ethers (see ETHERS),
some of which are used as substitutes for the essences of
natural fruits. The nitrite of amyl is an ethereal liquid
of agreeable odor, which has been recently brought to the
attention of medical practitioners on account of its pecu-
liar action on the circulation. A few drops inhaled causes
a sudden acceleration of the pulse and flushing of the face.
Amyl'amines, organic bases formed on the ammonia
type by the substitution of amyl, C5H11, for H. Amyla-
mine is N(C5H11)H2, diamylamine is N(C5H11)2H, tri-
AMYLENE–ANACHARIS CANADENSIS.
amylamine is N(C5H11)3, tetramylammonium is N(C5H11)4.
(See AMINEs, by PROF. C. F. CHANDLER, PH.D., LL.D.)
Am/ylene (C5H10), a diatomic radical homologous with
ethylene. It is produced by the dehydration of amylic
alcohol, and is a transparent liquid of a faint but offensive
odor. It possesses anaesthetic properties, and has been
used as a substitute for chloroform, but was abandoned
after having produced fatal results. (See ETHYLENE.)
Amyot (JACQUEs). See APPENDIX.
Amyot (Jose.PH), a French Jesuit missionary, born at
Toulon in 1718. He sailed to China in 1750, was invited to
Pekin by the emperor, and passed the rest of his life there.
IHe learned the Chinese language, from which he translated
several works into French, and compiled a “Mantchoo-
Tartar-French Dictionary” (Paris, 3 vols., 1789–90). Few
European authors have done so much to illustrate the
history and customs of China. He wrote a large portion
of the “Memoirs concerning the History, Sciences, Arts,
and Customs of the Chinese” (16 vols., 1776–1814). Died
in Pekin in 1794.
Amyrida/ceae, a natural order of exogenous plants
(trees or shrubs), natives of tropical regions, and abound-
ing with balsamic and resinous juice. The type of the
order is the genus Am/yris, which produces elemi. They
have compound leaves, three to five petals, and stamens
twice or four times as many as the petals. Among the
products of this order are myrrh, frankincense, bdellium,
elemi, olibahum, and balsam of Gilead. It comprises, be-
sides Amyris, the genera Balsamodendron, Boswellia, Icica,
and Bursera. Southern Florida, has two trees of the order
—the cachibou gum tree, Bursera gummifera (a large tree),
and Amyris Floridana (torchwood), a small tree.
A/na [&vá], a Greek word signifying “ upward,”
“through,” “again.” In medical prescriptions, Ana, or
aa, denotes an equal quantity of each ingredient.
Ana, a suffix which often occurs as the termination of
words which are the titles of books containing collections
of the anecdotes, conversations, and sayings of eminent
men. Among the most remarkable of these are “Scal-
igerana” (1666), “Menagiana,” “Heutiana,” “Walpoli-
ana” (relating to Horace Walpole), and “Johnsoniana.”
They abound most in French literature. The “Scaligerana.”
was the first publication of this kind that ever appeared.
Anabap’tists [from the Gr. prep. &vá, “again,” and
Bairrigo, to “baptize”], a name applied during the six-
teenth century to various bodies of Swiss and German
Christians, who, while differing widely in personal cha-
racter, in social and political opinions, and religious faith,
agreed in discarding infant baptism, and in re-baptizing
(according to the popular notion), those who personally ac-
cepted of Christianity. While in this respect the German
Anabaptists held a position similar to that of the Baptists
of to-day, they did not, as a general thing, insist that im-
mersion only is valid baptism. Indeed, they generally
practised pouring or affusion.
Many of the early Anabaptists were men of irreproach-
able character and true Christian devotion. (See HUB-
MEYER, MENNo.) Some of them believed that it was wrong,
in any circumstances, to bear arms. Others, however
(whose vices and follies have been imputed to all who
agreed with them in rejecting infant baptism), aspiring
with a famatical zeal to purify the Church and reform so-
ciety, taught that, among men living under the gospel and
having the Spirit of God to direct them, human govern-
ment was not only unnecessary, but an unlawful encroach-
ment on their spiritual liberty; that the distinctions of
birth, rank, and wealth should be abolished; and that all
Christians, throwing their possessions into one common
stock, should live together as members of one family. Many
of their leaders claimed to be enlightened and directed by
supernatural visions and revelations. One of these, Thomas
Münzer, claimed, it is said, a divine commission to estab-
lish a holy community, and to overthrow the then existing
governments by the sword. He assembled a considerable
force, which was totally defeated in May, 1525, near Mühl-
hausen, and Münzer, with the other leaders, was put to
death. Many of his followers, however, survived, and
spread their doctrines through Germany, Holland, and
Switzerland. A numerous body of them, under John Mat-
thias of Haarlem and John Boccold (or Bockholdt) of
Leyden, established themselves in 1533 at Münster, de-
posed the magistrates, and having confiscated the property
of many of the more wealthy citizens, they deposited it in
a public treasury for the common use. The inhabitants
were drilled to military duty, and vigorous preparations
were made for the defence of Münster, which they styled
Mount Zion. Count Waldeck, bishop and prince of Mün-
ster, having surrounded the city with an army, Matthias
sallied from the gates, and was at first successful in several
engagements. But having once gone forth with a small
137
company, they were all killed. Boccold succeeded him,
with the title of King John. He wore a crown, clothed
himself in purple, and took to himself numerous wives,
only one of whom, however, was honored as queen. En-
couraged by the example of their monarch, many of Boc-
cold’s followers, it is said, gave themselves up to sensuality
and license. At length, in 1535, Münster was taken, and
Boccold and other leaders of the Anabaptists were put to
death with torture. (See CoRNELIUS, “Geschichte des
Münsterischen Aufruhrs,” Leipsic, 1855, and the “Dutch
Martyrology;” BouTERw EK’s “Literatur und Geschichte
der Wiedertäufer;” WINTER’s “Geschichte der Baierischen
Wiedertäufer ;” CALVARY’s “Mittheillungen aus dem Anti-
quariate,” vol. i., p. 111, seq.)
The word Anabaptist is sometimes applied, at the present
day, to those who baptize by immersion, and on profession.
of their faith, persons who have been sprinkled in infancy;
but the name is repudiated by modern Baptists, since they
regard the immersion of a believer as the only valid bap-
tism, and maintain that they do not rebaptize. As no his-
torical connection can be established between the Baptists
and the fanatics of Münster, the name “Anabaptist” ought
not to be applied to them. J. H. GILMORE.
Anaba'ra, a river of Siberia, rises about lat 66° 30'
N., and lon. 107° E., flows northward about 300 miles, and
enters the Arctic Ocean.
Anabas'idae [from An'abas, one of the general, a
- ---- - family of acanthopterygi-
- ous fishes, in which the
membrane of the pharynx
is divided into numerous
appendages and cells.
# These retain water suf-
s +: # ficient to moisten the gills
#N * for a considerable time,
= so that when the pools
# which these fish inhabit
==== dry up, they are able to
Anabas Scandens: Climbing Perch, move about on land in
search of other water. They are all fresh-water fishes, and
have spines on their fins. They are found in South-eastern
Asia and Southern Africa. One of this family, the An'abas
scan/dens (or Per'ca scan/dens), found in India, is espe-
cially remarkable for its climbing powers. Unlike the eel,
which only passes over moist ground, the anabas takes its
journey over hard, dry, and dusty roads, and frequently up
steep ascents heated with the burning beams of the noon-
day sun, and does not seem to feel any serious inconve-
nience from these. It is even asserted by some writers
that this fish is able to climb a tree.
Anab'asis [from the Gr. &vá, “up,” and Baivo, to “go”],
a Greek word signifying an “ascension,” a march from a
lower into a higher region. In medicine, it is sometimes
applied to the increase of a disease or paroxysm. Also the
title of two Greek historical works: 1. Xenophon’s account
of the expedition of Cyrus the Younger against his brother
Artaxerxes, king of Persia, and of the retreat of the ten
thousand Greeks who had served in the army of Cyrus.
2. Arriam’s “Anabasis,” in which are recorded the expedi-
tions of Alexander the Great into Persia and India.
Anſableps [from the Gr. &vaßAéro, to “look up ’l, a
genus of malacopterygian viviparous fishes, characterized
by a remarkable projection of the eyes from the sides of
the head, and by a singular structure of the cornea and
iris, in consequence of which it has two pupils on each
side, and seems to have four eyes. They are found in
Guiana and Surinam.
Anacan'thini [from the Gr. &v, priv., and ākav6a, a
“spine”], an order of fishes distinguished by an ossified
endoskeleton, the surface covered in some cases with cy-
cloid, in others with ctenoid, scales; fins supported by flex-
ible or jointed rays; ventrals, beneath the pectorals, or
wanting; swimming-bladder without air-duct. This order
includes the cod and other edible fishes.
Anacardia/ceae [from Anarcar'dium, one of the gen-
era], a natural order of exogenous trees and shrubs, mostly
natives of tropical regions, and often abounding in a resin-
ous fluid of extreme acridity. The leaves are alternate and
without dots, the petals perigynous, and the fruit is usually
a drupe. The order is founded on Anacardium occidentale
(cashew-nut), and contains many species, among which are
poison ivy, mastic, sumac, pistachio-nuts, and the mango.
Anach'aris Canaden'sis, an herbaceous plant of
the order Hydrocharidaceae, is a native of North America,
growing in ponds and slow streams, in which it is en-
tirely submerged. It has a much-branched perennial stem,
and is remarkable for the rapidity of its growth. It is
naturalized in Great Britain, where it suddenly appeared
in such abundance as to obstruct the navigation of the







138
ANACHARSIS-ANAGNI.
Trent, Derwent, and other rivers. It was first observed
in Great Britain about 1842. It causes no such trouble in
the U. S. -
Anachar’sis [Gr. 'Aváxaports], a celebrated Scythian
philosopher who lived about 600 B.C., and was a friend of
Solon. He was the only “barbarian" admitted to the priv-
ilege of a citizen of Athens, and according to some authori-
ties was reckoned among the Seven Wise Men of Greece.
It is said that on his return to Scythia, he was put to death,
because he practised some Greek religious rites. Some of
his pithy sayings have been preserved by Diogenes Laer-
tius and others. A French author, Jean Jacques Barthé-
lemy, published a popular work entitled “Travels of Ana-
charsis the Younger in Greece.” (1788), which represents
Awith considerable fidelity the life and customs of the ancient
Greeks. It was translated into English.
Anach'ronism [Gr. &vaxpóvºa woº, from &vá, used for
“ against,” and xpdvos, “time ’j, an error in chronology,
an inversion or disturbance of the order of time. The use
of cannon in Shakspeare’s “King John ” is an anachron-
ism, as cannon were not employed in England until a hun-
dred years or more after his reign. Painters who represent
ancient patriarchs in modern costumes are censured for
anachronism. -
Amacla’che, a snowy peak of the Bolivian Andes, is
supposed to be 22,000 feet or more above the level of the
sea; lat. 189 12" S., lon. 69° 20' W. It is coyered with
perpetual snow.
Anacle’tus, bishop of Rome, was a native of Athens.
He was the successor (or, according to others, the prede-
cessor) of Saint Clement. Died about 100 A. D.
Anacletus, an antipope, was elected by a party of
cardinals in 1130 as a rival pope to Innocent II., who was
recognized by the majority of the European powers. Ana-
cletus was supported by the Romans. Died in 1138.
Anacon’da [Eunecºtes muri'nws, Bo'a murī’na of some
naturalists], a large serpent allied to the Boa constrictor, is
a native of tropical America, especially of Brazil and Gui-
ana. It sometimes grows to the length of forty feet, and
is the largest serpent of America. It passes much of the
time in the water, preferring the shallow parts of a lake or
stream. Among the generic characters that distinguish it
from the boa, are the small size and position of its mostrils,
which open at the upper part of the end of the muzzle, and .
are directed upward. It is not venomous.
Anac're on ['Avakpéov), a famous Greek lyric poet, born
at Teos, in Ionia, about 560 B. C. He emigrated from Teos
when that town was taken by the Persians, about 540, and
passed many years at Samos, where he was patronized by
King Polycrates. After the death of this patron, 522
B. C., he became a resident of Athens, to which he was in-
vited by Hipparchus. Love and wine were the favorite
themes of his muse. Died in 476 B. C. According to tra-
dition, his death was caused by a grape-stone which stuck
fast in his throat. Some fragments of his poems are extant.
Anadir', or Anadyr, a river of Siberia, near the ex-
treme N. E. part of Asia, rises north of Kamtchatka, flows
nearly eastward, and enters the Sea of Anadir. Length,
about 450 miles. The Sea, or Gulf of Anadir is in Sibe-
ria, near the N. E. extremity of Asia, and is a large inlet of
the Pacific Ocean. It is separated from the Arctic Ocean
by a peninsula about 150 miles wide. - -
Anadyom/ene [Gr. 'Avačvouévºl, (the goddess “rising
up out” of the sea), a surname given to Venus; also the
name of a masterpiece of Apelles, representing Venus ris-
ing from the sea and wringing her flowing hair with her
fingers. This picture was purchased by the people of Cos,
who sold it to the emperor Augustus for one hundred tal-
ents, or more than $100,000 of our money.
Anaeſmia [from the Gr. a, priv., and atua, “blood”], also
called. Spanae/mia [from gravós, “scarce,” “rare,” and
atua, “blood”], a morbid, condition of the body in which
the blood is of an abnormal compósition, there being usual-
ly a deficiency in the normal number of red corpuscles, a
poverty of albumen, and an excess of salts, the absolute
amount of the blood being usually below that observed in
health. This condition is not properly a disease, so much
as a result of some disease or lesion, such as dyspepsia,
haemorrhage, excessive secretion from any gland Ör Tsur-
face, insufficient nutrition, defective aération of the blood,
consumption, cancer, malarial or other slow poisoning,
leucocythaemia, excessive labor, or long-continued mental
troubles. The symptoms are, first, great debility, paleness
of face, lips, and tongue, wasting of the tissues, various
cardiac, arterial, and venous murmurs, a small and often
rapid pulse, clearness and low specific gravity of the urine.
Late in the disease the feet swell and sweating is observed.
The treatment is, first, if possible, to remove the cause.
Next, the proper conditions for recovery must be establish-
“analgesia.”
the mesmeric sleep or condition of “hypnotism.”
ed, such as proper food, due exercise, and good air. Ton-
ics, if they are well borne by the patient, are generally
useful. Strychnia, quinia, and, above all, iron, are often
extremely useful. The iron is generally thought to act as
food, there being an actual deficiency of iron in the blood.
Anaesthe'sia [from the Gr. av, priv., and aioréâvouac, to
“perceive,” to “feel”], in medical language, when used to
designate a symptom, denotes a diminution or a complete
loss of the sense of feeling, either general or much more
frequently local. In this sense it is opposed to the term
hyperaesthesia, which denotes an exaltation or excess of
sensibility. Both these conditions are symptoms of dis-
ease of the nervous system. When feeling proper is abol-
ished while pain exists, it is called “anaesthesia dolorosa;”
when both pain and the sense of touch are absent, it is
But of late the term commonly denotes a
total or partial, local or general, suspension of all the
senses as the result of the application or inhalation of some
chemical agent. Local anaesthesia is produced by the rapid
evaporation of some highly volatile substance, like ether
or rhigolene, and consequent chilling of the part to be af-
fected. The local application of certain drugs, such as
aconitine, will also produce a degree of anaesthesia. Gen-
eral anaesthesia is, however, by far the most common result
of this kind to which the physician directs his efforts. The
Chinese have used preparations of hemp for this purpose
for many centuries. The “Arabian Nights” contain nume-
rous allusions to a similar use of this drug. Mandragora,
opium, and many other soporifics were used by the ancients
as anaesthetics, though such use is dangerous from the pro-
found effects produced. Surgical operations in later times
have been successfully performed while the patient sºnin
UICIl 3,
condition is, however, usually regarded as a diseased one,
and its production is outside the province of the physician.
The anaesthetics generally in use are common or ethylic
ether, chloroform, and nitrous oxide gas, each of which is
administered by inhalation. There is some reason to be-
lieve that the anaesthetic property of ether was not un-
known in the sixteenth century, soon after the discovery
of this agent by the alchemists. Several physicians in the
eighteenth century recommended the use of ether by inhal-
ation for the relief of pain. Sir Humphry Davy in 1800
observed the anaesthetic effect of nitrous oxide, and pro-
posed its use in surgery, but it was not till 1844 that Horace
Wells, a dentist of Hartford, Conn., successfully employed
this gas for the prevention of pain in removing teeth. The
'subject, however, fell for the time into undeserved neglect,
though at present this gas is extensively employed in den-
tistry and in some other surgical operations. .
Between 1816 and 1846 several American physicians pro-
posed the use of ether as an anaesthetic. In October of
the latter year, Dr. W. T. G. Morton of Boston (who had
successfully used ether in dentistry) administered it to a
patient in the Massachusetts General Hospital during a
surgical operation by the late Dr. Warren. In Nov., 1847,
Sir J. Y. Simpson of Edinburgh first announced chloro-
form as an anaesthetic, it having been used for the relief
of difficult breathing by Ives of New Haven, Conn., in
1832, and its anaesthetic effect upon the lower animals hav-
ing been shown by Flourens ten months before Simpson's
experiments. The use of both ether and chloroform has
spread rapidly since the above discoveries. Various other
agents (amylene, amyl hydride, carbon bichloride, Dutch
liquid, methylene bichloride, etc.) have been proposed, but
for the most part they have turned out to be more danger-
ous than the older and better known anaesthetics.
With regard to the relative superiority of the various
agents used, opinions differ: . It is claimed by some that
ether is much safer than chloroform, while other practi-
tioners of eminence assert that chloroform is pleasanter,
cheaper, and more speedy in its effect, and equally safe if
the requisite skill is employed in administration. The
principal objections to nitrous oxide are, that it is not
easily portable, and that its effects are very transitory.
Experiments tend to show that ether produces anaesthesia
by causing anaemia of the brain, while chloroform appears
to act by producing hyperaemia. Further observations are
constantly being made on these points, and these experi-
ments may be fairly expected to throw great light on the
subject. - CHAs. W. GREENE.
Anaesthet'ics, the name applied to certain prepara-
tions having the property of producing ANASTHESIA (which
see). - -
Ana’gni (anc. Anag'nia), a town of Italy, 37 miles E.
S. E. of Rome, is the seat of a bishop. It is the resi-
dence of several noble families, and was the birthplace of
several popes, among whom were Innocent III. and Greg-
ory IX. Anagnia was nearly as old as Rome, was the
chief city of the Hernici, and was an important place dur-
ANAGRAM—ANALYSIS.
ing the whole period of the ancient Roman history. Virgil
mentions it as the wealthy Anagnia. Here are some of the
finest cyclopean walls in existence. Pop. 6000.
An'agram [from the Gr. &vá, “backward,” and ypáppa,
a “letter” or “writing”], a word or sentence formed by
the transposition of the letters of some word, phrase, or
sentence. The most perfect or proper anagram, called
palindrome, is formed by reading backward—i.e. reversing
the order of the letters—as “evil,” live. The making of
anagrams was a fashionable exercise of ingenuity in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, as well as in the Dark
or Middle Ages. A very curious specimen of anagram is
the transmutation of Pilate's question, Quid est Veritas
(“What is Truth *) into Est Vir qui adest (“It is the Man
who is present”). Dr. Burney made the felicitous discov-
ery that the Latin sentence Honor est a Nilo (“Honor is
(or comes) from the Nile ”) is concealed in the name of
Horatio Nelson. The opponents of the Dutch theologian
Jacobus Arminius transformed his name into Vani Orbis
Amicus (“A Friend of the Vain World”).” Among recent
examples of the anagram are—Florence Nightingale, “Flit
on, cheering Angel;” Sir Robert Peel, “Terrible Poser;”
French Revolution, “Violence, run forth.”
An'aheim, the second town in size and importance in
Los Angeles co., Cal., situated in the centre of the largest
Valley in California, is 12 miles from the sea, and is the
head-quarters of the wine interest of Southern California.
It produces over 1,000,000 gallons of wine annually. It
has one weekly paper. Pop. 881.
RICHARD MELROSE, PUB. “SouTHERN CALIFoRNIAN.”
Anahuac', a Mexican word used vaguely or in various
senses, sometimes applied to the great central table-land
or plateau of Mexico, which comprises more than half of
the Mexican republic, and lies between lat. 15° and 30° N.
and lon. 95° and 110° W. It is elevated from 6000 to 9000
feet above the level of the sea, contains several lakes, and
is bounded on the E. and W. by chains of high mountains.
From this plateau rise several high volcanoes, one of which,
Popocatepetl, has an altitude of 17,784 feet.
Anahuac Mountains, a branch of the Rocky Moun-
tains, is a chain in the northern part of Mexico, W. of the
Rio del Norte, with which it is nearly parallel, and con-
nected with the Anahuac table-lands.
An'akim, the ancient race of giants who lived in the
S. of Palestine at the time of the exodus of the Israelites.
They are called “ the children of Anak’’ in Numbers xiii.
28. “Joshua destroyed them utterly with their cities,” but
a remnant of them was left in Gaza, in Gath, and in Ash-
dod (Joshua xi. 21).
Amal’cime, or Amal’cite [from the Gr. a, priv., and
&Akwuos, “ strong’], a hydrated silicate of soda and alu-
mina, generally occurring in twenty-four-sided crystals,
which are sometimes transparent. By friction it becomes
feebly electrified, whence its name. It is found in the trap-
rocks of Ireland, Scotland, Nova Scotia, and Lake Su-
perior.
Analem’ma [Lat. analem’ma : Gr. &váAnupa, a “sup-
port” or “object supported,” from &vá, “ up,” and Aapºgévo,
to “take ’, in geometry, the projection of a sphere upon
the plane of a meridian, the eye being supposed to be
placed at an infinitely distant point of the radius perpen-
dicular to that plane. In this projection (which is also
called orthographic) all small circles whose planes are par-
allel to that of projection are represented by concentric
circles of the same magnitude as the originals, all circles
in planes perpendicular to that of projection are seen as
chords Ör diameters of the meridian circle, and all other
circles of the sphere are projected into ellipses.
A’nal Glands, in comparative anatomy, are organs for
Secreting substances which, though not always so, are gen-
erally repulsive in their character, and are commonly em-
ployed for purposes of defence. They present every grade
of the glandular structure, nearly always opening into the
termination of the intestine near the anus. The sweet fluid
ejected by the aphides, and of which the ants are so fond,
is the product of secerning tubules opening on the poste-
rior part of the body; and the singular defensive acrid
vapors discharged explosively by the insects called “bom-
bardiers” are likewise the products of anal glands. In the
mollusks the most remarkable example of these glands is
presented by certain cephalopods, such as the cuttle-fish,
in which there is sometimes a single and sometimes a bi-
lobed or trilobed cyst, that secretes an inky fluid which
these animals eject to blacken the water around them, for
the purpose of concealment in time of danger. In reptiles
the anal bags are either single, double, or triple, and in
many species, as in frogs and tortoises, are developed to a
* It is usual for anagrammatists to treat i as the same with 3,
and u as identical with v. -
139
great size, and serve for aquatic respiration. In birds the
anal follicles consist of a single cavity, which is termed the
bursa Fabricii. In quadrupeds the anal follicles generally
consist of two sacciform cavities, each having an opening
near the verge of the anus. In the skunk (Mephi’tis vaſ-
rians) the secretion of these glands furnishes to the animal
its principal means of defence. In the civet (Viverra
civetta) and the beaver (Castor fiber): the secretions from
the anal glands have long been an article of commerce; the
former is sometimes employed, when combined with other
substances, as a perfume; the latter, under the name of
Gastor, is used in medicine.
Anſalogue [from the Gr. &vá, “according to,” and
Aóyos, “ratio’’ or “proportion ”], in comparative anatomy,
a member or organ of an animal that performs the same
function as a part or organ in a different animal. Thus,
the wing of a bird is the analogue of the wing of an insect,
though different in structure.
Anal’ogy [Lat. analo'gia; Gr. &vaxoyia, from &vá, “ac-
cording to,” and Aóyos, “ratio’’ or “proportion ”], literally,
the state or circumstance of having proportion one to the
other; used to denote a relation or agreement between dif-
ferent things in certain respects. The conclusions to which
we are led respecting one thing, by reasoning from our ex-
perience concerning another similar thing, form what is
termed analogical knowledge. . The word analogy is gen-
erally employed to designate an imperfect degree of simi-
larity. Thus, a physician, arguing from the effects which
he had seen produced by a certain drug on one man to its
probable effects on another man, would be said to reason
from eacperience; but reasoning from the effects produced
on an inferior animal to the probable effects on man, he
would be, more properly, reasoning from analogy. Thus
also, Bishop Butler, in his celebrated treatise on the “Anal-
ôgy of Religion, Natural and Revealed,” has argued that
the same sort of difficulties which are found in the consti-
tution of nature must be looked for in the spiritual world,
and that the existence of this analogy is a good reason for
believing that revealed religion proceeds from God, the
Creator of the material universe. w
In rhetoric, the word analogy designates, not the direct
resemblance between two objects, but a resemblance be-
tween the relations in which they stand to other objects.
For example, to term youth “the dawn of life” is said to
be an analogical metaphor, because there is no direct re-
semblance between youth and morning, but the one may be
said to bear the same relation to life that the other does
to day. In grammar, analogy means a conformity in the
principles of organization of different words or collections
of words. In geometry, analogy signifies nearly the same
thing as proportion, or the equality or similitude of ratios.
In zoology, the term analogy is usually restricted to the
relation which animals bear to one another in the similarity
of a smaller proportion of their organism; thus, the A8-
calaphus Italicus, in the length and knobbed extremities
of its antennae, the coloring of its wings, and its general
aspect, exhibits a striking resemblance to the butterfly, but
in all the essential parts of its organization it conforms to
the neuropterous type of structure; its relation to the Lep-
idoptera is therefore said to be one of analogy, while it is,
in fact, connected with the ant-lions by affinity.
Reasoning from analogy consists in inferring that cer-
tain facts are true with reference to objects which have
afforded us no examples of those facts, on the basis of the
similarity of those objects to other objects better known. '
It warrants only probable conclusions, but the probability
may often become very strong, and in the affairs of life it
is often necessary to act upon conclusions thus attained.
Even when its conclusions are very uncertain; they may
often serve to guide inquiry and lead to discovery. -
* , REVISED BY J. H. GILMoR.E.
Anal’ysis [Gr. &váAvorts, from &vá, “throughout,” and
Aſo, to “untie”], in geometry, a method of conducting geo-
metrical inquiries, invented by the philosophers of the
school of Plato, or, according to Theon of Alexandria, by
Plato himself, and one of the most ingenious and beautiful
contrivances in the mathematics.
“Analysis,” says Pappus, “may be distinguished into
two kinds: in the first, which may be called contemplative
analysis, we propose to discover the truth or falsehood of
an affirmed proposition; the other belongs to the solution
of problems, or the investigation of unknown truths. In
the first we assume the subject of the proposition advanced
to be true, and proceed through the consequences of the
hypothesis till we arrive at something known. If this re-
suit is true, the proposition is true also, and the direct dem-
onstration is obtained by stating in an inverse order the
different parts of the analysis. If the ultimate consequence
at which we arrive is false, the proposition was also false.
In the case of a problem, we first suppose it to be resolved,
140
and deduce the consequences resulting from that solution
till we arrive at something known. If the last consequence
involves only something which can be executed, or is com-
prised among what geometers called data, the proposed
problem can be solvéd; and the demonstration—or rather,
in this case, the construction—is obtained, as in the for-
mer case, by taking the different parts of the analysis in
an inverse order. If the last result is impossible, the thing
demanded is also impossible.” -
The names of the ancient writers on the , geometrical
analysis are—Euclid, in his “Data and Porismata;” Apol-
lonius, in his treatise “De Sectione Rationis” and in his
“Comic Sections;” Aristaeus, “De Locis Solidis;” and Era-
tosthemes, “De Mediis Proportionalibus;” but of these only
the “Data” of Euclid and some fragments of Apollonius
have come down to our times. A complete system of the
ancient geometrical analysis may be found in the works of
Dr. Simson of Glasgow. The reader may also consult with
advantage Leslie’s “Geometrical Analysis.”
Analysis is directly opposed to synthesis, which advances
step by step through known propositions, from the data to
the quaesita in the case of a problem, or from the hypothesis
to the predicate in the case of a theorem. Analysis is the
chief though not the sole instrument of discovery, whilst
synthesis adapts itself naturally to instruction. Euclid's
direct demonstrations, for example, are all synthetical; his
indirect ones, however, retain the analytical character. The
methods of conducting analysis and synthesis are the same
in kind, the only difference being that, in the hands of the
investigator at least, the several steps of the former are ex-
periments suggested by experience, for which no rule can
be assigned, whereas in the latter these steps are suggested
by previous knowledge, gained, in fact, very frequently from
a preliminary analysis. -
The ancient geometers conducted their analysis by means
of ordinary language only; their successors, however, fre-
quently availed themselves of the powerful resources of
algebra. As a consequence of this habit the word anal-
ysis, until a very recent reaction set in, lost entirely its
original meaning as a method of reasoning opposed to
synthesis, and by a strange perversion of terms became
synonymous with algebra and the calculus; that is to say,
with the instruments employed in investigation. The fact
that algebra may be, and often is, employed synthetically
as well as analytically appears to have been overlooked.
REvised BY J. THOMAs.
Analysis, Chemical. See CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, by
PROF. S. W. JoHNson, A. M., and VoIUMETRIC ANALYSIS. .
Analytical Geometry. See GEOMETRY.
Anam', or Annam', Empire of, called also Cochin
China, a country of South-eastern Asia, is bounded on the
N. by China, on the S. and E. by the Chinese Sea, and on
the W. by Laos, Siam, and the Gulf of Siam. Area, about
198,000 square miles. It lies between lat. 8° 40' and 23°
22° N. The length from N. to S. is about 800 miles, and
the width is very unequal in different parts. It is traversed
by a long range of high mountains, the direction of which
is nearly N. and S. The principal river is the Mekong (or
Cambodja), which is navigable, and flows southward into
the Chinese Sea. The empire of Anam was formed at the
beginning of the present century out of the former king-
doms of Tonquin and Cochin China (Ko-Tchin-Tching),
to which were added the province of Champa and a part
of the ancient kingdom of Cambodja. The population is
variously estimated at from 9,000,000 to 27,000,000, the
latter figure being given by the Catholic missionaries.
ToNQUIN is the most northern part of Anam, and borders
on the Gulf of Tonquin. It is intersected by the river
Sang-koi, which enters the Gulf of Tonquin. The soil is
fertile, and produces rice, cotton, and spices, with a variety
of varnish trees and palms. Gold, silver, copper, and iron
abound in Tonquin, which is the only part of Anam that is
rich in metals. - *
Coch IN CHINA is a long and narrow district, bounded on
the E. by the Chinese Sea, and on the W. by a range of
barren mountains, which have not been explored. A large
part of the soil is sterile. The scenery of the coast is grand
and beautiful. The chief products are eagle-wood (Aloez'-
$/lon), sugar, and cinnamon. -
CAMBODIA, or KAMBOJA, is S. W. of Cochin China, and
borders on the Gulf of Siam. (See CAMBODIA.)
CHAMPA, or TsIAMPA, is the most southern part of Anam,
bordering on the sea. The soil is sterile, consisting of sand-
hills and granite formations, but yields one valuable pro-
duct, the fragrant eagle-wood. Several good harbors occur
on the coast of Champa.
The government of Anam is despotic.
pointed by the emperor govern the provinces, and are the
commanders of the army. Buddhism is the religion of
the majority of the people; among the higher classes Con-
Mandarins ap-
ANALYSIS, CHEMICAL–ANAPHORA.
fucius has many adherents. Roman Catholic missions were
planted in the seventeenth century, soon became prosper-
ous, and have maintained themselves in spite of the most
cruel persecutions. In 1862 the emperor engaged in a
treaty of peace concluded with France to tolerate Chris-
tianity and protect the Christians in their lives and prop-
erty throughout the empire. In 1872 the Catholic Church
of Anam (inclusive of the French Cochin China) was divided
into eight vicariates apostolic, of which four were in Ton-
quin, three in Cochin China, and one in Cambodja. The
Christian population was in 1854 estimated at 500,000; and
though from 1854 to 1862 it greatly decreased, it is now
believed to exceed that number, as in 1865 the apostolic
vicariate of Tonquin alone had 127,852, and that of East-
ern Tonquin 43,315 Catholics. The commerce of Anam is
to a large extent in the hands of Chinese merchants; the
chief branch of industry is silk manufacture. The capital
is Hue, at the mouth of the river of the same name.
The Anamese language is, like the Chinese, monosyllabic;
the literature consists almost exclusively of imitations of
Chinese works. About 214 B. C., Tonquin and Cochin
China, were conquered by a Chinese prince and settled by
Chinese colonists. From that time to 1428 they were in
turn sometimes subject to China, sometimes independent.
In 1428 they threw off the Chinese yoke and formed an
independent empire, under the dynasty Leh. But the au-
thority of this house became soon merely nominal, Ton-
quin being ruled (since 1545) by the dynasty of the Trinh,
Cochin China (since 1600) by that of Nguyen. A new
dynasty, Tay-song, arose in 1765, and exterminated the
dynasties of Leh, Trinh, and Nguyen. Only one Scion of
the latter, Nguyen-anh, escaped, was educated in France,
and having returned to Anam, and conquered and exter-
minated the dynasty Tay-song, was under the name Gya-
long proclaimed as the first emperor of Anam. His natural
son and successor, Minh-menh (1820–41), and the son and
grandson of the latter, Thien-tri (1841–47), and Tu-due
(since 1847), were all cruel persecutors of the Catholic
Church, and thus became involved in hostilities with
France and Spain. A four-years' war (1858–62) ended
in a treaty of peace, by which the emperor of Anam ceded
three provinces of Cochin China, Saigon, Bienhoa, and
Mytho, to France. In 1867 three other provinces of Cochin
China, Vinh-long, Chan-doc, and Ha-tien, were annexed
to the French dominions, which have an area of 21,728
square miles, and a population of 1,204,287. (See WEUIL-
Lot, “La Cochin Chine et la Tonquin,” 1859; CoRTAMBERT
and DE RosNY, “Tableau de la Cochin Chine,” 1863; BAS-
TIAN, “Die Völker des 6stl. Asiens,” vol. iv., 1868; and the
brochures of St. Garnier, 1864–69.) A. J. SchEM.
Anam’boe, or Anamaboe, a seaport and British fort
on the Gold Coast of Africa, 11 miles E. N. E. of Cape Coast
Castle, is the residence of a governor. It exports palm-oil,
gold-dust, ivory, etc. Pop. about 3000.
Anamirapucu', a river of Brazil, in the province of
Pará, enters the estuary of the Amazon after a course of
about 200 miles.
Anamor'phosis [Gr. &vapiépôoats, from &vá, “again,”
and popóóo, to “form *], in natural history, denotes the
ideal change of form or development which may be traced
through the species or higher members of a natural group
of animals or plants. Some naturalists adopt the theory
that living species have been developed from extinct spe-
cies by the process of anamorphosis. The term is some-
times applied in botany, to an unusual development of an
organ, as the calyx of a rose assuming the form of a fruit.
ANAMORPHOSIs, in perspective, denotes a drawing which
when viewed in the usual way appears distorted or pre-
sents an image of something different, but when viewed
from a particular point or reflected by a curved mirror, it
appears in its proper form and just proportions.
Anamo'sa, a post-village, capital of Jones co., Ia, on
the Wapsipinicon and Buffalo rivers, 50 miles S. W. of
Dubuque, on the Dubuque and South-western and Iowa
Midland R. Rs. It has two weekly newspapers, a national
bank, excellent quarries of building-stone, and a State pen-
itentiary. Pop. 2083. ED. “ANAMOSA EUREKA.”
Ananassa Sativa. See PINEAPPLE.
Ananyev, a town of Russia, in the government of
Kherson, 90 miles N. W. of Odessa. Pop. in 1867, 11,402.
Anapa', a seaport and fortified town of Russian Cir-
cassia, on the N. shore of the Black Sea, near the mouth
of the Kuban. The harbor is not safe in stormy weather.
The town has been by turns the property of Turks and
Russians, and now belongs to the latter. Pop. about 9000.
Anaph'ora [Lat. anaph/ora; Gr. &vadopé, from &vá,
“again?” or “back,” and bépo, to “carry’], in rhetoric, a
repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of two or
more consecutive sentences or clauses, as, “It is sown in
ANARRHICHAS–ANATOLIA.
141
corruption; it is raised in incorruption. It is sown in dis-
honor; it is raised in glory. It is sown in weakness; it is
raised in power.”
Anar'rhich as [from the Gr. &vá, “up,” and āşştxag0at,
to “clamber ºl, the name of a genus of spiny-finned osse-
ous fishes, characterized by having their mandibular, pal-
atine, and vomerine bones armed with large osseous tuber-
cules bearing on their summits enamelled teeth. It in-
cludes the wolf-fish, which is common to both sides of the
Atlantic.
A/nas [from the Lat. a'mas, a “ duck”], a Linnaean
genus of web-footed birds belonging to the order Palmi-
%
- ºf
2", .
*** - - - -–
Anas clypeata, or Shoveler Duck.
pedes, has been divided by recent ornithologists into many
genera—namely, Anas (the duck), Anser (the geese), Cygnus
(the swans), Aythya (red-head), Somateria (eiders), etc.
The anas in this restricted sense has a flattened bill, the
base of which has a greater breadth than depth, and the
bill is as wide (or wider) at the extremity as at the base.
Anasarca. See DROPSY.
Anasta'sius I., emperor of Constantinople, was born
at Durazzo about 430 A. D. He succeeded the emperor
Zeno in 491. The orthodox, who considered him a heretic,
revolted and defeated his army in 514. Died in 518 A. D.
Anastasius II. became emperor of the East in 713
A. D. Theodosius was chosen emperor by his army, which
took Constantinople and deposed Anastasius in 716. Died
in 720 A. D. g -
Anastasius I., SAINT, a native of Rome, became pope
about 398 A. D. He condemned the doctrines of Origen.
Died in 402 A. D.—ANASTASIUs II., SAINT (Pope), a native
of Rome, succeeded Gelasius I. in 496 A. D. Died in 498.-
ANASTASIUs III. was chosen pope in place of Sergius III.
in 911. Died in 913.−ANASTAsſus IV. succeeded Eugenius
#. as pope in 1153. He died at an advanced age Dec. 2,
1154.
Anastasius, surnamed. THE LIBRARIAN, a Roman
priest who was librarian of the Vatican, and lived about
860 A. D. He compiled an “Ecclesiastical History” in
Latin, and wrote other works, Died about 890.
Anastasius, SAINT, surnamed ASTRIC, the apostle Of
the Hungarians, was born in 954. He converted the duke
Stephen, and many other Hungarians. Died in 1044.
Anastasius Grün. See AUERSPERG.
Anastat'ica [from the Gr. &vágraats, “resurrection”],
the name of a genus of cruciferous plants, one species of
which, called the rose of Jericho (Anastatica Hierochun-
tina), grows in Palestine and has singular hygroscopic
properties. Under the influence of drought it rolls up into
a ball, becomes detached from the ground, and is carried
away by the wind. When it comes into contact with moist-
ure it expands into its natural form. It retains for many
years this property of expanding when moistened.
Anastat'ic Printing, a process by which
printing and engravings may be transferred to
metal, from which impressions exactly like the orig-
inal can be taken. The printed sheet is moistened
with dilute phosphoric or nitric acid, and pressed
with great force upon a zinc plate, which is after-
A wards washed with an acid solution of gum, and
then inked with a roller. -
Anas' trophe [from the Gr. &vá, “up,” “back,”
“over,” and arpedo, to “turn”], a term in rhetoric
applied to a species of inversion or departure from
the usual order of succession in words, as when
Scott, in the “Lady of the Lake,” says, “Clattered a hun-
dred steeds along,” for “A hundred steeds clattered along;”
so Virgil in the “AEneid,” lib. i., i. 32, has “Maria omnia
circum” for “circum omnia maria” (“around all the seas”).
An'atase [from the Gr. &váraorts, “extension,” so called
from the length of its crystals], a name of titanic acid or
oxide of titanium, which occurs in octahedral crystals,
having a splendent and adamantine lus-
tre. Some specimens found in Brazil re-
semble diamonds so much as to be mis-
taken for them. Called also octahedrite.
Anath’ema [ävá6epa, from &vá, “ up,”
and ríðmut, to “set’ or “place”], a Greek
word, the primary meaning of which was
iſ something “placed ” or “hung up ’’ in
º-ma ; the temples of the gods, and hence “con-
sº º 3 y cº “devoted.” Among º
% = Jews and Christians it is a curse or de-
\\ º #~ nunciation uttered by ecclesiastical au–
}% thority, and a form of excommunication
à of heretics and other offenders.
* An'ath oth, or A^nata, an ancient
š Jewish city of refuge, about 4 miles N. E.
of Jerusalem, is supposed to have been
the native place of the prophet Jeremiah.
Amat'idae, the name of a family of
web-footed birds, of which the genus Amas
is the type. It includes the duck, goose,
swan, and others. Cuvier gave them the
name of Lamellirostres.
Anato/lia, Anado'li, or Nato'lia
[from the Gr. 'Avaroxi, the “rising” or
“orient”], the modern name of Asia Mi-
nor, which is a large peninsula, bounded
on the N. by the Black Sea and the Sea.
of Mármora, on the S. by the Mediterranean, and on the
W. by the Grecian Archipelago. The Euphrates forms part
of its ill-defined eastern boundary. It lies between lat. 36°
and 42° N., and between lon. 26° and 41° E. . The length
from E. to W. is about 700 miles, and the area is estimated
at 204,434 square miles. The western coast is indented with
numerous gulfs, and presents many high and precipitous
cliffs. The interior is an elevated plateau, enclosed by two
mountain-ranges—namely, Mount Taurus, which extends
through the southern part from the Euphrates to the archi-
pelago; and Anti-Taurus, which traverses the northern
part. The general direction of these ranges is nearly E.
and W. Some peaks of Mount Taurus attain a height of
10,000 feet or more. Between these two long ranges are
several others which rise, to a great height. The highest
summit in Anatolia is the volcanic Arjish-Dagh, or Mount
Argaeus, which is situated 13 miles S. of Kaisareeyeh, and
is I3,000 feet above the level of the sea. Mount Olympus,
about 8 miles S. of Brusa, has an altitude of 8800 feet. -
The largest river of Anatolia is the Kizil-Irmak (ang.
Halys), which rises in the E. part and enters the Black
Sea. The western part of the peninsula is drained by the
Meander and the Hermus (Sarabat), which flow westward
into the AEgean Sea. In the central part are a number of
salt lakes and barren steppes of large extent. The Kata-
kekaumene, or “burnt country,” a volcanic waste, is the .
best known of these regions.
The rocks which underlie the upper regions of Anatolia
are mostly granite, serpentine, and schist. Along the
southern and western coasts calcareous rocks predominate,
and marble is abundant. Numerous extinct volcanoes and
rocks of volcanic origin occur in different parts of the coun-
try. The climate presents a great diversity in consequence
of the inequality of the surface. The western shores have
been celebrated in all ages for their mild and genial cli-
mate, and the coast of the Black Sea is favored in that re-
spect. The central plateau is very hot in summer and cold


142.
ANATOLIA—ANAXAGORAS.
in winter, partly because it is not well watered and is gene-
rally destitute of forest trees. The northern region and
the other sea-coasts are covered with extensive forests of
oak, ash, beech, plane, and other trees good for timber.
The coasts of the AEgean and Black seas have a very lux-
uriant vegetation and a fertile soil. Among the chief prod-
ucts are sugar, wine, opium, tobacco, olives, figs, wheat,
barley, and silk. The flora of Southern and Western Ana-
tolia is extremely beautiful. The mountains are infested
by panthers, bears, and wolves. -
Anatolia, which forms a part of the dominions of the
sultan of Turkey, comprises the pashalics of Anatolia,
Itchelee, Karamania, Marash, Sivas (or Room), and Tre-
bizond. The population, which is estimated at 10,970,000,
consists of Ottoman Turks (who are a large majority),
Turkomans, Greeks, nomadic Koords, and Armenians.
The cultivation of the soil is generally neglected here, and
the principal branches of industry are the production of
opium, wine, and oil, and weaving shawls and carpets.
The chief cities are Smyrna, Brusa (or Bursa), Sinope,
Angora, Konieh, Kutaieh, and Trebizond. In ancient
times this peninsula was occupied by many powerful king-
doms and famous cities. (See ASIA MINOR, Ion IA, LYDIA,
PoSTUs, etc.
1842; Toh IHATCHEFF, “Asie : Mineure,” 1853–60; and
BARTH, “Reise von Trapezunt bis Skutari,” 1860.)
A. J. SCHEM.
Anatolia is also a pashalic of Asiatic Turkey, form-
ing the western portion of the peninsula called Asia Minor.
It is the largest and richest province in the Turkish em-
pire, and the most populous in Wostern Asia, comprising
nearly half of the Anatolia described above.
Anatºomy [from the Gr. &vá, “up,” “through,” and
Téuvoo, to “cut”], the science of the structure of organized
bodies; so called because its results are attained and its
investigations are pursued by “cutting up * or dissecting
organisms. The widest and most general knowledge of :
organized structures is to be attained only by the exami- .
nation and comparison of the structure of all species of
animals and vegetables. Such a comparison has given
name to the science of CoMPARATIVE ANATOMY (which see)
—a science embracing in its field all the other branches of
anatomical knowledge. That branch of comparative anat-
omy which seeks to trace the unities of plan which are ex-
hibited in diverse organisms, and which discovers, as far.
as may be, the principles which govern the growth and
development of organized bodies, and which finds func-
tional analogies and structural homologies is denominated
“ philosophical * or “transcendental” anatomy. The
study of the structure of animals is called zootomy, or
animal anatomy; vegetable anatomy is known as phytot-
omy, or more frequently as structural botany. That branch
of amatomy which describes the organs or viscera, etc.
of any one species, and the relations of these organs to
each other, is called descriptive or special anatomy, or or-
ganography. Histology treats of the “tissues” or intme-
diate structural elements. Microscopic anatomy is minute
histology, or the science of the more remote structural ele-
ments of which the body is built up. The examination of
the wiltimate structural elements is the province of organic
chemistry, but between that science and histology there is
yet an uncrossed, perhaps an impassable, barrier. . (See HIS-
Tology, by Col. J. J. WooDwARD, M. D. . . .
Vegetable anatomy is, and must be, chiefly histological,
since the various parts of plants are structurally much less
differentiated from their typical histological elements than
those of most animals.
are modifications of the leaf. , * -
. Human anatomy, the science of the structure of the
human body, is not only a subject of interest and vital
importance to the physician and the surgeon, but should
be understood in its general outlines by parents and
teachers, and by every one who recognizes the im-
portance of the knowledge of that self of which the
body is so important a part. To the painter and sculptor
the study of the superficial muscles and bones is consid-
ered indispensable. Such knowledge is primarily sought
in the dissecting-room; but the slowly accumulated results
of the practical anatomist’s work have been minutely
recorded; and for ordinary instruction the published
text-books are sufficient; while for the surgeon, and even
for the artist, practical work with the scalpel is all im-
portant, as substituting certainty and familiar personal
knowledge for the less valuable knowledge that is acquired
by reading and tradition. Practical anatomical work is
pursued and legalized in most civilized nations; and the
(much exaggerated) abuses to which it has led in former
times are now for the most part prevented by law.
HAMILTON, “IResearches in Asia Minor;”
ous parts.
Indeed, the organography of .
plants is very simple, the philosophical anatomist being
able to show that all the proper organs of the vegetable.
Human anatomy, is “general,” “special,” “topograph-
ical,” or “surgical.” “General anatomy” applies the re-
sult of philosophical anatomy to the human body, assigns
various organs to appropriate groups, and divides the
whole subject into suitable branches or heads; “special
anatomy” describes the constituent parts; “topographi-
cal” or “regional anatomy” studies the relations of parts
in important portions of the body; “surgical anatomy” is
the application of regional anatomy to parts peculiarly
liable to surgical operations, and its study is entered into
as a preparation for such operations. “Pathological an-
atomy,” or the study of organs as modified by disease, is
also an important branch of the science. -
As the leaf and its appendages in the organography of
the vegetable kingdom, and as the segment with its ap-
pendages in articulate animals, are regarded as the single
structural elements upon which the whole organism is built,
so in man and in all vertebrates the vertebra with its
apophyses or branches is the typical element of which
the osseous framework is composed, and all the sym-
metrical or bilateral parts are in a manner dependencies
of the osseous system. -
This great truth was first fully grasped by Oken. Another
remarkable generalization was made by the great Bichat—
that all non-symmetrical parts, such as the digestive and
circulatory systems, are of a character resembling the vege-
tative growth, and not directly subject to the will. Such
parts have in general non-striated muscles, and are largely
supplied with nerves of the so-called sympathetic sys-
tem; while, on the other hand, bilateral and symmetrical
parts, as the limbs and the most important muscles, are
largely under the direction of the will, and are supplied
by cerebro-spinal nerves. Two hundred and twenty-nine:
pairs of voluntary muscles are recognized by anatomists.
. The muscles, in accordance with this theory, are divided
into—1, striated muscles, or “muscles of animal life,”
which are symmetrical or found alike on both sides; and,
2, non-striated muscles, those of “organic life,” which are
found chiefly in non-symmetrical parts, or if in symmetrical
parts they always exist as parts of some special organ,
while striated muscles are never so found.
We have seen incidentally that there are likewise two
systems of nerves—the cerebro-spinal and the sympathetic
or ganglionic systems, which are somewhat analogous to
the two classes of muscles. Some theorists, perhaps rather
fancifully, make a similar twofold division in almost all the
animal tissues. Q
Anatomists divide their science into osteology, which
treats of the skeleton; myology, the science of the mus-
cles; angiology, which describes the blood-vessels or the
circulatory system; splanchnology, relating to the viscera
or organs concerned in the digestion of food; and into
other branches which relate to the respiratory, nervous,
and reproductive systems and the organs of special sense.
These minor sciences, however, treat of the physiology
(functions) as well as the anatomy (structure) of the vari-
(For descriptions of the various organs and
tissues, see EYE, EAR, HEART, BONE, MUSCLE, etc.)
History.—It is said that the priests of ancient Egypt
were familiar with the facts of human anatomy. The an-
cient Greeks practised the dissection of animals, and gained
considerable knowledge of their structure. Alcmaeon, De-
mocritus, Hippocrates, Diocles, and Aristotle were zooto-
mists, but no ancient Greek seems to have suspected the
existence of a nervous system or of the circulation of the
blood. Erasistratus (300 B.C.) is said to have been the
first to dissect the human body. Herophilus and Parthenius
followed him. Later, Galen, Seranus, and Moschion prac-
tised dissection of the human body. . The Science of anat-
omy, except so far as taught by Galen, perished with the
old Roman empire. Its restorers were Mundinus (born
1315), Guy de Chauliac, Vigo (1516), Sylvius (1539), In-
grassias, Horman, Fallopius (1523–62), Eustachius (1500–
:75), but especially the Flemish Vesalius (1514–64). Leon-
ardo da Vinci (1452–1519) had practically studied anatomy
in its relations to art. Servetus (1509–53) is believed to
have first announced the circulation of the blood; Caesal-
pinus, Paolo Sarpi, and others soon after made the same
announcement, but its truth was first shown by Harvey
(1578–1657), a pupil of Fabricius. The later names of
Asellius, Bartholine, Wharton, Willis, Ruysch, Pachionius,
Malpighi, Walsalva, Cotunni, Monro; and Meckel are
among the most brilliant; but the number of eminent an-
atomists is very great. In recent times microscopical and
pathological anatomy have been the fields of numerous
and important discoveries. Drs. John Bard and Peter
Middleton of New York are said to have made the first
dissection in America in 1750. CHAS. W. GREENE.
Anaxag'oras ['Avačayópas], an eminent Greek philoso-
pher of the Ionic School, was born at Clazomenae, near
Smyrna, about 500 B.C. He passed nearly thirty years at
ANAXARCHUS—ANCIENTS,
143
Athens, to which he removed about 480, and enjoyed the
friendship of Pericles. He wrote a “Treatise on Nature,”
of which small fragments are extant. In 450 B.C. he was
accused of impiety, and, though defended by Pericles, was
condemned to death or banishment, and retired to Lampsa-
cus, where he died in 428 B.C. He appears to have maintained
the eternity of matter. Combining great Sagacity and close
reasoning with diligent observation, he rendered important
services to physical science. He ascribed the origin of the
world and the order of nature to the operation of an eter-
nal self-existent and infinitely powerful principle which
he termed Nous (Mind). He taught that generation and
destruction are only the union and separation of elements
which can neither be created nor annihilated, demonstrated
that air is a substance, explained the theory of eclipses,
and refuted the doctrine that things may be produced by
chance. (See RITTER, “History of Philosophy,” 1838.)
Anaxar'chus ['Avašápxos], a Greek philosopher, born
at Abdera, in Thrace, accompanied Alexander the Great in .
his expedition against Persia in 334 B. C. He gained the
favor of that prince, whom he survived a short time.
Anaximan’der ['Avaščuavópos], an eminent Greek phil-
osopher, born at Miletus about 610 B.C., was a disciple of
Thales. He is said to have discovered the obliquity of the
ecliptic, and to have invented the sun-dial. According to
tradition, he taught that the earth is a cylinder, that the
Sun is a globe of fire as large as, or larger than, the earth,
and that infinity is the beginning and end of all things.
He appears to have been the first Greek who wrote any
gº in prose on geometry or philosophy. Died about 546
Anaxim’enes ['Avašuévns], a Greek philosopher of
whom little is known, was born at Miletus, in Asia Minor,
about 550 B.C. He taught that the original principle or
primary form of things was air, or a subtle ether which is
in perpetual motion.
Anaximenes (of LAMPSACUs), a Greek historian and
preceptor of Alexander the Great, about 340 B.C.. He
wrote a history of the reign of Philip of Macedon, and an-
other of the exploits of Alexander, neither of which is extant.
An’cach, a department of Peru, is bounded on the N.
by the department of Libertad, on the E. by the littoral
province of Loreto and the department of Junin, on the S.
by the department of Lima, and on the W: by the Pacific.
Area, estimated at 43,100 square miles. The department
extends from the Andes to the Pacific, and contains all
climates and their products. The chief occupations of the
inhabitants are agriculture and the raising of cattle. The
rich silver-mines in the mountains, as well as the rivers
containing gold, are but very little worked at present.
Chief town, Huaraz. Pop. about 190,000. -
Ancelot (JACQUES ARsièNE FRANÇoſs PolyGARPE), a
French dramatic poet, born at Havre, Feb. 9, 1794, pro-
duced in 1819 a tragedy entitled “Louis IX.,” which was
warmly applauded, and procured for him a pension of 2000
francs. Among his other works are an epic poem called
“Marie de Brabant” (1825), “Fiesque,” a tragedy (1824),
and “Olga,” a drama (1828). He was admitted into the
French Academy in 1841. Died Sept. 7, 1854.
His wife, Marguerite Virginie Chardon, born at Dijon
Mar. 15, 1792, was a novelist and an artist. She wrote sev-
shank is the crown.
shank, at the upper end of which is a transverse piece.
called the stock, and of two curved arms at the lower end
of the shank, each of which arms terminates in a triangu-
lar plate called a fluke or palm. The lower end of the
The stock is at right angles to the
plane of the flukes. The cable is fastened to a ring in the
upper end of the shank. When the anchor is cast from
the ship into the sea, the crown first strikes the ground.
The anchor then falls over, so that one end of the stock
rests upon the ground, and the movement of the ship
causes one of the flukes to enter the ground, and to pene-
trate deeper in proportion as the strain or traction on the
cable increases. Mr. Porter invented an improved form
of anchor, the arms of which are pivoted to the stock, in-
stead of being rigidly fixed. Mem-of-war and large ships
carry two large anchors of equal size at the bows, thence
called bower anchors, and two of smaller size, called the
sheet anchor and spare anchor. For particular and special
services they have also the “stream ” and the “kedge”
anchor. Smaller vessels have fewer anchors and of inferior
size. When one anchor is down, the ship is said to be at
single anchor. When the anchor is dragged out of the
ground by the movement of the vessel, it is said to come
home, and when the cable becomes twisted around the
anchor or stock, the anchor is said to be foul. To weigh
anchor signifies to heave or raise the anchor out of the
ground into the ship.
Anch'orage, ground fit to hold a ship's anchor, so that
she may ride safely. Hard sand or stiff clay forms the
best anchorage. A landlocked harbor is also a requisite
of good anchorage. The water should not be too deep, as
in that case the cable, extending nearly vertically, will be
apt to pull the anchor out of the ground. The term is
also applied to the toll or harbor-dues which the owner or
captain of a ship pays for permission to cast anchor.
Anch'orite, or Amch’oret [from the Gr. &vXopmrijs,
from &vá, “up,” “back,” and xopéo, to “retire *], a hermit
or person who has retired from the world and devoted him-
self to ascetic religion in solitude. The term was first ap-
plied to Christians of the third century who retired to caves
and solitary places in the deserts of Palestine, Egypt, and
Syria, to which, in some cases, they were driven by perse-
cution. They often subjected themselves to painful priva-
tions and various forms of penance. The first of these
anchorites was Paul of Thebes, who died in 340, aged 104
years. The so-called “father of monachism * was Antony
of Coma, in Upper Egypt, who was born in 251 and died
in 356, aged 105 years. One anchorite, Simeon Stylites, is
said to have lived many years on the top of a pillar in
Syria, about 420–450 A. D. The chief difference between
an anchorite and a monk is that the former lived alone,
and the latter associated with other monks. The first mon-
astery was founded by Pachomius, on the island of Tabenna.
in the Nile, about the year 340; the first nunnery, some
eight years later.
Ancho’vy (the Engraw/lis encrasich'olus of the natural-
eral dramas and tales which are worthy of commendation.* sº
An/cestor [remotely from the Lat. an/te, “before,” and
ce’do, to “go”], one who has preceded another in the di-
rect line of descent. In law it signifies one from whom an
estate has been derived by inheritance; a deceased person
from whom, on account of his decease, an estate has passed
to another, called an heir, by operation of law. Ancestor
and heir are correlative terms. In this sense a brother
may be the ancestor of a brother, or a child of a father,
wherever those persons can take land from such relatives
by inheritance. }
Anchi’ses [Gr. 'Ayxians], a Trojan prince related to
Priam, was, according to tradition, a favored lover of
Venus, and the father of Æneas, with whom he escaped
from Troy. He is said to have died in Sicily.
Anchithe’rium, an equine quadruped of which the re-
mains are found in the lower miocene strata, supposed to
be the progenitor of Hipparion in the upper miocene, and
hence of Equus in the pliocene. It is also regarded as a
connecting link between the tapiroid Paleotherium of
the eocene and our modern horses. In Anchitherium the
foot was composed of three toes, all of which rested on the
ground; in Hipparion the lateral toes were dwarfed, but
present; in Equus they are obsolete, or represented only
by the internal splint-bones.
Amch’or [Lat. an/chora; Gr. 3 yºupa], an iron implement
used to fasten a vessel to the ground in comparatively shal-
low water. It consists of a round straight bar called the
Anchovy.
ists), a small fish, from five to seven inches long, which
abounds in the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic shores
of Europe. It belongs to the Clupeidae, or herring family,
and is distinguished by a sharp-pointed head, the upper
jaw longer than the lower, and the deeply-cleft mouth ex-
tending behind the eyes. It is salted and packed in small
barrels for exportation, and used for sauces, pastes, etc.
The Engraulis vittatus, an anchovy of the Atlantic shores
of the Ü. S., might easily be taken in immense quantities.
Anchovies also abound on our Pacific coast.
Anchovy Pear (Gri’as caulifloºra), a tree which grows
in the West Indies in moist ground or shallow water, and
is allied to the Myrtaceae. It bears a fruit (a drupe) which
is pickled and used for food. -
Anchylosis. See ANKYLOSIS.
Ancienne Lorette, a post-village of Quebec Co.,
province of Quebec, Canada, 7 miles S. W. of Quebec.
About 250 Huron Indians live here, descendants of those
who settled here after the dispersion of the Hurons by the
Iroquois in the seventeenth century. Pop. in 1871, 2333.
An’cients [Lat. antia'nws, from an/tea or an/te, “be-
fore”], those persons who lived in former ages; a term
f

144
ANCIENTS, COUNCIL OF-ANDERSEN.
applied somewhat indefinitely to men of all generations
except those that are modern, but there is no exact line of
demarcation between the ancient and the modern. The
term is also applied to gentlemen of the Inns of Court and
Chancery in London.
Ancients, Council of, in French history, one of the
two assemblies composing the legislative body in 1795–99.
It consisted of 250 members, each of whom had to be at
least forty years old. It was dissolved by the revolution
of the 18th Brumaire.
Anci’le (plu. Ancil’ia), the shield of Mars, which,
according to tradition, fell, from heaven in the reign of
Numa, when an oracle declared that Rome could never be
taken while this shield remained in that city. Numa com-
mitted it to the custody of the Salii, or priests of Mars,
and had eleven other shields made precisely like it, in order
to prevent the genuine shield from being stolen.
Ancillon (Johann PETER FRIEDRICH), an able German
historian and statesman of French extraction, was born at
Berlin April 30, 1766. He was the pastor of a Protestant
church in that city in the former part of his mature life.
In 1801 he published “Mélanges of Literature and Philos-
ophy.” His principal historical work is a “View of the
Revolutions of the Political System of Europe since the
Fifteenth Century” (in French, 4 vols., 1803–05), which was
very successful.
rapher and councillor of state. In 1831 he became minis-
ter of foreign affairs. His policy was prudent and mod-
erate. Died April 19, 1837. - -
Anc'karswärd (KARL HENRIK), a Swedish statesman,
born at Sweaborg in 1782. He was elected a member of
the Diet in 1817, and soon became the leader of the oppo-
sition party, but retired to private life in 1829. Died in
1865. . - -
Anco'na, a province of Central Italy, is bounded on
the N. by Pesaro and Urbino, on the E. by the Adriatic
Sea, on the S. by Macerata, and on the W. by Perugia.
Area, 740 square miles. The country is chiefly mountain-
ous, and is traversed by the Esino and Musone. . The chief
articles of export are grain, oil, wine, and hazel-nuts. The
chief branch of industry is the silk manufacture. Chief
town, Ancona. Pop. in 1871, 262,359.
Ancona, an important city and seaport of Central
Italy, on the Adriatic, 132 miles by rail N. E. of Rome,
capital of the province of Ancona. It is built on the slope
of a hill, and presents a picturesque appearance from the
sea. It is supposed to have been founded about 400 B.C.
Among the remarkable public buildings are a cathedral,
the government palace, the town-house, and a triumphal
Corinthian arch, which was built by Trajan of white mar-
ble. It has a college, ten churches, and several convents.
The harbor is one of the best on the Adriatic. In 1732 it
was declared a free port. Ancona is connected by rail-
ways with Rome, Bologna, and Brindisi. It has consid-
erable trade, carried on by steamships, which ply between
this point and the Levant. The chief articles of export
are wool, grain, silk, oil, alum, sulphur, fruit, and soap.
Ancona was taken in 1832 by the French, who occupied it
until 1838. Lat. 43° 38' N., lon. 13° 30' E. Pop. in 1871,
45,741. * - -
Amco'na (SYDENHAM E.), born at Warwick, Lancaster
co., Pa., Nov. 20, 1824, became connected with the Reading
R. R., and was a member of Congress from Pennsylvania
(1860–66). -
An'cram, a post-township of Columbia co., N. Y. Iron
ores are obtained here, and lead was formerly mined. Pop.
1793.
Ancre, d? [It. D'Ancora], (ConcINo CoNCINI), LE MARí-
CHAL, an Italian courtier, born at Florence. He formed a
part of the retinue of Maria de Medici (queen of Henry IV.
of France) when she went to Paris in 1600, and he married
Eleonora, Galigai, who had much influence with that queen.
His talents for intrigue and the favor of the queen (who in
1610 became regent) raised him suddenly to power. In 1613
he was appointed a marshal of France and prime minister.
Having excited general odium by his rapacity, he was as-
sassinated at Vitry April 24, 1617, by De Luynes and other
conspirators.
An’cus Marſtius, fourth king of Rome, a grandson
of Numa, succeeded Tullus Hostilius about 636 B. C. He
promoted the religious institutions of Numa, and is éonsid-
ered the founder of the plebeian order. He waged war
against the Latins, whom he subdued, founded Ostia, and
built the Pons Sublicius (Bridge of Piles). Died about
612 B. C.
An’cylus, a genus of small, patelliform, fresh-water gas-
teropod mollusks, of which several species inhabit the
streams and lakes of North America.
He was soon appointed royal historiog-
Ancy/ra [Gr. "Aykvpal, an ancient city of Galatia, in
Asia Minor, said to have been built by Midas, was about
30 miles W. of the river Halys. Under the Roman empire
it was an important city and the capital of Galatia. Its
site is occupied by the modern city of ANGORA (which see).
Two councils of the Church were held here—one in 314,
and the other in 358 A. D. -
An'da, a genus of plants of the order Euphorbiaceae.
The only known species is the Anda Brasiliensis, a Brazil-
ian tree, the fruit of which contains two seeds, called Pur-
gados Paulistas. These afford a valuable fixed oil, which
is used in medicine as a cathartic, and as a drying-oil by
painters. The bark is astringent.
Andalu’sia [formerly called Vandalusia, from the Wan-
dals; Sp. Andaluci'al, the southern portion of Spain, is
bounded on the N. by Estremadura and La Mancha, on
the E. by Murcia and the Mediterranean, on the S. by the
Mediterranean, and on the W. by Portugal and the Atlan-
tic Ocean. Area, 33,665 square miles. It is supposed
to correspond to the Tarshish (the western) of the Bible
and the Baetica of the Romans. The Sierra Morena ex-
tends along the northern border, and the southern part is
traversed by the Sierra Nevada, the highest summits of
which rise about 11,000 feet above the sea. The largest
river is the Guadalquivir, which flows south-westward and
enters the Atlantic. The soil of the valleys and plains is
fertile. Silver, copper, iron, lead, and mercury are found
here. The chief products are grain, cotton, wine, wool,
sugar, olives, oranges, and figs. The climate is delightful.
The Andalusian breed of horses has long been celebrated.
Andalusia is divided into eight provinces—viz., Almería,
Granada, Jaen, Cadiz, Córdova, Málaga, Huelva, and Se-
villa, in each of which is a town of the same name. Pop.
in 1867, 3,200,944. -
Andalusia, a post-village, capital of Covington co.,
Ala., 30 miles E. of Sparta.
Andalusia, a post-township of Rock Island co., Ill.
Pop. 878.
Andalu'site, an anhydrous silicate of alumina, which
is found in Andalusia and other places, and occurs in four-
sided prisms. It may be distinguished from felspar by its
greater hardness and infusibility. A peculiar variety called
chiastolite or macle is very abundant at South Lancaster,
Mass. It occurs in stout crystals, having the axis angles
of a different color from the rest, exhibiting a tessellated
appearance on the cross section. (See DANA’s “System of
Mineralogy,” 5th ed.)
Andaman’ Islands, a group of small, densely-wooded
islands in the Bay of Bengal, between lat. 10° and 13° N.,
and about 93° E. lon. Area, 2550 square miles. They are
180 miles S. W. of Cape Negrais. The inhabitants are in
the lowest stage of barbarism, and are said to resemble
none of the races of the adjacent parts of Asia. It has
been used as a penal colony for Hindoos by Great Britain.
The earl of Mayo, the governor-general of India, was mur-
dered here by a convict on Feb. 8, 1872. The native popu-
lation does not exceed 1000, and is dying out. They wear
no clothing except a coating of mud. The number of con-
victs in 1868 was 7230, and the number of free inhabitants
(inclusive of officers, soldiers, etc.), 1400. The chief set-
tlement is Port Blair. º
Andan’te [the present participle of the It. verb an-
da/re, to “walk,” to “go”], an Italian musical term direct-
ing the time, or rather the style, in which a piece is to be
performed. It denotes a movement that is moderate, rather
slow and sedate, but distinct and flowing.
Andaquies Wax, a peculiar beeswax from South
America. - -
Andelys, Les, lá zöNd’le', a town of France, in the
department of Eure, near the Seine, 20 miles N. E. of
Evreux. Pop. in 1866, 5161.
Andennes, a town of Belgium, in the province of Na-
mur, on or near the Meuse, and on the railroad from Namur
to Liege, 12 miles by rail E. of the former. Porcelain is
made here. Pop. in 1866, 6278.
An' derlecht, a market-town of Belgium, in the prov-
ince of Brabant, 10 miles S. W. of Brussels. It has brew-
eries and large dyeing establishments. Pop. in 1866, 11,663.
Anderlo’mi (PIETRO), a skilful Italian engraver, born
near Brescia, Oct. 12, 1784. He lived at Milan; and en-
graved some works of Raphael, Titian, and Poussin. Died
Oct. 13, 1849. $
An’dersen (HANS CHRISTIAN), an eminent Danish poet
and novelist, born at Odense, in the island of Fünen, April
2, 1805, was a son of a poor shoemaker, who died when
Hans was nine years old. In 1819 he went to Copen-
hagen to seek employment in the theatre, but was rejected
because he was too lean. Before this period he had written
\
ANDERSON.
145
several tragedies and poems, among which was the “Dying
Child.” He made various unsuccessful efforts to obtain
employment, and passed several years in adversity, until
he found generous friends, who in 1828 placed him in the
university, where he was educated at the public expense.
In 1830 he published a volume of his collected poems.
Having received a gift of money from the king, he visited
Germany, France, and Italy in 1833, and produced in 1834
a romance called “The Improvisatore,” in which the sce-
nery and manners of Italy are described with admirable
fidelity. He related some episodes of his early life in a
book entitled “Only a Fiddler” (1837). Among his other
works are “The Poet's Bazaar” (1842); “Ahasuerus,” a
drama; “The Two Baronesses,” a tale in English; and
several volumes of tales, which display original genius
and a rich imagination. His works have been translated
into many languages. (See HANS ANDERSEN, “True Story
of my Life,” new edition, 1871.)
Anderson, a county in the S. E. of Kansas. Area, 576
square miles. It is drained by the three forks of the Pot-
towatomie Creek, which rise within its limits, and by Sugar
Creek. The surface is undulating or nearly level; the soil
is fertile. It is traversed by the Leavenworth Lawrence
and Galveston R. R. Grain, tobacco, cattle, wool, hay, and
butter are produced. Capital, Garnett. Pop. 5220.
Anderson, a county in N. Central Kentucky. Area, 300
square miles. The Kentucky River, here navigable, bounds
it on the E. The county is intersected by Salt River. Gold
and lead have been found. The surface is mostly undula-
ting; the soil is fertile. Grain, tobacco, wool, hay, and
butter are produced. Capital, Lawrenceburg. Pop. 5449.
Anderson, a county in the N. W. of South Carolina,
on the Savannah River. Area, 800 square miles. It is
bounded on the N. E. by the Saluda River, and intersected
by the Kiowee. The surface is diversified; the soil is gene-
rally fertile and well watered. The Greenville and Colum-
bia R. R. passes through it. Cattle, grain, cotton, tobacco,
and wool are produced. Capital, Anderson. Pop. 24,049.
Anderson, a county in the N. E. of Tennessee. Area,
600 square miles. It is intersected by the Clinch River,
and also drained by Powell’s River. Between the Cumber-
land Mountain, which extends along the N. W. border, and
Chestnut Ridge, is a large and fertile valley. The county
has abundance of timber and valuable salt springs. Coal
is found here. Grain, tobacco, and wool are produced.
Capital, Clinton. Pop. 8704.
Anderson, a county in E. Central Texas, containing
1098 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Neches,
and on the W. by Trinity River, which flows thröugh a
rich valley covered with good timber. The surface is un-
dulating; the soil is fertile. Iron ore is abundant. Petro-
leum has been found. It is intersected by the International
R. R. Cattle, wool, corn, rice, and cotton are produced.
Capital, Palestine. Pop. 9229. -
Anderson, a township of Clarke co., Ark. Pop. 504.
Anderson, a post-township of Mendocino co., Cal.
Pop. 679.
Anderson, a township of Clarke co., Ill. Pop. 947.
Anderson, a city, capital of Madison co., Ind., on the
West Fork of White River, and at the crossing of the
Cleveland Columbus Cincinnati and Indianapolis and the
Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. Louis R. Rs. It is a manu-
facturing city, having a hydraulic canal with 44 feet fall.
It has three banks (one national) and two newspapers.
Owing to increase in manufacturing interests, it increases
rapidly in population. Pop. 3126; of Anderson township,
4713. HARDESTY & METCALF, PUBs. “HERALD.”
Anderson, a township of Perry co., Ind. Pop. 1136.
Anderson, a township of Rush co., Ind. Pop. 1452.
Anderson, a township of Warrick co., Ind. Pop. 842.
Anderson, a township of Mills co., Ia. Pop. 531.
Anderson, a post-township of Pope co., Minn. P. 74.
Anderson, a township of Hamilton co., O. Pop. 4077.
Anderson, capital of Anderson co., S. C., on the Green-
ville and Columbia R. R., 127 miles W. N.W. of Columbia.
It is prosperous, and has a thriving, industrious population.
It is the seat of Carolina High School for boys and girls.
It has a national bank and two weekly newspapers. Pop.
1432. J. A. Hoy T, ED. “INTELLIGENCER.”
Anderson, a township of Williamsburg co., S. C. P. 576.
Anderson, a post-village, capital of Grimes co., Tex.,
140 miles N. E. of Austin and 9% miles from the Texas
Central R. R. It has excellent schools, and is the seat of
Patrick Academy, a first-class institution. It has manu-
factures of wagons, carriages, etc., and one weekly paper.
Pop. 495. J. A. KIRGAN, Ed. “GRIMES Co. Journal.”
Anderson (ALExANDER), M. D., born in New York
City in 1774, graduated as M. D. at Columbia College, and
became the earliest wood-engraver in the U. S. He made
the cuts for Webster’s “Spelling Book,” illustrations for
an edition of Shakspeare, and published an illustrated
“General History of Quadrupeds” (1804). Died at Jersey
City Jan. 16, 1870.
Anderson (CHRISTOPHER), pastor of a Baptist church
in Edinburgh from 1808 till 1850, published sacred works,
of which the most important is “The Annals of the Eng-
lish Bible” (2 vols. 8vo, 3 editions—1845, 1848, and 1855;
the last two enlarged and improved), characterized by Alli–
bone as “by far the best book on the subject.” Died in 1851.
Anderson (Rev. GALUSHA), D. D. See APPENDIX.
Anderson (HENRY JAMEs), M.D., LL.D., born in 1798,
graduated at Columbia College, N. Y., in 1818, and at the
College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1824. He became
professor of mathematics and astronomy at Columbia Col-
lege in 1825, and emeritus professor in 1866. He pub-
lished “Geology of Lynch’s Expedition ” and “Geological
Reconnaissance of the Holy Land” (1848).
Anderson (Rev. H. T.), born in 1811, was an eminent
scholar of the denomination known as the “Disciples” and
“Campbellites,” and was the author of an interlinear trans-
| lation of the New Testament. Died in Washington, D.C.,
Aug. 19, 1872.
Anderson (HUGH J.), born in Maine in 1801, became a
lawyer, was a member of Congress from Maine (1837–41),
governor of Maine (1844–47), a presidential elector in 1849,
U. S. commissioner of customs (1853–58), and in 1866 be-
came sixth auditor of the U. S. treasury.
Anderson (ISAAC), D. D., an American Presbyterian
minister, born in Rockbridge co., Va., Mar. 27, 1780. He
emigrated in his youth to Tennessee, and was noted as a
pioneer preacher in the West. He founded a theological
seminary at Maryville, Tenn. Died Jam. 28, 1857.
Anderson (JAMEs), LL.D., an able Scottish writer on
political and rural economy, was born near Edinburgh in
1739. He was a practical as well as a scientific farmer, and
invented an improved form of plough. In 1777 he pub-
lished “Essays relating to Agriculture and Rural Affairs”
(3 vols.). He removed to London in 1797, and there issued
a monthly periodical called “Recreations in Agriculture,
Natural History,” etc. (1799–1802), in which he anticipated
the famous theory of rent afterwards adopted by Malthus
and Ricardo. Died Oct. 15, 1808.
Anderson (John), F. R. S., a Scotch naturalist, born in
Dumbartonshire in 1726, was educated in the University
of Glasgow. He became in 1760 professor of natural philos-
ophy in that institution. In 1786 he published a valuable
work entitled “Institutes of Physics.” He gave gratuitous
scientific lectures to the working-classes for many years.
By his last will he founded a useful institution (in Glasgow)
called ANDERSONIAN UNIVERSITY (which see). Died Jan.
13, 1796. -
Anderson (John JACOB), born in New York City in
1821, was long at the head of a public school of that eity,
and has published numerous works, chiefly educational.
Anderson (Joseph) was born in New Jersey Nov. 5,
1757, was an officer in the Revolutionary war, became a
lawyer, was appointed a territorial judge by Washington
(1791), was U.S. Senator from Tennessee (1797–1815), and
first comptroller of the U. S. treasury (1815–36). Died
April 17, 1837.
Anderson (MARTIN BREWER), LL.D., of Scotch-Irish
descent on his father's side, was born in Brunswick, Me.,
Feb. 12, 1815, graduated at Waterville College (now Colby
University), Waterville, Me., in 1840, was tutor in the col-
lege two years, and then professor of rhetoric nearly seven
years. In 1850 he removed to New York City, and became
editor-in-chief, and in part proprietor, of the “New York
Recorder.” In 1853 he was chosen president of the RO-
chester (N.Y.) Baptist University, which position he still
(1873) holds. He has published numerous review articles,
addresses, and educational papers.
Anderson (RICHARD CLOUGH, J.R.), born in Louisville,
Ky., Aug. 4, 1788, graduated at William and Mary College,
was a member of Congress from Kentucky (1817–21). He
was appointed minister to the republic of Colombia in 1823,
and envoy extraordinary to the Congress at Panamá in
1826. Died July 24, 1826.
Anderson (RICHARD HENRY), a general, born in South
Carolina about 1822, graduated at West Point in 1842, and
served with honor in the Mexican war. He became a
brigadier-general of the Confederate States in 1861, major-
general in 1862, and commanded a division at Gettysburg,
July, 1863.
Anderson (RoPERT), M.D., a Scottish biographer, born
in Lanarkshire Jan. 7, 1750, became a resident of Edin-
- 10
146
ANDERSON.—ANDES.
burgh in 1784. He wrote a “Life of Dr. Johnson,” and
published a good edition of “The Works of the British
Poets; with Prefaces Biographical and Critical” (14 vols.,
1792–1807). Died Feb. 20, 1830.
Anderson (RoPERT), an American officer, born June
14, 1805, near Louisville, Ky., graduated at West Point,
1825, and May 15, 1861, brigadièr-general U. S. A. His
father was colonel in the Revolutionary army, and his
mother a cousin of Chief-Justice Marshall. He was private
secretary 1825–26 to a relative upon his mission as U. S.
minister plenipotentiary to the republic of Colombia, served
at artillery school for practice 1826–28, chiefly on ordnance
duty 1828–35, assistant inspector-general of Illinois vol-
unteers in the Black Hawk war 1832, engaged at the battle
of Bad Axe, at Military Academy as instructor of artillery
1835–37, in Florida war 1837–38 (brevet captain), in sev-
eral actions, as aide-de-camp to Major-General Scott while
removing Cherokees to the West 1838, as assistant adju-
tant-general eastern department 1838–41, chiefly in garrison
1845–53, in war with Mexico 1847, engaged at Vera Cruz,
Cerro Gordo, Amozoque, and Molino del Rey (severely
wounded and brevet major), member of artillery boards
1841–60, governor of Harrodsburg Military Asylum 1853–
54, inspector of iron-work for public buildings 1855–59; in
command of defences of Charleston harbor, S. C., 1860–61.
In the civil war, after evacuating Fort Moultrie, he moved
to Fort Sumter, which he surrendered, after a heavy bom-
bardment, April 12–13, 1861 (brevet major-general); in
command of department of Kentucky and of the Cumber-
land 1861, which his shattered health compelled him to re-
linquish. Till he was retired from active service, Oct. 27,
1863, he performed but little duty. He translated “In-
structions for Field Artillery, Horse and Foot,” 1840, and
“Evolutions of Field Batteries,” 1860. In vain he sought
restoration of health abroad, his strength gradually failing
till he died Oct. 26, 1871, at Nice, France, aged sixty-six.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Anderson (Rev. Rufus), D. D., LL.D., born in North
Yarmouth, Me., Aug. 17, 1796, graduated at Bowdoin Col-
lege in 1818. He studied theology at Andover from 1819–
22. In 1824 he became assistant secretary, and in 1832
secretary, of the American Board of Foreign Missions,
which position he filled with distinguished ability, for
thirty-four years. He visited the Mediterranean missions
(1843–44), the Indian missions (1854–55), and the Sand-
wich Islands in 1863. At the age of seventy he resigned
his position in the Board of Missions (1866), at which
time, without any previous knowledge on his part, he was
presented, as a testimonial to his faithful and meritorious
services, with $20,000 (contributed chiefly by the merchants
of New York and Boston), which sum he made over to the
Board, reserving to himself the right to draw from it what-
ever might be necessary for his support. Among Dr. An-
derson's numerous publications may be named—“Observa-
tions on the Peloponnesus and Greek Islands” (Boston,
1830); “The Hawaiian Islands, their Progress and Con-
dition under Missionary Labors” (Boston, 1864); “A
Heathen Nation Evangelized: History of the Mission, etc.
to the Sandwich Islands” (1870); “History of the Missions
of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mis-
sions to the Oriental Churches” (2 vols. 12mo, 1872).
Anderso’nian University, an institution of Glas-
gow, in Scotland, was founded in 1795 by John Anderson,
noticed above. His design was to impart by popular lec-
tures a knowledge of the sciences to mechanics. He be-
queathed to it his valuable library and apparatus. It has
a high reputation, especially in the medical department.
The number of professors is about fifteen.
An’derson’s, a township of Caswell co., N. C. Pop.
1544. - **
An’dersonville, a post-village of Sumter co., Ga., on
the South-western R. R., 11 miles N. E. by N. of Ameri-
cus. During the civil war it was the site of a Confederate
military prison for captured Federal soldiers. The mor-
tality at this prison was very great, 12,926 prisoners of
war having. died here. One Henry Wirz, a Swiss adven-
turer, was the superintendent of the prison, and after the
close of the war he was tried and convicted by a military
commission on-charge of excessive cruelty to the prisoners,
and was executed Nov. 10, 1865. The Confederate authori-
ties, in at least two official reports, attributed the excessive
mortality to the bad management of the prison. Ander-
sonville is now the site of a national cemetery, in which
the deceased Union soldiers are buried. The cemetery is
well laid out, trees have been planted, and the names, rank,
etc., of most of the dead have been ascertained and in-
scribed on head-boards.
Andersonville, a village of Fine township, St. Law-
rence co., N. Y., on Oswegatchie River, has manufactures
of oars, tubs, lasts, etc. Iron ore is found in the vicinity.
An’derssen (ADOLF), a German chess-player, born at
Breslau in 1818. At the London chess tournament in 1851
he defeated the famous player Staunton, but he was defeated
by Paul Morphy in Paris in 1858.
An’dersson (CHARLEs JoHN), a Swedish traveller,
born in 1827, was the natural son of an Englishman. He
went to Southern Africa in 1850, and passed several years
in the exploration of the natural history and geography
of that region. He published a narrative of his travels,
“Lake Ngami” (1855), and “Okawango River” (1859).
Died in Southern Africa July 5, 1867. -
An' des [Sp. Cordille/ra de los An/des], a grand South
American range of mountains which is one of the most
prominent features in the physical geography of the globe.
It extends along the western border of the entire conti-
nent, nearly parallel to the Pacific coast, from the Strait of
Magellan to the Isthmus of Darien, a distance of about
4500 miles. In length it far exceeds every other mountain-
chain on the earth. The general direction of this chain is
nearly N. and S. The southern part of the Andes, for a
distance of about 2500 miles, consists of a single range or
ridge, extending through Patagonia and along the eastern
border of Chili. The Patagonian Andes rise to the height
of 8000 feet. The Chilian Andes, which are included be-
tween lat. 24° and 42° S., have an average width of about
130 miles, and in some places are not more than 100 miles
from the Pacific. . The highest summit of the Chilian An-
des (but not of the whole chain, as formerly believed) is
the porphyritic Nevado of Aconcagua, which rises 22,422
feet above the level of the sea, and is about 100 miles N. E.
of Valparaiso. In Chili also occur the volcanic peaks of
Tupungato, 20,270, and Maypu, 17,764 feet high. The line
of perpetual snow in the Andes of Northern Chili is about
14,000 feet above the sea. -
About lat. 19° S. the chain is divided into two parallel
branches called the Cordillera of the Coast and the Cordil-
lera Real. The former extends north-westward along the
coast of Peru, the summits of the range being about 100
miles from the ocean. The Cordillera Real, which traverses
Bolivia and is about 250 miles from the other range, is
nearly equal in height to the Chilian Andes. The peak of
Illampu, in Bolivia, has an altitude of 24,800 feet. These
two parallel cordilleras are connected at several points by
transverse ranges or groups called knots, and enclose the
table-land of Desaguadero and Lake Titicaca, which is
12,800 feet above the level of the sea. The highest sum-
mit of the Peruvian Andes is the volcano of Arequipa,
20,000 feet high, and 55 miles from the Pacific Ocean.
Proceeding northward, we come next to the Andes of
Ecuador, or Andes of Quito, which extend from lat. 5° S.
to the table-land of Quito, enclosed between two ranges of
enormous volcanoes. Among these the highest are Chim-
borazo, 21,424 feet, and Cotopaxi, 18,875 feet (Humboldt
says 19,069). The form of the latter is almost a perfect
come. “Among all the volcanoes that I have seen,” says
Humboldt, “the conical form of Cotopaxi is the most
beautifully regular.” (See CotoPAXI.) -
There are a number of passes which cross the Andes, but
all at a great elevation, and mostly dangerous as well as
arduous. Several passes among the Peruvian and Bolivian
Andes are about 15,000 feet above the sea, and the lower
passes are not less than 12,000 feet.
Minerals.-The rocky foundations of these grand barriers
are granite, gneiss, mica-Slate, greenstone, porphyry, quartz,
limestone, red sandstone, and metamorphic rocks. Hum-
boldt saw in Peru vast masses of quartz 7000 or 8000 feet
in height. The Andes are celebrated for their mineral
riches, consisting of large quantities of gold and silver.
Platina, mercury, copper, tin, and iron are also found among
them. The most productive gold-mines are in Peru and
New Granada; the silver-mines of Potosi are among the
richest in the world. Few parts of the globe are subject to
so frequent and destructive earthquakes as the countries
adjacent to the Andes and enclosed between its different
ranges. The cities of Quito, Lima, Callao, and Valparaiso
have been nearly ruined by them in recent times. The
number of volcanoes among the Andes is about fifty, thirty-
six of which are classified as active, and the others are
doubtful, not having been seen in a state of eruption by
any European. “It is but rarely,” says Humboldt, “that
the elastic forces at work within the interior of our globe
have succeeded in breaking through the spiral domes
which, resplendent in the brightness of eternal snow,
crown the summits of the Cordilleras; and even where
these forces have opened a permanent communication with
the atmosphere through circular craters or long fissures,
they rarely send forth currents of lava, but merely eject
ignited scoriae, steam, sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and jets
of carbonic acid.” (Cosmos.) This illustrious traveller
states that he found pelagic shells on a ridge of the Andes
more than 15,000 English feet above the sea.
ANDES-ANDRE.
147
The geological structure of the Andes is as yet but im-
perfectly known, and is probably not the same in all parts
of the chain. Like all great mountain-systems, the Andes
have been produced by elevatory forces acting at different,
and in some instances widely separated, periods. Carbonif-
erous, triassic, Jurassic, and tertiary rocks have been re-
cognized on their flanks; and the older palaeozoic will un-
doubtedly be found to make up a part of their mass.
Climate.—The limit of perpetual snow on the Andes
that are near the equator is about 15,000 feet, and among
the Bolivian Andes, about lat. 20° S., it is said to be 17,000
feet. Glaciers rarely if ever occur in the central or tropi-
cal portions of the Cordilleras.
lat. 30° S. the prevailing wind blows from E. to W., and
the eastern side of the Cordillera intercepts nearly all the
moisture, so that little or no rain falls in Peru and Northern
Chili on the western slope, or on the narrow tract between
the Andes and the ocean. The changes of weather among
these mountains are sudden and violent, and the electric
storms are very terrific. Here are exhibited greater varia-
tions and contrasts of climate than in any other region of
the globe. The elevated plains within the tropics have a
cool and salubrious climate, and the fruits of the tempe-
rate zone here flourish under the equator. Although the
Andes are inferior to the Himalayas in altitude, they pre-
sent a more remarkable variety of phenomena. “This por-
tion of the surface of the globe,” says Humboldt, “affords
in the smallest space the greatest possible variety of im-
pressions from the contemplation of nature. Among the
colossal mountains of Cundinamarca, of Quito, and of Peru,
furrowed by deep ravines, man is enabled to contemplate
alike all the families of plants and all the stars of the fir-
mament. There at a single glance the eye surveys majestic
palms, humid forests of bambusa, and the varied species of
Musaceae, while above these forms of tropical vegetation
appear oaks, medlars, the sweetbrier, and umbelliferous
plants, as in our European homes. . . . There the depths
of the earth and the vaults of heaven display all the rich-
mess of their forms and the variety of their phenomena.
There the different climates are ranged the one above the
other, stage by stage, like the vegetable zones whose suc-
cession they limit; and there the observer may readily
trace the laws that regulate the diminution of heat as they
stand indelibly inscribed on the rocky walls and abrupt
declivities of the Cordilleras.” (See also HUMBOLDT’s
“Travels.”) A. J. SCHEM.
Andes, a post-village and township of Delaware co.,
N. Y. It has a collegiate institute, a national bank, one
weekly newspaper, and one furnace. Pop. 2840.
F. G. BARCLAY, ED. “ANDES RECORDER.”
And’esin, or And’esite, a mineral resembling fel-
spar in appearance, is essentially a silicate of soda, lime,
and alumina. . It was originally brought from the Andes,
but is found also in the Vosges, Canada, etc.
Andi'ra, a genus of plants of the natural order Legu-
minosae. The Andira inermis, called cabbage tree or cab-
bage-bark tree, is a native of the West Indies, and bears a
pod containing a single seed. The bark of the Andira,
called worm-bark, is a powerful anthelmintic.
An' diron [a corruption of hand iron], a term applied
to the metallic utensils used to support the wood which is
burned in an open fireplace. They are called firedogs in
some parts of Great Britain. They are often called “dog
irons” in many parts of the U. S. The andiron consists
of a horizontal bar, supported by three feet, and having
an upright standard at one end. This was sometimes sil-
ver, and ornamented with arabesques or a human figure.
And/law, von (HEINRICH), a German politician and
zealous Catholic, born in 1892. He was chosen a member
of the legislature of Baden in 1833, and opposed all lib-
eral movements and reforms. He published in 1864 “The
Priesthood and Christian Life, with Regard to the Great
Questions of the Present.” Died in Mar., 1870.
Andoc'ides [Gr. 'Avôoktöns], an Athenian orator, born
about 467 B. C. He took an active part in public affairs,
and was banished several times. He went into exile when
the Thirty Tyrants became masters of Athens, in 404 B.C.,
and returned when they ceased to rule. Died about 390
IB. C. Several of his orations are extant.
Andor'ra, a valley and small republic among the East-
ern Pyrenees, between the French department of Ariège
and the Spanish province of Lérida. Area, 149 square
miles. It is surrounded by high mountains, and has rich
mines of iron and a lead-mine. It has been independent
since the time of Charlemagne, and is governed by twenty-
four consuls. The inhabitants are a hospitable and indus-
trious people, and are mostly farmers and cattle-raisers.
Capital, Andorra. Pop. in 1865, estimated at 12,000.
An' dover, a market-town and parish of England, in
Between the equator and
printers’ ink, lampblack, etc.
Hampshire, 63 miles W. S. W. of London. The origin of
the town is very ancient. It has a handsome church, which .
cost about $150,000. Pop. in 1871, 5501. -- -
Andover, a post-twp. of Tolland co., Conn., on the Hart-
ford and Providence R.R., 5 miles W. of Willimantic. P.461.
Andover, a post-township of Henry co., Ill. P. 1767.
Andover, a post-township of Oxford co., Me. It has
manufactures of starch, lumber, etc. Pop. 757.
Andover, a post-township of Essex co., Mass., on the
S. bank of the Merrimack River. The village of Andover
is pleasantly situated on the Shawsheen River and on the
Boston and Maine R. R., 23 miles N. of Boston. It has a
national bank, a savings bank, an insurance company, a
free public library of over 3000 volumes and an endow-
ment of $20,000. It also has extensive water-power, and
manufactures of shoe-thread, woollen goods, rubber goods,
|Here are Abbot Female
Academy, founded in 1829, and Phillips Academy, a well-
endowed institution founded in 1778. It is also the seat
of Andover Theological Seminary, founded in 1807, and
under the direction of the Congregationalists. It has a
library of about 30,000 volumes. The buildings of the
above institutions stand on an eminence which commands
a fine prospect. Two quarterlies are published here, one
of which is the “Bibliotheca Sacra,” an able religious peri-
odical, edited by professors of the seminary. It has nine
churches, and a good system of public schools. Pop. 4873.
- # W. F. DRAPER, PUB. “BIBLIOTHECA SACRA.”
Andover, a post-township of Merrimack co., N. H., on
the Northern R. R., 21 miles N. W. of Concord. It has
manufactures of woollens, hosiery, lasts, etc. Pop. 1206.
Andover, a post-twp. of Sussex co., N. J. Pop. 1126.
Andover, a post-village and township of Allegany
co., N. Y., has seven manufacturing establishments, five
churches, one furnace, one graded school, one Weekly paper,
and a good trade. It is in a good farming region, and is on
the Erie R. R., 110 miles E. of Dunkirk. Pop. of township,
1873. E. S. BARNARD, ED. “ANDov ER ENTERPRISE.”
Andover, a post-township of Ashtabula co., O., at the
junction of two railroads, has a weekly paper, cheese-fac-
tories, and mills. Pop. 921.
D. L. CALKINS, ED. “ANDovER ADVERTISER.”
Andover, a post-township of Windsor co., Vt. P. 588.
Andover (North Surplus), a township of Oxford co.,
Me. Pop. 38. -
Andover (West Surplus), a township of Oxford co.,
Me. Pop. 4. -
Andover Theological Seminary. See ANDOVER.
Andra/da e Sil’va, or Sylva (Jozſ, BONIFACI0), a dis-
tinguished Brazilian, born at Santos June 13, 1765. He
acted a prominent part in the revolution by which Brazil.
became independent in 1822, and was prime minister in
1822–23. He wrote some scientific treatises and poems.
Died April 3, 1838. -
Andral (GABRIEL), M. D., a celebrated French physi-
cian, born in Paris Nov. 6, 1797, married a daughter of
Royer-Collard. He published an able work called “Cli-
nique Médicale” (4 vols., 1824–27). In 1839 he succeeded
Broussais as professor of pathology and therapeutics in
Paris, and in 1842 became a member of the Institute.
Among his works is a “Summary of Pathological Anat-
omy” (3 vols., 1829).-His father, GUILLAUME ANDRAL,
was a celebrated physician.
Andrássy (JULIUs), Count, a Hungarian statesman,
born Mar. 8, 1823, of an ancient and noble family. He
took a prominent part in the revolution of 1848 as an ad-
herent of the popular cause, and was condemned to death
in 1849, but he escaped and went into exile. When the
right of self-government was restored to Hungary, in Feb.,
1867, Andrássy was appointed premier of a new Hunga-
rian ministry by the emperor. He succeeded Von Beust
in Nov., 1871, as minister of foreign affairs in the common
ministry of the whole empire.
An/dré (John), a British officer, born in London, of
Swiss parents, in 1751, entered the army in 1771. Having
| obtained the rank of lieutenant, he was sent to America in
1774. His superior talents and fine personal qualities pro-
cured for him a rapid promotion to the important position
of adjutant-general, with the rank of major (1779). He
was a good scholar, an artist, a versifier, and a mºn Of
varied accomplishments. Benedict Arnold having offered
to betray West Point, Major André was selected by Sir
Henry Clinton, the British commander, to make the neces-
sary arrangements for carrying out the plot. André, as-
suming the name of Anderson, ascended the Hudson, and,
having had a private interview with Arnold, by. whom he
was furnished with maps and plans of West Point and a
148
ANDREAE-ANDREW, SAINT, ORDER OF.
pass through the American lines, was, while returning to
New York City by land, intercepted near Tarrytown by
three armed Americans, who, discovering by incautious
remarks on his part that he was a British officer, took him
prisoner. On searching his person, they found the plans
in his boots. He made an unsuccessful effort to bribe his
captors, who conducted him to Lieut.-Col. Jameson, who,
with singular obtuseness, resolved to send him to Gen. Ar-
mold, but was dissuaded by Major Tallmadge. Major André
was tried as a spy, and condemned to be hung, by a board
of six major-generals and several brigadier-generals. Sir
Henry Clinton made earnest efforts to save his life, but
they were unavailing, and he was executed at Tappan
Oct. 2, 1780. He behaved with dignity and fortitude on
this occasion, and his fate excited deep and general sym-
pathy. The day before his death he drew with a pen and
ink a portrait of himself, which is now in the Trumbull
Gallery of Yale College. A monument was erected to his
memory in Westminster Abbey.
Andre/ae (JACOB), D. D., a German Protestant theolo-
gian, born at Waiblingen, in Würtemberg, Mar. 22, 1528.
He became professor of theology at Tübingen in 1562, and
distinguished himself by his learning and eloquence. He
wrote against the Calvinists and Roman Catholics, and was
a principal author of the “Formula Concordiae” which was
adopted by the Lutherans in 1580. Died Jan. 7, 1590.
Andreae, or Andrea (Johan N VALENTIN), an eminent
German writer, born at Herrenberg, in Würtemberg, Aug.
17, 1586, was a grandson of Jacob, noticed above. He be-
came pastor at Calw in 1620, and chaplain or court-preach-
er at Stuttgardt in 1639. Among his chief works, which
evince a liberal philosophical spirit, are a “Hundred Sa-
tirical Dialogues” (in Latin, 1617), a “Mythologica Qhris-
tiana.” (1619), an Autobiography, and an allegory in verse
called “Die Christenburg.” He has been regarded as the
founder of the order of Rosicrucians, but without sufficient
evidence. Died May 1, 1654. “Andreae,” says Hallam,
“was a man above his age, and a singular contrast to the
pedantic herd of German scholars and theologians.”
Andre/ae (LAURENTIUs), [Sw. Lars Anderson], a Swe-
dish Reformer, born in 1482. He was converted to Prot-
estanism, and in 1523 was appointed chancellor of Sweden
by Gustavus Vasa. He produced in 1526 a Swedish trans-
lation of the New Testament. Died in 1552.
Andrea'ni (ANDREA), a skilful Italian engraver, sur-
named IL MANTUA’No (i. e. “the Mantuan ’’), was born at
Mantua in 1560. He improved the art of engraving on
wood in chiaroscuro. Among his works is an engraving
of a Deluge, after Titian. Died in 1623.
Andre’a Pisa/no, or Andre’a da Pi'sa, a distin-
guished Italian sculptor and architect, born at Pentedera,
near Pisa, in 1270, was prominent in the effort to turn the
attention of artists of his time from Gothic to Grecian art.
Few relics of his work remain, his famous gates of the Bap-
tistery at Florence having been displaced by those of Ghiberti
and others. Andrea was one of the revivers of bronze sculp-
ture. He worked at Venice, Florence, Pistoia, and Orvieto,
but there are few architectural works or sculptures that can
with any certainty be ascribed to him. . Died after 1349.
An' dree (KARL THEODoR), a German writer, born in
Brunswick Oct. 20, 1808, was from 1838 to 1853 editor of
several periodicals, as the “Deutsche Reichszeitung” and
“Bremer Handelsblatt,” and was 1858 appointed consul to
Chili. Among his principal works are “Nordamerica.”
(2d ed. 1854), “Buenos Ayres und die Argentin. Republik”
(1856), “Geographische Wanderungen’’ (2 vols., 1859), and
“Geographie des Welthandels” (“Geography of the
World’s Commerce,” 2 vols., 1863–69).
Andréossy (ANTorn E FRANÇors), Count, an eminent
French military engineer, born at Castlenaudary Mar. 6,
1761. He served in Egypt as general of brigade in 1798,
and became a member of the Institute of Egypt. He was
the chief of Bonaparte's staff on the 18th of Brumaire, 1799,
obtained the rank of general of division, and was sent as
ambassador to England in 1802. Between 1804 and 1814
he represented France at the courts of Vienna and Con-
stantinople. In 1826 he was chosen a member of the
Academy of Sciences. He wrote, besides other works,
“Constantinople and the Thracian Bosphorus during the
years 1812–14” (1828). Died Sept. 10, 1828.
An' drés (JUAN), a Spanish Jesuit distinguished for
learning, was born at Planes Feb. 15, 1740. He was
versed in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Italian, and French. On
the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain in 1767 he removed
to Italy. He produced in 1776 an able “Essay on the Phil-
osophy of Galileo,” in Italian. His principal work is “On
the Origin, Progress, and Present State of All Literature *
(in Italian, 7 vols., 1782–99). He was appointed keeper of
the royal library at Naples in 1806. Died Jan. 13, 1817.
An' drew, a county of Missouri, on the Missouri River,
which separates it from Kansas. Area, 425 square miles.
It is bounded on the W. by the Nodaway River, and in-
tersected by the Platte River and the Kansas City St.
Joseph and Council Bluffs R. R. The soil is fertile. Wheat,
corn, oats, and tobacco are the products. Coal is found.
Capital, Savannah. Pop. 15,137. -
Andrew, the county-seat of Jackson co., Ia., at the
“geographical centre” of the county, is the only direct post
point between Maquoketa and Bellevue, the two commer-
cial cities in the county. It is 8 miles N. E. of Maquoketa,
and 12 miles S. W. of Bellevue. It has one weekly paper.
The citizens of the township (Perry) have voted a tax and
subscribed $20,000 in aid of a railroad from Maquoketa to
Andrew, to be completed in the fall of 1873. Pop. 352.
- IED. “ PICKET.”
Andrew [Lat. An/dreas], SAINT, one of the twelve
apostles, was, like his brother Simon Peter, a fisherman of
Galilee. He is supposed to have been the first disciple of
Christ. The latter part of his life is involved in obscurity.
According to tradition, he preached the gospel in Greece
and Scythia, and suffered martyrdom in Patrae, in Achaia.
He is the patron saint of Scotland. A cross formed by ob-
lique beams, thus, X, is called Saint Andrew’s cross.
Andrew (or András) I., king of Hungary, was of
the family of Arpad. He began to reign in 1046, and
waged war against the emperor Henry III. Died in 1058.
Andrew II. of Hungary was born about 1176, and be-
came king in 1205. He conducted an unsuccessful crusade
against the Mohammedans in 1217. In 1222 he convoked
a diet, to which he granted the Golden Bull, called the
Magna Charta of Hungary. It confirmed the rights and
privileges of the Hungarian bishops and nobility, whose
revolts had disturbed his reign. Died Mar. 7, 1236.
Andrew III. of Hungary, a grandson of the preceding,
was born in Venice. He succeeded Ladislas III. in 1290,
and was the last king of the dynasty of Arpad. His claim
to the throne was opposed by the pope, who supported
Charles Martel (son of Charles II. of Naples) as the rival
of Andrew. The latter defeated Charles Martel in battle in
1291. Died in 1301. .
Andrew (JAMEs OsgooD), D. D., bishop of the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church South, was born in Wilkes co., Ga.,
May 3, 1794. He entered the itinerant ministry in the
South Carolina Conference of the Methodist Episcopal
Church Dec. 12, 1812, and was consecrated bishop at Phila-
delphia in May, 1832. Having become connected with
slavery by marriage, the General Conference of 1844 took
such action in his case as led to the division of the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church, and the organization of the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church South; in which he continued to
exercise his episcopal functions efficiently till the session
of the General Conference in New Orleans April, 1866,
when he was placed on the retired list. . He died at the
residence of his son-in-law, the Rev. John W. Rush, in
Mobile, Ala., Mar. 2, 1871. He was an eloquent, devout,
and successful minister. He resided during a part of his
episcopate in Oxford, Ga., and then in Summerfield, Ala.
He published a work on “Family Government,” which is
highly esteemed, and a volume of “Miscellanies.”
Andrew (John ALBION), L.L.D., an American states-
man, born at Windham, Me., May 31, 1818. He graduated
at Bowdoin College, studied law, and was admitted to the
bar of Boston in 1840. Having distinguished himself as an
opponent of slavery, he was elected governor of Massachu-
setts by the Republicans in 1860. In answer to the Presi-
dent's call for volunteers, April 15, 1861, he despatched five
regiments in one week from that date. He was again elected
governor in 1861, and was afterwards thrice annually re-
elected. During the civil war he rendered important ser-
vices to the cause of the Union by his eloquent speeches
and messages, and gained great popularity by his assid-
uous attention to the welfare of the soldiers. Died Oct.
30, 1867. A meeting of the members of the legislature of
Massachusetts adopted a resolution “that in his decease
the commonwealth and the nation alike have suffered an
irreparable loss; that his reputation had become national,
and we might well have hoped for him the highest national
offices and honors.”
Andrew, Saint (or The Thistle), ORDER OF, a Scot-
tish order of knighthood, named in honor of Saint Andrew,
the patron saint of Scotland. It was founded in the reign
of James V., was revived by James II. of England in 1687,
and re-established by Queen Anne in 1703. The star of the
order of the Thistle consists of a Saint Andrew’s cross of
silver embroidery, with rays emanating between the points
of the cross, in the centre of which is a thistle of gold and
green. On a circle which surrounds this thistle is inscribed
the motto “Nemo me impune lacessit” (literally, “No one
provokes me with impunity”).
ANDREW, SAINT, ORDER OF-ANDRONICUS II.
149
Andrew, Saint, ORDER OF (Russian), founded by Peter
the Great in 1698, is the highest in the empire, bestowed
only on the imperial family, princes, generals-in-chief, and
persons of high rank. . The badge of this order bears on
One side a cross enamelled in blue, and in the four corners
of the cross the letters S. A. P. R. (Sanctus Andreas Pa-
tronw8 Russiae). On the reverse is a spread eagle, with a
legend signifying “For Religion and Loyalty.”
Andrews (ALEXANDER), born Aug. 4, 1824, in England,
began in youth to contribute to the periodicals of London,
and was the author of several books, the best known of
which is a “History of British Journalism” (1856). Died
Nov. 8, 1873.
Andrews (ANNIE. M.), an American lady, born about
1835. She volunteered to nurse the sick at Norfolk, Va.,
during the prevalence of yellow fever in 1855. In acknow-
ledgment of her great services the Howard Association of
New York presented her with a gold medal.
Andrews (C. C.), an American general of volunteers
during the civil war (1861–66), born in New Hampshire,
appointed brigadier-general of volunteers Jan. 5, 1864,
honorably mustered out Jan. 15, 1866. At present is U. S.
minister to Sweden. -
Andrews (EDWARD GAYER), D.D., an eminent preacher
and bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born
in New Hartford, N. Y., Aug. 7, 1825, graduated at the
Wesleyan University, Conn., in 1847, entered the ministry
in 1848, became teacher in the Oneida Conference Semi-
nary, Cazenovia, N. Y., in 1854, was elected its president
in 1855, resumed the pastorate in New York East Confer-
ence in 1864, and was elected bishop in 1872.
Andrews (ETHAN ALLEN), LL.D., an American scholar,
born at New Britain, Conn., in 1787. He graduated at
Yale College in 1810. He published, besides a number of
school-books, a good Latin-English lexicon (1850). Died
Mar. 25, 1858. -
Andrews (GEN. GEORGE L.) was born at Bridgewater,
Mass., in 1827, and graduated first in his class at West
Point in 1851. He was acting assistant professor of en-
gineering at West Point (1854–55), and for distinguished
services in the army of the Potomac became brigadier-
general and brevet major-general of volunteers. In 1871
he was appointed professor of French at West Point.
Andrews (JAMES PETIT), an English historical writer,
born near Newbury, in Berkshire, in 1737. He published,
besides other works, an amusing “Collection of Anecdotes,
etc., Ancient and Modern" (1789). His most important
work is a “History of Great Britain in connection with the
Chronology of Europe” (1 vol., 1794, unfinished). Died
Aug. 5, 1797.
Andrews (Joseph), born at Hingham, Mass., Aug. 17,
1806, was apprenticed to an engraver in 1821, studied his
art in London (1836–37), and subsequently became a line
engraver in Boston, Mass. His reputation is very high.
Andrews, or Andrewes (LANCELoT), a learned Eng-
lish theologian, born in London in 1555, was educated at
Cambridge. He was one of the chaplains of Queen Eliza-
beth, who appointed him dean of Westminster. He was
one of the divines selected to translate the Bible under the
auspices of James I., and became bishop of Chichester in
1605. In 1609 he was translated to the see of Ely, and ap-
pointed a privy councillor; was considered the most learned
English theologian of his time, except Ussher, and had a
high reputation as a pulpit orator, but his style was pedantic
and artificial. He became bishop of Winchester in 1618;
he was the author of religious works, among which was a
“Manual of Private Devotions.” Died Sept. 25, 1626.
Andrews (Rev. LoRIN P.), D. D. See APPENDIx.
Andrews (Rev. LORRIN), born in East Windsor, Conn.,
April 29, 1795, was educated at Jefferson College, Pa., and
at Princeton, sailed as a missionary to Hawaii in 1827,
founded in 1831 the Lahainalula. Seminary, which became
the Hawaii University, in which he was a professor. He
was long a judge and privy councillor under the govern-
ment, and published parts of the Bible in the native tongue,
Wrote a Hawaiian dictionary, and various works on the
history, etc. of the Sandwich Islands. Died at Honolulu
Sept. 29, 1868. - -
Andrews (STEPHEN PEARL), born in Massachusetts in
1812, devoted himself to the study of social questions, the
civil and common law, theories of government, a universal
language, etc., and has written numerous works on these
and kindred subjects.
Andrews (TIMOTHY P.), an American officer, born in
Ireland, died at Washington, D. C., Mar. 11, 1868. He
was appointed paymaster in the U. S. army May 22, 1822,
and served as such till April 9, 1847, when he was appointed
colonel of a regiment of voltigeurs raised for the war with
Mexico, and served in command of his regiment till July
20, 1848, when it was disbanded and he was restored to the
pay department; deputy paymaster-general Dec. 17, 1851,
and paymaster-general, with the rank of colonel, Sept. 6,
1862, brevet brigadier-general Sept. 13, 1847, for gallant
conduct at the battle of Chapultepec, Mex.; retired from
active service on his own application Nov. 29, 1864, but
continued on special duty till the day of his death.
G. C. SIMMONS, CLERK BOARD OF ENGINEERs.
Andrews (WILLIAM. D.), born at Grafton, Mass., in
1818, removed to New York in 1840, and became distin-
guished as the inventor of an oscillating engine, and espe-
cially of a centrifugal pump of great excellence.
An' dria, a town of Southern Italy, in the province of
Bari, 14 miles by rail E. of Canosa. It is the seat of a
bishop, and has a fine cathedral, built in 1046; also a col-
lege. In the vicinity are numerous caverns (in Latin,
antra), from which the name is said to be derived. Pop.
in 1871, 34,034. -
Andrieux (FRANÇois GUILLAUME JEAN STANISLAs), a
popular French dramatic poet, born at Strasburg May 6,
1759. He produced in 1787 a comedy called “Les Etour-
dis” (“The Giddy-heads”), which was performed with ap-
plause. In 1798 he was chosen a member of the Council
of Five Hundred. He became professor of belles-lettres
in the Polytechnic School in 1804, and professor of French
literature in the College of France in 1814. He was ad-
mitted in 1816 into the French Academy, of which he
was chosen perpetual secretary in 1829. Among his works
are “Brutus,” a tragedy, and a drama called “Molière
with his Friends.” . He belonged to the classical school of
literature. Died May 10, 1833.
An'dro, or An'dros, an island of Greece, in the arch-
ipelago, about 10 miles S. E. of Euboea, is the most north-
ern of the Cyclades. Length 21 miles, width 8 miles. The
surface is hilly, the soil is fertile. Andros is also the name
of a town and port on the eastern coast. Lat. of Cape
Guardia, its N. W. point, 37° 58' N., lon. 24° 43' E. Pop.
of the island in 1870, 19,674.
An' drocles, or An'droclus, a Roman slave, whose
adventures and friendship with a lion are mentioned by
Aulus Gellius. He ran away from his master into Africa,
and there entered a cave, in which he met a lion that was
lame. The lion presented to him a paw, from which An-
drocles extracted a thorn. To recompense him for this
service the lion afterwards supplied the man with food as
long as he remained in that region. Androcles finally was
captured, and was condemned to fight with a lion in the
amphitheatre of Rome. This lion proved to be the same
that he had met in the cave, and, though purposely kept
from food to increase his ferocity, he instantly recognized
his benefactor as a dog would his master. The man was
then pardoned and liberated. -
Androm'ache [Gr. 'Avôpopuáxm], a celebrated and beau-
tiful Trojan lady, was the wife of Hector, and one of the
most admired characters of the “Iliad.” After the destruc-
tion of Troy she became the captive of Pyrrhus, and finally
the wife of Helenus, a son of Priam. She is the subject
of a tragedy of Euripides.
Androm'eda [Gr. 'Avôpoſiéðm], in classic mythology,
was a daughter of Cepheus, king of Ethiopia, and of Cassi-
opeia. She boasted that she was more beautiful than the
Nereids. Neptune, to avenge this affront, sent a sea-mon-
ster to plague the Ethiopians. The oracle of Ammon hav-
ing declared that the sacrifice of Andromeda would ap-
pease Neptune, she was chained to a rock, but was rescued
by Perseus, and after death was transformed into a con-
stellation. - *
Andromeda, a genus of shrubs of the order Erica-
ceae, found in America, Europe, and Asia. The Andromeda
polyfolia, common to both hemispheres, has fine rose-colored
flowers. The Andromeda floribunda of the U. S. also has
abundant and very fine flowers, appearing in April. The
Andromeda nitida of the Southern States has fragrant blos-
soms. The U. S. have at least eight species, some of which
are reputed poisonous to cattle.
Andromiſcus I., COMNENUS [Gr. 'Avôpóvukos Kouvºvás],
a Byzantine emperor, was a grandson of Alexis I., Com-
menus. He had superior talents, but was profligate and
cruel. In his youth he engaged in treasonable intrigues
against the emperor Manuel, who confined him in prison
many years. Having been appointed regent during the
minority of Alexis II., he murdered that prince and usurp-
ed the throne in 1182. He abused his power by the execu-
tion of many Greek nobles, victims of his revenge or jeal-
ousy, and carried his cruelty to such excess that his subjects
revolted and tortured him to death in 1185. -
Andronicus II., PALEOLOGUs, a son of the emperor
Michael, was born about 1260. He began to reign at Con-
150
ANDRONICUS III.—ANEURISM.
stantinople in 1283. He waged war against the Turks with-
out decisive result. His reign was inglorious, and he was
dethroned in 1328 by his grandson, Andronicus III. Died
Feb. 13, 1332.
Andronicus III., PALAEOLOGUs, was a grandson of
the preceding. He became emperor of Constantinople in
1328, and was defeated by the Turks in 1330. His reign
was disastrous, and the Turks conquered several of his prov-
inces. Died June 15, 1341. *
Andromiſcus Cyrrhes/tes, a Greek architect and
astronomer, who is supposed to have lived about 100 B.C.,
and to have erected at Athens the octagonal building called
the Tower of the Winds, which is still standing. It was
intended to indidate the direction of the wind.
Androni’cus Rho/dius (i.e. “of Rhodes”), a Greek
Peripatetic philosopher who lived about 60 B.C., and is
said to have invented the word Metaphysics. He collected
and arranged the works of Aristotle. -
Andropo'gon [from the Gr. &vip, a “man,” and tróyov, a
“beard,” alluding to the bearded rhachis and flowers], an
extensive genus of grasses, mostly coarse and many of
them tropical. The U. S. have about fifteen species E. of
the Mississippi. The most important of the genus is the
Andropogon Schoemanthus, extensively cultivated in Ceylon
and other Oriental regions for its oil. Ceylon exports several
tons of this oil annually. It is called oil of citronella, and
is chiefly used in perfuming the so-called “honey soap.”
Several foreign species are cultivated for their oils, which
are sold as “oil of verbena,” “lemon-grass,” “geranium,” etc.
An'dros (Sir EDMUND), an English governor, born in
London Dec. 6, 1637. He was governor of New York from
1674 to 1682, and was appointed governor of New England
in 1686. His arbitrary and oppressive conduct rendered
him very unpopular. Recent historians, however, have
asserted that his private character was excellent, and that
he had to contend with the unjust prejudices of the colo-
mists. In April, 1689, the people of Boston revolted and
deposed him. He governed Virginia from 1692 to 1698.
Died Feb. 24, 1714. -
Androscog’gin, a river which rises in Umbagog
Lake, and flows southward through Coos co., N. H., to the
western boundary of Maine, which it crosses. Running
then in a general S. E. direction, it passes through Oxford
and Androscoggin counties in Maine, and enters the Ken-
nebec River 4 miles above Bath. Its length is 145 miles.
Androscoggin, a county in the S. W. central part of
Maine, drained by the Androscoggin and Little Andros-
coggin rivers, which furnish extensive water-power. There
are also several lakes in the county. It has an area of
400 square miles, and is traversed by the Maine Central
R. R. Manufactures and agriculture are both prosperous.
Grain, potatoes, and dairy products are largely exported.
Capital, Auburn. Pop. 35,866.
Andujar’, or Anduxar (the ancient Illitur’gis), a town
of Spain, in the province of Jaen, on the Guadalquivir, at
the foot of the Sierra Morena, 27 miles N. W. of Jaen. It
has a trade in grain, fruit, and porous jars and pitchers,
of which great numbers are made here for the purpose of
cooling water. Pop. 12,605. - -
Anduze, a town of Southern France, in the depart-
ment of Gard, 7 miles S. W. of Alais. It has manufac-
tures of silk, hats, and leather. Pop. in 1866, 5303, prin-
cipally Protestants. -
Anel (Doxf1NIQUE), an eminent French surgeon and ocu-
list, born at Toulouse in 1678, practised in Paris. He in-
vented a probe and syringe, and was skilful, in the treat-
ment of aneurism and fistula lachrymalis. Died about 1728.
Anemom’eter [from the Gr. &vepos, the “wind,” and
perpov, a “measure”], an instrument used for measuring
the force or velocity of the wind. Several different kinds
of anemometers have been invented, but the one most gen-
erally used was devised by Dr. Robinson of Armagh, and
made by Casella of London.” It consists of four hemi-
spherical cups affixed to the ends of two horizontal cross-
rods, which are attached to a vertical axis.” The cups are
so arranged that their diametrical planes catch any pass-
ing current, and are caused to rotate. Motion is thus com-
municated to a combination of wheelwork, and by two
indices the velocity of the wind is shown. Dr. Robinson
found that the cups, as well as the vertical axis to which
they were attached, revolve with a velocity equal to one-
third of the wind’s velocity. Lind’s anemometer is also
‘used. , Whewell and Casella have devised instruments for
registering the direction and velocity of the wind. . (See
METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTs, by PROF. G. W. Hough.)
Anem'one [from the Gr. &vepos, “wind”], a genus of
herbaceous plants of the natural order Ranunculaceae, na-
tives of Europe, Asia, and North and South America. The
species of anemone are numerous, and mostly have beauti-
ful flowers, the size of which is increased by cultivation.
The Anemone hortensis, or garden anemone, is highly prized
and is extensively cultivated in Holland. It prefers a light
soil. Among the other beautiful species are the Anemone
coronaria, sometimes called poppy anemome; the Anemome
Japonica, a native of Japan; the Anemome pratensis, which
has blue flowers; the Anemone pulsatilla (pasque flower),
which grows wild in England, and has purple flowers; and
the Anemone memorosa (wood anemome), which has white
flowers. In North America are found several species pecu-
liar to this hemisphere, besides some which are common
also in the Old World. Pulsatilla, a favorite remedy with
homoeopathists, is produced by a plant of this genus. -
Anemone, Sea, a popular name of marine radiated
lims º
Sea Anemone.
animals belonging to the order Actinaria. They are poly-
pes of a soft gelatinous texture, and have numerous tenta-
cles disposed in circles and extending like rays around the
mouth. When they are expanded in the water they resem-
ble a polypetalous flower, and are admired for beauty of
form and color. They abound on the shores of the sea, and
are generally attached to rocks, stones, or shells, but have
some power of locomotion. When they are left dry by the
receding tide they contract into a mass of jelly. They are
very voracious, and will seize by their tentacules and Swal-
low animals as large as themselves. Some species of the
Actinaria can be kept in an aquarium, and can be fed on
fish or other animal food. Among the most beautiful of the
sea anemones are the Actinia mesembryanthemum, which is
common on the British shores, and has around the margin
of its mouth a circle of azure tubercles; the Actinia crashi-
cornis, which is also found on the British shores, and dis-
plays a variety of colors; and the Actinia diamthus, which
is found in deep water.
Anem’oscope [from the Gr. &vepos, “wind,” and
orkoméo, to “look”], an instrument which indicates the di-
rection of the wind, as a vane or weathercock. Sometimes
the vane turns a spindle which descends through the roof
of the house into the chamber of the observer. An index
fixed to the spindle indicates the direction of the wind on
a compass-card fixed to the ceiling.
Aneroid Barometer. See BAROMETER.
Anet, a town of France, in the department of Eure-et-
Loir, 9 miles N. E. of Dreux. Near it is the plain of
Ivry, where Henry IV. gained a decisive victory over the
army of the League in 1590. Pop. about 1400.
An/eurism [Gr. &veſpugua, a “widening ”], a pulsating
tumor filled with blood, and communicating more or less
directly with an artery, the tunics of which are wholly or
partially destroyed. A “true” aneurism has one or more
arterial coats in its wall. A “false’’ aneurism has a Wall
of condensed areolar tissue, the arterial coat having disap-
peared. A “traumatic" aneurism originates in a wound
or other accidental injury. A “varicose.” aneurism com-
municates with both an artery and a vein, but the term
sometimes signifies a mere symmetrical dilatation of an
artery. When such dilatations occur in groups or knots,
it is a “qircoid” aneurism. . When the blood gets between
the coats of an artery, and thus forms a tumor, it is a “dis-
secting” aneurism. The heart and its valves are liable to
aneurismal dilatations. * * *
Aneurisms not traumatic are frequently traceable to the
degeneration of the arterial coats known as atheroma. In
general, aneurism of the extremities, when sufficiently near
the surface, as when it occurs in the “popliteal space” (the
hollow of the knee), may be treated with a fair prospect of
success by long-continued compression, mechanical or dig-
ital. “Ligation,” or tying the artery, sometimes succeeds.
Galvano-puncture has its advocates as a means of cure.
The injection of powerful astringents has succeeded in
some cases, but is not to be regarded as a Safe proceeding.

ANGARA-ANGELO BUONARROTI. 151
The prospect, especially in aneurisms of the aorta and its
great branches, is that the disease will prove fatal, though
there are very unfrequent cases which spontaneously re-
cover by the formation of a clot within the tumor, which
gradually shrinks into a hard, sometimes a chalky, mass.
The administration of sedatives and medicines which in-
crease the proportion of fibrine in the blood has been often
advocated. Prolonged fasting has been recommended; but
in general the safest way is for the patient to avoid all
excesses, and to make use of a nutritious diet, without
attempting a cure. One of the most remarkable effects of
aneurism is the absorption of neighboring tissues, and even
of bones, from the continual pressure. The aneurism some-
times finally bursts internally, causing almost immediate
death. REv1SED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Angara’, or Upper Tungus'ka, a river of Sibe-
ria, rises in Lake Baikal, about 30 miles S. of Irkutsk.
Passing by that town, it flows first northward and after-
wards in a westerly direction, and enters the Yenisei, of
. it is the principal tributary. Length, about 1000
I'll leS.
An'gel [from the Gr. 3 yyeAos, a “messenger”], a minis-
tering spirit; a spiritual, intelligent being employed by
God to carry commands, to announce glad tidings, and ad-
minister comfort to men. The Scriptures record many in-
stances in which angels became visible to men. The an-
cient Hebrews believed in the existence of several orders
of angels, among which were the seraphim and cherubim,
and archangels. The only angels mentioned by name in
the Bible are Michael and Gabriel. Raphael is mentioned
in Tobit, a book of the Apocrypha. The popular motion
that angels have wings is rather a poetical invention than
a revealed truth. The belief in guardian angels has been
cherished by Jews and Christians of all ages. -
ANGEL, an ancient English gold coin, so called from the
figure of the archangel Michael piercing the dragon, which
was on its obverse. The value of the angel (which con-
tinued to be coined until 1650) varied from 6s. 8d. to 10s.
Angel-Fish (Squati'na), called also Monk-Fish and
Shark-Ray, a fish allied to the shark, is found on the
coasts of England and France and the southern coasts of
the U. S. It is about seven feet long, and is remarkable
for its ugliness of form. The body is nearly four feet wide,
and is flattened horizontally.
An'geli (FILIPPo), an eminent painter of the early
seventeenth century, was born in Rome and patronized by
Cosimo, grand duke of Florence. His aérial perspectives
are famous, and his works are highly prized.—GIULIO
CESARE ANGELI (1570–1630), and GIUSEPPE ANGELI of
Venice (born 1715), were also successful painters. -
Angel'ica [so called from its supposed angelic virtues],
a genus of plants of the natural order Umbelliferae, na-
tives of the north temperate zone. They are mostly her-
baceous and perennial, having bipinnate or tripinnate
leaves. The Angelica archangelica (garden angelica)
grows to the height of six feet, has greenish flowers, is
aromatic, and contains resin and essential oil. Its root is
used in medicine as an aromatic stimulant and tonic. This
plant was formerly cultivated for the table, being blanched
and used as celery. The U. S. have several species of An-
gelica and Archangelica, a kindred genus. It yields an-
gelica balsam and angelic acid. - •
Angelica, a half-shire village and township of Alle-
gany Co., Y., on Angelica Creek. The village is 262
miles W. by S. from Albany, 5 miles N. of the Erie R. R.,
and on the line of the Rochester Nunda and Pennsylvania
R. R. It has five churches, a newspaper printing-office, a
paper-manufacturing establishment, a national bank, ex-
cellent water-power, and a beautiful park. Pop. 991; of
the town, 1643. -
P. S. Norris, ED. “ANGELICA REPUBLICAN.”
- Angelica, a post-township of Shawanaw co., Wis. P.
... Angelica Tree, or Hercules’ Club, a small tree
or large shrub, found from Florida to Pennsylvania and
westward. It is the Aralia spinosa of the order Aralia-
ceae. It has a stout trunk, covered, like the branches, with
prickles, and its leaves are very large and decompound.
Its flowers appear in July and August in great clusters,
composed of very numerous umbels. This tree is common
in cultivation. t
Angelico, Fra. See FIESOLE.
Angeli'na, a county in the E. part of Texas. Area,
1059 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Am-
gelina River, an affluent of the Neches, and on the S. W.
by the Neches River, both navigable. Petroleum is abun-
dant. Cotton, beef, pork, and sugar-cane are produced.
: surface is heavily timbered. Capital, Homer. Pop.
5. -
Ange/lio; or de’ gli An'geli (PIETRO), [Lat. Petrus
An'gelus], an eminent Italian scholar and Latin poet, born
at Barga, near Lucca, in 1517. He was professor of belles-
lettres at the University of Pisa for many years. His chief
works are a poem on hunting called “Cynegeticon vel de
Venatione” (1562), and a mediocre Latin epic poem enti-
tled “The Syriad” (1591), the subject of which is the Cru-
sades and the conquest of Palestine. This poem was ad-
mired by his contemporaries. Died Feb. 29, 1596.
Angelis (PIERRE), a French painter of landscapes and
conversation-pieces, was born at Dunkirk in 1685. He
worked in England, and his productions were praised by
H. Walpole. Died in 1734. -
Angel Island, California, is in the bay of San Fran-
cisco, 5 miles N. of San-Francisco. It has an area of 800
acres, and extensive quarries of brown sandstone, valuable
for building. :
An'gell (JAMEs BURRILL), LL.D., born at Scituate, R.I.,
Jan. 7, 1829, graduated at Brown University, studied two
years in Europe, was professor of modern languages and
literature at Brown University (1853–60), editor of the
“Providence Daily Journal’’ (1860–66), president of the
University of Vermont (1866–71), and president of the
University of Michigan since 1871. He is the author of
various articles in the “North American Review º' and
other quarterlies. ... • *
Angell (Joseph KINNICUT), an American lawyer and
able legal writer, born at Providence, R.I., April 30, 1794,
graduated at Brown University in 1813. Among his works
are a “Treatise on the Right of Property in Tide-Waters”
(1826) and “The Limitation of Actions.” Died May 1, 1857.
An'gelo, a township of Monroe co., Wis. Pop. 461.
An'gelo (or, more correctly, Agºnolo) Buonarroſti
(MICHAEL), a sculptor, born probably at Settignano, 13 miles
from Florence, on Mar. 6, 1475. The Buonarroti (or Buo-
narroti Simoni, as they designated themselves) were a dis-
tinguished Florentine family. The name is often found in
connection with offices in the state. They held fast to a
tradition that the Simoni were descended from the counts
of Canossa, in whose veins flowed imperial blood; but
modern historians attach no value to the tradition. The
child was entrusted to a nurse, wife of a stone-mason,
and Michael used in after years to say in jest that it was
no wonder he had such love for his profession, since he had
imbibed: it with his mother’s milk. He began to draw
as soon as he could use his hands. They used to show his
early paintings on the walls of the house in which he grew
up. He was destined to be a scholar, but gained little from
his teachers, preferring to lounge in the studios of the
artists and try his hand at drawing. His father and un-
cles protested against his pursuing the artist's career, but
he persevered till he carried his point. On the 1st of
April, 1488, the lad being fourteen years old, he was ap-
prenticed for three years to David and Domenico Ghirlan-
dajo, the latter being one of the first masters at Florence.
He agreed to pay him six gold florins the first year, eight
for the second, and ten for the third. While with him,
Michael produced his first painting, a copy of a plate of
Martin Schöngauer representing the temptation of St. An- .
thony. The copyist colored the animals from nature. The
pupil left the studio, before the three years had expired—
some say because the master was jealous of his ability.
The gardens of Lorenzo the Magnificent, richly stored with
works of art, were tempting and accessible to a youth of
his promise, and soon the attention of the merchant-prince
was attracted by a fawn modelled by his hand. Lorenzo
took the young Michael into special favor, showed him his
treasures, and introduced him, among others, to Poliziano,
at whose suggestion the group of Hercules and the Cen-
taurs was executed. At this time, too, he made a Madonna,
after the manner of Donatello. . Such advantages as these
were of the rarest, and they were improved to the utmost.
On the death of his patron and the overthrow of the Me-
dici, the artist left the city and hastened to Venice; thence
to Bologna, where he stayed about a year. In July, 1495,
he was again in Florence, executing works for the Medigi,
a Sleeping Cupid among others, which became the occa-
sion of his going to Rome under strong inducements from
an agent of the cardinal San Giorgio, who had purchased
the Cupid, but whose after-promises were finer than his per-
formance. - -
The first great work executed in Rome was the statue of
the Drunken Bacchus, a naked youth intoxicated with
wine. Next came a pietà, the mourning Mary with the
dead Christ in her lap, now placed in a side-chapel of St.
Peter's, near the entrance. On the completion of the “pi-
età" in 1499, the artist was induced by a change in the
government to return to Florence. Two years later. he re-
ceived an order to cut a statue from an immense block of
152
ANGELO.
marble, eighteen feet long, which had been brought from
Carrara for a figure of colossal size designed for the church
of Santa Maria del Fiore. The order had not been execut-
ed, and the block, the despair of architects, lay in the work-
shop yards adjoining the cathedral. From this block Mi-
chael Angelo evoked the “David’’ of the Piazza del Gran
Duca. The statue was finished early in 1504. Owing to
its enormous weight, 18,000 pounds, three days were re-
quired to transport it from the studio to the square in front
of the Palazzo Vecchio, where it stood till 1873. The erec-
tion of the “David” was an event in Florence; occurrences
were dated from it; a superstitious feeling even attached
to it in the minds of citizens, who apprehended disaster to
their city in case it should be disturbed.
The fame of the great sculptor had by this time reached
the ears of Pope Julius II., who was meditating the erec-
tion of a colossal mausoleum for himself in St. Peter’s,
which was already enriched with costly monuments of art.
A dispute arising between the pope and the sculptor, the
high-spirited artist abruptly left Rome for Florence. It
was there that he designed the great painting for the ducal
palace, of which the cartoon only was finished, represent-
ing soldiers startled by the trumpet while bathing in the
Arno. At present only a copy of small size remains, but
this discloses the wonder of the work, the drawing of
so many naked bodies in the various attitudes required by
such a subject. A reconciliation with the pope having been
effected, his next work was a bronze statue of Julius II.,
placed at the principal portal of San Petronio in Bologna.
The unveiling took place Feb. 21, 1508. On All Saints'
Day, 1509, so swiftly did this extraordinary man work, all
Rome was gazing enraptured at the ceiling of the Sistine
Chapel, which he literally covered in twenty months with
frescoes by the order of Julius, the astonished but impa-
tient pope admiring with the rest. In 1513 the sumptuous
pontiff died, mentioning the mausoleum in his will, with
directions for its completion; and Michael resumed work
on it. New plans were drawn on a reduced scale, and a
new contract was made, with higher estimates of cost. For
three years the architect was completely absorbed in this
task. It was estimated that the bronze ornaments for the
tomb would require more than 22,400 pounds of metal.
The blocks of marble were conveyed from his studio near
the Vatican to the neighborhood of the Capitol, where were
the sculptor's workshops, and where he himself took up his
abode. He seems to have begun with the “Moses,” with
which the photograph has made all men familiar. Then,
perhaps, come the two chained youths which now stand in
the Museum of the Louvre in Paris.
The construction of the façade of San Lorenzo was the
next great task proposed to the sculptor by Leo X., the
pope undertaking that the work should not interfere with
the completion of the mausoleum, which he was under
contract to finish. The new work required not only a
sculptor, but an architect, and besides these an engineer
and a superintendent of authority. Angelo undertook
the whole, would accept no aid, passed a spring and sum-
mer in the mountains, discovered and opened marble-
Quarries, directed workmen in several places, arranged for
transportation, manufactured figures in wax; in a word,
made himself felt in every department of the enterprise.
Buonarotti possessed prodigious powers, and tasked them
to the utmost, but it seemed to be his destiny to complete
none of his gigantic enterprises. Partly through the im-
petuosity of his own nature, partly from the multitude and
splendor of his ideas, and partly by reason of the caprices
of his princely employers, his career was full of abortive
schemes. The designing of the façade of San Lorenzo, the
work at which he had toiled for years as he had at no other
—a work the magnitude whereof threw the mausoleum into
the shade—was brought to a stand-still finally by the disas-
ters which befell the family of Medici. Instead of it, the con-
struction of the Medicean chapel in Florence was assigned
to him by Clement VII. But neither was this completed.
The two statues of Lorenzo, duke of Urbino, and of Giu-
liano, duke of Nemours, the two famous figures which all
the world are familiar with, attest the grandeur of the de-
sign. The efforts of the sculptor were amazing; he worked
with passion; the toil would have killed another man. In
a few months the colossal statues Morning, Evening, Day,
and Night, which are regarded as his greatest conceptions,
were placed in their niches.
In 1533, at the age of fifty-eight, and after a rest from
similar labor of thirty years, Angelo, at the instance of
the pope, took up his brush to paint the “Last Judgment”
on the altar-wall of the chapel whose ceiling had been
covered with the creations of his hand. The mausoleum
was perforce discontinued again. The artist wished to
resume it on the completion of the Last Judgment, but was
again overruled by papal authority; a new chapel, the Ca-
pella, Paolina, had been added to the Vatican, and no one but
*
Michael Angelo must adorn it. The dilemma was painful,
for he felt bound in honor to complete the mausoleum; but
being released finally, he went forward with the decorations
of the chapel. The two vast paintings representing the
“Crucifixion of Peter’’ and the “Conversion of Paul.”
were finished, but they no longer exist as he left them.
Michael Angelo was an old man when Antonio di San
Gallo, the director of St. Peter’s church, died, and the re-
sponsible office was conferred on him. Other architects
were talked of. Had Rafael been living, the post would
doubtless have been his. Giulio Romano declined being
a candidate for the position, on account of his ill-health.
Bramante had laid the foundation of the present structure
in 1506. After him several architects submitted plans and
made alterations—Rafael, Fra Giacondo, Peruzzi. An-
tonio di San Gallo succeeded him. But Angelo took the
work up as from the beginning, with full power to do as
he would; and though his designs were never carried out,
the main credit for what was done afterwards belongs to
him. The front façade was not his work; the colonnades
surrounding the square were not his design; the obelisk
and the fountains were placed where they are by later
hands; in other points his designs were crippled; but to
him belongs the glory of the great dome, which he never
saw suspended, but which he lived to model. What the
whole would have been could his conceptions have been put
into stone, none can tell, for his inward vision alone con-
templated it. - -
The touch of the mighty hands was felt on other Roman
buildings. It converted the Baths of Diocletian into the
magnificent church “Degli Angeli.” His brain teemed
with ideas. He would have rebuilt half Rome had he pos-
sessed the power. His actually-formed plans would have
transformed a conspicuous portion of the city if they could
have been executed. But years impaired even his prodig-
ious force. He drew till his hand could no longer hold
a pencil; he carved as long as he could guide a tool; but
he felt old; to use his own language, “Death often pulls
me by the coat to come with him.” His last group, a
Christ-lying dead in his mother's lap, was unfinished; a
flaw in the marble condemned it, and nearly sacrificed it.
The artist gave it to one of his pupils. It is now in Flor-
ence, beneath the dimly-lighted dome of the Santa Maria.
del Fiore. Urgent solicitations to return to his native
Florence might have prevailed with him at this time but
for his unwillingness to leave the milder climate of Rome,
and his deeper unwillingness to abandon his great labor
on St. Peter's, now running through five pontificates, which
political disturbances, and failing funds, and continual
misunderstandings had suspended. Saddened and soli-
tary from the loss of friends, shadowed by the disappoint-
ment of unrealized hopes, he dwelt in Rome, his thoughts
turning sometimes gloomily to things immortal and in-
visible. -
“The fables of the world have robbed my soul ..
Of moments given me for thoughts of God.”
He pours out his heart in sonnets which betray a spirit of
fatigue and passionate longing for rest. The end came on
the 18th of Feb., 1564, when he was ninety years old. He
sank exhausted under the weight of three laborious gene-
rations.
The above is the barest possible outline of the career of
this great man. An attempt to characterize his work even
thus baldly would be impossible here; nor is it necessary,
for the main features of his genius are familiar to all who
are in the smallest degree acquainted with the productions
of his hand. He was architect, Sculptor, painter, poet,
eminent in each, skilful in anatomy, a master of mechanics.
In poetry, Dante was his model for style, the delight of
his kindred spirit. He entreated the pope's permission to
erect a worthy monument to Dante at his own expense in
an honorable place. The finer monument, he is said to
have actually erected—a book of drawings illustrating the
“Inferno "-was lost. •
Michael Angelo was rather short of stature, with broad
shoulders, firm and strong limbs, thin but robust frame.
Habits of abstemiousness, continence, frugality, and indus-
try steeled his constitution. The wealth his genius brought
him did not spoil his simplicity. “Rich as I am,” he once
said in his old age, “I have always lived like a poor man.”
. His head was wide, his forehead prominent, his eye small
and light. His face was disfigured in early life by a blow
dealt him by a fellow-student in the Medici gardens, which
broke his nose. The disfigurement had its effect on a tem-
per inclined to melancholy; but by nature he was kind,
gentle, generous, self-reliant, independent, ambitious,
proud, but magnanimous; too tenacious of his own rights,
but not unready to concede the claims of others. His
family position, his genius, and his fame gave him every
social advantage, but he lived in retirement, rarely ap-
peared on public occasions, avoided the companionship of .
ANGELS’ CAMP–ANGLESEY.
153
artists, wrote Italian, the language of Dante, instead of
Latin, and was satisfied to stand on his merit as an artist.
The great sculptor lies buried in Santa Croce, in Florence.
In the same church the duke had a monument erected in
his honor.
Many points relating to the life and works of Michel-
agniolo, as he signed himself, have been left obscure from
the withholding of important family papers—first, by the
count Buonarroti, and afterwards by the city of Florence,
to which the count bequeathed them. Even yet all is not
known.
The Life by Herman Grimm, translated into English
by Miss Bunnett (reprinted in Boston, 1866), contains
much new matter of interest. A list of Michael Angelo's
works may be found in the shorter biography by Richard
Duppa, LL.B. (Bohm’s “European Library”). An edition
of the “Poems” was published in Florence about ten years
ago. - 0. B. FROTHINGHAM.
An'gels’ Camp, a post-village of Calaveras co., Cal.,
25 miles E. of Stockton, has one weekly paper.
An'gelus Dom'ini (“the angel of the Lord”), a form
of prayer which Roman Catholics repeat at sunrise, noon,
and sunset, when they ring a bell called the Angelus bell.
An'gelus Sile'sius, one of the most prominent Ger-
man poets of the seventeenth century, whose proper name
was JoHANN SCHEFFLER, was born at Breslau, in Silesia,
in 1624, and in 1652 joined the Roman Catholic Church.
He wrote several mystical devotional works, among which
are the “Cherub’s Guide-Book” and the “Angelic Book of
Wonders” (1674). Died July 9, 1677. Special works on
him have been written by Kahlert and Schrader (1853).
An'germann, a navigable river of Sweden, rises in the
mountains between Sweden and Norway, collects the water
of several lakes, and flowing south-eastward enters the
Gulf of Bothnia, near Hernösand. Length, about 250 miles.
Its banks abound with beautiful scenery.
An'germannland, or Angerma’nia, an old prov-
ince of Sweden, is now included in the province of Hermö-
sand or Westernorrland.
Ang’ermiin/de, a town of Prussia, in the province of
Brandenburg, on Lake Münde, and on the Berlin and Stet-
tin Railway, 44% miles by rail N. E. of Berlin. Pop.2in
1871, 6412. -
Angers, formerly Angiers (the ancient Juliom/agus),
a fortified city of France, capital of the department of
Maine-et-Loire, and once the capital of the province of
Anjou. It is on the Mayenne River, 4 miles N. of the
Loire, and on the railway which connects Tours, with
Nantes, 60 miles by rail S. W. of Le Mans. The old walls
are converted into boulevards lined with handsome houses.
It has a cathedral, a college, a library of about 35,000 vol-
umes, a museum, and a school of arts and trades; also
manufactures of linen and woollen stuffs, hosiery, silk twist,
leather, etc. Here are the ruins of an ancient castle of the
dukes of Anjou, and the Hospice of St. Jean, founded by
Henry II. of England. Lord Chatham and the duke of
Wellington attended a military school in Angers. Pop. in
1866, 54,791.
Anghie'ra, de (PIETRO MARTIRE), [Lat. Pe’trus Mar/-
tyr Angle/rius], an eminent Italian scholar and historian,
born of a noble family at Arona, on Lake Maggiore, in
1455. He emigrated to Spain in 1487, and became a priest.
In 1501 he was sent by King Ferdinand on a mission to
the sultan of Egypt, and in 1505 he was appointed prior
of the church of Granada. He was also a member of the
Council of the Indies. His most important work is a his-
tory of the New World and American discovery, entitled
“De Rebus Oceanicis et Orbe Novo Decades” (1530), which
is highly esteemed. Died in 1526.
An'gilbert, or En'gilbert [Lat. Angilber’tus], SAINT,
an eminent statesman and Latin poet, was born in North-
western Gaul. He married Bertha, a daughter of Charle-
magne, and became a confidential minister of that monarch.
In the latter part of his life he entered a monastery. He
wrote several short poems, and was called the Homer of
his time... Died Feb. 18, 814 A. D.
Angi'na [from the Gr. 3)xo; Lat. an/go, to “strangle”],
applied to diseases attended by a sense of suffocation.
(See next article.)
Angi'na Pecſtoris (“angina of the breast”), called
also Breast Pang and Heart Stroke, an intense pain
, occurring in paroxysms, and usually commencing in the re-
gion of the heart or at the lower end of the breast-bone, and
extending along the left arm, more rarely going towards
the right side. It is characterized by a sense of suffocation,
faintness, and often by the apprehension of approaching
death. This symptom has been called the “spasm of a
weakened heart,” and is very seldom experienced by any
but persons with an organic disease of that organ. The
exciting cause is not unfrequently a strong and sudden
emotional disturbance. Men over fifty years of age are
most frequently attacked. Valerian, gentle aromatic stimu-
lants, and saline cathartics are considéred useful in the
attack, which is usually, not always, short. Between par-
oxysms the patient should lead a tranquil, retired life, and
make use of a plain, nutritious diet.
Ang’le [from the Lat. an/gulus, a “corner”], in popu-
lar language is a point formed by the meeting of two lines
whose direction is not the same. In geometry a rectilineal
angle is the inclination of two straight lines which meet,
but have not the same direction. The point of meeting is
called the vertea of the angle, and the lines are its sides or
legs. Angles are measured by degrees of a circle, as their
magnitude depends, on the quantity of rotation round the
vertex which would be required to make the lines coincide.
An angle of ninety degrees is called a right angle; if it is
more than ninety, it is obtuse, and if less than ninety, it is
acute. When three or more planes meet at the same point,
the corner thus formed is a solid angle.
ANGLE, CURVILINEAR, is the angle formed by the tan-
gents to two curves at the point where the latter meet.
ANGLE, DEAD, in fortification, an angle of the wall so
formed that a small piece of ground in front of it can
neither be seen nor defended from the parapet.
ANGLE, FACIAL, in zoology, is regarded as an important
indication of the relative intelligence and sagacity of men
and other animals. It signifies the angle made by the
meeting of two straight lines, drawn, the one from the most
prominent part of the frontal bone to the anterior margin
of the upper jaw; the other from the external auditory
foramen to the same point. The facial angle of a European
is about eighty degrees; of an African negro, about seventy;
of an ape, about fifty. (See FACIAL ANGLE.)
ANGLE, VISUAL, in optics, is the angle formed by two
rays of light, or two straight lines drawn from the extreme
points of an object to the centre of the eye. The apparent
magnitude of an object depends on the magnitude of the
visual angle which it subtends.
Ang/ler (Lo'phius America'mus), a fish found on the
American coasts, and
: called the sea-devil or
goose-fish. It belongs to
sº a family of acanthoptery-
gious fishes called Lophi-
ă adaº. It is from three to
£%2 five feet long, has an en-
ºft, ormous head and a very
large mouth, furnished
with worm-like append-
§ ages. By means of these,
§ 3.3% and the filaments which
# rise from the top of its
: head, it is supposed to
attract the fishes on which
it preys. The Lophiadae
are remarkable for the
elongation of the carpal bones, by which they are enabled
to leap up suddenly and to seize fish that are above them.
Ang’les [Lat. An'glij, an ancient Low German tribe
from which England derives its name (Angle-land, Eng-
land). They occupied a narrow district in the S. of Sles-
wick, between the Schlei and Flensburg, whence some of
them passed over, in the fifth century, in conjunction with
other Saxon (or Low German) tribes, into Britain, where
they conquered the native Britons and established the
Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. That the Anglian settlers of
Britain should have given their name to the island is due,
possibly, to the fact that the tribal name “Angles” had
come to be used as a generic term for the Saxon (or Tow
German) tribes; just as the word “Yankee” has come to
signify, to a European, any citizen of the U. S.; but, more
probably, to the fact that the Anglians were the first of the
Low German settlers of Britain to accept Christianity, and
hence to be recognized in the Latin literature of the period.
(See ANGLO-SAXON, by PROF. J. H. GILMORE, A. M.) -
Ang/Iesey, or Ang/lesea (angle's + ei, or “island;”
anc. Mo’ma), an island and county of North Wales, in
the Irish Sea, about 1 mile from Caernarvon, from which it
is separated by the Menai Strait. It is about 20 miles long
and 17 miles wide. The surface is nearly level and the
scenery rather tame; the soil is generally fertile, producing
wheat, barley, oats, and potatoes. The principal rocks are
mica-schists and limestone. Here are rich mines of cop-
per and lead. The island is connected with the mainland
by the Menai suspension bridge and the great Britannia
tubular bridge, over which the Chester and Holyhead Rail-
way passes. The ancient Mona was an important seat of
Druidical power. Pop. in 1871, 35,090.
Angler, or Fishing-Frog.

154
ANGLESEY-ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
Anglesey, EARLs of, and Barons Newport-Pagnell, in
the English peerage (1661), Viscounts Valentia and Barons
Mountnorris in the Irish peerage. The earldom was estab-
lished in the Annesly family by Charles II., but became ex-
tinct 1761 in Richard Annesly, the sixth earl of this fam-
ily. The title had been borne by Christopher Williers,
brother of the duke of Buckingham, and his son Charles.
Anglesey (HENRY WILLIAM Paget), MARQUIs OF, a
British general and statesman, born May 17, 1768, was
the eldest son of the earl of Uxbridge. He entered the
army, gained distinction as a cavalry officer, and be-
came a major-general in 1808. He inherited the title of
earl of Uxbridge on the death of his father in 1812, and
entered the House of Lords. At the battle of Waterloo,
1815, he commanded the British cavalry, and lost a leg.
Soon after this event he received the title of marquis of
Anglesey. In 1828 he was appointed lord lieutenant of
Ireland, but having become an advocate of Catholic eman-
cipation, he was removed by Wellington in 1829. He held
the same office from 1831–33, and was raised to the rank
of field-marshal in 1846. . . Died April 29, 1854. . -
Anglesey, MARQUESSES of (1815, in the United King-
dom), earls of Uxbridge (1784, in Great Britain), Barons
Paget (1550, in England) and baronets (1730, in Ireland).-
HENRY WILLIAM GEORGE PAGET, the third earl, was born
Dec. 9, 1821, and succeeded his father in 1869. He was a
member of Parliament for South Staffordshire from 1854
to 1857. - -
Ang’lesite, a sulphate of lead produced by the decom-
position of galena, was so named because first observed in
Anglesey. It occurs in rhombie prisms with dihedral ter-
minations, and of a white, gray, or yellowish color.
Amg/lican Church, a name of the Established Church
of England, sometimes called the Anglo-Catholic Church.
The ereed of this Church is legally defined in the Thirty-
nine Articles, first adopted in 1562. The term is also some-
times used as a collective name for all the religious denom-
inations comprised under the name of Episcopalians. (See
ENGLAND, CHURCH OF, by REv. B. R. BETTs, A. M.)
Ang/ling [from the Lat. an/gulus, a “corner” or “angle,”
a “hook’], catching fish by means of a hook attached to
a line and rod, the hook being furnished with bait, which
is either some object upon which the fishes maturally prey,
or is a counterfeit of such an object. The practice has pre-
vailed through all ages and in almost all countries. In
1496, Wynkin de Worde “emprented at Westmestre a
“Treatise of Fysshinge with an Angle,’ by Dame Juliana.
Berners.” Izaak Walton in 1653 gave to the world his
“Complete Angler,” afterwards enriched with additions by
his friend Charles Cotton, highly esteemed for correctness
of details and happy humor. In angling the first consid-
eration is what is termed “fishing-tackle,” which consists of
the rod, line, and hook, with the requisite baits, worms, flies,
etc. The line should be strong, smooth, or even, flexible,
and of a material not easily injured by wet. To the rod is
attached a reel, on which a part of the line is wound when
it is too long for the occasion, but especially when, having
caught a strong fish, it is necessary to draw it in gradually
and cautiously, lest the line should be broken. The reel
should be made so as to wind or unwind freely. The baits
may consist of various kinds of worms or flies, little fishes,
small pieces of fish, meat, etc. Artificial lures are much used,
particularly for catching the trout and salmon. They are
variously made; usually the feathers of some bird (as the
cock or pheasant) are so disposed as to resemble insects on
which the fish are wont to feed. (See G. C. Scott, “Fish-
ing in American Waters;” H. W. HERBERT, “Fish and Fish-
ing in the U. S.,” 1850; HALLOCK, “The Fishing Tourist,”
1873; Roosevelt, “Superior Fishing,” 1865.) . .
Anglo-Cath’olics, a party of High Church Anglicans,
often called Puseyites, from one of their leaders, Dr.
Pusey, otherwise known as Tractarians, from the series
of ninety tracts issued by them between 1833 and 1841.
They emphasize these four “Catholic principles:” apostolic
succession, baptismal regeneration, the real presence in the
Eucharist, and the authority of tradition.
Angloma/mia [from the Lat. An'glus, “English,” and
the Gr. wavia, “madness” or “infatuation ”], a term ap-
plied among the French and Germans to an indiscriminate
admiration of English institutions and national peculiari-
ties, or a propensity to imitate English customs and con-
ventionalities. An Anglomania prevailed in France just
before the revolution of 1789. The opposite state of feel-
ing is called Anglophobia.
An'glo-Sax’on, a name given to the people and lam-
guage which resulted from the consolidation of the differ-
ent Low German tribes, which in the fifth century overran
Southern Britain. The name would seem to point to a
blending of two distinct races, the ANGLEs (which see)
and the Saxons; but according to Latham (“Ethnology
of the British Islands”), there is no distinction to be made
between the Angles and the Saxons on the ground of the
difference in name. “If,” says he, “the Saxons of Anglo-
Saxon England were other than Angles under a different
name, they were North Frisians.” According to the “Sax-
on Chronicle,” which is, with reference to these events, a
mere paraphrase of Bede’s “Ecclesiastical History of Brit-
ain ’’-the latter work being written about 150 years after
the last of the Saxon invasions, which the “Chronicle” re-
cords as if it were contemporaneous with them—there were
seven distinct Teutonic “invasions” of Britain, beginning
A. D. 449, and including parties of Jutes, Frisians, Saxons,
and Angles. That Jutes, in the sense of people from
Northern Denmark or people of Scandinavian stock, were
the first of the Gothic invaders to land in Southern Brit-
aim, is highly improbable; and the topographical momen-
clature of Kent, where Hengist and Horsa, with their par-
ty of Jutes, are said to have settled, bears no traces of
Danish influence. By “Jutes” we are probably to under-
stand, generically, “Goths.” Indeed, in Alfred's Anglo-
Saxon translation of the passage in Bede which the “Chron-
icle’’ manifestly follows, the Latin Jutis is rendered by
Geatum (Goths), a term which is elsewhere applied to Al-
fred himself. The “Chronicle’’ itself, by the way, expli-
citly asserts (Bohm’s ed., p. 341) that 787 was the first year
when ships of Danish men sought the land of the English
nation; one manuscript of the “Chronicle” says that Hen-
gist landed with a party of Angles ; while tradition calls
him a Frisian, which he probably was.
The Saxon settlement of Britain was probably partici-
pated in by all the Low German tribes between the Elbe
and the Schlei, although, on the ground of linguistic affin-
ity, the Frisians would seem to have been most prominent.
(See LATHAM’s “Ethnology of the British Islands;”
MARSH's “Origin and History of the English Language;”
NICHOLAS’s “ Pedigree of the British People;” “Proceed-
ings of the London Philological Society,” vol. v.) As soon
as the Saxons had subjugated the Keltic inhabitants of
Britain (who resólutely opposed the invaders, and many of
whom were driven before them into the fastnesses of
Wales, and across the sea into Armorica, though most
of them were, doubtless, amalgamated with the invading
race), they began to contend with each other. The vari-
ous kingdoms forming the famous “Heptarchy ’’ (or, to
speak more correctly, the “Octarchy.” ) were at length,
in 827, reduced by Egbert, king of Wessex, into a single
monarchy, which attained its highest point of power and
glory under Egbert’s grandson, Alfred the Great (871–901).
The Saxon power was completely overthrown by William
the Conqueror at the battle of Hastings, in 1066. (For a
full account of the Anglo-Saxons, their history, their laws,
customs, etc.. see SHARON TURNER, “History of the Anglo-
Saxons;” J. M. KEMBLE, “The Saxons in England;” also,
LAPPENBERG’s “History of the Anglo-Saxon Kings,” and
FREEMAN’s “Old English History.”) J. H. GILMORE.
Anglo-Saxon Language and Literature. The
pagan conquerors of England described in the article
ANGLo-SAxons spoke many dialects, but all of them were
Low German. Missionaries were sent from Rome (A. D.
597) to convert them to Christianity. The Roman alpha-
betic writing was thus introduced, and a single tongue
gradually came into use as a literary language through the
whole nation. It was at its best in the reign of Alfred the
Great (A. D. 871–901). It continued to be written till the
colloquial dialects, through the influence of the Normans,
had changed so much as to make it. unintelligible to the
people; then there grew out of these dialects of mingled
Anglo-Saxon and Norman a new literary language, the
English. The old language was long called Anglise, Eng:
lise (English), and some scholars insist that it should still
be called so, and that it is nothing but Early English. But
it differs more from English than Latin does from Italian,
and it needs a separate name, and has come to be called
Anglo-Saxon. . It belongs to the Indo-European family—
has similar roots and grammatical structure with German,
Latin, Greek, and Sanscrit. It was the most highly culti-
vated of the Germanic languages of its time; it attained
the capacity of translating the Latin classics with accuracy
and ease; and it has original literature worthy of study.
Its chief interest, however, is as the mother-tongue of the
English. It has given us the names of the objects, rela-
tions, and affections which we speak of most, the words laden
with the dearest associations, the idioms on which the beauty
of our poetry and the power of eloquence, wit, and humor
depend. From it almost all our grammatical forms are
derived. The following sketch of its grammar has been
made full enough to explain our English grammar.
* See on this particular subject, Sharon Turner’s “History of
the Anglo-Saxons,” vol. i., book ii., chap. 4. -
ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
155
PHONOLOGY..—The alphabet has twenty-four letters.
Old Forms. . Roman. . Names.
7\ a, A a à.
Jé. ae AE as - à
B. b B. b bà
T. C. … C c ká
T) b D d dà,
+) S DH dh edh
€ e E e à
E p F f ef
I: 3 G. g gå
Pyh. FI h há
I 1 I i €0
L 1 L 1 él
Cſ) m. M m &m
N in N n ën
O o O o O
P p P p på
R. p R. r ér
S r S , s éss
T £ T t tà
J71, p TH th thorn
U u U u oo
P p \,...} wºn
X x X x ex
Y y Y : y ypsilon
The vowels sounded nearly as in German : a as in far ;
6 as in fall; as as a in glad : & as a in dare ; e as in
let ; 6 as in they ; i. as in dim ; ? as ee in deem : o as in
opine ; 6 as in holy ; w as in full ; 8 as oo in foo! ; y
nearly like w in music, or the French at ; } the same sound
prolonged. There were many dialectical variations of the
vowels, and there are also certain regular variations which
are carefully represented in the Anglo-Saxon writing.
Words originally spelt with a sometimes appear with ae,
sometimes with ea, sometimes with e, Sometimes with o,
showing that the sound of a was as seldom pure, and as
variously flattened and broken, as it is in the Middle and
Southern States of America. When a or i would come
before l, r, or h, the broken sound produced by those let-
ters, such as we make in hear, leer, is written as ea and eo.
So after c and g the breaking heard in our Southern States
in cear for car, gearden for garden, is carefully represented
by the same ea, eo. Before m or n, o often appears for a ,
as mon for man. . - - - -
A vowel is also modified by the vowel of the following
syllable, the German umlaut: a followed by i changes to e :
man, man, meni, men ; 6 to 6: gös, goose, gési, geese ; 0 to
§ - mas, mouse, mysi, mice ; and the like.
Many of the niceties of pronunciation were neglected in.
the Norman spelling, but they were long kept up in the
folk-speech. The changes of the old to the present sounds
of these vowels have been made in modern times, mostly
during the Elizabethan age and since. These changes
have an important peculiarity. , All through the Indo-
European languages, beginning with Sanscrit and coming
down through Greek, Latin, Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, and the
Tike, there is a regular gradual weakening of the vowels:
a weakens to o, e, i ; w to o, e : ; to é. But in English
there is a vigorous strengthening of accented vowels. The
weakest vowels, w and i, change to strong diphthongs:
más becomes mouse, hās, house, and the like; lif becomes
life, which is pronounced lóife, or nearly so; and a, though
it becomes oftenest the mixed sound of a in fate, yet in
words from Anglo-Saxon & is aw or 6: pås becomes those ;
hām, home 5 bråd, broad (brawd); and the like. Unac-
cented vowels weaken or disappear. This gravitation of
our words to accentual centres indicates a special vigor of
utterance accompanying the new manly vigor of the Eng-
lish race. Similar changes are found in modern German,
French, and most vigorous modern tongues, but only in
particular words, or within very narrow limits, compared
with the English. * ?
The consonants were pronounced in general as in Eng-
lish, but c was always pronounced as k ≤ g like German g,
as in give, or nearly enough to alliterate with it—never as
in George ; i consonant like y : p like to ; qu was repre-
sented by cp; whby hp, in which a strong h was heard be-
fore the w, as a weak one now is in New England; the two
sounds of th, as in thin and thine, had two characters, p
thin, and 6 thine, which, however, are not found in any
manuscript uniformly so used. Hl, as in hiáford, lord ; ha',
as in hraºor, rather ; pl., as in plátung, loathing ; pr, as in
pritan, write ; cn as in cniht, knight, had the first letter
distinctly sounded, as the last two had in the Elizabethan
age. The weakening of c, 8c, and g, and of the combina-
tions here mentioned, mostly occurred at the first mixture
of Norman and Anglo-Saxon, several of the sounds being
unpronounceable to the Normans.
INFLECTION.—The Anglo-Saxon has three genders, three
numbers, and five cases. The dual number and the instru-
mental case are rare, except in the pronouns.
THE Noun.—There are four declensions distinguished by
the endings of the genitive singular—ES, E, A, and AN. The
first three are from the old vowel declensions, and are called
strong; the fourth is from the N-declension, and is called
weak. Most nouns of the masculine and neuter gender
belong to the first or fourth declension, and are thus de-
clined: - -
FIRST DECLENSION.
SINGULAR. Anglo-Saacom. English. Iatin. German.
Nominative, fisc, 8h, Sol, Sohn.
Genitive, fisces, fish’s, of a fish, solis, Sohnes.
Dative, fisce, to or for a fish, soli, Sohne.
Accusative, fisc, jish, solem, Sohn.
Instrumental, fiscé, ory, by or with a fish, sole (ablative).
PLURAL.
Nominative, fiscăs, fishes, solés, Söhne.
Genitive, fiscă, of fishes, solum, Söhne.
Dative, fiscum, to or for fishes, solibus, Söhnen.
Accusative, fiscăs, fishes, solés, Söhne.
Instrumental, fiscum, by or with fishes, solibus (ablative).
FourTH DECLENSION.
SINGULAR. Anglo-Saacon. English. German.
Nominative, OXà, 023, Knabe.
Genitive, OXan, of an ow, Knaben.
Dative, OXan, to an oac, Knaben.
Accusative, OXan, O3C, Rnaben.
PLURAL.
Nominative, OXan, oacen, Knaben.
Genitive, Oxena, of oacen, Rnaben.
Dative, Oxum, to oacem, Rinaben.
Accusative, OXan, oacen. Rmaben.
From the first declension the English endings of the
possessive case and of the plural number are derived. In
Anglo-Saxon, as in German, most secondary formations
and new words were declined according to the N-declen-
sion, and that seemed likely to be the leading one; but
the Normans formed their plural in -8, and in English the
Norman -s joined with the Anglo-Saxon –8 to kill it, and
oacen, with the irregular children, brethren, is almost its
only memorial in current speech. . -
The possessive -es is a distinct syllable, and is so in Eng-
lish as late as Shakspeare. Many persons imagined it to
be a contraction of his, and we often find his written in its
place in Early English and Semi-Saxon : Anak his children
for Amak’s children , and Bacon, carrying out the mistake,
has Pallas her glass for Pallas's glass. .
The plural -ás is also a separate syllable, and the Eng-
lish -es remains so in words ending with a hissing sound:
glass, glasses ; church, churches ; boa, boaxes ; in other
words it is now contracted: king, kings. w -
Words from Anglo-Saxon ending in f change it to v :
wolf, wolves ; while those from French mostly retain f:
chief, chiefs, gulf, gulfs. $
Words in Anglo-Saxon from stems in -i have umlaut, as
described above under Phonology, in the dative singular
and in the nominative and accusative plural. Thus, man,
man, is declined: Nom. man; Gen. mannes; Dat. menſi);
Acc. man; Plural Nom. men(i); Gen. mannã; Dat. man-
num; Acc. men(i). The i is dropped, and hence our plural
men ; so föt, foot, plu. fêt(i), feet; gös, goose, plu. gés(i),
geese ; tā Ś, tooth, téð(i), teeth; mils, mouse, plu, mys(i),
mice; brööer, brother, bré'6er, whence brethren, with the -en
of the fourth declension irregularly added.
Neuters generally have no plural sign; sceåp, sheep, for
example, is the same in the singular and plural. Hence
several English words from such neuters remain without
any plural sign : sheep, deer, swine ; and some are used
with or without one; as folk, hair, head, hundred, pownd,
sail, score, year, yoke. , - - -
A few neuters end in -ru : cild, child, plu. cildru, whence
first childer, and then, with a second plural ending from
the fourth declension, childerſen, children. -
GENDER has two aspects: (1.) It represents a tendency
to use different sounds for relations to males from those to
females; long vowels and liquids are oftenest used for fe-
males. (2.) A tendency to couple words agreeing in their
e
156
endings. From the first point of view there can be but
three genders; some languages have two, some one, some
none. From the second point of view there may be as
many genders as there are sets of endings. Some languages
have none; some (e.g., Congo and Caffer) have many.
In Anglo-Saxon the endings control the gender; pif-
man, woman, is masculine, because it ends in man pif,
wife, is neuter, as in German.
Many stems have pairs of endings—one masculine, the
other feminine. Remains of these in English are Sang-ere,
masc., singer, Sang-estre, fem., songster ; bac-ere, m., baker,
baec-estre, f. (whence the old bakster), a female baker;
pebb-ere, m., weaver, pebb-estre, f., whence webster, a fe-
male weaver. Such pairs are common: fox, m., foa, fixen, f,
viacen ; hlāford, m., lord, from hlāf, loaf, and peard, keeper,
hläf(or)dige, f, lady : gans, gös, goose, gandra, m., gander.
Many compounds are formed whose first part marks sex,
and last part gender. paepned-, weaponed, earl-, man-, are
common for males; pif-, wife, maegden-, maiden, cpén-,
queen or quean, for females: paepned-man, m.; carl-cat, not
now Charles-, but Tom-cat ; man-cild, n., man-child; pif-
man, m., woman ; maden-cild, n., girl; cpén-fugol, m.,
qwean-bird; so also the expressions spere-healf, f, spear-
half, on the male side; spindel-healf, f., spindle-half, on
the female side.
Man in his various relations and the common domestic
animals have pairs of words from different roots in use
through many of the Indo-European languages. The
English come mostly from Anglo-Saxon : faeder, mêdor,
father, mother ; Sunu, döhtar, son, daughter , oxa, ca, oac,
cow ; for sheep, ram, m., eópu, f.; for dogs, hund, hownd,
bicce, f.; for powltry, coc, m., hen, f.; for bees, dràn, drone,
m., beó, f.; and the like.
The gender adopted for objects without life, when per-
sonified in English, often differs from the Anglo-Saxon
gender; Sunne, 8wn, is feminine; móna, moon, is mascu-
line; scip, ship, is neuter. The German generally agrees
with the Anglo-Saxon. English literature has rather taken
these genders from the mythology of Greece and Rome.
THE ADJECTIVE.—The Anglo-Saxon adjective, like the
Greek, Latin, and others, is declined ; and, like the Ger-
man, has two sets of endings for each gender. The common
forms are called the strong, or indefinite, or pronominal
declension, and are like those of the demonstrative pro-
moun. When an adjective is preceded by a definite article,
demonstrative, or like word, or is in the vocative case, it is
declined like a weak noun. (see oaca, above), and this is
called the weak or definite declension. Thus blind, blind,
is commonly declined in the masculine thus: Nom. blind;
Gen. blindes; Dat. ‘blindum; Acc. blindne; Instrumental,
blindé; Plural Nom. blinde ; Gen. blindrä; Dat. blindum;
Acc. blinde; Instr. blindum; but “the blind man” would
be thus declined: Nom. se blinda, man ; Gen. paes, blindan
mannes; Dat. pam blindan men; Acc. bone blindan man;
Vocative, blindan man ; Instrumental, py blindan men, etc.
English adjectives, especially monosyllables, sometimes in
Chaucer have an -e added, a relic of the definite declen-
sion or the plural number; but they are now undeclined.
Comparison.—Adjectives are generally compared by
adding -ir, -er, -ór for the comparative, -ist, -est, 6st for the
superlative. The i of the endings works umlaut like that
of man, men described in the declension of nouns: strang,
strong, compar. streng(i)ra, Superl. strengest; ald, old, com-
par. eld(i)ra, superl. eldest, whence the English elder, eldest.
Some words form their superlative in -ma : for-ma, first.
Some of these form a double superlative, fyr-m-est, from
forma; aefte-m-est, which the English has converted into
aftermost, as though compounded with most. In the same
manner are to be explained hindmost, wittermost, southmost,
and the like.
The irregular comparison of good, bad, much, little, is
already in Anglo-Saxon. The comparison by more and
most is not used.
PRONouns.—The personal pronouns are thus declined:
FIRST PERSON.
SINGULAR. Anglo-Saxon. German.
Nominative, ic, [ich], I.
Genitive, mín, [meiner or mein], mine, or of me.
Dative, mé, [mir], me, or to me.
Accusative, mec, mé, [mich], me.
DUAL.
Nominative, pit, QUe £100.
Genitive, uncer, of w8 two.
Dative, unc, to w8 two.
Accusative, uncit, unc, us two.
PLURAL.
. Nominative, pé, [wir], we.
Genitive, fiser, fire, ſunser], owr, or of w8.
Dative, fis, [uns], w8, or to w8.
Accusative, asic, as, ſums], w8.
ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
SECOND PERSON.
SINGULAR. Anglo-Saxon. . German.
Nominative, på, [du], thow.
Genitive, pin, [deiner or dein], thine, or of thee.
Dative, bé, [dir], thee, or to thee.
Accusative, bec, pé, [dich], thee.
DUAL.
Nominative, git, 3ye two.
Gemitive, incer, of you two.
Dative, inc, to you two.
Accusative, incit, inc, you two.
PLURAL.
Nominative, gé, [ihr], ye.
Genitive, eóper, [euer], your, or of you.
Dative, eóp, euch], you, or to you.
Accusative, eópic, eúp, [euch], you.
The dual was rare, and has disappeared. The English
pronouns are plainly from the Anglo-Saxon. It is worth
notice that gé, ye, is nominative, eóp, you, always objective
in the English Bible. The first person plural is used for
the singular by authors, preachers, and chiefs in Anglo-
Saxon sometimes; ye and you appear first as pronouns of
reverence for thow in Old English. -
THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR.
lMasculine.
Anglo-Saxon. German.
Nominative, he, [er], he. -
Genitive, his, [seiner or sein], his, or of him.
Dative, him, [ihm], him, or to him.
Accusative, hine, [ihn], him.
- JFeminime.
Nominative, heó (or hie), [sie], she. -
Genitive, hire, [ihrer or ihr], her, or of her.
Dative, hire, [ihr], her, or to her.
Accusative, heó (or hie), [sie], her.
Newter.
Nominative, hit, [es], it.
Genitive, his, [seiner or sein], its, or of it.
Dative, him, [ihm], it, or to it.
Accusative, hit, [es], it.
PLURAL FOR ALL THE GENDERs.
Nominative, hi, hie (or hef), [sie], they. -
heorå (hyrā, or [ihrer], their, or of them.
Genitive,
hirá),
Dative, him, [ihnen], them, or to them.
Accusative, hi, hie (or hed), [sie], them.
The article and demonstrative se is thus declined:
SINGULAR.
Masculine. , Feminine. Mewter.
Nom., Se, seó, paet, the, or that.
Gen., paes, pére, pacs, of the, or of that.
Dat., pam, pêre, pam, to the, or to that.
Acc., bone, pa, paet, the, or that,
Instr., py, } py, pé, by the, or that.
PLURAL OF ALL THE GENDERS.
pā, the, or those. pâm, to the, or to those.
pºrá, of the, or of those. pā, the, or those.
prs, “THIs.”
SINGULAR.
Masculine. Feminime. Newter.
Nom., bis, peos, bis, this.
Gen., (pisses), pisse, bises (or pisses), of this.
Dat., (pissum), pisse, bisum (or pissum), to this.
Acc., pisne, pas, bis, this.
Instr., pys, pys, by this, thw8.
PLURAL FOR ALL THREE GENDERs.
Nom., pås, these. Dat., bisum, to these.
Gen., pisserá (or pissà), of these. Acc., pås, these.
INTERROGATIVE.
Masculine. Feminine is wanting. Mewter. *
Singular (Plural wanting). Singular.
Nom., hpā, who, hpaet, what.
Gen., hpaes, whose, hpaes, of what.
Dat., hpam, to whom, hpam, to what.
Acc., hpone (or hwæne), whom, hpaet, what.
Instr., hpy, hpy, by what, why.
In the third personal pronoun it will be noticed that the
feminine heó has given place in English to she, from Seá,
the demonstrative, and the plural throughout to they, their,
them, from the same demonstrative. . This personal pro-
noun is a weak demonstrative. Hit, it, has lost its h; the
neuter genitive his has given Way to its, a late Bnglish
growth, not in the first edition of our Bible, and seldom
used by scholars even as late as Milton. The English OB-
JECTIVEs come from the old datives, and him, them, etc. are
still datives in some idioms: I gave him the book, I taught
them grammar, and the like.
ANGLosAxON LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
157
The origin of English that, this, them, they, these, those
(bás), who, what, whom, is obvious; which, hpylc, German
welcher, is from hpā, who, and lic, like, and means of what
kind. Hpa and hpaet are interrogatives in Anglo-Saxon;
whas, whose, and wham, whom, appear as relatives in Semi-
Saxon ; the nominative who is not a full relative till the
fourteenth century, and what does not now admit of an
antecedent. * -
From these pronouns are derived a large number of
ADVERBs in Anglo-Saxon, which have come into English:
where, at what place; there, at that place; here (from he),
at this place; so whither, to what place; thither, to that
place; hither, to this place; and whence, from what place;
thence ; hence; when, at what time; then , how, why (from
hā, hpy), in what way; thus, in this way.
The DEFINITE ARTICLE the is a weakened form of the
demonstrative that, like French le from Latin ille ; it is
common in Anglo-Saxon. The indefinite article am, a, is a
weakened form of the numeral àn, one, like French wn
from Latin www8 ; though not uncommon, it is not as fre-
quent as in English.
The personal pronouns are used as REFLExIVES. Self is
sometimes added, and then the pronoun and self are both
declined: ic selfa, I self, not my self; Gen. min selfes, of
my self, etc. The English him-self, it-self, them-selves, her-
self, preserve the old construction. -
NUMERALs.-The cardinals are like the English: âm,
one ; tpā, two j preč, three : . . . endleofan, eleven ; tpelf,
twelve ; preč-tyne, thirteen j . . . tyéntig, twain-ten, twenty ;
g from seventy to one hundred and twenty, the
great hundred, hund is prefixed: hund-seofon-tig, seventy;
. . . hund-teån-tig, or hund alone for hundred ; hund-
endleofan-tig, one hundred and ten ; hund-tpelf-tig, one
hundred and twenty ; then hund and prittig, one hundred
and thirty.
The ordinals are—fyrsta, first, 66er, other, second ; pridda,
third ; fedperòa, fourth ; and so on as in English, except
fift, sixt, twelft, which have only lately changed to fifth,
8tacth, seventh , and except that a modern -teenth has taken
the place of the old -teå Öa in thirteenth, fourteenth, etc.
VERBs.-The CoNJUGATIONs are determined by the past
tenses, the old perfects. The old way of forming the
perfect in the Indo-European languages was by repeat-
ing the root, a process familiar in Greek and Latin under
the name of reduplication; tan, to eactend, has its perfect
tan-tan; these two syllables tend to run together, either
by weathering out the unaccented one or by contraction.
In Sanscrit we have ta-tan, in Greek te-ta(n)-ka, Latin
te-tin-i, Gothic than and then. In this way grew up five
conjugations in Anglo-Saxon, called ancient or strong con-
jugations: -
1. Root vowel a unchanged in the past tense; as, gife,
give : geaf, gave ; gifen, given : bidde, bid : bad, bade ;
beden, bidden.
2. Root vowel i changed to 6 in the past tense; as, drife,
drive : dräf, drove ; drifen, driven : rise, rise ; rās, rose ;
risen, risen.
3. Root vowel w changed to ed in the past tense; as,
cleåfe, cleave ; cleaf, clove ; clofen, cloven.
4. Root vowel à changed to 6 in past tense; as, tace,
take : tóc, took ; tacen, taken.
5. Root long or diphthong contracting with reduplica-
tion to e6, 6 in the past tense; as, feallen, fall; feól, fell ;
feallen, fallen.
In this classification the variations produced on the root
vowel by adjacent vowels and consonants, as described
above under Phonology, are not taken into account; and
they are so numerous as to leave few verbs exactly alike to
serve as models for new forms. Hence all new forms took
the sixth or weak conjugation :
6. Past formed by suffixing -de, from dide, did, lufe,
love ; lufö-de, loved ; lufód, loved.
English verbs which change their vowel in the past tense
come from Anglo-Saxon, and generally from verbs of the
strong conjugations; but there are a few from weak verbs
which had umlaut or breaking; thus selle, sell, sealde, sold,
where the root a has umlaut to e in sell, as in man, men,
and has breaking to ea before la ; so séce, seek ; sóhte,
8ought, where root 6 has umlaut to é, like goose, geese, and
the -de is changed to -te. Similar are tell, told ; bring
from brengen, brought : think, thought : buy, bought ; work,
wrought. The vowels are pretty badly mixed up in Eng-
lish irregular verbs, and it is an inviting field for the gram-
marian to clear them up one by one.
Some of our auxiliaries come from old perfects used as
presents, on which new past tenses are formed: mæg, may,
meahte, might; can, ca&e, cou(l)a, the l is bad spelling, in
analogy with would from will, should from shall.
Verbs without a connecting vowel are eon, am ; dén, do y
gān, go, past eóde, yode. Stande, stand, stöd, stood, has an in
inserted, a relic of an old Sanscrit conjugation.
INDICATIVE MooD.
JPresent and Future.
ic hyre, I hear.
på hyrest, thow hearest.
hé hyreč, he heareth,
pé hyraº, we hear.
Past,
ic hyrde, I heard.
på hjºrdest, thou heardest.
hé hyrde, he heard.
pé hyrdom, we heard.
gé hyra'8, 3/e hear. gé hyrdon, ye heard.
hí hyrač, they hear. hi hyrdom, they heard.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
ic, pā, or hē hjºre, ic, pā, or hē hy'rde.
pé, gé, or hi hyren. pé, gé, or hi hy'rden. .
IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE.
hyr bà. hyran.
hyrač gé. Gerund, tà hyranne.
PARTICIPLEs.
Present, hyrende, hearing. Passive, hyred, heard.
The -s of hears is a softening of -8, used already in
Anglo-Saxon in the northern dialect. The same -8 is found
in the plural. In the Midland Counties the plural, e&-
changed to -n to conform with the past tense and this sub-
junctive: forms like those loves, they loves, they loveth and
they loven, are found as late as Shakspeare and Spenser.
There are said to be 168 plurals in -8, and 46 in -th in the
Shakspeare folio of 1623. -
The subjunctive is used for our potential and imperative,
as well as the subjunctive. Relics of these uses are in
English: It were a grievous fault=It would be a grievous
fault; Be it so – Let it be so. But a periphrastic potential,
with the auxiliaries may, can, must, might, etc., is used in
Anglo-Saxon as in English. The infinitive is regularly
without të, hence forms with auxiliaries still reject it, and
familiar idioms in which the infinitive is the object of a
verb, and to is not needed to express purpose or the like.
There was a verbal moun ending in -ing, -ung, which
seems to have been confused with the participle in -ende,
and given form to our present participle.
The participle (hyred or gifen) is the only passive form.
All the modes and tenses of the passive voice are made by
joining auxiliaries with it, as in English, German, and other
like languages.
The two tenses given above answer for all times—one for
all past times, the other for present and future; but forms
with auxiliaries are also used. Haebbe, have, for the per-
feet, and haefde, had, for the pluperfect, are in full use: he
haefº mon geportme, he has made mam, in which it is to be
noticed that mon is the object of haefó, and geportne a par-
ticiple in the accusative masculine, agreeing with mon.
Some intransitives form these tenses by the verb to be :
hé is hiêer gefered, he is (has) come hither ; hé paes agān,
he was (had) gone. These forms, which are like the Ger-
man, are common in Shakspeare, Bunyan, and some of them
still in conversation. Have with an intransitive does not
bear analysis, but we do not want two tense signs for the
Same tense.
For the future, sceal, shall, and pille, will, are common,
though seldom free from some meaning of duty, promise,
determination, such as indeed goes with them in English.
The present distinction between shall and will in the dif-
ferent persons is not established in Anglo-Saxon; will is
more common in Northumbrian, as now in Scottish. The
future perfect is not discriminated.
Other ways of expressing the future occur: he gå &
rádan, he is going to read—French, Il va lire ; ic tö
drincenne haebbe, I have to drink = I shall drink ; is té.
syllenne, is to be betrayed=will be betrajed.
The progressive form is common, with also a slightly
different use from the English : is feohtende, is fighting,
continues fighting ; beóð feohtende, will continue fighting,
etc. The passive progressive is being fought does not occur;
an ambiguous verbal noun in -ing answers the purpose: he
paes on huntinge, he was a-hunting, said both of the hunter.
and the game.
Of the emphatic form in do only rare examples are found,
perhaps only when the verb is repeated.
PARTICLEs.--Most English prepositions and conjunctions
are from Anglo-Saxon, and the forms are often so full that
we can easily connect them with corresponding words in
other languages, and trace their origin and primary mean-
ing. Most of those which look most primitive are from
pronouns.
SYNTAx.—There is nothing in which Anglo-Saxon differs
more from English than its syntax, which is that of a highly
inflected language like Latin or Greek. The most general
laws are common to all speech; a much larger number are
common to all Indo-European tongues. The frequency
with which different combinations are used by each makes
the great difference between them. Apparent anomalies of
English syntax may often be easily understood by study of
the Anglo-Saxon, from which they sprang: “Me thinks 1
158 .
ANGLO-SAXON. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
saw him,” seems strange; but in Anglo-Saxon the thinks is
found to be a different verb from the common English
think, and to mean seem, and govern a dative; it seems to
me=methinks. “He taught me grammar”—tºcan, teach,
governs an accusative and dative, taught to me. “I asked
him a question *—ácsian, ask, governs an accusative of the
person asked. “He went a-hunting ”—a is the preposition
on in Anglo-Saxon. “I loved him the more”—the is in
Anglo-Saxon the instrumental case of the demonstrative
(by, bé), more for that, or by that. And so examples might
be given without end. No difficult point in English syntax
can be safely discussed by one who does not know its
history. - $ - -
For study of the language the English books are—
MARCH's “Comparative Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon,”
New York, 1870; HADLEY’s “Brief History of the Eng-
lish Language,” in Webster's Dictionary, 1865; KLIPSTEIN's
“Anglo-Saxon Grammar,” New York, 1853; RAsK’s “Gram-
mar,” translated by Thorpe, London, 1865; Bosworth’s
“Anglo-Saxon Dictionary,” London, 1837; MARSH's “Eng-
lish Language, and its Early Literature,” New York, 1862;
CoRSON’s “Hand-book of Anglo-Saxon and Early English,”
New York, 1871; SHUTE’s “Manual,” New York, 1867;
MARCH's “Introduction to the Study of Anglo-Saxon,”
New York, 1870. In German: HEYNE, “Kurtze Laut-
und Flexionslehre,” Paderborn, 1862; Koch, “Historische
Grammatik der Englishen Sprache,” Weimar, 1863; MAETz-
NER, “Englische Grammatik,” Berlin, 1865; ETTMüLLER,
“Lexicon cum Synopsi Gram.,” Qued. & Lips., 1851; GREIN,
“Sprachschatz der Angelsächs. Dichter,” Cassel and Gött-
ingen, 1864; GRIMM, “Deutsche Grammatik,” Göttingen,
1840. - - " . , ,
ANGLO-SAXON LITERATURE.-The pagan Anglo-Saxons
had their poets and orators, and after their conversion
to Christianity there was an unbroken succession of good
scholars in England. Most of their writings are, however,
in Latin. -
The prose writings in the Anglo-Saxon language may be
classified as follows:
1. Theological.-The Gospels were read in the native
tongue as part of the church service, and several manu-
scripts are preserved. Editions have been printed by Par-
ker, 1571, Mershall, 1665, Thorpe, 1842, reprinted in Amer-
ica by Klipstein, Bouterwek, 1857, Surtees Society, 1854–63,
Bosworth, 1865. AElfric’s translation of the Heptateuch was
published by Thwaites, 1698. We have also versions of the
Psalms. There are many Homilies. AElfric, an eminent
scholar, compiled or translated a series of eighty of them
about A. D. 990, which were edited by Thorpe for the
AElfric Society, 1844–46. Others are promised by the Early
English Text Society.
2. Philosophical.—King Alfred translated Boethius, “De
Consolatione Philosophiae.” It is freely rendered, with
large additions and omissions by the royal author. Edi-
tions are by Rawlinson, 1698, Cardale, 1829, and Fox in
Bohn's Library, 1864.
3. Historical.-The most illustrious of the Anglo-Saxon
Scholars, Beda, known to many generations as “the Ven-
erable Bede,” wrote in Latin an “Ecclesiastical History of
the Angles and Saxons,” translated by King Alfred into
Anglo-Saxon, abounding in picturesque details of the he-
roic adventures and characters of his time, has been often
reprinted, and its best scenes repeatedly rendered into
verse. (See, for some of them, WoRDsworth’s “Ecclesias-
tical Sonnets.”) The Anglo-Saxon translation was edited,
With a Latin translation, by Abraham Wheloe, folio, 1644,
and by Dr. John Smith, 1722.
“The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle” gives an outline of the
history of Britain from the earliest times to Henry II.,
A. D. 1154. Copies were kept at the monasteries as early as
the time of Alfred. As far as Beda's history extends, the
Chronicle has been drawn from it or a common source. It
is in general a meagre affair. There are many editions:
Thorpe's, 1861, has seven parallel texts, a translation and
indexes. *
The general “History of the World,” by Orosius, was
translated by Alfred, with additions of some value. It has
often been printed. Thorpe's edition in Bohn's Library
has a translation and glossary, 1857. -
Many brief biographies are found in Beda and the Hom-
ilies, and some separate lives. That of St. Guthlac (see
WRIGHT’s “Biographia Literaria’’) has been several times
printed; Goodwin, London, 1848. -
4. Law.—A considerable body of laws have been got to-
gether. They begin with those of AEthelbirht, who was
king of Kent at its conversion. Those of Alfred have an
introduction on the history of law, the laws of Moses, and
their relations to Christ and Christian nations. The laws
are full of valuable knowledge. The ecclesiastical rules re-
lating to confession, penance, and the like are particularly
suggestive. The best editions are Thorpe's and that of
Schmid, Leipsic, 1858. The latter has translations into
Latin and German, and valuable notes and a glossary. .
5. Natural Science and Medicine,—Such are in “Popular
Treatises of Science,” Thorpe, 1841, and Leechdom's,
Cockayne, 1864–66. |
6. Grammar.—There is a grammar by Ælfric in Somner's
Dictionary, 1659; A Colloquy and glossaries, Wright, 1857.
ANGLO-SAXON PoETRY is very different in metrical struc-
ture from the English. It is like the Old Icelandic, the
Old Saxon, and the Earliest German. It is marked off into
verses by alliteration, the recurrence of the same initial
sound in the first accented syllables of words. A perfect
verse of the common narrative kind has three alliterating
syllables—two in the first section, and one in the second;
but the first section has but one in many verses. A very .
artificial rhythm is used. Each section has four beats or
metrical accents. Every root-syllable has its beat, and so
has the final syllable of each section, and almost any sylla-
ble may have a beat if the poet chooses. -
pær' paes hael/e6a hleah/tor'; hlyn' spyn'söde',
wordſ pêrſon wyn'sume’, Eód/e Wealh/8eóp' foró', .
cpán Hróðgar'es' cyn'nā’ gemyn/dig',
grét/te gold/-hrod/en/ gum'an' on heal'le,’
and’ bá freð/lic' pif' ful' ge'seal/de',
£r'est East/-Den’ā’ éðel’-pear'de',
baed' hin'e blič/ne/ aet pér'e beór’-peg'e'.
There was lordly laughter; there the lute's vibration, .
words were winsome. Forth yode Wealhtheow.
queen of Hrothgar, of courtesies mindful,
greeted in gold-array the guests in the hall,
and then the gladsome wife gave the beaker
first to the sovereign liege, lord of the East-Danes,
blithe she bade him be at the beer-drinking.
Knowledge of the popular poetry was universal. It was
disgraceful not to be able to chant in turn at the feasts.
Beda, Aldhelm, Alfred learned and loved the old ballads,
and made verses. Most of the poetry has perished. The
early Christians condemned, whatever was mixed with the
old superstitions, and the Normans despised or neglected
all Anglo-Saxon literature. But we have specimens of va-
rious kinds: -
1. The Ballad Epic.—The old ballads are brought to-
gether, beautified, exalted, and fused into a long poem.
“Beowulf” is the “Iliad” of the Anglo-Saxons. The ex-
ploits celebrated in it are for the most part combats with
monsters after the manner of Hercules, but it has the usual
epic variety—the wrath of the monster, the rousing of the
hero, the fitting out of the ship, the voyage, the banquet,
the wordy war of rivals, woman’s graceful presence, the
arming for fight, and desperate and long-drawn struggles.
Only one manuscript of it remains. Little notice of it was
taken till the late revival of Anglo-Saxon scholarship; but
the interest in it has risen to a great height, and many
editions, translations, and essays of elucidation and inter-
pretation have appeared in Germany, England, and Den-
mark. We may mention Kemble, 1833–37; Ettmüller, 1840;
Thorpe, 1855; Grein, two editions, 1857–67; Gruntvig,
1861; Heyne, two editions, 1863–68. . . .
There are a few fragments tº be classed with “Beowulf.”
Such are the “Traveller's Song” and the “Fight at Finns-
burg,” both which are given with “Beowulf” in many
editions. -
2. The Bible Epic is a treatment of the Bible narrative
similar to that of the ballad epic. The great master in this
sphere is Caedmon, who is often called the Anglo-Saxon
Milton. Beda, who lived in the same region, and may have
seen him, tells us that he was an unlearned man, who could
not sing the common secular ballads, and that a vision ap-
peared to him and directed him to sing the Creation, and
that his success was esteemed inspiration. He had many
imitators, and whether the poems which remain are his is
not known. These are four poems, called, by Grein, Gen-
esis, Exodus, Daniel, Christ and Satan. Similar are a
fragment of Judith, Cynewulf’s “Christ,” “The Harrowing
of Hell,” and some fragments. Of all these we have a crit-
ical edition and translation by Grein, and of Caedmon edi-
tions by Thorpe, 1832; Bouterwek, 1849–54. The manu-
script is illuminated, and the illuminations were copied and
published in 1833.
3. Ecclesiastical Narratives.—These are versified lives
of saints and chronicles. We have Andreas (1724 lines),
Juliana (731 lines), Guthlac (1353 lines), Elene (1321 lines).
4. Psalms and Hymns.—Translations of a large part of
the Hebrew Psalms, and a few Christian hymns and prayers.
5. Secular Lyrics.-A few from the “Chronicle,” cele-
brating the kings or others.
6. Allegories, Gnomic Verses, and Riddles.—“The Phoe-
nix” (677 lines), “The Panther ” (74 lines), “The Whale.”
(89 lines), Gnomic Verses and Riddles; “Dialogue between
Solomon and Saturn,” in Grein, vol. ii., pp. 339–407—a.
favorite style with the Anglo-Saxons.
ANGOLA—ANHALT.
159
: 7. Didactic, Ethical.--Alfred’s “Metres of Boethius” are
versifications of parts of Boethius referred to under Prose
Writings above. The best edition is Grein, vol. ii., pp. 295–
339. Grein’s “Bibliothek der Angelsächsischen Poesie,”
Göttingen, 1857, with his translations and complete glos-
sary, gives the apparatus for the study of all these poems.
His “Bibliothek der Angelsächsischen Prosa,” now in pro-
cess of publication, promises to render an equal service for
Anglo-Saxon prose. -
(Outlines of this literature are to be found in MARCH's
“Introduction to Anglo-Saxon,” New York, 1870; MoR-
LEY’s “English Writers,” London, 1867; WRIGHT’s “Biog-
raphia Brit. Literaria,” London, 1842; ETTMüLLER’s “Sco-
pas” and “Boceras,” Qued. and Lips., 1850.)
F. A. MARCH.
: Ango'la (formerly Don'go or Ambonde), a country
in the S.W. part of Africa; bordering on the Atlantic Ocean,
is bounded on the N. by Congo, from which it is separated
by the Danda River, and on the S. by the Coanza River.
It is included between lat. 8° and 10° S. The interior is
said to be mountainous or hilly; the land is well watered,
and produces a luxuriant tropical vegetation. Angola is
rich in minerals, among which are gold, silver, copper, and
iron. Lions, leopards, elephants, and hippopotami abound
here. The chief articles of export are ivory, gold, wax,
and slaves. This country is subject to the Portuguese, who
have several forts on the coast. Nominally, a large pro-
portion of the population belongs to the Roman Catholic
Church, which, since the middle of the sixteenth century,
has had a bishop in the capital; but their Christian belief
is still largely mixed with pagan notions and practices.
Pop. of the colony, about 600,000. Area, 25,500 square
miles. Capital, San Paulo de Loando; pop. about 12,500.
Angola, the county-seat of Steuben co., Ind. It has a
large school building, a machine-shop, two foundries, a
flouring-mill, two saw-mills, two planing-mills, two weekly
papers, ten dry goods stores, three drug stores, two hard-
ware stores, and two printing-offices. Pop. 1072.
W. C. McGonigAL, ED. “REPUBLICAN.”
Angola, a post-village of Evans township, Erie co.,
N. Y., on Big Sister Creek and on the Lake Shore R. R., 21
miles S. W. of Buffalo. . It was the scene of a memorable
railroad accident Dec. 18, 1867, when 40 persons were
wounded and 70 killed, many of them burned alive. Pop.
600. - •
Ango'ra (the ancient Ancy'ra ; in Turk., Engoor’), a
town of Asiatic Turkey, about 217 miles E. S. E. of Con-
stantinople. It is situated on an elevated plain adapted to
pasturage, and is celebrated for its breed of goats, having
long silky hair which is manufactured into shawls and a
stuff called mohair. Large quantities of this hair are ex-
ported, and goats of this breed have been successfully in-
troduced into the U. S. Here are remains of Greek and
Byzantine architecture. In 1402 a decisive victory was
gained near Angora by Tamerlane over Bayazeed (Baja-
zet), who was taken prisoner. The pop. is estimated at
50,000. (For a notice of the ancient city, see ANCYRA.)
Angor'no, or Angornu, a town of Central Africa, in
Bornu, is near the W. bank. of Lake Tchad and 15 miles
S. E. of Kuka. It has an extensive trade in cotton, am-
ber, and slaves. Pop. estimated at 30,000. .
Angostu'ra, or Bol’ivar City, an important city of
Venezuela, capital of the province of Guiana, is on the
right bank of the Orinoco River, 263 miles S. E. of Caracas.
It is advantageously situated for trade, and exports cotton,
indigo, coffee, tobacco, cattle, etc. It contains a college, a
hospital, and a fine hall in which the congress of Angos-
tura met in 1819. Pop. about 7000.
Angostura Bark, or Angustura Bark, the aro-
matic bitter bark of certain trees of the natural order
Rubiaceae, natives of the tropical parts of South America.
The bark is so named because it is imported from Angos-
tura. It is tonic and stimulant, and has been used in the
cure of fever, dysentery, diarrhoea, etc. It is obtained
chiefly from the Galipae'a officina'lis or Cuspa’ria febrifuga.
Angoulême (anc. Inculis/ma or Iewlis'ma), a city of
France, capital of the department of Charente, on the river
Charente and on the Paris and Bordeaux Railway, 83 miles
by rail N. E. of Bordeaux. It is situated on a hill, and has a
cathedral, college, theatre, public library, and several paper-
mills. Linen and woollen stuffs are manufactured here.
This town was the birthplace of Marguerite de Valois and
Balzac. Pop. in 1866, 25,116.
Angoulême, d? (CHARLEs DE WALOIs), DUKE, a natu-
ral son of Charles IX. of France, born April 28, 1573. Hav-
ing formed a plot against King Henry IV., he was impris-
oned from 1604 to 1616. He had the chief command of the
royal army when it began the famous siege of Rochelle in
1628. Died Sept. 24, 1650.
tois, afterwards Charles X. of France.
Angoulême, d” (Louis ANTOINE DE Bourbox), Duke,
born Aug. 6, 1775, was the eldest son of the Comte d’Ar-
He emigrated with
his father in 1789, and in 1799 married his cousin, Marie
Thérèse Charlotte, a daughter of Louis XVI., with whom
he lived in exile until 1814. He commanded the French
army which intervened against the Spanish liberals in
1823, and restored Ferdinand VII. to absolute power. His
abilities were mediocre. Died at Göritz June 3, 1844.
Angoulême, d” (MARIE THáRièSE CHARLoTTE), DUCH-
Ess, the wife of the preceding, was born Dec. 19, 1778, and
was a daughter of Louis XVI. In Aug., 1792, she was
confined in the Temple with the king and her mother, Ma-
rie Antoinette. She was released in 1795, and exchanged
for Camus and others who had been captured by the Aus–
trians, after which she passed many years in exile. She
appears to have had more energy than the other Bourbons.
She became again an exile in 1830. Died Oct. 19, 1851.
Angoumois, a former province of France, included the
present department of Charente and part of Dordogne. Its
capital was Angoulême. - -
An'gra,” a seaport-town, and the capital of Terceira,
one of the Azores; lat. 38° 39' N., lon. 27°12' W. It has
a beautiful situation and a good harbor. It contains a
cathedral, a military college, and an arsenal. Wine, grain,
honey, etc. are exported from this town. Pop. in 1863,
11,839. -
An'gri, a town of Italy, in the province of Salerno, on
the railway from Naples to Eboli, 15 miles by rail N. W.
of Salerno. Pop. in 1861, 6921. - - -
Anguil’la, or Snake Island, an island in the Lee-
ward group, in the West Indies, 4 miles N. of St. Martin.
Area, 34 square miles. The island is low and covered with
forests, and belongs to Great Britain. The staple products
are sugar, tobacco, and cotton. Pop. about 3100. w
Anguil’lula (i. e. “little eel,” from the Lat. angwil/la,
an “eel”), a genus of minute animals allied to the nema-
toid worms. Best known are those called “vinegar eels,”
found abundantly in cider vinegar. They are remarkable
for tenacity of life. Anguilla fluviatilis, after being dried
until it becomes brittle, will recover its activity when placed
in water. Anguilla tritici, found on blighted wheat, has
been known to revive after being kept dry for five years.
An'guis [a Latin word signifying “serpent”], a syste-
matic name of a genus of serpent-like reptiles having the
maxillary teeth compressed and hooked, and the palate not
armed with teeth. (See BLIND WoRM.) " .
Anguiscio'la, or Angusso'la (SoFONISBA), an emi-
ment Italian painter, born at Cremona about 1534, excelled
in portraits. Invited by Philip II. of Spain, she went to
Madrid, and painted portraits of the queen and others.
In the latter part of her life she became blind. It is said
that Van Dyke acknowledged he had derived much benefit
from her conversations on art. Died in 1626.
Angular Motion of a point or a body is the same as
that of the line or radius vector joining the moving point
to some fixed point. The angular velocity of the body in
reference to the fixed point is the ratio of the angle de-
scribed by the radius vector to the time occupied by its
description. - - - - -
Angus, EARL of. See Douglas.
An'gus (Rev. Joseph), D. D., born Jan. I6, 1816, edu-
cated at the University of Edinburgh, president of Re-
gent’s Park College (Baptist), London, and author of
“The Bible Handbook,” “Handbook of English Litera-
ture,” “Handbook of the English Tongue,” and other
works, and editor of the best edition of Butler’s “Analogy”
(1855, 12mo, pp. 551). He is one of the revisers of the
English New Testament for the American Bible Union, a
member of the committee of the convocation of Canterbury
for revising the New Testament, and a prominent member
of the Evangelical Alliance, as a delegate of which he vis-
ited the U. S. in 1873.
Angus (SAMUEL), a naval officer born at Philadelphia
in 1784. He became a captain in the U. S. navy, and com-
manded the vessel which in 1814 conveyed Adams and Clay
to Ghent on a diplomatic mission. He served with dis-
tinction in the French troubles of 1800, in the war of 1812,
and was four times wounded. Died May 29, 1840.
An' halt, a duchy of Germany, almost completely sur-
rounded by the Prussian province of Saxony, consists of
two larger parts and four enclaves, having together an
area of 897 square miles. The duchy is traversed by the
Saale, the Elbe, and the Selke. While the eastern part is
level, the western is mountainous and wooded. The soil is
# Angra in Portuguese denotes a “creek,” “bay,” or “station
for ships.” -
160
ANHALT-BERNBURG-ANILINE COLOR.S.
generally fertile. Cattle-raising is extensively and success-
fully carried on here. Here are also mines of silver, copper,
iron, and lead. The duchy has five gymnasia and three semi-
naries. Pop. in 1871, 203,354. Capital, Dessau. According
to the budget of 1872, the receipts and the expenses were
both estimated at 2,231,000 thalers. The public debt in
1871 amounted to 2,259,219 thalers. The dukes of Anhalt
claim to have descended from the celebrated ALBERT THE
BEAR (which see), the first margrave of Brandenburg. In
1212 Anhalt was divided into three parts; it was united in
1570 by Joachim Ernst, and again divided into four
branches—Dessau, Bernburg, Kötherſ, and Zerbst—upon
his death in 1586. In 1793, after the extinction of the
house of Anhalt-Zerbst, its dominions were divided by the
remaining three. In 1807 the three houses joined the Con-
federation of the Rhine, and in 1814 the German Confedera–
tion. In 1847 the house of Anhalt-Köthen became extinct,
and the duke of Anhalt-Dessau took the administration of
its dominions upon himself; and when, in 1863, the house
of Anhalt-Bernburg also became extinct, Anhalt was again
united under one ruler. (See the works of HEINE, 1865;
KRAUSE, 5 vols., 1861–66; and SIEBIGK, 1867.)
An' halt-Bern/burg (CHRISTIAN), PRINCE of, a Ger–
man general, born in 1568, was a man of superior abili-
ties. He was the chief promoter of a league of Protestant
princes formed against the emperor in 1608. He com-
manded the army of Frederick elector Palatine, which was
defeated at Prague in 1620. Died in 1630. - -
An' halt-Des'sau (LEoPold), PRINCE of, an able Ger-
man general, born in 1676, commanded the Prussian troops
under Prince Eugène in Italy and Flanders in 1706–12, and
was second in command of the Prussian army which op-
posed Charles XII. of Sweden in 1715. Died in 1747.
Anhandu/hy-Mirim’ and Anhandu/hy-Guazu’,
two rivers of Brazil, in the province of Matto-Grosso.
They rise in the Serra Galhano, and enter the Rio Ver-
melho. The former is about 150 miles, and the latter about
200 miles, in length.
An’holt, an island of Denmark, in the Cattegat, is
7 miles long and about 4 miles wide; lat. of the lighthouse,
56° 44' N., lon. 11° 39' E. It is surrounded by danger-
ous shoals. Pop. 200.
Anhy/dride, an oxygen compound formed by the ab-
straction of water from an acid. Thus, for instance, by
taking (new notation) water, H20, from carbonic acid,
H2CO3, we have carbonic anhydride, CO2. (See CHEMISTRY.)
Anhy/drite [from the Lat. adhy'drus, and the Gr.
Atôos, a “stone”], a mineral composed of anhydrous sul-
phate of lime. It is harder and heavier than common sul-
phate of lime (gypsum), into which it is slowly converted
by the absorption of water. It occurs in several varie-
ties—viz. granular, fibrous, radiated, and translucent,
sparry anhydrite or cube-spar, and compact anhydrite.
Anhy/drous [from the Gr. &v, priv., and £80p, “water”],
“without water,” a chemical term applied to a compound
which contains no water, as pure and absolute alcohol,
which is called anhydrows alcohol; quicklime as it comes
from the kiln is anhydrows lime, but when it comes into
contact with water, the lime and water combine and form
hydrated lime.
Amice’tus, SAINT, was bishop of Rome about 155 A.D.
The time of his death is uncertain.
An'il, one of the plants from which indigo is obtained;
a kind of indigo said to be a native of America, but now
cultivated in the East Indies. It is very similar to Indi-
gofera tinctoria.
An/iline [from anil, “indigo.”], Phenyl'amine, or
Am/ido-benzol', discovered in 1826 by Unverdorben as
a product of the distillation of indigo, and called by him
crystalline, on account of the ready crystallization of its
salts. It attracted much attention from chemists, and was
made the subject of many researches, which contributed
greatly to enlarge the facts and theories of modern chem-
istry. It did not acquire any commercial importance till
1856, when Perkin prepared from it the beautiful purple dye
anauve. The brilliancy and intensity of this color attracted
the attention of chemists and dyers, and in a short time an
entirely new series of colors was discovered, by which the
art of dyeing has been almost revolutionized.
Aniline is found among the products of the distillation
of bituminous coal (in “coal-tar”), of peat, bones, etc. It
is prepared, however, from benzol derived from the more
volatile portions of coal-tar. The benzol, C6H6, is converted
by the action of mitric acid into nitrobenzol, C6H5NO2,
and this compound is changed by the action of ferrous
acetate, produced by iron filings and acetic acid, into ani-
line:
II].62 Nitro-benzol. Aniline.
C6H5NO2 + 6 Fe0 + H20 = C6H7N + 3 Fe2O3.
* with aniline a blackish-blue precipitate.
Aniline is a colorless, mobile, oily liquid, having a faint
vinous odor and aromatic burning taste. Its specific grav-
ity is 1.002; boiling-point, 182°C. It is very poisonous.
It dissolves very slightly in water, in all proportions in
ether, alcohol, wood-naphtha, bisulphide of carbon, and in
oils, fixed and volatile. The aqueous solution is faintly
alkaline, and precipitates many metallic bases from solu-
tions of their salts. With bleaching-powder it produces a
violet-blue color, with sulphuric acid and potassic bichro-
mate, a bluish-black precipitate, and when treated with
arsenic acid, stannic chloride, etc., it is converted into
rosaniline. When exposed to the air, aniline acquires a
yellow or red color, which is always noticed in commercial
“amiline oil.” It forms a numerous class of salts, most of
which crystallize readily.
Aniline is an amine, a monamine, or an ammonia, in
3. one atom of hydrogen is replaced by a radical phenyl,
6.ii.5 :
( H. H.
Ammonia, N × H.; Aniline, N & C6H5.
H H *
Aniline is now manufactured in enormous quantities for
the preparation of the different colors. (See AMINES, BENZOL,
PHENY.L.) C. F. CHANDLER.
Aniline Colors. In 1835, Runge noticed the violet-
blue color produced by chloride of lime with aniline, and
Fritzsche subsequently showed that chromic acid formed
In 1853, Beis-
senhirtz obtained a blue by acting upon aniline with po-
tassic dichromate and sulphuric acid. It remained for
W. H. Perkin to develop this reaction, and to lay the
foundations of the great aniline industry which is now so
extensive. In 1856 he isolated the color found in the last-
mentioned reaction, called it mauve, and showed that it
could be used as a dye. Many chemists at once turned
their attention to the subject, and a great number of new
colors of almost every tint and shade were discovered,
which have taken the place in dyeing, and to a consider-
able extent in calico-printing, of the animal and vegetable
colors in previous use. The chemical composition of many
of these colors has been established, and many chemical
facts of great importance have been developed by their
study. -
ANILINE REDs.-Rosaniline salts are the most important
of all the aniline colors. They are not only used for the
production of brilliant tints on cotton, wool, and silk, but
they constitute the material from which many of the other
colors are prepared. Rosaniline has been shown by Hof-
mann to be a colorless base, a triamine (see AMINES), hav-
-" (C6H4)".
ing the formula C20H19N3, or N3 2(C7H6)”. It is pro-
H3.
duced by the union of one molecule of aniline with two
molecules of toluidine, and the abstraction of six atoms
of hydrogen:
Aniline. Toluidine. Rosaniline.
C6H7N + 2C7H9N = C20H19N3 + H6.
A great variety of dehydrogenizing agents may be em-
ployed to effect this reaction. It is found that the best
results are obtained when an aniline oil is employed which
contains about 25 per cent. of toluidine. Hofmann in 1858
prepared rosaniline by treating aniline with tetrachloride
of carbon, but on a manufacturing scale Medlock’s process
with arsenic acid is now in most general use. The aniline
oil, 1 part, is heated with 1% parts of a 75 per cent. Solu-
tion of arsenic acid in a closed iron still provided with a
stirrer. The product is boiled with water and filtered, and
on adding to the solution common salt in excess, the crude
hydrochlorate of rosaniline is precipitated. This is dis-
solved in boiling water, filtered, and allowed to crystallize.
This salt of rosaniline, C20H19N3.HCl, is known as aniline
red, magenta, fuchsine, solferino, roseine, azaleine, etc. It
appears in magnificent green crystals, with a metallic lus-
tre like that of the wing-covers of Brazilian beetles or can-
tharides. It is soluble in water and in alcohol, with a color
varying from a beautiful cherry-red to a crimson.
Verguin and Rénard of Lyons, who first made aniline
red on a manufacturing scale, used tetrachloride of tin,
SnCl4. Gerber-Keller prepared rosaniline mitrate, azaleine,
by the action of mercuric nitrate. Lauth and Depouilly
heat aniline with nitrate of aniline. Laurent and Castel-
haz prepare aniline red directly from the crude nitrobenzol,
which contains nitrotoluol, by heating it with iron filings
and hydrochloric acid. The first reaction of the FeCI on
the nitrobenzol results in the removal of oxygen from the
nitrobenzol and nitrotoluol, and the addition of hydrogen,
producing aniline, toluidine, and Fe2Cl6. On heating this
mixture further, the Fe2Cl6 removes hydrogen from the
aniline and toluidine, and rosaniline is the result. Coupier
heats together aniline, nitrotoluol, hydrochloric acid, and
ANILINE COLOR.S.
161
a little iron. Rosaniline hydrate, C20H19N3.H20, may be
precipitated from the solutions of its salts by alkalies; it is
rose-red and somewhat crystalline, but by proper care may
be obtained colorless.
Ammonic sulphide, or zinc-powder, converts rosaniline
Salts into leucaniline, C20H21N3, which is colorless; by
adding H2, oxidizing agents change it back to rosamiline.
Advantage is taken of this fact to produce discharge pat-
terms, the zinc-powder, thickened with gum, being printed
upon goods previously dyed with aniline red. Silk and
wool take up aniline red very readily, but cotton must be
previously mordanted. For dyeing cotton the mordant
generally used is tannate of tin, produced by subjecting
the cotton first to a solution of sumach, them to sodic stan-
nate, and finally to dilute sulphuric acid. In calico-print-
ing the color is mixed with albumen or the preparation of
Perkin and Schultz, a solution of aluminic arsenite in
aluminic acetate. On drying and steaming the goods the
color is rendered insoluble or fixed.
Other reds of less importance are di-hydriodate of tri-.
methyl chrysaniline, C20H14(CH3)2N3.(HOI)2, called chrys-
aniline red; nitrosophenyline, C6H6N20; toluidine red, xyli-
dine red, etc.
ANILINE PINK.—Safranine is a coloring-matter pro-
duced by the oxidation of aniline. It is supposed to be
C21H20N4. It forms crystallizable salts.
ANILINE WIOLETS AND BLUES.—These colors shade into
each other.so gradually that they cannot well be separated.
1. Mauve, or aniline purple (of Perkin), was the first of
the aniline products used as a dye. It is the sulphate or
other salt of the base mauveine, C27H24N4. It may be pre-
pared from pure aniline, free from toluidine, by the action
of potassic dichromate and sulphuric acid. It may also be
prepared by the action of cupric chloride (Dale and Caro),
or by chloride of lime. This dye has been entirely super-
seded by other preparations. It was known while in com-
merce as mauve, aniline purple, Perkin’s violet, indisine,
aniline harmaline, violine, and mauve rosolane.
2. Hofmann’s Violets and Blues.—Rosaniline contains,
as shown in the formula given above, three atoms of re-
placeable hydrogen. By substituting for one, two, or all
of these, various alcohol radicals, as methyl, ethyl, amyl, etc.,
a great variety of colors, ranging from the red of rosani-
line salts through purples and violets to the purest blue, are
obtained. Hofmann’s violets are produced by heating ros-
aniline, alcohol, and the iodide of methyl, ethyl, or amyl
under pressure. A violet syrup results, containing the hy-
driodate of the new substitution product; for instance,
hydriodate of trimethyl rosaniline, C20H16(CH3)3M3.H.I. To
recover the iodine, the solution may be boiled with caustic
potash, which precipitates trimethyl rosaniline, which may
be washed, and redissolved in alcohol containing hydro-
chloric acid, or in acetic acid and water. The following
are some of the more important colors of this group :
Hydrochlorate of methylrosaniline, C20H18(CH3)N3, HCl ;
hydriodate of methylrosaniline, C20H18(CH3)N3.H.I; hy-
drochlorate of dimethylrosaniline, C20H17(CH3)2N3, HCl ;
hydrochlorate of trimethylrosaniline, C20H16(CH3)3M3, HCl ;
hydrochlorate of monethylrosaniline, C20H18(C2H5)N3, HCl,
called also Hofmann’s red violet; hydriodate of ethylros-
aniline, C20H18(C2H5)N3, HI, called also Hofmann’s red vio-
let; ethyliodate of ethylrosaniline, C20H18(C2H5)N3,C2H5I,
called also fuchsine with a blue tint, and Hofmann’s violet
red; hydrochlorate of diethylrosaniline, C20H17(C2H5)2N3,
HCl, called also Hofmann’s blue; ethyliodate of diethyl-
rosaniline, C20H17(C2H5)2N3, C2H5I, called also Hofmann’s
red violet and ethylie rosaniline violet; hydrochlorate of
triethylrosaniline, C20H16(C2H5)3 N3, HCI, called also Hof-
mann’s blue; ethyliodate of triethylrosaniline, C20H16(C2
H5)3M3C2H5T, called also Hofmann’s blue and ethylic ros-
aniline violet; ethylbromate of triethylrosaniline, C20H16
(C2H5)3N3,C2H5Br, called also brimula. Wauklyn used
isopropyl iodide in a similar manner. -
As the successive atoms of hydrogen are replaced by the
alcohol radical, the shade passes farther and farther from
the original red, giving first a reddish-purple, then a full
purple, then violet, then reddish-blue, finally a full blue.
The pigrate of triethylrosaniline yields a fine green tint.
3. Phenyl-rosanilines.—By heating rosaniline salts with
aniline (phenylamine) the radical phenyl, C6H5, is intro-
duced in the place of H, giving rise to a series of purples
and violets, terminating in the most beautiful blue tri-
phenylrosaniline—blew de Lyon, the only blue which has
come into extensive use. This blue is insoluble in water,
which rendered its application somewhat troublesome, as
an alcoholic solution was necessary. Nicholson found that
Sulphuric acid produced a compound analogous to sulph-
indigotic acid, soluble in water; this is now extensively
manufactured under the name of “Nicholson’s blue * or
“soluble blue.” The following are the more important
compounds of this series: Hydrochlorate of monophenyl-
- 11
rosaniline, C20H18(C6H5)N3, HCl, called also rosaniline vio-
let, red monophenylrosaniline, and Hofmann’s violet;
hydrochlorate of diphenyl rosaniline, C20H10ſ C6H5)2N3,
HCl, also known as rosamiline violet and Hofmann’s vio-
let; triphenylrosaniline or triphenylic rosaniline, C20H16
(C6H5)3M8, called also aniline blue, rosaniline blue, Hof-
mann’s blue, bleu de Paris, bleu de Lyons, bleu de Mul-
house, bleu de Mexique, bleu de nuit, bleu lumière, bleuine,
azurine, and night blue; hydrochlorate of triphenylrosani-
line, C20H16(C6H5)3M3, HCl, known also by the same names
as the above; acetate of triphenylrosaniline, C20H16(C6H5)3
N3, H, CH302, known also by the same names as the
above; bisulphotriphenyl rosaniline acid, C20H18(C6H5)3M3,
(H2SO4)2.H2SO4, called also Nicholson’s blue and soluble
blue. In this acid the last H2 are replaceable by metals
with the formation of salts.
4. Tolyl-rosanilines correspond to the phenyl-rosani-
lines. The most important is tritolyl-rosaniline, C20H16
(Ch. Hº)3N2, known as toluidine blue.
5. Many other derivatives of aniline, rosaniline, etc.
have been introduced, which exhibit shades from red to
blue, passing through purple and violet, as dahlia-colored
salts of ethylmauveine, C27H23(C2H5)N4; the violet salts .
of methylaniline, C6H6(CH3)N ; salts of violanile, º '...'
N3, and of mauvaniline, C19H11N3. Besides these thei
are many colors the composition of which is not known,
such as regina blue, opal blue, regina purple, bleu de
Fayolle, violet de Mulhouse, Britannia violet, geranosine,
violet imperial. - -
ANILINE GREENS.-1. Aldehyde green, called also aniline
green, viridine, and emeraldine.—In 1861, Lauth obtained
a beautiful but fugitive blue by the action of aldehyde on
a solution of a rosaniline salt in sulphuric acid. A young
chemist, Cherpin, endeavored to fix the color, and was ad-
vised by a photographer's apprentice to use sodic hypo-
sulphite, a salt used for fixing photographs, on account of
its property of dissolving argentic chloride, bromide, and
iodide. Cherpim followed the unscientific advice, and ob-
tained the most beautiful green. The original process of
Lauth and Cherpin is still pursued, and is so simple that
many dyers prepare the color for themselves. Aldehyde
green is principally employed in silk-dyeing. -
2. Iodine green, known also as iodide of methyl green.—
It is produced by heating trimethyl or triethyl rosaniline
violets (Hofmann’s violets), or methylaniline violets, with
the iodide of methyl, ethyl, or amyl. The color is a salt
of a new base, which may be separated by the action of
sodic hydrate. It is extensively used for cotton and silk.
Its tint is bluer than that of aldehyde green, and it is more
useful, as it yields a greater variety of shades in connec-
tion with picric acid. -
3. Perkin’s green, or iodide of ethyl green.—This dye re-
sembles iodine green, but differs in solubility; it is much
used, especially in calico-printing. -
4. Emeraldine.—A green which may be produced in the
fibres of cottom cloth by printing on a mixture of an ani-
line salt and potassic chlorate, and allowing it to dry for
twelve hours, whén the green color will have been devel-
oped. Hot dilute alkalies or boiling soap solutions change
it to blue.
ANILINE YELLOws.—Aniline yellows are little used in
dyeing or printing. -
1. Chrysaniline, C20H11N3, called also phosphine, aniline
Ayellow, yellow fuchsine, is a secondary product in the man-
ufacture of rosaniline. Owing to the insolubility of its
nitrate, it has been proposed to use its acetate or hydro-
chlorate as a reagent to precipitate nitric acid.
2. Other yellows are chrysotoluidine, C21H21N3.H20, the
isomeric compounds diazo-amidobenzene and amido-di-
phanylimide, C12H21N3, and zinaline, C20H19N2O6.
ANILINE BROWNS AND MAROONs.—Several browns have
been produced directly or indirectly from aniline. . De
Laire obtained a maroon by adding rosaniline hydrochlo-
rate to fused aniline hydrochlorate. Schultz prepared a
fine garnet color by passing nitrous vapors through a solu-
tion of soda holding rosaniline in suspensión. Jacobsen
prepares a rich brown by heating picric acid and aniline
together, dissolving the product in hydrochloric acid, and
precipitating with caustic soda. He obtains another by
heating ammonium chromate with aniline formate. Koech-
lin produces a brown on wool by printing on a mixture of
rosaniline hydrochlorate (fuchsine), oxalic acid, and potas-
sium chlorate, and on cotton by adding to this mixture
some cupric sulphide. Browns are generally made from
the residues of rosaniline.
ANILINE GRAY.-Castelhaz has patented a process by
which a beautiful gray is produced, which has, however,
found little favor among dyers on account of its high cost.
He subjects mauveine (Perkin's violet) to the action of sul-
phuric acid and aldehyde. Carves and Thierault prepare
a rich gray, called by them murein, by mixing aniline,
º
;
h
—r-
162
ANIMAL–ANIMA MUNDI.
hydrochloric acid, potassic dichromate, copperas, and sul-
phuric acid.
ANILINE BLACK.—No one has yet succeeded in producing
a good black dye from aniline, though the color produced
on cotton, silk, or wool by immersing first in a solution of
an aniline salt, and then in potassic dichromate, is very
near a black. In calico-printing, however, blacks of
great intensity and durability have been discovered, which
are now extensively used; in fact, except for mourning
goods, in which the black predominates over the white,
the aniline black is now used almost exclusively. Light-
foot discovered the first aniline black in 1863. He printed
on the cotton a mixture of aniline hydrochlorate, potassic
chlorate, cupric chloride, sal-ammoniac, acetic acid, and
starch paste; exposed the cloth to the air for two days, and
fixed the color with an alkali. Lauth improved the pro-
cess by substituting cupric sulphide for the cupric chloride.
Cordillot substituted potassium ferridcyanide for the cop-
per salt. Alfred Paraf in 1865 introduced a mixture of
aniline hydrochlorate, potassic chlorate, and hydrofluosilicic
acid, properly thickened. On exposing the goods in the
“ageing-room " to a temperature of 32° to 35° C., the
, chloric acid is liberated, and oxidizes the aniline to a
. black. In 1867, Paraf patented the use of a new agent,
the “chromium chromate.” His mixture for printing con-
tained aniline hydrochlorate, potassic chlorate, chromium
chromate, starch, and water. In the ageing-room chromic
acid is set free to act upon the aniline salt.
APPLICATION OF ANILINE COLORS IN DYEING AND CALICO-
PRINTING.-In silk-dyeing no mordant is required; to pro-
duce an even color, however, it is found best to use a weak
soap solution with the dye; and sometimes a little acid is
added, sulphuric or tartaric. For printing on silk the colors
are thickened with gum-senegal, printed from blocks, and
when dry the goods are steamed and washed. A discharge
style may be produced by dyeing silk with a rosaniline salt,
then printing on zinc-dust thickened with gum. The ros-
aniline is reduced to colorless leucaniline, producing white
figures on a colored ground. By mixing colors with the
zinc which are not affected by it, colored figures are pro-
duced. For dyeing wool no mordant is required; the goods
are simply handled in hot solutions; except in the case of
Nicholson’s blue, which is dissolved in an alkali, the goods
after passing through the solution being subjected to an
acid bath. For dyeing cotton, mordants are necessary. By
subjecting the goods to (1) a decoction of sumach, (2) to
sodic stammate, and finally (3) to dilute sulphuric acid, a
stannic tannate is produced on the fibre which has a great
affinity for amiline colors. For printing, the colors are
thickened with albumen, or a solution of aluminum arsen-
ate in aluminum acetate, and fixed by steaming.
Aniline colors are also used for inks, for coloring leather,
soaps, vinegar, candies, ivory, horn, etc.; and lakes are
prepared from them for paper-staining, printers’ ink, etc.
etc.
The high cost of aniline colors is counterbalanced by
the brilliancy of their tints and the simplicity of dyeing.
The aniline color industry has acquired greater propor-
tions in Germany than in any other country. In the U. S.
manufacturers chiefly confine their attention to rosaniline
salts. Although coal-tar is extensively distilled here, and
benzole is exported, all the aniline is imported.
(For further details see WATT's “Dictionary of Chem-
istry” and supplement; WURTz, “Dictionnaire de Chimie,”
and specially “Die Farbstoffe,” von M. P. SCHUTZENBER-
GER; “Deutsche Uebertragung,” von DR. H. ScHRöDER,
Berlin, 1868–73. Special works on the subject are BECK-
ER’s “Amilin-Färberei,” Berlin, 1871; REIMANN’s “Ani-
line and its Derivatives,” New York, 1868; KRIEG's “The-
orie und practische Anwendung von Anilin in der Färberei
und Druckerei,” Berlin, 1866. WAGNER’s “Jahresbericht
der chemischen Technologie,” from 1858 to date, contains
the record of the progress of this important branch of
chemical industry.) C. F. CHANDLER.
Animal [Lat. animal, from animus, “spirit;” Gr. &veuos,
“wind,” “breath”], an organized being, distinguished from
plants, at least in the higher and more developed groups,
by the power of voluntary motion, the faculty of digesting
food, which is usually, not always, received into an ali-
mentary canal, and the possession of a nervous system,
which regulates the acts of the animal and receives impres-
sions from without. An organism, according to Kant's
felicitous definition, is that structure wherein each part is
at the same time the means and the end of all the rest.
The distinction is not easily made out between some of the
lower animals and plants; but recent observers claim to
have made the discovery that all plants, even the most
minute, have the power of taking up nitrogen from am-
monia compounds—a power which, it is asserted, is pos-
sessed by no animal. The power possessed by green plants
of taking up carbon from carbonic acid, and by other
plants of taking it from hydrocarbons, is probably not
shared by animals.
(The structure and functions of animals are treated of
under the heads CoMPARATIVE ANATOMY, PHYSIology, EM-
BRYologY, etc. See also ZooLOGY, and the names of the
various groups of animals.) i
Animal/cule [Lat. animal/culum, the diminutive of
animal], literally, a “minute animal,” commonly denoting
one whose figure can only be discerned by the aid of a
microscope. In popular language it is mostly applied to
the microscopic animals which zoologists call Infusoria and
Protozoa. Many of the so-called animalcules are now
known to belong to the lower ranks of the vegetable king-
dom. w
Animal Electricity. See ELECTRICITY, ANIMAL.
Animal Heat is the persistent and uniform elevation
of temperature which a great proportion of living animals
possess. This elevation does not appear to be a constant
factor of animal any more than vegetable life; for in those
animals which are fixed and almost motionless there is
often great difficulty in detecting any animal heat. But
even in the so-called cold-blooded animals there is a normal
range of elevated temperature. Infusoria, earthworms,
snails, fishes, and especially reptiles, possess an appreciable
amount of animal heat, and the temperature in health of
some species has been pretty accurately determined, though
it appears to vary decidedly in these animals with seasons
of functional activity or rest. In all animals there seems
to be a relation between the temperature and the habitually
fast or slow rate of motions.
Mammals, birds, and insects have special powers of
maintaining heat. In insects it is scarcely discernible in
the pupa state, except when the pupa is about to enter the
condition of perfect development. Hymenopterous insects
especially have a high range of temperature. Humble-
bees’ nests have been observed with a heat 18° above that
of the surrounding earth. Mr. Newport in one instance
found a bee-hive with a temperature of 102° F. while the
bees were aroused, though in a neighboring hive with quiet
bees the thermometer stood at 48%.”. It would appear that
the variation of heat within the limits of health is greater in
insects than in birds and mammals.
The heat of birds is in most species much higher than
that of mammals; that of the swallow, an extreme example,
reaching 1113°F. The temperature of mammals varies from
94° to 107°, that of man being 98°F. in health, while in
some fevers it exceeds 105°. It appears that any excess
over the latter temperature is a bad symptom in fevers,
while any long-continued depression of even a very few
degrees below the normal range is also a prognostic of ap-
proaching dissolution. The thermometer of late has be-
come an important means of diagnosis and prognosis in
disease. Many of the Rodentia and Cheiroptera during a
part of the year lose a great proportion of their ordinary
heat, the temperature falling, nearly to the freezing-point,
while many of the vital functions pass into a state of abey-
ance. This condition is called hibernation.
The principal direct source of animal heat is generally
believed to be the slow oxidation of carbon (perhaps also
hydrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus), the material thus
slowly burnt being introduced in the food, while the oxy-
gen comes in from the air by the lungs; but it is objected
by many physiologists that the amount of material con-
sumed, with all possible economy of heat, seems inadequate
to the effect produced. It is observed that the cutting of
certain nerves in vivisection (notably those belonging to
the sympathetic system) leads to great temporary increase
of heat in the parts which had been supplied by the
wounded nerve, the increase being followed by a permanent
decrease of heat. This appears to show that the produc-
tion of animal heat is, to some extent at least, under con-
trol of the nervous system. CHAS. W. GREENE.
Animal Magnetism. See MESMERISM.
Animal Mechanics. See LOCOMOTION OF ANIMALS.
Animals, Worship of, a form of worship prevalent
in many ancient lands, as once in Egypt and Persia, and
even now in India, where the earlier and purer knowledge
of God had become obscure, and the likeness of the Deity
was sought, and supposed to be found, in the forms of ani-
mated nature. The historical fact is exactly sketched by
|Paul in Romans i. 21–23.
An/ima Mun/di is a Latin phrase signifying “soul
of the world.” It was used by ancient philosophers, who
supposed that nature or all matter was pervaded by an
ethereal essence and vital force, which organized and actu-
ated created beings, but was inferior to the Divine Spirit.
The Atmān (Atma) or Pârâmâtmä of the Hindoos was also
regarded as the soul of the world in a somewhat different
sense. The Atmān was supposed to be the original life-
principle from which the universe was evolved.
ANIME–ANNA IVANOVNA.
163
An’imé, a resin which exudes from Hymenaea Cowrbaril,
a tree of the natural order Leguminosae, and a native of
Brazil. It has been used as a medicine and as incense. In
England the name animé is applied to a resin known in
India as copal, and obtained from the Wateria Indica.
A/nio (the modern Tevero'ne), a river of Latium (Italy),
flowed nearly westward, passed by Tibur, and entered the
Tiber 4 miles N. of Rome. Length, about 55 miles. An-
cient Rome was in part supplied with water from the Anio
by two aqueducts, respectively 43 and 62 miles long.
Anion. See ANODE.
An’ise, Oil of, an essential oil obtained by distilling
anise seeds or star anise with water. Oil of fennel, from
Amethwm foeniculum and Artemisia Dracunculus, is of a
similar chemical composition. Oil of anise and of fennel
contain a hydrocarbon oil, said to be isomeric with oil of
turpentine, and an oxidized oil, C10H120, called anethol or
anise camphor, which solidifies attemperatures below 10°C.
An’ise Seed, the fruit of the Pimpinel’la Ani’swm, an
annual herbaceous plant of the order Umbelliferae, is a
native of Egypt. It is cultivated in Syria, Malta, Spain,
and Germany, and is used in medicine as a stimulant and
a carminative. It is also used to flavor liqueurs and as a
condiment. Anise seed contains a volatile oil which is em-
ployed for similar purposes. A large part of the anise
oil of commerce is from star anise, the fruit of Illicium
anisatum, a small tree of the order Magnoliaceae. The
whole plant is carminative, and is used by the Chinese as a
spice. Its properties are those of the Pimpinella. It is
imported from Anam and China.
An’ise Tree [so named from the smell, which resem-
bles that of anise], a name applied to two small trees or
large shrubs of the order Magnoliaceae, growing in the
Gulf States—the Illicium Floridanum and the Illicium par-
viflorum. Both are evergreen, the former with dark purple
and the latter with small yellow flowers, appearing in May
and June. The star anise oil of commerce is the product
of the Illicium anisatum of Eastern Asia; and it is believed
that the same oil might be obtained from the Illicium Flor-
idanum. The Illicium parviflorum has a taste and smell re-
sembling those of Sassafras. The Illicium religiosum of
China yields a fragrant incense for temple-worship.
Amis'ic Ac'id (H.C3H703), produced by the oxidation
of anise-camphor and of the oils of anise and fennel.
Hydride of anisyl, C8H102.H, is formed at the same time.
Anis’ic Al’cohol (C8H8O.H.O) is formed by heating
hydride of amisyl with potash.
Anisodac’tyls, or Anisodac’tylae [from the Gr.
&vuoros, “unequal,” and Sákrvaos, a “finger” or “toe’], the
term applied to an order of birds, including those inses-
sorial species the toes of which are of unequal length, as
in the nuthatch. The name has been also applied to the
odd-toed section of ungulate Mammalia, in which the toes
are of unequal number, more often called perissodactyls.
An'isol, or Phe/nate of Me/thyl, (C7H80 = CH3.-
C6H50), a colorless aromatic liquid formed by the action
of caustic baryta, on anisic acid. -
Anisson-Duperron (ALEXANDRE JACQUES LAURENT),
a French political economist, born in 1776. He became
director of the imperial printing-office in 1809, and was
created a peer in 1844. He wrote, besides other works, a
treatise in favor of free trade. - - -
Aniu'y, or Aniuj (GREATER), a river of N. E. Sibe-
ria, rises about lat. 67° N., and, after a course of 270 miles,
enters the Kolyma near lat. 68° N. The LESSER ANIUY
rises in lat. 66° 30' N., and falls into the Kolyma, near the
mouth of the Greater Aniuy. Length, about 250 miles.
Anjier', a seaport of Java, on the Sunda Straits, 69
miles W. of Batavia, is often touched at by vessels bound
for Batavia, to take in provisions, and to land the mails
and passengers, which go to Batavia overland.
Anjou, a former province and duchy of France, in-
tersected by the river Loire, was inhabited in ancient
times by the Andegavi, who were conquered by Caesar. It
now forms the department of Maine-et-Loire and part
of Sarthe, Mayenne, and Indre-et-Loire. Its capital was
Angers. Geoffroy, count of Anjou, married Matilda, a
daughter of Henry I. of England, and was the founder of
the royal house of Plantagenet. His son Henry was count of
Anjou and king of England. Anjou was annexed to the crown
of France about 1204, and was bestowed as a fief on Charles
(a brother of Saint Louis), who became king of Naples.
Louis, a son of King John, was the first duke of Anjou,
which was erected into a duchy about 1360. Anjou was
finally annexed to the French crown in 1480, after which
the younger sons of several kings bore the honorary title
of duke of Anjou. Pop. about 550,000.
Ank’arström (Johan JAKOB), a Swedish regicide, born
in 1761, was a partisan of the aristocracy. Having formed
a conspiracy with Count Horn and others, he assassinated
Gustavus III. at a masked ball, Mar. 16, 1792. He was
condemned to death, and, after he had been publicly whip-
ped, was beheaded April 29, of that year.
An’ker, the name of an old European liquid measure
of capacity, now disused everywhere except in Denmark
and Norway, and having different values in different coun-
tries. The anker of Copenhagen is a little more than 93
U. S. gallons, or a little less than 84 imperial gallons. The
anker of Hamburg was 9.54 gallons; of Bremen, 9.57 gals.;
of Lubec, 9.89 gals. ; of Amsterdam, 10+ gals.; and of Ber-
lin (old measure), 12.45 gals. ; later measure, 9.07 gals.
Ankſlam, or Anclam, a town of Prussia, in Pome-
rania, is on the Peene, 109 miles by rail N. of Berlin. It
has manufactures of linen and woollen goods. It belonged
formerly to the Hanseatic League. Pop. of the town in
1871, 10,739.
Anko’ber, Ankobar, or Ancober, a town of Abys-
simia, the capital of Shoa, is situated 8200 feet above the
level of the sea, and about 265 miles S. E. of Góndar. It
contains a royal palace, and is a favorite residence of the
monarch. Pop. estimated at from 12,000 to 15,000.
Ankylo’sis, or Anchylosis [from the Gr. &yköAos,
“bent”], in surgery, a stiffened and more or less fixed and
immovable joint, so called from the crooked position often
seen in limbs with such joints. Ankylosis may result from
suppurative inflammation, as in “white swelling” of the
knee, and is to be regarded as a favorable termination of
such disease. These cases result often in neo-plastic exu-
dations—new tissues—adhering to the cartilages of both
articulating bones; and not unfrequently these new growths
are partly or completely ossified, converting the two bones
into one. The cartilages or ligaments of a joint may be-
come shrunken from disease, the opposing synovial mem-
branes may adhere to each other, or other important struc-
tural changes may prevent motion. “Spurious ankylosis”
is a case in which a spasm or cicatricial contraction of the
muscles, or even of the skin, prevents motion, while the
joint itself is not the seat of disease. Cases of so-called
hysteria, sometimes are accompanied by a stiffness of one
or more joints; but such cases are readily detected after
the adminstration of an anaesthetic, when the joint at once
becomes movable.
The prospect of recovery of motion in an ankylosed joint
is small indeed. Joints stiffened.at an inconvenient angle
may be put into better shape during anaesthesia, and then
be allowed to become ankylosed again in the desired posi-
tion. Excision of joints has been considerably practised, .
and with some success as a means of cure. -
An’na, a post-village and township of Union co., Ill., 37
miles N. of Cairo. Pop. of village, 1269; of township, 2697.
Anna, SAINT, is supposed to have been the mother of
the Virgin Mary, but she is not mentioned in the Bible.
The Roman Catholic Church in Austria and other coun-
tries celebrates an annual festival in her honor on the 26th
of July.
An’maberg’, a mining-town of Saxony, in the Erz-
gebirge, 18 miles S. of Chemnitz. It has mines of silver,
cobalt, and tin, and manufactures of lace and silk ribbons.
Pop. in 1871, 11,693.
An’ma Carlov’ma, regent of Russia, born in 1718, was
a daughter of the duke of Mecklenburg, and a niece of
Anna Ivanovna, empress of Russia. She was married in
1739 to Anton Ulrich, duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel,
and had a son, Ivan, whom Anna Ivanovna, designated as
her successor. Soon after the death of that empress, in
Oct., 1740, Anna Carlovna assumed the office of regent.
She was deprived of power by a conspiracy which raised
Elizabeth to the throne in Dec., 1741. Died Mar. 18, 1746.
An’na Comne/ma, a learned Byzantine princess and
writer, born Dec. 1, 1083, was a daughter of Alexis I., em-
peror of Constantinople. She became the wife of Niceph-
orus, Bryennius. On the death of her father, in 1118, she
conspired against her brother John, and attempted to
usurp the crown or to place it on the head of her husband,
but failed. She wrote in Greek a life of her father, en-
titled the “Alexiad,” which is an important historical doc-
ument. The style is rather affected. Died in 1148.
An’nadale, a flourishing village of Richmond co., N.Y.,
on the Staten Island R. R. It has good School and hotel
accommodations. .
An’na Ivanov'na, empress of Russia, born at Moscow
Jan. 25, 1693, was a daughter of Ivan, a brother of Peter
the Great. She was married in 1710 to the duke of Cour-
land, who died in 1711. She succeeded Peter II. on the
throne in 1730, and permitted her favorite Biren to control
the empire. He abused his power with great cruelty, and
i
164
ANNALS-ANNE ARUNDEL.
executed and banished many thousand persons. She died
Oct. 28, 1740, and was succeeded by Ivan.
An’mals [Lat. anna’les, from an’nus, a “year”], a term
derived from the ancient Roman annales pontificum, which
were official records of public events kept by the pontifex
maximus. These were burned by the Gauls, who took
Rome about 390 B.C. The name was afterwards applied
to historical works, as the “Annals” of Tacitus. Some
persons define annals to be materials for history, or a spe-
cies of history arranged in order of time, each event being
recorded under the year in which it occurred.
An’maly, a township of Sonoma co., Cal. Pop. 2374.
An’nandale, a post-village of Red Hook township,
Dutchess co., N.Y., the seat of St. Stephen's College (Epis-
copalian). Pop. 347.
Annap'olis, a county in the W. S. W. part of Nova
Scotia, bordering on the Bay of Fundy. Area, about 1100
square miles. The county contains much excellent land,
and has beds of valuable iron ore. Pop. 18,121.
Annapolis, or Annapolis Royāl, a seaport of Nova
Scotia, at the mouth of the river Annapolis (which enters
the Bay of Fundy), 95 miles W. of Halifax. It is the
western terminus of the Windsor and Annapolis R. R. It
was founded in 1604 by the French, who called it Port
Royal. The harbor is good, but difficult of access. This
town was the capital of the province until 1750. Pop. of
census sub-district in 1871, 2127.
Annapolis, a city and port of entry, capital of Mary-
land and of Anne Arundel county, is on the S. bank of the
Severn River, 2 miles from its entrance into Chesapeake
Bay, 20 miles S. by E. of Baltimore, and 22 miles E. by N.
of Washington, 40 miles by rail to either of these cities,
and 30 miles by water (steamboat) to Baltimore. The
Annapolis and Elkridge R. R., 21 miles long, connects it
with the Washington branch of the Baltimore and Ohio
R. R. Annapolis contains a state-house, governor's man-
sion, court-house, jail, two national banks, two hotels, three
newspapers, six churches, an Episcopal mission, colored
Dethel, and Catholic college. There are several oyster-
packing houses—a business which is assuming some pro-
portion. It is also the seat of St. John's College and the
U. S. Naval Academy, which was founded here in 1845.
(See NAVAL ACADEMY, by PROF. R. S. SMITH.) The rail-
road building from Baltimore to Drum Point (mouth of
Patuxent River) crosses the A. and E. R. R., 3 miles from-
the city, making the distance to Baltimore by rail 22
miles. The harbor, or Annapolis Roads, is one of the
finest in the country, there being a depth of 60 feet in the
channel up to Round Bay in the Severn River, 7 miles
from the city. The city has both gas and water works.
Lat. 38° 58' 50" N., lon. 76° 29' W. Pop. 5744.
A. P. SouTHWICK, FoR ED. “GAZETTE.”
Annapolis, a post-village of Penn township, Parke co.,
Ind. Pop. 279. m
Ann Ar’bor, a city, capital of Washtenaw co., Mich.,
on the Huron River and on the Toledo Ann Arbor and
Northern and Michigan Central R. R.S., 38 miles W. of De-
troit. The situation is elevated and pleasant. Here is the
State University, a flourishing institution, founded in 1837.
(See MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY.) Ann Arbor contains ten
churches, a national bank, a publishing-house, one monthly,
one semi-monthly, and three weekly papers, and manufac-
tures of wool, iron, ploughs, and furniture. It has a valu-
able mineral spring. Pop. 7363; of Ann Arbor township,
8746. ED. “CHRONICLE.”
An-Nā’sir (or Al-Nassir) Ledinil'lah (i.e. “the
defender of the religion of God”), one of the Abasside ca-
liphs, began to reign at Bagdad in 1180. He was a liberal
patron of learning, and successfully defended his domin-
ions against several aggressive enemies. Died in 1225.
An’nates (plu.), [Late Lat., from annus, a “year” (i. e.
a “year's wages”)], the tax of “first-fruits,” a tax an-
ciently imposed by the popes on all bishops on their acces-
sion, and equal to one year's revenue of the benefice. Bon-
iface IX. extended the tax to all livings. The Council of
Pisa (1409) complained of the custom; that of Basel (1435)
called it simony; that of Trent (Nov. 11, 1563) prohibited
it. Nevertheless, the practice did not become extinct, and
was recognized by concordat with Naples in 1818. In Eng-
land, anmates were first levied in 1213. In 1534 they were
made payable to the king (Henry VIII.), instead of the
pope. A levy of taxes of this kind is made in England
for the benefit of the poorer clergy, and now called QUEEN
ANNE's Bounty (which see), because that queen gave up
her right to it for the benefit of the Church. In Scotland
the “ ann” or “annat” is now a half year’s extra pay, due
to the widow or children of a deceased minister of the
PCirk.
Annatto. See ANNOTTO.
daughter of the famous Lord Clarendon.
lº' nawan, a post-township of Henry co., III. Pop.
61.
Anne of Austria, queen of France, a daughter of
Philip II. of Spain, was born Sept. 22, 1601. She was
married in 1615 to Louis XIII. of France, and became the
mother of Louis XIV. She failed to gain the favor of
Louis XIII., and is said to have felt the effects of ‘Cardinal
Richelieu’s enmity. On the death of the king in 1643, she
became regent, and appointed Cardinal Mazarin prime
minister. During her regency occurred the civil war of the
Fronde (1648–52) between Mazarin and some factious mal-
ºnt nobles, who were finally subdued. Died Jam. 20,
6.
Anne of Brittany, the heiress of the duke of Brit-
tany, was born at Nantes Jan. 26, 1476. Several princes
were eager competitors for her hand. She was married in
1491 to Charles VIII. of France, and after his death to
Louis XII. She was wise and virtuous, and had much in-
fluence in the affairs of France. Died Jan. 9, 1514.
Anne of Cleves, the fourth queen of Henry VIII. of
England, who married her, to please the Protestants, in
Jan., 1540. She was divorced in July of the same year.
She was daughter of John, duke of Cleves, and was born
Sept. 22, 1515. Died at Chelsea. July 16, 1557.
Anne, queen of Great Britain and Ireland, the last
sovereign of the house of Stuart, was born at Twickenham,
near London, on the 6th of Feb., 1664. She was the sec-
ond daughter of James II. and Anne Hyde, who was a
She was edu-
cated in the Protestant religion, to which she afterwards
manifested a constant devotion, although her father, after
his accession to the throne, attempted to convert her to the
Roman Catholic faith. In 1683 she was married to Prince
George of Denmark, a brother of Christian V. At an early
age she formed an intimacy with Sarah Jennings (after-
wards the duchess of Marlborough), who exercised an
almost unbounded influence over her, both before and after
her accession to the throne. Anne was the mother of many
(seventeen) children, all of whom died young and before
she became queen. In the revolution of 1688 she supported
the cause of the prince of Orange, but she was afterwards
implicated in intrigues for the restoration of her father.
Anne succeeded William III., who died Mar. 8, 1702, at a
time when the strife of parties was extremely violent. She
pursued the foreign policy of the late king, which involved
England in the long war of the Spanish succession as the
ally of Austria and the enemy of France. Among the im-
portant events of her reign were a number of signal vic-
tories gained by the duke of Marlborough over the armies
of Louis XIV., and the union of England and Scotland in
1707. Her political principles, if she had any, were favor-
able to royal prerogative rather than constitutional liberty,
and rendered her partial to the Tories. Anne became
gradually alienated from the duchess of Marlborough, who
was a Whig, and transferred her favoritism to Mrs. Masham,
whose intrigues undermined the Whig party so effectually
that the Tory statesmen, the earl of Oxford and Lord Bo-
lingbroke, came into power in 1710. The queen and these
Tory ministers concurred in designs and intrigues to secure
the succession to her brother, the Pretender. The Euro-
pean war was ended by the treaty of Utrecht, April 11,
1713. Lord Bolingbroke became prime minister in place
of the earl of Oxford in July, 1714. Anne died of apo-
plexy on the 1st of Aug., 1714, and was succeeded by
George I. The period of her reign, illustrated by the
genius of Newton, Addison, Pope, Bolingbroke, Swift, De
Foe, and Arbuthnot, was almost as celebrated in literature
as the Augustan age of Rome. (See OLDMIXON, “Life of
Queen Anne,” 1716; STRICKLAND, “Lives of the Queens
of England.”) -
Anneal’ing [from the Saxon on-aelan, to “set on fire,”
to “make hot,” to “burn’], a process of tempering glass
and certain metals by heating them and then cooling them
slowly, in order to render them less brittle and more tena-
ClOllS.
annealed is seen in the glass toys called “Prince Rupert’s
Drops,” which if scratched with a file will collapse into
powder or small fragments. Glass vessels are annealed in
a long oven, one end of which is hotter than the other, and
the trays in which the vessels are placed are slowly drawn
into cooler and cooler parts. The operation of annealing
large vessels requires several days. Iron, brass, and other
metals which are hammered into plates or drawn into wire
become brittle during the process, and require to be an-
nealed by cooling them slowly in water or air. Steel is
tempered and hardened by a process of annealing, being
placed in an oil-bath or surrounded by a metallic com-
pound which has a low fusing-point.
Anne Arun/del, a county in the central part of Mary-
land, having an area of 750 square miles. It is bounded
The extreme brittleness of glass that has not been . .
ANNECY—ANOINTING.
on the N. by the Patapsco River, on the E. by Chesapeake
Bay, and on the S. W. by the Patuxent River. It is also
drained by the river Severn. The surface is undulating;
the soil is generally fertile. The staple products are wheat,
maize, and tobacco. Among its mineral resources are red
sandstone, copper, and iron. The county is intersected by
the Baltimore and Washington R. R. Capital, Annapolis.
Pop. 24,457. - -
Annecy, a town of Eastern France, in Upper Savoy,
is pleasantly situated at the N. W. extremity of Annecy
Lake, 42 miles by rail S. of Geneva. It has a cathedral, a
bishop’s palace, an old castle, glass-works, cotton-mills, etc.
Pop. in 1866, 11,554.
Annecy, Lake of, is in Upper Savoy, 22 miles S. of
Geneva, about 24 miles W. of Mont Blanc, and 1426 feet
above the sea. It is about 9 miles long and from 1 to 2
miles wide. Its waters are discharged through the Fieran
into the Rhone.
An’nelides, or Annel’ida (plu.), [Lat. annel'lus, a
“little ring”], an order of articulate animals belonging to
the class Vermes, comprising those true worms which have
red blood circulating in a complicated double system of
vessels. As at present constituted, the order contains three
families—1, the Serpuladae, or Tubicolae; 2, the Arenicolae,
or sand-worms, called Dorsibranchiatae; 3, Lumbricidae, or
earth-worms—but writers variously expand or limit the
order; some making it to include a part or all of the Bra-
chiopoda, and other molluscoids.
An’ni, or Ani (anc. Ab'nicum), a ruined city of Asiatic
Turkey, on the Arpa-Chai River, 28 miles E. by S. of Kars.
It was the capital of the Bagratian kings of Armenia, until
1064, when it was taken by Alp-Arslān, and was destroyed
by an earthquake in 1319. Here are ruins of an ancient
palace and citadel; also some Armenian churches nearly
entire.
An'nin, a township of McKean co., Pa. Pop. 760.
An’nius of Viter/bo [It. An’nio da Viter/bo], a
learned Italian Dominican monk, whose proper name was
GIov ANNI NANNI, was born at Viterbo about 1432. He
wrote a Latin “Treatise on the Empire of the Turks”
(1471). He published at Rome, in 1498, “Seventeen Wol-
umes of Various Antiquities, with Commentaries,” con-
taining extracts from the lost works of Berosus, Mametho,
and other ancient historians. These are generally believed
to be forgeries. Died in 1502.
Anniver'sary [from the Lat. an/mus, a “year,” and
ver’so, to “turn'), the annual return of a memorable day;
the day on which some remarkable event is annually cele-
brated. Among the Jews the Passover was an anniversary
in commemoration of the exodus from Egypt. The prin-
cipal religious anniversaries of Christians are Christmas,
Epiphany, and Easter. Anniversary days in the Roman
Catholic Church are days on which an office is annually
performed for the souls of the deceased. The most popu-
lar anniversary of the U. S. is the Fourth of July.
Annonay [Lat. Annonae/wm or Annoni'acum], a town
of France, in the department of Ardèche, is situated 37
miles S. S. W. of Lyons, at the junction of the rivers Cance
and Déaume. It has a suspension bridge, and large man-
ufactories of glove-leather. Paper of fine quality is made
here. The Montgolfiers, who invented balloons, were ma–
tives of the town. Pop. in 1866, 18,445.
Annot/to, or Annat' to, a red coloring-matter, is the
pulp of the seeds of the Biaca orellana, an exogenous shrub
which grows in South America and the West Indies, and
belongs to the natural order Flacourtiaceae. It is soluble
in alcohol, ether, and in potash and soda, either caustic or
carbonated. It contains a yellow principle called bixin.
It is used as a dye, but its colors are fugitive. The pulp is
used to color cheese, is an ingredient in some varnishes,
and is employed in medicine to color ointments and plas-
ters. In South America annotto is mixed with chocolate
to improve the flavor. -
Anns/ville, a township of Oneida co., N. Y. It is a
fine dairy-town, and has four churches and several manu-
factories. Pop. 2716.
Amnuaire [from the Lat. an’nus, a “year”], a name
given to certain French publications which appear annu-
ally, as the “Annuaire historique” or “Annuaire des Deux
Mondes,” which corresponds to the English “Annual Reg-
ister.” . The “Annuaire’’ published by the bureau of long-
itudes is a celebrated scientific periodical. -
An’nual [Lat. annua’lis, from an/mus, a “year”], a
botanical term applied to a plant which lives only one
year; a plant which within the space of a year passes from
a seed into a perfect plant, bears its fruit, and perishes. The
duration of the life of annuals is generally much less than a
year. Some plants which are annuals in one climate are
perennial in another, as the castor-oil plant.
165
Annual, a name given by the English to a class of
illustrated publications which were designed for Christmas
gifts and birthday presents, and enjoyed for some years
extraordinary popularity. They contained contributions
in verse and prose from distinguished living authors, and
were illustrated with engravings by the best artists of the
time. The first of these annuals was the “Forget-me-Not,”
edited by Frederick Shoberl, in 1822. “The Literary
Souvenir,” edited by A. A. Watts, appeared in 1824; and
the “Keepsake” was commenced by Charles Heath in 1827.
It was afterwards edited by the countess of Blessington.
Among the other remarkable annuals was Heath’s “Book
of Beauty,” first issued in 1833. After 1840 the demand
for annuals diminished and their quality deteriorated.
They have all been long discontinued.
Annu'ity [Lat. annu'itas, from an/mats, a “year;” Fr.
annwité], a rent or sum of money which a person is entitled
to receive every year. If the payment is to be continued
through a period of uncertain length, it is called a contin-
gent annuity; if it is payable for a definite number of years,
it is an annuity certain. A person who has unemployed
capital may find it advantageous to convert it into an an-
nual income, which he is entitled to receive as long as he
lives, and which is called a life annuity. The person who
receives an ammuity is called an annuitant. An annual in-
come which is not to be paid until a number of years have
elapsed is a deferred annuity. Those who invest money in
the national debt of England are entitled to an income
which is virtually a perpetual annuity, so that when each
annuitant dies he may leave it to his heir. The accurate
determination of the value of annuities in present money
is a complex question of great importance and considerable
difficulty, for the solution of which correct tables of vital
statistics are requisite. The rate of interest is also an im-
portant element in the calculation of annuities. Great
labor has been expended by several learned men in the
formation of tables of the value of life annuities at all the
different ages of human life.
ANNUITY, in the law of England, is a sum of money
payable every year, and charged on the person or personal
estate of the individual who is bound to pay it; thus dif-
fering from a rent-charge, which is charged on real estate.
Annuities are often paid by a person who borrows money
(who is called the grantor) to the person who lends the
money (who is the grantee). An annuity is either for a
term of years, for a life or lives, or in perpetuity; and the
last, although charged on personal property, may descend
as real estate. - N.
An’mulus [Lat., a “ring ”], a botanical term used in
Several senses. In mosses it denotes a rim external with
respect to the peristome; in ferns it is an elastic rib which
girds the theca or spore-case, and by its contraction dis-
perses the spores: the collar which surrounds the stipes of
Some fungi just below the hymenium is also called an an-
mulus. - •
Annuncia'da (the Order of Knights of the Annuncia-
tion) was founded by Amadeus VI. of Savoy in 1362, and
was originally called the Order of the Collar. The reigning
king of Italy is grand master of the order.
Annuncia’tion, Feast of, a festival of the Church
in commemoration of the announcement of the conception
of the Saviour to the Virgin Mary by the angel Gabriel.
It is celebrated on the 25th of March, which is called Lady
Day. -
Ann'ville, a post-village of Lebanon co., Pa., in North
Annville township, on the Lebanon Valley R. R., 5 miles
W. of Lebanon. It is the seat of Lebanon Valley College.
Ano'a, a species of ruminating animal of the genus
Bu'bulus, having the horns erect; it is considered by some
to be a connecting link between an antelope and a buffalo.
It lives in Celebes. * * * -
An’ode [from the Gr. &voSos, a “way up "j, a term used
in the science of electrolysis to denote the positive pole, or
that surface by which the galvanic current enters the body
(electrolyte) undergoing decomposition. The negative pole,
or the surface by which the current goes out, is called cath-
ode. The elements of electrolytes are called ions, and those
which go to the anode are named anions. Thus, in the de-
eomposition of water by a galvanic battery, water is the
electrolyte, the platinum plate connected with the positive
pole is the anode, and the oxygen is the anion.
An’odyne [from the Gr. &v, priv., and b&wn, “pain”],
a medicine which diminishes pain. Opium, morphine, the
anaesthetics, belladonna, cannabis Indica, etc. are the chief
anodynes—most of which tend actively to cause sleep.
Some hypnotics, or sleep-producers, however, like chloral,
are not anodynes. .
Anoint’ing [from the Lat. in, and wn'go, unc'tum (Fr.
oindre, part. oint), to “anoint”], an Oriental custom of
166 N.
ANOKA–ANSONIA.
pouring aromatic oil on the head as a mark of honor. It
was practised at the coronation of kings and the consecra-
tion of high priests and prophets, as in the case of Saul,
David, Aaron and his sons. Spikenard, myrrh, and olive
oil were sometimes used for this purpose. Anointing forms
a part of the ceremonial of various sacraments in the
Roman Catholic and the different Oriental churches.
Ano/ka, a county in the E. part of Minnesota, bounded
on the S. W. by the Mississippi River, and intersected by
Rum River. Area, 420 square miles. The surface is diver-
sified, the soil fertile. Wheat, corn, oats, and potatoes are
staple crops. The county is well wooded, and contains sev-
eral small lakes which abound in fish. Capital, Anoka.
Pop. 3940. -
Anoka, a post-village, capital of Anoka co, Minn., on
the left bank of the Mississippi, at the mouth of Rum River,
or Mille Lac, and on the St. Paul and Pacific R. R., 27 miles
N. N. W. of St. Paul. Two weekly newspapers are pub-
lished here. It has a valuable water-power. Pop. of
Anoka township, 1498. - -
Ano/lis [from ano/li, the name of a lizard found in the
Antilles], a genus of saurian reptiles, natives of the warm
parts of America. It comprises the iguanoid species of
lizard, which have teeth on the palate of the mouth, as well
as on the interior jaw-bones, and are remarkable for their
power of inflating the skin of the throat. They move with
great agility, and exceed all other saurians in brilliancy of
color.
Anomalis’tic Year, the interval of time in which
the earth completes a revolution with respect to any point
in its orbit, or the interval which elapses between two suc-
cessive passages of the earth through its perihelion. It is
four minutes and thirty-nine seconds longer than a sidereal
year, and its length is 365 days, 6 hours, 13 minutes, and
45 seconds.
Anom'aly [from the Gr. &v, priv., and buaxós, “level,”
“even,” “regular ”], an irregularity; an exception to, or
deviation from, a general rule. In astronomy it denotes the
angular distance of a planet from its perihelion, as seen
from the sun. It is so called because it was in it that the
first irregularities of planetary motion were discovered.
There are three different anomalies—the true, the mean,
and the eccentric.
Ano’mia [from the Gr. a, priv., and vôuos, a “law,”
so called because it does not conform to the law of struc-
ture characterizing other mollusks], a Linnaean genus of
the Vermes Testacea. Modern naturalists have limited the
term to a genus of acephalous mollusks having two un-
equal, irregular thin valves, of which the flatter one is
deeply notched at the cardinal margin. The central muscle
traverses this opening to be inserted into a third piece
(calcareous or horny), which is always attached to foreign
bodies. Numerous species, living and fossil, are found in
nearly all parts of the world. \
Ano’ma [from ano'na, the Sp. name of the custard-ap-
ple], a genus of exogenous trees of the natural order Ano-
naceae, natives of hot climates. Anoma squamosa bears
an edible fruit called the custard-apple, because its seeds
are surrounded by a whitish, sweet, cream-like pulp. The
cherimoya, an excellent fruit of Peru, is produced by the
Anoma Cherimolia.
Anoma’ceae [so called from Ano'na, one of its general,
an order of exogenous trees or shrubs, mostly natives of
tropical countries, and evergreen, having simple, alternate
leaves. They are generally aromatic and fragrant. The
distinguishing mark of the order is that they have trimer-
ous polypetalous flowers and a ruminated albumen. This
order comprises about 300 species, some of which bear
delicious fruits. The fruit of the Xylopia aromatica is used
as pepper by the natives of Africa. The order is represent-
ed in the U. S. by four species of pawpaw (Asimina) or
custard-apple. -
Anom’ymous [from the Gr. &v, priv., and Švvua, a .
, P 9
“name "J, nameless; a term applied to books, published
without the name of the author. Those which appear
under an assumed name are called pseudonymous. The po-
litical articles of the English journals are generally anony-
mous, and so are the critical articles in the great quarterly
reviews. Anonymous books cause much difficulty and per-
plexity to bibliographers and the compilers of catalogues.
The best account or catalogue of such works is Barbier's
“Dictionnaire des Ouvrages Anonymes et Pseudonymes”
(3 vols., 1822–24).
Anoplothe/rium [from the Gr. &voirãos, “unarmed,”
and 9mptov, a “beast ’’], a genus of extinct artiodactyle
quadrupeds, found in the strata of the upper eocene for-
mation near Paris, and in Lapland, India, etc. They are
characterized by the shortness and small size of the canine
teeth, and have teeth arranged in a continuous series with-
tellectum,” and “Cur Deus Homo.
out vacant interspaces—a structure which occurs in no
existing animal except man. The Amoplotherium commune
was about the size of a wild boar.
Amor"thite, a felspathic mineral found at Vesuvius and
elsewhere; essentially an anhydrous silicate of lime and
alumina. *.
Amotto. See ANNOTTo.
Amguetil-Duperron (ABRAHAM HYACINTHE), an em-
inent Orientalist, was born in Paris Dec. 7, 1731. Having
studied Arabic and Persian, his desire to visit India was
so strong that he enlisted as a private soldier in an expe-
dition which was sent thither in 1754. He traversed a
great part of Hindostan, collected MSS., procured the re-
ligious books of the Parsees, and returned to France in
1762. In 1763 he became a member of the Academy of
Inscriptions. He published in 1771 his “Zend-Avesta,”
the first translation of the sacred books of the Parsees that
ever appeared in any European language. It is not es-
teemed very accurate. He wrote “India in Relation with
Europe’ (2 vols., 1798) and other works. Died Jan. 17,
1805. - -
Ansaries. See NUsAIRIYEH.
Amscha’rius, or Ans'gar, SAINT, called the “Apostle
of the North,” was born in Picardy Sept. 8, 801 A. D. He
propagated Christianity with success in Denmark and
Sweden, and became the first archbishop of Hamburg in
832. Died Feb. 3, 865 A. D.
An’schiitz (KARL), born at Coblentz, Germany, in Feb.,
1813, became royal musical director at Coblentz, and was
afterwards director in Nuremberg, Amsterdam, London,
etc. In 1857 he came to America, founded the German
opera in New York in 1862, and became a leading con-
ductor and teacher of music. Died Dec. 30, 1870.
Ans/dell (RICHARD), an English painter of animals,
born at Liverpool in 1815. He obtained the gold medal in
Paris in 1855.
Anse de Panier [literally, “handle of a panier”], a
French term applied to arches which are the result of ellip-
tical curves in section. This is the most elegant form of
arch for bridges.
An'selm, SAINT [Lat. Sanc’tus Ansel’mus], archbishop
of Canterbury, was born at Aosta, in Piedmont, in 1033.
He is regarded as the originator of scholastic theology. In
1060 he became a pupil of Lanfranc, and an inmate of the
abbey of Bec in Normandy, of which he was chosen prior
in 1063, and abbot in 1078. Under his direction Bec be-
came a celebrated school. He was appointed archbishop
of Canterbury in 1093, after which he was involved in a
long contest with King William Rufus. He was distin-
guished as a philosopher, and is considered as the reviver
of metaphysics. Among his principal works are his
“Monologium,” his “Proslogium alias Fides quaerens In-
” He surpassed his con-
temporaries in acuteness of intellect; originality of mind,
and dialectical skill. Died April 21, 1109.
An’son, a county of North Carolina, bordering on South
Carolina. Area, 650 square miles. It is bounded on the
N. by the Rocky River, and on the E. by the Yadkin. The
surface is undulating, and the soil productive, cottom, wheat,
corn, and oats being the chief staples. Capital, Wades-
borough. Pop. 12,428. • .
An’son, a post-township of Somerset co., Me., 10 miles
N. W. of Skowhegan. The Somerset R. R. is graded nearly
to Anson. It has a weekly newspaper, academy, 3 churches,
savings bank, 14 stores, and mills, shops, hotels, etc. Prin-
cipal business, farming and lumbering. Pop. 1745.
ALBERT MooRE, of “ UNION ADvoCATE.”
Anson, a township of Chippewa co., Wis. Pop. 455.
Anson (GEORGE), LorD, born in Staffordshire April 23,
1697, became a post-captain in the royal navy in 1724, af-
ter which he passed several years on the Carolina station.
In 1740 he was appointed commander of an expedition to the
South Sea, in which he exhibited great prudence and cour-
age amidst disasters and dangers caused partly by the un-
seaworthiness of his vessels. Having circumnavigated the
globe and made some important discoveries, he returned in
I744 with several Spanish prizes. He defeated a French
fleet in May, 1747, and for this service was rewarded with
the title of Baron Anson of Soberton. He was first lord of
the admiralty from 1751 to 1757, and admiral of the fleet
in 1761. Died June 6, 1762. A narrative of his Voyage
round the world was published.
Anso/mia, an incorporated borough in the town of
Derby, New Haven co., Conn., on the Naugatuck River, at
the junction of the Naugatuck and New Haven and Derby
R. Rs., 10 miles W. N. W. of New Haven. It is a manu-
facturing village, and has 1 national bank, 1 savings bank,
4 churches, 3 brass rolling-mills, 1 brass-foundry, 1 iron-
ANSONIANS-ANTAGONIST MUSCLES.
167
foundry, 2 clock-shops, 1 copper-mill, 2 wire-mills, 1 hard-
ware factory, 2 hoop-skirt factories, 1 woollen mill, 1 weekly
newspaper, and 2 water companies. Pop. 2749.
ED. “NAUGATUCK WALLEY SENTINEL.”
Ansonians, or Ansyreeh. See NUsAIRIYEH.
Ans'pach, or Ans' bach, a fortified city of Bavaria,
on the Rezat, 27 miles S. W. of Nuremberg. It has a
castle, the former residence of the margraves of Anspach-
Baireuth, a public library, and manufactures of cotton and
half-silken stuffs, tobacco, earthenware, cutlery, etc. Pop.
in 1871, 12,635.
Anspach (ELIZABETH BERKELEY), MARGRAVINE OF, a
daughter of Augustus, earl of Berkeley, was born in 1750.
She was accomplished, and remarkable for versatility of
genius. In 1767 she was married to Mr. Craven, who be-
came earl of Craven, and died in 1791. She was married
in that year to the margrave of Anspach. She wrote and
performed dramas, and published entertaining autobio-
graphic memoirs. Died at Naples Jan. 13, 1828.
An'sted (DAVID THOMAs), F. R. S., an English geologist,
born in London in 1814, was educated at Cambridge. He
became in 1840 professor of geology in King's College, Lon-
don, travelled in America and other countries, and publish-
ed a great number of works, among which are “Geology,
Introductory, Descriptive, and Practical * (2 vols., 1844),
“The Ancient World, or Picturesque Sketches of Great
Britain,” “The Great Stone Book of Nature '' (1863), and
“The World we Live in ’’ (1869).
An'ster (John), LL.D., born in Cork county, Ireland,
1798. He was a friend of Coleridge, and regius professor
of civil law in the University of Dublin. He produced
“Poems and Translations from the German * (1819), and
contributed many articles to “Blackwood’s Magazine.”
His translation of Goethe’s “Faust” (1835) was praised by
the “Edinburgh Review.” Died June 9, 1867. *
An’swer [Ang.-Sax. and, “against,” and 8warjan, to
“swear,” to “affirm”], in the law of evidence, is the reply
of a witness to a question put to him. It also means a
pleading interposed in a court of equity by the defendant
to the bill or information of the plaintiff. In New York,
since the adoption of the code of procedure, and in a num-
ber of the other States, it is the name given to the defend-
ant's pleading in all cases, except where he resorts to a
demurrer. (See DEMURRER.)
Ant, or Emmet [Lat. formi/cal, a genus of hymen-
opterous insects remarkable for their industry, ingenuity,
and muscular strength. It comprises numerous species,
which are widely distributed in temperate and tropical
countries. They have geniculate antennae; strong jaws;
a small, rounded, spoon-like ligula; a thorax compressed
at the sides; an abdomen nearly oval. They live in so-
cieties composed of males, females, and neuters, the last
of which are workers and are destitute of wings. Some
of the neuters, it is said, serve the community as soldiers.
The males and females have wings, and are larger than the
neuters, but less numerous. After the pairing season is
past the females are deprived of their wings to prevent
their escape, as they have a propensity to desert their
home and go astray. It appears that ants realize the ad-
vantages of a division of labor, as well as those of co-op-
eration. In winter most species remain dormant, and
neither work nor eat, although it is a popular notion that
they collect in summer a hoard of grain for their subsist-
ence during the winter. They are mostly carnivorous, and
will attack a living animal many times larger than them-
selves, as a mouse, for example. Another favorite food of
some species is honey-dew, the sweet excretion of aphides.
According to some authorities, they confine these aphides’
in stables, as man does his milch cows, and obtain from
them, by a process like milking, a regular supply of
honey-dew. Perhaps the most remarkable of all this in-
teresting group of insects are the “honey ants” of Mexico.
The honey ants inhabit Mexico, New Mexico, and Arizona.
They live in colonies, of which the greater number closely
resemble, the common brown ant of the United States. Cer-
tain members of the community, however, during the sum-
mer Secrete honey in the abdominal cavity, and soon be-
come incapable of locomotion. They are then placed in
rows in subterranean galleries set apart for that purpose,
and are systematically fed by the others. In time the dis-
tension of the abdomen becomes so great that the victim
ants resemble small, spherical, pellucid grapes, the head
and thorax simulating the grape-stem. Later in the sea-
son, when food is Scarce, these fattened ants are in turn
devoured by the other members of the colony. Ants ap-
pear to be endowed with greater muscular strength than
almost any other insect of equal size. They display great
ingenuity in the construction of their habitations, called
ant-hills, which are mostly placed on the surface of the
ground. The large ants of South America raise their ant-
hills to the height of fifteen feet or more. Some species,
called mason ants, perforate galleries in the clay, and sup-
port by pillars and arches the roof of their house. Others,
called carpenter ants, excavate cells and labyrinthine gal-
leries in the trunks of living trees. Ants are supposed to
have a faculty of conversing or communicating with each
other by means of their antennae, which, according to some
naturalists, are organs of hearing. These insects are gen-
erally very pugnacious, and often fight pitched battles with
other ants. The Swiss naturalist Huber has given a de-
tailed account of their battles, martial exploits, and pred-
atory expeditions. Still more marvellous and paradoxi-
cal is the well-attested fact that some species, as the For-
mica rufa and the Formica rufescens (or amazon ant), reduce
other ants to slavery, and that the principal motive of their
wars and piratical excursions is to capture larvae and pupae
or nymphs, which they carry home for slaves. “At the
head of these daring slave-makers,” says Pouchet, “we
must put the red ant or amazon, the military expeditions
of which have been most carefully observed by the matu-
ralists of our epoch. They are so frequent that one may
enjoy the sight of them any fine day during the summer
season.” After describing the siege and capture of a nest
by these amazons, he adds: “Then the whole army, laden
with booty, and sometimes stretching out in a line forty
mêtres in length (130 feet), triumphantly returns to its
city in the same order as at its departure.” (The Universe.)
These slaveholding ants have a great aversion to labor, and
when they perform a journey are carried by their slaves.
These are darker colored than their masters, and are called
J'ormica fusca. The fact that ants work all through the
might, and seem never to sleep, was noticed more than one
hundred and fifty years ago in the “Guardian * (vol. ii.,
No. 156). It is asserted that certain ants in warm coun-
tries (one species in Texas) actually plant grass-seeds, and
cultivate, harvest, and store the grain. Some also con-
struct, and even pave their roads. A battle of ants has
been described by Huber in these terms: “I shall not say
what lighted up discord between these two republics, the
one as populous as the other. . The two armies met midway
between their respective residences. Their serried columns
reached from the field of battle to the nest, and were two
feet in width. . . . The field of battle, which extended over
a space of two or three square feet, was strewn with dead
bodies and wounded; it was also covered with venom, and
exhaled a penetrating odor. The struggle began between
two ants, which locked themselves together with their man-
dibles while they raised themselves upon their legs. They
quickly grasped each other so tightly that they rolled one
over the other in the dust.”. At the approach of night the
two armies effected a retreat, but the next day the carnage
was renewed with equal or greater fury. Some species of
Formica eject from their abdomen a peculiar volatile, acrid,
and pungent liquid called formic acid, the offensive odor of
which defends them against other animals. The carniv-
orous species of ants perform a useful service by devouring
the carcasses of dead animals. Their voracity is such that
a clean skeleton of a small animal may be obtained by
burying it for a short time in an ant-hill. The termites of
tropical countries, sometimes called white ants, are not
properly ants, but belong to another genus. (See TER-
MITEs.) (See P. HuBER, “Traité des Moeurs des Fourmis
Indigènes.”) REVISED BY J. S. NEWBERRY.
Antaç'id [anti and acid], a remedy for acid in the
stomach or in the blood. The alkalies, lime-water. mag-
nesia, etc., are mostly used for this purpose, vegetable acids,
like the citric (lemon juice, etc.), being often administered
with them. These acids become carbonic acid in the blood,
forming bicarbonates with the alkalies. This antacid treat-
ment is much resorted to in acute rheumatism.
Antae/us [Gr. 'Avrafos], a fabulous Libyan giant, a son
of Neptune and Terra, was a famous wrestler. He was in-
vincible as long as he continued in contact with the earth
(Terra), but he was conquered by Hercules, who raised him
into the air and strangled him to death.
Antagonist Muscles. Every muscle and set of mus-
cles in the animal body is opposed in its action either by
some other muscle or muscles, or by elastic ligaments.
Generally it is the former; thus, in the human arm We
have the triceps extensor muscle antagonized by the biceps
flexor and the brachialis anticus; in the forearm, there are
the flexor and extensor muscles of the hand and wrist, as
well as the pronators and supinators of the hand....Simi-
larly in the lower extremity opposed muscles exist, although
not always of corresponding names. The great adductor
muscles of the thigh, whose action draws the limbs together,
are antagonized by the glutei and obturator muscles and
others. The diaphragm, the contraction of which aids in
expanding the cavity of the chest, is opposed by the ex-
168
ANTAKIA—ANT-EATER.
ternal abdominal muscles, whose action is perceptible in
expiration. So constant is this provision of muscular an-
tagonism in the animal kingdom that there is no well-as-
certained example of active dilatation of any muscle. The
diastole of the heart in man and other vertebrates can be
explained best by elasticity only, as it exerts very little
power. In Myriapoda, each section of the elongated aortic
heart has triangular muscles connected with the sides of
the body, by which the diastole after contraction is effected.
The predominance of power in opposing groups of muscles
determines the position of different parts of the body when
at rest; hence, in man the naturally bent position of the
fingers during sleep, from the prevailing power of the
flexors. Disease sometimes disturbs the natural balance
of the muscles. -
Antaſkia, a city of Syria, on the Orontes, is situated
on the site of the ancient ANTIOCH (which see).
Antal/cidas [Gr. 'Avraxkiöas], a Spartan diplomatist,
who was sent on a mission to Persia when Sparta, was in a
critical position, and negotiated a treaty called the Peace
of Antalcidas, in 387 B. C. This treaty excited general
indignation among the Greeks, whose interests the Spar-
tans sacrificed to gratify their enmity to Athens and
Thebes. “One of the articles of this treaty stipulated that
all the Greek cities of Asia Minor should be subject to the
king of Persia. * r
Antana claſsis [Gr. &vravákxaorts, from &vré, “against”
(and hence implying contrast), and &vákAgats, a “bending
back”], in rhetoric, a figure in which a word is repeated,
but in a different sense or different inflection from the first,
which gives a kind of antithetical force to the expression;
as, “Learn some craft when young, that when old you may
live without craft.”
Antanana'rivo’, or Tananarivo’, the capital and
chief city of Madagascar, is situated in a mountainous
region in the middle of the island, 166 miles S. W. of Ta-
mative. . It is about 7000 feet above the level of the sea.
It is reported to be a large city, and to have manufactures
of gold chains and silk stuffs. The private houses are
mostly of wood. Pop. estimated at 80,000.
An’tar, An’tara, or An’tarah-Ibn-Sheddad', a
celebrated Arabian prince, poet, and warrior who lived
about 550 A. D. He was the author of one of the seven
poems which are called Mo’allakat, and were suspended in
the Kaaba or temple at Mecca. His martial exploits were
a favorite theme of Arabian poetry and romance. He is
the hero of a celebrated romance, translated into English
by T. Hamilton, entitled “Antar, a Bedouin Romance”
1819). -
( Antarctic [from the Gr. &vrt, “against,” “opposite,”
and &pktukós, “pertaining to the north *), opposite to Arc-
tic. The Antarctic Circle is one of the small circles of the
sphere parallel to the equator, and distant 23° 27#' from
the South Pole.
Antarctic Current. This drift-current commences
on the shores of Victoria, Land, in the region of perpetual
frost. It carries vast quantities of ice and
cold water towards the N. E. and E., and be-
comes converted into a coast-current, washing
and cooling the western shores of South Amer-
ica, thus performing a work nearly the con-
verse of that performed by the Gulf Stream on
the shores of Europe. It conveys drift ice to ;
the latitude of about 55°. º,
Antarctic Ocean, or Southern Ocean,
the name applied to that large body of water
around the South Pole included within the Ant-
arctic Circle; and also a general term desig-
nating that vast sea S. of the Atlantic, Pacific,
and Indian oceans. It has not been explored
so thoroughly as the Arctic Ocean, and was
long considered impenetrable for ships, on ac-
count of the ice, which extends much farther
from the Pole (about 10°) than in the Arctic
Ocean. Sir James Ross has explored the Ant-
arctic Ocean as far as 79° S. In Jan., 1841,
he discovered in lat. 77° 32' S, and lon. 1670 E.
a voicano 12,400 feet high, which he called
Mount Erebus. The portions of land which
have been discovered in this ocean are called
New Georgia, Sandwich Lands, New Orkneys, Enderby's
Land, Sabrina, Victoria, Land, etc.
Antarctic Researches. The first navigator who
explored these regions was Capt. Cook, who in Jan., 1774,
reached lat. 71°10'S. in lon. 106° 54" W. In 1823, Capt.
Weddell penetrated to lat. 74° 15' S. in lon. 34° 16' 15" W.,
and found there an open sea. In 1839, Capt. Wilkes, of
the U. S. navy, conducted an exploring expedition towards
the South Pole. He discovered in Jan., 1840, a portion of
a large continent in lat. 61° 30' S. and lon. 161° E. He
traced the coast westward to lon. 101° E., but was pre-
vented from landing by an impassable barrier of ice.
Capt. James Ross, who commanded a British expedition
in 1841, penetrated as far as 78° or 79° S. He computed
the position of the southern magnetic pole to be in Victoria
Land, lat. 75° 5' S., lon. 1549 8' E.
Anta/res [from the Gr. &vri, in a sense implying “com-
parison,” and 'Apps, “ Mars,” because this star was thought
to resemble Mars], a ruddy double star, the most conspicu-
ous in the constellation Scorpio. It is important in navi-
gation in computing longitude.
Ant-Catcher and Ant-Thrush, names given to
birds of tropical and sub-tropical countries that feed upon
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ants, and are nearly allied to the thrushes. They have very
powerful voices, a straight, sub-cylindrical bill, hooked at
the tip, slender legs, and short tail. Some of them belong
to the genera Pitta and Grallaria. The giant ant-catcher
of Sumatra (Pitta gigas) is of a fine green color.
Ant-Eater, a South American family of mammals,
animals of the order Edentata. Ant-eaters have no teeth,
Manis laticaudata, the Asiatic Ant-Eater.
and feed on ants and other insects, which they catch by
thrusting among them the long tongue covered with a vis-
cid saliva. The head is much elongated, and the tail is
about as long as the body, which is covered with long hair.
The toes are united as far as the base of the claws, which
are very large and strong, adapted for the purpose of tear-
ing open ant-hills. The great ant-eater (Myrmecophaga
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half feet long, exclusive of the tail, which is about two and









































ANTECEDENT—ANTHEMIUS.
169
a half feet. It has four toes on the fore feet, and five on the
hind feet. It is a sluggish animal, whose movements are
not much more rapid than those of a sloth. The little
ant-eater (Cyclothu'rus didactylus) is not more than twenty
or twenty-one inches in entire length. It is remarkable for
a peculiar structure of the skeleton. On a side view the
cavity of the chest is completely hidden by the ribs, which
are greatly flattened and overlap each other, so that on a
hasty glance the ribs appear to be formed of one solid piece
of bone. It has two claws on the fore feet and four on the
hind feet; these claws are compressed, curved, and very
sharp. The name ant-eater is sometimes given to the aard-
vark (Orycteropus Capensis) of South Africa, to the pango-
lins, the Echidna, and other mammals which subsist on
ants and other insects. One of the best known of these is
the Manis laticaudata, or pangolin of Hindostan. (See
PANGOLIN.) -
Antece/dent [Lat. antece/dens, from an’te, “before,”
and ce'do, to “go "J, that which goes before or precedes in
time or in place. In grammar, the noun to which a rela-
tive pronoun refers; in logic, the first of two propositions
in an enthymeme, and the first member of a hypothetical
proposition; opposed to the consequent; in mathematics,
the first of two terms composing a ratio. Thus, in the
ratio A : B, A is the antecedent, and B is the consequent.
The word in the plural is used in a different sense, as in
speaking of a person’s antecedents—i.e. his previous con-
duct and character, his early history or primordial rela-
tions.
Antedilu'vian [from the Lat. an/te, “before,” and
dilu'vium, the “deluge"), a term applied to any person or.
thing that existed before the Flood—i.e. the Noachian Del-
uge. According to the chronology of the Hebrew text of
the Bible, this flood occurred 1656 years after the creation
of man. The date of this event, according to the Septua-
gint version, is several centuries later. Chevalier Bunsen
adopted the theory that the Flood occurred about ten thou-
sand years ago. Geologists do not recognize that the earth
was ever inundated by a simultaneous universal deluge
since it was inhabited by man. -
Anſtelope [Lat. anti!'ope and antel/aphus ; Fr. anti-
!ope], a family of Mammalia, of the order Ruminantia, cha-
racterized by hollow horns, which are annulated and per-
manent, not annually renewed (except the Antilocapra), and
not longitudinally rigid. The family comprises numerous
genera and species, the genus Antilope being the typical
one, natives of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, remark-
able for their elegant figure and extreme agility. They
are mostly gregarious, inoffensive, and timid animals, and
vary greatly in size as well as form. The greater numbers
of them are found in Southern and Central Africa. Asia
produces numerous species. Among the various species are
the gazelle (Gazella dorcas), the beauty of whose eye is
proverbial; the addax or Nubian antelope; the stein-boc,
eland, and spring-boc of South Africa; and the chamois of
Europe. The antelopes are probably the fleetest of all
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Antilope bezoartica, the Common Antelope.
quadrupeds. Their flesh is a favorite article of food. Great
numbers of the prong-buck (Antilocapra America’na) roam
over the plains between the Mississippi River and the
Rocky Mountains. The Rocky Mountain goat is another
sº
*&Sº
antelope (Aploceras montamw8). “Born in the scorching
sun,” says Sir S. W. Baker, “nursed on the burning sand of
the treeless and shadowless Wilderness, the gazelle is among
the antelope tribe as the Arab horse is among its brethren
—the high-bred and Superlative beauty of the race. En-
tirely free from fat, and nevertheless a mass of muscle and
sinew, the gazelle is the fastest of the antelope tribe.”
The “common * or bezoar antelope (Antilope bezoartica)
is found in India and throughout Southern Asia. It is a
very beautiful animal, and is distinguished for its timidity
and swiftness. Its flesh, like that of most antelopes, is dry
and rather unpalatable. The Oriental bezoar, a phosphatic
concretion prized in the East for its supposed medicinal
virtues, is derived from the intestines of this animal. (See
ANTILOCAPRA.)
Antelope, a township of Mono co., Cal. Pop. 162.
Antelope, a township of Tehama, co., Cal. Pop. 320.
Antelope, a county in the N. E. part of Nebraska.
Area, 864 square miles. Capital, Oakdale. This county
has been constituted since the Federal census of 1870.
Antelope, a post-township of Jefferson co., Neb. Pop.
296.
An’te Naſti [a Latin term signifying “born before ”]
was a term applied to such of the Scotch as were born be-
fore the accession of James I. to the throne of England,
and who were considered as aliens by the English.
An’tennae, singular Antenſma [a Latin word mean-
ing the “ yard of a ship ’’I, jointed filaments or tubular sen-
siferous organs attached to the heads of insects and crus-
taceans. They are sometimes called feelers, and are sup-
posed to be organs of touch (or, according to some mat-
uralists, organs of hearing). An insect has two antennae,
which are very flexible, and are composed in some species
of a great number of joints. A crustacean has four an-
tennae.
Anteque/ra, a city of Spain, in the province of Malaga,
22 miles N. N. W. of Malaga, on the left bank of the
Guadalhoree. It has many monasteries and convents, and
large factories of flannel, paper, silk, and soap. The popu-
lation of Antequera consists largely of hidalgos, with
whom the vendetta was a common practice as late as 1845.
Pop. in 1860, 25,581.
Ant'eros ['Avrépos], in the Greek mythology, a being
opposed to Eros or Cupid; also the deity who avenges un-
requited love.
An’tes, a township of Blair co., Pa. Pop. 1893.
Anthe'lia [from the Gr. &vráAtos or āv6#Atos, “opposite
the sun *], luminous colored rings observed under certain
conditions around the shadow of the spectator's own head.
The conditions of the phenomenon are two : first, that the
sun be near the horizon, and secondly, that the shadow be
projected on a surface covered with dew-drops, as a field
of grass, or on a dense fog-bank distant about fifty yards.
They occur chiefly in the polar regions.
Anthelmin/tics, [Gr. &vri, “against,” and éAgws,
a “worm "I are medicines which either destroy or
drive out intestinal parasites; the former are called
vermicides, the latter vermifuges. The last named
are most commonly employed. Against the ordinary
lumbricoid worm (A8/caris lumbricoides) an infusion
or fluid extract of senna and spigelia (pink-root) is
safe and efficacious. To drive out the worrying seat-
worms or thread-worms (Oayw"rus or Asſoaris vermi-
cula'ris) nothing is better than Santonin, introduced
into the bowels in the form of a suppository. For
the more formidable tape-worm (Te'avia) oil of tur-
pentine, oil of fern, kousso, pumpkin seeds, and
pomegranate seeds are used. It is important that
the head of the tape-worm shall pass away, as, till
that happens, the joints continue to be reproduced.
In all cases of worms attention is needed to the gen-
eral condition of the digestive organs. -
An'them [Gr. &vribovos, “returning a responsive
sound”], a mixture of motett and cantata, with in-
strumental accompaniment, adapted to scriptural
words. It was carried to great perfection by Handel.
Anthe'mion, the ornament or ornamental series
used in Greek and Roman decoration which is de-
rived from floral forms, more especially the honey-
suckle, very common in the early period of Greek
art.
Anthe'mius ['Av6épitos], an eminent Greek arch-
itect and mathematician, surnamed TRALLIANUS, from
his native place, Tralles, in Lydia, was a brother of Alex-
ander Trallianus. He was patronized by Justinian at
Constantinople, and designed the celebrated church of St.
Sophia, which was finished about 537 A. D., and is sur-






































170
ANTHEMIUS–ANTHRACENE.
mounted by a dome in the Byzantine style, of which it is
probably the original type. It is now a Turkish mosque.
T)ied in 534 A. D.
Anthe' mius, or Anthe' mius Proco/pius, a Roman
emperor, who began to reign at Rome in 467 A.D., before
which he was a favorite general of Leo, the emperor of the
East. He was the father-in-law of Ricimer, who became
his enemy. Anthemius was defeated in battle by Ricimer,
and put to death in 472 A. D. -
Anºther [Lat. anthe'ra, from the Gr. &v60s, a “flower”],
the essential part of the stamen, is the case which contains
the pollen, and is the male organ of a plant. Theoretically
considered, the anther is the lamina of a transformed leaf
divided into two lobes or cells by the connective, which cor-
responds to the midrib of the leaf. When the anther is at-
tached by its base to the apex of the filament, it is called
inmate, as in the carex ; when it grows to the face or side
of the filament, it is admate, as in the magnolia; and when
the apex of the filament is attached to the middle of the
anther, the latter is versatile, as in the grasses. The an-
ther has a curious property or habit of opening to discharge
the pollen at the precise time when the stigma is ready to
receive it. .
Antherid/ium, plural Antherid/ia [from the Lat.
antheºra, an “anther,” and the Gr. eiðos, “form *], a name
applied to organs of cryptogamous plants supposed to be
analogous in functions to the anthers of the phaenerogamous
flowers. They are variously situated on the surface of
plants or within their tissue, and are in some cases collec-
tions of cells containing small bodies called phytozo'a, which
at certain periods exhibit rapid movements.
Amtho'dium [from the Gr. &v60s, “flower,” and eiðos,
“form *], a head of flowers, the same as a capitule, applied
to the flower of the thistle and other Compositae, in which
a number of florets are combined in a head and surrounded
by a common involucre.
Anthol’ogy [from the Gr. &v6oxoyia, a “collection of
flowers”], a term applied metaphorically in ancient liter-
ature to a collection of short pieces of poetry on amatory,
convivial, or moral subjects, or a selection of beautiful
thoughts and sentences in prose or verse, mostly epigrams.
The first collection in Greek entitled an Anthology was
made by Meleager, a Syrian poet who lived about 80–60
B. C. Another collection, compiled by Constantine Cepha-
las in the tenth century, was discovered by Salmasius, and is
now extant. This anthology, augmented by epigrams found
on ancient monuments, was edited by Brunck, under the
title of “Analecta Veterum Poétarum Græcorum ” (1776).
A revised edition of the same was published by Jacobs, en-
titled “Anthologia Graeca, sive Poètarum Graecorum Lusus
ex Recensione Brunckii” (Leipsic, 1794–1814). Scaliger
published a Latin anthology in 1573 entitled “Catalecta
Veterum Poëtarum” (“Selections from the Old Poets”).
Collections of poetry which may not inappropriately be
termed anthologies are also found in the literatures of Ara-
bia, Turkey, Persia, and China.
Anºthon (CHARLEs), LL.D., an American classical schol-
ar, born in the city of New York Nov. 19, 1797, graduated
at Columbia College in 1815. He studied law, and was ad-
mitted to the bar in 1819, but he never practised that pro-
fession. In 1820 he became adjunct professor of ancient
languages in Columbia College, and in 1835 principal pro-
fessor of the classics in that institution. He published, be-
sides other works, an edition of Horace with notes (1830),
a “Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,” and a
“Classical Dictionary '' (1841). His works have been re-
printed in England. Died July 29, 1867.
Anthon (John), LL.D., a brother of the preceding,
born in Detroit in 1784, graduated at Columbia College in
1801. He was a very eminent lawyer, and was president
of the Law Institute of New York. He published several
legal works of importance.
5, 1863.
Amſthony, a township of Lycoming co., Pa. Pop. 543.
Anthony, a township of Montour co., Pa. Pop. 959.
Anthony (HENRY B.), a statesman, was born at Cov-
entry, R.I., April 1, 1815, graduated at Brown University
in 1833, was editor of the “Providence Journal” (1838–59),
governor of Rhode Island (1849–51), and U. S. Senator
(1859–71).
Anthony (SUSAN BROWNELL), born at South Adams,
Mass., Feb. 15, 1820, was the daughter of a Quaker. She
was for fifteen years a teacher in New York. Since 1852
she has been an active leader of the woman’s right move-
ment; she has also been long distinguished for her zeal
and eloquence in the temperance and anti-slavery causes.
Since the civil war she has given most of her labors to the
cause of woman’s suffrage.
Died in New York City Mar.
Anthony, SAINT. See ANTONY, SAINT.
Anthony’s Creek, a township of Greenbrier co., West
Va. Pop. 632. -
Anthony’s Nose, a mountain in the Highlands, E.
of the Hudson River, is partly in Philipstown township,
Putnam co., and partly in Cortlandt township, Westchester
co., N. Y. It rises 1228 feet above the river. In making
the railroad cutting through its base many beautiful min-
erals were found.
Anthony Village, a post-village in Coventry township,
Kent co., R. I., has a national bank and important manu-
factures. It is on the Hartford Providence and Fishkill
R. R., 13% miles S. W. of Providence.
Anthoph’yllite, a silicate of magnesia and iron from
Norway. A fibrous mineral of similar composition, called
hydrous anthophyllite, is found on New York Island, near
the corner of Fifty-ninth street and Tenth avenue, which is
supposed to be an altered hornblende.
Anthosid’erite [from the Gr. &v6os, a “flower,” and
oríðmpos, “iron ’’), a hydrated silicate of iron occurring in
fine fibrous tufts, with a radiated structure. It is found at
Antonia, Pereira, in Minas Geraes, in Brazil.
Anthoxam'thum [from the Gr. &v60s, a “flower,” and
Šav66s, “yellow ’’), a genus of plants of the natural order
Graminaceae, natives of Europe. The flowers are a dull
yellow when ripe. It includes the sweet vernal grass (An-
thoacanthum odoratum), which grows in meadows and per-
fumes the air with an exquisite fragrance. It is natural-
ized in the U. S.
An'thraceme, or Paramaphºthaline (C14H10), a hy-
dro-carbon existing in coal-tar, and extracted from the last
portions of the distillate from this substance. The prod-
ucts of the distillation of coal-tar as ordinarily conducted
are: (1) Crude coal-tar naphtha, containing benzol, toluol,
etc., lighter than water. (2) Heavy oil of coal-tar, or
“dead oil,” heavier than water, and containing about 10
per cent. of PHENOL (which see) and cresol, and much
naphthaline. (3) Green oil, which becomes semi-solid on
cooling, owing to the crystallization of anthracene. (4)
Pitch, which remains in the still. Versemann and Fenner
have patented the further distillation of pitch till only coke
remains in the still. They thus obtain a much larger yield
of green oil, and increase the product of anthraceme from
one-half of 1 per cent. to 2 per cent. of the original tar.
The semi-solid green oil has been used in England to some
extent as a cheap lubricator or wheel-grease, under the
name of “green grease.” The anthracene is separated
from the green oil by chilling and pressing. In its crude
state it contains considerable oil, naphthaline, pyrene,
chrysene, chrysogen, retene, anthraflavic acid, etc. To
purify the crude anthracene cake, it may be subjected to
distillation, the first and last portions being rejected, the
intermediate portion being recrystallized from benzol or
coal-tar naphtha; or the crude cake may be washed with pe-
troleum naphtha, to remove oils, etc., and then recrystallized
from benzol. Thus obtained, anthracene is always colored
yellow by chrysogen, which may be destroyed by exposing
its solution to the direct rays of the sun. Graebe and
Liebermann prepared anthracene by the action of zinc-dust
on alizarine, the coloring-matter of madder, and were from
this led to devise a method for preparing alizarine from an-
thracene—an operation which is now the basis of a very
important industry. (See ALIZARINE.)
Anthracene may also be formed - artificially by benzyl
chloride (C7H7Cl) with water, and by exposing to a red or
white heat mixtures of ethylene with benzol, cinnamene,
diphenyl, chrysene, or naphthaline. Anthracene is ob-
tained in , beautiful white crystalline laminae, melting at
213° C., and distilling at 360° C. Anthracene is insoluble
in water, soluble in alcohol, benzol, and bisulphide of car-
bon to the extent of 0.6, 0.9, and 1.7 per cent, respectively.
Heat greatly increases its solubility in these liquids. It is
also soluble in ether, and the essential oils, especially oil
of turpentime. Light petroleum naphtha, which dissolves
naphthaline readily, has little effect on anthracene. Oxi-
dizing agents, such as potassic dichromate and sulphuric or
acetic acid, change anthracene into oxanthracene or an-
thraquinone (C14H802), which, by the addition of 02, be-
comes anthraquinonic acid or alizarine, C14HsO4. Oil of
vitriol dissolves anthracene, forming a conjugated acid.
With bromine and chlorine, anthracene forms several sub-
stitution products. On mixing alcoholic solutions of picric
acid and anthracene, beautiful ruby-red needles of picrate
are obtained. (See “Anthracene und seine Derivate,” by G.
AUERBACH, Berlin, 1873; Kopp's articles in “Le Moniteur
Scientifique du Quesneville,” Aug. 15, 1870, Aug. 1 and 15,
1871; also “Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte der Che-
mie,” 1868 et seq., and WAGNER's “Jahresbericht der Chemis-
chen Technologie,” 1868 et seq.) C. F. CHANDLER.

their volatile matter.
ANTHRACITE–ANTHROPOLOGY.
171
An'thracite [Lat. anthraci/tes, from the Gr. &v6paş, a
“coal”], an important fossil fuel, the hardest variety of
stone coal, consisting, when pure, almost exclusively of car-
bon. It has a conchoidal fracture, a black color, and an
imperfectly metallic lustre, from which it is sometimes call-
ed glance coal. It burns slowly, with intense heat, without
smoke, and with little flame. Anthracite, like all other
varieties of coal, is of vegetable origin, and is, in fact,
formed from softer and more bituminous coals by the
action of subterranean heat, which has driven off most of
The composition of anthracite is
the same as that of coke formed artificially from bitu-
minous coal, and it is more dense than coke only because
it has been heated under great pressure. Anthracite has
no definite composition, but shades imperceptibly into
graphite on one hand, and into bituminous coal on the other.
. The anthracite beds of Pennsylvania are all of carbonif-
erous age, and were once connected with the bituminous
coals of the Alleghany coal-field, having been separated
and changed in character by the upheaval of the Alle-
ghany Mountains. The coals of that State show a regular
gradation of composition in going from the east to the
west, and receding from the focus of metamorphic action in
the Alleghanies. For example, the coal of the Lehigh basin
is most baked, and contains the least amount of volatile
matter—3 to 7 per cent.; the Scranton coal, from 9 to 12
per cent.; the semi-bituminous coal of Blossburg and
Broad Top, from 17 to 25 per cent.; the bituminous coal of
Western Pennsylvania, from 30 to 50 per cent. In Rhode
Island a small basin of carboniferous rocks has been still
more thoroughly calcined, and the coal is partially convert-
ed into graphite (graphitic anthracite). Anthracite may be
of any geological age. In China, the coals are mostly, if
not altogether, of mesozoic age, and over large areas they
are anthracitic. Near Richmond, Va., trap dikes bursting
through the triassic coal-beds have changed some of them
locally into a spongy anthracite, a “natural coke.” Near
Santa Fé, N. M., an outburst of volcanic rock has, over
many square miles, converted a cretaceous lignite into an-
thracite. The triassic coal of Los Bronces, Sonora, has been
extensively metamorphosed by the action of igneous rocks,
and on Queen Charlotte Island, N. of Vancouver’s Island, a
local eruption of trap has converted a cretaceous lignite into
one of the most compact and brilliant anthracites known.
The density and great heating power of anthracite make
it the best of all fuels for metallurgic purposes, while its
freedom from smoke specially commends it for combus-
tion in cities. For the generation of steam, anthracite
has no superiority over the best bituminous and semi-bitu-
mimous coals; and as a household fuel, cannel is preferred
for open fires from its cheerful flame and the facility with
which it is kindled; but the steadiness, cleanliness, and
economy of an anthracite fire will always make it the sta-
ple fuel of the communities which can obtain it.
Anthracite occurs and is largely mined in Wales, Ire-
land, and other parts of Europe, but the most extensive
and productive beds of anthracite are those of Pennsylva-
nia. These form several detached basins lying between the
folds of the Alleghany Mountains. Their aggregate area is
only about 500 square miles, but from their proximity to the
chief centres of population and manufacture they have had
a most important effect on the development of the indus-
try and wealth of America. (See CoAL.) .(See TAYLOR's
“Statistics of Coal;” DADow’s “Coal, Iron, and Oil;”
and McFARLANE’s “Coal Formations of America.”)
J. S. NEWBERRY.
Anthraquinone. See ANTHRACENE and ALIZARINE.
Anthropol’atry [from the Gr. &v6poros, “man,” and
Aarpeta, “service,” “worship ’’I signifies the worship of
man. The primitive Christians accused the heathen of an-
thropolatry, because they deified certain heroes or represent-
ed their gods as having a human form.
Anthropol’ogy [from the Gr. &v6poros, “man,” and
Aóyos, a “treatise”] is a term used in several senses: (1)
It signifies the Science of man as an object of natural his-
tory, and as compared with other animals; (2) the science
which treats of man’s whole nature, as distinguished from
psychology, which treats of the mind or spirit of man; (3)
in a theological sense it denotes the study of man in his
relations to God. (For a notice of anthropology in the
former senses, see MAN AND HIs MIGRATIONs, by President
M. B. ANDERSON; and MANKIND, by Prof. A. GUYoT.)
ANTHROPOLOGY [ävěpotroAoyia, “doctrine respecting man”],
in the theological as distinguished from the physiological
sense, is that part of the Christian system which treats of
man in distinction from God. In its entire extent it in-
cludes the description of man both as created and as fallen,
and therefore properly includes both the holiness and the
sin of the human race. It begins with the creation of man
as composed of body and soul, and thus supposes a basis
in physical anthropology. . It then considers the soul as
created in the image of God, and thus discusses the nature
of holiness and the happiness of an unfallen creature in
the paradisaical state. But inasmuch as man continued in
his primitive holy condition but a brief time, his history
is made up mainly of his apostasy and its consequences, so
that practically the subject of anthropology relates to such
topics as original and actual sin, the free and the enslaved
will, the relation of the human to the divine efficiency in
regeneration, and the related doctrines. The great contro-
versies which have resulted in the several anthropologies
that have a place in the history of religious opinions were
concerned almost exclusively with sin, and it is in this
reference that we shall examine the subject.
In the primitive Church of the first three centuries the
fact of apostasy was universally acknowledged, but only
in a general form. The doctrines of sin and grace in their
more difficult and scientific aspects did not seriously en-
gage the attention of the Church. The theological mind
was occupied with the doctrine of the Trinity and the great
controversy concerning the deity of Christ. The state-
ments of Scripture concerning the fall of Adam and its con-
sequences were taken without much discussion, and no acute
and powerful exegesis was expended upon them for the
purpose of answering the more difficult questions respect-
ing the nature and depth of human depravity. When,
however, these latter points were presented, and any direct
response was given, sin in its nature was referred, to a con-
siderable degree, to a sensuous ground, and its intensity
was not regarded as so great as to deprive the human will of
all power to good. The origin and development of human
corruption was traced to the body full as much as to the
activity of the spirit itself, and hence a remainder of en-
ergy was assumed to exist in the fallen will, by which it
could co-operate with the Holy Ghost in regeneration.
This view appears particularly in the writings of Clement
of Alexandria, and Origen, and colors the anthropology of
that Alexandrine School which acknowledged those theo-
logians as its great leaders. .
It would be a mistake, however, to regard Clement and
Origen as the only representatives of the anthropology of
the primitive Church. In Tertullian and Cyprian a tend-
ency appears towards that theory which was afterwards
elaborated by Augustine. While the part which the Sem-
suous mature has in determining the origin and nature of
sin is still asserted, yet more weight is attached to the
self-determination of the human will itself—to the purely
mental and spiritual energy that originates and perpetu-
ates it. This naturally leads to more assertion of the bond-
age of the will, and a more profound conception of sin
as enfeebling and ruining the moral power of the soul.
This tendency was strengthened by the adoption by Ter-
tulliam of the traducian view of the origin of the individ-
ual. This North African Father, in a somewhat crude
and materializing manner, held that both the body and
soul are propagated. Both the immaterial essence of the
soul and the material substance of the body are individ-
ualized portions of human nature as created in Adam.
There is no creation from nothing after the creative act on
the sixth day, when “God created man male and female,
and blessed them, and called their name Adam.” (Gen.
v. 1, 2.) There is only procreation, or the deduction of
individual after individual from this original unity. Such
a theory of the propagation of the soul, however difficult
in itself, yet made the propagation of sin more intelligible,
and prepared the way for the subsequent doctrine of the
propagation of sin itself, and not of mere physical evil.
The anthropology indicated in this brief statement of
the views of the early Church received a subsequent mod-
ification in the later Alexandrime and Antiochian Schools. .
The best representatives of the first were Athanasius, the
two Gregories, and the two Cyrils; of the second, Theo-
dore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret, and Chrysostom. The in-
fluence of Origen upon these Greek theologians is apparent,
but they receded from his extreme positions and modified
his anthropology, (1) by the adoption of creationism in-
stead of pre-existence; (2) by recognizing more distinctly
the effects of the Adamic transgression upon the soul it-
self, including the will; and (3) by making a more guarded
assertion of power to good in the fallen man. They agreed,
however, with the earlier anthropology in affirming that
original sin, or inherited corruption, is not culpable. It is
only a propagated disorder of the sensuous nature seen in
exorbitant physical appetites, from which temptation is-
sues, and to which every human individual yields without
exception. But until this act of the individual will there
is no sin, properly so called, no sin in the sense of guilt,
in any man. The mortal Adam could beget mortal de-
scendants, but the sinful Adam could not beget strictly
sinful and guilty descendants. “What, then,” says Chrys-
ostom, “is the meaning of the phrase ‘Were made sinners?”
}^
172
ANTHROPOLOGY.
(Rom. v. 19.) It seems to me to denote liability to suffer-
ing and death.” In this exegesis, Chrysostom put a sec-
ondary meaning upon the verb “to sin,” which has come
down to the present time, and which has unquestionably
exerted an influence upon many theologians who would
agree with the Golden-mouthed in most of his positions,
and also upon many who would be unwilling to adopt his
anthropology. -
The question as to the guilt of original sin, and the jus-
tice of imputing that “ disobedience of one man whereby
many were made sinners” (Rom. v. 19), is, in truth, the
hinge upon which the whole subject of anthropology must
turn. And the way in which it is answered constitutes
the dividing line between the two great dogmatic divisions
which from Augustine down to the present day appear in
the history of the Church. Augustine, in his controversy
with Pelagianism, but still more with Semi-Pelagianism,
maintained that the first sin of Adam is imputable to the
posterity as guilt, and is a just ground of condemnation,
because the posterity existed in the progenitor, and in .
some real but inexplicable manner acted in him in the
first transgression. “We were all,” he says, “ in that one
man, since we all were that one man. The particular form
in which we were to live as individuals had not been cre-
ated and assigned to us, man by man, but that seminal ma–
ture was in existence from which we were to be propa-
gated.” (De Civitate Dei, xiii. 14.) If the mystery of such
a generic existence and such a natural union between the
progenitor and the posterity could be believed and the fact
conceded, then the imputation of Adam's sin to his de-
scendants would be made upon the same principle that it
is imputed to Adam himself—upon the principle, namely,
of attributing to every real and veritable agent every real
and veritable act of the agent. The consequence of this
primal act of apostasy was the total depravation of the
entire human species, then existing in the progenitors, and
consequently every individual produced out of this species
is born entirely depraved. Beginning in the higher parts
of the soul, the reason and will, sin penetrates and poisons
the lower powers, and vitiates the bodily appetites and
propensities. Sin is spiritual evil in its very outset, and
becomes sensuous corruption in its final issue. The soul
itself falls from God, and carries the body with its sensu-
ous nature, along with it. Unlike the anthropology of
Origen, that of Augustine explains the disordered appe-
tites of the flesh by the rebellion in the spirit, and not the
rebellion in the spirit by the disorder of the flesh.
Another point of difference between Augustine and his
Semi-Pelagian opponents relates to the question as to the
amount of power to holiness in man after apostasy. Pela-
gianism, as defined and defended by its ablest advocate,
Julian of Eclanum, contended for plenary power in every
man to keep the moral law. The apostasy still left the
will free, and freedom means the liberty of indifference, or
the power of choosing either good or evil at any instant.
This view was deemed to be extreme by those who would
find a middle view between Pelagius and Augustine. Cas-
sian and Faustus of Rhegium, the best representatives of
the so-called Semi-Pelagianism, maintained that by the
fall of Adam his posterity were greatly weakened, but not
made absolutely impotent to good. There still remained a
minimum of goodness, which is capable of co-operating
with God, and therefore regeneration is a joint product of
grace and free-will. Neither can do without the other.
In opposition to this, Augustine contended that there is
no power to good, not even a minimum, left in the human
Soul since apostasy. The heart and will are wholly deter-
mined to evil, and there is no remainder, however small,
of either inclination or affection that is friendly to God
and holiness. The carnal mind is enmity towards God,
and nothing but enmity. Hence, man cannot co-operate
with God in regeneration. Not until the sinner is made
willing (Ps. cx. 3; Phil. ii. 12, 13) can he will the right.
The Pelagian anthropology, which was the occasion of
forcing out the systematic statements of Augustine, denied
that any physical or moral corruption of human nature
resulted from the Adamic transgression, interpreted the
statements of the fifth chapter of Romans as teaching the
influence of bad example, and asserted that sin is not
strictly universal, but that some have lived without trans-
gression. Pelagianism itself never exerted much influence
within the Church. It contained too few elements of truth,
and was too utterly at variance with the Scripture repre-
sentations of sin and grace, to get the advocacy of any
who possessed an evangelical experience. It was rejected
as heresy. But the middle view of Semi-Pelagianism held
its ground by reason of its recognition of the injurious
effects of Adam’s apostasy upon his posterity, and its ac-
knowledgment of the need of grace in order to recovery .
therefrom. Moreover, the degree of power to good which
many of the Semi-Pelagians asserted was much less than
that asserted in the Alexandrine anthropology, and in some
instances it was reduced to so low a minimum as to border
closely upon the Augustinian impotence. Wiggers compares
the three systems with each other as follows: Augustinian-
ism asserts that man is morally dead, Semi-Pelagianism
maintains that he is morally sick : Pelagianism holds that
he is morally well.
The Augustinian and Semi-Pelagian anthropologies
(that of Pelagius being rejected by all parties within the
Church) continued to hold their ground with varying suc-
cess. The Augustinian theory of sin and grace was adopt-
ed by the Western Church at the Councils of Orange and
Valence, in 529, as the catholic orthodoxy, not merely in
opposition to Pelagianism, but also to Semi-Pelagianism
and all grades of the Synergistic theory of regeneration.
But it would be an error to suppose that the Western Church
as a body continued to adhere to the views of the venerated
North African Father. Theologians like Leo and Gregory
in the fifth and sixth centuries, and like Bede, Gottschalk,
and Alcuin in the eighth and ninth centuries, propagated
the teachings of Augustine respecting the corruption of
human nature and the agency of the Holy Spirit in regen-
eration, but the middle theory found increasing currency
in the mediaeval Church. Its less rigorous character, to-
gether with its comparative silence upon the more difficult
parts of the doctrines of original sin, predestination, and
the enslaved will, recommended it to a large class of minds;
while the element of human efficiency which it introduced
into the doctrine of regeneration was thought to render it
a more intelligible and practical doctrine. It was not
strange, consequently, that in course of time the Latin
Church, though holding the name of Augustine in the
highest veneration, and claiming not to depart from his
teachings, should have lapsed very generally into Semi-
Pelagianism. It came thus upon the same doctrinal posi-
tion with the Greek Church, which, during all the contro-
versy at the West respecting sin and grace, continued to
adopt the views of Chrysostom and the Greek Fathers gen-
erally. In the eleventh century the wonderful intellect and
saintly piety of Anselm maintained the Augustinian view
with great power and depth of reasoning, but was not able
to turn the current which was sweeping with an increasing
flood in the other direction. Schoolmen like Bernard and
Aquinas were nearer to Augustine than to any other great
authority of the past, but the main influence of Scholastic-
ism as a whole tended to undermine his positions. The
dawn of a new era at the Reformation opened the old
questions. Luther, Calvin, and the Protestant theologians
generally not only adopted the Augustinian anthropology,
but stated the doctrines involved in it with still greater
clearness, and defended them with still closer reasoning.
The papal Church took the opposite view. The Council of
Trent enunciated Semi-Pelagianism, and endeavored to
give it currency under the great authority of Augustine,
whose opinions were in some instances honestly miscon-
ceived, and in others knowingly misrepresented.
Wherever Protestantism prevailed, Augustinianism pre-
vailed also. Augustine’s theory of sin and grace pervaded
and moulded the symbols of the Reformation almost with-
out an exception, and from them passed into the heart and
life of the Protestant Church. But in process of time the
same transition occurs in Protestantism which we have
seen taking place in the Latin Church. The more rigorous
type gives way to the milder in some quarters. The Ar-
minian controversy in reality turned upon the same points
that were discussed between Augustine and the monks of
Adrumetum, between Prosper and Cassian. Calvinism is
the revived Augustinianism, and Arminianism is the re-
vived Semi-Pelagianism. These two types of doctrine in
reality exhaust and include all the varieties of doctrinal
opinion that prevail in modern evangelical Christendom.
There are minor differences, but churches and individuals
are either Calvinistic or Arminian, as in the Patristic
period they were either Augustinian or Semi-Pelagian.
There is no real mid-point between these two, although
schools and theologians have frequently attempted to find
OI) e. &
The difference between these anthropologies is due to
logic rather than to practical experience. . The follower
of Arminius agrees with the adherent of Calvin in holding
the fundamental doctrines of the Trinity and the incarna-
tion, of apostasy and redemption, and the religious expe-
rience of both alike is evangelical; that is, it springs out
of faith in the atonement of the Son of God. The differ-
ence between them relates not to the general facts and
truths of the New Testament, but to the more specific and
exact definitions of them. The modern Arminian, like the
ancient Semi-Pelagian, while confessing sin and trusting
in the blood of Christ, urges what he believes to be a valid
argument against the doctrines of predestination and irre-
sistible grace, and that particular form of the doctrine of
ANTHROPOMORPHISM-ANTIETAM CREEK.
173
original sin out of which the doctrines of predestination
and irresistible grace issue as necessary corollaries. And
his opponent shows his respect for this belief by entering
into the debate, and defending what he thinks to be the
more exact and self-consistent and all-comprehending
statement of that same evangelical system. The issue of
a controversy that originates in logic must therefore be left
to logic. The closest reasoner from the scriptural premises
and the evangelical experience must be adjudged to be the
victor. If the Arminian anthropology shall in the course of
time prove itself to be the more scientific and self-consist-
ent system of the two, it will be recognized and accepted
as such. But if in the same calm and cool atmosphere the
Augustinian statements shall evince their superiority, they
must pass for Christian science.
(For the sources of information see, among others,
AUGUSTINE’s Pelagian and Semi-Pelagian treatises; VOS-
SIUs, “Historia de Controversiis quae Pelagius ejusque re-
liquae moverunt;” CALVIN’s “Institutes,” book ii.; USSHER's
“Works,” vol. iii.; CHEMNITZIUs, “IExamen Concilii Triden-
tini;” WIGGER’s “Darstellung;” GANGAUF, “Metaphysiche
Psychologie des Augustines;” NEANDER’s “Church. History,”
ii., 557–627; GUERICKE’s “Church History,” 2 91–93;
MüLLER, “ Christian Doctrine of Sin;” BAUR's “Gegen-
satz;” . MöHLER, “Symbolik;” REDEPENNING’s “Orig-
enes;” HASSE, “Anselm;” ARMINIUs’s “Works;” EPISCO-
PIUs, “Opera;” LIMBorch’s “Theologia Christiana;” BEL-
LARMINE, “Disputationes;” JEREMY TAYLOR, “On Original
Sin;” WHITBY, “On Original Sin;” EDwARDs, “On Orig-
inal Sin;” HAGENBACH's “History of Doctrine;” SHEDD's
“History of Doctrine;” CUNNINGHAM’s “Historical Theol-
ogy;” NEANDER’s “History of Christian Dogmas.”)
W. G. T. SHEDD.
Anthropomor/phism [from the Gr. &v6potros, a “man,”
and popóñ, a “form”], the representation of the Deity under
a human form or with human affections; the figurative ap-
plication to God of terms which properly relate to human
beings. Also the heresy of the ANTHROPOMORPHITES (which
see).
Anthropomor/phites, or Anthropomorphists,
persons who believe or imagine that the Deity has naturally
a human form, as the ancient Greeks and other pagans.
This error has been also entertained by some Christians,
especially the Audaeans or Audians, a Syrian sect formed
about 350 A. D. The tendency to anthropomorphism arises
from the inability of man to form any conception of a divine
Person except by imagining that there is some similarity
between the human and the divine nature.
Anti ſãvrt, “against "j, a Greek preposition which oc-
curs as a prefix to many English words, denoting oppo-
sition, as antidote, “given against" [poison]; antipodes,
“opposite [our] feet,” etc. . -
Antibes, ÖN/teeb' (anc. Antip'olis), a fortified seaport-
town in the S. E. of France, in the department of Alpes
Maritimes, is on the Mediterranean, 17 miles by rail S. W.
of Nice. Its port is small but deep, and is furnished with
a lighthouse. Lat. 43° 35' N., and lon. 7°81' E. It has
a college, and a considerable trade in olives, fruits, oil, Salt
fish, etc. Here are some remains of great antiquity. It
was founded by a Greek colony about 340 B.C. Its Proven-
çal name Antibowl readily recalls the ancient Greek appella-
tion. Its coins, the remains of its theatre and of certain Ro-
man constructions, have excited the interest of antiquaries,
but its ancient history is obscure. Pop. in 1866, 6064.
An’tichlore, a name given by papermakers to sub-
stances which are employed to remove from the pulp the
chlorine which, in the form of chloride of lime, had been
used to bleach it, and which, if allowed to remain in the
pulp, would not only damage the machinery, but injure the
strength of the paper. Sulphite and bisulphite of soda
were first employed, but at present hyposulphite of soda is
almost invariably used. Sulphide of calcium, proto-chlo-
ride of tin, and coal-gas have been used. (See BLEACHING...)
Amſtichrist [Gr. 'Avrixptorros, from évrt, “against,” and
Xplorós, “Christ”], a name which has been variously ap-
plied by Christian writers to a supposed powerful individual
or institution destined to arise in opposition to Christianity,
and to obtain a partial or temporary triumph over it. This
idea has been traced back beyond the Christian era by some
writers, who cite in favor of this view the prophecy of Eze-
kiel concerning Gog and Magog. The word Antichrist oc-
curs in the Scriptures only in the First and Second Epistles
of John. He says “that every spirit that confesseth not
that Jesus Christ is corne in the flesh” is Antichrist. The
“Man of Sin” and “Adversary’ of Paul's Second Epistle
to the Thessalonians are commonly identified with the
Antichrist of John. Many writers, both before and since
the Protestant Reformation, have made the pope, or the
papacy, Antichrist. Many writers, both Roman Catholics
º
and Protestants, have suggested one or another of the per-
secuting emperors, such as Nero or Diocletian. Others say
a succession of Roman emperors. -
Anticli’max [for etymology, see CLIMAX], in rhetoric,
a sentence in which the ideas become less important or im–
pressive at the close; a sentence which descends from great
to little, and is the reverse of a climax, as in this verse of
Pope: “Die and endow a college or a cat;” and this line
from Horace: “ Parturiunt montes, nascetur ridiculus mus.”
Anticli'nal Ax^is, in geology, a term used to denote
an imaginary line dividing the portions of a stratum which
dip in opposite directions. It may be compared to the
ridge of a house which has a steep roof sloping in opposite
directions. -
Anti-Corn-Haw League, in British politics, an as-
sociation formed about 1839 to procure the repeal of the
corn laws, in order that breadstuffs might be imported free
from duty. The constitution of the League was dated
Mar. 20, 1839, and the central office was located at Man-
chester. This free-trade movement was opposed by the
Conservative party and by the landed interest. The prin-
cipal orators of the League were Richard Cobden and John
Bright. A large amount of money was expended by the
League in paying lecturers and in the distribution of
printed arguments on the subject, among which was Gon-
oral Thompson’s “Catechism of the Corn-Laws.” The
prime minister, Sir Robert Peel, and a majority of Parlia–
ment having been converted to the principles of free-trade
in grain, the corn laws were repealed in 1846.
Anticos’ti, a large island of the province of Quebec,
Dominion of Canada, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, between
lat. 49° 04' and 49° 58' N., and lon. 61° 45' and 64° 35' W.
Area, more than 3750 square miles, over one-half of which
is arable land of excellent quality. Its length is 140 miles,
and its greatest breadth is 35 miles. The climate is health-
ful, and remarkably fine for the latitude. The island was
long regarded as worthless, but it has been surveyed and
pronounced to abound in valuable forests of pine, spruce,
tamarae, ash, and other valuable timber; also in coal, peat,
plumbago, Salt-springs, marl, marble, building-stone, grind-
stones, and valuable minerals. The island abounds in fur-
bearing animals, and its waters already afford valuable
fisheries. In 1873 the island was divided by the “Anti-
costi Company” into twenty counties of five townships
each. Ellis Bay (the chief settlement) and Fox Bay are
the only tolerable harbors.
Antic/yra [Gr. 'Avrikvpal, an ancient city of Thessaly,
on the river Sperchius. Another Anticyra was a city of
Phocis, with a harbor on the Corinthian Gulf. Both were
noted for the production of hellebore.
Antidicoma’rianites (“enemies of Mary”) were foll-
lowers of Bonosus and Helvidius, two Italians of the fourth
century who taught that the Virgin Mary, the mother of
Jesus, was also the mother of other children.
An’tidote [from the Gr. &vri, “against,” and 8t&opºt, to
“give ’’), a medicine given to overcome or prevent the in-
jurious effects of poisons. Antidotes are chemical or
physiological. The first act by neutralizing the poison,
converting it into an insoluble or harmless substance.
Physiological antidotés produce action within the body
which enables it to resist the effect of the poison. Thus,
belladonna and opium, both poisomous, are physiological
antidotes or counter-poisons to each other. Alcohol or
ammonia is the physiological antidote of certain snake-
poisons. The more important antidotes are mentioned in
this work under the name of the poison for which they are
administered.
Antietam, a township of Washington co., Md. P. 854.
Antietam Creek is the name of a small but deep
river in Maryland, which empties into the Potomac about
6 miles above Harper’s Ferry, and which gives name to
the battle fought near Sharpsburg on Sept. 17, 1862, be-
tween the Federal troops, under Gen. McClellan, and the
Confederates, under Gen. Lee. The Confederate army had
crossed the Potomac near Leesburg on the 4th, 5th, and
6th of September, and had occupied Frederick and the
surrounding country along the Monocacy. McClellan
threw a part of his army between the enemy and the fords
of the Potomac, and thus forced Lee to leave Frederick on
the 12th, who then marched towards Hagerstown. Two
days previously, Jackson had separated himself from the
main army, and hurried by forced marches towards Har-
per's Ferry, which was occupied by Col. D. S. Miles. On
Sept. 15 this important position was surrendered to the
Confederates, and Jackson made over 12,000 prisoners.
In the mean while, the Federal army had followed Lee.
towards the N., and on the 14th had taken Crampton’s
Gap and the heights of South Mountain, which com-
manded the road to Hagerstown, thus forcing Lee to re-
ºf
*
174
ANTIGONE–ANTILLES, THE.
treat over the Antietam to Sharpsburg. On the afternoon
of the 16th he was followed by Hooker, who, after a sharp
engagement, secured a favorable position. On the following
morning the real battle was begun by Hooker, who rapidly
drove back the left wing of the Confederates under Jack-
son, while at the same time Burnside engaged the right
wing. The battle at first raged around a corn-field sur-
rounded by woods, to which Hooker had in the beginning
driven the enemy. Twice the Federal troops had been
repulsed, before a party detached from Franklin’s division
succeeded in holding it. But Hooker had already been
wounded and carried from the field, and the command had
devolved upon Gen. Sumner. In the mean while, Burm-
side on the extreme left had made two unsuccessful at-
tempts to cross the Antietam, when at three o’clock in the
afternoon he placed himself at the head of the troops and
drove back the enemy, until a row of hills occupied by
batteries checked his farther advance. At four o’clock
Burnside received orders to gain this position at any
price. The first battery was then taken. But by this
time Lee had succeeded in strengthening the second hill
by A. P. Hill's division, so that Burnside declared himself
not able to hold the ground gained, if not assisted by
McClellan with the reserve. McClellan did not accede to
this demand, and the Federal troops were driven back to
the bridge, which the Confederates did not venture to at-
tack. In the centre, French’s division steadily advanced,
without being able, however, to occupy the hills. Richard-
son, who commanded another division of Summer's corps,
drove the Confederates from the river halfway back to
Sharpsburg. Thus, the Federal army, when darkness put
an end to the battle, had gained a few advantages at all
points, but had not been able to gain a decisive success. The
following morning the Confederates asked for an armistice
to bury their dead, which was granted, and under cover of
these operations Lee retreated in the night of Sept. 18–19
to the right bank of the Potomac, without encountering
much resistance. With regard to the forces at the dispo-
sition of the two commanders-in-chief, the statements vary
considerably. McClellan states that his army numbered
87,164, and estimates that of the Confederates at 97,445
men, while Lee himself states it to have been only 40,000.
According to the Richmond “Enquirer,” Lee had 60,000
under his personal command, while Pollard (“Southern
History of the War”) estimates Lee's forces in the morn-
ing at 45,000 and in the afternoon at 70,000 men. The
losses seem to have been pretty nearly equal. McClellan
gives his at 12,469, inclusive of 2010 dead, while official
accounts for Lee’s losses are wanting. According to the
reports of the commanders of the several corps, they
amounted during the fortnight's campaign in Maryland to
13,533. According to McClellan’s report, they were sev-
eral thousand more. * -
Antig’one [Gr. 'Avriyāvm], a daughter of GEdipus, king
of Thebes, and Jocasta. She attended her father in his
exile, and buried her brother Polynices in defiance of the
edict of the tyrant Creon, who, for her disobedience, im–
mured her alive. Her tragic story is the subject of one of
the dramas of Sophocles.
Antigo'nish, a county in the extreme N. E. part of
Nova Scotia, bordering on St. George's Bay. Area, about
500 square miles. Coal is found. Capital, Antigonish.
Pop. in 1871, 16,512.
Antigonish, capital of the above county, is situated
on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 40 miles from New Glasgow.
It is surrounded by a fine agricultural district, and has one
weekly newspaper. Pop. about 4000.
Antig’omus [Gr. 'Avriyovos], king of Asia, surnamed
CYCLOPs (i. e. “one-eyed”), a Macedonian general, was
born about 382 B. C. He took part in Alexander’s cam-
aign against Persia, and became satrap of Phrygia in
333. In the division of the empire which followed the
death of Alexander, Antigonus received the provinces of
Lycia, Pamphylia, and the Greater Phrygia. Having
become an enemy of Perdiccas, he formed an alliance
with Antipater and Ptolemy in 321 B. C. After the death
of Perdiccas (321 B. C.), Antigonus waged war in Asia
Minor against Eumenes, whom he defeated and put to
death in 316. He obtained by conquest several provinces
in Asia, and indulged an immoderate ambition, to restrain
which Ptolemy, Cassander, Seleucus, and Lysimachus
formed a league against him in 315 B. C. In the long
war that ensued, Demetrius Poliorcetes, the son of Antig-
onus, defeated Ptolemy in a naval battle in 306, soon after
which Antigonus took the title of king. He encountered
the united armies of the allies at Ipsus in Phrygia, where
he was defeated and killed in battle in 301 B. C.
Antigonus, king of the Jews, a son of Aristobulus T.I.,
was born about 80 B. C. After the death of his father he
was expelled from Judea by Antipater and Herod. He
—º.
CLOPs, and a nephew of Antigonus Gonatas.
was restored to the throne by the Parthians about 39 B.C.,
but the Roman senate refused to recognize him as king.
Mark Antony took Jerusalem and put Antigonus to death
about 36 B. C.
Antig’onus Do’son [Gr. 'Avriyovos A&artov], king of
Macedon, was a descendant of Antigonus surnamed CY-
He became
regent or king in 229 B. C., during the minority of Philip
V., who was heir to the throne. He was an ally of the
Achaean League in a war against Sparta, and he defeated
the Spartan Cleomenes in 221 B. C. He died in the same
year, and left the throne to Philip V. -
Antig’onus Gonaſtas [Gr. 'Avriyovos Tovatās], a son
of Demetrius Poliorcetes, was born about 320 B. C. at
Gona, or Gonni, in Thessaly, whence his surname. Hay-
ing defeated an army of Gauls who under Brennus had
invaded Macedonia, he became king of that country in 277
B. C. He was expelled from his kingdom by the famous
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, in 273, but he recovered the throne
after the death of Pyrrhus in 271. He died about 240 B.C.,
and was succeeded by his son, Demetrius II.
Antig'orite, a species of serpentime in which a por-
tion of the silica is replaced by alumina. It has a weak
lustre, and feels smooth but not greasy. It is found in the
Antigorio valley in Piedmont. - &
Anti’gua, a British West India island, the most im-
portant of the Leeward Group, was first settled in 1632;
the area is 89 square miles. It is 22 miles S. of Barbuda.
The capital, St. John's, is in lat. 17°8' N., lon. 61° 52' W.
The surface is diversified, the climate dry and healthy, and
the soil of the interior is fertile. Sugar, molasses, and rum
are the chief articles of export. The exports in 1870
amounted to £234,012, and the imports amounted to
#164,178. Pop. in 1862, 37,125.
Antil egom’ema [from the Gr. &vri, “ against,” and
Aéyo, to “speak”], literally, “ spoken against,” a theolog-
ical term applied in ancient times to certain books of the
New Testament, the authority of which was questioned by
some biblical critics—namely, the Second Epistle of Peter,
those of James and Jude, the Epistle to the Hebrews, the
Second and Third of St. John, and the Apocalypse. They
were, however, ultimately admitted into the canon.
An’ti-Lib’anus, or An'ti-MLeb’anon, a mountain-
range of Palestine and Syria, extending about 90 miles in
a N. E. and S. W. direction nearly parallel with Lebanon,
from which it is separated by the valley of Coele-Syria. It
is of Jura limestone formation. The highest summit of
this range is Mount Hermon, which has an altitude of
about 10,000 feet. The valley of Coele-Syria, between the
two ranges, now called Būkā’a, is from 4 to 6 miles wide.
(See Robinson’s “Physical Geography of the Holy Land,”
1865.)
Antilles, The [some have supposed the name to be
corrupted from the Latin words ante, “before,” and insulae,
“islands,” because they seemed placed before the continent,
which was only reached after the islands had been passed], a
term applied generally to all the West India Islands except
the Bahamas. They lie between the Atlantic Ocean and the
Caribbean Sea, and extend from the Gulf of Mexico mearly
to the Gulf of Paria. They are divided into two groups—
the Greater Antilles, and the Lesser Antilles, or Caribbean
Islands, which are the most eastern of the two groups.
The Greater Antilles comprise the four largest islands of
the archipelago—namely, Cuba, Hayti (or St. Domingo),
Jamaica, and Porto Rico, with the small islands along their
coasts. They are situated in the torrid zone, and are sub-
ject to frequent hurricanes and earthquakes. In the cen-
tral parts of these islands rise high mountains of granitic
formation. The staple products are sugar, rum, tobacco,
cotton, and coffee.
The Lesser Antilles are small in size, but very numerous,
and are arranged in a long curved line or row like a cres-
cent, the convex side of which is towards the east. They are
divided into two groups—viz. the Windward, or South Car-
ibbee Islands, and the Leeward, or North Caribbee Islands.
The Windward Islands are Barbadoes, Grenada, the Grena-
dines, Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Trinidad, and
Tobago. All these belong to England except Martinique,
which is a French colony. The Leeward Islands are An-
guilla, Antigua, Barbuda, Deseada (French), Dominica,
Guadeloupe (French), Marie Galante (French), Montserrat,
Nevis, Saba, St. Bartholomew (Swedish), St. Christopher,
St. Eustatius, St. Martin (French and Dutch), Santa Cruz,
and a group of several small isles called the Virgin Islands,
British, Danish, and Spanish. The Leeward Islands are
British, except those otherwise designated, and three of
the Virgin Islands. Many of the Lesser Antilles are of
volcanic origin, and some are of coral formation. The
staple productions are similar to those of the Greater An-
w—
ANTILOCAPRA-ANTIMONY.
175
tilles. A large portion of the population of the Antilles
are negroes and mulattoes, who are free, except in the
Spanish islands of Cuba and Porto Rico. Pop. about
4,000,000.
Antiloca/pra (“antelope-goat”), the generic name of
the prong-horned antelope (Antilocapra Americana), which
inhabits the drier portions of the North American continent
W. of the Mississippi. With the possible exception of the
so-called Rocky Mountain goat, this is the only antelope
found in America, and it differs widely from all the Old
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World antelopes in this, that the sheaths of its horns are
shed annually, like the deciduous horns of the Cervidae.
In this respect the prong-horned antelope stands quite
alone, and forms a kind of connecting link between the
hollow-horned and solid-horned ruminants. -
Antim’achus ['Avriuaxos, a distinguished Greek epic
poet, a native of Colophon or Claros, lived about 400–360
B. C. He was a friend of Plato, and author of an epic
poem entitled “Thebais,” which was highly commended by
some ancient critics, but is not extant. He wrote an ad-
mired elegy called “Lyde,” and other works, which are all
lost except small fragments. w
Anti-Masonry is a term which indicates repugnance
to secret societies (that is, societies which conserve secrets)
in general; but it more directly implies opposition to the
order known as Masons or Free Masons, for which a high an-
tiquity and wide influence are claimed. This order early ex-
cited the suspicions of European governments, some of which
regarded it as a mask for conspiracies against throne and
altar. Some of them protected themselves, so far as they
might, by procuring the election of princes or other eminent
personages to the chief offices of the order.
In the summer of 1826 a thriftless tailor, named William
Morgan, living in the village of Batavia, in Western New
York, it was whispered, was engaged in preparing a reve-
lation of the secrets of the Masonic order, whereof he was
a member. Other Masons, including the editor of the vil-
lage gazette, were understood to be engaged with him in
the enterprise. Suddenly, Morgan disappeared one even-
ing, and it was soon proved that he had been forcibly
abducted. Excitement naturally arose, committees of vigi-
lance and safety were organized, and he was traced west-
ward to Fort Niagara, near Lewiston, N. Y., where he was
temporarily imprisoned, and whence, it was ultimately tes-
tified, he was taken out into deep water in Lake Ontario and
there sunk, though this was strenuously denied, and various
stories from time to time affirmed that he was subsequently
seen alive at Smyrna in Asia and other places. Such re-
ports did not allay the excitement, which deepened and
diffused itself, finding vent in a political party, which cast
33,000 votes in the State of New York in 1828, about 70,000
in 1829, and 128,000 in 1830; but of this last a fraction
were not Anti-Masons, but only Anti-Jackson. The party
spread into other States, and nominated William Wirt for
President, and Amos Ellmaker for Vice-President in 1832,
when they were heartily supported in several States, but
carried Vermont only. They probably diverted votes enough
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from Clay to give the States of Ohio and New Jersey to
Jackson. They nearly elected Joseph Ritner governor of
Pennsylvania, in 1832, and did elect him in 1835, through
a split in the Democratic ranks. The excitement gradually
died out, and absorbing questions of finance and political
economy soon dissolved the Anti-Masonic party.
HoRACE GREELEY.
Anti-Me'los, or Antimi'lo (i.e. “over against Me-
los”), a small island of the Grecian Archipelago, is 5 miles
N. W. of Melos or Milo.
Anti-mission Baptists, called by themselves
Old-School Baptists, a denomination of Bap-
tists of the U. S. who have no Sunday schools, mis-
sions, colleges, or theological schools, holding that
these things make the salvation of men to depend
on human effort, and not upon divine grace.
Antimo'nial Wine, a solution of tartar em-
etic in sherry or other wine.
Antimon/ic Acid, the acid of antimony. It ex-
ists in two modifications—antimonic acid, HSbO3,
and metantimonic acid, H4Sb2O7.
An’timony [etymology uncertain ; Lat. stib’—
s ium, from which is derived the chemical symbol,
§§s Sb], a brittle metal of a silver-white color and of
§§ * r *- * * :--
§§ a peculiar taste. It occurs in nature native, com-
bined with other metals, as nickel, silver, etc., with
oxygen and with sulphur. The sulphide, “stib-
nite” or “gray antimony,” is the source of all the
antimony of commerce. The most abundant sup-
plies of this ore are obtained from Borneo. It also
occurs in considerable quantities in Hungary, Corn-
wall, New Brunswick, California, and Nevada. The
sulphide, being very fusible, is often separated from
the accompanying gangue-rock by heat, and cast
in blocks or loaves. The metal, or “regulus of an-
timony” as it is called in commerce, is separated
from the sulphide in various ways, such as heating
with metallic iron, sodic carbonate, and charcoal,
or cream of tartar and nitre. The extraction of
antimony from its ores is mainly carried on at Linz,
in Germany, where the sulphide of antimony is
found extensively, and in Great Britain, which re-
ceives its supply of ore from Singapore and Borneo, com-
monly as ballast. The process consists in heating the crude
ore, covered with charcoal, on the bed of a furnace, when
the sulphide of antimony fuses, leaving unmelted the earthy
impurities; and thereafter the liquid is drawn off into iron
moulds, where it solidifies into cakes or loaves. The latter
are reduced to coarse powder, placed on the bed of a rever-
beratory furnace, and heated with access of ordinary air
containing oxygen, when the sulphur passes away as gas-
eous sulphurous acid, SO2, leaving behind the antimony as
the teroxide, Sb2O3. The roasted mass is now mixed with
one-sixth of its weight of powdered charcoal, the whole
moistened with a solution of carbonate of soda, and raised
to bright redness in crucibles, when the metal antimony
trickles to the bottom, and the impurities are left above in
the spent flux or scoria, which is known in the arts by the
name of crocus of antimony. The antimony thus prepared
is more or less contaminated by sulphur, copper, arsenic,
iron, lead, etc. It may be freed from all these metals ex-
cept lead by reducing it to a coarse powder and fusing with
one-sixteenth of gray sulphide and one-eighth of dry sodic
carbonate. The resulting metal must then be pulverized
and fused with one-tenth of dry sodic carbonate, and the
process repeated. e º *
Owing to the extensive use of antimony preparations in
medicine, the removal of arsenic is of special importance.
This can be effected by mixing 4 parts of powdered anti-
mony with 5 parts nitre and 2 parts dry sodic carbonate,
projecting the mixture into a red-hot crucible. , The semi-
fused mass is boiled with water, and the insoluble potassic
antimoniate is reduced to metal by fusion with cream of
tartar. Several successive fusions of pulverized antimony
with one-eighth of nitre are said to completely remove the
3.1°SCI11C.
Antimony is a brilliant metal of a bluish-white color and
highly crystalline or laminated structure. Its density is
6.7 to 6.86. It is extremely brittle, and may be easily pul-
verized in a mortar. Its melting-point is 450° C. (842°F.).
It may be distilled in an atmosphere of hydrogen, at, a
white heat. Heated in the open air, it burns with a bluish-
white flame, and forms copious fumes of antimonious OX-
ide (Sb2O3), or “flowers of antimony.” A peculiar aſſor-
phows antimony was prepared by G. Gore (Prog: Roy. Soc.,
ix., 70 and 304) by electrolyzing certain solutions of the
metal. A mass having the appearance of polished steel;
with a bright, metallic, amorphous fracture, Was obtained
of a density of 5.78, which, on being broken or heated,
suddenly passed into the crystalline form, with the evolu-
*
























































176
ANTINOMIANS-ANTIOCH, BAY OF.
tion of sufficient heat to make it take fire (Feuererscheinwng).
Antimony is oxidized by nitric acid, with the formation of
antimonous oxide (Sb2O3), antimonic oxide (Sb2O5), or an-
timonoso-antimonic oxide (Sb2O3.Sb2O5). Antimony forms
with acids or chlorous radicals two classes of compounds :
1, antimonous or tri-compounds, as the trichloride, SbOls;
trioxide or antimomous oxide, Sb2O3; trisulphide, Sb2S3.
2, Antimonic or penta-compounds, as, pentachloride, SbOls;
pentoxide or antimonic oxide, Sb205; pentasulphide, Sb2S5.
Antimonous chloride, or trichloride (SbCl3), called butter
of antimony, is obtained by dissolving antimonic sulphide
in hydrochloric acid. In its concentrated form it appears
as a yellow oily liquid of the consistence of melted butter.
Poured into water, it produces a buttery white precipitate of
oxychloride (powder of algaroth), SbCl3, Sb2O3, or SbO.CI.
Mixed with olive oil, butter of antimony is used for bronz-
ing gun-barrels. Powdered antimony poured into a jar of
chlorine takes fire, forming Sb Cla or Sb Cl3.
Antimonic chloride, or pentachloride (SbCl5), is a colorless
volatile liquid, prepared by heating antimony in an excess
of chlorine. By the action of water it is changed to anti-
monic acid and hydrochloric acid.
Antimonous hydride, or antimonetted hydrogen (SbFIs), a
colorless gas produced by the action of zinc and sulphuric
acid on a solution of antimony. It burns with a greenish
flame, evolving fumes of Sb2O3. Passed through a red-
hot tube, it is decomposed, with the formation of a black
deposit of Sb. A similar deposit is formed on cold porce-
Iain held in the flame. When the gas is passed into a so-
lution of argentic nitrate, a black precipitate of antimo-
mide of silver (SbAg3) is formed. This gas (SbFI3) is the
analogue of ammonia, NH3, phosphine, PH8, and arsine,
AsH3; as is also the silver compound, SbAg3. A class of
organic bases, represented by triethyl stibine, Sb(C2H5)3,
belongs to the same group. (See AMINES.)
Antimonows, or trioacide (Sb2O3), found native in beauti-
ful crystals, as valentinite and semarmontite.
cream of tartar (K.H.C4H4O6), antimonous oxide dissolves,
with the formation of potassio-antimonows tartrate, or tar-
ter emetic (K.SbO.C4H4O6). An impure oxide is manufac-
tured for the preparation of this salt, by roasting the pow-
dered sulphide, and fusing the product at the end of the
process. It is known as glass of antimony.
Antimonic, or pentoacide (Sb205), is formed by heating
powdered antimony with excess of strong nitric acid, by
decomposing SbOls with water, or by fusing powdered an-
timony with nitre. Potassic antimoniate is the only reagent
for the precipitation of soda. There are two modifications
of this acid, known as antimonic acid, HSbO3, and metan-
timonic acid, H4Sb2O7.
Tetroacide, or antimonoso-antimonic acid (Sb2O4 or Sb2O3.
Sb2O5), occurs native as cervantite. It is the ultimate prod-
uct of the action of heat and air on the metal.
Trisulphide, or antimonows sulphide (Sb2S3), the ore stib-
mite, or gray antimony, prepared artificially by fusing anti-
mony with sulphur, or as an orange precipitate by passing
sulphuretted hydrogen through a solution of tartar emetic.
This sulphide is a sulphur-acid, which unites with basic
sulphides, forming salts in every way analogous to the
oxygen salts. Such are 3R2S.Sb2S3; Zinkenite, PbS.Sb2S3;
miargyrite, AgS.Sb2S3; pyrargyrite, 3AgS.Sb2S3.
Pentasulphide, or antimonic sulphide (Sb2S5), is also a
sulphur-acid, forming sulpho-antimoniates, analogous to the
ortho-phosphates. The sodic sulpho-antimoniate is Na3-
SbS4. T Precipitated from a mixture of antimonic penta-
chloride and tartaric acid, it appears as a yellowish-red
powder, the golden sulphuret.
Rºermes is an oxysulphide (Sb2O3.2SbS3) which occurs
native, as the beautiful cherry-red kermesite.
ALLoys of ANTIMONY.—Type-metal is composed of anti-
mony 1, lead 4 parts, and when used for stereotype plates
receives an addition of one-eightieth to one-fiftieth of tin.
This alloy is not only hard, but, owing to the fact that it
expands at the moment of solidification, it takes a very
sharp impression of the mould. Britannia is composed of
antimony 1, tin 9 parts. Pewter is another alloy of anti-
mony and tin. Antimony also enters into the composition
of some of the anti-friction alloys. Tartar emetic is the
most important preparation of antimony used in medicine;
in large doses it is very poisonous. The old-fashioned
“family pill” was a small bullet of metallic antimony,
which was swallowed for certain difficulties, and carefully
preserved for future occasions. C. F. CHANDLER.
Antino/mians [from the Gr. &vré, “against,” and vôpos,
“ law”], a name applied to those who maintained that the
Iaw is of no use or obligation under the gospel dispensa-
tion. They took their rise from John AGRICOLA (which see),
who was originally a disciple and friend of Luther, and
who contended that his views were the legitimate deduc-
tions from the principles taught by Luther himself. He
taught, among other things, that good works do not pro-
Boiled with.
-e
mote our salvation, nor evil ones hinder it. Luther at-
tacked the Antinomian heresy with great zeal, and at length,
in 1540, Agricola recanted his more obnoxious tenets, and
pledged himself to teach in conformity to the Church of
Wittenberg. Antinomianism afterwards appeared in a
more extravagant form in England, where, during the pro-
tectorate of Cromwell, some zealots maintained that if they
should commit any kind of sin, it would do them no harm,
nor affect in the slightest degree their condition in a future
state, and that it is one of the distinguishing characteristics
of the elect that they cannot do anything displeasing to
God. English Antinomianism survived till the present
century. Crisp was one of its warmest advocates—Wesley
and Fletcher its sharpest assailants.
Antinoëp'olis, an ancient city built by the emperor
Hadrian in Egypt, on the site of a more ancient city named
Besa, and named in honor of his favorite Antinous. It was
on the E. bank of the Nile, near the modern village of
Ababde. Here the ruins of its theatre and hippodrome are
still visible. - -
Antin/Gus, a beautiful youth, a native of Bithynia, be-
came a favorite and attendant of the emperor Hadrian.
Having accompanied that emperor to Egypt, he was
drowned in the Nile in 122 A. D. As a monument to him,
Hadrian built the city of Antinoëpolis, in Upper Egypt.
Statues almost innumerable were also erected to perpetuate
his memory and his form, by artists whose emulation gave
a new impulse to the fine arts. Some of these statues are
still extant. -
An’tioch [Lat. Antiochi'a Gr. 'Avrtóxeta; Turk. An-
takia], an ancient city and the former capital of Syria,
situated on a fertile and beautiful plain, on the left bank
of the river Orontes, 57 miles W. of Aleppo; lat. 36°11' N.,
lom. 36° 9' 30" E. It was founded in 301 B.C., by Seleu-
cus Nicator, and named in honor of his father Antiochus.
It was the favorite residence of the Seleucid kings of Syria,
was called “Antioch the Beautiful,” and was widely cele-
brated for the splendor of its luxury and the magnificence of
its palaces and temples. The population in the time of its
greatest prosperity is supposed to have been 400,000 or more.
Antioch has been nearly ruined by earthquakes, one of which
occurred in 115 A.D., and one in 1822. On April 3 and 10,
1872, the city was visited by severe earthquakes, which de-
stroyed many houses, and caused the death of a considerable
portion of the population. The disciples of Christ were first
called Christians in Antioch, which occupies a prominent
position in the history of the primitive Church as the scene
of the labors of the apostle Paul. In the fifth century the
bishops of Antioch received the title of patriarch, and
ranked equal to the patriarchs of Rome, Constantinople,
and Alexandria. In the Greek Church the patriarchs still
retain this rank. In the Roman Catholic Church four prel-
ates (of the Greek, Syrian, Maronite, and Latin rites) have
the title of patriarch of Antioch, but none of them at pres-
ent reside in Antioch. The Jacobite patriarch of Antioch
is the head of that Church. Many councils of the Church
were also held here. The crusaders took Antioch from the
Saracens in 1098, after which it was the capital of a Chris-
tian principality until 1269. Among the remains of its for-
mer grandeur are the ruined walls and aqueduct. The
modern town, Antakia, is meanly built, has about twelve
mosques, and some manufactures of pottery and cotton
stuffs. The culture of silk is the chief branch of industry.
Pop. variously estimated at from 6000 to 18,000.
ANTIOCH was also the name of an ancient city of Asia.
Minor, in Pisidia, visited by the apostle Paul (see Acts
xiii. 14, and xiv. 21), who planted a church there. Of this
city extensive ruins exist. Besides the above, there were
at least six other Oriental towns of this name.
Antioch, a township of Hot Springs co., Ark. P. 320.
Antioch, in Contra Costa co., Cal., is a growing town
on the Sacramento River, and is the trading-point of an
extensive grain-growing district. Large quantities of
wheat, barley, and coal are shipped from this place, which
has 30 feet of water at low tide. It is the terminus of the
projected King's River Canal, and is on the line of the over-
Íand railroad. It has two potteries, copper-smelting works,
twelve stores, two churches, and a weekly paper.
J. P. ABBOTT, ED. of “ANTIOCH LEDGER.”
Antioch, a post-township of Lake co., III. Pop. 1595.
Antioch, a post-village of Dallas township, Hunting-
don co., Ind. Pop. 449. -
Antioch, a township of Wilkes co., N. C. Pop. 704.
Antioch, a post-village of Perry township, Monroe Co.,
0. Pop. 165.
Antioch, Bay of, is a port of the Mediterranean, at
the mouth of the Orontes River, and lies between high
mountains on the N. and S., by which it is mostly Well
sheltered. The waters are deep.
ANTIOCH COLLEGE–ANTIPHON. 177
Antioch College, at Yellow Springs, Green co., O.,
was founded in 1852, and opened in the following year.
Though under the patronage of Unitarians, this college is
designed to be free from sectarian influences, and to de-
velop good character as well as mental excellence in its
pupils. The sexes are educated together with the best re-
sults. The college was established with a view of diffusing
education at the lowest possible cost, and thus far with en-
couraging success. There is a music school and a prepara-
tory department. The presidents have been Hon. Horace
Mann, LL.D. (1853–59), Thomas Hill, D.D. (1859–62), G.
W. Hosmer, D.D. (1866–72), and Edward Orton, the present
incumbent.
Antiſochus I. [Gr. 'Avrioxos], surnamed SOTER (i.e. “sa-
viour’), a king of Syria, of the dynasty of Seleucidae, was
a son of Seleucus I. Nicator, and was born about 324 B.C.
He commanded the cavalry which fought against Antigonus
at Ipsus, in 301. Having succeeded his father in 280 B.C.,
he gained a victory over the Gauls, who had invaded his
dominions, from which victory he derived the surname
Soter. He was killed in battle by the Gauls in 261 B. C.
Antiſochus II. THEOs, king of Syria, was a son of
the preceding, and began to reign in 261 B. C. The people
of Miletus, who had received a favor from him, gave him
the title of Theos, “God.” In his reign the Parthians re-
volted with success, and Arsaces became king of Parthia,
which was previously subject to the king of Syria. A war
which he waged against Ptolemy of Egypt was ended in
252 B. C. by a treaty, in accordance with which he mar-
ried Berenice, a daughter of Ptolemy, and repudiated his
first wife, Laodice. After the death of Ptolemy he rein-
stated Laodice, who poisoned him in 246 B. C. -
Antiochus III., surnamed THE GREAT, a grandson of
the preceding, and a son of Seleucus Callinicus, was born
about 238 B. C. He succeeded his brother, Seleucus Ce-
raunus, in 223 B.C. His capital was Antioch, and his king-
dom comprised Syria Proper, Babylonia, Media, and a part
of Asia Minor. For the possession of Palestine he waged
war against Ptolemy of Egypt, by whom he was defeated
at Raphia, near Gaza, in 217 B. C. While he was sup-
ressing a revolt of Achaeus in Asia Minor, in 214, the Par-
hians occupied Media, but, after a successful campaign
against Arsaces of Parthia, Antiochus reconquered Media
in 212. He afterwards conducted a victorious expedition
across the mountains of Hindu-Kush into India, and,
having formed an alliance with several Indian princes, re-
turned to Antioch, from which he had been absent seven
years. He took Palestine from the king of Egypt in 198
IB. C., and invaded Thrace in 196. By this movement he
provoked the hostility of the Roman senate. He led an
army into Greece, was defeated at Thermopylae in 191 by
Acilius Glabrio, and retreated into Asia Minor. The Ro-
man army, commanded by L. Cornelius Scipio, passed over
into Asia in 190 B. C., and gained a decisive victory over
Antiochus at Magnesia. The war was then ended by a
treaty dictated by the Romans, who required him to cede
all the provinces west of Mount Taurus, and to pay about
15,000 talents. In order to raise this sum, he plundered a
temple in Elymais, for which act the populace killed him
in 187 B. C. He left the throne to his son, Seleucus Philo-
pator. (See Poly BIUs, “History.”)
Antiochus IV., surnamed EPIPHANES (“the illustri-
ous”), was a son of the preceding. He passed about twelve
years in captivity in Rome, whither he was sent as a host-
age in 188 B. C. He became king on the death of his
brother, Seleucus Philopator, in 176 . B. C. He invaded
Egypt in 170, and captured the king, Ptolemy Philometor,
but was constrained by the Roman senate to retire from
that country in 168 B. C. About this date he plundered
the temple of Jerusalem and persecuted the Jews, who rose
in arms and were led by Judas Maccabaeus, who defeated
the Syrian armies in several battles. (See 1 Maccabees ii.)
Died in 164 B. C. . . g
Antiochus VII., surnamed SIDETEs, a son of Demet-
rius Soter, was born about 164 B. C. He became king of
Syria, in 137, and defeated the Parthians in several battles,
but was killed in battle by them in 129 B. C.
Antiochus VIII., second son of Cleopatra (the wife,
first of Alexander Balas, them of Demetrius II., and then
of Antiochus VII.), who reigned over Syria with his
mother from 126 to 122 B.C., and then alone till 114 B.C.,
when his authority was disputed by his half-brother, An-
tiochus Cyzicenus (Antiochus IX.). He was assassinated
by an officer of his court 96 B. C.
Antiochus IX, surnamed CYZICENUs, son of Cleo-
patra by Antiochus VII., survived Antiochus VIII., and
committed suicide 95 B.C.
Antiochus X., surnamed EUSEBEs, son of the preced-
ing, succeeded his father in 95 B. C., but was soon after
expelled, and died in obscurity. - -
Antiochus XI.2 surnamed ASIATICUs, was the twen-
tieth and last king of the dynasty of the Seleucidae. He
began to reign about 69 B.C., and was deposed by Pom-
pey in 65 B. C., when Syria became a Roman province.
Antiſoco, an island in the Mediterranean, near the
S. W. coast of Sardinia, is 8 miles long and 3 miles wide.
The soil is fertile. Pop. about 2200.
Antioqui'a, one of the states of the United States of
Colombia, is bounded on the N. by Bolivar, on the E. by
Bolivar, Santander, and Cundinamarca, on the S. by Cun-
dinamarca and Cauca, and on the W. by Cauca. Area, .
22,790 square miles. The state is chiefly covered by large
forests, and is rich in precious metals. The chief occupa-
tion of the inhabitants is mining. Capital, Medellin. Pop.
in 1870, 365,974.
Antip’aros, Oli’aros, or Oie’aros, a Grecian isl-
and in the AEgean Sea, about 1 mile W. of Paros, is one
of the Cyclades. It is 8 miles long and 2 or 3 miles wide,
and consists of a mass of marble, covered with soil which
produces some grain, wine, etc. Here is a celebrated sta-
lactitic cavern called the Grotto of Antiparos, which is
about 300 feet long and 80 feet high. The roof and sides
are adorned with white incrustations of great splendor and
beauty. This grotto was discovered by M. de Nointel in
1673. It was probably not known to the ancients. Pop.
about 1200.
Antip’ater [Gr. 'Avrittarpos], a Macedonian general,
who was a pupil of Aristotle, and held a responsible posi-
tion under Philip of Macedon. He was appointed regent
of that kingdom by Alexander the Great in 334 B.C., when
he departed to invade Persia. He defeated Agis, king of
Sparta, in a battle near Megalopolis in 330. After the
death of Alexander, his generals or successors agreed that
Antipater should govern Macedonia and Greece. The
Athenians, in alliance with other Greek states, made an
effort to regain their independence in 322, and defeated
Antipater near Lamia, but, having been reinforced by Cra-
terus, he gained a decisive victory in the same year. The
Lamian war was then ended by a treaty dictated by Antip-
ater, who required the Athenians to deliver Demostherſes to
him. He joined Antigonus in a league against Perdiccas,
and on the death of the latter, in 321, succeeded him as
regent of the empire. He died in 319 or 318 B. C., and left
a son, Cassander. (See THIRLWALL, “History of Greece;”
DIoDoRUs SICULUs, “History.”)
Antipater, a son of Herod the Great and Doris, was
notorious for his wickedness. Having procured the death
of his half-brothers Aristobulus and Alexander, and con-
spired against his father, he was put to death in 1 B. C.
Antipater the Idumean, a son of Antipas, and the
father of Herod the Great, became governor of Idumea.
Having assisted Julius Caesar in his war against the
Egyptians, he was rewarded with the office of procurator
or governor of Judea, about 46 B. C. "Died in 43 B. C.
Antipater of Tarsus, a Stoic philosopher who lived
about 140 B. C., wrote several works on philosophy and
morality. He opposed the skepticism of Carneades.
Cicero represents him as a man of remarkable subtlety.
Antip’athy [Lat. antipathi/a; Gr. &vrviráðeta, from
&vrt, “against,” and Tré90s, “feeling”] is a term applied to
a peculiarity of the physical or mental constitution in
which certain persons feel a strong aversion to particular
objects not offensive to others. Some have from child-
hood an antipathy to animal food, while others dislike
one particular kind. That this is not always the effect of
caprice is shown by the fact that contact with the object
of aversion, produces very disagreeable, and in some cases
injurious, effects on the system. Certain medicines affect
particular persons dangerously; a single grain of mer-
cury has been known to cause profuse salivation. The
most remarkable antipathies are those affecting the special
senses. Persons have been known to faint at the sight of
reptiles and other animals. The smell of musk or amber-
gris has been known to throw some people into convul-
sions, and Zimmermann mentions the case of a lady who
was similarly affected by touching silk, Satin, etc.
Antiph'ilus ['Avribuxos], an eminent Greek painter,
born in Egypt, is supposed to have flourished about 330
B. C., but according to Lucian he lived about 220. He
was distinguished for facility of execution. Among his
works were “Cadmus and Europa,” and a portrait of
Alexander the Great. - -
Antiphlogis’tic [from the Gr. &vri, “against,” and
d'Aéyo, to “burn”], a term applied to remedies and treat-
ment adapted to subdue inflammation or excitement of the
system in inflammatory diseases. Among these remedies.
are purgatives and blood-letting. t
An/tiphon, or Antipho [Gr. 'Avrºhºv), one of the ten-
12 -

178
ANTIPHON-ANTISEPTIC.
Attic orators, born at Rhamnus in Attica about 480 B.C.,
was a son of Sophilus the Sophist. He opened a school of
rhetoric at Athens, and made reforms in the art of oratory.
Among his pupils was Thucydides, who expressed a high
opinion of him. Declining to plead in court or appear as
a public speaker, he gained much influence and distinction
by composing orations for politicians and arguments for
persons who were accused. He was an adversary of Alci-
biades in polities, and was the chief promoter of the revo-
, lution which in 411 B.C. abolished democracy and converted
Athens into an oligarchy ruled by a council of 400. A sud-
den reaction restored Alcibiades to power, and Antiphon
was tried for treason. He made an able speech in his own
defence, but was convicted and executed in 411 B. C. Fif-
teen of his orations are still extant. (See D. RUHNKEN and
P. v.AN SPAAN, “Dissertatio de Antiphonte Oratore At-
tico,” 1763; A. DRY ANDER, “Commentatio de Antiphontis
Vita,” 1838.)
An’tiphon [Gr. &vridovos, from évrt, “against,” “in re-
ply to,” and bovň, a “voice”], a piece of music performed
in cathedral service by choristers, who sing alternately; .a.
short verse which was sung in the ancient Church before
the psalms and other portions of the service. -
Antiph’ony [Gr. &vrébovov), a term applied by the an-
cient Greeks to a species of musical accompaniment in the
octave by instruments or voices. -
ANTIPHONY is also a sacred song sung by two parties,
each responding to the other; the answer of one choir to
the other when an anthem is sung alternately. This prac-
tice prevailed amongst the ancient Hebrews and in the
early Christian Church. Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, is
Said to have introduced it into the Eastern Church in the
second century. -
Antip’odes [from the Gr. &vrt, “against,” and moºs,
tro86s, “the foot ”], in geography, signifies people who live
on opposite sides of the globe, and whose feet point against
each other. The antipodes of any place are those who live
at the other end of a straight line drawn from that place
through the centre of the earth to its opposite surface.
Thus, the antipodes of London, which is in lat 51° 30' N.
and lon. 0°, must be in lat. 51° 30' S. and lon. 180° E. or W.
The moon of any point corresponds with the midnight of
its antipodes, and the summer of one coincides with the
winter of the other.
Antipodes, a small island in the South Pacific Ocean,
S. E. of New Zealand; lat. 49° 32' S., lon. I78° 42' E. It
is so called because it is the nearest land to the antipodes
of London.
Antipope, one who assumes or usurps the office of
pope, but is not regularly elected or generally recognized
as such. The emperors of Germany in several instances,
having quarrelled with the pope, appointed another person
to the office. The emperor Henry IV. in 1080 appointed
the antipope Clement III. in opposition to Pope Gregory
VII. In some cases two rival popes have been elected by
different parties of cardinals. The great Western schism
began in 1378, when the Italian party chose Urban VI.,
and the French cardinals voted for Clement VII., who held
his court at Avignon, and was recognized by France and
Spain. This schism was continued after their death by an-
other double election, but in 1415 the Council of Constance
deposed both of the popes, and elected Martin V. The last
antipope was Felix V. (originally Amadeus VIII. of Savoy),
who was elected in 1439, and abdicated in 1449.
An’tiquaries, Society of, the title of several asso-
ciations of learned men, formed to promote the study of
antiquities. The London Society of Antiquaries was found-
ed in 1572, and reorganized in 1707, but received its charter
in 1751. The Scottish Society of Antiquaries was founded
in 1780. The American Antiquarian Society was organized
in Massachusetts in 1812.
Antiquary [Lat., antigua'rius, from anti/guus, “an-
cient”]. The term (in Latin) was originally applied to
persons who copied old books in convents before the inven-
tion of printing. In modern language an antiquary is one
who studies and collects ancient monuments and remains,
such as medals, coins, statues, manuscripts, and inscriptions;
or who makes researches into the history, manners, and cus-
toms of former generations. The antiquary renders an
important service to society by collecting materials for his-
tory and rescuing many documents from the ravages of
time. The word is nearly synonymous with archaeologist.
Pausanias is said by some to have been the first antiquary.
Antique, an-teek', a French word derived from the
Latin antiºquw8, “ancient,” signifies old, ancient, old-fash-
ioned, antiquated. In the language of art, the epithet
antique is applied to the style of the ancient Greek artists,
especially the sculptors, in contradistinction to the medi-
aeval and the modern styles. The word antique, variously
defined, is generally understood to refer to a period ante-
cedent to the revival of classical studies in the West and
the renaissance of art. The Greek sculptors excelled in ideal
beauty of form, and the antique style is by most critics con-
sidered more perfect than the mediaeval or the modern.
Antiq'uities [Lat. antiquita/tes, from anti’guus, “an-
cient”], an important department of learning, comprises
all memorable facts, ideas, and things which relate to or
illustrate the origin, early institutions, and development
of nations. Thus, the study of antiquities, in the largest
application of the term, includes a knowledge of the re-
ligion, laws, language, arts, traditions, manners, and cus- .
toms of ancient peoples, as well as a cognizance of ancient
monuments of architecture, sculpture, and other arts.
In a more restricted and perhaps more popular sense,
the study of antiquities is limited to the discovery, col-
lection, verification, description, and explanation of the
relics of antiquity, such as medals, statues, inscriptions,
manuscripts, ruined buildings, bas-reliefs, and hiero-
glyphics. About the time of the revival of learning after
the Dark Ages the study of classical antiquities became a
distinct branch of research, which was pursued by many
eminent scholars. Graevius published a valuable work on
Greek antiquities, entitled “Thesaurus Antiquitatum Grae-
carum” (12 vols. fol., 1697 et seq.); and Roman antiquities
were amply illustrated by Gronovius in his “Thesaurus An-
tiquitatum Romanarum” (13 vols. fol., 1697). Champollion,
Young, and Bunsen are the highest authorities in Egyptian
antiquities. Among the best antiquarian works may be
mentioned MonTEAUCON, “Antiquité Expliquée’” (15 vols.,
1719–24); HEEREN, “History of Ancient Commerce; ” Dr.
W. SMITH's “Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities;”
MonTFAUCON, “Monuments de la Monarchie Française”
(5 vols., 1725). (For the difference between archaeology
and antiquities, see ARCHAEOLOGY.)
Antiquity of the Human Race. See MAN AND
HIS MIGRATIONs, by PREs. M. B. ANDERSON, LL.D.
Antiºquus (JAN), a skilful Dutch painter, born at
Groningen Oct. 11, 1702. He passed many years in Rome,
Florence, and Venice, and after his return to Holland was
patronized by the prince of Orange. Among his works are.
a “Fall of the Giants,” a “Parnassus,” and many portraits.
Died in 1750.
Anti-rent/ers, a name given to the inhabitants of
several counties in Eastern New York, who refused to pay
the rents and feudal services required of them by the so-
called lord-patrooms, the owners of the land. This dis-
turbance, which at one time nearly amounted to insurrec-
tion, was at length ended by the triumph of the Anti-rent
party in the constitutional convention of 1846, in which a
clause was inserted abolishing thenceforth all feudal ten-
ures and incidents. -
* Anti-Sabbata'rians, a sect of Christians who recog-
nize no obligation to observe the Sabbath, and who affirm
that the New Testament does not call for the observance of
the Sabbath or any other day.
Antisa/na, a volcanic peak of the Andes, in Ecuador,
35 miles S. E. of Quito, and 20 miles N. E. of Cotopaxi,
has an altitude of 19,140 feet.
Antis’cii (the plu. of Antis’cius), or Antiscians
[from the Gr. &vri, “against,” and orkuá, a “shade” or
“shadow ’’), literally, having “opposing shadows” or
having their shadows in opposite directions at noon ; a
term applied to the people N. and S. of the equator, con-
sidered in relation to each other.
Amtiscorbuſtic [Lat. antiscorbu’ticus, from the Gr.
&vrt, “against,” and the Lat. scorbuſtus, the “scurvy’],
corrective of scorbutus, or scurvy. (See Scurvy.) Onions,
lime-juice, potatoes, lemons, horse-radish, scurvy-grass,
etc. are the best antiscorbutics. Diet, and not medicine,
is needed to effect the cure.
Antisep’tic [from the Gr. &vri, “against,” and airo,
to “putrefy”], opposed to or preventing putrefaction. An-
tiseptics are substances which prevent or check the decay
and putrefaction of organic matters. As air, moisture,
and heat are necessary conditions of putrefaction, the ex-
clusion of one of these from the animal or vegetable mat-
ter is an antiseptic process. The common practice of
preserving fruit in air-tight cans of tin or glass is an
illustration of this principle. Generally speaking, so long
as the air is excluded no decomposition or decay can take
place. Cold is a powerful antiseptic; intense cold will pre-
vent change even in those substances which putrefy most
readily. To render timber more durable and less liable to de-
cay, corrosive sublimate, chloride of zinc, and heavy oil of
tar are sometimes used. For this purpose the wood is placed
in a steam-box, its pores are filled with steam, and a vacuum
is formed in the pores by the condensation of the steam.
The pores are then filled with the antiseptic substance.
ANTI-SILAVERY-ANTISPASMODICS.
179
The more important chemical antiseptics are—alcohol,
wood-spirit (or pyroxylic acid), creasote, carbolic acid,
heavy oil of tar, sugar, glycerine, sulphurous acid, common
salt, charcoal, nitre, alum, chloride of zinc, sulphate of cop-
per (blue vitriol), cresylic acid, sulphate of iron, aluminum
chloride and acetate, and other aluminum compounds, cor-
rosive sublimate, and arsenic. Sulphurous acid acts by de-
oxidizing the substance; sugar acts by combining with the
water of the substance to be preserved; creasote, tannic
acid, alum, chloride of zinc, sulphate of copper, corrosive
sublimate, and arsenic form compounds with the organic
matter which are not liable to become putrescent; alcohol,
salt, and nitre act both by combining with the water of the
putrescible substance, and by combining with the sub-
stance itself. (See PRESERVATION or FooD, PRESERVATION
. OF TIMBER, DISINFECTION, and FERMENTATION.)
Anti-Slavery, a term which originated during the
long agitation that resulted in the overthrow of slavery in
the U. S. It was used nearly synonymously with “aboli-
tion,” but was preferred by many as being more definite,
since the latter term might as well be applied to the “abo-
lition of royalty” (a phrase much in vogue during the first
French Revolution) as to the doing away with slavery.
The anti-slavery sentiment in the U. S. became more and
more widely diffused and more intense as the evils of slav-
ery became more apparent, but it found its most decided
and forcible expression through the organization known as
the American Anti-Slavery Society. (See next article.)
Anti-Slavery Society, American. This society
, was organized in Dec., 1833, in the city of Philadelphia,
by a convention of delegates from a few anti-slavery so-
cieties already in existence in the U. S., and of other per-
sons who were friends of emancipation. The preamble
and second and third articles of its constitution express
the character and purposes of the society. The preamble
asserts that, “Whereas, slavery is contrary to the princi-
ples of natural justice, of our republican form of govern-
ment, and of the Christian religion, and is destructive of
the prosperity of the country, while it is endangering the
peace, union, and liberties of the States; and whereas, we
believe it the duty and interest of the masters immediately
to emancipate their slaves, and that no scheme of expatri-
ation, either voluntary or by compulsion, can remove this
great and increasing evil; . . . we do hereby agree to form
ourselves into a society,” etc. The second and third arti-
cles declare that “the object of this society is the entire
abolition of slavery in the United States;” that the society
“shall aim to elevate the character and condition of the
people of color, by encouraging their intellectual, moral,
and religious improvement, and by removing public prej-
udice, that thus they may, according to their intellectual
and moral worth, share an equality with the whites of civil
and religious privileges; but this society will never, in any
way, countenance the oppressed in vindicating their rights
by resorting to physical force.” -
The society, thus organized, immediately adopted and
published a “Declaration of Sentiments,” in which they
declared: “The right to enjoy liberty is inalienable. To
invade it is to usurp the prerogative of Jehovah. Every.
man has a right to his own body, to the products of his
own labor, to the protection of law, and to the common ad-
vantages of society. It is piracy to buy or steal a native"
Surely the sin is
African, and subject him to servitude.
as great to enslave an American as an African. Therefore
we believe and affirm that there is no difference in principle
between the African slave-trade and American slavery;
that every American citizen who retains a human being
in involuntary bondage as his property is, according to
Scripture, a man-stealer; that the slaves ought instantly to
be set free, and brought under the protection of law; that
if they lived from the time of Pharaoh down to the present
period, and had been entailed through successive genera-
tions, their right to be free could never have been alien-
ated, but their claims would have constantly risen in solem–
nity; that all those laws which are now in force, admitting
the right of slavery, are therefore, before God, utterly null
and void, being an audacious usurpation of the Divine pre-
rogative, a daring infringement on the law of nature, a
base overthrow of the very foundations of the social com-
pact, a complete extinction of all the relations, endear-
ments, and obligations of mankind, and a presumptuous
transgression of all the holy commandments; and that
therefore they ought instantly to be abrogated. We fur-
ther believe and affirm that all persons of color who possess
the qualifications which are demanded of others, ought to
be admitted forthwith to the enjoyment of the same priv-
ileges, and the exercise of the same prerogatives, as others;
and that the paths of preferment, of wealth, and of intel-
ligence should be opened as widely to them as to persons
of a white complexion.”
Respecting the measures by which the society would
seek the accomplishment of its purpose, the Declaration
asserts: “Our principles forbid the doing of evil that
good may come, and lead us to reject, and to entreat the
oppressed to reject, the use of all carnal weapons for de-
liverance from bondage; relying solely upon those which
are spiritual, and mighty through God to the pulling down
of strongholds.” “Our measures shall be such, only, as the
opposition of moral purity to moral corruption; the de-
struction of error by the potency of truth; the overthrow
of prejudice by the power of love; and the abolition of
slavery by the spirit of repentance.” “We shall send
forth agents to lift up the voice of remonstrance, of warn-
ing, of entreaty and rebuke. We shall circulate, unspar-
ingly and extensively, anti-slavery tracts and periodicals.
We shall enlist the pulpit and the press in the cause of the
suffering and the dumb. We shall aim at a purification of
the churches from all participation in the guilt of slavery.
We shall encourage the labor of freemen rather than that
of slaves, by giving a preference to their productions. We
shall spare no means to bring the whole nation to speedy
repentance.”
Arthur Tappan, Lindley Coates, William Lloyd Garrison,
and Wendell Phillips successively presided over this society
from the time of its organization to that of its disbandment.
Among the persons who have held offices in it are—Benja-
min Lundy, Lucretia Mott, William Jay, John G. Whittier,
Abby Kelly Foster, Gerrit Smith, Samuel J. May, Owen
Lovejoy, and Edward Beecher. Its organization was the
signal for the concentration of the resistance of slaveholders
and their allies, North and South, against the anti-slavery
sentiment which had always existed, and which had, from
time to time, found expression in the community. Nume-
rous anti-slavery societies, of States, counties, and cities,
were soon organized throughout the North; and these, with
those which had been founded prior to the American Soci-
ety, became its auxiliaries. Besides this organized aid, it
received cordial sympathy and substantial help from men
and women not enrolled as its members, who welcomed it
as a mighty instrumentality for the overthrow of slavery.
It represented the moral sentiment of the country, which
was actively warring against American slavery. During
its existence it adhered to its original constitution, and
carried on its work in accordance with its Declaration of
Sentiments. At its tenth annual meeting, held in New
York in May, 1844, it adopted a resolution declaring that,
whereas the Constitution of the U. S. contained provisions
requiring the rendition of the fugitive slave to his master,
therefore fidelity to the cause of freedom required the dis-
solution of the national compact, and forbade abolitionists
to hold office or vote under that Constitution. During a
long period of years this society and its adherents were op-
posed by a large portion of the press and of the pulpits of
the nation, and were frequently the victims of the violence
of mobs, who disturbed their meetings, assaulted their per-
sons, destroyed their property, and imperilled their lives.
In May, 1838, Pennsylvania Hall, a large building erected,
in Philadelphia for the use of public meetings, and especi-
ally for anti-slavery meetings (against which nearly all the
churches and halls of the country were then closed), was
i burned to the ground by a furious mob on the fourth day
after its opening and dedication.
ciety—namely, the creation of a public seritiment which
The purpose of this so-
should overthrow American slavery—was at last accom-
plished. This moral force, which had been steadily increas-
ing for more than a quarter of a century, and which had
called into existence a small and earnest political party, at
length pervaded the Republican party to the extent neces-
sary for a successful resistance, first, to the eartension of
slavery, and then to its eacistence. When the thirteenth
amendment of the U. S. Constitution was ratified, abolish-
ing slavery within the jurisdiction of the U. S., and the
fourteenth and fifteenth amendments had secured to the
emancipated slave his personal freedom, by endowing him
with the ballot of a citizen, the American Anti-Slavery
Society (the work for which it was organized being finished)
disbanded its members and ceased to exist, on the ninth
day of April, 1870. HoRACE GREELEY.
Antispasmod/ics, a name applied to medicines which
cure or alleviate spasm. The name is frequently limited
to a small class of drugs which have usually a strong and
often an unpleasant odor, and which in some cases act as
diffusive stimulants. Such are valerian, assafoetida, myrrh,
musk, ammonia, ether, etc. Others are sedatives, as hydro-
cyanic acid. The term might well include the other nerve-
sedatives or depressors of reflex action, like bromide of
potassium, belladonna, Calabar bean, curari poison, etc.
The best treatment for spasmodic symptoms aims, however,
at the restoration of health by proper food, good air, and
correct habits of life, and by such special treatment as the
case may require.
180
ANTISTHENES–ANTONINUS, MARCUS AURELIUS.
Antis’thenes ['Avrta 6évms], an eminent Greek Cynic
philosopher, called the founder of the Cynic sect or school,
was born at Athens, and flourished about 400 B.C. He
was a young man when he served at the battle of Tanagra,
426 B. C. He was a pupil and friend of Socrates, whose
death he witnessed. After this event he opened a school
at Athens in the gymnasium of Cynosarges, where the
famous and witty Diogenes became one of his pupils. He
was a man of temperate habits and simple mode of life, in-
culcating a contempt of riches and sensual pleasure. He
maintained that virtue is all-sufficient for happiness, and
directed his attention chiefly to practical morality. His
works on various subjects are lost, but several of his sen-
tentious and pithy sayings have been preserved. Socrates
reproved the poverty of his dress and his neglect of the
conventional by saying, “I can see thy pride through the
holes in thy robe.” Antisthenes was living in 371 B. C.
Antis/trophe [Gr. &vrvatpodºi, from &vri, “against,”
and otpébio, to “turn ºl, a term applied by the ancient
Greeks to that part of a song or dance before the altar
which was performed by turning from the left to the right.
Hence a stanza or portion of poetry following the strophe,
and responding to it, was called antistrophe.
An’ti-Tau/rus, a range of mountains in the N. part
of Asia Minor, extends from the Bosphorus castward, and
is nearly parallel to the Black Sea. According to some au-
thorities, it extends from Arjish-Dagh (Mount Argaeus)
north-eastward into Armenia, forming the watershed be-
tween the Euphrates and the Kizil-Irmak, which enters
the Black Sea. The name Anti-Taurus was given to the
range because it is “opposite to or over against the Tau-
rus.” As the latter extends along the coast of the Mediter-
ranean, so the former runs along the coast of the Black Sea.
Antith’esis [from the Gr. &vri, “against,” and 9éorts, a
“ position ”], in rhetoric, a figure of speech in which an
idea is rendered more emphatic and impressive by juxta-
position and contrast with an opposite or converse idea.
Thus a critic said of a certain book, “It contains many
good things, and many new ; but the good are not new, and
the new are not good.”
Anti-Trinitarians.
DEWEY, S. T. D., LL.D.
An’titype [Gr. &vrirviros, from &vrt, “ against,” and
hence “corresponding to,” and riſmos, a “type”], a type or
figure which corresponds to some other type. In theology,
it denotes that of which the type was a prefiguration; the
person in whom any prophetic type is fulfilled. “The
holy places made by hands are figures of the true,” which
are the antitypes of the former. (See TYPE.)
An’tium [It. An’zo], an ancient city of Latium, on the
sea-coast, 34 miles S. S. E. of Rome, was a favorite resort
of opulent citizens of Rome, in whose villas famous works
of art have been discovered. Among these was the Apollo
Belvedere. The emperors Caligula and Nero were natives
of Antium, the site of which is now occupied by a village
called Porto d’Anzo (i. e. the “port of Antium ”).
Anti’vari, a town and seaport of Albania, on the
Adriatic, 14 miles N. W. of Scutari. The harbor is shal-
low, and admits only small vessels. It exports oil, etc., and
has, with its suburbs, about 1000 houses. Pop. about 5000.
Ant-Lion, the larva of several species of Myrmeleon,
2^ -s 2^ *N
See UNITARIANs, by ORVILLE
gº-º-º-º: Q &
º * -
tºº
& º
º §§ º ×3
Ant-Lion.
and other cognate genera, insects of the order Neuroptera,
found in Sandy tracts in different parts of the world. The
perfect insect is similar in appearance to the dragon-fly.
The larva is remarkable for the curious and insidious mode
in which it catches the ants and other insects on which
it feeds. It excavates a funnel-shaped cavity in the sandy
Soil, and lies in wait at the bottom until an insect comes so
near to the edge of the pit that the loose sand gives way
and the insect falls down the slope. If, before reaching
the bottom, its victim begins to climb upward, the ant-lion
throws sand upon it and brings it down. Several species
of ant-lion are found in the U. S.
Antoºci, an-tee’s] [from the Gr. &vrt, “against,” and
oikos, a “house” or “ dwelling-place”], in geography, is
applied to people who live under the same meridian and at
the same distance from the equator, but the one in north
and the other in south latitude. The summer of one coin-
cides in time with the winter of the other.
Antoine, a post-township of Clarke co., Ark. P. 1835.
Antoine, a township of Pike co., Ark. Pop. 238.
Antom mar'chi (FRANCEsco), an Italian anatomist,
born in 1780, a native of Corsica, became anatomical dis-
sector to a hospital of Florence. In 1819 he was sent for
to attend Napoleon at St. Helena. The ex-emperor was so
well pleased with him that he left him a legacy of 100,000
francs. He published “The Last Moments of Napoleon”
(2 vols., 1823). In 1836 he settled in New Orleans as a
homoeopathist. He died in Cuba, April 3, 1838.
Anton Ulrich, a son of the duke of Brunswick-Wolf-
enbüttel, was born in 1714. He married in 1739 Anna
Carlovna, who was a niece of the Russian empress, Anna
Ivanovna, and who became regent in 1740. In Dec., 1741, ,
Anna was deposed, and banished with her husband to the
government of Archangel. He is supposed to have died
about 1780.
Antonel'li (GIACOMO), an Italian cardinal and astute
politician, born at Sonnino April 2, 1806. Ho became grand
treasurer of the two apostolic chambers in 1845, and was
appointed minister of finance by Pius IX., soon after his
election. In 1847 he was made cardinal-deacon. He ac-
quired much influence with the pope, and opposed the
liberal movement of 1848. In 1849 he was appointed pa-
pal secretary of foreign affairs (i. e. prime minister), which
place he still occupied when Rome, in 1870, was incor-
porated with the kingdom of Italy. He has strenuously
opposed the cause of Italian unity.
Antonel/lo, or Antonelli (ANTONIO), surnamed DA
MESSINA, from the place of his birth, an eminent painter,
born at Messina in 1414. He is reputed to be the first
Italian who painted in oil, having visited Bruges and ob-
tained from J. van Eyck the secret of oil-painting. He
returned to Italy about 1445, after which he worked at
Milan, and removed to Venice about 1470. He gained dis-
tinction by the brilliance of his coloring. Died in 1475.
Anto/mia (MAJoR, or the ELDER), a Roman lady, a
daughter of Mark Antony the Triumvir, was born in 39
B. C. Her mother was Octavia, a sister of Augustus Caesar.
She was married to L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, and was the
grandmother of Nero.—Her sister, ANTONIA MINor (the
Younger), was born 36 B. C. She was the wife of Claudius
Drusus Nero, and mother of the famous Germanicus and of
the emperor Claudius. She is said to have been virtuous
and fair. Died in 37 or 38 A. D.
Anto/mides van der Goes (Joh ANNEs), a Dutch
poet, born at Goes in 1647. He held an office in the admi-
ralty. His principal work is a national epic poem on the
river Y, which is entitled “Ijstroom,” or “Y-Stroom”
(1671), and was very popular. Died Sept. 18, 1684.
Antoni'nus (MARCUs AURELIUs), usually called Mar-
§§ cus Aurelius, sometimes surnamed THE PHILOSOPHER, a
Roman emperor highly distinguished for his wisdom and
virtue, was born in Rome in April, 121 A. D. He was a
son of Amnius Verus and Domitia, Calvilla, and his original
name was MARCUS ANNIUS WERUS. His education was
directed by Fronto and Herodes Atticus. He became a dis-
ciple of the Stoic philosophy, with the principles of which
his habitual conduct was consistent. Having been adopted
as a son by the emperor Antoninus Pius in 138 A. D., he
assumed the name of M. AElius Aurelius Verus Caesar. He
was chosen consul in 140, and married Faustina, a daughter
of Antoninus Pius, whom he succeeded in 161 A. D. He
then admitted Lucius Commodus (or Lucius Verus) to a
share of the imperial power, but the latter died in the year
169. Before this date the Roman army gained several vic-
tories over the Parthians. Although the temper of Marcus
Aurelius was pacific, he was involved in frequent wars by
the aggressions of northern barbarians and the revolts of
his subjects. He conducted in person an expedition against
the Marcomanmi, which was successful, in 168 A.D., and he
afterwards drove them out of Pannonia. In 174 A. D. he
gained over the Quadi a famous victory, which was reputed


ANTONINUS, COLUMN OF-ANTONY.
miraculous. According to Dion Cassius and other writers,
the Romans, who were suffering with thirst, were refreshed
by a shower of rain, while their enemies were demoralized
by a violent storm of hail. One of his generals, named
Avidius Cassius, then commanding in Syria, revolted in
175 A.D. and obtained possession of Egypt and part of
Asia, but he was killed by his own officers in the same year.
In 176 the emperor visited Syria and Egypt, and displayed
great clemency towards persons who had "been implicated
in the recentrebellion. On his homeward journey he passed
through Athens, where he founded a chair of philosophy
for each of the four sects, Platonic, Stoic, Peripatetic, and
Epicurean. His ardent love of learning continued un-
abated in advanced age, and he cherished constantly, amidst
the turmoil of war and the distractions of public life, his
philosophic and philanthropic aspirations. No monarch
was ever more warmly and generally beloved by his sub-
jects. It is a strange anomaly in his character and conduct
that he persecuted the Christians. During a campaign
against his inveterate enemies, the Marcomanni, he died at
Sirmium or at Windebona (Vienna) in Mar., 180 A.D., and
was succeeded by his son Commodus. He was author of an
excellent ethical workin Greek, called “Meditations,” a good
English version of which, by George Long, appeared in
1862, under the title of “Thoughts of M. Aurelius An-
toninus.” “His writings,” says the eminent philosopher,
J. Stuart Mill, “the highest ethical product of the ancient
mind, differ scarcely perceptibly, if they differ at all, from
the most characteristic teachings of Christ. This man, a
better Christian in all but the dogmatic sense of the word
than almost any of the ostensibly Christian sovereigns who
have since reigned, persecuted Christianity. To my mind
this is one of the most tragical facts in all history.” (See
J. CAPITOLINUs, “Marcus Aurelius Philosophus;” RIPAULT,
“Histoire de l’Empereur Marc-Antonin,” 5 vols., 1820;
TII, LEMONT, “IHistoire des Empereurs;” DE SUCKAU,
“Etude sur Marc-Aurèle,” 1857; DION CASSIUs, “History;”
AURELIUS VICTOR, “De Caesaribus Historia.”)
- WILLIAM JACOBS.
Antoni’nus, Column of, a pillar which Marcus
Aurelius erected in Rome to the memory of Antoninus Pius,
or perhaps in his own honor. It is a combination of the
Corinthian and Doric orders, and is adorned with bas-reliefs
of the victories which Marcus Aurelius gained over the
Marcomanni. It stands in the Piazza Colomna.
Antoninus, Itinerary of [Lat. Antoni’ni, Itinera/-
rium], a valuable geographical work, the date and author
of which are unknown. It contained the names of all
places and stations on the roads of the Roman empire,
with their distances in Roman miles.
Antoni'nus Piºus (or, more fully, Titus Aure/-
lius Ful’vus Boio/nius Ar’rius Antoni’nus), a
Roman emperor, born at Lanuvium Sept. 19, 86 A. D., was
a son of Aurelius Fulvus. He was chosen consul in 120
A. D., and married Anna Galeria Faustina. Having, as
proconsul in Asia, distinguished himself by his wisdom
and equity, he was adopted by Hadrian in 138 A.D., and
he ascended the throne on the death of Hadrian, in July
of that year. He adopted as his successor Marcus Aurelius.
His reign was so peaceful and prosperous that it furnishes
but scanty materials for history. Antoninus promoted liter-
ature, and treated the Christians with mildness. As a man
he was temperate, humane, learned, and eloquent. The
name of “Pater Patriae" (“Father of his Country”) was
given to him by the vote of the Roman Senate. He had
two sons, whom he survived. He died Mar. 7, 161 A. D.,
and was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius. His memory was
greatly venerated by the Romans of his own and later ages.
(See J. CAPITOLINUs, “Vita Antonini.”)
Antoninus, Wall of (anc. Antoni'ni Val/lum), a ram-
part or intrenchment raised in Scotland by the Romans
under Lollius Urbicus, in the reign of Antoninus Pius, in
139 A. D. It extended from the Clyde to the Frith of
Forth, was 35 miles long and 20 feet high, and was built of
earth and stone. Its remains are called “Graem’s dyke.”
Anto'nio (NICOLAs), [Lat. Wicola’us Anto'nius], an
eminent Spanish critic and bibliographer, born at Seville
in 1617. He published “Bibliotheca. Hispana Nova’’ (2
vols., 1672), and “Bibliotheca. Hispana Vetus” (2 vols.,
1696), which contain catalogues of all the Spanish books,
with biographical notices, and are highly esteemed. He
was Spanish agent at Rome 1659–81. Died April 13, 1684.
Anto/nius (CAIUS HYPRIDA), a Roman consul, was a
Son of M. Antonius the Orator, and an uncle of Mark
Antony the Triumvir. He was chosen consul as the col-
league of Cicero in 63 B. C. He was a profligate politician,
and did not earnestly co-operate with Cicero in opposing
the conspiracy of Catiline. Died in 44 B. C.
Antonius (MARCUs), called THE ORATOR, an eminent
181
Roman orator and lawyer, born in 143 B. C., was grand-
father of the famous Mark Antony. He became praetor
in 104, and consul in 99 B. C., and was attached to the
aristocratic party. Having become an adherent of Sulla.
in the civil war, he was assassinated by the order of Marius
in 87 B. C. He was perhaps the most eloquent Roman
orator of his time. His eloquence is highly eulogized by
Cicero in his treatise “De Oratore,” and in his “ Brutus.”
The orations of Antonius are not extant.
Antonius (MARCUs), surnamed THE TRIUMVIR, com-
monly called in English Mark Antony, a celebrated
Roman general and politician, born in 83 B.C., was a son
of M. Antonius Creticus. His mother Julia was a daughter
of L. Julius Caesar, who was consul about 90 B.C. Though
in his youth he was addicted to licentious vice and debauch-
ery, he distinguished himself at an early age by his talents
and riotous audacity. He obtained about 57 B.C. command
of the cavalry of Gabinius in Syria and Egypt. Having
been elected quaestor in 53 or 52, he served in Gaul as legate
of Caesar, and displayed superior talents in several cam-
paigns. Through the influence of Caesar he was elected
augur and tribune of the people in 50 B. C. As tribune
he promoted the interest of Caesar, and vetoed a decree of
the senate which ordered Caesar to disband his army.
Early in 49 B.C. he fled from Rome to the camp of the
general last mamed. After the civil war began, and Caesar
passed into Spain, he appointed Antony commander-in-
chief of his forces in Italy. The latter commanded the
left wing at the battle of Pharsalia, 48 B. C. In the year
47 he became master of the horse to Caesar, who was now
invested with the office of dictator. He married Fulvia,
the widow of the demagogue P. Clodius, about 45 B.C.,
and was chosen consul with Caesar as his colleague in
44. Although he indulged freely in licentious.orgies, and
disgraced himself by the effrontery with which he violated
the proprieties of life, he displayed great political ability,
especially in the crisis which followed the death of Caesar.
He negotiated with Brutus and Cassius, and temporized .
with the senate, whom he induced to ratify the acts of
the late dictator. His eloquent funeral oration over the
body of Caesar excited such popular indignation against
the conspirators that they were compelled to retreat from
Rome. In 43 B. C. Antony was defeated in battle by the
consuls Hirtius and Pansa at Mutina (now Módena).
About this time he was denounced by Cicero in a series of
famous orations called “Philippics.” Before the end of
the year 43, Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus united to form
a league (triumvirate) against the senate and the republi-
cans, many of whom were put to death by the myrmidons
of the triumvirs. At the instigation of Antony, Cicero was
proscribed and killed. It was the military skill of Antony
which defeated Brutus and Cassius at the decisive battle of
Philippi (42 B.C.), which rendered the triumvirs masters
of the Roman world. This victory was followed by another
bloody proscription. Antony, who received for his share
of the empire the Asiatic provinces and Egypt, now gave
himself up to pleasure and luxury. He was so captivated
by Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, that he neglected public
affairs, while Octavius was marching with stealthy steps
towards Supreme and undivided power. Antony and Oc-
tavius were involved in a quarrel in the year 41, but they
were formally reconciled in 40 B.C., and Antony then
married Octavia, the sister of his rival or colleague. About
the end of the year 38 the triumvirate was renewed for a
period of five years. Arousing once from his indolent and
luxurious mode of life, he marched with an army into Ar-
menia and invaded Parthia, in which he fought many
battles. He soon divorced Octavia, and returned to his
dalliance with Cleopatra. The conflict which had been
postponed now became inevitable, and Antony was defeat-
ed at the naval battle of Actium in Sept., 31 B. C. He then
retreated to Alexandria in Egypt, and was deserted by his
fleet. Reduced to a desperate extremity, he killed himself
in 30 B.C. He left two sons, Iulus and Antyllus. (See PLU-
TARCH, “Life of Antony;” DRUMANN, “Geschichte Roms;”
APPIAN, “Bellum Civile.”) WILLIAM JACOBs.
Antony, or Anthony [Lat. Anto'nius], SAINT, sur-
named ABBAs, an eminent anchorite, called the founder of
momachism, was born in Upper Egypt in 250 A. D. He
reduced himself to voluntary poverty, and retired to a
desert, where he passed many years in ascetic devotion and
solitude. About 305 he founded a monastery near Faioom
(or Phaifim). He was an opponent of Arianism, and was
venerated as a saint and oracle by his contemporaries.
During the persecution of the Christians in 311 he went to
Alexandria in the hope of obtaining the crown of martyr-
dom, but he was disappointed, and returned to the desert.
He had an interview many years later with Athanasius, who
wrote an account of his life. Some of the letters of Saint
Antony are extant. Died Jan. 17, 356 A. D.

182
ANTONY OF PADUA-AORTA.
Antony, or Anthony (SAINT), of Padua [It. Anto'-
nio], was born at Lisbon Aug. 15, 1195. He became a Fran-
ciscan monk, and preached at Toulouse, Bologna, and Pa-
dua, where he died June 13, 1231. According to a legend,
he once preached to the fish in the sea an eloquent Sermon,
which attracted the devoted attention of his finny auditors.
This sermon is extant. An abstract of it may be seen in
ADDISON’s “Remarks on Italy.” He was canonized in 1232.
Antony (MILTON), M. D. See APPENDIX.
An’tony of Bourbon [Fr. Antoine de Bourbon], duke
of Vendôme and king of Navarre, was born in Picardy
April 22, 1518. He was a brother of the prince of Condé.
. He married, in 1548, Jeanne d'Albret, the only child of the
king of Navarre. In 1560 he was appointed lieutenant-
general of France. Soon after that date he formed a coa-
lition with the duke of Guise and Constable Montmorency,
and became a Roman Catholic. He commanded the royal
army for a short time in the civil war, and was mortally
wounded at Rouen, and died Nov. 17, 1562. He was the
father of Henry IV. of France.
An'trim, the extreme N. E. county of Ireland, in Ulster,
bounded on the N. by the Atlantic, on the E. by the Irish
Channel, on the S. by the Lagan River, and on the W. by the
river Bann. Area, 1164 square miles. The surface near the
sea-coast is hilly, and the soil is mostly light. The rock which
underlies it is basaltic trap, with some new red sandstone.
Lignite of good quality is mined. On the N. coast is the
famous Giants’ Causeway, one of the most perfect examples
of columnar basalt in the world. Oats and flax are the
staple products of the soil. The county has extensive
manufactures of linen and cotton. Chief town, Belfast.
Pop. in 1861, 378,588; in 1871, 419,782.
Am/trim, a county in the N. W. part of the southern
peninsula of Michigan, is bounded on the W. by Grand
Traverse Bay. Area, estimated at 700 square miles. It
contains several lakes. Wheat, timber, fruit, butter, and
potatoes are the chief products. Capital, Elk Rapids.
Pop. 1985.
Antrim, a township of Shiawassee co., Mich. Pop. 992.
Antrim, a post-township of Watonwan co.,Minn. P. 263.
Antrim, a post-township of Hillsborough co., N. H.
It has manufactures of lumber, leather, furniture, sewing
silk, etc. Pop. 904.
Antrim, a post-village of Morris, Charleston, and Del-
mar townships, Tioga co., Pa., at the southern terminus of
the Corning Cowanesque and Antrim R. R., 38 miles from
Lawrenceville. Here are mines of excellent semi-bitumi-
nous coal, and forests of timber of the best quality.
Antrim, a township of Wyandot co., O. Pop. 1061.
Antrim, a township of Franklin co., Pa. Pop. 3762.
Antºwerp, a province of Belgium, is bounded on the
N. by Holland, on the E. by Limbourg, on the S. by South
Brabant, on the W. by the river Scheldt. Area, 1093 square
miles. The river Dyle forms part of its southern boundary.
The soil is generally fertile, and produces grain, hemp, mad-
der, hops, and pine timber. Capital, Antwerp. Pop. in
I869, 485,883.
Ant’werp [Dutch Ant/werpen; Lat. Antwer'pia ; Fr.
Anvers, ÓN’vaiR’; Sp. Ambéres], the chief commercial city
of Belgium, and capital of a province of its own name, is
on the right bank of the Scheldt, 26% miles by rail N. of
Brussels; lat. 51° 13' N., lon. 4° 24' E. It is strongly
fortified, and has among its defences a citadel built by the
duke of Alva in 1567. The magnificent public buildings,
the numerous churches, the stately and antique houses, and
the profusion of ornamental trees, render the general ap-
pearance of the city very picturesque. The streets are tor-
tuous and irregular, but one of them, called the Place de
Meir, is scarcely surpassed in beauty by any street in Eu-
rope. Foremost among the public buildings is the cathe-
dral, one of the largest and most beautiful specimens of
Gothic architecture in Europe. It is 500 feet ſong and 240
feet wide, and contains the principal masterpieces of Ru-
bens. Among the other public edifices are the exchange
and the marble hôtel de ville. The principal institutions
are—the Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Painting
and Sculpture, a rich gallery of pictures, a public library,
and a botanic garden. Antwerp has an excellent harbor,
which will admit the largest vessels. Railways extend
from this place to Holland, Prussia, Brussels, and Ghent.
#. an extensive trade, and is an important market for
1C10 S.
linen, lace, carpets, sewing-silk, and printers’ ink. Ant-
werp was a city as early as the eighth century, and was
formerly more populous than it is now. In the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries it was the great centre of European
commerce, and had 200,000 inhabitants or more. It is
stated that 500 vessels daily entered its port. It was be-,
Here are manufactures of black silk stuffs, cotton,
sieged and taken by the prince of Parma in 1585, soon after
which much of its commerce was transferred to Amster-
dam. By the treaty of Paris, Antwerp, with the rest of
Belgium, was annexed to the kingdom of Holland in 1814.
In the popular rising of 1830 against that government the
citadel was held by Dutch troops under command of Gen-
eral Chassé. The resulting siege of Antwerp by the French
was a fine practical example of the science of sieges, which
excited the interest of military amateurs of all nations.
The defence exhibited a conspicuous example of fortitude
and endurance. The capitulation took place Dec. 24, 1832,
the trenches having been opened Nov. 30. During recent
years, Antwerp, the true military capital of Belgium, has
been fortified under a very distinguished engineer, Colonel
Brialmont, as the central point of a great intrenched camp
on the Scheldt, by a system of works “unrivalled in Eu-
rope in the intelligent application of the true principles of
art to a great practical example.” Pop. in 1869, 126,663.
REVISED BY J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Antwerp, a twp. of Van Buren co., Mich. Pop. 2690.
Antwerp, a village of Jefferson co., N. Y., in a town-
ship of the same name, on the Rome Watertown and Og-
densburg R. R. It has one newspaper and one bank, and
is the seat of the Northern New York Conference Semi-
nary. Two hundred thousand tons of iron ore are raised
from beds in this vicinity per year. The Jefferson Iron
Company is located here. Pop. of township, 3310; of the
village, 773. ED. OF “ANTWERP NEWS.”
Antwerp, a post-village of Paulding co., 0., on the
Toledo Wabash and Western R. R., 23 miles N. E. by E.
of Fort Wayne, Ind., and on the Wabash and Erie Canal.
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 717.
Anu'bis, or Anepu, an idol of the Egyptians, was
represented as a son of Osiris, and as having the form of
a dog, or a man with a dog's head.
Anvari’, or Anwari, a Persian poet, born in Khoras-
sån. He rose to celebrity about 1150, and enjoyed the favor
of the Seljukide sultan Sanjar, at whose court he passed
many years. He wrote numerous lyrical poems, which are
much admired. His elegy on the capture of Sanjar by the
Ghaurians has been translated into English. Having turned
his attention to astrology, and predicted that a great hur-
ricane would occur in 1185 or 1186, he fell into disgrace
when his prediction was not fulfilled. Died about 1200.
An’vil, an iron block with a smooth surface on which
blacksmiths hammer and shape their work. It varies in
form and in size. The common or middle-sized anvil, on
which iron is forged with a sledge-hammer, is in the form
of an oblong table, which has a conical horn at one end,
and sometimes a pyramidal horn at the other end. The
upper surface of the anvil is sometimes made of steel.
Anville, a township of Sumpter co., Ala. Pop. 410.
Anville, d” (JEAN BAPTISTE Bourg UIGNON), a cele-
brated French geographer, born in Paris July 11, 1697.
He devoted his whole life to the study and improvement of
geography, and is recognized as the first who raised geog-
raphy to the rank of an exact science. He was appoint-
ed geographer to the king, and became a member of the
Academy of Sciences. Among his works are “Orbis Ro-
manus’’ (“Roman World”), “Orbis Veteribus Notus.”
(“The World known to the Ancients”), and a “Compend-
ium of Ancient Geography ’’ (in French, 3 vols., 1768). He
published 21.1 maps and plans, which embrace nearly every
country in the world. Although he never travelled, he de-
lineated various foreign countries with remarkable accu-
racy. The correctness of his map of Egypt was confirmed
by the French suryey of 1798–99. Died Jan. 28, 1782.
(See CoNDoRCET, “Eloge de M. d’Anville,” 1762.)
Anzas' ca, Val d?, a picturesque valley of Piedmont,
in the province of Novara. It has beautiful cascades, and
affords fine views of Monte Rosa. Gold is found here.
Anzin, a town of France, in the department of Nord,
1 mile N. W. of Valenciennes. It has iron-foundries and
glass-works, and is the centre of the greatest collieries of
France. Pop. in 1866, 7283.
Ao’nia, a district of ancient Greece, in Boeotia, con-
tained Mount Helicon (the Aonian Mount) and the foun-
tain' Aganippe. These were celebrated as the favorite re-
sorts of the Muses, who were called Aonſides.
A’orist [from the Gr. a, priv., and Špos, a “limit”], a
form of the Greek verb which represents an action as tak-
ing place in an indefinite time. The Greek language has, in
addition to the imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect, the aorist,
which is peculiarly adapted to the narrative style. The
aorist has two forms, called first and second aorist, but very
few verbs have both in use. -
Aor'ta [Gr. &opri, from &eipo, to “raise up,” to “sup-
port,” to “suspend,” because it is supported or suspended
AOSTA—APENNINES.
183
from the heart], the large arterial trunk arising from the
left ventricle of the heart, and giving origin directly or in-
directly to all arteries except the pulmonary and its rami-
fications. The curve that it makes in the upper part of its
course, during which it sends off the innominata and the
left carotid and subclavian arteries, is called the arch of
the aorta. The thoracic aorta extends from the third dor-
sal vertebra to the diaphragm, where it takes the name of
abdominal aorta, which in the lower part of the abdomen,
about opposite the fourth lumbar vertebra, divides into
the two iliac arteries, going to supply.the lower extremi-
ties. The thoracic aorta gives off two or three bronchial
arteries to supply the tissue of the lungs. The abdom-
inal aorta gives off two phrenic arteries to the diaphragm,
and the coeliac axis, which divides into three branches to
supply the stomach, liver, and spleen, besides several smaller
arteries: (See CIRCULATION of THE BLOOD.)
Aos’ta (anc. Augus’ta Praeto/ria), a town of Italy, in
the province of Turin, is on the river Dora, in a valley 50
miles N. N. W. of Turin. It has a Gothic cathedral, the
remains of a Roman amphitheatre, and a fine triumphal
arch. The valley of Aosta produces large forests of pine,
and has mines of copper, silver, iron, and lead. Cheese,
leather, wine, and hemp are exported. Pop. in 1861, 5958.
Apa/ches, a warlike tribe of savages who infest New
Mexico and Arizona, and hitherto have persisted in hostil-
ity against the Mexicans and the white people of the U. S.
They make frequent incursions into the states of Chihua-
hua and Sonora. They fight on horseback, and gain a sub-
sistence by robbery. The rifle and bow and arrow are their
principal weapons. They are divided into several bands
or tribes.
Ap'aſi (MICHAEL or MIHALY), prince of Transylvania,
was born in 1632. He began to reign in 1661, and was for
many years an ally of the Turkish Sultan. In 1687 he
became tributary to the emperor of Germany. Died April
15, 1690. He was succeeded by his son Mihaly, under
whom Transylvania was invaded by the Turks, who took
several towns. He sold his principality to Austria for a
pension. Died in 1713.
Apalach’in, a post-village of Owego township, Tioga
co., N. Y., on the S. bank of the Susquehanna. Pop. 300.
Apame'a, an ancient city of Syria, on the river Oron-
tes, which here expands into a lake named Apamea, about
75 miles S. of Antioch. It was probably named in honor
of Apame, the wife of Seleucus Nicator. The place was
called Fannieh in the time of the Crusades. Its extensive
ruins still exist.
Ap'anage, or Ap'panage [from Lat. ad, “for,” and
panis, “bread,” “living ”], in feudal law, an allowance to
the younger sons of a sovereign or prince out of the reve-
nues of the country, generally joined with a grant of the
public domain. In England the duchy of Cornwall is an
apanage of the prince of Wales, but the younger sons of
the sovereign are dependent upon the liberality of Par-
liament.
Apatin', a town of Hungary, in the county of Bacs, on
the left bank of the Danube, 60 miles S. of Baja. It has
a trade in silk, madder, and hemp. Pop. in 1869, 11,047.
Ap’atite [from the Gr. &mérm, “deceit,” so called be-
cause it deceives the observer by its resemblance to other
minerals], the native phosphate of lime, which is exten-
sively used as a manure in England and the U. S. It
usually occurs in crystalline rocks, such as granite and
greenstone, but is also found in granular limestone and ser-
pentine. The most abundant supplies, however, are de-
rived from beds of animal remains, bones, etc. When
crystallized it appears in six-sided prisms, sometimes of
a greenish color, and containing calcic phosphate, with
a certain proportion of calcic chloride and fluoride, Cag
(PO4)2 + Ca(CIAF)2. The amorphous apatite which is used
in the preparation of artificial manure is imported from
Spain and Norway, and from Sombrero, Navassa, Swan,
and some other small islands in the West Indies. Before
it is applied to the soil it is ground to powder and subjected
to the action of sulphuric acid, which renders the phosphoric
acid of the apatite soluble in water. The efficacy of apa-
tite as a fertilizer of the soil depends on the presence of
phosphoric acid, which is essential to the growth of such
plants as wheat, barley, and oats. It is often mixed with
guano, bones, and other manures to make a complex fer-
tilizer, which is better than the simple mineral phosphate.
A rich deposit of apatite in the form of modules has been
found in the postpliocene marls of South Carolina, near the
Ashley, Stono, and Edisto rivers. Large quantities of
these nodules, which contain 25 or 30 per cent. of phos-
phoric acid, are converted into “superphosphate of lime”
at Charleston, S. C., and at Camden, N. J.. It is stated
that about 13,000 tons of apatite (otherwise called phos-
phatic guano) were imported into the U. S. in 1868. Apa-
tite occurs in large crystals, associated with white lime-
stone, in St. Lawrence co., N. Y. Massive apatite is found
in England, Ireland, Spain, and other countries. (See
GUANo, Box.E, FERTILIZERS, AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.)
Apcheron. See APSHERON.
Ape [Gr. ºriónkos; Lat. pithe’cus or sim/ia], a name of
a division of animals closely allied to monkeys, but hav-
ing no tail. It comprises the chimpanzee, orang-outang,
gorilla, gibbon, etc. The ape belongs to the order Quadru-
mana and class Mammalia, having four extremities, which
are all adapted to grasping, like the human hand. Their
structure is better adapted for climbing trees than for walk-
ing on the ground, and accordingly in the forest they swing
from tree to tree with great agility and ease, but on the
ground they are slow and almost helpless. A remarkable
peculiarity in the habits of these animals is that they use
clubs and stones as weapons for defence or offence. Apes
are natives of Africa, India, Borneo, etc. (See CHIMPAN-
ZEE, GoRILLA, ORANG-OUTANG.) -
Ap’eldorm, or Apeldoorn, a beautiful village of Hol-
y land, in Gelderland, on the river Grift, 16 miles N. N. E.
of Arnhem. Here are an agricultural school and manu-
factures of paper, blankets, and coarse woollen fabrics.
Pop., with adjacent hamlets, in 1867, 12,411.
Apel’Ies [Gr. 'Area.Ajs], a Greek painter, lived between
352 and 308 B. C. We do not know when or where he was
born, nor when nor where he died, and not one of his pic-
tures remains; yet his name.stands for Supreme excellence
in the art of painting. Suidas says he was born at Colo-
phon; Strabo and Lucian make him an Ephesian; and a
doubtful reading in the case of each makes both Pliny
and Ovid seem to call him a Coan. He studied first with
Ephorus of Ephesus; afterwards with Pamphilus of Am-
phipolis. Plutarch (Aratus) says he joined the school of
Melanthius at Sicyon, not to learn, but to gain credit. He
painted many portraits of Philip, and also of Alexander,
who would sit to no other painter. He probably accom-
panied Alexander to Asia, and after his death went to
Egypt, from which time we hear no more of him. Apelles
was generous to other painters and devoted to his art. He
admitted that in some things he was excelled by other
artists, but he claimed to surpass all others in grace. His
industry gave rise to the proverb, “No day without a line.”
He knew when to stop correcting, declaring that “Too
much labor is sometimes hurtful to a piece.” To a cob-
bler, who, having rightly criticised the painting of a shoe
in one of his pictures, went on to blame the leg, he said,
“Let the cobbler stick to his last.” He is thought to
have invented the process known as glazing or toning,
and he painted on movable panels—never, says Pliny, on
walls. His most famous picture was that of “Venus Ris-
ing from the Sea.” (Venus Anadyomene), painted for the
temple of AEsculapius in Cos. (See PLINY, “Natural His-
tory xxxv. 10;” SUIDAs, “Apelles;” CARLo DATI, “Wite
dei Pittori Antichi,” 1667; DELLA WALLE, “Vite Pittori
Antichi,” 1795; WUsTMANN, “Apelles' Leben und Werke,”
1870.) CLARENCE COOK.
Ap/emmines [It. Apenni'no], (ane. Mons Apenni'nws),
a long chain of mountains extending through the whole
length of the Italian peninsula, and forming the watershed
between the Adriatic Sea and the Mediterranean. This
chain belongs to the system of the Alps, from which it
branches off near the Col de Tenda. The northern portion,
called the Ligurian Alps, is nearly parallel to the Gulf of
Genoa, and is in close proximity to the coast. The entire
length of the chain is about 800 miles, and its general di-
rection nearly south-eastward. None of its summits rise
to the limit of perpetual snow. The highest summit in
the peninsula is Monte Corno, which has an altitude of
9546 feet, but Mount Etna, regarded by some as a part of
the Apennine system, is 10,840 feet high. The average
height of the chain is about 4000 feet. The geological for-
mations of the Apennines are either metamorphic or sec-
ondary, and limestone is the predominant rock. They are
remarkable for their rich quarries of marble of various
colors, but are poor in metals. Rocks of volcanic origin
abound in the former kingdom of Naples. The mineral
riches of these mountains consist chiefly in the celebrated
marbles of Carrara, Seravezza, and Sienna. The Apen-
nines are somewhat deficient in sublime and magnificent
scenery, and their general aspect is that of a wall, with
few projecting peaks to break the monotony of the scene.
The higher parts of these mountains are mostly dry, rocky,
and destitute of trees, but below the altitude of 3000 feet
they are covered with forests of the evergreen oak, chestnut,
beech, and other trees. The olive, orange, and palm also
flourish near their base, especially where they are in close
proximity to the sea, as near the Gulf of Naples and at the
184
APENRADE—APIOS TUBEROSA.
Riviera of Genoa. Some geographers divide this chain into
four parts: 1. The Northern Apennines, extending from
the Col de Tenda to the Pass of Borgo San Sepolcro, near
Arezzo; 2. The Central Apennines, from Arezzo to the val-
ley of the Pescara, which separates the provinces of Ter-
amo and Chieti; 3. The Southern Apennines, from the Pes-
cara, to Cape Spartivento; 4. The Insular Apennines, in
the island of Sicily. In Central Italy the western or south-
western side presents a very gradual descent, but in the
northern part of the range, which approaches the coast,
there is a very steep declivity next to the sea.
Apenra'de, a seaport-town in Sleswick, on a fiord of
the same name in the Little Belt, 35 miles north of Sles-
wick. It has a good harbor and beautiful environs. Ship-
building is carried on here. Near this town is the castle
of Brundlund, built by Queen Margaret about 1410.
in 1871, 5932.
Aphanip’tera, or Aphanop/tera [from the Gr.
&bavis, “invisible,” and irrepôv; a “wing”], i. e. with wings
not apparent, although they have rudimental elytra (hence
termed in English aphamipterous), the term applied to an
order, sub-order, or family of wingless haustellate insects
composed of the different species of fleas, and forming the
family Pulicidae, and closely allied to the flies. There are
many species, of which the common flea (Puleac irritans)
may be regarded as the type. The female deposits her
eggs, generally about a dozen in number, of a white color,
in any favorable situation; and in about six days the larvae
are hatched, attaining their full size in ten or twelve days
more. At the end of this time the larva spins itself a little
silken cocoon, in which it passes into the pupa state, and
in about twelve days afterwards emerges a perfect flea.
This metamorphosis distinguishes the flea and chigoe from
other blood-sucking parasitic insects; and they are further
distinguished by the number of segments into which their
bodies are divided, and by their five-jointed tarsi. The
chigoe (Sarcopsylla penetrans) is a native of South America.
and the West Indies, and is an exceedingly annoying, and
sometimes even a dangerous, insect. It penetrates the skin
entirely out of sight, and in this way often forms trouble-
some ulcers, which, if neglected at first, are very difficult
to heal. -
Apha'sia [from the Gr. a, priv., and biºt, to “speak”],
a loss of speech which is a symptom of brain disease, as
distinguished from aphonia, loss of speech from disease of
the larynx or direct paralysis of that organ. Aphasia
may coexist with the most perfect ability to utter words, or
even to think, the patient sometimes persisting in giving
things names which do not belong to them. At other times
the patient, though he can utter words, cannot clothe his
thought in articulate language, but manifests by signs, etc.
a normal condition as regards intelligence. Aphasia is not
necessarily a precursor of insanity, though sometimes ob-
served in its early stages. One of the most remarkable
facts in this connection is that apoplectic effusion, trau-
matic injury, or disease of the left frontal lobe, and espe-
cially of the third convolution, is notably liable to be fol-
lowed by this symptom, which is not very frequent, and
which sometimes ends in perfect recovery. (See APHONIA.)
Aphe'lion [from the Gr. &md, “from,” and #Atos, the
“sun”], that part of a planet's orbit which is the most dis-
Pop.
tant from the sun, and is opposite to the perihelion, or the .
point nearest the sun. In consequence of the mutual at-
tractions of the planets, the figures and positions of their
orbits are continually but slowly changed.
Aph’ides (sing. a'phis, gen. aph/idis, a “ plant-louse”),
the name applied to numerous homopterous insects of the
family Aphidae, and commonly known as plant-lice. They
inhabit trees and plants, on the juices of which they feed.
The aphides are remarkable for their saccharine secretion,
but more especially for a peculiarity in their generative
economy which consists in the first fecundation of the fe-
male influencing not only the ova. developed immediately
afterwards, but those of the females resulting from that
development, even to the ninth generation, which are suc-
cessively impregnated, and continue to produce without
any intercourse with the male. In autumn the males are
produced, when the last set of females are impregnated, and
the fecundated eggs brought forth for the ensuing year. The
body of these insects is generally flask-like, being furnished
with six legs, a pair of antennae, and two small tubes not
far from the extremity of the abdomen through which the
saccharine fluid is exuded. In some of the aphides wings
are present, but in others they are not. The sweet fluid
which they throw out is known as honey-dew, and is some-
times produced in such quantities as to fall in drops from
the leaves of the trees to the earth. Ants have a special
fondness for this substance, and often frequent plants on
which it is deposited. They may sometimes be seen milk-
ing the aphides, as it is termed—that is, stroking these
Sugar-tubes with their antennae, to induce them to furnish
| |\|| them the saccharine
| | , tº % fluid more abundantly.
Kºjšº % Hence the aphides
salºğ % p
* §º º & have been termed the
º wº '. ÁºA milch-cows of the ants.
wº M §º º Fºss sº Some species of this
§§§ º destr
\ºs genus are very destruc-
jº * : º tive to vegetation, as
% Sº?: º jº % §§ º e
zººs \º the hop-fly (A'phis huſ-
㺠) muli), and the aphis
ºś of the turnip cabbage
W A (Aſphis bºr a 8 (8 i ca: ),
which have sometimes
destroyed whole crops.
The aphides are often
$º wº
4 * º º *
ºjº
**: §§ º
gº º jš infested by certain mi-
% ** §§ % iº *
d º - nute parasites, which,
§ ſº § by laying their eggs in
* * 'ſ f º tº: & *
º the bodies of those in-
sects, cause the death
of great numbers. It
is remarkable that one
of these parasites (Aph-
did'ius) has itself still
more minute ichneu-
mon parasites, whose
eggs are deposited in
its body.
Aphis. See APII-
IDES.
Apho’nia [from the
Gr. a, priv., and bovéo,
to “make a sound ’’),
a loss of speech in
- which the patient more
or less completely loses power to utter sounds. This may
arise from disease of the larynx, from direct paralysis of
that organ, or from Some functional disease, as hysteria or
chorea. The treatment varies with the disease of which
the aphonia is a symptom. As a general rule, these cases
are temporary, unless there is a destruction or serious or—
ganic change in the tissues of the larynx.
Aph’rodite, a name of a hydrated silicate of magnesia
Aphides.
found in Sweden. It is a soft, earthy mineral, with a waxy
lustre, and resembles meerschaum.
Aphrodite. See VENUs.
Aphºtha, plu. Aph’ that [from the Gr. &m'ro, to “set
on fire *], ulcers of the mouth, beginning with numerous
minute vesicles and terminating in white sloughs. Aphthaa
are usually the seat of microscopic vegetation, but whether
the growth is an essential or only an accidental element is
a disputed point. Aphthae resemble “thrush” in appear-
ance, but in the latter disease no vesicles are formed.
Aphthar’to-Do ce’tae [from the Gr. a, neg., and d6ap-
Tós, “corruptible,” and Šokéo, to “think,” to “believe”],
literally, “believers in [that which is] incorruptible,” the
name of the followers of Julian of Halicarnassus, who lived
about 520 A. D., and taught that the body of Christ was
divine and incorruptible.
Aſpian [Lat. Apia'mus], or Appian (PETER), a Ger-
man astronomer and mathematician, born in Misnia in
1495. His proper name was BIENEWITz. He became pro-
fessor of mathematics at Ingolstadt about 1524, and gained
distinction by his writings, among which is a work on cos-
mography (1524). He first proposed the method of ascer-
taining the longitude by lunar observations. He was en-
nobled by the emperor Charles W. Died April 21, 1552.
Apic/ius (MARCUS GABIUs), a celebrated epicure who
lived at Rome in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. His
name became proverbial for gluttony and luxury in eating.
According to Seneca, he expended more than $3,500,000 in
the indulgence of his taste for rare dishes, and then discov-
ering that his fortune was reduced to ten million sesterces
(about $360,000), he poisoned himself, because he could not
continue his expensive style of living.
A^pion ['Artov], surnamed PLISTONIGES, a Greek gram-
marian and historian, born in the Great Oasis, Egypt, lived
about 20–50 A.D.. He opened a school of rhetoric in Rome
about 45 A. D., and wrote several works, among which were
a “History of Egypt” and a lexicon to Homer's poems.
Josephus’s work, usually called “Against Apion,” was
written in answer to a book which Apion wrote against the
Jews. On account of his egotism and loquacity, Tiberius
used to call him Cymbalum Mundi (the “Cymbal of the
World”). His works are lost, except small fragments.
Aſpio's Tubero'sa, a papilionaceous plant of the mat-
ural order Leguminosae, was formerly included in the genus
Glycine. It is a native of Virginia, Ohio, New York, etc.,













APIS-APOLLO BELVEDERE.
185
has a twining stem, pinnate leaves, and tuberous roots,
which are used as food, and resemble the potato. The roots
are commonly called ground-nuts.
Aſpis [Gr. "Arts], the name of the bull of Memphis, the
favorite idol and object of worship of the ancient Egyptians.
According to some authorities, he was sacred to Osiris, or
was a symbol of Osiris, and was not permitted to live more
than twenty-five years, at the end of which time he was
secretly put to death by the priests. During his life he
was kept in the temple of Ptah in Memphis, and served by
a retinue of priests. His death was followed by a general
mourning until a calf with the requisite color and marks
was found to supply his place. The principal of these re-
quired marks were—black color with a white square on the
brow, the figure of an eagle on the back, and a peculiar
knot under the tongue.
Aplanatic Lens [from the Gr. a, priv., and traffvn,
“ deviation ”], in optics, a lens which causes all the rays of
light that fall, on it to converge to a single point or true
focus. In order to be aplanatic, the lens must not only
have the true geometrical figure necessary to destroy ab-
erration, but must be formed of different media, so as to
be achromatic. These conditions cannot be accurately ful-
filled in practice. -
Ap'lin, a township of Perry co., Ark. Pop. 439.
Apocalypse [Gr. &tokáAvibus, from &tokašiſtro, to “re-
veal”], a word signifying “revelation,” and usually ap-
plied to the last book of the New Testament. (See REve-
LATION.) -
Apocalypſtic Rnights, a secret society of which
scarcely anything is known, founded at Rome in 1692 by
Agostino Gabrino, a citizen of Brescia. To defend the
Roman Catholic Church against Antichrist is said to have
been the avowed object of this society, but many suspected
that the real design was hostile to the established social
order, and that by Antichrist was meant the pope.
Apocalyptic Number, the mystical number 666
spoken of in the book of Revelation (xiii. 18). Some critics
interpret this to be an enigmatical expression of the word
Latinus, the Greek characters of which, taken as numerals,
amount to 666. The connection between Latinus and the
Roman power has given Protestants a reason, or pretext,
to apply this passage to the Roman Church, and the Roman
Catholics retort by making the same number stand for
Luther, Calvin, and other Protestants.
Apocren'ic Ac/id [from the Gr. &md, “from,” and
kpāvm, a “fountain,” so called because derived from some
fountains or springs], an extractive or brown matter found
in some spring water and in ordinary vegetable mould. It
is a product. of the natural decay of wood and other veg-
etable tissue. (See HUMIC ACID.)
Apoc'rypha [from the Gr. &mdrpvdos, “hidden"), a term
applied by Protestant theologians to a collection of writings
which have been regarded as an appendage to the Old Tes-
tament, and sometimes as a part of it. They are valuable
chiefly as historical records, and for the light they throw on
the religious condition of the Jews from the period of the
Old Testament to the Christian era. They are divided into
three classes: 1st, those which originated in Palestine, such
as the book of Jesus son of Sirach, first book of Macca-
bees, and book of Judith; 2d, those of Egypto-Alexandrian
origin—the book of Wisdom, second of Maccabees, and the
addition to Esther; 3d, those which show traces of Chaldaic
or Persian influence, as Esdras, Tobias, Baruch, and the
additions to Daniel. The Council of Laodicea in Phrygia,
between 343 and 381 (commonly referred to cir. 360), con-
demned the use of “uncanonical books;” but the list of
canonical books which follows is now generally thought to
be an interpolation. The third Council of Carthage (Aug.,
397), in the forty-seventh of its fifty canons, gives a list
which includes Ecclesiasticus, Wisdom, Tobit, Judith, First
and Second Maccabees. There are in all fourteen apocry-
phal books, or portions of books, all but three of which
Were pronounced canonical by the Council of Trent in 1546.
The Roman Catholic Church calls these books deutero-
canonical or antilegomena, and applies the name “apoc-
ryphal” to those books to which a reception into their
canon of the books of the Old Testament has been refused.
By Protestants these books are generally called PSEUDEPI-
GRAPHA (which see). The Church of England in her Arti-
cles mentions the Apocrypha as books which “the Church
doth read for example of life and instruction of manners,
but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine.”
They are entirely rejected from public worship by Protest-
ants in America, and by the dissenting churches in Great
Britain. - REVISED BY R. D. HITCHCOCK.
Apocyna'ceae, or Apocyn'eae [so called from Apoc'-
&num, the name of one of its general, an order of exogenous
herbs, trees, and shrubs. The calyx is usually 5-partite,
persistent; the corolla monopetalous and hypogynous; the
stamens are five, inserted on the corolla. Many of the
species have a poisonous milky juice, and others are used
in medicine. The whole number of the species is said to
be more than 550. This order comprises the oleander; the
hya-hya, or cow tree, the milk of which is wholesome; the
Cerbera, which produces the Tanghin poison of Madagas-
car; the Carissa edulis of Arabia; and the Apocynum can-
nabinum, or Indian hemp, which grows in North America.
Ap’odal Fishes, or Ap’odes [from the Gr. a, priv.,
and tro'ſs, troöös, a “foot”], a term applied to fishes destitute
of ventral fins or homologues of the posterior extremities.
In the Linnaean system, Apodes was the name of an order
of such fishes, but in the system of Cuvier less importance
is attached to this distinctive character, Eels are apodal
fishes. - -
Ap’ogee [from the Gr. &md, “from,” and yi, the “earth”]
signifies the point of the moon’s orbit most remote from the
earth; the point which is opposite to the perigee. The
apogee of the lunar orbit advances eastward among the
stars, and completes a revolution in nine years.
Apolac’on, a township of Susquehanna co., Pa. P. 528.
Apol’da, a town of Central Germany, in Saxe-Weimar,
on the railway from Berlin to Weimar, 11 miles by rail
N. E. of Weimar. Here are mineral springs. Pop. in 1871,
10,507. - -
Apollina’ris (or Apollina’rius) THE YouNGER, a
learned bishop and philosopher, was a son of a gramma-
rian of the same name. He became bishop of Laodicea in
362 A. D., and gained distinction as an orator and writer.
Among his works were “Thirty Books against Porphyry”
and commentaries on the Bible. He was an opponent of
Arianism, and in 375 founded the sect of Apollinarians,
who were regarded as heretics. The heresy of which he
was accused was the denial of the human soul in Christ,
the place of which, he taught, was supplied by the Logos.
His heresy was condemned at Alexandria, in 362, and at
Rome in 374. At the Council of Constantinople, in 381, he
was condemned by name. He died in 390, and by the
middle of the subsequent century the sect he founded was
extinct. (See WERNSDORFF, “Dissertatio de Apollinare
Laodiceno,” 1694.)
Apollina’ris Sido’nius (CAIUs SoLLIUs), SAINT, a
Latin poet and ecclesiastic, born at Lugdunum (Lyons), in
Gaul, in 430 A. D. He was a son-in-law of Avitus, who
was emperor of Rome for a few months in 455-456 A. D.
Anthemius, who became emperor in 467, appointed him
chief of the senate. In 471 he was elected bishop of
Clermont (Augustonemetum). He wrote “Carmina” and
“Epistolae,” which are extant, and have some historical
value. Died in 482 A. D. (See GERMAIN, “IEssai sur Apol-
linaris Sidonius,” 1840.)
Apol'Io [Gr. 'AtróAAtov], in Greek mythology, the god of
light or day, of poetry, music, archery, etc., was a son of
Jupiter and Latona. He was often called Delius, because
he was born on the island of Delos; and Phoebus, which
signifies “shining.” As the god of light (the presence of
which is necessary to the existence of beauty) he presides
over poetry, the arts, etc. According to the later poets,
he was the god of the sun, and was identified with Helios,
but Homer represents them as distinct deities. Apollo may
be considered the ideal representative of the Hellenic peo-
ple, and the impersonation of Hellenic life in its most no-
ble and beautiful forms. He was recognized as the author
of the healing art, and as the god of prophetic inspiration
as especially manifested in the oracle of Delphi. Under
the name of Paean he was invoked as a healer of disease
and as a destroyer, for his arrows were believed to deal out
pestilence. Apollo was also worshipped by the ancient
Romans, who derived their idea of him from the Greeks.
He was represented by artists as a beautiful young man,
crowned with laurel, and holding in his hand a harp or a
bow and arrow.
Apollo, a post-borough of Armstrong co., Pa., on the
Kiskiminetas River, and on a branch of the Central R. R.,
40 miles E. N. E. of Pittsburg. Pop. 764.
Apol'Io Belvede’re, a beautiful antique marble
statue of Apollo which was discovered at Antium about
1503, and was placed in the Belvedere of the Vatican. The
name and date of the artist are unknown. This statue, which
is about seven feet high, is considered the most perfect
model of manly beauty. The attitude of the statue is gem-
erally supposed to represent Apollo as he appeared after
he had discharged the arrow that killed the Python. (See
BYRON’s “Childe Harold,” canto iv., stanzas clxi., clzii.,
and clxiii.) But another opinion is gaining ground that it
represents the god with the aegis in his hand, as he appear-
ed to the Goths who were invading his sanctuary at Delphi.
(See “Apollon Boédromios bronzn. Statue im Besitz des
186
APOLLODORUS—A POSTERIORI, AND A PRIORI.
Grafen Sergei Stroganoff erläutert, von LUDOLF STEPHANI,
mit vier Kupfertafeln,” St. Petersburg, 1860.) CLARENCE
COOK.
Apollodo/rus [Gr. 'AtroXA68wpos], a celebrated Greek
painter, surnamed THE SHADOWER, was born at Athens
about 440 B. C. He was a rival of Zeuxis, the founder of
a new school, and the reputed inventor of chiaroscuro.
His works are highly praised by Pliny, who says he was
the first who painted objects as they really appear.
Apollodorus of Athens, a celebrated grammarian
and historian who lived about 140 B.C., was a pupil of Aris-
tarchus. He wrote numerous works, which are lost, and a
manual of Greek mythology entitled “Bibliotheca,” a large
part of which is extant. It is considered very valuable by
classical scholars as the best work on the subject. It was
published by Heyne in two volumes; 2d ed. 1803.
Apollodorus of Damascus, a distinguished archi-
tect, born at Damascus, lived about 100 A. D. He was pat-
ronized by Trajan, and erected in Rome numerous works,
among which were the Basilica. Ulpia, the Forum of Tra-
jan, and the Column of Trajan, which is still extant. His
capital work was a noble bridge over the Danube, near the
mouth of the Aluta, built in 105 A. D. He was put to death
about 128 A. D. by Hadrian, whom he had offended by
criticising a temple which that emperor had designed.
Apollo'nia [Gr. 'AtroAAtovía], an ancient city of Illyr-
icum, on the Adriatic Sea, about 40 miles S. of Dyrrhachium.
It was founded by colonists from Corinth and Corcyra, and
became an important city. The site is now occupied by a
village called Polina or Pollina, and some ruins of temples.
Apollo/nius [Gr. AtroAAtóvvos] of Rhodes, an eminent
Greek sculptor, lived probably about 200 B. C. Aided by
his brother Tauriscus, he executed a group of Zethus and
Amphion tying Dirce to the horns of a bull. Some per-
sons identify this with the group called “Toro Farnese ’’
which is now at Naples.
Apollonius, a skilful Athenian sculptor, a son of Nes-
tor. His date is unknown, and nothing is known about
him but that he executed the marble statue of Hercules,
of which a large fragment, called the Torso of the Belve-
dere, is now in Rome.
Apollonius, a grammarian and Sophist of Alexandria,
lived in the time of Augustus. His lexicon to Homer’s
“Iliad” and “Odyssey” is extant, and is highly prized.
Apollonius, surnamed DYSCOLUs (the “Morose ’’), an
eminent Greek grammarian of Alexandria, was the father
of AElius Herodian. He lived about 120–160 A. D., and
wrote many works which are lost, but a “Treatise on the
Syntax of the Parts of Speech” and three others are ex-
tant. He was styled by Priscian grammaticorum princeps
—“prince of grammarians.” -
Apollonius, surnamed PERGAEUs, a celebrated and
profound Greek geometer, born at Perga, in Pamphylia,
about 250 B. C. Little is known of his life, except that he
resided in Alexandria in the reign of Ptolemy Philopator
(222–205 B. C.). His most important work is a Greek
“Treatise on Conic Sections,” in eight books, which is ex-
tant except one book. He wrote other works, which are
lost. He was also distinguished as an astronomer.
Apollo/nius Mo’lon, a Greek rhetorician, born at
Alabanda, in Caria. He taught rhetoric at Rhodes and
Rome, which he visited in 81 B. C. Cicero and Julius
Caesar were his pupils soon after that date.
Apollo'nius Rho'dius ['Amoxx6vios 'o'P68tos], a Greek
poet, born at Alexandria (or at Naucratis) about 235 B.C.,
was a pupil of the poet Callimachus, and at an early age re-
moved to Rhodes, of which he became a citizen. He taught
rhetoric at Rhodes for many years, and afterwards returned
to Alexandria. About 194 B.C. he was appointed keeper
of the great Alexandrian library. His chief work is an
epic poem entitled “Argonautica,” on the expedition of the
Argonauts, which displays great erudition, and was much
admired by the ancient Romans. Critics generally agree
that it contains beautiful passages. (See WEICHERT, “Ue-
ber das Leben und Gedicht des Apollonius,” 1821.)
Apollo’nius Tyanae/us (or Apollo/nius of Ty-
ama), [Gr. 'AtroAAévvos Tvaveiſs], a Pythagorean philoso-
pher, born at Tyana, in Cappadocia, lived about 30–70 A.D.
He performed a journey to India in order to learn the doc-
trines of the Brahmans, and after his return gained a high
reputation as a sage, an oracle, and a worker of miracles.
. He is considered by some authors as an impostor, and by
others as a prophet or magician of extraordinary powers.
He travelled extensively in Europe and Africa, and is said
to have passed his latter years at Ephesus. Many mar-
vellous and absurd stories are related of him by Flavius
Philostratus, who wrote his life. Apollonius wrote in reply
to Euphrates an Apology, which is extant. (See John H. .
w
NEWMAN’s “Life of Apollonius Tyanaeus,” 1853; PHILos-
TRATOs, “Life of Apollonius,” in English, 1809; F. C.
BAUR, “Apollonius von Tyana, und Christus,” 1832.)
Apol’los, an eloquent preacher among the early Chris-
tians, was originally a Jew and a native of Alexandria.
He is said to have been ordained bishop of Corinth. (See
Acts xviii. 24; 1 Corinthians i. 12; iii. 4.)
Apol’Iyon [Gr. 'AtroAAjov, from &toxxiſto, to “destroy’]
signifies the “destroyer,” and answers to the Hebrew Abad-
don, and to the Asmodew8 of Tobit. &
Apologet’ic Faſthers, a name given to those early
Christians who addressed to pagans and Jews apologies for
the Christian religion. Some of these were remonstrances
against the judicial punishment of Christians as such, ad-
dressed to the Roman emperor or senate. Others were
defences of Christianity against the charges of the Jews
and pagans. Among the former were the apologies of
Justin Martyr, Melito, bishop of Sardis, and the Liber
Apologeticus of Tertullian. Origen, Tertullian, Clement
of Alexandria, and Justin were among the principal writers
of the latter class. *
Apol’ogy [Gr. &troAoyia.j, a term originally used to de-
note a written defence or answer to an accusation ; a work
written in defence of certain doctrines, as Plato and Xen-
ophon’s “Apology for Socrates.” Tertullian, Justin Martyr,
and other early Christians wrote treatises in defence of the
Christian religion, which they called Apologies. Among
the modern works of this class are Bishop Watson’s
“Apology for Christianity,” and Robert Barclay’s “Apol-
ogy for the True Christian Divinity.” In its modern or
recent acceptation apology signifies the acknowledgment
of a fault, usually accompanied by some explanation whic
may palliate or excuse it. -
Apoph’yllite [from the Gr. &modvXAigo, to “exfoliate’],
a zeolitic mineral with a lamellar structure, is so called be-
cause it exfoliates before the blowpipe. It is a hydrated
silicate of lime and potash occurring in square prisms, the
solid angles of which are sometimes replaced by triangular
or rhombic planes. It is brittle, and has a white or gray-
ish color, often tinged with green, yellow, blue, or red. It
is found in beautiful crystals in the Hartz Mountains, in
Poonah, and in the Bergen Tunnel at Jersey City.
Ap'oplexy [Lat. apoplexia, from the Gr. &md, “away,”
and trajgoro, to “strike;” as we speak of a stroke of apo-
plexy or of paralysis], a disease marked by the sudden failure
of volition, sensation, motion, and mental action, the Symp-
toms being caused by a pressure upon the brain originat-
ing within the cranium. Apoplexy is of various kinds,
differing not so much in symptoms as in pathology. The
typical form is characterized by an escape of blood into
the substance of the brain from a ruptured vessel. The
rupture itself may be caused (1) by a non-inflammatory,
fatty degeneration of the blood-vessel, caused by bad nu-
trition, etc.; (2) by a brittle condition of the vessel, result-
ing from an inflammatory process. These causes may be
supplemented by a full habit of body or by a hypertrophied
heart, or both ; and it is easy to see how such secondary
causes might assist in the rupture of a weakened blood-
vessel. Apoplexy may, however, be produced by an ex-
travasation of blood between the meninges, by a sudden
and large serous effusion into the ventricles of the brain,
or even by a congestion (hyperaemia) of the brain. The
apoplectic stroke may end in partial recovery or in speedy
death. Cases not fatal generally result in permanent or
temporary paralysis of one side of the body (hemiplegia),
often on the side opposite that in which the mischief has
occurred.
The symptoms of apoplexy are often unexpected. The
patient falls suddenly (with or without an outcry), his
respirations are long, slow, and stertorous, the pulse is
slow, one or both the pupils usually small. If the patient
does not die during the attack, a secondary inflammation
follows which may destroy life. Bleeding may be resorted
to if the pulse be strong and the heart and lungs in good
condition, but it is often injurious. Mustard to the extrem-
ities and frictions of the skin should be resorted to, and
the bowels should be moved by enema. Persons having
reason to fear apoplexy should avoid excesses of all kinds,
yet live upon nutritious food, paying special attention to
hygienic conditions.
REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
A posterio'ri and A prio'ri. Before the time of Kant
the former of these terms denoted a reasoning from effect
to cause, and the latter a reasoning from cause to effect.
Since Kant’s time, and, owing to his influence and that of
his school, these terms are generally used more in relation
to the doctrine of knowledge; a posteriori knowledge being
empirical knowledge, or knowledge through experience,
and a priori knowledge being rational knowledge, or a
APOSTLE-APOTHECARY.
187
knowledge through the reason of that which is prior to ex-
perience. - - -
Apos’tle [Gr. 'Atrógroxos, i.e. “one sent forth,” from 3rd,
“away ” or “forth,” and oréAAQ, to “send”], the name
given originally to the twelve disciples of Jesus, whom he
had chosen to make known his doctrines to the world. The
greater part were Galileans, laboring people, and destitute
of high culture. Their names were Simon Peter (called
also Cephas and Bar-Jona), Andrew, James the Elder (son
of Zebedee), John his brother, Philip, Bartholomew (Nath-
amael), Thomas (Didymus), Matthew (Levi), James the
Younger (son of Alpheus), Thaddeus, Simon, and Judas
Iscariot. Matthias was chosen in the place of Judas, and
subsequently Paul and Barnabas were called to the apostle-
ship. It is a disputed point between the advocates and the
opponents of episcopacy, whether or not the term apostle is
applicable to any except the original twelve, and to Bar-
nabas, Matthias, and Paul; some maintaining that the
office is perpetuated in bishops, while others hold that it
was temporary, and belonged only to those who were wit-
nesses of the resurrection of Christ, and were employed by
him to found the Christian Church. In the third year of
the Saviour's ministry the apostles were commissioned by
him to preach the gospel to the Jews only, but a short time
before his ascension he commanded them to “Go and teach
all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and
of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.” On the day of Pente-
cost the apostles received miraculous gifts, and began their
work with the public announcement of Christ as the Messiah.
They travelled over Greece, Syria, and Asia Minor, but
there appears to be no foundation for the tradition that
they divided the known world into twelve parts, each tak-
ing one for his special sphere. We have little information
concerning the time or the place of the death of most of
the apostles. The Epistles and the Acts of the Apostles
are the only genuine records concerning them now extant.
Apostles, Acts of [Gr. IIpášets rôv'AtroarróAov], the fifth
book of the New Testament, written by Luke, containing
the history of the period from the ascension of our Lord to
Paul’s arrival at Rome; that is, in all probability, from 30
to 61 A. D. It is proper to observe that though this por-
tion of the Scriptures is styled the Acts of the Apostles, it
treats only of the acts of Peter, Paul, and James; and of
these, only Paul’s career is narrated fully and connectedly.
The book is avowedly a continuation of the third Gospel,
and, though restricted within such narrow limits, may be
said to give those great events in the history of the apostles
in which the Christian Church would naturally feel the
greatest interest. Among these events the pouring out of
the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, the martyrdom of Stephen,
and the conversion of Saint Paul, as well as most of his sub-
sequent journeys and labors, are fully related.
Apostles’ Creed [Lat. Sym/bolum Apostol’icum], called
also the Creed or Confession of Faith, is the most universal
creed of the Christian Church. It is as follows: “I believe
in God the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth;
and in Jesus Christ his only Son our Lord; who was con-
ceived by the Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary; suf-
fered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, dead, and buried.
He descended into hell [or hades]; the third day he rose
again from the dead; he ascended into heaven, and sitteth
on the right hand of God the Father Almighty; from
whence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead. I
believe in the Holy Ghost; the Holy Catholic Church; the
communion of Saints; the forgiveness of sins; the resur-
rection of the body; and the life everlasting. Amen.”
According to a tradition prevailing in the fourth century,
but now generally discredited, this creed was composed by
the apostles themselves, each contributing one of the arti-
cles. Some churches omit the clause, “He descended into
hell,” asserting that it was not a part of the original creed.
º subject is more fully discussed under CREED (which
866 ).
Apostles’ Islands, or the Twelve Apostles, a
group of twenty-seven islands in Lake Superior, 70 miles
W. of Ontonagon. The principal islands are Ile au Chêne,
Madeline, Bear, Stockton, and Outer Island. The islands
belong to Wisconsin. They are covered with fine timber,
and their cliffs have been worn into strange forms by the
action of the waves. The land area is estimated at 200
square miles. Brown sandstone is quarried and exported
from the islands. La Pointe, on Madeline Island, is the
capital of Ashland co., Wis. This place was settled by the
French in 1680. These beautiful islands have several
Jesuit missions, one of which was established in 1658.
Apostol’ic, or Apostol’ical, a general term given to
everything directly derived from, or bearing the character
of, the apostles. The Roman Catholic Church styles itself
the Apostolic Church, and the papal chair is called the Apos-
tolic chair, because the pope is supposed to be the legitimate
and lineal successor of Peter, the chief apostle. The Church
of England claims to be apostolic in virtue of regular epis-
copal ordination from the Church before the Reformation;
so also do the Protestant Episcopal churches in Scotland
and the U. S. Several churches of Jerusalem, Antioch,
Ephesus, Corinth, and Rome, which were the special scenes
of the labors of the apostles, were called apostolic churches.
With the increasing power of the Roman Catholic Church,
the word apostolic was more exclusively applied to what-
ever belonged to that Church, as Apostolic See, Apostolic
Canons, etc.
Apostol’ic Can’ons and Constitutions are notes
of ecclesiastical customs regarded as apostolical. The Apos-
tolic Constitutions (Constitutiones Apostolicæ) consist of
eight books, the first six of which contain a comprehen-
sive rule for a Christian life. These are supposed to have
been written about the end of the third and beginning of
the fourth century. The Apostolic Canons (Canones Apog-
tolici) were composed at a later period. The first fifty,
translated from Greek into Latin by Dionysius Exiguus,
were acknowledged by the Latin Church alone. The Greek
Church accepted the thirty-five canons put forth early in the
sixth century; and this became a point of dissension be-
tween the Eastern and Western churches. The Apostolic
Constitutions have been ascribed by some writers to Clement
of Rome.
Apostol’ic Faſthers, the name given to the disciples
and fellow-laborers of the apostles, especially to those who
have left writings. They are Barnabas, Clement of Rome,
Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna,
Hermas, and Papias of Hierapolis. Some also include
the author of the epistle to Diognetus among these Fathers.
Cotelerius (Paris, 1672) issued an edition of the works of
the Apostolic Fathers, which was improved by Clericus in
1698, and again in 1724. Of recent editors, the best are
Jacobson (1838; 4th ed. 1866), Hefele (1839; 4th ed.1855),
and Dressel (1857 ; reissued 1863). -
Apostol’ici, or Apostol’ic Breth’ren, a name
given to a sect of religious reformers who originated in
Italy in the latter part of the thirteenth century, and had
for their leader Gherardo Segarelli of Parma. They trav-
elled over Italy, France, and Switzerland, preaching the
duty of renouncing worldly ties, property, etc. Having de-
nounced popery, they were condemned by Pope Honorius
IV., and Segarelli was burnt at the stake (1300). His place
was filled by Dolcino, formerly a priest of Milan, who, after
a brave resistance, was, with his adherents, taken by the
forces of the pope, and perished at the stake in 1307.
Apostol’ic Maj’esty, a title of the kings of Hungary,
was first conferred on the duke of Hungary by Pope Syl-
vester II. in 1000 A. D. The title was renewed in 1758 by
Pope Clement XIII. in favor of Maria. Theresa.
Apostol’ic Par’ty, a party of fanatical Spanish Cath-
olics formed about 1820 for the promotion of an absolutist
political policy. Their leaders were priests. In 1830 they
merged themselves into the Carlist party. g
Apostool’. (SAMUEL), a Dutch Mennonite theologian,
born in 1638. He became in 1662 a minister of a Water-
landian congregation in Amsterdam. He and Galenus en-
gaged in a doctrinal dispute which divided the Church into
two sects, called Apostoolians and Galenists. Died about
1700.
Apos/trophe [from the Gr. 376, “from,” “away,” and
orrpoºl, a “turning ”], in rhetoric, a digressive address; a
figure of speech by which the orator suddenly changes the
course of his oration, and addresses with emotional empha-
sis a person present or absent, or some inanimate object.
Frequent examples of it occur in the speeches and writings
of great orators and poets. -
Apoth’ecary [from the Gr. &modijkm, a repository where
anything is kept], a person who compounds and sells med-
icines and makes up medical prescriptions. In England
the profession of an apothecary may be not incorrectly de-
scribed as an inferior branch of the medical profession.
He is legally entitled to attend sick persons and prescribe
for them, as well as to make up and dispense medicines. It
is not, however, usual for him to prescribe medicines to be
prepared and supplied by others. But although he may
attend sick persons and prescribe for them, he cannot
charge both for his attendance and his medicines, but must
make his election between the two. Although, therefore,
the apothecary is inferior in professional rank and authority
to the physician and surgeon, he is considered to be of a
higher grade than the chemist and druggist, who merely
vends drugs and medicinal compounds, but whose qualifi-
cation, beyond the payment of a small annual tax by way
of license, does not necessarily offer any test or guarantee
of skill. The rules of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great
Britain, incorporated in 1843 by royal charter, and the
188
APOTHEOSIS-APPEAL.
powers of which have been considerably enlarged by a
statute passed on the 30th June, 1852, operate as some re-
straint on ignorance and want of skill. Apothecaries and
grocers (like surgeons and barbers) were in England and
other countries formerly members of the same guild, and
hardly distinguishable from each other. They were char-
tered as one company in London in 1606, but in 1617 James
I. granted the apothecaries a charter as a separate corpora-
tion. -
In the U. S. the vocation of the apothecary is mostly quite
distinct from that of the medical practitioner. Among physi-
cians it is generally regarded as contrary to professional
ethics for a practitioner, in large cities at least, to be directly
interested in the retailing of medicines. The education of
pharmacists in the U. S. has greatly advanced of late years.
Many of them are now graduates of colleges of pharmacy
(the most important of which are in New York and Phila-
delphia), wherein excellent scientific and practical training
is obtained. There is also a well-organized national phar-
maceutical association. To limit the danger connected with
the unskilful dispensing of drugs, a law has recently (1871)
been put in force in New York and other States, requiring
all apothecaries to pass a rigid examination.
Apotheſosis [from the Gr. &md, “away,” and 9éos, a
“god ;” the idea being to take one away from among mor-
tals, and to place him among the gods], a Greek word mean-
ing deification, or the practice of raising a human being to
a place among the gods. This practice was common among
the ancient Greeks, who deified and worshipped heroes and
benefactors after their death. Among the Romans, Romu-
lus was the first who received such an honor, and Julius
Caesar appears to have been the second. Alexander the
Great sent to all the states of Greece an order that they
must recognize his divinity, and received from Sparta this
laconic answer: “Since Alexander desires to be a god, let
him be (or become) a godl" Several Roman emperors
apotheosized themselves and their favorites.
Appalach’ee Bay, a large open bay near the north-
ern part of Florida, is a part of the Gulf of Mexico, and
is about 30 miles S. of Tallahassee. It extends inland
about 50 miles. g
Appalach’ee In/dians, a once powerful tribe of West
Florida. They were conquered and converted to Chris-
tianity by Spanish missionaries, but the oppression and
cruelties of the colonial authorities, together with the de-
structive invasions of English colonists and Indians from
Carolina, greatly diminished their numbers. Soon after
1700 a part removed to what is now Alabama, and the tribe
soon ceased to exist.
Appala'chian Mountains, a general term for the
numerous ranges of mountains traversing the eastern part
of the U. S., mostly parallel to each other, and in the
main parallel to the Atlantic coast. This mountain-
system is about 1300 miles long, extending, under various
names, from the northern part of Alabama to Maine,
and occupying, with the valleys, which it forms, a space
nearly 100 miles wide. The portion of this chain in New
Hampshire is called the White Mountains, the highest sum-
mit of which, named Mount Washington, rises 6288 feet
above the level of the sea. In New York the system takes
the name of the Adirondacs, the Catskill Mountains, and
the Highlands. In Pennsylvania and the Southern States
they are called the Alleghany Mountains, and the name of
Blue Ridge is applied to the range in Virginia which is
nearest to the Atlântic Ocean. These ranges are remark-
able for the uniformity of their outline, and for the parallel-
ism of their ridges and long narrow intervening valleys of
limestone formation. Among the latter is the Great Valley
of Virginia, which is bounded on the S. E. by the Blue
Ridge, and extends across the whole State. The ridges are
remarkable for their near approach to a rectilinear direc-
tion, and the comparative uniformity of their height. The
highest summit of the system is, the Black Dome, or Mitch-
ell’s High Peak, in N. C., which rises to 6707 feet. &
The geological formations of this chain include all those
from the metamorphic rocks to the coal-measures, including
the latter, and the strata belong entirely to the oldest or
palaeozoic division of the fossiliferous rocks. The aggre-
gate thickness of these, measured in Pennsylvania as they
appear in succession at the surface, is about seven miles.
They may be classed under the three great divisions of
sedimentary rocks—namely, sandstones, slates, and lime-
stones, between which are interstratified beds of coal and
iron ore. Geologists affirm that the origin of the Appala-
chians is more ancient than that of the Andes and the Alps,
as is proved by the fact that on the high summits or slopes
of the latter are found strata of a formation more recent
than the carboniferous age. Their original height has been
greatly diminished by the long-continued degrading agency
of rain, frost, etc. The strata of this system are remark-
able for their plications and complexity of flexure, in con-
sequence of which some parts of the strata are nearly ver-
tical. “The coal-measures of Pennsylvania,” says Dana,
“which were originally spread out in horizontal beds of
great extent, are now tilted at various angles or rise into
folds, and the strata are broken and faulted on a grand
scale. The folds vary from a few rods to one hundred or
more miles in breadth, and are in many successions over
the region, wave succeeding wave.” . . . “The following
are some of the most important facts established with re-
gard to the Appalachian flexures: 1. They occupy the whole
Appalachian and eastern border-regions of the continent,
nearly or quite to the Atlantic Ocean. 2. They are parallel
with the general course of the mountains, and nearly so
with the Atlantic coast. 3. They are most crowded and
most abrupt over the part of the regions which is towards
the océan—that is, the S. E. side. 4. The steepest slope
of a fold is that which faces the N. W.” “A uniform series
of S. E. dips over such a region is evidence that the strata
correspond to a number of decapitated folds.” (Manual
of Geology.) Among the mineral resources of this chain
are coal, copper, iron, zinc, nickel, and lead.
REVISED BY J. S. NEWBERRY.
Ap/palachico'la, a river, formed by the union of the
Chattahoochee and Flint, at the S. W. extremity of Georgia.
It flows southward through Florida, and after a course of
100 miles enters Appalachicola Bay, a part of the Gulf of
Mexico. It is navigable for steamboats.
Appalachicola, a port of entry, the capital of Frank-
lin co., Fla., is on the river of its own name at its entrance
into St. George's Sound, a bay of the Gulf of Mexico, 85
miles S. W. of Tallahassee. Large quantities of cotton
were once shipped here. At present there is a trade in
timber and fish. Pop. 1129.
Ap’panoose, a county of Iowa, bordering on Missouri.
Area, 492 square miles. It is intersected by the Chariton
River, which affords water-power, and also drained by the
South Fork of the Chariton. The surface is undulating;
the soil is fertile. This county contains beds of coal, which
is extensively mined. Grain, dairy products, cattle, wool,
and tobacco are largely produced. It is traversed by the
S. W. branch of the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific and
Burlington and South-western R. Rs. Capital, Centreville.
Pop. 16,456.
Appanoose, a post-twp. of Hancock co., Ill. P. 1018.
Apparaſtus [from the Lat. ap'paro, appara’twm, to
“prepare,” to “arrange”], a term which in modern lan-
guage is applied to a complete set of instruments or uten-
sils for performing a scientific experiment or operation; the
implements or machinery used in the operations of practical
chemistry, or in the illustration of the principles of natural
philosophy.
Appa’rent [Lat. appa’rens, the present part. from ap-
pa’reo, to “appear”], that which appears to the eye in dis-
tinction from true or real. This term is used in astrono-
my to express several important distinctions, as “apparent
time,” which is indicated by the Sun, and differs from true
time. The apparent magnitude of a heavenly b9dy is the
dimension of the angle formed by two lines drawſ from the
ends of its diameter to the spectator's eye. The apparent
diurnal motion of the sun and moon is an optical illusion
caused by the rotary motion of the earth, and the real mo-
tion of the moon is contrary to its apparent motion. An
heir-apparent to a throne is a person whose title is better
than any other except the actual occupant of the throne,
and whose succession does not depend on any contingency
if he survive the reigning monarch.
Appari”tion [Lat. appari"tio; for etymology see pre-
ceding article], literally, an “appearance” or “appearing,”
in common language signifies a spectre, a ghost, a visible
spirit. In astronomy it means the first appearance of a
heavenly body after it has been eclipsed or obscured. Stars
which appear to revolve around the Pole, and which never
set below the horizon, are said to be within the circle of
perpetual apparition, which circle grows larger and larger
in proportion as the spectator approaches the Pole.
Appar'itor [from appa’reo, to “appear”], a general
name among the ancient Romans for the officers or public
servants who attended the magistrates and judges, includ-
ing heralds, lictors, scribes, etc. In England it is applied
to the beadle of a university, who carries the mace, and to
a messenger of a spiritual court, who serves its process.
Appeal’ [from the Lat. appello, to “call”], in law, is
an accusation of a private citizen against another of some
heinous crime, demanding punishment for the peculiar in-
jury suffered, rather than for the offence against the public.
This proceeding has been entirely-abolished in England,
and does not exist in this country. The word also means
the removal of a cause from an inferior to a superior court
APPEARANCE—APPLES OF SODOM.
for the purpose of obtaining a review and re-trial of the
case. It differs from a writ of error and a certiorari, in-
asmuch as they merely bring up for review the questions
of law involved in the proceedings in the lower court,
while by an appeal the questions both of law and fact may
be re-examined. In a popular sense, the word signifies
the removal of a cause, or of a proceeding in a cause, from
an inferior to a superior court for the purposes of review,
by whatever means effected. Codes of procedure in a
number of States abolish writs of error in civil cases, and
establish a review by appeal in all actions, whether of a
common-law or equity nature. The word “appeal” is used
in parliamentary law to indicate the mode of questioning
the decision of the presiding officer as to a parliamentary
rule.
Appear/ance [from the Lat. appareo, to “be seen”],
in law, the act by which a party to an action brings him-
self, or is brought, into court, usually applied to the de-
fendant. Appearance is either voluntary or compulsory.
It is said to be voluntary when no process has been served.
It is also special or general. It is said to be special when
made for special purposes, not extending to the entire sub-
ject of litigation. It is general when absolute and uncon-
ditional. A notice of appearance will suffice, or the per-
formance of some act from which an appearance can be
inferred, such as serving a pleading. In civil cases it may
be made by an attorney as well as by a party. In crimi-
mal cases personal appearance of the accused is frequently
requisite, particularly in cases of felony.
Appen'dage [Lat. appen'diac, from ad, “to,” and pen'-
do, to “weigh' or “hang ”], in botany, is applied to all
parts which are regularly arranged around any other part.
Thus, leaves are appendages of the axis; so are all the
flowers, theoretically. The supernumerary sepals in a
strawberry are appendages of the calyx, and so on. In
zoology, the bones of vertebrate animals are appendages of
the vertebrae; the limbs of articulates are appendages of
the segments.
Ap'penzell, a canton in the N. part of Switzerland, is
bounded on every side by the canton of St. Gall. In con-
sequence of religious differences it was divided in 1597
into two half cantons—Appenzell Inner Rhodes (Catholic)
and Appenzell Outer Rhodes (Protestant). Inner Rhodes has
an area of 62 square miles, and had in 1870 a population of
11,909. Outer Rhodes has an area of 100 square miles; pop.
in 1870, 48,726. It consists completely of a wild mountain
country, intersected by narrow valleys. It has manufac-
tures of embroideries, linen, and calico. In 1864 the ex-
penses of Inner Rhodes amounted to 176,026 francs, and
of Outer Rhodes to 203,736 francs. Appenzell contributes
4060 men to the federal army. Capital of Inner Rhodes,
Appenzell, and of Outer Rhodes, Trogen. The canton was
formerly subject to the abbey of St. Gall, gained its inde-
pendence early in the fifteenth century, and joined the con-
federation in 1513. (See ZELLwr:GER, “Geschichte des ap-
penzeller Volkes,” 4 vols., 1830.)
Appert (BENJAMIN NICOLAS MARIE), a French philan-
thropist, born in Paris Sept. 10, 1797. He founded schools
for the mutual instruction of the poorer classes, and de-
voted much time to the improvement of the condition of
prisons and their inmates. He published, besides other
works, a “Treatise on the Education of Prisoners” (1822).
Ap'pian [Gr. 'Artwavés; Lat. Appia'nws], an historian,
born at Alexandria, in Egypt, flourished about 120–160
A. D. He removed to–Rome in early life, distinguished
himself as an advocate, and obtained the important office
of procurator. He wrote in Greek a valuable work on
“Roman History” (“Popauk) ‘Iaropia) in twenty-four books,
of which eleven are extant. His style is commended as
clear and agreeable, but some critics estimate him as a mere
compiler. (See DOMINICUs, “Programma de Indole Ap-
piani,” 1844.) r
Appia'ni (ANDREA), an eminent Italian painter, born
at Bosizio May 23, 1754, imitated the style of Correggio.
He is thought to have excelled all the artists of his time in
fresco-painting. About 1805 he was appointed court-painter
to Napoleon, whose portrait he painted. His principal
merits are grace, purity of design, and brilliancy and har-
mony of color. Among his masterpieces are the frescoes
on the ceiling of the royal palace of Milan, and those in
the church of Santa Maria Vergine, in the same city. Died
Nov. 8, 1817. (See, G. LoNGH1, “Elogio Storico di A. Ap-
piani,” 1826.) - -
Ap'pian Way [Lat. Vi'a Ap'pia], the most celebrated
of the ancient Roman roads, was constructed by Appius
Claudius Caecus about 313 B. C. It extended originally
from Rome to Capua, 125 miles, but was eventually contin-
ued to Brundisium. It was built in a very expensive man-
ner, and was paved with large polygonal blocks of the
189
hardest stone, accurately fitted to each other, so as to ap-
pear like a solid mass. The substructure was solidified by
cement. The road has been partly restored by excavation,
and is found to be in a remarkable state of preservation.
Applause [from the Lat. applau/do, applauſsum, to
“strike upon,” to “clap *], a shout of approbation; an
approving acclamation; a public expression of approba-
tion and praise by striking upon the floor or the clapping
of hands. This custom prevailed among the ancient
Greeks and Romans. The Roman comedians usually ter-
minated their performances with a request that the audi-
ence would applaud, valete et plaudite / Three species of
applause were used by the Romans—namely Bombus, a
confused hum, like the buzzing of bees, produced by the
mouth or the hands; and Imbrices and Testaº, which were
sounds made by striking vessels placed in the theatre for
this purpose. The last was like the sudden crash produced
by the fall and fracture of a set of china-Ware.
. In modern times, French politicians and dramatists
often avail themselves of the services of hired applauders,
called claqueurs, who cry Bis, bis 1 (“twice,” “again,” “en-
core”), or Bien, très bien / The audiences of English ac-
tors signify their approbation by the cry of Encore! but in
the British House of Commons applause is expressed by
cries of Hear ! hear ! -
Apple (Py’rus ma'lus), a fruit of a tree of the natural
order Rosaceae, which is native or naturalized in the tem-
perate regions of Europe and Asia. It was cultivated by
the ancient Romans, who called it pomum. The fruit called
apple in the English translation of the Bible was probably
different from the fruit now known by that name. The
wild crab-apple of the Old World is the parent of almost
all the varieties of apple which are cultivated, and which
have been much improved by cultivation. The apple is
considered the most valuable fruit of temperate climates,
and is more extensively cultivated than any other. The
fruit in botanical language is a pome; the leaves are ovate,
acute, serrate, or crenate; the blossoms are beautiful and
fragrant. The tree, which is hardy and slow in growth,
will live probably two hundred years under favorable cir-
cumstances. The number of varieties of cultivated apples
is over 200, and is continually increasing. This fruit may
be divided into three classes, with respect to the season in
which it matures: namely, summer, autumn, and Winter
apples, the former of which, in the Middle States of the
Union, begin to ripen about June.
Among the best varieties of winter apples are the Bald-
win, Spitzenberg, Rhode Island Greening, Bellflower,
Swaar, Northern Spy, Rambo, Roman Stem, Peck’s Pleas-
ant, Roxbury Russet, Wine Apple or Winesap, Ashmore,
Belmont, Hubbardston Nonsuch. Targe quantities of
apples are exported from the Northern U. S. to Great
Iłritain. The finest quality of this fruit is produced in
New York and other States in the same latitude. Among
the products obtained from the apple is a beverage called
cider, and a chemical substance called MALIC ACID (which
see). The wood, which is hard, durable, and fine-grained,
is used to make weaver’s shuttles, shoe-lasts, cog-wheels, etc.
The Siberian crab (Pyrus baccata or Pyrus prunifolia),
a native of Siberia, is cultivated in Europe and the U. S.
for preserves. The Pyrus coronaria (or American crab) is
a small tree which grows wild in the U. S., and bears a
sour and harsh-tasted fruit scarcely an inch in diameter.
This is used for preserves. An important distinction
among apples is expressed by the terms natural fruit and
grafted fruit. The former, which is raised from the seed,
is mostly very inferior in quality. (See PomoLOGY.)
Apple Blight, a disease of apple trees, caused by a
species of aphis (the Aphis lanigera). This little insect
penetrates the chinks in the bark, extracting the Sap,
causing diseased excrescences, and ultimately the death of
the tree. -
Apple Creek, a township of Cape Girardeau co., Mo.
Pop. 2626. **
Apple Creek, a post-village of East Union township,
Wayne co., O., 7 miles S. E. of Wooster, and on the Cleve-
land Mount Vernon and Delaware.R. R. Pop. 300.
Ap'plegrove, a township of Morgan co., Ala. Pop.
1379.
Apple Oil (artificial), a solution of valerianate of amyl
in six parts of alcohol. -
Apple River, a post-township of Jo Daviess co., Ill.
Pop. 1108.
Ap/ples of Sod/om, a fruit mentioned by Josephus
and other ancient writers as growing near the Dead Sea.
It was fair in appearance, but when grasped in the hand
collapsed into dust and ashes. Some modern writers have
supposed that it was the fruit of Sola'nın Melou'geng
(nightshade), but Robinson identifies it with the Ascle'-
190
APPLETON.—APPORTIONMENT.
pias gigante'a, the fruit of which looks like an orange, but,
disappoints those who touch it by its nauseousness in an
immature state, and its emptiness when fully ripe.
Ap'pleton, a post-township of Knox co., Me. It has
manufactures of lumber, leather, agricultural tools, and
lime. Pop. 1485. - -
Appleton, a city, capital of Outagamie co., Wis., on
the Lower Fox River, 30 miles S. of Green Bay. Its rail-
road facilities include the Chicago and North-western,
the Milwaukee Lake Shore and Northern, the Milwaukee
and Northern, and the Wisconsin Central R. Rs. The
river is navigable for steamboats, and is the route of the
Green Bay and Mississippi Improvement Company. The
manufactures include woollens, iron, machinery, farming-
tools, flour, beer, hubs and spokes, barrels, baskets, pulp
for paper, etc. The river has here a constant fall of forty-
nine feet, furnishing inexhaustible water-power. There
are one daily and three weekly papers, two national banks,
and nine churches. The city is the seat of Appleton Col-
legiate Institute and of Lawrence University. Pop. 4518.
STONE & FULLER, EDs. “DAILY TIMEs.”
Appleton (JESSE), D.D., an American theologian, was
born at New Ipswich, N. H., Nov. 17, 1772, and settled
over the Congregational church in Hampton, N. H., in
Feb., 1797. In 1803 he was one of the most prominent
candidates for the chair of theology in Harvard Univer-
sity. In 1807 he was chosen president of Bowdoin Col-
lege, and died Nov. 12, 1819. A man of rare abilities and
high classical culture, he was distinguished also for saint-
liness of character, and singular dignity and grace of man-
ners. His works, in two vols. 8vo, with a memoir pre-
fixed, were published by his son-in-law, Prof. Alpheus S.
Packard, in 1837.
Appleton (John), L.L.D., a jurist, was born in 1804,
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1822, became a judge of
the supreme court of Maine in 1852, and chief-justice in
1862. He published two volumes of “Reports” (1841).
Appleton (John), born at Beverly, Mass., Feb. 11, 1815,
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1834, became a lawyer and
prominent Democratic editor in Portland, Me., where he
settled in 1837, became chief clerk of the U. S. treasury
department in 1845, and afterwards held a similar position
in the state department; was chargé d'affaires to Bolivia.
(1848–9), member of Congress (1850–59), secretary of lega-
tion in London (1855–56), U. S. minister to Russia (1860–
61). Died Aug. 22, 1864.
Appleton (NATHAN), L.L.D., a merchant, born at New
Ipswich, N. H., Oct. 6, 1779, became a partner of his
brother Samuel in Boston. He was one of the founders
of Lowell. He was chosen a member of Congress in 1831,
and again in 1842. Died July 14, 1861.
Appleton (SAMUEL), an eminent merchant and philan-
thropist, brother of the preceding, was born at New Ips-
wich, N. H., June 22, 1766. He removed to Boston about
1794; and amassed a fortune by trade and the manufacture
of cotton. He gave, $25,000 annually for charitable pur-
poses, and made a donation of $10,000 to Dartmouth Col-
lege. He died July 12, 1853, without issue, and left $200,000.
to be applied to “scientific, literary, religious, and charita-
ble purposes.”
Appleton (WILLIAM), born at Brookfield, Mass., Nov.
16, 1786, became a successful merchant of Boston, to which
he removed in 1807. He was a member of Congress (1851–
55, 1861–62), and was distinguished for his benevolence.
He gave $30,000 to the Massachusetts General Hospital.
Died Feb. 15, 1862.
Appleton City, a post-village of St. Clair co., Mo., on
the Missouri Kansas and Texas R. R., 59 miles S.W. by S.
of Sedalia.
Ap'pling, a county in the S. E. part of Georgia. Area,
1060 square miles. It is bounded on the N. and N. E. by
the Altamaha River, and drained by Little Satilla River.
The surface is level, and the soil is sandy. Corn, rice, mo-
lasses, and honey are among the chief products. It is
intersected by the Macon and Brunswick R. R. Capital,
Holmesville. Pop. 5086:
Appling, a post-village, the capital of Columbia, co.,
Ga., 27 miles W. of Augusta.
Appoggiatura, āp-pod-já-too/rá, literally, a “sup-
port,” an Italian musical term, indicates a form of embel-
lishment by insertion of notes of passage in a melody. The
notes are printed in a smaller character than the leading
notes of the mélody.
Appoint/ment [remotely from the Lat. ad, “to,” and
punctum, the “point”], in law, a disposition of property
made by one authorized by a power contained in a deed,
will, or other instrument to direct its use; an instrument
executed pursuant to a power of appointment directing the
disposition of property agreeably to such power. (See
PowHRs.) The word is also used to indicate the designa-
tion by lawful authority of some person to hold an office
or to perform a public duty. Under the U. S. Constitu-
tion the President has the power to nominate, and, with
the consent of the Senate, to “appoint,” persons to hold
certain specified offices.
Ap'pold (J. GEORGE), F. R. S., an English mechanician,
born in 1800, was the inventor of a celebrated centrifugal
pump, of machinery for paying out marine telegraph cables,
and of a process for dressing furs, which last gave him the
control of that business. His house was a museum of won-
derful mechanical devices, which opened and closed doors,
shutters, and gates, and performed many other surprising
acts, by automatic machinery. Died Aug. 31, 1865.
Appold Centrifugal Pump. See PUMP.
Appomatºtox, a river of S. E. Virginia, rises in Ap-
pomattox county, flows in a general easterly direction, and
enters the James River at City Point. Length, estimated at
150 miles. It is navigable for large vessels to Petersburg,
20 miles from its mouth.
Appomattox, a county in the S. central part of Vir-
ginia. Area, 260 square miles. It is bounded on the N.W.
by the James River and canal, and drained by the Appo-
mattox, which rises in it. The surface is hilly; the soil
mostly productive. Tobacco, grain, and wool are its chief
products. It is intersected by the South Side R. R. Capi-
tal, Appomattox Court-house. Near this place General
Lee surrendered his army to General Grant, April 9, 1865,
and thus terminated the civil war. Pop. 8950.
Appomattox Court-house, a post-village, capital
of Appomattox co., Va., was the scene of the surrender of
Gen. R. E. Lee, with the Confederate army of Northern
Virginia, to Gen. Grant, April 9, 1865.
Apponyi (GEORG), Count, born in 1808, became the
leader of the Conservative party in Hungary, and opposed
the revolutionary movements in 1848. He was appointed
in 1859 a life-member of the imperial council of Vienna,
As royal commissary he opened the Diet at Buda in 1861.
Appoquin’imink, a hundred of New Castle co., Del.
Pop. 4299.
Appor’tionment [from the Lat. ad, “to,” and por-
tio, a “share”], in law, the division of a thing into parts;
the distribution of a claim or charge among different per-
sons in proportion to their interests in the subject-matter
to which it attaches. The leading cases concern—1, In-
corporeal rights in land, such as commons and rents; 2,
Encumbrances upon land; 3, Contracts. 1. The principal
case under this division is that of rents. The question of
apportionment may arise as to the rights of different own-
ers either of the rent or of the land to which the burden
of the payment of the rent attaches, or it may occur in
case of a partial failure of the title as to the territorial
extent of the land rented, or because the right of the ten-
'ant to hold the land ceases before the time agreed upon, on
account of the expiration of the landlord’s estate. Thus, a
landlord, after a lease of two houses by one contract for a
specified rent, may sell one of them. The purchaser would
be entitled to collect a proportionate part of the rent. So, if
the lessee should assign to a stranger all his rights in one
of the houses, the latter would during his ownership be bound
to pay a proportionate part of the rent. In case the title to a
portion of the premises failed, as if in the case supposed the
landlord did not own one of the houses that he assumed to
léase, and the tenant was accordingly evicted, he would
pay a proportional part of the rent for the remaining
house. By the common law there was no apportionment
where there was a failure as to time. This case is illus-
trated by a lease made by a life tenant for a specified
period—e.g. a year. Should he die before the time ex-
pired, the lease would of course instantly terminate, and
the tenant would pay no rent for the time intervening
since the last payment of rent fell due. This defect in the
law has been remedied by statute. It should be added that
there is by common law no apportionment where the prop-
erty leased is simply diminished in value. Should a house
and lot be hired and the house be destroyed by fire, no de-
duction can be claimed, as the rent is deemed to be paid
for the land, which still remains. This rule may be ob-
viated by agreement of the parties. 2. Encumbrances.—It
is a general rule that several owners of land must bear the
burden of an encumbrance upon it in proportion to their
respective interests. Thus, if land were mortgaged, and
then conveyed to A for life, and, subject to A's estate, to B,
the respective owners should share between themselves the
burden of payment; while the mortgage remained, A
should pay the interest. If it became necessary to pay.
the mortgage, A would need to raise a sum equivalent to .
his entire duty to pay the interest during his life. His
APPORTIONMENT BILL–APRICOT.
191
probabilities of life are estimated by well-known tables
indicating longevity, such as the Northampton, Carlisle,
and others. On a similar principle, if mortgaged lands
be sold in parcels, the duty to pay the mortgage is appor-
tioned among the owners of the respective parcels. This
is clearly the rule where the sales are contemporaneous;
but if successive in point of time, the better opinion is
that there is no apportionment, but that the lots must be
taken to satisfy the mortgage in “the inverse order of
alienation.” By this is meant that the lands last sold by
the proprietor must be first resorted to as a means of pay-
ing the mortgage. As soon as enough money is thus real-
ized, the remaining lots are discharged. 3. Contracts.-
As a general rule, there is no apportionment of contracts.
In other words, a party to a contract must completely ful-
fil his own obligation before he can enforce the agreement
against the other party. Thus, if a servant agreed to labor
for a year at a specified salary, and should work for a por-
tion of the time, and leave without cause, he could collect
no portion of his wages. There are special cases where a
contract is apportioned. One is where, after it has been
partly performed, it is dissolved by mutual consent. So
also in a contract for personal service there is an implied
understanding that the contract is not to be completely
fulfilled unless life should continue. Accordingly, if the
servant should die before the expiration of the time speci-
fied in the contract, his wages would be apportioned ac-
cording to the time of actual service. Some jurists have
objected to the severity of the general rule, and would
allow an apportionment, even where a contract is delib-
erately broken by a party, corresponding to the benefit
received by the other party; but the prevailing opinion of
courts is, and the better philosophy would seem to be, to ad-
here to the rule as modified by the special cases referred to.
T. W. D WIGHT.
Apportionment Bill, in American politics, denotes an
act of Congress which determines the total number of mem-
bers sent by all the States of the Union, and also the num-
ber that each State shall send, to the House of Representa-
tives. A new apportionment is made after each decennial
census. The same term is applied to the act by which a
State legislature distributes among the counties their re-
spective portions of representation. A populous county
often forms a district by itself, and elects several members,
while, another district is formed by the union of two or
three small counties.
State sometimes so contrive the apportionment that they
gain an advantage in the election, by forming districts in
each of which a county that gives a majority against them
is joined to a county that gives a larger majority for their
side. This is called gerrymandering.
Appraise’ ment, or Apprize’ment [from the Lat.
appreſcio, to “value,” to “set a price upon ’’l, the act of
estimating the value of property; the valuation of prop-
erty made by an authorized person, who is called an ap-
praiser. The mode of appointing appraisers varies in the
different States of the Union. The law of the U. S. requires
that there shall be an appraisement of the inventoried prop-
erty of decedents and insolvent debtors, of property appro-
priated to public use, and of real estate seized upon execu-
tion. In England, appraisement, as a legal term, signifies
a valuation of goods taken under a distress for rent by two
appraisers, who are sworn by the sheriff or constable. The
appraisers of England must be licensed for the office.
Appren’tice [remotely from the Lat. apprehendo, to
“comprehend,” to “learn "], a person, ordinarily a minor,
bound in due form of law, usually by indenture, to another
for a certain time to learn some art, trade, or business. In ,
most of the States of this country statutes borrowed from
English legislation allow minors, with their own consent,
and with that of their father, mother, or guardian, to be
bound out to service—if males, till the age of twenty-one;
if females, till the age of eighteen, or for a shorter time.
When the child is a pauper, he may be bound without his
consent by public officers or by orphan asylums, houses of
refuge, or of industry. The same rule is followed in the
case of children charged with petty crimes. Apprentice-
ship is thus to some extent a mode of penal discipline, and
is reformatory in its nature, particularly where some cen-
tral authority oversees from time to time the conduct both
of the apprentice and the master. The master in many re-
spects stands in the relation of a parent. It is his duty to
instruct the apprentice in the art which he has undertaken
to teach him, to give him a reasonable support, and to pro-
vide for him in case of sickness. The apprentice, on his
part, is bound to render faithful service and obedience to
his master, who may administer for misconduct reasonable
corporal punishment. This relation is not regulated by
the ordinary rules governing master and servant, but de-
pends upon special grounds of public policy. It may usu-
Those of the dominant party of the
ally be dissolved by magistrates where, the object of the
apprenticeship has failed, and in special cases the appren- ,
tice may be punished by them for wilful neglect to perform
his duties. The contract of apprenticeship is of a personal
nature, and is not assignable. T. W. DWIGHT.
Approach’es, a military term which denotes the entire
system of works employed in the methodic approach by
siege of a fortification. The works consist of enveloping
trenches called parallels, and trenches of communication
called boyawa, or zigzags (terms indicating the tortuous or
zigzag form given them, in order to screen from the fire of
the place), places of arms, etc. The earth removed is thrown
upon the side towards the besieged place, by the height of
which and the depth of the trench itself adequate cover is
gained for the passage of troops, and even of artillery.
Approaches sometimes acquire great development, as at Se-
bastopol, where, as is stated, the allies dug seventy miles of .
trenches. Recent changes in artillery and small-arms have
rendered almost obsolete the methodic rules for the location
and construction of approaches laid down in text-books on
Sieges. -
Appropria/tion [from the Lat. ad, “for,” and pro-
privs, “one's own’] of Payments, in law, the application
of money paid by a debtor to his creditor to one of several
debts. The general rule is that when the payment is vol-
untary, and not under process of law, the debtor has a right
to direct the application of the money. If he does not ex-
ercise this right, the creditor may elect to which debt to
apply it; and in case of the failure of both parties to make
such election, the law will apply the money in accordance
with certain rules, so as best to promote the rights of the
parties. When the payment is not voluntary, but is made
under compulsion, the rules as to election give way, and
the money should be applied ratably to all the claims.
Where a debt bears interest, that is extinguished before
application to the principal. -
Approximate [from the Lat. ad, “to,” and proac’imo,
proarima/tum, to “approach,” to “draw near”], in zoology,
is applied to that arrangement of the teeth in the jaws
where one is placed against the side of the next, and there
is no intervening vacancy or diastema. The disposition of
the teeth in the human species and in the Anoplotherium
forms an example. -
Appui, Āp'pwe’, a French word signifying “support.”
In military language the phrase point d'appui is applied
to a base or position fitted to give support to troops; a
fixed point at which troops form and on which operations
rest. Lakes, marshes, hills, or steep declivities sometimes
serve as points d'appui. - t
Appur’ tenances [remotely from the Lat. appertineo, to
“belong to ”]. In law, this word signifies something be-
longing or appertaining to another thing as principal, as a
right of way appurtenant to land. In a conveyance of land
with the “appurtenances,” all easements and privileges in
use and necessary to the enjoyment of the estate granted
will be included. Land itself will not be considered as ap-
purtenant to land. It is often a difficult question of con-
struction to determine whether land can be regarded as
a part or parcel of the thing granted; in which case it will
pass, while it would not be embraced in the word “appur-
tenances.” Thus, in the conveyance of a “mill” or a
“mansion-house,” land which in the narrow acceptation
of the terms “mill” or “mansion-house ’’ would not be in-
cluded, might be in a comprehensive sense, since there
could be no complete enjoyment of the mill or mansion-
house without them. \
Aprax/in (FEODoR MATVEIEv1TCH), a Russian admiral,
called the creator of the Russian navy, was born in 1671.
He was one of the principal coadjutors of Peter the Great
in his efforts to civilize Russia, and enjoyed his confidence
in a high degree. He built several ships-of-war, became
an admiral and president of the admiralty in 1707, and
took Viborg from the Swedes in 1710. In 1713 he ravaged
the coasts of Finland, and commanded a fleet in the war
against Sweden. Died Nov. 10, 1728.
Apraxin (STEPAN FEoDoRovITCH), a Russian general, a
grandson of the preceding, was born in 1702. He served
in a war against the Turks, rose rapidly, and became a
field-marshal. Having the command of a large army in
the Seven Years’ war, he defeated the army of Frederick
the Great at Gross-Jägerndorf in Aug., 1757. He ne-
glected to improve the victory by marching to Berlin, and
was recalled and tried by a court-martial, but before the
trial was finished he died, Aug. 26, 1758.
Aprice/na, a town of Italy, in the province of Foggia,
23 miles N. of Foggia. Pop. in 1861, 5272.
Ap/ricot [from the Lat. apri'cus, “ sunny”], (Pru'nus
Armeni/aca), a fruit tree of the natural order Rosaceae, is
a native of Armenia, and is extensively cultivated in
192
APRIES-AQUARIUM.
Europe and the U. S. It is nearly related to the plum.
The blossoms appear before the leaves, which are ovate,
subcordate, and acuminate. The fruit, a velvety drupe,
ripens earlier than the peach, which it resembles in some re-
spects. The color of the apricot is mostly yellow, with a
red-brown or ruddy cheek on the side which is most ex-
posed to the sun. It is propagated by budding on plum,
peach, or wild-cherry stocks. Among the numerous vari-
eties of the apricot, the Moorpark is by many persons the
most esteemed. A variety called Breda is preferred for
standards in some places.
A/pries [Gr. 'Arpins], a king of Egypt, called in the
Bible PHARAOH-HoPHRA, was a son of Psammuthis (or
Psammis), whom he succeeded about 595 B. C. He waged
war against the Greeks, by whom he was defeated. His
subjects revolted and killed him about 568 B.C., and Ama-
sis then obtained the throne.
A^pril [Lat. Apri’lis], the name of the fourth month of
the year, was derived from the Romans, but in the early
age of the Roman republic it was the second month.
April Fool’s Day, the name given to the first of
April, from the prevailing custom of playing tricks upon
people or sending them upon bootless errands on that day.
It is supposed to have been derived from some ancient
pagan custom, such as the Huli festival among the Hindoos,
or the Roman Feast of Fools. In France the person trick-
ed is called poisson d'Avril (“April fish”), and in Scot-
land he is called a gowk (cuckoo).
A Priori. See A POSTERIORI.
Aſpron, a term applied to a piece of sheet lead which
covers the touchhole of a cannon, tied by two pieces of rope.
In shipbuilding the apron is a piece of curved timber fixed
behind the lower part of the stem, and just above the fore-
most end of the keel, in order to fortify the stem. Apron
is also a platform or flooring of plank at the entrance of a
dock. -
Apse [Lat. ap/sis], a semicircular recess usually formed
at the east end of the choir or chancel of a Romanesque or
Anglo-Norman church. Such structures are numerous in
England and in Germany. (See APSIDEs.)
Apsheron’, Apcheron, or Abcheron, a peninsula.
which extends into the Caspian Sea at the S. extremity of
Daghestan. It forms the eastern termination of the Cauca-
sian chain of mountains. It is famous as the place of the
sacred flame which is venerated by the fire-worshippers
(Ghebers), and is produced by inflammable gas rising from
the soil. Large quantities of naphtha are procured here.
Ap'sides [from the Gr. 3 pts, a “circle” or “curvature”],
sing. Ap'sis, the two points in the orbit of a primary
planet which are at the greatest and the least distance from
the sun, corresponding to the aphelion and perihelion. The
term is also applied to the extreme points in the orbit of a
satellite, which in the case of our moon are the same as the
apogee and perigee. The straight line connecting them is
called the line of the apsides. - -
Ap/tera [from the Gr. a, priv., and irrepôv, a “wing ”],
in the Linnaean system an order of insects without wings,
called apterows insects. This word is not recognized as the
name of an order by recent entomologists, the wingless in-
sects being assigned to various orders.
Ap/teral, a term applied to those temples of the ancient
Greeks and Romans which had no lateral columns. The
Greek temples were generally peripteral—i. e. with col-
umns on the sides and ends.
Ap’teryx [from the Gr. a, priv., and Trépus, a “wing ”],
a genus of birds, natives
of New Zealand, allied to
the ostrich and emeu. It \,
is called by the natives of -
New Zealand kiwi-kiwi.
- \\ M
It has scarcely any trace Nº.
of wings, but has fine plu-
Image, and a long bill, on Y
which it supports itself §
when it rests. It feeds
upon insects of various Šºš
kinds, more especially on § §
worms, which it is said to §§
§§§S
attract to the surface by *ś
jumping and striking on tº
the ground with its pow-
erful feet. Its skin is very tough but flexible, and is prized
by the chiefs for the manufacture of their state mantles.
Three species have been found, but they are believed to
be nearly extinct. -
Apºthorp (EAST), a clergyman of the Anglican Church,
was born at Boston, Mass., in 1733, and educated at Cam-
bridge University. He passed many years in England, and
*
,-º
—º:
Africa.
obtained a benefice at Finsbury. His four letters to Gib-
bon in defence of Christianity (1778) were very favorably
received. Died April 17, 1816.
Apule/ius (AULUS LUCIUs), a celebrated Latin Platonic
philosopher and satirical writer, was born at Madaura, in
He lived about 150 A.D., travelled extensively,
and was distinguished for his learning and eloquence.
After he had spent his fortune in travel, he married a rich
widow, and was involved in a lawsuit with her relatives,
who accused him of using magical arts to gain her affection.
He defended himself with success by an “Apology” which
is still extant. He became popular as an orator at Carthage,
the senate of which raised statues in his honor. His chief
work is a romance entitled the “Metamorphoses, or the
Golden Ass,” which is supposed to be intended as a satire
on priests, quacks, magicians, etc. It has been translated
into English by T. Taylor (1822), by Sir George Head
(1851), and by several others. Some of his works are lost.
(See F. HILDEBRAND, “Commentarius de Vita et Scriptis
Apuleii,” 1835.)
Apu'lia. [It. La Puglia], an ancient province of South-
ern Italy, was bounded on the N. E. by the Adriatic Sea,
and was a portion of Graecia Magna. It was bounded on
the S. W. by Lucania and Samnium. Among the chief
towns of this once populous and famous region were Canu-
sium, Arpi, Luceria, and Arpinum. The battle of Cannae,
and most of the important events of the second Punic war,
occurred in Apulia. It was conquered by the Normans
abóut 1042 A. D. Apulia is included in the modern prov-
inces of Foggia, Bari, and Lecce. Area, 8541 Square miles.
Pop. in 1871, 1,416,792.
Apulia, a post-village of Fabius township, Onondaga
co., N. Y., on the Syracuse Binghamton and New York
R. R., 19 miles S. by E. of Syracuse. Pop. 181.
Apu're, a river of Venezuela, rises in the Andes near
lat. 7° N. and lon. 72° W. It flows eastward, and enters
the Orinoco in lat. 7° 36' 43' N. and lon. 66° 45' W.
Length, estimated at 736 miles.
Apure, a province of Venezuela, is bounded on the N.
by Merida, Barinas, and Caracas, on the E. by Guiana, and
on the S. and W. by Colombia. Area, about 22,250 square
miles. This province is in the most level and lowest part
of Venezuela, and is almost entirely without trees. The
chief occupation of the inhabitants is the raising of cattle.
Chief town, San Fernando de Apure. Pop. 32,485.
Apu'rimac', a river of South America, and one of the
head-streams of the Amazon, rises in the Andes, in Peru,
about lat. 15° 38' S., and about 75 miles from the Pacific
Ocean. It flows nearly northward, and unites with the
river Urubamba, about 8° 38' S. The stream thus formed is
called the Ucayale. Its length from its source to the Ucay-
ale is estimated at 600 miles. -
A/qua, plu. A/quae, the Latin name for water; the
pharmacopoeial name for spring water, or natural water in
its purest attainable state. It is a compound of oxygen
and hydrogen ; symbol H2O, or Aq. The principal varieties
of water are distilled water (aqua distillata), river water
(aqua eac flumine, or aqua fluvialis), Sea Water (aqua marina),
rain water (aqwa pluvialis), and Spring water (aqua fon-
tana). These terms are used in pharmacy, in which vari-
ous watery solutions are also called aquae.
A/qua For’tis (i. e. “strong water’), a name given
to nitric acid by the alchemists, is still the common com-
mercial name of that compound. (See NITRIC ACID.)
Aqua Marine, a name sometimes given to the BERYL
(which see).
A/qua Re'gia (i. e. “royal water”), a name given to
a mixture of nitric acid with hydrochlorie (muriatic) acid.
The usual proportion is one of the former and two of the
latter acid. This is remarkable for its power of dissolving
gold, regarded as the king of metals. The product is auric
terchloride, AuCl3. (See GoLD, by PROF. R. W. RAYMOND.)
A/qua Regi'nae (i. e. “queen’s water”) is a mixture
of concentrated sulphuric acid and nitric acid, or of sul-
phuric acid and nitre. It has been used as a disinfectant.
Aqua'rians [from the Lat. a'qua, “Water”], a name
given to those ascetic persons who used water in the Sacra-
ment instead of wine, because they had scruples against
the use of the latter. This practice is said to have origin-
ated with Tatian in the second century. d
Aqua'rium (plu. Aquaria), or Aquaviva'rium 9 a.
Latin term commonly applied to a glass tank or vessel con-
taining either salt or fresh water, in which living aquatic
animals and plants are kept as an ornament of drawing-
rooms, an aid to scientific study, and a source of rational
amusement. It must contain both animals and plants in
something like a due proportion, as the animals depend for
breath on the oxygen which is given out by the plants, and






AQUARIUS–AQUEDUCT.
193
the latter are nourished by the carbonic acid gas which the
animals exhale. The water should be often aérated by agi-
tation, which may be effected by dipping up portions of
it and pouring them in again from a small height. Aquaria
are stocked with Mollusca, Algae, Confervae, Crustacea,
Zoophytes, gold-fish, sticklebacks, minnows, and other fish,
sea-anemones, etc. The presence of molluscous animals is
necessary for the consumption of the vegetable matter
which is about to decay and the numerous spores of the
Confervae, unless the water be continually renewed, as in
the “fountain aquarium.” No dead animal or decaying
plant should be permitted to remain in the aquarium, the
temperature of which should be kept between 50° and 70°F.
(See P. H. GossE, “Handbook of the Marine Aquarium,”
1855.) -
Aqua'rius [from the Lat. a'qua, “water ’’), the “Water-
Bearer,” is the eleventh sign of the Zodiac, into which the
sun enters about the 20th of January. It is represented
by §. Aquarius is also the name of a constellation which
coincided with that sign at the time when the signs were
named, but in consequence of the precession of the equi-
noxes it is now in juxtaposition with the sign Pisces.
Aquas' co, a post-township of Prince George's co., Md.
Pop. 1723.
Aquat’ic An’imals are those which live constantly in
the water, as fishes, and those which frequent the water to
swim on its surface or dive in search of food, as ducks and
other web-footed birds, otters and beavers among quadru-
peds, etc. Among the aquatic animals are the majority of
the grand division of Mollusca; numerous tribes of the Ar-
ticulata, as crabs, lobsters, and shrimps; and a large por-
tion of the Radiata. Whales and dolphins are examples
of aquatic animals of the class Mammalia. The total num-
ber of aquatic animals is greater than that of all terrestrial
animals (exclusive of insects). Those which live partly on
land, and cannot breathe under water, are called amphib-
ious. The peculiarities of structure by which they are
fitted for swimming, wading, etc. are very admirable.
Some water-fowls have long legs for wading; others have
webbed feet which enable them to swim with ease, and have
waterproof plumage adapted to their mode of life. In
aquatic animals of the higher vertebrate classes provision
is made for the maintenance of the proper degree of animal
heat by a coat of blubber, fur, or plumage, as in the case of
otters, ducks, etc. The air-breathing animals that inhabit
Salt water have an organic structure greatly modified, and
their extremities resemble the purely atuatic type more
than the terrestrial.
Aquatic Plants, or Water Plants, a term applied
to various vegetable organisms that grow either partially
or entirely immersed in water. The latter mode of life is
mostly confined to cryptogamous plants. Many phaeneroga-
mous plants which take root at the bottom of ponds, ditches,
and running streams are called aquatic, although the flowers
and leaves are raised above the water or float upon its sur-
face. A primary distinction occurs between the plants that
grow in Salt water and those which grow in or near fresh
water. The most of the plants which live in the sea be-
long to the division ALGA. (which see). Among the cryptog-
amous plants that inhabit fresh water are the Confervae.
Aquatic plants have a less compact structure than most
other plants, and are generally deficient in rigidity and
firmness of stem. Some water-plants are furnished with
air-bladders, which enable them to rise to the surface and
float upon it. Besides those which grow in the sea, there
are plants whose habitat is the sea-shore, and which re-
quire the influence of salt water. These are sometimes
called saline or maritime plants. Among the aquatic plants
growing in fresh water are the species of the orders Alis-
maceae, Naiadaceae, Ceratophyllaceae, and Nymphaeaceae.
Aquatint. See ENGRAVING, by PREs. M. B. ANDERSON.
A'qua Tofa'na, a secret poison, the invention of which
is ascribed to a Sicilian woman, a notorious poisoner, named
Tofana. She lived about 1650–1730. It is said that there
was, about 1660, a society of young married women in
Rome who used this aqua Tofana to poison their husbands.
It was sold in vials marked “Manna of St. Nicholas of
Bari.” Some suppose it to have been a solution of arsenic.
A/qua Viſtae (i. e. “water of life”), [Fr. eau de vie], a
Latin term applied to brandy, and sometimes to other ar-
dent spirits.
Aquaviva (CLAUDIO), a son of the duke of Atri, born
at Naples in 1543, was appointed Feb. 19, 1581, general of
the Jesuits. His principal work is entitled “Ratio Studi-
orum ” (“Method of Studies”), 1586. Died in 1614.
Aqſueduct [Lat. aquaeduc’tus, a “channel for conduct-
ing water”]. The name is applied more especially to arti-
ficial constructions for bringing water from a distance for
the supply of cities, and to those bridges which serve to
e
convey the water of canals of navigation and of irrigation,
and of mill-races, at an elevation across deep valleys or
streams.
As no very large city could exist without an abundant
supply of water, we may assume that aqueducts were con-
structed very early in history. The Romans built many
aqueducts, not only for Rome, but for their principal cities
in Europe, Asia, and Africa, and the massive and pictu-
resque ruins of the great bridges of these aqueducts are at
once suggested to the scholar by the word “aqueduct.”
Rome, the capital of the ancient civilization, was boun-
tifully supplied with water by many aqueducts. Twenty
are said to have existed in its period of greatest prosperity,
bringing water from the hills and lakes of Italy from dis-
tances of from five to sixty miles. The greater part of the
courses of all these aqueducts were subterraneous, but as
the Romans were not as skilful in the working of metals
as the moderns, as metal pipes were with them much more
costly than masonry, and as cast iron was unknown, they
were compelled to construct lofty bridges of stone and brick
to conduct the channels of water at a regular slope or de-
scent from the elevated ranges to the N. and E. of Rome
across the wide and gradually descending slopes of the
Campagna or country immediately surrounding the city.
These bridges were generally built of rude masonry of brick
or of rubble stones. The mortar was good, and the stone
and brick, though rough, were durable. The masses, though
not generally remarkable for their height, were in the ag-
gregate immense, and hence, while the greater part of these
constructions have perished, very considerable remains exist
to this day.
Rome has never been without inhabitants, and the rulers
of the city have from time to time repaired and utilized the
different conduits, so that at the present day the city is
amply supplied with water, the greater part of which is
brought over ancient aqueducts repaired by the popes.
The Appian aqueduct, attributed to Appius Claudius Caecus,
is said to have been completed 311 years before the Chris-
tian era, after the building of the Appian Way. Its length
was about 6 miles, and it brought, by a devious course, to
Rome the waters of a spring whose fountain-head was 5
miles from the city, near Rustica on the Via Collatina.
The Aqua Augusta was at a later period added to this
aqueduct. It supplied the most ancient portion of the town
and the Transtiberine city. -
The Anio Vetus was built B. C. 272 by Manius Curius
Dentatus. It brought its supply from near Augusta in the
valley of the Anio, 43 miles from Rome. It was almost
entirely subterraneous, and the only fragment now visible
lies below the road and under the Aqua Marcia, outside
the Porta Maggiore.
The Aqua Marcia (B. C. 145), built by the praetor Quin-
tus Martius Rex, was 37 miles long, of which 6 miles were
on arches still visible, crossing the Campagna by the Fras-
cati and Albano roads. This aqueduct is crossed by the
Claudian aqueduct, which for some distance runs parallel
to it. It has been restored, and the city is for its present
population amply supplied with water.
Aqua Tepula (B. C. 126), the work of Cneius Servilius
Caepio and Cassius Longinus, is 10 miles long. Its channel
or specus can still be seen at the Porta San Lorenzo and
Porta Maggiore in connection with the channels of the
Aqua Marcia and Aqua Julia.
Aqua Julia (B. C. 34), by Augustus, named in honor of
Julius Caesar, 12 miles long. Its water was brought to the
city in a specus or conduit above the Tepula, and, like that,
upon the arches of the Aqua Marcia, which thus brought
the waters of three different sources separately to Rome.
Its channel is still to be seen at the gate of San Lorenzo
and at the Porta Maggiore.
Aqua Virgo, also by Augustus. Its source is said to
have been pointed out by a young girl, whence its name.
Its course is mostly.subterraneous, about half a mile only
being on arches. It was restored by Pope Nicholas W. as
the Aqua Vergine, and it still supplies Rome with its cool
water. The fountains in the Piazza di Spagna, Piazza
Navona, and the magnificent fountain of Trevi are sup-
plied by this aqueduct, as are many others. On the foun-
tain of Trevi, the virgin pointing out the source to the sol-
diers sent by Augustus appears among many other marble
reliefs and statues. This is perhaps the finest fountain in
the world. An inscription, still legible, in a cellar of No.
| 12 Via del Nazareno, near the Palazzo del Bufalo, states
that it was repaired A. D. 52 by Claudius, after having
been disturbed by Caligula in the construction of his wooden
amphitheatre.
Aqua Alsietina, 30 miles in length, built by Augustus;
restored by Trajan, who added to its waters those of sev-
eral springs along the hills to the W. of Lago Bracciano.
Its original sources were around the smaller lake Alsietinus,
now the Lago de Martignano. It was restored by Paul W.,
194
AQUEDUCT.
and now supplies the fountains of the great Piazza of St.
Peter’s and the magnificent fountain Paolina, and turns
the wheels of many flour-mills on the slopes of the Janicu-
lum. It is known indifferently as the Aqua Alsietina and
the Aqua Paolina.
Aqua Claudia, built by Caligula and Claudius (A. D. 36
to 50). Its sources were near Agosta, about 38 miles from
Rome. Its devious course was over 46 miles in length, of
which 36 were below the surface and 10 miles were on
arches. Six miles of arches stretching across the Cam-
pagna still attest the power and liberality of the Roman
empire. Repaired by Septimus Severus, by Caracalla, and
by Pope Sixtus W., its arches now bring to Rome the Aqua
Felice from the springs near the Osteria dei Pantani, on the
road to Palestrina. They supply the Fontana dei Termini,
near the railroad dépôt in the Baths of Diocletian, the
fountain of the Triton, that of Monte Cavallo, and some
twenty-four others in different parts of the city.
Anio Novus, also by Claudius, from the forty-second mile
of the Via Sublacemcis. This was the longest of the ancient
aqueducts, having a course of 62 miles, 48 of which were
under ground. Its channel or specus is still visible above
the Aqua Claudia on the arches of the Porta Maggiore. It
is also visible at the Villa Braschi, near Tivoli, where it is
nine feet high by four feet in width, but is choked up by a
calcareous deposit, which encrusted, and finally, unless re-
moved, obstructed the channels of many of these ancient
aqueducts, especially those from the valley of the Anio.
It is estimated that Rome received daily 377,000,000
gallons of water. The Acque Vergine, Felice, Marcia, and
Paola, having their sources in volcanic districts, supply a
pure and delicious water, which does not obstruct its chan-
nels, and at this day they bring into Rome 160,000,000
gallons of water daily. By channels of masonry the water
is led to fountains in every part of the city, and by pipes
of metal and of burned clay it is distributed to most of the
great houses or palaces, in each of which it flows constantly
into a basin, frequently an ancient sarcophagus, of stone
or marble. The water is rarely carried by pipes to the
upper stories.
Rome being the capital of the civilized world for so
long a time, its aqueducts were on a greater scale than any
others, but the chief cities of the ancient world were sup-
plied with water by aqueducts, many of which were built
during the Roman domination. -
During the Middle Ages also aqueducts were constructed,
and the pointed arch of the Goths is seen in some of the
existing remains. Among those most noted, generally lofty
bridges of masonry forming part of the channels of true
aqueducts, are those of Lyons, Nîmes, Segovia, Spoleto,
Carthage, Constantinople, Lisbon, Marly, Caserta, Metz,
Tarentum, and many others.
In modern times many aqueducts have been constructed.
The New River of London and the Canal de l'Ourcq of
Paris are true aqueducts. The new aqueduct of the Vanne
is one of the supplies of Paris. The aqueduct of Roque-
favour carries the water of the Durance to Marseilles; that
of Loch Katrine supplies Glasgow.
Vienna is now constructing an aqueduct to bring the
water of two springs a distance of 59 miles. The conduit
is of masonry, the channel itself varying in size from five
feet eight inches by six feet to two feet nine inches by four
feet, according to the slope, on which depends the velocity
of the current. The sources are at a height of about 1000
feet, and the principal distributing reservoir is 277 feet
above the site of the city. The supply is estimated at
24,000,000 gallons daily, or 24 gallons to each of 1,000,000
inhabitants. Whenever Vienna attains to this population
it will appear that the supply is only one-fourth of that
which modern civilized man requires.
In the U. S. there has been of late years great activity
in the construction of aqueducts for its rising cities. The
city of New York has the Croton aqueduct, 50 miles in
length. Boston has the Cochituate; Baltimore, that of
Jones's Falls; and Washington, the Washington aqueduct.
Fig. 1 is a view of High Bridge (so called) over Harlem
River, N. Y. The Croton Aqueduct passes over this bridge
in three pipes, one wrought and two cast iron. The wrought
iron is seven feet six inches in diameter, and the two cast
iron are each three feet. The bridge is 1460 feet in length,
having eight arches, in the river, of 80 feet span and 100
feet high, and seven others, of fifty feet span, on the two
banks. The bridge is 116 feet above high-water mark.
The Washington aqueduct, which supplies the capital of
the U.S., we select as one of the most recent and important
examples of modern aqueduct construction for fuller illus-
tration and description.
It is a circular conduit of brick and rubble masonry laid
in hydraulic cement. Brick and stone were used indiffer-
ently in its construction, each section being built with the
material which would be most easily and cheaply obtained.
Its clear internal diameter is nine feet. Its descent or in-
clination is nine and a half inches to the mile. The length
sº-sº ºs- -º-
-----> ---
High Bridge, Harlem River.
of the conduit from the Great Falls of the Potomac to the
distributing reservoir is 11 miles; from the latter the aque-
duct is continued by large iron pipes to the capitol, 5 miles.
Its capacity is 70,000,000 gallons per day. Its construction
is shown in ordinary ground (side-hill) by Fig. 4.
It takes its water at the Great Falls from the Potomac
River at an elevation of 150 feet above tide-water by a deep
rock-cut passing under the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal
(Fig. 5), to a gate-house (Fig. 5), furnished with gates and
Screens to regulate the flow of water and to exclude inju-
rious substances. A dam raises the water of the river about
six feet to the level of the aqueduct, 150 feet above tide.
The aqueduct follows the valley of the Potomac, crossing
the drainage of its left bank by six bridges and many cul-
verts. It passes through several tunnels. A waste-weir
permits any excess of water to escape before it can do in-
jury to the conduit.
Its course is generally subterranean; embankments have
been avoided wherever possible, as more liable to degrada-
FIG. 2.
Cochituate Aqueduct.
tion and injury than a masonry conduit deep below the
natural Surface. There are four bridges under the conduit.
Fig. 6 is the most important of these, the Cabin John
Bridge or Union Arch, a granite arch of 220 feet span,
the longest stone arch in existence. This bridge is 101
feet high and 20 feet wide. The water is delivered into
the receiving reservoir, of about fifty-six acres, made by
damming up the valley of Little Falls Branch. (Fig. 7.)
Two miles farther on the aqueduct enters the distributing
reservoir of forty acres by a gate-house. A branch of the
conduit, seven feet only in diameter, leads around this
reservoir for use when the reservoir is being cleaned.
In Fig. 8 is a section of the tower, in which the branch ter-
minates in a four-foot iron pipe, with regulating sliding iron
gate. Fig. 9 is a profile of the outlet gate-house and screen-
well, and of the subterranean vault in which are the stop-
cocks and connections of the iron mains which convey the
water into the cities. There are connections for four pipcs
of forty-eight inches diameter in this vault. There are now
three mains laid, the original two, 30 and 12-inch, and a
36-inch main recently added, the cities having already out-
grown the smaller ones laid fourteen years ago.
At College Branch two 30-inch mains, braced as in Fig.
10, cross a small inlet and valley by an arch of 120 feet
span. Rock Creek is crossed by an iron bridge (Fig. 11)
composed of two cast-iron pipes of four feet diameter,
which serve as the ribs of an arch of 200 feet span and
20 feet rise. These pipes convey the water, and also sup-



AQUEDUCT.
º a platform bearing a road and railway track. This
ridge, the College Branch, and the Cabin John bridge
FIG. 5.
263.5
a/randf
carvdºr-
--
are unique. The highest portion of the streets of Wash-
ington is forty-five feet below the level of the reservoir;
but a part of Georgetown is at a greater height than any
part of the aqueduct. To supply this a circular reservoir
covered by a brick dome (Fig. 12) has been constructed.
It is supplied with water by a water-pressure engine situ-
- -
º-->e-
Esºs
Washin
These aqueducts are generally open channels or
ditches, which follow winding courses along the mountain-
slopes, preserving regular grades, which are regulated by
the necessity of the case, the limit being whatever the soil
will bear without washing away. These grades are as
high in some cases as thirteen feet to the mile. The
channels are very crooked. Gulches, gullies, valleys, and
streams are crossed by wooden troughs supported on tres-
tles. These are estimated to last for about fifteen years.
Deeper valleys are crossed by sheet-iron pipes. In one
example a mining aqueduct brings to the mine, with a
head of 300 feet, from 80,000,000 to 90,000,000 gallons of
water daily. A valley is crossed by pipes of No. 14 to
No. 16 gauge sheet iron—i.e. one-sixteenth of an inch in
thickness—which are twenty-seven inches in diameter.
These pipes are put together on the line of the work, the
º Fig. 7.
stºcerdºrea.
sheets, perforated with rivet holes, being brought into the
mountains on wagons, and finally on pack-mules. They
are bent to shape and riveted in place. The joints are
slip-joints, like those of stove-pipe, and they are kept
together against the pressure and shocks of the water by
lashings of wire around lugs secured to the sheet iron.
Chopped straw is thrown into the water at the head, and
soon packs all the imperfectly fitted joints and makes
them water-tight. It is recorded that the Romans, who
made much use of earthenware or terra-cotta pipes, used
ashes in this way to stop all leaks. The cost of these 27-
inch sheet-iron pipes is about $4 per foot, or $20,000 per mile.
Many cities which hesitate to provide themselves with
the best of all water-supplies—that by gravitation, natural
flow—on account of the great first cost of the aqueduct,
may profit by this California experience. While the wooden
and sheet-iron pipes will not last as long as bridges of ma-
sonry and pipes of heavy cast iron, they will still last for
many years, and the saving in interest upon the original
capital needed for the more solid construction will not only
keep them in repair, but rebuild them every fifteen years.
The lighter constituents of the soil through which the
gton Aqueduct: Cabin John Bridge (Union Arch), 220
195
ated in the vaults of the west abutment of the Rock Creek
bridge, capable of pumping 10,000 gallons per hour into
this reservoir, at a height of 226 feet above tide. It is
worked by the pressure of water from the 30-inch main.
The aqueduct is capable of delivering 70,000,000 gal-
lons per day. The three iron mains as yet laid, with 120
miles of small iron distributing pipes, which now supply
120,000 people, and are connected with 10,000 houses, are
capable of bringing into the cities of Washington and
Georgetown 30,000,000 gallons daily. The actual con-
sumption of the cities is already 17,500,000 gallons in
twenty-four hours.
In California gold-mining the agent for the separation
of the gold from the soil is water, and this has led to the
construction of many large aqueducts, there called mining
ditches. Some of these are 100 miles in length, and the
ingenuity of their builders has made some veritable im-
provements in the science and art of hydraulic engineer-
º
inve-
feet
- m
span.
aqueduct is carried as an open ditcn or canal are soon re-
moved by the current, leaving the bottom and sides of the
channel protected by the gravel and pebbles, too heavy to
be removed by the regular current, which remain and form
a covering for the softer and lighter soil. Aqueducts thus
constructed may be built for $15,000 to $20,000 per mile,
and thus bring ample and cheap supplies of water to many
cities which now depend upon steam-engines and a daily
expense of fuel for scanty supplies of this precious element.
t has been customary in America to estimate twenty-
eight to thirty gallons per day for each inhabitant, old and
young, as a sufficient supply for a great city. But the ex-
perience of all those in which aqueducts have been in use
for twenty years shows that in the U. S. the supply should
not be less than 100 gallons per head per day. This con-
sumption is reached in Boston, New York, Philadelphia,
and Washington, and, where the works afford it, it pro-
motes health and contributes to cleanliness, to pleasure, and
to safety. It is better that this quantity be assumed in all
projects for building aqueducts.
Fig. 8.
We have seen that the cross-sections of the specus or
channel of the Roman aqueducts were generally rectangu-
lar. In modern times a great variety of forms have been
used—rectangular, two-side walls with flat floor and roof;
curved floor and arched roof, with vertical sides; oval, or
egg-shaped, with the smaller end of the oval at the bottom;
and finally circular.
As the circle is that geometrical figure which with the
least circumference encloses the greatest area, it follows
that in lining with masonry a channel cut through the
earth the circular form will convey the most water with the
least masonry. Moreover, this form gives the channel with
the least wetted perimeter. As it is at the surface of con-
tact of the water and its channel that friction occurs, the
flow of the water will be less retarded by friction in a cir-
cular channel than in any other of the same capacity.
Therefore, in building a covered channel for conveyance
of water this form will generally be found the best and
cheapest.











196
AQUEOUS HUMOR—AQUILEJA.
Bricks or flat rubble stones are laid with great rapidity
into the form of a circular conduit. The excavation in the
earth is cut carefully at the bottom to the form of a semi-
- FIG. 9,-continued. *
§
;
§
:
§
§
LENGTH 62.39
cylinder to receive the masonry, which is laid in hydraulic
mortar simply upon the earth, until the lower half cylinder
of masonry is formed. Then two portable wooden centres,
each of which is one quarter of the cylinder, are placed in
position on props of wood, and the upper half of the con-
duit is laid as an arch upon them. The inside of the pipe
is to be plastered with mortar of hydraulic lime and sand,
and, the whole being covered to a proper depth, we have a
conduit which will serve for ages, and is liable to no decay
or destruction except by earthquakes or waterspouts, which
may break it open or wash it away.
As the cost of the excavation and construction of the
conduit is but a part of the aggregate cost of an aqueduct,
it is wise in all such constructions for cities and villages to
FIG. 10.
COI/EGE-poſſip BAP/DGE
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i
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.
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:
g
Aº
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4,
ºff.
#Tſ, 33% ºf 4Evary7682;
at first make the conduit itself large enough to convey all
the water of the source. The conduit should also in any
case be large enough for a man to pass through con-
veniently, for the purposes of cleaning it and repairing any
cracks, which in long lines of masonry resting upon soils
of different natures will occur from settlement of the soil
and from expansion and contraction of the masonry itself.
When the source of supply is a great river or lake, the
conduit should be built to convey more water even than
100 gallons a day for each inhabitant. Cities «ontinually
increase, and while at present this quantity appears to be
enough for actual needs, the greatest abundance of water
flowing through the fountains and cleansing the streets,
FIG. 11.
aeolºgérown | ROCA C/7EEK AAF//JGE
º-º-º-e º-º-º:
sº c
tº fººtºș
º
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ALEAVGIZ/98.645.
courts, and drains of a city adds to the health, the pleas-
ure, and comfort of the people. There is scarcely a city
in the U. S. which in the course of twenty years has not
found its aqueduct insufficient for its wants. -
We defer till we treat of water-supply of cities remarks
upon the reservoirs and pipes for the distribution through
them of the water brought by the aqueduct from the
source to their confines, noting only that the modern prac-
\ FIG. 12.
A/GH SERVICFAPFSEAEPVO/AP
tice makes reservoirs much more extensive and capacious
than the ancient. The Romans brought large supplies
through aqueducts of rapid flow. A small portion only
was stored in reservoirs, generally of masonry covered
with arches, and the surplus was allowed to flow out
through great fountains and cascades in constant streams.
The moderns provide large reservoirs in which the water
not used is stored up to Gompensate during periods of
scarcity for the scanty supply of the original source.
These reservoirs are sometimes covered with brick arches,
as in London, but generally they are open ponds or lakes
of many acres. The magnificent covered reservoirs, such
as that for the RQman fleet at Baiae, and the arched reser-
voirs of Constantinople, supported on stone columns, are no
longer constructed. They remain among the most stately
monuments of the Roman empire. (See WATER works and
WATER-SUPPLY., by PROF. C. F. CHANDLER, Ph.D., M.D.,
LL.D.) M. C. MEIGs, U. S. Army.
A/queous Hu'mor. See EYE.
Aqueous Rocks, a geological term synonymous with
sedimentary rocks, is applied to rocks and strata which
have been formed by the agency of water, and have been
deposited at the bottom of seas and lakes. The materials
of these strata were partly derived from the disintegration
of older rocks, which, being reduced to particles of small
size, have been carried along the rivers in the form of
mud, sand, and sediment, and deposited in the sea. Hum-
phreys and Abbott estimate that the Mississippi conveys
into the Gulf of Mexico annually an amount of silt equal
to a mass one square mile in area and 241 feet in depth.
The waves of the sea also, dashing continually against the
shores and undermining the rocks, contribute to this pro-
cess of erosion and disintegration. Some aqueous rocks,
as chalk and limestone, are formed by the accumulation of
the calcareous shells of marine animalcules, called Forami-
nifera. Other strata of the carboniferous formation which
are of vegetable origin are included among the aqueous
rocks, which in reference to their composition are distin-
guished as arenaceous, argillaceous, calcareous, carbon-
aceous, and saline. The rocks termed metamorphic are
now generally regarded as aqueous in their formation.
(See LITHOLOGY and Rocks.) (For further information about
these rocks the reader is referred to the articles on the Si-
lurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Cretaceous, Oolitic, Tri-
assic, Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene formations.)
Aqui'a, a post-village and township of Stafford co., Va.,
13 miles N. E. of Fredericksburg. Pop. of township, 2085.
Aquiſa Creek, in the eastern part of Virginia, flows
south-eastward through Stafford county, and enters the
Potomac River. It is navigable for schooners. It is also
the name of a station on the railroad from Washington to
Richmond, and on the Potomac River, 75 miles N. of Rich-
mond. Passengers going northward are here transferred
from the cars to a steamboat.
Aquifolia’ceae [from Aquifo/lium, a former name of
the holly], a natural order of exogenous plants, all trees
or shrubs with simple leaves, and mostly natives of Amer-
ica. The ovary is superior, with two or more cells, each
of which contains a solitary amatropal ovule, and gener-
ally becomes bony as a stone in the fruit, which is fleshy.
Among the species of this order is the holly (Ilear). The
species are quite numerous in the U. S. -
Aq’uila (“the Eagle’’), a constellation of stars near
the equator, and on its N. side.
A/quila, a fortified town of Italy, capital of the prov-
ince of Aquila, is situated on the Pescara, near the Apen-
nines, 58 miles N. E. of Rome. It is well built, and has
numerous churches. Here are manufactures of linen. It
was much injured by earthquakes in 1688, 1703, and 1706.
Aquila was built by the emperor Frederick II. about 1240,
on or near the site of the ancient Amiternum. Pop. in 1861,
12,627.
Aquila, a province of Italy, formerly called Abruzzo
Ulteriore II., is bounded on the N. E. by Ascoli, on the E.
by Teramo and Chieti, on the S. by Campobasso and Ca-
serta, on the W. by Rome and Perugia, and on the N. W.
by Perugia. Area, 2510 square miles. The chief products
are grain, vegetables, rice, wine, oil, and fruits. Pop. in
1871, 333,791.
Aquilaria/ceae [so called from Aquila’ria, one of the
generaj, a natural order of exogenous plants, all of which
are trees and natives of the tropical parts of Asia. The
leaves are entire; the perianth coriaceous, turbinate, or
tubular; the stamens usually ten; the ovary 2-celled, with
two ovules; the fruit a drupe or capsule. The order com-
prises only ten known species, one of which produces the
fragrant ALOEs WooD (which see). n
Aquile'ja, Aquileia, or Aglar, an old town of
Austria, in the Littoral provinces, near the Adriatic or Gulf
of Venice, with which it is connected by a canal, is 22
miles W. N. W. of Trieste. During the Roman empire it
was an important city, was called the second Rome (Roma
Secunda), and was the chief emporium of the trade between
the north and south of Europe. The emperor Augustus
often resided here, and here were held several councils of the













AQUINAS–ARABIA.
197
Church, the first of which was in 381 A. D. The bishops
of Aquileja in the sixth century took the title of patriarch,
and assumed the rank next to the pope. Aquileja was
burned by Attila in 452 A. D., at which time it is said to
have had 100,000 inhabitants. Pop. 1728.
Aquiſmas (THOMAs), SAINT, a celebrated scholastic doc-
tor and theologian, surnamed THE ANGELIC DOCTOR, was
born in the kingdom of Naples in 1227. He was a grand-
nephew of the emperor Frederick I. Barbarossa. About
1243 he joined the order of Dominican monks, and became
a pupil of Albertus Magnus. . After he had studied theol-
ogy and scholastic philosophy, he began to teach and preach
at Paris with great applause. Having acquired a Euro-
pean reputation by his talents and learning, he left Paris
in 1261, and was induced by Pope Urban IV. to remove to
Rome, where he taught philosophy. He was distinguished
for his modesty, and refused the offer of a bishopric, but
he had great influence in the Church. The greatest of the
schoolmen were the Dominican Thomas Aquinas and the
Franciscan Duns Scotus. They were founders of rival
sects, which wrangled with each other for two or three cen-
turies. Aquinas wrote a number of works, the most im-
portant of which is his “Sum of Theology” (“Summa Theo-
logiae"), which was regarded as the most complete com-
pendium of scholastic divinity. He died at Fossanuova, in
Naples, 1274. His disciples were called Thomists. Aquinas
was a great admirer of the philosophy of Aristotle. He
was canonized in 1323. (See RENN D. HAMPDEN, “Life
of Thomas Aquinas,” 1848; MAFFEI, “Vita di Tommaso
d’Aquino,” 1842; THOLUCK, “Dissertatio de Thoma Aquin-
ate,” 1842; P. S. CARLE, “Histoire de la Vie et de Ecrits
de Thomas d’Aquin,” 1846; “Philosophie de Thomas
d’Aquin,” par CHARLEs Jourd'AIN, Paris, 1857; “The Life
and Labors of S. Thomas of Aquin,” by the Very Rev.
RogBR BEDEVAUGHAN, 2 vols., 1871–72. See DUNs Scotus.)
Aquita’nia [Fr. Aquitaine], the ancient Latin name
of the most south-western of the three divisions of Gaul.
It originally included the country between the Pyrenees
and the Garonne, but Augustus added to it the territory
between the Garonne and the Loire. The ancient inhab-
itants were Iberian tribes. It was an independent duchy
under the feeble princes of the Carlovingian dynasty, and
became an English possession in 1152 by the marriage of
Henry II. with Eleanor of Guienne, who was the heiress
of the duke of Aquitaine. It was united to France in 1451.
Arabesque, Är-a-bésk', signifies “in the Arabian style
or manner.” It is applied to the fantastic decoration which
was profusely employed in the architecture of the Arabs or
Moors in Spain. As employed by the Arabs, it consisted
of infinitely diversified combinations of curved and straight
lines, and imaginary foliage and flowers, curiously inter-
twined with other vegetable forms. . The figures of animals
were excluded from the arabesques of the Moors, because
the religion of Mohammed prohibited their representation.
The Moors are supposed to have derived this kind of orna-
ment from the Romans, by whom it was extensively used.
Among the most beautiful specimens of Moorish arabesques
are the decorations of the famous palace of the Alhambra.
The name of arabesque was applied to this mode of decora-
tion because it had been long known and admired in the
works of the Arabs before the discovery of the beautiful
paintings in the Baths of Titus, by Raphael and his pupil
Giovanni da Udine, made the world acquainted with a mag-
nificent specimen of the original. The early Italian painters
and sculptors, however, had always taken delight in this
style of decoration, as they found it in the antique Roman
sculpture, where scrolls, flowers, fruit, and leaves are min-
gled with animals and genii. Raphael painted his famous
arabesques in the Loggie of the Vatican in direct imitation
of the frescoes on the Baths of Titus. He was largely as-
sisted by Giovanni da Udine. CLARENCE Cook.
Arabgir’, or Arabkir’, an important city of Asia.
Minor, on the Arabgir-Su, and on the road from Aleppo to
Trebizond, 100 miles E. S. E. of Siwas. It has consider-
able trade, and a large community of Protestant Armenians.
Pop. estimated at from 25,000 to 30,000.
Ara'bia [Arab. Jezee/ret (or Jeziret) -el-A'rab, i. e. the
“isle or peninsula of the Arabs;” Turk. and Pers. Arabi-
stan; Lat. Ara/bia], a peninsula forming the extreme S.W.
part of Asia, is encompassed by the sea on all sides ex-
cept the N. It is bounded on the N. by Asiatic Turkey,
on the N. E. by the Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman, on the
S. E. by the Indian Ocean, and on the S. W. by the Red
Sea. It extends from lat. 12° 35' to 34° N., and from
lon. 32° 10' to 59° 40' E. Its area is estimated (Behm
and Wagner, “Bevölkerung der Erde,” Gotha, 1872) at
1,030,000 square miles. It is connected with Africa by the
Isthmus of Suez at the N.W. corner. The Euphrates forms
a part of the N. E. boundary of Arabia, the southern part
of which is included in the torrid zone. The topography
of the interior of this peninsula is imperfectly known to
European geographers. We know, however, that it is gen-
erally arid and sterile, destitute of forests, has no large
rivers, and few permanent streams. The surface is diver-
sified by hills of naked rock, plains of sand, and ranges of
mountains of no great elevation. The central part of
Arabia appears to be occupied by an elevated table-land.
A long range of mountains extends through the W. part
nearly parallel with the Red Sea, from which it is not more
than eighty miles distant, and in some parts less than that.
The peaks of these mountains are from 5000 to 8000 feet
high. In the vicinity of the mountains, and of the tor-
rents which flow from them, are a number of fertile valleys
called wadys. Among the remarkable features in the geog-
raphy of Arabia is Mount Sinai, which is 7497 feet high.
Ancient and foreign geographers divided this country into
three parts—namely, ARABIA FELIX, the Happy; ARABIA
PETRAEA, the Stony; and ARABIA DESERTA, the Desert.
The first comprises the south-eastern part, bordering on the
Persian Gulf, the Indian Ocean, and part of the Red Sea;
Arabia Petraea, includes the north-western part, bordering
on the Red Sea ; and Arabia. Deserta, the interior and
northern portions. According to the native geographers,
the principal divisions are—1, Hedjaz, or Hejaz, which ex-
tends along the Red Sea from lat. 19° N. to 29° N., and is
bounded on the N. E. by the desert; 2, Yemen, which
borders on the Red Sea, and extends from Hejaz to the
Strait of Bab-el Mandeb, and along the Gulf of Adem to
Hadramaut; 3, Hadramaut, a large tract bounded on the
S. E. by the Indian Ocean; 4, Oman, which extends from
the Persian Gulf to the Indian Ocean, and borders on the
Sea of Oman, being bounded on the W. by the desert; 5,
Lahsa (El Achsa), or Hadjar, which extends along the Per-
sian Gulf from Oman to the mouth of the Euphrates; 6,
Nej'd or Nedjed, the central desert region, nearly coincid-
ing with Arabia. Deserta. The climate is hot and extremely
dry. Muscat and Mocha, both on the sea-coast, are among
the hottest inhabited spots on the earth. The temperature
of the plains is often 100° in the shade. In many parts of
Arabia, rain never falls in the course of the year, and the
sun is rarely obscured by a cloud. On the coasts of the
Red Sea, there is a rainy season of two or three months in
summer, but on the southern or south-eastern coast the
scanty supply of rain falls in the winter, so that the hottest
months of the year are also the driest. To the extreme
dryness of the atmosphere may be ascribed the remark-
able degree of cold sometimes felt in Arabia, for ice and
snow frequently occur on mountains ranging from 6000 to
8000 feet in height in the part of the peninsula, which is in
the torrid zone. Among the remarkable phenomena of the
climate is a hot south wind called simoom, the poisonous
quality of which has been exaggerated by travellers. The
soil, where it is irrigated, produces cotton, coffee, indigo,
tobacco, tamarinds, the date-palm, barley, rice, sugar, and
many aromatic plants. The flora of Arabia comprises the
characteristic plants of its neighboring countries. Among
the wild plants are the mimosa, the Euphorbiaceae, lavender,
jasmine, the aloe, and the trees which yield gum-arabic and
olibanum. The animal kingdom is here represented by the
camel, the antelope, the ibex, hyena, wolf, jackal, wild-ass,
wild-boar, the jerboa, monkey, ostrich, eagle, etc. The Ara-
bian horse is celebrated, and perhaps unrivalled, for docil-
ity, endurance, beauty, and speed. Among the mineral
resources of Arabia are copper, iron, lead, coal, emeralds,
carnelians, agate, onyx, alabaster, marble, Sulphur, and
saltpetre. Few nations of the world have been more nearly
stationary or have made such little progress in industrial
arts. The division of the Arabs into numerous independ-
ent and unsettled tribes, with consequent absence of national
unity, is a great obstacle to their improvement and organi-
zation. The government is neither a monarchy, a republic,
nor an aristocracy, but each tribe is subject to a chief called
an emir, sheik, or imām. Having the advantage of occu-
pying the coasts between India on the east and Africa
and Europe on the west, the Arabs distribute the cotton
goods of India among the peoples of Africa, and carry
back ivory, gums, dyewoods, etc. Merchandise is conveyed
across the deserts by large caravans of camels, which are
styled “the ships of the desert.” The principal exports
of Arabia are dates, coffee, gum-arabic, myrrh, aloes,
pearls, balsam, and other drugs. The population, form-
erly estimated at from 10,000,000 to 15,000,000, amounts,
according to the recent calculations, to only 4,000,000, and
is divided into two classes—the nomadic Bedouins, who
have no habitations but tents, and have loose notions of
the rights of property; and agricultural and mercantile
Arabs, who live in towns and villages. The chief towns
are Mecca, Medina, Loheia, Mocha, Aden, Muscat, Yembo
(or Yambo), and Rostak. -
History.--Owing to its desert character, Arabia was nev-
er touchéd by any of the great conquerors of ancient times.
198
ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE–ARABIAN
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
After the death of Alexander the Great, the Arabians con-
quered a part of Chaldaea, and founded the empire of Hira.
Another tribe founded the empire of the Ghassanides, on
the river Ghassan. In 107 A.D. the Roman emperor Tra-
jan was the first to penetrate to the interior. With the
advent of Mohammed the different tribes began to unite
and act in concert, and, leaving their peninsula, founded
large and powerful empires in three continents. (See MooRs
and CALIPHs.) At the time of the conquest of the caliphate
of Bagdad in 1258, and the expulsion of the Moors from
Spain in 1492, the Arabian rule in Europe and Asia Minor
came to an end. In the sixteenth century the Turks con-
quered Yemen, but were driven back in the seventeenth, but
again gained the nominal authority over the holy cities
and Hejaz. From 1508 to 1609 Muscat was subject to Por-
tugal. The most important event of recent times in the
internal history of Arabia is the advent of the WAHABEEs
(which see) in 1770, and their defeat by Mehemed Ali in 1811.
At present, the only European power having possessions in
Arabia is England, which has taken possession of Aden. In
consequence of an attack made on the Christians in Djidda |
in 1858, the city was bombarded by the British. (See CRICH-
Ton, “History of Araby,” 1852; SEDILLOT, “Histoire des
Arabes,” 1854; MüLLER, “Beiträge zur Geschichte der
westlichen Araber,” 1868; WEIL, “Geschichte der islamitis-
chen Völker,” 1868; MALTzAN, “Wallfarth nach Mekka,”
1865; WREDE, “Reisen in Hadhramaut,” 1870, and the
accounts of NIEBUHR, BURCKHARDT, BURTON, PALGRAVE,
and others.) A. J. SCHEM.
Ara/bian Ar’chitecture, a style sometimes called
MooRISH, originated almost simultaneously with the Mo-
hammedan religion, and followed the progress of that re-
ligion into Eastern Europe, Spain, and Africa. The early
temples or mosques of the Moslem Arabs were modifications
of Byzantine architecture. The most peculiar and origi-
nal feature of the Arabian architecture is the horseshoe
arch. The pointed arch was also very extensively used by
the Moors or Saracens. Among the finest specimens of
Arabian style is the ALHAMBRA (which see).
REvrse:D BY CLARENCE Cook.
Arabian Language and Literature. The Arabic
belongs to what is termed the Semitic (or Shemiticº) family
of languages, and is closely related to the Hebrew, which
it resembles in its general grammatical structure, as well
as in the form of many of its words. Like the Hebrew, it
is written from right to left, and like it, also, the vowels
are not written in the body of a word or name, but are
indicated (if indicated at all) by certain marks placed
above or below the consonants to which they belong (see
29). The alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters, as
follows: -
º
* * 3; e ->
§§ "... 3 3 3 Name. Power.
33; # = 3 #
$º 3 ſº : *
1. ºf L L alif, 8.
2. - ºr-- * * ba, b.
3. cº º- * 3 ta, t.
4. tº º ż 3 tha, g th.
5. a. º. *\ - jeem or jim, j.
6. rºº cº-\, -> Hå, H.
a º' - •
7. . 2\, :-V P- khâ, kh.
& Q
8. St J. C. S dāl, d.
9. Sf J. J. & dhāl, dh.
10. Of f : } rà, T.
11. _5} _5 _5 J zà, Z.
12. Uw U., ºw- " seen or sin, - S.
13. U% U%. * * sheen or shín, sh.
14. U-2 U2. Ad *2 såd, S OF SS.
15. Uſo Uſa, a 22 dsåd, ds or dh.
16. Jo la la a ta, t.
17. & a £, a dza, dz or dh.
18. 3& c ain (ā'in or in), f
&
&
* A term derived from Shem, the eldest son of Noah.
# The letters thus marked ought never, according to the rules
§ Arabic orthography, to be connected with those that follow
€I]].
d
# .
tº re; š º: º; Näme. Poyer.
# ## # #
to 3 ſº > 5 -
19. ë. & & & ghain (gā'in or Gin), f
20. Cº -3. 3. 5 fa, f.
21. \-3 • 8. § $ kāf, k
22. S & K? 5 kaf, k.
23. J. J. M. J Iam, I.
24. | 20 + A meem or mim, DOl.
25. .. º or , * e
o cy * 3 noon or nān, Il
26. 5+ -> → > way, W.
27, 8 & 6, 9 hā, h.
28. Q_5 Q 5 : # yā, y.
1. ) at the beginning of a word is sounded variously,
according to the vowel-points upon it (see the paragraph
on Vowels given below); in the middle of a word it is
sounded as a long, as in * (báb), a “gate.”
2. – Sounds like b in English.
3. c. has the sound of the Spanish t, which is pro-
nounced by placing the tip of the tongue against the upper
teeth.
4. Cºy sounds like our th in thin.
5. - is usually pronounced like the English j, though
in some dialects (for example, in that of Egypt) it has the
sound of our g hard. º
6. a. sounds nearly like the German ch in ach, but it is
formed lower in the throat.
It,
is usually represented in the French and English languages
by kh, and in the German by ch. -
8. S nearly resembles in sound the English d, but, in
pronouncing it, the tip of the tongue is placed against the
teeth. It may be said to bear the same relation to our d
that the Spanish t does to our t.
9. Q has no exact equivalent in any European lan-
guage, though it resembles the sound of our th in thy. It
is often represented by dh, and sometimes by ds, dhs, or
simple d.
7. à. Sounds like the German ch in ach, doch, etc.
10. , sounds like the French or Italian r, or like rr in
the English word terror.
11. 3 has the sound of z in English.
12. Cºw sounds like our 8 in this.
13. U% is like the English sh.
14. Uc sounds nearly like the English sharp s ; but, in
pronouncing it, the teeth are not brought so nearly into
contact. It is sometimes represented by ss, or by 2.
15. O'o has no equivalent in any European language. It
is variously represented by dz, dh, dal, and ds.
16. -- is in sound nearly like the English t, but is pro-
nounced somewhat harder. It is commonly represented
by tor tt, and often, especially by German writers, by th|
I7. → somewhat resembles Uº. in sound. It cannot be
represented by any English letter or combination of letters.
18.
It nearly corresponds to the Hebrew y. In the hiatus pro-
duced in uttering 3–3 in quick succession, we make a
sound similar to the Arabic aim, but the latter is formed
lower in the throat. -
Thas no exact equivalent in any European tongue.
19. A has no equivalent in English. It bears nearly the
same relation to hard g that kh does to k. It is sometimes
represented by g, but more frequently by gh, especially by
French and English writers.
f These letters have in sound nothing like them in English.
3 Written, also, 3.
| In such cases th is not intended to indicate a sound like th
# º or the Greek 6, but rather one similar to that of the
indoo th:
ARABIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
199
20. US has the sound of our f.
º
21. Q-3 is similar to our k, but is formed lower in the
throat. It is sometimes represented by k (with a dot
under it), and sometimes by q.
22. 5 in sound is exactly like our k.
23. J is like the English l.
24. It is pronounced like our m.
25. Cy is in sound like the English n.
26. 2, as a vowel, is equivalent to Óð or à ; as a con-
sonant, it sounds like the English w or v.
27. 8 sounds like our h; when final, it is nearly silent.
28. Us, as a vowel, sounds like ee (or ?), in which case a
kasra is implied or expressed; as a consonant, like y. In
the middle of a word the sound of Ug may be doubled by
means of the tashdeed, which, in writing, is often omitted.
Preceded by fatha (see Vowels below), this letter assumes
the sound of our long i, and is represented by ai.
ſº All the foregoing characters are regarded by Arab
grammarians as consonants. Alif has been compared to
the soft breathing (spiritus lenis) of the Greeks; Ain is a
similar breathing, though the place of its formation is
Iower in the throat. -
"WOWELS.
29. In Arabic the true vowels are three. They are called
—1. Fat'ha (a^*); 2. Kas'ra (i, sometimes é); and 3. Dham-
ma (oo or w f). Fatha is written over the consonant to
which it belongs, thus—; kasra is placed beneath its con-
sonant, thus—; dhamma (which is in fact a minute 5) is
written over its consonant, thus 2. These vowels are
always joined to the consonant which in pronunciation
they follow : thus, in f : (kālām), a “reed” or “pen,” the
first fatha is considered to belong to the kâf, over which it
is placed, the second to the lăm (not to the meem which
comes after it); and so in all similar cases: it necessarily
follows that no vowel can stand by itself.i. Hence, if we
wish to write an initial short fatha, it must be associated
A e 9 z
either with alif or aim, as UN-) (ihād), a “unit,” sºc
(āfā), “forgiveness.” If we would write a short initial
kasra or dhamma, we must begin the word in the same
manner: e. g., cº (íb'n), a “son,” clºs (íbād), “ser-
* A. *
vants,” Gº (uf or ööf), “fie!” 3.4 (ubăr or ööböör), a
“passage” or “crossing.”
30. If any one of the simple vowels is joined to an ordinary
consonant, or to an initial alifor aim, it is generally short,
as will be seen from the foregoing examples; but if in any
syllable not initial they are joined with any of the (so-
called) consonants (alif, aim, waw, etc.) to which they mat-
urally correspond, they become long: thus, fatha with
alīf or ain gives us the sound of 6, as -č (bāb), a “gate,”
LXx: (bād or bá-ad), “after;” so kasra with yá gives the
sound of (or ee), as cy” (seen or sin), the name of the
letter U"; so also dhamma with wavo gives the sound of a
or Öſ, as c .9 • (nàn or nåån), the name of the letter (*): It
should be observed that the fatha or dhamma is not written
on the alifor wav, nor the kasra wnder the yá, but is joined
to the previous consonant, the semi-consonants coming
after, for the sole purpose, it would seem, of prolonging
the vowel. 3 In order to indicate the sound of 6 at the
beginning of a word, it is usual to place a circumflex over
the alif-thus, t. The initial long i (; or ee) is represented
by 2), and long'w (à or 66) by >).
The vowels are usually omitted in Arabic manuscripts,
and they are scarcely needed by the native Arabs, who are
already familiar with the language; but they are of the
utmost importance to foreigners in iearniiig Arabic. The
i. ºften represented by e, and sometimes (in English) by w
SIl Ort.
Often represented by 0, as in the name of Mohammed.
. It may be remarked as an apparent exception to this rule
that Ibn, “son,” is often written simply •y? (bm); but this is
usually to be considered as an abbreviation for 1. *", though ben
or bin is not unfrequently used instead of the longer form ibº.
The long vowels in Arabic are to be pronounced very full
and long, especially the long a, which is not only longer, but
somewhat broader, than our a in jar.
same may be said of the jāzm or jëzm (°), a mark placed
upon a consonant to show that it has no vowel following
it, as J. 3) (āzrāk, “blue,” which without the jāzm might
be pronounced āzārāk), and the tashdeed or tashdïd (0),
placed on a consonant to show that it is to be doubled in
pronunciation; as Jºsé (Mohammed).
It is proper to observe that when the Arabic article al or
el is followed by certain letters, the sound of the l is changed
to that of the letter following; thus, el-Deen becomes ed-
Deen j el-Dowlah, ed-Dowlah ; al-Rahman or el-Rahman,
ar-Rahman or er-Rahman ; al-Temeemee, at-Temeemee :
and so on. -
The Arabic characters are supposed to have been derived
from the Syriac, and to have been introduced into Arabia
by Christian missionaries before the time of Mohammed.
The oldest form is called the Cuſic (or Kufic), from Koofa,
a town in the Euphrates, where it is said the transcription
of the Koran was extensively carried on. These characters
were extremely rude and coarse, and, being only sixteen in
number, could but very imperfectly represent the twenty-
eight consonant sounds of the Arabic tongue. In the
tenth century they were replaced by the meshki characters,
as they are called, which are still in use. At present the
Cufic letters are scarcely to be met with, except in ancient
inscriptions or in the books of antiquarians.
Of the Arabic tongue there are two principal dialects—
namely, the northern or prevailing dialect, in which the
Koran is written, and the southern, which included the
Himyaritic, originally spoken in Yemen and the extreme
southern portion of Arabia. The Himyaritic (a term de-
rived from Himyar, an ancient king of Yemen) is supposed
to have been the basis of the Ethiopian language.
The Arabic is one of the most extensively diffused lan-
guages in the world. It not only prevails in Arabia, in
Syria, and in a part of Mesopotamia, but it is spoken in its
various dialects (which are more or less corrupted) through-
out a large part of Northern Africa, from the shores of the
Atlantic to the Red Sea. The language is spoken with
much purity in Egypt, which, since its conquest during
the caliphate of Omār, in 640 A.D., has been one of the
principal centres of Arabian culture. From about the
ninth to the twelfth or thirteenth century it was the pre-
vailing tongue of a large part of the Spanish Peninsula,
and its traces are still seen not merely in many of the
names, but in the language, of Spain at the present day. .
ARABIAN LITERATURE is very rich, especially in poetry
and other productions of the imagination. Even before the
time of Mohammed, the Arabs had celebrated poets, who
sang the praises of heroes and the charms of beautiful
women. During the great fairs at Mecca poetic contests
were held in much the same manner as at the games of
ancient Greece, and the poems which received the prizes
were, it is said, written out in golden characters, and sus-
pended in the Kaaba (Caaba) at Mecca, the famous temple
which was said to have been built by Ishmael. From
this circumstance they are called Mo'allakat (colº)
—that is, “suspended.”
Among the Arabian poets, Mohammed is admitted to
hold, beyond all comparison, the highest place. His fol-
lowers were wont to refer their opponents to the sublimity
and beauty of the Koran as an unanswerable proof that its
author was divinely inspired.
It may be said that, with perhaps the exception of Mo-
hammed, the Arabs have had no poet of the highest class,
nor have they produced any great epic, or any drama
worthy of the name. It is in lyric and romantic composi-
tion that they most excel.
There is one kind of poetical fiction, called “Assemblies”
(Arab. Makämät cºlº), which may be said to be pe-
culiar to Arabic literature. The “Assemblies” may be re-
garded as the first step towards dramatic composition. The
author of this species of writing was Hamadānee (or Al-
Hamadānee), who flourished towards the close of the tenth
century. He imagined a witty and unscrupulous impro-
viser wandering from place to place, and living on the
presents which the display of his marvellous talents pro-
cured from his hearers, and a narrator, or story-teller, who
should be continually meeting with the other, should relate
his adventures and repeat his excellent improvisations. He
gave to these compositions the name of “Assemblies,” be-
cause the improviser was always introduced as making his
appearance in some company or assembly of strangers,
where the narrator also happens to be, and is sure to be
greatly astonished at the tricks, wit, and genius of the
other, which he afterwards relates in his own language, and
these relations constitute the “Assemblies” as they are
presented to us. Of this species of composition the “As-
semblies” of Hareeree (Hariri) furnishes, perhaps, the best
200
ARABIAN NIGHTs—ARABICI.
specimen. Hareeree is regarded by the Arabs as a con-
summate master of diction, and the highest authority in
the use of language. “For more than seven centuries,”
says a recent writer, “his work (the ‘Assemblies’) has been
esteemed as, next to the Koran, the chief treasure of the
Arabic tongue. Contemporaries and posterity have vied
in their praises of him. His ‘Assemblies’ have been com-
mented on with infinite learning and labor in Andalusia, and
on the banks of the Oxus.” (See Introduction to the “As-
semblies of Al-Hariri,” translated by T. CHENERY, London,
1867.)
In romance especially the Arabs may be said to excel.
Among the works of this class we may name the “Feats
of Antar,” the stories or fables of Ibn Arabshāh, etc.
But perhaps the most universally popular, not merely of
Arabian fiction, but of all fiction of which we have any
knowledge, is the famous collection of tales known as the
“ARABIAN NIGHTS’ (which see).
In philosophy, mathematics, history, geography, medi-
cine, and physics, the Arabs, during the period of their
power, rendered important services to science and civiliza-
tion ; the Arabic terms still found in the language of sci-
ence, such as alcohol, algebra, almanac, azimuth, madin,
zenith, etc., sufficiently attest their influence on the early
intellectual culture of Europe. During the period known
as the Dark Ages the scientific works of Aristotle and other
Greek philosophers were translated for the most part by
Christian scholars, who resided as physicians at the courts
of the califs in great numbers. These works were dili-
gently studied in the Mohammedan capitals of Bagdad,
Damascus, and Córdova, and served to diffuse a knowledge
of those great writers among nations who otherwise would
have remained in utter ignorance of them and their
writings.
The most glorious period of Mohammedan culture ex-
tended from about 750 to 1200 A. D. During this period
the Abbasside califs, Haroun-al-Raschid, Motassem, and
Mamoon, reigned at Bagdad, which, under their auspices,
became a magnificent centre of science, letters, and the
arts. In the far East, Mahmood of Gazna (about 990–1030),
though a sanguinary conqueror, was ambitious of the dis-
tinction of a patron of literature. At his court flourished
Firdousee” (Firdausi), the greatest not only of all Persian
but of all Moslem poets, Mohammed only excepted. In
Spain, under the califs of the Omeyyade dynasty, the
period of Arabian culture was not less glorious, and was
of much longer duration, than that under the Abbassides.
Al-Hakem, calif of Córdova (961–76), had, it is said, a
library of 600,000 volumes. The high reputation for learn-
ing of the Spanish Arabs is shown by the fact that some of
the best students of Christendom visited Córdova in order
to study the philosophy of Aristotle, medicine, and mathe-
matics under Arabian professors. To the Arabs we are
indebted for the preservation of many works from classical
antiquity, which without their care and zeal would in all
probability have perished during the long period of dark-
ness and semi-barbarism that followed the overthrow of the
Western Roman empire.
Among the most distinguished Arabian authors, besides
those already mentioned in this article, we may name—l.
In poetry, Khansà, a female poet contemporary with Mo-
hammed; Ibn-Doreid (838–933); Al-Mootenabbee (about
900–965); and Booseeree (or Busiri), who flourished in
Upper Egypt (about 1250). 2. In philosophy, Alchindus
flourished under the calif Mamoon (about 820); Alfarabius,
who lived at Damascus (about 950); Avicenna (980–1037),
who was even more celebrated as a physician than as a
philosopher; Averroes (about 1120–98), wrote at Córdova,
in Spain, a commentary on Aristotle, to which Dante alludes.
3. In medicine the Arabs excelled all the nations of that
period; they are commonly regarded as the earliest experi-
menters in chemistry (alchemy). Among their celebrated
physicians were Razes (or Rhazes), (870–930), who is said
to have been the first to describe the smallpox accurately;
Avicenna (Iba Sīnā), already mentioned, the most famous
of all the Arabian physicians; Averroes was also distin-
guished as a physician; Abulcasem (Abulcasis), the most
distinguished of Arabian surgeons, is supposed to have
practised in Córdova (about 1050–1110); he left a treatise
on surgery, the most valuable that has come down to us
from early times. 4. In mathematics the labors of the
Arabs were not less useful than in other branches of science,
though they cannot perhaps boast of so many famous names
* All Mohammedan culture may be considered to be in one
sense an offshoot of Greek culture. Not only was the genius of
the poetry of the modern Persians greatly modified by the in-
fluence of Islamism, but the Persian language itself includes a
very large mixture of Arabic words and phrases. This is espe-
cially remarkable with respect to some of the later poets. To
understand thoroughly the works of Saadi, for example, a very
considerable knowledge of Arabic is absolutely requisite.
as in philosophy and medicine. They contributed greatly
to simplify and improve the science of numbers by the in-
troduction of the Indian numerals, with the decimal nota-
tion. They appear to have been the first to introduce the
knowledge of algebra (which had been previously cul-
tivated by the Greeks and Hindoos) into Western Europe.
Mohammed Ibn Moosa (who flourished at Bagdad from
about 810–833) is said to have been the first of his country-
men who wrote on algebra. He also wrote on optics and
astronomy. Albategnius (Albateni), who died at Bagdad
in 929, wrote some valuable works on astronomy; Abool-
feda combined mathematics and astronomy with geography.
5. In history and geography, Masoodee, one of the first of
Arab historians, was born at Bagdad, and died at Cairo in
956. His “ Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems ” com-
prises the history, the politics, the religion, and the geog-
raphy of many Oriental and European nations. Aboolfeda
(1273–1331) has left works of great value in this and other
departments of knowledge. His “Description of the Coun-
tries” is considered the best work on geography which the
Arabian writers have bequeathed to us. Abulfaragius and
IElmacin (or Elmakin), though Christians, wrote in the
Arabic language valuable general histories. Ibn Khaldoon
(1332–1406) wrote a valuable history of the Arabs, Per-
sians, and Berbers. Makreezee flourished at Cairo (1360–
1442), and wrote some excellent historical works. Mak-
karee, or Al-Makkari (1585–1631), wrote a history of the
“Mohammedan Dynasties of Spain,” which has been trans-
lated into English by Gayangos, London, 1840.
Those who seek for a general view of Arabian literature
are referred to HAMMER-PURGSTALL’s “Encyklopädischen
Uebersicht der Wissenschaften des Orients” (Leipsic, 1804),
and his “ Literaturgeschichte der Araber” (7 vols. 4to,
1850–56); RENAN, “Averrhoes et l’Averrhoisme;” WHEw-
ELL, “History of the Inductive Sciences.”
J. THOMAS.
Arabian Nights, sometimes called The Thousand
and One Nights, the title of a collection of wild and
fanciful Oriental tales, first brought to the notice of Europe
in the latter part of the seventeenth century, by Antoine
Galland, a French Orientalist. These fascinating fictions
are probably more widely diffused and read than almost
any other production of the human mind. The origin and
author of this collection are still unknown. According to
some authorities, the “Arabian Nights” may be properly
divided into three portions, which may be respectively
traced to a Persian, an Indian, and an Arabian origin.
Throughout the entire work, however, everything appears
to be conformable to the character and customs of the
Arabian people and to the Mohammedan faith. The fact
that Haroun-al-Raschid figures in several of the stories goes
to prove that they, at least, must have been written after
his death; while the omission of any mention of coffee and
tobacco (except in tyo or three instances, where the names
are supposed to be interpolations) shows that the work
must have been composed before the introduction of those
articles into Western Asia (in the latter half of the fifteenth
century). “Many of the tales,” says Mr. Lane, referring
to this remarkable work, “are doubtless of different and
early origins, and its general plan is probably borrowed
from a much older production bearing the same title.”
After some further remarks, he states it as his opinion that
the composition in its present form was probably com-
menced in the last quarter of the fifteenth, and completed
in the first quarter of the sixteenth, century, and that the
author or authors must have been Egyptian, because the
description of Arab life as it is seen in Cairo is so minutely
accurate in all respects. But respecting the date and place
of its composition, Oriental critics are far from being agreed.
The work has been translated by W. Beaumont (1811),
Macnaghten, Scott, Torrens, E. Foster (1802), and Lane
(1839). Most of these translations were from the French.
It is noteworthy that the tales differ considerably in various
Arabic texts. Among the best translations of the “Arabian
Nights” is that of the celebrated Oriental scholar already
mentioned, Mr. Edward Lane. The translation is perhaps
unequalled for its thoroughness and accuracy, and in the
graces of style is probably not inferior to any other in our
language. The “Arabian Nights” has given rise to many
imitations, among the best of which in English is “Tales of
the Genii,” by Sir Charles Morell. J. THOMAS.
Arabian Numerals or Figures, a name given to
the characters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, which the Europeans
received through the Arabs from the Hindoos. The use of
these numerals was not general in Europe before the inven-
tion of printing.
Arabic, Gum, exudes spontaneously from the stems
of several species of acacia. (See ARABIN and GUM.)
Arab/ici (i. e. “Arabians”), an heretical sect which
arose in Arabia in the third century, the founder of which
ARABIN–ARAGO.
201
was Beryllus, bishop of Bostra. They denied Christ's di-
vinity, and believed that the soul dies, and is raised again
with the body. They were confuted by Origen.
Ar’abin, the essential principle of gum-arabic, is ob-
tained pure by adding alcohol to a solution of gum-arabic
in water. It dissolves readily in cold water, forming a
gummy solution, and is precipitated by alcohol. It appears
to be a weak acid, and to exist in the natural gum in com-
bination with lime, magnesia, and potash. Its composition,
like that of cane-sugar, is C12H22O11.
Aracan’, or Arracan [called by the natives Ra-
khaing'], a British province of Farther India, extending
along the E. side of the Bay of Bengal, and bounded on the
E. by the Burmese empire, from which it is separated by a
range of high mountains. The greatest length from N. to
S. is about 280 miles, and the area is 15,104 square miles.
The surface is diversified, and extensively covered with
forests. The chief productions are rice, tobacco, indigo,
cotton, salt, oil, ivory, hides, and timber. Aracan was con-
quered from the Burmese by the British in 1826. Chief
town, Akyab. Pop. 321,522.
Aracan, or Arracan, a town of Farther India, in the
above province, situated on the river Aracan, about 50 miles
from its entrance into the Bay of Bengal, about lat. 20°
45' N., and lon. 93° ty' E. It was formerly the capital of
the province and a populous town, but it is now much re-
duced. Pop. estimated at 10,000.
Araçaºri, or Aricari (Pteroglos'sus), a genus of birds,
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natives of tropical South America, and nearly allied to the
toucan, but generally smaller, with longer tails. The bill
of one species is white, with a blood-red stripe along the
middle. One of the most remarkable is the curl-crested
araçari, having the feathers upon its head beautifully curled.
Araca’ty, a port in the province of Ceará, Brazil, has
three churches, several schools, and a trade in hides and
cotton. It is on the river Jaguaribe; lat. 4° 31' S., lon.
37° 48' W. There is a bad bar at the river's mouth. Pop.
about 9000.
Ara'ceae [so named from Arum, one of its general, a
natural order of endogenous herbaceous plants, natives of
temperate and especially of tropical countries. The leaves
are sheathing at the base, convolute in the bud; the flowers
are naked, arranged on a spadix, which is usually enclosed
in a spathe; the male flowers at the upper part of the spa-
dix, and the female at the base. The genus Arum is the
type of this order, which is characterized by an acrid juice
and a nutritious amylaceous substance which is used for
food. The Amorphopallus is cultivated in India for its
roots (or corms), which are edible. (See ARUM.)
Arachis. See PEA-NUT.
Arach/mida, or Arach/nides [from the Gr. 3páxvn, a
“spider”], an order of articulated animals which resemble
insects in many respects, and are properly regarded as a
subdivision of that class, but they have no antennae, have
simple eyes, and generally have eight legs. Like the Crus-
tacea, they have the head and thorax united into one piece.
They are mostly carnivorous, and some of them are parasitic.
The primary divisions of this class are Araneina (spiders),
Pedipalpi (scorpions, etc.), and Acarina (ticks and imites).
Arach/noid [from the Gr. 3páxvn, a “spider,” also
“spider's web,” and eiðos, “form * or “resemblance”], re-
sembling a spider's web, applied to the second or middle
membrane of the brain. (See next article.)
Arach/noid Mem’ brane (sometimes called me/mina:
me/dia), the fine cobweb-like serous membrane situated be-
tween the dura and pia, mater. It covers both brain and
spinal cord. It is a closed sac, disposed in two layers.
Arad, a county of Hungary, is bounded on the N. by .
Bihar, on the E. by Zarand and Transylvania, on the S.
by Temes and Krasso, and on the W. by Csanad. Area,
2322 square miles. In the E. it consists of high mountain-
ranges, but the W. is a fertile plain, traversed by the White
Körös. Grain of all kinds, wine, and tobacco are produced
here in large quantities and of an excellent quality. Chief
town, Arad. Pop. in 1869, 304,713.
Arad, NEw [Hun. Uj Arad], a town of Hungary, in the
county of Temesvár, and on the left bank of the Máros.
Here is an extensive fortress, which is one of the strongest
in the Austrian empire, and is used as a prison for political
offenders. Pop. in 1869, 4960.
Arad, OLD [Hun. O Arad], an open town, capital of
the county of Arad, is on the right bank of the Máros, 35
miles E. of Szegedin. It is a bishop’s see, has a Greek the
ological seminary, a normal school, and manufactures of
tobacco, etc. It is an important cattle-market, and has a
considerable trade in grain. Pop. in 1869, 32,725.
Ar’adus [the Arvad or Arpad of the Bible], one of the
chief cities of ancient Phoenicia, was built upon the island
now called Ruad, which is small and rocky, and is situated
35 miles N. of Tripoli, and 2 miles from the main land. It
long continued to be a place of great population and im-
portance. It was supplied with water from submarine
springs. It was destroyed and depopulated by the Mos-
lems in the seventh century. Many relics of its former
greatness remain. It has still a small population.
Arafat', Mount, or Jebel-er-Rahm (i. e. the
“mountain of mercy”), a granite hill of Arabia, 15 miles
E. of Mecca, rises about 200 feet above the plain. It is
visited annually by a great multitude of Mohammedan pil-
grims, who believe that this is the place where Adam and
Eve first met after they had been expelled from Paradise
and had been separated 120 years.
Arſago, a post-village of Richardson co., Neb., on the
Missouri River, about 28 miles below Brownville. Pop. of
village, 364; of Arago township, 1245.
Arago (DoMINIQUE FRANÇois), a French astronomer
and savant, was born at Estagel, near Perpignan (Eastern
Pyrenees), Feb. 26, 1786. He entered the Polytechnic
School in 1803, and became in 1805 secretary to the bu-
reau of longitudes. In 1806, Arago and Biot were cm-
ployed by the government to perform the measurement of
an arc of the meridian from Barcelona to the Balearic
Isles, in order to complete an important operation which
Delambre and Méchain had commenced. While he was
engaged in this arduous work among the mountains, war
broke out between the French and Spaniards. Arago es-
caped from the violence of the Spaniards, who suspected
him to be a spy, but on his voyage towards home was
driven by a tempest to Algiers, where he was held as a
slave. He was finally liberated, and returned to France in
July, 1809. In consideration of his services and sufferings
he was elected a member of the Institute in 1809, although
he was under the age that the rules required. About the
same time he was appointed professor of analysis in the
Polytechnic School, where he lectured for many years. He
afterwards devoted much attention to optics, astronomy,
and magnetism. In 1812 he commenced a course of lec-
tures on astronomy, which were rendered very popular by
a brilliant style added to their other merits. Arago and
Gay-Lussac founded in 1816 the “Annales de Chimie et
de Physique.” He advocated the undulatory theory of
light, and made several discoveries in the science of elec-
tro-magnetism. For his discovery of the development of
magnetism by rotation, he received the Copley medal of
the Royal Society of London in 1825. He became in 1830
director of the Observatory of Paris and perpetual secre-
tary of the Academy of Sciences. His reputation as a
writer was increased by the eulogies which he composed
on Condorcet, Ampère, and Carnot, and other members

202
ARAGO—AIRAM.
of that academy. He displayed a remarkable faculty of
popularizing science in his writings and lectures.
Arago promoted the revolution of 1830, and was elected
in 1831 to the Chamber of Deputies, in which he acted
with the eactréme gauche, the advanced republicans. He
was a member of the provisional government formed by
the republicans in Feb., 1848, and co-operated with Lamar-
time in resistance to the socialists and in the maintenance
of order. He officiated as minister of war and the marine
for several months, and was one of the executive commit-
tee of five elected by the Assembly in May, 1848. About
this time the voters of his native department elected him
to the National Assembly. He opposed the election of
Louis Napoleon to the presidency, and refused the oath of
allegiance after the coup d’état of Dec., 1851. The em-
peror recognized his eminent services by excepting him
from the enforcement of the law on this point. Arago
died on the 2d of Oct., 1853, leaving a son, Emmanuel,
noticed below. He was a friend of Alexander von Hum-
boldt and of Faraday; was a man of a generous disposi-
tion, an ardent temperament, and great energy of cha-
racter. “The popularity of M. Arago,” says De Loménie,
“ the European reputation which he enjoys, his marked
position in politics, have all combined to attach to his
name the idea of a species of intellectual royalty.” The
same biographer attributes to him a “marvellous faculty
of illumining with unexpected radiance the most abstract
theories.” (See L. DE LoMáNIE, “Galerie des Contempo-
rains;” D. F. ARAGo, “Histoire de ma Jeunesse,” 1854;
CHARLEs RoRIN, “Biographie de D. F. Arago,” 1848; J. A.
BARRAL, “F. Arago,” 8vo, 1853; BERTRAND, “Arago et sa,
Vie Scientifique,” 1865; AUDIGANNE, “François Arago,”
1869.) WILLIAM JACOBs.
Arago (EMMANUEL), a son of the preceding, born at
Paris Aug. 2, 1812. He studied law, and gained distinc-
tion as an advocate and counsel for the defence in political
trials. Like his father, he was a keen republican, and took
an active part in the revolution of 1848. In this crisis he
was selected by the republicans to protest in the Chamber
of Deputies against the appointment of a regency. He
was sent as commissary-general to Lyons in March, was
elected to the Constituent Assembly in April, and was sent
as minister to Berlin in May, 1848. He resigned this
position in Dec., 1848, in consequence of the election as
president of Louis Napoleon, whose designs he constantly
opposed. The coup d’état of Dec., 1851, and the régime
that followed, excluded Arago from the public service. On
the formation of a provisional government by the republi-
cans in Sept., 1870, he became a member of the same. He
was elected a member of the National Assembly in 1871.
Arago (ETIENNE), a dramatic author, a brother of
the great savant, D. F. Arago, born at Estagel, near Per-
pignan, Feb. 7, 1803, produced a number of successful
comedies and vaudevilles, which exhibit a talent for satire.
Among his works is “The Aristocrats” (1847), a comedy
in verse. He fought for the popular cause in the revolu-
tion of 1830, and founded the “Reform,” a daily republi-
can journal, in 1834. He was director-general of the post-
office from Feb., 1848, until December of that year, and in
that position acted with much vigor and ability. As a
member of the National Assembly he voted with the gauche
and opposed the policy of Louis Napoleon. He was exiled
in June, 1849. After the proclamation of the republic in
Sept., 1870, he was appointed maire of Paris, which posi-
tion he held until November. In Feb., 1871, he was
elected a member of the National Assembly, but soon re-
signed on account of his age.
Arago (JACQUEs ETIENNE VICTOR), a French littérateur,
brother of the preceding, was born at Estagel Mar. 10,
1790. He accompanied the exploring expedition of Frey-
cinet, as draughtsman, in 1817, and on his return in 1821
published a “Tour round the World in the Uranie,” etc.
(2 vols., 1822). Among his works are several dramas.
Although he had become blind, he joined a party that went
to California in 1849 to dig for gold, and published “Travels
of a Blind Man in California,” etc. (1851). Died in 1855.
Arſagon, a former kingdom of Spain, bounded on the
N. by France, on the E. by Catalonia, on the S. by Valen-
cia, and on the W. by Navarre and the Castiles. Length
from N. to S., about 200 miles. Area. 17,980 square miles.
It is now divided into the provinces of Huesca, Saragossa
(Zaragoza), and Teruel. The Pyrenees, which extend
along the northern border of Aragon, rise to the height of
11,000 feet. The surface is diversified by several ranges
of mountains and many fertile and beautiful valleys. Ara-
gon is intersected by the river Ebro, which flows south-
eastward and divides it into two nearly equal parts. A
considerable portion of the soil is sterile. Among the
mineral resources of this region are copper, iron, lead, co-
balt, quicksilver, marble, stone coal, alum, and salt. Ara-
w
gon was conquered by the Moors in the eighth century.
The Christian kingdom of Aragon, founded in 1035, be-
came a powerful state, which was united with Castile by
the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Cas-
tile in 1469. The chief towns are Saragossa and Huesca.
Pop. in 1867, 925,773. (See SCHMIDT, “Geschichte Ara-
goniens im Mittelalter.”)
Arago'na, a town of the island of Sicily, in the province
of Girgenti, 8 miles N. of Girgenti. It has a ruined castle
and large sulphur-mines. Pop. in 1861, 7947.
Arſagonite, or Ar’ragonite, a variety of carbonate
of lime, first found in Aragon. It crystallizes in hexag-
onal prisms, or in crystals of which the primary forms a
rhombic prism. It resembles calcareous spar in composi-
tion, but differs from it in the form of its crystals, and is
reduced to powder by a heat in which calcareous spar re-
mains unchanged. Satin spar is a variety of aragonite.
Ara'gua, a province of Venezuela, is bounded on the N.
by Carabobo and Caracas, on the E. by Caracas, on the
S. by Guarico and Carabobo, and on the W. by Carabobo.
Area, about 3720 square miles. This province is one of the
most beautiful and fertile parts of Venezuela, and is trav-
ersed by the river Aragua, from which it takes its name,
and numerous other small rivers, which all enter Lake
Valencia. The hills and mountains are covered with plan-
tations, gardens, and country-seats. Here the strange scene
strikes the eye of wheat-fields and plantations of sugar and
coffee side by side at an elevation of 3000 feet. Chief town,
Victoria. Pop. 81,500.
Araguay', or Araguay'a, a large river of Brazil,
rises in the mountains about lat. 18° 10' S. and lon. 51°30'
W. It flows northward, forms the boundary between
Goyaz and Matto-Grosso, and after a course of 1300 miles
joins the Tocantins at São João. It is navigable for about
1100 miles. About midway from its source to its mouth it
encloses the island of Santa Anna, 210 miles long. The
stream on the E. side of this island is called Furo.
Ara’lia, a genus of plants of the order Araliaceae, na-
tives of the U. S., of the Himalaya Mountains, and other
regions. It comprises a number of species which are used
in medicine, as the ginseng, Aralia quinquefolia; Aralia
nudicaulis, called wild sarsaparilla, which grows in the
U. S.; Aralia spinosa, a native of Virginia, which is a
stimulant diaphoretic, called angelica tree or toothache
tree; and Aralia racemosa, or American spikenard, which
produces an aromatic gum-resin. Chinese rice-paper is
cut from cylinders of the pith of Aralia papyrifera.
Aralia’ceae [so called from Ara’lia, one of its general,
a natural order of exogenous plants, natives of tropical,
temperate, and cold regions in various parts of the globe.
It comprises about 160 known species (trees, shrubs, and
herbaceous plants), generally possessing stimulant or aro-
matic properties. The fruit consists of several one-seeded
cells. The leaves of several species are used as fodder for
cattle in India. One species of this order, the ivy, is a
native of England.
Ar’al, Sea of, a large inland sea or lake in Independ-
ent Tartary, is about 150 miles E. of the Caspian Sea. It
is included between lat. 43° and 47° N. Length, estimated
at 262 miles; breadth, about 184 miles. Area, 26,900
square miles. Next to the Caspian, it is the largest inland
sea, or lake of Asia. Having no outlet, it is consequently
saline or brackish. The S.W. part, called Lake Landau,
is shallow, and not more than five feet deep in the deepest
part. The Aral is fed by the large river Oxus or Amoo,
which enters the sea at its S. side: it also receives the river
Sihon or Sir-Daria from the E. The latest measurements
make it twenty-six feet above the level of the sea. Seals,
sturgeons, and other fish are found in it.
A/ram (EUGENE), an English felon, born in Yorkshire
in 1704. He had not the advantage of a liberal education,
but he acquired a good knowledge of the Latin, Greek, He-
brew, Chaldee, Arabic, and Welsh languages. He became
a schoolmaster at Knaresborough, where he was intimate
with a shoemaker named Daniel Clarke. The latter, hav-
ing purchased some goods on credit, suddenly disappeared,
leaving his debts unpaid. Aram was suspected of being an
accomplice of Clarke in an attempt to defraud. A portion
of the goods which Clarke had purchased was found in the
garden of Aram, who was tried, but acquitted, after which
he removed from Knaresborough. In 1759 a man named
Houseman having confessed that he was accessory to the
death of Clarke, whom Aram had killed, Aram was tried
for the murder, and made an elaborate argument in his
own defence, but was convicted, and afterwards confessed
his guilt. He was hung Aug. 6, 1759. His story forms
the subject of one of Bulwer's novels and of a poem by
Hood. (See SCATCHERD, “Memoirs of Eugene Aram,”
1832.)
ARAMAEA—ARAUCARIA.
203
Aramae'a [from A^ram, the son of Shem], the ancient
name of a region of Asia, the boundaries of which are not
well defined. It extended from Mount Taurus on the N.
to Arabia, on the S., and coincided nearly with the coun-
tries called by the Greeks Syria, Babylonia, and Mesopo-
tamia. The Aramaic language, a branch of the Semitic,
was divided into two forms or dialects—the Syriac or West
Aramaic, and the Chaldee or East Aramaic. The former
was the language commonly spoken by the Jews in Pales-
time at the Christian era. - -
Aran/da (Don PEDRO ABARACA DE BOLEA), Count OF,
an able Spanish statesman, born of a noble family at Sara-
gossa Dec. 21, 1718. He served many years in the army,
and rose to the rank of general. In 1765 he became presi-
dent of the council of Castile and prime minister. He used
his power to promote reform and a liberal policy, and pro-
cured the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain in 1767. In
1773 he was removed from power by the intrigues of the
clergy, but he was sent as an ambassador to France, where
he remained until 1787. He was again prime minister for
a short time in 1792, and was driven from power by Godoy.
He died in 1799.
Aranjuez' (anc. A'ra Jo’vis, i. e. “altar of Jupiter”), a
town and royal residence of Spain, in New Castile, on the
left bank of the Tagus, 30% miles by rail S. S. E. of Madrid.
It is situated in a beautiful valley, has spacious streets,
elegant squares, and a royal palace and gardens laid out
by Philip II. Here are also a theatre, a hospital, and sev-
eral summer-houses in the royal gardens. Aranjuez was
the scene of the abdication of Charles. IV. in Mar., 1808.
Pop. 10,725.
Aran’sas, a small river of Southern Texas, rises in Bee
county, flows south-eastward and enters Aransas Bay.
Aransas, a post-village of Bee co., Tex.
Aransas, a village of Refugio co., Tex., on the inside
of St. Joseph’s Island and on Aransas Bay. It has a gov-
ernment warehouse.
Aransas Pass, the principal inlet to Aransas Bay
and Corpus Christi Bay, Tex., between St. Joseph and Mus-
tang islands. It is becoming commercially important, but
has a troublesome shifting bar. The lighthouse is of brick,
forty feet high, and stands on Low Island, inside the pass;
lat. 27° 51' 51" N., lon. 97° 2'58" W. The Confederate
works at this pass were captured by the Federal troops,
with 100 prisoners and some guns, Nov. 20, 1864.
Arany (JANOs), a popular Hungarian poet, born at
Nagy-Salonta in 1817, became in 1851 professor at Nagy-
Körös, in 1859 member of the Hungarian Academy, and
in 1860 director of the Kisfaludy Society at Pesth. His
first work was a humorous poem called “The Lost Con-
stitution of the Past?” ğ. which gained a prize. He
afterwards produced poems entitled “Toldi” (1847), “The
Conquest of Murány’” (1848), “ Catherine” (“Katalin,”
1850), and “Buda Halála,” the first part of an epic trilogy,
which in 1864 was crowned by the Hungarian Academy.
Arap’ahoe, a county in the N. E. part of Colorado.
Area, estimated at 4500 square miles. It is drained by the
South Fork of Platte River, and by Beaver, Bijou, and
Terrapin Creeks. The eastern part is a plain, and the
western part is hilly or mountainous. Irrigation renders
the soil extremely productive. Wheat, corn, oats, butter,
and live-stock are extensively raised. Large quantities of
gold have been found near the western border. This county
is partly intersected by the Kansas Pacific R. R. and the
Denver Pacific R. R., which connect at Denver, the county-
seat. Pop. 6829.
Arapahoe, a new county of Southern Nebraska, bounded
on the N. by the Platte River.
Arapahoe Indians, a tribe of savages who live be-
tween the South Fork of the Platte River and the head-
waters of the Arkansas. They are associated with the
Cheyennes. The two tribes together numbered nearly
4000 in 1870.
Arapai'ma, a genus of fresh-water fishes found in the
rivers of South America, and highly esteemed for food.
They are the largest fresh-water fishes in the world, and
are allied to the Clupeidae or herring family. Some of them
measure about fifteen feet long, and weigh 400 pounds or
º The body. is covered with strong, bony, compound
SC3,16S.
Ar’arat, a celebrated mountain of Western Asia, rises
from the plain of the Aras (or Araxes) about 33 miles S. W.
of Erivan. It is called by the Persians Koh-i-Nooh,
“Mountain of Noah.” It is on the boundary between
Persia, Asiatic Turkey, and the Russian possessions. The
highest peak is in lat. 39°42' N. and ſon. 43° 38' E., is
covered with perpetual snow, and has an altitude of 16,915
feet above the level of the sea, or 14,200 feet above the
plain of the Aras. It is a volcano, the last eruption of
which occurred in July, 1840.
Ararat, LITTLE, a peak which is S. E. of the preced-
ing, and rises in the form of a cone to the height of about
13,700 feet above the level of the sea. The summits of
these two mountains are seven miles apart in a direct line,
but their bases are nearly in contact. According to the
eighth chapter of Genesis, the ark rested “upon the moun-
tains of Ararat.”
Ararat, or Pilot Mountain, a hill in Surrey co.,
N. C., between the Ararat and Dan rivers, is 3000 feet
high. It is visible at a distance, and serves as a land-
mark to travellers.
Ararat, a township of Susquehanna co., Pa. P. 771.
Arari'pe, Ser/ra de, a table-land or chain of moun-
tains in Brazil. It forms a semicircle around the plain in
which Crato is situated, and is near the boundary between
Ceara and Pernambuco.
Aras' (the ancient Araac'es), a river of Western Asia,
rises in the Turkish pashalic of Erzrum. It flows east-
ward, passes near the northern foot of Mount Ararat, and
traverses the Persian province of Adzerbijan. It after-
wards turns towards the N. E., and enters Georgia or the
Russian dominions, and unites with the river Kur about
60 miles from its entrance into the Caspian Sea. Its whole
length is about 500 miles. -
Ara’tus ["Aparos], an eminent. Greek poet and astrom-
omer, born at Soli, in Cilicia, flourished about 290–260
B. C. He was patronized by Antigonus Gonatas, king of
Macedonia, at whose court he passed his latter years. He
wrote an astronomical poem entitled “Phenomena,” which
is the oldest extant poem on that subject, and was much
admired by the ancients. It was translated into Latin by
Cicero, and was the subject of a commentary by Hippar-
chus. He is supposed to be the poet quoted by St. Paul in
a discourse to the Athenians. (See Acts xvii. 28.), Aratus
also wrote a poem on the weather, called “Diosemeia,” or
“Prognostica.” A good edition of his poems was pub-
lished by Buhle, 1793–1801.
Ara’tus of Sic’yon, a celebrated Greek general and
statesman, born at Sicyon in 271 B. C., was a son of
Clinias, who was assassinated about 264. Aratus then es-
caped to Argos, where he was liberally educated. In 251
B. C., with the aid of other exiles, he liberated Sicyon
from the tyrant Nicocles, and united it with the Achaean
League, of which he was chosen general (strategos) in
245. An important object of the league was to maintain
the independence of the Greek states against the king of
Macedonia. He expelled a Macedonian garrison from
Corinth in 243 B. C., was many times re-elected general-
in-chief, and managed the affairs of the league with much
ability. About 226 the league was involved in a war
against Cleomenes, king of Sparta, who defeated Aratus
in several battles. Aratus formed in 222 an alliance with
Antigonus of Macedon against the Spartans. He died in
213 B. C., leaving the reputation of a true patriot. (See
PLUTARCH, “Life of Aratus;” Poly BIUs, “History.”)
Arauca/nia, or Arauca'na, an independent state
in the S. part of Chili, is bounded on the E. by the Andes
and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. It extends from the
river Bio-Bio on the N. to Valdivia, or to lat. 40° S., being
about 190 miles long. The physical features, climate, and
productions are similar to those of Chili. The Araucanians
are remarkable for their independent spirit and their sue-
cessful resistance to foreign domination. The Spaniards
made an unsuccessful attempt to subdue them in 1537 and
at several subsequent periods. On this subject Ercilla, a
Spaniard, wrote a celebrated epic poem called “Araucana.”
It is said that they possess many noble qualities, and cul-
tivate poetry, but abhor the restraints of civilization.
They recognize a Supreme Being and a future state, but
build no temples. The government is administered by four
hereditary toquis, each of whom rules over one of the prov-
inces into which their country is divided. The most im-
portant national questions are decided by the grand coun-
oil composed of these toquis, or by a general assembly. In
1860, a French lawyer, De Tonnens, who had gained con-
siderable influence among the Araucanians, proclaimed
himself, under the name of Orélie Antoine I., constitu-
tional king of Araucania. He was in 1861 taken prisoner
by the Chilians and sent back to France. In the treaty of
Jan. 22, 1870, the Araucanians promised to recognize the
authority of Chili, but subsequently King Orélie once more
made his appearance in Araucania and defied the Chilian
troops. In 1873 financial agents of Qrélie made great
efforts to effect a loan in London. (See MoLINA, “History
of Chili;” Edward R. SMITH, “The Araucanians,” etc.,
New York, 1855.)
Arauca’ria [said to be derived from ARAUCANIA (which
204
ARAUCO—ARBORICULTURE.
see)], a genus of plants of the natural order Coniferae, na-
tives of South America. They are all evergreen trees, and
are distinguished by having the male and female flowers
on separate trees, the pollen contained in from ten to twenty
cases pendent from the apex of each scale, the female
flowers two under each scale, each having one ovule. The
Arawcaria imbricata, or Chili pine, a native of the Chilian
Andes, attains the height of 150 feet, and produces a seed
which is an important article of food; also a fragrant resin
in abundance. The timber is hard, heavy, and suitable
for the masts of ships. This tree is cultivated as an orna-
ment of landscapes. The Norfolk Island pine, which is
about 200 feet high, was formerly called Araucaria, but
botanists now include it in the genus Altingia or Eutassa.
Arau'co, a province of Chili, is bounded on the N. by
Concepcion, on the E. by the Andes, on the S. by Valdivia,
and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. Area, 13,714 square
miles. The soil is fertile, but as the ground is covered for
a large part by forests, agriculture has made very little
progress. The chief article of export is timber. Chief
town, Arauco. Pop. in 1870, 87,677.
Arau'jo d’Azeve’do (ANTONIO), Count DA BARCA, a
Portuguese statesman, born at Ponte de Lima, May 14,
1754. He negotiated at Paris, and signed, a treaty of
peace with France in 1797, but the French Directory an-
nulled it. He became minister of foreign affairs in 1806.
After Napoleon had invaded Portugal and captured Lis-
bon, Araujo accompanied the king, John VI., to Brazil in
1808. He was appointed minister of marine in 1814, and
in 1817 sole minister. He was a man of various accom-
plishments; he wrote poetry and gained distinction by his
scientific attainments. Died June 21, 1817.
Araujo Por/to-Alle’sre, de (MANOEL), one of the
most prominent poets of Brazil, was born at Rio Pardo in
1806. He was appointed in 1859 consul-general for Brazil
to Prussia. His principal works are an epic entitled “Co-
lombo,” and lyric poems called “Brasilianas.”
Aravul’Ii, or Aravali, a mountain-range of Hin-
dostan, traverses Ajmeer, and is about 300 miles long. The
highest summits are about 5000 feet above the level of the
sea. It constitutes the watershed between the Arabian Sea,
and the system of the Ganges. The general direction of
the range is N. N.E. and S. S. W.
Ar’baces [Gr. 'Apgákms], a Median general who revolted
against Sardanapalus, captured Nineveh, his capital, and
on the ruins of the Assyrian empire founded the kingdom
of Media, about 876 B. C.
Ar’balest, or Arbalast [Lat. arcwballis’ta, from ar'-
cus, a “bow,” and ballis/ta, “an engine for shooting ;” Fr.
arbalète], a name of the crossbow, which was much used
in the battles of the Middle Ages. It was sometimes made
of steel. The arrow or other missile was placed in a barrel
or groove which was perpendicular to the cord or bowstring.
The arrow discharged by these bows was called a quarrel.
Arbe'la, now Arbeel (Arbil or Erbil), a small town
of Asiatic Turkey, in Koordistān, about 40 miles E. of
Mosul. The modern town has some large mosques and ba-
zaars. Arbela, gave its name to the battle in which Darius
was finally defeated by Alexander the Great, in 331 B. C.,
but it was fought at Gaugamela. Pop. about 6000.
Arbela, a township of Tuscola co., Mich. Pop. 870.
Ar’biter [a Latin word signifying “ umpire’], a person
chosen by parties in a controversy to decide a question;
sometimes applied to a person who has the power of judg-
ing and determining, or who is able to control the destiny
of others. Some cases among the ancient Romans were de-
cided by an arbiter, especially when the parties differed in
respect to the amount of money which one of them should
pay to the other. --
Arbitra’tion [from the Lat. arbitror, to “act as judge”
(arbiter)], a submission of some matter in dispute to the
judgment and decision of a person called an “arbitrator.”
It applies to civil cases only, and may be either oral or
written. It is voluntary in its nature, as any party has a
legal right to have an adjudication upon his case by a court
of justice. Statute law sometimes makes arbitration com-
pulsory, as where the investigation of a long account is
necessary. Even after parties have agreed to submit a
controversy to arbitration, one of them may withdraw his
consent against the will of the other at any time before the
hearing is closed. The only remedy of the other party is to
bring an action for damages, which would usually be nom-
inal. However, when parties enter into a contract, they
may stipulate that no rights of action shall accrue under
its provisions unless there is a submission on their part to
arbitration; in which case the duty to submit becomes a
condition precedent, and cannot be avoided. The result
of the arbitration is termed an award. It is not, however,
equivalent to a judgment of a court, and if not performed
the regular course of the successful party would be to
bring an action upon the award, and thus make it a
judgment of a court. To avoid this inconvenience, stat-
ute law frequently provides that on reducing the submis-
Sion to writing a clause may be inserted that the award
may be entered on the records of a specified court as a
judgment, whereupon it shall have the like force and effect.
Having the characteristics of a judgment, the award falls
under the control of the court, and modes are provided by
which mistakes and errors may be rectified by judicial
action. As a general rule, there is no review of the result
of an arbitration. There are no methods of appeal pro-
vided, as the theory of the proceeding is that the arbitrator
is to be the judge of the difference between the parties.
This rule does not prevent the rectification of mistakes in
matters of fact, nor does it include the case of fraud or
the violation of the first principles of justice; as, for ex-
ample, the act of hearing one party, and not the other.
Arbois, a town of France, department of Jura, about
25 miles S. W. of Besançon. It is celebrated for its wine,
and has manufactures of paper and earthenware. Here
are some Roman antiquities. Pop. in 1866, 5895.
Arbol-a-brea, the resin of Canarium album (an amy-
ridaceous tree), from the Philippine Islands. Baup (Ann.
Ch. Phys. [3], xxxi., 108) obtained several distinct princi-
ples from it.
Arborſiculture [from the Lat. ar’bor, a “tree,” and cul-
tw'ra, “culture” or “cultivation”], the art of cultivating trees,
includes the raising of plantations of forest trees for timber
and fuel, and ornamental trees for landscape gardening; but
the culture of fruit trees is commonly assigned to a separate
head, or to horticulture and pomology. Arboriculture is
becoming an art of increasing necessity in the U. S., as the
native forests are rapidly disappearing by the consumption
of wood for building, manufactures, railway structures, and
many other purposes. -
Its Importance.—Though at the present time the timber
crop is more important than any other product of the land,
yet little attention is paid to it by land-owners. We have
extended treatises on the management of wheat, corn, and
other grain crops, on the best systems of rotation, and on
the many details of farm management, but little is said on
tree-planting; and not one farmer in a thousand sufficiently
appreciates the importance of growing young timber on an
extensive scale to supply the deficiency which will soon be
felt everywhere as our native woodlands are rapidly cut
away. An approximate statement of the amount of con-
sumption may serve to show the absolute necessity of urging
the importance of arboriculture on the attention of land-
owners at large. In the State of New York alone about
1,500,000 acres are cleared of timber in ten years; and in
the U. S. about 3,000,000 yearly, or 30,000,000 acres in ten
years, are stripped of their trees. Of the wood thus obtained,
about 6,000,000 cords are consumed annually for rail-
road fuel; and over fifty million dollars’ worth of ties has
been used in the construction of the railroads of the Union.
The wood value of freight and passenger cars is over sev-
enty million dollars, and of wooden bridges fifty million
dollars. More than one hundred million dollars’ worth of
sawed lumber is annually used for shipbuilding, cooperage,
and the vast number of manufactures wherein this material
is extensively employed. The wood used as fuel cannot be
less than twenty-five million cords per annum. Such facts
as these naturally suggest the same thoughts that were ut-
tered three hundred years ago by the illustrious and far-
seeing Bernard Palissy, when expressing “his indignation
at the folly of men in destroying woods.” He adds, “I
cannot enough detest this thing, and I call it not an error,
but a curse and calamity to all France; for when the forests
shall be cut, all arts shall cease, and they who practise them
shall be driven out to eat grass with Nebuchadnezzar and
the beasts of the field. I have divers times thought to set
down in writing the arts which shall perish when there
shall be no more wood, but when I had written down a
great number, I did perceive that there could be no end to
my writing, and having diligently considered, I found that
there was not any that could be followed without wood.”
Forming Wood-plantations.—But we cannot ask land-
owners to keep their old woods untouched. They cannot
afford to hold a large amount of dead capital in the shape
of the original forests. But new timber should be carefully
restored as fast as the old is cut away. It is more econom-
ical to renew a dense growth of young wood, and to clear
it off frequently, or once in about twenty years, than to
allow the trees to grow a hundred and fifty years. The land
will in the former case yield five or six times as great a
quantity as in the latter. There are two modes of renewal.
One is to clear away the old trees entirely, and to allow the
new growth to spring up spontaneously or from the closely-
cut stumps; and the other is to make new plantations
on well-cultivated land. The value of the new growth
AIRBOR VITAE–ARBFOATH.
205
from the renewal of old trees depends much upon its cha-
racter and denseness. To secure a good start, the old trees
should be entirely cleared away, and not, as is too often the
case, merely thinned out, leaving the middle growth stand-
ing, for the few scattered trees of medium size which remain
will shade and greatly retard everything below them.
Every farmer knows that no young crop can flourish under
the shade of thin woods. Young trees require the same
advantages of air and sunshine as Indian corn, and shaded
trees grow only one-fourth or fifth as fast as those under
full exposure. To induce free sprouting from the stumps
the old trees must be cut away in autumn, winter, or early
spring, and not while growing or in full leaf.
Thinning.—The young plantations having been started a
few years (cattle being carefully excluded), the first work is
thinning. If this is not attended to, trees will crowd and
enfeeble each other. The first thinning may be done when
the trees are large enough for hoop-poles. The more crooked
and feeble growth may be cut out, leaving the best and
straightest at as uniform distances as practicable. If the
plantation is a fine one, the hoop-poles will more than pay
the interest on the land, if not afford a handsome revenue.
The first thinning may leave the trees about four feet apart,
and should never be so severe that the shade and fallen
leaves will not prevent the growth of grass—the leaves
mulching the surface. It will be found more convenient,
when the growth is abundant enough, to leave the thinned
trees as nearly as practicable in straight lines, to allow the
free passage of wagons for drawing out the timber. A
good approximate rule for distance in successive thinnings,
as the trees become larger, is to allow a height of two or
three times as great as the distance asunder. If too much
sunlight is let in, the growth of side-limbs will render the
timber knotty; if too little light is admitted, the trees will
be feeble and slender. Experiments show that thinning
not only increases the amount of wood grown in a given
time, but renders it more valuable and free from defects.
A well-managed wood-plantation, on fertile soil, will yield
an amount of wood equal to forty cords per acre if cut
every twenty years, or two cords per acre annually. -
Raising trees from seed, although attended with more
labor and care at first, gives more perfect and profitable
º in the end. The land must be well prepared
y ploughing, as for corn or other farm-crops. The seed
may be planted in drills or in hills, like corn, and the
young trees kept well cultivated a few years, till large
enough to shade the ground. If the seeds are of free-grow-
ing kinds, the hills may alternate the first year with hills of
corn ; or if in drills, the corn and trees may be in alter-
mate rows. Such large seeds as those of the chestnut, black
walnut, hickory, and oak may be planted in this way, if
the seeds have been properly kept through winter. To
ensure evenness, a surplus of seed should be used, and
the supernumerary plants afterwards thinned out. The
smaller and more delicate kinds of seeds should be planted
in seed-beds of fine mould, and covered by sifting it over
them, and the trees transplanted into rows when they have
attained a few feet in height. The depth for covering all
these seeds may be nearly determined by observing the gen-
eral rule (liable to slight exceptions) of burying them at a
depth of about three times, and never more than five times,
their diameter. At a much greater depth few of the young
plants will find their way to the surface, and in most ger-
mination will be prevented. The only objection to planting
very shallow is the want of sufficient moisture to sprout the
seeds. Young evergreen seedlings, in addition to the care
here prescribed, will require a partial shading through most
of the first summer, gradually removing it to harden the
young plants. With the larger seeds which have a horny
covering—such, for instance, as the chestnut and horse-
chestnut—entire failure to germinate commonly results
from permitting this covering to become dried and imper-
vious to moisture; and the only way, therefore, to ensure
success is to plant them soon after the seeds' ripen, or to
keep them from drying by packing in moist sand or pul-
verized moss. It is for this reason that experiments in
planting chestnuts which are bought in market nearly al-
ways fail. -
Transplanting young trees from seed-beds, after they
have been once removed to nursery-rows, is extensively.
adopted in Britain and other parts of Europe for obtaining
woodlands. Setting them out when not more than three or
four feet high is attended with less labor, less check in
growth, and more certainty of all the trees surviving, than
if taken at a greater size. Setting out very large trees is
never profitable for any purpose. Much more depends
on a good deep soil and thorough after-culture for a few
years. The great arboriculturist Loudon confidently af-
firmed that he could show larger, finer, and more luxuriant
trees in five years by setting those of moderate size in
deeply-trenched ground, and giving them constant cultiva-
tion, than could be obtained in a shorter period by the re-
moval of larger ones—an assertion that was corroborated
by the experiments of Sir Henry Stewart in the moist cli-
mate of Scotland, where he formed in a single year a land-
scape garden of large trees set out at great expense, these
trees never entirely recovering from the sickly appearance
which their removal gave them.
Woodland belts, for protection against winds, are found
of much utility and value, both in the Eastern States and
on the vast plains of the West. Where the face of the
country has become denuded, and wintry winds and sum-
mer storms sweep farms with more fury than formerly, belts
of this character are found to protect young crops and to
increase the product of the land. Young plants of grass
and winter grain, after heaving by frost, are beaten about
and sometimes torn out by the action of the winds on the
bare surface. Grain-crops and meadows are prostrated by
tempests. We are informed by landowners who have planted
screens of evergreens that in some instances the increase of
crops raised within the range of their protection, and out
of their immediate shade, has amounted to fifty per cent.
greater than with entire exposure. Belts of timber a few
rods in width, traversing farms fully exposed to winds, are
therefore profitable in two ways: First, by the increased
amount of the crops; and secondly, by the timber perpetu-
ally furnished by these belts. They should be placed at in-
tervals of from sixty to eighty rods. Where rising land faces
prevailing winds they should be nearer; but where it falls,
they may be more remote. If the belts are evergreen, a
rod wide will be sufficient; if deciduous, they should be
three or four rods, or more. When cut, one half in breadth
may be taken at a time. Or the belts may be planted
thirty or forty rods apart, and alternate ones removed for
timber. By selecting thrifty growers, such as the Norway
spruce (evergreen) and the Scotch larch (deciduous), a
growth of from twenty-five to thirty feet may be reached in
about ten years, if the young trees are well cultivated at
first, and fifty feet in twenty-five years. If planted closely,
they will spread less and will shoot up higher than if thin
and scattered. The profits of timber plantations must be-
come greater each year as the forests of the country are
consumed. For ordinary fuel alone, the two cords per acre
which may be yearly obtained would be a constant revenue
of ten dollars in many portions of the country; and when
good timber trees are raised, which may be employed in
the innumerable manufactures of tools and machinery, for
cooperage, ships, buildings, carriages, and cabinet-work,
the annual revenue would be several times greater.
If the planting of the timber-belts already described
were generally adopted throughout the country, they would
occupy about one twenty-fifth part of the two hundred mil-
lion improved acres of the Union; would possess a money
value when grown of at least $800,000,000, afford a yearly
revenue in wood and timber of more than $80,000,000, and
render the land they shelter more valuable than before.
But it is not merely the pecuniary profit that should in-
duce our people generally to raise trees. The improved and
polished appearance which ornamental trees would give the
country at large, if planted along roadsides and on the
lawns of farm-residents, would increase the attractions of
country life and make their homes more desirable to young
people. The moral influences of tree-planting would in this
way become an important agency for improving the charac-
ter of the people. (For means of accelerating the growth
of young ornamental trees, see G. P. MARSH's “Man and
Nature,” p. 320, note.) JoHN J. THOMAs.
Ar’bor Viſta (literally the “tree of life”), a term ap-
plied to the thick mass of white substance in either hem-
isphere of the cerebellum. This mass, when cut parallel
to the median line, presents a tree-like appearance.
Arbor Vitae [see preceding article], (Thw'ya), a genus
of plants of the natural order Coniferae, consisting of ever-
green trees or shrubs, with compressed or flattened branch-
lets, and small, scale-like, and imbricated leaves. The
Thuya occidentalis is a native of the U.S., and is often
planted as an ornamental tree in the parks and pleasure-
grounds of America and Europe. It is one of the trees
known as white cedar. The Chinese arbor vitae (Thuya
orientalis), a native of China, has larger strobiles and more
upright branches than the preceding. . It is cultivated in
Europe and the U. S. as an ornamental tree, and produces
a resin which has been supposed to possess medicinal vir-
tues. The genus comprises several other species.
Ar"broath, Ab/erbroth/wick, or Ab’erbroth’-
ock, a seaport-town of Scotland, in Forfarshire, at the
mouth of a small stream called the Brothock, 16 miles N. E.
of Dundee, with which it is connected by railway. It has
a public library, and manufactures of coarse linens, canvas,
leather, etc. About 100 vessels (tonnage 13,896) belong to
this port. Here are picturesque ruins of a richly-endowed
206
ARBUCKLE-ARCANUM.
abbey, founded by William the Lion in 1178. Robert Bruce
and the Scottish nobles met in this abbey in 1320 to or-
ganize a resistance to Edward II. Pop. of the municipal
burgh in 1861, 8500; of the parliamentary burgh, 17,591;
of the parliamentary burgh in 1871, 19,974.
Ar"buckle, a post-township of Mason co., West Va.
Pop. 1301. -
Arbuckle (MATTHEw), an American general, born in
Greenbrier co., Va., in 1775. He served many years on
the frontier among the Indians; also in the Mexican war
(1846–47). Died June 11, 1851. }
Arbuth'not (ALExANDER), a Scottish theologian and
poet, born about 1538. He became principal of the Uni-
versity of Aberdeen in 1569. Among his works are a
poem called “The Praises of Women’’ and a “History of
Scotland.” Died in 1583.
Arbuthnot (John), M.D., F. R. S., an eminent physi-
cian, born at Arbuthnot, near Montrose, in Scotland, in 1660.
He studied at Aberdeen, where he graduated, and settled
in London. His first work was an “Examination of Dr.
Woodward's Account of the Deluge” (1697).
tion was increased by his “Tables of the Greek, Roman,
and Jewish Measures, Weights, and Coins” (1705). He
was appointed physician to the queen in 1709, and obtained
an extensive practice. He was an intimate associate of
Pope, Swift, and Lord Bolingbroke. In 1712 he published
a humorous political allegory entitled a “History of John
Bull,” in which the great powers then involved in war were
personated by John Bull the clothier, Nick Frog the linen-
draper, and Louis Baboon (Louis XIV.). This work dis-
plays a great talent for satire. He produced another hu-
morous and ironical work, called “The First Book of the
Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus.” This was part of an un-
finished work which Pope, Swift, and Arbuthnot projected
in partnership, and which was designed to be a satire
against pedantry and the abuse of learning. In 1723 he
was chosen second censor of the Royal College of Physi-
cians, and in 1727 was made an elect of the college. Died
Feb. 27, 1735. He was a man of amiable character. “He
has more wit than we all have,” said Swift, “and his hu-
manity is equal to his wit.” Comparing him with contem-
porary British authors, Dr. Johnson said, “I think Dr.
Arbuthnot the first man among them. He was the most
universal genius, being an excellent physician, a man of
deep learning, and a man of much humor.”
Ar’butine, a principle found in the leaves of the red
bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva ursi).
Ar’butus, a genus of plants of the order Ericaceae, mostly
natives of America and Southern Europe. They are ever-
green shrubs, bearing a fleshy fruit which has five cells
and many seeds. The arbutus mentioned by Virgil was
the Arbutus wrvedo or strawberry tree,” which bears bright
red and yellow berries, with beautiful foliage, and is culti-
wated as an ornamental evergreen. The fruit has narcotic
properties, and is used for making wine in Corsica. An-
other species, the Arbutus Andrachne, a native of the Le-
vant, is admired as an ornamental plant, and bears an es-
culent fruit. The Pacific States have one or more native
specimens of this genus. The bearberry, a trailing shrub
which is used as an astringent or tonic in medicine, was
formerly called Arbutus wa wrgi, but is now considered to
be a species of Arctostaphylos. The trailing arbutus (Epi-
gae'a reºpens), a small but very beautiful flower, is ſound in
many parts of the U. S.
Arc [from the Lat. arſeus, a “bow”], in geometry, any
part of a curved line. An arc of a circle is any portion of
the circumference. The straight line joining the extremi-
ties of an arc is its chord, which is always shorter than the
are itself. Arcs of circles are similar when they subtend
equal angles at the centres of their respective circles. To
rectify an arc is to find the length of a straight line to
which it would be equal if it had the same length in a right
direction as it has in a curved. The area included between
an arc and its chord is a segment of a circle.
Ar’ca, or Arc Shell, a genus of bivalve mollusks which
are lamellibranchiate, and are the type of a family called
Arcadae. The hinge is straight, and is coextensive with
the whole breadth of the shell, the breadth being greater
than the length. Numerous species of Area occur in trop-
ical and other seas. Many others are fossil. One living
species occurs in fresh water in India. -
Area'da, a township of Gratiot co., Mich. Pop. 1202.
Arcada, a township of Lapeer co., Mich. Pop. 418.
Arcade [from the Lat. ar'eus, a “bow,” an “arch "],
a row of arches supported by columns or square pillars.
This term is sometimes applied to a long arched building
*In the U. S. the name of strawberry tree has been applied to
the Euonymus Americanus, a plant of a different order.
His reputa-
or gallery lined on each side with shops; also to a row
of piers or columns and arches by which the aisles are
divided from the nave of a church. The arcade in Gothic
corresponds to the colonnade of classical architecture. Ar-
cades were employed by the ancient Romans in theatres,
aqueducts, amphitheatres, and temples.
Arcade, a post-village and township of Wyoming co.,
N. Y., on the Buffalo New York and Philadelphia R. R., 35
miles S. E. of Buffalo, has extensive woollen mills, mowing-
machine works, furniture manufactory, academy and union
school, three churches, and one weekly newspaper. Pop.
of village, 573; of township, 1742. -
S. W. WADE, ED. of “TIMEs.”
Arca/dia [Gr. 'Apkačía], a celebrated state of ancient
Greece, was the most central part of the Peloponnesus (now
called the Morea). It was bounded on the N. by Achaia,
on the E. by Argolis, on the S. by Laconia and Messenia,
and on the W. by Elis. The area was about 1600 square
miles. It was enclosed on nearly all sides by mountains,
and a large part of it was occupied by fertile valleys and
verdant mountain-ridges. The principal river was the Al-
pheus. The Arcadians were a simple, pastoral people, in-
ferior to most of the other Greeks in genius and culture.
This inferiority may be ascribed to their isolated position,
which deprived them of the influence of the sea and of
the advantages of commerce. The chief towns of Arcadia
were Mantinea, Tegea, Orchomenos, and Megalopolis. The
Arcadians resembled the Swiss in their love of freedom and
money, and in their tendency to enlist as mercenaries in
foreign armies. Among the Ten Thousand whose famous
retreat Xenophon described, more than two thousand were
Arcadians. This country was a favorite of ancient pas-
toral poets, who praise the peaceful and happy life of the
Arcadian shepherds. At present, Arcadia is one of the
thirteen nomarchies of the kingdom of Greece. Area,
2028 square miles. Pop. in 1870, 131,740.
Arcadia, a post-township of Morgan co., Ill. P. 1251.
Arcadia, a township of Manistee co., Mich. Pop. 175.
Arcadia, a post-village and township of Iron co., Mo.,
about 4 miles S. of Pilot Knob. Pop. of township, 3058.
Arcadia, a post-village and township of Wayne co.,
N. Y. Pop. of township, which contains the village of
Newark, 5271. -
Arcadia, a post-township of Davidson co., N. C. Pop.
20.
Arcadia, a township of Halifax co., N. C. Pop. 2898.
Arcadia, a post-village of Washington township, Han-
cock co., O. Pop. 288.
Arcadia, a post-township of Trempealeau co., Wis.
Pop. 1651.
Arca'dius [Gr. 'Apká8tos], emperor of the East, the
eldest son of Theodosius the Great, was born in Spain in
383 A. D. In 395 Theodosius died, after he had divided
his empire between Arcadius and Honorius, the latter of
whom received the western part. The eastern empire, of
which Byzantium was the capital, included Thrace, Asia
Minor, and Syria, and extended from the Adriatic to the
Tigris. During the minority of Arcadius, Rufinus and
Eutopius successively acted as regents of the empire. The
empress Eudoxia acquired the controł over Arcadius, who
was a feeble and indolent prince. He died in 408 A.D.,
and was succeeded by his son, Theodosius II.
Arca'ni Discipli’na (i. e. the “Discipline of Se-
crecy”), a term for the first time used by the Protestant
theologian Dallaeus in 1666 for the secrecy observed in
the early Church with respect to certain doctrines; as, for
example, those of baptism, the Eucharist, and some others.
These were withheld from candidates until after they had
been received into full communion with the Church. Soon
after the introduction of the term, the subject gave rise to
a very animated controversy between Catholic and Protest-
ant theologians, which has continued ever since. The for-
mer used it to account for the silenee of the early Church
writers as to certain doctrines and practices of their Church.
Protestant writers generally regard it either as a natural
outgrowth of the oppressed condition in which the Church
found itself at that time, or a degeneration of the simple
forms of primitive Christianity in the interest of the hierar-
chy. The best Catholic treatises on the subject are those
by Döllinger (1826), Toklot (1836), Hefele (1846), and
Mayer (1868); the best Protestant, those by Richard Rothe
(in Herzog's “Real Encyclopädie”), Zezschwitz (“Kate-
chetik,” 1863), Niedner (“Kirchengeschichte,” 1846), Har-
nack (“Der christliche Gemeindegottesdienst,” 1854), and,
in particular, Bonwetsch (in “Zeitschrift für historische
Theologie,” 1873), who gives a complete history of the
controversy.
Arca/num (plu. Arca'na), a secret, a mystery; some-
ARCANUM–ARCHAEOLOGY.
207
times applied to a medicine the composition of which is kept
a secret. This term was much used by the alchemists,
whose object was to discover the grand arcanum, the phil-
*. stone.
rcanum, a post-village of Twin township, Darke co.,
O. Pop. 450.
Arca'ta, a post-village and township of Humboldt co.,
Cal., situated at the head of Humboldt Bay. It is a place
of considerable trade. Pop. 924.
Ar’ce (MANUEL Josá), a general who in 1824 was chosen
president of the republic of Central America for four years.
He favored the clerical party, at whose instigation he ar-
rested Barrundia, governor of Guatemala, in Sept., 1826.
This act provoked a popular revolt and a civil war, in which
Arce was defeated in 1827. He was expelled in 1829.
Arcesila’us ['ApkeatXaos], a Greek philosopher, born at
Pitane, in AEolia, in 316 B. C., was the founder of the New
(or, as it is sometimes called, the Middle) Academy. He
was a pupil of Theophrastus, and was an admirer of Plato,
but taught a modified form of Platonic philosophy. He
was eloquent, witty, and ingenious in argument, revived
the Socratic method of teaching, and recommended an
abstinence from dogmatism. It appears that he left no
written statement of his doctrines, which are known to us
only through the medium of his adversaries, the Stoics.
Among the sayings ascribed to him is, that “he knew
nothing, not even his own ignorance.” Died in 241 B. C.
(See RITTER, “History of Philosophy;” G. H. LEWEs,
“Biographical History of Philosophy.”)
Arch [Lat. ar'cus, “a bow,” “an arch “J, a curved
structure of stone or brick supported by the mutual pres-
sure of its component parts, intended to cover the space
between two piers or two columns, and to support at the
same time a superincumbent weight. The wedge-shaped
pieces of which the arch is composed are called voussoirs.
The middle stone of the arch is called the key-stone, and
the lowest stone on either side is the springer. The highest
part is the crown, the sides are termed haunches, the innér
curve is the intrados, and the exterior or upper curve is the
eactrados; while the base which supports the lowest vous-
soir or springer on each side is the impost. Arches are of
various shapes, but the principal distinction is into round
and pointed. All other shapes are merely described in one
of these, and the principle of construction is the same for
all. The arch was known to the Egyptians, the Ethiopians,
the Assyrians, the Greeks, and the Etruscans, though no
one of these peoples made any extensive use of it, since the
post-and-lintel system met all their wants. Its first con-
siderable use was by the Romans, who employed exclusively
the round form. They used it in doors and windows, in
their aqueducts, bridges, and triumphal arches, and they
early developed from it a complete system of vaulting. (See
, WAULT.) Among the oldest arches known is the Cloaca.
Maxima, a great sewer built in Rome in the time of the
Tarquins, and still in good condition. The pointed arch
came into use later. It was at first sparingly employed,
but lending itself more easily than the round arch to the
increasing desire for height in building, it gradually super-
seded the round arch, and became so inherent a feature of
the Gothic style that the name of Pointed Architecture is
often applied to the works of the mediaeval builders.
CLARENCE COOK.
Arch, Triumphal [Lat. arſeus triumpha/lis; Fr. arc de
triomphe or arc triomphal], a monumental structure erected
in honor of a victorious general or in commemoration of some
important event or victory. It was usually placed at the
entrance of a city or over a grand avenue. The ancient
Romans built numerous triumphal arches at Rome and else-
where. Scipio Africanus erected one on the Capitoline Hill,
about 190 B. C. Magnificent structures of this class were
raised by Augustus at Rimini and Ancona. Three triumphal
arches at Rome are still extant—namely, the Arch of Titus,
which commemorates the conquest of Judea; the Arch of
Septimius Severus; and the Arch of Constantine, a beau-
tiful and imposing structure adorned with bas-reliefs. The
most magnificent of modern triumphal arches are those of
Paris, and the finest among these is the Arc de l'Etoile,
erected by Napoleon I. at the Barrière de Neuilly. It has
three arches, the central one of which is 95 feet high. The
whole structure, which is equal in grandeur and splendor
to the ancient Roman arches, is about 160 feet high and .
150 feet in length.
Arch (Joseph), president of the English National Ag-
ricultural Laborers’ Union, was born in Barford, Warwick-
shire, England, in 1828. He was the child of laboring
people, and was brought up as a laborer, with no education
but what he has picked up by himself. He has learned
from the newspapers all he knows about the important
questions of the day, and has taught himself to read and
write. Being a total-abstinence man and a Methodist, he
added to his daily labor the duties of “a local preacher;”
that is, a layman who preaches in the chapel or in the open
air within a certain district, and without pay. He says of
himself that in his twenty-seven years as a preacher he
walked over 7000 miles to expound the gospel to his fel- .
lows. When a young man, Arch felt that he and his kind
were badly treated, and he rebelled against it. In a speech
at Leamington in 1872 he said: “Men, I'll tell you what I
had to do. I had a wife and two children, and one-and-
sixpence a day (thirty-six cents) was all I was getting,
working hard, morning and night. I asked my master
for more; he said, “One-and-sixpence a day is all I shall
give you.’ I had sworn at the altar to love and cherish
my wife, and I knew that would not keep her and the chil-
dren; so I struck. I went away to work where I could get
higher wages. Sometimes I could not get anything but
straw to sleep on, and once I slept for nights and nights
on corded wood; but I thought if any one was to suffer, it
was not my wife and children, but myself.” He roamed
over England, working at job or piece work, sending all
he earned to his wife, and preaching on Sundays on the
village-greens. After a long time, and with much labor
and sacrifice, Arch saved money enough to buy the free-
hold of his little cottage at Barford. When the Warwick-
shire farm-laborers struck they appealed to Arch to be
their leader. The strike began in Feb., 1872, at Welles-
bourne, 7 miles from Warwick. The laborers there and in
the neighboring hamlets struck for an advance of four
shillings ($1) per week. Their leader was one John Lewis,
who proposed that they should form a union, but it was
necessary to have for leader a better-taught man; so Joseph
Arch, the local preacher, was sent for. After much foolish
opposition from high-placed people, both lay and clergy,
the union was fairly started by the active assistance of
rich Radicals in Birmingham, with Mr. Auberon Herbert,
Mr. Edward Jenkins (the author of “Ginx's Baby”), Dr.
Langford, and other reformers. Arch travelled through
all parts of England, organizing branches of the union
wherever he went. In two months such progress was made
that on the 29th and 30th of May a meeting was held at
Leamington of delegates from all parts of the country,
presided over by Mr. G. Dixon, M. P. for Birmingham.
At this meeting Arch was unanimously elected president
of the union. The movement, which at first was only a
demand for a few more shillings a week, has now become
one of political importance, and the laborers demand a
vote in the counties, as the artisans have already done in
the cities. Arch at first avoided all political references, but
when the queen, through her steward, discharged the la-
borers on her private estate for demanding a few more
shillings a week, he spoke strong words, and even as the
movement has advanced there is no doubt his ideas have
advanced also. The union did not at first encourage emi-
gration. Arch said, “I wish to assist a man to get a liv-
ing in England, not to run away from it.” Emigration
had been tried, and many laborers had been persuaded to
go to Brazil, where they had suffered terribly from the in-
sufficient food and from the yellow fever. Their fate was
learned from some of their number, who were sent to New
York by the Brazilian authorities. (See on this subject,
“Reports respecting the Condition of British Emigrants
in Brazil, presented to Parliament by Her Majesty's Com-
mand,” 1873, and a heartrending letter from one of the
emigrants, Thomas Sheasby, published by order of the
earl of Kimberley in the Times of Aug. 29, 1873. See
also, for a thorough exposure of the whole nefarious busi-
ness, a little book, “Brazilian Civilization, from an Euro-
pean Point of View,” by Jacaré Assu (a nom-de-plume),
London, 1873.) As the men sent by the Brazilian author-
ities to New York immediately got good places, and as the
superintendent declared that they were just the sort of men
needed here, and that he could obtain places for all such
who should arrive, Arch determined to visit America and
look into the matter for himself. He accordingly came
over in the summer of 1873, and made a careful study of
Canada, returning to England in the late autumn of the
same year, and promising to return to America in the fol-
lowing spring and make an equally careful study of the
U. S. as a field for emigration. His report will be looked
for with great interest, and if it shall prove favorable the
results cannot fail to be of importance to both countries.
(We are indebted for the facts in this notice mainly to an
article in the New York “Tribune” for Aug. 16, 1873. A
brief review of Jacaré Assu’s book will be found in the
“Athenaeum ” for Oct. 18, 1873.) CLARENCE COOK.
Archaeol’ogy [from the Gr. 3pxalos, “ancient,” and
Aóyos, a “ discourse,” a “science”], literally, “the science
of antiquities.” The term in its widest sense includes the
knowledge of the origin, language, religion, laws, institu-
tions, literature, science, arts, manners, customs—every-
thing, in fact, that can be learned of the ancient life and
208
ARCHAEOLOGY, BIBLICAL–ARCHAEOPTERYX.
being of mankind. Archaeology may thus be made to com-
prehend a part, in greater or less degree, of many branches
of knowledge which are recognized as distinct or independ-
ent pursuits; but in its narrower, and perhaps more popular
signification, it is understood to have reference to the mate-
rials from which a knowledge of the ancient condition of a
country is to be attained. These materials may be divided
into three groups—written, monumental, and traditional.
The first, or written archaeology, includes both the science
of ancient writings and the knowledge of printed books.
The second, monumental archaeology, admits of almost end-
less subdivisions, according to the character of the remains
to be studied, which may be works of art, such as buildings,
sculptures, paintings, inscriptions, coins, armorial bearings,
furniture, enamels, glass, porcelain, etc.; works of engineer-
ing, such as roads, canals, aqueducts, mines, etc.; articles
of dress, armor, or personal ornament; tools, weapons, uten-
sils, etc.; forms of sepulture; vestiges of man and animals,
such as bones, etc. The third, or traditional archaeology,
may be said to include the oral literature of a people, their
dialects, legends, proverbs, ballads, as well as their sports,
customs, and superstitions.
In regard to the application of the words Archaeology
and Antiquities, it may be remarked that the latter has
reference properly to the objects studied, the former to the
study itself. And though archaeology in its more limited
signification refers to the materials studied, those materials
are considered not as individuals, but in their totality.
Thus, while we might say a “collection of antiquities” (i. e.
of antique objects), we could not so properly say “a collec-
tion of archaeology,” though we might say “an archaeologi-
cal collection.” The study of archaeology was long almost
exclusively confined to the antiquities of the Greeks and
Romans, but about the middle of the sixteenth century at-
tention was turned to the antiquities of other ancient nations
and of the Middle Ages. Since the discovery of the Rosetta.
Stone, which gave a key to its hieroglyphics, the archaeology
of Egypt has made considerable progress; while the dis-
coveries of Layard, Rawlinson, and others have already far
advanced that of Assyria. Within the last few years the
archaeology of India, and that of China, have been success-
fully prosecuted. The rude and scanty remains of the ab-
original inhabitants of North America have occupied the
attention of men of letters in this country; while the more
stately and instructive monuments of Central and South
America have fully rewarded the investigations of anti-
quaries. Pre-historic archaeology, or the study of the relics
of man as he existed before the dawn of history, is of late
attracting much attention, the Royal Society of Antiqua-
ries at Copenhagen having given this branch of the subject
especial attention, Northern Europe being peculiarly rich
in remains of the pre-historic ages.
In Great Britain, too, pre-historic remains of the most
ancient origin have been abundantly found, and there can
be but little doubt that many ancient relics which have
been regarded as Druidical are in reality ante-Celtic. But
in France and Belgium, especially, have the labors of
Boucher de Perthes, Lartet, De Vibraye, and others been
rewarded by the discovery of very ancient human relics.
In Switzerland (see LAKE DwDLLINGs), in Italy, Turkey,
Germany, India, America, and in many other lands, the
study of these profoundly interesting pre-historic remains
has aroused much enthusiasm. But the work is as yet in
its early infancy. The Cyclopean walls of the southern
peninsulas of Europe are now generally assigned to the
pre-historic ages. The fruits of the discoveries near the
supposed site of ancient Troy are by many referred to pre-
historic times. Still, the presence of inscriptions with
what seem like Semitic characters must link these supposed
“treasures of Priam ” with historic peoples. The later
heroic age of Greece has left but few undoubted relics.
The discovery of Phrygian ruins bearing the name of
King Midas is interesting in this connection, though it
does not appear that these ruins can with confidence be re-
ferred to the age of Midas. The deeply interesting dis-
coveries in Cyprus (see CYPRUs and CESNOLA, DI) have
shown us unquestionably the works of historic times. The
recent (1873) discovery of the key to the reading of the
strange inscriptions in the syllabic alphabet of Cyprus
have thus far given no evidence of their being of very re-
mote origin, and the inscriptions themselves are in Greek
of a very marked dialect. - -
While pre-historic archaeology opens to us a world of
mystery and wonder, the archaeology of later times serves
to dispel mysteries; the resulting effect of the two being to
remove the mysterious age farther backward into the past.
Much that has hitherto been unexplained is receiving light
from the labors of archaeologists in the valley of the Eu-
phrates-Tigris, as well as in that of the Nile. Biblical
archaeology is greatly forwarded by the labors of the Eng-
lish and Americans in the Holy Land. The Asiatic so-
cieties find abundant material for examination in South-
eastern India, a new and almost untrodden field. Osiander,
Fresnel, and other Semitic scholars would appear to have
solved the riddle of the Himyaritic inscriptions in Arabia;
and the wonders of the semi-civilizations of America be-
fore the time of Columbus have been much diminished by
the simple and yet admirable generalizations which have
been of late brought forward with regard to them. (See
the article ARCHITECTURE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINEs in
the present work, by LEWIS H. MoRGAN, LL.D.) But an
interest hardly less intense than attaches to the above-
mentioned works is, and long has been, felt in the antiqui-
ties of the Middle Ages, both ecclesiastical and social.
The civilizations of ancient Rome and Greece are quite
clearly marked off from ours, while the Christian civiliza-
tion that sprang up on the ruins of the old is our own civ-
ilization, and must possess for ever a deep interest to the
student of the science of humanity. The French and Ital-
ians have given special attention to this department.
Among other archaeological works going on at present
or quite recently, may be mentioned the interesting and
quite important excavations at Ephesus and other points
in Asia Minor; those at Cyrene and Carthage; and the labors
of Mariette Bey in Egypt, so pregnant with important conse-
quences, extended, by the direction of the khedive of Egypt,
to Nubia and the Soudan. The British war in Abyssinia has
led to discoveries of much interest in regard to the literary
archaeology of that remarkable region. The monumental
archaeology of Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, and the rest of South
America has been studied with important results.
The quite modern science of “folk-lore,” which ex-
amines and compares the traditions, legends, superstitions,
and immemorial customs of existing peoples, links itself
inseparably with some departments of archaeology; and it
is from the study of long-overlooked traces of the old
Ayran and Sanscrit traditions, legends, superstitions, and
customs that they receive much of the light which has
lately been shed upon them—a light which shows very
plainly that a common, if very remote, kinship unites all
the Indo-European peoples. Such considerations show that
the true archaeologist is no mere antiquarian curiosity-
hunter, but a student of matters which have a very wide
and deep interest to nearly every thoughtful mind.
The science of archaeology has been greatly promoted by
the publication of chronicles, records, catalogues, etc., by
the formation of clubs and societies, and by the establish-
ment of museums for the collection and classification of
antiquities. Among the societies formed for this purpose
may be mentioned the Society of Antiquaries of London,
which was founded in 1572, but was not incorporated by
royal charter until 1751; the Society of Antiquaries of
Scotland, chartered in 1780; and the Royal Irish Academy,
for promoting “ the study of science, polite literature, and
antiquities,” which was chartered in 1786. The last two
have good museums of national antiquities. Among the
most celebrated antiquarian collections are those of the
British Museum in London, which contains, besides a great
collection of early manuscripts, galleries of Assyrian,
Egyptian, Etruscan, Greek, Roman, British, and mediaeval
antiquities; the museums of the Louvre and the Hôtel de
Cluny in Paris, which contain an unrivalled collection of
mediaeval in addition to more ancient antiquities; and the
Royal Museum at Naples, which contains most of the ob-
jects recovered during the last one hundred years from
the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Among the best
works on classic antiquity are those of MONTFAUCON, par-
ticularly his “Antiquité Expliquée’” (10 vols., 1719), and
WINCRELMANN’s “Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums”
(1766), and his “Monumenti antichi inediti” (1766). On
Egyptian archaeology, see the works of Champollion and
Bunsen. Among the recent works on archaeology those by
WESTROPP, “Handbook of Archaeology” (1867), JAHN,
“Aus der Alterthumswissenchaft” (1869), and J. H. PAR-
KER’s “Archaeology of Rome’” (vol. i. 1874), deserve to
be here mentioned. On pre-historic archaeology see LUB-
Bock, “Pre-historic Times” (2d ed., 1869); BALDWIN,
“Pre-historic Nations” (1869), and . “Ancient America.”
(1872); C. C. Jon Es, “Antiquities of the Southern In-
dians” (1873); FostFR, “Pre-historic Races of the U.S.” .
(1873). Among the writers upon Scandinavian pre-his-
toric remains we may mention N. M. PETERSEN, FINN
MAGNUSEN, and WAARSAAE. (See also the articles HIERO-
GLYPHICs; CUNEIFoRM INSCRIPTIONS, by W. HAYES WARD;
BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY ; and PRE-HISTORIC RACEs.)
- REVISED BY C. W. GREENE.
Archaeop/teryx [from the Gr. 3pxalos, “old,” and
Trrepºš, “wing”], a remarkable fossil bird found in the
lithographic limestones (Jurassic) of Solenhofen, Bavaria,
and named by Prof. Owen. This bird exhibits some pecu-
liarities of anatomical structure which have led zoologists
to consider it as a kind of connecting link between birds
ARCHAIG, LOCH-ARCHER.
209
and reptiles. The head is not distinctly shown in the fos-
sil. The wings are short, but provided with long plumes
spread somewhat like a fan. The tail is long, and com-
posed of a large number of vertebrae, from which feathers
* on either side. The feet are similar to those of
irds. -
Archaig' (or Arkeg), Loch, a beautiful lake of Scot-
land, in the county of Inverness, 1 mile W. of Loch Lochy
(or Lochie). It is about 17 miles long and 1 mile wide.
The adjacent scenery is picturesque.
Archan'gel [Gr. 3pxáyyeXos, from 3pxto, to “be first,”
and āyyekos, a “messenger” or “angel”], an angel of the
highest order; a ruling angel. (See ANGEL.) This term
is used in the New Testament—Jude 9 and 1 Thess. iv. 16.
Archan'gel, or Archangelsk’, a government or
province of European Russia, is bounded on the N. by
the Arctic Ocean, on the E. by the Ural Mountains, on the
S. by Wologda and Olonetz, and on the W. by Finland. It
comprises Russian Lapland, and is divided into two parts
by the White Sea. The surface is flat, and the soil mostly
barren, but produces valuable timber. The climate is very
severe. Area, 286,739 square miles. Pop. in 1867, 275,779.
Archangel, a seaport-town of Russia, the capital of
the province of that name, is on the Dwina, about 20 miles
from its entrance into the Bay of Archangel (or the White
Sea); lat. 64° 32' N., lon. 40° 33' E. The houses are
mostly of wood. It has about twelve churches and an
ecclesiastical college. The harbor is closed by ice except
about three months, from July to September, during which
period it is visited by many foreign vessels. The chief
articles of export are fish, furs, lumber, tallow, flax, linseed,
tar, iron, and bristles. This place, which was founded in
1584, was for a long time the only seaport of Russia.
Pop. in 1867, 19,936.
Archbish’op [Lat. archiepis' copus; Gr. 3pxteriorkotos,
from &pxo, to “be first,” and étriarkomos, an “overseer,” a
“bishop "J, the term applied to the head-bishop of an ec-
clesiastical province containing several dioceses, who has
also a diocese of his own. The title came into use during
the fourth century, and is said to have been first employed
by Athanasius.
Arch/bold, a post-village of German township, Fulton
co., O. Pop. 373.
Arch'dale (John), an Englishman and member of the
Society of Friends, became governor of Carolina in 1695.
He introduced the cultivation of rice, and in several re-
spects promoted the prosperity of the colony. In 1707 he
published a “Description of the Province of Carolina.”
Archdea'com [Lat. archidiacſonw8], an ecclesiastic
whose jurisdiction is immediately subordinate to that of a
bishop. An archdeacon was originally an assistant of the
bishop, and an overseer of the deacons and younger clergy.
The authority of the archdeacons gradually increased, and
became distinct from that of the bishops, so that in the
twelfth century they were recognized as influential prel-
ates. Since that time their power and influence have
been much reduced. The Church of England has seventy-
one archdeacons, who have a limited vice-episcopal terri-
torial jurisdiction. (See DEACON.)
Archduke' and Archduch’ess, titles assumed by all
the sons and daughters of the emperor of Austria, and in-
herited by their descendants through the male line. The
title of archduke was first taken by the dukes of Austria,
in the fourteenth century, or earlier, but their claim to that
mark of precedence over the other dukes of the German
empire was not recognized by the emperor and the electors
until 1453. -
Archegosau’rus [from the Gr. 3pxnyós, a “leader” or
“beginner,” and oraúpos, a “lizard” or “saurian *], a fossil
animal, so named because it was supposed to have been the
beginning of reptilian life. It is found in the Bavarian
coal-measures. Goldfuss in 1847 described three species
discovered in the coal-field of. Saarbrück, and gave them
the generic name of Archegosaurus. Professor Owen con-
siders this animal as a remarkable connecting link between
reptiles and fishes. Agassiz and Dana regard it as a gan-
oid fish, while others class it with salamandroid batra-
chians.
Archela’us, a Greek philosopher, surnamed PHYSICUs,
because he applied himself chiefly to physical science, was
a native of Miletus, or, as some say, of Athens. He was a
pupil of Anaxagoras, and flourished about 450 B. C. Soc-
rates was one of his pupils. Archelaus taught that there
were two principles of generation—heat, which moves, and
cold, which remains at rest. His works, if he wrote any,
are not extant.
Archelaus [Gr. "ApxéAaos], king of Macedonia, was a
son of Perdiccas II., whom he succeeded in 413 B. C. He
patronized Euripides and Zeuxis and other Greek poets
and artists. Socrates was invited to his court, but did not
go. This king promoted the prosperity of Macedonia by
roads and other internal improvements. Died in 399 B.C.
Archelaus, an able general of Mithridates the Great,
was a native of Cappadocia. He commanded a large army
which that king sent to oppose the Romans in Greece in
87 B. C. He captured a number of islands and occupied
Athens, where he was attacked and besieged by Sulla.
Having been forced to evacuate Athens, he retired to. Thes-
Saly in 86 B. C., and was defeated by Sulla at Chaerone'a
and Orchomenus. He signed a treaty of peace with Sulla
in the year 85, and deserted to the Romans in 81 B. C.
Archelaus, a son of the preceding, became high priest
of Comana about 63 B.C. He pretended to be a son of
King Mithridates, and by that imposture induced Berenice,
queen of Egypt, to marry him. After he had reigned about
six months in Egypt, he was defeated and killed by the
Romans in 55 B. C. He left a son, Archelaus, who was
high priest of Comana until he was deprived of that office
by Caesar in 47 B. C.
Archelaus, a son of Herod the Great by Malthace, a
Samaritan woman. On the death. of his father (4 B. C.)
he became ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea; his
full brother Antipas and his half brother Philip receiving
the rest of the kingdom. Fear of him sent the parents
of Jesus into Galilee. In 6 A. D. he was deposed by Au-
gustus, and banished to Vienne, Gaul, where probably he
died. - - -
Archelaus, a Greek sculptor, a native of Priene, is
supposed to have lived about 30–60 A. D. He produced an
admirable marble bas-relief representing the apotheosis of
Homer, which is now in the British Museum.
Archenceph'ala [from the Gr. 3pxi, the “first or
highest place,” and éykébaxos, the “brain ’j, a term applied
to the highest division of the class Mammalia, to which the
order Bimana, composed of the solitary genus Homo, be-
longs. - *
Ar’chenholz', von (Johann WILHELM), BARON, a Ger-
man historian, born at Dantzic Sept. 3, 1745. He served
in the Prussian army in the Seven Years' war, after which
he travelled in England and other countries. He wrote,
besides other works, “England and Italy” (2 vols., 1785),
and a popular “History of the Seven Years' War” (2 vols.,
1793), which was translated into many languages. Died
Feb. 28, 1812. -
Arſcher [from the Lat. ar'cus, a “bow; Fr. archer] and
Archery. An archer is one who shoots with a bow. In
ancient times archers formed an important portion of the
armies of most Oriental and of all barbarous or semi-bar-
barous nations. Among the ancients, the Cretans, Par-
thians, and Thracians, and in the Middle Ages the English,
were especially distinguished for the skill and efficiency of
their archers. The English archers decided the fate of the
day in the important battles of Crécy, Poitiers, and Agin-
court. Among the Asiatic Turks, the Persians, the Tar-
tars, and other nations of the East, as well as certain na-
tive African tribes and some American Indians, the bow
and arrow are still used as weapons of war. In England
archery is now no more than a pastime; it is promoted by
archery clubs or societies. During the reign of Charles II.
of England archery was much patronized by the court.
After his reign archery fell into disuse for about a century.
Towards the latter part of the last century it was revived
as a fashionable pastime; even ladies often taking part in
the trials of skill. The exercise, especially in the form of
target-shooting, is still popular. .(See Bow and ARRow.)
Ar’cher, a county in the N. of Texas. Area, 900 square
miles. It is drained by the Little Wichita River and its
North and South Forks. It has only a small settled popu-
lation. It is well adapted to pasturage. Bismuth, copper,
and other metals are found. The county Was returned as
having no population in 1870. -
Archer, a post-township of Harrison co., O. Pop. 726.
Archer (BRANCH. T.), M.D., born in 1790 in Virginia,
studied medicine in Philadelphia, and was long a promi-
nent physician and politician in Virginia. He went to
Texas, in 1831 took part in the revolution, was in 1835
president of the “Consultation,” and was sent as a com-
missioner to the U. S. He was a member of the first Texan
Congress, and speaker of the house of representatives and
secretary of war 1839–42. Died Sept. 22, 1856, in Brazo-
ria co., Tex. -
Archer (John), M.D., born in Harford co., Md., in 1741,
graduated at Princeton in 1760, was the first person who
received the degree of M. D. in America. This degree he
received from the Philadelphia Medical College in 1768.
He served for a time as an officer in the Revolutionary
14
210
war, and was a member of Congress from Maryland (1801–
07). Died in 1810.
Archer (STEVENSON), LL.D., a son of Dr. John Ar-
cher, born in Harford co., Md., and graduated at Princeton
in 1805. He was a member of Congress from Maryland
(1811–17 and 1819–21), and was a judge in the State court
of appeals, and for a time U. S. judge in Mississippi Ter-
ritory. Died June 5, 1848.
Archer (STEvKNSON), J.R., a son of the preceding, born in
Harford co., Md., in 1827, graduated at Princeton College
in 1846, became a lawyer, and in 1866 was elected to Con-
gress, of which he is still (1873) a member.
Archer (WILLIAM. S.), a Senator, born in Amelia co.,
Va., Mar. 5, 1789. He was educated at William and Mary
College, was a member of Congress from 1820 to 1835, and
was elected to the U. S. Senate by the Whigs of Virginia.
in 1841. He was chairman of the Senate’s committee on
foreign relations. Died Mar. 28, 1855.
Archer Fish, the name of certain small East Indian
fishes of the acanthopterygious family of Bramidae. They
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project drops of water at insects, which they thus cause to
fall from the air into the water, and then devour them.
The Toacotes jacula'tor, one of these archer fishes, is a ma-
tive of Java, and about six inches long. The only remark-
able peculiarity in the form of this fish is its greatly elon-
gated lower jaw, which perhaps may aid it in directing the
liquid missile upon which its subsistence partially depends,
as does that of the hunter on the accuracy of his rifle. “So
powerful,” says Wood, “is the projectile force, and so
marvellously accurate is the aim [of the Toacotes jaculator],
that it will strike a fly with certainty at a distance of three
or even four feet.”
Ar’ches, Court of, a court of ecclesiastical law in
England, is the chief court of appeal in the province of
Canterbury, which includes nearly all England. The dean
of arches is usually the deputy of the archbishop of Can-
terbury. This court is so called because it was once held
in the church of St. Mary le Bow (de Arcubus).
Arſchetype [from the Gr. 3px;i, a “beginning,” “ori-
gin,” and Tútros, “a type”], the original pattern or model
of a work; the original type on which others are formed.
Among Platonic philosophers the term archetype was ap-
plied to the original patterns or ideas existing in the Di-
vine mind before the creation.
Archiac, d” (ETIENNE JULES ADoDPHE DESMIER DE
SAINT-SIMON), VICOMTE, a French geologist and author,
born at Rheims in 1802. He published, besides other
works. in French, a romance entitled “Zizim, or the Chiv-
alry of Rhodes” (3 vols., 1828), and a “History of the
Progress of Geology from 1834 to 1863” (8 vols., 1847–62).
The latter was published at the expense of the state.
Ar’chias (AULUs LICINIUs), a Greek poet, born at
Antioch, became a resident of Rome in 102 B. C., and ob-
tained the right of citizenship. He was intimate with
ARCHER—ARCHILOCHUS.
Cicero and Lucullus, and was courted or patronized by
several eminent men on account of his genius or learning.
Having been accused of being an alien, he was defended by
Cicero in an able oration (“Pro Archia”) about 60 B. C.
Among the works of Archias which are lost was a poem on
the Mithridatic war. (See WALLENIUS, “Dissertatio de
Aulo Licinio Archia,” 1806.)
Archia’ter, or Archiator [Gr. 3pxtarpos, a “chief
physician,” from 3pxo, to “be first,” and tarpos, “physi-
cian”], a title given by the Roman emperors to some of
their medical attendants; also to certain officials who were
paid by the state or city, and were expected to give gratui-
tous medical treatment to the poor.
Arch’ibald, a post-borough of Luzerne co., Pa., on the
Delaware and Hudson R. R., about 12 miles N. E. of Scran-
ton. Here are rich coal-mines. Pop. 2571.
Archibald (ADAMs G.), born in Truro, Nova Scotia,
May 18, 1814, became a lawyer in 1839, solicitor-general
of Nova Scotia in 1856, and was a prominent legislator in
that province. In 1867 he was president of the Canadian
council and one of the secretaries of state, and in 1871–
72 lieutenant-governor of Manitoba and the North-west
Provinces.
Archida'mus II., of Sparta, became king about 470
B. C. He waged war against the Messenians, and com-
manded the army which invaded Attica in 431 B. C., but
the Athenians declined a battle. This was one of the ear-
liest campaigns of the Peloponnesian war. He was the
father of the famous Agesilaus. Died in 427 B. C.
Archidamus III., king of Sparta, was a grandson
of the preceding and son of Agesilaus II. He defeated
the Arcadians and Argives in 367 B. C., in a battle which
was called the “scarless” or “tearless,” because no Spar-
tan was killed in it. In 362 he defended Sparta with suc-
cess against Epaminondas. He began to reign on the death
of his father, 361 B. C., and was an ally of the Phocians
in the Sacred war. Having led an army to Italy to aid
the Tarentines, he was killed in battle in 338 B. C.
Archidamus W. was the last king of the Proclid line.
He was a brother of Agis IV., whom he succeeded in 240
B. C. He was soon killed by the parties that murdered Agis.
Archido'na, a village of Spain, in the province of
Malaga, 9 miles E. N. E. of Antequera. It is on the rail-
way from Granada to Antequera. It has large quarries
of marble, and many Roman antiquities. Pop. 7410.
Ar’chil, Or/chil, or Orseille [perhaps a corruption
of roccel/la, a “little rock,” so named because the plant
grows on rocks], a reddish-purple dye obtained from various
species of lichens, among which are the Lichen roccella or
JRoccella tinctoria, Roccella fuciformis, and Lecanora tar-
tarea. These are gathered from rocks near the shores of the
Canaries, the Azores, the Cape de Verde Isles, Sardinia, Cor-
sica, Ceylon, Madeira, Lower California, Auvergne, the Py-
renees, Sweden, and many other countries. The lichens
do not contain the coloring-matter ready formed, but they
contain colorless acids, erythric, lecanoric, orbellinic, evermic,
etc., which readily change to ORCIN (which see). By the
action of air and ammonia the colorless orcin changes to
purple orcein, which is the coloring-principle of archil. To
produce the archil, the weeds are reduced to pulp, a little
putrid urine or ammonic carbonate is added, and the whole
is allowed to putrefy or ferment. In a week or ten days
the color is fully developed. By adding potassic or sodic
carbonate, instead of ammonia, a blue color, LITMUs (which
see), is obtained instead of archil. Cudbear is a variety of
archil made at Glasgow. Archil produces beautiful shades
of purple, violet, mauve, red, etc., but, unfortunately, they
are not, as generally employed, permanent... Dr. Stenhouse
suggested some improvements in the manufacture of archil,
which were in 1856 put in practice by M. Marnas of the
firm of Guimon, Marnas & Bonnet of Lyons. He treated
lichens with milk of...lime, filtered, precipitated the color-
producing principles by hydrochloric acid, washed them
on a filter, dissolved them in ammonia, and subjected the
solution to a temperature of from 153° to 160° for twenty or
twenty-five days. The color being at this time fully de-
veloped, he precipitated it by adding calcic chloride. The
purple lake thus obtained was sold as French purple. To
dye with this lake it is mixed with oxalic acid and water,
boiled, and filtered. The color all goes into solution, a
little ammonia is added, and on introducing the silk, wool,
or mordanted cotton (mordanted with albumen, or as for
Turkey-red), they become dyed with magnificent fast shades
of purple. Unfortunately for M. Marnas, in the same year
that he developed his French purple (1856) Mr. Perkin dis-
covered his mauve, which was the starting-point in the
great aniline-color industry. Archil has therefore a com-
paratively limited application. C. F. CHANDLER.
Archil’ochus [Gr. 'ApxtAoxos], a Greek poet, was born

















ARCHIMAGUS–ARCHITECTURE.
211
in the island of Paros. He flourished about 710–670 B.C.
At an early age he emigrated to Thasos and became a
soldier, but he lost or threw away his shield in a battle be-
tween the Thasians and Thracians. He afterwards went
to Sparta, from which he was banished, probably for the
licentiousness of his verses. He wrote odes, elegies, and
satires, which were extremely severe and personal, was re-
garded as the inventor of iambic verse, and was ranked
by ancient critics as second to Homer. His versatile and
brilliant genius is highly praised by Quintilian. Accord-
ing to tradition, he was killed in a battle between the Pa-
rians and the people of Naxos. The extant fragments of
his poetry have been edited by Bergk in his “Poetae Lyrici
Graecorum ” (1854). (See MüLLER, “Literature of Ancient
Greece.”) -
Archima'gus, the chief of the ancient Persian magi.
This title and office belonged to the reigning king of Persia
after the time of Darius I., who, having ordered a general
massacre of the magi, directed that it should be recorded
on his monument that he was the master of the magi. It
is also the name of a powerful and wicked magician in
Spenser's “Faerie Queene.”
Archiman’drite [Lat. archimandriſta, from the Gr.
&pxi, the “first place or power,” and wóvápa, a “retreat” or
“resting-place”], an ecclesiastic who presides over mon-
asteries of the Greek Church. The Russian bishops are
chosen from the archimandrites. The title is retained in
the Greek rite of the Roman Catholic Church.
Archime/des [Gr. 'Apxtuſ&ms], the greatest of ancient
geometers, was born at Syracuse about 287 B. C., and was
of Greek extraction. He is said to have been a pupil of
Conon and a kinsman of Hiero II., king of Syracuse, by
whom he was patronized. He enriched geometry, mathe-
matics, and mechanics with important discoveries, and in-
vented several useful and powerful machines. King Hiero
suspecting that a goldsmith had mixed alloy with a golden
crown which he had made for him, applied to Archimedes
to detect the fraud. The solution of this problem suggested
itself to him as he entered a full bathing-tub, and perceived
that his body must displace a volume of water equal to its
own bulk. Greatly delighted with the discovery, he ran
out of the bath, without having dressed (as the story goes),
exclaiming “Euréka P-" I have found it !” He discovered
the proportion which a sphere bears to a cylinder by which
it is enclosed. He was the author of a celebrated saying,
“Abs troj arró, Kai Tūw yºu kuvijaw "-‘‘Give me where I may
stand and I will move the world” (or “universe”). When
Syracuse was besieged by the Roman general Marcellus,
Archimedes exerted his ingenuity in the invention and con-
struction of powerful machines or engines for the defence
of that city. ' The tradition that he burned the Roman
ships by mirrors is not confirmed by Polybius and Plutarch,
and is discredited by many writers. He was killed, it is
said, at the capture of Syracuse, in 212 B.C., by a Roman
soldier, who would have spared his life if Archimedes had
not been so absorbed in a problem that he would not com-
ply with the soldier's summons to surrender or to follow
him. He wrote numerous works, of which eight are extant,
namely: “On the Sphere and Cylinder;” “The Measure-
ment of a Circle;” “On the Equilibrium and Centre of
Gravity of Planes;” “On Conoids and Spheroids;” “On
Spirals;” “The Quadrature of the Parabola;” “The Are-
narius;” and “On Floating Bodies.” According to his
direction, a cylinder enclosing a sphere was engraved on
his tombstone, to commemorate his discovery of their rela-
tion. His extant works were edited by Torelli, Oxford,
1792. “He possessed,” says Professor Donkin of Oxford,
“in a degree never exceeded, unless by Newton, the inven-
tive genius which discovers new provinces of inquiry, and
finds new points of view for old and familiar objects, and
the power and habit of intense and persevering thought,
without which other intellectual gifts are comparatively
fruitless.” (See HENNERT, “Dissertation sur la Vie d’Ar-
chimède,” 1766; DoMENICO SciN.A., “Discorso intorno ad
Archimede,” 1823.) WILLIAM JACOBs.
Archimedes, a genus of fossil Bryozoans found in the
lower carboniferous limestone of the Mississippi Valley, of
which the calcareous portion consists of a central axis,
around which is spirally wound a reticulated, poriferous,
divergent, ribbon-like band, forming a screw. Several
species have been described, and they are so abundant in
the rock which contains them that this has been sometimes
called the archimedes limestone.
Archimedes, the Principle of, an important prin-
ciple in the science of hydrostatics, the discovery of which
is ascribed to Archimedes, is this: “A body immersed in a
fluid loses exactly as much of its weight as is equal to the
weight of the fluid which it displaces.”
Archimedes” Screw, a machine for raising water,
dº
supposed to have been invented by Archimedes. The most
simple form of it is a flexible tube bent spirally around a
solid cylinder, the ends of which turn on pivots. The ma-
chine is placed in an inclined position, the lower mouth of
the tube being under the surface of the water, which can
be raised to a limited height by turning the crank at the
upper end. It is often formed of a centre shaft, on which
metal plates are fixed like the thread of a screw, and en-
closed in a cylindrical trough, the lower end of which is
inserted in the water. It is used in Holland for draining
low grounds.
Archine, a measure of length in Russia exactly equal
to twenty-eight British or American inches.
Archipel/ago [from the Gr. 3pxt, “first,” “chief,” and
TéAayos, “sea.”], a name originally applied to a part of the
Mediterranean called the AEgean Sea, which lies between
Greece and Asia Minor and encloses numerous islands.
These are mostly arranged in two groups, the Cyclades
and Sporades. The principal islands of the former group
are Melos or Milo, Naxos, Paros, Andros, Tenos, Delos,
Seripho, Syra, Cythnos, and Thera. These islands, with
Negropont, which is the largest island in the Archipelago,
belong to Greece. Some writers include Crete in the Ar-
chipelago. Among the Sporades, which belong to Turkey,
are Rhodes, Samos, Scio (Chios), Lemnos, Metelin or Mity-
lene, Imbro, Samothraki, and Thasos. The islands of this
sea are generally of calcareous formation, and have a fer-
tile soil, beautiful scenery, and a pleasant climate. Many
of them have produced famous philosophers, artists, and
poets, and have been the scenes of interesting events of
ancient history. (See AEGEAN SEA.) In modern times the
term is applied to any sea or expanse of water which con-
tains many islands, or to a group of islands, as the Ma-
lay or Eastern Archipelago.
Archipelago (EASTERN). See EASTERN ARCHIPELAGo.
Arch/itecture [Gr. 3pxvrekrovská, “chief art;” Lat.
architectu'ra; It. archittetuſ ra; Fr. architecture; Ger. Batt-
kunst, the “building art”]. The art of architecture, like
all the fine arts, except, perhaps, the art of music, has its
roots in pure utility. It begins everywhere with the con-
struction of a shelter against the elements. The rudest
peoples, and even those who live in the mildest climates,
feel the need of a roof. The Otaheitan has his hut, the
American Indian his tent, the Esquimaux his dome of ice,
the Indian his cave. Every race shows that there is in-
herent in man the instinct of building. He shares it with
the beaver, the ant, and the bird. It exists in him as the
power of language exists in him, and, like that, as like any
one of his native powers, it may be developed or may re-
main undeveloped. So long as it continues in this merely
rudimentary condition, serving man’s necessary physical
needs, and them alone, it is not a fine art, and it is some-
times questioned whether, even when it is at its highest, it
deserves that distinction. But without entering upon too
subtle an argument, it may at least be asserted that build-
ing only becomes architecture and enters the region of art
when man begins to decorate his shelter in order to gratify
a craving for beauty, a love of proportion. Still, it is neces-
sary in studying the history of architecture to observe and
to record its rudimentary condition in the several countries
where it has been developed to a high point. For man’s
social experience is written in his buildings; their grandeur
and beauty are a measure of his civilization. They are the
material mould of his politics, his religion, and his laws.
Egyptian Architecture.—Amy sketch of the history of
architecture, however slight, must necessarily begin with
Egypt, because there the oldest civilization of the human
race is recorded in the oldest buildings of which we have
any knowledge. Scholars are now generally agreed that the
date of the Pyramids of Ghizeh is not less that 3000 years
B. C. It is suspected that the Sphinx and the small temple
of granite and alabaster near it may be very mueh older than
this. But, whatever may be the result of the researches that
are now being pushed by scholars and explorers in the domain
of Egyptian history written all over these stupendous monu-
ments, that Time has only partly overthrown and partly
buried, it is not possible their age can be reckoned at much
less than is at present believed,” and the oldest buildings
of other peoples are but young in comparison with these.
The architecture of Egypt consists of temples, palaces,
and tombs. The Pyramids are now believed to be tombs.
They have been thoroughly explored and patiently studied
by many able people, and there seems no explanation of
their purpose more simple and intelligible than this. They
were built by the different kings whose names they bear as
receptacles for their bodies, which were concealed in them
with the most ingenious art; the object in piling up these
* According to Poole, Sir Gardiner Wilkinson, and others, the
three great Pyramids of Ghizeh were built B.C. 2450; Bunsen
puts the date at B. C. 3209; and Mariette at B. C. 4235.

212.
ARCHITECTURE. -- f
mountains of stone being to make an indestructible resting-
place for the body during the ages that must elapse before .
the soul should return and take again her accustomed seat.
The entrances to the Pyramids are carefully concealed, and
have been discovered only by stripping off the outer coating
of stone. The passages that lead to the chambers where the
royal mummies once reposed (for every pyramid has been
entered and rifled) were purposely made difficult, and even
dangerous, to traverse, and the entrances to the burial-cham-
ber, when reached, were so artfully and securely closed as to
be passable only to force. Even when entered, the sarcopha-
gus of polished granite in which the mummy lay could only
be opened by breaking the solid stone that formed the lid,
for this had been closed by a device at once so simple and
effectual that no wit of man could better it. All these de-
vices for concealment can have but one reasonable inter-
pretation; and it may be said, we think, without fear of
contradiction, that the many theories by which a mystic or
scientific origin has been proposed for the Pyramids are
none of them held at present by any Egyptologists of
eminence, who are all agreed that the Pyramids were in-
tended simply as tombs. They stand in the midst of a
vast necropolis, and are in all about a hundred in number.
The three largest, named after their builders, Cheops or
Soofoo, Chepheren or Shafra, and Mycerinus, Menkeres,
are the best known. The pyramid of Cheops originally
covered a little over thirteen acres of ground, and was 480
feet 9 inches in perpendicular height. Owing to the re-
moval of the coating of polished granite with which this
pyramid, like both the others, was originally covered, and
the heaping of the ruins about the base, both these dimen-
sions are somewhat reduced. Col. Wyse makes the present
area slightly in excess of twelve acres, and the present
height 450 feet 9 inches. But in the case of the Pyramids,
as with all great buildings, the measurements of no two per*
sons agree, and these must be taken as merely approxima-
tive. Beside the Pyramids, the necropolis of Memphis
contains many smaller tombs, the greater part of which
are structural, others being hewed out of the solid rock
where there was a good opportunity, as was the case at
Ghizeh. At Beni-Hassan, farther up the Nile, there are
tombs, all of which are excavated from the rocky billside,
and are of singular interest from an architectural point of
view. Both the exterior and the interior of these tombs
are carved in imitation of a post-and-lintel system. The
entrance consists of a portico of two columns supporting
a pretended architrave; the stone above is cut into an
imitation of projecting eaves, with rafters showing under-
neath. The whole of this portico, end-piers, columns, archi-
trave, and eaves, is carved out of the solid face of the rock,
which behind it is smoothed down to the appearance of a
wall, in which is the door that gives entrance to the cham-
ber. The roof of this chamber is carved into the semblance
of architraves, between which it is hollowed out in the form
of shallow barrel-vaulting. These make-believe architraves
are supported by rock-cut columns. In several of these
grotto-tombs the pillars within and without have so strong
a resemblance to the Doric column that they have been
called proto-Doric, and many modern writers on the sub-
ject are persuaded that the Greeks borrowed the Doric
column from the Egyptians. We cannot enter on the sub-
ject here, but we may express a doubt whether at present
this belief ought to be considered as having any better
foundation than conjecture and a striking resemblance.
The buildings next in antiquity to the Pyramids are the
palaces of Thebes. The principal ruins of this once mag-
nificent city lie on both sides of the Nile, covering an area
that extends about two and a quarter miles N. and S. and
three and a half miles E. and W. The principal group.
is at Karnac, on the eastern bank, and consists of a pal-
ace-temple 1200 feet long, with five or six smaller buildings
grouped about it with that lack of symmetry which was a
characteristic of the builders of that age and of the later
times, as distinguished from the period of the Pyramids.
Farther S., about two miles, but once united with it by an
avenue of sphinxes now in ruins, was the temple of Luxor,
820 feet long, and with no other buildings connected with it.
The rest of this astonishing Theban group is found on the
opposite side of the river, and consists of the temple of
Medinet Habou, the Rhamsession, the temple of Gourmou,
and the temple of Thotmes and Amenophis, but of the last
two little remains above ground. The river on whose bank
they were directly built has played a double part in their
destruction. The inundations have undermined and swept
them away, and their neighborhood to the water has en-
abled boats to come and carry away their stone for building
purposes. Our narrow limits utterly forbid any minute
description of these buildings. Everything about them
was huge. Their ground-plans were not only really exten-
sive, but they were so subdivided as to make them seem
much larger than they were. Court succeeded to court, room
to room, until the sense of size and the sense of distance
were wearied. The long avenues of sphinxes, the mighty
columns supporting roofs of solid stone, the tower-like py-
lons that guarded the entrance, were all calculated to over-
awe the human spirit by the notions of vastness and the
sense of power in the monarchs that could command the
erection of such structures. Nor must we forget that the
enormous size and extent of these palace-temples (for they
contained within themselves the abodes of the kings as well
as the shrines of the gods) were tempered by a noble sense
of proportion, by sculpture of a grandeur of which we
never weary, by the most delicate carving, and by a system
of ornamentation alike perfect in form and color. Any no-
tice of the Egyptian buildings of this period that should
fail to hint at their beauty would leave an incomplete im–
pression, but we too often find this praise forgotten in the
wonder excited by their stupendous feats of building.
Still farther S., in passing from Thebes to the Second
Cataract, we find the ruins of temples which, once reck-
oned coeval with the Pyramids, or even more ancient, are
now known to be the most modern of the Egyptian build-
ings. Of these the best known are the temples at Edfou,
Denderah, Philae, and Kalabsche, but the shore on either
side is scattered with ruins, and they differ from those of
Thebes in being exclusively temples. Some of these build-
ings are of a grandeur of design and size that would have
done credit to the time of the Pharaohs, and, as a rule, the
inferiority of these temples, built under the dominion of
the Ptolemies, is more apparent in the sculpture and paint-
ing that decorate them than in their architecture. In style
and general arrangement the later buildings differ surpris-
ingly little from the more ancient, but many of the buildings
are better preserved; they make, for this reason, a clearer
impression on the visitor, and while it would seem as if
this fact should have militated against the idea of their
greater antiquity, it was perhaps counteracted in its effect
by their greater remoteness, by the difficulty of access to
them, and the loneliness that invests them.
“A spirit of simplicity, grandeur, and solidity reigns
throughout all the Egyptian temples, and every precaution
seems to have been taken to make them eternal.” Doubt-
less the ease with which large masses of stone were pro-
cured, and the fact that labor cost but little—for the labor-
er was a slave and the land was inexhaustibly fertile—had
much to do with the peculiar massiveness of the style.
Every original style of architecture, and even those deriv-
ed styles, such as the Greek, which modified their model
by the laws of a higher ideal in art and a purer taste, until
it became almost an independent style, all these genuine
workers have been controlled in great measure by their mate-
rial, or rather, let us say, have known how to take advantage
of it. The Egyptian architecture is in thorough harmony
with the physical characteristics of the country. The mo-
notony of this flat valley is varied, and at the same time
accented, if we may so express it, by these gigantic piles
of masonry that suggest mountain forms. At the same
time, in piling them up, their builders obeyed the laws of
structure; they played no tricks with gravitation, as the
Gothic and Renaissance builders did ; and if man could
have been restrained from violating the pyramids and the
tombs, and from making quarries of the temples, time
would have preserved them unharmed until to-day and for
centuries to come. Acquainted with the arch, they rarely
used it, as knowing doubtless that “an arch never sleeps,”
and they would employ no feature that would jeopard the
durability of their work. Perfect sculptors, they knew
how to subordinate their carving perfectly to the architec-
ture it was to adorn, and as all their sculpture had an im-
portant meaning, they studied that reserve in its treatment
that would best enable it to resist all accidents of time and
human violence. Their buildings have been reproached
with monotony, but it may be questioned whether any ar-
chitecture has ever made so wide spread, so profound an
impression, or has given such enduring pleasure. They
would seem to have early discovered the best way of piling
up enormous masses of stone, the best way of supporting
their architraves and roofs, and the best way of ornament-
ing their work; and having found what they wanted, they
rested in a sublime content, continuing to build for ages
without the wish to change, and with no motive to attempt
improvement in what seemed to them doubtless, as it seems
to us, incapable of being improved. -
Grecian Architecture.—What we shall have to say about
Greek architecture will begin, properly, with the introduc-
tion into the peninsula of the Doric order. This, sup-
posing the temple at Corinth to be the oldest example ex-
isting, does not carry us back very far, since its date is
supposed to be only about 650 B.C. The Ionic order was
no doubt introduced from Asia as early as this, or, it may
be, earlier, but all the oldest examples.have perished, and
the few buildings in which it is now found in Greece itself
*
ARCHITECTURE.
213
are of a date far much more recent than the oldest Doric
temples. There are a few buildings in Greece much older
than the temple at Corinth, but they are in a ruinous con-
dition, and with the exception of the tomb of Atreus (the
so-called “treasury” of Atreus) at Mycenae, and the Gate.
of Lions in the wall of the same city, they have little in-
terest for any one but the antiquary; nor do they belong
to the history of the development of Grecian architecture,
properly so called. We shall not therefore stop to describe
the tumuli of Mycenae and Orchemenos, but shall pass at
once to the consideration of the later buildings.
In Greece itself the most famous temples were all Doric.
The temple at Corinth, that at Ægina, the temple of
Theseus at Athens, with those of Jupiter at Olympia, of
Minerva at Sünium, and finally the Parthenon at Athens,
with many others, were all in this style, for which the
Greeks had a peculiar liking, and which they treated with
the most perfect skill and taste.
The Parthenon, indeed, stands in men’s minds as the
type of the perfection of Greek architecture. Even if we
felt it necessary to admit—as we certainly do not—that the
Greeks borrowed the Doric columns and every architectural
idea and feature from the Egyptians and the Assyrians, we
may assert that in the Parthenon they so perfected their
model, and invested it with such poetic beauty, that they
deserve to be called creators rather than copyists. We can-
not understand the Doric order until we have studied it in
the Parthenon. It united in itself all the beauties and re-
finements of which the style was capable, and it is perhaps
the highest praise that can be given it if it be admitted
that it gained little essentially by the addition of the sculp-
tures of Pheidias. . They were a glorious ornament, but
the Parthenon was perfect as a building without them.
The Parthenon was the only temple in Greece that had
eight columns in its end porticoes. It was a small build-
ing, being only 228 feet long by 101 feet wide, and it was
built of the finest white marble. Like all the Doric tem-
ples, it was painted over its whole surface, internally as
well as externally. The sculpture was relieved by a col-
ored background, the coverings of the roof were certainly
painted, and all the mouldings. This seems to be the
general opinion of scholars and artists on this much-voxed
question, but it is still disputed by some persons of au-
thority. Fergusson in England, Viollet-le-Duc in France,
and Semper in Germany maintain the affirmative, however,
and their authority, singly or combined, is very great. The
fact that color was used cannot be disputed, seeing that
there are plenty of traces of it still existing. The question
seems to be, How extensively was it used, and was it ap-
plied to the buildings when they were first erected or at a
later date 2
The Parthenon was built by Pericles about 440 B. C.
The architects Ictinus and Callicrates were charged with
the construction, and Pheidias was entrusted with the com-
mission to fill the two pediments and the metopes with
sculpture. Whatever may have been the origin of the
Doric order, by the time the Parthenon came to be built
Greek delicacy and perception had, so ripened as to give
the order that final grace which has made this celebrated
temple a standard of architectural perfection to the whole
civilized world. So delicate are the refining processes by
which this final perfection was reached that it was long
before they were discovered, and people wondered why the
most careful and conscientious attempts made by skilful
architects to reproduce the Parthenon always failed to please
like the original. The truth is, that these refinements are
too delicate to be detected except by the most accurate
measurement; they were never intended to be discovered
by the eye, since their only object was the correction in each
instance of an optical illusion, and the error in which the
refinement consisted was only meant to be sufficient to just
counterbalance this delusion. The first of these refinements
was the entasis or swelling of the columns, a peculiarity
noticed by Vitruvius, and in our own time first verified by
Mr. Allanson, though it is to Mr. Penrose's measurements
and analyses that we owe our present knowledge on this sub-
ject, and indeed on all the minute points connected with the
Athenian architecture. That the columns diminished from
the bottom to the top was always known, and is evident
enough to the eye, but it was long before it was proved that
this diminishing was not regular, and that, owing to their
Swelling slightly out, they were bounded not by straight
lines, but by a very delicate hyperbolic curve, only discov-
erable by the nicest measurement. When this was found
out it explained why the modern columns made with such
good faith and cleverness in close imitation of the Greek
looked so stiff and lifeless. And yet we have never known
how to profit by our knowledge. Modern Doric columns
either have not enough entasis, and look as if the sides sank
in, or they have too much, and look like bolsters set on
end. The entasis of the columns of the Parthenon is #g
of the whole height. By another refinement, the end-ar-
chitraves in all the temples were curved upward, the mid-
dle of the line being higher than the ends. This curving
of the end-architraves was common to all the temples, but
in the Parthenon the stylobate and the architrave of the
sides were also curved upward. The commonly accepted
explanation of these refinements is, that they were design-
ed to correct the error to which the eye is liable in looking
at a long straight line. The same nicety of perception led to
the curving upward of the roof-ridge, to the giving all the
columns a slight inward inclimation, and to the making the
columns at the angles thicker than the others—in the case
of the Parthenon by fºr of the diameter, and in the case of
the Theseum by gº. All the curves are hyperbolas or parab-
olas, and in the adjustment of the parts one to another a
system of proportions was adopted and elaborately carried
out so recondite that by most persons it was long regarded
as more fanciful than real. Now, however, the discoveries
of Mr. Penrose are universally admitted, and it is seen that
they explain the charm the Greek architecture has even for
persons who have no scientific acquaintance with the sub-
ject. We must not overlook in passing the theory that the
Doric temple was an imitation in all its parts of a wooden
original, the columns being the trunks of trees; the archi-
trave the beam that was laid from post to post; the tri-
glyphs the ends of the joists; and the metopes the spaces be-
tween them filled up with slabs of marble; that the mutules
were the ends of the roof-rafters, and the guttae the drops of
rain that collect on the under side of horizontal beams. This
theory might by this time, we think, be allowed to rest
with the myths of Romulus and Remus or the story of
William Tell and the apple. It has no foundation in fact,
and deserves no consideration. It is all one with the story
that the Doric column was designed to suggest the male
figure, and the Ionic the female. The Doric temple was
essentially a stone construction, the cella and the portico
being covered with a wooden roof, and no part of the ma-
sonry was imitative of anything. -
It seems to be admitted by those who have the most
right to be heard on the subject that the Ionic order was in
use as early in Greece as the Doric ; that in Asia Minor it
was in use even earlier; and that it was employed in many
of the finest temples in that region, which were destroyed
during the Persian war. The fact that the few existing
buildings in Greece in which this Ionic order is found are
of a much later date than the oldest Doric buildings led
earlier writers on the subject to consider it as of much later
introduction, but it is now admitted that the Ionic order
was in use as early in Greece as the Doric order, and that
in Asia Minor it was perhaps of greater antiquity. The
famous temple of Diana at Ephesus, that of Apollo at
Miletus, and others at Sardis, Priené, and Teos, all of
which have perished, were built in this style. On the other
hand, the temple of Juno at Samos was originally of the
Doric order, but was perhaps destroyed and rebuilt, since
the ruins now found there are Ionic. Architectural forms
often indicate changes in fashion or the prevalence of cer-
tain influences, as well as deeper-seated modifications of .
ideas. Thus, at Pompeii, immediately after the first great
eruption of Vesuvius (63 B.C.), the Roman officials caused
all the temples and public buildings to be either rebuilt or
restored in the Corinthian order, which was as much a
favorite at Rome as the Doric was in Greece, and the traces
of this fashionable remodelling are evident enough to the
most careless observers. In the so-called temple of Venus
near the Forum the Doric capitals were changed into Co-
rinthian by means of stucco, which to-day is falling off and
shows the Doric marble underneath. This is only one in-
stance of what has been going on in the practice of build-
ing since the carliest times. The Egyptians seem to have
been the only Western people who never were influenced
in their architecture by their conquerors or their allies.
Their architecture does not show a single trace of foreign
influence, but in Western Europe the history of architec-
ture is only the history of modifications, many of them
vital, it is true, like those produced by the use of the arch,
of iron, and of painted glass, but many of them, also, due
to fashion, to the influence of conquest, to the exigencies
of climate, and to changes in political and social life. It is
not easy to understand why the Ionic buildings should
have suffered so much more than the Doric, but it is true
that even in Greece there is but little left by which toº
judge of the progressive history of the Ionic order. . We
can trace the Doric from its clumsy beginnings in the tem-
ple of Corinth to the perfect beauty of the Parthenon, but
when we first meet the Ionic in the Erectheium and the
temple of the Wingless Victory, it is in full development;
the stages by which it arrived at this point, in Greece at
least, are all destroyed. . The loss of these intermediate
buildings is much to be regretted. Without them it is
almost impossible to acknowledge the relationship between
214
ARCHITECTURE.
the stilted and awkward capitals of the Hall of Xerxes at
Persepolis and the elegant capitals of the Erectheium at
Athens. -
The Corinthian order was not introduced into Greece until
the age of Alexander the Great (B. C. 356-323), unless we
are to accept what Pausanias says about the temple in
Tegea, in Arcadia. According to this doubtful authority,
that temple was rebuilt by Scopas, the celebrated architect
of Paros, after its destruction by fire about 400 B.C. It
was surrounded by an Ionic peristyle externally, but the
internal peristyle was Doric, with a gallery above, with
Corinthian columns supporting the roof. Supposing this
to be trustworthy, this temple would mark a very import-
ant era in the history of Greek architecture, as showing
the influx of new ideas, and a definite departure from the
older style. , Nothing, however, remains in the presumed
locality of the temple but shapeless ruins, and we must
await regular explorations before we can know anything
with certainty about the building. So far as we know, the
oldest example of the Corinthian order in Greece is found
in the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates (one remaining of
many small structures erected as trophies of victory in the
musical contests). This was built B. C. 335, and has long
been considered a model of elegance. Much later in date,
and by no means so beautiful, was the Tower of the Winds,
a small octagonal building erected to contain a clepsydra
or water-clock, and having a dial on one side and a vane
at the top. This was built in the second century B. C.
The only traces of the Corinthian order are found in the
fragments discovered near it, out of which the archaeolo-
gists have constructed two small porches, and it is most
likely that they did originally belong to the building. The
most important example in Athens of the Corinthian order
was the temple of Jupiter Olympus, but this was not a
Greek work, having been begun by Cosentius, a Roman
architect, in the second century B. C., and finished by
PIadrian in the second century of our era. The Greeks
were not fortunate in their attempt with the Corinthian
style. Strangely enough, it was left for the Romans to
bring this order to perfection, though perhaps the Greek
failure was due rather to the fact that the style was intro-
duced at a time when the arts were in decay than to an in-
herent inability to deal with it. Judging from the earliest
remains we have of the Corinthian as used in Asia Minor,
the ancient examples may have been in purer taste than
those that remain to us at Athens. In one of these older
examples the capital has the acanthus leaf at the base, and
the honeysuckle ornament above. Later, the volutes of the
Ionic order were added, but in the Greek examples the
union was never successfully accomplished. In the Monu-
ment of Lysicrates we have the best that Greek hands could
do in this doubtful mingling of two styles. . In the Tower
of the Winds this was not attempted, nor is the spreading
Asiatic base of the pillars in the Choragic Monument re-
tained. The pillars of the Tower of the Winds, on the
contrary, are without any base whatever. There is some-
thing not easily understood in this return to an older sever-
ity and purity.
Roman Architecture.—The Greeks were not great build-
ers, but they were supreme architects. With the excep-
tion of a few small monuments of no great importance,
they have left us nothing besides temples, but in these the
system of the post-and-lintel architecture was made to
show all the grace, elegance, and dignity of which it was
capable, just as in the Egyptian temples and palaces it
had reached the highest point of sublimity. The Romans
were in general only middling architects, but the Egyp-
tians alone could compare with them as builders." It is
asserted of them that everything in their architecture was
borrowed, but even if this were admitted, it must be ad-
mitted, on the other hand, that they were not slavish copy-
ists: in many instances they made what they borrowed
their own. If they inherited the round arch from the
Etruscans, they made. Such an individual use of it that it
has its name from them, and not from their neighbors
and ancestors. To all intents and purposes they were the
inventors of it. They borrowed, we believe, all the orders
from the Greeks, and though they spoiled, or at least
materially changed, the Doric and the Ionic, they made
of the Corinthian a new creation far more beautiful and
elegant than it had been in Greek hands. If they bor-
rowed the amphitheatre from the Etruscans, its employ-
ment became so important in their society that it soon left
its rock-excavated original far behind, and took on a cha-
racteristic and essentially new form. The Romans derived
in their blood a love for the arch and the circular forms
that spring from it and harmonize with it; but it is not
perhaps necessary to look elsewhere for an explanation of
the development of the arch and dome in Roman hands
than to the differences in the climate of Greece and Italy,
and in the social needs of the Greeks and Romans. As
them a considerable debt.
has been remarked, the only public buildings the Greeks
have left us are their temples. They lived in the open air,
and had no need of the roofs by which the Romans pro-
tected themselves from the excessive heats of their sum-
Jmers and the rigors of their damp and cold winters.
Whether it were a simplé climatic reason, or a something
in the disposition of the people difficult to trace and ana-
lyze, as such things are and must be, we cannot tell. Only,
here are the facts. The Greeks have left us only temples;
the Romans have left us temples, baths, amphitheatres,
bridges, aqueducts, triumphal arches, triumphal columns,
market-places (fora), palaces, houses, and tombs. They
took from the Greeks the plans of their rectangular tem-
ples, but the Greek temple was merely a wall admirably
built and decorated, with a portico running about it; often
this wall enclosed an uncovered court, or if the court were
roofed it was generally roofed with wood, the wall and its
portico being sufficient for the vertical pressure, which was
all it had to sustain. Whatever led the Romans to desire
plans in which a number of small rooms, or one large
room, were to be covered with a roof, as we have said, does
not appear, but they showed a marked determination to
this sort of building, and of necessity were obliged to in-
vent some stable and at the same time simple means of
roofing these rooms. We confess we find something child-
ish in the supposed necessity of finding out whence the
Romans borrowed the great principle of the arch, and
how they learned to make vaults. Is not man endowed
with every faculty that is necessary to his well-being, and
did not the Roman derive his skill in arch-building from
the same source from which the Esquimaux derives his?
Who played Etruscan to the Esquimaux 2 Nay, for that
matter, who played Etruscan to the Etruscans themselves?
The Romans, then, wanted roofs, and roofs that were to
cover spaces much larger than could be covered by any
wooden roofing without the aid of columns. The circular
vault was the simplest, most natural device, and we are
ready to believe that they came upon it in their own minds
without the need of any ancestor from whom to borrow it.
The Roman buildings are imposing and magnificent
from their mass, but in their details there is too often a
lack of delicacy and proportion, while the ornamentation
is almost always coarse in execution, though not unfre-
quently spirited in design. The Romans employed Greek
workmen and artists to decorate their buildings—the struc-
tures themselves were of their own designing—and of
necessity much fine sculpture and sculptured ornament was
executed, not only in Rome, but in other cities in Italy
and in the provinces. But, as always happens in cases
where the employer has no knowledge of the work he is
paying for, and little feeling for it or interest in it beyond
a desire to get the most show he can for his money, the
skill and taste of the Greek workman deteriorated under
Roman employment, just as, if we may be allowed the
comparison, the skill and taste of the French artist and
workman deteriorate when they work for English and
American employers.
If in this slight sketch we do not attempt to give an
account of the more celebrated Roman buildings, it is
because in point of architecture they have little original-
ity; in nearly every case a Roman building was a skilful
pile of masonry, with an external mask made up of details
borrowed from Greece. Besides, few of their buildings
proper are sufficiently well preserved to be described with
accuracy. The Pantheon is the only temple in Rome that
still retains its walls, its roof, and its portico; the Flavian
Amphitheatre (the Colosseum) is in ruins, though it still
keeps the greater part of the mask of arches, columns, and
entablatures that covered its masonry and concealed its
true structure; the stupendous baths of Titus, of Diocle-
tian, of Caracalla are heaps of nearly indistinguishable
ruin; of the Forum nothing remains but a puzzle for the
antiquaries, and the palace of the Caesars is a vast desola-
tion. But though these buildings were constructed with
great solidity, and in many cases with admirable science,
they showed in almost every instance a lamentable ignor-
ance of the true principles of architectural design, coupled
with a singular lack of invention. . The Romans piled up
mountains of stone, and thought they had showed them-
selves architects when they had concealed their masonry
behind screens consisting of monotonous rows of columns
and pilasters, arches, niches, architraves, and entablatures.
Still, if we fix our eyes upon what the Romans did, rather
than upon what they failed to do, we shall find we owe
Their delight in building gave
a stimulus to the art all over Western Europe, and if they
were not architects themselves in the true sense of the
term, they were at least the cause why others were archi-
tects, since they laid the broad and deep foundations on
which the men of the Middle Ages built so well.
We know very little of the architecture of Rome during
ARCHITECTURE.
215
the republic : it was with the empire that the long line of
Roman achievement in the art of building began. The
Pantheon, the temples of the Forum, the Colosseum, the
great aqueducts, the bridges, the baths, were all of late con-
struction, and when the empire fell to pieces every place
on the earth’s surface that had been subject to it contained
the proofs of that subjection in buildings that still remain,
and that would still be in their original condition, so sol-
idly were they built, if man had not destroyed them from
wantonness or cupidity.
One class of buildings, however, owed a longer life than
was granted to the rest to the fact that they easily fitted
themselves to the new order of things that came in with
the toleration of Christianity by the state, under Constan-
time. These were the basilicas or halls of justice. They
were of several kinds—those that were roofed with stone
vaults, and those that were roofed with wood—and they
were either rectangular or circular in form. They were
built wherever the Romans founded or took possession of
cities and towns. The larger and more splendid basilicas
of Trajan and Maxentius, of which the ruins still exist in
Rome, were vaulted with stone, and splendidly if also
somewhat barbarously coated with a false decoration of
pillars and entablatures in costly marbles; but in the
provinces, and later in Rome itself, these buildings were
often Small and roofed with wood, and when the Christians
first began to look around them for places in which to wor-
ship, they either took possession of basilicas already erected
or put up new ones modelled on the old, but smaller and
less expensive. However, their inexpensiveness was not
always the measure of their decoration, for they were in
most cases built of the materials of older edifices, and
adorned, and that often splendidly, with columns and slabs
of rare and beautiful marble from the despoiled palaces
and temples of imperial Rome. The arrangement of every
Christian church that has a ritual is borrowed directly
from the original arrangement of the basilicas, though
this was considerably modified at an early period in the
history of the Church as it changed from a democratic to
an aristocratic organization. This will be easily seen by
examining the plan of a Roman basilica, where will be
found the quaestor's seat in the apse (which was afterwards
occupied by the bishop), the altar in front of the apse
where sacrifice was performed before commencing any im-
portant public business, and the rostra or pulpits at the
sides where the clerks were placed. These last became
the reading-desks and pulpits of the new occupants.
Originally, the whole, space in front of the apse was open
to the public, who came and went as in a modern court-
room; but with the change of ideas in the rulers of the
Church, a separation was established between the clergy
and the laity; the apse was railed off, and access forbid-
den; then a rectangular space was railed off in front of
the apse for the inferior clergy, and little by little the pres-
ent disposition of ritualistic churches was established. In
passing, we may refer the reader to the highly interesting
church of San Clemente at Rome, where abundant proofs
of these early conditions may still be studied, and where
the arrangement of the basilica as built by the Christians
under the full influence of these aristocratic notions of
church government are yet to be seen in perfect preserva-
tion. Historically and artistically, the church of San Cle-
mente is much more interesting than St. Peter's, but it is
only lately that it is getting to be known to the ordinary
traveller. , , , . . . .
As the world began to revive after the blasting influences
of the downfall of the Roman empire were somewhat spent,
the rapid growth of the new religion called for new churches
everywhere, and not only churches, but monasteries and
convents to house the thousands of men and women who
thronged to fill the ranks of the monastic orders, then
forming on all sides.
The Eastern Roman empire, having its seat at Byzan-
tium, continued to erect buildings which, until the rise of
the Mohammedan powers, showed the influence of the tra-
ditions of Rome, with features borrowed from the countries
with which the Eastern empire came into more intimate
relations. It is to this modification in the Eastern empire
of the classic Roman by barbarian influences that the term
Byzantine is strictly applicable. The similar modification
that took place in the classic style in the Western empire,
principally in the countries N. of the Alps, under the in-
fluence of the so-called Gothic races, is rightly distin-
guished as Romanesque. The period of greatest activity
in the Byzantine style was that which is included between
the removal of the empire to Byzantium and the death of
Justinian (A. D. 328–565). Yet, though the styles of the
East and the West became later so different, during this
period the line of demarcation can hardly be perceived.
Constantinople, Rome, and Ravenna were the chief cities
of one great empire, and throughout the whole region
whatever building was done was building for the same
new uses out of the materials that had once done service
for the old religion and the old society. But, as when a
family is separated by one of its members leaving the old
home and going to dwell in a distant region, while both he
who goes and they who stay long continue to keep up the
old traditions and to maintain the former ways of living,
yet each is sure in time to be subjected to new influences,
and so to become widely different from the other, so each
division of the Roman empire, subjected during this long
period of nearly three hundred years to severe experiences,
developed a new society, and of course a new phase of
architecture. Before the age of Constantine one style per-
vaded the whole empire. Then came the period of tran-
sition, “during which the Western empire was in a state of
decay, ending in a débâcle from which the Gothic style did
not emerge until some four centuries later, while the East-
ern empire, on the contrary, was during that time progres-
sively forming itself, and did form a style of its own of
singular beauty and perfection.” This style culminated
in the erection of the great church of Santa Sophia at
Constantinople (A. D. 532–563), which the Turks after-
wards converted to their own worship. After this glorious
achievement the art gradually declined, but many build-
ings of great skill and beauty were erected all over the East,
not only in Constantinople, but in Syria, Russia, Armenia,
Asia Minor, and Greece. -
Meanwhile, in Western Europe the story of architectural
progress runs on almost without interruptionſ from the
grand days of the Roman empire down to the time of the
great revival of learning which we call “the Renaissance” or
“the Reformation.” Christian architecture began in pagan
Rome, and every Christian church edifice—parish church
or cathedral—traces its ancestry back to the Roman basil-
ica. While the countries N. of the Alps were yet struggling
to create their new civilization on the ruins of the Roman
empire, in Italy the state of society was undergoing a less
violent transformation, and the old Roman forms were
modified, but not overthrown nor outgrown. The one rea-
son for this, we have already noticed in the fact that the
buildings erected in this period were either restored on the
ruins of older structures, or were made of old materials,
and adorned with the marble columns, capitals, friezes,
and slabs that were found in such abundance in the Roman
cities. The same thing was done in cities in France and
Spain and England—principally in France, of course,
though even there to a much less extent than in Italy; but
in the North there were new exigencies of climate to be met,
and there were the wants and tastes of a new society demand-
ing new forms in which to enshrine themselves. But there
was wanted the shock of a new crisis, the stir and emotion
of a great conflict—not of bodies merely in battle, but of
ideas; and the conquests of the Turks, which led to the
final absorption and disappearance of the Byzantine style
in Eastern Europe, had much to do with developing the Ro-
manesque and the full splendor of the Gothic, by introdu-
cing into the society of Western Europe a new and power-
ful disturbing force, stimulating the old faith into new
ardor, and bringing the whole population, directly or indi-
rectly, into contact and conflict with the civilization of the
East, through those enterprises in which religion and the
trading spirit were so curiously yet so inextricably min-
gled, and which we call the Crusades. Gothic architecture
was not derived from the East; no single feature of it can
be traced to that source; it was the fruit of religious en-
thusiasm roused to fever-heat by the menace of a new per-
secution; of thought stimulated by adventure, discovery,
and contact with new societies; of the wealth that poured
into Europe with the rapidly increasing trade with the
East.
While the new religion was getting itself established in
Western Europe, it contented itself with working in the
channel of Roman ideas, and wherever it could find them
employing Roman materials. But not only did these ma–
terials give out before long, but, as the nations progressed
more and more in their own development and got farther
away from the Roman influence, and as the Northern ideas
and sentiments ever grew stronger, it was inevitable that
there should come a change over the style of building. For
a very slight study of the subject will convince any one
that of the history of the human race a large chapter at
least is written in its buildings, and no great change ever
came over the spirit of man without a corresponding change
coming over the more important of the works of his hand;
and none of his works have a more essential importance
than the buildings in which he lives and Worships and
makes his laws. -
It would, however, be a serious mistake if we should
think that any new principle was discovered by which the
architecture we call Christian was separated from the
pagan Roman. It was only development, nothing more.
216
ARCHITECTURE.
When the Romans neglected the architrave system—or, as
it is better called, the post-and-lintel system—of the Greeks
and Egyptians, and took up and developed the arch (known
long before their time, but never used to any extent), they
left nothing useful to be discovered in the field of architecture,
and these two principles, used separately or in combination,
are all that since their day men have found it necessary to
employ. The pointed arch was developed as naturally, in
obedience to man’s needs, as the round arch had been; it
was even, as it would appear, a local discovery, and was
used in Provence in France while the rest of Western Eu-
rope was still building round arches under Roman influ-
ence. Mr. Fergusson shows that its use was very ancient,
it having been employed by the Assyrians in the eighth
century B. C., and by the Ethiopians in the seventh centu-
ry B. C.; while the Ethiopians and early settlers in Greece
(Pelasgi) used the form, though constructed with horizontal
courses, twelve centuries B. C., and while, to come nearer to
our own time, the Saracens adopted it in Cairo in the first
century of the Hejira, and never apparently used a round
arch after the erection of the mosque of Ebn Touloun
(A. D. 885); yet, although he shows very clearly that its
use by the builders of Provence in the time of Charle-
magne was dictated by necessity, he finds it difficult to be-
lieve that they could have reinvented it for the purposes
to which it was applied. But we are so far from being
surprised at any such fact as this, and so unwilling to in-
sist that an ancestor must be found for every achievement
of man, that we see no reason to doubt that the people of
Provence invented the form, nor should we be surprised to
come upon it or the round arch in any land, if such re-
main to be discovered, as impossible to connect with any
ancestry as Palenque or Japan.
The pointed arch was, then, merely a new and fortunate
step in the march of architectural progress, but its introduc-
tion was gradual, and at first it was combined with the
still lingering traces of Roman architecture, appearing like
a new element in the buildings so well called Romanesque
from the preponderance in them of Roman features. It
would be impossible in our small space to so much as glance
over the immense field covered by the buildings of the
Gothic period. The Gothic architecture reached its cul-
mination in the thirteenth century, when the most beauti-
ful buildings were erected that the world has ever seen.
“Not even the great Pharaonic era in Egypt, the age of Per-
icles in Greece, nor the great period of the Roman empire,
will bear comparison,” says Fergusson, “with the thirteenth
century in France, whether we look to the extent of the
buildings executed, their wonderful variety and construc-
tive elegance, the daring imagination that conceived them,
or the power of poetry and of lofty religious feeling that
is expressed in every feature and in every part of them.”
The Gothic style is seen in its purity in France and in
England, but even in Venice and some other cities of
Northern Italy, where it is mingled writh Byzantine and
Roman features, there is a beauty about it, a poetic charm,
which has of late years especially excited a high degree of
admiration.
We have said that no new principle was introduced in
the pointed architecture, but it is important to remember
that the exigencies of the Northern climate, the less amount
of sunlight, and the double necessity of admitting as much
light as possible while excluding rain and snow, inevitably
led to the development of the manufacture of glass and its
employment in windows. The Greeks, Egyptians, and Ro-
mans were all well acquainted with glass, and manufactured
and used it as freely in proportion to their population as
we of to-day. They employed glass to close small window-
openings, as well as mica, of both which materials large
quantities have been found in Pompeii and Herculaneum;
but in a southern climate the need of such protection from
the weather must have been less frequent and for shorter
periods than in the North. The builders of the Pan-
theon left an opening of twenty-six feet in diameter, mak-
ing an area of thirty-two square feet, in the centre of the
dome, through which the rain and snow are free to fall ;
but in the Roman climate no practical inconvenience is ever
felt from this exposure. North of the Alps such freedom
as this would be impossible, and man’s old possession of
glass Was soon made to serve a new use. As it lent itself
easily to staining with lovely color, the Gothic builders
found a natural delight in using it, and they enlarged and
multiplied the windows of their churches merely for the
pleasure of filling them with painted glass. These windows
are the glory and chief beauty of their buildings. Some
of them—the Sainte Chapelle at Paris, for instance—are
nothing but lovely tents or tabernacles of glass, incom-
parable in design and color. And so strong a hold did this
new element of decoration take upon the minds of the peo-
ple of that age that “after the middle of the twelfth cen-
tury the principal and guiding motive in all the changes
away, apparently for ever.
introduced into the architecture of the age was to obtain
the greatest possible space and the best-arranged situations
for its display.” t
The Gothic architecture, after crowding Europe with the
beautiful or grand performances of its prime, and leaving
to the world a heritage of wonder that is inexhaustible,
was struck by decay, and died at last in the fifteenth cen-
tury. Then, after a pause in which much interesting, much
picturesque, and much very ugly building went on, there
came slowly on with the dwindling of the old faith, with
the vital change in society, with all the elements that made
the sixteenth century a period of revolution, another great
change in architecture, which is called the Classic Revival,
the Renaissance. And just as in the growth of the Gothic
style we saw the old Roman forms slowly displaced by new,
so now we see the now forms as slowly displaced by the old
elements that had once given place to them. The pointed
arch was gradually dropped, the stained-glass windows
faded out of sight, and the old architecture of Rome was
revived in principle, though shorn of much of its grandeur,
in these buildings crowned by domes and with their sur-
faces masked by the old screens of columns and entabla-
tures.
Still, in the beginning, much that was magnificent in
public buildings, in churches, town-halls, châteaux, and
palaces, was accomplished by the architects of the Renais-
sance, and much that was picturesque and charming—if
not always defensible—in domestic buildings. In Italy and
France the architecture of the Renaissance produced its
most splendid fruit, but there is much that is interesting
in Germany, in Spain, and in England.
What the chapel of Henry VII. is to the Gothic archi-
tecture, the sign of its approaching death, the church of
St. Peter at Rome was to the Renaissance; nor did it long
survive that colossal blunder. The work of many years
and many hands, one of the costliest buildings over crected
in modern times, and the product of the skill of the greatest
architects and artists of the age, it is a building every way
unsatisfactory, and one which the world has long ceased to
regard with enthusiasm. But, in truth, the world had bo-
come wearied with building, and since that unfortunate ex-
periment has only trifled with brick and stone. For times
are changed, and the zeal that once burned to build church.cs
for the glory of God, the love of art that delighted to adorn
them, are grown cold, and stir men not any more. For
nearly three hundred years not a single building has been
erected in Europe or anywhere that has an original claim
to admiration, or that would occasion the least regret by
its loss except on grounds of convenience or utility. This
could not have been said of any three centuries, nor of any
one century, that elapsed between the building of the Pyr-
amids and the close of the sixteenth century of our era.
During all that unrolling of centuries architecture was a
living art, employing man’s highest skill and covering the
earth with beautiful and stately buildings. It is often
brought as a reproach that man has long ceased to take
delight in architecture. But, while we may regret the fact,
it is useless to mourn over it, and infidelity to man to argue
from it that he is on the road to hopeless degradation. We
are living in an era of revolution as striking and as mo-
mentous as the race has ever seen, and man’s faculties are
everywhere busy with the pressing needs of the time. It
may be well to remember that the triumphs of architecture
have been won in building churches for a worship that was
suited to the infancy of our civilization; in building pal-
aces for rulers who subjected their people's bodies as
the Church subjected their minds; and in other structures
suited to social and political conditions that have passed
The race is everywhere in fer-
mentation, and when it has settled down into the new order
which will surely come out of chaos, the building instinct
and the delight in building which are a part of the nature
of man will once more take up the task, and Architecture
be born again. (For the styles of architecture contemporary
with the European development of the art, but independent
of it, see the various articles Assy RIA, INDIA, and CHI-
NESE ARCHITECTURE. Also for later modifications, see
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE.) The historical study of
architecture is made easy in our day by a multitude of ex-
cellent books upon the subject, some dealing with it in the
general, others in detail. For the English reader no book
is more valuable than Fergusson’s “History of Architec-
ture, Ancient and Modern,” beginning with the earliest
times and coming down (in a volume published in 1873) to
our own day. This latest volume contains also an account
of the principal buildings in America, with criticisms upon
them. Kügler’s “Handbuch der Baukunst” is a complete
and valuable dictionary for consultation, too dry to read. .
The invaluable “Dictionnaire de l’Architecture * of Viollet
le Duc covers the architecture of France from the twelfth
century to the Renaissance. CLARENCE Cook.
ARCHITECTURE OF THE
AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 217
Architecture of the American Aborigines.
When America was first discovered in its several regions,
the aborigines were found in two dissimilar conditions.
First were the Village Indians, who depended almost ex-
clusively upon horticulture for subsistence; such were the
nations of New Mexico, Mexico, and Central America, and
upon the plateau of the Andes. Second were the Non-
horticultural Indians, who depended upon fish, bread-roots,
and game; such were the Indians of the Valley of the Co-
lumbia, of the Hudson’s Bay Territory, of parts of Canada,
and of all other sections of North America, where cultiva-
tion was unknown. Between these, and connecting the
extremes by insensible gradations, were the partially Wil-
lage and partially Horticultural Indians; such were the
Iroquois, the New England and Virginia Indians, the
Creeks, Cherokees, Mandans, Minnitarees, Shawnees, and
Chichemecs of Mexico. The weapons, arts, usages, in-
ventions, dances, architecture, and form of government of
all alike bear the impress of a common mind, and reveal,
through their wide range, the successive stages of devel-
opment of the same original conceptions. Our first mis-
take consisted in overrating the comparative advancement
of the Village Indians; and our second in underrating that
of the Non-horticultural, and also that of the partially Vil-
lage Indians; whence resulted a third, that of separating
one from the other, and regarding them as different stocks.
The evidence of their unity of origin has now accumulated
to such a degree as to leave no reasonable ground for doubt
upon the question, although this conclusion is not univer-
sally accepted. The latter classes always held the prepon-
derating power, at least in North America, and furnished
the migrating bands which replenished the continent with
inhabitants.
It is a singular fact that the Village Indians, who first
became possessed of corn, the great American cereal, and
of the art of cultivation, did not rise to supremacy over the
continent. With their increased and more stable means of
subsistence it might reasonably have been expected that
they would have extended their power, and spread their
migrating populations over the most valuable areas, to the
gradual displacement of the ruder nations. In this they
signally failed. Their civilization, such as it was, did not
enable them to advance, either in their weapons or in the
art of war, beyond the more barbarous nations, except as
a superior house-architecture rendered their habitations
impregnable to Indian assault.
Besides this, their governmental institutions had not ad-
vanced beyond the societas, founded upon the gentes, and
which created personal relations, into the civitas, founded
upon territory and upon property. This argument, when
extended, demonstrates the impossibility of potentates or
privileged classes under their institutions, with power to
enforce the labor of the people for the erection of houses
or palaces for their individual use.
It should be further observed, with respect to their rela-
tive advancement, that the Non-horticultural Indians were,
in general, without the art of pottery, and therefore in a
state of savagery; that the partially Village Indians, who
practised the ceramic art, were in the First Period of Bar-
barism; whilst the Village Indians, who, in addition, culti-
vated by irrigation, constructed houses of adobe bricks
and stone, and a portion of whom, the Peruvians, had do-
mesticated the llama as well as invented bronze, were in
the Middle Period of Barbarism. It remained for them to
invent the process of smelting iron ore to attain to the
Closing Period of Barbarism; and beyond that, to invent
a phonetic alphabet to reach the First Stage of Civilization.
The indigenous architecture of the Village Indians has
given to them, more than aught else, their position in the
estimation of mankind. The facts of their social condi-
tion, which unfortunately are obscure, have done much less
in fixing their status than existing architectural remains.
The Indian edifices of the period of the Conquest, from the
materials used in their construction, from their palatial ex-
tent, and from the character of their ornamentation, may
well excite surprise and even admiration; but, as we think
it can be shown, a false interpretation has, from the first,
been put upon this architecture, and inferences constantly
drawn from it, with respect to the social condition and ad-
vancement of the people, both fallacious and deceptive,
where the plain truth would have been more creditable to
the aborigines themselves.
There is a common principle running through this archi-
tecture, from the “long house” of the Iroquois to the
pueblo houses of New Mexico, and to the so-called
“Palace ’’ at Palenque and the “Governor’s House” at
Uxmal. It is the principle of communism in living, re-
stricted, in the first instance, to groups of persons mutually
related, and extended, finally, to all the inhabitants of a
village or encampment by the law of hospitality. Hunger
and destitution were not known at one end of an Indian
village whilst abundance prevailed at the other. Com-
munism in living and the general law of hospitality seem
to have accompanied all the phases of Indian life. These
great facts of their social condition embodied themselves
in their architecture, and will contribute to its elucida-
tion.
It will be the object of this article to present, briefly,
some of the facts tending to show the practice of com-
munism in living amongst the Non-horticultural and also
the partially Village Indians, and after that to show its
expression in their architecture; and, in the second place,
to bring into notice the principal features of the architec-
ture of the Village Indians of New and Old Mexico and
Central America, from which the inference will be drawn
that communism in living entered into and determined its
character. Concerning the social condition of the latter
our information is limited and defective.
Communism in living has its origin in a union of effort
to procure subsistence, and to a great extent it was a ne-
cessary result of the mode of life of the aborigines. A few
examples will illustrate the proposition. The Blackfeet,
during the buffalo-hunt, follow the herds on horseback in
large parties, composed of men, women, and children.
When the pursuit of the herd is commenced the hunters
leave the dead animals in the track of the chase, to be ap-
propriated by the first persons who come up behind. This
method of distribution is continued until all are supplied.
All the nations who hunt upon the Plains observe the same
custom, making a common stock of the capture. During
the fishing-season in the Valley of the Columbia, where the
fish are more abundant than in any other river on the
earth, all the members of a band encamp together and make
a common stock of the fish obtained. They are divided
each day according to the number of women, giving to
each an equal share. This makes a general distribu-
tion at the outset. When cured and packed they are re-
moved to their homes. Among the Iroquois—and the same
was substantially true of the principal Indian nations—
each party made a common stock of the fish and game ob-
tained on their hunting and fishing expeditions. This
usage led to an equal participation in the means of sub-
sistence, as well as an equal division of the surplus, which
was cured and reserved for winter use. Those forming a
common household who cultivated a garden-bed enjoyed
the product in common. After gathering the harvest it
was stored as a common stock in their dwelling. Each
house, as will presently be shown, was constructed large
enough to accommodate several families, among whom the
communal principle was carried out, but it was limited to
the household. The village did not make a common stock
of their provisions, and thus offer a bounty to improvi-
dence, but the principle of hospitality came in to relieve
the consequences of destitution. -
It should be observed that the family, consisting of a
married pair and their children, was a weak organization
in barbarous life, and still weaker in savagery, unable alone
to cope with the hardships of their condition. It was
made by pairing, with divorce at the option of either party.
But the gens, in which the family practically was merged,
was sufficiently powerful as an organism to face the diffi-
culties of daily life. Accordingly, it will be found that
the household, which formed a communal group, was most-
ly composed of members of the same gens.
The law of hospitality may be illustrated by Iroquois
usages. If a man enters an Indian house in any village, it is
the duty of the women therein to set food before him. An
omission to do this would be a discourtesy amounting to
an affront. If hungry, he ate ; if not, courtesy required
that he should taste the food and thank the giver. This
would be repeated at every house he entered and at what-
ever hour in the day. As a custom it was upheld by a
rigorous public sentiment, and seems to have been univer-
sal amongst the American aborigines. Lewis and Clarke
refer to the same practice among the nations of the Mis-
souri. “It is the custom,” they remark, “ of all the nations
of the Missouri to offer every white man food and refresh-
ment when he first enters their tents.” (Thravels, Long-
man’s ed., 1814, p. 649.) This was simply applying their
rules of hospitality among themselves to their white
visitors. It tended, obviously, to equalize subsistence,
and prevent destitution in any portion of an Indian com-
munity whilst any household possessed a surplus. Not-
withstanding this generous custom, it is, well known that
the Northern Indians were fearfully pressed for the means
of subsistenee during a large portion of the year. From
the intensity of the struggle to maintain existence it is not
surprising that immense areas were entirely uninhabited,
that other large areas were thinly peopled, and that dense
populations were impossible.
Ílands were universally held in common, but after tillage
commenced a possessory right to cultivated tracts or gardens
218 ARCHITECTURE OF THE
AMERICAN ABORIGINES.
was recognized so long as used. When occupation ceased
they reverted.
I. Communal Houses of the Non-horticultural Indians.—We
are first to show that communism in living entered into
and determined the character of the architecture of the Non-
horticultural and also the-partially Village Indians. If it
can be shown that their houses were constructed on this prin-
ciple, then, wherever houses obviously communal are found,
although in ruins, and although the people who erected them
have disappeared, a presumption will arise that this principle
prevailed among them, and led to the construction of their
houses in this form. The architecture of the ruder Indians
is of but little importance, in itself considered, but as an
outcome of their usages, and in its relations to the archi-
tecture of the Village Indians, it is highly significant.
É=======
FIG. 1. Ojibwa Wig-e-wam.
The Non-horticultural Indians differed among themselves
in the plan of the lodge. The figure, which is copied from
Schoolcraft's work, shows the form of an Ojibwa cabin of
the best class, as it is still seen on the S. shore of Lake Supe-
rior. Its mechanism is sufficiently explained by the figure.
Over it is placed a covering of bark, usually the canoe
birch, taken off in large pieces and attached with splints.
Its size on the ground varied from ten to sixteen feet in
diameter and from seven to ten in height. Twigs of spruce
or hemlock were strewn around the inner border of the
ground-floor, upon which blankets or skins were spread for
beds. The fire-pit was in the centre of the floor, over
which in the roof was an opening for the exit of the smoke.
Such a lodge would accommodate two or three pairs, with
their children. Several such lodges are usually found in
a cluster, and the several households were made up of
related persons, the principal portion being of the same
gens. Carver, who visited a village of this nation on the
Chippewa River in Wisconsin in 1767, observes : “This
town contains about forty houses, and can send out up-
wards of 100 warriors, many of whom are fine stout young
men.” (Travels, Philadelphia, ed., 1796, p. 65.) It would
give a total of 500 persons, and an average of twelve per-
sons to a lodge.
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Fig. 2. Dakotawa-kaya, or skin Tent.
When first discovered the Dakotas lived in houses con-
structed of poles and covered with bark, each of which
was large enough for several families. Forced upon the
Plains, after obtaining the horse they invented a skin tent
superior to any other in use among the aborigines, from its
roominess, its portable character, and the facility with
which it can be erected and struck. The frame consists
of some twelve poles, from fifteen to eighteen feet in length,
which, after being tied together at the small ends, are
raised upright,with a twist, so as to cross the poles above
the fastening. They are then drawn apart at the large
ends, and adjusted upon the ground in the rim of a circle
which is usually ten feet in diameter. A number of un-
haired, tanned buffalo skins, stitched together in a form
adjustable to the frame, are drawn around it and lashed
together as shown in the figure. The lower edges are
secured to the ground with tent-pins. At the top there is
an extra skin adjusted as a collar, so as to be open on the
windward side to facilitate the exit of the smoke. A low
opening is left for a door, which is covered with an extra
skin, used as a drop. The fire-pit and arrangement for
beds are the same as in the Ojibwa lodge. When their
tents are struck the poles are attached to a horse, half on
each side, like thills; the covering and scanty camp-furni-
ture are packed upon other horses, and even upon their
dogs, and are thus transported over the Plains. This tent
is so well adapted to their mode of life that it has spread
far and wide among the Indian tribes. We have seen it
in use among seven or eight Dakota tribes, among the
Iowas, Otoes, and Pawnees, and among the Blackfeet, Crows,
Asiniboines, and Crees. A collection of fifty of these tents,
which would accommodate 500 persons, makes a picturesque
appearance. -
The aborigines of the Valley of the Columbia were more
or less Village Indians, but without horticulture. They
found an abundant subsistence upon shell- and scale-fish,
upon fruits and game, and upon the kamash and other
bread-roots, which they cooked in ground ovens. When
Lewis and Clarke visited this valley (1805–06) they found
the Indians living in houses of a higher communal type
than those previously described, and approaching the pueblo
houses in New Mexico. They speak of a village of the
Chopunish (Nez Perces) as follows: “The village of Tuma-
chemootool is in fact only a single house, 150 feet long,
built after the Chopunish fashion, with sticks, straw, and
dried grass. It contains twenty-four fires, about double
that number of families, and might perhaps muster 100
fighting men.” (Travels, loc. cit., p. 548.) This would give
500 people in a single house; and the fires probably indi-
cate the number of groups; practising communism among
themselves, into which they were subdivided, though it
may have been general to the entire household.
HHHHHH.
|| || || || || ||
225 Fº
FIG. 3. Ground-Plan of Neerechokio.o.
Another great house, Neerechokioo, is thus described:
“This large building is 226 feet in front, entirely above
ground, and may be considered a single house, because the
whole is under one roof; otherwise it would seem more like
a range of buildings, as it is divided into seven distinct
apartments, each thirty feet square, by means of broad
boards set up on end from the floor to the roof. The
apartments are separated from each other by a passage or
alley four feet wide, extending through the whole depth
of the house, and the only entrance is from this alley
through a small hole about twenty inches wide and not
more than three feet high. The roof is formed of rafters
and round poles laid on horizontally. The whole is covered
with a double roof of bark of white cedar.” (Ib., p. 503.)
The apartments indicate the number of groups. Elsewhere
(p. 515), speaking of the houses of the Clahclellah, they
remark: “These houses are uncommonly large; one of
them measured 160 by 40 feet. . . . Most of the houses are
built of boards and covered with bark, though some of the
more inferior kind are constructed wholly of cedar bark.”
These first explorers found the houses of the natives
large enough to accommodate several families, with from
twenty to thirty persons in each. They name the following
villages together (Ib., p. 428): “The Clamoitomish, of
twelve houses and 260 souls; the Potoashees, often houses
and 200 souls; the Pailsk, of ten houses and 200 souls;
the Quinults, of sixty houses and 1000 souls; the Chillates,
of eight houses and 140 souls,” etc. The formation of
large groups in single houses or in apartments of a house
is thus fully shown. Our explorers do not speak of the
practice of communism in these groups. When the usages
of other nations, which are known, are presented, the in-
ference of communism in living in these aboriginal houses
in the Valley of the Columbia will be plain. The tend-
ency to aggregation in groups, which is clearly shown in
the numbers occupying each house, reveals the weakness
as well as inability of the single family to cope with the
hardships of Savage, and even of barbarous, life. Com-

















ARCHITECTURE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES.
munism in living, as elsewhere stated, was the law of their
condition.
II. Communal Houses of the Partially Village Indians.—
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FIG. 4. Pomeiok.
The houses of this class are equally communal in character.
Wythe, in his “Sketches of Virginia,” first published in
1690, furnishes an engraving of the village of the Powhat-
tan Indians, called Pomeiok, consisting of seventeen long
houses, besides a council-house, arranged around an open
central space and surrounded with a palisade. Here the
Algonkin lodge gives place to round-roofed long houses,
framed with poles, and covered with movable matting in-
stead of bark, and large enough for several families. The
suggestion of Wythe that “the buildings were mostly those
of chiefs and men of rank” (Sketches, etc., Langley ed.,
1841, pl. 21) embodies the precise error which has repeated
itself, from the first, with respect to the architecture of the
American aborigines. Because the house is large, as the
Governor’s House at Uxmal, therefore it must have been
the exclusive residence of an Indian potentate—a conclu-
sion opposed to the whole theory of Indian life and insti-
tutions. Indian chiefs were housed with the people, and
no better than the poorest of them.
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FIG. 5. Ho-de'no-Sote of the Iroquois.
During the greater part of the year the Iroquois resided
in villages. The size of the village was estimated by the
number of houses, and the size of the house by the number
of fires it contained. One of the largest villages of the
Seneca-Iroquois, situated near Mendon in the county of
Monroe, N. Y., is thus described by Mr. Greenhalgh, who
visited it in 1677: “Tiotohatton is on the brink or edge of
a hill, has not much cleared ground, is near the river Tioto-
hatton, which signifies bending. It lies to the westward of
Canagora about thirty miles, contains about 120 houses,
being the largest of all the houses we saw, the ordinary
being fifty to sixty feet long, with twelve and thirteen fires
in one house. They have a good store of corn growing to
the northward of the town.” (Doc. Hist. N. Y., i. 13.)
The “long house” of the Iroquois, from which they
called themselves, as one confederated people, Ho-de'no-
saw-nee (“People of the Long House’’), was from fifty to
eighty, and sometimes more than 100 feet long. It con-
sisted of a strong frame of upright poles set in the ground,
strengthened with horizontal poles attached with withes,
and covered with a triangular roof. It was covered over
with large shingles of elm bark tied to the frame with
strings or splints. An external frame of poles and rafters
was then adjusted to hold the shingles between them, the
two being tied together.
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FIG. 6. Ground-Plan of Iroquois House.
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s
The interior was comparted at intervals of six or eight feet,
leaving each chamber entirely open, like a stall, upon the
hall which passed through the centre from end to end,
where were the only doors. Between each four apartments,
two on a side, was a fire-pit in the centre of the hall, used
in common by their occupants. Thus a house with five
fires would contain twenty apartments and accommodate
twenty families, unless some were reserved for storage. An
elderly Seneca woman, now deceased, informed the writer
that she remembered living in one of these houses of the
ancient model when a child, which contained eight families
and two fires. Raised bunks were constructed around the
walls of each apartment for beds. From the roof-poles
were suspended their strings of corn in the ear, braided by
the husks, also their strings of dried squashes and melons.
Spaces were left between the partitions here and there for
storage. Each house was usually occupied by related
families, the women and children belonging to the same
gens. Whatever was taken in the hunt or raised by culti-
vation by any member of the household was for the com-
mon benefit. Provisions were made a common stock within
the house.
It should be observed, further, that among the Iroquois
there was but one regular meal each day, and that in the
morning. At this time the cooking for the day was done,
and the food was served to all within the household from
wooden bowls, ladles, or platters, and without the use of
tables: What remained was reserved for use during the
day, each one partaking whenever hunger prompted. Hom-
mony, which formed their usual lunch, was cooked at the
close of the day. The separate fires were for convenience
alone, all the stores within the house being common.
Here we find communism in living carried out in prac-
tical life, and an expression of the principle in the plan of
the house itself. Having found it in one stock so well de-
veloped as the Iroquois, a presumption of its universality
in the Ganowanian family at once arises, requiring proof
of the negative in other cases for its rebuttal.
In 1790, Mr. Caleb Swan, under the direction of Gen.
Inox, secretary of war, visited the Creek villages in Georgia
‘and Alabama. Without describing their houses specially,
he remarks in his report that “the smallest of their towns
have from twenty to forty houses, and some of the largest
contain from 150 to 200 that are tolerably compact. These
houses stand in clusters of four, five, six, seven, and eight
together, irregularly distributed up and down the banks of
the rivers and small streams. Each cluster of houses con-
tains a clan or family, who eat and live in common.”
(Schoolcraft, History, etc. of Indian Tribes, v., 262.) The
cluster of houses among the Creeks was equivalent to one
of the long houses of the Iroquois; and the clustered
household of the former, who ate and lived in common, was
made up of related families, as the large Iroquois house-
hold within a single house, the relationship being partly
gentile and partly marital.
Carver, in describing the “great town of the Sawkees”
on the Wisconsin River, remarks (Travels, loc. cit., p. 29)
that “it contains about ninety houses, each large enough
for several families. They are built of hewn plank, neatly
jointed, and covered with bark so completely as to keep
out the most penetrating rain.”
The Mandans and Minnitarees of the Upper Missouri
ſº
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FIG. 7. Mandan Willage Plot.































*_
220
ARCHITECTURE OF THE
AMERICAN ABORIGINES.
workmanship to those of any Indians N. of New Mexico.
In 1862 the writer saw the remains of the old Mandan vil-
lage shortly after its abandonment by the Arickarees, its
last occupants. The houses, nearly all of which were of
the same model, were falling into decay, but some of them
were still perfect, and the plan of their structure easily
made out. The annexed ground-plan of the village is
taken from the work of Prince Maximilian, and the remain-
ing illustrations from sketches and measurements of the
author. The village was situated upon a bluff on the W.
side of the Missouri, and at a bend in the river which
formed an obtuse angle, and covered about five acres of
land. It was surrounded with a stockade made of timbers
set vertically in the ground, but then in a dilapidated state.
The houses were circular in external form, the walls being
about five feet high and sloping upward from the ground,
with an inclined roof, both exterior wall and roof being
plastered over with earth a foot and a half thick.
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FIG. 8. Ground-Plan of Mandan House.
These houses are about forty feet in diameter, with the
floor sunk a foot or more below the surface, six feet high
on the inside at the line of the wall, and from twelve to
fifteen feet high at the centre. Twelve posts, six or eight
inches in diameter, are set in the ground at equal distances
in the circumference of a circle, and rising about six feet
above the level of the floor. String-pieces, resting on forks
upon the top of each post, connect them with each other,
thus forming a polygon at the base of the roof and also
upon the ground floor. Against these, and opposite to each
post, an equal number of braces are sunk in the ground
about four feet distant, which, Slanting upward, are ad-
justed by means of forks or depressions cut in the ends,
so as to hold both the posts and the stringers firmly in their
places. Slabs of wood or round timbers are then placed in
the spaces between the braces, at the same inclination from
the ground, and resting against the stringers, which when
completed surrounded the lodge with a wooden wall. Four
posts, each six or eight inches in diameter, are set at the
four angles of a square in the centre, ten feet apart, and
rising from twelve to fourteen feet above the floor. These
are again connected by stringers resting in forks on their
tops, upon which, and the external walls, the rafters rest.
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FIG. 9. Cross-section of Same.
The cross-section exhibits the framework as described.
Poles three or four inches in diameter are placed as rafters
from the external walls to the string-pieces upon the central
posts, and near enough together to give the requisite strength
to support the earth covering which formed the roof. These
poles are first covered over with willow matting, upon which
prairie grass was spread, and over this a deep covering of
earth. An opening was left in the centre, about four feet
in diameter, for the exit of the Smoke and for the admission
of light. The interior is spacious and tolerably well lighted,
although the opening in the roof was the only one through
which light could penetrate. There is but one entrance,
and that protected by an Eskimo doorway; that is, by a
passage five feet wide, ten or twelve feet long, and about six
feet high, constructed with split timbers, roofed with poles
and covered on the top with earth. Buffalo robes suspended
both at the outer and inner entrances supply the place of
doors. Each house, when occupied, was comparted by
screens of willow matting or unhaired skins suspended
from the rafters, with spaces between for storage. These
slightly constructed apartments extended back to the wall
and opened towards the centre, like stalls, thus defining an
open central area which formed the gathering-place of the
inmates of the lodge. The fire-pit was in the centre, about
five feet in diameter and a foot deep, and encircled with
flat stones set up edgeways. A hard smooth earthen floor
completed the interior. Such a lodge would accommodate
five or six families of related persons. In fact, it was a
communal house, in accordance with the usage and institu-
tions of the American aborigines, and growing naturally
out of their customs and mode of life. We counted forty-
eight of these houses which would average forty feet in
diameter, besides several rectangular houses constructed of
hewn logs at a more recent day.
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Fig. 10. Front Elevation of Same.
Not the least interesting fact connected with these credit-
able homes was the quantity of material required in their
construction, and the amount of labor necessary for its
transportation long distances down the river, and to fashion
it with the aid of fire and stone implements into such a
comfortable dwelling. To cut the timber without metallic
inplements, and to transport it without animal power, indi-
cate a degree of persevering industry highly creditable to
a people who are generally regarded as averse to labor.
These houses were thickly studded together to economize
the space within the stockade, so that in walking through
the village you passed along semicircular footpaths.
There is not only no street, but it was impossible to see in
any direction except for short distances. .
It is plain, from the facts thus far presented, that the In-
dian household was a group of related families united for
subsistence upon the communal principle, which in turn
found expression in their house-architecture.
A reference should be made to the Maricopas and Mo-
haves of the Colorado, who, although Village Indians,
still live in ordinary communal houses of the northern
type, which are thus described by Gen. Emory: “They
[the Maricopas] occupy thatched cottages thirty or forty
feet in diameter, made of twigs of cottonwood trees, inter-
woven with the straw of wheat, corn-stalks, and cane.”
(Notes, etc. in W. M., p. 132; cf. Bartlett's Perg, Nar,
230.) Those occupied by the Mohaves, as described by
Capt. Sitgreaves, are similar in character. (Earpedition,
etc. Zuñi and Colorado Rivers, p. 19.) Although their
antecedent history is not well known, they seem to be in
the transitional stage, having passed into the horticultural
and village condition, without being far enough advanced
to imitate their near neighbors in the use of adobe brick
and stone. They seem to be existing examples of that re-
curring advancement of ruder tribes in past ages, through
which the Village Indians were constantly replenished from
the more barbarous nations.
III. Communal Houses of the New Mexicans.—We are
next to consider the architecture of the Village Indians,
among whom it exhibits a higher development, with the
use of durable materials, and with the defensive principle
superadded. It will not be difficult, however, to discover
and to follow the communal principle as the chief charac-
teristic of this architecture—first, in the pueblo houses in
New Mexico, and after that in those of Central America.
The necessary limits of this article will prevent a full ex-
position of the subject, but it will be possible to present
the controlling facts.
... The Indians N. of New Mexico never constructed a
“house more than one story high, or of more durable mate-
rials than a wooden frame covered with matting or bark
or coated over with earth. Chimneys were unknown,





























ARCHITECTURE OF THE
AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 221
and also stairs, except in the form of ladders. In New
Mexico, going southward, are met, for the first time, houses
constructed of adobe brick and of stone, and four, five,
even six stories high. Sun-dried brick must have come
into use earlier than stone. The practice of the ceramic
art would suggest the brick sooner or later. At all events,
what are supposed to be the oldest remains of architecture
in New Mexico, such as the casas grandes of the Gila and
Salinas rivers, are of adobe brick. They also used rubble
stone with mud mortar, and finally thin pieces of tabular
sandstone, prepared by fracture, and giving a solid and
durable stone wall. Some of the existing pueblo houses
in New Mexico are as old as the expedition of Coronado
(1540–42), as those at Acoma and Taos, and probably Zuñi,
and those of the Moquis, whilst others, constructed since
that event, and now occupied, are upon the aboriginal
model. There are at present about twenty of these pueblos
in New Mexico, inhabited by 7000 Indians, the descendants
of those found there by Coronado. They are still living
substantially under their ancient organization and usages.
Besides, there are the seven Moqui pueblos near the Little
Colorado, occupied by 4000 Indians, who have remained
pure and undisturbed to the present time, and among whom
the entire theory of Indian village life might be obtained
if some adventurous ethnologist would seek their secluded
homes and study the subject on the spot. These Village
Indians represent, at the present moment, the type of vil-
lage life found from Zuñi to Cuzco at the epoch of the
Discovery, and, whilst they are not the highest, they are
no unfit representatives of the entire class.
The Central Americans were, in their architecture, in
advance of the remaining aborigines of North America.
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structures of adobe brick grouped together, one of which
is shown in the engraving. It is about 200 feet long, with
two parallel rows of apartments on the ground, of which
the front row is carried up one story and the back two, the
flat roof of the first story forming a terrace in front of the
second. The first story is closed up solid for defensive
reasons, with the exception of small window-openings.
The first terrace is reached by means of ladders from the
ground; the rooms in the first story are entered through
trap-doors in the terrace, and in the second through doors
opening upon the terrace. This structure is typical of all
the aboriginal houses in New Mexico. It shows two prin-
cipal features: first, the terraced form of architecture, with
the housetops as the ordinary gathering-places of the in-
mates; and second, a closed ground-story for safety. Every
house, therefore, is a fortress. Lieut. Abert, from whose
report the engraving is taken, remarks that “the upper
story is narrower than the one below, so that there is a
platform or landing along the whole length of the building.
To enter, you ascend to this platform by means of ladders
that could be easily removed; and, as there is a parapet
wall extending along the platform, these houses could be
converted into formidable forts.” (Eac. Doc. No. 41, 1st
Sess, 30th Congress, 1848, p. 462.) The number of apart-
ments is not stated, but, judging from the window-openings,
there may be thirty-eight on the first floor, of which half
are dark, and nineteen in the second story. The different
houses at that time were inhabited by 800 Indians. Chim-
neys now appear rising above the roof, the fire-place being
at the angle of the chamber in front. -
The defensive element, so prominent in this architec-
ture, was not so much to protect the Village Indians from
each other as from the attacks of the migrating bands
flowing down upon them from the Valley of the Columbia.
than in the so-called palace at Palenque.
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Next to them, probably, were the Aztecs and some few na-
tions southward; and holding the third position, though
not far behind, were the New Mexicans. All alike they
depended upon horticulture for subsistence and cultivated
by irrigation. Their houses, with those previously described,
represent together an original, indigenous architecture,
which, with its diversities, sprang out of their necessities.
Its fundamental communal type, we repeat, is found not
less plainly in the comparted long house of the Iroquois
An examination
of the plan of the structures in New Mexico and Central
America will tend to establish this proposition.
New Mexico is a poor country for civilized man, but
quite well adapted to Village Indians. It possesses a num-
ber of narrow fertile valleys, which were occupied in 1540
by thirty or forty pueblo villages, containing possibly
50,000 or 60,000 Indians, and it is occupied now by their
descendants in manner and form as it was then. Each
pueblo consisted then, as now, either of a single great
house or of three or four such houses grouped together ;
and, what is more significant, the New Mexican pueblo is
a fair type of those found in ruins in Central America in
general plan, in the mode of life it indicates, and in situ-
ation. All the people lived together in these great houses
on terms of equality and also for security. Common tene-
ments for common Indians around these structures Were
not found there by Coronado in 1541; neither have any
been found there since. There is not the slightest ground
for supposing that any such tenements ever existed around
the ruined structures in Central America. This suggestion
should be kept in mind.
This pueblo or village is composed of three or four
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The pueblos now in ruins throughout the original area of
New Mexico testify to the perpetual struggle of the former
to maintain their ground, as well as prove the general in-
security in which they lived. It could be shown that the
second and additional stories were suggested by the defen-
sive principle.
Zuñi is the largest occupied pueblo in New Mexico at
the present time. It once contained 5000 or 6000 inhabit-
ants, but in 1851 they were reduced to 1500. The village
consists of several structures, most of them accessible to
each other from their terraced roofs. They are constructed
of adobe brick, and of stone embedded in mud mortar, and
plastered over. In the engraving, which is copied from
Sitgreaves’ report, a section of one of the principal struc-
tures is given, the left end being cut off by another build-
ing in front of it, and the right showing a series of angles.
It shows three stories in the terraced form, with two square
buildings standing apart on the summit, and forming a
fourth, giving it the appearance somewhat of a temple, and
perhaps suggesting an explanation of the application of
this term by the Spanish invaders to so many of the build-
ings seen in and around the pueblos of Mexico.
The living-rooms, as shown by engravings in the same
report, are about ten by fifteen feet, and ten feet high, with
plastered walls, a hard earthen floor, and usually a single
window-opening. To form a durable ceiling, round timbers
about six inches in diameter are placed three or four feet
apart from the outer to the inner wall. Upon these small
poles are placed transversely in juxtaposition, over which
is a deep covering of mud mortar, which forms the terrace
roof in front and the floor of the rooms within. Water-
jars of fine workmanship, and of capacity for several gal-
lons, closely-woven osier baskets, blankets of cotton and
wool woven by their own hand-looms are among the objects


222
seen in these apartments. They are neatly kept, roomy and
comfortable, and differ in no respect from those in use at
the period of the Conquest.
It should be noticed that this architecture, and the neces-
sities that gave it birth, led to a change in the mode of life
from the open ground to the terraces or flat roofs of these
ARCHITECTURE OF THE
AMERICAN ABORIGINES.
communal houses. When not engaged in tillage, and dur-
ing the morning and evening hours, the terraces were the
gathering and living places of the people. They lived,
practically, in the open air, to which the climate was
adapted, and upon their house-tops, first for safety, and
afterwards from habit.
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FIG. 12.
Blevations of the principal New Mexican pueblos have
been published. They agree in general plan, but show con-
siderable diversity in details. Rude but massive structures,
they accommodated all the people of the village within
their walls. Since most of them are of adobe brick, or of
rubble stone embedded in mud mortar, our remaining illus-
trations will be taken from the pueblos in ruins in the val-
ley of the Rio Chaco, which are constructed entirely of
stone, are unquestionably as old as the epoch of the con-
quest of Mexico, and superior architecturally to those now
occupied, showing that a decadence in the art commenced
with European intrusion.
About 110 miles N. W. from Santo Domingo on the Rio
Grande, there are seven great edifices, now in ruins, situated
within an extent of ten miles in the valley of the Rio
Chaco, an affluent of the Colorado. They were visited and
described in 1849 by Lieutenant (now General) Simpson,
with ground-plans and measurements. (Report of James
H. Simpson of an Earpedition in the Navajo Country in 1849,
Ex. Doc. No. 64, 1st Sess. 31st Cong., pp. 55–139.) In an
architectural point of view they are the most interesting
and remarkable structures in New Mexico. The ground-
plans, elevations, and the detailed particulars are taken
from this report. They are probably the remains of the
Seven Cities of Cibola, against which the expedition of
Coronado was directed in 1540–42.
These great edifices were all constructed of the same ma-
terials, and upon the same general plan, but they differ in
size upon the ground, in the number of rows of apartments,
and consequently in the number of stories. They con-
tained from 100 to 600 apartments each, and would severally
accommodate from 1000 to 3000 or 4000 persons. Some of
them are also the largest structures in ground dimensions
and in the extent of their accommodations ever found in
any part of North America. It may be remarked here that
it is doubtful whether any single pueblo in New Mexico at
its most prosperous period contained more than 5000 or
6000 inhabitants, and in such a case it would be made up
of more than one of these structures, grouped together, as
at Zuñi. This would probably hold true with the great
majority of the ancient pueblos in Mexico and in Central
America.
Ground-plans are furnished of five of the seven edifices.
They all, save one, agree in being constructed on three
sides of an open court, the fourth being protected by a low
stone wall. The outer faces of the walls are constructed
of thin pieces of tabular sandstone, prepared by fracture,
and laid in courses without mortar, the inner faces being
composed of rubble masonry with mud mortar. The walls
§:. *
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are about three feet thick. There were no doors or open-
ings to enter the buildings from the ground, but in the
stories above the first are window-openings through the
walls. General Simpson remarks that they are “built of
tabular pieces of hard, fine-grained, compact, gray sand-
stone, to which the atmosphere has imparted a reddish
tinge;” that “in the outer faces of the building there are
no signs of mortar, the intervals between the beds being
chinked with stones of minutest thinness;” and that the
“filling and backing are done in rubble masonry; the mor-
tar presenting no indications of the presence of lime.”
“So beautifully diminutive are the details of the structure
as to cause it, at a little distance, to have all the appearance
of a magnificent piece of mosaic work.” (Report, p. 76.)
The layers are not usually thicker than three inches, and
sometimes as thin as one-fourth of an inch. Their ancient
names are of course unknown. General Simpson adopted
those given to him by his Spanish guide.
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FIG. 13. Ground-Plan of Pueblo of Chettro Kettle.
The general plan of all the edifices on the Chaco will be
made intelligible by the annexed ground-plan. The main
building and the wings face the court, from which alone
they are entered, and from which the several stories recede
outward. Including the court, this great house has an ex-
terior development of 1300 feet. The exterior wall of the
main building measures 454 feet in length, and the longest
of the wings 220 feet. At the centre, where four additional
rows of apartments have been added on the inside, the
structure is 110 feet deep, and for the remainder 44 feet.
One of the wings is 50 and the other 58 feet deep, showing
three rows of apartments in each, and consequently they
were three stories high ; the first row on the court side
being carried up one story, the second two, and the third









“y
ARCHITECTURE OF THE
AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 223
---
three, in the usual terrace form as before shown. If carried
up in the same manner at the centre, it would be seven
stories high on the back row. -
From the measurement some impression may be formed
of the extent of the accommodations such an edifice would
afford, especially in Indian life, where more than one pair
with their children are usually found in one lodge, and,
it may be supposed here, in one apartment. The plan
shows 124 rooms on the ground-floor, exclusive of the left
wing, which was too ruinous to identify the number. Ex-
cluding one row of apartments for the terrace in front of
the second story, and counting one row less for each suc-
cessive story, there would be an aggregate in this single
house of some 300 apartments, capable of accommodating
1500 or 2000 Indians.
The circular estufas, of which there are six, and five of
which are incorporated in the body of the structure, were
their council-houses. They were sunk below the surface,
and carried up, in some cases, two and three stories. Sim-
ilar estufas are still in use in New Mexican pueblos as
places for holding councils. The number indicates a sub-
organization analogous to the gens. It may be supposed,
therefore, that each estufa was the council-house of a gens,
or, if the gentes were numerous, then of a phratry com-
posed of two or more gentes derived by subdivision from
an original gems. - *
In the N.W. corner, Gen. Simpson remarks, “we found
a room in an almost perfect state of preservation. This
room is fourteen by seven and a half feet in plan, and ten
feet in elevation. It has an outside doorway three and a
half feet high by two and a quarter wide; and one at the
W. end leading into an adjoining room. . . . The stone
walls still have their plaster upon them in a tolerable
state of preservation. . . . 'The ceiling showed two main
beams, laid transversely; on these, longitudinally, were a
number of smaller ones in juxtaposition, the ends being
tied together by a species of wooden fibre, and the inter-
stices chinked in with small stones; on these, again trans-
versely, in close contact, was a kind of lathing of the odor
and appearance of cedar, all in a good state of preserva-
tion. Depending from the ceiling were several pieces of
short rope.” (Report, p. 79.) This ceiling agrees in form
with that at Zuñi, previously described. Elsewhere he
says that these floor-beams are six inches in diameter, and
were hacked off by means of some imperfect instrument,
there being no evidence of the use of the metallic axe.
OPEN COURT
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FIG. 14. Ground-Plan of Pueblo Bonito.
This edifice is the most interesting, in some respects, of
the seven, as well as the best preserved in certain portions.
In exterior development, including the court, it is 1300
feet. Its corners are rounded, and the E. wing, now the
most ruinous part of the structure, appears to have had
row upon row of apartments added until nearly one-third
of the area of the court was covered. “Its present eleva-
tion,” Simpson observes, “shows that it has had at least
four stories of apartments. The number of rooms on the
ground-floor is 139. In this enumeration, however, are not
included the apartments which are not distinguishable in
the E. portion of the pueblo, and which would swell the
number to about 200. There, then, having been at least
four stories of rooms, . . . there must be a reduction . . .
of one range of rooms for every story after the first,” which
would increase “the number to 64].” (Ib., p. 81.) No
single edifice of equal accommodations, it may here be re-
peated, has ever been found in any other part of North
America. It would house 3000 Indians.
This room will compare, not unfavorably, with any of
equal size to be found at Palenque or Uxmal, although,
from the want of a vaulted ceiling, not equal in artistic
design. The nice mechanical adjustment of the masonry
and the finish of the ceiling are highly creditable to the
taste and skill of the builders. “It is walled up,” says
Simpson, “ with alternate beds of large and small stones,
the regularity of the combination producing a very-pleas-
ing effect. The ceiling of this room is also more tasteful
than any we have seen, the transverse beams being smaller
and more numerous, and the longitudinal pieces which rest
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upon them only about an inch in diameter, and beautifully
regular. These latter have somewhat the appearance of
barked willow. The room has a doorway at each end, and
one at the side, each of them leading into adjacent apart-
ments. The light is let in by a window two feet by eight
inches, on the N. side.” (Ib., p. 81.)
The largest of the seven pueblos is Peñasca Blanca, which
has an exterior development of 1700 feet. “This,” he
further remarks, “ differs from the others in the arrange-
ment of the stones comprising its walls. The walls of the
other pueblos are of one uniform character in the several
beds composing them, but in this there is a regular alterna-
tion of large and small stones, the effect of which is both
unique and beautiful. The largest stones, which are about
a foot in length and half a foot in thickness,” form but a
single bed, and then, alternating with these, are three or
four beds of small stones, each about an inch in thickness.
The ground-plan of the structure also differs from the others
in approaching the form of a circle.” (Ib., p. 82.)
One of these remaining, Una Vida, seems to have been
in process of construction, and designed, when completed,
to have been the largest of the seven. The main building
is 300 feet in length along the exterior wall, and 65 feet
deep, showing four rows of apartments; and the wing is
290 feet long and but 16 feet deep, showing but a single
row. It appears, however, from a projection near one end
of the width of two apartments, that two more rows were
to be constructed outside of the existing row, which were
necessary to complete the wing according to its original
design. Moreover, it seems to prove that these great houses
were of slow construction by the process of addition from
year to year with the increase of the people in numbers,
and that the enlargement is by adding row to row and
story to story until the edifice is several rooms deep and
several stories high. Upon this theory of construction, the
first row of the main building on the court side would first
be completed one story high, and covered with a flat roof;
after which, by adding one parallel wall, with partition
walls at intervals, as many more apartments would be
obtained; and by a third and fourth parallel wall, with
partitions, as many more. The second row was carried up
two stories, the third three, and the fourth four; the suc-
cessive stories receding from the court side in the form of
great steps or terraces, one rising above the other. The
wings would be commenced and completed in the same
manner. Further than this, it seems to be evident, from
the present condition of this structure, that the main build-
ing was to be extended at least 200 feet, with a second
wing like the first, to fill out the original design and pro-
duce a symmetrical edifice. If these inferences are war-
ranted, the interesting fact is reached that these Indian
architects commenced their great houses upon a definite
plan, which was to be realized after years, and perhaps
generations, had passed away.
The highest portion of the walls still standing are stated
at fifteen feet in height at Una Vida, twenty-five feet in
Wegegi, and thirty feet in Hungo Pavie. The rooms back
of the front row in the first story, and the middle rooms in
the second, were dark, except as they were dimly lighted
from contiguous apartments.
* Norman, speaking of the size of the stones used in the edi-
fices in Yucatan, says: “The stones are parallelopipeds of about
twelve inches in length and six in breadth.”—Rambles in Yuca-
tam, p. 127.




































































































































224 ARCHITECTURE OF THE
AMERICAN ABORIGINES.
#
300 ft.
PIG. 16. Ground-Plan of Hungo Pavie.
This pueblo has been reserved to the last for the purpose
of giving both a ground-plan and a front elevation. In
exterior development, including the court, it is 872 feet, of
which the back wall measures 300 and the side walls 144
feet each. It is of medium size, but symmetrical, and
larger than any single structure in Central America in
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ground dimensions. There are seventy-two apartments in
the first story, some of which are unusually large, being
about thirteen by eighteen feet; and, with forty-eight in
the second and twenty-four in the third, contained an
aggregate of 146 apartments. It would accommodate from
1200 to 1500 Indians.
To complete the representation of the architectural de-
sign of these “great houses of stone’’ the annexed eleva-
tion is given. It is a restoration of the pueblo of Hungo
Pavie, made by Mr. Kern, who accompanied Gen. Simpson
as draughtsman, and copied from his engraving. We may.
recognize in this edifice, as it seems to the writer, a very
satisfactory reproduction of the so-called palaces of Monte-
zuma, which, like this, were constructed on three sides of a
court which opened on a street or causeway, and in the
terraced form. From the light which this architecture
throws on that of the Aztecs, it appears extremely prob-
able that these famous palaces, considered as exclusive
residences of an Indian potentate, are purely fictitious,
and that, on the contrary, they were neither more nor less
than great communal houses of the aboriginal American
model, and with common Indians crowding all their apart-
ments. From what is known of the necessary constitution
of society among the Village Indians, it scarcely admits
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FIG. 17. Elevation of Hungo Pavie - $
of a doubt that the great house in which he lived was oc-
cupied on equal terms by a hundred other families in com-
mon with his own, all the individuals of which were joint
proprietors of the establishment which their own hands had
raised.
FIG. 18. Triangular Arch.
One of the remarkable features of the architecture of
Central America is the triangular arch, which has been
regarded as evidence of mechanical advancement. The
same arch, of which the above is a representation, was
found by Gen. Simpson in the structures on the Chaco,
used as a doorway. It is copied from his report. In the
edifices at Uxmal, Palenque, and elsewhere the rooms are
vaulted with this arch, the angles being bevelled to a uni-
i. surface. The principle of construction is the same in
oth.
After the capture of the “Seven Cities of Cibola,” Co-
ronado made a report to Mendozo, viceroy of Mexico, in
which he expresses his disappointment in the following
language: “And to be brief, I can assure your honor he
[Friar Marcos de Niza] said the truth in nothing that he
reported, but all was quite contrary, saving only the names
of the cities and great houses of stone; for although they
be not wrought with turqueScs, nor with lime, nor bricks,
yet they are very excellent good houses, of three or four or
five lofts high, wherein are good lodgings and fair cham-
bers, with ladders instead of stairs, and certain cellars
[estufas] under ground, very good and paved. . . . The
seven cities are seven small towns, all made with these kind
of houses that I speak of; and they all stand within four
leagues together, and they are all called the kingdom of
Cibola, and every one of these have their particular name.
. . . The people of this town seem unto me of a reasonable
stature, and witty, yet they seem not to be such as they
should be, of that judgment and wit, to build these houses
in such sort as they are.” Coronado further states that on
the fourth day after the capture “they set in order all their
goods and substance, their women and children, and fled to
the hills, leaving their town as it were abandoned, wherein
remained very few of them.” (Hakluyt, Coll. of Voyages,
London ed., 1600, iii., p. 377.)
No evidence has been adduced of the practice of com-
munism by the present Pueblo Indians of New Mexico.”
Information upon this and other questions concerning their
organization and mode of life has not been sought by those
who have visited this isolated country. The Moqui and
Laguna, Indians are organized in gentes, which raises a
presumption of its universality among the Village Indians.
Their arts, weapons, usages, implements and utensils,
* Since writing this article, Mr. David J. Miller of Santa Fé,
N. M., has informed me by letter that the Pueblo Indians still
hold their lands in common, with a possessory right in each to
cultivated lands so long as the individual chooses to occupy it, but
that he had not observed any evidence of the practice of Čom.
munism in living among them.



ARCHITECTURE OF THE
AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 225
dances, and general characteristics, so far as they are
known, are either precisely the same as those of the par-
tially Village Indians of the North, or more advanced
forms of the same original conceptions. The practice of
communism must be deduced, for the present, from the
structure of the houses themselves. Both in New Mexico
and Central America, they are strikingly adapted to com-
munistic life. So much is this the case that their peculiar
internal arrangement cannot be explained on any other hy-
pothesis. In all the houses in Central America, the rooms
are usually in pairs, which have no connection with the re-
mainder of the building. In some cases four, and in one
six, apartments are found connected with each other by
doorways. They are thus divided into sections adapted to
groups, which are separated from each other by solid walls.
The presumption arises that the houses in New Mexico are
similarly constructed, although the fact has not been as yet
ascertained.* The published engravings, however, show
less than one-fourth as many chimneys as the inhabited
houses contain apartments. -
IV. Communal Houses of the Aztecs.—The writers on the
conquest of Mexico have alike failed to describe the Aztec
house or the mode of life within it. All that can safely be
said is, that the houses were large ; that they were con-
structed of adobe brick and of stone embedded in mud
mortar, in both cases plastered over with gypsum, which
made them a brilliant white; and that some were con-
structed of a red porous stone. For working this stone,
according to Clavigero, flint implements were used. (Hist.
Conq. Meac., Cullen's trans., 1817, ii., 238.) Some of these
edifices were constructed on three sides of an open court,
like those on the Chaco, but the court opening upon a street
or causeway. In most cases they appear to have been two
or more stories high, and built in the terraced form. All
the roofs were flat. The situation of the pueblo of Mexico,
partly on solid ground and partly in the waters of a shal-
low artificial pond, led to some diversities in its architecture;
but the essential type of the latter was the same as that of
New Mexico wherever its features distinctly appear. We
are able to give one illustration in point. Cortez made his
first entry into the pueblo, according to the statement of
Bernal Diaz, with 450 Spaniards, accompanied by 1000
Tlascalan allies. (Cong. of Meacico, Keating’s trans., Lon-
don ed., 1803, i., 181 and 189.) They were lodged, Diaz
naïvely tells us, in a vacant palace of the late father of
Montezuma, remarking that “the whole of this palace was
very light, airy, clean, and pleasant, the entry being through
a great court.” (Ib., i., 191.) Suffice it to say, that one
of the great houses of the Aztecs was sufficiently large to
accommodate Cortez and his total number of 1450 men.
One of the great houses then standing on the Rio Chaco
would have accommodated twice that number.
It will be noticed that this Mexican house was entered
from the court into the first story, in which respect it dif-
fered from the present and ancient houses in New Mexico.
The reason is obvious. The pueblo could only be entered
along its three causeways, which indicate the true places for
its defence. The causeways had sluices through them,
traversed by bridges that could be taken up.
It is quite plain, we think, that the house occupied by
Cortez was constructed on three sides of a court, which
opened on a causeway or street, the type of which is still
found in New Mexico. When we are gravely told that
Cortez and his followers are invited by Montezuma to oc-
cupy a vacant palace of his late royal father, we are much
impressed with the surroundings of the Indian potentate
thus introduced. But a glance at the contemporary edifices
on the Chaco tends to unravel the marvel, and to show how
it was that Cortez and his men could find ample acommo-
dations in a single house constructed on the aboriginal
American model; and when it is found to be wholly unneces-
sary to call it a royal palace in order to account for its size,
an ungracious suspicion at once arises in the mind that one
of the great communal houses of the Aztecs was emptied of
its inhabitants to make room for the unwelcome intruders.
W. Communal Houses in Central America.-At the epoch
of its discovery Central America was probably more thickly
peopled than any other portion of North America of equal
area, and its inhabitants more advanced than the remain-
ing aborigines. Their pueblos were planted along the
rivers and streams, often quite near each other, and pre-
sented the same picture of occupation and of village life
found about the same time on the Rio Chaco and upon the
Rio Grande and its tributaries. They consisted of a single
great house, or of a cluster of houses forming one pueblo.
In some cases four or more structures are grouped together
upon the same elevated platform. But there is no reason
for supposing, from any ruins yet found or from what is
* Mr. Miller also informs me that the rooms generally are not
connected with each other in the New Mexican pueblo house.
known of the people at the time, that any one pueblo con-
tained, at most, more than 10,000 inhabitants. No one na-
tion had risen to supremacy within this area by the consoli-
dation of surrounding nations. They were, on the contrary,
found in that state of subdivision and independence which
invariably accompanies the gentile organization. Confed-
eracies in all probability existed among such contiguous
pueblos as spoke the same dialect or closely related dialects,
as the Cibolans were probably confederated, as the Aztecs,
the Tlascalam, and Michuacan tribes are known severally to
have been. Such confederacies never reached beyond the
language of the people confederated. Even the Aztec con-
federacy was surrounded on all sides except the S. by inde-
pendent and hostile nations, living within 100 miles of the
border of the Valley of Mexico; as witness the Tlascalans
on the E., the Michuacans on the W., the Otomies on the
N. W., and the Meztitlams and Huextecas on the N. E.
The tropical region of Central America, then as now,
was undoubtedly covered with forest, except the limited
clearings around the pueblos, and substantially uninhabited.
Field agriculture was of course unknown, but the Indians
cultivated corn, beans, squashes, pepper, cotton, and to-
bacco in garden-beds, which tended to localize them in
villages. Herrera remarks of the Village Indians of Hon-
duras that “they sow thrice a year, and they were wont to
grub up great woods with hatchets made of flint.” (Hist.
of America, London ed., 1725, Stern’s trans., iv., 133.)
Without metallic implements to subdue the forest, or even
with copper axes such as were found among the Aztecs, a
very small portion of the country only would be brought
under cultivation, and that would be confined mainly to
the margins of the streams. -
Las Casas, bishop of Chiapa, who was in Central America
about 1539, after remarking of the people of Yucatan that
they were “better civilized in morals and in what belongs
to the good order of societies than the rest of the Indians,”
proceeds as follows: “The pretence of subjecting the In-
dians to the government of Spain is only made to carry on
the design of subjecting them to the dominion of private
men, who make them all their slaves.” (An Account of the
First Voyages, etc. in America, London ed., 1699, trans., p.
52.) And again he quotes from the letter of the bishop
of St. Martha to the king, as follows: “To redress the
grievances of this province, it ought to be delivered from
the tyranny of those who ravage it, and committed to the
care of persons of integrity, who will treat the inhabitants
with more kindness and humanity; for if it be left to the
mercy of the governors, who commit all sorts of outrages
with impunity, the province will be destroyed in a very
short time.” (Ib., p. 61.) .
Two material questions which have been raised remain
to be considered : First, whether the houses now in ruins in
Central America were occupied at the time of the Spanish
conquest; and second, whether the present Indians of the
country are the descendants of the people who constructed
them. There is no basis whatever for the negative of either
proposition; but it is assumed by those who regard the
palace at Palenque and the Governor's House at Uxmal as
the ancient residences of Indian potentates, that great
cities which once surrounded them have perished, and
further, that these ruins have an antiquity reaching far
back of the Spanish conquest.
Mr. Stephens commits himself to the conclusion “that
at the time of the Conquest, and afterwards, the Indians
were actually living in and occupied these very cities.”
(Incidents of Travel in Yucatam, ii., 348, and to the same
effect, ii., 375.) He also regarded the present Indians of the
country as the descendants of those in possession at the
period of the Conquest. (Ib., ii., 299.) He might have
added that as the Maya was the language of the aborigines
of Yucatan at the epoch of the Discovery, and is now the
language of the greater part of the natives who have
not lost their original speech, there was no ground for
either supposition. Herrera remarks of the inhabitants of
Yucatan that the “people were then found living together
very politely in towns, kept very clean; . . . and the rea-
son of their living so close together was because of the wars
which exposed them to the danger of being taken, sold, and
sacrificed ; but the wars of the Spaniards made them dis-
perse.” (Ib., loc. cit., iv., 168.) Mr. Stephens, whose works
and whose observations are in the main so valuable, is re-
sponsible to no small extent for the delusive inferences
which have been drawn from the architecture of Central
America. If he had repressed his imagination, and confined
himself to what he found—namely, certain Indian pueblo vil-
lages built of dressed stone and in good architecture, which
are sufficiently remarkable just as they are—and had omitted
altogether such words as “palaces” and “great cities,” his
readers would have escaped the deceptive conclusions with
respect to the actual condition of society which his mode
of treatment and his terminology were certain to suggest.
I5
226
ARCHITECTURE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINEs.
It is sufficiently ascertained that within a few years after
the conquest of Mexico, Central America was overrun by
military adventurers, whose rapacity and violence drove
the harmless and timid Village Indians from their pueblos
into the forests, thus destroying, in a few years a higher
culture than the Spaniards, then or since, substituted in
its place. Nothing can be plainer, we think, than this
additional fact: that all there ever was of Palenque, Ux-
mal, Copan, and other Indian pueblos in Central America,
building for building and stone for stone, is now there in
TUIIIHS.
One of the most extensive groups of ruins in Central
America is that at Uxmal. The several structures are
known as “The Governor’s House;” the “House of the
Nuns,” which consists of four disconnected buildings, fa-
cing the four sides of a court; the “House of the Pigeons;”
the “House of the Dwarf;” and the “House of the Old
Woman *—in all eight, with some traces of smaller build-
ings of inconsiderable size. The dimensions of the largest
will be given for comparison with those in New Mexico.
They are situated in a cluster quite near each other, and
evidently formed one Indian pueblo. They are constructed
of stone laid in courses and dressed to a uniform surface,
with the upper half of the exterior walls decorated with
grotesque ornaments cut on the faces of the stones. Foster
states that “these structures are composed of a soft coral-
line limestone of comparatively recent geological forma-
tion, probably of the tertiary period.” (Pre-historic Races
of the United States, p. 398.) Norman had previously de-
Scribed the material used as a “fine concrete limestone.”
(Rambles, etc., p. 126.) Elsewhere, with respect to the na-
ture of the tools for cutting this stone, he remarks that
“flint was undoubtedly used.” (Ib., 184.) According to
the same author, “the stones are cut in parallelopipeds of
about twelve inches in length and six in breadth, the in-
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terstices filled up with the same materials of which the
terraces are composed.” (Ib., 127.) This statement denies
the use of mortar made of lime and sand. Stephens is
equally explicit in stating that the mortar was of lime and
sand; and he is perhaps the better authority, having taken
the masonry apart. A soft coralline limestone could be
easily worked when first taken from the quarry, and would
harden after exposure to the air. The size and nature of
the stones used is some evidence of limited advancement
in solid stone architecture.*
These structures, as reproduced by Stephens and Cather-
wood, may well excite surprise and admiration for the taste,
skill, and industry they display. When rightly understood
they will enable us to estimate the material progress they
had made, which was truly remarkable for a people still in
barbarism, but well advanced in the middle period.
_/−.
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FIG. 19. Pyramidal Platforms.
We have seen that the style of architecture in New
Mexico brought the Indians to the housetops as the com-
mon place of living, to which the flat roofs were adapted.
At first suggested for security, it became in time a settled
habit of life. The same want was met in Central America
by a new expedient—namely, a pyramidal platform or ele-
vation of earth, twenty, thirty, and forty feet high, and for
small buildings still higher, upon the level summits of
which their great houses were erected. Selecting, when
practicable, a natural elevation, the top was levelled or
raised by artificial means, the sides made rectangular and
sloping, and faced with a dry stone wall; the ascent being
made by a flight of stone steps. It was not uncommon to
form two such platforms, and sometimes three, one above
the other, as shown in the figure.
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FIG. 20. The Governor’s House at Uxmal.
These edifices are almost invariably but one story
high, and but two rooms deep, the walls being carried up
vertically to an equal height on all sides, and terminating
in a flat roof. The doorways opened upon a platform-area,
usually called the terrace, and the place was defended
on the line or edge of the terrace-walls. Neither adobe
brick nor rubble masonry nor timber roofs could withstand
this tropical climate with its pouring rains during a por-
tion of the year. Stone and a vaulted ceiling were indis-
pensable to a permanent structure...Thus elevated, they
enjoyed the same security as the Village Indians of New
Mexico on their roof-tops and within their walls. They
were also above the flight of the mosquitoes and other flies,
the scourge of this tropical region. Considering the sur-
rounding conditions, single-storied houses upon raised plat-
forms was a natural suggestion, and harmonizes with this
communal type of architecture as fully as the forms found
in New Mexico. •
For the details of this architecture reference must be made
to published works which are easily accessible. The front
elevation of the Governor’s House, taken from Stephens’s
work, will answer as a sample of the whole. It stands
upon the upper of three platforms, of which the lowest is
575 feet long, 15 feet broad to the base of the middle plat-
form, and 3 feet high; the second, 545 feet long, 250 feet
broad, and 20 feet high; and the third is 360 feet long, 30
feet broad, and 19 feet high. The upper platform is formed
upon the back half of the middle one; of which last Stephens
observes that “this great terrace was not entirely artificial.
The substratum was a natural rock, and showed that ad-
vantage had been taken of a matural elevation so far as it
went, and by this means some portion of the immense labor
of constructing the terrace had been saved.” (Incidents of
Travel, etc., i. 128.)
EEE -º T-EE:
322 ft.
FIG. 21. Ground-Plan of Governor's House.
The house is symmetrical in structure—322 feet long, 39
feet deep, and about 30 feet high. It has eleven doorways,
besides two small openings in front, and contains twenty-
four apartments, two of which are each sixty feet long.
The rear wall is solid, and in the central part nine feet
thick. A parallel wall through the centre divides the in-
terior into two rows of apartments, of which those in front
are eleven feet six inches deep, and those back of them
thirteen feet deep. Both inside and out the walls are of
dressed stone, laid in courses.
This view of the interior of a room in the House of the
Nuns shows the form of the triangular ceiling common to
# The so-called idols at Copan are the largest stones worked by
the Central Americans. They are about eleven feet high, by
three feet wide and deep, each face being covered by sculptures
and hieroglyphics. In a field, near the ruins, and near each
other, are nine of these elaborately ornamented statues. By the
side Óf each is a so-called altar, about six feet Square and four
feet high, made of separate stones. They have been supposed to
have some relation to their religious system, with human sacri:
fices in the background. From their position and characterit
may be conjectured that these idols are the grave-posts and the
altars the graves of Copan chiefs. The type of both may still
be seen in Nebraska in the grave-posts and grave-mounds by
their side of Iowas and Otoes, and formerly in all parts of the
country E. of the Mississippi. If Mr. Stephens had opened one
of these altars, and this "conjecture proved true, he would
have found within or under it an Indian grave, and perhaps a
skeleton, with the personal articles usually entombed beside the
dead.


ARCHITECTURE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES.
227
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all the edifices at Uxmal, Palenque, and in Central America
generally. It is a triangular arch without a key-stone, with
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FIG. 22. Section of Interior of Room.
the edges of the stones bevelled, and forming a perfect vault
over each apartment, except a space a foot or more wide in
the centre, which is carried up vertically about two feet and
covered with a cap of stone. The mechanical principle is
the same as in the New Mexican arch, but here applied on
a more extended and more difficult scale. It is the most
remarkable feature in this architecture, mechanically con-
sidered. But when we come to know that this vaulted ceil-
ing was constructed over a core of solid masonry within the
chamber, afterwards removed—which was the fact—it will
be seen that these Indian masons and architects were still
feeling their way towards, a scientific knowledge of the art
of arts. A projecting cornice is seen above the doorway,
which balances somewhat the interior inward projection of
the ceiling; and, as it is carried up flush with the cornice,
the down-weight of the superincumbent mass sustained the
masonry. The front rooms are twenty-three feet high to
the top of the arch, and the back rooms twenty-two. Over
the front doorways were originally wooden lintels, upon the
decay of which a portion of the masonry had fallen. Those
over the doorways' through the partition walls were found
in place. The proof of the comparatively modern date of
these structures is conclusive from these facts alone.
It will be noticed that there are six single apartments,
which have no connection with the remainder of the build-
ing, and that the others are in pairs, a back room connect-
ing with the one in front, and neither with any others. It
seems to show very plainly, in the plan of the house itself,
that it was designed to be occupied by distinct groups of
families, each group a large household by itself. If the
communal principle existed in fact among them, its expres-
Sion in the interior arrangement of the house, and in this
form, might have been expected. This striking and sig-
nificant feature runs through all the structures in Central
America of which ground-plans have been obtained.
“The House of the Nuns,” says Mr. Stephens, “is quad-
rangular, with a courtyard in the centre. It stands on the
highest of three terraces. The lowest is three feet high
and twenty feet wide; the second, twelve feet high and
forty-five feet wide; and the third, four feet high and five
feet wide, extending the whole length of the front of the
building. The front [building] is 279 feet long, and above
the cornice, from one end to the other, is ornamented with
sculpture. In the centre is a gateway ten feet eight inches
wide, spanned by the triangular arch, and leading to the
courtyard. On each side of this gateway are four door-
ways, with wooden lintels, opening to apartments averag-
ing twenty-four feet long, ten feet wide, seventeen feet high
to the top of the arch, but having no connection with each
other. The building that forms the right or eastern side
of the quadrangle measures 264 feet long; that on the left
FIG. 23. Ground-Plan of the House of the Nuns.
is 173 feet long; and the range opposite, or at the end of
the quadrangle, measures 264 feet. These three ranges
have no doorways outside, but the exterior of cach is a
dead wall, and above the cornice all are ornamented with
the same rich and elaborate sculptures.” (Ib., i., 299.)
The four buildings contain, in all, seventy-six apart-
ments, which in size vary from ten to twelve feet wide and
from twenty to thirty feet long. There are twenty single
apartments and twenty-four pairs of apartments, half of
which, as in the Governor’s House, are dark, except as they
are lighted by the doorways connecting with the rooms in
front. In the structure on the right there are six rooms
connecting with each other, which number is so unusual as
to attract attention. Each of these great edifices would
accommodate, after the fashion of Village Indians, from
600 to 1000 persons.
It should also be noticed that there is neither a fire-place
nor a chimney in either of these houses; neither has one
been found, so far as the writer is aware, in any ancient
structure in Central America. Fires were not needed for
Warmth, but since they were for cooking, it shows that no
cooking was done within these houses. A presumption at
once arises that the inmates prepared their food in the open
court or on the lower terraces by household groups, making
a common stock of their provisions, and dividing from the
earthen caldron. It may be presumed, also, that the Iro-
quois usage of but one daily meal prevailed among them.
Fortunately, we are able to present some proofs bearing
directly upon the question of the ancient practice of com-
munism in these houses. It is found in the present usages
of their descendants, which may reasonably be supposed to
have been derived from their ancestors, although they may
show a deteriorated form of those usages. At Nohcacab,
a short distance E. of the ruins of Uxmal, there is a settle-
ment of Maya Indians, whose communism in living was
accidentally discovered by Mr. Stephens when among them
to employ laborers. It will be remembered that Yucatan
was inhabited by Maya Indians at the epoch of the Con-
quest. He remarks as follows: “Their community consists
of a hundred labradores or working men; their lands are
held in common, and the products are shared by all. Their
food is prepared at one hut, and every family sends for its
portion; which explains a singular spectacle we had seen
on our arrival—a procession of women and children, each
carrying an earthen bowl containing a quantity of Smoking
hot broth, all coming down the same road, and dispersing
among the different huts. . . . From our ignorance of the
language, and the number of other and more pressing mat-
ters claiming our attention, we could not learn all the de-
tails of their internal economy, but it seemed to approxi-
mate that improved state of association which is sometimes
heard of among us; and as this has existed for an unknown
length of time, and can no longer be considered experi-
mental, Owen and Fourier might perhaps take lessons from
them with advantage. . . . I never before regretted so
much my ignorance of the Maya language.” (Ib., ii., 14.)
A hundred working men indicate a total of five hundred
persons who were then depending for their daily food upon
































































































228
ARCHITECTURE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES.
a single fire, the provisions being supplied from common
stores, and divided from the caldron. It is, not unlikely,
a truthful picture of the mode of life in the House of the
Nuns and in the Governor's House at the period of Eu-
ropean discovery.
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FIG. 24. Ground-Plan of Zayi.
Near Uxmal are the interesting ruins of Zayi, which pre-
sent a new feature in Central American architecture. Upon
a low eminence are three independent structures, one within
and above the other, presenting the appearance, in the dis-
tance, of a single quadrangular edifice in three receding
stories. But each stands on a separate terrace, and is built
against the one immediately above it, except the inner one,
which stands on the summit. The outer quadrangle stands
upon the lowest terrace. The measurements of the several
buildings are indicated on the plan. Together they contain
eighty-seven apartments, assuming the part in ruins to have
eorresponded with the parts preserved. The rooms, as usual,
are mostly single or in pairs. A staircase upon the front
and rear sides interrupts the buildings on these sides from
the lower terrace to the upper. The dots in the apertures
indicate columns, which are found in this and several other
Structures.
Attention has been called to this pueblo—which would
accommodate 2000 or more persons—for a special reason.
It seems to furnish conclusive proof of the manner in which
these great edifices were erected in order to make the pecu-
liar triangular ceiling which is the striking characteristic
of this architecture. The annexed tº
cross-section of a single apartment
shows the relations of the walls to
the chamber and its ceiling. The
chamber, with its ceiling, was con-
structed over a solid core of ma–
sonry, laid simultaneously with the
walls, which was removed after the
latter had become seasoned and set-
tled. It tends to show that with
small stones of the size used the tri-
angular ceiling, as it projected to-
wards the centre in rising, required
the interior support of a core to en-
sure the possibility of construction
by their methods. Once put together
over such a core, and carried up sev- E A.
eral feet over the top of the arch, the [ —”
down-weight of the superincumbent p - ſº wº &
mass would articulate and hold the tº:
masonry together. It shows, further,
that the essential feature of the arch is wanting in this
contrivance.
The proof of this assertion is the actual presence of the
unremoved core in one of these edifices in all of its apart-
ments. Mr. Stephens found every room of the back build-
ing on the second terrace filled with masonry from bottom
to top. He remarks that “the north side of the second
range has a curious and unaccountable feature. It is called
the Casa Cerrada, or ‘closed house,” having ten doorways,
all of which are blocked up on the inside with stone and
mortar. . . . In front of several were piles of stones which
they [his men] had worked out from the doorways, and
under the lintels were holes through which we were able to
crawl inside; and here we found ourselves in apartments
finished with walls and ceilings like all the others, but filled
up, except so far as they had been emptied by the Indians,
with solid masses of mortar and stone. There were ten of
these apartments in all, 220 feet long and 10 feet deep,
which, thus being filled up, made the whole building a
solid mass; and the strangest feature was, that the filling
up of the apartments must have been simultaneous with
the erection of the buildings, for, as the filling in rose
above the tops of the doorways, the men who performed it
never could have entered to their work through the doors.
It must have been done as the walls were built, and the
ceiling must have closed over a solid mass.” (Ib., ii., 22.)
—a
It does not seem to have occurred to Mr. Stephens that
the masonry within each room was a core, without which a
vaulted chamber in this form could not have been con-
structed with their knowledge of the art of building. It
shows the rudeness of their mechanical resources and the
real condition of the art among them, but at the same time
increases our estimate of their originality, ingenuity, and
industry. They were working their way experimentally in
architecture, as all other people have done; and they might
well point with pride to these structures as extraordinary
memorials of the progress they had made.
An important conclusion follows — namely, that this
“ closed house ’’ was the last, in the order of time, erected,
and had not been emptied of its core and brought into use .
when the Spanish irruption forced the people to abandon
their pueblo. It would fix the period of its construction
at or after 1520; thus settling the question of its modern
date, and removing one of the delusions concerning the
Central American ruins. -
A brief reference to Palenque will conclude this article,
already too long, but far from exhaustive of the facts.
There are four or five pyramidal elevations at this pueblo,
quite similar in form and relative situation to those at
Uxmal. One is much the largest, and the structures upon
it are called the “Palace.” Several distinct buildings are
here grouped upon one elevated terrace and are more or
less connected. Altogether, they are .228 feet front and
180 deep, occupying not only the four sides of a quad-
rangle, but the greater part of what originally was, in all
probability, an open court. Nearly all the edifices in Cen-
tral America, agree in one particular—namely, in being
composed of three parallel walls with partition walls at
intervals, giving two rows of apartments under one roof,
usually, if not invariably, flat. Where several are grouped
together on the same platform, as at Palenque, they are
under independent roofs, and the spaces between, called
courts, are simply open lanes or passage-ways between.
The plan of the Palenque structures, like all the others in
Central America, seems to show that they were designed to
be occupied by groups of persons, consisting of a number
of families, whose private boundaries were fixed by solid
partition walls. They are exactly adapted to this mode
of occupation; and this special adaptation, so plainly
impressed upon all this architecture, leads irresistibly to
the inference that they were occupied on the communal
principle, and were consequently neither more nor less than
communal houses, of a model which may be called, dis-
tinctively, that of the American aborigines. None of these
edifices are as large as those on the Rio Chaco, and, be-
sides, they have but a single story; but with the broad
terraces which were their gathering-places, they would
probably accommodate more persons, in equal spaces, than
the former. -
The structures upon each pyramidal elevation were
also a fortress. It proves the insecurity in which they
lived. An impression has been propagated that they were
surrounded by dense populations living in temporary hab-
itations, to which Stephens has given some countenance
(Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatam, ii., 235), but the
suggestion is preposterous. It does not even need refuta-
tion. It sprang from the assumed existence of a state of
society far enough advanced to develop potentates and
privileged classes, with power to enforce labor from the
people for personal objects. There is no evidence what-
ever to support such an assumption. They were animated
by the same spirit as the Cibolans in what related to per-
sonal independence. Rather than live in subjection to
Spanish taskmasters, the very Indians who erected these
houses with so much labor “set in order all their goods
and substance, their women and children, and fled to the
hills, leaving their towns as it were abandoned,” preferring
a return to a lower stage of barbarism rather than a loss
of personal freedom. -
American aboriginal history has been perverted, and
even caricatured, in various ways, and among others by a
false terminology, which of itself is able to vitiate the
truth. When we have learned to substitute Indian con-
federacy for Indian empire, head-chief and chief for em-
peror, king, and prince, Indian villages for great cities,
communal houses for palaces, together with a large number
of similar substitutions of simple for deceptive as well as
improper terms, the Indian of the past and present will be
presented understandingly, and placed in his true position
in the scale of human advancement. While the Aryan
family has lost nearly all traces of its experiences anterior
to the closing period of barbarism, the Indian family, in
its different branches, offered to our investigation not only
the state of savagery, but also that of both the first and of
the middle period of barbarism. The facts of these several
conditions, and particularly of the last, were more per-
fectly and strikingly exemplified among them than else-


ARCHON−ARCUATION.
229
where upon the entire earth. It was because of their
undisturbed development upon a great continent. Further
than this, their organizations were living and their works
existent. Through a study of their progressive develop-
ment a rational knowledge of the experience of our own
ancestors while in the same condition might have been
recovered. But the rare opportunity has been wasted;
and worse, for we have romance where we might have had
the truth.
Finally, the following conclusions may be stated as rea-
sonable from the facts presented: First, that all there ever
was of Uxmal, Palenque, Copan, and other Central Amer-
ican pueblos, building for building and stone for stone, is
there now in ruins. Secondly, that the inhabitants were
Village Indians, living in single great houses of the com-
munal type, or in several such houses grouped together and
forming one pueblo. Thirdly, that they were probably or-
ganized in gentes, and as a consequence were broken up
into independent nations or tribes, with confederacies here
and there for mutual protection. Fourthly, that from the
plan and interior arrangement of these houses the practice
of communism may be inferred, and that it entered into
and determined their character. Fifthly, nothing herein
stated is inconsistent with the supposition that some of
the structures in the Central American pueblos may have
been devoted to religious uses. And lastly, that a common
type runs through all the architecture of the American
aborigines—that of communism in living, which in turn
tends to show their common origin.
When we attempt to understand the Palace at Palenque
or the Governor's House at Uxmal as the residences of
Indian potentates, they are wholly unintelligible; but as
communal houses, embodying the social, the defensive, and
the communal principles, we can understand how they could
have been erected and so elaborately and laboriously fin-
ished. It is evident that they were the work of the people,
constructed for their own protection and enjoyment. En-
forced labor never created them. On the contrary, it is the
charm of all these edifices that they were raised by the In-
dians for their own use with willing hands, and occupied
by them on terms of entire equality. And it is highly
creditable to the Indian mind that while in the middle
period of barbarism they had developed the capacity to
plan, and the industry to rear, structures of such architec-
tural design and imposing magnitude. LEWIs H. MoRGAN.
Ar’chon [Gr. 3pxov, from 3pxo, to “be first”], the title
of the highest magistrates or rulers of Athens. On the death
of Codrus, king of Athens (1068 B.C.), the title of king was
abolished, and Medon, the son of Codrus, became the first
archon, with limited power. The office was at first hereditary
and held for life, but in 752 B. C. the term of office was
limited to ten years, and in 714 it ceased to be hereditary
and became open to all patricians. In 683 the number of
archons was increased to nine, who were elected annually.
One of the nine was called archon eponymus (érôvvuos), be-
cause his name was used to designate the year; the second,
who was styled king (Bagweiſs), had charge of religious af-
fairs; the third was called polemarch (commander-in-chief),
and originally had the command of the army. The other
six, who were styled thesmothetae (9eguo 6éraw), “law-givers,”
conducted criminal trials, and had power to ratify treaties
with foreign states. In the latter period of Athenian his-
tory all citizens were eligible to the office of archon. The
word archon (translated ruler) occurs in the New Testa-
ment as the title of several Jews, among whom was Nico-
demus (John iii. 1).
Archy'tas ['Apx.jras], a celebrated Greek philosopher,
general, and mathematician, was born at Tarentum. He
flourished about 400–350 B.C., was a Pythagorean in phil-
osophy, and was an intimate friend of Plato, whose life he
is said to have saved when the tyrant Dionysius was about
to put him to death. As general of Tarentum, to which
office he was elected seven times, he commanded with suc-
cess in several campaigns. He was also employed in im-
portant civil affairs, for which he displayed excellent capa-
city. His virtue was as conspicuous as his ability. Ho is
reputed the first that applied geometry to practical mechan-
ics, and the first to solve the problem of the doubling of
the cube. He was drowned on the coast of Apulia. Only
fragments of his works are extant.
Arcis-sur-Aube, ar'se/stir-5b, a town of France, in
the department of Aube, and on the river. Aube, 16 miles
N. by E. of Troyes. It has manufactures of cotton ho-
siery. On the 20th of Mar., 1814, an indecisive battle was
fought here between Napoleon and Prince Schwartzenberg,
who commanded a portion of the allied army. Pop. in
1866, 2784.
Arco'la, a village of Northern Italy, on the Alpone,
near its entrance into the Adige, 15 miles E. S. E. of Vorona.
Here Napoleon gained an important victory over the Aus-
trian general Alvinzy. The French commenced the battle
on the 14th of Nov., 1796, by an attempt to cross a bridge
over the Alpone, but were repulsed. The action was re-
newed on the 16th, and ended on the 17th, when Alvinzy
retreated. Pop. 2185.
Arcola, a post-village and township of Douglas co.,
Ill., on the Chicago division of the Illinois Central R. R.,
158 miles from Chicago. It has three weekly newspapers.
Pop. of township, 2332. -
Ar/cos de la Fronte/ra, a town of Spain, in Anda-
lusia, on the right bank of the Gaudalete, 30 miles N. E.
of Cadiz. It is called Arcos, because it is built in the form
of a “bow.” Its site is a high rock, which commands an
extensive and beautiful prospect. Here are celebrated man-
ufactures of tanned leather. This town was once strongly
fortified. In 1519, Magelhaens started from here for the
first circumnavigation of the globe. Pop. 11,532.
Arcot, or Aruca'ti, a city of British India, in the
presidency of Madras, is situated in the Carnatic, on the
river Palaur, 7.1 miles by rail W. S. W. of Madras; lat. 12°
54! N., lon. 79° 23' E. It was ceded to the British in 1801,
before which it had been the capital of the Carnatic. Hero
are the ruins of the nawab’s palace. It is one of the cen-
tres of the Protestant missions in India. Pop. estimated at
45,000, mostly Mohammedans. -
Arc’tic [Lat. arc’ticus ; Gr. &pk.rukós, “belonging to [the
constellation of] the Bear ” (äpkros), which is near the North
Pole], a term signifying “northern,” or, rather, “far to the
north,” “near the North Pole.”
ARCTIC CIRCLE, a circle drawn around the North Pole
of the earth, 23° 28′ from the Pole and 66° 32' from the
equator. It forms the boundary between the north tem-
perate and the north frigid zone. Within this circle the
sun does not set at the summer solstice nor rise at the
winter solstice. -
ARCTIC CURRENT, so called because it is supposed to
originate in the ige of the Arctic seas, whence it runs along
the eastern shore of Greenland and round Cape Farewell
to the western shore of Greenland, in N. lat. 66°, where it
turns southward, forming the Hudson’s Bay Current. Thenco
it passes near the Bank of Newfoundland, and, meeting the
Gulf Stream, crosses it as an undercurrent, flowing into the
Caribbean Sea. Another portion passes along the coast of
North America, and reduces the temperature of the land.
The Arctic Current, which is cold, replaces the warm water
removed by the Gulf Stream.
Arctic Discovery. See Polar RESEARCH, by I. I.
HAYES, M. D.
Arc’tic O’cean, or Sea, the ocean which surrounds the
North Pole, washes the northern shores of Europe, Asia,
and America, and is nearly coextensive with the Arctic Cir-
cle. It communicates with the Pacific by Behring's Strait,
and with the Atlantic by a wide passage between Greenland
and Norway. The navigation of this ocean is obstructed
by perpetual congelation, but it is supposed that a por-
tion N. of 80° is an open polar sea. The Arctic Ocean ch-
closes many large islands, and comprises large bays and
gulfs, which deeply indent the adjacent continents, as Baſ-
fin’s Bay, the White Sea, and the Gulf of Obi. The water
of this ocean is extremely pure and clear, and the ice is
remarkable for the beauty and variety of its tints. Those
parts of this sea which have been explored are occupied by
large fields of floating ice and icebergs in almost pcrpetual
motion. Captain Ross measured an iceberg which rose 325
feet above the water in which it floatcd. There are masscs
that present a front of 200 feet in height, and ſiclás from
ten to forty feet thick sometimes extchd over 100 milcs.
Icebergs often have a violent rotation, and are dashcd
against each other with a tremendous force. Fogs, storms,
and almost endless night add to the dangers which beset
the explorer. Among the navigators who have explored it
in search of a north-west passage arc Parry, Ross, Sir John
Franklin, and Kane. Drs. Hayes and Hall, and various
Scandinavian and Dutch navigators, are among the recent
explorers. Parry in 1827 reached lat. 82° 45' N., lon.
19°25' E., and found there floes of ice, with open water
between. In 1854, Kane penetrated to lat. 81° 22' in lon.
65° 35' W. He argued that there is an open sea, not fro-
zen, around the Pole, from the fact that “a gale from the
N. E. of fifty-four hours’ duration brought a heavy sea.
from that quarter, without disclosing any drift or other ice.”
There are valuable whale-fisheries in the Arctic Ocean.
Arctu'rus [from the Gr. &pictos, a “bear,” and otpá, a
“tail”], a fixed star of the first magnitude in the constel-
lation Bootes, so called because it is near the tail of the
Great Bear. It is designated in catalogues as a Bootes.
Arcuation [from the Lat. arcus, a “bow ’’], a term for-
merly applied to a mode of propagating trees; the shoots
of the trees, cut off near the ground, are bent over and
23()
ARCUEIL–AREOPAGUS.
partly covered with earth, which causes them to take root.
ſt is generally called inarching.
Arcueil, a village of France, 3 miles S. of Paris, on the
railway from that capital to Sceaux, has a fine aqueduct
constructed by Marie de Médicis; also the remains of a
Roman aqueduct built by the emperor Julian. It is a place
of resort on holidays for the Parisians. Pop. in 1866, 5024.
Arcy, Grotto of, an ancient limestone quarry in
France, in the department of Yonne, remarkable for its
size and the beauty and extent of its stalactites and in-
crustations, which have almost completely obliterated all
traces of the labor of man.
Ardabil’, or Ardebil, a town of Persia, in the prov-
inco of Azerbijan, on the Kara-Soo, 90 miles E. by N. of
Tabriz. It is visited by the trading caravans from Tiflis,
Derbend, and Ispahan. Pop. estimated at about 10,000.
Ardèche, a river of France, rises among the mountains
of Cevennes, flows south-eastward through the most mag-
nificent and romantic scenery, and enters the Rhone 1 mile
from Pont Saint Esprit, after a course of 45 miles. Near
its mouth is a natural curiosity called the Bridge of Arc.
Ardèche, a mountainous department in the S. E. of
France, is bounded on the N. by the department of Loire,
on the E. by Drôme, on the S. by Gard, and on the W. by
Lozère and Haute-Loire, and drained by the Ardèche. Area,
2134 square miles. The surface is diversified by extinct
volcanic peaks, deep craters, ranges of basaltic columns,
and romantic valleys, forming combinations of scenery
which are highly magnificent and picturesque. The val-
leys near the Rhone produce good wine, olives, figs,
almonds, and Spanish chestnuts, the annual crop of which
latter is about 400,000 bushels.. Mines of copper, iron,
lead, antimony, and coal are worked in this department.
It is subdivided into 3 arrondissements, 31 cantons, and 339
communes. Capital, Privas. Pop. in 1872, 380,277.
Ar’den (commonly written ARDENNES, which see), a
forest in which Shakspeare places the scene of his play
called “As You Like It.” There was formerly a forest of
this name on the western borders of Warwickshire, which
is believed to have occupied a great part of the midland
counties, and it is noteworthy as the maiden name of
Shakspeare's mother.
Ar’den, a township of Berkeley co., W. Va. Pop. 1528.
Ardennes, or Arden (anc. Arduen/na Syl/va), a hilly
and densely-wooded tract which includes a part of Belgium
and of France, and is situated on both sides of the river
Meuse. The forest of Ardennes in Caesar’s time was more
extensive, and occupied nearly all the space between the
Sambre, Moselle, and Rhine. The highest points of the
Ardennes are about 2200 feet above the sea. The pre-
dominant rocks are clay-slate, grauwacke, and limestone.
The channel of the Meuse presents rugged and precipitous
rocks about 600 feet high. Many important military events
have occurred among the Ardennes, at Rocroi, Sedan,
Mézières, etc.
Ardennes, a department in the N. E. of France,
bounded on the N. by Belgium, on the E. by the depart-
ment of Meuse, on the S. by Marne, and on the W. by
Aisne, was part of the old province of Champagne. Area,
2020 square miles. It is intersected by the Meuse, which
flows northward, and by the Aisne, which flows westward.
The surface is partly hilly, and covered with the forest of
Ardennes. The valley of the Aisne is fertile and produces
much grain. Among the mineral resources of this depart-
ment are iron, lead, marble, and slate. The canal of Ar-
dennes, connecting the Meuse and the Aisne, affords facil-
ities for trade. Here are manufactures of glass, metallic
wares, woollen cloths, shawls, firearms, earthenware, etc.
It is subdivided into 5 arrondissements, 31 cantons, and
478 communes. Capital, Mézières. Pop. in 1872, 320,217.
Ar’doch, a small village of Scotland, in the county of
Perth, 8 miles S. S. W. of Crieff. Here is an ancient Ro-
man camp, the most entire now in Britain. The intrenched
works form a rectangle 500 by 430 feet, the north and east
sides of which are protected by five ditches and six ram-
arts.
Ar’dor [from ar’deo, to “burn’], a Latin word signi-
fying heat, fervor of passion, zeal, intensity of feeling. In
medicine it denotes an intense or morbidly-increased sen-
sation of heat, as ar'dor febriſlis, “feverish heat.”
Ardoye, a town of Belgium, in the province of West
Flanders, 6 miles N.W. of Courtray. Pop. in 1866, 6253.
Ardshir’, or Ardsheer’ (B3BEGAN), a king of Persia,
the founder of the dynasty of the Sassanides, was a man
of obscure origin. He raised himself by his courage and
energy, and revolted against Artabanus (or Ardovan), king
of Persia, whom he defeated and killed. He extended the
boundaries of Persia by conquests, and afterwards reigned
in peace for many years. He was celebrated as a sage and
a legislator, and was the author of maxims which are still
preserved by the Persians. The Greeks called him Artax-
erxes. He died about 260 A. TX., and was succeeded by
his son Shapur (or Sapor).
Are [Fr., from the Lat. area, a “ space of ground "J. In
the metric system of weights and measures the are is the
unit of measure of surface. It is the Square of ten mêtres =
119.60332 square yards. The are is not practically em-
ployed, the hectare = 100 ares, or 2.471.14 English acres,
the deciare (one-tenth of an are), and the centiare (one-
hundredth of an are), being the only agrarian measures
practically used in this system.
A/rea [a Latin word signifying, originally, an “open
space,” a “courtyard,” a “threshing-floor”], any plane
surface. In geometry it means quantity of surface, the
surface included within any given lines. The calculation
of areas is one of the ultimate objects of geometry, and the
measuring units employed are a square inch, a square foot.
etc. The area of a rectangle is equal to the product of the
length and breadth. That of a circle is found by multi-
plying the square of the diameter by the decimal .7854.
Are/ca, a genus of palm trees having pinnate leaves
and double spathes, a fruit which is a one-seeded drupe, or
mut with an outer fibrous husk. The Areca Catechat, called
pinang palm or betel-nut palm, is a native of the East
Indies, and grows to the height of forty or fifty feet. It
bears a fruit called areca-nut or betel-nut, which is as-
tringent and tonic, and is extensively used in the East as
a masticatory. (See BETEL.) It also yields a part of the
catechu of commerce. The Areca oleracea (the cabbage-
palm) grows in the West Indies, and is more than 100 feet
high, but has a very slender sterå. The terminal leaf-bud
is nutritious, and is used for food. It also bears nuts, the
kernel of which is sweet.
A’remberg’, or Arenberg, the name of a noble fam-
ily of Germany, which adhered to the Roman Catholic
Church and to Philip II. of Spain. They own large estates
in Hanover and Prussia.
Are’na, a Latin word signifying “sand,” was anciently
applied to an open space of ground strewed with sand on
which athletes and pugilists contended for mastery, and to
the open central part of the amphitheatre where gladiators
and wild beasts fought. This was usually covered with
sand. In modern language, arena signifies any scene of
contest or field of intellectual exertion; any public place in
which men. display their talents or contend for mastery in
debate.
Are/ha, a post-township of Iowa co., Wis. Pop. 2131.
Arſenac, a post-township of Bay co., Mich. Pop. 459.
Arena/ceous [Lat. arena/ceus, from are/ma, “ sand ”],
sandy, of the nature of sand; a geological term applied to
strata, which are composed entirely or chiefly of grains of
sand. Such are the beds of loose sand which occur in the
tertiary or more recent formations. The arenaceous rocks
of the carboniferous and Devonian ages are composed of
grains of sand cemented together, and are called sandstone.
When the sandstone is coarse-grained it is called grit, or,
if the particles are as large as pebbles, it is termed con-
glomerate or “pudding-stone.”
Ar’endahl, a post-township of Fillmore co., Minn. P.
853. -
Ar’endal, a city of Norway, 41 miles N. E. of Chris-
tiansand, on the Cattegat, in lat. 58° 23' N., lon. 8°53' E.
It is built partly on the mainland and partly on islands,
giving it the name of “Little Venice.” Pop. in 1865,
7181.
Arenic/ola [literally, an “inhabitant of the sand,” from
are/ma, “ sand,” and co’lo, to “till,” to “inhabit”], the lug-
worm, Arenic'ola piscatorium (i. e. “ of fishermen”), found
in the sand of the seashore, is much used by fishermen as
a bait. It bores in the sand, and forms for itself a tube
in which it moves with perfect freedom. When touched,
the lugworm throws out a quantity of yellow fluid that
stains the hand.
Arſenzwille, a post-township of Cass co., Ill. P. 884.
Areoi. See ARREOY. d
Areom’eter, or Araeometer [from the Gr. 3patós,
“thin,” and perpov, a “measure”], an instrument used to
measure the specific gravity of fluids and ascertain the
strength of spirituous liquors, usually called HYDROMETER
(which see).
Areop’agus [Gr. 'Apetos träyos], (i. e. “hill of Mars”),
a hill in Athens W. of the Acropolis; also a celebrated
court of justice which held its sessions on the same spot
in ancient times. This court or council was remarkable
for its high character and great antiquity, having been
organized before the first Messenian war, the date of which
AREQUIPA—ARGENS, D'.
231
was 740 B. C. It was merely a criminal tribunal before
the time of Solon, who made important changes in its con-
stitution, and extended its jurisdiction to political and .
moral affairs. He ordained that this court should be com-
posed of those archons who had performed their official
duties faithfully, and who had passed with credit the scru-
tiny to which all archons were subjected at the expiration
of their term of office. Its influence was conservative, and
tended to restrain the excesses or the progress of democ-
racy. The political power of this court was much reduced
by Pericles about 458 B. C., but it maintained a high rep-
utation long after that date. The name of the Areopagus
occurs in the history of the apostle Paul, who uttered a
memorable discourse on Mars’ Hill. (See Acts xvii. 22–31.)
Arequi'pa, a department of Peru, bordering on the
Pacific Ocean, is bounded on the N. by Ayacucho and
Cuzco, on the E. by Cuzco and Puno, on the S. by Mo-
quega, and on the W. by the ocean. Area, estimated at
201,000 square miles. The eastern part is mountainous.
The soil is fertile, and produces chiefly wine. Gold, silver,
zinc, lead, and coal are found here. Capital, Arequipa.
Pop. about 180,000.
Arequipa, a city of Peru, capital of the above depart-
ment, is finely situated about 40 miles from the Pacific
Ocean, on the river Chili and on the plain of Quilca, 7850
feet above the level of the sea; lat. 16° 24′ 28” S., lon. 71°
37' 30" W. It is reputed one of the best built and most
beautiful towns of South America. It is the seat of a
bishop, and has a cathedral, a college, and several con-
vents. The public edifices and private houses are built of
stone, one or two stories high. It has been ruined by
earthquakes several times. It has an active trade, facili-
tated by a railroad which extends to Mollendo on the Pa-
cific. Gold and silver are found in the vicinity. The ad-
jacent country is fertile. Here occurred a great earthquake,
Aug. 13 and 14, 1868, destroying property worth more than
$12,000,000, and said to have caused the death of more
than 500 persons. Pop. estimated at 40,000.
Arequipa, Volcano of, a celebrated volcanic peak
of the Peruvian Andes, is about 14 miles E. of the city of
Arequipa. It rises to the height of 20,300 feet above the
level of the sea, and has the form of a regular truncated
cone, with a deep crater, from which ashes and vapor con-
tinually issue.
A/res ['Apns], the god of war in the Greek mythology,
corresponded to the Roman MARS (which see).
Aretae/us [Gr. 'Aperatos], an able Greek medical writer
of Cappadocia, is supposed to have lived between 50 and
150 A. D. The events of his life are not known, but he is
considered by some persons to rank next to Hippocrates.
He wrote a work in eight books on the causes, symptoms,
and cure of acute and chronic diseases, which is still ex-
tant and is highly esteemed. The style is singularly ele-
gant and concise. The Greek text has often been printed,
and has been translated into English by T. F. Reynolds
(1837).
Arethu'sa [Gr. 'Apé9ovara], in classic mythology, one of
the Nereids, of whom Alpheus was enamored. Also the
name of a fountain near Syracuse, into which it is said she
was transformed. (See ALPHEUs.) Arethusa was invoked
by Virgil as a source of inspiration in his tenth eclogue.
Aretin/ian Syl/lables are ut, re, mi, fa, Sol, la, which
Guido d'Arezzo used to designate his notes in his musical
system of hexachords.
Aretino (GUIDO). See GUY D’AREzzo.
Aretiſmo (PIETRO), [Lat. Areti'nws], a satirical and li–
centious Italian writer, born at Arezzo in 1492. He was a
man of low birth, and was not liberally educated. He be-
came a resident of Venice in 1527, and found several power-
ful patrons, among whom were the emperor Charles W. and
Francis I. Among his numerous works were comedies,
dialogues, sonnets, and letters (6 vols., 1538–57). He
gained by his writings great applause and large sums of
money. His satires, which were personal and bitter, pro-
cured for him the surname of THE SCOURGE OF PRINCEs.
His habits were extremely licentious. Died in Venice in
1557. (See BERNI, “Vita di P. Aretino,” 1537; DUJARDIN,
“Vie de Pierre Arétin,” 1750; MAzzuch ELLI, “Wita di
Pietro Aretino,” 1763.) r
Aretino (SPINELLO), a skilful Italian painter, born at
Arezzo about 1315. He painted frescoes at Florence, Ar-
ezzo, and other towns, and acquired a high reputation.
Some frescoes which he painted in San Miniato, near
Florence, are still preserved. His invention and coloring
are highly commended. The best of his extant works is
a “History of Pope Alexander III.,” painted in the town-
hall of Sienna. Vasari considers him superior to Giotto.
Died about 1400.
Are'zzo, a province of Central Italy, is bounded on the
N. by Florence, on the E. and S. by Perugia, and on the
W. by Sienna. Area, 1279 square miles. The country is
chiefly mountainous, and is traversed by the Arno and
Chiano. Chief town, Arezzo. Pop. in 1871, 239,901.
Arezzo (anc. Arreſtium), "a city of Italy, capital of
the province of its own name, is on the Chiana, 55 miles
by rail S. E. of Florence. It is a very ancient town,
having been founded by the Etruscans several centuries
before the Christian era. Its walls are evidently Etrus-
can. It has two colleges, a seminary, a lyceum, a school
of technology, an academy of sciences and arts, and many
silk, cloth, iron, and other factories. Among the public
edifices are a cathedral, several churches rich in works of
art, a museum, and the famous Loggie of Vasari. Arezzo
is remarkable for the great number of eminent men who
were born in it—namely, Maecenas, Petrarch, Vasari, Pie-
trol Aretino, Guy d'Arezzo, Redi the physiologist, and Ces-
alpino. Pop. in 1872, 38,907. Ancient Arretium was cele-
brated for the manufacture of terra-cotta vases. The ca-
thedral contains rich sculptures by Giovanni Pisano, and
some of the finest glass windows in Italy.
Argae'us, Mount [Turk. Arjish-Dagh], the highest
mountain in Asia Minor, is in the pashalic of Karamania,
about 12 miles S. of Kaisariyeh, and is connected with a
branch of Mount Taurus. It rises 13,100 feet.
Argali (Capro'vis ar'gali, the O'vis am'mon of some
§ºſſº writers), the large wild
à sheep of Central Asia and
Siberia. Another variety
iès or species is found in
° North America. W. of the
# Rocky Mountains (O'vis
Monta'na). It is some-
times called Big-horn or
Rocky Mountain sheep,
# and has enormous horns
£ about four feet long and
from eighteen to twenty
inches in circumference.
It is about four feet high,
has coarse hair, and moves with great agility. -
Ar’gall (Sir SAMUEL), born at Bristol, England, in
1572, was deputy-governor of Virginia (1617–19), and
was detested by the colonists for his tyranny and rapacity.
Died in 1639.
Argand (AIMá), a Swiss chemist, born at Geneva about .
1750, is noted as the inventor of the ARG AND LAMP (which
see). He lived in England, and produced the model of
the lamp in 1782. It appears that he derived little profit
from the invention. Died in 1803.
Argand Lamp, a lamp invented in 1782 by A. Argand,
noticed above, was designed for burning oil. He invented
a wick in the form of a hollow cylinder, through which a
current of air ascends, so that the supply of oxygen is
increased. This contrivance prevented the waste of..car-
bon, which in the old lamps escaped in the form of Smoke,
and it greatly increased the amount of light. He also
added the glass chimney, by which a draft is created and
the flame is rendered more steady. This lamp was pat-
ented in 1787.
Ar'gelan’ der (FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST), a dis-
tinguished German astronomer, born at Memel March
22, 1799, was a pupil of Bessel. He became in 1823 director
of the observatory at Abo, in Finland, and commenced
observations on the fixed stars which have a perceptible
proper motion. The observatory of Abo having been
burned in 1828, another was erected for him at Helsing-
fors. In 1837 he was appointed professor of astronomy
at Bonn. He published a celestial atlas entitled “Uran-
ometria Nova " (1843), and “Astronomical Observations”
(1846), in which he gives the positions of 22,000 stars.
He demonstrated that the solar system has a progressive
motion in space.
Argemo'ne, a genus of plants of the natural order
Papaveraceae. The Argemone Meacicana is an annual her-
baceous plant, with yellow flowers and sinuated spiny
leaves, a native of Mexico and the U. S., now naturalized
in India, Africa, South America, etc. It has seeds which
are emetic and purgative, and have been used as a substi-
tute for ipecacuanha.
Argens, d” (JEAN BAPTISTE DE BOYER), MARQUIS, a
French writer, born at Aix, in Provence, June 24, 1704.
He served in the army in his youth, and gained distinction
by his “Jewish Letters” (“Lettres. Juives,” 6 vols., 1738–
42), and “Chinese Letters” (6 vols., 1739–42). These
procured for him the favor of the crown prince of Prussia,
afterwards Frederick the Great. He went to Berlin, and,
became an associate of that prince, who after his accession

232
ARGENSOLA, DE—ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.
appointed him director of the Academy of Fine Arts.
Among his works is “Histoire de l’Esprit Humain,” 14
vols., 1765–68. Died at Toulon Jan. 11, 1771.
Argenso'la, de (BARTOLOMſ. LEONARDO), an eminent
Spanish poet, born at Barbastro, in Aragon, in 1566. Hav-
ing entered the Church, he became a canon of Saragossa,
and historiographer of Aragon. He published a number
of poems and a “History of the Conquest of the Moluccas”
(1609). He and his brother were called the Horaces of Spain.
Died Feb. 26, 1631.
Argensola, de (LUPERCIO LEONARDO), a popular poet,
born at Barbastro in 1565, was a brother of the preceding.
He was appointed historiographer of Aragon by Philip III.,
and secretary of state by the viceroy of Naples in 1610.
He produced tragedies, entitled “Filis,” “Isabela,” and
“Alejandra;” also lyric poems which were very successful.
The poems of these two brothers display much similarity.
Died in 1613. Bouterwek commends his true poetic feeling,
and recognizes in his works an imagination more plastic
than creative. (See TICKNOR, “History of Spanish Litera-
ture;” N. ANTONIo, “Biblotheca. Hispana Nova.”)
Argenson, d”, a French family which has produced
many men eminent in letters and in public affairs.--MARC
RENſ. DE Woy ER D’ARGENSON (1652–1721) was a prominent
academician and public officer.—His son RENá Louis, mar-
quis d’Argenson (1694–1757), was a foreign minister and
an author of distinction.—MARC PIERRE, count d’Argen-
son (1696–1764), a brother of the foregoing, was an able
statesman and a patron of letters.-MARC ANTOINE RENá
DE PAULMY D’ARGENSON (1722–87), a son of the marquis
René Louis, was an academician and the collector of a
famous library.—MARC RENä, born in Paris Sept. 10, 1771,
served as the adjutant of General La Fayette, and fought
afterwards for the republic. Throughout his life he was a
prominent leader of the ultra-republicans. Died Aug. 2, 1842.
Argentan [Lat. Argen/wal, a town in the N. W. of
Trance, in the department of Orne, on a railway which
connects Alençon with Caen, 16% miles by rail N. N. W. of
the former. It is well built, and has a fine Gothic church
and a college; also manufactures of linen, and lace called
point d'Argentan. Pop. in 1866, 5401.
Argenteuil [Lat. Argento/lium], a town of France, in
the department of Seine-et-Oise, on the Seine, 113 miles
by rail from Paris. Here was a convent to which the cele-
brated Héloise retired about 1120. It is now in ruins.
Pop. in 1866, 8176. -
Argenteuil, a county of Canada, in the western part
of Quebec, and in the district of Terrebonne. The Ottawa,
River forms its southern boundary. Area, 850 square
miles. Much of the soil is excellent. Burr millstone is
found, and there is extensive water-power. Capital, La-
chute. Pop. in 1871, 12,806.
Argenſteus Co'dex, an old uncial manuscript of the
Four Gospels, written in the Moeso-Gothic dialect on vel-
lum, is so called because the letters are formed of silver,
except the initials. It is supposed that it was written in
the sixth century. It is a copy of the translation made by
Ulphilas, bishop of the Moeso-Goths, and was found in the
abbey of Werden, Westphalia, in 1597.
Ar’gentine. (Scopelus), a genus of small fishes of the
family Salmonidae, found in the Mediterranean and the
Atlantic. They derive their name from the silvery lustre
of their scales, and are valuable for the macre which is
obtained from the outside of their air-bladders. One or
more species occur in the U. S. waters, but no commercial
use is made of them.
Argentine [from the Lat. argen/tum, “silver’’], a
variety of carbonate of lime, having a silvery-white lustre
and a slaty or curved lamellar structure.
Argentine, a post-township of Genesee co., Mich.
Pop. 1061.
Argentine Republic [Sp. La Republica Argentina,
named from the Rio de la Plata, i. e. the “river of silver,”
argentum], a South American federal republic, is bounded
on the N. by Bolivia and Paraguay, on the E. by Brazil,
Paraguay, Uruguay, and the Atlantic Ocean, on the S. by
Patagonia and the Atlantic Ocean, and on the W. by the
Andes, which separate it from Chili. It extends from lat.
22° to 41° S., and lon. 54° to 72° W. The area is estimated
at 871,000 square miles. The disputes with Bolivia and
Paraguay concerning the boundary-line are not yet (1873)
settled. If the claims of the Argentine government should
ultimately prevail, the area of the republic would be about
1,000,000 square miles. . The population, according to the
census of 1869, amounted to 1,877,490. The area and popu-
lation of the fourteen states or provinces into which the
republic is divided are, according to the latest official re-
ports (see Behm and Wagner, “Bevölkerung der Erde,”
Gotha, 1872), as follows:
Provinces. sº. *ºn Capitals. Fº
1. Buenos Ayres...| 82,900 495,107 |Buenos Ayres...| 177,787
2. Santa Fé.........| 24,000 89,117 Santa Fé........... 10,670
3. Entre Rios...... 47,900 134,217 |Concepcion....... 6,513
4. Corrientes....... 70,100 129,023 |Corrientes......... 11,218
5. La Rioja......... 42,500 48,746 |La Rioja........... 4,489
6. Catamarca...... 42,500 79,962 Catamarca.........| 5,718
7. San Juan........ 39,300 60,319 |San Juan.......... 8,353
8. Mendoza 71,600 65,413 |Mendoza .......... 8,124
9. Cordova.......... 71,600 || 210,508 |Cordova............ 28,523
10. San Luis..........] 23,700 53,294 San Luis........... 3,748
11. Santiago......... 42,500 || 132,898 |Santiago............ 7,775
12. Tucuman........ 15,900 108,953 Tucuman.......... 17,438
13. Salta............... 59,500 88,933 |Salta................. 11,716
14. Jujuy............. 36,100 40,379 |Jujuy................ 3,071
Army in Paraguay....... 6,276
Gran Chaco................... 45,291
Missiones..................... 3,000
Pampas Argentinas...... 21,000
Patagonia .................... 24,000
In foreign countries..... 41,000
Physical Geography.—The country, which has the form
of an elongated quadrilateral, can be divided with regard
to the formation of the ground into four regions: 1st, the
regions of the Andes, which run along the western bound-
ary; 2d, “the Argentine Mesopotamia,” between the
Uruguay and the Parana; 3d, the Pampas or southern
plains; 4th, the northern or interior plains, which extend
into the Gran Chaco far into Bolivia. The characteristic
feature of the country, excepting the region of the Andes,
is the plain. The true Pampas are situated between the
Rio Negro and the Rio Salado. About the mouth of the
Rio Negro, beyond Buenos Ayres and some distance up
the Parana, the ground consists of a fine deposit of sand
and clay, which have been washed down from the moun-
tains in the course of time. For hundreds of miles S. and
W. of Buenos Ayres not a stone is to be found. In the
Pampas the principal vegetation consists of grasses, which
serve as food for the numerous herds of cattle. In the in-
terior cacti and thorny mimosae are frequent. Timber trees
are not met with. Towards the N. the vegetation becomes
extremely varied; along the rivers it becomes luxuriant;
the trees, however, are not extraordinarily high. Land
capable of being cultivated is found only along the rivers.
The strip of country between the eastern branches of the
Andes and the Parama is more or less sterile and deserted,
and even the western states are partly separated from each
other by deserts. Large tracts in the interior are covered
by volcanic ashes and pumice-stone. The southern plains
are broken by several ranges of hills, some of which stretch
150 miles to the S. and S. W. of Buenos Ayres, and run
from S. E. to N. W. Their elevation above the plain never
exceeds 300 feet. Parallel to these are the Wentana Moun-
tains, whose highest point is 3500 feet above the level of
the plain. These ranges mostly consist of granite, which
in some parts is covered by quartz. In the lower diluvian
strata many fossil remains of marine animals occur, which
are also found occasionally in the mountains at a height of
14,000 feet. The next higher stratum to the one last men-
tioned is rich in fossil remains of extinct mammals of an
enormous size, which have a striking resemblance to the
present mammals of South America and Africa (e. g. the
large armadillo, the giant sloth, the mastodon, fossil horses).
The mountains, especially the Aconquija Cordilleras, which
separate Tucuman from Catamarca, are rich in valuable
metals, especially gold, silver, and copper. In the Famatina
range, in the province of Rioja, much iron ore is found.
In the Gran Chaco it was ascertained by the expedition
of Peter Cornelius Blyss in 1863 that the ground is covered
for miles around with iron, which contains about 10 per
cent. of nickel. A piece of this was brought to the British
Museum weighing about 1400 pounds. Up to the present
time, however, the republic imports the iron it uses from
Europe. In the south-western provinces extensive coal-
fields have been discovered, while sulphur, alum, etc. are
found in large quantities in the Andes.
Rivers, Lakes, and Swamps.-Almost all the rivers which
come down from the Andes, the southern slope of the cen-
tral Brazilian ranges, and the heights forming the watershed
of Buenos Ayres, unite to form the Rio de la Plata, which
has a wider mouth than any other river on the globe. Be-
tween the capes San Antonio and St. Mary it has a width
of 170 miles; 50 miles farther up-stream, at Montevideo, it
has narrowed down to 75 miles, and the water becomes
fresh. At Buenos Ayres, 150 miles farther up, the low
shores cannot be seen from the middle of the river. The
current can be noticed as far as 100 to 200 miles out in the
ocean, although the depth of the river is not very great.
Above Montevideo, which is the only good port on it, its
navigable channels are so obstructed by sand-banks that
vessels of light draught, which go to Buenos Ayres, are
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.
233
compelled to anchor from six to nine miles from the city.
Even Small boats have such difficulty in getting ashore that
the passengers are generally landed by means of wagons
with very high wheels. The chief branches of which the
La Plata is formed are the Parana (with its affluent, the
Paraguay) and Uruguay, which are respectively navigable
for steamers for 1000 and 250 miles. Many of the eastern
tributaries, especially the Rio Vermejo and the Rio Salado,
are navigable for smaller vessels for 400 or 500 miles. The
smaller tributaries coming from the E. are generally un-
suited to navigation by reason of their strong currents.
Those coming from the Andes, however, slowly wend their
way through the endless plains, and are of the greatest im-
portance for commerce. The rivers of the interior which
do not belong to the system of the La Plata are mostly
unimportant, as they are lost in swamps or temporary lakes,
or entirely dry up in summer. These temporary lakes,
lagoons, and swamps are found in great number, and are
sometimes of considerable extent. Those to the E. of the
Paraguay and Parana generally contain fresh water, while
those W. of these rivers are brackish, almost without ex-
ception. Among the former the lake of Ybera in the prov-
ince of Corrientes is the most important. Those to the W.
of the great rivers usually dry up at the end of the rainy
Season, and leave the ground covered with a crust of saline
matter several inches in thickness. The salts are of dif-
ferent kinds. In the plain around Fort Melincue, W. S. W.
of Buenos Ayres, sulphates of magnesia are found which
yield a profitable article of commerce. Good cooking-salt
is found in large quantities S. of Buenos Ayres and in the
neighborhood of San Luis. -
Climate.—The most prominent characteristic of the cli-
mate of the Argentine Confederation is extreme dryness.
Although the territory W. of the Parana has plenty of
rain, still the plains in the interior suffer extremely from
drought, because the S. W. winds, being stopped by the
Andes, discharge their rain in Chili, and the eastern equa-
torial winds have already exhausted their rain at the tropic.
Buenos Ayres and the country immediately surrounding
are often exposed to warm N. winds, which come down the
valley of the Parana loaded with vapor. The mean tem-
perature of Buenos Ayres is 64° F.; the mean for the sum-
mer 72°, for the winter 52°. In many places a warm and
a cool season can be distinguished, the former lasting from
October to May, the latter from May to September. The
time of the change from one to the other is the chief rainy
season. The heavy thunder-storms, sometimes accompanied
by hail-storms, often produce very sudden changes of tem-
perature. Nevertheless, the climate is very healthy. This
is partly due to the Pampero, a strong S. W. wind coming
from the Andes. Also the nights, which are cool through-
out the year, and which tend to make the heat of the day
less felt, contribute much towards this end. In the plains
of the interior the hot Zonda, the strong and lasting N.
wind, is very much dreaded.
Animal and Plant. Life—Products.-With very few ex-
ceptions, the animals of the present day have the same
characteristics as the gigantic fossils found in the country,
except that they are considerably smaller. The animal
peculiar to the plains is the llama. The vicuña, related to
the llama, is hunted in the W. Of other wild animals are
found the puma, the tapir, the capibara, and the ounce.
Among the birds the birds of prey, as the condor and the
Caracara vulture, are especially numerous. The American
ostrich and different kinds of humming-birds and parrots
are also often met with. The vegetation of the plains of
the La Plata is poor. Even in Entre Rios the lack of wood
is often seriously felt. To the S. clumps of willows are
found here and there. But the shores of the Parana are
covered with beautiful forests, and both towards the tropics
and the Cordilleras the vegetation becomes varied and Tux-
uriant. The most characteristic plants of the Gran Chaco,
as well as of the Pampas, are mimosas and cacti, and not
until the foot of the Cordilleras in Salta and Mendoza is
reached are palms and the other ornaments of tropical for-
ests met with. The native plants and animals of these
regions are, however, mostly superseded by naturalized
Species. The apple tree, which at the present day forms
large Woods in the S. of Chili and towards the sources of
the Rio Negro, has been transplanted by the Indians far-
ther N. on the eastern slopes of the Cordilleras. The peach
tree is largely cultivated on the islands at the mouth of the
Parana. A wild species of artichoke and impenetrable
thickets of thistles cover the ground for miles to the W. and
N. W. of Buenos Ayres. Wine is extensively grown in
Mendoza and La Rioja.
Agriculture, Industry, Trade.—Only during the last fif-
teen years has agriculture been generally introduced, es-
pecially in the coast provinces. In the region of the Andes,
where the ground is more easily irrigated, considerable
Wheat, wine, and fruits of all kinds have been produced for
a long time. At present, wheat, corn, oats, and other grain
and vegetables are cultivated on a large scale. Sugar-cane,
tobacco (especially in Corrientes and Tucuman, but also
in Salta and Catamarca), cotton, peanuts, and flax are also
cultivated, although these plants have only been lately in-
troduced. Labor, instruction, and inclination are sadly
wanting. Even now the raising of cattle, the old national
occupation, is much more important than agriculture. The
natives had at the time of the discovery no other domestic
animal than the llama or guanaco. Mendoza introduced
the horse in 1536; in 1550 goats and sheep were brought
from Peru; in 1553 the ox was brought from the coast of
Brazil. From these importations have descended the mil-
lions of cattle which now roam over the plains of the re-
public. The breeds are almost all good. The sheep have
been greatly improved. In recent times the breeders of
cattle have suffered considerable losses, as, in consequence
of the high tariff of the U. S., they have no market for
their products. Wild cattle are no longer to be found. All
are enclosed, though often in very large ranges. The large
estancias of former times are becoming a thing of the past,
and they are cut up more and more into smaller estates.
While the price of land has risen considerably (in some
places it has doubled within twenty years), the increase of
the cattle has been so large that the supply exceeds the de-
mand largely, and manure is made of the unsold meat.
About 3,000,000 hides of cattle are exported annually, and
in the large slaughter-houses (saladeros) 60,000 cattle are
killed annually. The herds of horses seem to diminish
gradually, but are still so large that 250,000 horse-hides
are annually exported. The Pampa horse is small and of
coarse build, but excels in fleetness and endurance. It
roams about in herds of 6000 or 8000, and is caught by the
Gauchos with the lasso or the bolas. Mules are raised
in large numbers, and are exported to Peru and other
places. General industry and manufactures are unimport-
ant in the La Plata states. The manufacture and export
of “Liebig’s extract of meat” is extensive. Besides this,
tanning and the soap manufacture are carried on on a large
scale. Valuable embroidered cloths, wearing apparel, gor-
geous blankets, and ponchos are made of the finest wool.
The Indian women of the S. also make wonderfully fine
quilted ponchos, belts, horse-blankets, and harness. A
laborer is paid from $1 to $3 in gold per day. -
The commerce with the interior is unimportant; that
with Chili and Bolivia is of more consequence. To these
countries oxen, mules, and asses are exported in large num-
bers. The commerce by sea is about twenty times as large
as that by land. It is limited almost entirely to Buenos
Ayres and Rosario. The river-ports, Santa Fé, Parama,
Corrientes, Gualeguay, Concepcion, and Concordia, supply
themselves from Buenos Ayres. The inland trade is almost
entirely carried on by caravans of thirty or forty wagons.
The articles of export are, besides those obtained from the
herds of cattle, horses, and sheep, chiefly ostrich feathers,
Patagonian and artificial guano, furs, homey, copper, gold
and silver bars. The total exports amounted in 1870 to
$23,320,000, and the imports to $39,400,000. In 1870, 1154
vessels, of 388,796 tons, entered, and 1074 vessels, of 339,759
tons, cleared from the port of Buenos Ayres. About one-
half of the exports are hides and three-eighths wool.
Roads are sadly wanting throughout the entire country.
Diligences run from Rosario to Mendoza, San Juan, Cor-
dova, Rioja, Catamarca, Santiago del Estero, Tucuman,
Salta, and Jujuy. Couriers keep up the communication
between the 125 post-offices. In 1865, 1,167,611 letters
were transmitted. According to the president's message
in 1871, 605 miles of railroad were in operation, 139 miles
in construction, and 2248 miles were projected. Accord-
‘ing to the same message, 1461 miles of telegraph were in
operation, and 2414 miles were projected in 1871. A sub-
marine telegraph from Buenos Ayres to Montevideo has
been in operation since 1866. In the same year the Amer-
icans, Hopkins & Cary, received a charter to construct a
telegraph from Buenos Ayres to Chili.
Inhabitants.-The native tribes are divided into three
different groups: 1st, the Araucanians, who roam as far N.
as the Rio Salado; 2d, the Quichuas, who were formerly sub-
ject to the incas of Peru, and live E. of the Cordilleras as
far as Santiago; 3d, the Guaranis, who formerly ruled from
the Gulf of Mexico to the Rio de la Plata, and from the
Atlantic to the Andes. These races are uncivilized to the
present day. But the most of the Guaranis, Quichuas, and
some of the Araucanians, have been blended together with
the Spaniards, and this mixed race constitutes the larger
part of the population of the republic. The number of the
foreign-born population is very large, and is increasing
rapidly. The immigration from 1858 to 1862 amounted to
28,066, and from 1863 to 1867 to 65,599 souls. The follow:
ing table presents the immigration of each year, arranged
according to nationalities:
234
1863. 1864. | 1865. 1866. 1867.
Italians ............| 4,494 5,435 | 5,001 || 4,245(?)| 8,455
IFrenchmen ...... 2,334 2,736 2,282 2, 3,671
Spaniards.......... 1,377 1,586 1,701 || 954(?) 1,258
British.............. 883 | 1,015 1,583 | 1,370 1,672
Swiss................ 567 329 || 502 || 958 933
Germans ..........] 527 289 || 363 274 436
Other nations...| 216 192 || 335|, 3,025(?) 597
, Total ............ 10,398 |11,582 (11,767 |13,696 |17,022
In 1868 the number of immigrants amounted to 29,384, in
1869 to 37,934, in 1870 to 39,667, and in 1871 to 31,614. T.
C. Ford says in his report of 1867 that there were ten colo-
nies in the republic, each having on an average 7000 or
8000 inhabitants, which were all Europeans. In recent
times much has been done to promote immigration.
Manners and Custom8.–Im Buenos Ayres, where the for-
eign population gains the ascendency more and more,
European dress and manners have been rapidly naturalized.
The lower classes, which are chiefly mestizoes and half-
breeds, combine the inclination of the higher classes for
gaming and a dissolute life with the plain and rough mode
of living of the Gaucho of the Pampas. The Gaucho
wears a jacket of coarse cloth or sheepskin, and pantaloons
of the same stuff, which are open from the knee down. His
poncho is a square piece of cloth with an opening in the
middle for the head. His ornaments consist of spurs with
large silver rowels, and a large knife, with the handle inlaid
with silver, which is carried in the belt. The women are
dressed almost exactly like the men, only they have the
neck and arms bare. The rancho or hut of the Gaucho
consists of a trellis-work of brushwood, which is covered
with mud. The roof is covered with straw or cow-hides,
and in the place of a door is a horse-hide. The food of the
Gaucho consists almost entirely of meat and water. From
1850 to 1860 there was one marriage for every 140 inhabit-
ants, 1 birth for every 22, 1 death for every 44, and 5 children
for every family; one-fifth of all the children are illegiti-
mate. The mean length of life in the country and the small-
er cities is 40 years. Since 1780 the population has almost
quadrupled itself. The predominating religion is the Ro-
man Catholic ; Protestants are only found among the immi-
grants. Under the archbishop of Buenos Ayres are the
bishop of the Littoral (with his seat in Parana), of Cor-
dova, of Cuyo (San Juan), and of Salta. There are very few
monasteries, but a large number of nunneries. There are
missions on the Indian frontier, where several hundred
have been converted. Popular education until recently
has been very poor. Only 28,000 persons can write. But
since the accession of President Sarmiento much has been
done to improve the education of the people. Universities
have been established at Buenos Ayres and Cordova, while
colleges exist in those two cities and in Concepcion, and
several others are in course of erection. Of the forty-three
printing establishments, Buenos Ayres has sixteen, and of
the thirty-seven newspapers published in the republic, it
has sixteen. In 1869, Congress passed a law that the new
civil code (codigo civil) compiled by Dr. Sarsfield, at that
time minister of the interior, was to be introduced through-
out the whole republic on Jan. 1, 1871.
Constitution.—The constitution was adopted May 11,
1853, and was revised in 1860 and I862. At the head of
the republic is a president, elected for a term of six years
by 133 representatives of the provinces. The congress
consists of a house of representatives with fifty-four mem-
bers, and a senate with two members for each state. In
1862, Congress transferred the seat of government to
Buenos Ayres, and introduced several clauses into the con-
stitution with regard to the relations of the city to the con-
federation. The province of Buenos Ayres elects its own
governor, but the city is under the direct jurisdiction of the
president and congress. The judiciary is entirely inde-
pendent. There is a supreme court and tribunals in every
state. The freedom of the press, of religion, of association,
of education, and free disposition of property, as well as
equality before the law, is guaranteed to everybody.
Army, Wavy, and Finances.—The army consists, exclusive
of the militia and national guard of Buenos Ayres, of 7414
men, inclusive of 29 generals, 273 commandants, and 632
other officers. The republic possesses seven men-of-war,
one of which is armed with twelve guns. The public debt
in 1871 amounted to 76,576,385 pesos fuertes (1 peso fuerte=
$1.01). The income in 1870 amounted to 14,833,904, the
expenditures to 22,199,445, leaving a deficit of 7,365,544
pesos. Each province has its own budget. -
Płistory.—The La Plata was discovered by Juan Diaz de
Solis in 1516, who took possession of the country for the
crown of Spain. Buenos Ayres was founded by Don Pedro
de Mendoza, who became governor in 1535. The city was
not, however, firmly established against the attacks of the
Indians until after its third rebuilding in 1580, and after
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

Santa Fé, Mendoza, and other cities in the interior had
been founded. The government of the countries of the La
Plata was subject to the viceroy of Peru until 1778, in
which year a viceroyalty was forined of the provinces of Rio
de la Plata, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Bolivia, with Buenos
Ayres as its capital. After 1806–07, Buenos Ayres and Mon-
tevideo were for a short time in the hands of the British,
who, however, were not able to hold them. Soon after
liberal ideas began to gain ground. The viceroy was ex-
pelled, and on May 25, 1810, a junta gubernativa was in-
stalled. Cordova, Paraguay, and Uruguay, however, did
not recognize this junta, and a long succession of civil Wars .
ensued. Soon after the districts in the interior also joined
the Confederation. In 1813 a constituent assembly met in
Buenos Ayres, the Spanish flag was given up, and the re-
public issued its own coin. In the previous year Monte-
video, which had remained longest connected with Spain,
had been taken. In 1816 the representatives of all the
provinces assembled in congress at Tucuman, declared
the La Plata states independent, and appointed General
Pueyrredon dictator of the republic. The Spanish troops
were severely defeated at Chacabuco in 1817, and at Maypu
in 1818. The last and decisive victory was gained in 1821.
In the mean while the republic was the scene of serious
encounters between several ambitious leaders. In 1825 the
“ Unitarians” (who favored a strong central government).
succeeded in restoring unity and established a new consti-
tution. But Rivadiva was their only president. Juan
Manuel de Rosas, the leader of the Gauchos, in connection
with other malcontents, forced him to resign, and caused
Dorrego to be elected governor of Buenos Ayres. After a
counter-revolution under Lavalle, which was for a time
successful, Rosas was elected governor in 1826, in which
position he remained for six years. In 1835 he declined a
re-election, but accepted the position of dictator of the re-
public with unlimited powers, which he held until 1852.
During this entire period Congress did not assemble. The
civil wars nevertheless continued uninterruptedly. The
independence of Uruguay, which had assumed the title of
“Republica. Oriental del Uruguay,” had been recognized in
1828. But Rosas did not relinquish his plans. He assisted
Governor Oribe, while France took sides with his rival,
Rivera. Peace was concluded in 1840, but in 1845 new
difficulties arose, which led to an armed intervention of
France and England. They blockaded Buenos Ayres and
occupied the island Martin Garcia, but were compelled to
recall their fleets the next year. The provinces of Cor-
rientes and Entre Rios seceded from Rosas soon after, and
on Feb. 3, 1852, he was defeated by the united forces of
Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Urquiza, the head of the
opposition, in the battle of Monte Caseras, in consequence
of which he was compelled to fly to England. After a short
administration of Vincente Lopez, Urquiza declared him-
self president, and recognized on June 23, 1852, the inde-
pendence of Paraguay. In September another revolution
took place, and Buenos Ayres resolved to secede from the
Confederation. In the mean while, Congress had adopted
a new constitution (May, 1853), and Urquiza was elected
president. Buenos Ayres remained independent, but con-
sented to the conclusion of two treaties in Dec., 1854, and
Jan., 1855. The attempts at a reunion were not suspended,
but several difficulties caused the suspension of the treaties.
A war followed, and Buenos Ayres was defeated. Urquiza
gained a victory at Cepada on Oct. 23, 1859, and by the
treaty of peace of San José de Flores of Nov. 10, 1859, and
the union of Parana, Buenos Ayres again entered the Con-
federation. In 1861 new difficulties arose on account of
taxation, and General Mitré completely defeated the fed-
eral troops on the Pavon (a small tributary of the Parana)
on Sept. 17, 1861. The president, Santiago Derqui, resigned
in consequence of this, and General Mitré was appointed
president pro tem., with the direction to call a congress on
May 25, 1862, at Buenos Ayres. Mitré was elected presi-
dent of the reunited Confederation on Dec. 14 of the same
year. In 1866 great dissatisfaction arose in several prov-
inces in consequence of the war with PARAGUAY (which
see). In several places, as Mendoza and Catamarca, seri-
ous disturbances arose, which were secretly encouraged by
Peru, Chili, and Bolivia. In 1867 the disturbance, under
the command of Widela, began to assume serious proportions
in Mendoza, and even extended to La Rioja and San J uan.
General Pannero, although not till Mitré had joined him
with 4000 men, completely defeated the insurgents, and
triumphantly entered Mendoza on May 14. Both houses
of Congress passed a resolution to transfer the seat of gov-
ernment to Rosario, which was, however, vetoed by the
president. In 1868, Sarmiento was elected president for a
term of six years. Since that time the country has been
rapidly increasing in prosperity. In 1870 a rebellion broke
out in Entre Rios, at the head of which was General Lopez
Jordan, a son-in-law of Urquiza. This old patriot was
ARGENTON-SUR-CREUSE—ARGONAUT.
235
murdered by the rebels in his palace at San José. The re-
bellion, although rapidly gaining, was opposed by almost
all the other states. On Sept. 23, Jordan was completely
routed at Santa Rosa, and lost all his infantry and artil-
lery. In April, 1871, he was again completely defeated,
and the rebellion was suppressed. In Mar. and April,
1871, the city of Buenos Ayres was visited by the yellow
fever, and suffered terribly from its ravages. The citizens
and the government did their utmost to prevent its spread,
but still the total of its victims was found to be 13,403—a
figure which, although large, was still considerably below the
estimate made by the press. In Feb., 1872, a revolution
broke out in Corrientes, which, however, was soon ended.
In Entre Rios, Lopez still continued to agitate in secret,
but without success. On Jan. 1, 1872, a band of Gauchos,
under a Bolivian fanatic calling himself a Dios medico (God
physician), entered the town of Tandil, and crying “Death
to the Masons and Gringos!” massacred thirty-five persons.
They were afterwards captured; fourteen were put to death,
fifteen imprisoned for fifteen years, and the Dios medico
was shot by the populace. -
In April, 1872, Gail Jordan was reported to be on the
frontier of Brazil, at the head of 2000, intending to revive
the dream of Artigas and Urquiza concerning the estab-
lishment of an independent republic, to consist of the Ar-
gentine provinces of Corrientes and Entre Rios and the
republic of Uruguay. At the beginning of the year the
border provinces had to suffer from a new invasion of the
Araucanian Indians under their chief Calfucura, who are
reported to hold more than 3000 Argentine citizens as
prisoners. In May, 1873, the province of Entre Rios was
once more invaded by Lopez Jordan, who captured several
towns and threatened the two neighboring littoral prov-
inces. The government declared Entre Rios in a state of
siege, and at once placed a number of the national guard
in the field; at the same time President Sarmiento sent a
special message to Congress requesting the adoption of
vigorous measures for the suppression of the invasion.
Literature.—Compare, besides the works of Nuñez, King,
Mansfield, and Page, ANDRíE, “Buenos Ayres und die
Argentinischen Provinzen'' (1856); MANNEQUIN, “Les
provinces argentines et Buenos Ayres" (1856); DE MUssy,
“Description géographique et statistique de la Confedera-
tion Argentine” (1861 and 1864); BURMEISTER, “Reise
durch die La Plata Staaten '' (1861); Ford, “La Repub-
lique Argentine” (1867); TRELLEs, “Registro Estadistico”
(1867); L. BECK BERNHARD, “Le Rio Parana, etc.” (1865);
MoUCHEz, “Nouveau Manuel de la navigation dans le Rio
de la Plata, etc.” (1865); ScHNEPP, “Mission Scientifique
dans l’Amerique du Sud” (1864); the “Annales del
Museo publico de Buenos Ayres,” published yearly by Bur-
meister since 1864; DOMINGUEZ, “History of the Argen-
time Republic,” translated by G. Williams (1866); M. G.
and E. T. MULHALL, “Handbook of the River Platte”
(1869); WAPPAUs, “Argentinische Republik,” in Stein
and Hörschelmann’s “Handbuch der Geographie und
Statistik” (7th ed. 1863–70). A. J. SCHEM.
Argenton-sur-Creuse (anc. Argentom'agus), a
town of France, in the department of Indre, on the river
Creuse, 19 miles by rail S. W. of Châteauroux. It has
ruins of an old castle, and manufactures of woollen ,
cloth. Pop. in 1866, 52.19.
Ar’ges, a genus of small fishes of the family Silu-
ridae, which are often thrown out by some of the South
American volcanoes with torrents of hot and muddy
water. This remarkable fact was noticed and published
by Humboldt, who described one species, now called
Arges cyclopum. They are ejected near Quito in such
quantities that fevers are caused by their putrefaction.
It is supposed that they come from lakes in the caverns
of the mountains. The craters from which they are
ejected are 16,000 feet or more above the level of the
Sea.
Ar’gil [from the Lat. argil'la, “white clay”], a
term sometimes applied to clay or potter's clay, and,
in a technical sense, to pure clay or to alumina.
Argilla'ceous [from the Lat. argil'la, “clay”],
clayey; having the properties of clay, or partly composed
of clay. Limestones are called argillaceous if they contain
as much as 10 per cent. of clay. A conchoidal fracture
usually indicates the presence of clay in a mineral.
ARGILLAGEOUS Rocks. This term is generally applied
to rocks or strata of which clay is the principal ingre-
dient. Pure clay, called kaolin or porcelain clay, is a
hydrated silicate of alumina, and is derived from the
decomposition of felspar. Common clay contains also
Sand and other impurities. Among the argillaceous rocks
are shales and slates. Clay which has been indurated and
metamorphosed is called clay-slate. Plastic clays fit for
pottery occur in the tertiary formation and more recent
deposits. The argillaceous rocks may be distinguished by
the odor which "they emit when a person breathes on them.
Ar’gives, or Argi'vi, the inhabitants of Argos and
of Argolis, a state of ancient Greece. During the Trojan
War Agamemnon was king of the Argives, who were then
the most powerful or prominent among the Greek tribes.
The name Argives was used by Homer and other ancient
authors as a generic appellation for all the Greeks.
Ar’go, an extensive southern constellation, so called
from the mythical ship of the Argonautae. It is usually
divided into four: Argo, Argo in Carina (in the keel),
Argo in Puppi (in the stern), and Argo in Velis (in the
sails). Canopus, a star of the first magnitude, belongs to
this constellation, part of which is invisible in our latitude.
Ar’gol, crude tartar, a salt which is deposited by wine
in crystalline crusts on the interior of vats, barrels, and
bottles. Being less soluble in alcohol than in water, the
increasing proportion of alcohol during fermentation causes
it to separate. It consists chiefly of potassic bitartrate,
KHC4H4O6, but contains also variable quantities of calcie
tartrate, coloring and mucilaginous matter. It is purified
by solution in hot water, clarification by the addition of
clay, and recrystallization. By repeating the process it
becomes white, and is then sold under the name of cream
of tartar, and extensively used in connection with sodic
bicarbonate for raising bread. Cream of tartar is shame-
fully adulterated with gypsum, flour, etc., many samples
containing two-thirds or more of such fraudulent admix-
tures. Argol is used for the preparation of tartaric acid,
Rochelle salt, and potassic carbonate, the latter being often
called salt of tartar. -
Ar’golis ['ApyoAis], a state of ancient Greece, in the
N. E. part of the Peloponnesus (Morea), bordering on the
sea. It consists partly of a peninsula between the Saron-
teus Sinus (Gulf of Ægina) and the Argolicus Sinus (Gulf
of Nauplia). It was bounded on the S. by Laconia and on
the W. by Arcadia. The surface is diversified by moun-
tains which are about 5000 feet high. Near the sea is the
large plain of Argos, which is rendered unhealthy by
marshes. Argolis was one of the most famous and power-
ful states of ancient Greece, and was the scene of many
memorable events or myths in the heroic ages. Here Her-
cules was born, and Pelops and the Atridae reigned. The
inhabitants were called Argives (Argivi). The chief towns
were Argos, Mycenae, Epidaurus, Hermione, Sicyon, and
Troezene, each of which was a separate kingdom. The
Argives were skilful musicians, and cultivated the fine arts
with success, but were never distinguished as poets or
philosophers.
ARGOLIS AND CoRINTH is the name of a nomarchy of
modern Greece. Area, 1447 square miles. Pop. in 1870,
127,820. Capital, Nauplia.
Ar’gonaut (Argonau'ta), a genus of mollusks of the
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Argonaut within its shell.
class Cephalopoda, is commonly called “paper nautilus.”
The latter name is derived from the frágile nature of the
boat-like shell in which the argonaut floats on the surface
of tranquil seas. The shell is not chambered like that of
the true nautilus, but has one spiral cavity, into which the
animal can retire and be completely hidden. There is no
muscular attachment of this animal to the shell, which is
said to be peculiar to the female, who uses it for incubation
as a nest. Several species are known. . They have eight
arms, two of which are expanded into broad membrana-
ceous disks, which were formerly believed to be sails, and
the other arms were regarded as oars; but, though the
fable is perpetuated by the poets, it has long been known





























236
ARGONAUTAE-ABGYLE.
that the animal really-propels itself by ejecting water from
its funnel. When it desires, it folds its arms, retires with-
in its shell and sinks to the bottom.
Argonau'tae [Gr. 'Apyovajrat, i. e. “the sailors of the
Argo”], in English Ar’gonauts, the famous Greek heroes
who, according to tradition, lived before the Trojan war,
and acquired celebrity by an adventurous navigation of
unknown seas. This is the most ancient voyage of dis-
covery mentioned by classic poets or historians. They
derived their name from the ship Argo, in which, under
the command of Jason, they performed the expedition to
Colchis, on the Euxine, in order to recover the Golden
Fleece, which was guarded by a sleepless dragon. Among
the Argonauts were Hercules, Theseus, Castor, Pollux, and
Orpheus. In the course of the voyage they landed at sev-
eral points and passed through many perilous adventures.
Among the obstacles which they encountered were the en-
mity and treachery of Æetes, king of Colchis, but they were
aided by his daughter Medea, a powerful sorceress, and
finally carried off the Golden Fleece.
Ar’go 8 [Apyos], a capital city of ancient Greece, situ-
ated in Argolis, about 3 miles from the Argolicus Sinus, or
Gulf of Nauplia. It was considered the oldest city of
Greece, and was supposed to have been founded by Inachus,
the father of Io, about 1500 B. C. It was a famous city in
the heroic age, and was the residence of Pelops and Aga-
memnon. Argos was the head of a league of Doric cities
before Sparta acquired the supremacy in the Peloponnesus.
Its site is occupied by a modern town of the same name,
6 miles N. N. W. of Nauplia. Pop. about 10,000. Here
are remains of ancient cyclopean structures.
Argos, a post-village of Marshall co., Ind.
Argos’toli, a seaport-town of Greece, the capital of
Cephalonia, one of the Ionian Islands, is on the S. W.
coast. It has a good haven. Pop. 8000.
Argot, a word of uncertain derivation, applied in
France to a peculiar language or gibberish invented for
purposes of concealment by those whose pursuits make
them dread the arm of the law. In all the countries of
Europe a language of this kind prevails, and has prevailed
perhaps to some extent from immemorial time. In Eng-
land it is called “thieves' Latin,” “St. Giles's Greek,”
“peddler's French,” “flash,” and other names; in Italian,
“zergo " (or “gergo ") and “furbesco " (from furbo, a
“rogue *); in Spanish, “Germania;” in German, “roth-
welsch’” (or “rothwälsch"). An able French writer, M.
Nodier, remarks that “Argot, a language invented by
thieves, often sparkles with imagination and wit.” The
following examples may serve to illustrate the truth of the
foregoing remark: Apôtre (“apostle”) applied to the fin-
gers, because they are “sent forth.” Sans feuille (“without
leaf”), the “leafless” tree—that is, the “gallows.” Epouser
la vewve (to “marry the widow”), to “be hung;” implying
that those who had previously been joined in the same
marriage were deceased. Aspie (an “asp,” or poisonous
serpent), a “slanderer.” Sancho Panza, “justice of the
peace,” in allusion to Sancho Panza having been under
Don Quixote magistrate of the Isle of Barataria. Sanglier
(a “boar,” an animal having long teeth), applied to priests,
in allusion to their frequent fasting; the phrase “having
long teeth.” was equivalent to “being very hungry.” Some-
times the principle on which the word (in argot) is formed
is a mere resemblance of sound: thus, arsenic is used for
“arsenal.” In a somewhat similar manner solir is used for
ventre (“belly”), because sollir, “to sell,” in argot signifies
the same as vendre, which resembles ventre in sound. Con-
siderable attention has of late years been paid to the study
of argot. Francisque Michel has written a large volume
on argot (Paris, 1856), which is said to be by far the most
complete work on the subject. Several distinguished nov-
elists, including Bulwer, Dickens, and Victor Hugo, have
introduced frequent specimens of this language into their
works; it may suffice to refer the reader to “Pelham,”
“Paul Clifford,” “Oliver Twist,” and “Les Misérables.”
Argout, d” (ANTOINE MAURICE APOLLINAIRE), Count,
born in Isère in 1782. He became prefect of Gard in 1817,
and a peer of France in 1819. In July, 1830, during the
revolution, he negotiated between the popular party and
the king, from whom he obtained concessions, but it was
then too late. He was appointed minister of commerce in
1831, minister of the interior in 1833, and governor of the
Bank of France in 1834. He retained that office many
years. Died in 1858.
Argue/Iles (AUGUSTIN), a liberal Spanish statesman,
born in the Asturias in 1775. He was elected to the Cortes,
and was a member of the committee which produced the
liberal constitution of 1812. He gained distinction as an
orator, and became very popular with the liberal party.
On the restoration of Ferdinand VII., in 1814, he was im-
prisoned for several years, but was released by the revolu-
tion of 1820. He was minister of the interior for several
months in that year, and was an exile from 1823 to 1832.
After that date he was a leader of the moderate party in
the Cortes, and in 1841 was appointed tutor to the young
queen Isabel. Died in 1844. (See EvariSTO SAN MIGUEL,
“Vida de D. A. Arguelles,” 1850.)
Ar’gument [Lat. argumen’tum, from ar'guo, to “make
clear” J, a reason offered for or against a proposition,
opinion, etc.; a series of reasonings; a debate or disputa-
tion. In logic, an expression in which, from something
laid down as granted (i. e. the premises), something else
(i. e. the conclusion) is to be deduced. “Socrates,” says
Addison, “introduced a catechetical method of arguing.
He would ask his adversary question upon question, until
he had convinced him out of his own mouth that his
opinions were wrong. . . . Aristotle changed this method
of attack, and invented a great variety of little weapons
called syllogisms. As in the Socratic way of dispute you
agree to everything which your opponent advances, in the
Aristotelic you are still denying and contradicting some
part or other of what he says. Socrates conquers you by
stratagem, Aristotle by force. . . . When our universities
found there was no end of wrangling this way, they invent-
ed a kind of argument which is not reducible to any mode
or figure in Aristotle. It was called the argumentum basi-
linum (others write it bacilinum or baculinum), which is
pretty well expressed in our English word club-law. When
they were notable to confute their antagonist, they knock-
ed him down.” (Spectator, No. 239.) In the tables used in
the exact sciences, the term argument signifies the leading
numbers, or quantities, arranged in order at the top or sides
to guide to the tabular number sought.
Argumen’tum ad Hom/inem (i. e. an “argument
[applied] to [the particular] man” whom you are address-
ing), an argument derived from the principles or conduct
of an antagonist, or an appeal to the prepossessions or
prejudices of a person to whom the argument is addressed.
Ar’gus [Gr. "Apyos], a fabulous personage who, accord-
ing to an ancient Greek legend, had a hundred eyes, some
of which were always awake. Having been employed by
Juno to guard the cow into which Io was transformed, he
was killed by Mercury. Juno is said to have transferred
his eyes to the tail of her favorite bird, the peacock. An-
other mythical Argus was king of Argos, and a son of Ju-
piter and Niobe.
Argus [named in allusion to the Argus of the Greek
mythology, having a hundred eyes; for a more particular
explanation see below], a genus of gallinaceous birds re-
markable for rich and brilliant plumage. The only known
species is the Argus giganteus, formerly called Phasianus
Argus, and now commonly called argus pheasant. It is a
native of Sumatra and other parts of the East Indies, and
is about equal in size to a common barndoor fowl. Two of
the tail-feathers of the male are about four feet long. The
name argus is given in reference to the beautiful circular,
eye-like markings which adorn the plumage of the male,
especially on the secondaries of the wings. -
Argyle, ar-gil', a post-township of Penobscot co., Me.
It has manufactures of lumber. Pop. 307.
Argyle, a township of Sanilac co., Mich. Pop. 151.
Argyle, a post-village and township of Washington co.,
N. Y., 46 miles N. N. E. of Albany. It is the seat of an
academy. The township contains beautiful lakes and a
mineral spring. Pop. of village, 351; of township, 2850.
Argyle, a post-township of La Fayette co., Wis. Pop.
1634.
Argyle, or Argyll, DUKES OF, marquesses of Lorne and
Kintyre, earls of Campbell and Cowal, viscounts of Lochow
and Glenilla, barons of Inverary, Mull, Morven, and Tiry
(1701), earls of Argyll (1457), barons Campbell (1445),
barons of Lorne (1470, in Scotland), Lords Sundridge and
Hamilton (1766, in Great Britain).
Argyle (ARCHIBALD Campbell), MARQUIS OF, a Scot-
tish peer, born in 1598, was a son of the seventh earl of Ar-
gyle. In the civil war he fought against Charles I., and
was a leader of the Scottish Covenanters. He was defeated
in battle by Montrose in 1644. Having become an adher-
ent of Charles II., he took arms for him against Cromwell
in 1651. After the restoration of 1660 he was convicted of
submission to the usurpation of Cromwell, and was behead-
ed May 27, 1661.
Argyle (ARCHIBALD Campbell), NINTH EARL OF, was
the eldest son of the preceding. He fought for Charles II.
at Dunbar in 1650. The estate of his father was restored
to him, with the title of earl, in 1663. When he took the
test-oath which was exacted in 1681, he added the phrase,
“So far as is consistent with the Protestant faith.” For
ARGYLE—ARION.
237
this offence he was condemned to death, but he fled to Hol-
land. He returned with a small body of armed men, was
captured, and executed June 30, 1685.
Argyle, or Argyll' (GEORGE Douglas Campbell), THE
NINTH DUKE or, born April 30, 1823, succeeded his father, the
seventh duke, in 1847, before which he was styled the mar-
quis of Lorne. He published in 1848 “Presbytery Exam-
ined,” in which he defends the Presbyterian system against
prelacy. Having entered the House of Lords, he supported
the liberal party, and distinguished himself by his orator-
ical ability and soundness of judgment. He became lord
privy seal in 1852, and postmaster-general in 1855. When
the Tories obtained power in 1858, he resigned office, but
he was reappointed postmaster-general in 1860. In 1866
he published a philosophical work called “The Reign of
Law,” one of the ablest of recent works advocating a the-
istic view of creation. He has also published “Primitive
Man” (1869) and other works. He resigned with his col-
leagues in June, 1866, and was appointed secretary for
India in Dec., 1868. He married Elizabeth Gower, daugh-
ter of the late and sister of the present duke of Sutherland.
His son, the marquis of Lorne, married H. R. H. the prin-
cess Louise, daughter of Queen Victoria.
Argyle'shire, a large county of Scotland, bordering
on the Atlantic Ocean. It is bounded on the N. by Inver-
mess-shire, on the E. by Perthshire and Dumbarton, on the
S. and W. by the sea. It includes the islands of Mull,
Islay, Jura, Tiree, Coll, Iona, Lismore, Colonsay, etc.
Area, 3255 square miles. The surface is rugged and moun-
tainous, and presents some of the grandest and most pic-
turesque scenery in Scotland. The highest peaks are Bed-
anambran, 3760 feet, and Ben Cruachan, 3668 feet. The
rocks which predominate here are granite, mica-slate, trap,
limestone, and quartz. Long arms of the sea, called Loch
Linnhe and Loch Fyne, extend into this county, which
also contains Loch Awe, a fresh-water lake. The chief
occupation of the farmers is the raising of cattle and sheep.
The land is owned by a few proprietors, among whom are
the duke of Argyle and the marquis of Breadalbane. Inve-
rary and Campbellton are the chief towns. P. in 1871, 75,635.
Ar’gyro-Castro (modern Gr. Argwron-Kastron;
Turk. Ergree-Kastree), a town of Albania, on the river
Deropuli, 50 miles N. W. of Yánina. It is built on the
steep declivity of a mountain. The best Turkish snuff is
manufactured here. Pop. estimated at 8000.
A/ria (“air”), in music, a rhythmical song, a tune, a
measured lyrical piece for one or several voices; commonly
applied to a song introduced into a cantata, opera, or ora-
torio, and intended for one voice supported by instruments.
Ariad/ne [Gr. 'Aptáövm], a daughter of Minos, king of
Crete, became the lover of Theseus when he visited Crete.
She gave him a clue of thread by which he was enabled to
find his way out of the Cretan labyrinth. Her mythus is
not uniform, but, according to one account, she was aban-
doned by Theseus at Naxos, and subsequently became the
wife of Bacchus. Others say that Diana slew her at Naxos
with her arrows. She bore twin sons to Theseus. Her
Iname is given to the forty-third asteroid. (See THESEUs.)
Arial’dus, a deacon of the church of Milan, noted for
his zeal against the marriage of priests, was born in Lom-
bardy. His preaching led to a schism in the Church, at-
tended with violent tumults. Arialdus was killed June 28,
1066. (See MURATOR1, “Annali d'Italia.”) .
Arian (nations). See ARYA.
Aria'na, the ancient name of a region in the W. cen-
tral part of Asia, inhabited by the Aryan or Arian race.
It probably comprised ancient Persia and Bactriana. “The
latest and most vigorous offshoot of these branches” [the
Semitic and Iranian], says Bunsen, “the glorious Arian
tribe, has outgrown all the rest, as it is the Arian races
that have given a new turn to the wheel of history and
remodelled the earth.” (See ARYA and ARYAN.)
Aria'na, a township of Grundy co., III. Pop. 337.
Aria'no, a town of Italy, in Avellino, among the Apen-
nines, 23 miles N. E. of Avellino. It is the seat of a bishop.
It has a mountain-fortress, a fine cathedral, several churches,
a gymnasium, a normal school, and considerable manufacture
of silk. Wine and butter are exported. Pop. in 1861, 12,588.
Arians. See ARIUs.
A/rias Monta'mus (BENEDICTUs), [Sp. Beni' to A'rias
Monta'no], an eminent Spanish biblical scholar and Orient-
alist, born in Estremadura in 1527. He was a member of
the Council of Trent in 1562, and under the auspices of
Philip II. edited a Polyglot Bible, which was published at
Antwerp (1568–72), and is highly commended. He wrote,
besides other works, “Jewish Antiquities” (1593). Died
at ‘Seville in 1598. (See Lou MYER, “Wie de B. A. Mon-
tano,” 1842; N. ANTONIo, “Bibliotheca. Hispana Nova.”)
Ari'ca, a maritime town of Peru, in Moquega, on the
Pacific Ocean, 239 miles S. W. of La Paz. It was once
more important than it is now. It is the principal ship-
ping-place of the exports of Bolivia, which are copper,
silver, alpaca-wool, and guano. Pop. about 4000.
Arichat, a seaport-town, capital of Richmond county,
Nova Scotia, situated on the S. coast of Madame Island,
near the Gut of Canso, and on a small bay or inlet of the
Atlantic; lat. 45° 28' N., lon. 61° W. It owes its import-
ance to fisheries. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic
bishop. Pop., including Little Arichat, 2719.
Ariq'ia, an ancient and celebrated city of Latium, on
the Appian Way, at the foot of Mons Albanus, 16 miles
S. E. of Rome. It was an important town in the reign of
Tarquin the Proud. The Aricians took part in a war of
the Latins against Rome, which ended in their defeat at
Lake Regillus, 498 B. C. Cicero speaks of it as in his
time a wealthy and flourishing municipium. Here was a
celebrated temple of Diana, and here is a beautiful lake
called Lago di Nemi. The modern town, La Riccia, is on
or near the site of the ancient Aricia. e
Ar’icine, Cincho'natine, Cusco'nine, or Quin'-
onime, an alkaloid found in the white cinchona-bark from
Arica. Its salts are easily soluble and crystalline. Its
formula is C20H26N2O4. It is useless in medicine.
Ariège, a river of France, rises in the Pyrenees, flows
nearly northward through the department of its own name,
passing by Foix and Pamiers, and enters the Garonne a
few miles S. of Toulouse. Length, about 90 miles.
Ariége, a department in the S. of France, is bounded
on the N. and W. by Haut-Garonne, on the E. by Aude and
Busillon, and on the S. by Spain, from which it is sepa-
rated by the Pyrenees. Area, 1889 square miles. The sur-
face is mostly mountainous, the highest mountains being
in the southern part. Among the highest summits are
Montcalm, about 10,600 feet, and Serrère, 9592 feet high.
It is drained by the rivers Ariège and Salat. The soil of
the lower lands is fertile. Here are rich iron-mines, which
furnish the chief article of export. It is subdivided into
3 arrondissements, 20 cantons, and 335 communes. Cap-
ital, Foix. Pop. in 1872, 246,298.
A/riel, a word signifying “lion of God” or “ark of
God,” was sometimes applied to the city of Jerusalem.
Among the Jews of a more recent date the name was
given to a water-spirit.—ARIEL is also the name of one of
the principal characters in Shakspeare's drama of “The
Tempest,” where he is represented as a spirit of air.
Ariel Gazelle (Gazella dorcas, var. Arab/ica) is the
gazelle of Western Asia, the true gazelle belonging to North-
ern Africa. The ariel gazelle is one of the most beautiful
of antelopes, is twenty-one inches high at the shoulder, of
a dark-fawn color, the belly white, with a black or brown
band running along the flanks. It is a variety of the spe-
cies to which the African gazelle belongs. It is hunted
both for sport (by falconry) and for its flesh and skin, both
highly prized. Gazelles are often hunted in battue, for
they cannot be successfully followed in the chase, their
speed excelling that of the greyhound. They are great
favorites in the East when tamed, and the beauty of their
eyes is proverbial.
A’ries [the Latin of “ram ”] is the name of a sign of the
Zodiac ; that is, the first thirty degrees of the Zodiac mea-
sured from the point at which the equator intersects the
ecliptic—i.e. the vernal equinox. Longitudes (celestial)
are reckoned from this point. Aries is also the name of a
constellation of the Zodiac which once coincided with that
sign, but which now occupies the same place as the sign
Pisces. Among the ancient Romans, aries was the name
of a battering-ram—a machine with an iron head used to
batter down the walls of besieged towns or forts. -
Ariet’ta, a township of Hamilton co., N.Y., in the Adi-
rondack regions, contains Piseco Lake, a popular summer
resort. Pop. 139. -
Ar’il [Lat. aril/lus], a botanical term applied to a mem-
brane or peculiar covering of some seeds, formed by an
expansion of the funiculus or of the placenta. Mace, for
example, is the arić of the nutmeg. The aril never appears
until after the seed is fertilized.
Ari'on ['Aptov], an ancient Greek musician and poet, a
native of Lesbos, lived probably about 700 B.C. Herod-
otus has preserved a curious legend, according to which he
was returning from Sicily to Corinth by sea with much
treasure, to get which the mariners resolved to kill him.
Having obtained permission to play one tune, he threw
himself into the sea, and was received on the back of a dol-
phin, which had been charmed by the music, and carried
him to land. This dolphin is supposed to be the same as
that which figures among the stars.
.*
238
ARIOSTO-ARISTIPPUS,
Arios’to (LoDovico), a celebrated Italian poet, was
born at Reggio, near Módena, Sept. 8, 1474. He was edu-
cated at the College of Ferrara, and afterwards, in compli-
ance with the wish of his father, studied law, which he dis-
liked and soon abandoned. After the death of his father,
who left many children younger than Lodovico, he devoted
much time to the support and education of his brothers and
sisters. His early lyrical poems procured for him the
patronage of Cardinal Ippolito d’Este, whose service he
entered in 1503. He was employed by this cardinal, and
his brother, the duke of Ferrara, in embassies to several
Italian courts. In the intervals of his busy life he medi-
tated and matured his great romantic and fantastic poem,
“Orlando Furioso,” which was published in 1516, and soon
acquired universal popularity. More than sixty editions
of it were issued in the sixteenth century. The subject of
this imaginative epic is the chivalrous adventures of the
paladins of the age of Charlemagne. The best English
translations of it are those of Harrington and William
Stuart Rose. In 1517 he entered the service of Alfonso,
duke of Ferrara, in whom he found a liberal patron. He
is said to have been a favorite associate of that prince, and
to have enjoyed some ecclesiastical revenues. In 1521 he
was appointed governor or commissary of Garfagnana,
where he was required to enforce order among a turbulent
and rude population addicted to brigandage and violence.
In the latter part of his life he married privately a widow
named Alessandra Benucci. He had continued to polish
and revise his “Orlando Furioso,” of which he published
an enlarged edition in 1532, in forty-six cantos. He also
produced, ifi Italian, five comedies in verse, seven satires
formed on the Horatian model, a number of sonnets, and
some Latin poems. He died at Ferrara June 6, 1533,
leaving two natural sons. “Ariosto,” says Hallam, “ has
been, after Homer, the favorite poet of Europe. His grace
and facility, his clear and rapid stream of language, his
variety and beauty of invention, his very transitions of
subject, so frequently censured by critics, but artfully de-
vised to spare the tediousness that hangs on a protracted
story, left him no rival in general popularity. . . . The
‘ Orlando Furioso,” as a great single poem, has been very
rarely surpassed in the living records of poetry. He must
yield to three, and only three, of his predecessors. He has
not the force, simplicity, and truth to nature of Homer, the
exquisite style and sustained majesty of Virgil, nor the
originality and boldness of Dante.” (See HARRINGTON,
“Life of Ariosto,” 1634; GIUNIoIRE, “La Vita di Lodovico
Ariosto,” 1807; BAROTTI, “Vita di L. Ariosto,” 4 vols., 1766;
FABRONI, “Elogi di Dante, di Poliziano, di Ariosto, e di
Tasso,” 1800; CARL L. FIERNow, “Ilebenslauf L. Ariosto's
des Göttlichen,” 1809.) WILLIAM JACOBs.
Ariovis’tus [Ger. Ariovist or Ehrenvest], a chief of the
ancient Suevi or Marcomanni, was a German. Solicited
by the Sequani to aid them in a war against the AEdui, he
marched (72 B.C.) with an army into Gaul, and took pos-
session of that part which was afterwards Burgundy. The
Gauls then applied to the Romans to liberate them from
their new master. Ariovistus was defeated by Caesar near
Wesontium (Besançon) in 58 B.C., and fled across the Rhine.
Aris'pe, a township of Bureau co., Ill. Pop. 1216.
Aris’ta (MARIANO), a Mexican general, born July 16,
1802, entered the army in his youth. Having served in
several civil wars, he was made general of brigade in 1833,
and was banished in that year by Santa Anna. He returned
in 1835, became a general of division in 1841, and com-
manded the army which was defeated by General Taylor at
Palo Alto in May, 1846. In June, 1848, he was appointed
minister of war, and in 1850 was elected president of Mex-
ico. Under his administration Mexico was disturbed by
the usual chronic revolts and anarchy, and Arista was
driven from power by Santa Anna early in 1853. He died
in Spain Aug. 9, 1855.
Aristaen’etus ['Aptorraiveros], a Greek rhetorician of
Bithynia, was a friend of Libanius. He was killed by an
earthquake at Nicomedia in 358 A. D. He, or another of
that name, is the reputed author of some fifty fictitious
erotic letters (edited by Boissonade, 1822).
Aristae/us [Gr. "Apta raios], a personage of classic my-
thology, represented as a son of Apollo and Cyrene. He
married Autonoë, a daughter of Cadmus, was the father
of Aetaeon, and a lover of Eurydice. He was worshipped
as a divinity who presided over flocks and herds, and
taught men the art of raising or managing bees. (See WIR-
GIL, “Georgics,” book iv.)
Aristar/chus [Gr. 'Aptorrapyos] of Samos, an eminent
Greek astronomer, supposed to have flourished about 275
B. C. The events of his life are unknown. Archimedes,
in one of his works, states that “Aristarchus of Samos
supposes that the earth revolves about the sun in the cir-
cumference of a circle.” All of his writings are lost except
of Ptolemy Philopator.
a short treatise “On the Magnitudes and Distances of the
Sun and Moon.” He calculated that the sun is twenty
times farther than the moon from the earth. (See ForTIA
D'URBAN, “Histoire d’Aristarque de Samos,” 1810.)
Aristarchus, a Greek grammarian, educator, and crit-
ic, born in Samothrace, was a pupil of Aristophanes of
Byzantium. He flourished about 150 B.C., and founded
a school of grammar at Alexandria, in Egypt, where he
passed the greater part of his life. He educated the sons
His life was chiefly devoted to the
critical study, explanation, and restoration of the works of
Homer and other Greek poets. He is regarded by some
persons as the greatest critic and philologist of antiquity;
and it is generally agreed that as a commentator and critic
of Homer he was more successful and meritorious than any .
other. He wrote commentaries on various poets, and some
works on grammar, of which only fragments are extant.
Died at the age of seventy-two. (See C. L. MATTHESIUS,
“Disputatio de Aristarcho Grammatico,” 1725; K. LEHRs,
“De Aristarchi Studiis Homericis,” 1833.)
Aristi’ des, or Aristei’des [Gr. 'Aptorreiðms], surnamed
THE JUST, an eminent Athenian statesman, a son of Ly-
simachus, was born in Alopeke, a demos of Attica. His
political tendencies were conservative or aristocratic. He
was one of the ten generals who had the command of the
army when the Persians invaded Greece in 490 B. C. Each
general had a right to the chief command for one day, but
Aristides persuaded his colleagues to resign or waive their
claims, so that-Miltiades commanded at Marathon when it
was not his turn. Aristides became chief archon in 489,
and a political adversary of Themistocles, the leader of the
democracy. On the pretext that his influence was danger-
ous to the public interest, he was ostracised in 483 B. C.
On this occasion a citizen who was personally a stranger
to him, and who could not write, requested him to write
Aristides on a shell to be used in voting. He asked this
voter if Aristides had injured him. “No,” replied the
citizen, “but I am tired of hearing him always called Aris-
tides the Just.” When Xerxes, king of Persia, invaded
Greece with a mighty army in 480 B.C., Aristides sought
an interview with Themistocles, took a prominent part in
the battle of Salamis, and recovered his popularity. He
commanded the Athenian troops, which, aided by other
Greeks, defeated the Persians at Plataea, in 479. Aristides
and Cimon were appointed in 477 B.C. commanders of the
Athenian forces which co-operated with other Greek armies
against the Persians. Pausanias the Spartan had the chief
command of the allied army, but he offended the allies by
his arrogance, while Aristides by mildness and prudence
gained general favor, and promoted the Supremacy or pre-
dominance of Athens among the states of Greece. He died
poor in 467 B. C., leaving a son and two daughters, who
received dowries from the public treasury. Few statesmen
have left so pure and honorable a reputation as Aristides.
(See PLUTARCH, “Life of Aristides;” CoRNELIUS NEPOs,
“Life of Aristides.”) WILLIAM JACOBs.
Aristides (AELIUs), a Greek Sophist and rhetorician,
born in Bithynia about 124 A. D., was a pupil of Polemon
and Herodes Atticus. He acquired a high reputation for
eloquence, and produced many orations and panegyrics,
which display a brilliant style and skill in the choice and
arrangement of words. He resided at Smyrna, when that
city was ruined by an earthquake in 178 A. D., and per-
suaded the emperor Marcus Aurelius to rebuild it. Died
in 189 A. D. About fifty of his orations and treatises are
extant. These were published by Dindorf in 3 vols., 1829.
Aristides of Thebes, an eminent Greek painter who
lived about 350 B.C., and was a contemporary of Apelles.
He had a brother, Nicomachus, who was a skilful painter.
According to Pliny, Aristides was the first who expressed
on the countenance the passions and movements of the
soul. He painted a battle between the Greeks and Per-
sians, which the Roman consul seized among the spoils of
war and took to Rome. -
Aristip/pus [Gr. 'Aptorturiros], a Greek philosopher, the
founder of the Cyrenaic school, was born at Cyrene, in
Africa, about 425 B. C. He was a pupil of Socrates, but
did not adopt his principles or imitate his mode of life.
He travelled extensively, indulged freely in sensual pleas-
ure, was intimate with the courtesan Lais at Corinth, and
flourished as a courtier and philosophic voluptuary at Syra-
cuse in the reign of Dionysius the Elder. Though he re-
cognized pleasure as a proper subject of pursuit, he appears
to have observed some moderation in that pursuit, and to
have been remarkable for self-control and equanimity as
well as versatility, and a faculty of adapting himself to the
vicissitudes of fortune. Plato is reported to have said that
“Aristippus was the only man he knew who could wear with
equal grace fine clothes and rags.” He was celebrated for
his witty sayings and repartees, some of which are recorded
ARISTO—ARISTOTLE.
239
by Diogenes Laertius. His works, if he wrote any, have
not come down to us. He despised or neglected mathe-
matics and physical sciences. He died after 366 B.C., and
left a daughter, Arete, who was distinguished as a philos-
opher. Wieland wrote in German a romance of “Aristip-
pus and his Contemporaries” (4 vols., 1800–02). (See G. H.
LEwBs, “Biographical History of Philosophy;” F. MENTz,
“Aristippus Philosophus Socraticus, sive de ejus Vita,”
1719; RITTER, “History of Philosophy.”)
Aris/to or Aris’ton [Gr. 'Apiatov] of Chios, sur-
named THE SIREN, a Stoic philosopher who lived about 275
B. C., was a disciple of Zeno. He taught at Athens, and
confined his attention to moral philosophy. He maintained
that the chief good consists in indifference to everything
except virtue and vice.
Aristobu'lus [Gr. 'AptorróBovXos], a Greek historian
who took part in the expedition of Alexander the Great
against Persia, about 332 B. C., and wrote a history of the
same, which is not extant.
ancients.
Aristobulus, a Jew and philosopher who lived at Alex-
andria, about 175—150 B. C. He was the reputed author
of a Commentary on the Books of Moses, the aim of which
was to show that the ancient Greek writers had borrowed
much from the sacred books of the Hebrews.
Aristobulus I., high priest of the Jews, was a son of
Joannes Hyrcanus. He assumed the title of king in 107
B. C., and died in 105, when he was succeeded by his brother,
Alexander Jannaeus.
Aristobulus II., a nephew of Aristobulus I., and a
son of Alexander Jannaeus, became king of the Jews about
70 B. C. Jerusalem was taken in 63 by Pompey, who gave
the throne to Hyrcanus, a brother of Aristobulus, and car-
ried the latter as a captive to Rome. Died about 48 B. C.
Aristoc/racy [Gr. &ptortokpatia, from &ptoros, the “best,”
and kparéo, to “govern”] signifies ideally a form of govern-
ment controlled and administered by the best or noblest
citizens, It is enumerated by Aristotle among the princi-
pal forms of government. Aristocracy is of very ancient
origin, and in some countries of ancient times it prevailed
as subsidiary to monarchy. The word may be defined as
a government controlled by the nobility or privileged class,
or a government in which a minority of adult males consti-
tutes the ruling class. Such was the republic of Venice.
The aristocratic element also predominated originally in
the republic of ancient Rome, which was governed by pa-
tricians, whose power was hereditary. The feudal system
of the Middle Ages favored the formation of powerful aris-
tocracies. Among modern nations England is perhaps that
in which the aristocracy is most influential and respectable.
A title of nobility is the great prize for which British states-
men and soldiers compete, and the ranks of the ancient
noble families are often reinforced by men of genius, who
are raised to the peerage. There is probably no country
where rank is more highly prized and ardently coveted,
although the political power of the aristoracy has been re-
duced by the Reform Bill of 1867. In modern language,
this word is used to demote nobility, or the higher class of
society, without reference to government.
Aristogiſton, or Aristogeiton [Gr. 'Aptoroyeirov),
an Athenian conspirator, an accomplice of Harmodius in
the assassination of Hipparchus. He was put to death by
Hippias in 514 B. C. He was regarded as a patriot by the
Athenians, who erected statues to him and to Harmodius.
Aristolo/chia [from the Gr. &ptorros, the “best,” and
Aoxeta or A6xta, “childbirth *], a genus of plants of the mat-
ural order Aristolochiaceae, are mostly natives of tropical
countries, and have twining stems. The genus is charac-
terized by a tubular oblique perianth, and by stamens ad-
herent to the style. Some of the species climb to the tops
of high trees and have handsome flowers. The Aristolo-
chia Serpentaria, or Virginian snakeroot, is a native of the
U. S., possesses stimulant and tonic properties, and was
once supposed to be a remedy for the bite of serpents.
Similar virtues are ascribed to various species in different
parts of the world. The root of this plant is exported from
the U. S. to Europe, and is highly esteemed as a remedy
in certain fevers. The Aristolochia Clematitis (birthwort)
is a native of Europe, a perennial plant, with cordate
leaves, erect, stem, and grows in waste places, hedges, and
among rubbish. The roots of these and many other spe-
gies, which possess powerfully stimulating properties, have
been used in medicine.
Aristolochia/ceae, an order of exogenous plants, of
which Aristolochia is the type. It comprises more than
130 species, mostly herbaceous plants or climbing shrubs,
natives of warm climates, and particularly abundant in
South America. The leaves are alternate, simple, and pe-
tiolate; the flowers are tubular perianths, axillary and .
It was highly esteemed by the
solitary, and the stamens are epigynous. Several species
are cultivated in hot-houses, and prized for the beauty of
their flowers. The Aristolochia Sipho (pipe-vine or Dutch-
man's pipe), a native of the U. S., and a climbing shrub,
is planted in Europe to form shady bowers. The U. S.
have several other species. -
Aristom’enes [Gr. 'Aptoropévms], a famous Messenian
general who commanded the army of his state in the
Second Messenian war. He was renowned for personal
valor and daring enterprises. Having been finally defeated
in 668 B. C., he went with his daughter and son-in-law to
Rhodes. (See Jourdan, “Histoire d’Aristomène,” 1749.) .
Aristoph'anes [Gr. 'Aparodăvms], the greatest comic
poet of Greece, was born about 444 B. C., and is supposed
to have been a native of Athens. Considering his celebrity,
the materials for writing his biography are surprisingly
meagre. His first work was “The Feasters” (427 B.C.),
which is not extant. In 426 he produced “The Baby-
lonians,” the aim of which was to satirize the demagogue
Cleon, who was his personal enemy. His “Acharnians”
obtained the first prize in 425, and is still extant. Among
his most admired dramas is “The Knights” (424 B.C.), in
which he attacked and caricatured Cleon with great wit and
virulence. In the performance of this play, which gained
the first prize, the author acted the part of Cleon, as no
other actor would venture to incur the resentment of that
powerful popular favorite. Aristophanes was a conserva-
tive, and opposed innovations in politics, religion, and the
social order. He was more distinguished for his ability
to expose the depravity of human nature than for his
capacity to appreciate its noble attributes and manifesta-
tions. Among his masterpieces is “The Clouds” (423 B.C.),
an ingenious and powerful satire directed against the
Sophists, of whom he represented Socrates &s the head and
master-spirit. He ridiculed and vilified Socrates, and ex-
cited the popular prejudice against him as a skeptic and
corrupter of youth. He composed about fifty-four come-
dies, of which only eleven are extant, viz.: “The Acharn-
ians” (425); “The Knights” (424); “The Clouds” (423);
“The Wasps,” which gained the prize in 422; “The Peace”
(419); “The Birds” (414); “Lysistrata,” (411); “Thesmo-
phoriazusae" (411); “Plutus” (408); “The Frogs” (405);
“Ecclesiazusae" (392 B.C.). These plays belong to the old
comedy. His wit is so involved in allusions to local events
that modern readers find it difficult to appreciate or enjoy
it. The purity of his style is greatly admired, and is said
to be the only thing pure about his works. He died about
380 B. C. “The Acharnians,” “The Knights,” “The
Birds,” and “The Frogs” have been translated into Eng-
lish by J. Hookham Frere. (See H. T. RöTSCHER, “Aris-
tophanes und sein Zeitalter,” 1827; H. Poll, “Dissertatio
de Aristophane,” 1834; C. F. RANKE, “ Commentatio de
Aristophanis Vita,” 1845.) WILLIAM JACOBs.
Ar’istotle was born at Stagira, a city of Thrace, but a
Grecian colony, in the first year of the 99th Olympiad, or
384 B. C. His father was Nicomachus, a physician and
friend of Amyntas, king of Macedon and father of Philip.
The family of Aristotle was distinguished by the hereditary
profession of medicine, and was wont to trace its origin to
Maghaon, son of AEsculapius. Left an orphan at an early
age, he was brought up by Proxenus of Atarneus, in Mysia,
to whose guardianship he seems to have been entrusted by
his father, and whose memory Aristotle held so dear in
after life that he erected a statue to him, and both instructed
his son Nicanor in the liberal arts and adopted him as his
heir. In his seventeenth year he went to Athens, and be-
came a pupil of Plato, with whom he continued twenty
years, and by whom he was called the reader and the in-
tellect of the school, and likened, in his ardor and restive-
ness, to a colt, which needed the bit more than the spur.
Upon the death of Plato (348 B.C.) he accepted an invi-
tation of Hermeas, tyrant of Atarneus, his former fellow-
pupil in the school of Plato, to take up his residence with
him. Here Aristotle spent the three following years of his
life, when Hermeas, conquered by a Persian invader, was
sent a prisoner to Persia, where he was put to death. By
Artaxerxes. To avoid a like fate, Aristotle fled to Mit-
ylene, taking with him Pythias, whom he married, and who
is variously described as the mistress, the sister, and the
niece of Hermeas. After her death he married his concu-
bine Herpyllis, the mother of his son N icomachus... e
when Alexander of Macedon was born, Philip, his
father, is said to have sent this letter to Aristotle: “Be it
known unto you that I have a son, and that I am thankful
to the gods, not so much for his birth as that he was born
in your time. For if you will but take the charge of his
education, I assure myself that he will become worthy of
his father and of his future kingdom.” The philosopher
accepted the commission of the king, and there is evidence
that he gave early directions respecting the care and cul-
240
ARISTOXENUS OF TARENTUM–ARIUS.
ture of the infant prince. When Alexander was fifteen,
Aristotle assumed the personal oversight of his instruction,
taking up his residence at the court, and continuing there
during the lifetime of Philip, and for two years after his
pupil had ascended the throne. When the conquest of the
East was undertaken, Aristotle returned to Athens, and
taught philosophy in the Lyceum, a temple dedicated to the
Lycian Apollo, with walks ornamented by trees, fountains,
and colonnades. From these shady walks (treptºratov) his
school received the name of Peripatetic. He here abode
and taught thirteen years, when, after the death of Alex-
ander, he was accused by the Athenians of impiety, and
fled to Chalcis in Euboea, the present Negropont, in order
to escape the fate of Socrates, or, as he said, that Athens
might not have the opportunity to sin against philosophy
again. Here he died (B. C. 322), in his sixty-third year.
His Character.—Aristotle's was one of the most highly
gifted intellects of all the ages. All agree that his wealth
of scientific knowledge, his unbiassed judgment, his con-
structive power, and his depth and breadth of speculative
insight are unsurpassed in ancient or modern times. But
the verdict is not so unanimous respecting his moral traits.
By some of the ancients he is extolled for his patriotism,
his reverence, his modesty, his moderation, his love of
truth, and his attachment to his friends, while others hold
him up as selfish, ungrateful, sordid, gluttonous, and im-
pious. It must be owned, however, that few of the stories
told in proof of either of these sides will bear a sharp
look. They rest on frail grounds. But while we have
little direct showing that can be trusted respecting the
personal character of Aristotle, some points seem clear.
The regard in which he ever held the memory of Proxenus,
and the beautiful hymn to virtue which he composed in
honor of Hermeas, and which we still have, show that he
was not incapable of gratitude or of love to his friends.
The charge often made that he was jealous of Plato does
not hang with the fact of Aristotle's continued intimacy
with Xenocrates, Plato's devoted disciple and successor,
nor with an elegy, some verses of which have come down
to us, in which Aristotle calls Plato one whom the bad
might not even praise, and who first taught the world how
a man could be at the same time good and happy. In his
will he shows not only a judicious care, but an affectionate
solicitude, for his family, while in his writings a lofty
moral tone appears and a winning frankness and sincerity
seem to shine. - -
His Writings.—These were very numerous, though only
a small part, perhaps a fourth, remain, all of which proba-
bly differ more or less from the state in which Aristotle
left them. Incompetent editors and ignorant transcribers
have made almost as much mischief as the mould and mil-
dew by which some of the original manuscripts are said
to have been sadly injured, and some destroyed. But
while the fragmentary and skeleton-like form which many
of the so-called Aristotelian writings possess, joined to
the evident omissions and the repetitions and contradic-
tions which they contain, show the work of some other
hands than those of the great master, there remains a
solid mucleus of considerable size, whose purity of style
and depth of speculative content bring us into the unmis-
takable presence of Aristotle himself.
His Philosophy.—Aristotle's method is exactly the re-
verse of Plato’s, which he does not tire of making mani-
fest. The attention which Plato had given to the unity
of all being, Aristotle directs to the manifoldness of the
phenomenal world. He is as analytic and discursive as
Plato is synthetic and intuitive. While Plato finds in the
universal the only light in which the particular can be
seen, Aristotle sees the particular to be necessary in order
that we may have any knowledge of the universal. So he
gathers particulars from all quarters. History, the human
mind, and all departments of nature furnish him contri-
butions. He has no rival in the variety and extent of the
facts which he has collected, and has never been surpassed
in the patient industry of his investigations. But it is a
great mistake, though one easily and often made, to judge
thereby that Aristotle sought for nothing beyond expe-
rience, or that he and Plato represented only the opposite
extremes of empiricism and idealism. . The idea was as
truly the object of Aristotle's search as it was of Plato’s.
Both Plato and Aristotle also agreed that the reality or
the essence of individual things was in the idea. Aristotle
also held as strongly as Plato to the objective existence of
the idea. The doctrine of the Nominalists in the Middle
Ages, that the idea or the universal is only a subjective
product in which objects are represented, and by which
they are named, though often ascribed to Aristotle, is but
little less foreign to him than to Plato.
the idea had an objective existence independent of the in-
dividual object which participated in it, to Aristotle the
idea was immanent in the individual, and had no being
But while to Plato .
separate from it. This accounts for the prodigious atten-
tion which Aristotle gave to individual facts. He collected
these in such vast measure, not because they had any in-
terest in themselves, and not because their collection and
classification could give a satisfying science, but only for
the sake of the idea which was immanent in them, and
which was the only proper object in scientific inquiry,
since it was the only object which could be truly known.
This immanence of the idea in the individual shows
what was the most essential difference between Plato and
Aristotle, and also what was the most characteristic and im-
portant doctrine in the Aristotelian philosophy. Aristotle
criticises Plato because the Platonic ideas, being separate
from and independent of phenomena, could not explain
the existence of the phenomenal world. They are, in the
Aristotelian view of Plato's doctrine, only potential, not
actual, sources of individual things. But to the idea as
universal Aristotle ascribes an activity which individual-
izes, but this individualization is not a change to anything
without, nor because of anything without, but is wholly
within the universal itself; it is a change thus into a
difference which is at the same time an identity, a deter-
mining which is a self-determining, wherein the universal
or the idea, realizes or actualizes itself. This self-realizing
of the idea is conformity to an end which is at the same
time a self-end, a true Final Cause, wherein is the living
principle and rational explanation of individual things.
This doctrine of the final cause, or sufficient reason, which
it is the immeasurable merit of Aristotle to have intro-
duced into philosophy, carries us back to a principle deeper
than that of efficient causation, and brings us from the
world of necessity to that of freedom. Our modern phy-
sicists would gain a profounder view of nature and a more
successful pursuit of science if they could know this prin-
ciple as Aristotle taught it. They would find him, as the
ancients called him, “the father of those who know.” (See
STAHR, “Aristotelia;” LEwBs, “Aristotle;” GRANT, “Ethics
of Aristotle;” TRENDELENBURG, “Comm. ad ‘De Anima;’”
HEGEL, “Geschichte der Philosophie;” RITTER, UEBERWEG,
and SCHWEGLER, ditto.) J. H. SEELYE.
Aristox’enus [Gr. 'Apiaráševos] of Tarentum, a
Greek philosopher, a pupil of Aristotle, lived about 350–
320 B.C. He wrote numerous works, which are lost, and
a treatise on music (“Elements of Harmony”), which is
extant and is accounted valuable. It was published by
Meursius in 1616. He founded a school of musicians, who
rejected the system of Pythagoras, arid judged of the notes
in the diatonic scale by the ear exclusively.
Arith’metic [Gr. 3ptópºrtrá, from épt011ós, a “number”], .
the science which treats of numbers or the art of computa-
tion, is a branch of mathematics. In the ordinary use of
the term it is the art of expressing numbers by symbols,
combining these symbols, and applying to them rules of the
greatest practical utility. Among the ancient Greeks, Py-
thagoras, Archimedes, and others cultivated the science of
numbers, but they labored under the disadvantage of a
clumsy mode of notation, and had no sign for zero or
naught. The Roman numerals, I, W, X, L, C, etc., contin-
ued to be commonly used in Europe until the fifteenth cen-
tury. The invention of the symbols called Arabian nu-
merals, now in use, is attributed to the Hindoos. The use
of the cipher (0) gives the modern arithmetic a great ad-
vantage over the ancient. In the modern system of notation
every symbol has a local as well as an intrinsic value. The
intrinsic value of a symbol is the number it represents;
the local value depends, first, upon the number of symbols
used, and secondly, on the position of that symbol with re-
spect to the others. The ordinary system is called decimal,
because the calculations are performed by ten symbols or
digits. - %
Arithmet/ical Mean, The, of two numbers is equi-
distant from those numbers, and is found by adding them
together and dividing by 2. The mean of a series of num-
bers is the quotient obtained by dividing their sum by their
number; thus the arithmetical mean of 1, 2, 7, and 10, is 5.
Arithmet/ical Progres'sion, a series of three or
more numbers that increase or diminish by a common dif-
ference, as 5, 7, 9, 11, 13. To find the sum of such a series,
multiply the sum of the first and last terms by half the
number of terms.
A/rius (classical pronunciation Ari'us), or Areiºus
[Gr. "Apeios], the founder of Arianism, was born at Cyrene,
in Africa, near the middle of the third century. He was
made a deacon by the patriarch Peter at Alexandria, and
was placed in the highest rank in the clergy by the patri-
arch Alexander. About 318 A.D. a controversy arose be-
tween Arius and Alexander, which caused Constantime to
summon a general council at Nicaea (Nice). This council
pronounced the doctrines of Arius (who denied that the
Son was coessential and coeternal with the Father) to be
ARIUS–ARIZONA.
241
heretical, and Arius, who was present at the council, was
exiled to Illyricum. This sentence, however, was soon after
revoked. Arianism was approved by the Synods of Tyre
and Jerusalem in 335 A.D., soon after which Arius return-
ed to Alexandria, where his presence created such a dis-
turbance that he was under the necessity of retiring to
Constantinople. He suddenly died in 336 A. D. Arianism
was supported as the state religion by the emperor Constan-
tine and by Valens. The Goths, Wandals, Suevi, and Lon-
gobardians of the fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries were
mostly Arians. After the reunion of the Longobardians
with the Catholic Church (662), Arianism as a sect soon
ceased to exist. The followers of Arius were sometimes
called Eusebians, from Eusebius, bishop of Berytus and
Nicomedia. They became divided into two portions—the
“Hetero-ousians.” (strict or ultra-Arians), and “Homoi-
ousians,” who allowed the “similar essence ’’ of the Son
with the Father. (See NEANDER, “History of the Christian
Church,” and MAIM Bou RG, “Histoire de l'Arianisme,” a
popular though not very trustworthy work.)
Arius, a genus of siluroid fishes in which the body is
partially protected by strong bony plates. It has been sug-
gested by Huxley that the ancient placoderm fishes (Pterich-
thys and Coccosteus) may have modern representatives in
the plated siluroids, such as Arius, Clarias, etc.
Arizo'na, a Territory of the U. S., lying between the
Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, bounded by
Nevada and Utah on the N., New Mexico on the E., the
republic of Mexico on the S., and California and Nevada
on the W. It extends from 109° to 114° 25' W. lon. from
Greenwich in breadth, and from 31° 37' to 37° N. lat., and
has an area of 113,916 square miles, or 72,906,240 acres,
varying very little from the united areas of New York, New
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. -
Surface, Mountains, Rivers, etc.—The surface of the Ter-
ritory is generally elevated, and consists of wide plateaus,
having a mean elevation in the N. of 7000 to 7500 feet
above the sea-level, and sloping gradually southward,
though occasionally broken by precipitous cliffs, till in the
region S. of the Gila it has a height of from 60 to 100 feet
above the sea. These plateaus are occasionally crossed by
ranges of high mountains, and diversified by towering,
isolated peaks, reaching an altitude of 12,000 to 14,000 feet
above the sea. They are also riven in all directions by
rivers and streams, which have, by ages of erosion, cut for
themselves channels through the different strata to a depth
varying from 1000 to nearly 7000 feet. These cañons, as
they are called, are in some instances of great length, and
their perpendicular walls of from 4000 to 7000 feet in height
are occasionally broken by side cañons, of less depth, from
tributaries of the larger rivers, which discharge their waters
in cataracts over these walls. The Grand Cañon of the
Colorado, 400 miles in length and ranging from 1500 to
6000 feet in height, with its numerous cataracts and its
dark cavernous rapids and whirlpools, is one of the won-
ders of the world. The mountain-chains, which are mostly
spurs and outliers from the Rocky Mountains, traverse the
country, with one or two exceptions, from N. E. to S. W.
The principal ranges are the Piloncillo, the Pinaleno, and
Santa Catarina in the S. E.; a low range along the N. bank
of the Gila; the Mongollon in the E., between the Gila and
the Colorado Chiquito ; the Zuni Mountains, between the
Zuni and Rio Puerco, also in the E.; the Sierra de Tuni or
Catamaza Mountains in the N. E.; the Sierra del Carizo
and the San Francisco Mountains in the N.; the North-
Side Mountains in the N. W.; the Aquarius and Black
Mountains in the W.; and the Castle Dome Mountains in
the S. W. There are also many isolated peaks and buttes
in the Territory, some of them of great height. In the N.
there is an isolated table-land of considerable extent, more
than 1000 feet above the elevated plateau, called the Mesa
de la Vaca, or “Table-land of the Cows.” Nearer the centre
of the Territory are the Blue Peaks, and farther W. Mount
Kendrick, Mount Sitgreaves, Music Mount, Picacho Mount,
and Mount Bill Williams. The San Francisco Mountains,
which we have already mentioned, seem to have been a
group of volcanoes, none of them now active, but centu-
ries ago they poured out immense streams of lava, which
flowed northward to the banks of the Colorado Chiquito.
The geological formation of most of these mountains and
mountain-ranges is granitic, though in the more western
ranges there are indications of gneiss and of talcose, mica-
ceous, and clay slates. The soil of the valleys and plateaus
between the ranges generally consists of the detritus of
these rocks, thus indicating that they underlie much of the
surface of the country. It is computed that the successive
cañons of the Colorado and its upper affluents expose to
view, in all, geological strata to the thickness of 25,000 feet
of the earth’s surface; and all the formations known in
American geology, up to the tertiary and drift formations,
are found in their regular places. Nowhere on the globe
is there a better opportunity of studying the geological
structure of the earth. The whole Territory is drained by
the Colorado of the West and its tributaries. This magnif-
icent river, which has a length of more than 1200 miles,
and drains a region more than 300,000 square miles in ex-
tent, is formed in Utah by the junction of the Green and
Grand rivers; the former rising in Western Wyoming, the .
latter in the mountains of Colorado. From their union the
Colorado flows S. W. to the northern boundary of Arizona,
and, continuing in the same direction there for a short dis-
tance, turns sharply to the S. S. E., and thence W. N.W.,
until it strikes the Nevada boundary, where for 35 miles
more, flowing N.W., it forms the northern boundary of
Arizona ; and at Fortification Rock turns directly S., and,
forming the western boundary between Arizona, Nevada,
and California, discharges its waters into the Gulf of Cali-
fornia. For nearly 600 miles of its course in Arizona, it
flows through deep cañons, receiving numerous streams
(more than 200 in all), and effecting a descent in its course
through the Territory of not less than 3000 feet. The de-
scent of the river through these formidable cañons, rapids,
and cataracts has been several times attempted, and Colonel
Powell, U. S. A., accomplished it with great peril to himself
and party in 1869, and again in 1871. It is navigable,
though with somé difficulty, from its mouth as far as Call-
ville, Nev., at the entrance to the Grand Cañon. The other
rivers of Arizona, all of them affluents of the Colorado, are
the Colorado Chiquito, or Little Colorado, a large stream,
which, like the preceding, flows through deep cañons; the
Gila, which crosses the Territory from E. to W. between
the 33d and 34th parallels, and discharges its waters into
the Colorado near its mouth; Bill Williams' Fork, Yampa
Creek, and Diamond River, tributaries to the Colorado be-
tween the Colorado Chiquito and the Gila ; the Zuni, Rio
Puerco of the West, Cottonwood Fork, Bouche's Creek,
Chevelon’s Creek, and Cataract Creek, affluents of the Little
Colorado; and the Rio de los Palos, Rio Prieto, Rio San
Carlos, Rio Salinas, Rio Verde or San Francisco, which
lower down takes the name of the Saladas, Agua Frio, Cop-
per Creek; and on the S. side, Rio San Domingo, Rio San
Pedro, and Rio Santa Cruz, affluents of the Gila. None
of these rivers have much value for navigation, their prin-
cipal importance depending on the demand for their waters
for irrigation, mining, and manufacturing purposes.
Mineralogy.—Arizona probably surpasses every other
State and Territory of the Union in the abundance and
variety of its mineral treasures. Gold is found in every
part of the Territory, both in placers and veins; silver is
abundant and easily mined in the southern part of the Ter-
ritory, the Heintzelman mine, or Cerro Colorado, yielding
from $350 to $1000 to the ton of ore, and the Mowry,
Santa Rita, Salero, Cahuabi, and San Pedro mines proving
profitable for many years. Many gold and silver mines
had been worked by the Spaniards and Mexicans success-
fully for years before the Territory came into possession
of the U. S., and these mines are still largely productive.
There are quicksilver-mines near La Paz; tin, nickel, and
cinnabar are found in several localities; copper of great
purity; lead, platinum ; iron ore of several varieties, in-
cluding the ores best adapted to making the finer qualities
of iron and steel; bituminous coal near Camp Apache, and
9ther qualities adapted to smelting purposes at several
other localities; salt, sulphur, and gypsum, valuable min-
eral springs, matural loadstones of great magnetic power,
and fossil woods in great variety occur in different portions
of the Territory. There are also opal pebbles, garnets, red,
white, and yellow; azurite, malachite, chalcedony; opals,
Sapphires, and possibly some diamonds.
Soil and Vegetation.—Aside from the barren and lava-
covered sides of the isolated peaks, and the precipitous
cañons and mesas or lofty table-lands, the soil of Arizona
is generally fertile, needing only systematic irrigation to
make it yield abundantly. Even those apparently worth-
less alkaline deserts, on which the candelabra cactus, the
chapparal, the sagebush and the greasewood constitute the
only vegetation, yield abundant crops when water is con-
ducted to them. The region of the lower Colorado, which
is often overflowed by the Colorado and the Gila, yields
most astonishing crops. The great Colorado plateau of
North-eastern and Eastern Arizona is for the most part
covered with a heavy growth of forest trees—mainly the
short-leaved southern pine, fir, and hemlock, scrub-oak,
cedar, and juniper; while the mesquite, cottonwood, pilo-
verde, and mountain mahogany are found in the more ele-
vated valleys, and the cactus of numerous varieties in the
lower and drier plains. The greater part of Arizona is an
excellent grazing region, and if it could be protected from
the raids of the Indians the Territory might become the
finest stock-raising country on the continent. . By the aid
of irrigation where it is needed, and without it in the south-
16
242
ARIZONA.
ern portion along the lower Colorado and Gila, the cereals,
maize, beans, onions, and semi-tropical fruits can be cul-
tivated with great success.
that this Territory once maintained a very dense population.
The ruined cities, and the numerous and costly acequias
(aqueducts) for conducting water for irrigation and other
purposes, show that the intelligent and industrious tribes
who were driven out by the Apaches had made great ad-
vances in civilization. Many of these acequias are still
capable of being used with but moderate repairs. -
Zoology.—All the wild animals of the Rocky Mountain
and Sierra Nevada slopes are found here, and some genera
and species which are rare or unknown farther N. The
bison or American buffalo is not as abundant here as far-
ther, N., but deer of at least two species, antelopes, the
big-horn or mountain sheep, are found in great numbers;
the plains of Southern Arizona have large herds of wild
horses, or mustangs; and of the beasts of prey there are
pumas, jaguars, ocelots, black and grizzly bears, wild-cats,
the red and the gray wolf, foxes, some peccaries, raccoons,
and opossums, the sage-rabbit, several species of squirrels
and prairie-dogs. Of birds there is a very great variety,
Lieut. Wheeler's exploring expedition having sent to the
Smithsonian Institution 500 specimens of 183 species;
among them, a swamp-swallow never before found W. of the
Rocky Mountains, and another species supposed heretofore
to inhabit only the Arctic regions.
abundant, especially in Southern Arizona, as well as many
of the vulture and eagle tribes; the king vulture, or king
of the buzzards, an enormous vulture, little inferior in size
to the condor or the lămmergeier, being occasionally seen.
Fish of species elsewhere unknown are found in the Colo-
rado and its tributaries, and some species have been dis-
covered in the mineral springs. Many of the fishes of
these rivers are of very fine flavor and delicate flesh. There
are also numerous species of mollusks. The serpents and
reptiles of Arizona are very numerous and formidable.
The rattlesnake abounds on the sandy mesas or table-
lands, and among the chapparal and around the gigantic
cereus or Saguana, scorpions, lizards, centipedes, and horned
toads are found. In some of the rivers of Southern Arizona.
there are alligators. -
Climate.—In Northern and Central Arizona, the air is
dry and pure, sometimes cold, but there is seldom any
Snow, except on the mountain-summits, and frosts are rare.
The heat of summer on the table-lands, where the forests
are wanting, is sometimes great, but transient, and owing
to the dryness of the atmosphere and the cool breezes from
the mountains the nights are invariably comfortable and
refreshing. Southern Arizona has a mild and delightful
climate in winter, but the summers are excessively warm.
The mercury rises at the mouth of the Gila to 120°, or even.
126°F. in the shade, and to 160° or higher in the sun. This
lower valley of the Colorado is overflowed every summer by
the river, and there is considerable sickness from malarial
fevers in consequence. The rainfall throughout the Terri-
tory occurs principally in June, July, August, and Septem-
ber, this being known as the rainy season. During the re-
mainder of the year the cultivated fields must rely upon
irrigation for their moisture. -
Products.-According to the census of 1870, there were
in that year 14,585 acres of improved land, and 7222 acres
of unimproved land, in farms in Arizona, the value of
which was estimated at $161,340, and the value of farming
implements on them was $20,105. The wages paid to farm-
laborers was $104,620, and the total estimated value of farm
products was $227,998. This was exclusive of the lands
cultivated by the Indians on reservations in the Territory,
which must have been quite as much more. The number
of horses broken to saddle or harness was 4432, of which
only 335 were on farms; the number of néat eattle was
38,632, of which 33,500 were on the stock-ranges and the
remainder on farms. The agricultural products reported
were 27,052 bushels of wheat, 32,041 of corn, and 55,077
of barley. The commissioner of the land office estimated
in 1870 that 6,000,000 acres of the Territory by the aid of
irrigation are capable of yielding very large crops; that
55,000,000 acres were excellent grazing-lands, and the re-
mainder was inarable from its broken and mountainous
surface or the persistent drought. From the report of
Lieut. Wheeler, now engaged in the survey of the Terri-
tory, it would appear that the fertile and arable lands are
of larger extent than the commissioner had estimated.
Lieut. Wheeler states that the Territory contains more good
and arable lands than Nevada, and that even the high and
apparently barren mesas or table-lands under the influence
of irrigation, which, from their relation to the rivers, is
almost universally practicable, would yield abundant crops.
There are few manufactures, and these only of the simpler
and ruder kinds. The great industry of the Territory is
mining, and this is prosecuted at so much hazard, from the
There is abundant evidence
Game birds are very.
depredations and outrages of the Apaches and some Mex-
ican outlaws, that comparatively little is accomplished.
Many of the gold and silver mines have been worked for
nearly 200 years, but are now abandoned from the danger
incurred in working them; others are of more recent dis-
covery. There is no definite information concerning either
the number or the annual yield of gold and silver in the
mines now opened and worked in the Territory. There are
probably fifty or sixty mines and placers on which some
work has been done; but many of the mines, besides the
danger from the Indians, have as yet an inadequate supply
of water, and many others, yielding so far only the lower
grade of silver ores (those yielding from $15 to $40 per ton
of ore), are rendered unprofitable by the great expense of
transportation between the mines and the smelting estab-
lishments. These difficulties will soon be obviated by the
construction of mining canals and aqueducts and the build-
ing of railways. The Heintzelman mine is thus far the
most productive, but the Mowry, Santa Rita, Salero, Ca-
huabi, Sam Pedro, Vulture, Tiger, and some of the newer
mines, are yielding well.
Railroads.--There are as yet no railroads in the Terri-
tory, but two lines from the Mississippi to the Pacific
coast: one starting from Vicksburg, following, the 32d
parallel to the vicinity of Tucson, and thence along the
valleys of the Santa Cruz and Gila to the Colorado River,
and having its termini at San Diego, San Pedro, and San
Francisco; and the other starting from Memphis, follow-
ing, with some deviations, the 35th parallel, is to cross
Central Arizona, along the valley of the Rio Puerco of the
West, and bridge the Colorado at the mouth of Pahute
Creek, having for its ultimate destination San Francisco.
Both these roads are now in active progress, work being
prosecuted on them at both ends, and they will probably
be completed in four or five years.
Finances.—The assessed value of real and personal
property in Arizona in 1870 was $1,410,295; the true value,
$3,440,791, exclusive of government property—forts, bar-
racks, stores, etc.—and of property in the hands of Indian
agents for distribution. The total local taxation the same
year was $31,323, and the local debt, $10,500. This debt
was paid off before Jan., 1872. The government expenses
for territorial offices amount to $15,000. There are no
banks, savings banks, or insurance companies in Arizona.
The commerce of the Territory is conducted mainly through
San Francisco and Santa Fé, N. M. The Territory had
sent for coinage to the U. S. mint, up to June 30, 1872,
$1,015,274.47, although much the greater part of its silver
ores was sent to Swansea, Wales, for reduction, and the bul-
lion subsequently sold in London. Several of the mining
companies which reduced their own ores were English, and
these shipped the bullion directly to England.
Population.—The population of Arizona, then a portion
of New Mexico, was in 1860, 6482, leaving out of the count
Indians not taxed—that is, still retaining their tribal or-
ganization. In 1870 there were 96.58 of the settled popu-
lation, including 9581 whites, 26 colored persons, 20 Chinese,
and 31 civilized Indians. There were also 32,052 Indians
sustaining tribal relations, of whom 4352 were on reserva-
tions or in villages, and it was estimated that 27,700 were
nomadic. Of the 4352 Indians in villages or in reserva-
tions, 1277 were men, 1396 women, 925 male children, and
754 female children. Of the 96.58 persons regularly emu-
merated, 5809 were of foreign birth. Of these, 4348 were
natives of Mexico, 686 were natives of Great Britain and
Ireland, 379 of Germany, 202 from other European states,
142 from British America, and 20 from China. Of the native-
born population, 3849 in number, 1240 were born in the
Territory, and the remainder in New York, Pennsylva-
nia, Ohio, California, and Missouri. Of the 96.58 persons,
6887 were males and 2771 females. The density of the
population, excluding tribal Indians, is .085 to the square
mile. The settlements of whites are mostly along the
lower Colorado, the lower Gila, and the Santa Cruz rivers,
in which regions are the greater number of silver and gold
mines which have been worked of late. The Indian tribes
of the Territory are the Apaches, who are subdivided into
Tontos, Pinals, Arivapas, Mescaleros, Bonitos, and Cochise's
Apaches; the Seviches, Apache Mohaves, Apache Coyote-
ros, and Cosminas; the Pimos, Maricopas, Papagos, Yumas,
Mohaves proper, Pahutes, Hualapais, Chemehuevis, and
Utes. There are also on the elevated mesas of the northern
plateau some villages of the Moquis and other pueblo or town
Indians, the small remainder of the ancient Aztec race, and
some of them, perhaps, of a still earlier race, who had ac-
quired many of the arts and refinements of civilization.
Of these tribes, the six Apache tribes are all hostile, and
have constantly been the terror of the settlers, as well as
of the other Indians. Guerrillas, robbers, and murderers
by profession, no portion of the settlements has been ex-
empt from their daring and bloody raids. The territorial
ARIZONA—ARKANSAs.
243
legislature in 1871, in a memorial presented to Congress,
furnished sworn evidence that in the two years previous 166
persons had been murdered, and 801 horses and mules and
2437 cattle killed or stolen by these lawless tribes. Re-
cently, after a very severe punishment, they have for the
first time sued for peace, and pledged themselves to remain
on the reservations the government had assigned to them.
Their repentance is not likely to be very enduring unless
enforced with the strong hand. The other Indian tribes
are either indifferent or strongly friendly to the whites.
Education.—The census statistics of 1870 report 149
children, all whites, as attending school, 64 natives and 85
of foreign birth, 79 males and 70 females, while 2690 per-
sons of ten years of age and over could not read, and 2753
could not write. Of the latter, 262 were natives and 2491
of foreign birth. Under the heading “schools of all
classes,” it gives 1 school, with 7 teachers and 132 pupils,
having an income of $6000 per annum. In Nov., 1871,
Governor Safford stated in his message that by the first of
January following they would have a free school in every
district (there are thirty-four districts) in the Territory.
Libraries and Newspapers.-There were in the Territory
in 1870 one public (territorial) library, with 1000 volumes,
and five private libraries, with an aggregate of 1000 vol-
umes in the five. There was at the same time one weekly
newspaper, having a circulation among 280 subscribers, and
issuing annually 14,560 copies. •
Churches.—In 1870 there were 4 churches (all Roman
Catholic) in the Territory, and 4 church edifices, having
2400 sittings and property worth $24,000.
Constitution, etc.—The Territory was organized from New
Mexico Feb. 24, 1863, and its constitution and government
are still territorial. The legislature meets annually in
January. The governor is appointed by the President,
and serves four years. The secretary of state, the treasurer
(who is also receiver-general), and the auditor, as well as
the delegate to Congress, are elected by the people. There
is a U. S. district court for the Territory, the judge of which
is also chief-justice of the territorial supreme court. There
are two associate judges of this supreme court, and all
three are appointed by the President. The supreme court
holds one session annually at Tucson. There are also pro-
bate courts in each county. The territorial legislature has
passed an act concerning common schools, which provides
for the organization of districts and the levying of taxes
for their support by the boards of county supervisors.
Counties—There were in 1870, 4 counties—viz. Mohave,
population 179; Pima, 5716; Yavapai, 2142; and Yuma,
1621. In 1872 the N. W. corner of the Territory, embra-
cing the lowest of the great bends of the Colorado River,
and what is known as the Black Cañon, was set off as Pah-
ute county. Its population must be very small.
Principal Towns.—Tucson, the capital, in 1870 had 3224
inhabitants. It is situated on the Santa Cruz River, in
Pima county, in the southern part of the Territory, in lat.
32° 14', and within a short distance of some excellent mines.
The only other towns of importance are Arizona City, in
Yuma county, situated in the S. W. corner of the Territory,
on the Colorado, at the mouth of the Gila, and opposite
Fort Yuma; population in 1870, 1144; Prescott, the coun-
ty-seat of Yavapai county, and the former capital of the
Territory, situated in about lat. 34° 35' N., and lon. 1129
10' W. from Greenwich; it had in 1870 a population of
668; Adamsville, Apache Pass, and Camp Grant, in Pima
county; Ehrenberg and La Paz, in Yuma; Salt River Wal-
ley and Wickenberg, in Yavapai.
History.—The southern part of this Territory was occu-
pied by the Spaniards and Spanish missionaries very early.
The Jesuits had missions on the Santa Cruz River as early
as 1600, and the ruins of their churches and convents are
still in existence. There were also settlements in the sev-
enteenth century on the Gila, the Rio Verde, and the Sa-
linas. The whole Territory, as well as that of New Mex-
ico, formed an integral part of the Mexican republic until
1848, when that portion lying N. of the Gila was ceded to
the U. S. The Territory of New Mexico had originally
for its northern boundary the 37th parallel to the 117th
meridian, where it touched the boundary of California. In
1853 the U. S. government purchased from Mexico the ter-
ritory lying S. of the Gila River and W. of the Rio del
Norte, now known as the “Gadsden Purchase,” and the tri-
angular section S. of the 37th parallel, and between the 114th
and the 117th meridians, was transferred to Nevada. Arizona.
was a county of New Mexico until Feb., 1863, when it was
set off as a separate Territory and organized Feb. 24 of that
year. Its growth and prosperity have been much hindered
by the constant depredations and outrages of the Apaches,
and prior to its organization as a Territory it was also the
favorite haunt of outlaws from Mexico, Texas, Nevada, and
California. These have now been mostly driven out, and
its population is enterprising and law-abiding.
Governors.-
John A. Gurley, 1862–63.
John N. Goodwin, 1863–64.
M. M. Crocker (military),
1864–66.
Richard C. McCormick,
1866–68.
A. P. K. Safford, 1869–73.
- L. P. BROCKETT.
Arizo'na, a post-township of Burt co., Neb. Pop. 534.
Arizo’ma Cit’y, a post-village of Yuma, co., Arizona
Ter., on the Colorado River, at the mouth of the Gila, 175
miles from the mouth of the Colorado. It has an extensive
river-trade carried on in steamers. Pop. 1444.
Arjish’, a river of European Turkey, rises in the East
Carpathian Mountains, flows south-eastward through Wal-
lachia, and enters the Danube 42 miles S. S. E. of Bucha-
rest. Length, estimated at 175 miles.
Arjish-Dagh. See ARGAEUs, MoUNT.
Ark [Lat. ar/caj, a chest, a coffer, a large vessel. The
term is principally used in a scriptural signification.
ARK OF THE CovKNANT [Heb.aron; Gr. kugorós]. This
ark, together with the mercy-seat, was especially invested
with sacredness and mystery by the ancient Jews. It is
said to have been an oblong chest two and a half cubits
long by one and a half broad and deep, overlaid within
and without with gold, and supporting upon its lid the
mercy-seat, with the cherubims. Its principal purpose or
use was to contain inviolate the tables of stone upon which
were written that “covenant ’’ from which it derived its
title. It was also the receptacle for the pot of manna and
the rod of Aaron. It occupied the most holy spot (the
“Holy of Holies”) of the whole sanctuary, and thus
excluded any idol from the centre of worship. (See Ex-
odus xxv., xxxvii., xi.; also SMITH's “Dictionary of the
Bible.”)
Arkadel’phia, a post-village, capital of Clark co., Ark.
It is situated at the head of steam-navigation on the right
shore of Washita River, 65 miles S. W. of Little Rock, on
the Cairo and Fulton R. R. It has water-power, an active
trade, one weekly newspaper, and is the seat of a State
normal school; and was, during the first two years of the
late civil war, a principal military dépôt for the States
of Arkansas, Missouri, and Louisiana. On Feb. 15, 1863,
a skirmish took place between a detachment of Union
troops under Capt. Brown and a party of Confederates, in
which the latter were defeated. Pop. 948.
Arkan'sas, a river of the U. S., next to the Missouri
the longest affluent of the Mississippi, rises in the Rocky
Mountains and in the W. central part of Colorado. Its
general direction is eastward for more than 500 miles
through extensive plains, large portions of which are sterile.
Having crossed the eastern boundary of Colorado into the
State of Kansas, and reached nearly the 98th degree of W.
longitude, it turns and flows south-eastward through Kansas
and the Indian Territory to Fort Smith, on the western
boundary of Arkansas; continuing thence in a south-east-
ern course, it traverses the State of Arkansas, which it di-
vides into two nearly equal portions, and enters the Mis-
sissippi in lat. 33°54' N, lon. 91° 10' W. The whole length
is 2170 miles. It is navigable by steamers 800 miles from
its mouth during nine months of the year. The difference
between high and low water in this river is about twenty-
five feet. }
Arkansas, one of the South-western States of the Union,
the twenty-fifth in the order of its admission as a State,
bounded on the N. by Missouri, on the E. by Missouri,
Tennessee, and Mississippi, being separated from the two
latter by the Mississippi River; S. by Louisiana, and W.
by Texas and the Indian Territory. Its area is 52,198
square miles, or 33,406,720 acres—about the same size as

244
ARKANSAS.
England without Wales. It lies between the parallels of
33° and 36° 30' N. lat., and between the meridians of 89°
40' and 94° 42' W. lon...from Greenwich. -
Sunface.—The surface of the State presents great varia-
tions of altitude. The eastern portion, from 30 to 100
miles W. of the Mississippi, is generally low, containing
numerous lakes, bayous, and swamps, and, except some
of the more elevated bluffs, is subject to inundation by the
annual overflow of the Mississippi River. Beyond this
level region the surface is moderately hilly, rising gradu-
ally towards, the W. and N. W. The western and north-
western sections consist of extensive and elevated prairies,
broken by the passage across them of the Ozark Moun-
tains in a north-westerly direction from Little Rock to
South-western Missouri, and S. of the Arkansas River of
the Masserne range, which stretches south-westerly from
nearly the same point. The hills of the Ozark range rise
to a general elevation of 1500 to 2000 feet, while some of
the higher ridges and summits attain an altitude of 3000
feet. Besides these two ranges there are the Black Hills in
the N., and the Ouachita or Wachita Hills in the W. The
country N. of the Ozark range is very beautiful with its
diversified scenery of hills, plains, prairie, and woodland,
and the soil is very fertile and well watered. Indeed, the
whole State may be said to be extremely well watered.
The Mississippi River washes its eastern boundary from
the N. line of Tennessee to the northern boundary of
Louisiana. The Arkansas River, entering the State on
the W. in lat. 35° 15', crosses it diagonally, and discharges
its waters into the Mississippi in about lat. 33° 40'. The
St. Francis, the White River (with its large affluent, the
Big Black), the Ouachita (with its tributary, the Saline),
and the Red River (with one or two large branches), trav-
erse portions of the State, and discharge their waters into
the Mississippi at different points. These are all naviga-
ble rivers for at least three-fourths of the year. Almost
every county is drained by these or some of their smaller
tributaries. Forty-three counties are traversed by navig-
able streams, and the navigable waters of the State exceed
3000 miles in length.
Geology.—The eastern portion of the State, including
the swampy and overflowed lands, is of alluvial or post-
tertiary formation, and at no distant geological period
formed a portion of the great lake or estuary which occu-
pied the whole valley of the lower Mississippi. At the
mouth of the Arkansas River this post-tertiary belt attains
its greatest width in the Mississippi Valley, about 75 miles.
It passes as the land rises gently into tertiary, which in
turn is succeeded by a wedge-shaped tract of cretaceous
rocks, narrow N. E. of the Arkansas River, and coming to
a point nearly opposite Cairo, but widening rapidly be-
tween that and the Red River. N. of the Red River, and
occupying some of the south-western counties, is a tract of
primitive or azoic rocks, which extends into the Indian
Territory, and is the only azoic tract in the State. Adjoin-
ing the cretaceous rocks on their N. W. border, is a trian-
gular tract of Silurian rocks, having its apex in Saline
county and its base in Missouri. W. of this, and occupy-
ing all the remaining territory of the State except the
small tract of azoic rocks already mentioned, are the car-
boniferous rocks, and on either side of the Arkansas River,
between Little Rock and the western boundary of the
State, are the two tracts of coal-measures which will
eventually make Arkansas one of the largest coal-produ-
cing States in the Union. It will be seen, then, that the
geological formations of the State include azoic, Silurian,
carboniferous, cretaceous, tertiary, and post-tertiary rocks.
Mineralogy. — Gold has been found, but it is thought
not in paying quantities, in White county. The galena of
Sevier and Pulaski counties, and it is believed also the de-
posits of lead ore in Washington, Benton, Madison, Car-
roll, Newton, Marion, Searcy, Izard, Independence, Law-
rence, and Randolph counties are argentiferous, yielding
in some instances 73 per cent. of lead and 52% ounces of
silver to the ton. This is a higher percentage of silver
than most of the argentiferous galena ores elsewhere yield.
The zinc ores of the State are said to be equal to those of
Silesia. Copper, manganese, and iron of the best quality
are among the other metallic products of the State. The
iron ores are of two or three kinds, and when combined
produce an iron of great purity and tenacity. Some of
the ore-beds are situated in close proximity to the coal-
mines, and are worked to great advantage. The coal-fields
cover about 12,000 square miles on both sides of the Ar-
kansas River, and coal of good quality has been mined in
Washington, Crawford, Sebastian, Franklin, Scott, John-
son, Yell, Pope, Perry, Conway, White, and Pulaski coun-
ties. The veins are from three to nine feet in thickness,
and the coal is semi-bituminous, easily accessible, and con-
taining very little Sulphur. An analysis of a five-foot vein
at Green’s Bank in §ºliº county gave the following
\
result: volatile matter, 13.75; coke, 86.25; and for the ul-
timate constituents, water, 1.40 per cent. ; gas, 12.35; fixed
carbon, 82.25; ashes, flesh-color, 4 per cent. There are also
extensive beds of lignite in the south-eastern part of the
State, of such quality as to be in demand for steamboat
fuel. Marble of the pink and gray tints, and of excellent
quality, has been found in various localities; Madison
county has many quarries of it. Slate, said to be equal to
the best Vermont, and suitable for all purposes, is quarried
in Pulaski, Polk, Pike, and Sevier counties. There are ex-
tensive quarries of novaculite or “Arkansas hone or oil
stone,” by far the best hone-stone known, in Hot Springs
and Grant counties. The Ozark Mountains are composed
of the “millstone-grit formation,” and the grindstones
from that region are superior to the Nova Scotia burr-
stones. Rock or quartz crystals of marvellous purity and
transparency, and of large size, are found in Montgomery
county and elsewhere in what are called the Crystal Moun-
tains. Kaolin or porcelain clay, mineral paints or ochres,
nitre earths, granite of excellent quality, building stone
(both sandstone and limestone), marls, greensand, and salt
are among the other mineral treasures of the State. “The
Hot Springs of Arkansas,” very widely known everywhere
for their healing qualities, are situated in Hot Springs
county, about 60 miles S. W. from Little Rock. The
springs are fifty-four in number, and range in temperature
from 93° to 148° F. They contain a large amount of car-
bonic acid and the carbonates of the alkalies and alkaline
earths, and have a very high reputation in diseases of the
lungs and liver, and indeed in most chronic diseases.
There are many other mineral springs in the State, and in
Fulton county a mammoth spring, apparently charged
with carbonic acid, which is constantly effervescing, has a
uniform temperature of 60°F. in winter and summer, and
flows at the rate of 8000 barrels per minute.
|Vegetation.—Arkansas has extensive forests of valuable
timber. Pine of the finest quality is found in the hill-
country, and occasionally in the bottom-lands. It is said
that the yellow-pine timber-lands cover one-fourth of the
area of the State. Dense forests of cypress grow on the
bottom-lands and along the lakes and bayous, and single
trees are often met with that will yield 6000 feet of lumber.
There are many varieties of oak in the State, the most
valuable of which are the white oak and a kindred species
called the “overcup oak,” which grows to a great size, its
trunk being often five feet or more in diameter. This is
much used for the manufacture of pipe-staves for sugar
and tobacco hogsheads. The other timber trees of the
State are red cedar, of which there are large tracts in the
northern and western sections; black walnut, tupelo gum,
wild cherry, maple, black locust, Sassafras, red mulberry,
and Osage orange, the latter growing to a great size in the
Red River valley. There are also among the forest trees
ash, hickory, gum, beech, pecan, Sycamore, elm, cotton-
wood, cedar, buttonwood, and hackberry, and of orna-
mental trees and evergreens the holly, willow, catlep, China
tree, box-elder, butternut, palmetto, dogwood, plum, horn-
beam, ironwood, mockernut, juniper, and laurel. The
undergrowth of the forests consists chiefly of scrub oak,
arrowwood gum, Sassafras, hazel, Sumac, hickory, dogwood,
and kinnikinnick, with extensive canebrakes in the low-
lands. Among the wild fruits and berries are the pawpaw,
persimmon, haw, whortleberry, wild plum, and chinquapin.
The cultivated fruits are abundant and of excellent quality.
Apples are especially fine in the hill-country. Peaches
ripen from the first of June to the first of November, and
pears from midsummer to January. Plums, apricots, cher-
ries, nectarines, and all the small fruits, as grapes, black-
berries, strawberries, etc., are of fine quality and yield pro-
fusely. The grape is extensively cultivated both for the
table and for wine, and in the long and moderately warm
seasons it comes to a rare perfection. All the cereals, as
well as Indian corn, yield abundant crops. Root crops do
well, and the native grasses of Arkansas, which include
thirty-five varieties, are remarkable for their succulence
and their fattening properties. The hay crop is more im-
portant in Arkansas than in any other Southern State.
Cotton is the great staple, and is largely grown, both on
the alluvial lands and on the hills. There is hardly another
State in the Union which has so large a proportion of ara-
ble lands.
2007ogy.—Wild game, consisting of bears, deer, turkeys,
ducks, prairie-chickens, and quail, is abundant, and the
rivers, lakes, and bayous are well stocked with fish, among
which are pickerel, black bass, buffalo, and catfish, the
latter sometimes weighing 150 pounds. In the bayous
and lakes, and in the Red, Ouachita, and Arkansas rivers,
the alligator occasionally makes his appearance, though
less abundant than in Louisiana and Texas. Serpents and
other reptiles are plentiful in the lowlands, and the rattle-
snake and moccasin are found in the hills.
ARKANSAS.
245
Climate.—Arkansas has as a whole a very fine climate. It
is sheltered from the northers by the mountains on the N. and
N.W., and from the fierce heats of the Louisiana lowlands
by its diversified surface and its long river-valleys. The
eastern portion of the State is low and hot, and in the swampy
and overflowed lands there is considerable malarial disease
—fever and ague, congestive chills, and sometimes yellow
fever—but on the higher lands the temperature is equable
and the range of the thermometer not excessive. In 1870
the extreme range of the thermometer for the year at
Little Rock was 92°; the highest point reached was 96°
for one day in September; the lowest point was 4° above
zero for one day in December; the average temperature
of the four months, June, July, August, and September,
was 78° 30'; and the average of the three winter months,
December, January, and February, 43°. The mean tem-
perature for the year was 62°. The rainfall ranges from 55
to 60 inches annually. The climate has a high reputation
for the relief of pulmonary diseases, and from the vital sta-
tistics of the census of 1870 would seem to deserve it.
Products.--The agricultural products of the State in
1872 were: Indian corn, 17,710,000 bushels; wheat, 702,000
bushels; rye, 40,000 bushels; oats, 703,000 bushels; rice
(in 1870), 73,021 pounds; peas and beans, 47,376 bushels;
potatoes, Irish (Solanum tuberosum), 400,000 bushels;
potatoes, sweet (Batatus edulis), 712,000 bushels; tobacco,
770,000 pounds; hay, 12,500 tons; cotton, 283,372 bales
of 450 pounds each; wool (in 1870), 214,784 pounds; bees-
wax (in 1870), 12,789 pounds; honey, 276,324 pounds;
butter (in 1870), 2,753,931 pounds; cheese, 2119 pounds;
milk sold, 31,350 gallons. The orchard products in 1870
were $157,219; products of market-gardens, $55,697; for-
est products, $34,225; wine, 3734 gallons; cane-sugar, 92
hogsheads; maple sugar, 1185 pounds; cane molasses, 72,008
gallons; sorghum molasses, 147,203 gallons; maple mo-
lasses, 75 gallons. The number of acres of improved land
in farms in 1870 was 1,859,821; of unimproved land in
farms, 5,737,475 acres, of which 3,910,325 were in woodland,
and 1,827,150 in other unimproved lands; so that only
22.6 per cent. of the land of the State is as yet taken up in
farms. The present cash value of the farms of the State
(in 1870) was $40,029,698, and of farming implements and
machinery, $2,237,409. The total amount of wages paid
for farm labor during that year was $4,061,952, and the
total estimated value of all farm productions, including
betterments and additions to stock, was $40,701,699. The
valuation of all live-stock in 1870 was $17,222,556, and of
* animals slaughtered for provisions, $3,843,923. In Jan.,
1873, the number of horses, as estimated by the agricultu-
ral department, was 160,700, and their value, $14,302,300;
the number of mules was 82,800, and their value, $9,108,000;
the number of milch cows was 150,300, and their value,
$3,081,000; the number of oxen and other cattle was
251,300, and their value, $4,523,400; the number of sheep
was 160,400, and their value, $321,200; the number of
swine was 1,067,400, and their value, $4,269,600; making
the total value of live-stock at that time, $35,604,500.
The manufacturing industry of the State, though not
fully represented in the census, is not large; but it will
doubtless increase, as no State in the Union has more
abundant water-power, cheaper fuel, or a larger supply of
the raw material for manufactures in close proximity to
fuel and to good markets. The State had in 1870 two
cotton-mills, capital $13,000, using 66,400 pounds of cotton
of the value of $13,780, and producing $22,362 worth of
goods, at a cost for labor of $4100. There were at the
same date 13 woollen manufactories, with $32,500 capital,
using 115,330 pounds of domestic wool, valued at $55,782,
and producing goods valued at $78,690, with a cost of labor
of $6870. There were also 283 establishments for ginning
cotton, with a capital of $344,825; 35 for the manufacture
of leather, capital $32,100; 212 saw-mills, capital $694,400;
272 flour and meal mills, capital $477,151. The whole num-
ber of manufacturing establishments in the State was 1364,
capital $2,137,738; steam-engines, 300, with 6980 horse-
power; water-wheels, 134, with 1599 horse-power, employ-
ing 4133 males above sixteen years of age, 48 females above
sixteen, and 271 children; wages paid during the year,
$754,950; value of materials used, $4,823,651; value of an-
nual products, $7,699,676. The home manufactures of the
State, not included in these, were reported in the census of
1870 to amount to $807,573.
Railroads.--The railroads already completed, and to be
completed by Jan. 1, 1874, have an extent of 1169 miles.
Of these roads, only 128 miles were completed on the first
of Jan., 1870, and ten years earlier there were but 38%
miles in operation. Of the roads now nearly or quite com-
pleted, several are trunk-roads, forming portions of the great
routes to the Pacific or to Texas. Thus, the Memphis and
Little Rock and the Little Rock and Fort Smith, both, we
believe, now in operation, form important sections of the
Pacific road which is now in progress along the 35th paral-
lel. They will also connect by a short link with nearly
3000 miles of complete railway to the North-west. The
Mississippi Red River and Ouachita R. R., starting from
Chicot on the Mississippi River and extending westward
to Fulton on the Red River, will sustain nearly the same
relations to the Pacific road along the 32d parallel and to the
International of Texas as the roads previously named do
to the line of the 35th parallel. More than 70 of its 155 miles
are completed. . The Cairo and Fulton R. R., extending
from Cairo (Ill.) and from St. Louis, vić the Iron Mountain
R. R., to Fulton on the Red River, where it joins the Inter-
national of Texas, traversing fifteen counties of the State,
and forming a part of the grand trunk-line from Chicago
and St. Louis to Texas, and ultimately to Mexico, is one of
the most important of the Arkansas railroads. It is 301
miles in length, is nearly completed, and will be finished by
Jan. 1, 1874. Other important railways in the State are
the Arkansas Central, from Little Rock to Helena; the
Little Rock Pine Bluff and New Orleans R. R. and its
branch, extending from Little Rock to the Mississippi
River at Chicot and to the Louisiana line; the Helena.
branch of the Cairo and Fulton R. R.; the Memphis Shreve-
port and Jefferson Branch R. R., which leaves the Mem-
phis and Little Rock at Duvall's Bluff; the Arkansas and
Louisiana R. R. from Little Rock to Alexandria (La.), not
yet graded; and the Arkansas Western, which is to be the
connecting link between the road on the 35th parallel and
the network of railroads in Kansas and South-western
Missouri. There have been awarded to these railroads by
the State the loan of its credit to the extent of $15,000 per
mile to roads having no land-grant, and $10,000 per mile to
those having land-grants. These credits and bonds, having
thirty years to run and bearing interest at 6 per cent., the
interest to be paid by the roads, have been awarded to the
extent of 850 miles, or $11,400,000, but only a portion of
the bonds have yet been issued. The land-grants to these
companies are not far from 6,000,000 acres.
Finances.—The State debt of Arkansas, present and (so
far as the railroads are concerned) prospective, amounts
to $19,398,000, and is classified as follows: funded debt,
including the amount due to the Smithsonian Institution,
loaned to the State many years ago by the general gov-
ernment, $4,430,000; State-aid railroad bonds, as specified
above, $11,400,000 (not all issued yet); levee bonds,
$3,000,000 (only about $1,600,000 yet issued); ten-year
bonds to supply casual deficits, $300,000; floating debt,
$268,000. The railroads will generally be able to pay the
interest on their bonds, so that the financial position of the
State is not discreditable to it. The valuation of property
is rapidly increasing: in 1870 the entire assessed valuation,
real and personal (which was about 50 per cent. of the
real values), was $94,528,843; in 1872 it had increased to
nearly $120,000,000, of which a little more than $80,000,000
was real estate, and not quite $40,000,000 personal prop-
erty. The true valuation in 1870, according to the ninth
census, was $156,394,691. Aside from the State debt,
there are county debts, mostly the issue of county bonds
to railroads, etc., and town and city debts. The former
amounted in 1870 to $536,649, and the latter to $154,986.
The taxation (aside from national taxes) in 1870 reached
the sum of $2,866,890, of which $950,894 was the State
tax, $1,738,760 county taxes, and $177,236 town and city
taxes. The State tax now yields a little more, and the
credit of the State is fast improving. As an interior and
riparian State, Arkansas has no foreign commerce and no
large river-port. Her cotton is mostly shipped through
Memphis and New Orleans. Her interior commerce through
her navigable rivers and her rapidly extending railroad
system is already considerable, and is fast increasing.
Banks and Private Banking-houses.—There are two
national banks in the State—the Merchants’ National at
Little Rock, with a capital of $150,000, and the National
Bank of Western Arkansas at Fort Smith, capital $55,000.
There are no State banks and no savings banks. There
are ten private banking-houses—three at Little Rock, two
at Fayetteville, two at Pine Bluff, and one each at Augusta,
Camden, and Helena.
Insurance.—There were no life, fire, or marine insurance
companies in the State up to Oct., 1872, but several of the
St. Louis, Memphis, Richmond, and New Orleans com-
panies, and perhaps others, had agencies at Little Rock
and other points. -
Population.—Arkansas was organized as a Territory in
1819, and its first appearance as a distinct Territory in the
census was in 1820, when it had 14,255 inhabitants, though
settlements within its present boundaries, but then belong-
ing to the Territory of Louisiana, had been reported in
1810 as having 1062 inhabitants; in 1830 the number was
30,388; in 1840, after it had been admitted as a State, 97,574;
in 1850, 209,897; in 1860,435,450; and in 1870, 484,471. Its .
246
ARKANSAS. * - -
population now considerably exceeds 525,000. The den-
sity of the population at the last census was nearly 9.3 in-
habitants to the square mile. The greater part of the
State is considerably below this average, and only a tract
comprising six or seven counties on both sides of the Ar-
kansas River in the centre of the State is materially above
it. Of the population in 1870, 362,115 were whites, 122,169
colored, 98 Chinese, and 89 Indians. Of the whole num-
ber, 479,445 were natives of the U. S., and 5026 were of
foreign birth; of the natives, 10,617 had one or both
parents foreign, 9893 had a foreign father, 8484 a foreign
mother, and 7760 had a foreign father and foreign mother.
Of the natives, 170,398 whites, 62,463 colored, and 21 In-
dians, or nearly one-half, were born in Arkansas, about
230,000 in the other Southern and South-western States,
and the remainder in the Northern and Western States
and Territories. The foreigners were mostly Germans
and Irish. Of the total population, 248,261 were males
and 236,210 females; of the native population, 244,491
were males and 234,954 females; of the foreign popula-
tion, 3770 were males and 1256 females; of the whites,
186,445 were males and 175,670 females; of the colored
races, 61,680 were males and 60,489 females. Dividing
these, again, into negroes and mulattoes, there were 55,436
male negroes and 54,395 females; 6244 male mulattoes and
6092 females. Of the whole population, 84,645 males and
80,847 females were of school age, or between five and
eighteen years. -
Education.—The whole number of children attending
school during some part of the year 1869–70 in the State.
was 62,572, of whom 62,546 were natives and 26 foreign-
ers; 56,788 were whites and 5784 colored; 33,068 males
and 29,504 females. Of persons ten years old and over,
111,799 could not read, and 133,339 could not write. Of
these, 28,298 were white males and 35,797 white females;
34,896 were colored males and 34,326 colored females.
There were in the State, according to the census, 1978
schools of all classes, with 2297 teachers, of whom 1653
were males and 644 females; 81,526 pupils, of whom 41,939
were males and 39,587 females. The total income for the
support of these schools for the year ending June 1, 1870,
was $681,962, of which $7300 was from endowment,
$555,331 from taxation and public funds, and 119,331 from
other sources, including tuition. Of these 1978 schools,
1744 were public, including 1 normal school, with 3 teach-
ers and 62 scholars, with $10,061 income; 3 high schools,
with 6 teachers and 140 scholars, and $3600 income; 225
graded common schools, with 289 teachers and 11,887
pupils, and an income of $93,500; 1515 ungraded common
schools, with 1668 teachers, 59,956 scholars, and an income
of $445,300. There were also 3 colleges, with 10 professors,
235 students, of whom 125 were males and 110 females,
and $7700 income. Of these, St. John's College at Little
Rock was founded in 1857 by the Masons, and is sustained
by them; Judson University at Prospect Bluff is sustained
by the Baptists, and Cane Hill College at Cane Hill by the
Christians. There were 30 academies, with 61 teachers and
2144 pupils, of whom 1102 were males and 1042 females, and
$25,387 income. There were four technical schools; a State
asylum for the blind at Little Rock, established in 1859,
which, according to the census, had 4 teachers and 30
pupils (a later report makes the number of teachers and
employés 11, and of pupils 40), and an income of $11,000
(the report of 'commissioner of education says $18,000);
one institute for the deaf and dumb, also at Little Rock,
with 22 teachers and employés, 72 pupils, and an income
of $22,452; 2 schools of art and music, with 3 teachers,
20 pupils, and $1000 income. There were also 187 day
and boarding schools, with 241 teachers, 6818 scholars
(3484 males and 3334 females), and $67,214 income; and
10 parochial and charity schools, with 11 teachers, 210
pupils, and $6300 income. The “Educational Year-Book”
for 1873 makes the number of teachers in the public schools
2035; their salaries in the country, $40 to $100 per month,
in the cities, $75 to $125 per month. There are 10 school
superintendents, one to each judicial circuit, each having
a salary of $3000 per annum. The school fund is $95,501.
The number of children of school age is 194,314, of whom
182,474 are registered, but the average attendance is only
32,863.
organized in 1868, and since amended, is very efficient. By
the amendments adopted in 1873 education is made com-
pulsory between certain ages. The board of education,
which possesses large powers, consists of the State super-
intendent of schools and the ten circuit superintendents.
The State superintendent is elected by the people on the
general State ticket, and serves for four years; the circuit
superintendents are appointed by the governor for four
years. A district trustee is elected annually in each school
district, who has charge of the school affairs and local
educational interests of his district, and is the executive
ries, with,4930 volumes.
The newly established school system of the State,
school officer within his jurisdiction. The State board of
education prescribes lists of text-books, puts in operation
the provisions of the school law, and makes all needful
rules and regulations respecting common schools and the
general educational interests of the State. It directs also
the establishment of separate schools for white and colored
children and youth. The teachers are examined by the
circuit superintendents. The schools of Arkansas have
received hitherto about $9500 annually from the Peabody
fund. A State industrial university to receive the agricul-
tural land-grants was established at Fayetteville in 1871.
Libraries.—The census of 1870 reports 1181 libraries
of all classes, public and private, in the State, with an ag-
gregate of 135,564 volumes; of these, 888 were private,
and contained 81,232 volumes; of the remaining 293, 1 is the
State Library, with 12,500 volumes; 6 are town or city
libraries, with an aggregate of 250 volumes; 29 are court
or law libraries, with 5747 volumes; 216 were Sabbath-
school libraries, with 29,412 volumes, and 37 church libra–
There were also 4 circulating libra-
ries, with 1493 volumes. -
Newspapers and Periodicals.-In 1870 there were 56
newspapers and periodicals of all descriptions in the State,
having a circulation of 29,830, and issuing 1,824,860 copies
annually. . Of these, 3 were dailies (4 dailies in 1872), having
a circulation of 1250; 1 was a tri-weekly, with a circula-
tion of 300 (there were 2 tri-weekly papers in 1872); 48
were weeklies, having a circulation of 26,280, and 4 were
monthlies, with a circulation of 2000. Two of these were
agricultural, with a circulation of 1000, and printing 12,000
copies annually; 52 were political—viz. 48 weekly, 1 tri-
weekly, and 3 daily—with an aggregate circulation of
27,830, and printing annually 1,800,860 copies; 1 was re-
ligious, a monthly, with a circulation of 500, and an annual
issue of 6000 copies; and 1 educational, with the same cir-
culation and annual issue. -
Churches.—There were, according to the census in 1870,
1371 church organizations of all denominations in the
State, and 1141 church edifices, having 264,225 sittings,
and holding church property valued at $854,975. Of these,
463 were regular Baptist churches, with 394 edifices, 103,250
sittings, and $195,725 of church property (the “Baptist
Almanac * for 1873 gives the number of churches in 1872
as 648, with 408 ministers and 36,040 members); of other
Baptist denominations (Christians, Disciples, etc.), there
were 100 churches, 68 church edifices, 15,150 sittings, and
property valued at $38,725; of Episcopalians there were
15 churches, 13 church edifices, 3695 sittings, and property
valued at $43,450 (the “Protestant Episcopal Almanac *
for 1873 gives. Arkansas 1 diocese, I bishop, 11 presbyters,
715 communicants, 153 baptisms, and 131 confirmations);
there was 1 Jewish synagogue, with 300 sittings and $6500
of property; 2 Lutheran churches and 2 church edifices,
with 1025 sittings and property valued at $10,000; there
were 583 Methodist congregations, 485 church edifices,
91,890 sittings, and property valued at $276,850. It is
difficult to ascertain the exact numbers of the Methodists
in the State, as they belong to four or five different organi-
zations, some of which do not publish detailed statistics.
The Southern Methodist Church had about 34,000 members
in 1872; the Protestant Methodists about 4000; the col-
ored Methodists probably 6000 or 7000, and all others per-
haps 10,000; of regular Presbyterians (i. e. Presbyterian
Church South and Associate Reformed Synod of the South)
there were 106 churches, 87 church edifices, 23,175 sittings,
$101,625 of church property (there were in 1872 only 39
ordained ministers reported in the “Presbyterian Alma-
nac''); of other Presbyterians (Cumberland) there were 55
churches, 44 edifices, 10,425 sittings, $77,500 of church
property (the Cumberland Presbyterians in 1872 had 87
ordained ministers in Arkansas, and probably a larger
number of churches); there were 11 Roman Catholic con-
gregations, 11 church edifices, 5250 sittings, $82,500 of
church property, 1 diocese, that of Little Rock, or “Pe-
tropolis,” and 1 bishop; there was 1 Universalist congre-
gation, 1 church edifice, valued at $400, and with 200 sit-
tings; there were 34 congregations designated as Union,
35 church edifices, 9865 sittings, $21,700 church property.
Constitution, Courts, Representatives in Congress, etc.—The
present constitution of the State was adopted by the con-
stitutional convention of the State Feb. 11, 1868, and rati-
fied by the people Mar. 13, 1868. It provides, among other
things, that the paramount allegiance of every citizen is
due to the Federal government in the exercise of all its
constitutional powers, as defined by the Supreme Court of
the U.S., and that no power exists in the people of this or
any other State of the Union to dissolve their connection
therewith, or perform any act tending to impair, subvert,
or resist the supreme authority of the U. S. The equality
of all persons before the law shall be recognized and ever
remain inviolate, nor shall any citizen ever be deprived of
ARKANSAS.
247
any right, privilege, or immunity, nor exempted from any
burden or duty, on account of race, color, or previous con-
dition. The State officers are a governor, lieutenant-gov-
ernor, Secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, attorney-gen-
eral, and superintendent of public schools, all chosen by the
qualified electors at a general election. Their term of office is
four years. The legislature consists of a senate of 24 mem-
bers, chosen for four years, and a house of representatives of
82 members, chosen for two years. The legislature meets
biennially in January. Every male person born in the U.S.,
and every male person who is naturalized or has declared
his intention to become a citizen, who is twenty-one years
old or upward, and has resided in the State for six months
next preceding the election—except criminals, idiots, insane
persons, soldiers and sailors in the service of the U. S., and
certain classes who participated in the civil war—shall be
deemed an elector. The supreme court of the State con-
sists of one chief-justice and four associate justices, all ap-
pointed by the governor for eight years. It has appellate
jurisdiction. There are ten circuits, to each of which there
is a circuit court, which has original jurisdiction over all
criminal cases not otherwise expressly provided for by law.
The judges and district attorneys of these courts are ap-
pointed by the governor, with the advice and consent of
the senate, for the term of four years. The constitution
makes it the duty of the general assembly to establish and
maintain free schools. By the act of Congress of Dec. 14,
1871, Arkansas is entitled to four representatives in Con-
gress during the present decade. l
Counties.—There are 64 counties in the State, as follows:
Countres. Pop. in 1870. Pop. in 1860. |Pop. in 1850,
Arkansas.............................. 8,268 8,844 3,245
Ashley .............................. .... 8,042 8,590 2,058
Benton...... 13,831 9,306 3,710
Boone. 7,032
Bradley ................................. 8,646 8,388 3,829
Calhoun 3,853 4,103
Carroll.................................. 5,780 9,383 4,614
Chicot............................ tº e s - e - 4 7,214 9,234 5,115
Clarke................................... 11,953 9,735 4,070
Columbia .............................. 11,397 12,449
Qon Way................................. 8,112 6,697 3,583
Craighead.............................. 4,577 3,066 -
Crawford .............................. 8,957 7,850 7,960
Crittenden............................ 3,831 4,920 2,648
Cross.…................................. 3,915
Dallas.................................... 5,707 8,283 6,877
Desha.................. ................. 6,125 6,459 2,911
Drew ...................... .............. 9,960 9,078 3,276
Franklin.............................. 9,627 7,298 3,972
Fulton.................................. 4,843 4,024 1,819
3. * * * * * * * * * * * s e º dº e º 'º e º e º e º e º 'º e s e e º a e º sº 3,943 2,593
reel16 7,573 5,843 y
Hempstead............................. 13768 13539 7,672
Hot Springs........................... 5,877 5,635 3,609
Independence........................ 14,566 14,307 7,767
Izard. - * 6,806 7,215 3,213
Jackson................................. 7,268 10,493 3,086
Jefferson 15,733 || 14,971 5,834
Johnson ................................ 9,152 7,612 5,227
La Fayette............................ 9,139 8,464 5,220
Lawrence 5,981 9,372 5,274
#. River • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * nº
d W CO.
IMadison...... .......................... 8,231 7,740 4,823
Marion ................................. 3,979 6,192 2,308
Mississippi............................ 3,633 3,895 2,368
Monroe................................. 8,336 5,657 2,049
Montgomery......................... 2,984 3,633 1,958
Newton..... 4,374 3,393 1,758
Sevada................................. IlêW CO
Ouachita............................... 12,975 12,936 9,591
Perry 2,685 2,465 978
Phillips ................................ 15,372 14,877 6,935
ike...; 3,788 4,025 1,861
Fº e e s s - e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e s p * * * * * * * e s e s - e & §. 3,621 #;
Olk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,376 4,262 1,26
Pope. 8,386 7.333 4,710
Prairie 5,604 8,854 2,097
Pulaski................................. 32,066 11,699 5,657
Randolph.............................. 7,466 6,261 3,275
St. Francis............................. 6,714 8,672 4,479
Saline.................................... 3,911 6,640 3,903
Sarber 3,764 new co.
§. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * # º: # ;
&TCY.................................... ,61 5,271 1,979
Sebastian.............................. 12,940 9,238 j
Sevier w • * * 4,492 10,516 4,240
Sharpe... 5,400
**ś* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * “ . . . . . . . . . . . . - 1% *::::: 1%;
***, ****** ----------............ & e g º e y º
Washington. 17,266 || 14:373 9,970
White..................... • * - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10,347 8,316 2,619
Woodruff.............................. 6,891
Yell .................... 8,048 6,333 3,341
Lincoln, Nevada, and Sarber counties were organized by
the legislature in 1871.
Principal Towns.—Little Rock, the capital of the State,
is also the largest town. It is pleasantly situated on the
Arkansas River at a point where it is always navigable,
and is now also a railroad centre for six or seven important
railroads, several of them trunk-lines. It has also some
manufactories. It is growing very rapidly. Its population
in 1850 was 2167; in 1860, 3727; in 1870, 12,380; and it has
now (1873) nearly 20,000 inhabitants. The other towns of
importance are Fort Smith, in Sebastian county, also on the
Arkansas River, on the W. line of the State, population 2227;
Van Buren, nearly opposite Fort Smith, but in Crawford
county, population 3296; Pine Bluff, on the Lower Arkansas,
in Jefferson county, population 2081; Helena, on the Missis-
sippi, in Phillips county, population 2249; Hot Springs, in
Hot Springs county, the site of the famous mineral springs,
population 1276; Camden, in Ouachita county, population
1612; Fayetteville, in Washington county, in the N. W.
part of the State, population 955; and Dardanelle, in
Yell county, in the W. part of the State, population 926.
History.--The first settlement within the present limits
of Arkansas was made in 1670 by the French, on or near
the St. Francis River, where it discharges its waters into
the Mississippi. It was a portion of the French territory
until 1803, when Louisiana Territory, of which it was a
part, was purchased from France by President Jefferson to
give the U. S. control of the Mississippi River. In 1812,
Louisiana having been admitted into the Union as a State,
the remaining territory was reorganized as Missouri Ter-
ritory, and in 1819, Missouri having framed a State con-
stitution, Arkansas and the Indian Territory were organized
as Arkansas Territory, and remained in that condition until
June 15, 1836, when the State with its present boundaries
was admitted into the Union as the twenty-fifth State. Its
progress was slow for a time. It had, as we have seen, less
than 100,000 inhabitants in 1840, and but 209,897 in 1850.
Between 1850 and 1860 its fertile lands and facilities for
shipping cotton attracted large numbers of cotton-planters
to it from the Atlantic and Gulf slave States, and its popu-
lation more than doubled during that decade. Settled al-
most exclusively from the Southern States, its population
were very thoroughly identified with the maintenance of
slavery, and it entered heartily into the secession move—
ment, though not quite so early as some of the States E.
of the Mississippi. The State convention assembled at
Little Rock and passed the ordinance of secession Mar. 4,
1861. During the war Arkansas had its full share of the
disasters and wretchedness caused by war. A large num-
ber of its own citizens were with the Southern armics, and
much of its territory was overrun by the hostile forces.
The battles of Pea Ridge and Fayetteville, as well as sev-
eral lesser, engagements, were fought in its N. W. section
in 1862, the capture of Arkansas Post took place in Jan.,
1863, and during the same year Helena and Little Rock
were captured, and Gen. Grant’s army marched through
the bottom-lands W. of the Mississippi to Bruinsburg and
Hard Times landings, on their way to the siege and cap-
ture of Vicksburg. Before the close of 1863 the State was
substantially controlled by the Federal troops. On the 8th
of Jan., 1864, a convention was assembled to revise the
State constitution. The amended constitution was adopted
by the people Mar. 18, 1864, by a vote of 12,177 in its favor
and 226 against it. The legislature was reorganized under
the new constitution, but it was not recognized by Congress
as a legal government. Though ready to abolish slavery,
the people were not at that time prepared to remove the
disabilities under which the adherents to the Union party
had labored, and for the next four years they were remanded
to the control of a military government. This was admin-
istered generally with lenity and justice, but the people
were restless under it. In 1867, Arkansas was united with
Mississippi as the fourth military district, and Brigadier-
General E. O. C. Ord was placed in command of it. He
directed an election for a State constitutional convention
to be held in Nov., 1867. The election resulted in a ma-
jority of 14,000 for a convention, which met Jan. 8, 1868,
and on the 4th of Feb. following reported a constitution,
which was adopted and ratified by the people Mar. 13, 1868.
The State was restored to the Union by vote of Congress
June 22, 1868, over the veto of President Johnson. At the
first election of State officers held under the new constitu-

| tion, Col. Powell Clayton, who had been an officer in the
Federal army, was elected governor, and held the office
until 1871, when he was elected U. S. Senator, and the
lieutenant-governor became acting governor. In 1872 an
election took place for governor at the same time with the
Presidential election, and Elisha Baxter, Republican, was
reported elected by a majority of 3266 over Mr. Brooks,
the Democratic and Liberal Republican candidate. There
was, however, a contest as to the legality of the vote in
some of the districts, and some of the supporters of Gov-
ernor Baxter becoming dissatisfied with his action, an effort
was made to unseat him by a vote of the legislature, de-
claring the election void through fraud. The Supreme court
248
ARKANSAS–ARLON.
of the State having decided that this could not be accom-
plished, Mr. Brooks in June, 1873, proceeded against the
governor with an action of quo warranto brought in one
of the counties of the State. - -
Governors.--The governors of the State have been as
follows:
TERRITORIAL. i. º: (acting)...1844–44
James Miller.................. 1819–25|Thomas S. Drew............ 1844–48
George Izard.................. 1825–29|John S. Roane............... 1848–52
John Pope.....................1829–35|Elias N. Conway............ 1852–60
William S. Fulton......... 1835–36|Henry M. Rector............1860–64
• Isaac Murphy................ 1864–68
STATE. Powell Clayton.............. 1868–71
James S. Conway........... 1836–40|Ozro A. Hadley (acting)..1871–72
Archibald Yell............... 1840–44|Elisha Baxter................ 1872–
Presidential Votes.—Arkansas was admitted into the
Union in 1836, and cast her first vote for President in No-
vember of that year. This and the subsequent votes have
been as follows: º
Elect. Elec.| Successful Democratic Pop. Whig and Pop.
year. vote. candidate. candidate. vote. }, Rep. cands. vote.
1836 || 3 |Van. Buren. Van Buren... 2,400 |Harrison. 1,238
1840 || 3 |Harrison.....|Van Buren. 6,049 || Harrison. 5,160
1844 || 3 |Polk............ Polk 9,546 |Clay, 5,504
1848 || 3 |Taylor ........ Cass............ 9,300 Taylor. 7,588
1852 || 4 ||Pierce......... Pierce......... 12,173 |Scott. 7,404
1856 || 4 |Buchanan...|Buchanan ...|21,910 ||Fillmore. 10,787
1860 | 4 ||Lincoln ...... Breck’ridge. 28,732 fºr. º:
1864 no VOte no vote
1868 || 5 |Grant ......... Seymour. 19,078 Grant...... 22,112
1872 Grant ......... Greeley. 37,927 Grant...... 41,073
L. P. BROCKETT.
Arkansas, a county in the E. S. E. of Arkansas, con-
tains about 1200 square miles. It is bounded on the S. W.
by the Arkansas River, and bounded on the E. by the
White River, both of which are navigable for steamboats.
The surface is generally level, and forms part of the Grand
Prairie. This county is made up of fine prairie and bot-
tom lands. Corn and cottom are the staple crops. Capi-
tal, De Witt. Pop. 8268.
Arkansas, a township of Arkansas co., Ark. Pop. 683.
Arkansas City, on the southern border of Kansas, in
Cowley co., is at the confluence of the Arkansas and Walnut
rivers. The town commands the trade of the adjoining
country and territory. Although the town is but three
years old, it has one weekly newspaper, a wagon-and-car-
riage manufactory, stores, shops, etc. in abundance. Three
years ago it was the hunting-ground of the Osage Indians,
who frequently visit the place to trade. The location of
the town is high, dry, and healthy. Its support is from
the vast farming region by which it is surrounded, and
from the Texan cattle and Indian trade.
C. M. Scott, PUB. “ARKANSAs. CITY TRAVELLER.”
Arkan'sas In’dians, now generally called Qua-
paws, a tribe allied by language to the Dakotas, formerly
resided on the Ohio. Like the northern Dakotas, they appear
to have been once divided into several bands or minor tribes.
Driven from their old haunts by the Illinois and other In-
dians, they went southward, and became the constant and
powerful allies of the French of Louisiana. They number
at present some 200, and live in the Indian Territory.
Arkansas Post, a post-village of Arkansas co., Ark.,
on the left bank of the Arkansas River, 50 miles from its
mouth, 117 miles S. E. of Little Rock, settled by the French
in 1685. During the civil war this post was garrisoned and
fortified by the Confederates. On Jan. 11, 1863, a combined
attack of the U. S. military and naval forces under General
McClernand and Admiral Porter was made upon the place,
and its works were finally carried by storm. A large num-
ber of prisoners were captured, and immense quantities of
matériel, stores, etc. -
Arkansas Stone, a material largely employed for
hones and oil-stones, consists of novaculite, which is quar-
ried extensively in Hot Springs and Grant counties, Ark.
Some of it is wrought in the neighborhood, but most of it
is carried to New Albany, Ind., where it is cut and pre-
pared for market. It is a very beautiful and valuable stone.
Ark’ansite, a name given to the thick black crystals
of brookite (titanic acid), found at Magnet Cove in the
Ozark Mountains of Arkansas.
Arko'na, or Arcona, a promontory on the N. side of
the Prussian island of Rügen, in the Baltic. Here is a
lighthouse on the site of the heathen temple of Swantewit,
which King Waldemar of Denmark burned in 1168.
Ar’kose, a rock composed of fragments of felspar; a
kind of felspathic sandstone.
Arkwright, a township of Chautauqua co., N. Y.
Pop. 1030.
Arkwright (Sir RICHARD), an English inventor noted
for his great improvements in the cotton manufacture, was
born at Preston, in Lancashire, Dec. 23, 1732. He learned
the trade of a barber, which he soon abandoned, and ap-
plied himself to the invention of machinery for spinning
cotton. At that time no machine had been invented that
could produce cotton yarn of sufficient strength and tenuity .
to be fit for warp. In 1768 he set up at Preston his first
spinning-frame, for which he obtained a patent in 1769.
He removed to Nottingham in 1769, and formed a partner-
ship with Need and Strutt. His machine caused a great ex-
tension of the cotton manufacture, and greatly promoted
the prosperity of the nation. He became the proprietor of
several cotton-mills moved by water-power, which he man-
aged with great ability and success, and he may be called
the founder of the factory system, for he introduced a sys-
tem of management so admirable that it was generally
adopted, and has never been materially improved. Although
his patent was infringed, and he was defeated in several
lawsuits which he instituted to defend his rights, his busi-
ness prospered, and he amassed a fortune of about £500,000.
He was knighted by George III. in 1786. Died Aug. 3,
1792. (See “Edinburgh Review º' for June, 1827; BAINEs,
“History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain,”
1835.)
Arlar’ka, a township of Macon co., N. C. Pop. 542.

Ariaud (JACQUES ANTOINE), a Swiss miniature-painter,
born at Geneva May 18, 1668, worked in Paris and London
with success. He was a friend of Sir Isaac Newton. Died
at Geneva May 25, 1746.
Arles (anc. Ar’elas, Arela’te, or Arela’tum), a city of
France, in the department of Bouches-du-Rhône, and on
the E. bank of the Rhone, 15 miles from the Mediterranean
and 53 miles by rail N. W. of Marseilles. The railway
which connects Lyons with Marseilles passes through it.
It has a cathedral of the seventh century, a museum, a col-
lege, and a public library. It was once the capital of the
kingdom of Arelate. Important councils of the Church
were held here in 314, 354, 452, and 475 A. D. Here are
the remains of a grand Roman amphitheatre, and an an-
cient granite obelisk which was dug out of the Rhone about
1389. Arles has manufactures of hats, silk, brandy, etc.
Its trade is facilitated by the steamboat navigation of the
Rhone and by two canals. A famous statue called “We-.
nus of Arles” was discovered here. Pop. in 1866, 26,367.
Arlincourt, d” (VICTOR), VICOMTE, a French poet and
novelist, born near Versailles in 1789. Among his chief
works is an epic poem called “Charlemagne, ou la Caro-
léide” (1818), and “Le Solitaire,” a novel (1825), which
had some success. His style is eccentric. Died in 1856.
Ar’lington, a post-village of Westfield township, Bu-
reau co., Ill., on the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R.,
92 miles S. W. of Chicago.
Arlington, a post-village and township of Middlesex
co., Mass., 7 miles by railroad N. W. of Boston. It has a
gas company, water-works, and horse and steam railroad
to Boston. A large supply of ice is sent to market. There
are five churches, and important manufactures. The prin-
cipal business is market-gardening. The town has a sav-
ings bank, a public library, and a weekly newspaper. Pop.
of township, 3261. J. L. PARKER, ED. “Advocate.”
Arlington, a post-township of Van Buren co., Mich.
Pop. 1360.
Arlington, a post-township of Sibley co., Minn. Pop.
752. -
Ariington, a post-township of Phelps co., Mo. Pop.
1190.
Arlington, a post-village and township of Bennington
co., Vt., 15 miles N. of Bennington. Here are marble
quarries, a mineral spring, and a cave with stalactites. It
has extensive manufactures of wooden ware, lumber, Sash,
blinds, doors, etc. Pop. of township, 1636.
Arlington, a post-township of Alexandria co., Va.
Here are the old mansion of the Custis family, iwo nation-
al cemeteries, a “freedmen’s village,” and other points of
interest made historic during the late civil war. Pop. 1874.
Arlington, a township of Columbia co., Wis. Pop. 822.
Arlington (HENRY Bennet), EARL OF, born in 1618,
served as a royalist in the civil war (1642–45), was knight-
ed at Bruges (1658), became secretary of state (1662), a
baron (1664), a member of the “Cabal” (1667), received
the Garter, and was sent as ambassador to the king of
France in the same year; was impeached by the Commons,
resigned, and was appointed lord chamberlain (1674).
Died July 28, 1685.
Arlon (anc. Orolannum), a frontier town of Belgium,
capital of the province of Luxembourg, 22 miles by rail
W. N. W. of Luxembourg. It has manufactures of Wool-
ARLT—ARMANDI.
249
len stuffs, and an active trade in grain, etc. Pop, in 1866,
5779.
Arit (FERDINAND), a distinguished German oculist, was
born April 18, 1812. He wrote, among other works,
“ Krankheiten des Auges” (3 vols., 1851–56; 4th ed. 1867),
“Pflege der Augen im gesunden und kranken Zustande”
(3d ed. 1865).
Arm (THE HUMAN) consists of two portions—the arm
proper and the fore arm; the former having one bone, the
humerus, which moves freely upon the Scapula, forming the
shoulder-joint; and the latter having two bones, the radius
and ulna, which move upon each other and upon the hu-
merus, forming the elbow-joint. These connect below with
the eight small bones of the carpus or wrist. The hume-
rus is attached to the acromion process of the shoulder-
blade by a ball-and-socket joint, allowing great freedom
of motion; and were it not for the muscles surrounding the
joint, it would be frequently dislocated, but it is supported
by muscles on all sides except at the armpit, into which the
head of the bone is sometimes driven. The roundness of
the shoulder is due to the head of the humerus, so that dis-
placement is generally accompanied by a flattening which
suggests the nature of the accident. On the shoulder is a large
muscle, the deltoid, which lifts the arm from the side. At
the back is the triceps, which extends the fore arm; in front
are two muscles which bend it—the biceps and the brachi-
alis anticus; and on each side below are muscles passing
to the fore arm and hand; while above the great muscle of
the back (latissimus dorsi) and that of the chest (the pec-
toralis major) are inserted on each side of the groove,
wherein lies one of the tendons of the biceps. The motions
of the ulna are flexion and extension, its projections being
received in these movements into corresponding depressions
on the humerus. The rotatory movements of the hand are
principally due to the radius, the head of which rolls upon
the ulna, turning the palm downward (pronation), or up-
ward (supination), these movements being effected by mus-
cles which, taking their fixed points from the humerus and
ulna, turn the radius upon the latter. The elbow-joint is
hinge-like, and has strong lateral ligaments; but it is lia-
ble to dislocations, often accompanied by fracture, especial-
ly in the young. The arm affords interesting illustrations
of some principles of mechanics. The insertion of the
muscles so near to the fulcra, or centres of motion involves
a loss of power; there is, however, a corresponding gain
in velocity at the end of the lever; and for most of the
purposes to which the hand is put agility is of far greater
moment than dead strength. The arm is supplied with
blood by the brachial artery, the continuation of the axil-
lary. The superficial veins collect into large trunks, which
unite at the bend of the elbow, and then pass to the axil-
lary—on the outside by the cephalic vein, on the inside by
the basilic. The nerves pass from the brachial plexus by
the side of the artery, and diverge from it to their ultimate
distribution; the musculo-spiral passing back to appear on
the outside, and giving off the radial and posterior inter-
osseous nerves; the ulnar running behind the internal con-
dyle, for which it has obtained the name of “crazy bone,”
from the electric-like thrill which passes along the arm when
the nerve is struck. The median, as its name implies, keeps
a middle course with the artery. In wounds of the fore
arm the bleeding may be controlled by pressure of the bra-
chial artery, on the inner side of the biceps, against the
bone. Much interest is also furnished by the comparison
of the arm and hand of man (see HAND) with the anterior
extremities of other animals. Essentially the same bones
and other parts are found in the fore limb of a mole, the
fore leg of a horse, the paddle of a whale, and the wing of
a bird, although modified in each to suit the uses of the
animal. In variety of movement and facility of prehen-
sion the arm of man far excels that of any other creature.
REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Arma'da, a post-township of Macomb co., Mich. Pop.
of village, 494; of township, 1721.
Arma'da, The Spanish, often called the “Invinci-
ble Armada,” a great Spanish fleet or armament which was
fitted out by Philip II. for the conquest of England in
1588. It consisted of about 130 vessels, some of which
were of enormous size, carrying in all 2431 guns and
more than 19,000 soldiers. The command of this armada,
was given to the duke of Medina, Sidonia, who was not a
competent naval commander. Lord Howard of Effingham
commanded the English fleet, which was greatly inferior
in size. The armada sailed from Spain about the end of
May, 1588, and in passing through the English Channel
was harassed by the English, who avoided a general en-
gagement. During a night in August, Lord Howard sent
eight fire-ships against the armada, and produced a panic
and great disorder, in consequence of which the English
captured or destroyed about twelve ships early the next
morning.
This defeat induced the Spanish admiral to
abandon the invasion of England, and he resolved to re-
turn to Spain by sailing around the Orkney Islands, the
passage of the English Channel being closed by the enemy.
Many of the Spanish ships were wrecked on their circuitous
voyage, and only fifty-three returned to Spain.
Armadil'Io (i. e. in Spanish, the “little [animal] in
armor”), (the Dasypus of
the naturalists), a genus
of animals of the order
Edentata, natives of
South and Central Amer–
ica. They derive their
# name from a bony armor
*= a Tºº which covers the body,
Armadillos. and consists of polygonal
plates not connected by joints, but united to form solid
bucklers, one over the rump and one over the shoulders.
Between these two bucklers are a number of plates dis-
posed in transverse bands, which are movable and allow
freedom of motion. The head is protected by a similar
buckler, not connected with that of the body. The largest
species is about three feet long, exclusive of the tail.
They have short legs and feet adapted to burrowing in the
ground, in which, when pursued by enemies, they bury
themselves quickly. These animals are nocturnal, and .
feed on insects, carrion, and vegetable food. Their flesh
is often eaten by the natives, but, owing to its rank and
strong flavor, it is not agreeable to European palates. The
Glyptodon is an extinct and gigantic kind of armadillo.
Armaged/don [supposed to be equivalent to Ar-Me-
giddo, “mountain of Megiddo ’’) is applied by some writers
to the elevated table-land of Esdraelon, the great battle-
field of Palestine. r
Ar’magh, an inland county of Ireland, in Ulster, is
bounded on the N. by Lough Neagh, on the E. by Down,
on the S. by Louth, and on the W. by Monaghan and Ty-
rone. Area, 512 square miles. The surface is undulating
or level, except the S. W. part, where Slieve Gullion rises
to the height of 1893 feet. The soil is mostly fertile. The
chief rivers are the Bann, Blackwater, and Callan. Granite,
trap, carboniferous limestone, and lower Silurian rocks un-
derlie the county. Capital, Armagh. Pop. of the county
(exclusive of the city) in 1871, 179,221.
Armagh (Ard-magha, the “high field”), a city of Ire-
land, capital of the above county, is situated on high ground
36 miles by rail S. W. of Belfast. It is built of limestone
quarried in the vicinity, and has a Protestant cathedral of
red sandstone crowning the central eminence, down the sides
of which the streets diverge. Armagh is the archiepiscopal
seat of the primate and metropolitan of all Ireland, both
in the Anglican and Roman Catholic churches. It has a
Roman Catholic cathedral, a large public library, and a lu-
natic asylum. It was the capital of Ireland in the sixth
and seventh centuries, and was renowned as a school of
theology, etc. Pop. in 1871, 8952.
Armagh, a post-village of East Wheatfield township,
Indiana co., Pa. Pop. 177.
Armagh, a township of Mifflin co., Pa. Pop. 1873.
Armagnac, a former name of a region in France, now
comprised in Gers and parts of Haut-Garonne, Tarn-et-
Garonne, and Lot-et-Garonne. Its ancient counts were
feudal to the crown of France until the time of Henry IV.,
who united it in his own person to the crown. In later
times the title of count of Armagnac was an honorary one.
Armagnac, d” (BERNARD), Count, constable of France,
was an ambitious and turbulent nobleman. He became in
1407 the enemy of the duke of Burgundy and the chief of
the faction called “Armagnacs,” who waged a civil war
against the Burgundians. In 1415 he obtained the office
of constable of France, the highest in the nation. Having
excited by his tyranny the odium of the Parisians, he was
killed by the populace June 12, 1418.
Armagnac, d” (JEAN V.), Count, a grandson of Ber-
nard, noticed above, was born about 1420. He was noto-
rious for his crimes, and was excommunicated by the pope.
As a party to the League of Public Good, he revolted
against Louis XI. in 1465. He was put to death by order
of that king Mar. 5, 1473. :
Armand (CHARLEs), MARQUIS DE LA ROUARIE, a French
officer, born in 1756, fought for the U. S. 1777–83. He rose
to the rank of general of brigade. Died in France Jan. 30,
1793. -
Arman/di (PIERRE DAMIEN), an officer of the French
army, was born in Italy in 1778. He served as colonel
under Napoleon I. In 1848–49 he fought for the Italian
patriots against Austria. . He wrote in French an able
* Military History of Elephants” (1843). Died in 1855.



250
. . Arºmansperg/, von (Joseph LUDwig), Count, an able
German statesman, born in Bavaria in 1787. He became a
leader of the liberal party, Bavarian minister of finance in
1826, and minister of foreign affairs in 1828. By the in-
fluence of the Catholic priests he was removed from office
in 1831. From Jan., 1833, to Feb., 1837, he governed
Greece as regent or chief minister under King Otho, who
was a minor. Died in 1853. • .
Armato'li, or Ar’matoles, a body of Greek militia
organized about 1500 A. D., or earlier. They lived and
operated in mountainous regions that were difficult of ac-
cess, and were very tenacious of their independence. They
were employed by the Turkish sultan to protect the fertile
plains from the raids of the klephts (mountain-robbers) of
Thessaly. Northern Greece was divided into about sixteen
districts, each of which was placed under the supervision
of an armatol. In the war of Greek independence the ar-
matoles fought against the Turks, and distinguished them-
selves by daring exploits.
Ar’mature [from the Lat. armatu'ra, “armor”], a
piece of soft iron which is placed in contact with the poles
of an artificial magnet to preserve its magnetic power. If
a magnet remains long idle; having no object on which to
exert its attractive force, it loses part of its strength. The
armature when placed against the poles of a magnet be-
comes itself a magnet, the north pole of which is in contact
with the south pole of the horseshoe magnet. A larger
weight can be suspended from the armature, thus placed,
than the poles of the other magnet can sustain without an
armature.
Armeſnia [Turk. Erminee'yeh), an important country
of Western Asia which has now no political existence, but
is historically very interesting as the original seat of an
ancient civilized people (Armenians), who have preserved
their nationality to the present time. Armenia, the bound-
aries of which varied in different periods, was situated be-
tween Asia Minor and the Caspian Sea. It was mostly in-
cluded between lat. 37° and 42° N., and between lon. 36°
and 49° E. It was divided into Armenia Major and
Armenia Minor, the former of which was bounded on the
N. E. by the river Kur, on the E. by the Caspian Sea, and
on the W. partly by the Euphrates. The Lesser Armenia
was situated on the western side of the other. This country
is an elevated table-land, enclosed on several sides by the
ranges of Taurus and Anti-Taurus, and partly occupied by
other mountains, the highest of which is the volcanic peak
of Ararat. It is drained by the Euphrates and Tigris,
which rise within its limits, and traversed by the river
Aras (Araxes). Among its physical features are the large
lakes of Van and Sevan, the former of which is saline. It
abounds in romantic mountain-scenery. The chief towns
of ancient Armenia were Artaxata, Anni, and Tigrano-
certa. The Armenians call themselves Haiks, or Haikans,
a name derived from Haik or Haig, represented as the first
king of Armenia, and a descendant of Japhet. Among the
most famous of their ancient kings was Dikran or Tigranes,
who lived about 550 B.C., and was a friend and ally of
Cyrus the Great. The kingdom was conquered by Alex-
ander the Great in 325 B.C., and recovered its independ-
ence about 190 B.C. It was afterwards ruled by the Par-
thian Arsacidae, among whom was Tigranes the Great, a
son-in-law of Mithridates, king of Pontus. He waged war
against the Romans, and was defeated about 63 B.C. The
Armenians adopted the Christian religion about 250 A.D.,
and still adhere to that faith. Since the Christian era this
country has been the subject and scene of many bloody
contests between the Romans, Persians, Byzantine Greeks,
Săracens, Turks, etc., who have successively been masters
of it. It is now divided between Russia, Persia, and Tur-
key. The scourge of war and persecution for religious
opinions drove great numbers of the Armenians from their
native land, and they are now dispersed in various parts
of Europe and Asia Minor. The number of Armenians is
estimated at from 2,500,000 to 3,000,000, of whom about
1,000,000 live in Armenia. The climate of Armenia is very
cold in the highlands, while the summer heat of the valleys
is intense. Here is a variety of soils, some of which in the
Valleys produce good crops of cottom, rice, tobacco, and
grapes. Grazing and cattle-breeding are more extensively
followed than agriculture. Among its mineral resources
are copper, iron, lead, alum, and salt. The chief modern
towns. are Erivan, Erzroom, and Van. The Armenians
(who are now only a small minority of the population) are
physically a fine variety of the Indo-European race. They
have excellent talents for business, and are especially skil-
ful in banking and mercantile pursuits. (See St.-MARTIN,
“Mémoire historique et géographique sur l'Arménie,” 1818;
CURzoN, “Armenia,” 1854; STRECKER, “Beiträge zur Geo.
graphie von Hoch-Armenien,” 1869.) -
- * A. J. ScHEM.
*
Armenia, a township of Bradford co., Pa. Pop. 391.
Armenia, a post-township of Juneau co., Wis. P. 254.
Armenian Church. Christianity is said to have been
introduced into Armenia by the apostle Thaddaeus, and is
admitted to have become, through the influence of Gregory
the Illuminator, the established religion of the state in 289.
Political troubles prevented the Armenian Church from tak-
ing part in the Council at Chalcedon (451). Hence a misun-
derstanding, which led the Armenians to set up a separate
communion in 491, without ever having become really
monophysitic. Among their greatest divines was Nerses
of Klah (about 1150), whose works have been repeatedly
published. The head of the Armenian Church, called
catholicos, resides near Erivan, the capital of Russian
Armenia, to which place every Armenian is required to
make a pilgrimage once in his life. The Armenians believe
in the worship of Saints, but not in purgatory, and are
especially rigid in the observance of fasts. A small portion
of the Armenians in Turkey, Persia, Austria, and Russia
have recognized the supremacy of the pope, and are called
United Armenians. Of late, a split has taken place among
the United Armenians of Turkey, as the majority of their
bishops opposed the changes which the pope made in the
ancient constitution of their Church. They were on that
account excommunicated by the pope, and in 1872 entered
into official communication with the Old Catholics of Ger-
many. In 1830 a Protestant mission among the Armenians
was organized by the American Board of Commissioners
of Foreign Missions. The mission was very successful, and
in 1872 more than 3000 Armenians were members of the
Protestant churches. (See the “Life and Times of S. Gre-
gory the Illuminator,” by Rev. S. C. MALAN, London, 1868;
HAMACHOD, “ Chronological Succession of Armenian Patri-
archs,” 1865.) REVISED BY R. D. HITCHCOCK.
Armenian Language and Literature. The
Armenian language is a branch of the Indo-European
stock, and, according to Fr. Müller, belongs to the Iranian
group. The old Armenian, the language of the classic lit-
erature, is now extinct, and has, been supplanted not only
as conversational language, but even in literature, by the
modern Armenian, which is mixed with many Turkish ele-
ments, and is divided into four principal dialects. The
Armenian language has its own alphabet, which was intro-
duced by Miesrob in 406, and contains thirty-six letters.
Grammars of the Armenian language have been published
by Petermann (1837; an abridgment of it in 1841) and
Lauer (1869); dictionaries by Aucher (1821; 2 vols., Ar-
menian and English) and Tchaktchak (1837, Armenian and
Italian).
Except a few old songs or ballads, no remains of the lit-
erature of Armenia exist of a date earlier than the intro-
duction of Christianity into that country. After this event,
however, the Greek language and literature became favorite
objects of study, and the works of many Greek authors
were translated into Armenian. The most flourishing pe-
riod of Armenian literature extended from the fourth to the
fourteenth century. The Armenian Bible, translated from
the Septuagint version by Miesrob and his scholars (411
A.D.), is a model of classic style. The theological writers
and chroniclers of this era are considered, both in adhe-
rence to facts and good taste, superior to the general order
of Oriental historians. (See NEUMANN, “Gesch. der armen.
Literatur,” 1836.)
Armentières, a town of France, in the department of
Nord, on the river Lys, 12 miles by rail N. W. of Lille. It
has manufactures of cotton, linen, lace, and sailcloth. Pop.
in 1866, 15,579.
Arm'felt (GUSTAF MAURITZ), oa Swedish general and
courtier, born in the province of Abo in 1757. He became
a favorite of Gustavus III., who, after he was mortally
wounded by an assassin in Mar., 1792, appointed Armfelt
governor of Stockholm. This appointment was nullified
by the duke of Sudermania, who was the enemy of Arm-
felt, and acted as regent during the minority of Gustavus
IV. The regent sent him on a mission to Naples, and
during his absence charged him with treason, for which
he was sentenced to death. When Gustavus IV. began to
reign in 1799 he restored Armfelt to honor and office. He
became governor-general of Finland in 1805, and com-
manded the army in a war against Norway in 1808. Hav-
ing entered the service of Russia in 1810, he obtained
several high civil offices. Died in 1814. -
Armi’da, the name of a beautiful sorceress in Tasso's
poem of “Jerusalem Delivered.”. She attempted to seduce
Rinaldo and other crusaders. The former was fascinated
for a time, but finally returned to the war against the infi-
dels, and converted Armida to Christianity.
Ar’millary [from the Lat. armil’la, a “bracelet” or
“large ring”] Sphere, an ancient and obsolete astronom-
ical machine, consisted of an assemblage of rings or circles
ARMINIUS, ARMINIANISM.
251
fixed together, so as to represent the principal circles of
the celestial sphere in their proper relative positions.
These rings were movable round the polar axis within a
meridian and horizon, as in the celestial globe. The ob-
servations of Hipparchus were made by means of the
armillary sphere.
Arminius, Arminianism. The name of Arminius
in his native language was JACOBUS HERMANs, identical
with Herman, the name of the hero of Germany, who de-
stroyed the Roman legions under Varus.
name was transformed into Arminius by Tacitus and other
Roman writers, so, in accordance with the custom of the
age when Latin was the language of current literature,
this name was Latinized, and has come down in modern
English as JAMES ARMINIUs. He was born in 1560 at
Oudewater (“old water”), a small town in the Southern
Netherlands. He lost his father in early childhood, and
his mother being left in straitened circumstances, the
promising intellect of the boy so attracted the attention of
patrons that he was taken to school at Marburg. When
fifteen years of age his native town, Oudewater, was taken
by the Spaniards, and his mother, brother, and sister were
all massacred, leaving him the sole survivor of his family.
He was sent by his patrons to the new.university at Ley-
den, where he remained six years. Such was his proficien-.
cy that the city of Amsterdam adopted him as her vesterling
or foster-child, to be educated at the public expense, being
bound by a written obligation to be at the command of the
city through life. He studied at Geneva, under Beza, as
well as at Basle under Gryneas. At the latter place he was
offered a doctorate, but declined the honor on account of his
youth. By Beza, he was commended to Amsterdam in high
terms. He then went to Italy to become accomplished in
philosophy under Zarabella, and having visited Rome and
the other principal cities, returned to Amsterdam, where
he was installed minister at the age of twenty-eight.
Arminius's ministry in Amsterdam, of fourteen years’ du-
ration, forms the second period of his life. His learning
and eloquence were rapidly rendering him one of the lead-
ing theologians and preachers of his age. He was of mid-
dling size, had dark, piercing eyes, and voice light but clear,
and possessing a winning mellowness. His manners were
magnetic, and he had the power of fastening firm friends.
He was condescending to the lowly and a sympathizing .
guide to the religious inquirer. At the same time he was
an independent seeker and follower of truth. -
In 1585, the extreme predestinarianism prevalent in the
Netherlands had been for ten years so effectively attacked
by Richard Coornhert, an eminent patriotic and acute lay-
man of Amsterdam, that Arminius was invited by the city
to refute him. . In a debate at Delft between Coornhert
and two high Calvinistic clergymen, the latter were so hard
pressed that they yielded, and took the lower or sublapsa-
rian ground, and published a pamphlet against the higher
view. The extreme Calvinists called upon Martin Lydius,
professor of theology in Friesland, to refute them, but he
handed over the task to Arminius, who had thus a double
request on his hands. He bravely undertook the task, but
was soon convinced of the untenableness of either the higher
or lower predestination. At the expense of an ignominious
failure in even attacking Coornhert, he resolved to pursue
the light of honest conviction. Avoiding the entire subject
in public, he prosecuted his investigations with earnest
study. Yet, in lecturing on Romans vii., having given the
non-Calvinistic interpretation, he found himself generally
assailed by the high Calvinists as a Pelagian and Socinian.
Eſe was arraigned before the ecclesiastical courts, where he
successfully defended himself on the ground that, though
adverse to the prevalent opinions, his interpretation con-
tradicted nothing in the standards—namely, the Belgic
Being questioned as to .
Confession and the Catechism.
predestination, he declined to answer, as no fact was al-
leged against him. * ,
In prosecuting his inquiries he determined to consult
privately the best theologians of the day. He commenced
a confidential correspondence with Prof. Francis Junius of
the University of Leyden, the most eminent of the Dutch
theologians. He was delighted to find how far Junius co-
incided with him, but when he addressed to Junius the
arguments for still more advanced views, the professor kept
the letter by him unanswered for six years, when he died.
The friends of Arminius believed that this silence arose
from the fact that Junius found more than he could answer
or was willing to admit. Unfortunately, this correspond-
ence was inadvertently exposed by Junius to discovery, and
was used to the disadvantage of Arminius. Arminius also,
having received a treatise in favor of predestination by
Professor Perkins of Cambridge, prepared an epistle to
him, but was prevented by Perkins's death from sending it.
His letters both to Junius and Perkins are embodied in his
published works, and, whatever may be thought of the
And as this
validity of the argument, no one will deny that in can-
dor, courtesy, and Christian dignity they are hardly to be
surpassed. - :
On the death of Junius the curators of the University of
Leyden looked to Arminius as his successor. The reluc-
tant consent of Amsterdam being at length gained, Armin-
ius assented. But the predestinarians, led by Gomarus,
senior professor of theology at Leyden, opposed his election.
After a long series of strifes, Arminius offered to meet Go-
marus and satisfy his objections. The meeting took place,
and Gomarus, admitting that he had judged Arminius by
hearsay, after Arminius had fully declared his entire op-
position to Pelagianism and Socinianism, fully renounced
his objections. So far as predestination was concerned,
each professor was to deliver his own sentiments with mod-
eration, and all collision with the other was to be avoided;
and Arminius was thereupon elected. ' - -
The six years of his Leyden professorship closing with
his death are the most important yet troublous period of
his career. . The terms of peace were broken within the
first year by Gomarus, who delivered a violent public ha-
rangue on predestination in terms of insult to Arminius,
who was personally present; to which the latter prepared
a refutation clothed in terms of personal respect towards
his opponent. Gomarus afterwards confessed that he could
easily live at peace with Arminius but for the clergy and
churches, who were intensely hostile to his liberal doctrines.
Their Belgic Confession, Calvinistic as it was, was sacred
in their hearts as being the banner under which they had
fought the battle of civil and religious liberty against Spain.
and popery; and they now, alas! were making it the in-
strument of religious intolerance. Arminius was held as
invalidating that Confession, and so was everywhere tra–
duced by the clergy as a papist, a Pelagian, and a Coorn-
herter. Yet, really, the doctrines he taught were essen-
tially the doctrines of Saint Chrysostom, Melanchthon, Jer-
emy Taylor, and John Wesley. In regard to the Confession,
he ever treated it with reverence, and only claimed the
right of that same liberality of interpretation which Lu–
therans exercised with the Augsburg Confession—a liberal-
ity similar to that which the English clergy now exercise
in regard to the seventeenth of their Thirty-nine Articles.
A voluntary Church may, like any other voluntary associ-
ation, be, if it pleases, stringent in its interpretations, but
a state Church, which strains all to a tight interpretation
of a very specific creed under pain of state disabilities,
runs into religious despotism. This was therefore a gen-
uine contest for religious liberty. Arminius was proscribed
by the clergy, harassed by irresponsible deputations, and
his students were subjected to persecutions and exclusions
from the ministry. The more intelligent laity, including
the magistracy, and especially the chief magistrate, Olden
Barnevelt, were favorable to Arminius, who at length ap-
pealed to the national legislature (called the States General)
for protection. That body appointed a committee or coun-
cil, who, having heard both Gomarus and Arminius in
full, reported that the latter taught nothing but what could
be tolerated. Before the States General themselves. Ar-
minius delivered a full oration, expounding his entire
views, which is published in the American edition of his
works. The clergy demanded the appointment of a na-
tional synod, consisting purely of ecclesiastics, but the
States General, well knowing what would be the fate of
Arminius in their hands, refused. Under the constant
pressure of these years of persecution the gentle spirit of
Arminius at length sunk. He was taken from the bloody
times that followed the Synod of Dort. . His nervous sys-
tem was prostrated, and, attended by his faithful pupil,
the afterwards celebrated Episcopius, he died in the faith
he had maintained, Oct. 19, 1609, a martyr to his views of
truth. - -
ARMINIANISM, as the customary antithesis to Calvinism,
is, within the limits of the evangelical doctrines; the theolº
ogy that tends to freedom in opposition to the theology of
necessity or absolutism. This contrast rises into thought
among all nations that attain to reflection and philosophy.
So in Greek and Roman thinking, Stoicism and all mate-
rialistic atheism held that mind, will, is subject to just as
fixed laws in its volitions as physical events are in their
successions. When, however, men like Plato and Cicero
rose to a more transcendent sense of moral responsibility,
especially of eternal responsibility, they came to say: like
Cicero, “Those who maintain an eternal series of CallSeS
despoil the mind of man of free-will, and bind it in the ne-
cessity of fate.” - * *
Theistic fatalism, or Predestination, consists in the pre-
determination of the Divine Will, which, determining alike
the volitions of the will and the succession of physical
events, reduces both to a like unfreedom; but those whº
hold Predestination very uniformly hold also to volitional
necessity, or the subjection of will in its action to the eon-

252
ARMINIANISM.
trol of strongest motive force. And as the Divine Will is
held subject to the same law, so Necessity, as master of
God, man, and the universe, becomes a universal and ab-
solute Fate. This doctrine, installed by Saint Augustine,
and still more absolutely by John Calvin, in Christian
theology, is from them called Augustinianism, or more
usually Calvinism. -
In opposition to this theology, Arminianism maintains
that in order to true responsibility, guilt, penalty, especially
eternal penalty, there must be in the agent a free-will ; and
in a true responsible free-will the freedom must consist in
the power, even in the same circumstances and under the
same motives, of choosing either way. No man can justly be
eternally damned, according to Arminianism, for a choice or
action which he cannot help. If fixed by Divine decree or
volitional necessity to the particular act, he cannot be held
responsible or justly punished. In all such statements,
however, it is presupposed, in order to a just responsibility,
that the agent has not responsibly abdicated or destroyed
his own power. No agent can plead in bar of responsibil-
ity any incapacity which he has freely and wilfully brought
upon himself. It is also to be admitted that there may be
suffering which is not penalty—finite sufferings for which
there are compensations, and for which every one would
take his chance for the sake of life. But eternal suffering,
for which there is no compensation, inflicted as a judicial
penalty on the basis of justice, can be justly inflicted only
for avoidable sin. If Divine decree or volitional necessity
determine the act, it is irresponsible, and judicial penalty
is unjust. . -,
Arminianism also holds that none but the person who
freely commits the sin can be guilty of that sin. One person
cannot be guilty of another person’s sin. A tempter may be
guilty of tempting another to sin, but then one is guilty
of the sin, and the other of solely the sin of temptation.
There can thus be no vicarious guilt; and as punishment,
taken strictly, can be only infliction for guilt upon the guilty,
there can literally and strictly be no vicarious punishment.
If innocent Damon die for Pythias guilty of murder, Damon
is not guilty because he takes Pythias's place in dying,
and his death is not to him a punishment, but a suffering,
which is a substitute for another man’s punishment. The
doer of sin is solely the sinner, the guilty, or the punished.
These preliminary statements will elucidate the issues be-
tween Calvinism and Arminianism on the following points:
1. Foreordination.—Calvinism affirms that God does un-
changeably and eternally foreordain whatsoever comes to
pass. That is, God from all etermity predetermines not
only all physical events, but all the volitions of responsible
agents. To this Arminianism objects that the predetermi-
nation of the agent's volitions destroys the freedom of his
will ; that it makes God the responsible predeterminer and
willer of sin; and that it makes every sinner to say that
his sin accords with the Divine Will, and therefore, so far
as himself is concerned, is right. It makes God first de-
cree the sin, and then punish the sinner for the sin decreed.
The Arminian theory is this: God does from all eternity
predetermine the laws of nature and the succession of
physical and necessary events; but as to free moral agents,
God, knowing all possible futurities, does choose that plan
of his own conduct which, in view of what each agent will
ultimately in freedom do, will bring out the best results.
His system is a system of his own actions. And God’s
predeterminations of his own acts are so far contingent as
they are based on his prerecognition of what the agent will
freely do; yet as his omniscience knows the future with per-
feet accuracy, so he will never be deceived nor frustrated in
his plans and providences.
Some Arminians deny God’s foreknowledge, on the ground
of the intrinsic impossibility of a future contingency being
foreknown. As the performance of a contradictory act is
impossible, intrinsically, even to Omnipotence, so, say they,
the knowability of a future contingency, being an essential
contradiction, is impossible even to Omniscience. A con-
tradiction is a nothing; and it is very unnecessary to say
in behalf of God's omnipotence that he can do all things,
and all nothings too. So it is equally absurd to say in
behalf of his omniscience that he knows all things, and all
nothings too. The exclusion of contradictions does not
limit God’s omnipotence or omniscience, but defines it.
Arminians do not condemn this reasoning, but generally
hold that their theory is maintainable against Calvinism on
the assumption of foreknowledge. They deny, as against
the Calvinist, that foreknowledge has any influence upon
the future of the act, as predetermination has. Predeter-
mination ſizes the act—foreknowledge is fiaced by the act.
In foreordination God determines the act as he pleases;
in foreknowledge the agent fixes the prescience as he
pleases. In the former case God is alone responsible for
the creature’s act; in the latter case God holds the creature
responsible, and a just divine government becomes possible.
Yet most Arminians probably would say, with the eminent
philosopher Dr. Henry More, If the divine foreknowledge
of the volitions of a free agent contradicts the freedom,
then the freedom, and not the foreknowledge, is to be be-
lieved. - -
2. Divine Sovereignty.—Calvinism affirms that if man is
free God is not a sovereign. Just so far as man is free to
will either way, God’s power is limited. Arminians reply
that if man is not free, God is not a sovereign, but sinks
to a mere mechanist. If man’s will is as fixed as the
physical machinery of the universe, then all is machinery
and not a government, and God is a machinist and not a
ruler. The higher man’s freedom of will is exalted above
mechanism, so much higher is God elevated as a sovereign.
Here, according to Arminians, Calvinism degrades and
destroys God’s sovereignty, and Arminianism exalts it; that
the freedom of man no more limits God’s power than do
the laws of nature by him established; that in both cases,
equally, there is simply a self-limitation by God of the
eacercise of his power; that Arminianism holds to the
absoluteness of God’s omnipotence just as truly as Calvin-
ism, and to the grandeur of his sovereignty even more
exaltedly.
3. Imputation of Adam’s Sin.—Calvinism affirms that
Adam’s posterity is truly guilty of Adam's sin, so as to be
eternally and justly punishable therefor without a remedy.
As guilty of this sin, God might have the whole race born
into existence under a curse, without the power or means
of deliverance, and consigned to eternal punishment.
Upon this Arminians look as a dogma, violative of the
fundamental principles of eternal justice. They deny that
guilt and literal punishment can, in the nature of things,
be thus transferred. Their theory is, that upon Adam’s
sin a Saviour was forthwith interposed for the race as a
previous condition to the allowance of the propagation
of the race by Adam, and a provision for inherited dis-
advantages. Had not a Redeemer been provided, mankind,
after Adam, would not have been born. The race inherits
the nature of fallen Adam, not by being held guilty of his
sin, but by the law of natural descent, just as all posterity
inherit the species-qualities, physical, mental, and moral,
of the progenitor. Before his fall the presence of the Holy
Spirit with Adam in fulness supernaturally empowered him
to perfect holiness—the tree of life imparted to him a su-
pernatural immortality. Separated from both these, he
sunk into a mere nature, subject to appetite and Satan.
The race in Adam, without redemption, is totally incapable
of salvation; yet under Christ it is placed upon a new re-
demptive probation, is empowered by the quickening spirit
given to all, and through Christ may, by the exercise of
free agency, attain eternal life.
4. Reprobation.—Of the whole mass of mankind thus in-
volved in guilt and punishment for sin they never actually
committed, Calvinism affirms that God has left a large
share “passed by ”—that is, without adequate means of
recovery, and with no intention to recover them—and this
from the “good pleasure of his will” and for a display of his
“glorious justice.” The other portion of mankind God does,
from “mere good pleasure,” without any superior preferabil-
ity in them, “elect” or choose, and confers upon them regenera-
tion and eternal life,” all to the praise of his glorious grace.”
Arminians pronounce such a proceeding arbitrary, and fail
to see in it either “justice” or “glorious grace.” The repro-
bation seems to them to be injustice, and the “grace,” with
such an accompaniment, unworthy the acceptance of honor-
able free agents. Election and reprobation, as Arminian-
ism holds them, are conditioned upon the conduct and vol-
untary character of the subjects. All, submitting to God
and righteousness, by repentance of sin and true self-con-
secrating faith, do meet the conditions of that election; all
who persist in sin present the qualities upon which repro-
bation depends. And as this preference for the obedient
and holy, and rejection of the disobedient and unholy, lies
in the very nature of God, so this election and reprobation
are from before the foundations of the world.
5. Philosophical or Volitional Necessity.—Calvinism main-
tains the doctrine that all volitions are determined and
fixed by the force of strongest motive, just as the strokes
of a clock-hammer are fixed and determined by the strong-
est force. The will can no more choose otherwise in a given
case than the clock-hammer can strike otherwise. There
is no “power of contrary choice.” Calvinism often speaks,
indeed, of “free agents,” “free-will,” “self-determining
power,” and “will's choosing by its own power;” but bring
it to analysis, and it will always, say the Arminians, be
found that the freedom is the same as that of the clock-
hammer—the freedom to strike as it does, and no otherwise.
Arminianism affirms that if the agent has no power to will
otherwise than motive-force determines, any more than a
clock-hammer can strike otherwise, then there is no justice
in requiring a different volition any more than a different
Ş

ARMINIANISM.
253
clock-stroke. It would be requiring an impossibility. And
to punish an agent for not performing an impossibility is
injustice, and to punish him eternally, an infinite injustice.
Arminianism charges, therefore, that Calvinism destroys
all just punishment, and so all free volition and all divine
government. -
6. Infant Damnation.—Holding that the race is truly
guilty, and judicially condemnable to endless torment for
Adam's sin, Calvinism necessarily maintains, according to
Arminians, that it is just for God to condemn all infants
to eternal punishment, even those who have never performed
any moral act of their own. This was held by Augustine,
and wherever Calvinism has spread this has been a part of
the doctrine, more or less éxplicitly taught. Earlier Cal-
vinists maintained against the Arminians that there is act-
ual reprobation—that is, a real sending to hell—as well
as particular election, of infants. Arminianism, denying
that the race is judicially guilty, or justly damnable for
Adam’s sins, affirms the salvation of all infants. The in-
dividual man as born does, indeed, irresponsibly possess
within his constitution that nature which will, amid the
temptations of life, commence to sin when it obtains its
full-grown strength. He is not, like the unborn Christ,
“that holy thing.” There is, therefore, a repugnance which
God and all holy beings have towards him by contrariety
of nature, and an irresponsible unfitness for heaven and
holy association. If born immortal, with such a nature un-
changeable, he must be for ever unholy, and for ever natur-
ally unhappy under the divine repugnance. Under such
conditions Divine Justice would not permit the race, after
the fall, to be born. . But at once the future Incarnate Re-
deemer interposes, restores the divine complacency, and
places the race upon a new probation. Man is thereby
born in a “state of initial salvation,” as Fletcher of Made-
ly called it, and the means of final salvation are amply
placed within the reach of his free choice.
7. Pagan Damnation.—On its own principle, that power
to perform is not necessary in order to obligation to perform,
Calvinism easily maintains that pagans, who never heard
of Christ, aré rightly damned for want of faith in Christ.
They may be damned for original sin, and for their own
sin, and for unbelief in Christ, without any Saviour. Ar-
minianism, on the contrary, maintains that there doubtless
are many in pagan lands saved even by the unknown Re-
deemer. They, not having the law, are a law unto them-
selves. Nay, they may have the spirit of faith, so that
were Christ truly presented he would be truly accepted.
They may have faith in that of which Christ is the embodi-
ment, like the ancient worthies enumerated in Heb. xi.
There may not be as great differences in the chances for
salvation in different lands as Calvinism assumes. Where
little is given, much is not required. Arminianism holds
that no one of the human race is damned who has not had
full chance for salvation, Missions are none the less import-
ant in order to hasten the day when all shall be converted.
If that millennial age shall come, and be of long duration,
Arminianism hopes that the great majority of the entire
race of all ages may be finally saved.
8. Doctrines of Grace.—Calvinism maintains that the death
of Christ is an expiation for man’s sin: first, for the guilt
of men for Adam’s sin, so that it is possible for God to for-
give and save; and second, for actual sin—that thereby
the influence of the Spirit restores the lapsed moral powers,
regenerates and saves the man. But these saving benefits
are reserved for the elect only. Arminianism, claiming a
far richer doctrine of grace, extends it to the very founda-
tions of the existence of Adam’s posterity. Grace under-
lies our very nature and life. We are born and live because
Christ became incarnate and died for us. All the institutes
of salvation—the chance of probation, the Spirit, the
Word, the pardon, the regeneration, the resurrection, and
the life etermal—are through him. And Arminianism,
against Calvinism, proclaims that these are for ALL. Christ
died for all alike : for no one man more than for any other
man, and sufficient grace and opportunity for salvation is
given to every man. -
Calvinism maintains the irresistibility of grace; or, more
strongly still, that grace is absolute, like the act of crea-
tion, which is called irresistible with a sort of impropriety
from the fact that resistance in that connection is truly un-
thinkable. Against this Arminians reply that will, aided
by prevenient grace, is free even in accepting pardoning
grace; that though this acceptance is no more meritorious
than a beggar's acceptance of an offered fortune, yet it is
accepted freely and with full power of rejection, and is
none the less grace for that.
9. Justifying and Saving Faith.-Faith, according to Cal-
vinism, is an acceptance of Christ wrought absolutely, as
an act of creation in the man, whereby it is as impossible
for him not savingly to believe as it is for a world to be
not created or an infant to be not born. And as this faith
is resistlessly fastened in the man, so it is resistlessly kept
there, and the man necessarily perseveres to the end. Faith,
according to Arminianism, is, as a power, indeed the gift
of God, but as an act it is the free, avoidable, yet really
performed act of the intellect, heart, and will, by which the
man surrenders himself to Christ and all holiness for time
and eternity. In consequence of this act, and not for its
meritorious value or its any way compensating for or earn-
ing salvation, it is accepted for righteousness, and the man
himself is accepted, pardoned, and Sayed. And as this
faith is free and rejectable in its beginning, so through life
it continues. The Christian is as obliged, through the
grace of God assisting, to freely retain it as first freely to
exercise it. It is of the very essence of his probationary
freedom that he is as able to renounce his faith and apos-
tatize as to reject it at first.
10. Eactent of the Atonement and Offers of Salvation.—
Earlier Calvinism maintained that Christ died for the elect
alone; later Calvinism affirms that he died for one and all,
and so offers salvation to all on condition of faith. But Ar-
minianism asks, With what consistency can the atonement
be said to be for all when, by the eternal decree of God, it is
foreordained that a large part of mankind shall be excluded
from its benefits 2 How also can it be for all when none
can accept it but by efficacious grace, and that grace is
arbitrarily withheld from a large part 2 How can it be for
all when God has so fastened the will of a large part of
mankind, by counter motive-force, that they are unable to
accept it? The same arguments show the impossibility of
a rightful offer of salvation to all, either by God or by the
Calvinistic pulpit. How can salvation be rationally offered
to those whom God by an eternal decree has excluded from
salvation ? What right to exhort the very men to repent
whom God determines, by volitional necessity, not to re-
pent 2 What right to exhort men to do otherwise than
God has willed, decreed, and foreordained they shall do?
If God has decreed a thing, is not that thing right? What
an awful sinner is the preacher who stands up to oppose
and defeat God’s decrees | If a man is to be damned for
fulfilling God’s decrees, ought not that imaginary God to
be, a fortiori, damned for making such decrees 2 If a man
does as God decrees, ought he not to be by God approved
and saved ?' And since all men do as God decrees, wills,
and determines, they shall do, ought not all men to be
saved, so that the true theory should be Universalism 2
How can grace be offered to the man whom God had de-
creed never to have grace? or faith be preached to those to
whom God has made faith impossible 2 or conditions pro-
posed to those from whom God withholds the power of per-
forming conditions? Hence, the Arminian affirms that in
all public offers of a free or conditional salvation-to all the
Calvinistic pulpit contradicts its own creed.
11. Such is an outline of the usual argument on the sub-
ject; and it is not difficult to determine on which side the
logic predominates. If we consider the question from its more
abstract, more metaphysical premises, the Arminian theory
has equally the advantage. Most of the difficulties of this
and all similar inquiries doubtless arise from the limita-
tions of our faculties, or rather of our language. We un-
warrantably attribute to the Infinite Mind the modes of
thought which are peculiar to our finite intellects. The
most subtle perplexity of this controversy grows out of the
idea of time—its past, present, and future—and the attempt
to reconcile foreknowledge with contingency or free-will.
But what is time 2. It is no entity, no substance, like iron,
air, oxygen. It is, as Kant teaches, subjective, not objec-
tive. It is but a habit of the mind, an association of thought,
suggested, as Locke says, by the succession of ideas, and
arising from the finite limitations of our faculties. We
cannot, therefore, logically transfer to the Infinite Mind
the temporal distinctions of past, present, and future. A
‘succession of ideas, by which alone the conception of time
is possible, necessarily implies a limitation which cannot
be predicated of the Absolute Mind. Nor is it necessary
for us to assume that all duration is an eternal now with
God; for here, again, we use a distinction of time. We
can rightly assume but three facts: first, that, owing to
limitations of our faculties, and especially of language, we
have habitudes of thought which do not belong to the In-
finite Mind, and from which arise our baffling difficulties
in the investigation of themes like the present. Secondly,
that, however incomprehensible, to us, may be the nature
and action of the Divine Mind, yet the obvious facts of the
conscious freedom of man’s will and his moral responsi-
bility—facts which are the indisputable basis of laws and
rights, of reward and penalty, of virtue and society—
must remain incontestable, and be, in some way, perfectly
reconcilable with the divine government. They are facts
within the comprehension of our finite faculties, they are
positive and certain, and therefore the mysterious, the un-
known, cannot be incompatible with them. With better
254. \
ARMINIANISM.
faculties, and especially with a better terminology, the
chief difficulties of this controversy may vanish, and it may
be seen that we have been contending only about words, and
confounded in a mere logomachy. Hence, as Buckle (His-
tory of Civilization, i. 1) says, “Among more advanced
thinkers there is a growing opinion that both doctrines
(predestination and free-will) are wrong, or, at all events,
that we have no sufficient evidence of their truth.”
12. Analogy of Temporal Superiorities.—Calvinism argues
that in this world God distributes advantages, such as
wealth, rank, beauty, vigor, and intellect, not according to
desert, but purely as a sovereign. Hence, in the same way
he may bestow on one faith and eternal life, and on others
unbelief and eternal death. Arminianism replies that this
very analogy between the temporal and the etermal bestow-
ment proves the precise reverse. In this probationary
world advantages are professedly distributed without regard
to judicial rectitude. Men are not rewarded according to
their works or voluntary character. The wicked are set on
high, and Satan is this world’s god. And the very differ-
ence between the dispensation of the world and that of the
kingdom of God is, that in the latter blessedness is placed
at every man’s choice, and the result is judicially according
to voluntary faith and works. The Bible nowhere places
beauty' or intellect at our own choice, but it does declare
faith, repentance, and eternal life to be in our own power,
and holds us responsible for not exerting the power.
Basis of Morality.—Calvinism claims that the very se-
verity of its system, its deep view of human guilt and ne-
cessary damnability by birth and nature, its entire subjec-
tion to divine absolutism irrespective of human ideas of
justice, tend to produce a profound piety. Arminianism
replies that this is missing the true ideal of piety. It seems
to be basing Christian morality on fundamental immorality.
For God to will and predetermine the sin, and then damn
the sinner—for him to impute guilt to the innocent, and so
eternally damn the innocent as guilty—are procedures that
appear fundamentally unrighteous, so far as the deepest
intuitions of our nature can decide. Thus, first to make
God in the facts intrinsically and absolutely bad, and then
require us to ascribe holiness and goodness to his character
and conduct, perverts the moral sense. It is to make him
what we are in duty bound to hate, and then require us to
love and adore him. Such adoration, secured by the abdi-
cation not only of the reason, but of the moral sense, and
the prostration of the soul to pure, naked absolutism, natu-
rally results in the sombre piety of fear; just as children
are frightened into a factitious goodness by images of terror.
While the piety of Jesus is serene, firm, winning, and
gently yet powerfully subduing, the piety of absolutism
tends to be stern and Judaic-like. While thus apparently
defective at the roots, it does nevertheless often present an
objective character of rectitude, a practical hardihood and
aggressive energy in the cause of morality and regulated
freedom. Arminianism, in order to a true and rational
piety, sees the ideal of rectitude in the divine character and
conduct, not by mere ascriptions contradicted by facts, but
both in the facts and the ascriptions. A harmony of facts
and intuitive reason is produced, love to the Divine Being
becomes a rational sentiment, and a piety cheerful, hopeful,
merciful, and gladly obedient becomes realized.
Civil and Religious Liberty.—As the freedom of the in-
dividual, and his own intransferable responsibility for his
own voluntary character and conduct, are fundamental
principles with Arminianism, it is in its own nature adverse
to civil or religious despotism. It has been said that when
Romanism persecutes, it accords with its fundamental
principle, the denial of right of private judgment, while
when Protestantism persecutes, it contradicts itself. So
when Calvinism persecutes, it obeys an intrinsic absolutism,
while if Arminianism persecutes, it contradicts its own
freedom and individualism. Yet position has often in his-
tory produced in all these parties palpable violations of,
and discordances with, their principle. Romanists often
become by position asserters of ultra-democracy, and Prot-
estants of absolute despotism. And so Calvinism has, his-
torically, been by position the advocate for revolution, and
Arminianism the asserter of authority. In fact, as Ar-
minianism has been, as above shown, the ruling doctrine
of the Church, and Calvinism an insurgent specialty, so the
historical position of the first has been favorable to the as-
sertion of authority, and the normal position of the latter
has been revolt. This may be called one of the accidents
of history. So the learned Selden in his “Table-Talk” re-
marked on the curious contradiction in the English civil
war, that the advocates of absolutism in religion were the
advocates of political liberty, and vice versä. Yet it may
perhaps be truly said that when the religious absolutist
gains the power he is apt to be an absolute though a con-
scientious despot. He makes a better rebel than ruler.
Prof. Fisher, a Calvinist, gives a severely true picture of
the conscientious despotism of Calvin at Geneva. A similar
despotism on a larger scale in England under Cromwell
rendered the nation willing by reaction to rush into the de-
pravities of the Restoration. Driven to America, even
while under the rule of an Arminian monarchy, a similar
despotism on a small scale overspread New England.
Nor was Calvinism, as Prof. Fisher truly affirms, the ad-
vocate of liberty of conscience. Not only did Calvin him-
self banish Bolsec, ruin Castellio, and favor the execution
of Servetus, but he maintained, doctrinally, the duty of
the magistrate to punish heresy. Beza, his learned succes-
Sor, wrote a treatise in favor of punishing heretics. Boger-
man, the president at the Synod of Dort, was the translator
of Beza's essay. It is but too evident that the Protestant
Calvinists differed with the Romanists not about the pun-
ishment of heretics, but about who the heretics to be pun-
ished were. In this respect the Calvinism of the new
Church and the Arminianism of the old were nearly upon
a par. The new Church, however, belonged to the pro-
gressive order of things; but whether, finally, the Calvin-
ism or the Arminianism of the new Church first actually
proclaimed toleration is a matter of question.
Comparative Morality.—Mr. Froude endeavors by com-
parison to show that Calvinism is superior to Arminianism
in morals by selecting his own examples. But the Armin-
ian may perhaps in reply make also his selections. Scot-
tish Calvinism has an unquestioned severity of morals, but
are Scotch character and history, as a whole, even ethically
superior to the English 2 Is the morality of Presbyterian-
ism in its entire aspect superior to that of Moravianism,0ua-
kerism, or Wesleyan Methodism? Are our American Calvin-
istic Baptists more Christian in morals than the Free-will
Baptists? Is there any umpire qualified to decide that
the devout Presbyterian is superior to the devout Episco-
palian 2 Did Jonathan Edwards present a type of piety
superior to that of Fletcher of Madely 2 or John Calvin to
that of James Arminius 2 Can Calvinism show a grander
type of an evangelist than was John Wesley in England
or Francis Asbury in America. ? Has she produced, in all
her history, a system of evangelism as earnest, as self-
sacrificing, as aggressive as the itinerant ministry of Eng-
lish and American Methodism 2 Taking the entire body
of Calvinism since the Reformation, does it excel in purity,
martyrdom, doctrine, and missionary enterprise the (Ar–
minian) Church of the first centuries 2 If it comes to
counting persons, has any section of the Church nobler
names than Justin Martyr, Ignatius, Irenaeus, Origen,
Athanasius, Tertullian, Jerome, Chrysostom, John of Da-
mascus, Hincmar of Rheims, Erasmus, Luther, Melanch-
thon, Sir Thomas More, Calixtus, Savonarola, Arminius,
Grotius, Episcopius, Limborch, Curcellaeus, John Milton,
John Goodwin, Jeremy Taylor, Cudworth, Bishop Butler,
Bishop Bull, Bengel, Wetstein, Wesley, Fletcher, and
Richard Watson 2 -
Comparative Republicanism.—Nor did, nor does, Predes-
tination as compared with Arminianism, possess any pe-
culiar affinity with republicanism against monarchy. By
its very nature Calvinism establishes an infinite and eter-
nal distinction between different parts of mankind made
by divine prerogative, by which one is born in a divine
aristocracy, and the other in an eternal helpless and hope-
less pariahism; whilst Arminianism, holding every man
equal before God, proclaims an equal yet resistible grace
for all, a universal atonement and Saviour alike to all, an
equal power of acceptance in all, a free, unpredestined
chance for every man to be the artificer of his own eternal,
as well as temporal, fortunes. Caste, partialism are the
characteristics of the former; equality, universality, repub-
licanism, of the latter. It is as plain as consciousness can
make any fact that it is the latter that is the natural ally, not
of monarchies, aristocracies, or hierarchies, but of regulated
freedom. Hence, neither Luther nor Calvin was any more
a republican than Eck or Erasmus. Augustine and Gott-
schalk were good papists, and Augustinianism was as en-
tirely at home under the tiara of Gregory the Great as
under the cap of Bogerman—in the court of Charlemagne
as in the camp of the Covenanter. Irrespective of their
Calvinism, the Reformers everywhere acted according to
conditions. Where kings and nobles favored them; they
favored kings and nobles; where (as was generally the
case) they were rejected by rank and power, and had no-
thing to make royalty and aristocracy out of, they fash-
ioned a theocratic Commune, out of which modern political
experience has picked some aids and methods for voluntary
government. Modern experience has eliminated the theoc-
racy, the intolerance, and the predestinarianism, and added
the elements to make republicanism. For all this it duly
thanks the Reformers, but does not thank their Calvinism.
HISTORY OF ARMINIANISM.–The theology of freedom,
: essentially Arminianism, in opposition to predestination,
necessitated volitions, and imputation of guilt to the inno-
ARMINIANISM.
255
cent, is universally acknowledged to have been the doctrine
of the entire Christian Church through its most glorious
period, the martyr age of the first three centuries. The
Calvinistic historian of theology, Hagenbach, says (vol. i.,
p. 155): “All the Greek Fathers, as well as the apologists
Justin, Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, and the Latin
author Minucius Felix, exalt the autonomy or self-deter-
mination of the human soul. They know nothing of any
imputation of sin, except as a voluntary and moral self-
determination is presupposed. Even Irenaeus and Ter-
tullian strongly insist upon this self-determination in the
use of freedom of the will.” Again (157): “IEven the op-
ponents of human liberty, as Calvin, are compelled to ac-
knowledge this remarkable unanimity of the Fathers, and
in order to account for it they are obliged to suppose a
general illusion about this doctrine !”
Arminians contend that we know as well when predes-
tination was introduced into the Church—namely, by Au-
gustine—as we do when transubstantiation and image-
worship were introduced; that it was in the fourth century,
when Pelagius upon one extreme made free-will dispense
with divine grace, Augustine on the other extreme made
divine grace irresistibly nullify free-will, and thus both
lost their balance; that both invented dogmas never before
recognized in the Church; that, tried by the previous mind
of the Church, both were equally heretical; that the heresy
of one, pushed to extreme, becomes rationalism and pure
deism—the heresy of the other, pushed to extreme, becomes
presumptuous antinomianism. They assert that the Eastern
Church maintained her primitive position, neither Pelagian
On one side nor Augustinian on the other, essentially in
the position of modern Arminianism; that hence Armin-
ianism is not a compromise, but the primitive historical
position, the permanent centre, rejecting innovations and
extremes on either side; that the Western Church, in spite
of the great name of Augustine, never became Augustinian.
It is indeed customarily said by anti-Arminian writers
that this was because the “age of systematic theology "
had not then arrived. Arminians reply that a theology
not only unrecognized during that best period of the
Church, but, still more, a theology unanimously condemned
as heretical by that period, has little right now to lay
claim to pre-eminent Christian orthodoxy. The Eastern
Church—namely, the churches of Asia, with whom the
language of our Lord and his apostles was essentially ver-
nacular; the Greek Church, to whom the language of the
New Testament was vernacular; and the Russian Church,
embracing many millions—all inherited and retain, firmly
and unanimously, the theology of freedom, essential Ar-
minianism. The learned Calvinistic scholar Dr. Shedd, in
his “History of Doctrines” (vol. ii., p. 198), says: “The
Augustinian anthropology was rejected in the East, and,
though at first triumphant in the West, was gradually dis-
placed by the semi-Pelagian theory, or the theory of in-
herited evil [instead of inherited guilt] and synergistic [or
co-operative] regeneration. This theory was finally stated
for the papal Church in exact form by the Council of Trent.
The Augustinian anthropology, though advocated in the
Middle Ages by a few individuals like Gottschalk, Bede,
Anselm, slumbered until the Reformation, when it was re-
vived by Luther and Calvin, and opposed by the papists.”
It will thus be seen, on a review of the universal Church in
all ages, how small though respectable a minority Augus-
tinianism or Calvinism, before the Reformation, ever was.
With minor exceptions, Arminianism was the doctrine of
the universal Church. -
The accuracy of Dr. Shedd’s statement of the general
non-existence of Augustinianism during the Middle Ages
is not invalidated by the fact of the great authority of
Augustine's name, arising from the powerful genius and
voluminous writings of the man. It was no proof that a
man was truly Augustinian because he belonged to the
“Augustinian order” or quoted Augustine's authority.
Such Schoolmen as Bernard, Anselm, and Peter Lombard
modified Augustine's doctrine materially; Bonaventura and
Duns Scotus were essentially Arminians, and Hincmar of
Rheims and Savonarola literally so. Gottschalk, the high
predestinariam, was condemned for heresy, and Thomas
Bradwardine, the “second Gottschalk,” made complaints,
doubtless overstrained, that in his day “almost the whole
world had become Pelagian.”
At the Reformation, however, we encounter the phe-
nomenon that all the eminent leaders at first not only
adopted, but even exaggerated, the absolutism of Augus-
time. This might seem strange, for it was apparently natu-
ral that the absolute papacy should identify itself with the
absolute, and that asserters. of freedom would have stood
on the free-will theology. The twin doctrines of the su-
premacy of Scripture and of justification by faith were
amply sufficient, without predestination, for their purpose
to abolish the whole system of popish corruption. The
former dethroned alike the authority of tradition and the
popedom; the latter swept away alike the mediations of
Mary, saints, and priests. But the first heroic impulse
of reform tends to magnify the issues to their utmost di-
mensions. The old free-will theology belonged universally .
to the old historic Church, and was identified by the first
Reformers with its corruptions. Luther at first, in his
reply to Erasmus “On the Bondage of the Will,” uttered
fatalisms that probably had hardly ever before been heard
in the Christian Church, and perhaps it would be hard to
find a Calvinist at the present day who would adopt the
trenchant predestinarian utterances of Calvin. Under the
indoctrinations of these leaders, especially of Calvin at
Geneva, the absolute doctrines were diffused and formed
into the creeds of Germany, the Netherlands, France, Eng-
land, and Switzerland. But in Germany the “second sober
thought ° of Melanchthon, who at first coincided with Lu-
ther, receded from predestimation, and Melanchthon him-
self intimates that Luther seceded with him; so that the
Lutherans are now essentially Arminian. In the Nether-
lands the same “second thought,” led by Arminius him—
self, was suppressed by state power. In France, Protest-
antism, which was Calvinistic, was overwhelmed in blood.
In England the Calvinism was generally of a gentle type,
and the same “second thought” was awakened by the
Arminian writings of Grotius and Episcopius diffused
through Europe. And as the English Church gradually
inclined to the ancient high episcopacy of the old Church,
so it adopted the ancient Arminianism. Calvinism, per-
secuted and oppressed, overthrew monarchy and Church,
and for a brief period ruled with hardly less intolerance,
until, overthrown in turn, Calvinism took refuge in America,
and laid foundations here. Even here past sufferings did
not teach tolerance, and that doctrine had to be learned
from checks and lessons administered by surrounding
sources. Calvinism has, nevertheless, here acted a noble
part in our Christian civilization. It perhaps about equally
divides the evangelic Church with Arminianism.
Arminianism, proper and Protestant, came into exist-
ence under the severe persecution by Dutch Calvinism, in
which the great and good Arminius himself was a virtual
martyr. The Synod of Dort, the standard council of the
Calvinistic faith, made itself subservient to the unprincipled
and sanguinary usurper Maurice; and even during its ses—
sions the judicial murder of the great Arminian and repub-
lican statesman Olden Barnevelt was triumphantly an–
nounced at Dort to overawe the Arminians at the synod,
who were bravely maintaining their cause under the lead-
ership of the eloquent Episcopius. Then followed the ban-
ishment of Episcopius, the imprisonment of Grotius, the
ejection of hundreds of Arminian ministers from their pul-
pits, and the firing of soldiers upon the religious assemblies
of Arminian worshippers. The great Arminian writers of
Holland, Episcopius, Grotius, and Limborch, are claimed
by Arminian writers to be the first public proclaimers of the
doctrine of liberty of conscience in Europe, as those two
Arminian Puritans, John Milton and John Goodwin, were
its earliest proclaimers in England.
Wesleyan Methodism is now by all admitted to be a great
modern Arminian development. Beginning most humbly
as a half-unconscious awakening amid the general religious
chill of Protestantism, it has not only quickened the relig-
ious life of the age, but gathered, it is said, twelve millions
of worshippers into its congregations throughout the world.
Its theology is very definite, and very nearly the exact the-
ology of James Arminius himself, and of the first three
centuries. Cradled in both the Arminianism and High-
Churchism of the English establishment, Wesley's maturer
years earnestly approved the Arminianism, but severed it
from the High-Churchism. The connection between Ar-
minianism and High-Churchism is hereby clearly revealed
to be historical and incidental rather than intrinsic or
logical. . Yet, even after adopting the doctrine that every
Church has the right to shape its own government, as a
lover of the primitive, post-apostolic Church, as well as
from notions of Christian expediency, Wesley preferred,
and provided for American Methodism, an episcopal form
of government. Arminian Methodism has, in little more
than a century of her existence, apparently demonstrated
that the Augustinian “systematic theology" is unnecessary,
and, what it deems, the primitive theology amply sufficient
for the production of a profound depth of piety, a free
ecclesiastical system, an energetic missionary enterprise,
and a rapid evangelical success. She exhibits in her vari-
ous phases every form of government, from the most deci-
sive system of episcopacy to the simplest congregational-
ism, all voluntarily adopted, and changeable at will. The
problems she has thus wrought suggest the thought that
the free, simple theology of the earliest age may be the
universal theology of the latest. (See CALVINISM, by PROF.
A. A. Hodge, S. T. D.) D. D. WHEDON.
256
AIRMINIUS–ARMSTRONG.
Arminius. See HERMANN.
Ar’mistead (LEwis ADDIson), a general, born at New-
bern, N. C., Feb. 18, 1817, graduated at West Point in 1836.
He served in the Mexican war (1846–47), and joined the
Confederate army in 1861. He was killed at Gettysburg
July 3, 1863.
Armistead (WALKER KEITH), an American general,
born in Virginia about 1780. He became chief of the corps
of engineers, and served in the war of 1812. He com-
manded an army against the Indians in Florida. Died
Oct. 13, 1845.
Ar’mistice [from the Lat. ar’ma, “arms,” and sto (or
sis/to), to “stand still”], a truce; a suspension of hostili-
ties between two armies or belligerent powers, which often
agree to suspend operations for a definite time while the
diplomatists are negotiating the preliminaries of a peace.
During the third Crusade, Richard Coeur de Lion and Sal-
adin made a truce for three years three months and three
days. In modern times the duration of armistices is much
less. After the Germans captured Paris, Jan. 30, 1871, the
French people, having no regular government, desired to
elect a national assembly, for which purpose an armistice
was granted by the Germans. The armistice, during which
the armies on both sides were bound to remain stationary,
ended in a treaty of peace, the preliminaries of which were
ratified on Feb. 26, 1871. The definitive treaty of peace
was signed at Frankfort in May of that year.
Ar’mitage (EDwARD), an English historical painter of
high reputation, born in London in 1817. Among his
masterpieces are “ St. Francis before Pope Innocent III.,”
and the frescoes in the new Houses of Parliament.
Armitage (THoMAs), D. D., was born at Pontefract,
England, Aug. 2, 1819, and became in his youth a Meth-
odist preacher. In 1838 he came to New York, and entered
the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1848
he became a Baptist, and settled as a pastor in New York.
He warmly advocated the movement for Bible revision,
which led in 1850 to the formation of the American Bible
Union, of which organization he became an efficient officer,
and subsequently the president. He occupies a high rank
as a pulpit orator and as a writer of great power and ele-
gance. His position as a leader in the denomination with
which he is identified is generally acknowledged.
Armitage (WILLIAM EDMOND), D. D., a bishop of the
Protestant Episcopal Church, was born in New York City
Sept. 6, 1830. He graduated at Columbia College in 1849
and at the General Theological Seminary in 1852. He be-
came rector of an Episcopal church at Portsmouth, N. H.,
and afterwards at Augusta, Me. In 1859 he accepted a
similar position in Detroit, Mich. . In 1866 he was ap-
pointed assistant bishop of Wisconsin, and in 1870 he be-
came bishop of that diocese, which position he held until
his death. Died in New York City Dec. 7, 1873.
Ar’m or [Lat. armatu'ra], the defensive covering or coat-
of-mail worn by a soldier; the apparatus which in former
times men used for personal defence in war, and was often
called harness. Since the invention of gunpowder, armor
has fallen into disuse. The principal parts of the ancient
armor were the helmet, breastplate, and shield. The mate-
rial generally used for this purpose by the Greeks, Romans,
and other nations of antiquity was brass or bronze. The
most ancient description of such a panoply or complete
armor is given in 1 Samuel xviii., which says Goliath “ had
an helmet of brass upon his head, and he was armed with
a coat-of-mail; and the weight of the coat was five thou-
sand shekels of brass. . And he had greaves of brass upon
his legs, and a target of brass (margin, gorget) between his
shoulders; . . . and one bearing a shield went before him.”
The Greeks of the Homeric age. used a large circular
shield made of several folds of bull’s hide, bound and em-
bossed with brass. They also wore a helmet, a breastplate,
and greaves, and a leather petticoat which descended nearly
to the knee, and was covered by narrow strips of metallic
plates or scales hinged together so as to permit freedom of
movement. The coat-of-mail worn by the knights of the
Middle Ages, and sometimes called chain-armor, was form-
ed of a network of steel or iron rings attached to a founda-
tion of leather. The modern Europeans also used an in-
terlaced ring-armor of Oriental origin, which was made in
the form of a shirt with small steel rings, which were not
stitched to any foundation. Chain-mail or ring-armor fell
into disuse in the fourteenth century, and was succeeded
by plate-armor. The cuirass, almost the sole existing relic
of mediaeval armor, is now of no practical importance.
The term is also applied to iron-plate covering applied to
modern war-vessels and fortifications. (See IRoN-CLAD,
IRoN PLATING, and SHIELDs.) * -
Armor'ica [from the Cymric ar, “upon,” and mor,
“sea ’’I, the ancient name of the north-western part of
Gaul, bordering on the ocean, and extending from the Seine
to the Loire. The Armoricans had numerous ships, and
were extensively engaged in maritime pursuits. About 400
A. D. Mariadec, a Briton, obtained the chief power in Ar-
morica, which became an independent state. In conse-
quence of the immigration of Britons or Welsh in the sixth
or seventh century, the name of Armorica was changed
to Bretagne. The language of the country is closely allied
to the Welsh.
Ar’mory [Lat. arma’rium, from ar’ma, “arms”], a store-
house for arms; a place where arms and instruments of
war are deposited; a collection of ancient armor, as that
in the Tower of London. In the U. S., armory signifies a
place where arms are manufactured. The U.S. government
has extensive armories at Springfield, Mass., and Rock Isl-
and, Ill. (See ARSENAL, by P. V. HAGNER, U. S. Army.)
Arms [Lat. &r'mal, weapons of war; offensive weapons
or instruments, which are divisible into two great classes—
firearms, and arms which are used without gunpowder or
any explosive substance. The latter, which are the more
ancient, are the sword, spear, dart, javelin, lance, arrow,
battle-axe, cutlass, dagger, dirk, bayonet, scimetar, pike,
sling, etc. The ancient Greeks, according to Homer, used
the spear chiefly as a missile, which they hurled at a dis-
tant enemy. The most effective weapon of the steel-plated
cavalry of the Middle Ages was a ponderous lance nearly
eighteen feet long. The principal varieties of firearms are
described under the appropriate heads. (See FIREARMs.)
Arms, or Armo/rial Bear’ings, the name given in
heraldry to devices borne on shields; ensigns armorial.
“There is no doubt,” says Hallam, “that emblems some-
what similar have been immemorially used both in war and
peace. The shields of ancient warriors, and devices upon
coins or seals, bear no distant resemblance to modern bla-
zonry. But the general introduction of such bearings as
hereditary distinctions has been sometimes attributed to
tournaments, wherein the champions were distinguished by
fanciful devices; sometimes to the Crusades, where a mul-
titude of all nations and languages stood in need of some
visible token to denote the banners of their respective
chiefs. In fact, the peculiar symbols of heraldry point to
both these sources, and have been borrowed in part from
each. Hereditary arms were perhaps scarcely used by pri-
vate families before the beginning of the thirteenth cen-
tury. From that time, however, they became very general,
and have contributed to elucidate that branch of history
which regards the descent of illustrious families.”
Arm'strong, a county in W. Central Pennsylvania.
'Area, 750 square miles. It is intersected by the Allegheny
River, bounded on the N. by Red Bank Creek, and on the S.W.
by the Kiskimimetas, and also drained by Mahoning Creek.
The surface is hilly or rolling, the soil is mostly fertile.
Dairy products, wool, grain, and hay are extensively raised.
Iron, coal, salt, and limestone are found here. The county
is traversed by the Allegheny Valley R. R., and has im-
portant manufactures. Capital, Kittanning. Pop. 43,382.
Armstrong, a post-tp. of Vanderburg co., Ind. P. 1290.
Armstrong, a township of Indiana co., Pa. P. 1435.
Armstrong, a township of Lycoming co., Pa. P. 1424.
Armstrong (GEORGE DODD), D. D., a brother of Dr.
W. J. Armstrong, born in 1813 in Mendham, N.J., grad-
uated at Princeton in 1832, studied theology in Union
Seminary, Prince Edward co., Va., was professor of chem-
istry and mechanics in Washington College, Lexington,
Va. (1838–51), and since then pastor of a Presbyterian
church in Norfolk, Va. He has been a large contributor
to periodicals, and has published “The Summer of the
Pestilence,” “The Doctrine of Baptism,” “The Christian
Doctrine of Slavery,” “The Theology of Christian Expe-
rience,” etc.
Armstrong (JAMEs), U. S. N., born at Shelbyville, Ky.,
Jan. 17, 1794, entered the navy as a midshipman in 1809,
was captured by the British while serving in the Frolic in
1814, received the regular promotions, becoming a captain
in 1841, commanding the East India squadron (1855–58),
and captured the Barrier Forts in the Canton River in
1857. Jan. 12, 1861, he was compelled to surrender Pensa-
cola navy-yard te a greatly superior force of Confederates.
He became a commodore in 1866, and died Aug. 27, 1868.
Armstrong (JAMEs F.), U. S. N., born Nov. 20, 1817,
in New Jersey, entered the navy as a midshipman Mar. 7,
1832, became a passed midshipman in 1838, a lieutenant
in 1842, a commander in 1861, a captain in 1862; re-
tired at his own request Sept. 27, 1866. From 1862 to 1866
he commanded the State of Georgia in the North Atlantic
blockading squadron, and April 25, 1862, took part in the
bombardment of Fort Mation, which resulted in its sur-
render to the combined army and naval forces.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
ARMSTRONG—ARMY.
257
Armstrong (JoBN), M. D., a poet, born at Castleton,
in Roxburghshire, Scotland, in 1709. He studied medicine
at Edinburgh, where he graduated in 1732, and soon after
began to practise in London. His poem called “The Econo-
my of Love” (1739) was censured as indecent. In 1744
he produced a didactic poem on “The Art of Preserving
Health,” which is his principal work, and has had an ex-
tensive popularity. He was physician to the English army
in Germany in 1760. Among his other works are “Benevo-
lence,” a poem (1751), “Taste,” an epistle in verse (1753),
and a volume of “Medical Essays” (1773). He was a friend
of the poet Thomson and Dr. Young. Died Sept. 7, 1779.
Armstrong (John), an American general, born at
Carlisle, in Pennsylvania, Nov. 25, 1755. He served in the
Revolutionary war with the rank of major. He was the
author of the anonymous and celebrated “Newburg Ad-
dresses,” written in Mar., 1783, in order to obtain from
Congress a payment of the money due to the officers of the
army. He was a member of the old Congress, and in 1800
was sent to the U. S. Senate from New York. He was sent
as minister to France in 1804, and was appointed secretary
of war in Jan., 1813. He was censured because he failed
to defend Washington in 1814, and resigned in September
of that year. Died April 1, 1843.
Armstrong (JoBN), M. D., an English writer, born in
the county of Durham in 1784. He graduated as M. D.
in the University of Edinburgh in 1807, after which he
practised at Sunderland. In 1816 he published a work on
“Typhus Fever,” which widely extended his reputation.
He removed in 1818 to London, where he practised with
great success. Dr. Armstrong and Edward Grainger
founded in 1821 a medical school in Webb street, where
the former lectured and acquired popularity. He died
Dec. 12, 1829. (See F. Boot, “Memoir of the Life of J.
Armstrong,” 1834.)
Armstrong (JoBN), a native of Pennsylvania, com-
manded successfully the expedition sent in 1756 against
the Indian allies of the French at Kittanning, served as
brigadier-general in the Revolutionary army at Fort Moul-
trie, and commanded the militia at Brandywine and Ger-
mantown. He was a member of Congress (1778–80 and
1787–88). Died at Carlisle, Pa., Mar. 9, 1795.
Armstrong (RICHARD), D.D., born in Northumberland
co., Pa., in 1805, graduated at Dickinson. College in 1827,
studied theology at Princeton, and went in 1832 as a mis-
sionary to the Sandwich Islands, where he served as minis-
ter of instruction, privy councillor, and president of the
board of education. He received fatal injuries by a fall
from his horse, and died Sept. 23, 1860.
Armstrong (ROBERT), BRIGADIER-GENERAL, born in
1790 in Eastern Tennessee, served in the Creek war of
1813–14, and at the battle of New Orleans as an officer
of Tennessee volunteers; and in 1836 as a brigadier-general
of volunteers in the Florida war. He was consul at Liver-
pool (1845–52), and for a time editor of the “Washington
Union.” Died Feb. 23, 1854. -
Armstrong (SAMUEL T.), a bookseller of Boston, born
in 1784. He was chosen lieutenant-governor of Massa-
chusetts, and acted as governor in 1836, in consequence of
the resignation of Governor Davis. Died in 1850.
Armstrong (Sir WILLIAM GEORGE), F. R. S., LL.D.,
D. C. L., noted as the inventor of the Armstrong gun, was
born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1810. He became in 1845
a proprietor of an establishment for the manufacture of
hydraulic cranes, engines, and bridges. After numerous
experiments, he invented, in 1854, a wrought-iron rifled
cannon of extraordinary power and precision, which bears
his name. These guns are made of bars of wrought-iron
two inches wide, heated to whiteness, twisted spirally round
a steel bar or core, and welded; other bars are twisted over
these in a similar way, but with an opposite turn of the
spiral. Another heating to whiteness precedes a thorough
welding of all the layers of bars by a steam hammer. The
internal core is removed, and the bore is rifled by machin-
ery. It is stated that one of these guns will throw a ball
of thirty-two pounds to the distance of five miles. The in-
ventor was knighted by the queen, and appointed chief en-
gineer of rifled ordnance. (See ARTILLERY, by GEN. BARRY.)
Armstrong (WILLIAM JESSUP), D. D., a clergyman of
the American Presbyterian Church, born at Mendham, N.J.,
Oct. 29, 1796, was pastor of the First Presbyterian church
in Richmond, Va., from 1824 to 1834. In this latter year
he accepted the appointment of secretary of the American
Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, which office
he held till his death, which occurred by shipwreck in a voy-
age between New York and Boston Nov. 27, 1846. His
Life and a collection of his sermons were published.
Armstrong’s Grove, a post-township of Emmet co.,
Ia. Pop. 45.
Army. The title or expression “army'' is of modern
origin. During the Italian wars of Louis XII. his soldiers
began to Frenchify the expression armata, which the Ital-
ians used, or rather armada, the term employed by the
Spaniards. The latter term is constantly used not only in
the German, but even the Swedish reports of the Thirty
Years' war; whence from armada, armée, army. Previous
to this the French indicated that which we look upon as
appropriately styled army, by bataille, ost (host, harst, Ger-
mano-Swiss), eacercite (eacercitus, Latin; eacercito, Span.,
Ital.), or milice. The latter word was preferred by several
writers of the eighteenth century as having a more precise
and general signification, as milice (militia) has its root in
miles, a “soldier,” which, in the accepted meaning of sol-
dier, a “paid fighter,” a militiaman certainly is not.
Since the earliest history of the world, fabulous or au-
thentic, not alone the physical fate of empires, but the in-
tellectual progress of humanity, the very development of
mind, has depended upon the efficiency of the force which
is defined an army. There is no doubt that civilization and
Christianity—for the development of true civilization is
the extension of Christianity—have been wafted to the end
of the world upon the wings of commerce; but trade is
transitory, and whatever is fixed has been made so by the
force of arms. Even the most commercial nations, Phoe-
nicia, Carthage, Holland, and England, could have accom-
plished little had they not occupied and held with an army
or the fragments of an army what their sailors had dis-
covered.
“Peace is the dream of philosophers, but war is the his-
tory of men;” and if almost universally, but erroneously,
admitted to be “the greatest of evils,” it is also one of the
oldest. It is doubtful if some attempt at reducing war to
a science is not the eldest of man’s efforts at progress. “It
preceded among all nations the arts and sciences proper,
and perished in proportion as these developed.” “The
means of attack and defence appear to have been among
the first essays of human invention, and to have called
forth the powers of the mind in a greater degree than any
of the arts of peace.” The first expression of the art and
science of war was an army. This may be defined as a
certain proportion of a nation raised by means of “elec-
tion” (Roman), conscription, voluntary énlistment, or other-
wise, organized, armed, disciplined, and administered con-
formably to a digested system. It is an artificial combina-
tion of human and mechanical forces into a movable en-
gine for defensive or aggressive purposes, of which dis-
cipline is the motive and regulating power. An army, in
fact, is an aggregated force of men converted into soldiers,
of each of whom it has been well said:
“'Tis drilling that makes him, skill and sense—
Perception—thought—intelligence,”
under a chief -
“Who has the energy—who the mind—
The flashing thought—and the fearless hand—
Together to bring, and thus fastly bind,
The fragments”
into a homogeneous unit of force of which the soul is dis-
cipline.
An army as it should be is as Foy represented it to be in
his time: “The army constituted a homogeneous and in-
dividual mass, in which, ascending from the conscript six
months under arms to the field-marshal, there-was no dif-
ference encountered in seeing and feeling.”
In this connection a curious fact presents itself. Some
of the most successful commanders on sea have been those
who had their training in the land-forces of their coun-
try; more than one as cavalrymen. Not to encumber this
article with names, consider almost all the Carthaginians’
admiral-generals; Duilius, who first taught the Roman
soldiers how to conquer on the most opposite element;
Caesar, Pompey; in modern times, Wrangel, Monk, Blake,
Rupert, Opdam ; the last three originally officers of cav-
alry. -
Great captains have likewise proved the ablest organ-
izers, administrators, statesmen, and negotiators: witness
Gustavus, Torstenson, William III., Marlborough, Prince
Eugène, Villars, Bentinck, Boufflers (the last two negotiated
the Peace of Ryswick), Frederick the Great.
Although recent explorations have thrown some light
upon the national military organizations of Nineveh and of
Babylon, they are too vague to entitle them to more than
the passing remark that they were based on scientific prin-
ciples and administered in obedience to laws—laws which
were sufficient for their era and extremely practical.
They carried on campaigns at long distances from their
base, and they besieged strong places, and took them after
protracted efforts, and they fought battles; all of which
proves that they must have comprehended and applied that
which constitutes the art and science of war. Indeed, it
would be very safe to assert that recent discoveries demon-
17
258
AIRMY.
strate that all the ancient armies were better organized,
administered, and manipulated than we have been accus-
tomed to believe. This remark, indeed, applies to all ar-
mies worthy the appellation. Even Tamerlane has left be-
hind him a treatise that shows that his wild hordes were
Subjected to a military direction by which skill and tact
were enabled to employ their very native habits to the best
advantage. The armies of antiquity had peculiar tac-
ties, it is true, but these were congenial to the people and
country; and, however peculiar, they understood them and
applied them. Whoever will examine the Bible carefully
will find in its descriptions the strongest evidence of a dis-
cipline of iron, of order, cadenced step, organization, tac-
tics, stratagem, and strategy—all that modern pride con-
siders the result of its intelligence—such as has not existed
even within the last four centuries except in the small ar-
mies of Alva, Maurice, Gustavus, and on a larger scale in
those of Marlborough and Frederick the Great. Some of
the passages are magnificent in their portrayal of an army
worthy of the inspection and leading of the greatest captains,
complete in every arm or branch of the service. There we
find expressions which cannot be surpassed in descriptive
grandeur and comprehensiveness (procellae equestres, “hur-
ricanes of cavalry,” “whirlwinds of chariots,” etc.). The
finest light cavalry of all times, imitated with so much suc-
cess by the Saracens, were the Numidians of Hannibal
(“the Cossacks of the ancient world”), and the Parthians
were the predecessors of those arrays which culminated
under Timour (Tamerlane) in the overwhelming of an an-
tagonistic system under Bajazet at Angora, 28th July, A. D.
1402. Their tactics might be expressed by the term “swarm
attack,” which, against a force broken into by the other
arms, is no despicable method of employing mounted troops.
Tamerlane’s heavy cavalry was likewise admirable.
The first army of which we know anything definite was
the Egyptian. Perhaps since men have aggregated into
nations no army has ever been maintained in every sense
in a better condition commensurate with the times; and if
history is at all reliable, the results were stupendous, con-
sidering the difficulties against which logistics had then to
contend. If Sesostris (Se-seos-t–re or Rameses, “son of
the Supreme and Gift of the Sun *) and his campaigns are
not a myth, the conception and campaigns of Alexander
shrink into dwarfs before those of the armies which he
made and directed; likewise those of the Romans, although
they planted their eagles against the arctic and within the
equatorial circle. The genius and generalship of Sesostris,
which carried his own peculiar aquiline symbols of Apis
eastward beyond the Ganges and northward of the Caspian,
westward to the Ister or Danube, and southward towards
the swell of the Mountains of the Moon, were not inferior to
that “inspiration” of Alexander which bore those of the
Macedonian Jove to the Indus, or that other inspiration
which bore the eagles of the first triumvir to his unfulfilled
invasion of Britain.
One question, however, presents itself which has a paral-
lel in a more recent period, and this within a century and
a half. Did Sesostris make his army or simply make
use of it? The organization of the greatest of Egyp-
tian armies, and the creation of the military spirit with
which it was imbued, are said to have been due to his
father, Amenophis III. Here we have an exact type of the
preparation of Frederick William I., and the application
by his son, Frederick (II.) the Great, although the latter
has been compared in a critical analysis and examination
to Philip II., the founder of the Macedonian power, rather
than to Alexander the Great, its developer. To compare
Frederick the Great to the son, rather than to the father,
is preferable. -
Between the Egyptian and better known organizations
of civilizations more clearly understood, the Persian army
deserves consideration, in that its cavalry was excellent,
and even in the period of its decay it demonstrated that
if properly commanded it was capable of achieving great
things. This was shown at the battle of the Granicus,
where its gallant behavior excited the admiration of every
Macedonian officer, from the royal general-in-chief down.
to the humblest commander of a company. This is one
side of the question. The conduct of the Persian horse at
Plataea (B. C. 479) scarcely justifies a favorable criticism,
although their defeat.is mainly attributable to the fall of
their leader, Masistius. * .
Close following on the Egyptian comes the better under-
stood phalangian array of the Greeks, doubtless derived
from the idea of that “impregnable phalanx” of the Nilish
genius and organization which Cyrus found that even his
Persians were unable to break. This disposition of force
was exquisitely adapted to the Greek systematic and geo-
metrical mind. The mutual dependence which made a
phalangite nothing more than a particle of a grand ma-
chine was in perfect accordance with the national character.
And it would be almost sufficient to prove the thorough
efficiency of the discipline arrived at through, the training
£n and for the phalanx to cite one example which it would
trouble the critic to parallel—the march described by Xen-
ophon, known as the “Retreat of the Ten Thousand.”
Even although the career of the phalanx was short (say 200
years, from B. C. 550, Cyrus, to B. C. 350, Pyrrhus of Epirus),
and it did go down before the Roman legion, its spiritrevived
from time to time in the return to dense formations, since,
after all, the Greeks recognized the phalanx in any army
corps disposed in compact order or “in mass,” and even
applied the term to Roman armies when they were drawn up
without intervals (ordre plein). Short-lived in comparison,
it had already accomplished great things in the “exact ’’
wars which made Greek generals famous, and the tactics
of Epaminondas proved a guide for the greatest, a key to
success on modern fields. It is claimed that the three
classes of the Greek infantry may be considered analogous
—the first, the hoplitæ, to the grenadiers or to the line
infantry; the second, the peltastai, to the light infantry;
the third, the gumnetai, to the riflemen, tirailleurs; or sharp-
shooters of modern armies. It was in the time of Pericles
that the Athenian soldiers were first paid, material changes
made in clothing and armor, the second class of infantry
intermediate between the heavy troops and skirmishers
was added, and the distinction drawn between heavy and
light cavalry. This was the acme of the glory of the Greek
national citizens. With Alexander, artillery (ballistae and
catapultae) accompanied armies to the field, and the com-
missariat became an acknowledged branch of the art of war.
In comparing the phalanx with the legion, in order to
express the deficiencies of the former and the better cha-
racteristics of the latter, the critic is almost justified in
claiming that the first was human, the second divine—the
first the creation of human intelligence, the second the re-
sult of an inspiration of a superior power, or as Vegetius
(A. D. 7 375–390) has it: “Non tantum humano consilio
sed etiam divinitatis instructu, legiones a Romanis arbitror
constitutas,” which Clarke translates well: “Heaven cer–
tainly inspired the Romans with the establishment of the
legions, so superior does it seem to human invention’ (xxi.
77), “ or the idea of the legion must have been inspired by a
god (Saxe, Traité des Legions, p. 39), for man was inca-
pable of originating so perfect a military machine”—one
destined in the course of events to conquer and consolidate
for the future. rtº
A clear idea of the striking difference between the pha-
lanx and the legion can be conveyed to any reader’s mind
by saying that the first was mass or weight, and the second
mobility or momentum; or, as a further demonstration, the
first possesses little, the second perfect elasticity; the first
little, the second perfect adaptability to any ground. The
field had to be fit for the phalanx; the legion could be
fitted to any stage of action. The best proof of the infe-
riority of the phalanx and the superiority of the legion was
in one case its limited sphere as to theatre and existence;
in the other, the fact that it outlived itself, that its spirit
continued to conquer when the substance had almost com-
pletely deteriorated—when the legions of Fabius, Marcellus,
Marius, Scylla, Caesar, and Pompey had degenerated into a
feeble militia; for instance, when Rome had ceased to be
anything but a name; when Stilicho (A. D. 405-406) de-
feated Radagasius, and compelled a capitulation at Florence
which had no parallel in the circumstances, of a monarch
made prisoner and in the numbers surrendered, for fourteen
centuries and a half, until Sedan, 1870.
It is a somewhat extraordinary fact that the only Eastern
nation, the sixth Oriental monarchy, Parthia, the only one
which successfully resisted the Roman armies at a period
when as yet they had lost none of their efficiency—when it
is claimed that among the Romans “the art of war had been
brought to its highest point”—never possessed a standing
army; their military organization was nearer that of the
feudal times than any that we know of in antiquity. In
A. D. 217 the Parthian king Artabanus fought a three
days’ battle at Nisibis with the Romans, and if he did not
actually defeat them utterly, he compelled them “ignomin-
iously to purchase a peace” (the mere permission to re-
treat cost $8,000,000); and, what is still more curious
in this consideration, the tactics which lost the battle of
the Pyramids won the battle of Nisibis, gunpowder hav-
ing restored to the infantry the relative force or shock
which was previously inherent in the cavalry. In the heavy
horsemen (karáðpakrot) of the Parthians is to be found a
perfect exemplification of Marmont's cuirassiers armed
with lances, or the feudal chivalry. The Parthian light
horse represents, as well as the Numidians of Hannibal, the
modern hussar, or rather mounted riflemen, if riflemen
could shoot from the saddle at full speed, or the estradiots
of the Venetian military era.
The principles of the phalanx survived in the Saxon
ABMY.
259
wedge of Harold, and revived again in the Swiss wedge of
Sempach, July 9, 1386.
ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries the Saxon wedge (the
Roman cuneus, only one of the many phases of Roman
formation) would have been irresistible had the Saxons,
bravest of people, maintained anything like a regular army.
It was the scientific wedge to all intents and purposes,
driven by the beetle of invincible determination. As in
the era of Hastings, even so the principle of the legion
gives vitality to the very tactics of our own time. The
tactics of Leo VI. (Flavius the Wise, or the Philosopher,
A. D. 865–911), with a change of momenclature and
weapons, would serve as a valuable text-book for to-day;
and when Gustavus Adolphus inaugurated a new system of
tactics, it was a new birth of those of republican Rome,
and his triumph at Leipsic (Aug. 28–Sept. 7, 1631) was
simply a modern victory of the legion over the phalanx, of
the Swedish brigade (open order) over the Tercias (masses)
of Tilly.
If this antagonism should be traced back to first princi-
ples, it would be found that the contest between the pha-
lanx and the legion has been going on ever since the first
shock in arms of organized bodies of men. Even at this day
we recognize the principles of the phalanx in the dense col-
umn (for instance, that of the English at Fontenoy, that
living tower of strength which Foy represented as possess-
ing the magic power of repairing the breaches made in it),
and the legion in the deployed line-of-battle. The battle of
the Pyramids is a curious example in a case the reverse of
one previously stated. Whenever weight was required to
resist the shock of momentum the idea of the phalanx re-
vived. On the other hand, whenever the ground would not
permit of this massed organization the legionary system
prevailed, and the primary idea of the legion was revived
in the lines-of-battle. In the Macedonian phalanx was
combined all that was excellent in the other different Greek
systems, while all their defects were avoided, and every im-
provement introduced which expediency recommended or
necessity required. Thus completed, the Macedonian pha-
lanx was capable of conquering every opposing organiza-
tion, to be in turn conquered by the world-conquering Ro-
mans, as its principle and direction ever must be by supe-
rior tactics and greater mobility and adaptability.
The real birth of the modern standing army, in the pres-
ent comprehension of the term, does not date back farther
than the middle of the fifteenth century (1445–48). There
were, it is true, from time to time, if not always, imperial
and royal guards maintained, like the Varangians of the
Byzantine court; also municipal guards, such as those re-
cently in the service of the Free Cities, but standing armies,
none. This occurred at the East in the reorganization of
the Janizaries by Amurath I., 1350–72, originated by his
father, Orchan, 1329. These Janizaries, organized into a
regular force when the arrays of the Christian powers con-
sisted of a disorderly militia, were invincible for a long
period through a species of discipline to which fanaticism,
blind obedience, courage, and enthusiasm gave a strength
which it did not possess in reality. It was esprit de corps—
a substitute, but an imperfect one, for true discipline. Am-
urath or Murad I. perfected likewise the institution of the
Spahis (cavalry), and, wonderful foresight, of the woinaks
(a sort of soldiers of the train). If this is correct, he was
450 years ahead of the first train corps in any Christian
army. It is claimed that the Turkish regular. army dates
from Aladin or Ala-Eddyn (1219–36), but whether this is
true or not, it certainly preceded that of Charles VII. by a
whole century. Be this as it may, the new birth of the
army took place at the West by the establishment of the
“Companies of Ordonnance” by Charles VII. of France.
It would not be an actual error to style him the father of
standing armies, were it not that his regular force did not
combine the three arms; it embraced only the second,
mounted troops. It remained for his astute son, Louis XI.,
to perceive that no arm of the three could develop itself
without the appropriate support of the other two. He was
to Charles VII. what Remington cum suis, and previously
Col. Poncharra, as to rifled and breech-loading small arms,
and Louis Napoleon (or whoever was the real factor) as to
rifled and breech-loading artillery, were to Colonel Ferguson
of King's Mountain celebrity; what Torstenson was to
Wurmbrand in mobilized cannon 250 years ago; what the
infantry system of to-day and of the future is to that of de
Guibert. Louis XI. was the father of field-artillery. What
his wily brain conceived has been better done or further
developed, but the glory of the conception by him it is im-
possible to deny to him, the most sagacious, at the same
time most unprincipled, king that ever administered French
affairs—the first sovereign of Europe styled “majesty.” The
result was, that his son, Charles VIII., invaded Italy in
1494 (he entered Rome on New Year's day, 1495) with the
first real army which the modern world had seen—with the
In the condition of arms in the
first real army that the Romans, with whom the legion
originated, had seen since the legion disappeared from its soil
(Charlemagne in Italy, A. D. 773) nearly a thousand years
previous, swarmed out by the hordes or hosts of barbarians
which superficial history deceives careless readers by styl-
ing armies. - &
Moreover, it is very remarkable that the new birth of a
permanent force, with its first train of real artillery, its
cavalry, the heavy, very much like that of the Parthians
(Karáðpaktou), and resembling that recomménded by Mar-
mont in his “Institutions,” and partially adopted in Russia
(cuirassiers with lancers), and its light types of hussars,
this new birth in arms and its advent in the country of art
led to a new birth of the arts and sciences. This discovery
of Italy had more effect upon the sixteenth century, says
Michelet, than that of America. War and commerce in-
evitably seek the same channels; even so do the arts, for
scientific war is always the precursor of peace, and the
triumphs of tranquillity are borne along on the lava-floods
whereon fertility resumes its sway with greater force and
beauty when the fiery torrents have cooled.
It is impossible to refrain from translating a few para-
graphs which present a lively picture of the first national
army whose descent into Italy cleft the barrier of centuries,
whence issued forth to the world through the re-birth (re-
naissance) of the art of war—the new birth of all that ele-
vates, refines, beautifies the advance of humanity; of all
that can justify luxury, the inevitable consequence of the
development of combined industry and art.
The army, 60,000 strong when it passed the Alps, having
left detached corps all along the road, Scarcely numbered
30,000 when it reached Rome. But these constituted the
very sinew, the boldest and the best armed; relieved of its
weaklings and stragglers, it was only the more formidable.
To the music of its drums, with cadenced step, the wild
battalion of Swiss and Germans led the march. In short
tunics and tight pantaloons they shone in a hundred vari-
ous colors. Many were of enormous stature, and to exalt
it the more their casques were surmounted with lofty plumes.
Besides the sword, they were armed as a rule with sharp
lances of ash; one quarter of them carried halberds—the
blade hatchet-shaped, surmounted with a four-sided spike.
This (originally the Danish or pole-axe) was a deadly
weapon in their hands. It served both to slash and to stab;
in fact, represented a gigantic sword-blade bayonet. To
each thousand halberdiers there were one hundred musket-
eers. The Swiss despised the cuirass; the front rank
alone wore iron corselets. Behind these Swiss giants
marched five or six thousand little, dark-complexioned,
sunburnt men, vicious-looking, Gascons, the best marchers
in Europe, full of fire, of intelligence, of resources, hard and
quick hitters, each of whom was good for ten mortal shots.
The mounted gendarmes followed, 2500, covered with
iron, each accompanied by his page and two valets; plus,
6000 light cavalrymen. In appearance these were feudal
troops, but in reality the very contrary. As a rule, the
captains were no longer noblemen leading their vassals,
but the king’s men commanding those more noble than
themselves. “In France,” said Guicciardini, “every one
can attain command.” The heavy horses of this cavalry,
bobbed and cropped in French fashion, without tails and
without ears, astonished the Italians, and appeared to them
as monsters.
The light-horsemen carried the English long bow of
Agincourt and of Poitiers, which launched strong cloth-
yard arrows. Thus the French had adopted the weapons
of their enemies. -
Around the king, on foot, besides the Scotch guard, 300
archers and 200 knights, all gold and purple, shouldering
iron maces, served as escort. -
Behind these came thirty-six bronze cannon, each weigh-
ing 6000 pounds; then the long culverins (guns of position);
then 100 falcons (lightest field-pieces), rolling briskly along,
not dragged slowly by oxen, according to the Italian method.
Each piece had a team of six active horses, on a mobilized
carriage, which in action was unlimbered and at once was
in battery.
Every beholder comprehended that this display indicated
a great revolution in military affairs, and not the mere pas-
Sage of an ordinary army. -
This era of Charles VII., father, Louis XI., son, and
Charles VIII., grandson, was an era of warlike innova-
tions in every branch of the military service. Louis XI.
was the first French monarch who had a large quantity of
cannon. He first introduced cast-iron and bronze guns;
cast-iron shot superseded stone bullets, and in his intrenched
camp of instruction in 1480 he had a large and respectable
park of artillery. During his reign the medical service
began to hold up its head for the first time since the legion-
ary organization foundered, with its surgeon to each cohort,
its hospital attendants and much of what is now deemed
260
ARMY.
indispensable, but had not been dreamed of for centuries.
In the succeeding reign of Louis XII., France had one of
those terrible awakenings whose vigor astonishes the world.
In 1510, Gaston de Foix being commander-in-chief, a na-
tive French Napoleon of the first quarter of the sixteenth
century, the French Enfants Perdus, or light troops (foot-
men) appeared, the best marchers for centuries which Eu-
rope had seen, and for centuries were to feel. At Ravenna,
on Easter Sunday, 1512, they had a fearful baptism of blood
and fire. This was the era of the introduction of the Ger–
man Landsknechts (mercenary foot) and Hachenschützen
(arquebusiers), the regimenting of infantry, the protection
or support of artillery with picked troops, and “the dis-
appearance of chivalry.” Immediately the order of battle
of necessity had to be adapted to the use of the rapidly
improving firearms, and armies, as men of this century
comprehend the term, were in being.
Thus the passage of the Alps by the young king Charles
VIII., feeble, big-headed, six-toed to each foot, realized
what Bismarck remarked of the Prusso-French war of
1870–71. This invasion of Italy by an organized national
army was more than an invasion or an episode of war in
the common application of the term—it was a historical
phase.
and ready to pass away, and new developments of civiliza-
tion were in the process of germination or ready for the
shock to fecundate them. War is ever the necessary agent
of this, and this new birth, like every other bringing forth
of any new existence in human affairs, like human parturi-
tion, must be accompanied with anxiety intense, agony ex-
treme, and loss of blood profuse; with an actual tearing to
pieces. Thus armies are the midwives of progress.
It is in vain for other nations to attempt to deny that the
military art and science owe the impulse of their progress
to France and to French ideas; witness the introduction
into all other services of so much of its nomenclature; but
they also owe their highest practical development and close
application to the Saxo-Germanic mind.
The military forces of Greece and Rome, of all antiquity
indeed, except Egypt (native) and Phoenician or Cartha-
ginian (mercenary), and of every other nation prior to 1450,
were militia, more or less highly organized, subjected to
a greater or lesser degree of discipline and instruction.
Whether or not Philip of Macedon maintained a standing
army is open to discussion. The advantage of an army of
natives over one composed of mercenaries is shown especially
in reverses. A national army may be beaten, but it is difficult
to destroy it so that it may not revive from its very ashes;
as, for instance, that of Rome after Cannae. It will learn
by experience, by being beaten, to conquer or persevere, as
was the case with the Romans against Hannibal, the Rus-
sians against Charles XII., the Austrians against Frederick
the Great, the Allies against France republican and im-
perial. With mercenaries, however, disaster or dearth is
dissolution or worse, as happened more than once to Car-
thage, and to those who employed German or Swiss lands-
knechts and reiters. Still, the iron hand of Discipline and
the genius of a master like Hannibal could organize in-
vincible troops from the most discordant materials. This
would indicate-that while nothing can afford an antidote to
indiscipline, discipline can remedy almost everything. An
idea can make good defective discipline, and ideas amount-
ing to fanaticism almost, but not entirely, supply the place
of discipline; but, caeteris paribus, discipline is the nephesh
or living spirit of an army, without which it is dead. Such
armies as Hannibal’s are like the “Grand Company” of
Werner and Fra Moreale in the fourteenth century—wast
forces of condottieri, which, led by great captains such as
Saxe-Weimar, Baner, Torstenson, and Frederick the Great;
their “Monks of the Flag” anneal into masses almost as
irresistible as fate. Indeed, Hannibal, greatest of generals
and war administrators, has been actually compared to a
condottiere on the grandest scale, even though no one was fit
to be named as his parallel for eighteen centuries, until Ba-
ner, the second Gustavus, and Torstenson, “the inimitable,”
demonstrated, under similar circumstances, that armies are
ever subjected to the same laws and influenced by the ap-
plication of like qualities in a leader. There was compara-
tively no discipline in the French republican armies, espe-
cially that wonderful army which from the Maritime Alps
carried victory eastward to the last Alpine ridge before it
sinks into the Austrian plain, and southward to the Gulf of
Tarentum. Critics, eye-witnesses, and associates admit this.
Enthusiasm took its place, and a belief in its innate force,
its invincibility, such as permeated the U.S. army in Mexico,
and made the escort of a wagon-train willing to encounter
any force which sought to bar its way.
The only existing national army which continues to be
militia, pure and simple, is that of Switzerland, unless the
old Bönder system still holds good in Norway. The mili-
tary force or army of Holland was a union of regulars and
The existing conditions of society were crumbling'
militia, to the uninitiated something like that of the U. S.,
but in reality vastly superior and more reliable. Prussia's
organization is a union of regulars and militia in the strict-
est definition of the term (using the word “militia. * in the
sense of “the gallant and well-exercised militias of the
principal republics of Greece,” which were overthrown by
the forces of Philip of Macedon, that “may be termed a
standing army”). The Prussian system has been imitated
in Sardinia—a feeble imitation, as was demonstrated in the
campaigns of Custoza and Novara—and, later, in Turkey,
and may be said to operate wherever a Landwehr and Land-
sturm, “ordinary and extraordinary militia,” are recognized
as the bases, constituting besides the regular force, equally
important elements of the national army.
The famous English bowmen—who won such victories as
Falkirk, 22d July, 1298; Halidon Hill, 19th July, 1333;
Crecy, 25th Aug., 1346; Poitiers or Maupertuis, 19th Sept.,
1356; Agincourt, 25th Oct., 1415; Pinkey, 10th Sept., 1547
—were warlike militia, and nothing else — militia in the
true sense of the expression, as were the Franks of Charles
Martel, and not in the signification in which the term is mis-
understood in the U. S. From the time of the Balearic sling-
ers, taught in childhood to rely upon their peculiar weapons
for their food (fifth century B.C.), and the Carduchians, who
slaughtered the legionaries of Crassus, there were no marks-
men or sharpshooters for many centuries, until the Indian
wars in America developed the capabilities of the rifle
(whose regular introduction into European armies dates
from the American Revolution), with the exception of the
above-mentioned English long-bowmen, who well deserved
the proud term applied to them : “In the forefrount, he
(Richard III., no mean general nor authority) placed the
archers like a strong fortified trench or bulwarke.” These
archers were equivalent to such unsurpassed skirmishers as
were many of our woodsmen who glorified the war for the
Union. Even so from Maharbal to Ziethen and Seydlitz
no cavalry existed worthy of the fame which these have
connected immutably with their names. Charlemagne's
armies are claimed to have been organized according to
the old Roman discipline, but this is impossible. Still, that
there was an acknowledged system needs no other proof
than the success and extent of his campaigns against the
most different peoples—from the obstimate Saxon to the in-
tellectual Moor, from the brutish Hun to the Latinized
Goth. Each of these had an army of its own, with pe-
culiar weapons and tactics. To meet them the Nether-
landish hero and emperor must have had armament, dis-
cipline, and a system of logistics. Even without proof the
results obviate any demonstration that his armies could
not have been mere hordes like those of the Crusaders.
Modern war as a fixed or exact science dates from Mau-
rice of Nassau or Gustavus Adolphus, in the beginning of
the seventeenth century. The first real articles of war pub-
lished were those of the latter. The first infantry which,
in square, laughed to scorn the efforts of the best existing
cavalry, the Polish, at Wallhof, 7th Jan., 1626 (type of Bona-
parte's battle of the Pyramids), were likewise his. His
was the first artillery, whether its effective development
was due to him or Torstenson, which manoeuvred and played
the part of modern artillery according to modern ideas.
His was the first cavalry which charged in successive lines,
with reserves or supports to rally on. (Here it may be as well
to remark that in appearance, except as to armor, the cav-
alry of the Thirty Years' war resembled in dress and duties
those of the “great American conflict” as near as might be.
With their felt hats, drooping feathers, short tunics, heavy
boots, scraggy, ill-groomed horses, and accoutrements, the
picture of one of their columns might pass for one of ours on
a raid.) His were the first field-engineers, although the Turks
had retained a rude knowledge of this art, derived from the
Romans or Byzantines. Vauban, Montecuculi, and Prince
Eugène have left their testimony of this. Witness the
last's successful operations against Lille in 1708, “a happy
medium between the Turkish mode of never relieving their
people until the end of a siege, and our system (British)
of so frequently changing.” (See “War in Low Countries,”
34, 35.) His was the first organized staff administered
systematically. His was the first camp which bred a series
of scientific generals, who, through a succession of great
captains, changed the fate of every European nation in
whose service they were commissioned. Even in England
this was so through Leslie, who crushed Montrose, victor in
seven battles, and it might be said in as many campaigns,
at Philipshaugh, 13th Sept., 1645. “These warriors, trained
in the school of Gustavus and his successor, Bernard of
Weimar, Baner, Horn, and the inimitable Torstenson, were
scattered through the different countries of Europe,” etc.
There is no doubt that a number of men ahead of their
time, but imbued with the principles of the scientific mili-
tary past, or taught by personal experience of what was
needed, worked in to the result achieved by Gustavus
ARMY.
Adolphus: Simon Stevin of Bruges in fortification; Coligny
in rapid marches and concentration and combination; de
Iohan in tactics and handling of troops, especially moun-
tain-warfare; Maurice of Nassau in equipment and detail—
Maurice, whose camp was the finest school of officers which
had existed for centuries; Torstenson for artillery; Königs-
mark for partisan operations, flying columns, so styled, on a
grand scale demonstrating their effectiveness.
But the time has now arrived when a standing army has
become a necessity for the maintenance of government.
With the introduction of firearms it was no longer a ques-
tion of individual foresight and exertion, but of national
effort and preparation. These last involved time and out-
lay, the application of a sovereign's prerogatives, a national
expenditure. “Among his arguments in favor of standing
armies in modern times, Adam Smith enumerates the greater
difficulty of preserving any considerable degree of order
and prompt obedience from the noise of firearms, the smoke,
and the invisible death to which every man feels himself
every moment exposed as soon as he comes within cannon
shot, and frequently a long time before the battle can be
well said to be engaged. ‘In an ancient battle,’ he says,
‘there was no noise but what arose from the human voice;
there was no smoke ; there was no invisible cause of wounds
or death. Every man, till some mortal weapon actually did
oppose him, saw clearly that no such weapon was near him.’”
With the introduction of small-arms and artillery another
new element of success had to be taken into consideration,
precision of aim, as well as rapidity of fire. The effects
of a point-blank volley delivered by an extensive deploy-
ment of cool and practised troops would invariably de-
termine a battle were there no supports or reserves to
retrieve the effect of such a volcano. Witness that scath-
ing discharge at thirty paces of Wolfe’s veterans upon
Montcalm’s gallant charge at Quebec, in 1759; or those
volleys, again, of the duke of Cumberland’s column at Fon-
tenoy, in 1745, which actually annihilated in succession
every French line of battle which attempted to stop their
audacious advance. It was not until the ammunition of the
Bnglish was wellnigh exhausted, their formation breached
with point-blank discharges of artillery, and the gaps pene-
trated by fresh and furious cavalry, that, with victory al-
most within their grasp, the intrepid troops were compelled
to relinquish their efforts, and sullenly withdraw from the
field of their everlasting glory. (Henderson’s Duke of Cum-
berland, 77–96.) The republic of Venice, wisest in its gen-
eration, comprehended this at once, and passed laws for
the training of its arquebus-men. Very few students are
aware of the immense influence in this regard exercised by
the elector Maximilian of Bavaria. Had the other Roman
Catholic sovereigns evinced a like prescience, the Thirty
Years’ war might not have eventuated in favor of free
thought. Few monarchs ever paid more attention to mus-
ketry fire or thorough organization. Fortunately, his sphere
was small, and he found few imitators, and his enemies,
not his allies, profited by his examples and efforts.
With the Thirty Years' war began a new era of military
history, and the world was henceforth to bow beneath the
crushing weight of standing armies.
Prussia, which now stands first in rank as a military
power, was the first to set an example of the mobilization
of cavalry proper and of horse-artillery. Fehrbellin was
a turning-point. There the great elector, Frederick the
Great's great-grandfather, vanquished those Swedes, hith-
erto unconquered, who had beaten all others. He demon-
strated what singleness of objective, the perception of it and
of the value of time and celerity, and determination in execu-
tion, must accomplish. These, when combined, constitute the
secret of success in war. From this time forward Prussian
troops made their mark on almost every battle-field of Eu-
rope. The reign which saw these great changes inaugu-
rated—that of Louis XIV.-saw them almost completed.
The introduction of the bayonet restored to infantry that ag-
gressive power which was lost with the just contempt of the
knights on horseback for the villain or serf on foot. Since
then but little changes have occurred, except in amelior-
ation and perfection. The general introduction of uniforms
has even been attributed to Louis XIV. This is an error.
In his army, however, the identifying regimental clothing
was first carried out thoroughly and splendidly. The dis-
tinctive dress dates back to the Carthaginians, in whose army
every nationality wore peculiar clothing and bore particu-
lar arms. For instance, their Spanish forces wore white
faced with purple; so the Grecian phalanx had made all
the field resplendent with crimson and gold, or brass bur-
nished into the brightness of the more precious metal. In
the first we have the type of the Austrian, in the second that
of the English uniform. Ezekiel (600 B.C.) alludes to
blue as the distinguishing color of the Assyrian uniforms,
“clothed most gorgeously.” Nahum (710 B.C.) speaks of
the “valiant men’’ of the forces confederated against Nin-
261
eveh as wearing scarlet garments and as carrying red shields.
At Angora (1402), in Tamerlane's army, Mohammed's con-
tingent from Samarcand were uniformed complete by regi-
ments. In the fifteenth century, at the relief of Neuss,
the bishop of Münster's troops (7400 men) were clad all in
green. In the army of Gustavus Adolphus different organi-
zations wore distinctive colors in cloth and facings. With
Louis XIV., however, uniform became the rule, the law.
Here we have an army in the strictest sense of the word—
regular, paid, permanent, uniformed, armed alike in each arm
and branch of the service, disciplined, with pontoon trains,
engineer corps; in fact, every appliance which science and
Service demanded. Never before had such existed. There
was room for improvement, but nothing required a begin-
ning. The idea was born and had a strong growth. The
future could add little but adaptability to changed cus-
toms, habits, advanced and extended civilization. Armies
were now tolerably complete as to all working purposes, if not
perfectly complete in every particular and detail with staff and
staff corps, for the first time since the legion was in its prime.
It is well, however, to bear in mind that it was not until
the end of 1797 that the staff (état major) of armies assumed
its present form. In 1682 companies of cadets were formed
for the instruction of young men destined for the service.
Companies of miners (engineer troops) were now also,
for the first time, regularly instructed and embodied. In
the next few years and campaigns the value of these organi-
zations was fully tested, and their efficiency proved. At
the first siege of Luxembourg, 1684, in which they were
present, exercising functions such as engineers of to-day
discharge, eight were killed and nineteen wounded. In
1692 another less important but more remarkable change
occurred. The pike, which since the first formation of
armies, and for thousands of years, had been the principal
weapon of infantry, was superseded by the bayonet, intro-
duced, like many other notable ameliorations, such as cop-
per pontoons, improved tactics, etc., by General Martinet, an
officer the reverse of the popular opinion entertained of him.
Steinkirk, 1692, was the last battle in Europe in which any
bodies of infantry were armed with pikes. The contest in
which the bayonet was first used is much disputed. Accord-
ing to some, it was at Turin, 1692, and the first charge at
Spire in 1703. The pike or half pike, eight feet long, still
lingered in the hands of officers, under the name of esponton
or spontoon, down to the beginning of this century, and its
manual or mention was to be found in our militia regula-
tions within the memory of the writer: “The militia law
of the United States requires that the commissioned officers
shall, severally, be armed with a sword or hanger, and es-
ponton.” It is doubtful if this law of 1792 has been repealed.
The armies of Louis XIV. and those confederated against
him accomplished all any army had accomplished or can ac-
complish. Witness Marlborough's march to Blenheim, 13th
Aug., 1704, and Eugène's to Turin, 7th Sept., 1706. The
first has never been surpassed, the second seldom equalled,
in the annals of warlike achievements. Henceforward, the
histories of European armies present magnificent efforts in
obedience to surpassing genius, but it is always the same
old story over again, with a variation of detail, but no im-
portant difference. -
If judging from cause and effect is a criterion, one of
the finest armies that ever existed was that of Cromwell,
1643–58. It deserves attention because it constituted a
connecting link between the organizations of Maurice and
Gustavus and those of William III., Louis XIV., and Marl-
borough. For its size it was as complete a working army as
the world ever saw. England never possessed a native army
but that of Cromwell, if indeed at any time it exhibited
one to compare with it. For their day, and perhaps for
any day, Cromwell’s “Ironsides” were the best mounted,
equipped, armed, uniformed, disciplined, and effective cay-
alry that ever charged an enemy. Their “get up ’’ was in
its way perfect, but they were so few they can only be con-
sidered as a model in petto of what all cavalry should be.
In this they resembled the Swedish hussars of the Guard
upon whom Nolan dwelt with so much emphasis—a very
perfect text for the head of an exercise, with a blank page
below.
English infantry, likewise, had already made a name
which justified Bugeaud's remark, quoted by Trochu, that
it was lucky for the world there were so few of them. Na-
poleon I. said, “I think that if I were at their head I
could make them capable of anything.”
But to return to the armies of the "close of the seven-
teenth and first decade of the eighteenth centuries. Little
has been better done than they did with the means at their
commands, either in field operations or sieges. The siege
of Maestricht, 29th of June, 1673, is remarkable for being
the first at which European armies made use of the zigzags,
or the present mode of tracing approaches in attacking a
fortified place. They were introduced by Vauban, who
262
ARMY.
borrowed them from the Turks. It is generally believed
that parallels were first employed at this siege; but this
is a mistake, and Vauban's talents and skill do not require
any erroneous statements to give them a false glare.
Trenches, to contain the assailants, had been excavated
parallel to the works of the fortress to be attacked from
the earliest times. Vauban's improvement consisted in
tracing the approach or communication from the parallel,
so that it should not be enfiladed, and which the Turks had
done long before. Montecuculi, in his Mémoires, talking
of the Turks, of whose military skill, as it existed in his
time, he had very deservedly a high opinion, says: “They
do not construct their trenches upon the shortest line,
flanking them with redoubts from distance to distance, but
they make them in curved lines, transversal, parallel to the
place they are approaching, so that they can neither be
enfiladed from the place nor damaged by its cannon.”
There is another article in the Turkish system of disci-
pline relative to sieges, as quoted by Montecuculi, which,
in a modified degree, might be with advantage introduced
into our service. Those who have witnessed the little labor
performed by soldiers, the negligence in general of (in
other respects) good officers, when employed upon working-
parties, the time lost in relieving the detachments, and the
hurry they are invariably in to be relieved, will perhaps
agree that a medium between the two customs would be an
improvement. “They (the Turks) do not change the guards
of the trenches nor the working-parties: when they (the
troops) have once been assigned to a position, they remain
there to the end of the siege; their food, water, wood, and
every other necessary are brought to them.”
In reflecting upon the stupendous lines of earthworks
executed almost at a nod by the opposing armies in the
Low Countries in the wars of William III. and Marl-
borough, thinking men are at a loss whether most to ad-
mire the docility and good-will of the soldier, or the great
and capacious minds which could conceive and direct such
operations. They are equal to anything ever done by the
Romans, and only require the pen of a Caesar to be duly
appreciated. Take those thrown up by Villeroi and Bouf-
fiers in 1695, from the Lys to the Schelde, twenty miles;
those from the Schelde to the Mehaigne in 1701; those from
the Little Gette to the Meuse, not less than thirty-two miles,
in 1705; from Mons to the Sambre in 1707; those of Marl-
borough against Villars in 1711, twenty-two miles. Moret,
in his “Fifteen Years of Louis XIV.” (i. 131), speaks of
Boufflers' lines as 150 miles long, enveloping Belgium; and
Captain Parkes, who saw them, states in his “Memoirs”
(77) that “Villeroi's lines were prodigiously strong;” they
“surrounded the whole Spanish Netherlands.” Our late
civil war furnishes examples parallel to the above; for in-
stance, the defensive works about Washington, D.C., 37 miles
long, and strongly fortified; and the lines of the Union and
Confederate armies before Richmond and Petersburg, Va.
Some of the marches of that era were likewise extraordi-
nary; twenty-eight miles on a day, with such heavy arms,
equipments, and clothing, is astonishing, when carefully
considered and the condition of the roads and country
taken into account. In Aug., 1711, in turning Villars'
“ne plus ultras,” Marlborough's troops marched sixteen
hours without once halting (Alison, 281), and in Sept.,
1791, the prince of Hesse, 49 miles in fifty-six successive
hours (Ibid., 224). Even as late as 1776 the British army in
America carried sixty pounds per man, when uniform and
equipments, everything, had been greatly simplified and mo-
bilized. The British light infantry wore then a model dress.
How much greater was the load under which Marlborough's
veterans bore up ! Nevertheless, the very movements of the
day of Oudenarde are exemplary. In motion at 2 A. M.,
the allies marched 15 miles and crossed the Schelde to begin
a battle which lasted from 3 P.M. until the obscurity of night
alone put an end to the firing, and diminished the already
wonderful results of the victory. *
“Since the days of Marlborough,” remarks a distinguished
officer of British engineers, Sir James Carmichael Smith,
“a most excellent system of tactics has been unquestion-
ably introduced into the British army. Changes of front.
are made with rapidity and precision; columns are de-
ployed, or the line formed into columns, with an accuracy
and celerity formerly never even contemplated. It appears,
however, open to discussion, whether, in the great and es-
sential points which ought to form the character of the sol-
dier, such as cheerfulness under privations, readiness to
encounter fatigue às well as danger, perseverance under
toil, and courage in the field, the army of Marlborough has,
or ever can be, excelled.”
The next stride in advance in all army organization
matters was made by Frederick II. (the Great). With
him, however, in many cases it was the practical applica-
tion of improvements in theory originated in the reign of
his common-sense father, so misjudged and misunderstood.
As early as the first decade of the eighteenth century the
Prussian was the pattern discipline, and Prussian esprit de
corps acknowledged and renowned. The introduction of
the iron ramrod was due to the “Old Dessauer,” general-
field-marshal of the Prussian armies; and this simple im-
provement gave a double force to the Prussian infantry,
which his tactics—he is considered the father of the world’s
present tactics—quadrupled again by augmenting their
manoeuvring capacity. Frederick the Great was his pu-
pil in beginnings, but he soon soared far beyond the vision
of the pedagogue. The pupil seemed competent to realize
the impossible. He lent “wings to the lightning” by the
introduction of flying (horse) artillery (first battery 1759).
Under him the reforms in the tactics of the three arms be-
came accomplished facts in active service, but especially on
the battle-field. His line tactics were as the working of ma-
chinery, and his revival or application of the oblique order
of battle gave him victories such as Fame has seldom re-
corded—gave him one, Leuthen, such as has never been
equalled since war has had reliable annals. Under him and
his lieutenants, Ziethen and Seydlitz, Europe, the world,
first saw cavalry such as it never yet had beheld since those
of Hannibal’s lieutenant, Maharbal—unless, perhaps, those
Trabants of Charles XII. of Sweden, if they were what they
were represented to be, and the chimeras dire of opponents
without discipline—cavalry such as it should be, such as it
never has been since. When the Seven Years’ war was
forced upon Frederick in 1756 the “use of cavalry in the
Prussian army was at its highest perfection.” These, whose
magnitude can scarcely be comprehended by an unmilitary
mind, were still but a few of the great and beneficial changes
he inaugurated. He administered, marched, moved, and
fought armies as they never had been before handled and
battled, and he appreciated, first had a realizing sense, of
what was well known, no doubt, as a theory and neglected
as a fact, that “an army, like a serpent, goes on its belly.”
IBut why dwell on Frederick 2 This world has existed six
thousandyears, and with the means at his command no equal
to “der Einzige” has ever appeared on its stage. Through
his army he elevated little Prussia, to the rank of a first-
rate power. He did more : he showed it the possible fu-
ture—the way through its army to that future. He did
even more: while he enforced a discipline which was hailed
as exemplary, he permeated his army and his people with
an idea. And Napoleon has left us his witness of a fact that
he discovered too late, and to his ruin—that “the moral is
to the physical in war as three to one.” In regard to every
subordinate matter which unites in the consideration of the
subject “Army,” Frederick’s stand is the pre-eminent
position of the statue upon the column. He must rank
among the very first generals and administrators of the
world. Others had and have fought armies grandly and
successfully; but he made one—an example of a fighting
army, susceptible of everything required of an army. He
left an army which, notwithstanding its misfortunes, served
as an example, a base-course qualified to bear any weight
imposed upon it, as time has shown. It still exists imbued
with the Frederickian idea of its invincibility—the first,
the cynosure, among the six or seven military powers of
Europe: 1, Prussia (or Germany, but Prussia is the vital
force); 2, Russia; 3, France; 4, Austria; 5, England; 6,
Italy; 7, Spain.
Before closing this article upon the army organization
of the seven great Christian powers of Europe in the past
—of which, however, only four, Prussia, Russia, France,
and Austria, were truly great—the pre-eminence in every
respect must be given to Prussia. Russia may have a
larger numerical force, but Prussia (or Germany) has the
most reliable, and must be regarded as the greatest mili-
tary power. If the opinion of Napoleon is entitled to con-
sideration, it may be looked upon as perfect. He said that
a country in which the whole male population fit to bear
arms were cemented together by discipline or grouted into
a cohesion by thorough organization, would have a perfect
army. Were Prussia’s national resources derivative from
commerce, internal and external, from fertility of soil and
agricultural proficiency, from manufacturing industry and
mining commensurate with her military organization—were
the nation on a par with the army—there would be scarcely
any limit to its aggressive capabilities.
It is a curious fact that the elements or principles of the
military system or organization of Prussia are the oldest of
which there are authentic records. Of course, in this view
of the case the Egyptian must be omitted, because the critic
is dependent for his facts upon records which, whatever re-
liability is conceded, are nevertheless very open to question.
Although in the Rosetta Stone a key was discovered, it does
not follow that that key unlocks every difficulty. Like the
method of interpretation of the inscriptions disentombed at
Nineveh, worked out with so much skill and perseverance
by the German scholar Grotefend, the result is by no means
ARMY.
263
fixed, and until further corroboration is found it is little
better than a process of more or less accurate guesswork.
“The principles of the Prussian system are to be observed
in the military institutions of David, the second king of
Israel. Like those of Prussia, it is remarkable that the
natural foundation of all this grandeur was laid in the very
beginning of a civil war of five years’ continuance, which,
to all appearance, was wasteful, and would be ruinous, both
to him and his people. But whilst his enemies, for that
reason, left him unmolested, he employed that whole time
partly in gaining over the tribes to him, and partly in train-
ing up all those who sided with him to arms—his own tribe
first, and all the rest gradually as they joined him ; and all
this under a specious and unsuspected color of keeping up
a proper force against Ishbosheth his rival. And as his army
at no time exceeded the number of twenty-four thousand
men, so small a number created no suspicion, nor gave any
jealousy to his neighbors, who never reflected that these
troops were changed every month, and an equal number of
new men brought into military discipline; or if they ob-
served that it was so after some time, possibly this gave
them less suspicion, apprehending that there was less to be
feared from a body of raw, undisciplined men; little con-
sidering that by this monthly and regular rotation every
man in his dominions must in a little time be trained up to
arms, and in the course of a few circulations thoroughly
disciplined, as in fact it came to pass. For we find him, in
little more than eight or nine years, able to withstand the
united force of all his neighbor nations invading him at
once, which perhaps never was the case of any other prince
from the foundation of the world.”
“It is true, other princes (Alexander the Great, for ex-
ample, and Charles XII. of Sweden) have been combined
against and invaded by some of their neighbors in the be-
ginning and (as they deemed it) infancy of their reigns;
but I cannot recollect that ever I heard or read of any gene-
ral combination unanimously entered into against any
princes of any nation, and yet totally defeated, except
David.”
Thus far is a quotation from “The Historical Account of
the Life and Reign of David,” published in London in
1752, just four years before the commencement of the Seven
Years' war, when Frederick the Great of Prussia was as-
sailed by a confederation of nations whose population was
to his own as nearly, if not more than, twenty-five to one—
when the same Prussia, which he raised to such a rank
among the European kingdoms had fallen lower than he
found it in consequence of the Peace of Tilsit : a system
analogous to that of David raised it again, through its
army, and its army alone, to its pristine position of pride
and strength.
Scharnhorst was the chief of the commission for the re-
organization of the army. Among its other members was
von Boyen, who afterwards became minister of war under
Frederick William III. and IV. ; Grolmann; and, lastly,
the gentle, kind, but particularly clever, Augustus von
Gneisenau. -
Although to Scharnhorst was entrusted the carrying out
the reform of the army, Stein, who reorganized the civil
administration, influenced the result materially with his
clear sense and master mind. Whatever credit enures to
the military men, without Stein all would have come to
naught, for he it was first recognized in action that the true
foundation of the state was “the people in its writy,” and
that a nation which wished to be respected had first to
prove its own self-respect by a spirit of freedom and inde-
pendence. Scharnhorst's system, in the new organization
of the army, was based on the general obligation of all
citizens to carry arms for the defence of the country; the
monopoly of the nobility with regard to commissions in the
army was abolished; any man might rise from the ranks,
even to be a general—in war, by bravery and presence of
mind; in peace, by military knowledge and acquirements.
Corporal punishment was done away with, the pigtail was
cut off, and “the worship of pipeclay ” vanished. The re-
strictive clause of the Peace of Tilsit, according to which
Prussia was allowed to keep only 42,000 troops, Scharn-
horst quietly evaded by making new levies every year, and
the trained soldiers returning to their homes, from whence
they might be summoned in right time to form the nucleus
of an army. The first idea of the “Landwehr’’ and “Land-
sturm,” which afterwards led to such surprisingly fortunate
results, was, even at that time, conceived and first developed
by Scharnhorst.
The Russian army, the offspring of Peter the Great, has
always, since it deserved the title of an army, been remark-
able for the steadiness of its infantry. Zorndorf is one of
the most wonderful instances of an infantry blasted away by
a superlative infantry, mowed down by an efficient artillery,
and stormed into by the finest cavalry in the world, all
three arms directed by pre-eminent ability, “beaten with-
perfect, in application it proved directly opposite.
out flying;”—an infantry which under a Suwarrow could
emulate, and even surpass, the dash of the republican
French. But solidity and obedience need nevertheless
something more; and it is well to remember the remark of
Wellington, who, after witnessing a review of 132,000. Rus-
sian infantry, 28,000 cavalry, and 540 guns on the plains
of Vertus, 10th of Sept., 1815, said to the marquis of Lon-
donderry, “Well, Charles, you and I never saw such a sight
before, and never shall again; the precision of the move-
ments of these troops was more like the arrangements of a
theatre than those of such an army; but still, I think my
little army would move round them in any direction while
they were effecting a single change.”
The organization of the English army, based upon volun-
tary enlistment, has been pronounced by foreign officers of
thorough education and acute observation as unworthy of
scientific study—that is, for home application, although the
United States have borrowed a great deal from it—in the wri-
ter's opinion, to their detriment. Great merit, however, has
been conceded to the British engineers and artillery. The ex-
cellence of the British infantry has been ascribed to the
natural qualities of the people, and the dash of its cavalry
to their habits of life. Almost all the marvellous achieve-
ments of England’s footmen must be credited to their un-
shakable determination or pluck, and the judgment of the
Russian general upon the charge at Balaklava, that “it was
very magnificent, but it was not war,” can be applied with
some exceptions to the most notable exploits of the British
horse. The staff corps, whose service is connected with lo-
gistics, have proved themselves as unreliable as our own de-
veloped a capacity which excited the admiration of all com-
petent to criticise. If the former had not been backed by
the resources of the wealthiest of nations—profuse expend-
iture making good the shortcomings of red-tape and mis-
direction—they would have neutralized all that bravery
and fortitude could achieve—qualities which have rendered
the British arms pre-eminently conspicuous. The military
organization of Spain affords little to instruct, and less to
imitate. With rare exceptions—and even the majority
of these attributable to foreign direction—the military
forces of the Spanish Peninsula have demonstrated a
want of efficiency, especially within three centuries, which
almost raises a doubt as to the validity of the encomiums
lavished upon the Spanish infantry said to have been de-
stroyed at Rocroi. So much so, that unbiassed criticism can
equitably ask if the superiority of the Spanish arms in the
zenith of their renown was not attributable to circum-
stances and comparison with inferior opponents, and (ex-
cept in certain cases, as, for instance, that of Gonsalvo de
Cordova, the “great captain ’’) to Teutonic elements, much
more than to those of Spanish proper or cognate origin.
Prior to the Prusso-French war of 1870–71 the French
army organization was considered the best in Europe, and
yet a few days sufficed to demonstrate the hollowness of that
which seemed the acme of solidity, and the feebleness of that
which appeared adequate to resist any strain. In º
y
Because it wanted vitality, living, sentient discipline. Thus,
for a practical application it was the antithesis to that of
the United States—scarcely considered worthy of more than
a short paragraph or passing notice in any work consulted
upon military affairs. Looked upon by experts as too defec-
tive for study, the military system of the U. S. displayed
an elasticity and strength which showed that our skeleton
formation, through the inherent force of our people, could
be clothed upon with the muscle of an athlete, reversing
the opinion of the duke of Alva—held for three centuries
in Europe as an irreversible judgment—that veterans con-
stituted the bone, sinew, and vital force of an army, to
which new troops added no strength, but only plumpness
and appearance. This capacity for expansion without de-
stroying efficiency called forth from the famous French en-
gineer-officer Rossel, shot at Sartory by the Thiers admin-
istration of vengeance, one of the most eloquent tributes
ever paid by an able and accomplished officer to the military
force and army of a foreign nation (Abregé de l’Art de la
Guerre, Paris, 1871): “Since the grand wars (terminating
in 1815) progress has been especially a question of tech-
nology. In Europe the Prussians alone have shown them-
selves investigators, and have made war subservient to great
political designs, but there is little of art in their cam-
paigns. Theirs are lessons thoroughly learned, theirs are
improvisations studied out for fifty years and recited to
perfection. But if there is a difference between modern
war and war as it was made at the beginning of the nine-
teenth century, it must be sought out in the study of the
war of secession in the U.S. The war of secession was an
industrial, progressive war—humane, if the term is accept-
able. -
“As a military element, the corps of West Point officers is
assuredly better (I do not say more instructed) than all the
264
ARMY CORPS–ARNAULD.
officers of Europe; as a political, a giant democracy, rugged
for work, jealous of all its leaders. There all the new meth-
ods were tried, all the old ones were resurrected again;
now, chambers of mines, such as were constructed in the
sixteenth century; now, again, railroad trains brought into
play against cavalry. As soon as a warlike procedure is
recognized and appreciated, it is pushed to the extreme;
abuse or excess of field fortifications; abuse of battles;
abuse of skirmishers; of the navy, of guns. There were de-
fences of forts such as should make all the commandants of
fortified places in France and Alsace sink into the ground;
battles of eight days, without termination and without pity;
improvised armies staked and lost in less time than is me-
cessary in Europe for a declaration of hostilities. There war
constructed railroads, created ports, turned the course of
rivers; to sum up, there the world beheld the application to
this terrible science of all the exuberance of life, of a people
seriously active, young, intelligent, and incapable of fear.
“Of military genius there was little or none, or at least
confined to the second rank. Genius is something not prac-
tical, nor of commodious employment—above all, among
these republicans. But, to make up for this, there was a
very great deal of practical intelligence; the genius of com-
merce applied to war; the fever of production made use of
to destroy. There war is not a speculation or a result, as
with us; it is a business; and he was the good general who
was capable of figuring out his balance-sheet and passing to
his profit account the active and passive balances of the wise
use of the time, of the money, and of the blood at his dis-
posal. If we wish to begin anew, it is there in the United
States that we must seek the elements and bring them down
to our measure.” In Von Hardegg’s “Worlesungen über
Kriegsgeschichte,” published at Stuttgart in 1852, the curi-
ous reader will find “ chronological tables” that refer to
leading works on military matters, which will enlighten him
on almost every point referred to under this head, “Army.”
This valuable work was republished at Darmstadt and
Leipsic, 1868, under the title of “Anleitung zum Studium
der Kriegsgeschichte.” (For a Review of the present armies
of Europe and America, see ORGANIZATION — Eacisting
Army.) J. WATTS DE PEYSTER.
Army Corps. See CoRPs D'ARMāE.
Army List, an official publication issued by the British
war office, contains the names of all the commissioned offi-
cers in the British army, arranged according to the dates
of their commissions. Then come the officers of that por-
tion of the queen’s army which belongs exclusively to In-
dia. The bulk of the work is filled with an enumeration
of all the regiments in the queen’s army, and all the officers
in each regiment.
Army Register is an annual register published by
order of the secretary of war, in compliance with an act
of Congress, containing lists of the departments, regiments,
and commissioned officers of the U. S. army, with the pro-
motions and casualties for the year.
Army Regulations is the name of a volume published
by the U. S. war department, containing rules for the man-
agement of troops in camp and field, with instructions for
keeping accounts and making returns to the army bureaus.
It is based upon the Articles of War and other acts of Con-
gress. (See ARTICLES OF WAR.)
Army Worm, in the Northern States the larva or grub
of a night-flying moth (Leuca'nia unipuncta). It varies
considerably in color and size with age and locality, but its
markings are characteristic. It is usually from less than
an inch to an inch and three-quarters in length; dark gray,
with three narrow yellowish stripes above, and a broader
one of nearly the same color on each side; thinly clothed
with short hairs, especially about the head, which is of a
dull yellow color. The ravages of these worms, which
sometimes march over grain-fields in great numbers, are
best prevented by ploughing a double furrow around or
across the field on which they are moving. Then they
may be killed by setting fire to straw in the furrows or by
turning pigs and fowls (after removal of the crop) into the
field. Crows and blackbirds will also destroy them rapidly.
The army worm of the Southern States, a hear relative
of the above, sometimes appears in countless hosts and
devours the cotton. In the West Indies its ravages have
led to a general abandonment of the cotton crop. Water
mixed with 2 per cent. of carbolic acid will, it is said, pre-
vent the mischief. Various other destructive larvae are
called by this name. -
Arna. See ARNEE. -
Arnal’do, or Arnold of Brescia, an eloquent Ital-
ian reformer, born at Brescia about 1100. He was a pupil
of the celebrated Abelard in France, and adopted the mo-
nastic life. As a preacher he boldly reproved the prevalent
venality, luxury, and corruption of the clergy. He af-
firmed that the clergy ought not to possess temporal power
or property. The second Council of the Lateran, in 1139,
condemned Arnaldo as a disturber of the peace, and ban-
ished him from Italy. He retired first to France, where he
encountered the hostility of Saint Bernard, and next to
Switzerland, where he gained many adherents. In the
mean time there was formed in Rome a numerous party
which favored the principles of Arnaldo and were friends
of civil liberty. These revolted in 1143 against the pope,
who fled or was driven out of the city. Arnaldo in 1146
returned to Rome, again raised his voice for religious re-
form, and endeavored to organize a repúblic. His success
was hindered by the violence and excesses of the populace,
which filled the city with disorder for nearly ten years. A
reaction ensued, and Pope Adrian IV. reduced the Romans
to submission by laying the city under an interdict in 1154.
Arnaldo was arrested by the aid of the emperor Frederick
Barbarossa, and was hanged in 1155. (See D. H. FRANKE,
“Arnold von Brescia,” 1825; GREGoRovius, “Geschichte
der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter;” CLAVEL, “Arnauld de
Brescie, et les Romains du XII. Siècle,” 1868.)
Arnal’dus Villanova'nus [It. Arnal’do di Villa-
mo’val, sometimes called ARNALDUs NovICOMENSIs, an emi-
nent physician, born about 1235. He devoted much atten-
tion to alchemy, wrote treatises on medicine, alchemy, and
religion, and was suspected of heresy. He was employed
in diplomacy by the king of Naples. Died in 1312. (See
CAMPEGIUs, “Arnaldi Vita.”)
Arnaouts. See ALBANIA.
Armatto. See ANNOTTO.
Arnaud (HENRI), a pastor of the Waldenses and an
able military commander, was born in Piedmont in 1641.
He commanded the Waldenses (Vaudois), who in 1689 de-
feated the French in several actions, and recovered their
native valleys, from which they had been driven by perse-
cution. He served as colonel in the allied army in the war
of the Spanish succession (1702–13). He published a “His-
toire de la glorieuse Rentrée des Vaudois” (1710), trans-
lated by Ackland (1827). Died in 1721.
Arnauld (ANGáIIQUE), called also ANGáLIQUE DE SAINT
JEAN, an eminent French nun, born Nov. 28, 1624, was a
daughter of Robert Arnauld d’Andilly. She was educated
at Port Royal by her aunt, Marie Angélique, and was a
zealous Jansenist. In 1669 she was elected prioress of the
convent of Port Royal. She acquired a high reputation
for piety, learning, and courageous endurance of persecu-
tion. She became abbess of Port Royal in 1678, after which
she was persecuted by the Jesuits. She wrote memoirs of
her aunt, the abbess Marie Angélique Arnauld (1591–1661).
Died Jan. 24, 1684. (See SAINTE-BEUVE, “Port Royal;”
also BEARD, “Port Royal.”)
Arnauld, formerly written Arnaud (ANTOINE), sur-
named L’Avocat, a famous orator, born in Paris in 1560,
was the most eloquent French advocate of his time. He
was also distinguished for his probity. He became pro-
cureur-général in 1585. His most memorable performance
was his defence of the University of Paris against the Jes-
uits in 1594. He was the father of four distinguished sons
(the eminent Arnaulds of Port Royal) and of six daugh-
ters. Died in 1619.
Arnauld (ANTOINE), called LE GRAND ARNAULD, a cele-
brated Jansenist theologian and philosopher, a son of the
preceding, was born in Paris on the 6th of Feb., 1612. His
mother was Catherine Marion. He was educated in the
Sorbonne, ordained a priest in 1641, and published in 1643
a work “On Frequent Communion,” which was highly es-
teemed, but gave offence to the Jesuits, of whom he was a
constant and strenuous adversary. This book promoted a
reform in the style of Trench theologians. He became a
doctor of the Sorbonne in 1641, and engaged in the contro-
versy between Jansenius and his opponents on the subject
of grace. Having retired to Port Royal, a convent near
Paris, he passed there many years in seclusion, and wrote
numerous works on theology and philosophy. In 1650 he
published an “Apology for the Fathers” (“Apologie pour
les Saints Pères”). He was expelled from the Society of
the Sorbonne in 1656, after which the Jansenists were gen-
erally proscribed and persecuted, both by the civil and
ecclesiastical powers. He aided Pascal in his “Provincial
Letters,” and Lancelot in a “Grammaire générale et rai-
sonnée.” Among his other works are “Logic, or the Art
of Thinking,” commonly called “The Port Royal Logic”
(1662); “The Moral Theology of the Jesuits;” “The Per-
petuity of the Catholic Faith touching the Eucharist de-
fended against Sieur Claude’” (1669); and “The Practical
Morality of the Jesuits” (8 vols., 1683–94). To escape the
persecution which the Jesuits instigated, he became an
exile in 1679, and passed the remainder of his life in
Flanders and Holland. He died near Liege Aug. 8, 1694.

ARNAULD DANDILLY-ARNOBIUS.
265
Boileau, who wrote his epitaph, pronounced him the “most
learned mortal who ever wrote.” Arnauld was distin-
guished for his earnestness and simplicity of character, his
industry, and his a lacrity in controversy. His works oc-
cupy forty-five closely printed quarto volumes, which were
published in 1775–83. (See P. QUESNEL, “Histoire de la
Vie et des Ouvrages de M. Arnauld,” 1697; LARRIñRE,
“Vie d’Antoine Arnauld,” 1783; SAINTE-BEUVE, “Port
Royal,” vol. ii.; WARIN, “La Vérité sur les Arnaulds,” 2
vols., 1847.)
Arnauld d’Andiliy (ROBERT), an able French writer,
born in Paris in 1589, was a brother of Antoine Arnauld
(1612–94), and the father of Angélique (de Saint-Jean),
noticed above. He was appointed intendant of the army
in 1634, and retired to the monastery of Port Royal about
1645. He produced a translation of Josephus’s “His-
tory” (1669), and wrote autobiographical memoirs (1734),
besides two volumes of lives of saints, called “Wies des
Saintes Pères du désert.” Died Sept. 27, 1674. His son
Simon was marquis de Pomponne, and his brother Henry
(1597–1694) was a devout and zealous Jansenist, and in
1649 became bishop of Angers.
Arnault (VINCENT ANTOINE), a French poet and dram-
atist, was born in Paris Jan. 22, 1766. He produced a
tragedy, “Marius at Minturnae'' (1791), which was warmly
applauded, and other tragedies, entitled “Lucretia.” (“Lu-
crèce,” 1792) and “Germanicus” (1816). He was ap-
pointed in 1808 secretary-general to the University. He
was admitted in 1829 into the French Academy, of which
he was chosen perpetual secretary in 1833. Among his
works is “Souvenirs of a Sexagenarian * (4 vols., 1833).
Died Sept. 16, 1834.
Arnd, or Arndt (Joh ANN), a German Lutheran “pie-
tist,” born at Ballendstädt Dec. 27, 1555. He began to
preach at Quedlinburg in 1590, and removed to Brunswick
in 1599. He published a very popular work “On True
Christianity” (“Wom wahren Christenthum”), which was
translated into many languages. W. Jacques produced an
English translation of it in 1815. He was called the Féne-
lon of the Protestants. He became superintendent at Zelle
in 1611. Died May 11, 1621. (See FR. ARNDT, “Johann
Arnd, ein biographischer Versuch,” 1838; F. W. KRUMMA-
CHER, “J. Arnd’s Leben,” 1842; WEHRHAN, “Debensge-
schichte J. Arndts,” 1848; H. L. PERTz, “ Commentatio de
J. Arndtio,” 1852.)
Arndt (ERNST MoRITz), a German patriot and popular
political writer, was born in the island of Rügen Dec. 26,
1769. He travelled extensively in Europe after he left col-
lege, and was appointed professor of history at Greifswalde
in 1806. He published a “History of Serfdom in Pome-
rania, and Rügen,” and animated the Germans to resist-
ance against Napoleon in his “Spirit of the Times” (“Geist
der Zeit,” 1807). He also promoted the patriotic cause by
many eloquent and spirited poems and prose-writings. His
celebrated national song, “What is the German’s Father-
land?” (“Was ist des Deutschen Waterland?”), is, perhaps,
the most popular of all the patriotic songs of Germany. He
married in 1817 a daughter of the celebrated Schleierma-
cher. In 1818 he was appointed professor of history at the
University of Bonn. He was suspended in 1819 on ac-
count of his liberal opinions, but was restored to his chair
in 1840. He was a member of the national assembly which
met at Frankfort in 1848, but he seceded with the constitu-
tional party in 1849. Among his works is “Souvenirs of
my Outward Life” (“Erinnerungen aus dem äussern Le-
ben,” 1840). Died Jan. 29, 1860. (See ScHENKEL, “E. M.
Arndt; eine Biographie,” 1866.)
Arne (THOMAS AUGUSTINE), MUs. DR., a distinguished
English musician, born in London May 28, 1710. He was
a skilful performer on the violin. He set to music Addison's
“Rosamond” in 1731, and gained a high reputation by the
music which he composed for Milton’s “Comus ” (1738).
This formed an era, in the history of English music. The na-
tional air “Rule Britannia” was his composition. Among
his chief productions were “Artaxerxes,” an opera (1762),
and “Eliza,” an opera. He married a vocalist named Ce-
cilia Young in 1740. He excelled especially as a composer
of songs. Died Mar. 5, 1778. His sister Susanna was a
noted performer.
Ar’nee, or Ar’na, a large animal of the order Rumi-
nantia, a native of India, is nearly allied to the ox, and is
sometimes called Bog armee. It is regarded by some natu-
ralists as a wild variety of the buffalo. It is larger than
an ox, and in the full-grown animal one of the horns meas-
ures sometimes more than six feet in length.
Arnſheim, von, or Arnim (JOHANN GEORG), a Ger-
man general and diplomatist, born in Brandenburg in
1581. He gained the rank of field-marshal in 1628, and
entered the service of Saxony in 1630. He commanded a
wing of the army of Gustavus Adolphus at Leipsic in
1631, and was opposed to Wallenstein in 1633. In May,
1634, he defeated the imperialists at Liegnitz. Died April
18, 1641.
Arn'hem, or Arnſheim (anc. Arenacum), a fortified
town of Holland, capital of the province of Gelderland, on
the right bank of the Rhine, 57 miles by rail S. E. of Am-
sterdam. It is very ancient, well built, has a governor’s
palace, and a famous church containing the tombs of the
dukes of Gelderland; also manufactures of paper and cot–
ton and woollen stuffs. A bridge of boats crosses the river
here. Sir Philip Sidney died at Arnhem in 1586. It was
taken in 1795 by the French, who were driven out by the
Prussians in 1813. Pop. in 1869, 31,626. -
Ar’mica [from the Gr. &ps, äpv6s, a “lamb,” on account
of the softness of its leafl, a genus of herbs of the order
Compositae, sub-order Tubuliflorae. The flowers of the ray
are pistillate and ligulate, those of the disk hermaphrodite
and tubular. The receptacle is naked, the pappus bristly.
The root, leaves, and flowers of Arnica montana, or leop-
ard’s bane of Europe, are poisonous when swallowed, and
are even irritant to the skin, but are administered as a
stimulant in paralytic affections, fevers, and other diseases.
They are also applied with benefit to bruises. They con-
tain a volatile oil, a resin, and an alkaloid, armicine. The
root is perennial, the stem about two feet high, simple, with
few leaves, bearing a head of flowers of a dark yellow, often
two inches in breadth. The Arnica multicawlis and mollis
of North America possess similar properties. Besides these
there are five or more species in the Far West.
Arnim. See ARNHEIM, VON.
Ar’nim, von (ELISABETH or BETTINA), a German au-
thoress, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main April 4, 1785, was
a sister of Clemens Brentano. She had a very sensitive
spirit and ardent imagination. In her youth she cherished
a passionate admiration and platonic affection for Goethe,
with whom she corresponded. She was married in 1811 to
L. J. von Arnim, noticed below. Among her works are
“The Correspondence of Goethe with a Child” (3 vols.,
1835), which she translated into English, and “Die Gün-
derode’’ (2 vols., 1840), which are commended as graceful
and fascinating. Died in Berlin Jan. 20, 1859. Her
daughter, Gisela, von Arnim, is married to Herman Grimm,
and published “Dramatische Werke” (3 vols., 1857–63).
(See “Blackwood's Magazine,” vol. lviii.)
Arnim, von (KARL OTTo LUDwig), a German traveller
and writer, born in Berlin Aug. 1, 1779, wrote several
poems, and a work entitled “Passing Remarks by a Pass-
ing Traveller” (6 vols., 1837–50). He also published “Ger-
man National Melodies,” with an English version (1816).
Died in Berlin Feb. 9, 1861.
Arnim, von (LUDwig JoACHIM), generally called ACHIM
voN ARNIM, a popular and fantastic German poet distin-
guished for his originality, was born in Berlin Jan. 28,
1781. He devoted some years to the study of the physical
sciences, and published a “Theory of Electricity” (1799).
|He was one of the founders of the romantic School of Ger–
man literature. In conjunction with Clemens Brentano,
whose sister, Bettina, he married, he published a collection
of songs entitled “The Boy’s Wonder-Horn” (3 vols., 1806).
Among his works, which exhibit a rich imagination, are
“The Poverty and Riches, Guilt and Repentance of the
Countess of Dolores,” a novel (1810); “Angelica, the
Genoese and Cosmus the Rope-dancer;” and “The Crown
Guardians” (1817). Died Jan. 21, 1831. A new edition
of his works (“Sämmtliche Werke”) was published 1853–
56, in 22 vols.
Ar’no [Lat. Arnus], a celebrated river of Italy, which
rises at Mount Falterona in the Apennines, and falls into
the sea 7 miles below Pisa, which city, like Florence, is
intersected by this stream. Its valley (Val d’Arno) is one
of the most beautiful regions in Italy. The banks of the
river are partially dyked on account of the floods which
sometimes dccur, and ordinarily Small Vessels can ascend
to Florence, but since the opening of the railway traffic it
is not much navigated. Its length is 150 miles.
Arºno, a post-village, the capital of Douglas co. Mo.,
126 miles S. S. W. of Jefferson City. -
Arno/bius (AFER), an African rhetorician and Christian
writer, born probably near Carthage. He flourished about
300 A. D., and was originally a pagan. The events of his
life are mostly unknown. Having been converted to Chris-
tianity, he wrote an eloquent work called “Disputations
against the Gentiles” (“Disputationes contra Gentes”),
in which he exposes the absurdities of paganism. This is
not considered strictly orthodox, but it is interesting as an
historical document. According to M. Villemain, “It has
a character of originality, and a real importance in relation
to philosophy and history.” (See NEANDER, “ History of
ſº
266
ARNOLD.
the Christian Church;” BAYLE, “Historical and Critical
Dictionary.”)
Ar’nold (ALBERT NICHOLAs), D. D., born at Cranston,
R. T., Feb. 12, 1814, graduated at Brown University 1838,
and Newton Theological Institute 1841, ordained pastor
of the Baptist church at Newburyport, Mass., Sept. 14,
1841, missionary to Greece 1844–54, professor of church
history in Newton Theological Institute 1855–57, pastor at
Westborough, Mass., 1858–64, professor of biblical inter-
pretation and pastoral theology in Hamilton (N.Y.) Theo-
logical Seminary 1864–69, professor of New Testament
Greek in the Baptist Union Theological Seminary at Chi-
cago 1869–73, and author of “Prerequisites to Commu-
nion” (1860) and “One Woman’s Mission” (1871).
Arnold (BENEDICT), an American general and notorious
traitor, was born at Norwich, Conn., Jan. 3, 1740. He was
apprenticed to an apothecary, from whom he ran away and
enlisted in the army, but soon deserted. In his boyhood
he was noted for his audacity and unruly disposition. He
became a merchant at New Haven, and the owner of sev-
eral small vessels employed in trade with the West Indies.
In this business he failed, and incurred a suspicion of
fraudulent dealing. He obtained a commission as col-
onel in the service of Massachusetts soon after the war
broke out, in April, 1775. In the autumn of that year he
commanded a force of about 1000 men sent to capture Que-
bec, and in the long march through the pathless forests of
Maine proved himself well fitted for such a service. Hav-
ing reached the St. Lawrence River, he effected a junction
with General Montgomery, who had the chief command.
They attacked Quebec in Dec., 1775, but failed to take it,
and Arnold was severely wounded. He was raised to the
rank of brigadier-general for his service in this campaign.
Before and after this event he was involved in difficulties
by his rapacity and pecuniary frauds. He commanded a
small flotilla, which encountered a superior force on Lake
Champlain, Oct. 11, 1776, and displayed there such un-
flinching courage as well as skill that he gained much ap-
plause, although he was not victorious. He was deeply
mortified by the action of Congress, which neglected him,
while it gave the rank of major-general to five of his juniors
in rank. In 1777 he was appointed a major-general, but
as he remained below the other five, he was still discontent-
ed. He took part in the battle of Bemus Heights, Sept.
19, 1777, where he was involved in a quarrel with General
Gates. At the battle of Stillwater, Oct. 7, he entered the
field without permission from Gates, rushed into the hottest
part of the action, rode about issuing orders in every di-
rection, and acted like a madman. He received on that
day a severe wound, which disabled him for some months,
and Congress at last accorded him full rank. In June,
1778, he was appointed to the command of Philadelphia,
where he lived in an extravagant style and ran into debt.
While here he married a daughter of Edward Shippen
(afterwards chief-justice of Pennsylvania). His official acts
here were so rapacious that a court-martial sentenced him
(Jan., 1780) to be reprimanded by the general-in-chief.
Before this date he had been for six months plotting trea-
son, and had made overtures to the enemy. He now soli-
cited and obtained (in Aug., 1780) command of West Point,
the most important fortress in the U. S., which he offered
to betray into the possession of Sir Henry Clinton. The
agent chosen by the British general to conduct the negotia-
tions with Arnold was Major John André. (See ANDRí,
JoHN.) Arnold and André had an interview on the 21st of
Sept., and made the final arrangements for the surrender
of West Point, but in consequence of the capture of André,
Sept. 23, 1780, the plot was detected, and Arnold escaped
in the British sloop Vulture, Sept. 25. He received about
£6300 from the British government, as a reward of his
treachery. Having joined the British army and issued an
address to the American people in vindication of his course,
he obtained command of an expedition against Virginia,
which sailed from New York in Dec., 1780, passed up the
James River, and burned and pillaged a considerable
amount of property. In the autumn of 1781 the troops
under his command burned New London, Conn. He went
to England about the end of the war, and passed many
years in that country, where he was generally despised and
shunned. He died in London June 14, 1801. (See SPARKs's
life of Benedict Arnold in his “Ilibrary of American Biog-
raphy,” vol. iii.) WILLIAM JACOBs.
Arnold (BENEDICT), a Rhode Island colonist, born in
England Dec. 21, 1615, was president of Rhode Island
1663–71. He was a citizen of Providence in 1636, and one
of the purchasers of Conanicut Island in 1657. He had a
good knowledge of the Indian tongues, and thus greatly
befriended the New England colonies. Died in June, 1678.
Arnold (GEORG DANIEL), a writer and jurist, born at
Strasburg Feb. 18, 1780, became professor of civil law in
1795.
that city. He published a work on Roman law (1812), and
wrote in the Alsatian dialect a comedy of “Whit-Monday,”
which was praised by Goethe. Died Feb. 18, 1829.
Arnold (GoTTFRIED), a German Lutheran theologian,
born at Annaberg, Saxony, Sept. 5, 1666. He preached at
Werben and Perleberg. Among his numerous works are
“Sophia, or the Mysteries of . Divine Wisdom" (1700),
and a “History of the Church from the Christian Era to
1688° (3 vols., 1700), which gave offence to the orthodox.
Died May, 1714. (See CoIERUs, “Historia G. Arnoldi,”
1718 § ADOLPHE RIFF, “ G. Arnold, Historien de l'Eglise,”
1847. -
Armold (TsAAC N.) was born at Hardwicke, Otsego co.,
N. Y., in Nov., 1815, was called to the bar in 1835, remov-
ed to Chicago in 1836, was a member of Congress from Illi-
nois (1861–65), sixth auditor of the U. S. treasury (1865–
66), and published a “Life of Abraham Lincoln '' (1866).
Arnold (John), an English watchmaker, born at Bod-
min, in Cornwall, in 1744. He improved the chronometer
by the invention of the expansion balance and detached .
escapement. Died Aug. 25, 1799. -
Arnold (Dr. JonATHAN), born at Providence, R.I., Dec.
14, 1741, as a member of the colonial assembly brought for-
ward in 1776 a bill repealing the oath of allegiance to Great
Britain; was a surgeon in the Revolution, a member of Con-
gress (1782–84). Becoming a resident of St. Johnsbury,
Vt., he was long a judge of the Orange county court. Died
Feb. 2, 1798. s
Arnold (LEMUEL HASTINGs), born at St. Johnsbury, Vt.,
Jan. 29, 1792, graduated at Dartmouth in 1811, became a
lawyer and manufacturer in Rhode Island, was governor
of that State, 1831–33, member of Congress, 1845–47. Died
at Kingston, R.I., June 27, 1852. -
Arnold (LEWIs G.), a general, born in New Jersey,
graduated at West Point in 1837, served gallantly in Mex-
ico, and in 1862 became a brigadier-general of U. S. vol-
unteers. Stricken with paralysis in that year while on
duty, he was placed on the retired list in 1864. Died Sept.
22, 1871, aged fifty-four.
Arnold (MATTHEw), LL.D., an English poet, a son of
the celebrated. Thomas Arnold of Rugby, was born at
Laleham, in Middlesex, Dec. 24, 1822. He was educated
at Rugby and Oxford, and was chosen a fellow of Oriel
College in 1845. In 1847 he became private secretary to
Lord Lansdowne. He married Frances Wightman in
1851. Among his earliest works is a volume called “The
Strayed Reveller, and other Poems” (1849). He was
elected professor of poetry at Oxford in 1857, and pub-
lished in 1865 a volume of “Essays in Criticism,” which
are highly esteemed. “The strain of his mind,” says an
anonymous critic, “is calm and thoughtful; his style is the
reverse of florid; deep culture and a certain severity of
taste have subdued every tendency to gay or passionate
exuberance.” He published a volume of “New Poems”
in 1867, “St. Paul and Protestantism;’ “Literature and
Dogma” (1873), etc.
Arnold of Brescia. See ARNALDo.
Arnold (PELEG) was a delegate to Congress from Rhode
Island 1787–88, and afterwards was long chief-justice of
the supreme court of Rhode Island. Died at Smithfield,
R. I., Feb. 13, 1820.
Arnold (Gen. RICHARD) was born at Providence, R.I.,
April 12, 1828, and graduated at West Point in 1850. He
entered the artillery, and in 1862 became a brigadier-gen-
eral of U. S. volunteers, serving chiefly in the Gulf States.
In 1866 he was brevetted major-general U. S. A.
Arnold (SAMUEL), MUs. DR., an English musician, born
in London Aug. 10, 1740. He became composer to the Cov-
ent Garden Theatre about 1762. His opera, “Maid of the
Mill” (1765), was very popular. He produced many other
operas, among which are “Rosamond” (1767) and “Inkle
and Yarico’’ (1787). He was appointed organist to the
king in 1783. His “Cathedral Music * in 4 vols. is still
popular. Died Oct. 22, 1802. *
Arnold (SAMUEL GREENE), born at Providence, R.I.,
April 12, 1821, graduated at Brown University in 1841, and
at Cambridge Law School in 1845. He was several times
lieutenant-governor of Rhode Island, served for a time as
a volunteer in the late civil war, and became U. S. Senator
in 1863. He published a “History of Rhode Island” (7
vols., 1859–60), and numerous addresses, reviews, and arti-
cles for periodicals.
Arnold (THOMAs), D.D., an eminent English teacher
and historian, born at Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, June 13,
He entered the University of Oxford in 1811, grad-
uated in 1814, and became a fellow of Oriel College in 1815.
At college his habits were studious and his opinions lib-
eral. He gained the chancellor’s prize for Latin and Eng-
se
ARNOLD-ARRACK.
267
lish essays in 1815 and 1817. He removed to Laleham,
near Staines, in 1819, and married Mary, a daughter of
Rev. John Penrose, in 1820. In 1828 he was ordained a
priest, and became head-master of Rugby School, which he
conducted with eminent wisdom and decided success. He
cultivated among the students a sense of duty and a high
moral and religious tone, and enforced by his example and
personal qualities the influence of Christian principles. He
was much interested in the political and religious move-
ments of the time, was a Whig or Liberal in politics, and a
strenuous opponent of the High Church and new school of
theology represented by Pusey. He would not recognize
in the clergy any peculiar sacredness or any trace of medi-
atorial function. In 1832 he purchased Fox How, a small
estate between Rydal and Ambleside, where he afterwards
spent his vacations. He contributed to the “Quarterly
Review” and “Edinburgh Review,” published a good edi-
tion of Thucydides (1830–35), and five volumes of sermons
(1828–42). His capital work is a “History of Rome” (3 vols.,
1838–42), which he did not live to finish. It terminates near
the end of the second Punic war. “Intellectually,” says
A. P. Stanley, “his chief excellence lay not so much in the
philosophical and biographical department of history, as
in analyzing laws, parties, and institutions.” He was ap-
pointed regius, professor of modern history at Oxford in
1841, and delivered there an introductory course of lec-
tures, which were published in 1842. He died June 12,
1842, leaving two sons—Matthew, an eminent poet, and
William D. “He will strike those who study him more
closely,” says the “Quarterly Review” for Oct., 1844, “as
a complete character—complete in its union of moral
and intellectual gifts; . . . for his greatness did not consist
in the pre-eminence of any single quality, but in several
remarkable powers, thoroughly leavened and pervaded by
an ever-increasing moral mobleness.” (See A. P. STANLEY,
“Life and Correspondence of Dr. Arnold,” 2 vols., 1844;
ZINzow, “Thomas Arnold,” 1869.)
Arnold (THOMAS KERCHEvKR), an English clergyman,
born in 1800. He published a number of popular text-
books for schools, among which are manuals for the Greek,
Latin, French, and German languages. Died Mar. 9, 1853.
Ar’nott (NEIL), M. D., F. R. S., born in 1788, near
Montrose, Scotland, was educated at Aberdeen and London,
became a surgeon in the East India Company’s service,
settled in London in 1811, as a physician, published “Ele-
ments of Physics” (1827), “Essay on Warming and Ven-
tilating ” (1832), a “Survey of Human Progress” (1861),
etc. He was distinguished as an inventor and as a bene-
factor of institutions of learning. Died Mar. 2, 1874.
Armott (WILLIAM), D. D., born in Perthshire, Scotland,
in 1808, was educated at the University of Glasgow, was
ordained in 1839, and subsequently joined the Free Church
movement, of which he became one of the ablest champions.
In 1863 he removed to Edinburgh. He was a delegate to the
meeting of the Evangelical Alliance in 1873 at New York.
Arnotto. See ANNOTTO.
Arnould, or Arnoult (SoPHIE), a popular French
actress, born in Paris Feb. 14, 1744. She was very successful
as an opera-singer, and was distinguished for her wit and
conversational powers. Her society was sought by such
men as D'Alembert and Diderot, and her beauty was praised
by several eminent poets. Died in 1803.
Arm'prior, a village of McNab township, Renfrew co.,
Ontario, on the Madawaska River, near the Ottawa, and
on the Brockville and Ottawa R. R., 40 miles W. of Ottawa,
with which it is also connected by steamboat lines. It has
excellent water-power, two weekly newspapers, several mills,
and there are marble-quarries in the vicinity. Pop. 1740.
Arms/berg, or A/remsberg, a town of Prussia, in
Westphalia, is situated on the river Ruhr, 46 miles S. S. E.
of Münster. It contains several churches and a gymnasium;
also manufactures of broadcloth, limen, etc. In the Middle
Ages it was one of the seats of the Wehmic court. Pop. in
1867, 4621.
Arn'stadt, an old town of Germany, in Schwarzburg-
Sondershausen, on the river Gera, 10 miles S. of Erfurt,
with which it is connected by a railway. It is one of the
most ancient Thuringian towns. Here are manufactures
of gloves, pottery, etc. A copper-mine has been opened in
the vicinity. Pop. in 1871, 8603.
Arms'walde, written also A/renswalde, a town in
the Prussian province of Brandenburg, 66 miles N. E. of
Frankfort-on-the-Oder, has extensive chemical manufac-
tures. It is on the railroad from Stettin to Posen. Pop. in
1871, 6522. - -
Ar’nuIf [Lat. Arnul/phus], emperor of Germany, a son
of Carloman of Bavaria. The latter was a grandson of
Charlemagne. Arnulf was elected king of Germany in
887 A. D., invaded Italy about 894, and captured Rome in
896. He was crowned as emperor by the pope at Rome.
He died in 899, and was succeeded by his son, Louis IV.
(See GAGERN, “Arnulfi Imperatoris Vita,” 1837.)
A/rolsen, a town of Germany, capital of Waldeck, on
the Aar, 23 miles N. N. W. of Cassel. It has manufactures
of woollen cloth. Here is a fine castle of the prince of
Waldeck, with a library of 30,000 volumes. Pop. in 1867,
2148. . -
Aro’ma (gen. Aro’matis), [Gr. &poual, the principle
in plants or other substances which constitutes their fra-
grance; the peculiar odor of aromatic plants, such as nut-
meg, cloves, vanilla, and lavender. It is extremely subtle,
and seems to be almost imponderable, as these substances
diffuse their odors for a long time without sensible diminu-
tion of weight. The aroma of plants is imparted to fixed
oils by maceration.
Aro/ma, a post-village and township of Kankakee co.,
Ill., on the Kankakee River, about 60 miles S. of Chicago.
Pop. of township, 1100.
Aromat/ics [Lat. aromat/ica, from aro/ma, a “spice”],
spicy plants or drugs; substances which emit aroma or
agreeable perfumes, and are generally characterized by a
warm, pungent taste, as cloves, cinnamom, ginger. They
often contain essential or volatile oils or resins. The term
aromatic is also applied to several animal substances, as
ambergris, musk, and castor. (See AROMA.)
Aromat/ic Win/egar is a compound or mixture of ordi-
nary vinegar with aromatic essential oils, and is a powerful
perfume. As it is very volatile, and is an excitant when
snuffed in the nostrils, it is used as a remedy for fainting
and nervous debility. It is often prepared by combining
crystallizable acetic acid with the oils of cloves, lavender,
rosemary, and Acorus calamw8.
Aroos' took, a river of the U. S., rises in Piscataquis
co., Me., flows north-eastward through Aroostook county
into New Brunswick, and enters the St. John’s River.
Length, about 120 miles. -
Aroostook, a county which forms the N. extremity of
Maine, bordering on New Brunswick. Area, about 6800
square miles. It bounded on the N. by the river St.
John’s (which traverses the western part of the county be-
fore it reaches the northern boundary), and is also inter-
sected by the Aroostook. The surface in some parts is
hilly, and a large part of the county is covered with forests.
The chief settlements are in the southern part, the soil of
which is productive. Lumber, cattle, wool, butter, oats,
buckwheat, hay, maple sugar, and potatoes are extensively
produced. Capital, Houlton. Pop. 29,609.
Arpád, the national hero of Hungary and the chief of
the Magyars, who in 889 A. D. migrated from Galicia, and
conquered the Slavonic people of Croatia and Transylvania.
He is called the founder of the kingdom of Hungary. Died
in 907 A. D. The dynasty of Arpád terminated in An-
drew III., in 1301.
Arpeggio [It. arpeggia're, “to play on the harp ’’], in
music, a chord of which the notes are given in succession;
or the sounding the notes of a chord in quick succession,
so as to imitate the harp.
Arpent, a French land-measure nearly equivalent to
an English acre. The French now measure land by the
hectare instead of the arpent, which is obsolete.
Arpi'no (anc. Arpi/num), a town of Italy, in the prov-
ince of Caserta, is pleasantly situated on high ground, 5
miles S. of Sora. It is surrounded by very beautiful
scenery, has a royal college, several churches and convents;
also manufactures of woollen cloth, paper, etc. Here is a
cyclopean wall and other remains of Arpinum, which was
founded by the Volsci, and became a Roman municipium
about 188 B. C. It is celebrated as the native place of
Caius Marius and of Cicero. Variegated and white mar-
bles are quarried in the vicinity. Pop. in 1861, 6240.
Ar’quebus, Arquebuse, or Harquebus, a hand-
gun used by infantry before the invention of the musket.
It was originally discharged by a match applied to the
touchhole. The battle of Morat (1476) is said to have been
nearly the first in which it was used. It was at first so
heavy and clumsy that it had to be supported on a forked
rest planted in the ground before the arquebusier.
Arraca'cha, the native name of an umbelliferous South
American plant (Arracacha esculenta). It grows in Colom-
bia, Jamaica, and other tropical regions, and is cultivated
for its roots, which are large and sweet, and are eaten after
being boiled or roasted. The taste is described as between
that of a parsnip and a sweet chestnut. This plant was re-
commended as a substitute for the potato, and attempts
were made to cultivate it in England, but that climate was
found to be unfavorable. -
Ar’rack’, or Rack, an alcoholic liquor distilled from
268
ARRAGON.—ARRIAN.
fermented rice, is a common intoxicating drink in the East
Indies and other Oriental countries. The term is also ap-
plied to a strong drink which is obtained from the fer-
mented sap of the palm tree, and is often called palm
wine or toddy. Among the species of palms which yield
this drink are the cocoanut-palm and the date-palm. Ar-
rack is imported into England, and used to make punch.
When new it has an oily and disagreeable taste, which is
improved by age. -
Arragon. See ARAGON.
Arºrah, a town of British India, in the presidency of
Bengal, 25 miles W. of Dinapoor. The British here gained
a victory over the mutinous Sepoys in 1857. Arrah was
the scene of several exciting incidents of that mutiny.
Pop. about 15,000. -
Ar’ran, an island of Scotland, in the Frith of Clyde,
county of Bute, 13 miles W. of Ayrshire, and 4 miles E.
of Cantire. It is about 20 miles long, 12 miles wide, and
has an area of 165 square miles. The surface is moun-
tainous, the granite peaks of the northern part being re-
markably grand. Here is a cavern in which Robert Bruce
once hid himself. The geology of Arran, it is said, pre-
sents a greater succession of strata than any other equal
portion of the British isles. The south-eastern half consists
of Devonian sandstone, trap-rock, and carboniferous strata.
The north-western half exhibits a central granite nucleus,
bordered by mica-slate on one side, and by lower Silurian
rocks on the other sides. Pop. about 6000.
Arran, EARLs of (1762); Viscounts Studley and Barons
Saunders (1758, in Ireland), and baronets (1662), a noble
family of Great Britain.—PHILIP York E GoRE, the fourth
earl, was born Nov. 23, 1801, and succeeded his uncle in
1837. The dukes of Hamilton in Scotland also have the
title of earls of Arran.
Arran, SouTH ISLES OF, three small islands at the en-
trance to Galway Bay, about 4 miles from the W. coast of
Ireland, and 27 miles W. of the city of Galway. They are
named Inishmore, Inismain, and Inishere (or Innishere).
Area, 18 square miles. They once contained twenty churches
and monasteries, and a church built in the seventh cen-
tury is still standing in one of them. Here are also re-
mains of cyclopean forts of unhewn stone, supposed to
have been built in the first century, and described as among
the most magnificent barbaric monuments of Europe.
Arrangement, a musical term, denotes the adaptation
of a piece of music to an instrument different from that for
which it was originally composed, as when orchestral com-
positions are adapted to the piano. The arrangements of
Franz Liszt are said to be superior to nearly all others.
Arras (anc. Wemetacum, afterwards Atreb’ates), a forti-
fied city of France, capital of the department of Pas-de-
Calais, on the river Scarpe and on the Railway du Nord,
48 miles by rail N. E. of Amiens, and 120 miles by rail
N. N. E. of Paris. It was formerly the capital of Artois,
and was the seat of a bishop as early as 390 A. D. It was
fortified by Vauban, and ranks as a fortified town of the
third class. The citadel is separated from the town by an
esplanade, but it is enclosed within the same wall. Arras
is well built, partly on a declivity and partly on flat ground,
and is adorned by fine public buildings, among which are
a cathedral, a town-hall, and a theatre. It has a museum,
a school of design, and a public library of about 36,000
volumes. Here are manufactures of hosiery, lace, woollen
and cotton goods, etc. In the Middle Ages it was so
famous for its tapestry that this article was commonly
called arras by the English. It was the birthplace of
Robespierre. The grain-market of Arras is said to be the
most important in the N. of France. Pop. in 1866, 25,749.
Arras’ tre, a mill used in Spain and the Spanish colo-
nies for grinding gold and silver ores. It is a circular basin
of granite or other hard rock, in the centre of which a ver-
tical wooden shaft revolves, with four horizontal arms, to
which large flat stones are attached by chains. The ore is
broken into small fragments before it enters the arrastre.
The revolution of the shaft is produced by two mules. (See
SILVER, by PROF. W. P. BLAKE.) -
Ar’rawak In’dians, a race or collection of tribes in
Guiana, remarkable for the euphony of their language
and their mild and friendly disposition towards the whites.
They were formerly very numerous and powerful. They
have been much benefited by the labors of Moravian mis-
Sionaries.
Arreoy', or Areoi, the name of a licentious society in
the Society Islands, composed of both sexes. They were
bound to kill all their offspring immediately after birth.
The arreoy was first noted by Captain Cook, and more
fully described by Ellis in his “Polynesian Researches.”
Arrest' [Old Fr.], the apprehension or seizure of a per-
son by lawful authority, usually by the command or direc-
tion of some court or officer of justice. It may take place
either in civil or criminal cases.
(1) In Civil Cases.—In this instance it may be either on
mesne or final process. The object of the first is to make it
certain that the defendant will answer the order of the
court. He may either remain in custody or give bail, ac-
cording to the rules of practice, as security for his appear-
ance. On final process the arrest is in the nature of an
execution. The defendant is to be kept in confinement,
either in jail or within prescribed limits, until the judgment
is satisfied, or until he is discharged by order of the court.
In the early common law an arrest was allowed almost as
a matter of course, imprisonment for debt being the regu-
lar practice. This rule is now greatly modified, and by a
statute in England and in a number of the American States
an arrest can only be had in special cases and upon a
judge's order. The facts necessary to be shown as a basis
for the order are presented on affidavit. There are certain
persons privileged from arrest by rules of general preva-
lence, such as members of legislatures, or witnesses while at-.
tending the sessions of the legislature or courts, and while
going to and returning from the same. The arrest in such
cases is irregular, and the party arrested may be discharged
on motion. This privilege is secured to members of Com-
gress by the U. S. Constitution. An original arrest cannot
be made on Sunday, nor is it lawful to break into a house
for this purpose, owing to the legal rule that “a man’s
house is his castle.” This rule does not apply where the
defendant has been rescued, and the officer is proceed-
ing regularly to retake him. The common law permits an
arrest by night as well as by day. This rule is sometimes
affected by statute. .
(2) In Criminal Cases.—The power to arrest in this class
of cases is much less restricted. None are privileged (ex-
cept ambassadors and their servants), outer doors may be
broken open, Sunday is not regarded, and a warrant is not
in all cases essential. Such an arrest is made either under
a warrant, or by an officer without a warrant, or by a private
person without a warrant. A warrant is granted by a mag-
istrate on information in writing and supported by oath,
and is executed by the person to whom it is addressed, usu-
ally a sheriff or constable. An arrest may be made with-
out a warrant by a peace officer, such as a sheriff or con-
stable, when a felony or breach of the peace is committed
in his presence, or where a felony has been committed, or he
has reasonable ground to suspect that it has been, though
not in his presence, and he has also reasonable ground to
suspect the party arrested. The right of a private person
to make an arrest without a warrant is much more restricted.
He must be prepared to show that a felony has been actu-
ally committed, as well as reasonable grounds of suspicion
that the party arrested was the wrong-doer. A private
person is bound to arrest for a felony committed in his
presence. In making an arrest necessary force may be
used, and in case of felony even life may be taken where
arrest is enjoined. An arrest can only properly be made
within the jurisdiction of the court. When a person
charged with crime escapes from one State to another, his
return may be demanded under the laws of Congress.
Should he escape to a foreign country, he may in certain
cases be retaken under an extradition treaty with that
country. (See ExTRADITION.)
The word “arrest * is also used in law in connection with
judgment. This means that judgment is not to be entered,
although a verdict has been given, on account of some
reason appearing upon the record, as where the allegations
in the pleadings are not a sufficient basis for an action.
T. W. DWIGHT.
Arrest', d' (HEINRICH LUDwig), a German astronomer,
born in Berlin in 1822. He discovered in 1851 the comet
called by his name, and in 1862 the asteroid Freia.
Ar’rian [Gr. 'Aftātavāş; Lat. Arria/mus Fla/vius], a dis-
tinguished Greek historian, born at Nicomedia, in Bith-
ynia, about 100 A.D., was a pupil and friend of Epictetus.
He was a Stoic in philosophy, edited his master’s “Manual
of Ethics” (“Enchiridion ”), and wrote the “Lectures of
Epictetus” in eight books, of which four are now extant.
In 136 A.D. he was appointed governor of Cappadocia by
IHadrian. He is said to have served in the army against
the Goths and Alani. He chose Xenophon as his model in
composition. His most important work is a “History of
the Expedition of Alexander the Great,” 'AváBao is 'AAešáv-
8pov (“The Ascent of Alexander”), which is the chief au-
thority on that subject, and is highly esteemed for accu-
racy, good judgment, and impartiality. Among his extant
works are “Indica,” an account of India, a “Treatise on
Hunting,” and a “Voyage Around the Euxine Sea.” (See
MAUERMANN, “Arrianus Nicomediensis et Quintus Curtius
Rufus,” 1835; ELLENDT, “De Arrianeorum Librorum Re-
liquiis,” 1836.) -
ARRIAZA-ARROW-ROOT.
269
Arria’za (JUAN BAUTISTA), a Spanish poet, sometimes
called Arriaza y Superviela, was born at Madrid in
1770. He passed some years in London as secretary of
Iegation, and published in 1803 “Emilia,” a poem on the
influence of the fine arts. Having returned to Spain in
1807, he took an active part in politics, and wrote in sup-
port of absolute monarchy. He obtained an important
position in the department of foreign affairs. In 1810 he
produced “Poesias Patrioticas.” Died in 1837.
Arri'ghi di Casanova (JEAN ToussaïNT), duke of
Padua, a Corsican general, was born at Corte in 1778.
He entered the French army in early youth, and served
with distinction at Marengo, Austerlitz, and Friedland,
and was raised to the rank of general of division on the
field of Essling in 1809. He lived in exile from 1815 to
1820; was elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1849.
Bied in 1853.
Ar’rington, a township of Wayne co., Ill. Pop. 1640.
Arrington (ALFRED W.), born in Iredell co., N. C., in
Sept., 1810. His father, Archibald, was a member of Con-
gress 1841–45. The younger Arrington was a Methodist
preacher (1829–34), winning much distinction for eloquence.
In 1834 he became a lawyer, practising in Missouri, Ar-
kansas, and Texas. He was a district judge in Texas (1850–
56), and in 1857 removed to Chicago, where his career as a
lawyer was very brilliant. He was the author of a cele-
brated “Apostrophe to Water,” often quoted. Died Dec.
31, 1867. •
Ar’ris [from the Lat. aris/ta, the “beard of an ear of
grain,” the “prickle of a fish”], in architecture, the edge
or angle formed by two surfaces meeting each other, or the
line of meeting of two planes in a sharp edge; a term
sometimes applied to the edges which separate the flutings
of a Doric column. -
Arro/ba, a Spanish weight and measure, used also in
Brazil and the Spanish colonies. There are ten kinds of
arroba for weight, ranging between 21.1% pounds avoirdu-
pois and 32.É, pounds avoirdupois. Only two of the num-
ber are as great as 28 pounds. There are eleven kinds of
arroba for liquid measure, ranging from 24% gallons to
94% gallons. The arroba for Spain generally is (or was,
as it is abolished) 44%; gallons.
Arrondissement, a French term, signifies a district
or circuit, and is the name of the principal civil divisions
of the departments of France. Each department is divided
into arrondissements, each arrondissement into cantons,
and each canton into communes.
Arºroo’, Aroo, or Arru Islands, a group of islands
in Australasia, situated between lat. 5°20' and 6° 55' S., and
between lon. 134° 10' and 134°45' E. The largest island is
70 miles long and 20 miles wide. Some of the natives have
adopted Christianity. Here is a town called Dobbo, into
which British goods are imported annually to the amount
of about £30,000. The exports are pearls, trepang, and
birds of paradise. t
Ar’row, a long, pointed, and barbed missile formerly
much used in war and the chase, and discharged from
a bow, cross-bow, or ballista, and even now used by some
savage nations. Among the varieties of the arrow were
the “cloth-yard arrow” once used by the English archers,
and about one yard in length, and the “quarrel,” a heavy
arrow discharged from the cross-bow. Some South Ameri-
can Indians discharge light poisoned arrows from a blow-
pipe. Poisoned arrows are used by many barbarous peoples.
Ar’rowhead (Sagitta'ria), a genus of aquatic plants
of the order Alismaceae, natives of both cold and tropical
climates. They have unisexual flowers, with many stamens
and many carpels, which are compressed and one-seeded.
The Sagittaria sagittifolia, a native of Europe, is a beau-
tiful plant with arrow-shaped leaves, which rise above the
surface of the water. The Sagittaria variabilis of the
U. S. is very similar to it. The Sagittaria Sinensis (Chi-
nese arrowhead) is cultivated in China in ponds and ditches
for the sake of its nutritious corms, which abound in starch.
Arrow - Headed Characters. See CUNEIFoRM
INSCRIPTIONs, by REv. WILLIAM. H. WARD.
Arrow Rock, a post-village and township of Saline
co., Mo., on the right bank of the Missouri River, 15 miles
above Boonville. Pop. of township, 3174.
Arrow-ROot, the starch or fecula from the root of the
Maranta arundinacea and other species of Maranta. It is
much esteemed as an easily digestible diet for infants and
invalids. Large quantities of it are imported into the U. S.
and Europe from Bermuda and Jamaica, where it is culti-
Vated. It is also raised in Georgia and Florida. The
roots, or rather rhizomes, yield about 25 per cent. of this
starch, which is in the form of a light, opaque, white pow-
der. It is often adulterated with potato-starch and other
substances. The name arrow-root is said to refer to the
use of the fresh roots as an application to wounds inflicted
by poisoned arrows; and the expressed juice has been
recommended as an antidote to poisons, and a cure for the
stings and bites of venomous insects and reptiles. Some
think that the name is really another form of ara, which
is said to be the Indian appellation of the plant; but it is
not improbable that the scales on the root, resembling the
Arrow-root.
point of an arrow, may have suggested the name. In pre-
paring “arrow-root,” the rhizomes of the plant, when a
year old, are washed, carefully peeled, and beaten in a
wooden mortar or by a mill or wheel-rasp to a milky pulp.
The pulp is then diluted with water, passed through a
sieve of coarse cloth or hair to separate the fibres, and the
starch is allowed to settle. Albumen and salts are held in
solution, while the starch settles down as an insoluble
powder, which is finally dried in the sun. According to
Benzon, the fresh rhizomes contain—
Starch .. 26.00
Cellular fibres.......................................... 6.00
Albumen ................. 1.58
Gummy substances.................................. 0.60
Volatile oil.............................................. 0.07
Chloride of calcium 0.25
Water..................................................... 65.50
- 100.00
The prepared arrow-root is almost pure starch. It has
a peculiar firm feel between the fingers, and when rubbed
produces a peculiar crackling sound, like that of dry snow
in very cold weather. Like starch from other sources, it is
insoluble in cold water, but forms on boiling a gelatinous
Solution.
The purity of arrow-root is best determined by micro-
scopic examination, as, while the starch granules of different
plants (see STARCH) are almost identical in chemical com-
position and properties, they are often very peculiar in
size, form, and structure. The granules of the genuine
Maranta arrow-root are of a regular ovoid form, of nearly
equal size, and smooth on their surface; while the granules
of potato starch, one of the most common adulterants, are
irregularly ovoid, very variable in size, from grºw to gº
of an inch in diameter, and streaked and furrowed on their
surface. The fecula of many other plants is used either
as a substitute or an adulterant for the true arrow-root.
Zamia integrifolia yields an arrow-root in the West Indies
and the neighborhood of St. Augustine, Fla. Arum vulgare
(wake-robin) yields Portland arrow-root in the isle of Port-
land. Curcuma angustifolia yields East Indian arrow-root.
Jatropha Manihot, the cassava or tapioca plant, yields Bra-
zilian arrow-root. Tacca oceanica yields Tahiti arrow-
roots. Alstroemeria pallida yields Talcahuana arrow-root.
The potato yields, by careful preparation, the English
arrow-root. Starch similar to arrow-root is also prepared
in the West Indies from the roots of Dioscorea sativa or
yam, of Colocasia esculenta, and from the fruit of Arto-
carpus incisa or bread-fruit tree.
For use, arrow-root should be rubbed to a paste with a
little cold water, and while this is stirred a considerable
quantity of boiling water should be added. It may be
sweetened with sugar and flavored with lemon-juice or

27()
ARROWSIC-ARSENALS.
with wines and spices. For infants it may be prepared
with milk. A table-spoonful is sufficient for a pint of
Water or milk. C. F. CHANDLER.
Ar’rowsic, a township of Sagadahoc co., Me. It has
an important lumber trade. Pop. 252.
Ar’rowsmith, a township of McLean co., Ill. Pop. 927.
Arrowsmith (AARON), an English geographer, born
at Winston, Durham, in 1750, became distinguished as a
publisher of excellent maps, over 100 in number. Died in
1823.−His son AARON (now deceased), and his grandson
JoHN, also became distinguished for the excellence of their
maps.
Arroy’o Gran’de, a post-township of San Luis Obispo
co., Cal. Pop. 776.
Arsa/ces H. [Gr. Aparákms], the founder of the Arsaci-
dae and of the kingdom of Parthia, lived about 250 B.C.
His origin and history are involved in much obscurity, as
the statements of ancient historians are confused and con-
tradictory. He is said to have been the chief of a nomadic
tribe of Scythians or Bactrians. All his successors assumed
the name of Arsaces.
Arsaces III., king of Armenia, was a son of Tiridates
III., whom he succeeded about 340 A. D. He waged war
against Sapor, king of Persia, and formed an alliance with
Julian the Apostate about 360. The defeat and death of
Julian are ascribed to the treachery of Arsaces, who de-
serted him in the campaign of 363 A. D.
Arsaces W.M., or Mithridates I., king of Parthia,
enlarged his dominions by the conquest of Bactria, and
extended his conquests to the Indus. In 138 B. C. he
defeated Demetrius Nicator of Syria. After a reign of
twenty-five years or more, he died about 135 B. C. f
Arsac’idae, the name of a dynasty of Parthian kings
which was founded by Arsaces in 250 B.C., and continued
to reign until 226 A. D. The last king of this dynasty
was Artabanus IV. (Arsaces XXIX.).
Arsamas, or Arzamas, a town of Russia, in Nizhni-
Novgorod, is on the river Tiosha, 249 miles E. of Moscow.
Pop. in 1867, 10,517.
Ar’s enals, public establishments designed for the
manufacture and storage of arms and military equipments.
The name is derived from the Latin Arac, applied to the
citadel or central tower of a fortified place, as the part best
capable of defence. This became the storehouse for spare
arms and warlike material, and hence like depositories
were called Arsenals. & f
Weapons of war used more than 1700 years before the
Christian era are known to us from sculptures upon old
monuments and from arms found in catacombs and tombs
of that period. The earliest Egyptian sculptures show
foot-soldiers armed with swords, javelins, clubs, slings,
and the bow and arrow; and kings, or high officers, on
horseback or in chariots, with like offensive weapons, and
protected by helmets, shields, or shirts-of-mail. As the
Egyptians are the first nation known to have had a mili-
tary system, we may consider their weapons to have been
the earliest weapons of war. Succeeding nations changed
very slowly; all of those prominent during the period
known as the “warfare of antiquity” used nearly the same
kind and shape of weapons. Thebes, Carthage, Babylon,
Athens, Tyre, and Rome were then the great cities of the
world whence the warrior-kings started their military ex-
peditions, and must have all been in turn active workshops
for the manufacture of weapons.
The warfare of the Middle Ages is usually said to date
from the time of the emperor Augustus of Rome, and to
extend to the introduction of the use of gunpowder in war.
Although this epoch witnessed great improvements in the
organization and discipline of the better class of troops,
and in the character of some of the warlike implements used
by them—especially in the mechanical excellence and skill
shown in their construction—the general form and kind of
the chief personal weapons appear to have remained much
the same as during the period of ancient warfare. Wea-
pons and armor of the Middle Ages have been preserved
to our day in numerous Arsenals and Museums, and speci-
mens of the workmanship of many centuries can be found,
requiring almost the same words to describe and name them
as those we use for the Egyptian arms nearly 3000 years
older. -
The chief changes in offensive weapons were in the
greater length of the horseman’s spear and sword, and in
the stronger bows (made of steel and hard wood), giving
greater propulsive force to the missiles used with the cross,
and long, bows. The usual range of this last, we are told,
became (in the hands of the Scythians and English) from
3000 to 4000 yards, and experts could shoot three arrows
per minute.
In the fifteenth century defensive armor for man and
horse had reached the highest point of excellence and em-
bellishment. . The trade of the armorer was in great repute,
and personal contests for prowess and display were the
chief occupation of the Nobles. Foreign wars were mere
invasions by hosts hurriedly marched into unprepared
countries, where, like an army of locusts, they devoured
and destroyed all they met. Surrounding walled cities not
anticipating attack, the besiegers could by mere numbers
shut off assistance, starve the inhabitants into submission,
and by the use of catapults, ballistas, and battering-rams,
destroy the walls, or by towers, overleap them. Cities thus
attacked were often found so helpless against their fate
that the besiegers at Rhodes were enabled to construct and
move against its walls, without successful opposition, tow-
ers 240 feet high by 47 feet wide, and having twenty sto-
ries for troops; and, by the use of towers, the Crusaders
captured Jerusalem after only two months’ siege.
The cities of Europe now most famous for possessing
valuable military relics of the Middle Ages are Dresden,
Vienna, Delft, Berlin, Paris, Madrid, and London; pos-
sibly, interesting and valuable collections may still exist,
unvisited by travellers, in some of the once famous cities
of Persia, India, China, and Japan, which more intimate
intercourse may soon make known to us.
Although gunpowder was used in cannon about the four-
teenth century, it was not until near the middle of the six-
teenth century, that the first arm light enough to be carried
and handled by a single soldier was introduced upon the
battle-field. This became the signal not only for a general
change in arms and warfare, but in the whole constitution
of civil society. Spears, javelins, and bows and arrows
were useless to oppose the musketeer; helmets, breast-
plates, and coats-of-mail could not resist the bullet.
Hence, personal armor became a useless encumbrance, as
the drilled peasant, with his arquebuse, was found to be
superior to the mail-clad warrior and his host of spearmen.
The supremacy of the Knights could no longer exist, and
the defence of states soon passed from their hands to those
of the peasant. War now became a science wherein skill
and discipline and preparation conquered; not mere num-
bers, artifice, and brute force. Standing armies and well-
supplied arsenals became a necessity for every nation
aiming at conquest or independence, for none but the
experienced could wage war. -
It was near the close of the seventeenth century before
all the nations of Europe were supplied with firearms
which could be handled with facility and aimed from the
shoulder. At this period the Dutch, Spanish, French, and
English were the most efficient in war; soon Prussia be-
came distinguished in discipline and organization, and
France surpassed others in systematizing its military man-
ufactures and improving its weapons. Each nation sought
by drill in the field and skill in the workshop to devise and
adopt a special system of military organization and of war-
material. The French, Prussians, Spaniards, and English
established arsenals, armories, foundries, and powder-
works, many of which have been diligently improved and
extended to our day.
At the time of the Revolutionary war, the U. S. had few
arms and no Armories or Arsenals. The arms used at first
were gathered from citizens; soon after, supplies were ob-
tained by purchase in France. The earliest manufacture
of war-material mentioned is that of powder in Virginia in
1776. Springfield (Mass.) was selected by Gen. Washing-
ton as a site for a foundry and laboratory in 1777, and Sup-
plies were sent from there to Gen. Schuyler's army in West-
ern New York in July of that year. Brass cannon (chiefly
howitzers) were cast in Philadelphia in 1777 (some of which
are now at Watervliet Arsenal), and an arsenal was estab-
lished about this year in Carlisle, Pa. Small-arms were
manufactured at Springfield Armory prior to 1787. An
armory was commenced at Harper's Ferry (Va.) in 1795,
and “three or four additional arsenals and magazines”
authorized by Congress at the same time, and others in
1808.
During the war of 1812 small-arms were procured from
Springfield and Harper's Ferry, and other ordnance stores,
by purchase in the country, or manufacture at the Arsenals.
After that war, with the policy apparently of having U. S.
Arsenals in each State, several more were authorized, so
that in 1847 there were two armories and seventeen arse-
mals in operation. Of the arsenals, five were “Arsenals of
construction,” and the others “Arsenals for repairs and
deposit.”
In 1838 Congress authorized a new organization of the
Ordnance Corps, and in 1842 placed the Armories (previ-
ously under civil superintendence) under the charge of its
Officers. The advantages of the change were soon apparent
in the publication of a regular “System of . Construction—
with Drawings,” and the “Ordnance Manual,” descriptive
of the material and dimensions for every article of war-ma-
ARSENIC.
271
terial, and the adoption of patterns which proved efficient
and satisfactory during our next war. The siege and field
guns, carriages and mortars, friction-primers for cannon,
and harness of U. S. MoDELs, used in Mexico for the first
time in war, differed in important details from other sys-
tems. The mortar-firing and siege-equipage were espe-
cially satisfactory. The advantage of the U. S. system of
Small-arms (made chiefly by machinery, and of interchange-
able parts) was very great. They were promptly repaired
in the field, using spare parts ready fitted. The arms, as
well as other articles of equipment in the hands of the
troops, were kept in serviceable order by Ordnance Sol-
diers, who, serving siege-guns in action, also opened shops
after each day’s halt, and established an active arsenal at the
citadel of Mexico during the occupation of the city, where
many supplies were manufactured as well as repaired.
In 1860 there were twenty-three Arsenals and Armories,
and during the civil war nine of the Northern and Western
Arsenals were enlarged and employed as “Arsenals of
construction,” and the working capacity of the Springfield
Armory was extended to complete 1000 muskets per day.
In addition, a large number of private workshops—for the
manufacture of guns and carriages and stores of all kinds
—were kept employed, and twenty-five private armories,
under charge of the Inspector of Contract Arms, made
muskets, carbines, pistols, and swords, according to gauges
yerified at the National Armory, so that like parts were
interchangeable with armory work. A daily product of
1000 muskets was obtained from those making these arms,
in addition to the arms made at Springfield.
The Ordnance Department has devoted much attention
to the manufacture of cast-iron cannon and powder for use
in large guns, improving greatly, the endurance, and cer-
tainty of cast iron in cannon. The results obtained both
in smooth-bore and rifled guns have been so favorable that
other nations have either adopted or are experimenting
with like methods. Great credit is due to the late Gen.
Rodman for the many successes achieved in guns and car-
riages by him, and his name is now inseparably connected
both with the mode of casting cannon cooled from within,
and with the use of mammoth-grain powder for large can-
non, first suggested and made by him. - -
It has been proposed to reduce the number of Arsenals,
and concentrate all ordinary operations at three or four, so
that all (or nearly all) ordnance manufactures could be
conducted at each. Rock Island Arsenal, on the Missis-
sippi, is in course of building on this plan, and is to include
an armory, arsenal, powder-works, and foundry. A similar
establishment is proposed for California, and one east of the
Alleghenies, either in connection with, or in addition to,
the Springfield Armory. It is also under consultation to
have some supplies heretofore purchased by the Quarter-
master's Department manufactured at the Arsenals, such
as wagons, harness, canteens, and infantry valises.
The following table gives a list of all U. S. Arsenals, with
date of establishment and present condition:
Kind and extent of work. Present condition.
|Making ammunition, etc.................
Ordnance stores.............................. broken up.
Making Small-arms......................... T i. d t t
* ransferred to quarter-
Laboratory.................................. { master's department.
Depository * * * * * * * * * * * * * g º e º e º e º e º $ $ & © e < * * * * * * * * Sold.
Foundry and Arsenal......................
Depository
Arsenal of construction..................
Arsenal of construction and labora-
Arsenal of construction............:-----
Depository and arsenal for repairs.
{{ $ &
&ć {{ &ć Broken up.
Depository...................................... (£
{{ * * * * * * * * e s tº a s e e a e s e e s a e s e e s a e s - s e º e e s a {{
“. ...... * Occupied.
Arsenal of construction.................. In operation.
Depository a se e s - e º see see e s s a • e s e e s e e s se - e o see e s = Broken, up.
Depository and arsenal for repairs...|In operation.
Depository...................................... Broken up.
Depository and arsenal for repairs...|In operation.
Depository........................* - - - - - - - - - - - - - Occupied.
{{ ......................................|Broken up.
Depository and arsenal for repairs...
Arsenal of construction and armory,
Date of
Name of Arsenal. Post-office. building or
- authorized.
Springfield Arsenal....... Springfield, Mass.............. 1777
{{ {{ {{ 1785
e Armory....... “ “ ........... (about)
Carlisle Arsenal............ Carlisle, Pa...................... 777
Harper's Ferry Armory.|Harper's Ferry, Va........... 1794
Schuylkill Arsenal........ Philadelphia, Pa............... 1800
Rome “ ...... Rome, N.Y...................... 1814
Pikesville “ ...... Pikesville, Md................. 1808
Washington “ ...... Washington, D.C............. 1808
Watertown “. ...... Watertown, Mass......... 1808
Watervliet, “ ...... West Troy, N. Y............... 1813
Bellona . “. ...... Richmond, Va.................. : IS15
Champlain “. ...... Vergennes, Vt................. 1827
Allegheny “. ...... Pittsburgh, Pa................. 1814
Frankford “. ...... Bridesburg, Pa.................. 1816
St. Louis “. ...... St. Louis, Mo.................... 1827
Augusta “ ...... Augusta, Ga..................... 1826
Kennebec “. ...... Augusta, Me..................... 1827
Baton Rouge “ . ...... Baton Rouge, La.............. 1819
Mount Vernon* ...... Mount Vernon, Ala.......... 1830
Apalachicola, “ ...... Chattahoochee, Fla.......... 1832
Detroit “ ...... Dearbornville, Mich......... 1832
Fort Monroe “ ...... Old Point Comfort, Va...... 1826
Fayetteville “ ...... Fayetteville, N.C............. 1836
Little Rock “ ...... Little Rock, Ark.............. 1837
San Antonio “ ...... San Antonio, Tex........2. “ 1857
Charleston “ ...... Charleston, S.C................ 1836
Leavenworth “ ...... Fort Leavenworth, Kan.... 1858
New York . * ...... Governor’s Island, N.Y. H. 1835
Liberty “. ...... Liberty, Mo..................... 1837
Columbus “. ...... Columbus, O.................... 1863
Indianapolis “ ...... Indianapolis, Ind............. 1863
Fort Union “ ...... # Union, N. M..........h. 1854
&é Fort Vancouver, Wash-
Vancouver g e & { ington Ter.................... 1859
Rock Island “ ...... Rock Island, Ill............... 1862 {
Benicia, * “ ...... Benicia, Cal..................... 1852
Arsenal of construction..................
*t - eration.
Small-arms............ ............ ......... Armory in op
Occupied.
In operation.
{{ {{
& 4 &ć {{ º: {{ {{
Broken up.
ić
e - e º e - e. e. e. e. es e s e s a • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
In operation.
tory for metallic cartridges, caps,
and primers for cannon............... {{ {&
Broken up.
In operation.
46 ‘......................................|Occupied.
&t { {
In operation.
Occupied.
4& {{ {{
Building.
foundry, and powder-works..........
In operation.
Ar'senic (symbol As, equivalent, 75), [Lat. arsen'icum,
from the Gr. &pormv, “masculine,” “strong,” so named on
account of its power as a poison], the common name of
arsenious acid or white oxide of arsenic, a virulent poison.
(See ARSENIOUs ACID.) The name arsenic is limited in
scientific language to the metal. Arsenic is found native
to a limited extent, but occurs usually in combination with
metals or with sulphur, or both. Mispickel or arsenical
pyrites (FeAsS) is the most abundant, arsenical mineral;
other minerals containing arsenic are domeykite, Cu6As2;
algodonite, Cu12AS2; whitneyite, Cu18As2; miccolite, NiAs;
kaneite, Mn As; smaltite, (Co, Fe,Ni)/AS2; skutterudite,
CoAS3; cobaltite, Co(S,As)2; gersdorffite, Ni(S,As)2; ull-
mannite, Ni(S,As,Sb)2; leucopyrite, FeAs2; rammelsber-
gite, NiAs2; loelingite; glaucodot, (Co,Fe)(S,As)2; pacite,
FeS2,4FeAS2; alloclasite; sartorite, PbS, As2S3; binnite,
3Cu2S,2As2S3; dufreynoisite, 2PbS, As2S3; proustite, 3Ag2S,
As2S3; tetrahedrite or fahlerz; tennantite; geocronite ;
polybasite; enargite, 3Cu2S,AS2S5; realgar, AsS; orpiment,
As2S3; dimorphite, As4S3; arsenolite, As2O3; mimetite,
3Pb3(AsO4)2, PbCl2; berzelite; carminite; , pharmacolite,
Ca2H2(AsO4)2.5H20; hoernesite, Mg3(AsO4)2.8H20; roes-
slerite, Mg2H2(AsO4)2.12H20; symplesite, Fe3(AsO4)2.
P. V. HAGNER, U. S. Army.
NH20 ; erythrite, CO3(AsO4)2.8H20 ; annabergite, Ni3
(AsO4)2.8H20; cabrerite; köttigite ; chondrasenite; tri-
chalcite ; olevenite ; adamite; comichalcite; bayldonite;
euchroite; irroconite; erinite; cornwallite; tyrolite; clino-
clasite; chalcophyllite; scorodite; pharmacosiderite; chene-
vixite; arsenosiderite; pitticite; bendantite; lindadserite.
The most important arsenical minerals are those in which
arsenic is combined with iron, cobalt, and nickel. Arsenic
also occurs in small quantities in many other minerals, spe-
cially in antimony ores, iron pyrites, etc., hematite iron ores,
the soil, mineral waters, etc. Arsenic is in fact one of the
most widely diffused elements in nature.
Owing to its occurrence in antimony ores and iron pyrites,
it is liable to find its way into the various preparations of
antimony, into sulphuric acid, and the various chemical
products of which this acid is the basis, as sodic sulphate
and carbonate, hydrochloric acid, superphosphates, etc. In
the chemical examination of the bodies of persons supposed
to have been poisoned the greatest care is necessary to pro-
cure reagents entirely free from arsenic.
Metallic arsenic is prepared by sublimation: (1) from
arsenical pyrites; (2) from a mixture of arsenious acid and
charcoal.
272
'ARSENIC OXIDE—ARSENIOUS OXIIDE.
Arsenic is a brittle metal, of a steel-gray color. On the
fresh fracture it exhibits a bright metallic lustre, which
Soon tarnishes. Its specific gravity varies from 5.62 to
5.96. Its atomic weight is 75. Its vapor density is 10.3995
(air = 1) or 150 (hydrogen = 1); this is double the atomic
weight. Hence, the atomic volume is anomalous, being only
half that of hydrogen. (See ATOMIC Volume.) It crystallizes
in rhombohedra. It volatilizes at a dull red heat without
previous fusion, with a peculiar odor, described as resem-
bling that of garlic. When heated in the open air it burns
with a bluish flame.
Arsenic belongs to the group of elements which includes
nitrogen, antimony, and phosphorus. It forms two princi-
pal series of compounds: (1) those in which it is triatomic,
as As” H2, As"Cl3, As'''208, As”2S3; (2) those in which
it is pentatomic, as AS305, AsăS5.
(For the detection of arsenic see ARSENIOUs ACID.) With
oxygen, arsenic forms two important compounds—arseni-
ous oxide, AS208, and arsenic oxide, As2O5, which give rise
to arsenious acid, HAsO2, and arsenic acid, H3AsO4. With
sulphur, arsenic forms three important compounds—realgar,
AsS, orpiment, As2S3, and As2S5. Besides these there is a
subsulphide, AS12S (?), and a persulphide, AsS9. Arsenic
combines with metals in the same manner as sulphur and
phosphorus, which it resembles, especially the latter, in
many respects; so much so that it is hardly proper to con-
sider it a metal. Its compound with hydrogen, arsine, AsFI3,
is analogous to ammonia, NH3, and like ammonia is the
type of a class of bases, arsines, which correspond to the
AMINEs (which see). -
Metallic arsenic is rarely used in the arts. Dead con-
taining a small proportion of arsenic is used for the man-
ufacture of shot, and iron containing a little arsenic is very
fluid when melted, and better adapted for fine castings for
which strength is not essential. C. F. CHANDLER.
Ar'semic Oxide (symbol As2O5), a compound of oxy-
gen and the metal arsenic; in its hydrated state it constitutes
arsenic acid. It is found in nature in combination with
iron, cobalt, lead, etc., in the minerals symplesite, erythrite,
mimetite, etc., mentioned under ARSENIC. It is prepared
by heating arsenious oxide with nitric acid. It is deliques-
cent and very poisonous. It is extensively used in calico-
printing, in place of tartaric acid, for developing white #.
terms on colored grounds in the chloride-of-lime wat. It is
also extensively used in the manufacture of aniline red.
Combined with metals, it forms an important class of salts,
called arseniates, which are analogous to the phosphates.
Arsenious Oxide (or Anhydride), As2O3, in the
hydrated state Arsenious Acid.
Occurrence.—It is found native, as the mineral arsenolite,
in silky, crystalline crusts on ores of silver, lead, nickel,
antimony, etc., in the Hartz Mountains and other localities.
Preparation.—At Reichenstein, in Silesia, arsenious ox-
ide is prepared by roasting arsenical pyrites (mispickel),
FeAsS, in a muffle furnace.
densing chamber, and are deposited as a powder. This is
then twice purified by resublimation from iron pots, being
condensed first in powder in a chamber, finally in vitreous
masses in the upper part of the subliming vessels. At Ribas,
in Catalonia, mispickel is roasted in reverberatory furnaces
without muffles, the crude product being subsequently puri-
fied, as at Reichenstein. At Andreasberg, in the Hartz,
native arsenic is roasted for the silver it contains, the arseni-
ous oxide being obtained as an incidental product. Much ar-
senious oxide is produced in the roasting of tin and cobalt
ores at Altenberg, in Saxony, and of tin ores in Cornwall.
Properties.—Arsenious oxide appears crystallized in one
of two different forms, or amorphous: (1) in octahedral crys-
tals, as usually sublimed and condensed on cold surfaces,
or as crystallized from its solution in water or hydrochloric
acid; (2) in right rhombic crystals, obtained occasionally
by sublimation or solution in potash; (3) amorphous, vitre-
ous, or glassy, produced when arsenious oxide is sublimed
and condensed on a hot surface, so that before solidifying
it passes through a semi-fluid state. It is transparent
when first prepared, but gradually becomes opaque and
crystalline. , -
Arsenious oxide usually appears as a very heavy, white,
gritty, crystalline powder. It has no decided taste. At
218°C. it volatilizes to a heavy, colorless, odorless vapor,
of a specific gravity of 13.85, which condenses to octahe-
dral crystals on cool surfaces. When heated with charcoal,
it is reduced to metallic arsenic, with a peculiar odor like
that of garlic. In its common octahedral form it is solu-
ble in about 30 parts of cold or 10 parts of boiling water.
When thrown into water, a portion floats like wheat flour,
while the portion which sinks rolls itself into little round
pellets, dry within. It is nearly insoluble in alcohol, abso-
lutely insoluble in ether. It is soluble in hot dilute acids
to a greater extent than in water, but it mostly separates
The vapors pass into a con-
on cooling, possessing but little basic power. It dissolves
readily in alkalies, forming arsenites. It acts as a reducing
agent on nitric, manganic, chromic, and hypochloric acids,
being changed by them to arsenic acid. It reduces gold
from its terchloride. To potassium, carbon, sulphur, phos-
phorus, and zinc it gives oxygen, with the liberation of
metallić arsenic. Distilled with acetates, it yields caco-
dyl, As(CH3)2, a compound of a peculiar intolerable odor.
Effect of Arseniows Oaside on the Animal Economy.—Ar-
senious oxide when taken into the stomach is soon ab-
sorbed into the blood, and circulates with that fluid, ex-
hibiting power over certain diseases, especially intermittent
fever and skin diseases, as psoriasis, lepra, eczema, etc. It
is also classed among the tonics, and is given for nervous
disorders, especially those which are periodic. Among
the remedies for chorea (St. Vitus's dance) it holds a prom-
inent place. The usual method of administering arsenic is
in small doses (from three to five drops) of the liquor ar-
semicalis, largely diluted with water, twice or thrice in the
day. It is frequently administered in small granules, which
should not contain more than one-tenth of a grain each.
Numerous other arsenical preparations are in use in medi-
cine. Externally, arsenious oxide is a powerful caustic,
and is considerably used in destroying cancers and malig-
mant growths. Arsenic is sometimes given combined with
iodine and mercury (Donovan’s solution). Caution is ne-
cessary in its use.
The quantity necessary to destroy life varies consider-
ably. Under circumstances favorable for its operation the
fatal dose for an adult is from two to three grains. Death
from a poisonous dose of arsenic may occur in a few hours,
or after the lapse of many days. Arsenic has been used as
a slow poison, the symptoms being attributed to inflamma-
tion of the bowels from natural causes. In most cases its
detection is easy. Arsenic is used by anatomists as an an-
tiseptic, but is dangerous, as it is apt to get into cuts on
the hands, and cause disagreeable symptoms. In some
countries, especially in Styria, arsenic is taken by the
young female peasants to increase their personal attrac-
tions. That arsenic can be taken habitually for any length
of time would seem an impossibility; and yet such state-
ments are made on unquestionable authority. (See JoHN-
STON’s “Chemistry of Common Life.”)
The most effective chemical antidote for arsenic is the
hydrated sesquioxide of iron, prepared by the rapid pre-
cipitation of a solution of a per-salt of iron (as the per-
sulphate or terchloride) by an alkali (as ammonia). The
mixture of ferric hydrate with magnesia, obtained by pre-
cipitating the iron solution with an excess of calcined mag-
nesia, is still more efficacious. In case of an overdose or
of intentional poisoning the following treatment is recom-
mended: Evacuate the stomach by the stomach-pump,
using lime-water; administer large draughts of tepid sugar
and water, magnesia and water, or lime-water; avoid the
use of alkalies, but administer charcoal and hydrated ses-
quioxide of iron. If the fatal symptoms be averted, let
the patient for a long time subsist wholly on farinaceous
food, milk, and demulcents.
The Detection of Arsenious Oxide.—Hydrosulphuric acid
merely imparts a yellow color to the aqueous solution. If
hydrochloric acid be added, a yellow precipitate of tersul-
phide of arsenic is formed, soluble in sulphide of ammo-
mium, from which it is reprecipitated by acids. The sul-
phide of arsenic is soluble in carbonate of ammonia, espe-
cially on heating. Acids reprecipitate it from this solution.
It is readily dissolved by hot nitric acid; also by hydro-
chloric acid, with potassic chlorate. Argentic nitrate
causes no precipitate in the aqueous solution of arsenious
acid, but if ammonia be cautiously added, a yellow pre-
cipitate of argentic arsenite is produced, readily soluble in
an excess of ammonia and in nitric acid. In making this
test, add the argentic nitrate, and then (inclining the test-
tube) let one or two drops of ammonia run down, so as to
form a layer on the surface of the liquid to be tested.
Where the two liquids are in contact a bright yellow ring
of argentic arsenite will be seen. Cupric sulphate causes
no precipitate in the aqueous solution of arsenious acid;
but if ammonia be added, as in the last experiment, a yel-
lowish-green cupric arsenite (Scheele's green) is precip-
itated.
Reinsch’s Test.—Metallic copper boiled in a solution con-
taining arsenic, to which hydrochloric acid has been added,
becomes coated with a gray incrustation of metallic arsenic,
which, if present in considerable quantity, may be detached
in scales by long boiling. If the copper, with the incrus-
tation, be removed, dried between pieces of filter-paper,
and introduced into a tube closed at one end, the appli-
cation of heat causes the arsenic to sublime as a shining
black ring if much is present, or as a , white crystalline
ring of arsenious acid if the quantity is small. Metallic
zinc precipitates arsenic if the solution be previously acid-
ARSENIUS–ARTABANU.S.
273
ulated with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. At the same
time arseniuretted hydrogen (AsH3) is evolved.
Marsh's Test.—This experiment is best conducted in a
flask provided with a funnel tube, and an exit tube con-
taining calcic chloride to dry the gas evolved. Into the
flask containing granulated zinc and distilled water dilute
sulphuric acid is introduced. Hydrogen is liberated, which,
passing, through the chloride-of-calcium tube, where it is
dried, escapes at the extremity of the apparatus. As soon
as the air is completely expelled the hydrogen may be ig-
nited. If the solution containing arsenic be now poured
into the flask, arseniuretted hydrogen will be evolved, and
the color of the flame changed to a livid blue. 1. If a piece
of cold porcelain (the cover of a porcelain crucible) be held
in the flame, a black deposit of metallic arsenic is produced.
This stain disappears when moistened with calcic hypo-
chlorite. 2. If one or two drops of strong nitric acid be
poured on an arsenic stain, and them gently evaporated, it
is converted into arsenic acid. By adding a drop of argen-
tic nitrate solution, and cautiously neutralizing with am-
monia, a brick-red argentic arseniate is produced. An
excess of ammonia, dissolves the red arseniate. 3. If the
exit tube (which should be of hard glass and free from
lead) be strongly heated beyond the calcic chloride tube,
the arseniuretted hydrogen is decomposed, metallic arsenic
being deposited in the form of a shining black mirror on
the cold part of the tube. 4. If a short tube be adjusted,
by means of a caoutchouc connector, to the extremity of
the exit tube, and the gas passed into a solution of argentic
nitrate, a black precipitate of metallic silver is produced,
while the arsenic passes into solution. On neutralizing
the filtered liquid with ammonia, the yellow argentic ar-
senite is precipitated.
Fleetman’s Test.—If a solution containing arsenic be
mixed with a large excess of a concentrated solution of
potassic hydrate, and boiled with granulated zinc, arseniu-
retted hydrogen is evolved. A piece of filter-paper, moist-
ened with a solution of argentic nitrate, assumes a pur-
plish-black color if exposed to this gas. This experiment
may be conducted in a small flask or large test-tube sup-
plied with a cork, through which passes a small tube drawn
to a point. - -
Dry compounds of arsenic, when heated with sodic car-
bonate on charcoal in the inner flame of the blowpipe,
emit a peculiar garlic odor. Heated with sodic carbonate
and a little potassic cyanide in a dry tube, closed at one
end, a black mirror of metallic arsenic sublimes.
Arsenites.—Arsenious acid forms with bases a series of
salts, which are not very stable, and have been but little
studied. “Fowler's Solution ” is a solution of equal weights
of arsenious oxide and potassic bicarbonate, boiled with
water and flavored with spirits of lavender. It contains
64 grains of arsenious oxide in one pint. The sheep-dip-
ping mixtures commonly employed are composed of arsemi-
ous acid, soda, sulphur, and soap, which, when used, are
dissolved in a large quantity of water, and thus constitute
essentially dilute solutions of arsenite of soda. Arsenite
of copper, or Scheele's green, is a pigment largely used as
a pretty and cheap green paint. The same substance is
extensively employed in the manufacture of green paper-
hangings for the walls of rooms; and recent inquiries
would lead to the belief that rooms covered with paper
coated with this green arsenite of copper are detrimental
to health, from the readiness with which minute particles
of the poisonous pigment are detached from the walls by the
slightest friction, are diffused through the room, and ulti-
mately pass into the animal system. It is also said that
arsenetted hydrogen, H3As, a very poisonous gas, is gene-
rated in damp weather. Another green pigment is named
Schweinfurth’s green; it contains arsenious acid, oxide of
copper, and acetic acid, and is a double arsenite and ace-
tate of copper. With tartaric acid arsenious oxide forms
a Salt analogous to tartar emetic. Its formula is K.A.s0.
C4H4O6. C. F. CHANDLER.
Arse/mius [Gr. 'Aparévos], SAINT, was born in Rome
about 355 A. D. The emperor Theodosius appointed him
in 383 tutor to his son Arcadius. Arsenius retired in 394
to a desert in Egypt, where he lived as an anchorite. Died
in 449 A. D.
Ar’sie, a town of Italy, in the province of Belluno, 50
miles N. W. of Venice. Pop. 5317.
Arsin’oë, daughter of Ptolemy I., king of Egypt, was
born about 316 B. C. About 300 B.C. she was married to
Lysimachus, king of Thrace. She instigated Lysimachus
to put to death his son Agathocles (born before her mar-
riage), in order to promote the succession of her own son.
By this crime Lysimachus was involved in war with Se-
leucus, king of Syria, and was killed in 281 B. C. Her
Sons having been murdered by Ptolemy Ceraunus, she fled
to Egypt, and became the wife of her brother, Ptolemy
Philadelphus.
Arsinoë, an Egyptian princess, was a daughter of
Ptolemy Auletes, and a sister of the famous Cleopatra.
Caesar having conquered Egypt (48 B.C.), took her as a
captive to Rome, but soon released her. She was assassi-
nated by Mark Antony in 41 B. C. -
Arsinoë, an ancient city of Egypt, capital of a nome,
was situated near Lake Moeris, about 50 miles S. S. W. of
Cairo. It was originally called Crocodilopolis (“the city
of crocodiles”) because it had a temple devoted to the wor-
ship of those reptiles. Ptolemy Philadelphus gave it the
name of Arsinoë in honor of his queen. The site is now
occupied by the town of Medinet-el-Faium.—Arsinoë was
the name of another city of Egypt, situated at the N. W.
extremity of the Red Sea, near the modern Suez. It was
an important emporium, connected with the Nile by a canal.
Ar’sis and The/sis [äports, 9éats], two Greek words,
signifying “raising up " and “laying down.” This mu-
sical term denotes the rising and falling of the hand in
beating time. It is also applied to the elevation and de-
pression of the voice, and the accentuation of syllables in
the scansion of poetry, arsis being the stress of voice given
to strongly accented syllables, and thesis the lesser stress
given to other syllables.
Ar’son [from the Lat. ardeo, argum, to “burn’], the
wilful and malicious burning of the house of another.
There must be an actual burning—an unexecuted attempt
to fire a house does not constitute the offence. If the act be
negligent instead of wilful, the crime is not committed, and
the wrong-doer is only liable to a civil action. The Eng-
lish law on this subject has been modified in this country.
Arson is in some instances divided into degrees, and cases
included in it which were not offences at common law. It
is made a crime by statute law to set fire to one’s own
house with intent to injure another—as, for example, to de-
fraud insurers. The punishment of arson is severe, and in
some of its degrees capital.
Ars-sur-Moselle, a town of Germany, in Alsace-Lor-
raine, 5 miles by rail from Metz, has vineyards and iron-
works, manufactures of paper, instruments, and iron goods.
Pop. in 1871, 5330.
Art [from Fr. art, which is from Lat. ars, artem], sig-
nifies (1), the systematic application of knowledge in pro-
ducing a desired result; and (2), a systematic collection of
principles and rules for attaining a desired end. Under this
last head the arts are divided scientifically into (1), those
which are intended to produce material results, termed the
useful arts (those useful arts in which the effects are pro-
duced entirely or mostly by machinery or by mechanical
contrivances are termed MECHANIC ARTs, which see); and
(2), those intended to produce aesthetic results, termed the
FINE ARTs (which see), The application of aesthetic prin-
ciples or the laws of taste to works which are intended to
produce a religious effect is termed religious art; the ap-
plication of the laws of taste to works of a material nature
is termed industrial art. (See FINE ARTs.) The word art
is often used as a collective term for any or all of the fine
arts (as the “study of art,” a “patron of art”); as relat-
ing to the fine arts are also used various derivatives and
compounds of the word art (as “artist,” “artistic,” “art-
museum ”). (For formative arts, arts of design, etc., see
FINE ARTs.) - -
The term “liberal arts” (artes liberales) was applied by
the Romans to the higher studies, which only freemen were
permitted to pursue. They were summed up in the follow-
Ing verse: -
“Lingua, Tropus, Ratio, Numerus, Tonus, Angulus, Astra.”
The term “servile arts” (artes serviles) they applied to
trades which were practised only by slaves. They were
summed up in the verse:
“Rus, Nemus, Arma, Faber, Vulnera, Lana, Rates.”
In modern times, the term “liberal arts” is applied to
the collection of studies in philosophy, science, art, and
history which compose the academic and collegiate (ante-
professional) course of study; hence, to graduate in the
arts, bachelor of arts (A.B.), master of arts (A. M.).
G. F. CoMFORT.
Arſta (ane. Ambra'cia), a town of Albania, 46 miles S.
S. E. of Yámina, on the river Arta, here crossed by a remark-
able bridge. It is the seat of a bishop, and has a large
cathedral, a citadel, and manufactures of coarse cottons,
woollens, and capotes. Here are remains of ancient Hel-
lenic walls. Pop. estimated at 6000. (See AMBRACIA.)
Arta, Gulf of (the ancient Si'nus Ambra'cius), a gulf
of the Ionian Sea, in the N. W. of Greece, lies between
Acarnania and Albania, and is nearly landlocked. It is
about 25 miles long and about 10 miles wide. The naval
battle of Actium was fought near this gulf.
Artaba'nus [Gr. 'Apré8av0s], written also Ardavan
T 8
274
ARTABAZUS–ARTESIAN WELLS.
or Ardovan, king of Parthia, and the last of the dynasty
of the Arsacidae. He began to reign about 216 A. D., and
waged war against the Roman emperor Macrinus. He was
defeated and taken prisoner by the Persians under Ardshir,
who put him to death in 226 A. D. -
Artabaſzus [Gr. 'ApräBagos], an eminent Persian gen-
eral, a favorite of Xerxes, commanded a large division of
the army which invaded Greece in 480 B.C. He took part
in the battle of Plataea (479 B.C.), after which he retreated
with his division by forced marches to Byzantium, and
thence crossed into Asia.
Artabazus, a Persian general and satrap, revolted
against Artaxerxes III. in 356 B. C. Having been de-
feated in battle, he took refuge at the court of Philip of .
Macedon. He was pardoned, returned to Persia, and fought
for Darius at Arbela. He was satrap of Bactria, under
Alexander after 330 B. C.
Artapher/nes [Gr. 'Apradépwms], a Persian satrap and a
half-brother of King Darius Hystaspis. He was appointed
satrap of the western part of Asia Minor in 506 B. C. He
used his power to restore Hippias, who had been expelled
from Athens. About 498 B. C. he subdued the Ionians,
who had revolted against the king of Persia.
Artaphernes, a general, a son of the preceding, was
associated with Datis in the command of the Persian army
which invaded Greece in 490 B. C., and was defeated at
Marathon. He also served in the army of Xerxes in
Greece, in 480.
Artaud (NICOLAs Louis), a French writer noted as a
Greek scholar, was born in Paris in 1794. He became in-
spector of the Academy of Paris soon after the revolution
of 1830. He translated the dramas of Sophocles (3 vols.,
1827); the comedies of Aristophanes (6 vols., 1830), and
the tragedies of Euripides (1832). He obtained the office
of inspector-general. Died in 1861.
Artaud de Montor (ALEXIS FRANÇors), CHEvALIER,
born in Paris in 1772. He was for many years secretary
of legation at Rome, and became chargé-d'affaires at
Florence in 1805. Among his works are “Machiavel, his
Genius and Errors” (1833), and a “History of the Sovereign
Pontiffs’’ (8 vols.). Died in 1849.
Artax'ata, the former capital of Armenia, on the Araxes,
was destroyed by the Roman general Corbulo, rebuilt by
Tiridates, and was captured by the Persians in 370 A.D.
It is now a mass of ruins.
Artaxerxſes I., LONGIMANUs [Gr. 'Apraśépêms Makpó-
xeup; Pers. Ardsheer Darāzdāst], a king of Persia, was a
son of Xerxes I., whom he succeeded in 465 B. C. He was
called Longimanus (“long-handed”) because his right
hand was longer than his left. The Egyptians revolted
against him about 460, but they were reduced to subjection
about 455 B. C. In 449 the Persians were defeated by
the Athenian forces of Cimon, near Salamis, in Cyprus.
Artaxerxes died in 425 B. C., and left the throne to his
son, Xerxes II.
Artaxerxes II., surnamed MNEMON, because he had a
good memory, was the eldest son of Darius II. of Persia.
He became king in 405 B. C. His younger brother, Cyrus,
who was governor of Asia Minor, revolted and raised a
large army, in which were 10,000 Greeks. The king, com-
manding in person, defeated the army of Cyrus at Cunaxa.
in 401. Cyrus was killed in this action, which was followed
by the famous retreat of the Ten Thousand. (See TEN THou-
SAND, RETREAT OF.) Agesilaus, the Spartan, invaded the
dominions of Artaxerxes, and gained several victories, but
this war was ended by the peace of Antalcidas (387 B. C.).
He put to death Darius, his eldest son, for a conspiracy.
He died in 362 B. C., aged about ninety-four, and was suc-
ceeded by his son, Artaxerxes III. (See PLUTARCH, “Life
of Artaxerxes;” DIoDORUs SICULUs; THIRLWALL, “History
of Greece.”)
Artaxerxes III. (or Ochus), king of Persia, was a
son of the preceding. He began to reign in 361 B. C., and
disgraced himself by his cruelty and sensuality. Among
the important events of his reign was the subjugation of
Egypt, which he effected about 350 B.C. Died in 338 B. C.
It is supposed that he was poisoned by his eunuch, Bagoas.
Arte'di (PETER), [Lat. Peſtrus Arcte’dius], a Swedish
naturalist, born at Amund Feb. 22, 1705. He was educated
at Upsal, where he formed an intimate friendship with
Linnaeus. They co-operated on the principle of a division
of labor in the field of natural history, and Artedi chose
the department of ichthyology, in addition to physiology
and mineralogy, which they both cultivated. He visited
England in 1734. Soon after his return he was drowned
in a canal at Amsterdam in 1735. He left a Latin work on
fishes, which Linnaeus published in 1738, and which is highly
commended. (See LINNAEUs, “Life of Artedi,” prefixed to
the work mentioned above.)
Artemis [Aprepts], the Greek name of the goddess
DIANA (which see).
Artemis’ia [Gr. "Aprepatoria], a martial queen of Hali-
carnassus, was a tributary or ally of Xerxes I., king of
Persia. She commanded in person her fleet, which fought
for Xerxes against the Greeks, and she displayed skill and
courage at the battle of Salamis (480 B.C.). According
to tradition, she jumped from the Leucadian rock into the
sea and was drowned, because she was disappointed in
love. \
Artemisia, an Oriental princess celebrated for her con-
jugal affection and her grief for the loss of her husband,
Mausolus, prince of Caria, who died in 352 B. C. She
erected to his memory at Halicarnassus a magnificent
mausoleum (so called in honor of Mausolus), which was
considered one of the seven wonders of the world. Remains
of it still exist. According to tradition, she mingled his
ashes with her wine and died of grief. (See J. C. AvLNA-
RIUs, “ Dissertatio de Artemisia et Mausoleo,” 1714.).
Artemisia, a genus of plants of the order Compositae,
sub-order Tubuliflorae, comprises numerous species of herbs
and shrubs, natives of the temperate regions of Asia and
Europe. They generally have an aromatic odor, and a
warm or acrid and bitter taste. The Artemisia. Absinthium.
(or wormwood) grows wild in England and the U. S., is
perennial, and has bipinnatifid leaves. Containing a bit-
ter principle and an essential oil, both very strong, it is
used in medicine as an anthelmintic or vermifuge. Among
the other species which have medicinal properties are the
Artemisia santonica (Tartarian wormwood or southern-
wood), a native of Tartary; Artemisia Indica (Indian
wormwood), which grows on the Himalaya Mountains; Ar-
temisia arborescens (tree wormwood), which is a native of
the Levant; and Artemisia vulgaris (mugwort), which is a
native of England. The dried flower-buds of several spe-
cies of Artemisia are sold under the name of wormseed,
semen contra. The great western plains and arid table-
lands of Nevada, Utah, and Colorado are overgrown with
the Artemisia Ludoviciana (popularly called sage brush),
which indicates a soil impregnated with alkaline or saline
Substances.
Ar’tery [Lat. arte'ria, plu. arte'riae, from the Gr. 3 ip,
“air" or “spirit,” and rmpéo, to “keep ’’ or “preserve,”
the arteries, until Galen's time, having been supposed to
contain air]. Arteries are the vessels which convey the
blood passing from the heart to the various parts of the
body. The arterial tube is divided into three layers, call-
ed the coats of the artery—an external, which is elastic ; a
middle, which is muscular with elastic layers; and an inter-
nal, smooth and lined with fusiform epithelium. The tube
is also enveloped in a fibrous sheath. When an artery is
completely divided by a sharp instrument, its walls do not
collapse, but the orifice contracts, and also retracts into its
sheath; a clot then forms and stems the flow till the cut
edges of the artery have time to throw out lymph, and
heal. All the arteries of the human body (with the excep-
tion of the pulmonary) are branches more or less direct of
the aorta. Each main trunk divides into two principal di-
visions—one, the artery of supply, which breaks up into
branches for the supply of the tissues in the vicinity; and
another, the artery of transmission, which passes to the
parts beyond. These, however, anastomose freely. Thus
the femoral artery divides into the deep femoral, to supply
the thigh, and the superficial, to supply the leg below the
knee; the common carotid divides into the eartermal carotid,
to supply the neck, scalp, and face, and the internal carotid,
to supply the brain. Although arteries have generally in
different persons the same distribution of branches, they
occasionally vary, and thereby are apt to perplex the anat-
omist. Wounds of arteries can be detected by observing
that the escaping blood is of a bright-red color, and flows
in jets or spirts at each pulsation; while blood from a
vein is dark, and flows in a steady current. Arterial bleed-
ing is controlled by tying with a thread, by acupressure,
by compression, or by the application of styptics, etc.
Arte’sia, a township of Iroquois co., Ill. Pop. 1269.
Arte’sian Wells are holes of small diameter (usually
between three and six, and rarely exceeding twelve, inches)
sunk into the earth, through which the water of subterra-
nean reservoirs or streams rises near to or above the surface.
Their name is derived from the province of Artois in France
(ancient Artesium), where they have long been used; but
they were known to the ancients, by some of whose writers
they are occasionally mentioned. They were also used in
China at a very early period, not only as sources of water,
but also of combustible gas and petroleum. A well at Lil-
lers, Pas-de-Calais, bored in 1126, still flows undiminished.
Artesian wells are most readily obtained where the geo-
logical formations possess a moderate inclination or “ dip,”
and are composed of strata of materials impervious to
ARTESIAN WELLS.
275
water (rock or clay), alternating with such as, like sand or
gravel, allow it to pass more or less freely. The rain-water
falling where such strata approach to or reach the surface
will in great part accumulate in the pervious strata, render-
ing them “water-bearing.” Thus are formed sheets of
water confined between two inclined, impervious walls of
rock or clay, abové as well as below, and exerting great
pressure at their lower portions. Where water so circum-
stanced finds or forces for itself natural outlets, we shall
have springs; when tapped artificially by means of a bore-
hole, we have an artesian well, from whose mouth the water
may overflow if its surface-level be below that of the head
of pressure as shown in the figure; the principle being
FIG. 1.
STE MENEROUlo Ft. J100 ft
#º ºffs. §% - 'VERDUN.
Ž ** ; § 500.
ſº º #. EPERN
@% ſº §:...gºš
sº 0.
=S § S& & / sº Hº:
š % Z % %
% ZGHAL}: & * -500 a
% § +00D,
H500.
_2_COCl.
Geological section from Chartres to Verdun through the Paris
basin. Horizontal scale, 90 miles to the inch; vertical scale,
1500 feet to the inch.
substantially the same as that upon which artificial foun-
tains are constructed. Even in the absence of properly
water-bearing pervious strata, accumulation of water may
take place or subterranean streams may exist in crevices and
fissures. These occur with especial frequency in limestone
beds, whose material is more or less dissolved by water;
thus very commonly caves and subterranean channels are
formed in such regions, and if the beds be sufficiently in-
clined, head for the rise of water in artesian bores may thus
be furnished. -
In regions where unstratified rocks prevail, or where the
stratified rocks are much disturbed, the finding of artesian
water becomes a matter of great uncertainty, and can in
general be expected only at considerable depths and at
low surface-levels. In formations possessing but a slight
inclination or “dip” the head of water-pressure may be
many miles distant, and a difference of level between its
locality and that of the well may not be at all apparent
to ordinary observation. It is thus obvious that the study
of the geological structure and general surface-conforma-
tion of a region is primarily needful in determining the
probability of success in obtaining artesian water in any
given locality. Not only can the practicability, as well as
the difficulties to be met, be thus in a great measure fore-
seen, but it can also be ascertained how far the experience
acquired in one bore may serve in other cases, and what al-
lowance must be made for difference of location with refer-
ence to the head of pressure, as regards depth and the kind
of strata to be penetrated. Sometimes a single well-con-
ducted experiment will thus demonstrate the feasibility of
artesian wells over extensive areas. -
As a matter of course, artesian water brings up with it
such other solid, liquid, or gaseous substances as are pres-
ent in the contiguous rocks, and are either soluble in it, or,
like petroleum, will float on it. And as from the depth
from which it is brought it is liable to have come in con-
tact with a great variety of materials, and at a tempera-
ture which increases with a certain degree of regularity as
we descend (on an average at the rate of one degree Fahren-
heit for every 60 to 70 feet), it is very common to find ar-
tesian water more or less strongly impregnated with a va-
riety of mineral matters, amongst which common salt is
perhaps the most frequent. In this respect artesian wells
are quite analogous to natural warm springs.
The manner of sinking a bore for artesian water varies
with the depth and with the nature of the material or ma-
terials to be penetrated. In the surface-soil stratum or other
loose alluvial deposits pipes of wood or iron are very com-
monly driven down by means of a pile-driver. In the al-
luvial region of the lower Mississippi “drove’ wells ob-
tained in this way are quite common, being formed of gas-
pipe one and a half to two inches in diameter, whose lower
end is a sharp steel cone, perforated for the passage inward
of the water, which is struck at depths varying from 20 to
70 feet, and even more. The same mode of obtaining water
quickly and easily has been extensively employed during
the building of the Pacific Railroad, the pipes being with-
drawn and carried forward as the work progressed. It is
but rarely, however, that water thus reached rises above the
surface. -
When the material is of a more resisting character, and
greater depth has to be attained (as is usually the case), the
soil-pipe, whether driven in or set into a hole previously
bored by means of an earth-auger, serves to prevent the
1oose earth from falling in, and as a guide to ensure the ver-
ticality of the bore, which is of the utmost importance.
The boring tools are of very various shapes, adapted to the
different kinds of rock, clay, or sand of various degrees of
consolidation. For hard rock the most generally useful
tool is a flat chisel; for clay and soft rock, a long, scoop-
shaped bit with a slanting cutter, or with a tapering,
twisted, spiral band (somewhat like a “gimlet screw ") at
the lower end; for sand, the same, or, should it be very
clean and damp, a bit resembling a common wood auger,
with broad spiral flanges.
In the case of soft rock, clay, and sand, the auger-bit is
attached to stiff bars of wood or iron connected by screws,
and provided with a cross handle at the mouth of the well,
whereby they can be revolved by the workmen. The whole
is suspended by a rope working over a pulley attached to
the top of a tall tripod or other scaffold or derrick, and
winding on a windlass or whin ; the connection between
the head of the auger and the rope being so arranged that
the latter is not twisted by turning the former. Thus,
whenever by boring the auger has become so full as to
threaten clogging, it is readily hoisted out with its con-
tents, and the latter discharged. Whenever the depth of
the bore exceeds the height of the derrick, it becomes neces-
sary to unscrew successively the sections of poles or bars
as they are drawn up, while a collar attached to the pole at
the mouth of the well prevents it from falling back. When
working at great depths the operation of discharging the
borings thus becomes a very tedious one, consuming far
more time than actual boring. -
The presence of water in the hole generally facilitates
operations materially; it is therefore poured in from above
when not naturally present. Sand, especially, can thus be
FIG. 2.
Boring Tools.
discharged more readily and boring continued for longer
intervals of time. The auger being drawn up, the “sand-
pump" can then be sent down at the end of a rope. The
sand-pump is a long tubular bucket of sheet iron, with a











276
ARTESIAN WELLS.
light valve at the bottom opening inward, enabling it to
sink down into the semi-fluid mass of water and sand until
it is full, the valve closing when the pump is raised. The
same implement serves to clear the bore of quicksand,
when met with in moderate quantities.
When hard rock has to be penetrated it must be pecked
through with chisels, in the same manner that blast-holes
are drilled by quarrymen and miners. The bits may then
be attached either to stiff poles, as is done in boring soft
materials, or, preferably, they may be altogether suspended
by a rope. The rapid deterioration of the screw connec-
tions by repeated heavy shocks, the liability to deviate
from the vertical, and the greater difficulty encountered in
withdrawing the boring tool and discharging the borings,
have caused the former mode of suspension to be almost
altogether superseded, in this country, by rope-boring—a
method extensively adopted by the Chinese long since in
sinking their numerous deep bores.
When boring in rock by hand the upper end of the rope,
or pole bearing the drill is attached to a spring pole or bar,
vibrated by the workmen, who at the same time give a slight
turn to the cross-bar at each stroke, so as to complete the
circle in from twenty to thirty strokes, varying with the
kind of rock and the diameter of the hole. The lift varies,
usually, between ten and twenty inches. -
When boring by steam-power the boring-rope is con-
nected with a walking-beam vibrated by the engine, which
also works the whin or windlass (the “bull-wheel”) when
required. To obviate the necessity of too frequently
lengthening the rope as the bore deepens, it is attached to
the walking-beam by means of a long screw working in a
stirrup-shaped nut, by turning which the rope can be let
out to the extent of fifteen to eighteen inches.
The drill, also, is not directly attached to the rope's lower
end, but first to a long and heavy stem of iron, connecting
at its upper end with a long stirrup-shaped piece, which
can be made to slide upward into another similar one
attached to the rope in the reverse position. This arrange-
ment, expressively called the “jars,” serves to facilitate the
loosening of the tools when they get fast by the jarring
motion that can thus be given. At the Pennsylvania oil-
wells the entire length of such a set of tools is about thirty
feet; its weight, 800 to 1000 pounds. - -
A most valuable improvement made of late years in the
boring of hard rock is thé diamond-pointed drill of Le-
schot. In this implement diamonds are firmly set into the
conical, concave, or annular end of a steel bar, so as to
present cutting edges to the rock when...turned right-
handed. It is usually worked by steam or compressed air,
and by its means the hardest granite may be bored at the
rate of several inches per minute. It is, of course, equally
applicable to the boring of artesian wells in hard rock as
to mining and tunnelling operations, in which it is now
extensively employed. When an annular bit is used, sample
cores of the rock penetrated may be brought to the surface
and examined. As in most labor-saving implements, its
somewhat considerable prime cost is soon covered by the
gain in time and cost of repairing other drilling tools.
It is not often, on the whole, that the sides of an artesian
bore are sufficiently solid and impervious to remain unpro-
tected throughout. Such is the case, e.g., in the cretaceous
limestone region of the States of Mississippi and Alabama,
whose soft, chalk-like rock is commonly bored with the
earth-auger, being solid and almost uniform even to the
thickness of twelve hundred feet. No tubing save the soil-
pipe is here ordinarily required, even in flowing wells. In
most cases, however, the use of tubing becomes necessary,
either to prevent the walls from “caving,” or to exclude
undesirable veins of water or quicksand; the latter espe-
cially being a frequent and most troublesome source of dif-
ficulty. The cheapest and most durable tubing is the
wooden, but the great diminution of clear diameter result-
ing from its employment greatly limits its practical useful-
ness. Most commonly, wrought-iron tubes (gas-pipes, and
for larger diameters tubing made of sheet iron and riveted)
are used, although not very durable; more rarely, cast-iron,
bronze, or copper ones, the former being rather cumbrous,
the latter, though very durable, too easily collapsed or de-
formed by outside pressure, and rather costly. Yet they
should be used at great depths in bores of great cost and
importance and difficulty of repair.
The outside diameter of tubes should ordinarily be three-
fourths to one inch less than that of the bore-hole, to allow
for inequalities of surface inside. It is important, on sev-
eral accounts, that they should not fit too closely, except
for excluding quicksand. The tubes are made in lengths
of about six feet, Screwing into each other or connected by
outside “thimbles' riveted to the lower, and successively
attached by screw-rivets to the upper section as the tube is
lowered into the well. 2
If after tubing any portion of a well the boring is to be
continued below, it must ordinarily be done with a corre-
spondingly diminished diameter, both of drills and tubing
if the latter be required. A deep well thus sometimes con-
tains three or four different successive sets of tubing, and
even more, so that, although begun with a clear diameter
of eight or nine inches, it may be diminished down to two
or three. It may then become necessary to extract all the
tubing, and widen the bore by “reaming.” Expanding
drills are sometimes used to undercut a set of tubing, and
thus lower it, but this is a slow process, and somewhat un-
certain of success. -
The accidents to which the well-borer is liable are very
numerous in kind and of very frequent occurrence. The
most common one is that the tools get “jammed” in the
well, whether in consequence of a deviation of the bore-hole
from the vertical, or from the falling in (whether from the
sides of the well or from its mouth) of some fragment or
boulder, or perhaps a hard fossil, or from the breaking of
a joint or the “stripping” of a screw, by which the tools
themselves have fallen in. -
The first cause mentioned is the most formidable, as it
is rarely possible to correct fully a material sidewise devi-
-ation of a bore-hole; this accident, therefore, frequently
causes the final abandonment even of deep bores. The
jamming of the tools by an object fallen from above is also
often a very serious matter; hence a double-hinged valve
is commonly placed on top of the soil-pipe as a measure of
precaution. A large number of most ingenious implements
for extracting bodies of various kinds and shapes has been
devised, yet not unfrequently a special tool must be con-
structed to suit a particular case. All possible precautions
should be taken to prevent such accidents, as their cure is
but too frequently impossible. -
Among the most noted of deep-flowing wells is that of
Grenelle at Paris. The latter city is situated in the lowest
portion of a basin-shaped mass of formations, so that the
strata slope towards the city. It was begun in 1833 under
the auspices of the government, and, advancing slowly, was
completed on Feb. 26, 1841, when, at the depth of 1792
feet, the auger, penetrating a ledge of rock, fell suddenly
several yards, evidently into water. In a short time the
water rose 112 feet above the surface in an immense volume,
bringing up sand and mud. It exerts a pressure equal to
a rise of 812 feet above the surface (in pipes), and dis-
charges half a million of gallons per day of very pure water,
which is distributed to that part of the city. Since, how-
ever, its temperature at the mouth of the well is 82°F., it
requires to be cooled for drinking purposes, and is used for
warming the hospitals at Grenelle. A large number of
other Wells have since been sunk in and near Paris, as well
as London, which is similarly situated as regards geolog-
ical structure. Among the most remarkable of the locality
is that of Passy, which was sunk with a diameter of two
feet to a depth of nearly 2000 in the years from 1855 to
1860, inclusive. It discharges 5,660,000 gallons of water
per day; the yield of the Grenelle well having, at the same
time, diminished by one-fourth.
Among the noted deep artesian wells of Europe is that
of Kissingen in Bavaria, completed in 1850. It is 1878%
feet in depth, the last 138% feet being sunk in pure rock-
salt. Hence the water is strongly salt; its temperature is
66° F., and the discharge is 100 cubic feet per minute; it
will rise to the height of 58 feet above the surface. Wells
have been sunk to greater depths in Germany since then;
the deepest of all, and doubtless the deepest in the world;
being that lately sunk at Sperenburg in Prussia, to a depth
of 3900 feet.
In the U. S. artesian wells are numerous, especially in
New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Alabama, and Missis-
sippi. In the latter two States they alone furnish the sup-
ply of water without which the fertile prairie regions would
suffer severely in summer. It has frequently happened
here, as elsewhere, that the discharge from the wells first
sunk has been seriously diminished or altogether stopped
by the opening of other bores in the same neighborhood or
at a lower level. A nine-inch bore made at the foot of the
hill on which the city of Columbus, Miss., is situated caused
the sudden cessation of the discharge from the numerous
wells in the town, while itself emitting a stream copious
enough to run a mill. On the partial closing of the orifice
the wells above resumed their flow.
The numerous bored wells of Western Pennsylvania,
West Virginia, and adjoining parts of Ohio are chiefly
remarkable as the source of the world’s largest supply of
petroleum, which flows or is pumped from them, accom-
panied by salt water and combustible gas. Their spontan-
eous flow seems frequently to be caused not so much by
water-pressure as by that of the combustible gas, which
is sometimes emitted by them in vast volumes, spouting to
the height of 60 to 100 feet a mixture of water and petro-
leum. Disastrous conflagrations have at times resulted
ARTEVELD, VAN–ARTHUR.
277
from such inordinate manifestations of energy. . These
wells rarely exceed 500 feet in depth. At Cleveland, O.,
as well as at a few other points, the natural gas is used both
for lighting and heating purposes by the proprietors.
The oil-region of Pennsylvania, with its numerous wells,
has its parallel in North-eastern China, where the wells are
said to count by tens of thousands, some of them approach-
ing a depth of 3000 feet. They are not, however, as pro-
ductive of petroleum as those of the U. S.
. A number of wells of moderate depth (not exceeding 500
feet) have also been sunk at the city of New York. The
structure of Manhattan Island is exceedingly unfavorable
to their success; but good water has been obtained in large
quantity, and rising to within twenty feet of the surface.
Among the deepest bored wells in this country are two
at St. Louis, Mo. The first was bored by the Messrs. Bel-
cher, sugar-refiners, between 1849 and 1854, 300 feet from
the river-bank, and 420 feet above the sea-level, down to
2199 feet, discharging per minute 75 gallons of water at
73.4°F. The other well, at the Insane Asylum, 180 feet
above the former, was sunk at the expense of the county,
to the depth of 3843.5 feet (the last 40 feet in granite), in
the course of 3 years 5% months from Mar. 31, 1866, and
working day and night, excepting Sundays. Diameter of
bore, 4% inches from 1022 feet to bottom. Both wells fur-
nish saline sulphur water; in the second it does not rise to
the surface; temperature, 105° F. These wells are remark-
able for having been mainly sunk in hard rock—limestone,
Sandstone, and shale—and almost throughout by steam-
power. The same applies to the Louisville artesian well,
2066 feet in depth; its water is likewise strongly mineral.
At Terre Haute, Ind., several wells have been sunk to
depths varying from 1600 to 1900 feet. One of these yields
only a strong sulphur water; two others also yield petro-
leum. Water quite similar to that of the Terre Haute wells,
and likewise connected with a petroleum-bearing forma-
tion, though of much later date, is spouted by the artesian
well near Lake Charles in Calcasieu parish, La. The main
stream comes from the surface of the great sulphur-bed of
that locality, at a depth of 440 feet, at the rate of about
sixty-five gallons per minute, and with a rise of twelve
feet above the surface.
One of the deepest bores in the U. S. is the well sunk
at the State-house, Columbus, O. Its depth is 2775% feet,
but the water struck (which is salt) does not rise above the
surface; its temperature at the bottom is 91°F., or that of
hot summer weather. -
In the vicinity of Chicago artesian water of great purity
is readily obtained at a moderate depth and in great
abundance, rising to convenient heights above the surface.
It is of material importance as furnishing a supply both fit
for domestic use and adequate for manufacturing purposes.
Among the artesian wells which have encountered great
difficulties in their construction we may mention those sunk
at Charleston, S. C., to the depth of 1250 feet, and at New
Orleans to that of 630. The strata penetrated here being
but little consolidated, and alternating with quicksand lay-
ers, the auger had to be closely followed by tubing, which
itself was very liable to sidewise displacement and collapse.
At New Orleans no satisfactory result was obtained at the
depth mentioned; at Charleston, a somewhat saline, yet soft
water, of a temperature of 87°, rises ten feet above the sur-
face, at the rate of twenty gallons per minute; it is used for
steam-boilers. • *
The boring of artesian wells is likely to become a matter
of capital importance in the arid regions of the West, where
both surface and spring water is so frequently not only very
scarce, but undrinkable. An expedition under the command
of Capt. (now Major-General) Pope was sent out by the
U. S. government in 1855 for the purpose of testing the
feasibility of sinking artesian wells on the waterless pla-
teau of the Llano Estacado, which forms a formidable ob-
stacle on the most direct route between the South-west-
ern States and Mexico. It was shown that water would
rise to within an available distance of the surface in bores
between 800 and 900 feet in depth. -
. In California artesian wells are largely used in providing
water for irrigation. The same is being done in the Sahara
desert of Africa, where such wells have been sunk to the
depth of 1200 feet, each one creating around itself an oasis.
Bore-holes are sometimes sunk from the surface into sand
or other pervious strata for the discharge of waste water
that would otherwise prove a nuisance. These are called
absorbent or drain wells. ,
E. W. HILGARD, Oaford, Miss.
Arteveld' (or Artevelde), van (JACOB), a famous
Flemish demagogue, born at Ghent, became a rich brewer.
By his talents and eloquence he acquired much influence
and popularity. The people of Ghent, who had revolted
against the count of Flanders, chose Arteveld as their com-
mander. He banished a number of Flemish nobles and
knights, and adopted a despotic and arbitrary policy. As
an ally of Edward III. of England, he waged war against
France. Having formed a design to give the sovereignty
of Flanders to the English Black Prince, he provoked a
revolt of the Flemings, who killed him July 9, 1345. (See
FROISSART, “ Chronicles;” J. DE WINTER, “J. van Arte-
velde,” 1846.)
Arteveld, van (PHILIP), a son of the preceding, was
born at Ghent in 1340. He was also a popular favorite,
but passed many years of his mature life as a private citi-
zen. When Ghent was besieged by the count of Flanders
in 1381, and reduced to a desperate condition, Arteveld was
appointed to the chief command. In May, 1382, he defeated
the count, and then assumed the title of regent. Charles
WI. of France intervened in favor of the count of Flanders
with an army, and Arteveld was defeated and killed Nov.
27, 1382. (See FROISSART, “ Chronicles.”)
Art Exhibitions, public exhibitions of the works of
living artists, for the purpose of affording pleasure and in-
struction to the people on the one hand, and on the other
of promoting the sale of the works exhibited. They orig-
inated before the art-unions, with which they are now usu-
ally connected. As in modern times artists depend for
patronage on private persons, and as their works, if sold,
are usually kept in the obscurity of private houses, the
necessity arose that some plan should be adopted for their
public exhibition. Among the earliest of such displays
was that of the French Academy of Art in 1673. The
regular exhibitions of the Royal Academy of London com-
menced in 1796. Similar exhibitions are held in all civil-
ized countries. The annual exhibition of the National
Academy of Design at New York is one of the most im-
portant in the U. S. Its exhibitions commenced in 1825.
Arthabas'ka, a county of Canada, in the central part
of Quebec, intersected by the Becancour River. Area,
about 850 square miles. The county is traversed by the
Grand Trunk Railway. Capital, St. Christophe (or Artha-
baskaville). Pop. in 1871, 17,611.
Arthabas'kaville, or St. Christophe, the capital
of Arthabaska co., province of Quebec, Canada, has a con-
vent and an academy of the Nuns of the Congregation of
Montreal, and two weekly papers.
Arthritis [from the Gr. &pópov, a “joint ’j, literally,
“inflammation of a joint;” a term inclusive of gout and
rheumatism, though properly applicable to inflammations
of the joints of whatever character.
Arthro’dia [Gr. &pópočía, from épôpov, a “joint” or the
“socket of a joint ’’], a connection of bones, in which the
head of one is received into a very superficial cavity in
another, so as to admit of motion in almost all directions,
as in the joint between the humerus and the Scapula.
Ar’thur, a thriving town in the N. Riding of Welling-
ton co., Ontario, Canada, on the Toronto Gray and Bruce
Railway, 73 miles W. by N. of Toronto. It is the seat of
important manufactures. Pop. of census sub-district, 4376.
Ar’thur, Ar’tur, or Ar’tus, a semi-fabulous British
hero and king of the Silures, is supposed to have flourished
about 500 or 550 A. D., after the Romans evacuated the
island of Britain. He is celebrated as the hero of the ro–
mances of the Round Table, and his exploits were favorite
themes of mediaeval bards and romancers. According to
the popular legends, he defeated the Saxon invaders in
several battles, and bravely defended the independence of
the Britons, but was finally killed in a battle fought at
Camlan against his rebellious nephew Modred. His fame
and adventures were magnified and embellished by writers
of various nations in the Middle Ages. Some of these
affirm that his residence was at Caerleon, on the Usk, in
Wales, where he lived in grand state, surrounded by mul-
titudes of knights and ladies—that twelve knights of emi-
nent valor formed the centre of this retinue, and sat with
the king at a round table. Another of his capitals was
Camelot, identified by tradition with Queen’s Camelot in
Somersetshire. The name of his wife was Guinivere. (See
TURNER, “History of the Anglo-Saxons;” RITSON, “Life
of King Arthur,” 1825; TENNYSON, “Idyls of the King.”
See also SIR. THOMAS MALORY’s “Byrth, Life, and Actes
of Kyng Arthur,” London, 1485; new ed. by Southey, 1817,
2 vols. quarto.) The Arthurian romances were probably
thrown into their present form, if not largely invented, by
Walter Map. (See MoRLEY’s “Writers before Chaucer,”
sub voce.) t
Arthur (TIMOTHY SHAY), an American writer of tales,
was born near Newburg, Orange co., N. Y., in 1809. He
became a resident of Philadelphia in 1841, and published
many popular tales having an excellent moral tendency.
Among his works are “Lights and Shadows of Real Life,”
“Library for the Household” (12 vols.), and “The Good’
Time Coming.” -
278
ARTHUR'S SEAT—ARTILLERY.
Arthur’s Seat, a rocky hill which rises in the environs
of Edinburgh to the height of 822 feet above the level of
the sea, and commands a prospect of great extent and su-
Fº beauty. It is supposed to derive its name from
ing Arthur. It is formed of several varieties of trap-
rock upheaved through the carboniferous strata, and pre-
sents on the southern and western sides perpendicular pre-
cipices.
Arſtichoke [supposed to be a corruption of al-kharcioſ,
the Arabic name of the plant], (Cyna'ra sco!'ymus), a per-
ennial herbaceous plant of the natural order Compositae, is
nearly allied to the thistle. It is a native of Southern
Europe, and is cultivated for food. The genus is distin-
guished by the bracts of the involucre being fleshy at the
base, and emarginate with a hard point. The part which
is eaten is the succulent receptacle of the flower-head,
gathered before the flowers expand, and boiled or made
into a salad. The Jerusalem artichoke (Helianſ thus tuber-
o'sa) is an entirely different plant, which is sometimes cul-
tivated for its tubers.
Article [Lat. artic'wlus, literally signifying a “joint”
or “single part"), a word used in various senses, usually
denoting a distinct part of a systematic work. It may sig-
nify a single clause in a contract, treaty, or other written
document, a particular, separate charge or item in an ac- .
count, or a point of faith. In grammar, it is a part of
speech, usually the shortest and simplest of all; in mer-
cantile language, it denotes a particular commodity; in
journalism, the principal editorials are called leading ar-
ticles.
rticles, in law, a word used to denote various kinds
of instruments drawn up under distinct heads or divisions.
Instances of the use of the word are a libel in admiralty,
where the libellant (or plaintiff) is said to “articulately
propound;” “articles of agreement,” “articles of impeach-
ment,” “articles of partnership,” or of peace or of war.
“Articles of Confederation ” is a phrase employed to des-
ignate the compact made between the original thirteen
States of the U. S., forming a general government before
the present Constitution, and which, having gone into
effect Mar. 1, 1781, gontinued in force until the first Wed-
nesday of Mar., 1789.
Articles, The Six, were imposed on the English na-
tion by Parliament in 1589 during the reign of Henry VIII.
They asserted the doctrine of transubstantiation, condemned
the marriage of priests, enjoined the continued observance
of vows of chastity, and sanctioned private masses and
auricular confession. The act imposing these articles was
popularly called the “Six-stringed Whip.”
Articles of Faith, an expression usually employed
to denote the particular points of doctrine which together
make up the sum of Christian belief. The various churches
of Christendom, not being agreed upon all these points,
have for the most part set forth their own exposition of
them; and it is to these creeds, symbols, or confessions
that the term Articles is most commonly applied. The
Articles of the English Church, formerly forty-two in num-
ber, are now reduced to thirty-nine, and by the Methodist
Church to twenty-five. (See THIRTY-NINE ARTICLEs.)
Articles of War, a name applied to an act of Con-
gress approved April 10, 1806, to establish rules for the
government of the U. S. army. Separate articles (those
now in force, approved in 1864, to supersede the old ar-
ticles of 1802) establish rules for the government of the
navy. Also applied to the code of military law embodied
in the Mutiny Act annually passed in the British Parlia-
ment. For the enforcement of such Articles of War power
is given to the Crown to establish courts-martial to try
and punish offences according to the Articles themselves.
Another annual Mutiny Act embodies “Articles of War for
the Marine Forces,” which relates exclusively to the royal
marine forces while employed on shore. The navy is not
controlled by any annual Mutiny Act, but the Articles of
War relating to it are contained in an old act of Parlia-
ment, the 22d Geo. II., c. 33.
Articula'ta [the plu. neuter of the Latin past part.
articula/tus, “jointed” or “furnished with joints,” from
artic'ulus, a “joint’’, or Artic/ulated Am/imals, one
of the four primary or grand divisions of the animal king-
dom according to the system of Cuvier, which is generally
adopted by naturalists. The Articulata are characterized
by bilateral symmetry and an external skeleton composed
of a series of rings or 'segments. These rings in some
cases appear externally as mere transverse folds in a soft
skin, but are often covered with a bony or horny sub-
stance. They are also characterized by an internal gang-
liated nervous system, the ganglia being arranged sym-
metrically along the ventral aspect of the central or median
line of the body. Optic nerves and other nerves of special
sense proceed from a ganglion in the head, which is some-
times called the brain, but is not much like the brain of
vertebrate animals. The Articulata have no proper heart,
but instead of it a dorsal vessel, a tube carried along the
central line of the body near the back. The blood is usu-
ally white. They surpass all other animals in muscular
performances in proportion to their size. Many of the
Articulata, have articulated members or legs, symmetri-
cally arranged in pairs. By most recent naturalists they
are divided into three classes—Insects, Crustaceans, and
Worms. Huxley subordinates the Articulata under the
name of Arthropoda, and introduces the divisions Annu-
losa and Annuloida, to include some classes of animals
otherwise placed by Cuvier.
Artific/ial Hori’zon, a horizontal mirror, usically
the surface of a basin of mercury, used to determine the
altitude of a star or other object when the sensible horizon
is ill defined.
Artificial Stone. See CEMENT, by GEN. GILLMoRE.
Arti'gas (Josí), a South American general, born at
Montevideo in 1755, became in early life a leader of the
Gauchos, a class of outlaws. In 1811 he entered the ser–
vice of the Junta of Buenos Ayres, for which he fought
against the Spaniards or royalists. He defeated the latter
in several battles, and became in 1815 master of the Banda
Oriental. Aided by the democratic party, of which he was
the leader, he conquered Buenos Ayres in 1820, but was
removed from power about the end of that year. Died in
1851.
Artil/lery [Fr. artillerie, remotely from the Lat. ars,
artis, “art,” “ingenuity,” implying that it is the product
of skill]. The term artillery was in early times used to
designate all kinds of missiles employed in warfare, and
the machines by which they were propelled. In modern
times, however, and especially since the introduction of
gunpowder for military purposes, the term is understood
to denote cannon of all sizes and varieties, their carriages,
projectiles, implements, and equipments, the machines ne-
cessary to transport, serve, and manoeuvre them, and lastly
the troops specially instructed and employed in their ser-
W1Ce.
Artillery is classified according to the particular service
for which it is adapted, and in each class according to its
size, weight, or the character or weight of its projectile.
Its primary classification is light and heavy. The former
includes field, mountain, prairie, and boat guns, rockets,
etc.; the latter comprises siege, garrison, sea-coast, and
ship guns. Field artillery is subdivided into horse artil-
lery, in which all the artillerymen are mounted on horses,
and “mounted batteries,” in which the officers, sergeants,
and certain other enlisted men only are mounted on horses,
the cannoneers marching by the side of the guns, or, for
manoeuvres on the field of battle or a rapid but prolonged
movement elsewhere, mounting upon the ammunition-chests
on the carriages. The size of guns is designated either by
the diameter of the bore in inches or by the weight of their
solid shot in pounds. In England they are often desig-
nated by the weight of the guns in hundredweights.
The artillery engines in use by the ancients were chiefly
the ballista and catapult for throwing stones and heavy
darts, and the battering-ram for effecting breaches or de-
molishing walls. These engines were rude, bulky, heavy,
clumsily constructed, and required many men and much
time and labor for their transportation, placing in position,
and manoeuvring; but, for the period and purpose, they
were doubtless of great power and sufficiently effective.
The effective range of the ballista and catapult did not
exceed 100 or 150 paces, but at this distance they were
capable of discharging missiles of 300 pounds weight.
In the Middle Ages the cross-bow came into military use,
and gradually supplanted the catapult. It is probable that
an engine of similar construction took the place of the bal-
lista. These engines were constructed of tough, fibrous
wood, and in some instances of steel. By their introduc-
tion greater portability and some increase of range were
obtained.
The birth of artillery, as we of to-day understand it,
must date from that of gunpowder. Although there is but
little doubt that a compound of nitre, charcoal, and sul-
phur was well known to the Chinese as early as the ninth
century as an explosive agent, and had been heard of in
Europe about the era of the first Crusade as adapted sim-
ply for such a purpose, it does not appear that it was well
known in Europe until it was introduced by Roger Bacon
in the twelfth century. Its uses for artillery or projectile
purposes did not seem to be understood until demonstrated
in the early part of the fourteenth century by the Friburg
monk Berthold Schwartz, to whom this important attribute
was made known by an accident.
The earliest record of the construction of cannon is about
ARTILLERY.
279.
the middle of the fourteenth century. It is alleged that
cannon were employed by Edward III. of England, A. D.
1327, in his campaign against the Scots, and also by the
French, A. D. 1338–39, and at the siege of Algesiras, A. D.
1342, but contemporaneous mention is obscure, and refers
to cannon more as curiosities than as engines of war. The
first well-authenticated use of cannon in battle was by Ed-
ward III. of England in the battle of Cressy, A. D. 1346.
Even on this occasion it would appear that their effect
upon the French was due more to astonishment than to
any inherent power of the novelty itself. From this date,
however, the construction and use of cannon increased
with great rapidity. At the very first they were of small
calibre, throwing stone or leaden balls of only three or
four pounds weight, but before the close of the century
they were capable of throwing stone projectiles of forty or
fifty pounds for field-guns and of 200 pounds for siege or
fortification guns. In fact, their excessive size and weight
not only seriously interfered with, but actually prevented,
their general use. The earliest cannon were constructed
of iron bars joined together longitudinally, and strength-
ened by exterior hoops of iron. Wood, wound with rope,
and sometimes with wire, was also used upon the exterior
to strengthen them. One of the most interesting of ancient
monster cannon still extant is the “Mons Meg,” made in
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1486 at Mons, Brittany, and now in the castle of Edin-
burgh. An inscription on the carriage states that it was
employed at the siege of Norham Castle in 1513. It burst
in 1682 in firing a salute. It is made of iron bars hooped
together, and its bore is twenty inches in diameter. (Fig. 1.)
Another superb specimen of early cannon—of much
later date than the preceding—is the “Tsar Cannon '' (or
King of Cannon) in the arsenal of the Kremlin, Mos-
cow. It was made early in the seventeenth century under
the emperor Theodore. It is of bronze, with a calibre of
FIG. 2.
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The Tsar cannon
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about thirty inches. The carriage upon which it stands is
merely an ornamental support. Cast without trunnions, it
was probably laid in permanent position for firing. (Fig. 2.)
Still more curious (for they are even yet, if we mistake
not, in battery) are the famous Turkish guns defending the
Dardanelles. The engraving shows the interior of the fort
of Chanak Kalesi on the Asiatic side. There are said to
be 102 guns (it is not stated that all are like those shown
and described). The diameter of the shot is thirty-six
inches, length of guns fifteen feet. They were cast at
Bagdad. The gun in the foreground is that which hit the
Windsor Castle in the famous passage up the Dardanelles
of the British fleet under Admiral Duckforth in 1807. It
will be observed that the wooden carriages form (only) per-
manent supports, affording no angular motion to the gun,
the direction of which is necessarily invariable. (Fig. 3.)
Ancient cannon were in some instances made of leather,
and as so made were used to some extent by Charles XII.
of Sweden, A. D. 1697.
In the very infancy of cannon construction the breech-
loading principle suggested itself, and was made use of in
a crude manner, but the low state of the mechanic arts for-
bade the exact mechanism necessary to perfect the idea.
About the middle of the fifteenth century cannon began to
be cast in iron, and towards the latter portion in various
alloys. A. D. 1477, Louis XI. of France caused many cast-
iron cannon to be fabricated for use against the cities of.
Picardy and of Flanders. About this period the projectiles
for large cannon, which had hitherto been of stone, were
made of cast iron, but to some extent stone balls continued
in use for a number of years afterwards. Shells were also
introduced at this time, and we have a record of their use
by Charles VIII. of France at the siege of Naples, A. D.
1494. Brass cannon were first cast in England by John
Owen, 1535, and a few years later in Scotland by order of
James IV. During the last half of the sixteenth century
mortars for throwing shells were introduced in Germany,
and in the first half of the seventeenth century in France.
Mortars were at first discharged by igniting the shell before
it was introduced, and then igniting the charge in the mor-
tar. The great danger of such a practice caused its aban-
donment, but not until it had been followed for half a cen-
tury. Towards the latter part of the seventeenth century
a short cannon, called after its inventor (the German Hau-
bitz) a howitzer, was introduced for the purpose of using
large shells by direct fire. In 1799 there was introduced a
short cannon of large relative calibre called a carronade,
named from the Carron Iron-works, where it was first cast.
No long guns for firing hollow projectiles at long range by
direct fire were known until 1812, when Colonel Bomford
of the U. S. ordnance department invented a gun for that
purpose, which he improved in 1814, and called a “colum-
biad.” Some years afterwards this invention was intro-
duced into France by General Paixhans, and was generally
called in Europe by his name. In 1841 a gun of this
character, but of somewhat different model, and called a
sea-coast howitzer, was introduced into the U. S. service;
and three years later these were followed by columbiads
of altered model, increased weight, and greater power. Up
to this period all ordnance was smooth-bore, the rifle prin-
ciple, although suggested very early in the history of can-
non, and put into practice in military weapons A. D. 1600,
having never been perfected or brought into general use.
About 1847–48, soon after the application of the rifle prin-
ciple to small-arms, experiments commenced to be made
with rifled cannon, but ten or more years were consumed
before the proper form, number, and twist of the grooves,
and form of the elongated projectile, had been sufficiently
ascertained to justify any general use of rifled cannon.
These varying elements are still the subject of Scientific
research and experiment, although rifled cannon have now
very nearly superseded Smooth-bore cannon throughout the
World.
Gunpowder was first used in the form of dust, but its
great loss and inconvenience in use, and the discovery of
its increased power in a granulated form, led, after some
years, to its sole use for cannon in that form.
In gun construction the prime considerations are tenacity,
elasticity, and hardness. Cast iron, wrought iron, steel, and
(for the smaller ordnance) an alloy of 90 parts copper and
10 parts tin, are found to meet these conditions best. Since
1860 the alloy has gradually fallen into disuse, England,
France, and the U. S. being the only nations who use it
now, and even these nations use it to a very limited extent.
The present condition of gun construction is mainly ex-
perimental. Iron in one form or another is the only ma-.
terial used for heavy artillery, but the particular form in
which it is to be used, whether as cast, wrought, or steel, or
whether in bars, coils, or ingots, or in combination—as, for
instance, steel or wrought iron interior and cast-iron or
wire-wrapped exterior—is still undecided, and it is left for
experiments which are still in progress or to be made here-
after to decide which is best. In the U. S. cast iron is used
for smooth-bore guns, and also for rifle guns, but as its use
for the latter has not proved satisfactory, experiments are
now being made with wrought iron, and with wire-wrapped
and other built-up guns, with fair prospect of success. In
England modern gun construction at one period inclined
to the use of a steel interior tube, strengthened by an ex-
terior casting of iron, which is the system of Palliser. But
the superior excellence of the inventions of Sir William





















280
ARTILLERY.
Armstrong, improved by those of Fraser, have resulted in
the exclusive use, in that country at present, of the system
of these two inventors. This method of gun construction
is, in brief, a steel core (or body of the gun) strengthened
by three or more exterior tubes of coiled wrought iron.
The system is at present popularly known as the “Wool-
Wich.”
In Germany and Russia, and some other European na-
tions, the Krupp system of heavy forgings of steel ingots
is preferred. This last is by far the most expensive, and
does not always produce the most durable guns. The
question of breech or muzzle loading is still an undecided
one. The Germans seem to prefer the first named, while
the English, after several years' adoption of the first, have
of late abandoned its use and returned to the muzzle-loader.
In the U. S. experiments stilſ going on have not yet dem-
onstrated which principle is the best. The advantages
of loading at the breech with heavy guns are numerous and
great, but the serious mechanical difficulties of perfecting
the movable breech attachments have not yet been satis-
factorily overcome.
During the half decade (1855–60), and the succeeding
decade (1860–70), enormous strides were made in gun con-
struction, and in that of carriages and projectiles, and the
manufacture of gunpowder. -
The plating of vessels of war with iron, and the increas-
ing thickness of this armor, have led of late years to a very
great increase in the size, weight, and calibres of sea-coast
and naval cannon, and this in turn has necessitated very
radical changes in the material and methods of gun con-
struction. In England the lead in this direction was taken
by Sir William Armstrong, who was subsequently followed
by Whitworth, Fraser, Palliser, Blakely, and others. In
Prussia, Krupp at Essen struck out a new method, which
has proved so successful as to cause his guns to be adopted
in large numbers by Russia, Austria, Belgium, and Spain,
in addition to his own country. In the U. S., Rodman,
Dahlgren, and Parrott have made their names famous by
successful improvements in heavy gun construction. Each
of the above-named inventors has given his name to his
invention, and the guns are so recognized throughout the
civilized world.
The method of Armstrong is to form the barrel or body
of the gun by welding at their ends several wrought-iron
tubes, each of which is two or three feet in length, and is
formed by winding a square bar of iron around a mandrel
and welding the edges. The part of the gun in rear of the
trunnions is strengthened first by an enveloping tube com-
posed of a plate of iron bent in a circular form and its edges
welded, and secondly by another enveloping tube made, as
in the body of the gun, of spiral coils. As at first con-
structed, the Armstrong guns were all breech-loaders, the
movable breech arrangement consisting of a hollow screw,
through which the charge was passed into the bore, and
a wedge which fitted into a slot cut in the breech of the
gun closing the rear end of the bore. This wedge was
slipped into its place by a hand, and kept there by a few
turns of the screw. The breech-loading principle having
proved unsatisfactory in practice, it was abandoned, and
all Armstrong guns were subsequently constructed as muz-
zle-loaders.
Armstrong’s method of construction has been consider-
ably modified by the suggestions of Mr. Fraser, a leading
employé in the royal arsenal at Woolwich. These modifi-
cations consisted, in brief, in reducing the number of coils,
shrinking on the outer coils and trunnion-block together,
introducing offsets or shoulders for hooking or securing the
different parts to each other, and in using a cheaper iron
for the outer coils. These modifications, while they did
not improve the strength of Armstrong’s original inven-
tion, reduced the cost of the gun nearly 50 per cent. As
thus reduced the cost of Woolwich guns is about double
that of east-iron guns in the U. S. of equal weight. Early
in 1867, Fraser still further modified his method by con-
structing his gums, up to those of 9-inch calibre or 250-
pounders, of four separate- parts: Ist, the inner (or A)
tube, a solid steel forging, tempered in oil, roughly bored
out to a calibre slightly less than the proper one; 2d, an
outer (or B) tube, composed of two single and slightly
taper coils of wrought iron, united together endways,
rough turned and shrunk on to the inner (or A) tube,
which is accurately turned down to receive it, the process
'being easier to twrn down the inner tube than to bore the
outer one; 3d, a breech-coil, or jacket, composed of a triple
coil, a double coil, and a trunnion-ring made and welded
together; and 4th, the cascable. Guns of this character
have been constructed of 7-inch (115-pounder), 8-inch (180-
pounder), 9-inch (250-pounder), 10-inch (350-pounder),
and, more lately (1871), 12-inch (600-pounder). Fig. 4
shows the Woolwich 25-ton (12-inch) gun on its carriage.
Still more recently, a gun of 11.6 calibre, of greater weight
*
and throwing a projectile weighing 700 pounds, has been
- &
FIG. 4.
2ZZZZ, 727a
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made. This last gun is what is popularly known as the
35-ton gun, or “the Woolwich Infant.” (Fig. 5.) In the
calibres of the Fraser system above 9-inch one or two ad-
ditional exterior coils are used. For its size and weight,
the 9-inch Fraser gun is probably the most efficient gun in
the world.
- º
Whitworth’s method is to construct the gun of a low
steel, the hoops cast hollow, hammered over a steel man-
drel, annealed, and forced together (or the gun built up)
by hydraulic pressure. The breech-pin, which is made of
harder steel than the body of the gun, is screwed into its
place. The striking peculiarity of Whitworth's gun is the
cross-section of its bore, which is hexagonal.
The Blakely gun is composed of a barrel of low steel,
over which is shrunk a tube of less elastic steel, and over
all a cast-iron tube or jacket, to which the trunnions are
attached. The two steel tubes are cast hollow, hammered
over mandrels, and annealed. The projectiles for these
guns are on the expanding principle.
The Palliser method is to insert a steel tube in the bore
of a cast-iron gun, either from the muzzle, where it is
secured by one or more steel screw-washers, or from the
breech, in which case the steel tube only extends a short
distance beyond the seat of the charge, and is secured in
its place by a screw breech-plug. This method affords the
opportunity of utilizing smooth-bore guns of older sys-
tems by their conversion into rifle guns of considerable
power and endurance.
The method of Mr. Francis Krupp of Essen, Prussia, is
to fabricate the body of his gun from a solid ingot of low
FIG. 6.
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steel worked under heavy steam-hammers. The gun is
strengthened by three or more steel tubes, which are
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shrunk on.
ARTILLERY:
281
shrunk upon the central tube or mass of the gun, the last
ring or tube enclosing the breech being forged in one piece
with the trunnions, and made without any weld. The
rings are of different lengths, as is usual with built-up
guns, and the whole gun is diminished in thickness 'to-
wards the muzzle, not by tapering, but by being turned
with concentric steps of diminished heights. Fig.6 shows
one of Krupp’s field-guns on its carriage. Besides sev-
eral thousand field-guns, Krupp has fabricated nearly 2000
of 6-inch, 7-inch, 8-inch, 9-inch, 11-inch, 12-inch and 14-
inch calibre. Of the last-named monsters (of which two
have been made), both have successfully stood the proof
of nearly 170 pounds of prismatic powder and a 1200-
pound projectile. The 14-inch Krupp gun weighs fifty
tons. (Fig. 7.) The first of its kind required the continuous
labor, might and day, of sixteen months, and, with its car-
riage and the turn-table (both of steel) on which it is
mounted, cost $110,000, gold. Krupp’s partiality for steel
induces him to make all of his projectiles and gun-carriages
of that material.
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º-º-º-E <=E_-E
In the Parrott method the body of the piece, or rather
the gun itself, is of cast iron, cast hollow, and cooled from
the inside (after the plan of Rodman) for the larger cali-
bres, and strengthened about the seat of the charge by an
exterior tube of wrought-iron bars spirally coiled and
For this purpose this portion of the gun is
turned down to a cylindrical form. Besides his field-guns
of 3 inches (10-pounder) and 3.62 inches (20-pounder),
and his siege-gun of 4.2 (30-pounder), Captain Parrott
has constructed sea-coast and ship-guns of 6.4 inches
(100-pounder), 8 inches (200-pounder), and 10 inches
(300-pounder). His mode of rifling is the increasing or
gaining twist. The Parrott gun is serviceable, of consid-
erable endurance, and, when Parrott projectiles are used,
of most excellent accuracy. The 10-pounder, 30-pounder,
and 100-pounder seem to give better results than the other
calibres. Fig. 8 shows the Parrott 200-pounder.
FIG. 8.
The method of Admiral Dahlgren of the U. S. navy has
been illustrated only in guns for naval uses. His guns
are of cast iron cast solid, and cooled from the exterior;
they are of great thickness at the breech and as far for-
ward as the trunnions, and from thence to the muzzle
rapidly diminishing in thickness, so that their external
configuration is not unlike that of a champagne-bottle.
Dahlgren guns are chiefly of 9-inch and 11-inch calibre,
and are adapted exclusively for hollow projectiles. A
10-inch Dahlgren gun for firing solid shot has, however,
been put in service. The 15-inch and 20-inch naval guns,
although they have in great degree the exterior form
of the Dahlgren, are cast hollow, cooled from the inside,
and have the elliptical bottom of the bore, which are cha-
racteristic features of the Rodman plan. The 9-inch,
10-inch, and 11-inch Dahlgren guns have the bottom of
bore in the conical form of what is known as “the Gomer
chamber.”
The guns of Gen. Rodman of the U. S. ordnance corps
are all of cast iron, and are cast hollow and cooled from
the inside, the exterior being meantime kept from rapid
cooling by fires built around the gun in the casting-pit.
Rodman guns are further distinguished by great thickness
of metal at the breech, by graceful curves of their exterior
lines, by the absence of all exterior ornamentations, sharp
angles, or edges, and of the cascable and swell of the
muzzle, and by having the trunnions at the centre of grav-
ity, thus doing away with preponderance and greatly facil-
itating the service of the gun. Rodman guns are both
smooth-bore and rifled. The calibres of the smooth-bore
guns are 8 inches, 10 inches, 13inches, 15 inches, and 20 inch-
es, and of the rifle, 8 inches (corresponding exteriorly to 10-
inch s.-b), 10 inches (to 13-inch s.-b.), and 12 inches (to 15-
inch S.-b.), three dimensions of carriage thus answering for
six guns. All Rodman guns are adapted to the use of solid
as well as hollow projectiles. The 15-inch Rodman gun
weighs 25 tons, the solid shot 450 pounds, and the powder-
charge 100 pounds mammoth powder. The 20-inch Rod-
man weighs 58 tons, its solid, shot 1060 pounds, and its
powder-charge 180 pounds mammoth powder. Fig. 9
shows the Rodman 15-inch gun.
In the U. S., in 1856, the systems of artillery in use for
the land service were as follows:
Field Artillery.—6-pounder and 12-pounder guns and
12, 24, 32-pounder howitzers—six different pieces of ord-
nance, and seven different kinds of carriages; the 12-
pounder howitzer mounting on three different kinds of
carriage.
Siege Artillery.—12-pounder, 18-pounder, and 24-poun-
der guns; 8-inch howitzer; and coehorn, 8-inch and 10–
inch mortars—six different pieces of ordnance, and as
many different carriages.
Sea-Coast Artillery.—24-pounder, 32-pounder, and 42–
pounder guns; 8-inch and 10-inch columbiads; and 10-
inch and 12-inch mortars—seven different pieces of ord-
mance, and as many different carriages.
All of the various carriages were of wood.
The system of artillery for the land service in use in the
U. S. in 1873 are as follows:
Field Artillery.—3-inch rifle and 12-pounder smooth-
bore—two guns and two carriages. Fig. 10 is the 3-inch
rifle, model of 1861, and at present in use.
FIG. 0.
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3-inch Rifled Field-gun, model 1861.
Fig. 11 shows the 12-pounder smooth-bore on its carriage.
12-Pounder, Gun and Carriage.
The 3-inch rifle (Fig. 10) is soon to be superseded by a
FIG. 12.
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12. This is to be mounted on the same carriage as the 12-













282
ARTILLERY.
pounder smooth-bore (Fig. 11), the weight being about
the same.
Siege Artillery.—4}-inch rifle, 8-inch howitzer; 18-inch,
10-inch, and coehorn mortars—five pieces of ordnance and
five carriages.
Sea-Coast Artillery.—10-inch, 13-inch, 15-inch, and 20-
inch smooth-bore guns; 8-inch, 10-inch, and 12-inch rifle
guns; 10-inch, 13-inch, and 15-inch mortars—ten different
pieces of ordnance and seven carriages, the 10-inch smooth-
bore and 8-inch rifle, the 13-inch smooth-bore and 10-inch
rifle, and the 15-inch smooth-bore and 12-inch rifle, having
respectively the same exterior dimensions and mounting on
the same carriage.
All of the sea-coast ordnance and the mortars of the
siege system have wrought-iron carriages.
For two centuries after the invention of cannon no at-
tempts appear to have been made to classify or arrange
the various sizes and descriptions, or to systematize the
organization of the material or troops of the artillery. So
numerous were the varieties that were brought into the
field, and actually used in battle, that great confusion in
manoeuvre, difficulty in supply of ammunition, and uncer-
tainty as to results ensued. These disadvantages finally
became so many and great that reform of some kind was:
essential. In the first half of the sixteenth century, under
Francis I. of France, this confusion was reduced to some
sort of system, and about the middle of the same century,
'under Henry II. of France, greater simplification and
more systematic arrangement were introduced. The vari-
eties of guns were reduced to six in all. It was not until
more than a century and a half afterwards that any radi-
cal and permanent classification and organization was
effected. Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden made improve-
ments in the direction of increased mobility of field artil-
lery, and the genius of Frederick the Great of Prussia,
aided materially in the same direction, particularly by
the introduction of horse artillery. Napoleon Bonaparte
also, in his day, instituted many advantageous changes in
the organization, mobility, and use of artillery. Early in
the eighteenth century the French general of artillery, De
la Vallière, reduced the number of calibres to five, and im-
proved the construction and reduced the number of gun-
carriages. Soon after the middle of this century, or about
1765, the French general of artillery, De Gribeauval,
effected more extensive and advantageous reforms. He
separated the field system from the siege, reduced the
charges of powder, and diminished the weight of field
artillery; introduced iron axletrees, cartridges, elevating
screws, tangent scales, perfect uniformity in carriage con-
struction, and improved the draught of artillery when
upon the road by increasing the diameter of the wheels,
altering the position of the siege-gun on its carriage, and
the manner of attaching the horses to all guns. These
reforms were great, and were so excellent as to ensure the
permanency of many of them as the basis of the system
of the present day.
The improvements in artillery of the nineteenth century
have been numerous and important, in fact, during the first
two decades of its last half these improvements have been
greater than at any period since the discovery of gun-
powder. In 1827 the construction and form of gun-car-
riages were simplified, the models of guns were improved,
and the number of calibres still further reduced. In 1850,
Louis Napoleon, afterwards emperor of France, simplified
the field-artillery system by the invention of a gun-how-
itzer, a 12-pounder, which took the place of the 8, 9, and
12-pounder guns, and 12, 24, and 32-pounder howitzers of
the then existing system. Since the last-named date up to
the present the chief changes may be stated in brief as fol-
lows: Ist, improvement in the quality of iron for gun-con-
struction, and in the methods of its preparation and use;
2d, increased size and efficiency of heavy guns; 3d, the
successful application and general introduction of the rifle
principle; 4th, more general use of hollow projectiles, and
especially of shells for heavy guns; 5th, the substitution
of iron for wood in the construction of gun-carriages.
The greatly increasing size of heavy guns of cast iron
involved many mechanical difficulties of construction, and
finally exceeded the limits of the possibility of perfect cast-
ings. As early as 1844–45, Captain (afterwards General)
Rodman, a highly intelligent officer of the U. S. ordnance
corps, instituted a series of scientific investigations, followed
by experiments, having for their object the removal of this
difficulty. These investigations, pursued through several
years, resulted in the introduction of Rodman’s system of
hollow casting and cooling from the interior, which renders
perfectly practicable the casting of iron guns of reliable
endurance of the largest necessary calibre. Perfect success
having attended the fabrication, by this method, of 8-inch
and 10-inch guns, Rodman suggested the casting of a
15-inch gun, which was successfully accomplished in 1860,
/
and was followed by the subsequent fabrication of several
hundred others. A 20-inch gun was next projected by
Rodman, and the first one was successfully cast in 1863.
Rifle guns of large calibre have also been cast by the same
method, but, whether caused by imperfect form or construc-
tion of the projectile, or for other reasons, those of the
largest calibre (12 inches) have not possessed sufficient en-
durance to resist the immense strains to which such guns
are subjected. The further fabrication of such cannon has
therefore been suspended in the U. S. -
Many changes, looking to the substitution of some other
explosive compound for gunpowder, have been projected
from time to time, but, although about ten years ago gun-
cotton promised to afford the advantages sought after, its
use, at no time extending beyond Austria, was soon found:
inexpedient, and was discontinued. Gun-cotton, nitro-
glycerine, and its various compounds, dualin, dynamite,
lithofracteur, etc., while they are excellent for mining,
blasting, or ordinary explosive purposes, are found to be
too quick and powerful for use in firearms, either small or
great. A wide range of experiment, however, has shown
that gunpowder can be greatly improved by greater care in
the selection and manipulation of its ingredients, and by
increased uniformity in the form and size of its grains. Ex-
periment has further-demonstrated that it is essential to
vary the size of the grain for different calibres of cannon;
that is to say, a large-grained (or slower-burning) gun-
powder is more advantageous for the larger cannon, since
it gives increased initial velocity with decreased pressure
on the walls of the gun. This has resulted in the classifi-
cation of gunpowder in the U. S. service into five kinds: 1,
rifle powder, for pistols and carbines; 2, musket, for rifled
muskets; 3, mortar, for field and siege-guns and mortars;
4, cannon, for the smaller calibrés of sea-coast guns; 5,
mammoth, for 15-inch and larger guns.
Within the last few years the improvements in the manu-
facture of mammoth powder have been so marked that with
charges of similar weights the initial velocity of a 15-inch
projectile has been increased from 1300 or 1400 feet per
second, with a pressure of 40,000 to 60,000 pounds per
square inch, to 1800 feet per second, with a pressure of less
than 30,000 pounds per square inch. As the work done by
the impact of a projectile is in direct proportion to the
square of its velocity, it is obvious how great are the advan-
tages which have thus been obtained.
The condition of artillery throughout the civilized world
is at the present time in a great degree tentative or experi-
mental—probably more so than at any time since gun-
powder was discovered. The proper proportion of artillery
to other arms, of the various classes and calibres to one an–
other, and of the different kinds or varieties of projectiles
most suitable for use, are all at present unsolved problems.
In the organization of armies for the field the proportion
of artillery to the other arms has at various periods of the
world’s history varied between the limits of one gun per
1000 infantry to six per 1000. Too great a proportion of
artillery may give confidence to raw and inexperienced
troops, but it encumbers an army with an unwieldy train,
and thus impairs its mobility. Too small a proportion
weakens the army’s efficiency for many defensive as well as
offensive operations, and renders some military operations
exceedingly difficult, if not altogether impracticable. The
topographical features of the theatre of war, and the pecu-
liarities of the enemy’s organization, exercise a material in-
fluence in the problem.
In the war in the Crimea (England, France, Sardinia, and
Turkey against Russia) the proportion of artillery was
rather less than three guns per 1000 infantry and one per
1000 cavalry. In the Italian campaign (France and Sar-
dinia against Austria) the proportion was rather more, say
three and a quarter to three and a half guns per 1000 in-
fantry. In the seven weeks' war (Prussia against Austria,
Saxony, and Bavaria) the proportion was about the same,
with perhaps a slight excess on the part of Austria. In the
Franco-Prussian war of I870–71 the proportion was three
guns per 1000 infantry on the part of the French, and about
four per 1000 on the part of the Germans.
In our recent civil war (1861–65) the proportion was
fixed at the outset at three guns per 1000 infantry, and two
per 1000 cavalry, with the intention of reducing the for-
mer to two guns as the infantry became more experienced
and staunch. During the last year of the war the propor-
tion was reduced in the armies commanded by General
Sherman to about one and a half guns per 1000 infantry
and one gun per 1000 cavalry, in order that the mobility
of the armies for the extraordinarily long and rapid
marches they had to make might be increased. Under the
circumstances this proportion was found to be quite suf-
ficient. These circumstances were exceptional and abnor-
mal, and perhaps unlikely to occur again. It is therefore
not considered to be advantageous to reduce the proportion
ARTILLERY,
SCHOOLS OF. 283
of artillery below two and a half to three pieces per 1000
infantry, unless the topographical features of the theatre
of war are mountainous or densely wooded.
The organization of the artillery of the armies of the
U. S. during the civil war was designed and executed by
the writer. Peculiar circumstances compelled this organi-
zation to be somewhat hastily decided upon and adopted.
It therefore unavoidably included at the outset a variety
of unsuitable calibres, but as soon as better and more uni-
form material could be fabricated and placed in the hands
of the artillery troops this temporary anomaly ceased, and
but two calibres of field-guns were kept in the service—
the 3-inch rifle and the light 12-pounder Smooth-bore, and
in the proportion of one of the former to two of the latter.
The generally wooded character of the theatre of war neu-
tralized in a great degree the advantages of rifled guns,
and rendered this proportion the most desirable. For siege
purposes the ordnance used were 4.2-inch and 4.5-inch ri-
fled guns, 8-inch howitzers, and 8-inch and 10-inch mor-
tars. At the siege of Yorktown, where unusual facilities
of water-transportation greatly favored their use, 100-
pounder and 200-pounder rifle guns and 10-inch and 12-
inch sea-coast mortars were put in battery. For guns of
position in permanent field-works and fortified intrenched
lines, such as the defences of Washington, 24 and 32-
pounders of the sea-coast smooth-bore system were exten-
sively employed, these guns having been found on hand at
the Washington Arsenal.
The whole number of field-guns which were equipped
and took the field with the various armies of the U. S.
during the civil war was about 1500, and they were trans-
ported or accompanied by 40,000 horses, and served by
about 48,000 men. -
The number of guns of position in use in the various
field-works or intrenched lines during the same war was
about 1200, and they were served by about 22,000 men.
In the defences of Washington alone the number of im–
placements for cannon were 1500, and there were actually
mounted and in position 807 guns and 98 mortars, which
were served by 18,500 men. These defences, thrown up by
the engineers under the direction of General Barnard,
were the most extensive known in history, exceeding even
the famous lines of Torres Vedras designed by Wellington
for the defence of the British army in Spain. They were
37 miles in circuit, consisted of 68 separate forts (whose
aggregate perimeter was 13 miles) and 93 batteries, the
whole connected by 20 miles of rifle-trenches. More than
30 miles of road practicable for artillery were constructed
concentric with the interior of this extensive line. The
armament of these defences was served by 18,500 skilled
artillerymen, for whose organization, instruction, and
progress especial care was taken by the writer when chief
of artillery. Every foot of the approaches to these works
was cleared of obstructions, and was directed in orders to
be so carefully scrutinized and studied by the artillerymen
of the various forts that the elevation of the guns and the
length of fuse for the hollow projectiles were ascertained
by actual experiment for every part of them. There were
no finer and better instructed troops in the world than the
heavy artillery regiments which garrisoned the defences of
Washington during the year 1863 and a portion of the
years 1862 and 1864.
The personnel of the field artillery of the armies of the
U. S. during the great war alluded to was composed in
great part of volunteers, but, though raw and uninstructed
at first, such was the zeal and intelligence of officers and
enlisted men that most of them finally became as well in-
structed, as rapid in their movements, as accurate in their
fire, and as steady in their courage, as veteran regular
troops. The horse-artillery portion of the field artillery
was, with only three exceptions, composed entirely of bat-
teries of the regular army. They were of course attached
to the cavalry, opened and maintained the action for them
in regular fields of battle, accompanied that body even on
those rapid and sometimes remote “cavalry raids” upon
the enemy’s communications and completely around his
rear which constituted so extraordinary a feature in the
late civil war. The services of this body of artillery could
not possibly be excelled in brilliancy and élan.
The troops of the artillery in the regular army of the
U. S. are at present (1873) organized in regiments, the de-
tails of which are as follows: Five regiments, each consist-
ing of 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 3 majors, 1 adjutant,
I quartermaster, I sergeant-major, I quartermaster-ser-
geant, 2 principal musicians, and 12 batteries. Each bat-
tery consists of 1 captain, 2 first lieutenants, 2 second lieu-
tenants, and 150 enlisted men (Sergeants, corporals, arti-
ficers, musicians, and privates). In time of peace the
President is authorized to reduce the battery organization
to 1 captain, I first lieutenant, I second lieutenant, and 60
privates. The law requires that one battery in each regi-
ment shall be “mounted”—i. e. equipped with guns, horses,
etc.—and gives the President discretion to mount as many
of the others as the exigency of the public service may
seem to him to demand. For the purpose of diffusing
‘throughout the regiment instruction in light artillery the
orders of the war department require that each lieutenant
shall serve a tour of two years in the mounted battery.
When not thus mounted the remaining batteries of artil-
lery serve as heavy or garrison artillery in the sea-coast
fortifications.
The personal armament of an artilleryman of the mounted
batteries, whether field or siege, is a pistol and sabre for
the sergeants, trumpeters, and drivers, and a sabre only for
each cannoneer. The personal armament of the artillery-
man of the heavy or garrison batteries, which serve in the
sea-coast fortifications, is the rifle-musket and other equip-
ment of the infantry soldier.
The organization, as regards matériel, of a mounted bat-
tery of the U. S. field artillery, when on a war-footing, is
6 guns, 6 caissons, 1 battery-wagon, 1 travelling forge, and
112 horses; and when on a peace footing it is 6 guns, 6
caissons, and 80 horses, or sometimes 4 guns, 4 caissons,
and 60 horses. Guns of different calibres or descriptions
are never assembled in the same battery; and in times of
war field-batteries are attached to divisions (sometimes to
corps d’armée), and not to brigades. The equipment of
ammunition of a field-battery for active service in war is
400 rounds per gun, of which 200 rounds are carried with
each rifle-gun (3-inch) and its caisson, or 128 rounds with
each 12-pound gun (Smooth-bore) and its caisson; the re-
mainder being carried in the ordinary army transport-wagon,
but accompanying the battery and under the exclusive con-
trol of its captain.
The organization of a siege-battery in the U. S. service
is 4 guns, 1 battery wagon, 1 travelling forge, and 60 horses.
The amount of ammunition which accompanies the siege-
battery is 250 rounds per gun, and it is transported in the
ordinary army transport-wagon.
WILLIAM. F. BARRY, U. S. Army.
Artillery, Schools of. Special schools for instruction
in artillery have for many years been organized and main-
tained by the various nations of the civilized world as a
component part of their military establishment. As early
as A. D. 1515 such a school was organized by the Vene-
tians. A few years later, Charles V. established a school
of artillery in Spain, and another in Sicily. Towards the
end of the next century (1675) a school for practical instruc-
tion in artillery was established by Louis XIV. of France
at Douai, and a few years later instruction in the theory of
the science was added to its course. About the same time
an artillery school was organized in Saxony, and some
years subsequently by the other nations of Germany. In
Sweden, Austria, and Russia, such schools were in existence
before the closé of the seventeenth century. About the
middle of the eighteenth century the artillery school at
Woolwich was established in England. -
In some nations the school is a joint one for artillerists
and engineers, but this is exceptional, the general rule
being to keep the instruction of these two scientific corps
separate and distinct. In the U. S. an artillery school for
practice was established at Fort Monroe, Va., in 1823, and
it continued in existence for about six years, and as a prac-
tical school solely, when the exigencies of the military ser-
vice (due chiefly to Indian Wars) caused its discontinuance.
This school was commanded successively by Col. Fenwick
and Lieut.-Col. Eustis. In May, 1858, a school for prac-
tical and theoretical instruction was organized at the same
place, under the command of Lieut-Col. Harvey Brown,
who in less than two years was succeeded by Lieut.-Col.
Dimmick. This school languished after the first year and
a half of its existence, and was finally brought to an end in
1861 by the great civil war. In Nov., 1867, an artillery
'school for theoretical as well as practical instruction was
again established at Fort Monroe, and has since continued
uninterruptedly up to the present date (1873). This school
was organized under the command of Brevet Maj.-Gen.
Barry, who still remains at the head of its direction.
The general course of instruction at all artillery schools
is divided into the practical and theoretical. The theo-
retical comprises mathematics, military surveying, as much
of physical science as is essential for the artilleryman,
military engineering, military history, etc. etc.; and in the
practicalis included the drill and service of, and target prac-
tice with, all kinds of ordnance, the laying out and construc-
tion of batteries, and the duties of the artillery laboratory. .
In some schools of artillery the instruction only of the com-
missioned officers of that arm is the object, while in others
instruction is extended to the non-commissioned officers
and other enlisted men. In the artillery school of the U. S.
army the instruction is theoretical and practical, and is
designed for the benefit of enlisted men of all ranks, as
284
ARTIODACTYLA—ARVA.
well as for commissioned officers. This school is com-
manded by a colonel of artillery, assisted by a lieutenant-
colonel (who superintends the theoretical instruction) and
a major (who superintends the practical instruction). The
scholastic affairs of the institution are supervised by a staff
composed of the commandant, the two other field-officers,
and the ordnance-officer who commands the arsenal at
Fort Monroe. The adjutant of the school is the secretary
of the staff. Each of the five regiments of artillery in the
army of the U. S. has one foot-battery and its captain sta-
tioned at the school. Upon each of these five captains are
devolved the duties of instructor. From each regiment of
artillery two first lieutenants and two second lieutenants
are annually sent to the school for instruction. The course
of instruction extends over one year, and is conducted on
a similar plan to that at the Military Academy at West
Point. There are two examinations in each year for the
officers, and one for the enlisted men. The first, during
the last week in August, is for the officers, and is in mathe-
matics only; the second, commencing April 1, is for officers
and enlisted men, continues about twenty days, and covers
the entire ground of the theoretical and practical course
of instruction. Those who pass the examination success-
fully are awarded an engraved certificate, signed by the
members of the staff, setting forth that fact.
The practical instruction comprises the drill-service and
mechanical manoeuvres of, and ample target practice with,
every kind of ordnance used in the military service of the
U. S.; the laying of platforms; the laying out and con-
struction of field-works or intrenched lines for artillery;
the embarkation, disembarkation, and transportation of
heavy ordnance, carriages, and artillery machines; the
practical use of all known artillery machines; the estima-
tion of distances and their determination by plane-table and
portable telemeters; and the duties of the military labora-
tory as far as they concern the artillerist. The theoretical
instruction includes mathematics, military surveying, as-
tronomy, ordnance and gunnery, military history, the prep-
aration and public delivery of written essays on military
campaigns or biography, constitutional, international, and
military law, and the theory and use of surveying, astro-
nomical, and ballistic instruments and apparatus.
The school term commences on the 1st of May, annually.
All reports from the school are made direct to the general
of the army. Twenty lieutenants and from thirty to forty
non-commissioned officers pass through the school annually.
, WILLIAM. F. BARRY, U. S. Army.
Artiodac'tyla [from the Gr. &prios, “entire,” “even,”
and Šáktvaos, a “finger” or “toe”], the term applied to an
order of hoofed Mammalia having toes in even number, as
two or four, and having a subdivided or complex stomach,
and a moderate-sized simple caecum. To this order all
those animals belong which are chiefly used for human
food, and which have been domesticated from a period
before the historical epoch. -
Artocarpa/ceae [from the Gr. &pros, “bread,” and
kapırós, “fruit *], a natural order of exogenous plants, of
which the Artocarpus inci'sa, or bread-fruit, is the type;
it is regarded by some botanists as a sub-order of Urtica-
C632.
all natives of tropical countries. The milky juice of some
yields CAOUTCHOUC (which see), and that of the cow tree
(Brosimum) is a rich and wholesome food, like cow's milk.
With these is associated the virulent poisonous upas tree
(Antiaris toacicaria). The seeds of this order are all in-
nocuous, and those of the Musanga of Western Africa are
esculent. The fruit is often a sorosis, a single succulent
fruit formed of the aggregated germens of a whole spike
of flowers, as in the case of the bread-fruit. t
Artois (anc. Atrebaſtes), a former province of France,
bordering on Flanders, is included in the department of
Pas-de-Calais. The capital of Artois was Arras. Artesian
wells derive their name from Artois (in Latin Arte'sia).
Charles X. of France before his accession was styled count
of Artois.
Arts, Degrees in. The term arts (in Latin artes) or
liberal arts (grºtes libera'les), as applied to certain studies,
was derived from the ancient Romans; and as early as the
ninth century was used in the schools of Paris, which
probably received it from Martianus Capella, and on the
establishment of universities the term “faculty of arts”
denoted instructors in science and philosophy, as distin-
guished from the faculties of theology, medicine, and law.
The number of arts was seven : grammar, logic, rhetoric
(the Trivium), music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy
(the Quadrivium). The terms master and doctor were ap-
plied synonymously to persons teaching by authority from
the universities. In process of time the first was restricted
to the liberal arts, the other to divinity, law, and medicine.
Music, however, had its doctorate, as well as philosophy
This order comprises more than fifty species, nearly
and letters. When regulations were established to prevent
unqualified persons from teaching, and an initiatory disci-
pline was prescribed, these terms were called gradus, “steps”
or “degrees.” The passing of the initiatory stage, first in-
stituted by Gregory IX. (1227–41), conferred the title of
bachelor, and an additional course was necessary to obtain-
ing that of master. Later, the doctorate became, in some
countries, the third or highest degree. The titles of mas-
ter and doctor implied the duty of publicly teaching some
of the branches included in the “arts”—a custom still re-
tained, to some extent, in the German universities, but in
other countries the titles are simply honorary, or at most in-
dicate the passage of certain examinations. The doctorate
in medicine, and in some countries that of law, are excep-
tions to this rule. (See DoCTOR.)
Art-Union [Ger. Kunst'verein], an institution for the
promotion of a liberal patronage of the fine arts; a society
formed to encourage the fine arts by the purchase of pic-
tures with a common fund raised by subscription. The
works they purchase are sometimes distributed by lot or
lottery. Art-unions originated in France about 1812, and
were introduced in 1823 into Germany, where they pro-
duced probably greater results than in any other country.
The Düsseldorf Art-Union, formed in 1829, has given a
powerful impulse to the fine arts, and has promoted the
execution of monumental works of art of the highest class.
In the course of twenty years it expended on works of art
268,000 thalers. These institutions were introduced into
Great Britain in 1834, the first being formed in Edinburgh.
The London Art-Union was organized in 1837, and was very
successful. The oldest of these societies in the U. S. was
the American Art-Union, founded at New York in 1839. It
had, in 1849, 18,960 members, and an income of about
$96,000. This society was discontinued because the lot-
tery business was illegal in that State. It is usual to give
an engraving to each of those who draw blanks in the
lottery. -
A/rum [Lat. a'rum ; Gr. &pov], a genus of endogenous
herbaceous plants of the order ARACEAE (which see). This
genus has a convolute spathe, the spadix naked at the
point. In some of its species a stench like that of carrion
is produced during flowering, and in some a remarkable de-
gree of heat. The flower of Arum cordifolium has a tem-
perature of 121° F. when the air is only 66°. The Arum
maculatum (wake-robin) is a native of England, has arrow-
shaped leaves, often spotted, and a tuberous, poisonous root,
which is a drastic cathartic too violent to be taken in a
fresh state. A nourishing farina called Portland arrow-
root is prepared from the root after the acrid juice is re-
moved. The Arum Indicum is cultivated in Bengal for its
stems and tubers, which are eatable. The Arum triphyllum
of Linnaeus (which recent botanists call Arisaema triphyllum),
or Indian turnip, is a native of the U. S. The tubers of
this plant have medicinal properties like those of Arum
maculatum, and yield a pure white starch.
Ar’un, a river of England, in the county of Sussex,
enters the English Channel at Little Hampton, after a course
of 35 miles. It is connected by a canal with the Wey.
Arºundel, a small market-town of England, in Sussex,
on the Arun, 5 miles from the sea and 50 miles S. S. W. of
London. It is on the south side of the South Downs.
Here, on the summit of a hill, is a magnificent castle which
was built soon after the Norman Conquest, and is the resi-
dence of the dukes of Norfolk. Arundel returns One mem-
ber to Parliament. Pop. in 1871, 2956.
Arºundel (or Arundeſlian) Mar/bles, a collection
of ancient Greek sculptures purchased in Smyrna and else-
where, chiefly by Sir William Petty, for Thomas, earl of
Arundel. They were sent to England in 1627, and pre-
sented in 1667 to the University of Oxford by his grandson,
Henry Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk. They consist
principally of fragments of the “Parian Chronicle,” Sup-
posed to have been executed in the island of Paros about
263 B.C.. This Chronicle, inscribed on marble, contained
(when perfect) a table of the principal events in Grecian
history, from the times of Cecrops (1582 B.C.) to the ar-
chonship of Diognetus, 264 B. C. The inscription for the
last ninety years is lost. •
Arus/pices, or Harus/pices [probably from haru
(=h&ra, “entrails”), and specio, to “see” or “examine”],
were Roman soothsayers, who foretold future events from
the inspection of the entrails of the victims offered at the
altars of the gods. Their art, as perhaps that of the au-
gurs, was brought from Etruria. f
Ar’va, a county of Hungary, is bounded on the N. and E.
by Galicia, on the S. by Liptau, and on the W. by Trenesin
and Galicia. Area, 802 square miles. It consists entirely
of a high mountain-valley, sterile, but beautiful in its
grandeur. The chief article of export is lumber. Pop. in
1869, 82,364. { - -
ARVICOLA—ASCARIS.
285
Arvic'ola [from the Lat. ar'vum, a “field,” and co’lo,
to “inhabit”], a genus of small animals of the order Ro-
dentia, allied to the rat and mouse. They are distinguished
by the prismatic form and fangless structure of the molar
teeth. The Arvicola agrestis (field campagnol) and the
Arvicola riparia (bank campagnol) are natives of Eng-
land. The U. S. have more than twenty species, called
field-mice.
Arvieux, d” (LAURENT), CHEvALIER, a French travel-
ler and Orientalist, born at Marseilles in 1635. He nego-
tiated a treaty with the dey of Tunis in 1668, and was con-
sul at Aleppo from 1679 to 1686. He wrote a “Treatise on
the Manners and Customs of the Arabs” (1717). From
his papers Labat compiled “Memoirs of Chevalier d’Ar-
vieux, containing his travels in Asia’’ (6 vols., 1735). His
works are commended by Niebuhr. Died in 1702.
Arx (gen. Ar’cis), a Latin name given to the citadel
of an ancient city. The arx was a fortified eminence or
rock, either within the walls or close to the city, and some-
times bore a particular name, as the Cadmea of Thebes,
the Acrocorinthus of Corinth, the Acropolis or Cecropia of
Athens. The arx of Rome was part of the Capitoline Hill.
A/rya, or Ar’yam. Arya, a Sanscrit word, signifying
“respectable,” “honorable,” was applied to the Sanscrit-
speaking people of India, whose ancestors came across the
river Indus from Central Asia probably between 1600 and
2000 years before the Christian era. The three higher
castes of the Hindoos are comprehended under the general
term of Arya; the lowest of the four principal castes (the
Sudras) belonging to the races whom the Aryas had con-
quered. Arya is supposed to have originally signified |
“agriculturist,” at a time when the most respectable por-
tion of the people of that part of Asia were engaged in
cultivating the earth, raising herds of cattle, flocks of
sheep, etc., whence it came to signify “respectable.” The
Aryas were of the same race as the ancient Persians, and
it is said that even so late as the reign of Darius Hystaspes
the Persians could converse with the light-complexioned
Hindoos without the aid of an interpreter. Prof. Bopp of
Berlin, in his “Comparative Grammar,” has shown that
many of the languages of Europe are closely related to the
Sanscrit; or, to adopt the words of the late Prof. Wilson
of Oxford, “He may be considered to have established,
beyond reasonable question, a near relationship between
the languages of nations separated by the intervention of
centuries and the distance of half the globe, by differences
of physical formation and social institutions—between the
forms of speech current among the dark-complexioned
natives of India and the fair-skinned races of ancient
and modern Europe; a relationship of which no suspicion
existed fifty years ago, and which has been satisfactorily
established only within a recent period.” (See Preface to
the translation of Bopp’s “Comparative Grammar,” Lon-
don, 1845.) All those nations whose relationship has been
proved “beyond reasonable question ” by a careful com-
parison of their languages, are designated as the Indo-
European (or, less correctly, the Indo-Germanic) family
of nations. Their ancestors, we have every reason to be-
lieve on purely scientific grounds, were originally one peo-
ple, and therefore Aryan, as a convenient general term to
denote the race, has been applied not merely to the an-
cestors of the modern Hindoos, and to their nearest of kin,
the ancient Persians, but to the whole of this extensive
family, whose forefathers, there is reason to believe, once
inhabited Central Asia, whence they migrated in search
of fresh pastures and more room, some going south-east-
ward to India, some northward or north-westward to Rus-
sia, and others westward to Asia Minor, thence to South-
ern and Central Europe. J. THOMAs.
Ar’zachel, a Jewish astronomer, who was born in -
Spain, and lived about 1050–1100. He ascertained the
obliquity of the ecliptic, and prepared astronomical tables,
called “Toledo Tables.”
As (gen. As/sis), a Roman weight, also called Libra,
was nearly equal to the modern pound. It was divided
into twelve unciae, “ounces,” and was equal to 10 ounces
18 pennyweights 13; grains Troy. A8 was also the name
of a brass Roman coin which originally weighed a pound,
but in consequence of the increase of the value of metal
compared with that of food and other commodities, it was
gradually reduced to half an ounce. During the second
Punic war the value of the as was about two farthings, but
its weight and the prices of articles in Rome were so va-
riable that its value cannot be accurately fixed. (See SES-
TERTIUs.)
Aſsa Dul’cis (i.e. “sweet asa”), a drug highly prized
by the ancients as an antispasmodic and diuretic. It was
considered to be worth its weight in gold, and was obtained
from a plant of the genus Thapsia, a native of Barbary and
Southern Europe. -
| against taking the oath of allegiance.
Asafoetida. See ASSAFCETIDA.
Asagrae’a (named in honor of Asa Gray, the botanist),
a Mexican plant which has bulbous stems, linear, grass-like
leaves, and spikes of whitish flowers. The Asagraea offici-
nalis, which is said to be the only species of this genus, pro-
duces the cebadilla-seeds from which the poison veratria is
prepared. /
Asan’der [Gr. "Aaavópos], a Macedonian general, a
brother of Parmenio, was appointed governor of Lydia by
Alexander the Great in 334 B. C. After the death of that
king he was satrap of Caria, an ally of Ptolemy, and an
. of Antigonus, against whom he waged war about
314 B. C.
Asarabacſca (As’arum Europae'um), an herbaceous
plant of the natural order Aristolochiaceae, having kidney-
shaped leaves, is a native of Europe. The roots and leaves
are stimulant, purgative, and emetic, and contain a bitter
principle or crystalline substance called asarin./
As’arum [Gr. &gapov, a genus of herbaceous plants of
the natural order Aristolochiaceae, is distinguished by
12-horned stamens, distinct from each other and from the
style, and by a bell-shaped, 3-lobed perianth. The Asarum
Canadense, a native of North America, called wild ginger,
is a stimulant and diaphoretic. Two other species grow in
the Atlantic States.
As/ben, called also A'ir, a country of Central Africa,
situated between about 15° and 20° N. lat., and 6° and I1°
E. lon., borders on the Desert of Sahara. It includes a
large tract of desert, and some fertile land which produces
dates. The climate is hot and dry. Capital, Agades.
Asbes/tos, or Asbestus [from the Gr. 3agea ros, “in-
destructible”], a fibrous mineral composed of fine, flexible,
and easily separable filaments of a silky lustre. It is a va-
riety of actinolite and tremolite, and consists chiefly of
silica, magnesia, and lime, or pyroxene. The fibres of a
very silky variety of asbestos are called amianthus. As-
bestos may be woven into cloth which is incombustible, and
if soiled may be cleansed by fire. The ancients wrapped
the bodies of the dead in such cloth, in order that when
they were burned on the funeral pyre their ashes might be
kept separate. It was also used for the wicks of the lamps
in the temples. Mountain cork and mountain leather are
varieties of asbestos. It is now employed as a material for
roofing, boiler-felting, night-lâmp wicks, steam-packing,
and paper-stock. Asbestos is abundant in Corsica, Savoy,
the Waltelline—the best coming from the last-mentioned
region—and the Tyrol.
Asbjörnsen. See APPENDIx.
As/boline, a nitrogenous substance to be found in
Soot.
As/both (ALExANDER SANDOR), a Hungarian officer,
born Dec. 18, 1811, fought in the revolution of 1848, and in
1851 visited the U. S. He entered the Union army on the
breaking out of the war in 1861, distinguished himself in
various engagements, and was made a major-general in
1864. He was minister to the Argentine Republic in 1866,
and died at Buenos Ayres Jan. 21, 1868, from the effects of
wounds received in battle.
As/bury (FRANCIs), born at Handsworth, Staffordshire,
England, Aug. 20, 1745, of Methodist parents, was con-
verted at the age of thirteen, became a local preacher at
sixteen, an itinerant under Wesley at twenty-two, came to
America in 1771 as missionary; in 1772 became Wesley’s
“general assistant” in America. During the Revolutionary
war, though extremely prudent, he was the object of much
annoying suspicion from the fact that he had scruples
In 1784 he was
elected bishop of the new Methodist Episcopal Church, and
was consecrated by Bishop Coke. His labors and success
in establishing his Church (chiefly in fields where churches
were almost unknown) are among the most remarkable of
which history bears record. Died in Spottsylvania, Va.,
Mar. 21, 1816. •
As/calon ('AgkáAov of the Greeks), called Ashſkelon in
the Bible, one of the five capital cities of the Philistines, a
former seaport of Palestine, 14 miles N. of Gaza, 12 S. by
W. of Ashdod or Azotus, and 42 W. S. W. of Jerusalem. It
was anciently a place of much importance, and was espe-
cially so in the time of the Crusades, when its small and in-
secure harbor was filled with stones by the sultan Bibars,
A. D. 1270. It is now a small village called A8culan, and
has extensive ruins.
As/caris [Gr. 30 capts], (plu. Ascar’ides), a genus of
intestinal parasites, of which the most common, is the
round-worm, Ascaris lumbricoides, found in the intestines
of man. Children frequently have them, principally in the
small intestines. The body of this worm is round, elastic,
with a smooth surface, of a whitish or yellowish color; it
286
ASCAWANA LAKE-ASCIDIA.
tapers especially towards the anterior extremity, which
commences abruptly by three tubercles which surround the
mouth. The body is transversely furrowed with numerous
fine lines, and marked also with four lines from head to tail.
In the female there is usually a constriction of the body at
the distance of about one-third of its length from the mouth.
Sometimes, especially in young and weakly children, their
accumulation may cause serious disturbance; even convul-
sions may be thus produced. There are no symptoms
(apart from the passage of the worms from the bowels)
invariably connected with their presence. Itching of the
nose, capricious appetite, swelling of the abdomen, and
grinding the teeth when asleep, may all occur, but they may
also be produced by other causes. Ascaris vermicularis is
the small white thread-worm or seat-worm, which, although
called āakapts by Hippocrates, is by most recent writers
called Oacywris vermicularis. Its length is from two-twelfths
to five-twelfths of an inch, the female being larger than the
male. The head is blunt, widening on each side; the body
tapers (at least in the female) to a point. Seat-worms, by
the itching they produce, often distress children very much ;
they are less freqently met with in adults. (For treatment
of worms, see ANTHELMINTICs.)
Ascawa/na Lake, a beautiful sheet of water, 2 miles
long and 1 mile wide, in Putnam Valley township, Putnam
co., N. Y. It is a place of summer resort.
Ascen'sion, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, 800 miles
N. W. of St. Helena, belongs to Great Britain. It is 10
miles long and 6 miles wide. It is volcanic and mountain-
ous, one peak rising to the height of 2870 feet. It has a
fort in lat. 7° 55' 55" S. and lon. 14° 25' 5" W. Turtles,
vegetables, and birds' eggs are procured here. It was dis-
covered in 1501. Capital, George Town. Pop. about 400.
Ascension, a parish in the S. E. part of Louisiana.
Area, 420 square miles. It is intersected by the Mississippi
River, and bounded on the N. by the Amite. The surface
is an alluvial plain, partly subject to inundation; the soil
is fertile, producing sugar, rice, cotton, and maize. Capi-
tal, Donaldsonville. Pop. 11,577.
Ascension [from the Lat. ascen/sio, an “ascent”]. In
astronomy, the right ascension of a star is the arc of the
equator intercepted between the first point of Aries and
that point of the equator which comes to the meridian at
the same instant with the star. Measured always from
west to east, the right ascension of a star corresponds or is
analogous to the longitude of a place on the earth. The
most convenient mode of designating the position of a star
is to refer it to the equator, and to a certain fixed point in
the equator. The point chosen for this purpose is the ver-
mal equinox or first point of Aries, from which the degrees
are reckoned eastward all round the circle. The right as-
cension and the declination are thus the two co-ordinates
by means of which the place of any star is determined.
The right ascension is ascertained by a sidereal clock, and
is reckoned or expressed in time. For example: if a star
come to the meridan five hours after the first point of Aries
passes the meridian, then five hours is the star's right as-
cension in time, which is equivalent to seventy-five degrees,
because one hour corresponds to 15° in space. Ascensional
difference is the difference between the oblique and the
right ascension of a celestial object. On account of almost
all astronomical elements being now computed from obser-
vations of right ascension and declination, instead of ob-
lique ascensions and ascensional differences, this term is at
present but little used. *
Ascension Day, or Holy Thursday, one of the
great religious festivals of the Roman Catholic and Epis-
copal churches, is held on the fortieth day after Easter, to
commemorate the ascension of Christ into heaven. Ascen-
sion Day has been observed at least since 68 A. D., and
perhaps earlier. Saint Augustine believed it to have been
instituted either by the apostles themselves or the bishops
immediately succeeding them.
Ascet/icism [from the Gr. &akéo, to “exercise,” to
“ discipline”], a term applied to a voluntary retirement
from the world and the practice of acts tending to mortify
the body; so called from the rigid discipline to which the
devotee subjects himself, the object of the ascetic being to
advance the spiritual interests of himself or others. As-
ceticism was practised among Jewish and pagan nations
Iong before the time of Christ, especially in India. The
Essenes in Judaea and the Therapeutae in Egypt were bodies
of Jewish ascetics. At the present day, asceticism is most
prevalent among Brahmans, Booddhists, and Christians of
the Armenian, Coptic, Greek, and Roman Catholic churches.
Early in the second century zealous members of the Chris-
tian Church devoted themselves to lives of poverty, cel-
ibacy, and abstinence from all sensual gratification. Some
of these remained among men, others dwelt apart as her-
mits. The union of numbers of hermits into one body
was first made by Pachomius, 340 A. D. This was the vir-
tual origin of MonASTICISM (which see).
Ascet/ics [for etymology see preceding article], a name
commonly given to those who in the early ages of Christian-
ity devoted themselves to a solitary and contemplative life,
practising great austerities, with a view to mortify the flesh
and withdraw the mind from worldly objects; also applied
to those persons in India and other countries who lead a
life of AscETICISM (which see). The ascetics of India are
especially celebrated on account of the severe and even
terrible austerities which they practise. One man will
stand all day in one position exposed to the rays of a burn-
ing sun; another will hold his hands clenched till his finger-
nails grow through them.
Asch, a town of Austria, in Bohemia, 100 miles W. of
Prague. It has factories of linen, calico, paper, hosiery,
and leather goods, and many dyeing establishments and
breweries. Pop. in 1869, 9405.
Aschaf’fenburg, a town of Bavaria, in the circle of
Lower Franconia, on the right bank of the Main, 24 miles
by rail E. S. E. of Frankfort. It has a royal castle, a
Gothic church, a library of about 22,000 volumes, a hospi-
tal, a gymnasium; also manufactures of woollen goods,
paper, straw goods, etc. It belonged to the elector of
Mentz for many centuries, and was ceded to Bavaria in
1814. A victory of the Prussians over the Austrians was
gained here July 14, 1866. Pop. in 1871, 92.12.
As/cham (RogFR), an eminent English scholar and
writer, born in Yorkshire in 1515. He graduated at St.
John's College, Cambridge, in 1534, and distinguished him-
self as a classical scholar. In 1544 he published a work
in defence of archery, entitled “Toxophilus,” which is re-
markable as a specimen of pure English style. He was
appointed in 1548 tutor to the princess Elizabeth, whom he
instructed in Greek and Latin, but he resigned that posi-
tion in 1550. Soon after this event he was sent as secre-
tary of embassy to the court of the emperor Charles V.,
and passed three years in Germany. Although he was a
Protestant, he was appointed Latin secretary to Queen
Mary in 1553, and after her death (in 1558) he was re-
tained at court in the double capacity of secretary and
tutor to Queen Elizabeth, who again took lessons in Greek
and Latin. He remained at her court until his death, Dec.
30, 1588, having by his prudence or good fortune passed
through very perilous times without persecution or dishon-
orable temporizing. His chief work, “The Schole-Master”
(1571), contains excellent advice on the subject of learning
Latin. (See D.R. JoHNsoN’s “Life of R. Ascham,” prefixed
to his works, 1767; GRANT, “De Vita Rogeri Ascham.”)
Asch'bach (JosłPH), a German historian, born at
Höchst, near Frankfort-on-the-Main, in 1801. He ob-
tained a chair of history at Bonn about 1842, and in 1853
at Vienna. His most important works are a “History of
the Emperor Sigismund” (3 vols., 1838–45); “Allgemeines
Kirchenlexicon.” (4 vols., 1846–50), and “Roswitha und
Conrad Celtes” (1867). He also wrote a “History of the
Visigoths” (1827) and a “History of the Omeyyades in
Spain” (2 vols., 1829–30).
Asch'ersle/ben, a town of Prussia, in the province
of Saxony, is on the river Eine, 18 miles W. S. W. of Mag-
deburg. It has about seven churches, one synagogue, and
a gymnasium, and is surrounded by a strong wall. Here
are manufactures of flannel, frieze, linens, pottery, and
brandy. Pop. in 1871, 16,734.
As/gians, or As'gii [from the Greek a, priv., and gria,
a “shade” or “shadow”], literally, “without shadow.” A
term applied to the people of the torrid zone, who have
twice in the year the sun perpendicular above their heads,
and hence are without shadow. -
Ascid/ia, or Ascid/ians [from the Gr. &orkiðtov (dimin.
of &akós), a “leathern bottle”], a group of molluscoids of
the class Tunicata. They have no shell, but are enclosed
in an elastic tunic with two orifices, and resemble a bottle
or jar. Within the external tunic is a muscular membrane,
regarded as corresponding to the mantle of the other Mol-
lusca. The greater part of the cavity of the mantle forms
a branchial sac, the folded lining of which constitutes the
gills (branchiae). The movements of numerous cilia around
the mouth bring into it a current of sea-water, which passes
out at the vent or anal orifice. They have no eyes or other
organs of special sense, but they have hearts and a circula-
tion of blood, with the remarkable peculiarity that its direc-
tion is sometimes reversed. In their mature state they are
fixed by the base to some solid substance, as a rock or sea-
weed, but the young, resembling tadpoles in form, swim by
means of a vibratile tail, which disappears when they settle.
The group is divisible into solitary or simple (Ascidiadae)
and compound ascidians (of several families), members of
which are connected by a tubular stem, and to Some extent
3 - ASCIDIUM-ASGILL.
287
have a common circulation of blood, though each has its
own heart, respiratory apparatus, and digestive organs.
In other kinds, more strictly called compound ascidians,
the tunics of many are united into a mass, and they form
systems like zoophytes. The individuals in these systems
have always-sprung by gemmation from one, and both the
solitary and compound ascidians propagate by eggs. “In
the dim obscurity of the past,” says Darwin, “we can see
that the early progenitor of all the Vertebrata must have
been an aquatic animal provided with branchiae, with the
two sexes united in the same individual, and with the most
important organs of the body (such as the brain and heart)
imperfectly developed. This animal seems to have been
more like the larvae of our existing marine ascidians than
any other known form.” (See “Descent of Man,” vol. ii.,
p. 372.) -
Ascid/ium [from the Gr. 3akt3tov (dimin. of &akós), a
“ small leathern bag or bottle”], a hollow, pitcher-shaped
body which occurs on the stems of certain plants, as Ne-
penthes and Sarracenia. It usually contains water, and is
sometimes furnished with reflexed hairs, which prevent the
escape of insects that fall into it. (See NEPENTHES.) As-
cidium is also a genus of simple tunicaries, which gives
name to the family Ascidiadae and the whole group of as-
cidians. •
Asciſtes [from the Gr. &akós, a “skin,” a leathern bag
for water, alluding to the shape of the patient’s abdomen],
dropsy of the abdominal cavity, is most frequently an in-
dication of portal obstruction, caused by “cirrhosis” or
other disease of the liver, which hinders the return of
venous blood to the heart and causes pressure in the veins,
leading to transudation of serum into the peritoneal (ab-
dominal) cavity. In other cases it is a symptom of general
dropsy; or it may result from cancer or tubercle of the
peritoneum; or, in children especially, it may appear as a
temporary and quite inexplicable phenomenon, without se-
rious danger or distress. Ascites must be regarded in al-
most all cases as a very grave symptom of disease, yet
there are not a few cases where the immediate danger
passes away, and the patient becomes, for the time, com-
fortable; but such results are temporary and unfrequent.
The treatment is palliative. Diuretics may be useful, but
hydragogue cathartics are much more effective in relieving
the symptom. Tapping may be practised where the dropsy
very seriously distends the abdomen. The diagnosis be-
tween ascites and ovarian dropsy is sometimes very diffi-
cult. The distinctive marks can be appreciated only by
the skilled physician.
Asclepiada/ceae [so named from Ascle/pias, one of its
general, a natural order of exogenous plants, which often
have twining stems, and almost always have a milky juice.
The leaves are entire; the flowers are monopetalous and
regular, but peculiar in their structure. The corolla is
divided into five lobes; the filaments of the five stamens
are usually united so as to form a tube, which is generally
furnished with a crown or coronet of hood-shaped append-
ages. The fruit consists of two follicles, with many seeds
terminating in long down or silky fibres. This order com-
prises about 1000 species, mostly natives of warm climates.
'Many of them are used in medicine, and others are culti-
wated for their beautiful flowers, as the Stephanſotis flori-
bwn'da and the Hova carnosa, a hothouse climber, to each
flower of which a drop of honey is always suspended.
The type of the order is the Asclepias, several species of
which are natives of the U. S. Among the medicinal plants
of this order are Calot'ropis gigante'a, or mudar, Tyloph’oro.
asthmatºica of India, and Vincetoacicum officinale. Useful
fibres are obtained from the stems of several species of Calo-
tropis, from Orthanthera viminea, and Ho’ya viridiflora.
Asclepiſadae [Gr. 'AgrkXmmuáðat]. This term was first
applied, among the ancient Greeks, to those who were re-
puted to be the descendants of Æsculapius, the god of
medicine; afterwards, to those who were trained in his
temples (Asclepions) in the science and art of healing.
Aristotle, though not a physician, was one of the family
of the Asclepiadae. Young men designed for the medical
Vocation, if sons of physicians, began their studies before
their twentieth year; others, after a preparatory education
lasting from the seventeenth to the twentieth year; in both,
the Special medical training probably did not end before
their twenty-fifth year. Much secresy and exclusiveness
were observed in their initiation; and after the first ordeal
of preparation h een passed, at the commencement of
the ceremonies of illumination, the HIPPOCRATIC OATH
(which see) was administered to the candidate. At the
close of the period of training came the ceremony of coro-
nation, by which the young Asclepiadae were fully intro-
duced into the profession of medicine. (See WATson,
“Medical Profession in Ancient Times,” New York, 1856.)
Asclepiade'an, or Ascle/piad [from Asclepiades, a
poet who invented this metre], the name of a metre in
ancient poetry consisting of four feet, a spondee, a chor-
iamb, and two dactyls (or, according to some, two chor-
iambs and an iambus). The first ode of Horace furnishes
an example:
“Maecănăsătăvis edité régibiis.”
Asclepiſades [Gr. 'AarkAmtrud.6ms], a celebrated Greek
physician, born at Prusa, in Bithynia, flourished about
100–80 B. C. He practised at Rome, where he founded a
school, and was very popular with the Romans on account
of his pleasant and simple remedies. His maxim was, that
a physician ought to cure his patients safely, speedily, and
agreeably. He relied much on diet, bathing, and exercise
or gestation. He wrote several works, of which only small
fragments are extant. (See GUMPERT, “Asclepiadis Bithyni
Tragmenta,” 1798; BIANCHINI, “La Medicina d'Asclepi-
ade,” 1769.)
Ascle/pias [named, on account of its medicinal vir-
tues, from 'Aakanirtós, the Greek name of AEsculapius, the
god of medicine], a genus of perennial herbaceous plants,
the type of the order Asclepiadaceae, mostly natives of the
U. S. The corolla is wheel-shaped and reflexed, the crown
or coronet is fleshy, and each of its hooded appendages has
an incurved horn. The Asclepias Cornwti (milk-weed or
silk-weed), formerly called Asclepias Syriaca, is an Amer-
ican plant, abounding in an acrid milky juice, which con- .
tains caoutchouc. The seed-vessels are filled with a silky
down, which is sometimes used for stuffing pillows. The
fibre of the stem is said to be valuable for ropes. The A8-
clepias tuberosa, sometimes called pleurisy-root, has hand-
some flowers. Its root is used as an expectorant and dia-
phoretic. Many other species of Asclepias grow in the U. S.
As/coli di Satria'no, an episcopal city of Italy, in the
province of Foggia, 25 miles by rail S. E. of Foggia, on the
eastern slope of the Apennines. Near it, Pyrrhus, in 279
B. C., won a great victory over the Romans, and in 1246
A. D. an imperial army crushed the Apulian insurgents led
by Cardinal Rainer. Pop. in 1861, 5669.
As/coli-Pice/no, a province of Central Italy, is
bounded on the N. by Macerata, on the E. by the Adriatic
Sea, on the S. by Teramo, and on the W. by Perugia. Area,
808 square miles. The province consists chiefly of moun-
tain-ridges running parallel to each other, the portion on
the coast being of superior beauty. Chief town, Ascoli-
Piceno. Pop. in 1871, 203,009.
Ascoli-Piceno (anc. Asculum Picenum), an old epis-
copal city of Central Italy, in the province of the same
name, is situated on a hill and on the river Tronto, 53 miles
S. of Ancona. It commands a fine view of the Apennines,
a few miles distant. It is well built, and has a cathedral,
a museum, a theatre, a library, and many private palaces.
It was annexed to the Papal States in 1426. A battle was
fought here between Tancred of Sicily and the emperor
Henry VI. of Germany, in which the latter was defeated
(1190). Pop. in 1871, 22,937.
Asco/nius Pedia'nus (QUINTUs), a Roman critic and
commentator, was born probably at Padua, and lived about
50 A. D. He taught at Rome, and is said to have been the
master of Quintilian. Among his works were valuable
commentaries on Cicero’s “Orations.” Poggio Bracciolini
found in 1416 at St. Gall commentaries on seven Ora-
tions—viz., “In Verrem,” “In Divinationem,” “Pro Cor-
nelio,” “In Toga Candida,” “In Pisonem,” “Pro Scauro,”
and « Pro Milone.” He wrote a Life of Sallust, which is
not extant. He died, aged eighty-five, in the reign of
Domitian.
Ascut/ney Mountain, an isolated mass of granite in
Windsor co., Vt., 3300 feet above the level of the sea. Its
summit affords an extensive and beautiful view of the val-
ley of the Connecticut River.
Asel'li [Lat. Asel'lius], (GASPARo), an Italian anato-
mist and physician, born at Cremona about 1580. He be-
came professor of amatomy at Pavía, and acquired distinc-
tion by the important discovery of the lacteal vessels in
1622. He wrote on this subject a treatise entitled “De
Lactibus sive Lacteis Venis” (1627). Died in 1626.
Asfeld, d’ (CLAUDE FRANgots BIDAL), MARQUIS, an
able French general, born in 1667. He served with dis-
tinction in Spain, and commanded the French cavalry at
Almanza in 1707. He was second in command under Vil-
lars in Italy in 1733, was commander-in-chief in Germany
in 1734, and became a marshal of France in that year.
Died Mar. 7, 1743. -
As/girl (Sir CHARLEs), a British general, born in 1762.
He served against the U. S., and having been captured at
Yorktown, was selected by lot from the prisoners to be
hung in retaliation for the death of an American officer,
but he was saved by the intercession of the French court.
Died in 1823.

288
ASH – ASHE.
Ash (Fraac’īnws), an important genus of trees belong-
ing to the family Oleaceae, distinguished by imperfect flow-
ers, sometimes, destitute of corolla, and leaves unequally
pinnate. The fruit is a samarc, a winged pericarp. It
comprises about fifty species, mostly natives of Europe and
North America, and valuable for timber, for fuel, and shade
trees. The Frawinus excelsior, the common ash of Eng-
land, is a beautiful ornamental tree, and the timber is
much esteemed by carpenters, joiners, coachmakers, and
wheelwrights. It grows to the height of 100 feet or
more. Cultivation has produced several varieties of it,
among which is the weeping ash, the branches of which
droop nearly to the ground. The Fraacinus Ormus, or flower-
ing ash, a native of Southern Europe, has more perfect
flowers than the other species. A saccharine substance
called manna is obtained from it by making incisions in
the bark, and sometimes exudes spontaneously. Among
the noblest trees of the genus is the Fraacinus Americana,
or white ash, which is abundant in the Northern and Mid-
dle U. S. It leaflets are petiolate, ovate, or lance-oblong,
entire, acuminate, and in autumn are changed to a dark
brown or purple tint. The timber is tough, and valuable
for the same purposes as the Fraxinus eaccelsior. In the
forests of the U. S. occur also the Fraacinus pubescens (black
or red ash) and Fraacinus quadrangulata (blue ash), and
others. The black ash (Fraxinus sambucifolia) is used in
basket-making. The mountain ash, conspicuous for its
clusters of red berries, is a species of Pyrus, having no
affinity with the genus Fraacinus.
Ash, a township of Monroe co., Mich. Pop. 1451.
Ash (JosłPH P.), an American officer, born in Pennsyl-
vania. On the outbreak of the civil war he entered the
army as a lieutenant of volunteers, was appointed a second
lieutenant in the Fifth U. S. Cavalry April 30, 1861, and a
captain Sept., 1863. In the action near Warrenton, Va., he
was wounded in six places before leaving the field; on re-
cruiting service during convalescence. In the campaign of
1864 of the Army of the Potomac, while endeavoring to
rally a wavering division of troops at the action of Tod’s
Tavern, he was killed May 8, 1864. (Brevet major and lieu-
tenant-colonel U. S. A. for conspicuous gallantry.)
G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Eng’rs.
Ashan'tee, written also Asiente, an extensive king-
dom of Western Africa, on the Gold Coast, Upper Guinea,
is between lat. 5° and 9° 30' N., and between lon. 0° 55'
E. and 4° 7' W. It is bounded on the N. by the Kong
Mountains, on the . E. by Dahomey, on the S. by the At-
lantic, and on the W. by Liberia. Area, about 75,000
Square miles. It is generally mountainous, well watered
and fertile, and covered with dense forests, which are al-
most impenetrable. The staple products are maize, rice,
Sugar, yams, tobacco, cocoanuts, gums, and dyewoods.
Gold is said to be abundant here, and the chief articles of
export are gold-dust, palm oil, and slaves. The people are
warlike and fierce, and human sacrifices are common. They
have some skill in the manufacture of sword-blades, cotton
cloths, and golden ornaments. The government is a des-
potism. Capital, Coomassie (or Kumassi). The British,
who have a fort on the coast at Cape Coast Castle, were in-
volved in a war with the Ashantees, which began in 1807
and continued until 1825. The Dutch also had a colony
on the coast until 1871, when they ceded it to the British.
In 1873 a war arose between the Ashantees and the Brit-
ish, because the British refused to pay the annual tribute
to the king of Ashantee which the Dutch had formerly paid
him. The Ashantees first attacked the Fantis, living
under British protection, entirely defeated them, and sub-
sequently succeeded in driving all the natives friendly to
the British into the two forts Elmina and Cape Coast Castle.
The British troops under Sir Garnet Wolseley then invaded
Ashantee, and as it soon became evident that no treaty could
be made and confided in, on account of the treacherous-
mess of the Ashantees, the British pushed forward directly
towards Coomassie; and after some fighting they took the
capital and burned it. The king of Ashantee agreed to pay
an indemnity to the British, and the war ceased.
Ash'away, a post-village of Hopkinton township,
Washington co., R.I., has a national bank and important
manufactures.
Ashſborough; a post-village, capital of Randolph co.,
N. C., is 78 miles N. W. of Fayetteville and 5 miles S. W.
of Deep River. Pop. of village, 182; of township, 1172.
Ash'bourne, or Ashburn, a market-town of Eng-
land, in Derbyshire, near the river Dove, 12 miles N. W.
of Derby. It is on the S. slope of a high hill, and has a
large church, built about 1240; also manufactures of cot-
ton goods and lace. Pop. in 1871, 4945.
Ash/burnham, a post-village and township of Wor-
cester co., Mass., 55 miles N. W. of Boston. It has one na-
tional bank, three churches, and manufactures of chairs,
lumber, wooden ware, matches, and cotton goods. Ashburn-
ham Dépôt is at the junction of the Cheshire and the Ver-
mont and Massachusetts R. Rs. Pop. of township, 2172.
Ashburnham, a large village of Peterborough co.,
province of Ontario, Canada, on the Otonabee River, op-
posite Peterborough. It has extensive lumber-mills and
considerable trade in grain.
Ashburnham, EARLs of, and Viscounts St. Asaph
(1730, in the peerage of Great Britain), barons of Ashburn-
ham (1689, in the English peerage), a noble family of Eng-
land.—BERTRAM ASHBURNHAM, the fourth earl, was born
Nov. 23, 1797, and succeeded his father in 1830.
Ash'burton (ALEXANDER Baring), LoRD, an English
diplomatist, born in 1774, was a son of Sir Francis Baring,
an eminent merchant. He was employed in his youth in
mercantile affairs in the U. S., and married a daughter of
Senator William Bingham of Pennsylvania. In 1810 he
became the head of the firm of Baring Brothers & Co. of
London, and in 1812 was chosen to represent Taunton in
Parliament, in which he acted with the Liberal party until
1831, when he became a supporter of Sir Robert Peel and
a moderate Conservative. He was returned to Parliament
for North Essex in 1832, and was created Baron Ashburton
in 1835. In 1842 he was sent as a special ambassador to
the U. S. to settle a dispute which had long been pending
in relation to the north-eastern boundary. He was se-
lected for this mission because he was acquainted with the
American people and institutions, and was inclined to a
pacific policy. Lord Ashburton and Mr. Webster nego-
tiated this important treaty, which was signed at Wash-
ington in Aug., 1842, and was called the Ashburton Treaty.
Died in May, 1848. He left a son, William Bingham
Baring, who inherited the title.
Ash/by, a post-village and township of Middlesex co.,
Mass. It has manufactures of lumber, tubs, etc. Pop. 994.
Ashby, a township of Rockingham co., Va. Pop. 2268.
Ashby, a township of Shenandoah co., Va. Pop. 2645.
Ashby (TURNER), a Confederate general, born in Fau-
quier co., Va., about 1824. He was appointed—a brigadier-
general in 1862, and was greatly distinguished as a cavalry
commander. During Banks’s pursuit of Jackson in the
Shenandoah Valley, Gen. Ashby was in command of cav-
alry covering the rear of Jackson’s army, and in an en-
gagement near Harrisonburg, June 5, 1862, he was shot
through the body and killed. His loss was severely felt by
the Confederates, he being one of their ablest and bravest
cavalry leaders. G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Eng’rs.
Ashby-de-la-Zouche, a market-town of England,
in Leicestershire, 20 miles by rail N. W. of Leicester. It
has a ruined castle in which Mary queen of Scots was once
confined, and an ancient church in which was the burying-
place of the Hastings family. Here are iron smelting-works
and manufactures of hats and hosiery. Coal-mines and
salt-springs occur in the vicinity. Pop. in 1871, 9153.
Ash/dod, or Azo’tus (modern Asdood or Esdūd), an
ancient city of the Philistines, in Palestine, about 3 miles
from the Mediterranean and 12 miles N. E. of Ascalom. It
was an important city and stronghold of the Philistines,
who, after defeating the people of Israel in the time of
Samuel, captured their ark and carried it to the temple
of Dagon in Ashdod. It was dismantled by Uzziah, be-
sieged by Psammetichus, and destroyed by the Maccabees.
It is called Azotus in the New Testament (Acts viii. 40).
Near its site is a village of mud houses, called 48dood or
Esdūd, on the sea 21 miles S. of Jaffa. -
Ashe, a county which forms the north-western extremity
of North Carolina. Area, 325 square miles. It is drained
by New River. This county is a mountainous tract between
the Blue Ridge on the S. E. and Stone Mountain on the W.
The soil in some parts is productive. Cattle, sheep, and
grain are extensively raised. Excellent ores of copper
abound. Capital, Jefferson. Pop. 9573.
Ashe (John), a general and patriot of the Revolution,
born in England in 1721, emigrated to North Carolina in
1727. He took an active part in the political movements
which preceded the Revolution, and served as a brigadier-
general during the war. Died, a prisoner of War, Oct. 24,
1781. ^.
Ashe (SAMUEL), a brother of John, mentioned above,
was born in 1725. He became chief-justice of North Caro-
lina in 1777, and governor of that State 1795–98. Died
Feb. 3, 1813.
Ash’e, Ashi, or As'ser (RAB or RAV), a celebrated
Jewish rabbi of Babylon, was born in 353 A. D. He was
eminent for his learning and genius, and was the reputed
author or compiler of the “Babylonian Talmud,” a vast
collection of traditions and legal documents, which was
f
ASHER—ASHLEY.
289
-
regarded among the Jews as the highest authority on legal
questions. Died in 427 A. D. -
Ash'er, a tribe of ancient Israelites, descended from
Asher, eleventh son of Jacob by the handmaid Zilpah.
They were assigned a portion of land in the N. W. of
Palestine, but never dispossessed the Canaanites and Phoe-
nicians who dwelt there. The tribe furnished but one mote-
worthy person, the prophetess Anna, who lived during the
infancy of Christ (Luke ii. 36–38). The territorial bound-
aries and the history of this tribe are very obscure.
Ash'erville, a post-township of Mitchell co., Kan.
Pop. 144.
Ash'es, the solid or earthy residuum left after the com-
bustion of wood, coal, or other organic substances. The
most important ingredient of the ashes of land-plants is
potash, or a salt of potash with a portion of lime and silica.
The potash is extracted from ashes by a process called
lixiviation—leaching. By dissolving the salt contained in
the ashes the water is converted into ley, which is after-
wards evaporated by boiling. The insoluble part of the
ashes remaining after lixiviation is called leached ashes,
which is composed of carbonate of lime, phosphate of lime,
oxide of iron, etc. The ashes of marine plants, and those
that grow near the sea, contain soda instead of potash, with
a small portion of iodine. The soda is also separated from
the imsoluble mass by lixiviation. Wood ashes are exten-
sively used in the manufacture of soap, and are useful as
manure. The salts obtained from them by lixiviation are
called potash and pearl-ash, which latter is a carbonate of
potassa. Bone ashes consist mostly of phosphate of lime,
which is a valuable manure. (See Pot'Ash, SoDA, and also
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, by PROF. S. W. JoHNSON, A. M.)
Ashes, Volcanic, pulverulent lava, thrown out by
volcanoes, consisting of minute fragments of various min-
erals, as mica, felspar, magnetic iron ore, augite, olivine,
etc. -
Asheville, the capital of Buncombe co., N. C., is 1 mile
E. of French Broad River, 255 miles W. of Raleigh, and is
an important centre of trade. It has one female college,
three academies, a foundry, machine-shops, three furniture-
factories, six churches, and three weekly newspapers. Pop.
1400; of township, 2593. R. M. FURMAN, ED. “CITIZEN.”
Ash'field, a post-township of Franklin co., Mass. It
has an academy, an insurance company, and a public li-
brary. It is a place of summer resort. Pop. 1180.
Ash'ford, a post-village and township of Windham co.,
Conn., 30 miles E. N. E. of Hartford. P. of township, 1241.
Ashford, a post-village and township of Cattaraugus
co., N. Y., 35 miles S. E. of Buffalo. P. of township, 1801.
Ashford, a post-township of Fond du Lac co., Wis.
Pop. 1799.
Ash Grove, a post-township of Iroquois co., Ill. Pop.
I146. -
Ash/grove, a township of Shelby co., Ill. Pop. 1499.
Ash Hills, a township of Butler co., Mo. Pop. 491.
Ash’ippun, a post-township of Dodge co., Wis. Pop.
623.
Ashkelon, or Askelon. See ASCALON.
Ash’kum, a post-township of Iroquois co., Ill. Pop.
1315.
Ash’land, a county of the N. E. central part of Ohio.
Area, 390 square miles. It is drained by the Lake Fork
and Black Fork, which unite to form the Mohican River.
The surface is mostly undulating; the soil is very fertile,
and adapted to wheat, grass, or fruit. Grain, wool, and
live-stock are largely raised. The county is intersected by
the Atlantic and Great Western and the Pittsburgh Fort
Wayne and Chicago R. Rs. Capital, Ashland. Pop.
21,933. - \
Ashland, a county in the N. W. of Wisconsin. Area,
2150 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by Lake Supe-
rior, and includes a group of islands called the “Twelve
Apostles,” in that lake. It is drained by the head-streams
of the Chippewa River. The surface is uneven or hilly,
and partly covered by extensive forests. Great quantities
of pine lumber are exported. Among the resources of this
county is iron ore, which abounds in a ridge called the Iron
Mountains. Capital, La Pointe. Pop. 221.
Ashland, a post-village, the capital of Clay co., Ala.,
75 miles N. E. of Montgomery. It has one weekly news-
paper, two Schools, and abundant water-power. Pop. of
the township, 1499. J. B. STEDHAM, ED. “TIMEs.”
Ashland, a township of Lawrence co., Ark. Pop. 147.
Ashland, a township of Morgan co., Ind. Pop. 969.
Ashland, a post-village of Boyd co., Ky., on the Ohio
River, 13 miles below Catlettsburg, and on the Lexington |
and Big Sandy R. R., running 20 miles into the interior to
the celebrated coal-mines. It has two of the largest blast
pig-iron furnaces on the Ohio River, and also one of the
largest and most complete rolling-mills in the country.
Iron ore, pig iron, and coal are shipped from this point. It
has one national bank and one weekly paper. Pop. 1459.
F. R. FRENCH, E.D. “AsHLAND Journ AL.”
Ashland, the residence of Henry Clay, the eminent
orator and statesman, is situated in Fayette co., Ky., about
2 miles S. E. of Lexington. The estate of Ashland con-
tained about 600 acres, of which 200 were appropriated to
a beautiful park.
Ashland, a post-township of Middlesex co., Mass., at
the junction of the Boston and Albany and Hopkinton
R. R.S., 24 miles S. W. of Boston. It has one weekly paper.
The chief business is the manufacture of boots and shoes,
boxes and lasts, emery, and grain-grinding. Pop. 2186.
GEORGE P. MAY HEW, ED. “ADVERTISER.”
Ashland, a post-twp. of Newaygo co., Mich. P. 770.
Ashland, a post-township of Dodge co., Minn. P. 611.
Ashland, a post-village, capital of Benton co., Miss.,
on the Tennessee line. It has one weekly paper.
HENRY S. FALCONER, ED. “ARGUs.”
Ashland, a post-village, capital of Saunders co., Neb.,
is on Salt Creek, about 3 miles from its entrance into Platte
River, and on the Burlington and Missouri River R. R., 24
miles N. E. of Lincoln. Superior magnesian limestone is
found here. It has two weekly newspapers and a national
bank. Pop. 653.
Ashland, a post-township of Grafton co., N. H. It
has important manufactures of paper, card-board, flannel,
gloves, etc. It is on the Boston Concord and Montreal
R. R. Pop. 885. -
Ashland, a township of Chemung co., N. Y. Pop. 1016.
Ashland, a post-village and township of Greene co.,
N. Y. The township contains six churches, and has beau-
tiful scènery, being partly occupied by spurs of the Catskill
Mountains. Pop. 992.
Ashland, a handsome post-village with paved streets,
capital of Ashland co., O., is on the Atlantic and Great
Western Railway, 85 miles N. N. E. from Columbus and 65
S. W. from Cleveland. It has eight churches, two news-
papers, two banks (one national); one mutual fire insurance
| company, chartered in 1851; two foundries, two machine-
shops, a clover-thrasher-and-huller manufactory; an ad-
justable boot- and shoe-pattern factory, which sends goods
to all parts of Europe; excellent schools, and three grain-
elevators. Pop. 2601.
L. J. SPRENGLE, ED. “AsHLAND TIMES.”
Ashland, a post-village of Jackson co., Or.
Ashland, a township of Clarion co., Pa. Pop. 758.
Ashland, an important town in the Mahanoy Valley,
the centre of the anthracite coal-fields of Schuylkill co., Pa.,
on the line of the Philadelphia and Reading R. R., 97 miles
from Philadelphia, within 2 miles of the Lehigh Valley
R. R., and 13 miles from Pottsville, the county-seat. Ash-
land is the second town in the county in point of popula-
tion and business. It has one national and two State
banks, two large machine-shops, foundries, etc. It is sur-
rounded by a number of the largest coal operations in the
region. It has one newspaper. Pop. 5714. -
J. IRVIN STEEL, PUB. “ASHLAND ADvoCATE.”
Ashland, or Ashland City, a post-village, the capi-
tal of Cheatham co., Tenn., on the Cumberland River, 20
miles below Nashville. Pop. 121.
Ashland, a post-village of Hanover co., Va., on the
Richmond and Fredericksburg R. R., 17 miles N. of Rich-
mond. In May, 1864, General Sheridan, in the course of
a raid, destroyed a dépôt here. It is the seat of Randolph-
Macon College. Pop. of Ashland township, 3942.
Ash/lar, or Ashler, a building-stone squared and
hewn; dressed stones used for facing work when it is
worked in regular beds and joints. Tooled ashlars are
slabs marked with parallel flutings or grooves. Other va-
rieties are called polished ashlar and rustic ashlar, the lat-
ter of which has an uneven surface.
Ash’ley, a small river of South Carolina, rises in Colle-
ton county, and, flowing south-eastward, unites with the
Cooper River at Charleston. -
Ashley, a county of Arkansas, bordering on Louisiana.
Area, 870 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by
the Saline, on the S. W. by the Washita River, and is in-
tersected by Bayou Bartholomew, which is navigable. Coal,
copper, and lead have been found. The surface is gently
roiling, and the soil sandy but fertile. Corn and cotton are
the chief crops. Capital, Hamburg. Pop. 8042.
Ashley, a township of Independence Co., Ark. Pop. 702.
T 9
290
ASHLEY-ASIA.
Ashley, a township of Pulaski co., Ark. Pop. 2110.
Ashley, a post-village of Washington co., Ill., on the
Central R. R. where it is crossed by the St. Louis and South-
eastern R. R., 60 miles E. S. E. of St. Louis. Pop. 1030.
Ashley, a post-township of Pike co., Miss. Pop. 1222.
Ashley, a post-village of Oxford township, Delaware
co., O., on the Cleveland Columbus and Cincinnati R. R.,
10 miles N. by E. of Delaware. Pop. 454.
Ashley (JAMEs M.), born in Pennsylvania Nov. 14,
1824, removed to Ohio in 1849, was a member of Congress
from 1860 until 1868, when he became governor of Mon-
tana Territory.
Ashley, LoRD. See SHAFTESBURY.
Ash’ mole (ELIAs), F. R. S., born at Lichfield, England,
May 23, 1617, was educated at Oxford, and served as gem-
tleman of ordnance under King Charles T. in the civil wars.
In 1646 he turned his attention to the study of judicial as-
trology and Rosicrucianism, and Oct. 16 of that year be-
came a brother of the Free and Accepted. Masons. He was
Windsor Herald (1660–75), and married as his third wife a
daughter of Sir William Dugdale, Garter principal king of
arms. In 1659 the younger John Tradescant gave him his
collection of curiosities, which Ashmole presented in 1683
to Oxford University. It was the basis of the present Ash-
molean Museum. He wrote “Theatrum Chymicum” (1652),
“The Way to Blisse” (1658), “History of the Order of the
Garter” (1672), “History of Berkshire” (3 vols. folio,
1715), and a whimsical “Diary.” Died May 18, 1692. “He
was,” says Anthony Wood, “the greatest virtuoso and curi-
oso that ever was known in England. . . . He did worthily
deserve the title of Mercurio-philus Anglicus.”
Ash’more, a post-village and township of Coles co.,
Ill., on the Indianapolis and St. Louis R. R., 94 miles E. S. E.
of Springfield. Pop. of township, 2088.
Ash'mun (GEORGE) was born at Bradford, Mass., Dec.
25, 1804, graduated at Yale in 1823, became a laywyer at
Springfield, Mass., in 1828, was a Whig member of Con-
gress (1845–51), president of the Chicago Republican con-
vention of 1860, and was distinguished as a patriotic and
able man. Died July 17, 1870.
Ashmun (JEHUDI), an American noted as a promoter
of colonization in Liberia, was born in Champlain, N. Y.,
in 1794, graduated at Bowdoin College in 1816. He went
to Liberia in 1822 as an agent of the Colonization Society,
and rendered important service to the colony. He died in
Boston Aug. 25, 1828.
Ashmun (JoBN HookER), an American jurist, born at
. Blandford, Mass., July 3, 1800. He graduated at Harvard
in 1818, and became professor of law there in 1829. He ac-
quired a high reputation as a jurist, but died prematurely
Apr. 1, 1833.
Ashtabu'la, a county which forms the north-eastern
extremity of Ohio. Area, 700 square miles. It is drained
by the Grand and Ashtabula rivers. The surface is level;
the soil contains much clay, and is adapted to grazing.
Great quantities of grain, wool, fruit, and other crops are
raised. It is intersected by the Lake Shore and Michigan
Southern, the Ashtabula, Youngstown and Pittsburgh, and
the Franklin Division of the Lake Shore R. R.S. Capital,
Jefferson. Pop. 32,517.
Ashtabula, the chief town of Ashtabula co., 0., on the
Lake Shore R. R., 58 miles from Cleveland, and the termi-
nus of the Ashtabula. Youngstown and Pittsburgh and the
Franklin division of the Lake Shore R. R.S. Its harbor,
one of the best on Lake Erie, admits vessels of the largest
class, and it is becoming a port of considerable commercial
importance, receiving iron ore in transit from Lake Supe-
rior to Youngstown and Pittsburgh, and is a point for the
shipment of coal on the lake. It has two national and one
other bank, two newspapers, and a population which has
greatly increased since the last census. Pop. 1999; of
Ashtabula township, 3394. ED. “TELEGRAPH.”
Ashtaroth. See ASHTORETH.
Ash/ton, a post-township of Lee co., Ill. Pop. 1007.
Ashton, a township of Monona co., Ia. Pop. 106.
Ash'ton-in-Maſkerfield, a town of England, in
South Lancashire. The inhabitants are mostly employed
in cotton-factories and in collieries. Pop. in 1871, 7463.
Ashton-under-Lyne, a town of England, in the S.E.
part of Lancashire, on the Tame, 6% miles by rail E. S. E.
of Manchester. It is a great seat of the cotton manufacture,
and is remarkable for the rapidity of its growth. It re-
turns one member to Parliament. It has a church built in
the time of Henry V., a theatre, a mechanics’ institute, etc.
Many of the inhabitants are employed in calico-printing,
bleaching, dyeing, and the manufacture of machines. Pop.
in 1841, 22,689; in 1861, 34,836; in 1871, 37,420.
Ash'toreth, or Ash'taroth, a Syrian goddess, wor-
shipped by the ancient Israelites and other nations of West-
ern Asia. She was called the Queen of Heaven, and ap-
pears to have been a personification of the moon. She is
commonly identified with ASTARTE (which, see). Her chief
temples were at Tyre and Sidon.
Ash' ville, a post-village, the capital of St. Clair co.,
Ala., 115 miles N. of Montgomery. Pop. of township, 992.
Ashville (North Carolina). See AsHEVILLE.
Ash Wednesday [Lat. Diſes Cinſerum; literally, “day
of ashes "1, the first day in Lent, so called because in an-
cient times it was the custom for penitents to appear in the
church covered with sackcloth and ashes.
Aſsia, the largest of the great divisions of the globe. In
extent of surface it is superior to America in about the pro-
portion of 8 to 6, and it exceeds Europe and Africa taken
together; while in the antiquity of its history and civiliza-
tion, in the greatness of its population, and in the variety
of its productions, it surpasses all the other great divisions
of the globe. It was in Asia that the human race had its
origin, and from it the arts and civilization were diffused
over the other regions of the earth. It likewise has pecu-
liar claims to the interest of Christians, as containing the
principal scenes of the events recorded in sacred history.
The name Asia was originally applied to a small district
of Lydia, watered by the Cayster; it was afterwards ex-
tended to the whole peninsula, now known as Asia Minor,
and lastly to the entire continent east of the Mediterranean
and Ægean seas. The ancient geographers usually in-
cluded Egypt within the limits of Asia.
The area of Asia has been variously estimated. Accord-
ing to a very high authority,” it may be stated at 16,216,600
square miles. According to Behm and Wagner (“Bevölk-
erung der Erde,” Gotha, 1872), it has, including the islands,
16,924,000 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the
Arctic Ocean, on the E. by the North Pacific, on the S. by
the Indian Ocean, on the S. W. by the Red Sea, which sepa-
rates it from Africa, and on the W. by Europe, the Black
Sea, the Mediterranean, and the Grecian Archipelago. Its
greatest length, from the Dardanelles to Behring's Strait,
is about 10,000 miles, and its greatest breadth, from Cape
Sievero Vostotchnoi Nos in Siberia, lat. 77° 30' N., to Cape
Buro, at the S. extremity of the Malay Peninsula, about
5100 miles. Its maritime coast-line may be reckoned, in
round numbers, at 35,600 miles. Asia is separated from
Europe by an imaginary line, the course of which is vari-
ously traced by different geographers; part of it, however,
is formed by the Ural Mountains; it is joined to Africa by
a narrow neck of land called the Isthmus of Suez, which
is, however, crossed by the celebrated Isthmus Canal, thus
virtually isolating Africa. On the E. it is separated from
America, by Behring's Strait, which is only 60 miles in
width. The coasts of Asia are very irregular, being deeply
indented on all sides by immense bays and gulfs. Among
these are the Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal,
and Gulf of Siam on the S. coast, and the Gulf of Tonquin,
Yellow Sea, Sea of Japan, Gulf of Tartary, Sea of Okhotsk,
and Gulf of Anadir on the E. coast. The indentations on
the N. are not of the same extent, but are equally if not
more numerous, the Gulf of Obi being the largest. Asia.
has several large peninsulas, situated on the Southern
and eastern coasts; among them are Arabia, India, Ma-
lacca, Cochin China, Corea, Kamtchatka, and Anadir.
The principal islands are also situated on the southern and
eastern coasts; among them are Ceylon, Java, Borneo,
Sumatra, the Laccadives, Maldives, the Chagos Archipelago,
the Andaman and Nicobar islands, the Mergui Archipelago,
Celebes, the Sunda and Banda islands, the Moluccas, Soo-
loo Islands, Philippines, the islands of Hainan, Formosa,
Chusan, Hong Kong, the Japanese empire (including the
great islands of Kioosioo, Sikokf, Niphon, Yesso, and Sa-
galien), and the Kuriles. On the N. are Kotelnoi, Fadiey-
skoi, New Siberia, Livkoy, and Nova Zembla. Owing to
its vast extent of surface, extending from N. to S. through
more than 76 parallels, and from E. to W. through more
than 165 meridians, Asia includes every variety of Soil,
climate, and production. The conflicting accounts given
of the physical structure of a large part of the interior
render it almost impossible to give a perfectly accurate and
intelligible view of its general conformation. Its mean
level above the sea does not exceed about 1150 feet, while a
third part of it has a mean elevation of not more than 253
feet. The whole tract lying N. of the Altai and N. W. of
the Thian-Shan Mountains is one prodigious plain or low-
land, a third larger than Europe, with very little eleyation.
The southern portion, lying along the Indian Ocean, is also,
comparatively speaking, but little elevated, as is likewise a
# See the “Treatise on Physical Geography,” by Professor
Guyor, in JoHNSON’s “Family Atlas of the World.”
ASIA.
291
great part of the interior, where the height above the sea
does not exceed about 4000 feet, though formerly supposed
to be double that height. It is now believed also that the
elevations of several of the other plateaux of Central Asia.
have been overestimated. But although a large portion
of Asia rises but little above the sea-level, there are exten-
sive tracts having a great elevation; and on the other hand,
a considerable part of the continent is actually below the
sea-level; as, for example, that portion of country lying
around the Caspian Sea and Lake Aral, the whole of which
ºn is a vast cavity of about 55,000 square miles in ex-
ent.
Political Divisions.—The area and population of the
Several divisions were estimated in 1872, by Behm and
Wagner, as follows:
NAMEs of Countries. Square Miles. Population.
Russian territory....................... 5,944,600 10,730,000
Caspian Sea............................... 178,900
Aral Sea. 26,900
Turkey in Asia......................... f 672,500 16,463,000
Arabia ..................................... 926,000 4,000,000
Persia....................................... 636,000 5,000,000
Afghanistan, with Herat........... 251,200 4,000,000
Beloochistan............................. 106,700 2,000,000
Kafiristan 20,000 300,000
Khiva....................................... 54,200 1,500,000
Bokhara.................................... 76,300 2,500,000
Khokan.................................... 30,000 800,000
Turkomania.............................. 144,200 770,000
Other territory of Turkistan..... 134,500 2,000,000
Chinese empire......................... 3,742,000 446,500,000
Japan.... - tº º 149,400 34,785,321
Hindostan and British Burmah. 1,558,747 206,225,580
Ceylon...................................... 24,705 2,405,287
Farther India :
Burmah.............................. 190,500 4,000,000
iam................................... 309,000 6,298,000
Anam................................. 198,000 9,000,000
French Cochin China.......... 21,700 1,204,287
Straits Settlements.............. 1,084 306,775
Malay Peninsula......... '• • * * * * * * 31,700 209,000
East India Islands :
Sunda Islands and Moluccas 678,500 25,000,000
Philippine and Sooloo islands 114,100 7,450,000
Other islands...................... 6,800 170,000
Total............................ 16,924,000 794,000,000
Mowntains, Face of the Country, etc.—More than two-
thirds of the surface of Asia consists of mountain-ranges
and plateaux, connected with each other by branches, and
controlling the plains by other branches. The largest pla–
teau is the Mongolian in Eastern Asia, so called because it
is exclusively inhabited by the Mongolian race. It is al-
most double the size of Europe, and has the form of a
trapezium with rounded sides and angles, having its
shortest side in the W. and the longest in the N., and has
an average height of 9000 feet. It is surrounded by moun-
tain-chains on all sides. In the S. are the Himalaya Moun-
tains, having many peaks with an elevation of more than
20,000 feet, among which Mount Everest, 29,000 feet high,
is said to be the highest peak known. Connected with
this by the range of the Hindu-Kush is the plateau of
Persia, having in the E. an average height of 6000 feet, in
the W. of 4000 feet, and in the centre of 2000 feet. It is
surrounded by numerous mountain-chains, which have
an average elevation of 10,000 to 12,000 feet. W. of this,
and connected with it by Mount Ararat (16,000 feet), is the
plateau of Asia Minor, which is also connected with the
Caucasus by branches of the Armenian highland. Other
important ranges and highlands are, in the S., the plateau
of Syria and Arabia, the plateau of Hindostan, the ranges
of Farther India; in the E., the range of Corea; in the N.,
the East Siberian range (with the Aldan and Stanowoi
Mountains), the ranges of Kamtchatka, ; in the W., the
Ural and Caucasian mountains. The plains situated be-
tween the different ranges may be divided into six separate
parts: the plain of Siberia, containing 4,250,000 square
miles; the Caspian plain, with the largest inland seas on
the globe, containing 1,000,000 square miles, of which over
one-fourth lies below the level of the sea; the Chinese
plain, which is among the most fertile and best cultivated
parts of the globe, contains 200,000 square miles; and the
plains of Farther India, Hindostan, and Mesopotamia.
Very few active volcanoes are found on the continent of
Asia, though the islands abound in them. Only one active
volcano is found in Western Asia—Mount Demavend, 70
miles S. of the Caspian Sea. Formerly the plateaux of Per-
sia and of Asia Minor were the scenes of great volcanic
action, which is now, however, limited to very few places.
In the Thian-Shan Mountains in Central Asia, two active
volcanoes occur, which form the centre of a great volcanic
region. Although numerous fire-springs and fire-hills oc-
cur in China, no mountains are known to have emitted
lava. Not less than nine active volcanoes exist in Kamt-
chatka. Earthquakes are of frequent occurrence and of
a violent character in Asia Minor, the Persian mountains,
Cabul, South-eastern Tartary, and in Northern Hindostan.
It has not yet been definitely settled whether Asia or Af-
rica contains a larger extent of desert or steppes. In Asia .
the great marshy plain of Siberia extends southward to
Turkistan, which, in the neighborhood of the Caspian and
Aral seas, assumes the character of a Sandy and salt
desert. The greater part of Asia Minor, Arabia, and Per-
sia, half of Mesopotamia, a large part of Manchooria, and
the entire Mongolia, all form deserts or steppes, with the
exception of the borders of springs or the shores of rivers,
the majority of which flow into saline lakes or swamps.
The cause of this vast amount of desert is without doubt
the general absence of forests on the continent. This very
probably was not always the case, but large tracts of what
in all probability was formerly cultivated land, have been
transformed by the systematic destruction of the forests in
the course of several thousand years into deserts or steppes.
Rivers and Lakes.—A very remarkable peculiarity of
the river-systems of Asia, is its double rivers—i. e. two
streams rising together, flowing in almost parallel direc-
tions throughout their whole course, and uniting before en-
tering the sea. Among these twin rivers are the Sihon and
Gihon, flowing into Lake Aral; the Euphrates and Tigris,
uniting at Koona, and emptying into the Persian Gulf; the
Ganges and the Brahmapootra ; the Yang-tse-Kiang and
Hoang-Ho, in China, rising near each other, first separat-
ing and again approaching each other, the one falling in-
to the Yellow Sea, the other into the Gulf of Pechelee; and
the Yenisei and Lena, which empty into the Arctic Ocean.
Among the other rivers of Asia are, in the northern part
of the continent, the Obi (or Oby), the Irtish, the Indighirka,
and the Kolyma, ; in Eastern Asia, the Amoor, the Hoang-
Kiang, and the Sang-Koi (or Tonquin); in Southern Asia,
the Indus, and its confluents, the Attock, Jhylum, Chenaub,
Sutlej; the Irrawaddy, the Martaban, the Menam, and the
Camboja, and the Amoo and Syr-Darya, in Central Asia. The
basins of some of these rivers are of vast extent. That of
the Obi is 1,250,000 English square miles, being the largest
in the world, with the exception of that of the Amazon.
The basin of the Yenisei is 1,041,000 square miles; that of
the Lena, 787,000 square miles; while those of the Amoor,
Yang-tse-Kiang, and Hoang-Ho are all above 500,000
square miles. The Yang-tse-Kiang is the longest river,
being about 3300 miles long. The Yenisei comes next, with
3200 miles, while the length of the other principal rivers
varies from 1500 to 3000 miles.
A large number of lakes, which form a semicircle, com-
mencing with the Dead Sea, run first in a N. E. and then
in an E. direction along the highlands of Central Asia to
the centre of the continent. Among these lakes are the
highest, as Lake Baikal; as well as the lowest lakes known,
such as the Dead Sea, the Caspian Sea, and Lake Aral.
Besides these, the most prominent are Lake Balkash, Lake
Tengrinoor, etc.
Minerals.-Asia is peculiarly rich in the precious gems,
and although it is generally considered to abound less in
metals than the other continents, it ought perhaps to be re-
ferred, at least in part, to the fact of this continent having
been first settled by civilized nations, who early explored
and exhausted a large part of its mineral wealth. Dia-
monds are found in the Ural Mountains, Borneo, Ceylon,
as well as in various other places. Rock-crystals, ame-
thysts, rubies, turquoises, carnelians, agates, onyxes, beryls,
topazes, and various other gems are found in various places.
Gold is most abundant in Siberia, in the Altai chain, called
the Gold Mountains, in Japan, Borneo, the Chinese prov-
ince of Yunnan, and the mountains of the Indo-Chinese
peninsula. It is also found in less abundance in many of
the other countries. Silver is found in China, Asiatic Rus–
sia, Anam, Japan, and Turkey. Mercury abounds in China,
Thibet, Japan, India, and Ceylon. Tin is met with in Bur-
mah, China, the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and
Farther India; copper and iron in Japan, in Siberia, in
Thibet, Hindostan, Anam, Persia, and Turkey; which
countries also contain lead in greater or less abundance,
as well as in Siam, Georgia, and Armenia. Coal has been
found in Siberia, Northern China, Bengal, and some of the
islands of the Indian Archipelago, and probably exists in
many unexplored localities. Salt (very often rock-salt)
abounds in all parts of the continent, and few extensive
districts are altogether destitute of Salt lakes or springs. .
Climate.—Asia, extending as it does from the polar cir-
cle to the neighborhood of the equator, must necessarily
exhibit a great variety of temperature in its different re-
gions. In the western and south-western parts—excepting
Southern Arabia, which is within the tropics—the climate
is generally temperate, but in the south-eastern the heat is
often extreme; while throughout the northern half of the
continent excessive cold predominates. The variations of
—t
292
ASIA. .
climate are increased by local influences, especially by the
great height of its table-lands and mountains, its compact
form, and the great extension of the land towards the Pole.
The greatest heat experienced in Asia occurs in Beloochis-
tan, where it is said that the thermometer sometimes reaches
130° F. in the shade. The remarkable variety of climate
for which Asia is distinguished is not manifested by its
larger regions alone, but it is equally exhibited within the
limits of its different countries down to their provinces and
districts. Thus, while at Peking, which is in the same lat-
itude as Naples (40° N.), the mean annual temperature is
55° F., at Naples it is 62°F., and the temperature in sum-
mer is 77° higher than that of Naples, while its winter
temperature of 28° F. is the same as that of Copenhagen
in lat. 56° N. The violent winds called typhoons occur in
South-eastern Asia, their sphere of action diminishing as
we go westward. They blow at all seasons, though but
rarely between May and December. The monsoons extend
into Asia from the Indian Ocean, as far as lat. 36° N. They
include China, all Hindostan, and part of Thibet. Their
direction is from the S. W. in summer and from the N. E.
in winter, the change being accompanied by heavy storms.
South of the equator the monsoons blow from the S. E. and
N. W. during the same periods.
Vegetation.—We find all classes of plants represented
here, from the luxuriant vegetation in the S. to the mosses
in the extreme N. The vegetation of the steppes and
deserts is poor. Among the plants peculiar to Asia are
certain palms, fig trees, precious woods, tea, cinnamom,
pepper, ginger, nutmeg, and other spices, the camphor
tree and soap tree. Coffee, cotton, rice, sugar, indigo, to-
bacco, the mulberry, and the vine are also grown exten-
sively. The tea-plant is extensively grown throughout
Assam, China, Cochin China, and Japan. In general, the
botany of Eastern Asia resembles that of Eastern North
America, most genera and many species being common to
the two regions; but Eastern Asia has this peculiarity, that
many genera and orders elsewhere exclusively tropical have
here their representative northern species. This fact ren-
ders the botany of China and Japan peculiarly rich and
interesting. The banian, peepul, teak, and poon are im-
portant Indian trees.
Zoology.—The animal life of Asia is distinguished by the
same great variety as the plants and the climate, while the
greatest variety is found in the S. E. Here we find the ele-
phant, the rhinoceros, the Bengal tiger, the panther, the
boar, the crocodile, the python, besides many species of
poisonous snakes, monkeys, parrots, etc. On the southern
slopes of the Himalaya Mountains large herds of wild
goats, sheep, horses, asses, mules, and cattle roam about.
In China, the beasts of prey have been mostly superseded
by domestic animals. The steppes and deserts of Mon-
golia, abound in camels, buffaloes, horses, asses, mules,
antelopes, goats, etc., as well as tigers, leopards, and
smaller carnivorous animals. In Persia, Asia Minor, and
Arabia, we find, as the chief beast of prey, the lion instead
of the tiger. Domestic animals are found almost exclu-
sively in the mountains, while the camel is the most im-
portant animal of this region. In Arabia, the animal life
and other characteristic features of Africa, predominate.
Population, Races of Men, Languages, and Religion.—
The population of Asia was estimated by Behm and Wag-
ner in 1872 at 794,000,000—i. e. nearly two-thirds of the
entire population of the earth’s surface, while the area, only
constitutes one-third of the area of the earth.
Among the Christian churches in Asia, the Greek Church
is the strongest in the Russian and Turkish territory, and
is rapidly spreading in Central Asia and China. Other
Oriental churches in Turkey, Persia, and India are the
Armenians, Nestorians, and Jacobites. Catholicism chiefly
prevails in East India and the Archipelago, while Prot-
estantism has its strongest hold in India. The total num-
ber of Roman Catholics in Asia is estimated at 4,166,000,
Protestants at 409,000, and other Christian churches at
8,324,000. Numerous descendants of Christians are thought
by many to be spread throughout Asia. Thus, numerous na-
tive Christians were recently found to exist in Japan, where
they had retained their faith for more than two centuries.
Buddhism, Brahmanism, and the other religions of India,
China, and Japan are supposed to have over 600,000,000
believers, while Mohammedanism has about 50,000,000.
The number of Jews is estimated at 350,000. ”
Prof. Fr. Müller (Linguistische Ethnographie, in Behm’s
“Jahrbuch,” 1868) divides the languages of Asia into four
families: (1) The Northern Asiatic, comprising the Yuka-
giriam, the Koryakian, Tchukchi, the language of Kamt-
chatka and of the Kooriles, Yenisei and Koltish, and also
the languages of the Esquimaux, found also in North
America. (2) The Southern Asiatic languages, comprising
the Dravidian languages and the Singhalese. (3) The lan-
guages of Central Asia, which are divided into four large
families: 1, the Ural-Altaic languages, comprising the Sa-
moyede group, the Finnish, the Tartaric, the Mongolian,
and the Tungusian group; 2, Japanese; 3, the language
of Corea; 4, the monosyllabic languages, comprising the
language of Thibet, the Himalaya languages, Burmese,
Siamese, the languages of Anam, the languages of the
Shan, Miaotse, Lolo, and other tribes, and the Chinese.
(4) Some groups of the Caucasian family, comprising the
languages of the Caucasus, the northern group of the
Semitic languages; among these Chaldee, Syrian, Hebrew,
etc., and the Indian and Iranian groups of the Indo-Euro-
pean languages.
History.—The ancient history of Asia may be divided:
into four great epochs, corresponding with the existence of
the four world-empires—the Assyrian or Babylonian, the
Medo-Persian, the Grecian, and the Roman, which last
may be considered as extending to the period of the Mo-
hammedan conquest, in A. D. 638. Christianity was in-
troduced and established at the time of the highest power
of the Roman empire. -
The next division of Asiatic history, after the Roman,
is that which comprehends what are usually termed the
Middle Ages, extending from the beginning of the seventh
to the end of the fifteenth century, when Vasco da Gama
discovered a passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope.
Not quite a century after Mohammed had fled from Mecca
in 622, his religion, destined to exercise so great an influ-
ence in the East, had spread from the Red Sea to the Cas-
pian, and from Tartary and India as far W. as the Atlantic.
In 1037, Persia was conquered by Togrul Beg, and India,
Tartary, Syria, and Egypt by his successors. Having
taken Jerusalem, their cruelty to the Christian pilgrims
called forth the Crusades. The dominion of the Saracens
about the middle of the thirteenth century ultimately ex-
tended, under the sway of Kublai Khan, over the whole of
Western Asia. The Crusades had contributed, in a more
remarkable degree than formerly, to direct the mind of
Europe towards Asia, and the result was the establishment
of permanent commercial relations between them. About
I250 two Venetian noblemen, Nicolo and Maffio Polo, vis-
ited Asia, as merchants, taking with them Nicolo’s son,
Marco, who afterwards became the most celebrated Asiatic
traveller of the Middle Ages. He resided twenty-four
years at the Tartar court, by which he was frequently em-
ployed as an ambassador, and during this time he trav-
ersed most of China, a considerable part of India, Java,
Ceylon, and perhaps several other countries, making also
a few voyages along the S. coast of Asia. He likewise
collected much information concerning places which he
never visited; and his correct description of countries for-
merly unknown to Europeans must be considered as hav-
ing laid the foundation of modern Asiatic geography.
Several other travellers also published notices of Asia,
but their relations in general are full of fables; so that the
partial knowledge of China and of portions of Northern
and Central Asia, gleaned principally from the travels of
Polo, with the discovery, by Rubruquis, that the Caspian
is an inland sea, must be regarded as all the geographical
knowledge that the Middle Ages had, in addition to that
possessed by the ancients. The doubling of the Cape of
Good Hope by Vasco da Gama in 1498 opened a new channel
of intercourse with the East, and ultimately led to a more
accurate and more extensive knowledge of its geography.
From the end of the fifteenth century to the present time
the history of Asia has gradually risen in importance, and
the progress of its geography been much advanced. With-
in a few years after the arrival of Da Gama on the Indian
coast the Portuguese had acquired a complete knowledge
of the whole coast from Cape Comorin to the Bay of Cam-
bay. At the death of their famous naval commander and
hero, Albuquerque, in 1515, their colonies were established
at various points on the Asiatic coast, and extended from
the Cape of Good Hope to the empire of Japan, a distance
of at least 12,000 miles. In 1600 a new and formidable
enemy arose to the Portuguese in the Dutch, who by 1640
had subdued all the Eastern islands and seas, with the ex-
ception of some British settlements on the coast of Sumatra.
During the protracted contest between the Dutch and Por-
tuguese, the northern part of Asia, not previously known
either to ancients or moderns, suddenly emerged from ob-
scurity. Russia, having thrown off the Tartar yoke in 1461,
proceeded to enlarge her dominion by the conquest of Kasan
in 1552, and Astrakhan in 1555. In 1578 the Cossacks,
having crossed the Ural range, entered Siberia, the dis-
covery and survey of which were pursued so vigorously that
in 1644 the mouth of the Amoor was reached, and in 1648
the separation of Asia from America by an open sea was
proved. Somewhat later a complete geographical view of
the vast empire of China and part of Central Asia was ob-
tained from the Jesuits, who, having risen to high favor at
Pekin, actually published a map of that country under the
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ASIAGo–ASPARAGUS.
293
authority and at the expense of the Chinese government.
The attention of the British had long been directed to
Asia, and the discovery of the passage by sea gave them a
new impulse. For many years following that event fre-
quent voyages of discovery were made by British naviga-
tors, and several embassies and other journeys were per-
formed by British subjects on land. But the formation, in
1600, of the East India Company, which ultimately estab-
lished British authority in the East, has done more than
any other event to extend our geographical knowledge in
that quarter. At first the new information obtained was
scanty, but from 1740, during the wars with the French in
the Deccan, and more especially from 1757, after the con-
quest of Bengal, it rapidly increased.
The recent history of Asia has been under the controlling
influence of Russia and England, both of which have, in
the course of the last two centuries, and since the begin-
ning of the nineteenth century, more rapidly than at any
previous time, extended their boundaries, and are now in-
disputably the two great powers of Asia. Wherever they
are allied they can dictate to the remainder of the Asiatic
states; but as they are rivals for the ascendency, they
zealously watch, and often try to check, each other's prog-
ress, especially in-Central Asia, where the southern frontier
of the Russian and the northern of the British are now
separated by a comparatively small tract of land. Quite
recently, France has gained a firm footing in Farther
India, and the Netherlands are making great efforts to ex-
tend their rule over the islands of the Indian Archipelago.
One of the most remarkable events in the recent history
of the native states of Asia is the opening of Japan to a
friendly intercourse with the civilized countries of Europe
and America. Japan already is by far the most progressive
among the native Asiatic states, and is likely to exercise a
considerable influence upon the destinies of Eastern Asia.
In China, a powerful anti-foreign party desperately opposes
the adoption of a similar policy, but there also the com-
bined influence of the commerce, science, and religion of
the Christian countries is smoothing the way for the be-
ginning of a new era. Persia also has found it necessary
to enter upon a reformatory career, and the journey of the
shah to all the European courts—an event entirely unpre-
cedented in the history of the country—has made a power-
ful impression upon the minds of the people. The advan-
tages which Russia and England derive from the construc-
tion of railroads and telegraphs begin to be appreciated
by all the native states. Considerable progress in this di-
rection has already been made in Japan, and Persia in
1872 concluded a contract with Baron Reuter of London,
which, if executed, would cover the whole country with a
network of railroads. The connection of British India, with
Europe by railroad has for some time engaged the atten-
tion of engineers, and when, in 1873, Lesseps, the origina-
tor of the Suez Canal, came forward with a new scheme,
great hopes of its speedy execution were entertained in
scientific and commercial circles. The exploration of the
interior of Asia has been very active since the beginning
of the nineteenth century, and the unknown territory is
at length confined within very small limits.
A. J. SCHEM.
Asiago, a town of Italy, in the province of Vicenza,
23 miles N. of Vicenza, is in a district called “Seven Com-
munes.” It has manufactures of straw hats and turned
woodwork. Pop. 5140. --,
Aſsia Mi'nor, the ancient name of a peninsula form-
ing the western extremity of Asia, now called ANATOLIA
(which see). It was bounded on the N. by the Euxine
(Pon'tus Euaci'nws) and Propontis, on the S. by the Medi-
terranean, and on the W. by the Ægean Sea (AEge'um
Ma're)...The principal divisions were Bithynia, Cappa-
doeia, Cilicia, Galatia, Ionia, Lycaonia, Lydia, Lycia,
Mysia, Pamphylia, Phrygia, Pontus, and Paphlagonia,
which will be noticed under their own heads. The Mount
Taurus range extends through the southern part, and Anti-
Taurus, through the northern. The principal rivers are
the Halys (Kizil-Irmak), which rises in the eastern part
and enters the Euxine ; the Sangarius (Sakareeyah), which
also flows into the Euxine; and the Meander, which enters
the AEgean Sea. Here flourished many famous and power-
ful kingdoms of antiquity, and here many conquerors in
successive generations contended for supremacy. “We are
now,” says Malte-Brun, “to tread upon a soil rich in in-
teresting and splendid recollections, with an existing popu-
lation completely debased by ignorance and slavery. The
glory of twenty different nations which once flourished in
Western Asia has been extinguished; flocks wander over
the tombs of Achilles and Hector; and the thrones of
Mithridates and Antiochus have disappeared, as well as the
palaces of Priam and Croesus. The merchants of Smyrna,
do not inquire whether Homer was born within their walls;
the fine sky of Ionia no longer inspires either painters or
poets; the same obscurity covers with its shades the banks
of the Jordan and the Euphrates. . . . The Wandering
Arabian comes, indifferent and unmoved, to rest the poles
of his tent against the shattered columns of Palmyra. . . .
If, however, European arts and civilization were, by some
new arrangement of Providence, to revisit this ancient
cradle of the human race, we should still find there the
charming coast of Ionia, with its picturesque islands; the
fertile shores of the Euxine, shaded by inexhaustible for-
ests; and in the distance the numerous chains of Mount
Taurus, crowned with upland plains, representing on a
small scale the vast plateaux of Central Asia.”
WILLIAM JACOBs.
Asiatſic Soci’eties, societies formed for the promotion
of the knowledge of the language, literature, and history
of the Asiatic nations. The first society of this kind was
established by the Dutch at Batavia in 1780. The next was
the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, founded at Calcutta
by Sir W. Jones in 1784. Among those of more recent
date are the Société Asiatique, founded at Paris in 1822;
the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland,
1823; the Asiatic Society of Ceylon, 1845; the German
Oriental Society in 1845; the Asiatic Society of China,
established in 1847; and the American Oriental Society in
1842.
Asimago/my, a lake in Canada (Ontario), is about 12
miles long and from 2 to 4 miles wide. It discharges itself
into the eastern extremity of Lake Superior by a stream
about 36 miles long.
As/kew (ANNE), a gentlewoman of high distinction in the
reign of Henry VIII., and an intimate court-friend of his
queen, Catharine Parr. She was the daughter of Sir Wil-
liam Askew of Kelsey, Lincolnshire. Falling a victim to
the craft of Gardiner, she was attainted of heresy as a
“fanatical Anabaptist,” after an examination by Christo-
pher Dare and Sir Martin Bowes, lord mayor of London.
In the Tower she was tortured by the rack, Wriothesley, the
lord chancellor, and Rich, inflicting this inhumanity with
their own hands. Finally, being unable to walk to Smith-
field, she was carried there in a chair, and her body chained
to the stake, at which she was burnt in 1546.
Asſmannshau'sen, a village of Germany, in Nassau,
on the right bank of the Rhine, 2 miles N. W. of Rüdesheim.
The red wine of Asmannshausen is highly esteemed, hav-
ing a rare aromatic flavor and uncommon strength. It re-
tains its fine qualities only about four years.
Asmode/us, or Asmo'di, a demon or evil genius,
who, according to the apocryphal book of Tobit, killed the
seven husbands of Sara. In the “Talmud" he is called
the prince of demons. He is the same with Abaddon and
Apollyon.
As’monae/ams, or Asmoneans, a family of Jewish
princes, partially identical with the Maccabees. The name
was derived from Asmonaeus, who lived about 300 B. C.
His great-grandson, Mattathias, was a distinguished patriot
and leader of a revolt against the king of Syria. He had
several sons, who ruled over Judea and were called MACCA-
BEEs (which see).
Asó/kä, Açoka, or Ashoka, an ancient king of
Maghada, in India, was a grandson of Chandragupta (or
Sandracottus). He reigned about 250 B.C., was converted
to Buddhism, and erected a great number of monasteries.
His dominion extended over the greater part of Hindostan.
Asp, or As'pic [Lat. ag'pis ; Gr. &atris], a species of
venomous serpent mentioned by ancient writers. Some of
these describe its bite as inevitably fatal, and as producing
speedy death without pain. Modern naturalists identify it
with the Naja haje, a species of hooded viper which is found
in Egypt, and is from three to five feet in length. When it
is irritated it dilates its neck. The figure of the Naja haje
occurs on the sculptured monuments of the ancient Egyp-
tians. The jugglers of modern Egypt cause it to dance to
their music, and throw it into a cataleptic state. The name
of asp is also applied to the Vipera aspis, common in many
parts of Europe, and frequent in Sweden and the neighbor-
ing countries. It is much dreaded on account of its bite.
Aspar’agus [Gr. &atrápayos), a genus of plants of the
order Liliaceae, natives of Southern Europe and Africa.
Its species are partly shrubs and partly herbaceous. They
have a 6-parted perianth, six stamens, one style, and the
fruit is a berry. The most important species is 48parague
officinalis, the common asparagus of gardens, which is a
native of Europe, and is generally cultivated in Europe
and the U.S. It was used as food by the ancient Romans.
It grows to the height of four feet, and thrives best in a
rich and deep soil. This plant is raised from the seed, and
should not be used until about three years have elapsed
after the planting of the seed. The perennial roots con-
294
ASPARTIC ACID—ASPIRATE. \
tinue for many years to send up every spring a crop of
tender shoots, which, after having attained the height of a
few inches, are cut a little below the surface of the ground.
A peculiar principle called asparagine, C4H8N2O3, is ob-
tained from these shoots, and also from the root of the
marshmallow.
Asparſtic Ac/id (C4H1NO4), an acid obtained by the
decomposition of asparagine, or by the action of heat upon
ammonic malate, maleate, etc.
Aspaſsia [Gr. ‘Aatraortal, a celebrated woman of ancient
Greece, remarkable for her genius, beauty, and political in-
fluence, was born at Miletus, in Asia, Minor. She became
in her youth a resident of Athens and the mistress of Per-
icles. Her house was a celebrated resort for the most emi-
ment Athenians, including Socrates, who professed to be her
disciple. She had a high reputation for talent, and a re-
port obtained currency that she composed part of the great
funeral oration which Pericles pronounced over the Athe-
nians who fell in battle about 430 B. C. Having been ac-
cused of impiety by Hermippus, a comic poet, she was
defended by Pericles and acquitted. After the death of
Pericles she was married to Lysicles. There is extant an
, antique bust inscribed with the name of Aspasia. (See BU-
RIGNY, “Vie d'Aspasie;” PLUTARCH, “Life of Pericles.”)
Aspasia the Younger, an Ionian lady whose orig-
inal name was MILTO. She became the favorite mistress
of Cyrus the Younger, who changed her name to Aspasia.
She was distinguished for beauty and intellect. She was
taken captive by King Artaxerxes at the battle in which
Cyrus was killed, 401 B. C., and was consecrated by him
as a priestess of Anaitis. -- -
Aspa'siolite, a greenish mineral from Krageröe, Nor-
way. It is a hydrated silicate of alumina and magnesia,
and is a variety of fahlunite.
As/pe, a town of Spain, in the province of Alicante, 15
miles W. of Alicante. Here are numerous flour-mills, about
twenty oil-mills, several soap-factories, and distilleries of
brandy. Pop. 6700.
As/pect [Lat. aspecſtus], look, appearance, countenance.
In astrology, the position of one planet with respect to
another. Aspect is defined by Kepler as “the angle formed
by the rays proceeding from two planets, and meeting at
the earth.” The ancients reckoned five aspects—namely,
conjunction, indicated by the symbol CŞ; opposition, by 8;
trine, by A; quartile, by El; and sextile, by 3é. Planets
in conjunction have the same longitude; in opposition the
difference of their longitude is 180°; the aspect is trine
when they are 120° apart, quartile when they are 90°
apart, and sextile when they are 60° apart.
Asſpen, a village of Uintah co., Wy., near the S. W.
corner of the Territory, and on the Union Pacific R. R., 29
miles E. of Wahsatch. Coal is mined in the vicinity. The
station is 7463 feet above the sea. -
As/pen, or Tremulous Poplar (Pop'ulus trem/ula),
a tree of the natural order Salicaceae, is a native of Europe
and Western Asia. It is remarkable for the mobility of its
leaves, which, having long petioles laterally compressed,
are caused to flutter by the gentlest breath of air. The
wood is soft and light, is used to make trays and pails, and
is valuable timber for the interior of houses. The name
of aspen is also applied to the Populus tremuloides and
grandidentata, natives of the U. S., resembling the Eu-
ropean aspen in the proverbial quivering of their leaves.
Aspergil’lum, a remarkable genus of tubicular bi-
valve mollusks, characterized by the soldering of both
valves to the inner surface of the calcareous sheath. The
shell has the form of an elongated cone, the larger end of
which expands into a disk, which is pierced by many small
tubular holes. Hence it derives its popular name of “water-
ing-pot.” The animals of this genus are borers, which live
in sand. They are chiefly found in the Indian and South
Pacific oceans. Others have been found fossil in Europe.
As/pern; or Gross Asperm, a village of Austria, on
the left bank of the Danube, 5 miles E. N. E. of Vienna.
Aspern, with the adjacent village of Essling, was the scene
of a great battle between Napoleon and the Austrian arch-
duke Charles after the French army had taken Vienna.
The French crossed the river by a bridge which they con-
structed at the island of Lobau, and began the attack on
the 21st of May, 1809. After half of the French had crossed
the river, the Austrians assumed the offensive. Both of the
villages were taken and retaken, and the day closed with-
out a decisive result. The fight was renewed on the 22d,
when, after great slaughter, Napoleon retreated to the right
bank of the river, having lost about 7000 killed and 30,000
wounded and prisoners. The Austrians lost about 20,500
killed and wounded.
Asſphalt [Gr. &ordaxros; Lat. asphal/tum] is a solid
bituminous substance, often called Mineral Pitch or
Native Pitch. (See BITUMEN, by GEN. Q. A. GILLMORE,
U. S. Army.) -
Asphal/tic Coal, a name given to certain coal-like
substances which are found filling irregular cavities and
fissures, generally of the older rocks. They have been often
classed as coals, but differ in composition and geological
position from all true goals. They are not stratified, but
fill fissures into which they have evidently flowed when in
a fluid or plastic state. They are, in fact, ancient asphalts,
which have become more compact and drier—i.e. contain-
ing less oil and gas—in the lapse of ages. These asphaltic
coals are found in carboniferous rocks in New Brunswick
and West Virginia, and in Devonian strata in Ohio and Ken-
tucky. -
As/phodel (Asphod'elus), a genus of herbaceous plants
of the order Liliaceae and sub-order Asphodeleas, nearly
related to the asparagus and onion. They are natives of
Barbary, Sicily, Greece, and other parts of the Levant.
Several species are cultivated in gardens for the beauty of
their flowers, as the Asphodel luteus (yellow asphodel). The
Asphodel ramosus is said to be the flower which Homer de-
scribes as growing in the meadows of Elysium. It is now
abundant in Apulia. The ancients imagined that the manes
of their friends fed on its roots, and they planted it near
their tombs.
Asphyx'ia [from the Gr. a, priv., and a bijäts, the “pulse”],
originally meaning cessation of the motion of the heart,
has by usage come to signify arrest of breathing (proper-
ly apnoea) by suffocation or strangulation. It occurs in
drowning, by water excluding air from the lungs; in hang-
ing or choking, by the compression of the windpipe, pre-
venting the entrance of air; in the presence of certain
gases, as chlorine or pure carbonic acid, by spasmodic clo-
sure of the glottis or entrance to the windpipe. It has been
proved by careful observations that after death by asphyxia
the left cavities of the heart are empty, and the right dis-
tended with blood. This is owing to the fact that venous
blood, not renewed by exposure to the oxygen of the air,
will not circulate through the lungs, thus being forced to
accumulate in the right or venous side of the heart. The
mode of treatment of asphyxia must depend on its cause.
(See DROWNING...) In partial strangulation, abstraction of
blood in moderate amount may unload the heart and pro-
mote the movement of the blood, after the cause of obstruc-
tion has been removed. For asphyxia from irrespirable
gases the first necessity is a supply of pure air. When the
heart has almost or quite ceased to beat for a few moments,
life is sometimes restored by artificial RESPIRATION (which
see), or by application of galvanic electricity, to the chest.
Asphyx/iants [from asphyacſia, “Suffocation”], chem-
ical compounds enclosed in bombs or other projectiles, and
designed to suffocate or poison the enemy, especially in
naval warfare, where men are confined between the decks
of a ship. These barbarous inventions are discountenanced
in honorable warfare. -
Aspidichºthys [from the Gr. 3atris, a “shield,” and ix60s,
a “fish *), a genus of fossil fishes, described by Dr. New-
berry, from the Devonian rocks of Ohio. It is allied to
Pterichthys, but is very much larger. The middle dorsal
plate of the carapace is a foot wide and a foot and a half
long, more than an inch thick at the centre, and its external
surface is studded with smooth enamel tubercles as large as
split peas. • -
As/pinwall (called Colon by the natives), a seaport
of Central America, is situated on the N. side of the Isth-
mus of Panama, and on Navy Bay, 48 miles by rail from
Panama, on the Pacific Ocean; lat. 9° 21' N., lon. 79° 54'
W. It was founded in 1852 by the Panama R. R. Com-
pany, and is the northern terminus of the Panama R. R.,
which was opened in 1855. It has a good harbor, which is
deep enough for large ships, and has several large hotels.
Aspinwall was formerly a great thoroughfare of the travel
between California and the Atlantic States. Steamers ply
frequently between this place and New York, which is about
2000 miles distant. Pop. in 1869, 4000.
Aspinwall, a post-township of Nehama co., Neb. Coal
is found here. Pop. 572. -
Aspinwall (WILLIAM), M. D., born in Brookline,
Mass., May 23, 1743, graduated at Harvard, in 1764, and
subsequently took his medical degree in Philadelphia, be-
came a surgeon in the Revolutionary army, and after the
war was a prominent Jeffersonian politician in Massachu-
setts. He practised medicine with great success, and was
distinguished for the practice of “inoculation ” and his
early adoption of vaccination. Died April 16, 1823.
As/pirate [from the Lat, as 'per, “rough “I denotes in
pronunciation a rough breathing, similar to the sound of
the letter h. It occurs with various degrees of intensity,
A.
ASPIRATOR-ASSASSIN.
295
being sometimes almost as strong as the German ch, at
others so slight as to be scarcely perceptible. In Greek
grammar it is commonly called spiritus asper (“rough
breathing”), and is marked thus (), in contradistinction
to the spiritus lenis (“smooth breathing”), represented thus
(). ‘Ol. "EAAmwes would be represented in English letters
thus: Hoi Hellénes. t
As/pirator [from the Latin verb aspi/ro, aspira’tum, to
“breathe,” or “breathe on or into,” from ad, “to,” and
spiro, to “breathe ”], an apparatus used by chemists to
draw air or other gases through bottles or other vessels.
It is a tight vessel filled with water, having a tube with a
stopcock connected with the upper end, and another tube
with a stopcock connected with the lower end. The former
tube is attached to the vessel through which the gas is to
be drawn; the stopcocks are both opened, and the weight
of the water issuing from the lower tube acts as a suction,
and draws in the gas. -
As/pis, or Clu'pea, an ancient and important fortified
and family Equidae.
city of the Carthaginians, on the Mediterranean, about 50
miles E. of Carthage, was founded about 310 B.C. It was
the place where Regulus landed in the first Punic war, and
was a distinguished episcopal see from 411 to 646 A. D. It
was the last spot on which the African Christians made a
stand against the Saracens. Remarkable ruins are to be
seen there. -
Aspromon’te, a mountain at the South-western ex-
tremity of Italy, 16 miles E. N. E. of Reggio, 6300 feet
high. Here Garibaldi and the greater part of his army
were taken prisoners in Aug., 1862. º
Aspropot'amo (i.e. “white river”), the ancient Ache-
low8, the largest river in the kingdom of Greece, rises in
Albania. It flows in a S. S. W. direction, and after a course
of about 100 miles enters the Mediterranean (or Ionian)
Sea, nearly 15 miles W. of Missolonghi.
Ass, or Don’key, a quadruped of the genus Asinus
It is characterized by long ears, a
black cross over the shoulder, and short hairs on the
§ º
\\ %. > -º
-E--->
-- T --~~~ : . -- - <=: Hºs-E
\ = ~ \ 2=T-F#:==== tº-º-º-º-
The Ass.
upper part of the tail.
stolidity, and power of endurance, and has been the domes-
ticated drudge of man from time immemorial. The ass is
probably a native of Central Asia, as it is now found wild
in that region. Vast numbers of the wild-ass (which the
Romans called onager) roam over the great Asiatic deserts
and steppes, feeding on saline herbage. They also inhabit
Persia, Asia Minor, and Syria. An interesting notice of
this animal is given in the thirty-ninth chapter of Job.
The wild-ass is a high-spirited animal of extraordinary
speed, and is one of the principak objects of the chase in
Persia, where its flesh is highly esteemed as food. This
animal (supposed to be the Equus hemionus of Pallas) sur-
passes the horse in swiftness of foot. There appears to be
some doubt whether the domesticated ass is descended from
this wild animal, so much superior in speed and other qual-
ities. In Oriental countries the custom of riding on the
back of the tame ass is very common; and the Old Testa-
ment informs us that it was thus used by patriarchs and
kings in the earliest times. The asses which are raised in
Syria and other parts of the East are a better breed than
those of Europe. The animal is not much employed in the
U. S., except for the propagation of mules, which are the
hybrid progeny of the ass and mare. Being very sure-
footed and able to live on scanty fare, the assis well adapted
for service as a beast of burden in rocky and mountainous
regions.
and consumptive patients. The proverbial stupidity of the
ass seems rather due to its patience and endurance than to
any particular want of intelligence. - -
Assafoet/ida, or Asafoetida [from asa, an Oriental
word said to signify “gum,” and the Lat. foetidus, “fetid”],
a gum-resin or the concrete juice of the root of Narthea as-
safoetida (the Ferula assafoetida of Linnaeus). It is a na-
tive of Persia and Afghanistān, has a peculiar and dis-
agreeable odor, and is extensively used in medicine as an
It is remarkable for its patience,
square miles.
Its milk is recommended as a diet for dyspeptic
antispasmodic. It is considered an efficacious remedy for
hysteria, nervous diseases, and spasmodic pectoral affections.
In many parts of Asia it is used as a condiment.
Assai, a beverage which is commonly used on the Ama-
zon, and is prepared from the fruit of Euterpe oleracea and
other species of palm nearly related to the cabbage-palm.
The fruit is nearly equal in size to a sloe, and consists of a
hard seed enclosed in a thin covering of firm pulp. The
assai, a thick creamy liquid of a purplish color, is composed
of this pulp and water.
Assal’, a salt lake of Eastern Africa, 25 miles S. W. of
Tajura, is about 760 feet below the level of the sea. It is
8 miles long and 4 miles wide, and has an area of 20 square
miles. The shores are covered with crusts of salt about a
foot thick. Large quantities of Salt are carried hence by
caravans to Abyssinia.
As/sam, a province or district of Farther India, bor-
ders on China, forming part of the valley of the Brahma-
pootra. It is included between lat. 25° 45' and 28° 15' N.,
and between lon. 90° 35' and 96° 50' E. The area is 21,805
It is well watered by numerous rivers, has a
fertile soil, but a large part of it is swampy and subject to
inundation. The staple products of the soil are rice, tea,
cotton, opium, and mustard. Gold, silver, and precious
stones are found here. The rainy. Season lasts about six
months, from April to October, during which time the whole
country is inundated. The large and dense forests of Assam
are infested by great numbers of elephants, tigers, leopards,
rhinoceroses, buffaloes, etc. Assam was ceded to the Brit-
ish by Burmah in 1826. The religion of the Assamese is
Brahmanism. Pop. 710,000. - *
Assas'sin [for etymology see below], one who attacks
and kills by treachery or surprise a person who is unpre-
pared for defence. The word was originally the name of a
famatical sect or order, the disciples, it is said, of Alo-ed-
Deen (Aloaddin), commonly called Sheikh-el-Jebel, or the


296
ASSAULT—ASSEMANNI.
“Old Man of the Mountain.” The first founder of the
order is said to have been Hassan-ben-Sabah, who flou-
rished in Persia about 1080 A.D. According to some writers,
they were called Assassins from their immoderate use of
hasheesh (or hashīsh), an intoxicating drug obtained from
Indian hemp. Hassan-ben-Sabah and his followers gained
possession of several fortified castles in the mountainous
parts of Persia, and intimidated princes and governors by
a series of secret murders. The order consisted of mem-
bers of several degrees, the lowest of which were Fedavies
or Fedais (i. e. the “devoted"), who were not initiated
into the secret doctrines and mysteries, but with blind obe-
dience executed the bloody orders of the prince or Old
Man of the Mountain, who was their absolute ruler. They
mustered about 50,000 fighting men in the time of the Cru-
sades, and sometimes came into collision with the crusaders.
Hassan-ben-Sabah died about 1125. One of his successors
was assassinated about 1163 by his brother-in-law, because
he extended to the whole order an exemption from the com-
mands of the Koran, which exemption had before been the
exclusive privilege of the initiated. Alo-ed-Deen (Aload-
din), the famous chief of the Assassins, is supposed to
have been born about 1210. According to some authori-
ties, this order was suppressed or dispersed by the sultan
Bibars. (See Von HAMMER (Hammer-Purgstall), “Ge-
schichte der Assassinen,” 1818; WELL, “Die Assassinen ''
in Sybel’s “Histor. Zeitschrift,” 1863.)
Assaultſ [from the Lat. ad, “upon,” and salio, saltum,
to “leap *], in law, an attempt or offer with force and vio-
lence to do a corporeal hurt to another, as by striking at
him with or without a weapon. It is often coupled with
the word “battery,” which means the act of carrying the
assault into effect. Every battery includes an assault, but
the converse is not true. In order to constitute an assault
there must be a present ability to carry the threat into ef-
fect. Thus, if the hand of a person at rest were raised
against another at such a distance that no blow could be
inflicted, there would be no assault, while if there were a
weapon in the hand there might be. Assaults are either
simple or with intent to commit some other criminal act, as
to kill, rob, or ravish. Assaults of this class are frequently
punished with severity by statute law, and are themselves
declared to be felonies, though the principal offence is not
committed. A simple assault is a mere misdemeanor.
There are many instances in which an assault is justifi-
able, as in self-defence, and in arrest by officers, and in the
punishment of children and apprentices. Even in these
cases undue force must not be used, and if that which is
reasonable under all the circumstances be exceeded, the
party resorting to the force will be a wrong-doer.
Assault, in military language, is a sudden and vigor-
ous attack of a fortified post or camp, or an effort to carry
by open force a breach which has been made in a fortress.
In the regular routine of sieges (as they were formalized,
for recent changes in the art of fortification and in the
character of firearms have rendered the old rules some-
what inapplicable) the “assault” is one of the last scenes
of the drama, called a “siege.” In the regular siege the as-
sault (if, instead of gaining the breach by covered “ap-
proaches,” it is decided to resort to it) is delivered after
the outworks are captured, and one or more “breaches”
formed (by “breaching batteries”) in the body of the
place. It is usually performed by picked troops or volun-
teers (sometimes called a “forlorn hope ’’), who, at a con-
certed signal (upon which the besiegers' artillery ceases to
fire), issue from the contiguous parallels or places of arms,
descend into the ditch, and advance rapidly and without
much order, but without firing, upon the breach. “Firing
parties” are stationed in neighboring parallels to keep
down the fire of the besieged, and “supports” are close at
hand to follow up the assaulting party, if successful in
effecting an entrance.
Under Louis XIV. commandants of besieged places were
forbidden to capitulate before receiving three assaults. Un-
der Napoleon it was declared dishonorable and punishable
with death to capitulate before receiving at least one assault.
According to Vauban and the “schools,” the open assault
is a “useless massacre,” which, if successful, results only
in the demoralization of the troops, the sacking of the
place, and the destruction of resources valuable to the be-
siegers. Nevertheless, it is sometimes compulsory, as in
the case of the assault of Constantine (1837) by the French,
with a loss of 500 out of 1750. In Spain the English army
delivered terrible assaults, as those at Badajos (1812) and
St. Sebastien (1813); the loss at the former (which failed,
the place being entered by escalade) cost 3700 men, and the
latter (successful) 2000, killed and wounded. The bloody
assault by which the siege of Sebastopol was terminated
Sept. 8, 1855, was necessitated by the fact that the “ap-
proaches” could be pushed forward no farther. This so-
called siege differed from an ordinary siege in this, that
“the difficulty was to conquer the Russian army upon a
ground prepared beforehand, quite as much as to surmount
the material obstacle presented by the fortifications” (Niel).
The allied loss in this assault (killed and wounded) was
nearly 10,000; that of the Russians, 11,700 men; thus ter-
minating a siege of eleven months’ duration, and which cost
the besiegers 150,000 and the Russians 84,000 men.
The protracted duration and fearful losses at this siege,
though it cannot be taken as strictly typical of the changed
character of modern siege warfare, are not without their
confirmatory bearing upon the dictum of Col. Brialmont,
one of the most agcomplished and authoritative of Euro-
pean engineers (Études sur la défense des États), that “the
advantage is no longer on the side of the besiegers, and .
that in great places, where materials, provisions, and men
are never lacking, the superiority is incontestably acquired
for the defence.” And he adds: “Conclusion most encour-
aging to small states, and to those which limit their ambi-
tion to the worthy aim of preserving intact and developing
their independence, their wealth, and their liberties.”
J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Assay’, or Assay’ing [from the Fr. assayer, to “try”].
This term, which is applied to metals or metallic compounds,
is sometimes employed as synonymous with analysis, but
more generally restricted to the process of ascertaining the
proportion of gold or silver in an alloy, or of pure metal in
a metallic ore. Silver plate and manufactured articles of
gold and silver generally contain an alloy of copper or
other metal. (See ALLOY.) In Great Britain, each article,
before it is sold, is assayed at Goldsmiths' Hall, so as to
determine the proportion of precious metal in its composi-
tion. The process of assaying gold and silver depends on
the principle that those metals cannot be converted into
oxides by union with the oxygen of the air, while the baser
metals with which they are alloyed can be oxidized if raised
to a high temperature. The apparatus employed in this
process consists of a cupel, a small shallow vessel made of
bone-ash, and a muffle. The latter is made of fire-clay, is
about eight inches long, three or four inches in diameter,
and is shaped like a railway tunnel (that is, having a flat
bottom and an arched top); it is open at one end and closed
at the other, and has several apertures in its sides for air
to pass through. Weighed fragments of mixed silver and
lead are placed on cupels, which, introduced into a muffle,
are exposed to the heat of a furnace until the metals are
melted. The oxygen of the air unitès with the lead, form-
ing an oxide, which is partly volatilized, and partly ab-
sorbed by the porous cupel. At the end of this process of
cupellation there remains a globule of pure silver, which
by its diminished weight shows how much alloy was con-
tained in the sample. During the assay of silver by the
foregoing process, called the dry method, a small loss of
silver occurs. For this reason the humid process has been
adopted in the mints of France, of the U. S., and of other
nations. This method consists in dissolving the compound
or impure silver in nitric acid of density 1.25, and adding
a solution of common salt (NaCl), which causes the pre-
cipitation of the chloride of silver (AgCl) in white flocculi.
The solution of salt is made of a definite strength, and is
poured out of a graduated vessel until all precipitation of
pure silver ceases. The assay of gold ores or impure gold
is performed in a manner similar to that of silver. If gold
alloyed with copper is to be assayed, some silver must be
added to the alloy. The alloy of the three metals, gold,
silver, and copper, may be assayed by cupellation, by which
the copper is oxidized and the gold and silver remain com-
bined. These may be separated by a process called part-
ing, which, however, is only practicable when the alloy
contains three parts of silver to one of gold. The parting
or quartation consists in acting on the alloy by hot nitric
acid, which dissolves the silver, forming the soluble nitrate
of silver, and leaves the gold in a solid and separate state.
As no ore of gold or artificial alloy contains so much silver
as three to one, it is necessary to incorporate an additional
quantity of silver with it. This is done by wrapping the
proper quantities of gold and silver in lead-foil, and heat-
ing them on a cupel. The metallic button which is the re-
sult of this cupellation is hammered on an anvil, and rolled
into a thin plate or ribbon, which is coiled up and called a
cornet. This is exposed in a glass vessel to the action of
nitric acid, which, dissolving the silver, leaves a brown,
spongy mass of gold. It is then heated in a crucible, an-
nealed, and weighed. As jewelry and other articles cannot
be assayed either by the dry or humid method without in-
juring their form, their purity is ascertained by the use of
the touchstone, with which a streak is drawn on the surface
of the gold. Black basalt is one of the minerals used as a
touchstone. (For special methods of assay, see the re-
spective metals.) WILLIAM JACOBs.
Asseman'ni (GIUSEPPE SIMONE), bishop of Tyre in
partibus, a learned Maronite, born at Tripoli, in Syria, in
ASSEMBLY-ASSISTANCE, WRIT OF.
297
1687. He was sent in 1715 by the pope to Syria and Egypt
to collect manuscripts, and was keeper of the Vatican
Library (1738–68). He published a valuable work on Syrian
literature, entitled “Bibliotheca. Orientalis Clementino-Vati-
cana” (4 vols., 1719–28). Died Jan. 14, 1768,-His nephew,
STEFANo Evopro, an Orientalist, born at Tripoli in 1707,
was educated at Rome. He was archbishop of Apamea in
partibus. He succeeded his uncle, Giuseppe Simone, as
keeper of the Vatican Library, in 1768. He published sev-
eral catalogues of Oriental manuscripts. Died in 1782.
Assem/bly, in politics, a convention or body of men
associated for civil or legislative business, and possessing
more or less political power. In some of the U. S. the term
is applied to the lower branch of the legislature, and the
other house is called the senate. At the beginning of the
French Revolution, the members of the Tiers Etat (Third
Estate), who had been chosen to represent the common
people in the States-General, assumed (Jan. 17, 1789) the
title of Assemblée Nationale, and, having been joined by
the more liberal members of the nobility and clergy, pro-
ceeded to frame a new constitution. The court denied their
authority, and made a not very vigorous effort to dissolve
the Assembly, but failed, and finally yielded to the popular
current. This body, which was termed the Constituent
Assembly, formed a constitution which was accepted by the
king, and, having ordered the election of a legislative as-
sembly, dissolved itself Sept. 30, 1791. The Legislative
Assembly, from which all members of the Constituent As-
sembly were expressly excluded, met Oct., 1791, and con-
tinued to undermine or defy the royal authority, which
was abolished Aug. 10, 1792. Having convoked a Na-
tional Convention, the Assembly closed its labors and exist-
ence Sept. 21, 1792. The formation of the second French
republic (Feb., 1848) was followed by the election of a
National Assembly, which met in May of that year, and,
having formed a constitution, transferred its power to the
Tlegislative Assembly. This body was dissolved or abolished
by the coup-d'état of Dec. 2, 1851. The third republic was
proclaimed Sept. 4, 1870, but, on account of the presence
of German armies in France, the election of deputies was
postponed until the armistice, which began just after the
capture of Paris, Jan. 30, 1871. The National Assembly
met at Bordeaux in Feb., and elected Adolphe Thiers as
chef du pouvoir eacécutif (“chief of the executive power”).
Assembly, General. See GENERAL ASSEMBLY.
As'sen, capital of the Dutch province of Drenthe, 16
miles S. of Groningen, is connected with the Zuyder-Zee
by the Drenthe Canal. In the neighborhood are tumuli
mentioned by Tacitus. Pop in 1867, 6443.
Asses's or [Lat. asses/sor, from assid'eo, asses/sum, to
“sit beside,” to “assist”] is applied in England to a per-
son, usually a lawyer or jurist, who is appointed to advise
the judge and direct his decisions. In several inferior
courts assessors are appointed by statute. The burgesses
of every borough are required to elect annually two assess-
ors, who assist the mayor in revising the burgess lists and
in presiding at the municipal elections. In some of the
U. S. an assessor is a person elected by the people to assess
or appraise all taxable property, in order that the owner
of the same may pay a tax proportioned to its value. This
valuation or appraisement is called assessment. The as-
sessed value is usually less than the real, or less than the
price for which it could be purchased.
As/seteague Island, off the E. coast of Northampton
co., Va., to which it belongs, has a brick lighthouse, 129
feet high, standing 2 miles from the S. W. extremity of the
island and showing a fixed light of the first order, 150 feet
above the sea, in lat. 37°54' 37" N., lon. 75° 21' 04" W.
As/sets [from the Fr. assez, “enough”], in law, denotes
the property in the possession of an heir or under control
of an executor, administrator, or trustee, applicable to the
payment of debts and charges against the estate which
they represent. It is mainly applied to the case of heirs,
executors, and administrators. Assets are either real or
personal. Real estate is assets in the hands of an heir;
personal property, in like manner, in those of an executor
or administrator. If the real estate is devised to an exec-
utor, he takes it as trustee. Assets are also distinguished
into legal and equitable, the first being under the control
of a court of law, and the second administered by a court
of equity; and the two courts are not governed by the
same rules. In the U. S. this last distinction is by reason
of statute law of little consequence, as all the estate of a
deceased person becomes a fund for the liquidation of his
debts, according to a prescribed statutory order. The dis-
tinction between real and personal assets is still of import-
ance, as it is a general rule that real estate is not to be
taken for the payment of debts until the personal property
is exhausted. A testator may by a sufficiently clear direc-
able becomes of great practical consequence.
tion in his will avoid the effect of this rule, and make his
real estate the primary fund for the payment of his debts.
Assh'ur, or Ash'ur, an ancient and populous city,
capital of Assyria, on the Tigris, 40 miles below Calah, and
60 miles S. of Nineveh. Its site is marked by extensive
ruins at Kileh-Sherghat. Here is a large square mound
or platform two and a half miles in circumference, about
100 feet above the level of the plain, and composed in part
of sun-dried bricks. Cuneiform inscriptions of great inter-
est have been found here.—A son of Shem was also called
ASSHUR, from whom the name of the city was derived.
Assienſto (or, preferably, Asiento), a word applied to
treaties which the government of Spain made with several
foreign nations for the purpose of supplying her colonies
with negro slaves. The first of the assientos was made
with the Flemings, in the reign of the emperor Charles V.
The Genoese obtained the contract in 1580. The privilege
was transferred to the Portuguese in 1696, and to the
French in 1701. The English acquired it by the treaty of
Utrecht, 1713, but resigned or sold it to Spain about 1750,
since which no such contract has been made.
Assignat, paper money issued by the French govern-
ment in 1790, and at subsequent periods of the revolution-
ary régime. It was based on the security of the national
domains, which consisted of the confiscated estates of the
Church and wealthy Émigrés. The total amount of assign-
ats issued was 45,578,000,000 francs. The public credit
having been ruined by the reign of terror and anarchy,
the value of the assignats declined lower and lower. In
June, 1793, one franc in silver was worth three francs in
paper. The government, in order to check their deprecia-
tion, passed a law to fix the maximum prices of commodi-
ties, the effect of which law was very injurious to trade.
In Mar., 1796, one franc in gold was equivalent to three
hundred francs in paper. In July of that year the assign-
ats were recalled, and replaced by the mandats.
Assign/ment [from the Lat. assigno, to “appoint”], in
law, the act of making over to another one’s estate or in-
terest. The person making the assignment is an assignor;
the recipient is an assignee. The word is mainly used in
reference to transfers of leases, incorporeal rights, such as
copyrights and patents, and rights of action. Such trans-
fers are to some extent by statute law required to be in
writing. It is a rule of common law that a thing in action
is not assignable, though this doctrine is not followed in a
court of equity, an assignment being regarded in that court
as in the nature of a declaration of trust, so that the as-
signor becomes a trustee for the assignee. There are some
exceptions to this rule, as in the case of mere personal
causes of action and cases where public policy intervenes.
Such an assignee simply takes the rights of his assignor,
and holds subject to any defences which the debtor could
urge against his creditor. There is a class of things in
action not subject to this infirmity, such as bills of ex-
change, promissory notes, checks upon banks, and public
securities payable to order or bearer. He who purchases
these in good faith and before maturity, for a valuable con-
sideration, may shut out for the most part the defences
which might have been urged against the payee. Such
paper is termed negotiable. In this way the distinction
between that which is negotiable and that which is assign-
It is a fre-
quent practice on taking an assignment of a claim to obtain
a statement from the debtor that he has no defence to it.
He would then be precluded from setting up any that he
might have on the doctrine of estoppel.
The word “assignment” is also used to indicate the act
of setting apart dower for a widow in the real estate of
her husband. It is also employed in case of bankruptcy
or insolvency, to indicate the act of transfer of a failing
debtor's property to a person called an assignee, who is
substantially a trustee for the benefit of the creditors. A
failing debtor by the laws of some States is permitted to
make a voluntary and even preferential transfer to an as-
signee acting in the same general manner, though such laws
are substantially superseded for the time being when there
is a U. S. bankrupt law in operation. T. W. DWIGHT.
Assi’si [Lat. Assis/ium], a town of Italy, province of
Perugia, is built on a steep hill, 13 miles S. E. of Perugia.
It is surrounded by a wall flanked with towers, and has a
cathedral built in the eleventh century, and many mona S-
teries. It is the native place of Saint Francis, and in its
churches and convents are remarkable paintings by Cima-
bue and Giotto. Here is a large and beautiful Gothic struc-
ture called Convento Sacro, which is adorned with fine
paintings. Among the remains of the ancient Assisium is
a beautiful portico of the temple of Minerva. Pop. 3333.
Assis/tance [from the Lat. ad, “near,” and sisto, to
“stand”], Writ of, a direction by the court of chancery to
the sheriff to put a party in whose favor a decree has been
298
ASSIZE-ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS.
rendered in possession of land to which the decree has de-
clared him to be entitled.
Assize [from the Lat. assideo, to “sit near ”], the name
of an ancient English court; a writ to recover the posses-
sion of a freehold. The word is used in the plural to de-
mote the stated sittings of the judges of the superior courts
in England in the various counties, by virtue of several
commissions, to try civil and criminal cases.
Asso’ciated Press, an association of newspapers in
the U. S. for the collection of news. Its principal centre
is at New York, but there are subordinate centres, as at
Cincinnati, Chicago, and Washington, to which items of
news are transmitted, to be there condensed and distributed
to the various journals. Besides this, there are rival asso-
ciations which perform a similar work. In Europe the
Baron Reuter has almost a monopoly of this kind of busi-
ness, but American journals have always opposed the es-
tablishment of his system on this continent. -
Asso’ciate Pres/bytery, in Scotland, dating from
1733, founded in opposition to aristocratic dictation in the
settlement of ministers. In 1747 a split occurred on the
question of the “Burgess Oath,” resulting in the formation
of the Associate SYNoD and the GENERAL Associate SYNoD.
In 1820 this schism was healed, only a few ministers, be-
longing to the GENERAL ASSOCIATE SYNoD, protesting
against the union. (See UNITED ORIGINAL SECEDERs and
UNITED SECESSION CHURCH.) -
Associatiº REFoRMED SYNoD or NEw York, composed
of two presbyteries which refused to join the UNITED
PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, formed in 1858 by bringing to-
gether the Associate and Associate Reformed churches. In
1860 they reported 16 ministers, 14 churches, and 1631
members; in 1867 they reported only 11 ministers.
ASSOCIATE REFORMED SYNoD of THE SouTH, a small Pres-
byterian body which in 1860 reported 68 ministers, in 1867,
65, and in 1872, 67.
ASSOCIATE SYNOD OF NoFTH AMERICA, like the Associate
Reformed Synod of N. Y., persons who declined the union
of the Associate and Associate Reformed churches in 1858.
In 1860 they reported 11 ministers, 32 churches, and 778
members, chiefly in Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa; in 1867,
they reported 14 ministers, 40 churches, and 1221 members.
Associa/tion [from the Lat. ad, “to,” “together,” and
so’cius, a “companion *], a union of persons; a company;
a society formed for the transaction of some business for
mutual advantage; a company formed for the advancement
of science or literature. - -
Associa’tion, British, the title of an annual reunion
of the most eminent scientific men of Great Britain, who
meet at different places, and report the progress and new
discoveries made in their respective departments of science.
The American Association for the Advancement of Science
was formed in 1847. 2
Association of Ideas (otherwise called Mental
Association, or simply Association, Suggestion,
Connection of Ideas, Train of Thought, Suc-
cession of Thoughts), etc., a principle or law in men-
tal philosophy exercising an important influence upon the
operations of the mind. “When a traveller visits the
ruins of Athens or of Rome, the plain of Pharsalia or of
Marathon, the sight of these places awakens the memory
of the men and of the deeds which have made them glori-
ous.” The names of the great recall their achievements.
A portrait revives similar memories, and calls up emotions
which might have seemed dormant for ever.
“It may be a sound,
A tone of music, summer's eve, or spring, -
A flower, the wind, the ocean, which shall wound,
Striking the electric chain.”—Byron.
These facts rest upon the reciprocal power of thought to
evoke thought. Under this power arises what is called the
association of ideas, but its law is the law of intellectual
gravitation—its sphere is the universe of mind. It is
wider than “ideas,” and extends to all our mental modifi-
cations. Our cognitions, emotions, and active powers, all
come under the law of association. Our feelings, our will-
ings, and our efforts are as completely held in groups by
internal bonds as our ideas are.
Association may connect ideas by a simple link or by a
multitude of links. The idea of the civil war of England
prompts the question, “What is the value of a Roman de-
marius”. There are no two thoughts so remote as to have
no link. Association has, therefore, infinite possibilities.
The laws of association have been variously enumerated.
Some of the most obvious and important are— -
1. Simultaneity and succession, synchronism and chro-
nology. Thus, Caesar. and Pompey, Luther and Leo,
Charles I. and Charles II. ; Aristotle back to Plato, Des
cartes on to Spinoza. -
2. Contiguity and remoteness between ourselves and the
things, or between the things themselves: New York and
Brooklyn, ourselves and our antipodes. We think of Mer-
cury as nearest the sun, and that suggests Neptune as the
farthest off. -
3. Resemblance and contrast to the eye in works of art,
which recall the original to the mind: metaphor; punning
rests on the association of sounds that resemble with things
that differ. Night recalls day, sickness recalls health, war
recalls peace. - *---
4. The logical relations involve association of ideas, though
not all association of ideas is logical : cause and effect,
workmen and work, father and child, the universe and God,
object and means, analogy, premiss and conclusion, part .
and whole. The relations of physical, mechanical, and cos-
mical order are of the same kind, and hence association is
the mother of invention and discovery.
5. The association of the verbal sign with the thing sig-
nified, which is the essence of language and the necessary
preliminary to reasoning. Two or more of these causes may
co-operate in particular cases, or the thing may in one
aspect give rise to one association, in another aspect to
another. Aristotle reduces the principle of association to
three parts: Proximity in time and contiguity in place as
one; resemblance, contrast. Hume says: “There appear to
be only three principles of connection among ideas—namely,
resemblance, contiguity in time or place, and cause or effect.
A picture maturally leads our thoughts to the original (re-
semblance); the mention of one apartment introduces an
inquiry concerning the others (contiguity); we think of a
wound and the pain which follows it (cause and effect).”
Augustine reduces the principle to one: What is once to-
gether is afterwards together. Hobbes says: “The cause
of the coherence or consequence of one conception to an-
other is their first coherence or consequence at that time
when they are produced by sense.” Cardaillac (1830) in
substance repeats Hobbes when he says that simultaneity
is the common condition of all the other connections:
nothing can be linked now that has not been linked before.
FIamilton in the same way reduces the laws to two, simul-
taneity and affinity; and these two laws, he asserts, are
only modifications of one law, redintegration, or totality:
“Those thoughts suggest each other which had previously
constituted parts of the same entire or total act of cog-
nition.” This is ending where Augustine began. Hamil-
ton maintains that a third thought may be associated
with a first through a second which “does not rise into
consciousness,” “suggestions passing through one or
more ideas which do not themselves rise into conscious-
ness.” This false theory in metaphysics he illustrates
by an example drawn from a false theory in physics—to
wit, that billiard-balls in a row, intermediate between the
first one, which is struck, and the last one, which flies off,
remain motionless. Hamilton’s whole position and ar-
gument are marked by the crudity and self-contradiction
which often mar his lectures. The true theory in such
cases is, that the acts of consciousness are too rapid to mark
themselves deeply and distinctly enough in memory to be car-
ried on by it to the end of the process. Reflection usually
with very little difficulty articulates all the parts. When
Hamilton reflectively associated Ben Lomond with the Prus-
sian system of education, he simply did slowly what he had
done before rapidly. The human mind is subtler than light,
far beyond the degree in which light is subtler than lead.
Consciousness is the essential condition of an idea. Memory,
as objectively separated in time from consciousness, is notes-
sential to it. Both can be born together, and both die to-
gether. A precedence in the order of thought must not be
confounded with a precedence objectively in time. Alexander
Bain reduces the primary attributes of intellect to three, of
which the third is retentiveness, the facts connected with
which may, with few exceptions, “be comprehended under
the principle called the law of contiguity or contiguous adhe-
sion. The principle of contiguity has been described under
various names—as Hamilton’s law of ‘redintegration,’ the
‘association of ideas.” The principle may be stated thus:
Actions, sensations, and states of feeling, occurring to-
gether or in close succession, tend to grow together or cohere
in such a way that when any one of them is afterwards
presented to the mind, the others are apt to be brought up
in idea.” Bain further discusses agreement, law of simi-
larity, compound association, constructive association.
Not all ideas once integrant are necessarily redintegrated.
The strength of the impression which they originally made,
their duration in fellowship, the time which has elapsed
since we had them, the cogency of their connection, are all
determining forces. But in advance of all this the tendencies
of the law of association in the particular individual are
determined by the native constitution of his mind and by
the circumstances of his whole training, mental and moral.
These tendencies carried out make the poet or the math-
ASSONET-ASSYRIA.
299
ematician, the sensualist or the Sage. An illegitimate asso-
ciation of ideas may mara whole life, may work out crime
and ruin. One and the same thing may be to two persons
a deadly or a reviving savor. The same flag calls forth the
fiercest assaults and the most vigorous defence. The same
strain of music awakens joy, sadness, hope, or despair. The
poem of Wordsworth on the “Power of Sound” is but an
exquisite painting of one class of illustrations of the power
of association. There are national tendencies under this
law as well as individual. Governments and societies are
built for ages on the ideas associated with a single central
idea embodied in a word. It is the association of ideas
which makes the mightiest and holiest bond of our life—the
tie of the home, the native land, the Christian communion.
It makes the heart of the Swiss sicken and die for the little
rocky mountain-nook which is associated with the “Ranz-
des-Vaches.” The principle of the association of ideas is
therefore not only of profound interest in psychology, but
has great importance in morals. Like every power of man,
it comes under the law of moral responsibility. Associ-
ation is in certain respects involuntary, and habit can in
any case carry it beyond the proper control of the will.
But the will can largely determine what shall be the orig-
inal links of association, and bear an important part in
determining whether we shall follow up or repress a par-
ticular class of associated ideas.
fame or ludicrous idea with a sacred name or fact may make
that name or fact through a whole lifetime the means of re-
calling blasphemy or mockery. -
The attempts to account for the association of ideas are
of course affected by the general features of the different
systems. The effort to give them in whole or in part an
organic mechanical relation has been made by Descartes,
Hartley, Bonnet, and a number of later writers, who
relate them to brain-fibre and the nerve. Locke says:
“They seem to be but traces of motion in the animal
spirit.” Kant (“Anthropologie”) truly says: “It is in vain
to look for a physiologic solution of them.” This wonderful
power of the human mind is part of the perfection which it
owes to the Great Being who is its author. The thinker who
makes ideas and their associations physical things, is as ex-
travagant as the idealist who converts the solid earth into
a mere relation between the mind that thinks of itself and
the mind itself thus thought of. The materialist and the
absolute idealist are the antipodes of the one world of ex-
travagance in thought. The later psychologists, Herbart,
Benecke, and others, have made clearer the twofold cha-
racter in the association of ideas: First, where the asso-
ciated elements are homogeneous, and produce what Herbart
calls perfect fusion; second, where the elements are hetero-
geneous, and result in complication or imperfect fusion.
This distinction is regarded as of great value for the entire
soul-life, but especially with reference to the points at which
the approaches of soul to the physiological processes are
closest. -
A well-regulated association of ideas on our own part, and
a delicate perception of what is likely to be the association
in the minds of others with particular words or things, are
essential to the charm of conversation and of social inter-
course. Without both of these a good and intelligent man
may be a bore and a nuisance. One of the characteristic
differences between logic and wit is, that logic keeps the asso-
ciation of ideas under the control of reason, while wit uses
it for combinations which triumph over reason and carry
it away a delighted captive. The active imagination is the
result of this force of the association of ideas. The im-
agination no more creates its own primary elements than
the painter creates the matter of his colors or his canvas.
The imagination selects and combines what the law of as-
sociation furnishes. Its most daring so-called “creations”
are capable of an easy analysis, which shows that they are
shaped under this law. The memory is largely dependent
upon association. (See MEMORY and MNEMOTECHNICs.) Wa-
rious uses have been made of the principle of association
in philosophy. Hume employs it to explain the idea of cau-
sality; Reid and others to account for the force of habit.
But though the association of ideas can become the subject
of culture, it is, as we have seem, primary and innate.
The association of ideas has been observed by thinkers
from an early period. Aristotle speaks of it in his “Treatise
of Reminiscence” very briefly, but in a manner worthy of
his wonderful acuteness. It is to Locke, however, in the
latest edition of his “ Human Understanding,” we owe the
first discussion of the subject with a fulness at all commen-
surate with its importance; and no system worthy of the
name, since Locke, has failed to devote a large space
to it. C. P. KRAUTH.
As’sonet, a village of Freetown township, Bristol co.,
Mass., on a branch of the Old Colony and Newport R. R.,
10 miles N. E. of Fall River.
Assolant (JEAN BAPTISTE ALFRED), a French author,
The association of a pro- |
born in 1827, who commenced active life as a teacher of
history in Poitiers. He travelled over the American conti-
ment. Returning to France, he published in the “Revue
des Deux Mondes” several novels founded upon his Ameri-
can adventures, and published later various romances. His
best known works are “Butterfly,” “Acacia,” and “Une
Fantaisie Americaine.” He has been also a very popular
journalistic writer.
Assoucy, d” (CHARLEs CoyPEAU), a French burlesque
poet, born in 1604, who styled himself “The emperor of
burlesque,” and who was called by others “Scarron's ape.”
He wrote many humorous poems, among them “Ovide en
belle Humeur” and “Ravissement de Proserpine,” in which
the humor was dull, and their author provoked the satire
of Boileau, who wrote of him
“Le plus mauvais plaisants ent des approbateurs
Et jusq’ a d’ASSoucy, tout trouva des lecteurs.”
T)ied in 1679. -
Assump'sit [Lat. “he has undertaken”], an agreement
not under seal, either express or implied; a common-law
action to obtain damages for the violation of such an agree-
ment. It is usually divided into common or indebitatus as-
Sumpsit, brought in general upon an implied promise; and
special assumpsit, which is founded on an express promise.
Assumption, a parish in the S. E. of Louisiana, area
320 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by Grand
River, and intersected by the navigable bayou La Fourche.
The surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile and adapted
to the sugar-cane. Sugar, molasses, rice, and corn are the
chief crops. Capital, Assumption. Pop. 13,234.
Assumption [Sp. Asuncion], a city of South America,
the capital of Paraguay, is situated on the left (E.) bank
of the river Paraguay, 645 miles N. of Buenos Ayres; lat.
25° 16'29" S., lon. 57°42'42" W. It was founded by the
Spaniards in 1536. It has a cathedral, five churches, a
government palace, a college, a public library, etc. Hides,
tobacco, timber, and yerba maté (or Paraguay tea) are
shipped here by the river. The houses are mostly built
of brick, one story high. Pop. about 48,000.
Assumption, a post-village and township of Christian
Čo., Ill., on the Illinois Central R. R., 23 miles S. of De-
catur. It has a weekly paper, two flouring-mills, and a
number of stores. Pop. 590; of township, 1246.
John P. MARNEL, PUB. “Assumſ PTION PRESS.”
Assumption, a post-village, the capital of Assumption
parish, La., 40 miles S. of Baton Rouge.
Assump/tion of the Vir’gin, a festival of the Greek
and Roman churches in commemoration of the resurrec-
tion and miraculous ascent of the Virgin Mary to heaven.
It is held on the 15th of August. Protestant Christians
unanimously reject the tradition of these events. The full
tradition of the Assumption is given in Saint Alphonso
Liguori’s “Glory of Mary.”
Assumption of Mio'ses, a pseudepigraphical or
apocryphal book containing a pretended account of the
death of Moses and of the assumption of his soul to heaven.
Some suppose that Saint Júde alludes, in his reference to
the contest between the archangel Michael and the devil, to
the statements made in this book; but it is not certain that
it existed in apostolic times.
Asswam, as-Swān', Assouan, or Essuan (anc. Sye'-
ne), a town of Upper Egypt, on the right bank of the Nile,
near the border of Nubia, 115 miles S. of Thebes; lat. 24° 5'
N., lon. 33° E. It is two and a half miles below the First Cata-
ract, and is remarkable for its picturesque situation and an-
cient monuments. Here are quarries of syenite, a variety
of granite which derives its name from Syene. From these
quarries came the red obelisks that adorned various temples
of Egypt. Here are also ruins of a large Saracen or Ara-
bian town, among which are found many Cufic inscriptions.
Here, according to some authorities, the poet Juvenal died
in exile about 125 A. D., but others deny the truth of the
statement. Pop. 4000. \
As’sye, or As'saye, a village of the Nizam’s domin-
ions, in Hindostan, 24 miles N. of Jaulna, was the scene
of the duke of Wellington’s first great victory. On the 23d
of Sept., 1803, with a force of 2000 British and 2500 natives,
he utterly defeated the Mahrattas, numbering from 30,000
to 50,000 men, partly officered by the French. Wellington,
then Gen. Wellesley, captured 98 cannon, and lost 1560
killed and wounded. - - -
Assyr’ia [Gr. Agavpia], the Latin name of an ancient
and powerful kingdom (called also Asshur and Assura)
of Western Asia, was bounded on the N. by Armenia, on
the E. by Media, on the S. by Babylonia, and on the W.
by Mesopotamia, or the river Euphrates. Assyria proper
appears to have coincided very nearly with the mod-
ern Kurdistan, but the dominions of the most powerful
300 2. ASSYRIA.
Assyrian monarchs had a much greater extent. According
to George Rawlinson, “The site of the second or great
Assyrian monarchy was the upper portion of the Mesopo-
tamian valley. The cities which successively formed its
capitals lay, all of them, upon the middle Tigris, and the
heart of the country was a district on either side of that
river enclosed between the 35th and 37th parallels of lat-
itude. By degrees these limits were enlarged, and the term
Assyria came to be used in a loose and vague way of a vast
and ill-defined tract extending on all sides from this cen-
tral region.” The high mountain-chain of Zagros formed
the natural eastern boundary of this region, which was also
bounded on the N. by a snowy mountain-range called Mons
Niphates. The surface was mostly a plain diversified with
several ridges or ranges of limestone hills. . The soil of the
plains and valleys was exceedingly productive, so that the
fertility of Assyria, was a favorite theme of ancient writers.
It is probable that this fertility was promoted by artificial
irrigation, for Herodotus states that but little rain fell in
Assyria. The country on the eastern side of the Tigris was
well watered by rivers—namely, the Greater Zab, the
Adhem, the Lesser Zab, and the Dialus or Diyāleh. The
word Assyria is probably derived from Asshur (or Ashur),
which was the name of a son of Shem and of the chief god
worshipped by the Assyrians.
History.—The early history of Assyria is involved in
obscurity. According to the book of Genesis (chap. x.),
Nineveh, the capital of this kingdom, was founded by Nim-
rod, the son of Cush, or by Asshur, a son of Shem. This
ambiguity arises from the fact that in the Hebrew text
Asshur means sometimes Assyria, and sometimes a son of
Shem. The cuneiform inscriptions indicate that the most
ancient capital was the city of Asshur, on the Tigris, about
60 miles S. of Nineveh. The Assyrians belonged to the
Semitic family of nations. Their features, sculptured on
monuments recently discovered along the Tigris, present a
striking resemblance to those of the Jews and Arabs. They
were remarkably warlike, and, according to the prophet
Isaiah, were “a fierce people.” Their pride, treachery, and
violence are also denounced by several Hebrew prophets.
In relation to the history and chronology of Assyria, we
have only three original authorities—Herodotus, Ctesias,
and Berosus. According to Herodotus, who is confirmed
to some extent by Berosus, the empire commenced about
1270 B. C., and endured about 650 years, but Ctesias gives
it a duration of more than 1300 years. “The cuneiform
monuments,” says George Rawlinson, “while they generally
confirm Herodotus, contradict Ctesias perpetually.” It is
probable that several kings reigned over Assyria, before the
empire was founded, as an empire implies the previous
and gradual growth of a nation. Among the early kings
whose names are found on bricks at Kileh-Sherghat is Bel-
Iush, who is supposed to have reigned about 1350–1330 B.C.
His great-grandson, Shalmaneser I. (1290–70), is chiefly
known in history as the founder of Calah, the second cap-
ital of Assyria. He was succeeded about 1270 B. C. by his
son, Tiglathi-nin, called the conqueror of Babylon, who is
the first king of whom extensive conquests are recorded.
Passing over several kings of whom nothing is known but
their names, we come to Tiglath-pileser I., a powerful
monarch who reigned about 1150. His conquests are re-
corded on a terra-cotta cylinder which is now in the British
Museum, and is perhaps the earliest Assyrian historical
document that has been discovered. In his reign Assyria
was probably the most powerful kingdom in the world,
except Egypt. Among the other Assyrian conquerors was
Asshur-damni-pal (the Sardanapa'lus I. of the Greeks), who,
according to Rawlinson, began to reign in 884 B. C., and
extended the boundaries of Assyria by conquests. He
compelled Tyre and Sidon to pay tribute to him, and
reigned about twenty-five years, during which Assyria,
made rapid progress in wealth and art. He excelled all
his predecessors in the grandeur of his public buildings,
and erected a great palace at Calah (Nimrood), which is the
most magnificent Assyrian edifice that has been discovered,
except the palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh. This palace
of Asshur-damni-pal, which was 360 feet long, was adorned
with sculptures, many of which are now in the British
Museum. He was succeeded by his son, Shalmaneser II.,
who defeated Ben-hadad, king of Damascus, and his suc-
cessor, Hazael. The events of his long reign are recorded
on an obelisk of black basalt (about seven feet high) which
was discovered by Mr. Layard at Nimrood in excellent
preservation. The statement of Ctesias, that Ninus founded
the Assyrian empire, and that his wife Semiramis con-
quered Ethiopia and invaded India, is generally consid-
ered fabulous, but among the Assyrian monuments occurs
the name of Sammuramit, the wife of Iva-lush (810–781
B. C.). Recent explorers of history have substituted this
Sammuramit, “a very prosaic and commonplace prin-
cess,” for the famous and heroic Semiramis of the Greek
legends, which appear to have had a very slight basis of
fact. -
The second book of Kings states that Pul, king of As-
syria, invaded Palestine, and received tribute from Mena-
hem, king of Israel, about 750 B. C., but the name of Pul
does not occur in the native inscription. The Hebrew
sacred history also mentions Tiglath-pileser II., who began
to reign about 745 B.C., and waged war with success against
the kings of Syria, Israel, and Tyre (2 Kings xv. 29). By his
victories over these and other nations he re-established the
power of Assyria in the region between the desert and the
Mediterranean. He was succeeded by Shalmaneser, who
subdued Hoshea, king of Israel, and reigned about six
years. The next king was Sargon, who usurped the throne
about 721 B. C., and was victorious in expeditions against
many nations or tribes. He defeated the army of Egypt,
and dethroned Merodach-baladan, king of Babylon, which
he annexed to his own empire. He was succeeded about
704 B. C. by his son, Sennacherib, who was the most cele-
brated of all the Assyrian kings, and was distinguished for
his pride, ambition, and warlike enterprise. His long reign
was signalized by many victorious expeditions. He de-
feated the Egyptians near Ekron, subdued the Philistines,
and invaded the dominions of Hezekiah, king of Judah,
from whom he took many fenced cities, and carried away
about 200,000 Jews into captivity. Having forced Heze-
kiah to pay tribute to him, he returned to Nineveh, his cap-
ital, where he built a magnificent palace, which surpassed
in size and splendor all earlier edifices, and was adorned
with excellent sculptures. This palace was partly exhumed
by Mr. Layard, who excavated on its ground floor sixty-
eight chambers, and a hall 180 feet long. In a second ex-
pedition against the king of Judah and his ally, the king
of Egypt, he failed disastrously (see 2 Kings xviii. and xix.),
his army being destroyed by a miracle in the night at Pelu-
sium. “The total destruction of the empire in consequence
of this blow,” says Rawlinson, “is an exaggeration of Jose-
phus. Sennacherib did not die till 680 B.C., seventeen
years after his misfortune. . . . He wisely turned his sword
against other enemies, and was rewarded by important suc-
cesses upon all his other frontiers.” Sennacherib was assas-
sinated by two of his sons, and was succeeded by another
son, Esar–haddon, who reigned thirteen years, and held his
court alternately at Nineveh and Babylon. Among his ex-
ploits was the conquest of Egypt. He died about 667 B.C.,
and left the throne to his son, Asshur-bani-pal (or Sardan-
apalus), who was eminent as a warrior, builder, and patron
of art. He extended the limits of the empire in almost
every direction, and built a grand palace at Nineveh
(Koyunjik). This palace was remarkable for the beauty
of the bas-reliefs and other ornaments. The sculptures of
this reign are much superior to the earlier in spirit and
freedom from conventionality. The empire declined rap-
idly after the death of Asshur-bani-pal, who was succeeded
by his son, Saracus, a weak and effeminate prince. In his
reign occurred a great inroad of Scythians, who ravaged
Assyria, and other civilized countries, about 630 B.C. Soon
after this event, Cyaxares the Mede formed a league with
Nabopolassar, governor of Babylon, against Saracus. These
allies took and destroyed Nineveh in 625 (or, as some say,
606 B.C.), and Assyria, then became a province of Media.
Language and Religion.—From the mounds of Mesopo-
tamia, have been exhumed a large mass and variety of docu-
ments in the Assyrian language, in cuneiform characters.
These documents confirm the previous opinion of the learned
that the language was Semitic. They were inscribed on
slabs of stone, with which the walls of palaces were panel-
led, on obelisks of stone, on clay tablets, and on cylinders
(or, more strictly, hexagonal prisms) of fine terra-cotta, two
or three feet long, which the Assyrian kings deposited at
the corners of temples. These so-called cylinders were
covered closely with small inscriptions, which, says. G.
Rawlinson, “it often requires a good magnifying-glass to
decipher.” The materials which they used most extensively
for records and literary documents were stone and plastic
clay, the latter of which, being afterwards baked, has re-
sisted the ravages of time as well as stone. The number
of characters was very great—about 300, all wedge-shaped,
but with a great variety in the form of the wedge. ... (See
CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONs.) “The Assyrian characters,” says
George Rawlinson, “correspond not to letters, according to
our notion of letters, but to syllables.” A grammar of the
Assyrian language has been published by Ménant, and a
dictionary by Norris (London, 1869). -
The religion of the Assyrians was a gross polytheism,
and nearly identical with that of the Chaldeans or Baby-
lonians. The principal objects of their worship were AS-
shur, Anu, Bel, Iva, Beltis, Nisroch, Nebo, Nin, Shamas,
and Sin. At the head of the Assyrian Pantheon stood As-
shur, a thoroughly national deity, whom they styled the
“Great Lord,” the “King of all the Gods.” The tutelage


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ASTEROLEPIS-ASTON.
303
No Name Date of Discovery. Discoverer.
41 |Daphne............ May 22............... Goldschmidt.
42 |Isis .................. May 23............. ... Pogson.
43 |Ariadne............|1857, April 15............. Pogson.
44 Nysa................ May 27........ tº e º e º 'º a Goldschmidt.
45 |Eugenia June 27.............. Goldschmidt.
46 |Hestia. August 16......... ..|Pogson.
47 |Aglaia............... September 15...... Luther.
48 |Doris................ September 19...... Goldschmidt.
49 Pales................ September 19...... Goldschmidt.
50 |Virginia........... October 4............ Ferguson, U. S.
51 ||Nemausa.......... 1858, January 22........ Laurent. N
52 |Europa............. February 6......... Goldschmidt.
53 |Calypso............ April 4............... Luther.
54 Alexandra........ September 10...... Goldschmidt.
55 |Pandora............ September 10...... Searle, U. S.
56 |Melete....... e tº e º a s 1857, September 9....... iGoldschmidt.
57 Mnemosyne...... 1859, September 22...... Luther.
58 |Concordia......... 1860, March 24............ Luther.
59 |Elpis................ September 12...... Chacornac.
60 |Erato............... September 14...... Forster & Lesser.
61 |Echo................ September 15...... Ferguson, U. S.
62 |Danaë............... September 19 ..... Goldschmidt.
63 |Ausonia............ 1861, February 10....... De Gasparis.
64 ||Angelina.......... March 4............. Tempel.
65 |Cybele.............. March 8............. Tempel.
66 |Maia................. April 9............... Tuttle, U. S.
67 Asia................. April 17............. Pogson.
68 |Leto................. April 29............. Luther.
69 |Hesperia........... April 29............. Schiaparelli.
70 |Panopea........... May 5................ Goldschmidt.
71 |Niobe............... August 13...........|Luther.
72 |Feronia............ May 29............... Peters, U. S.
78 Clytie............... 1862, April 7............... Tuttle, U. S.
74 |Galatea............ August 29........... Tempel.
75 |Eurydice.......... September 22...... Peters, U. S.
76 |Freia................ October 21..........|D'Arrest.
77 |Frigga.............. November 12...... Peters, U. S.
78 |Diana......... * - - - - - 1863, March 15............|Luther.
79 |Eurynome........ September 14...... Watson, U. S.
80 Sappho............. 1864, May 2................ Pogson.
81 Terpsichore...... September 30...... Tempel.
82 |Alcmene........... November 27...... Luther.
83 |Beatrix............ 1865, April, 26............. De Gasparis:
84 Clio.................. August 25........... Luther.
& To..................... September 19...... Peters, U. S.
86 |Semele.............. 1866, January 4..........|Tietjen.
87 Sylvia tº º May 16............... Pogson.
88 |Thisbe.............. June 15.............. Peters, U. S.
89 |Julia................ August 6............ Stéphan.
90 |Antiope............ October 1............ Luther.
91 |AEgina............. November 4........ Borelly.
92 |Undina............ 1867, July 7................ Peters, U. S.
93 |Minerva........... August 24...........|Watson, U. S.
94 Aurora............. September 6....... Watson, U. S.
95 |Arethusa.......... November 23...... Luther.
98 |AEgle................ 1868, February 17....... Coggia.
97 |Clotho....... tº w = * * * * February 17....... Tempel.
98 |Ianthe.............. April 18.............. Peters, U. S.
99 |Dike................. May 29............... Borelly.
100 | Hecate............. July 11............... Watson, U. S.
101 |Helene............. August 15...........|Watson, U. S.
102 |Miriam............ August 23........... Peters, U. S.
103 |Hera................ September 7....... Watson, U. S.
194 |Clymene........... September 13...... Watson, U. S.
105 |Artemis........ September 16...... Watson, U. S.
106 |Dione............... October 10.......... [Watson, U. S.
107 |Camilla............ November 19...... Pogson.
108 |Hecuba............. 1869, April 2............... Luther.
109 ||Felicitas........... October 9............ Peters, U. S.
!!9 |Lydia............... 1870, April 19............. Borelly.
111 |Ate................... August 14........... Peters, U. S.
!!? Iphigenia......... September 19...... Peters, U. S.
|18 |Amalthaea.........|1871, March 12............|Luther.
114 |Cassandra ........ July 24............... Peters, U. S.
!!? Thyra............... August 6............|Watson, U. S.
116 Sirona.............. September 8....... Peters, U. S.
117 |Lomia.............. September 11...... Borelly.
118 Peitho.............. 1872, March 15............ Luther.
119 |Althaea............. April 3............... Watson, U. S.
120 Lachesis........... April 10.............. Borelly.
121 Hermione......... May 12............... Watson, U. S.
122 Girda................ July 31............... Peters, U. S.
123 |Brunhilda......... July 31............... Peters, U. S.
124 |Alceste............. August 23...........|Peters, U. S.
125 *............. September 11...... Prosper-Henry.
#3; *............. November 5........ Paul Henry.
127 *............. November 5........ Prosper-Henry.
128 Nemesis............ November 25...... Watson, U. S.
}} |Antigone.......... 1873, February 5.........|Peters, U. S.
$30 |Electra............. February 17....... Peters, U. S.
131 |Vala................. ay 25............... Peters, U. S.
132 |Aethra............ § June 12.............. Watson, U. S.
133 Cyrene............. August 16........... Watson, U. S.
134 Sophrosyne...... September 27...... Luther.
135 —”............. 1874, February 18....... Peters, U. S.
A new planet was also discovered by Watson July 29, 1873,
but subsequent observations were preventéd by cloudy
weather, and it has not therefore been included in the list.
The most remarkable characteristic of the asteroids be-
sides their smallness is the relatively wide range of eccen-
tricity and inclination among their orbits; so that in this
last respect they may be said to be intermediate between
* These asteroids have not yet been named.
place of the poet Alfieri.
the planets and comets. Their distances vary between two
hundred and more than three hundred millions of miles.
The eccentricity of Polyhymnia is no less than .339119, so
that its greatest distance is more than twice its least. The
inclination of Pallas is 34° 43', so that the excursions of
this planet above and below the ecliptic exceed, when taken
together, the mean distance of the planet from the Sun.
Leverrier has shown, by means of calculations founded on
the secular motion of the perihelion of Mars, that the com-
bined mass of all the asteroids (discovered and undiscov-
ered) cannot greatly, if at all, exceed one-fourth of the
mass of our earth, and in all probability is much less than
this. REVISED BY J. C. WATSON.
Asterol/epis [from the Gr. &grip, a “star,” and Aetris,
a “scale,” alluding to the marks on the dermal plates of
the head], a genus of fossil ganoid fishes, described by
Hugh Miller, from the Scotch old red sandstone. It is be-
lieved to have sometimes attained a length of twenty feet.
Asthma, az’ma [Gr. 30.9Ma, a “gasping for breath ºl,
a term somewhat vaguely used to designate diseases cha-
racterized by difficulty of breathing, occurring in parox-
ysms; thus, spasm of the glottis is sometimes called “thymic
asthma, ;” autumnal catarrh is known as “hay asthma, ;”
the dyspnoea (difficult breathing) of Bright's disease has
been, with questionable propriety, called “uraemic asthma;”
and similar symptoms arising from heart or lung disease
have also been mistaken for true asthma, which, however,
may be associated with these various diseases. True asthma,
according to Niemeyer, includes only those cases where the
point of the irritation producing the attack is either at the
origin of the vagus nerve or in some remote part of its
course. This does not exclude cases of reflex asthma, such;
for example, as may occur in uterine disease. Others state
that irritability and hyperaemia of the bronchial mucous
membrane are essential elements of the disease; and the
readiness with which powdered ipecac., the exhalations
from feathers, etc., will excite paroxysms, would appear to
confirm this view. It is rare to find structural changes of
any organ in cases of simple asthma. The trained diag-
nostician alone can discriminate between asthma and dys–
pnoea from other chest diseases. True or nervous asthma.
consists in a paroxysmal spasm of longer or shorter dura-
tion, attacking the muscular elements of the bronchial tubes,
diminishing temporarily their calibre, and thereby ob-
structing respiration. Notwithstanding the great distress
which may accompany the attack, the immediate danger is
not great. The smoking of saltpetre-paper or of stramo-
nium-leaves, the administration of opiates, coffee, bella-
donna, conium, cannabis, chloral, vapor of chloroform, etc.,
may or may not relieve the paroxysm. . Iodide of potassium
benefits many cases, permanently or temporarily. Quinia,
Fowler’s solution, iron, and other tonics are often useful.
A nutritious diet, with careful regulation of the bowels, is
important. The compressed air-bath is recommended as
affording great relief during the paroxysm.
Asſti (anc. As/ta Pompe/ia), a city of Italy, in the prov-
ince of Alessandria, is on the river Tanaro, and on the
Turin and Genoa, Railway, 36 miles by rail E. S. E. of
Turin. It is a bishop's see, has a fine Gothic cathedral, a
royal college, a theological seminary, a printing-office es-
tablished in 1479, and many elegant mansions. Here are
several manufactories of silk stuffs. This is the native
Asta Pompeia was a town of
great antiquity. In the Middle Ages it was the capital
of a republic, which existed from 1098 to 1155. Its light
white and sparkling wine is in very great demand. Pop.
in 1871, 31,033.
Astig’matism [from the Gr. a, priv., and ariyua, a
“mark” or “spot”] is the term applied to a peculiar de-
fect in the eye which consists in its refracting the rays of
light differently in different planes. The defect may be de-
tected by looking at a small pinhole in a card held up
against any bright object, and moved to different distances
from the eye. To an ordinary eye the image of the hole
remains circular at all distances, but to an eye having the
peculiar defect in question the image of the hole, as the
card is moved away from the eye, becomes elongated, and
at a certain distance passes into a straight line. This im-
perfection may be corrected by means of a cylindrical or
spherico-cylindrical lens. -
Astoi/phus, or Astulºphus [Fr. Astolphe; Ger. Ais/-
tulf], king of the Lombards, obtained the throne in 749 or
750 A.D. Having seized Ravenna about 752, he threatened
Rome. The pope then applied for help to Pepin, king of
the Franks, who defeated Astolphus in 754, and forced him
to cede Ravenna and the Pentapolis to the pope. This is
said to have been the origin of the temporal power of the
popes. Died in 756 A. D.
As/ton, a township of Delaware co., Pa. Pop. 1845.
304
ASTOR.—ASTROLOGY.
As/tor (John JACOB), born at Waldorf, near Heidelberg,
in Germany, July 17, 1763, emigrated to the U. S. in 1783,
and invested his capital in furs, which he took to London
and sold with much profit. He next settled at New York,
and engaged extensively in the fur-trade. He exported furs
to Europe in his own vessels, which returned with cargoes
of foreign commodities, and thus rapidly amassed a fortune.
In 1811 he founded Astoria on the western coast of North
America, near the mouth of the Columbia, as a dépôt for
the fur-trade, for the promotion of which he sent two exper
ditions to the Pacific Ocean. He was remarkable for his
sagacity and diligence in business. He purchased in New
York a large amount of real estate, the value of which in-
creased enormously. At his death (Mar. 29, 1848) his for-
tune was estimated at $20,000,000. He left $400,000 to
found a public library in New York. (See AstoR LIBRARY.)
Astor/ga, d” (EMANUELE), BARON, an eminent musical
composer, born in Sicily Dec. 11, 1681. He passed some
years at the court of the emperor Leopold I., by whom he
was patronized. After the death of Leopold (1705) he
travelled in many countries of Europe. His chief work is
a “Stabat Mater,” which is much admired. He also pro-
duced “Daphne,” an opera, and cantatas, one of which is
called “Quando Penso.” Died Aug. 21, 1736.
Astoria, a post-village and township of Fulton co., Ill.,
on the Rockford Rock Island and St. Louis R. R., 50 miles
N. W. of Springfield. Pop. 2118.
Astoria, a post-village of Queens co., N. Y., on the
East River, opposite New York City, now a part of LoNG
ISLAND CITY (which see). Pop. 5204.
Astoria, a post-village and port of entry, capital of
Clatsop co., Or., on the S. bank of the Columbia River, 9
miles from its mouth. It was once an important dépôt of
the fur-trade, having been founded by John Jacob Astor in
1811. Pop. 639. -
º
Astor Hibrary, of New York City, one of the largest
in the U. S., was founded by John Jacob Astor, who be-
queathed $400,000 for that purpose. His will directed that
the government of the library should be vested in eleven
trustees—namely, Washington Irving, William B. Astor,
Daniel Lord, Jr., James G. King, Joseph G. Cogswell,
Fitz-Greene Halleck, Henry Brevoort, Jr., Samuel B. Rug-
gles, Samuel Ward, Jr., the mayor of New York, and the
chancellor of the State. The library, erected on La Fay-
ette place, was opened in 1854, before which J. G. Cogswell
had been appointed superintendent. William B. Astor, a
son of the founder, added to his father's bequest a sum
nearly equal. The library has about 150,000 volumes.
Astrābād’, or Asterābād, a town in the northern
part of Persia, capital of a province of its own name, is
on a small river which enters the south-eastern part of the
Caspian Sea, from which it is about 20 miles distant. It is
near the N. foot of the Elbrooz Mountains. . The situation
is unhealthy in summer, but the appearance of it is ren-
dered attractive by extensive gardens. The greater part
of the town is in ruins. Here are some manufactures of
silk and cotton stuffs. Pop. estimated at 10,000.
Astracham. See ASTRAKHAN.
Astrae'a [Gr. 'Aarpatal, goddess of justice, a person-
age of classic mythology, was said to be a daughter of
Jupiter and Themis. At the termination of the Golden
Age, when violence began to prevail in the world, she as-
cended to heaven, being the last of the goddesses to leave
the earth.-Astraea is also the name of an asteroid discov-
ered by Hencke in 1845. Its mean distance from the sun
is 2.577 times that of the earth. It completes a revolution
in 1511 days.
Astraea; a genus of radiated animals of the class Poly-
pes, order Madrepora-
ria. They live in the
sea, and form calcare-
ous skeletons (star-cor-
als), which are charac-
terized by sessile, star-
shaped, lamellate cells,
crowded on the upper
surface. The polyps
are often an inch in di-
ameter. They form
large, hemispherical
masses of coral.
As/tragal [Lat. a6-
trag'alus; Gr. &otpáya-
Aos], a convex mould-
ing, which was first in-
troduced at the base of
the capital of the Ionic order, and has since been applied
in other positions. It is also called a collarino.
As/tragalus, in anatomy, the first or uppermost bone
of the tarsus, which forms with the leg-bones the hinge of
the ankle-joint. Its lower surface is concave, and rests on
the os calcis, or heel-bone, with which it is connected by a
strong ligament.
Astrag'alus, a genus of herbaceous and shrubby plants
of the natural order Leguminosae, sub-order Papilionaceae.
The leaves are pinnate, with an odd leaflet, and the pod is
two-celled. It comprises numerous species, mostly natives
of the temperate and cold parts of the eastern hemisphere.
Several species of Astragalus growing in Persia and Asia
Minor yield gum-tragacanth. The Astragalus Boeticus is
cultivated in Hungary and Germany for its seeds, which
are used as a substitute for coffee. Numerous species of
Astragalus are found in the U. S., especially westward.
Astrakhan’, a government in the south-eastern part
of European Russia, is bounded on the N. by Samara, on
the E. by Orenburg and the Caspian Sea, on the S. by Cau-
casia, and on the W. by the country of the Don Cossacks
and Saratov. It is intersected by the Wolga, which divides
it into two nearly equal parts. Area, 85,012 Square miles.
The surface is nearly level, and the soil mostly sterile and
saline. A large part of it is occupied by salt marshes and
saline lakes. The fisheries of the Volga in this govern-
ment are very valuable, many Sturgeon being caught in it.
Pop. in 1867, 573,954. -
Astrakhan, or Astrachan, a city of Russia, capital
of the above government, is situated on an island of the
river Volga, 40 miles from its entrance into the Caspian
Sea. It has crooked and dirty streets, and houses mostly
built of wood. It contains a cathedral, about thirty-five
churches, fifteen mosques, an archiepiscopal palace, a bo-
tanic garden, an Indian temple, and a gymnasium. Im-
mense quantities of fish are exported hence. The other
articles of export are leather, furs, linen, and woollen
goods. This place is the seat of Greek and Armenian
archbishoprics. It has an extensive trade, and manufac-
tures of silk and cotton. Steamboats ply between this place .
and the ports of the Caspian Sea. Pop. in 1867, 47,839.
As/tralite, a variety of glass resembling aventurine,
containing crystals of a cuprous compound, which exhibits
a dichroitic iridescence of dark-red and greenish-blue. It
is made by fusing and cooling slowly a mixture of 80 parts
of silica, 120 of litharge, 72 of carbonate of soda, 18 of
borax glass, 24 of scale oxide of copper, and 1 of scale
oxide of iron.
As’tral Spir’its, spirits which the ancient Persians
and other Orientals supposed to animate the stars. This
opinion or superstition was adopted by some of the Greeks
and Jews. The demonologists of the Middle Ages con-
ceived them as fallen angels or souls of departed men.
Astrin'gent [Lat. astrin/gens, active part of astrin/go,
to “bind,” to “contract”], an agent which produces a per-
sistent contraction in organic tissues, and thus checks dis-
charges from the body, such as excessive purging or diar-
rhoea and haemorrhages. Astringents are of two classes,
vegetable and mineral. Of the former, tannic and gallic
acids are the prevailing active principles; and these may
be obtained and used in the pure state. The most common
vegetable astringents are galls, oak-bark, logwood, black-
berry root, rhatany, catechu, and kino. Of mineral astrin-
gents, the most important are acetate of lead, sulphate and
chloride of iron, nitrate of silver, alum, carbonate of lime,
and the mineral acids, sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric.
Astroca'ryum, a genus of palms, comprises about six-
teen known species, natives of tropical America, and re-
markable for the sharp spines with which the stem and
almost every part is armed. They have pinnated leaves.
The murumuru palm (Astrocaryum Murumuru), a small tree
about ten feet high, grows on the Amazon, and bears a fruit
about one inch long, which is esculent and highly esteemed.
Another edible fruit is produced by the tucuma palm (48-
trocaryum Tucuma), which grows near the Amazon to the
height of thirty to forty feet. The Astroca'ryum vulga're,
called tucum palm, is more lofty than the tree last noticed.
It is cultivated by the natives, who obtain from the epider-
mis of its unopened leaves a fine and strong fibre of which
they make cordage, nets, etc.
As/trolabe [Gr. 30 rpóAaBos, from Šarpov, a “star,” and
Aap.gévo, to “take ’, a name given by the Greeks to a cir-
cular instrument used to make astronomical observations,
which is now superseded by better instruments. The an-
cient astrolabe &onsisted of two or more circles having a
common Centre, and so inclined to each other as to enable
the astronomer to observe in the planes of different circles
of the sphere at the same time.
Astrol’ogy [from the Gr. &arpov, a “ star,” and Aóyos, a
“ discourse,” also “science”], literally, the ‘; Science of the
stars.” This term was originally synonymous with astron-
omy, but was subsequently applied to a spurious Science

ASTRONOMY.
305
which professed to explain the events of human life by the
influence of the stars or planets. Astrology, which is a
very ancient form of superstition, may be defined as the
study of horoscopes, and an attempt to predict the fortunes
of men by the positions and aspects of the stars. Judicial%
astrology is supposed to have originated in Chaldaea. The
Jews, after their captivity in Babylon, were much addicted
to it, and the same delusion has prevailed among all the
nations of Europe. In ancient Rome, during the empire,
astrologers were a numerous and influential class. In the
Middle Ages, astronomy proper was chiefly studied as sub-
sidiary to astrology, which was considered as the more im-
portant of the two sciences. The relation between astrol-
ogy and astronomy was like that between alchemy and
chemistry. The Copernican system contributed greatly to
bring astrology into discredit. The fundamental concep-
tion of astrology seems to have been drawn from the actual
influence of the sun upon the earth in affecting health, fer-
tility, and temperature. Connected with these facts was
the worship of the heavenly bodies as divinities. The no-
tion of Aristotle, set forth in the twelfth book of the “Meta-
physics,” that the heavenly bodies were “ensouled,” and
that each moved in its orbit by a conscious volition, gave
currency to similar ideas among the students of the Peri-
patetic system. The power of these heavenly beings was
supposed to flow out from their dwelling-places, and affect
beings on the earth for good or evil. Astrological predic-
tions are founded on the relative positions and aspects of
the sun, moon, and planets at the moment of birth, and on
certain arbitrary influences supposed to belong to each of
these bodies. To facilitate the determination of the aspects,
the whole heaven, visible and invisible, is divided into
twelve equal parts by the horizon, the meridian, and four
other circles passing through the N. and S. points of the
horizon and the points of the equator (or prime vertical)
which are at the distance of thirty and sixty degrees from
the meridian. These equal spaces are called the twelve
houses of the heavens, and the circles by which they are
circumscribed are called circles of position. The circles of
position are supposed to remain fixed, so that a celestial
body is carried through each of the twelve houses in the ,
course of a day by the diurnal rotation. The first house is
contained between the eastern horizon and the next circle
of position going to the eastward. The beginning of the
first house, or the point of the ecliptic just rising, is called
the horoscope. The first house is the house of life; the
Second, of riches; the third, of brothers; the fourth, of
parents; the fifth, of children; the sixth, of health; the
seventh, of marriage; the eighth, of death; the ninth, of
religion; the tenth, of dignities; the eleventh, of friends;
and the twelfth, of enemies. Each of the houses has one
of the heavenly bodies as its peculiar lord. They have dif-
ferent powers, the first being the most powerful. The next
object is to consider the aspects or configurations of the in-
fluential bodies. The ancients reckoned five aspects. (See
ASPECTs.) The quartile and opposition were considered
malignant or adverse, the trine and sextile as benignant or
propitious, and the conjunction was an indifferent aspect.
The influences ascribed to the planets were as arbitrary as
those ascribed to the aspects. Saturn, being at the greatest
distance from the sun, was supposed to be of a cold nature;
Jupiter, Venus, and the Moon, temperate and benignant;
Saturn and Mars were the most dangerous. The influence
of the sun and Mercury varied according to circumstances.
REVISED BY M. B. ANDERSON.
Astron’omy [from the Gr. &arpov, a “star,” and vôpos,
a “rule “ or “regulation ”], the science which treats of the
constitution, motions, and appearances of the heavenly
bodies. Its scope includes the whole visible universe out-
side our atmosphere. Its principal divisions are—1, DE-
SCRIPTIVE OR PHYSICAL ASTRONOMY, which, as its name
implies, includes the simple description of celestial phe-
nomena and laws, and is to the heavenly bodies what
physical geography is to the earth; 2, THEORETICAL As-
TRONOMY, which comprises the investigation of the celes-
tial motions; 3, PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY, which teaches the
art of using astronomical instruments, and, by their means,
of determining positions on the earth and in the heavens.
The material universe, as revealed by the telescope, is
formed of a vast collection of stars and nebulae, to the
number of which no definite limit can be set, scattered
through an immeasurable and inconceivable extent of space.
Of the stars, about 5000 are usually visible to the naked eye,
but very keen observers can detect as many as 8000. The
number visible is greatly increased when a small telescope is
pointed at the heavens, and continues to increase with every
*Judicial is often applied to astrology in the sense of pro-
nouncing judgment (or sentence) upon a man's character or des-
tiny, in contradistinction to simple astrology, signifying merely
the knowledge of the stars or heavenly bodies.
increase in the power of the instrument, rising, in the case
of the most powerful telescopes, to forty or fifty millions,
or six to eight thousand for every one visible to the naked
eye. Even then there is no evidence that the Smallest stars
are seen, but every reason to believe that larger instruments
would show millions more in every direction. The tele-
scopic stars are for the most part scattered at random, ex-
cept that they are many times thicker in some regions than
in others. But great numbers of clusters are known in
which great telescopes show a whole firmament of stars in
a spot hardly visible to the naked eye.
The first inquiry which suggests itself in considering the
stellar universe is, Can we form any estimate of its magni-
tude or of the scale on which it is constructed 2 The most
difficult and refined investigations of recent times have been
devoted to this question, but with only partial success.
Until near the middle of the present century the distances
even of the nearest stars eluded measurement, and even
now there are not a dozen of which the parallax is known
with anything like certainty. But these are sufficient to
enable us to form a sort of judgment, at least, of the scale
on which the universe is constructed. It is roughly esti-
mated that the stars of the first magnitude have, on the
average, an annual parallax of two-tenths of a second, and
are therefore at an average distance of about a million times
that of the earth from the sun. This distance may be most
conveniently expressed by saying that light, moving around
the earth eight times in a second, would require fifteen
years to traverse it. Now, supposing that, on a general
average, the more distant stars are of the same real magni-
tude with the nearer ones, but look smaller owing to their
distance, we may conclude that the smallest stars visible to
the naked eye are ten times as far as the nearest ones; and,
allowing for their range of real magnitude, we may conclude
with considerable probability that they lie at distances which
light traverses in from fifty to two hundred years. In other
words, if we conceive two spheres described around our sun
as a centre, the smaller with a radius over which light
would pass in fifty years (in round numbers, three hundred
million of millions of miles), and another with a radius four
times as great, it is probable that a large portion of the
stars of the sixth magnitude will be included between these
two spheres. Applying the same reasoning to the tel-
escopic stars, we may conclude that the smallest stars visi-
ble in the most powerful telescopes are at distances which
light would traverse in from five to fifty thousand years.
Of what is beyond we know nothing as yet.
Of the form and boundaries of this agglomeration of
stars which forms the visible universe nothing certain is
known, but it is certain that there is a great tendency to
aggregation near the plane of the Milky Way. The latter
is well known to consist of vast aggregations of telescopic
stars, too small to be separately visible to the naked eye.
This fact was first clearly shown by Herschel, and led him
to his celebrated theory that all the visible stars form a
comparatively thin stratum, near the centre of which our
sun is placed. That the densest portions of the universe
are spread out into such a stratum or plate there can be
no doubt, but of the limits of the thinner portions, com-
posed of stars scattered outside of this stratum, nothing
positive can be asserted. -
Nothing indicating either growth or decay has been ac-
tually observed in the stellar universe. There is no es-
tablished instance either of a known star disappearing from
the heavens, or of a really new one coming into view. The
supposed cases of the latter kind are now found to be due
to extraordinary variability; a small star, perhaps invisi-
ble to the naked eye, suddenly bursting forth into brilliancy,
and after a time subsiding to its former magnitude. Sev-
eral instances of this kind are on record, the last as late as
1866, when a star of the second or third magnitude Sud-
denly appeared in the Northern Crown. An examination
of Argelander's great star-catalogue showed that it was
formerly a telescopic star of the ninth magnitude. After
a few days it gradually returned to this magnitude, and
has not since shown any kind of disturbance.
A large number of stars—probably one out of every for-
ty or fifty—are of variable brilliancy. Usually, the varia-
tions are so slight as to be discovered only by the careful
watching of the trained observer, but in a few cases they
are so striking as to be plain to any one who will observe.
The star m Argus, in the southern hemisphere, varies in
an extraordinary and irregular manner. Mira Ceti, usual-
ly hardly visible to the naked eye, rises nearly to the second
magnitude once in every ten or eleven months, and after a
week or two fades away again. Generally, the variations
take place in a regular period, so that the times of greatest
and least brilliancy admit of tolerably exact prediction.
The stars are found to be moving among themselves in a
way that must ultimately lead to an entire change of their
distribution, and perhaps to their entire separation. The
20
306
ASTRONOMY.
velocity of motion is usually from twenty to fifty miles
per second, but in one instance it probably exceeds 200
miles per second. So far as observation can show, the rule
is that each star moves forward independently in a straight
line with a uniform velocity. From the few estimates of
the masses of the stars which have been made, there is no
reason to believe that their motions can be appreciably af-
fected by their mutual gravitation. The combined attrac-
tion of all the stars visible with the most powerful telescope,
supposing their masses to be correctly judged by those of
the stars which have been weighed, would never stop, and
would hardly turn aside, the star Arcturus in its course of
sixty or eighty miles per second, nor Groombialze 1830 in
its course of 200 miles per second. There is, in fact, no cer-
tain evidence that the stellar universe is held together by
any bond of attraction whatever, as our solar system is.
Mädler's view, that Alcyone is the central sun of the uni-
verse, is a piece of groundless speculation which has never
received the assent of astronomers qualified to judge it.
The stellar motions take place in every possible direction,
and without regard to any known law, except that, as a
general rule, stars in the same region of space move nearly
in the same direction.
Besides stars, we have nebulae as component parts of
the telescopic universe. They are cloud-like patches of
light scattered all over the heavens, but less numerous in
the Milky Way than at a distance from it. Two of them,
situated in the northern hemisphere, the great nebulae of
Orion and of Andromeda, are clearly visible to the naked
eye. Before the discovery of spectral analysis it was not
possible to draw the line between nebulae and clusters of
stars, because large numbers of objects which look like
nebulae through small telescopes are found, with large ones,
to be clusters of stars, and every increase in the power of
the instrument was found to change objects from the for-
mer to the latter class. It was therefore doubtful whether
all nebulae were not really clusters of stars too small or too
distant to be resolved with the telescope. But, as soon as
the spectroscope was turned upon such of these objects as
could give a visible spectrum, it was found that many of
them were not solid bodies at all, but masses of incandes-
cent gas, generally hydrogen or nitrogen. To this class
belongs the nebula of Orion, which is therefore a true neb-
ula. On the other hand, the nebula of Andromeda gives a
continuous spectrum, showing that the luminous matter is
in the solid or liquid state, and probably consists of an ag-
glomeration of stars, though no telescope has yet resolved
it.
We have no data whatever for forming a judgment of
, the distance of the nebulae, as we have in the case of the
fixed stars. . A favorite theory is, that the forty or fifty
millions of stars separately visible through the largest tel-
escopes, the greater number of which, as we have said, are .
spread out in a thin, widely extended stratum, form a sys-
tem to which our sun belongs, and that many of the resolv-
able nebulae are similar systems situated far outside of our
own. In favor of this view is to be said that our Milky
Way, viewed from a point 500 times the distance of the
most remote star in it, would have the appearance of a
nebula, and would give a continuous spectrum, although
no telescope we possess would resolve it. It is therefore possi-
ble that many of the more distant resolvable nebulae may be
such systems. But the greater number of visible clusters
cannot compare with our Milky Way in the number of their
stars, as they only comprise a few hundreds or thousands.
We can really draw no lime of demarcation between the
agglomerations of stars within our own system and the
most distant cluster, the whole range from one extreme
to the other being filled with known objects. We must
therefore régard the views in question as forming a very
grand but yet unproven hypothesis. -
Our description of the stellar universe may be summed
up by saying that it is composed of an unknown host of
stars, certainly more than 50,000,000, mostly scattered in
irregular aggregations forming the Milky Way, while many
are aggregated in yet closer clusters, some of which are
situated within the Milky Way and some without it, and
of a number of enormous masses of incandescent gases
situated at unknown distances. Our sun is simply one of
these 50,000,000 of stars, without, so far as we know, any
mark to distinguish him among his fellows. He is prob-
ably rather smaller than the average: removed to 1,000,000
times his present distance, which is probably the average
distance of the stars of the first magnitude, he would shine
only as a star of the third or fourth magnitude. He is,
indeed, accompanied by a number of non-luminous planets,
while, with one possible exception, no such companions are
seen to the stars; but this does not disprove their existence,
because every planet of our system would disappear from
view in our most powerful telescopes at a distance far less
than that of the nearest star.
The physical constitution of the sun and stars is a sub-
ject which has greatly occupied investigators in recent
times, without leading them to an entirely certain and
complete conclusion. The theory of Wilson and Herschel,
that the sun is a dark, cool body, surrounded by a stratum
of luminous clouds floating in an atmosphere, has been one
of the best known, but it is completely disproved by the
modern discoveries of the conservation of force and the
equivalence of heat and force. The enormous volumes of
heat sent off by the sun can be supplied only by a contin-
uous expenditure of force, and any theory which accounts
for the solar light and heat must show whence that force
comes. We know that our sun has been radiating light
and heat in quantities as great as at present for thousands,
or even millions, of years, while the sun of Herschel would
cool off very quickly, and then cease to give either light or
heat. In one respect, however, the theory in question is
now universally agreed to : the “photosphere’—that is,
the shining surface of the solar sphere—is composed of
cloud-like matter, apparently floating in some kind of fluid,
the whole being at an extremely high temperature. The spots
are known to be dark depressions in the photosphere, as to
the cause of which investigators are not yet agreed. Of the
interior of this enormous globe we can see nothing, but
there is good reason for holding that it is mostly formed
of materials similar to those which compose the crust of
the earth, heated to so high a temperature as to be com-
pletely vaporized and reduced to a state of dissociation, or
one in which chemical union of different elements is no
longer possible. At the same time, the pressure to which
this vaporous interior is subjected by the weight of its
outer layers is so great that it is compressed into the small-
est possible space, so that the mean density of the sun is
not much less than that of Water.
On the outside, this mass is continually cooling off by
radiation, and hence condensing to the solid or liquid state.
The matter thus condensed forms the photosphere, which
seems to be in a state of continual change.
Immediately above the photosphere lies a comparatively
shallow, but extremely complex, incandescent atmosphere,
the absorption of which causes the dark lines in the solar
spectrum. This atmosphere consists of hydrogen gas,
mixed with the vapors of many of the metals, especially
magnesium, calcium, sodium, and iron; the metallic vapors,
except that of magnesium, mostly lying so near the base
that they are not visible, even with a spectroscope, except
just at the beginning and end of a total eclipse. This at-
mosphere shines with a red light, and was frequently seen
during total eclipses of the sun, but its existence and na-
ture were first clearly brought to light by Mr. J. N. Lock-
yer's spectroscope. This gentleman termed it the chromo-
sphere. It is agitated by storms of fire, the fury of which
exceeds anything ever pictured by the wildest imagination
of the poet, the velocity of the wind sometimes rising to
100 miles per second, and masses of fiery vapor many times
the size of our earth shooting up to the height of 20,000,
50,000, or even 80,000, miles. These masses constitute the
red “protuberances” always visible during total eclipses
of the sun, the nature of which was a complete mystery
until the spectroscope was turned upon them by Janssen in
India during the great eclipse of 1868. They are now the
subjects of daily observation by spectroscopists.
Outside the chromosphere lies an appendage the nature
of which is still involved in mystery, as it can be studied
only during the rare moments afforded by total eclipses of
the sun. It is seen in the glow of light which then sur-
rounds the whole sun, extending to a height greater than
the semi-diameter of that body, and is known as the solar
corona. Its spectrum consists principally of a single green
line, not identified with that of any terrestrial substance,
but Janssen also recognized some of the lines of hydrogen
during the eclipse of Dec., 1871. (See SPECTRUM ANALY-
SIs.) *
One of the most difficult questions respecting the sun is,
Whence come the floods of heat which he is continually rad-
iating into space? Why did he not cool off hundreds of
thousands of years ago? Why does he not now grow
cooler from year to year 7 Only in recent years have seri-
ous attempts been made to answer these questions, because
only then was it recognized that heat was a form of force
which could not be expended without being continually
renewed. The theory now most generally received is that
of contraction. It is supposed that as the sun cools off he
contracts in volume ; and it is found, by calculation, that a
very small contraction will develop an enormous amount
of heat in a mass so immense as that of the Sun, so long as
it does not condense to the solid or liquid state. Thus, the
supply of heat may be kept up for a million of years to
come, but it must give out some time, unless renewed from
some unseen source, and our system will then be involved
in darkness and death.
ASTRONOMY.
307
By the motion of the spots it is found that the sun ro-
tates on his axis in about twenty-five days, this being the
period at the equator. But as we approach the poles the
rate becomes slower and the period longer, approaching
twenty-six days at a distance of 45°. Beyond this point
very few spots are to be seen, and the law of rotation is
not completely known. The liquid or gaseous character
of the sun's surface is conclusively proved by the variation
in the rate of rotation.
The sun is accompanied by a retinue of eight major
planets, of which our earth is one, and by a large group
of minor planets. The major planets may themselves be
divided into two groups of four each, the four inner and
smaller ones being Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and Mars,
and the four outer and larger ones being Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune. The smallest of the outer group
(Uranuš) has more than ten times the mass of the largest
of the inner group (the Earth), and is more than fifty times
its size. Between the two groups is a wide gap in which
the minor planets are found. The principal numerical ele-
ments of each planet are given in a table appended to the
present article; the principal of the remaining peculiarities
are given in the following condensed description :
Mercury, the nearest to the sun, and the smallest of
the major planets, shines with a light exceeding that of
any of the fixed stars, with the possible exception of Sirius.
Owing to its proximity to the sun, it can be seen by the
naked eye only when near its greatest elongation, which
occurs about once in four months on each side of the sun.
The same circumstance, together with its intense brilliancy,
has prevented the certain discovery of any peculiarities of
physical constitution. This planet is quite often seen to
pass between us and the sun, the transits usually occurring
at intervals of three, seven, ten, or thirteen years. From
a careful discussion of all the transits hitherto observed,
Leverrier concluded that the motion of its perihelion is 36”
per century greater than the motion calculated from the
attraction of all the known planets, and was hence led to
the hypothesis that a group of small plants circulated be-
tween Mercury and the sun. But the most careful search
by the best observers has uniformly failed to show any
trace of such bodies, and there are strong reasons for dis-
believing in their existence. No satisfactory explanation
of Leverrier's result has ever been given.
Venus, the second planet from the sun, is at times, next
to the sun and moon, the most brilliant object in the
heavens. When east of the sun it is seen in the west,
after sunset, as the evening star, and when west of
him it rises before him as the morning star. It gives
strong evidence of being surrounded by an atmosphere
more dense than that of the earth. Several astronomers
have announced the existence of mountains twenty miles
high on this planet, but the evidence is too weak to be re-
lied on. Twice in every 120 years Venus passes between
us and the sun. (For an account of this very rare phe-
nomenon, see PARALLAX, SoLAR.)
The Earth is the first planet accompanied by a moon.
Its equator is inclined to the ecliptic, or the plane in which
it moves round the sun, at an angle which in 1850 amounted
to 23° 27' 31", and which is now diminishing at the rate
of about 47" per century, to increase again in the course
of ages, as it fluctuates between comparatively narrow
limits. The earth’s axis at the same time changes its di-
rection very slowly in the heavens, describing a complète
circle around the pole of the ecliptic in about 26,000 years,
the time varying somewhat in consequence of the motion
of the ecliptic itself. The change of seasons is due to the
inclination of these two planes, the earth's northern hemi-
sphere being turned towards the sun from Mar. 21 till
Sept. 21, and its southern hemisphere being so turned dur-
ing the remainder of the year. About these two dates the
plane of the earth’s equator passes through the sun, and
day and night are consequently equal all over the globe,
whence the term equinoac. The civil year has always been
measured by the interval between the returns of the earth
to the same equinox, because this return brings round the
change of the seasons. (See CALENDAR.)
The Moon, being the nearest of the heavenly bodies, is
that one with the physical peculiarities of which we are
best acquainted. She has the appearance of a perfectly
arid desert, on which the most careful scrutiny has failed
to reveal a trace of air, water, or life. Her surface is
broken up by great inequalities, but they are entirely dif-
ferent in character from those on the surface of the earth.
Instead of undulating hill and valley, with chains of moun-
tains, we find saucer-shaped depressions, generally of con-
siderable regularity, with flat bottoms, and mounds or hil-
locks, great and small, scattered over nearly the entire
surface. Large regions are comparatively smooth, and,
from their dark color, were supposed by the first users of
the telescope to be seas. Several maps of her visible
color of the planet.
is seen, which is attributed to arctic snows and ice.
hemisphere have been prepared, on which many of the
features are named after the great astronomers or philos-
ophers of ancient and modern times. The moon’s revolu-
tion on her axis coincides exactly with her mean motion
around the earth, and consequently she always presents
the same face to us. Her farther hemisphere is for ever
hid from view, but there is not the slightest reason to be-
lieve that it differs in any respect from the one we see. The
size of the moon is such that her dark shadow, cast by the
sun, is about 240,000 miles in length, narrowing down to a
point at this distance. Whenever the earth is in the line
of this shadow we have an eclipse of the sun. (See ECLIPSE
and ACCELERATION.)
Mars, the fourth planet from the sun, and the last of the
inner group, has always been scrutinized by astronomer's
with the greatest interest, owing to the variegated character
of its surface, and its seeming resemblance to the earth.
The whole disk is clearly divided into light and dark por-
tions, which have been supposed to be seas and continents.
The supposed seas present a dull greenish hue, while the
continents are reddish and give rise to the characteristic
Near each pole a brilliant white patch
The
conclusion that the markings are due to land, water, Snow,
and ice are to be received with caution.
Outside of Mars we have the group of minor planets, or
asteroids, of which 133 are now known, and of which from
five to ten have been discovered annually for some years
past. The total number probably amounts to several hun-
dred. As a general rule, their orbits are much more eccen-
tric and much more inclined to the ecliptic than those of
the major planets. Nothing is known of their physical
constitution, their small size preventing any peculiarities
of form or structure from being seen. Their diameters are
supposed to range from thirty or forty miles to 300 or 400.
These estimates are founded not on measurement, but on
the apparent brilliancy of the bodies, and are therefore very
uncertain. Most readers are acquainted with the celebrated
hypothesis of Olbers, that these bodies are the fragments
of a planet which was shattered by some unknown force.
Recent researches have rendered this hypothesis very im-
probable, and it has almost ceased to be a subject of dis-
cussion among astronomers. - . .
Jupiter, the next planet in order, is the largest of the
system, so that, notwithstanding its great distance, it is
brighter than any other star or planet except Venus. Its
appearance through the telescope is quite peculiar, a dark
band or belt being always visible on each side of its equa-
tor, and sometimes another near each pole. When closely
scrutinized these belts are found to be of irregular shape
and ragged, cloud-like formation. They are subject to
occasional changes in color and appearance, and within a
year or two have been of a rosy hue, which never seems to
have been seen before. It is doubtful whether the solid
body of Jupiter is visible at all; in fact, it is not certain
that it has any solid body. It has been supposed that the
belts are clouds floating in the Jovian atmosphere, but all
such analogies between the surfaces of the planets and that
of our own globe are little better than pure speculation.
Jupiter is accompanied by four satellites, which were dis-
covered by Galileo when he first pointed his telescope at
the planet. They are about as bright as the smallest stars
visible to the naked eye, and could therefore be seen with-
out a telescope if they were not overpowered by the bril-
liancy of the planet. Indeed, it is claimed that they actu-
ally have been seen by unusually good eyes; and some of
these claims are too strongly supported to be lightly set
aside. Most of the satellites pass through the shadow of
the planet, and suffer a consequent eclipse in every revolu-
tion. These eclipses, being visible at the same time all
over the globe, furnish one of the easiest methods of roughly
determining the longitude, but very little accuracy can be
thus attained. By these eclipses the progressive motion of
light was first determined by Roemer. (See ABERRATION.)
Saturn, the sixth planet from the sun, with his rings and
satellites, is perhaps the most striking telescopic object in
the heavens. He has belts like Jupiter, but much fainter.
His rings are very broad and thin, their edges being turned
towards the planet. Nothing like these rings has been seen
anywhere else in our system, nor even in the heavens, and
the question, What keeps them from falling upon the
planet? is one which has occupied several generations of
mathematicians and astronomers, without being definitely
solved. The corpuscular or cloud theory is that now most
generally admitted. This theory is that the rings are not
solid or liquid masses at all, but only a vast swarm-or
rather two or three vast swarms—of very minute Satellites,
too small to be seen separately, but so numerous that they
present the appearance of a continuous body. Just within
the inner bright ring is a faint dusky ring, first discovered
by Bond at Cambridge, which this theory explains very
308 -
ASTRONOMY.
easily by supposing the swarm of satellites to be here so
thin that they are scarcely visible, and permit light to pass
freely between them. Saturn is accompanied by eight
Satellites, twice as many as are known to surround any
other planet, but none of them present any characters of
especial interest.
Uranus was discovered by Sir William Herschel in 1781.
It had frequently been observed before that time, but was
not known to be a planet. It is accompanied by four satel-
lites, two of which were discovered by Herschel.
Neptune was discovered in 1846 by one of the most re-
markable achievements in the history of astronomy, its
position in the heavens having been calculated by Leverrier
and Adams before its existence was known. (See NEP-
TUNE, DISCOVERY OF.) It is attended by one satellite. Both
Uranus and Neptune are too far off both from the earth
and the sum to admit of any peculiarities being seen upon
their disks, but the spectroscope shows them both to be
surrounded by atmospheres of great density and remark-
able constitution, in which carbonic acid is perhaps the
principal ingredient.
Besides the planets which we have described, quite a
number of comets are known to be members of the solar
system, and a great number of others are suspected to be
such, even though their time of revolution is so great that
they have never been recorded as seen but once. THe general
rule is that a comet comes into view suddenly and unexpect-
edly, falling nearly towards the sun as if dropped from
an infinite distance. It whirls around the sum in a parab-
olic orbit, and ſlics off into space nearly in the direction
from which it came. If astronomers have an opportunity
of observing it carefully for several months, they can tell
whether it is or is not flying so fast that the attraction of
the Sun will never bring it back again. It is thus definitely
ascertained that the great comet of 1858 will return, in
consequence of the sun’s attraction, in about 1950 years,
probably between the years 3800 and 3820, after flying off
into space to the distance of fifteen thousand million miles.
The physical constitution of comets is still one of the
enigmas of astronomy. Large comets are generally found
to consist of three distinct formations: (1) a small bright,
but ill-defined nucleus; (2) a round mass of hazy, nebulous,
or foggy matter surrounding this nucleus, and indeed seem-
ing to rise from it; and (3) a tail of extremely rare matter,
but of enormous length, extending off from the comet in a
direction opposed to the sun, growing wider and fainter as
it extends, until it gradually becomes invisible. But the
smaller telescopic comets often exhibit neither nucleus nor
tail, but consist only of an irregular, ill-defined, nebulous
mass, perhaps brighter at one point. As the comet ap-
proaches the sun the tail develops enormously, and fre-
quently shows itself when none was visible at aſ distance.
It is now generally considered that the tail of a comet is
not a permanent appendage, but a stream of finely divided
matter continually driven off from the comet into space by
Some repulsive force residing in the sun, the nature of
which is not yet understood. It may be compared to the
steam rising from a boiling pot, or to smoke from a chim-
mey. If this view be correct—and it can hardly be dis-
puted—all the comets are continually evaporating into
space, and must in time be entirely dissipated.
This theory of the constant dissipation of comets has
recently received a striking confirmation in the ascertained
coincidence of meteor-streams with the orbits of comets,
and in the disappearance of Biela’s comet from the heavens.
It has long been known that we have either a meteoric
shower or an unusual number of meteors every year on the
nights of Aug. 9 and Nov. 14, and they are now found to
be produced by the earth's atmosphere meeting a swarm of
very minute particles which move in the respective orbits
of two comets. The particles are supposed to be the frag-
ments or dust of the comets which have become separated
in the course of ages. (See METEORs.)
The foregoing is the briefest possible description of the
material universe as revealed by the telescope, and may be
considered as an epitome of descriptive astronomy. Of
practical astronomy we can say no more than that it teaches
the construction and use of such instruments as the tele-
Scope, the transit instrument, the meridian circle, and the
zenith telescope, and the calculation of the observations
made with them. The usefulness of practical astronomy,
and the perfection it has attained, may be judged from this
consideration : take an astronomer blindfolded to any part
of the globe, give him the instruments we have mentioned,
a chronometer regulated to Greenwich or Washington time,
and the necessary tables, and if the weather be clear, so
that he can see the stars, he can in the course of twenty-
four hours tell where he is in latitude and longitude within
a hundréd yards, ^.
For theoretical astronomy, though scientifically the most
important branch of the subject, we can do no more than
give the reader a general idea of what it has been and is.
This science has existed in a rude state from the earliest
ages of which we have any written record; indeed, astron-
omy has very properly been called the most ancient of the
sciences. Its progress may be conveniently divided into
three eras.
The first era is that of the ancient system, in which the
earth was considered as the centre of the universe, and all
the heavenly bodies were believed to revolve about it in the
course of twenty-four hours. Far from the truth as this
system was, the ancients discovered the rotundity of the
earth, and the difference of local time or of the hour of the
day between places of different longitudes, knew the causes
and laws of eclipses, and constructed tables which gave the
motions of the sun, moon, and planets with considerable
accuracy. The annual motion of the earth round the sun
produces an apparent annual revolution of the sun among
the stars, and this apparent revolution was perfectly under-
stood in the earliest historical times. The annual course
of the sun was mapped out on the heavens, and divided
into twelve signs, known as “signs of the zodiac.” The
year was known to consist of 3653 days, and the connection
of the seasons with the position of the sun in the zodiac
was fully understood and described. The great body of
ancient knowledge on these subjects has been preserved in
the “Almagest” of Ptolemy, a work which remained an
authority in astronomy for nearly 1600 years.
The second era was that of Copernicus and Kepler, in
which the sum was assigned to its true place as the centre
of the solar system; the earth was classified as one of the
planets moving around it; and all the orbits of these bodies
were found to be ellipses having the sun in one focus. A.
comparatively simple geometrical system was thus intro-
duced, which did away with the complicated epicycles of
Ptolemy, and at the same time represented the apparent
motions with much more accuracy. Indeed, if the orbits
had really been perfect ellipses, hardly any further advance
in accuracy would have been made possible, even by the
discovery of gravitation.
The third era is that of gravitation, in which all the
heavenly bodies are considered as flying through space
with perfect freedom, but each gravitating towards all the
others. The sum, being 700 times as heavy as all the plan-
ets, keeps them moving in orbits around him by his own
gravitation, while the motion of each planet is affected with
small irregularities caused by the attraction of all the others.
By this theory the courses of all the planets, and of the
moon and many of the satellites, are predicted with an as-
tonishing degree of accuracy. The first thing which gravi-
tation settles is the motion of the earth itself on its axis.
The daily revolution around its axis seems to take place
with perfect regularity, but the axis itself is subject to sev-
eral very slow motions, which make its direction decidedly
different in the course of ages. These motions cannot well
be described without a globe, but as the whole earth and
the instruments with which observations are made partake
of them, they change all observed positions of the heavenly
bodies, and these changes must be carefully allowed for in
all calculations.
The Copernican system and the theory of gravitation have
reduced theoretical astronomy almost to branches of pure
mathematics—mechanics, geometry, and trigonometry. The
system is quite simple in its original conceptions, but very
complex when we descend to minute details. A number
of imaginary planes are conceived of as passing through
the earth or sun, and extending out into infinity in every
direction. The positions of the heavenly bodies are defined
by their distances from these planes, and the angles which
the line drawn from the sun or the earth to the body makes
with different lines drawn in the planes. The most common
mode of defining position is by giving three data: (1) the
distance of the heavenly body from some point, either the
centre of the earth or the centre of the sun, in a straight
line; (2) the angle which this straight line makes with one
of the planes in question; (3) a perpendicular being drop-
ped from the body on the plane, the angle which the line
to the point of intersection makes with some fixed line in
the plane. When the distances are reckoned from the earth,
it is usual to take the plane of the equator as that of refer-
ence; when from the sun, the ecliptic is usually selected.
Both these planes are constantly changing their position in
consequence of the attraction of the moon and planets on
the earth, and this change has always to be calculated and
allowed for. This operation makes the subject a very in-
tricate one, which can be fully developed only in Works de-
voted especially to the subject.
The following table gives the numerical details of the
different elements pertaining to each major planet of the
solar system. We shall explain such of the columns and
numbers as need explanation. The “apparent semi-diam-
eter” is half the angle which the diameter of the planet
ASTROPHYLLITE–ATACAMA.
309
subtends when seen from some usual or mean distance from
the earth. In the case of the four inner planets this dis-
tance is that of the earth from the sun, while in the case of
the four outer ones it is the mean distance of the planet
itself from the sun. The actual distance of many of the
planets from us varying very much at different times, their
apparent magnitudes vary in a corresponding manner.
The “mass” of the planet signifies not its size, but its
weight compared with the weight of the sun. The masses
of Mercury and Mars are still uncertain; the former by
perhaps a fourth, or even a third, of its entire amount, and
the latter by a tenth.
Dividing the mass of the planet by its solid contents, we
have its specific gravity or “density,” which we give as
compared with the density of the earth. The column of
densities shows a remarkable difference between the mate-
rials of the inner and those of the outer planets, the light-
est of the former (Mars) being nearly three times as heavy,
in proportion to its size, as the heaviest of the latter. In
fact, a piece of the planet Saturn would float in water, which
is hardly true of a single solid constituent of our globe.
Among the “diurnal revolutions” of the planets on their
axis We give those of Venus and Mercury, as some astron-
omers have thought they observed them, but that of Mer-
cury is entitled to no reliance at all, and that of Venus to
very little. &
The “mean distance ’’ of the earth from the sun is the
astronomical unit or measuring-rod, with which all dis-
tances in the universe farther than the moon are ordinarily
measured. We give the mean distances of the several
planets, first in terms of this unit, which are very exact,
and then in miles, which are still somewhat uncertain, be-
cause the distance of the sun from the earth in miles is not
yet known with entire certainty. The most complete de-
termination of this element yet made gives a distance of
92,380,000 miles, and this is probably within 300,000 miles
of the truth; but all we can say with reasonable certainty
is, that the distance is between 92,000,000 and 93,000,000.
Calling the uncertainty half a million for the earth, it will
be proportional to their distance in the case of the other
planets, and therefore nearly 5,000,000 in the case of Saturn,
and 15,000,000 in the case of Neptune.
The “periodic time,” or time of making one revolution
around the sun, is given in days for the inner group, and
in Julian years—that is, years of 365+ days each—for the
outer group.
TABLE OF THE PLANETARY ELEMENTS FOR 1850.

Apparent| Diameter | Mass 1)ensit Diurnal © Periodic time e tº Long. of Inclination | Long. of
Planet. §. in miles. (G) = 1). (earth = %. Rºjn. |Mean distance from G) (i." Eccentricity Ée. of Orbit. N §e.
In astron. In milis.
-- h. m. s. units. of miles. O e º f | O p r ſ o f ºf
Mercury... 37/.30 2,955 | 500'000 1.25 24 5 0.387099 35; 87.96926 0.2056048 || 75 7 14|| 7 0 7.7 || 36 33 9
Venus...... 8/.50 7,610 42dooo 0.875 23 21 24 0.723332 67 224.700787| 0.0068433 129 27 14 3 23 34.8 75 1952
The Earth 8”.83 7,912 326300 1.000 23 56 41 | 1.000000 92% |365.256358 0.0167711 |280 2122| 0 0 0.0
Mars........ 4/7.70 4,210 || 300ö000 0.723 24, 37.22.6 1.523691 || 141 686.979714|| 0.0932611 |3331754|| 1 51 2.3 || 48 23 53
- * (Years.)
Jupiter.... 18'.30 | 85,300 1 Qºţ8 0.249 9 55 21 || 5.20280 480 11.86197 0.0482273 || 11 54 51 || 1 18 41.1 || 98.56 10
Saturn...... 87.20 | 70,080 3.5 O2 0.134 10 16 9.53890 881 29,45694 || 0.0560660 90 6 26 || 2 29 39.2 112 20 0
Uranus.... 1'.80 30,900 2.25oo 0.249 TJnknown | 19.18338 1772 84.0205 0.0463592 |170 38.49| 0 46 20.9 | 73 14 38
Neptune...! 1".30 i 34,000 | 19400 l 0.209 ||Unknown 30,05682 | 2770 | 164.782 || 0.0084962 431730; 147 2.0 |130 733
Astroph’yllite, a variety of mica found at Brevig in
Norway. -
Astruc (JEAN), an eminent French medical writer, born
at Sauve, in Languedoc, Mar. I9, 1684. He was appointed
professor of anatomy at Toulouse in 1710, and of medicine
at Montpellier in 1716. Having removed to Paris in 1728,
he became consulting physician to the king, and in 1731
professor of medicine at the Royal College. He had a high
reputation as a professor. He published, besides other
works, “De Morbis Venereis” (“On Venereal Diseases,”
1736), which displays much erudition.
(See LoRRY, “Vie d’Astruc.”)
Astu'ria, a former kingdom in the N. of Spain, bounded
on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, and on the S. by the Can-
tabrian Mountains. The Asturians made a long and brave
resistance to the Goths and Vandals who invaded Spain
about 500 A.D., but were finally subdued. Asturia was the
only part of Spain that was not conquered by the Moors.
The famous Pelayo, who became king of Asturia in 719
A. D., defeated the Moors in battle. (See ASTURIAs.)
Astu’rias, an ancient division of Spain, now the prov-
ince of Oviedo, has an area of 4094, square miles. It is
bounded on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, on the E. by San-
tander, on the S. by Leon, and on the W. by Galicia. The
surface is mountainous, and abounds in wild and pic-
turesque scenery. Along the southern border extends a
chain of mountains, the summit of which, called Peña de
Peñaranda, is about 11,000 feet high. It has extensive
forests of oak, chestnut, beech, and fir. Among the mineral
resources are copper, iron, lead, cobalt, antimony, marble,
coal, and zinc. The eldest sons of the kings of Spain for-
merly took the title of prince of Asturias. The eldest
son of the ex-queen Isabella still has the title. The chief
town is Oviedo. Pop. in 1867, 588,031. (See ASTURIA.)
Asty’ages [Gr. 'Aarváyms], king of Media, was a son of
Cyaxares I., and reigned from 593 to 569 B. C. He had a
daughter, Mandane, who was married to Cambyses, a no-
ble Persian, and bore a son who was Cyrus the Great. He
was succeeded by Cyaxares II., the last king of Media (569–
536 B.C.). -
Asuay', or Assuay, a department of Ecuador. It is
bounded on the N. E. by the United States of Colombia, on
the S. by Peru, and on the W. by Peru and the departments
of Quito and Guayaquil. Area, about 28,800 square miles.
The western part is traversed by several chains of the An-
des, and partly occupied by the desert of Paramo or Asuay.
In the middle and eastern parts are extensive and fertile
plains. It is watered by the Napo, Pequena, and other
rivers, which flow south-eastward into the Amazon, besides
the Amazon and Putumayo, which flow along its boundary.
The chief town is Cuenca. Pop. 243,459, mostly aborigines.
Died May 5, 1766.
S. NEwcomb, U. S. Naval Observatory.
Asy/lum [Gr. &avXov, from a, neg., and ovXáo, to “rob,”
to “carry off,” because, originally, it was a place of refuge
against violent and lawless men], a sanctuary and place of
refuge and security for criminals and others; any place of
retreat and security. In ancient Greece the temples, altars,
and sacred places were appointed as asylums for criminals
and persecuted persons, and it was considered a sacrilege
to kill or remove by force those who had taken refuge in
them. They were, however, sometimes surrounded and
watched until they died of starvation. Among the ancient
Jews cities of refuge were appointed for the benefit of per-
sons who had accidentally committed manslaughter. Romu-
lus is said to have attracted men from other states to Rome by
offering an asylum to criminals, debtors, or outlaws. Asy-
lums became so numerous under the Roman empire that
they were considered nuisances by honest people, and were
nearly all abolished by Tiberius. In the reign of Constan-
tine the Great all Christian churches were asylums. The
privilege was afterwards extended to convents, and was
much abused by criminals in the Middle Ages. Several
popes, in order to prevent this abuse, excluded murderers
and some other classes of offenders from the privilege of
sanctuary, which was abolished in England by acts passed
in 1534 and 1697. In modern usage, the term asylum is
applied to charitable institutions for the relief of the blind,
insane, orphans, etc.
Asylum, a post-township of Bradford co., Pa. Pop.
1155.
As’ymptote [Gr. &ortſwrtoros, from a, neg., and avºwtūrro
(composed of gºv, “together,” and trimro, to “fall”), to
“coincide,” to “fall together”], a right line or curve which
approaches nearer and nearer to some other line, but would
never meet it though infinitely extended. '
At/abelx, a title of honor given to viziers or ministers
of state by Persian sultans of the Seljook dynasty. The
atabeks were the governors of several provinces, exercising
almost royal power.
Ataca/ma, a province of Bolivia, of which it is the
most south-western part, is bounded on the W. by the Pa-
cific Ocean, on the N. by Peru, on the E. by the depart-
ment of Potosi and the Argentine Republic, and on the S.
by Chili. The Andes extend along the eastern border. It is
about 290 miles long and 150 miles wide, and has an area.
of 70,181 square miles. The greater part of it is a desert,
rendered uninhabitable by the want of rain. Gold, silver,
and copper are found here. The volcano of Atacama, 18,000
feet high, is in the northern part. The desert of Atacama.
was a favorite burial-place of the aborigines of Peru, be-
cause in it bodies are preserved from decay by the Saltness
of the soil. Capital, San Pedro de Atacama. Pop. in
1858, 5273. -
310
ATACAMA—ATCHISON.
Atacama, a province of Chili, is bounded on the N.
by Bolivia, on the E. by the Argentine Republic, on the S.
by the province of Coquimbo, and on the W. by the Pacific
Ocean. Area, 41,121 square miles. The country is for the
most part mountainous and sterile, and produces only
along the banks of a few rivers some vegetables and a few
fruits. It contains, however, rich copper-mines. The cli-
mate is dry and warm ; most of the springs contain salt
water, and the largest river, the Rio Salado, is almost
always without water in its lower 'course ! Capital, Co-
piapo. Pop. in 1869, 82,328. - *
Atac'amite, an ore of copper, abundant in the desert
of Atacama (whence its name), and occurring also as a crust
on the lavas of Vesuvius and Etna. It may be defined as
a hydrated oxychloride of copper, or a combination of prot-
oxide of copper with chloride of copper. It is a rich ore,
containing 55 or 60 per cent. of copper. The natural vari-
eties of atacamite are crystallized, massive, and pulverulent
or granular. The primary form of its crystals is a rhombic
prism. The greenish incrustation which is formed on an-
tique bronze weapons, utensils, etc., and which is called
aerugo mobilis, is composed of this salt.
Atahuall/pa, or Ataba'lipa, the last inca of Peru,
was a son of Huayna Capac, who died in 1529. By his
will he divided his dominions between his two sons, Huas-
car and Atahuallpa, who obtained the kingdom of Quito.
These brothers reigned in peace about five years, after
which Huascar sent an envoy to Atahuallpa, and required
him to render homage for the kingdom of Quito. That
inca, who was ambitious and warlike, refused to pay hom-
age, and, having invaded Peru with an army, defeated
Huascar and took him prisoner in 1532. He spared the
life of Huascar, but deprived him of his throne and liberty.
In the same year Peru was invaded by Pizarro and a small
army of Spaniards. The inca, with an unarmed retinue,
approached the camp of Pizarro, in Nov., 1532, for a
friendly interview, during which a Spanish priest informed
the inca that the pope had given Peru to the king of Spain.
As he rejected with indignation the authority of the pope,
the treacherous Spaniards seized him and massacred his
attendants. The captive inca offered to ransom himself by
a quantity of gold which would fill the room in which he
was confined as high as he could reach. The Spaniards
accepted the gold, but refused him liberty. Pizarro accused
Atahuallpa of plotting against him, and ordered him to be
tried by a court-martial, which condemned him to be burned
alive. After he had consented to be baptized his sentence
was commuted to strangulation, and he was executed Aug.
29, 1533. According to Prescott, “he showed singular
penetration and quickness of perception.” (See TREscott,
“Conquest of Peru,” vol. i.)
Atalan’ta [Gr. 'Araxávrm], a mythical personage, was,
according to ancient Greek legends, the most swift-footed
of mortals, and was renowned for martial courage. She
took part in the Argonautic expedition and the Calydo-
nian hunt. Having many suitors, she offered to marry
any man who should defeat her in a foot-race, with the
condition that if he lost he must be put to death. Mila-
nion, who had received from Venus three golden apples,
became the successful competitor by dropping them one
by one before Atalanta, who could not resist the tempta-
tion to stop and pick them up.
Atasco'sa, a county in the S. part of Texas. Area,
1097 square miles. It is intersected by Atascosa Creek,
and also drained by several other creeks. This county is
two-thirds prairie, and stock-raising is carried on. The
soil is good and easily cultivated. Corn is the chief crop.
Lignite is found. Capital, Pleasanton. Pop. 2915.
At/aulf, Adaulf, or Adolf [Lat. Ataul’phus], king
of the Visigoths, and a brother-in-law of Alaric I., whom
he succeeded in 411 A. D. He had aided Alaric in the
capture of Rome in 410, and had captured Placidia, a sister
of the emperor Honorius, whom he married. In 412 he
retired from Italy into Gaul, where he defeated Jovinus,
took Bordeaux (Burdigala), and conquered Aquitania. He
was assassinated by one of his own officers in 415 A. D.
At/avism [from the Lat. at'avus, a “great-grandfather”
or “ancestor”] is a word of recent introduction, with two
modifications of meaning: 1. In natural history atavism is
the reappearance in animals or plants of traits belonging to
their remote progenitors which their immediate parents did
not present. Reversion is a term nearly synonymous, used (by
Darwin and others) to indicate not only the occasional or
individual appearance of such remotely-descended traits,
but the actual returning to them of a variety or species.
Domesticated breeds of animals allowed to run wild become,
after a time, nearly (seldom exactly) like their wild ances-
tors. This is a familiar fact with horses, cattle, hogs, and
pigeons. The wild horses on the great North American
prairies and on the pampas of South America, though all
derived from those imported to the Western continent by
Europeans, are nearly of one size, shape, and color; and
the same is true of the wild herds of cattle of the South
American pampas and llanos. Domestic hogs running wild
assume, in a few generations, a moderate size, slender figure,
and (in some places at least) a nearly black color, with
head and tusks approaching those of the wild boar of Eu-
rope. Darwin mentions the fact that in all the breeds of
domestic pigeons there appear occasionally birds of a slaty-
blue color, yith bars and other marks characteristic of the
ancestral rock-pigeon (Columba livia). He also considers
the occasional appearance of stripes upon a horse or mule
as indicating ancestral identity between the now distinct
species of the equine genus. This opinion may be accepted
as probable by some of those who are not ready to adopt
the whole Darwinian theory. 2. In human pathology ata-
vism is a reversion (similar to the above) to morbid traits
existing in ancestors, but not in immediate parents. This
may be briefly illustrated by an example (from “Lectures
on Practice of Medicine,” by Sir T. Watson): A deaf-mute .
man married a woman whose hearing was perfect, and had
two children by her—one a deaf-mute son, who died child-
less; the other, a hearing daughter, who married a heariny
man, and gave birth to two deaf-mute daughters and a hear-
&ng son. This son married a woman also with good hear-
ing, and had by her a deaf-mute son. One of the daugh-
ters married a deaf-mute, and bore a hearing son. Gout,
consumption, insanity, and other diseases sometimes thus
disappear for one, two, or more generations in a family,
and yet return in a manner evidently due to hereditary
(though interrupted or latent) transmission.
Atba'ra (Astab/oras), a river of North-eastern Africa,
rises in Abyssinia, near Lake Dembea (or Tsana), and flows
north-westward. After receiving several tributaries from
the mountains, it traverses the desert of Southern Nubia,
and enters the Nile in lat. 17° 37' N., and about 25 miles
S. of Berber. It is the last tributary that the Nile receives,
and is one of the principal causes of the inundation of
Egypt. Its length is estimated at 550 miles. In the dry
season, October to June, it contains no water except stand-
ing pools. According to Sir Samuel W. Baker, “its dry
bed was filled in one night with a mighty stream. To-day
(June 24) a magnificent stream, some 500 yards in width,
and from fifteen to twenty feet in depth, flowed through the
dreary desert.” (The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia, 1868.)
The same traveller states that “the grand rush of water
pouring down the Blue Nile and the Atbara into the parent
channel inundates Lower Egypt, and is the cause of its ex-
treme fertility.” Crocodiles and hippopotami abound in
this river, on the borders of which are great numbers of
elephants, rhinoceroses, giraffes, lions, etc.
Atchafalay'a Bay'ou, in Louisiana, is an outlet of
Red River, from whence it issues near the mouth of the
latter at the N. extremity of Point Coupée parish. It
flows nearly southward through Chetimaches Lake, and
enters Atchafalaya Bay, a part of the Gulf of Mexico. The
whole length is estimated at 225 miles. It is navigable for
steamers. At the entrance to the bay is South-west Reef,
with an iron lighthouse 50 feet high. -
Atch’ison, a county in N. E. Kansas. Area, 424 square
miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Missouri River,
which separates it from the State of Missouri, and is in-
tersected by Sauterelle River or Grasshopper Creek. The
surface is pleasantly diversified; the soil is very fertile.
Wheat, corn, oats, dairy products, potatoes, and hay are
largely raised. The streams are bordered with forest trees.
Coal is found. The county is traversed by the central
branch of the Union Pacific, and by several other rail-
roads. Capital, Atchison. Pop. 15,507.
Atchison, a county which forms the N. W. extremity
of Missouri, bordering on Iowa. Area, 700 square miles.
It is bounded on the W. by the Missouri River, and inter-
sected by the Nishnabatona and Tarked Rivers. Large
quantities of corn, wool, and dairy products are raised.
It is traversed by the St. Joseph and Council Bluffs R. R.
Capital, Rockport. Pop. 8440.
Atchison, the capital of Atchison co., Kan., is beauti-
fully situated on the W. bank of the Missouri River, at the
extreme western point of the “Great Bend.”. It is the
western terminus of the Missouri Pacific, Chicago Rock
Island and Pacific, and Hannibal and St. Joseph R. R.S.
It is the northern terminus of the Atchison Topeka and
Santa Fé R. R., the eastern terminus of the central branch
of the Union Pacific R. R., the southern terminus of the At-
chison and Nebraska R. R., and the western terminus of the
Burlington and Missouri R. R. The Kansas City St. Joseph
and Council Bluffs R. R. also runs through the place. It
is therefore the centre of a great System of railroads, and
one of the principal commercial towns in the State. It
ATCHISON.—ATHANASIUS.
311
has 3 daily, 3 weekly, and 3 monthly papers; 2 national
and 2 private banks; 4 public school buildings, one of
which cost $50,000; St. Benedict's College, and 3 private
schools and academies; 8 fine church buildings, including
a large Catholic cathedral; a foundry, and 2 large furni-
ture manufactories. Pop. 7054.
J. A. MARTIN, ED. “DAILY CHAMPION.”
Atchison, a township of Nodaway co., Mo. P. 1219.
Atchison (DAVID R.), an American politician, born in
Fayette co., Ky., Aug. 11, 1807, emigrated to Missouri in
1830. He was elected a Senator of the U. S. in 1843 by
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the Democrats, and was re-elected for a term of six years
ending Mar., 1855. He advocated the repeal of the Mis-
souri Compromise, and was a leader of the Democratic
party of Missouri in its conflicts with the Free-State party
of Kansas.
Aſte [Gr. "Arm], a goddess in classic mythology, supposed
to avenge crimes, and also to stir up mischief. According
to Homer, she was a daughter of Jupiter, who, for her mis-
chief-making character, banished her from Olympus.
At/eles [from the Gr. &rex.js, “imperfect”], a genus of
South American monkeys, characterized by the absence or
-----------.
Ateles.
a rudimentary condition of the thumb of the anterior
hands. They have long, prehensile tails. The genus com-
prises the marimonda (Ateles Beelzebub), which is very
numerous on the Orinoco, besides a dozen other species.
Ateliers Nationaux, fit-le-à' ná'se-o'no', or “Na-
tional Workshops,” the name of establishments organized
in Paris by the republican government in 1848 for the ben-
efit of operatives and mechanics who lacked employment.
These men entertained an idea that the government was
bound to find them employment. The number of working-
men who depended on the government for subsistence was
about 100,000. The experiment failed, and when the ate-
liers nationaux were closed a bloody sedition broke out in
Paris, June, 1848.
Atella/mac, Fab'ulae, also called Ludi Osci, rustic
comedies which were performed in ancient Rome, and de-
rived their name from Atella, a town of Campania. The
actors of these plays spoke the Oscan dialect, and amused
the people with decent drollery. The Maccus and Bucco
of the Fabulae Atellanae are said to be the origin of the
modern Harlequin and Pulcinello.
A Tem/po (literally, “to time ’’), a musical term, used
to denote that after some short relaxation in the time the
performer must return “to the [proper] time,” or original
degree of movement.
A Tem/po Gius’to (“to the correct time ’’), in music,
a direction to the performer, after a recitative, to keep the
measure true and correct, which during the recitative had
been altered to suit the action and passion of the scene.
Ates/sa, an Italian town in the province of Abruzzo Cite-
riore, 14 miles W. of Vasto d’Ammone. It has a fine church
and numerous convents, a hospital, and three monti de
pietà. Pop. in 1861, 10,729.
Ath, or Aath, a fortified town of Belgium, province
of Hainaut, on the river Dender, and on the railway from
Brussels to Lille, 20 miles by rail E. by S. of Tournay. It
has an arsenal, a college, a town-hall, an orphan asylum,
and a remarkable church; also manufactures of calico, lace,
gloves, cutlery, etc. Pop. in 1866, 8260.
Athabas' ca, or Athapes/co, a river and lake of
the N. W. provinces of British North America. The lake
is about lat. 59° N., and between lon. 106° and 112°W. It
extends E. and W. about 230 miles, and has an average
width of 20 miles. The river rises in the Rocky Mountains,
flows north-eastward, and enters the lake near its western
extremity. The water of this lake is discharged through
Slave River, and eventually passes into the Mackenzie
River.
Athali'ah, a queen of Judah, was a daughter of Ahab,
king of Israel, and Jezebel. She was married to Jehoram,
king of Judah, whom she survived, and became a notorious
idolater. After the death of her son Ahaziah, about 884
B. C., she usurped the royal power and murdered all the
males of the royal family except Joash. In 878 B. C. She
was killed by the partisans of Joash. Her story is the sub-
ject of one of Racine’s most celebrated tragedies. (See
2 Rings viii. and xi.)
Athana’sian Creed [Lat. Sym/bolwm Athanasia/num],
so called because it was supposed to have been written by
Athanasius (died 373). But this is a mistake. It did not
appear in Greek till the eleventh or twelfth century, and
was then evidently a translation. In the West it was
commented upon by Venantius Fortunatus in 570. And it
contains extracts from Augustine’s “Trinity” (415 A.D.),
and from the “Commonitorium ” of Vincentius Lirinensis
(434 A. D.); so that it was probably written not far from
450 A.D., and apparently in Gaul.
The Athanasian Creed is the sharpest and most rigid of
the three catholic symbols. It sometimes takes as its title
the words Quicumque vult, with which in its Latin version .
it commences. The entire passage of which those words
are a part is in English as follows: “Whosoever will be
saved, before all things it is necessary that he hold the
catholic faith; which faith except every one do keep whole
and undefiled, without doubt he shall perish everlastingly.”
Then follows a minute and precise exposition of the Trinity,
and an equally exact statement of the doctrine of the incar-
nation; after which this clause occurs: “This is the cath-
olic faith; which except a man believe faithfully he cannot
be saved.” The common inference would be that unless a
man held the doctrine precisely as it is taught in the creed
he cannot be saved. "On account of these “damnatory
clauses,” as they are sometimes called, many Christians,
while substantially accepting the doctrines of the greed,
disapprove of its being used in the churches. Though still
retained in the church-service in England, it is omitted from
the Book of Common Prayer used by the Episcopal churches
in the U. S. REvisBD BY R. D. HITCHCOGK.
Athana'sius [Gr. 'A9avágios], SAINT, a celebrated Greek
Pather of the Church, was born at Alexandria about 296
A. D. His education was directed by Alexander, arch-
/


312
ATHEISM-ATHENS.
bishop of Alexandria. After he had been ordained as a
deacon he was appointed a member of the general Council
of Nice (325), in which he distinguished himself by his
eloquence, learning, and zeal against Arianism. In 328
A. D. he was elected archbishop of Alexandria by the clergy
and the people. He refused to comply with the will of the
emperor Constantine the Great, by restoring to communion
Arius, who had recanted or renounced some doctrines which
the Council of Nice condemned. He was summoned to ap-
pear at the Council of Tyre, in 335 A.D., to answer several
charges, and was there deposed. The emperor Constantine
banished him to Treves, but the emperor Constantius, on
the death of Constantine, restored him (338) to his see. In
339 about ninety Arian bishops assembled at the Council
of Antioch, condemned Athanasius, and, their decision
being approved by the emperor, he was suspended, and re-
tired to Rome. He recovered his office in 346. The Arians
prevailed in the Council of Arles (353) and the Council of
Milan, which, under the influence of the emperor Constan-
tius, condemned Athanasius in 355 A. D. He was again
driven out of Alexandria, and took refuge in the solitudes
of Upper Egypt, where he passed six years, and wrote sev-
eral doctrinal works. On the accession of Julian the Apos-
tate (361 A.D.) he returned to Alexandria, but he was ex-
iled in 362. In 367 he was restored by Jovian ; in 367 he
was once more exiled by the Arian emperor Valens, but
after a few months (368) he was allowed to return, and now
continued in peaceable possession of his office until his
death, in 373 A. D. Athanasius was the most eminent and
influential leader of the orthodox party (who were some-
times called Athanasians), and was distinguished for his
fortitude under persecution, and other virtues which quali-
fied him to be a pillar of the militant Church in stormy and
perilous times. He left numerous polemical and religious
works, written in Greek in a simple, nervous, and perspicu-
ous style. Among them are a “Discourse on the Incarna-
tion,” “Five Books against Arius,” “Epistles to Serapio,”
an “Oration against the Gentiles,” and an “Apology for
his own Flight.” An edition of his works was published
at Paris in 3 vols. folio, 1628. (See Socrat Es, “Historia.
Ecclesiastica;” SozoNEN, “Historia Ecclesiastica;” MöH-
LER, “Athanasius der Grosse,” 1827; Wolgt, “Lehre des
Athanasius,” 1861.) REVISED BY A. J. SCHEM.
Aſ theism [Lat. atheis/mus; from the Gr. a, neg., and
6eós, a “god *), the denial of the existence of God, or the
doctrine that there is no God. Atheism may be either
speculative or practical; the former consists in denying the
existence of God; the latter in living as if there were no
God. Speculative atheism is, strictly speaking, impossible,
for the denial of the Divine existence necessarily affirms it.
For if one deny God’s being, his denial is worthless unless
it rests upon some reason; but this reason must be abso-
lute, or it can be no sufficient warrant for his denial, and
this will only be to adduce absolute reason to declare that
the Absolute Reason cannot be, which is the very absurdity
of all absurdities. To suppose the existence of some nature
of things whose chain of invincible necessity stretches
above and around the Deity, is to suppose what, if it have
any meaning, must itself be invested with the being and
the attributes of the Godhead. Strictly speaking, the be-
lief in a God would seem to imply a belief in his person-
ality—that is, in his existence as a conscious being. But,
according to its modern acceptation, atheism is understood
to deny not merely the existence of a personal Deity, but
also the presence in the universe (apart from individual in-
telligences) of any Principle of intelligence, beauty, or
goodness. (See PANTHEISM.) Perhaps the most remark-
able phase of systematic atheism is that which is set forth
in the writings of Epicurus and his followers; for although
that philosopher nominally acknowledged the existence of
gods, he doubtless did so (as Cicero suggests) merely to
avoid the popular odium which by a denial of their exist-
ence he was certain to incur. In his system of philosophy
there is no all-pervading Intelligence, as in that of Anax-
agoras—no principle of order, no law except the law of
chance. All possible forms of existence had been tried in
the fortuitous concourse of the primitive atoms, and those
beings only which had at last attained, by repeated acci-
dental trials, a certain regularity and completeness of parts,
possessed any permanent existence. Among many of the
ancient nations in very early times to deny the gods was
much the same as to deny all religious and moral obliga-
tions; hence the name atheos (&6sos), or “atheist”—that is,
“without God” or “denying the gods”—became a term
of the greatest reproach; at length those who had political
ends to serve came to use it, not very unfrequently, as a
convenient method of exciting popular odium against an
opponent; and it has been repeatedly applied to worthy
and virtuous men, both in ancient and modern times.
REVISED BY J. H. SEELYE.
Ath/elard of Bath, an English natural philosopher
of the twelfth century who travelled in the East and pub-
lished numerous works, some original and some translated
from the Arabic. A few of these works have been printed,
and others exist in MS.
Ath/elstan, or Æthelstan, an able Anglo-Saxon
king of England, born about 895 A. D., was the natural
son of Edward the Elder, and a grandson of Alfred the
Great. He began to reign in 925, and was the first actual
sovereign of all England. On the death of Sigtric, king of
Northumbria, Athelstan annexed that country. A league
was formed against him by the Welsh, Scots, and Picts,
whom he defeated in a great battle at Brunenburg, 937
A. D. He reigned over nearly all the island, except Scot-
land and Wales. He promoted, learning and civilization,
and was reputed one of the wisest of the Anglo-Saxon
kings. He died without issue Oct. 27, 940, and was suc-
ceeded by his brother Edmund. (See FREEMAN, “Norman
Conquest,” vol. i.; HUME, “History of England.”)
Atheſna [Gr. 'A6ivil or 'A0mvāj, sometimes called Pal-
las Athena, the goddess of wisdom, and one of the prin-
cipal divinities of the Greek mythology. According to an
ancient legend, she was the daughter of Jupiter, from whose
head she issued in full armor. She was the favorite national
divinity of the Athenians, whose capital was named in her
honor. She presided over the sciences, inventions, arts of
peace, laws, etc., and was supposed to have invented every
kind of art or work proper to women. Athena corresponds
to the Roman MINERVA (which see).
Athenae'um [Gr. 'A6;|vatov], a general name for the
temples of Athena; a temple at Athens, dedicated to Athe-
na, in which poets and orators assembled to recite their
works and to instruct the young. Also, a school which was
founded at Rome on the Capitoline Hill by the emperor
Hadrian, and long continued to be an important institu-
tion. In the reign of Theodosius II. it had ten professors
of grammar, three of oratory, five of dialectics, one of phil-
osophy, and two of jurisprudence. The name was given
to it in honor of Athens, the great seat of ancient learning.
In modern times the term is applied to literary institutions,
public reading-rooms, etc.
Athenae/us, an eminent Greek littérateur and antiquary,
born at Naucratis, in Egypt, lived about 200 A. D. The
events of his life are mostly unknown. He resided for some
years at Rome, and appears to have been a great reader,
and an epicure in his habits. He wrote, in the form of
a dialogue, a very interesting work called Aguirvooroºbtorraí
(“The Banquet of the Learned ”), which is extant. It is
an account of an imaginary banquet given by a noble Ro-
man to a number of eminent men, and contains a rich fund
of anecdotes, criticisms, and extracts from the works of
about seven hundred poets and historians, some of whose
works are lost. Although it does not indicate much literary
ability, it is considered extremely valuable as a mélange of
literary, social, and domestic gossip. A good edition of this
work was published by W. Dindorf, Leipsic, 3 vols., 1827.
An English translation of it may be found in Bohn’s “Clas-
sical Library,” London, 1854. (See FABRICIUs, “Bibliotheca
Graeca. ;” “Edinburgh Review,” vol. iii., 1803.)
Athenag’oras [Gr. 'A6mvayópas], a Greek philosopher
and Christian writer, born at Athens, flourished about 170.
Philip Sidetes (about 400 A.D.) makes him the first prin-
cipal of the catechetical school at Alexandria (161–180
A. D.). He wrote an elaborate treatise on the “Resurrec-
tion,” also an “Apology,” addressed, some say, to Marcus
Antoninus and Lucius Verus, about 166 A. D.; others, to
Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus, about 177 A. D.
The best recent edition of his works is that by Otto, 1857.
Atheſnion [Gr. 'A6mviov], an eminent Greek encaustic
painter, born at Maronea, in Thrace, was a pupil of Glau-
cion. He lived about 320 B. C., and died prematurely.
Among his works was “Ulysses detecting Achilles dis-
guised as a Female.” *
Ath/ens [Gr. A9% wat; Lat. Athe'nae; Turk. Seti'nes], an
ancient and celebrated Hellenic city and republic, unrivalled
in art and literature, immortal in the records of genius and
glory. No state, ancient or modern, has produced in pro-
portion to its extent and population so many authors, ora-
tors, artists, and statesmen of the first order, or has con-
tributéd so largely to the education and improvement of
humanity. Athens is situated about 5 miles N. E. of the
Saronic Gulf, in the plain of Attica, which is enclosed by
mountains on every side except the south, and forms a
grand natural amphitheatre; lat. 37° 56' N., lon. 23° 38'
E. The plain is bounded on the N. W. by Mount Parnes,
on the N. E. by Mount Pentelicus (now often called Men-
deli), on the S. E. by Mount Hymettus, on the S. W. by the
sea, and on the W. by Mount AEgaleos. About 1 mile N. E.
of the city rose Mount Lycabettus, an isolated conical peak,
which forms a prominent and beautiful feature in the land-
ATHENS.
313
scape, and is now called the “Hill of Saint George.” Within
the city walls were four hills—namely, the Acropolis; the
Areopagus, or Mars’ Hill; the Pnyx, on which political as-
semblies were held; and the Museum. The Acropolis, or
citadel, an isolated, rocky hill, rises abruptly nearly 300 feet
above the plain, near the centre of the space enclosed by
the walls of Themistocles. It has a flat top about 1100 feet
long and 450 feet wide, inaccessible on all sides except the
W., where the ascent is also steep. The city stands on a
bed of hard limestone, partly covered by a thin, light, and
rather sterile soil. It has a delightful climate, and an at-
mosphere of almost matchless purity and transparency.
Mr. Stanley speaks of “the transparent clearness, the bril-
liant coloring of an Athenian sky; of the flood of fire with
which the marble columns, the mountains, and the seas are
all bathed and penetrated by the illumination of an Athe-
nian sunset.” The same traveller notices “the violet hue
which Hymettus assumes in the evening sky, in contrast
to the glowing furnace of the rock of Lycabettus and the
rosy pyramid of Pentelicus.” Hence, Athens has been
called the “City of the Violet Crown.” Among the phys-
ical features of the environs of Athens are two rivulets,
the Cephissus and the Ilissus, both of which are nearly
exhausted and waterless in summer. The walls of Athens
in its most prosperous state enclosed not only the city proper
(Tö 'AaTv), but also a long, narrow suburb extending to the
harbor of Piraeus, which was four and a half miles S. W.
of the Acropolis, and was connected with it by two long
walls, 550 feet apart. The Piraeus was a rocky peninsula
enclosing several good harbors, and defended by a citadel
and fortress, called Munychia, built on a high rock. This
was sometimes termed the Acropolis of the Piraeus. -
History.—According to an ancient legend, Athens was
founded by Cecrops, and was originally called Cecropia.
In the reign of Erechtheus the name was changed to
Athenæ, in consequence of the prominence which was given
to the worship of Athena (Minerva). Theseus, the national
hero of Attica, is said to have united into one political
body the twelve independent demi or communities into
which Cecrops had divided Attica, and to have made Athens
the capital of the new state. Homer in the “Iliad” men-
tions Athens and its temple of Athena. The last king of
Athens was Codrus, who sacrificed himself for his country,
in compliance with the advice of an oracle, about 1068 B.C.
The state then became a republic or oligarchy, ruled by an
archon or archons, the first of whom was Medon, a son of
Codrus. An important event in the history of the Athe-
nians was the institution of the OLYMPIC GAMES (which see),
celebrated once in four years at Olympia, in Elis. The first
Olympiad began in 776 B. C., the era, to which all subse-
quent events were referred by the ancient Greek historians.
The term of office of the archons was reduced to one year
about 684 B. C., before which date the archon ruled the
state for ten years. (See ARCHON.). Amorig the powerful
and conservative elements in the Athenian constitution was
the council or court of the AREOPAGUS (which see), the
origin of which was very ancient. The great legislator and
statesman who laid the stable foundations of the glory and
prosperity of Athens was Solon, who became archon in 594
B. C., at a time when many of the poor were reduced to
slavery and violent party dissensions tended to civil war.
He reformed the constitution, abolished slavery for debt,
improved the condition of the poor and the common people,
and divided the population into four classes, according to
their property. The fourth or lowest class were not eligible
to office, but they were exempt from taxation, and could
vote for archons and other officers. He also enlarged the
jurisdiction and authority of the court of the Areopagus,
which tended to counteract the excesses of the democratic
element which he infused into the constitution. Pisistratus
usurped the chief power in 560 B.C., ruled as a mild and
liberal tyrant for many years, and left his power to his sons
Hippias and Hipparchus. The first effort to embellish the
city during the historical period appears to have been made
by Pisistratus and his sons. They erected many temples
and other public buildings, and commenced the temple of
Jupiter Olympius, which was the largest temple in Greece,
but it remained unfinished about seven hundred years. The
state was liberated from the mild tyranny of the Pisistra-
tidae by Harmodius and Aristogiſton, who killed Hippar-
chus in 514. Hippias was expelled in 510 B.C. Soon after
Clisthenes made some liberal reforms in the constitution,
which he rendered essentially democratic. He divided the
people of Attica into ten tribes (which were subdivided into
§§uot, townships or parishes), instead of the four ancient
Ionic tribes (ºbvXat). It is important to observe that the
demi assigned to each tribe were in no case all adjacent to
each other; and “the tribe as a whole,” says Mr. Grote,
“ did not correspond with any continuous portion of the
territory, nor could it have any peculiar local interest sep-
arate from the entire community.” This arrangement was
adopted as a precaution against factious movements arising
out of local feuds. About 500 B. C. the Greek colonies of
Ionia revolted against the king of Persia, and were aided
by the Athenians. Provoked by this affront, Darius resolved
to subjugate Greece, and to punish the Athenians in an es-
pecial manner, for which purpose he sent a large army in
490 B. C. Among the ten generals, who commanded the
Athenian army were three illustrious men—Aristides, Mil-
tiades, and Themistocles. The armies met on the plain of
Marathon, where Miltiades gained a decisive victory which
was one of the most momentous events of universal history.
The Spartans did not arrive in time to take part in this
battle. The sagacious Themistocles, foreseeing that this was
only the beginning and not the end of the war, persuaded
the Athenians to build a large fleet. Having spent several
years in diligent preparation for another invasion of Greece,
Xerxes (called the Great) crossed the Hellespont with an
immense army in 480 B. C. The Persians forced the pass
of Thermopylae, defended by a small band of Spartans, for
whose epitaph Simonides wrote two famous lines which may
be thus translated:
“Go tell the Spartans, friendly passer-by, -
That we obeyed their orders, and here lie.”
The Athenians in this crisis consulted the oracle of
Delphi, and received at first an alarming or sinister re-
sponse, to which was finally added this emphatic predic-
tion : “But this assurance I will give you firm as adamant:
when everything else in the land of Cecrops shall be taken,
Jupiter grants to Athens that the wooden wall alone shall
remain unconquered to defend you.” Concluding that the
wooden wall signified the fleet, the Athenians removed their
women and children to Ægina, and Salamis, and evacuated
Athens, which was taken and burned by the Persians. The
Greeks were reduced to a desperate extremity, but in one
day the great naval battle of Salamis (480 B.C.) made an
immense change in their situation, and restored them to
security and triumph. This event was followed by the
rapid development of the maritime power of Athens.
Themistocles fortified the Piraeus, and surrounded Athens
with massive walls sixty stadia in circumference. The
courage and public spirit of the Athenians in the conflict
with the Persians raised their reputation and influence so
high that when many of the Greek states formed a league
for mutual defence, they gave to Athens the hegemony or
chief control of the confederacy. Soon after the battle of
Salamis the Athenians began to rebuild their capital and
to erect those masterpieces of architecture which have ex-
cited the admiration of all succeeding ages. The most
brilliant period in Athenian art was the age of Pericles,
who became the most powerful statesman of Athens about
469 B. C. During his long and able administration AEschy-
lus, Sophocles, Euripides, Socrates, and Phidias flourished.
He made Athens the most splendid city of Greece, and
erected, on the Acropolis, the Parthenon, Erechtheum, and
Propylaea. It was here that Art achieved her greatest tri-
umphs. “In order to form a proper idea of the Acropolis,
we must imagine the summit of the rock stripped of every-
thing except temples and statues, the whole forming one
vast composition of architecture, sculpture, and painting,
the dazzling whiteness of the marble relieved by brilliant
colors, and glittering in the transparent clearness of the
Athenian atmosphere.” (Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Geography.) In 431 B.C. a long war broke out be-
tween the Athenians and the Spartans, who were the ag-
gressors. This was called the Peloponnesian war, which
continued about twenty-seven years, and was disastrous to
the Athenians. During this period, Thucydides, Nicias, and
Alcibiades were prominent public men of Athens. Nicias
conducted a large fleet and army against Syracuse (an
ally of Sparta) in 413 B. C. But the expedition proved a
disastrous failure. Nearly all of his men were killed or
captured. In 404 B.C. the war ended with the capture of
Athens by the Spartan general Lysander, who abolished
the democracy, and established the rule of the Thirty Ty-
rants. Thrasybulus, aided by a body of exiles, expelled
these tyrants within one year after their accession to power.
Athens had lost her political and military Supremacy, but
she still surpassed all other states in art and literature,
and was illustrated by the genius of Plato and Demosthenes.
The latter began his public career about 354 B.C., when
the liberty of Athens was menaced by Philip of Macedon.
He became the leader of the party that opposed Philip,
whom he assailed in his celebrated “Philippics,” the eter-
nal monuments of his political foresight, wisdom, and
magnanimity. The army of Philip gained a decisive vic-
tory over the Athenians and Thebans at Chaeronea, in 338
B. C. Athens and the other Greek states then became sub-
ject to Macedon. In 146 B. C., Greece was reduced to a
Roman province. Athens under the Roman power con-
tinued to enjoy much prosperity, and was the centre of
Grecian philosophy, literature, and art. The great monu-
314
ATHENS.
ments of the age of Pericles still remained in their original
beauty and perfection. The Athenian schools of eloquence
and philosophy attracted great numbers of students from
Rome, and all parts of the civilized world. Here Cicero,
Virgil, and Horace received part of their education. It is
difficult to determine the population of ancient Athens,
which, according to Xenophon, was the most populous city
of Greece. He states that it contained more than 10,000
houses. Leake estimates the population at 192,000, includ-
ing the Piraeus. The private houses were small and poor
compared with the public edifices. The climate was so
genial that the Athenians passed nearly all their time in
the open air.
Monuments and Antiquities.—At the W. end of the Acrop-
olis stood the Propylaea, one of the masterpieces of Athe-
nian art, constructed of Pentelic marble, and finished in 432
B. C. The central part of this building (called Propylaea.
because it formed a vestibule to the gates by which the
Acropolis was entered) consisted of two Doric hexastyle
porticoes, covered with a roof of white marble. Of these
porticoes the western faced the city and the eastern the in-
terior of the Acropolis; the latter, owing to the rise of the
ground, being higher than the former. They were divided
into two parts by a wall pierced by five gates or doors,
which were the only public entrance into the Acropolis.
Considerable remains of the Propylaea are still visible.
Passing through the Propylaea, we come to the Parthenon,
or temple of Athena Parthenos, regarded as the most per-
fect specimen of architecture ever executed. It was de-
signed by Callicrates and Ictinus, was built in the Doric
order of white Pentelic marble, and was completed in 438
B. C. The dimensions were 228 feet long, 101 feet wide,
and 66 feet high to the top of the pediment. It consisted
of a cella, surrounded by a peristyle of forty-six columns,
which were six feet two inches in diameter and thirty-four
feet high. Within the peristyle at either end there was an
interior range of six columns five and a half feet in diam-
eter. In technical language this temple was a peripteral
octastyle, so called because it had eight columns at each
front. “Such,” says Leake, “was the simple structure of
this magnificent building, which, by its united excellencies
of materials, design, and decorations, was the most perfect
ever executed. Its dimensions were sufficiently great to
give an appearance of grandeur and sublimity; and this
impression was not disturbed by any obtrusive subdivision
of parts. . . . There was nothing to divert the spectator's
contemplation from the simplicity and majesty of mass and
outline which form the first and most remarkable object
of admiration in a Greek temple.” The whole building
was adorned within and without with exquisite pieces of
sculpture, the grandest of which was a colossal statue of
Athena, executed by Phidias and formed of ivory and gold.
This statue stood in the largest apartment of the cella. The
Parthenon remained almost entire, except the roof, until
1687, when Athens was besieged by the Venetians. A
quantity of powder which the Turks had placed in the
cella exploded, and reduced the centre of the Parthenon to
a heap of ruins. The columns of the two fronts escaped,
and are still standing, with part of the walls. The Erech-
theum (’Epéx9stov), standing on the Acropolis, was a beau-
tiful temple of the Ionic order, and the most revered of all
the sanctuaries of Athens, being connected with the origin
of the Athenian religion. It was completed about 393
B. C., and adorned with three porticoes and columns, many
of which are now standing. Among the finest edifices of
Athens was the Theseium (Omaetov), or temple of Theseus,
which was built of Pentelic marble about 465 B. C. Its
architecture was of the Doric order, and it was surrounded
by a peristyle of thirty-four columns. The Theseium is
the best preserved of all the monuments of ancient Athens.
The temple itself is nearly perfect, but the sculptures have
received much injury. The site of the Olympeum, or tem-
ple of Jupiter Olympius, is indicated by sixteen gigantic Co-
rinthian columns of marble standing S. E. of the Acropolis.
This exceeded all other temples of Greece in magnitude,
being 354 feet long and 171 wide. It consisted of a cella
surrounded by a peristyle, which had ten columns in front
and twenty on each side. The peristyle, being double in
the sides and having a triple range at either end, consisted
of 120 columns six and a half feet in diameter and above
sixty feet high. Among the interesting places in the
suburbs of Athens were the Academy—in which Plato
taught, and which long continued to be a sanctuary of
philosophy—and the Lyceum, over which Aristotle pre-
sided. Towards the end of the sixth century of the Chris-
tian era Athens began to decline. In 1204 it became the cap-
ital of a duchy which during the fourteenth century belonged
to Naples. In 1394 the Florentine Nerio Acciajuoli be-
came duke of Athens, and his family held this position
until 1456, in which year it was taken by the Turks. Dur-
ing the time of the Turkish rule Athens declined more and
from Huntsville.
more, and had a population of only 6000 or 8000. The
ancient monuments were falling to ruin, and the city itself
presented a true picture of the demoralization of the whole
nation. The Greek war of independence was the cause of
great destruction to the city, so that when in 1830 Attica
was incorporated with Greece, the city was nothing more
or less than a heap of ruins. But when in 1834 it became
the capital of the new kingdom of Greece, it rapidly
changed, and was greatly improved. A royal palace, 300
feet in length and 280 feet wide, was completed in 1843
near Mount Lycabettus. Among the finest modern build-
ings are the university, the cathedral, the mint, the thea-
tre, and the chamber of representatives. The university,
founded in 1836, has about forty professors, and a library
of nearly 90,000 volumes. It is said to be well organized
and flourishing. Athens has also several gymnasia, and a
System of graded free schools. Since the liberation of
Greece from the Turkish yoke the Hellenic people have
been animated by an ardent desire to regenerate their
country by the promotion of education. Athens has a good
harbor, the ancient Piraeus, now called Dráko. Pop. in 1870,
48,107. Pop. of the Piraeus, in 1870, 11,049. (See LEAKE,
“Topography of Athens,” 1841; STUART and REVETT,
“Antiquities of Athens,” 4 vols., 1762–1816; GROTE, “His-
tory of Greece;” WoRDsworth, “Athens and Attica,” 1836;
MURE, “Journal of a Tour in Greece,” 1842; K. O. MüLLER,
article Attica in Ersch and Gruber’s “Encyklopädie;”
BRETON, “Athen,” 1868; WELCKER, “Tagebuch einer griech-
ischen Reise,” 1865.) REVISED BY R. D. HITCHCOCK.
Ath/ens, a county in the S. E. part of Ohio. Area, 430
square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the Ohio
River, and drained by the Hockhocking. The surface is
hilly; the soil is fertile. Grain, wool, and tobacco are ex-
tensively raised. Salt is made from salt-wells. A bed of
coal underlies the whole county and is extensively worked.
Iron is found in this county, which is intersected by the
Marietta and Cincinnati R. R. Capital, Athens. Pop.
23,768.
Athens, a township of Dallas co., Ala. Pop. 3565.
Athens, a post-village, capital of Limestone co., Ala., is
on the Nashville and Decatur R. R., 27 miles W. N. W.
On Sept. 23, 1864, the Confederate gen-
eral Forrest, with a large body of cavalry, invested the
town, held by Colonel Campbell, of the One Hundred and
Tenth U. S. Colored Troops, and 600 men, and demanded
its surrender, which was finally made just as reinforce-
ments were on their way. The place was again occupied
by U. S. forces, and again attacked by the Confederate
general Buford Oct. 2–3, 1864, but this time the place was
firmly held by Colonel Slade, of the Seventy-third Indiana,
and Buford repulsed. Athens has two weekly newspapers.
Pop. 887; of Athens township, 2618.
Athens, a city of Clarke co., Ga., on the Oconee River,
the north-western terminus of the eastern branch of the
Georgia, R. R., which connects it with Augusta, 114 miles
distant, and the southern terminus of the North-eastern
R. R., now being constructed to Rabun Gap, which will
connect with the West at Knoxville, Tenn. It is the seat
of the University of Georgia, the State College of Agricul-
ture, the Lucy Cobb Institute, several other schools of a
high grade, and a number of common schools. It has 10
churches, 2 banks, 1 insurance company, 2 cotton-factories,
I foundry, 1 street railway, I gas company, 4 fire compa-
nies, and 4 newspapers and periodicals. In the contiguous
country are four or five cotton-mills and other manufacto-
ries. Pop. 4251.
J. H. CHRISTY, ED. “SouTHERN WATCHMAN.”
Athens, a township of Ringgold co., Ia. Pop. 502.
Athens, a post-village of Menard co., Ill. Pop. 351.
Athens, a post-township of Somerset co., Me. It is
the seat of an academy, and has manufactures of lumber,
etc. Pop. 1540. *
Athens, a post-township of Calhoun co., Mich. Pop.
1294. -
Athens, a township of Gentry co., Mo. Pop. 2211.
Athens, a post-village of Greene co., N. Y., on the W.
bank of the Hudson River, 29 miles below Albany and op-
posite the city of Hudson. It is the southern terminus of
a branch of the Central R. R. Lime, limestone, bricks, and
ice are extensively produced. Pop. 1793; of Athens town-
ship, 2942.
Athens, a post-village, capital of Athens co., O., is on
the Hockhocking River, and on the Marietta and Cincin-
nati R. R., 41 miles W. S. W. of Marietta. It is the south-
eastern terminus of the Columbus and Hocking Valley.
R. R., which connects it with Columbus, 76 miles distant.
Here is the Ohio University, founded in 1804; also a na-.
tional bank, two weekly papers, and a State lunatic asylum.
Pop. 1696; of township, 3277. ED. “ MESSENGER.”
ATHENS-ATRINSON.
315
Athens, a township of Harrison co., 0. Pop. 1232.
Athens (borough and township), Bradford co., Pa., em-
braces the junction of the North Branch of the Susque-
hanna with the Chemung (once called Tioga) River. Athens
was early known as “Tioga, ’’ or “Tioga Point,” and was
the most important trading-post in the region. The canal
once used along the Susquehanna and Chemung is now
abandoned from Elmira to Pittston, and its bank is occu-
pied by the Lehigh Valley R. R. Company, lessee of the
Pennsylvania and New York Canal and R. R. Company.
The Ithaca and Athens R. R., and also the Southern Cen-
tral R. R. (to Owego and Auburn, N. Y.), unite with the
Lehigh Valley R. R. at Sayers, in Athens township. The
borough is 15 miles N. of Towanda, the county-seat, and
4 miles S. from Waverley—Athens township including
the S. part of Waverley village, which is mostly in N. Y.
There is a post-office at Athens borough, and one at Orcutt’s
Creek, in the N. W. part of the township; a national bank
and two weekly papers in the borough, and a savings bank
in South Waverley (the N. end of the township); two bridges
over the Chemung, two over the Susquehanna, and several
mills, factories, etc. Athens has the oldest academy in the
section, and had Nathanael P. Tallmadge among its early
tutors. Joshua R. Giddings was born at Queen Esther’s
Flats, below the borough, during the migration of his
parents from Connecticut to the Western Reserve. “Span-
ish Hill,” S.W. of Waverley, had a fortification on its sum-
mit, the origin of which is unknown. The region is one of
historical interest and physical beauty. Pop. in 1870,
borough, 965; township, 2256; total, 3221.
- ED. OF “GLEANER.”
Athens, a township of Crawford co., Pa. Pop. 1317.
Athens, a post-village, capital of McMinn co., Tenn.,
on the East Tennessee Virginia and Georgia R. R., 55
miles S. W. of Knoxville. It has one weekly newspaper,
and is the seat of East Tennessee Wesleyan University.
Pop. 974.
Athens, a post-village, capital of Henderson co., Tex.,
178 miles N. of Houston, and 180 miles N. E. of Austin City.
Pop. 545. -
Athens, a post-township of Windham co., Vt. P. 295.
Ath/erime (Atheri'na), a genus of fishes of the family
/#!/?
ºff/º/3%
sº 㺠§
Atherine, or European Sand-Smelt.
Atherinidae, related to the mullet. They have more than
twice as many vertebrae as the mullet, are about six inches
long, and have a broad silvery band along each flank.
The genus comprises many species which abound in the
Mediterranean. The Atherina presbyter is sold in England
under the name of smelt. Those of the U. S. coast are
called “silversides’” and “sand-smelts.” They are mostly
small fishes.
Atherosperma'ceae [from Atherosperma, the name
of one of the general, the name of a natural order of incom-
plete, aromatic exogenous shrubs found in New Holland
and South America, remarkable for having their flowers in
a cup-shaped involucre, and the peculiar anthers of Lau-
I’3,06232.
Ath/erton (CHARLEs GoRDON), an American politician,
born at Amherst, N. H., July 4, 1804. He graduated at
Harvard in 1822. He was a member of Congress 1837–43.
He procured in 1838 the passage of a resolution, that all
petitions or papers relating to slavery should be laid on the
table without being debated, printed, or referred. In 1843
and ’53 he was elected to the Senate of the U. S. Died
Nov. 15, 1853.
Atherton (CHARLEs HUMPHREY), born at Amherst,
N. H., Aug. 14, 1773, graduated at Harvard in 1794, became
a lawyer, and was an enthusiastic Federalist. He was a
member of Congress from New Hampshire (1815–17). Died
at Amherst, N. H., Jan. 8, 1853.
Atherton (HUMPHREY), a native of England who emi-
grated to Massachusetts about 1636. He became a major-
general, and was employed in negotiations with the In-
dians. Died Sept. 17, 1661.
Ath/lete, pla. Ath’letes, or Athle’tae [Gr. 39Antás,
plu. &9Anraíj, a term applied by the ancient Greeks to a per-
son who contended for a prize in public games as a Wrest-
ler, pugilist, or runner; a man who competed for honor or
other rewards in contests of physical strength or agility.
The arena in which the athletae contended was at the great
national festivals, the Olympic, Isthmian, Pythian, and
Nemean games. The victor in these games was treated
with extraordinary honor. He entered his native city
through a breach made in the wall for that purpose, and
his statue was erected in a public place. Plato and other
eminent philosophers took part in athletic contests. At
Rome the athletae formed a college or corporation.
Athlone (Athlwan, i. e. “ford of the moon”), a market-
town of Ireland, on both sides of the river Shannon, about
67 miles W. of Dublin, is chiefly in the county of West-
meath and partly in Roscommon. It is on the railway
from Dublin to Galway, and about two miles S. of Lough
Ree. The Shannon is navigable for steamers above this
town. Athlone Castle, built in the reign of King John, has
been converted into an important military position. P. 6617.
Ath'ol, a thriving manufacturing village of Worcester
co., Mass., in a township of the same name. It is at the
junction of the Vermont and Massachusetts and the Spring-
field Athol and North-eastern R. Rs. It contains three
post-offices, two weekly papers, one national and one savings
bank, and five churches. Cottons, woollens, lumber, wooden
ware, castings, and many other goods are manufactured. P.
3517. R. W. WATERMAN, PUB. AND ED. “CHRONICLE.”
Ath’ole, DUKES OF, and marquesses of Tullibardine
(1703), and of Athole (1676); earls of Tullibardine (1606),
of Athole (1629), and of Strathtay and Strathardle (1703);
viscounts of Balquhidar (1676), of Glenalmond and Glen-
lyon (1703); Barons Murray (1604); Barons Balquhidder
(1606); Barons Balvenie and Gask (1676, in Scotland);
Barons Strange of Knocklyn (1628, in England); Barons
Percy (1722, in Great Britain); Barons Murray of Stanley
(1786, in Great Britain); Earls Strange (1786, in Great
Britain); Lords Glenlyon (1821, in the United Kingdom).
—John JAMES HUGH HENRY STEwART-MURRAY, the sev-
enth duke, was born Aug. 6, 1840, and succeeded his father
in 1864. The dukedom takes its name from Athole, a dis-
trict in Perthshire, Scotland.
Athor, Athyr, or Het=her, an Egyptian goddess,
the daughter of Ra, supposed to correspond to the Aphro-
dite of the Greeks. The cow was regarded as her symbol.
A/thos, Mount (called Hagion Oros. (Aytov 'Opos)
a by the modern Greeks, and Monte Santo by the Ital-
à iams; both names signifying “holy mountain”), a cel-
ebrated mountain of Greece, at the extremity of the
peninsula of Chalcidice (which extends into the AFge-
an), 80 miles S. E. of Salonica. It rises abruptly to
the height of 6350 feet above the sea. Xerxes, king
§ of Persia, cut a canal through the narrow isthmus
sº which connects the peninsula with the mainland, to
avoid the dangerous navigation around the promon-
tory. In the Middle Ages, Mount Athos was occu-
pied by numerous monasteries (whence the modern Greek
and Italian names), and was a celebrated seat of learning.
Here were preserved the remains of famous libraries which
furnished to scholars many valuable Greek manuscripts.
A number of monks, estimated at 6000, still reside on this
mountain, which abounds in beautiful scenery. Recently,
the Russians have gained considerable influence among the
monks. The Russians formerly submitted to all the regu-
lations of the Greek monks. Of late, however, they have
increased so much that the Russian monks now have a ma-
jority in two monasteries. (See GASS, “Zur Geschichte der
Athosklöster,” 1865.) -
Atitlan’, a lake and volcano of Central America, 80
miles N. W. of Guatemala. The lake is 24 miles long, 10
miles wide, and nearly 2000 feet deep. The volcano is
12,500 feet high, in lat. 14° 30' 38' N., lon. 91° 12' 47' W.
The town of Santiago de Atitlan is on the S. side of the
lake. -
Atkarsk', a town of Russia, in the government of Sara-
tov, 50 miles N. W. of Saratov. Pop. in 1867, 8311.
At/lºins, a township of Coosa co., Ala. Pop. 543.
At/kinson, a post-township of Henry co., Ill. P. 1132.
Atkinson, a post-township of Piscataquis Co., Me.
Pop. 810.
Atkinson, a township of Worcester co., Md. Pop. 1312.
Atkinson, a post-township of Rockingham.co., N.H.
It has an academy. Atkinson Dépôt is a station on the
Boston and Maine R. R., 37 miles N. of Boston. Pop. of
township, 488.
Atkinson (ARCHIBALD), born in Isle of Wight 99. Va.,
Sept. 13, 1792, studied law at William and Mary College,
served as an officer in the war of 1812, held prominent
State offices, and was a member of Congress from Virginia
(1843–48). Died Jan. 10, 1872.



316
Atkinson (THEODoRE), born at Newcastle in 1697, be-
came chief justice of New Hampshire in 1754. Died in 1779.
Atlan’ta, the seat of justice of Fulton county, and the
present capital of Georgia. It is the great railroad centre
of the Southern States. It owes its existence as a city to
these great channels of overland transportation, which con-
verge at the site on which it has sprung up and grown with
astonishing rapidity. In 1843, where Atlanta now stands
was an unbroken forest, but it in a few years afterwards
became the terminal point of several important and exten-
sive railroads, to wit: the Georgia, R. R., 171 miles in length,
from the city of Augusta, and, by means of the South Car-
olina, and Hamburg R. R., connecting Atlanta, with Charles-
ton; the Macom and Western R. R., 101 miles in length,
from Macon, thus connecting it, by means of the Georgia.
Central, with Savannah ; the Atlanta and West Point R. R.,
86 miles in length, connecting it by other routes with Mont-
gomery and Mobile, Ala., and New Orleans; the Western
and Atlantic R. R., 138 miles in length, connecting it, at
Dalton and Chattanooga, by other routes, with Knoxville,
Greenville, and other points in East Tennessee, Nashville
in Middle Tennessee, and Louisville in Kentucky, and
Memphis in West Tennessee; the Air Line R. R., connect-
ing it with Richmond, Va., and with several intervening
towns and cities of note and distinction. From the same
common terminal point there is now being constructed the
Georgia Great Western R. R., which when completed will
bring it in connection with the inexhaustible coal-fields of
Alabama. :
Atlanta has sometimes been called the “Gate City.” The
first corporate name given to it was “Marthasville,” in
"honor of the daughter of Hon. Wilson Lumpkin, ex-gov-
ernor of the State. It was not until 1845 that the Georgia.
and Western and Atlantic R. R.s. were completed to this
place. It was about this time that the first settlements were
made. In 1847 a charter was granted for the municipal
government of the new town under the new name of “the
city of Atlanta.” The population was then about 2500.
The new name was suggested by J. Edgar Thomson, the
then chief engineer of the Georgia R. R., but now at the
head of the Pennsylvania, R. R. The idea of the name oc-
curred to him from the geographical position of the place.
It is immediately on the dividing ridge separating the
waters of the Gulf from those of the South Atlantic slope.
The elevation of Atlanta, is 1100 feet above the level of the
ocean, its latitude a little S. of 34° N. It is on a high ridge,
hence its climate is comparatively mild and delightful at
all seasons, the thermometer seldom rising in summer above
90° or falling below 15° in winter. Its atmosphere is dry,
pure, and healthy. These facts have doubtless contributed
greatly to its growth, thrift, and prosperity. When the
other connecting roads were completed it became the centre
of an immense interior trade. In 1850 its population had
more than doubled in three years, and in 1859 it was esti-
mated at over 17,000. -
During the late war Atlanta was the theatre of many
important events. This was the objective point of Gen.
Sherman in his famous campaign of 1864. After many
sanguinary conflicts in his progress from Dalton (from the
7th of May to the last of August), he finally succeeded in
reaching his goal and taking possession of the city on Sept.
2. This he held until Nov. 15, when he set out upon his
grand “march to the sea.” Before starting on this move-
ment he compelled all the inhabitants to leave, and by
general conflagration left the city in ruins. But after the
war was over new life and energy animated the place. As
early as the fall of 1865, Atlanta, Phoenix-like, was “rising
from her ashes.” In 1867 her population was thought to
be quite as large as it was in 1859. In 1868, by the new
constitution, made in pursuance of the requirements of the
reconstruction acts of Congress, it was established as the
future capital of the State. Since then it has continued to
grow and prosper with its former wonderful rapidity. In
1870, according to the Federal census of that year, its en-
tire population, white and black, was 22,789. Its popula-
tion is now (1873) estimated at over 30,000. Its real estate
is now valued at nearly $9,000,000. Several magnificent
churches have recently been erected which would be orna-
ments to any city in the Union, while the Rimball House
as a hotel, in size and dimensions, in interior arrangements,
as well as grandeur of external structure, stands without a
rival in the Southern country. It has three national banks,
three daily, five weekly, and four monthly periodicals.
Space will not allow details as to the various and nume-
rous mechanical and manufacturing enterprises which now
distinguish the energy and spirit of the place, such as work-
shops, factories, foundries, and furnaces of all sorts. One,
however, of these should not be omitted; that is, the Scho-
field Rolling-Mill, with its nail-factory, etc. This mill turns
out all kinds of railroad and merchant iron. It gives em-
ployment to several hundred operatives, and is said to con-
ATKINSON.—ATLANTIC OCEAN.
sume forty tons of coal per day, and produces 400 tons of
pig iron per month.
Atlanta is no less distinguished for its educational than
its industrial enterprises. The Oglethorpe University has
been removed from near Milledgeville to this place; besides
this, it has the North Georgia. Female College, the Atlanta
Medical College, the Atlanta University (colored), Moore's
Southern Business University, Eastman’s Business College,
English and German select school, Orphans’ Free School,
Storr's School (colored), and one of the best general systems
of public schools to be found in any of the States. Atlanta is
also now a port of delivery; the last Congress made a liberal
appropriation for the erection of a custom-house here, and
at no distant day it may be expected that this great centre
of domestic trade will likewise become noted as an empor-
ium of foreign commerce throughout that extensive region
of country over which its network of railroad connections
gives it such wonderful facilities for distribution.
ALEX. H. STEPHENs, E.D. “ATLANTA CoNSTITUTION.”
Atlanta, a post-village and township of Logan co.,
Ill., on the St. Louis Alton and Chicago R. R., 39 miles
N. N. E. from Springfield. There are two steam flouring
mills, one carriage and wagon factory, five churches, two
hotels, one newspaper, and one of the largest and best
school buildings in Central Illinois. Pop. of township, 2339.
A. W. BRIGGS, ED. “ARGUs.”
Atlan’tes [for etymology see below], in architecture,
are statues of figures of the male human form used instead
of columns by the ancient Greeks and Romans. The latter
called them Telamones. Atlantes is merely the Latin plural
form of Atlas, whose shoulders are said to have supported
the heavens. Similar female figures are called Caryatides.
Atlan’tic, a county in the S. S. E. of New Jersey, bor-
dering on the Atlantic Ocean. Area, 620 square miles. It
is bounded on the N. E. by Little Egg Harbor River, and
intersected by Great Egg Harbor River. The surface is
level; the soil is sandy, and near the sea is marshy. Dairy
and garden products are extensively raised. The Camden
and Atlantic R. R. passes through this county. Capital,
May’s Landing. Pop. 14,093.
Atlantic, a post-village of Cass co., Ia., on the East
Nishnabatona River, and on the Chicago Rock Island and
Pacific R. R., 79 miles W. by S. from Des Moines. It has
a national bank and two weekly newspapers. Pop. 1200.
Atlantic, a township of Monmouth co., N. J. Pop.
1713. - - g
Atlantic, a township of Accomack co., Va. Pop. 4111.
Atlan’tic Cit/y, a fashionable watering-place of Atlan-
tic co., N.J., on the Atlantic Ocean, 60 miles S. E. of Phila-
delphia, with which it is connected by the Camden and
Atlantic R. R. This road was opened in July, 1854, since
which time many large hotels have been erected here. Pop.
‘1043.
Atlantic City, a post-village of Sweetwater co., Wy.,
4 miles N. E. of South Pass City, is on Rock Creek. It
has rich placer gold-mines and an aqueduct several miles
long.
Atlantic O’cean [Lat. Atlan’ticus Oce'anus ; Gr. "At-
Aavriki, 6&Agaga or 'Araavruköv TéAayos ; Ger. Atlan’tisches
Meer] is that part of the ocean which separates America
from Europe and Africa, and extends from the Arctic
Circle to the Antarctic Circle. Its extreme breadth is about
5000 miles, and its area about half that of the Pacific. The
part N. of the equator is called the North Atlantic, and
that on the S. side of that line the South Atlantic. The
following bodies of water are parts of the Atlantic : the Bay
of Biscay, the German Ocean, the Irish Sea, the Baltic,
Hudson's Bay, the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and
the Gulf of Guinea. Its chief affluents are the Amazon,
La Plata, Orinoco, Mississippi, and St. Lawrence in Amer-
ica; the Niger, Senegal, and Congo in Africa; and the
Rhine, Loire, and Tagus in Europe. The portion of
America, which is drained into the Atlantic is vastly greater
than that which belongs to the basin of the Pacific. The
greatest depth of the Atlantic yet discovered is about five
miles. The main feature of the Atlantic basin seems to be
a deep valley, which, with an average depth of 20,000 feet
or more, extends along and parallel to the coasts of America.
The so-called telegraphic plateau between Newfoundland
and Ireland has an average depth of 12,000 feet. This is a
remarkable ridge about 400 miles wide and 1640 miles long.
(See DEEP-sea SoundſNgs.) The chief currents of the
Atlantic are the Equatorial Current and the Gulf Stream.
The former moves from the Bay of Benin westward along
both sides of the equator with a mean velocity of about
thirty nautical miles a day, but in some places the velocity
is much greater. Its breadth varies from 200 to 400 miles.
Near Cape St. Roque it divides into two branches, one of
which, called the Brazil Current, runs southward, and the
ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH-ATOMIC WEIGHTS.
- 317
other, called the Guiana. Current, flows north-westward to
the Caribbean Sea. The Gulf Stream originates in the
Gulf of Mexico, passes between Florida and Cuba, and
flows along the coast of the U. S. with a velocity of about
eighty miles a day, gradually expanding in volume. As
it proceeds northward its velocity and temperature both
decrease. Its mean breadth is about 350 miles. Reaching
the latitude of New York, it gradually turns to the E.,
and crosses the Atlantic to the Azores, where it divides.
The northern branch flows to the British Isles, and the
other, turning southward, is swept back by the force of
the North Equatorial Current to the Gulf of Mexico. Thus
is formed near the middle of the North Atlantic a great
whirlpool or eddy, which accumulates a mass of matted sea-
weed (Fucus natans). It is maintained by some that this
weed has its origin at or near the place where it is found in
such abundance, while others think that it is brought here
by the action of the wind and water. This part of the sea,
which is called Mar de Sargasso, is said to be 260,000 square
miles in extent. The water of the Gulf Stream is sometimes
twenty degrees warmer than that of the adjacent ocean. On is-
suing from the Gulf of Mexico it is of a dark-blue color. This
stream contributes greatly to temper the climate of Eng-
land and Ireland. Sailing-vessels from the U. S. to Europe
take advantage of the Gulf Stream, and often make the
voyage in twenty-three days; the voyage in the other
direction is not often performed in less than thirty days,
and the average duration is about forty days. The voyage
from New York to Europe is favored by the prevalence
of S. W. winds, as well as by the Gulf Stream. In the
intertropical regions of the Atlantic the trade-winds pre-
vail with great regularity, blowing nearly westward.
º REv1SED BY A. J. SCHEM.
Atlantic Telegraph. See TELEGRAPH, by PROF. A.
M. MAYER, PH. D.
Atlan’ticville, a post-village of Southampton
township, Suffolk co., N.Y., near the S. shore of Long
Island. Pop. 179.
Atlan’tides [Gr. "Atxavrièss], in classic mythology,
the daughters of Atlas. They were also called Hes-
perides, Pleiades, and Hyades. (See HESPERIDEs.)
Atlan’tis, the name of a large island which, ac-
cording to an ancient tradition that was credited by
the Greek geographers, was situated in the Atlantic
Ocean W. of Africa.
mentions Atlantis is Plato, who states that an Egyp-
tian priest gave Solon a description of it. Plato gives
a beautiful picture of this island, to which he adds a
fabulous history. Nine thousand years before the
time of Plato, Atlantis was (so the legend ran) pop-
ulous and powerful, and conquered the western part
of Europe and Africa. An earthquake afterwards
caused it to sink in the ocean. (See RUDBECK, “At-
lantica,” 4 vols., 1675–98; BAILLY, “Lettres sur
l'Atlan de Platon;” and CARLI, “Lettres Américaines.”)
At/las [Gr. "Atxas], a mythical personage, said to be a
son of Japetus and Clymene, and a brother of Prometheus.
He was represented by the ancient Greek legends as a leader
of the Titans in the war against Jupiter, for which offence
he was condemned to support the vault of heaven on his
head or shoulders. According to some writers who have
rationalized the myth, he was a king who acquired great
skill in astronomy.
Atlas, in anatomy, the first cervical vertebra, the piece
of the vertebral column nearest to the skull. It forms,
with the occipital bone, the joint on which the head moves
in bowing. It turns on the pivot of the second cervical
vertebra, the “ axis,” when we look from side to side.
Atlas [so called because some early collections of maps
had prefixed a picture of Atlas upholding the sphere], a
volume containing a collection of maps, usually including
more or less descriptive letter-press. The name was prob-
ably first applied as the proper title of such a book by Ge-
rard Mercator (1512–94) to his “ Atlas,” published in the
year of his death. Among the best atlases are the works
of Stieler (in German, French, Swedish, Finnish, Italian,
etc.), of Menke, Spruner, Berghaus, Sydow, and others,
illustrating not only geography proper, but history, eth-
nography, geology, astronomy, botany, and other Sciences;
and the works of A. R. Johnston, Black, and numerous
others in Great Britain. Among the oldest American at-
lases are those of Matthew Carey and Burr’s “Atlas of
New York,” both valuable and well executed for the times.
The number of American atlases in later years is very
great, the most complete and widely-known being “John-
son’s Family Atlas of the World,” containing a very
thorough treatise upon physical geography by Prof. Ar-
mold Guyot, Ph. D., LL.D.
Atlas, a post-township of Pike co., Ill. Pop. 1584.
One of the earliest writers who º
Atlas, a post-township of Genesee co., Mich. P. 1501.
Atlas Mountains, a mountain-system of Africa,
mostly in Morocco and Algeria, extends from Cape Gher
on the Atlantic to Cape Bon on the Mediterranean. It is
a congeries of mountains, sometimes isolated and sometimes
connected, with many irregular branches. The system is
divided into the Greater and the Lesser Atlas, the latter of
which is nearer to the Mediterranean. The highest point
of the system is in Morocco, and is estimated at 13,000 feet
above the sea. Mount Miltsin rises to ISI,400 feet. The
mineral resources have not been explored completely, but
numerous metals are found.
At/lee (WASHINGTON L.), M. D., an eminent physician
and Surgeon, was born at Lancaster, Pa., Feb. 22, 1808,
graduated as M. D. at Jefferson Medical College in 1829,
practised at Mount Joy and Lancaster, and was professor
of medical chemistry at the Jefferson College, Philadelphia,
1844–52. He has published more than eighty medical and
Scientific monographs, etc., but is especially distinguished
for his great number of successful operations in ovariotomy.
Atmosphere [from the Gr. 3ruós, “vapor,” and a palpa,
a “sphere’], the aëriform fluid envelope which surrounds
the earth or any celestial body. That of the earth is the only
one with which we are familiar. It is composed of air (a
mixture of 77 parts by weight of nitrogen and 21 of oxygen),
with variable proportions of carbonic acid, aqueous vapor,
and ammonia, the latter in exceedingly small amounts. (For
its physical properties see ACOUSTICs, by PROF. O. N. RooD,
A. M., and PNEUMATICS; see also CLIMATE, STORMs, and
WINDs, by PROF. ARNOLD GUYoT, PH. D., LL.D.)
Atmospheric Engine. See HoT-AIR ENGINE.
Atmospheric Railway. See PNEUMATIC RAILWAY.
Atoll’, or Atoln, a name which the natives of the
Atoll.
Maldive Islands give to a peculiar kind of island that
occurs in the Indian Ocean and parts of the Pacific. It is
a low circular reef of coral, enclosing a lagoon, which in
many instances, but not all, communicates with the ocean
by a narrow inlet, or by more than one. (See article on
CoRAL IsI.ANDs, by PROF. ARNOLD GUYOT, PH. D., LL.D.)
At’om [Lat. at’omus; Gr. &ropos, “that which cannot
be cut,” “indivisible,” from a, priv., and réuvo, to “cut,”
| to “divide”], a minute, indivisible particle of matter. Ac-
cording to one theory of speculative philosophy, matter is
infinitely divisible. On the other hand, many modern
chemists maintain that all matter consists of ultimate, in-
divisible, and indestructible particles. They believe that
all the atoms of each element have the same weight and
form, but the atoms of different elements have unequal
weights. Many scientific men suppose that all atoms are
spherical. The tendency of recent scientific research has
been to prove that the chemical atom and physical atom
are not identical. (See ATOMIG WEIGHTS and CHEMISTRY.)
Atomicity. See CHEMISTRY.
Atomic Theory. See CHEMISTRY.
Atom’ic Wol’ume of a gas is the space occupied by a
quantity of it proportional to its atomic weight. . It is as-
certained that I equivalent or 16 grains of oxygen at 60°
F., and at a barometric pressure of 30 inches, occupy 46.6
cubic inches; 1 equivalent or 1 grain of hydrogen occupies
46.7 cubic inches; and 1 equivalent or 35.5 grains of
chlorine occupy 46.2 cubic inches; consequently the atomic
volume of hydrogen, chlorine, and oxygen is the same.
Other gases exhibit a similar relation, and an attempt has
lately been made to carry out an analogous relation in re-
gard to liquids and solids.
Atom’ic Weights, or Chem’ical Equi’valents,
the proportions by weight in which chemical elements unite.
One element must be selected as the starting-point of the
---

318
ATOMIZATION.—ATRIDES.
series, and an arbitrary value affixed to it, and thereafter all
the other elements can have their values awarded to them
according to the proportional amounts in which they com-
bine. It can be demonstrated that a given amount of one
element is equivalent to, and serves the same purpose in
combining with, a second element as a greater or less,
amount of a third substance. Hydrogen is by some writers
taken as 1, and all the other elements are represented by a
quantity which is the minimum amount in which they unite
with 1 of hydrogen. By others oxygen is regarded as the
starting-point of the series, and is called 100, whilst the
other elements have a proportional number attached. (For
a table of the atomic weights, see CHEMISTRY.)
Atomiza’tion. . In practical medicine this is the very
minute subdivision of liquids for inhalation or application
to the throat. . It was first introduced in France by Sales-
Girons. It is effected by forcing a fine jet of liquid against
either a solid body or a strong current of air, so as to con-
vert it into diffused spray. Bergson, for instance, applied
to this use the tubes used as odorators to spread perfumed
liquids through the air. Two glass tubes with minute ori-
fices are fixed at right angles to each other, so that the end
of the upright tube is near and opposite to the centre of the
orifice of the horizontal tube. The upright tube being
placed in the liquid to be atomized, air is forcibly blown
through the horizontal one. The current of air passing
over the outlet of the upright tube rarefies the air in the
latter, causing a rise of the liquid through it, and its very
minute subdivision (atomization, nebulization, pulveriza-
tion) as it escapes. Siegle has applied steam-power, gen-
erated by the heat of a spirit-lamp, to the propulsion of
vapor for atomization. Richardson's hand-ball, spray-pro-
ducer is a simpler apparatus, constructed essentially upon
the same principle. One of its uses is, by the rapid evap-
oration of ether or rhigolene, to produce a great degree of
cold for local anaesthesia (i.e. to annul sensibility in a part
for a surgical operation).
Atone’ment [literally, “at-one-ment,” i.e. being made
at one with God] is generally applied to the reconciliation
between God and man brought about by the sufferings and
death of Christ. This doctrine of reconciliation, by means
of expiatory suffering, was common to nearly all the an-
cient religions, hence their rites and sacrifices. The blood
of man, as being the noblest of created beings, was esteemed
the highest propitiation, and therefore the death of Christ,
who was both God and man, was the greatest sacrifice that
could possibly be made for the sins of the world. Various
evangelical writers, while they all agree in resting the sin-
ner's hope of salvation upon the sacrifice of Christ, have
set forth somewhat different views concerning the nature
and mode of operation of the Saviour's mediatorial work.
To Anselm (who became archbishop of Canterbury in 1093)
is ascribed the first explicit exposition of the doctrine of
the atonement as it has been commonly taught in modern
times. The following is a condensed statement of his doc-
trine: The infinite guilt which man had contracted by
the dishonor of his sin against the infinitely great God
could be atoned for by no mere creature; only the God-
man Christ Jesus could render to God the infinite satisfac-
tion required. God only can satisfy himself. The human
nature of Christ enables him to incur, the infinity of his
divine nature to pay, this debt. But it was incumbent
upon Christ as a man to order his life according to the law
of God; the obedience of his life therefore was not able to
render satisfaction for our guilt. But although he was
under obligation to live in obedience to the law, as the
Holy One he was under no obligation to die. Seeing, then,
that he nevertheless voluntarily surrendered his infinitely
precious life to the honor of God, a recompense from God
became his due, and his recompense consists in the forgive-
ness of the sins of his brethren. The following is a pres-
entation of the views of some of the leading theological
writers of the present age. The Rev. F. D. Maurice con-
siders the doctrine of the atonement as the answer which
the Bible gives to the demands of an awakened conscience.
In his view the work of reconciliation has been accom-
plished substantially as follows: The will of God is good
to all, and is right, just, and gracious; the Son of God
being one in will, purpose, and substance with the Father,
his whole life on earth was an exhibition of, and submis-
sion to, his Father's will; the Son was Lord, Root, and
Head of humanity; being thus one with God and one with
man, he brought the will of God into our nature, fulfilled
it in our nature, which had fallen through sin. In our na-
ture, as its Head, he shared that punishment which pro-
ceeded from love, with an anguish which only a perfectly
pure and holy Being can feel; that Jesus was for this rea-
son the object of his Father's continual complacency—a
complacency fully drawn out by the death of the cross,
which so perfectly brought out to view the uttermost power
of self-sacrifice which lay hidden in the divine love, and
consequently that he exhibited humanity, in its Head,
atomed for, reconciled. In this way, to Mr. Maurice, is
Christ “the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of
the world.” Archbishop Trench, who fairly represents the
more thoughtful orthodox opinion of the present day, says:
“The spirit of man cries out for something deeper than
repentance, confession of sin, amendment of life—some-
thing which shall reach farther back, which shall not be
clogged with sinful infirmities, as his own repentance even
at the very best must be. Men cry for some work to rest
upon which shall not be their work, but which shall be
God’s; perfect, complete. They feel that there must be some-
thing which God has wrought, not so much in them as for
them; they yearn for this, for atonement, propitiation, ran-
som, and conscience purged from dead works by the blood
of sprinkling; a rock to flee to which is higher than they,
than their repentance, than their faith, than their obedience,
even than their new life in the Spirit. Now, this rock is
Christ; and John the Baptist pointed to this rock when, to
those about him who longed after more than amendment
of life, he exclaimed, in the memorable words, ‘Behold the
Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world.”
In the writings of Rev. F. W. Robertson and Horace’Bush-
mell there is an expansion of the scriptural teaching that
the atonement was the act of God himself: “God was in
Christ, reconciling the world to himself” (2 Corinthians v.
19). As Robertson says, “The death of Christ was the
sacrifice of God—the manifestation, once in time, of that
which is the eternal law of his life.” With Bushnell, this
law of divine love involves an “eternal cross,” of suffering
from the sin and with the pain of all his creatures who suf-
fer; the life of Christ on earth and his humiliation and
crucifixion being “lustral,” or designed to eachibit this per-
fect sacrificing love; by which manifestation, through its
moral influence upon the hearts of men, being “lifted up,
he will draw all men unto him.” (John xii. 32.) Bushnell
endeavors (not without some success) to show that this
participation, in suffering by the Divine Being is not in-
compatible with the supreme felicity which we associate
with his nature; as, even in our own experience, joy and
sorrow are sometimes conjoined. By this view of the atone-
ment Bushnell considers that we are enabled to set aside
the popular idea of a judicial or penal satisfaction rendered
by the sacrifice of Christ, or of a price paid or a ransom
exacted in the literal sense. The general feeling of Prot-
estant Christians, however, appears to require a recogni-
tion, in the doctrine of the atonement, of the benefit to man
of Christ's sufferings, as not merely a manifestation of God’s
reconciling love, but as in some manner (though it be mys-
terious) substitutive for man, in accepting what men have
deserved by sin, and as the means of procuring, in the
divine economy of the universe, that grace of the Holy
Spirit by the work of which our salvation is, individually,
to be accomplished. By those who accept the Scriptures
as divine revelation it is not considered strange that a part
of this, as of other doctrines, may yet remain not fully un-
derstood. (See NEANDER, “ Christliche Dogmengeschichte;”
CALv1N, “Institutes of the Christian Religion;” EDWARDS,
“Concerning the Necessity and Reasonableness of the
Christian Doctrine of Satisfaction for Sin;” PAYNE, “Lec-
tures on Divine Sovereignty;” CHALMERs, “Institutes of
Theology;” CAMPBELL (JoHN M'LEOD), “Nature of the
Atonement,” etc.; J. J. TAYLOR, Unitarian, “Discourse on
Christ the Mediator;” MAURICE, “Theological Essays;”
TRENCH, “Pive Sermons” (sermon on “Christ the Lamb
of God”). See also F. W. RoBERTSON, “Sermons” (1st
series, Sermon ix.; 3d series, Sermon vii.); HoRACE BUSH-
NELL, “Vicarious Sacrifice;” WATson (Methodist), “Insti-
tutes.” - REVISED BY HENRY HARTSHORNE.
Atra/to, a river of South America, in U. S. of Colombia,
rises near the Cordillera, flows northward through Choco,
and after a course of about 300 miles enters the Gulf of
Darien by several mouths. It is navigable for small ves-
sels about 140 miles, and traverses a region rich in gold.
In 1857 the government of the U. S. sent an expedition to
explore a route for a ship-canal from the Atrato to the
Pacific. It is stated that the rainy season continues all
the year in the valley of this river. In 1870-72 the explo-
rations under the direction of Capt. Selfridge, U. S. navy,
have been resumed, and all the routes between Panama and
the Atrato examined, with results far from realizing the
hopes entertained of a favorable route.
A/treus [Gr. 'Arpegs], an ancient and celebrated king
of Mycenae, was called a son of Pelops. He was the father
of the famous Atridae—i. e. Agamemnon and Menelaus.
The story of Atreus and his family was embellished by the
ancient fabulists and tragic poets with many wild legends,
involving horrible crimes and calamities.
Atri'des [Gr. 'Arpetëns], plural Atri'dae ['Arpetóatl, a
ATRIUM-ATTIC.
319
patronymic from Atreus, signifies a son or descendant of
Atreus. The name in the singular is more usually applied
to Agamemnon, but the plural is used to designate the two
brothers, Agamemnon and Menelaus.
A/trium, a Latin word signifying a court, a hall. In
Roman architecture the atrium was an entrance-hall or
central apartment, which was the principal part of a private
house. In this room the family lived and took their meals.
Here stood the Lares and Penates, and here the female ser-
vants were employed in weaving and other labors. The
atrium was also used as a waiting-room for clients and
other visitors. In ecclesiastical architecture the term de-
notes an open space before a church, forming part of the
marthex or ante-temple.
At/ropine, or Atro/pia, a peculiar alkaline principle
obtained from the Atropa Belladonna, is very poisonous. It
exists in all parts of the plant. A very minute portion of
it has the power to dilate the pupil of the eye. Atropine
is composed of carbon, 70.98; oxygen, 16.36; hydrogen,
7.83; and nitrogen, 4.83. -
A/trypa [from the Gr. a, priv., and Tpºrn, a “foramen,”
i. e. “without a foramen ;” an objectionable name, since
it is not true of these shells], a genus of fossil brachiopod
shells which closely resemble the Terebratula. It had a
perforation for the passage of the peduncle, by which the
animal attached itself to foreign bodies. Many species of
it have been described, the most of which are Silurian,
many Devonian, but all palaeozoic.
Attach/ment [Fr. attachement], the apprehension of a
person or seizure of a thing by virtue of a writ or order
issued by a court or judge under authority of law. The
word is sometimes used to denote the process itself. In
respect to property, the term is usually applied to seizure
on mesne process. Attachment was originally one of the
common-law means of obtaining an appearance in an ac-
tion by the defendant. In some of the States a plaintiff
can at the commencement of any action to recover money
attach the property of the defendant as a security for the pay-
ment of the judgment expected to be recovered; and in case
of recovery the property is to be applied in satisfaction of
the judgment. But the more usual rule is that there can be no
seizure of property, except in specified cases, till the rights
of the parties have been settled by judgment of the court.
The exceptions are chiefly in cases where the defendant is
a non-resident or a fraudulent debtor, or is attempting to
conceal or remove his property for the purpose of defraud-
ing or delaying his creditors. An attachment is said to be
foreign where a creditor attaches property in the hands of a
third person belonging to his debtor, or a debt due from
a third person to such debtor. The name is said to arise
from the fact that the proceeding is often resorted to for
the purpose of collecting a debt against a non-resident.
In some of the Eastern States this proceeding is called
“trustee process;” in other States it is generally known as
“garnishment,” meaning a warning. Foreign attachment
was derived from local customs in London and other cities,
and formed no part of the general law of England.
2. Against the Person.—This is issued against officers of
the court for any misconduct or neglect of duty, and against
any one who has been guilty of contempt of court. The ob-
ject of the attachment is to bring the guilty party actually
before the court. He has then an opportunity to show cause
why he should not be found guilty, or, in legal language, to
“purge himself of the contempt.” If he cannot do this,
he is subject to such punishment as the law permits and
the court may award. T. W. DWIGHT.
Attain’der [Old Fr. attaindre, to “stain’], in law, is
the extinction of civil rights as the consequence of a judi-
cial sentence of death for a capital crime. From this mo-
ment the criminal was deemed to be legally dead, incapable
of bringing an action except to reverse the attainder, or of
appearing in court as a witness. Its two most important
consequences are forfeiture and corruption of blood. The
effect of forfeiture upon the offender's land was such that
it related back to the time of the commission of the offence,
and avoided intermediate sales, even to purchasers in good
faith. The consequence of corruption of blood was that
the person attainted was incapable of inheriting himself or
of transmitting an estate by inheritance to another. Thus,
if a grandfather owned land, and a son were attainted, his
descendant could not inherit from the grandfather, even
though the son were dead when the land passed from the
grandfather. This harsh rule is now modified in England
by statute. Forfeiture, except in cases of treason and mur-
der, does not extend in the case of estates of land beyond
the natural life of the offender. By the U. S. Constitution
no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or
forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted.
In case of rebellion the U. S. might regard the rebels either
as belligerents or traitors. In the former aspect of the case
º
of the Romans in a war against Philip of Macedon.
they would not be bound by the restriction just referred to,
but might, under the rules of public law applicable to a
state of war, confiscate their property. If, however, they
were treated as subjects and as guilty of treason, the re-
striction of the Constitution would become operative.
Attakapas, at-tuk/a-paw, a large and fertile district
in the southern part of Louisiana, comprising, according to
old maps, several parishes. It produces large quantities
of sugar and molasses. Though often used in conversation,
the name has no legal existence, and is not employed in
the census. w
Atta'ia, a county of the central part of Mississippi.
Area, 630 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the
Big Black River, and intersected by the Yukamokluna (or
Yockanockany) Creek. The surface is undulating or nearly
level; a part of the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, tobacco,
cotton, wool, and potatoes are the chief crops. Capital,
Kosciusko. Pop. 14,776.
Atta’lea, a genus of palms of numerous species, natives
of tropical South America. They generally have lofty,
cylindrical, and smooth stems, but some are stemless. Their
large pinnate leaves are used for thatching, mats, etc. The
fruit is a mut enclosed in a dry fibrous husk. The Attalea
compta bears an eatable fruit about as large as a goose egg.
The leaf-stalks of Attalea funifera, which grows in the
maritime parts of Brazil, and is there called piassaba, yield
a fibre much used to make cordage which is very strong and
durable in salt water.
At/talus I., king of Pergamus, was born 269 B. C.
He succeeded his cousin, Eumenes I., in 241 B. C., defeated
the Gauls who had occupied Galatia, and became an ally
PHe
was reputed a wise ruler and able general. Died in 197.
Attalus II., surnamed PHILADELPHUs, born about 220
B. C., was the second son of Attalus I. He succeeded his
brother, Eumenes II., in 159 B.C., was a constant ally of the
Romans, and patronized arts and sciences. Died in 138.
Attalus (FLAVIUS PRISCUs), a Roman emperor, born
probably in Ionia, was converted from paganism to Arian-
ism. He was prefect of Rome when that city was cap-
tured by Alaric in 409 A.D., and was proclaimed emperor
by that conqueror in the same year. He was deposed by
Alaric in 410, and banished by Honorius in 416 A. D.
At/taman, or Het/man, the title of the chiefs of the
Cossacks, formerly elected by the people. (See CoSSACKs.)
After the revolt of Mazeppa the office was suppressed by
the czar of Russia until 1750. Catharine II. abolished the
office among the Cossacks of the Ukraine; among those of
the Don it still exists, but its prerogatives have been great-
ly reduced. The heir-apparent of the Russian crown is
principal attaman of the Cossacks, but there are numerous
subordinate chiefs having the same title.
At/tar of Roſses [from the Arab. itr, “perfume’], the
oil or essence of Rosa centifolia and its varieties, Ro8&
damascena and Rosa moschata. It is prepared by distil-
lation of the petals in Persia, India, and other Eastern
countries, whence it is exported in Small vials. It is very
costly, and is often adulterated: 100,000 roses, from 10,000
bushes, are said to yield but 180 grains of attar. It is often
called otto of roses. That of Adrianople is called the best.
At/terbury (FRANCIs), an eminent English prelate,
writer, and politician, born at Middleton-Keynes, in Buck-
inghamshire, Mar. 6, 1662. He entered Christ Church, Ox-
ford, in 1680, graduated in 1687, and became lecturer in
St. Bride's Church, London, in 1691. Having gained dis-
tinction as a pulpit orator, he was appointed a chaplain
to the king. He was the author of a witty but superficial
“IExamination of Dr. Bentley’s Dissertations on the Epis-
tles of Phalaris,” which appeared under the name of
“Charles Boyle” in 1698. He was a Jacobite in politics,
and a zealous defender of High Church doctrines. He was
appointed chaplain to Queen Anne in 1702, dean of Carlisle
in 1704, and bishop of Rochester in 1713. His turbulent
and imperious temper several times involved him in diffi-
culties, and his hopes of promotion were blasted by the
death of Queen Anne in 1714. He was a friend of Pope,
Swift, and Bolingbroke. In Aug., 1722, he was committed
to the Tower on a charge of treason as an accomplice
in plots for the restoration of the Stuarts. He was con-
victed by the House of Lords in May, 1723, and was con-
demned to perpetual banishment. He became a resident of
Paris, where he died Feb. 15, 1732. Four volumes of his
sermons were published in 1740. His reputation as a writer
is founded on his sermons and letters, which have great
literary merits. (See his “Epistolary Correspondence,” 4
vols., 1783, edited by J. Nichols; THOMAS STACKHOUSE,
“Memoirs of the Life of Francis Atterbury,” 1727.)
At/tic [Lat. At’ticus; Gr. Arrukós], pertaining to Attica.
or to its capital, Athens; marked by such qualities as were
320
ATTIC–ATTFACTION.
characteristic of the Athenians. An Attic style designates
that which is pure, classical, and elegant. Attic base is the
base of a column used in the Ionic and Corinthian, and
sometimes in the Doric, orders. Attic wit and Attic salt
signify a poignant and delicate wit especially characteris-
tic of the Athenians.
Attic, a term in architecture applied to a low story
rising above the cornice that terminates the main elevation
of a building; a sky-lighted room next to the roof of a
private dwelling-house.
At’tica [Gr. 'Arrukºil, a state of ancient Greece, bounded
on the N. by Boeotia, on the E. by the AEgean Sea, on the
S. W. by the Saronicus Sinus, and on the W. by Megaris.
It occupied a triangular peninsula, at the S. E. extremity
of which is the promontory of Sunium. A range of hills
called Mount Cithaeron extends along the northern border.
The surface is diversified by limestone hills and plains, the
soil of which is light and unproductive. About 10 miles
N. E. of Athens rises Mount Pentelicus, which has an alti-
tude of 3884 feet, and contains inexhaustible quarries of
white marble of a superior quality. Among the prominent
physical features of the country are Mount Hymettus, about
3500 feet high, and Mount Laurium, whose silver-mines
have recently attracted again great attention. The princi-
pal streams are the Cephissus and Ilissus, which flow south-
westward into the Saronic Gulf. The climate is dry and
extremely pleasant. The chief productions are wheat,
olives, figs, and grapes. Rich silver-mines were worked at
Laurium. Attica was very advantageously situated for
commerce, and was at one time the greatest maritime pow-
er of the world. The people of Attica, who belonged to
the Ionic division of the Hellenic race, planted colonies in
various distant lands. The region which they colonized
on the western coast of Asia Minor was called Ionia. The
capital of Attica was Athens (Athenae), and the inhabitants
of Attica were citizens of Athens, possessing the right to
assemble in the capital, and take part in the legislative
and judicial proceedings. The ancient population is esti-
mated at 500,000, the majority of whom were slaves. Mod-
ern Attica is deficient in forest trees, and presents an arid
and rather desolate aspect, except in spring. (For the his-
tory of Attica, see ATHENs.) ATTICA and BCEOTIA form a
department of the modern kingdom of Greece, comprising
Megaris and the islands of Egina and Salamis. It has an
area of 2481 square miles. The soil is less fertile than it
was in ancient times, and is not well cultivated, but it still
produces olives, grapes, and some wheat. Pop. in 1870,
136,804.
Attica, a city of Fountain co., Ind., on the Wabash
River and Canal, and the Toledo Wabash and Western R. R.,
21 miles W. S. W. of Lafayette. It is also the northern
terminus of the Indiana, North and South R. R. It has a
national bank, waterworks, a fine public school building,
three wagon, carriage, and plough factories, and a Weekly
newspaper. Pop. 2273. •
B. F. HEGLER, E.D. of “LEDGER.”
Attica, a township of Lapeer co., Mich. Pop. 1620.
Attica, a post-village of Wyoming co., N. Y., is on
Tonawanda, Creek and on the Attica branch of the Erie
R. R., 31 miles E. of Buffalo. It has several churches, two
banking offices, and a weekly paper. Pop. 1333; of Attica
township, 2546. C. F. MELOY, ED. of “NEws.”
Attica, a post-village of Venice township, Seneca co.,
O. Pop. 370.
At’ticus (TITUs PosſPontus), an accomplished Roman of
the equestrian order, born in 109 B. C. During the war
between Sulla and Marius he remained neutral, and passed
many years (88–66) in Athens, to which city he rendered im-
portant services. He was an intimatefriend of Cicero. Hay-
ing returned to Rome in 65 B.C., he declined to take part in
political affairs, and distinguished himself by his modera-
tion, generosity, and mediatorial spirit. He was on friendly
terms with the leaders of both parties that divided the Ro-
mans. He wrote, besides other books, an epitome of Roman
history called “Annales,” but all his works are lost. His
daughter was the wife of M. Vipsanius Agrippa, the emi-
ment statesman. Died in 32 B.C. (See CoRN. NEPOs, “Life
of Atticus;” HüLLEMANN, “Diatribe in T. Pomponium At-
ticum,” 1838.)
At’tila [Gr. 'Atrixas; in Ger. Et'zel or At'zel; in Hung.
Ethele], a famous barbaric conqueror and king of the Huns,
was a son of Mundzuc (or Mundzuccus). He succeeded his
uncle Roas as king of the Huns in 434 A. D., his subjects .
being nomadic hordes who occupied Pannonia and Sarma-
tia. He extended his dominion by conquest over Germany
and Scythia, and obtained the surname of THE SCOURGE OF
GoD. The Vandals, Ostrogoths, and Gepidae fought under
his banner. In 447 A. D. he invaded the Roman empire
of the East, and defeated the armies of Theodosius II., who
obtained peace by the payment of an annual tribute after
the Huns had devastated, Thrace and Macedonia. Marcian,
who succeeded Theodosius II. in 450 A.D., refused to pay
tribute to Attila, saying, “I have gold for my friends and
iron for my enemies.” In 451 A. D. Attila invaded Gaul
with an army estimated at 700,000 men, and besieged Or-
leans (Aurelianwm), which was relieved by the approach of
a Roman army commanded by Aëtius. Attila retired to
Champagne, and awaited the enemy on the Catalaunian
plain, near the site now occupied by Châlons-sur-Marne.
Here he was defeated in a great battle by the combined
armies of Aëtius and Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, in
June, 451 A. D. It is stated that 250,000 men or more
were killed in this battle. Attila then retreated into Ger-
many. In 452 he led an army into Northern Italy, which
he ravaged, and threatened Rome. The emperor Valen-
tinian III., unable to defend his capital, invoked the media-
tion of Pope Leo I., who had an interview with Attila, and
persuaded him to grant the Romans a truce. Attila retired .
from Italy, and died in Pannonia in 453 A.D., on the night
after his marriage with Ildico. He was buried by night, and
the prisoners who dug his grave were killed, in order that
the place of his burial might be kept secret. He had two
sons, named Ellac and Dengezic. His actions form the
principal subject of the “Niebelungen-Lied.” (See JoENAN-
DEs, “De Rebus Geticis;” GIBBON, “Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire,” chaps. xxxiv. and xxxv.; W.M. HERBERT's
epic poem entitled “Attila,” 1828; CALLIMACHUs ExPE-
RIENs, “De Gestis Attilae,” 1541; FESSLER, “Attila, König
der Hunnen,” 1794; AMíDáE THIERRY, “Attila dans les
Gaules,” 1852.) ... "
At’tleborough, a township of Bristol co., Mass., 30
miles by railroad S. S. W. of Boston. It has one national
bank, one savings bank, two public libraries, one loan and
fund association, a newspaper, nine churches, two hotels,
and two high schools. Its villages are connected by tele-
graph and railway. Here are extensive manufactures of
jewelry, calicoes, clocks, buttons, braids, etc. Pop. 6769.
ED. OF “CHRONICLE.”
Attor/ney [Old Fr. attorner, to “prepare,” to “direct”],
one who acts for or on behalf of another. Attorneys are
of two kinds—in fact and at law. An attorney in fact is
an agent, though the term is commonly applied to one who
is authorized to act for another by a writing called a power
of attorney. An attorney at law is one who is authorized
by law to act in the place of another in the management
or conduct of law proceedings. In England the term is
employed to denote a class of legal practitioners whose
duties are preliminary to those of the barrister, who con-
ducts the cause in court. An attorney is admitted there
after a prescribed term of study, on passing an examina-
tion directed by the court. Barristers come to the bar
through the action of voluntary societies of lawyers which
have existed for several centuries. In the U. S. the same
person is in general admitted both as counsellor (answer-
ing to barrister) and attorney, and examined in the same
manner and under the same authority as to his qualifica-
tions to perform both classes of duties. An attorney is an
officer of the court, and liable to be punished for a breach
of duty, and in aggravated cases to have his name stricken
from the roll, and thus lose his right to practice. His duties
to his client require the exercise of reasonable care. He is
responsible for negligence or wilful default whereby his cli-
ent sustains loss; for example, for the disclosure by him of
confidential communications. He is entitled to compensa-
tion, and has a lien upon his client’s papers or securities
in his possession, and upon any judgment obtained through
his exertions.
Attorney-General is an officer under the English
government whose duty...it is to prosecute for the king in
criminal matters, and to manage civil actions or proceed-
ings where his revenue or other property is concerned, as
well as to enforce public rights. An illustration is a pro-
ceeding for the establishment of charitable foundations by
a court of justice, and the correction of abuses in their
management. The U. S. and the respective States have'a
ublic officer of the same name, with similar duties.
§. law affords a more complete definition of them.
Attorney, Power of.
PROF. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.
Attrac/tion [Lat. attractio, from ad, “to,” and traho, to
“draw "], the tendency of bodies to approach each other and
unite; the force which brings bodies together and resists
their separation. The principal kinds of attraction are—
the attraction of gravitation (see GRAVITATION); capillary
attraction; chemical attraction (see AFFINITY); the attrac-
tion of cohesion, which unites the particles of a body, and
operates only between two portions of matter that are in
contact; and magnetic attraction (see MAGNETISM). These
attractions are divisible into two classes—l, those which
See Power of ATToRNEY, by
*"
ATTRIBUTE–AUBREY.
321
act at sensible and measurable distances, as gravitation and
magnetic attraction; and 2, those which extend only to ex-
tremely small or insensible distances, as chemical attraction
and the attraction of Čohesion. -
ATTRACTION OF MoUNTAINs. In 1774, Maskelyne made
an experiment on the mountain Schehallion, in Perthshire,
to ascertain the attraction of mountains. This and subse-
quent experiments have established the fact that mountains
are capable of producing sensible deflections of the plumb-
lines of astronomical instruments.
At/tribute [from the Lat. attribuo (composed of at for
ad, “to,” and trib/wo, tribw/tum, to “give”), to “give to,”
to “assign”] denotes, primarily, any quality or power which
is by universal consent attributed to a being. Hence, we
speak of the “attributes of God,” and in a similar manner
of those of some particular man or of the human race. In
logic, it signifies the opposite of substance, and the same as
predicate.
ATTRIBUTE, in the fine arts, is a symbol used to distin-
guish and characterize certain figures.
is the attribute of Neptune; the caduceus, that of Mer-
cury; the owl, that of Minerva. Attributes are either es-
sential or conventional. Essential attributes have some real
relation or resemblance to the object or idea to be repre-
sented. - -
At'tucks (CRISPUs), the leader of the mob in Boston
which attacked the British troops Mar. 5, 1770, was a
mulatto or half-breed Indian. He was killed in this affray,
which was called “the Boston Massacre.”.
At'water, a post-township of Portage co., O. P. 1180.
Atwater (CALEB), born at North Adams, Mass., Dec.
25, 1778, graduated at Williams College in 1804, became a
lawyer, went to Ohio in 1811, resided at Circleville, and
was an Indian commissioner under Jackson. He pub-
lished a “Tour to Prairie du Chien " (1831), “Western
Antiquities” (1833), “History of Ohio’’ (1838), and other
works. Died Mar. 13, 1867.
Atwater (JEREMIAH), D. D., born at New Haven,
Conn., in 1774, graduated at Yale in 1793, was a college tutor
(1795–99), first president of Middlebury College, Vt. (1800–
09), and president of Dickinson College, Pa. (1809–15).
Died July 29, 1858.
Atwater (LYMAN HOTCHKIss), D. D., born at Hamden,
Conn., Feb. 23, 1813, graduated at Yale in 1831, was a
tutor and theological student at Yale (1832–35), pastor of
First Congregational church in Fairfield, Conn. (1835–54),
became in 1854 professor of mental and moral philosophy,
and afterwards of logic and moral and political science, at
Princeton, N. J. He became editor of the “Princeton
Review” in 1869. He has published a “Manual of Logic”
(1867), and contributed much to periodical literature.
At’well, a township of Rowan co., N. C. Pop. 2051.
At/wood, or Attwood (GEORGE), F. R. S., an Eng-
lish mathematician, born in London in 1745. He was a
fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, where he lectured on
natural philosophy. He published a “Treatise on the
Rectilinear Motion and Rotation of Bodies” (1784), a “Dis-
sertation on the Construction of Arches” (1801), and other
works. He invented a machine noticed below. (See AT-
wooD's MACHINE.) Died July, 1807. *
Atwood’s Machine was invented by George Atwood
(noticed above) to demonstrate the laws of uniformly ac-
celerated motion, and illustrate the relations of time, space,
and motion in the case of a body fallifig under the action
of gravitation. This machine is so constructed by means
of pulleys and wheels that turn with the least possible
friction, that a weight (or falling body) suspended from
one of the pulleys descends much more slowly, than a body
falling in free space, yet increases in velocity in the same
ratio as when falling in the air. (See FALLING BoDIEs.)
Aubagne, a town of France, in the department of
Bouches-du-Rhône, 22 miles by rail E. of Marseilles. It
has manufactures of paper, pottery, and leather, and ex-
ports excellent wine. Pop. in 1866, 7408.
Aubaine, Droit d”, a French term, denotes the right
of a sovereign to inherit the property of a foreigner dying.
intestate without native-born heirs. This practice was abol-
ished in 1790, but was restored by Napoleon I. (See INTERNA-
TIONAL LAW No.I., by PREs. T. D. WoolsBY, S.T.D., LL.D.)
Aubbeenaubbee, a twp. of Fulton co., Ind. Pop. 745.
Aube, 6b, a river of France, rises in Haute-Marne,
flows north-westward through the department of Aube,
and after a course of 124 miles enters the Seine about 24
miles below Troyes. , - . . . . . * * . ... "
Aube, a department in the N. E. part of France, was.
formed of the southern portion of the province of Cham-
pagne and a small part of Burgundy. It is bounded on
the N. by º department of Marne, on the E. by Haute-
I
Thus, the trident
eral valuable works in manuscript.
Marne, on the . S. by Côte-d'Or and Yonne, and on the W.
by Seine-et-Marne. Area, 2317 square miles. It is inter-
sected by the rivers Seine and Aube. The surface is nearly
level; the soil is fertile, especially in the S. E. part, which
produces grain, wine, etc. It has manufactures of cotton and
woollen stuffs, hosiery, glass, and leather. It is divided
into 5 arrondissements, 26 cantoms, and 446 communes.
Capital, Troyes. Pop. in 1872, 255,687. * *
Aubenas, a town of France, in the department of
Ardèche, is picturesquely situated on or near the river
Ardèche, 14 miles S. W. of Privas. It stands in a mag-
nificent basin, surrounded by the extinct volcanoes of the
Vivarais. It has an old castle; a college, and manufac- .
tures of silk and woollen stuffs, paper, etc. Several im-
portant fairs are held here. Pop. in 1866, 7694.
. Auber (DANIEL FRANÇors EspriT), an eminent French
composer, born at Caen Jan. 29, 1782, a pupil of Cherubini,
produced in 1813 “Le Séjour Militaire,” an opera which
was not successful, but his comic opera called “La Bergère
Châtelaine” (1820) was warmly applauded. In 1821 he
composed “Emma,” an opera which was much admired.
His works are remarkable for grace, originality, and in-
genious combinations. The opera of “La Muette de Por-
tici,” or “Masaniello” (1828), is called his masterpiece.
He was elected a member of the Institute in 1829. Among
his most popular operas are “Fra Diavolo" (1830), “Le
Domino Noir” (1837), “Haydée" (1847), and “Manon
Lescaut ’’ (1856). He was appointed chapel-master at the
Tuileries by Napoleon III. Died May 13, 1871. . (See
FíTIs, “Biographie Universelle des Musiciens; ” L. DE
LoyſłNIE, “Galerie des Contemporains.”)
Au’ber (HARRIET), an English authoress, was born Oct.
4, 1773, and died Jan. 20, 1862. In 1829 she published
“The Spirit of the Psalms,” containing some of the best
versions of modern times. -
Au’berlen (KARL AUGUST), a prominent German or-
thodox theologian, born at Fellbach, in Würtemberg, Nov.
19, 1824. Among his works are “The Theosophy of Fried-
rich Christoph Oetinger” (1847) and “The Prophet Daniel
and the Revelation of John considered in their Reciprocal
Relations” (1854). Died in 1864.
Aubert (JEAN LOUIs), ABBá, a French poet and fabu-
list, born in Paris in 1731. He edited a journal called
“Les Petites Affiches,” and published in 1756 a collection
of fables which gained a European reputation. They were.
highly commended by Voltaire, who wroté to Aubert, “You
have placed yourself beside La Fontaine.” He became pro-
fessor of French literature in the College Royal, Paris, in
1773. Died in 1814. * *
. Aubert du Bayet (JEAN BAPTISTE ANNIBAL), a French
general, born in Louisiana, Aug. 29, 1759. . He fought for
the U. S. under Rochambeau, and was chosen in 1791 a.
member of the French Legislative Assembly, in which he
supported the same principles as La Fayette. He com-
manded at the siege of Mentz, which was taken by the
Prussians in 1793, and was minister of war for several
months in 1795. Died at Constantinople, where he was
ambassador, Dec. 17, 1797. - -
Aubervilliers, a town in France, in the department
of the Seine, 4 miles N. of Paris, and one of its suburbs.
Pop. 9240.
Aubigné, d” (MERLE). See D'AUBIGNſ.
Aubigné, d” (THāopoRE AGRIPPA), a French Protestant
historian and soldier, distinguished for his wit, learning,
and audacity, was born in Saintonge Feb. 8, 1550. He
studied in a college at Geneva, and at an early age joined
the Huguenot army, then waging a civil war against the
court. He afterwards entered the service of Henry of
Navarre, whose favor he enjoyed. . He fought for Henry
against the Catholic League, and distinguished himself at
the battle of Coutras (1587). His chief work is a history.
of his own times, entitled “Histoire Universelle depuis l’An
1550 jusqu' à l’An 1601.” (3 vols., 1616–20). He left auto-
biographic memoirs (“Histoire secrète de T.A. d’Aubigné,”
1729–31). He had a son, Constantine, who was the father
of Madame de Maintenon. Died at Geneva April 29, 1630.
(See M. A. SAYous, “Vie d'Aubigné;” DAvH.A., “History
of the Civil Wars of France.”) -
Aubin, a French town, department of Aveyron, 20
miles N.E. of Willefranche, in a mining region, with fur-
maces, etc. Pop. 8863. -
Auſbrey, a post-township of Johnson co., Kan. Pop.
25.
.125. - -
Auſbrey (John), F. R. S., an English antiquary, born
in Wiltshire Mar. 12, 1625, inherited a large estate, and
became a member of the club of Commonwealth’s Men.
He was a collector of antiquarian documents, and left sev-
- His “Natural History
322
AUBURN–AUCKLAND.
and Antiquities of Surrey” was published in 1719. He
also wrote memoirs of the English poets, which were pub-
lished in 1813 under the title of “Letters written by Emi-
ment Persons in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.”
Died June 7, 1697.
Auburn, a post-village of Lee co., Ala., on the Mont-
gomery and West Point R. R., 60 miles E. N. E. of Mont-
gomery. It is the seat of East Alabama College. Pop.
1018; of the township, 3822. -
Auburn, the county-seat of Placer co., Cal., on the Cen-
tral Pacific R. R., 36 miles N. E. of Sacramento. Fruit is
extensively grown in the vicinity. There are near the town
very rich quartz and gravel mines, and eleven quartz mills
with 101 stamps continually running. Auburn has a court-
house and jail, a public hall, Masonic and Odd Fellows’
halls, several churches and School-houses, and three large
hotels. The principal buildings are of brick and stone.
There are two weekly newspapers. Pop. 800.
W. B. Lyon, ED. “PIACER ARGUs.”
Auburn, a township of Clark co., Ill. Pop. 602.
Auburn, a post-township of Sangamon co., III.
1303.
Aliburn, the county-seat of De Kalb co., Ind., on the
Baltimore Pittsburg and Chicago R. R., at the crossing of
the Fort Wayne Jackson and Saginaw and the Detroit Eel
River and Illinois R. Rs. It has large manufactories of
hubs and spokes, staves, a weekly paper, and an extensive
stocking factory. Pop. 677. -
* P. C. MAYs, ED. “AUBURN CourtrºR.”
Auburn, a township of Fayette co., Ia. Pop. 1059.
Auburn, a post-township of Shawnee co., Kan. P. 662.
Auburn, a post-village of Logan co., Ky., on the Louis-
ville and Memphis, R. R., 18 miles S. W. of Bowling Green.
Pop. 610. -
Auburn, a post-village, capital of Androscoggin co.,
Me., 34 miles from Portland, on the Androscoggin and
Little Androscoggin rivers, which, furnish, extensive water-
power. The manufacture of cotton has recently been com-
menced, while that of shoes has attained considerable pro-
portions. It is situated on the Maine Central R. R., and
Pop.
connected with the Grand Trunk system by the Lewiston |
and Auburn R. R. It has a national bank. Pop. in 1870,
6169. ED. “LEwiston Journ AL.”
Auburn, a post-township of Worcester co., Mass., on the
Norwich and Worcester R. R. It has a public library, and
manufactures of cottons, woollens, tape, worsted goods, etc.
Pop. 1178. -
Auburn, a post-twp. of Rockingham co., N. H. P. 815.
Auburn, a flourishing city, capital of Cayuga, co., N.Y.,
on the New York Central R. R., 174 miles W. of Albany,
and on both sides of the outlet of Owasco Lake, which is
2% miles distant. The Southern Central R. R. connects it
with Owego, 68 miles S., and with Fair Haven, 30 miles N.,
at which place they have the largest accommodations for
storing coal in Central New York. The site of Auburn is
moderately uneven; the streets are wide, well paved, and
shaded with ornamental trees. The principal public build-
ings and mercantile houses are on Genesee street. Many
of the private houses display an elegant style of architec-
ture, and are adorned with beautiful gardens. Auburn con-
tains fifteen churches, and is the seat of a theological sem-
inary under the direction of the Presbyterians. This city
was long the home of the late Hon. William H. Seward.
Here is a large stone State prison, celebrated for its system
of discipline. The convicts, numbering sometimes 1000 or
1200, are employed in the manufacture of boots, shoes, sad-
dlery-ware, cigars, window-sashes, blinds, and doors. The
city has eight banks, three daily and two weekly papers,
and manufactures of wool, cotton, iron, paper, etc. Here
are also five large manufactories of reapers and mowers,
which are the most extensive in the Union. Pop. 17,225.
ED. “AUBURN ADVERTISER.”
Auburn; a township of Crawford co., O. Pop. 910.
. Auburn, a post-township of Geauga co., O. Pop. 783.
Auburn, a township of Tuscarawas co., O. Pop. 1251.
Auburn, a post-village of Baker co., Or., on Powder
River, about 300 miles E. of Salem. Gold is ſound in this
vicinity. ..
Auburn, a post-village of South Mannheim township,
Schuylkill co., Pa., on the Philadelphia and Reading R.R.,
9 miles S. E. of Pottsville. Pop. 611.
Auburn, a township of Susquehanna, co., Pa. P. 2006.
Auburn, a township of Montgomery co., Va. P. 3171.
Auburn, a post-township of Fond du Lac co., Wis.
Pop. 1626.
. Au’ burndale, a post-village of Newton township, Mid-
*—
a league against the Turks.
dlesex co., Mass., on the Boston and Albany R. R., 10 miles
W. of Boston. It is the seat of Laselle Seminary. -
Auburn. Theological Seminary, or The Theo-
logical Seminary of Central and Western New
York, occupies a large three-story stone building, with
transept and wings, on elevated ground in the northern part
of the city of Auburn. It was founded in 1820. In 1873 its
removal was contemplated, but the friends of the seminary
having by great exertions raised funds for its endowment,
the institution will, it is understood, remain in Auburn. It
is sustained by the Presbyterian denomination.
Aubusson, a town of France, department of Creuse,
on the river Creuse, 22 miles S. E. of Guéret. It has a
celebrated manufactory of carpets. Velvets and woollen
stuffs are also made here. Pop. in 1866, 6625.
Aubusson, d” (PIERRE), grand-master of the order of
St. John of Jerusalem, was born of a noble French family
in 1423. At an early age he joined the order, the head-
quarters of which was at Rhodes. He distinguished him-
self by his energy and courage in fighting against pirates,
and was employed on important missions to several courts.
In 1458 he formed a league between the kings of France and
Hungary against the sultan Mahomet II. He was elected
grand-master of his order in 1476, and fortified Rhodes as
an advanced post for the defence of Christendom against
the victorious Turks. The great aim and idea of his life
was the formation of a league of Christian princes against
the infidels. Early in 1480, Mahomet II. commenced the
siege of Rhodes with an army of about 100,000 men. The
Turks were repulsed in several desperate assaults, in which
Aubusson was severely wounded, and they were forced to
abandon the enterprise in July, 1480. In 1501 he was
chosen general-in-chief of the armies of the German em-
peror, the king of France, and the pope, who had formed
IHis success was hindered by
the jealousy and discord of these allies. Died in 1503.
He is regarded as one of the ablest Christian statesmen and
commanders of his time. (See Bouhou Rs, “Histoire de
Pierre d’Aubusson,” 1676.) t
Auch, Ösh (anc. Augus’ta Ausco'rum or Elimberis), an
old town of France, capital of the department of Gers, on
the river Gers, 43 miles by rail S. of Agen. In the time of
Caesar it was the capital of the Ausci or Auscii. It has a
beautiful Gothic cathedral; an archbishop’s palace, a royal
college, a public library, a museum of natural science, and
a town-hall. Here are , manufactures of linens, cotton
stuffs, leather, etc.
this town, which was once the capital of Armagnac.
in 1866, 12,500.
Auche’mia [from the Gr. &vXºjv, the “neck” (so called
from the length of their necks)], a genus of South Ameri-
can animals of the order Ruminantia and family Camelidae.
The genus comprises the alpaca and the Ilama, and other
species, all of which inhabit the mountain-ranges of the
Andes.
Pop.
in dentition, and in the more cloven feet and movable toes.
Some naturalists think that the alpaca is not a distinct
species, but a variety of the llama. (See ALPACA.)
Auchmuty, à’mu—te (ROBERT), an eminent lawyer,
born in Scotland, settled in Boston, Mass., about 1710. He
held several high colonial offices. Died in 1750.
Auchmuty (ROBERT), an able lawyer, son of the pre-
ceding, practised at Boston, and was distinguished as an
advocate in trials by jury. He was an admiralty judge
(1767–76). Having become a zealous Tory in 1776, he went
to England, where he died in 1788. --
Auchmuty (SAMUEL), D. D., an Episcopal clergyman, a
brother of the preceding, was born at Boston Jan. 16, 1722,
and graduated at Harvard in 1742. He preached in Trinity
church, New York, and obtained in 1764 the charge of all
the churches in that city. He adhered to the royalist party
in the Revolution. Died Mar. 6, 1777.
Auchmuty (Sir SAMUEL), a British general, a son of
the preceding, was born in New York June 22, 1758, and
graduated at King's (now Columbia) College in 1775. He
fought against the U. S. in 1776–78, served many years in
India, and in 1806 obtained command of an army sent to
South America. He took the fortified city of Montevideo
from the Spaniards in 1807, and captured Java from the
Dutch in 1811. Died Aug. 11, 1822.
Auck’land, a seaport-town, the capital of the British
colony of New Zealand, is situated on the N. E. coast of
the island of New Ulster; lat. 36° 50' S., lon. 174° 50' E.
It has two fine harbors and considerable trade. It is con-
nected by steamships with Sidney, Melbourne, Honolulu,
and San Francisco. It is the see of an Anglican bishop,
and has four banks, three newspapers, and many fine
They are nearly allied to the camel, which they
resemble in general form and in the structure of the stom-
ach. They differ from the camel in having no-hump; also
A
Armagnac brandy is exported from
AUCKLAND–AUDUBON.
323
buildings. The mean temperature of the coldest month is
about 50° F., and that of the warmest about 68°. Auck-
land was founded in 1840. Pop. in 1871, 12,937.
Auckland (GEORGE Eden), EARL of, an English
peer, born in 1784, inherited the title of baron at the death
of his father in 1814. He acted with the Whigs, became
president of the board of trade in 1833, first lord of the
admiralty in 1834, and governor-general of India in 1835.
He was created earl of Auckland in 1839, and returned to
England in 1841. He died without issue in 1849.
Auckland (WILLIAM Eden), LoRD, an English diplo-
matist and lawyer, was born in 1745. He was one of the
three commissioners appointed in 1778 to negotiate with
the revolutionists in the U. S. Having been sent as ambas-
sador to France in 1785, he negotiated a commercial treaty
with that mation. He published “Principles of the Penal
Law'' (1771) and other works. In 1793 he received the
title of baron. Died in 1814.
Auckland Islands, a group of islands in the South
Pacific, S. of New Zealand. The largest island is about
30 miles long and 15 miles wide, and has two good harbors.
This group is valuable as a whaling-station, but is not in-
habited.
Auction [from the Lat. augeo, auctum, to “increase”],
in law, the act of exposing property for sale by open com-
petition to the highest bidder, by a person called an
auctioneer. Every bid is deemed to be an offer, which is
accepted by the auctioneer when his hammer falls. On
general principles of the law of contracts, the offer may
be withdrawn by the bidder at any time before acceptance.
The acceptance of a higher offer is the rejection of the
lower one. Such a sale must be fairly conducted, both on
the part of the seller and buyer. The secret employment
of “puffers ” or fictitious bidders by the owner to unduly
enhance the price is a fraud on the purchaser, who may
avoid such a sale. The same rule applies to secret agree-
ments between purchasers to stifle competition. Such sales
frequently take place under conditions made known at the
time of sale. These must be followed by the party to whom
they are applicable. An auctioneer is to some extent an
agent for both parties—as, for example, to sign on their
behalf a written memorandum of sales, where that is re-
quired by law. The conduct of auctioneers is sometimes
regulated by statute.
Auſcuba, a genus of plants of the order Cornaceae.
The only known species is the Aw'cuba Japonſica, an ever-
green shrub which is a native of Japan and China, and is
cultivated as an ornamental shrub. It is dioecious, has
small purple flowers, and its fruit is a small red drupe.
The leaves are pale-green, curiously mottled with yellow.
Audae'us, or Au’dius [in Syriac U'do], the founder of
a religious sect called Audians, was a native of Mesopo-
tamia. He was banished to Scythia in 338 A.D., and died
about 370 A. D. He incurred the enmity of the clergy by
censuring their luxury and vices. The Audians are accused
of professing anthropomorphism. -
Aude (anc. A 'taz), a river in the S. of France, rises in
the Eastern Pyrenees, flows northward to Carcassonne, and
thence eastward until it enters the Mediterranean, 6 miles
E. N. E. of Narbonne. Length, 133 miles.
Aude, a maritime department in the S. of France, is
bounded on the N. by the departments of Tarn and Hérault,
on the E. by the Mediterranean, on the S. by the Pyrénées-
Orientales, on the W. by Ariège and Haut-Garonne, and
has an area of 2437 square miles. It was formerly part of
the province of Languedoc. The surfaee is partly moun-
tainous, being near the foot of the Pyrenees; the soil of
the valleys is fertile and calcareous. It is intersected by
the river Aude and the canal of Languedoc (or Canal du
Midi). Among the mineral resources of Aude are iron,
coal, and marble. The staple productions are grain, olives,
winé, and fruits. It has manufactures of silk and woollen
stuffs, paper, and brandy. Capital, Carcassonne. . It is
divided into 4 arrondissements, 31 cantons, and 435 com-
munes. Pop. in 1872, 285,927.
Audebert (JEAN BAPTISTE), an eminent French artist
and naturalist, born at Rochefort in 1759. He first acquired
distingtion as a miniature-painter, and subsequently ap-
plied himself to natural history, the love of which became
his ruling passion. He published in 1800 a “Natural His-
tory of Apes, Lemurs, and Galeopitheci,” with sixty-two
admirably colored plates, printed in oil-colors by a new
method which he invented. He was the first to use gold-
leaf in illustrating the plumage of birds. His splendidly
illustrated “History of Humming-birds, Flycatchers, Jac-
amars, etc.” appeared in 1802. He died in 1800, leaving
Several works unfinished.
‘Auſ demar'de, or Oudenarde, a town of Belgium, in
East Flanders, on the Scheldt, 14 miles S. S. W. of Ghent.
-
It has a fine Gothic town-hall. Tanning and brewing are
the chief branches of industry here. Pop. in 1866, 4835.
Here the prince Eugène defeated the French army in July,
1708.
Au'dience [from the Lat. aw/dio, to “hear”], the act
of hearing; admittance to a hearing; the reception of an
ambassador by a sovereign at court; sometimes used to
denote an auditory or assembly of hearers. In England it
is the name of a court held by the archbishop of Canterbury.
Au'ditor [from the Lat. audio, to “hear”], a person
whose duty it is to examine and pass upon the accounts of
those who have been entrusted with money, or to examine
a particular account and certify the result. The U. S.
government, as well as most public and private corpora-
tions, have such officers. An auditor is appointed by
courts in the course of some actions to examine and state
accounts, and report them to the court for further
proceedings. -
Au'ditory Nerve, the nerve of hearing, is the seventh
in order of origin from the base of the brain, counting from
before backward. The seventh pair consists of the portio
dura (or facial), the portio mollis (or auditory), and a small
intermediate portion. The portio mollis apparently com-
mences in the floor of the fourth ventricle; it then runs
forward to the back of the petrous portion of the temporal
bone, and enters the internal auditory meatus. It then
divides into two portions, which diverge—the smaller one
for the semicircular canals and the vestibule, the other for
the cochlea. Those entering the semicircular canals dividé
into five branches, forming at last a nervous expansion
somewhat analogous to the retina. (See EAR and Acoustics.)
Audley (THOMAs), LoRD AUDLEY OF WALDEN, an Eng-
lish lawyer, born in Essex in 1488. He became Speaker
of the House of Commons in 1529, keeper of the great seal
in 1532, and lord chancellor of England in 1533. He pre-
sided at the trial of Sir Thomas More. According to some
authorities, he disgraced himself by his subservience to the
arbitrary will of Henry VIII. Died April 30, 1544. (See
LoRD CAMPBELL, “Lives of the Lord Chancellors.”)
Audouin (JEAN VICTOR), an eminent French naturalist
and comparative anatomist, born in Paris April 27, 1797.
He was one of the founders of the “Annales des Sciences
Naturelles,” first issued in 1824, and co-operated with Milne-
Edwards in researches into the Crustacea and Annelida.
He succeeded. Latreille as professor of entomology at the
Museum in 1833, and was chosen a member of the Institute
in 1838. Among his works is a “History of the Insects
which Infest the Wine” (1840–43). Died Nov. 9, 1841.
Audrain’, a county of the N. E. central part of Mis-
souri. Area, 680 square miles. It is drained by the Davis
Fork and Long Branch of Salt River. The surface is un-
dulating or nearly level; the soil is fertile.” Cattle, wool,
dairy products, grain, and tobacco are raised. Coal is
found. It is intersected by the North Missouri and the
Louisiana branch of the Chicago and Alton R. R.S. Capi-
tal, Mexico. Pop. 12,307.
Audran (GíRARD), a French engraver of the first order,
was born at Lyons Aug. 2, 1640. He studied under Carlo
Maratta at Rome for several years, and returned to Paris
about 1670. Having been appointed engraver to the king,
he engraved for him the masterpieces of Le Brun, “The
Battles of Alexander.” Among his works are two car-
toons of Raphael, representing the “Death of Ananias”
and “Paul and Barnabas at Lystra,” and “Coriolanus,”
after Poussin. He is estimated by some critics as the
greatest historical engraver that ever lived. Died Feb. 8,
1691. (See FoxTENAI, “Dictionnaire des Artists;” STRUTT,
“Dictionary of Engravers.”)—Other members of the Au-
dran family attained eminence as engravers: as Benoît
(1661–1721), Claude père (1592–1677), Claude fils (1640–
84), Germain (1631–1710), and Jean (1667–1756).
Audry de Puyraveau (PIERRE FRANÇors), a French
republican, born at Puyraveau in 1783. He was elected to
the Chamber of Deputies in 1827, and acted a prominent
and efficient part in the revolution of 1830, during which
his manufactory in Paris was the rendezvous of the rev-
olutionists. In 1848 he was a member of the Constituent
Assembly. - - -
Au’dubon, a county in the S. W. of Iowa. Area, 630
square miles. It is intersected by the East Nishnabatona
River, and drained by the West Nishnabatona, which rises
within its limits. The surface is nearly level; the soil is
fertile. Grain and wool are the chief crops. Capital, Ex-
ira. Pop. 1212. -
Audubon, a township of Montgomery co., Ill. Pop.
I250.
Audubon, a township of Audubon co., Ia, Pop. 381.
Au’dubon (John JAMEs), a celebrated naturalist, born
\
324
AUENBRUGGER VON AUENBRUG-AUGSBURG.
in Louisiana on the 4th of May, 1780. He was the son of
an opulent French naval officer who owned a plantation in
the then French colony. In his childhood he became deep-
ly interested in the study of birds and their habits. He was
educated partly in Paris, whither he was sent about 1794,
and he studied design under David, the eminent painter. He
returned to the U. S. about 1798, and settled on a farm which
his father gave him, on the Perkiomen Creek, in Eastern
Pennsylvania. Here he found time and opportunity for his
favorite study. He married Lucy Bakewell in 1808, sold
his farm, and became a merchant at Louisville, Ky. About
1810 he began to make extensive excursions through the
primeval forests of the Southern and South-western States,
in the exploration of which he passed many years. He
made colored drawings of all the species of birds that he
found. He resided with his wife and children for several
years at Henderson, on the Ohio River. In 1824 he visited
Philadelphia, where he met Charles Lucien Bonaparte, who
encouraged him to publish a work on ornithology. Before
this date he is said to have failed in trade and been reduced
to poverty, and to have successively followed the occupa-
tion of portrait-painter and dancing-master. He went to
England in 1826, and commenced in London the publica-
tion of his great work, for which he obtained a large num-
ber of subscribers at $1000 a copy. This admirable work
was entitled “The Birds of America” (10 vols. folio, 1830–
39), and was illustrated with 448 beautiful colored plates
of 1065 species of birds, of the natural size. The work is
divided into five volumes of letter-press, and five of engrav-
ings designed by the author. This was pronounced by
Cuvier “the most magnificent monument that art ever
raised to ornithology.” Audubon returned to America in
1829, and again explored the forests, lakes, and coasts from
Canada, to Florida, to collect materials for another work.
This was his “Ornithological Biography, or an Account of
the Habits of the Birds of the United States, etc.” (Edin-
burgh, 5 vols., 1831–39). He revisited England in 1831,
and returned home in 1839, after which he resided on the
Hudson River, near the city of New York. He published
a cheaper edition of his “Birds of America.” (7 vols. 8vo,
1844), and was associated with Dr. Bachman in the prep-
aration of a work on “The Quadrupeds of North America,”
with plates (6 vols., 1846–50), the drawings of which were
made by his sons, Victor Gifford and John Woodhouse Au-
dubon. He died in New York City Jan. 27, 1851. Pro-
fessor Wilson of Edinburgh expressed the opinion that he
was “the greatest artist in his own walk that ever lived.”
(See “Life and Adventures of John J. Audubon,” edited,
from materials supplied by his widow, by Rob BRT BUCH-
ANAN, 1869; C. C. ADAMs, “Journal of the Life and Labors
of J. J. Audubon ;” article on “American Ornithology " in
the “Quarterly Review º' for July, 1832.)
- WILLIAM JAeobs.
Au’enbrug’ger von Au’enbrug’ (LEoPold), called
AvLNBRUGGER by the French, a German physician who in-
troduced percussion of the chest as a means of diagnosis,
was born at Gratz, in Styria, in 1722. He announced his
discovery in a work called “ Inventum novum ex Percus-
sione Thoracis Humani’” (“New Discovery by the Percus-
sion of the Human Chest,” 1761). He practised in Vienna.
Died in 1809. -
Au'erbach’ (BERTHoDD), a popular German author,
born at Nordstetten, in Würtemberg, Feb. 28, 1812. He
published “Spinoza,” a biography or romance (1837); “The
Poet and Merchant,” a novel (1839); “The Jews and
Modern Literature” (1836); and “The Cultivated Citizen”
(“Der Gebildete Bürger,” 1842). His most popular work
is perhaps his “Village Tales of the Black Forest” (2 vols.,
1843). Among his other works are novels called “Die Frau
Professorin,” “Edelweiss,” “Baarfüssle” (“Little Bare-
foot,” 1857), “Auf der Höhe.” (“On the Heights,” 1865),
and “Das Land-Haus am Rhein’” (“Country-House on the
Rhine,” 1869). A number of these have been translated
into English, French, Dutch, and Swedish, and an Italian
version of his “Village Tales” appeared in 1869.
Auerbach (HEINRICH), a German medical professor,
whose proper name was STROMER, was born at Auerbach,
in Bavaria, in 1482. He was a friend of Luther and a
citizen of Leipsic. . According to tradition, Doctor Faust .
rode out of Auerbach’s cellar on a barrel. Died in 1542.
Auſersperg’, von (ANTON ALEXANDER), Count, a Ger-
man poet whose nom-de-plume is ANASTAs.IUs GRÜN, was
born at Laybach April 11, 1806. He displayed much wit
and humor in a poem called “Spaziergänge eines Wiener
Poeten” (“Promenades of a Poet of Vienna,” 1831). He
published in 1838 a volume of poems (“Gedichte”).
Auersperg (CARLOS), PRINCE, an Austrian statesman,
born May 1, 1814. In 1867–68 he was for a short time
president of the Cisleithan ministry. He has been a mem-
ber of the Reichstag, of which he was president, and of
the Bohemian Diet, where he acted with the German
party.
Auerstädt, Öw'er-stét, a village of Prussian Saxony,
10 miles W. of Naumburg, noted as the scene of an im-
portant victory gained by the French general Davoust over
the Prussians, who were commanded by their king, on Oct.
14, 1806, which was also the date of the battle of Jena. .
Au’erswald', von (HANs ADOLPH ERDMANN), a Prus-
sian general, born Oct. 19, 1792, gained distinction by his
Scientific attainments, and was elected to the Parliament at
Frankfort in 1848. As he was walking in Frankfort in
company with Prince Felix Lichnowsky, a mob attacked
and killed them, Sept. 18, 1848. His death appears to have
been an incidental consequence of his being in company
with the prince, who was obnoxious to the populace. .
Auf'femberg/, von (JosiºPH), FREIHERR, a German
dramatist and poet, born at Freiburg, in Brisgau, in 1798.
Among his numerous works are “The Alhambra,” a dra- .
matic poem (1830), and “Louis XI. in Péronne,” a drama.
Died in 1857.
Au'fidus, the name of an ancient river in Italy, near
the mouth of which was fought the great battle of Cannae,
216 B.C. (See OFANTo.)
Au'geas [Gr. Aiyéas or Abystas], a mythical king of
Elis, who is said to have owned 3000 oxen. One of the
twelve labors imposed on Hercules by Eurystheus was to
cleanse the Augean stables, in which the dung of these
oxen had accumulated for many years. Hercules turned
the rivers Alpheus and Peneus through the stables, and
killed Augeas because he refused to pay his wages.
Augereau (PIERRE FRANÇois CHARLEs), Duc DE CAs-
TIGLIONE, a French marshal, born in Paris Oct. 21, 1757,
became a fencing-master at Naples before the Revolution,
enlisted as a private in the French army in 1792, and
gained the rank of general of division in 1796. In 1796
he contributed to the victories of Lodi, Castiglione, and
Arcola. He enforced the will of the majority of the Di-
rectory in the coup-d'état of the 18th Fructidor, 1797, and
was chosen a member of the Council of Five Hundred in
1799. He became a marshal of France in 1804, duke of
Castiglione in 1805, served with distinction at Jena in 1806,
and was wounded at Eylau in 1807. In 1813 he displayed
intrepid courage at Leipsic. He transferred his allegiance
to Louis XVIII. in 1814. Died June 12, 1815. -
Au’gian Co’dex, a defective uncial manuscript of a
part of the New Testament, was found in the monastery
of Augia Major, at Rheinau, was purchased by Dr. Bent-
ley in 1718, and is now in Trinity College, Cambridge.
Augier (EMILE), a French dramatist and poet, a grand-
son of Pigault-Lebrun, was born at Valence, in Drôme, in
1820. He wrote a drama entitled “La Ciguë " (“Hem-
lock,” 1844), which had complete success, and “Gabrielle,”
a comedy (1849), which gained the Montyon prize of the
French Academy. In 1856 he produced a volume of poems,
and in 1857 was admitted into the French Academy.
Au'gite [from the Gr. atyń, “splendor”], a crystalline
mineral sometimes called Pyroxene, is nearly allied to
hornblende. It often occurs in volcanic rocks, is composed
of silica, lime, and magnesia, and is usually of a greenish
color. It crystallizes in six or eight-sided prisms variously
modified, and is an essential component of basalt, dolerite,
and augite porphyry. Some mineralogists think that the
difference between augite and hornblende arises only from
the different, circumstances in which they crystallize, the
former being the result of a more rapid cooling.
Au'glaize, a river in the north-western part of Ohio,
rises in Auglaize co., and after a course of about 100 miles
enters the Maumee River at Defiance. Its general direc-
tion is nearly northward.
Auglaize, or Grand Auglaize, a small river of
Missouri, rises in La Clede co., flows northward, and enters
the Osage about 3 miles below Linn Creek.
Auglaize, a county in Western Ohio. Area, 400 square
miles. It is drained by the Auglaize and St. Mary’s rivers,
which rise within its limits. The surface is nearly level; the
soil is fertile. Dairy products, corn, wheat, oats, hay, and
potatoes are the chief crops. This county is intersected by
the Miami and Erie Canal, and by the railroad which ex-
tends from Dayton to Toledo. Capital, Wapakoneta. Pop.
20,041.
Auglaize, a township of Camden co., Mo. Pop. 1330.
Auglaize, a township of Miller co., Mo. Pop. 608.
- Auglaize, a township of Allen co., O. Pop. 1696. -
Augiaize, a township of Paulding co., O. Pop. 788.
Au Gres, a post-township of Bay co., Mich. Pop. 255.
Augs/burg (anc. Augus’ta Vindelico/rum), an ancient
and important city of Germany, in Bavaria, capital of the
AUGSBURG CONFESSION.—AUGUSTA.
325
province of Swabia and Neuburg, is situated on the river
Lech, at the mouth of the Wertach, 39 miles by rail W. N.W.
of Munich; lat. 48° 21'42" N., lon. 10° 54' 16" E. Several
railways extend from it towards the four cardinal points,
and connect it with Munich, Nuremberg, etc. The Roman
emperor Augustus planted a colony here in 12 B. C. It
became a free imperial city in 1276, after which it was an
important commercial emporium. This city was also one
of the chief centres of German art, and the native place
of Holbein. It was also the native place of the Fugger
family, at one time the richest family in Europe. Some
decline in its prosperity occurred after 1500, but it still has
an extensive trade and many large manufactories of cotton,
silk, machinery, and paper. Augsburg is one of the prin-
cipal money-markets of the Continent, and owes much of
its importance to its banking-business and operations in
stocks. The “Allgemeine Zeitung,” issued in Augsburg,
is one of the most celebrated and widely circulated journals
of Germany. Pop. in 1871, 51,284.
Augs/burg Confes’sion, the first Protestant Confes-
sion of Faith, drawn up by Melanchthon, sets forth the
doctrines held by Luther and his followers. This Confes-
sion was presented to Charles V. at a German Diet con-
vened at Augsburg June 20, 1530. The original copies of
this document, in German and Latin, are not known to be
extant. The emperor forbade the publication of the Con-
fession without permission obtained from himself; but a
surreptitious and erroneous publication having been made,
it became necessary for Melanchthon to issue correct copies
of the text, both in German and Latin. This Confession,
with its subsequent Apology, became a standard for the Re-
formers, and to this day is regarded as authoritative among
the Lutheran churches. (See LUTHERANISM.)
Au'gur, a Latin word used by the ancient Romans to
denote a soothsayer, a diviner, a person who professed to
foretell events by the flight of birds or other omens. The
augurs were supposed to be capable of interpreting the will
of the gods, and divinely gifted with special qualifications
for this service. Their office was considered as very im-
portant in the state, no public enterprise being under-
taken unless they declared the omen's favorable. Their
divinations were cºlled auguries or auspices, the latter of
which terms, though properly applied to the inspection of
the flight of birds, was extended by the Roman writers to
other signs. In the early period of Roman history the num-
ber of augurs was only three or four, who must be patri-
cians. The Ogulnian law, passed 300 B.C., rendered the
plebeians eligible to the office of augur, and increased the
number to nine. The augurs held office for life, and had
the power of filling vacancies that occurred in their college.
The college of augurs in some periods of Roman history
had great political influence, it being contrary to the re-
ligion and usage of the Romans to hold an election, to com-
mence a battle or campaign, or perform any important
public business, without consulting the auspices. Sulla
raised the number of augurs to fifteen, and Julius Caesar
to sixteen. * .
Augur (CHRISTOPHER. C.), an American officer, born
1821 in New York, graduated at West Point in 1843, in in-
fantry till Mar. 4, 1869, when he became brigadier-general
U. S. army. He served chiefly at frontier posts 1843–61,
in the military occupation of Texas 1845–46, in the war
with Mexico 1846–48, engaged at. Palo Alto, Resaca de la
Palma, and as aide-de-camp to Brigadier-Generals Hopping
and Cushing, scouting and on expeditions against Northern
Pacific Indians 1855–56, engaged in several skirmishes, and
as commandant of cadets at Military Academy 1861. In
the civil war became, Aug. 9, 1862, major-general U. S. vol-
unteers, and served in the defences of Washington 1861–
62, in operations on Rappahannock and in the Shenandoah
Valley 1862, in command of a division in the Fifth corps
1862, engaged at Cedar Mountain (severely wounded and
brevet colonel), in General Banks's expedition to New Or-
leans 1862; in command of the district of Baton Rouge
1863, in expedition to Fort Hudson 1863 (brevet brigadier-
general), engaged in action and siege of the place; in com-
mand of department of Washington 1863–66, of the Platte
1867–71, and of Texas since 1871. Brevet major-general
Mar. 13, 1865, for gallant and meritorious services in the
field. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Augur (HEZEKIAH), an American sculptor, born at New
Haven, Conn., Feb. 21, 1791, was also noted for mechanical
ingenuity. He invented a carving-machine which is, in
general use, and as sculptor produced “Jephthah and his
Daughter.” Died Jan. 10, 1858.
Auſgust [Lat. Augus’tus ; Fr. Août), the eighth month
of the year, was so named in honor of Augustus Caesar.
Before his time it was called Seactiºlis—that is, the sixth
month, because the Roman year oncé began on the 1st of
March. In the calendar of Julius Caesar the first, third,
fifth, seventh, ninth, and eleventh months consisted each of
thirty-one days, and each of the other months of thirty,
except February, which in common years had twenty-nine,
and in leap-year thirty days... To gratify the vanity of
Augustus, one day was taken from February and added to
August. -
Augus’ta, a county near the western part of Virginia,
has an area of about 900 square miles. It is bounded on
the S. E. by the Blue Ridge, and forms part of the Great
Valley of Virginia. It is drained by the South Fork of
the Shenandoah River, which rises by several branches
within its limits. The surface is diversified; the soil is cal-
careous and very fertile. Corn, oats, wheat, and wool are
largely raised. Fine limestone underlies a great part of
the county, which is said to contain anthracite coal. It is
intersected by the Chesapeake and Ohio R. R. Capital,
Staunton. Pop. 28,763.
Augusta, a post-village, capital of Woodruff co., Ark.,
on White River, 69 miles N. E. of Little Rock. It has
two weekly papers. Pop. of township, 22.13.
W. E. ARMs, Ed. “AUGUSTA SENTINEL.”
Augusta, a city and the capital of Richmond co., Ga.,
the third city in size in the State, situated on the left bank
of the Savannah River, 231 miles from its mouth, 120 N.
N. W. from Savannah, and 136 N. W. from Charleston. It
is at the head of steamboat navigation on the Savannah.
Lat. 33°28' N., lon. 81°54' W. Its population in 1870
was 15,389; in 1860, 12,493; in 1850, 10,217. The city has
a thriving trade, and does a good wholesale business with
the towns of the State, with most of which it has a direct
connection either by river or rail. It also draws consider-
able business from the hill-country of South Carolina.
From its position it is actively engaged in the cotton trade,
receiving cotton from a considerable portion of Georgia.
and South Carolina. What is not needed to supply its
own cotton-mills is sent to Savannah and Charleston, and
reported in their receipts. Augusta also furnishes a good
market for the general produce of its region. For many
years it was the centre of the wagon-traffic, sending out
goods in all directions in the great lumbering wagons of
that time, and receiving cotton and produce in return.
After the railroads began to break up this trade, the city
declined for a time, but soon regained its trade, and is now
an enterprising and prosperous city. The Augusta Canal,
9 miles in length, brings the waters of the Savannah River
from above the city at such an elevation as to give a head
or water-power of forty feet. . It is one of the largest man-
ufacturing centres of the South. Its manufactories and
those of Richmond county are of great importance. There
were in the county in 1870, and by far the larger part in
the city, 97 manufacturing establishments, of which 12 were
driven by steam-engines, having an aggregate force of 180
horse-power, and 47 by water-power, employing an aggre-
gate force of 1222 horse-power. In these manufacturing
establishments 1280 hands were employed, of whom 1178
were men, 78 women, and 24 children. The amount of
capital employed was $1,345,155; the wages paid $517,230;
the material used was valued at $1,695,765, and the value
of the manufactured products, $2,614,405. Probably about
four-fifths in number and nine-tenths in value of these man-
ufactures belonged to Augusta. Among its most important
manufacturing establishments are two cotton-mills, em-
ploying 553 hands, having $648,000 capital, paying
$182,939 for wages, and $782,506 for material, and produ-
cing goods of the annual value of $1,118,722. One of these
manufactures cotton yarns, which are largely in demand at
the North. There is also a car-factory, employing 90 men,
and producing $108,370 worth of cars; 2 railroad machine-
shops, employing 113 hands, and turning out $270,196
worth of machinery; and 5 or 6 other machine-shops, pro-
ducing about $70,000 worth of work. There were 5 flour-
ing-mills, employing 36 hands and turning out products of
the value of $517,541. A beginning had also been made in
foundries for iron castings, which produced nearly $40,000
worth of goods; in tobacco, snuff, and cigar factories, pro-
ducing $86,250 of goods; 2 printing-offices turned out
work worth $78,000, and 2 brick-kilns made brick to the
extent of $39,042. The county of Richmond in 1870 had
an assessed valuation of $14,075,615, and a true valuation,
according to the ninth census, of $19,473,131, ranking as
the second county in the State. Of this valuation about
four-fifths pertained to the city of Augusta. The city tax
the same year was $210,000, and the city indebtedness
$1,355,250. Augusta has a medical school, the Medical Col.
lege of Georgia, founded in 1830, and which in 1872 had 97
students. It has also an incorporated academy called the
Richmond Academy, with 7 teachers and 300 scholars; a
city normal school, with 2 teachers and 30 scholars; 7 gram-
mar schools, with 7 teachers and 777 scholars; 17 primary
schools, with 9 teachers and 1238 scholars. Of the 5439 per-
326
AUGUSTA—AUGUSTI.
Sons of School age (i.e. between six and twenty-one years),
3500 are enrolled either in public or private schools, and
the average attendance is 2632. The income of the public
schools from all sources is $25,000. There are two daily
papers published in the city; both have a considerable
circulation and issue weekly and tri-weekly editions. It
has three national banks. There are about 20 churches,
among which are 1 Roman Catholic, 1 Episcopal, 1 Pres-
byterian, 1 Lutheran, 1 Christian, 5 or 6 Baptist, and 6
or 7 Methodist—2 of them of the Northern Methodist
Church. Of the Baptist and Methodist churches, sev-
eral are for people of color. The number of sittings in
these churches is over 12,000, and the estimated value of
church property almost $400,000. The city has a hospital,
a clinique connected with the medical college, a Masonic
hall, and some other charitable institutions. Among its
public buildings of note are a costly and very beautiful
city-hall, Odd Fellows’ hall, the Masonic hall, Richmond
Academy, the medical college, the opera-house, Independ-
ence Monument, and several of the churches. The streets
and avenues are broad and finely shaded, and many of the
residences are tasteful and elegant. The principal avenue,
Greene street, has a double row of widespreading trees on
either side of the spacious highway, and with its elegant
mansions forms a true boulevard. . It is considered one
of the most beautiful of Southern cities. The streets
cross each other at right angles. There is a well-regulated
police force.
Agricultural Fair-Grounds, near the city, are both laid out
in fine walks and drives, and are favorite places of resort.
The city is connected, with the coast by the Augusta and
Port Royal R. R., the South Carolina R. R., and the Char-|
lotte Columbia and Augusta R. R., in South Carolina, the
Savannah being crossed to Hamburg, S. C., directly oppo-
site, by a fine bridge; while the Georgia, and the Augusta
and Macon, and the Savannah and Augusta R. Rs., with
their branches, give it ready and speedy access to every
portion of the State. There is also a horse-railroad from
the city to Summerville, a beautiful suburb. Water is sup-
plied to the city from the Augusta Canal, which is now
being enlarged and its power greatly increased. It is
lighted with gas. Though in a very level region, the grade
of the city is sufficient to ensure a good and sufficient
drainage. - - -
History. — Augusta was settled by English colonists
under Oglethorpe, and laid out in 1735 under royal charter,
and was named in honor of an English princess. It was
again chartered in Jan., 1798, and incorporated as a city
in Dec., 1817. It was for many years the most important
inland town of the colony. It had acquired a considerable
trade at the commencement of the Revolutionary war, but
in the beginning of 1779 was captured by the British and
loyalists, who held possession of it till the spring of 1781,
when the British force there was commanded by a loyalist
named Brown. On May 23, 1781, an American force under
command of General Henry Lee (“Lighthorse Harry")
laid siege to it, and on the 5th of June Brown surren-
dered. The Americans lost 5.1 killed and wounded; the
JBritish lost 52 killed, and 334, including the wounded, were
taken prisoners. . During the war of 1812 or the Indian
Wars it was not molested. In the late civil war it was
garrisoned by the Confederate troops, and twice threatened
by Sherman—in his march to the sea, when he passed be-
tween it and Macon; and in his march through the Caro-
linas, when he made feints against both Augusta and
Charleston—but it was not visited by a hostile force. Since
the census of 1870 its population has greatly increased. It
has long been distinguished for the intelligence, public spirit,
and good order of its citizens. WALSH & W RIGHT,
PUBS. AND PROPs. “CHRONICLE AND SENTINEL.”
Augusta (anc. Megara), a town of Italy, in the prov-
ince of Nolo, is situated on an island, which is connected
by a bridge with the peninsula Cape San Croce, 19 miles
by rail N. N. W. of Syracuse. Pop. in 1861, 9223.
lºſsusta, a post-township of Hancock co., Ill. Pop.
92. - -
Augusta, a post-township of Des Moines co., Ia. Pop.
4.
Augusta, a post-township of Butler co., Kan. It has
one weekly newspaper. Pop. 515. -
Augusta, a post-village of Bracken co., Ky., situated
on the Ohio River, 43 miles above Cincinnati, is the seat
of Augusta Male and Female College. It has good free
and private schools; tobacco is the staple of the county;
one paper is published here. The Kentucky and Great
Eastern R. R. runs through the town. Pop. 960. .
GEo. WINTER, PUB. “CHRONICLE.”
Augusta, the capital of the State of Maine, and seat
of justice of Kennebec co., is on the Kennebec River, at
the head of tidal navigation, 43 miles from its mouth, and
The city cemetery and the Cotton States' |
63 miles by railroad N. N. E. of Portland; lat. 44°19' N.,
lon. 69° 50' W. The Augusta division of the Maine Central
R. R. passes through it. The main part of the city is on
the right (W.) bank of the river, and many of the resi-
dences stand on ground which is much higher than the
river. The State-house, a handsome granite structure, is
on an eminence, and commands an extensive prospect.
Among the public institutions are a hospital for the in-
same, a U. S. arsenal, and St. Catharine's school for young
ladies. By the construction of a dam across the river just
above the city, abundant water-power has been obtained,
which is employed in manufactures of cotton goods and
lumber. There is also a card-factory, an iron-foundry, a
free library, and the Maine State Library. The National
Military Asylum is just outside the city limits. Nearly all
the business portion of the city was consumed by fire in
Sept., 1865. Augusta has three national banks, one daily,
one semi-monthly, one monthly, and four weekly news-
papers. Pop. in 1870, 7808.
- - ALDEN SPRAGUE, E.D. of “ KENNEBEC Journal.”
Augusta, a post-township of Kalamazoo co., Mich.
Pop. 608. -
Augusta, a township of Washtenaw co, Mich. Pop.
1470. -
Augusta, a post-village, capital of Perry co., Miss., on
Leaf River, 110 miles S. E. of Jackson. y -
Augusta, a post-village and township of Oneida co.,
N. Y., 20 miles S. E. of Oneida Lake and 100 miles W. N.
W. of Albany. The township contains several manufac-
turing villages. Pop. of township, 2007. -
Augusta, a post-township of Carroll co., 0. Pop. 1015.
Augusta, a post-village of Eau Claire co., Wis., on the
West Wisconsin R. R., 22 miles E. S. E. of Eau Claire. . It
has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 761. " . .
Augus’ta Histo/ria (i. e. “Augustan History”), a
collection of histories or biographies of the Roman em-
perors, from Hadrian to Carinus inclusive (117–285 A.D.).
The authors of the “Augusta. Historia” were AElius Spar-
tianus, Julius Capitolinus, AElius Lampridius, Vulcatius
Gallicanus, Trebellius Pollio, and Flavius Vopiscus.
Augus’tan Age, the reign of the emperor Augustus
Caesar, commenced about 30 B.C., and was the most bril-
liant period in the literary history of Rome. It was illus-
trated by the genius of Virgil, Horace, Livy, Ovid, Proper-
tius, and Tibullus. Cicero also, and Julius Caesar, may be
included as contemporaries of Augustus. This age was also
signalized by the most perfect development of the science
of jurisprudence, in which the Romans excelled all other
nations, and which was perhaps their only original intel-
lectual property of much importance. A purer Latinity
appears in the writings of the Augustan Age than in those
of earlier and subsequent periods.
Augusta'na. Col’Iege and Theolog’ical Sem’i-
nary. This institution was founded in 1860, and held its
sessions in the basement of the Swedish Lutheran church
in Chicago, Ill. In 1863 it was removed to Paxton, Ford
co., Ill. Its primary object is the education of candidates
for the gospel ministry of the Evangelical Lutheran Church
among the Scandinavian population of this country. It
also educates young men for the office of teacher in the
parochial schools of the Church, and for business and pro-
fessional life. It was incorporated by the legislature of
Illinois Feb. 16, 1865, and its charter was amended Mar.
10, 1869. The course of instruction consists of three years
in the preparatory department, embracing the study of the
Bnglish, German, Swedish, Latin, and Greek grammars
and languages, together with a thorough course in all the
branches usually taught in a preparatory department; and
four years in the college department, embracing the clas-
sical, the scientific, and the mathematical course usually
taught in American colleges. The scholastic year consists
of forty weeks, divided into two terms of sixteen and
twenty-four weeks respectively, including a short recess
during the holidays. The institution has a library of 7000
volumes. The faculty, at present, consists of the president
and three professors; there is also one tutor. The first prin-
cipal was the Rev. L. P. Esbjorn. In 1863, Rev. T. N. Has-
selduist, D. D., was elected president, which office he yet
holds. Measures are being taken for the removal of
this institution to Rock Island, Ill. The institution has
an endowment of 880 acres of improved land in Ford
co., Ill., and efforts are now being made to raise $30,000
as an addition to the college endowment.
T. N. HAssELQUIST.
Augusti (CHRISTIAN JoHANN WILHELM), born Oct. 27,
1772, at Eschenburg, near Gotha, Germany, studied at Jena,
where he became a professor extraordinary in 1800, profes-
sor of Oriental literature in 1803, and professor of theology
in 1807. In 1812 he became professor of theology at Bres-

AUGUSTINE– AUGUSTUS III.
lau, and in 1819 at Bonn. In 1833 he became director of
the conservatory at Coblentz, where he died April 28, 1841.
He was a man of great learning, an orthodox conservative
Lutheran. His writings are valued as books of reference,
though they are not without serious faults. His best-known
work is “Denkwürdigkeiten aus der Christlichen Archaeo-
logie” (12 vols., 1817–31). He published various other
Works, historical and dogmatical.
Au'gustine [Lat. Aureºlius Augusti'nus], SAINT, the
most eminent of the Latin Fathers of the Church, was born
at Tagaste, in Numidia, on the 13th of Nov., 353 A.D.
He was a son of a pagan father and a Christian mother
(Monica or Monnica), an excellent and devout woman, by
whom he was instructed in religion. Educated at the best
Schools of Madaura, and Carthage, he learned rhetoric, the
Greek language, philosophy, etc. When, at the age of
Seventeen, he entered the great city of Carthage to com-
plete his education, he was an eager, ambitious student and
a youth of ardent passions, with a propensity to sensual
pleasure. According to his own statement in his “Con-
fessions,” he deviated widely from the path of strict
morality during this period, and became a father before he
was married. About the age of nineteen he embraced the
doctrines of the Manichaeans, and returned to Tagaste,
where he taught rhetoric and grammar. He adhered to
Mamichaeism about nine years, during part of which he
lectured on rhetoric at Carthage. In the mean time his
mother, by her prayers and exhortations, strove to convert
him to Christianity, without success. He wrote at Carthage
in his twenty-seventh year a treatise, “De Apto et Pul-
chro,” which is not extant. At length he perceived that
the mystical phrases and futile speculations of the Manich-
aeans were not capable of satisfying the wants of his spirit-
ual nature. Much perplexed with doubts and unrest, he
removed in 383 A. D. to Rome, and thence to Milan, where
he was appointed professor of rhetoric in 384. He was
deeply interested in the Platonic philosophy, and after he
renounced Manichaeism studied the Bible from a Platonic
point of view. The sermons of Saint Ambrose, then bishop
of Milan, made a deep impression on him, and after severe
spiritual conflicts he became a Christian, and was baptized
on Easter Eve, 387. In 388 he went back to Tagaste, was
ordained presbyter at Hippo in; 391, associate bishop in
395, and bishop in 396. Among his earlier writings was a
treatise against the Manichaeans: (“De Genesi contra
Manichaeos’’), and “On True Religion ” (“De Vera Re-
ligione”). He published about 397 his “Confessions,” in
thirteen books, a very interesting:autobiography. He was
a zealous opponent of Pelagianism, against which he wrote
two treatises, entitled “On the Grace of Christ'' and “On
Original Sin.” Semi-Pelagianism was opposed by him, in
428, in two famous treatises on: Predestimation ” and on
“Perseverance.” He also wrote: vigorously...against the
Donatists. He finished about 426 a work, “De Civitate
Dei?” (“On the City of God”), which is regarded as the
greatest monument of his genius, and learning. One aim
of this book was to vindicate the Christian faith...against
those pagans who asserted that the capture...of Rome...by
Alaric and other'calamities were consequences; of the prev-
alence of the new religion. Near the end of his life he
wrote the “Retractationes,” in which he reviewed carefully
all his own works. Other important treatises are the “De
Doctrina Christiana” and the “De Trinitate.” . He left
behind: him also exegetical treatises, sermons, and letters
in great number... :The best edition of his works is that
published by the Benedictines at Paris (11 vols., 1679–1700).
He died at Hippo while that city was besieged by the Van-
dals, on the 28th of Aug., 430 A.D. His character and
writings exerted an immense and durable influence on the
Church. “Of all the Fathers of the Latin Church,” says
Villemain, “Saint Augustine manifested the most imagina-
tion in theology, the most eloquence, and even sensibility, in
scholasticism.” For learning his reputation is not so high.
He was a poor Greek scholar, and knew nothing of Hebrew.
(See PossIDIUs, “Vita, Sancti Augustini;” G. MoRINGo,
“Vie de Saint-Augustin,” 1533; TILLEMONT, “Mémoires
Ecclésiastiques,” 1702; RIvrus, “Vita Sancti Augustini,”
1646; Poujou,AT, “Vie de Saint-Augustin,” 1852; BINDE-
MANN, “Augustine’s Leben,” 1844; BUTLER, “Lives of the
Saints;” NEANDER, “History of the Church.”) . . .
- REVISED BY R. D. HITCHCOCK.
Augustine, or Austin, SAINT, the “apostle of Eng-
land” and first archbishop of Canterbury. He was a Bene-
dictine monk, connected with a monastery in Rome, when
he was sent by Pope Gregory I. to convert the Anglo-Sax-
ons, in 596 A. D. He was received amicably by King Eth-
elbert, whose wife Bertha was already a Christian. He
converted Ethelbert, and is said to have baptized 10,000 of
his subjects. Augustine was appointed archbishop of Can-
terbury by the pope. Died in 604, or, as some say, 614. |
of Saxony (Marshal Saxe).
327
(See W. F. Hook, “Lives of the Archbishops of Canter-
bury,” vol. i.).
Augustin’ian Monks, a monastic order of the Roman
Catholic Church. This order was formerly divided into
three classes, of which two still remain : I. Canons Regular.
—This class of ecclesiastics originated at Avignon in the
year 1038, by authority of the bishop Benedict of Avignon.
They were called Canons Regular because their ranks were
recruited from the lay and clerical canons who had not
previously taken monastic vows. They assumed the name
and rule of Augustine in 1139. They had 170 houses in
England and 28 in Scotland. II. The so-called Hermits
of St. Augustine, one of the four great mendicant orders of
the Church. This body incorrectly claims to have been
founded by Saint Augustine. Its true origin was in 1256,
when Pope Alexander IV. compelled eight small bodies of
Italian monks to unite in one order under the rule of St.
Augustine, and exempted them from the jurisdiction of
bishops. The Hermits of St. Augustine have now about
200 houses. They are much diminished in importance.
The Special Congregations consisted of those Augustinians
who desired a severer rule and better discipline than com-
monly prevailed in the order. Martin Luther was a mem-
ber of the Special Congregation of Saxony. III. The Bare-
footed Augustinians originated in 1582, by command of the
king of Spain. They have a very severe rule. The num-
ber of monasteries in 1860 was about fifteen. This class is
nearly or quite independent of the former.
Augustinian Nuns are of four classes: First, those
under the guidance of Augustinian monks; secondly, those
under the control of diocesan bishops; thirdly, barefooted
nuns; fourthly, Augustines of the Interior of Mary. (See
MIGUE, “Dictionnaire des ordres Religieux,” tom. iv.; DUG-
DALE, “Onomasticon,” vi. 37.) - -
Augusto’wo, or Augustow, a town of Russian Po-
land, in the government of Suvalki, on the Netta, 140 miles
N. E. of Warsaw. It has manufactures of cotton and wool-
len goods. Pop. in 1867, 9354. -
Augustowo, Canal of, unites the Vistula with the
river Niemen, and connects it with the Baltic at Memel. It
is 150 miles long, extending from Wizna on the Narew to
a point on the Niemen, 14 miles N. of Grodno.
Augus’tulus (ROMULUS), the last Roman emperor of
the West, was a son of Orestes, a rich patrician. He ob-
tained the title of emperor in 475 A.D., and was deposed
by Odoacer in 476. e
Augustus, a Latin word equivalent to the Gr. Segaarás,
signifies “majestic,” “sacred,” “venerable.” It was a name
or surname conferred on Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus by
the Roman senate, 27 J3. C.
Augus’tus (or August) I., elector of Saxony, a son
of Henry the Pious, was born at Freiberg in 1526, and suc-
ceeded his brother Maurice in 1553. He was an intolerant
promoter of Lutheranism, and persecuted the Calvinists,
but was a liberal patron of learning, and under his admin-
istration the manufactures, agriculture, and commerce of
the country were greatly promoted and improved; he also
introduced some valuable reforms in jurisprudence. He
was chiefly instrumental in negotiating the peace of Augs-
burg (1555). He died in 1586, and was succeeded by his
son, Christian I.
Augustus II. of Saxony (and Augustus I. of Po-
land), born at Dresden in 1670, was the second son of
John George III., elector of Saxony, and Anna Sophia of
Denmark. He possessed extraordinary physical strength,
and was not deficient in mental faculties. He became
elector of Saxony on the death of his brother in 1694,
and was elected king of Poland in 1697, having, for the
sake of the crown, adopted the Roman Catholic religion.
His competitor in this election was the French prince
of Conti. Augustus formed about 1700 an alliance with
Peter the Great against Charles XII. of Sweden, by whom
he was defeated in several battles. By a treaty signed in
1706 he renounced the crown of Poland, which Charles
XII. gave to Stanislas Lesczynski. In consequence of the
defeat of Charles XII. by the Russians in 1709, Augustus
recovered the throne of Poland, and as an ally of Peter the
Great waged war against Sweden for several years. Au-
gustus was luxurious, licentious, and fond of splendor. He
squandered the revenues of Saxony on his mistresses and
on alchemists, whom he patronized. He had many ille-
gitimate children, among whom was the famous Maurice
He died in Feb., 1733, leaving
the throne to his son Augustus. (See FASSMANN and HoRN,
“Friedrich August des Grossen Leben,” 1734; DESROCHES
DE PARTHENAY, “Histoire de Pologne sous le Roi Auguste
II,” 4 vols., 1734.) - -
Augustus III. (FREDERICK), king of Poland, born
at Dresden; in 1696, was a son of the preceding. He was
328
AUGUSTUS—AULIC COUNCIL.
inferior in talents to his father. Having joined the Ro-
man Catholic Church, he married, in 1719, Maria Jose-
phine, a daughter of Joseph, emperor of Austria.
1733 he became elector of Saxony, and was chosen king
of Poland by a party of the Diet. Favored by the courts
of Austria and Russia, he prevailed over his rival Stanislas.
In 1742 he formed an alliance with the empress Maria
Theresa against Frederick the Great, who defeated the
Saxons in 1745 and captured Dresden. This war was ended
in 1746, but Augustus was soon involved in the Seven
Years’ war, which began in 1755, and his army was again
defeated by the Prussians. He died in 1763, and his son,
Frederick Christian, then became elector of Saxony.
Augustus (WILLIAM), prince of Prussia, a younger
brother of Frederick the Great, was born at Berlin in 1722.
He distinguished himself at Hohen-Friedberg in 1745, be-
came a general of infantry, and displayed skilful general-
ship at the battle of Lowositz in 1756. He died in 1758,
and left a son, who became King’Egederick William II.
7 "...º. 3,
Augus’tus Cae'sar (often called simply Augustus),
called in his youth CAIU's OCTAvrus, and after he became
the heir of Caesar the dictator, CAIUs JULIUS CAESAR OC-
TAvLANUs, the first Roman emperor, was born at Velitrae
in 63 B. C. He was the son of Caius Octavius, a senator,
and Atia, who was a niece of Julius Caesar. His father
having died about 60 B. C., his mother was married to L.
Marcius Philippus, who directed the education of young
Octavius. At the age of sixteen he assumed the toga virilis,
and was adopted as a son by Julius Caesar, whom he attend-
ed in his expedition to Spain in 45 B. C. He became a pu-
pil of Apollodorus of Pergamus, under whom he was pur-
suing his studies at Apollonia when Caesar was killed, in
Mar., 44 B. C. As he had been appointed the heir of the
dictator, he hastened to Rome to claim his inheritance.
Mark Antony, who then had the chief power in Rome, re-
fused to deliver the property and papers of the late dicta-
tor. Octavius temporized, and in the turbulent and critical
times that ensued exhibited the prudence and astuteness of
a mature politician. He gained the favor of the senate,
which in Jan., 43 B. G., gave him the command of an army
which defeated that of Antony near Mutina (Módena).
The adhesion of the army to his interest enabled him
now to defy the authority of the senate. He marched
to Rome, was elected consul in Aug., 43, and formed
a triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus against Bru-
tus, Cassius, and the senate. Antony and Octavius
defeated Brutus and Cassius in the decisive battle of
Philippi in 42 B.C., and, to confirm their power, pro-
scribed and massacred thousands of their opponents
in Italy. Augustus then obtained control of Italy by a
new division of the provinces, but dissensions soon
arose between him and Antony, who had command in
Asia. An open rupture was, however, postponed, and
Antony married Octavia, the sister of his great rival.
About 38 B. C. the triumvirate was renewed for an–
other period of five years, during which Octavius and
Antony were virtually masters of the Roman world. §
Octavius defeated Sextus Pompey in battle in the
In
happy in his domestic relations. His adopted sons, Caius
and Lucius Caesar, to whom he intended to leave the throne,
| died young. He was temperate in his diet and moderate
and frugal in his style of living. He had studied oratory
with some success, but on important, occasions, he would
never speak without careful preparation. He composed
numerous works in prose and verse on various subjects.
Having designated his stepson Tiberius as his successor,
he died in Aug., 14 A. D. (See SUETon IUs, “Ilife of Au-
gustus” (“Vita, Augusti”); NICOLAs DAMAscENUs, “Do
Vita Augusti;” TACITUs, “Annales;” DRUMANN, “Ge-
schichte Roms;” LARREY, “Vie d’Auguste,” 1840; Nou GA-
RièDE, “Histoire du Siècle d’Auguste,” 1840; BLULí, “Au-
guste,” 1867.) REVISED BY ABEL STEVENS.
Auk (Al/ca), a genus of web-footed oceanic birds of the
family Alcaldae. The auks are remarkable for the shortness
of their wings, which in some species are used as paddles
or fins in swimming under water, while in others they are
used in flight. These birds are adapted solely for an aquatic
life, and swim with wonderful rapidity; they pass their
lives mostly in the sea and on the shoré near the water’s
edge. They are found only in the northern hemisphere,
and are most abundant in the Arctic regions. The genus
Alca, restricted by Cuvier, comprises only two species—
the great auk (Alca impennis) and the razor-bill (Alca
torda). The great auk is about as large as a goose, and
resembles a penguin, having very short wings unfit for
flight, and being compelled by the form and situation of its
legs to hold itself in an erect position when on the land. It
moves under the water with extraordinary rapidity. This
bird, so numerous a few years ago, has been lost sight of,
and is thought to be extinct. About thirty-four birds and
forty-two eggs are known, they being distributed among
the various scientific institutions of the world. The razor-
bills or black-billed auks have longer wings, and can fly
well. They breed in immense numbers within the Arctic
Circle, and are very valuable to the Esquimaux, who eat
their flesh and clothe themselves with their downy skins.
They derive the name razor-bill from the sharpness of the
edge of their bills. The common puffin (Fratercula arctica)
is remarkable for the singulár shape, enormous size, and
year 36, and was chosen consul for the second time %
in 33. In the mean time, Antony, infatuated with :
passion for Cleopatra, neglected his own interests,
and by his ill-treatment of Octavia, broke the only
bond of union with his colleague. The contest for
supreme power was decided by a great naval victory
which Octavius gained at Actium in 31 B. C., after
which he was the sole master of the Roman empire.
He was subsequently chosen consul several times, and
professed an intention to restore the republic, but he
usurped absolute power, partly disguised under re-
publican forms. In 27 B. C. the title of Augustus
was conferred on him by the obsequious senate, which
retained the shadow of its former power. His favorite
ministers and advisers were Agrippa, Maecenas, and
Asinius Pollio. He was thrice married; the names of
his wives were Clodia, Scribonia, and Livia, Drusilla. He
had an only child, Julia. In 23 B.C. he accepted the tribu-
nitia potestas (tribunitian power) for life. His reign was
remarkably pacific and prosperous, and the Augustan Age
was rendered the most brilliant in the Roman literature by
the genius of Virgil and Horace, whom the emperor libe-
rally patronized. He was a prudent and rather popular
ruler, governing men with artful policy, and skilfully using
their passions and talents to promote his own designs. The
peace, order, and prosperity which his subjects enjoyed
under his mild and modified tyranny reconciled them to
the loss of their ancient liberty. He centralized the admin-
istration and enforced discipline in the armies. He adorn-
ed the city of Rome with public buildings, and made such
improvement in that capital that it was said that he found
it a city of brick and left it a city of marble. He was not
%
* *
ſº
|
%
%
Labrador Auk, or Arctic Puffin.
the light colors of its beak, owing to which it is often call-
ed the sea-parrot or the cowlterneb : it is also sometimes
called the Labrador auk. The name of little auk is often
given to a species of Mergulus. $
%H=
Au’la Re'gia, Latin words signifying “king's hall”
or “court.” This name was applied to a court established
in England by William the Conqueror, and afterwards reg-
ulated by Magna Charta. .
Au’lic [from the Lat. aw/la; Ger. Reichshofrath]
Council, one of the two highest councils or courts of the
former German empire, co-ordinate with the imperial cham-
ber. The aulic council, which was organized in 1495, con-
sisted of a president, vice-president, and eighteen coun-
cillors, six of whom were Protestants, whose unanimous
votes could not be overruled by the Catholic majority. The

AULICK-AURICULA.
g
members and officers of this council were appointed by the
emperor, and had jurisdiction over all matters of feudality
in which the emperor was directly concerned; all questions
of appeal made by states from decisions in favor of the em-
peror in inferior courts; and Italian affairs in which the
emperor was interested. After the dissolution of the Ger-
man empire in 1806, the term aulic council was applied to
the emperor of Austria's council of state.
Au’lick (Commodore John H.), born in Virginia in 1787,
entered the U. S. navy in 1809. He was promoted to be
a lieutenant in 1814 for bravery in the fight between the
Enterprise and Boxer. He afterwards served with great
honor, becoming captain in 1841 and commodore in 1862.
Died at Washington, D. C., April 27, 1873.
Au’lis, a town of ancient Greece, in Boeotia, on the
Euripus, had a temple of Artemis (Diana). According to
the poetical legend, Agamemnon here assembled the Gre-
cian fleet before the siege of Troy, and here he offered his
daughter Iphigenia as a sacrifice. Its present name is
Vathi. - -
AułI’ville, a village of Lafayette co., Mo., on the Lex-
ington and St. Louis R. R., has one wagon and carriage
factory, one machine-shop, one manufactory of boots and
shoes, and other industries. It has one weekly paper.
- H. DULEY, ED. “AULLVILLE TIMES.”
Au’lus Gel’lius, a Latin author who lived during the
reigns of Hadrian and the Antonines. Little is known of
the events of his life. He resided much at Athens, where
he composed his “ Noctes Atticae,” probably before 150
A. D. His book is a mass of curious information upon a
great variety of subjects, and, though ill-arranged, is val-
uable to critics, from the light it throws upon many obscure
points of ancient history and literature. The edition of
Conradi (1762) is one of the best.
Aumale (formerly Albemarle), a small town of
France, department of Seine-Inférieure, 13 miles E. N. E.
of Neufchâtel. Pop. in 1866, 2229. In the reign of Henry
II. Aumale was erected into a duchy, and the title of duke
of Aumale was given to Claude, a brother of Francis, duke
of Guise. (See the next article.) 4.
Aumale, d” (CLAUDE II.), DUC, a French general, born
in 1523, was a brother of the famous duke of Guise. He
fought against the Huguenots at St. Denis (1567) and Mon-
contour (1569), and was one of the chief instigators of the
massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572). He was killed in
battle Mar. 14, 1573.−His son, CHARLES DE LORRAINE, duc
d'Aumale, born about 1555, was an ardent partisan of the
Catholic League. After the death of his cousin, Henry,
duke of Guise, 1588, Aumale and the duke of Mayenne
were the leaders of the League, and commanded the armies
that fought against Henry IV. He had ill-success as a
general. Having plotted treason with the king of Spain,
he was condemned to death by Parliament in 1595, but es-
caped. Died at Brussels in 1631.
Aumale, d” (HENRI EugèNE PHILIPPE Louis D’OR-
LíANs), DUC, the fourth son of Louis Philippe, king of the
French, was born in Paris in 1822. He entered the army
in 1839, served several campaigns in Algeria, and was rap-
idly promoted. In May, 1843, having defeated Abd-el-
Käder, whose camp and treasures became the spoil of the
victors, he was raised to the rank of lieutenant-general.
In Sept., 1847, he was appointed governor-general of
Algeria, about three months after which Abd-el-Kāder
surrendered to him. On learning the abdication of his
father, he resigned his command, Mar., 1848, and went
into exile, residing many years in England. He was
chosen a member of the National Assembly in Feb., 1871,
soon after which date that body annulled the decree or
law which had excluded the Orleans princes from France.
He was elected to the French Academy in the winter of
1871–72.
Aune [Lat. wilna, the elbow], an old European cloth
measure, having many values in different places, varying
between 27 and 54 inches. The French alume was about
46.8 inches. The name survives only in Switzerland, where
it signifies a measure equal to four feet in length, the foot
being thirty centimétres. The Swiss aune is therefore
about 47# inches long. -
Au’ra [a Latin word signifying a “breath,” a “gentle
breeze,” from the Gr. 30, to “breathe ”], a subtle vapor
or exhalation.—Aura electrica (literally, the “electrical
breeze”), the sensation as of cold air experienced when
electricity is received from a sharp point.—Aura epileptica,
the peculiar sensation felt by epileptic patients as of a cold
fluid ascending towards the head.—Aura hysterica, the sen-
sation as of cold air ascending to the head, said to occur
sometimes in hysteria.-Aura seminalis or aura seminis,
the supposed vivifying principle of the semen virile, for-
merly believed to ascend through the Fallopian tubes,
329
thereby impregnating the ovum in the ovarium.—Aura vi-
talis, a name for the principle of life.
Aurantia’ceae [from the Lat. aurantium, an “orange”],
a natural order of exogenous trees and shrubs, natives of
the warm parts of Asia and Northern Africa. All parts
of these plants contain a fragrant volatile oil, which
abounds especially in the leaves and in the rind of the
fruit. The leaves are alternate, articulated with the peti-
ole, and dotted or pellucid-punctate; the fruit is a hesperid-
ium. The order comprises numerous species, some of
which are remarkable for beauty and are highly prized for
their fruits, as the orange, lemon, and citron. (See CITRUS.)
The fruits of Ægle marmelos, Cookia punctata, Glycosmis
citrifolia, and many others are also edible. The Skimmia
Japonica, a beautiful shrub of Japan, is more hardy than
the other plants of this order, and flourishes in the open
air in England.
Aur'dal, a township of Otter Tail co., Minn. Pop. 85.
Aure'lian, or Aurelia'nus (CLAUDIUs Dom ITIUs), a
Roman emperor of humble origin, was born about 212 A. D.
at Sirmium, in Pannonia, or, as some say, in Lower Dacia.
He served with distinction in several campaigns, and raised
himself by his merit to the highest rank in the army of
Valerian. It is stated that he usually fought in the fore-
most rank. On the death of Claudius (270 A. D.), Aure-
lian was elected emperor by the army. Early in his reign
the empire was invaded by the German tribe of Alemanni,
whom he defeated. He abandoned Dacia to the Goths and
Wandals, in order that the Danube might become the bound-
ary of the empire. The most important and famous of his
enterprises was an expedition against Zenobia, queen of
Palmyra, whose extensive dominions included Syria and
Egypt. Having defeated her army in battle near Emesa,
he captured Palmyra and its queen in 273 A. D., after
which he received at Rome a triumph of extraordinary
magnificence. He recovered Gaul from Tetricus, who had
usurped royal power, and obtained the title of “Restorer
of the empire.” His memory is stained by the judicial
murder of Longinus the critic, and other acts of excessive
severity. He was assassinated by his own officers between
Byzantium and Heraclea, in 275 A. D., and was succeeded
by Tacitus. (See Wopiscus, “Vita Aureliani;” TILLEMONT,
“Histoire des Empereurs;” GIBBON, “Decline and Fall of
the Roman Empire,” chap. xi.) -
Aure/lius, a post-township of Ingham co., Mich. Pop.
1506.
Aurelius, a post-township of Cayuga, co., N. Y. Pop.
1952.
Aurelius, a township of Washington co., O. Pop. 799.
Aure’lius Victor (SEXTUs), a Roman historian who
flourished about 380 A. D. He was appointed prefect of
Pannonia Secunda by Julian the Apostate about 360, and
was prefect of Rome under Theodosius I. He wrote a
series of biographies of the Roman emperors from Au-
gustus to Constantius, entitled “De Caesaribus Historia,”
which is extant. Two other works are ascribed to him—
namely, “The Lives of Illustrious Romans '' and “Aurelii
Victoris Epitome.”
Aure/ola, Auſreole [Lat. awre'olw8, “golden "l, in
painting, the golden glory which encircles the heads, or
even the whole bodies, of Saints and martyrs. The circle
or nimbus when it encloses a cross belongs to Christ alone;
without the cross it indicates canonized saints. There is
also a form of aureole appropriated to saints who are called
beati, “blessed,” but are not canonized, whose heads are
decorated with a radiation of golden lines. The idea of
placing an aureole around the head of divine or sainted per-
sonages did not, there is reason to believe, originate with
the Christians of the primitive or Middle Ages. Aureoles
essentially resembling those which surround the heads of
the saints appear to have been common in India in the
representations of the Hindoo gods from early times. (See
MooR’s “Hindu Pantheon.”) -
Au’reus, or Dena'rius Au’reus, the standard and
most ancient Roman gold coin, first struck in 207 B. C.
The average weight of the aureus was about 121 grains—a
little less than the Greek stater, and about the same as the
Persian daric. t º
Au’ricle [Lat. auric'ula, the diminutive of aw/ris, the
“ear”], the external portion of the ear.
AURICLEs of THE HEART [Lat. auricu'læ cor'dis], the term
applied to those cavities of the heart which receive the
blood returning from the veins, and convey it to the ven-
tricles. The auricles are popularly called “deaf-ears.” (See
HEART.) -
Auric/ula (Prim/ula Aurie/wla), a plant of the order
Primulaceae, nearly related to the primrose, is much culti-
wated in flower-gardens. It is a native of the Alps and
330
AURICULA—AURORA BOREALIS.
other mountains of Europe and Asia. It is prized for the
beauty and fragrance of its flowers, which grow in the
form of an umbel on a scape. The size and color of the
flowers have been much improved by cultivation. Among
the colors prevailing in the 1200 or more cultivated varie-
ties are red, pink, crimson, and mulberry. Some varieties
present a single color, and others are variegated or are
adorned with a green margin. The flowers are covered
with a fine meal or powder. The auricula blooms in April
or May, and often has a second crop of flowers in autumn.
It prefers a rich, light soil, and the finer varieties are usu-
ally cultivated in pots. The chief requisites of a good
auricula are large flowers, which are nearly round, and
have in the centre a white or yellow eye which is distinct
and round, its color not mixed with the ground color; and
a long scape, strong enough to hold itself erect.
Auricula, a genus of Auriculidae, a family of Mollusca
of the class Gasteropoda. They have a spiral shell covered
with a horny epidermis. The spire is obtuse or short, and
the aperture elongated and narrow. They have respiratory
organs adapted for breathing in air, and they frequent salt
marshes or the vicinity of the sea. They are chiefly found
in and near warm seas. Several species are fossil.
Auric'ular Confes’sion [Lat. auricula, the “external
ear”], private confession of sins to a priest. For certain
offences the early Church required confession. In the fifth
century, owing to some scandals in public confession, Leo
the Great (440–461) authorized the parish priest to receive
confessions. By the twenty-first canon (“Omnis wiriusque
seasus fidelis") of the Fourth Lateran Council, in 1215, un-
der Innocent III., it is enjoined upon the faithful to confess
their sins once a year, at least, to the parish priest, under
pain of losing Christian burial.
. Auri’ga, a Latin word signifying “charioteer,” is the
name of a northern constellation of the celestial sphere,
sometimes called THE WAGONER. It contains Capella, a
star of the first magnitude.
Aurillac, Ö're'yák' (anc. Aureli’aeum), a town of
France, capital of the department of Cantal, is pleasantly
situated in a valley on the river Jourdamme, 272 miles S.
of Paris. It is well built, and has wide and clean streets.
The houses are covered with slate, which is quarried in the
vicinity. Among its ancient and remarkable public build-
ings are the church of Notre Dame, built in the thirteenth
century, the castle of St. Stephen, and the college, which
has a valuable library. Here are manufactures of copper
kettles, jewelry, paper, carpets, and woollen stuffs. Pop. in
1866, 10,998.
Auriol, a town of France, in the department of Bou-
ches-du-Rhône, 16 miles N. E. of Marseilles. Pop. in 1866,
5182. - -
Au'rochs [Ger. prom. owr’oks], a contraction of the
German Alwer-Ochs (i. e. §§ º
“wild-ox”), the Bos wrus ", º a º
of some naturalists, and
Bison bonassus of others,
is a European species of
BIsoN(which see). Though
once found in great num-
bers in many parts of Eu-
rope, it is now chiefly, if
not wholly, limited to the
forests of Lithuania, Mol-
davia, Wallachia, and the #:
Caucasus. It bears many
points of similarity to the
American bison.
Aurochs. -
It is a very powerful animal, being.
somewhat larger than an ordinary ox, and, though clumsy
in appearance, can run rapidly for a short distance. The
body of this animal exhales a strong odor, somewhat.
resembling musk. The aurochs. is a good swimmer, and
delights in dabbling in the water and rolling in the mud.
Its food consists in a great part of lichens, of which it is
especially fond. -
Auro'ra, a Latin word signifying “morning” or the
“goddess of morning,” corresponding to the Greek “Eos.
The poetical legends represent her as the daughter of Hy-
perion, the wife of the Titan Astraeus, the mother of Hes-
perus, Boreas, Zephyrus, and Memnon. According to one
mythical tradition, she loved Tithonus (a son of Laome-
don), for whom she asked and obtained immortality, but
forgot to ask perpetual youth. She was sometimes repre-
sented as dressed in a saffron-colored robe, with a torch in
her right hand. - - . . . -
: Aurora, a post village of York co., Ontario, Dominion
of Canada, on the Northern Railway, 30 miles N. of To-
ronto. . It has one weekly newspaper, three churches, and
a public park. Pop. in 1871, 1132. -
Aurora, a city of Kane Co., Ill., on Fox River, and on
the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R., 39 miles W. S. W.
of Chicago, at the junction of that road with the O. O. and
F. R. W. R. R., and the Chicago and Iowa R. R. It has a
city-hall, which cost $75,000, and a fine building for the
Young Men’s Christian Association, which is doing a large
benevolent work. It has three national banks, an exten-
sive silver-plate manufacturing establishment, a foundry,
several machine-shops, a woollen mill, and the shops and
works of the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R., which
employ 1500 men. It has twenty churches, five newspapers,
and excellent public schools, and is the seat of Jennings’
Seminary. The city is protected from fire by the Holly
waterworks system. Pop. 11,162; of Aurora township,
2033. . - E.D. “ BEACON.”
Aurora, Dearborn co., Ind., on the Ohio River and
the Ohio and Mississippi R. R., 25 miles W. by S. from Cin-
cinnati. It has one national bank, four large barrel-factories,
Ohio and Mississippi R. R. car-shops, an extensive hay-
trade, one distillery, one large brewery, one chair-factory,
one furniture-factory, one hay-press factory, one foundry
of great capacity, and one weekly paper. Pop. 3304.
L. W. Cobb, E.D. “DEARBORN INDEPENDENT.”
Aurora, a post-township of Hancock co., Me. P. 212.
Aurora, a post-township of Steele co., Minn. Pop. 422.
Aurora, a post-village, capital of Esmeralda co., Nev.,
is situated on a level space at the junction of two ravines
which extend between Silver, Middle, and Last Chance
Bills, and about 100 miles S. E. of Carson City. Its alti-
tude is about 7500 feet above the level of the sea. Rich
silver-mines have been opened here. Pop. 160.
Aurora, a post-village of Ledyard township, Cayuga
co., N. Y., finely situated on the E. side of Cayuga Lake.
It is a place of summer resort, has many fine residences,
some manufactures, a weekly paper, and a national bank, .
and is the seat of Wells's college for ladies and of Cayuga
Lake Academy. It is on the Cayuga Lake R. R., 25 miles
N. W. of Ithaca. Pop. 450.
Aurora, a township of Erie co., N. Y., 18 miles S. E.
of Buffalo. It has an academy, and some manufactures.
Pop. of township, 2573. i
Aurora, a post-township of Portage co., O. Pop. 642.
Aurora, a township of Waushara co., Wis. Pop. 967.
Auro'ra Borea/lis (i.e. “northern light”), called also
Northern Lights, the term applied to a certain luminous
phenomenon generally appearing in the northern part of the
sky, and presenting a light somewhat resembling the dawn
or break of day. It is most frequent and brilliant in high
northern and high southern latitudes; in the latter case
it is called “aurora australis '' or “southern light.” The
appearances are extremely various. Not unfrequently it
seems to proceed from a sort of horizontal cloud or haze in the
northern part of the sky, rising a few degrees above the
horizon, and stretching from the north towards the east and
west, so as to form an arc which in some instances has been
observed to extend upward of one hundred degrees. The
upper edge of the cloud is whitish and luminous, the lower
part often dark or thick, and sometimes the clear sky may
be seen between it and the horizon. From the upper part
of the cloud streams of light shoot up in columnar forms,
reaching sometimes only a few degrees, sometimes to the
zenith, or even beyond it. Instances have occurred in
which the whole hemisphere was covered with coruscations,
but the brilliancy is greatest and the light strongest in the
north, near the main body of the meteor. The streamers
have in general a tremulous motion, and when close together
present the appearance of waves or sheets of light follow-
ing each other in rapid succession. When several columns,
issuing from different points, meet at the zenith, a small
meteor is formed of greater brilliancy than the separate
columns. The aurora, sometimes continues a few hours,
occasionally the whole night, and even for several nights
in succession. The height of the aurora above the earth
has been variously estimated by different scientists. By
taking observations of the altitude of the highest point of k:
the arch of the same aurora at different stations, heights.
varying from five to five hundred miles have been calcu-
lated. It is now almost universally admitted that the au-
rora borealis occurs at various heights, and that it is seldom
found less than forty-five miles above the surface of the
earth. The distance of the stations at which the same
aurora has been visible indicates the enormous geographical
extent, and likewise the great altitude, which the phenome-
non frequently attains. One aurora, for instance—that
which occurred on Sept. 3, 1839—was seen in the Isle of
Skye; at Paris; at Asti, in the Sardinian states; at New
Haven, in Conn., and at New Orleans. That of Sept. 2,
1859, was seen, all over Europe and North America, and in
the Sandwich. Islands. The aurora of Feb. 4, 1872, was
seen in the U. S., Europe, and British India. On the other



AURORAVILLE-AUSTIN.
331
hand, observers of eminence assert that the aurora, some-
times descends to the region of the clouds. The noise that
is alleged to...accompany the aurora would indicate for it a
moderate height. Some compare it to the noise that is pro-
duced by the rolling of one piece of silk upon another, and
others to the sound of the wind blowing against the flame
of a candle, or that attending the discharge of fireworks.
It is proper to observe, however, that scientific Arctic voy-
agers, such as Parry and Franklin, throw doubt on the ex-
istence of any such noise, for not one of the numerous and
brilliant auroras seen by them was attended with the faint-
est sound. It is now certain that the aurora has an elec-
tric origin, and it is believed by some that its phenomena
are due to the passage of electric currents through highly
attenuated air at considerable distance from the earth.
Telegraphic communications are frequently so interrupted
by electric currents upon the wires during the continuance
of an aurora that messages for the time cannot be sent. Oc-
casionally, however, the auroral current is so strong and
continuous that it can be utilized in sending despatches.
Periodicity in auroral displays has lately been asserted.
A maximum occurs about once in ten years, and a period
of remarkable brilliancy about once in sixty years. Some
physicists associate these periods with the variations in
the sun's spots and with the planetary rotations.
: Auro/raville, a township of Anson co., N. C. P. 1843.
Aurungābād’, a city of Hindostan, in the territory of
the Nizam, on the Doodna, 68 miles N. E. of Ahmednuggur;
lat. 19° 54 N., lon. 75° 33' E. It was a favorite residence
of Aurung–Zeb, in whose honor it was named. Among the
monuments of its former grandeur are a ruined palace of
Aurung-Zeb, and a mausoleum with domes of white marble
erected by that monarch to the memory of his daughter.
Many of the mosques and other public buildings are sub-
stantial, but signs of decay are visible. Pop. estimated at
60,000.
Au'rung-Zeb, or Aurang-Zebe (i. e. the “ orna-
ment of the throne”), afterwards called Alum - Geer or
Alam-Gir (“conqueror of the world”), a famous Mogul
emperor of Hindostan, was born Oct. 22, 1618. He was a
younger son of Shah Jehān, who ceased to reign in 1657.
The elder sons, Dara and Shuja, then contended for the
crown in battle, while Aurung–Zeb affected indifference to
temporal power, and craftily concealed his designs under
the cloak of piety. Having procured the assassination of
Dara and Shuja, he became master of the empire in 1658,
and detained in prison his father until his death in 1666.
As a bigoted Moslem he persecuted the Hindoos and pro-
voked the Mahrattas to revolt. He added Bejapoor and
Golconda to his empire, and was one of the most powerful
of the Mohammedan monarchs. of India. His long reign
was a period of outward and specious prosperity, but the
empire was diseased at heart, and soon entered a state of
decadence, which was partly the effect of his policy, du-
plicity, and intolerance. Conscious of the crimes by which
he obtained power, he lacked confidence in his ministers,
and is said to have lived in continual fear of treachery.
Died Feb. 21, 1707. (See ELPHINSTONE, “History of India;”.
BERNIER, “Voyages et Description de l'Empire Mogol;”
J. MILL, “History of British India.”) -
Au Sa’ble, a township of Grundy co., Ill.,
Au Sable, a post-village of Iosco co., Mich.
Ausa’ble, a village and township of Clinton co., N.Y.,
on the Au Sable River, about 7 miles above its entrance
into Lake Champlain. Excellent iron ore abounds, and
iron is extensively manufactured. There is an academy at
Keeseville. Pop. of township, 2863. " . -
Au Sable Forks, a post-village of Jay township, Es-
sex co., and Black Brook township, Clinton co., N.Y., on
the Au Sable River, has extensive iron-works, which pro-
duce metal of the best quality, also nail-works, lumber-
mills, etc. - -
Ausculta/tion [Lat. ausculto, ausculta’tum, to “lis-
ten”], a method of determining the condition of the heart
and lungs by listening to the sounds produced in the cavity
of the chest. This is done either by the unassisted ear
(called immediate auscultation), or by the aid of a simple
sound-conveying instrument, the stethoscope (termed me-
diate auscultation). . The stethoscope was invented by
Laemmec in 1816. By care and attention the normal sounds
produced by respiration and the beating of the heart may
Pop. 927.
be distinguished from the several abnormal sounds indi-
Auscultation is classed among the most
cating disease.
Its
important of discoveries in modern medical science.
details were ably explained by Laennec, who published a
treatise on it in 1819. Recent leading writers upon it
have been Skoda in Germany, Walshe in England, and
Flint in the U. S. (See STETHoscoPE.) . . -
Auso'nius (DECIMUs MAGNUs), an eminent Latin poet,
| rors, on Dec. 2, 1805.
born at Burdigala (Bordeaux) about 309 A. D. He was
liberally educated, practised law in his early life, and
gained distinction as a professor of rhetoric at Burdigala.
In 367 A. D. he was appointed tutor to Gratian by the
emperor Valentinian. He held several high offices under
the reign of Gratian, who raised him in 379 to the dignity
of consul. The learned disagree on the question whether
he was a Christian or a pagan. He wrote epigrams, epis-
tles, idyllia, etc., which were admired by his contemporaries,
but display little genius, and are very faulty in style.
Died about 394 A. D. (See M. DE PUYMAIGRE, “Wie
d’Ausone;” J. DEMOGEOT, tº Etudes historiques et littéraires
sur Ausone,” 1837.) -
Au’spices [from the Lat. auspic/ium (i. e. avispicium,
the “observing of birds”), from avia, a “bird,” and specio,
to “see”], a term applied by the ancient Romans to divi-
nations founded on the flight of birds or other omens, by
which the augurs or soothsayers professed that they could
ascertain the will of the gods and predict events. (See AU-
GUR.) No important enterprise or business'was undertaken
without consulting the auspices. In performing this cere-
mony the augur with a wand marked out a portion of the
sky for his observations, which portion, called a templum,
was divided into right and left. If the birds appeared on
the right hand, the omen was favorable; if they flew to-
wards the left (ad sinistrum), it was unfavorable. The chief
magistrates also had the right to conduct this ceremony,
and the commander of the army in time of war had the
exclusive power of taking the auspices. If a victory was
gained by his legate or lieutenant, it was said to be won
under the auspices of the general-in-chief. Thus origin-
ated the common English phrase, “under the auspices”
of some one. In such cases “auspices” signifies influence,
patronage. . - -
Aus'sig, an Austrian town, in Bohemia, on the Blbe, 46
miles W. N. W. from Prague, has coal-mimes in the vicinity,
and manufactures of linen, gold, and silver work. Pop.
10,933.
Aus’ ten (JANE), an English authoress, born at Steven-
ton, in Hampshire, Dec. 16, 1775. She was educated by
her father, who was rector of Steventon, and after his death
she lived at Southampton and Chawton. She is said to
have been beautiful in features. Her first novel, “Sense
and Sensibility,” appeared anonymously in 1811. She
afterwards produced “Pride and Prejudice,” “Mansfield
Park,” “Emma” (1816), “Northanger Abbey” (1818),
and “Persuasion” (1818), the first three of which were
anonymous. These works represent with great fidelity the
ordinary life of the middle classes of England. According
to Sir Walter Scott, “she had a talent for describing the
involvements, feelings, and characters of ordinary life
which is to me the most wonderful I have ever met with.”
Died July 18, 1817. (See the “Quarterly Review” for
Jan., 1821; “Atlantic Monthly’ for Feb., 1863.)
Aus/terlitz, a small town in Moravia, on the Littawa,
12 miles E. S. E. of Brünn. It has a fine castle. Pop. in
1857, 3452. It is celebrated as the scene of a great victory
which Napoleon I. gained over the combined armies. of
Austria and Russia, commanded by their respective empe-
Napoleon had taken Vienna about
Nov. 12, after which he fixed his head-quarters at Brünn,
where he had about 75,000 men. ... The armies of the allies,
amounting to about 85,000, advanced in five columns to
offer battle to the French, who occupied high ground partly
covered by wooded eminences, morasses, and Small lakes.
The battle began about 7 A.M., when the allies attempted
to turn the right wing of Napoleon, who attacked them in
flank and at various points with great advantage. While
a portion of the allied army was retreating across a frozen
lake, the ice was broken by the French artillery, and nearly
2000 men perished in the water. The allies lost about
30,000, killed, wounded, and prisoners, and the French about
12,000. Among the results of this victory was the treat
of Presburg, Dec., 1805. - -
Austerlitz, a post-township of Columbia co., N. Y.
Pop. 1442. - - -
Aus/tin, a county in the S. E. central part of Texas, has
an area of 1024 square miles. It is intersected by the Bra-
zos River, which is navigable for steamboats. . The soil is
fertile; cotton is the staple crop, but corn, cattle, tobacco,
and wool are raised. Manufacturing is carried on quite
extensively. The Houston and Texas Central R. R. passes
through the county, which is one of the most thriving in
the State. Capital, Belleville. Pop. 15,087. -
Austin, the capital of Texas and seat of justice for
Travis, county, is situated on the left bank of the Colorado
River, in lat. 30° 16' 25" N., lon. 97° 43'58" W. . It is
surrounded by fine scenery. The river has been recently
made navigable for steamboats. Austin became the capital
332
AUSTIN–AUSTRALIA.
of the republic of Texas in 1839, was chosen capital of the
State in 1850, and in 1872 was made permanent capital by
vote of the people. It is connected by rail with Houston
and Galveston. Among the public buildings are the Cap-
itol, the general land-office, the comptroller's and treasu-
rer’s building, governor’s mansion, asylums for lunatics, for
the blind, and for the deaf and dumb, and the supreme
court building. It has a well-organized fire department,
several steam saw-mills, two ice-factories, several planing-
mills, and two sash-and-door factories. It is the seat of the
flourishing Texas Military Institute, and has three daily
and six weekly papers and one national bank. Pop. 4428.
STANLEY WELCH, E.D. “STATE Journ AL.”
Austin, a township of Macon co., Ill. Pop. 713.
Austin, a post-village of Jennings township, Scott co.,
Ind., has three manufactories of shingles, two of barrel
heads and staves, five saw-mills, two churches, and one
weekly newspaper. Pop. 321.
J. H. J. SIERP, ED. “AUSTIN NEws.”
Austin, a township of Mecosta co., Mich. Pop. 346.
Austin, a township of Sanilac co., Mich. Pop. 349.
Austin, a thriving little city, capital of Mower co.,
Minn., on the Red Cedar River, and on the Milwaukee and
St. Paul R. R., and terminus of the Burlington Cedar Rapids
and Minnesota, and Austin and Mason City R. Rs., 104 miles
S. of St. Paul. It has two newspapers and two national
banks. It is near the route of the Southern Minnesota.
R. R. Pop. 2039; of the township, 2631.
DAvLDson & BASFORD, PUBs. “AUSTIN REGISTER.”
Austin, a post-village, the capital of Tunica, co., Miss.,
on the Mississippi River, 44 miles by land and 75 miles by
water S. W. of Memphis, Tenn. It has two weekly papers.
E.D. OF “COTTON PLANT.”
Austin, a post-township of Cass co., Mo. Pop. 1366.
Austin, a city, the county-seat of Tander co., Nev., on
the eastern slope of the Toyabe range of mountains, 90
miles S. of Battle Mountain Station, and 6 miles E. of
Reese River. There are four quartz-mills and many rich
silver-mines here. It has one daily paper. Pop. 1324.
CASAMAYoU & DENNIS, PUBS. or “ DAILY REVEILLE.”
Austin, a township of Greenville co., S. C. Pop. 1512.
Austin (JAMES TRECOTHIC), LL.D., an American law-
yer, born at Boston Jan. 7, 1784. He graduated at Har-
vard in 1802, and became in 1806 a son-in-law of Elbridge
Gerry. He was attorney-general of Massachusetts from
1832 to 1843. He published, besides other works, a “Life
of Elbridge Gerry.” Died May 10, 1870.
Austin (JonATHAN LORING), a patriot, the father of the
preceding, was born in Boston Jan. 2, 1748, and graduated
at Harvard in 1766. He was sent to Paris in 1777 as a
bearer of despatches, and remained there two years as Dr.
Eranklin’s secretary. After the Revolutionary war he was
secretary of state in Massachusetts. Died May 10, 1826.
Austin (Moses), an American pioneer, born in Durham,
Conn., about 1776. He emigrated to Texas about 1820, and
obtained from the Mexican government a grant and per-
mission to plant a colony in that province. As he was re-
turning to Missouri for settlers, he died June 10, 1821, but
the colony was founded by his son, Stephen F. Austin.
Austin, SAINT. See AUGUSTINE, SAINT.
Austin (SAMUEL), D. D., an American Congregational
clergyman, born at New Haven, Conn., Oct. 7, 1760, gradu-
ated at Yale in 1783, was pastor at Fair Haven, Conn., for
three years from 1786, and afterwards at Worcester, Mass.,
for nearly twenty-five years. In 1815 he accepted the
presidency of the University of Vermont, which post he
occupied for about six years. The last years of his life
were spent in much bodily weakness and mental depression.
Died Dec. 4, 1830. -
Austin (SARAH), an English writer and accomplished
translator, was a member of the eminent Taylor family of
Norwich. She was married to John Austin, a barrister of
London. She wrote, besides other works, “ Characteristics
of Goethe’” (3 vols., 1833), which was very successful, and
“Sketches of Germany from 1760 to 1814.” She produced
a good translation from the German of Prince Pückler-
Muskau’s “Travels in England,” and also one of Ranke's
“History of the Popes” (3 vols., 1840), which was highly
commended by Macaulay. Died in 1867.
Austin (STEPHEN F.) was a son of Moses Austin, no-
ticed above. About 1821 he conducted a company of emi-
grants from New Orleans, and planted a colony where the
town of Austin now stands. The grant made to his father was
confirmed to him in 1822 or 1823. Early in 1833 the Texan
colonists formed a constitution, to obtain a ratification of
which Austin and other delegates went to the city of Mex-
ico. In consequence of the frequent revolutions and an-
archy of Mexico they did not obtain the admission of Texas
into the confederacy. In 1835, Austin was chosen com-
mander of the Texan army, and joined in the movement for
the liberation of Texas. He went as a commissioner to the
U. S. to obtain the recognition of Texas as an independent
state. Died Dec. 27, 1836. (See YoAKUM, “History of
Texas,” 1856.) - g
Aus/timburg, a post-township of Ashtabula co., O.
Pop. 1111. - - -
Austintown, a township of Mahoning co., O. P. 1948.
Australa'sia (i. e. “Southern Asia”), a part of
Oceanica, extending between the equator and lat. 47° S.,
comprises Australia, Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania), New
Zealand, and those parts of the Malay Archipelago and
Polynesia between lon. 130° and 170° E.-viz. Papua, the
Arroo Islands, New Britain, Timor-Laut, New Ireland, New
Caledonia, and the Admiralty, Solomon, New Hebrides,
and Queen Charlotte’s Islands. Its area is estimated by
Behm and Wagner at 3,425,000 square miles, and its popu-
lation at 4,365,000. -
Austra’lia [from the Lat. australis, “southern "], or
New Holland, the largest island of the world, is so ex-
tensive that it may be not improperly called a continent.
It is bounded on the N. by the Arafura, Sea, on the E. and
S. by the Pacific Ocean, and on the W. and N. W. by the
Indian Ocean. It is included between lat. 10° 44' and 39°
8' S., and between lon. 113° 5' and 153° 22' E. Its greatest
length from E. to W. is 2536 miles, and its greatest breadth
from N. to S. 1585 miles. The area is about 2,975,000
square miles.
Surface, etc.—This continent is remarkably compact in
form, is not indented by large inlets of the ocean (except
the Gulf of Carpentaria), and presents no wide estuaries
of rivers. The eastern, southern, and western coasts are
almost destitute of indentations, and have few good har-
bors. Australia, presents no great variety or inequality of
surface, compared with its vast extent, and has no very
high mountains. There are in its compact mass few well-
marked, lofty mountain-chains, and the interior is conse- .
quently unfavorable to the production of large and perma-
nent rivers. The central part of the island is an immense
plain or low table-land, which is arid and barren except
in the rainy seasons, and sends little or no tribute to the
O'Ceall.
Mountains.—The principal chain is the Blue Mountains
and Australian Alps, called Warragong Mountains by the
natives, which extend nearly parallel to the eastern coast
at distances varying from thirty to ninety miles. The
highest peaks of this chain are in New South Wales, and
rise nearly 7000 feet above the level of the sea. None of
these summits are covered with perpetual snow. The Aus-
tralian Alps present scenery of remarkable grandeur and
wildness, diversified by immense precipices and gigantic
fissures. From the principal chain extend a number of
spurs or detached ranges.
Rivers and Lakes.—Australia has no great navigable
rivers, and is less fortunate than the other continents in its
facilities for inland navigation. A scarcity of fresh water,
whether in the form of rivers or lakes, is one of the most
obvious characteristics of this great region. Many of the
rivers flow towards the interior, and are evaporated or ab-
sorbed in the sand. Along the Southern coast no perma-
ment stream occurs for a distance of over 1500 miles. The
poverty of the Australian hydrography is aggravated by
an alternation of long droughts and violent floods. The
lakes are not reservoirs for the supply of rivers, but rather
marshes and landlocked receptacles of its streams. The
largest of these lakes are Lake Torrens, Gairdner Lake,
and Lake Eyre, in South Australia, and Lake Austin, Lake
Moore, and Lake Barlee in Western Australia. The principal
river of Australia is the Murray, with its large tributaries,
the Darling and Murrumbidgee, rising on the W. or inner
slope of the Australian Alps. The Murray rises in the
south-eastern part of the island, flows westward, north-
westward, and mearly southward, and enters Encounter
Bay. The Darling rises much farther N., and flows south-
westward, being apparently longer than that part of the
Murray which is above the junction. Among the other
rivers in the south-eastern and eastern parts of Australia
are the Macquarrie, Lachlan, Lynd, and Burdekin. Along
the northern coasts occur numerous small rivers, named
Albert, Victoria, Roper, etc. In Western Australia, the
Gascoyne and Murchison rivers are among the largest in
that part of the continent. - &
Geology and Minerals.-The geology of this vast region
has not been fully explored, but is supposed to be remark-
ably simple. An immense central expanse of tertiary rocks
extends from lon. 124° to 138° E., and from the southern
coast to lat. 18° S. This tertiary formation is surrounded
on all sides except the S. by a continuous belt of plutonic
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AUSTRALIAN ALPS–AUSTRIA, ARCHDUCHY OF.
333
and metamorphic rocks. This belt is separated from the
sea on its eastern, western, and, nerthern sides by a tract
nearly 100 miles wide. Secondary strata prevail along
the northern and western coasts, while the eastern shore
from Cape York to Bass's Strait is composed of palaeozoic
strata, granite, basalt, and other primary rocks. The aurif-
erous rocks of South-eastern Australia are lower Silurian.
The gold-mines of Australia, discovered in 1851, are
among the richest in the world. Gold abounds in Victoria
and New South Wales, in quartzose veins and in the vicinity
of granite, porphyry, and greenstone. The discovery of
gold stimulated a rapid emigration from foreign countries
to Australia. The product of the mines in 1852 was about
$70,000,000, and in 1867, $60,000,000. It is stated that a
lump of pure gold weighing twenty-seven pounds was found
at Mt. Alexander. Valuable coal-fields occur in New South
Wales, in the basin of the Hunter River. The next most
important mineral of this island is copper, a rich mine of
which is worked at Burra-Burra in South Australia. Lead,
iron, zinc, manganese, and quicksilver are also found, the
iron being widely and abundantly. distributed. Deposits
of tin, supposed to be the richest in the world, have been
recently discovered in Australia. -
Climate.—The northern part has a dry, tropical climate,
and is subject to monsoons which blow with much regularity.
From the sterile plains of the interior come hot winds,
which fill the air with fine dust, and raise the temperature
to 120° in the shade. In New South Wales prevail long
droughts, which sometimes last a whole year, dry up the
rivers, and destroy the vegetation, while the rainy season
often ravages the country with violent floods. The mean
annual rainfall is reported to be 49 inches at Sydney, 29
inches at Port Philip in Victoria, 70 inches at Port Mac-
quarrie, and 19.9 at Adelaide. The mean temperature of
Melbourne (Victoria) is 59° F. In New South Wales the
average temperature of spring is 65°, of summer 72°, of
autumn 66°, and of winter 55°. As a whole, Australia is
remarkably healthful. Intermittent and remittent fevers
prevail in the extreme N., and rheumatism in parts of the
N. W.
Soil and Productions.—The part of New South Wales
lying W. of the mountains is fertile, and is generally based
on limestone. A large portion of this colony is adapted to
pasturage. “Between Port Macquarrie and Moreton Bay,”
says Sidney, “are vast tracts of well-watered land covered
with heavy timber. Pasture-lands extend for hundreds of
miles, now ascending the mountain-slopes to their very
summits, and here spreading out into vast plains.” Wheat
and other cereals flourish in Victoria, the soil of which is
generally very productive. Next to gold, wool is the chief
article of export. In 1870, 177,728,247 pounds of wool
were exported. Western Australia has much fine land, but
the interior of the continent is to a great extent, it is be-
lieved, a desert. - -
Botany.—The vegetation of this region is very peculiar,
Its trees, which seldom form dense forests, but are scatter-
ed as in a park, present generally a very singular appear-
ance, and have evergreen leaves, except those that are leaf-
less. Among them are many varieties of Acacia, the Cas-
warina, the Norfolk Island pine, the tree ferns, the palm,
the grass tree, and several species of Eucalyptus, or gum
trees, one species of which is reported to have examples
which reach 500 feet in height—probably the highest trees
in the world. These Eucalypti furnish valuable timber.
The Casuarina and many species of Acacia are destitute
of true foliage. Among the most beautiful plants is the
fern tree, which grows to the height of twenty feet. Aus-
tralia has no good indigenous fruits, and produces few na-
tive vegetables that are worthy of cultivation in gardens.
It is stated that there are 5440 species of plants peculiar
to Australia. f
'Zoology.—The zoology of Australia is perhaps even more
anomalous than its vegetation. Here, before colonization,
were found no ruminating animals, no Pachydermata, no true
Carnivora except the dog; the carnivorous marsupials taking
the place of the Carnivora proper. The island has many an-
imals peculiar to itself. It has more than forty species of mar-
supial quadrupeds, the largest of which is a kangaroo,
Here is found a wild dog called dingo. Perhaps the most
remarkable animal is the Ornithorhynchus paradoacus, a
quadruped with the bill of a duck and a body like an ot-
ter, which is regarded as a connecting link between quadru-
peds and birds. Among the Australian birds are the emell,
eagle, hawk, owl, parrot, birds of paradise, cranes, peli-
cans, geese, and black swans. Here are numerous reptiles,
the largest of which is the crocodile. The shores are fre-
quented by whales, seals, sharks, codfish, and many species
of fish which are not found elsewhere.
Population.—The aborigines of Australia are a distinct
race from the natives of the Malay Archipelago, and are
sometimes called Alfurus. They are nearly black, have
usually coarse straight hair, and have often been described
as among the most deformed and debased of the human
species. They are inferior to the average European in
stature, and are deficient in muscle and strength. Some
of them practise cannibalism, go naked, and have no fixed
habitations. Some tribes of them are gentle, and others
fierce and warlike. They are very expert in the use of a
missile weapon called the BOOMERANG (which see). The
whole number of the aborigines is not large (in 1871 about
50,000), and is rapidly diminishing. The total population
of the island in 1871 was 1,565,294.
Political Divisions.—Australia is divided into the follow-
ing colonies, each noticed under its proper head:

Colonies. Square miles. Population.
New South Wales.. 323,437 501,580
Victoria, 86,831 729,868
South Australia 383,328 188,995
Queensland * 678,000 120,066
Western Australia............................ 978,000 24,785
Northern Territory.......................... ...523,500
Total....................................... 2,973,096 1,565,294
Finances.—The receipts, expenditures, and debts for the
several colonies were as follows in 1870: -

CoLonTEs. Receipts. Expenditures. Debts in 1869.
New South Wales......... £2,490,203 £2,688,264 £9,681,130 |
Victoria (1869).............. 3,210,324 2,214,303 11,924,800
South Australia............ 878,124 995,065 1,944,600
Queensland.... 786,349 812,238 3,509,250
Western Australia........ 98,132 113,046
History.—Australia was first discovered by a Spaniard,
Louis Váez de Torres, who saw the north coast in 1605,
but did not land. During the seventeenth century the
Dutch navigators landed at several points on the northern
and western coasts, but planted no colonies. Dampier vis-
ited the island, and coasted New South Wales. In 1776,
Captain James Cook explored a large part of the eastern
coast. The first settlement was made in 1788, at Port
Jackson, to which about 850 convicts were transported
from England. Convicts continued to be sent to Botany
Bay until 1840. In 1829 a settlement was made at Swan
River, in Western Australia. The colony of South Aus-
tralia was planted in 1834. Victoria was separately organ-
ized in 1851, and gold was discovered in the same year.
In 1859, Queensland became a separate colony. Among
the recent explorers of Australia, the most prominent are
Sturt, Burke (1860), Stuart, Howitt (1861), Walker (1861),
Kinlay (1862), Mcintyre (1865), and Barnitt (1866).
Literature.—Compare MEINICKE, “Das Festland Aus-
tralien” (2 vols., 1837); HEIsiNg, “Das Australische Fest-
land und die Goldentdeckung” (1855); CHRISTMANN, “Aus-
tralien” (1869); MUNDY, “Our Antipodes” (1857); Fors-
TER, “South Australia, its Progress and Prosperity” (1866);
JEUNEsse, “ Géographie de l’Oceanie” (1869); B. SMITH,
“The Gold-fields and Mineral Districts of Victoria” (1869);
and PETERMANN, “Australien in 1871 ° (in supplementary
Nos. 29 and 30 of Petermann’s “Mittheilungen,” 1871).
A. J. SCHEM.
Austra/liam Alps, a range of mountains in the south-
eastern part of Australia, in the colonies of New South
Wales and Victoria. They are called Warragong Moun-
tains by the natives. They are the highest mountains in
Australia, but their tops hardly reach the line of perpetual
snow. The highest peak is Mount Kosciusko, which has
an altitude of 7176 feet above the level of the sea.
Austra'sia, the eastern dominions of the Franks under
the Merovingians, made a kingdom by Clovis, 511 A.D.,
comprising the present Lorraine, Belgium, and Some ad-
jacent territory. It was merged in the empire of Char-
lemagne. - z -
Aus/tria, Archduchy of, is the nucleus around which
the Austrian empire has grown. Area, 12,270 square miles.
It is bounded on the N. by Bohemia and Moravia, on the
E. by Hungary, on the S. by Styria, and on the W. by
Bavaria. It is intersected by the Danube, and is divided
by the river Enns into two provinces, Upper Austria (Ober-
oesterreich) and Lower Austria (Unter- or Nieder-Oester-
reich), in which Vienna is situated. Pop. of Upper Aus-
tria. Íñig69, 736,557; of Lower Austria, 1,990,708. Both
provinces are mountainous and abound in beautiful scenery.
The Noric Alps extend along the southern boundary, and
the northern parts of the archduchy are occupied by moun-
tains called the Böhmerwald. The climate is moderate,
the average annual temperature of Vienna being 51°. F.
The soil in the valley of the Danube is fertile, and the hilly
regions produce valuable timber. Among the staple prod-
ucts are grain, wine, and excellent fruits. Lower Austria
…”
334
AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY.
has a more extensive commerce than any other province
of the empire.
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, an empire of Eu-
rope, is, with regard to size, the second, and with regard
to population the fourth, in the order of the European
states. It has an area of 240,348 square miles, and accord-
ing to the census of 1869 a population of 35,904,435. It
consists since 1867 of two independent parts, which are
only connected by a single ruler and several common in-
stitutions—Cisleithamia and Transleithania. (See HUN-
GARY.) Cisleithania consists of the following crownlands,
which are represented in the “Reichsrath,” or national
assembly: -
PROVINCEs. Area. Pop. in 1869.
Austria above the Enns 7,654 1,990,708 .
Austria below the Enns........................ 4,632 736,557
Salzburg............................................. 2,767 153,159
Styria: 8,670 | 1,137,990
Carinthia 3,995 337,694
Sárniola.............................................. 3,857 466,334
Littoral - 3,085 600,525
Tyrol and Vorarlberg....... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11,324 885,789
Bohemia • 9 tº e º 'º - tº e º e s e º 'º - e º e e s e º 'º - e. e. e. e. e. e - - - - e a g 20,061 5,140,544
Moravia ............................................. 8,583 2,017,274
ilºšič................................................. 1,988 513,352
Galicia...... - 30,299 5,444,689
Bukowina .......................................... 4,035 513,404
Dalmatia 4,940 456,961
Total.......................................... 115,887 | 20,394,980
It comprises the S. E. part of Central Europe, and more
than half of the territory of the Danube, and forms a
nearly regular quadrilateral. It is almost entirely a con-
tinental state, touching an inland sea (the Adriatic) only
at one side. Next to Switzerland, it is the most mountain-
ous country of Európe, the mountainous regions compris-
ing an area of over 170,000 square miles. The extensive
alpine region (the Tyrol, Salzburg, southern part of Aus-
tria, Styria, Carinthia, and the northern part of Carniola)
gradually changes its character, sloping down in terraces
into a hilly region in the S. E., but in the N. E. is without
such gradation (southern part of Carniola, Istria, Croatia,
S. E. part of Dalmatia, N. E. part of Austria), and termi-
nates in the valley of the Danube. Beyond the Danube
rises the Bohemian-Moravian-Silesian plateau, enclosed by
high mountains, and undulating in the interior. To the E.
of the March are the Carpathian Mountains, which run in
a curved line along the northern boundary of Hungary.
The Carpathians are flanked on both sides by a plateau,
which passes in the N. into the Polish-Russian plain, con-
tinues in the S. to the Danube and the Theiss, and in the
S. E. is connected with the highlands of Transylvania.
The plains occupy about one-fourth of the area of the em-
pire; the largest are in Hungary and Galicia. Among the
waters, the Adriatic Sea is the largest, which washes the
coast of Austria for over 1000 miles, besides a coast-line
of over 1400 miles in the islands belonging to Austria.
The principal rivers are the Danube and Dniester (Black
Sea), Vistula and Oder (Baltic), Elbe and Rhine (German
Ocean), and the Etsch (Adriatic). The Danube has the
largest river-basin in the empire (170,000 square miles),
and the Rhine the smallest (850 square miles). The most
important river in Austria is the Danube, which enters the
empire at Passau, and after a course of 800 miles leaves it
at Orsowa. It receives numerous tributaries on its course
through Austria, of which the Theiss, March, and Grau on
the left, and the Inn, the Enns, the Leitha, and the Drave
on the right are the most important. A large number of
lakes connect with the system of the Danube, while a num-
ber of smaller lakes are found in the interior of the alpine
country. The Neustãdter. Canal leads from the Lêitha. to
Vienna. Austria is rich in mineral springs. The most fa-
mous are Carlsbad and Marienbad in Bohemia, Gastein in
Salzburg, Ischl and Hall in Upper Austria, and Baden-
bei-Wien in Lower Austria. The large extent of the mon-
archy is the cause of considerable difference with regard
to the mean annual temperature. Three climatic belts are
generally distinguished: 1, the northern belt extends from
the northern boundary to lat. 49° N., and comprises North-
ern Bohemia and Moravia, Silesia, and Galicia, and pro-
duces chiefly grain and flax, but very little wine; 2, the
central belt, from lat. 49° to 46° N., contains Central and
Southern Bohemia and Moravia, Upper and Lower Aus-
tria, Styria, Salzburg, the Northern Tyrol, Carinthia, Car-
niola, Northern and Central Hungary, Transylvania, and
Bukowina, and, with the exception of the highlands, is
favorable for the production of wine, fruit, and grain; 3,
the southern belt, from lat. 46° to 42° N., includes the
Southern Tyrol, the Littoral provinces, Dalmatia, South-
ern Hungary, Croatia, Slavonia, and the Military Frontier,
and produces, besides the common kinds of grain, corn,
rice, much wine, and along the southern boundary tropical:
fruits. The empire is entirely in the temperate zone. The
mean annual temperature varies between 39° F. (Marien-.
bad) and 56° (Trieste). The bora and sirocco, winds often
visit the southern part of the empire, and the latter, under
the name of Föhn, causes great destruction in the alpine
countries. Excepting platinum, no useful mineral is want-
ing; metals, salt, and coal are present in inexhaustible
quantities. , Gold is found in Transylvania, Upper. Hun-
gary, and in the gneiss formation of the Central Alps.
Silver occurs in the lead and copper deposits of Upper
. Hungary, Bukowina, Bohemia, the Military Frontier, the
Tyrol, and Styria. Besides these, copper, zinc, mercury,
tin, lead, sulphur, petroleum, and salt are found in con-
siderable quantities. -
The manufacturing industry, which is almost entirely
restricted to the western half of the empire, has enormously
increased of late years. The most important manufactures
are woollen goods in Bohemia, Moravia, and Vienna, glass

and china-Ware in Bohemia, linen in Bohemia, Moravia,
and Silesia, cotton goods in the same regions and in Lower
Austria, and iron-ware in Styria, Carinthia, Upper Austria,
and Bohemia. Besides these, manufactures of silk, leather,
paper, beet-sugar, chemicals, etc. are extensively carried
on. Beer-breweries are found in Vienna and Bohemia,
and distilleries in Galicia and Hungary, and twenty-seven
state establishments manufacture all kinds of tobacco.
Since May 1, 1860, freedom of trade exists throughout the
empire. Commerce has also considerably, increased in late
years. From 428,800,000 florins in 1868 (1 florin = 47 cents)
the imports have risen to 534,100,000 in 1871, and the ex-
ports from 475,099,000 in 1868 to 506,500,000 in 1871. The
chief articles of export are woollen and cotton goods, linen,
glass, silk, iron, steel, and leather-ware, musical instru-
ments, tobacco, grain, wine, oil, salt, and timber. The chief
articles imported are cotton, cattle, iron rails, coffee, etc.
In 1872 the number of miles of railway in operation in the
monarchy was 7470 miles, while 2819 miles were in con-
struction. In 1870 the railways of Cisleithania forward-
ed 19,404,543 passengers, and received 30,511,311 florins
as fare, while the transportation of freight amounted to
420,736,340 centner (1 centrer = 123.426 pounds), with an
income of 90,202,202 florins. The monarchy has 35 ports
opened to trade in the Littoral provinces, 54 in Dalmatia,
and 11 in Croatia and the Military Frontier. The com-
mercial navy of Austria consisted in 1870 of 7843 vessels,
with 375,822 tons, of which 91 were steamers. In 1870 the
steam-navigation company of the Danube had 155 steam-
ers, with 13,946 horse-power. In 1871 there were 3504
post-offices and 584 telegraph stations in Cisleithania,
while the length of the lines amounted to 16,204 miles, and
the wires to 38,297 miles. In 1870, Cisleithania had 42
chambers of commerce, 38 banks, of which the Austrian
National Bank, with 23 branches, is the largest, and 197
savings banks. -
The Roman Catholic Church has nine archbishoprics
(Vienna, Salzburg, Goeritz, Prague, Olmütz, Zara, and
Lemberg) and twenty-four bishoprics in Cisleithania.
There are also one Greek Catholic and one Armenian arch-
bishop at Lemberg. The vicars-general of Feldkirch and
Teschen and the apostolic vicar of the army also act as
bishops. The Oriental Greek rite has three bishoprics
(Czernowitz, Zara, and Catharo) in Cisleithania. -
Education.—In consequence of the neglect of the ele-
mentary schools, education has not advanced as much in
the German crown-lands as in the other parts of Germany,
while in the other parts of the monarchy it was until re-
cently very low. But owing to the reform measures intro-
duced of late, education has greatly advanced in the last
few years. In 1870, Cisleithania had 419 high and 13,880
elementary schools. In 1871 it had 176 gymnasia, real-
schulen, and realgymnasien, 6 universities (Vienna, Gratz,
Innsbruck, Prague, Lemberg, and Cracow), 8 polytechnic
institutes, besides numerous other schools for special
sciences. -
Constitution.—Austria is, according to the Pragmatic
Sanction of Dec. 6, 1734, a united, indivisible empire, hered-
itary according to the right of primogeniture in the male
and female line of the dynasty of Habsburg-Lothringen.
Since Oct. 20, 1860, it is a constitutional monarchy, and
by an imperial decree of Feb. 17, 1867, is divided into two
parts—the Germano-Slavic countries, and the countries
belonging to the crown of Hungary. . The two parts have
only the sovereign, the dynasty, the finances, the army,
and foreign representation in common. The sovereign has
the title of emperor of Austria, and king of Hungary, and
as king of Hungary is styled “His Apostolic Majesty.”
The imperial ministry, which is presided over by the
chancellor of the empire, consists of the minister of the
imperial house, of foreign affairs, of finances, and of war.
Both parts of the empire have their own parliaments and
AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY.
335
cabinets. The parliament of the Cisleithan countries is
called the Reichsrath, and consists of the Herrenhaus (181
members) and the house of delegates (203 members).
Finances.—In the budget of 1872, for the whole mon-
archy, the expenses are estimated at 110,647,500 florins,
of which 17,208,900 florins were covered by receipts, and
the balance, 93,438,600 florins, was to be furnished by both
parts of the monarchy, Cisleithania contributing 70 per
cent., and Transleithania. 30 per cent. In the budget of
the Cisleithan countries for 1872 the receipts are estimated
at 308,599,800 florins, and the expenses at 359,380,900 florins,
leaving a deficit of 50,781,100 florins. The public debt of
the countries represented in the Reichsrath amounted on
Dec. 31, 1871, to 412,001,426 florins.
Army and Wavy.—Since 1866 compulsory military service
has been introduced throughout the empire. In Aug.,
1872, the army was constituted as follows:
BRANCHEs of SERVICE. On a peace- On a war-
footing. footing.
Infantry.......................................... 121,440 486,320
Chasseurs 19,771 58,853
Cavalry............................................ 43,993 58,999
Artillery........... gº ſº ge 27,447 70,614
Engineers, etc. * * * * * * * 13,032 67,821
Frontier troops. .............................. 5,547 45,235
Military establishments.................... 9,147 19,883
Gensdarmes................ '• * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 4,586 8,519
Total......................................... 244,963 816,244
The navy consisted in 1872 of 46 vessels, of 93,270 tons,
and with 365 guns. *
History.—The germ of the empire was the archduchy
of Austria. In 791, Charlemagne united it with Germany
as the Eastern March. Under Henry I. (died 1018) the
name “Oesterreich.” (Osterrichi, “East empire”) was first
used. Henry II. received in 1156, from the emperor Con-
rad III., the two marches above and below the Enns.
Under his son, Leopold V. (until 1230), Styria, and under
Frederick (died 1246), Carniola, were united to Austria.
In 1276, Rudolph of Habsburg was elected the first emperor
of Germany from the ducal house of Austria. After him,
Albrecht I. (died 1308) and Albrecht II. (died 1439) were
also emperors of Germany from the same house. From
Frederick IV. the crown of Germany remained with the
Habsburg family until the dissolution of the empire in
1806. Ferdinand IV. raised Austria to the dignity of an
archduchy. Ferdinand I. in 1526 gained by marriage the
crown of Hungary and Bohemia, together with Moravia,
Silesia, and Lusatia. In 1683 the Turks besieged Vienna.
In the treaty of Vienna of 1738, Naples and Sicily and a
part of Milan, and in 1739 Belgrade, Servia, Bosnia, etc.,
were lost to the Turks. In the treaties of 1742 and 1743
Austria, lost Silesia, and Glatz, which it was not able to
recover in the Seven Years' war. In 1748, Parma, Piacenza,
and Guastalla were taken by Spain. In 1772, Galicia was
obtained at the first division of Poland, and in 1777
Bukowina. On Aug. 11, 1804, Francis II. (I. of Austria)
assumed the title emperor of Austria. Much territory was
lost in consequence of the treaty of Presburg in 1805,
and the treaty of Vienna in 1809. In the treaty of Paris
of 1814, its German territory, Milan, Venetia, and Dal-
matia, were restored to Austria. After that time Austria.
followed a strictly conservative policy under Prince Metter-
nich, which caused a révolution in Vienna and other parts
of the country in 1848, when Metternich was dismissed
and great concessions were made to the people. The
revolt in Hungary was only suppressed in 1850 through
the intervention of Russia. The revolutionary movements
in the Italian provinces continued, and in 1859 Austria
was compelled to cede Lombardy to Sardinia. In 1860 a.
new and liberal policy began to be introduced, the first
result of which was the new constitution promulgated by
the emperor on Feb. 20, 1861. (On the part taken by
Austria in German affairs, as well as on the war of 1866,
see GERMANY.) In consequence of this war it was excluded
from the German Bund, and was compelled to recognize
Prussia as the leader of the North German Confederation,
to cede its Italian possessions to Italy, and to recognize
the latter as a united kingdom. -
With 1866 a new era began for Austria. Count von Beust,
who now became minister of foreign affairs, instituted an
entirely new policy. The chief danger that now threatened
the empire was the national movement arising among all
the different nationalities of Austria. Beust, in opposition
to the old policy of favoring the Slavic races to the exclu-
sion of the Germans and the Hungarians, attempted to
make the Germans and Hungarians the leading nations of
the empire. This led to a conflict between Beust and his
opponents, with Belcredi at their head, and eventually to
a ministerial crisis, which resulted in a complete triumph
for Beust, who became premier on Feb. 7, 1867. On Feb.
17 an imperial decree granted to the Hungarians their
principal demands. (See HUNGARY.) Beust now set to
work to organize a common parliament for the German and
the Slavic peoples, which met with general approbation
among the Germans and the Poles, but did not satisfy the
Czechs. On July 8, 1867, the emperor was crowned king
of Hungary, and Hungary pledged herself to contribute to
the common expenses for the army, navy, and foreign rep-
resentation. After the compromise with Hungary had been
effected the government also undertook to regulate the
affairs of the Cisleithan countries. Among the privileges
granted were a general citizenship for all inhabitants of
Cisleithania, the equality of all before the law, the right of
all to serve in any branch of the civil service, and the right
to settle in any part of the country. Furthermore, relig-
ious freedom and freedom of the press were introduced, and
besides the sectarian schools established by the Church, it
was made lawful to institute non-sectarian schools. By
the law of Dec. 22, 1867, all nations of Cisleithania were
granted equal privileges, and an inalienable right to pre-
serve their languages ànd nationalities was conceded. At
the same time the jury system, publicity, and oral proceed-
ings were introduced into the courts. The institution of
the “delegations” is still another product of the year 1867.
They meet annually, alternately in Vienna and Pesth, and

each delegation consists of sixty members, who meet sepa-
rately to decide on the common affairs of the empire. On
Jan. 1, 1868, a cabinet was formed for the Cisleithan coun-
tries, with Prince Carlos Auersperg as president. A week
before this time the emperor had formed a common min-
istry for the whole empire, and had appointed Beust chan-
cellor. Although Beust in his despatches professed friend-
ship for Prussia, still, the attitude of the Austrian court in
several important questions showed that bitterness towards
Prussia had not entirely-disappeared. In the Luxemburg
question Beust was induced by considerations of safety to
strive to prevent by all means the impending war, and for
that reason attempted to conciliate Prussia and France,
although rumors of a Franco-Austrian alliance were not
uncommon at that time. Austria's position, however,
towards these two powers was entirely reserved, while in
the East it was entirely without policy.
With regard to its commercial affairs, Austria has ad-
vanced considerably since 1866. As early as Dec. 21, 1866,
important commercial treaties had been concluded with
France, and a treaty with Prussia was concluded before the
first German customs-parliament assembled in April, 1868.
Commercial treaties were also concluded with Belgium, Hol-
land, and Italy, and postal treaties with Greece, Italy, the
North German Confederation, and the three South German
states; and Austria also joined the coinage treaty of Dec.
25, 1865, concluded by France, Belgium, Italy, and Switz-
erland. A new question now arose in the abolition of the
Concordat. The chancellor was supported by the public
opinion and the Hungarian influence, but, though the goy-
ernment did not sanction its entire abolition, still its most
important provisions were removed by legislative acts.
This was done chiefly by the introduction of the civil mar-
riage and the new school law, which places the entire schools
under the supervision of the state, and makes them inde-
pendent of all churches or religious associations. Another
important act was the abolition of imprisonment for debt
and the revision of the usury laws, while in the financial
department many important reforms were introduced. After
considerable difficulties a resolution was passed by a large
majority to change all classes of the general funded debt
into a uniform debt bearing 5 per cent. interest, which
was to be taxed not more than 16 per cent. The object
was to cover a deficit for the next three years of 150,000,000
florins annually. For this reason the direct taxes were in-
creased, and the laws regulating the production of brandy,
beer, and sugar were revised. On June 24 the Reichsrath
adjourned until September. In August the separate diets
were called, in which, especially in Bohemia, Carinthia,
and Carniola, the Slavic inhabitants showed a strong spirit
of resistance towards the new organization of the empire.
In Bohemia, especially the Czechs wished to restore the
crown of Wenceslas. The proceedings of the delegations,
which assembled in Vienna in the same year, took a prompt
and satisfactory course. The bishops showed a considerable
opposition to the confessional laws which were proclaimed
on May 25, 1868, which opposition considerably increased
when the pope in his allocution sanctioned the proceedings
of the bishops. In consequence of this, Beust sent a des-
patch to Cardinal Antonelli protesting against the inter-
vention of the clergy in political affairs. At the same time
the government showed its determination to keep the cler-
gy within bounds by arresting and convicting the bishop
of Linz. In relation to the OEcumenical Council of the
following year, the Austrian government assumed an ex-
pectant attitude. When the infallibility of the pope was
336
AUTAUGA.—AUTOMATON.
proclaimed, Beust declared in a despatch of July 30, 1870,
that the Concordat of 1855 was regarded as abolished by
the government. -
A reduction of the rate of interest on the national debt
caused great dissatisfaction among the foreign creditors
of the empire. Compulsory service was made the basis of
the reorganization of the army. But the most serious
question, and the most difficult for the government to solve,
arose in the question of nationalities. Even in the session
of 1867 the Poles and the southern Slavic tribes had de-
manded separate concessions for their nationalities, while
the Czechs had not taken any part whatever in the proceed-
ings of the Reichsrath. The same thing was repeated,
only in a more demonstrative manner, in 1868. The Diet
of Galicia demanded in a resolution of Sept. 24 the com-
plete political autonomy of that kingdom, while the Czechs
in Bohemia, and Moravia retired from the diets, and in
their declarations proposed the complete independence of
the crown of Wenceslas. In October, Prague was declared
in a state of siege in consequence of excesses committed
there. Soon the nationality question was brought before
the Reichsrath. But this body adjourned on May 15,
1869, without having done anything in regard to this
question. In the cabinet two parties had arisen on this
point, and the minority, which was in favor of a compro-
mise with the different nationalities, was forced to resign.
But when the Poles and the South Slavic deputies resigned
their seats in the Reichsrath, the emperor was forced to
organize a more liberal, cabinet. But even this was not
liberal enough to effect a compromise, and the emperor was
again compelled to receive the resignation of the cabinet
and to call upon Count Hohenwart to form a new one. But
although Hohenwart's policy was so reactionary and opposed
to the Germans that in every part of the country a movement
as general as it was sudden arose among that class, still,
he was not able to satisfy the demands of the Czechs.
After negotiations held under the auspices of the emperor
himself with the two principal leaders of the Czechs,
Rieger and Clam-Martinicz, had led to no result, Hohen-
wart, and even Count Beust, resigned on Nov. 6. A new
cabinet, belonging to the German constitutional party, with
Prince Adolf Auersperg at its head, was formed Nov. 25,
1871. On Feb. 20, 1872, an important law was passed at
the suggestion of the government, which provided that
when members chosen from a provincial diet to the
Reichsrath resign their seats in the diet or in the Reichs-
rath during its session, or when in consequence of perma-
ment absence they may be regarded as having resigned, the
emperor can order new elections by a direct vote of the
respective districts. At a new election for the Diet of
Bohemia ordered by the government, the latter was vic-
torious, and 40 of the 54 members elected to the Reichs-
rath were friendly to the government, its majority now
being over two-thirds. ... In the Diet of the Tyrol a violent
opposition was made to the government, because it had
deprived the theological faculty of the University of
Innsbruck, composed entirely of Jesuits, of its right to
elect the rector of the university. The majority of the
diet therefore refused to admit the new rector, and the
government dissolved the diet. In Galicia a law favored
by the Ruthenians to introduce direct elections to the
Reichsrath was voted down by the Polish majority. In
order to prevent the frequent refusal of members of the
minority to attend the Reichsrath, the government immedi-
ately after the opening of the session on Dec. 12, 1872,
proposed a new electoral law, according to which the
members of the House of Deputies are no longer to be
chosen by the diets, but are to be elected by a direct vote
of the people. ,
Among other important events in Austria during the
last few years was a disturbance in . Dalmatia in Sept.,
1869, occasioned by , the new conscription laws. It was
settled in Jan., 1870, by a compromise with the insur-
gents. But the German-French war of 1870 turned away
the attention of Austria from its own affairs. Although
a party at court, together with the Czechs and Slavic
tribes, wished to make use of the opportunity to take
revenge for 1866, the rapid success of the German arms
and the position of Russia soon dispelled all such plans.
On Aug. 23 a treaty of neutrality was concluded with
Great Britain and Italy. Since then the relations of
Austria to the German empire have been of the most
friendly character, and have been strengthened by a series
of conferences of the monarchs of the two countries, the
last of which was held, with great pomp and splendor, in
Berlin Sept. 6–11, 1872. In Vienna great preparations
had been made since 1871 for the international exposition
of 1873, which was formally opened by the emperor on
May 1, and bids fair to eclipse in grandeur and variety all
former expositions. A. J. SCHEM.
Autau’ga, a county in Central Alabama. Area, 700
square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Alabama
River, and also drained by the Autauga Creek. The sur-
face is undulating; the soil is fertile. The Selma Rome
and Dalton R. R. passes along the western border of the
county. Cotton, corn, wool, and rice are the chief crops.
Capital, Prattville. Pop. 11,623.
Autau/gaville, a post-township of Autauga co., Ala.
Pop. 2387.
Author'ity [Lat. awctoritas, “right,” “dominion ”I,
power lawfully delegated by one person to another. In
the plural, the word, as used in law, includes statutes,
adjudged cases, and the opinions of text-writers or other
persons learned in the law, relied on to support any legal
proposition sought to be applied to a particular case. The
opinions of counsel, of court, or of a text-writer are usu-
ally fortified by a citation of authorities. (See also REPORTs.)
Autobiog’raphy [from the Gr. airós, “self,” Bíos, “life,”
and ypáów, “to write ”], a life of a person written by him-
self. Such memoirs are divisible into two classes—those in
which the object of the writer is to illustrate the history
of his own mind and heart, as the “Confessions” of Saint
Augustine and Goethe’s “Dichtung und Wahrheit;” and
those in which his purpose is to give a sketch of the events
which have occurred within his own experience, and of
characters with which he has associated. The “Mémoires
d’Outre-Tombe” of Chateaubriand may be said to combine
the characteristics of both classes. The autobiography of
Franklin, the “Confessions” of Rousseau, and the “Recol-
lections of a Busy Life” by Hon. Horace Greeley are valua-
ble autobiographic works. -
. Autoch’ thomes [Gr. airóx90ves, from abrós, “self,”
and x969, “ground,” “country”], a Greek term applied to
the original inhabitants of a country, implying that they
were sprung from the soil. The Athenians claimed to be
autochthones, and wore on their headdress an emblematic
grasshopper in reference to their origin. The same claim
was made by many other peoples.
Au’tocrat [Gr. airós, “one's self,” and kparéo, to “rule”],
literally, “one who rules by himself,” without the inter-
ference or restraint of any other person or persons; an
absolute sovereign ; a monarch who unites in himself the
legislative and executive powers of the state or empire.
Such are nearly all the Asiatic sovereigns. Among Euro-
pean rulers the emperor of Russia alone is styled an auto-
crat. He takes the title of “autocrat of all the Russias.”
The term autocracy is sometimes applied to the govern-
ment administered by an autocrat.
Au/to-de-Fé (i. e. “act of faith ”), the Spanish name
of a public ceremony held in Spain and Portugal at the
execution of heretics who were burned by order of the In-
quisition. Multitudes of spectators assembled to witness
the execution and the procession of monks and priests
which formed a part of the ceremony. The first ceremony
of this kind is said to have taken place at Valladolid in
1560. In 1761 an auto-de-fé was held at Lisbon, at whic
upwards of fifty persons perished. -
Au’tograph [from the Gr. airós, “one’s self,” and ypadi,
“writing”], a manuscript written by the hand of the author;
an original manuscript as distinguished from a copy. The
term is sometimes applied to a specimen of the handwriting
of any eminent person. In modern times many persons
devote much time to the collection of autographs, which
are articles of literary trade. Some men study autographs
as exponents of the character or temperament of the writers.
The signature of Shakspeare is one of the most scarce and
highly prized of autographs. (See JoHN G. NICHOLs, “Au-
tographs of Royal, Noble, Learned, and Remarkable Per-
sonages conspicuous in English History from the reign of
Richard II. to that of Charles II.” (1829), and “Isographie
des Hommes Célèbres,” Paris, 3 vols., 1828–30.)
Autol’ycus [AbróAvkos], a Greek astronomer and mathe-
matician, born at Pitane, in AEolis, lived about 325 B. C.
He wrote à work on the revolving sphere, and another on
the rising and setting of the fixed stars; both are extant.
Autom'aton, plu. Autom’ata [from the Gr, airówa-
ros, “acting spontaneously ”], a piece of mechanism, so
constructed as to imitate the actions of an animal. This
exercise of mechanical ingenuity is of very ancient origin.
Daedalus was among the first who excelled in this art.
Archytas of Tarentum, who lived about 400 B.C., is said to
have made a dove that could fly. Among the most Won-
derful automata of modern times was the flute-player which
Waucanson exhibited in Paris in 1738. This had the form
of a man, and performed with its fingers. ... He also pro:
duced an autómaton duck which swam, dived, ate and
digested barley (!), and quacked like a real duck. Kem-
pelen constructed a famous automaton chess-player, the
mechanism of which was very ingenious and complex. This
automaton could beat the most of the players who tested
2 : AUTONOMY-AVATCHA.
337
its skill, but it was long suspected that a man was concealed
in it—a Russian officer who had been sentenced to death
and escaped by this contrivance. It was afterwards fully
proved that the supposed skill of the automaton was due
to the presence of a living man, who was concealed within
the machine.
Auton’omy [from the Gr. airós, “one's self,” and vowds,
a “law”], the power or right of self-government; political
independence. The term is used to designate the charac-
teristic of the political condition of ancient Greece, in which
nearly every city was a separate state, and the people were
very tenacious of the independence and sovereignty of their
respective cities. For this reason they could not form a
large centralized republic or stable government.
Au’toplasty [Lat. autoplas/tia, from the Gr. airós,
“one's self,” and tradargo, to “form”], an operation by which
lesions are repaired by means of healthy parts being taken
from the patient himself (usually from the immediate neigh-
borhood of the lesion to be repaired), and made to supply
the deficiency caused by wounds or disease. The opera-
tions for this purpose have different names, according to
the part affected, as cheiloplastic (the operation for the
lips), rhinoplastic (for the nose), etc.
Autrefois Acquit [Fr. “formerly acquitted”], a plea
by a person indicted for a crime or misdemeanor that he
has previously been tried for the same offence and acquitted.
Autrefois Convict (“formerly convicted”), a plea
by a defendant under the same circumstances as in the
case of autrefois acquit, that he has previously been tried
and convicted of the same offence. These pleas, if true,
are a bar to the action by the rules of the common law.
They are in this country established as constitutional
rights, both by the U. S. Constitution and those of the
respective States. The constitutional provision is that no
person shall be subject for the same offence to be put twice
in jeopardy of life or limb. This rule does not apply
where a new trial is ordered for errors in a previous trial, nor
where the judge in the course of a trial, in the exercise of
a sound discretion, discharges the jury, so that there is no
acquittal nor conviction. In each of these cases the ac-
cused may be tried again as often as the case arises. In a
legal sense he has not been in jeopardy. The rule upon
this point is the same in England under the common law
as in the U. S. under constitutional provisions.
Au’tumn [Lat. autum'nus; originally, awctum'nws, from
aw/geo, awc’tum, to “increase,” because it is in autumn that
the earth yields its increase], the season of the year which
follows summer, sometimes in the U. S. called Fall, in ref-
erence to the fall of the leaves. In a vague and popular
sense it comprises September, October, and November. In
the language of astronomy it is the time which elapses be-
tween the autumnal equinox and the winter solstice. In the
southern hemisphere, March, April, and May are the months
of autumn. Autumn may be regarded as occupying the same
relative position among the seasons of the year as evening
among the periods of the day, and mature age among the
stages of human life.
Autun (anc. Bibrac/te and Augustodw’num), a city of
France, department of Saône-et Loire, on the river Arroux,
26 miles by rail N. W. of Chalons-sur-Saône. It is pic-
turesquely situated at the foot of mountains, has a fine
Gothic cathedral, a college, and library; also manufactures
of cloth, paper, and carpets. It is the seat of a º: The
ancient Bibracte was the chief city of the AEdui. Here are
ruins of an amphitheatre, temples, and other Roman an-
tiquities. Autun was the scene of hostile operations be-
tween Garibaldi and the Germans in the winter of 1870–
71. Pop. 12,398.
Auvergne (anc. Arver'n? or Alver’nia), a former prov-
ince in the S. central part of France, coincided nearly with
the present departments of Cantal and Puy-de-Dôme. It
is a mountainous district of volcanic formation, presenting
many conical and dome-like summits of extinct volcanoes.
The soil in some parts is fertile, especially near the river
Allier. Auvergne has produced many eminent men, among
whom were Pascal, Turenne, Desaix, and La Fayette. The
chief towns were Clermont and Aurillac.
Auvergne, d” (LATOUR). See LATOUR D’AUVERGNE.
Auvergne, Mountains of, a branch of the Cevennes,
situated in the French departments of Cantal and Puy-de-
Dôme. They separate the basins of the Allier, Cher, and
Creuse from those of the Lot and Dordogne. The highest
summits of these volcanic mountains are Mount d’Or, 6.188
feet high, Cantal, 6093, and Puy-de-Dôme, 4806 feet high.
The last is a remarkable specimen of an extinct volcano.
They are generally like truncated cones. The scenery of
Auvergne is grand and picturesque. ---
Auxerre (anc. Autissiodo/rum), a town of France, capi-
tal of the department of Yonne, on the left bank of the
Yonne, 93 miles S. S. E. of Paris, with which it is connected
by railway. It has a fine Gothic cathedral, a college, a mu-
seum, and a public library of 25,000 volumes. Calico, serge,
hosiery, and good wine are manufactured here. Pop.
15,497. -
Auxonne, a town of France, in the department of Côte-
d'Or, on the Saône, here crossed by a bridge, 20 miles by
rail S. E. of Dijon. It has an arsenal, a barrack, and a
magazine, with manufactures of Woollen cloth and nails.
Pop. 5911.
Auxvasse, a township of Callaway co., Mo. Pop. 2050.
A’va, a city, the former capital of the Burman empire,
is situated on a plain on the river Irrawaddy, 350 miles N.
of Rangoon. The official native name of it is Ratnapura,
“the city of pearls.” It stands on an island formed by the
Irrawaddy and two of its affluents. The most substantial
buildings of this city were destroyed by an earthquake in
Mar., 1839, after which the seat of government was re-
moved to Monchobo. Pop. about 30,000.
A/va, a post-township of Oneida co., N. Y. Pop. 1160.
Ava (KINGDOM OF). See BURMAH.
A^va, or Kaºva (Macro/piper methys’ ticum), a narcotic
plant of the natural order Piperaceae, is a native of many
South Sea islands, the inhabitants of which intoxicate
themselves with a fermented liquor prepared from its root
(rhizome). It is a shrubby plant, with cordate, acuminate
leaves, and was formerly classed with the genus Piper.
The effect of this liquor is a stupefaction like that caused
by opium, and is followed by copious perspiration. The
liquor is prepared by maceration in water.
Avadu'tas, a sect of Hindoo Brahmans, who practise
excessive austerities, and mortify themselves by painful
and disgusting forms of penance. They hold their bodies
in contorted positions until they become permanently de-
formed. They procure a subsistence by begging.
Av'alanche [Fr. lavanche], a mass of snow or ice which
collects on the steep declivity of a high mountain, and slid-
ing down the side gathers accessions of snow until it attains
an enormous bulk, and descends to the valley with ruinous
momentum. Drift or powder avalanches consist of dry,
loose snow which is set in motion by the wind and accu-
mulates in its descent; these occur mostly in winter. An-
other kind is formed in spring, when the snow begins to
melt, and slides down the declivity by its own weight, carry-
ing with it trees and rocks which sometimes bury cottages
in ruins. Avalanches are common among the Alps, but are
rare in the Andes. A touch of the foot or a slight move-
ment of the air, even that produced by the sound of a bell,
is sometimes sufficient to set the avalanche in motion. On
account of the frequent occurrence of avalanches; some
parts of the Alpine valleys remain uninhabited.
Avallon (anc. Abal/lon), a town of France, department
of Yonne, on the river Voisin, 1.8 miles S. E. of Auxerre.
It has manufactures of paper and woollen cloth. The adja-
cent country is fertile, and renowned for its picturesque
beauty. Pop. 6070. -
Ava’ri, or A/vars, a warlike tribe of Mongolians that
entered the countries near the Don, the Caspian Sea, the
Wolga, and westward. Part of them remained near the
Caucasus, and another part proceeded about 555 A. D. to
Dacia. They served in the army of Justinian, and fought
against the Gepidae. They in 568 obtained Pannonia.
They oppressed the Slavi, and made inroads into Germany
and Italy. In 769 they were defeated by Charlemagne,
and nearly exterminated. They used to intrench them-
selves in circular walled camps, traces of which, called
“Avarian rings,” are still visible in Hungary. The Avars
penetrated into Greece and established colonies in the
Morea. Navarino derives its name from them. (See THIER-
RY, “Attila.”) They appear to have amalgamated with the
Bulgarians, or rather to: have adopted the Bulgarian lan-
guage, and their descendants are confounded with the Bul-
garians, of whom numbers are found throughout Greece.
Av'atär, or Avatāra [from ava, “off,” “away,”
“down,” and târa, a “crossing over” or “passing from
one thing to another”], in Hindoo mythology signifies “de-
scent” or “transformation,” and is applied to incarnations
of some of the principal deities, especially Brahma, Siva,
and Vishnu. The avatars of Vishnu, which are particu-
larly celebrated, are reckoned as follows: 1, Matsya, the
“fish;” 2, Kūrma, the “tortoise;” 3, Varāha, the “boar;”
4, Narasingha, the “man-lion;” 5, Vāmama (or Wämana),
the “dwarf;” 6, Parasurāma (called in the common dialect
Pürasoorām); 7, Rāma Chandra; 8, Krishna; 9, Buddha;
the tenth, yet to come, is called Kalki, the “horse.”
Avat'cha, or Avatch/ka, a bay in the South-eastern
part of Kamtchatka, affords the best harbor of the whole
peninsula. The capital, Petropaulowski, is on this bay, a
22
338
AWATCHINSKAYA—AVERELL.
few miles from which is a volcano called Avatcha or Avat-
chinskaya. (See next article.)
Avatchinskay'a, or Mount Avatcha, an active
volcano in Ramtchatka, near the sea; lat. 53° 15' N., lon.
158° 50' E. It has an altitude of 9055 feet, has a crater
at its summit, and another at a height of 5000 feet.
A/vebury, Aſbury, or Abiry, a small village of Eng-
land, in Wiltshire, 25 miles N. of Salisbury. It is the site
of extensive remains of the pre-historic period in Europe,
and is in the vicinity of several remarkable barrows and
cromlechs of great antiquity. The principal relics, for-
merly ascribed to the Druids, consist of 100 large blocks
of stone placed on end in a ciréle, enclosing a level area
of about 470 yards in diameter, which was surrounded by
a ditch and a high embankment. Some of the stones meas-
ure twenty feet high above the ground. Nearly a mile S.
of this temple is a barrow or conical artificial mound called
Silbury Hill, which is 170 feet high, and covers a space of
five acres. This was undoubtedly constructed long before
• the Roman conquest of Britain, and the opinion of the later
archaeologists refers the whole group to times of very re-
mote antiquity. -
Avei'ro, a seaport-town of Portugal, province of Beira,
at the mouth of the Vouga, 35 miles by rail N. W. of Coim-
bra. It is the seat of a bishop, and has a considerable trade
in oil, wine, sardines, oranges, Salt, etc. Pop. 6557.
Avellane/da, de (GERTRUDE GOMEs), a Spanish poet-
ess, born in the island of Cuba in 1816. She became a
resident of Madrid about 1840, and published a volume of
lyric poems in 1841. Soon after this date, she produced
several novels, and successful tragedies entitled “Alfonso
Munio” and “Egilona.” She was married in 1846 to Don
Pedro Sabator, who died the same year. Among her works
are “La Cruz,” a poem, and dramas called “The Glories
of Spain” (1850) and “Sonambula.”
Avellino (formerly called Principato Ulteriore),
a province of Southern Italy, is bounded on the N. by
Benevento, on the E. by Foggia and Potenza, on the S.
by Salerno, and on the W. by Caserta. Area, 1410 square
miles. The country is throughout mountainous. The soil
everywhere is extremely fertile, and the harvests are there-
fore generally very large. The country is traversed by the
Calore and the Ofanto. The chief products are cattle, Sa-
lami, linen, and leather. Chief town, Avellino. Pop. in
‘1871, 375,103.
Avelli'no (anc. Abelli'num), a fortified town of Italy,
the capital of the above province, is 25 miles E. of Naples,
and at the foot of Mount Vergine. It is the seat of a
bishop, has a cathedral, a college, manufactures of paper,
woollen goods, and maccaroni, and an extensive trade in
hazelnuts (Nuces Avellanae), chestnuts, and grain. It was
much damaged by an earthquake in 1694. Pop. 13,446.
A’ve Mari'a, or Angel'ica Saluta/tio, a form of
prayer to the Virgin Mary (commencing Aye Maria, “Hail.
Mary’), which in the time of Damiani (died 1072) was
simply the “annunciation” or salutation of the angel in
Luke i. 28, but grew by successive additions till it reached
its present form in the time of Pius W. (1566–72). (See
Rosa RY.) *
Ave/na, a township of Fayette co., Ill. Pop. 1182.
Avenger of Blood. In early ages, as now in barbar-
ous countries, the infliction of the penalty for murder did
not take place by the action of public authorities, but was
left to the nearest male relative of the murdered person,
whose duty was to pursue and slay the murderer. He was
called the “avenger of blood” (in Hebrew gèel, which term,
however, was of wider signification). The Mosaic law did
not set aside this custom, but placed it under regulations,
prohibiting the commutation of the penalty of death for
money, and appointing six cities of refuge, three on either
side of the Jordan, for the manslayer who was not a mur-
derer. The Koran sanctions the avenging of blood by the
kinsman, but also sanctions the pecuniary commutation.
The custom prevails among the Arabs at present, as well as
in other rude nations.
Aventi'nus (Joh ANNEs), a German historian whose
proper name was THüRMAIER or THüRNMAIER, was born
at Abensberg, in Bavaria, in 1466. He was invited to
Munich in 1512, and appointed tutor to the sons of the
duke of Bavaria. His principal work is a “History of
Bavaria” (“Annales Boiorum,” 1554), which was highly
esteemed. The most complete edition is that published by
Cisner in 1580. Died Jan. 9, 1534. (See J. ZIEGLER, “Vita
Aventini.”) -
Aven’turine, a name applied to certain varieties of
quartz or felspar which contain bright red, brown, or golden
scales of mica, oxide of iron, etc. It is often used as a gem.
Aventurine Glass, also called Gold Flux or Gold
Stone, a variety of glass used as an ornamental stone by
jewellers. The ground is of a rich yellowish-brown color,
with innumerable golden scales. It may be made by fusing
together 300 parts of powdered glass, 40 parts of copper
filings, 80 parts of iron filings, and cooling slowly.
Av/erage [Lat. avera'gium, from ave/ro, to “prove,” to
“estimate”], a mean proportion; a medial sum or quan-
tity intermediate between several unequal quantities. The
relation of the average to the other quantities is such that
the sum of the excesses of the greater above the average is
equal to the sum of the defects of the less below it. The
average of several quantities—for example 3, 7, 9, and 13–
is obtained by adding them together, and dividing the sum
by the number of quantities. The sum, 32, divided by 4,
gives 8 aş the average.
Average, in law, is a term employed in maritime com-
merce, and is used in different senses when preceded by the
words general, particular, or petty.
1. General Average.—This means the case where several
interests connected together, as being engaged in a common
adventure at sea, such as ship and cargo, are exposed"to a
marine peril, and one of these interests is voluntarily
sacrificed, either in whole or in part, as the price of the
safety of the residue of the property at risk; or expense is
incurred for the same reason, and the amount of such
sacrifice or expenditure is charged by law upon the re-
spective interests in proportion to their value. The act
of voluntarily casting away property under such circum-
stances is termed a “jettison.” The elements of a general
average case are said to be these: there must be a sacrifice
of property, it must be voluntary, and must be successful.
There is no general average allowed in cases of goods
laden on deck, unless it is usual to place the goods there
on a voyage such as the one in which this question arises.
The master of the ship by the maritime law is entrusted
with the power to order a jettison when the circumstances
justify it. •The American law allows general average where
a ship which would have foundered is voluntarily wrecked
in such a manner as to save the cargo or a part of it.
Expenditures of money in some instances justify a contri-
bution of the nature of general average, as where they are
incurred for the preservation of the ship or cargo from
extraordinary perils, or where they are necessary for the
completion of the adventure in which all the interests at
risk are concerned; as, for example, for the prosecution of
the voyage. The property upon which the contribution is
assessed is the ship, cargo, and freights. The property lost
contributes as well as that which is saved. The general
principle is substantially this: as the whole property at
risk is to the whole amount of the loss, so is each owner’s
particular interest to his share of the loss. This rule re-
sults in assessing a certain percentage of the loss on each
owner, according to the value of his interest. The values
are estimated by rule: the ship and appurtenances are
valued as at the end of the voyage, and the cargo at its
value at the time and place of discharge. An adjustment
made at the end of a voyage at the port of arrival is
deemed to be valid everywhere, according to a settled mar-
itime rule. The special rules applicable to the cases in
which general average is allowed are not precisely the same
in England and in the U. S., and the subject branches out
into much detail in the books of maritime law. Practi-
cally, it is closely connected with the business of marine
insurance, as the insurance on ship, cargo, and freight may
be made by different underwriters, and under the law of
abandonment the rights to claim general average, as well
as the burden of its assessment, may vest in and rest upon
the respective insurers. 2. Particular Average.—This sig-
nifies damage happening to interest (ship, cargo, and freight)
at risk at sea in consequence of pure accident. The loss in
such a case rests upon the owner of the property injured or
upon his insurer. 3. Petty Average.—This term refers to
certain petty charges in port for pilotage, lights, towage,
anchorage, and the like, which were formerly apportioned
upon the owners of the ship and cargo. The modern prac-
tice is to include these charges in the freight.
t T. W. DWIGHT.
A/verell (WILLIAM W.), born in the State of New York
1830, graduated at West Point 1855, appointed lieutenant
Mounted Riflemen; served on frontier and fighting In-
dians till 1859, when wounded. During the civil War he
was present at the battle of Bull Run, July, 1861; colonel
Third Pennsylvania. Cavalry, 1861; commanded cavalry
brigade about Washington, P. C. In Virginia peninsular
campaign 1862 was engaged at Yorktown, Williamsburg,
Fair Oaks, Malvern Hill. In 1862 he was appointed brig-
adier-general of volunteers; engaged at Fredericksburg
Dec., is 62; in command at Kelly's Ford Mar, 1863; par-
ticipated in Stoneman’s cavalry expedition towards Rich-
mond April–May, 1863; engaged in, and in command of,
Ar
AVERILL–AVILA.
339
skirmishes, actions, and raids in West Virginia, Tennessee,
Shenandoah Valley; at Opequan Sept. 19, 1864, and Fish-
er's Hill Sept. 22, 1864; captain Third Cavalry U.S. A. July,
1862, and brevetted major, lieutenant-colonel, colonel, brig-
adier-general, and major-general U. S. A. Resigned May,
1865. Appointed U. S. consul-general to Canada, 1866; at
present president of manufacturing company, New York.
A’verill, a township of Essex co., Vt. Pop. 14.
Averill, a township of Jefferson co., West Va. P. 2030.
Aver/mus [Gr. "Aopvos, from a, priv., and 3pws, a “bird”],
a famous lake [It. Lago d’Avermol of Italy, 10 miles W. of
Naples. It occupies the crater of an extinct volcano, is
about a mile in diameter, and 170 feet deep. It was sup-
posed that the name Avernus was given to it because the
mephitic vapors killed the birds that flew over it. The
ancients imagined that this lake was the entrance to the
infernal regions. Agrippa opened a canal from Avernus
to the sea, converting it into a harbor, but the canal wa
destroyed by an earthquake in 1538. *
Aver/röes, or Averrhoes, originally Ibn-Roshd; a
celebrated Arabian philosopher and physician, was born at
Cordova, in Spain, 1120. He rose to great dignity in the
Moorish kingdom, but was accused of heretical opinions
and deprived of his office, from which time he lived in
poverty until the accession of the caliph Al-Mansur-Billah,
whom he followed to Morocco, where he died in 1198. He
was a great admirer of Aristotle, on whom he wrote a cele-
brated commentary. In the Middle Ages he was called
“The Commentator,” and was said to have translated Aris-
totle into Arabic, which story was repeated over and over
again until in 1852 E. Renan proved it to be a fable; indeed,
Averröes did not understand the Greek language.
Aver'sa (anc. Atella), a town of Italy, in the province
of Caserta, and in a beautiful plain 9 miles N. of Naples.
It is the seat of a bishop, is well built, has a cathedral,
several convents, about ten churches, and a lunatic asylum.
Pop. in 1872, 21,176. - -
A’very (WAIGHTSTILL), born at Groton, Conn., May 3,
1745, graduated at Princeton in 1766, became in 1769 a.
lawyer in Mecklenburg co., N. C. He was an early and
constant patriot in the Revolutionary war, being one of the
signers of the Mecklenburg Declaration (1775), a member
of the Hillsborough congress (1775), of the State congress
(1776), first attorney-general of the State (1777), and was in
1779 a colonel of militia in active service. Died in Burke
co., N. C., Mar. 15, 1821.
, Averysboro’, a post-village and township of Harnett
co., N. C., on Cape Fear River, about 40 miles S. of Ra-
leigh. During Gen. Sherman’s Carolina campaign, while
his army was marching towards Goldsboro’, a strong force
of Confederates under Gen. Hardee was intrenched in front
of Averysboro’ (Mar. 16, 1865), the object being to check
Gen. Sherman, and gain time for the concentration of forces
“at Smithfield under Gen. Johnston. After three or four
hours' severe fighting the Confederates fell back to a sec-
ond and stronger line. The attack being renewed along
this line, fighting continued through the day, the Confed-
erates being driven within their intrenchments; during the
night, which was dark and stormy, their works were evacu-
ated, and on the morning of the 17th it was found that the
army of Gen. Hardee was retreating towards Smithfield. The
Federal loss was about 600, killed and wounded, the Con-
federate loss was probably smaller, except in prisoners, of
which many remained in Gen. Sherman’s hands. This
battle is known as the battle of Averysboro’. Pop. of town-
ship, 716.
A/very’s Creek, a post-township of Buncombe co.,
N. C. Pop. 655. !
Avery’s Gores, a number of tracts of land in Ver-
mont, granted to Samuel Avery in 1791. One of them is
in Addison co., near the top of the Green Mountains.
Another in Franklin co. has a pop. of 34. -
Aveyron, a department in the S. part of France, is
bounded on the N. by Cantal, on the E. by Lozère, Gard, and
Hérault, on the S. by Tarn, and on the W. by Lot. Area,
3376 Square miles. It is intersected by the river Lot and
the Tarn, and also drained by the river Aveyron. The
surface is mountainous, and the chain of the Cevennes ex-
tends along the south-eastern border of the department.
Among its mineral resources are coal, copper, lead, zinc,
and iron. The coal-mines are very valuable. It has manu-
factures of cotton yarn, paper, woollen stuffs, carpets, and
leather. It is divided into 5 arrondissements, 42 cantons,
and 285 communes. Among the chief articles of export is
Roquefort cheese. Capital, Rodez. Pop. in 1872, 402,474.
Avezac, d” (AugustE GENEviève VALENTIN), a lawyer,
born in St. Domingo (Hayti) in 1777, was a brother-in-law
of Edward Livingston. He practised medicine in Virginia,
J831 and 1845–49.
and law in New Orleans with great success. He served in
the army in the war of 1812, and afterwards removed to
New York. He was chargé d'affaires at The Hague in
Died Feb. 15, 1851.
Avezac, d” (PIERRE WALENTIN DOMINIQUE JULIAN), an
uncle of the preceding, was born in St. Domingo July 17,
1769. He became a citizen of New Orleans, and translated
Scott’s “Marmion ” into French. Died Feb. 1, 1831.
Avezza/na (GIUSEPPE), an Italian republican and
patriot, born in Piedmont Feb. 19, 1797. He fought against
Bustamente in Mexico in 1832, and became a merchant in
the city of New York in 1834. Early in 1848 he returned
to Italy to fight for the independence of his country, and
was appointed commander of the national guard at Genoa.
In Mar., 1849, he was chosen minister of war of the Roman
republic and commander of the army. Rome was taken
by the French in July of that year, and Avezzana, escaped
to the U. S. -
Avia/no, a town of Italy, in the province of Udine, 48
miles N. N. E. of Venice. Pop. 6184. *
Aviceh/na [Fr. Avicenne], the Latin form of Ibn-
Sīnā, the most eminent of Arabian physicians, was born
near Bokhara, in 980 A. D. He was well versed in mathe-
matics, astronomy, philosophy, and other sciences. Before
he was twenty years old he was reputed the most learned
man of his time. He was employed as a physician by sev-
eral Samanide sovereigns, and resided at Ispahān and
Hamadān. He wrote in Arabic a large number of works
on medicine and philosophy, the most important of which
is his “System of Medicine” (“Canon Medicinae"), which,
translated into Latin by Gerardius Cremomensis (2 vols.,
1595), was for five centuries a standard book of the highest
authority in the schools of Europe. He died in 1037. (See
S. KLEIN, “Dissertatio de Avicenni Medico,” 1846; IBN-
KHALLIKAN, “Biographical Dictionary,” edited by De
Slane, Paris, 1842; FREIND, “History of Physic.”) --
Avicenſnia, a genus of plants of the natural order
Myoporaceae, consists of trees or shrubs resembling man-
groves, and growing in salt swamps in tropical regions and
in the southern hemisphere. The Avicemnia tomentosa, the
white mangrove of Brazil, has cordate, ovate leaves, downy
on the lower side. Its bark is used for tanning. Its gum
is used as food in New Zealand, and its seeds in India.
Avid/ius (CASSIUs), an able Roman general, born in
Syria, commanded for Marcus Aurelius an army which de-
feated the Parthians in 165 A. D. Having become gov-
ernor of Syria and commander of several legions, he re-
volted in 175 A. D., and took the title of emperor. He
obtained possession of Egypt and part of Asia. He was
killed by his own officers in 175 A. D. *
Avigliano, a town of Italy, in the province of Po-
tenza, 11 miles N. W. of Potenza, is near the Apennines.
It has a fine church and a college. It was the Scene of a
landslip in 1824, which caused great destruction. P. 9236.
Avignon (anc. Ave'nio), an ancient city of France, cap-
ital of the department of Vaucluse, is situated on the left
bank of the Rhone, 74 miles by rail N. N. W. of Marseilles.
It is the seat of an archbishop, and is surrounded by a rich
country with delightful scenery. It contains a college, a
public library of about 45,000 volumes, a museum of natu-
ral history, a botanical garden, a fine theatre, a lunatic
asylum, etc. Among the interesting and ancient public
edifices is the former palace of the popes, a vast irregular
Gothic structure, now used as a barrack and prison ; and
the cathedral called Notre Dame des Dons, rebuilt by Char-
lemagne, and containing a richly-sculptured chapel which
is much admired. Petrarch passed several years at Avi-
gnon and at Vaucluse (which is about three miles distant),
where he first saw Laura. The manufacture of silk is the
principal branch of industry in this city, which also has
several paper-mills, iron-foundries, and manufactures of
velvets and woollen stuffs. It has an active trade in wine,
brandy, grain, etc. Steamboats ply daily between Avignon
and Lyons. Avenio was the capital of the Cavares before
the time of Caesar. It was taken by the Saracens in 730
A. D., and after many changes was purchased in 1848 by
Pope Clement VI., and became the seat of the papal goy-
ernment. Seven successive popes resided at Avignon in
the fourteenth century, during which it had about 100,000
inhabitants. The papal court was transferred to Rome in
1377, and Avignon was annexed to France in 1791. Pop.
in 1866, 36,427.
A/vila, a province of Spain, in Old Castile, is bounded
on the N. by Valladolid, on the E. by Segovia and Mad-
rid, on the S. by Toledo and Caceres, and on the W. by
Salamanca. Area, 3407 square miles. The surface is moun-
tainous, except the northern part. The chief article ºf ºr
port is merino wool. Capital, Avila. Pop. in 1867, 176,769.
Avila (anc. Ob/ila or Ab/wla), an episcopal city of Spain,
340
AVILA Y ZUNIGA, DE—AWARD.
the capital of the above province, is on the river Adaja, 71
miles-by rail N. W. of Madrid. It was once a rich and
more populous city, having a flourishing university, founded
about 1482 and abolished in 1807. It has a fine cathedral
and convent. Pop. 6892.
A^vila y Zuñi'ga, de (LUIs), a Spanish historian and
diplomatist, born in Estremadura about 1490. He en-
joyed the favor of Charles V., who sent him as ambassador
to Rome about 1558. He wrote “Commentaries on the
War of Charles W. in Germany in 1546 and 1547 ° (1548).
This work has considerable literary merit, but is not im-
partial. Died probably after 1560.
A^viles, a Spanish town at the mouth of the river of
the same name, 15 miles W. N.W. of the city of Oviedo, is
one of the most important trading-places in the province
of Oviedo. Pop. about 8350.
A/vis, or Aviz, an order of knighthood in Portugal, in-
stituted by King Alphonzo I. in 1143 to promote the defeat
of the Moors. The king of Portugal is grand-master of
the order.
Avi’tus (ALCIMUs ECDICIUs), SAINT, a poet and bishop
of Vienne, obtained this dignity about 490 A. D. He was
an adversary of Arianism. He wrote a poem on the “Cre-
ation of the World and on Original Sin,” which is said to
present some analogy to Milton’s “Paradise Lost.” Many
other of his writings are extant.
Avitus (MARCUS MAECILIUs), a Roman emperor, born in
Auvergne about 400, was the father-in-law of Sidonius
Apollinaris. He became prefect of Gaul, and succeeded
Maximus as emperor of the West in 455 A.D. He was
deposed by Ricimer in 456. Died in 457 A. D.
Avio/ma, or Valoma (anc. Aulo'na), a fortified town
and seaport of Albania, on the Gulf of Avlona, which is an
inlet of the Adriatic 10 miles long. It is 30 miles S. W.
of Berat, and has the best harbor on the Albanian coast.
Here are manufactures of arms and woollen stuffs. Pop.
about 6000. 2
Avo'ca, or Ovo'ca, a small river in Wicklow county,
Ireland, enters the sea at Arklow. It runs through a very
narrow and picturesque valley, enclosed between wooded
banks from 300 to 500 feet high. The Vale of Avoca is
the subject of one of Moore's songs.
Avoca, a post-township of Lawrence co., Ala. P. 936.
Avoca, a township of Livingston co., Ill. Pop. 825.
Avoca, a post-village of Pottawatomie co., Ia., on the
Chicago Rock Island and Pacific R. R., 35 miles from
Council Bluffs. It has a considerable trade and one weekly
newspaper.
Avoca, a post-township of Cass co., Neb. Pop. 480.
Avoca, a post-township of Steuben co., N. Y., on the
Rochester division of the Erie R. R., 28 miles N. W. of
Corning. It has three churches, an iron-foundry, and a
lumber and flouring mill. Pop. of village, 492; of town-
ship, 1740. - -
Avoca, a post-village of Clyde township, Iowa co., Wis.,
on the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., 49 miles W. of Madi-
son. Pop. 418.
Avoca’do Pear, or Alligator Pear (Per'sea gra-
tissima), a fruit tree of the order Lauraceae, a native of the
warm parts of America. . It has leaves which resemble
those of the laurel. . The fruit is a drupe, like a pear in
shape, and has a Soft pulp of delicate flavor, which dis-
solves like butter in the mouth, and is called “ vegetable
butter.” It is much esteemed in the West Indies, and
grows in Southern Florida. -
Av’ocet, or Avo set (Recurviros' tra), a genus of web-
footed birds, of the order gº
Grallatores, having long gº§
legs, and very long, slen- 4% §
der bills. They are easily
distinguished from other
wading birds by the up- :=
ward curvature of the #
bill, which is like elastic :
whalebone, and is adapt- #
ed to seeking in the mud ºff
for its food, which con-
sists almost wholly of
worms, insects, and little ## ==
crustaceans. They are ######
birds of powerful wing, :==ºfflºe.
and better adapted for
flying and walking than swimming. The Recurvirostra.
Americana abounds in the U. S. Another species, Recur-
virostra avocetta, is common in Europe. The length of
both species is about eighteen inches. -
Avoid’ance, in English ecclesiastical law, is the term
by which the vacancy of a benefice is signified. It is the
condition of a benefice void of an incumbent.
Avoirdupois’, or Averdupois, the name of the
common system of weights by which we ascertain the
weight of all commodities except medicines, gems, and
precious metals. A pound avoirdupois contains 7000 grains,
the legal standard of which is such that a cubic inch of
water weighs 252.458 grains. The pound is divided into
16 ounces, and an ounce into 16 drams. An ounce is equal
to 437% grains.
TABLE of Avoirdupois.
27# grains = 1 dram, dr.
16 drams = 1 Ourice, ./ OZ.
16 ounces = 1 pound, fb.
28 pounds = 1 quarter, Qr.
4 quarters = 1 hundredweight, cwt.
20 hundredweight = 1 ton, tion. .
A cubic foot of water weighs 997.17 ounces avoirdupois.
Avo’ia, a seaport-town of Sicily, in the province of Noto,
13 miles S. W. of Syracuse, is supposed to occupy the site
of the ancient Ibla or Hybla, famous for honey. It has an
active trade in grain, cattle, oil, and fruits. An earth-
quake in 1693 destroyed the ancient Avola. Pop. in 1861,
10,778.
A/von, a post-township of Hartford co., Conn. P. 987.
Avon, a post-village of Union township, Fulton co., Ill.,
on the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R., 19 miles S.
by W. of Galesburg. Pop. 672.
Avon, a township of Lake co., Ill. Pop. 1005.
Avon, a post-township of Coffey co., Kan. Pop. 905.
Avon, a post-township of Franklin co., Me. Pop. 610.
Avon, a township of Oakland co., Mich. Pop. 1850.
Avon, a township of Stearns co., Minn. Pop. 211.
A/von, a post-village of New York, delightfully situated
in Livingston co., on the right bank of the Genesee River,
and on the Rochester division of the Erie R. R., 18 miles
S. S. W. of Rochester, and on the Avon Geneseo and Mount
Morris R. R. Avon stands on a terrace 100 feet above the
river, and commands a beautiful prospect. Here are sul-
phur springs, with seven hotels, which are much frequented
in summer by invalids. Pop. 900; of Avon township, 3038.
Avon, a post-village and township of Lorain co., O., 17
miles W. of Cleveland and 3 miles from the shore of Lake
Erie. Pop. of township, 1924.
Avon, a township of Rock co., Wis. Pop. 886.
Av’ondale, a post-village of Chester co., Pa.
Av’on, Lower, a river of England, rises in Wiltshire,
flows southward, then nearly north-westward, passes by
IBath and Bristol, and enters the Bristol Channel after a
course of about 80 miles. It is navigable for large vessels
to Bristol, 7 miles. The valley of the Avon is very pictu-
resque. Another river called Avon, or East Avon, rises in
Wiltshire, flows southward, passes Salisbury, and enters
the English Channel at Christ Church. t
Avon, Upper, a river of England, rises near Naseby,
in Northamptonshire, flows in a general S. W. direction
through Warwickshire and Worcestershire, passing Rugby,
Warwick, and Stratford, and joins the Severn at Tewkes-
bury. It is about 100 miles long.
Avo/nia, a township of Osage co., Kan. Pop. 588.
Avoyelles, a parish of Louisiana. Area, 800 square
miles. It is intersected by the Red River, and bounded on
the E. by that river and Atchafalaya Bayou. The surface
is nearly level, and partly subject to inundation. Fertile
prairies occur in the western part. Cotton, corn, rice, and
molasses are largely exported. Capital, Marksville. Pop.
12,926. -
Avranches (anc. Abrin/ca), a town of France, in the
department of the Manche, 32 miles S. W. of Saint Lo.
It is beautifully situated on a hill, and has a ruined cathe--
dral, a college, and a convent. Here reside many English
families, attracted by the beauty of the position and the
cheapness of living. Pop. in 1866, 8642.
*Awaj, the ancient Pharpar, one of the two rivers of Da-
mascus. (2 Kings v. 2.) w
Award’ [from the Old Fr. awarder, to “adjudge”], the
result of an arbitration. (See ARBITRATION.) An award
is governed by well-established rules, such as that it must
conform to the agreement whereby the matters in dispute
were submitted to arbitration; it must embrace them all;
it must be final, as well as certain and reasonable. Where
several matters are submitted, it is not necessary that each
one should be specifically referred to in the award. If the
arbitrators purport to dispose of the things submitted by
a general result, it will be presumed that each subject was
acted upon and embraced in their conclusion. An award
does not have the force of a judgment in a court of justice.

AWE, LOCH-AXMINSTER.
341
If not performed, an action may be brought upon it. If
a sum of money were directed to be paid, a debt would be
created which could be collected by action. Statutes
sometimes allow a clause to be inserted in the submission
that judgment in a court of justice may be entered upon
the award. In such a case no action is necessary, and a
judgment may be taken in accordance with the statute.
Awe, Loch, a lake of Scotland, in the county of Ar-
gyle, 8 miles N.W. of Inverary, extends 24 miles in a di-
rection N. E. and S. W. Its average width is about 1 mile,
but in some places it is 2% miles' wide. The adjacent
scenery is very picturesque. The north-eastern end is over-
shadowed by rugged mountains, one of which, Ben Crua-
chan, is 3669 feet high. The water of this lake is discharg—
ed through the river Awe into Loch Etive. Loch Awe
encloses many islands, and abounds in trout. Its scenes
are favorites with artists and with tourists. On its islands
are the ruins of several convents and castles. -
Awn (aris/ta), the botanical name of a stiff and pointed
bristle which occurs in the flowers of many grasses, form-
ing the extremity of a glume or palea, as the beard of wheat
and barley. The flowers of some grasses are awnless.
The parts which are furnished with this organ are called
aristate. The awn is a prolongation of the midrib of a
glume or palea, or is a rigid, barren branch of inflores-
cence. Sometimes it is twisted, and liable to twist and un-
twist hygrometrically; sometimes it is serrate, as in barley.
Aw’yaw’ (Aga-Ojo or Oyo), the capital of Yoruba,
in Central Africa. Pop. about 70,000.
Axe, a tool used by carpenters and others for cutting
wood, is of very ancient origin. Savage peoples of an-
tiquity formed axes of stone, copper, bronze, etc. The
axe of modern civilized nations is constructed of wrought
iron, with a cutting edge of steel, which is welded to the
iron when they are heated to a white
heat. After it has been hammered and
ground into the proper form, it is care-
fully tempered by heat and cold water.
Axe'stone, a mineral regarded as a
variety of nephrite, is hard, tough, and
more or less translucent. It occurs in -
primitive rocks in Saxony and New
Zealand; the natives of the latter use
it to make axes, hence the name.
Ax/holme Isle, a level and once
marshy tract of England, in the N. part #
of Nottinghamshire, was drained in 1634 . ºffl
by a Dutchman named Vermuyden, and 2:#
was for a long time inhabited by French
and Dutch Protestant refugees. After
much litigation between the colonists
and the proprietors, the lands were di-
vided in 1691, and about one-sixth
was given to the former. It is now ex-
tremely fertile of all kinds of crops.
Axſia, a town of ancient Etruria,
whose remains are identified with the
sculptured tufaceous rocks at Castel
d’Asso, 6 miles W. of Viterbo. Here are
many chambers believed to be sepul-
chral. There are many Etruscan in-
scriptions. The architecture is of the
Tuscan order, closely resembling the
Doric Greek. These remains were dis-
covered in 1808. It is, probable that
Axia, never was a large town, but it
must once have been quite important.
Ax/inite [from the Gr. 3étvm, an “axe”], an anhydrous
silicate of alumina, lime, etc. with boracic acid, so named
because it occurs crystallized in oblique rhomboidal prisms,
so flat as to appear tabular and sharp like the edge of an
axe. The crystals have a brilliant, glassy lustre, and are
translucent or sub-translucent.
Ax^iom [Gr. &#topia, from &#160, to “think worthy,”
also to “demand”], in geometry, a proposition which ad-
mits of no demonstration, but is taken for granted as a
self-evident truth; as, “The whole is greater than its part.”
Every rational science requires such fundamental proposi-
tions and established principles, to which the assent of the
student is demanded without proof as a basis for further
argument. It is an axiom in logic that he who admits a
principle admits its consequence. -
Axis, plu. Axes, a Latin word signifying “axle.” A
straight line, real or imaginary, about which a body re-
volves is called the axis of rotation. Axis is an important
term in astronomy, botany, crystallography, geometry, and
mechanics. The axis of the earth or other planet is that
diameter about which it revolves. In botany, the axis is
the central part of a plant, around which various organs
are arranged. The stem is called the ascending axis, and
the root is the descending axis. The stem is an axis for
the branches, the branch is an axis for the leaves, and the
rachis is an axis of inflorescence. In geometry, the axis
of any geometrical solid is the right line which passes
through the centre of all the corresponding parallel sec-
tions of it, or the right line about which the parts of the
figure are symmetrically disposed. Thus, the axis of a
come is a right line drawn from the vertex to the centre of
the base. The axis of a curved line, is formed by a right
line dividing the curve into two symmetrical parts. A right
line drawn through the foci of an ellipse is its transverse
axis. The lines upon which the abscisass and ordinates of
plane curves are measured are called co-ordinate axes, of
which one is the axis of abscissa's and the other the axis
of ordinates. For determining points in space a third axis
is used. In crystallography, each form of crystal except
the hexagonal prism and the rhombohedron has three
axes, one vertical and two lateral. In anatomy, the axis is
the second cervical vertebra, which in man is the pivot on
which the head turns. Aacſ is in Peritro/chio, an old term
for one of the five mechanical powers, commonly called the
WHEEL AND Axi.E. It consists of a wheel fixed immov-
ably to an axle, so that both turn together around the axis
of motion. Aacis of Elevation, in geology, the line or di-
rection in which rocks have been elevated by an internal
force. This line generally governs the strike of the strata,
or the direction of a horizontal line upon them, when re-
moved from their natural or original position and inclined
to the horizon.
Axis (Aacis maculatus), a species of deer found in India
and in many of the East Indian islands, is sometimes called
chittra by the natives; aacis is the ancient name of a kind
of deer or antelope mentioned by Pliny. It resembles in
|
|
§ Nº.
§§
º 2-
l
Axis Deer.
size and color the European fallow-deer, but its horns are
slender, pointed, and little branched. The female has no
horns. It is easily domesticated, and is kept in parks in Eu-
rope. Other species, or marked varieties, are known. The
horns are brought to Europe and used for knife-handles.
Ax/le [Lat. aac’is], a bar of iron or a wooden shaft which
supports the body of a carriage or wagon, and is supported
on two wheels, in the hubs or naves of which its ends are
inserted. Also, the part of machinery which forms the
centre of the revolving portion, or the immediate bearing
of the revolution of a piece of machinery which revolves on
its own centre. Axles of railway cars, instead of revolving
in the hubs of the wheels, are strongly keyed in them, and
journals are turned on the portions outside the wheels.
These journals pass through and revolve in boxes.
Ax/ley, a township of Johnson co., III. Pop. 1199.
Ax/minster, a town of England, in the county of De-
von, 16 miles E. of Exeter. The Axminster carpets, whose
manufacture is the chief employment of the inhabitants,
are excellent imitations of those of Persia and Turkey, but
most of the so-called 'Axminster carpets are made else-
where. Pop. 2918.







342
AXOLOTL–AYRES.
Ax’oloti' (Siredon lichenoides), a remarkable batrachian
found in the Mexican lakes, is a permanent larva of the
Amblystoma type of salamanders.
It resembles a fish in
<&l
%
;:-
Axolotl.
its general form, has four legs, and a long, compressed, and
tapering tail. On each side of the neck the gills form three
long feather-like processes, which give it a remarkable ap-
pearance. Length, about ten inches. It is much esteemed
as food by the Mexicans. (See SIREDON.).
Ax’um, or AXoom [Gr. Aiyêočum or 'Aétép.m.], an ancient
and decayed town of Abyssinia, the former capital of the
Axumite empire, is in the province of Tigre, 85 miles N. W.
of Antalo. Here is a Christian church, built about 1657,
which is held in great veneration. Among the antiquities
of Axum and the monuments of its former grandeur are
several finely-sculptured prostrate obelisks, and one granite
monolith sixty feet high, which is still standing. The Axum-
ite empire extended over Abyssinia and Yemen in Arabia.
Through Adule, a port on the Red Sea, the people of an-
cient Axum carried on commerce with Arabia and India.
Pop. between 2000 and 3000.
Ayacu'cho, a department of Southern Peru, bounded
on the N. by Junin, on the E. by Cuzco, on the S. by
Arequipa, and on the W. by Huancavelica. Area, esti-
mated at 42,000 square miles. It is drained by the Apuri-
mac and its affluents. Gold and silver are found here,
and in agricultural respects it is the richest part of Peru.
Pop. about 130,000.
Ayacucho, a town of Peru, in the above province,
25 miles E. N. E. of Huancavelica. Here the armies of
Colombia and Peru completely defeated the Spaniards on
the 9th of Dec., 1824. . This victory, gained by General
Sucre, ended the Spanish dominion on the American con-
timent, and was followed by the speedy surrender of all the
Spanish soldiers in Peru. Pop. about 25,000. --
Ayamon'te, a seaport-town of Spain, in the province
of Huelva, on the Guadiana River, about 2 miles from its
mouth, and 71 miles W. S. W. of Seville. It has two
churches, one hospital, and a town-house. The chief occu-
pation of its people is fishing. Pop. 5969.
Aye-Aye (Chet’romys Madagascarien'sis), a very sin-
gular quadruped of Mada- º
gascar, ranked by Cuvier
among the Rodentia, buté
placed by other naturalists
in the family of lemurs. #
It has a long, bushy tail, §
and is about as large as a ſºft Ž
hare. Each of its four ºft
extremities has an op-
posable thumb, and the
digits are armed with -
pointed nails, which it sometimes uses to pick kernels out
of nuts.
the night, feeding on insects and fruits.
A/yer (PETER), one of the founders of the society of
Shakers, was born in Canterbury, N. H., in 1760. He
served in the war of the Revolution. Died Sept. 14, 1857.
Ayer, a post-village and township of Middlesex co., Mass.,
formerly known as Groton Junction, was incorporated as a
separate town in 1870. It is at the junction of the Fitchburg,
º
º 3% / & . s == == - -
- % NeºE
It sleeps during the day, and is very active in
the Stony Brook, the Worcester and Nashua, and the Per
terboro’ and Shirley R. R.S., 35 miles from Boston, 15 from
Lowell, and 27 from Worcester, Somé thirty-six passen-
ger trains pass through the town daily. It has
manufactures of agricultural tools, leather, iron
castings, and machinery, and has one weekly
newspaper. ED. OF “AYER PUBLIC SPIRIT.”
Ay’eshah, or Aieshah [Ger. Aischah], the
favorite wife of the prophet Mohammed, born at
Medina about 610 A.D., was a daughter of Abu-
IBekr, who afterwards became calif. Mohammed
wrote a chapter of the Koran expressly to win-
dicate her chastity, which had been questioned.
After his death she took an active part in public
affairs as an enemy of the calif Othman and his
successor Ali, who defeated her in battle. Died
in 677 A.D. (See IRVING, “Mahomet and his
Successors.”)
Aylesbury, an ancient market-town of Eng-
land, the capital of the county of Bucks, is 38
miles by railway N. W. of London. It returns
two members to Parliament. Many ducks are
reared here for the London market. It has some
: manufactures of silk and lace. Pop. in 1871,
# 28,760.
# Aylesford, EARLs of (1714, in the peerage
= of Great Britain), and barons of Guernsey (1703,
F in the English peerage), a noble English family.
—HENEAGE FINCH, the seventh earl, was born
Feb. 21, 1849, and succeeded his father in 1871.
Ayl/mer, a lake in British North America,
about 80 miles N. of Great Slave Lake. It is about 50
miles long and 30 miles wide.
Ayl/mer, or EI’mer (John), a learned English Prot-
estant bishop, born at Tilney, in Norfolk, in 1521. He was
tutor to Lady Jane Grey, and became an exile on the ac-
cession of Queen Mary. He published in 1559 an answer
to John Knox’s “Blast of the Trumpet against the Mon-
strous Regiment of Women.” He was appointed bishop
of London in 1576, after which he treated the Catholics
and Puritans with severity. Died June 3, 1594. (See
WooD, “Athenae Oxonienses.”)
Aylmer, a village of Malahide township, Elgin co.,
Ontario, Canada. It has one weekly newspaper, and is
actively engaged in manufactures. Pop. about 1400.
Aylmer, a village of Ottawa co., Quebec, is situated on
Lake Deschênes. It has one weekly newspaper, and is en-
gaged in lumbering and general manufactures. A line of
steamers for the Upper Ottawa starts from here. Pop.
about 2500.
Ayr, a small river of Scotland, flows nearly westward
through Ayrshire, and enters the sea at the town of Ayr.
Ayr, a handsome seaport-town of Scotland, the capital
of Ayrshire, is at the mouth of the Ayr, 32 miles S. S. W.
of Glasgow. The river is here crossed by three bridges,
which connect this town with Newton-upon-Ayr. Among
the principal edifices are the assembly-rooms, with a spire
217 feet high, and the Wallace Tower. Ayr has many ele-
gant villas, and is a place of fashionable resort. In the
vicinity are objects of interest connected with the memory
of the poet Burns. Coal is the chief article of export.
Pop. of parliamentary borough in 1871, 17,851.
Ayr, a flourishing village of Dumfries township, Water-
loo co., province of Ontario, Canada, has extensive lumber
and flouring mills and is an important commercial point.
Pop. about 1300.
Ayr, a township of Fulton co, Pa. Pop. 1247.
Ayres (ROMEYN B.), an American officer, born 1825, in
New York, graduated at West Point 1847; lieutenant-
colonel Third Artillery July 26, 1866, and Nov. 29, 1862,
brigadier-general of U. S. volunteers; served in war with
Mexico 1847–48, at various posts 1848–73, and on expedi-
tion to Yellow Medicine River 1857. In the civil war,
served in the Manassas campaign 1861, engaged at Black-
burn’s Ford and Bull Run as chief of artillery of division
1861–62, and of corps 1862–63, in Virginia Peninsula 1862,
engaged at Yorktown,Williamsburg, New Bridge, Garnett's
Farm, Gaines's Mill, Golden’s Farm, and Glendale; in the
Maryland campaign 1862, engaged at South Mountain and
Antietam, in Rappahannock campaign 1862–63, engaged
at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, in the Pennsylva-
nia campaign, in command of a division 1863; engaged
at Gettysburg (brevet major), in suppressing New York
draft riots 1863, in Rapidan campaign 1863, engaged at
Rappahannock Station and Mine Run, in Richmond cam-
paign 1864–65, engaged at Wilderness (brevet lieutenant-
colonel), Laurel Hill, Spottsylvania, Jericho Ford, Tolo-
potomy, Bethesda Church, Petersburg (wounded), Weldon


-- AYRSHIRE–AZOF, SEA OF.
Railroad (brevet colonel), Chapel House, Rowanty Creek,
Dabney’s Mill, Five Forks (brevet brigadier-general), and
Appomattox Court-house; in command of a division in the
district of Shenandoah 1865–66, and member of tactics
board 1867–69. Brevet major-general U. S. army Mar.
13, 1865, for gallant and meritorious services in the field,
and brevet major-general U. S. volunteers Aug. 1, 1864,
for conspicuous gallantry in battles of Richmond campaign.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Ayr'shire, a maritime county of Scotland, bounded on
the N. by Renfrew, on the E. by Lanark and Dumfries, on
the S. by Kirkcudbright and Wigtown, and on the W. by
the Frith of Clyde. Area, 1149 square miles. The surface
is generally undulating or hilly, and the south-eastern part
mountainous. It is drained by the Ayr, the Doom, the Lu-
gar, and other small streams. The county is rich in min-
erals, especially coal, limestone, freestone, and iron. Si-
lurian and Devonian strata occur here.
erally fertile and well cultivated. Ayrshire is noted for its
good dairies and superior breed of milch cows. It has
important manufactures of cotton and wool. Capital, Ayr.
Pop. in 1871, 200,745.
Ay/toun (WILLIAM EDMONDSTOUNE), an eminent British
poet and essayist, born in Edinburgh in 1813, was educated
in the university of that city. He studied law, was called
to the bar in 1840, and married a daughter of Prof. John
Wilson. He became professor of rhetoric in the University
of Edinburgh in 1845. Under the assumed name of
“Augustus Dunshumner’’ he contributed many articles to
“Blackwood’s Magazine,” and distinguished himself as a
humorist as well as a poet. In 1849 he produced “The
Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers, and other Poems,” which
had great success. Among his other works are a humorous
tale called “How I Became a Yeoman,” “Firmilian, a
Spasmodic Tragedy’ (1854), and “Bothwell,” a narrative
poem (1856). Died Aug. 4, 1865. (See THEODORE MARTIN,
“Memoir of William E. Aytoun.”)
Ayuntamienſto (literally, a “joining” or “meet-
ing”), the name of Spanish councils or governing bodies
of towns, which acquired much political influence and im-
portance during the wars between the Moors and Spanish
Christians. The Spanish kings granted to the towns mu-
nicipal privileges and institutions which were similar to
those of the ancient Romans, and promoted a spirit of lib-
erty. The councils were elected by the vote of the citizens.
These institutions were abolished under the Bourbon kings,
and were restored in 1837. They were deprived of political
power in 1844. - *
Azad'irine, a bitter principle found in an East Indian
tree (Melia Azedirach), used to some extent as a substitute
for quinine. This tree is called “Pride of China” in the U. S.
Aza/lea [from the Gr. &gaxéos, “parched,” probably so
called because it is usually found in dry situations], a genus
of plants of the order Ericaceae and the Linnaean class Pen-
tandria. It comprises 100 species or more, natives of North
America, China, and other countries.
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Azalea Indica.
cultivated for their flowers, which are beautiful and fra-
grant. The Azalea Pontica, a small shrub growing near
The soil is gen- |
Many of them are
the Black Sea, has fragrant flowers covered with glutinous,
hairy glands. The whole plant is narcotic and poisonous.
Among the American species (which have deciduous leaves)
are the Azalea nudiflora, sometimes called honeysuckle,
which is cultivated in English gardens, and the Azalea
viscosa, which has glutinous and fragrant flowers. The
Azalea Indica, a native of India, is a favorite of florists,
and is remarkable for its brilliant colors. The Azalea ca-
lendulacea, found in the Southern U. S., is said sometimes
to clothe the mountains with a robe of living Scarlet. Many
hybrid azaleas are cultivated as flowering shrubs.
Aza/mi, an ancient and ruined city of Asia Minor, in
Anatolia, on the Rhyndacus, which is here crossed by two
Roman bridges, 73 miles S. S. W. of Brusa. Here are ex-
tensive remains, among which are an Ionic temple of Jupi-
ter, with eighteen columns standing, and a theatre 232 feet
in diameter. -
Aza/ra, de (Don FELIX), a Spanish naturalist, born in
Aragon May 18, 1 46. He was a member of a commission
sent in 1781 to South America, to determine the boundary
between the Spanish and Portuguese possessions, and he
remained there twenty years. He prepared numerous maps
of South America, and published in Spanish “Observa-
tions on the Quadrupeds, Reptiles, and Birds of Paraguay
and La Plata.” (5 vols., 1802). He also wrote “Travels in
South America,” which were published in French (4 vols.,
1809). These works are highly esteemed. He died in Ar-
agon in 1811. (See WALCKENAER, “ Notice sur F. Azara,”
prefixed to his “Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale,”
1809.)
Azari'ah [Heb. This, “the Lord helps”], a name of
frequent occurrence in the Old Testament: (1) Another
name for Uzziah, the tenth king of Judah, who began to
reign, according to Winer, 809 B.C. (2) One of Daniel’s
three friends, a noble of the tribe of Judah, carried captive
to Babylon in 605 B. C., whose name was changed to
ABEDNEgo (which see). (3) The name of some twelve other
persons mentioned in the Old Testament, most of whom
were either priests or high priests.
Aze'glio, d” (MASSIMO TAPARELLI), MARQUIS, an emi-
ment Italian statesman, author, and artist, was born at
Turin Oct. 2, 1798. He studied and worked as an artist in
Rome, where he passed eight years (1821–29), and became
a skilful landscape-painter. Having removed to Milan, he
married a daughter of the celebrated author Manzoni. He
published in 1833 a historical novel entitled “Ettore Fier-
amosco,” which was very popular. He stimulated the na-
tional spirit and patriotism of the Italians by another
popular historical romance, “Niccolo di Lapi” (1841). His
political principles were liberal but moderate. He wrote
numerous political treatises, and fought against the Aus-
trians at Vicenza in 1848. In May, 1849, he was appointed
president of the council (prime minister) by King Victor
Emmanuel. In this position he rendered important ser–
vices to his country. He was superseded by Cavour in
1852. Died Jan. 15, 1866.
Azela'ic Ac/id, one of the products of the oxidation
of oleic acid by nitric acid.
Azeve'do-Couti'nho (JozE. JoAQUIM), a bishop of
Pernambuco and writer, born in Brazil Sept. 8, 1742. He
wrote an essay on commerce, a pamphlet against the abo-
lition of the slave-trade, and other works. Died Sept. 12,
1821. º
Az’imuth [Arab. as sumāt, “the path,” a name of the
zenith], an astronomical term, denotes the angle made at
the zenith by the meridian and the vertical circle in which
a heavenly body is situated, or the angle measured along
the horizon between the north or south pole and the point
where a circle passing through the zenith and the body cuts
the horizon. In trigonometrical surveys on the surface of
the earth the accurate determination of the azimuth of an
object is very important. It is usually performed with a
theodolite. Azimuth circles or vertical circles are great
circles of the sphere, passing through the zenith and in-
tersecting the horizon at right angles.
Azobenzole, C12H10N2, produced by reducing nitro-
benzole or oxidizing benzidine. It is obtained in reddish
yellow scales.
Azobenzoyl', C21H15 N2, a white crystalline powder
formed by the action of ammonia on crude oil of bitter
almonds. . -
Az'of, Azoph, or Azov, Sea of (the anc. Pa'lus
Maeo/tis, called by the Russians More Azovskoe), is sit-
uated between Russia and the Black Sea, with which it
communicates by the Strait of Yenikale or Kerteh (anc.
Cimmerian Bosporus). It extends from the Crimea to the
mouth of the Don, about 200 miles, and is in some places
100 miles wide or more. Its area is estimated at 14,000
343
-,

















344
AZOF—AZY MITES.
square miles. The navigation is generally obstructed by
ice from November to March. This sea, the water of which
is nearly fresh, contains a great abundance of fish.
Azof, or Azov (anc. Tan'ais), a small town and fort
of Russia, in the government of Ekaterinoslav, near the
mouth of the river Don, 25 miles E. S. E. of Taganrog.
It has declined in population and importance. Its harbor
is shallow. Azof was taken from the Turks by Peter the
Great. It was settled by the Carians, and in ancient times
had the name Tanais. After the taking of Constantinople
by the Italians it passed into the hands of the Venetians,
who held it until, in 1410, it was captured by the Tartars.
The Christians were put to death by the captors, from
whom came its present name.
Azores [Port. Ago’res, from agor, a “hawk”], or
Western Islands, are situated in the North Atlantic,
about 500 miles W. of Portugal, to which they belong, and
between lat. 36° 55' and 39° 44' N., and lon. 25° 10' and
31° 16' W. They are arranged in three groups, one of
which consists of Flores and Corvo. About 114 miles S. E.
of this group is the central group of Terceira, St. George,
Pico, Fayal, and Graciosa. St. Michael and St. Mary form
the third group, which is nearly 70 miles S. E. of the cen-
tral group. St. Michael, the largest of all, is 50 miles long,
and varies in width from 5 to 12 miles, and has an area of
340 square miles. They are of volcanic formation, and have
fertile soils, though the surface is mostly mountainous. The
highest point is the Peak of Pico, which has an altitude
of 7613 feet. Volcanic disturbances of a terrible charac-
ter have occurred at various times. Whole towns have
disappeared in opening chasms, and in 1811 an island
emerged suddenly from the deep, and later disappeared.
The sugar-eane, coffee-plant, orange, and grapevine flour-
ish here, but the soil is not well cultivated. The chief arti-
cles of export are wine, brandy, grain, and oranges. The
inhabitants are extremely indolent and ignorant. The land
is held by feudal tenure, and under such restrictions that
the farmers never think of improving it, and simply gather
the products which grow wild. It is owned in immense en-
tailed estates. The people are extremely fond of music.
They are not intemperate in their habits, but are prone to
the grossest superstition, and filthy in their dress and per-
sons to the last degree. The Azores have no good harbors.
The Portuguese took possession of these islands in 1449.
Area, 1149 square miles. Pop. in 1868, 252,480.
Az/otized Bodies (or Principles) are substances
which contain nitrogen (azote), and form part of the living
structure of an animal or plant. Among them are albu-
men, fibrine, caseine, gelatine, and kreatine.
Azo’tus, the Greek name of Ashdod, an ancient city
and stronghold of the Philistines, on the Mediterranean,
21 miles S. of Jaffa.
Azoxybenzole, C12H10N20, a body which crystallizes
in beautiful yellow needles. It is produced by the action
of potassic hydrate on an alcoholic solution of nitrobenzole.
Az'talan, a post-township of Jefferson co., Wis. P.1261.
Az/tec Children, the name commonly applied to a
boy and a girl who were taken from America to England in
1853, and were represented as descendants of the Az-
tecs. They were under three feet high, had long black
hair, olive complexions, and very prominent noses.
They were exhibited to the public for money by a person
who told an incredible story of their antecedents, and
pretended that they had been abducted from the an-
cient city of Iximaga. It was commonly believed by
naturalists that they were monstrosities—dwarfs that
never attained their proper development.
Az'tecs, a name of a Mexican nation which inhab-
ited the table-land of Anahuac at the time of the Span-
ish conquest of Mexico. According to tradition, they
came originally from Aztlan to Mexico, which was in-
habited by the Toltecs before the migration of the Az-
tecs. It is supposed that the latter founded the city
of Mexico (or Tenochtitlan) about 1325, some say as
early as 1216, and became the most powerful and domi-
nant people of Mexico or Anahuac. They made consider-
able progress in civilization and the useful arts, derived
partly from the Toltecs. They were a warlike people,
and conquered several neighboring tribes. “At the be-
ginning of the sixteenth century,” says Prescott, “the
Aztec dominion reached across the continent from the
Atlantic to the Pacific.” The government was an elec-
tive monarchy, and the sovereign was selected from the
brothers or nephews of the preceding king, so that the
choice was always restricted to the same family. As they
had never learned the art of alphabetical writing, their
laws were exhibited to the public in hieroglyphical paint-
ings or picture-writing. Their religion was a gross poly-
theism. They sacrificed human victims to their gods on a
larger scale than other nations—i.e. about 20,000 annually.
Astronomy was the science which they cultivated with
most success. “We cannot,” says Prescott, “ contemplate
the astronomical science of the Mexicans without aston-
ishment.” They were acquainted with the cause of eclipses,
and they recognized some of the most important constella-
tions. They adjusted the times of their festivals by the
movements of the planets, and fixed the true length of the
tropical year with great precision. An immense dial, dis-
interred in 1790 in the great square of Mexico, has supplied
us with interesting facts. The calendar engraved on it
shows that they settled the hours of the day precisely; also
the periods of the solstices and equinoxes, and the transit
of the sun across the zenith. The Aztecs were diligent
cultivators of the soil, and had acquired respectable pro-
ficiency in agriculture, but they had no horses, oxen, or
other animals of draught. Their staple productions were
maize and the agave or Mexican aloe, which supplied them
with food, drink, and clothing. They were ignorant of the
use of iron, but found a substitute in bronze, an alloy of
copper and tin, of which they made weapons and tools.
They also cast golden and silver vases of large size. In
mimetic art they were much inferior to the Egyptians.
The Spanish conquerors of Mexico destroyed nearly all
the manuscripts which they found in the country, and it
is not probable that the art of reading the picture-writing
will ever be recovered. “The Aztec character,” says
Prescott, “ was perfectly original and unique. It was
made up of incongruities apparently irreconcilable. It
blended into one the marked peculiarities of different
nations, not only of the same phase of civilization, but as
far removed from each other as the extremes of barbarism
and refinement. It may find a fitting parallel in their own
wonderful climate, capablé of producing on a few square
leagues of surface the boundless variety of vegetable forms
which belong to the frozen regions of the north, the tempe-
rate zone of Europe, and the burning skies of Arabia and
Hindostan.” (See PREscott, “Conquest of Mexico,” vol. i.)
* REvisBD BY R. D. HITCH.Cock.
Az'uline, a fine permanent blue dye prepared from
certain constituents of coal-tar. (See ANILINE COLORS.)
Azulin/ic Ac/id, a brown substance produced by the
spontaneous decomposition of hydrocyanic (prussic) acid.
Azu'ni (DoMINIco ALBERTO), an Italian writer known
from his researches in maritime law, born Aug. 3, 1749,
was a judge in Genoa. He published “Droit Maritime
de l’Europe” (Paris, 1805), and “Dizionario Universale
ragionato della giuresprudenza mercantile” (2d ed., Li-
vorno, 1822).
A/zure [Fr. azur], the fine blue color of the sky; also
the blue pigment which is produced by melting a mixture
of a salt of cobalt with quartz-sand and potash, and is
used in coloring porcelain. In heraldry, azure is one of
the colors employed in blazonry, and is represented in
engraving by Thorizontal lines. It is equivalent to the
color of sapphire among precious stones. In painting,
azure is a sky-colored blue, called ultramarine.
Azure Stone. See LAPIS-LAZULI.
Az/urine (Leucis’ cus coerw/leus), a fresh-water fish re-
Azurine or Blue Roach.
sembling the red-eye or rudd, is found in Lancashire, Eng-
land (where it is called the blue roach), and in Switzerland.
The color of its back is a slate-blue.
Az/urite, a beautiful blue carbonate of copper, some-
times called Blue Malachite. It occurs in blue crystals
which are very brittle, consequently this malachite is not
well adapted for the ornamental purposés for which green
malachite is so extensively used. Its composition is 2Cu
CO3 + Cul-H2O2. The most beautiful specimens are found at
Chessy, near Lyons. The name azurite has also been
applied to LAZULITE (which see).
Az/ymites [from the Gr. a, priv., and £iſum, “leaven”],
a name given to Christians who use unleavened bread in
the sacrament, as the Latins, Armenians, and Maronites.
The Greek and Protestant churches use the leavened bread.

B—BABEUF.
345
B.
B, the second letter of most alphabets, is a consonant of
the class known as labial mutes. It is cognate with the
mutes p and f, and etymologically interchangeable with
them and with the liquid m and the semi-vowels w and v.
In ancient Rome, B sometimes stood for 300, and B for
3000. The Greek 8 stood for 2, and /8 for 2000. In music,
B is the seventh letter in the natural diatonic scale. B also
stands for basso as an abbreviation in music. On old French
coins B stands for Rouen; on Prussian, for Breslau. B in
chemistry is the symbol of the element boron. As an ab-
breviation, B., or b., signifies “born,” and sometimes “book.”
Ba'al, or Bel, the principal god of the Phoenicians,
Chaldaeans, and Carthaginians, is regarded as a personifica-
tion of the sun. Among the Phoenicians, Baal was the god
of the sum, the vivifier of nature, and Astarte (or Baaltis)
the goddess of the moon.
or Belus of the Babylonians and Assyrians. The worship
of Baal prevailed among the ancient Jews in the time of
the prophet Elijah and earlier. (See 1 Kings xviii. and
Romans xi. 4.) The word Baal enters into the composition
of many Hebrew, Chaldee, and Carthaginian proper names,
as Jezebel, Hannibal, Baal-Peor, Baal-bec (“city of Baal”),
and Beelzebub.
Baal’bec, Balbec, or Baalbek [the final bek de-
rived, perhaps, from the Arabic bakka, “to be thronged”],
(called by the Greeks Heliop'olis, i.e. “city of the sun”),
an ancient and magnificent city of Syria, situated in a val-
ley or plain near the foot of Anti-Libanus, about 42 miles
N. W. of Damascus; lat. 34° 1' 30" N., lon. 36° 11’ E., and
about 3800 feet above the level of the sea. Its origin and
early history are not known. It was formerly one of the
most populous and important cities of Syria, and contained
many palaces and monuments. Antonius Pius built here
a grand temple, which subsequently became a Christian
ehurch. In 636, Baalbec fell into the hands of the Moham-
medans, and in 748 was sacked by the calif of Damascus.
The site is now occupied by a small modern village and
extensive ruins of ancient temples, among which was the
great temple of the sun. This was 324 feet long, and had
a peristyle of fifty-four Corinthian columns, about seven
feet in diameter and eighty-nine feet high, including cap-
ital and pedestal. Six of these columns are now standing.
Some of the stones used in the walls or substructions of
this temple are sixty-four feet long and twelve feet thick.
The chief material of these temples was limestone or marble
and granite. (See WooD and DAWKINS, “Ruins of Baal-
bec,” 1757; CAssAs, “Voyage Pittoresque de la Syrie,”
1799; VoI.NEY, “Voyage en Syrie;” Robinson’s “Later
Biblical Researches,” 1852, pp. 505–527.)
Ba'ba-Dagh, a town of European Turkey, in Bulgaria,
on a tributary of the Danube, is 93 miles N. E. of Silistria.
It has considerable commerce with the coasts of the Black
Sea, and has a Tartar high School. It was stormed by the
Russians in 1771 and 1828, and was ineffectually besieged
in 1854. Pop. about 10,000. -
Babahoy'o, a town of Venezuela, in the province of
Guayaquil, 20 miles N. E. of Guayaquil, on the Cabacol.
The goods sent from Guayaquil into the interior go to this
place, and are thence sent farther by mules. In consequence,
there are large warehouses here. But Babahoyo is, in spite
of this great trade, only a small, poorly-built town.
Bab'bage (CHARLEs), F. R. S., an English mathema-
tician, born Dec. 23, 1792, graduated at Trinity College,
Cambridge, in 1814. He became professor of mathematics
at Cambridge in 1828, and published in 1832 a work “On
the Economy of Manufactures and Machinery,” which was
translated into several languages. Among his other works
is a “Ninth Bridgewater Treatise” (1837). He invented
and partly constructed a calculating-machine, which was
never completed, although about £17,000 of the public
money was expended on it. Died Oct. 20, 1871.
Bab'bitt (ISAAC) was born at Taunton, Mass., July 26,
1799. He was a goldsmith, and made at his native town
the first Britannia ware produced in this country. In 1841
he received a gold medal for his valuable invention of the
alloy which bears his name. Congress also gave him
$20,000. He afterwards engaged extensively in the manu-
facture of this alloy, and also of soap. Died insane at the
McLean Asylum, Somerville, Mass, May 26, 1862,
Bab'bitt’s Met/al, a soft alloy invented by Mr. Isaac
Babbitt of Boston, and used in lining boxes for axles and
Baal was identical with the Bel
gudgeons, in order to diminish the friction and abrasion.
These boxes are extensively used in the machinery of steam-
boats and locomotives. The alloy is prepared thus: to 4
pounds of melted copper add gradually 12 pounds of the
best Banca tin, then 8 pounds of antimony, and finally 12
pounds more of tin.
Bab'cock (C. A.), U. S. N., born June 12, 1833, in the
city of New York, entered the navy as a midshipman
April 8, 1850, became a passed midshipman in 1856, a lieu-
tenant in 1859, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a com-
mander in 1869. From 1862 to 1864 he commanded the
steamer Morse, North Atlantic blockading squadron, and
was repeatedly in action with Confederate batteries and
troops while co-operating with our army on the James,
York, and Pamunkey rivers. He was highly commended
for his services by Rear-Admiral Lee, who, in the latter part
of 1864, upon being appointed to the command of the Mis-
sissippi squadron, selected Babcock as his fleet-captain.
FOXHALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Babcock (O. E.). See APPENDIx.
Babcock (RUFUs), D.D., was born at North Colebrook,
Conn., Sept. 18, 1798, and graduated at Brown University
in 1821. He was ordained pastor of a Baptist church in
Poughkeepsie, N.Y., in 1823, was president of Waterville
College (1833–36), and has been pastor of churches in
Salem, Mass., Philadelphia, Paterson, N. J., etc. He has
published a number of biographical and religious works.
Ba/bel, or Ba'bii, was the Hebrew or native name of
the city commonly called Babylon, which is the Greek form
of the word Babel; it was also the name of a famous tower
which the descendants of Noah began to build soon after
the Deluge, on the plain of Shinar, but in consequence of
the cenfusion of tongues they could not finish it. The pro-
jectors of this tower said, “Go to, now ; let us build us a
city, and a tower whose top may reach unto heaven, and let
us make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad upon the
face of the whole earth.” (Genesis xi.) There is no evi-
dence that the work was ever raised above the foundations,
but several extravagant reports or traditions of its immense
height have obtained currency. It is generally believed
that the position of this tower was identical with the site
of Babylon. Some persons have confounded the tower of
Babel with the temple of Belus. Others have entertained
the opinion that Birs-Nimrood, near Borsippa, is the re-
mains of Babel. Others have identified it with a ruin near
Hillah. But it may be doubted whether any remains of the
tower long survived the defeat of its builders. e
Bab-el-Man/deb (i. e. “gate of tears”), a strait
which connects the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aden and
the Indian Ocean. On the Arabian side of the strait is a
cape called Bab-el-Mandeb. The strait is about 20 miles
wide, and encloses the small rocky island of Perim, on
which is a British fort. The name was given to the strait
because the navigation of the sea to which it is the en-
trance, owing to numerous small rocky islets, was, before
the introduction of steamers, extremely dangerous.
Baber (AMBROSE), DR. See APPENDIX.
Bā’ber, or Babur (MoHAMMED), written also Babour,
surnamed ZAHEER-ED-DEEN (“protector of religion ”), a
celebrated emperor of India, and the first of the Great Mo-
guls, was born Feb. 14, 1483. He was a descendant of
Tamerlane (Timur-Leng). In 1494 he succeeded his father,
who was king of Ferghāna. The first part of his reign.
was disturbed by wars with neighboring powers, and he
experienced great vicissitudes of fortune. He performed
remarkable exploits in war, and extended his dominions by
the conquest of Kandahar, Cabul, etc. He made an in-
cursion into the Punjāb in 1505, and a second time in 1519.
Having again crossed the Indus in 1524, he defeated Ibra-
him, king of Delhi, on the plain of Paniput in 1526, and
became master of India. He was an able ruler, and had a
genius for poetry and music. He died Dec. 26, 1530, and
was succeeded by his son Humayoon. (See his autobiog-
raphy, of which there is a review in Lord Jeffrey’s “Es-
says;” R. M. CALDEcoTT, “Life of Båber, Emperor of
Hindostan;” FERISHTA, “ Mohammedan Power in India,”
translated by J. Briggs, London, 4 vols., 1829; WILLIAM
ERSKINE’s “History of India and the First Two Sovereigns
of the House of Taimur,” 2 vols., 1854.)
Babeuf (FRANÇoſs NoFL), a French conspirator and
Socialist, who assumed the name of CAIUS GRACCHUS, was
born at St.-Quentin in 1764. He founded in Paris, in 1794,
346
BABI—BABYLON.
“The Tribune of the People,” a journal in which he ad-
vocated equality and community of property. His disci-
ples were called Babouvistes, and his system Babouvisme.
He formed a conspiracy-against the Directory, was arrested
and tried, and the sentence of death being pronounced
upon him, he stabbed himself with a dagger, May 23, 1797.
(See SUDRE, “Histoire du Communisme ’’ (1849).)
Babi, the Malay word for “hog,” is the name of sev-
eral islands in the Pacific and Indian oceans. One of these
is about 85 miles W. of Sumatra, and near lat. 3° N.
Taength, about 40 miles.
Bab'ingtonite, a silicate of iron and calcium.
Bab'ists [in Arabic and Persian, Báb%], a Mohammedan
sect which originated in Persia in the second quarter of
the present century. It is said to derive its name from
a prophet named Báb, who was shot by order of the king
of Persia in 1835. Many of the early Babists took up
arms to propagate or defend their religion, and no incon-
siderable numbers were taken and put to death; but this
does not appear to have checked the spread of the new doc-
trines. The adherents of Babism are said at present to
amount to several millions. They profess to be reformers,
assert the absolute unity of God, and claim that Bāb is as
much superior to Mohammed as the latter is to Christ.
Bab'lah, the fruit of several species of acacia. It con-
tains tannic acid and a red coloring-matter. It is used in
dyeing and calico-printing for fawn colors.
Ba/boo, a Hindoo title equivalent to the English “Mr.,”
is usually given to gentlemen who are educated and wealthy.
The Baboos are noted for generosity and public spirit, and
are liberal in religion. Many of them are bankers and
merchants.
Baboon' (Cynoceph/alus), a genus of Old World mon-
keys, distinguished by long truncated muzzles and cheek-
pouches. Its face has a general resemblance to that of a
Common Baboon and Monkey. -
dog, and the ridges over the eyes are very distinct. Ba-
boons have callosities on the buttocks, and a repulsive
physiognomy, which indicates the ferocity of their dispo-
sition. They walk or run easily on the ground, and climb
trees with agility. They are exceedingly strong, cunning,
and mischievous. Troops of these animals sometimes enter
a plantation for plunder, and destroy much besides what
they eat and carry away in their cheek-pouches. They are
chiefly found in Africa and Southern Asia. They feed
mostly on fruits and vegetables. The genus is divisible
into two groups—the baboons proper, which have long
tails, and the mandrills, which have very short tails. As
examples of baboons of the first group may be mentioned
the chacma, or pig-faced baboon, also called the ursine
baboon (Cynocephalus porcarius), a native of South Africa,
and the dog-faced baboon (Cynocephalus hamadryas), a na-
tive of Arabia, Persia, and Abyssinia. The latter species
is often sculptured on the ancient monuments of Egypt,
and it is supposed to have been the “Thoth” baboon to which
divine honors were paid. It was frequently embalmed, and
the mummies are still found. The chacma is one of the
largest of the baboons, about the size of an English mas-
tiff. . The mandrill, or rib-nosed baboon (Cynocephalus
mor"mon), a native of Guinea, is the largest, ugliest, and
fiercest of the whole genus. Its muzzle is marked with
blue and scarlet ribs. It is scarcely possible to imagine
anything more hideous than its aspect. Numerous other
species are known to the later naturalists.
Ba'brius, or Babrias, a Greek fabulist who is sup-
posed to have lived a short time before the Augustan Age.
He made a collection of fables ascribed to AEsop, and turned
them into verse. Some of them were the original works
of Babrius. In 1844, Minoides Minas discovered in the
East a manuscript of 123 fables of Babrius, which were
published in Paris in 1844.
Babuya/nes Islands, a group of small islands in the
Pacific Ocean, between Formosa and the Loo Choo Islands.
They are of volcanic formation, and very fertile.
the largest of them are Calayan and Babuyan.
quantities of sulphur are obtained on these islands.
about 8000. Chief town, Batan.
Bab/yias, SAINT, bishop of Antioch from 237 to 250
A. D., when he suffered martyrdom. Miracles are reported
in connection with his remains. Chrysostom wrote a book
about him in 382, and in 387 delivered a discourse in com-
memoration of him. .
Bab’ylon [Gr. BagvX6v ; Heb. Babel], an ancient and
celebrated city of Chaldaea, was situated in the plain of
Shinar, on both sides of the river Euphrates, about 60
miles S. of Bagdad; lat. 32° 28′ 30' N., lon. 44°9'45" E.
Its site is partly occupied by the modern town of Hillah.
Among
Large
Pop.
. It is generally believed that it was built near Babel, which
is mentioned in Genesis (chap. x.) as the beginning of
Nimrod's kingdom. "We have no subsequent notice of
Babylon or Babel in the Hebrew sacred history until the
reign of Hoshea, about 730 B.C., when the people of Sa-
maria were carried away captive to Assyria. (2 Kings
xvii. 24.) The statements of ancient historians in relation
to the origin of this city are confused and discordant.
According to Greek tradition, it was founded by Semiramis
or Belus, but Berosus affirms that this story is a fiction of
the Greeks. The earliest historian who gives a description
of Babylon is Herodotus, whose testimony is that of an
eye-witness. He visited it about 450 B.C., but he does not
inform us who founded the city. He says Babylon, which
after the fall of Ninus (Nineveh) became the capi-
tal of the Assyrian empire, had already been ruled
by several kings and by two remarkable queens,
Semiramis and Nitocris. He states that the form
of the city was a square, each side of which was 120
stadia (about fourteen miles) in extent, that it was
enclosed by brick walls, the height of which was
200 royal cubits (about 335 English feet), and the
breadth or thickness was 50 cubits (about 85 feet).
Pliny, however, gives 235 feet as the height of these
walls, which were reckoned among the Seven Won-
ders of the World. It is supposed that a large part
of the space enclosed by them was occupied by gar-
dens, orchards, and open fields. The houses were
built of bricks, and the streets, which were wide,
crossed each other at right angles. “Babylon,”
says G. Rawlinson, “was probably the largest and
., most magnificent city of the ancient World.” The
prophet Isaiah, who lived about 300 years before
Herodotus, describes it (chap. xiii. 19) as “the glory
of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldees’ excellen-
cy.” There is reason to believe that Babylon at-
tained its highest prosperity and splendor in the
reign of Nebuchadnezzar, who, inflated with pride
and success, once exultingly asked, “Is' not this
great Babylon, that I have built for the house of the king-
dom, by the might of my power, and for the honor of
my majesty Z’’ (Daniel iv.) The most remarkable build-
ings of this city were two royal palaces, one on either side
of the river, and the great temple of Belus. Connected
with one of these palaces was the “hanging garden,”
which the Greeks regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of
the World. This singular structure, which is ascribed to
Nebuchadnezzar, was a square, each side of which meas-
ured 400 Greek feet. It was supported on several tiers of
open arches, built one over the other like the walls of a
classic theatre, and sustaining at each stage or story a
solid platform from which the piers of the next tier of
arches rose. The top of the building, which was about
seventy-five feet high, was covered with a large mass of
earth, on which grew not only flowers and shrubs, but
trees of a large size. Herodotus gives a description of the
temple of Belus, the chief feature of which was the Zig-
gurat or tower, a huge solid mass of brickwork, built with
receding stages, square being emplaced on Square, so as to
form a rude pyramid, on the top of which the shrine was .
placed. The number of stages was eight, and the height
of the tower, according to Strabo, was about 600 feet.
“When we turn,” says G. Rawlinson, “from this picture
of the past to contemplate the present condition of the
localities, we are at first struck with astonishment at the
small traces which remain of so vast and wonderful a me-
tropolis. The broad walls of Babylon are utterly broken
down.” God has “swept it with the besom of destruction.”
f -
(

BABYLON.—BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY.
347
... (Isaiah xiv. 23.) On its site are visible no pillars, are hes,
or ruins in the common acceptation of the term, but the
traveller finds here many heaps or mounds, some of which
are of enormous size, scattered over the plain, so as to
verify the prophecy of Jeremiah, “Babylon shall become
heaps” (chap. li.). Between the “heaps” the soil is in
many places filled with fragments of pottery and bricks,
and impregnated with nitre, indicating that it was once
covered with houses. Prominent among the remains of
Babylon is the Babil mound, a pile of brickwork about
140 feet high, which is supposed to be the ruins of the
temple of Belus. The palace of Nebuchadnezzar is iden-
tified with a mound which the native Arabs call El-Kasr .
(“the castle”), in which are found fragments of alabaster
vessels, fine earthenware, and bricks of excellent quality
stamped with the name of Nebuchadnezzar. According
to M. Oppert, several slabs found in the Kasr mound bear
the following inscription: “Grand. palace of Nebuchad-
mezzar, king of Babylon, son of Nabopolassar, who walked
in the worship of Nebo and Merodach his lords.” About
6 miles S.W. of Hillah is a ruined building which the na-
tives call Birs-i-Nimrood, which, says G. Rawlinson,
“strikes moderns with more admiration than apy other
now existing in the country.” It consisted of seven re-
ceding stages, representing the seven planetary spheres,
and each. stage painted with a different color. The first
or basement stage was a square, each side of which meas-
ured 272 feet; the second stage was 230 feet square, and
had a vertical height of 26 feet; the third stage was 188
feet square and 26 feet high; the fourth stage was 146 feet
square; and the others diminished in a similar ratio. From
the ruins of Babylon successive generations obtained ma–
terials with which Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and other great
cities were built. A.
Bistory.—About 1270 B.C. the Assyrian kings became
masters of Chaldaea or Babylonia, of which Babylon was
the capital. This country was afterwards ruled by an
Assyrian dynasty of kings, who reigned at Babylon, and
Sometimes waged war against those who reigned in Assyria.
proper. At other times the kings of Babylon were tribu-
tary to those of Assyria. Several centuries elapsed in which
the history of Babylon is almost a blank. In the time of
Tiglath-pileser of Assyria, Nabomassar ascended the throne
of Babylon in 747 B. C. He is celebrated for the chrono-
logical era which bears his name, and which began in 747
B. C. About 720, Merodach-baladan became king of Baby-
lon, and sent ambassadors to Hezekiah, king of Judah (see
2 Kings xx. and Isaiah xxxix.). A few years later Sargon,
king of Assyria, defeated and dethroned Merodach-baladan.
Sennacherib completed the subjection of Babylon, which he
annexed to the Assyrian empire about 690 B.C. The con-
quest of Nineveh and the subversion of the Assyrian em-
pire, which was effected about 625 B.C. by Cyaxares the
Mede and his ally Nabopola'ssar, the rebellious governor
of Babylon, enabled the latter to found the Babylonian
empire, which was the fourth of Rawlinson’s “Five Great
Monarchies,” and included the valley of the Euphrates,
Susiana, Syria, and Palestine.
twenty-one years, and was probably pacific, as the history
of it is nearly a blank; but in 605 B. C. his army defeated
Neco, king of Egypt, who had invaded Syria. He was
succeeded by his more famous son, Nebuchadnezzar (604
B. C.), who was the greatest of the kings of Babylon. Ac-
cording to G. Rawlinson, “It is scarcely too much to say
that but for Nebuchadnezzar the Babylonians would have
had no place in history. At any rate, their actual place is
owing almost entirely to this prince, who to the military
talents of an able general added a grandeur of artistić con-
ception and a skill in construction which place him on a
par with the greatest builders of antiquity.” Our records
of his history are derived almost entirely from the Bible—
i. e. the Second Book of Kings, Second Chronicles, Jere-
miah, and Daniel. Zedekiah, king of Judah, having re-
volted, Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem about 588
B. C., burned the great temple of Solomon, and carried
away the Jews as captives to Babylon. (See BABYLoNISH
CAPTIVITY.) He also took Tyre and conquered Egypt, and
became without doubt the most powerful monarch of his
time. He promoted the Hebrew prophet Daniel to the sec-
ond place in the kingdom. (For an account of his character,
his marvellous experience, his loss of reason, and his resto-
ration, the reader is referred to the Book of Daniel.) He
died in 561 B.C., and was succeeded by his son, Evil-mero-
dach, who reigned only two years. Nabonadius (or Laby-
netus), who became king in 555 B. C., formed an alliance
with Croesus against Cyrus the Great. He appears to have
shared the royal power with his son Belshazzar, whose
mother was a daughter of Nebuchadnezzar. Cyrus be-
sieged Babylon, which he took by stratagem in 538 B. C.,
and with the death of Belshazzar, whom the Persians
killed, the kingdom of Babylon ceased to exist. Alexan-
modern Irak-Arabee.
His reign lasted about
der the Great died in Babylon, which be had selected as
the capital of his empire. (See RICH, “Memoirs on the
Ruins of Babylon,” 1818; Sir R. K. Porter, “Travels;”
LAYARD, “Nineveh and Babylon;” RAwLINSoN, “Herod-
otus,” 1858; RAWLINSON, “Five Great Monarchies of the
Ancient Eastern World,” 4 vols., 1860–67; 2d ed. in 3 vols.,
1871; MIGNAN, “Travels in Chaldaea,” 1829.)
- REVISED BY R. D. HITCHCOCK.
Bab’ylon, a post-village and township of Suffolk co.,
N. Y., is on South Bay, and on the South Side R. R. of
Long Island. It contains 4 churches, 6 hotels, 4 mills, 2 man-
ufactories, and 1 weekly paper. It is connected with Fire
Island by horse railroad and steam ferry, and is famed for
the salubrity of its climate, and much frequented as a sum-
mer resort. Pop. of village, 1225.
H. LIVINGSTON, ED. “SIGNAL.” .
. . Babylo’nia, or Chaldae'a, an ancient country of
Asia, which the Scriptures call “the land of Shinar” and
“the land of the Chaldees.” It coincided nearly with the .
Babylonia proper was a part of the
great Mesopotamian plain, and was that alluvial tract
which intervenes between the Arabian desert and the river
Tigris, and was situated on both sides of the Euphrates.
It extended from the Persian Gulf north-westward more
than 300 miles, and had an area of about 23,000 square
miles. The distance is now 430 miles, and the area about
30,000 square miles; but the Persian Gulf then ran up 120
miles farther than now. The great and almost sole physi-
cal features of this level region were the rivers Euphrates
and Tigris, the former of which is navigable about 1200
miles from its mouth. It receives no tributaries from the
right in the lower part of its course for a distance of 1000
miles or more, and few from the left, except the Tigris, so
that its volume diminishes as it approaches the sea. The
plain through which it passes is a dead level, and remark-
able for its featureless character. The fertility of its soil
in ancient times was proverbial. “Of all countries that
We know,” says Herodotus, “there is none that is so fruit-
ful in grain, of which it yields commonly two hundred
fold.” The soil was irrigated by canals, and was well cul-
tivated. The date-palm flourished here, and furnished
several products of great value. Babylonia was favorably
situated for commerce, and her people were amongs the
most commercial nations of the ancient world. The Baby-
lonians—the Chaldaeans of the Hebrew prophets—were a
mixed race, in which the dominant element was Semitic.
They were distinguished for their intellectual ability, their
high civilization, and martial spirit. Their “wisdom and
learning” are attested by the prophets Isaiah and Jere-
miah: “Thy wisdom and thy knowledge, it hath perverted
thee" (Isaiah xlvii. 10). The luxury of the Babylonians
is often censured by both sacred and profane writers. The
Chaldaeans excelled other ancient nations in astronomy,
and were especially addicted to the study of astrology.
They attained superior skill in architecture, although they
had no better material than brick. Two of their structures,
the walls of Babylon and the “hanging garden,” were
reckoned among the Seven Wonders of the World. Their
grand temples and palaces were built of kiln-dried bricks
of square form, and very hard and durable. The finest
quality of brick was yellow. Brick or clay was also the
material on which they wrote and made cuneiform inscrip-
tions. Agriculture and commerce were the chief occupa-
tions of these people, who also excelled in the manufacture
of textile fabrics and carpets. The Babylonian empire,
which was the fourth of the five great Oriental monarchies,
included, besides Babylonia proper, Susiana (Elam), Meso-
otamia, Syria, Palestine, Idumea, and part of Arabia.
For an outline of its history see BABYLON.) The govern-
ment was a loose organization of provinces under native
princes, who paid tribute, but frequently revolted against
the sovereign, who failed to win the affection of the subject
nations. “Babylonian civilization,” says G. Rawlinson,
“differed in many respects from Assyrian, to which, how-
ever, it approached more nearly than to any other known
type. Its advantages over the Assyrian were in its greater
originality, its superior literary character, and its compara-
tive width and flexibility. . . . Babylonia, so far as we
know, drew her stores from no foreign country. To Baby-
lonia, far more than to Egypt, we owe the art and learning
of the Greeks. It was from the East, not from Egypt, that
Greece derived her architecture, her sculpture, her science,
her philosophy—in a word, her intellectual life.”
REVISED BY R. D. HITCHCOCK.
Babylo'nish Captiv'ity. In the Hebrew sacred his-
tory there occurs frequent mention of the fact that the Is-
raelites were carried away captive to Babylon. It was a
part of the policy of the kings of Assyria and Babylon to
transport a large part of the population of conquered coun-
tries and plant them in a distant part of the empire. One
348
BABYROUSSA—BACHE.
political object of this deportation was the more easy gov-
ernment of a people separated from local traditions and
associations. The captives were not enslaved or treated
with severity, but they enjoyed probably the same priv-
ileges as the other subjects of the empire, and some of them
were raised to the highest official positions. ... Sargon took
Samaria in 721 B. C., and carried the ten tribes of Israel
away to Assyria. The great Babylonish captivity of the
Jews occurred in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, who in 586
B. C. deposed Zedekiah, king of Judah, burned the temple
at Jerusalem, and transported the Jews to Babylon, . The
tribes of Judah and Benjamin, by the permission of Cyrus
the Great, returned to Palestine about 536 B. C., but the
other ten tribes remained in exile, and disappeared from
history. The seventy years are reckoned from 605, the
date of Nebuchadnezzar's first invasion, when Daniel and
his friends were carried captive.
Babyrous/sa (Babyroussa alfurus), an animal of the
hog family, is a native -
of Borneo, Java, and the
Molucca Islands. It is
remarkable for the long É
tusks of the upper jaw, ZT
which are curved back- .
ward and resemble horns. \\
Its legs are more slender §
than those of the hog. se - §ſ.
Bacchana’ſſia (call- sº % º ==
Babyroussa.
ed by the Greeks Dio-
nysia), the feasts and or-
gies of the votaries of Bacchus among the ancient Greeks
and Romans. On account of the licentious practices and
drunkenness which prevailed on these occasions, they were
prohibited by the Roman senate in 186 B. C. In modern
language the term is applied to wild revels and intemperate
feasts.
Bacchanten. See APPENDIx. -
Bacchan/tes [the plural of bac'chans, the present part.
of the Latin verb bacchor, to “revel” or “riot”], the Latinº
term for those, whether male or female, who joined in the
Orgies of Bacchus among the ancient Greeks and Romans.
Their conduct was very disorderly. They danced, swung
about the thyrsus, and made a great noise. According to
an ancient poetical legend, Orpheus was torn to pieces by
Some female Bacchantes.
Bac'chus [Gr. Bákyos], the god of wine, was called
DIONYSUS by the Greeks, and sometimes LIBER by the Ro-
mans. He was said to be the son of Jupiter and Semele,
Or, according to one tradition, of Ammon, king of Libya,
and Amalthea. He taught men the culture of the vine, and
first produced from grapes an intoxicating drink. His
worship was spread over many countries of the world, and
the myth of Bacchus was variously modified by different
peoples. Bacchus is usually represented as an effeminate
young man, crowned with vine or ivy leaves, with a thyrsus
in his hand. His votaries carried sticks or staves called
thyrsi (sing. thyrsus), which were bound with leaves of the
ivy and vine. He is said to have performed a successful ex-
pedition to India. The Greek festivals in honor of Bacchus
were called Dionysia. (See BACCHANALIA and BACCHANTEs.)
Bach, the name of a celebrated German family which
for upwards of two centuries was distinguished for musical
talent and produced more than fifty distinguished artists.-
VEIT BACH, the founder of the family, was a native of Pres-
burg, in Hungary, and emigrated to Thuringia, about 1600.
Besides the great JoHANN SEBASTIAN (1685–1750), other
eminent members of the family were JoHANN CHRISTIAN,
called the “Milanese Bach’’ (1735–82); Joh ANN CHRISTOPH
(1643–1703), with his sons JoHANN CHRISTOPH and JoHANN
NIKol,AUs; also KARL PHILIPP EMANUEL (1714–88) and
WILHELM FRIEDMANN (1710–84).
Bach (JoBANN SEBASTIAN), youngest son of Johann
Ambrosius, court-musician of Eisenach, born there Mar.
21, 1685, the most distinguished of the remarkable family
of BACH, and one of the great musicians of the world. A
North German and a Protestant, he was a patriarch and
founder of German music, and has been not inaptly termed
the Albert Dürer of his art. An extraordinary talent,
united with enthusiasm and tireless industry, made his
whole long life, from childhood on, a career of acquisition
and greatness. Early throwing aside the traditions of the
Italian School, he penetrated by severe study the secrets
of musical science, sought the boldest masters, and pursued
the most rigorous methods. Music in every style inter-
ested him—instruments of all kinds, but the organ was his
great delight. He walked miles, as a boy, to hear a mas-
ter’s performance on that instrument. Such ability and
enthusiasm were recognized from the first. Bach was
spared the struggle with poverty, and rapidly, by his own
efforts, rose to eminence. He had, till his voice became
manly, sung treble in a choir at Itineburg; at eighteen he
was a violinist at the court of Weimar; at twenty he filled
the place of organist at Arnstadt; at twenty-one he was
at Mühlhausen; at twenty-two he was at Weimar again as
court-organist; seven years later he resigned that most
honorable position for that of concert-master to the duke,
an office demanding high capacity, imposing varied re-
sponsibilities, and offering rich opportunity, for study and
practice in composition. His industry at this period was
marvellous. Here, however, his stay was short. In 1723–
in the mean time he had passed six years as chapel-master
to the court at Köthen, capital of the duchy of Anhalt-
Köthen—the city authorities of Leipsic chose him to the
place of musical director of the St. Thomas School; he was
thirty-eight years old. Here for the rest of his life, twenty-
seven years, he lived, honored and happy, in the bosom of
a large family, for he had ten sons, all musicians—beloved
by numerous pupils, and occupied with the art he had done
so much to create. Died at Leipsic July 28, 1750.
Bach’s compositions were numerous, original, and in
many styles. He wrote for voice and instrument—for or-
chestra, organ, pianoforte, instruments of wood and metal,
himself, being a performer on them all.
sacred occasions masses, oratorios, concerted pieces of
every kind; his preludes, fugues, cantatas are famous;
but his stately genius unbent at festive occasions, births,
and weddings; and even comedy was not out of his range.
In nearly every field of his art he was a discoverer—in
some he was a prophet of future discoveries. The fame
of Bach has been increasing since his death. For genera-
tions to come they who would study the difficult science of
music will go to him, as students of literature or painting
go to the grand masters. O. B. FROTHINGHAM.
Bache (ALEXANDER DALLAs), L.L.D., a distinguished
educator and scientist, born July 19, 1806, died Feb. 17,
1867, a native of Philadelphia, great-grandson of Benjamin
Franklin, received his higher education at the U. S. Mili-
tary Academy, where he graduated in 1825 at the head of
his class. After serving there as assistant professor for one
year, and on military engineering duty for two more, he
was called to the chair of natural philosophy and chemis-
try in the University of Pennsylvania, which position he
filled with great success for eight years, during which he
was also constantly engaged upon scientific researches in
physics and chemistry, and as member of the Franklin In-
stitute conducted important experiments on steam-boiler
explosions and kindred matters. In 1836 he was appointed
president of Girard College, then about to be organized,
and went to Europe to study the systems of education and
methods of instruction and discipline adopted there. His
report on education in Europe (1839), embodying the re-
sults of his studies, has done very much to improve the
theory and art of education in America. The Girard Col-
lege not being ready to go into operation, Bache undertook
the organization of the school-system of Philadelphia;
after accomplishing which he resumed his old chair at the
university. . He established at Girard College, and during
five years directed, a magnetical and meteorological obser-
vatory, supported by the American Philosophical Society,
of which he was a member. The results of these observa-
tions, which were made in correspondence with other obser-
vations in different countries, have largely added to our
knowledge of terrestrial magnetism. In 1843 he was ap-
pointed superintendent of the U. S. coast survey, which
important position he filled to the end of his life, display-
He wrote for
ing the highest administrative ability, combined with all
the scientific knowledge requisite for the successful prose-
cution of that important work. By the confidence with
which he inspired the government he was enabled largely
to increase the scale of expenditure for the survey, result-
ing in a still greater ratio of progress. He omitted no op-
portunity of securing for science the collateral results that
could be gathered during the prosecution of the work; he
organized a systematic exploration of the Gulf Stream, an
extended series of tidal observations, on the magnetism of
the earth, on the direction of the winds, and instituted re-
searches in regard to the bottom of the ocean within sound-
ings, and the forms of animal life existing there. His an-
nual reports to Congress are a monument, not only of his
administration, but also of his personal investigations in
regard to the subjects named, and many others connected
with the improvement of methods of geodesy. In addi-
tion to the direction of the coast Survey, Prof. Bache had,
eac officio, charge of the construction of standard weights
and measures for the U. S., and was a member of the light-
house board. As a regent of the Smithsonian Institution
from 1846 to the end of his life, he had a large share in
shaping its operations. During the civil war he was active
as a member of the Sanitary Commission, and in directing
the resources of the coast survey to the assistance of the
naval and military forces. . When, in 1863, the National
f

BACHE–BACKUS. 349
Academy. of Sciences was organized by Congress, Prof.
Bache, as the acknowledged leader of science in the coun-
try, was elected its president; nor were his distinguished
services to science less acknowledged abroad, as evinced by
his election to membership of the most prominent scientific
bodies of Europe. Prof. Bache married Miss Nancy Clarke
Fowler of Newport, but had no issue. He left his property
in trust to the National Academy of Sciences, the income
to be devoted to researches in physical science. Died at
Newport, R. I., after a lingering illness, on the 17th of
Feb., 1867. J. E. HILGARD.
Bache (BENJAMIN FRANKLIN), an American journalist,
son of Richard Bache, noticed below, was born in Philadel-
phia Aug. 12, 1769. He went to Europe with Dr. Frank-
lin, and while there learned printing and type-founding in
the famous establishment of Didot Brothers. After his re-
turn he established a paper called the “General Adver-
tiser,” the influence of which was in opposition to the ad-
*tions of Washington and Adams. Died Sept. 10,
I'798.
Bache (FRANKLIN), M.D., a son of the preceding, was
. born in Philadelphia Oct. 25, 1792. He graduated at the
University of Pennsylvania in 1810. He published a “Sys-
tem of Chemistry for the Use of Students of Medicine”
(1819), became professor of chemistry in the Philadelphia
College of Pharmacy in 1831, and obtained the same chair
at the Jefferson Medical College in 1841. He was one of
the authors of Wood and Bache’s “Dispensatory of the
United States,” a work of much merit and an acknowledged
standard of authority. Died Mar. 19, 1864.
Bache (GEORGE M.), U. S. N., born Nov. 12, 1840, in
the District of Columbia, graduated at the Naval Academy
in 1860, became a lieutenant in 1862, and a lieutenant-com-
mander in 1866. He commanded the iron-clad Cincinnati
during her various engagements on the Mississippi River,
and until she was sunk by the Wicksburg batteries May 27,
1863. His conduct in this last affair elicited the admira–
tion of Admiral Porter and General Sherman, and the sec-
retary of the navy, Gideon Welles, in his “letter of thanks
to Lieutenant-Commander Bache,” says: “Amidst an in-
cessant fire of shot and shell, even when the fate of the ves-
sel had been sealed, and destruction both from the elements
and the enemy was threatened, the officers and men appear
to have stood bravely at their posts; and it is a proud
record of the Cincinnati that when her last moments came
she went down with the colors nailed to the mast. It is
with no ordinary pleasure that I express to you, and to the
surviving officers and crew of the Cincinnati, the depart-
ment's appreciation of your brave conduct.” He was in
command of a little squadron of three vessels, the Tyler,
the Naumkeag, and Fawn, in the very spirited action of
June 24, 1864, at Clarendon, Ark., where in forty-five min-
utes he drove, the enemy from their battery of seven guns,
capturing guns, ammunition, and stores. He was in both
attacks on Fort Fisher, and led the men of the Powhatan
in the naval assault on the fort Jan. 15, 1865, where he was
wounded in the right shoulder. Referring to this assault,
Rear-Admiral Porter, in his despatch of Jan. 28, 1865, says:
“Nowhere in the annals of war have officers and sailors
undertaken so desperate a service. The names of some of
these officers will be found on record on the files of the de-
partment, among which those of Lieutenant-Commander
T. O. Selfridge and Lieutenant George M. Bache will be
found most conspicuous.”
FoxHALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Bache (HARTMAN), an American officer, great-grandson
of Dr. Franklin, born Sept. 3, 1798, at Philadelphia, Pa.,
graduated at West Point in 1818, colonel of engineers Mar.
3, 1863, served chiefly as topographical engineer on surveys
for coast defence, naval dépôts, harbor and river improve-
ments, roads, and canals, and for lighthouse sites 1818–47,
in constructing Brandywine screw-pile lighthouse and ice
harbor, Del., 1848–51, on engineer boards 1852–55, as light-
house engineer 1852–70, in charge of military roads on
Pacific coast 1855–58, in topographical bureau, Washing-
ton, D.C., 1861–62, in charge 1861, and member of light-
house board 1862–70. Became brevet brigadier-general
U. S. A. Mar. 13, 1865, for long, faithful, and 'meritorious
services, and retired from active service May 7, 1867. Died
Oct. 8, 1872, at Philadelphia, Pa., aged 74.
- GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Bache (RICHARD), an Englishman, born Sept. 12, 1737,
emigrated to the U. S., and in 1767 married Sarah, only
daughter of Benjamin Franklin. He became postmaster-
general of the U. S. in 1776. Died in July, 1811.
Bache (SARAH), wife of Richard Bache, noticed above,
and only daughter of Dr. Benjamin Franklin, was born in
Philadelphia Sept. 11, 1744. She was a very accomplished
lady, and was distinguished for her efforts to relieve the
sick and disabled soldiers of the Revolution. Died Oct. 5,
1808.
Bach/man (John), D. D., LL.D., an American natu-
ralist, born in Dutchess co., N. Y., Feb. 4, 1790. He was
pastor of a German Lutheran church at Charleston, S. C.
He contributed to Audubon's great work on ornithology,
and wrote the principal part of the work on the quadrupeds
of North America, which was illustrated by Audubon and
his sons. Among his other works is “Characteristics of
Genera and Species, as applicable to the Doctrine of the
Unity of the Human Race” (1854). Died Feb. 25, 1874.
Bach’mut, a Russian town, in the province of Ekater-
inoslav, 127 miles S. E. of Kharkov. In the vicinity are
large coal-mines. It manufactures much tallow, and is a
market for meat and grain. Pop. 10,482.
Back (Sir GEORGE), F. R. S., D. C. L., an English navi-
gator, born in Stockport Nov. 6, 1796. He accompanied
Sir John Franklin on his Arctic voyage in 1819, and in
1833 commanded an expedition sent out in search of Capt.
Ross. He wrote an account of this voyage, entitled “A
Narrative of the Expedition along the Shores of the Arctic
Ocean in 1833–34.” He became an admiral in 1867.
Back Creek, a township of Frederick co., Va. P. 1895.
Back Creek, a township of Randolph co., N. C. Pop.
1212. -
Back/gammon, a game Öf combined skill and chance,
played upon a peculiar board or table with men and with
dice. The men are of two colors, and the table is divided
into two compartments, each with two sets of points, of
which there are twenty-four in all. Upon these points the
men are placed in playing, and their movements are deter-
mined by throws of the dice alternately made by each player;
but the rules of the game are such that much skill may be
exercised in executing the movements of the men as indi-
cated by the dice. The object of the game is for the player
to bring his own men into his own inner table, and to pre-
vent his adversary from doing the same. There are several
games of backgammon, for which the rules are given in
“Hoyle's Games.” Backgammon is a very ancient recre-
ation, and is by many authorities said to have originated
in England, or perhaps in ancient Britain.
Back/huysen, or Bakhuysen (LUDoIF), a celebrated
Dutch marine-painter, born at Emden Dec. 18, 1631. He
was a close student of Nature, and often ventured out to
sea during storms. His paintings are said to express the
poetry of the sea. Among his works is a marine view
which the magistrates of Amsterdam presented to Louis
XIV. of France. Died in 1709.
Back Swamp, a township of Robeson co., N. C. P. 800.
Back/us (AZEL), D. D., a nephew of Charles Backus,
noticed below, was born at Norwich, Conn., Oct. 13, 1765,
graduated at Yale 1787, in 1791 succeeded Dr. Bellamy as
pastor of the Congregational church in Bethlehem, Conn.,
in 1812 was chosen first president of Hamilton College, and
died Dec. 9, 1817. / He took great interest in political ques-
tions, was an eloquent preacher, and a successful teacher
and disciplinarian. He published only a few sermons.
Backus (CHARLEs), D. D., was born at Norwich, Conn.,
Nov. 5, 1749, graduated at Yale 1769, was settled over the
Congregational church in Somers, Conn., in 1774, and died
there Dec. 30, 1803. For many years he was accustomed
to receive theological students into his family. Nearly fifty
were trained by him, among whom were Dr. Woods of
Andover, President Moore of Amherst College, President
Davis of Hamilton College, and several other distinguished
men. He published many sermons.
Backus (Rev. Is AAC), born at Norwich, Conn., Jan. 9,
1724, ordained pastor of a Separatist church in Titicut (a
parish of Bridgewater and Middleboro'), Mass., April 13,
1748, preached in Titicut till his death, which occurred Nov.
20, 1806. In 1751, Mr. Backus espoused Baptist principles,
and soon became one of the most active and influential
ministers of that denomination. He was for thirty-four
years a trustee of Rhode Island College (now Brown Uni-
versity), was in 1774 agent of the Warren (R.I.) Associa-
tion to advocate before Congress equal privileges for all
religious denominations, and in 1788 delegate from Middle-
boro’ to the Massachusetts convention which ratified the
Federal Constitution. In 1777–84 Mr. Backus published
“A History of New England, with especial reference to
the Baptists,” a work which is still of value to the general
student of the history of New England, and especially so
to one who is studying the progressive recognition of the
principles of religious liberty in America. A new edition
(carefully edited by Prof. David Weston of Madison Uni-
versity) was published by the Backus Historical Society,
Newton Centre, Mass., in 1871, 2 vols. 8vo.
Backus (JAY S.), D. D., born Feb. 17, 1810, at Gran-
350
ville, Washington co., N. Y., educated at Granville Acad-
emy and Hamilton, N. Y., pastor of Baptist churches in
Groton, Auburn, N.Y., and Syracuse, N. Y., and from 1862
till May, 1874, was an earnest and efficient secretary of the
American Baptist Home Mission Society. -
Baco'ſſi, a village of Italy, near Naples. It is on the
site of the ancient Villa Bauli, which was the seat of the
country residences of the ancient Romans. Many ruins
are found here.
Bacolor', a town on Luzon, one of the Philippine
Islands, is the capital of the province of Pampanga. It is
near the river Pampanga, and 38 miles N. W. of Manila.
Pop. about 8500. w
Ba/con, a township of Vernon co., Mo. Pop. 813.
Bacon, a township of Charlotte co., Va. Pop. 3683.
Bacon (EzekiEL), LL.D., born in Stockbridge, Mass.,
Sept. 1, 1776, graduated at Yale in 1794, was one of the
chief-justices of the Massachusetts court of common pleas
in 1813, first comptroller of the U. S. treasury (1813–15),
and a member of Congress from Massachusetts (1807–13).
Died at Utica, N.Y., Oct. 18, 1870.
Bacon (FRANCIs), [in Latin Francis' cus Baco'nws],
BARON VERYULAM, WISCOUNT SAINT ALBANs, one of the
most illustrious of modern philosophers, was born in Lon-
don Jan. 22, 1561. His father, Sir Nicholas Bacon, was
lord keeper of the great seal under Elizabeth. His mother,
a lady of fine talents, whose maiden name was Anne
Cooke, was a sister of Mildred, the second wife of Lord
Burleigh. Bacon, soon after he had completed his twelfth
year, was sent to Cambridge, where he is said to have dis-
tinguished himself by his diligence and by his rapid prog-
ress in his studies. While at the university he conceived,
it is said, a decided dislike to the philosophy of Aristotle
as it was then taught in the schools. Soon after leaving
Cambridge he visited France, in order to acquire the French
language and to continue his studies on the Continent, but
his father’s death, in 1579, obliged him to return to Eng-
land. In 1582 he was admitted to the bar, and became in
1589 member of Parliament, and in 1590 counsellor-extra-
ordinary to the queen—a distinction almost without exam-
ple for one so young. Ben Jonson speaks in the highest
terms of his gifts as an orator; he tells us that Bacon “com-
manded when he spoke, and had his judges angry or pleas-
ed at his devotion. No man had their affections more in
his power. The fear of every man that heard him was,
that he should make an end.” Lord Burleigh, though Ba-
con’s uncle by marriage, appears rather to have retarded
than aided the promotion of his nephew. The latter, left
wholly to his own exertions, applied himself diligently to
his profession, and at length acquired a lucrative practice.
He became in 1594 a candidate for the office of solicitor-
general, but was unsuccessful. The earl of Essex, who ap-
pears to have conceived a warm and sincere friendship for
Bacon, in order to console him under his disappointment
made him a present of an estate near Twickenham worth
£1800 sterling, which in real value was, in all probability,
nearly if not quite equal to five times that number of
pounds at the present day. - -
It appears to have been Bacon’s aim for many years to
acquire a fortune by a wealthy marriage. He paid court
to a rich widow by the name of Hatton, but, though aided
by the intercession of Essex, who was then in great favor
at court, he was not successful; which, according to Ma-
caulay, was a very fortunate circumstance for Bacon. The
lady afterwards married Bacon’s rival and enemy, Sir Ed-
ward Coke, and “ did her best to make him as miserable as
he deserved to be.” When Essex, seduced by a wild and
reckless ambition, embarked on those schemes which after- .
wards led to his death on the block (see EssBx), Bacon ap-
pears to have used whatever influence he had in order to
mitigate the resentment of the queen against her misguided
kinsman. Unhappily for his reputation, he was induced by
the desire to advance his interest at court—for we can
scarcely suppose he was influenced by a sense of duty—to
abandon the office of intercessor, and to take an active and
prominent part in the prosecution of his former friend.
And worse still, after the death of Essex, in order to win-
dicate the conduct of the queen, he employed his talents
and eloquence to blacken the character of his benefactor.
After the accession of James I., Bacon appears to have
enjoyed the highest favor at court. He was knighted be-
fore the king’s coronation. His law practice had now be-
come, if not very extensive, at least very lucrative. In
1606 he married Alice Barnham, the daughter of a rich
London merchant. . He had previously been appointed
king's counsel, and in 1607 he was made solicitor-general.
He became in 1613 attorney-general and a member of the
privy council. He was selected by the king as his agent
to conduct the prosecution against Peacham, in which
affair Bacon is accused of having sought, against law
BACOLT—BACON.
and justice, to obtain the opinions of the judges before
the case came up for trial. Bacon was appointed in 1617
keeper of the great seal, and in January of the ensuing
year he was made lord high chancellor of England, the
highest civil office to which any subject could then attain.
In the following July he was created Baron Verulam, and
admitted to a seat in the House of Peers. In 1619 he be-
came Viscount Saint Albans, and in 1620 published his
greatest work, the Novum; ORGANUM (which see). The
cup of his prosperity and fame appeared to be full to
overflowing, but a great reverse was near. It seemed as
if Fate had raised him to the highest pinnacle of greatness
that his fall might be the more tragic and more conspic-
uous. He was accused of accepting bribes by a man named
Waynham, against whom Bacon had decided a suit in
chancery. A committee of the House of Commons was ap-
pointed to inquire into the case, which was referred to the
House of Lords as the only legitimate tribunal for trying
it. At the beginning of the trial Bacon strongly asserted
his innocence, but he subsequently abandoned his defence
and confessed his guilt. He was sentenced (May 3, 1621)
to pay a fine of forty thousand pounds, and to be imprisoned
at the king’s pleasure. James was disposed to show him
every indulgence. As a mere form he was sent to the
Tower, but two days afterwards he was set at liberty. His
fine was also remitted, and he was allowed an income of
#1200, a sum which may safely be pronounced fully equal to
£6000 at the present day. He died April 19, 1626, and left no
children. Bacon’s celebrated “Novum Organum ” and his
“De Augmentis” are but parts of a more extensive work,
entitled “Instauratio Magna,” or “Great Restoration,” so
called because through its means he hoped to recall Philos-
ophy from what he considered the vain and idle speculations
of the Aristotelian school, and restore her to her true and
legitimate office of interpreter of Nature. Among his other
works should be mentioned his “Essays” (first published
in 1597), doubtless the most popular and widely read of all
his writings, and his “De Sapientia Veterum ” (“On the
Wisdom of the Ancients,” 1609), of which a good transla–
tion by Sir A. Gorges was published in 1619. Although
Dacon’s celebrity as an author may be said to rest exclu-
sively on his philosophical writings and his “Essays,” he
left some very able legal treatises; among others his “His-
tory of the Alienation Office,” which Lord Campbell pro-
nounces worthy of Hale. “No one,” says the same able
critic, “ever sat in Westminster Hall with a finer judicial
understanding; no one ever more thoroughly understood
the duties of a judge.” In person Bacon was well formed,
but not robust, of a middling stature, with a high and
broad forehead, his countenance conveying the impression
both of intellectual power and benevolence of disposition.
In society he is said to have, been “a most delightful com-
panion, adapting himself to company of every degree,
calling, and humor, . . . bringing out with great effect his
unexhausted stores of jests new and old.” (See MonTAGUE,
“Life of Bacon,” added to Bacon’s collected works; WIL-
LIAM RAWI.EY, “Life of Lord Bacon’” (1658); SPEDDING,
“Life of Bacon,” in his very complete edition of Bacon’s
works (4 vols., 1861–68).) J. THOMAS.
Bacon (JoBL S.), D. D., born in Cayuga co., N. Y., in
1801, graduated at Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., in
1826, studied theology at Newton, Mass., was successively
president of Georgetown College, Ky., pastor of a Baptist
church in Lynn, Mass., professor in the institution at
Hamilton, N. Y. (1834–37), president of Columbian College,
D. C. (1843–54), and subsequently was a teacher in Ala-
bama and in Virginia. Died at Richmond, Va., Nov. 9, 1869.
Bacon (LEONARD), D. D., LL.D., the son of a mission-
ary to the Indians, was born at Detroit, Mich., Feb. 19,
1802, graduated at Yale 1820, and at Andover 1824.
From 1825 to 1866 he was pastor of the Centre church
(Congregational), New Haven, Conn.; from 1866 to 1871
he was acting professor of systematic theology, and since
1871 has been lecturer on church polity and American .
church history in the Divinity School of Yale College. He
has contributed largely to the “Christian Spectator” and
the “New Englander,” and was for several years one of
the editors of the “Independent.” He has been one of
the foremost champions of New England Congregational-
ism. Besides numerous occasional Sermons and addresses,
he has published “Select Practical Writings of Richard
Baxter” (1831; 2d ed. 1835), “Thirteen Discourses on the
Two-Hundredth Anniversary of the First Church in New
Haven” (1839), “Slavery Discussed” (1846), “Historical
Discourse at the Old South Meeting-house, Worcester,
Sept. 22, 1863.”—One of his sons, Rev. LEONARD WOOLSEY
BAcon, M.D., born Jan. 1, 1830, graduated at Yale in 1850,
is an able preacher and author.—Another son, Rev. GEORGE
BLAGDEN BACON, born at New Haven May 23, 1836, was in
1861 ordained to the ministry at Orange Valley, N. J.
BACON-BADEAU.
351
Bacon (NATHANIEL), an English lawyer and leader of
Virginian insurgents, was born in Suffolk about 1640. He
practised law in Virginia, became an eloquent speaker and
a popular favorite. He was chosen as leader of the people
who about 1676 took arms ostensibly to defend the province
against the savages, but partly to resist the policy of Gov-
ernor Berkeley. Bacon defeated both these enemies, but
in the midst of the contest he died Oct. 1, 1676. (See
SPARKs's “American Biography,” vol. iii. of new series.)
Bacon (Sir NICHOLAs), an English statesman, born at
Chiselhurst, in Kent, in 1510, was the father of the great
Bacon, Baron Verulam. He was educated at Cambridge,
studied law, and was appointed solicitor to the court of
augmentations in 1537. In 1546 he obtained the office of
attorney to the court of wards, of which he was deprived
by Queen Mary in 1553 because he was a Protestant. He
was appointed lord keeper of the great seal by Elizabeth in
1558. He was distinguished for his moderation, sagacity,
and discretion, and rendered important services to the
Protestant cause. Among the English statesmen of that
age he was ranked next to Lord. Burleigh, who was his
friend and brother-in-law. Having held the office of lord
keeper about twenty years, he died Feb. 20, 1579. (See G.
WHETSTONE, “Memoir of Sir N. Bacon;” LoRD CAMPBELL,
“Lives of the Lord Chancellors.”)
Bacon (RoGER), an eminent English philosopher and
monk, called THE ADMIRABLE DOCTOR, was born near Ilches-
ter, in Somersetshire, about 1214. He studied at Oxford
and at Paris, where he took the degree of doctor of laws.
Having entered the order of Franciscan monks, he settled
at Oxford and devoted much time to experimental philos-
ophy. He was far in advance of his age, and made dis-
coveries in several sciences. He wrote in Latin a number
of works on chemistry, optics, physics, etc. By denoun-
cing the immorality and ignorance of the clergy and monks
he made many enemies. His mechanical skill and his in-
sight into the secrets of nature were such that he was sus-
pected of dealing in magic. His writings having been
condemned by a council of Franciscan monks, he was
thrown into prison about 1278, and confined at least ten
years. Indeed, it is not certain that he ever came out of
rison. Nor is it certain in what year he died, whether
1292 or 1294. His capital work, which treats of several
sciences, is entitled “Opus Majus,” and was written about
1266. It was first printed in 1733. Several of his works;
such as the “Opus Tertium,” “Opus Minus,” and “Com-
pendium Philosophiae,” were published for the first time in
1859. It appears that he was acquainted with the compo-
sition and explosive power of gunpowder. “The mind of
Roger Bacon,” says Hallam, “ was strangely compounded
of almost prophetic gleams of the future course of science
and the best principles of the inductive philosophy, with a
more than usual credulity in the superstitions of his own
time.” Giessler says of him that he “showed a wonderful
keenness of vision on all points in every branch of human
knowledge.” And yet he believed both in alchemy and in
astrology 1 (See ANTHONY WooD, “History and Antiquities
of Oxford;” “Biographia Britannica.”) *
Bacon Level, a township of Randolph co., Ala. P. 515.
Baſconthorp, or Bacon (John), an English Carmel-
ite, surnamed THE RESOLUTE DoCTOR, was born in Norfolk
about the beginning of the fourteenth century. He advo-
cated the philosophy of Averroès, and had great reputation
for learning. Among his works is a commentary on the
“Master of Sentences” (Peter Lombard). Died in 1346.
Bacs, a county of Hungary, is bounded on the N. by
the county of Pesth, on the E. by Torontal, on the S. by
Slavonia, and on the W. by Torontal. Area, 3940 square
miles. The Danube flows along the western boundary, and
the Theiss along the eastern, while the two are connected by
the canal of Bacs, which is about 60 miles long. The
county is entirely level, and; with the exception of the
Swamps along the rivers, is very fertile. Chief town,
Zombor. Pop. in 1869, 576,149. - -
Bacteria (plu.), [Gr. Baktmptov, a “club,” alluding to
the form], in microscopy, a name for certain plant-cells
which are cylindrical, spherical, or oblong, but sometimes
distorted in shape. That they are of vegetable not animal
character is shown by their power of taking up nitrogen
from ammonia-compounds. They occur either single or
compound, and multiply by transverse division. They are
propagated in water, and are not (according to Cohn and
Burdon-Sanderson) capable of transmission through the
air, like fungus spores. Cohn divides them into four
groups, and assigns them a place near the Algae.
Bac/tria, or Bactria'na, an ancient country of Cen-
tral Asia, bounded on the N. by the river Oxus (Amoo or
Gihon), and on the S. by the Hindu-Kush Mountains
(anc. Paropamisus). Its boundaries are not perfectly
cattle and butter.
known, but it is considered to be identical with the modern
province of Balkh. This is supposed by some to have been
the native country of the Aryan race. Bactria was the
centre of a powerful kingdom which flourished before the
historical period. Its capital, Bactra or Zariaspa, which
stood on the site of the modern Balkh, was the head-quar– .
ters of the Magi. In the time of Cyrus the Great, Bactria
became a Persian province, and was conquered, with
the rest of the Persian empire, by Alexander the Great.
The history of Bactria has recently been elucidated by nu-
merous Graeco-Bactrian coins and other antiquities found
in the topes or burial-places of Afghanistan. Some of
these coins present Greek letters, and also letters of a dia-
lect of Sanscrit. (See WILSON, “Ariana Antiqua,” 1841;
LAssEN, “Indische Alterthumskunde,” 1849.) -
Bac/tris [from the Gr. Bákrpov, a “cane”], a genus of
palms, comprising about fifty known species, all natives
of America. They are generally small trees, with slender
stems and pinnate leaves. Some of them are spiny, and
form thickets which are almost impenetrable. The Bactris
Maraja, or the maraja palm, bears clusters of fruit resem-
bling small grapes, with a pulp of an agreeable flavor.
The stems are used as walking-sticks.
Bactriſtes, a group of fossil Ammonitidae, with a
straight shell, and indented but not ramified septa. Seve-
ral species of it have been found in the Devonian strata.
Baculiſtes [from the Lat. bac’ulus, a “stick”], a genus
of fossil univalve mollusks of the family of Ammonitidae,
found in the upper chalk. The shell is chambered, per-
fectly straight, round (or compressed), and tapers to a point.
Various species are found in Europe, North and South
America, etc.
Bac/up, a flourishing town of England, in Lancashire,
22 miles by rail N. of Manchester. It is situated in a beau-
tiful valley, and is a terminus of a branch of the Lanca–
shire and Yorkshire Railway. It has many churches and
chapels, a fine market-house, and a literary institute.
Here are extensive cotton-factories and several brass and
iron foundries and dye-works. Coal-mines are worked in
the vicinity. Bacup is said to be increasing rapidly. Pop.
in 1861, 10,935.
Badag’ry, a seaport-town of Africa, on the Gold Coast
of Upper Guinea, 50 miles E. N. E. of Whydah. The Por-
tuguese once had several factories at this place, which Was
a market for slaves. Pop. about 10,000.
Badajos, a province of Spain, is bounded on the N.
by Caceres, on the E. by Ciudad Real and Córdova, on the
S. by Seville and Huelta, and on the W. by Portugal.
Area, 8688 square miles. It is for the greater part a poor
and uncultivated region, and is chiefly used as pasture-
grounds for immense herds of sheep and Swine. Chief
town, Badajos. Pop. 430,649.
Badajos’ [Sp. Badajoz; anc. Paa Augus’ta], a fortified
town of Spain, capital of the above province, is situated
on the left bank of the Guadiana, 175 miles by rail E. of
Lisbon. The river is here crossed by a good granite bridge
of twenty-eight arches. The town contains an old cathe-
dral, an arsenal, and a cannon-foundry. It has manufac-
tures of soap, coarse woollen stuffs, and leather, and a
brisk contraband trade. Badajos was the native place of
the painter Morales. It has been the scene of several im-
portant military events. It was besieged and taken by the
French general Soult in Mar., 1811. Wellington attempted
to retake it in April, but he failed. Having renewed the
siege in Mar., 1812, he took it by storm on the 6th of April
ensuing, after a desperate contest, in which the British lost
4824 men, killed and wounded. Pop. in 1860, 22,895.
Badakhshan’, or Budukshan, a territory of Cen-
tral Asia, subject to the ruler of Khoondooz (Kunduz), lies
between lat. 36° and 38° N. and lon. 69° and 73° E. It
includes several valleys of the head-streams of the Oxus
(Amoo). The surface is mountainous, and the great moun-
tain-range of Bolor Tag extends along the eastern border.
Here are ruby-mines and massive cliffs or quarries of lapis-
lazuli. Iron, salt, and sulphur are also obtained here. The
inhabitants are Mohammedans. Capital, Badakhshan.
Badakhshan, or Fyzābād’, a town of Central Asia,
capital of the above territory, is on one of the head-streams
of the Amoo, about 210 miles N. E. of Cabool. It was once
an important place.
Bad/deck, a post-village, capital of Victoria co., N.B.,
Dominion of Canada, in Cape Breton Island, on the Big
Bras d’Or. It is visited by steamers, and has a trade in
It is in a township of the same name.
Badeau (ADAM), an American officer, born in New
York, became a captain- and aide-de-camp of U. S. volun-
teers in 1862, served on the staff of Gen. Sherman, and was
wounded at Port Hudson; became in 1864 lieutenant-colonel
352
BADEN, GRAND DUCHY OF-BADGER.
and military secretary to Gen. Grant, and was colonel and
aide-de-camp 1865–69. He received a brevet as brigadier-
general U. S. army, and was some time secretary of lega-
tion in London. He published a “Military History of Gen.
Grant” (1868). He is (1874) U. S. consul-general at London.
Ba'dem [Lat. Ba'da], Grand Duchy of, a state of
Germany, bordering on Alsace and Switzerland, is bounded
on the N. by Hesse-Darmstadt, on the E. by Würtemberg,
and on the S. and W. by the Rhine. It has an area of 5912
square miles. Pop. in 1871, 1,461,428. The surface is
mountainous. A long mountain-range called “The Black
Forest” (Schwarzwald) extends along the eastern border.
The highest point is the Feldberg, 4886 feet high. The
western part of Baden is a long plain extending along the
Rhine from Băle to Mannheim. The chief rivers, besides
the Rhine, are the Danube, which rises in Baden, and the
Neckar. The valley of the Rhine has a mild climate and
a very fertile soil, which is well cultivated. The grape
and other fruits flourish here in abundance. Among the
staple products are wheat, barley, maize, potatoes, and to-
bacco. Good pine timber abounds in the Black Forest.
The average quantity of wine produced annually is about
fourteen million gallons. Among the mineral resources
are copper, coal, silver, iron, lead, and salt. Baden is rich
in mineral springs, which are much frequented as water-
ing places, as Baden-Baden, Badenweiler, etc. More than
9000 persons are engaged in the manufacture of cotton
fabrics, ribbons, paper, toys and trinkets, wooden clocks,
etc. The chief articles of export are wine and timber. A
railroad extends along the valley from Mannheim to Bâle.
The chief towns are Mannheim, Carlsruhe (the capital),
Freiburg, Heidelberg, Pforzheim, and Constance.
Religion and Government.—A majority of the people are
Roman Catholics, and about one-third. Protestants. Baden
has two universities (Heidelberg and Freiburg), an excel-
Ient system of public instruction, and the children are com-
pelled to attend school. This state is governed by an heredi-
tary grand duke, who in relation to foreign and military
affairs is dependent upon the emperor of Germany. He
governs according to a constitution which is among the
most liberal in Germany. The parliament of Baden con-
sists of a chamber of peers and a chamber of sixty-three
deputies. Hermann II., who died in 1130, was the first to
assume the title of margrave of Baden. The grand ducal
family now reigning in Baden are lineal descendants of
him. In 1746, Charles Frederick became margrave of
Baden, which under his reign increased in extent and im-
portance. He acquired the dignity of elector in 1803, and the
title of grand duke in 1806. Having joined the Confedera–
tion of the Rhine, he gained a large accession of territory.
IHis grandson, Charles. Louis, granted in 1818 a charter
which forms the basis of the present constitution. Under
the impulse of the revolutionary movement which began
in France in Feb., 1848, the popular party of Baden took
arms to found a republic. The grand duke fled, and a con-
stituent assembly was convened in May, 1849. By the aid
of a Prussian army he was restored in July of that year.
Ba/den-Ba'den (anc. Civ'itas Aure/lio Aquen’sis), a
town and a celebrated watering-place in the grand duchy
of Baden, is beautifully situated in a pleasant valley at the
foot of the mountain called Schwarzwald (Black Forest),
23 miles by rail S. S. W. of Carlsruhe and 6 miles from the
Rhine. Here are warm saline springs, the temperature of
which ranges from 117° to 154° F., which were much re-
sorted to in the time of the Roman emperors. They are
efficacious in cases of gout and chronic cutaneous diseases.
Baden-Baden is frequented in summer by visitors from all
parts of Europe, to the number of about 30,000 annually.
In former years its gambling-hell was a great attraction,
but upon the restoration of the German empire gambling
here, as in the other watering-places, was suppressed. Pop.'
in 1871, 10,083.
Badenweiſler, a village and watering-place of Baden,
2 miles E. of Mülheim, has alkaline thermal springs, the
temperature of which is 82°F. Large ruins of Roman
baths were found here in 1784, which are among the grandest
known. Inscriptions on old coins let us suppose that the
baths flourished until the middle of the third century.
Badge [perhaps a contraction of bandage], a mark, sign,
or token by which a person is distinguished; an honorary
decoration or special cognizance; as, for example, the stars
and crosses worn by persons of rank and princes in Europe,
the button on the cap of a Chinese mandarin, or a medal
given to a soldier as a premium for bravery. Finger-rings
are mentioned in the Bible as badges of authority; for in-
stance, Pharaoh took off his ring and put it on Joseph’s
hand as a token of the power delegated to him (Genesis xli.).
The ambassadors of ancient Rome wore gold rings during
their mission as badges of authority. Several countries
have distinctive badges. The badge of England is a rose,
white and red, ensigned with the royal crown, the origin
of which was the union of the white rose of the House of
York with the red rose which was the badge of the rival
House of Lancaster. The badge of Scotland is a thistle
ensigned with a royal crown. Ireland has two badges, the
golden harp and the trefoil, both of which are carried en-
signed with the royal crown. The badge of France was
formerly a fleur-de-lis, a “lily or iris,” sometimes called in
English “flower de luce.”
Bad’ger, a name applied to certain animals of the
order Mustelidae, assigned, however, by some to the bear
family, which they approach in character. They were for-
merly ranked in one genus (Meles), but now are assigned
by most naturalists to at least four different genera. They
are plantigrades, have a pointed skull, and feet adapted for
burrowing. They have anal glands which secrete sub-
stances with a disagreeable odor. The common badger,
brock or grey, of Europe (Meles taacus), found also in Asia,
is about the size of the common fox. It was formerly, and
is even now, kept for “badger-drawing.” The animal is
put into a barrel and assailed by numerous dogs, which are
trained to pull the badger out. The animal resists obsti-
nately until overpowered, when he is allowed a short rest,
In Aug., 1866, Baden formed with Prus- - - - - s.sºssºs
sia, a secret alliance, which was made - º §ess,
public about April, 1867. Baden be- =sº §§
came, in 1870, a state of the new Ger- _----- *º. --
man empire, in the federal council of • * #Sº ğ%@$$$@º
which . has three votes, the whole === sº
number of votes being 58. :*:: º £º §§ º
A. J. SCHEM. £º sº=$$$$$.
§§
Baden (anc. Ther/mac-Helvet'icae), a
town and watering-place of Switzerland,
in the canton of Aargau, on the Tim-
mat, 14 miles by rail N. W. of Zurich.
In Jan., 1834, the “conference of Ba-
den" was held here, in which the repre-
sentatives of Lucerne, Aargau, Thur- #
gau, Soleure, Berne, Bâle-City, and St.
Gall met to settle the relations of the
Catholic Church to these cantons. The #
temperature of the baths is about 117°
F. Pop. in 1870, 3412.
Baden, a post-village of Wilmot $º
township, Waterloo co., Ontario, Can- # º
§
§§§
§
Š
ºš
> -º-º-º:
º *š
š
#j
* => : jº
ada, has important manufactures of # =# ..º-º-º-º-º: sºm-º: :Er ºš
& E-Eº: ------- _------ ~ * =º w ANS: ºº
linen, and woollen goods, stayes, lum- #s --> * Iº.s. ºf .
º *ºsºes:- — =~ Sº - - -
ber, flour, beer, etc. It is on the Grand #=== - #!
“s: --E - š== - § ºmº- ---
Trunk Railway, 72 miles from Toronto.
Pop. about 500.
Baden-bei-Wien (anc. Ther’mse
Ceſtige or Panno'niae), a town and bathing-place of Lower
Austria, on the river Schwächat, 16 miles by rail S. S. W.
of Vienna. Here are warm mineral springs, which are fre-
quented by the citizens of Vienna. Many of the Austrian
nobility have mansions here. Pop. in 1869, 7590.
ar
and is then ready for another struggle with his enemies.
The animal is quite harmless if not abused. The East
Indian badger (Arctomya collaris) is a more formidable ani-
mal. Japan has still another badger. Two American
species of badger (Tawidea. Americana and Taxidea Ber-












































BADGER—BAGGESEN.
353
!andieri) are known, the former found most abundantly in
the valley of the Missouri, and the other in Mexico, Cali-
fornia, etc. They are more carnivorous than the European
badger, and are remarkable for their short ears, long hair,
and the rapidity with which they burrow in the earth.
Badger, a township of Webster co., Ia. Pop. 431.
Badger (GEORGE EDMUND), LL.D., an American states-
man, born at Newbern, N. C., April 13, 1795. He graduated
at Yale in 1813, practised law at Raleigh with distinction,
and in Mar., 1841, was appointed secretary of the navy by
President Harrison. He resigned in September of that
year, because Tyler vetoed the bill to recharter the U. S.
Bank. He was a Senator of the U.S. for about seven years
(1846–53). Died May 11, 1866.
Badger (Joseph), an American minister, born at Wil-
braham, Mass., Feb. 28, 1757, graduated at Yale in 1785.
IHe served four years in the Revolutionary army, after
which he obtained an education, and was sent as a mis-
sionary to Ohio, where he labored more, than thirty years.
Died May 5, 1846. -
Badger (MILTON), D. D., an American clergyman, born
May 6, 1800, at Coventry, Conn., graduated with honor
from Yale College in 1823, and studied theology at Andover
Seminary. In 1826 he was appointed a tutor in Yale Col-
lege, and in 1828 was ordained pastor of the South Congre-
gational church, Andover. Dr. Badger was elected asso-
ciate secretary of the American Home Mission Society in
1835, with which society he was officially connected thirty-
eight years. He died Mar. 1, 1873. . .
Badger (OscAR C.), U. S. N., born Aug. 12, 1823, in
Windham, Conn., entered the navy as a midshipman Sept.
19, 1841, became a passed midshipman in 1847, a lieutenant
in 1855, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a commander in
1866, a captain in 1872. He served in the steamer Missis-
sippi on the E. coast of Mexico during the Mexican war.
In 1861–62 he commanded the steamer Anacostia of the
Potomac flotilla, was engaged at various times with the
batteries on the Potomac River, and the “precision” of the
fire of his vessel is more than once referred to by the com-
manding officer of the flotilla, Lieutenant-commanding
Wyman, in his reports to the navy department. He was
in command of the iron-clads Patapsco and Montauk in
their many engagements with the forts and batteries of
Charleston harbor in the summer of 1863; as fleet-captain
was with Rear-Admiral Dahlgren on board the iron-clad
Weehawken in a night-attack upon Fort Sumter, Sept. 1,
1863, when he received a severe wound in the right leg,
from the effects of which he has never entirely recovered.
His services, character, etc. are thus mentioned by Rear-
Admiral Dahlgren, in his report to the secretary of the
navy of Sept. 2, 1863: “I shall feel greatly the loss of
Commander Badger's services at this time. He has been
with me for more than eight years, and his sterling qual-
ities have rendered him one of the very best ordnance offi-
cers in the navy.” . EoxhALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Badiſto, a post-village, capital of Huerfano co., Col.,
on the Huerfano River, 54 miles from Pueblo. It has a
population partly of Mexican origin, and has a large trade
in wool, hides, and stock. -
Baena (bā-ā'nā), or Waena, a town of Spain, in the
province of Córdova, on the Marbella, 32 miles S. E. of
Córdova. It occupies the site of an ancient Roman town.
Grain and oil are exported from this place. Pop. 13,000.
Baëpen'di, a town of Brazil, in the province of Minas
Geraes, is situated on one of the head-streams of the Rio ||
Verde, in the Serra Mantiqueira, about 180 miles N. W. of
Rio de Janeiro. Pop., about 9000. * +
Baer, von (KARL ERNST), a Russian naturalist of Ger-
man extraction, born in Esthonia in 1792. He became in
1819 professor of zoology at Königsberg. He wrote, besides
other works in German, a “History of the Development of
Animals” (2 vols., 1828–37).
Petersburg, and was appointed librarian of the Academy
of Sciences. . He made several discoveries in physiology
and zoology. . .
Ba'ez (BUENAVENTURA), a mulatto politician, born in
1820, was elected president of Santo Domingo in 1849, and
re-elected in 1856 and 1865. In 1874 he left the country and
came to the U. S. (See Domingo, SANTo, PROJECTs of AN-
NExATION To THE U. S., by HoN. A. D. WHITE, LL.D.)
Bae'za, or Baega (anc. Biatio), an old town of Spain,
in the province of Jaen, 22 miles N.E. of the city of Jaen.
It contains a cathedral and several monasteries in the Gothic
style, which, with other buildings, present an imposing ap-
pearance. The university, established in 1533, has ceased
to exist in recent times. Under the Moors it was the cap-
ital of the kingdom of Bajasat, and is said to have had
150,000 inhabitants. Cloth, leather, and soap are made
here. Pop. 13,405. • -
*
In 1834 he removed to St.
Baf'fa (anc. Pa'phos), a seaport-town on the S.W. coast
of the island of Cyprus. It was once an important place,
but is now ruined or decayed and nearly deserted. In an-
cient times Paphos was a beautiful city, having several
temples, and was a famous place for the worship of Venus.
Lat. 34° 47' N., lon. 32° 26' E.
Baffin (WILLIAM), an English navigator, born in 1584.
He accompanied James Hall in an Arctic expedition in
1612, and discovered Baffin’s Bay in 1616. He wrote two
narratives of these voyages, and gave in the first a new
method of ascertaining the longitude at sea by observation
of the heavenly bodies. . He was killed at the siege of Or-
muz, May 23, 1622.
Baffin’s Bay, or Bylot’s Bay, a large gulf or in-
land sea of North America, communicates with the North
Atlantic by Davis's Strait, and with the Arctic Ocean by
Smith's Sound. It is about 950 miles long, and has an
average width of about 300 miles. The greatest depth is
about 1050 fathoms. The shores are generally high and
rocky, backed by ranges of snow-covered mountains. It
was first explored by William Baffin in 1616. Whales
abound here. - *
Bagatelle [Fr. a “trifle”], the name of a game some-
what resembling billiards. A bagatelle-table is usually
about seven feet long and twenty-one inches wide, and is
lined with cloth. The other apparatus of the game con-
sists of small ivory balls and a mace or cue. -
Bagſby (ARTHUR PENDLETON), a lawyer, born in Vir-
ginia in 1794, was governor of Alabama (1837–41), U. S.
Senator (1843–49), and minister to Russia (1849–53). Died
at Mobile Sept. 21, 1858.
Bag'dad, a pashalic forming the S. E. portion of Asiatic
Turkey, bordering on Arabia and Persia. It extends from
the Persian Gulf north-westward about 600 miles, and is
intersected by the Euphrates and the Tigris. It includes
the ancient Chaldaea, Susiana, and Mesopotamia. The
part which lies between the Euphrates and Arabia is a
barren, sandy plain. The soil of some other parts is fer-
tile. The population is a mixture of Turks, Arabs, Kurds,
Armenians, etc. Capital, Bagdad. -
Bagdad, a celebrated city of Asiatic Turkey, formerly
the capital of the empire of the califs, and now the cap-
ital of the pashalic of Bagdad, is situated on both banks
of the Tigris, about 60 miles N. of Babylon; lat. 33° 20'
N., lon. 44° 22' 38” E. The river is here about 700 feet
wide, and is crossed by a bridge of boats. The appear-
ance of the city at a distance is rendered picturesque by
groves of palm trees and numerous minarets, but the
streets are narrow, crooked, and dirty. The dwelling-
houses, having no windows on the side next to the street,
present an unpleasing exterior, but the interior is often
richly decorated. Bagdad contains about one hundred
mosques, some of which have beautiful domes and lofty
minarets. Here are large bazaars filled with the products
of European and Turkish markets. It was formerly a very
magnificent city, and was for many ages the great empo-
rium of commerce of the surrounding countries, but its
trade has deelined. It has manufactures of silk and cotton
stuffs and red and yellow leather. The population is 70,000.
In 1831 an inundation destroyed a large part of the city.
Bagdad was founded by the calif Almansur about 763
A. D., and built out of the ruins of Ctesiphon. In the
ninth century it was enlarged by Haroun-al-Raschid, who
built here a fine palace. In the tenth and eleventh centuries
it is said to have had 2,000,000 inhabitants. It was sacked
by Hulaku about 1258, and after several changes of mas-
ters was conquered by the Turks in 1638.
Bagdad, or Boca del Rio, a town on the Rio Grande,
near its mouth, in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas, was
during the late civil war in the U. S. a place of great im-
portance to blockade-runners, who carried on from this
point a heavy trade with Western Texas.
Bagdad, or Blackwater, a village of Santa Rosa co.,
Fla., on the navigable Blackwater River, 28 miles from
Pensacola and 1% miles below Milton. It has extensive
lumber-mills and manufactures of juniper (red cedar) win-
dow-sash.'
Bag'gage [Lat. impedimen'ta ; Fr. bagage], a term ap-
plied to the tents, clothing, utensils, and other necessaries
of an army, which are carried on carts, pack-horses, or
mules.
In every army the amount of baggage is lim-
ited by strict rules. A private soldier is allowed to carry
nothing except that which his knapsack and other accou-
trements can hold. The baggage of officers is more exten-
sive. In the U. S. the trunks and carpet-bags of travellers
are called “baggage,” in England they are “luggage.”
Bag'gesem (JENs), a Danish poet, born at Korsør,
in the island of Seeland, Feb. 15, 1764. He was highly
gifted, but of a weak character; with a fine fancy, but of
354
BAGHERIA—BAHIA.
a restless spirit; excitable, but without passion; fantastic,
but without imagination. Born between two periods, he
could neither stay with the old nor march with the new.
He was intimate with men of second rank, and enthusias-
tically received by the educated; but no man of first rank
would acknowledge him, and the great public he never
reached. Born a Dane, and married first to a German,
then to a French lady, he fluttered from one country and
language and literature to another—made a noise in all,
and became great in none. Of his Danish writings, his
“Komiske Fortaellinger” and “Labyrinthen * are enter-
taining. Of his German writings, his “Haideblumen” are
not without merit. His letters, of which he wrote thou-
sands in different languages, are very interesting. Died
in Hamburg Oct. 3, 1826.
Baghe/ria, a town of Sicily, in the province of Pa-
lermo, 8% miles E. of Palermo. Here are numerous villas
of the nobility of the island. Pop. in 1861, 11,762.
Bagley (John J.). See APPENDIX.
Bagli'vi (GIORGIo), F. R. S., an Italian medical writer,
born at Ragusa in 1668. He became in 1692 the pupil of
Malpighi at Rome, and subsequently professor of anatomy
at the college Della Sapienza in that city. He gained dis-
tinction as the author of the system of “Solidism”—i. e.
the theory that diseases originate in the solids. ... He pub-
lished “Opera Omnia Medico-practica” (1704). Died
Mar., 1707.
Bagna caval'Io, an Italian painter, whose proper
name was BARTOLOMMEO RAMENGHI, born near Bologna in
1484. He was a pupil of Raphael, and is regarded as the
greatest painter of the Bolognese school. Among his
works is “The Coronation of Charles V. at Bologna.”
Died in 1542. (See WASAR1, “Lives of the Painters.”)
Bagnères de Bigorre (anc. Vi’ews Agwen'sis), a
town and fashionable watering-place in the S. of France,
in the department of Hautes-Pyrénées, and on the river
Adour, 14 miles by rail S. S. E. of Tarbes. It is situated
in the romantic valley of Campan, and is among the most
frequented watering-places in France. . It has a college, a
public library, a theatre, a museum, and good hotels. The
springs, of which there are thirty-two, and whose tempe-
rature ranges from 72° to 124° F., are visited by about
16,000 persons annually. Baréges and woollen stuffs are
made here. Pop. in 1866, 9433. -
Bagnères de Luchon (anc. A'quae Convena'rum), a
town of France, in the department of Upper Garonne, and
in the Pyrénées, 42 miles by rail from Bagnères de Bigorre.
It has sulphurous thermal springs, and is a place of sum-
mer resort. Pop. in 1866, 3921.
Bagnes, a French word signifying “galleys,” is now
the name of the convict prisons of France in which crimi-
mals were confined and employed at hard labor, since the
galleys were abolished in #748. Large numbers of con-
victs were thus confined at Brest and Toulon, and were
employed in mechanical and other work. Various trades
or mechanical arts were taught to the convicts. In the
reign of Napoleon III. the bagnes were gradually abol-
ished, and the penal colonies substituted in their place.
Bagnes-le-Chable, a parish and village of Switzer-
land, in Valais, on the Dranse, 12 miles E. S. E. of Mar-
tigny. Pop. of the parish, which is coextensive with the
Val-de-Bagnes, 4256 (1870). This valley was inundated in
1818 by a débâcle which carried away 400 cottages.
Bagnoles, a village and summer resort of France, in
the department of Orne, and in a valley 13 miles E. S. E.
of Domfront. It has warm saline springs and cold ferru-
ginous springs.
Bago/as, a Persian eunuch and soldier in the service
of Artaxerxes Ochus. In 338 B.C. he poisoned that king
and several of his sons. He raised to the throne of Persia,
Darius Codomamnus, who put Bagoas to death about 336
B. C.
Bag’ot (Sir CHARLEs), an English diplomatist, born
Sept. 23, 1781. He was minister to France in 1814, am-
bassador to St. Petersburg in 1820, and to Holland in 1824.
He in 1842 became governor-general of Canada, where he
died May 18, 1843. º
Bagot, a county of Canada, in the S. central part of
Quebec, is intersected by the Grand Trunk R. R., and
bounded on the W. by the Yamaska River. Copper ores
and fine black limestone are found. Capital, St. Liboire.
Pop. in 1871, 19,491.
Bag' pipe, a wind instrument supposed to be of great
antiquity, consists of a leathern bag which the player in-
flates by blowing with his mouth through a tube, or, in
some cases, by a bellows worked by the elbow. The music
proceeds from three or four pipes, whose mouthpieces are
inserted into the bag, the wind being forced out by press-
ing the bag under the arm. One of the pipes, called the
“chanter,” is pierced with eight holes, while the others,
or “drones,” sound each only one continuous low note.
Though generally fallen into disuse, the bagpipe is still a
popular instrument in the Highlands of Scotland and the
west of. Ireland, and the Highland regiments are always
accompanied by their pipers, dressed in proper costume.
The bagpipe is still used in Southern Italy, as formerly in
Spain.
Bag’ radites, the name of a royal family of Georgia
and Armenia. It was founded by Bagrad, who had the
privilege of crowning the Armenian monarchs. In the
eighth century a younger son of the Bagradites became
king of Georgia, and from him the Georgian Bagradites
claim descent. *
Bagra/tion (PETER), PRINCE, a Russian general, born
in 1765, was descended from the noble Georgian family of
Bagradites. He served with distinction under Suwarrow
in Italy in 1799. In Nov., 1805, he kept in check for
six hours a superior force of French under Murat. . He
led the vanguard at Austerlitz, December, 1805, and ren-
dered important services at Eylau and Friedland (1807).
He was mortally wounded at Borodino, Sept. 7, and died
Oct. 7, 1812.
Bag'shot Beds [named from Bagshot Heath, Surrey],
the lowest strata in the middle eocene formation of Britain.
The strata are arranged into four groups: 1. The Upper
Bagshot, yellow and white sands with ferruginous stains,
generally unfossiliferous, though at Whitecliff Bay, Isle of
Wight, a bed contains a large number of shells. 2. The
Barton beds, colored clays interstratified with sand and
loam, rich in fossils, shells of Mollusca, etc. 3. The
Bracklesham beds, composed of marly clays and white
sands, capped by a bed of flint-pebble conglomerate. This
is the most fossiliferous group in the series. 4. The Lower
Bagshot, consisting of variously-colored sands, gray, choc-
olate-colored, or white pipe-clays. The white clays con-
tain the only fossil found in this group—beautifully pre-
served leaves in the layers of the clay. The series rests on
the London clay. Its maximum thickness is about 1200
feet. Some writers restrict the term to this last group.
Bahama (ba-hă/ma), Grand, the most north-western
island of the Bahama group, is 69 miles E. of Florida. It
is 74 miles long and 9 miles wide. Area, 428 Square miles.
The soil is moderately fertile. Pop. 1020.
Baha'ma Islands, or Lucay’os, a group of islands
in the Atlantic Ocean, lie N. E. of Cuba, from which they
are separated by the old Bahama Channel. They belong
to Great Britain. They consist of twelve islands, 661 keys,
and 2387 reefs and cliffs, together 3060 islands and islets.
They extend like a chain from latitude 21° to 27° 31' N.,
in a north-western direction for a distance of about 700
miles. They are generally long and narrow, and have
little elevation above the sea. The climate in winter is
very mild and salubrious. The soil is, thin, but produces
maize, cotton, oranges, pineapples, etc. The area is vari-
ously estimated from 3012 to 5123 square miles. Capital,
Nassau, in New Providence. In 1870 the receipts amount-
ed to £46,000, and the expenses to £47,000. The value
of the imports was £284,000, and of the exports £190,000.
The names of the larger islands are Grand Bahama, Abaco,
Eleuthera, New Providence, Andros, San Salvador (or Cat
Island), Exuma, Long Island, Crooked Island, Inagua, and
Caicos. These are mostly covered with forests of the ma-
deira tree, the mastic, lignumvitae, etc. San Salvador (or
perhaps Watling's Island) was the first land discovered by
Columbus in 1492. The Bahamas were then inhabited by
a gentle race of aborigines, who were soon exterminated
by the Spaniards. The English obtained possession of
them in 1629. Among the exports are canella, arrow-root,
sponges, salt, conch-shells, eleuthera bark, fresh and canned
pineapples, etc. Pop. in 1871, 39,162.
Bahi'a, a province of Brazil, is bounded on the N. by
Pernambuco, on the E. by Sergipe and the Atlantic Ocean,
on the S. by Minas Geraes and Espirito Santo, and on the
W. by Goyaz. Area, 176,500 square miles. The large river
São Francisco flows along or near the north-western border
of the province, which is traversed by a high mountain-
range about 200 miles from the sea-coast. The soil of the
lowlands is fertile. The chief products are sugar, tobacco,
cotton, rice, manioc, and coffee. Diamonds and gold are
found in this province. Pop. about 1,450,000.
Bahia, or São Salvador, an important maritime city
of Brazil, capital of the above province, is situated about
740 miles N. N. E. of Rio Janeiro ; lat. 13° 0' S., lon. 38°
32' W. The name is derived from Bahia de Todos-os-San-
tos (All Saints' Bay), at the entrance of which it is pleas-
antly situated. The upper part of the city is several hun-
dred feet higher than the lower, and presents a very fine
BAHR—BAILEY.
355
appearance from the sea. The upper town is the most
populous, most beautiful, and contains the important pub-
lic buildings, among which are the governor's palace, the
cathedral, the theatre, the mint, and many fine churches,
It is the seat of the archbishop of San Sal-
and convents.
vador. A public library was founded here in 1811. The
harbor of Bahia is one of the best in America, and admits
vessels of the largest size. It is defended by several forts,
and has a lighthouse at the entrance. The chief exports
of Bahia are sugar, cotton, coffee, tobacco, rum, dyestuffs,
hides, and horns. The commerce is almost entirely in the
hands of Englishmen. Bahia is the oldest city of Brazil,
having been founded in 1549, and was until 1763 the capi-
tal. It is, next to Rio de Janeiro, the largest commercial
city of Brazil. The Bahia Steam Navigation Company,
organized in 1861, had sixteen steamers afloat in 1868.
Pop. 120,000. - - -
Bähr, or Baehr (Joh ANN CHRISTIAN FELIX), an emi-
ment German philologist, born at Darmstadt in 1798, and
educated at Heidelberg, where in 1826 he became professor
of classical literature. He published a “History of Roman
Literature,” 2 vols., 1828; 4th ed. 1868–70, 3 vols. 8vo, and
edited several of Plutarch’s “Lives.” He also published
Herodotus, with valuable notes, 2d ed. 1856–61, 4 vols.
Bahrdt (KARL FRIEDRICH), D. D., a German rational-
ist theologian, born at Bischofswerda, in Saxony, Aug. 25,
1741. He became professor of philosophy at Erfurt in
1762, but he professed such skeptical or deistical doctrines
that he was ejected from that position in 1768. Among
his works are “Aspirations of a Mute Patriot” and “Let-
ters on the Bible in a popular style.” He was successively
professor, preacher, teacher, and tavern-keeper. Died April
24, 1792. (See his “Autobiography” (“Geschichte meines
Lebens”), 4 vols., 1790.)
Bahrein', or Aval Island (ane. Tylos or Ty'ros), is
in the Persian Gulf, hear the Arabian coast, about 200 miles
S. of Bushire. It is 27 miles long and 10 wide, and is sur-
rounded by several small islands. Manama, the capital, on
the northern extremity, has a good harbor. These islands
derive their importance from their pearl-fisheries, the an-
nual product of which is estimated at $1,000,000.
Bahr-el-A/biad (i. e. “white river”), the Arabic
name of the White Nile, which is the main branch of the
Nile. It rises in Lakes Victoria Nyanza and Albert Nyan-
za, under the equator, flows N. along the eastern boundary
of Kordofan, and unites with the Blue Nile at Khartum.
It is said to be navigable 1000 miles above Khartum.
Bahr-el Az'rek (i. e. “ blue river ”), one of the two
great branches of the Nile. It unites with the other branch,
the Bahr-el Abiad (“white river”), in lat. 15° 37' N. Its
sources are in lat. 10° 58' N., lon. 36° 50' E., but its spiral
course, traced through all its windings, will probably exceed
800 miles. In this distance it descends with immense im-
petuosity from an elevation of 9000 feet to one of 1500 feet,
collecting the waters of a basin having an extent of 1000
miles or more. The Blue River is navigable up to Fazogle,
under the twelfth parallel, 1500 miles from Rosetta.
y Bai'aº (mod. Baja), an ancient town of Italy, beauti-
fully situated on the bay of its own name, in Campania, 10
miles W. of Naples. It was the favorite watering-place of
the ancient Romans, who were attracted by the beauty of
its position and adjacent scenery, the amenity of the cli-
mate, and the virtues of its warm mineral springs. Julius
Caesar and Pompey had country-houses at Baiae, which
Horace preferred to all other places. The society of Baiae
was proverbially voluptuous and dissolute. Ruins of an-
cient temples and villas are visible in this vicinity.
Baiſersbronn, a town in Würtemberg, 40 miles S. W.
of Stuttgart. It has manufactures of glass. Pop. in 1867,
5138.
Bai'kal [from the Mongolian Bai-Kul, i.e. “rich sea.”],
called also the Holy Sea, a large lake in the southern
part of Siberia, in the government of Irkutsk, is an expan-
sion of the river Angara. It is situated between lat. 51°
28' and 55° 41' N., and lon. 103° and 110° E. It is about
400 miles long, and has an average width of nearly 45
miles. Area, estimated at 12,118 square miles. It is said
to be in some places 300 fathoms deep. It receives the Se-
lenga and other rivers, and discharges its waters by the
Angara, an affluent of the Yenisei. In summer steamboats
navigate this lake, which is frozen from November to April.
Here are valuable seal and sturgeon fisheries. The waters
of this lake are said to have a curious ground swell called
zyb, the nature of which has never been explained. The
Christian kingdom of the Prester Johns, between the
eleventh and the thirteenth centuries, was just S. of the
Baikal Sea.
Baikal Mountains, in Siberia, extend eastward in
three ranges, from the Egtag Altai, and enclose in their
tion of this word is to “deliver.”
midst Lake Baikal. They appear to be mostly of volcanic
origin, and possess considerable mineral resources.
Bail [Fr. bailler, to “deliver”]. The original significa-
It is used both as a
noun and a verb, and refers to property, as well as to a
person, in the custody of the law. It implies safe-keep-
ing or delivery for a special purpose. It may signify the
delivery of a person arrested, either on civil or criminal
process, from the custody of the sheriff or some other
officer of the law, into the safe-keeping of persons who
bind themselves for his appearance in court or obedience
to its processes. Again, it denotes the persons into whose
keeping the party discharged from actual arrest is deliv-
ered, and sometimes the amount of security given or re-
quired for the defendant’s appearance. -
In all civil actions the defendant may give bail as a mat-
ter of right, and generally in criminal proceedings, unless
he is charged with a capital offence. The amount of bail is
in the discretion of the court, controlled by the somewhat
vague constitutional provision that excessive bail shall not
be required. -
Bail below, or bail to the sheriff, is bail given to the
sheriff to secure the appearance of the defendant in the
action, or his putting in special bail on a required day.
Bail to the action, or bail above, are bound either to satisfy
the judgment if one should be recovered, or to deliver up
the defendant to custody. In some of the States the de-
fendant when arrested gives bail to render himself at all
times amenable to the process of the court, which takes
the place of bail below and bail above.
Common bail is the formal entry of fictitious security
with the clerk of the court. It is given for the appear-
ance of the defendant and his future obedience in cases
where he has not actually been arrested. Special bail is
responsible bail, given when the defendant has actually been
arrested. Bail must in general possess certain prescribed
qualifications. They must be freeholders or householders ;
must be within reach of the process of the court, and must
not be privileged from arrest; must be competent to make
a contract, and of sufficient means to pay the amount for
which they become responsible. Bail can be compelled, on
suitable application in the action, to justify; this means,
to show by satisfactory evidence that they possess the
qualifications required by law.
While the prisoner, when released on bail, is in fact gen-
erally allowed to go at large, he is regarded by the law as
in custody of his bail. They can take possession of his
person at any time or in any place, even though it is ne-
cessary to break into his house. By delivering him to the
sheriff and complying with legal forms of surrender, they
can discharge themselves from liability.
It should be remarked that when a prisoner is held un-
der final process—that is, process to enforce a judgment
of the court—he cannot be released on bail. However, by
statute law he is sometimes allowed in civil cases, on giving
security of the nature of bail, to be released from strict con-
finement in jail, at the same time being partially restrained
of his liberty by the action of rules defining territorial lim-
its beyond which he cannot lawfully go.
T. W. DWIGHT.
Bail’ey (GAMALIEL), M. D., born at Mount Holly,
N. J., Dec. 3, 1807. In conjunction with J. G. Birney he
founded in 1836 the “Cincinnati Philanthropist,” an anti-
slavery journal. Although his press was destroyed by a
mob, he continued the publication till 1847, when he issued
the first number of the “National Era, ’’ at Washington.
The celebrated novel of “Uncle Tom's Cabin ‘’ first appear-
ed in this journal. Died June 5, 1859.
Bailey (GILBERT STEPHENs), D. D., born at Abington,
Pa., Oct. 17, 1822, educated at Oberlin College, O., pastor
of a Baptist church in Cornwall, N. Y., 1845–46, pastor in
Illinois 1846–63, superintendent of missions for the Bap-
tist General Association of Illinois 1863–67, and since 1867
secretary of the Baptist Theological Union at Chicago. He
is the author of several works, mostly denominational. Dr.
Bailey originated the system of “minister's institutes” now
prevalent in the Baptist denomination, holding the first at
Chicago in 1864.
Bailey (GUILFoRD D.), an American officer, born in
New York 1833, killed at the battle of Seven Pines May
31, 1862; graduated at West Point July 1, 1856, and pro-
moted second lieutenant of artillery; served on frontier
duty and in Kansas border disturbance 1856–59, served
during the civil war in defence of Fort Pickens, Fla., to
June 27, 1861, appointed colonel First New York Light Ar-
tillery volunteers Sept., 1861, and was engaged in the va-
rious actions of the Army of the Potomac during the Pen-
insular campaign of 1862 till his death.
G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Engineers.
Bailey (JACOB WHITMAN), an American officer and nat-
*
¥,
63).
356
uralist, born April 29, 1811, at Ward (now Auburn), Mass.,
graduated at West Point 1832, served as lieutenant of ar-
tillery in Charleston harbor, 1832–33, during threatened
nullification of S. C., at Bellona Arsenal, Va., 1834–35, as as-
sistant professor at Military Academy 1834–35, and acting
professor of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology 1835–38,
becoming, upon resigning his lieutenancy, July 8, 1838, full
professor, which position he held, to the great benefit of the
Academy and advantage to cadets, till his death. He was
the inventor of “Bailey’s Indicator,” and of many improve-
ments in the microscope, in the use of which he achieved
the highest distinction, particularly in the examination of
infusoria, algae, and the products of the deep-sea sound-
ings of the coast survey, U. S. exploring expeditions, and
the Atlantic telegraph plateau, of which he made valu-
able collections and numerous delineations, bequeathing
them to the Boston Society of Natural History. He was
president of the American Association for the Advancement
of Science 1857, and member of various societies of savants
at home and abroad, and author of over fifty able papers
in various scientific journals. His health, always delicate,
was completely shattered by exposure in the Hudson River
while attempting to rescue his wife and daughter, lost in
the burning of the steamer Henry Clay, he dying five years
after, Feb. 26, 1857, at West Point, aged forty-five.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Bailey (JAMES MontgomłRY), editor of the “Danbury
News,” a well-known American humorist, born Sept. 25,
1841, in Albany, N.Y., commenced journalism on the Dan-
bury “Times” (afterwards “News”) in 1865, which paper
soon acquired a celebrity throughout the U. S. from an in-
cessant flow of rich, original, and healthy humor which
the brilliant pen of its editor imparted to its columns. He
has published “Life in Danbury” and “The Danbury
News Man’s Almanac.”
Bailey (Joseph), an American officer who served on
the Federal side in the late war, and distinguished himself
by his successful attempt to save thirteen gun-boats, etc.
of the Mississippi flotilla. The water of the Red River
having fallen so low that Admiral Porter's squadron was
unable to pass the rapids, Col. Bailey in the course of eleven
days constructed dams which, by raising the water, enabled
the boats to descend safely. He received for this service
the thanks of Congress and was made a brigadier-general.
Having removed to Missouri, he was shot by some ruffians
Mar. 21, 1867.
Bailey, or Bailay (NATHAN), an English lexicog-
rapher and classical scholar, who kept a school at Stepney,
where he died June 27, 1742. Soon after 1720 he publish-
ed his “Universal Etymological English Dictionary,” the
first English dictionary which aimed at completeness, and
which was the basis of Dr. Johnson’s more celebrated work
(1755). He wrote also a “Domestic Dictionary,” and oth-
er books on education.
Bailey (PHILIP JAMEs), an English poet, born at Not-
tingham April 22, 1816. He studied law, and was called
to the bar in 1840. In 1839 he published “Festus” (8th
ed. 1868), a poem which treats of the highest themes of
philosophy and religion. It excited much admiration,
and had a wide temporary success, to which its extrava-
gance and defects contributed. “The faults of the poem
are as great as the beauties; there is no congruity or pro-
portion in it, and you lay it down with a sense of admira-
tion qualified with disgust.” He wrote other poems, en-
titled “The Angel World” (afterwards incorporated with
“Festus”), 1850, “The Mystic" (1855), “The Age,” a
satire (1858), and “The Universal. Hymn" (1867).
Bailey (RUFUs WILLIAM), D. D., was born at North
Yarmouth, Me., April 13, 1793, and graduated at Dart-
mouth in 1813, was pastor of several Congregational
churches in New England, was professor of languages at
Austin College, Huntsville, Tex., and its president (1858–
He published “The Issue’ (1837) and several edu-
cational and other works. Died April 25, 1863.
Bailey (SILAs), D. D. : See APPENDIX.
Bailey (THEODORUs), U. S. N., born April 12, 1805, in
Plattsburg, N. Y., entered the navy as a midshipman Jan.
1, 1818, became a lieutenant in 1827, a commander in 1849,
a captain in 1855, a commodore in 1862, a rear-admiral in
1866. He did good service on the W. coast of Mexico in
the Mexican war, and during a part of 1861–62 commanded
the frigate Colorado, western Gulf blockading squadron.
On April 24, 1862, he commanded the right column of Far-
ragut's fleet in the passage of Forts St. Philip and Jackson,
and at the capture of the Chalmette batteries and the city
of New Orleans, where he led the fleet, and was conspicuous
for his great gallantry and self-possession. From 1862 to
1865 he was in command of the eastern Gulf blockading
Squadron. FOXHALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
BAILEY-BAILLY.
*
Bailey’s Harbor, a post-township of Door co., Wis.
Pop. 297. W
Bail’eyville, a post-township of Washington co., Me.
Pop. 377. -
Bai'lie, a Scottish term having several legal applica-
tions. The most common and popular signification is a
superior officer or magistrate of a municipal corporation in
Scotland, with judicial authority within the city or burgh.
In royal burghs the office is in some respects analogous to
that of alderman in England.
Bail’iff [probably a corruption of the Lat. baj'ulus or
bai’ulus, a “porter;” Fr. bailli), a term applied in Eng-
land to a deputy of a sheriff or of a local magistrate; also to
magistrates of certain towns and keepers of castles. Bailiff
may be defined as the keeper or superintendent of some
duty or charge legally imposed on him. As officers of the
law, bailiffs arrest culprits, summon juries, and collect fines.
There is a class of men employed by the sheriff on account
of their adroitness and dexterity who are called bound
bailiffs, because, the sheriff being responsible for their
official misdemeanors, they are annually bound in an ob-
ligation, with sureties, for the due performance of their
service. The sheriff himself is the queen’s bailiff.
Bailleul, a well-built town of France, in the depart-
ment of Nord, near the Belgian frontier, about 19 miles by
rail W. of Lille. It has manufactures of woollen and cot–
ton stuffs, hats, lace, etc. Pop. in 1866, 12,896.
Bail/lie (JoANNA), a British poetess, born in Lanark-
shire in 1762. In early life she went to reside in London
with her brother, Matthew Baillie, the celebrated physi-
cian. Her life was happy, but devoid of remarkable inci-
dents. She published in 1798 the first volume of “Plays
of the Passions,” which had great success. Several other
volumes of the same appeared in 1802, 1812, etc. Among
the most popular of her other works are “De Montfort,” a
tragedy, and “Basil,” a drama. She wrote several ballads
and songs which are much admired. She was an intimate
friend of Sir Walter Scott, and her house was the resort of
many other British and foreign literary celebrities. She
died Feb. 23, 1851, aged eighty-nine. Commenting on her
“Plays of the Passions,” the “Edinburgh Review º' for
April, 1836, says: “This great work is completed, and in
a manner worthy of its commencement; a noble monument
of the powerful mind and the pure and elevated imagination'
of its author.”
Baillie (MATTHEw), M.D., a brother of the preceding,
was born in Lanarkshire, Scotland, Oct. 27, 1761. His
mother was a sister of the great anatomists, John and
William Hunter. He studied anatomy under his uncle, and
entered Oxford, where he graduated as M. D. In 1783 he
succeeded Dr. Hunter as lecturer on anatomy in London.
He acquired a high reputation as a teacher and expositor
of that science. He published in 1793 an excellent work
on “The Morbid Anatomy of some of the most Important
Parts of the Human Body,” which had a remarkable influ-
ence on the study of medicine. He practised medicine in
London with great success, and was appointed physician to
the king in 1810. Died Sept. 23, 1823.
Baillie (Robert), an eminent Scottish Presbyterian
theologian, born at Glasgow April 30, 1602. He was distin-
guished for his learning and moderation. He was one of
the commissioners sent to London in 1640 to prepare charges
against Laud, became professor of divinity at Glasgow in
1642, and was principal of the University of Glasgow after
the Restoration. He wrote various works and letters. Died
in July, 1662. -
Baillie of Jerviswood (RoBERT), a Scottish patriot
of excellent abilities and character. He opposed the tyran-
nical measures of the duke of Lauderdale, and about 1676
was fined and imprisoned for four months. Having en-
tered into a correspondence with Russell and Sidney, he
was arrested and charged with complicity in the Rye-House
Plot. He was condemned on insufficient evidence, and
executed Dec. 24, 1684. - -
Bailly (JEAN SYLVAIN), an eminent French astronomer,
born in Paris Sept. 15, 1736. He was admitted into the
Academy of Sciences in 1763, and published in 1771 a.
remarkable “Treatise on the Light of the Satellites of
Jupiter.” In 1775 he produced the first volume of his
“History of Astronomy, Ancient and Modern” (4 vols.,
1775–83), which by its eloquent diction and ingenious ideas
obtained great popularity. He became a member of the
French Academy in 1784, and of the Academy of Inscrip-
tions in 1785. Fontenelle was the only Frenchman who
before that time had had the honor to be a member of the
three great academies of Paris. He was the first president
of the States-General or National Assembly in 1789, and
was elected mayor of Paris in July of that year. His in-
fluence was exerted to promote order and moderation. He
BAILLY-BAINS.
357
offended the Jacobins by commanding the national guard
to fire on a riotous crowd in July, 1791, and resigned his
office, soon after that date. During the Reign of Terror he
was proscribed by the Jacobins, and after insulting treat-
ment was guillotined Nov. 12, 1793. Among his works is
“Memoirs of the Revolution by an Eye-witness” (3 vols.,
1804). (See F. ARAgo, “Biographie de Bailly,” 1852, and
an English translation of the same, Boston, 1859; LALANDE,
“Eloge de Bailly,” 1794; LACRETELLE, “Eloge de Bailly,”
1836; “Edinburgh Review” for April, 1805.)
Bailly (Joseph A.), a French sculptor, born in Paris in
1825, emigrated to Philadelphia in 1850. Among his best
works are “Adam and Eve,” a group of “Eve and her Two
Children,” and a marble monument of Washington (1869)
placed in front of the State-house in Philadelphia.
Bail/ment [Fr. bailler, to “deliver”], a delivery of
goods for some particular purpose, or on mere deposit, upon
contract, express or implied, that after the purpose has been
performed the identical goods shall be redelivered to the
bailor, or otherwise dealt with according to his direction.
If the contract permits the return of an equivalent instead
of the goods bailed, there is no bailment, but the transac-
tion constitutes a debt or some cognate engagement. Also,
a delivery of a thing in trust for some special object, and
upon contract, express or implied, to conform to the object
of the trust. -
Bailment includes the borrowing, lending, hiring, or
keeping of chattels, and the carrying or working upon
them for another. The party making the delivery, or bail-
ing the property, is termed the bailor; the party to whom
it is delivered, the bailee.
Bailments have been classified as follows: 1, Depositum,
or deposit; a delivery of goods to be kept by the bailee,
and returned on demand, without recompense. 2, Manda-
tum, or mandate; where the bailee agrees to do something
with or about the thing bailed, without recompense. 3,
Commodatum, or loan; where the thing bailed is lent for
use, without recompense. 4, Pignus, or pledge; where the
thing bailed is security for a debt or other engagement. 5,
Locatio, or hiring; where the use of something is to be
given, or labor performed about it, for a compensation.
Locatio is subdivided as follows: Locatio rei, where the
bailee by hire gains the temporary use of a thing; Locatio
operis faciendi, where the bailee agrees to perform labor
and services, or bestow care and attention upon the thing
bailed, for a recompense; Locatio operis mercium vehemda-
rwm, where goods are delivered to a bailee to be transported
to another place, for a recompense.
The question which most frequently arises and presents
the greatest difficulty in the law of bailment relates to the
responsibility which attaches to a bailee if the property is
lost or injured, and the degree of care which he is bound to
bestow upon it. With reference to this question, bailments
have been divided into three groups: 1, Where the bail-
ment is for the benefit of the bailor alone. This class in-
cludes deposits and mandates. Here, as the bailee receives
nothing for his services, he is held only to the care which
prudent men are supposed to give to their own affairs, and
he is responsible only for such loss or injury as results
from the absence of such care. The degree of care de-
pends much upon the circumstances of each case; for ex-
ample, upon the bulk of the article, its fragility, or its
exposure to thieves from the dense population of a city as
compared with the scanty population of a country district.
In each case it is a question of fact whether the care which
all the circumstances required was used. 2, Where the
bailment is for the benefit of the bailee only. This class
includes commodatum... Here the greatest care is required
of the bailee, and he is responsible for the slightest negli-
gence. It is also a rule that he must keep strictly within
the privilege conferred on him with respect to the thing
bailed, or he will be liable for any loss or injury to it, even
though he is guilty of no negligence. 3, Where the bailment
is for the benefit of both bailor and bailee. This is the case
in pigmw8 and locatio. Here the bailee is held to the exer-
cise of the care and attention which prudent men under
the circumstances would reasonably be expected to take.
There is a class of bailments of an exceptional nature,
embraced under the head of locatio, where the policy of
the law imposes upon the bailee responsibilities for loss or
injury to the property delivered to his charge, entirely ir-
respective of the question of his care or negligence; this
class includes innkeepers and common carriers, the liabil-
ities of whom will be considered in another place. (See
CARRIERs, HIRING, and INNKEEPERS.)
The relation of bailor and bailee is largely one of trust,
and the law requires good faith of each party. As a rule,
the bailee will not be allowed to dispute the title of his
bailor. He has a right to the possession of the thing
bailed during the bailment, and in some instances a special
property in it. In other cases he has a bare custody. This
would enable him to maintain an action against any one
who should unlawfully interfere with the chattel or deprive
him of its possession. In such an action he would hold
the proceeds beyond what was sufficient to indemnify hi
for his special interest as a trustee for the bailor. -
- T. W. DWIGHT.
Bai’iy (EDWARD Hodges), an English sculptor, born at
Bristol Mar. 10, 1788, was a pupil of Flaxman. He
gained the gold and silver medals of the Royal Academy
about 1809, and became a royal academician in 1821.
Among his masterpieces are “Eve at the Fountain,” which
is exquisitely graceful; “Apollo Discharging his Arrows;”
“The Graces Seated;” “Eve Listening to the Voice;” and
a statue of Lord Nelson. Died May 22, 1867.
Baily (FRANCIs), D. C. L., an English astronomer, born
at Newbury, in Berkshire, Mar. 10, 1744, became a stock-
broker of London. He was one of the founders of the
Astronomical Society, and rendered important services to
astronomy by the improvement of the “Nautical Almanac"
and the production of the “Astronomical Society’s Cat-
alogue of Stars.” He wrote several standard works on
life annuities, and a “Life of Flamsteed” (1835). Died
Aug. 30, 1844.
Bain (ALExANDER), LL.D., born at Aberdeen, in Scot-
land, in 1818, graduated as M. A. at Marischal College in
1840. In 1845 he was elected professor of natural philos-
ophy in the Andersonian University at Glasgow, and in
1857 was appointed examiner in logic and moral philosophy
in the London University. In 1860 he became professor
of logic in the University of Aberdeen. He has published
“The Senses and the Intellect” (1855), “The Emotions
and the Will” (1859), “Study of Character, including an
Estimate of Phrenology” (1861), “English Composition
and Rhetoric’” (1866), “Mental and Moral Science” (1868),
“Logic, Deductive and Inductive” (2 vols., 1870), and an
“Elementary English Grammar” (1872). Mr. Bain is a
philosopher of the school of Mill and Herbert Spencer.
His works on grammar, composition, and mental science
have been republished in America. -
Bain/bridge, a thriving town, capital of Decatur co.,
Ga., on Flint River, 50 miles from its mouth and at the
head of navigation, is the western terminus of the Atlantic
and Gulf R. R., 236 miles W. S. W. of Savannah, and is
the southern terminus of the Bainbridge Cuthbert and
Columbus R. R. It has a cotton manufactory, three acad-
emies, two weekly newspapers, and is a considerable ship-
ping-point for cotton. Pop. 1351. "
B. E. RUSSELL, ED. “DEMOCRAT.”
, Bainbridge, a township of Schuyler co., Ill. P. 1200.
Bainbridge, a township of Dubois co., Ind. P. 2521.
Bainbridge, a post-village of Monroe township, Put-
nam co., Ind., on the Louisville New Albany and Chicago
R. R., 9 miles N. by E. of Greencastle.
Bainbridge, a post-tp. of Berrien co., Mich. P. 1337.
Bainbridge, an incorporated village of Chenango co.,
N.Y., on the Albany and Susquehanna R. R., 32 miles E.
of Binghamton. It has two weekly newspapers, two hotels,
some thirty business places, one foundry and machine-
shop, four churches, and a handsome brick union school-
house. In front of the churches is a beautiful park, and
the sidewalks of the village are well flagged with stone and
shaded with maples. Pop. 681; of Bainbridge township,
1793. G. A. DoDGE, Ed. “SATURDAY REv1Ew.”
Bainbridge, a township of Geauga co., O. Pop. 660.
Bainbridge, a post-v. of Ross co., O., on Paint Creek,
19 miles S. W. of Chillicothe, has four churches, a bank,
newspaper, mills, woollen factory, hotels, union schools, etc.
Pop. 647. W. E. NELSON, PUB. OF “ TIMEs.”
Bainbridge, a post-village of Lancaster co., Pa., on
the Susquehanna River and a branch of the Pennsylvania
R. R., 20 miles S. E. of Harrisburg. Pop. 762. -
Bainbridge (WILLIAM), an American commodore, born
at Princeton, N.J., May 7, 1774. He obtained the rank
of captain in 1800, and commanded the frigate Philadel-
phia in the war against Tripoli. This yessel, having run
aground, was captured by the enemy in Oct., 1803. He re-
mained a prisoner until peace was concluded, June, 1805,
and was afterwards raised to the rank of commodore. ... In
Sept., 1812, he obtained command of a squadron consisting
of the Constitution, of 44 guns, the Essex, and the Hornet.
In Dec., 1812, he captured the British frigate Java, mount-
ing 49 guns. Died July 28, 1833. (See THOMAS HARRIs,
“Life of Commodore Bainbridge,” 1837.)
Bains (i. e. “baths”), the name of several watering-
places in France. The most important of these is Bains:
ies-Bains, in the department of Vosges, 14 miles S.W. of
z’
358
BAIRAM—BAKER.
Épinal, situated about 1000 feet above the sea. The place
has thirteen springs. Among these “La Grosse Source”
has a temperature of about 120° F.
Bai'ram, a feast of the Mohammedans, begins at the
end of the fast of Ramadan. It is inaugurated with great
public rejoicings and illuminations. Its observance is com-
manded by the Koran. “Little Bairam ” occurs seventy
days later. -
Baird (ABSALOM), an American officer, born Aug. 20,
1824, at Washington, Pa., graduated at West Point 1849 in
artillery, captain and assistant adjutant-general Aug. 3,
1861, and major and inspector-general Nov. 12, 1861, and
April 28, 1862, brigadier-general U. S. volunteers. He
served at various posts 1849–61, in Florida hostilities 1851–
53, as assistant professor at Military Academy 1856–59,
assistant adjutant-general at Washington, D. C., 1861, in
Manassas campaign 1861, engaged at Blackburn’s Ford and
IBull Run, in the adjutant-general’s office 1861, in the Vir-
ginia Peninsula campaign 1862, engaged at Yorktown and
Williamsburg, in command of a brigade in the army of
the Ohio, 1862, engaged in the capture of Franklin in
Rosecrans’ Tennessee campaign, 1863, engaged at Tulla-
homa, Shelbyville, Dug Gap, Chickamauga (brevet lieu-
tenant-colonel), and occupation of Chattanooga, in com-
mand of a division in the Fourteenth corps in the opera-
tions about Chattanooga (brevet colonel) 1863–64, engaged
at Missionary Ridge and skirmished in pursuit of the enemy
in the invasion of Georgia, 1864, engaged at Resaca,
Bine Mountain, Kenesaw, Wining's Station, Peach Tree
Creek, Atlanta (brevet brigadier-general), Jonesboro’, pur-
suit of Hood's army, in the “march to the sea” and sur-
render of Savannah, in the invasion of the Carolinas 1865,
engaged at Bentonville, Raleigh, and surrender of John-
ston’s army at Durham Station. He was brevetted major-
general U. S. army Mar. 13, 1865, for gallant and meri-
torious services in the field, and major-general U. S. vol-
unteers Sept. 1, 1864, for distinguished conduct in the At-
lanta campaign and at Savannah.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Baird (CHARLEs WASHINGTON), son of Rev. Robert
Baird, D. D., was born at Princeton, N. J., Aug. 28, 1828,
and graduated at the University of the City of New York in
1848, and at the Union Theological Seminary in 1851. He
was American chaplain at Rome in Italy from 1851 to 1853,
pastor of the Reformed (Dutch) Church, Bergen Hill, Brook-
lyn, from 1859 to 1861, and since then has been pastor of
the Presbyterian church at Rye, N. Y. Besides translations,
fugitive contributions to the press, and works, part of which
he wrote, he has published “Eutaxia, or the Presbyterian
Liturgies,” 1855, “A Book of Public Prayer, compiled
from the Authorized Formularies of Worship of the Pres-
byterian Church, as prepared by the Reformers Calvin,
Knox, and others,” 1859, and a “History of Rye, N. Y.
(from 1660–1870),” 1871.
Baird (HENRY MARTYN), PH.D., son of the Rev. Robert
Baird, D.D., was born in Philadelphia Jan. 17, 1832, grad-
uated at the University of the City of New York 1850, at-
tended lectures in the National University (then University
of Otho), Athens, Greece, 1851–52, studied theology in the
Union Theological Seminary, New York, 1853–55, and
Princeton, N. J., 1855–56. He was tutor of Greek in the
College of New Jersey 1855–59, and since 1859 has been
professor of the Greek language and literature in the Uni-
versity of the City of New York. In 1866 he was or-
dained as an evangelist. He has published “Modern
Greece,” 1856, “The Life of the Rev. Robert Baird, D.D.,”
1866, and a large number of articles in the “Methodist
Quarterly Review,” “Princeton Review,” “New Eng-
lander,” and other quarterlies.
Baird (ROBERT), D.D., an American theologian and
writer, born in Fayette co., Pa., Oct. 6. 1798. He gradu-
ated at Jefferson College in 1818. He spent several years
(1835 to 1843) in Europe, where he did much to promote
l?rotestant Christianity and the temperance cause. Few
American clergymen have had so wide an acquaintance with
distinguished men, or have accomplished a greater amount
of good. Among his works are “A View of Religion in
America” (1842) and a “History of the Waldenses, Albi-
genses, and Vaudois.” Died at Yonkers, N. Y., Mar. 15,
I863. - -
Baird (SPENCER FULLERTON), LL.D., a distinguished
American naturalist, born at Reading, Pa., in 1823, became
assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Among
other works he translated the “Iconographic Encyclopae-
dia.” In conjunction with J. Cassin he wrote “The Birds
of North America” (Philadelphia and Salem, 1870) and
“The Mammals of North America,” and, with Charles
Girard, produced an excellent work on North American
serpents. He has contributed valuable articles to the pub-
lications of the Smithsonian Institution and to the “Jour-
nal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,”
etc., and is a member of the National Academy of Sciences.
Baireuth, biſrüth [Ger. pron. bi'roit], a city of Ba-
varia, capital of the circle of Upper Franconia, on the Red
Main, 126 miles by rail N. of Munich. It is pleasantly situ-
ated and well built; its streets are wide and well paved, and
the city is adorned with gardens and public fountains.
The principal buildings are the new palace, the mint; the
opera-house, and town-hall. There are three palaces in
the vicinity, named Fantasie, Sanspareil, and Hermitage.
Here are manufactures of cotton and woollen stuffs, porce-
lain, and leather. Pop. in 1871, 17,837. -
Baiſus, the Latinized name of DE BAY (MICHAEL), a
Flemish theologian, born in Hainault in 1513. He became
professor of divinity at Louvain in 1550, and in 1578 chan-
cellor of that university. He adopted the doctrines of
Saint Augustine, and wrote works on free-will and grace
which were condemned by Pope Pius V. in 1567. Baius
retracted or submitted, but his doctrines were afterwards
maintained by the Jansenists. He was eminent for learn-
ing and piety. Died Dec. 16, 1589.
Ba'ja, an important market-town of Hungary, in the
county of Bács, on the Danube, 115 miles S. of Pesth.
It has Roman Catholic and Greek churches, a synagogue,
and a castle. Here is an important market or annual fair
for swine. Large quantities of grain and wine are produced
in the vicinity. Pop. in 1869, 18,110. -
Baja'da de Parana', or simply El Parana', a town .
of the Argentine Republic, in the province of Entre Rios,
is situated on the Rio Parama, in lat. 31°42' 54" S. and
lon. 60° 32' 39” W., 230 miles N. W. of Buenos Ayres.
It was founded in 1730, was the capital of the state from
1819 to 1862, and of the republic from 1852 to 1862.
Among its numerous beautiful buildings are the palace of
Gen. Urquiza, the government palace, and the theatre. It
is well built, but has of late begun to decline. Pop. about
7000. --- -
Bajazet. See BAYAzID.
Bajm ok, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bács,
20 miles S. E. of Maria-Theresiopol. Pop. in 1869, 6446.
Baſker, a county in Central Alabama, has an area of
about 650 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the
Coosa River. The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile.
Tobacco, cotton, corn, and wool are the chief crops. It is
traversed by the Selma Rome and Dalton and the South
and North Alabama R. Rs. Capital, Chestnut Creek.
Pop. 6194. - -
Baker, a county in N. E. Florida, bordering on Geor-
gia; it is partly bounded on the N. by St. Mary’s River.
Sea-Island cotton and sugar-cane are the chief crops. The
surface is nearly level. Timber is abundant. It is trav-
ersed by the Jacksonville Pensacola and Mobile R. R.
Capital, Sanderson. Pop. 1325. -
IBa’ker, a county in S. W. Georgia. Area, 450 square
miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by Flint River, and in-
tersected by the Ichawaynockaway Creek. Corn, cotton,
and wool are the chief crops. The surface is nearly level;
the soil is fertile. Capital, Newton. Pop. 6843.
Baker, a county which forms the S. E. extremity of
Oregon. It is intersected by the Malheur and the Owyhee
rivers. Gold is found near the Malheur River. Silver is
also found. The county is chiefly an agricultural and
pastoral region. Oats, barley, and wool are largely raised.
Capital, Baker City. Pop. 2804.
Baker, a township of Martin co., Ind. Pop. 1018.
Baker, a township of Morgan co., Ind. Pop. 456.
Baker, a township of Crawford co., Kan. Pop. 962.
Baker, a township of Linn co., Mo. Pop. 1269.
Baker (A. R.), D. D., born in Franklin, Mass., Aug. 30,
1805, graduated at Amherst in 1830, became a teacher in
Medway, Dorchester, and Andover, Mass., ordained pastor
of a Congregational church in Medford, Mass, and has
subsequently been settled in Lynn, Wellesley, and Boston.
He has published a “School History of the U.S.,” “The
Catechism Tested by the Bible,” an “Exposition of the
Sermon on the Mount,” and numerous other works.-His
wife, HARRIETTE N. W. BAKER, a daughter of Rev. Dr.
Leonard Woods, was born in 1815. She has published over
160 volumes, mostly works for children, written under the
pseudonym of “Madeline Leslie.” -
Baker (CHARLEs M.), born in New York City about
1805, resided in Vermont, and after 1838 in Wisconsin,
where he was a prominent lawyer, and was distinguished
for his benevolence and piety. He was for some time a
judge of the State circuit court. Died Feb. 5, 1872.
Baker (DANIEL), D.D., born at Midway, Liberty co.,
Ga., in 1791, graduated at Princeton in 1815, was ordained
BAKER—BALAKLAVA.
359
to the Presbyterian ministry in 1818, was pastor at Wash-
ington, D. C., Savannah, Ga., Frankfort, Ky., Tuscaloosa,
Ala., and Holly Springs, Miss., was for a time president of
Austin College, Huntsville, Tenn., was a popular and suc-
cessful preacher, and author of several practical and po-
lemical religious works. Died in 1857.-His son, Rev.
WILLIAM MuMFORD BAKER (born in 1825, graduated at
Princeton in 1846), is the author of a “Life” of his father
and of several other popular works, such as “Inside, a
Chronicle of Secession,” “The New Timothy,” “The Vir-
ginians in Texas,” etc. He has been a Presbyterian min-
ister in Galveston and Austin, Tex. (1850–65), and at
Zanesville, O.
Baker (DAvid JEWETT), born at East Haddam, Conn.,
Sept. 7, 1792, graduated at Hamilton College in 1816, be-
came a prominent lawyer of Illinois, was a probate judge
in Randolph co., U. S. Senator (1830–31), and U. S. attor-
ney for Illinois (1833–35). He was one of the leading anti-
slavery men of Illinois in the contest of 1830. Died at
Alton Aug. 6, 1869.
Baker (EDwARD DICKINsoN), CoLoREL, a lawyer, born
in London, Eng., Feb. 24, 1811, emigrated to the U. S. in
his youth. He was chosen a member of Congress in 1848,
removed to California in 1852, and became a popular ora-
tor of the Republican party. In 1860 he was elected a
Senator of the U. S. for Oregon. Having obtained com-
mand of a brigade of the Union army, he was killed at
Ball's Bluff Oct. 21, 1861.
Balzer (GEORGE A.), an American portrait-painter of
great merit, born in New York City. His delineations of
children are much admired.
Baker (OSMON CLEANDER), D. D., born in Marlow, N.H.,
July 30, 1812, studied at Wesleyan University, Conn.,
became teacher in the Newbury Wesleyan Seminary (Vt.),
1834, and subsequently its principal. He was one of the
founders of the Methodist theological schools, and for some
time professor in the Biblical Institute at Concord, N. H.
In 1852 he was elected bishop. Died Dec. 20, 1871.
“Baker on the Discipline” is a standard work.
Baker (SAMUEL), M. D. See APPENDIX.
Baker (Sir SAMUEL WHITE), K. C.B., the English ex-
plorer, was born June 8, 1821. Having a strong desire for
adventure, he organized, with his brother, an extensive
agricultural colony in Ceylon, where he went in 1848, re-
maining in that country eight years. In 1861 he went to
Africa, with the design of visiting the sources of the Nile.
He fell in with Speke and Grant, and afterwards explored
the western arm of the Nile, and discovered the Albert
Nyanza Lake. In 1869 he set out, under the direction of
the khedive of Egypt, with 1000 picked men, with the de-
sign of suppressing the slave-trade, extending the bound-
aries of Egypt and spreading the cultivation of cotton.
In 1873 he returned from this expedition, reporting com-
plete success. His wife has accompanied him upon all his
African expeditions. -
Ba'ker Cit’y, a post-village, capital of Baker co., Or.
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 312. -
Baker’s Creek, Miss. See CHAMPION HILLS.
Ba'ker’s Falls, a cascade of the Hudson River, in
Kingsbury township, Washington co., N. Y. The stream
falls 56 feet in sixty rods, and the scene is one of remark-
able beauty. The falls furnish a great water-power. Here
are two machine-shops and some paper-mills.
Ba'kersfield, a post-village of Kern co., Cal., is situ-
ated on Kern River, about 60 miles from Visalia. It has
two weekly newspapers, and is the centre of a considerable
Cotton-trade. . tº
Bakersfield, a post-township of Franklin co., Vt.,
50 miles N. W. of Montpelier. It has an academy, and
manufactures of Ieather, lumber, doors, sash, blinds, etc.
Pop. 1403.
Ba'kersville, a post-village, capital of Mitchell co.,
N. C., 95 miles N. W. of Charlotte. Pop. of township, 1101.
Bakewell, an old market-town of England, in Derby-
shire, on the river Wye, near its confluence with the Der-
went, is 25 miles by rail N. W. of Derby. It has an an-
cient Gothic church, and chalybeate springs with warm
baths, which are visited by many persons. Quarries of
black marble and mines of coal and lead are worked in the
vicinity. Chatsworth House, the splendid mansion of the
duke of Devonshire, is three miles from this town, which
is surrounded by beautiful scenery. Pop. in 1861, 11,254.
Bakewell (RobºFT), an English agriculturist, born in
Leicestershire in 1726. He gained distinction by his im-
provement of domestic animals, especially sheep and horned
cattle. He originated a breed of sheep formerly called by
his name, but now known as the Leicester breed. Died
Oct. 1, 1795.
Bakhſtchissaroi', or Baktshi-Serai, a Tartar
town of Russia, in the government of Taurida (Crimea),
15 miles S. W. of Simferopol. It was formerly the capital
of the Tartar khans, whose palace is a remarkable Oriental
edifice and in good repair, with spacious galleries, brilliant
paintings, and pavilions of light and airy form. The town
consists of a single street at the bottom of a narrow valley,
enclosed between steep rocks, and is one of the most sin-
gular in Europe. Pop. in 1867, 11,448.
Bakhtegan', Lake, in Persia, is 50 miles E. of Shi-
raz. It is 60 miles long, with an average breadth of 8 miles,
and receives at its western extremity the river Bundemir
(anc. Araaces). The lake yields large quantities of salt.
Ba'king is the mode of cooking food in an oven usually
nearly or quite airtight. The term is also employed in the
manufacture of bricks, porcelain, etc. (The baking of
bread will be treated under BREAD.) In baking, strictly
$o called, the oven is so closed that the steam and aroma
arising from the substances within are confined; but by
opening ventilators a current of air may be produced,
and then these ovens may be used for oven-roasting. The
offensive taste that often characterizes baked dishes is thus
avoided. Baking, although a convenient mode of cook-
ing, is not so good a process for cooking meats as ROAST-
ING (which see). e
Ba'kony-Wald (“forest of Bakony ”), a densely-
wooded mountain-range of Hungary, extends between the
river Raab, the Danube, and Lake Balaton. It is 56 miles
long and 23 miles wide. The average height is 2000 feet.
Large herds of swine are annually driven hither to feed
on mast (acorns). Quarries of good marble are worked in
these mountains.
Bak'sheesh', or Bakshish, an Arabic and Persian
word signifying a “present,” a “gratuity,” is much used
by beggars and others in Egypt, Palestine, and other East-
ern countries. Travellers in those countries are much an-
noyed by the importunate, and even insolent, cries of the
natives who demand baksheesh.
Ba'ku, a seaport-town of Asiatic Russia, capital of Baku,
on the W. shore of the Caspian Sea, and on the S. side of
the peninsula of APSHERON (which see). It has several fine
mosques and bazaars. Here are naphtha springs which ig-
nite spontaneously, and caused Baku to be regarded as a
holy city by the Parsees, who built several temples here.
Naphtha and salt are exported from Baku, which is an im-
portant entrepôt of trade between Europe and Persia.
Pop. in 1867, 12,383. -
Bal’abac’, an island of the Malay Archipelago, be-
tween Borneo and Palawan, 30 miles S. of the latter. It
has an area of 130 square miles.
Ba'la Beds, a local deposit of hard crystalline lime-
stone, alternating with softer argillaceous bands, which
occurs near Bala, in Wales, and forms a group of the Lower
Silurian formation. Trilobites and Cystideae are the pre-
dominant fossils of this group, which is believed to corre-
spond to the Hudson formation of America. It is some-
times called the Caradoc limestone. i
Balaen'iceps (the “whale-head"), a genus of wading
- birds of the stork family,
includes the whale-head-
ed stork (Balaeniceps
weac) or shoe-bird of
Northern Africa, where
it lives in the swamps,
feeding on snakes and
fishes. Its enormous
bill is one of its most
remarkable characteris-
tics. It has been called
shoe-bird, from a fancied
resemblance of its bill to
a shoe.
Bal’aghauts’ (i. e.
“above or beyond the
Ghauts”), an extensive
district of India, in the presidency of Madras, extends from
the river Cavery to the river Krishna. The surface is hilly;
the soil is fertile, producing sugar, cotton, and indigo. It
is stated that diamonds are found here.
Balakla’va, or Balaclava, a small port and town
of Russia, in the Crimea, and on the Black Sea, about 7
miles S. from Sevastopol, is separated from the harbor of
Sevastopol by a rocky peninsula. It has a good landlocked
harbor, supposed to be the port of the Laestrigonians at
which Ulysses landed. The ruins of churches and mosques
attest the ancient magnificence of this town. Pop, in 1867,
742. A few days after the battle of Alma, which occurred
in Sept., 1854, Balaklava was occupied by the British army,
- §§ *
The Baigeniceps.




360
BALANCE–BALBOA, DE.
and the harbor became the head-quarters of the fleet. The
British army suffered here great privations in consequence
of the inefficiency of the war office and the mismanagement
of the commissariat. Söldiers perished with hunger and
cold, while ample stores of food and clothing were in the
holds of ships in the harbor. Here occurred the battle of
Balaklava between the British and Russians, Oct. 25, 1854.
The charge of the British cavalry in this action was a fa-
mous but unsuccessful exploit. %
Bal’ance [supposed to be derived from bilanac, having
two scales; from bis, “twice,” and lama, a “scale or plate”]
is a lever of the first kind, the fulcrum being between the
power and the weight; used to ascertain the weight of bodies
in comparison with the standard units of weight. The ordi-
nary balance consists essentially of a metallic bar or lever,
called the beam, either delicately suspended, or supported
on a stand by the intervention of a wedge-shaped prism,
technically termed a knife-edge, exactly at its middle point.
An index is fixed at right angles to the beam, and made to
travel over a graduated arc, so as to show when the beam
is horizontal. A scale-pan is suspended from each end of
the lever. Since the arms of the balance are equal, it is
plain that there cannot be equilibrium unless the weights
placed in each scale are also equal. When this is the case,
the beam is perfectly horizontal and the index vertical.
The balance is then said to be true. When the beam is
horizontal with unequal weights, the balance is false. Thus
it is easy to test the truth of a balance by first placing in
the scales weights which apparently are equal, and then
transferring each into the other scale. If the weights are
not really equal, one of them will appear heavier than
the other after the transfer. There are, however, two
methods of finding the exact weight of a body by means
of a false balance. The body may be weighed with stand-
ard weights in each scale successively, and the true weight
is the mean proportional between the two apparent weights.
Or the body (placed in one scale) may be balanced by a
sufficient quantity of any convenient substance—sand, for
instance—so that the beam is horizontal, and then replaced
by standard weights until the sand is balanced; the weight
thus obtained is the true one. A good balance should have
its beam in stable equilibrium, for which purpose the cen-
tre of gravity of the beam and its appendages should fall a
little below the knife-edge. The points of suspension of the
scale-pans and the fulcrum of the beam should be in the
same straight line. Both when the scales are empty, and
when equal weights are placed in them, the beam should
be horizontal and the index vertical, the arms, of course,
being exactly equal to one another. It is of great import-
ance that the balance should be very sensitive and indicate
very slight inequalities in the weights. The sensibility of
a balance becomes greater; first, as the length of the arms
is increased, which renders the movement about the ful-
crum more obvious; and secondly, as the weight of the
beam is diminished, for when the beam is displaced by the
inequality of the weights, its own weight gives it a tend-
ency to return to its first position. But this displacement
is less for a given inequality in the weights as the weight
of the beam is increased; so that the less the beam weighs
the more sensitive it becomes. A form of balance, more
convenient for counterpoising, but less exact than the com-
mon form, is that in which the scale-pans are placed above
the beam. r . . . .
The balance of a watch is a wheel nicely poised on its
axis, the pivot on which it turns being frequently formed
of rubies or other jewels. The natural effect of an impulse
given to this wheel would be a complete rotation, but this
is arrested by the balance-spring, so that it recoils, and a
vibratory motion results. The balance-spring is a coil of
steel wire so fine and delicate that 4000 springs weigh only
about one ounce. One of the extremities of the spring is
fastened to a point independent of the balance, and the
other end is attached near its axis. When the impulse is
given to the balance, it moves round just so far as the im-
pulse given is able to overcome the elastic resistance of the
spring. When that resistance becomes equal to the im-
pulse, the balance is driven back by the elastic recoil of
the spring. In marine chronometers a cylindrical helical
spring is used. . F. A. P. BARNARD.
Balance of Power [Fr. 6quilibre politique, i. e. “po-
litical equilibrium ” or “equilibrium of states”], a phrase
used in modern European diplomacy to express a state of
political equilibrium among neighboring powers, or a polit-
ical system so arranged and counterpoised that no nation
or monarch may be so powerful as to endanger the inde-
pendence of other states. Such a balance was aimed at in
the political combinations in behalf of Greece; in those of
Italy just before the Reformation; in the policy of Europe
under the lead of France against Austria and Spain ; in
the alliances against Louis XVI., against Napoleon I.,
and more-recently against Russia in order to preserve the
independence of Turkey. Its object is to prevent politi-
cal aggrandizement only. There were in Europe, after the
overthrow of Napoleon in 1815, five monarchies recognized
as the great powers—namely, France, Austria, Great
Britain, Russia, and Prussia, to which, in 1859, the king-
dom of Italy was added. The victories of the Prussians
in 1866 and 1870 have so prostrated the armies of Austria.
and France that there now remain in Europe only two
first-rate powers, Russia and Prussia (or Germany), and
the balance of power is supposed to be destroyed, for if
these two should form an offensive alliance they would be
a match for all the other powers on the Continent. (See
INTERNATIONAL LAW No. I., by PREs. T. D. Wools Ey,
S. T. D., LL.D.)
Balance of Trade [Fr. balance du commerce], in
political economy, is the difference between the value of
the exports and the imports of a country. If the exports
exceed the imports in value, the balance of trade is in favor
of that country which usually receives a quantity of gold
equal to that excess. A nation may, however, derive profit
from its foreign commerce even when its imports exceed
its exports in value, for merchants who export commoditics
may find it more profitable for them to bring back some
foreign produce than to bring the money which they re-
ceive for the articles exported. - *
Bal’anus, a genus of Cirripedia distinguished by the
absence of a flexible stalk and the possession of a sym-
metrical shell. The name is derived from the Greek word
for acorn, and was given to it because some species re-
semble an acorn. The base is usually formed of a thin
calcareous plate, the sides of six valves; and four small
valves form the operculum, exactly closing the aperture
at the top. This genus comprises many species, known as
sessile barnacles, which are found in nearly all seas, at-
tached to stones, shells, and other objects. It is remark-
able that in the early stage of their existence they are capa-
ble of active locomotion, and have large eyes, which dis-
appear, along with the organs of locomotion, when they
become stationary. Some of the large species were és-
teemed a delicacy by the ancient Romans. The Chinese
collect and eat the Balanus tintinnabulum, which is said to
resemble lobster in taste; and Balanus psittacus, a South
American species, is also eaten. This species is sometimes
four inches in diameter, its height considerably more.
There are several species found in the U. S.
Bal’ashof, a town of Russia, in the government of
Saratov, 138 miles W. of Saratov. Pop. in 1867, 7186.
Balasore, the chief town of the South Cuttack district,
in Bengal, on the Boorabullung River, which has a bar at
its mouth. It has an American mission, salt-works, and a
coasting-trade. It is 145 miles S. W. of Calcutta. P. 11,000.
Bal’assa- Gyar/mat, a town of Hungary, in the coun-
ty of Neograd, 40 miles N. of Pesth, Pop. in 1869, 6435.
Bal/aton, Lake [Ger. Platten-see : Hun. Balatomy;
anc. Pelso], the largest lake in Hungary, 55 miles S. W. of
Pesth, is 51 miles long and 7 miles wide. The area is es-
timated at 383 square miles. It receives numerous streams,
the largest of which is the Szala, and discharges its water
through the Sio and Sarvitz into the Danube. Fish of va-
rious kinds are found here. This lake is often celebrate
in the old romantic ballads of the Magyars. A.
Bal/bi (ADRIANo), an eminent Italian geographer, born
at Venice April 25, 1782. He became a resident of Paris,
where he passed many years. He published in 1826 an
“Ethnographical Atlas of the Globe,” which is highly es-
teemed. His other chief work is a “Compendium of Geog-
raphy” (“Abrégé de Géographie,” 1 vol. 8vo), which is
considered one of the best treatises on that science that has
ever appeared. His works are mostly written in French.
He removed from Paris to Italy in 1832. Died Mar. 14,
I848.
Bal/bó (CESARE), an Italian statesman and author, born
at Turin Nov. 21, 1789. He was appointed commissioner
of the Illyrian provinces by Napoleon in 1812. He advo-
cated the independence of Italy in a work called “Speranze
d'Italia (“Hopes of Italy,” 1843), which widely extended
his reputation. As a moderate and liberal patriot he took
a prominent part in the revolutionary movements of 1848.
Among his works is a “History of Italy from the Begin:
ning to 1814” (1849), which is highly esteemed. Died
June 3, 1853. -
Balbo'a, de (VASCO NUNEz), a famous Spanish navi-
gator and explorer, born in Estremadura in 1475. He
emigrated to Hayti about 1500, and in 1510 accompanied
Enciso in an expedition to Darien. Having quarrelled
with Enciso, Balboa obtained the chief command of the
party, and in Sept., 1513, discovered the Pacific Ocean from
the top of a mountain. He descended to the shore and
- BALBUENA, DE—BALDNESS.
361
took possession of the ocean in the name of his sovereign.
In 1514, Pedrarias Dávila was sent from Spain to super-
sede Balboa, who was punished by a fine for his insubor-
dination. He served as a deputy under Pedrarias, who,
actuated by cruelty and jealousy, accused Balboa of trea-
sonable designs, and put him to death in 1517. (See IRV-
ING, “Voyages and Discoveries of the Companions of Co-
lumbus;” M. J. QUINTANA, “Widas de Españoles Celebres.”)
Balbue/na, de (BERNARDó), a Spanish poet, born at
Val-de-Peñas in 1568. He became bishop of Porto Rico
in 1620. Of his works, only three have been preserved:
“La grandeza Mejicana” (Mexico, 1609; Madrid, 1829),
“El Siglo de Oro" (1608), and “El Bernardo,” an epic
poem (1624 and 1808). Died at Porto Rico in 1627.
Bal/bus (L. Corne I.IUs), surnamed MAJOR, a Roman
officer, born at Gades (Cadiz), became an intimate friend
of Caesar, whom he accompanied to Spain in 61 B. C. In
40 B.C. he was chosen consul, being the first adopted citi-
zen who received that honor. He wrote a diary of the
events of his own and Caesar’s life.
Balch (GEORGE B.), U. S. N., born Jan. 3, 1821, in
Tennessee, entered the navy as a midshipman in 1837, be-
came a passed midshipman in 1843, a lieutenant in 1850,
a commander in 1862, a captain in 1866, and a commodore
in 1872. He served during the Mexican war on the east
coast of Mexico, from 1862 to 1865 commanded first the
steamer Pocahontas, and afterwards the steamer Pawnee,
South Atlantic blockading squadron, during which period,
in co-operation with our army, he was almost constantly
engaged with the enemy’s batteries and forts on the Stone
and Black rivers, S. C. In one action the Pawnee was
struck forty-six times, but finally succeeded in driving the
Confederates from their guns “in the wildest confusion.”
IRear-Admiral Dahlgren spoke in the highest terms of
Bălch’s bravery, conduct, and sound judgment.
- Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Bal/cony [Fr. balcon ; It. balco'ne], a platform or gal-
lery projecting in front of a window or several windows, is
supported by consoles or brackets fixed in the wall or by
pillars resting on the ground, and has a parapet or balus-
trade before it. The term balcony is also applied to several
seats in a theatre which are nearest the stage, and con-
sidered the most desirable seats in the house.
Bal/dachin [It. baldachi'no], a canopy in the form of
a crown or umbrella, made of costly materials, richly
adorned, and raised over a throne, couch, pulpit, or altar.
In the church of St. Peter in Rome there is a magnificent
baldachin cast in bronze by Bernini, and supported by four
twisted columns. The baldachin is used in processions of
the Roman Catholic Church. The name baldachin is said
to have been derived from Baldach, a corrupted form of a
name of Bagdad, and was originally applied to the canopy
which was earried over an Oriental prince.
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Bald Eagle.
ceph/alus), so called on account of the snowy-white color
of the head and neck, is a native of North America, where
it is found along the sea-coasts and at the mouths of large
rivers. The length of this bird is about forty inches, the
stretch of wing from seven to eight feet. The nest of the
bald eagle is generally made upon some lofty tree, and
sometimes becomes of great size, as the bird is in the habit
of using the same nest year after year, and making addi-
tions to it every season. The female bird generally lays
her eggs in January, two or three in number and of a dull
white color, and they are hatched by the middle of Febru-
ary. It is strongly attached to its young, and will not for-
sake them, even if the tree on which they rest be enveloped
in flames. The bald eagle will eat almost anything, even
carrion, but it is especially fond of fish, which it steals
from the osprey when practicable, but also takes them
from the water with much skill. For an interesting de-
scription of the manner in which it takes its prey the
reader is referred to the account given by Audubon. The
bald eagle has been adopted by the Americans as their
national emblem.
Bald Eagle, a township of Clinton co., Pa. Pop. 950.
Bal’der, or Baldur [from ballr, “good,” “strong,”
“valiant”], often called BALDER THE GooD, in the Norse
mythology was the second son of Odin. He is supposed
to typify the brightness of the summer sun, and to make
all things bright and cheerful; hence he has becr termed
the “Apollo of the North.” His abode was Breidablik
(“widely shining”), where nothing impure could enter.
The account of his death is as follows: He dreamed one
night that his life was in the utmost danger; and when he
related this dream, the gods were so distressed that his
mother, Frigga, exacted an oath from all things, animate
and inanimate, that they would not injure Balder. She
did not, however, exact any oath from the mistletoe, be-
cause it seemed so harmless and insignificant. Now, the
gods were accustomed to amuse themselves by shooting
arrows and throwing stones at Balder, to all of which he
proved invulnerable. When Loki, the god of evil, found
that the mistletoe had not taken the oath, he obtained the
plant and went to the assembly of gods, where he found
Balder's brother Hoder, standing apart from the others. He
asked him why he also did not throw something at Balder.
“Because I am blind,” answered Hoder, “ and have noth-
ing to throw.” “Come,” said Loki, “do like the rest; show
honor to Balder by casting this trifle at him, and I will di-
rect your hand.” Hoder did as the tempter bade him, and
Balder, pierced through by the mistletoe, fell dead. So
great was the grief of the gods that Hermod visited the
realms of death, and besought Hela to release her prey and
allow Balder to return to the dwelling of the AEsir. Hela.
answered that if everything mourned him, then he should
return, but if anything whatever failed to weep, then Bal-
der must remain in the world of shades. All things ani-
mate and inanimate were requested by the AEsir to weep for
Balder, and all did so except a giant hag named Thökk (af-
terwards found to be Loki himself, who had assumed this
form in order to prevent Balder from returning to life).
She answered their request by jeers, and Balder was ac-
cordingly forced to remain in the abode of the dead. (See
THORPE’s “Northern Mythology,” vol. i.; KEYSER’s “Re-
ligion of the Northmen.”) J. THOMAS.
Balderic, or Baudry, a French chronicler, bishop
of Dol, born about the middle of the eleventh century. He
took part in all the Church councils of the time, and made
active efforts to restore the rigor of monastic discipline. He
visited England, and left an account of his travels. He
wrote a chronicle of the first Crusade, entitled “Historiae
Hierosolomytanae.” We have also from him a life of
Robert d’Arbrissel.
Baldi d’Urbino (BERNARDINo), a mathematician and
man of letters, born at Urbino June 6, 1553, accomplish-
ed as a writer, and in science as well, under the tutelage
of Commandino developed a remarkable zeal for the study
of mathematics. He learned the Hebrew and Chaldean
tongues in order to better understand the Bible, and every
year he acquired some new language. His multitudinous
writings deal with almost every branch of science. Chief
among his works are “Cronica de' Matematici” (“Chronol-
ogy of Mathematicians”), “Nautica,” a didactic poem on
navigation, an Arabic grammar and dictionary, and a trans-
lation of the Targum of Onkelos. He commenced a geo-
graphic dictionary, which he only brought to the letter C
in four enormous volumes. Died Oct. 12, 1617.
IBald Mountain Plantation, a township of Somer-
set co., Me. Pop. 8.
Bald Mountain, a post-village of Greenwich town-
ship, Washington co., N. Y., has extensive lime-kilns,
which afford great quantities of lime. -
Baid/ness (Alopecia), the loss or absence of the hair
of the scalp. There are some few cases on record in which










































362 BALDPATE–BALDWIN.
the hair has never been developed. This is termed con-
genital baldness. Accidental baldness is caused by an
atrophy of the hair-follicles. Baldness in the compara-
tively young may occur from wearing waterproof caps or
unventilated hats, which, by preventing evaporation from
the head, occasion an unhealthy state of skin. It may be
complete, or partial, occurring in patches. Senile baldness
(calvities) is the consequence of age; it arises, like the
preceding variety, from an atrophy of those parts on which
the hairs depend for nutrition. It generally commences on
the crown of the head. Women are not so frequently bald
as men. The causes of baldness are defective supply of
nutrition, a hereditary tendency, dissipation, but especially
old age. The hair falls off after severe illnesses, or after
other causes of general debility. Alopecia is sometimes
the result of syphilis. The treatment consists in cleanli-
ness, and in exciting the circulation of the scalp by using
a hairbrush and the application of stimulants, as the Span-
ish-fly ointment, two drachms to an ounce of lard, mixed with
the same quantity of pomatum, or some equivalent prepa-
ration. Any constitutional debility should be remedied.
Shaving the head is sometimes resorted to, and is often use-
ful. FAvus (which see) permanently destroys the hair.
1Bald/pate, called also American Widgeon, the
Mareca Americana, a duck which breeds in Mexico and
the South-western States, and also along the western coast;
found also throughout the U. S., Canada, the northern part
of South America, and occasionally in Europe. It is highly
prized for the delicacy of its flesh. It takes its name from
its white crown. It is variously marked with reddish-
§§º
*
The Baldpate, or American Widgeon.
brown, gray, white, and chestnut. The male has a green .
band running from the eyes to the nape. The bird is nine-
teen and a half inches long. º
Bal’dung (HANs), also called Hans Grün, a German
painter and engraver, born at Gmind, in Swabia, in 1470.
He belonged to the Swabian School, and derived from Dii-
rer and Schöngauer the fantastic element which marked
his works. He excelled those masters in the handling of
color and light and shade. His chief work is the altar-
piece at Freiburg. His wood-cuts are wonderful in their
Gothic strangeness and bizarre fancifulness. Died in 1552.
Bald’wim I., king of Jerusalem, born in 1058, was a
brother of Godfrey of Bouillon. 2Fſe joined the first Crusade
in 1096, and fought bravely against the infidels. He was
chosen count of Edessa by the Christian inhabitants of that
city. On the death of Godfrey, in 1100, he succeeded him as
king of Jerusalem. He defeated the Saracens in several bat-
tles, and captured Acre, Caesarea, and Sidon. He was more
ambitious and worldly than his brother Godfrey. Died in
1118. (See GIBBox," Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.”)
Baldwin II. (BALDw1N DU Bourg), king of Jerusalem,
was a cousin of Baldwin I., whom he succeeded in 1118.
He waged war against the Saracens. During his reign the
military order of Templars was instituted for the defence
of the Holy Land. He died Aug. 21, 1131, and left the
throne to his son-in-law, Foulques of Anjou.
Baldwin III., the son of Foulques of Anjou, was born
in 1129, and became king of Jerusalem in 1143. He de-
feated Noor-ed-Deen, the sultan of Aleppo, at Jerusalem,
in 1152 and 1157. He acquired much renown and influ-
ence, and was respected even by the Saracens. His wife
was Theodora, a daughter of the Greek emperor Manuel.
He died Feb. 10, 1162, and was succeeded by his brother,
Amalric or Amaury.
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Baldwin IV., king of Jerusalem, surnamed THE LEPER,
was born in 1160. He succeeded his father Amalric in 1174.
He defeated the famous Saladin near Tiberias in 1182, but
was afterwards defeated by that prince. He died in 1186,
and was succeeded by his nephew, Baldwin V., who died in
childhood.
Baldwin I., the first Latin emperor of Constantinople,
was born at Valenciennes in 1171. He was Baldwin IX.,
count of Flanders, having inherited that title from his
father, Baldwin VIII. He joined the fourth Crusade in
1200, and co-operated with the Venetians in an enterprise
against Constantinople, the throne of which was occupied
by Alexis, an usurper. The crusaders defeated Alexis, cap-
tured the city, and elected Baldwin emperor in 1204. He
was defeated and taken prisoner by the Bulgarians in 1205,
and died in 1206, leaying the throne to his brother Henry.
(See A. CAHour, “Baudouin de Constantinople,” 1850.)
Baldwin II., emperor of Constantinople, born in 1217,
was a son of Peter de Courtenay, and a nephew of Baldwin
I. He succeeded to the throne in 1228, and was placed
under the guardianship of John de Brienne. He began to
reign in 1237, and encountered much opposition from the
Greeks and Bulgarians. In 1261 his capital was taken by
Michael Palaeologus, and Baldwin fled to Italy, where he
died. (The English family of Courtenay claims to be de-
scended from the stock of this emperor.)
Baldwin, a county of Alabama, bordering on Florida
and the Gulf of Mexico. Area, estimated at 1800 square
miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Mobile River and
Mobile Bay, and on the E. by the Perdido River. The
surface is nearly level; the soil is sandy.
Corn and wool aro the chief products. The
county is intersected by the Mobile and
Montgomery R. R. Capital, Blakely. Pop.
6004.
Baldwin, a county in Central Georgia.
Area, 257 square miles. It is intersected by
the Oconee River, and bounded on the N. by
Little River. The surface is mostly hilly;
the soil near the Oconee is fertile. Corn,
cotton, and wool are the chief crops. The
dividing line between the primary and ter-
%. tiary formations passes through this county.
%is It is intersected by the Macon and Augusta
%. R. R. Capital, Milledgeville. Pop. 10,618.
: Baldwin, a post-village of Duval co.,
Fla., at the crossing of the Jacksonville Pen-
= sacola and Mobile and the Florida R. R.s.,
47 miles W. by S. of Jacksonville.
Baldwin, a post-village of St. Mary’s
parish, La., is the seat of Thompson Uni-
versity. -
Baldwin, a township of Cumberland
co., Me., on the Portland and Ogdensburg
R. R., 25 miles N. W. of Portland. It has manufactures
of carriages, boxes, spokes, hay-rakes, etc. Pop. 1101.
Baldwin, a township of Sherburne co., Minn. P. 234.
Baldwin, a township of Chemung co., N. Y. Pop. 969.
Baldwin, a township of Allegheny co., Pa. Pop. 3104.
Baldwin (ABRAHAM), a distinguished statesman of
Georgia, born in Guilford, Conn., in Nov., 1754, graduated
at Yale in 1772, was five-years a tutor there, and became in
1777 a chaplain in the army. In 1784 he became a lawyer
of Savannah, Ga., was a member of Congress (1785–88
and 1789–99), of the convention which framed the U. S.
Constitution (1787); and U. S. Senator from Georgia (1799–
1807). He was the originator of the State University.
Died Mar. 4, 1807. i • *
Baldwin (CHARLEs. H.), U. S. N., born Sept. 3, 1820,
in the city of New York, entered the navy as a midshipman
April 24, 1839, became a passed midshipman in 1845, a
lieutenant in 1853, a commander in 1862, and a captain in
1869. He served on the W. coast of Mexico during the
Mexican war, and was in several sharp engagements with
the enemy on shore near Mazatlan. He commanded the
steamer Clifton of the mortar flotilla at the passage of
Forts St. Philip and Jackson by Farragut's fleet, April 24,
1862, and at the attack on Wicksburg of June 28, 1862.
. . . . . . Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Baldwin (ELIHU WHITTLESEY), S. T. D., born at Dur-
ham, N. Y., Dec. 25, 1789, graduated at Yale in 1812 and
at Andover in 1817, was pastor of the Seventh Presbyterian
church in New York City (1820–35), and president of
Wabash College, Ind. (1835–40). Died at Crawfordville,
Ind., Oct. 15, 1840. (See a “Memoir” by E. F. HATFIELD,
1843.) * *
Baldwin (GEORGE Col.FAx), D.D., born at Pompton,




BALDWIN–BALEARIC ISLES.
363
N. J., Oct. 21, 1817, educated at Madison University, for
twenty-nine years pastor of the First Baptist church in
Troy, N. Y. He is the author of “Representative Men,”
“Representative Women,” “The Model Prayer,” etc.
Baldwin (HENRY), LL.D., an American jurist, born at
New Haven, Conn., in 1779, became a citizen of Pennsyl-
vania. He was elected to Congress several times, and was
appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of the U. S. in
1830. Died April 21, 1844.
Baldwin (HENRY P.) was born in Coventry, R.I.,
Feb. 22, 1814, emigrated to Detroit in his youth, and was
governor of Michigan (1869–71).
ton, Conn., Sept. 28, 1810. After studying law and the-
ology he became a journalist, and was long the editor and
proprietor of the “Worcester (Mass.) Spy.” He was a
member of Congress from Massachusetts (1863–69), and
has published “Raymond Hill and Other Poems” (1847),
“Pre-historic Nations” (1869), “Ancient America” (1872).
Baldwin (Joseph º of Sumter, Ala., was a native
of Virginia. He was an āble lawyer and active politician,
author of “Flush Times in Alabama and Mississippi.” and
of “Party Leaders,” 1840. -
Baldwin (LoAMMI), born at Woburn, Mass., Jan. 21,
1745, studied at Harvard College, and became an engineer,
was a major, lieutenant-colonel, and colonel in the Revolu-
tionary array, and was afterwards a prominent engineer in
Massachusetts. Died Oct. 20, 1807.-His son, LoAMMI
BALDWIN (born May 16, 1780, graduated at Harvard in
1800), was also an eminent engineer, and was employed in
the U. S. government works at Charlestown navy-yard and
at Newport. Died June 30, 1838.
Baldwin (MATTHIAs W.), an American machinist, born
at Elizabethtown, N. J., in 1796. He is said to have con-
structed the first locomotive on the American continent.
He also made several improvements in locomotives. Died
in Philadelphia Sept. 7, 1866.
Baldwin (RogBR SHERMAN), L.L.D., an American
statesman, born in New Haven Jan. 4, 1793. He became
governor of Connecticut in 1844 and U. S. Senator in 1847.
In 1841, Governor Baldwin was associated with J. Q.
Adams in the famous Amistad trial. Died Feb. 19, 1863.
Baldwin (THERON), D. D., born at Goshen, Conn.,
July 21, 1801, graduated at Yale in 1827, was sent as a
home missionary of the Congregationalists to the West in
1829, was one of the founders of Illinois College, organized
the Monticello Female Seminary near Alton, Ill., of which
he was principal (1838–43). He was for twenty-seven years
secretary of the “Society for Promoting Collegiate and The-
ological Education.” Died at Orange, N.J., April 10, 1870.
Baldwin (THoMAs), D. D., a Baptist minister, born in
Norwich, Conn., Dec. 23, 1753. He became pastor of the
Second Baptist church in Boston in 1790, preached there
thirty-five years, and published a work in defence of the
Baptists. Died Aug. 29, 1825.
Baldwin (WILLIAM Owen), M. D. See APPENDIx.
Baldſwim Cit’y, a post-village of Douglas co., Kan.,
on the Leavenworth Lawrence and Galveston R. R., 15
miles S. of Lawrence. Here is an institution called Baker
University. -
Bald’ winsville, a village in Lysander and Van Buren
townships, Onondaga co., N. Y., on the Seneca River and
'the Oswego, and Syracuse R. R., 12 miles N. by W. from
Syracuse. A branch of the Oswego Canal runs to this place.
It has an academy, national bank, one weekly newspaper,
fork-factory, axe-factory, and various other manufactories.
Pop. 2130. G. S. CLARK, ED. “GAZETTE.”
Baldwinsville, a village of Hempstead township,
Queen's co., N.Y., on the South Side R. R. of Long Island,
is situated 1 mile from the sea-beach, and is a place of
Summer resort. -
Bald’winville, a post-village of Templeton township,
Worcester co., Mass., on the Vermont and Massachusetts
R. R., 21 miles W. by N. of Fitchburg. It has important
manufactures. -
Bâle, or Basel [Ger. Basel ; Fr. Băle or Basle; anc.
Basili'a or Basile/aj, an important city of Switzerland,
beautifully situated on both sides of the Rhine, 65 miles
by rail N. of Berne, and about 3 miles from the frontier
of Alsace; lat. 47° 34' N., lon. 7° 36' E. The Rhine, which
is here crossed by a bridge, divides it into two parts, named
in German Gross Basel, “Great Basel,” and Klein Basel,
“Little Basel ” (called in French Grande Bále and Petite
Bále). A railway extends from this point south-eastward
to Lučerne and north-westward to Mülhausen, in Alsace.
Băle is at or near the head of navigation on the Rhine, and
is the most important commercial and manufacturing city
of Switzerland. It was more populous in the Middle Ages
! / w
f
than at present. Among its public buildings is a fine cathe-
dral built by the emperor Henry II. between 1010 and 1019,
with towers 218 feet high, which were not completed till
1500. The University of Bâle, founded in 1459, once had
a high reputation. This city also has a valuable museum
of natural history, a botanic garden, and the university
library of about 85,000 volumes and 4000 MSS. The mu-
seum of art is noteworthy for its fine collection of the works
of the younger Holbein. A large majority of the inhabit-
ants are Protestants. Bâle has extensive manufactures of
ribbons, printed cottons, paper, gloves, jewelry, etc. It
was first mentioned in 372 A. D., was destroyed by the
H d rebuilt by H. I. in-917. . Pop. 44,834. ,
Baldwin (John DENISON) was born at North Stoning- | uns and rebuilt by Henry I. in 917 op. 44,834.
Bâle, or Basel, a canton of Switzerland, bordering
on Alsace and Baden, has an area of 176 square miles.
The Rhine forms part of the northern boundary of the .
canton, which is bounded on the N. by Germany, on the
E. by Aargau, on the S. by Soleure, and on the W. by
Germany and Soleure. It is intersected by the river Birz.
The surface is diversified with hills and valleys; the soil is
fertile. Salt is made from salt-wells, and considerable quan-
tities of good wine are made. It has extensive manufac-
tures of ribbons, paper, woollen stuffs, etc. : Băle was first
admitted as a Swiss canton in 1501. The town had pre-
viously been a free city of the German empire. In 1833,
Băle was divided into two independent portions or half-can-
tons—namely, Bâle city (Ger. Basel Stadt) and Bâle coun-
try (Ger. Basel-landschaft ; Fr. Bále campagne). Area of
the former, 14 square miles; of the latter, 164 square miles.
Pop. of the former in 1870, 47,760; of the latter, 54,127.
Băle (or Basel), Council of, a memorable oecumen-
ical council of the Church held in Bâle, was summoned by
Pope Martin V., who died (Feb. 20, 1431) before the ap-
pointed time of its meeting. It was opened Dec. 14, 1431,
under the pontificate of Eugenius IV. (elected Mar. 3, 1431).
The pope tried repeatedly to dissolve the council, but in
vain. A quarrel in regard to the manner and place of
holding negotiations with the Greek Church led finally to
a split. Many bishops, and all the cardinals but one,
went off with Julianus Cesarini, the pope's legate, first to
Ferrara (Jan., 1438), and thence to Florence (Feb., 1439).
Those who remained chose a new president, and went on
with their work. Excommunicated by Eugenius, they
elected a new pope, Felix V., Nov. 17, 1439. Very few
acknowledged him. This blunder broke the moral power
of the council. Its forty-fifth and last formal session was
held May 16, 1443, though the council was not technically
“dissolved” till May 7, 1449, when it gave in its adhesion
to Nicholas W., the successor of Eugenius IV. The Roman
Catholic Church acknowledges, only the first twenty-five
sessions of the council, before the split. (See WEssFNBERG,
“Die Allgemeinen Concilien des 15tem and 16ten Jahrhun-
dertes,” 2 vols., Constance, 1870.)
Băle (or Basel), Treaty of, the name of an import-
ant treaty of peace signed at Bâle, April 5, 1795, between
the French republic and Prussia. The latter then agreed
to abandon the coalition against France, and to give up
her possessions on the left bank of the Rhine. In July,
1795, another treaty was here concluded between France
and Spain.
Bale (John), bishop of Ossory, was born at Cove, Suf-
folk, England, Nov. 21, 1495, became a Carmelite, and was
educated at Cambridge, became a prior (1529), but be-
coming a Protestant, was obliged to leave the country;
returning, he became a bishop in 1552. He was again
exiled after Edward VI.’s death, but returned and became
prebend of Canterbury in 1560. He wrote voluminously.
His “Summarium ” (1549), a catalogue of British authors,
is his most celebrated work. Died Nov., 1563.
Balear’ic Isles (anc. Balea'res or Balea'res In'sulae),
a group of five islands in the Mediterranean, forming a
Spanish province, the area of which is 1860 square miles.
Pop. in 1867, 284,398. Capital, Palma. Their names are
Majorca, Minorca, Iviga, Formentera, and Cabrera. The
soil is mostly fertile, though badly cultivated. The climate
is very fine. Vegetation has a tropical aspect. The chief
exports are olive oil, figs, oranges, wool, mules, wine, hats,
brooms, brandy, capers, Saffron, cheese, salt, wooden ware,
baskets, etc. The ancient natives of these islands were
very expert slingers, and served in the Carthaginian army.
The Baleares were made an independent kingdom in 1256,
but soon became feudal to Aragon, to which kingdom they
were annexed in 1344. The Moors were long masters here,
but were expelled in 1285. The kings of Spain long re-
tained the title of “king of the Balearic Islands” as one
of their secondary honors. The language is made up of
various dialects (Mallorquin, Minorquin, etc.) of the Cat-
alan, mingled with Arabic (and perhaps Punic) elements.
(See MAJORCA and MINORCA.) -
364
BALEARIC CRANE–BALISTES.
Balear’ic Crane (Balearica pavonina), a beautiful
crane found in Northern and Western Africa, conspicuous
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Balearic Crane.
for its crown of golden plumes and its scarlet cheeks. It
is readily tamed, often indulging in fantastic dances, run-
ning about with great speed, and screaming with a harsh
and ringing voice. It is of a bluish-slate color, and is four
feet high. Its bill is shorter and thicker than that of other
cranes. It is exceedingly gentle, and, unlike some other
cranes, is quite harmless. It is doubtful whether this bird
is the Balearic crane of the ancients.
Balechou (JEAN Joseph NICOLAs), a very eminent
French engraver, born at Arles in 1715. He was the first
burinist of his time. His works are remarkably neat,
and his style brilliant, vigorous, and bold; but his draw-
ing is often defective, and he paid too little attention to
detail. His “Women Bathing,” “Storm * and “Calm ’’
(after Wernet), “Saint Genevieve" (after Charles Vanloo),
and his full-lengthportrait of Augustus, king of Poland, are
his most famous works. The last mentioned is one of the
great triumphs of the engraver's art. Died Aug. 18, 1765.
Baleen' [from the Lat. balaena; Gr. 54Aatva, a “whale”],
a substance commercially known as whale-fin and whale-
bone, is procured from the mouth of the right whale, the
Greenland whale, the Bahia, fin-back, the Cape whale, the
humpback, and various other species. It grows from the
roof of the mouth of all the Balaenidae or true whales,
though in some it is too small to be of much use. It is
never found in the sperm whales or the dolphins. From
single whales as much as two tons of balecn has been taken.
It consists of horny plates of albuminous matter charged
with phosphate of lime. Baleen takes the place of teeth,
and serves as a strainer for separating from the water the
little animals which serve as food for the whale. (See
WHALEBONE.)
Balen, or Ballen, van (HENDRIR), a Flemish painter,
born in Antwerp in 1560, studied with Adam van Oort and
in Italy, and was the first instructor of Vandyck. In spite
of a certain coldness and mannerism, his harmonious color-
ing, correct taste, and skilful composition have given him
a more than respectable rank among painters. Of his nu-
merous works, the best known are scriptural and ecclesias-
tical pieces. His nude figures are well executed. Died in
1632. 4.
Bales’tra (ANTONIO), an Italian painter, born at Vero-
na, in 1666. After his father’s death he followed commer-
cial pursuits until he came of age, when he went to Venice
and became a pupil of Belucci (an able colorist), and after-
wards studied at Rome with Carlo Maratti. . His “Defeat
of the Giants” gained the prize at the Academy of St. Luke
in 1694. Among his other famous pictures are a “Saint
Theresa.” at Bergamo, a “Virgin '' at Mantua, a “Life of
Saints Cosmas and Damian ’’ at Padua, and his own por-
trait at Florence. He was one of the last able artists of
the Venetian school, though not a slavish follower of any
School. He was a skilful designer, a good colorist, a labo-
rious and faithful student of his art, and was possessed of
a vigorous hand and spirit. The works of Giovanni Ba-
lestra, a skilful engraver, are often incorrectly assigned to
the subject of this notice. Antonio Balestra died April 2,
1740. -
Balfe (MICHAEL WILLIAM), a distinguished musician
and composer, born in Dublin, Ireland, May 15, 1808, was
a skilful violinist. He visited Italy in 1825, gained dis-
tinction as a singer, and composed in rapid succession
many operas, which are not remarkable for originality.
variety of goods.
Among his most popular operas are “Falstaff.” (1838),
“The Bohemian Girl” (1844), “The Rose of Castile,” and
“The Talisman,” the latter a posthumous work now (Sept.,
1873) in preparation for representation in London. Died
Oct. 20, 1870.
Balfour (John HUTTON), M.D., F. R. S., a British bot-
anist and physician, born in Edinburgh Sept. 15, 1808.
In 1845 he became professor of botany at Edinburgh. He
published a “Manual of Botany ” (1849), and a “Class-
book of Botany” (1852) which is highly esteemed. He
contributed the article on Botany to the eighth edition of
the “Encyclopaedia Britannica.” *
Balfour (ROBERT), a Scotchman, born about 1550, and
for many years principal of the Guienne College at Bor-
deaux. He had great learning, and was called the “phoenix
of the age.” His principal works were commentaries
on Aristotle, 1616, 1618, and 1620.
Balfour (Rev. WALTER), born at St. Ninian's, Stir-
lingshire, Scotland, in 1777. He was brought up a Pres-
byterian of the national Kirk, but coming to the U. S. at
the age of twenty, he became a Baptist ten years later.
In 1823 he became a Universalist, and was long a preacher
of that faith in Charlestown, Mass. He published, besides
other works, “Inquiries concerning the Devil,” “Scriptural
Import of the Words translated Hell” (1824), “The State
of the Dead” (1833), and controversial letters to Prof.
Moses Stuart and others. Died Jan. 3, 1852. t
Balfurosh’, or Balfrush, originally Barfuros
(“the mart of burdens”), an important commercial town
of Persia, in the province of Mazanderān, on the river
Bahbul, 14 miles from its entrance into the Caspian Sea,
and about 110 miles N. E. of Teheran. It has an exten-
sive trade, and contains numerous colleges and caravan-
Serais. The bazaars are large, and filled with a great
A good road extends from this town to
its port, Meshedi-Ser, on the Caspian. Pop. estimated at
120,000.
Ba'li, or Bal/ly, an island of the Malay Archipelago,
is about 3 miles E. of Java. Area, 1999 square miles. It is
nearly 70 miles long and 35 miles wide. The chief exports
are rice, cotton, coffee, tobacco, hides, etc. The island is
divided into several small states, of which Badong is the
chief. The Balinese mostly profess Brahmanism. They
are said to be superior to the Javanese in mind and other
respects. Their language resembles that of Java. Pop.
about 800,000.
Baliol, or Bal/liol (EDwARD), a son of King John
Baliol, invaded Scotland in 1332. Having gained several
victories over the Scottish army, he was crowned king at
Scone in September of that year. About three months
later he was surprised in his camp, and lost his crown.
His subsequent career was unfortunate. Died in 1363.
Baliol, or Balliol (John), lord of Galloway and king
of Scotland, was born about 1259. He became the rival
of Robert Bruce, and claimed the crown as the grandson
of David, who was a brother of King William the Lion.
The dispute was referred to Edward I. of England as
arbiter, who decided that Baliol was the rightful heir, and
imposed the condition that he should do homage to the king
of England. He was crowned in 1292, and swore fealty
to Edward, but soon renounced his allegiance. Edward
invaded Scotland, defeated Baliol's army, and compelled
him to resign the crown in 1296. Baliol died in France
in 1314. . . Z
Ba'liol College, Oxford, was founded about 1263 or
1268 by John de Baliol, whose son of the same name was
king of Scotland. It was enriched by several benefactors
separated by long intervals of time. Among the graduates
of this college were John Evelyn and Bradley the astronomer.
Balis/tes, or File=Fish, a genus of osseous fishes
of the order Plectognathi of Cuvier, is the type of the
family Balistidae or Sclerodermata. They are mostly found
in tropical or sub-tropical seas, have brilliant colors, and
—- a body which is remark-
: ably compressed. They
have a curious provision
# for fixing the first dorsal
º - * q : *
#: spine in an erect position
# or lowering it at the will
: of the fish. For this real-
son they are sometimes
# called trigger-fishes. One
of the most remarkable
species is the Balistes
vetulus, or “unarmed
trigger-fish,” the flesh
of which is regarded as poisonous. The dusky file-fish
(Balistes fuliginosus) has been taken in N. Y. harbor; the
Unarmed Trigger-fish: Balistes
Vetulus (found in the Nile).
t
|



BALIZE–BALLAD POETRY.
365
other file-fish of the U. S. coast are now referred to other
but kindred genera. -
Balize, or Belize [a Spanish name corrupted from
Wallis or Wallace, an English pirate who infested that
region], also called British Honduras, a British colony
in Central America, on the Bay of Honduras, and in the
south-eastern part of the peninsula of Yucatan. Area,
estimated at 13,500 square miles. Mahogany, fustic, log-
wood, etc. are exported from this colony. Pop. in 1861,
25,635. *
Balize, or Belize, a town of Central America, is in
the district noticed above, and on the Bay of Honduras, at
the mouth of the Balize River. It is a dépôt of British
goods destined for Central America. It contains a court-
house, a hospital, several chapels, and an iron market-
house. Pop. estimated at 6000. -
Balize, a name sometimes given to a village at the
North-eastern Pass, at the mouth of the Mississippi River,
derived from the French balise, a “beacon.” It is inhab-
ited by pilots and their families.
Balkan' (the ancient Hæ'mus), a mountain-chain of
European Turkey, extends from Sophia eastward to Cape
Emineh on the Black Sea, and forms the southern boundary
of the basin of the Danube. Some peaks of this range
are over 5000 feet high. The Balkan is connected with
the mountains of Middle Europe by the ranges of Monte-
negro and Herzegovina. It is an important natural bar-
rier for the protection of Turkey against Russian invaders.
Balkash’ (in the Calmuck language “large lake,” is
called by the Khirgiz Ak Tenghiz, i. e. “white sea,”
or simply Tenghiz Sea), a large lake of Central Asia
having no visible outlet, is on the borders of Chinese
Turkistan and the Russian government of Tomsk, between
lat. 44° and 47° N., and lon. 77° and 81° E. Its length
from N. E. to S. W. is 390 miles, and its greatest breadth
50 miles.
Balkh (the ancient Bac'tria), a province of Central
Asia, now subordinate to the khanate of Bokhara. It is
bounded on the N. by the river Oxus or Amoo, on the E.
by Budukshan, on the S. by the Hindu-Kush Mountains,
and on the W. by the desert. A large part of the soil is
sterile. The natives are Usbek Tartars. Capital, Balkh.
Balkh (anc. Zarias'pa and Bacſtra), the capital of the
province of Balkh, is about 22 miles S. of the Amoo River,
and 150 miles N. N. W. of Cabul. The ancient Bactra
was an important city, the remains of which cover a space
about twenty miles in circuit, and comprise eighteen aque-
ducts now in ruins. It was destroyed by Jengis Khan.
The modern town is insignificant. Pop. about 2000.
Ball [from the Gr. 36AXo, “to throw’], a word used in
various applications; a round body or globe; a dancing-
party; a solid shot or bullet discharged from a cannon or
other gun. Also the name of a game. (See BALL, GAME OF.)
Ball, in military affairs. See BULLET.
Ball, a township of Sangamon co., Ill. Pop. 986.
Ball, Game of. This was a favorite gymnastic exer-
cise among the ancient Greeks and Romans, the latter of
whom called it pila. At Rome it was played by persons
of all ages and by men of high rank. The Greeks prized
the game as a means of giving grace and elasticity to their
figures and motions. In the sixteenth century this game
was fashionable in the courts of French and Italian princes.
The French jew de pawme and English tennis were modifi-
cations of the game of ball. The ball was struck with a
mallet (Fr. mail or maille ; Eng. mall), sometimes called
pall-mall or pell-mell, from the Italian palla, a ball. A
form of this game, called cricket, is much played by the
English at the present time. The popular game of the
|U. S. is base-ball.
Ball (EPHRAIM), an inventor, born in Stark co., O., in
1812. He had few educational privileges in his youth.
He began the manufacture of ploughs in 1840, patented
the “Ohio mower” in 1856, and the well-known “Buckeye.”
machine in 1858. He was long at the head of a large
manufactory of farming tools at Canton, O.
Ball (THOMAs), a distinguished American sculptor, born
in Charlestown, Mass., June 3, 1819. His works of art are
numerous and highly esteemed. Among them are busts
of Webster and Choate, and statues of Webster, Everett,
and Washington. .
Ballad Poetry. The word ballad signifies in English
a narrative song, a short tale in lyric verse, which sense it
has come to have, probably through the English, in some
other languages. It means, by derivation, a dance-song,
but though dancing was formerly, and in some places still
is, performed to song instead of instrumental music, the
application of the word in English is quite accidental.
The popular ballad, for which our language has no un-
equivocal name, is a distinct and very important species of
poetry. Its historical and natural place is anterior to the
appearance of the poetry of art, to which it has formed a
step among every people that has produced an original lite-
rature, and by which it has been regularly displaced, and,
in some cases, all but extinguished. Whenever a people
in the course of its development reaches a certain intellect-
ual and moral stage, it will feel an impulse to express itself
in literature, and the form of expression to which it is first
impelled is, as is well known, not prose but verse, and in
fact narrative verse. The condition of Society in which a
truly national or popular poetry appears, explains the cha-
racter of such poetry. It is a condition in which the people
are not divided by political organization and book-culture
into markedly distinct classes, in which consequently there
is such community of ideas and feelings that the whole peo-
ple form an individual. Such poetry, accordingly, while
it is in its essence an expression of our common human
nature, and so of universal and indestructible interest, will
in each case be differenced by circumstances and idiosyn-
crasy. On the other hand, it will always be an expression
of the mind and heart of the people as an individual, and
never of the personality of individual men. The funda-
mental characteristic of popular ballads is therefore the
absence of subjectivity and of self-consciousness. Though
they do not “write themselves,” as William Grimm has said,
though a man and not a people has composed them, still
the author counts for nothing, and it is not by mere acci-
dent; but with the best reason, that they have come down
to us anonymous. Hence, too, they are extremely difficult
to imitate by the highly-civilized modern man, and most of
the attempts to reproduce this kind of poetry have been
ridiculous failures.
The primitive ballad then is popular, not in the sense of
something arising from and suited to the lower orders of a
people. As yet, no sharp distinction of high and low ex-
ists, in respect to knowledge, desires, and tastes. An
increased civilization, and especially the introduction of .
book-culture, gradually gives rise to such a division : the
poetry of art appears; the popular poetry is no longer
relished by a portion of the people, and is abandoned to
an uncultivated or not over-cultivated class—a constantly
diminishing number. But whatever may be the estimation
in which it may be held by particular classes or at particu-
lar epochs, it cannot lose its value. Being founded on what
is permanent and universal in the heart of man, and now
by printing put beyond the danger of perishing, it will
survive the fluctuations of taste, and may from time to
time serve, as it notoriously did in England and Germany
a hundred years ago, to recall a literature from false and
artificial courses to nature and truth.
Of the Europeans nations, the Spaniards and those of
Scandinavian-German stock have best preserved their early
popular poetry. We have early notices of the poetry of the
Germans. Their ballads, mythical or historical, are several
times spoken of by Tacitus, who says that these were
their only annals. The earth-born Tuisco and his son
Mannus were celebrated in the one, and the hero Ar-
minius in the other. The historian of the Goths, Jornam-
des, writing in the sixth century, says that these people
were accustomed to sing the exploits of their fathers to the
harp, and seems to have taken not a little of his history
from such songs. The like is true of Paulus Diaconus, the
Lombard historian, who wrote in the eighth. century, and
mentions songs about Alboin (who died in 563) as existing
among all the nations of German speech. Charlemagne
had the old traditional songs of his people collected and
committed to writing, and even made them one of the sub-
jects of school instruction. Side by side with heroic bal-
lads, social, convivial, and funeral songs (which may, to
be sure, have been pretty much the same thing) seem to
have been in use from the earliest recorded times. To all.
this popular poetry, by reason of its heathen derivation and
character, the Christian clergy opposed themselves with
the most determined hostility. Not succeeding in extir-
pating it by the use of the spiritual and legal means at
their command, the German churchmen of the ninth cen-
tury conceived the idea of crowding it out by substituting
poetry of a Christian subject and tone—an expedient which
has been tried more than once since then. Though popular
song lived on in obscure places, the foreground of history is
filled for six hundred years with religious and courtly
poetry and with the chivalrous and native epic. ... Nothing
is left of the old heroic songs but a fragment of the Hilde-
brandslied, from the eighth century (best known in a mod-
ernized form of the fifteenth century); and of the Christian-
ized song we have also but a single specimen, the Ludwigs-
lied, of the year 881. The former is in the ancient alliter-
ative metre, the latter in the then newly-introduced rhymed
stanza. During the fifteenth and the early part of the
sixteenth centuries a second growth of the genuine popular
366
song appears, some of it springing, doubtless, out of shoots
from the old stock which had lived through this long
interval, some of it a fresh product of the age. These
ballads were popular in the large and strict sense; that is,
they were the creation and the manifestation of the whole
}. great and humble, who were still one in all essentials,
aving the same belief, the same ignorance, and the same
tastes, and living in much closer relations than now. The
diffusion of knowledge and the stimulation of thought
through the art of printing, the religious and intellectual
consequences of the Reformation, the intrusion of cold
reflection into a world of sense and fancy, broke up the
national unity. The educated classes took a direction of
their own, and left, what had been a common treasure, to
the people in the lower sense, the ignorant or unschooled
mass. German ballads have been collected in consider-
able numbers. The sources have been “flying leaves,”
manuscripts, printed song-books (mostly of the sixteenth
century), and oral tradition. . In interest they are decidedly
inferior to the Scandinavian and English.
Christianity and foreign culture, which in different ways
have been equally destructive in their effects upon ancient
national poetry, were introduced into the Scandinavian
countries much later than into Germany and England. In
the Scandinavian countries, too, the peasantry long main-
tained a much higher position. They were not an op-
pressed and ignorant class, but free men, who shared fully
in the indigenous culture, and so were well fitted to keep
and transmit their poetical heritage. While, therefore, the
heroic ballads of Germany and England have been lost—
those of England utterly, those of Germany being preserved
only in epic conglomerates like the Nibelungenlied—and
while the mythical cycle in both countries is but feebly, if
at-all, represented, Scandinavia has kept a great deal of
both. The story of Thor's Hammer forms the subject of a
ballad still known in all the Scandinavian countries; a vol-
ume of ballads concerning Sigurd has been gathered from
tradition in the Faroe Isles within this century, and several
ballads of this cycle and of that of Dietrich of Bern are found
in Danish manuscript ballad-books. Svend Grundtvig, the
editor of the still unfinished but truly magnificent collection.
of the old Danish ballads, has arranged them in four classes:
first, the Heróic; second, the Trylleviser, or ballads of
giants, dwarfs, mixes, elves, mountain spirits, enchantment,
spells, and ghosts; third, the Historic ; and fourth, ballads
of Chivalry. The historic ballads (intending their orig-
inal, not their actual, form) mostly fall within the period
from 1150 to 1300; the chivalrous are later, and the two
other classes belong to a still earlier term, which may ex-
tend over the first half of the twelfth century, and into, or
perhaps through, the eleventh; that is, to the epoch of the
introduction of Christianity. Ballads are best preserved
by oral tradition in Norway and the Faroe Isles, but not
at all, there, in old manuscripts; Sweden has a few manu-
scripts, and Denmark a great number, written mostly by
noble ladies living on their estates, and giving the ballads
as they were sung three or four hundred years ago, as well
in the lord’s castle as in the peasant’s hut. The Danish
ballads were collected in a printed form earlier than any
others except the Spanish. Vedel published a hundred in
1591; another collection, called Tragica, or old Danish
historic love-ballads, appeared at Copenhagen in 1657; and
in 1695 Syv republished Wedel's ballads, with the addition
of another hundred. -
The English have preserved but a moderate number of
very early ballads, and the date of many of these it is im-
possible to fix. There are some narrative poems in Anglo-
Saxon which, without stretch of language, might be called
ballads. The Norman Conquest, and the predominance of
the French language for more than two hundred years, had
of course momentous literary consequences, but there is no
reason why the production of the native ballad should have
stopped. The story of the Saxon outlaw Hereward; which
begins with the second year after the Conquest, and has
been handed down to us in Latin prose of the twelfth cen-
tury, is full of such adventures as form the themes of bal-
lads, and very likely was made up from popular songs.
Such ballads, if they existed, are lost, but ballads concern-
ing outlaws are among the earliest and best ones of the
English. In place of Hereward of the Conqueror's time, and
Fulk Fitz-Warin of John’s time (whose history was also ex-
tremely popular), we have Robin Hood of uncertain time.
Songs of Robin Hood and of Randolph, earl of Chester
(probably the third earl, who died in 1232), we know, from
Piers Ploughman, were current among the lower orders at
the middle of the fourteenth century, and one Robin Hood
ballad exists in a manuscript which may be as old as the
first quarter of the next century. Another occurs in a
manuscript dated at about 1500, others in the Percy manu-
script. The Little Gest of Robin Hood, which is a min-
iature epic made up of half a dozen ballads, was printed
BALLAD
POETRY. *-
by Wynken de Worde, “probably,” says Ritson, “in 1489.”
We may reasonably place the origin of the Robin Hood
ballads as early as the thirteenth century. To the thir-
teenth century may belong Hugh of Lincoln, which is
founded on an incident that occurred in 1255. An Anglo-
Norman ballad on the same subject twice. refers to a King
Henry, and is therefore put within the reign of Henry
III., which ended 1276. Sir Patrick Spens, if the occa-
sion of the ballad has been rightly understood, dates from
1281. After this there are only one or two ballads with
dates till we come to the Battle of Otterbourn, 1388, from
which time we have a succession of ballads founded on
ascertained events, down to the middle of the eighteenth
century. Ballads like those of Grundtvig's second class
exist in a small number; one of them in a manuscript
of the middle of the fifteenth century. The little that
we have of ballads of the Arthur cycle, and many of the
best of all kinds, we owe to the Percy manuscript, written
just before 1650. A few ballads besides those named
have been gleaned from manuscripts and early prints,
but a large part of our whole stock has been recovered
within the last hundred years from the oral tradition of
Scotland. The first impulse to the collecting of this poetry
was given by the publication of Percy’s “Reliques” in
1765. The “Reliques” inspired Bürger and Herder,
through whom, and especially through Herder’s “Volks-
lieder” (1778–79), that interest in the literature of the peo-
ple was awakened in Germany which has spread over the
whole of Europe, and has led to the collecting and study
of the traditional songs arid tales of all the European, and
some of the Asiatic, African, and American races.
The Spanish alone of the Latin nations can boast a bal-
lad poetry of great compass and antiquity. Following the
law of analogy where documents are wanting, the origin of
these ballads would be put between the years 1000 and
1200, the period when the Spanish nationality and lan-
guage had been developed to that degree which invariably
incites and leads to expression in epic song. Some sort of
popular poetry about the Cid (whose time is 1040–99) is
known to have been sung as early as 1147; the poem of the
Cid itself is placed about 1200. During the century that
follows we find occasional mention of ballad-singers, but no
ballads. As in Germany, the popular poetry, after the first
bloom of the national genius, was supplanted by art-poetry,
among the higher classes, and it passed out of notice for
two or three hundred years. A reaction set in in the six-
teenth century. This was the glorious period of Spanish
history, and the return to the national poetry was a mat-
ural consequence of the powerful stirring of the national
mind. Omitting “flying leaves” or broadsides, and a few
ballads in the “Cancionero General ” of 1511, the earliest
collection of Spanish ballads is an undated “Cancionero de
Romances,” printed at Antwerp about 1546; and this, it
must be observed, is the first ballad-book printed in any
language, and was gathered in part from the memory of the
people. Other similar collections followed, from which was
made in 1600 the great “Romancero General.” Towards
the end of the seventeenth century the national ballads de-
clined in favor, with a decline of national spirit, but since
the beginning of the present century they have been re-
stored to a high estimation at home, and have gained the
admiration of the world. The oldest ballads are those
which relate to the history and traditions of Spain, and re-
count the exploits of Bernardo del Carpio, Fernan Gon-
zalez, the Seven Lords of Lara, and the Cid. Then comes
a variety of romantic and chivalrous ballads, and then bal-
lads of the Carlovingian cycle. These oldest and most
characteristic of the Spanish ballads have been excellently
edited by Wolf and Hofmann, and, the entire body of this
literature, amounting to more than 1900 pieces, is included
in the “Romancero General,” edited by Duran in 1849–51, .
a work which surpasses every other in the same line, ex-
cept the Danish collection of Grundtvig. The collections
of ballads in the other Latin languages will be found below.
The most important are the Portuguese “Romanceiro,” by
Almeida-Garrett, 1863; the Piedmontese ballads, by Nigra,
1858–63, and the “Songs and Tales of the Italian People,”
by Comparetti and D'Ancona, begun in 1870, both first-rate
works; Arbaud’s, Puymaigre's, and Bujeaud's French col-
lections. -
The ballads of other European nations are scarcely less
interesting than those which have been noticed, and those
of races which possess little or no other literature are pecu-
liarly instructive, by reason of the light which they throw
on the history of national poetry; for instance, the songs
of the Slavic races, and, most of all, of the Servians. The
Slavic songs as a class are distinguished from the Teutonic
by the absence of the sentiment of romantic love and of
chivalrous heroism. In their form, too, they are much less
dramatic, and even the division of epic from lyric songs is
not easy. Many songs begin with a few narrative verses,
BALLAD
and then become entirely lyric, and the narrative part is
almost always descriptive. The Servians—especially those
of Turkish Servia, Bosnia, and Montenegro, who have not
been much affected by civilization—afford a capital example
of a race that has not outlived the ballad era. Vuk has col-
lected five or six hundred of their songs, one third of them
epic, and every one of them from the mouths of the people.
A few of these are, in their actual form, as old as the fif-
teenth century, some belong to a remoter time, and indeed
many retain marks of an ante-Christian origin. So far,
the Servians are like the German nations: the distinction is
that the fountain of popular poetry still flows, and that he-
roic poems have been produced among the Servians in this
century which are essentially similar to the older ones, and
not at all inferior. We find the national poetry, there, in a
condition closely resembling that in which it was among
the races of Northern and Eastern Europe many hun-
dred years ago. New songs appear with new occasions,
but do not supersede the ancient ones. The heroic ballads
are chanted at taverns, in the public squares, in the halls
of chiefs, to the accompaniment of a simple instrument.
Sometimes they are only recited, and in this way are taught
by the old to the young. All classes know them: the peasant,
the merchant, the hayduk (the klepht of the modern Greek, a
sort of Robin Hood), as well as the professional bard. No
class scorns to sing them—not even the clergy or the chiefs.
One or two general remarks are required to prevent mis-
conceptions and to supply omissions. From what has been
said, it may be seen or inferred that the popular ballad is
not originally the product or the property of the lower or-
ders of the people. Nothing, in fact, is more obvious than
that many of the ballads of the now most refined nations
had their origin in that class whose acts and fortunes they
depict—the upper class—though the growth of civilization
has driven them from the memory of the highly-polished
and instructed, and has left them as an exclusive possession
to the uneducated. The genuine popular ballad had its rise
in a time when the distinctions since brought about by ed-
ucation and other circumstances had practically no exist-
ence. The vulgar ballads of our day, the “broadsides” which
were printed in such huge numbers in England and else-
where in the sixteenth century or later, belong to a different .
genus;, they are products of a low kind of art, and most of
them are, from a literary point of view, thoroughly despic-
able and worthless.
Next it must be observed that ballads which have been
handed down by long-repeated tradition have always depart-
ed considerably from their original form. If the transmission
has been purely through the mouths of unlearned people,there
is less probability of wilful change, but once in the hands of
professional singers, there is no amount of change which
they may not undergo. Last of all comes the modern ed-
itor, whose so-called improvements are more to be feared
than the mischances of a thousand years. A very old bal-
lad will often be found to have resolved itself in the course
of what may be called its propagation into several distinct
shapes, and each of these again to have received distinct
modifications. When the fashion of verse has altered, we
shall find a change of form as great as that in the Hilde-
brandslied, from alliteration without stanza to stanza with
rhyme. In all cases the language drifts insensibly from
ancient forms, though not at the same rate with the lan-
guage of every-day life. The professional ballad-singer or
minstrel, whose sole object is to please the audience before
him, will alter, omit, or add, without scruple, and nothing is
more common than to find different ballads blended together.
There remains the very curious question of the origin of
the resemblances which are found in the ballads of different
nations, the récurrence of the same incidents or even of the
same story, among races distinct in blood and history, and
geographically far separated. The Scottish ballad of May
Colvin, for instance—the German Ulinger—is also found in
the Swedish, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French,
Servian, Bohemian, Wendish, Esthonian, Breton, and per-
haps other languages. Some have thought that to explain
this phenomenon we must go back almost to the cradle of man-
kind, to a primeval common ancestry of all or most of the
nations among whom it appears. But so august an hypothesis
is scarcely necessary. The incidents of many ballads are
such as might occur anywhere and at any time; and with
regard to agreements that cannot be explained in this way,
we have only to remember that tales and songs were the chief
Social amusement of all classes of people in all the nations
of Europe during the Middle Ages, and that new stories
would be eagerly sought for by those whose business it was
to furnish this amusement, and be rapidly spread among
the fraternity. A great effect was undoubtedly produced by
the Crusades, which both brought the chief European ma-
tions into closer intercourse and made them acquainted with
the East, thus facilitating the interchange of stories and
greatly enlarging the stock. - *.
POETRY. 367
The most important collections of ballads are—
English.-4: Reliques of Ancient English Poetry,” by
Thomas Percy, fourth improved ed., London, 1794, and often
since ; “Ancient and Modern Scottish Songs,” by David
Herd, second ed., 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1776; “Minstrelsy of
the Scottish Border,” by Sir Walter Scott, 3 vols., Edin-
burgh, 1802–3, and often since ; “Popular Ballads and
Songs,” by Robert Jamieson, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1806;
“Ancient Scottish Ballads,” by George R. Kinloch, Edin-
burgh, 1827; “Minstrelsy, Ancient and Modern,” by Wil-
liam Motherwell, Glasgow, 1827; “English and Scottish
Ballads,” by F. J. Child, 8 vols., Boston, 1860, which con-
tains all but two or three of the ancient ballads, and a full
list of collections; “Bishop Percy's Folio Manuscript,” by
J. W. Hales and F. J. Furnivall, 3 vols., London, 1867–68.
Scandinavian.—“Danmarks Gamle Folkeviser” (“The
Ancient Ballads of Denmark”), by Svend Grundtvig, 3 vols.,
and part of a fourth, Copenhagen, 1853–72—by far the
greatest work in this class of literature; “Ancient Danish
Ballads,” translated from the originals by R. C. Alex.
Prior, 3 vols., London, 1860; “Norske Folkeviser” (“Nor-
wegian Ballads”), by M. B. Landstad, Christiania, 1853;
“Gamle Norske Folkeviser” (“Ancient Norwegian Bal-
lads”), by Sophus Bugge, Christiania, 1858; “Svenska
Folk-Visor” (“Swedish Ballads”), by Geijer and Afzelius,
3 vols., Stockholm, 1814–16; “Svenska Formsänger,” by
A. I. Arwidsson, 3 vols., Stockholm, 1834–42; Rosa War-
ren’s “Dānische Volkslieder,” Hamburg, 1858, “Norwe-
gische, etc. Volkslieder,” Hamburg, 1866, “Schwedische
Volkslieder,” Hamburg, 1857; “Faeróiske Kvaeder” (“Bal-
lads of the Faroe Isles”), by V. U. Hammershaimb, 2 parts,
Copenhagen, 1851–55; “Islenzk Fornkvæði,” by Grundtvig
and Sigurðsson, 3 parts, Copenhagen, 1854–59.
High German.—“Des Knaben Wunderhorn,” Arnim and
Brentano, 3 vols., Heidelberg, 1806–08, 4 vols., Berlin,
1853–54; “Alte teutsche Volkslieder in der. Mundart des
Kuhländchens,” Vienna and Hamburg, 1817; “Oesterreich-
ische Volkslieder,” Ziska and Schottky, Pesth, 1819; “Die
Volkslieder der Deutschen,” F. K. von Erlach, 5 vols.,
Mannheim, 1834–36; “Schlesische Volkslieder,” Hoffmann
von Fallersleben and Richter, Leipsie, 1842; “Alte hoch-
und nieder-deutsche Volkslieder,” L. Uhland, 2 vols., Stutt-
gart, 1844–45; “Deutsche Volkslieder,” F. L. Mittler, Mar-
burg and Leipsic, 1855; “Fränkische Volkslieder,” F. M.
von Ditfurth, 2 parts, Leipsic, 1855; “Deutscher Lieder-
hort,” L. Erk, Berlin, 1856; “Die historischen Volkslieder
der Deutschen,” R. von Liliencron, 4 vols., Leipsic, 1865–69.
Low-German, Netherlandish.-‘‘Letterkundig overzigt
enºproeven van de Nederlandsche Volkszangen,” J. C. W.
le Jeune, Amsterdam, 1828; Uhland, as before ; “Oude
Vlaemsche Liederen,” J. F. Willems, Ghent, 1848; “Nie-
derländsche Volkslieder,” Hoffmann von Fallersleben, sec-
ond ed., Hannover, 1856; “Chants Populaires des Flam-
ands de France,” E. de Coussemaker, Ghent, 1856.
Spanish and Portuguese.—“Tesoro de los Romanceros,”
etc., Eug. de Ochoa, Paris, 1838, Barcelona, 1840; “Roman-
cero Castellano,” G. B. Depping and A. A. Galiano, 2 vols.,
Leipsic, 1844; “Romancero General” (vols. x. and xvi.
of “Biblioteca de autores Españoles”), Madrid, 1849–51;
“Observaciones sobra la poesia popular,” etc., M. Milá y
Fontanals, Barcelona, 1853; “Primavera y Flor de Ro-
mances,” F. J. Wolf and C. Hoffmann, 2 vols., Berlin, 1856;
“Romanzen Asturiens,” u. s. W., José Amador de los Rios,
in “Jahrbuch für romanische- u. englische Literatur,” iii.
268, 1861; “Cancionero Popular,” E. Lafuente y Alcantara,
2 vols., Madrid, 1866; “Cansons de la Terra, Cants populars
Catalans,” F. Pelay Bríz y Candi Candi, 3 vols., Barcelona,
1866–71; “Romanceiro,” Almeida-Garrett, 3 vols., Lisbon,
1863; Th. Braga, “Cancioneiro Popular,” Coimbra, 1867;
“Romanceiro Geral,” Coimbra, 1867; “Cantos Populares do
Archipelago Açoriano,” Porto, 1869; “Ancient Spanish Bal-
lads,” J. G. Lockhart, London; 1823; “Portugiesische Volks-
lieder u. Romanzen,” C. F. Bellermann, Leipsic, 1864; “Ro-
manzero der Spanier u. Portugieser,” Stuttgart, 1866.
Italian.—“Canti popolari Toscani, Corsi, Illirici, Greci,”
N. Tommaséo, 4 vols., Venice, 1841–42, second ed. of vol. i.,
1848; “Cantipop. inediti Umbri, etc.,” O. Marcoaldi, Genoa,
1856; “Canzoni pop. del Piemonte,” C. Nigra in the “Ri.
vista Contemporanea” of Turin, 1858–63; “Saggio di canti
pop; Veronesi,” E. S. Righi, Verona, 1863; “Völkslieder aus
Venetien, gesammelt von G. Widter,” 1864; “Cantipop. Sici-
liani,” G. Pitrè, vol. i., Palermo, 1870, vol. ii., 1871; & Canti
e Racconti del Popolo Italiano,” D. Comparetti and A. d’An-
§. Turin and Florence, vol. i., 1870; vol. ii., 1871; vol. iii.,
French.-‘‘Instructions relatives aux Poésies Populaires de
le France,” J. J. Ampère, Paris, 1853; “Etude sur la poésie
populaire en Normandie,” Eug. de Beaurepaire, Avranches,
1856; “Chants populaires du pays castrais,” A. Combes,
Castres, 1862; “Chants pop. de la Provence,” Damase Ar-
baud, 2 vols., Aix, 1862–64; “Romancero de Champagne,”
368
BALLANCHE–BALEAST.
P. Tarbé, 5 vols., Reims, 1863–64; “Chants pop. recueillis
dans le pays messin,” Compte de Puymaigre, Metz, 1865;
“Chants et chansons pop. des provinces de l'ouest, Poitou,
etc.,” J. Bujeaud, 2 vols., Niort, 1866; “Des chansons pop.
chez les anciens et chez les Français,” C. Nisard, 2 vols.,
Paris, 1867; “Recueil de chants historiques français,”
Leroux de Lincy, 2 vols., Paris, 1841–42.
JRowman and Wallachian.—“Ballade,” B. Alexandri, 2
vols., Jassy, 1853–54; and “Poesië Populare ale Români-
lor,” Bucharest, 1866; “Ballades et chants pop. de la Rou-
manie, recueillis et traduits par Alexandri,” Paris, 1855;
“Rouman Anthology, National Ballads of Moldavia,” etc.,
H. Stanley, Hertford, 1856; (Alexandri’s) “Rumänische
Volkspoesie,” deutsch v. W. v. Kotzebue, Berlin, 1857;
“Poesia Popurala, Balade,” Marienescu, Pesth, 1859; “Ro-
mänische Volkslieder,” Schuller, Hermannstadt, 1859.
JRomaic.—“Chants populaires de la Grèce moderne,” C.
Fauriel, 2 vols., Paris, 1824–25; the same in German, by
W. Müller, Leipsic, 1825; “Neugriechische Volksgesänge,”
J. M. Firmenich, Berlin, 1840; “Canti popolari Toscani,
Corsi, Illirici, Greci,” N. Tomasséo, 4 vols., Venice, 1841–42;
“Neugriechische Volks- u. Freiheitslieder,” D. H. Sanders,
Leipsic, 1842; “Das Volksleben der Neugriechen,” etc.,
D. H. Sanders, Mannheim, 1844; “Die neugriechischen
Volkslieder,” Th. Kind, Leipsic, 1849; “Chants du Peuple
en Grèce,” Compte de Marcellus, 2 vols., . Paris, 1851; .
“Ata'uara Smºortzá ràs ‘EAAáčos” (Popular Songs of Greece),
Spyr. Zambelios, Corcyra, 1852; “Carmina popularia
Graeciae recentioris,” A. Passow, Leipsic, 1860; “Anthol-
ogie neugriechischer Volkslieder,” Th. Kind, Leipsic, 1861.
Slavic, Eastern Branch.-I. a, Russian.—“Piesni russ-
kago, naroda,” (Songs of the Russian People), J. Sak-.
harof, 5 parts, St. Petersburg, 1838–39; “Piesni sobran-
niya, P. W. Kirieevskim” (Songs collected by P. W. Ki-
rievsky), 8 parts, Moscow, 1850–68; “Piesni, etc.” (“Songs
collected by P. N. Rybnikof”), 5 vols., Moscow, 1861–70;
“Russkiya Narodniya Piesni” (Russian Popular Songs),
collected and arranged by P. W. Shein, vol. i., Móscow, 1870;
“Stimmen des russischen Volks in Liedern,” P. v. Götze,
Stuttgart, 1828; “Die Balalaika” (Russian Popular Songs,
in German translation), J. Altmann, Berlin, 1863; “The
Songs of the Russian People, as illustrative of Slavonic
Mythology and Russian Social Life,” by W. R. S.
Ralston, London, 1872. b, Malorussian, Ruthenian.—
“Malorossiiskiya Piesni” (Little-Russian Songs), M.
Maximovitch, Moscow, 1827; “Pieśni Ludu ruskiego
w Galicyi" (Songs of the Russian People in Galicia),
Z. Pauli, Lemberg, 1839–40; “Sbornik ukrainskikh Pie-
sen” (Collection of Songs of the Ukraine), M. Maxi-
movitch, Kief, 1849; “Pisni, Dumki,” etc. (“Songs,
Thoughts, and Jests of the Russian People in Podolia,
Ukraine, and Little-Russia”), A. Kotzipinsky, Kief, 1862;
“Volkslieder der Polen” (i. e., of the Ruthenian people in
Poland), gesammelt u. iibersetzt von W. P., Leipsic, 1833;
“Die poetische Ukraine,” F. Bodenstedt, Stuttgart, 1845.-
II. Illyrico-Servian.—1, a, Servian.—“Narodne srpske
Pjesme?” (“Songs of the Servian People”), Vuk Stephan-
ovitch Karadshitch, third ed., 6 vols., Vienna, 1841–66;
“Volkslieder der Serben,” Talvi (Mrs. Robinson), second
ed., 2 vols., Leipsic, 1853; “Die Gesänge der Serben,” 2
parts, S. Kapper, Leipsic, 1852; “Poésies populaires Ser-
bes,” A. Dozon, Paris, 1859, b, Bosnian.—“Srpske Na-
rodne Pjesme iz Bozne” (“Songs of the Servian People in
Bosnia.”), J. W. Petranovitch, Serajevo, 1867. c, Monte-
negrin.-“Pjevanija Tzernogorska,” etc. (“Popular Poetry
of Montenegro and Herzegovina”), collected by Tshubar
Tshoikovitch, ed. by J. Milovuk, Ofen, 1833; another col-
lection, ed. by himself, Leipsic, 1839. d, Dalmatian.-
* Razgovor ugodni” (“Entertaining Conversations”), by
A.-Cacich Miossich, Venice, 1759, Agram, 1862; “Viaggio
in Dalmazia,” Alberto Fortis, 2 vols., Venice, 1774. 2, Croat-
ian.-‘‘Narodne Pjesme”, etc. (“Popular Songs of the
Croats, Dalmatians, Bosnians, and Servians”), Leopold
Zupan, Agram, 1848. 3, Slovenian (Slaves of Carniola and
Carinthia), “Slovenske Pesmi krajnskiga naroda” (“Songs
of the Slovenzi in Carniola,”) [Achazel and Korytko], Lai-
bach, 1839–44; “Narodne Pésni ilirske,” etc., Stanko Vraz,
Part I., Agram, 1839; “Volkslieder aus Krain,” iibersetzt
von Anastasius Grün, Leipsic, 1850. 4, Bulgarian.—“Bul-
garske Narodne Pēsni,” D. and K. Miladinof, Agram, 1867.
Western Branch, I. Czekho-Slovačian.—I, a, Bohemian and
Moravian.-- Pisné národnj w Cechach” (“Songs of the
People in Bohemia,”), J. Erben, 3 parts, Prague, 1842–45;
“Morawské národnj Pisné’” (“Songs of the Moravian Peo-
ple”), F. Suschil, Brünn, 1835, 1840, also 1853–57; Böhm-
ische Rosen,” Ida v. Diiringsfeld, Breslau, 1851; “Böhm-
ische Granaten, Czechische Volkslieder,” M. Waldau, 2 vols.,
Prague, 1858–60. b, Slovak.-“Slowanské Naródnj Pisné,”
F. L. Czelakowsky (including, besides Slovak songs, Slo-
venian, Bohemian, etc.), 3 parts, Prague, 1822–27, and
1839–44; “Národnjé zpiewanky &ili pjesmé Swietské Slo-
waki w Uhrach” (“Songs of the Slovaks in Hungary”),
J. Kollar, 2 parts, Buda, 1823–27, 1834–35. 2, Polish.-
“Pieśni polskie i ruskie Ludu galicyjskiego” (“Songs of
the Polish and Russian people in Galicia”), W. z. Oleska,
Lemberg, 1833; “Pieśni Ludu bialo-chrobatów, mazurów,
i russinéw z nad Bugu" (“Songs of the White Chrobatians,
Massovians, and Russinians on the Bug”), K. W. Woicicki,
Warsaw, 1836; “Pieśni Ludu polskiego w Galicyi” (“Songs
of the Polish People in Galicia”), Z. Pauli, Lemberg, 1838;
“Pieśni Ludu polskiego,” P. Kolberg, Warsaw, 1857;
“Pieśni Ludu polskiego w Górnym Szlasku” (“Songs of
the Polish People in Silesia”), Juliusz Roger, Wroclaw,
1863. 3, Sorabian-Wendish.-‘‘Volkslieder der Wenden
in der Ober- u. Nieder-Lausitz”, L. Haupt and J. E.
Schmaler, Grimma, 1841–43. General Works.-‘‘Histor-
ical View of the Languages and Literature of the Slavic
Nations,” etc., Talvi (Mrs. Robinson), New York, 1850;
“Slawische Volkslieder” (Russian, Bohemian, Slovak, Bul-
garian), J. Wenzig, Halle, 1830; “Slawische Balalaika”
(Russian, Little Russian, Carniolan, Polish), W. v. Wald-
brühl, Leipsic, 1843. { -
Lithuanian.—“Littauische Volkslieder,” collected and
translated by G. H. F. Nesselmann, Berlin, 1859; “Litthau-
ische Volksliederu. Sagen,” Wm. Jordan, Berlin, 1844.
Breton.—“Barzaz-Breiz, Chants populaires de la Bre-
tagne,” Th. Hersart de la Villemarqué, fourth ed., 2
vols., Paris, 1846; “Volkslieder aus der Bretagne,” A.
Keller u. E. Seckendorff, Tübingen, 1841; “Bretonische
Volkslieder,” M. Hartmann u. L. Pfau, Cologne, 1859;
“Chants populaires de la Basse-Bretagne,” F. M. Luzel,
vol. i., L’Orient, 1868. -
Of non-Indo-European races the more important collec-
tions are— s -
Finnish.-‘‘ Finnische Runen " (Finnish and German),
by H. R. von Schröter, edited by G. H. v. Schröter, Stutt-
gart, 1834; “Suomen Kansan wanhoja. Runoja ” (“Ancient
Songs of the Finnish People”), Oscar Topelius, 3 parts,
Turussa, 1822–26; “Ranteletar,” etc., “The Harp, or An-
cient Songs and Hymns of the Finnish People,” E. Lönn-
roth, 2 vols., Helsingfors, 1840. Esthonian.-‘‘Ehstnische
Volkslieder,” original and translation, H. Neus, Reval,
1850–52. Hungarian.—“Népdalok és Mondék” (“Songs.
and Tales”), J. Erdélyi, 3 vols., Pesth, 1842–48; “Ausge-
wählte ungarische Volkslieder,” translated and edited by
K. M. Kertbeny, Darmstadt, 1851. Turkish. —“Proben
der Volkslitteratur der tiirkischen Stämme Süd-Siberiens”
(“Specimens of the Popular Literature of the Turkish
Races of South Siberia”), W. Radlof, 3 vols., St. Peters-
burg, 1866–70. -
Of comprehensive works and collections the most notice-
able are—“Stimmen der Völker in Liedern,” J. G. v. Her-
der, 1778, ed. by J. v. Müller, Tübingen, 1807; Talyj (Mrs.
Robinson), “Versuch einer geschichtlichen Charakteristik
der Volkslieder germanischen Nationen,” etc., Leipsic, 1840;
“Hausschatz der Volkspoesie,” O. L. B. Wolff, Leipsic,
1853; “Volksdichtungen nord-u. stideuropäischer Völker
alter u. neuer Zeit,” J. M. Firmenich, 1867. F. J. CHILD.
Ballanche (PIERRE SIMON), a French social reformer,
born at Lyons. Aug. 4, 1776. He published “Antigone,”
an historical novel (1814), and “The Man Without a Name”
(1820). He became a member of the French Academy in
1842; and was a friend of Chateaubriand and Madame
Récamier. Among his works are an “Essay on Social
Palingenesis” and “The Vision of Hebal.” His philoso-
phy is abstruse and mystical, but he is regarded as a pro-
found thinker by some French critics. Died June 12,
1847. (See L. DE LoMáNIE, “ M. Ballanche, par un homme
de rien,” 1841; J. J. AMPièRE, “Ballanche,” 1849; AL-
BERT AUBERT, “ P. S. Ballanche,” 1847.) -
Bal’larat, an Australian town and gold-field in Victoria,
75 miles W. N. W. of Melbourne. The gold-mines of this
place, which were opened in 1851, are among the richest in
the colony of Victoria. Ballarat is unrivalled in the fine-
ness of its gold, which averages twenty-three and a half
carats, the pure metal being twenty-four carats. Pop. in
1871, including the suburbs, 64,260.
Bal/lard, a county in the W. of Kentucky, bordering
on Illinois and Missouri. Area, 400 square miles. It is
bounded on the N. W. by the Ohio River, and on the W.
by the Mississippi. The surface is undulating. Indian.
corn and tobacco are the chief crops. Capital, Blandville.
Pop. 12,576. -
Bal/lard Vale, a post-village of Andover township,
Essex co., Mass., on the Shawsheen River and the Boston
and Maine R. R., 21 miles N. of Boston, has valuable
water-power and extensive manufactories.
Bal’last [probably derived from beal, “sand,” and the
Ger. last, a “ load;” Fr. lest], stone, sand, or other heavy
substance which is placed in the bottom of a ship when her
cargo is too light to give her sufficient hold of the water and
& -
BALLET-BALL’S BLUFF.
enable her to carry sail without danger of being upset. A
vessel which does not carry enough ballast is said to be too .
crank. This condition renders her unsteady and topheavy.
Iron, stone, and water are the principal substances used
for ballast. Iron has the great advantage of taking up but
little space. Water-ballast is sometimes contained in water-
proof bags, or is confined beneath a false bottom in the ves-
sel. A ship is said to be “in ballast” when she carries no
cargo except the ballast, passengers, and the baggage and
provisions of the passengers and crew. Balloons generally
take up a quantity of sand as ballast, in order that the
aéronaut may be able, by throwing it out, to increase the
buoyancy of the balloon or arrest its too rapid descent.
The term ballast is also applied to the broken stone or
gravel which is laid as a packing between railway sleepers
in order to give them solidity and prevent the rise of dust.
Ballet, bà’lā’, a French word signifying a dramatic or
theatrical exhibition of dancing and pantomime, with
music; a species of dance usually forming an interlude in
theatrical performances, but confined principally to operas.
The ballet has some resemblance to the pantomimic sacri-
ficial dances of the ancient Greeks, among whom were dan-
cers who expressed actions and passions by rhythm ap-
plied to gesture. The ballet was introduced into France
under the auspices of Catharine de' Médici about 1580.
Noverre about 1770 made improvements in it, to which he
gave an independent dramatic form. The Vestris family
were celebrated as performers in ballets. In recent times
the public favor is almost exclusively bestowed on female
dancers. The ballet has degenerated in many respects of
late years. -
Ballina', a market-town and seaport of Ireland, partly
in Mayo and partly in Sligo counties, and on the river
Moy, 7 miles from its entrance into Killala Bay, and 18
miles N. N. E. of Castlebar. The part of the town on
the E. bank of the Moy is called Ardnaree. Ballina has
manufactures of coarse limens and snuff; also an active
trade in fish, provisions, etc. Pop. in 1861, 5452.
Balliol. See BALIoI.
Ballista, or Balista [from the Gr. BáAAo, to
“throw ’’), a military engine used before the invention of
gunpowder to propel large stones or other heavy missiles.
It probably originated with the ancient Romans, who used
it in the siege and defence of fortified places. The con-
struction of the ballista is not well understood. It appears
that the elastic force with which a twisted rope uncoils
itself was commonly used as the propelling power, with
which other forces were perhaps combined. (For a vivid
picture of the effects of the ballista see LUCAN’s “Phar-
Salia,” lib. iii., 1.465 et seq.)
Ballis’tic Pen’dulum, an instrument used to ascer-
tain the velocity of projectiles and to prove the quality of
gunpowder. In its simplest form it consists of a large
block of wood suspended, so as to turn very easily, before the
mouth of the cannon, and having some means of measuring
the angle through which the beam oscillates. When the
magnitude of this angle (produced by the shot lodging in
the mass) is known, together with the centres of suspen-
sion and oscillation of the mass, the velocity of the shot
can be determined by calculation. The gun itself is also
made a ballistic pendulum, being suspended, and its recoil
observed. But these contrivances are both long since Su-
perseded by the several forms of electró-ballistic pendulums.
Bal/lium, or Bai'ley, the central part of the old
Norman castle, sometimes called the donjon, or the whole
space enclosed within the external walls of a castle except
that covered by the keep. The walls of the lower stories
were of great thickness. The entrance to the ballium was
generally by a drawbridge over the ditch.
Ball Mountain, a township of Watauga co., N. C.
Pop. 320. -
Balloon. See AiRONAUTICs, by GEN. J. G. BARNARD.
:Balloon-fish, a popular name of several marine fishes
of the genera Diodon, Tetraodon, etc., of the family Gym-
nodontidae and the order Plectognathes. They take their
name from the power which they possess of inflating them-
selves with air. Many species are known, of which sev-
eral are American. Our Diodons are all small.
Bal/lot [Fr. ballotte], originally a little ball used in
secret voting. In modern times it is applied to the ticket
or printed paper which the voter uses at an election, and
the practice of secret voting is called “voting by ballot.”
The tickets are deposited in a wooden box called the bal-
lot-box. The system of voting by ballot prevails in France
and the U. S. The other mode of voting is called vivá
voce (“by the living voice”). The ancient Greeks elected
their magistrates or decided political questions by secret
vote, for which purpose they used beans of different colors.
The English elections were conducted vivá voce. The adop-
369
tion of the ballot has for many years been advocated by
the British radicals and advanced liberals. In 1871 the
House of Commons, after a long contest, decided in favor
of the ballot, but the House of Lords rejected the bill. In
1872 the Ballot act was passed by both houses, and at
present all members of Parliament are chosen by ballot.
In the election of members of social clubs ballots or balls
are commonly used. A person who is rejected on such
occasions is said to be black-balled, black balls being used
by those who vote in the negative.
Ballou' (HoseA), one of the fathers of the Universalist
denomination in the U. S., was born at Richmond, N. H.,
April 30, 1771. His early education was acquired by his
own efforts, though he had to contend with unusual obsta-
cles. He began to preach when about twenty-one years
of age, and labored in various places in New England. In
1807 he settled in Portsmouth, N. H., in 1815 in Salem,
Mass., and in 1817 in Boston. In 1819 he became editor
of the “Universalist Magazine,” and in 1831–32 was con-
nected with the “Expositor.” Died June 7, 1852. Among
his works are “Notes on the Parables” (1804), and an
“Examination of the Doctrine of a Future Retribution *
(1846). (See his “Life” by M. M. BALLou, and another
by T. WHITTEMORE, 1854.)
Ballou (Hosſ, A, second), D.D., was born in Halifax,
Vt., Oct. 18, 1796. He was a nephew of the foregoing.
Eſe entered the Universalist ministry in his youth, and
preached at Stafford, Conn., and Roxbury and Medford,
Mass. In 1822 became an editor of the “Universalist
Magazine,” and was long connected with various journals
of his denomination. He displayed much ability as editor
of the “Universalist Quarterly.” He was (1853–61) the
first president of Tufts College. He published “Ancient
History of Universalism" (1829), an edition of Sismondi's
“History of the Crusades” (1833), and a hymn-book (1837).
Died May 27, 1861. -
Ballou (MATURIN M.), a son of Rev. Hosea Ballou,
born in Boston, Mass., in 1822, has long been editor of
“Ballou's Pictorial,” “Ballou's Monthly,” and other period-
icals, and has published a “History of Cuba,” (1854),
“Biography of Hosea Ballou,” “Life-work of Hosea
Ballou,” and a valuable compilation of quotations from a
great number of writers.
Ballou (SULLIVAN), an American lawyer and officer
of volunteers, born at Smithfield, R. I., Mar. 28, 1829,
educated at Brown University, studied law at Ballston, and
was admitted to the bar in 1853, clerk of the house of repre-
sentatives of his native State 1854–56, and speaker 1857.
He entered the army on the outbreak of the late war, and
was engaged at the battle of Bull Run July 21, 1861, where
he was killed, thus ending a life marked by distinguished
ability; and his military career, though brief, was distin-
guished by conspicuous gallantry and patriotism.
Ball Play, a post-township of Etowah co., Ala. Pop.
327.
Ball’s Bluff, Loudon co., Va., on the right bank of
the Potomac, about 33 miles N. W. of Washington. The
bank here rises about 150 feet above the level of the river.
It was the scene of a disastrous defeat of the U. S. forces
under Col. E. D. Baker, Oct. 21, 1861. The hostile forces
of the North and South had for several months confronted
each other on opposite banks of the Potomac. On the 19th
and 20th of October reconnoissances were made in the
direction of Dranesville and Leesburg by the Federal
forces under Gen. McCall, without encountering any oppo-
sition. Gen. McClellan being anxious to ascertain the
strength of the Confederates in these positions, on Oct. 20
(10% P. M.), instructions were sent to Gen. Stone at Pooles-
ville, Md., directing him to keep a good lookout on Lees-
burg, to note the effect of this movement, and adding that
“perhaps a slight demonstration on your (Stone's) part
might have the effect to move them.” Accordingly, Gen.
Stone ordered the Fifteenth Massachusetts, Col. Devens,
to be moved to Harrison's Island in the Potomac, opposite
the bluff, and about 100 yards distant from the Virginia.
shore; which was promptly effected in flatboats. . At dark
Devens sent a detachment of fifteen men under Capt.
Philbrick to the Virginia shore, to ascertain the where-
abouts of the Confederates. After ascending the bluff they
had proceeded but a short distance when they discovered
what was supposed to be a camp, apparently but poorly
guarded, which situation Philbrick reported to Col. Devens
on his return. Devens forwarded this report to Gen. Stone, .
who immediately issued an order directing Col. Devens to
land with five companies of his regiment and proceed
to surprise the discovered camp at daybreak, and, after
having accomplished this, to pursue as far as he deemed,
prudent, destroy the camp, and return to his position.9n.
the island, unless he saw a favorable position on the Vir-
24.
370
BALLSTON.—BALTA.
ginia side which he could hold until reinforced. At the
same time Col. Lee (Twentieth Massachusetts) was ordered
to occupy Harrison’s Island with his regiment, and to
throw one company across to the heights on the Virginia
shore to cover Col. Devens’s return. These orders were
carried into effect, and at daylight Devens advanced only
to find the reported camp to be, in fact, no camp, the de-
tachment of the might before having been deceived in the
moonlight, and mistaken the openings between the trees
for tents. Col. Devens, however, advanced to within a
mile of Leesburg, where he halted and, concealing his
force in the woods, reported to Gen. Stone that he had met
with no opposition, and asking for further orders. About
7 A. M. a body of Confederates appeared, but retired when
approached, and cavalry were also seen on the Leesburg
road; whereupon Col. Devens fell back to the bluff without
interference, and reported to Gen. Stone, who directed him
to remain, and that he would be reinforced. At this time
his force of officers and men was about 650. The position
he had taken up was surrounded on three sides by woods,
and here about noon he was attacked, and fell back to a
more secure position; being again attacked, he retired still
farther, to the edge of the bluff, where he was reinforced
by Col. Baker with his regiment of First California Volun-
teers, and who by seniority of rank took command. Col.
Baker's instructions were discretionary whether to remain
or withdraw, but on finding an attack already commenced
he decided to remain. The force at his command amounted
to about 1900 men; the Confederate force in the woods was
reported at 1700, not including, however, a regiment of
Mississippi volunteers so stationed as to prevent succor to
Col. Baker from Edwards's Ferry. Col. Baker had no more
than disposed his men in line when he received a vigorous
attack on his right, extending soon to his left and centre.
For two hours a desperate conflict was maintained, the
Federals from their exposed position suffering by far the
heaviest loss. Col. Baker, who displayed the greatest
bravery, was killed about five o’clock, and the command
devolved upon Col. Cogswell (New York Tammany Regi-
ment). The severe fire to which the Federal troops had
been subjected, and the fearful loss they had sustained,
caused them to waver, and the only hope that appeared to
be left was to endeavor to join Gen. Stone, who was known
to have a strong force at Edwards's Ferry, about two miles
away; but this movement was met by a body of fresh
Mississippi infantry, and under their attack the disheart-
ened and reduced troops were routed, and, flying in great
disorder down the bluff, were subjected to a galling fire
from all directions. The boats to which they fled were
upset or sunk by the Confederates’ fire, and the few that
escaped either swam out into the stream or concealed them-
selves along the banks of the river, reaching the Federal
lines under cover of the darkness. In the mean time, Gen.
Stone had ordered an advance across Edwards's Ferry to
their assistance, but as they did not arrive on the field, they
furnished no aid. The Federal loss in killed, drowned and
wounded exceeded, probably, 1000 men; Gen. Evans, in
command of the Confederate forces, reported his loss at
155. Much blame was attached to Col. Baker for reckless-
ness, and Gen. Stone was subsequently arrested and con-
fined in Fort La Fayette in New York harbor, but was
afterwards discharged, and at a later period again given
a command.
Ball'ston, a township of Saratoga co., N. Y. P. 2180.
Ballston Spa, sometimes called simply Ballston, a
post-Village, capital of Saratoga, co., N.Y., on the Rens-
selaer and Saratoga R. R., 30 miles N. of Albany and 6
miles S. W. of Saratoga Springs. Here are mineral springs,
somewhat frequented in summer. These springs rise from
the lower part of the Hudson River (Silurian) shales, and
rank among the best acidulous chalybeate springs in the
U. S. . The village has two national banks, 2 weekly pa-
pers, 5 churches, and several manufactories. It is in Mil-
ton township. Pop. 2970.
Ball/ville, a township of Sandusky co., O. Pop. 1731.
Bally. See BALL.
Bally, a Celtic word or prefix signifying “town” or
“ dwelling,” enters into the composition of the names of a
great number of places in Ireland and Scotland.
Ballyme/na, a market-town of Ireland, in the county
of Antrim, on the river Braid, 2 miles above its junction
with the Maine and 33 miles by rail N. N. W. of Belfast.
It has large public schools, a cotton-spinning mill, and
extensive bleaching-grounds, and is one of the greatest
linen and flax markets in Ireland. Pop. 6774.
Ballyshan’mon, a seaport-town of Ireland, in the
county of Donegal, on the river Erne at its entrance into
Donegal Bay, 120 miles N.W. of Dublin. A bridge of
fourteen arches here crosses the Erne. It has about six
churches and chapels.
Here is a valuable salmon-fishery
in the Erne. Pop. in 1871, 6739.
Balm (Melis'sa officina/lis), a perennial herbaceous
plant of the natural order Labiatae, a native of the south
of Europe, is cultivated in American gardens, and prized
for its lemon-scented leaves. The leaves, which are ovate
and crenate, and the stem, are occasionally used in medicine
as a gentle aromatic, stimulant, and tonic. Its properties
depend on an essential oil called oil of balm. An infusion
of balm is an excellent beverage in febrile diseases.
Balmacz-Ujvaros, a market-town of Hungary, in
the county of Szabolcs, 14 miles N.W. of Debreczin. Pop.
in 1870, 9481.
Bal/més (JAYME LUCI0), a Spanish Catholic priest, born
at Wich, in Catalonia, Aug. 28, 1810. He was a remark-
ably precocious scholar. He wrote in reply to Guizot an
able work entitled “Protestantism Compared with Catholi-
cism in its Relations to European Civilization” (3 vols.,
1848), which was translated into English, French, Italian,
and German. Among his other works is “ Filosofia Fun-
damental,” which was translated into English by H. F.
Brownson, New York, 1857. Died July 9, 1848. (See
ANTONIO Sol ER, “Biografia de D. J. Balmés,” 1850; GAR-
CIA DE Los SANTos, “Wida de Balmés,” 1848; BLANCHE-
RoRFIN, “J. Balmés, sa, Vie et ses Ouvrages,” 1849.)
Balm of Gilead. See BALsAM ; GILEAD, BALM OF.
Balm or/al Castle, the autumnal residence of Queen
Victoria, is in a beautiful valley in Aberdeenshire, Scot-
land, on the river Dee, 48 miles W. S. W. of Aberdeen. It
commands a magnificent prospect and comprises 40,000 acres
of beautiful grounds. Prince Albert purchased this estate
in 1852 for £32,000, and erected a granite castle in the
Scottish baronial style. It consists of two blocks of build-
ings united by wings, and a massive tower thirty-five feet
square, rising to the height of eighty feet, find surmounted
by a turret twenty feet high.
Balna’ves, or Balnavis (HENRY), of Halhill, an
eminent Scottish Reformer and writer, born in Fifeshire in
1520. He studied law, and became secretary of state in
1543. In 1547 he, with other Protestants, took refuge in
the castle of St. Andrew’s, and was declared a traitor. The
castle was captured by the French, who took him, with
Knox, to Rouen as prisoner. While in prison he wrote a
“Confession of Faith.” He returned to Scotland in 1554.
Died in 1570.
Bal’sam [Lat. bal/samum; Gr. BáAarapov], a name in-
cluding in popular language many resinous substances and
oils to which great medicinal virtues are ascribed; also cer-
tain medicines compounded of resins and oils. The name
was originally limited to a single substance, the balm of
Gilead, Mecca balsam, or balsam of Judea. Balsams are :
natural mixtures of resins and essential oils, the resins
originating from the oxidation of the oils. They are vis-
cid, aromatic liquids, varying greatly in consistence. They
are of two kinds: (1) the simple oleo-resins, as crude tur-
pentine, Canada balsam, Copaiba balsam, Mecca balsam,
etc.; (2) balsams containing, besides oil and resin, the
fragrant cinnamic acid, as liquidamber, Peru and Tolu
balsams, storax, etc. (For further details see each of the
above.) Certain pharmaceutical preparations were once
called balsams, as balsamum opodel.doc, an alcoholic Soap
solution containing ammonia; balsamum arcaei, a Salve
containing elemi gum; balsamum sulphuris, a solution of
sulphur in linseed oil.
Balsam, Canada, the thick, terebinthine Sap of Abies
balsamea, which collects in blisters beneath the epidermis
on the trunks of young trees. These blisters are punctured,
and the balsam gathered as an article of commerce. It is
used in medicine, for varnishes, for mounting microscopic
objects, etc. Abies grandis of the W. coast furnishes a
similar fluid.
Balsam/ina, a genus of herbaceous plants of the order
Balsaminaceae, includes numerous species which are natives
of the East Indies, and are mostly annuals. The Balsam-
in a hortensis (or Impatiens balsamina), commonly, called
balsam, is a favorite garden flower in the U. S., with un-
symmetrical corollas finely variegated with white, pink,
red, and purple. It has five stamens, and a capsule of five
valves, remarkable for the elastic force with which it bursts.
The term balsam is also applied to the Impatien8 molt-me-.
tangere, a native of Europe, and two species of Impatiene
which grow wild in the U. S.
Balsamina/ceae, or Balsamin'eae (so called from
Balsamina, its principal genus), a natural order of succu-
lent herbaceous plants, natives of the East Indies, Europe,
China, and America. By Jussieu, Asa Gray, and others it
is regarded as a sub-order of the Geraniaceae.
Balsam Lake, a township of Polk co., Wis. Pop. 192.
Bal/ta, a well-built town of Russian Poland, in Podo-
N.
BALTIC–BALTIMORE.
371
lia, on the Kodema River, 132 miles E. S. E. of Kamieniec.
It has over twenty factories of candles, soap, etc., and has
an extensive trade in cattle, horses, hides, wool, and grain.
Pop. in 1867, 14,528.
Bałºtic, or Baltic Sea [Ger. Ostsee; Lat. Mare Balti-
cum# and Si'nus Coda'avus], an inland sea, or gulf of North-
ern Europe, is situated between Russia, Sweden, Germany,
and Denmark, and connects with the German Ocean and the
Cattegat by the Sound and the Great and Little Belts. It
is 830 miles long. Its greatest width is 420 miles, and the area
154,570 square miles. On account of the small proportion of
salt it contains (not over 2 per cent.), the Baltic freezes much
more easily and early than the ocean. It is not affected by
the tide. The numerous sand-banks and islands, and the
violent storms with sudden changes of wind, render the navi-
gation of the Baltic dangerous. It receives several large
rivers—namely, the Oder, Vistula, Niemen, Düna, Narva,
Neva, Torneå, Dal, etc. No sea has in proportion to its
size so great an influx of fresh water. The largest islands
in the Baltic are Seeland, Gothland, Rügen, Bornholm, and
Oesel. The chief ports are St. Petersburg, Riga, Dantzig,
Stralsund, Königsberg, Stockholm, and Copenhagen. A
remarkable phenomenon connected with this sea is the
slow and gradual rising of its shore in Sweden.
Baltic, a post-village of Sprague township, New Lon-
don co., Conn., on the Hartford Providence and Fishkill
R. R., 42 miles E. S. E. of Hartford. Here are important
manufactures. The village contains one of the largest cot-
ton-mills in the world, running 60,000 spindles.
Balſtic Ques/tion, the name given to the controversy
between the Russian government and the Baltic provinces
of Courland, Esthonia, and Livonia. These countries,
which never stood in the relation of conquered provinces
to Russia, were promised by Peter the Great the main-
tenance of their German administration and security for
freedom of conscience. These rights and privileges were
confirmed by Alexander II. in Feb., 1856, but the actions
of the government appear to have contradicted these pro-
fessions. The priests of the Greek Church have sought to
make converts among the peasants by false promises of
land and of exemption from military service. Many efforts
have also been made to compel the German inhabitants to
adopt the Russian language in public affairs and in their
schools, and a strict censorship has been exercised over the
German press. (See A. J. ScHEM, “Deutch-Amerikan-
isches conversations-Lexikon.”)
Bal/timore, a county in the northern part of Mary-
land, bordering on Pennsylvania, has an area of about 700
square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by Chesapeake
Bay, and on the S. W. by the Patapsco River, and inter-
sected by the Gunpowder River. The surface is pleasantly
diversified by hills, some of which are 800 feet high. Granite,
gneiss, and limestone underlie the county, which contains
mines of copper, iron, and chrome. The soil is productive.
Corn, wheat, tobacco, and garden and dairy products are
the chief crops. This county, the most populous in the
State, is intersected by the Northern Central R. R. Other
railroads meet at the city of Baltimore. It has important
manufactures. Capital, Towsontown. Pop. 330,741.
Baltimore, the chief city of Maryland, is situated in
39° 17' N. lat. and 0° 26' E. lon. (76° 37' 30" W. from
Greenwich), at the head of tide-water and of navigation
on the Patapsco River, about 14 miles from the Chesapeake
Bay, and nearly 200 from the ocean by ship-channel. The
Patapsco to this point is a broad estuary; above, a small
and swift stream, furnishing water-power to many mills
and manufactories. The harbor is spacious and secure,
but with a depth of but little over 20 feet. Its depth is
preserved and is being increased, and an improved ship-
channel provided by extensive dredging, prosecuted at the
expense of the U. S., the State, and the city governments.
The city covers about 10,000 acres of land, and the surface
of its site was originally very hilly, and notwithstanding
all the grading rendered necessary by improvements, much
of the original inequality still exists; and the surrounding
country being of similar character, with swift streams, ex-
cellent drainage is secured, and the healthfulness of the
location greatly promoted.
The first steps for “erecting a town’’ on the Patapsco,
to be called Baltimore Town, were taken by a legislative
act in 1729, and it was laid out in half-acre lots in 1730.
In 1752 it contained 25 houses and 200 persons; in 1765
the number had increased to 50 houses. After this the
growth was more rapid, and in 1775 there were 564 houses
and 5934 persons. In Dec., 1776, the Continental Congress
transferred its sittings from Philadelphia to Baltimore, and
met here for about two months. In 1797 it was incorpo-
* The name Baltic is supposed to be derived from the Latin
balteus, a “belt,” on account of the famous belts of this sea.
rated as a city. The population in 1790 was 13,503; in
1800, 26,514; in 1810, 35,583; in 1820, 62,738; in 1830,
80,625; in 1840, 102,313; in 1850, 169,054; in 1860,
212,418; and in 1870, 267,354. -
The city is laid out, for the most part, at right angles,
the streets having generally a width of about sixty feet,
and the buildings are mostly built of red brick, many of
them with white marble bases; granite and iron are, how-
ever, largely used in the construction of stores and ware-
houses, some of which are very fine. The bricks used for
building are made from immense clay-beds adjacent to the
city, and are of unsurpassed quality. The white marble,
of excellent quality, is procured from inexhaustible quar-
ries about 10 miles N. of the city; the granite, from quar-
ries about 15 miles W. Shipbuilding has always been one
of the leading industries of the city, but it has greatly
suffered, in common with the commerce of the country,
during the last few years. There are several furnaces and
foundries, producing iron in various forms from ores mined
in the vicinity, one very extensive rolling-mill, several
manufactories of agricultural implements, and very large
machine-shops, employing many hundred hands. There
are also extensive manufactories of clothing, leather, shoes,
tobacco, etc. (in all about 400 mapufactories of different
kinds), and about 100 establishments for packing oysters
and fruits. This is a very important industry, and gives
employment to several thousand hands. These industries
find their outlet both by land and water communication.
There are lines of steamships to Liverpool, Bremen, Bos-
ton, Providence, Wilmington (N. C.), Charleston, Savan-
nah, Havana, New Orleans, etc., and steamboat lines to
Norfolk, Richmond, Fredericksburg, Washington, and all
points on the Chesapeake Bay and its many estuaries. It
has several excellent railroads, and they are rapidly mul-
tiplying. The Baltimore and Potomac road (to Washing-
ton) has just completed (June, 1873) a tunnel 7400 feet in
length under the north-western part of the city; and the
Northern Central road (to Harrisburg) is just perfecting
its connection with tide-water by a similar tunnel 3500 feet
long, passing under the north-eastern section. Passenger
railways also connect the city with all the thriving sub-
urban villages that surround it, where many of the busi-
ness men of the city reside.
Its sobriquet “Monumental City” was derived from the
Washington Monument and Battle Monument, erected by
the gratitude and patriotism of its citizens. The former,
located at Mount Vernon Place, North Charles street, is a
Doric shaft of white marble 180 feet high, surmounted by
a statue of Washington sixteen feet high, built 1816–30.
Access to the top is had by 220 winding stairs within the
column, and it affords a charming view of the city and
surrounding country. Battle Monument, in Monument
Square, North Calvert street, is also of white marble, 52%
feet high. Wildey Monument on Broadway, of white mar-
ble, 52 feet high, was erected to Thomas Wildey, a citizen
of Baltimore, who died in 1861, and was the founder of Odd
Fellowship in America. There is also in Greenmount Cem-
etery a creditable but plain monument and statue to
John McDonogh, who bequeathed to the city a large sum
(amounting now to about $1,000,000) to establish the Mc-
Donogh Institute “for the education of poor children.”.
Greenmount and Loudon Park are its two beautiful cem-
eteries, and there are several others creditable, but of less
pretensions. The city has about 160 churches and 6 Jew-
ish synagogues. The first church founded in the city was
St. Paul’s (Episcopal) in 1731. The first Presbyterian
church was erected in 1756; the first Roman Catholic, in
1770; the first Wesleyan Methodist, in 1773; the first
Baptist, in 1780; the first Friends’ meeting-house, in 1781.
Several of the churches are imposing and beautiful struc-
tures. Among the most noticeable are the cathedral, St.
Alphonsus’, and St. Martin’s (Roman Catholic); Grace, St.
Peter's, and Christ (Episcopal); Mount Vernon (Method-
ist); Westminster, Brown Memorial, and First (Presbyte-
rian), and the Unitarian.
The water-supply of the city has hitherto been taken
from Jones's Falls, about seven miles above the city, and
is abundant and of good quality. To guard against the
possible contingency of protracted drought the Gunpowder
River is now being added, and this supply is practically
inexhaustible. The reservoirs now in existence have a
storage capacity of 857,000,000 gallons. This is distributed
everywhere in abundance, and there are about 800 fire-
plugs for use in case of fire. The fire department is well
organized, directed by a police and fire-alarm telegraph,
and notably efficient. It has eight steam fire-engines,
with a complement of horses and twelve men to each, and
three hook-and-ladder companies, thirteen men to each.
Numerous public squares add to the beauty and health-
fulness of the city. The largest of these, Patterson Park,
in the N. E. section of the city, contains 54 acres. Druid
372
BALTIMORE–BALZAC, DE.
Hill Park, just outside the N. W. limits of the city, con-
tains 704 acres of ground, with firie forests, lakes, and
lawns, about twenty miles of good carriage-drives, and has
no superior as a pleasure-ground.
First among the public buildings should be named the
new city-hall (not quite completed), built of white marble,
occupying an entire square, and costing $3,000,000; the
Maryland Institute, of brick, 355 feet long ; the custom-
house, 240 feet long, with a dome 115 feet high; the
court-house, and Odd Fellows' Hall, all of brick; the Ma-
sonic Temple, of white marble; the U. S. court-house and
the jail, both of granite, are remarkable structures. Out-
side of the city limits, but a part of its institutions, should
be noted Bay View Asylum (city almshouse), 714 feet in
length; the house of refuge, retaining about 500 juvenile
delinquents; Spring Grove Asylum, a State institution for
the insane, of granite, with capacity for 300 patients; the
Maryland Institution for the Blind, a beautiful white mar-
ble building, where about fifty of these unfortunates are in-
structed; and the Sheppard Asylum (for the insane), en-
dowed by the will of Moses Sheppard with about $1,000,000.
The Peabody Institute of Baltimore was the recipient of
over $1,000,000 from the late George Peabody. It has, in
its fine white marble building by the side of the Washing-
ton Monument, a free fibrary of 60,000 books and pam-
phlets, an art-gallery, musical conservatoire, rooms for
lectures, concerts, etc., and is one of the most thriving of
the institutions endowed by that great philanthropist,
which will “keep his memory green.” The Hopkins Hos-
pital has been but begun. It originated in Mar., 1873,
when Johns Hopkins, a merchant of the city, placed in the
hands of trustees selected by him 13 acres of land in the
eastern part of the city, with directions to establish there-
on a free hospital for the “indigent sick of the city and its
environs, without regard to sex, age, or color,” guarantee-
ing to them for the purpose $100,000 a year during his life,
and endowing it with $2,000,000 for its support thereafter.
The general education of the city is provided for in about
125 graded public schools, in which about 40,000 pupils
are taught by about 550 teachers. Loyola College, a
Catholic institution under the general supervision of the
Jesuits, and the seminary of St. Sulpice (St. Mary’s Col-
lege), a Catholic theological institution, are both in a
flourishing condition, while the medical department of the
University of Maryland takes very high rank, and the
law department a respectable position among professional
schools. The city has 14 national banks, 6 daily, 7 Weekly,
8 monthly, and 1 semi-monthly newspaper.
The principal libraries of the city are—Peabody Insti-
tute, 59,000 books and pamphlets; Mercantile Library
Association, 33,278 (both rapidly increasing); Maryland
Institute, 15,600; Baltimore Bar Association, 7500; Young
Men's Christian Association, 2500; Odd Fellows', 19,356;
Maryland Historical Society, 13,366; Loyola College,
22,000. HENRY STOCKBRIDGE.
Baltimore, a hundred of Sussex co., Del. Pop. 3380.
IBaltimore, a township of Henry co., Ia. Pop. 1114.
Baltimore, a post-township of Barry co., Mich. Pop.
1155.
Baltimore, a post-village of Liberty township, Fair-
field co., O. Pop. 489.
Baltimore, a township of Windsor co., Vt. Pop. 83.
Baltimore, Lord, a title (of the Calvert family) in
the Irish peerage, created in 1624 by James I., who marked
his confidence in Sir George Calvert by making him, though
a Roman Catholic, baron of Baltimore (in Ireland). Cal-
vert was born at Kipling, Yorkshire, England, in 1582. He
graduated at Oxford, held several important public trusts,
was knighted in 1617, became principal secretäry of state
in 1619, member of Parliament 1620–21, , and first Lord
Baltimore 1624. By grant of James T. he became proprie-
tary of Avalon in Newfoundland, endeavored to plant a
colony there, and went thither himself in 1625. Owing
chiefly to the unfavorable soil and climate, the colony was
a failure. He then (1628) visited Virginia, met an un-
gracious reception, and returned to England. He seems
then to have petitioned the king (Charles I.) for a charter
for founding a new colony, and to have met with favor;
but before the charter was issued he died, April 15, 1632.
The charter which his address had secured was issued in
June, 1632, to his son Cecil, who became the second Lord
Baltimore, and real founder of the colony of Maryland.
The territory granted by the charter included the whole of
the present State of Maryland. Cecil never visited it, but
sent out an expedition in Nov., 1633, under the charge
of his brother, Leonard Calvert, as governor. The Calverts
have been much praised for their liberal and tolerant spirit,
and their wise and equitable legislation in the colony. The
successive Lords Baltimore were John (the third), Charles
(fourth), Benedict (fifth), Charles (sixth), and Frederick
&
into many languages.
(seventh). Frederick died in 1771, leaving no legitimate
children, and with him the title Lord Baltimore became
extinct. (See FULLER’s “Worthies of England; ” BAN-
cRoRT's and HILDRETH's “Histories of the United States;”
J. P. KENNEDY, “Character of George Calvert;” Proceed-
ings of Maryland. Historical Society; SPARKs’s American
Biography,” vol. ix. S. S.) HENRY STOCKBRIDGE.
Baltimore Bird, or Baltimore Oriole (Icterus
Baltimore), sometimes called Golden Robin, a beautiful
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Paltimore Bird. -
bird which is found in all parts of the U. S., and migrates
in winter to tropical or sub-tropical regions. The plumage
of the male is brilliant, orange, vermilion, and black being
the most conspicuous colors. This bird is very active, has
an agreeable song of clear and mellow notes, and builds
a curious nest, a pendulous pouch about six inches long,
usually suspended from the drooping branch of a high tree.
The name originated in the similarity of its colors to the
livery of Lord Baltimore. The extended wings measure
about twelve inches from tip to tip.
Baluze (ÉTIENNE), a French historian, born at Tulle
Dec. 24, 1630, became in 1670 professor of canon law
in Paris, and in 1707 director of the Royal College under
Louis XIV. Among his works are “Lives of the Popes of
Avignon,” 1693, and “History of the House of Auvergne,”
in which he endeavored to show that the House of Bouil-
lon was descended from the ancient dukes of Guienne, and
therefore owed no allegiance to the king of France. The
king suppressed this work, exiled the author, and confis-
cated his estates. He published forty-five works, among
which were “Regum Francorum Capitularia” (1677),
“Lives of the Avignon Popes” (1693), etc. Died in
Paris July 28, 1718.
Balzac, de (HoNorſ), a popular French novelist, born.
at Tours May 16, 1799. After he had written several un-
successful tales, he published in 1829 an historical romance
called “ The Last Chouans,” which was received with favor.
His reputation was increased by “The Physiology of Mar-
riage” (1831), “Le Peau de Chagrin.” (1831), Scenes of
Provincial Life” (1832), “Scenes of Parisian Life” (1832),
“Le Père Goriot,” and “Eugénie Grandet.” He excelled
in the analysis of emotions and in the delineation of indi-
viduality of character. He married the countess of Hanska,
a Polish lady, in 1848. His works have been translated
Died in Paris Aug. 19, 1850. (See











BALZAC, DE—BANAT-KOMLAS.
373
G. DESNOIRESTERREs, “Vie de Honoré de Balzac ;” GEORGE
SAND, “Notice biographique sur H. de Balzac,” 1853; A.
BASCHET, “ H. de Balzac,” 1852.)
Balzac, de (JEAN Louis GUEZ), SEIGNEUR, a French
writer, born in 1594. He was patronized by Cardinal
Richelieu, and was admitted into the French Academy in
1634. He was considered the best French prose-writer of
his time, and acquired a durable reputation by his suc-
cessful efforts to improve and refine his native language.
Among his works are “The Christian Socrates” (1652) and
“Familiar Letters” (new ed., 1806). Died Feb. 15, 1654.
Bambar/ra, a state of Western Africa, in Soodam, lies
on both sides of the river Niger or Joliba, which flows in a
N. E. direction through the middle of this state. It is
bounded on the S. by the Kong Mountains. The soil is well
watered and fertile. The rainy season lasts from June to
November. Two crops of maize, cotton, and yams are raised
annually. The baobab, butter tree, and date-palm are found
here. The wild animals are lions, elephants, leopards,
panthers, etc. The population is composed mostly of Man-
dingoes. Area, about 21,300 square miles. Capital, Sego.
Bam/berg, a city of Bavaria, in Upper Franconia, is
beautifully situated on the river Regnitz, 30 miles N. of
Nuremberg and 3 miles from the river Main. It is con-
nected by railway with Nuremberg and other towns. It is
well built, and has spacious, well-lighted streets, which are
lined with handsome houses. Among the remarkable pub-
lic buildings are the magnificent cathedral (Domkirche)
in the Byzantine style, founded in 1004 by the emperor
Henry II.; the old palace of the bishops of Bamberg; and
the Jesuit church of St. Martin’s. Bamberg contains a
theatre, a lyceum, a museum of natural history, and a royal
library of about 50,000 volumes. Here are manufactures
of porcelain, jewelry, musical instruments, gloves, etc.;
also numerous breweries, which produce beer of superior
quality. Pop. in 1871, 25,748.
Bamberg, a post-twp. of Barnwell co., S. C. P. 1907.
Bambi'no [the Italian for “infant”], a term applied
to the swaddled figure of the infant Saviour which, carved
or painted, forms the subject of many altar-pieces in Ro-
man Catholic churches. The most celebrated of these is
the Santissimo Bambino of the church Ara Coeli at Rome.
This is a kind of wooden doll profusely adorned with
jewels, said to have been carved from a tree which grew
on the Mount of Olives. It is often carried in procession
to the bedside of the sick. The festival of the Bambino
occurs at Epiphany, Jan. 6.
Bamboccia'de [from the It. bamboe'cio, a “simple-
ton’], in painting, is a grotesque scene from common or
low life, such as country fairs, rural sports and festivals,
and boorish frolics. The name was derived from Bamboc-
cio, the surname of Peter van Laer, who painted such sub-
jects. He was born in 1613, and died in 1674.
Bam (boo' (Bambw'8a), [Fr. bambowl, a genus of arbo-
rescent grasses which are natives of the tropical and warm
parts of Asia and America, and grow to a large size. Some
of the species are eighty feet high or more. The bamboo
is a plant of great utility and importance. It has a jointed
and hollow stem, which is very hard and light, and is ex-
ternally coated with silex. It has been called the national
plant of China, the natives of which make of it a great
variety of articles, furniture, weapons, etc. . It is sometimes
used for building houses and bridges and for water-pipes.
The Smaller stems are converted into walking-sticks, and
are employed in wickerwork and the seats of chairs. Some
species of Bambusa secrete a silicious, phosphorescent sub-
stance called tabasheer, which possesses remarkable proper-
ties. (See TABASHEER.)
Bam/borough (or Bambrough) Castle, one of the
oldest castles in Great Britain, is on the coast of Northum-
berland, 16 miles S. E. of Berwick. It stands on a basaltic
rock 150 feet high, and accessible only on the S. E. side.
It was founded in 1070. Connected with this castle is an
extensive public library, a dispensary, life-boats to save the
crews of shipwrecked vessels, and other charitable institu-
tions. Near the castle is a village of the same name.
Bambuk’, a country of Western Africa, included be-
tween lat. 12° 30' and 14° 30' N., and between lon. 10° 30'
and 12° 15' W., is bounded on the N. E. by the Senegal
River, and on the S. W. by the Faleme. The surface is
hilly, and the soil of the valleys fertile. It is inhabited
by Mandingoes, who are said to be very ferocious. The
baobab and other trees here attain an enormous size. Bam-
buk has long been celebrated for its rich gold-mines. Pop.
about 800,000. -
Baſmian', a valley and pass of Afghanistan, on the
route from Cabul to Turkistan, and between the central
and western ranges of the Hindu-Kush Mountains, is at
an elevation of 8496 feet, and is important as the only known
pass over the Hindu-Kush Mountains that is practicable
for artillery. The valley is covered with ruins of the city
of Gulgula, which was destroyed by Jengis Khan about
1220. Bamian was one of the chief centres of the Booddh-
ist worship, and presents numerous caves with gigantic
idols cut out of the rock. One of these is 160 feet high.
Ba/mo, Bºha'mo, or Bºhan-Mo, the most import-
ant commercial town in the empire of Burmah, in Farther
India, is situated on the Irrawaddy at the entrance of the
Tamping. Large caravans laden with silk and other goods
arrive here from October to May, during which time a large
business is carried on. Large quantities of raw cotton are
also exported from this place. The annual imports and ex-
ports amount to about $1,500,000 each. Pop. about 12,000.
Bampton Lecſtures, so called after the name of their
founder, the Rev. John Bampton (1689–1751), canon of
Salisbury, who in 1751 left his “lands and estates” to the
University of Oxford for “the endowment of eight divinity
lecture sermons,” to be preached annually at “ St. Mary’s in
Oxford.” The subjects specified were: (1) “To confirm
and establish the Christian faith, and to confute all here-
ties and schismatics; (2) upon the divine authority of the
Holy Scriptures; (3) upon the authority of the writings
of the primitive Fathers as to the faith and practice of
the primitive Church; (4) upon the divinity of our Lord
and Saviour Jesus Christ; (5) upon the divinity of the
IHoly Ghost; (6) upon the articles of the Christian faith
as comprehended in the Apostles’, and Nicene Creeds.”
When the lectures commenced, in 1780, the income of the
estate was £120 a year. Ever since then (except in the
years 1834, 1835, and 1841) these lectures have been de-
livered. Some of the more noted of the earlier lecturers
were Dr. White, in 1784, on “Christianity and Mohamme-
danism;” Dr. Nott, in 1802, on “Religious Enthusiasm;”
Bishop Heber, in 1815, and Archbishop Whately, in 1822.
Mansel, in 1858, on “The Limits of Religious Thought,”
opened a new era in the history of the lectures. Since
then we have had, among others, George Rawlinson in
1859, Farrar in 1863, Mozely in 1865, Liddon in 1866,
and Bernard in 1867. (For a complete list, down to 1852,
see DARLING’s “Cyclopædia Bibliographica.”)
Ban, a word which occurs in many modern languages,
signifying an edict; a public order or prohibition; an in-
terdiction; a notice of marriage; a curse or excommuni-
cation. In the former German empire to put a prince
under the ban of the empire was to divest him of his
dignities and pronounce on him a sentence of outlawry.
The French ban signifies “exile,” “banishment.”
Ban, and Arrière Ban, military terms used in France
under the feudal system. When the feudal barons were
summoned to the service of the king in time of War, they
were called the ban. Their tenants or inferior vassals
formed the second levy, or arrière ban. The ban and ar-
rière ban constituted the entire military force of France
in feudal times.
Bam,” or Ba'nus, the title formerly given to military
governors of certain districts, called bamats, in the eastern
part of Hungary. The ban was appointed by the king
with the consent of the Diet, and had formerly very exten-
sive powers. In political, judicial, and military affairs his
authority was supreme. In time of war he commanded
the troops of his banat. The most important banats were
those of Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia, and Makovia
(or Machow), but their boundaries often changed, and they
were at length united into the double banat of Dalmatia.
and Croatia.
Bana/na (Muſsa sapien'tum), an herbaceous plant of
the natural order Musaceae, is extensively cultivated in all
tropical regions of both hemispheres. It is regarded by
many botanists as a mere variety of the plantain (Musa
paradisiaca). It grows to the height of from fifteen to
twenty feet, and the stem terminates in a tuft of leaves
which are from six to ten feet long, and about one foot
wide. The fruit, which is generally five or six inches long,
has a soft, luscious pulp, and is a nutritious and very im-
portant article of food. It is commonly eaten raw. It
is stated that no other plant produces so great an amount
of nutriment on the same space of ground. It is success-
fully cultivated in South Florida.
Bananal’, an island of Brazil, also called Nueva
Beira, is in the river Araguay, and in the province of
Matto Grosso. Its length from N. to S. is 290 miles, and
its width about 35 miles. The soil is fertile, and covered
with a dense forest. There is a large lake near the middle
of the island.
Banat-Komlas, a town of Hungary, in the county
& Ban in some of the Slavonic dialects is said to signify
“master.”
374
BANCA–BANDES NOIRES.
of Torontal, has beer-breweries and sheep-markets.
in 1870, 5715.
Ban/ca, an island of the Malay Archipelago, belong-
ing to Holland, about 10 miles E. of Sumatra, from which
it is separated by the Strait of Banca. It is about 100
miles long, and has an area of 4664 square miles. The
surface is hilly. It is celebrated for its mines of tin, of
which about 4700 tons were produced in 1865. Copper,
iron, and lead are also found here. Pop. in 1870, 59,740.
Ban'co, the standard money in which a bank keeps its
accounts, as distinguished from current money. The term
is chiefly applied to the money in which the Hamburg
bank keeps its accounts, which is not coined money. The
Hamburg mark banco (=18.5%d. sterling) is to the current
mark (=1s. 23d. Sterling) as 20 to 17.
Ban/croft, a post-township of Freeborn co., Minn.
Pop. 799. - - -
Ban/croft (AARON), D.D., a Unitarian minister, was
born at Reading, Mass., Nov. 10, 1755. He graduated at
Harvard in 1778, and became in 1785 pastor at Worcester,
where he remained upwards of fifty years. Among his
works, besides a great number of sermons, is a life of
George Washington, which was very popular. He was
the father of George Bancroft, noticed below. Died Aug.
19, 1839.
Bancroft (EDwARD), M.D., F. R. S., born at Westfield,
Mass., Jan. 9, 1744, ran away from his native country in his
youth, practised medicine in Guiana, and resided long in
England. He was a friend of Dr. Franklin, and professed
to labor in behalf of America, but is believed to have been
a spy of the British government. e published several
political works, a “Natural History of Guiana.” (1769),
“Charles Wentworth,” a novel, and “Researches con-
cerning the Philosophy of Permanent Colors” (2 vols.,
1794–1813). He never visited America after her inde-
pendence. Died Sept. 8, 1820.
Bancroft (GEORGE), PH.D., LL.D., D. C. L., an emi-
ment American historian, a son of Aaron, noticed above,
was born at Worcester, Mass., Oct. 3, 1800. He graduated
at Harvard College in 1817, and entered in 1818 the Uni-
versity of Göttingen, where he studied history and philology
under Heeren, Bunsen, and others. In 1820 he took the
degree of doctor of philosophy at Göttingen. Having
returned home in 1822, he published a volume of poems
(1823) and a translation of Heeren’s “Reflections on the
Politics of Ancient Greece.” (1824). In 1834 he produced
the first volume of his “History of the U. S.” He was
appointed secretary of the navy by President Polk in Mar.,
1845, in which year he founded the U. S. Naval Academy,
resigned that office in 1846, and was sent as minister pleni-
potentiary to England in the same year. He returned
home in 1849, retired from the public. service, and became
a resident of the city of New York. His capital work is a
“History of the U. S.,” the tenth volume of which appeared
in 1874. In a review of the third volume of this work,
William H. Prescott observes: “The reader will find the
pages of the present volume filled with matter not less
interesting and important than the preceding. He will
meet with the same brilliant and daring style, the same
picturesque sketches of character and incident, the same
acute reasoning and compass of erudition.” (North Amer-
ican Review for January, 1841.) Mr. Bancroft was appointed
minister to the court of Berlin in 1867, and negotiated a
treaty by which Germans emigrating to the U.S. are re-
leased from their allegiance to the government of their na-
tive country. In 1871–74 he was minister plenipotentiary
to the German empire, and rendered important services in
settling the San Juan boundary question.
Bancroft Plantation, tp. of Aroostook co.,Me. P. 177.
Band, in architecture, is the name given to any kind
of ornament which is continued horizontally along a wall,
or an ornament by which a building is encircled. Bands
often consist of foliage, quatrefoils, or of simple bricks. A
band of a shaft is the moulding or suits of mouldings by
which the pillars and shafts are encircled in Gothic archi-
tecture.
Ban/dages [from the Anglo-Saxon bin/dan, to “bind;”
literally, anything used for binding], applied to the bands
or wrappers used by surgeons to keep in their places the
dressings of wounds, to compress bleeding vessels, to rectify
Pop.
the deformity produced by fractures or other injuries, and,
to unite parts in which, there is a solution of continuity.
They are commonly composed of soft muslin, linen, or
flannel. Sometimes they are made to become immovable
after application by being first soaked in starch or glue.
The great art in bandaging consists in applying pressure
with exactly the required firmness, and evenly. Especially
is it important to avoid interrupting too much the circu-
lation of the blood. Unskilful bandaging has sometimes
with bleaching-liquor in a hydraulic press.
caused fatal mortification of a limb. For this reason the
arm should never be tightly bandaged (unless temporarily,
to arrest haemorrhage) without the hand being subjected
to an equal amount of pressure; and the same rule applies
with regard to the leg and foot. To make a continuous
bandage fit well upon a limb or other part, the roller should
be drawn smoothly as far as it can be, and then, if needful,
reversed by a turn of the hand from time to time; produ-
cing a spiral, by the overlapping of the successive turns,
each time, about one-third of its width. A bandage for
the arm may be from two to two and a quarter inches wide;
for the lower extremity, two and a half inches; for the
chest, three inches. The figure-of-eight bandage is often
required for the elbow or knee-joint. The T bandage is
available for the lower part of the trunk. A many-tailed
bandage is used especially in fractures of the thigh. It is
composed of about eighteen transverse strips, with or
without a longitudinal band, to which they may be fastened
by stitching. These being laid under the limb, the lowest
is folded over, and then the next, and so on until the whole
thigh is secured. This bandage has the advantage that it
can be undone without disturbing the position of the limb.
For a more particular account of bandages we must refer
to works on minor surgery. Handkerchiefs are sometimes
employed instead. In the treatment of wounds, however,
and of stumps of amputated limbs, bandages are less re-
sorted to now than formerly, many surgeons preferring
lighter and cooler dressings, with adhesive strips, etc. One
of the most useful of bandages for emergencies is the
“Spanish windlass,” to check serious bleeding from any
part of either extremity. It is merely a strip of muslin or
a pocket handkerchief passed around the upper part of the
limb, tied in a knot, and then twisted firmly by a stick or
bayonet passed under it, so as to press with sufficient force
to arrest the arterial circulation. It must not be left on
many hours, but its temporary application has often saved
life. In like manner, free bleeding from a wound of the
scalp may be controlled by a compress and bandage tightly
applied around the head.
~ REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Ban/da, a town in British India, province of Allah-
âbâd, is on the Crane River, 80 miles W. of Allahābād. It
has increased rapidly of late years, and acquired consider-
able note for its cotton.
Ban/da Isles, a group of islands, forming part of the
Molucca Archipelago, belonging to the Dutch. They are
lofty and volcanic. One of them, named Goonong Apee,
rises 7880 feet above the sea, and is an active volcano,
The larger of these islands are exclusively appropriated to
the cultivation of nutmegs and mace, and produce annually
about 450,000 pounds of nutmegs. These islands were dis-
covered by a Portuguese, Antonio Abreus, in 1512. The
Portuguese took possession of the islands in 1524, and in
1599 they passed under the dominion of the Dutch. Area,
8748 square miles. Pop. in 1869, 272,000.
Banda/na, or Bandan’na, a silk or cotton handker-
chief of East Indian origin, though now extensively man-
ufactured in Great Britain. The cloth is dyed Turkey red,
and then the pattern is made by discharging the color
The spreading
of this liquor is prevented by an enormous pressure. The
patterns of the real bandana are spots and diamond prints.
Banda Oriental. See URUGUAY.
Bandel'Io (MATTEO), an Italian novelist and Domin-
ican monk, was born in Piedmont in 1480. He emigrated
to France in the reign of Francis I., and was appointed
bishop of Agen in 1550. He published in 1554, in Italian,
three volumes of tales or novels (novelle) which are im–
moral, but remarkable for originality of conception and
other literary merits. A fourth volume was published after
his death, which occurred in 1562. Shakspeare borrowed
from him the plots of several plays. --
Bande/ra, a county of Western Texas. Area, 938
square miles. It is traversed by Medina River, a beautiful
stream. Grain, cattle, sheep, and swine are exported.
The climate is very healthy and pleasant. Pop. 649.
Capital Bandera. w
Bandera, a post-village, capital of the above county,
is on the Medina River, 30 miles N. W. of San Antonio.
Ban/derole, a small streamer under the crook on the
top of a bishop's staff, sometimes applied to a small
streamer carried on military weapons or on masts. Also,
the flat inscribed band used in Renaissance buildings.
Bandes Noires (“Black Bands”), an opprobrious
term applied during the French Revolution to companies
of capitalists who bought the confiscated estates and build-
ings which had belonged to the Church or to émigrés.
They were accused of vandalism and the destruction of
old relics, works of art, churches, etc.
BAND-FISH-BANGOR.
375
Band-Fish, or snake-Fish (Cap'ola), a genus of
fishes related to the ribbon-fish, are remarkable for singu- |
larity of form and beauty of color. The body is much
elongated and compressed. The red band-fish (Cepola ru-
bescens) is about fifteen inches long, and is found in the
Mediterranean.
Ban/dicoot (Peram/eles), a genus of marsupial quad-
rupeds, natives of Australia and Tasmania, having a long
Long-nosed Bandicoot.
head and pointed muzzle. Their dentition is remarkable,
as they have ten cutting teeth in the upper jaw, and only
six in the lower. They devour grain in granaries and
potatoes in the field. The Perameles maswta is about
eighteen inches long. The name is popularly extended to
several kindred genera of marsupials.
Bandie/ra (ATILIo and EMILIo), two brothers and Italian
patriots, born respectively in 1817 and 1819, were sons of
a vice-admiral in the Austrian service. In 1842 they opened
a correspondence with Mazzini, and formed a design to
liberate Italy by a conspiracy. They failed, and escaped to
Corfu about Mar., 1844, but hearing a false or exaggerated
rumor of a revolt in Naples, they returned with a few
friends and landed in Calabria in June. They were exe-
cuted July 25, 1844, their letters to Mazzini having been
opened by the British postmaster-general, and the contents
communicated to the Austrian government.
Bandinel/ii (BACCIO), an Italian sculptor, was born in
1487. He was patronized by Cosimo de Medici, the em-
peror Charles V., and Pope Clement VII. As a sculptor
he was considered as second only to Michael Angelo, of
whom he was a jealous rival. He adorned the choir of
the Duomo of Florence with bas-reliefs. Among his best
Works are a group of Adam and Eve, a statue of Orpheus,
“The Descent from the Cross,” and “Hercules and Caeus.”
Died in 1559.
Bandit’ti [It. banditi), bands of robbers in the moun-
tainous parts of Italy and Greece, who fall upon travellers
and hold them captive for a ransom. In former times
there existed in the larger towns of Italy organized asso-
ciations of bandits, whose stilettoes were ready for hire to
accomplish any deadly scheme. They were called euphe-
mistically bravč (“brave men”), and were not exterminated
until the modern improvements in police organization.
Hired assassination (homicidium conductum, assassinatus)
was a worse crime than ordinary murder, and punished by
the wheel.
Banſdon, EARLs of, and Viscounts Bernard (1800),
Viscounts Bandon (1795), Barons Bandon (1793, in the
Irish peerage), a noble family of Great Britain.—FRANors
BERNARD, the third earl, was born Jan, 3, 1810, and suc-
ceeded his father in 1856.
..per, rice, ivory, cardamoms, hides, tin, etc.
Ban’don, or Banſdonbridge, a town of Ireland, on
the beautiful river Bandon, 20 miles S. W. of Cork. It is
situated on both sides of the river, which enters the harbor
of Kinsale. Bandon was formerly a prosperous manu-
facturing town, but its prosperity has considerably de-
clined. Pop. in 1871, 6074.
Bands, Military, consist of a body of musicians at-
tached to each army regiment or battalion. In the British
service these bands generally comprise a band-master and
about fifteen musicians, who are chiefly maintained at the
cost of the officers of the regiment to which they belong.
In the U.S. service the present law provides for a band at
the Military Academy at West Point, and for each artil-
lery, cavalry, and infantry regiment a chief musician,
who shall be instructor of music, and for each artillery
and infantry regiment two principal musicians; each cav-
alry regiment to have one chief trumpeter.
Ban’dy’s, a township of Catawba co., N. C. Pop. 727.
Banér, written also Bannier or Bannér (Johan),
a famous Swedish general, born near Stockholm June 23,
1595. He commanded the right wing under Gustavus
Adolphus at the battle of Leipsic in Sept., 1631. His
y conduct in this action was highly applauded. On
sº the death of Gustavus Adolphus (Nov., 1632) he be-
... came the commander-in-chief of the Swedish army.
He gained a brilliant victory near Wittstock in Sept.,
1636, and again defeated the imperial army near
Chemnitz in 1639, after which he overran a large
part of Germany. Died May 10, 1641. Schiller
represents him as great in adversity, and formidable
even after defeat. (See SCHILLER, “History of the
Thirty Years' War;” CARL MANDERFELDT, “Eloge
de J. Banér,” 1787.)
Banff, sometimes written and always pronounced
Bamf, a seaport-town of Scotland, capital of Banff-
shire, at the mouth of the river Doveran, and on
sº %. §§ sº 2: Moray Frith, about 40 miles N. N. W. of Aberdeen.
- sº A bridge over the river connects it with Macduff.
*Nºgº- §§§ Here is Duff House, the seat of the earl of Fife, with
, - ...", ſº a park fourteen miles in circumference. Banff has
§ Y. º manufactures of leather, soap, iron castings, linen,
<sºs sails, and cordage, and has important fisheries of Sal-
º: 㺚 mon, cod, and herring, which, with agricultural prod-
ºs; * - 5 ucts, are exported from this town by sea. Banff has
a lighthouse in lat. 57° 40' N., lon. 2° 31' W. The
harbor is shallow and poor. The town has numerous
and excellent schools and charitable institutions. The river
is liable to floods, which have sometimes been destructive.
Pop. in 1871, 7439.
Banff'shire, a county of Scotland, bounded on the N.
by Moray Frith, on the E. and S. by Aberdeenshire, and on
the W. by Elgin and Invernessshire, and partly by the river
Spey, a very rapid stream. Area, 684 square miles. The
surface is greatly diversified by mountains and valleys.
Among its highest peaks is Cairngorm, 4090 feet high.
Granite, slate, old red sandstone, limestone, and serpentine
occur here. The soil of the valleys is fertile. The breed-
ing of cattle is the chief occupation of the farmers. Capi-
tal, Banff. Pop. in 1871, 62,010.
Ban’galore', a strongly fortified town of India, the
capital of Mysore, is on a high table-land 71 miles N. E. of
Seringapatam ; lat. 12° 58' N., lon. 77° 38' E. It is the chief
British military station in Mysore, and is much frequented
by Europeans, attracted by the salubrity of the air. The
temperature seldom exceeds 90°F. Here are important
manufactures of cotton and silk. It was taken by storm
by Lord Cornwallis in 1791. Pop. 132,000.
Bangſkok’, or Bankok, a large commercial city, the
capital of Siam, is situated on the river Meinam, about 20
miles from its entrance into the Gulf of Siam ; lat. 13° 38'
N., lon. 100° 34' E. It is mostly built of wood, but has
some brick and stone houses. Many of the houses are
built on movable bamboo rafts on the river. The Chinese
constitute a majority of the population, which is estimated
at 400,000. Bangkok contains a large royal palace and
numerous Booddhist temples, which are decorated in a gor-
geous style. The stationary dwelling-houses are raised on
piles six or eight feet from the ground, in order to protect
them from inundations. The river is navigable for vessels
of 250 tons from its mouth to Bangkok, which has an ex-
tensive trade. The chief articles of export are sugar, pep-
Iron-mines
and forests of teak occur in the vicinity. It is the seat of
Roman Catholic and of American Baptist and Presbyterian
missions. It has some native Christians of Portuguese
descent. (See SIR John Bow RING’s “Siam.”)
Ban’gor, an episcopal city and seaport of North
Wales, in the county of Caernarvon, on the S. E. shore
of Menai Strait, 2% miles from the Britannia Bridge, and
9 miles N. E. of Caernarvon. It is on the railway which







376
BANGOR-BANJERMASSIN.
connects Chester, and Holyhead, and is situated in a nar-
row, romantic valley. The grandeur and beauty of the
scenery render it a favorite place of summer resort. Six
-miles from Bangor are slate-quarries which employ about
2000 men. This city is very ancient, having been raised
to a bishopric in 550 A.D. The cathedral, founded in 525,
was destroyed by the Saxons in 1071. Bangor has eight
annual fairs, four of which are for cattle. They are visited
by great throngs of buyers and sellers. The trade by sea.
is not important, the harbor not being accessible to large
vessels. Pop. 6338.
Bangor, a post-township of Marshall co., Ia. Pop. 838.
Bangor, a city, port of entry, and capital of Penob-
scot co., Me., is on the right bank of the Penobscot River,
about 60 miles from its mouth. It is 138 miles by the
Maine Central R. R. N. E. of Portland, and 67 E. N. E. from
Augusta, the present State capital. It is in lat. 44° 47' 50"
N., lon: 68° 47' W. from Greenwich. It is the north-
eastern terminus of the Maine Central R. R., the western
terminus of the European and North American R. R., the
southern terminus of the Bangor and Piscataquis R. R., the
northern terminus of the Bucksport and Bangor R. R., the
northern terminus of the projected Bay and River R. R.,
the north-western terminus of another surveyed railroad
from Bangor to Calais, as well as the head of navigation on
the Penobscot River. Bangor is thus easily the railroad
and commercial, as it is nearly the geographical, centre of
the State, of which it must ultimately become the capital.
The Kenduskeag River, navigable to the centre of the city,
runs directly through it, dividing the city into two nearly
or quite equal parts. Both rivers, above the city, are broken
by waterfalls for about 12 miles, thus furnishing water-
power unequaled in New England. Brewer, a beautiful
suburb of Bangor, lying on the easterly side of the Penob-
scot, and commonly known as the “Eighth Ward,” is the
city’s shipyard, being connected with it by a ferry and a
covered bridge, and is rapidly filling up with manufac-
tories of different sorts. Bangor is one of the greatest
lumber-dépôts in the U. S., nearly 3000 vessels being em-
ployed in exporting lumber, mostly pine, spruce, hemlock,
and cedar, to every quarter of the globe. It is also largely
engaged in other foreign commerce. Steamboats ply regu-
larly, by three different lines, between Bangor and the
several ports along the Penobscot, between Bangor and
Portland, and between Bangor and Boston. Besides the
city schools, which are excellent, it has a theological semi-
nary with five or six professors, and a library of about
15,000 volumes, a city library of about 12,000 volumes, a
mechanics’ library of about 9000 volumes, a law library
of about 1000 volumes; a conservatory of music, a board
of trade, and other similar organizations. Of banks, it has
two State, two savings, and seven national, besides several
brokers who lend money and receive deposits. Bangor has
fourteen churches and two daily and three weekly papers.
Four large iron-foundries, with two of which are connected
shops for manufacturing machinery, several planing-mills,
three or four furniture-factories, three extensive carriage and
sleigh factories, one large trunk-factory, besides many simi-
Iar establishments, together with a burnettizing works, do
a very heavy manufacturing business. The city is sur-
rounded by an excellent agricultural country, which sends
to Bangor large quantities of farming produce for export.
It is also doing a heavy business in insurance. With its
natural suburb, before mentioned, Bangor has a valuation
of about $11,000,000. There is now a movement on foot
for building a stone dam across the Penobscot, which, it
is believed, will soon make Bangor the leading manufac-
turing city of New England.
The city is divided into seven wards, each of which elects
annually one alderman and three common councilmen, the
aldermen constituting the upper and the councilmen the
lower branch of the city government. The government is
presided over by a mayor, elected annually. In 1870 there
were 3252 ratable polls in the city, and estates valued at
$9,851,561. Bangor has a fine granite custom-house, with
a U. S. collector and two deputies. Besides the superior,
probate, and commissioner's courts for Penobscot county,
and the regular nisi prius term of the supreme judicial
court of the State, it has an annual law term of the latter
court, and an annual sitting of the U. S. district court.
History.—The French erected here a fort before 1656,
and named it Norombega. There prevailed in the seven-
teenth century a belief in Europe that a great and flourish-
ing Indian city called Norombega stood near this point.
The name, variously spelled, occurs in Milton’s “Paradise
Lost,” in Burton’s “Anatomy of Melancholy,” and other
works of that time. It was settled in 1769, and was then
called Kenduskeag. Its name was changed to Bangor by
Rev. Seth Noble, in honor of a well-known psalm-tune of
that name. In 1791 it was incorporated as a town, and in
1834 as a city. Its rapid growth since that time has been
the S. coast of Borneo.
the result of its position, which combines the advantages
of a noble and navigable tidal river with a large and
constant water-power. It has also in the upper waters
of the Penobscot the means of very cheap transportation
of logs from the boundless forests of Northern Maine.
These advantages made it for a long time the greatest
lumber-market in the world, and even now but one or two
places excel it in the amount and value of lumber sawed
and shipped. - -
Bangor had by the census of 1800, 277 inhabitants; in
| 1810, 850; in 1820, 1221; in 1830, 2868; in 1840, 8634;
in 1850, 14,432; in 1860, 16,408; in 1870, 18,296.
B. F. TEFFT, ED. “NorthERN BORDER.”
Bangor, a township of Bay co., Mich. Pop. 3606.
Bangor, a township and village of Van Buren co.,
Mich., on the Chicago and Michigan Lake Shore R. R., 27
miles N. E. of St. Joseph, in a good farming and fruit
region. . The village has an iron-Smelting furnace, an
“excelsior” manufactory, five saw-mills, two hotels, one
weekly paper, a union school, etc. Pop. of township,
1525. - C. W. GILLETT, ED. “Journ AL.”
Bangor, a post-village and township of Franklin co.,
N. Y., on the Ogdensburg and Lake Champlain R. R., 55
miles E. N. E. of Ogdensburg. It has manufactories of
starch, cheese, and hemlock extract. . Pop. of township,
2431. - -
Bangor, a post-township of La Crosse co., Wis. Pop.,
151. - -
Bango/rian Conſtroversy, a controversy which rose
between the adherents and opponents of ecclesiastical au-
thority in Great Britain. It was brought about by a ser–
mon preached before George I. by Dr. Benjamin Hoadley,
bishop of Bangor. (See HoADLEY.)
Bangs (HEMAN), a Methodist preacher, born in Fair-
field, Conn., in 1790, joined the New York Annual Con-
ference in 1815. He labored effectively in the pulpits of
his denomination in New York and Connecticut. He was
one of the principal founders of the Wesleyan University
at Middletown, Conn., and one of the most powerful
preachers of Methodism. Died Nov. 2, 1869.
Bangs (NATHAN), D. D., a Methodist minister, born in
Stratford, Conn., May 2, 1778. He became editor of the
“Christian Advocate and Journal,” and president of the
Wesleyan University at Middletown, Conn. He wrote,
among other works, a “History of the Methodist Episco-
pal Church.” Died May 3, 1862.
Bangs (WILLIAM M’KENDREE), son of Nathan Bangs,
was born in New York City in 1810, graduated in the Uni-
versity of Ohio in 1829, and served one year in a professor-
ship in Augusta College, Ky. He resigned his chair there
to enter the itinerant ministry of the Methodist Episcopal
Church. From 1831 to his death, in 1852, he was a mem-
ber of the New York Conference. He was some time prin-
cipal of the Wesleyan Academy at Wilbraham, Mass. He
was distinguished by his culture and by the force of his
controversial writings.
Banſialu’ka, or Banjaluka, a fortified town of Eu-
ropean Turkey, in Bosnia, on the river Verbas, 94 miles
S. W. of Bosma-Serai. It has numerous mosques, many
bazaars, a manufactory of gunpowder, hot springs, and
Roman antiquities. Pop. 15,000.
Baniya (pronounced in India, būn'e-yā), less correctly,
Bamiyan or Banian, a word used in Hindostan to de-
note a shopkeeper, especially a dealer in grain, but also
applied to the wholesale dealers and importers of Bombay,
Surat, and Cambay, carrying on a trade with the interior
of Asia by caravans and with Africa by ships. They usu-
ally belong to the caste called Vaisyas, and strictly abstain
from animal food. -
Baſnim (John), an Irish novelist, born at Kilkenny
April 3, 1798, excelled, in the delineation of the life and
character of the Irish peasantry. He published in 1825
“Tales of the O’Hara Family,” which was very popular.
Among his other works are “The Battle of the Boyne”
(1828), “The Smuggler” (1831), and “The Mayor of Wind-
gap.” Died Aug. 1, 1842. (See P. J. MURRAY, “Life of
John Banim,” 1857.)
Banſister, a township of Halifax co., Va. Pop. 3731.
Banister (village). See HALIFAX CourT-House.
Baniwas, a tribe of South American Indians living on
the Amazon and the Rio Negro. A vocabulary of their
Ianguage is given by Alfred Wallace in “A Narrative of
Travels on the Amazon and the Rio Negro” (1853, pp.
521—541). ^- j
Banjermas'sin, or Benjar-Massen (i. e. “the
river of plenty”), the name of a river, state, and town on
Owing to the inundations of the
BANK. .
377
river, the town is completely built on floating logs, held by
ropes. It has a considerable trade in gold-dust, precious
stones, birds’ nests, wax, resin, rubber, rattans, pepper, and
steel of native manufacture and excellent quality. Many
of the inhabitants are , Chinese, and most of the trade is
with China. The Dutch government is the dominant power
here. Trade is obstructed by a bad bar at the mouth of
the river. Pop. estimated at 30,000.
Bank [from It. banco, a “bench * or “table,” on which
the Venetian money-changers displayed their money]. A
bank is an institution for the collection, custody, and in-
vestment of money, as a SAVINGS BANK (which see), or for
the reception of deposits constituting credit, the loaning
and negotiation of credit, the collection and transmission
of bills of exchange, the discount of evidences of value, and
the circulation of bills or bank-notes. There is no institu-
tion in society that is so closely connected with the general
convenience and well-doing of all classes of people as the
bank. It is true, the dividends or profits on the business
go to the stockholders only, but anybody may become a
stockholder by purchasing the shares; consequently, the
bank is a perfectly democratic institution. If those to
whom profits or dividends are most valuable are they who
are most benefited by banks, then the great mass of people
are emphatically interested in the preservation of these in-
stitutions. The rich can invest their ample means in real
estate and get along without banks, but the laboring classes
have no means to make investments of that kind. They
may, however, buy as many shares of bank-stock as they
please, and thus make investments of their earnings in
sums as small as fifty, or even twenty-five, dollars. Banks
have occasionally been organized with shares at ten dollars
each, for the express purpose of encouraging people of
small means to invest their savings in them. But if it
were not for the rich, who put larger sums in, it is probable
that there would not be one dollar invested in banks where
there are now one hundred; and experience justifies the
assertion that the chief sufferers in such a case would be
the poor, because of the small scale comparatively on which
every kind of labor would be employed. With respect to
the abuses of bank management, that is another question,
not connected with the banks alone, but with every kind
of organization yet invented by human intelligence. No
fact is morè open to observation than the beneficent influ-
ences that are spread in a community where it has had a
bank organized for the first time. There are thousands of
thrifty towns stretching across the country in every direc-
tion which attest the truth of this statement. The travel-
ler who now passes over any certain railroad leading out
of New York, Philadelphia, or Boston for the first time in
ten years, expresses his astonishment at the wonderful im-
provements that he sees on every hand. Here are water-
powers established where formerly was a little muddy and
unwholesome stream; mills of every kind are puffing steam
out of tall chimneys; meat cottages have taken the place
of old cabins; the village school and the church-spire are
in the picture; and a thrifty population sends its manu-
factures out in exchange for the agricultural products of
the farmer. In every case of this kind the bank has been
the chief effective instrument of organization. It has
picked up the pennies and combined them into the force of
dollars; it has conjoined many little rivulets of economy
into one strong capital of a million dollars. Notwithstand-
ing this history, in which the most commanding figure is
that of the laboring man, there are demagogues who never
cease teaching the laboring classes that banks are their
worst enemies, and a curse wherever they are allowed to
exist. Politicians have divided the country against itself
on this single theme, arrayed the poor against the rich, and
thrown out upon the raging sea of popular passions a ques-
tion to which even the gravest deliberations of the senate
have proved unequal. The intimate relations between the
policy of banks and the sources of revenue invest this sub-
ject with national importance. e
It is one of the most remarkable phenomena connected
with the history of banks that the first of which we have
any authentic record presents an example of success which
has not been equalled in later times. The Bank of Venice
had its origin in the necessities of the state. The reigning
duke, Vitale Michel II., in the year 1171, being in want of
means, obliged a number of the most opulent citizens to
advance them, and established the office of “Chamber of
Loans,” to which the contributors were made creditors, re-
ceiving a yearly interest of 4 per cent. The creditors con-
stituted themselves into a board of managers, correspond-
ing to our modern board of bank directors. The loan was
inscribed on the books of the state, and was made subject
to transfer, as in our present practice. From this example
it is seen that banks have not changed their character to
this day as it relates to their principal object—the support
and management of credit. Of the first 250 years of its
existence there are few trustworthy statements of the Bank
of Venice; but that it flourished so long as the financial
agent of the republic, and discharged its functions faith-
fully, is in itself an evidence of efficiency and usefulness
without a parallel. In 1423 it was decreed that bills of
exchange, which had until then been paid in paper, should
in future be paid in specie, and also that they should be
paid at the bank. It was decreed at the same time that
wholesale transactions should be settled through the bank.
The coins in circulation were so various, and so much
abraded and clipped, that 'creditors were glad to avail
themselves of the opportunity to get payment in the bank
credits (the same as modern bank deposits); and this mode
of settlement soon became the established usage. All who
had debts to pay found them at the bank. The bank gave
its inscriptions of credit for all coin deposited, and when a
demand for coin arose it was readily obtained in exchange
for the bank credits. These, being found more convenient
than coin, commanded a premium, which rose so high that
the government found it expedient to impose a limitation,
which was fixed at 20 per cent. During the whole term of
the existence of the bank its inscriptions of credit (deposits)
carried a premium over coin. This remarkable fact could
not have been due to the impaired value of the coin by
abrasion, as the laws were very strict. A public officer at
the mint inspected all coins brought into Venice. So per-
fectly did the Bank of Venice meet all the exigencies of
commerce and of the state that no cause of complaint could
be found against it, and its operations were maintained in
full vigor for the period of 400 years. “It perished only,”
says Colwell, the most conscientious of annalists, “when the
city itself fell at the conquest of Italy by Napoleon, but
the conqueror carried off no coin, no penny of prey. The
credits of the bank were crushed under the rude touch of
an invading foe; they were lost to the proprietor, but no
equivalent passed into the hands of the destroyers. . . . In
assuming the sovereignty of Venice the conqueror assumed
the right and the duty of making good these bank credits.”
The government was very watchful to afford all possible
conveniences and facilities to the merchants. It established
a collateral department in the bank for the safe custody of
treasure which the owner might wish to keep intact for a
special purpose. These deposits were reclaimable by the
owner at pleasure, and also transferable to other parties in
the same manner as the bank credits. They were free from
all complication with the state of commerce. The sum of
these came to be very large, and although it fluctuated in
amount, there was always a permanent residue which re-
mained immovable. This residue was used by the govern-
ment in emergencies, and twice the department suspended
payment; but such was the confidence of the people in the
good faith and ability of the government that the business
continued without interruption, and in due time the deposits
were restored.
The original capital of the Bank of Venice was 2,000,000
ducats, but it rose to 5,000,000 in the eighteenth century,
and to. fourteen or fifteen million (about $16,250,000) at
the close of its grand and honorable career of 500 years.
“The Bank of Venice,” says Colwell, “ enjoyed a reputa-
tion throughout the commercial world which greatly pro-
moted the success of Venetian trade. It was a tower of
financial strength to the republic in her long and expen-
sive wars. . . . That the advantage of such an institution
was fully comprehended by the Venetian merchants is evi-
dent from the fact that those engaged in the Eastern trade
established a bank in Damascus, of which we only know
that it was the repository of great treasure when that city
was pillaged by an Eastern conqueror early in the fifteenth
century.” Some writers have stated that the Bank of Ven-
ice, through its entire career, was used as an instrument of
aggression for political aggrandizement, but Mr. Colwell
declares that there is no evidence of the fact, and the best
authorities all point the other way.
The finances of Genoa at the beginning of the thirteenth
century followed closely on those of Venice. Haying the
same origin, the necessities of the state, they differed in
this, that the public loans were not forced, but were the
spontaneous offerings of the creditors, who formed them-
selves into a body, and were sufficiently powerful to exact
special assignments of branches of the revenue as their se-
curity. This system acquired complications in the GOUlrS6.
of time, and a reorganization resulted in the establishment
of the House of St. George, or Bank of Genoa, in the year
1407. At this time the government paid off all its debt by
the issue of “shares” which carried banking privileges,
and were secured, as before, by the assignment of part of
the revenues of the republic. Any excess of revenue col-
lected, above, 7 per cent. interest to the creditors, was re-
turnable to a sinking fund. In a particular emergency,
when ready means of the bank were insufficient to supply
the wants of the republic, its dividends to the shareholders
378 w - BANK.
were passed for three years, but these dividend claims were
taken as collateral security for loans, and they were es-
teemed as of equal value with the shares, and largely dealt
in. The bank received them for taxes and dues, so that
the holders of them had little to complain of. In 1539 a
grievous famine occurred, and the government borrowed
largely of the bank to carry on public works, by this means
helping the laboring classes. In 1673 the Bank of Genoa
became the place of settlement for bills of exchange and
large debts, after the manner of the Bank of Venice, and
its shares and its inscriptions of credit (deposits) became a
common medium of payment. The various mongrel coin-
ages were taken by the bank at a fixed price, and paid for
in these inscriptions, which, as in the case of Venice, at-
tained a premium much above par, and held it for more
than two centuries. Both the Bank of Venice and the Bank
of Genoa circulated claims on the government. The latter
issued bank-bills, corresponding apparently with the post-
notes which were employed for the same purpose by the
second Bank of the U. S. On the same excellent authority
already quoted (Colwell) the Bank of Genoa was the real
author of the bank-bill which has played so large a part in
human affairs to the present time. (See PAPER MonBY.)
The Bank of Genoa, suffered the same fate as that of Ven-
ice, by the same rapacious hand. The French invasion
left it a wreck and a shadow of its former greatness.
We have been somewhat minute in describing the Banks
of Venice and Genoa, because (the former especially) they
were the models on which all the public banks of Europe
were subsequently organized; and because, as we shall
briefly exhibit, they contain the germ of nearly every cha-
racteristic feature of the modern commercial bank. It is not
necessary to go into similar details of the other great bank-
ing institutions of Europe, concerning which the reader
may learn everything desirable from the encyclopaedias
and from modern publications on political economy.
The Bank of Amsterdam, which was established in 1609,
has been called the first bank of deposit; by which we are
not to understand that it was the first to receive deposits,
but that it was formed on the theory that deposits, once
made, could never be withdrawn. They were transferable
from one to another by order, but never paid out. But the
bank also received gold and bullion on special deposit for
safe-keeping, which the owner might reclaim at pleasure.
The theory that deposits could never be withdrawn would
necessarily accumulate a vast amount of treasure in the
bank beyond what was required for payments. When this
took place, or, in other words, when the supply of credits
based on the deposits was in excess of the demand, they
became a subject of trade in the streets. Brokers were em-
ployed by the bank to buy them at 4 per cent. premium,
and were at the same time sellers at 5 per cent. premium.
The price was maintained within a range of 1 per cent.,
and the medium of payment protected from depreciation
or material fluctuation in price. The bank enjoyed a high
credit for nearly 200 years. The amount of its deposits
was a bank secret; hence the wide estimate set upgn them
of from $25,000,000 to $400,000,000 Federal money. In
1790 it was discovered that a secret depletion of the trea-
sure had been going on for more than fifty years, and but
little then remained. The bank was ruined by the unfaith-
fulness of its guardians.
The Bank of Hamburg was established in 1619, on the
model of that of Amsterdam. It has always maintained
ari unimpeachable credit. Only merchants and citizens of
Hamburg are allowed to keep accounts in it. Marshal Da-
voust robbed it during the occupancy by the French in the
time of Napoleon, and his name is still mentioned with de-
testation by the citizens. Full restoration was subsequently
made by the French government, and the institution is one
of the soundest in Europe.
The most powerful of modern banks, and that which
exerts the most extensive influence on the commerce of all
nations, is the Bank of England, which went into opera-
tion on Jan. 1, 1695. The whole capital, as it was paid in,
was handed over to the government as a special loan, the
interest on which was secured by certain taxes. It was al-
lowed $20,000 a year for the management of the loan. The
privileges of the charter were indefinite beyond some spe-
cial powers, such as dealing in bullion, bills of exchange,
etc. The managers at once assumed all the franchises
which were not prohibited that were essential to the func-
tions of banking. They were not empowered to issue bank-
bills, but the right was taken for granted, and not contested.
The charter did not impose the payment of specie, which
was left to be regulated by the general laws of the kingdom.
. The government determined to recoin in full weight all
the silver currency, which was depreciated by wear and
clipping 25 per cent. . The bank issued its bills for the pur-
chase of the light coin, but not receiving the returns from
the mint in time for their redemption, it was forced into a
transient suspension. (This was a mère casualty, without
any connection whatever with the general condition or ad-
ministration of its concerns. It caused no alarm, and left
the credit of the institution unimpaired.) The present cap-
ital of the Bank of England is larger than that of any
other known bank. It is £14,553,000, and the “rest” or
accumulated profits amount to about £3,000,000—total, near
$88,000,000. It is a bank of issue, deposit, circulation,
loan, and discount. It can issue $70,000,000 of notes, not
under £5 (or $25), against that amount of securities set
apart for the purpose; and beyond this it may issue bank-
notes against an equal amount of gold and silver held in
reserve, as regulated by law. A system of issuing credits
redeemable in specie on presentation was adopted by the
bank in the early part of its career, which has descended
to the U. S., and proved a source of infinite weakness and
disaster through the whole course of our financial history.
The foundation-principle of banking is trust, confidence,
credit. In making a deposit in a bank the merchant gets
in return for it an inscription of credit. His design and
object is to secure the convenience of using the credit of the
bank, with which everybody is acquainted, instead of his
own, of which a stranger would know nothing. He aban-
doms the money, which he uses as an instrument, and which
passes on into circulation for the use of others. Even if
he deposits gold, he gives up all claim to the gold unless
he has a special agreement with the bank, and gets what is
much more ready to his purpose in its stead—the credit of
the bank. The bad practice which originated with the
Bank of England was an agreement to pay gold on demand
in exchange for its inscriptions of credit. This was to
undertake an impossibility. The general debts of a bank
are redeemable by its general resources, and these consist
mostly of loans and discounts which mature in the future.
A more flagrant violation of sound banking never was con-
ceived. It has repeatedly involved the banks of the U. S.
in fatal embarrassment, and brought ruin on thousands of
merchants who were otherwise able to pay their debts and
retain a handsome surplus. The Bank Act of 1844 cor-
rected in part this egregious solecism in banking, by sep-
arating the issue department of the Bank of England from
the general banking business of the company. But the
error remains fixed in the U. S., not only by the force of
law, but also the force of public opinion. (For further de-
tails, see GILBART “On Banking.”) The most remarkable
event in the history of the Bank of England was its sus-
pension of specie payments in 1797. England was then
complicated in the great revolutionary and Napoleonic
wars of the Continent, and was obliged to send large sums
of gold and silver out of the country. It was a clear drain
without any commercial return, and it continued for near
twenty years. In this period the Bank of England was
the mainstay of the government, and, it may be said with-
out exaggeration, the chief instrument by which peace was
finally restored to Europe, and war for the sake of conquest
effectually arrested. The bank was allowed to issue £1
and £2 notes after its suspension. The highest circulation
of its bills was £28,470,000 ($142,350,000). Between 1797
and 1814 the subsidies of the British government to her
allies on the Continent amounted to $185,000,000. (See
BANK OF ENGLAND, in APPENDIX.) The bank did not fully
resume specie payments until 1822, having been in suspen-
sion twenty-five years. The charter of the institution has
been frequently renewed, and amendments have been made
to it from time to time to correct faults or to meet new re-
quirements. It is now regarded as perpetual, but being
always subject to amendment by act of Parliament, it is in
the hands of the law. To repeal it, however, would be to
disorganize and demoralize the whole structure of British
society and to shake the foundations of commerce through-
out the world. The great problem presented by it, in con-
trast with the practice of banking in the U.S., is that of
consolidation and close alliance with the political and eco-
nomic system of the country, as opposed to segregation
and division of the financial instrument into small and
rival parts. In England the state is the partner of the
bank; in the U. S. it is the jealous stepmother. The
average bank-note circulation of the Bank of England for
twenty-eight years past has been $100,000,000; its average
of bullion, $80,000,000; its average rate of discount, 4 per
cent.; its average deposits, $100,000,000; its average lia-
bilities, $102,000,000; and its average reserve, $9,500,000.
The Scotch banking-system, which enjoys a high repute
for close accuracy of management and exemption from the
ordinary faults of excessive credits, scarcely differs from
the English system except in the very great care bestowed
upon all the minutiae of administration and accounts. The
Bank of Scotland was chartered by the Scottish Parliament
in 1695. One of the provisions of its charter was that it
should not loan to the king. (Its founders were ardent ad-
vocates of credit. They did not wish to do without the
BANK.
precious metals, but to do with as little use of them as
possible. The bank issued notes as low as £1, and even
under that. It paid interest on deposits of 1 per cent. be-
low the rate charged for discounts, and became thereby a
favorite savings bank for the people.) The principal distinc-
tion between the Scottish and the English systems consists
in the method of giving credit. An applicant deposits se-
curities for a sum which covers his extreme want. He then
draws checks within that amount, and makes current de-
posits in the ordinary way. This account is made up once
in six months, with interest on both sides, the rate allowed
on his deposits being 1 per cent. less than that charged on
his debits. Mr. Colwell, who has thoroughly examined
both systems, makes the following comparison of the Scotch
with the English: “The theory of the Scotch banks is,
that it must prove an important aid to men in business to
supply them in advance with a credit on which they can
draw at pleasure. The English doctrine is, that men must
do all their business in the first instance on their own credit,
and the banks may then deal in the evidences or securities
to which the business has given origin. The Scottish no-
tion is, that aid should be extended to men of trade and
industry in advance of their transactions, and as an element
in their plans of business; in England they think this will
lead to overtrading by the stimulus it affords to so large a
class of dealers. In Scotland long experience has taught
them that this English apprehension is wholly groundless;
they know that the dealers who enjoy these cash credits
are so immediately brought under the supervision of the
banks and their own sureties that they are perhaps the
most prudent and safe men of business in the world.
When the Bank of England applied to the privy council
in 1797 for an order to suspend specie payments, the Scotch
banks did not share in the suspension, and went on in their
usual ways of business; and there was no run on them for
specie. A select committee of the House of Lords reported
in 1826 that “it had been proved by the evidence and by the
documents that the banks of Scotland, whether chartered
joint-stock companies or private establishments, have for
more than a century exhibited a stability which the commit-
tee believe to be unexampled in the history of banking; that
they supported themselves from 1797 to 1812 without any
protection from the restriction by which the Bank of Eng-
land and that of Ireland were relieved from cash payments;
and that in the whole period of their establishment there
are not more than two or three instances of bankruptcy.”
A committee of the House of Commons, of which Sir Robert
Peel was chairman, reported in the same year, on the ques-
tion whether Scotland should be permitted to continue the
issue of notes under £5, that the committee was “unwill-
ing, without stronger proof of necessity, to incur the risk
of deranging, from any cause whatever, a system admir-
ably calculated, in their opinion, to economize the use of
capital, to excite and cherish a spirit of useful enterprise,
and even to promote the moral habits of the people by the
direct inducements it holds out to the maintenance of a
character for industry, integrity, and prudence.”
The financial system of France approaches somewhat the
Independent Treasury system of the U. S. The receivers
of revenue in the departments transmit their collections to
the principal office of the minister of finance at Paris,
where everything concentrates; but the accumulation of
large balances is studiously avoided by prompt disburse-
ments. The domestic exchanges are partially regulated by
this method; and it is claimed that the hazardous expan-
sion of bank credit is rendered less necessary in France
than in other countries by the rapidity with which the dis-
bursements are effected. There is no connection between
the fiscal concerns of the government and the Bank
of France. Mr. Colwell says that “the treasury has re-
solved itself, through its eighty-six branches, into a great.
institution for the management, aid, and regulation of the
domestic exchanges, having many of the characteristics
of a vast national bank;” from which it would seem that
France is following at some distance the example of Eng-
land. The same tendency to consolidate the local banks
in one national institution has recently been developed in
Switzerland. (For full particulars of financial organization
in France the reader is referred to the “Système Financier
de la France,” published by the marquis D’Audiffret, 6 vols.
8vo—a work of the highest merit.)
Our object in describing with some degree of minuteness
the features of the several banks and financial systems of
former ages is to show that the institution of the bank has
been from the first the special auxiliary of credit. In all
its phases and modifications its main purpose has been to
assist, organize, and support the credit of states and indi-
viduals. That its powers have often been abused is no
more of an argument against it than it is an argument
against the production and uses of iron that that metal is
shaped into implements for the destruction of human life.
The reader will doubtless have made the observation for
himself that modern banking has very little originality
about it, even as it relates to those various forms of com-
bining commercial and national credit as a base on which
to constitute media and modes of circulation, for the inven-
tion of which rival competitors contest the honor. Venice
and Venetian merchants may fairly challenge, from the
midst of what we are used to regard as the gloom and nar-
rowness of the “Dark Ages,” the whole descent of finan-
cial invention to the present day. Their admirable and
unequalled bank contained the germ of every subsequent
development—the use of deposits as a medium of exchange,
and the pledge of public credit as the foundation of finance
in all its applications. The Bank of Genoa, its immediate
follower, was reared on the bonds of the state, as the na-
tional banks of our own country are on those of the Union,
The Independent Treasury of the U. S. had its pattern i
the system of France, but the original germ is appropri-
ately found among the dusty annals of ages in which scien-
tific economy was unknown. In short, the claims of origi-
mality as to the devices of modern banking can at best
hardly surpass the merit of rediscovery—a merit that may
be shared by many at the same time. *
Banking in the U. S., like the society of the new repub-
lic, was a graft on English practice. At the beginning of
the Revolution, Congress had neither money, nor credit to
borrow it. Popular report attributed to Dr. Franklin the
proposition to issue paper money. The Constitution not
being yet adopted, the only security Congress could offer
for its redemption was a promise to levy taxes for that
purpose at a future time. The issue began in 1775, and
the money maintained the par of silver for more than a
year. After that it depreciated to $1.75 for $1 in Mar,
1778; to $4 for $1 in September of the same year; to $10
in Mar., 1779; to $18 in Sept., 1779; and to $40 for $1 in
Mar., 1780. Congress then passed a resolution to fund the
whole mass at that rate.
until it reached $500 for $1 in 1781, after which there was
no circulation of it as currency, but the bills passed occa-
sionally at $1000 for $1 in silver. In 1791 they were still
permitted to be funded at the rate of $100 for $1. The
amount not redeemed or funded at the last-named date
was estimated at $80,000,000. The loss to the commu-
nity was, on those funded at $40 for $1, $117,000,000; on
those at $100 for $1, $5,940,000; not redeemed at all,
$74,000,000; aggregate loss to the people, $196,940,000. A
great outcry was raised by the debtors and agents of Brit-
ish manufacturers who had become insolvent by unskilful
trade or extravagance, and sought to excuse themselves to
their creditors by showing certificates of their assets in
bills which they had bought at $5000 for $1. The great
amount of loss really sustained on the Continental money
was distributed among the successive holders through a
long period of time, each losing the depreciation that it
underwent in his hands. (Jefferson and Hamilton.) .
The first Bank of the U. S., commonly called Hamilton’s
bank, was chartered in 1791, and was eminently successful;
but political jealousy and ignorance on the part of the peo-
ple of the merits of the subject conspired to defeat its re-
newal, and it went out of existence in 1811. From that
time to 1817 the fiscal service of the government was per-
formed by banks under State law. On Jan. 1, 1817, the
second Bank of the U. S. began business. It was a very
successful institution, though not always wisely conducted.
It acted as the fiscal agent of the government, and was a
powerful auxiliary to commerce, but, like the former, it be-
came a subject of political jealousy, and its charter was not
renewed. (See FINANCE.) From 1833 to 1846 local banks
under State charters were the fiscal agents of the treasury,
after which the INDEPENDENT TREASURY (which see) was
established, whereby the receipts and disbursements were
“ divorced" from all connection with banks and carried on
by special agents. -
The financial system of the U. S. is now composed—
I, of 1976 national banks, with an aggregate capital of
$495,000,000 and a paper money circulation of $354,000,000,
secured by the bonds of the government; 2, of the Inde-
pendent Treasury bureau for the receipt, custody, and dis-
bursement of the revenues; 3, of the treasury proper, which
maintains in issue $382,000,000 of treasury notes, consti-
tuting the legal tender medium of the country; 4, of an
auxiliary issue of paper money in the fractional parts of
one dollar; and 5, of a number of banks under State char-
ters, of which no special returns are made; excepting in
the State of New York. +. º & 1 &
A bank in the U. S., as at present organized, is an insti-
tution solely of private adventure for the purpose of bor-
rowing and lending credit, and buying and selling gold
and silver coin or bullion, and evidences of debt in the
shape of bills of exchange, promissory notes, bonds, stock-
shares, and other kinds of documentary instruments which
But the depreciation continued
379 .
\.

380
BANKHEAD.
represent value. Auxiliary to this general purpose of a
bank, the institution issues paper money (a form of its own
credit), of which it promotes the circulation by discounting
commercial paper, giving for it either inscriptions of credit,
called deposits, or its paper money issues. The capital of
a bank is the sum paid in for the shares of stock into
which it is divided. If there was nothing more than this
capital to invest, the subscriber might as well invest for
himself, without the help of the bank. But there is always
a large amount of money floating in the community, which
the owners are glad to deposit in a safe place, instead of
carrying it on their persons or keeping it in their houses,
where it might be the prey of burglars. The object of
those who form a bank is to induce all these small streams
of money to flow into their reservoir, where, if they are
successful, they may accumulate two or three times the
amount of their share-capital. A bank with a share-capital
of $1,000,000 might get $2,000,000 of deposits, making
$3,000,000, which they employ and get interest from. And
all the interest thus earned on the $3,000,000 is paid over
to the holders of the $1,000,000 of share-capital. Besides
this, the managers, under existing laws, may invest, we
suppose, $500,000 in the bonds of the government, which
pay them an interest of 5 per cent., more or less. They
then obtain from the government bureau established for the
purpose 90 per cent.—that is, $450,000—of paper money
sheets, which they sign and pay out, and on which they
make another amount of interest. A bank organized un-
der the present national law has these three sources from
which it derives interest—1, that part of its original cap-
ital which it has not invested in the national bonds; 2,
the national bonds; and 3, its general deposits. The ex-
ample stands as follows, on the supposition of deposits and
rates as stated:
Capital........................ $1,000,000
Less, paid for bonds..... 500,000
Interest on................. $500,000, at 6 per cent.... $30,000
Interest on bonds........ 500,000, at 5 {{ ... 25,000
Interest on deposits.... $2,000,000, at 5 {{ ... 100,000
Profits yearly.................................................... $155,000
This is a picture of a national bank under the present
laws. Other sources of profit, such as the buying and sell-
ing of gold bullion and charges for exchange, may increase
$he dividends. It is obvious at a glance that, as the bank
pays no interest to the depositors for the use of their money,
the shareholders of the $1,000,000 capital reap profits from
$3,000,000. A general idea of the profitableness of the
business is obtained from the semi-annual report of the
1955 banks composing the national system for six months
ending Sept. 1, 1873: -
Capital-stock....................................... $488,100,951
Dividend paid to shareholders.............. 24,823,029
or at the rate of over 10 per cent. a year. In addition to
the dividends there is of clear profits belonging to the
shareholders an accumulated surplus of $118,113,848 in a
term of about eight years. This makes the stock worth
very nearly 25 per cent. premium. (“Report of Comptroller
of Currency,” for 1873.)
The chief dependence of a bank for profit is on the
amount of deposits it can win from the community without
being obliged to pay interest on them. Although the de-
positors get no interest, they receive advantage in the safe-
keeping of their money and in the acknowledged right
which they acquire to advances of money on credit by the
bank in case of need. A man who keeps a continuous
balance to his credit for a term of years is in the mean
time building up a commercial character which, in an
emergency, may prove to be of such material benefit as to
far outweigh the loss he has sustained by not getting in-
terest on his account. This is a consideration of great
weight in commercial experience.
Notwithstanding the eminent success of the banking
business in itself, the general financial system of the U. S.
is far from being in a satisfactory condition. The bank,
as we have already observed, is an institution of private
adventure. Its administration is directed solely by the
narrow spirit of self, though invested with privileges and
franchises which are of a high public nature, designed to
inure for the common good while amply remunerative to
the corporators. The powers conferred are essentially and
practically legislative; and the experience of all nations
and ages proves that the sensible advantages which flow
from their administration are never so great as when that
administration is guided by enlightened principles of jus-
tice and regard for the common prosperity of the whole
mass of economic interests. That the frequent and merely
experimental changes to which the financial system of the
U. S. has been subject from the foundation of the govern-
ment to the present time have produced no better results,
and but little else than diversity in the character of the
misfortunes which have followed them, can be ascribed to
no other cause than the neglect of that serious study of
phenomena and law without which success is more of a
fortuity than a logical consequence. -
Our space does not admit of a statement in detail of the
incongruities and solecisms which characterize the admin-
istration of our banking system. Chief of all is that the-
ory of the bank deposit which regards it as de facto money.
It is the first object of a bank to obtain deposits. These
are brought in by many people, and in the aggregate com-
pose a large inscription of credit on the books of the bank.
This inscription, though effected by the agency of money,
does not consist of money. It is the representative evidence
of the accumulated fixed capital of the country in the shape
of houses, ships, lands, improvements, etc. . As soon as one
merchant deposits $10,000 of money in a bank he obtains
an inscription of credit on the books in full exchange there-
for. The same money continues its office of circulation,
being paid out by the bank to another merchant, who for
a particular purpose requires the money instead of its
equivalent in bank credit. From his hands it passes into
those of another merchant, who makes the same use of it,
and gets an inscription of credit in full satisfaction, which
credit he uses by drawing checks against it where with to
discharge his various obligations. In the course of the
day it may be found that the $10,000 of money has ob-
tained in the several banks where it has been deposited an
aggregate of $100,000 of credit inscriptions. It might be
that not one of the persons using it wanted a dollar of the
money, but all might use the credit, cutting it up by checks
into convenient parts. This is the actual process of bank-
ing, as far as relates to the deposit. We have seen in the
case of the Bank of Amsterdam that money once deposited
in it was never withdrawn, but the credit by inscription
was constantly passing from hand to hand. Essentially,
our banks carry forward the same process, but with them
the credit may be liquidated by a payment of the money
on demand of the owner, such being our practice. But it
will be observed that the aggregate of deposits in the New
York City banks is often maintained very evenly at some-
thing above $200,000,000 for months together. This is
virtually the same phenomenon, for it does not necessarily
change the state of facts that the personal depositors change.
Looking at the subject from another point of view, it be-
comes evident at a glance that bank deposits are not money.
The records of the bureaus at Washington show that the
aggregate of bank deposits far exceeds the whole amount
of actual money in circulation in the U. S. Of what, then,
is that excess composed 2 Again, of the near $800,000,000
of treasury and bank-notes in existence in the country, it
is not likely that above one-fourth of it is stagnated in
banks, $600,000,000 at least being in the hands of the peo-
ple. Since money cannot be in two places at the same time,
it must be admitted that the theory commonly entertained,
that bank deposits consist of money, is absurd and impos-
sible. While, for purposes of ordinary dealing, there may
be no serious difficulty arising from the erroneous use of
bank terms, since the thing referred to is understood in its
practical bearings, embarrassments may and do arise from
this source when false terms enter into the structure of law
and become a cause of litigation in courts. In addition to
the currency banks a number of “national gold banks”
have been organized in California, with an aggregate cap-
ital of $3,650,000 and a circulation of $2,150,000. The
report of the comptroller of the currency for 1873–74 gives
the capital and accumulated surplus of all the banks at
$622,000,000. Applications have been presented for 64 new
national banks, with an aggregate capital of $5,110,000.
Since the banking law went into effect, 35 banks have
failed and 137 gone into voluntary liquidation. Over
$185,000,000 of the circulation has been burned and new
bills issued in substitution. (For banks as agents of circu-
lation see CURRENCY.) J. S. GIBBONs.
Bank/head (John PINE), U. S. N., born in South Caro-
lina Aug. 3, 1821, entered the navy as a midshipman
Aug. 6, 1838, became a passed midshipman in 1844, a
lieutenant in 1852, a commander in 1862, and a captain
in 1866. Died at Aden, Arabia, on his way home from the
East Indies, April 27, 1869. He commanded the gunboat
Pembina at the battle of Port Royal, Nov. 7, 1861, and
during the subsequent operations on the coast of South
Carolina; commanded the Monitor when she foundered off
Hatteras on the might of Dec. 31, 1863, and displayed ad-
mirable coolness on that trying occasion. Rear-Admiral
Lee, in his official report of the disaster, says: “The ves-
sel filling rapidly, Commander Bankhead ordered the men
then left on board to leave in the Rhode Island’s boat, then
cautiously approaching, as the sea was breaking violently
over the Monitor’s submerged deck. In this perilous posi-
tion Commander Bankhead held a boat’8 painter until as
BANK-NOTES, MANUFACTURE OF-BANKS. 381.
many men got in as the boat could carry. He did not leave
his vessel so long as he could do anything towards saying
his crew.” He was a son of General James Bankhead,
U. S. A. (1783–1856). Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Bank-Notes, Manufacture of. An important ob-
ject in making bank-notes is to guard against counterfeits.
The engraving should be such that the public can distin-
guish the genuine note by its superiority of execution, and
the officers of the bank by secret peculiarities of design.
These ends are secured mainly by the use, in engraving,
of rare and very expensive lathes. The writing, the em-
blems, and figures are so combined as to render forgery
difficult. The ink is peculiar. The paper also is of pecu-
liar manufacture, both in Europe and America. About
1837 a great improvement was made in the engraving of
bank-notes. This was the production of designs by the
mill and die, by mechanical pressure, invented by Jacob
Perkins. The pattern is engraved on a soft steel plate,
which is then hardened to transfer the pattern by pressure
to a soft steel roller, on which, of course, the pattern is
produced in relief. The roller is then hardened to repro-
duce the pattern, in the plate on which the note is to be
printed. In England a process of lithographic transfer is
employed. (See NOTE (BANK) ENGRAVING...)
Bank/rupt [Lat. bancus, a “bench,” and ruptus,
“broken”], a term originally applied to a merchant whose
bench or counter had been broken by reason of inability
to pay his debts. In its popular sense the word is now
nearly synonymous with insolvent, and denotes any person
unable to meet his liabilities. In England its legal signi-
fication is well defined. It embraces only traders, or per-
Sons whose business it is to buy and sell for gain, and the
various statutes which have been enacted there since the
reign of Henry VIII. in relation to bankrupts have been
applicable to that class alone. By the English laws a bank-
rupt is a trader who has committed an act of bankruptcy,
as defined by statute. A trader may have committed an
act of bankruptcy, and have been formally adjudged a
bankrupt, and yet be entirely solvent—that is, eventually
able to pay his debts in full; and he may be wholly unable
to pay his debts, and yet have committed no act of bank-
ruptcy. A bankrupt was at first regarded as an offender
against the law, and bankrupt laws were intended for the
benefit of creditors. But at present they are founded on
the interests of trade, and intended to be beneficial to
both debtor and creditor. If the conduct of the bankrupt
has been such as to entitle him to the consideration of the
court, he is discharged for ever from all debts owing by
him at the time he became a bankrupt. The law is con-
fined to traders, because they are regarded as possessing
peculiar facilities for delaying, and defrauding creditors;
and, on the other hand, they are considered, generally
speaking, the only class subject to heavy accidental losses,
and to an inability to pay their debts without any fault on
their part. Insolvent laws, which in England merely re-
lease the debtor from liability to imprisonment for debt,
but leave the debt still undischarged, are there regarded as
affording sufficient relief to other classes of debtors.
In the U. S., Congress possesses the power, under the
Constitution, to establish uniform laws on the subject of
bankruptcies. Pursuant to this power, in the year 1800
Congress passed a bankrupt law, which by its own terms was
limited to five years, but it was repealed in 1803. This law
preserved the leading features of the English laws relating
to bankruptcy. It could be enforced only on the applica-
tion of creditors, and embraced only the mercantile class.
In the year 1841 the second bankrupt act was enacted
by Congress. It could be taken advantage of by all per-
sons whomsoever residing in the U. S. owing debts not
contracted in a fiduciary capacity, although it could be en-
forced at the instance of creditors only against merchants,
bankers, brokers, factors, and underwriters. This extended
exercise of the power over the subject of bankruptcy was
violently opposed as unconstitutional, on the ground that
Congress was confined to the well-recognized meaning of
the term bankruptcies as understood in the English courts
when the Constitution was formed. The law was repealed
in Mar., 1843.
But by act approved Mar. 2, 1867, Congress passed a
third bankrupt law, even more general in its scope than
the preceding. Under it any person residing in the U. S.
and owing debts to the amount of $300 can, on his own
application showing his inability to pay his debts in full,
and his desire to surrender his property for the benefit of
his creditors, take advantage of the act and be declared a
bankrupt. So a debtor owing a specified amount can be
forced to become a bankrupt upon the application of cred-
itors if he has committed any of certain offences or acts
specified in the statute. The bankrupt, after the distribu-
tion of his property amounting to a fixed per centage of
his debts, obtains a discharge from all his indebtedness
existing at the time the petition was filed, except in cer-
tain instances specified in the act.
The distinguishing feature of a bankrupt act is the sum-
mary seizure of all the debtor's property, and its division
among his creditors in proportion to their claims. The
race of diligence among creditors is entirely at an end, and
all legal proceedings, except such as are in conformity to
the statute, are stayed. It is against the policy of the
bankrupt law to allow the debtor, in contemplation of
bankruptcy, to give preference to one creditor over an-
other. All such preferences are void, and an attempt to
make them is of itself an act of bankruptcy. -
The various States also possess the power to pass bank-
rupt laws, but no State bankrupt or insolvent law can im-
pair the obligations of contracts. Hence they cannot re-
lease a debtor from obligations incurred before the passage
of such law, nor act upon the rights of citizens of other
States. And when Congress sees fit to exercise the power
over the subject of bankruptcies granted it by the Com-
stitution, the State laws on the same subject are suspended.
On the repeal of the Congressional law the State laws
would revive. The power of Congress over the subject is
plenary, and its law may affect existing debts as well as
those which are contracted after its enactment.
The judicial business in bankruptcy is in the main
transacted by the district court of the U. S., with officers
called registers to conduct the administrative or non-con-
tested business. The estate is managed by an assignee,
who acts as a trustee, and is accountable to the court re-
ferred to. T. W. DWIGHT.
Banks, a county in the N. E. part of Georgia. Area,
280 square miles. It is drained by the sources of Broad
River. The surface is hilly or uneven. Indian corn is an
important crop. Some rice and cotton is raised. Capital,
Homer. Pop. 4973.
Banks, a township of Fayette co., Ia. Pop. 223.
Banks, a township of Antrim co., Mich. Pop. 504.
Banks, a township of Carbon co., Pa. Pop. 3982.
Banks, a township of Indiana co., Pa. Pop. 747.
Banks, a township of Upshur co., West Va. P. 1272.
Banks (NATHANIEL PRENTISS), a statesman and gen-
eral, born at Waltham, Mass., Jan. 30, 1816. He learned
the trade of a machinist, afterwards studied law, was
elected to the legislature as a Democrat in 1849, and was
chosen speaker of the house of representatives of Massa-
chusetts in 1851. Having been elected a member of the
national Congress in 1852, he was separated from the
Democratic party by his opposition to the extension of
slavery, and in 1854 was returned to Congress by the
Republicans and Know-Nothings. In Feb., 1856, after
an exciting contest which occupied two months, he was
chosen Speaker of the House on the one hundred and
thirty-third ballot. He was elected governor of Massa-
chusetts, in Nov., 1857, for one year, and was re-
elected in 1858 and 1859. In May, 1861, he was ap-
pointed a major-general of volunteers, and soon obtained
the command of an army on the Potomac. Having gained
some advantage at Winchester in Mar., 1862, he pursued
the enemy to Harrisonburg. On the 24th of May he was
attacked by Stonewall Jackson, and retreated rapidly
to the Potomac. In Dec., 1862, he succeeded General
Butler as commander of the department of the Gulf.
About the end of May, 1863, he invested Port Hudson,
which was taken with about 6000 prisoners, July 9. In
the spring of 1864 he conducted an expedition up the Red
River, in which Rear-Admiral Porter co-operated with the
gunboats. He ascended above Grand Ecore. After sev-
eral battles at Pleasant Hill (April 9) and other places,
being pressed by superior numbers, he retreated towards
New Orleans, and was relieved from the command in May,
1864. He was chosen a member of Congress by the Re-
publicans of Massachusetts in 1864, in 1866, in 1868, and
in 1870. He served as chairman of the committee of for-
eign relations in the fortieth and forty-first Congresses.
Banks (Sir Joseph), LL.D., F.R.S., an eminent Eng-
lish naturalist, born in London Jan. 4, 1743, inherited an
easy fortune. He was educated at Oxford, which he
quitted in 1763, was elected a fellow of the Royal Society
in 1766, and sailed with Captain. Cook in his voyage
round the world in 1768. He returned in 1771 with rich
collections of plants, animals, etc. In 1777 he was chosen
president of the Royal Society, over which he presided
forty-two years. He was a liberal patron of naturalists
and scientific men, who under his auspices performed sev-
eral voyages of discovery. The colony of Botany Bay
owed its origin mainly to him. He contributed memoirs
to the “Philosophical Transactions” and other publica-
tions. Died June 19, 1820. (See CUVIER, “Eulogy on Sir
382
BANKS.–BANXRING.
J. Banks,” 1821; DUNCAN, “Short Account of the Life of
Sir J. Banks,” 1821.)
Banks (THOMAs), the first great English sculptor, born
at Lambeth Dec. 22, 1735. He gained the gold medal of
the Royal Academy in 1770, and went to Rome in 1772.
He remained for several years in Rome, and produced
there “Caractacus pleading before Claudius,” and an ad-
mirable statue of “Psyche and the Butterfly,” which was
purchased by Catharine II. of Russia. Among his mas-
terpieces is the “Mourning Achilles.” He excelled in
imaginative works. He became a member of the Royal
Academy. Died Feb. 2, 1805. (See CUNNINGHAM, “Lives
of the Painters and Sculptors.”)
Bank’sia, a genus of Australian shrubs and trees of
the order Proteaceae (named in honor of Sir Joseph Banks),
have hard dry leaves, and an umbellate arrangement of
branches, which bear near the extremities oblong heads of
numerous flowers. One species (Banksia grandis) grows
to a height of fifty feet. -
Banks, Savings. See SAVINGs BANKs.
Bank, The, a port of entry of Albert co., New Bruns-
wick, on the Shepody River, 82 miles N. E. of St. John.
Coal is found in the vicinity.
Ban/mack City, or Bannock City, a mining-town,
capital of Beaver Head co., Mon., is on or near the Jeffer-
son Fork of the Missouri River, about 50 miles W. of Vir-
ginia City. Gold and silver are found in this vicinity.
The name is derived from the Bannack tribe of Indians,
who are now much reduced in numbers.
Banſnatyne Club, a literary club deriving its name
from George Bannatyne, who was born in Scotland about
1545. He compiled a collection of manuscripts called
“Corpus Poeticum Scotorum.” This club was founded at
Edinburgh in 1823 by Sir Walter Scott, its design being to
promote the knowledge of Scottish history and antiqui-
ties, and to print rare works which tend to illustrate those
subjects. The club originally consisted of thirty-one mem-
bers, and gradually increased to one hundred, to which
number it was finally limited.
Ban’neker (BENJAMIN), a negro mathematician, born
in Maryland Nov. 9, 1731. He was the author of an alma-
nac (1792 sqq.), of which a copy was sent by Thomas Jef-
ferson to the secretary of the Academy of Sciences at Paris.
Banneker assisted in laying out Washington City and run-
ning the boundary-lines of the District of Columbia. Died
at Baltimore in Oct., 1806.
Banſner [Fr. bannière; It. bandie/ra; Sp. bande'ra; so
called, probably, because it was bound to the flag-staff: it
is doubtless from the same root as the German Band, a
“ribbon’], a military ensign or flag; the standard of a prince
or state. Banners have been used in all ages and all coun-
tries for the purpose of directing the movements of armies.
The banner of the ancient Romans was a square piece of
drapery suspended from a transverse bar and supported on
a staff. It was marked by the figure of an eagle and the
initials S. P. Q. R.—Senatus Populusque Romanus. After
Constantine became a patron of the Christian religion the
Roman banners displayed the cross as the national em-
blem, and took the name of labarum. During the Middle
Ages new forms of banners were adopted. From the banner
royal, which bore the national emblem, to the pennon of the
knight or the Small streamer attached to a lance, there was
a regular subordination. No one except a person of high
rank was permitted to use the square banner. Bishops and
abbots had the privilege of displaying banners in religious
processions. Soldiers and patriots are warmly attached to
the banner or flag of their country as a symbol of nation-
ality and as a visible sign of the national unity and life.
Banner, a township of Fulton co., Ill. Pop. 1104.
Bam’neret, a title formerly given to a soldier for some
heroic action. The banneret was higher in rank than a
knight, and was so called because he had the privilege of
displaying a square banner. When a knight was promoted
to the rank of banneret the points of his pennon were cut
off, and it was thus converted into a square form. The first
English banneret was created by Edward I., and the last
was Capt. John Smith, who rescued the banner of Charles
I. at the battle of Edgehill. -
hannister, a township of Pittsylvania co., Va. Pop.
334-7. '
Bannister (HENRY), D. D., born Oct. 5, 1812, at Con-
way, Mass., graduated at the Wesleyan University, Conn.,
in 1836, studied at Auburn Theological Seminary, was
principal of the Methodist academy at Cazenovia for some
years, and in 1856 was appointed professor of exegetical
theology in the Garrett Biblical Institute at Evanston, Ill.
He is author of several able published sermons, addresses,
and reviews.
Bamnister (WILLIAM B.), born in Brookfield, Mass.,
Nov. 8, 1783, graduated at Dartmouth in 1797, was a suc-
cessful lawyer and merchant, and a distinguished friend of
learning. He married Miss Grant, a celebrated teacher of
Ipswich. Died at Newburyport, Mass., July 1, 1853, leav-
ing $40,000 to various charitable institutions.
Ban/nockburn, a village of Scotland, in the county
of Stirling, on the Bannock rivulet, 3 miles S. of Stirling.
It was the scene of a famous and complete victory gained
by Robert Bruce over the English army, led by the king
Edward II., on the 24th of June, 1314. The English lost
about 30,000 men. Here are important manufactures of
woollens, especially tartans and carpets. Pop. about 2600.
Bannock City. See BANNACK CITY and IDAHO CITY.
Banns (or Bans) of Marriage [for etymology see
BAN], a public notice of an intended marriage, given in a
church or other place prescribed by law. The law of Eng-
land requires that all banns of matrimony shall be pub-
lished in an audible manner, according to the rubric pre-
fixed to the marriage service in the Book of Common Prayer,
upon three Sundays preceding the ceremony. This rubric
is in the following terms: “I publish the banns of mar-
riage between A, of , and B, of If any of you
know cause or just impediment why these persons should
not be joined together in holy matrimony, ye are to declare
it.” The English law, however, dispenses with this pre-
liminary publication if the parties obtain a license from a
person authorized to grant it. The custom of banns has
been abolished in most of the U. S. The practice was first
directed in the times of the Fathers, was enacted afterwards
by Odo, bishop of Paris, about 1176, placed in the canon
law in 1200 by the Synod of Westminster, and prescribed
for the whole Latin Church by the Council of Lateran in
1215. It is still required by the canon law of England and
Roman Catholic countries. -
Bantam', an old town of Java, on the N. coast, 44 miles
W. of Batavia. It was formerly a large city and great
entrepôt of trade, but on account of the unhealthy climate
is at present almost deserted. In the fifteenth century it
was the chief town of a powerful Mohammedan empire of
the same name, which at one time even comprised the
southern part of Sumatra and the W. coast of Borneo. . In
1683 the sultan of Bantam became a vassal of the Nether-
lands, and in the beginning of the present century the
Dutch took possession of the sultanate. The town is in
lat. 6° 2' S., lon. 106° 50' E. -
Ban/tam Fowl, a variety of the common fowl, first
brought from the Indies, and supposed to derive its name
from Bantam, Java. It is remarkable for its small size
and its courage. There are many sub-varieties, most of
which have the legs feathered.
Ban'teng' (Bos or Bibos banteng, or Ban'teng Sonda'-
icus), a species of ox, a native of Java and Borneo, which
in color, shape, horns, and want of dewlap bears some re-
semblance to the gaur of India. It has short hair, slender
limbs, and a sharp muzzle. Though extremely wild, it is
often domesticated by the natives, and becomes a very ser-
viceable animal.
Ban’tingism, a regimen for the reduction of corpu-
lence; so called after an English gentleman named Banting,
who introduced it as the result of his own experience. It
consists essentially in the avoidance of food containing fatty
matter, and of materials which may make fat in the body, as
starch and sugar. Lean meat predominates in this diet;
vegetables are almost excluded; butter, milk, sugar, and
malt liquors are prohibited. With active exercise this
method is often successful in reducing excessive weight.
Ban/try, EARLs of, and Viscounts Berehaven (1816),
Wiscounts Bantry (1800), Barons Bantry (1797, in the Irish
peerage), a noble family of Great Britain.—WILLIAM HEN-
RY HARE HEDGES WHITE, the third earl, was born Nov. 10,
1801, and succeeded his brother in 1868.
Bantry Bay, a deep inlet in the S. of Ireland, in Cork
county, is 25 miles long and from 3 to 5 miles wide. It is
one of the finest harbors in Europe, affording safe and com-
modious anchorage for ships of all sizes. The coast of the
bay is high and rocky, consisting of Devonian strata, and
exhibits some of the finest scenery in the island. Near the
entrance of this bay occurred a naval action between the
Bnglish and French in 1689.
Bamvard’ (Joseph), D. D., born in New York City in
1810, has held many prominent pastorates in the Baptist
denomination, and is the author of numerous Sunday-School
Question-books and other works, chiefly tales and histories
for the young.
Banx/ring (Tupai'a), a genus of insectivorous quad-
rupeds, natives of Sumatra, India, Borneo, etc.; they climb
trees with agility, like lemurs and squirrels. They have
an elongated muzzle and a long bushy tail.
BANYAN–BAPTISTS. 383
Ban’yan,” or Banian (Fi/cus In/dica), an East In-
dian tree remarkable for its mode of propagation by means
of branches, which descend to the ground and take root
and become stems or trunks. The shoots at first hang like
loose cords or ropes, but after they take root they are
gradually tightened, till they become almost as firm as a
rod of iron. In this manner a single tree spreads over a
large extent of ground, and endures for many centuries.
One of these trees has been described as having 350 large
stems, and occupying so large a space that many thousand
persons might stand under its shade. It is a species of
fig, and produces a fruit about as large as a cherry, and of a
rich scarlet color. An abundance of gum-lac is procured from
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Banyan Tree.
this tree, the bark of which is esteemed as a tonic by Hin-
doo physicians. The above illustration may serve to give
one an idea of a vigorous and comparatively young banyan
tree. In very old trees many of the stems often become
almost or quite as large as the original trunk.
Bamyan, a township of Jefferson co., Ark. Pop. 615.
Bamz, the name of one of the finest Benedictine
abbeys known in history, is situated in Bavaria in the
midst of a beautiful landscape. The monks of this abbey
were noted for their learning and humane spirit. It was
founded in 1058. The convent was abolished in 1802, and
is now the summer residence of the princes of Bavaria.
Here is a museum which is especially rich in petrifactions.
Baobab. See ADANSONIA.
Baour-Lormian (PIERRE MARIE FRANÇors Louis),
a French poet of the first empire, born Mar. 4, 1770,
translator of Tasso and Ossian, and author of many trage-
dies in the severely classic style, which were greatly ad-
mired in their time. Died 1857.
Baph’omet, a mysterious symbol of the Knight Temp-
lars, was a small human figure cut out of stone, having two
heads, male and female. It was environed with serpents
and astrological attributes, and marked with inscriptions,
mostly in Arabic. The word is supposed to be a corrup-
tion of Mohammed or Mahomet (called by the Portuguese,
Bafoma), to whose religion the Templars were suspected
of leaning. Others derive it from Babi, Mireos, the “bath
of wisdom,” a reputed name of the Gnostic baptism, often
called in old writings “baphometic baptism.” Quite a
number of baphomets are preserved in European archae-
ological collections.
Bap’tism [Lat. baptis'ma : Gr. 84triarwa, from Batrviço,
to “baptize”], the act of initiating a person, by the appli-
cation of water, into the visible Church of Christ. (See
BAPTISTs.
Baptist Church, a township of Cabarrus co., N. C.
Pop. 1032.
Baptistery [Gr. 8atrio Tiptov], a name sometimes given
to the tank or vessel in which the ordinance of baptism
is administered; sometimes to a portion of a church in
which the ceremony of baptism is performed, or a separate
building erected near the church for the performance of
that rite. These buildings were either octagonal, polygonal,
or circular. The baptistery of Florence, among the most
celebrated, is an octagonal structure about 100 feet in di-
ameter, standing in close proximity to the cathedral. It
is built of black and white marble. The most remarkable
features of this baptistery are the magnificent bronze doors,
adorned with bas-reliefs by Ghiberti and others. In the
centre of each of these buildings erected for baptismal
purposes is a tank, which is often of considerable propor-
... *Probably derived from the Sanscrit ványá (pronounced bányá
in Bengal), a “grove” or “thicket,” a single banyan tree often
forming a grove (or thicket) of itself.
tions—that at Ravenna, being about nine feet square, and
that of the Lateran, at Rome, thirty-seven inches or more
in depth.
Bap/tists, a body of Christians who maintain those
views of Christian truth which are commonly regarded as
“evangelical,” but who differ from adherents of the Church
of Rome and from most Protestants in the following
respects:
1. They maintain that immersion is an essential condi-
tion of valid baptism—appealing, in support of their posi-
tion, to the significance of the Greek word Barriço and its
Latin equivalents; to the circumstances in which the bap-
tisms of the New Testament were administered; to the
scriptural significance of the rite as a burial with Christ;
to the practice of the Church in the early Christian centu-
ries; and to the concessions of those who, while practically
rejecting immersion, admit that it was practised by the
apostles and the early churches. All pleas for a modifica-
tion of the rite on the ground of indifference or expediency
they meet by insisting on the duty of literal compliance
with the precepts and example of Christ, and the import-
ance of maintaining the emblematical significance of the
rite.
2. They maintain that a visible Church should be com-
posed of such only, and that such only should be admitted
to baptism, as give credible evidence of regeneration—in
opposition to those who would make the Church coterminous
with a state or states, and those who would include in the
Church the unregenerate members of Christian households.
These views also they profess to derive from the New Tes-
tament, and enforce them on the ground of reason and
common sense. They were the first among the various
sects of modern Christendom to insist on “a spiritual
church-membership;” and it is largely through their in-
fluence that that idea has gained such wide acceptance in
this country, and is gradually spreading throughout Eu-
rope. (See CURTIs’s “Progress of Baptist Principles.”)
3. They maintain that professed believers only should
receive baptism. This position is a natural sequence of
their view of the spiritual nature of the Church when
coupled with the almost universally conceded doctrine that
baptism is the initiatory rite of the Church. They point,
however, to the baptisms of the New Testament as by
explicit statement or fair inference the baptism of be-
lievers; and insist that the baptism of an unconscious
infant, either on the responsibility of the Church, the
State, or the religious household, is a violation of the rights
*Of the individual conscience, which should, in their opinion,
“give account of itself unto God” in all matters of relig-
ious faith and practice. They maintain, in short, that
all the Christian ordinances are acts of faith, requiring
the conscious consent of the subject. In reply to argu-
ments drawn from the mention of the baptism of households
in the New Testament, they reply that they would cheer-
fully baptize such households as that of Stephanas bap-
tized by Paul (which is described as “the first-fruits of .
Achaia, and addicted to the ministry of the saints’’), or
the household of the Philippian jailer, of which it is
explicitly affirmed that they were all believers; and point
to the large number of believing households in membership
with Baptist churches to show that household baptism
does not necessarily imply infant baptism.
4. They maintain that there should be no organic con-
nection between the Church and the State; and, further,
that each individual church (by which they understand,
“a body of baptized believers, with its pastor and deacons,
covenanted together for religious worship and religious
work”) should be absolutely independent of any other
body, whether ecclesiastical or political, being accountable
for its doctrines and practices only to the great Head of
the Church. As a consequence of this, though Baptist
churches are frequently grouped together in “associa-
tions,” and the “associations” of a State are further
combined in “general associations” or “State conven-
tions,” though Baptists frequently call “councils” for the
recognition of churches, the ordination of ministers, and
the adjustment of difficulties, “associations,” “conven-
tions,” and “councils” have with them no ecclesiastical
authority whatever, save that with which the Christian
comity of those constituting them invests them, and the
moral weight which their conclusions carry.
In view of the facts just stated, the substantial homo-
geneity in doctrine and practice of a body of Christians
which embraces, in the U. S. alone, more than 1,500,000
communicants, may be a matter of surprise; and that
surprise will be enhanced when it is understood that the
Baptists have no authoritative creeds or symbols, but
appeal, in support of doctrine or practice, directly to the
word of God. This homogeneity (as complete as that
which exists in any denomination of Christians) is attrib-
uted by the Baptists to the fact that members enter their






















384 **
churches consciously adopting a coherent, self-consistent,
and Scriptural system of Christian truth.
It is to reinforce their utterances in behalf of a spiritual
church-membership and allegiance in religious matters to
Christ alone, by an acted protest to what they believe to
be a departure from the apostolic conception of the Chris-
tian Church, that the Baptists take a position with refer-
ence to the Lord’s Supper similar to that taken by the
Episcopalians with reference to ministers not episcopally
ordained. While cordially co-operating with other religious
denominations in all forms of moral and religious activity,
they decline to invite them to participation in the Lord’s
Supper, taking the ground that there is an obvious and
necessary distinction between Christian fellowship and
church fellowship. Their position with reference to this
matter is, briefly stated, that the Lord's Supper is an ordi-
nance designed by Christ for his churches, and entrusted
to their care; that baptism is the initiatory rite of the
Christian Church; that valid baptism involves the immer-
sion of a professed believer. In the first two particulars
they agree with most Christian sects; and hence are
accustomed to claim that they do not practise “close
communion,” but close baptism; that most of the other
Christian sects are no more willing than they to invite to
the Lord’s Supper those whom they do not conscientiously
regard as baptized.
In 1815, Robert Hall (one of the most gifted and influen-
tial Baptist ministers of England) published a treatise on
the “Terms of Communion,” in which he endeavored to
Satisfy himself and others that baptism was not a pre-
requisite to communion. His general conclusion has been
accepted by many who reject the premise from which alone
a Baptist could logically derive it; and since his day most
of the Baptists of England, and a few in America, have
been “open communionists.” *
History.-The name “Baptists” has been borne by the
denomination whom it now designates only about 200
years. It was given to them, as is supposed, either dur-
ing the Commonwealth in England or shortly afterwards.
The name by which they were known previous to the
Commonwealth was Anabaptist, and the same name in a
German translation, “Wiedertäufer,” had for more than.
a hundred years before been applied to the predecessors of
Briglish Baptists in Switzerland and Germany. But as
in Switzerland, Germany, Moravia, and Holland these
Christians had from the first denied the appropriateness
of the name “Wiedertäufer” (Rebaptizer), so in Eng-
land their first recorded Confession of Faith (A. D. 1644)
is said to be of “churches of Christ in London which are
commonly (but unjustly) called Anabaptists.” In this
historical sketch the name Baptist will be used to designate
the German “Wiedertäufer,” the Dutch “Doopsgezinden,”
and English “Anabaptists” and “Baptists,” without in-
tending by the name to assert a perfect similarity between
them in all things.
ticle ANABAPTISTs) more frequently practised pouring
than immersion; and the same statement may be made
(see below) respecting the Dutch “Mennonites.” These
bodies of Christians agreed with our modern Baptists,
however, in admitting only professed believers to baptism,
and in maintaining the independence of a gospel Church
of ecclesiastical or political control. They are, in some
sense, the progenitors of the Baptists of to-day, though
the historical connection between the two cannot be easily
traced.
Over the continental Baptists of the time of the Refor-
mation has hung a cloud of misrepresentation for three
ceraturies. The Peasant War (1525) and the Münster Re-
bellion (1535) have been laid at their door. That there
were some renegade Baptists at Münster no one would deny,
as there were more renegade Lutherans. But Baptists were
no more responsible for that rebellion and its results than
English missionaries were responsible for the Sepoy rebel-
lion, or than Baptists of America are now responsible for
Mormonism because Joseph Smith was a renegade Baptist
and Mormons practise immersion. With respect to the
Peasant War, Münzer, its leader, never was a Baptist, and
never acted in concert with Baptists. In proof of this the
letter of Baptist ministers of Switzerland (dated Oct., 1524)
is still preserved at St. Gall, in which, while they express
sympathy with some of his views (i.e. rejection of the
mass and infant baptism), they rebuke him for taking the
sword. In the discussions with Zwingle before 1525, the
Baptists of Switzerland had maintained the view held by
many of their descendants in Europe, that Christians had
no right to use arms for self-defence or the defence of the
land; and this view was maintained by the Swiss and
German Baptists at their convention at Schleitheim, near
Schaffhausen, Sept., 1527.
The Baptists in the earliest years of the Reformation
consisted of the poor and obscure. The persecutions of
The German “Anabaptists” (see ar-
BAPTISTS.
=**
centuries had taught them concealment. After 1522 there
was in Switzerland a band of scholars who had been con-
verted by means of these obscure men, and who literally
gave their lives for the defence of the faith. Balthazar
Hubmaier had been pro-rector of the University of Ingold-
stadt, and was said by Eck to be the most eloquent man in
Europe; Conrad Grebel was the Scion of a noble house,
and one of the first scholars of Vienna and Paris; Felix
Mantz as a Hebraist occupied a high rank; Johann Denk
and Ludwig Hetzer made a translation of the Prophets
that compelled the praise of their enemies. These were
the men whose names appear most frequently in the con-
flict which Zwingle provoked with the Baptists. There is
not one of them who before becoming a Baptist was not
the friend and associate of Zwingle and his fellow-workers.
Baptists, Zwinglians, and Lutherans agreed, in substance,
in holding the doctrines of justification by faith and re-
generation by the Holy Spirit, but they differed most widely
in their view of the connection of these doctrines with the
doctrine of the Church. Luther and Zwingle, though
preaching the great doctrine of justification by faith, hesi-
tated to institute radical changes either in the constitution
or the worship of the Church. While they both in the
earlier part of their work asserted that the Church should
consist only of believers, and should be independent of the
state, they both very soon came to consider the whole state
Christian, and gave all power over the Church into the
hands of the civil government, and infractions of the
ecclesiastical laws, passed by the states for the protection
of the Lutheran and Zwinglian reformations, were pun-
ished by fine, imprisonment, and death, with their ap-
proval. Baptists, on the contrary, held that the only
churches spoken of in the New Testament are churches
of believers, and claimed that to bring in as members of a
Church those who give no evidence of regeneration is to
institute a practice for which there is not the least scrip-
tural warrant, and to subvert the fundamental principles
of the Reformation itself.
The claims of Baptists were-freedom to form churches
which should be separate from the world, to exercise church-
discipline over their members, and to have the entire con-
trol of their own ecclesiastical affairs without interference
of the state. As citizens they declared that they owed
dutiful obedience to the state in all things not in conflict
with God’s laws, but the state had no right to compel to
any religious faith or to punish men for their faith. By
this position, which they held most firmly, they stood not
only in antagonism to the Reformers, but to the states
which had passed laws to enforce the Reformed views, and
hence arose the cry which pursued them for three hundred
years, of being both heretics and rebels.
The liberty of private judgment, which both Luther and
Zwingle claimed in their discussions with Romanists, they
were unwilling to grant to Baptists, and Protestant and
Romanist joined hands in persecuting them unto death.
It is claimed by some writers that the Baptists of the
period of the Reformation were wild and fanatical, and
that Menno Simons of Holland (A. D. 1536–61) first intro-
duced order and milder views among them. The writings
of Grebel, Denk, Hetzer, Hubmaier, the confessions of
Baptists before the Protestant inquisitors of Switzerland—
all given before 1530—disprove the assertion. Fanaticism
cannot be justly charged upon the early Baptists of Switz-
erland. -
How furious the persecution was against Baptists from
1525 to 1530 may be learned from the fact that within
these years all the great leaders had been either killed or
banished from Switzerland, from what is now Elsass, Badën,
Würtemberg, and Germany, and churches, many of them
of large membership, were dispersed by fire and sword.
Hubmaier, during the two years of his banishment from
Switzerland, under the protection of the counts of Liechten-
stein at Nicolsburg, became the apostle of Moravia, and
soon that land was filled with Baptists, and made the refuge
of Baptists fleeing from other countries where the persecu-
tion was more severe. For a hundred years great numbers
of the Swiss braved the loss of their goods, and the long
journey through hostile territory, and the price set upon
their heads by the Bavarian dukes, to reach Moravia,
where they might enjoy some little religious freedom.
Erom Moravia they sent out their missionaries to all parts
of Germany, the Tyrol, and Switzerland, to Hungary,
Silesia, and Poland. The Romish historians say that these
missionaries were very successful in their efforts “to delude
the people.” The “Chronicle” of the Moravian brethren
in manuscript in the town-library of Hamburg, the lately
discovered complete works of Hubmaier, and Ryedeman's
“Account,” set before us the scriptural views and the
steadfastness of these Moravian Baptists. -
Until 1531–32, Baptists had been most numerous in
Switzerland, in Southern Germany, the Tyrol, Austria, and
BAPTISTS. **
.885
Moravia; after this date they appear in large numbers in
the Netherlands, and in the countries bordering the Baltic
up to the boundary of Russia. When they first appeared
in the Netherlands cannot be decided. Ypeij and Dermout
say Anabaptists were, according to the archives of Gronin-
gem, expelled in 1517. Professor van Oostersee (Herzog's
Encyclopædie, vol. ix., 346) says of the Mennonites or
Netherlands Baptists: “They are peculiar to the Nether-
lands, and are older than the Reformation, and must there-
fore by no means be confounded with the Protestantism of
the sixteenth century, for it can be shown that the origin
of the Baptists reaches much farther back and is more
venerable. . . . The history of the Netherlands Baptists,
particularly at first, is written in blood and tears. Un-
ceasingly confounded with the fanatical party at Münster,
they were persecuted in the most horrible manner by
Catholics and non-Catholics. Their Church has given a
great host of martyrs for the cause of Christ. The doctrines
of baptism and of oaths raised up between them and their
opponents walls of division as high as those between the
defenders and opponents of the mass.”
The Netherlands were the inheritance of Charles W.,
while in Germany he was emperor only by election, and
the local government was largely in other hands. This
accounts for the difference in the means used by him in
resisting the Reformation. In Germany, till 1546, he tem-
porized, but in the Netherlands he opposed fire and sword
to the spread of the new doctrines. The history of the
heroic contest here between the Protestants and Roman-
ists is one of the most glorious in the history of the
Church. Long before Menno, who is commonly regarded
as the founder of the Netherlands Baptists, was converted
and became a Baptist, Baptists were found in the Nether-
lands, and were united in churches from the borders of
France to the northern bounds of Friesland, and proved
steadfast unto death in the maintenance of their principles.
In 1527, at The Hague, the daughter of Weymken Claes of
Monickendam was strangled and burnt; also Jan Walen
and two companions' at Haarlem. In 1532, Kraen of Har-
zenswoude, his wife, and two others, were put to death at
Haarlem. In the same year nine citizens of Amsterdam
suffered martyrdom at The Hague. Between the Baptists
of the Netherlands and those in the Rhine Provinces and
in Switzerland there was an intimate union. In the
writings of Menno and Philips we find the same views
respecting Scripture doctrines which were held by the
Swiss Baptists in 1524. Their church-government was the
same, and they also agreed with respect to the unlawful-
ness of taking an oath or bearing arms or accepting civil
office. The Moravian “Chronicle” and the Dutch martyr-
ologies include the Swiss, German, and Netherlands Bap-
tists as brethren together in their witness for the truth of
God.
The Baptists in the Netherlands have been for a long
time generally termed Mennonites, from Menno, one of
their chief teachers. Menno Simons was a priest in the
Roman Catholic Church in Friesland, who underwent a
change of religious opinions and preached evangelical doc-
trimes (though, as he afterwards asserted, without a change
of heart) while still a priest. Influenced by the courageous
martyrdom of a young Baptist, he examined and espoused
Baptist principles, though he did not openly avow them
until 1537, when the revolt at Münster had led him to
realize that his influence ought to be felt as a Baptist on"
the side of order and humanity. From that time till his
death (1561) he labored fearlessly and incessantly (though
a price was set upon his head) to disseminate the princi-
ples which he had adopted; and with such pre-eminent
success as to give his name to the Netherlands Baptists.
The minister of no particular congregation, Menno's life
was spent in travelling through the countries between the
Rhine and the Elbe, from Cologne to Liefiand. It is a
great mistake, however, to suppose that he was their only
prominent man at this time. He has left his impress upon
his people by means of his writings, as well as his fearless
and unceasing labors, but there were others who stood
with him in the front rank as ministers. Dirk Philips
found his field of activity mostly in Prussia and the lands
bordering the Baltic, and Leemert Bouwens was the apostle
of Friesland. Philips, like Menno, was a writer as well as
a preacher and worker, and has left his interpretation of
Baptist belief in his works. Leenert Bouwens deserves to
be remembered for his marvellous exertions and almost
unparalleled success in winning souls to God. His diary
is still preserved, and reaches from 1551 to 1578, in which
latter year he died. When we remember that these years
are covered by the inhuman decrees of Charles W. and
Philip II. against the Baptists, that during a portion of
these years Alva ruled in the Netherlands, that a price was
Set on Bouwen’s head, and every one in the land ordered on
pain of death to arrest him if found, it is little short of the
incredible that he should have during all these years been
steadily at work, and should have baptized ten thousand
persons as the fruit of his labors; yet the places where,
and the persons whom, he baptized are set down with so
much particularity that there seems to be no room for
doubting the truthfulness of the record.
Is it any wonder that men like Menno, Philips, and
Bouwens, who sought only to conform their faith and life to
the word of God, and to gain others to the same living faith,
should be stung into strong expressions against Catholic
and Protestant preachers, who urged on, with all the argu-
ments in their power, the civil authority to take the lives
of Baptists? Like their brethren in Central Europe, they
sought only freedom to serve God according to their under-
standing of the Scriptures, while they acknowledged their
full duty of obedience to the civil power in all matters not
contrary to God’s word. Their church-discipline was strict
even to severity, and wherever they were allowed to remain
in peace they created centres of temporal as well as spiritual
prosperity around them, were renowned for the probity of
their dealings and for the purity of their domestic relations
and life, and in their confessions and practices they urged
the duty of complete religious liberty for all. Yet they
were denounced from the pulpits of other confessions as
“Münsterites, who if they could would seize land and city,
draw the sword, steal, not only practise polygamy, but
community of women and of property, revolt against the
government, slay their children in body and soul,” etc.
While William the Silent was a devoted courtier of Charles
W., while he was a boon-companion of Egmont and Horn
in their Belshazzar feasts, defenceless men and women were
facing terrors more dreadful than death in battle for the
sake of religious liberty. When, long years afterwards,
William became the Christian hero and champion of the
precious rights of liberty of conscience, at one of the darkest
hours of his history, at Roermonde, he came to know the
Baptists as fast friends of the cause. Opposed to the bear-
ing of arms and to war, they yet recognized the duty they
owed to their country to assist her in the hour of need, and
when William despaired of help from other quarters he ap-
pealed to them, and they out of their poverty contributed
a sum which was the token of their sympathy. His receipt
for this money freely given, not lent, is still extant. He
never forgót that act. Far in advance of his coreligionists,
he was true as steel to the liberty of religious thought, and
again and again lifted his arm against the tyranny which
the hardly-emancipated Reformed sought to exercise over
the Baptists. Motley’s account has shown us with what dis-
dain and indignation William rejected the request of the
Reformed, through Aldegonde, in 1577, that Baptists should
be excluded from citizenship because of their faith, and
how he then indicated his high esteem of them by saying
“ their yea was equal to the oath" of the Reformed. He
repeats this in his rebuke of the magistrates of Middle-
burg in 1578 for persecuting the Baptists, and praises their
peaceful character.
Erom 1520 to 1575, Baptists had preceded the Reformed
in all parts of the Netherlands, and in the long lists of
martyrs for the faith ten Baptists suffered to one of the
Reformed. *
Though never opposed to general culture, and cordially
welcoming to the ranks of the ministry men of the pro-
foundest scholarship who felt it a duty to preach the gos-
pel, the early Baptists held that mere education could not
supply the lack of spiritual gifts, and maintained that any
brother of good report, with sound knowledge of the
Scriptures and evincing aptness to teach, should be
licensed to preach the gospel. Shut out from all the higher
institutions of learning in the sixteenth century, and ob-
serving that ministerial education was not incompatible
with corruption in morals and bigotry in religion, they
gradually fell into the tenet that special education was a
disadvantage for the office of the ministry, and looked with
disfavor on any attempt to prepare for it otherwise than by
private reading of the Bible. The injurious effects of this
view became apparent when, in the middle of the seven-
teenth century, the Socinians, expelled from Poland, came
to Holland, and began to infect the churches with their
views. In many churches the tares grew and choked the
wheat. While full freedom under the law had not come for
the Baptists, the time of severe persecution had passed.
They pursued their callings in peace and with frugality,
and riches flowed in upon them apace. They were largely
concerned in commerce with foreign nations, and when
Holland was in straits for money to carry on the war with
England (1666–72) the Baptists lent the government large
sums of money at a low rate of interest, and were rewarded
with full religious and political liberty. But from that time
to the present their numbers have steadily declined in Hol-
land. The causes are not difficult to explain—the spread
of Socinian doctrines among them, by which all the fervor
25
386
V BAPTISTS.
of life and missionary enterprise was lost; their church con-
stitution altered, so that children who reached a certain
age, whether converted or not, were baptized and made
members of the Church; an uneducated ministry, with
the members of churches far in advance of their pastors;
the exclusion of all who married one of another religious
confession; and last, but not least, riches not used for God.
Commerce, manufactures, and neighborhood had long
bound England with many ties to the Netherlands. Those
persecuted in the one country would flee to the other.
During the sixteenth century there is frequent mention
made in documents of state, as well as in the writings of
private persons, of the presence of Anabaptists in England.
The same cry was raised against them which was common
in Europe, and they were exposed to the same persecutions.
Some of those punished most severely were Hollanders who
had fled to escape death in their own land. The English
“Anabaptists” of the sixteenth century are shown by their
statements, when on trial, to have been brethren of the
Dutch Baptists. No persecution was severe enough to ex-
tirpate the Baptists from England, though it caused them
to keep their meetings and their views very quiet. Banish-
ishment, whipping, or death at the stake awaited any pub-
lic “conventicles.” Before a hand was laid to the reforma-
tion of the Established Church in England, Baptists were
numerous in the kingdom, and the reigns of Henry VIII.,
Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth are blotted with the
blood of martyred Baptists.
The same differences which existed among the continental
Baptists on the schemes of doctrine, since termed Calvin-
ism and Arminianism, were found among the English Bap-
tists. Before and after the Synod of Dort these discus-
sions in England and on the Continent increased in heat,
and caused separation among confessors of the same views
on other points. In the early part of the seventeenth cen-
tury, in the reign of James I., the Arminian Baptists were
numerous in England. But as in Holland, so in England,
the Arminian Baptists gradually withered under the influ-
erace of Socinianism.
In Switzerland, in Germany, and in Holland it has been
found impossible to decide when Baptists first appeared, or
which were the first churches of Baptists in those lands
(their simultaneous appearance on every hand being a
natural result of that appeal to the Scriptures, in contra-
distinction to tradition, made by Luther, Zwingle, and
Melanchthon); and it is quite as difficult to decide the
question about the Baptists of England. If one would
make the first Baptist church to appear under Helwisse in
1614, then we must deny the historical evidence for the
conventicles of Baptists in the preceding century. If we
make the church formed in London in 1633 the first Cal-
vinistic Baptist church in England, we assume that all the
Baptists and the Baptist churches of the sixteenth century
were Arminian in their views, which has never been shown,
and is contrary to all probability. Baptists were found in
the north, in the west, but principally in the east, of Eng-
land. Under the dreadful persecutions of the Tudors the
churches knew little of each other tunless they were situated
near together. We hear more of the Calvinistic church
formed in 1633, because it was situated in London, and
performed an important work in the following years.
On the Continent some who have been classed with the
Baptists, but who agree with them only in restricting bap-
tism to believers, and in maintaining the independence of a
Christian Church, regarded pouring as valid baptism, while
others practised immersion. Pouring was most common
among the Mennonites, though some among them held to
immersion, and from those who practised immersion it was
received by the English brethren, and has continued to be
their practice to the present day. Crosby relates, on the
authority of an old manuscript, said to be written by Kiffin,
that a certain Richard Blount was sent from England to
Holland to receive immersion from the hands of a regularly
baptized minister, because the brethren did not know of
any regularly baptized minister in England. Richard
Blount was baptized in Holland, and returned and bap-
tized others in England. It has been held that no Men-
nomites ever practised immersion, but facts are against the
statement. The truth seems to be, that pouring or sprinkling
was most common among the Mennonites, but there were
some, and those who held Calvinistic views, who practised
immersion in the seventeenth century, and by some one of
these pastors Blount was baptized.
As the Dutch Baptists differed in some minor tenets from
the Swiss, so the English differed from the Dutch and Swiss,
while holding firmly to the principle common to them all,
that the visible Church should be composed only of those
who are baptized upon credible evidence of their being
regenerated by the Spirit. The English Baptists did not
regard it unlawful to take a solemn oath in court or to
serve in the army. Like their brethren on the Continent,
*
they were from the time of Henry VIII. the unflinching,
unwearied witnesses and advocates of religious liberty—
not for themselves only, but for all men, for the Turk as
well as for the Christian; and when the upheaval of the Eng-
lish nation under Cromwell took place, by the pen, and by
the sword they strove to accomplish their ideal. They were
found in the council of state, in the army, in the navy, while
their ministers redoubled their labors, and God bore witness
to their work by a rich harvest of converts. Raised to a
height of influence and power, it is the striking manifesta-
tion of the grace of God in them that in prosperity as in
adversity they advocated unlimited religious freedom for
aII men—“a free Church in a free State.”
It is not a mere chance that the two greatest pleaders
for the rights of conscience whom the centuries have pro-
duced—Milton in England and Roger Williams in Rhode
Island—held, after mature consideration, those opinions
for which Bunyan, the Baptist preacher, suffered fine and
imprisonment. In simple devotion to God’s word, in plead-
ing for that word before the masses of men, in pleading for
the highest and inalienable right of man against all spirit-
ual and political tyranny, the entire denomination, in fact,
have led the van of all Christian denominations and borne
the brunt of the battle.
Under the Restoration, from Charles II. to William III.,
they suffered bitterly, as did all dissenters, and then with
peace came the time of rest, degenerating to sloth. Cal-
vinism hardened into hyper-Calvinism (only to be rational-
ized—humanized—scripturalized, through the influence of
Andrew Fuller). Arminianism deliquesced into Socinian-
ism, divisions separated the orthodox churches, and the
eighteenth century was a period of stagnation in growth.
But God had not forgotten them. Near the close of the
century (when only the Moravians had preceded the Eng-
lish Baptists in the work of foreign missions), Carey, “the
consecrated cobbler,” as he was sneeringly called by Sidney
Smith, went forth to India to overthrow heathenism, and
then arose the Baptist Missionary Society (1792). Marsh-
man and Ward soon followed and joined Carey, forming a
triumvirate of Christian missionaries unexcelled in labor
and results of work; while at the same time they made
contributions of no slight importance to Oriental scholar-
ship. Baptist missionaries from England have labored in
India, Ceylon, China, Africa, and the West Indies, and with
almost equal success.
The English Separatists who fled to Holland in the last
part of the sixteenth century became very largely leavened
with the views of the Baptists, who were numerous in Hol-
land. When the tide of emigration set towards the bleak
shores of North America, many who felt the strength of
these views joined the emigration and came out boldly on
the side of the Baptists after reaching America. The sor-
rowful history of the early continental Reformation was
repeated in the New World. Those who had just escaped
from oppressive ecclesiastical thraldom fitted a yoke for the
necks of men guilty of no crime but devotion to God’s word.
The Church became political and the state ecclesiastical,
and the union produced the unavoidable bastard fruit of
persecution. In opposition to this error of the centuries,
Roger Williams and a small band of Baptists, driven from
Massachusetts, founded the colony which afterwards be-
came Rhode Island, the type of all true democratic gov-
ernment, on the principle which Baptists had professed for
more than a century—of freedom for God’s word and free-
dom for man’s conscience. From New England, Baptists
emigrated to New York and to Virginia. They experienced
in both colonies the lot of a proscribed people until the agi-
tation of the country just preceding the Revolution turned
the attention of the dominant parties to other issues than the
persecution of their own people. During the Revolution
the Baptists rendered effective service to the infant republic,
and at its close were instrumental in securing the recognition
of complete religious liberty in the Constitution of the U. S.
The nineteenth century has witnessed a marvellous in-
crease in the Baptists of the U. S. From 77 churches,
with hardly more than 5000 members, in 1770; they had
increased in 1872 to 19,720 churches, with 1,585,232 mem-
bers and 11,892 ordained ministers. For the latter year
(1872) they reported 84,625 baptisms, 741,777 officers,
teachers, and scholars in Sunday-schools, and $4,926,527.04
for benevolent contributions. In the same year the Bap-
tists in England reported 1940 churches, 178,183 members,
1569 ordained ministers, and 4255 baptisms. The follow-
ing table gives the statistics of the Baptists, by continents,
for 1872: *
Churches. Baptisms. Members.
North America.................... 20,469 87,482 1,676,937
Europe At 2,960 8,663 272,437
Asia 408 1,888 26,814
Africa. tº tº tº tº 31 ......... 1,930
Australasia 144 ......... 5,112
24,012 98,033 1,983,230.
BAR.—BARAGUEY D’HILLIERS.
387
In this statement no account is taken of the many religious
sects in the U. S. which hold similar opinions to the “regu-
lar” Baptists with reference to the ordinance of baptism,
though differing from them in other essential particulars.
Among these may be mentioned the Free-Will Baptists
(Arminian), with 1463 churches, 1145 ministers, and 69,910
members (mostly in the New England States); the Seventh-
Day Baptists, with 7000 members; the Dunkers, with
50,000 members; the Disciples or “Campbellites” (found
mostly in the Southern States), with 350,000 members.
These denominations will be specifically mentioned under
their respective names.
Allusion has already been made to the missionary-work
of the English Baptists. Stimulated by the example of
their English brethren, and providentially impelled to the
work by Dr. Judson's adoption of Baptist views, the Bap-
tists of the U. S. organized in 1814 the Baptist Foreign
Mission Society (now the American Baptist Missionary
Union), which had in 1872 eight missions in Asia, five in
Europe, and one in Africa. In these missions there are 766
churches, 988 laborers of all classes, 1664 stations and out-
stations, with 52,700 church-members. The receipts of the
“ Union” in 1872 were $210,199. It has met with the most
marked success in its missions among the Karens in India;
in Germany (where 73 churches, numbering 13,970 mem-
bers, have been gathered under the supervision of Rev.
J. G. Oncken); and in Sweden, which now reports 220
churches and 8807 members. Under the auspices of this
society 203,382,898 pages had, in 1864, been published in
33 languages and dialects, several of which were first re-
duced to writing by its missionaries. The Southern Bap-
tist Convention sustains missions in China, Africa, and
Italy. The American Baptist Home Mission Society, or-
ganized in 1832, supported, in 1872, 425 missionaries, and
received into its treasury $256,182. It had received and
expended since its organization $1,958,901, and reported
67,020 baptisms. The work of this society is prosecuted
mainly among the feeble churches of the West and the
freedmen of the South. The Baptist Bible and Publica-
tion Society, organized in 1824, received, in 1872, $386,368,
and issued 369,121,076 pages.
It has already been said that the early Baptists were
not especially interested in ministerial education, and rea-
sons have been given why their indifference was natural.
From the fact, however, that they appeal so constantly
to the original Scripture in support of their opinions, edu-
cation soon became a necessity with them, and for more
than a century, both in England and America, they have
given to this subject that attention which its importance
demands. In 1764, when the Baptists of the U. S. num-
bered barely 5000, they established Rhode Island College
(now Brown University). In 1872 they numbered 9 theo-
logical seminaries, with 40 instructors, 419 students, prop-
erty to the amount of $866,000, endowment to the amount
of $958,000, and 62,454 volumes in their libraries; 34
colleges, with 256 instructors, 4141 students, property to
the amount of $4,492,000, endowment to the amount of
$2,228,058, and 136,806 volumes in their libraries; and 51
academies, with 264 instructors, 4247 students, and prop-
erty to the value of $1,203,700—making a total (accord-
ing to the very imperfect return which we condense) of 560
instructors, 8807 students, and property and endowments
to the amount of $9,849,558.
tions (which are noticed under their appropriate titles)
will compare favorably with those of any other denomina-
tion; and efforts are being made, through the National
Baptist Educational Commission, to excite a yet deeper in-
terest in edcuation among the masses of the denomination,
and secure for its institutions of learning a more generous
patronage. The mention of such names as those of Fran-
cis Wayland, Barnas Sears, Horatio B. Hackett, Thomas
J. Conant, Ezekiel G. Robinson, and Asahel C. Kendrick
may serve as types of the Baptist educators of the present
day. (With reference to Baptist history, reference may be
made to the tracts of DENK ; the works of HUBMAIER;
TEN CATE's “Geschiedenis der Doopsgezinden,” etc.; ScHYN,
“Historia Mennonitarum,” ed. Matschoen; THOMAs CROSBY,
“History of the English Baptists from the Reformation to
the Reign of George I.” (1738–40); Ivi MEY, “History of
the English Baptists” (1811–23); TAYLOR, “History of
the General Baptists;”. I. BACKUs, “History of Baptists
of New England;” “The Publications of the Hansard Knol-
lys Society;” CRAMP’s “Baptist History” (the best popular
work); and CUTTING’s “Historic Vindications.” For works
in exposition and defence of Baptist principles and prac-
tices, see WAYLAND’s “Principles and Practices of the
Baptists;” DAGG’s “Church Order;” Hiscox’s “Baptist
Church Directory;” CHAs E, RIPLEY, JUDSON, and WIBERG
on Baptism; ARNOLD, PEPPER, and HovKY on the Lord’s
Supper.) REVISED BY M. B. ANDERSON.
Bar, a long and narrow piece of wood, metal, or other
The best of these institu- |
solid substance, generally round, quadrangular, and other
uniform section. Bar in hydrography, an accumulation
of mud or sand in any navigable. channel by which navi-
gation is obstructed, but more particularly a similar for-
mation almost universally found across and exterior to
the mouths of rivers and harbors, by which the draught
of vessels entering is limited. Bar in music is a straight
line drawn across the staff to divide the music into small por-
tions of equal duration, and also comprises the musical notes
written or played between such lines. Bar, in heraldry, is
one of the important charges known as ordinaries. The
bar is formed by two horizontal lines passing over the shield;
it differs from the fess in size, the bar occupying only one-
fifth of the shield.
Bar, in law. Ist, that part of the court-room in which
prisoners are arraigned or sentenced, and in which the
members of the legal profession, usually sit. It takes its
name from the bar or railing which generally separates it
from the rest of the room. Hence the word often signifies
lawyers, or persons admitted to practise in the courts; and
in some cases it refers to or implies the presence of the
court itself. A trial at bar is a trial before a full bench of
judges, as distinguished from a nisi privs trial—that is, a
trial before a single judge. 2d, a complete defence to an
action in law. A plea in bar is a plea which, if true, com-
pletely defeats the plaintiff’s action. -
Bar, a town of Russia, in the government of Podolia.
In 1768 the Confederation of Bar was formed here, by the
nobility of Poland, to counteract the influence of Russia,
on the king, Stanislas Augustus. Bar was taken by the
Russians in the same year, and the confederates were com-
pelled to go to Wallachia. Here they declared the king
dethroned, and had him carried off from Warsaw in 1771,
and were only suppressed by Russia after four years’ hard
fighting. Pop. in 1867, 8077.
Bar'aba’, a vast steppe, of Siberia, extending between
the rivers Obi and Irtish on the W. and the Altai Moun-
tains on the N.W., occupies more than 100,000 square miles.
Many salt lakes and marshes occur in it. It was colonized
by the Russians in 1730.
Baraboo', capital of Sauk co., Wis., is noted for its
wild and beautiful scenery. It is situated on Baraboo
River, and on the North-western R. R., 33 miles N. W. of
Madison. It is the centre of the Wisconsin hop-producing
district, and contains seven or more churches, good schools,
a weekly paper, woollen-mills, yarn-factory, furniture-fac-
tory, planing-mills, and an iron-foundry, and is in the
neighborhood of valuable iron-mines. Altitude, about 900
feet above the level of the sea. It is in a good fruit, grain,
and stock-producing region. It has one national bank.
Pop. 1528; of Baraboo township, 2758.
J. J. WEIRICH, ED. “REPUBLIC.”
Barab/ra, or Berab’era, the name applied by the
Egyptians to the inhabitants of a small district in Upper
Nubia. They are not the same as the Berbers, the latter
having derived their name from the Arabians. They trade
with the Egyptians in cattle, which they pasture among the
mountains beyond the Atbara, and near the Red Sea.
Baraco'a, a seaport-town on the N. E. coast of Cuba,
has considerable trade. In its vicinity is a remarkable
mountain called the “Anvil of Baracoa.”
Bara'da, a river of Syria, probably the Abana of the
Old Testament. Its remotest, though not its largest, source
is a lake, some 300 yards by 50, in the plain of Zebdany
(8 miles by 3), 3349 feet above the level of the sea, in the
heart of Anti-Lebanon. It flows south-eastward, passing
the ruins of the ancient city of Abila, breaking through
three ridges of the mountain, and reaching Damascus (23
miles from its source) after a descent of 1149 feet. Then
it flows on eastward some 17 or 18 miles farther, emptying
itself into two marshy lakes, each about 20 miles in circum-
ference. In going through the city and gardens of Damas-
cus it is parted into at least seven streams, which after-
wards reunite. (See PoETER’s “Damascus.”)
Bara'ga, a post-township of Houghton co., Mich. Pop.
60.
Baraga (FRIEDRICH), D. D., a Catholic missionary,
born near Dobernik, in Carniola, in 1797. He visited Amer–
ica in 1831, devoted himself to missionary labor among the
Indians of the Lake Superior region, and was made bishop
of Sault St. Mary and Marquette. He published numerous
works in the Ojibbeway (or Chippeway) dialect, a “Gram-
mar of the Otchipwe Language” (1851), and a “Dictionary
of the Otchipwe Language” (1853). Died Jan. 19, 1868.
Baraguey d’Hilliers (ACHILLE), Count, a French
general, born Sept. 6, 1795. Having served with distine-
tion in Algeria, he obtained the rank of general of division
in 1843. In the autumn of 1849 he became commander of
the army that occupied Rome. He returned to France in
*
388
BARAGUEY D’HILLIERS–BARBAULD.
1850, and in the Crimean war commanded a corps which
co-operated with the British fleet in the Baltic. He was
made a marshal of France in 1854.
Baraguey d’Hilliers (Louis), a French general, the
father of the preceding, was born in Paris Aug. 13, 1764.
He served in the Italian campaigns of 1796–97, soon after
which he became a general of division. He commanded
the dragoons of the grand army in Austria in 1805, and
was appointed governor of Venice in 1808. In the Russian
campaign of 1812 he was taken prisoner with all his divis-
ion. He died in Berlin Dec., 1812.
Barante, .de (AMABLE GUILLAUME PROSPER BRU-
GIERE), a French statesman and historian of great merit,
was born at Riom June 10, 1782. He came of a literary
stock, his father and his great-grandfather having distin-
guished themselves as writers. He was appointed collector-
in-chief of customs in 1818, and became a peer of France
in 1819. His chief works are a “ History of the Dukes of
Burgundy” (13 vols., 1826), and a “History of the Na-
tional Convention ” (1853). Died Nov. 22, 1866. (See GUI-
zot, “Memoir of Prosper de Barante,” 1867.)
Baran'ya, one of the most populous counties of Hun-
gary, is bounded on the N. by Tolna, on the E. by Bacs,
on the S. by Slavonia, on the W. by Somogy, and has an
area of 1966 square miles. It is partly mountainous, but
is very fertile. The Danube forms part of the western
boundary. Capital, Fünf kirchen. Pop. 283,506.
Barataria Bay, Louisiana, an inlet of the Gulf of
Mexico, lying between the Mississippi and the Bayou la
Fourche, is about 12 miles long from N. to S., and 5 or 6
miles broad, communicating with bayous and lakes of the
interior. Its shores are marshes little elevated above the
tides, which extend to the cypress swamps. Grande Terre
Island, a ridge of sand which lies across the mouth, was the
head-quarters of the brothers Laffite, the so-called “pirates.”
(See LAFFITE.) The entrance to the bay has been fortified
by the U. S. in 1840–50, by the construction of Fort Liv-
ingston on the W. end of Grande Terre Island. The bar
has seven feet of water. Barataria lighthouse, on Grande
Terre Island, is in lat. 29° 16' 47" N., lon. 89° 54’33”W.
It is of brick, and is 60 feet high.
Baratier (Joh ANN PHILIPP), born of French ancestry
at Swabach, near Nuremberg, Jan. 19, 1721, when five
years old spoke French, German, and Latin; when seven
could repeat the Psalms in Hebrew; and when nine com-
posed a Hebrew dictionary; when thirteen years old
translated the “Itinerary’ of Benjamin of Tudela. He
wrote a reply to Crellius’s “Artemonius,” called “Antiar-
temonius” (1735), and a “Disquisition on the Succession
of the Roman Pontiffs in very Ancient Times” (1749). He
was a Protestant, studied theology and law, and died at
Halle Oct. 5, 1740, aged nineteen.
Barb [probably derived from Barbary], the name of a
noble breed of horses which originated among the Moors
of Barbary, who introduced it into Spain. Barbs are re-
markable for their endurance, docility, and gentleness.
The Carthaginian cavalry, which decided several victories
over the Romans, are said to have been mounted on horses
of this breed, which is a variety of the Arabian horse. The
celebrated “Godolphin Arabian" was a barb, as were most
of the progenitors of the thoroughbred horse of the pres-
ent day. - w
Barbace’na (F. CALDEIRA BRANT), MARQUIS OF, a
Brazilian soldier and diplomatist, born at Sabora in 1772.
He was appointed by the emperor of Brazil to negotiate
concerning the independence of that country with Portugal,
and for his success was created a marquis. He was after-
wards twice minister of finance. He introduced steam-
engines, steamboats, and the printing-press into Brazil.
Died in 1842.
Barba' does Cher/ry, the edible fruit of two small
West Indian trees (the Malpighia wrens and Malpighia
glabra). Each fruit contains three seeds. The leaves of
Malpighia wrens have stinging hairs on the lower side.
Barbadoes Gooseberry, the edible fruit of Pereskia
aculeata, a plant of the order Cactaceae, having a round
stem, thick, alternate leaves, and large spines. The fruit
has expectorant properties. It grows in the West Indies.
Barbadoes Leg. See ELEPHANTIASIs.
Barbadoes Tar, or petroleum, is a black, opaque,
inflammable liquid of the consistence of molasses.
distillation it yields naphtha, leaving a residuum of asphal-
tum. - -
Barba/dos,” or Barba'does, the most eastern of the
* Barbados is a Spanish word signifying the “bearded:” it is
said that as the Spaniards approached the island they saw a cer-
tain plant growing abundantly on the banks, which resembled
(as they fancied) men with long beards, hence the name.
By
Caribbee Islands, belongs to the British. Its capital,
Bridgetown, is situated in lat. 13° 4' N. and lon. 59° 37'
W. The island is 21 miles long, 14 miles wide, and has an
area of 166.square miles. It is nearly encircled by coral
reefs, which are dangerous to navigation. The highest
point of the island has an altitude of 1140 feet. Destructive
hurricanes often occur here. The soil is fertile, and pro-
duces sugar, cotton, arrow-root, etc. The population and
prosperity of Barbados have increased since the abolition
of slavery (Aug. 1, 1834). In 1870 the imports were
£1,070,000, and the exports £973,000. P. in 1871, 162,042.
Bar/bara, SAINT, a virgin martyr of the ancient
Church, in regard to whom traditions clash. Baronius
accepts the story of her martyrdom at Nicomedia in the
reign of Maximinus (235–238), and says that she had been
a pupil of Origen. Assemani thinks she suffered martyrdom
under Galerius, about 306, at Heliopolis in Coele-Syria.
She is commemorated Dec. 4.
Barba’rian [Gr. 34pgapos; Lat. bar/barus], a term
applied by the ancient Greeks to all foreigners and all who
could not speak the Greek language. Plato divided the
human family into two great classes—Hellenes (“Greeks”)
and Barbaroi (“barbarians”). After the Persian invasion
the Greeks used the word as a term of reproach, implying
hostility to their own freedom and civilization. After the
Romans had conquered Greece, and had become in some
measure Hellenized, the word barbarian was applied to all
nations except Greeks and Romans. Saint Paul uses the
word in this sense in Romans i. 14 (see also Acts xxviii. 4).
Barbaros'sa, the name of two brothers, renegade
Greeks and natives of Mitylene, who became Turkish cor-
sairs, and were the scourge of Christendom for many years
(1510–46). The elder, Arooj (Horush or Horuc), made
himself master of Algiers in 1516. He was defeated and
slain by the army of Charles V. in that year. He was
succeeded in 1518 as ruler of Algiers by his brother, Hadher,
or Khair-ed-Deen. He obtained Tunis by conquest in
1532, and became the chief admiral of Sultan Solyman.
Died July 4, 1546.
Barbaroux (CHARLEs JEAN MARIE), an eminent
French Girondist and eloquent advocate, born at Mar-
seilles Mar. 6, 1767. He was chosen a deputy to the Leg-
islative Assembly in 1791, and a member of the National
Convention in 1792. He denounced Robespierre, and on
the trial of the king voted for an appeal to the people.
He was distinguished for his energy and personal beauty.
Having been proscribed by the Jacobins in May, 1793, he
fled from Paris. He was guillotined at Bordeaux June 25,
1794. (See his “Mémoires,” 1822.)
IBar/bary [derived from Berber, the name of a native
race], an extensive region of Northern Africa, comprising
the modern Barca, Tripoli, Tunis, Fezzan, Algeria, and
Morocco, and extending from Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean.
It is included between lat. 25°, and 37° N., and lon. 10° W.
and 25° E. It included the ancient Mauritania, Numidia,
Africa propria, and Cyrenaica. Barbary is divided by
the Atlas Mountains. The N. side comprises Tunis,
Tripoli, Morocco, and Algeria. The S. is called Beled-el-
Jereed (i.e. “the country of dates”). The soil is generally
fertile. It was very rich and populous under the rule of
the Carthaginians and of the ancient Romans, who became
masters of this region about 146 B. C. It was conquered
about 430 A. D. by the Vandals, who misgoverned it for a
hundred years, and it fell under the domination of the Arabs
in 647 A. D. The inhabitants are mostly Mohammedans.
Barbary Ape, Pigmy Ape, or Magot, a small
species of tailless monkey, is a native of Europe, but is
found in only one place in Europe—that is, the Rock of
Gibraltar. It also abounds in Northern Africa, especially
among rocky mountains and forests. It is gregarious, dis-
plays great agility in passing from tree to tree, and usually
walks on four feet. It is of a greenish-gray color, and rather
larger than a large cat. It belongs to the genus Inuw8. The
tail is reduced to a mere tubercle. Bands of these apes
often plunder gardens. This species of monkey is fre-
quently seen in captivity, and is capable of being trained
to many tricks. It is not regarded as a true ape.
Barbas' tro, a walled town of Spain, in the province
of Huesca, on the river Cinca, 57 miles N. E. of Saragossa.
It has a cathedral and several convents. Pop. 7800.
Bar/bauld (ANNA LETITIA), an English authoress, born
in Leicestershire June 20, 1743, was a daughter of Rev.
John Aikin. She published a volume of poems in 1773, and
was married in 1774 to Rochemont Barbauld, a dissenting
minister, with whom she lived at Palgrave, in Suffolk, and
taught a boarding-school for ten years. ... She published, be-
sides other works, “Devotional Pieces” (1775) and “Early
Lessons for Children,” which are highly commended, and
assisted her brother, Dr. John Aikin, in the composition of
BARBECUE–BARBET.
389
a popular work called “Evenings at Home.” Her writings
are characterized by an easy, flowing style and pure and
elevated sentiment. Died Mar. 9, 1825. (See a “Life of
Mrs. Barbauld,” prefixed to her works, by LUCY AIKIN, 2
vols., 1825.)
Bar/becue, a township of Harnett co., N. C. P. 1111.
Bar/bee (Rev. WILLIAM J.), M.D., born in Winchester,
Ky., in 1816, was educated at Miami University, O., prac-
tised medicine ten years in Cincinnati, O., and became
widely known as a teacher, author, and preacher of the
Christian (“Campbellite”) denomination. He has pub-
lished “Physical and Moral Aspects of Geology,” “The
Cotton Question,” and various religious and Scientific and
other works.
Bar/bel (Bar/bus), a genus of fishes of the family of
Cyprinidae, having short dorsal and anal fins, and the mouth
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furnished with four soft barbules, suggesting the name,
which is derived from the Latin barba, “beard.” The
upper jaw extends beyond the lower. The numerous spe-
cies of barbel are all inhabitants of fresh water, and seek
their food by inserting their snouts into the mud like
swine. The Barbus vulgaris is abundant in the Thames,
and affords sport to anglers, but is not much esteemed for
food. It sometimes measures three feet long, and weighs
about sixteen pounds. Another species, called binny or
barbel, is abundant in the Nile and the Jordan, and is
much esteemed for food. It grows to a large size, and
sometimes weighs seventy pounds. The barbel of the U. S.
is the horned sucker or dace (Catostomus tuberculatus), which
is readily taken by the hook. It belongs to the same fam-
ily with the true barbel. -
Barbé-Marbois, de (FRANÇors), MARQUIS, a French
statesman, born in 1745, was consul to the U. S. under
Louis XVI., director of the treasury under Napoleon, and
was made a senator in 1813. Died in 1837. He wrote a
“History of Louisiana” (1829).
Bar/ber [Fr. barbier, from the Lat. bar/ba, “beard”],
a person who shaves others and cuts their hair. This trade
or profession is very ancient, and is mentioned by the
prophet Ezekiel (chap. v. 1). In China and other Oriental
countries barbers shave the whole or part of the head. The
practice of shaving the beard was common among the an:
, cient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. Among the ancient
Israelites the removal of the beard by shaving or plucking
it out was a sign of mourning. In former times barbers
served the public in the capacity of surgeons, and per-
formed the operation of bleeding. The spiral red, stripe
often seen on the barber's pole is said to symbolize the
winding of a ribbon round the arm previous to letting
blood. In London the barber-surgeons formed a corpora-
tion with certain privileges. They were incorporated in
England in 1461, and were united with the surgeons in
the reign of Henry VIII. The connection was dissolved
in the reign of George II. by an act the preamble of which
affirms that the trade of a barber is “foreign to and inde-
pendent of the practice of surgery.” Quite recently the
surgeons of the Swedish navy were also barbers for the
Crew S. t
Barber, a post-township of Faribault co., Minn. Pop.
561.
Barber (FRANCIs), an American officer and teacher,
born at Princeton, N.J., in 1751, graduated at Princeton
in 1767. He entered the army in 1776 with the rank of
major, and took part in the battles of Trenton, Princeton,
Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth. He was after-
wards raised to the rank of colonel, and in 1781 was select-
ed by General Washington for the delicate duty of sup-
pressing a mutiny of the troops, which he performed with
success. He was killed accidentally by the fall of a tree at
Newburg Jan. I1, 1783.
Barber (John WARNER) was born at Windsor, Conn.,
in 1798. He published a “History of New Haven.” (1831),
“Historical Collections” of Connecticut (1836), Massachu-
setts (1839), New Jersey (1844), Virginia. (1844), Ohio
(1847), “Incidents of American History” (1847), “Ele-
ments of General History” (1844), “Our Whole Country”
(1861), and several other works.
Barberi'ni (FRANCESCo), an Italian cardinal, a nephew
of Pope Urban VIII., was born in 1597. He became libra-
rian of the Vatican, and translated the twelve books of
Marcus Aurelius from Greek into Italian. He was the
founder of the great Barberini Library. Died in 1679.
Bar/berry (Ber/beris), a genus of plants of the natural
order Berberidacae, comprises many species, which are all
shrubs and natives of temperate climates in both hemi-
spheres. They have six stamens, which, when touched at
the base, show signs of irritability. The fruit is a berry
with two or three seeds. They are divided into two sub-
genera, sometimes ranked as genera; those with simple
leaves forming the Berberis, and those with pinnate leaves
the sub-genus Mahonia. The barberries of Asia.
are numerous and important for their fruits.
Those of our Pacific slope are Mahonias. The
common barberry (Berberis vulgaris) is a native
of Europe and the U. S., is an ornamental shrub
armed with spines, and produces small oval red
berries in pendulous clusters, which contain free
malic acid, and are valuable for preserves and
jelly. The bark is astringent, and is used in
medicine, and the inner bark and root furnish a
good yellow dye. A species called Berberis dul-
cis, which is cultivated in shrubberies, bears a
sweet black berry which makes excellent jelly.
Several fine species of Berberis grow in the cen-
tral and western portions of North America. B.
aquifolium, with spiny leaves and yellow flowers, is gene-
rally cultivated as an ornamental shrub. B. pinnata of
Oregon bears blue acid berries, and is sometimes called the
Oregon grape. B. Canadensis is a native of the Allegha-
nies. Parts of South America abound in native species of
the barberry.
Barbès (ARMAND), a French conspirator and Red Re-
publican, born in Guadaloupe Sept. 18, 1809. He was
imprisoned in France for political reasons in 1834–35. As
an accomplice of Blanqui and others in a seditious plot in
1839, he was condemned to imprisonment for life, but was
released in 1848. Having conspired against the new régime
in May, 1848, he was again confined for several years.
Bar/bet (Laimodon), a genus of birds related to the
Picidae or woodpeckers. They have a large conical beak
surrounded with tufts of bristles, suggesting the name,
which is derived from the Latin barba, “beard.” They
inhabit warm countries, particularly tropical Africa. They
feed on insects.
IBARBET is also the name given to birds of various
genera, chiefly South American and Asiatic, together form-
ing a connecting link between the kingfishers and the
trogons. Among the numerous species are the Bucco ver-
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sicolor of Sumatra, and the Tamatia maculata, the red-
throated barbet of Guiana.
Barbet, a small variety of the poodle-dog, remarkable
for its activity, intelligence, and fidelity to its master, but
equally distinguished for its ill-temper and its dislike of





















390
PARBETTE–BARCLAY.
all strangers. It is also very liable to disease, and honce
is not a general favorite. \.
Barbette, a platform of earth on which guns are
mounted to fire over a parapet.
Bar/bican, or Barbacan, a watch-tower or advanced
work before the gate of a castle or town. The term was
especially applied to the outwork intended to defend the
drawbridge, which in modern fortifications corresponds to
the téte-du-pont. Several perfect barbicans remain in Eng-
land at Alnwick, Warwick, etc.
Barbier (ANTOINE ALEXANDRE), a French bibliogra-
pher, born Jan. 11, 1765, became private librarian to Na-
poleon in 1807, and after the restoration of 1815 was super-
intendent of the private libraries of the king. His chief
production is a “Dictionary of Anonymous and Pseudony-
mous Works” (4 vols. 8vo, 1806–08), which is highly com-
mended. Died Dec. 6, 1825.
, Barbour, a county of Alabama, bordering on Georgia.
Area, 825 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the
Chattahoochee River and on the W. by Pea River. The
surface is undulating; the soil in some parts is fertile. The
county is partly covered by forests of pine. Cotton and
corn are raised. It is intersected by the Montgomery and
Eufaula R. R. Capital, Clayton. Pop. 29,309. -
Barbour, a new county of Kansas, bordering on the In-
dian Territory. Area, 810 square miles. It is bounded on
the E. by Harper, on the N. by Pratt, and on the W. by
Comanche cos. +
Barbour, a county of the N. part of West Virginia.
Area, 330 square miles. It is intersected by the Tygart's
Valley River, and also drained by Buchanan River. The
surface is hilly or mountainous; the soil is very fertile.
Grain and wool are largely raised. Coal and iron abound
here. Capital, Philippi. Pop. 10,312.
Barbour, a township of Orange co., Va. Pop. 1323.
Barbour (JAMEs), an American statesman, born in
Orange co., Va., June 10, 1775. He was governor of Vir-
ginia 1812–14, and a Senator of the U. S. 1815–25. He
voted for a U. S. bank, and became president of the Senate
pro tem. He was secretary of war in the Cabinet of J.
Quincy Adams (1825–27), and was sent as minister to Eng-
land in 1828, but was recalled in 1829. In 1839 he was
president of the Whig national convention. Died in 1842.
Barbour, or Barber (John), an eminent Scottish
poet, a contemporary of Chaucer, was born about 1320.
Eſe became archdeacon of Aberdeen in 1356, and went
to Oxford in 1357 to complete his education. About 1374
he was appointed one of the auditors of the exchequer.
His chief work is a national epic called “The Bruce,” a
history of Robert Bruce, which, in addition to its poetical
merit, has much historical value. Died Mar. 13, 1396.
Barbour (John S.), born in Culpeper co., Va., Aug.
8, 1790, was educated at William and Mary College, was
a staff officer in the war of 1812, and a prominent State
Rights member of Congress, 1823–33. Died Jan. 12, 1855.
Barbour (PHILIP PENDLETON), a jurist, born in Orange
co., Va., May 25, 1783, was a brother of James, noticed
above. He gained distinction as a criminal lawyer, and
became a member of Congress in 1814. He was afterwards
chosen Speaker of the House, and remained in that body
until 1825. He was appointed an associate judge of the
Supreme Court of the U.S. in 1836. Died Feb. 24, 1841. ^
Barſboursville, a post-village, capital of Knox co.,
Ky., on the Cumberland River, 116 miles S. E. of Frankfort.
Pop. 438.
Barboursville, or Cabell Court-house, the capi-
tal of Cabell co., West Va., on the Guyandotte River, 154
miles S. W. of Wheeling. It is the seat of a State normal
school, and has one weekly paper. July 13, 1861, it was
the scene of a brilliant action in which the Federal troops
were successful. P. 371; of Barboursville township, 1228.
Barbu’da [Fr. La Barboude], one of the British West
India Islands, 22 miles N. of Antigua. Its area is 75 square
miles. It is of coral formation, has no harbor, and is
partly covered with forests. Pop. in 1861, 713.
Barſby, a walled town of Prussian Saxony, on the left
bank of the Elbe, 15 miles S. E. of Magdeburg. It has an
old castle and manufactures of woollen and linen stuffs.
Pop. in 1871, 52.12.
Bar/ca (anc. Cyrena'ica), a region of Northern Africa,
bounded on the N. by the Mediterranean, on the E. by
Egypt, on the S. by the Libyan desert, and on the W. by
Tripoli and the Gulf of Sidra. It is deficient in permanent
streams, and the southern part is a desert, but the soil near
the sea is fertile. On the mountain-sides are pines, date-
palms, and olive trees. The inhabitants are Arabs and
Berbers, who are Mohammedans, and are subject to Tri-
poli. Capital, Benghazi. Pop. estimated at 302,000.
Barcello'na, a town of Sicily, in the province of Mes-
sina, 21 miles W. S. W. of Messina, near the coast. It has
a gymnasium, and large vineyards in the neighborhood.
Pop. in 1872, 20,464.
Barcelo'na, a province of Spain, comprising the
South-eastern part of Catalonia, and sloping down towards
the Mediterranean. It has an area of 2983 square miles,
and a population of 749,143. It is one of the most fertile
and best-cultivated provinces of Spain.
Barcelo'na ſlat. Bar'cino ; Gr. Bapktvövj, the most
important manufacturing city of Spain, and the capital of
the province of the same name, in Catalonia, is beautifully
situated on the Mediterranean, 113 miles E. of Lerida; lat.
41° 23' N., lon. 2°11' E. Next to Cadiz, it is the most im-
portant seaport of Spain. Pop. in 1860, 189,948. It is sur-
rounded by a wall, and defended by a citadel and the strong
fort of Montjoi. The city is divided into two parts, the old
and the new town, by a beautiful promenade called La
Rambla. The streets of the new town are more spacious
and regular than those of the old. Many of the houses are
built of hewn stone, and have an imposing appearance.
The most remarkable public edifices are the Gothic cathe-
dral, which is about 600 years old, and the Audiencia, or
Palacio de la Deputacion, which is now occupied by the
courts of law. Barcelona has a university, several public
libraries, a fine theatre, an academy of arts and sciences,
and two museums. Here are extensive manufactures of
silks, woollen stuffs, calicoes or figured cotton stuffs, lace,
shoes, and firearms, which, with copper, wine, and brandy,
constitute the principal exports of the city. The harbor
is commodious, but is obstructed by a bar which excludes
vessels drawing more than twelve feet of water. This is
the most populous city of Spain, except Madrid. Barce-
lona is supposed to have been founded by Hamilcar Barca.
The Romans became masters of it at the end of the third
Punic war (146 B.C.). It was taken by the Saracens or
Moors about 714 A. D., and became in 878 an independent
state. In the twelfth century it was annexed to Aragon.
In 1714 it was taken by the duke of Berwick after a long
and heroic defence. -
Barcelona, a province of Venezuela, is bounded on
the N. by the Caribbean Sea, on the E. by Cumana, on the
S. by Guiana, and on the W. by Guarica, and Caracas.
Area, 13,800 square miles. The country consists almost
entirely of plains and low plateaux, and is crossed only in
the N. by the Coast Range, which also is not very high.
It has but very little commerce. Chief town, Barcelona.
Pop. 78,634. -
Barcelona, a town and seaport of Venezuela, and
capital of the province of the same name, on the Caribbean
Sea, at the mouth of the river Neveri; lat. 10° 10' N., lon.
64° 48' W. It is an unhealthy place. The houses are
built of mud. Pop. about 6000.
Bar/clay, a post-village and township of Black Hawk
co., Ia., 110 miles N. E. of Des Moines. Pop. 861.
Barclay, a post-village and township of Bradford co.,
Pa., on the Sullivan and Erie R. R., 110 miles N. W. of
Easton. It has important mines of semi-bituminous coal.
Pop. of township, 2009.
Barclay, or Barklay (ALEXANDER), an eminent
British writer and translator, supposed to have been born
in Scotland about 1480. He wrote the lives of several
saints, and translated Sallust's “Jugurthine War,” and a
French poem called “The Castle of Labor.” His most
popular work is his “Ship of Fools,” a free translation
from the German of Sebastian Brandt. Died in 1552.
Barclay (ROBERT), an eminent reformer and apologist
for the Society of Friends, was born at Gordonstown, in
Morayshire, Scotland, Dec. 23, 1648. He was educated in
Paris at the Scottish College, of which his uncle was rector,
and learned to write and speak Latin correctly and flu-
ently. He returned to Scotland in 1664, and became a
member and minister of the Society of Friends in 1666.
In 1670 he published a defence of his religion, entitled
“Truth Cleared of Calumnies.” He married Christian
Mollison in his early life. He afterwards published a
“Catechism and Confession of Faith ” (1675) and the
“Anarchy of the Ranters” (1676). In 1677 he visited
Germany on a religious mission, in company with George
Fox and William Penn. In addition to superior talents,
he had moral courage, which qualified him for the part of
a reformer. His principal work is “An Apology for the
True Christian Divinity, as the same is held forth and
preached by the People called in scorn Quakers” (1676),
written and published in Latin, and afterwards translated
by the author into English. This work exhibits great
logical acumen, and has been commended by eminent
persons of different creeds. In , 1679 he published a
“Vindication” of his Apology, which had been criticised
BARCLAY DE TOLLY—BARGAIN AND SALE.
391
by several writers. He was appointed governor of the
province of East Jersey in 1682, but he never went to
America. He died at Ury Oct. 13, 1690. (See JosłPH G.
BEvAN, “Life of Robert Barclay,” 1802; W. SEWELL,
“History of the Quakers.”)
Bar/clay de Tolly (MICHAEL), PRINCE, a celebrated
Russian general of Scottish extraction, was born in Livo-
nia in 1759. He fought against the Swedes in 1790, and
against the Poles in 1792 and 1794. With the rank of
major-general he led Benningsen's advanced guard in 1806.
In 1809, at the head of 10,000 men, he crossed the frozen
Gulf of Bothnia, and advanced as far as Stockholm. In
1810 he was appointed minister of war. He became in
1812 commander-in-chief of the Army of the West, but
having been defeated by the French at Smolensko in Au-
gust of that year, he was soon removed. After the death
of Kutuzof (1813) he again obtained the chief command
of the army, which he directed at Bautzen, Culm, and
Leipsic. He was raised to the rank of field-marshal in
1814. Died May 25, 1818.
Barcokh’eba, or Barcoch’ebas (“son of a star”),
(SIMON), a famous Jewish impostor, claiming to be the
Messiah. His real name was AKIBA. In the reign of
Hadrian (A. D. 132) he excited an insurrection among
the Jews, and seized Jerusalem and many fortified places.
After a long and bloody contest the city was retaken by
the Roman general Julius Severus, and Barcokheba was
killed in the fortress of Bethar on the 9th of Ab (August),
135. His disappointed countrymen afterwards changed
his name to Bar-cosba (“son of a lie”).
Bard, the term originally applied to the ancient poets
of the Celtic tribes, who composed and sang verses in
honor of the exploits of brave men. In poetical language
it is often applied by modern usage to any poet.
Bard (SAMUEL), M.D., LL.D., an American physician,
born in Philadelphia April 1, 1742, was educated at Edin-
burgh, where he was an inmate in the family of Doctor
Robertson, the historian. . He practised in New York City,
and was the family physician of General Washington. He
published several medical works, and became president of
the College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York.
He was an active promoter of benevolent enterprises.
Died May 24, 1821. (See Rev. J. McVICKER’s “Life of
Samuel Bard,” 1822.)
Bardesa/nes (Bar-Deisan) of Edessa, founder
of a Gnostic sect called Bardesanians. His treatise “On
Fate,” or “The Laws of Countries,” was written during
the last half of the second century. We had only a few
fragments of it till in 1843 the entire treatise, in the orig-
inal Syriac (the manuscript belonging to the sixth or
seventh century), was obtained by Archdeacon Tatham
from the Syrian convent in the desert of Nitria, and was
published, with an English translation, by Rev. William
Cureton in 1855. Ephraem Syrus, who flourished about
two centuries later, says Bardesanes wrote also 150 hymns,
which appear to have been more dualistic than the treatise
just spoken of. The best compendious notice of Barde-
sames is that by Gallandi, “Bibliotheca Veterum Patrum,”
1765. (See also STRUNZIUs, “Historia Bardesamis,” 1710;
HAHN, “Bardesames Gnosticus,” 1819.)
Bard'ings, or Bard, the name applied to the horse-
armor of the Middle Ages, which consisted of four pieces:
1, the chamfront (Norman-French, cheveron), protecting the
forehead and face, and having a steel spike like the horn
of a unicorn between the eyes; 2, the manifaire, which
was made of articulated plates, and covered the crest and
neck; 3, the poitrel, a solid piece of plate-armor, guarding
the entire shoulders and chest; the bard proper, defending
the croup of the charger from the cantle of the saddle to
the tail. A steed thus armed was said to be “barded.”
Bards/town, the capital of Nelson co., Ky., is situ-
ated on an elevated plain and on a branch of the Louis-
ville and Nashville R. R., 39 miles S. E. of Louisville. Here
are several academies, and St. Joseph’s Roman Catholic col-
lege. Pop. 1835.
Bare/bones, or Bar/bone (PRAISE GoD), a fanatic
who was a member of Cromwell’s Parliament in 1653,
which was named after him the “Barebones' Parliament.”
When General Monk came to London, Barebones headed a
procession of the people, and presented a remonstrance to
Parliament against the restoration of Charles II.
Barefooted Friars [Lat. Discalceati), an appellation
of certain Roman Catholic monks who either wear sandals
or go entirely barefoot. They are connected with various
congregations of the strict observance in nearly all the
orders. There are also barefooted nuns. In some places
they wear shoes in severe weather.
Bar'egine, a mucus-like substance produced by the
algae which grow in mineral springs. It abounds in the
hot springs of Barréges in France; hence the name. . It
imparts a flesh-broth flavor and odor to the water, and is
prized for that reason. -
Bare House, a township of Drew co., Ark. Pop. 458.
Bareil’y, a city of British India, in the North-west
Provinces, is on the river Jooa, 151 miles E. of Delhi. It
contains a number of mosques, a college, and many Hindoo
schools. Here are manufactures of cutlery, carpets, brazen
water-pots, tables, and ornamental chairs. Bareily was a
scene of outrage and rapine during the mutiny of 1857,
when the Sepoys murdered a number of Europeans. Pop.
111,332. -
Barère de Vieuzac (BERTRAND), a French dema-
gogue and lawyer, born at Terbes Sept. 10, 1755. He was
elected in 1792 to the Convention, in which he voted for the
death of the king. In April, 1793, he was chosen a mem-
ber of the Committee of Public Safety. He supported the
Jacobins in their contest with the Girondists, and became
the reporter of the committee which usurped supreme
power in July, 1793. He was the first who proposed that
“terror should be the order of the day,” and he dressed the
atrocious decrees of the committee in such flowery language
that he was called the “Anacreon of the guillotine.” On
the 9th Thermidor, 1794, he acted with the enemies of
Robespierre. He was banished as a regicide in 1816, but
was permitted to return in 1830. Died Jan. 14, 1841.
(See “Mémoires de Barère,” 4 vols., 1843, and the notice
of Barère in MACAULAY’s “Essays.”)
Baret/ti (€1USEPPE), an Italian writer, born at Turin
Mar. 22, 1716. He removed to London in 1751, and became
a teacher of Italian and a friend of Dr. Johnson. He
published an Italian-and-English dictionary (1760), and
“Travels through Spain, Portugal, and France ’’ (1770),
which is highly commended by Dr. Johnson, and other
works. Died in London May 5, 1789. (See G. FRANCHI,
“Notizie intorno alla Vita di G. Baretti,” 1790.)
Bar'gain [Old Fr. bargaine, “trade,” from barca, a
“bark,” a “boat”] and Sale, the act of conveying and
transferring real or personal property for a valuable con-
sideration. The term is also employed to indicate the in-
strument by which the transfer is made. In the law of
real estate this form of conveyance is in extensive use.
The original mode of conveying corporeal real estate was
by means of a ceremony termed livery of seisin, in which
the seller delivered to the purchaser some visible symbol,
such as a clod of earth or twig of a tree, in the name of the
property to be conveyed. This method of conveyance came
to be regarded as cumbersome and inconvenient. It was
governed by strict and technical rules, and the estates that
could be created by it were inelastic—not readily moulded
to the demands of a growing eivilization. The attention
of conveyancers was attracted to other methods more suited
to modern necessities. These methods were found in the
doctrine of uses. A use in land was a notion derived from
the Roman law, by means of which the formal title re-
mained in one person, while the beneficial estate or enjoy-
ment of the profits appertained to another. It corresponded
in the main to the idea of trusts in modern law. A use could
be created by a pecuniary or other legal consideration. For
example, if an owner of land for a pecuniary consideration
purported by present words to sell it, he would be at once
converted into a formal owner, and the person advancing the
money would be the beneficial owner, or, in technical lan-
guage, would have “a use ’’ in the land. He could become
formal or legal owner by the action of a court of equity, which
would, on application, direct that a conveyance should be
made. While the law was in this condition an important
statute was passed, 27 Hen. VIII., c. 10, called the “Statute
of Uses,” the effect of which, in substance, was to declare
that one who had acquired a use under certain prescribed
conditions in an estate in land should be the legal or formal,
as well as the beneficial, owner. One great consequence
of this statute was to introduce new conveyances. The
principal one was “bargain and sale.” The sale of land
for a consideration, as already explained, created a use,
and the statute gave the owner of the use the title. A sub-
sequent statute (known as the statute of Frauds) requires
conveyances to be in writing. This is the foundation of
the modern system of conveyancing, both in England and
the U. S. Other conveyances, proceeding either wholly or
in part on the same theory, are “covenant to stand seised "
and “lease and release.” In the first of these the consider-
ation is the affection between near relatives, technically
called a “good” consideration, as distinguished from “val-
uable.” In the second, the doctrine of uses is resorted to
to put the purchaser in constructive possession of an estate
for years in the land, whereupon he may receive a release,
and thus become complete owner. T. W. DWIGHT.
392
BARGE–BARKER.
Barge, a pleasure-boat, a boat of state elegantly fur-
nished and propelled by oars; these are used on ceremonial
occasions by princes and men of high station. Also a flat-
bottomed vessel of burden employed in loading and un-
loading ships or in conveying freight from one town to
another.
Baſri (anc. Ba'rium), a fortified city and seaport of
Italy, capital of the province of Bari, is situated on the
Adriatic Sea, 56 miles by rail N. W. of Brindisi; lat. 41°
97 N., lon. 16° 54' E. It is defended by a massive old castle
of Norman origin. The harbor admits only small vessels.
Bari is the see of an archbishop, and has some fine eccle-
siastical buildings, among which is the priory of St. Nicho-
las, founded in 1087. It contains a cathedral, two theatres,
an arsenal, etc.; also manufactures of silk, cotton, linen,
and glass. Barium was a very ancient city, and was flour-
ishing as early as 200 B. C. Pop. in 1872, 50,524.
Bari, a province of Italy, bounded on the N. E. by the
Adriatic Sea, on the S. by Lecce and Potenza, on the W.
by Potenza, and on the N. W. by Foggia. Area, 2293
square miles. The surface is mostly level; the soil is
very fertile, producing wheat, fruits, and wine. The cli-
mate is very hot in summer. This province formed a part
of ancient Apulia. Capital, Bari. Pop. in 1871, 604,365.
Bari, the name of a negro tribe on the White Nile, be-
tween lat. 33° and 64° N., are well built and often attain a
height of six feet. They are fetish worshippers and prac-
tise polygamy. The men go entirely naked and paint them-
selves with ochre, while the women only wear short aprons.
Baril/ia [Fr. barille], a crude, impure, carbonate of
soda, which is a considerable article of commerce, and is
used in the manufacture of soap and glass. It is procured
by burning plants of the genus Salsola or other plants which
grow near the sea. Large quantities of it are exported
from Spain and the Balearic Isles. . The Salsolo sativa is
cultivated on ground adjacent to the sea, by which it is
occasionally submerged, the sea being admitted by flood-
gates through an embankment. ‘The Salsoła is cut in Sep-
tember, is dried, and burned in a hole in the ground.
Bariſnas, a province of Venezuela, between Truxillo,
Portugueza, and Merida on the N. and W., Guarico on the
E., and Apure on the S. Area, 17,008 square miles. It
consists of fertile plains drained by numerous streams.
The S. boundary is the river Apule. The chief products
are hides, cacao, coffee, and tobacco. Capital, Barinas.
Pop. 126,925.
Bar’inas, or Wari’nas, capital of the above province,
near the river Santo Domingo. The city, founded in the
sixteenth century, has suffered devastation twice within a
century. It is noted for the exportation of the tobacco
which bears its name. Pop. 14,000.
Bar’ing, a post-township of Washington co., Me. It
is on the St. Croix and Penobscot R. R., and has manufac-
tures of lumber, sash and blinds, boots and shoes, etc.
Pop. 364.
Baring (Sir FRANCIs), an English financier, born near
Exeter in 1740, was the father of Lord Ashburton, and the
rincipal founder of the great banking-house of Baring
}. & Co. of London. Died in 1810.
Bari’tah, the name of certain large Australian birds
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Baritah, or Piping Crow.
belonging to the Corvidae (crow family). The bill is large
and conical, the base of it extending far backward on the
forehead. The Gymnorhina tibicen (piping crow or piping
grakle) has a melodious voice, is easily tamed, and learns
to whistle tunes. There are several genera of these birds.
Ba'rium [from the Gr. Baptis, “heavy,” as it is an
ingredient of “heavy spar”], one of the alkaline earthy
metals. It occurs in nature chiefly in the forms of sul-
phate, barite, barytes, or heavy spar, of carbonate, witherite,
and of silicate, harmotome. Its symbol is Ba, and its
atomic weight 137. It is very rarely prepared in the
metallic state. Barium salts are prepared either from the
native carbonate by the action of acids, or from the native
sulphate by first reducing it to sulphide by treating with
sawdust or some other reducing agent, then acting upon
this with the proper acids. The most important salts are
the chloride and nitrate; both are used as tests for sulphuric
acid and soluble sulphates. The chloride is used as a pre-
ventive of boiler incrustations, owing to its action on the
sulphate of lime of the feed-water. It is also extensively
used for the preparation of an artificial sulphate known
as blanc fiac, which is used in enamelling paper. Barium
forms a protoxide, Ba0, called baryta, and a dioxide, Ba02.
The latter is employed in the preparation of hydrogen
dioxide, HO2. Baric hydrate, Bal{202, is the most soluble
of the alkaline earthy hydrates; it is used in the laboratory
as a test for carbonic acid, with which it forms a white
precipitate. Baric sulphate is one of the most insoluble
salts known. In its native form, barytes or heavy spar, it
is extensively mined and used to adulterate white lead, an
application for which it is specially adapted by its high
specific gravity. The soluble barium salts are all poison-
ous. Any soluble sulphate, as sodic, Glauber's salt, or
magnesic sulphate, Epsom salt, is an antidote.
C. F. CHANDLER.
Bark [Lat. cor' teac, the external covering of a tree, is
composed of cellular tissue. The development of bark is
most perfect in exogenous plants with perennial woody
stems, in which only the distinction between wood and
bark is plainly marked. The outermost layer of bark is
called epider'anis, which, however, is generally seen only
in annual stems or in the youngest parts of woody stems.
Beneath the epidermis is the true bark, the outer layer of
which is called epiphloe'um, and the inner layer mesophloe'um.
Within the mesophloeum is a distinct layer named liber or
endophloeum (i. e. “immer bark”), which is composed of
bundles of woody fibre or vascular tissue, mixed with cel-
lular tissue. The last layer of bark is contiguous to the
alburnum or sap-wood. The bark increases by the addition
of an annual layer on its inner surface, next to the albur-
num or cambium, through which the sap circulates. The
annual layers cannot long be distinctly recognized in the
bark, and in the older portions of trees the outer layers of
bark, becoming dry and lifeless, are gradually shed or
thrown off. The peculiar juices and characteristic proper-
ties of a plant are often most abundant in the true bark,
which is the most important part of many medicinal plants,
especially of CINCHONA (which see). In making leather,
tanners prefer those kinds of bark which contain most tan-
nic acid. Oak bark is chiefly used in the tanneries of
Europe. In the U. S. the bark of several species of oak,
and also that of the hemlock, is used. The Spaniards em-
ploy the inner layer of the bark of the cork tree (Quercus
8wber), and the Australians that of the Eucalyptus. The
bark can be separated with facility from the wood only
when the sap is flowing. It should be carefully dried, as
it is liable to be injured by mould.
Bark Beetle, or Bark Chafer, a name of several
genera of coleopterous, insects, belonging to the family
Scolylide. They bore holes in bark, deposit their eggs in
the inner bark, and often kill the tree. One species
(Tom'icus typog"raphus) infests the forests of Germany in
great numbers. In 1783 it caused the death of a million
pines or more in the Hartz Forest. The U. S. have several
destructive species.
Bar/ker, a township of Broome co., N. Y. Pop. 1396.
Barker, a township of Barbour co., West Va.
1961.
Barker (A. J.), U. S. N., born Mar. 13, 1843, in Massa-
chusetts, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1861, became
an ensign in 1862, a lieutenant in 1864, and a lieutenant-
commander in 1866. He served in the steamer Mississippi
at the passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip and capture
of New Orleans, April 24, 1862, and in the attack on Port
Hudson, Mar. 14, 1863, where the Mississippi grounded
and was destroyed; and afterwards in the steam-sloop
Monongahela at the siege of Port Hudson, and was in
various engagements in her with batteries on the Missis-
sippi River. Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Pop.






















BARKER—BARLEYCORN.
393
Barker (EDMUND HENRY), an English philologist, born
in Yorkshire Dec. 22, 1788. He published a revised edi-
tion of Stephens’s “Thesaurus Linguæ Graecae'' (13 vols.,
1816–28). Among his works are “Classical Recreations”
(1812) and “Parriama,” (2 vols., 1829), which contains
anecdotes, etc., relating to Dr. Parr. Died Mar. 21, 1839.
Barker (FoRDYor), M.D., born May 2, 1819, at Wilton,
Me., was educated at Bowdoin College, and studied medi-
cine in Boston and Paris. He became in 1845 professor
of midwifery in the medical school at Brunswick, Me.,
held the same position in the N. Y. Medical College (1850–
57), and in 1860 became obstetric physician and professor
of midwifery at the Bellevue Hospital, N. Y. He has
published numerous papers on obstetrical and other kindred
subjects, a treatise on “Sea-sickness,” and one on “Puer-
peral Diseases.”
Barker (GEORGE F.), M.D., an American chemist and
physicist, born in Charlestown, Mass., July 14, 1835. He
became an apprentice in 1851 in a philosophical instru-
ment manufactory in Boston, where he remained until 1856,
in which year he entered the Yale Scientific School, and
graduated as bachelor of philosophy in 1858. He was
chemical assistant for two winters (1858–61) in the Harvard
medical school. In 1861 he was appointed professor of
chemistry and geology in Wheaton College, Ill., and was
acting professor of chemistry in 1862–63 in the Albany
Medical College, where he graduated as M. D. in 1863.
Early in 1864 he became professor of natural sciences in
the Western University of Pennsylvania at Pittsburg, was
instructor (1865) in the Yale Medical College, and was
appointed professor of physiological chemistry and toxi-
cology at Yale in 1867. In 1871 he was chosen vice-pres-
ident of the American Association for the Advancement
of Science. In 1873 he became professor of chemistry in
the University of Pennsylvania. Among his various pro-
ductions may be named a “Lecture on the Force of
Nature,” delivered (1863) before the Chemical Society of
Union College, by whom it was published; and one on the
“Correlation of Vital and Physical Forces,” delivered
(Dec. 31, 1869) before the American Institute in New York;
republished in France. He is author of a “Text-book of
Elementary Chemistry” (1870), which has already passed.
through eight editions, and of the general article on chem-
istry in the present work.
Barker (JACOB), an American financier, born in Maine
Dec. 7, 1779. He was a relative of Dr. Franklin. He
went to New York in early youth, and engaged in business on
his own account with great success. Before 1812 he was one
of the prominent politicians of New York. For many years
he was regarded as among the soundest merchants of that
city; but he became involved financially, and his reputa-
tion for business integrity having suffered, he removed to
New Orleans in 1834, where as a banker he acquired wealth
and influence. . He took a prominent political part in the
affairs of New Orleans and Louisiana during the civil war,
loyally to the U. S. Died Dec. 27, 1871.
Barker’s Mill, or Segner’s Wheel, an hydraulic
machine invented by Dr. Barker towards the close of the
seventeenth century. The following description may serve
to exhibit the principle of this machine in its simplest
form. To those who have any knowledge of hydrostatics
it is scarcely necessary to observe that every equal unit of
surface of a vessel full of water is subject to a pressure
proportional to the depth of the unit below the surface (see
LATERAL PRESSURE OF LIQUIDs); every unit of surface at
the same depth is equally pushed outward. For each such
pressure on one side of a vessel there is an equal and oppo-
site pressure on the other, whereby the whole vesseſ is
kept in equilibrium.
If one such unit of
area be removed—that
is, if a hole be cut in |
the side of a vessel of §
water—the water in º
flowing out will no |
longer be able to press #
upon the surface which
has been removed, but
will nevertheless con-
tinue to press with
equal force on the op-
posite unit of area.
The consequence will
be that the vessel will
be urged in the direc-
tion opposite to that in Žiž;
which the Water flows “
out. Barker’s mill in
its simplest form is shown in the annexed figure. A tube
a c e with lateral arms below, shaped somewhat like an in-
Barker’s Mill.
. Roding, 8 miles E. of London.
verted T, rests upon a pivot at b. Now, suppose this tube
to be supplied with water at the top, and an opening be
made on opposite sides of the horizontal arms c c : the
water, of course, ceases to press on the tube at the open-
ing, while it continues to press on the opposite side; and
if the wheel be so constructed as to turn with but little
friction at a and b, the arms of the tube will be moved round
in a direction opposite to that in which the waterflows. It
is obviously necessary that the opening in the two arms
should be on opposite sides, for if they were on the same
side the pressure on the one (supposing the openings to be
of equal size) would exactly counterbalance the pressure
on the other, and the wheel would remain stationary. But
being on opposite sides, the arms are moved round in the
same direction, the pressure on each co-operating with that
on the other. As the rotation proceeds, the pressure at the
extremities of the arms, c c, generated by centrifugal force
is added to that due to the head, increasing correspondingly
the driving power. Hence the machine is often called “the
centrifugal mill.” Various contrivances may be adopted
to facilitate the supply of water, to lessen the friction, etc.,
but the above explanation may serve to show the general
principle on which such a machine operates.
F. A. P. BARNARD.
Barker’s Ridge, a township of Wyoming co., W. Va.
Pop. 407.
Barkham'sted, a post-township of Litchfield co.,
Conn. Pop. 1439. -
Bark’ing, an English town, county of Essex, on the
The inhabitants pursue
fishing or traffic with London in barges and market-carts.
Pop. 5076.
Bark/Bey, a township of Jasper co., Ind. Pop. 832.
Barks/diale (WILLIAM), a brigadier-general in the Con-
federate service, born in Rutherford co., Tenn., Aug.21, 1821,
killed July 2, 1863, at Gettysburg, Pa. He was educated at
Nashville University, removed to Mississippi, studied law,
and was admitted to the bar. He served in the Mexican
war. In 1853 he was elected to Congress from Mississippi,
and resigned his congressional seat and became a brigadier-
general in the Confederate army; and it was at the head
of his brigade that he was killed on the second day of the
battle of Gettysburg.
Bar-le-Duc, or Bar-sur-Ormain, a town of
France, capital of the department of Meuse, is on the
river Ornain, and on the railway which connects Paris
with Nancy, 159 miles by rail E. of Paris. It has a com-
munal college, a normal school, and a public library; also
manufactures of cotton stuffs, hosiery, and calicoes. Its
trade is facilitated by a canal which connects the Marne
with the Rhine. Pop. in 1866, 15,334.
Barlet/ta (anc. Barduli), a fortified seaport of Italy,
in the province of Bari, on the Adriatic, and on a rocky
island 34 miles by rail W. N. W. of Bari; lat. 41° 20' N.,
Ion. 16°19' E. It is well built, has handsome stone houses,
and wide, well-paved streets. It contains a fine cathedral,
a college, a strong citadel or castle, and a colossal statue
of the emperor Heraclius, said to have been found in the
sea. Grain, wine, oil, and fruits are exported from this
town. Pop. in 1872, 28,163.
Bar/ley [Lat. hor'dewm], a plant of the order Gramineae,
is a valuable cereal, said to be more widely distributed than
any other grain. It was cultivated by the ancient Hebrews,
Greeks, and Romans, and was an important article of food in
a remote antiquity. First mentioned in Exodusix. 31. It is
adapted to both cold and warm climates. The genus Hordeum
is distinguished by a spiked inflorescence, has three spikelets
at each joint of the rachis, and has three stamens. The lower
palea or palet is long-awned. The species are mostly annual.
|Barley meal is used for bread in Northern Europe, but in
many parts of the world this grain is mostly malted (ger-
minated) for the manufacture of beer. It is also valuable
as food for horses. . When the pellicle of the grain is re-
moved and the grain is rounded, it is called pearl barley,
which is used as food for invalids. Two species or vari-
eties of barley are cultivated in the U. S.—namely, Hor-
deum vulgare, with its grains arranged in four rows; and
Hordeum distichon, in which there are only two rows. The
farmers of Europe also cultivate the Hordeum hea'astichon,
the six-rowed barley. The sprat or battledore barley (some-
times called German rice) is much esteemed in Germany.
It has only two rows, and has widely-spreading awns. The
Nepaul or Himalaya barley is well adapted for cold and
mountainous regions, as it produces good crops at the
height of 14,000 feet above the level of the sea.
Bar'Ieycorn (John), a personification of the spirit of
barley or malt liquor, used in humorous poetical composi-
tion and in jocular parlance. There is an old whimsical
English tract entitled “The Arraigming and Indicting of


394
BARLOW-BARNARD.
Sir John Barleycorn, printed for Timothy Tosspot,” but
John Barleycorn is best known by Burns's humorous poem
of that name. s
Bar'Iow, a post-tp. of Washington co., O. Pop. 1194.
Barlow (FRANCIS CHANNING), MAJOR-GENERAL, born
at Brooklyn, N. Y., Oct. 19, 1834, graduated first in his
class at Harvard College in 1855, served in the Union army
1862–65. He was at Fair Oaks and in almost every subse-
Quent battle of the army of the Potomac, and won a dis-
tinguished reputation as a brave and able officer. He was
Secretary of state for New York in 1866–68, and was elected
attorney-general of New York in 1871.
Barlow (JoBL), an American poet, born at Reading,
Conn., Mar. 24, 1755, graduated at Yale College in 1778.
He served as chaplain in the army in the Revolutionary
war, after which he studied law. He produced in 1787
“The Vision of Columbus,” a poem which was very popu-
lar. Having visited Europe on business in 1788, he passed
some years in Paris during the French Revolution, and
amassed a competence by trade or speculation. He re-
turned to the U. S. in 1805, and published in 1808 “The
Columbiad,” a mediocre epic poem. He was sent as am.
bassador to France in 1811, and died near Cracow Dec.
22, 1812, while on his way to Wilna, whither he had been
invited to meet Napoleon. (See C. E. OELSNER, “Notice
sur la Vie de J. Barlow,” 1813; GR1swold's “Poets and
Poetry of America.”)
Bar/mecides (sing. Bar/mecide), a distinguished
and powerful Persian family, whose name was derived from
Barmak or Barmek. His son, Khāled-ben-Barmak, be-
came the prime minister of the caliph Al-Mansur, and
also of Al-Mahdi, who appointed him tutor to Haroun-
al-Raschid. Yahya, the son of Khāled, was vizier under
Haroun-al-Raschid, to whom he rendered important ser-
vices. Yahya had three sons, named Yahya, Fadhl, and
Jaafar, who enjoyed the favor of the sovereign. Fahdl
was vizier for some time. Haroun-al-Raschid, who was
jealous of their power and popularity, ordered them to be
put to death about 802 A. D. (See JAAFAR.) The virtues
and misfortunes of the Barmecides have been celebrated
by many Oriental poets and historians.
Barmecide’s Feast, a celebrated tale from the
“Arabian Nights;” a term often applied to an ostentatious
display of worthless bounty. The tale is as follows:
Schacabac being reduced to great poverty, and having
eaten nothing for two days together, made a visit to a
noble Barmecide in Persia, who was very hospitable, but
withal a great humorist. The Barmecide was sitting at
his table, that seemed ready covered for an entertain-
ment. Upon hearing Schacabâc's complaint, he desired
him to sit down and fall to. He then gave him an empty
plate, and asked him how he liked his rice-soup. Schaca-
bac, who was a man of wit, and resolved to comply with
the Barmecide in all his humors, told him it was admirable,
and at the same time lifted up the empty spoon to his
mouth [apparently] with great pleasure. The Barmecide
then asked him if he ever saw whiter bread. Schacabac,
who saw neither bread nor meat, answered, “If I did not
like it, you may be sure I should not eat so heartily of it.”
Several other nice dishes were served up in idea, which
both of them commended and feasted on after the same
manner. . This was followed by an invisible dessert; and
Schacabac, at length being tired of moving his jaws up
and down to no purpose, desired to be excused, for that
really he was so full he could not eat a bit more. “Come,
then,” said the Barmecide, “you shall taste of my wines,
which, I may say without vanity, are the best in Persia.” He
then filled their glasses out of an empty decanter. Schaca-
bac would have excused himself from drinking so much at
once, because he said he was a little quarrelsome in his liq-
uor; however, being pressed to it, he pretended to take
it off, having beforehand praised the color and afterwards
the flavor. , Being plied with other imaginary bumpers of
different wines, he pretended to grow flustered, and gave
the Barmecide a box on the ear; but immediately recover-
ing himself, “Sir” said he, “I beg ten thousand pardoms,
but I told you before that it was my misfortune to be quar-
relsome in my drink.” The Barmecide, who was pleased
with the complaisance of his guest, then ordered a good
substantial dinner to be served up.
Bar/men, a town and beautiful valley of Rhenish
Prussia, is on the river Whipper, 17 miles by rail E. N. E.
of Barmen. The town is 3 miles E. of Elberfeld, or, ac-
cording to one statement, is a continuation of Elberfeld,
with which it forms one uninterrupted street six miles long.
Barmen is the principal seat of the ribbon manufacture on
the Continent, and its fabrics are distributed to all parts
of the world. Here are also manufactures of cotton and
linen goods, velvet, lace, hardware, and chemical products.
The district which contains Barmen and Elberfeld is the
most populous, industrious, and thriving in Germany. Bar-
men has a handsome church, an asylum for the deaf and
dumb, several banks, an exchange, etc. Pop. in 1871,
74,496.
Barſnabas [Gr. Bapwé8as], SAINT, an early, Christian
and apostle, originally named JOSEPH, was born in the
island of Cyprus. He was a companion and fellow-laborer
of the apostle Paul, and appears to have been the principal
founder of the church of Antioch, to which he was sent by
the church of Jerusalem. “ He was a good, man, and full
of the Holy Ghost and of faith” (Acts xi. 24). According
to one tradition, he was the first bishop of Milan. (See Acts
xiii.-xy. ; P. PUCCINELLI, “Wita di S. Barnaba,” 1649.)
Barnabas, Epistle of, an epistle of twenty-one chap-
ters, which is supposed by Hefele to have been written be-
tween 107–120 A. D. After having been lost sight of for
several centuries, this epistle was first published in 1645,
but the first four chapters and a part of the fifth were only
in Latin. In 1859, Tischendorf discovered the whole in
Greek at Mount Sinai, and it was published in 1863. It
was formerly ascribed to the apostle Barnabas, but it is
evidently the work of another and, later hand. It is fre-
ðuently cited by the Fathers, and was by many regarded
as being of authority in the Church; some even claiming
for it a place in the sacred canon. It is chiefly directed
against the Judaizing Christians, and its principal value
now is in the light it throws upon the customs and doctrines
of the Christians of that time. Several English translations
have been published. (See NEANDER, “ Church History,” i.,
381; KITTo, “Cyclopaedia;” “American Presbyterian Re-
view,” Jan. and July, 1864.) -
Bar'nabites, an order of monks which originated at
Milan in 1533, and were so called because they preached in
the church of St. Barnabas. Their duties were to attend
the sick, to preach, to instruct the young, etc. They be-
came numerous, and established monasteries or colleges in
Italy, France, Austria, and Spain.'
Barnacle. See CIRRIPEDIA. *
Bar'nacle Goose (An/ser ber/nicla or Ber’micla lew-
cop/sis), a bird which frequents the coasts of Britain in
winter, and migrates northward in spring. It is smaller
than the common wild-goose, and is esteemed for food. The
plumage of the upper part of its body is ash-gray and black,
and that of the lower part white. The name of barnacle is
sometimes applied to the brent goose (An'ser bren'ta or tor-
qua'tw8), which is smaller than the preceding, and has a
darker plumage, which is nearly all black except the lower
part of the body. It is remarkable for powerful flight and
distant migrations, and is prized for the table. It is a win-
ter bird of passage in the U. S. It takes its name from
the old belief that barnacles were often transmuted into
geese—a superstition which was once shared by learned
and unlearned alike. - -
BARNACLEs, in heraldry, are frequently introduced into
coats-of-arms as a charge. They were instruments used
by farriers to curb and command unruly horses, and re-
sembled what are now called twitchers.
Bar'nard, a post-township of Piscataquis co., Me. It
has manufactures of roofing slate. Pop. 149.
Barnard, a post-township of Windsor co., Vt. It has
manufactures of carriages, lumber, tubs, etc. Pop. 1208.
Barnard (DANIEL DEwBY), LL.D., a lawyer and Whig
politician, born at Sheffield, Mass., in 1797, graduated at
Williams College in 1818, was admitted to the bar at Ro-
chester, N. Y., and in 1821 was a member of Congress from
New York (1828–30 and 1839–45). He removed to Albany
in 1832, and was U. S. minister to Prussia (1849–53). He
was the author of many published reviews, speeches, etc.
Died April 24, 1861. -
Barnard (FREDERICK AUGUSTUs PortER), S. T. D.,
LL.D., L. H. D., mathematician, physicist, and educator,
born in Sheffield, Mass., May 5, 1809, graduated at Yale
College in 1828, tutor in Yale College 1830, professor of
mathematics and natural philosophy in the University
of Alabama 1837–48, professor of chemistry and natural
history in the same 1848–54, professor of mathematics,
natural philosophy, and civil engineering in the Univer-
sity of Mississippi 1854–61, president of the University.
of Mississippi 1856–58, and chancellor of the same 1858–
61. In 1854 he took orders in the Protestant Episcopal
Church, resigned his chancellorship and his chair in the
university in 1861, and in 1863–64 was connected with the
U. S. coast survey, in charge of chart-printing and lithog-
raphy. In May, 1864, was elected president of Columbia •
College, New York City, which post he still holds. He re-
ceived the honorary degree of LL.D. from Jefferson College,
Miss., in 1855, and from Yale College in 1859; also the de-
gree of S. T. D. from the University of Mississippi in 1861,
and that of L. H. D. from the regents of the University of
BARNARD–BARNES.
º
the State of New York in 1872. In 1860 he was a member
of the eclipse expedition sent to Labrador (Cape Chudleigh)
by the U. S. coast survey; and during this absence was
elected president of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science. In the act of Congress establishing
the National Academy of Sciences (1863) he was named as
one of the original corporators, in 1867 he was one of the
U. S. commissioners to the Paris Exposition, and was chair-
man of the physical section, 1870–72. He is also a mem-
ber of the American Philosophical Society, an associate
member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
corresponding member of the Royal Society of Liège, and
member of many other scientific and literary associations.
During his long residence in the South, Dr. Barnard was
actively engaged in promoting public education, both pri-
mary and higher, encouraging and assisting in all depart-
ments of scientific research and literary culture. His pub-
lications have related chiefly to scientific and educational
Subjects. Among these may be mentioned “Letters on
College Government” (1854), “Report on Collegiate Edu-
cation” (1854), “Art Culture” (1854), “History of the
American Coast Survey’’ (an extended Report to the Amer-
ican Association for the Advancement of Science, 1857),
“ University Education’’ (1858), “Undulatory Theory of
Light” (1862), “Machinery and Processes of the Indus-
trial Arts, and Apparatus of the Exact Sciences” (1868),
“Metric System of Weights and Measures” (1871).
Barnard (HENRY), LL.D., an eminent educator, born
at Hartford, Conn., Jan. 24, 1811, graduated at Yale Col-
lege in 1830, and was called to the bar in 1836. Having
been elected to the legislature of Connecticut in 1837, he
reorganized the public schools. He was superintendent
of schools in Connecticut (1838–42 and 1850–54), in Rhode
Island (1843–49), president State University of Wisconsin
(1856–59), and of St. John’s College (1865–67). He pub-
lished, besides other works, the “Connecticut Common
School Journal,” which had reached several volumes in
1855; “Normal Schools in the U. S. and Europe” (1851);
“Education in Factories” (1842); “School Libraries”
(1854);. “Hints and Methods for the Use of Teachers”
(1857); and “National Education in Europe” (1851), when
he commenced the publication of the “American Journal
of Education.” He was appointed in 1867 U. S. commis-
sioner of education, but resigned in 1871.
Barnard (JoBN), a famous minister of Marblehead,
Mass., was born in Boston Nov. 6, 1681, and graduated at
Harvard in 1700. He was a chaplain in the Port Royal
expedition of 1707, of which he wrote an unpublished ac-
count. Visiting England, he was offered a chaplaincy to
Lord Wharton, but refused to conform. He was ordained
colleague minister of Marblehead in 1716, and there re-
mained for life. He took great pains in establishing the
fisheries and commerce of his people. He published a ver-
sion of the Psalms, sermons, etc. Died Jan. 24, 1770.
Barnard (John G.), LL.D., was born May 19, 1815, in
Sheffield, Mass., graduated at the U. S. Military Academy
1833, and was commissioned as brevet second lieutenant in
the corps of engineers. In 1835 was sent to the Gulf coast,
where he served seventeen years as an assistant or princi-
pal engineer for the fortifications of Pensacola and New
Orleans, and on works of harbor improvement. During the
war with Mexico he was, twice called to the field, and re-
ceived the brevet of major “for meritorious services while
serving in the enemy’s country.” In 1850 he was named
by the President (Taylor) as chief of a scientific commission
for the survey of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, with the view
of establishing a route of commerce and travel to our new-
ly-acquired Pacific possessions. The report drawn up by
J. J. Williams (1852) gives the first full account of that isth-
mus ever published. In 1854 he was in charge of the con-
struction of the new fortifications of San Francisco, Cal., in
1855–56 superintendent of the U. S. Military Academy.
Subsequently, till 1861, he was in charge of the fortifica-
tions of New York harbor. Serving as chief engineer
under Gen. McDowell in the first Bull Run campaign, he
Was present on the field of that battle, as also at the earlier
combat at Blackburn’s Ford, the very first of the inchoate
“Army of the Potomac.” As chief engineer (with the rank
of brigadier-general) of the Army of the Potomac in the
Virginia Peninsular campaign of 1862, he directed the siege
operations at Yorktown and before Richmond; and subse-
quently, as “Chief engineer of the defences of Washington,”
the extensive works for the defence of the national capital.
In the campaign of 1864–65 he served on the staff of Lieut.-
Gen. Grant as “Chief engineer of the armies in the field,”
until the surrender of Lee's army at Appomattox Court-
house, at which he was present. He was brevetted through
several grades, and finally received the brevet of major-
general U. S. army “for gallant and meritorious services
in the field;” also brevetted July 4, 1864, major-general
395
U. S. volunteers “for Ineritorious and distinguished ser-
vices.” Since the close of the civil war he has served as
senior member of the board of engineers for permanent
fortifications, and as a member of the U. S. lighthouse board.
He is a member and an original corporator of the National
Academy of Sciences. The degree of A. M. was conferred
upon him by the University of Alabama in 1838, and of
LL.D. by Yale College 1864. He is a member of the Amer-
ican Institute of Architects, and an honorary member of
the American Society of Civil Engineers. His principal
publications are “The Phenomena of the Gyroscope ana-
lytically examined ” (1858), “Notes on Sea-Coast Defence”
(1861), “Reports of the Engineer and Artillery Operations
of the Army of the Potomac’” (1863), in conjunction with
Gen. W. F. Barry, chief of artillery; “Report on the De-
fences of Washington” (1871), “Report on the Fabrication
of Iron for Defensive Purposes,” etc. (1871), made in con-
junction with Gen. H. G. Wright and Col. P. S. Michie;
“The North Sea Canal of Holland, and Improvement of
Navigation from Rotterdam to the Sea,” “Problems of Ro-
tary Motion presented by the Gyroscope, the Precession of
the Equinoxes, and the Pendulum ” (1872). In May, 1864,
he was nominated brigadier-general and chief of engineers.
The nomination was withdrawn at his own request.
Barnaul’, a town of Siberia, in the government of
Tomsk, at the junction of the Barnaul with the river Obi,
230 miles S. S. W. of Tomsk. It has a mining School, four
churches, and several hospitals. All the gold of the Altai
Mountains is brought here to be smelted, and three large
gold and silver trains leave here every winter for St. Peters-
burg. A magnetic and meteorological observatory was es-
tablished here about 1841. Pop. in 1867, 12,928.
Barnave (ANTOINE PIERRE JosFPH MARIE), a French
revolutionist and able advocate, was born at Grenoble in
1761. He was elected in 1789 to the States-General, and
became a leader of the popular party. As a member of the
National Assembly he opposed the absolute veto, and advo-
cated the confiscation of church lands and the abolition of
convents. He was a member of the committee appointed
to attend the king on his return from Varennes to Paris in .
1791, after which he became a more moderate reformer, and
even defended the royal cause. This change of course ren-
dered him unpopular. He retired to private life in Sept.,
1791, and was guillotined Nov. 29, 1793. According to
Macaulay, he was “the best debater in the National As-
sembly, but he flinched before the energy of Mirabeau.”
Barn’burners, a nickname given to that portion of
the Democratic party of the State of New York which op-
posed the extension of slavery and supported Van Buren
against Cass for President in 1848. They were esteemed
too radical by their adversaries, one of whom illustrated his
meaning by a story of a farmer who was so greatly an-
noyed by the rats who devoured his grain that he burned
his barn to get rid of them. The Barnburners, led by Col.
Samuel Young, Hon. Silas Wright, Michael Hoffman, etc.,
opposed further borrowing for the improvement or exten-
sion of their State canals, and were hostile generally to
public debts, corporate privileges, etc.
Bar/negat, a post-village of Union township, Ocean co.,
N. J., on Double Creek and on the Tuckerton R. R., 1 mile
from Barnegat Bay. It has an academy, and is a place of
resort for sportsmen on account of the abundance of wild-
fowl. Its inhabitants are mainly engaged in navigation.
Barnegat Bay, in Ocean co., N. J., connects with the
Atlantic by an inlet over a mile wide. The bay extends 23
miles N. to the mouth of Metetecunk River. There is a
lighthouse 150 feet high on the S. side of the inlet, with a
flashing white light; lat. 39° 45' 48" N., lon. 74°6’ 3” W.
Barnes, a township of Buena Vista co., Ia. Pop. 233.
Barnes (ALBERT), an eminent American divine, born
at Rome, N. Y., Dec. 1, 1798. He graduated at Hamilton
College in 1820. He became, in 1830, pastor of the First
Presbyterian church at Philadelphia, where he preached
upwards of thirty years. As a commentator on the Scrip-
tures, Mr. Barnes has a high reputation, and his scriptural
commentaries are popular with the religious community on
both sides of the Atlantic. The circulation of his “ Notes
on the New Testament” (in eleven volumes) is said to have
reached more than a million volumes. He commented also
on Isaiah (1840), Job (1844), Daniel (1853), and the Psalms
(1871). Among his other works may be named “The
Church and Slavery” (1857), “The Atonement in its Rela-
tions to Law and Moral Government” (1859), “Lectures
on the Evidences of Christianity” (1868), “Life at Three-
score and Ten" (1868), and “Scenes and Incidents in the
Life of the Apostle Paul” (1869). Mr. Barnes took a lead-
ing part in the controversy which divided the Presbyterian
Church, and in 1837 was one of the most prominent advo-
cates of the New School doctrines. Died Dec. 24, 1870.
396
BARNES’S—BARODA.
Barnes’s, a township of Montgomery co., Ala. Pop.
3680.
Barnes’s Cross-Roads, a post-township of Dale co.,
Ala. Pop. 800.
Barnes (JAMES), an American officer and engineer, born
in 1806 at Boston, Mass., graduated at West Point in 1829,
was a lieutenant of artillery till he resigned from the army
July 31, 1836, serving at Military Academy as assistant in-
structor 1829–30 and 1833–36, at Fort McHenry, Md., 1830–
32, in Black Hawk expedition 1832, and at Charleston har-
bor 1832–33, during the threatened nullification of South
Carolina. He was a prominent civil engineer (1836–57), and
constructed many important railroads. At the beginning
of the civil war he resumed the military profession as col-
onel Eighteenth Massachusetts volunteers, was appointed
Nov. 29, 1862, brigadier-general U.S. volunteers, and served
in the Virginia peninsula, 1862, Northern Virginia cam-
paign 1862, in Maryland campaign 1862, and at Antietam;
in Rappahannock campaign 1862–63, at Fredericksburg
and Chancellorsville, in Pennsylvania campaign, in several
skirmishes, and at the battle of Gettysburg (wounded), and
was in command of the defences of Norfolk and Portsmouth,
Va., 1863–64, of St. Mary’s district 1864–65, and Point
Lookout camp for prisoners of war 1864–65. Brevet major-
general U. S. volunteers Mar. 13, 1865, for meritorious ser-
vices, and mustered out of service Jan. 15, 1866. With
health destroyed he remained at his home in Springfield,
Mass., where he died Feb. 12, 1869.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Barnes (JOSEPH FC.), brigadier-general and surgeon-
general U. S. army, born in Philadelphia July 21, 1817,
educated in Philadelphia, receiving his degree of M. D.
from the medical department of the University of Penn-
sylvania, class of 1837–38. He followed the practice of his
profession in the hospitals and as physician to the out-
door poor of Philadelphia till June 15, 1840, when he was
appointed an assistant surgeon in the army, and a surgeon
Aug. 29, 1856. In 1863 (Feb. 9) he was appointed medical
inspector, and Aug. 10 medical inspector-general with the
rank of colonel. On Aug. 25 he was placed in charge of
the surgeon-general’s office, and Aug. 22, 1864, received the
appointment of surgeon-general, which distinguished po-
sition he still retains, administering the responsible duties
of his department with marked ability. $
Barnes (PHINEAs), a politician of Maine, born in 1811,
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1829, was professor of
Greek and Latin at Waterville (1834–39), and afterwards
editor of the “Portland Advertiser,” and held many re-
sponsible offices in Maine. In 1860 he was nominated for
governor on the Bell and Everett ticket. Died Aug. 21,
I871.
Barnesville, a post-village of Pike co., Ga., is situated
on the Macon and Western R. R., 40 miles N. W. of Macon,
and has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 754. -
Barnesville, a post-town in the S. W. part of Belmont
co., O., 32 miles W. of Wheeling, on the Baltimore and
Ohio R. R. It has a machine-shop, foundry, planing-mill,
woollen mill, carriage factory, national bank, and one
newspaper, and is the commercial centre of a large and
wealthy agricultural district. It is noted for its superior
strawberries and tobacco. Pop. 2063. - t
ED. “ENTERPRISE.”
Bar/net, a post-township of Caledonia co., Vt., on the
Connecticut and Passumpsic Rivers R. R., 51 miles N. of
White River Junction. It has manufactures of lumber,
leather, etc. There is an academy at McIndoe's Falls. The
township contains several manufacturing villages. P. 1945.
Bar/nett, a township of De Witt co., Ill. Pop. 1078.
Barnett, a township of Forest co., Pa. Pop. 504.
Barnett, a township of Jefferson co., Pa. Pop. 223.
Bar'neveld, a town in Holland, 6 miles S. S. E. of
Nykerk, in the province of Gelders. There are fine monu-
ments in one of the churches. Pop. 6167.
Bar'neveidt (John van OLDEN), an eminent Dutch
statesman, born at Ameersfoort in 1549. He was a mem-
ber of an important embassy sent to England in 1585, and,
after his return was appointed advocate-general of Holland.
He was an adversary of the earl of Leicester, and became
the head of the republican party, while Maurice of Nassau
was the chief of its opponents. Barneveldt opposed the am-
bitious designs and warlike policy of Maurice, and in 1609
concluded a truce with Spain for twelve years. He was for
many years grand-pensionary of Holland. The animosity
between the two parties was aggravated by religious dis-
sension. Barneveldt favored the Arminians or Remon-
strants, while Maurice patronized the intolerant Gomarists,
who were also supported by the majority of the army, the
clergy, and the populace. The Synod of Dort having con-
demned the Arminians in 1618, Barneveldt was accused of
treason, unjustly convicted, and beheaded May 13, 1619.
(See MoTLEY, “History of the United Netherlands.”)
Barſney (Josh UA), an American commodore, born in
Baltimore July 6, 1759. Having passed through the in-
ferior grades, he obtained command of the Hyder Ali, and
captured the General Monk in 1782. He commanded a
flotilla in 1813, and was wounded at the battle of Bladens-
burg in 1814. Died Dec. 1, 1818.
Barn'hill, a township of Wayne co., III. Pop. 2632.
Barns/ley, a market-town of England, in the West Rid-
ing of Yorkshire, on the river Dearne, 18 miles by rail N. .
of Sheffield, on the North Midland Railway. It is situated on
a hill, has coal and iron mines, and manufactures of linen,
glass, etc. The damasks and drills of Barnsley were con-
sidered to be unrivalled. Here are also bleaching and dye
works and iron foundries. Pop. in 1871, 23,021.
Barns'ness, a township of Pope co., Minn. Pop. 153.
Barn'stable, the easternmost county of Massachusetts.
Area, 290 square miles. It consists of a peninsula which is
about 60 miles long and terminates in Cape Cod. It is
bounded on the E. and S. by the Atlantic Ocean, and on
the W. by Buzzard’s Bay. The soil is mostly light and
sandy. Dairy products, corn, and wool are raised to some
extent. Many of the inhabitants are engaged in the fish-
eries and in navigation. Capital, Barnstable. Pop. 32,774.
Barnstable, a port of entry and shire-town of Barn-
stable co., Mass., is on Barnstable Bay and on the Old Colo-
ny R. R., 72 miles S. S. E. of Boston. The inhabitants are
principally engaged in maritime pursuits. The southerly
portion of the town, on Vineyard Sound, is largely fre-
quented as a place of summer resort. Hyannis, Cotuit
Port, Osterville, and other villages are in this township,
which has eleven churches, a court-house, jail, and a
weekly paper. Pop. of township, 4793.
ED. ‘‘ PATRIOT.”
Barn'staple, a town and seaport of England, in Dev-
onshire, on the river Taw, 6 miles from its mouth, and 40
miles by rail N. W. of Exeter. The Taw is here crossed
by an old bridge of sixteen arches. Barnstaple is pleas-
antly situated and well built, and has manufactures of pot-
tery, lace, etc. It sends two members to Parliament. The
harbor has been filled with sand, so that it will not admit
large vessels. Pop. in 1871, 11,636. -
Barn'stead, a post-township of Belknap co., N. H. It
has manufactures of lumber, woollen goods, etc. P. 1543.
Bar/mum (PHINEAs TAYLOR), born in Bethel, Conn.,
July 5, 1810. He became an editor, a trader, and after-
wards a public showman. In 1841 he established in the
city of New York a museum which was very successful. In
1849 he engaged Jenny Lind to sing in America, and paid
her $1000 per night for 150 nights. He afterwards expe-
rienced severe reverses of fortune, but displayed remark-
able perseverance and energy in overcoming the difficulties
which surrounded him. He also has some fame as a tem-
perance lecturer, and gives freely to philanthropic enter-
prises. (See his “Life,” written by himself, 1855.)
Barn/well, a county of South Carolina, bordering on
Georgia. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Edisto, and
on the S. W. by the Savannah River. The surface is un-
dulating, the soil productive. Rice, corn, and cotton are
the chief crops. The county is intersected by the South
Carolina and Port Royal R. Rs. Capital, Blackville. Pop.
35,724.
Barnwell, a post-village of Barnwell co., S. C., 60
miles S. S. W. of Columbia. Pop. of township, 1181.
Barnwell (RoPERT WooDw ARD), LL.D., a statesman,
born at Beaufort, S. C., Aug. 10, 1801, and graduated at
Harvard in 1821. He studied law, was a member of Con-
gress from South Carolina (1829–33), U. S. Senator in 1850,
and afterwards a member of the Confederate Congress. He
was president of South Carolina College (now University
of South Carolina) (1835–43), and after the civil war held
the same position until 1873.
Baroach’, a town of British India, in the province of
Bombay, is on the Nerbudda, 40 miles N. N. E. of Surat.
Here is a hospital for animals, receiving even insects, which
is endowed by the Brahmanists. On an island near this
town is the largest banyan tree in India, which is said to
have sheltered an army of 7000 men.
Baro’da, a city of Hindostan, in Guzerat, about 90
miles by rail N. N. E. of Surat; lat. 22° 16' N., lon. 73°
14' E. It is the residence of the guico war, a Mahratta.
prince, and has an extensive trade, for which its position
is advantageous. A railroad extends from Baroda vić
Surat to Bombay, 231 miles. It is a rich city in proportion
to its size. Pop. estimated at 140,000.
BAROMETER.
Barom"eter [Gr. Bágos, “weight,” and werpov, “meas-
ure”], an instrument for 'measuring the weight or pressure
of the atmosphere. If a tube of uniform bore be bent into
the form of the letter U, and partially filled with a liquid,
the height of the liquid column, as measured above the
bend, will be found to be the same in both branches. This
will continue to be true though the air be withdrawn from
above the liquid on both sides—a thing which may easily
be effected by suitably connecting the two extremities of
the tube with an air-pump. But if, while things are in
this condition, the air be gradually readmitted to one of
the branches and not to the other, the column in that
branch will steadily sink, and that in the other will cor-
respondingly rise. Arresting this process at any moment,
we may say that the difference of height of the two liquid
columns is a measure of the pressure of the air on the sur-
face of the lower; or that the weight of a column of the
Iiquid having a height equal to this difference is just equal
to the pressure on that surface. In this experiment it
would be easy to expel the liquid entirely from one branch
of the tube, without establishing an equilibrium with the
column in the other, unless the apparatus should be of
inconveniently large dimensions, or the
liquid employed should be one having
great specific gravity. Mercury, in fact,
which is nearly fourteen times (13.6)
heavier than water, is the only liquid
convenient for the purpose of the ex-
periment; and if this be used, the dif-
ference of height-of the columns in the
two branches will be found to be about
30 inches when the full pressure of the
atmosphere is admitted to one branch,
while it is wholly withdrawn from the
other. The weight of a vertical column
of mercury, therefore, of uniform hori-
Zontal section, 30 inches in height, is
equal to the mean pressure of the atmo-
sphere at the surface of the earth on an
area equal to the base of the column.
The same fact is demonstrated more ex-
peditiously by simply taking a straight
tube 32 or 33 inches in length (Fig. 1),
closed at one extremity and open at the
other, filling it entirely full of mercury,
placing the thumb firmly on the open
end, inverting it and plunging this ex-
tremity beneath the surface of mercury
in a basin, and finally removing the
thumb. The column will fall, and stand
as before at about 30 inches above the
level of the mercury in the basin. This
is the original experiment of Torricelli,
made early in the seventeenth century, \ º
by which he furnished the first satis- tºmti
factory explanation of the phenomena which the old phil-
osophers vaguely ascribed to Nature’s abhorrence of a
V8, GUIUIDOl.
If the pressure of the atmosphere were invariable, the
barometer would be an instrument of no prac- FIG. 2
tical use, and would simply serve to illustrate * ºn e
an interesting physical truth. But this pres-
sure is constantly fluctuating, and its fluctu-
ations are measured by the varying heights
of the Torricellian column. All that is neces-
sary to form a barometer, therefore, is to con-
nect with the tube and basin of Torricelli
some kind of scale suitable to measure these
variations. In English and American ba-
rometers this scale is divided into inches and
decimals; in France and in continental Eu-
rope generally, into millimëtres. If the in-
strument is to be stationary, the scale need
only have a range of three or four inches, since
even in localities where the fluctuations are
largest, they never transcend these limits. The
divisions directly marked on the scale are made
sufficiently large to be read by the unassisted
eye. For smaller divisions a vernier must be
employed. (See VERNIER.) In the best in-
struments the height of the column may be
read by means of the vernier to the rººth
of an inch. Some little practice is required
in order to learn to read with accuracy. The
Vernier carries a horizontal index which moves QNS&s:
close to the glass tube containing the mer- &#
curial column; but the top of the column is rounded, so
that the highest point is distant from the index by half
the exterior diameter of the tube. Ordinarily, the bore of
the tube is small, not exceeding three-sixteenths to three-
eighths of an inch; but in large standards a tube an en-
397
tire inch in bore is often employed, and in such instru-
ments the index is a ring or thimble surrounding the tube
entirely.
The height of the column must be measured from the
surface of the mercury in the basin; but the level of this
surface itself varies with the rising and falling of the col-
umn in the tube. To provide
against error from this cause, the
whole scale is, in some barometers,
made movable, and is raised or de-
pressed as may be necessary, by
means of a thumb-screw, before ob-
servation. An ivory point directed
downward from a short projecting
arm carried by the scale is brought
so as exactly to meet its image re-
flected in the mercury of the basin,
and this indicates that the zero of
the scale is in its true position. In
other instruments, and generally in
those in common use, the adjust-
ment is made by raising or depress-
ing the level of the mercury itself
while the scale remains fixed. In-
stead of the ivory point, an ivory
float is sometimes used, carrying
an upright stem on which is a fidu-
cial mark designed to be brought,
in the adjustment, into coincidence
With a similar fixed mark.
In tubes of small bore the mer-
curial column does not reach the
full height due to the pressure,
owing to the effect of CAPILLARY
AcTION (which see). A small cor-
rection is therefore necessary on
this account, which depends on the
diameter of the tube. With tubes
of large dimensions this effect is
insensible; and it may in any case
be completely eliminated by giving
to the barometer the form shown in
Fig. 2, called a siphon barometer,
in which the basin is dispensed
with, and the tube is bent upward
at the bottom, the recurved part
serving as a substitute for the
basin. In this form of the instru-
ment, if the bore be uniform
throughout, every fluctuation of
pressure occasions equal and op-
posite movements of the two sur-
faces of mercury; and the reading
on a fixed scale will change only
half as much as in the common in-
strument. The whole scale should
therefore be movable; or if a fixed
scale only be used, the divisions
should be made of only half their
nominal magnitude. An attempt
has been made to magnify the ba-
rometric indications of fluctuating
atmospheric pressure, by trans-
forming the vertical movements of
# the mercurial column into rotary
i movements of a long index upon
a dial. The siphon barometer pre-
sents a convenient means of doing
3 this. A float introduced into the
open short arm of the siphon, and
connected by a silk thread with a
small pulley on the axis of the in-
dex, will render conspicuous even
a very minute change in the alti-
tude of the column. The uncertain
*i) action of this apparatus, however,
owing to friction and other causes,
is such as to deprive it of any sci-
entific value.
The form of barometer now most
generally approved, constructed or-
iginally by Fortin of Paris, and
since adopted by Casella, Beck,
and others of London, and by
James Green of New York, who has made in it important
improvements, is shown in Fig. 3. In this, the glass tube
is entirely surrounded by a protecting tube of brass, some-
what enlarged at the top, for convenience in applying a
scale and vernier, and having a vertical opening at the
same part to allow the summit of the mercurial column to
be seen. The cistern at the bottom, which is of boxwood,
FIG. 3.
-
i- ;
^-



398
except the upper portion, which is a short glass cylinder,
is similarly protected—the glass portion, however, being
uncovered, in order to allow the surface of the mercury in
the cistern to be visible. The cistern has a bottom of flex-
ible leather, which rests on a broad disk of metal supported
by a vertical screw, of which the milled head is represented
in the figure below the instrument. By turning this screw,
the level of the mercury in the cistern is brought to the
true zero of the scale, indicated by a fixed fiducial point of
steel or ivory seen within the cistern.
Since the barometer measures the pressure of the atmo-
sphere, and since this pressure is simply the weight of a
vertical column of the aërial ocean above the level of the
place of observation, it follows that, if we carry the instru-
ment from a lower to a higher level, the barometric column
will fall. One of the most important uses of the barome-
ter, therefore, is as a means of determining heights. (See
HYPSOMETRY.) But a barometer intended for this purpose,
or a so-called “mountain-barometer,” must have a construc-
tion in a number of respects differing from the barometer
in common use. It must have, of course, a much larger
range of scale, and especial care must be taken to guard
it against the danger of fracture in transportation. If it
is a cistern barometer, the cistern should be air-tight, and
should have no communication with the atmosphere, except
through an aperture which may be stopped by a closely-
fitting screw or cock; and the adjusting screw at the bot-
tom should have so large a range of movement as to allow
all the air of the cistern to be expelled by raising the
leather bottom, so that the cistern and tube may be both
entirely filled with the mercury. The danger of fracture
from the oscillations of this dense liquid may thus be
avoided. The best mercurial mountain barometer, how-
ever, is the siphon barometer of Gay-Lussac, shown in Fig.
4, a, without its scale &
or mounting. In this
instrument a tube
bent in the manner
shown, and closed at
both ends, has two
straight portions, of
small but equal bore,
connected by an in-
termediate portion so
much smaller that
when, after being fill-
ed with mercury, it is
reversed, as shown in
Fig. 4, b, the mercury
will be held in the
bend by capillarity.
The only communi-
cation with the air is
by the aperture o,
which is so small that
any drops of mercury
which may fall into
the short arm from
the bend, when the
instrument is revers-
ed, cannot escape.
The design, however,
is to have no excess
of mercury beyond
what will be held by
capillarity in the po-
sition b. This tube
is suitably supported
throughout its whole
length, and protected
by a surrounding
tube of brass. The -
zero of its scale is at the middle of the length, and it reads
from this zero both upward and downward. The readings
are taken at both surfaces of the mercury, and their sum
gives the true barometric height. The scale is usually in-
scribed on the tube itself. In transporting the instrument
it is carried in the inverted position, where the mercury,
filling the whole tube, is necessarily prevented from oscil-
lating. It is usually carried by the mountaineer in a leather
case swung over his back, and when set up for observation
is suspended in gimbal rings, supported by a tripod.
When a barometer of this kind is carried from place to
place, subject to occasional jars, and concussions, some-
times perhaps in a horizontal position, there is a possibil-
ity that minute portions of air may now and then intrude
into the tube, between the mercury and the glass. An
effectual contrivance for preventing these from making
their way into the Torricellian vacuum was devised by
M. Bunten, which is represented in Fig. 4, c. The capil-
lary part of the tube is divided; the extremity of the
BAROMETER.
upper portion is drawn out to a minute orifice; that of
the lower is widened, so as to form a globular or cylindrical
chamber contracted at the mouth ; and then the two are
united again by fusion in the manner shown in the figure.
Any air which may make its way into the tube from below
is caught in this chamber, and afterwards, when the in-
strument is inverted for transportation, it escapes by the
way it entered. The invention evinces a high degree of
ingenuity.
An interesting form of the mercurial barometer, though
one which wants the important property of portability, is
the balance barometer, employed by Father Secchi of
Rome in his “Meteorograph,” or instrument for automati-
cally recording the varying conditions of the atmosphere
as to temperature, pressure, moisture, movement, etc. from
day to day and from hour to hour. In this, the barometric
tube is suspended from the short end of a lever or balance-
beam, while the longer end may serve as an index, or may
control, as in Father Secchi’s apparatus, the registering
pens. Of course, when the column rises, the weight is in-
creased, and the arm of the lever which carries the tube
descends. In Father Secchi’s barometer the tube is of
forged iron, bored truly to a diameter of two centimetres
(0.8 inch), but in the superior part having the bore en-
larged to six centimètres (2.4 inches) in order to increase
the difference of weight caused by small variations of at-
mospheric pressure, and thus render the instrument more
sensitive. "Such a barometer requires, of course, a large
cistern of mercury; especially since, in order to relieve the
pressure on the pivot of the balance, it is advisable to con-
nect with the lower end of the tube a cylinder of wood of
some size, which, plunging into the mercury, sustains by
its buoyancy the greater part of the weight.
Another very interesting form of mercurial barometer,
which has in the highest degree the characteristic wanting
in the last, of extreme portability, is one recently intro-
duced by Mr. L. Casella, instrument-maker to the Admi-
ralty, London, which may be called a measurer of the
elasticity, rather than of the pressure, of the air—a dis-
tinction which is real, though the numerical results ob-
tained are identical. In this instrument a-glass cylinder
two or three inches in height, resembling somewhat a
Fortin’s barometer cistern, closed at top, has a small and
short glass tube descending into it to a point near the
bottom. Mercury is contained in a chamber beneath this
glass cylinder, and may be forced up into the cylinder
by a screw acting on a flexible bottom, in the same manner
as in Fortin’s barometer. When the surface of the mer-
cury reaches the extremity of the descending tube, it im-
prisons a certain quantity of air within the glass cylinder,
and as the surface is raised higher, this air is compressed,
and causes a column of mercury to rise in the tube. A
scale and vernier connected with this tube enables the ob-
server to read the height of this column, and when the
level of the mercury in the cylinder reaches a certain fixed
fiducial point, the reading is taken. The height of the
column is really the measure of the difference between the
elasticity of the compressed air and that of the free air of
the atmosphere; but inasmuch as the first of these values
is a simple function of the second, it is easy so to construct
the scale that the readings may be the true barometric
readings due to the pressure of the atmosphere at the time.
This instrument possesses two important advantages: first,
its very moderate dimensions; and secondly, its exemption
from liability to fracture in transportation, since the quan-
tity of mercury necessary in its construction is very small;
and when this is withdrawn into the lower chamber, it may
be confined there by turning a stopcock, and kept perfectly
motionless. On all accounts, therefore, the instrument is
admirably suited to the purposes of a mountain-barometer.
When scientific accuracy is necessary in barometric ob-
servations, all mercurial barometers require that their
readings should be corrected for temperature. According
to Regnault, the absolute dilatation of mercury between 0°
and 100° C. = 32° and 212° F., is 0.01813, or about ºth
of its bulk. This corresponds to gºrgth of the bulk for
each degree of Fahrenheit's thermometer, which would be
equal, for the mean column of 30 inches, to an increase of
aſtitude of about gºths, or sºoth per degree. Assuming
the height at 32°F., therefore, to be the normal height,
the reading at 54°F. will be ºths, or ºth inch too great;
at 76° E., or so-called “summer-heat,” #ths, or ºths inch
too great; and at 98° F., ºths, or 0.2 inch too great.
The correction for any temperature may be made by cal-
culation from the data here given; but it is more conveni-
ent to be provided with a table which has been calculated
in advance for all the temperatures to which the observa-
tion is likely to extend.
The process of filling the mercurial barometer is one
which requires great care. In pouring mercury into a

BAROMETER.
399
long and narrow tube it is almost impossible to avoid in-
troducing along with it some bubbles of air, which adhere
with tenacity to the sides of the tube, but which, after the
tube is inverted, gradually find their way into the space
above the column and vitiate the vacuum. These may be
expelled by boiling the mercury in the tube before inver-
sion, when they will be carried off with the vapor. The
operation is attended with some danger to the tube, the
boiling-point of mercury being above 660° F., and the
concussions of the heavy column in ebullition violent. It
is expedient, therefore, to introduce at first only a small
quantity, and after boiling that to add more, and so pro-
ceed till the tube is filled, always applying the heat at a
point but a few inches below the top of the column. Mr.
Green, however, recommends filling the tube completely
before beginning the operation, then boiling downward
from the top, and finally upward from the bottom. There
is a method of getting rid of air-bubbles, however, which
is much less hazardous, and hardly, less effectual, than this,
and which only requires a little dexterity of manipulation
to be successfully employed. In the process here referred
to the tube is filled at first to within two or three inches of
the open end, without any special precaution against the
introduction of air. A piece of buckskin is then placed
over this end and held firmly there, while the tube is care-
fully brought into the horizontal position, when the con-
fined air will of course occupy the upper part of the bore
throughout. If the tube in this position be slowly ro-
tated around its own axis, the great bubble which extends
along its whole length will swallow up all the small ones;
so that, when it is once more made vertical they will be re-
moved along with it. The filling is then to be carefully
completed, and if any additional bubbles be noticed they
will be near the mouth, and may be detached by the aid of
a steel wire. Professional instrument-makers often, after
employing this method, boil the mercury in the tube also
for greater security.
It is of the highest importance that the mercury used
in barometers should be quite pure. To be entirely safe on
this score, it is best that the metal should be distilled be-
fore using, but it may also be purified by chemical means.
The effect of the presence of impurities is to diminish the
specific gravity of the fluid, and therefore to make its in-
dications uncertain ; but it is also to tarnish the tube, and
to render observation after a time difficult or impossible.
Other fluids besides mercury may, of course, be em-
ployed in the construction of barometers, but the height.
of the column will in every case be greater in proportion
as the specific gravity of the liquid is less. Water, for ex-
ample, requires a column of 34 feet, mean height. On the
other hand, the fluctuations of height of the water column
are proportionally large, and serve to render conspicuous
slight changes of pressure, which, in the mercurial barom-
eter, are nearly or quite imperceptible. It is an objection,
however, to the water barometer that its indications are
largely affected by the vapor from the liquid which occu-
pies the space above the column, and that the error thus
arising varies with the temperature. Thus, at 70° F. the
column is depressed by this cause 10 inches; at 80° F., 14
inches; and at 90° F., nearly 20 inches; while even at
32° F., the freezing-point, below which the water barom-
eter is unavailable, the depression from the same cause is
no less than 2% inches.
rometer, therefore, a tabular correction must be applied, de-
pending on the state of the attached thermometer. An-
other source of error in these barometers is found in the
fact that all natural waters contain more or less air, which, I
when the atmospheric pressure is removed, makes its es-
cape; so that, if the water for such a barometer be taken
directly from a natural source, the vacuum above the col-
umn will soon be to some extent vitiated by the pressure
of permanent gases as well as of vapor. This evil may be
prevented, at least for a time, by thoroughly boiling the
water immediately before its introduction into the tube;
but it will return in consequence of the absorption of air
through the surface of the fluid which is exposed to the
atmospheric pressure, unless that be protected by some
covering impervious to air. In the water barometer erected
in the rooms of the Royal Society in London, such a pro-
tection is provided in a stratum of solution of caoutchouc
in glycerine. Very few water barometers have ever been
constructed. The first of the kind was erected by Otto
Guericke, the inventor of the air-pump, in his house at
Magdeburg. The upper portion of the tube only, to an
extent of about six feet, was of glass, and this was but
partially exposed to view, the rest being concealed behind
the woodwork of the apartment. Floating on the top of
the liquid the inventor had introduced a diminutive figure
of a man, which, with the rising of the column in fair
weather, presented itself to view, but with the approach of
foul weather retreated out of sight. The water barometer
To all observations of such a ba-.
in the rooms of the Royal Society has just been mentioned.
There is such a barometer also in the theatre of the natural
philosophy class in the University of Edinburgh. At the
Smithsonian Institution in Washington there was set up,
some twenty-five years ago, by Mr. James Green of New
York, under the direction of Prof. Henry, a barometer of
large dimensions in which the fluid used was sulphuric
acid. This liquid is free from the objection of forming
vapor in the Torricellian void; and owing to its large
specific gravity a column of it less than 20 feet high suf-
fices to balance the mean atmospheric pressure. Such,
however, is the avidity with which this acid absorbs watery
vapor, that its exposed surface must be in some manner
protected from direct contact with the atmosphere. The
protection used in this case was a balloon of India-rubber
firmly secured to the short arm of the siphon barometric
tube. But, though moisture was thus excluded, air was
found to make its way gradually into the void above the
column, and the instrument was finally disused and taken
down.
A description of barometer employing no liquid has, in
recent years, come extensively into use, known as the
Aneroid Barometer, the invention of M. Vidi, a physicist
of France. The etymology of this word has been variously
given. The inventor appears to have derived it from the
verb &vépoplat, “I inquire,” but the books commonly give it
as from 3, privative (i.e. signifying negation), vnpös, “wet,”
and eiðos, “form;” understanding from the combination “a
form without liquid,” which seems to be an interpretation
sufficiently far-fetched. A third derivation is presented by
Prof. De Morgan (“Budget of Paradoxes,” p. 385) from &
(or &v), privative, and &epoetóñs, “like the air,” or “having
to do with the air;” so that anaëroid, or aneroid, would
seem to mean an instrument which has nothing to do with
the air, or one which has been named, like the grove in
Latin, lucw8 a non lucendo. -
The instrument itself consists essentially of a flat cylin-
drical box formed of thin corrugated metal, from the in-
terior of which the air has been entirely, or nearly,” ex-
hausted; the immediate effect being to bring the top and
bottom into contact with each other by atmospheric pres-
sure. The touching surfaces are then separated by means
of a strong spring attached to the centre of the upper sur-
face, while the lower is held down, the whole being placed
within a larger box properly adapted to receive it. With
the varying pressure of the atmosphere the separation of
the surfaces is greater or less, or the spring is more or less
bent, and the movements thus occasioned are transmitted
by proper multiplying-apparatus to an index which trav-
erses a dial like that of a watch. (Fig. 5.) Aneroid ba-
rometers often perform very well, and perform well for
long periods; but in time, the spring is liable to lose its
elasticity, so as to render the indications untrustworthy.
These instruments should therefore be occasionally com-
pared with standard mercurial barometers. They are very
convenient for transportation, being constructed of various
* Not altogether. In recent constructions, a small portion of
air is left within the box, as a means of compensating for vari-
ations of temperature; this air gaining as the Spring loses in
elasticity by elevation of temperature, and vice versä. .

400
BAROMETER.
dimensions, from eight or ten inches in external diameter
down to two, and are often graduated to serve as mountain-
barometers for heights as great as 12,000 or 16,000 feet.
Another form of barometer without liquid, and in ex-
ternal appearance resembling the aneroid, is Bourdon's
Metallic Barometer, now greatly improved by M. Richard
of Paris, and constructed almost or quite exclusively by
him. In this, a broad and nearly flat tube of thin metal,
bent into the form of a horse-shoe, having been exhausted
of air, is secured by the middle part to the box enclosing
it, while the ends, left free, are connected by delicate chains
or wires with the apparatus controlling the index. (Fig.
6.) The effect of increased atmospheric pressure upon an
exhausted tube of this form is to bring the extremities nearer
together, and that of diminished pressure to cause them to
recede; and these changes are shown by the index on the
dial. M. Richard’s principal improvement consists in the
introduction within the tube of a steel spring having the
curved form of the tube, but nowhere touching its walls;
giving to it greater rigidity, and much greater uniformity
of action; than, belonged to the instrument as originally
constructed.
Long-continued observations of the barometer have
demonstrated that there are certain fluctuations of atmo-
spheric pressure which are periodical and regular, though
not large; while such as are noticeable for their magnitude
are subject to no obvious law. Of periodical fluctuations
there is a semi-diurnal inequality having its maximum at
about 10 o’clock morning and afternoon, and its minimum
at 4, afternoon and morning. Its magnitude varies with
the latitude, being greatest (0.104 in.) at the equator. In
Iat. 40° it is 0.05 in., and in lat. 70° only 0.003 in. There
is also an inequality dependent on the seasons, which in
some parts of the earth is large, and in others almost or
quite imperceptible. Where it is noticed, the highest read-
ing occurs in January, and the lowest in July, or a little
later. At Pekin, in China, the mean pressure for the first
of these months is three-fourths of an inch greater than
that for the second. A large part of Asia is similarly af-
fected. At Havana, the fluctuation is hardly a quarter of
an inch, the minimum seems not to be reached before the
month of August, and the decline of the monthly means is
not regular. At Boston and at London the monthly means
throughout the year scarcely differ from each other by the
tenth of an inch, and an annual inequality can hardly be
said to exist. The position of the moon seems to have a
slight influence on atmospheric pressure, but this, even
where most observable, is little more than half a hundredth
of an inch. z -
The non-periodic fluctuations of pressure are very much
greater than the periodic. If we call the difference between
the greatest and least readings of the barometer within any
month the monthly oscillation, and combine the observations
of many years for the same month, we shall obtain the
mean monthly oscillation. This is least near the equator,
and increases towards the poles. At the equator it hardly
exceeds 0.1 inch; in lat. 30° it is 0.4 in...; in lat. 45°, over
the Atlantic, it is 1 inch; in lat. 65° it is 1% in. During
the three winter months the mean is about one-third greater.
On the continents bordering the Atlantic the means are usu-
ally less than over the intervening ocean. The eactreme fluc-
tuations of the barometer, however, very much exceed these
means. In Boston the greatest height observed in thirty-
seven years is 31.125 in., and the least, 28.47 in.-difference
2.655 in. The greatest observed range at London is 3 in. ;
at St. Petersburg, 3.5 in. Within the tropics the range is
Small. At Christiansborg, near the equator, the greatest
range observed in five years was 0.47." (Loomis's Meteor-
ology.)
The barometer is often spoken of as a weather-glass;
and the scale of the instrument is often inscribed with
words indicative of the weather which may be expected
when the head of the column stands opposite them. This
is, however, apt to convey very erroneous notions; for
neither the actual nor the approaching weather can be
correctly inferred from a knowledge of only a single one
of the conditions which determine meteorological phenom-
ena. The indications of the thermometer, the anemometer,
and the hygrometer, and the progressive changes denoted
by those instruments, are quite as important to the predic-
tion of the weather as those of the barometer. Moreover,
the prognostications derived from these instruments which
would be justified in one part of the world, would not be
at all so in another where the physical conditions are dif-
ferent. One remark, however, is true generally. Inasmuch
as there can be no considerable change in the condition of
the atmosphere as to heat or moisture or movement which
is not accompanied or immediately preceded or followed by
a change of pressure, therefore when the barometer con-
tinues steady, whether it bo high or low, the actual state
of the weather, whatever it may be, is likely to last. It
may be added that a rapid movement of the barometer
upward or downward, say three-fourths of an inch in
twenty-four hours, is of unfavorable augury. Also that a
very rapid fall will probably be followed by a violent wind.
A slow movement upward gives assurance generally of fair
weather. On the Atlantic coast of the U. S., however, ac-
cording to Loomis, the approach of a violent N. E. storm
is generally indicated by a rise of the barometer above its
mean height; the wind veers to the N. E., and the atmo-
sphere becomes hazy. Rain or snow follows, and after-
wards the barometer begins to fall. When it reaches the
lowest point, the wind changes to N. or N.W., and the ba-
rometer rises. If a gale sets in from the E. or S. E., and
the wind veers by the S., the barometer will fall till the
wind becomes S. W. A lull may then occur, followed by a
renewal of the gale with the wind from the N. W., and a
simultaneous fall of the thermometer and rise of the ba–
rometer. When a storm of rain or snow follows, as it usu-
ally will, a rapid fall of the barometer, the wind will be N.
if the thermometer is low, and S. if it is high. If the
barometer falls with a rising thermometer and increased
dampness, wind and rain are likely to follow from the S.
The result of all rapid changes in the weather, or in the
indications of meteorological instruments, is of brief dura-
tion, while that of gradual changes is generally lasting.
(See METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTs.) -
While observation enables us, thus, in some manner, to
connect the fluctuations of the barometer with the varying
conditions or aspects of the weather, it is not easy in all
cases to assign satisfactory causes for the fluctuations
themselves. The low state of the column which is com—
monly observed to accompany the formation of heavy
clouds and the fall of rain or snow, shows that the popular
language, which speaks of the atmosphere at such times
as “heavy,” is scientifically incorrect. Many hypotheses,
among them some which, in the present state of science,
would be pronounced absurd on the face of them, have been
proposed to account for the phenomena; but the true rea-
son of at least the more conspicuous variations of atmo-
spheric pressure must be looked for in rarefaction by heat,
of which the ultimate source is the sun. Different portions
of the earth’s surface become unequally heated by the Solar
radiation. The heat thus acquired is imparted by the earth
to the atmosphere above it, of which the portions most
heated are also most dilated, and, in consequence of their
diminished specific gravity, tend to rise. In rising they
are further dilated by diminished pressure, and their tem-
perature consequently falls until their contained vapor is
condensed to cloud, with evolution of its latent heat. The
heat evolved increases the rarefaction, and the upward
movement continues. The rarefied column is not changed
in weight by the mere fact of its rarefaction; but as its
altitude is increased it necessarily overflows at top upon
the surrounding air, of which the pressure is thus aug-
mented, while its own is correspondingly diminished. As
a necessary consequence, the barometer below it falls; and
as rain naturally follows the precipitation of vapor, the
rain-area will usually be found to correspond with the area
of low barometer. Of periodical oscillations, the diurnal
are in like manner traceable to heat. Those of longer
period depend on causes less easy to ascertain.
(For more full information as to the barometer and its
uses, see “Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,” Vol. I.,
pp. 693, by PROF. GUYoT and J. W. C. CoFFIN, 1862; also
“Manual of the Barometer,” by J. W. BELVII.LE, London,
1849; also the “Smithsonian Annual Reports” of the

BAROMETRIC LIGHT-BARQUESIMETO.
401
years 1855, 1856, 1859, and 1867. The report of 1856 has
a detailed description of the construction of Green’s Stan-
dard Barometer; that of 1867 contains an important me-
moir by Marshal VAILLANT on the horary variations. Loo-
MIS’s “Meteorology,” and REID’s “Law of Storms ” may
also be consulted with advantage.) F. A. P. BARNARD.
Barometric Light. When an upright barometer is
moved gently backward and forward from the vertical to
an oblique position, so as to make the mercury oscillate in
the tube through a range of a few inches, the Torricellian
vacuum becomes lighted up, so as to be visible in the dark.
This is called the barometric light, and is due to electricity
arising from the friction of the mercury against the inner
surface of the tube. The phenomenon may be exhibited on
a large scale in the vacuum of an air-pump. The chief pre-
caution is, that the mercury and the glass apparatus be quite
dry; hence the experiment succeeds best in frosty weather.
Bar’ometz, sometimes called Tartarian (or Scyth-
ian) Lamb, the prostrate stem (rhizome) of a ferm (A8-
pidium Barometz) which grows in salt plains near the Cas-
pian Sea. It is covered with a shaggy, silky down, and has
some resemblance to an animal. It was anciently believed
to be half plant, half animal. It was also known as baranetz.
Barſon, the title of the lowest degree of hereditary no-
bility in Great Britain and Ireland, is the next below that
of viscount. The word was formerly used to include the
whole English nobility, because all noblemen were barons.
The distinction between the greater and lesser barons seems
to have been made at an early period in most of the coun-
tries of Europe. The greater barons, who were the king's
chief tenants, held their lands directly, or in capite, of the
Crown; while the lesser held of the greater by the tenure
of military service. The greater barons had a perpetual
summons to attend the parliament or great councils of the
nation. The practice of conferring the rank of baron by
letters-patent, and as a mere title of honor apart from the
possession of land, originated in 1387. Barons are some-
times created by writ, but this mode is nearly obsolete, and
creation by patent is the surest way of ensuring the hered-
itary character of the peerage. On great occasions a baron
wears a coronet adorned with six pearls set at equal distances
on the chaplet. He is addressed as “my lord” or “your
lordship,” and is styled “right honorable.” In France and
Germany and in many other countries a baron is a noble-
man next in rank to a count. Formerly in Scotland a baron
was not necessarily a nobleman, but was a holder of land
in what was called baronial right. There are at present
several classes of barons: (1) barons of England; (2) barons
of Great Britain; (3) barons of the United Kingdom (all
the members of these classes have seats in the House of
Lords); (4) barons of Scotland; and (5) barons of Ireland;
the members of the two latter classes having no seat in the
House of Lords unless chosen as representative peers. The
life peerage, rarely conferred, does not entitle to a seat in the
House of Lords. Certain judges of the exchequer courts of
England and Ireland are called barons of the exchequer.
Baron (ALEXANDER), M. D. See APPENDIX.
Baron (BERNARD), a distinguished French engraver,
born at Paris in 1700, was a pupil of Nicolas Henri Tar-
dieu, and resided for a number of years in England, where
he died at London in 1762. He engraved several plates
for J. A. Crozat's collection of prints. His style-is coarse
in mechanical execution, but his merits are acknowledged
to be great. His works should not be confounded with
those of John Baron (or Baronius) of Toulouse (hence
called Tolosano), who was born in 1631, and lived at Rome,
where he engraved historical scenes and portraits.
Baron, originally Bayron (MICHAEL), one of the
greatest of French actors, was born at Paris Oct. 8, 1858.
His father, a leather-merchant, having fallen in with a
very beautiful travelling actress, left his business and en-
tered the same troupe. The actress became the mother of
Michael Baron. Going to Paris in after years, Michael, a
very handsome young man, attracted the attention of the
great Molière, who became his friend and instructor. Bar-
on rose rapidly to the first rank of his profession, and was
as eminent in tragedy as in comedy. He was with justice
called “the honor and the marvel of the French stage.”
As a writer of plays he was very prolific. His beauty and
talents caused his name to be mixed up with much of the
gross scandal of the time. His personal vanity was very
great. He used to say, “Every century might produce a
Caesar, but it took ten thousand years to produce one Bar-
on.” It is commonly reported that he died upon the stage,
but in reality, though stricken with apoplexy on the stage,
he lived after that event more than two months. He died
at Paris Dec. 3, 1729. -
Baron (PIERRE), called Peter Baro, a native of
Etampes, in France, became a Protestant, and escaped to
England in Queen Elizabeth's time. In 1575 he was ap-
pointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity at Cam-
bridge, an office which he held till 1596, notwithstanding
the strong opposition which his doctrinal teachings encoun-
tered. He was an opponent of Calvinism, then strongly
maintained at the university and by the archbishop of
Canterbury—Dr. John Whitgift. Baron was therefore
subject to many vexatious annoyances, and was openly
accused of heresy and of endeavoring to carry the uni-
versity back to Romanism. He held to his course with
great persistency, and even had the courage to preach
against the famous Lambeth Articles, which had been
drawn up to oppose him and his party. He was conse-
quently forbidden to engage in polemics, and was made so
uncomfortable that he was obliged to resign his position
(1596) and retire to London, where he soon after died,
leaving a number of Latin treatises, since published in
English.
Baron and Femme, in heraldry, is the term used to
designate the bearing by which the arms of husband and
wife are carried per pale, or marshalled side by side on the
same shield. The husband’s arms are always carried on
the dexter side. -
Bar/onet, a diminutive of baron, is a title of honor
which is hereditary. A baronet is the next lower than a
baron, compared with whom, however, he is very inferior
in rank. Baronets were first created in 1611 by James I.,
whose object was to raise money. The creation of baronets
is limited only by the will of the sovereign, who confers the
rank either by patent or by writ. A baronet is entitled to
the prefix Sir to his name, and has precedence of all knights
except bannerets, knights of the Garter, and privy coun-
cillors. Baronets are of four classes—those of Ulster, Eng-
land, Nova Scotia (or Scotland), and the United Kingdom.
Baro/nius (CESAR), a Roman Catholic church historian,
born Oct. 30, 1538, was a disciple of Saint Philip of Neri.
He became cardinal and librarian of the Vatican. His cele-
brated “Ecclesiastical Annals’’ (Rome, 1588–93, 12 vols.
fol.; Antwerp, 1589–1603; Mayence, 1601–05, rev. ed.) was
a work of twenty-seven years. Baronius was a brilliant
dialectician and stylist, but has been charged with many
blunders, owing to his ignorance of Greek. Notwithstand-
ing these errors and his strong partisan spirit, the “Annals”
of Baronius are conceded to possess very great learning and
value. They were written in reply to the Magdeburg Cen-
turiators. He published a number of other works, charac-
terized by the same faults and the same great learning as
marked his “Annals.” Died June 30, 1607.
Bar’ony, the lordship, honor, or fee of a baron. In
England, manors were formerly called baronies, and a
barony was a manorial and hereditary right arising out
of land known to the law both of England and Scotland.
In the Scottish law a right of barony is a right in relation
to lands which have been erected or confirmed by a clause
in crown charters, making the grant in liberam baroniam.
It involved civil and criminal jurisdiction, but the clause
in crown charters erecting baronies has become obsolete.
The divisions of the Irish counties corresponding to the Eng-
lish hundreds, wapentakes, and wards, are called baronies.
Baro/zzo, or Barozzio (JACOPo), an illustrious Ital-
ian architect, was born at Vignola, near Modena, in
1507, from which fact he is often called Vignola. He
studied painting at Bologna, but was so fascinated by the
study of perspective that he abandoned painting for archi-
tecture, in which art he attained a great reputation. He
was employed by an association of antiquaries in Rome to
take measurements and execute models of the remains of
the ancient statuary of Rome. These models were after-
wards east in bronze. In 1541 he went to Paris to Super-
intend the casting of his copies, and while there was en-
gaged in architectural pursuits. In 1550 he became archi-
tect to Pope Julius III. He designed the splendid palace
of Cardinal Farnese (Caprarola), in which were placed
some of his own pictures. He was engaged upon this
work from 1555 to 1573. Meanwhile, upon the death of
Michael Angelo in 1564, he succeeded the latter as archi-
tect of St. Peter's church. He published several valuable
works on architecture, among which the best known is .
“Regole de' cinque ordini d'architettura” (1563), illus-
trated by engravings. This was long the standard authority
in classic architecture. He was one of the designers of the
Escorial Palace in Spain. His buildings show a happy
combination of dignity and gracefulness. He died at Rome
July 7, 1573.
Barquesime/to, a province of Venezuela, is bounded
on the N. by Coro, on the E. by Carabobo, on the S. by
Barinas and Trujillo, and on the W. by Trujillo and Mara-
caibo. The province of, Yuracuy has lately been detached
from this province, but nothing definite being known of
26
402
BARQUESIMETO—BARRACKPORE.
the boundaries, etc. of Yuracuy, we treat of the two as
one. Area, 9350 square miles. The southern part of the
province is mountainous, while the N. is level. The largest
river of the province is the Tocuyo, which, however, does
not become navigable until it enters the province of Coro.
The soil is poor, but the climate, with the exception of one
or two districts, healthy. The chief occupation of the in-
habitants is agriculture, and the chief products are tropi-
cal fruits, wheat, coffee, cacao, indigo, and sugar. Chief
town, Barquesimeto. Pop. 313,881.
Barquesimeto, a city of Venezuela, capital of the
above province, and situated on a river of its own name,
175 miles W. S. W. of Caracas. It was almost destroyed
by an earthquake in 1812, previously to which it had about
15,000 inhabitants. It has a college, and is situated in a
fertile and well-cultivated district.
10,000.
Barr, a town of Germany, in Lower Alsace, 23% miles
by rail S. W. of Strasburg, has numerous vineyards. Pop.
in 1871, 5651.
Barr, a township of Daviess co., Ind. Pop. 2758.
Bar'ra, a town of Italy, 3 miles E. of Naples, of which
it is a pleasant suburb. It has many fine residences or
country villas. Pop. 7656. *
Bar/racks, buildings for the habitation of troops. The
word is sometimes applied to any collection of buildings
densely occupied by human beings.
The experience of the civil war in the U. S. has demon-
strated that ventilation, abundance of pure air, is more im-
portant to the health of man than complete protection from
cold and heat. While soldiers camped in small and crowded
tents, kept closed to exclude the cold, suffered from typhoid
fevers, the sick and wounded in hospital tents and in the
light and open wooden barracks established as general
hospitals, recovered more rapidly and certainly than those
in what are called better buildings, closer and more sub-
stantial. -
There are few large masonry barracks in the U. S., such
as are found on the continent of Europe in almost every
large town. Most of the military posts are beyond the
frontier which separates the country of civilization and
cultivation from the region occupied, or rather traversed,
by the nomadic Indian tribes, and the scarcely less nomadic
white miner and hunter. A very few of these posts built
on the open prairies, where timber is scarce and costly,
have been constructed of stone or brick; more are of sun-
dried bricks, called by the Mexicans adobes. But the greater
part of them are of wood—log houses in the timbered
country, light frames covered with boards in the prairies.
The open joints of the board wall-coverings and roofs and
floors make it impossible to exclude fresh air, and they en-
sure a circulation of air, notwithstanding the efforts of the
occupants of the building to close all ventilating openings.
The principal and more permanent barracks of the U.S.
are Madison Barracks, Sackett's Harbor, N.Y.; the Cita-
del at Charleston; the barracks at Pensacola; Jackson
Barracks, New Orleans, La.; Jefferson Barracks, St. Louis,
Mo., now used as an arsenal; Baton Rouge Arsenal, and
Mount Vernon Arsenal, Mississippi, now used as barracks
for the army; Oglethorpe Barracks, Savannah; Benicia.
Barracks, California; Carlisle Barracks, Pa.; Omaha Bar-
racks, Omaha; Fort Leavenworth, Kan. ; Mobile Barracks,
Mobile; Newport Barracks, Ky.; Presidio of San Fran–
cisco, Cal. ; Ringgold Barracks, and Fort Brown, on the
Rio Grande, Tex.; and Plattsburg Barracks, Lake Cham-
plain. In the official list of the quartermaster's depart-
ment there are 231 military posts, at all of which there
are barracks, either owned or rented by the U. S. The
army occupies about 5000 buildings.
At most of the U. S. navy-yards there are barracks for
the marines, generally of masonry. Among them are the
marine barracks of Washington, Charlestown, Brooklyn,
Pensacola, and Benicia.
Since the Revolution, Paris has been enriched with very
fine buildings as barracks. Those of the Prince Eugène,
the Napoleon Barracks, and the new barracks on the Ilê
de la Cité, are noble and beautiful buildings. But it seems
impossible to so arrange these great buildings as to secure
thorough and satisfactory ventilation, and without fresh
air, and disturbed by the movement which must take place
might and day among large bodies of men occupying large
rooms, these palaces are not believed to have as low rate
of mortality as the temporary cheap structures in which
the U.S. army lives on the frontier.
There are large barracks in all the great. European capi-
tals. Stuttgart, St. Petersburg, Paris, Naples, Rome, are
noted for the beauty and extent of their barracks. The
Museo Borbonico at Naples was built for a cavalry bar-
rack; in it are now collected the many remains of Roman
and Greek art unearthed at Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Present pop. about ||
i mience.
The Romans, who conquered the known world and held
it by military occupation, built strong barracks wherever
they established a permanent post. They had no firearms,
and a small garrison depended upon the strength of their
walls to resist the attacks of barbarians. The remains of
such barracks, nearly perfect, have been found of late
years at ancient Roman stations in the wilderness of Syria
and Palestine. While the Roman legionary was trained
and practised at hard work, he did not hesitate to use in
all such constructions the forced labor of his captives of
whatever rank or station. Our troops are obliged generally
to build their own barracks, and, armed with rifles of long
range, they depend upon superior knowledge and disci-
pline, and seldom fight the savages from behind their
barrack-walls.
There are two uses to which barracks are put: one is
protection during a siege and bombardment from the mis-
siles of the enemy; the other, and far more constant use,
is protection mainly from the weather.
Many of the sea-coast forts of the U. S. make ample
provision in vaulted gasemates for the garrison during a
siege, but such barracks in the climate of the coasts of the
U. S. should never be occupied in time of peace. They
are dark, damp, ill-ventilated, and unhealthy, and provis-
ion should be made for shelter outside the ramparts for
the peace garrison in all cases. In the climate of Spain
and Italy, of the West Indies, and of Mexico, it is prob-
able that the custom of the tropics of living in rooms
roofed with earth or masonry has not such disadvantages
as farther N.
European practice allows from 420 to 1200 cubic feet of
space per man in barracks and hospitals; and the latter is
better than the former; but in practice the air-space is
limited by the appropriations which the government grants
for barracks and quarters for troops. Thorough drainage
of the buildings and of the sites is essential to health.
Temporary cantonments should never remain long in one
place. The troops should remove to fresh ground, and
the old site should not be reoccupied until time and frost
have thoroughly destroyed the effete animal and vegetable
matter which collects about any large body of men.
All barracks are liable, on any temporary increase of the
garrison, to overcrowding. The “Regulations” of the U. S.
army give to every six soldiers from 225 to 256 square feet
of floor as the post is N. or S. of the 38th degree of latitude.
This area, with a height of roof to average twelve feet, gives
to each man 450 to 512 cubic feet of air-space. In a room
intended to be occupied by thirty men, at least 60,000 cubic
feet of fresh air per hour should be admitted from the out-
side, and as much more as can be borne without inconve-
But all ventilating arrangements are liable to be
obstructed by those for whose benefit they are intended,
unless made on the most extensive and elaborate scale, and
placed entirely beyond their control. A man feels the cold
sensation from a draught more distinctly than the headache
or oppression resulting from too close and impure an at-
mosphere. He knows that if he stops the ventilating inlet
near him he will get rid of the draught. He does not realize
that at a future time his health may break down as a con-
sequence of this interference with ventilation. Practically,
therefore, the most efficient barrack ventilation, except in
the palaces of masonry built in Europe and ventilated by
steam-power, is that inseparable from the imperfect con-
struction of the building itself. These defects, beyond the
skill and power of the soldier to remedy, save his health by
supplying him continually with fresh air against his will.
The War Department has of late years adopted an iron
barrack-bunk to be occupied by a single man, but which
can be piled three tiers in height, so as to give space for
circulation during the day, and has abolished the use of the
two-story double wooden bunks in which soldiers formerly
slept. -
Bºoks of reference: “Reports of the British Barrack
Commission,” London, 1861; “Circular Nos. 3 and 4 of
the Surgeon-General of the United States;” “Reports on
Barracks and Hospitals;” “Outline Description of Mili-
tary Posts and Stations,” published in 1871 by the quar-
termaster’s department. M. C. MEIGs, U. S. Army.
Bar/rackpore, or Barrackpoor, a town and mili-
tary cantonment of British India, on the left (or E.) bank
of the Hoogly, about 15 miles above Calcutta. It contains
the country residence of the governor-general of India,
and many elegant mansions of the European citizens of
Calcutta, who are attracted by the salubrity of the place.
The adjacent country is covered with beautiful forests and
a luxuriant tropical vegetation. Here is a noble park of
250 acres, which exhibits an admirable specimen of land-
scape-gardening. Barrackpore was called the cradle of
the Sepoy mutiny of 1857. Several regiments of native
troops were stationed here. They objected to biting off
the ends of the cartridges for the Enfield rifle, believing
BARRACUDA—BARRING OUT.
403
the paper to be polluted with animal fat. A Sepoy named
Mungal Pandy wounded an officer (in Feb., 1857), whose
blood was the first that was shed by the mutineers.
Barracu'da, or Barracouſda, a kind of fish (Sphy-
roma Barracuda) of the Atlantic Ocean. It is from six to
ten feet in length, and very voracious. Its flesh is eatable,
except at certain seasons, when, from some unknown cause,
it becomes poisonous.
Islands. .
Barrafran'ca, a town of Sicily, in the province of Cal-
tanisetta, 11 miles S. E. of Caltanisetta. E. in 1861, 8706.
Barras, de (PAUL FRANÇors JEAN NICOLAs), Count, a
French Jacobin and regicide, born in Provence June 30,
1755. He was chosen a deputy to the States-General in
1789, and a member of the National Convention in 1792.
He acted with the party called the Mountain, voted for the
death of the king, and joined the enemies of Robespierre
on the 9th Thermidor, 1794, in which crisis he was com-
mander of the national guard. On the 13th Wendemiaire
(Oct. 5, 1795), he was again appointed commander of the
troops by the Convention. With the aid of Bonaparte he
defeated the royalist insurgents of Paris on that day. He
was one of the first five members of the Directory appointed
in Nov., 1795, and, acted a prominent part in the conflict
of the 18th Fructidor, 1797, after which he was perhaps
the most powerful of the Directors. He was venal and
dissolute, and abused his power. His political career was
ended by the ascendency of Bonaparte in 1799. Died
Jan. 29, 1829. (See THIERs, “History of the French Rev-
olution; ” C. DoRIs, “Amours et Aventures du Wicomte de
Barras,” 4 vols., 1816.)
Bar/ratry [from the Old Fr. barater, to “deceive”], in
law, used in various branches with different significations:
1. Marine Insurance.—An act committed by the master
or mariners of a ship for some unlawful or fraudulent pur-
pose, contrary to their duty to the owners, whereby an in-
jury is sustained. Under this definition an act of negli-
gence would not be barratry, and such is the rule in Eng-
land. The French writers use the word in a broader
sense, and include in it gross negligence, without reference
to the motive. Some of the American cases follow this
view. The general rule is, that fraud is an element in an
act of barratry, though the word fraud is employed in a
broad sense to include acts done in opposition to the owner's
instructions, and yet intended for his benefit, such as sail-
ing out of port without payment of the duties, disregard
of an embargo, or breach of a blockade. Insurance is fre-
quently made specifically to include losses occasioned by
acts of barratry, and sometimes with the exception that
the master is not the owner of the vessel. Darratrous acts
of a serious kind are declared to be crimes by the laws of
Congress. Instances are the act of piratically or feloni-
ously seizing or running away with the vessel or cargo, or
voluntarily delivering the vessel into the hands of pirates.
These are capital offences.
2. In Criminal Law.—The act of stirring up suits and
quarrels. A person practising such acts is called a “com-
mon barrator,” or, in the language of Lord Coke, a com-
mon mover and maintainer of suits in disturbance of the
peace, etc. A person cannot be a barrator in respect of
one act only. It must appear that he is a common barrator.
The subject is usually regulated by statute.
3. In Scotch law, barratry is the crime of a judge who is
induced by bribery to render a judgment. T. W. DwighT.
Bar/re, in Worcester co., Mass., 21 miles N.W. of Wor-
cester, is on the Ware River and Massachusetts Central
R. R.S. It has a national bank, savings bank, an institute
for feeble-minded children, several large mills and shops,
five churches, important manufactures, and one weekly
newspaper. It was named in honor of Colonel Isaac
Barré. Principal business, farming and dairying. Pop.
2572. D. LYMAN CRANDALL, ED. “GAzETTE.”
Barre, a township of Orleans co., N. Y. Pop. 6756.
It contains the village of ALBION (which see).
Barre, a post-township of Washington co., Vt., 6 miles
S. E. of Montpelier. It has a national bank, an academy,
is the seat of Goddard Seminary, and has manufactures of
agricultural tools, castings, doors, sash, blinds, etc. P.1882.
Barre, a township of La Crosse co., Wis. Pop. 1392.
Barré (Col. Is AAc), born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1726,
of French parents, entered the British army, where he served
with great distinction, receiving a wound at Wolfe’s victory
at Quebec (1759), in consequence of which he ultimately
became blind. He entered the British Parliament in 1761,
where for years he nobly defended the rights of the Amer-
ican colonists. Died in London July 20, 1802.
Bar'ree, a township of Huntingdon co., Pa. P. 1237.
Barréges, or Bairéges, a celebrated watering-place
of France, in the department of Hautes-Pyrénées, 23 miles
It is common about the Bahama
S. of Tarbes, is 3240 feet above the level of the sea. Here
are warm sulphurous springs having a temperature of
about 104° to 122°F., which are esteemed efficacious in cases
of scrofula, gout, etc.
Bar/rel, a large wooden vessel for holding liquids or
solids, is bound with hoops, and formed of staves, which
are wider in the middle than at the ends, and have bevelled .
edges, which render the joints tight. Each end of the
barrel is closed by a circular head. The arched arrange-
ment of the staves enables it to resist pressure from without.
The term is also applied to the quantity contained by a
barrel, which varies for different substances. A barrel of
flour in the U. S. is equal to 196 pounds, and a barrel of
pork or beef contains 200 pounds. In wine measure, 31%
gallons make a barrel. A barrel of beer in England is
equal to 36% imperial gallons.
Bar/rel Or/gam, a musical machine in which the
music is produced by a barrel or cylinder set with pins or
staples, which, when driven round by the hand, open the
valves for admitting the wind to the pipes. The number
of tunes which a single barrel organ can play is small.
Barrel organs are portable, and are mostly used by per-
formers in the streets, called organ-grinders. A street organ
usually costs from $150 to $240.
Bar/ren, a county in the S. of Kentucky. Area, 500
square miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by the Big Bar-
ren River. The surface is undulating, the soil fertile. To-
bacco, grain, and wool are extensively raised. Cavernous
limestone underlies this county. The Louisville and Nash-
ville R. R. passes through the N. W. part. Capital, Glas-
gow. Pop. 17,780. *
Barren, a township of Independence co., Ark. Pop. 887.
Barren, a township of Jackson co., Ark. Pop. 290.
Barren Creek, a township of Marion co., Ark. P. 320.
Barren Creek, a township of Wicomico co., Md. P.1572.
Barren Island, a sandy tract of land at the entrance
to Jamaica Bay, on the S. shore of Long Island, is a part of
Gravesend township, King’s co., N. Y. It has fat-render-
ing establishments for utilizing the offal of New York City.
Bar’rett, a township of Monroe co., Pa. Pop. 930.
Barr'head’, a manufacturing town of Scotland, in Ren-
frewshire, 7 miles S. W. of Glasgow. It has cotton-mills, a
machine-shop, print-works, bleaching-works, etc. P. 6069.
Barricade, a military barrier or defensive work, em-
ployed to obstruct the passage of an enemy through a road
or a street of a city, or to protect troops against the fire
of the enemy. Such works are formed of trees, wagons,
paving-stones, chains, palisades, etc. They have been often
used in popular revolts and street-fights, especially by the
insurgents of Paris. In 1588 the Catholic faction raised
barricades in Paris against Henry III., who was compelled
to save himself by flight. A great number of barricades
were erected in Paris by the popular party in the revolu-
tion of July, 1830, when Charles X. was dethroned. In
June, 1848, the streets of Paris were again obstructed by
barricades, and a bloody battle was fought between , the
government of Cavaignac and the Socialists or Commu-
nists, who were defeated. In order to counteract such ope-
rations, Napoleon III. widened and macadamized the prin-
cipal streets of his capital, but barricades were again em-
ployed by the Communist insurgents in the spring of 1871.
Bar'rie, the capital of Simcoe co., Ontario (Canada), is
at the W. extremity of Lake Simcoe, and on the Northern
Railway, 65 miles N. N. W. of Toronto and 30 miles S. E.
of Collingwood. It has excellent schools, a large trade,
manufactures of woollen goods, and three weekly papers.
Steamboats ply on the lake, Pop. in 1871, 3398.
Bar'rier Treat/ies, the name given to several treaties
between England and foreign powers; the first between
England and the Netherlands, negotiated by Lord Town-
send in 1709. The Dutch pledged themselves to maintain
the queen of England's title and the Protestant succession,
while the English engaged to assist the Dutch in preserving
their barrier-towns. The second was concluded between
the same powers at Utrecht in 1713. The third was signed
at Antwerp in 1715, between England, the Netherlands,
and the emperor Charles VII.
Bar'ringer (DANIEL MOREAU), an American politician,
born in North Carolina in 1807, graduated at the State Uni-
versity in 1826, and became a lawyer. He represented that
State in Congress for six years (1843–49), and was Ameri-
can minister to Spain from 1849 to 1853. He was a dele-
gate to the national union convention at Philadelphia in
1866. Died Sept. 1, 1873.
Bar/ringer’s, a township of Iredell co., N. C. P. 998.
Bar'ring Out, a practice formerly common in English
schools, consisted in the scholars taking possession of the
404
|PARRINGTON.—BARROW.
building and fastening the doors against the master. It
seems to have been a rule that if the scholars could sustain
a siege for three days, they were entitled to dictate terms
regarding the holidays, hours of recreation, etc. for the en-
suing year. If the master succeeded in forcing an entry,
the insurgents were at his mercy. The masters, in most
cases, appear to have acquiesced good-humoredly, but some
exerted all their strength and ingenuity to storm the garri-
son. It is a singular fact that the scholars of Witton school,
in Cheshire, were in 1558 directed by the statutes drawn
up by the founder, Sir John Deane, to observe the practice:
“To the end that the schollars have not any evil opinion of
the schoolmaster, nor the schoolmaster should not mistake
the schollars for requiring of customs and orders, I will
that upon Thursdays and Saturdays in the afternoons, and
upon holydays, they refresh themselves; and a week be-
fore Christmas and Easter, according to the old custom,
they bar and keep forth the school the schoolmaster, in
such sort as other schollars do in great schools.”
Bar'rington, a post-village of Barrington township,
Shelburne co., Nova Scotia, on the Atlantic coast, has
thriving fisheries, shipbuilding, and coasting trade. Pop.
about 800.-BARRINGTON PASSAGE, another village of the
same township, has extensive fisheries, and is connected
with Cape Sable Island by ferry. Pop. about 500.
Barrington, a township of Cook co., Ill. Pop. 1490.
Barrington, a post-township of Strafford co., N. H.
Pop. 1581. *
Barrington, a post-village and township of Yates co.,
N. Y. It has a mineral spring of some reputation. P. 1506.
;
Barrington, a post-township of Bristol co., R.I. P. 1111.”
Barringtonia/ceae, a natural- order of exogenous
trees and shrubs, natives of tropical countries, have gen-
erally very beautiful flowers and foliage. The stamens are
numerous and conspicuous. Some species bear an edible
fruit, as the Careya arborea, an East Indian tree, and
Gustavia speciosa, which grows in America. The Barring-
tonia speciosa, or moordilla, is a remarkable tree of Ceylon,
having dark glossy leaves, and delicate white flowers with
crimson tips. Each flower has nearly one hundred stamens.
Bar'rister, in law, a person admitted to plead at the
bar, and to take upon him the protection and defence of
clients. Such persons are admitted in England by volun-
tary societies existing for several centuries, called Inns of
Court. A barrister differs from an attorney principally in
this respect, that an attorney prepares a cause for hearing,
and a barrister conducts the trial in court. In England, a
barrister can maintain no action for his fees. His services
are deemed to be honorary. He may, however, receive a
retainer. In the U. S.; the distinction corresponding to
that in England of “attorney and barrister” is attorney and
counsellor-at-law. The common practice is to admit the
same person to both degrees in the legal profession. A
counsellor may maintain an action for his fees, as well as
an attorney. Both are under the control of the courts, and
may be removed for misconduct. In order to encourage
freedom of speech, counsellors are not answerable for mat-
ter spoken in a cause and pertinent to the subject under
discussion, even though it may reflect upon the reputation
of another and be false; though it would be otherwise if
the false charge was not pertinent. In England, some of
the barristers and sergeants-at-law are selected to be KING's
or QUEEN’s Counsel, (which see). -
Bar'ron, a county in the N. W. of Wisconsin, drained
by the Red Cedar River and several creeks. Area, 1000
square miles. Wheat, oats, and potatoes are the chief
crops. Capital, Barron. Pop. 538.
Barron, a post-village, the capital of Barron co., Wis.,
in a township of its own name, on the Vermilion River,
121 miles N. N. W. of La Crosse. Pop. of township, 538.
Barron (JAMEs), an American naval officer, born in
Virginia in 1768, served in the navy under his father, who
was a “commodore of all the armed vessels of the Common-
wealth of Virginia,” was commissioned lieutenant in the
U. S. navy in 1798, and in 1799 was promoted to be a cap-
tain. He was employed on sea-service in the Mediterranean
and other waters until 1807, and had acquired a high
reputation for seamanship and discipline when the affair
of the Chesapeake cast a shadow over his life. On the 22d
of June, 1807, the Chesapeake, bearing the pennant of
Com. Barron, sailed from Hampton Roads for the Mediter-
ranean. The English war-vessel Leopard preceded the
Chesapeake several miles, keeping in sight until about 3
o'clock in the afternoon, when the former bore down upon
and hailed the latter, informing Com. Barron she had a
despatch for him. A boat being sent alongside, the mes-
Sage proved to be the instructions of Admiral Berkeley of
the British navy to search the Chesapeake for deserters.
This Com. Barron indignantly refused to permit, and he
wrote to Captain Humphreys, commanding, that he knew
of no deserters on the Chesapeake, and that his orders
would not permit his men to be mustered by any other than
their own officers. The lieutenant who had brought this
despatch to Com. Barron returned to the Leopard, and
shortly after this vessel opened fire on the Chesapeake,
which proved to be entirely unprepared for battle. Her
decks were covered with various objects, and it was with
great difficulty her batteries could be got ready ; and when
ready everything necessary to serve them was found to be
wanting. But one gun was discharged from the Chesapeake
before she struck her colors. Three deserters were found
on board, and taken to the Leopard, Com. Barron being
permitted to retain his ship, with which he at once returned
to Norfolk. This outrage caused the greatest excitement
throughout the nation. Barron was court-martialed for
neglect of duty, found guilty, and suspended from the ser-
vice for five years. Although restored to his rank and
placed in responsible positions ashore, he never again did
sea-service. A long correspondence with Com. Decatur on
the Chesapeake affair terminated in a duel between them
at Bladensburg, Md., in 1820, in which both were severely
wounded, Decatur mortally. Barron died at Norfolk, Va.,
April 21, 1851, being at the time of his death the senior
officer in the U. S. navy.
Barron (SAMUEL), a commodore, a brother of the pre-
ceding, was born at Hampton, Va., Sept. 25, 1765. He com-
manded a squadron of ten vessels which waged war against
Tripoli in 1805. Died Oct. 29, 1810.
Barron (SAMUEL), a native of Virginia, entered the
U. S. navy in 1812, and received the regular promotions, be-
coming a captain in 1855. In 1861 he entered the navy of the
Confederacy, and became an admiral. He was made prisoner
at the capture of Forts Clark and Hatteras, Aug. 27, 1861.
Barros, de (João), one of the most eminent of Portu-
guese historians, born at Viseu in 1496. He was appointed
governor of the Portuguese possessions in Guinea in 1522.
His greatest work is entitled “Asia, or the History of the
Discoveries and Conquests of the Portuguese in the East
Indies” (1552–62). He wrote only three decades of this
work, which was continued by Diego de Couto to the
twelfth decade. This history is admired for elegance of
style and other merits. Died Oct. 20, 1570. (See MANOEL
SEVERIM DE FARIA, “Vida de João de Barras,” 1624;
BARBOSA MACHADo, “Bibliotheca. Lusitana.”)
Barrot (CAMILLE HYACINTHE ODILLON), a French
statesman and advocate, born at Villefort in Lozère July
19, 1791. He practised law with distinction in Paris, and
acted with the popular party in the revolution of 1830.
About the end of that year he was elected to the Chamber
of Deputies, in which he was a leader of the opposition,
and advocated electoral reform. During the revolution of
1848 he supported the proposition to appoint the duchess
of Orleans as regent. He was minister of justice in the first
cabinet of Louis Napoleon, from Dec., 1848, to Sept., 1849.-
His brother, VICTORIN-FERDINAND, born Jan. 10, 1806, prac-
tised law with success. He was minister of the interior from
Oct., 1849, to Mar., 1850, and became a senator in 1853.
Bar’row, a river of Ireland, rises in Queen’s county, on
the N.E. slope of the Slieve Bloom Mountain. It flows in
a general southward direction, passes by Carlow and New
Ross, divides the counties of Kildare, Carlow, and Wex-
ford from the counties of Queen’s and Kilkenny, and, after
uniting with the Suir, enters the sea through Waterford
harbor. It is about 100 miles long, and is next in import-
ance to the Shannon among Irish rivers. It is navigable
for ships of 300 tons to New Ross, 25 miles from its mouth.
Barrow [from the Anglo-Saxon beorg, a “hill or
mound,” allied to the Ger. Berg, a “hill”], a name of the
artificial mounds which are found in many countries, and
which were erected in ancient times in honor of eminent
persons or for monumental purposes. They are formed of
earth or stones, and contain in some cases human bones,
with armor and utensils. In Great Britain there are nu-
merous barrows, which are supposed to have been raised
before the island was conquered by the Romans. One of
the largest barrows in Europe is Silbury Hill, in Wiltshire,
which has a vertical height of 170 feet and covers 5 acres.
Many artificial mounds occur in the U. S., as at Grave Creek,
W. Va., and near Marietta, O.; also in Central America.
Barrow (Is AAc), D.D., F. R. S., an eminent English
pulpit orator and mathematician, born in London Octº
1630. He graduated at Cambridge as M.A. in 1652, and
became professor of Greek in that place in 1660. He was
appointed Lucasian professor of mathematics in 1663, but
he resigned that chair in favor of his pupil, the illustrious
Newton, in 1669. In 1672 he was appointed master of
Trinity College, Cambridge. He published, besides other
BARROW-BARRY.
405
able works, “Lectiones Opticae'' (1669) and “Lectiones
Geometricae’” (1670). His reputation as a theologian rests
chiefly on his sermons, which were edited by Dr. Tillotson
(3 vols., 1685). They are very remarkable specimens of
clear and exhaustive argument. “The sermons of Barrow,”
says Hallam, “ display a strength of mind, a comprehen-
siveness, and fertility which have rarely been equalled.”
Died May 4, 1677. His personal character was noble.
(See ARTHUR HILL, “Life of Barrow,” prefixed to his col-
lected works, 1685; WARD, “Lives of the Professors of
Gresham College.”)
Barrow (Sir JoHN), BART., F. R. S., an English travel-
ler, born in Lancashire June 19, 1764. As secretary to
Lord Macartney he went to China in 1792, and to the Cape
of Good Hope in 1797. He was secretary to the admiralty
for nearly forty years, and rendered many services to geo-
graphical science by promoting scientific expeditions. He
was the chief founder of the Geographical Society. Among
his works are “Travels in Southern Africa” (2 vols.,
1801–03), and .a. “History of Voyages in the Arctic Re-
gions” (1818). Died Nov. 23, 1848. (See his “Autobio-
graphical Memoir,” 1847.)
Bar'row-in-Fur'ness, a seaport and important town
of England, in Lancashire and on the Irish Sea, 18 miles
W. N. W. of Lancaster. It is on the peninsula of Furness,
and is the western terminus of a railway which extends to
Dalton, and connects Barrow with the whole railway-sys-
tem of England. It is separated by a narrow channel from
Barrow Island, and has a good harbor, formed by the island
of Walney, which is 8 miles long. This place, which about
1845 was only a small fishing-village, derives its prosperity
from rich mines of iron ore (red hematite) and manufac-
tures of iron and steel, and it has recently increased with
great rapidity. In 1867 the Barrow Hematite Steel Com-
pany had eleven blast furnaces in operation, and the quan-
tity of ore taken from the mines was estimated for that
year at 400,000 tons. This ore yields about 57 per cent.
of iron. The steel-works of Barrow are said to be the
largest Bessemer steel-works in Britain. Nearly 20,000
tons of slate are annually quarried in the vicinity. Bar-
row has a town-hall, a public library, and numerous
churches. Large sums of money have been expended in
converting the channel between the town and Barrow
Island into docks, and it is probable that Barrow will be-
come an important commercial city. Pop. in 1871, 17,992.
Barrow Strait, the passage leading from Baffin's Bay
into Melville Sound. Its average width is about 30 miles.
Bar'rows (ELIJAH PortER), S. T. D., born at Mansfield,
Conn., Jan. 5, 1805, graduated at Yale in 1826, taught
school in Hartford 1826–31, was ordained in 1832, pastor
of the first Free Presbyterian church, New York City,
1835–37, professor of sacred literature in Western Reserve
College 1837–52, and of Hebrew language and literature
at Andover Theological Seminary 1853–66. In 1872 he
entered the same professorship in Oberlin Theological
Seminary. He has published a “Memoir of Evertin Jud-
son’’ (1852), “Companion to the Bible" (1869), “Sacred
Geography and Antiquities” (1872). He was one of the
authors and editors of the “Bible with Notes” (American
Tract Society), and has published twenty-five articles in
the “Bibliotheca, Sacra.”
P Barr’s Store, a post-township of Macoupin co., Ill.
• POp. 999.
arrun/dia (Josſ FRANCIsco), a statesman, born in
Honduras in 1779, raised the standard of revolt against
the Spanish government, and was chosen in 1829 president
of the republic. As a member of the first republican as-
Sembly in 1824, he had introduced and carried a decree for
the abolition of slavery. In 1854 he was minister to the
U. S., and died Aug. 4, 1854, in New York City. .
Bar'ry, a county of S. W. Central Michigan. Area,
57.6 square miles. It is intersected by the Thornapple
River. The surface is undulating, and diversified by many
Small lakes, prairies, and forests of ash, sugar-maple, beech,
etc. The soil is productive. Dairy products, wool, wheat,
and corn are largely grown. The county is intersected by
the Grand River Valley R. R., a branch of the Central
R. R. Capital, Hastings. Pop. 22,199.
Barry, a county of Missouri, bordering on Arkansas.
Area, 700 square miles. The White River of Arkansas
flows through the S. E. part. The surface is hilly; the soil
is partly based on limestone, and is mostly fertile. Grain,
tobacco, and wool are raised. Lead is found here. Capi-
tal, Cassville. Pop. 10,373.
Barry, a city and township of Pike co., III., on the
Hannibal and Naples R. R., 26 miles S. E. of Quincy, in a
fine agricultural region. It has one weekly newspaper and
a heavy trade in grain. Pork-packing is an importantindus-
try. Pop. of township, 2496. H. C. Cobb, E.D. “ADAGE.”
Barry, a township of Barry co., Mich. Pop. 1297.
Barry, a post-township of Schuylkill co., Pa. P. 950.
Bar/ry (JAMEs), an historical painter, born at Cork,
Ireland, Oct. 11, 1741, was patronized by Edmund Burke.
He passed about five years at Rome, and became a member
of the Royal Academy of London, but he was expelled
from the same in 1797 on account of his irritable temper.
His masterpiece is “The Victors at Olympia.” Died Feb.
22, 1806. (See CUNNINGHAM, “Lives of Painters and Sculp-
tors;” “Edinburgh Review º' for Aug., 1810.)
Barry (John), CoMMODoRE, an American naval officer,
born in Ireland in 1745, emigrated to America about 1760.
He became commander of a U. S. frigate in 1776, and
captured the English vessel Atalanta in May, 1781. Died
Sept. 13, 1803. - *
Barry (John S.) was born in Vermont in 1802. He
studied law, but became a merchant of Constantine, Mich.,
where he removed in 1832. He became a prominent Demo-
cratic politician, and was governor of Michigan (1842–46
and 1850–52). Died Jan. 15, 1870. -
Barry (MARTIN), M.D., F. R. S., an English physiolo-
gist, born in Hampshire in Mar., 1802. He graduated as
M. D. in Edinburgh in 1833, and was chosen a fellow of
the Royal Society in 1840. His most important work is
“Researches in Embryology,” for which he received the
gold medal of the Royal Society of London. Died April
27, 1855. m
Barry (Sir CHARLEs), a distinguished English archi-
tect, born at Westminster in May, 1795. He visited Italy,
Greece, and Egypt about 1818. He designed the Manches-
ter Athenaeum and the grammar-school of Edward VI. at
Birmingham. In 1841 he became a royal academician. .
His design for the new Houses of Parliament was preferred
to those of his competitors, and the work was commenced
in 1840. He died in 1860. (See a “Memoir of Sir Charles
Barry,” by his son, the Rev. ALFRED BARRY, 1867.)
Barry (PATRICK), born near Belfast, Ireland, May,
1816, received a good English education, and devoted
some years to teaching in one of the national schools.
He arrived in New York May, 1836, and became clerk for
Prince & Sons, nurserymen of Flushing. He removed to
Rochester, N. Y., in 1840, and entered into the nursery
business in partnership with George Ellwanger. The nur-
series of Ellwanger & Barry are now the most extensive in
the world. From 1844 to 1852 Mr. Barry edited the “Gen-
esee Farmer;” from 1852–54, “The Horticulturist.” In
1852 he published “The Fruit Garden,” still a standard
authority on pomological matters. -
Barry (WILLIAM FARQUBAR), a distinguished American
officer, colonel of the Second Artillery and brevet brigadier-
general U. S. army, born Aug. 18, 1818, in New York City,
graduated at West Point in 1838. His first active services
were in the war against the Indians in Florida, 1852–53,
when he was advanced to a captaincy. In the Mexican
war he acted as aide-de-camp to Maj.-Gen. Worth. He
served in the difficulties with the Indians in Dakota in
1856, and took part in the Utah expedition, 1858. When
the civil war broke out he was appointed chief of artillery
of the Army of the Potomac, with the rank of major and
brigadier-general of volunteers. His gallant and meri-
torious conduct in the capture of Atlanta won him the
brevet titles of colonel U.S. army and major-general of
volunteers, Sept. 1, 1864. Mar. 13, 1865, he was brevetted
brigadier-general U. S. A. for gallant services in the cam-
paign terminating in the surrender of the army under
Gen. J. E. Johnston, and was made brevet major-general
U. S. A. in 1865. Gen. Barry organized the entire artillery
of the Army of the Potomac, and served in the field with
that army as chief of artillery from Mar., 1862, to Sept.,
1862, participating in the siege of Yorktown and the
Seven Days' battles ending with Malvern Hill. He subse-
quently commanded the artillery serving in the defences
of Washington 1861–63, and served as chief of artillery in
the armies commanded by Gen. Sherman. He has been
a member of various boards, and after the War was assigned
to the command of the northern (lake) frontier for the
preservation of the national neutrality; and in 1867 ap-
pointed to command the U. S. Artillery School at Fortress
Monroe, which post he now occupies. Gen. Barry is the
author of “Engineer and Artillery Operations of the Army
of the Potomac, A. D. 1861–62,” in conjunction with the
writer, and “A System of Tactics for the Field Artillery of
the U. S.,” in conjunction with Maj.-Gens. W. H. French
and H. J. Hunt. J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Barry (WILLIAM TAYLOR), born in Lunenburg, Va.,
Feb. 5, 1784, graduated at William and Mary College in
1803, became a lawyer, was member of Congress from Ken-
tucky (1810–11), served in the war of 1812, was U. S. Sen-
ator (1814–16), was in turn a judge, lieutenant-governor,
406
BARRY, DU–BARTHOLOMEW, ST., MASSACRE OF.
State secretary, and chief-justice of Kentucky; postmas-
ter-general under Jackson (1828–35), and died in Liver-
pool Aug. 30, 1835, while on his way to Spain as U. S.
minister.
Barry, du (MARIE JEANNE GOMART DE WAUBERNIER),
Count Ess, a mistress of Louis XV. of France, born Aug.
9, 1746, had a great influence in public affairs. She was
guillotined during the Reign of Terror, Dec. 3, 1793. (See
“Histoire de France pendant le dix-huitième Siècle,” by
DE LACRETELLE.) t
Bar'rytown, a post-village of Red Hook township,
Dutchess co., N. Y., on the Hudson River R. R., 94 miles
N. of New York. It has an important trade. Pop. 248.
Bars, a county of Northern Hungary. Area, 1032
square miles. With the exception of a small part in the
S., the country is mountainous, and is traversed by the
Gran and the Zsitva. The soil of the plain in the southern
part is very fertile, and produces chiefly grain. Pop. in
1869, 137,191. Chief town, Kremnitz.
Bar-sur-Aube [Lat. Bar’rum ad Al'bulam], an an-
cient town of France, in the department of Aube, on the
river Aube, 33 miles by rail E. S. E. of Troyes. It has a
trade in wine, hemp, grain, and wool. The allied sove-
reigns held a council here Feb., 1814, and here, in the same
year, occurred two battles between the allies and the French.
Pop. 4809. - -
Bart, a post-township of Lancaster, co., Pa. Pop. 1432.
Bart, or Barth (JEAN), a French naval hero, was born
at Dunkirk in 1651. He became the captain of a privateer,
and fought against the Dutch. Having performed several
, bold and successful exploits, he was appointed a captain of
the royal navy, and obtained command of a squadron in
1697. Died April 27, 1702. (See A. RICHER, “Vie de Jean
Bart,” 1780; VANDEREST, “Histoire de Jean Bart,” 1841.)
Bart'enstein, a town of Prussia, in the province of
Prussia, 35 miles S. W. of Königsberg. It has considerable
manufactures. Pop. in 1871, 5880.
Barſter, the exchange of one commodity for another, is
a method of trading sometimes practised by barbarous peo-
ple and others who have no money or credit. Ships sailing
to uncivilized countries often carry weapons, tools, or orna-
ments to be used in barter with Savages. Farmers in the
U.S. also take produce to country stores, and receive goods
in exchange without the intervention of money. In law,
barter or exchange is a contract for transferring property,
the consideration being some other commodity.
Bart/fa, or Bart'ſeld, an old town of North Hun-
gary, in the county of Saros, on the river Tepla, 20 miles
N. of Eperies. It has hot baths, which are much frequent-
ed, and a considerable commerce in Wine, brandy, linen,
etc. Pop. in 1869, 5303.
Barth, or Bardt, a seaport-town of Prussia, in the
province of Pomerania, on the Binnensee, 15 miles W. N. W.
of Stralsund. It has shipbuilding docks, and a trade in
grain and wool. Pop. in 1871, 5774.
Barth (HEINRICH), an enterprising German explorer,
born at Hamburg Feb. 16, 1821. He travelled in Northern
Africa in 1845, after which he extended his explorations to
Palestine, Arabia, and Asia Minor, and published “Wan-
derings along the Shores of the Mediterranean” (1849).
He joined Richardson and Overweg in an expedition to
Central Africa, but they died in 1851, and he explored that
country alone for about five years. In 1863 he became
professor of geography in Berlin. He published “Travels
and Discoveries in Central Africa.” (5 vols., 1857), which
is a very valuable work. Died Nov. 25, 1866. (See “Ed-
inburgh Review º' for Jan. to April, 1859.) -
Barthélemy (AUGUSTE MARSEILLE), a French satiric
poet, born at Marseilles in 1796. He published a number
of satires which had great success. Among them are the
“Villéliade,” directed against the ministry of Willèle (1826),
“Napoleon in Egypt” (1828), and “La Némésis” (1831).
The last named was the first of a series issued weekly for
one year. Died Aug. 23, 1867.
1Barthélemy (JEAN JACQUES), an eminent French an-
tiquary, born near Aubagne, in Provence, July 20, 1716,
was an uncle of the preceding. He learned the Greek,
Hebrew, Arabic, and Chaldee languages, and became keeper
of the royal cabinet of medals in 1753, after which he trav-
elled in Italy and collected many medals. He wrote sev-
eral treatises on numismatics and ancient inscriptions. His
principal and most popular work is “Travels of Anacharsis
the Younger in Greece’” (“Voyage du jeune Anacharsis en
Grèce,” 4 vols., 1788), which is a very agreeable production.
It has been translated into many languages. He was ad-
mitted into the French Academy in 1789. Died April 30,
1795. (See MANCINI-NIVERNAIS, “Essai sur la vie de J. J.
scholar and journalist, born in Paris Aug. 19, 1805.
the council of state.
Barthélemy,” 1795; WILLENAVE, “Notice sur les ouvrage
de J. J. Barthélemy,” 1821.)
Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire (JULEs), a French
He
was an editor of the “National * and other liberal journals.
In 1838 he became professor of Greek and Latin philosophy
in the College of France in Paris. He translated into
French the works of Aristotle (4 vols., 1839–44), and wrote
several works, among which is “Du Bouddhisme” (1855).
He was elected a member of the National Assembly in 1848.
He was secretary to President Thiers in 1872–73.
Barthez, or Barthès (PAUL Jose,PH), M.D., LL.D.,
an eminent French physician and writer, born at Mont-
pellier Dec. 11, 1734. He became professor of medicine at
that city in 1759, and removed to Paris in 1780, after which
he was consulting physician to the king and a member of
He wrote, besides other works, “New
Elements of the Science of Man” (1778). Died Oct. 15,
1806. (See LoRDAT, “Mémoires sur la vie de P. J. Bar-
thez,” 1818.) . º
Bar/tholin (THOMAs), M. D., one of the most eminent
physicians of his time, was born at Copenhagen Oct. 20,
1616. He became in 1648 professor of amatomy at Copen-
hagen, and wrote, among other works in Latin, one on the
lymphatic vessels (the discovery of which he claimed), a
treatise on the functions of the liver, and “Anatomia. *
(1641), which passed through many editions and obtained
a high reputation as a text-book. The Bartholin family
produced many eminent physicians. Died Dec. 4, 1680.
Barthol’omew, a bayou in Arkansas and Louisiana,
rises in Jefferson county in the former State, flows nearly
southward into Louisiana, and enters the Washita River at
Washita City. It is navigable for steamboats for 250 miles.
Bartholomew, a county of the central part of Indi-
ana, contains 400 square miles. It is drained by the Drift-
wood Fork of White River. The surface is partly hilly;
the soil is fertile. Live-stock, grain, and tobacco are largely
exported. It is intersected by the Jeffersonville Madison
and Indianapolis R. R. Capital, Cplumbus. Pop. 21,133.
Bartholomew, a post-township of Drew co., Ark.
Pop. 560.
Bartholomew, a township of Jefferson co., Ark. P. 459.
Bartholomew [Gr. Bapóoxoplatos; Lat. Bartholomae’ws],
SAINT, one of the twelve apostles, supposed to be the same
as the Nathanael mentioned in John i. 45–49. We have no
authentic information respecting his labors or his death.
According to tradition, he preached the gospel in India.
Bartholomew (EDWARD SHEFFIELD), an American
sculptor, was born at Colchester, Conn., in 1822. He prac-
tised dentistry for a time, and then learned painting, but
afterwards became distinguished as a sculptor. From 1845
to 1848 he was in Hartford, and after two years spent in
New York he went to Italy, where he died, at Naples, May
2, 1858. Some of his works are greatly admired. Among
them are—“The Shepherd Boy,” “Youth and Age,” a
monument to Charles Carroll, “Ganymede and the Eagle,”
etc.
Bartholomew Fair, a great English market held
annually in West Smithfield, London, on the festival of St.
Bartholomew (Aug. 24, old style). The charter of this
fair was granted by Henry I. in 1133. It was originally
connected with the Church, under whose auspices miracle-,
plays, mysteries, and moralities were represented at the fair.
In the first centuries of its existence this was the chief
cloth-fair of the kingdom. Leather, pewter, and live cattle
were also sold here. Crowds of people were attracted to it
by a variety of popular amusements and the exhibitions of
acrobats, tumblers, mountebanks, mummers, and merry-
andrews. Having ceased to be a place of traffic and be-
come a nuisance, it was abolished in 1855. (See HENRY
MoRLEY, “Memoirs of Bartholomew Fair,” 1859.)
Bartholomew’s Hospital, London, was founded
in 1102 by Rahere, the king’s ministrel, and was at first
connected with a priory established by the same person.
It was made a sanctuary by Edward II., but hospital and
priory were both dissolved by Henry VIII., who founded
the hospital anew, giving 500 marks yearly for its main-
tenance, on condition the city should give the like sum.
There is a medical school attached to it, and the hospital
relieves 70,000 patients annually.
Bartholomew, St., Massacre of, the massacre of
French Protestants which commenced at Paris in the might
between the 23d and 24th of Aug., 1572. During the minor-
ity of Charles IX. and the regency of his mother Catherine
de Médicis, a long civil war raged in France between the
Catholics and Huguenots, whose leaders were the prince
of Condé and Admiral Coligny. In 1570 the court made
to the Huguenots overtures which resulted in a treaty of
BARTIZAN–BARTOL.
407
peace. Charles invited Coligny and other leaders of that
party to court, and received them with warm demonstra-
tions of friendship, which were probably perfidious. The
false security of the Huguenots was increased by a mar-
riage between Henry of Navarre and Margaret, who was
a sister of Charles IX. Many Huguenots came to Paris
to attend the wedding in Aug., 1572. Among the principal
instigators of the massacre were Catherine de Médicis and
her sons. Admiral Coligny was wounded by a shot from
a window of the royal palace on the 22d. The general
massacre commenced at two o'clock on Sunday morning,
Aug. 24th, and continued for several days. The provinces
followed the example of the capital, with some exceptions.
In regard to the number of victims there is no certainty.
Estimates have varied from 1000 to 10,000 for Paris, and
from 2000 to 100,000 for the whole of France. (See Sis-
MONDI, “History of France;” H. MARTIN, “History of
France;” DE THou, “Historia sui Temporis;” “The
Massacre of St. Bartholomew,” by HENRY, WHITE, 1868.)
Barſtizan, in Norman castles, a projecting balcony or
Small stone closet placed on corbels over doorways and on
other parts, generally for defence, and designed to command
Some assailable point with the fire of its crossbow-bolts.
It had perforated battlements for the defence of the archers
and crossbowmen. te
Bart'lett, a post-township of Carroll co., N. H. It has
manufactures of lumber, etc. Pop. 629.
Bartlett, a post-village of Shelby co., Tenn.
one weekly newspaper. Pop. 244.
It has
Bartlett (ELISHA), M.D., an American physician, born
in Smithfield, R. I., Oct. 6, 1804. He became professor
of medicine in the University of Maryland in 1844, and
took the same position in the University of New York in
1850. He was popular, as a teacher, and wrote, among
other medical works, one entitled “Essay on the Philoso-
phy of Medical Science.” Died July 19, 1855.
Bartlett (HENRY A.), U. S. M. C., born Aug. 19, 1838,
in Patuxent, R. I., appointed a second lieutenant in the
marine corps Oct. 16, 1861, became a first lieutenant Nov.
26, 1861, and a captain Nov. 29, 1867. From July, 1862, to
Aug., 1864, he served on board the iron-clad New Ironsides
during her numerous engagements with the forts and bat-
teries of Charleston harbor. -
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Bartlett (ICHABOD), an eminent American lawyer, born
at Salisbury, N. H., July 24, 1786, and graduated at
Dartmouth in 1808. He was a member of Congress from
1833 to 1839. Died Oct. 19, 1853.
Bartlett (John R.), U. S. N., born Sept. 26, 1843, in
the State of New York, became an ensign in 1863, a lieu-
tenant in 1864, and a lieutenant-commander in 1866. He
served in the steamer Mississippi at the passage of Forts
Jackson and St. Philip and capture of New Orleans, April
24, 1862. While attached to the steam-sloop Susquehanna
he took part in both attacks on Fort Fisher, and was one
of the assaulting party of Jan. 15, 1865. Commodore
Godon, who commanded the Susquehanna, makes honor-
able mention of Bartlett in his official despatch of Jan.
17, 1865, and Lieutenant-Commander Blake, who led the
men of the Susquehanna in the assault on the fort, refers
to his conduct on that occasion in the following terms:
“Lieutenant Bartlett, belonging to my command, remained
at the ‘palisades’ until nightfall, and I beg to call your
attention to his personal gallantry.”
EoxHALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Bartlett (John RUssBLL), an American writer, born at
Providence, R. I., Oct. 23, 1805, was one of the founders
of the American Ethnological Society. He was appointed
in 1850 commissioner to determine the boundary between
Mexico and the U. S. He published, besides other works,
a “Narrative of Explorations and Incidents in Texas and
New Mexico” (2 vols., 1854); “Progress of Ethnology”
(1847); “Dictionary of Americanisms” (1848); “Bibli-
otheca Americana” (4 vols., 1865–70), etc.
Bartlett (John SHERREN), M. D., an English journal-
He founded in New York in 1822 the
ist, born in 1790.
“Albion,” a journal which he edited with much ability
until 1848. He was afterwards connected with other news-
papers. Died Aug. 24, 1863.
Bartlett (Joseph), a satiric poet, born in Plymouth,
Mass., June 10, 1762, graduated at Harvard in 1782, and
after many vicissitudes of fortune became a lawyer. He
wrote a poem on physiognomy, and one entitled “The New
Vicar of Bray.” Died Oct. 20, 1827.
Bartlett (JosrAH), M.D., an American patriot, born at
Amesbury, Mass., Nov. 21, 1729. He signed the Declara-
tion of Independence, and was a member of the Continental
Congress in 1776–78. He became president of New Hamp-
shire in 1790, and governor of that State under the new
constitution in 1793. Died May 19, 1795.
Bartlett (SAMUEL CoI,CORD), D. D., was born in Salis-
bury, N. H., Nov. 25, 1817, and in 1836 graduated at
Dartmouth College, where he was afterwards tutor, and at
the Andover Theological Seminary in 1842. In 1843 he
was settled over the Congregational church in Monson,
Mass., in 1846 became professor of intellectual and moral
philosophy in Western Reserve College, in 1852 took charge
of the Franklin street church, Manchester, N. H., in 1857
became pastor of the New England church, Chicago, Ill.,
and in 1858 was made professor of biblical literature in the
Chicago (Congregational) Theological Seminary. In 1873
he had leave of absence for a year to travel in the East.
He has published “Life and Death Eternal” and “Sketches
of Missions of the American Board,” besides a goodly num-
ber of sermons, orations, addresses, and articles in the lead-
ing reviews. He contributed to the American edition of
Smith’s “Dictionary of the Bible.” He has also in comi-
templation other and more important works.
Bartlett (WILLIAM), born in Newburyport, Mass., Jan.
31, 1748. He acquired great wealth in mercantile pursuits,
which he used liberally in promoting education, temper-
ance, missions, and the cause of religion and morals. He
gave $30,000 to found the Andover Theological Seminary,
and added to this gift various benefactions, amounting in
the aggregate to about $250,000. He also bestowed large
sums upon other benevolent enterprises. Died Feb. 8, 1841.
Bartlett (WILLIAM FRANCIs), an American officer of vol-
unteers, born in Haverhill, Mass., June 6, 1840, graduated
at Harvard University in 1862. On the outbreak of the civil
war he entered the service as a private soldier, and was ap-
pointed captain in the Twentieth Massachusetts July, 1861;
at the siege of Yorktown, April, 1862, he lost a leg; was
commissioned colonel of the Forty-ninth Massachusetts
Infantry, which regiment he led in the assault on Port
Hudson, La., May 27, 1863, where he was wounded in the
leg and arm. On this occasion he displayed such daring,
and was so conspicuous a mark, being mounted, that the
Confederate officers gave orders not to shoot at him. Col-
onel of the Fifty-seventh Massachusetts Veteran Regiment,
Aug., 1863, wounded in the battle of the Wilderness, and
brigadier-general of volunteers June 22, 1864, for conspicu-
ous gallantry. He led the assaulting column at the explo-
sion of the mine near Petersburg July 30, 1864, and was
wounded and taken prisoner. Brevetted major-general U. S.
volunteers.
Bartlett (WILLIAM HENRY), an English artist and
writer, born in London in 1809. He travelled in many
parts of Europe and America, and visited Egypt and Pal-
estine. He published numerous popular works, illustrated
with engravings designed by himself. Among his works
are “Walks in and about Jerusalem’’ (1844), and “The
Nile-Boat, or Glimpses of the Land of Egypt” (1849). He
died at sea in 1854.
Bartlett (WILLIAM H. C.), LL.D., an American officer
and scientist, born in 1804 in Lancaster co., Pa., graduated
at West Point in 1826. He served, while lieutenant of engi-
neers, as assistant professor at the Military Academy 1827–
29, in the construction of Fort Monroe, Va., and Fort Adams,
R.I., 1828–32, as assistant to the chief engineer at Washing-
ton, D. C., 1832–34, and as acting professor of natural and
experimental philosophy at the Military Academy 1834–
36. On resigning his lieutenancy, April 20, 1836, he was
appointed full professor of philosophy, continuing as such
till retired from active service, Feb. 14, 1871. He is author
of a “Treatise on Optics,” 1839, of “Synthetical Mechan-
ics,” 1850–58, of “Acoustics and Optics,” 1852–59, of
“Analytical Mechanics,” 1853–59, and of “Spherical Astron-
omy,” 1855–58. He is a member of several scientific asso-
ciations, corporator of the National Academy of Sciences
from its formation, and, since 1871, actuary of the Mutual
Life Insurance Company of New York City. g
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Bartley (MoRDECA1) was born in Fayette co., Pa., Dec.
16, 1783. He removed to Ohio in 1809, and settled in Mans-
field, Richland co. He served as a captain in the war of
1812, was a member of Congress (1823–31), and governor
of Ohio (1844–46). Died Oct. 10, 1870. (See his Life, by
A. T. GooDMAN.)
Bart/low, a township of Henry co., O. Pop. 126.
Bar/tol (Cyrus AUGUSTUs), D. D., a Unitarian divine
and author, born at Freeport, Me., April 30, 1813. * |He
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1832, at the Cambridge
i)ivinity School in 1835; settled as colleague pastor of
West church, Boston, in 1837. His principal Writings are
“Discourses on the Christian Spirit and Life . (1850),
“Discourses on the Christian Body and Form” (1854),
“Pictures of Europe” (1855), “Radical Problems” (1872),

408
BARTOLINT—BARYTONE.
and “The Rising Faith ” (1873). His contributions to
periodical literature are numerous and valuable, being
characterized by fine literary taste and deep religious
feeling.
Bartoli'ni (LORENzo), an eminent Italian sculptor, born
in Tuscany in 1777. He studied and worked in Paris, and
was patronized by Napoleon, who in 1808 directed him to
found a school of sculpture at Carrara. In 1815 he re-
moved to Florence, where he worked for many years.
Among his masterpieces are a colossal bust of Napoleon
I., the group of “Hercules and Lycus,” and a group called
“Charity.” His works are characterized by a classic re-
pose and simplicity. He is ranked by the Italians as sec-
ond only to Canova. Died Jan. 20, 1850.
Bartoloz'zi (FRANCESCo), an Italian engraver, born in
1725, was a scholar of Ferreti and Joseph Wagner. He
lived many years in London. He exerted a bad influence
by spreading the stippled manner. His works are very
numerous. Died in 1819.
Barſton, a county in the central part of Kansas. Area,
900 square miles. It is intersected by the Arkansas River
and the Atchison Topeka and Santa Fé R. R., and also
drained by Walnut Creek. Capital, Great Bend. Pop. in
1870, 2.
Barton, a county of Missouri, bordering on Kansas.
Area, 600 square miles. It is drained by the North Fork
of Spring River and several creeks. A large part of the
county is prairie. Corn, wool, and tobacco are the chief
crops. Among its mineral resources are coal and lime-
stone. Capital, Lamar. Pop. 5087.
Barton, a township of Gibson co., Ind. Pop. 1626.
Barton, a post-township of Newaygo co., Mich. P. 383.
Barton, a post-township of Orleans co., Vt., is a thriv-
ing country town, with three villages and good railroad
facilities. The fertile soil and abundant water-power make
agricultural and manufacturing business profitable. The
chief article of manufacture is lumber. There are four
churches, two graded schools, one academy, one library,
and one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1911.
G. H. BLAKE, E.D. of “Mon ITor.”
Barton, a post-township of Tioga co., N. Y. It con-
tains Waverley and other manufacturing villages. P. 5087.
Barton, a post-township of Washington co., Wis. Pop.
1376.
Barton (BENJAMIN SMITH), M. D., born at Lancaster,
Pa., Feb. 10, 1766, was educated at Pennsylvania College
and in Europe, graduating as M. D. at Göttingen. In
1789 he became professor of natural history and botany in
the College of Philadelphia, and in 1813 professor of ma-
teria medica. He published various works on natural sci-
ence, materia medica, and other subjects, of which the best
known is his “Elements of Botany ” (1804 and 1812). Died
Dec. 19, 1815. -
Barton (BERNARD), known as the “Quaker poet,”
born in London Jan. 31, 1784, was a member of the Society
of Friends. He became a clerk in a bank at Woodbridge.
He published “Poems” (1820), “Napoleon, and other
Poems” (1822), “Devotional Verses” (1826), “The Reli-
quary” (1836), “Household Verses” (1845), and other
works. Sir Robert Peel procured for him a pension of
£100. His works are pervaded by pious sentiment and
tenderness. Died Feb. 19, 1849. (See “Memoirs and Let-
ters of Bernard Barton,” edited by his daughter.) -
Barton (WILLIAM), a Revolutionary general, born in
Providence, R. I., in 1747. As lieutenant-colonel of the
Rhode Island militia, he captured Gen. Prescott July 10,
1777. He was wounded and disabled in 1778 at Bristol
Ferry. Congress gavé him a colonel’s commission and a
sword, and he received a grant of land in Vermont. He
was many years imprisoned in Vermont for debt, but was
liberated in 1825 by La Fayette, who paid the demand
against him. Died at Providence Oct. 22, 1831.
Barton (WILLIAM P. C.), M. D., a botanist, nephew of
Dr. B. S. Barton, graduated at Princeton in 1805, and re-
ceived his degree of M. D. at the University of Pennsylva-
nia in 1808. He published “Florae Philadelphicae'' (1815–
25), “Flora of North America” (3 vols., 1821–23), “ Ma-
teria, Medica,” “Medical Botany,” “Plan for Marine Hos-
pitals” (1817), and several other works. He was professor
# botany in the University of Pennsylvania. Died in
855. - -
Barton Beds, a group of strata of clay and sand
forming part of the middle eocene formation, included in
the BAGSHOT BEDs (which see). -
Barton City, a township of Barton co., Mo. P. 270.
Barton’s Buttons (called also Iris Ornaments).
By means of a dividing-engine, Mr. John Barton succeeded
in engraving lines on steel and other surfaces not more than
from the two-thousandth to the ten-thousandth of an inch
apart. These, owing to the action of grooved surfaces on
light, shine in the light of candles or lamps with all the
colors of the spectrum. From steel dies thus prepared im–
pressions were stamped upon buttons and other articles,
forming ornaments rivalling in colors the brilliant flashes
of the diamond.
Barton’s Creek, a township of Wake co., N. C. P. 1585.
Bar/tow, a county in the N. of Georgia, was formerly
called CAss. Area, 550 square miles. It is intersected by
the Etowah River. The surface is partly mountainous or
hilly; the soil is fertile. Grain, cotton, and wool are the
chief crops. Copper, iron, lead, marble, and limestone are
found in it. It is traversed by the Western and Atlantic
R. R. Capital, Cartersville. Pop. 16,566.
Bartow (FRANCIS STEBBINs), born in Savannah, Ga.,
Sept. 6, 1816, graduated at Franklin College, Ga., 1835,
studied law at the law school, New Haven, Conn., became
a prominent member of the Savannah bar, was a member
of the Georgia legislature, of the senate, and of the Confede-
rate Congress. During the civil war he entered the army
as captain of the Oglethorpe Light Infantry, was appointed
colonel of Eighth Georgia Infantry, and brigadier-general
C. S. A. Killed at Manassas July 21, 1861. -
Bar/tram (John), an American botanist, born in Darby,
Chester co., Pa., in 1701. He planted a botanical garden on
the Schuylkill near Philadelphia, made extensive excursions
in the unsettled parts of North America, and sent speci-
mens to Linnaeus, who pronounced him “the greatest natu-
ral botanist in the world.” He wrote a “Journal of a Tour
to East Florida in 1766,” and other works. Died Sept. 22,
1777. (See WILLIAM DARLINGTON, “Memorials of John
Bartram and Humphrey Marshall,” 1849.)
Bartram (WILLIAM), a botanist, a son of the preced-
ing, was born at Kingsessing, Pa., Feb. 9, 1739. He ex-
plored the animals, plants, etc. of several Southern States,
and published “Travels through North and South Carolina,
Georgia, and Florida,” (1791). He also prepared a list of
American birds. Died July 22, 1823.
Bartsch (Joh ANN ADAM BERNHARD), a German engra-
ver and writer, born at Vienna, Aug. 17, 1757. His princi-
pal work is called “The Painter-Engraver” (“Le Peintre-
Graveur,” 21 vols., 1821). He also prepared a “Catalogue
of all the Prints of Rembrandt,” and other similar works.
Died Aug. 21, 1821.
Ba/ruch, a Hebrew scribe, was a friend and companion
of the prophet Jeremiah, whom he served as amanuensis.
Shortly after 586 B.C. he accompanied Jeremiah to Egypt.
His subsequent history is unknown. The book of Barugh,
which the Catholics admit into the canon of the Holy Scrip-
ture, is considered apocryphal by Protestants and Jews.
It is not without literary merit. In what language or by
what hand it was first written is unknown. Its sixth chap-
ter, the so-called “ epistle of Jeremiah,” is of later, though
very ancient, date. There is a pseudepigraphic “epistle
of Baruch" in the Syriac language, probably a monastic
forgery, and certainly worthless. -
Bar/wood, or Camwood, a red dyewood from the
western coast of Africa. It is the wood of Baphia mitida,
a leguminous tree. Its coloring principle is slightly solu-
ble in boiling water, freely soluble in alcohol and alkaline
solutions. . It is supposed to be identical with Santoline.
Barycentric. See APPENDIX. --
Bary/ta, or Bary/tes [Gr. Baptis, “heavy,” alluding
to “heavy spar,” its sulphate], (symbol Ba0), the oxide of
barium, is an alkaline earth and a virulent poison. It is
an ingredient in sulphate of baryta, or heavy spar, from
which it is obtained, but it is not useful for any purpose
except chemical analysis. A solution of baric hydrate is
used by the chemist as the best test of the presence of
carbonic acid. Sulphate of baryta, or heavy spar, is a
common crystallized mineral which is mixed with white
lead and used as a pigment under the name of permanent
white. . Several mixtures of sulphate of baryta and white
3.
lead are manufactured and are known in commerce. Venice
white contains 1 part sulphate of baryta and 1 part white
lead. Hamburg white contains 2 parts sulphate of baryta.
and 1 part white lead. Dutch white contains 3 parts sul-
phate of baryta and I part white lead. The native sul-
phate of baryta was employed by the celebrated potter
Wedgwood in the manufacture of jasper ware and for the
formation of white figures, etc. on colored jars and vessels:
It is also extensively used for adulterating, white lead and
for giving weight to paper. Baryta abounds in N. C.
Bar’ytone, written also Baritone [from the Gr.
gapºs, “heavy,” and révos, “tone”], signifies the tone of a
man's voice, about halfway between the bass and tenor.
*~
**
BASALT—BASIL.
409
It generally extends in compass from B flat to F, and occu-
pies the same position as the mezzo soprano of the female
voice. In Greek grammar, words with an unaccented final
syllable are called barytones. -
Basalt’ [Lat. basal/tes], a rock of volcanic formation,
is considered a variety of trap-rock, and is composed of
felspar and augite or hornblende. It has a compact tex-
ture, a dark-green, dark-gray, or black color, and a con-
choidal fracture. The most remarkable characteristic of
basalt is the columnar structure which it often assumes.
The columns have a regular prismatic form, which appears
to be the result of a tendency or effort towards crystalliza-
tion, but many theorists deny that it is at all analogous to
crystallization. They generally have five or six sides, and
are often divided transversely by joints at nearly equal
distances. Beautiful specimens of vertical columns of
basalt are found \at the Giants’ Causeway in the north of
Ireland, and Fingal’s Cave in the Scottish island of Staffa.
Basſcom (HENRY BIDLEMAN), D.D., LL.D., a bishop
of the Methodist Episcopal Church South, was born at
IHancock, Delaware co., N. Y., May 27, 1796. He was
licensed to preach in 1813, and in 1823 was chosen chap-
lain to Congress; was president of Madison College, Pa.
(1827–29), professor of morals, Augusta College, Ky., in
1832, and in 1842 president of Transylvania University, Ky.
From 1846 to 1850, he was editor of the “Quarterly Re-
view " of his Church. In 1850 he was made a bishop;
died Sept. 8, 1850. In one of his earlier years he preached
400 times, and received a salary of twelve dollars and ten
cents. Bishop Bascom was an extremely popular speaker.
PIis sermons are considered to have been very brilliant and
powerful. His complete writings were published in 1856.
Bascom (John), LL.D., born at Genoa, N. Y., May 1,
1827, and graduated at Williams College in 1849, studied
law and theology, the latter at Andover Seminary. In
1855 he became professor of rhetoric in Williams College.
He has published “Political Economy” (1861), “Asthet-
ics” (1862), “Rhetoric * (1865), “Elements of Psychol-
ogy” (1869), “Science, Philosophy, and Religion” (1871),
“The Philosophy of Religion,” “The Philosophy of Eng-
lish Literature,” and other works. In 1873 he was ap-
pointed president of Wisconsin University. -
Base [Lat. ba’sis, from the Gr. Béarts, a “foundation ”],
a term having important applications in architecture, chem-
istry, geometry, heraldry, and music (It. basso). Base in
general signifies the bottom of anything considered as its
support, as the base of a mountain, the base of a pillar.
BASE, in architecture, is the lower part of a pillar—i. e.
the part between the lower end of the shaft and the top of
the pedestal. The Doric column had no base. The base is
composed of two parts—the plinth, which is a flat, square
block; and the moulding, which is usually circular and
rests upon the plinth. In botany, the base of a leaf is the
part next to the petiole. The base of a fruit is the part
next to the root, or the end to which the stem, peduncle,
or pedicel is attached. The stem-end of a pear is called
the base, although it is smaller and usually higher in posi-
tion than the apex.
BASE, in chemistry, is a compound body, generally con-
sisting of a metal united with oxygen. For example, po-
tassium (K) combines with oxygen (O), and thus forms
the base potash (K20); sodium (Na) and oxygen, the base
soda (Na20); lead (Pb) and oxygen, the base lead monox-
ide or litharge (PbO). Every oxygen base forms salts
with oxygen acids to form oxy-salts. Thus, the base
potash (K20) combines with sulphuric acid (SO3) to
make the salt sulphate of potash (K20,S03); potash
with nitric acid (NO3) to form the salt mitrate of potash
or nitre (K20,NO5). Occasionally sulphur or some other
element replaces the oxygen in a base. Thus, the metal
potassium (K) unites with sulphur (S) to form the swl-
phur base sulphide of potassium (K2S), which can unite
with a sulphur acid like sulpharsenious acid or orpiment
(As2S3) to make the salt sulpharsenite of potash (K2S,As2S3).
The metal half of a base need not be a simple element,
but may be a compound body which, for the time, plays
the part of a simple substance. Thus, the compound ethyl
(C4H5) can combine with oxygen to form ordinary ether
(C4H5)20; and the base thus produced can, in its turn,
combine with acids to form salts. In the new chemistry,
while the basic properties of certain oxides are necessarily
recognized, a different statement is made in regard to their
relations to acids. Thus, it is said that, 1. In some cases,
basic oxides form salts by direct combination with acids;
as when vapor of sulphuric anhydride (SO3) is passed over
red-hot barium oxide (BaO), barium sulphate (BaO, SO3 or
BaSO4) is formed. 2. Mostly, however, metallic salts are
formed by the substitution of a metal for hydrogen in the
acid. Thus, nitric acid, or hydrogen nitrate (HNO3)
+ potassium hydrate (KOH) = potassium nitrate (KNO3)
+ water (H2O). In geometry, the base of a solid is the
lowest part, or the side on which it stands, as the base of a
cone or plane. REVISED BY C. F. CHANDLER.
BASE (of operations), a military term denoting, in con-
tradistinction to the line of operations, the (usually) con-
tiguous and well-guarded (by our own or allied forces)
region upon which an army depends for its supplies, rein-
forcements, etc., to which it sends back its sick and
wounded, and upon which it (generally) would fall back
in case of reverse and retreat. Much pedantry is ex-
pended upon these phrases in what were recognized as
standard military treatises. The essential thing is, that
an army have a base, though it may temporarily abandon
one to acquire another; or in rare cases it may so thor-
oughly control the hostile region in whieh it operates as
to use it for most of the purposes of a base.
t REVISED BY J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
BASE, in heraldry, is the lower portion of the shield.
There is a dexter base, a middle base, and a sinister base.
Base, in music. See BAss.
Baſsedow (JoBANN BERNHARD), originally JoHANN
BEREND BASSEDAU, a German educational reformer, born
at Hamburg Sept. 11, 1723. He aimed to realize Rousseau's
ideas of education, for which he founded at Dessau, in
1774, a model school called Philanthropin, and published
a school-book entitled “Orbis Pictus” (1774), which was
illustrated with 100 copper-plate engravings, and became
very popular. His influence at one time was very great.
He sought to render science and learning attractive and
intoresting by pictures and natural objects, instead of
filling the memory with abstractions. Died July 25, 1790.
(See J. C. MEYER, “Basedow’s Leben und Schriften,” 2
vols., 1792; H. RATHMANN, “Beiträge zur Lebensgeschichte
J. B. Basedow’s,” 1796.)
Basedow’s Disease, called also Graves? Disease
and Exophthalmic Goitre, is a disease more common
among women than men, and characterized by prominent
eyeballs, slightly enlarged thyroid gland, palpitation of
the heart, and generally by anaemia. Basedow’s disease
frequently, though not always, ends in recovery. Its cause
is stated by Niemeyer to be probably a paralysis of the
vaso-motor nerves. It is best treated by good food, chalyb-
eates, gentle exercise, and hygienic measures.
Basel’Ia, a genus of tropical plants of the order Che-
nopodiaceae. The Basella alba and rubra have twining
stems, and are commonly used as potherbs in the East
Indies. In the vicinity of Paris they are raised in hot-
beds, transplanted to borders, and used as a substitute for
spinach. The Bagella rubra yields a rich purple dye.
Base/ment, in architecture, the lowest story of a build-
ing, is often sunk below the level of the street, and is some-
times entirely subterranean. r
Ba'shan [Heb. Tºº, of disputed significance], a dis-
trict in Palestine E. of the Jordan, most of it high table-
land, extending from Mount Hermon in the N. to Gilead
in the S., the Yarmuk (Hieromax), which enters the Jor-
dan just below the Sea of Galilee, being the boundary be-
tween Bashan and Gilead. At the time of the Exodus it
was occupied by Amorites (“highlanders”), whose king,
Og, was slain in battle with the Israelites, his people over-
powered, and the whole territory assigned to the half-tribe
of Manasseh. After the Captivity, Bashan consisted of
four provinces: (1) Golan (modern Jaulan); (2) Argob, or
Trachonitis (modern Lejah); (3) Hauran (name un-
changed); (4) Batanaea (modern Bethanyeh). Iturea
(now Jedur) in the N. W. was not strictly a part of
Bashan, though taken by the Israelites. The whole dis-
trict was, and still is, exceedingly fertile, and was famous
for its oaks and its cattle. Remarkable ruins of ancient
cities are found there. (See PortER’s “Damascus,” 1855;
WETzstEIN’s “Reisebericht tiber Hauran und die Trach-
onen,” 1860; and PortRR’s “Giant Cities of Bashan,” 1865.)
Bashaw' [a corruption of pāshā, which again is a con-
traction of the Persian pádásháh, a “king”], a title of
honor given in the Turkish dominions to viceroys, provin-
cial governors, generals, etc. The term is also used in Eng-
lish to denote a domineering, proud, or tyrannical man.
Bash'i, a township of Clarke co., Ala. Pop. 640.
Ba/shi-Bazooks', the name of certain irregular
troopers in the service of the Turkish sultan. They are
mostly Asiatics, and are wild, turbulent men, much ad-
dicted to plundering. They fought against the Russians
in the Crimean war (1854–55).
Bash/kirs, the name of a nomadic race who inhabit
the Russian government of Orenburg. In religion they
are Mohammedans. -
Ba/sil (Og/imum), a genus of herbs and shrubs of the
natural order Labiatae. They are natives of tropical or
—x
410
BASIL–
BASIN.
other warm regions, and generally have an aromatic Smell
and taste. The Ocimum basilicum (sweet basil) is an annual
plant, a native of the East Indies, and is cultivated in Eu-
rope, where it is used to season food. The Ocimum mini-
mum, or bush basil, another East Indian plant, is culti-
wated for the same use. The Ocimum Campeachianum is a
native of Florida and of tropical America. Basil is also a
common name for Pycnanthemum, a North American genus
with numerous species, all erect, rigid herbs; also of the
Calamintha clinopodium of Europe and North America, and
other labiate herbs.
Ba'sil, or Basil’ius [Gr. Bagińevos or Baarixtos], SAINT,
surnamed THE GREAT, an eminent Greek Father of the
Church, was born at Caesarea, in Cappadocia, about 329
A. D. He was older by about two years than his brother,
Gregory of Nyssa, and was an intimate friend of Gregory
Nazianzen. From 351 to 355 he was a student at Athens.
Then he travelled extensively. Then he spent some seven
years in monastic retirement in Pontus. In 370 he suc-
ceeded Eusebius as bishop of Caesarea, and he died Jan. 1,
379, worn out by his ascetic habits. His works (in 3 vols.,
Garnier's ed., 1721–30) consist of treatises, homilies, and
letters. He excelled as a letter-writer. He was the author
of monastic rules and of a liturgy which still bears his name,
and which is still used in the Russian Church. (See G.
HERMANT, “Vie de Saint Basile,” 1674; J. E. FEIssER,
“Dissertatio de Vita Basilii Magni,” 1828; KLOSE, “Ba-
silius der Grosse mach seinem Leben,” 1835.) . .
Basil I. [Lat. Basilius], surnamed THE MACEDONIAN,
emperor of the East, was born in Macedonia in 820 A.D.
His origin was obscure. He gained the favor of the em-
peror Michael III., who appointed Basil his own colleague
in the empire in 866. After Michael was assassinated in
867, Basil became emperor. He obtained Asia Minor by
conquest from the Saracens, whom he also drove out of
Italy. He was an able ruler. He died in 886 A.D., and
left the throne to his son, Leo VI. (See LE BEAU, “His-
toire du Bas Empire;” G. IMPAccIANT1, “Basilio il Mace-
done,” 2 vols., 1809.)
Basil II., emperor of the East, a son of Romanus II.,
was born in 958 A. D. He began to reign, in conjunction
with his brother Constantine, in 975. He was an able
commander, and waged war with success against the calif
of Bagdad and the Bulgarians. He completed the conquest
of Bulgaria in 1018. Died in 1025. -
Basile'an Man’uscript [Lat. Co'dea: Basilen'sis, from
Basile/a, the Lat. name of Bâle], the name of two very val-
uable manuscripts of the Greek New Testament, now in the
library of Bâle: 1. A nearly complete uncial copy of the
Gospels. It is believed to belong to the eighth century,
and to have been written at Constantinople. 2. A beautiful
cursive manuscript of the whole New Testament except the
Apocalypse. It dates from the tenth century.
Basil’ian Man’uscript (Co'dea: Basilia/mus), an im-
portant uncial manuscript of the Apocalypse, now in the
Vatican library. It takes its name from the Basilian mon-
astery at Rome, to which it once belonged. It is referred
to the eighth century. -
Basil’ian Monks, or Monks of St. Basil, a re-
ligious monastic order founded by Saint Basil the Great in
363 A. D. He composed a system of monastic discipline
which was approved by the pope, and was practised by
great numbers of monks both in the churches of the East
and the Latin or Western Church. Spain, Italy, Asia
Minor, and many other countries contain monasteries of this
order at the present time. Those of Italy are chiefly of
the Greek rite, and those of Spain, etc. of the Latin rite.
In Asia, Minor the United Melchite Greeks have many Ba-
silian monks. There are convents of Basilians in Toronto
and Sandwich, Canada. The monks of the Russo-Greek
Church nearly all follow the rule of Saint Basil, variously
modified, even the so-called monks of Saint Anthony fol-
lowing what is substantially the Basilian rule. The Arme-
nian Church has also an order of Basilian monks.
Basil’ica [Gr. Baauxukň, the fem. of Baoruxukós, “royal,”
from Baarvaeijs, a “king;” i. e. a “royal hall”], a name
given by the ancient Greeks and Romans to a public hall
or court-house in which princes and magistrates adminis-
tered justice. Among the Romans it attained the greatest
importance, and became, besides a court of justice, a mar-
ket-place and exchange. The first basilica mentioned in
Roman history was the Basilica Porcia, built about 182
B. C. Great numbers were subsequently erected in Rome,
and each provincial town had its basilica, which was usually
adjacent to the forum. The most ancient basilicas were
open to the external air, and surrounded by a peristyle of
columns, for which an external wall was afterwards substi-
tuted. After the reign of Constantine I. some basilicas
Were converted into Christian churches. The term basilica
is still applied to the five great patriarchal churches in
Rome and to several Smaller ones. t
Basilica, a code of laws, the compilation of which was
commenced by Basil I., emperor of the East (867–886 A.D.),
and completed by his son Leo. It is considered valuable
for the interpretation of the Roman corpus juris, but a por-
tion of it is lost. The “Basilica” was published by Heim-
bach (5 vols., 1833–50).
Basilica'ta (the ancient Luca'nia), a province of Italy,
bounded on the N. by Capitanata, on the N. E. and E. by
Bari and Otranto, on the S. E. by the Gulf of Taranto, on
the S. by Calabria Citra, and on the W. by Principato Ul-
tra and Citra. Area, 4122 square miles. . It is drained by
the Brandano and Basiento. The surface is mountainous.
It contains a large fertile plain next to the Gulf of Ta-
ranto. Wine, grain, tobacco, and hemp are the staple prod-
ucts. Capital, Potenza. Pop. in 1862, 492,959.
Basil/icon Do'ron (“royal gift”), two Greek words
composing the title of a work which James I. of England
wrote for the instruction of his son Henry (1599). It is
interesting chiefly as a literary curiosity.
Basil/icon Oint/ment, sometimes written Basil’i-
cum [from the Gr. Baauxukós, “royal,” so named on account
of its great virtues], the Cera'tum resi'na of the Pharma-
copoeias, is composed of five parts of resin, eight of lard,
and two of yellow wax. It is much used as a stimulating
application to ulcers, burns, etc.
Basiliſ des [Gr. Baguxet&ms], a Gnostic and founder of
a sect called Basilidians, lived in Egypt in the reigns of
Trajan and Hadrian, about 100–140 A. D. The events of
his life are not known. Like Zoroaster, he taught the ex-
istence of two independent creative principles or powers—
Good, or Light, and Evil, or Darkness.
Basilis’ cus [Gr. Baatatorkos], emperor of the East, was
a brother of Verina, the wife of Leo I. In 468 A. D. he
commanded a large armament which Leo sent against Gen-
serie the Wandal, by whom he was totally defeated. He
usurped the throne in 474, but was defeated and deposed
by Zeno in 476. Died in 477 A.D. (See GIBBON, “De-
cline and Fall of the Roman Empire.”)
Bas'ilisk [Lat. basilis’ cus ; Gr. Baauxiakos, the diminu-
tive of gaoruxe.js, a “king,” so called because the protuber-
ance on its head was thought to resemble a crown], a genus
- of saurian reptiles of the
family Iguanidae, sub-or-
der Pachyglossae, natives
*% of the tropical parts of
*% America. They are cha-
2. racterized by a thin tri-
sangular fold of skin rising
=) from the occiput and in-
: clined backward. They
also have an elevated crest
along the back and tail,
Basilisk.
capable of being erected or depressed at pleasure. They
are well adapted for swimming and for climbing trees, and
are innocuous and inoffensive animals. The tail is much
longer than the body. The Basiliscus mitratus (or Ameri-
canus) is from twenty-five to thirty inches long, including
the tail. The term basilisk was also applied to a fabulous
monster by ancient and mediaeval writers, who supposed
that it had the form of a snake or lizard, that it infested
the deserts of Africa, and that it was hatched by a toad or
serpent from an egg laid by a cock. According to pop-
ular opinion, its breath poisoned the air and burned up
vegetation, and the glance of its eye was fatal to men and
other animals. It was sometimes called cockatrice and
the king of dragons. The only creature who could face the
basilisk and live was believed to be the cock; and travel-
lers were advised to carry loud-crowing cocks with them,
for the basilisk was believed to stand in great dread of his
near relative, the cock, and the crowing of the cock was
considered the only means of driving him away.
Ba/sin [Fr. bassin], in geography, is a great natural de-
pression or concavity on the earth's surface, without refer-
ence to the stratification. The basin of a river is the whole
tract of land drained by that river and its tributaries. The
basin of the Mississippi, for example, is coextensive with
all the country between the Rocky Mountains and the Ap-
palachian chain. The area of this is estimated at 1,244,000
square miles. The basin of a lake includes, besides the
space occupied by the lake, the land drained by the rivers
that flow into it. The highest line between two basins is
the watershed, or line of separation between the waters.
BASIN, in geology, is applied to depressions in the strata
in which beds of a later age have been deposited. Thus,
the site of the city of London, called the London basin,
consisting of tertiary sands and clays, occupies a hollow in
the chalk, which is bounded by the North Downs on the S.









|BASINGSTOKE–BASSANO.
411
and by the chalk-hills of Berks, Wilts, and Bucks on the N.
The term is also applied to synclinal depressions of strata,
especially in the coal-fields.
Baſsingstoke, a town of England, in Hampshire, on
the South-western Railway, 46 miles W. S. W. of London.
It has considerable commerce in grain, malt, coal, and tim-
ber, facilitated by the Basingstoke Canal. Here is a church
built at the time of Henry VIII. Basingstoke has been
a market-town ever since the Norman Conquest, and was
anciently of more importance than at present. Pop. in
1871, 5574.
Bas/lcerville (John), a celebrated English printer and
letter-founder, born in Worcestershire in 1706. He made
great improvements in typography. From his press came
editions highly prized of Virgil (1756), Milton, and the
New Testament (1763), besides many other beautifully
printed works. Died Jan. 8, 1775. -
Bas/ket [Lat. cor’bis or fis/cus ; Welsh, basgawd, “a
weaving of splinters”], a vessel made of willows, twigs,
or splints interwoven. Baskets have been in use from very
early ages. The monuments of ancient Egypt abound in
representations of baskets. They are frequently mention-
ed in the Bible. The ancient Britons were remarkably
expert in the manufacture of baskets, which were much
prized by the Romans for their neatness and elegance.
The process of basket-making is very simple, and appears
to be well known among the rudest peoples—even among
the aborigines of Van Diemen’s Land—and many
tribes of American Indians display great skill and
taste in making and ornamenting them. Willow,
oak, and ash are chiefly made use of in the manufac-
ture of baskets. In several parts of England and
Scotland great attention is paid to the cultivation of
the willow, and the returns yielded are very satisfac-
tory. In the U.S. the rattan, oak, willow, and black &
ash are employed extensively. The Chinese export &
great numbers of beautiful baskets made of finely
split bamboo.
Basmage de Beauval (JACQUES), an eminent
French scholar and theologian, born at Rouen in
1653. In 1676 he became a Protestant minister at
Rouen, whence he emigrated to Holland in 1685. He
was appointed pastor of a church at The Hague in 1709.
Among his works are “The Holy Communion, or a Trea-
tise on the Necessity and Means of Communing Worthily?’
(1688), a “History of the Church’’ (2 vols., 1699), and a
“History of the Jews from Jesus Christ to the Present
Time” (5 vols., 1706). Died Dec. 22, 1722. (See NICăRON,
“Mémoires.”)
Basque Provinces [Sp. Vasconga'das], a part of
Spain, bounded on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, comprises
the four provinces, Navarre, Biscay, Guipuzcoa, and Alava.
These coincided with the ancient Cantabria. Area, 6827
square miles. Pop. in 1867,778,229. The surface is moun-
tainous and presents much picturesque scenery. The tops
of the hills are mostly covered with forests of oak, chest-
nut, beech, etc. Among the mineral resources are copper,
tin, iron, marble, and porphyry. The chief towns are Bil-
bao, Tolosa, and Vittoria. The Basques are celebrated
for their bravery, vivacity, and love of independence. They
speak a peculiar language, whose relation to other tongues
is still in question. Some have found a relationship, real
or fancied, to the Tartar and Ugrian tongues; others find a
slight resemblance to the Coptic. It is called Euscara by
the Basques, who call their country Buscaleria. They have
never been subdued, and retain a separate constitution,
which secures to them political privileges not enjoyed by
the other Spanish subjects. The origin of the Basques is
doubtful. W. von Humboldt considered them descendants
of the ancient Iberi. Others have conjectured that they
are descendants of the pre-historic races of Europe. The
total number of Basques in France and Spain is estimated
at about 785,000. (See Ford’s “Handbook of Spain;”
KARL WILHELM voN Hum BoIDT, “Researches on the Ab-
origines of Spain by means of the Basque Language,”
1821; and F. MICHEL, “Le Pays' Basque, Sa Population,
sa. Langue, etc.,” 1857.)
Bas-Relief [It. basso-rilievo, i. e. “low relief.”], in
sculpture, a term applied to figures which do not project or
stand out far from the ground or plane on which they are
formed. It is distinguished from haut-relief (alto-rilievo),
in which the figures stand sometimes almost entirely free
from the ground. Assyrian and Egyptian bas-reliefs were
colored. Phidias in the Parthenon brought this style to a
high degree of art. Relief was much cultivated by the
Middle Age sculptors.
Bas-Rhin (“Lower Rhine”), a former department of
France, in the northern part of Alsace, which was annexed
to Germany in 1871. (See ELSASS.) -
Bass, or Base [from the It. bas’so, “low”], in music,
is the deepest or lowest part. In respect to harmony the
bass is the most important part in music, containing more
frequently the fundamental notes of the chords, while on it
is formed that important and effective figure in music called
“organ-point.” The term is also applied to the deepest and
gravest quality of the human voice, the usual compass of
which is from G or F below the bass staff to D or E above
it. The bass voice is mostly confined to adult males.
Bass [from the Anglo-Saxon bast : Danish and Ger.
bast; the “immer bark” of a tree, especially the linden tree],
or Basswood, is the American name of a tree (Til/ia
America'ma), also called Linden or Lime Tree. It is
common in the U. S., has serrate leaves, which are more
or less heart-shaped, and bears a woody globular nut one-
celled and one or two-seeded. The wood is light, soft, and
not of much value for fuel. It is used in carriage-building.
Several species of Tilia are found in the U. S., one of which,
the Tilia heterophylla, or white basswood, is found in the
West and South, and sometimes grows to an immense size
and height. The flowers of the basswood abound in honey
of excellent quality, and are eagerly sought by bees. The
European linden' (Tilia Europaea) is planted as an orna-
mental tree in many cities of Europe and the U. S. This
species yields the bark which is made into Russia matting.
(See LINDEN and BAST.)
Bass, the name of many species of fish of various
European Bass.
genera, but appropriately belonging to the genus Labraac,
of the perch family, and other closely allied genera.
The typical species is a European sea-fish, which is prized
as food (Labraac lupus). It ascends streams, and has be-
come landlocked in fresh water without injury. The striped
bass of the U. S. (Labraac lineatus), often called rock-fish,
affords a valuable supply of food. It ascends, rivers, and
is caught in both salt and fresh water. The white bass or
perch of the great lakes (Labraac albidus), the ruddy bass
(Labraac rufus) of the coast, the white perch (Labraa: pal-
lidus), the little black bass (Labraac nigricans), the spotted
bass of the St. Lawrence (Grystes notatus), the Grystes mul-
tilineatus of Western lakes, the Grystes chrysops of the lakes,
the Grystes migricans (the black bass of the West), the Cen-
trarchus headacanthus, or grass bass, the Centrarchw8 ačneus,
or rock bass of New York State and the West, are the best
known of the very numerous American fishes of the true
bass family, most of which are of great value as food. The
stone bass (Polyprion cernium) of the Atlantic and the black
sea-bass (Centropristis nigricans) of our Eastern coast are
both highly prized. The so-called Otsego bass (Coregonus
Otsego) is a fine fish of the salmon family. The “bass”
of Charleston, S. C., is the red-fish (Corvina ocellata), a
valuable sea-fish.
Bass (Edward), D. D., the first Protestant Episcopal
bishop of Massachusetts, was born at Dorchester, Mass.,
Nov. 23, 1726, and graduated at Harvard in 1744. He was
ordained in England in 1752 by Bishop Sherlock. He was
consecrated bishop of Massachusetts May 7, 1797, and his
episcopal authority was afterwards extended over Rhode
Island and New Hampshire. Died Sept. 10, 1803.
Bassa/no, a town of Northern Italy, in the province
of Venice, on the river Brenta, 19 miles N. E. of Vicenza.
It stands on an eminence near the foot of the Alps, in a
country which produces excellent wine and fruits. It is
well built, has many churches and several fine palaces, also
a theatre, a picture-gallery, a botanic garden, and the cele-
brated oid printing-establishment of Remondini. Bona-
parte here defeated the Austrian general Wurmser, Sept.
8, 1796. Pop. in 1857, 11,827.
Bassano (or DA Pontº, GIACOMO), a Venetian painter;
born in 1510, was the pupil of Bonifazio Venetiano, and
painted at Venice and Başsano. He excelled in the repre-
sentation of familiar scenes and natural objects. His col-
oring is good, and his works are marked, by a bold natu-
ralistic tendency, and have some of the characteristics of
modern genre-painting. Died Feb. 19, 1592.

412
BASSARIS-BASTARD.
Bas'saris [Gr. Bagorapts, a “fox’], a genus of North
American Bassaridae, representing the true civets of the
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The Ring-tailed Bassaris.
Old World. The Bassaris astuta, known as civet-cat or
cacomixtle, and also very incorrectly called the raccoon, is
found in Mexico, Texas, California, etc. These animals
are about the size of a common cat, and very playful and
easily tamed. When wild they live in trees. They catch
rats, mice, and birds. The tail is bushy, and marked with
rings like that of the raccoon.
Bassein', a city of British Burmah, on an arm of the
Irrawaddy, which joins the Bay of Bengal S. of Cape Ne-
grais. It is 90 miles from the sea, and large ships ascend
to the city. Much rice is exported hence. Pop. 20,000.
Basses-Alpes (i. e. “Lower Alps"), a department in
the S. E. part of France, is bounded on the N. by Hautes-
Alpes, on the E. by Italy and Alpes-Maritimes, on the S.
by Var, and on the W. by Vaucluse. Area, 2685 square
miles. The surface is mostly mountainous, with some fer-
tile valleys. It is drained by the river Durance. Pop. in
1872, 139,332. Capital, Digne.
IBasses-Pyrénées (i. e. “Lower Pyrenees”), a fron-
tier department of France, is bounded on the N. by Landes,
on the E. by Hautes-Pyrénées, on the S. by Spain, on the
W. by the Atlantic. Area, 2945 square miles. It is inter-
sected by the river Gave-de-Pau, an affluent of the Adour,
which forms its N. W. boundary. The surface is partly
mountainous; the soil of the lowlands is fertile. Copper,
iron, and marble are found here. The chief towns are
Bayonne and Pau. Pop. in 1872, 476,701.
Basse-Terre (i. e. “low land”), a seaport, capital of
the French island of Guadeloupe, on the S. W. coast; lat.
15° 57' N., lon. 61° 44' W. It is the residence of a bishop,
and has a botanic garden. It has no harbor. Pop. 94.80.
Basse-Terre, a town of the British West Indies, cap-
ital of St. Christopher (or St. Kitts), on the W. coast. It
has a harbor and an active trade. Pop. about 6500.
Bas'sett (RICHARD), a statesman of Delaware, was a
member of Congress in 1787, and of the convention of the
same year which framed the U. S. Constitution. He was
U. S. Senator (1789–93), governor of the State (1798–1801),
and U. S. district judge (1801–02). He was the father-in-
law of Hon. James A. Bayard. Died in Sept., 1815.
Bas'set Horn [It. cor’no di basset/to], the richest and
softest of all wind instruments, was invented in Passau in
1770, and afterwards improved. It is similar to a clarionet
in tone and fingering, and its compass is two and a half
octaves.
Bas'sia, a genus of plants of the order Sapotaceae,
comprises several species of trees, natives of tropical or
sub-tropical countries. It produces flowers remarkable for
their fleshy corolla, and a pulpy fruit enclosing three or
four seeds, which contain an abundance of oil or butyra-
ceous fat, which is used as food and for other purposes.
The Bassia latifolia, an East Indian tree called madhuca
or mahowa, is valuable for timber, and bears seeds from
which oil is obtained. The Galam butter
or Shea, butter, an important article of
commerce in Central Africa, which is pro-
## s cured from the seeds of Bassia Parkū, is
EEEEE. more solid and more palatable than the
butter of cow’s milk. It is asserted that
= it will keep for a year without salt.
Bassi'ni (CARLo), born in Cuneo,
Italy, in 1812, became celebrated as a vio-
linist, musical director, and composer.
He was long a successful music-teacher
; in New York. He published the “Art of
Singing” (1857), “Melodic Exercises”
; (1865), “Method for the Tenor” (1866),
“Method for the Barytone” (1868), and
ź, other valuable works. Died Nov. 26, 1870.
Bassompierre, de (FRANÇors),
BARON, a French general, born at Har-
mel, in Lorraine, 1579. He was an ac-
# complished courtier, greatly addicted to
N intrigues, and gained the favor of Louis
XIII., who raised him to the rank of
marshal of France in 1622, and sent him
on embassies to Spain and England. He
fought against the Huguenots at La Ro-
chelle. Having offended Cardinal Riche-
lieu, he was confined in the Bastile about
twelve years (1631–42). He died Oct. 12,
1646, leaving interesting “Mémoires” (2
vols., 1665), which were written in the
Bastile, and are commended as attractive
in style. (See PUYMAIGRE, “Vie de Bas-
sompierre,” 1848.)
Bassoon’ [Fr. basson; It. fagot' to], a
wind instrument which consists of a per-
forated tube of wood in several pieces,
which are fastened together, so as to bring the holes and
keys within the reach of the fingers. At the end is at-
tached a small tapering, crooked brass tube, at the termi-
nation of which is placed a reed to produce the tone. It
has a compass of three octaves, from double B flat to B flat
in alt.
Bas’sora, Bas’sorah, Bas’ra, or Bus’sorah, a
city of Asiatic Turkey, in the province of Irak-Arabi, on
the Euphrates (here called Shat-el-Arab), 70 miles from
its mouth. It is surrounded by a brick wall nearly eight
miles in circuit, which encloses gardens, rice-fields, and
groves of the date-palm. The houses are mean and the
place is unhealthy. About half of the inhabitants are
Arabs. Bassora has an extensive trade, being an entrepôt.
for the exchange of the productions of Turkey and Persia.
for the commodities of India. The river is navigable to
this point for ships of 500 tons. Among the exports are
horses, dates, raw silk, and precious metals. Bassora Was
founded by the calif Omâr about 636 A.D., and was once
a rich and populous city. Pop. about 4000.
Bassora Gum, a whitish or yellowish opaque sub-
stance resembling gum-arabic, but differing from it by
being mostly insoluble in water.
|Basso a Rilievo. See BAS-RELIEF.
Bass River, a township of Burlington co., N. J.
Pop. 807.
Bass’s Strait separates Australia from Tasmania, and
is about 140 miles wide. It was first explored by George
Bass in 1798. The navigation of this strait is obstructed
by small islands and coral reefs.
Bast, or Bass [Lat. liber or endophloe'um], the fibrous
inner bark of exogenous plants, consists mostly of sap-
vessels or laticiferous vessels. It is most conspicuous in
exogenous trees as the substance interposed between the
true bark and the wood. It is sometimes valuable for
medicinal purposes, and is often used in the fabrication of
cloths, ropes, mats, sacks, etc. The Russians apply the
name bast especially to the inner bark of the linden tree
(Tilia Europaea), which is extensively used for making
ropes, mats, and shoes. The trees are cut down in spring
when the sap abounds. This matting is extensively im-
ported, and used in packing furniture and other articles,
covering tender plants in gardens, etc.
Bas/tard [Old Fr.], in law, a person born of parents
not married to each other. It includes several distinct cases,
as where the mother is unmarried, or she is a married Wo-
man, or where she was married at the time of conception,
but not married at the time of birth—e.g., being then di-
vorced from the bonds of matrimony or a widow. By the
rules of the common law the fact of the marriage of the









IBASTIA—BASYLE.
413
parents at the time of birth is the test of legitimacy, even
though such marriage may have immediately preceded the
birth. By the civil or Roman law, intermarriage after birth
has a retroactive effect, and makes the child legitimate.
This rule prevails in Scotland. This difference presents
frequently an interesting question in private international
law. Thus, if a person owning both land and personal
property in England should become domiciled in Scotland,
and there marry the mother of his bastard child, the
marriage would make the child legitimate, so that he
could succeed to the personal property in England, but he
would not inherit the land there situated. Some of the
States in this country follow the common-law rule, while
others by statute have adopted the Scotch, so that the same
point may arise in our inter-State jurisprudence. In the
case where the mother is a married woman, and it is claim-
ed that a child is the offspring of an adulterous connection,
it will not be enough that the adulterer may have been the
father. It must be proved that the husband could not have
been, either by absence from the country or other sufficient
reason. The presumptions of law favor legitimacy, and pub-
lic policy requires that these should only be overcome by the
most satisfactory proof. (The details of this branch of the
law can be found in the work of Mr. NICHOLAs on the “Law of
Adulterine Bastardy.”) Public policy also requires that the
mother should not be allowed, for the purpose of bastard-
izing the issue, to be a witness to prove want of access on
the part of the husband. In the special case where the
mother is at the time of the child’s birth a widow, a ques-
tion may arise as to the effect of the time intervening be-
tween the death of the husband and the birth of the child
in raising a presumption of illegitimacy. No precise time
is fixed by law, and the testimony of experts must be re-
sorted to. Statutes sometimes fix a period after which the
presumption of illegitimacy will arise. A similar question
may arise after a divorce from the bonds of matrimony for
the husband's fault. In the case of a divorce from bed and
board, where a child subsequently comes into existence it
is presumed to be illegitimate, as it will be supposed that
the parties have obeyed the decree of the court and have
lived apart. This presumption may be rebutted by satis-
factory evidence. a
By the common law, a parent is not bound to sustain an
illegitimate child. By a series of statutes in England, com-
mencing in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the duty of Sup-
port is imposed on the supposed father as well as the moth-
er. This legislation proceeds upon the theory that it is a
criminal act to bring such a child into the world and to
cast its support upon the public. Accordingly, an inquiry
is had before magistrates into the facts of the case, and
if parentage is established an order is made for a period-
ical allowance for the child’s support. Should the parent
abscond, his or her property may be sequestered. Due pro-
vision is made for a review of the order of the magistrates.
These statutes are substantially re-enacted in this country.
This class of children do not have the same civil rights in
all respects as those who are legitimate. They cannot in-
herit land from either father, mother, or collateral relatives,
or transmit land to them. Natural ties are, however, re-
garded, it being the same crime for bastard relatives to in-
termarry as for those who are legitimate. Such a child has
no name except as it may acquire it by reputation. It is
deemed to have its domicil of origin at the place of its
birth. These disabilities in this country are to some ex-
tent modified by statutes in the respective States. Thus,
in New York an illegitimate child may inherit from its
mother, in default of legitimate descendants; so the moth-
er may in like circumstances inherit from the child. A
bastard child may be made legitimate by a special act of
the legislature both in England and in this country. Such
an act cannot, however, interfere with vested rights of
others. It could not divest property which had been pre-
viously transmitted to legitimate relatives.
T. W. DWIGHT.
Basti'a, a fortified seaport of Corsica, on the N. E.
coast, 75 miles N. E. of Ajaccio; lat. 42° 42° N., lon. 9°
27' E. It is the richest and most populous town in the
island, of which it was formerly the capital. It is pic-
turesquely situated on the slope of a hill which rises in the
form of an amphitheatre. It has a harbor which admits
Small vessels, and has a considerable trade in leather, wine,
oil, coral, etc. Here are numerous tanneries. Pop. in 1866,
21,535.
Bastian (HENRY CHARLTON), M. D., F. R. S., born at
Truro, England, April 26, 1837, is distinguished as an ad-
vocate of the doctrine of the spontaneous generation of
living organisms. He early gained a brilliant fame as a
pathologist. He has since his twenty-third year been offi-
cially connected with the London University, and in 1871
became professor of pathological anatomy in University
College. He has published “Modes of Origin of Lowest
Organisms” (1871) and “The Beginnings of Life” (1872).
Bastiat (FRíDíRIC), an eminent French political econ-
mist and advocate of free trade, was born at Bayonne June
29, 1801. He wrote against the protective system in the
“Journal des Economistes.” During a visit to England
he became acquainted with Cobden, and on his return
(1845) he produced translations of the speeches of British
free-traders. He was chosen a member of the Constituent
and Legislative Assemblies of 1848 and 1849. His chief
work is “Harmonies Economiques” (1849). He died at
Rome Dec. 24, 1850.
Bastide (JULEs), a French republican and journalist,
was born in Paris Nov. 22, 1800. He became chief editor
of the “National” about 1836, and founded the “Revue
Nationale’’ in 1846. He was minister of foreign affairs
under Cavaignac from June to Dec., 1848. He has pub-
lished important educational and historical works.
Bastile, or Bastille [from b&tir or bastir, to “build”],
a French word signifying “fortress,” applied especially to
the state prison and citadel of Paris, which was built about
1370 by Charles W. Additions were made to it by several
successive kings, and it was surrounded by a wide ditch.
Among its prominent features were eight large round tow-
ers five stories high, having walls twelve feet thick or more.
In these towers were many cells for prisoners. ' The inmates
of this prison were generally noblemen, authors, politicians,
etc., who had not been legally convicted of crime, but were
victims of royal jealousy, political despotism, court intrigue,
or ecclesiastical persecution. The only formula used in con-
demning a man to the Bastile was the lettre de cachet. Among
the eminent men confined here were Voltaire, Bassompierre,
and the Man in the Iron. Mask. The prisoners were left in
ignorance of the cause and duration of their punishment,
and were completely debarred from intercourse with their
friends. The first violent symptom of the French Revolu-
tion was the destruction of the Bastile, which the populace
took by storm July 14, 1789. They killed the governor,
De Launay, and released the prisoners, who were only
seven in number.
Bastina/do [It. bastona'ta, a “blow with a stick,” from
basto'ne, a “staff” or “stick”], a name given by Europeans
to a form of punishment which is gommon in Turkey and
several Oriental countries, and was practised by the ancient.
Egyptians. It consists of blows inflicted with a stick on
the soles of the feet.
Bas’tion [from the Fr. bātir (formerly spelled bastir),
to “build”], a bulwark; a projecting tower erected to de-
fend the wall of a town or fortification. An unbroken wall
enveloping a city or other place, for its defence, would be
unseen at its foot; hence during ancient times and the
Middle Ages towers of various kinds projected at inter-
vals, from which the intermediate portions of the wall
could be observed and reached by defensive projectiles (i. e.
“flanked”). The invention of gunpowder made it neces-
sary to cover enveloping walls (the emceinte) by earth in
the form of a glacis in front of the ditch, and to enlarge
these flanking towers to receive artillery. Thus enlarged,
their own walls would have been undefended had not their
outline been so contrived that they should flank each other.
Hence arises the bastion, the two faces of which, directed
upon the inner extremities of the flanks of the adjoining
bastions, are flanked (that is, defended) by them; hence a
bastion has two faces and two flanks; the fifth side of the
figure, called the gorge (between the extremities of the cur-
tain and towards the interior of the place), is usually open.
That portion of the enceinte which fills the interval between
two bastions, uniting with the inner extremities of their
flanks, is called the curtain. The ensemble of a curtain and
two half bastions is called a bastioned front. (See FORTIFI-
CATION, by O. H. ERNST, captain of engineers, U. S. Army.)
Bas’tress, a township of Lycoming co., Pa. Pop. 251.
Bas/trop, a county of the central part of Texas, has
an area of 1001 square miles. It is intersected by the
Colorado River, which is here navigable for steamboats.
The surface is undulating; the soil is generally fertile, and
produces cotton and maize. Lignite is abundant. It is
intersected by the western division of the Houston and
Texas Central R. R. Capital, Bastrop. Pop. 12,290.
Bastrop, a post-village, capital of Morehouse parish,
La., on Bayou Bartholomew, 300 miles N. by W. of Baton
Rouge. It has two academies, one weekly paper, and is in
one of the best cotton regions in the State. Pop. 521.
ED, “ MoREHOUSE ConsBRVATIVE.”
Bastrop, a post-village, capital of Bastrop co., Tex,
on the Colorado River, 35 miles E. S. E. of Austin City.
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1199. -
Bas/yle [from the Gr. Bárts, “base,” and 5&n, “timber,”
“substance”] is the name given by Graham to a substance,
414 A
BAT—BATES.
whether simple or compound, which can unite with oxygen
to produce a base. Thus, all the metals are examples of
simple basyles, while ammonium, ethyl, methyl, etc. are
compound basyles.
Bat [Lat. vespertilio], the common name for animals
belonging to the order Cheiroptera, mammals possessing a
fold of skin which commences at the neck and extends on
each side between the fore legs or arms and the posterior
limbs, serving as wings which enable the animal to fly.
Bats are the only mammals which have the power of flight.
The anterior extremities and digits are usually very long,
the eyes small, ears large, thumbs short and armed with a
hook-like mail, as are each of the toes of the hind feet. The
clavicle is generally long. Some species have a spur on
the heel. Bats fly for the most part only in the night, liv-
ing by day in hollow trees, caves, and dark buildings.
Even when their eyes have been destroyed, they can fly
through narrow and tortuous passages without hitting.
This is probably owing to their delicate sense of hearing
and touch. Except in tropical climates, they hibernate in
cold weather. *
Bats are divided into two groups: the so-called frugivorous
and the insectivorous bats. The *E=º: **
former are found only in the Old #ººl;
World tropical regions. They
feed chiefly on fruits, but also
eat birds, Small mammals, etc. 2:
They number forty or more #
species, and include the rou-
settes, kalongs, “flying foxes,” is
etc. Some of them can spread #3
their wings five feet from tip to #
tip. The principal genus is ##
Pteropus, and its species are re-
markable as having only twenty-
four vertebrae, a smaller number
than any other known verte-
brate possesses. The insectiv-
Flying Fox Bat.
orous bats are by far the most numerous, some 200 species
being described. The most formidable of these are the
vampires—tropical Ameri- - E: -
can bats of the genus Phyl-
lostoma, having a leaf-like
membrane on the end of
the nose. They are famous ,
for their habit of fastening
upon sleeping animals and #
men for the purpose of suck- tº
ing their blood. Such wit-
messes as D'Azara, Tschudi,
Waterton, and Darwin confirm this disputed statement.
The bats of the U. S. are not very numerous in species,
though abundant in individuals. They are of the genera
|Vespertilio, Molossw8, Ple- ~s •- --→- -
cotus, etc. Europe is
much more rich in spe-
cies, the “ long-eared .
bat,” Plecotus communis,
being one of the most
common. Bats are ex-
tremely useful in destroy-
ing insects, and their ex-
crement so accumulates
in certain caves, as in
Farther India, in Ten-
nessee, Arkansas, etc., as
to promise to become an
important source of guano, of which the quality is in some
cases excellent. Fossil remains of bats first appear in the
€O Cerle. CHAs. W. GREENE.
Bat’aszek, a town of Hungary, in the county of Tolna;
70 miles W. of Szegedin, has large vineyards which produce
an excellent wine. Pop. in 1870, 6452.
Batatas Edulis. See Sweet PotAT0.
Bata/vi, an ancient German tribe or nation who inhab-
ited the country now called Holland, especially an island
called Batavia or Insula Batavorum, which was enclosed by
the Rhine, the Waal (Vahalis), the Meuse (Mosa), and the
ocean. They were conquered by Germanicus, and became
loyal subjects of the Roman empire. They were exempted
from the payment of taxes. The Batavian cavalry served
in the Roman armies, and had a high reputation.
Bata'via, a city and seaport of Java, the capital of the
Dutch possessions in the East Indies, is on the northern
coast of the island and on the Java, Sea; lat. 6° 8' S., lon.
106° 50' E. Its site is flat and marshy, and intersected by
canals. The place was formerly very unhealthy, but has
been improved by draining. The temperature continues
about uniform throughout the year, the average being 78° F.
Long-eared Bat.
Batavia, which has a good harbor, is the greatest commer-
cial emporium of the Malay Archipelago. It has a stadt-
house, an exchange, numerous churches, several Chinese
temples, a bank, a school of arts and sciences, and a
botanic garden. A telegraphic cable connects it with
Singapore, about 600 miles distant. The chief articles of
export are coffee, sugar, pepper, indigo, hides, cloves, nut-
megs, mace, tin, rice, and rattans. Among the imports are
various articles of European manufacture. Pop. estimated
at 180,000. This city was founded by the Dutch in 1619.
Batavia, a post-village and township of Kane co., Ill.,
on Fox River, 38 miles W. of Chicago, with which it is
connected by two railroad lines. It has two large schools,
an institute for the insane, valuable quarries, extensive
manufactures, a weekly newspaper, and a national bank.
Pop. of township, 3018. ED. OF ‘‘NEWS.”
Batavia, a post-township of Branch co., Mich. P. 1308.
Batavia, the county-seat of Genesee co., N. Y., on the
Tonawanda Creek and the New York Central and Erie
R. Rs. The Canandaigua and Tonawanda and Attica
R. Rs. meet at this point, 36 miles E. of Buffalo and 32
miles W. of Rochester. It contains six churches, several
important manufactories, two national banks, one savings
bank, three newspaper-offices, union school, ladies' Sem-
inary, public library, and the State institution for the blind.
Pop. of village, 3890; of Batavia township, 6485.
HENRY TODD, ED. “SPIRIT of THE TIMEs.”
Batavia, a post-village, capital of Clermont co., 0., on
the East Fork of the Little Miami River, 21 miles E. of
Cincinnati. It has a manufactory of tin-ware, one of car-
riages, a national bank, and two weekly papers. Pop. of
township, 3334. ED. OF “CLERMONT SUN.”
Bata/vian Repub’lic. Holland having been con-
quered by the French in 1795, the prince of Orange was
deposed and a new government was established with the
title of the Batavian republic. This was an ally or tribu-
tary to the French republic, and as such was involved in a
war against the British, who nearly ruined the Dutch navy.
In June, 1806, this republic was converted into a kingdom,
of which Louis Bonaparte became king.
Batſchelder (SAMUEL), born in Jaffrey, N. H., June
8, 1784, began the cotton manufacture in New Ipswich,
N. H., in 1808. He superintended the erection of cotton-
mills in Lowell, Saco, etc., invented a dynamometer for
mill-work, and published a “History of the Cotton Manu-
facture in the U. S.”
Bat/cheller (OLIVER A.), U. S. N., born June 1, 1842,
in the State of New York, graduated at the Naval Academy
in 1861, became an ensign in 1862, a lieutenant in 1864,
and a lieutenant-commander in 1866. He was attached
to the steamer Mississippi at the attack on Port Hudson,
Mar. 15, 1863, when that vessel was destroyed. In 1864
and 1865 he was attached to the Western Gulf blockading
squadron, and served on the steamer Monongahela as exec-
utive officer in the battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864, and
in the subsequent operations leading to the fall of Mobile.
He was commended for gallantry by his commanding
officer, Commander Strong, in his official report to Rear-
Admiral Farragut of Aug. 6, 1864.
- Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Bateman (KATE JosBPHINE), an actress, was born at
Baltimore, Md., Oct. 7, 1842, and was the daughter of H.
L. Bateman and Mrs. Bateman, both well known in theat-
rical circles; and her sister Ellen (Mrs. Greppo) was also
an actress before her marriage. The sisters were brought
up almost from infancy upon the stage. In 1862, Kate
Bateman appeared at Boston as “Leah,” her greatest cha-
racter, and won great applause in the U. S. and Great
Britain. In 1866 she was married to George Crowe, a
former editor of the “London News.”
Bates, a county of Missouri, bordering on Kansas.
Area, 900 square miles. It is traversed by the Marais des
Cygnes (or Osage River). Cattle, grain, and tobacco are
extensively raised. The surface is undulating; a large
part of the county is prairie. Capital, Butler. Pop. 15,960.
Bates, a township of Sebastian co., Ark. Pop. 623.
Bates, a township of Greenville co., S. C. Pop. 1400.
Bates (EDwARD), LL.D., an American statesman and
lawyer, was born at Belmont, Goochland co., Va., Sept. 4,
1793, and emigrated to Missouri in his youth. He became
a political friend of Henry Clay, and was elected a mem-
ber of Congress in 1827. He presided at the national con-
vention of the friends of internal improvement which met
at Chicago in 1847, and opposed the repeal of the Missouri
Compromise in 1854. In Mar, 1861, he was appointed
attorney-general of the U. S. He resigned in 1864. Died
Mar. 25, 1869.
Bates (ISAAC C.), born at Granville, Mass., in 1780,









BATES-BATH.
415
graduated at Yale in 1802, became a lawyer at Northamp-
ton, Mass., was a Whig member of Congress (1827–35) and
U. S. Senator (1842–45). Died Mar. 16, 1845.
Bates (Josh UA), born in Weymouth, Mass., in 1788.
He removed to London in 1826, and became a partner in
the banking-house of Baring Brothers & Co. He was the
principal founder of the Boston Free Library, to establish
which he gave $50,000, on the condition that it should be
“perfectly free to all, with no other restrictions than may
be necessary for the preservation of the books.” He after-
wards contributed books to the value of $50,000. Died
Sept. 24, 1864. (See “Memorial of Joshua Bates, from the
city of Boston,” 1865.)
Bates (Joshu A), D. D., born at Cohasset, Mass., Mar.
20, 1776, graduated at Harvard in 1800, was ordained pas-
tor of the Congregational church at Dedham, Mass., in
1803, was president of Middlebury College, Vt. (1818–39),
was for a time chaplain of the U. S. Senate, and pastor in
Dudley, Mass. (1843–54). He published various discourses,
sermons, and other writings. Died Jan. 14, 1854.
Bates (MARTIN W.), born at Salisbury, Conn., Feb. 24,
1787, studied medicine, but became a lawyer of Delaware,
from which State he was U. S. Senator (1857–59). Died
at Dover, Del., Jan. 1, 1869. *
Bates (SAMUEL PENNIMAN), LL.D., born at Mendon,
Mass., in 1827, graduated at Brown University in 1851, was
principal of Meadville Academy, Pa. (1852–57), where he did
much to stimulate the cause of education. In 1857 he be-
came superintendent of schools in Crawford co., Pa.; in
1860 deputy State superintendent; in 1865 State historian
of Pennsylvania. He has published various works, among
which are a “History of Pennsylvania Volunteers ” (5
vols.), “History of the Colleges of Pennsylvania,” “School
Laws of Pennsylvania.
“Lives of the Governors of Pennsylvania” (1873).
Bates (WILLIAM), D.D., one of the most ornate and
learned of the English nonconformist writers, was born in
Nov., 1625, and died at Hackney, July 14, 1699. He as-
sisted at the Savoy Conference for reviewing the Liturgy.
Soon after the restoration of Charles II. he was made one
of His Majesty’s chaplains, and but for his nonconformity
might have become a bishop. His contemporaries called
him the “silver-tongued.” In 1681 he published (anony-
mously) “Vitae Selectorum Aliquot Wivorum.” His most
valuable treatise is “The Harmony of the Divine Attributes
in the Contrivance and Accomplishment of Man's Redemp-
tion,” 1697. His collected works were published in 1700,
again in 1723, and again in 1815, by Farmer, in 4 vols. 8vo.
Batesville, a post-village, capital of Independence
co., Ark., on White River, 90 miles N. N. E. of Little Rock,
and 115 miles W. N. W. of Memphis. It is the seat of
Batesville Academy and Soulesbury Institute. The river
is navigable for small steamboats to this point, and part of
the year for large ones. It has 2 free schools, 2 hotels, 1
woollen factory, 5 flouring-mills, 2 wagon-shops, I cabinet
warehouse, and 1 weekly paper. Pop. 881.
W. H. BAYNE, PUB. “REPUBLICAN.”
Batesville, a post-village of Panola, co., Miss. P. 227.
Bath [Ger. Bad], the application to the body of water
or other liquid, or of spray or vapor, for the purpose of
cleansing the surface or of preserving or restoring health.
Water, employed in the bath, is an important agent in the
treatment and prevention of disease. In ancient Greece,
Rome, Germany, and Judea, in Mohammedan lands (by
religious precépt), as in modern Finland and some other
countries, bathing may be regarded as almost universal,
though in desert countries the Moslems use sand instead
of the water which is there. so precious. Some of the
American Indians, though not otherwise remarkably clean,
practise bathing in water or steam even to excess. Surf-bath-
ing is a nearly universal pastime on many islands of the
Pacific. The ancient Romans had extensive public baths—
institutions which of late have been revived in Europe and
America on a smaller scale, but in a manner not liable to
the serious abuses which disgraced the Roman baths.
The “hot” bath and vapor bath are above 999 F., the
normal heat of the blood; warm, tepid, and cold baths.
being of lower temperature. The vapor bath of water or
alcohol accelerates the heart’s action, softens the skin, and
produces profuse sweating, and is useful in various skin
diseases, in chronic rheumatism, and in some diseases of
the kidneys, etc. The hot bath is also stimulant. Locally
applied, it relieves pain and allays inflammation. The
hot bath is often employed in the convulsive diseases
of children, but its effect may be a profound one ; and the
tepid or warm bath is much safer, since the skin of a
child is extremely sensitive to heat and cold. The hot
bath sometimes causes a sense as of choking, and a de-
gree of giddiness or headache. When its action is favor-
He assisted in preparing Armor's.
able, profuse sweating results. The warm bath is a seda-
tive, usually inclining one to inactivity or sleep. It is
useful in feverish or restless conditions and in eruptive
diseases, but is not to be recommended in acute diseases
of the chest, which may be aggravated by it. The cold
and tepid bath are those most generally to be employed.
Cold bathing ought never to be practised while the person
is exhausted or perspiring freely; and there are many
nervous, thin, and sensitive persons who cannot safely en-
dure the shock and loss of heat which it occasions. The ap-
plication of cold water by the sponge or “pack” is an ex-
cellent measure in many cases of typhoid and other fevers.
The “hydropathic pack” (in which the patient is wrapped
in a wet sheet and closely covered with blankets), the hip
bath, the douche or jet, and the shower bath have each
their important uses in therapeutics. Various sulphur
and other springs have a direct effect in skin diseases,
and useful saline and other principles are no doubt capa-
ble of absorption’ into the system by the skin. Various
drugs are used in vapor baths, and act upon the patient
after absorption. Sea-bathing has a peculiar tonic effect
upon some patients. Besides the above, the “Turkish ’’
and “Russian * baths have been devised, which combine
a thorough and direct detergent effect upon the skin with
the various advantages of the warm and tepid bath, adding
thereto the often invaluable results of manipulation or
“kneading” the patient, a process the importance of which
in selected cases can hardly be overestimated. “Wine
baths,” “mud baths,” and other devices have been tried
in different diseases, often with more or less benefit to the
patient. REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Bath (anc. Aquae Solis), a city of England, capital of
Somersetshire, is beautifully situated in a valley on the river
Avon, 20 miles from its mouth and 102 miles by rail W. S.W.
of London; lat. 51° 23' N., lon. 2° 22' W. The houses are
mostly built of white freestone, “Bath oolite,” quarried in
the vicinity. Bath presents perhaps a finer appearance than
any other city of England, which is partly a consequence of
the configuration of its site. This is in the form of an amphi-
theatre, on the declivity of which the finest streets extend
in successive terraces. The principal public buildings are
the Abbey church, in the latest Gothic style, 210 feet long;
St. Michael’s church, the guild-hall, an elegant theatre,
a masonic temple, and the assembly and concert rooms.
The beauty of the situation, the mildness of the climate,
and the curative efficacy of its hot saline springs render
Bath a very fashionable place of resort. The temperature
of the springs, four in number, varies from.97° to 117° F.
They rise on the bank of the river, and discharge 184,320
gallons daily. This water is recommended for scrofula,
palsy, gout, cutaneous diseases, etc. This city sends two
members to Parliament. The Romans erected baths at this
place in the first century, and called it Aquae Solis. Nume-
rous Roman antiquities have been found in and near Bath.
The Great Western Railway passes through Bath. Pop.
in 1871, 52,542. -
Bath, a port of entry, capital of Addington co., prov-
ince of Ontario, Canada, is on the N. shore of the Bay of
Quinté, in Ernestown township, 18 miles W. S. W. of
Kingston. -
Bath, a county in N. E. Kentucky. Area, 290 square
miles. It is bounded, on the N. E. by the Licking River.
The surface is partly hilly; the soil in the N. W. part is
based on limestone, and is fertile. Grain, tobacco, and
wool are among the chief crops. The county contains coal
and medicinal springs. Capital, Owingsville. Pop. 10,145.
Bath, a county of Virginia, bordering on West Vir-
ginia. Area, 725 square miles. It is intersected by the
Cowpasture River and Back Creek. The surface is diver-
sified by ridges of the Alleghany Mountains with inter-
vening valleys, and abounds in beautiful scenery. Grain,
wool, and stock are raised. Limestone and iron ore are
found here. The county is traversed by the Chesapeake
and Ohio R. R. It contains many medicinal springs, in-
cluding the “Hot Springs” (110° F.), the “Warm Springs,”
the “Healing Springs,” the “Bath Alum Springs,” etc.
It also contains the famous “Blowing Cave,” and abounds
in fine scenery. Capital, Bath Court-house, or Warm
Springs. Pop. 3795. - -
Bath, a post-village and township of Mason co., Ill.,
near the Illinois River, and on the Peoria Pekin and Jaek-
sonville R. R., 34 miles N. by E. of Jacksonville. Pop. 464;
of township, 2124. -
Bath, a township of Franklin co., Ind. Pop. 675.
Bath, a city of Maine, and capital of Sagadahoc co.,
is on the right (W.) bank of the Kennebec River, 12 miles
from the ocean, 30 miles S. of Augusta, and 36 miles N. E.
of Portland. It is built on uneven ground, is lighted with
gas, and contains five national banks and twelve churches.
—-
416
BATH-BATON ROUGE.
It is advantageously situated for navigation, and has steam-
boat communication with Boston and Portland. The Knox
and Lincoln R. R., running from Rockland, 45 miles long,
connects with the Maine Central at Bath. The principal
business of Bath is shipbuilding. In the year ending June,
1863, sixteen ships and barks, two brigs, and one steamer
were built here. There are also many extensive manufac-
tories of lumber, two of boots and shoes, one of carriages,
and a large manufactory of railroad cars, a large iron-
foundry, brass-foundry, cordage-factory, and machine and
boiler shops. There are three printing-offices, one daily
and one weekly paper, three bookstores, and one book-
bindery. Bath has long been noted for the excellence of
its schools. Pop. 7371.
E. Upton, Ed. “DAILY Trºſes.”
Bath, a post-township of Clinton co., Mich. P. 1125.
Bath, a township of Freeborn co., Minn. Pop. 404.
Bath, a post-township of Grafton co., N. H., on the
Connecticut River and on the Boston Concord and Mon-
treal R. R., 15 miles S. W. of Littleton. It has an acad-
emy, and manufactures of lumber, leather, paper, boots,
shoes, starch, etc. Pop. 1168.
Bath, a village of New Utrecht township, Kings co.,
N. Y., on Gravesend Bay, and on the Brooklyn Bath and
Coney Island R. R., 2 miles from Coney Island. It is a
Summer resort.
Bath, a village of North Greenbush township, Rens-
selaer co., N. Y., on the Hudson River, opposite the upper
portion of Albany. It has a mineral spring. Pop. 1465.
Bath, a post-village and semi-capital of Steuben co.,
N. Y., is on the Cohocton Creek and on the Erie R. R.
(Rochester division), 74 miles S. S. E. of Rochester and
310 miles from New York. It has a jail and court-house,
six churches, one national bank, several factories and mills,
two newspapers, and an orphan asylum. Pop. of Bath
township, 6236. -
Bath, a post-township of Beaufort co., N. C. Pop. 1969.
Bath, a township of Allen co., O. Pop. 1255.
Bath, a post-township of Greene co., O. Pop. 2684.
Bath, a post-township of Summit co., O. Pop. 1034.
Bath, a post-borough of Northampton co., Pa., 10 miles
% of Easton, with which it is connected by railroad. Pop.
07. -
Bath (or Berk’ley Springs), the capital of Morgan
co., West Va., is situated 2% miles S. of the Potomac River
and the Baltimore and Ohio R. R., at Sir John’s Run, 128
miles W. N. W. of Baltimore. Here are medicinal springs,
which are much frequented, and have a temperature of
74° F. They are useful in rheumatic, calculous, nervous,
and catarrhal diseases. It has a large tannery and one
weekly newspaper. Pop. 407; of Bath township, 925.
C. H. HoDGSON, ED. “MERCURY.”
Bath Alum Springs, a post-village of Bath
co., Va., 5 miles E. of Bath Court-house and 45
miles W. of Staunton. Here are several alumin-
ous and chalybeate springs, which are much fre-
quented by patients who require tonic and mod-
erately astringent medication.
Bath Court-house, or Warm Springs,
a post-village, capital of Bath co., Va., 50 miles
(K. G. C.), the number of whom is limited to 50 military
men and 25 civilians, besides the royal family; second
class, Knights Commanders (K. C. B.) = 102 military and
50 eivil; these and the first have the title of Sir; third
class, Companions (C.B.) = 525 military and 200 civil.
Bath, MARQUESSEs of (1789, Great Britain); Viscounts
Weymouth, Barons Thynne (England, 1682), and baronets
(England, 1641), a prominent family of Great Britain.—
JoHN ALEXANDER THYNNE, the fourth marquess, was born
Mar. 1, 1831, and succeeded his father in 1837.
Bath Stone, a building-stone extensively used in
England, is procured from quarries in the lower oolite in
Somersetshire, near Bath. It is fine-grained, of a rich
cream color, is easily wrought, and hardens on exposure to
the air, but is not very durable. It contains about 94 per
cent. of carbonate of lime and 2% of carbonate of magnesia.
Bath'urst, a thriving town of New South Wales, capital
of Bathurst county, is on the Macquarie River, 98 miles
W. N. W. of Sydney. It is connected with Sydney by a
fine road leading over the mountains. It is the centre of
the mining district of New South Wales. Pop. in 1871,
about 5000; of the town, and district, 16,826.
Bathurst, a port of entry, capital of Gloucester co.,
New Brunswick, on the Bay of Chaleurs, 175 miles N. by
E. of St. John, has a good harbor, and an extensive trade
in lumber, trout, and salmon. Pop. in 1871, 4469.
Bathurst, EARLs of, Barons Apsley (1771), Barons
Bathurst (1712, in the peerage of Great Britain), a prom-
inent family of Great Britain.—WILLIAM LENNox BATH-
URST, the fifth earl, born Feb. 14, 1791, succeeded his
brother, the fourth earl, in May, 1866. -
Bathyb’ius [from the Gr. Ba0.js, “deep,” and Bios,
“life”], a name given by some biologists to a formless
expanse of matter of an albuminous or protoplasmic
character which is believed to cover large areas of the
ocean’s bed, and to manifest some characteristic evidences
of possessing organic and perhaps animal life. Its exist-
ence is not universally admitted by Savants.
Bathyl'Ius [Gr. Bá0vXAos], a popular comedian and
performer of comic pantomime, was born at Alexandria in
Egypt, and lived about 30 B. C. He was a freedman of
Maecenas, and played in Rome.
Bat’iscan Bridge, a post-village of Champlain co.,
Quebec, Canada, on the N. shore of the St. Lawrence, 69
miles below Quebec, has two lighthouses and manufactures
and exports of flour, lumber, and leather.
Batiste (bā'teest') Cambric, a fine white linen tissue,
remarkable for the firmness and evenness of the threads,
manufactured in India and France. The term is sometimes
applied to a thin fabric which is partly cotton, or to a thin
stuff made of silk and wool or of native Indian fibre.
Batley (RoPERT), M. D. See APPENDIx.
Bat Mialthae’a (3/althaea vespertilio), a fish of the At-
W. of Staunton and 5 miles N. E. of Hot Springs. º # º
It has warm saline, chalybeate springs, which arºº š
have a reputation for the cure of scrofula, rheu- tº ########,
matism, and anaemia. -
Bath Ring of Arms (called also Glouces-
ter King of Arms), the principal herald of the
order of the Bath and of the principality of Wales.
Gloucester King of Arms was a title conferred only
by Richard III. of England, until 1726, when
George I. restored the office, and conferred the
higher title of Bath King of Arms. This officer
does not belong to the College of Heralds, but
takes precedence of both Clarenceux and Norroy.
He grants arms in his jurisdiction, subject to
Garter and the Earl Marshal.
Bath, Knights of the, a military order in Great
Britain, deriving its name from the ceremony of bathing
which was performed at the initiation of the knights. The
earliest authentic instance of this ceremony was at the
coronation of Henry IV. (1399). The last occasion on
which this ceremony was used was the coronation of
Charles II., in 1660, after which the order fell into oblivion
until it was revived by George I. in 1725. It is now the
Second in rank among the orders of England, the order of
the Garter being the highest. The order of the Bath com-
prises three classes: first class, Knights Grand Cross
^, Bat Malthaea.
lantic Ocean, found from South America to Newfoundland,
chiefly remarkable for the monstrosity of its shape. Other
species of the genus are known, but they are not very fre-
Quently taken. - -
Batſon [originally, baston; a French word signifying
“staff,” “stick,” or “truncheon "I a staff of office, a sym-
bol of authority among many nations. The baton of a
marshal of France or British field-marshal is a symbol of
the highest military authority. The term is also applied
by the French to a bishop's crook and to a flagstaff.
Baton Rouge, a city of Louisiana, capital of the








BATON ROUGE–BATTEL.
parish of East Baton, Rouge, is on the left (E.) bank of
the Mississippi, 129 miles above New Orleans; lat. 30°28'
N., lon. 91° 11" W. It stands on a bluff which rises about
25 feet above the highest inundations. The river below
the city is bordered by plantations of sugar-cane, groves
of tropical fruit trees, and handsome villas and gardens.
The seat of government was established here in 1847. The
capitol was completed in 1852, at a cost of $246,000. It
contains a State-house (which was burned during the war,
though its walls are still perfect), a college, four churches,
asylums for the deaf and dumb and the blind, and a peni-
tentiary in which are 600 convicts. The legislature met
here Jan. 21, 1861, and on the 26th adopted the ordinance
of secession. The city was taken by the U. S. forces
May 7, 1862. On Aug. 5, 1862, a Confederate force, num-
bering 5000, under Gen. Breckenridge, attacked the gar-
rison under Gen. Thomas Williams, but was repulsed after
a fierce contest of two hours’ duration, in which Gen. Wil-
liams was killed. The place was shortly after evacuated by
the U. S. forces. The arsenal has been broken up. The cli-
mate is delightful and healthy, and the soil from which this
city draws its support is rich and easy to cultivate. For
\ }.
N
—s:
, 417
the growth of grapes, peaches, plums, figs, etc. it has few
equals. Baton Rouge has two weekly, one semi-monthly,
and one tri-weekly paper. Pop. 6498.
W. C. ANNIs, ED. “ GAZETTE-COMET.”
Baton Rouge, a village and township of Chester co.,
S. C., 54 miles N. N. W. of Columbia. Pop. of township,
3098.
Baſtoo' (Batou or Batu) Khan, said to have been
the grandson of Jengis Khan, became governor of Kap-
chak in 1223. He conquered Russia, which he held in
subjection ten years, and made war on Poland and Hungary.
Died in 1255.
Batra'chia (plu.), [from the Gr. Bárpaxos, a “frog’],
called also Batrachians and Amphibians, one of the
five great classes into which the vertebrate animals are usu-
ally divided, though some writers have reduced the class to
the rank of an order of reptiles—a class with which they are
popularly confounded. The batrachians are cold-blooded
and oviparous, and in most living species are without
scales, and the blood is partly ačrated through the skin.
The young, for the most part, breathe by gills like those
Hatching and Progress of the Frog.
of fishes. They generally have limbs, but not always.
Their eggs are generally fecundated after extrusion. In
most cases the eggs are laid in moist places or in water;
the young assume a fish-like form (as the tadpole), and
finally, when adult, with few exceptions, lose their gills
and commence breathing by lungs like true or scaly rep-
tiles. They further differ from reptiles in various points,
such as in having two occipital condyles, while reptiles
have but one, and in having very short ribs or none at all,
while reptiles have a series of ribs. Batrachians are ar-
ranged in four orders: (1) Labyrinthodonts, all extinct,
which approached the characters of ganoid fishes in their
teeth, while in their scales and in some other points they
resembled true reptiles. (2) Caecilia, which approach the
serpents in form, being long and without legs, and having
also minute scales; but anatomically and in development
they are batrachians. They are popularly classed with
snakes. (3) The Anura, or tailless batrachians, including
frogs, tree-frogs, and toads, whose young, when they leave
the tadpole state, not only lose their gills and become lung-
breathers, but also lose the tail, put forth legs, become car-
nivorous, and for the most part adopt a mode of pro-
gression by a series of leaps. It is stated that in waterless
regions there are frogs which pass the tadpole state in the
egg, and are hatched perfect. (4) The Urodela, or tailed
batrachians, comprising, a, Salamandridae (true salaman-
ders which are terrestrial, and tritons or water-newts);
b, Amphiumidae, including the “Congo snake,” the “hell-
bender,” etc., breathing by cervical spiracles and under-
going no metamorphosis; c, the Sirenidae, having both
lungs and external gill-tufts.
Bat'rachomyoma/chia [from the Gr. 8&rpaxos, a
“frog,” wis, uvés, a “mouse,” and wóxm, a “battle”], the
name of a mock-heroic poem, the subject of which was
the battles of the frogs and mice. . It has been erroneously
ascribed to Homer. It was published by Matthiae (1805)
and by Baumeister (1852).
Batshian, or Batchian, an island of the group of
Moluccas, belonging to the Dutch, lies S. W. of Gilolo.
Area, about 900 square miles. The surface is mountainous;
the soil is fertile, and produces excellent cloves. -
Bat’ta, an allowance to the officers of the British army
in India in addition to the ordinary pay. The batta varies
according to the part of the country in which the officers
are employed, and depends on the circumstance of their
being in the field or in cantonments. The officers receive
full batta if they are in the field or more than 200 miles
from the presidential government cities. They receive
half batta when they are in garrison or in cantonment
within that distance.
Battaks, called also Battas, a race of people living
in that part of Sumatra called Batta, which lies between
the equator and the parallel of 2° 30' N. They are ad-
dicted to gambling, and are passionately fond of cock-
fights. They speak a peculiar language, have an orig-
inal alphabet or character, and write treatises on pieces
of bamboo. They commence at the bottom of the page,
and write from right to left. They make books of the inner
bark of a species of palm. (See JUNGHUHN, “I)ie Batta-
länder auf Sumatra,” 2 vols., 1847.)
Battal’ion [Fr. bataillon ], a tactical unit of infantry;
a body of infantry amounting to nearly 1000 men. In the
American cavalry and artillery service eight (in infantry
ten) companies constitute a battalion. The full comple-
ment of a battalion of British troops is usually ten com-
panies. The British infantry regiments in time of peace
have each one battalion, but the regiment of the continental
powers is mostly so large as to comprise several battalions.
In the U. S. army an infantry regiment has one battalion,
while regiments in the other arms of the service have two.
A detachment of infantry of more than one company, and
less than one regiment, is sometimes called a battalion.
Bat/tel. [Fr. bataille], an ancient mode of trial by sin-
gle combat, usually called “wager of battle.” It had its
origin among the German tribes, and was introduced into
England by William the Conqueror at the time of the Nor-
man conquest. It was used, however, in only three cases—
in the court of chivalry, in appeals of felony, and in the
issue joined in a writ of right to determine the title to real
property. In criminal cases the accuser and the accused
fought in person; in civil cases, by champions. The lead-
*



27
418
BATTELLE–BAUER.
ing reason for requiring a champion in civil cases was that
if the parties should engage in combat, and one of them
should be killed, the proceeding would terminate by his
death, and the object of the contest would be frustrated.
This barbarous mode of trial, which was based on the idea,
that Heaven would give the victory to the injured or inno-
cent party, though for a long time practically disused, con-
tinued to be recognized as part of the law of England till
the year 1819, when it was abolished by statute. (The de-
tails of the method of proceeding in the case of a writ of
right will be found in the third book of BLACKSTONE’s
“Commentaries,” p. 337.)
Battelle, a township of Lewis co., West Va. P. 2002.
Battelle, a township of Monongalia co., West Va.
Pop. 1856.
Batſtering-Ram [Lat. d’ries], an engine of war used
by the ancient Greeks and Romans to make a breach in
the wall of a town or fortress. It consisted of a heavy
beam of wood nearly 100 feet long, one end of which was
'armed with a mass of iron or bronze in the form of a ram’s
head. It was suspended by a chain or rope from a crane
or trivet, and was made to swing backward and forward in
a direction nearly horizontal. Sometimes a huge mass of
stone, armed with a ram’s head and placed on wheels, was
driven against the walls with great force. About 100 men
were employed in impelling it against the wall. To pro-
tect these men a wooden roof (testwdo) was constructed, and
the whole machine was mounted on wheels. The blows of
the ram were directed against the same point with gradually
increasing momentum, which, if continued long, hardly any
wall could resist. These engines continued to be used in
the Middle Ages until superseded by cannon.
Batſtery [Fr. batterie], a military term used in various
senses. A battery employed in the defence of a fortress is
a row of heavy guns mounted on an earthwork or other
platform; any one of the lines of a fortress which is armed
with siege-guns. If they have a bomb-proof cover they
are casemated batteries. A battery used in attacking a
fortified place is a number of siege-guns or mortars placed
in a line and covered with a parapet. These batteries re-
ceive various names, expressing their design, position, etc.
In field operations a battery is a number of guns, with the
necessary horses, gum-carriages, artillerymen, and officers
to manage the guns. The number of guns varies in differ-
ent nations. The battery of the British, French, and U. S.
consists of six guns, of the Austrians and Prussians of eight.
In reference to the weight of the ordnance, they are divided
into heavy batteries and light batteries. The term battery
is also applied in a narrower sense to the personnel or com-
plement of men and officers who serve a set of guns.
Batſtery, in law, an unlawful touching of the person
of another by the aggressor himself, or by any sub-
stance put in motion by him. It must be wilfully done, or
proceed from want of due care. The law regards a man’s
person as sacred, and permits no one, without sufficient
cause, to interfere with it. This rule prevails, no matter
how slight the unlawful force may be. Every battery in-
cludes an assault. A battery is sometimes justifiable, and
hence permitted by the law; as when it occurs in the exer-
cise of parental authority, or is a means of defence of
one’s self or the members of one’s family, or is committed
while acting under process of a court or in aid of the of
ficers of the law. In all these cases the force used must be
necessary to accomplish the purpose, and not in excess of
what is required. The remedy for a battery is an action
for damages. It is also in general a crime, and the wrong-
doer is subject to prosecution in the name of the people.
Battery, Floating. See FLOATING BATTERY.
Battery, Galvanic. See ELECTRICITY.
Batthyányi, or Bathyanyi, the name of an ancient
and celebrated family of Hungarian magnates which has
produced several statesmen and generals.
Batthyányi (Louis), Count, a Hungarian patriot, born
at Presburg in 1806. He favored the liberal cause, and
was appointed president of the ministry formed in Mar.,
1848. Finding his position untenable, he resigned about
six months later. After his friends had been defeated in
battle by the Austrians, he was tried by a court-martial,
and, though his conduct had been moderate, he was shot
Oct. 6, 1849. (See HoRVATH, “Louis Batthyányi, ein poli-
tischer Martyrer,” 1850.)
Battle. See GRAND TACTICS.
Battle, a town of England, in Sussex, about 7 miles
N.W. of Hastings, is in a valley enclosed on three sides by
wooded hills. It is noted for the manufacture of gunpow-
der. Pop. about 3400. It derived its name from the great
battle (usually called the battle of Hastings) which was
fought near it on the 14th of Oct., 1066, between William
the Conqueror and the Saxon king Harold. The victorious
Norman erected here a large abbey, called Battle Abbey,
now in ruins.
Battle=Axe, a weapon much used by the early north-
ern nations, Teutonic, Celtic, and Scandinavian, and re-
quiring great strength in its use. The battle-axe had a
longer handle and a broader, stronger, and sharper blade
than the common axe. It was of various forms, which
had different names, such as the bill and the gisarme. The
halberd was the latest form of the battle-axe, a form which
is even now scarcely obsolete, though used only on occa-
sions of ceremony. Battle-axes were used on foot and on
horseback. | *
Battleboro’, a post-village of Edgecomb co., N.C., on
the Wilmington and Weldon R. R. It has one weekly
newspaper. *
Battle Creek, a post-township of Tehama co., Cal.
Pop. 199.
Battle Creek, a city of Calhoun co., Mich., at the
confluence of the Kalamazoo and Battle Creek rivers, on
the Michigan Central R. R., 120 miles W. of Detroit. Its
educational facilities are very fine; its manufactures ex-
tensive, especially in the line of threshing-machines and
farm implements. It has good water-power, four flouring
mills, a manufactory of knit goods, three iron-foundries,
an edge-tool manufactory, and two furniture-factories, one
national bank and one city bank (savings). There are
eight churches and two newspapers. Pop. 5838; of town-
ship, 1188. - -
WoolNou GH & BordrNE, PUBs. “ MICHIGAN TRIBUNE.”
Battle Creek, a post-twp. of Madison co., Neb. P. 284.
Bat’tle door, or Battledore [probably from Sp. bati-
dor, an instrument of the same shape used in beating clothes
in washing], an instrument with a handle and a flat board
(or piece of leather stretched tightly on a frame), used to
strike a ball or shuttlecock. Battledoor and shuttlecock,
played with the above instrument, has been a favorite
amusement in Europe since the fourteenth century or earlier.
Batſtie - Ground, a post-village of Tippecanoe co.,
Ind., where the celebrated battle of Tippecanoe was fought
between Gen. Harrison and the Indians under Tecumseh
and his brother, the “prophet,” Nov. 7, 1811.
Battlement, a notched or indented parapet some-
times used in fortification, and often employed for the pur-
pose of ornament on the top of a house or castle. The
rising parts are called cops or merlons; the spaces or open-
ings between them are crenels, embrasures, or loops. . The
soldier shelters himself behind a merlon while he shoots
through the embrasure.
Battle Mountain, a post-township of Humboldt co.,
Nev. Pop. 261.
Battle-Pieces, paintings representing battles. Among
the remarkable works in this department are Lebrun's
“Battles of Alexander the Great” and Rubens’s “Battle
of the Amazons.” Horace Vernet is the most eminent of
recent painters of battles.
Bat’tletown, a township of Clarke co., Va. P. 1884.
Battonya, a town of Hungary, in the county of Csanad,
16 miles N. E. of Arad. Pop. in 1869, 8642.
Bat’tue [from the French battre, to “beat”], a mode
of hunting wild animals or killing game on a large scale.
A number of men, arrayed at equal distances, by beating
the bushes drive the animals toward a stationary party of
hunters, who are waiting to shoot them. Sometimes the
array of beaters is circular, and they drive the game from
different parts of a large tract of forest to a common cen-
tre. Battues in Great Britain are chiefly practised in ex-
tensive preserves of pheasants, rabbits, and hares during
the autumn and winter, when country gentlemen invite
their friends to their mansions for this purpose.
Baudelocque (JEAN LOUIS), a skilful French surgeon,
born in Picardy in 1746. He was selected by Napoleon to
attend the empress Marie Louise as first accoucheur. He
wrote an able work on the “Art des Accouchements” (2
vols., 1781). Died May 1, 1810.
Baudissin (Wolf HEINRICH FRIEDRIGH KARL), Count,
a German author, born Jan. 30, 1789. He translated, to-
gether with Tieck, a number of Shakspeare's works. Un-
der the title of “Ben Jonson und Seine Schule” (2 vols.,
1836) he published translations of the works of other Eng-
Iish authors. He also has made translations of Molière's
comedies (1865–67). - -
Bau'er (BRUNo), a German rationalistic theologian and
biblical critic, was born in Saxe-Altenburg Sept. 6, 1809.
He published numerous works, among which are “ Das ent-
deckte Christenthum” (1843), “Geschichte Deutchlands
unter der Französischen Revolution und der Herrschaft
BAUER—BAWARIA.
419
Napoleon’s” (2 vols., 1846), and the “Apostelgeschichte”
(1850). In these writings he showed himself as a reckless
critic of the extreme school of rationalism, who regarded
the gospel as fabulous or untrue. In later years he wrote
in the interest of the extreme conservative party of Prussia.
Bauer (GEORG LoRENZ), a German theologian and lin-
guist, born Aug. 14, 1755. He became professor of Orien-
tal languages at Altdorf in 1789, and in Heidelberg in 1805.
Among his works are “Hermeneutica Sacra Veteris Testa-
menti” (1797) and “Biblische Theologie des neuen Testa-
ments” (4 vols., 1800–02). He was a rationalist, and
maintained that the Bible should be interpreted by gram-
matical and historical principles, as the ancient classics
are. Died Jan. 12, 1806.
Bauer (WILHELM), a German inventor, born at Dillin-
gen Dec. 23, 1822. He constructed a diving-boat for sub-
marine operations, with which several successful experi-
ments have been made. He has also made improvements
in torpedoes for the destruction of ships and in the firing
of guns under water. Bauer served with distinction in the
Sleswick-Holstein war of 1850, and has since been in the
service of Russia. e
Bau'erie (ADoDF), a German comic author, born April
9, 1786, gained considerable popularity from his grotesque
representations of Viennese life. He wrote “Die falsche
Primadonna,” “Die moderne Wirthschaft,” “Der Tau-
sendsasa,” and other comedies. He also published “The
Comic Theatre,” and in his later life numerous novels.
Died Sept. 19, 1869.
Bau'ernfeld', von (EDwARD), a distinguished German
dramatist, born at Vienna Jan. 3, 1802, has published nu-
merous popular comedies, among which may be named
“Die Bekentnisse” (1834), “Bürgerlich und Romantisch’”
(1825), and “Grossjährig' (“Of Age”), (1846).
Bau/gher (HENRY L.), D. D., a Lutheran divine, born
at Abbotstown, Pa., about 1803, graduated at Dickinson
College in 1825, studied theology at Gettysburg and Prince-
ton, became pastor of a church at Boonsboro’, Md., in 1829,
was a teacher at Gettysburg, Pa.. (1830–32), professor of
Greek and belles-lettres (1832–50) at Pennsylvania Col-
lege, Gettysburg, and was afterwards its president (1850–68).
Died April 14, 1868.
Baugh’man, a post-township of Wayne co., O. Pop.
2067.
Bau'go, a township of Elkhart co., Ind. Pop. 749.
Bauhin (GASPARD), an eminent botanist and anatomist,
born at Băle in 1550. He became professor of anatomy and
botany in his native city in 1588. He wrote valuable med-
ical and botanical works, among which was “Prodromus
Theatri Botanici.” (1620). Died in 1624.
Bauhin (JEAN), a Swiss botanist and physician, born
at Băle in 1541, the brother of the preceding. He became
physician to the duke of Würtemberg at Montbéliard in
1570. He wrote in Latin a “New Universal History of
Plants” (3 vols., 1650–51). Died in 1613.
Baumé (ANToINE), an eminent French chemist, born
at Senlis Feb. 26, 1728. He improved the manufacture of
porcelain, made several inventions, and simplified several
processes in the useful arts. Baumé's hydrometer is in
general use among chemists. Among his works is a “Man-
ual of Chemistry” (1763). Died Oct. 15, 1804. (See CADET
DE GAssICOURT, “Eloge de Baumé,” 1806.) _^
Baum'garten (ALEXANDER GOTTLIEB), a German phil-
osopher, born in Berlin July 17, 1714, was a disciple of
Wolf. He became professor of philosophy at Frankfort-
on-the-Oder in 1740. He did much for the science of aes-
thetics. He published, besides other works, “ Metaphys-
ica,” (1739) and “AEsthetica.” (2 vols., 1750, unfinished).
Died May 26, 1762. (See MEYER, “Leben A. G. Baumgar-
ten’s,” 1763.)
Baumgarten (MICHAEL), a German theologian, born
Mar. 25, 1812, became professor of theology in Rostock in
1850. ... He has published many books and periodicals in
opposition to the State Church of Mecklenburg, for which
he has been imprisoned and fined. He has been a promi-
ment member of the Protestantenverein since its establish-
ment, and an earnest advocate of disestablishment. He
has published “Schleiermacher as Theologian,” an “Apos-
tolic History,” and many polemical writings and popular
appeals in behalf of a people's Church.
Baumgarten-Crusius (LUDwig FRIEDRICH OTTO), a
learned German theologian, born at Merseburg July 31,
1788, studied theology at Leipsic. He became profes-
Sor of theology at Jena in 1817. Among his works is the
“Handbuch der Christl. Sittenlehre” (1827), which is
highly commended. Died May 31, 1843.
Baum'gartner, von (ANDREAs), a German savant and
minister of state, born at Friedberg, in Bohemia, Nov. 23,
1793. He became professor of physics at Vienna in 1823,
and Austrian minister of trade and public works in 1851.
About this date he was chosen president of the Academy
of Sciences in Vienna. He published a work called “Nat-
urlehre" (1823). Died July 29, 1865. 3.
Baum'gartner (GALLUS JACOB), a Swiss politician of
the liberal party, born Oct. 18, 1797. He took part in the
revision of the constitution of St. Gall, and promoted the
separation of Bâle country from Băle city. He founded
in Oct., 1842, “Neue Schweizer Zeitung.” He published,
among other works, “Die Schweizin ihren Kämpfen und
Umgestaltengen, 1830–50 * (4 vols., 1853). Died in July,
1869.
Baum'stark (EDUARD), a German economist, born Mar.
28, 1807, became in 1848 professor of cameralistics at
Greifswald. He has taken a prominent part in German
politics as a liberal politician and writer. He has written
“Concerning Means of Improving the Condition of the
Working Classes” (1860), “Cameralistic Encyclopaedia *
(1835), and “Introduction to the Scientific Study of Agri-
culture.”
Baur (FERDINAND CHRISTIAN), an influential German
Protestant theologian and critic, the founder of the Tübin-
gen School of theology, was born at Schmiden June 21,
1792. He obtained a chair of theology in Tübingen in
1826. Among his numerous works, which display a rare
combination of speculative thought with solid erudition,
are “Die christliche Gnosis” (1835) and “Die christliche
Lehre von der Dreieinigkeit und, der Menschwerdung
Gottes” (1843). Died Dec. 2, 1860.
Bautain (Louis EUgáNE MARIE), a French philosopher
and theologian, born in Paris Feb. 17, 1796. He published
several works, among which are “The Philosophy of Chris-
tianity” (1835) and “Moral Philosophy’ (1842). He was
a popular preacher at Paris, and became director of the
College of Juilly in 1849. He died Oct. 18, 1867.
Baut/zen, or Bu’ dissin, a town of Saxony, on the
Spree, and on the railway from Dresden to Görlitz, 35 miles
E. N. E. of Dresden. It has a royal palace, a cathedral,
two public libraries; also manufactures of woollens, linens,
leather, hosiery, paper, etc. Pop. in 1871, 13,165. Here
occurred a great battle (May 20 and 21, 1813) between
Napoleon and the allies, who finally retreated. The loss
of the allies is estimated at 13,000, and that of Napoleon
at 20,000 men.
Bavanistye, a town of the Austro-Hungarian mon-
archy, on the Military Frontier. Pop. in 1870, 6120.
Bava’ria [Lat. Bava/ria or Baioa’ria, i. e. the “coun-
try of the Boi'i or Boia’rii ş’ Ger., Bay'ern or Bai'ern], a
kingdom forming part of the German empire. It is, next
to Prussia, the largest German state. 'It consists of two
isolated portions: the eastern and larger portion is
bounded N. by Prussia, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha, Reuss, and Saxony; E. and S. by Austria; W. by
Würtemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt; the western
and smaller portion, known as Rhenish Bavaria or the
Palatinate, is bounded by Prussia, Alsace, Hesse-Darm-
stadt, and Baden. Area, 29,373 square miles. The larger
portion of the country is mountainous, the principal moun-
tains being the Algäu and Bavarian Alps in the S., the
former of which reach to an elevation of 9000 feet; the
Bohemian and Bavarian Mountain forests on the eastern
frontier; the Fichtel Mountains in the N. E.; the Fran-
conia, Jura, and the Hardt. The main rivers are the
Danube, which receives in Bavaria thirty-nine affluents,
and the Main in the N. The Rhine forms part of the
frontier of the Palatinate. The Danube and the Main are
connected by the Ludwigs Canal. The number of lakes,
most of which are alpine lakes, amounts to about fifty. The
climate is, on the whole, temperate and healthy, but rough
and severe in the mountains. The soil is fertile and rićh
in products, particularly in corn and cattle. There are
celebrated mineral springs in Lower Franconia and Upper
Bavaria (Kissingen and Brückenau). The total popula-
tion, according to the census of Dec., 1871, was 4,861,402,
of whom nearly three-fourths are Roman Catholics, and a
little more than one-fourth Protestants. The Jews num-
ber 50,000. It is divided into eight provinces, which,
according to the census of 1871, had the following popula-
tion: Upper Bavaria, 841,579; Lower Bavaria, 602,005;
Palatinate, 615,104; Upper Palatinate, 497,960; Upper
Franconia, 540,963; Middle Franconia, 583,417; Lower
Franconia, 586,122; Suabia, 582,888. As regards the
descent of the inhabitants, about 1,750,000 are Bavarians
(Old Bavarians or Bavarians proper), 2,250,000 Fran-
conians, and 633,000 Suabians. Bavaria has 3 universities
—at Munich, Würzburg, and Erlangen–9 lyceums, 28
gymnasia (colleges), 10 normal schools, polytechnical insti-
tutions at Munich and Nuremberg, and 7113 public Schools
420
BAWR, DE—BAXTER.
(4810 Catholic, 2150 Protestant, and 153 Israelite); also a
number of Latin, technical, and special schools.
kings of Bavaria have been liberal patrons of science and
art. There is an academy of science and an academy of
plastic arts in Munich, which is also celebrated for its rich
collections of works of art. The principal occupations of
the inhabitants are agriculture and the breeding of cattle;
the latter chiefly in the mountainous districts, the former
in the plains. Among the chief products are cereals, fodder,
potatoes, hops, tobacco, wine (in the Palatinate and in the
region of the Main). No less than 10,567 square miles are
covered with wood, one-half of which belongs either to the
state or to the communities. The culture of the forests is
well regulated and profitable. The most active industry is
found in the provinces of Middle Franconia, Suabia, and
the Palatinate. Prominent among the industrial cities are
Augsburg, Kempten, Nuremberg, Fürth, Schwabach, Bai-
reuth, Würzburg, Bamberg, Erlangen, and Hof. The most
celebrated branch of Bavarian industry is the brewing of
beer. For 1870 the number of breweries was upwards of
5400, which produced annually over 131,000,000 gallons,
beer measure. Beer is an important article of export.
Bavaria has also flourishing manufactures of linen, woollen,
iron, and wooden ware, fifty-one glass-works, manufactories
of paper, chinaware, and guns, and celebrated melting-
houses at Oberzell. The manufactories of tobacco produce
annually about 1200 hundredweight of tobacco and upwards
of .30,000,000 cigars. The most important commercial
cities are Nuremberg and Augsburg (bills of exchange),
Hof, Bamberg, Schweinfurt, Würzburg, Speier, Munich,
Ratisbon, Passau (navigation of the Danube). Bavaria
had, in 1871, 1508 miles of railroad and 1945 miles of tele-
graph. The navigation of the Danube engaged fifteen
steamers and 2000 sailing vessels; that of the Rhine, twelve
steamers and 236 sailing vessels; that of the Inn, 2000
vessels. The chief articles of export are, besides beer,
corn, wood, cattle, wine, hops; total value of exports, about
50,000,000 florins.
Bavaria is a constitutional monarchy, the fundamental
law of the state bearing date of May 26, 1818, and the
electoral law now in force having been adopted on June
4, 1848. The crown is hereditary in the male line only,
according to the right of primogeniture. The king exer-
cises the administrative power; the legislative he shares
with a legislature consisting of two chambers. The upper
chamber, or chamber of the Reichsräthe (counsellors of the
empire), had, in 1871, 72 members, of whom 51 were en-
titled to a seat as being chiefs of noble families, and 8 by
their office, while 13 were life-members appointed by the
Crown. The lower chamber, or chamber of representa-
tives, had, in 1871, 154 members, who are elected for a term
of six years. The chambers must be convoked at least once
every third year. There are eight courts of appeal, and
one supreme court of appeal in Munich. The receipts and
expenditures of the state amounted in 1869 to $34,000,000;
the public debt to $170,000,000; the civil list and appan-
ages to $1,300,000. The Bavarian army, according to the
treaty of Nov. 23, 1870, forms two army corps of the im-
perial army of Germany under the independent military
administration of the king of Bavaria, though under the
chief command of the emperor. The capital is Munich;
the most important towns next to it are Nuremberg, Augs-
burg, Wurzburg, Ratisbon, and Bamberg. -
Old Bavaria, or Bavaria proper, was originally inhabited
by the Boii, a Celtic tribe. Under Augustus it constituted
the Roman province of Noricum. During the great migra-
tion of nations in the fourth and fifth centuries, the country
was occupied by Germanic tribes, from which the confede-
ration of the Boioari arose, which, though governed by its
own princes, was dependent upon the kings of Austrasia.
At the head of the confederation was the family of Agil-
olfingians, who are mentioned for the first time in 556, and
were deprived of the ducal dignity by Charlemagne in 777.
From this time until 911, when the Carlovingian house
died out, Bavaria belonged to the Franconian empire.
During the following 250 years Bavaria was disturbed by
endless civil wars. In 1180 the count palatine, Otto von
Wittelsbach, was invested with Bavaria. His descend-
ants, with but short interruptions, have remained the rulers
of the country to this day. Two of them were elected Ger-
man emperors—Louis the Bavarian (as Emperor Louis
IV., 1314–47) and the elector Charles (as Emperor
Charles VII., 1742–45). From 1255 the country was gen-
erally divided between two lines—the counts of the Rhen-
ish Palatinate and the dukes of Bavaria. The electoral
dignity repeatedly passed from one branch to the other,
until the peace of Westphalia (1648) conferred the fifth
electoral dignity permanently upon the dukes of Bavaria,
while an eighth electoral dignity was expressly created for
the Palatine line. In 1777 the line of the electors of Ba-
varia became extinct, and the elector of the Rhenish Palat-
All the
inate, Charles Theodore, became ruler of Bavaria. Austria,
however, claimed a large portion of the country, and the
weak elector was willing to concede this claim; but Fred-
erick the Great supported the protest of the next agnate,
the duke Charles of Zweibrücken, against this arrange-
ment, and thus the bloodless “war of the Bavarian suc-
cession ” arose, which was ended May 13, 1779, by the
treaty of Teschen, which gave to Austria, the region of
the Inn, with the town of Braunau, and guaranteed the
succession in the remainder of the dominions of Charles
Theodore to the duke Charles of Zweibrücken. In 1784
the emperor Joseph I. made a new attempt to obtain
the whole of Bavaria, by offering to the elector Charles
Theodore, in exchange for Bavaria, the Austrian Nether-
lands, with the title of king; but again the plan was foiled
by the opposition of the duke of Zweibrücken and Frede-
rick the Great. Charles Theodore died Feb. 16, 1799, and,
as in the mean while the duke Charles of Zweibrücken had
died childless, his brother Maximilian IV. Joseph, duke
of the Palatinate-Zweibrücken, became elector of Bavaria,
and the Palatinate. In the history of Germany the dukes
of Bavaria are chiefly noted for the leading part which
they took in the defence of the Catholic Church against
the Reformation. Throughout the sixteenth, seventeenth,
and eighteenth centuries they were the heads of the Cath-
olic party among the princes and states of the empire.
The elector Maximilian lost in the peace of Lunéville the
Zweibrücken Palatinate, but ...in place of these districts
received a number of secularized bishoprics, the change
adding to his dominions 2100 square miles, with nearly
200,000 inhabitants. In the war of 1805 the elector joined
JFrance against the emperor of Germany, and received a
further increase of about 8000 square miles and 800,000
inhabitants. On Jan. , 1, 1806, the elector assumed the
title of king, and in July of the same year he joined the
Rhenish Confederation, which he left again in 1813, in
order to unite with the allies against Napoleon. The
peace of Paris and that of Vienna regulated the territory
of Bavaria as it has remained since, with the exception
of a very small district which in 1866 was ceded to Prussia.
In 1818 the constitutional form of government was intro-
duced. Louis I. (1825 to 1848), the successor of Maximil-
ian, was a liberal patron of the arts, and at the same time
greatly favored the interests of the Catholic Church. His
relation to the notorious Lola Montez led in 1848 to dis-
turbances, in consequence of which he abdicated. The
support which he had given to the insurrection of the Greeks
against the rule of the Turks had secured the election of
his second son, Otho, as king of Greece. In Bavaria, he
was succeeded by his eldest son, Maximilian II. (1848–64),
who, like his father, liberally patronized science and art,
but in politics had throughout his reign anti-liberal cabi-
nets. In the Sleswick-Holstein question the Bavarian
government acted as an ardent champion of the cause of
German nationality. Maximilian, who died Mar. 10, 1864,
was succeeded by his son, Louis II., who in 1866, in the
war between Austria, and Prussia, sided with Austria, and
at the conclusion of peace had to pay 30,000,000 florins as
expenses of war, and to cede a small district to Prussia.
At the same time an offensive and defensive alliance was
concluded with Prussia, and the relations of the two gov-
ernments during the following years were of a friendly
character. The Catholic party was greatly opposed, not
only to the foreign policy of the prime minister, Prince
Hohenlohe (appointed at the close of the year 1866), but
still more to the educational and other reforms which he
endeavored to introduce. When the new elections in 1869
gave to the Catholic party (the “Patriots”) a majority in
the second chamber, Prince Hohenlohe resigned (Jan.,
1870). The new prime minister, Bray, remained, how-
ever, faithful to the treaties with Prussia, and after the
outbreak of the war between France and Prussia, Bavaria
at once joined Prussia and placed two army corps under
the command of the crown-prince of Prussia. In Nov.,
1870, the Bavarian government concluded a treaty pro-
viding for the entrance of Bavaria into the German empire,
and in Jan., 1871, the treaty was ratified by both chambers,
although the special committee of the second chamber pro-
posed its rejection. A. J. SCHEM.
Bawr, de (ALExANDRINE SoPHIE GOURY DE CHAMP-
GRAND), BARONEss, a novelist of French extraction, born at
Stuttgart in 1776. She became the wife of Saint-Simon,
the famous Socialist, who obtained a divorce, although he
had no cause for complaint, except that she was not an
equal mate for “the foremost man in the world.” She wrote
several popular works, among which is “Raoul, ou l'Enéide,”
a novel. Died Jan. 1, 1861. ->
Baxſter (DE WITT C.), an American officér of volun-
teers, born in Dorchester, Mass., Mar. 9, 1829, entered the
army in 1861 as lieutenant, and passed through the suc-
BAXTER—BAYAZID I.
421
cessive grades to that of colonel of “ Baxter's Fire Zou-
aves” (brevet brigadier-general U. S. volunteers). He is
author of “Baxter's Manual and Company Tactics,” 1861,
and was naval officer of the port of Philadelphia 1869–71.
Baxter (RICHARD), an eminent divine, born at Rowdon,
in Shropshire, England, Nov. 12, 1615. He was not edu-
cated at any college. Having been ordained in 1638, he
became vicar of Kidderminster in 1640, and \gained dis-
tinction as an eloquent preacher. He was neutral or mod-
erate in the civil war, being friendly to the Puritans, but
favorable to a monarchy. In 1650 he produced the “Saint's
Everlasting Rest,” which is highly esteemed. At the Res-
toration (1660) he was appointed one of the chaplains to
Charles II., and refused the offer of a bishopric. In con-
sequence of the passage of the Act of Uniformity, 1662,
he seceded or was ejected from the Anglican Church. He
became a resident of London in 1672, and preached there
to a meeting of nonconformists. Among his numerous
works are a “Call to the Unconverted" (1669), “ Methodus
Theologiae" (1674), and “Catholic Theology.” The no-
torious Judge Jeffries in 1685 fined him 500 marks on a
charge of sedition, which was founded on a passage in his
writings. For failure to pay the fine he was imprisoned
nearly eighteen months. Died Dec. 8, 1691. He was a
voluminous writer, having published 168 treatises. (See
his “Autobiography,” 1696; E. CALAMY, “Life of Baxter,”
1713; WILLIAM ORME, “Life and Times of R. BAxTER,”
1830; AUGUST NEANDER, “R. Baxter, ein Mann der Wahr-
haft rechten Mitte,” 1833; MACAULAY, “History of Eng-
land,” vol. i. chap. iv., and vol. iii. chap. xi.; “Miscella-
nies,” by W.M. R. WILLIAMs.)
Baxte'rians, the term formerly applied to the adhe-
rents of Baxter's theological system, the doctrines of which
were—1, that though Christ died in a special sense for the
elect, yet he also died in a general sense for all; 2, the re-
jection of the dogma of reprobation; 3, that it is possible
for even saints to fall away from saving grace.
Baxter Springs, a city of Cherokee co., Kan., 159 miles
S. of Kansas City, Mo., at the terminus, of the Missouri
River Fort Scott and Gulf R. R., 1% miles from the State
line. It has one national bank, one weekly paper, and one
lead-smelting furnace. It is a shipping dépôt for Texas
cattle. The principal minerals are lead, zinc, and coal.
On the 6th of Oct., 1863, Quantrell, with 600 guerillas, at-
tacked a U. S. escort and encampment of three companies
at this place. The escort was dispersed and all the wounded
murdered; the attack on the encampment was repulsed.’
P. 1284. A. T. LEA, ED. “BAxTER SPRINGs REPUBLICAN.”
Bay [Fr. baiel, in geography, an inlet of the sea, or a
portion of the sea extending into the land. The terms bay
and gulf are vaguely and promiscuously applied to bodies
of water of various forms and dimensions. Hudson's Bay,
for example, might properly be called a gulf. The word
bay is generally applied to smaller portions than gulf.
Bay, or Bay Tree, a name of the laurel tree (Lawrus
nobilis), which is sometimes called sweet bay. The Pru-
nus lawrocerasus is sometimes called bay laurel. Several
other trees are popularly called bay. The “sweet bay ” of
the U. S. is the Magnolia glauca, which has fragrant flowers.
The “red bay ” of the South is the Persea Caroliniensis,
an evergreen laurel tree with fine red timber. The “loblolly
bay ” (Gordonia Lasianthus) is a fine tree of the Southern
States, with mahogany-colored wood. A smaller species
(Gordonia pubescens) is cultivated at the North as a shrub;
and has large and fragrant white blossoms. Some of the
rhododendrons and azaleas are called rose bays. The leaves
of the bay have long been subjects of popular superstition,
and have been used with other evergreens to decorate
churches at Christmas. Bays in the plural signifies an
honorary garland or crown, bestowed as a prize for vic-
tory or meritorious action. It is not known what kind
º: tree is meant by the word in the Bible translated “bay
ree.”
Bay, a county in the E. of Michigan. Area, 725 square
miles. It is bounded on the E. by Saginaw Bay, and in-
tersected by the Saginaw and Rifle rivers. The soil is
fertile. Wheat, oats, hay, and dairy products are raised.
It contains forests of pine, from which lumber is exported.
Coal is found, and salt is produced from salt-wells. It is
intersected by the Jackson Lansing and Saginaw R. R.
Capital, Bay City. Pop. 15,900.
Bay, a township of Ottawa co., O. Pop. 509.
Baſya (Plo’cews Philippi/nus), a small East Indian bird
of the family of Fringillidae, and allied to the weaver-bird.
It has been called Lozia Philippina by some ornithologists.
It has a large conical beak. Its color is yellow, spotted
with brown. It builds a curious nest, shaped like a Flor-
enceflask, and suspended from a small twig of a high branch.
The entrance is in the lower part of the nest. The baya
can be easily tamed and trained to obey commands.
Bayadere [from Port. bailadeira, a “dancer”], a
name given by Europeans to the dancing-girls and singing-
girls of India, also called nåtch- (or nautch-) girls. They
are of two classes, the first of which are called Dévadás?
(“servants of the gods”), and belong partly to the caste
of Vaisyas and partly to that of Sudras. Having passed
through a course of systematic physical training, and ac-
quired great agility and suppleness of joints, they are em-
ployed to sing the praises of some god at festivals, and to
dance before his image or in his temple. Those of the
higher rank are not permitted to leave the enclosure of the
temple, and are forbidden to marry, but they are permitted
to accept a lover of one of the higher castes. Dévadāsīs
of the Sudra caste live outside of the temple and have
more freedom. There is another distinct class of singing-
girls who travel about the country in troops, perform at
private feasts, and entertain the people at taverns, etc. by
singing and dancing. Their dance is, however, more prop-
erly a pantomime. *.
Baya/mo, or San Salvador, a town in the E. part
of Cuba, 60 miles N. W. of Santiago, is near the river Cauto.
It has eight churches and four schools. Pop. in 1861, 7411.
Bay'ard (Gen. GEORGE D.) was born in New York in
1835, and graduated at West Point in 1856. He entered
the U. S. cavalry, and became, after the civil war broke
out, colonel of the First Pennsylvania Cavalry. In 1862 he
was made brigadier-general of volunteers. He served with
the highest honor in the Army of the Potomac, and was
killed at the battle of Fredericksburg Dec. 14, 1862, where
he fought with the left wing, under Franklin.
Bayard (JAMES ASHTON), an American statesman and
lawyer, born at Philadelphia July 28, 1767, graduated at
Princeton in 1784. He began to practise law in Delaware,
and in 1796 became a Federalist member of Congress, in
which he attained eminence as an orator. The contest
between Jefferson and Burr in 1801 was decided in favor
of the former by the votes of Federalists acting under the
influence of Mr. Bayard. He was elected U. S. Senator
for Delaware in 1804, and remained in that body until
1813. He was one of the commissioners that negotiated .
the treaty of Ghent in 1814. Died Aug. 6, 1815.
Bayard (JAMEs AsHTON, second), born in Delaware,
graduated at Princeton, was U. S. Senator from his native
State (1851–64 and 1867–69), resigning twice this office, to
which he was four times elected, and once appointed to fill
a Vacancy. “ •
Bayard (JEAN FRANÇors ALFRED), a French littérateur,
born at Charolles Mar. 17, 1796, wrote over 200 popular
comedies and vaudevilles, among which were “La reine de
seize ans,” and “Les gamins de Paris,” which was per-
formed with great success 463 times in succession. Died
Feb. 19, 1853.
Bayard (PIERRE DU TERRAIL), CHEvALIER, a heroic
French knight, called “le chevalier sans peur et sans re-
proche” (“the knight without fear and without reproach”),
was born at Castle Bayard, near Grenoble, in 1475. He
was remarkable for his modesty, piety, magnanimity, and
his various accomplishments. He served under Charles
VIII. in his expedition against Naples in 1494, and distin-
guished himself at the battle of Tornovo. After the acces-
sion of Louis XII. of France, Bayard performed several
remarkable exploits in war against the Spaniards and Eng-
lish. In the service of Francis I. he took Prosper Colonna
prisoner, and gained a victory at Marignano in 1515. He
defended Mézières with success against the invading army
of the emperor Charles V. in 1522, and for this important
service was saluted as the saviour of the country. He was
killed in battle at the river Sesia. April 30, 1524, having
won the reputation of being a model of nearly every virtue.
(See SYMPāori EN CHAMPIER, “La Vie et les Gestes de Bay-
ard,” 1525; GUYARD DE BERVILLE, “Histoire du Chevalier
Bayard,” 1760; REv. Joseph STERLING, “Life of Chevalier
Bayard,” 1781; P. CoHEN, “Histoire de Pierre du Terrail,”
1821; W. GILMoRE SIMMs, “Life of Chevalier Bayard,”
New York, 1847; BUCHOLZ, “Bayard,” Berlin, 1801.)
Bayard (RICHARD BASSETT), son of James A. Bayard,
was born at Wilmington, Del., in 1796, graduated at Prince-
ton in 1814, became a lawyer, was U. S. Senator from Dela-
ware (1836–39 and 1841–45), and U. S. chargé d'affaires at
Brussels in 1850. Died Mar. 4, 1868.
Bayard (THOMAS FRANCIs), born at Wilmington, Del.,
Oct. 29, 1828, was elected for the term of six years (1869–
75) to the U. S. Senate, to succeed his father, Hon. J. A.
Bayard. - -
Bayazid' (often called Baj'azet) I., Sultan of the
Turks or Ottomans, surnamed ILDERIM (i. e. “the light-
422
BAYAZID II.-BAYLOR UNIVERSITY. . .
ning”), was born in 1347. He succeeded his father, Amu-
rath I., in 1389, and soon conquered Bulgaria, the greater
part of Asia Minor, and part of Greece. In 1396 he gained
a victory at Nicopolis over Sigismund, king of Hungary,
and his allies, the Poles and French. His career of con-
quest was arrested by Tamerlane (or Timur), who invaded
Asia Minor, and defeated Bayazid near Angora in June,
1401. Bayazid was taken prisoner here, and confined until
he died Mar. 9, 1403. (See WON HAMMER, “Geschichte
des Osmanischen Reichs.”)
Bayazid II., sultan of the Turks, was born in 1447.
He ascended the Ottoman throne on the death of his father,
Mahomet II., in 1481. He built many mosques in Con-
stantinople, his capital. He was involved in almost con-
tinual wars against the Hungarians, Poles, Persians, and
Venetians. He died May 26, 1512, and was succeeded by
his son Selim.
Bay/berry, the fruit of the bay tree; also the fruit of
the wax-myrtle (Myriºca cerifera), a shrub which produces
a kind of wax, sometimes called “bayberry tallow,” and
used in pharmacy. It has also been employed in making
candles. The bayberry grows chiefly along our Atlantic
coast, becoming an evergreen tree in the South. It has
active medicinal qualities. The wax is found on the out-
side of the berries, and is obtained by boiling.
Bay/boro’, a post-township of Horry co., S. C. Pop.
885.
Bay Bulls, a port of entry and post-town of New-
foundland, 19 miles S. of St. John’s; lat. 47° 18' N., lon.
52° 47' W. It has an excellent harbor, which is much fre-
quented as a port of refuge. Fishing and agriculture are
carried on. Pop. 734.
Bay City, one of the most flourishing cities of the
North-west, the capital of Bay co., Mich., is on the right
(E.) bank of the Saginaw River, 4 miles from its mouth
and at the head of navigation. It deals principally in
lumber and salt, immense quantities of which are produced.
It has excellent school facilities, one national and four
private banks, two parks, the Holly Waterworks, one street
railway, several important manufacturing interests, two
railroads (a branch of the Flint and Père Marquette, and
the Detroit and Bay City road, just opened). Several lines
of steamers connect it with all lake points. It has two
daily and four weekly newspapers. Pop. 7064.
E. D. CowLEs, E.D. “SEMI-week LY HERALD.”
Bay de Verds, an important post-village of New-
foundland, 38 miles N. of Carbonear. It has no harbor, but
its cod-fisheries are among the best in the province, yield-
ing $50,000 worth of fish annually. Agriculture is also
carried on. Pop. 650.
Bayeux (anc. Baicas/saº), a city of France, in Nor-
mandy, and in the departEnent of Calvados, is on the river
Aure, 21 miles by rail W. N. W. of Caen. It has manu-
factures of porcelain, lace, damasks, calico, and leather.
Pop. in 1866,9138. Here is a cathedral which is said to be
the oldest in Normandy, in which was preserved for a long
time the famous BAYEUX TAPESTRY (which see).
Bayeux Tapestry, a web of canvas or linen cloth 214
feet long by 20 inches wide, on which is embroidered, with
woollen threads of various colors, a representation of the
invasion and conquest of England by the Normans. Ac-
cording to tradition, it was embroidered by Matilda, the
wife of William the Conqueror. Some persons believe that
she directed the work, which was performed by her maids
or the ladies of her court. It is considered a valuable his–
torical document, as it gives a correct and minute portrait-
ure of the manners and customs of that age and of the Nor-
man costumes. It contains the figures of about 625 men,
200 horses, 55 dogs, 40 ships and boats, and numerous
quadrupeds, birds, etc. The tapestry was discovered in
the cathedral of Bayeux about 1730, and is now preserved |
in the hôtel de ville of that place. (See BRUCE, “Bayeux
Tapestry Elucidated,” London, 1855; DUCAREL, “Anglo-
Norman Antiquities,” 1767.)
Bay/field, a port on Lake Huron, at the mouth of Bay-
field River, in Stanley township, Huron co., province of
Ontario, Canada, has an extensive trade in grain and fish.
Bayfield (formerly La Pointe), a county which
forms the N. extremity of Wisconsin. Area, 1000 square
miles. It is bounded on the N. by Lake Superior. It is
partly covered with forests of pine. The soil is not exten-
sively cultivated. Capital, Bayfield. Pop. 344.
Bayfield, a post-village, the capital of the above
county, on an arm of Lake Superior, 281 miles N. N. W. of
Madison. It has an excellent harbor. P. of township, 344.
Bayfield (HENRY Wool,SEY), a rear-admiral of the
British navy, entered the service in 1806, served against
the U. S. in 1814 on the great lakes, and surveyed the lakes,
and Rome, and was ordained a priest in 1842.
the St. Lawrence River and Gulf (1815–27), of which he
published valuable charts.
Bay Hundred, a post-township of Talbot co., Md.
Pop. 1322.
Bay Islands, a group of small islands in the Bay of
Honduras. Ruatan, the largest, is about 30 miles from the
N. coast of Honduras. The other islands are named Bo-
nacca, Utila, Barbaretta, and Helena. This group became
a British-colony in 1854, but in consequence of a protest
of the U. S. they were restored to Honduras in 1856.
Bayle (PIERRE), a celebrated French philosopher and
critic, born at Carlat, now in Ariège, Nov. 18, 1647, was a
son of a Protestant preacher. He studied at the College of
Toulouse, and was employed for some years as a private
tutor at Geneva and Rouen. In 1675 he obtained the chair
of philosophy in the Protestant College of Sedan, which was
closed or suppressed by the government in 1681. He then
became professor of philosophy and history at Rotterdam,
and commenced in 1684 a critical monthly review called
“Nouvelles de la République des Lettres,” which he con-
tinued to edit until 1687. Instigated by Jurieu, who ac-
cused Bayle of heretical or unsound opinions, the magis-
trates of Rotterdam deprived him of his professorship in
1693. Bayle was a skeptic, an eloquent advocate of relig-
ious liberty, and a very independent thinker. His most
important work is a “Historical and Critical Dictionary”
(“Dictionnaire historique et critique,” 2 vols. folio, 1696),
which exercised a great influence over literature and phil-
osophy, and had a European reputation. Bayle was fond
of paradox, was a subtle reasoner, a witty writer, and an
excellent dialectician. He was amiable, courageous, and
disinterested. According to Warburton, he had “a soul
superior to the sharpest attacks of fortune, and a heart
practised to the best philosophy.” Died Dec. 28, 1706.
Baylen', or Bailen', a town of Spain, in the province
of Jaen, 22 miles N. N. E. of Jaen. It has manufactures
of linen, glass, soap, bricks, etc. The Spanish general De
Castaños here gained a victory in July, 1808, over the French
general Dupont, and took 18,000 prisoners. Pop. 7831.
Bay/ley (Most Rev. JAMEs Roosevel.T), D. D., a grand-
son of Dr. Richard Bayley and nephew of Mother Seton
(who founded the original American congregation of Sisters
of Charity), was born in New York City Aug. 23, 1814,
graduated at Trinity College, Hartford, Conn., in 1835, was
for a time a clergyman of the Protestant Episcopal Church,
but became a Roman Catholic, studied theology in Paris
He became
professor of belles lettres at St. John’s College, Fordham,
and was its president (1845–46). In 1853 he became bishop
of Newark, N.J., and in 1872 archbishop of Baltimore, Md.
He has published “Memoirs of Bishop Bruté " and other
works, and is distinguished by his ability as a prelate.
Bayley (RICHARD), an American physician, born in
Fairfield, Conn., in 1745, began the practice of medicine in
1772. He introduced a new method of treating the croup,
which was extensively used. He became in 1793 professor
of surgery in Columbia College, N. Y. Died Aug. 17, 1801.
Bay/lor, a county in the N. part of Texas. Area, 900
square miles. It is traversed by Brazos River and the Big
Wichita, and the soil along the banks of the former is very
fertile, but the surface is generally high and rocky. Be-
tween the Brazos and the Little Wichita, it is of a moun-
tainous character. Stock-raising is the only important pur-
suit at present. No population in the census of 1870.
Baylor (WALKER KEITH), a native of Kentucky, settled
in 1830 in Alabama, where he engaged in the practice of
law. He entered the Senate in 1841, and in 1843 he was
appointed judge of the third circuit, which position he
held until the fall of 1845, when he was killed accidentally.
He was very fond of astronomy. -
Baylor University. This institution is situated at
Independence, Washington co., Tex. It is 12 miles from
the Brazos River, 12 miles from Brenham, on the western
branch of the Houston and Texas Central R. R., and 18
miles from Navisota, on the main trunk of the same road.
The vicinity is beautifully diversified by prairie, hill, val-
ley, and live-oak groves. The village of Independence is
near the centre of population, wealth, commerce, and rail-
roads in the State. The university was chartered by the
republic of Texas in 1845. One-third of its trustees are
annually chosen by the Baptist State Convention of Texas.
It owns nearly 700 acres of good land. The whole amount
of endowment will not exceed $60,000; value of buildings,
$30,000; libraries, 3700 volumes; apparatus respectable;
reading-room good. The course of study is modelled after
that of the University of Virginia. It is complete and
thoroughly prosecuted. Whole number of students entered
since 1845, 2700; college graduates, 38; law graduates, 31;
law professors, 3; college officers, 6; whole number of
BAYLY—BAZAAR.
423
students, according to last catalogue, 126, six of whom were
law students. Its presidents have been the Rev. Henry L.
Graves, Rev. Rufus C. Burleson, D. D., Rev. George W.
Baines, Rev. William Carey Crane, D. D., LL.D. Efforts
promising entire success are now in progress fully to en-
dow all the chairs, and otherwise to promote the efficiency
of the institution. Hon. R. E. B. Baylor, LL.D., former
member of Congress from Alabama, and for twenty-five
years a judge in Texas, gave name to the university.
Bay/Iy (LEWIs), bishop of Bangor in Wales, is worthy
of mention as the author of “The Practice of Piety,” one
of the most popular religious books ever written. It is
mentioned by Bunyan as one of the books owned by his
wife. In 1714 it had passed through fifty-one editions in
England, besides several translations published in foreign
lands. Bayly was born at Caermarthen, educated at Ox-
ford, and consecrated as bishop in 1616. He died in 1632.
He must not be confounded with Thomas Bayly, Anglican
bishop of Killala in Ireland, who died in 1670.-Bishop
Lewis Bayly had a son THOMAs, who became a zealous Ro-
man Catholic, and published “The End of Controversy”
(Douai, 1654), besides other works.
Bayly (THOMAS HAYNEs), an English littérateur, born
in 1797 near Bath, was the son of a wealthy solicitor, and
was educated at Oxford. . He married in 1826, and in 1831
lost his fortune, and was thrown into poverty. He entered
with the greatest industry upon a literary life, composing
numerous plays, novels, and poems. He is best known by
his very numerous songs, some of which will always be
popular, though few are of a very high literary order.
Among them are “Oh no, we Never Mention Her,” “The
Soldier's Tear,” and “Why Don’t the Men Propose?” He
died in 1839.
Bayly (THOMAS HENRY), an American lawyer, born in
Accomac co., Va., in 1810, graduated at the University of
Virginia, and was a judge in the State courts. He became
a member of Congress in 1844, and was chairman of the
committee of ways and means in several sessions. Died
June 22, 1856. -
Bayn’am (WILLIAM), an American surgeon and anat-
omist, born in Virginia in 1749, was.educated in England,
where he long resided. He performed many difficult opera-
tions with success. Died Dec. 10, 1814. -
Baynes (ROBERT HALL), Anglican bishop of Madagas-.
car, was born at Wellington, Somersetshire, England, Mar.
10, 1831. He was educated at Bath and at St. Edmond’s
Hall, Oxford, where he took his master’s degree in 1859.
He received a number of English church preferments, and
in 1870 became bishop of Madagascar, now a Protestant
Christian nation. He is the author of numerous religious
works, among which are a “Book of Common Praise ’’
(1863), “Lyra Anglicana,” “Autumn Memories and other
Verses” (1869), and “Sermons.” -
Bay of Islands, a large bay of the W. coast of New-
foundland. It abounds in islands, and its scenery is very
fine. Good timber, gypsum, and marble abound. About
30,000 barrels of herring are annually taken here, besides
cod and other fish. Agriculture is pursued to some extent.
Pop. of settlements, 947.
Bay/onet [Fr. baïonette], so called, it is said, because
invented or first used at Bayonne, in France, about the
middle of the seventeenth century. It was originally a tri-
angular-shaped blade, to be screwed into the muzzle of the
musket, and used by infantry as an offensive or defensive
weapon. Previous to its introduction pikemen formed a
portion of an army, but, though retained in service to some
extent till near the middle of the eighteenth century, the
bayonet finally superseded them. By the original arrange-
ment the musket could not be discharged while the bayonet
was fixed; this contrivance was improved upon at a later
day, and the bayonet was fitted exteriorly to the piece, thus
permitting it to be fired without unfixing the bayonet.
The French were undoubtedly the first to use the bayonet,
and the first infantry charge made with this weapon was
at the battle of Spire in 1703. Various modifications have
been made in the mode of fastening the weapon, as well as
in its shape. Among other forms is the “sabre" bayonet;
the latest improvement being the “trowel” bayonet, capa-
ble of being used by infantry as a spade in throwing up
earthworks, as well as in making or resisting a charge.
Bayonne, bā-yonn’ (anc. Lapur'dum), a fortified city
of France, near its S. W. extremity, in the department of
Basses-Pyrénées, on the river Adour, about 3 miles from
the Bay of Biscay and 66 miles W. N. W. of Pau; lat. 43°
29' N., lon. 1929 W. It is pleasantly situated near the
foot of the Pyrenees, at the mouth of the river Nive, and
is well built. It has an old cathedral, a citadel built by
Vauban, a mint, a theatre, and schools of commerce and
navigation. Here are shipyards, glass-works, sugar-re-
fineries, and distilleries. The chief articles of export are
timber, tar, corks, liqueurs, hams, etc. Bayonne has often
been besieged, but never taken. Here occurred an inter-
view between Charles IV. of Spain and Napoleon I., who
extorted from the former and his son a renunciation of the
crown in 1808. Pop. in 1866, 26,333.
Bayonne, a post-township of Hudson co., N. J. Ba-
yonne City, in this township, on the N. J. Central R. R.,
4 miles from Jersey City, is a place of residence for people
doing business in New York City. It has two weekly news-
papers. Pop. 3834.
Bayou, bi'oo [supposed to be corrupted from the French
word boyau, a “bowel” or “gut,” and hence signifying
“channel”], strictly means a stream which is not fed by
springs, but flows from a lake or other stream. It is very
often used, however, in the Southern U. S. as synonymous
with “creek,” and frequently designates the tidal channels
occurring in swamps on the Gulf coast.
Bayou, a township of Pulaski co., Ark. Pop. 500.
Bayou, a township of Ozark co., Mo. 1 Pop. 480.
7 Bayou Macon, a township of Chicot co., Ark. Pop.
53. -
Bayou Metor, a township of Arkansas co., Ark.
Pop. 306. -
Bayou Sara, a post-village of West Feliciana parish,
La., on the Mississippi River, at the mouth of the bayou
of the same name, 36 miles above Baton Rouge. It is the
southern terminus of a railroad to Woodville, Miss., and
has considerable trade in corn and cotton. Pop. 440.
Bayr'hoffer (KARL THEODoR), a German philosopher,
born at Marburg in 1812, became in 1838.professor of
philosophy in his native town, and in 1850 was forced to
go to the U. S. He advocated the doctrines of Hegel, and
wrote, among other works, “Ueber den Deutsch-Katho-
licismus ” (1845), “Idee des Christenthums” (1836), and
“Idee und Geschichte der Philosophie” (1838).
Bay Rob’erts, a port of entry of Newfoundland, 8
miles S. of Harbor Grace, on Conception Bay. Its inhab-
itants are chiefly engaged in the Labrador fisheries. It is
visited by regular lines of coasting steamers, and has con-
siderable imports. Pop. about 1000.
Bay Rum (Spiritus myrcia, U. S. P.), a fragrant liquid
obtained by distilling with rum the leaves of the Myrcia
acris, and probably of other trees of the genus. These are
large trees growing in Jamaica and other West India
islands, and belonging to the Myrtaceae. Bay rum is im-
ported in large quantities, and is used as a perfume and as
a cosmetic.
Bay Shore, a post-village of Islip township, Suffolk
co., N. Y., on the South Side R. R. of Long Island, 40%
miles from New York. It is finely laid out with gravelled
streets, and is in a good agricultural region. It is a fine
summer resort, being one-fourth of a mile from Fire Island
Bay. Pop. 1200. \
Bay Side, a post-village of Flushing township, Queen’s
co., N. Y., on the New York and Flushing R. R. It has
many fine country-seats of New York merchants. It is one
of the most famous places for clambakes on Long Island.
Bay/town, a township of Washington co., Minn.
Pop. 594.
Bay View, a post-village of Gloucester township, Es-
sex co., Mass., has extensive quarries of granite. It is a
place of summer resort.
Bay Win/dow, sometimes corrupted into Bow Win-
dow, a window which projects outward from a room, and
often occurs in Gothic architecture. The external walls of
such windows are generally polygonal or semicircular. The
lower end of bay windows is often nearly on a level with
the floor of the room. They are frequently supplied with
a seat called a bay stall.
Ba'za (anc. Basti), a city of Spain, in the province of
Granada, about 52 miles N. E. of Granada, is in a fertile
plain. It is famous for its red wine. In 1489 it was taken
from the Moors by the Spaniards after a long siege. The
French marshal Soult here defeated the Spaniards Aug. 10,
1810. Pop. 7272. |
Bazaar', or Bazar, an Oriental market-place, either
open or covered with a roof; an Oriental assemblage of
shops in which goods of various kinds are exposed to sale.
Each bazaar is occupied by a number of retail traders, and
is often divided into streets or passages having on each
side a row of small'shops, stands, or counters. The term
is also applied in European and Western cities to a hall or
suite of rooms fitted up with counters or stands for the sale
of goods (mostly fancy articles).
Bazaar, a post-township of Chase co., Kan. Pop. 364.
424
BAZAINE.
Bazaine (FRANÇors ACHILLE), borrº at Versailles Feb.
13, 1811, and, after passing through all the intermediate
grades, marshal of France Sept. 5, 1864. The son of a
prominent and wealthy officer, he could have readily ob-
tained an officer's commission, but he declared it his pride
to seek his marshal's bâton from the knapsack in which for
“every French soldier” the proverb potentially places one;
and that bàton, when found, bore the inscription “Simple
Soldat en 1831, Maréchal de France en 1864.”
His campaigns are thus stated: Africa—Constantina and
Oran, 1833, 1834, 1835 (first half). Spain—1835 (second
half), 1836, 1837, 1838. Africa—Algiers and Oran, 1840,
1841, 1842, 1843, 1844, 1845, 1846, 1847, 1848, 1849, 1850,
1851, 1852, 1853, 1854 (first half). Crimea—1854 (second
half), 1855, 1856. Africa—1857. Italy—1859, 1860. Mex-
ico—1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, 1866, 1867 (first half). Army
of the Rhine—1870. Total 35 years of active service, of
which 32 in campaigns, in the course of which he received
six wounds or contusions. In the Legion of Honor he was
Knight (Nov. 22, 1835), Combat of La Macta (Africa);
Officer (Nov. 5, 1845), Combat of Sidy Kafir ; Commander
(Aug. 16, 1856), Taking of Kinburn (Crimea); Grand Of-
ficer (June 20, 1859), Combat of Marignan (Italy); Grand
Cross (July 2, 1863), Battle of San Lorenzo (Mexico); Mil-
itary Medal (April 28, 1865), Storming of Oajaca (Mexico);
Medals of the Crimea, Italy, and Mexico.
On the breaking out of the war with Prussia Marshal
Bazaine, who had expected the command of one of two
powerful armies destined to the invasion of Prussia, in ac-
cordance with plans which had been prepared by the late
. Marshal Niel, found himself, in consequence of the sudden
and unexpected decision of the Emperor to unite all the
forces in the single “Armée du Rhin,” in command of only
a single corps. The disasters of Woerth and Forbach,
compelling the Emperor to relinquish the command, and
his sole competitor, MacMahon, being put hors de concours
by his recent defeat, Marshal Bazaine on the 13th of August
succeeded to the command of the Army of the Rhine. Re-
organization and concentration compelled a falling back
upon Metz, and thence upon Verdun, where the shattered
commands of MacMahon's corps and the reserves of France
were being concentrated. The execution of the resolution,
too tardily taken, was, in consequence, further delayed by
the battle of Borny (Aug. 14), brought on by the Prussians
for that sole purpose. In continuing the retreat through
Metz his columns were vigorously attacked by the Prus-
sians, and the battle of Rézonville (Gravelotte) resulted.
Undertaken by the advanced Prussian troops hastily thrown
over the Moselle above Metz, solely to disorder and delay
the French march, the attack was successfully repulsed,
and, to the French, “the moment had arrived to strike a
great blow and to resume the offensive, . . . . to drive
back the Prussians in disorder upon the Moselle.” Be-
fore evening, however, the Prussians had been so greatly
reinforced as to recover their position and resume the of.
fensive conflict, but with the advantage, on the whole, on
the French side. There was yet opportunity to continue
the march on Verdun, but the Marshal spent the next day
in forming a line of battle from Rozereuilles to St. Privat,
with his back on Metz, while the Prussians were allowed,
unmolested, to march across his front to form their line.
The battle of St. Privat was fought defensively in position,
on the 18th, without an order from the Marshal,” or a re-
inforcement to, or change in, the position of any part of
the French line. The French left and centre were strongly
posted—the right “dans l’air” at St. Privat. Without
natural obstacles on which to rest, powerful artillery alone
could have given to it adequate power of resistance. It
was held by the 6th Corps (Canrobert's), which corps, alone,
was deficient in its complement of artillery. The Guards
(Bourbaki’s) and Reserve artillery were stationed in ravines
in the rear. The French effective force was 150,000 men—
Prussians (eight corps) 240,000. That the Prussians, un-
successful and even disastrously repulsed on the French left
and centre, and at liberty to use their immense force where
weakness exhibited itself, should, failing elsewhere, finally
concentrate their artillery fire (272 guns) and their infan-
try masses (three corps, 80,000 men) on the French right,
is natural; but not so, that the guard and reserve artillery
should lie idle while the French right was overwhelmed
and driven back (4th and 6th corps) disorganized, upon
Metz and the Moselle. The remainder of the army, which
had held its strong positions, was withdrawn the next day
* “In a combat where the enemy arrayed nearly two-thirds
of the force with which he had invaded France, the general ar-
tillery reserve was left in its camp at more than 6 kilimeters
distance, the cavalry of the Guard did not put foot to stirrup,
the heavy cavalry remained at Longueville (a suburb of Metz),
and as to the infantry of the Guard, it lay without orders till 6
P. M. at more than a league from the field of battle.” (Metz,
Campagne et Negotiations.)
!
into the intrenched camp in which ten weeks later it was
destined to lay down its arms. . Y.
But it is an error to say that Bazaine was shut up in the
intrenchments of Metz. No portion of the Marshal’s army
was within the enceinte of Metz; and the new and (incom-
plete) advanced detached works favored rather than ob-
structed egress. The question is can an army of 200,000
men or less, “shut up,” in an intrenched camp any more
than in open field, another of nearly equal numbers? If,
in open field, an army gives time and opportunity to its
adversary to encircle it with intrenchments, such is their
defensive capability with modern arms, that egress, even
with equal numbers, may become impracticable; and the
lines thrown up around Metz (see paper of Lt.-Col. Schaw,
R. E., Jour. U. S. Inst., No. 76) may ultimately have become
too strong to be successfully assailed. On the other hand, the
loss of morale and the resulting loss of confidence in the
leaders may perhaps account for the few and futile attempts
at sorties (Ml. Canrobert testifies that as late as Oct. 15 vig-
orous sorties could have been made); for the failure to co-
operate with the movement of MacMahon on Sedan, the
plea of failure to receive despatches announcing it, is put
forward, and credibly substantiated:
His attempt to negotiate with the Prussians through the
Empress at Hastings must be judged of by his own lan-
guage at his trial: “My position was unprecedented. I
was, in a certain sense, my own government. The duties
of a military chief when a legal government exists are
strictly defined. I by no means admit that to be the case
in presence of an insurrectionary government. There was
then no government; there was nothing;” coupled with the
comment of the duc d'Aumale, “What France, them, no
longer existed ?”
Thus exhausting the last days in which action was pos-
sible, the marshal surrendered on the 27th Oct., 1870, an
army of 160,000 men, Metz, “la Pucelle,” and its fortifica-
tions, and 1800 pieces of artillery.
He was arraigned Oct. 10, 1873, before a court consisting
of the duc d'Aumale (president), General de la Motte Rouge,
Baron de Chabaud-Latour, Generals Tripier, Martimprey,
Princeteau, and Martinez-Dechesnez, charged:
First—Of having capitulated with the enemy, and surren-
dered the fortress of Metz, of which he had the superior com-
mand, without having exhausted all the means of defence.
Second—Of having, as the head of the army before Metz,
signed a capitulation in the open field, the result of which
was to cause his troops to lay down their arms; and of not
having, before treating verbally and by writing, done every-
thing which he was bound to do by duty and honor—of-
fences provided for and punished by articles 209 and 210
of the Code of Military Justice.
After a trial of two months’ duration he was unanimously
pronounced guilty, sentenced to be degraded and shot, with
equally unanimous recommendation that the sentence should
not be carried into execution, in terms substantially as fol-
lows: “As jurymen, our conscience alone must guide us,
and as judges it has been our duty to apply an inexorable
law. The marshal, however, received the command of the
army under the most unfortunate circumstances, and the
court cannot forget that under fire he was always equal to
himself; that at Borny, Gravelotte, and Noisseville no one
surpassed him in bravery; and that on 16th of Aug. (Grave-
lotte) he maintained the centre of his line of battle by the
firmness of his attitude. Neither can the army forget the
glorious services rendered by the Volunteer of 1831.”
His sentence was promptly commuted by President Mac-
Mahon to twenty years’ imprisonment in a fortress, without
military degradation. -
In conclusion I venture to use the words of Niemann’s
military description of the French campaign. “The con-
duct of the marshal at Metz roused the conjecture that
he wished to act not only as a general, but as a states-
man; that he wished independently to make military ac-
tion accord with political events; that even he believed he
could pursue his own ambitious views, and at the same time
the interests of France. The temptation of playing an
important political rôle in the general overthrow of exist-
ing affairs, while at the head of the largest military body
which France possessed, no doubt came home to the ambi-
tious Bonapartist general.”
That his conduct of the military operations from Aug. 13
to Aug. 18 was inefficient; that his so-called sorties had
scarce the energy in them to reveal a serious intention to
go out; that he allowed himself to waste the last precious
days of his army’s efficiency in what were futile—and some
would call treasonable—attempts to negotiate with the
empress; and finally crushed the rising—the last—hopes
of France by a premature surrender at the very moment
when a protraction might have modified the history of the
war, must, I think, be the conviction of all who have im-
partially studied his career.
BAZALGETTE–BEADS, SAINT CUTHBERT'S.
425
On the 9th of Aug., 1874, Bazaine, aided by his wife,
escaped from his fortress prison, Ilé St. Marguerite, plead-
ing injustification (Letter addressed to the Minister of War),
while alleging that “respect for the military uniform which
he has very honorably worn for nearly half a century” would
have deterred him from this step but for the “humiliating
régime to which he was subjected, from which his past ca-
reer ought to have saved him,” that maxim of public law,
that “no sentence is legal unless pronounced by the peers
of the accused.” J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Bazalgette (Joseph WILLIAM), C. B., an English civil
engineer of French descent, was born in 1819. He has
won great fame in the construction of sewers, street altera-
tions, and other departments of city engineering. As en-
gineer-in-chief to the Metropolitan Board of Works, Ion-
don, he has constructed many hundreds of miles of sewers
and river embankments, and has introduced subterranean
passages for the carrying of gas and water pipes and tele-
graph-wires, so that it is not necessary to break up the
pavements for repairs. He has also furnished plans for
the drainage of many British and foreign cities.
Bazancourt, de (CÉsAR), BARON, a French historian,
born in 1810, wrote a “History of Sicily under the Nor-
man Rule” (2 vols., 1846), histories of the Crimean, Ital-
ian, Chinese, and Cochin-Chinese wars of Napoleon III., a
treatise on Fencing, and many novels. Under Louis Phil-
ippe, De Bazancourt was a director of the library of Com-
piègne, and under Napoleon III. he was official historiog-
rapher. Died at Paris Jan. 25, 1865.
Bazard (AMAND), the founder of French Carbonarism,
was born in Paris Sept. 19, 1791. He organized societies
of Carbonari about 1820, and afterwards became a disciple
of Saint-Simon the Socialist, and editor of the “Produc-
teur,” a Saint-Simonian journal. After the death of Saint-
Simon (1825), Bazard and Enfantin were the chief priests
of the sect, and they published an “Exposition of the Doc-
trine of Saint-Simon’” (1828–30). Bazard became disgusted
with the extreme innovations of Enfantin (who advocated
a community of wives), and he seceded from the sect in
1831. Died July 29, 1832. (See MICHAUD et VILLENAVE,
“Histoire du Saint-Simonisme,” 1847.)
Bazet/ta, a post-township of Trumbull co., O. It con-
tains the village of Baconsburg (pop. 449), on the Atlantic
and Great Western R. R. Pop. 1240.
Bazin (ANTOINE PIERRE ERNEST), a French dermatol-
ogist, born Feb. 20, 1807, at St. Brice, came of a long line
of medical men. In 1847 he became physician and profes-
sor of dermatology in the hospital of St. Louis, Paris. He
has written able works on venereal and skin diseases.
Bazin (ANTOINE PIERRE Louis), a brother of the pre-
ceding, born Mar. 26, 1799, was a professor of the Chinese
language, and published in 1856 a grammar of the Man-
darin dialect. He also made many translations from the
Chinese. Died in Jan., 1863.
Baz’ley (Sir THOMAs), BART., was born at Gilnow,
Lancashire, England, in 1797. He learned cotton-spinning
in his youth, went into business on his own account at
Bolton in 1818, and removed in 1826 to Manchester, where
his manufactory of fine cotton and lace thread was the
largest in the world, employing more than 1000 persons,
for whom he established schools, free lectures, and reading-
rooms. An early anti-corn-law man and free-trader, he
became a prominent liberal politician, first entering Par-
liament in 1858. In 1862 he retired from business, and in
1869 became a baronet.
Bdel/Hium [Gr. 88éAAtov], a gum-resin resembling
myrrh, but weaker and more acrid, was esteemed by the
ancients for its supposed medicinal virtues. . It is not often
used by modern physicians. Two varieties of bqellium
are obtained from the Amyris commiphora of India and
the Heudelotia Africana, a tree or shrub of Senegal.
Beach, a township of La Fayette co., Ark. Pop. 984.
Beach, a township of Mower co., Minn. Pop. 101.
Beach (ABRAHAM), D. D., a Protestant Episcopal di-
vine, was born at Cheshire, Conn., Sept. 9, 1740, graduated
at Yale College in 1757, and was ordained by the bishop
of London in 1767. He was until 1783 rector of a church
at New Brunswick, N.J., and afterwards an assistant min-
ister of Trinity church, N. Y., for thirty years (1783–1813).
He was the author of some religious works. In his last
years he was a farmer in New Jersey. The degree of
D. D. was conferred upon him by Columbia, College in
1789. He was a strict Episcopalian, and opposed the
liberalism of Bishop White. Died Sept. 11, 1828.
Beach (John), a Protestant Episcopal divine, born in
1700, graduated at Yale in 1721, and was for some years
Congregational minister of Newtown, Conn. He conformed
in 1732, was ordained by the bishop of London, and was
for fifty years a minister of the English Church in Con-
necticut. He published sermons and polemical tracts.
Died Mar. 8, 1782.
Beach (John WESLEY), D. D., an able preacher of the
Methodist Episcopal Church, was born at Trumbull, Conn.,
Dec. 26, 1825, graduated in 1845 at Wesleyan University,
Middletown, Conn., was for nine years a teacher, and in
1854 entered the ministry. His labors have been mostly
in New York City and vicinity. In 1872 he received the
degree of D. D. from his alma mater, and in 1873 he be-
came pastor of a church in New Haven, Conn.
Beach (Moses YALE), an American inventor and pub-
lisher, born at Wallingford, Conn., Jan. 7, 1800. He
learned the trade of a cabinet-maker in youth, and after-
wards experimented in machines for propelling balloons.
He invented a rag-cutting machine, now in general use in
paper-mills. In 1835 he became interested in the “New
York Sun,” and is regarded as a pioneer in the penny
newspaper business. In 1857, he left his profession and
retired to his native town, where he died July 18, 1868.
Beach Isle, a township of Hancock co., Me. Pop. 9.
Beach Pium, the Prunus maritima, a shrub of the
order Rosaceae, growing along the sea-beaches of the At-
lantic coast of the U. S. It bears an edible fruit, some-
times not much smaller than that of the cultivated plum,
which it resembles. Away from the sea-shore it degenerates.
Beach/ville, a post-village of Oxford co., Ontario,
Canada, on the Great Western Railway and the river
Thames, 4 miles from Woodstock, has three churches, man-
ufactures of lumber, linen, cordage, machinery, castings,
flour, etc., and an extensive trade. Pop. about 700.
Beach/y Head, the highest headland on the S. coast
of England, 2% miles S. S. W. of Eastbourne, Sussex. It
consists of perpendicular chalk cliffs 564 feet high, forming
the E. end of the South Downs. Here is a lighthouse 285
feet high. The French fleet defeated the Dutch and Eng-
lish near this point in 1690.
Bea’con. The Anglo-Saxon root is the same as that of
the noun beck and the verb beckon; hence the word implies
something which constitutes a significant sign or signal.
Before other means of rapid telegraphy were invented, fires,
kindled on the tops of mountains or prominent points of
the coast, were an obvious resort as alarm-signals, giving
warning of the approach of hostile fleets or armies. So, too,
as a guide to mariners, to whom the dangers of a contiguous
coast are enhanced by darkness, blazing fires or “lights”
of some kind (see LIGHTHOUSE) were ever the most ob-
vious beacons; hence a “fiery signal’’ is associated with the
classic signification of the word. The word beacon (in a
| special signification) is now almost exclusively restricted to
the last-mentioned uses, denoting a mark or sign erected on
coasts for guiding and preserving vessels at sea by night or
by day. Practically, it is still further restricted by being
divested, almost entirely, of reference to “light” or “fire,”
and applied to fixed structures or material marks erected on
rocks or shoals in harbors or narrow channels; nevertheless,
a small light-tower erected for no other than this limited
purpose is sometimes called a “beacon-light” (as distinct
from the lighthouse proper); while fixed wr-illuminated sig-
nal structures are called “day-beacons.”
J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Bead, or Bede, in Anglo-Saxon and Old English sig-
nified a prayer, and hence the small perforated balls, of
whatever material, used for keeping an account of the num-
ber of prayers repeated. Beads are small perforated glob-
ular bodies worn as ornaments by women and children
around the neck and on other parts of the person, for which
purpose they are arranged on strings. They are made of
various materials—gold, amber, coral, pearl, crystal, glass,
etc. More beads are made of glass than of any other ma-
terial. They are often used in the ornamentation of slip-
pers, purses, and other articles. The ancient Egyptians
understood the art of making glass beads, which are now
extensively manufactured at Murano, near Venice, and in
China. There are three kinds of beads—the hollow, the
common, and the bugle. Roman Catholics use a string of
beads, called a “rosary,” in saying prayers. Similar chap-
lets are used by Mohammedans and by some sects of
Booddhists. Great quantities of beads are shipped to
Africa, India, and the Eastern Archipelago.
Bea’dle [Ger. Büttel], in England, is an inferior parish
officer appointed by the vestry. His business is to attend
the vestry, to act as their messenger, to give notice of their
meetings, to execute their orders, to assist the constable, etc.
Beads, Saint Cuthbert’s, a name given to the single
joints of the articulated stem of a fossil animal called EN-
CRINITE (which see). They have natural perforations, so
that they can be strung like beads, and they were formerly
used as rosaries, and popularly believed to have been made
by Saint Cuthbert.
426
BEAGLE-BEAR.
Bea'gle, a small variety of hound, formerly employed
in England for hunting hares, but now nearly supplanted
by the harrier. The beagle is about ten inches high at the
shoulder, is compactly formed, and has long pendulous ears
and smooth hair. It is remarkable for its keenness of scent
and perseverance. During the chase it utters a musical cry.
A small variety is used as a lap-dog.
Beak [Lat ros' trum; Fr. bec], the bill of a bird; in
other words, the hard, horny mouth of a bird, consisting
of two parts, called the upper and lower mandible. (See
BILL.) The term was also applied to a pointed piece of
wood fortified with metal, and fastened to the fore end of
ancient galleys and modern steam-rams, in order to pierce
the vessels of the enemy.
Bea/ker, a name formerly given to a kind of drinking-
bowl or cup, derived from the same root as the German
becher. The name is now applied to a glass vessel used in
chemical laboratories. *
Beale, a township of Juniata co., Pa. Pop. 1039.'
Beale (LIONEL SMITH), F. R. S., an accomplished Eng-
lish microscopist and physiologist, born in 1828, graduated
M. B. at the University of London in 1851, in which insti-
tution he was afterwards appointed professor. Many re-
markable books and monographs upon histology and biology
have been published by Dr. Beale. His papers written
against the Darwinian hypothesis (1870) have attracted
much attention. Among his numerous works are “How
to Work with the Microscope” (1858), “The Structure of
the Tissues of the Body’ (1861), “Protoplasm” (1870).
Beam [Ger. Baum, a “tree”], any large piece of timber;
the principal piece of timber in a building, that lies across
the walls and serves to support the rafters; also a collection
of luminous rays emitted from the sun or other luminary.
The word has several technical applications. The part of
a balance from the ends of which the scales are suspended
is called the beam; a weaver’s beam is a wooden cylinder
on which the web is wound. The term is also applied to
the part of a steam-engine to which the piston is attached.
In ships, a beam is a great main cross-timber, extending
across the hull, supporting the deck, and preventing the
sides from collapsing. Each of these beams is made of one
solid piece of good timber, if possible, and is upheld at or
near the middle by a pillar or pillars. In large steamships
iron beams are often used instead of wood. A ship is said
to be “on her beam ends’’ when so much inclined to one
side that the beams become nearly vertical. The Word
also occurs in the phrase “ on the starboard beam,” which
is applied to the position of an object at sea which is seen
towards the right by a person who face is turned towards
the bow.
Beaman (FERNANDo C.). See APPENDIX.
Beams/ville, a post-village of Clinton township, Lin-
coln co., Ontario, Canada, on the Great Western Railway,
11 miles W. of St. Catherine's, has manufactures of farming
tools, carriages, etc. Pop. about 1000.
Beam Tree, White (Py’rus A^ria), a tree which is a
native of Europe and Asia, grows to the height of from
twenty-five to forty feet. It has ovate and serrate leaves,
which are white and downy beneath, flowers in terminal
corymbs, and bears a Scarlet fruit about as large as a pea.
This fruit, which is sometimes called sorb or service-berry,
is acid and astringent, and is used to make beer. The
hard, fine-grained wood is useful for cog-wheels.
Bean (Fa’ba), a genus of annual herbaceous plants of
the order Leguminosae, sub-order Papilionaceae, was in-
'cluded by Linnaeus in the genus Vicia, from which it may
be distinguished by its leathery, tumid pods and a large
scar on the end of the seed. The common European bean
(Faba vulgaris) has been cultivated in Asia and Europe
since the earliest ages. It has pinnate leaves, without
tendrils, and fragrant flowers. The seeds, which are nutri-
tious food, are enclosed in long pods which are woolly on
the inside. Many varieties of this species are cultivated
in gardens and fields, and are used as food for men, cattle,
swine, etc. This plant prefers a dry and moderately rich
soil. Garden beans are planted in the spring in rows. The
kidney-bean or haricot (Phaseolus vulgaris) is a totally
distinct plant from the proper bean. The beans cultivated
for use in America are of various species of Phaseolus.
Bean Blossom, a township of Monroe co., Ind. Pop.
1316.
Bean'ville, a village of Willing township, Allegany
co., N. Y., on the Genesee River, has manufactures of
lumber, leather, etc. *.
Bear [Lat. wr’sus, female wr’sa ; Ger. Bärj, a genus of
quadrupeds of the order Carnivora and tribe Plantigrada,
is the type of the family of Ursidae. Bears walk on the
soles of their feet, have five toes on each foot, and have
claws which are not retractile, but are adapted for digging
in the earth or climbing trees. Their tails are very short.
They have six cutting teeth in each jaw, and one canine
tooth on each side in each jaw. Bears are found both in
Warm and cold climates in Europe, Asia, and America, but
they are not known to live in Africa. The species that in-
habit cold climates are generally more fierce and carniv-
orous than those of tropical regions. Some species pass
the winter in a state of torpidity and hibernation, during
which they eat nothing and remain stationary in hollow
trees or holes in the ground. f
The brown bear (Ursus arctos) is widely distributed over
the continents of Europe and Asia, but it has been extir-
pated from the British Islands. It is generally believed
to be the only European species. It is solitary, infests
mountains and forests, eats fish and other animals, and
Subsists partly on fruits and vegetable food. The flesh of
this bear is eaten by the people of Kamtchatka and other
regions. *
The black bear (Ursus Americanus) is found in all parts
of North America. Its total length is about five feet. It
prefers vegetable food, but when pressed by hunger will
kill and eat small animals. It kills its prey by hugging or
Squeezing with its fore paws. Great numbers of black bears
are killed for their skins, which have a smooth, glossy fur,
and are valuable for cloaks, caps, etc. This animal is an
expert climber, is very fond of honey and green corn (maize),
and is less fierce and dangerous to man than the brown bear.
The Rocky Mountains and adjacent parts of North
America are infested by the grizzly bear (Ursus feroa or
horribilis), which is much larger and more carnivorous
than the black bear. It sometimes measures nine feet from
the nose to the tail, which is very short. The hair is long,
and its color is a mixture of brown, white, and black. This
bear, which is very tenacious of life, is the most formidable
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Grizzly Bear.
beast of prey on the continent of America. It is able to
master a buffalo (bison) and carry away its huge carcass.
It is stated that it hunts for prey both by day and night.
It can run swiftly, but does not climb trees. -
The largest of all the family of Ursidae is the polar bear
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Polar Bear.
(Ursus maritimus), called also the white bear, the fur of
































BEAR-BAITING—BEAR MOUNTAIN.
427
which is an impure white. It sometimes measures nearly
ten feet long and five feet high. It is strictly marine in its
habits, is never found far from the sea, and inhabits the
most northern shores of Greenland, Asia, etc. It subsists
chiefly on animal food, and pursues seals and fishes both
on the ice and in the water. These bears display a re-
markable affection for their cubs. It has not been ascer-
tained whether the polar bear usually hibernates or not.
The bear mentioned in the Bible was probably the Syrian
bear (Ursus Syriacus), which resembles the brown bear in
its habits, and has a stiff mane of erect hairs between the
shoulders. The color of its hair is mostly dingy white or
brown. Among the other species is the Ursus labiatus, or
long-lipped bear of the East Indies, an inoffensive and
gentle animal, which is often led about by Indian jugglers
for exhibition. Among the Andes of Chili occurs the Ursus
ormatus, called spectacled bear, which is black except two
semicircular yellow marks above its eyes. Remains of
several extinct species of bears have been found in caves in
England and Germany. Of these, Ursus spelaeus, called
the cave bear, is the best known. It is now thought that
the “cave bear” was identical with Ursus horribilis, the
“grizzly ” of America. The bears are by some naturalists
all arranged in one genus; by others in several genera.
- REVISED BY J. S. NEWBERRY.
Bear-Baiting. A custom was formerly prevalent in
many countries of baiting bears with dogs. The place in
which the bears were kept was called a “bear-garden.”
Bear-baiting was a favorite sport in England, not only for
the common people, but also for the higher classes. Queen
Elizabeth is said to have enjoyed it. It was hated by the
Puritans, Macaulay wittily says, “not because it gave
pain to the bear, but because it gave pleasure to the spec-
tators.” This coarse and inhuman entertainment grad-
ually died out, and was finally prohibited by act of Par-
liament Sept. 9, 1835.
Bear Creek, a township of Shelby co., Ala. P. 693.
Bear Creek, a township of Boone co., Ark. P. 314.
Bear Creek, a township of Phillips co., Ark. P. 170.
Bear Creek, a township of Searcy co., Ark. P. 865.
Bear Creek, a township of Sevier co., Ark. P. 159.
Bear Creek, a township of Christian co., Ill. P. 720.
Bear Creek, a township of Hancock co., Ill. P. 1117.
Bear Creek, a township of Montgomery co., Ill. Pop.
1650. -
Bear Creek, a post-township of Jay co., Ind. Pop.
1247. -
Bear Creek, a post-township of Poweshiek co., Ia.
Pop. 1852.
Bear Creek, a township of Emmet co., Mich. P. 254.
Bear Creek, a township of Montgomery co., Mo. Pop.
2200. - r
Bear Creek, a township of Chatham co., N. C. P. 1328.
Bear Creek, a post-township of Luzerne co., Pa.
Pop. 135.
Bear Creek, a township of Sauk co., Wis. Pop. 858.
Bear Creek, a post-township of Waupacca co., Wis.
Pop. 462. -
Beard, a name applied to the hair which grows upon
the lower part of the face of a man, and in exceptional
cases upon the faces of women, or even children. The
wearing of the beard is universal in the East, where it has
long been regarded as a mark of honor and dignity. Some
races of men, like the American Indians, carefully pluck
out the beard, which with them and others, such as the
Mongolians and Bedouins, is scanty. Most white races have
beards with hairs differing decidedly in structure and ap-
pearance from those of the scalp. The wearing or not of
beards in European nations has been regulated partly by
fashion and partly by legal enactments for or against the
practice. The beard is believed to protect the throat and
chest from colds.
Beard (RICHARD), D. D., a clergyman of the Cumber-
land Presbyterian Church, was born Nov. 27, 1799, in Sum-
ner co., Tenn. His early education was not without care,
yet limited. His education preparatory to the ministry
was conducted better than usual for the time in his Church.
He was licensed and commenced preaching in 1820, and
was several years exclusively devoted to the work of the
ministry. His health failing, he spent two or three years
teaching. He was two and a half years at Cumberland
College, Princeton, Ky., and graduated. He was imme-
diately appointed professor of languages in that college.
He afterwards spent five years at Sharon, Miss., in con-
nection with Sharon College. In 1843 he became presi-
dent of Cumberland College, Ky., and remained there ten
years and a half, giving a great impetus to the classic train-
ing of young men, especially those seeking the ministry.
In 1854, when the Cumberland Presbyterian Church es-
tablished a chair of systematic theology in Cumberland
University, at Lebanon, Tenn., his high character as a
scholar and educator at once called him to that position,
which he has ever since held. He has given to the Church
an able and standard work on “Systematic Theology,” in
3 vols. 8vo. It is regarded as the crystallization of Cum-
berland Presbyterian thought and faith. He has published
two octavo volumes of biographical sketches of ministers.
Also, “Why am I a Cumberland Presbyterian 2° 1 vol.
His contributions to the “Quarterly ” and general literature
of the Church have been constant and most valuable. His
great dignity, purity, and gentleness of character have
marked him as a representative man, calling him to the
moderator’s chair times almost without number. He is
yet vigorous and earnest in the great work of education.
Beard (WILLIAM H.), an American painter, born at
Painesville, O., about 1826. Among his most popular
works are “Bears on a Bender’’ and “Grimalkin’s Dream.”
Beard'in’s, a station of Etowah co., Ala. Pop. 445.
Beard’s, a township of Pickens co., Ala. Pop. 446.
Beard’s Bluff, a township of Marshall co., Ala.
Pop. 373.
Beard'słee (LESTER A.), U. S. N., born Feb. 1, 1836,
in Little Falls, N. Y., entered the navy as a midshipman
Mar. 5, 1850, became a passed midshipman in 1856, a lieu-
tenant in 1859, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, and a com-
mander in 1869. He served in the iron-clad Nantasket in
the engagement with Fort Sumter of April 7, 1863, and
is thus commended by his commanding officer, Captain
Fairfax, in his official report to Rear-Admiral Dupont of
April 8, 1863: “I am gratified to be able to say that the
officers and crew behaved with becoming coolness and
bravery. Lieutenant-Commander L. A. Beardslee, the ex-
ecutive officer, and the senior engineer, Mr. George H.
White, rendered me great assistance in the working of the
guns, turret, and even the vessel.”
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Bear'field, a township of Perry co., O. Pop. 901.
Beards/Iey (EDwARD E.), D.D., born in 1808 in Fairfield
co., Conn., graduated at Trinity, College, Hartford, in 1832,
where he was two years a tutor. He was for a time prin-
cipal of the academy at Cheshire, Conn., took orders in
the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1835, and has been
rector of a church in New Haven since 1848. He is the
author of a “History of the Episcopal Church in Con-
necticut” (2 vols. 8vo) and a “Life of Samuel Johnson,
D. D.,” both valuable works. -
Beardsley (SAMUEL), LL.D., a native of Otsego co.,
N. Y., practised law in Rome and Utica, N. Y., held vari-
ous State offices, was a member of Congress from New
York (1831–36 and 1843–1845), attorney-general of the
State (1837), became a judge of the State supreme court in
1844, and its chief-justice in 1847. Died May 6, 1860.
Beards/town, the county-seat of Cass co., Ill., situated
on the bank of the Illinois River. It is the terminus of the
Springfield and Illinois South-eastern R. R., and is on the
Rockford Rock Island and St. Louis R. R. It ranks as one of
the oldest towns in the State. The celebrated “Lithia Springs”
are here. The hotel accommodations are superior. There
is a fine park near the business portion of the city. The
Rockford machine-shops are located here, which employ
from 100 to 200 men. There is a foundry, flouring, wool-
len, and two saw-mills, one large Wagon manufactory, a
distillery, and a very extensive brewery. The surrounding
country consists of rich bottom-lands of a sandy nature,
and produces abundant crops of grapes, corn, sweet pota-
toes, melons, and general marketing. A fine bay, on which
saw-mills are established, affords a fine resort for boating
and fishing. The railroad bridge of the Rockford road
crosses the river at this point, and is a fine structure, cost-
ing some $300,000. The piers are of iron. It has two
weekly newspapers. Pop. 2588; total pop. of Beardstown
township, 3582.
J. S. NICHOLSON, ED. “CENTRAL ILLINOISIAN.”
Bear Grove, a township of Fayette co., Ill. P. 992.
Bear Grove, a township of Cass co., Ia. Pop. 163.
Bear Grove, a post-township of Guthrie co., Ia. Pop.
417.
Bear House, a township of Ashley co., Ark. P. 525.
Bear Isle, a township of Hancock co., Me. Pop. 13.
Bear Lake, a post-township of Manistee co., Mich.
Pop. 417.
Bear Mountain, in Pennsylvania, rises in the N. E.
part of Dauphin co., to the height of about 750 feet. The
~~
428
BEAR RIVER—BEAUFORT.
Valley of Bear Creek, which flows at the base of this moun-
tain, contains valuable beds of anthracite coal.
Bear River, a port of entry of Digby co. and town-
ship, Nova Scotia, at the head of navigation, has quite ex-
tensive manufactures of lumber, leather, etc.; shipbuilding
is also carried on. It has a large trade in firewood and
Iumber, which are sent to the U. S. and West Indies. Pop.
about 900. *
Bear River, a river of the U. S., rises in the N. part
of Utah, flows northward into Idaho, and changes its course
abruptly towards the S. Having again crossed the S.
'boundary of Idaho into Utah, it flows south-westward, and
enters Great Salt Lake about 25 miles N. W. of Ogden.
The total length is about 400 miles.
Bears and Bulls, a phrase often used in connection
with the purchase and sale of stocks, and applied to per-
sons who speculate in government securities and in the
stocks of railroads and other corporations. The “bears”
are those who wish to depress the value of stocks, and the
“bulls” are those whose interest prompts, them to act in
the other direction. If two men have contracted, the one
to deliver and the other to take a certain stock at a speci-
fied price on an appointed future day, the former party
will naturally belong to the bears, and the latter to the
bulls.
Bear’s Grease, or Bear’s Oil, is said to be effica-
cious in promoting the growth of human hair. The genu-
ine article being insufficient to supply the demand, per-
fumers and others sell under the name of bear’s oil large
quantities of beef-marrow, hog's lard, spermaceti, etc.
Bear’ytown, a village of Fayette and Varick town-
ships, Seneca, co., N. Y., has three churches and manufac-
tures of staves and lumber.
Beasſley (FREDERICK), D.D., an American clergyman
and philosopher, born near Edenton, N. C., in 1777, grad-
uated at Princeton in 1797, became an Episcopalian min-
ister, and was long provost of the University of Pennsyl-
vania. Among his works, which attracted attention in
Europe, are “A Search of Truth in the Science of the
Human Mind,” and a “Reply to the Views of Dr. Chan-
ning.” Died at Elizabethtown, N. J., Nov. 2, 1845.
Bea’son’s Store, a township of St. Clair co., Ala.
Pop. 305. - s
Beatifica’tion [Lat. beatifica/tio, from beaſtus, “bless-
ed,” and faſcio, facſ twm, to “make ’’) in the Roman Cath-
olic Church is a solemn act by which the pope pronounces
a person blessed. It is the first step towards canonization,
and permits the term “blessed '' to be given to the new
saint. This honor is reserved for those who have per-
formed miracles, have suffered martyrdom, or have died
in the odor of sanctity. The first solemn beatification was
that of Saint Francis de Sales by Alexander VIII., Jan. 8,
1662.
Beating the Bounds, a popular phrase used in
England to denote the periodical survey or perambulation
by which the boundaries of parishes are preserved. It is
the custom that the clergyman of the parish, with the pa-
rochial officers and the boys of the parish school, should
march to the boundaries, which the boys strike with willow
rods. The boys themselves were sometimes whipped in
proximity to an important landmark, in order to impress
the subject durably on their memories.
Beaſton, Beatoum, or Bethune (DAvHD), a Scot-
tish cardinal, born in 1494, was a zealous opponent of the
Protestant Reformation. He was appointed lord privy
seal in 1528, and was sent as ambassador to France in 1533.
He became a cardinal in 1538, and succeeded his uncle
as archbishop of St. Andrew's in 1539. On the death of
James W., in 1542, Beaton produced a forged will of that
king, appointing himself, with three others, regent of the
kingdom; but his artifice failed, and the earl of Arran
became the regent. Cardinal Beaton was a cruel persecu-
tor of the Protestants, and caused George Wishart to be
burned at the stake. He was assassinated in his own castle
by Norman Leslie and others May 29, 1546. (See KNox,
“History of the Reformation in Scotland; ” FROUDE, “His-
tory of England,” vol. iv.; ROBERTSON, “History of Scot-
land.”). *
Beſatrice, a city, capital of Gage co., Neb., in a town-
ship of the same name, on the Big Blue River, 90 miles
S. S. W. of Omaha. It has a weekly paper. It is the
southern terminus of the Omaha, and South-western R. R.
It is noted for its fine water-power and excellent building-
stone. The U. S. land-office for the Nemaha, district is
located here. Pop. of township, 624.
THEoDoRE Col.BMAN, ED. of “BEATRICE ExPREss.”
Beatri'ce Portina'ri, a beautiful Italian lady, a
native of Florence, who excited the admiration of Dante,
‘and was immortalized by him in his “ Divina Commedia.”
She was married to Simone dei Bardi, and died in 1290,
aged about twenty-four.
Beat’tie (JAMEs), LL.D., D. C. L., a Scottish poet,
born in the county of Kincardine Oct. 25, 1735. He be-
came in 1760 professor of moral philosophy in Marischal
College, Aberdeen. To refute the doctrines of Hume he
published his “Essay on Truth” (1770), which was ex-
tremely successful. His most popular poem is “The Min-
strel” (1771–74), which excited general admiration. Among
his other works are “The Evidences of the Christian Re-
ligion, briefly and plainly stated” (1786), and “The Ele-
ments of Moral Science” (1793). Died Aug. 18, 1803.
(See SIR WILLIAM For BEs, “Life of James Beattie,” 2 vols.,
1806; ALEXANDER BowFR, “Life of James Beattie,” 1804.)
Beat’ty, a post-village of Westmoreland co., Pa.
Beatty (John), born near Sandusky, O., Dec. 16, 1828,
was engaged in banking, but entered the Third Ohio In-
fantry as a private in 1861, became its lieutenant-colonel
in that year, its colonel in 1862, and brigadier-general of
volunteers in the same year. He distinguished himself in
many important battles in West Virginia, Kentucky, and
Tennessee in the late civil war. -
Beat’tyville, a post-village, capital of Lee co., Ky.
Pop. 123. .
Beaucaire, a town of France, in the department of
Gard, on the right (W.) bank of the Rhone, and on a rail-
way from Cette to Tarascon, 15 miles by rail E. of Nîmes.
A bridge nearly one mile long here crosses the Rhone. It
has an active trade, which is facilitated by a canal extend-
ing to the Mediterranean. Here is held annually a great
fair (July 25–28), which was formerly perhaps the largest
in Europe. It is said to have been instituted by Count
Raymond II. of Toulouse in 1217, although we do not find
it mentioned until 1315. It has declined in modern times,
but it is still frequented by merchants from all parts of
Europe and the Levant. The number of annual visitors
was formerly estimated at 100,000, but has at present
greatly declined. The chief articles sold at this fair are
silks, wine, oil, drugs, wool, leather, and spices. Pop. in
1866, 9395.
Beauce, a county of Canada, in the S. E. part of Que-
bec, intersected by the Chaudière River. Area, 1150 square
miles. It has mines of copper. Capital, St. Joseph de
Beauce. Pop. in 1871, 27,253.
Beauchamp, de (ALPHONSE), a French historian and
publicist, born at Monaco, in Italy, in 1767, resided in
Paris. He contributed to the “Moniteur'' and the “Ga-
zette de France,” and published many works, among which
are a “History of La Vendée" (3 vols., 1806), a “History
of Brazil” (1815), and a “Life of General Moreau” (1814).
Died June 1, 1832.
Beau/champ, EARLs of, Wiscounts Elmley (1815),
Barons Beauchamp (1806, in the United Kingdom), a
noble family of Great Britain.-FREDERICK LYGON, the
sixth earl, was born Nov. 10, 1830, and succeeded his
brother in 1866. He was lord of the admiralty in 1859,
member of Parliament for Tewksbury 1857–63, and for
West Worcestershire 1863–66.
Beau'ford, a post-township of Blue Earth co., Minn.
Pop. 336. -
Beau'fort,” a county of North Carolina, bordering on
Pamlico Sound, is intersected by the navigable Pamlico
River. The surface is level; the soil is sandy, and in
some parts marshy. Corn, rice, tobacco, and cotton are
raised. Capital, Washington. Pop. 13,011.
Beaufort,” a county which forms the southern ex-
tremity of South Carolina. Area, 1540 square miles. It
is bounded on the N. E. by the Combahee River, on the
S. E. by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the W. by the Savan-
nah River. The surface is a level, alluvial plain; the soil
is sandy, but produces good crops of cotton, maize, rice,
and sweet potatoes. The county is intersected by the
Charlestón and Savannah and the Port Royal R. Rs. Cap-
ital, Beaufort. Pop. 34,359.
Beaufort, a port of entry, capital of Carteret co.;
N. C., at the mouth of Newport River, about 4 miles from
the ocean and 168 miles E. S. E. of Raleigh. Its har-
bor is the best in the State, and is defended by Fort Ma-
con. There is a lighthouse 156 feet high at Cape Lookout,
11 miles S. E. of Beaufort, in lat. 34° 37' 16" N., lon. 76°
31' 07' W. Pop. 2430; of the township, 2850.
Beaufort, a port of entry, capital of Beaufort co.,
S. C., on Port Royal Island, and on an arm of the sea
called Port Royal River, about 55 miles W. S. W. of
* This name is usually pronounced bu'fort in South Carolina,
and bo'fort in North Carolina.
BEAUFORT-BEAUMONT.
Charleston. It has a good harbor, with nearly sixteen
feet of water over the bar at the entrance. Lumber, rice,
and cotton are exported. It has five churches and three
weekly newspapers. Pop. 1739; of the township, 5511.
- ED. “BARNWELL County TIMES.”
Beau'fort (HENRY), CARDINAL, an ambitious English
prelate, born about 1375, was a natural son of John of
Gaunt and half-brother of King Henry IV. He became
bishop of Lincoln in 1398, bishop of Winchester in 1405,
lord chancellor in 1403, again in 1413, and a third time in
1424. He acted a prominent part in political affairs, for
which he had superior abilities. During the minority of
Henry VI, he was very powerful, and was a rival of his
nephew, the duke of Gloucester. He was suspected of
complicity in the murder of that rival. Died April 11,
1447. (See Lord CAMPBELL, “Lives of the Lord Chan-
cellors.”)
Beaufort, de (FRANÇors DE WENDôME), DUC, born in
Paris in 1616, was a grandson of Henry IV. of France,
and a son of César de Vendôme. He was a leader of the
malcontents or opponents of the court in the civil war of
the Fronde. Having returned to his allegiance, he was
appointed commander of the fleet by Louis XIV. about
1662. He was killed at the siege of Candia in 1669.
Beaufort, DUKES OF (1682), marquesses of Worcester
(1642); earls of Worcester (1514); earls of Glamorgan,
Wiscounts Grosmont, and Barons Beaufort (1642); Barons
IIerbert (1461); Barons Herbert of Ragland, Chepstow,
and Gower (1506); Barons Bottetourt (1308, in Eng-
land), an old and prominent family of Great Britain.—
HENRY CHARLEs FITzRoy SoMERSET, the eighth duke, was
born Feb. 1, 1824, and succeeded his father in 1853. He
was member of Parliament for East Gloucestershire 1846–
53, master of the horse 1858–59 and 1866–68, and is at
present lord lieutenant of Monmouthshire.
Beaugency, an old town of France, in the department
of Loiret, on the right bank of the Loire, and on the rail-
way from Paris to Bordeaux, 16 miles S. W. of Orleans. It
has manufactures of woollen and leather goods, and a trade
in wine, grain, and wool. Pop. 5029.
Beauharnais, de (EUGièNE), a son of Vicomte Alex-
andre de Beauharnais, was born in Paris Sept. 3, 1781.
His mother, Josephine, became the wife of Bonaparte, whom
he accompanied to Egypt in 1798. He was rapidly pro-
moted in the army, was appointed viceroy of Italy in 1805,
and married the princess Amalie Augusta, a daughter of
the king of Bavaria, in 1806. His functions as viceroy were
performed with ability, prudence, and moderation. He
also displayed superior military talents in the campaign
against Austria in 1809 and in the invasion of Russia in
1812. Having obtained command of the army in Russia
after it had, suffered great disasters, he acted with remark-
able firmness and constancy, and made a masterly retreat.
After the battle of Lützen, May, 1813, in which he took
part, he went to Italy, which he defended against the Aus-
trians until the deposition of Napoleon. He afterwards
resided at Munich, and obtained from the king of Bavaria
the title and estate of duke of Leuchtenberg. Died in
Munich Feb. 21, 1824. One of his sons married Donna
Maria, queen of Portugal, in 1835. (See LíoNARD GAL-
Lois, “Histoire du Prince Eugène de Beauharnais,” 1821;
A. AUBRIET, “Wie de Eugène de Beauharnais,” 1824.)
Beauharnois, a county of Canada, in the S. W. part
of Quebec, has an area of 200 square miles. It is bounded
on the N. W. by the river St. Lawrence, and is drained by
the Châteauguay River. The soil is productive. Butter,
cheese, wool, and oats are the chief crops. Capital, Beau-
harnois. Pop. in 1871, 14,757. -
Beauharnois, a post-village, capital of the above
county, is on the St. Lawrence River, 27 miles S. W. of
Montreal. It has a number of flax-mills, potteries, and
factories, and one weekly paper. Pop. in 1871, 1423.
Beaumarchais, de (PIERRE AUGUSTIN CARON), a
French dramatist remarkable for his wit and versatility,
and whose adventurous career and vicissitudes of fortune
obtained for him great celebrity, was born at Paris Jan.
24, 1732, and was the son of a clockmaker. Although sent
to the college (Anglicë, School) at Alfort, he was at the
early age of thirteen apprenticed to his father. He soon
discovered a decided taste for literature and an excessive
fondness for music, in which art he became so proficient
that he was enabled to procure an introduction to the court
of Louis XV., and was employed to teach the princesses,
his daughters, to play upon the harp, in the performancé
upon which he was skilled, and in the pedals of which he
introduced an improvement. At the concerts given at the
gourt he made the acquaintance of Duverney, the cele-
brated financier of that period, whom he was enabled to
aid, by his influence with the princesses, in the accomplish-
429
ment of certain projects in which the banker was at that
time engaged. In return, Duyerney instructed him in the
affairs of finance, and -aided him with funds and credit.
The first literary production which attracted attention to
Beaumarchais was his drama of “Eugénie,” published in
1767, which, however, did not meet with success. In Nov.,
1768, Beaumarchais's second wife died, and in July of the
same year, Duverney. Although one-half of his wife's for-
tune was in a life-annuity, and the settlement of Duver-
ney’s affairs discovered a balance in favor of Beaumar-
chais, a rumor prevailed that he had poisoned his wife, and
he was accused by Comte de la Blache, Duverney’s heir,
of embezzlement, fraud, and forgery. A seven years’ litiga-
tion in securing the amount due him from Duverney was
the occasion of his masterly “Mémoires’’ in his defence,
which obtained for him great notoriety. These productions
are admitted to be masterpieces in their way, and the in-
terest and excitement produced by them is described as
magical and electrical. Although thus occupied in the law
and in his favorite literary pursuits, Beaumarchais was
still actively engaged in various business speculations. He
was prompt to foresee the success of our American Revolu-
tion, and engaged by connivance with, though unaided by,
the French government, in supplying the Americans with
arms and ammunition. How his services in this direction
were appreciated the following will show: “By express order
of the Congress sitting at Philadelphia, to M. de Beaumar-
chais : Sir, The Congress of the U. S. of America, grate-
ful for the great efforts you have made in their favor, pre-
sents you its thanks, and the assurance of its esteem. It
grieves for the misfortunes you have suffered in support
of its States. Unfortunate circumstances have prevented
the accomplishment of its desires, but it will take the
promptest measures for acquitting itself of the debts it has
contracted with you. The generous sentiments and the ex-
alted views which alone could dictate a conduct such as
yours are your greatest eulogium, and are an honor to your
character. Whilst by your great talents you have rendered
yourself useful to your prince, you have gained the esteem
of this rising republic, and merited the deserved applause
of the New World. * John JAY, President.”
Notwithstanding this, his claim, which Alexander Ham-
ilton approved, was not paid until 1835, thirty-six years
after his death, and then but one-fourth part of the
principal.
In the midst of his manifold labors he undertook at this
time an expensive reproduction of the works of Voltaire,
one edition of which was to be in 92 volumes, by which he
sustained a very heavy loss. Notwithstanding he gave his
support to the principles of the French Revolution, and
imported firearms for the use of the French, his property
was confiscated, and he was for a time an exile from his
native land. After undergoing persecution and accusation,
he returned to France after the Revolution was over. His suf-
ferings during this period were described by him in a publish-
ed work entitled “Mes Six Epoques.” He recovered posses-
sion of his beautiful villa at Faubourg St. Antoine, where
he remained till his death. The evening of May 17, 1799,
he passed with his family and a few friends; on the morn-
ing of the 18th he was found dead in his bed.
Beaumarchais, besides the works mentioned, is also the
author of various dramatic productions. “Le Mariage de
Figaro,” his masterpiece, produced the greatest excitement
in Paris, and his “Barbier de Séville,” which preceded it,
was also a great success. The first formed an epoch in the
dramatic, social, and political annals of France, and was
styled by Napoleon. “ the Revolution already in action.” It
is but proper to add that no conception of its wit, vivacity,
and telling social and political allusions and sarcasms can
be had at the present day, especially from the opera libret-
tos with which we are familiar. (See L. DE LOMáNIE,
“Beaumarchais, sa Vie et son Temps,” 1852; SAINT-MARC
GIRARDIN, “Notice sur la Vie de Beaumarchais,” 1835;
E. BERGER, “Essai sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Beau-
marchais,” 1847; “Edinburgh Review,” vol. civ., 1856;
“London Quarterly Review,” July, 1873, etc.)
J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Beauma’ris, a seaport of Wales, and the capital of
the island and county of Anglesea, is on the E. coast of
the island, 3 miles N. of Bangor and about 2 miles from
the N. end of Menai Strait. It is a favorite place of resort
for sea-bathing. The Bay of Beaumaris affords here Safe
anchorage. Here is a ruined castle built by Edward I.
Pop. 2558.
Beau/mont, the capital of Jefferson co., Tex., on the
Texas and New Orleans R. R., 85 miles E. by N. of Hous-
ton and 68 miles N. E. of Galveston, and at the head of
tide-water navigation on the Neches River, which is navi-
gable for 331 miles from the sea by steamers. The yellow
pine and cypress lumber and shingles manufactured on the
43()
BEAUMONT—BEAVER.
Neches River (which has eight or ten mills) are shipped in
steamers and schooners from Beaumont viá. Sabine Pass.
It has one weekly paper.
W. F. M’CLANAHAN, ED. or “NEws-BEACON.”
Beaumont (FRANCIS), an English dramatic poet, born
in Leicestershire in 1586, was educated at Oxford. After
he left college he associated with Ben Jonson in London,
and became an intimate friend of John Fletcher, in part-
nership with whom he wrote several popular dramas, among
which are “Philaster” (1611), “The Coxcomb '' (1613),
and “Cupid’s Revenge” (1613). Beaumont also wrote
“The Masque of the Inner Temple '' (1612), and other
poems. Died Mar, 1616. Beaumont and Fletcher are
lyrical and descriptive poets of the highest order, but they
are offensively coarse and licentious.
Beaumont (John C.), U. S. N., born Aug. 27, 1821, in
Pennsylvania, entered the navy as a midshipman Mar. 1,
1838, became a passed midshipman in 1844, a lieutenant in
1855, a commander in 1862, and a captain in 1872. While
commanding the steamer Aroostook, North Atlantic block-
ading squadron, he took part in the shelling of Drury's
Bluff, May 15, 1862, and commanded the steamer Mackinaw
in both attacks upon Fort Fisher, and for his services on
these occasions was recommended for promotion by Ad-
miral Porter in his official despatch of Jan. 28, 1865.
IFox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Beaumont (WILLIAM), M. D., an American surgeon,
born at Lebanon, Conn., in 1785. While in the U. S. army
in 1825 a young man (Alexis St.-Martin) was brought to
him who had received a wound from a musket discharged
at the distance of only a few feet. The wound healed, and
left an aperture about two and a half inches in diameter,
through which the process of digestion could be seen. Doc-
tor Beaumont availed himself of this to make various ex-
periments on digestion, the results of which are extremely
interesting and of great importance to physiological sci-
ence. They were published in 1838, and afterwards in
England and on the Continent. Died at St. Louis April
25, 1853.
Beaumont de la Bonnière, de (GUSTAVE), an
eminent French publicist and advocate, was born in Sarthe
Feb. 16, 1802. He was a grandson of La Fayette. He
visited the U. S. in 1831, in company with De Tocqueville,
in order to study American systems of prison discipline.
He wrote an able work “On the Penitentiary System
of the U. S., etc.” (2 vols., 1832), and “Slavery in the
U. S.” (1835). He was elected to the Chamber of Depu-
ties in 1840, and was a moderate republican member of the
National Assembly of 1848. Having opposed the coup-
d'état of Dec., 1851, he was imprisoned for a short time.
Died Mar. 2, 1866.
Beaune (anc. Vellaumodu/num), an old town of France,
in the department of Côte-d'Or, is on the river Bouzoise, and
on the Paris and Lyons Railway, 23 miles by rail S. S. W.
of Dijon. It has the beautiful church of Notre Dame, and a
splendid hospital founded in 1443. Here are manufactures
of woollen cloth, cutlery, leather, etc. Good burgundy Wine
is produced in this vicinity. Pop. in 1866, 10,907.
Beauport, a post-village and parish of Quebec Co.,
Canada, 3% miles N. E. of Quebec. It has extefisive man-
ufactures and trade in flour, lumber, nails, etc., and is
the seat of Beauport Lunatic Asylum, a large and well-
conducted institution. Pop. about 1300.
Beauregard, a township of Drew co., Ark. Pop. 598.
Beauregard, a station on the New Orleans Jackson
and Great Northern R. R., 139 miles N. by W. of New
Orleans. It has one weekly newspaper.
Beauregard (PETER GUSTAvus TouTANT), an Ameri-
can officer and engineer, born in 1818 near New Orleans,
La., graduated at West Point in 1838, captain of engineers,
U. S. A., Mar. 3, 1853, and general July 21, 1861, in the
Southern army. He served in constructing fortifications
1838–45 and 1848–52, in the war with Mexico 1846–48, en-
gineer at Tampico (erecting defences), Vera Cruz, Cerro
Gordo, Pedregal, Contreras (brevet captain), Chapultepec
(brevet major), and city of Mexico (twice wounded); as
member of special engineer boards for harbor and river
improvements and Gulf of Mexico defences 1852–58, and
in construction of the New Orleans custom-house, marine
hospital, and quarantine warehouses 1853–60. Resigning
from the army Feb. 20, 1861, he joined the Southern Confed-
eracy, taking an active part in the civil war; in command
of the bombardment of Fort Sumter, S. C., 1861, in the
Manassas campaign at Bull Run, Va., 1861, of the Corinth
army 1862, after the death of Gen. A. S. Johnston at Shiloh;
in defence of Corinth till compelled by Gen. Halleck to
evacuate it, 1862; of the military department of South
Carolina, and Georgia, including the defence of Charleston,
1862–64; defence of Petersburg, Va., 1864; of the military
division of the West 1864, and of Charleston, S. C.; from
which he retired and joined Gen. J. E. Johnston upon the
approach of Gen. Sherman, to whom his forces were sur-
rendered at Durham Station, N. C., April 26, 1865. Since
the war he has been a civil engineer in the South.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Beausobre, de (ISAAC), a learned French Protestant
writer, born at Niort Mar. 8, 1659. He was ordained in
1683, but was compelled by persecution to go into exile in
1685. In 1694 he went to Berlin, and became pastor of the
French church. Here he remained till his death (June 6,
1738), though his great talents caused him to receive fre-
quent and tempting calls to go to London, Hamburg, and
other Protestant cities. Beausobre's fame rests chiefly on
his “Histoire Critique de Manicheisme” (2 vols., 1734–39),
a work of vast labor, learning, and ability. He also published
a “History of the Reformation ” (1785) and other import-
ant works, and, with L'Enfant, translated a part of the New
Testament. He is charged with Socinian tendencies.
Beautiful, Science of the. See AESTHETICs.
Beauvais (amc. Bellow' acum), an old city of France,
capital of the department of Oise, is situated on the river
Thérain, and in a rich valley enclosed by wooded hills, 64
miles by rail N. N. W. of Paris. It has a fine large but
unfinished Gothic cathedral, a public library, a museum,
and a college. Here are extensive manufactures of wool-
len cloths, flannels, shawls, Gobelin tapestry, printed cot–
tons, and carpets. Pop. in 1866, 15,307. It was the chief
town of the Bellovaci in the time of Caesar. In 1443 it
was besieged in vain by the English. The citizens of
Beauvais, aided by the heroine La Hachette and other
women, repulsed Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who
besieged the city in 1472. • -
Beauvais, a township of Sainte Genevieve co., Mo.
Pop. 1306.
Bea’ver [Fr. bièvre; Lat. cas'tor and fi/ber; Ger, Biº-
ber], (the Castor Fiber of the naturalists), a remarkable
quadruped of the order Rodentia, is a native of Europe,
Asia, and North America. Beavers were once abundant in
the U. S., but they have gradually disappeared before the
advance of civilization. They are characterized by in-
dustry, sagacity, and instinctive skill in building dams
and houses. They have strong incisors or cutting teeth, in
which a sharp, chisel-like edge is always preserved by the
unequal abrasion of the hard enamel and the other part,
which is softer. The body of the beaver is about two feet
long. The toes of the hind feet are long, spreading, and
webbed to the nails. Among its remarkable characteris–
tics is a tail of an oval form, about ten inches long, hori-
zontally flattened, and about three inches wide. The tail
|Beaver.
is covered with horny scales, but the body is covered with
a very fine and valuable fur, the color of which is some-
times chestnut-brown; this fur is used for making hats and
caps. Its food consists of bark of trees, leaves, roots, and
berries. The fayorite haunts of beavers are rivers and
lakes which are bordered by forests. “Their work is all
performed in the night,” says Dr. Godman. When they
find a stream that is not sufficiently deep for their purpose,
they build a dam across it with wonderful ingenuity and
industry. The dam, which is formed of sticks, roots, stones,
and mud strangely combined, is watertight, and presents
a convex surface towards the current. To obtain material
for it they cut down the trees growing on the margin of
the stream above the dam, and float them down. They
prefer small trees, but sometimes fell those that are ten
inches or more in diameter. It is stated that they have
built dams nearly 300 yards long. The sides of the dam
incline towards each other, so that the bottom of it is much
thicker than the top. There is a popular opinion that
beavers use their tails as trowels in plastering. It is more

i BEAVER—BEAVERTAIL.
431
probable that the tail serves as a prop or support when
they work with their fore feet or carry burdens with them.
They pass the winter in houses or lodges which are two or
three feet high, are built on the edge of the water, and
afford them protection from wolves and other wild beasts.
They also have holes or burrows in the ground (adjacent
to their lodges), with entrances under the water, in which
they take refuge if their lodges are destroyed or become
untenable.
The houses or huts of beavers are not built of sticks first,
and then plastered, but all the materials, sticks, mud, and
stones, are mixed together, and this composition is em-
ployed from the foundation to the summit. “The tops of
the houses,” says Godman, “are generally from four to six
feet thick at the apex of the cone.” “The outside of the
hut is covered or plastered with mud late in the autumn,
and after frost has begun to appear. By freezing it soon
becomes almost as hard as stone, effectually excluding their
great enemy, the wolverine, during the winter. The door
or hole leading into the beaver-hut is always on the side
farthest from the land, and is near the foundation of the
hut or at a considerable depth under water.” When they
are much disturbed by the presence of hunters and settlers,
beavers renounce their original programme, cease to build
dams and houses, and, adapting themselves to their altered
circumstances, excavate in the banks of rivers holes for
their residence—a signal manifestation of sagacity.
Beavers are easily tamed, but no wooden cage will keep
them confined, because they gnaw through. Many of them
are caught in traps by the Indians and other trappers. In
1820, 60,000 beaver skins were sold by the Hudson’s Bay
Company. Their numbers are rapidly diminishing in con-
sequence of the exterminating warfare waged against them
by hunters, who often kill the young before they have at-
tained half their growth. The bait which is used to entice
beavers is prepared from the substance called castor (cas-
toreum), obtained from glandular pouches connected with
the reproductive organs of the male beavers. “The only
species of beaver known,” says Dr. Godman, “is the one
we have described,” but others believe the Old World and
New World beavers to be distinct species. The remains éf
an extinct beaver, very much larger than the living species,
have been found in the surface deposits of Ohio and New
York. It was first described by Col. J. W. Foster, and by
him was called Castoroides. (See MoRGAN, “The American
Beaver,” 1867.) REVISED BY J. S. NEWBERRY.
Beaver, a county of Pennsylvania, bordering on Ohio.
Area, 650 square miles. It is intersected by the Ohio and
Beaver rivers. The surface is undulating; the soil is very
fertile. Grain, wool, hay, and dairy products are exten-
sively raised. Bituminous coal and limestone abound in
this county, which is liberally supplied with water-power.
The Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago and Cleveland and
Pittsburg R. Rs. traverse the county. It has many import-
ant manufactures. Capital, Beaver. Pop. 36,148.
Beaver, a large county in the S. of Utah, bordering
on Nevada. It is intersected by Green River. Cattle, wool,
and wheat are the chief exports. Lead, silver, and iron
are found here. Capital, Beaver. Pop. 2007.
Beaver, a township of Saline co., Ark. Pop. 240.
Beaver, a township of Iroquois co., Ill. Pop. 1278.
Beaver, a township of Newton co., Ind. Pop. 637.
Beaver, a township of Pulaski co., Ind. Pop. 489.
Beaver, a township of Butler co., Ia. Pop. 1084.
Beaver, a township of Dallas co., Ia. Pop. 343.
Beaver, a township of Grundy co., Ia. Pop. 401.
Beaver, a township of Guthrie co., Ia. Pop. 520.
Beaver, a township of Polk co., Ia. Pop. 1213.
Beaver, a township of Bay co., Mich. Pop. 141.
Beaver, a township of Newaygo co., Mich. Pop. 142.
Beaver, a township of Fillmore co., Minn. Pop. 419.
Beaver, a township of Renville co., Minn. Pop. 569.
Beaver, a township of Taney co., Mo. Pop. 581.
Beaver, a township of Mahoning co., O. Pop. 1933.
Beaver, a township of Noble co., O. Pop. 1684.
Beaver, a post-township of Pike co., O. Pop. 694.
Beaver, a post-borough, capital of Beaver co., Pa., on
the right bank of the Ohio River, 2 miles below the mouth
of the Beaver River, and on the Cleveland and Pittsburg
R. R., 27 miles N. W. of Pittsburg. It is the seat of Beaver
College, a female Seminary, an academy, good union schools,
and four churches. There is a fine park in the centre of
the village. It has three weekly newspapers. Pop. 1120.
* ED. “ RADICAL.”
Beaver, a township of Clarion co., Pa. Pop. 1338.
Beaver, a township of Columbia co., Pa. Pop. 958.
Beaver, a township of Crawford co., Pa. Pop. 1177.
Beaver, a township of Jefferson co., Pa. Pop. 1094.
Beaver, a township of Snyder co., Pa. Pop. 1766.
Beaver, a post-village, capital of Beaver co., Utah, is
on Beaver River, about 50 miles S. by W. from Fillmore.
Copper and lead are found in the vicinity. |
Beaver Bay, a post-village, capital of Lake co., Minn.,
in a township of the same name, on Lake Superior, at the
mouth of Beaver Bay River, 55 miles N.E. of Duluth; lat.
47° 12 N., lon. 91° 20' W. Pop. of township, 119.
Beaver Creek, a post-township of Dale co., Ala. Pop.
400.
Beaver Creek, a post-township of Bond co., Ill. Pop.
1490.
Beaver Creek, a post-township of Washington co.,
Md. Pop. 1366.
Beaver Creek, a post-township of Seward co., Neb.
Pop. 565.
eaver Creek, a township of York co., Neb. P. 129.
Beaver Creek, a township of Jones co., N. C. P. 1108.
Beaver Creek, a township of Wilkes co., N. C. Pop.
60
Beaver Creek, a township of Greene co., O. P. 2289.
Beaver Dam, a township of Butler co., Mo. P. 786.
Beaver Dam, a township of Bladen co., N. C. P. 619.
Beaver Dam, a township of Cherokee co., N. C. Pop.
"heaver Dam, a township of Haywood co., N. C. Pop.
"have: Dam, a township of Richmond co., N. C. Pop.
635. Pop.
Beaver Dam, a township of Watauga co., N. C.
413.
Beaver Dam, a post-village and township of Hanover
co., Va., on the Chesapeake and Ohio R. R., 40 miles N. N.W.
of Richmond. Pop. of township, 3237.
Beaver Dam, a city of Dodge co., Wis., on Beaver
Dam Creek and on the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., 61
miles N. W. of Milwaukee. It is the seat of Wayland
University, and has a fine water-power, two woollen fac-
tories, a large seeder establishment, two large grist-mills,
two newspapers, and various small manufactures. It is
the commercial centre of a large and rich country. Pop.
3265; including Beaver Dam township, 4726.
- ED. OF “ BEAVER DAM ARGUs.”
Beaver Falls, the capital of Renville co., Minn., on
the Beaver River, about 2 miles above where it empties
into the Minnesota, and 108 miles S. S. W. of St. Paul.
It has mills and splendid water-power, breweries, stores,
county buildings, and one newspaper. It is in an excel-
lent agricultural region. -
D. S. HALL, ED. “RENVILLE TIMEs.”
Beaver Falls, a post-borough of Beaver co., Pa., on
Peaver River, 4 miles above its junction with the Ohio,
and on the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R., 31
miles N. W. of Pittsburg. It has important manufactures.
Pop. 3112. -
Beaver Head, a county of the S. W. part of Montana,
bordering on Idaho. Area, 4393 square miles. It is drained
by the Jefferson River, a branch of the Missouri. The sur-
face is partly mountainous. Stock-raising is carried on.
The Rocky Mountain chain extends along the S. W. bor-
der. Gold is found in it. Capital, Bannack City. Pop.
722.
|Beaver Indians, a name given to a former tribe of
Algonquins who lived on the Canada side of Lake Huron.
It is also applied to a tribe allied to the Chippewyans.
They live on the Peace River in the British N. W. prov-
inces of North America.
Beaver Island, a township of Stokes co., N. C. Pop.
1247.
Beaver Islands, a group of islands in the N. part of
Lake Michigan, are a part of the county of MANITOU (which
see) in Michigan. St. James, on Big Beaver Island, is the
chief town. Here a branch of the Mormons, under Joseph
Strong, settled in 1846.
Beaver Meadow, a mining village of Carbon co., Pa.,
11 miles N. W. of Mauch Chunk. Here are valuable coal-
mines, from which the coal is conveyed by a railroad to the
Lehigh River.
Beaver Pond, a township of Mercer co., West Va.
Pop. 1277.
Bea/vertail, the S. point of Comanicut Island, in Nar-
ragansett Bay, R.I., has a square granite lighthouse 74
feet high, with a fixed white light of the third order 96
feet above the sea; lat. 41° 26'56" N., lon. 71°23' 39" W.
432
BEAVERTON.—BECKET.
Bea’verton, a post-village of Ontario co., Canada, on
the E. shore of Lake Simcoe, 60 miles N. by E. from To-
ronto. It is the N. W. terminus of the Midland Railway
of Canada. It has one weekly paper.
Beaverton, a post-village of Croghan and New Bremen
townships, Lewis co., N. Y., at the head of navigation of
Beaver River, has extensive manufactures of lumber and
a tannery. -
Bea’vertown, a post-village of Beaver township, Sny-
der co., Pa., on the Sunbury and Lewistown R. R., 25 miles
W. by S. of Sunbury. It has one weekly newspaper.
Bebee'ria, or Bebee’rine (C19H21NO3), a vegetable
alkali or alkaloid obtained from the bark of the bebeeru, or
green-heart, a tree of British Guiana. It is used in medicine
as a substitute for quinine, which it resembles in properties.
Bebee'ru, Bibiru, or Beebeeru (Nectandra Ro-
diaei), a tree of British Guiana, the timber of which is
known in commerce by the name of green-heart. It is of
the natural order Lauraceae. (See GREEN-HEART.)
Becamcour, a post-village, capital of Nicolet co.,
Quebec, Canada, 85 miles S. W. of Quebec, has a large
trade in flour and lumber. Pop. about 600.
* Beccafi'co, i.e. “ fig-eater” (Syl/via horten/sis or Cur-
rw/ca horten'sis), a small bird of the family of Sylviadae or
warblers, is sometimes called the garden warbler. It is
abundant in Southern Europe as a summer bird of passage.
The flesh of it is esteemed as a delicate food by the Italians.
It has an agreeable song.
Beccam oschi'no, the Italian name of the Syl/via
cistic'ola, a small bird of the family of warblers, found in
Italy. It builds a remarkable nest, which resembles that
of the tailor-bird.
Becca’ria, a township of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop.
39. -
Beccari'a, di (CESARE BONESANA), MARQUIs, an emi-
nent Italian economist and writer on penal laws, was born
at Milan Mar. 15, 1738. His principles were formed by
the influence of Montesquieu. His most important work
is a “Treatise on Crimes and Punishments” (“Trattato
dei Delitti e delle Pene,” 1764), in which he advanced elo-
quent arguments against the severities and abuses of crim-
inal law. It obtained great popularity, and was translated
into many languages. Voltaire admired it, and wrote a
commentary on it. In 1768 he was appointed professor
of political philosophy at Milan. Died Nov. 28, 1794.
(See C. P. VILLA, “Vita del Marchese C. Beccaria,” 1821;
P. CUSTOD1, “Vita di C. Beccaria.”)
Béche-de-Mer [Fr. for “sea-spade,” because they are
pressed and dried in a shape not unlike that of a spade],
or Trepang, a name given to the dried bodies of several
species of Holothwºria, or sea-cucumber, which are abundant
in shallow lagoons and on reefs between Australia, the Fe-
jee Islands, and the S. E. coasts of Asia. They are es-
teemed a luxurious article of food by the Chinese. The
Malay divers catch them and prepare them in large quan-
tities for the Chinese market. This animal is usually about
nine inches long, but sometimes measures two feet. It is
stated that 8000 hundredweight of the trepang are annu-
ally exported from Macassar to China. (See Holothu-
RIDAE.)
Be'cher (Joh ANN JOACHIM), a German chemist, born at
Speyer in 1645, is called the author of the first theory of
chemistry. He became aulic councillor at Vienna, but soon
fell into disgrace, and removed to Mayence. He was ad-
dicted to speculation, and wrote, besides other works,
“Physica Subterranea” (1669). His theory was the basis
of that which was developed by Stahl. He died in London
in Oct., 1682. -
Becher. (SEIGFRIED), a German political economist,
born at Plan, in Bohemia, Feb. 28, 1806. Since 1835 he
has been professor of history and geography in the Poly-
technic Institute in Vienna. Among his works are “Das
Oesterreichische Münzsystem von 1524–1838” (2 vols.,
1838), “Organization des Gewerbwesens” (1851), and
“Die Volkswirthschaft” (1853).
Bechua'na, Betjuans, Bechuans, or Bosh-
uana, a nation of Southern Africa, occupying the country
between 22° and 29° E. lon. Their southern boundary is
near 28° S. lat. They are divided into numerous tribes,
each governed by its chief. They are unwarlike and gen-
tle in disposition, and are said to be superior to the Caffres
in arts and civilization. They cultivate the soil with skill
and diligence. Sheep and cows form an important part of
their riches. The Bechuana worship several species of
animals. Their language is called “Sechuana..” “Bech-
uana” is a plural form; “Mechuana” is the singular.
(See Dr. LIVINGSTONE, “Travels in Southern Africa;”
MoFFAT’s “Southern Africa.”)
Beck (CHARLEs), PH.D., LL.D., a German philologist,
born at Heidelberg Aug. 19, 1798. Having removed to
America in 1824, he became in 1832 professor of the Latin
language and literature at Cambridge, Mass. He obtained
the degree of LL.D. from Harvard University in 1865. He
published “The Manuscripts of the Satyricon of Petronius
Arbiter Described and Collated” (1863), and other works.
Died Mar. 19, 1866.
Beck (John BRODHEAD), M.D., an American physi-
cian, born at Schenectady, N.Y., Sept. 18, 1794, graduated
at Columbia College in 1813. He became in 1826 professor
of materia medica in the College of Physicians and Sur-
geons in New York City. He published “Infant Thera-
peutics” (1849). Died April 9, 1851.
Beck (LEWIS C.), M.D., a brother of the preceding, was
born at Schenectady Oct. 4, 1798. He graduated at Union
College in 1817, became professor of chemistry in the med-
ical college of Albany in 1840, and wrote several works on
chemistry and botany. His report on the mineralogy of
New York was published by the State in 1842. Died
April 21, 1853.
Beck (THEODORIC ROMEYN), M.D., LL.D., a medical
writer, a brother of the preceding, was born at Schenec–
tady Aug. 11, 1791. He graduated at Union College in
1804, practised at Albany, and obtained in 1840 the chair
of materia medica in the medical college of that city. He
published “Elements of Medical Jurisprudence” (1823).
Died Nov. 19, 1855.
Beck'er, a county of the W. N. W. part of Minnesota.
Area, 1400 square miles. It is drained by the Red River of
the North, which rises within its limits, and contains sev-
eral lakes. The surface is elevated about 1680 feet above.
the sea. Since the census of 1870 it has been rapidly set-
tled. The soil is productive. The grain crop is important.
It is intersected by the Northern Pacific R. R. Pop. 308.
Becker (HERMANN HEINRICH), a German politician,
called DER ROTHE BECKER (i.e. “the Red Becker,” on ac-
count of his extreme radical views in politics), was born
Sept. 15, 1820, took part in the revolutionary movement in
1848, and was imprisoned for several years. In 1862 he
was elected a member of the Prussian house of deputies,
and in 1867 and 1868 of the North German Parliament, and
is one of the recognized leaders of the liberal party.
Becker (JAKOB), a German genre-painter of the Düs-
seldorf school, born Mar. 15, 1810. His best works present
village scenes and idyllic subjects. Died Dec. 22, 1872.
Becker (JoBANN PHILIPP), a German patriot and rad-
ical, born at Frankenthal Mar. 19, 1809. He emigrated to
Switerzland in 1837, and fought against the Sonderbund in
1847–48. During the revolutionary movements of 1848
and 1849 he served in the army of insurgents in Baden.
Becker (KARL), a German painter, born Dec. 18, 1820,
painted in Berlin. His paintings are numerous, represent-
ing mostly old Venetian life.
Becker (KARL FERDINAND), a German composer and
writer on music, was born at Leipsic July 17, 1804. He
composed for the organ, and wrote, besides other works,
“Trios” (1844) and “Die Torkiinstler des 19. Jahrhun-
derts” (1849).
Becker (THOMAS A.), the first Catholic bishop of the
diocese of Wilmington, Del., was born of German Prot-
estant parents in Pittsburg, studied in Munich, where he
joined the Catholic Church, and was consecrated as bishop
Aug. 23, 1868.
Becker (WILHELM ADOLF), a learned German author,
born at Dresden in 1796. He attempted to reproduce the
social life of ancient Rome in “Gallus” (1838), and that of
ancient Greece in his “Charicles” (1840), both of which
were translated into English by Metcalfe. His chief work
is “Handbuch der röm. Alterthümer” (1843–46). Died
Sept. 30, 1846.
Beck’et, a post-township of Berkshire co. Mass., on
the Boston and Albany R. R. Pop. 1346.
Beck’et (THOMAs A), archbishop of Canterbury, was
born in London in 1109. He studied at Oxford and Paris,
and was appointed high chancellor in 1158, being the first
native Englishman who filled a high office after the Con-
quest. His style of living was sumptuous in this part of
his life, but when he became archbishop of Canterbury in
H62 a remarkable change took place in his habits and de-
portment. He practised or affected great austerity, and
appeared as a zealous champion of the Church against the
aggressions of the king, whose policy tended to keep the
clergy in subordination to the civil power. Becket having
been involved in a conflict with Henry II., escaped in 1164
to France, and appealed to the pope, by whom he was sup-
ported. Henry confiscated his property and sequestered
the revenues of his see, and received in return a menace of
BECRET-BEDELL.
433
a papal interdict. In 1170 a formal but hollow reconcili-
ation was made between the king and the obstinate and
haughty prelate, who returned to England and resumed his
office. He also renewed his defiance of the royal authority,
but on the 29th of Dec., 1170, was assassinated by four
barons, servants of the king. He was regarded as a martyr
by many patriotic Saxons, as well as by the zealous votaries
of the Church. He was canonized by the pope in 1173, and
his bones were deposited in a splendid shrine at Canter-
bury, which became the object of one of the great pilgrim-
ages of Christendom.
Beckett (JAMES M.), M.D., was a native of South Car-
olina, where he received his medical and literary education.
He became a resident of Pickens, Ala., was a trustee of the
State University in 1840, and entered the Senate as a State
Rights Democrat in 1847. He acquired reputation as a
debater, but his public life closed with the session of 1849.
Beck'ford (WILLIAM), a celebrated author, was born in
1760. He inherited from his father an immense fortune,
including the estate of Fonthill, in Wiltshire. His annual
income was about £100,000. He married in 1783 Lady
Margaret Gordon, a daughter of the earl of Aboyne. In
1784 he published his principal work, “Wathek,” an
Eastern tale (written in French), which was highly com-
mended by Lord Byron. He was elected to Parliament in
1790, resided some years in Portugal, and expended an
enormous sum in the erection of Fonthill Abbey, which he
filled with rare and expensive works of art. In 1822 he
sold this palace and the estate of Fonthill for £350,000, and
built another palace at Bath. He published in 1834 a
series of letters entitled “Italy, with Sketches of Spain
and Portugal,” 2 vols. He was a witty and graphic writer,
and had much talent for sarcasm. Died May 2, 1844.
(See “Memoirs of William Beckford,” London, 2 vols.,
1859; “Quarterly Review” for Mar. and June, 1834.)
Beckx (PETER John), a Belgian Jesuit, was born
Feb. 8, 1795. He joined the Society of Jesus in 1819, was
elected procurator of the province of Austria in 1847, was
appointed, after the restoration of the Jesuits in Austria,
provincial for Austria, and was elected in 1853 general of
the order, in which position he has displayed great energy.
Becquerel (ANTOINE Cás AR), an eminent French sa-
vant, born at Chatillon-sur-Loing (Loiret) Mar. 8, 1788.
He served in the army as an officer of engineers from 1810
till 1815, after which he gave special attention to the study
of electricity, and made discoveries in electro-chemistry.
He refuted and exploded Volta’s theory of contact, and
constructed the first constant pile. In 1837 he received the
Copley medal of the Royal Society of London. He in-
vented a method of electrotyping. He published, besides
other works, “Traité expérimental de l'électricité et du
magnetisme” (7 vols., 1834–40). He became a member of
the Academy of Sciences in 1829.-His sons, ALEXANDRE,
EDMOND (born Mar. 24, 1820), a physicist, and Louis AL-
FRED, a physician, born in 1814, have each attained dis-
tinction as scientific men.
Becse, OLD (Hun. O’Beese), a market-town of Hungary,
in the county of Bacs, 48 miles S. of Szegedin, on the
Theiss. Pop. in 1869, 14,058.
Becse, NEW (Hun. Uj-Beese), a town of Hungary, in
the county of Torontal, on the Theiss, 8 miles E. of Old
Becse. Pop. in 1869, 71.93.
Becskerek, Nagy (“Great Becskerek”), a town of
Hungary, in the county of Torontal, on the left bank of the
Bega, 59 miles S. W. of Temesvár, with which it is con-
nected by a canal. It has a considerable trade. Pop. in
1869, 19,666. #
Bed, in geology, a stratum or layer of stratified sedi-
mentary rock of variable thickness. A bed often consists
of numerous thin laminae or plates, resulting from intermis-
Sions in the Supply of materials, produced by such causes
as the ebb and flow of the tide, and variable degrees of the
turbidness of the water under which they were deposited.
Seams become beds, or are so called if they have a con-
siderable thickness, as coal-beds.
BED OF JUSTICE [Fr. Zit de justice], a term applied to the
Seat or throne occupied by the king of France when he was
present at a session of Parliament; also to such a session,
or the conference of the Parliament with the king, who
came to overrule the decisions of Parliament and enforce
edicts or ordinances to which that body was opposed. De-
Crees promulgated at such a session were more authoritative
thanºthe ordinary decisions of Parliament. The ceremony
became synonymous with an act of arbitrary power. The
last “bed of justice” was held by Louis XVI., in 1787.
Bédarieux, a town of France, in the department of
Hérault, on the river Orbe, 27 miles by rail Nº. of Béziers.
It is well built, and has manufactures of fine cloths, hosiery,
cotton stuffs, paper, hats, and soap. Pop. 8985.
Bed-bug, a well-known hemipterous insect, the Cimea,
lectularius, infesting beds, houses, dove-cots, and the nests
of swallows, bats, etc. The eggs are oval and white; the
young vermin flat and transparent. In eleven weeks the
insect reaches its full size. It is tenacious of life, and has
been kept alive more than a year in a sealed bottle without
food. Cockroaches devour them in large numbers. Mer-
curial solutions, benzine, etc. will extirpate these vermin,
but prevention by cleanliness is better than cure.
Bed/- chamber, Lords of the, twelve officers of the
British royal household who in the reign of a king wait in
turn on the person of the sovereign. They are under the
groom of the stole, who attends His Majesty only in public
ceremonies and on occasions of state. During the reign of
a queen these offices are performed by ladies of the bed-
chamber and the mistress of the robes, who is substituted
for the groom of the stole. Queen Victoria has about eleven
ladies and extra ladies of the bed-chamber. These offices
are usually filled by the “prime nobility’ of the kingdom,
who are appointed by the sovereign, and are not removed
on each change of the ministry.
Bed/dington, a post-township of Washington co., Me.
Pop. 134.
Bed' does (THOMAs), M.D., an eminent English physi-
ciam and writer, born at Shiffnal, in Shropshire, April 13,
1760. He was educated at Oxford, and was well versed in
the Latin and other languages. He married Anna, a sister
of Maria Edgeworth, and in 1788 was appointed to the
chemical lectureship in the University of Oxford. In 1792
he resigned this position. He wrote for the benefit of the
working-classes a popular work called “The History of
Isaac Jenkins.” He opened in 1798 at Bristol a pneumatic
hospital for the cure of disease by medicated gases, in
which Humphry Davy was his assistant. Among his works
is “ Hygeia, or Essays, Moral and Medical” (3 vols., 1802).
Died Nov. or Dec. 24, 1808. (See E. STOCK, “Life of T.
Beddoes,” 1811.)
Beddoes (THOMAs LovELL), M.D., a poet, a son of the
preceding, was born at Clifton July 20, 1803. He was a
nephew of Maria Edgeworth. He studied medicine and
anatomy at Göttingen, and resided many years in Germany.
In 1822 he produced “The Brides’ Tragedy,” which excited
general admiration by its profound thoughts, though not free
from extravagance. Among his productions is a tragedy
called “Death’s Jest-Book” (1851), which displays great
richness of imagery and passionate eloquence. He died at
Băle Jan. 26, 1849, in consequence of a dissection wound
received in 1848.
Bede [Lat. Be'da], surnamed THE WENERABLE, an illus-
trious and pious English scholar and monk, was born in
the county of Durham in 673 A. D. He was ordained a
priest at the age of thirty, and devoted much time to study
and literary pursuits. His name is regarded as the great-
est in the ancient literature of Britain. He wrote on
astronomy, grammar, music, etc. His most important
work is an “Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation”
(“Historia Ecclesiastica, Gentis Anglorum ”), which King
Alfred translated into Anglo-Saxon, and which has often
been reprinted. He died May 26, 735 A. D. His whole
works were published by Dr. Giles (London, 6 vols., 1844),
including an English translation of his “Ecclesiastical
History.” (See GEHLE, “De Bedae Venerabilis Vita et
Scriptis,” 1838; J. A. GILEs, “Life of Bede,” prefixed to
his complete works, 1844.)
Bedeau (MARIE ALPHONSE), a French general, was
born in Vertou, near Nantes, Aug. 10, 1804. He served
with distinction in Algeria (1836–47), and became a general
of division in Sept., 1844. He had the command (under
Bugeaud) of the troops in Paris when the Parisians re-
volted in Feb., 1848, and under the new republican régime
he became commander-in-chief of that city. As a member
of the National Assembly (1849–51) he acted with the
republicans and opposed Louis Napoleon. Died Oct. 29,
1863. º
Bed/egar, or Bedeguar, a name of a remarkable
gall which is sometimes called sweet-brier Sponge, and is
found on the branches of the sweet-brier and other species
of rose. It is produced by the Cynips rosae and other in-
sects, and is often one inch or more in diameter. It was
once used in medicine.
Beſdel (TIMOTHy), a Revolutionary patriot, born at Sa-
lem, N.H., removed to Haverhill, N.H., and was a lieuten-
antin 1760, serving in Canada. He became in 1775 a captain
of rangers, and in 1776 colonel of the first regiment of New
Hampshire troops, and served at Montreal and under
Schuyler, and afterwards was major-general of New Hamp-
shire militia. Died at Haverhill, N.H., in Feb., 1787.
Bedell’ (GREGoRY THURSTON), D. D., son of the fol-
lowing, an American Protestant Episcopal bishop, born
28
434 A
BEDELL–BEDFORD LEVEL.
at Hudson, N.Y., Aug. 27, 1817, educated at Flushing,
L. I., and Bristol College, Pa. He is at present bishop of
the diocese of Ohio. He is the author of “The Divinity
of Christ,” “The Profit of Godliness,” “Sacredness of the
Grave,” “The Principles of Pastorship,” “The Age of
Indifference,” “Episcopacy—Fact and Law,” etc.; his
sermons have been published in the U. S. and in Scotland.
Bedell (GREGORY TownsenD), D. D., an eminent Amer-
ican Episcopal clergyman, born on Staten Island, N. Y.,
Oct. 28, 1793. He graduated at Columbia College in 1811,
was greatly admired as a pulpit orator, and wrote, among
other religious works, “Onward, or Christian Progression,”
“Renunciation,” and two volumes of sermons. Died at
Baltimore Aug. 30, 1834. (See his “Life” by REv. DR.
TYNG, 1836.)
Bedell (WILLIAM), an English Protestant prelate dis-
tinguished for his wisdom and virtue, was born in Essex in
1570. He went to Venice in 1604 as chaplain to Sir Henry
Wotton, the English ambassador, and remained there eight
years. In 1627 he was elected provost of Trinity College,
Dublin, and in 1629 became bishop of Kilmore and Ardagh.
He reformed abuses in his diocese, and acquired much in-
fluence by his acts of charity and his other virtues. He
procured the translation of the Old Testament into Irish.
Died Feb. 7, 1642. (See BURNET, “Life of Bishop Bedell,”
1685; H. J. Monck MASON, “Life of W. Bedell,” 1842.)
Bedesman (i.e. beadsman), [from the Saxon bead, a
“ prayer”], equivalent to petitioner, was a common affix at
the end of English letters in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries. A common form of signature at one time was,
“Your bounden bedesman,” or “Your humblebedeswoman.”
Bed/ford, an old market-town of England, capital of
Bedfordshire, is on the river Ouse, here crossed by a bridge,
48 miles by rail N. N. W. of London. Several railroads
pass here. It has more charitable institutions and public
endowments, in proportion to its size, than any town in
England. It has several fine Gothic churches, a public
library, a famous grammar-School, a lunatic asylum, a jail,
a penitentiary, numerous schools and charities, including
about sixty almshouses. Bedford has manufactures of farm-
ing implements, lace, and straw hats, and a trade in corn,
malt, and timber. John Bunyan wrote “Pilgrim’s Pro-
gress” in Bedford jail. Pop. in 1871, 16,849. -
Bedford, a post-village, capital of Missisquoi co.,
Quebec, Canada, is in Stanbridge township, 2 miles from
Stambridge, and has good water-power and manufactures.
Bedford, a thriving post-village of Halifax co., Nova
Scotia, on Bedford Basin and on the Nova Scotia Railway,
$ miles N. W. of Halifax. It has a large woollen mill.
Pop. about 250.
Bedford, a county of Pennsylvania, bordering on
Maryland. Area, 1000 square miles. It is intersected by
the Raystown Branch of the Juniata River. The surface
is mountainous, being diversified by several ridges of the
Alleghanies, named Dunning's Mountain, Warrior Ridge,
etc. The main Alleghany range extends along the W.
border of the county. In the N. E. part of this county
are the Broad Top coal-mines. Grain, cattle, and wool are
important products. It has considerable manufactures.
Capital, Bedford. Pop. 29,635.
Bedford, a county of Middle Tennessee.
square miles. It is intersected by Duck River.
face is undulating; the soil is fertile. Maize is the staple
production. Wheat, cattle, tobacco, and wool are also
raised. The Nashville and Chattanooga R. R. passes
through this county. Capital, Shelbyville. Pop. 24,333.
Bedford, a county in the S. of Virginia. Area, 504
square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the James
Biver, and on the S. W. by the Staunton River. The Blue
Ridge, which extends along the N.W. border of the county,
presents beautiful scenery. The Peaks of Otter rise to the
height of 3993 feet on the boundary of this county, which
is intersected by the Virginia and Tennessee R. R. The
soil is fertile. Grain, tobacco, and wool are the chief crops.
The “Bedford Alum Springs” afford a valuable chalybeate
water. Capital, Liberty. Pop. 25,327.
Bedford, a township of Cross co., Ark. Pop. 319.
Bedford, a township of Wayne co., Ill. Pop. 1336.
Bedford, capital of Lawrence co., Ind., on the Louis-
ville New Albany and Chicago R. R., 71 miles N. W. of
New Albany. It has five churches, an academy, a college,
eight school-houses, a large town-hall, a fine stone court-
house, three newspapers, one monthly magazine, and one
national bank. ED. OF “BEDFORD INDEPENDENT.”
Bedford, a post-village, capital of Taylor co., Ia., is
on a prairie and on the river One-Hundred-and-Two, about
100 miles S. W. of Des Moines. It is on the branch of the
Burlington and Missouri River R. R., 35 miles S. of Cres-
Area, 550
The sur-
ton, and has considerable trade. It has a weekly news-
paper. Pop. 720.
Bedford, a post-village, capital of Trimble co., Ky.,
about 40 miles N. W. of Frankfort. Pop. 200.
Bedford, a post-township of Middlesex co., Mass., on
the Middlesex Central R.R. It has a mineral spring. P. 849.
Bedford, a post-township of Calhoun co., Mich. Pop.
1466. -
Bedford, a township of Monroe co., Mich. Pop. 1459.
Bedford, a township of Lincoln co., Mo. Pop. 2325.
Bedford, a township of Nehama co., Neb. Pop. 195.
Bedford, a post-township of Hillsborough co., N. H.,
21 miles S. of Concord. It has manufactures of brick, lum-
ber, etc. Pop. 1221.
Bedford, a post-village and semi-capital of West-
chester co., N. Y., in a township of the same name, on the
New York and Harlem R. R., 39% miles from New York.
There are twelve churches in the town. Pop. of town-
ship, 3697.
Bedford, a township of Coshocton co., O. It has beds
of good cannel coal. Pop. 918.
Bedford, a post-village of Cuyahoga co., O., on the
Cleveland and Pittsburgh R. R., 14 miles S. E. of Cleve-
land. Pop. 828; of Bedford township, 1788.
Bedford, a township of Meigs co., O. Pop. 1645.
Bedford, a post-borough, capital of Bedford co., Pa.,
is on the Raystown Branch of the Juniata, and on a rail-
road, 94 miles W. S. W. from Harrisburg. It is pleas-
antly situated on high ground and between two ridges, one
of which rises about 1200 feet above the valley. The Bed-
ford Springs, about one mile distant, are a fashionable
place of summer resort. Iron ores abound, and iron is here
manufactured. It has two weekly newspapers. P. 1247;
of the township, 2333. ED. “BEDFORD GAZETTE.”
Bedford, a post-village, capital of Bedford co., Tenn.
Bedford, DUKEs of (1694); earls of Bedford (1550);
marquess of Tavistock (1694); Barons Russell of Cheneys
(1539); Barons Russell of Thornaugh (1603); Barons
Howland (1695, in England), a prominent family of Great
Britain.—WILLIAM RUSSELL, the eighth duke (of this fam-
ily), was born June 30, 1809, and succeeded his father in
1861. He was member of Parliament for Tavistock 1832–41.
Bedford (GUNNING), a patriot of Delaware, served
against the French in 1755, was a native of Philadelphia,
an officer of the Revolutionary army, was Wounded at
White Plains, became mustermaster-general in 1776, was
a member of Congress (1783–85), and governor of Dela-
ware (1796–97). Died Sept. 30, 1797.
Bedford (GUNNING), a cousin of the preceding, born
in Philadelphia in 1747, and graduated at Princeton in
1771, was a member of Congress from Delaware (1785–86),
and of the convention (1789) that formed the U. S. Con-
stitution. He was U. S. district judge (1789–1812). Died
Mar. 30, 1812.
Bedford (GUNNING S.), M. D., was born at Baltimore
in 1806, and graduated at Mount St. Mary’s College in
1825. After serving as professor in Charleston, S. C., and
at Albany Medical College, he settled in 1836 in New York
City, where he was professor of midwifery in the Univer-
sity of New York (1840–42). He published an excellent
treatise on obstetrics and “Lectures on the Diseases of
Women,” besides valuable translations from the French.
Died at New York Sept. 5, 1870.
Bedford (John PLANTAGENET), DUKE OF, the third son
of King Henry IV. of England, was born in 1889. He
was created duke of Bedford in 1414, and Was commander-
in-chief of the forces in England during the absence of
Henry V., who was his brother. After the death of Henry
v. (1422) the duke of Bedford was regent of France, and
waged war with success against the French dauphin. He
gained a victory over the French at Verneuil in 1424, but
his conquests were soon checked by Joan of Are. He died
at Rouen Sept. 19, 1735. His memory is stained by his
abetting the murder of Joan of Arc. (See HUME, “History
of England.”)
Bedford Level, or The Fens, a tract of flat land in
the eastern part of England, is bounded on the E. by the
German Ocean, and comprises parts of Huntingdom, North-
ampton, Cambridge, Lincoln, Norfolk, and Suffolk. Its in-
land boundary is a range of highlands in the form of a
horseshoe. Nearly all the marshy district called The Fens
is included in the Bedford Level, which is intersected by
the Cam, Ouse, Nene, and Welland rivers. It was former-
ly a vast morass, and was named in honor of Francis, duke
of Bedford, who in 1634 undertook to reclaim it, and ex-
pended £100,000 in draining it. The work was completed
BEDFORDSHIRE–BEE.
435
by his son, William, duke of Bedford, who spent £300,000
on it. This tract now produces good crops of grain and
flax, and grass for pasture. Its drainage has been improved
in the present century.
Bed/fordshire, an inland county of England, bound-
ed on the N. E. by Huntingdom, on the E. by Cambridge,
on the S. E. and S. by Hertford, on the S. W. by Bucks,
and on the N. W. by Northampton. Area, 463 square
miles. The surface is undulating or nearly level, except
the Chiltern Hills in the S. part. The principal river is the
Ouse. The southern part of the county consists of chalk,
thinly covered with a soil which is fit only for sheepwalks.
Stiff clay and rich loams occur in other parts of the coun-
ty, which is more exclusively agricultural than any other
in England. There are some manufactures of straw hats
and of lace. Capital, Bedford. Pop. in 1871, 146,256.
Bedford Springs, Bedford co., Pa., are 1 mile from Bed-
ford, yield valuable medicinal water, and are also attractive
from their cool climate in summer, their pleasant mountain-
Scenery, and their agreeable society. The springs are—An-
derson’s (saline chalybeate), the Sweet Spring (nearly pure),
the Sulphur, the Chalybeate, Fletcher’s (saline chalybeate),
and the Limestone. The waters are generally laxative and
tomic, and act upon the skin and kidneys.
Bed/lam, a corruption of Bethlehem, which was the
name of a religious house in London converted in 1547 into
a hospital for lunatics. When Henry VIII. suppressed the
religious houses, one of these, coming into the control of
the corporation of London, was converted into an asylum
for the insane. In 1814 the insane patients were removed
to a new asylum in St. George's Fields, which has good ac-
commodations for almost 500 patients, and is managed in
an excellent manner. Bedlam is sometimes used as Syn-
onymous with a mad-house, or a place of uproar.
Bedle (JOSEPH D.). See APPENDIx.
Bed/loe’s Island, in New York harbor and in the
city of New York, 1% miles S. W. of the Battery. It was
named from a former owner. In 1800 it was ceded to the
U. S. government, and in 1841 Fort Wood, mounting sev-
enty-seven guns, was erected upon it. Pop. 97.
Bedmar’, de (ALFONSo DE LA CUEvA), MARQUIs, a
Spaniard, born in 1572. He was sent as ambassador to
Venice by Philip II. in 1607, and formed a daring and ne-
farious plot to betray the Venetian city and state into the
power of the king of Spain. The plot was detected one
day before that appointed for its execution, and Bedmar
was expelled from Venice. He became a cardinal in 1622,
and died in 1655. His conspiracy is the subject of Otway's
“Venice Preserved.” (See DARU, “Histoire de Venise;”
SAINT-REAL, “ Conspiration contre Venise.”)
Bed/minster, a township of Somerset co., N. J. Pop.
1881.
Bedminster, a post-village and township of Bucks
co., Pa., 38 miles N. of Philadelphia. Pop. of township,
23.70. i.
Bedos de Celles (JEAN FRANÇors), a French Bene-
dictine monk, born at Caux in 1706. He made several
good organs at Toulouse, and wrote a work called “L’Art
du Facteur d'Orgues” (4 vols., 1770), which is highly com-
mended. Died in 1779.
Bed’ouin, or Beduin, written also Bedaween and
Bedawee (“inhabitants of the desert”), nomadic Arabs
who are, according to tradition, the descendants of Ish-
mael and the aborigines of Arabia. They are a pastoral
people, having no houses but tents, and no permanent
places of residence. They form the greater portion of the
population of Arabia, but are not confined to that country.
Though they are not united by a strong national organiza-
tion, they have never been entirely subjugated by any for-
eign conqueror, as the desert into which they can retreat
forms an almost insuperable obstacle to an invading army.
They are now widely distributed over Northern Africa,
Syria, etc. As they have no general government or politi-
cal institutions, religious traditions and customs form the
only bond of order and union among them. They are
divided into tribes, each of which is ruled by a sheik,
whose authority is patriarchal. Their riches consist chiefly
in flocks of sheep, camels, horses, goats, etc. They are
ignorant, fierce, depraved, addicted to robbery and fight-
ing, and reckless of the rights of property. They profess
the Mohammedan religion, but are not very strict in the
practice of its discipline. Their complexiori is brown of
various shades. In person they are generally lean, sinewy,
and active. An admirable picture of Bedouin life and
character may be found in Palmer’s “Desert of the Exo-
dus,” 1871.
Bed/straw (Ga’lium), a name of a genus of herbace-
ous plants of the order Rubiaceae, distinguished by a
wheel-shaped corolla, and a fruit which is dry or fleshy,
2-lobed, separating when ripe into two seed-like, indehis-
cent, 1-seeded carpels. It comprises numerous species,
natives of Europe, Asia, and the U. S. . The roots of sev-
eral species, as Galium verum, Galium tinctorium, etc., con-
tain a red coloring-matter which is said to be equal to
madder. The Galium verum, which is a common Weed in
England, is sometimes called cheese rennet, because it has
the property of curdling milk. It is naturalized to some
extent in the U. S. The Galium tuberosum is cultivated by
the Chinese, who eat its farinaceous roots. Galium Apa-
rine, or cleavers, is a valuable diuretic.
Bee [Gr. ºextorora; Lat. apis; Fr. abeille; Ger. Bie'ne], the
name of a large family of insects of the order Hymenoptera.
All bees were included by Linnaeus in the genus Apis, but
they are now divided into many genera. The name Apiaria
is now used to include the entire family, which has also
been styled Anthophila (“flower-loving”) and Mellifera
(“honey-producing”) by different naturalists. The insects
of this extensive family, when in their perfect state, feed
on saccharine juices, such as the nectar of flowers, honey,
and the juice of ripe fruit. The honey-bee, on account of
the large quantities of honey which it collects and stores,
has attracted the attention of man in all countries, and
has been celebrated for its remarkable habits in both an-
cient and modern times. A late writer justly remarks:
“That within so small a body should be contained appar-
atus for converting the various sweets which it collects into
one kind of nourishment for itself, another for the common
brood, a third for the royal brood, glue for its carpentry,
wax for its cells, poison for its enemies, honey for its mas-
ter, with a proboscis as long as the body itself, microscopic
in several parts, telescopic in its mode of action, with a
sting so exceedingly sharp that were it magnified by the
same glass which makes a needle's point seem a quarter of
an inch, it would yet itself be invisible, and this, too, a
hollow tube, that all these varied operations and contri-
vances should be included within half an inch of length
and two grains of matter is surely enough to crush all
thoughts of atheism and materialism.”
This small insect has doubtless excited more admiration
than any other individual of the whole animal creation,
except man himself, and, with the exception of the silk-
worm and cochineal, is almost the only insect of any com-
mercial value. Professor Jaeger remarks: “It is impos-
sible for any reflecting person to look at a bee-hive in full
operation without being astonished at the activity and sur-
prising industry of its inhabitants. We see crowds con-
stantly arriving from the woods, meadows, fields, and
gardens, laden with provisions and materials for future use,
while others are continually flying off on similar collecting
expeditions. Some are carrying out the dead, others are
removing dirt and offal, while others are giving battle to
any strangers that may dare intrude. Suddenly a cloud
appears, and the bees, hurry home, thronging at the en-
trances to the hives by thousands, until all are gradually
received within their enclosure. In the interior of the
hive we see with what skill they work their combs and de-
posit the homey; and when their labor is over for the day,
they rest in chains suspended from the ceiling of their
habitation, one bee clinging with its fore feet to the hind
feet of the one above it, until it seems impossible that the
upper one can be strong enough to support the weight of
so many hundreds.”
Every swarm is composed of three different kinds or
classes—the queen, the workers, and the drones. The
FIG. 1. FIG. 2.
FIG. 3.
Worker.
“queen" is the only perfect female in the hive, and during
the propagating season lays from one to two thousand eggs
in a day. She is longer than either the drones or workers,
but her size in other respects is a medium between the two;
in color darker on the upper side, with legs and under side
yellowish. When the season for swarming approaches,
which is always early in the season (usually June in our
Northern States), she deposits eggs, first for the Workers,
then in drone and queen cells, from which males and queens
are developed. There seems to be no difference between
the eggs for producing a worker or a queen, but the nature
of the cell and the food effects the difference. The queen
lives much longer than any other bee, or often four or five
years, although this longevity is disputed by some writers

_º.
436
BEE.
on theoretical grounds, but observation appears to have
fully established the age to be from three to five years.
She is furnished with a sting, which she uses exclusively
in combat with other queens.
It was well known in ancient times that a large bee with
long body and short wings existed in every hive, and this
was called the “king,” to whom also was attributed great
wisdom in governing the whole swarm. This opinion was
common till within two hundred years, when Swammerdam
proved by anatomical investigation that this supposed king
was a female, which lays all the eggs for the multiplication
and growth of the throng of individuals which she governs.
Aristotle and Virgil held the opinion that this bee laid no
eggs, but brought home from flowers and fruits a peculiar
substance from which first the maggots and then the bees
originated. - r
The best way of making the acquaintance of the queen
is to divide a swarm and place each portion in separate
hives. The portion which retains possession of the queen
will soon become quiet and contented. The swarm without
the queen, although apparently satisfied at first, will soon
be restless and uneasy, and cease working. Then if the
apiarian (who has previously provided himself with an
extra queen taken from the queen-cells of a hive) offers
them a queen, they receive her with a peculiar buzz of tri-
umph, which is quickly conveyed like a telegraphic de-
spatch through the hive, and in a few seconds they become
quiet and satisfied. In order to prove that bees always
follow the queen, Swammerdam tied one by means of a fine
hair to the top of a pole, which he then stuck in the ground
in his garden. The whole swarm immediately followed,
and surrounded the queen on all sides, and he was enabled
to carry them all wherever he pleased. It is in this way
that certain self-styled “bee-charmers” cause the swarm
to alight on the hat, beard, or other place, by securing the
queen within a gauze bag or cage.
The worker-bees are imperfect or undeveloped female
bees, comprising most of the hive, usually nine-tenths or
more, and commonly twelve or fifteen thousand in a single
All the labor is performed by the workers; they
gather all the honey, bee-glue, and pollen, carrying the lat-
ter in little baskets on their thighs, and the former in a lit-
tle sack; they secrete wax from honey, construct the combs,
feed the young, and clean the hives. They usually live
about six months through the winter, and not more than
two or three months during the working season. A hive is
therefore a community renewed repeatedly through the
year, the queen only seeing successive seasons, and on her
producing many thousands of eggs the existence of the
colony depends. When deprived of a queen from accident
or death the hive soon dwindles and dies out.
The drones are the male bees of the hive. They have no
sting, they do no work, and their only use is in the propa-
gation of progeny. Huber, the celebrated blind naturalist
of Geneva, in Switzerland, who made more discoveries of
the habits of the bee by means of an assistant than any
other person, asserted that the drones while on the wing
meet the queen for this purpose, and this opinion is com-
monly adopted, but other writers think the drones only
fecundate the eggs after they are deposited, in the same
manner that male fishes fructify the spawn. They are
larger than the working bee, have a rounder head, and are
generally more clumsy in their movements. They are de-
stroyed by the workers soon after the close of the honey
Sea,SOIl. - - e
Bees begin to breed early in spring, and they have usu-
ally increased their numbers greatly by the month of June.
After the queen has deposited eggs, it requires about twenty-
two days before the worker comes out a perfect insect, and
about twenty-five days for the drone. The time for the de-
velopment of the queen is only sixteen days from the lay-
ing of the egg. The egg is fastened by one end to the bot-
tom of the cell, so that it appears as if suspended in the
air. It is soft and smooth, and five times as long as thick.
It is first developed into a maggot which has little mo-
tion, with two white eyes, a mouth like a caterpillar, and
ten respiratory holes on the sides. The maggot is fed by
the workers for about a week, after which a wax cover is
placed over the cell, and it becomes a pupa, remains ten
days in this condition, and then breaks its wax cover, creeps
out, dries its wings, and in a short time passes out of the
hive, and flies away with its companions for the collection
of honey and materials.
The first swarm, in the climate of the Northern and Mid-
dle States, usually leaves the hive in the month of June.
The migration seems to depend in a great measure on the
want of space in the mother-hive, and not on an instinctive
desire for change; for skilful apiarians sometimes, by mak-
ing additions to the hive, retain the increase and prevent
swarming. No certain signs have been discovered to indi-
cate the time when the first swarm will issue from the parent
hive. If the weather and yield of honey are both favor-
able, swarming may be looked for when the bees become
crowded for room and hang in large numbers outside the
hive (although this often takes place without swarming),
and when the hive is well filled with comb and stores. The
indications are increased if it is found on examination that
the royal cells for new queens are in a forward state of
preparation. The old queen invariably leads forth the first
swarm, usually in the heat of the day, and if rainy weather
has occurred the swarming is more likely to occur on the
appearance of bright sunshine. It is supposed that the
queen takes the lead, and it is certain that the swarm always
keeps with her, and she exercises an inscrutable influence
over all the movements of the thousands which compose it.
Wherever she alights they follow, and if from any cause
she returns to the old hive, they all return with her.
In about nine days from the first swarming a second may
be looked for, if the swarm is a strong one and the weather
and honey-harvest are favorable. If a third swarm should
follow, it is commonly about three days after the second.
The occurrence of these two swarmings may be commonly
determined with accuracy by what is termed “the piping
of the queen.” The apiarian places his ear near or against
the hive in the evening of the seventh or eighth day, and
if a second swarm is to issue he will hear a peculiar whin-
ing and peeping note within the hive. The whining sound
comes from the new queen which has been left to reign
by the departure of the old one; and this sound is com-
monly followed by a lower and quicker mote from the third
queen, who is to remain when the second queen quits the
hive with her swarm. As this insect sovereign appears to
be impelled by strong jealousy of all rivals, she endeavors
to sting to death in their cells all the young queens which
the workers have been feeding; and when restrained by the
guard placed for their protection, it is supposed that she
utters a complaint known as “piping.” This is probably a
fanciful supposition; but every one who has listened atten-
tively to these sounds has been struck with the strong re-
semblance which the notes of the older queen bear to the
tone of complaint, and those of the younger to that of de-
fiance. Whenever these notes are heard, which is always
a week or so after the departure of the first swarm, the
apiarian confidently expects a second or a third, as the case
may be, within a day or two, the weather permitting and
no accident supervening.
The swarming of the first colony usually takes place be-
tween the hours of ten A. M. and three P. M., but second and
third swarms often leave earlier, or later in the day. The
bees issue by many thousands, and the air is filled with
them for a space of from twenty to fifty feet as dense as a
snow-shower. In a short time they settle, usually on the
limb of a tree, from which they hang in the form of a bag.
To prevent their alighting too high up for hiving, it is best
to have no high trees near the apiary, and hiving may be
greatly facilitated by providing artificial supports to attract
them. These are made in many different ways, all with the
same object in view. A block of wood, cut in the shape of
a bag or settled swarm, may be covered with dark-brown
or black cloth, and hung by a hook in a convenient shady
place in sight of the hives as a decoy. A few dead bees, or
a portion of the seed-stalks of the mullen, strung, to the
block, increase the attractions. A number of these may be
placed in different parts of the yard. . When the swarm has
settled, the support may be unhooked and carried carefully
to the place for hiving, and the bees shaken off on the
hiving-board. Another contrivance is the hiving-box, con-
sisting simply of any box holding nearly half a bushel,
with one side open, and attached to a pole. When the
swarm comes out, the operator takes his box by the handle
or pole, the box being held over his head, and walks slowly
in the midst of the flying swarm. They will be likely to
alight upon it and enter its open side. As soon as this takes
place, it is put in a fixed position, resting against a fence,
or with the pole thrust into a hole made with a crowbar by
an assistant. When the bees have all settled, it is carried
to the hive already prepared for the new swarm. A third
contrivance is made by taking a board about the size of the
bottom of the hive, boring several holes and inserting corn-
cobs dyed brown or the seed-stalks of the mullen, nailing
a smaller board at the top to form a hood, and attaching it
by nails to a pole eight or ten feet long. When the bees
begin to alight upon it it is placed, facing downward, in a
sloping position in a crowbar hole, as already mentioned.
A broad projecting board, inserted under the hive intended
for the swarm, allows the operator to empty the bees upon
it, from which they will readily pass in. When the bees
have entered the board is withdrawn. The whole process
is usually completed in a few minutes. If the Swarm should
not enter the hiying-box, but alight on some tree, the box is
to be held against the spot as soon as they begin to cluster,
when they will usually leave the tree and pass into the box;
BEE.
437
or if they do not, a few jars with the side of the box will
induce them to loosen their hold and enter it. The ope-
ration is easily performed, and only a minute or two is oc-
cupied in their clustering. It is well to have one or two
boxes with longer poles, to secure such swarms as settle too
high up for ordinary reach. The weight of swarms is
usually five or six pounds, small ones four pounds, and very
large ones eight or ten pounds.
. The loss of newly-hived swarms, occasioned by their
leaving the hive, which frequently happens under ordinary
management, may be prevented by simply placing the hive
flat on the bottom board for a few days, after which it may
be raised on supports at the corners a third of an inch, as is
always practised with established swarms. Another effectual
mode is to contract the entrance to a breadth of exactly ten
sixty-fourths of an inch, which allows the workers to pass,
but confines the queen. Without her the bees will never
leave. A strip of tin may be tacked on for this purpose, to be
removed in three or four days.
Hives.—The first or original hives selected by the bees
were the hollow trunks of trees, which they cleansed from
dust and rubbish, gnawing off with their mandibles any as-
perities or projections which might interfere with the future
construction of the comb. Next, they were made artificially
somewhat of a bell-shape, and constructed of straw and
willow twigs; and lastly in the form of oblong or cubical
boxes, with various modifications and appendages. For
small apiaries, when the owner desires honey simply for
home consumption, and can give only occasional attention, a
simple box-hive with holes through the top, and a simple
rough box to hold twenty-five or thirty pounds to set over,
answers a good purpose. The size of the hive should not
exceed a capacity of 2000 cubic inches; it should be smaller
rather than larger, and some good apiarians prefer 1700 or
1800 cubic inches, or about twelve inches each way inside.
Sticks are set across for the support of the combs. It is
convenient to have a pane of glass set in one side, covered
and kept shut by a wooden door, for occasional examination
of the interior. If guide-combs (or small portions of empty
combs) are attached to the ceiling of the hive, the combs
may be so directed that their edges will rest against the
glass, and enable the operator to see between them.
If the honey which is obtained from the upper movable
box is made in small glass boxes placed within this upper
box, or in a corresponding chamber made in the upper por-
tion of the hive, it will present a finer appearance and sell at
higher prices in market. This chamber may be entered by
a side door, and four boxes may be placed within it.
Artificial Swarms.--It often happens that the apiarian
wishes to control the time and frequency of swarming,
without leaving the bees themselves to decide this question
at their own will. This is effected by making artificial
swarms. The bees of the hive are separated into two nearly
equal portions, as already alluded to, and the apiarian,
having previously secured a new queen by cutting off a
queen cell when she is about to come out, offers her to the
unsupplied portion.
In performing all operations of this kind the bees will be
rendered more quiet, and they may be handled more easily,
by previously blowing upon them the smoke of rotten wood
through a pipe made for the purpose. Cotton rags answer
the same purpose, but tobacco smoke is too deadly. In ad-
dition to this a mask of gauze and thick gloves will afford
ample protection. -
Movable-comb Hives.—Apiarians who have a large num-
ber of hives for commercial purposes, who can give much
personal attention, and who do not fear to approach and
handle bees freely, have adopted of late years a contrivance
known as movable-comb hives. These hives enable the
owner to examine minutely every part of the interior, and
any evil is readily discovered and remedied, each comb
being made on a separate frame, which may be lifted out
from the rest. If the hive should happen to be queenless,
the fact may be at once determined without waiting till the
numbers are ruinously reduced. Should the queen produce
nothing but drones, the discovery may be at once made,
and her place supplied with a more profitable incumbent.
If too much drome-comb has been made, it may be replaced
with worker-comb. If the moth has effected an entrance,
the larvae may be seen and at once taken out. He can limit
the number of swarms, by taking out the combs and remov-
ing all the queen cells but one. When one hive has a sur-
plus of honey and another is deficient, an equilibrium may
be effected by exchanging a few combs. Old combs may be
removed, all that is necessary being to substitute empty
frames. Movable-comb hives greatly facilitate the making
of artificial swarms. -
The simplest form of the frame for the movable comb is
shown by Fig. 4. Guide-combs are attached to the bars
to have the bees work them straight. Langstroth’s hive
(Fig. 5) consists, of a series of these frames, so arranged
that any one may be taken out separately from the rest.
Many other forms of the movable-comb hive have been
º º º
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Movable frames taken out.
Fig. 5.
TLangstroth's Hive.
lately devised, obviating difficulties connected with those
first made. -
The following detailed description of the mode of making
artificial swarms by the use of movable-comb hives is
given by L. L. Fairchild in vol. iv. of “Rural Affairs.”
Artificial 8warms, equal in value to natural swarms, can be
made in this way. It should only be practised when
the bees are gathering honey abundantly, and there are
plenty of drones to mate with the young queens. A little
before, or about the time of natural swarming, is the time
to practise it. A good way is to make one good swarm from
two strong stocks. Take the combs from a hive (No. 1),
and shake the bees back into the hive, brushing off with a
wing any that may remain after a shake or two. Put these
combs, destitute of bees, into a new hive. Leave one comb,
containing eggs and brood, and the queen, in the old hive.
Put in empty frames to fill the place of those taken out,
and leave the hive on its old stand. Remove a strong
stock (No. 2) to a new location, and put the hive contain-
ing the combs taken from No. 1 on the stand formerly oc-
cupied by No. 2. If this is done while the bees are in full
flight, those in the field belonging to No. 2 will enter the
new hive containing the combs, brood, and stores taken
from No. 1. Finding their queenless condition, they will
immediately set to work and build queen cells, and, if
everything works right, will have a queen ready to emerge
from her cell the fourteenth day. Plenty of brood will
hatch from day to day to keep up the strength of the swarm
until the young queen commences laying. The old stock
will prosper, as it retains its fertile queen, and is in nearly
the condition of a natural swarm. If a few frames con-
taining empty comb could be given to them, it would be a
great help, as every pound of comb they build consumes
fifteen or twenty pounds of honey in its elaboration. There
are many other ways of making artificial swarms, but this
is about the safest method for the inexperienced, and pro-
duces a moderate increase of stocks, and yields a good Sup-
ply of surplus honey. It will be found very safe, and
profitable in the long run. The inexperienced had better
not divide or increase their stocks more than fifty per cent.
in any one year. Too great an increase of stocks is the
rock that many an apiarian has split upon when endeavor-
ing to increase his apiary by artificial swarming. There
is a considerable saving to be made by rearing queens
artificially to supply every new artificial swarm, but it
should only be attempted by those well versed in the natu-
ral history and management of the bee. If you give the
-


















4.38
BEE.
new swarm a sealed queen cell, it will save them time in
rearing a queen. -
As soon as a hive is occupied by a new swarm the first
thing is to begin the manufacture of cells.
The formation of the wax is a singular and complex
operation. Huber says, “The wax-makers, having taken a
due portion of honey or sugar, from either of which wax
can be elaborated, suspend themselves to each other, the
claws of the fore legs of the lowermost being attached to
those of the hind pair of the uppermost, and form them-
selves into a cluster, the exterior layer of which looks like
a kind of curtain. This cluster consists of a series of fes-
toons or garlands, which cross each other in all directions,
and in which most of the bees turn their back upon the ob-
server: the curtain has no other motion than what it re-
ceives from the interior layers, the fluctuations of which are
communicated to it. All this time the nurse-bees preserve
their wonted activity, and pursue their usual employments.
The wax-makers remain immovable for about twenty-four
hours, during, which period the formation of wax takes
place, and thin laminae of: this material may be generally
perceived under their abdomen. One of these bees is now
seen to detach itself from one of the central garlands of the
cluster, to make a way amongst its companions to the mid-
dle of the vault or top of the hive, and by turning itself.
round to form a kind of void, in which it can move itself
freely. . It then suspends itself to the centre of the space
which it has cleared, the diameter of which is about an
inch. It next seizes one of the laminae of wax with a pin-
Fig. 6.
Brush and Pincers of the Bee (greatly magnified).
cer formed by the posterior metatarsus and tibia, and draw-
ing it from beneath the abdominal segment, one of the an-
terior legs takes it with its claws and carries it to the
mouth.”
The wax has, perhaps, a nearer analogy to the sebace-
ous secretion of the integument than to any other animal
secretion : it is formed beneath the scales on the under side
Fig. 7.
Bee seen from below, with * segments of wax (mag-
Ił1601). . . .
of the abdomen, and, when accumulated there, seems to irri-
tate the part, for the bee may then be observed wagging
her body, and running round, or to and fro, as if endeavor-
ing to shake out the little scales; and she is generally fol-
lowed by one or two other bees which have been attracted
by her movements, and are ready to seize upon the plates
of wax as they fall. How the bees mould the scales into
the walls of the cells is not. yet exactly understood. Some
have supposed that they bite pieces off and join them to-
gether; but the smooth and uniform surface of the cell
shows that some other operation must take place: besides,
the wall of the cell is sometimes thicker than a scale of wax.
We must, therefore, suppose that the bees have the power.
of applying some dissolving or softening menstruum to the
wax scales, by which they are enabled to knead and blend
them into a ductile paste. And when we remember that,
the secretion of the salivary tubes of insects is generally
row ribbon.
nectaries of the crown-imperial tempt them in vain.
alkaline, and that wax may be softened by alkali, it has
been naturally supposed that it is by this means that the
wax-scales are brought into a workable state. Reaumur,
indeed, observed a frothy substance exuding from the mouth
of a bee while working at a cell, which was applied to the
proper place by the nimble tongue, and then kneaded in by
the mandibles; and Huber has described the process very
circumstantially : he says that the bee holds the laminae of
wax with its claws vertically—the tongue rolled up serving
for a support—and by elevating or depressing it at will
causes the whole of its circumference to be exposed to the
action of the mandibles, so that the margin is soon gnawed
into pieces, which drop, as they are detached, into the
double cavity, bordered with hairs, of the mandibles. These
fragments, pressed by others newly separated, fall on one side
of the mouth, and issue from it in the form of a very nar-
They are then presented to the tongue, which
impregnates them with a frothy liquor. During this ope-
ration the tongue assumes all sorts of forms: sometimes it
is flattened like a spatula; then like a trowel, which ap-
plies itself to the, ribbon of wax; at other times it resem-
bles a pencil, terminating in a point.
ened the whole of the ribbon, the tongue pushes it so as to
After having moist-
make it re-enter the mandibles, but in an opposite direc-
tion, where it is worked up anew. The liquor mixed with
the wax communicates to it a whiteness and opacity which
it had not before, and doubtless gives it that ductility and
tenacity which it possesses in its perfect state.
Bees commonly begin at the top or roof of their cham-
ber, and build downward, at first working irregularly, and
as it were pasting over the surface, and then building hor-
izontal cells of a more perfect form. These at length be-
come so numerous that they extend downward in the form
of a vertical wall; other congeries of cells are formed in
succession, until the whole comb assumes the form of a se-
ries of perpendicular plates or partitions. Each plate con-
sists of a double set of cells, the bottoms of which are ap-
plied to each other and form the partition between each set.
The plates are not always regular, and the irregularities
which may be observed are not always necessary adap-
tations to a peculiar form of the cavity in which they are
built. The cells are not all of the same size, but a sufficient
number of a given depth are reserved for receiving the
eggs, and which are necessarily adapted to the size of the
future maggot: the smaller or shallower cells are those in
which the honey is stored. The breeding and store cells
are placed horizontally, but the mouth of the cell is some-
times a little raised, the better to retain the honey. The in-
terspace between the vertical combs is generally about half
an inch; these streets, as they may be termed, in this city
of industry, being just wide enough to allow two bees
busied upon the opposite cells to pass without incommoding
each other. In addition, to these interspaces, the combs are
perforated in various places, so as to allow a passage for the
bees from one street to another, thus saving them much
time. - t
The shape of each cell is not, as might have been ex-
pected, cylindrical, or that which seems best adapted to the
form of the maggot, or even of the constructor bee; but it
is hexagonal—the only form which allows the cell to be of .
the largest size in proportion to the quantity of matter em-
ployed, and at the same time to be so disposed as to occupy
in the hive the least possible space. . The form of the base
of each cell, which is in apposition with the one on the op-
posite side, is also such as: to gain greater, strength, and
more capacity, with less expenditure of wax; the latter con-
sideration being one of great importance to bees, which do
not secrete a very large quantity of this material; and the
most profound mathematicians and most skilful geometers.
have found the solution of the problem, relating to the at-
tainment of the preceding objects, as derived from the in-
finitesimal calculus, to have a surprising agreement with
the actual measure of the different angles formed by the
walls of the cell.
Bees do not gather honey indiscriminately from every
flower. The oleander, which yields poisonous honey fatal to
thousands of flies, is carefully avoided by bees, and the white.
• * * - The
flowers of the white clover, and of the basswood are espe-
cially attractive to them, and their hum may be heard
among the branches of the latter at a considerable distance.
Those flowers which yield a nectar innocuous to the bees
themselves, but possessing poisonous qualities when taken.
by man (among which may be mentioned the Kalmia lati-
folia), are sometimes frequented by bees, and the honey
derived from them acts like a poison. . -
The collection of the farina or pollen of flowers is a great
object of the industry of bees. In large flowers, as the tu-
lip, the bee dives in; and if the pollen receptacle or anther
be not burst, she bites it open, and comes out singularly.
disguised, being covered over entirely with the fertilizing


BEE—BEECH. DROPS.
439
dust, which adheres readily to the fringed hairs of her body
and legs. & * +
Aristotle, who was well acquainted with much that is in-
teresting in the economy of the bee, was the first to observe
that a bee during each single excursion from the hive limits
her visits to one species of flower. Modern naturalists have
confirmed the general accuracy of this statement, and have
noticed that the pollen with which a bee comes home laden
is always of the same color. The necessity of this instinct
arises out of the operation which the pollen first undergoes
when collected by the bee. She rakes it out with incredible
quickness by means of the first pair of legs; then passes it
to the middle pair, which transfer it to the hind legs, by
which it is wrought up.into little pellets. Now, if the pol-
len were taken indiscriminately from different flowers, it is
probable that the grains, being heterogeneous, would not
cohere so effectually. Certain it is, that bees enter the hive,
some with yellow pellets, others with orange, pink, white, or
even green-colored ones, but they are never observed to be
party-colored: “Through this instinct, another important
end is gained in relation to the impregnation of flowers;
pollen of one species to the stigma of another is avoided,
while those flowers are more effectually fertilized which re-
quire the aid of insects for that purpose. . . .
When a pollen-laden-bee arrives at the hive, she generally
walks-or-stands upon the comb beating her wings, and
three or four of her fellow-citizens assist in lightening her
of her load; or the laden bee puts her two hind legs into a
cell, and with the intermediate pair or the extremity of the
abdomen brushes off the pellets. These are then kneaded
into a paste at the bottom of the cell, and several cells are
thus filléd with the packed and softened pollen, which is
called bee-bread.
Besides the honey and farina, bees also collect a peculiar
substance like gum-resin, which was called “propolis” by
Pliny; and this they obtain principally from the balsamic
buds of the horse-chestnut, birch, and poplar, especially
the Populus balsamifera.
pull out in a thread, and is aromatic.
the hive not only in finishing the combs, but also in stop-
ping up every chink or orifice by which cold, wet, or any
enemy can enter. Like the pellets of pollen, it is carried
on the posterior tibiae, but the masses are lenticular.
Having thus traced the operations of the working bees
relating to the collection of the substances required in the
economy of the hive, we shall now return to the larvae,
which are the immediate objects of all this industry.
The bees may be readily detected feeding the young mag-
got, which opens its lateral jaws to receive the bee-bread,
and swallows it. The well-fed maggot soon grows too large
for its tough outer skin, and accordingly casts it; when its
bulk has increased so that it fills its cell, it then requires no
more food, and is ready to be enclosed for the chrysalis
state. The last care of the foster-parents is to cover over
the mouth of the cell with a substance of a light brown
color, apparently a mixture of wax and farina. This takes
place generally four days after the larva has been excluded
from the egg. The enclosed larva, now begins to line the cell
and the covering of the aperture before mentioned with a
silk, which it spins from glandular tubes similar to those of
the silkworm. When the first three segments of the trunk
to which the locomotive organs of the perfect insect are at-
tached begin to be enlarged, the last larva-skin splits along
the back, and is pushed off from the head backward, and
deposited at the bottom of the cell, and it then becomes a
chrysalis. Now the wonderful changes take place, partly
by a formation of new organs, partly by a development of
pre-existing ones, which end at last in the completion of
the perfect bee. -
Bees, although inactive during winter, are not in a torpid
state, but continue to devour honey and to maintain their
animal warmth. -
Mr. Hunter found during an evening in July, when the
temperature of the atmosphere was 54°Fahrenheit, that of
the interior of a hive full of bees was 82°; and in Decem-
ber, the external atmosphere being 35°, the bees preserved
a temperature of 73°; and, what is at this season extremely
rare in the lower animals, they maintain their digestive
powers and subsist on the produce of the summer and au-
tumn. Accordingly, they are ready to take advantage of
any fine or mild day, and may be seen then flying abroad
and appearing to enjoy it. They void their excrements at
this time, for they are insects of singular cleanliness and
propriety; and when purposely confined in the hive, with
abundance of food, they have been known to fall a sacrifice
to this instinctive repugnance to defile the hive.
In conclusion; we may remark that the keeping and
management of bees was formerly considered as very
precarious and uncertain. But modern science, and the
various improvements which it has effected, have made the
The propolis is soft, red, will ||
It is employed in ||
of Chili, is a valuable timber tree.
characteristic tree or shrub of far antarctic regions, and is
business in practised hands as certain and successful as
most agricultural pursuits. Full, populous stocks only are
profitable. A weak hive will cost many times the care re-
quired for a strong one, and pays nothing back. When
many hives are kept, a few spare combs on movable frames,
with sealed brood, may be introduced into a weak hive.
Facilities for examining and controlling are the foundation
of success. As with other kinds of business, the manage-
ment of bees requires attention, vigilance, and industry,
combined with a knowledge of the natural history of the
insect. *
The Italian bee, which has been introduced of late years,
is distinguished from the common bee by the yellow bands
on its body and by its more vigorous habits. It commences
working earlier in the morning, and continues at work later
in the evening...It has a longer proboscis, which enables it
to take honey from the red clover. When properly man-
aged, it has furnished large stores of honey, but apiarians
are not fully agreed as to its general value and adaptation
to common management, and some years will probably be
required to settle the question.
the production of hybrid plants by the application of the
John J. THOMAS.
Bee (BARNARD E.), a Confederate general, born in
South Carolina 1824, graduated at West Point 1845 in the
artillery, and served with distinction throughout the Mex-
ican war (wounded at Cerro Gordo), his gallant conduct
being recognized by his native State by the presentation
of a sword of honor. He was on frontier duty principally
from 1848 to Mar. 3, 1861, when he resigned, and was ap-
pointed a brigadier-general in the Confederate army. At
the first battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861, he was killed.
Bee, a county in the S. part of Texas. Area, 900 square
miles. It is drained by the Aransas River, which rises within'
its limits, and is bounded on the N. E. by Blanco River.
The surface is nearly level. The climate is healthful. Cat-
tle and sheep are bred in great numbers. The soil is sandy,
and wood and water are scarce. Capital, Beeville. P.1082.
Bee Branch, a township of Chariton co., Mo. P. 1593.
Beech [Ger. Buche], (Fa'gus), a genus of trees of the
order Cupuliferae, natives of Europe, America, and Aus-
tralasia. The sterile flowers have a bell-shaped calyx-five
to seven cleft, with eight to sixteen stamens. The fertile
(or female) flowers grow on the same tree, the fruit of .
which is a triangular or sharply three-sided nut, two of
which are enclosed in an urn-shaped, coriaceous involucre
or husk. These nuts, called beechmast, are edible, and are
valuable as food for swine. They yield a large proportion
of a bland fixed oil which is used as food and burned in
lamps by Europeans; the husks contain a volatile, narcotic,
poisonous principle called fagine. The genus comprises
several species of beautiful forest trees, with a close and
smooth ash-gray bark and a light horizontal spray. The
Fagus sylvatica, or common beech of Europe, forms whole
forests in many parts of that continent. It grows to the
height of about 100 feet, and sometimes has a diameter of .
four feet, and is a very ornamental tree, especially when it
stands alone. The wood is hard and valuable for fuel, and,
being durable under water, is employed in the erection of
mills. The French use it extensively in the fabrication of
sabots or wooden shoes. The white beech, which is a com-
mon tree in some parts of the U. S., is, according to some
botanists, the same species as that which has been just de-
scribed. The Fagus ferruginea (red beech or American
beech) is abundant in the Northern U. S., sometimes grow-
ing gregariously in forests which contain few other trees.
Its leaves are oblong-ovate, taper-pointed, distinctly and
often coarsely toothed or serrate. This is an ornamental
tree, which sometimes attains a height of 100 feet, and sur-
passes most trees in the depth of shade produced by its rich
green...and shining foliage. The wood is hard, heavy, good
for fuel, plane-stocks, shoe-lasts, tool-handles, and other
purposes. The color of the wood is a light brown or red-
dish; hence the name. Among the other species is the
myrtle tree of Tasmania (Fagus betw!oides or Fagus For-.
8teri), a very large and ornamental tree, with evergeen and
coriaceous leaves, which resemble birch leaves in form.
Fagus procera, which attains a lofty stature in the Andes
The Fagus antarctica is a
said to be found farther S. than any other shrub.
C. W. GREENE.
Beech Creek, a post-township of Ashley co., Ark.
Pop. 269. - -
Beech Creek, a township of Clarke co., Ark. P. 448.
Beech Creek, a township of Greene co., Ind. P. 2059.
Beech Creek, a post-borough and township of Clin-
ton co., Pa., 80 miles N. N.W. of Harrisburg. Pop of
township, 887; of borough, 384. -
Beech Drops. See EPIPHEGUs.
440
BEECHER—BEEKMANTOWN.
Beech/er (CATHERINE ESTHER), an American writer, a
daughter of Lyman, noticed below, was born at East Hamp-
ton, Long. Island, Sept. 6, 1800. She published, besides
other works, “Domestic Service,” “Treatise on Domestic
Economy,” “True Remedy for the Wrongs of Women,”
“Manual of Arithmetic,” “Elementary Book of Instruc-
tive Theology,” “Physiology and Calisthenics,” and “Com-
mon Sense applied to Religion.”
Beecher (Rev. CHARLEs), a preacher and writer, a
brother of the preceding, was born at Litchfield, Conn., in
1815. Among his works are a “Review of Spiritual. Man-
ifestations” (1853) and “ Pen-Pictures of the Bible”(1855).
Beecher (EDwARD), D. D., a brother of the preceding,
was born in 1804. He graduated at Yale in 1822, was
president of Illinois College from 1831 to 1844, and pastor
of Salem Street church, Boston, from 1846 to 1856. He pub-
lished “The Conflict of Ages” (1856) and other works, in-
cluding an able work on Baptism.
Beecher (HENRY WARD), a celebrated American author
and divine, son of Dr. Lyman Beecher, noticed below, was
born at Litchfield, Conn., June 24, 1813. At an early age
he had a strong predilection for a seafaring life, which,
however, he renounced in consequence of the deep religious
impressions which he experienced during a revival. Hav-
ing graduated at Amherst College in 1834, he devoted him-
self to the study of theology at Lane Seminary under the
tuition of his father, who was then president of that insti-
tution. He became in 1847 pastor of the Plymouth (Congre-
gational) church in Brooklyn, where his genial and original
eloquence has continued to attract the largest congregation,
it is said, in the U. S. He was editor of the “Inde-
pendent” from 1861 to 1863, when he visited Europe for
the benefit of his health. His earnest addresses to large
audiences on the subject of the American war appear to
have had considerable influence in-turning the current of
public opinion in Great Britain in favor of the Union cause.
Mr. Beecher has also been a prominent advocate of anti-
slavery and temperance reform, and more recently of the
rights of women. Among his principal works are “Lec-
tures to Young Men” (1850), “Star Papers” (1855), “Life
Thoughts” (1858), “Royal Truths” (1864), a novel, “Nor-
wood” (1864), and “Life of Christ,” vol. i., 1871. He be-
came editor of the “Christian Union ” in 1870. -
Beecher (LYMAN), D. D., an eminent American the-
ologian, born at New Haven, Conn., Oct. I2, I'775. He
graduated at Yale College in 1797, studied theology under
President Dwight, and became in 1810 minister of the
Congregational church at Litchfield, Conn. He was a
popular preacher, and acquired great influence among the
orthodox churches. ' To oppose the rapid progress of Uni-
tarian doctrines he removed to Boston about 1826, and
preached in the Hanover Street church. He was president
of Lane Seminary at Cincinnati 1832–51. He published,
besides other works, “Views in Theology” and “Sermons
on Temperance,” which had a great circulation. He was a
man of very emergetic character. Died at Brooklyn, N. Y.,
Jan. 10, 1863. (See his “Autobiography and Correspond-
ence,” edited by his son, CHARLES BEECHER, 2 vols., 1864.)
Beecher (THOMAS KENNICUTT), an able Congregational
minister, son of the preceding, born Feb. 10, 1824, gradu-
ated at Illinois College (Jacksonville, Ill.) in 1843. For
about twenty years he has been pastor of a church in El-
mira, N. Y. He is an influential speaker and writer, and
distinguished for philanthropy. His especial work seems
to be to discourage sectarian feeling in the churches, and to
promote a fraternal spirit among Christian people. -
Beech/ey (FREDERICK WILLIAM), an English navigator,
born in London Feb. 17, 1796.
Edward Parry in an Arctic expedition in 1819, and ex-
plored the northern coasts of Africa in 1821. Having
obtained the rank of commander or captain, he conducted
an exploring expedition to the Polar Sea viá Behring
Strait. He discovered Port Clarence and Port Grantley,
returned in 1828, and published a narrative of his voyage
in 1831. He became a rear-admiral of the blue in 1854.
Died Nov. 29, 1856. (See “Edinburgh Review º' for Mar.,
1831.) *
Beechey (Sir WILLIAM), R. A., an eminent English
portrait-painter, the father of the preceding, was born in
Oxfordshire Dec. 12, 1753. Died Jan. 28, 1839.
Beech Spring, a township of Spartanburg co., S. C.
Pop. 3280. ; - • -
Bee Creek, a township of Mitchell co., N.C. Pop. 189.
Bee’der, or Bider, a fortified city of Hindostan, cap-
ital of a district of the same name, is near the Manjera
River and in the Nizam’s dominions, about 75 miles N. W.
of Hyderābād. It was formerly an important place, but is
now chiefly remarkable for the manufacture of tutemag
wares of an alloy of tin and copper. f .
He accompanied Sir
Bee-Eater, a name given to various birds of the order
Insessores, tribe Fissirostres and family Meropidae, which
ºğ
W. (b. -
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º ºº
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º
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The Namaqua Bee-Eater.
is allied to that of kingfishers. The genus Merop8 com-
prises numerous species, found in Asia, Africa, and Europe,
which feed on bees and other hymenopterous insects. The
common bee-eater (Merops apiaster) abounds in the S. of
Europe as a summer bird of passage. It seizes bees as
they fly in the air, and watches for them near their hives.
It breeds in holes which it excavates in the banks of rivers.
There are several other genera called bee-eaters. The
Namaqua bee-eater (Rhinopomastes cyanomelas) is a West
and South African bird.
Beef-Eater, a term applied jocularly to certain British
functionaries belonging to the yeomen of the guard, who
form part of the train of royalty, and attend the sovereign
at royal banquets, coronations, etc. This term appears to
be a corruption of the French buffetier, one who serves at
the buffet (sideboard).
Beef-Eater (Bu'phaga), a genus of birds of the order
Insessores and tribe Conirostres, sometimes called ox-
pecker. They are exclusively African, and have a remark-
able habit of sitting on the backs of oxen, buffaloes, camels,
etc., in order to feed on the larvae of flies which they find
on their hides. This genus comprises the species called
buffalo-bird of South Africa. -
Beefield, a township of Greenville co., Va. Pop. 2809.
Beef Tea, an article of diet of the greatest importance
in the treatment of the sick and the nurture of infants.
To prepare palatable beef tea is a matter of some difficulty,
but the following rules are excellent and easy to follow :
Take one pound of juicy, lean beef from the shoulder or the
round, and mince it with a sharp knife on a board or a
mincing-block. Put it with its juice into an earthen vessel
containing a pint of tepid water, and let it stand for two
hours. Strain off the liquid through a clean cloth, Squeez-
ing well the meat, and add a little salt. Place the whole
of the juice thus obtained over the fire, but remove it as
soon as it has become browned. Never let it boil, other-
wise most of the nutritious matter of the beef will be thrown
down as a sediment. A little pepper or allspice may be
added if preferred. -
Beehive House, a name given to certain ancient
dome-shaped buildings found in Ireland, and supposed to .
have been erected in the twelfth century or earlier. They
are round edifices, built, without cement, of long thin stones
placed in horizontal layers, each slightly overlapping an-
other, and so gradually converging to the top. They are
supposed to have been dwellings of priests. In some places
occur several hive-shaped subterranean chambers, con-
nected by a passage or gallery. - -
Beek’man, a post-township of Dutchess co., N. Y. It
contains limestone, slate, and mines of iron ore (hematite).
Pop. 1486. - *
Beek/mantown, a village of Mount Pleasant town-





BEEKMANTOWN-BEER.
441
ship, Westchester co., N. Y., on Pocantico River. Pop.
2206. . . . * -
Beekmantown, a post-village and township of Clin-
ton co., N. Y., on the Montreal and Plattsburg R. R., 4
miles N. of Plattsburg. The township is on Lake Cham-
plain. Pop. of township, 2552.
Beel’zebub [Gr. BeexgeBoöA, Beelzebowl, or Beelzebul],
(i.e. “the god of dung or of flies”), the name of a god
worshipped by the people of Ekron, in Philistia. As the
heathen deities were all regarded as demons by the Jews,
the name Beelzebub came in course of time to be com-
monly applied to a prince or chief of evil spirits, and in
this sense it is employed in the Gospels. This name is
found only in the New Testament. The original and au-
thorized spelling is Beelzebul, which appears to have been
afterwards changed so as to resemble Baalzebub, which was
the proper name of the heathen divinity.
Beer [Ger. Bier; Fr. bière]. The common beer known
as beer, ale, porter, stout, etc. is the fermented infusion of
malted barley, flavored with hops. In a wider. sense the
term beer is applied to beverages prepared from cereals,
barley, rye, wheat, Indian corn, millet, etc., the chief con-
stituent of which is starch. The treatment involves the
preliminary operations of malting and mashing, or changing
the starch to gum (dextrine) and sugar (glucose) by the
aid of the natural process of germination. The term wine,
on the other hand, is restricted to alcoholic liquids obtained
by fermenting the saccharine juices of fruits, as the grape,
apple, pear, currant, and gooseberry, or the sap of such
plants as the sugar-cane, palm, American aloe, etc. There
are, however, many beverages of inferior quality called
beer, which consist of saccharine liquors more or less com-
pletely fermented, and flavored with various substances,
such as spruce beer, ginger beer, root beer, etc.
The manufacture of beer from barley is divided into two
distinct processes—malting and brewing—which are con-
ducted in different establishments, the malt-house and the
brewery ; the brewer often purchasing his malt from the
maltster. Malting consists of four successive operations:
(1) Steeping. The barley is placed in wooden cisterns, cov-
ered with cold water, and allowed to soak for two or three
days, when the water is drained off. By this operation the
barley absorbs from 10 to 50 per cent. of water, softening
and swelling up at the same time. (2) Cowching. The
softened barley is thrown out upon the floor of the malt-
house in heaps or couches, where it heats spontaneously and
begins to germinate, throwing out rootlets or radicles, and
shoots or aerospires. At the same time it evolves a portion
of its water, the operation being called sweating. (3) Floor-
ing is resorted to in order to check the germination by re-
ducing the temperature. It consists in spreading the bar-
ley over the floor, and repeatedly turning and respreading
it over a constantly widening area in layers of diminishing
thickness. When the process of germination has proceeded
as far as is desirable, it is completely stopped by (4) Kiln-
drying. This is effected in a large room with brick or tile
floors, the kiln, which is heated to the desired temperature.
Here the germinated barley is rendered perfectly dry and
crisp. It is then malt. The appearance of the malt, and
the color of the beer made from it, depend upon the tem-
perature of the kiln. At between 90° and 100°F. pale malt
results; at 120°–125°, amber malt; 1509–1709, brown malt
for porter and stout. Black malt is prepared by roasting
the malt in cylinders, at 360° to 400° F., such as are used
for roasting coffee. It is used as a coloring for porter.
During the process of malting the barley increases in vol-
ume and diminishes in weight; 100 measures of barley
yield 101 to 109 of malt, but 100 pounds yield only about
80 pounds of malt. The loss in weight is largely due to
the perfect drying in the kiln, fresh barley containing 10
to 16 per cent. of water. It is, however, in part due to the
removal of some soluble constituents in the steeping, to the
destruction of some during germination, and evolution in
the form of carbonic acid, water, hydrogen, nitrogen, etc.,
and to the shoots and rootlets. An experiment made by
C. John gave the following results, leaving out the per-
centages of water: 100 parts of barley lost in the steeping
0.391; 100 parts of steeped barley yielded—
Malt ..... ........... 83.09
Shoots......................................................... 3.56
Rootlets....................................................... 4.99
Gases........................................................... 8.36
100.00
The object of changing the barley to malt is to render
its constituents soluble, and bring them into a condition
suitable for fermentation. During germination the albu-
minous, substances are changed to diastase, a body which
exerts a wonderful action upon starch. One part of dias-
tase is said to change 2000 parts of starch (which is insol-
uble) to dextrine (gum), and then to glucose (grape-sugar),
both of which are soluble in water. It is very doubtful
whether what Payen and Persoz called diastase is a dis-
tinct body, but the name is a convenient one for the al-
buminous matters, modified and rendered soluble by germi-
nation, which act as ferments, and possess the important
properties above mentioned.
Germination is considered to have gone far enough when
the acrospire has advanced two-thirds the length of the
grain. Were the process of germination allowed to proceed
farther, the various constituents of the seed would be as-
similated by the young plant, and transformed into insol-
uble tissues, as they really constitute the supply of food
designed to sustain the germ during its early development,
until having acquired leaves and roots it can obtain its
food from the atmosphere and soil. It was formerly sup-
posed that the conversion of the starch into dextrine and
glucose took place to a large extent during the malting,
and the following analyses by Proust have long been
quoted to sustain this view :
Barley Malt.
Gluten........................... .................. 3............ 1.
Starch............................................... 87............ 68
Gum...... .......................................... 4............ 15
Sugar................................................ 5............ 15
Resin................................................ 1............ 1
100 100
More recent investigations and analyses made by improved
methods have shown that very little starch is changed to
dextrine and sugar during the early stages of germination
to which the barley is subjected during malting. While a
larger quantity of starch is converted into dextrine during
the kiln-drying, especially in the preparation of dark-col-
ored malt, the starch is but little affected until the brewer
exposes the malt to the action of warm water in his mash-
tub. Here the changes supposed by Proust to occur during
the malting actually take place.
The exact analysis of malt is attended with almost in-
surmountable difficulties, and it has not yet been possible
to ascertain the precise nature of the chemical processes
involved in its formation. Dr. Stein investigated the sub-
ject in 1860 (Wilda's Centralblatt, 1860, ii., p. 8) and C.
John in 1869 (Byer, Bierbrauer, 1869, No. 5, p. 101). John
found that in the conversion of barley into malt, not count-
ing the shoots and rootlets, the fat diminished from 2.73 to
1.906 per cent., cellulose 12.24 to 7.18, while the dextrine in-
creased to 8.600, the glucose from 0.34 to 1.49, and the sub-
stances soluble in alcohol and in water from 5.949 to 16.72.
Stein reports that the fat diminished from 3.56 to 2.09, the
cellulose 19.86 to 18.76, the starch 54.48 to 47.43, the in-
soluble albuminoids from 11.02 to 9.02, while the dextrine
increased from 6.50 to 6.95, the soluble albuminoids from
1.26 to 1.96, the non-nitrogenous extractive matters from
0.90 to 3.68. These differences appear very slight; but
although analysis thus fails to reveal the character of the
changes, their extent and importance are at once seen on
exposing barley and malt to the action of warm water.
The former is hardly affected, while the latter quickly
yields a sweet wort, containing large quantities of dextrine,
glucose, albumen, etc. .
The diastase of malt is capable of changing to glucose
a much larger quantity of starch than exists in the barley;
hence unmalted grain is sometimes added to the malt dur-,
ing the subsequent operation of mashing. In Belgium
potato starch is largely employed. r
Brewing.—The first operation of the brewer is the bruis-
ing or crushing of the mafºwhich is accomplished by pass-
ing it between iron rollers: Et is, then placed in the mash-
tub with warm water, and raised gradually to about 167°
F. It is here that the starch is transformed into dextrine
and glucose, which, with the soluble albuminous and saline
constituents, are taken into solution by the water. From
one to four bushels of malt are used for each barrel of
beer. When the price of malt is high, a portion of it is
replaced by cheaper amylaceous or saccharine substances,
such as potato starch, or glucose prepared from it by the .
action of sulphuric acid. The insoluble residuum from
the malt is sold under the name of brewers’ grains for
feeding cows. The infusion is allowed to stand for a few
hours to clarify or set, and the sweet clear wort is then
drawn off into a copper boiler, when it is boiled with the
hops. From one to five pounds of hops are added for each
barrel of beer, the quantity varying with the strength of
the beer, the length of time it is to be kept, and the climate
to which it is going. The hops are the female flowers of
the Humulus Lupulus ; they contain a peculiar essential
aromatic oil, a bitter principle, lupuline, tannic acid, resin,
etc. They communicate an agreeable flavor to the beer,
add to its tonic and stimulating properties, aid in clearing
it by the action of the tannic acid on the albumen, and di-
minish its liability to spoil on keeping. (See Hops.) Dr. ..
C. A. Seeley of New York has prepared an extract of hops
by means of gasolene (petroleum spirits) which he con-
442
siders much preferable to the entire hops. The boiled wort
is cooled as quickly as possible, either by placing it in
shallow vessels or passing it over a series of tubes through
which cold water circulates. It is, then run into the fer-
menting vats or tuns, which in large breweries sometimes
have a capacity of 1200 or 1500 barrels. . The temperature
of the wort best suited to successful fermentation depends
upon the season. In summer, with the atmosphere at 75°
F., it should stand at about 55°; with air at 55°; at 60°;
while in the winter, it should have a temperature of at least
64°. If a very quick fermentation is desired, it may be
considerably higher. For every 100 gallons of wort about
1 gallon of yeast is added, which has been produced in a
previous brewing of the same kind of beer. The yeast is
usually mixed with a little wort, and left in a warm place
till it begins to ferment. This lobb, as it is called, is then
added to the tun. More yeast is employed in winter than
in summer; twice as much at 50° F. as at 68°. . In six- or
eight hours fermentation becomes active; the wort begins
to work, the glucose, under the influence of the active fer-
ment yeast, undergoes decomposition, yielding alcohol and
carbonic acid, the latter escaping in bubbles, and bearing
to the surface particles of yeast, which form a scum. The
yeast itself, being a plant, develops rapidly, largely at the
expense of the nitrogenous albuminous matters of the wort,
summer beer, for which 3 bushels of malt and 1% to 3 pounds
; of hops are used per barrel, and which is not ready for use
which are thus withdrawn. (See YEAST.). The tempera-
ture rapidly increases, rising many degrees. . This fer-
mentation continues for six or eight days. When it has.
reached the proper point, the beer is separated from the
per barrel; ready in four to six weeks. (3) Bock bier, which
yeast, and transferred to the cleansing butts. Here a slow,
almost imperceptible, fermentation takes place. The solid.
particles of the yeast rise to the surface and escape through.
the bungholes of the casks. Finings are sometimes added
to clear the beer; they generally consist of isinglass dis-
Solved in a little sour beer. ... The beer. is then transferred.
to store-casks, where a slow fermentation occurs, which pro-
duees no perceptible quantity of yeast; the beer develops
its finer qualities, and is here finished for use. ... (See FER-.
MENTATION.)
“The composition of the water used in brewing is sup-
posed to exert an important influence on the success of the
process. Lime salts are said to aid in clearing the beer,
as they form insoluble compounds with some of the acids
present. Sulphate of lime, or gypsum, is sometimes added
to the water. The spring water at Burton-on-Trent is said.
The strength.
to contain considerable sulphate of lime.
and taste of beer depend upon the quantities of malt and
hops, employed and the mode of conducting each of the
several operations, especially the fermentation. Strong.
beers contain much alcohol; substantial beers are those
which have not been fermented so thoroughly, and which
consequently contain more of the extractive matters. of the.
malt. . . Bitter beers contain more of the hop extract.
Aile is prepared from pale malt, and the active fermenta-
tion is checked while there still remains a considerable.
quantity of sugar unchanged. This, by subsequent fer-
mentation in the barrel or bottle, keeps up...the briskness.
Pale ale is made from malt dried in the sun or by steam.
It is not allowed to rise above 72° during the fermentation.
The formation of acetic acid is thus prevented, and the un-
pleasant flavor due to the solution of the yeast by the alco-
hol is avoided. Scotch ale is a sweet strong ale. Small
beer is a weak liquor made by using little malt, or by mash-
ing with fresh water the malt residuum left after the wort
for ale, or porter has been drawn off. . . Porter is a dark-
colored beer made from a mixture of pale, amber, brown,
and black malt. Stout is strong porter. Berlin white beer
(weiss beer) is prepared by quick fermentation from a mix-
ture of 1 part of barley malt and 5
with half a pound of hops per bushel.
* Lager Beer.—The beer of Bavaria, which has of: late
years been so extensively manufactured in the U. S. under
the name of lager.beer, owes its name (from lager, a “store-
house”) to the fact that it is, stored in cool cellars or vaults
for several months before it is used, and its remarkable
keeping qualities and highly prized properties to the pecu-
liar kind of fermentation, by which it is produced. The
fermentation of ordinary beer and ale takes place at high.
temperatures; it is consequently rapid, and the carbonic
acid, evolved in bubbles, carries a portion of the yeast to
the surface, forming a thick scum. This scum protects the
beer from the oxygen of the air. ...The conversion of gluten
into yeast is in part: a process of oxidation, and the oxy-
gen being excluded considerable gluten remains unchanged;
and acting as a ferment leads to the subsequent change of .
alcohol to acetic acid. The fermentation of lager-beer is
conducted at a low temperature—between 409 and 50°. F.
It proceeds more slowly, and the carbonic acid does not.
carry the yeast to the surface. Consequently, the air has.
a freer access, and the gluten is more completely converted
into yeast...This beer is usually fermented in the winter, or,
fermenting tuns.
ten to twenty days.
subsides, leaving the surface clear. -
hogsheads, when the yeast is found at the bottom of the
Indians before the Spanish conquest.
parts of wheat malt |
BEER.
if in summer, in rooms cooled by ice. This is called sedi-
mentary or under-fermentation, to distinguish it from the
ordinary surface fermentation. The yeast, called bottom
yeast, is quite different from ordinary yeast, and has a tend-
ency to induce the kind of fermentation by which it was
produced. ' The following is a brief outline of the process
employed at one of the largest lager-beer breweries in New
York. The barley is soaked two or three days, changing
the waters; it germinates six to ten days, till the radicles
are brownish; it is then kiln-dried. It is crushed between
rollers, mashed at 120° to 140°F., the temperature being
raised by the addition of boiling water to 160° or 170°.
By adding hot water to the residue a second wort is ob-
tained. The first wort is boiled with the hops; the second
wort is let in, and the whole is boiled three or four hours.
After cooling to between 44° and 50° F., it is run into open
One gallon of yeast is added for every
twenty to twenty-five barrels. Fermentation continues from
There is a heavy froth at first, which
It is racked off into
tuns. It stands in these hogsheads with the bung open.
: A few days before it is to be put in barrels for use the
| bung is driven in to accumulate carbonic acid for life.
Three varieties of this beer are made : (1) “Lager,” or
in less than from four to six months. (2) “Schenk,” winter
or present-use beer: 2 to 3 bushels malt and 1 pound hops
is an extra strong beer, made in small quantity and served
to customers in the spring, during the interval between the
giving out of the schenk beer and the tapping of the lager.
In its manufacture 3% bushels of malt and 1 pound of hops
per barrel are used, and it requires two months for its
preparation.
The barrels for lager are coated with pitch on the inside,
to prevent the beer soaking into the wood and giving rise
to acetic acid when they are empty. Lager is therefore the
product of a peculiar slow under-fermentation, which takes
place at low temperatures.
Chica, or maize beer, was used by the South American.
JBowrza, or millet
beer, is made by the Crim Tartars. Quass, or rye beer, is a
sharp acid beverage prized by the Russians. Koumiss, or
milk beer, is prepared by the Tartars from mares' milk,
which they dilute and ferment.
Composition of Beer.—The stimulant and tonic properties
of beer are due to the alcohol and the bitter principle of.
the hop, while its nutritive value is ascribed to the extractive
matters derived chiefly from the malt. The exact character
of many of the constituents of beer is not known. Besides.
water, alcohol, dextrine, and grape-sugar, the following
substances have been identified: glycerine, succinic, acetic,
lactic, propionic, glucie, and carbonic acids, albumen and
albuminous principles, bitter and resinous matters and
essential coil. from, the hop, and alkaline and earthy salts.
The latter, which amount to from 0.15 to 0.28 per cent. of .
... the beer, are from one-half to two-thirds alkaline and
earthy phosphates. The unrecognized constituents of beer
are grouped - under the term extractive matters. In the
following-table the term. eactract includes all the substances
left when the alcohol and water are removed by evaporation:
Analysis of Beer.

- Percentages. contº pºmpº ; I
KINDs. - - ——
• . . Alcohol. Extract. ſº. º .. .#
Burton ale (Allsopp's).........} 8.25 13.32 2.16. 2.77 ºf
Bass's barley wine.............| 8.41 11.75 ' || 2.18 2.42 3.
Edinburgh ale................... 4.41 3.58. 1.12 .72 . . .
Guinness's stout................. 6.81. 6.17 1.74. 1.25 . .
Truman, Hanbury & Co.'s - - -
porter............................| 4.02 5.12 1.03 1.01
Whitebread’s porter.......... 4.28 5.15 1.09 1.03
Hoare's porter...................| 4.18 5.04' 1.06 1.03
Perry's ale.........................! 3.87 3.65 0.98 0.73
Munich lager..................... 4.70 6.10 || 1.19 1.22
New York lager................. 5.86 4.32 1.48 0.88
Munich Schenk.............. ... 3.90 5.7 1.00 1.16
Munich bock..................... . . 4.60 9.2 1.17 . 1.90
Adulteration of Beer.—There is a popular impression
that beer is extensively, and injuriously adulterated; that
potato starch, grape-sugar, glycerine, and molasses are.
added as substitutes for malt; pine bark, quassia, walnut
leaf, wormwood, bitter clover, aloes, picric acid, cocculus,
indicus, and strychnine as substitutes for hops; and various.
chemicals to neutralize acidity or conceal dilution. A few.
of the first mentioned would not be objectionable, and it is.
not probable that many, if any, of the others are ever used.
- - - . . . C. F. CHANDLER.
BEERSHEBA–BEETLE.
Beer'sheba (i. e. the “well of the oath,” or “well of
the seven.”), an ancient frontier place of Palestine, situ-
ated about 50 miles S. S. W. of Jerusalem, and near the
border of the desert. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob often
dwelt there. . The phrase “from Dan to Beersheba,” was
used proverbially to express the whole extent of the land
of Israel. There are still to be seen seven wells of ancient
masonry, from five to twelve and a half feet in diameter;
but only two of them now contain water.
Beershe'ba Springs, a post-village of Grundy co.,
Tenn., on the summit of a spur of Cumberland Mountain,
12 miles N. E. of McMinnville, has valuable tonic, saline,
and chalybeate mineral waters, and very beautiful scenery.
This is a fashionable watering-place for the people of the
South-west. . - • , , - -
Bees' wax [Lat. ce'ra], a substance manufactured or
secreted by the honey.bee, is the material of which its cells
and combs are constructed, and is an important article of
commerce. In order to separate the wax from the honey,
the honeycomb is subjected to pressure, which squeezes.out
nearly all the honey; the residual comb is then heated in
water and stirred till the wax melts, when the whole is
passed through hair bags. The wax is received in a vessel
of cold water, where it is cooled and solidifies as a thick
cake on the surface of the water. The natural yellow color
is sometimes changed to white by exposure to the joint
action of the sun, the ozone of the air, and moisture. Puri-
fied beeswax is tasteless, odorless, and colorless. Its spe-
cific gravity is about .960. . It fuses at 145° F., is insolu-
ble in water, and partly soluble in boiling alcohol. Bees-
wax is extensively used in the manufacture of candles and
tapers, and for other purposes. The candles which are
burned in Roman Catholic churches are always made of
wax, which is also an ingredient in the cerates of pharmacy.
Beeswax consists of (1) myricin, which is insoluble in
boiling alcohol, and is chiefly myricic palmitate, Cao Hö1. C16
H3102; (2) cerotic acid, C27H5402, which dissolves in boil-
ing alcohol, but crystallizes out on cooling; (3) cerolein,
which remains dissolved in the cold alcohol, probably a
mixture of several substances.
Beet [Ger. Beete], (Beſta), a genus of plants of the or-
der Chenopodiaceae, extensively cultivated for their escu- .
lent roots, which are large and succulent. . The species of
Beta, which are not numerous, are mostly biennial, with
smooth, ovate, and petiolate radical leaves. : They are
natives of the temperate parts of the Eastern hemisphere.
The common beet (Beta vulgaris) is indigenous on the shores
of the Mediterranean, and is extensively cultivated in gar-
dens and fields. The boiled roots are a common article
of food in most civilized countries of Europe and North
America. Large quantities of sugar are extracted from the
roots of the beet in France and Germany. The beet-sugar,
when refined, is identical with that of the sugar-cane. The
beet prefers a rich, light soil. The variety chiefly cul-
tivated in gardens is the red beet, so called from the color
of the root, which is sometimes conical. A. coarser variety
of beet, called mangold-wurzel, is a valuable food for cat-
tle. (See SUGAR.) • - - ‘. . . . . . . . .
Bee/thoven, van (LUDWIG), a famous musical com-
poser, born at Bonn Dec. 17, 1770. He was the second of
four children, of whom the first died an infant. His father;
Johann van Beethoven, tenor singer in the chapel of the
elector, being poor, mainly in consequence of bad habits,
discerned the remarkable musical talents of his son, and
prepared early to press them into service by teaching him
to play the harpsichord before he was five years old. Hav-
ing outgrown his father's instruction, the lad was put un- |
sitions testify. But he was something besides a musician.
He read much and thought much ; he was by no means un-
familiar with the literature of Germany, and even; with
: Italian letters. When interested, his conversation was ani-
der the tuition of Pfeiffer, oboist in the chapel, and then
under that of Van der Eder, reputed the best organist in
Bonn. . At the age of eleven he was transferred from Van
der Eder to his successor in the chapel, Neefe, who spoke
warmly of the boy’s proficiency and mastery of the music
adapted to the harpsichord. The master himself seems to | &
stout and apparently strong. ... His statues, busts, and por-.
traits represent him with a massive head; broad brow, a
have given him special instruction in the science of composi-
tion, and even had published some of his compositions. At
this period the lad dedicated to the elector three pianoforte
sonatas, which also were printed. From this time his repu-
tation increased, and his prosperity, under the auspices of
eminent patrons, brightened. When but fourteen he was
made assistant court-organist, and three years later was
sent to Vienna, at the elector's expense, to pursue his
studies under the direction of Mozart, then at the height
In Vienna, he finally made his home, after an
of his fame.
incidental residence of several years in Rome, where his
efforts were required to support his two younger brothers.
On his return to Vienna, he studied hard with Haydn and
Albrechtsberger, the celebrated contrapuntist, making him- | -
- ; insects of the order Coleoptera. Most writers on natural
history extend the meaning of the term, and apply it to all
coleopterous insects, the species of which are very numer-
self perfect master of the science of musical composition.
His favorite instrument at this time was the pianoforte, on
which he soon rivalled the best performers. His technical
of his uncle’s devotion.
education being completed, his powers trained, his method
formed, works came from his hand with astonishing rapid-
ity. There is difficulty in fixing the dates of his composi-
tions, but before he was thirty years old he had published
as many as twenty sonatas for the pianoforte, nine for piano
and instruments, two concertos for piano and orchestra,
trios, quartetts, quintetts, Septetts, a ballet, “The Men of
Prometheus,” and two orchestral symphonies. At this
period he moved in the best society, was noticed by persons
of rank, and recognized by all as a genius of the first order.
. These were his happy, hopeful days, but they did not last
long; they were soon clouded by the one great calamity of
his life—a misfortune that to a musician would seem almost
fatal to achievement. Already in 1800 he speaks sadly of
a defect in his hearing which occasioned serious inconve-
nience. It increased so rapidly that before long, in the
course of two or three years, during which he had a violent
sickness, he became totally deaf. This affliction clouded
his inner life, made him distrustful, restless, suspicious,
melancholy, and unsocial. From this time books, medita-
tion, and solitary walks in the country were his sole recre-
ation. His society was limited to a few select friends, with
whom he could forget himself. He lived in his work, and
his work went on increasing in volume, gaining in power
: and deepening in intensity from year to year. The achieve-
ments of his genius cannot be described in few words.
less than five years were produced the “Heroic Symphony,”
In
“Fidelio,” Symphonies Fourth; Fifth, and Sixth, with the
grand mass in C. In 1813 came the Seventh Symphony;
three years later the Eighth, in 1824 the Ninth or “Cho-
ral” Symphony, by many thought the most wonderful of
all—by Beethoven himself regarded as, the most signifi-
cant; and in the intervals between these gigantic creations
was produced some of his most perfect music. To give
here any account of these works is impossible; they cannot
so much as be named, for they cover nearly every species
of composition, and are so remarkable that nearly every.
one merits special notice. . They are as, extraordinary for.
their wealth of thought and feeling as for their mastery of
the laws of composition. They constitute a musical libra-
ry by themselves. The nine symphonies and the grand
sonatas for the pianoforte are monuments of genius which
alone would give immortality to their creator. . . . . .
Beethoven died Mar. 26, 1827, of dropsy, following a
violent inflammation of the lungs. His constitution, nat-
urally strong, had been tried by severe shocks of illness.
His life was solitary; he was never married....His strongest
natural attachment was for a nephew who proved unworthy
Though his deafness made him a
recluse, he was not selfish, sordid, or narrow-souled. On
the contrary, his human feeling was of the deepest, and,
though he could never have been rich, he showed himself
capable of generosity. An enthusiastie republican in his
belief, and an ardent sympathizer with his countrymen in
their struggles, for political liberty, Beethoven suffered
bitterly for the woes of his. Fatherland, and poured out
through his music the passion of his proud, agonized heart.
There are worlds of sorrow in his compositions. They are,
in every sense of the words, modern and living. Though
so thoroughly accomplished in musical science, Beethoven
was never scholastic ; though so deeply charged with emo-
tion, he was never sentimental. His works convey the
profound, various, comprehensive feeling which was natural
to a sensitive spirit, keenly responsive to all the joy and,
sorrow of the new age. To this is due their extraordinary
hold on people who are quite unable to appreciate their
technical excellence. . . - - -
• That Beethoven was a man of vast intellect his compo-
mated, brilliant, and instructive. - . . . .
In person Beethoven is said to have been of middle size,
dignified, sombre expression of countenance, and features
of harsh but heroic cast. The bronze statue erected in the
public square of his native city in 1845, is of majestic
aspect. His latest. and most careful biographer, however,
Mr. A. W. Thayer, an American, describes him as looking
much like a mulatto, short and sallow, with wide nostrils.
: and projecting teeth, heavy lips, and high cheek-bones. A
great deal has been written about him. Until the biography.
i of Mr. Thayer the authorities were his contemporary, Mos-
, cheles, (whose work has been republished in this country),
and Schindler.
O. B. FROTHINGHAM.
Beetle, a common name given to several species of
444
BEETLE STONES.–EEHRING.
ous. They may be distinguished and recognized by the
two hard sheaths or elytra which cover the pair of true
membranous wings and organs of flight. Many beetles are
remarkable for their singular forms and the brilliant colors
and ornamental markings of their elytra. Each beetle has
two antennae, two mandibles of a horny consistence, two
compound eyes, and six legs. (See CoDEOPTERA and ScA-
RABAEUs.) -
Beetle Stones, a name given by the lapidaries of
Edinburgh to hard modules of clay iron-stone found abun-
dantly at Newhaven, a suburb of that city. They take a
fine polish, and are used to make ornamental articles. The
name is derived from a fossil which often occurs as a nucleus
of the nodule, and was erroneously supposed to be a fossil
beetle, but is really a coprolite.
Beeſtown, a post-township of Grant co., Wis. P. 1624.
Beet-root Sugar, a kind of sugar made in France
and Germany. The beet root contains about 10 per cent.
of sa,écharine matter. The Prussian chemist Achard was
the first who succeeded in extracting sugar from beets.
(See SUGAR.)
Bee'ville, a post-village, capital of Bee co., Tex., 127
miles S. of Austin City.
Be'gas (KARL), a German painter, born at Heinsburg
Sept. 30, 1794. He became about 1818 a resident of Berlin
and court-painter to the king of Prussia. He painted
“The Finding of Moses” and many other scriptural sub-
jects; also excellent portraits of eminent authors and ar-
tists, including Humboldt and Schelling. Died Nov. 24, 1854.
Beg’gar, a person who solicits charitable aid from the
public at large. In all ages and countries persons have
practised various arts in order to enlist the sympathies of
the benevolent. Severe enactments have from time to time
been made against them. By a law of Richard II. (1388)
able-bodied beggars were punished and compelled to labor,
and provision was made for the helpless. By an act of
Henry VIII. (1530) licenses were given to impotent per-
sons to beg within fixed limits, but unlicensed beggars
were whipped, and all persons giving alms to such forfeited
ten times the amount given. In the reign of Elizabeth
beggars above the age of fourteen were grievously whipped,
burned through the ear with a hot iron, and for the third
offence were put to death. This regulation was repealed
in 1593.
Begging Friars. See MENDICANT ORDERs.
Beg'hards [Lat. Beghardi, Begehardi, and sometimes
Begwinil, a name of uncertain derivation (for which see
BEGUINEs, below), applied to semi-monastic societies of
men, originating in the Netherlands, and dating from the
early part of the thirteenth century, or not very long after
similar societies of women had been formed. At first, the
Beghards were distinguished for piety and works of benef-
icence. Some connected themselves with the Tertiaries of
the monastic orders; some became wildly fanatical ; and
some fell off into heresies. They were severely handled by
the Inquisition, but spread into Germany, France, Switzer-
land, Italy, and even Sicily, and continued down to the
Reformation. (See Mosh EIM, “De Beghardis et Beguina-
bus Commentarius” 1790; and HALLMANN, “Geschichte
d. Ursprungs d. belgischen Beghinen,” 1843.)
. Beghar/mi, or Bagir’mi, a country of Central Af-
rica, is bounded on the N. by Lake Tchad, on the E. by the
kingdom of Wadai, and on the W. by the river Shari,
which separates it from Bornu. Area, 56,600 square miles.
The greatest length is about 250 miles. Capital, Masena.
The surface is for the most part nearly level; the soil is the
most fertile and the best watered of the Soodan. It was
founded by a heathen chief about 300 years ago, but Mo-
hammedanism soon became the ruling religion. It is trib-
utary to both Bornu and Wadai. The natives are physi-
cally well-formed and warlike. Begharmi was visited by
Dr. Barth in 1852. Pop. about 1,500,000. (See BARTH,
“Travels in Central Africa.”) - - -
: Bego'nia, a genus of tropical plants, the type of the
natural order Begoniaceae. Some of them are cultivated
in hot-houses for the sake of the flowers. The leaves, which
are oblique at the base, have a reddish tinge. The suc-
culent stems and leaves of Begonia tuberosa and other spe-
cies are used as potherbs and eaten in the form of tarts.
The name Begonia was given in honor of Michel Bégon,
a patron of science. - .
Begonia’ceae (so named, from Bego'nia, one of the
genera), a natural order of exogenous plants, mostly her-
baceous, have alternate leaves, oblique at the base, and
cymes of unisexual pink flowers, with a colored perianth
and numerous stamens. There are also white and deep
searlet varieties. They are nearly all tropical plants, but
one species of Begonia grows on the Himalayas 11,500 feet
above the sea. The order comprises about 160 species.
Some of the Mexican species are used as drastic purgatives.
Béguines, bā-geen’ [Lat. Begwinae, Begutae, some say
from the old Saxon beggen, “to beg” or “to pray;” others
from the supposed founder, Lambert le Bègue or Bèghe],
the name given to semi-monastic societies of women, orig-
inating in Belgium, perhaps at Liege, about 1180 A. D.
These societies grew in part out of the numerical inequal-
ity between the sexes caused by the Crusades. The women,
without assuming monastic vows, lived in houses by them-
selves, labored for their own support, and took care of the
sick. A few of these establishments are still found in
Belgium. (For the literature, see BEGHARDs.) *
Be'gum [bā'güm, the feminine form of the Tartar beg
or bey, a “lord” or “prince ’j, a title of honor given in
the East Indies to princesses and the sultanas of seraglios.
Among the charges against Warren Hastings was his cruelty
to two rich begums of Oude, the mother and the wife of
Sujah Dowlah. In order to extort money from them, Hast-
ings or his agents invaded the privacy of their zenanas, and
reduced them to the alternative of delivering their treasures
or exposing their faces to the view of strange men. They
preferred the former of these two evils.
Beſhaim, or Be/hem (MARTIN), an eminent cosmog-
rapher and navigator, born at Nuremberg about 1459. He
became a merchant, and visited foreign countries in that
capacity. In 1484 and 1485 he accompanied the navigator
Diogo Cam in a voyage of exploration along the W. coast
of Africa. He gained distinction as a maker of maps and
globes. A large globe which he made in 1492 is still pre-
served by his descendants in Nuremberg, and is prized as a
monument and record of the progress of geography. Died
July 29, 1506. (See GHILLANY, “Geschichte des Seefahrers
Ritter Martin Behaim,” 1853; C. G. von MURR, “Diplo-
matische Geschichte des Ritters M. Behaim,” 1778.)
Beſham (BARTHOLOMEW), a German portrait-painter
and engraver, born in 1496, was a scholar of Dürer. Died
in 1540.-His nephew, HANS SEBALD BEHAM, born in 1500,
one of the best of the Nuremberg engravers, chose gro-
tesque, sometimes coarse subjects.
Beheading. See CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.
Beſhemoth, a huge animal described in the book of
Job (xl. 15–24). Some critics consider the Hebrew term a
plural noun for cattle in general. Others think some ex-
tinct species of animal is referred to. Others think the
elephant is meant. But most writers say the hippopotamus.
Behes/tian, a township of Ouachita co., Ark. P. 396.
Behistun' [Lat. Bagista'mus; Pers. Baghistan’, i. e.
“ place of gardens”], an ancient and ruined town of Persia,
in Irak-Ajemi, 21 miles E. of Kermanshah. Here is a re-
markable limestone mountain (the ancient Mong Bagistants,
on the confines of Media), which rises to the height of 1700
feet, and is almost perpendicular on one side. According .
to Diodorus, the famous Semiramis, on her march from
Babylon to Ecbatana, encamped here and prepared a resi-
dence, and having cut away the lower part of the rock of
Bagistanus, caused her portrait to be carved or sculptured
there. The geography of this locality has been carefully
investigated by Rawlinson and Masson. A peculiar inter-
est attaches to the rock of Behistun on account of its cunei-
form inscriptions, which were made by order of Darius I.,
king of Persia, about 515 B.C., and have been deciphered
by Sir H. Rawlinson. Close to these inscriptions are thir-
teen human figures, one of which represents Darius. “The
labor,” says Rawlinson, “bestowed on the whole work must
have been enormous. . . . But the real wonder of the work.
consists in the inscriptions. For extent, for beauty of exe-
cution, for uniformity and correctness, they are perhaps
unequalled in the world. It is evident that after the en-
graving of the rock had been accomplished, a coating of
silicious varnish had been laid on to give a clearness of
outline to each individual letter, and to protect the surface
against the action of the elements. This varnish is of in-,
finitely greater hardness than the limestone rock beneath it.
It has been washed down in several places by the trickling
of water for three-and-twenty centuries, and it lies in flakes
upon the foot-ledge like thin layers:of lava.” (Journal of
the Asiatic Society, vol. x.) The Persian inscriptions which
Rawlinson deciphered are contained in five columns, one
of which has ninety-six lines, and the others each nearly.
as many. There are on the same rock inscriptions in the
Median and Babylonian languages. (See RAWLINSON's
“Herodotus,” vols. i. and ii.)
Behn (APHRA), a female writer in the reign of Charles
II., born in 1640. She wrote seventeen plays, besides
novels and poems which were witty, but licentious. She
was employed as a spy at Antwerp. Died in 1689.
Behring, or Beering (VITUs), a Danish navigator,
BEHFING SEA-BELEMNITELLA.
445
born in Jutland in 1680. He entered the Russian navy at
an early age, and fought with distinction against the Swedes.
In 1725 he was appointed the commander of an expedi-
tion sent to explore the Sea of Kamtchatka. During this
voyage, which occupied several years, he discovered Behr-
ing Strait (1728), and ascertained that Asia was not joined
to America. In a subsequent voyage he was wrecked on
Behring's Island, where he died Dec. 8, 1741.
Behring Sea, or Sea of Kamtchatka, the most
northern part of the Pacific Ocean, extending between the
peninsulas of Alaska and Kamtchatka. It is connected by
Behring Strait with the Arctic Ocean.
Behring Strait, a channel which connects the Pacific
with the Arctic Ocean, and separates Asia from America.
It was discovered by Vitus Behring in 1728. Its width is
about 45 miles at the narrowest part, between East Cape
(Asia) and Cape Prince of Wales (America). The depth
of this strait near the middle is about 30 fathoms.
Beilan, a town and pass of Northern Syria, on the E.
side of the Gulf of Iskanderoon, one of only two passes be-
tween Cilicia and Syria. It is thought by some to be the
same as the ancient Amanian Gates. The town of Beilan
is situated on a crest 1500 feet above the sea. Pop. about
5000. It has numerous aqueducts.
Beira, or Beyra, bā/rá, a province of Portugal, bounded
on the N. by Entre-Douro-e-Minho and Tras-os-Montes,
on the E. by Spain, on the S. by Estremadura and Alemtejo,
and on the W. by the Atlantic. Area, 9244 square miles.
Besides the Douro, which flows along its N. boundary, and
the Tagus, which touches it in the S. E. corner, Beira is
also drained by the Mondegos. The surface is mountain-
ous; the soil is generally poor. Among the staple produc-
tions are wine, grain, and olives. Marble, iron, and coal
are found here. Capital, Coimbra. Pop. in 1868, 1,288,994.
Beirout, or Bairut. See BEY ROOT.
Beis'sel (Joh ANN ConFAD), born at Eberbach, in Ger-
many, in 1690, removed in 1720 to Pennsylvania, and be-
came the founder of the religious community at Ephratah,
in Lancaster county. He died in 1768, leaving several
theological works.
Beit-el-Fa’kih (“house of a saint”), a town of
Arabia, in Yemen, on the Red Sea, 90 miles N. of Mocha.
The heat here is very great, the thermometer rising to 104°
F. in the shade, and 145° in the sun. It has a citadel and
a mosque. Pop. about 8000. It is one of the largest marts
for coffee in Arabia. -
Beſia (anc. Paac Ju'lia), a fortified town of Portugal, in
Alemtejo, 57 miles by rail S. of Evora. It has a castle, a
cathedral, and manufactures of earthenware and leather.
It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop. Two annual
fairs are held here in the fall. Pop. 7060.
Bejar’, a fortified Spanish town romantically situated
on the Cuerpo de Hombre, 48 miles S. of Salamanca. It
has manufactures of wool, and is noted for hams. Pop.
10,683.
Bejapoor’ (i.e. “the victorious or unconquerable city”),
a city of India, in the presidency of Bombay, 140 miles S. E.
of Bombay. It was formerly the populous capital of the
powerful Hindoo kingdom of the same name, which was
founded by Tusnef (died 1510), was conquered by Aurung-
zeb in 1686, and was afterwards a part of the empire of the
Grand Mogul. According to tradition, it contained 100,000
houses, but is at present in ruins. It presents a mag-
nificent external show of domes and minarets, temples and
mausoleums, some of which display exquisite workman-
ship; and lofty walls of hewn stone enclose this scene of
splendid desolation. Among the ruins, which are of great
extent, is a mausoleum of Mahmood Shah, the dome of
which is visible at a distance of fourteen miles. Here are
Several brass cannon of enormous size.
Beke (CHARLEs TILSTONE), PH. D., an English travel-
ler, born in London Oct. 10, 1800. He explored Abyssinia
(1841–44), and after his return published, besides other
works, an “Essay on the Nile and its Tributaries” (1847),
and “On the Sources of the Nile in the Mountains of the
Moon” (1848). He has since made other visits to Africa.
Died July 30, 1874.
Beſkes, a county of Central Hungary, is bounded on the
N. by the county of Szabolcs, on the E. by Bihar, on the S.
by Csanad, and on the W. by Csongrad. Area, 1321 Square
miles. The country consists of a plain, and is watered by
the Black, White, and Rapid Körös. The climate is un-
healthy, but the soil is extremely fertile, yielding large
quantities of wheat of the first quality. Pop. in 1869,
209,729. Chief town, Bekes.
Bekes, or Bekesvár, bā'késh-var, a town of Hun-
gary, capital of the above county, is at the confluence of
the White and Black Körös, 62 miles S. W. of Debreezin.
It has considerable trade. Pop. in 1869, 22,547.
Bek/ker (IMMANUEL), a philologist, was born in Berlin
in 1785, was a pupil of F. A. Wolf at Halle. He became
professor of philology at Berlin in 1810, and published
“Anecdota Graeca.” (3 vols., 1814–21). He produced good
editions of many classics, among which are Plato (10 vols.,
1814–21), “The Attic Orators” (7 vols., 1823), and Aris-
totle (7 vols., 1831). Died June 7, 1871.
Belai'a, Bielaja, or Biela, a river of Russia, rises
in the Ural Mountains, flows through Orenburg, and, after
a very tortuous course of about 650 miles, enters the river
Kama.
Bel Air, a post-village and county-town of Harford co.,
Md., 22% miles N. of Baltimore, and 9 miles from Edge-
wood Station on the Philadelphia Wilmington and Balti-
more R. R., contains a court-house, jail, academy, 3 public
schools, 4 churches, 3 hotels, 2 weekly papers, and 1 large
carriage manufactory. It is situated in a fine agricultural
section. Pop. of village, 633; of township, 5650.
A. H. R.UTLEDGE & Co., PUBs. “HARFORD DEMocrat.”
Be'lia Tser'kof (i.e. “White Churches”), a town of
Russia, in Kiev, on the river Ross. It has considerable
trade. Pop. about 8000.
Belcher (Joseph), D. D., a Baptist divine, born in Bir-
mingham, England, April 5, 1794, came to America in 1844,
and published nearly 200 works, among which are “The
Baptist Pulpit” (1850), “History of Religious Denomina-
tions” (1855), etc. Died at Philadelphia July 10, 1859.
Bel and the Dragon, History of, an apocryphal
book of the Bible, regarded as a fable by the Jews, by
Saint Jerome, and many eminent theologians. It is ca-
nonical in the Roman Catholic Church, being part of the
fourteenth chapter of Daniel in the Vulgate. By the An-
glican Church it is recommended to be read for edification.
Bel’cher (Sir Edward), F. R. S., an English vice-ad-
miral, ; born in 1799. As commander of the Sulphur he
sailed on a voyage around the world in 1836, and explored
the western coasts of America. During this voyage he
served in the naval operations against the Chinese in 1841.
He became a post-captain in 1843, and commanded an ex-
pedition sent in search of Sir John Franklin in 1852. Re-
turning without any success, and having lost his vessels,
he was placed before a court-martial, but acquitted. In
1864 he became rear-admiral of the red. He published,
besides other works, a “Narrative of a Voyage round the
World in the Sulphur.” - * *
Belcher (JonATHAN), a merchant, born in Cambridge,
Mass., Jan., 1681, graduated at Harvard in 1699. He was
governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire from 1730
to 1741. Having been removed from office, he went to
England to vindicate himself, and was appointed governor
of New Jersey in 1747. Died Aug. 11, 1757.
Bel’chertown, a post-village and township of Hamp-
shire co., Mass., on the New London Northern R. R., 10
miles N. N. W. of Palmer. It has important manufactures
of carriages, etc. Pop. of township, 2428.
Bel/doc, a township of Barnwell co., S. C. Pop. 1176.
Bel/ed-el-Jereed’ (i. e. “the country of dates”), an
extensive region of Northern Africa, bordering on the Des-
ert of Sahara, is bounded on the N. by Algeria, and on the
W. by Morocco. The soil is mostly arid and sterile, except
some oases, which produce the date-palm.
Bełem. See PARA.
Belem/nite [Lat. belemni'tes, from the Gr. BéAegvov, a
“ dart” or “arrow”], a genus of fossil Mollusca of the order
Cephalopoda, is the type of the family Belemnitidae. The
portion of the animal usually preserved is a cylindrical or
conical mass of carbonate of lime, from two inches to a
foot in length, one extremity generally acute, the other
excavated to form a conical cavity. This organ is called
the guard; it protruded from the body of a cuttle-fish, and
doubtless served as a means of defence. The guard of the
belemnite expanded above into a hollow, chambered cone,
the “phragmacone;” and from one side of this projected
a spatulate lamina of horny or shelly material, the homo-
logue of the “cuttle-bone’’ of Sepia and the “pen º’ of Lo-
ligo. In a few instances the body of the belemnite is rep-
resented in the fossil state, and such a specimen is in the
cabinet of Columbia College. These show that in form the
belemnite resembled our common Loligo—that it had an
ink-bag, and eight arms, which were furnished with many
sharp hooks like the living Onychoteuthis. The belem-
nites begin in the St. Cassian beds, as the top of the trias,
are very numerous in the Jurassic strata, but are not found
in any more recent deposits. They are represented in the
chalk by Belemnitella, but have no living analogue.
Belemnitel’la [dimin. of Belemnites], the name given
446
BELEMNITIDAE–BELGIUM.
to the guard of a cuttle-fish closely allied to the belemnite,
but distinguished by a slit which cuts the side of the phrag-
macone. It is characteristic of the cretaceous strata, and
one species (Belemnitella mucronata), found on both sides
of the Atlantic, is common in the cretaceous strata of New
Jersey. -
Belemniºtidae, a family of extinct cephalopods, of
which the type is the genus Belemnites. It also includes
2Ciphoteuthis, Belemnoptera, and Belemmoteuthis, of the Ju-
rassic, and Belemnitella, etc., of the cretaceous.
Belfast’, an important city and seaport of Ireland, in
the county of Antrim and province of Ulster, is situated on
Belfast Lough (an arm of the sea), at the mouth of the
river Lagan, 101 miles by rail N. of Dublin, and II 8 miles
S. W. of Glasgow; lat. 54° 35' N., lon. 5° 57' W. The
river is crossed by three bridges, the finest of which is the
Queen's Bridge. Railways extend from this point to
Dublin, Armagh, and Londonderry. The site of the city,
is low and level, but is partly enclosed by the ridge of
Divis and Cave Hill, the former of which rises to the
height of 1567 feet. The houses are mostly of brick and
are well built; the streets are regular, spacious, well-
lighted, and macadamized. Belfast is the most prosperous
commercial town of Ireland, except Dublin. The princi-
pal public edifices are Queen's College, a beautiful struc-
ture in the Tudor style (opened in 1849); a Presbyterian
and a Methodist college; the Royal Academical Institu-
tion, affiliated to the London University; the museum, the
theatre, Linen Hall, the Corn Exchange, etc. In 1872 it
had 80 churches, of which 28 were Presbyterian. Although
the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop of Down and
Connor, it is almost entirely Protestant, having only five
Catholic churches. Fourteen newspapers were published
here in 1872. The botanic garden of the Natural History
Society occupies about seventeen acres. Belfast is the
chief seat of the Irish manufactures of linen and cotton,
and is the great dépôt of the linen trade. The linen man-
ufacture was established here in 1637. The other chief
branches of industry are weaving of linen and cotton,
bleaching, dyeing, calico-printing, and iron-founding. Nu-
merous steamers, engaged in the Channel trade, ply regu-
larly between Belfast and Liverpool, Glasgow, Dublin,
London, etc. The chief articles of export are linens, cot-
ton goods, grain, flax, cattle, and provisions. This city
has also a large foreign trade. The adjacent country is
extremely beautiful. Belfast returns two members to Par-
liament. It first became an important place about 1604,
and was chartered in 1611. Pop. in 1871, 174,394.
Belfast, a seaport, the capital of Waldo co., Me., is on
the N. W. shore of Penobscot Bay (sometimes called Bel-
fast Bay), 30 miles from the ocean and 30 miles S. by W.
of Bangor. Belfast Bay, 9 miles wide, separates it from
Castine. It has a spacious harbor, which is safe and suffi-
ciently deep for large ships. Belfast is extensively engaged
in trade, manufactures of paper, shoes, and iron, the fishe-
ries, and in shipbuilding. It is the south-eastern terminus
of the Maine Central R. R. (Belfast division). It has a
national and savings bank and three weekly newspapers.
Pop. 5278.
W. H. SIMPson, ED. “REPUBLICAN Journ AL.”
Belfast, a post-township of Allegany co., N. Y. It
contains a seminary. Pop. 1488.
Belfast, a township of Fulton co., Pa. Pop. 856.
Belfort, an important fortified town of France, at the
foot of the Vosges and on the river Savoureuse, 60 miles
by rail N. E. of Besançon. Pop. in 1866, 8400. It has a
citadel constructed by Vauban, a fine church, and a public
library; also manufactures of iron, paper, and calico. It
was ceded to France by Austria in 1648. In the winter of
1870–71 it was besieged and taken by the Germans. It
was the only town of Alsace which the Germans permitted
the French to retain when that province was annexed to
Germany in 1871.
Bel(fort, a village of Croghan township, Lewis co.,
N. Y., has an extensive tannery.
Bel’fry, or Beffroi, the name of a military engine
used in sieges in the Middle Ages and in ancient times.
It was a movable tower about as high as the walls of the
town in the siege of which it was employed. It was eon-
structed of wood, with four or more stories or stages, and
was moved on wheels. The lowest story was sometimes
armed with a battering-ram, and the other stories were oc-
cupied with archers, slingers, etc., Near the top of the
beffroi was a hinged drawbridge, which, when let down on
the parapet of the wall, sometimes enabled the besiegers to
Storm the town.
Belfry [Fr. beffroil, a bell-tower or turret, usually
forming part of a church, but sometimes detached from it.
Towers built for such purposes in Italy are called cam-
_º
paniles. On the continent of Europe municipal belfries
often occur as portions of the town-house (maison de ville).
Bel’gae, the name given by Caesar to the warlike tribes
which in ancient times occupied one of the three great
divisions of Gaul (Gallia). Their country, which was
bounded on the N. W. by the ocean and on the E. by the
Rhine, comprised the modern Belgium, part of Holland,
and the N. E. part of France. This region was sometimes
called Belgica or Gallia Belgica. It was separated from
the territory of the Celtae by the river Sequana (Seine) and
its affluent the Matrona (Marne). Caesar represents the
Belgae as distinct from the Celtae proper and the Aquitani
in language, usages, and political institutions. A part of
the Belgae were probably Germans or of German origin,
and a part are believed to have been Cymric Celts. Some
of the Belgae had crossed the Channel and settled in the
southern maritime parts of Britain, and were found there
by Caesar when he invaded the island. The Belgae were a
brave, warlike people. (See CAESAR, “Commentaries on
the Gallic War;” SMITH, “Dictionary of Ancient Geog-
raphy.”)
Bei'gard, written also Bjaligrod, a town of Prussia,
in the province of Pomerania, 90 miles by rail N. E. of
Stettin, has a castle, several churches, and manufactures
of tobacco and woollen stuffs. Pop. in 1871, 6303.
Belgaum’, a town of British India, in the presidency
of Bombay, 105 miles S. W. of Bejapoor. It has solid,
bastioned walls and ancient ruins, among them two tem-
ples. Pop. about 8000.
Bei'gium, a kingdom of Europe, situated on the Ger-
man Sea between Holland, Prussia, and France, has an
area of 11,373 square miles, and (in 1869) a population
of 4,961,644 inhabitants. It is the most densely peopled
of any European country, having 436 inhabitants to
the square mile. The soil is partly fertile, partly (in the
E.) sandy and marshy. The only mountains are some
offshoots of the Ardennes in the S. The coast has a
length of 46 miles, and is of a uniform character. The
country is well watered by the Meuse and the Scheldt, and
their affluents, the Sambre, Ourthe, Werze, Lys, Dender,
and Rupel. There are no lakes of importance, but many
canals. The climate in general is temperate. Among the
chief products of Belgium belong cattle, fish, corn, fruit,
wood; among those of the mineral kingdom, iron and coal.
A coal region covering an area of 476 square miles tra-
verses all Belgium, and embraces two large basins, one of
which extends into France and the other into Prussia.
Celebrated mineral springs are found at Spaa. The people
belong, in almost equal proportion, to two different nation-
alities, the Flemish (German) and the Walloon (French).
The Flemish language, which is spoken by about 2,500,000,
prevails in the provinces of East Flanders, Antwerp, Lim-
burg, West Flanders, and Brabant, while the Walloon is
the predominant language in the provinces of Liege, Hai-
naut, Namur, and Luxemburg, and is spoken by a popu-
lation of about 2,000,000. The French, though the lan-
guage of the minority, has since 1794 been the official
language of the state authorities and the court; of late,
however, the Flemings have begun an active agitation for
the recovery of equal rights for their idiom. The number
of periodicals published in the Flemish language was, in
1871, about 40. With the exception of about 10,000 Prot-
estants and 2000 Jews, the entire population belongs to
the Roman Catholic Church, which has in Belgium one
archbishop at Malines, and five bishops at Namur, Ghent,
Bruges, Tournay, and Liege.
There are four universities—at Ghent, Liege, Trouvain,
and Brussels; the two first named are controlled by the
state; the third by the Catholic bishops, and the last
named by the Liberal party. Prominent among the other
educational institutions of the country are the Academies
of Fine Arts at Antwerp and Brussels, the Museum of
Painting and Sculpture at Brussels, the Conservatories of
Music at Brussels, Liege, and Ghent. The people are
chiefly occupied with agriculture, and in this respect excel
most nations of Europe. The working of mines also con-
stitutes a most important part of the national industry.
First in order are the coal-mines (with three great centres
at Mons, Charleroi, and the city of Liege), which produce
annually about 10,000,000 tons. The annual produce of
the iron-mines, which are especially numerous in the dis-
trict between the Sambre and the Meuse, amounts to about
7,200,000 hundredweight. Wool is the object of an im-
mense industry, and the Belgian woollen cloths are greatly
superior in quality to those produced in France. The linen
cloths of Belgium have long been highly valued, and the
manufacture of lace, though now less prosperous than for-
merly, has nothing to fear from foreign competition. The
breweries amount to 2671, and beer is the common beverage
of all classes. The commerce of the country is also in a
Yº:
|BELGIUM-BELKNAP.
447
very prosperous condition, being greatly promoted by a
dense net of railroads, which in 1871 had an aggregate
length of 1936 miles. It is chiefly carried on with France,
Holland, England, Prussia, North America, and Russia.
The imports in 1869 amounted to 903,000,000 francs, the
exports to 691,000,000. The commercial fleet, in 1869,
consisted of 67 vessels (12 steamers), with an aggregate of
23,981 tons. The aggregate length of the telegraph lines
was, in 1871, 2623 miles. The most important ports are
those of Antwerp, Ostende, and Nieuwepoort; the most
important centres of the commerce of the interior are
Brussels, Ghent, Bruges, Liege, Namur, Courtray.
According to the constitution of Mar. 3, 1831, Belgium
is a constitutional monarchy. The crown is hereditary,
according to the right of primogeniture, in the male line
only. The executive power is vested in the king alone;.
the legislative he shares with the senate and the house of
representatives. The court of cassation at Brussels is the
Supreme court of the country; besides it there are three
courts of appeal (Brussels, Ghent, and Liege). The jury
has been introduced since 1831. The Code Napoléon is
regarded as the judicial standard. The revenue and ex-
penditures in 1870 amounted to 176,000,000 francs; the
public debt to 696,000,000 francs. The army on the peace
footing numbered (without officers) 98,770 men, 10,600
horses, and 152 pieces of ordnance; besides, the country
has a civil guard consisting of 100,000 men, in 257 legions.
The navy is unimportant. The most important fortresses
are Antwerp, Mons, Charleroi, Philippeville, Marienbourg,
Ath, Tournay, Menai, Ypres, Ghent, Namur. The meas-
ures and coins are the same as in France. In point of
administration the country is divided into nine provinces:
South Brabant, Antwerp, East and West Flanders, Hai-
naut, Namur, Liege, Limburg, Luxemburg. Brussels is the
capital and residence of the king: during the summer
months the king resides at Laeken. The national colors
are red, yellow, and black, placed perpendicularly beside
each other; the escutcheon, the lion of Brabant with the
inscription, “L’union fait la force.” .
In the time of the Romans, the present Belgium, which
was then inhabited by Celtic and Germanic tribes, formed,
under the name of Gallia Belgica, a part of Gaul. The
treaty of Verdun, in 843, united the southern districts with
France, the northern with Germany. After the termina-
tion of the Carlovingian rule, the French districts were
gradually converted into duchies and counties. In 1385
the county of Flanders fell to the House of Burgundy,
which in the early part of the fifteenth century gradually
obtained possession of all the provinces of the Netherlands.
The marriage of Maria of Burgundy, the last scion of her
house, with the emperor Maximilian I., incorporated the
Netherlands with the extensive dominions of the House of
Habsburg, and, under the name of the “Circle of Bur-
gundy” (Burgundischer Kreis), with the German empire.
When, after the abdication of Charles W. (1555), his states
were divided, Belgium remained united with Spain, and
this union continued after the northern provinces had suc-
cessfully established their independence. Only from 1598
to 1621, Belgium constituted an independent state under
the rule of Isabel, daughter of Philip II., and her hus-
band, the archduke Albert. In the course of the seven-
teenth century Spain had repeatedly to cede portions of
Belgian territory to France. The peace of Utrecht in
1713 gave Belgium to Austria.
In the Austrian war of succession the whole country was
conquered by the French, but it was restored to Austria in
the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (Oct. 18, 1748). In conse-
quence of the unpopular reforms and innovations which
Joseph II. undertook to introduce, an insurrection broke
out against Austrian rule in Dec., 1789, and on Jan. 11,
1790, the Belgian provinces (with the exception of Lux-
emburg) proclaimed their independence under the name of
“ United Belgium,” but in Nov., 1790, the rule of the Aus-
trians was re-established. After the battle of Jemappes
(Nov. 7, 1792), Belgium was occupied by the French, and
in 1794 the country was ceded by Austria to France. It
was now divided into nine departments, and the adminis-
tration wholly assimilated to that of France. In 1814 the
first treaty of Paris united Belgium with Holland into the
kingdom of the Netherlands. The union lasted until Aug.,
1830, when the whole country rose in revolution against
the Dutch government. On Sept. 20 a provisional gov-
ernment was formed, which, on Oct. 4, after the evacua-
tion of the capital by the Dutch, proclaimed the independ-
ence of Belgium. On June 4, 1831, the prince Leopold of
Saxe-Coburg was elected king. The preliminary treaty of
1833 between England, France, and Holland put an end to
the efforts of the Dutch government for the recovery of
Belgium, but the definite acceptance of the articles drawn
up by the London Conference in 1831 for the regulation
of the frontier between Holland and Belgium did not take
place until 1838. The subsequent history of Belgium under
Leopold I. (died Dec. 10, 1865) and his son Leopold II.
has been one of quiet and steady development. The ad-
ministration has been sometimes in the hands of the Cath-
olic and sometimes in those of the Liberal party, but the
peace of the country has never seriously been disturbed,
not even by the European revolution of 1848. (See JUSTE,
“Histoire de Belgique,” 2 vols., 4th ed. I868.)
* A. J. ScHEM.
Belgium, a village of Clay township, Onondaga, co.,
N. Y., on Seneca River. Pop. 166.
Belgium, a post-township of Ozaukee co., Wis., on
Lake Michigan. Pop. 1979. j
Belgo/rod, a town of Russia, in the government of
Koorsk, on the river Donets, 88 miles S. S. E. of Koorsk,
and on the railway from Moscow to Kharkof. It is an
archbishop’s see, and has numerous churches. Pop. in
1867, 15,200.
Belgrade, běl-gräd’ (anc. Singidw/num ; Turk. Bil-
graad, Ger. Belgrad), an important fortified town of Ser-
via, is on the right bank of the Danube, at the mouth of
the river Save, 42 miles S. E. of Peterwardein. The cita-
del, which is very strong, is situated on a point of land
between the rivers, behind which rises the city with antique
German edifices, a cathedral, and a palace. Belgrade had
formerly an Oriental appearance, but it has been abandoned
by many wealthy Turks, and mosques are partly superseded
by churches. Here are manufactures of arms, cutlery, silk
goods, saddlery, and carpets. It has a good port and an
active trade, being the entrepôt of the commerce between
Austria and Turkey. It is the seat of the chief authorities
of Servia. In consequence of its importance as a strategical
point, Belgrade has been the scene of many famous sieges
and battles. It was besieged without success by the Turks
in 1456, and taken by the sultan Solyman in 1522. In
1688 it was stormed and captured by the elector of Bavaria,
but it was recovered by the Turks in 1690. Prince Eugene
here defeated 200,000 Turks in 1717, after which it changed
owners several times. It is now subject to Turkey. Pop.
in 1866, 25,089.
Belgrade, a post-township of Kennebec co., Me., 67
miles N. E. of Portland, on the Maine Central R. R. It
has manufactures of lumber, boxes, spools, “excelsior,” etc.
Pop. 1485.
Belgrade, a township of Nicollet co., Minn. Pop. 414.
Be'lial [Heb. “worthlessness”], a term used in the
Bible, frequently occurring in the phrase “a son of Belial,”
which, by a common Hebrew idiom, signifies merely a
worthless or very bad person; but in the New Testament
it is generally believed that Belial sometimes is used as a
proper name of Satan, though it is not universally ad-
mitted. Some commentators think that it is always used
in the New Testament in its Old Testament signification.
Bélidor, de (BERNARD FOREST), an eminent French
military engineer and writer, born in Catalonia in 1697.
He served in the German campaign of 1742, and became a
member of the Academy of Sciences. Among his works
may be mentioned his “Hydraulic Architecture” (1737),
a “New Course of Mathematics for the Use of Artillery’”
(1757), a “Traité de Fortification,” and “La Science des
Ingénieurs.” Died Sept. 8, 1761.
Belisa/rius [Slavic, the “white tsar or chief”], a cele-
brated general to whom Justinian was chiefly indebted for
the military glory of his reign, was born at Germania, in
Illyria, about 505 A. D. Having been appointed general-
in-chief of the army of the East, he defeated the Persians
at Dara in 530, and suppressed a formidable sedition at
Constantinople in 532. He gained two victories over the
Vandals in Africa, and took their king, Gelimer, a prisoner,
in 534 A. D. In 534 he obtained a triumph, and the office
of consul in 535. He also commanded the army of Justinian
in a long war against the Ostrogoths, who had made them-
selves masters of Italy. He occupied Rome in Dec., 536,
and gained some other advantages, but was recalled in 540,
after which he suffered adverse fortune through the enmity
of the empress Theodora. In 544 A.D. he was again sent
to Italy to oppose the Gothic king Totila, but his army
was so inferior in number that he could not gain a decisive
victory. He resigned the command in 548, and passed
nearly ten years in inaction. He served with success
against the Bulgarians in 559, and was imprisoned in 563
on a charge of treason. Died Mar. 13, 565 A.D. He was
distinguished for his loyalty, humanity, and other virtues.
(See LoRD MAHON, “Life of Belisarius,” 1829; GIBBON,
“Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;” C. F. ZELLER,
“Belisarius,” Tübingen, 1809; C. L. Roth, “Ueber Belisars
Ungmade,” 1846.)
Bel’knap, a county in Central New Hampshire, is
bounded on the N. E. by Winnepiseogee Lake. Area, 360
sº
448
BELKNAP—BELL.
Square miles. The surface is hilly. Wool, potatoes, grain,
and butter are the chief products. The county is inter-
sected by the Concord and Montreal R. R. Capital, La-
conia. Pop. 17,681.
Belknap (GEORGE E.), U.S. N., born Jan. 22, 1832, in
Newport, N. H., entered the navy as a midshipman Oct. 7,
1847, became a passed midshipman in 1853, a lieutenant
in 1855, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, and a com- .
mander in 1866. In 1856, while attached to the sloop-of-
war Plymouth, he took part in the assault and capture of
the “Barrier Forts” at the mouth of the Canton River,
China, and was executive officer of the iron-clad New Iron-
sides from 1862 to 1864 in her numerous engagements with
the forts and batteries of Charleston harbor. In his offi-
cial report to Rear-Admiral Dupont of the part taken by
the New Ironsides in the first bombardment of Fort Sumter,
April 7, 1863, Commodore Turner writes: “I should fall
short of my duty, sir, if I omitted to present to your espe-
cial notice the first lieutenant of this ship, Lieutenant-Com-
mander George E. Belknap. It was not in the hour of bat-
tle only that great demand was made upon him ; there was
a constant pressure upon the high qualities that distinguish
him as an efficient officer to meet exigencies, which, through
a week of toil and labor, he had to provide for. He was
equal to his work, gave me a perfect support at all times;
and I desire here, and through you, to commend him to
the favorable consideration of the government as an officer
of the highest merit.” Captain (now Vice-Admiral)
Rowan, in a report to Rear-Admiral Dahlgren of “the ser-
vices of the New Ironsides against the defences of Charles-
ton harbor,” dated Sept. 10, 1863, says: “I particularly
recommend to your notice and that of the department the
services of Lieutenant-Commander Belknap, to whose zeal
and ability as an executive officer I am so much indebted
for his untiring efforts to make the ship efficient in every de-
partment, and for his fine judgment and bearing in carrying
out my orders as commander of the gundeck during the
fourteen times this ship has been under the fire of the
enemy’s batteries.” He commanded the iron-clad Canoni-
cus in both attacks on Fort Fisher. His services on these
occasions are thus highly spoken of by Rear-Admiral Por-
ter, in his “ commendatory letter ’’ of Jan. 28, 1865 : “I
recommend that Commanders Parrott and Calhoun, and
Lieutenant-Commanders Weaver and Belknap, be pro-
moted. These officers have given a world-renowned name
to the monitors, and have shown what they were capable
of performing when properly placed and managed. They
had the hardest part of the work, and there is no end to
their energy, bravery and untiring zeal.”
- Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
TBelknap (JEREMY), D.D., was born in Boston, Mass.,
June 4, 1744. He graduated at Harvard College in 1762,
was pastor of a church at Dover, N. H., from 1767 to 1786,
and was then settled over the Federal Street church, Boston,
from 1787 till he died, June 20, 1798. He was the founder
of the Massachusetts Historical Society in 1791. He was a
careful scholar and a good preacher. He published, be-
sides other works, a “History of New Hampshire” (3 vols.,
1784–92), and “American Biography ’’ (2 vols., 1794–98).
A memoir of him was published in 1847.
Belknap (WILLIAM G.), an American officer, born at
Newburg, N.Y., Sept. 7, 1794, entered the service of the
U. S. in 1813 as third lieutenant of infantry, and rose
through successive grades to be lieutenant-colonel of the
Fifth Infantry in 1847. He served with marked gallantry
in the war with Great Britain (1812–15), in the Florida
war against hostile Seminoles, and in the war with Mexico.
For his services in Florida, he was brevetted lieutenant-
colonel, and for galiant éonduct in Mexico he won the
brevets of colonel and brigadier-general; served on from-
tier duty from 1848 to 1851 in command of his regiment
and departments, and while on duty in Upper Texas he
contracted a disease from which he died near Fort Washita,
Nov. 10, 1851. G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Eng’rs.
Belknap (WILLIAM WoRTH), son of the preceding, an
American lawyer, and general of volunteers during the
recent civil war, born at Newburg, N.Y., Sept. 22, 1829,
graduated at Princeton College, N.J., in the class of 1848,
studied law with H. Caperton at Georgetown, D.C., re-
moved to Keokuk, Ia., in 1851, and practised his profes-
sion successfully. He was elected to the Iowa legislature
in 1857 as a Democrat, but being unwilling to countenance
the Lecompton constitution, separated from the radical
wing of his party, and became what was known as a
“Douglas Democrat” up to the breaking out of the civil
war, since which time he has been actively identified with
the Republican party. He entered the army about Oct.,
1861, as major of the 15th Iowa Infantry, and participated
in the battle of Shiloh, where he displayed admirable mili-
tary qualities; was provost-marshal of the Seventeenth
army corps, on Gen. McPherson's staff, and in the cam-
paigns in Tennessee he served under Gens. Sherman and
Grant, his services being highly esteemed. At the battle
of Atlanta, Ga., July 22, 1864, he so greatly distinguished
himself that he was promoted over his superior officers
to be brigadier-general of volunteers, July 30, 1864. He
bore a prominent part in all the actions during Sherman's
famous “march to the sea,” and finally to Washington.
He was brevetted major-general Mar. 13, 1865, and hon-
orably mustered out of service Aug. 24, 1865. Although
tendered more lucrative positions, he declined them to be-
come collector of internal revenue for the first district of
Iowa, in which he wrought many reforms. In 1869 he
was appointed secretary of war, which portfolio he still
retains, administering the responsible duties of his office
with great acceptability, both to the Administration and
the country, as well as to the officers of the army. As a law-
yer, he attained prominence; as a soldier, he distinguished
himself for gallantry and ability to command; and as one
of the chief executive officers of the government, he is re-
garded among the most successful of the secretaries of war.
G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Eng’rs.
Bell [from the Ang. Sax. bellan, to “make a loud
noise ’’), a hollow metallic instrument employed to give
signals by its sounds. It is usually composed of BELL-
METAL (which see), but steel bells have been cast with good
results. From a remote antiquity hand-bells were used in
religious ceremonies. In Egypt the feast of Osiris was an-
nounced by the ringing of bells; several bells of bronze
have been found in the ruins of Nineveh ; Jewish high
priests wore golden bells attached to their vestments. In
Palestine bells were used in personal adornment, as now in
the East. The Hindoo and Burmese priests have long used
them in their temples, and in Athens the priests of Cybele
used bells in their rites. The Greeks employed bells (káčoves)
in garrisons and markets; the Romans announced the
hour by the tintinnabulum. The introduction of bells into
churches is usually ascribed to Saint Paulinus, bishop of
Nola in Campania (400 A.D.). Their use in churches and
monasteries soon spread through Christendom. They were
introduced into France about 550, and Benedict, abbot of
Wearmouth, brought one from Italy into England about
680. Portable bells had long before been used in the
Church. Several specimens, some of them, it is believed,
as old as the sixth century, are still preserved in Ireland,
Scotland, and Wales. Bells came into use in the East after
865. Church bells were then of a comparatively small
size, and were frequently made of wrought instead of cast
metal. It was not until the fourteenth century that they
reached a large size. The “Jacqueline” of Paris, cast
in 1300, weighed 15,000 pounds; another, cast in 1472,
weighed 25,000 pounds. The famous bell of Rouen, cast in
150i, weighed 36,364 pounds. One at Toulouse weighs 66,000
pounds. The largest bell in the world is the Great Bell of
Moscow, above 19 feet in height, and weighing 448,000
pounds. It was cast in 1734, but fell during a fire in 1737,
was injured, and remained till 1837, when it was raised,
and now forms the dome of a chapel. Another Moscow
bell, cast in 1819, weighs 80 tons. The Great Bell at
Pekin, 14 feet high, weighs 53% tons.
Bells have long been connected with the services of the
Christian Church, so that the Mohammedans substitute for
them the cry of the muezzin from the tops of the mosques.
Associated in various ways with the ritual of the Church,
bells acquired a sacred character. They were cast with re-
ligious ceremonies, and consecrated by baptism ; received
names, had sponsors, were sprinkled with water, anointed,
and covered with the white chrisom, like infants. This
custom is still practised in Roman Catholic countries.
Bells were believed to disperse storms and pestilence, drive
away enemies, extinguish fires, etc. In the Middle Ages
it was common to put some inscription on the bell, like the
following: &
“Vivos voco, mortuos plango, fulgura frango.”.”
“Funera plango, fulgura frango, Sabbata pango,
Excito léntos, dissipo ventos, paco cruentOS.”f
“Laudo Deum verum; plebem voco; congrego clerum;
Defunctos ploro; pestem fugo; festamgue honoro.”f
The notion that bells are efficacious in dispelling storms is
by no means extinct. e e
It was a belief that bells had the power to terrify evil
spirits, and the custom of ringing the passing-bell grew out
of the belief that devils troubled the expiring patient, and
* Literally: “I call the living, I mourn the dead, |
I break the lightnings” (or thunderbolts).
+“I mourn the deaths, I break the lightnings, g
imark the Sabbaths, I arouse the slow, I scatter the Winds,
I appease the cruel.”
f “I praise the true God; gall the people; assemble the ºlºy,
bewaii'the dead; put to flight the plague; honor the festivals.
f
BELL.
449
lay in wait to afflict the soul the moment when it escaped
from the body. The tolling of the passing-bell was retained
at the Reformation, and the people were instructed that its
use was to admonish the living and excite them to pray
for the dying. The practice of tolling church-bells while
funerals are being conducted is still a usage in various
nations.
The ringing of the curfew, incorrectly supposed to have
been introduced into England by William the Conqueror,
was a custom of a civil nature, and its object was to warn
the public to extinguish their fires and lights at eight
o'clock. The eight-o'clock ringing is still continued in
many parts of England, Scotland, and the U. S.
The ringing of bells in chimes, and the playing of tunes
upon them in church-towers, have been carried to the greatest
perfection in the Netherlands; but many fine chimes are
found in many other European countries and in the U. S.
REVISED BY R. D. HITCHCOCK.
Bell, a county of Western Tennessee, bordering on
Mississippi, established since the census of 1870. It is a
good cotton and corn region, and is intersected by the
Memphis and Charleston and the Mississippi Central R. Rs.
Capital, Grand Junction. -
Bell, a county in Central Texas. Area, 1097 square
miles. It is intersected by the Leon River, and also
drained by Lampasas Creek. Much of the surface is fine
prairie. It is healthy, well watered, and well timbered.
The soil is adapted to pasturage and cotton and grain
crops. Corn, wool, cotton, and cattle are raised. Capital,
Belton. Pop. 9771.
Bell, a township of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop. 918.
Bell, a township of Jefferson co., Pa. Pop. 785.
Bell, a township of Westmoreland co., Pa. Pop. 810.
Bell (ANDREW), D.D., a Scottish teacher noted as the
founder of the monitorial system (or Madras system) of
education, was born at St. Andrew's in 1753. He took
orders in the Anglican Church, and became chaplain of
Fort St. George at Madras in 1789. Having obtained the
direction of a school for male orphans at Madras, he em-
ployed the scholars in mutual instruction, and after his
return to Britain published a treatise on his new method
in 1797. Joseph Lancaster made some successful experi-
ments in this method of education. Bell died Jan. 27,
1832, and left £120,000 sterling to found educational in-
stitutions. (See R. and C. C. SouTHEY, “Life of Bell.”)
Bell (ANDREW GRAHAM). See APPENDIx.
Bell (Sir CHARLEs), F. R. S. (London), an eminent
British anatomist and physiologist, the youngest brother
of Andrew Bell, was born in Edinburgh in Nov., 1774.
He removed in 1804 to London, where he lectured on anat-
omy and surgery, and published a “System of Operative
Surgery '' (1807). In 1814 he was elected one of the sur-
geons of the Middlesex Hospital. He gained distinction
as a surgical operator, and excelled in the treatment of
nervous affections. He made the important discovery that
the nerve-filaments of sensation are distinct from those of
motion. In 1836 he became professor of surgery in the
University of Edinburgh. Among his works are an “Ex-
position of the Natural System of the Nerves of the Human
Body” (1824), “Anatomy and Physiology of the Human
Body” (3 vols., 1816), and “The Hand, its Mechanism and
Vital Endowments as evincing Design º’ (1834). The last
is one of the Bridgewater Treatises. Died April 29, 1842.
(See A. SHAw, “Narrative of the Discoveries of Sir Charles
Bell in the Nervous System,” 1837; “Quarterly Review”
†, *. 1843; AMáDáE PICHOT, “Sur C. Bell,” Paris,
1846. - - -
Bell (CHARLEs H.), REAR-ADMIRAL, born in New York
Aug. 15, 1798, became a midshipman of the U. S. navy in
1812, and served in the war with Great Britain, became
ºn in 1854, commodore in 1862, and rear-admiral in
Bell (HENRY), a Scottish engineer, born in Linlithgow-
shire April 7, 1767, was the first who obtained success in
steam navigation in Europe. He worked in London under
Rennie. A small vessel called “The Comet,” with an en-
gine constructed by himself, was launched on the Clyde in
1812. Died Nov. 14, 1830.
Bell (HENRY H.), U. S. N., born Nov. 17, 1807, in Orange
co., N. C., entered the navy as a midshipman Sept. 1, 1823,
became a lieutenant in 1831, a commander in 1854, a cap-
tain in 1862, a commodore in 1863, and a rear-admiral in
1866. In 1861 he commanded the steamer Brooklyn, West
Gulf blockading squadron. In 1862 he was selected as fleet
captain by Rear-Admiral Farragut, and while acting in this
capacity led the second division of gunboats at the attack
upon Forts St. Philip and Jackson and capture of New
Orleans, where his sound judgment and coolness were con-
spicuously shºwn and highly commended by the whole
fleet. His services during the passage of the Hartford by
the Vicksburg batteries, June 28, 1862, are thus referred to
by Admiral Farragut : “The captain of the fleet, Com-
mander H. H. Bell, was on the poop by my side, and not
being able, as I before stated, to do much in the manage-
ment of the fleet, owing to the darkness and the Smoke,
gave his attention to looking up the batteries, and pointing
them out to the officers in charge of the guns, and assisting
them with his judgment on all occasions.” In 1863 he
commanded, during the temporary absence of Admiral
Farragut, the West Gulf blockading squadron. In 1865
he was appointed to the command of our squadron in the
East Indies, where he was drowned, April 12, 1867, in an
attempt to pass in his barge over the bar at the mouth of
the Osada River, Japan. Rear-Admiral Henry H. Bell was
an able and gallant officer, and his death was much lamented.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Bell (JAMEs), a brother of S. D. Bell, was born at
Francestown, N. H., Nov. 13, 1804, and graduated at Bow-
doin in 1822. He studied law at Litchfield, Conn., prac-
tised at Gilmanton, Exeter, and Guilford, N. H., and was
U. S. Senator (1855–57). Died May 26, 1857.
Bell (John), an eminent surgeon, born in Edinburgh
May 12, 1763, was an elder brother of Sir Charles Bell. He
began in 1786 to lecture on surgery, which he also prac-
tised with success in his native city. He published, be-
sides other works, a “System of the Anatomy of the Hu-
man Body” (2 vols., 1793–98), to which his brother Charles
added two more volumes, and “The Principles of Surgery.”
(3 vols., 1801–07). He was a good classical scholar, and
one of the most skilful operators of his time. He died at
Rome April 15, 1820, leaving “Observations on Italy,”
which was published by his widow in 1825.
Bell (John), an American statesman, born near Nash-
ville, Tenn., Feb. 15, 1797. He graduated at the Univer-
sity of Nashville in 1814. He was elected a member of
Congress in 1827, and by successive re-elections continued
in that body about fourteen years. He supported Gen.
Jackson for the presidency in 1832, but joined the Whig
party in 1833, and was chosen Speaker of the House of
Representatives in 1834. He was an earnest advocate of a
protective tariff. In Mar., 1841, he was appointed secre-
tary of war by President Harrison. He resigned that office
in Sept., 1841, because he disapproved the policy of Mr.
Tyler. He was elected a Senator of the U. S. for Tennes-
see in 1847, was re-elected in 1853, and opposed the repeal
of the Missouri Compromise in 1854. He was nominated
in 1860 for President of the U. S. by the Constitutional
Union party, having Lincoln, Douglas, and Breckenridge
as his competitors. He received only thirty-nine electoral
votes. Died Sept. 10, 1869.
Bell (John), born at Londonderry, N. H., about 1765,
was governor of New Hampshire (1829–30). He was a
brother of Gov. Samuel Bell, and was long prominent in
public affairs. Died at Chester, N. H., Mar. 22, 1836.
Bell. (LUTHER W.), M.D., LL.D., a son of Gov. Samuel
Bell, was born at Chester, N. H., Dec. 20, 1806, graduated
at Bowdoin in 1823, and received his diploma in medicine
at Dartmouth. He practised medicine in New York and
Chester, N. H., and became an excellent surgeon, and was
president of the McLean Insane Asylum, Somerville, Mass.
(1837–56). He published able professional writings. In
1845 he visited Europe by invitation of the trustees of the
Butler Hospital for the Insane at Providence, R.I., the
plans for which he prepared. In Aug., 1861, he was ap-
pointed brigade surgeon in the U. S. army, and at the time
of his death was medical director of Hooker’s division.
Died in camp at Budd’s Ferry, Md., Feb. 11, 1862.
Bell (RoPERT), a journalist, born at Cork, in Ireland,
Jan. 10, 1800, passed his mature life in London. In con-
junction with Sir E. Bulwer and Dr. Lardner he founded
in 1841. “The Monthly Chronicle,” which he edited. Among
his numerous works are a “History of Russia” (3 vols.,
1836–38), “Lives of the English: Poets” (2 vols., 1839), a
“Life of George Canning” (1846), and several dramas and
tales. He died in London April 12, 1867.
Bell (SAMUEL), L.L.D., was born in Londonderry, N.H.,
Feb. 9, 1770, and graduated at Dartmouth in 1793. He be-
came a lawyer, and held many public offices. He was a
judge of the supreme court of New Hampshire (1816–19),
governor (1819–23), U. S. Senator (1823–35).-His sons,
JAMES, SAMUEL DANA, LUTHER V., and Col. LEWIS BELL
(1836–65, mortally wounded at Fort Fisher), all attained
distinction. - f
Bell (SAMUEL DANA), LL.D., son of the above, was
born at Francestown, N. H., Oct. 9, 1798, and graduated at
Harvard College in 1816. Besides many minor offices, he
was justice of the superior court of New Hampshire (1849-
55), justice of the supreme court (1855–59), chief-justice
450
BELL–BELLENDEN.
(1859–64), and was one of the most eminent and profound
jurists that New England has ever produced. Died July
31, 1868. -
Bell (THOMAs), F. R. S., an English naturalist, born
in Dorsetshire Oct. 11, 1792. He became a member of
the College of Surgeons in London in 1815, and profes-
sor of Zoology in King’s College, London, in 1832. In
I853 he was elected president of the Linnaean Society.
Among his works are a “History of British Quadrupeds”
(1836) and a “History of British Stalk-eyed Crustacea.”
(1853).
Bel/la, a town of Italy, in the province of Potenza, 14
miles S. W. of Malfi. Pop. in 1861, 5202.
Belladon/ma” (At'ropaf Belladon/na), an herbaceous
perennial plant of the natural order Solanaceae, is some-
times called TDeadly Nightshade. It is a native of
Europe, has ovate leaves, bell-shaped flowers of a lurid,
purple color, and berries which when ripe are black, shin-
ing, and sweetish in taste. All parts of the plant are nar-
cotic and very poisonous, and contain an alkaloid called
atropia or atropine, on which its active properties depend.
The belladonna is considered a valuable medicine and a
powerful remedy for certain nervous diseases, neuralgia,
paralysis, etc. It is administered both internally and ex-
ternally. It is a physiological antidote for opium-poison-
ing. When applied to the eye it has the remarkable prop-
erty of greatly dilating the pupil, and it is often used by
oculists both in examinations and operations. The med-
icinal preparation of belladonna commonly used in the
|U. S. is an extract from the leaves.
Belladonna Lily (Amaryl/lis Belladon/na), a beau-
tiful rose-colored flower which grows wild about the Cape
of Good Hope, and is cultivated in the gardens of Eng-
land and France. The drooping flowers are clustered at
the top of a leafless stem, which is about eighteen inches
high. e -
Bellair’, a township of Appanoose co., Ia. Pop. 655.
Bellaire, a city of Belmont co., O., on the Ohio River, 5
miles S. of Wheeling and 137 miles E. of Columbus. It is
at the terminus of the Central Ohio, the Baltimore and Ohio,
and the Cleveland and Pittsburg R. Rs. It has water and
gas works, 1 national and 1 private bank, 1 manufactory
of window-glass and 4 of flint-glass, 1 nail-mill, 1 blast
furnace, I lantern-faetory, and 2 weekly papers. Coal, iron,
and limestone are abundant. It is a rapidly growing town.
Pop. 4033. JAMES F. ANDERSON, ED. “INDEPENDENT.”
Bel’lamy (JACOBUs), an eminent Dutch poet, born at
Flushing Nov. 12, 1757. He published a collection of
verses in 1782, and on the occasion of the war of 1785 a.
volume of patriotic poems (“Waderlandsche Gezangen '').
Among his most popular works is “Roosje,” a poem. He
had good taste and a glowing fancy, and contributed largely
to the improvement of the national literature. Died Mar.
11, 1786. (See Q. KNIPERs, “Notice sur Bellamy.”) .
Bel’lamy (Jose.PH), D.D., born in North Cheshire,
Conn., in 1719, graduated at Yale College (1735), and was
pastor of the Congregational church at Bethlehem, Conn.
(1740–90). He was a powerful preacher and a renowned
teacher of theology. Several volumes of his sermons and
theological works have been published. Among them are
“True Religion Delineated” (1750), “Letters and Dia-
logues” (1761), and “Complete Works” (3 vols., 1811).
I)ied Mar. 6, 1790. -
Bel’larmine (ROBERT), [It. Roberto Bellarmino], a cele-
brated theologian and cardinal, born in Tuscany Oct. 4,
1542. He entered the order of Jesuits in 1560, and became
professor of theology at Louvain in 1569. He was a zeal-
ous champion of orthodoxy, and was highly distinguished
as an able controversial writer against heretics. His prin-
cipal work is “Disputationes de Controversiis Fidei adver-
sus hujus Temporis Haereticos” (3 vols., 1581). He be-
came a cardinal in 1598, archbishop of Capua in 1601, and
librarian of the Vatican in 1605. Died at Rome Sept. 17,
1621. He was a man of mild and pacific disposition. “The
Church of Rome,” says Hallam, “brought forward her most
renowned and formidable champion, Bellarmin. . . . His
abilities are best tested by Protestant theologians, hot only
in their terms of eulogy, but indirectly in the peculiar zeal
with which they chose him as their worthiest adversary.”
(Introduction to the Literature of Europe.) (See G. FULI-
GATI, “Wita del Cardinal R. Bellarmino,” 1624, a work based
upon an Autobiography; DANIELLO BARTOL1, “Della Vita
di R. Bellarmino,” 1678; P. FRIzoN, “Wie du Cardinal Bel-
larmin,” 1708.) '.
*The name Belladonna, an Italian phrase signifying “beauti-.
ful lady,” is said to have been given to this plant from its having
been used to improve the complexion, as well as to make the eye
appear dark and lustrous.
f From Atropos, the name of one of the Fates.
Bella'ry, a town of India, in the province of Madras,
135 miles N. of Seringapatam, is one of the chief military
stations in the province, and has a fort on a rock 450 feet
high. Pop. about 30,000. . . . . . .
Bell Bird [Sp. campane'rol, (Arapunga alba or Cas-
marynchus carumculata), found in Guiana and other parts
of South America, is nearly as large as a pigeon. It utters
a note of metallic sound, resembling the tolling of a bell,
which, it is said, can be heard at a distance of three miles.
It is distinguished by a broad and depressed bill, which is
soft and flexible at the base. The plumage of the male is
snowy white. From its forehead grows a curious horn-like
and tubular appendage, which when empty is pendulous,
but when the bird is excited is filled with air and rises to
the height of three inches. The Australian bell bird
(Myzantha melanophrys), “one of the honey-eaters,” pro-
duces a peculiar tinkling sound; it is an entirely different
species from the above. i ,
Bell, Book, and Candle. The excommunication by
bell, book, and candle is a solemnity belonging to the Ro-
man Catholic Church. The priest pronounces the formula
of excommunication, consisting of maledictions on the head.
of the person anathematized, and closes the sentence by
shutting the book from which it is read, taking a lighted
candle and casting it to the ground, and tolling the bell as
for the dead. This mode of excommunication appears to
have existed in the Western churches as early as the eighth
century. The form of excommunication concluded sub-
stantially as follows: “Cursed be they from the crown of
the head to the sole of the foot. Out be they taken of the
book of life. And as this candle is cast from the sight of
men, so be their souls cast from the sight of God into the
deepest pit of hell. Amen.” . . . .
Bell Brook, p.-v. of Sugar Cr. tp., Greene co., O. P. 369.
Bell Creek, a post-twp. of Goodhue co., Minn. P. 820.
Bellechasse, a county of Quebec, bordering on the
State of Maine, is bounded on the N. W. by the St. Law-
renee River. Area, 720 square miles. The staple produc-
tions are maple-sugar, hay, flax, and oats. Capital, St.
Michel. Pop. 17,637.
Belle Creek, a post-twp. of Washington co., Neb. P. 200.
Bellefontaine, a post-village, county-seat of Logan.
co., O., at the crossing of the Cincinnati and Sandusky and
Cleveland and Indianapolis R. Rs. It is the eastern ter-
minus of the Evansville R. R. (building). It is about 110
miles N. of Cincinnati and 55 miles N. W. of Columbus. It
has the highest elevation of any town in the State. It has a
good trade, 2 banks (1 national), 3 newspapers, 10 churches,
5 schools, a fine court-house, and is noted for its health and
beauty. P. 3182. J. Q. A. CAMPBELL, ED. “REPUBLICAN.”
Beliefonte, a post-twp. of Jackson co., Ala. Pop. 957.
Bellefonte, a village of Boone co., Ark. It has one
weekly newspaper.
Bellefonte, the county-seat of Centre co., Pa., is beau-
tifully situated at the foot of Bald Eagle Mountain, 87.
miles N. W. of Harrisburg. The Bald Eagle Valley R. R.,
connecting with the Philadelphia and Erie R. R. at Lock
Haven, and with the Pennsylvania R. R. at Tyrone, passes
through the town. Of late it is a place of summer resort.
It has a celebrated spring, and the surrounding scenery is
very fine. It has two furnaces, three rolling-mills, two
foundries, an axe-factory, extensive car-works, glass-works,
and a number of smaller manufactories, one monthly and
three weekly papers, four printing-offices, three banks, an
academy, and a large number of fine private residences. P.
of borough, 2655. P. GRAY MEEK, ED. “WATCHMAN.”
Bellefonte, a township of Nottoway co., Va. P. 2837.
Belle-Isle-en-Mer, an island belonging to the
French department of Morbihan, is in the Atlantic. It is
8 miles from the shore, and has an area of 12 square miles.
Pop. 10,076, mostly engaged in the pilchard-fishery. Excel-
lent horses and grain are raised here. Here is a fortified
seaport named Le Palais.
Belle Isle, North. (1) An island in the strait of the
same name, between Newfoundland and Labrador, is 21
miles in circuit, and has a small harbor; lat. 52°13' N.,
lon. 559 19.1° W. (2) BELLE ISLE, SouTH, an island at the
entrance of White Bay, on the N. E. side of Newfoundland;
lat. 50° 49' N., lon. 55°29'W. It is a fishing-station. Pop.
53. (3) BELLE ISLE, a fertile island, 9 miles long and 3
broad, in Conception Bay, Newfoundland. It has consid-
erable fishing interests. Pop. 500. -
Belle Isle, Strait of, between Labrador and New- .
foundland, is 80 miles long, 12 miles wide, and dangerous
of navigation. . - ' – ' ' ' .
Bel/lenden (WILLIAM), a Scottish author of whose per-
sonal history little is known. He was a professor in the
University of Paris, and was distinguished for the elegance
BELLE PLAIN–BELLINI.
451
of his Latinity. He published in 1608 at Paris a compila-
tion from the works of Cicero, entitled “Ciceronis Prin-
ceps.” Among his other works are “De Statu Prisci
Orbis” (“On the Condition of the Primitive World,” 1615),
and “De Tribus Luminibus Romanorum ” (1634). Died
before 1633. His three principal works were reprinted in
1787, with a Latin preface by Dr. Parr. The preface was
noted for its elegant Latinity and its allusions to contem-
porary politics. The preface attracted much more atten-
tion than the reprint.
Belle Plain, a township of Marshall co., III. P. 1092.
Belle Plaine, a post-village of Benton co., La., 116
miles W. of Clinton, on the Omaha line of the Chicago and
North-western Railway, being the first division station on
that road from the Mississippi River. It has a round-
house and shops of the road, four grain-elevators, a na-
tional bank, and one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1488.
. D. H. FROST, ED. “UNION.”
Belle Plaine, a post-village of Sumner co., Kan., is
situated on the Nineseah River, in the midst of a fine
agricultural district. It has one weekly newspaper. .
Belle Plaine, a post-village of Scott co., Minn., on
the Minnesota River and on the St. Paul and Sioux City
R. R., 47 miles S. W. of St. Paul. Pop. 497; of Belle
Plaine township, 2375. - -
Belle Plaine, a post-township of Shawanaw co., Wis.
Pop. 576. - -
Belle Prai'rie, a township of Livingston co., Ill.
Pop. 630. .
Belle Prairie, a post-township of Morrison co., Minn.
Pop. 344. -
Beller’ophon [Gr. BeNAepodóvrms, “slayer of Bellerus”],
originally called Hippon/ous, a personage of the Greek
mythology, was a son of Glaucus, king of Corinth. Having
killed Bellerus by accident, he fled to Proetus, king of Ar-
gos, who was instigated by his wife to send him to Iobates,
king of Lycia. He carried a sealed letter requesting Iobates
to kill him, but that king imposed on him the dangerous
mission of fighting with the Chimaera. He killed this mon-
ster and defeated the Amazons. He attempted to Soar to
Olympus on the winged horse Pegasus, but fell to the
earth. --
Bellerophon, a genus of fossil univalve gasteropod
mollusks. The shell is symmetrically convolute, with few
and occasionally sculptured whorls, globular or discoidal,
and having a dorsal keel, which terminates in a deep notch.
Many species of it have been found in the Silurian, Devo-
nian; and carboniferous rocks in various parts of the world.
Belles-Lettres, a French term often used in English
and other languages as synonymous with polite literature
or the more refined departments of learning, including poe-
try, rhetoric, history, and fiction. It is a term of mediaeval
origin, and is used in a vague manner. Authorities are
not agreed in respect to its exact definition and application.
Bell ever’mon, a post-borough of Fayette co., Penn.,
on the Monongahela River, 26 miles S. of Pittsburg. Pop.
906. -
Belleview', a township of Dallas co., Ala. Pop. 1535.
Belleview, a post-township of Calhoun co., Ill. P. 947.
Belleview, or Bellevue, a post-village, capital of
Bossier parish, La., is about 20 miles N. E. of Shreveport,
and 1 mile S. E. of Lake Bodeau. It has one weekly news-
paper. -
Belleview, a township of Morrison co., Minn. P. 92.
Belleview, a township of Washington co., Mo. Pop.
1867. *
Belleville, a port of entry, the capital of Hastings co.,
Ontario (Canada), on the Bay of Quinté, and on the Grand
Trunk Railway, 113 miles E. N. E. of Toronto. It is a
beautiful town, and has fine public buildings, including a
court-house, jail, numerous public and private Schools, nine
churches, and a custom-house. It is the seat of Albert
University (Methodist Episcopal), which consists of Albert
College for young men and Alexandra College for ladies.
One mile W. of the town is the deaf and dumb asylum, a
fine building, opened in 1870. The river Moira furnishes
water-power, and the lumber trade is very extensive. There
are two woollen mills, four sash and blind factories, a large
box-shop, furniture-works, four foundries, two locomotive-
shops, a sewing-machine factory, a pottery, several large
saw-mills, besides breweries, distilleries, chandleries, ship- ||
yards, etc. There are three steamboat lines, a gas com-
pany, two banks, a board of trade, and two daily and three
weekly papers. Pop. in 1871, 7305.
Belleville, a post-township of Conecuh co., Ala. Pop.
1584. * -
*
coming of age.
Believille, a township of San Bernardino co., Cal.
Pop. 56.
Belleville, a city, capital of St. Clair co., Ill., 14 miles
S. E. of St. Louis. Four railroads centre here. It contains
numerous manufactories of almost every description, and
oné, of the largest rolling-mills in the West; also a fine
convent, numerous churches, and splendid school-houses.
It is thoroughly gas-lighted. Five papers (two dailies) are
pubfished here. It is in a region abounding in coal. Pop.
8146. - J. R. O'NEIL, ED. “Advocate.” º
Belleville, a post-village and capital of Republic co.,.”
Kan., is situated in a rich mining district, and has one
weekly newspaper. .
Belleville, a post-village of Essex co., Nº, J., on the
Passaic River, 3 miles above Newark, and 10 miles W.-by
N. of New York. It has four or more churches, and sev-
eral manufactories. Pop. of township, 3644.
Believille, a post-village of Ellisburg township, Jef-
ferson co., N. Y., on North Sandy Creek, is the seat of an
academy.
Belleville, a post-village of Jefferson township, Rich-
land co., O., on the Sandusky Mansfield and Newark R. R.,
68 miles S. by E. from Sandusky. It has considerable
manufacturing industry and one weekly newspaper. Pop.
720.
Belleville (Bell’s Station P. O.), a village of
Crockett co., Tenn., on the Memphis and Louisville R. R.,
69 miles N. E. of Memphis. It has one weekly newspaper.
Bellevue, a post-village of Jackson co., Ia., pleasantly
situated on the Mississippi River, 24 miles below Dubuque
and 13 miles S. of Galena. It stands on a high bank, and
has a good landing, with a gravelly beach. Produce is
shipped here in steamboats and by the C. C. and D. R. R.
It is a summer resort and noted for beautiful scenery. The
population is largely German. It has an extensive rail-
road trade in grain, stock, produce, etc. It has one weekly
newspaper. Pop. 1353; of Bellevue township, 2402.
- ED. “J Ackson LEADER.”
Bellevue, a post-village and township of Eaton co.,
Mich., 32 miles S.W. of Lansing, on the Peninsular R. R.
It has important manufactures and produces excellent lime.
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of village, 608; of
township, 1985. Edwin S. Hoskins, PUB. “GAZETTE.”
Bellevue, a post-village, capital of Sarpy co., Neb., in
a township of the same name, on the Missouri River, 15
miles by water below Omaha, and on the Omaha and South-
western R. R., 57 miles N. E. of Lincoln. It has a court-
house and several churches. Pop. of township, 961.
Bellevue, a post-village of Huron co., O., on the Lake
Shore R. R., 45 miles S. E. of Toledo. It is largely devoted
to manufacturing, and is a good grain-market. Water-
works are being constructed. It has doubled its number of
buildings and inhabitants within five years. It has one
weekly newspaper. Pop. 1219. ED. of “GAzETTE.”
Bellevue, a borough of Allegheny co., Pa. Pop. 384.
Bellevue, a township of Brown co., Wis. Pop. 822.
Bellew' (John CHIPPENDALL MONTESQUIEU), a cele-
brated reader, was born in Lancaster, England, in 1823,
of an ancient and noble Irish stock. His name in youth
was HIGGIN, but he assumed his mother’s maiden name on
g He was educated at Oxford, and entered
the Anglican ministry in 1848, and won great distinction
as a preacher. In 1868 he joined the Roman Catholic
Church, and has since given with great success public read-
ings in Great Britain and the U. S. Died June 19, 1874.
Bell Ew'art, a post-village of Innisfil township, Sim-
coe co., Ontario (Canada), on Lake Simcoe and on the
Northern Railway, 10 miles from Barrie. It is visited by
regular lines of steamboats. Pop. about 600.
Bell Flower, a township of McLean co., Ill. P. 659.
Bellinger (John), M. D. See APPENDIX.
Bel’lingham, a post-township of Norfolk co., Mass.,
on the New York and New England R. R. It has three
woollen mills and other manufactories. Pop. 1282.
Bellingham (RICHARD), a lawyer born in England in
1592, emigrated to America in 1634. He was lieutenant-
governor of Massachusetts for thirteen years, and governor
for ten years. Died Dec. 7, 1672. * * -
Bellingham Bay, in almost the extreme northern
part of Washington Territory, in Whatcom co., is 14 miles
long, 3 miles wide, with a depth of from 3 to 20 fathoms.
Great quantities of lignitic bituminous coal are mined here,
the shaft being only one-quarter of a mile from the harbor.
It is generally considered the best coal on the Pacific coast.
Whatcom is the chief point of this coal-trade.
Bellini (Grow ANNI), an excellent painter, was born at
Venice in 1426. He was the master of Titian, and was
* - ~ +--- - - - - - - * ~ ******* - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - , ---- + ºr- - - ~~
452 .
BELLINI—BELMONT.
called the founder of the Venetian school. . Among his
best works, which display great richness of color, are a
“Madonna and Child,” “The Coronation of the Virgin,”
and “Christ Talking to the Woman of Samaria.” Ilied |
Nov. 29, 1516.
Bellini (VINCENzo), a celebrated Italian composer, son
and grandson of musicians of moderate ability, was born.
at Catania, Sicily, Nov. 3, 1802. He was a pupil of Zin-
garelli. In 1827 he produced “Il Pirata,” an opera which
was performed at Milan with great success. His fame was
widely extended by “La Straniera" (1828), “La Sonnam-
bula " (1831), and “La Norma” (1831). He afterwards
went to Paris and London, where he was warmly applauded,
and composed “I Puritani’’ (1834). Died in Paris Sept.
24, 1835. (See Pongin, “Bellini,” 1868.) ** -
Bellinzo'na [Ger. Bellenz], a town of Switzerland,
and one of the capitals of the canton of Ticino, is on the
river Ticino, here crossed by a bridge, 16 miles N. of Lu-
gano. It is defended by several old, castles, and has an
active transit trade. Pop. in 1870, 2501.
Bell Metal, a hard, dense, brittle, and sonorous alloy
of copper with tin, zinc, or some other metal. The propor-
tion in English bells is usually 75 per cent. of copper and
25 of tin. The bell metal of commerce usually contains 80
of copper to 20 of tin, or else 78 of copper to 22 of tin. *
Bell Mills, a township of Tehama co., Cal. Pop. 79.
Bello'na, the goddess of war in the ancient Roman
mythology, was represented as the companion and sister or
wife of Mars. She was described by the poets as armed
with a scourge and holding a torch in her hand. Her
priests were called Bellonarii. -
Bel’Iows [from Anglo-Saxon bylig, a “bag;” Ger.
Bâlgen], a very ancient contrivance for producing a blast
of air. It consisted, in its rudest form, of a bag which was
compressed, allowed to become full, compressed again, and
so on. Representations of bellows have been found in
some of the earliest Egyptian sculptures, and Sir Gardiner
Wilkinson believes he has found a valve as early as the
time of Moses. The natives of India and China have em-
ployed, the bellows from time immemorial. Rude forms
of the bellows are found in many of the lowest tribes
of Africa. Ordinary bellows, as now used, are practi.
cally leather bags which are compressed and then ex-
panded so as to allow air to enter through a valve opening
inward, which on compression of the bellows allows no air
to escape, except through the nozzle. In modern manu-
factories, furnaces, etc. the bellows has been partly super-
seded by machines of different kinds which produce the [
blast of air with greater efficiency and uniformity than
ordinary bellows. * *
Bei'lows (HENRY WHITNEY), S. T. D., LL.D., an emi- |
nent Unitarian minister, born in Walpole, N.H., June 10,
1814, graduated at Harvard in 1832, and became pastor of
a church in the city of New York in 1838. He gained dis- ||
tinction as an eloquent public speaker, and lectured on a
variety of subjects, especially social, educational, and pas
triotic enterprises. In 1846 he was one of the founders of
the “Christian Inquirer.” Among his works are “Lec-
tures on the Treatment of Social Diseases * (1857) and
“The Old World in its New Face” (1868). He was the
principal promoter and first president of the U. S. Sanitary |
*
Commission, established in 1862. -
Bellows Falls, a post-village of Windham co., Vt., on
the W. bank of the Conn. River, and on the Vt. Central R. R.,
53 miles S. E. of Rutland, at the junction of the Rutland di-
vision and of the Cheshire R. R. The river here falls 44 feet
in half a mile. The village has a medicinal spring, a national
bank, and five churches. Railroads extend from it to Boston,
New York, Montreal, etc. The water-power is very great,
and is being improved. There are six paper-mills, one man-
ufactory of chairs, one of sash and blinds, one newspaper,
and two large hotels. * * ~ * * *r = < *
seminary for young ladies. Pop. 697. Ed. of “TIMEs.”
Bellows Fish, or Trumpet-Fish, the Centriscus
Bellows Fish.
8colopaz, a spiny-finned fish of the family Aulostomidae,
feeds upon small animals found at the bottom of the sea,
It is the seat of St. Agnes’ Hall, a
chiefly. in the Mediterranean and on the W. coasts of
Europe. It is good eating, though small, seldom exceed-
ing five inches in length. . . . . . . . .
Bell’port, a post-village of Brookhaven township, Suf-
folk co., N. Y., on. Bellport Bay. It is the seat of an
academy. Bellport Station, in the same township; is 5
miles N. of Bellport, on the Long Island R. R., 56% miles.
from Hunter’s Point. . . . . . . .
Bells, in nautical language, is a term having a peculiar
meaning, and is used as a substitute for those expressions.
by which people on land, indicate the hour. The sailor's
day or night is divided into watches or periods, each of
four hours’ duration, and the bell is struck once at the ex-
piration of each half hour. The number of strokes denotes:
the number of half hours that have elapsed in that partic-
ular watch. If the watch commences at 6 P.M., eight bells
would be a signal for the end of the watch at 10 P.M.
Bell’s Landing, a post-township of Monroe co., Ala.
Pop. 1310. - * . .
Bellu'no (ane. Bellu'num), a city of Italy, capital of
the above province, on the Piave, 49 miles .N. of Venice.
It is a bishop’s see, and has a cathedral. designed by Pal-
ladio, a rich hospital, a public library, a handsome aque-
duct, and a beautiful triumphal arch; also manufactures .
of silk stuffs, hats, leather, and earthenware. Pop. in 1857,
13,552. - * * *
Bell'ville, a township of Howard co., Kan. Pop. 1240.
Bellville, a post-village, the capital of Austin co., Tex.,
near the Brazos River, 55 miles W. N. W. of Houston. . .
Bel’mond, a thriving village of Pleasant township,
Wright co., Ia., is finely situated on the Iowa River, at the
junction of two prospective railroads. It is in a good and
well-settled farming region. It has good public schools,
churches, etc., and one weekly paper. Pop. 327.
- A. M. ALLEN, ED. “BELMoND MIRROR.”
Bel’mont, a county of Ohio, bordering on West Vir-
ginia. Area, 520 square miles. It is bounded on the E.
by the Ohio River, and drained by Wheeling and Captina
creeks. The surface is diversified by hills, which are cul-
tivated to the summit; the soil is fertile. Dairy products,
grain, wool, fruit, and tobacco are extensively raised. The
county is intersected by the Central Ohio. R. R., and con- .
tains coal. Capital, St. Clairsville. Pop. 39,714. . . . . . .
Belmont, a township of Sumpter co., Ala. Pop. 2916.
Belmont, a township of Iroquois co., Ill. Pop. 833.
Belmont, a township of Warren co., Ia, Pop. 1048.
Belmont, a post-township of Woodson co., Kan. Pop.
22. - -
Belmont, a post-township of Waldo co., Me. Pop. 628.
Belmont, a post-township of Middlesex co., Mass. . It
is one of the finest suburbs of Boston. Pop. 1513.
... Belmont, a township of Jackson co., Minn. Pop. 625.
Belmont, a post-village of Mississippi co., Mo., on the
Mississippi River, opposite Columbus, Ky., 197 miles S. S.
E. of St. Louis. In 1861 this place was occupied as a
, Confederate camp. On Nov. 6, Gen. Grant, in command
at Cairo, descended the river with about 4000 troops, re-
maining over night about 10 miles above Columbus, Ky.
On the morning of the 7th this force was debarked on the
Missouri shore a short distance above Belmont, and at once
... moved forward to the capture of the Confederate camp,
supposed to contain about 3000 men. After several hours’.
severe fighting the Federal troops forced their way through
the obstructions on either side. An irresistible charge
carried the camp, drove the Confederates in all directions,
and left the field in possession of the Federals. The Con-
federate camp, with all its supplies, ammunition, and bag-
gage, was fired and destroyed. The defeated Confederates
were, however, strongly reinforced by Maj.-Gen. Polk from
Columbus, and, in turn drove the Federal troops back to
their boats, fighting all the way against a now vastly
superior Confederate force, while the batteries on the
... Kentucky side kept up a damaging fire which could not
be returned. By 5 P.M. the troops were all on board
their boats without the loss of a gun, while they had
with them two guns captured from the Confederates.
The Federal loss was 84 killed, 150 wounded, and, a
similar number missing; the Confederate loss is stated
at from 500 to 600, killed and wounded. . .
Belmont, a township of Otoe co., Neb. Pop. 508.
Belmont, a post-village, capital of Nye, co., Nev.,
in a township of the same name, about 150 miles in a
direct line E. S. E. of Carson City. Pop. of township,
244. - x
Belmont, a post-township of Belknap co., N. H. It
has manufactures of hosiery and of lumber. Pop. 1165.



, - … . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - -. . . . . . .” - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
BELMONT—BELUGA. “
Belmont, a post-village, semi-capital of Allegany co.,
*N. Y., on the Genesee River and "on the Erie R. R.; 92
miles W. by N. of Elmira, and 94 miles E. S. E. of Dunkirk.
It contains a court-house and several barrel-fictóries. It
has one weekly newspaper. Pop: 795. * * * : * ~ *
Belmont, a township of Franklin co., N.Y. P.1619.
Belmont, a post-twp. of La Fayette co., Wis. P. 1303.
gº Belmont, a township of Portage co., Wis.; Pop. 508.
Belmont, a village of Westchester co., N. Y., now a
part of New York City...; Pop. 171.
Bel
m ontº;(August); born atºlzéy, in Germany, in
1816, emigrated to America in 1837 as the representative
of the Rothschilds, and became an active politicia fi of the
Democratic party. He was chairmān of the executive
committee. at the national Democratic convention at
prominent man in the finan-
Charleston in 1860. He is a
cial world of New York.
Beloit', the capital of Mitchell co., Kānā, on the S.
bank of Solomon River, has a weekly paper, an iron bridge,
important mills and manufactures, and “an active trade.
Pop. of Beloit township, 173. ED: “BELoIT-GAZETTE.”
Beloit, a city of Rock co., Wis., is on Rock River and
on the Chicago and North-western R. R., 91 miles N. W.
of Chicago and 47 miles S. S. E. of Madison. It is also
on, the Western Union R. R., which connects it with Mil-
waukee and Rock Island; Ill., and is ori the S. boundary
of the State." It is partly built on a plain which is about
seventy feet higher than the river. It is the seat of Beloit
College. It has a national and one other bank, and con-
siderable manufactures of paper, reapers and mowers,
ploughs, water-wheels, etc. It has one weekly and one
monthly newspaper. Pop. 4396; of the township, 5139.
" ... C. INGERsoil, Ed. “BELorT FREE PRESs.”
Beloit College, at Beloit, Wis., originated in the de-
liberations of ministers and laymen of Congregational and
Presbyterian churches in Wisconsin and Northern Illinois.
In May, 1845, a convention of sixty-nine members decided
unanimously that a college of the highest order for young
men ought to be established at Beloit. A self-perpetuating
board of trustees then elected was incorporated by charter
from the Territorial legislature of Wisconsin in 1846. The
corner-stone of the first building was laid in June, 1847,
and in the fall of the same year five young men were re-
ceived to the first college class. Jackson J. Bushnell,
A. M., and Joseph Emerson, A. M., both graduates of Yale
College in the class of 1841; were the first regularly appoint-
ed professors. Rev. Aaron L. Chapin of Milwaukee, also a
graduate of Yale, was elected first president in 1849, and
continues (1874) still in office. The institution embraces a
collegiate department and a preparatory school. The col-
legiate department offers two parallel courses of four years,
called respectively the classical and the philosophical course.
In the classical course the branches of study and the stand-
ard of scholarship correspond with those of the best col-
leges of New England. The philosophical course combines,
with such an amount of Latin and Greek as is considéred
essential to the best proficiency in any art or science, a
more varied range of study and a more extensive culture
of science. In the preparatory school also two parallel
courses are defined, called respectively the classical course
and the elementary scientific course. These courses occupy
three years, and are adapted to meet the requisitions for
admission to the two courses of the collegiate department.
For such as do not contemplate entering college they offer
opportunities for advanced general culture, well balanced
and thorough, as far as it goes. . . -
... The faculty of the college is now (1874) composed of
the president, eight professors, and two instructors of the
preparatory school. About 2000 young men have received
more or less of culture in the institution, and the graduates
of the full course number 210. Its graduates occupy po-
sitions of influence in our own country and many foreign
lands. For its endowment and support Beloit College de-
pends, entirely on private, benefactions. It has received
generous donations from friends in both the East and the
West, but large additions to its resources are much needed.
The college is beautifully situated on the banks of Rock
River. Its most prominent building is the Memorial Hall,
erected in honor of the sons of the college who fell in the
late war, and devoted to the collections of the cabinet and
library, for the steady increase of which generous provision
is made. . . . AARON L. CHAPIN.
Beloochistan’, or Belujistan (anc. Gedrosia), a
country of Southern Asia, bounded on the N. by Afghan-
istan, on the E. by Sinde, on the S. by the Arabian Sea,
and on the W. by Persia. Its area is estimated at 107,000
square miles, and the pop. at 2,000,000. - -
This region, which is almost destitute of rivers or per-
manent streams, consists of high mountains and barren,
453
sandy plains. The peak of Takkatoo, in the N. part, is .
said to be 11,000 feet high, and some of the plains or val- g. i.)
leys have an elevation of 6000 feet above the sea. The #:
largest river is the Doostee, which has been found only;
wnica nas, been 19una only
twenty inches deep and twenty yards wide at its mouth ºf I
It enters the Arabian Sea. The climate presents great ex-3
tremes of heat and cold. Most of the fruits knºwn in Eu-
rope, as well as plantains and guavas, are commióñ. Melons
attain such size that a man cannot lift them.*Some of the
valleys produce rice, cotton, tobacco, indigo, barley, pulse,
etc. Among the mineral resources are copper, antimony,
lead, iron, sulphur, and alum. " The inhabitants are divided
into the Beluches in the N. and W., who are a mixture of
Persians, Hindoos, and Semitic tribes, and are indolent,
warlike, and cruel; the Brahuis, the remains of the origi-
nal inhabitants, in the E.; and the Lamri in the S. E.
The entire population consists of Sunnite Mohammedans.
They subsist mostly by pastoral pursuits, raising sheep,
goats, and camels or dromedaries. They are subject to a
khan, who rules with despotic power. Kelât was stormed
and taken by the British in 1839, and the khan was killed.
Belpas’so, an Italian town, in the province of Ca-
tania, at the side of Mount Etna, 7 miles N. W. from Ca-
tania. Pop. 7038. . . . . . .
Bel’per, a market-town of England, in Derbyshire, on
the Midland Railway, 10 miles by rail' N. of Derby. It
has several churches, a public library, and a stone bridge
over the river Derwent. It has large manufactures of silk
and cotton hosiery. Pop. 9509. . . . . . . . . t
Bel’pre, a post-village of Washington co., O., is on the
Ohio River, opposite Parkersburg, West Va., and about
12 miles below Marietta. It is the eastern terminus of
the Marietta and Cincinnati R. R., connecting here with
the Baltimore and Ohio R. R. by a great bridge, which
crosses the Ohio and is more than a mile long. Pop. 911;
of Belpre township, 2462. - - - -
Belshaz'zar [Bel-shar-uzur; Fr. Balthasar]; son of
Nabonadius (Labynetus), who was the sixth and last king
of the second Babylonian period. His mother was a
daughter of Nebuchadnezzar, and probably the widow of
Neriglissar, the fourth king of the period. When of suffi-
cient age he was associated with his father on the throne,
and in the book of Daniel is therefore called king. At the
fall of Babylon in 538 B. C. he was slain, and his father,
Nabonadius, then at Borsippa, was taken prisoner. r
Belt, a girdle, a band, a zone. This term is applied in
| surgery to a band or bandage; in astronomy to several
dark bands, variable in number, which extend across the
disk of the planet Jupiter and are parallel to its equator.
Leather belts or bands are extensively used in machinery
to-connect a revolving shaft with another shaft or pulley.
It is a contrivance for transmitting power with less noise
and friction than attend the use of toothed gearing. These
belts are generally used between parallel shafts, and when
the shafts must turn in opposité directions the belt is crossed.
When the shafts are not parallel, and their axes produced
intersect each other, they may be connected by using a
third shaft. Gutta-percha and India rubber are sometimes
used instead of léâther. To render leather belts durable,
they should be carefully protected against moisture.
Belt Creek, a township of Burt co., Neb. Pop. 287.
Belºton, a post-township of Anderson co., S. C. It is
on the Greenville and Columbia R. R., 26 miles S. of Green-
ville, at the junction of the Anderson branch. Pop. 1364.
Belton, a post-village, the capital of Bell co., Tex., is
situated on Leon River, 60 miles N. N. E. of Austin City.
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 281. w
Belton (Rev. JAMEs S.). See APPENDIX.
Belträ’mi, a large county in the N. W. of Minnesota.
A considerable part of the surface is covered with lakes,
among which are the Red Lake, Cass, Itasca (the head
source of the Mississippi), and a number of smaller ones,
all connected together. Area, 3100 square miles. Pop. 80.
Belts, Great and Little, are two straits which con-
nect the Baltic with the Cattegat. The former separates
the island of Fünen from Seeland, is 36 miles long, and has
an average width of about 18 miles. The depth ranges
between 6 and 26 fathoms, and the current is so strong that
the Beſt is seldom frozen over. The navigation of both
The Little Belt, which
Belts is dangerous or difficult. -
separates Fünen from Jutland, also forms a communication
between the Baltic and the Cattegat.” It is 32 miles long.
The widest part of it is about 10 miles, and the narrowest
about 2500 feet. From these Belts (Lat. baltei) the Baltic
Sea is supposed to take its name. - -
Belu'ga, a genus of Mammalia, of the order Cetacea.
and of the family Delphinidae or dolphins. They are dis-
tinguished by a blunt and broad head and the absence of a
,”, “ . .
, "
. X, l'
•
..
4.- : * * * * *-->
• *-*-* - - 1 * * *
• *~ * * *** -2. - . . . s.v.".
*::." ~." " " ... •,•.*.*.*.*.*.*.*.*.*.*.*.*.*.*.*.*.*.*.- - - - ---- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- . , — » . . . . --- - - - -


454
BELUS—BEMBRIDGE BEDS.
dorsal fin. They abound in the Arctic seas, are gregarious, .
ànd afford to the Greenlanders an important article of food.
The Beluga globiceps sometimes attains a length of thirteen
feet. Round-headed cachalot is one of the synonyms of this
animal. The white whale of the St. Lawrence (Beluga bo-
wealis) is common in northern waters, both salt and fresh.
It is caught in the St. Lawrence and the Saguenay, is from
ten to twenty feet long, and is prized for its excellent oil
and its skin, which makes a very fine leather.
The name Beluga is often applied to a large sturgeon of
Southern Russia (Acipenser huso), which affords great
quantities of isinglass and caviare. (See STURGEON.)
Be'lus [Gr. Bºxos], in classic mythology, a king of Phoe-
nicia, was said to be a son of Neptune, a brother of Agenor,
and the father of Egyptus. He is considered by some per-
sons as identical with BAAL (which see).
Belus [Bºxeſs, now called Nahr Naaman; perhaps the
Bealoth of the Hebrew text of the Bible], a small stream of
Palestine, which enters the sea near Acre. On its banks it
is said that the art of glass-making was discovered.
Belus, Temple of, a famous temple of enormous size
in the city of Babylon, rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar shortly
after 604 B. C. According to some authorities, it was de-
stroyed by Xerxes, king of Persia. Some writers identify
its ruins with Birg-Nimrud (a huge mound 6 miles S.W. of
Hillah), which appears to have been originally about 156 feet
high. Others identify its ruins with Babil (another mound
some 6 miles N. of Hillah), whose height is about 140 feet.
Belvede’re (i.e. “fair view”), an Italian word applied
to a pavilion on the top of a house, or a structure designed
to afford a fine prospect of the surrounding country; also
an artificial eminence in a garden. In France and other
countries of Europe the term is often used as the name of
a palace, villa, or summer-house. The famous statue of
Apollo Belvedere derived its name from a gallery of the
Vatican called Belvedere.
Bel’vedere (Chenopodium scoparium, or Salsola sco-
paria), an annual plant of the order Chenopodiaceae, is a
native of Europe and Asia, and is sometimes called summer
cypress. It is cultivated in gardens, but not for its flowers,
which have no beauty. It has a close, pyramidal, rigid
form and narrow leaves, and resembles a miniature cypress.
Belvedere, a town of Southern Italy, province of
Cosenza, 26 miles N. N. W. of Cosenza, has a trade in wine
and raisins. Pop. 5600. -
Bel’videre, the county-seat of Boone co., Ill., on the
Kishwaukee River and on the Chicago and North-western
Railway (Galena division), 78 miles W. N.W. of Chicago. It
is the terminus also of the St. Paul division of the North-
western Railway, and is projecting a railroad S. E. It has
a national bank, two newspapers, a planing-mill, a num-
ber of mills, elegant churches, and fine schools. Pop. 3231,
and is rapidly increasing; of Belvidere township, 4410.
- R. W. CooN, ED. “BELVIDERE North-westERN.”
Belvidere, a post-township of Monona co., Ia. P. 272.
Belvidere, a township of Montcalm co., Mich. P. 54.
Belvidere, a township of Goodhue co., Minn. P. 626.
Belvidere, a post-village, the capital of Warren co.,
N. J., on the Delaware River and on the Belvidere Dela-
ware R. R., 13 miles above Easton and 95 miles N. of
Philadelphia. The Pequest Creek enters the river here,
and affords a valuable water-power. Belvidere has an
academy, five churches, one national bank, several mills,
and a cotton factory. It has three weekly newspapers.
Pop. of the township, 1882. -
Belvidere, a post-township of Perquimans co., N. C.
Pop. 2403. g
Belvidere, a township of Lamoille co., Vt. It has
manufactures of lumber. Pop. 369.
Belvidere, a township of Buffalo co., Wis. Pop. 632.
Bel/vin, a township of Pitt co., N. C. Pop. 2151.
Belvis’ia (also called Napoleo'na), a genus of exog-
enous plants, the type of the natural order Belvisiaceae.
The few species of this order which are known are natives
of tropical Africa, and are large shrubs with simple alter-
nate, coriaceous leaves. The flowers, each of which has
twenty stamens, are sessile, beautiful, and have a very sin-
gular form. The calyx is a leathery cup, divided into five
ovate segments. The corolla consists of three concentric
and distinct rings, each of which is monopetalous; the
lower or outer one, 5-lobed and furnished with thirty-five
stiff ribs, by means of which it is strongly plaited; when
fully blown it turns back over the calyx so as to hide it
completely; the second, a narrow membrane, is divided
into many fine regular segments like a fringe ; the third,
an erect, cup-shaped membrane, whose edge is cut into
many fine segments turned downward. The fruit is a
large berry, similar to a pomegranate in size and form, en-
closing several reniform seeds, one inch long. One species
2
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Z
==< <--
#2,.
***
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:-Y ~
------ ~~
Belvisia.
of Belvisia bears an edible fruit. According to Lindley,
this order belongs to the Myrtal alliance, and is allied to
Rhizophoraceae.
Belzoni (GiovaNNI BATTISTA), an Italian traveller,
born at Padua, Nov. 5, 1778, emigrated to England in 1803,
and gained a subsistence by exhibiting himself as an ath-
lete. In 1815 he visited Egypt at the invitation of Mehe-
met Ali, who desired him to construct a hydraulic machine.
He soon directed his attention to the exploration of Egyp-
tian antiquities. He removed to England the colossal
bust called “Young Memnon,” which is now in the British
Museum. He opened the temple of Ipsambool and the
pyramid of Cephren (or the second pyramid of Gizeh).
IIe published in 1821 a very interesting “Narrative of the
Operations, and Recent Discoveries within the Pyramids,
Temples, Tombs, etc. in Egypt and Nubia.” He undertook
a journey to Timbuctu, but died near Benin Dec. 3, 1823.
Bem (Joseph), a Polish general, born at Tarnov, in
Galicia, in 1795. He served in the Polish army in the
revolution of 1830, after which he passed some years in
France. In 1848 he joined, the Hungarian patriots, and
obtained command of the army of Transylvania. He de-
feated the Austrians in several actions, and took part in
the battle of Temesvár (1849), which was disastrous to
Hungary. Having fled to Turkey and conformed to Islam-
ism, he was raised to the rank of pasha. Died Dec. 10, 1850.
(See PATAKY, “Bem in Siebenbürgen,” 1850; N. N. LAJos,
“Le Général Bem,” Paris, 1851.)
Bembeç’idae [Gr. Beuß, a “top”], a family of hymen-
opterous insects, the popular name of which is “sand-
wasps,” are mostly natives of warm climates. They re-
semble wasps or bees in appearance, and the females make
burrows in sandy banks, in which they deposit their eggs.
Some of them emit an odor like that of roses. The U. S.
have several-species.
Bem'bo (PIETRO), a celebrated Italian scholar and car-
dinal, born at Venice May 20, 1470. He removed to Rome
in 1512, and became secretary to Pope Leo X. In 1539 he
was raised to the dignity of cardinal. He wrote, besides
other works, a Latin “History of Venice” (1551). Died
Jan. 18, 1547. He was eminent as a restorer. of pure
Latinity. His collected works were published at Venice in
4 vols., 1729. (See BEccADELL1, “Vita di P. Pembo;” J.
D. LA CASA, “Vita Bembi.”) -
Bem'bridge Beds, a division of the upper eocene
strata found in the Isle of Wight, and containing many
fossil shells of the Paludina, Planorbia, etc. This division
comprises, besides several beds of marl and clay, the Bem-

BEMENT—BENEDICT I.
455
bridge limestone, a cream-colored stone, often compact and
sometimes vesicular and concretionary. Here are found
remains of the Anoplotherium, an extinct animal.
Bement', a post-township of Piatt co., III. Pop. 1471.
Be’mis’s Heights, a post-village of Stillwater town-
ship, Saratoga co., N. Y., on the Champlain Canal and
near the Hudson River, was the scene of the first battle of
Stillwater, Sept. 19, 1777.
Ben, a Gaelic term prefixed to the names of many moun-
tains of Scotland, as Ben Lomond, Ben Nevis, etc. It sig-
nifies “head" or “summit.”
Ben, a Hebrew word signifying “son,” and equivalent
to the Arabic Ibn, forms the first syllable of many ancient
scriptural names, as Ben-hadad, Benjamin, Benoni, etc.
Beni, the plural of Ben, occurs in the names of many Ara-
bian tribes.
Ben, OIL of, a fixed oil extracted by pressure from
the fruits of Moringa aptera and other species, leguminous
trees growing in the Levant and the East and West Indies.
It is colorless or slightly yellow, is odorless, and does not
readily become rancid. It is used to extract the odoriferous
principles of fragrant plants. - -
Bena’res (anc. Varanashi and Kasi), a famous and pop-
ulous city of Hindostan, situated on the left bank of the
Ganges, about 428 miles by rail N. W. of Calcutta, and 477
miles by rail S. E. of Delhi. It is the holy city of the
Brahmans, the chief seat of their science, and may be called
the Hindoo capital of India. Flights of stone steps called
ghâts lead down the steep banks of the Ganges, which is
here about half a mile wide. The external appearance of
the city, as seen from the river, is rendered very imposing
by the minarets of about 300 mosques and the pinnacles
of nearly 1000 pagodas. The streets are very narrow, and
the houses, which are mostly built of stone, are generally
lofty, some of them six stories high. Among the remark-
able public edifices are the great mosque of Aurungzeb, 232
feet high, many Hindoo temples, a vast and old astronomi-
cal observatory, and the Hindoo Sanscrit college, the chief
seat of native learning in India. As the holy city of the
Hindoos and the central seat of Brahmanical learning,
Benares attracts on the occasion of certain festivals an
immense multitude of pilgrims, estimated at 100,000. The
permanent population was, in 1866, 200,000. Benares is a
wealthy and industrious city, having extensive manufac-
tures of silk, cotton, and woollen stuffs. It is a great em-
porium for the shawls of the north, the diamonds of the
south, and the muslins of Dacca and the eastern provinces.
The Hindoo Sanscrit college was founded here in 1791, and
an English department was added to it about 1827. The
residences of the Europeans are mostly at Secrole, which
is three miles from Benares, and contains many fine man-
sions. It is connected by a railway with Calcutta, and
Delhi. A mutiny of Sepoys broke out here in June, 1857,
but was soon quelled.
Ben'bow (John), a brave English admiral, born in
Shropshire in 1650, served first under James II. He became
a rear-admiral in the reign of William III., who reposed
great confidence in him. In Aug., 1702, he encountered
a superior force under the French admiral Ducasse, near
Jamaica. He maintained a running fight for four days,
was mortally wounded, and died Nov. 29, 1702. (See CAMP-
BELL, “Lives of the British Admirals.”)
Bench, or Banc [Law Lat.” bancus], in law, has sev-
eral significations: 1. A court or tribunal for the adminis-
tration of justice. The word originally meant the seat oc-
cupied by the judges in court. In England two of the
leading courts are termed king's or queen’s bench and com-
mon bench. The latter tribunal is also called the court of
common pleas. 2. The word is also used to designate the
judges as contrasted with the practitioners in their court,
as in the phrase “the bench and the bar.” 3. Another
signification is the full number of judges acting as a court
of review, as distinguished from a single member of their
body, also acting judicially. Thus, decisions rendered by
a single judge at a trial are said to take place at nisi priws,
while those which are made by members of the court sit-
ting together are said to be made in bench or in banc or in
banco.
Bench Warrant, an order issued by or from a bench
for the arrest of a person, either in case of contempt or
after an indictment has been found, or from a judge to ap-
prehend a person charged with an offence.
Bench’ers, the principal officers of the English inns
of court, entrusted with their government and with the
power of admitting persons to the bar, and of disbarring
practitioners, though the exercise of these powers is sub-
ject to the supervision of the judges of the higher courts.
Ben"demann' (EDUARD), a German painter of the
Düsseldorf school, was born in Berlin Dec. 3, 1811, and was
director of the academy at Düsseldorf from 1859 to 1868.
He painted the “Captive Jews in Babylon ’’ and “Jere-
miah on the Ruins of Jerusalem ’’ (1837).
Bendemeer, or Bendemir. See BUNDEMEER.
Ben/der, or Ben’dery, a fortified town of Russia, in . .”
Bessarabia, on the right bank of the Dneister, 65 miles
N. W. of Odessa. Here is a strong citadel on an eminence.
Bender has several paper-mills, forges, and tanneries. Pop.
in 1867, 24,443. , "
Bend/sin, a town of Russian Poland, in the government
of Petrokov, 100 miles by rail S. of Petrokov. Pop. in
1867, 6231.
Be'ne, a town of Northern Italy, in the province of
Cuneo, on a hill 16 miles N. E. of Comi. It has an old
castle. Pop. 6127.
Ben'edek, von (LUDwig), an Austrian general, born
at Odenburg, in Hungary, in 1804. He fought with the
rank of colonel against the Italians in 1848, and became a
major-general in April, 1849, after which he served with
distinction against the Hungarian patriots. He directed a
corps in the Italian campaign of 1859 and at Solferino. In
June, 1866, he took the command of the grand Austrian
army, and remained on the defensive in Bohemia. He was
defeated by the Prussians at the decisive battle of Sadowa,
July 3, 1866. *
Benedetti (VINCENT), Count, a French diplomatist,
born in Corsica about 1815. He was sent as ambassador to
the kingdom of Italy in 1861. In 1870 he was employed
by Napoleon III. in important negotiations with the court
of Prussia, and had a personal interview with King Wil-
liam at Ems just before the emperor declared war against
Prussia. -
Ben'edict [Lat. Benedic’tus], SAINT, a celebrated Ital-
ian religionist, called the founder of monachism in the
West, was born at Nursia, in Umbria, in 480 A. D. He
renounced the world in early youth, passed some years in
solitude, and acquired a wide reputation for sanctity. He
founded a famous monastery on Monte. Cassino, near Na-
ples, and composed a system of monastic rules which was
largely adopted by the Western monks, and was known as
the Rule of Saint Benedict. Under this system the monks
were employed in manual labor and in the instruction of
the young. (See BENEDICTINEs.) Died Mar. 21, 543 A. D.
(See JUAN DE CASTANIZA, “Vida de S. Benito,” 1583; J.
B. PLANCHETTE, “Vie du grand S. Benoit,” 1652; ANTON
SULGER, “Vita divi Benedicti,” 1691; J. G. WAITZMANN,
“Leben und Wirken des heiligen Benedict,” 1825.)
Benedict I. became pope of Rome in 574 A. D. Died
in 578–BENEDICT II., a native of Rome, was elected pope
in 683 A. D., and died in 685.-BENEDICT III. succeeded
Pope Leo IV. in 855. He died in 858, leaving a good
reputation for piety.—BENEDICT IV. was elected pope in
900, as the successor of John IX. Died in 903.−BENE-
DICT V. was chosen pope in 964, but was banished from
Rome by the emperor Otho I. Leo VIII. was pope at the
same time with him, and both are recognized by Roman
Catholic historians. Died in 965.-BENEDICT WI. was
elected pope in 972, and was killed by the rebellious Ro-
mans in 974.—BENEDICT WII. succeeded Pope Benedict VI.
in 975. He is said to have ruled with ability. Died in
984.—BENEDICT VIII., a son of the count of Tusculum, be-
came pope in 1012. He crowned the emperor Henry II. in
1013, and defeated the Saracens, who had invaded the Pa-
pal States. Died in 1024.—BENEDICT IX. (THEoPHLAC-
TUs of TUSCULUM), sometimes called the “boy-pope,” was
chosen pope in 1033. He was extremely licentious, and
was expelled by the Romans. Sylvester III. became anti-
ope. Benedict was deposed by the emperor Henry III. .
about 1046.-BENEDICT X., called THE STUPID, was chosen
pope in 1058, removed through the influence of Hildebrand
in 1059, and died in prison in the same year.—BENE-
DICT XI. (SAINT), born in 1240, a native of Treviso, suc-
ceeded Boniface VIII. in 1303. He was noted for humil-
ity. Died in 1304.—BENEDICT XII. (originally JACQUES
FourNIER), a native of France, was chosen pope in 1334.
He was the third pope who reigned at Avignon, and was
eminent as a canonist and theologian. He wrote several
works. He died in 1342, and was succeeded by Clement.
VI. Pope Benedict XII. was an excellent man-BENEDICT
XIII. succeeded Innocent XIII. in 1724. He was distin-
guished for moderation and other virtues, and promoted
the peace of Europe. Died in 1730. (See: CLEMENTE DA
CRUz, “Vida de Benedicto XIII.,” 1739.)—BENEDICT XIII.
(anti-pope), (PEDRO DE LUNA), was born in Aragon, and
was elected pope by certain cardinals at Avignon in 1394.
Another party elected Boniface IX. at Rome, and a schism
of the Church, ensued. He was deposed by the Council of
Constance in 1417. Died in 1424. BENEDICT XIV. (PROs-
456
BENEDICT – BENEVENTO.
PERO LAMBERTINI), born at Bologna in 1675, was a man of
superior talents. He was well versed in history, theology,
and classical learning. He succeeded Clement XII. in
1740, and showed himself a liberal patron of literature and
science. He was also distinguished for his moderation and
enlightened piety, and was the author of several esteemed
religious works. Died in 1758. (See FABRONI, “Vita di
Benedetto XIV.,” 1787.) -
Benedict (DAvHD), D.D., born at Norwalk, Conn., Oct.
10, 1779, graduated at Brown University in 1806, and was
for twenty-five years pastor of the First Baptist church in
Pawtucket, R. I. He has written a “History of the Bap-
tists” (2 vols., 1813; 3d vol., 1848), “History of All Re-
ligions” (1824), “Fifty Years among the Baptists” (1860),
“History of the Donatists,” “Compendium of Church. His-
tory,” and other works.
Benedict (ERASTUs CoRNELIUs), LL.D., was born at
Branford, Conn., Mar. 19, 1800, and graduated in 1821 at
Williams College. In 1824 was called to the bar, and has
been president of the New York Board of Education and a
regent of the university, etc. He published “American
Admiralty” (1850), “A Run through Europe” (1860),
“The Hymn of Hildebert’” (1868), and other works.
Benedict (Sir JULIUs), a musical composer, born at
Stuttgart Nov. 27, 1804. He has written “The Gypsy's
Warning” (1838), “Brides of Venice,” “Lily of Killar-
ney’ (1862), all popular operas; “Undine,” a cantata,
and “ St. Peter” (1870), an oratorio.
Benedict (LEwis), an American lawyer and general of
volunteers, born in Albany, N. Y., Sept. 2, 1817, graduated
at Williams College, studied law, and was admitted to the
bar in 1841. He was actively engaged in politics for many
years, and held various important local offices. He entered
the army as lieutenant-colonel Seventy-third N. Y. Volum-
teers, engaged at Yorktown, captured at Williamsburg, ex-
changed Sept., 1862, appointed colonel One-Hundred-and-
Sixty-second. N. Y. Volunteers, and was attached to the
Army of the Gulf. He was in command of a brigade at
the battle of Port Hudson and during the Red River ex-
pedition, where he greatly distinguished himself. Killed
at battle of Pleasant Hill, La., April 9, 1864, while leading
his brigade to a charge. (Brevet brigadier-general U. S.
volunteers for gallant conduct.)
G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Eng’rs.
Benedic/ta, a township of Aroostook co., Me. Pop.
415.
1Benedic/tine Editions of the Fathers. The fol-
lowing is a complete list of these highly esteemed and now
very costly works: 1, Barnabas (Menard), 4to, 1642; 2, Lan-
franc (D’Achery), fol., 1648; 3, Bernard (Mabillon), 2 vols.
fol., 1667; 4, Anselm (Gerberon), fol., 1675; 5, Augustine
(Delfan and others), 11 vols. fol., 1679–1700; 6, Cassiodorus
(Garet), 2 vols. fol., 1679; 7, Ambrose (Du Frische and Le
Nourri), 2 vols., 1686–90; 8, Hilary (Constant), fol., 1693;
9, Jerome (Martiany and others), 5 vols. fol., 1693–1706;
10, Athanasius (Montfaucon), 3 vols. fol., 1698; 11, Greg-
ory of Tours (Ruinart), fol., 1699; 12, Gregory the Great
(De Sainte-Marthe), 4 vols. fol., 1705; 13, Hildebert (Beau-
gendre), fol., 1708; 14, Irenaeus (Massuet), fol., 1710; 15,
Lucius Caecilius (Le Nourri), 8vo, 1710; 16, Chrysostom
(Montfaucon), 13 vols. fol., 1718–38; 17, Cyril of Jerusalem
(Toultée and Maran), fol., 1720; 18, Basil (Garnier and
Maran), 3 vols. fol., 1721–30; 19, Cyprian (Maran), fol.,
1726; 20, Justin Martyr (Maran), fol., 1742; 21, Origen
(De la Rue), 4 vols. fol., 1733–59; 22, Gregory Nazianzen
(Clemencet), 1 vol. fol., 1778; 2d vol., 1842.
Benedic’tines, or Benedictine Order, the name
of the monks who observe the rule of Saint Benedict.
This order was one of the most ancient and learned relig-
ious orders of Western Europe.
monastery was that founded by Saint Benedict on Monte
Cassino, near Naples, in 528 A.D. The order spread rap-
idly and widely in several countries of Europe, and it is
said had at one period 37,000 monasteries. The Benedic-
times boasted that their order had produced 24 popes, 200
cardinals, 4000 bishops, and 1500 saints. The rule of
Saint Benedict was less severe than that which the Eastern
ascetics practised. It required that the monks should live
frugally, avoid laughter, hold no private property, and be
industrious. To them we are especially indebted for the
preservation and transmission of many of the ancient
classics through the Dark Ages down to the present time.
Among the most celebrated houses or societies of this order
was the Congregation of Saint-Maur (dating from 1621),
on the river Loire, to which all the Benedictine houses in
France were affiliated. Connected with it were many
learned men, including Mabillon, Montfaucon, and Sainte-
Marthe.
above) and numerous valuable works, among which are
The first Benedictine
The country is level, and the soil generally fertile.
They published good editions of the Fathers (see .
“L’Antiquité Expliquée' (15 vols. fol., 1719–24), “Vete-
rum Scriptorum Spicilegium ” (13 vols., 1653–77), “Acta
Sanctorum S. Benedicti" (9 vols., 1688–1702), and “His-
toire Littéraire de la France” (9 vols. 4to, 1733–49). The
Cistercians, Carthusians, Camaldules, Clunians, Celestines,
and Trappists were branches of the Benedictine order. . In
1870, the order numbered 3089 monks, in eight congrega-
tions, two of which comprise the monasteries in the U. S.
There are also Benedictine nuns, with twelve convents, in
the U. S. (See “Annales Ordinis S. Benedicti,” 6 vols.,
1713–39; TAssIN, “Histoire de la Congregation de St.-
Maur,” 1770; MonTALEMBERT, “The Monks of the West,”
5 vols., 1860.) - -
Ben'edix (JULIUS Roderick), a German author, was
born Jan. 21, 1811. He has written many successful plays,
among them, “Bemoostes Haupt,” “Der Steckbrief,” “Der
Störenfried,” “Mathilde,” etc., and a novel, “Bilder aus
dem Schauspielerleben.” Died in 1873.
Ben'efice [Lat, beneficium, a “favor”], originally, a
bounty in land given to a meritorious Roman soldier. In
mediaeval history the term denoted an estate in land con-
ferred by a superior by way of recompense for service.
As late as the twelfth century the word was used synony-
mously with foedum. The earlier historians of the Middle
Ages adopted the view that benefices were given succes-
sively, as revocable, as temporary, as estates for life, and
finally as estates in perpetuity. This view has been refuted
by Guizot (see “Civilization in France,” vol. iii.). In the
canon law it designates a right inhering in a clergyman of
sharing the income of church property in return for the per-
formance of spiritual duties. The Roman Catholic Church
includes all clerical offices, even the papal, among bene-
fices; but the Church of England, which long made the
term include all preferments except bishoprics, now ex-
cludes also all cathedral preferments, such as deaneries,
canonries, arch-deaconries, etc. -
Ben'efit of Cler'gy, in English criminal law, the priv-
ilege of the clergy, a clerk’s privilege. During the Middle
Ages benefit of clergy in various European countries ex-
tended to a total exemption in favor of clergymen from
the process of a secular judge in criminal cases. In Eng-
land, however, it was not carried beyond an exemption
from capital punishment in felony and petit treason. It
was never granted in cases of high treason or offences be-
low felonies. Offences were thus divided into those which
were clergyable and not clergyable. This exemption, at
first allowed only to clergymen, soon was extended to all
the officers and clerks of the Church, and them to every
one who could read, an ability to read being confined
almost wholly to those in the service of the Church. But
when learning became more generally diffused, a distinc-
tion was made between those in orders and laymen who
could read, the latter being allowed the privilege only
once, and then (unless they were peers or peeresses) being .
branded in the left thumb. A woman, unless she was a
peeress, could not claim this exemption, though this in-
equality was rectified by statute. At first, the criminals
who were allowed this privilege were handed over to the
ordinary or bishop to be dealt with according to the canons
of the Church; but in the reign of Elizabeth it was en-
acted that they should be discharged from prison, with the
proviso that the court might in its discretion keep the of
fender in prison for a year; and by subsequent statutes
various punishments, such as whipping, fine, and impris-
onment, were imposed on criminals entitled to benefit of
clergy, who were practically all convicts. Whenever Par-
liament desired to make an offence strictly capital, the
practice was to introduce into the enactment the words
“without benefit of clergy.” By statute of 7 Geo. IV., c.
28, s. 6, benefit of clergy was abolished. Its retention for
so long a time was plainly owing to the fact that it could be
used to mitigate the rigor of the English criminal law.
(For details as to this exemption, consult 4 BLACKSTONE's
“Commentaries,” 365.) T. W. DWIGHT.
Be'neke (FRIEDRICH EDUARD), a German philosopher,
born in Berlin Feb. 17, 1798. He became extraordinary
professor of philosophy in the University of Berlin in 1832.
Among his works are “Psychological Sketches” (2 vols.,
1825–27), a “System of Logic ’’ (2 vols., 1842), and “Prag-
matic Psychology” (1850). His system of psychology is
called “empirical.” He disappeared Mar. 1, 1854, and his
body was found in a canal in June, 1855.
Benét (STEPHEN VINCENT). See APPENDIx.
Beneven’to, a province of Italy, is bounded on the N.
by Campobasso, on the E. by Foggia, on the S. by Avel-
limo, and on the W. by Caserta. Area, 676 square miles.
The
chief articles of export are cattle, grain, wine, oil, etc. It
has changed masters' very often, and was annexed by Italy
at the same time as Naples. Pop. in 1871, 231,914.
BENEVENTO-BENI-HASSAN.
457
Benevento [Lat. Beneven/twm], a walled city of South-
ern Italy, capital of the above province, is situated on
a hill or declivity and on the river Calore, 33 miles N. E.
of Naples. Pop. in 1872, 20,133. It has a citadel or
castle, a fine old cathedral, several palaces and churches.
It is the see of an archbishop, and has several annual
fairs. Among the many ancient remains found here is
the magnificent Arch of Trajan, erected in 114 A. D., now
nearly perfect. Beneventum was a place of great antiquity,
having become a Roman town as early as 274 B. C., and it .
was an important city during the Roman empire. . It was
conquered in the sixth century by the Lombards, under
whom it continued to flourish, and became the capital of
the powerful duchy of Benevento. The city, with some
adjacent territory, was given to the pope in 1053. In 1806
it was erected into a principality by Napoleon, who gave
Talleyrand the title of prince of Benevento.
Ben'ezet (ANTHoNY), a French philanthropist, born at
Saint-Quentin Jan. 31, 1713. He joined the Society of
Friends, and emigrated in 1731 to Philadelphia, where he
taught school for many years. He was eminent as an op-
ponent of the slave-trade and slavery, and a benefactor of
the negroes. He wrote several tracts on slavery and the
slave-trade, etc. Died May 3, 1784. (See WAUx, “Memoir
of A. Benezet,” 1817.)
Ben/fey (THEODoR), born at Noerten, near Göttingen,
Jan. 28, 1809, became in 1834 professor of Sanscrit and
comparative grammar at Göttingen. He has published,
besides other valuable works, a “Lexicon of Greek Roots”
(1839–42), “The Cuneiform Inscriptions” (1847), “The
Hymns of Sama-Veda” (1848), “The History of Oriental
Philosophy in Germany ” (1869), and a “Sanscrit-English
Dictionary.” -
Bengal’, the largest and most important province of
British India, is bounded on the N. by Nepaul and Bootan,
on the E. by Burmah, on the S. by the Bay of Bengal, and
on the W. by the North-western and the Central Provinces.
It has an area of 200,724 square miles. The greater part
of Bengal consists of the great alluvial plain or valley of
the Ganges and Brahmapootra. The combined delta of
these great rivers commences 280 miles from the sea, near
which the delta-islands, here called Sunderbunds, are cov-
ered with a very dense vegetation, and infested by serpents,
crocodiles, and tigers. Farther N. the country is mar-
vellously prolific of rice, cotton, opium, sugar, indigo, and
a great variety of tropical fruits. The chief exports are
opium, saltpetre, rice, hides, and indigo. The climate of
Bengal is subject to great extremes of heat, and is very
destructive to the health of both Europeans and natives,
but in this respect great improvement is reported in the
last few years. Pop. in 1871, 40,352,960.
Among the most important cities of Bengal presidency
are Calcutta, the capital, Delhi, Benares, Patna, Agra, and
Moorshedābād. The people are Hindoos, Mohammedans,
Sikhs, and various wild tribes in the hill-country. The na-
tive Bengalese are a facile, deceitful, cowardly race. Their
morals are much debased. The English first established
themselves in Bengal in 1656. From the smallest begin-
nings their great empire of the East has grown up. The
Bengalese language has a basis of Sanscrit, but is modified
by words of Arabic, Malay, and Persian origin. Its litera-
ture has been much neglected till of late.
Bengal, a post-township of Clinton co., Mich. P. 1086.
Bengai, Bay of (anc. Ganget'icus Si’mw8), a part of
the Indian Ocean extending between Hindostan and Far-
ther India. Its southern boundary is variously placed by
geographers, according to some of whom it is a line about
1200 miles long, drawn from Coromandel to the peninsula
of Malacca. Others assign as its southern limit a line
drawn from the delta of the Godavery to Cape Negrais.
Its chief affluents are the Ganges, the Brahmapootra, and
the Irrawaddy. There are no good harbors on the western
coast, but several safe ports occur on the E. side, at Aracan,
Cheduba, Negrais, etc. The tide sometimes rises to the
height of seventy feet in this bay. The north-east mon-
soon prevails here in summer and the south-west monsoon
in winter. In this bay are the Andaman and the Nicobar
Islands. . .
Bengal Light, or Blue Light, a brilliant signal-
light used at sea during shipwreck, and in ordinary pyro-
techny for illuminating a tract of country. It is produced
by the combustion of a mixture of nitre, sulphur, and ter-
sulphide of antimony. These materials are first reduced to
a fine powder, then dried, and mixed in the proportions
of 6 pounds of mitre, 2 of sulphur, and 1 of the tersulphide,
Benga/zi, or Benghasy (ane. Berenice), a seaport-
town of Northern Africa and the capital of Barca, on the
E. coast of the Gulf of Sidra, 420 miles E. S. E. of Tripoli.
The port is shallow, and nearly filled with sand. It has
some trade in oxen, sheep, corn, and wool. It is supposed
by some to occupy the site of the ancient Hesperis and the
Gardens of the Hesperides. Pop, estimated at from 6000 to
7000. - - -
Beng'el (Joh ANN ALBRECHT), D. D., a German Luther-
an theologian, was born at Winnenden, in Würtemberg,
June 24, 1687. He was probably the first Protestant who
treated the exegesis of the New Testament in a thoroughly
critical spirit. His edition of the Greek Testament (1734)
is highly esteemed. He wrote, besides other works, the
celebrated. “Gnomon Novi Testamenti” (1742), and , an
“Exposition of the Revelation of St. John ” (1740). Died
Nov. 2, 1752. (See a “Memoir of the Life of J. A.
Bengel,” translated from the German; also J. C. F. BURK,
“Dr. J. A. Bengels Leben und Wirken,” 1831.) .
Bengue/Ia, a country of Western Africa, the limits
of which cannot be accurately defined. It is bounded on
the N. by the Coanza River, which separates it from Am-
gola, on the S. by Mossamedes, and on the W. by the At-
lantic Ocean. It is watered by numerous rivers which flow
westward into the Atlantic; none of which, however, are
of great importance. The surface is mountainous. The
soil, is fertile, and produces a very luxuriant and varied
vegetation. The climate is hot, humid, and unhealthy,
especially near the coast. The forests are infested by lions
and other beasts of prey. Benguela is nominally subject
to Portugal. Capital, São Felipe de Benguela. -
Ben/ham (A. E. K.), U. S. N., born April 15, 1832, in
Pennsylvania, entered the navy as a midshipman Nov. 24,
1847, became a passed midshipman in 1853, a lieutenant
in 1855, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, and a commander
in 1867. On Nov. 7, 1861, while attached to the steamer
Bienville, he took part in the battle of Port Royal. From
1863 to 1865 he commanded the steamer Penobscot, West-
ern Gulf blockading squadron. .
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Benham (Gen. HENRY W.) was born at Cheshire,
Conn., graduated at West Point with the highest honors
in 1837, entered the engineers, served in Mexico, and was
wounded at Buena Vista. . He was afterwards employed
on the coast survey, and was superintendent of the con-
struction of defensive works around New York City, Boston,
etc. In 1861 he was made brigadier-general of volunteers,
and in 1865 was brevetted major-general U. S. army. He
holds since 1867 the rank of colonel of engineers.
Be’ni, a river of South America, in Bolivia, rises on
the E. slope of the Andes, and is formed by the junction
of the Chuqueapo and Mapiri. It flows first northward
and then north-eastward, and joins the Madeira, or Ma-
more near the N. boundary of Bolivia, after a course of
about 650 miles. -.
Beni, a department of Bolivia, is bounded on the N.
and E. by Brazil, on the S. by La Paz, Cochabamba, and
Santa Cruz, and on the W. by Peru. It comprises the
whole northern part of the republic, and with the excep-
tion of a small part in the S.W. corner, and a part of the
province of Menos in the E., consists entirely of an un-
known region, inhabited only by wild Indians. Chief
town, Trinidad. Pop. 53,900, exclusive of the Indians,
**
whose number is estimated at 100,000. w .
Bemicar'Io, a seaport-town of Spain, in the province
| of Valencia, on the Mediterranean, about 82 miles N. N. E.
of Valencia. It is meanly built, and has a ruined castle
and a fishing port. A strong wine is made here and ex-
ported to Bordeaux, where it is used in “cooking” or adul-
terating claret. Pop. 6989. -
Benic’ia, a post-village of Solano co., Cal., is on the
N. side of the Strait of Carquinez (which connects San
Pablo and Suisun bays), about 33 miles by water, N. E. of
San Francisco. It was formerly the capital of the State.
The strait is nearly two miles wide, and is navigable for
large vessels. Benicia has a law school, a U. S. arsenal
and barracks, a ladies’ semimary, a convent, and important
manufactures. It is the seat of St. Augustine College
(Episcopalian). Here are quarries of limestone, produ-
cing good hydraulic cement, and the machine-shops and
foundries of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. Pop.
of township, 1656. -
Ben’i-Has’sam, a village of Central Egypt, on the
right bank of the Nile, 23 miles S. S. E. of Minieh. Here are
twenty-two grottoes or catacombs excavated in a calcareous
bank or hill. They are supposed to have been used as tombs
by the people of Hermopolis, which stood on the opposite
side of the river. Here are apartments sixty feet long and
forty feet wide, in which are pillars of the native rock six-
teen feet eight and a half inches in height, and five feet
in diameter. The sides of the grottoes are covered with
paintings, designed with skill and good taste. These .
tombs are among the most remarkable in Egypt. The
458
BENI KHAIBIR-BENSON.
earliest bears the date of the forty-third year of Ositarsen
I., not far from 1800 B.C. Says J. P. Thompson, “I found
one tomb, some 200 feet above the level of the river, almost
a Doric temple hewn from the solid rock. . . . This cham-
ber was cut from the solid rock with perfect precision; no
modern square or line or plummet could make it more true.”
Be’mi Khaibir', a tribe in Arabia, supposed by some,
but without sufficient reason, to be a remnant of the ancient
ascetic Rechabites. . They number about 60,000. (See
RECHABITEs.)
Benin', a kingdom of Western Africa, in Upper Guinea,
is bounded on the N. E. and E. by the river Niger, on the
S. W. by the Bay of Benin, and on the W. by Dahomey.
Its limits in some directions are not well defined or ascer-
tained. The interior is elevated and hilly, and mostly cov-
ered with forests. The soil is fertile, and supports a dense
population. Sugar, rice, yams, palm oil, and cotton are
the staple productions. Many human victims are sacrificed
here. The religion of the country is gross-fetishism.
Benin, a town of Africa, capital of the above, is on a
river of the same name, which is one of the mouths of the
Niger. It is about 55 miles from the ocean. The houses
are built of clay. Pop. estimated at 15,000. Belzoni died
in this town in 1823. .
Beni-Sooef', or Beni-Souef, a town of Central
Egypt, on the Nile, 68 miles S. S. W. of Cairo. It has cot-
ton-mills and quarries of alabaster, and is the entrepôt of
the produce of the fertile valley of Fayoom. Pop. 6000.
Benjamin, the youngest son of the patriarch Jacob
and of Rachel (who called him BENONI). He was his father's
favorite child, and the head of one of the twelve tribes of
Israel. The territory of this tribe was bounded on the N.
by that of Ephraim, on the E. by the Jordan, on the S. by
the land of Judah, and on the W. by that of Dan. After
the death of Solomon the tribes of Benjamin and Judah
remained loyal to his dynasty when the other ten tribes
revolted.
Benjamin (JUDAH PETER), an American politician of
Jewish extraction, was born in Hayti in 1812. He prac-
tised law in New Orleans, was elected a Senator of the U. S.
for Louisiana in 1852, and re-elected in 1859. He acted
with the Democrats, and became a secessionist. He was
secretary of state of the Confederate States from Feb.,
1862, until the collapse of that power in 1865. Since the
close of the civil war he has practised law in London,
England.
Benjamin (PARK), an American poet, born at Dem-
arara, in Guiana, Aug. 14, 1809. He graduated at Trinity
College, Hartford, Conn., in 1829, and in 1840 became as-
sociated with R. W. Griswold as editor of the “New York
World,” a literary journal. He wrote, besides many lyri-
cal poems, a “Poem on the Meditation of Nature.” Mr.
Benjamin, though physically strong, was never able to
walk. Died Sept. 12, 1864.
Benjamin of Tudela, a Jewish rabbi and traveller,
commenced about 1160 a journey through Palestine, Persia,
and Egypt, in which he passed about twelve years. He
wrote an account of his travels, which was translated into
Latin, English, and French. Died in 1173. (See CARMOLY,
“Notice sur B. de Tudéle et ses Voyages,” 1837.)
Benkoelen, or Bencoo/Ien, a Dutch seaport-town
on the S.W. coast of Sumatra: lat. 3° 48' S., lon. 102° 19'
E. Pop. estimated at 5000. It was founded by the Eng-
lish in 1685, but was ceded to Holland in 1825, in exchange
for Malacca. The climate of the city is exceedingly un-
healthy. Pepper is the chief article of export.
Ben/mer, a township of Centre co., Pa. Pop. 1362.
Ben'net Spring, a township of Barnwell co., S. C.
Pop. 1742. -
Ben’mett (JAMES GoRDON), a journalist, born in Banff-
shire, Scotland, Sept. 1, 1795, and educated for the Roman
Catholic priesthood, emigrated to the U. S. in 1819, was
connected with several journals published in the city of
New York, and was chief editor in 1833 of the “ Pennsyl-
vanian,” a daily paper of Philadelphia. In 1835 he founded
the “New York Herald,” which was very successful. He
died June 1, 1872.
Bennett (John HUGHES), M. D., an eminent physician
and medical writer of Edinburgh, was born in London in
1812, took his degree at Edinburgh in 1837, and in 1848
was made professor of the institutes of medicine in that
city. Dr. Bennett is especially distinguished for his studies
in histology and therapeutics, and his advocacy of the ex-
pectant treatment of disease. Among his works are “Clini-
cal Medicine” (1856), “Practice of Medicine,” “Treat-
ment of Pulmonary Consumption,” etc. -
Hennett (MILo TYMAN), LL.D., was born in Sharon,
Conn., in 1790, graduated at Yale in 1811, and studied law
at Litchfield. He resided at Burlington, Vt., and was a
judge in the Vermont courts (1839–59). He published
“Vermont Justice ’’ and other legal works. Died July 7,
1868. " . .
Bennett (Sir WILLIAM STERNDALE), MUs. DR., D. C. L.,
an English composer and pianist, born at Sheffield April
13, 1816. He visited Germany, and formed a friendship
with Mendelssohn. He composed concertos, overtures, and
pieces for the piano. He was knighted in 1871.
Bennett’s Bayou, a post-township of Fulton co.,
Ark. Pop. 427.
Ben/nettsville, a post-village, the capital of Marl-
borough co., S. C., 90 miles E. N. E. of Columbia. It has
one weekly newspaper. Pop. of township, 1736.
Ben Ne/vis, a famous mountain of Scotland, and the
highest point in Great Britain, is in the county of Inver-
ness, about 5 miles E. of Loch Eil. It has an altitude of
4406 feet, and is very difficult of ascent. On the N. E.
side is a tremendous precipice 1500 feet in height. Gran-
ite and gneiss form the base of this mountain, the upper
part of which is porphyry. In clear weather most of the
Western Islands and the mainland as far as Cairngorm and
Ben Macdhui can be seem from the summit.
Bennezette, a township of Butler co., Ia. Pop. 206.
Bennezette, a township of Elk co., Pa. Pop. 902.
Ben/nigsen, von (RUDOLF), a prominent German
statesman, born at Lüneburg in 1824, became in 1867 a
member of the Hanoverian provincial diet and of the Prus-
sian house of delegates, and second vice-president of the
North German diet.
Ben’mington, a county which forms the S. W. ex-
tremity of Vermont. Area, 700 square miles. . It is
drained by the Battenkill River, which rises within its
limits. The surface is mostly mountainous or hilly, and
extensively covered with forests. Quarries of white and
gray marble are worked in this county, which is intersected
by the Harlem Extension R. R. or Western Vermont R. R.
Oats, corn, wool, potatoes, and maple-sugar are important
products. Capitals, Bennington and Manchester. P. 21,325.
Bennington, a township. of Marshall co., Ill. Pop.
1020. - - -
Bennington, a township of Black Hawk co., Ia. Pop.
54.
Bennington, a post-township of Shiawassee co., Mich.
Pop. 1424.
Bemmington, a township of Mower co., Minn. P. 257.
Bennington, a post-township of Hillsborough co.,
N. H. It has manufactures of boots, shoes, paper, cutlery,
casks, hoes, etc. . Pop. 401.
Bennington, a post-village and township of Wyom-
ing co., N. Y., 26 miles E. S. E. of Buffalo. Pop. of the
township, 2385.
Bennington, a township of Licking co., O. Pop. 907.
Bennington, a post-township of Morrow co., O. Pop.
899.
Bennington, the semi-capital of Bennington co., Vt.,
is on the Harlem extension division of the New York Bos-
ton and Montreal R. R., 55 miles S. by W. of Rutland, and
36 miles from the Hudson River at Troy. The town con-
tains three villages—Bennington, North Bennington, and
Bennington Centre—each of which has a separate post-
office. Gen. Stark, at the head of a column of “Green
Mountain Boys,” defeated a British detachment in force,
commanded by Col. Baum, sent from Gen. Burgoyne's
army to capture the public stores at Bennington, Aug. 16,
1777; 600 British prisoners were captured. The town
contains nine churches, two extensive graded Schools, two
national banks, five large manufactories of knit goods, and
one of the largest shawl factories in the country. Benning-
ton Village is the largest manufacturing village in the
State. It has two weekly newspapers. Pop. 2501; total
pop. of township, 5760.
J. HALSEY CUSHMAN, ED. “BANNER.”
Beno/na, a post-township of Oceana co., Mich. P. 637.
Bensa/lem, a post-village and township of Bucks co.,
Pa., on the Philadelphia and Trenton R. R., 16 miles N. E.
of Philadelphia. Pop. of township, 2353. -
Ben’son, a post-village, capital of Swift co., Minn., is
on the Chippewa River and on the St. Paul and Pacific
R. R., 134 miles W. of St. Paul. . Pop. of township, 628.
Benson, a post-township of Hamilton co., N. Y. P. 320.
Benson, a post-township of Rutland co., Vt. Pop. 1244.
Benson (EGBERT), LL.D., born in New York City
June 21, 1746, graduated at Columbia College in 1795, was
an eminent lawyer, a member of Congress (1784–88,
1789–93, and 1813–15), a regent of the university (1789–
BENSON.—BENTON.
459
1802), judge of the supreme court of New York (1794–1801),
and of the U. S. circuit court. He published a “Vindica-
tion ” of the captors of André (1817), and a “Memoir on
Dutch Names” (1835). Died Aug. 24, 1833.
Benson (HENRY.C.), D. D., an eminent preacher and
writer in the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born near
Xenia, O., in 1815, joined the Indiana Conference in 1842,
was elected professor of Greek in Indiana Asbury Univer-
sity in 1850, went to California in 1852, was editor of the
“Pacific Christian Advocate ’’ at Portland, Or., from 1864
to 1868, and elected editor of the “California Advocate” in
1868, in which office he still continues. He is author of
“Life among the Choctaws,” among whom he labored
some time as a missionary. -
Benson (Joseph), an English Methodist minister, born
in Cumberland Jan. 25, 1748, acquired much influence in
the Church. He was a popular preacher, and author of
numerous works, among which are an “Apology for the
Methodists” (1801), a “Life of the Rev. John Fletcher,”
and a “Commentary on the Holy Scriptures” (5 vols.,
1811–18), which is highly esteemed. Died Feb. 16, 1821.
Bent, a county in the S. E. part of Colorado, bordering
on Kansas. Area, 5040 square miles. It is intersected by
the Arkansas River, and also drained by several creeks.
The soil is adapted to grazing and tillage, and grain is
successfully cultivated. Capital, Las Animas. Pop. 592.
Bent Grass (Agros’tis), a genus of grasses comprising
numerous species which are natives of Europe, the U. S.,
and many other countries. They have 1-flowered spikelets.
in a loose or open panicle, with glumes which are unequal,
awnless, and longer than the paleae. The upper (inner)
palea is often wanting. Stamens mostly three. Some of
the species are cultivated for pasture and for hay, on
account of their adaptation to certain soils. The Agrostis
vulgaris forms a principal part of the pasture in the more
elevated districts of England, and resists drought better
than some other grasses. It is considered suitable for
lawns. It is called “herd’s grass” or “red top '' in Penn-
sylvania. The Agrostis alba, sometimes called “marsh
bent grass,” is valuable for pasture, and is common in
England. It is also maturalized in some of the U. S.
The Agrostis spica venti, a native of Europe, is a beautiful
grass, with very slender branches of its panicle, which,
waving in the wind, presents a glossy and silky appearance.
Ben'tham (JEREMY), an English philosopher and re-
former, eminent as a writer on ethics and jurisprudence,
was born in London Feb. 15, 1748. He graduated at
Queen's College, Oxford, in 1766, studied law, and was
called to the bar in 1772, but he never practised that pro-
fession. He published in 1776 an acute and critical “Frag-
ment on Government,” which abounds in sound and original
ideas, and in 1787 an exhaustive argument entitled a “De-
fence of Usury.” His next important work was his “Intro-
duction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation” (1789).
He adopted the theory that “utility is the test and measure
of virtue,” and that laws should promote “the greatest
happiness of the greatest number.” He devoted his time
and talents chiefly to the reform of legislation and govern-
ment, and advocated universal suffrage, the vote by ballot,
etc. He inherited from his father an easy fortune. About
1792 he formed a friendship and literary partnership with
M. Dumont, who translated into French several of Ben-
tham’s works—namely, “Treatise on Civil and Penal Legis-
lation” (3 vols., 1802), and “Theory of Penalties and Re-
wards” (1811). Among his other works are “Panopticon.”
(1791), which treats on prison discipline, and “The Ra-
tionale of Judicial Evidence” (5 vols., 1827). By habit-
ual temperance, activity, and self-control he prolonged
his life to the age of eighty-four. Died June 6, 1832.
He has great merits in the English jurisprudence, “which,”
as Macaulay says, “he found a gibberish and left a sci-
ence.” But on the public in general his influence was
small, on account of the unreadableness of his writings.
He represents French ideas, especially those of the French
Revolution, and he is the real founder of the utilitarian
school of philosophy. His works were more admired on
the Continent than in England. (See “Memoirs of Jeremy
Bentham.” prefixed to his works by DR. BowRING ; JoHN
HILL BURTON, “Benthamiana;” SIR JAMES MACKINTOSH,
“View of the Progress of Ethical Philosophy;” “Edin-
burgh Review" for Oct., 1843.)
Bentinck (WILLIAM GEORGE FREDERICK CAvENDISH),
LoRD, commonly called Lord George Bentinck, born
Feb. 27, 1802, was a third son of the fourth duke of Port-
land. He became in 1826 private secretary to George
Canning, who had married his aunt. He represented Lynn-
Regis in Parliament from 1827 until his death, and in 1835
became a conservative and supporter of Sir Robert Peel.
He was much addicted to field-sports and horse-races.
After Peel adopted the policy of free trade in 1843, Lord
George was recognized as the leader of the protectionist
party, which opposed the repeal of the corn laws. He
died suddenly Sept. 21, 1848. (See B. DISRAELI, “Lord
George Bentinck, a Political Biography,” 1851.)
Bent/ley, a township of Perry co., Ark. Pop. 345.
Bentley (RICHARD), D. D., a celebrated English critic
and classical scholar, born at Oulton, in Yorkshire, on the
27th of Jan., 1662. He entered St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge, in 1676, and having taken the degree of bachelor,
became, in 1683, tutor to Dr. Stillingfleet's son, with whom
he went to Oxford. He was ordained a priest in 1690. In
1692 he was appointed to deliver the Boyle lecture on the
evidences of religion, and in 1694 became keeper of the
Royal Library. He published in 1699 a celebrated “Dis-
sertation on the Epistles of Phalaris,” which procured for
him a European reputation. He maintained that these
Epistles were spurious, and was involved in a controversy
with Atterbury, Charles Boyle, Pope, and other writers,
who resorted to sarcasm and personality. Bentley defended
himself in another “ Dissertation on the Epistles of Pha-
laris” (1699). He was appointed master of Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge, in 1700, and married Joanna Bernard
in 1701. In 1711, he published a good edition of Horace.
His arrogance provoked a series of quarrels and litigations
with the fellows of Trinity College. He was appointed
regius professor of divinity in 1717, and was deprived of
all his academic degrees and honors by the senate of the
University in 1718, but he was reinstated by a mandamus
of the court of king’s bench in 1724. Among his produc-
tions was an edition of Homer, which he left unfinished.
He proposed to revise and correct the text of the Greek
Testament by comparing it with all the manuscripts. He
failed to perform this task, but his principles of criticism
have since been adopted, and have triumphed over all
opposition. He died July 14, 1742. His daughter was
the mother of Richard Cumberland, the dramatist. (See
MoNK, “Life of R. Bentley,” 1830; HARTLEY Col. ERIDGE,
“Lives of Distinguished Northerns;” “Edinburgh Re-
view” for July, 1830.)
Benſton, a county which forms the N. W. extremity of
Arkansas. Area, 900 square miles. It is drained by the
Illinois and White rivers and several creeks, which afford
water-power. It has great but undeveloped mineral
wealth. Tobacco and corn are the chief crops. The soil
is fertile. Capital, Bentonville. Pop. 13,831. -
Bentom, a county of Indiana, bordering on Illinois.
Area, 414 square miles. It is drained by Pine and Sugar
creeks. The greater part of the county is an undulating
prairie, the soil of which is fertile. Grain and wool are the
chief products. Capital, Oxford. Pop. 5615.
Benton, a county in E. Central Iowa. Area, 720
square miles. It is traversed by the Cedar River, and also
drained by Prairie Creek. It contains extensive prairies,
the land of which is fertile. Cattle, corn, wheat, and wool
are largely raised. The Iowa division of the Chicago and
North-western R. R. passes through this county. Capital,
Vinton. Pop. 22,454.
Benton, a county in Central Minnesota. Area, 400
square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Mississippi
River, and also drained by the Elk River. The surface is
undulating; the soil in some parts is fertile. Wheat, corn,
and oats are the chief crops. A railroad has been opened
from St. Paul to Sauk Rapids, which is the county-seat.
Pop. 1558.
Benton, a county of Mississippi, bordering on Ten-
nessee, was organized since the census of 1870. The Talla-
hatchee River bounds it on the S. W. The soil is fertile.
Cotton is extensively raised. The Mississippi Central
R. R. traverses the W. part. Capital, Ashland.
Benton, a county in W. Central Missouri. Area, 730
square miles. It is intersected by the Osage River, which
flows eastward, and is also drained by the Grand. River.
The surface is moderately diversified; the soil is produc-
tive. Tobacco, grain, and wool are the chief products. Lead
is found in this county. Capital, Warsaw. Pop. 11,322. .
Benton, a county of Oregon. Area, 1556 Square miles.
It is bounded on the E. by the Willamette River, and on
the W. by the Pacific Ocean. It is drained by the Alseya.
and Yaquina rivers. The Coast Range of mountains ex-
tends through the central part of the county. Wheat, oats,
fruit, and wool are important products. Capital, Corvallis.
Pop. 4584. -
Benton, a county of Tennessee. Area, 400 square
miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Tennessee River,
navigable for steamboats, and on the N. W. by the Big
Sandy River. The soil is productive. Corn, tobacco, and
wool are the staple products. The county is intersected by
460
the Nashville and North-western R. R. Capital, Camden.
* 8234. -
enton, a post-village of Lowndes co., Ala., on the
Alabama River, and on the railroad connecting Selma and
, Montgomery, 31 miles W. of Montgomery. Pop. of town-
*: 2627. *
entom, a township of Conway co., Ark. Pop. 583.
Benton, a township of Fulton co., Ark. Pop. 461.
Benton, a post-village, capital of Saline co., Ark., is 25
miles S. W. of Little Rock. . . -
... Benton, a post-township of Mono co., Cal. Pop. 94.
Benton, the capital of Franklin co., Ill., 77 miles N. N.
E. of Cairo, has 3 churches, 1 high school, 1 law library, 1.
printing-office, 1 weekly paper, 1 manufactory of agricul-
tural implements, 1 carriage-shop, 1 saddle and harness.
manufactory, 2 steam flouring mills, numerous stores, 2
hotels, an exchange bank, a county court-house, and a jail.
Pop. 615. J. S. BARR, PUB. “BENTON STANDARD.”
Benton, a township of Lake co., Ill. Pop. 640.
Benton, a post-township of Elkhart.co., Ind. P.1188.
Benton, a township of Monroe co., Ind. Pop. 867.
Benton, a township of Benton coº, Ia. Pop. 601.
Benton, a township of Des Moines co., Ia. Pop. 1192.
Benton, a township of Fremont co., Ia. Pop. 904.
Benton, a township of Keokuk co., Ia. Pop. 1309.
Benton, a township of Lucas co., Ia. Pop. 696.
Benton, a township of Ringgold co., Ia. Pop. 367.
Benton, a township of Taylor co., Ia. Pop. 1055.
Benton, a township of Wayne co., Ia. Pop. 852.
Benton, a post-village, capital of Marshall, co., Ken.,
on Clark’s River, about 270 miles W. S. W. of Frankfort.
Benton, a post-township of Kennebec co., Me. It has
manufactures of lumber. Pop. 1180. t f
Benton, a township of Berrien co., Mich. Pop. 3116.
Benton, a township of Eaton co., Mich. Pop. 1355.
Benton, a post-township of Carver co., Minn. P. 1297.
Benton, a township of Adair co., Mo. Pop. 3369.
Benton, a township of Atchison co., Mo. Pop. 680.
Benton, a township of Cedar co., Mo. Pop. 1130.
Benton, a township of Christian co., Mo. Pop. 527.
Benton, a township of Crawford co., Mo. Pop. 1184.
Benton, a township of Dallas co., Mo. Pop. 2055.
Benton, a township of Daviess co., Mo. Pop. 1199.
Benton, a township of Douglas co., Mo. Pop. 379.
Benton, a township of Holt co., Mo. Pop. 2226.
Benton, a township of Howell co., Mo. Pop. 809.
Benton, a township of Knox co., Mo. Pop. 1602.
Bentom, a township of Linn co., Mo. Pop. 696.
Benton, a township of Newton co., Mo. Pöp. 968.
Benton, a township of Osage co., Mo. Pop. 2513.
Benton, a township of Polk co., Mo. Pop. 1650.
Benton, a township of Wayne co., Mo. Pop. 1291.
Bentom, a township of Webster co., Mo. Pop. 768.
Benton, a township of Nemaha co., Neb. Pop. 456.
Benton, a post-township of Grafton co., N. H. It has
manufactures of lumber, etc. Pop. 375.
Benton, a post-township of Yates co., N. Y., includes
a part of the village of Penn Yan. Pop. 2422.
Benton, a township of Hocking co., O. Pop. 1448.
Benton, a township of Monroe Co., O. Pop. 987.
Benton, a township of Ottawa co., O. Pop. 1152.
Bentom, a township of Paulding co., O. Pop. 404.
IBenton, a township of Pike co., O. Pop. 1119.
Benton, a post-township of Columbia co., Pa. P. 1053.
Benton, a township of Luzerne co., Pa.. Pop. 1055.
Benton, a small post-village, capital of Polk co., Tenn.,
is about 75 miles S. S. W. of Knoxville. Pop. 250.
Benton, a post-village of Lafayette co., Wis., is 13
miles N. of Galena, and in Benton township. Rich mines
of lead are worked here. Pop. of township, 1723.
Benton (JAMEs G.), an American officer, born in 1820
in New Hampshire, graduated at West Point in 1842; major
of ordnance Sept. 15, 1863. He served at various arsenals
and on special duties 1842–57, as member of the ordnance
board 1854–56, at Military Academy as instructor of ord-
nance and gunnery 1857–61. In the civil war he was an
assistant in the ordnance bureau at Washington 1861–63, in
command of Washington Arsenal till June 14, 1864, and
since of Springfield Armory, Mass. Brevet lieutenant-
| hart and Lake Michigan R. Rs.
the interior.
BENTON.—BENT TIMBER.
colonel and colonel Mar. 13, 1865, for faithful and meritori-
ous services in the ordnance department. He is author
of “A Course of Instruction in Ordnance and Gunnery for
the use of the Cadets of the U. S. Military Academy” (1860).
- : . . . . . GEORGE W. CULLUM, U.S. Army.
Benton (THOMAS HART), an American Senator and
statesman, born near Hillsborough, N. C., Mar. 14, 1782.
| He removed to Tennessee, studied law, and began to prac-
tise at Nashville about 1810. In the war of 1812 he served
as colonel under Gen. Jackson. He became a resident of
St. Louis, Mo., in 1815, and was elected a Senator of the
U.S. for Missouri in 1820. Having been re-elected in 1826,
he supported Gen. Jackson, opposed the U. S. Bank, and
advocated a gold and silver, currency, for which reason he
was often called “Old Bullion.” . For many years he was
the most prominent public man of Missouri. He was a
member of the national Senate for 30 years, and opposed
the extreme State Rights policy of Calhoun. In 1852 he
was elected to the House of Representatives, in which he
opposed the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. He was
opposed by a powerful party of State Rights Democrats in
Missouri, who defeated him as a candidate for governor in
1856. He published a “Thirty Years' View, or a History
| of the Working of the American Government for Thirty
Years, 1820–50° (2 vols., 1854–56). Died April 10, 1858.
Benſton Har’bor, a post-village of Berrien co., Mich.,
| is on the E. side of St. Joseph’s River and the Benton
Harbor ship canal, 1% miles from Lake Michigan, in Ben-
ton township, and about 60 miles E. by N. from Chicago.
It is on the Chicago and Michigan Lake Shore and Elk-
It has one weekly paper,
a large trade in grain and lumber, and an immense one in
fruit, large manufactories of fruit packages, washboards,
and canned fruit, and an undeveloped water-power. Reg-
ular lines of steamers and sailing vessels connect it with
Chicago and Milwaukee. , Pop. 661; of Benton township,
3116. ALVIN STURTEvANT, .
- ED. OF “ BENTON HARBOR PALLADIUM.”
Benſtonsville, a post-village of Johnston co., N. C.,
in a township of its own name, about 17 miles W. of
Goldsboro’. After the battle of Averysboro’ (Mar. 16,
1865) the army of Gen. Sherman marched towards Golds.
boro’, not anticipating any further contest before reaching
that destination; but Gen. Johnston, who had been con-
centrating the Confederate forces from Georgia, South
Carolina, and Tennessee at Smithfield, N. C. (now amount-
ing to 40,000), slipped out at night in light marching order,
expecting to fall upon the left wing of Sherman’s army,
under Gen. Slocum, and crush it before support could reach
him. . Gen. Slocum was at first driven back, but hastily
throwing up rifle-pits, assumed the defensive, Kilpatrick
with his cavalry supporting his left. Six assaults were
made by Johnston, which failed to dislodge the veterans
of Slocum from their position, while the artillery fire upon
the Confederates was very damaging. Night caused a
| cessation, Gen. Slocum still holding his ground. By morn-
ing of the next day the right wing had arrived to Slocum's
aid, and Johnston’s army had intrenched itself in a strong
| position. An attempt was made to cut off the line of the
Confederates’ retreat, but Johnston hastily retreated dur-
ing the night of Mar. 21 on Smithfield and Raleigh. The
Federal loss was upwards of 1600, killed and wounded; the
Confederate loss is not known : 267 dead, however, were
left on the field, and 1600 prisoners were taken. Pop. of
township, 922. . - ... * - - -
Bentonville, a post-village, the capital of Benton
co., Ark., 170 miles N. W. of Little Rock. It has an ac-
tive trade in tobacco, and has several manufactories. . .
Bentonville, a post-village of Sprigg townshi
Adams co., O. Pop. 310. g prigg ... • up,
Bent Timber. Of late years much attention has been
paid to the subject of bent timber on account of its strength
and economy. This operation is effected either by bending
| the timber whole or by bending it in planks, which are then
put together in pieces of any required thickness; both of
them have been used for ship- and for bridge-building.
When timber is bent whole, the requisite curvature is given
by steaming the beam and weighing down the side intended
to receive the curvature; but the objection to this plan is,
that steaming is apt to impair the durability of the wood,
and the radius of curvature must be always very flat. It
was to avoid these objections that the system was intro-
duced of cutting the logs into planks; and bending them
to the required curvature, as is often done in railway-
bridges and station-roofs. It has been found that the tim-
ber so bent remains sufficiently elastie to admit of con-
siderable movement under the weight of a train, and con-
sequently opens at the joints and allows water to act upon
Many bridges where these beams have been
BENUE–BERBERIDACEAE.
461
used have decayed; but in, sheltered, positions they have
stood admirably. It is to be observed that bent planks
retain a much greater degree of elasticity than the whole
timber.so managed, and that they are also more likely to
retain the original strength of the wood itself. (See EMY,
“Sur la Charpenterie.”) Bent timber was formerly much
used in shipbuilding in the form of natural-grown timber,
but its use is becoming more and more rare, on account of
the difficulty of obtaining natural-growth wood for that
purpose. . . - -
Benu'e (i.e. “the mother of waters”), a large river of
Central Africa, is the principal tributary of the Niger or
Quorra. Its source has not been explored. It flows nearly
westward through Sokoto, and enters the Niger at Lokoya,
which is about 300 miles from the mouth of the Niger.
Dr. Barth in 1851 crossed it near lon. 12° 30' E., and found
it there about 800 yards wide. Dr. Baikie in 1850 ascended
the Benue to Dulti or Dolti, which is about 400 miles from
its mouth. A second expedition to explore this river was
undertaken by Dr. Baikie in 1861. In 1867, Gerhard Rohlfs
travelled up this river from Dagbo to its entrance into the
Niger at Lokoya, a distance of about 150 miles. -
Ben Wade, a township of Pope co., Minn. Pop. 240.
Ben'zamide, C7H7NO = N.C, HBO.H.2, a primary amide
obtained in beautiful white crystals by several different
processes. . . . .
Benzene. See BENzoLE. - -
Benºzidine, C12H12N2 = N2.(C12H8)”.H4, an organic
base, diamine, formed by the reduction of azobenzene or
azoxybenzene. -
Ben’zie, a county in North-west Michigan. Area, .440
square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. and W. by Lake
Michigan, and drained by the Betsie River. Wheat, corn,
potatoes, and maple-sugar are the staple crops. Capital,
Benzonia. Pop. 2184, - - -
Ben’zinger, a township of Elk co., Pa. Pop. 1630.
Benzine. See BENzoLE.
Benzo’ic Acid, or Flowers of Benzoin, a sub-
stance which exists in many balsams and is obtained from
benzoin. It is artificially made on a large scale from naph-
thaline and the urine of animals. It occurs in the form of
snow-white acicular or feathery crystals, and has a pleasant
aromatic odor. It is readily soluble in alcohol and ether,
and is one of the ingredients of elixir paregoric (Tinctura
camphorae composita). Combined with oxide of zinc, it is a
most valuable application in many cases of eczema. It is
also used in the arts for various purposes.
formula of this acid is H.C7H5O2.
Benzoin', or Ben'jamin, Gum [Lat. benzoi/num], a.
fragrant resinous substance, is the concrete juice of a tree
called Styraac benzoin, which is a native of Sumatra, Siam,
and Borneo, and belongs to the natural order STYRACACEAE
(which see). The resin is obtained by making incisions in.
the bark of trees which are cultivated for that purpose. It
is extensively used as incense in Roman Catholic and Greek | .
churches; is also used in perfumery, and in medicine as a
stimulant, emetic, and styptic. A tincture of benzoin is
sometimes applied to wounds, and is employed in making
a cosmetic called virgin’s milk. - -
Benzo’in Odoriferum, a shrub more correctly called.
Lindera Benzoin, of the natural order. Lauraceae, a native.
of the U.S., popularly called Benjamin tree, spice bush,...
etc. Its bark is aromatic, stimulant, and tonic, and has
been used as a remedy for intermittent fevers. -
Benºzole, Benzene, Hydride of Phenyl, Or,
Phene (symbol C6H6), a compound of carbon and hydro-.
gen, is a product obtained by the distillation of coal or.
coal-tar. It can also be obtained by subjecting oil-gas
(carburetted hydrogen) to a pressure of thirty atmospheres,
by passing the vapor of benzoic acid through a red-hot
iron tube, by the dry distillation of kinic acid, or by dis-
tilling benzoic acid with lime. It is usually obtained from
the light oil of coal-tar, coal-tar naphtha, by fractional dis-
tillation, and purification with nitric and sulphuric acids.
Commercial benzole usually contains considerable quan-
tities of the homologous hydrocarbons toluole, C7H8, xylol,
C3H10, etc. It is prepared on a large scale for the man-
ufacture of nitrobenzole, aniline, and aniline colors, and
for “carbonizing” coal-gas. Benzole may be produced
synthetically by heating acetylene, C2H2, to a temperature a
little below redness. At ordinary temperatures, benzole is
a thin, limpid, colorless, and volatile liquid, emitting a
characteristic ethereal odor. Its specific gravity is 0.85 at
60° F.; its boiling-point is 179.6°F. At 37° F. it becomes
solid, or crystallizes into beautiful transparentºcrystals of
fern-like forms.
readily in alcohol, ether, and turpentine. It is valuable to
the chemist as a powerful solvent of caoutchouc, gutta-
The chemical
It is not soluble in water, but dissolves .
*r
percha, wax, and fatty substances. It is inflammable, and
possesses great illuminating power, which it imparts to
gases, and even to atmospheric air, when they are passed
through it. With chlorine, bromine, nitric acid, etc., ben-
zole forms interesting substitution products, the most im-
portant of which is nitrobenzole or essence of mirbane,
C6H5NO2. (See TAR.) C. F. CHANDLER.
Benzo'nia, a post-village and capital of Benzie co.,
Mich., on Betsie River, 5 miles from Frankfort. It is the
seat of Grand Traverse College, and has one weekly paper,
one church, and a park. Pop. of Benzonia township, 214.
J. A. PETTIT & Co., EDs. “BENZIE County Journ AL.”
Benzoyl', C.H50, the hypothetical radical which is sup-
posed to exist in benzoic acid and many kindred bodies.
Oil of bitter almonds is supposed to be its hydride.
Ben'zy!, Tolyl, or Toluenyl, Cºhn, a hypothetical
radical, isomeric with cresyl, which is contained in benzylic
alcohol, toluol (C7H8 = CIPIT.H), etc. -
Benzylamine, CHIH9N = N.C, H.H2. (See ToLUIDINE.)
Beſowulf', the title of a celebrated Anglo-Saxon poem,
written not later than the eighth century, and having for its
subject a semi-fabulous hero of Denmark. An English
translation of it appeared in London in 1833.
Béranger, de (JEAN PIERRE), an eminent French
lyric poet, born in Paris Aug. 19, 1780. He passed
about three years as an apprentice to a printer, and never
received a very liberal education. He was neglected by his
father, and spent many of his early years with an aunt,
who imbued his mind with virtuous and republican princi-
ples. His first essays in verse, which were written under
the pressure of poverty, obtained for him in 1804 the pat-
romage of Lucien Bonaparte. He was employed for nearly
twelve years as a clerk or subordinate secretary in the Uni-
versity of Paris. He published in 1815 a volume of songs
which became very popular. Some of his verses were
political, and contained satirical passages which were offen-
sive to the royalists, then the party in power. Having pro-
duced another volume of poems in 1821, he was prosecuted
and sentenced to an imprisonment for three months. This
increased the popularity of his songs, and failed to restrain
the freedom of his satire or abate the ardor of his republi-
canism. He published in 1828 a fourth volume, for which
he was sentenced to pay a fine of 10,000 francs and to be
imprisoned for nine months. When his friends obtained
power by the revolution of 1830, they offered him lucrative
places, which he declined. . He never published any poems
after 1833, the date of his fifth volume. He rejected all the
favors and overtures of Napoleon III. Died July 16, 1857.
His character was noble and, independent. . . In his poems .
gayety and pathose are combined with the happiest effect.
“His style,” says a French critic, “has a limpidity and
purity which defy criticism.” (See his autobiographic
memoirs, “Ma Biographie,” 1857; SAVINIEN LAPOINTE,
“Mémoires sur Béranger,” 1857; LONGFELLOW, “Poets and
Poetry of Europe.”)
Berard (CLAUDIUs), an eminent educator, born at Bor-
deaux, France, Mar. 21, 1786. In 1807 he emigrated to
the U. S., and in 1812 was appointed a professor at Dick-
inson College, Carlisle, Pa. In 1815 he accepted, an ap-
pointment as teacher in French at the U.S. Military Acad-
vemy at West Point, which position he held till 1846, when
under a law of Congress (1846) he was made professor,
continuing in this capacity till his death, May 6, 1848.
Berat’, a town of European Turkey, in Albania, on the
river Ergent, here crossed by a bridge, 30 miles N. E. of
Avlona. . It contains: a citadel, several. Greek churches, and
a number of mosques. It is the seat of a Greek archbishop.
The population is estimated at 10,000, a majority of whom
are Greeks. -
Ber’ber, or El Mesherif, a town of Nubia, on the
Nile. Roads lead from here to Egypt and Khartum. It
has considerable trade. Pop., according to Heuglin, 45,000.
Berbera, a seaport station of Eastern Africa, in So-
mauli, is on the Gulf of Aden, 130 miles E. S. E. of Zeyla.
Here is held an annual fair, which is attended by 100,000
persons from various foreign countries. They bring coffee,
gold-dust, ivory, slaves, cattle, etc. to exchange for cotton,
rice, and Indian piece-goods. It appears that Berbera has
scarcely any permanent population. The fair begins in
November, and continues nearly six months.
IBerberida’ceae, a natural order of exogenous plants,
comprises more than 100 known species, one of which is
the barberry (Berberis). They are natives of the temper-
ate regions of both hemispheres. They have alternate
leaves; and hypogynous stamens which are equal in num-
ber to the petals, with anthers opening curiously by valves
or lids hinged at the top. The pistil is single; the fruit is
a berry, or a capsule. (See BARBERRY.) -
462
Ber/berine, C20H11NO4, an alkaloid contained in the
roots of the barberry (Berberis vulgaris), of columbo (Coc-
culus palmatus), and Menispermum fenestratum, and in a
yellow bark used as a dye in West Africa.
Ber’bers [supposed by some writers to be derived from
the word Barbari, which the Greeks and Romans applied to
all foreigners], a name given to the uncivilized, nomadic
tribes of aborigines who inhabit the mountainous regions
of Barbary and the northern part of the Desert of Sahara.
They are sometimes called Kabyles, but they call them-
selves Amazeergh, Amazigh, or Amoshagh. They are the
descendants of the aboriginal or ancient inhabitants of
Northern Africa, who occupied the country before it was
conquered by the Arabs, and they are the most numerous
part of the present population. The Berbers vary in com-
plexion with situation. Those who inhabit the high valleys
of the Atlas have light hair and eyes, while those who oc-
cupy the oases of the Sahara are dark, approaching the
negroes in complexion, though their features are entirely
unlike theirs. Their language is allied to the Semitic in
type, and has received from F. W. Newman the name of
sub-Semitic. Language, customs, and physical type seem
to indicate. affiliation with the Semitic races of Asia, and
Eastern Africa. They are warlike, cruel, and very tenacious
of their independence. In religion they are bigoted Mo-
hammedans. They keep cattle and sheep, cultivate fruit
trees, and practise agriculture in a rude manner. Many
of them live in tents or in clay huts.
Ber/chem, a town of Belgium, in the province of Ant-
werp. It has factories of linen and tobacco. Pop. 5229.
Berdiansk', written also Berdjansk, a seaport-town
of Russia, in the government of Taurida, is on the N. shore
of the Sea of Azof, 184 miles N. E. of Simferopol. It has
a good roadstead and an active trade, and has been remark-
able for its rapid growth. It derives its prosperity partly
from the coal-mines and salt-lakes of the vicinity. Pop. in
1867, 12,465.
Berditchef”, or Berditschev, a town of Russia, in
the province of Kiev, 194 miles N. W. of Elisabetgrad. It
is meanly built, but is an important commercial town, hav-
ing four annual fairs, held between Aug. 15 and Sept. 15.
The value of the goods, cattle, corn, wine, etc. sold here
annually is estimated at $3,000,000. Pop. in 1867, 52,786,
mostly Jews.
Be’rea, a manufacturing village of Cuyahoga co., O., on
the Cleveland Columbus Cincinnati and Indianapolis and
Lake Shore and Michigan Southern R. Rs., 12 miles S. W.
of Cleveland. . It is noted for its inexhaustible quarries of
excellent sandstone, and ships 20,000 car-loads of building-
stone and grindstones yearly. It has two banks and one
newspaper, and is the seat of Baldwin University, a bibli-
cal school, etc. Pop. 1628.
P. B. GARDNER, Ed. “GRINDSTONE CITY ADvTERTISER.”
Berea College is beautifully situated in the southern
part of Madison co., Ky., 40 miles S. of Lexington and
140 from Cincinnati, very near the centre of the State. It
originated in the labors of Rev. John G. Fee, a native of
Kentucky, in the employment of the American Missionary
Association. Mr. Fee was the son of a slaveholder, but
earnestly embraced the anti-slavery cause while pursuing
theology at Lane Seminary, and, disowned by his father
and his Church, devoted his life to the salvation of his na-
tive State. The school, like its founder, was always noted
for its abolitionism ; yet, though its teachers were generally
from Oberlin, its pupils were often the sons and daughters
of slaveholders. Under the administration of Rev. J. A. R.
Rogers the institution became widely known and popular,
and its influence began to be feared. The John Brown
raid gave occasion for its enemies to rally, and a county
meeting sent a committee of sixty-five armed men to re-
move the School and its officers from the State. At the
close of the war it was immediately revived, and for the
last three years its annual average of students has been
270. These students represent thirty-eight towns and cities
of Kentucky and eleven other States, as the last catalogue
reports. Of these 18 are in the four college classes, 7 in
the ladies’ course, 16 in the normal course, and 43 in the
preparatory department. The most are in lower depart-
ments. About three-fifths of the students are males, and
nearly the same proportion colored. In the four higher
departments the white and colored are almost equal—41 and
43. This impartial character of the school causes no col-
lisions among the students, and only disturbs those who
have no responsibility in regard to it. They generally ac-
quiesce in silence. The commencement occurs on the first
Wednesday of July. Its first senior class of three young
men, all Kentuckians and all white, graduates this year
(1873). A single lady finishes the ladies’ course. The
course of study is the same as in other regular colleges,
BERBERINE–BERESFORD,
and the grade of scholarship as high as in young colleges
generally.
The present president, Rev. E. H. Fairchild, is the first.
He commenced his labors in the spring of 1869. Rev. J.
A. R. Rogers, professor of Greek; Henry F. Clark, A. M.,
professor of Latin; Albert A. Wright, A. M., professor of
chemistry, etc.; Henry R. Chittenden, A. B., principal of
the preparatory department; Mrs. Juliet C. Clark, princi-
pal ladies’ department. Five other young ladies are em-
ployed as teachers, principally in the lower departments.
There are fourteen trustees, and a ladies’ board of six. The
property of the college consists of 400 acres of land, esti-
mated at $20,000; Howard Hall, a very nice dormitory
building for young men, constructed of wood with tin roof,
$18,000; the new ladies’ hall, nearly completed, of brick,
with rooms for 110 ladies, $50,000; other temporary build-
ings, $2500; and endowments to the amount of $23,000.
Deduct from this the debts of the college, and the amount
necessary to complete the ladies’ hall, and the balance is
about $95,000. Tuition is very low—$2.50 and $3.50 per
quarter. The current expenses of the college, over $8000
per annum, are about half paid by benevolent friends. The
American Missionary Association sustains the professor of
Greek and three ladies in part. Future prospects are en-
couraging. - E. H. FAIRCHILD.
Bere/ans, an obscure sect seceding from the Established
Church in Scotland, founded by one Barclay in 1773. They
take their name from Acts xviii. 11, deny natural the-
ology, make all the Psalms Messianic, and hold assurance
to be of the essence of faith. Their numbers are small and
diminishing. -
Beregh, a county of Hungary, is bounded on the N. E.
by Galicia, on the E. by the county of Marmaras, on the S.
by the counties of Ugocsa and Szatmar, on the W. by the
county of Szabolcs, and on the N. W. by the county of
Ungvear. Area, 1440 square miles. The country is mostly
mountainous, and produces wine. Pop. in 1869, 159,223.
Chief town, Munkacs.
Beregszasz, a town of Hungary, in the county of
Beregh, has large vineyards and quarries. Pop. in 1870,
6272. -
Beren'gelite, or Berenge’la Resin, a bituminous
mineral found in a kind of pitch lake in Peru. (Phil. Mag.
[3] xiii., 329; xiv., 87.) ' -
Bérenger [Lat. Berengg/rius] of Tours, an eminent
French scholastic theologian, born at Tours in 998. He
studied under Fulbert of Chartres, and became archdeacon
of Angers in 1040. He rejected the dogma of transubstan-
tiation, and was excommunicated in 1050 for heresy by Pope
Leo IX. He was compelled to recant or abjure his error,
but afterwards relapsed, or continued to oppose the doc-
trines of the Church. Died in 1088. (See HEINRICH MüL-
LER, “Berengarii veteris movique Historia,” 1674; H. SU-
DENDORF, “Berengarius Turonensis,” etc., 1850.)
Bérenger (ALPHONSE MARIE MARCELLIN THOMAs, DE
LA DRóME), a French jurist, born May 31, 1785, exposed
the irregularities in the French courts in “De la justice
criminelle” (1818). He has written various treatises on
the reform of penal law, a “Rapport sur le système peni-
tentiare” (1836), and has labored to that end as magistrate
and in the Chamber of Peers.
Berenice, a daughter of Magas, governor of Cyrene,
was married to Ptolemy Euergetes, king of Egypt. Dur-
ing his absence on a military expedition she made a vow
to sacrifice her hair to Venus for his safe return, which vow
she performed. The astronomer Conon reported that Jupi-
ter had transformed this hair into the constellation now
called Coma Berenices (“Berenice's Hair”). She was put
to death by her son, Ptolemy Philopator, in 222 B.C. (See
CARL W. RAMLER, “Ptolemäus und Berenice,” 1765.)
Berenice (called Bernice in the New Testament), a
daughter of Agrippa I., king of Judea, was born in 28 A.D.
She was married to Herod, king of Chalcis, and after his
death to Polemon, king of Cilicia. During a visit to Rome
she captivated Titus, the son of the emperor Vespasian.
She was a sister of King Agrippa, before whom Saint Paul
spoke in his own defence. (See Acts xxv.)
Berenice, an ancient city of Egypt, on the Red Sea,
20 miles S. W. of Ras Bernass. It was founded by Ptole-
my Philadelphus, who named it after his mother, and was
a great emporium of the trade with India. The modern
name is Sakayt-el-Kublee. Here are the ruins of a temple
of Serapis and other interesting antiquities.
Ber’esford (JAMEs), an English surgeon, born in Bar-
bados in 1783. He was employed for many years as sur-
geon in the British army, and settled at Hartford, Conn.,
about 1833. Died in 1843.
Beresford (WILLIAM CARR), Wiscount, a general, born
BERETTYO-UJFALU—BERGMANN.
463
in Ireland Oct. 2, 1768, was a natural son of the first mar-
quis of Waterford. He took command of the Portuguese
army in Feb., 1809, and fought against the French in the
Peninsula. In May, 1811, he defeated Soult at Albuera.
He received the title of duke of Elvas in Spain, was created
a viscount in 1823, and was master-general of the ordnance
in 1828–30. Died Jan. 8, 1854.
Berettyo-Ujfalu, a market-town of Hungary, in the
county of Behar, 20 miles S. of Debreczin. Pop. 5760.
Berezi'na, or Beresi'na, a river of Russia, rises in
the government of Minsk, flows southward, and enters the
Dnieper above Rechitza. Its length is about 325 miles.
It is navigable, and is connected with the Düna by a canal
which opens a communication between the Baltic and Black
seas. The French army, retreating from Moscow in Nov.,
1812, suffered a great disaster in the passage of this river.
The French constructed hastily two bridges over the river,
but while they were crossing they were attacked by the
Russians, who took about 16,000 prisoners. The French
loss, besides the prisoners, amounted to nearly 12,000,
many of whom were drowned in the river.
Berez'na, a town of Russia, in the government of
Tchernigov, 23 miles E. N. E. of Tchernigov. Pop. 9678.
Ber/ga, a town of Spain, in the province of Barcelona,
53 miles N. W. of Barcelona. Pop. 5590.
Ber/gama (anc. Pergamum or Pergamus), a ruined city
of Asia Minor, in Anatolia, situated in a beautiful valley,
on the river Caicus, 46 miles N. N. W. of Smyrna. Pop.
about 14,000. The ancient city was the capital of the
kingdom of Pergamus, and the seat of one of the seven
churches of the Apocalypse. Here are extensive ruins of
a palace, temple, amphitheatre, and other edifices.
Bérgamo, a province of Italy, in Lombardy, is bound-
ed on the N. by Sondrino, on the E. by Brescia, on the
S. by Cremona, and on the W. by Como and Milan.
Area, 1027 square miles. The northern part is mountain-
ous. The soil of the plains and valleys is fertile. Silk is
among the products. Capital, Bergamo. Pop. 368,141.
Bergamo (anc. Bergomwm), a fortified city of Italy,
capital of the above province, is situated on several low
hills, 52 miles by rail N. E. of Milan. It presents a very
picturesque appearance, and is well built. It has a castle,
a cathedral, a college, a library, a theatre, many convents
and churches; also extensive manufactures of silk, cotton,
linen, and woollen fabrics. Bergomum was destroyed by
Attila in 452 A. D., after which it became an important
city of the Lombard kings. Bergamo is connected by
railways with Milan, Brescia, etc. Pop. 37,363.
Bergamot, the fruit of a tree which is a species or
variety of the genus Citrus, is also called Bergamot Or-
ange, or Mellarosa. According to some botanists, it
is a variety of the orange (Citrus awrantium). It is culti-
vated in the south of Europe. The fruit is pear-shaped,
of a pale yellow or green color, and has a green, sub-acid,
and fragrant pulp. From its rind is obtained by distilla-
tion the oil of bergamot, which has a very agreeable odor,
is extensively used in perfumery, and is an ingredient in
eau-de-cologne and several fragrant essences.
Ber/gen, a fortified city and seaport of Norway, capi-
tal of the province of Bergen, is at the head of a deep
bay (fiord) of the Atlantic, 184 miles W. N. W. of Chris-
tiania; lat. 60° 24′ N., lon. 5° 18' E.' It is picturesquely
situated at the foot of a mountain, and enclosed on nearly
all sides by water. The harbor is deep and safe, and is
defended by several forts. Bergen is well built, has a ca-
thedral, several hospitals, a theatre, a public library, a na-
tional museum, and a college. It is the seat of one of the
three public treasuries, and is probably the most commer-
cial town of Norway. A large portion of the population
is employed in the fisheries, and fish and cod-liver oil form
the chief articles of export. It is stated that in the spring
600 fishing-vessels may be seen at once in the harbor.
These vessels bring cargoes of fish that were caught in the
preceding winter on the northern shores. Bergen was
founded in 1070, and was once a Hanse town. Pop. 29,210.
Bergen, a county of New Jersey, bordering on New
York. Area, 350 square miles. It is bounded on the E.
by the Hudson River, and intersected by the Hackensack
and Ramapo. The Passaic River forms part of the S. W.
boundary. The surface is partly hilly, and the Palisades
of the Hudson extend along its eastern border. Dairy and
garden products, corn, and potatoes are the chief crops. It
is intersected by the Erie R. R. Magnetic iron ore is found
here. It has various important manufactures. Capital,
Hackensack. Pop. 30,122. *
Bergen, a post-township of McLeod co., Minn. Pop.
88.
Bergen, a former village and township of Hudson co.,
N. J., on the top of Bergen Ridge, 3 miles W. of New
York. It was merged into Jersey City in 1870.
Bergen, a post-township of Genesee co., N. Y. P. 1997.
Bergen, a township of Marathon co., Wis. Pop. 86.
Bergen, a township of Vernon co., Wis. Pop. 795.
Ber/gen-op-Zoom, or Berg-op-Zoom, a strong-
ly-fortified town of Holland, in North Brabant, is on the
river Zoom, at its junction with the East Scheldt, 27 miles
by rail W. S. W. of Breda. It is important as a military
position, and has often been besieged. The Spaniards
made unsuccessful attempts to take it in 1588, in 1605, and
in 1622. In the last-named year General Spinola lost about
10,000 men in the siege. It was taken by the French in
1747, and again in 1794. An English army attacked it
without success in Mar., 1814. Pop. 9431.
Bergerac, a town of France, in Dordogne, is situated
in a fertile plain on the right bank of the river Dordogne,
here crossed by a fine bridge of five arches, 27 miles S. W.
of Périgueux, and 51 miles E. of Bordeaux. It has a col-
lege, a public library, and manufactures of paper, hosiery,
serges, and copper-ware. The Bergerac wine produced in
this vicinity is highly esteemed. This town was formerly
fortified, and sustained several sieges. . Pop. 12,224.
Bergh (HENRY), philanthropist, born in the city of New
York in 1823, educated at Columbia College, is the author
of “Love's Attractions,” a drama; “Married Off,” a poem;
“The Portentous Telegram,” “The “Ocean Paragon,”
“The Streets of New York,” tales and sketches. In 1863,
Mr. Bergh was made secretary of legation to Russia, and
was afterwards a vice-consul there. He is known, not as
a' writer, diplomatist, or government official, but as the
founder and president of the American Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. On his labors for the
dumb creation rests his fame. Alone, in the face of indif-
ference, opposition, and ridicule, he began the reform which
is now recognized as one of the beneficent movements of
the age. Through his exertions as a speaker and lecturer,
but above all as a bold worker, in the street, in the court-
room, before the legislature, the cause he adopted gained
friends and rapidly increased in influence. The American
society was incorporated April 10, 1866, by the legislature
of New York, and, according to the seventh annual report
(1873), similar societies had been then founded in twenty-
five States and Territories and in Canada. The society
has nine branches in the State of New York. There are 2
in California, 4 in Massachusetts, 2 in Maine, 4 in New
Jersey, 4 in Ohio, 3 in Pennsylvania, 1 each in Virginia,
Tennessee, Texas, Rhode Island, Oregon, North Caro-
lina, New Hampshire, Mississippi, Michigan, Minnesota,
Maryland, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, Georgia, Wash-
ington, D. C., Connecticut, and Colorado Territory. The
work of the society covers all cases of cruelty to all
sorts of animals, from the horse to the tortoise, employs
every moral agency, social, legislative, personal, and
touches points of vital concern to health as well as to
humanity—the transportation of cattle intended for the .
shambles, the purity of milk, the times and manner of
killing for the market. The total number of cases of
all kinds prosecuted by the parent society, its branches
and agents, since its foundation, is 2094. The membership
is large and influential; the cause finds liberal benefactors,
Mr. Lewis Bonard, a man who lived and died in extreme
indigence and bequeathed a valuable estate to the society,
being the greatest. Through this munificence handsome
quarters were provided in the city, besides a considerable
portion of the annual income of more than $30,000. The
work takes on new features every year. Among the latest
are an ambulance corps, and an ingenious invention for
substituting artificial for live pigeons as marks for shoot-
ing. O. B. FROTHINGHAM.
Berg/isch-Glad/bach, a town of Prussia, in the
Rhine province, 7 miles by rail E. N. E. of Müllheim. It
has considerable manufactures of paper, linen, woollen, and
silk goods, potash, percussion caps, etc. Pop. in 1871, 6.195.
Berg'mann (KARL), born at Ebersbach, in Germany,
April, 1821, removed to America in 1849, and became about
1855 director of the Philharmonic Society in New York.
He has composed numerous pieces for orchestras.
Berg'mann (TorbBRN OLOF), PH. D., a celebrated
Swedish chemist, born at Catherinberg, in West Gothland,
Mar. 20, 1735. He was educated at the University of
Upsal, and devoted himself to natural history, physics, and
mathematics. He obtained the chair of chemistry at Up-
sal in 1767. He discovered sulphuretted hydrogen, and
first obtained important results from the use of the blow-
pipe. He laid the foundation of the science of crystallog-
raphy. Among his works are an “Essay on Electric Affin-
ities” (1775), and “Opuscula. Physica et Chemica” (6 vols.,
1779–90). Died July 8, 1784. (See P. F. AURIVILLIUs,
464.
BERGMEHL-BERKS.
“Aminnelse-Tal $fver T. O. Bergman,” 1785; BIOT, article
in the “Biographie Universelle.”)
#Berg'mehl, a German word signifying “mountain
meal,” is a name of an extremely fine powder found in geo-
logical strata of recent (eocene) formation, and composed of
effete and indestructible silicious frustules of Diatomaceae,
which are microscopic plants of the class Algae. Vast beds
of these fossils occur in Germany, Lapland, Va., Md., Vt.,
N. H., and other regions. This powder is mixed with flour,
and used as food by the people of Sweden and Norway in
seasons of Scarcity. It is used in making water-glass and the
floating bricks of Southern Europe and as polishing-powder.
Berg'sée (WILHELM), PH. D., a Danish novelist, born
Feb. 8, 1835, was in youth a zoologist, attaining distinction
in that field. But in consequence of the failure of his eye-
sight, and of a long and severe illness, he was disqualified
for his favorite study, and went to Italy for his health. He
became a successful writer of romances. His first venture,
“Fra Piazza del Popolo” (1866), had a great success. He
has also published “I Sabinerbjergene” (“In the Sabine
Hills,” 1871), and “ Bruden fra Rörvig" (“The Bride of
Rörvig,” 1872). His fame as a novelist is rapidly in-
creasing. -
Bergues, a fortified town of France, in the department
of Nord, on the river Colne, 5 miles by rail S. S. E. of Dun-
kirk. It is connected by a canal with Dunkirk and the
sea, and has an active trade, sugar-refineries, and manu-
factures of soap, tobacco, and earthenware. Pop. 5738.
Ber/gylt (Sebasſtes Norveg/icus or Scorpaena Norvegica),
The Bergylt.
a fish of the family Sclerogenidae, resembles a perch in ap-
pearance so much that it has been called sea-perch. It is
found in all the northern seas, is of a red-color, and attains
a length of two feet or more. . It is used as food. . It is
found on both sides of the Atlantic. -
Berhampoor', or Berhampore, a town of British
Iridia, in the presidency of Bengal, on the Bhagirathi
River, 6 miles S. of Moorshedābād, and 118 miles by land
N. of Calcutta. It is one of the principal British military
stations in India, and has an appearance of grandeur and
importance. Sanitary improvements have rendered it one
of the most healthy places in Bengal. - -
Ber’i-ber’i, a disease almost peculiar to Ceylon and a
part of Hindostan. It is attended by great weakness, often
dropsy and paralysis, and is generally fatal in a few days
or weeks. It especially attacks the intemperate, who are
very numerous in Ceylon, and those who are exposed to the
effects of bad air, impure water, and insufficient food.
Berja, a town of Spain, in the province of Almería,
on the S. slope of the Sierra de Gador, 22 miles W. S. W.
of Almería. It is in the midst of lead-mines, and has man-
ufactures of linen, hats, hardware, etc. Pop. 8000.
Ber’islav, a town of Russia, in the government of Cher-
son, on the Dnieper, 40 miles E. of Cherson. Pop. in 1867,
6023. - -
Berkeley, a county of the N. E. of West Virginia.
Area, 250 square miles.
Potomac River, and on the S. E. by Opequan Creek. It is
the most northern part of the Valley of Virginia. The sur-
face is partly hilly; the soil of the valleys is fertile. Lime-
stone and coal are found here. Wheat, corn, oats, and wool
are staple products. It is intersected by the Baltimore and
Ohio R. R. Capital, Martinsburg. Pop. 14,900. -
Berkeley, a post-village of Alameda co., Cal., the seat
of the University of California and the State Agricultural
College, is 5 miles N. of Oakland and 9 from San Francisco.
Berkeley, a township of Spottsylvania co., Va. P. 1801.
Berkeley (GEORGE), an eminent philosopher and
bishop, was born at Kilcrin, Ireland, on the 12th of Mar.,
1684. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin, where he
formed a friendship with Dean Swift, and became a fellow
of that college in 1707. He published in 1709 his “Essay
towards a New Theory of Vision,” a work of wide reputa-
tion. He propounded his celebrated theory of idealism in
§ of Ethical Philosophy.)
(1836), “Handbook of Cryptogamic Botany”
It is bounded on the N. E. by the
a “Treatise concerning the Principles of Human Know-
ledge” (1710), in which he affirmed that there is no proof
of the existence of a material world. The objects of which
we are conscious in perception he called “ideas.” Their
presence he held to be due to the constant agency of the
Almighty; who causes them to pass in a real and orderly
succession before the mind. His views are the result of
the application of rigid logic to the principles which Locke
and his school had adopted from Descartes. His method
was allied to that of Malebranche, though his conclusions
were drawn with a boldness from which the French philos-
opher recoiled. As distinguished from the egoistic system
of Fichte, Berkeley’s views have been called theistic ideal-
ism. His object was to undermine materialism, and coun-
teract skepticism. In 1713 he removed to London, and
wrote several essays for the “Guardian.” He accompanied
Lord Peterborough as chaplain to Italy, and returned to
England about 1721. In 1724 he became dean of Derry,
with an income of £1100. His abundant charity and zeal
induced him to engage in an enterprise for the conversion
of the American savages, for which purpose he proposed to
found a college in America for the education of mission-
aries. Having received a promise of pecuniary aid from
the government, he married Anna, a daughter of John
Forster, in 1728, and sailed to Rhode Island. He preached
at Newport two years, but he did not succeed in his enter-
prise, because the ministers failed to perform their promise.
He returned home, and was appointed bishop of Cloyne
in 1734. Among his works are “Alciphron, or the Minute,
Philosopher” (1732), “The Analyst” (1735), and a “Word
to the Wise” (1749). He died at Oxford Jan. 23, 1753,
leaving an excellent reputation as a model of virtue.
“Ancient learning,” says Sir J. Mackintosh, “exact
#: science, polished society, modern literature, and the
# fine arts contributed to adorn and enrich the mind of
# this accomplished man. All his contemporaries agreed .
# with the satirist [Pope] in ascribing ‘to Berkeley
# every virtue under heaven.’” (View of the Progress
(See DR. Stock, “Life of.-
Berkeley,” prefixed to his works, 2 vols. 4to, 1784; G.
N. WRIGHT, “Life of George Berkeley,” prefixed to
his works, 1843. Berkeley’s works have recently been
edited, with a life annexed, by Prof. Fraser, in 4 vols.
8vo, Oxford, 1871.)
Berkeley (Rev. MILEs Jose:PH), F. L. S., one of the
most eminent of English botanists of the present century,
was born in 1803, and educated at Rugby and Christ's
College, Cambridge, where he graduated with honors in
1825. He obtained several Church preferments, but his
chief distinction has been won in science. As a botanist
his attention has been principally directed to the lower
Cryptogamia. He is honorary member of many of the
scientific societies of Europe. His monographs are very
numerous. He is the author of “ Gleanings of British
Algae'' (1833), the last volume of the “English Flora.”
(1857),
“British Fungology” (1860), “British Mosses” (1863), etc.
Berkeley (Sir WILLIAM) was born near London. He
was appointed governor of Virginia in 1641, and held that
office for many years. He was a royalist in the civil war,
and was removed from power in 1651 by Cromwell, but be-
came governor again in 1660. He rendered himself un- .
popular by his cruelty in putting to death the adherents
of Nathaniel Bacon, and he once said, “I thank God there
are no free schools or printing-presses in Virginia.” Died
in England July 13, 1677.
Berkeley, EARLs of, and Wiscounts. Dursley (1679),
Barons Berkeley (1416, in England), a prominent family
of Great Britain.—THOMAS MoRETON FITz-HARDINGE
BERKELEY, the sixth earl, born Oct. 19, 1796, succeeded
his father in 1810.
Berkeley Springs, West Virginia. See BATH.
Ber/kenhout (John), an English physician of Dutch
descent, was born at Leeds in 1730. He was sent to Amer-
ica as an agent of the British government in 1788, and was
imprisoned by Congress as a spy. He wrote “Biographia
Literaria,” “Outlines of the Natural History of Great
Britain,” and a “Botanical Lexicon.” Died in 1791.
Berk’ley, a post-township of Bristol co., Mass. It con-
tains the celebrated Dighton Rock. Pop. 744.
Berks, a county in the S. E. of Pennsylvania. Area,
920 square miles. It is intersected by the Schuylkill River,
and also drained by Tulpehocken and other creeks. The
Kittatinny or Blue Mountain forms the N. W. boundary
of this county, the surface of which is finely diversified.
The soil is fertile, especially in the large limestone valley
between the Kittatinny and the ridge called South Moun-
tain. Grain, cattle, dairy products, potatoes, and wool are
extensively produced. It has rich iron-mines, which are



BERKSHIRE–BERLIN.
465
extensively worked. The county is intersected by the
Philadelphia and Reading and the Reading and Columbia
R. Rs. It was settled by Germans about 1734. It has im-
portant manufactures of many kinds of goods. Capital,
Reading. Pop. 106,701.
Berk'shire, an inland county of England, bounded on
the N. by Oxford and Bucks, on the E. by Surrey, on the
S. by Hampshire, and on the W. by Wiltshire. Area, 705
square miles, or 451,210 acres. The river Thames forms
its entire boundary on the N. and N. E. The surface is
beautifully diversified by hills and valleys. In the S. E.
is Windsor Forest and Park. This forest consists of oak,
ash, beech, alder, and hazel trees. The county is drained
by the river Kennet and other streams. The soil of the
valleys is mostly a fertile loam, with a subsoil of chalk,
gravel, or clay. Wheat, oats, horses, and swine are the
staple products. The Great Western Railway passes
through Berkshire. Capital, Reading. P. in 1871, 196,445.
Berkshire, a county which forms the W. extremity of
Massachusetts, bordering on New York and Vermont, has
an area of about 1000 square miles. It is drained by the
Hoosic, Westfield, and Housatonic rivers, which rise within
its limits, and afford abundant water-power. The surface
is finely diversified by mountains, hills, and valleys, and
presents very picturesque scenery. Saddle Mountain (Grey-
lock), in the N. part, is the highest point in the State. The
soil is generally productive, and adapted to grazing. Dairy
products, corn, potatoes, wool, and tobacco are the chief
products. ‘The manufactures of cotton and woollen goods,
paper, and glass are important. Marble, limestone, and
iron ore abound here. The county is intersected by the
Boston and Albany R. R. and the Housatonic R. R. Cap-
ital, Pittsfield. Pop. 64,827.
Berkshire, a post-twp. of Tioga co., N.Y. Pop. 1240.
Berkshire, a post-township of Delaware co., O. Pop.
1336. f
1. Berkshire, a post-township of Franklin co., Vt.
609.
Ber/lat, a town in Moldavia, on the Berlat, 63 miles
S. of Jassy. It is an entrepôt for grain. Pop. 13,165.
Ber’liching'en, von (GöTZ or GoTTFRIED), a famous
German knight, surnamed OF THE IRON HAND, was born in
1480 at Berlichingen Castle, in Würtemberg. He lost a hand
at the siege of Landshut, and supplied its place by an iron
hand. He was a daring and turbulent subject, was involved
in several feuds with neighboring barons, and fought for the
insurgent peasants against the nobles in the Peasants' War,
which closed in 1525. For this offence he was placed under
the ban of the empire by Maximilian I. He died in 1562,
and left an autobiography (1731). His exploits form the
subject of Goethe's drama of “Götz von Berlichingen.”
(See CARL LANG, “Ritter G. von Berlichingen,” 1825;
Büsch ING, “Leben Götz von Berlichingen,” 1814.)
Ber/lin, the capital of the Prussian monarchy and the
new German empire, residence of the German emperor, seat
of the highest authorities of Prussia and Germany, is situ-
ated on the Spree; lat. 52° 30' N., lon. 13° 24' E. The city
is of comparatively modern growth. The two oldest parts,
Old Cologne and Old Berlin, are for the first time mentioned
in 1237 and 1244. They were in 1307 consolidated into one
city, which joined the Hanse, became the head of the con-
federation of the towns of Mark, and at the close of the
fifteenth century became the residence of the electors of
Brandenburg. Its rapid growth dates from the reign of
“ the great elector,” at whose death it numbered about
20,000 inhabitants. Under Frederick the Great the popu-
lation rose to 114,000; in 1817 its inhabitants numbered
188,000; in 1844, 311,000; in 1851,436,000; in 1867, 702,000;
and, according to the census of 1871, it had attained the
number of 825,389 persons, who, with the exception of
50,000 Roman Catholics and 30,000 Jews, belong to the
Protestant Church, and chiefly to the United Evangelical
State Church. In 1867 the city had about 34,000 buildings,
among which there were about 700 public buildings and
sixty churches. Berlin consists of sixteen different parts,
of which Old Berlin, on the right bank of the Spree, and
Old Cologne, on an island, are the oldest. The others are
New Cologne, settled about 1681; Friedrichswerder, 1658;
Dorotheenstadt, Neustadt, 1673; Friedrichsstadt, 1694;
Luisenstadt, 1669; Stralauer Viertel, 1705; Königsstadt,
1693; Spandauer Revier (Sophienstadt, 1691); and Fried-
rich-Wilhelmstadt, named since 1828. Inside of the wall,
which formerly included the whole of these eleven parts,
are situated Wedding (Oranienburger Vorstadt); Moabit
(Voigtland, 1752); AEussere Friedrichsstadt (laid out in
1838); AEusseres Spandauer Revier, Schöneberger, and
Tempelhofer Revier.
The principal streets are Unter den Linden, with four rows
of lime trees and the stately Brandenburg Gate, the Wil-
Pop.
everything relating to this great German city.
helmsstrasse, and Königsstrasse. Foremost among the pub-
lic places are the Opera. Place, with the equestrian statue
of Frederick the Great by Rauch (erected in 1851); the
Lustgarten (laid out in 1828), with the museums; the
Gensdarmenplatz, with the new theatre; the Wilhelmplatz,
with the statues of Schwerin, Winterfeld, Seidlitz, Keith,
Ziethen, and Leopold of Dessau; the Belle Alliance Platz,
with the Victoria Column (since 1843); the Leipziger Platz,
with the monument of the count of Brandenburg; and the
Pariser Platz. The most important bridges are the Kur-
fürstenbrücke, with a statue of “the great elector;” the
Friedrichsbrücke, with eight iron arches; the Schloss-
brücke, built in 1824, upon two massive arches and with
eight allegorical marble groups; the iron Weidendammer-
brücke, built in 1826; and the Alsenbrücke, built in 1867.
Among the remarkable public buildings are the Königliche
Schloss, with the Weisser Saal; the Königliche Palast, with
which the palace of Prince Louis is incorporated; the pal-
aces of the crown prince and the princes Charles and Al-
brecht; the Arsenal; the Artillery School, and the Univer-
sity (formerly palace of Prince Henry); the Singing Acad-
emy; the Exchange; the Old Museum, built in 1828 by
Schinkel, and containing a celebrated picture-gallery, which
is rich in paintings by the early Italian and German mas-
ters, and in collections of ancient sculpture and other an-
tiquities. Connected with the Old Museum is the New
Museum, begun in 1843, and chiefly formed of the Egyp-
tian antiquities brought home by the expedition under
Lepsius.
#. has no churches of importance in point of archi-
tecture. The university was established in 1810, and is in
every respect one of the greatest literary institutions of the
world. It had in 1868 about 3000 students, and from its
beginning has counted among its professors many of the
most celebrated scholars, such as Humboldt, Ritter, Fichte,
Hegel; Schelling, Neander, Schleiermacher, and Virchow.
The Royal Library numbered in 1870 about 700,000 vol-
umes and more than 15,500-manuscripts. It rapidly in-
creases, as Prussian publishers are bound to deposit in it a
copy of every new work. The library of the university has
about 100,000 volumes. Other important literary institu-
tions are the Academy of Science, the Polytechnic Insti-
tute, the Building Academy, the Navy School, the Mining
Academy, the Pharmaceutical School, institutions for the
deaf and mute and for the blind, and ten gymnasia. The
Charité, the greatest hospital of Berlin, has had as many
as 10,000 patients in a year.
The trade and commerce of Berlin are extensive. The
castings in iron and the china manufactures of Berlin have
a world-wide reputation. The increase of railroad connec-
tion has of late given a powerful impulse to the develop-
ment of industry, and the large numbers of the laboring
classes have made Berlin one of the chief centres of the
Internationale. The revenue and expenditure of Berlin
amount to about five million thalers annually ; the debt, to
8,000,000 thalers. The authorities of the city have estab-
lished a statistical bureau specially devoted to the statistics
and history of Berlin; an annual publication by the presi-
dent of this bureau (“Berlin und seine Entwickelung,”
established in 1866) is the best source of information for
A. J. SCHEM.
Berlin, a town, the capital of Waterloo co., Ontario,
Dominion of Canada, on the Grand Trunk Railway, 62
miles W. S. W. of Toronto, at the junction of the Doom
branch. It has two weekly papers, fourteen churches, a
large button-factory, and other important manufacturing
interests. Its trade is extensive. Pop. 2743.
Berlin, a township of Chambers co., Ala. Pop. 2018.
Berlin, a post-village and township of Hartford Co.,
Conn., on the New Haven Hartford and Springfield R. R.,
25 miles N. N. E. of New Haven. Pop. of township, 2436.
Berlin, a township of Bureau co., Ill. Pop. 1469.
Berlin, a township of Clinton co., Ia. Pop. 805.
Berlin, a post-township of Worcester co., Mass., is on
the Boston Clinton and Fitchburg R. R., 40 miles N. W.
of Boston. Pop. 1016.
Berlin, a post-village of Worcester co., Md., at the
eastern terminus of the Wicomico and Pocomoke R. R.;
and north-western terminus of the Worcester R. R., 14
miles from Snow Hill. Pop. 697; of township, 4330.
Berlin, a township of Ionia co., Mich. Pop. 1587.
Berlin, a township of Monroe co., Mich. Pop. 1844.
Berlin, a township of St. Clair co., Mich. Pop. 1231.
Berlin, a post-township of Steele co., Minn. Pop. 409.
Berlin, a township of Coos co., N.H. It has manu-
factures of lumber, etc. Pop. 529.
Berlin, a post-village and township of Rensselaer co.,
3ſ)
466
BERLIN–BERNARD.
N. Y., on the New York and Harlem Extension R. R., 162
miles N. N. E. of New York City. Pop. of township, 2088.
Berlin, a township of Delaware co., O. Pop. 1330.
Berlin, a township of Erie co., O. Pop. 1741.
Berlin, a post-township of Holmes co., O. Pop. 1007.
Berlin, a township of Knox co., Q. Pop. 887.
Berlin, a township of Mahoning co., O. Pop. 963.
Berlin, a post-borough of Somerset co., Pa., 70 miles
S. E. of Pittsburg. Pop. 640.
Berlin, a township of Wayne co., Pa. Pop. 1295.
Berlin, a post-township of Washington co., Vt. Pop.
1474. It has manufactures of leather and lumber.
Berlin, a city and township of Green Lake co., Wis.,
on Fox River, at the termination of a branch of the Mil-
waukee and St. Paul R. R., 94 miles N. W. of Milwaukee.
Steamboats ply between this point and Green Bay, etc.
It has one bank, three grist and flouring mills, two saw-
mills, one foundry, and manufactures of turbine-wheels,
whips, gloves, woollen goods, etc. It has two newspapers,
a city park, and a high-school. Pop. of city, 2777; of
township, 3800. ED. “BERLIN COURANT.”
Berlin, a township of Marathon co., Wis. Pop. 879.
Berlin and Ivor, a post-township of Southampton co.,
Va. Pop. 2674.
Berlin Blue. See PRUSSIAN BLUE.
Berlin Heights, a post-village of Erie co., O., is the
seat of a celebrated community of Spiritualists.
Berlioz (HECTOR LOUIs), a French musical composer,
born Dec. 11, 1803, at Côte-Saint-André (Isère). The son
of a physician sent to Paris to study medicine, he entered
the Conservatory, following a passionate bent for music.
He composed “Symphonie Fantastique,” overtures to
“Waverley” and “King Lear,” “Harold’ (1833), and
“Romeo et Juliette” (1839), symphonies; “Benvenuto
Cellini,” an opera in two acts, “Symphonie Funèbre et
Triumphale” (1840), “Damnation de Faust” (1846), a
symphony, “Enfance de Christ,” a trilogy (1854), and
“Les Trogens,” a grand five-act opera, played without
success in 1863. M. Berlioz has been considered the chief
of the romantic school. His works bespeak an ardent and
independent genius, and have elicited diverse criticism.
He was also a talented author and critic, and has published
“Traité d'instrumentation et d'orchestration moderne’”
(1844), “Voyage musicale en Allemagne et en Italie,”
“Etudes sur Beethoven, Plück, et Weber” (1845), “Soirées
de l'orchestre’ (1853), “Les Grotesques de la musique”
(1859), and “Mémoires” (1870). Died Mar. 9, 1869.
Berme, in fortification, is a ledge or narrow level space,
three or more feet wide, at the bottom of the outside of a
rampart where it joins the scarp. It serves as a passage-
way for the garrison, and to prevent the earth and other
materials from falling into the ditch when the rampart is
battered by the enemy.
Bermu'da, a township of Chesterfield co., Va. P. 877.
Bermuda Grass, the Cynodon Dactylon, a grass
which is extensively cultivated in India (where it is called
dhab), and of late years introduced into the West Indies,
Europe, the Southern U. S., and the Sandwich Islands.
It is valuable both for pasture-grass and hay, and is espe-
cially prized in warm climates, where the grass crop is
generally poor; but in light soils, especially northward, its
perennial roots cause great trouble to the farmer.
Bermu'da Hun' dred, in Chesterfield co., Va., on
the right bank of the James River, just above the mouth
of the Appomattox, and 1% miles above City Point. The
tortuous course of the James River here encloses a neck of
land which Gen. Butler occupied and fortified in May,
1864, and from which he was to co-operate with Gen.
Grant by menacing Richmond and Petersburg. On the
morning of the 16th of May, 1864, Gen. Butler, who had
moved out of his works, was fiercely attacked by the Con-
federate force under Beauregard, and after a severe strug-
gle, which lasted till noon, driven back into his intrench-
ments with severe loss. Beauregard, following slowly,
erected a line of works across the peninsula in front of
Butler's. Subsequent expeditions were made from these
works, and the line finally formed a part of the investment
lines of the combined armies against Petersburg.
Bermu'da Islands, or Bermu’das [Fr. Bermudes],
or Somers’s Islands, a group of small, low islands in
the Atlantic Ocean, belonging to Great Britain. They take
their name from Juan Bermudez, who discovered them in
1522. They are about 624 miles E. S.E. of Cape Hatteras,
which is the nearest land, and are in lat. 32° 20' N., and
Hon. 64° 50' W. The extent of the group is only 19 miles
by 6 miles, although the number of islets is nearly 400.
Area, 24 square miles. They derive importance from the
commanding position which they occupy between the West
Indies and the other parts of British America. They are
enclosed on several sides by formidable coral-réefs, which
are said to be the only coral-reefs occurring in the central
expanse of the Atlantic. The climate is so mild and de-
lightful that these islands are covered with perpetual ver-
dure. Between December and March the temperature
ranges from 60° to 66° F. The chief articles of export
are potatoes, onions, and arrow-root. The largest of these
islands are Bermuda, 15 miles long; St. George's, 3% miles;
Somerset, 3 miles; and Ireland, 3 miles. Capital, Hamil-
ton, on the isle of Bermuda. St. George’s Isle has a good
landlocked harbor, which is defended by strong batteries.
These isles are separated by narrow and intricate channels,
and have no streams, and but few pools of fresh water.
Many of the inhabitants are employed in building cedar
vessels, which are durable and swift. Pop. in 1863, 11,796.
Bern, a township of Athens co., O. Pop. 1014.
Bern, a township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 2124.
Bernadotte, a post-township of Fulton co., Ill. P.1253.
Bernadotte, a township of Nicollet co., Minn. P. 214.
Bernadotte (Charles XIV.), JoHN, king of Sweden,
a French marshal, born at Pau Jan. 26, 1764. His original
name was JEAN BAPTISTE JULES BERNADoTTE. He enlisted
as a private in the army in 1780, served as general of divis-
ion under Kleber and Jourdan in Flanders in 1794, and
under Bonaparte in 1797. In 1798 he was French minister
at Vienna, and married Mademoiselle Clary, a sister of
Joseph Bonaparte's wife. He was minister of war for a
short time in 1799. Napoleon created him a marshal of
France in 1804, and in June, 1806, prince of Pontecorvo.
He fought at Austerlitz in 1805, and defeated the Prussians
at Halle in Oct., 1806. He quarrelled with Napoleon, who
censured his conduct at Wagram (1809), and he resigned
his command just after that battle. In Aug., 1810, the
Swedish Diet elected Bernadotte as heir to the throne of
Sweden, then occupied by Charles XIII., who had no son,
and he was immediately associated with the old king in
the exercise of royal power. Early in 1812, Bernadotte, who
took the name of Charles John, negotiated with Russia, a
secret treaty of alliance against Napoleon. He openly
joined the coalition of the allies in the spring of 1813, and
led an army of about 28,000 men into Germany. His
army defeated Oudinot at Gross-Beeren in Aug., 1813, but
his conduct was considered equivocal and lukewarm by the
allies. He forced Prince Christian of Denmark, who had
proclaimed himself king of Norway, to resign, and on Nov.
4, 1814, Charles XIII. was proclaimed king, and Berna-
dotte crown prince. When the allies entered France in
1814, he led his army back to Sweden and conquered Nor-
way. He began to reign alone on the death of Charles
XIII., in Feb., 1818, after which a long peace ensued. He
died in Mar., 1844, and left the throne to his son, Oscar I.
(See ERIK G. GEIJER, “ Konung Karls XIV. Johan His-
toria,” 1844; W. G. MEREDITH, “Memorials of Charles
(XIV.) John, King of Sweden,” 1829.)
Bernal'da, a town of Italy, in the province of Potenza,
46 miles S. E. of Potenza. Pop. 5862.
Bernalil'Io, a large county in the W. part of New
Mexico, is intersected by the Rio Grande and Rio Puerco.
The surface is partly mountainous; the valley of the Rio
Grande is productive. Hides, wool, corn, and wine are
produced. Gold, silver, lead, iron, copper, and coal abound.
Capital, Albuquerque. Pop. 7591.
Bernard (CLAUDE), an eminent French physiologist,
born at Saint Julien, in Rhône, July 12, 1813. He wrote
“Researches on the Uses of the Pancreas,” which gained
the grand prize of the Institute in 1849. He was admitted
into the Institute in 1854, and became professor of phys-
iology in the College of France in 1855. Bernard discov-
ered the glycogenic function of the liver. He was created
grand officer of the Legion of Honor in 1862. Among his
best-known works are “Leçons de Physiologie” (1855),
and “Mémoire sur la Chaleur animale '' (1856).
Bernard (Sir FRANCIs), an English lawyer, born in
1714, who became governor of New Jersey in 1758, and of
Massachusetts in 1760. He was unpopular in Massachu-
setts because he brought troops into Boston and opposed
liberal measures. He was accused of misconduct, but re-
called and made a baronet in 1769. Died June 16, 1779.
Bernard, SAINT, abbot of Clairvaux, an eminent medi-
aeval theologian, and a doctor of the Western Church, born
at Fontaines, near Dijon, in 1091. He became an inmate
of the monastery of Čiteaux in 1113, and founded in 1115
a community of the Cistercian order at Clairvaux, in Cham-
pagne, of which he was the first abbot. His ascetic life
and eloquence rendered him a very influential and power-
ful person in the Church. He was regarded as an oracle by
all Christendom, founded a large number of monasteries,
BERNARD–BERNOULLI.
467
and was an implacable adversary of Abelard. He zealously
promoted the crusade of 1146, which was disastrous to those
who joined it. He died Aug. 20, 1153, leaving many relig-
ious works, and was canonized in 1174. (See LEMAïTRE,
“Vie de Saint Bernard,” 1649; A. NEANDER, “Der heilige
Bernard und sein Zeitalter,” 1813 (translated into English
by Wrench, 1843); C. MonTALEMBERT, “Histoire de S.
Bernard;” J. O. ELLENDORF, “Der heilige Bernhard,”
1837; EUGENIo DE CoRRAL, “Wida de S. Bernardo,” 1782.)
Bernard (SIMON), an officer of the French imperial corps
du genie, born at Döle April 28, 1779, was aide-de-camp to
Napoleon I., and employed by him in many important and
confidential duties incidental to his branch of the service.
IHe was invited to this country by President Madison under
a resolution approved April 29, 1816, “authorizing the
President of the U. S. to employ a skilful assistant in the
corps of engineers,” instigated by the notion prevalent at
that date, that only in Europe, and especially in France,
could the high military science necessary to the organiza-
tion of a system of sea-coast defence by fortification be
found. The chief engineer, Gen. Swift, and subsequently
another distinguished officer, Col. McKee, sent in their res-
ignations in consequence. Gen. Swift was succeeded as
chief engineer by Col. W. K. Armistead. As “Assistant
Engineer” Gen. Bernard was associated with Col. (subse-
quently General and Chief Engineer) J. G. Totten, constitu-
ting a “permanent board,” upon which the labor of work-
ing out the fundamental principles of the system, and of
elaborating the projects of defence for the great seaports,
devolved; and mainly upon these two officers, though
naval officers of rank and experience were associated with
them whenever their examinations included positions for
dockyards, naval dépôts, or other objects which concerned
the naval service; and the resident engineer officers had a
voice in relation to their particular works. He also had a
prominent part in the inauguration of some of our earlier
works of civil engineering; e.g. the Chesapeake and Ohio
Canal, the Delaware Breakwater, etc. He resigned in
1831, and returned to France, and became aide-de-camp to
Louis Philippe, and subsequently minister of war of France.
To high military and scientific acquirements and great ex-
perience in his professional duties, Gen. Bernard united the
qualities of an amiable and accomplished gentleman, and
the tact to adapt himself to his peculiar position without
wounding the pride of those with whom he was thus asso-
ciated. The prestige of his name aided powerfully in sus-
taining with the administration and with Congress the
measures which the board found necessary to recommend,
and in establishing firmly, as a part of our national policy,
the system of sea-coast defence by fortifications. He died
in Paris Nov. 5, 1839. J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Bernard of Cluny, not to be confounded with his
more celebrated countryman and contemporary, Bernard
of Clairvaux, was born at Morlaix, in Brittany, of English
parents, probably not far from the year 1100. He was a
monk at Cluny under Peter the Venerable, who was abbot
there from 1122 to 1156. He wrote a poem, “De Con-
temptu Mundi,” in about 3000 lines, portions of which
were translated by the Rev. John Mason Neale (1818–66)
in 1851 and 1862. Dr. Neale pronounces these verses of
Bernard “ the most lovely, in the same way that the ‘Dies
Irae is the most sublime, and the ‘Stabat Mater' the most
pathetic, of mediaeval poems.” Hymns taken from this
poem, such as “The world is very evil,” “Brief life is here
our portion,” and “Jerusalem the golden,” are among the
finest gems in recent English and American collections.
Bernard’s', a township of Cherokee co., Ala. P. 135.
Bernard’s, a township of Somerset co., N. J. P. 2369.
Ber/nardston, a post-township of Franklin co., Mass.,
on the Connecticut River R. R. It is the seat of Powers
Institute. Pop. 961.
Bernard, the Great St., a famous mountain-pass
of the Pennine Alps, upwards of 8000 feet in height, be-
tween the Swiss canton of Vaud and the valley of Aosta.
Near the summit is the celebrated hospice, said to have
been founded in 962 by Saint Bernard of Meuthon in
Savoy for the succor of travellers crossing the mountain.
In the humane efforts of the monks of this hospice the
valuable dogs known as the St. Bernard breed, and noted
for their size and sagacity, are valuable assistants. In 1800
Napoleon crossed the Alps here with an army of 30,000
men, with cavalry and artillery.
Ber/mau, a town of Prussia, in Brandenburg, on the
Stettin Railway, 14 miles N. E. of Berlin. It has manu-
factures of silk stuffs, cotton, and woollen goods. Pop. in
1871, 5566.
Bernay, a town of France, in the department of Eure,
on the railway from Paris to Caen, 25 miles W. N. W. of
Evreux. It has a college, and manufactures of woollen
cloths, linens, paper, and leather. A horse-fair, the largest
in France, is held here annually. Pop. 7510.
Bern/burg, a town of Germany, formerly capital of
the duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg, is on the river Saale, here
crossed by a bridge, 24 miles S. S. W. of Magdeburg. It
is connected by railway with Berlin and Dresden. It has
a gymnasium, a Realschule, a valuable library, a ducal
castle, and manufactures of porcelain, paper, and starch.
Pop. in 1871, 15,715. §
Berne [Fr. Berne, Ger. Bern, Lat. Ber/na], the most
populous canton of Switzerland, and the most extensive
except the Grisons. It is bounded on the N. by Alsace
and Soleure, on the E. by Aargau, Lucerne, Unterwalden,
and Uri, on the S. by Valais, and on the N. by Vaud,
Fribourg, Neufchâtel, and France. Area, 2660 English
Square miles. It is traversed by the river Aar, and also
drained by the Emmen. The Aar expands into two lakes
called Brienz and Thun. The surface is mountainous, and
the northern part is occupied by the Jura Mountains.
Several high peaks of the Alps—namely, the Finsteraar-
horn, 14,032 feet, the Jungfrau, 13,514 feet, Schreckhorn,
13,393 feet—are in Berne. The valleys of the Simmenthal,
Lauterbrunnen, and Grindelwald in the Bernese Oberland
are celebrated for their beauty. The valleys of the Aar
and Emmen are fertile and adapted to pasturage. Among
its mineral resources are copper, lead, iron, marble, and
granite. The canton has important manufactures of watches,
paper, woollen goods, linens, etc. It is intersected by
several railroads. Capital, Berne. Pop. in 1870, 506,465,
of whom 66,015 were Roman Catholics.
Berne, or Bern [said to be derived from the Ger.
Bären, “bears,” figures of which are on the armorial bear-
ings of the city], a city of Switzerland, capital of the canton
of Berne, is situated on the river Aar, which encloses it on
three sides, 65 miles by rail S. of Bâle and 92 miles by rail
N. E. of Geneva. Berne is the seat of the federal govern-
ment of the republic, and is considered to be the finest city
in Switzerland. It is built of freestone, and the houses are
massive structures, resting on arcades which form covered
promenades on both sides of the streets. Magnificent
Alpine scenery is visible from this point. Berne has a
Gothic cathedral, a public library, a university, a museum
of natural history, a mint, and an arsenal. One of the
finest buildings is the new federal. palace. The river is
here crossed by four large bridges. Several railroads con-
nect it with Geneva, Bâle, and other towns. Berne was
founded in 1191, and became a free town of the empire in
1218. It joined the Swiss Confederation in 1352. In
1849 it became the permanent capital of the whole republic.
Pop. in 1870, 36,002. -
Berne, a post-township of Albany co., N. Y. It con-
tains nine churches, several manufactories, and a number
of small caves and mineral springs. Pop. 2562.
Berne, a township of Fairfield co., O. Pop. 3056.
Bern'hard, duke of Saxe-Weimar, a celebrated Ger-
man general, born Aug. 6, 1604, was a younger son of John
III. of Saxe-Weimar. He fought for the Protestant cause
in the Thirty Years' war, distinguished himself at Wimpfen
in 1622, and became a colonel in the army of Denmark,
which he quitted in 1628. In 1631 he joined the standard
of Gustavus Adolphus. The victory which the Swedes
gained at Lützen in 1632 is attributed to the skill and .
energy of Bernhard, who in 1633 was appointed to the
command of the Swedish army. Having made a personal
treaty of alliance with France in 1635, he afterwards com-
manded a French army and defeated the imperialists.
Died July 8, 1639. (See ScHILLER, “History of the Thirty
Years' War; ” J. A. C. von HELLFELD, “Geschichte des
Bernhard des Grossen,” etc., 1797; BERNHARD ROESE,
“Herzog Bernhard der Grosse von Sachsen-Weimar,” 2
vols., 1828–29.)
IBernice. See BERENICE.
Berni/na, an imposing mountain-group in the Swiss
canton of Grisons, rises 13,407 feet above the level of the
Sea, and has a remarkable glacier. The Pass of Bernina,
the altitude of which is 6671 feet, affords a communication
between the Upper Engadine and the Waltelline.
Berni/ni (GIov ANNI LoRENzo), an Italian architect and
sculptor, born at Naples in 1598, lived at Rome. His works,
the best among which are the colonnade to St. Peter's
church, the Scala Regia of the Vatican, and the Bärberini
Palace at Venice, possess some excellencies, but show the
beginning of the decline of art into the baroque or Jesuit
style, to which his influence greatly contributed.
JBernoulli, or Bernouilli (DANIEL), F. R. S., an emi-
nent mathematician and philosopher, born at Groningen
Feb. 9, 1700, was a son of Jean (1667–1748). He became in
1733 professor of anatomy and botany at Bâle, where he
468
afterwards obtained the chair of physics and speculative
philosophy. He gained many prizes of the French Acad-
emy of Sciences, and wrote in Latin and French many scien-
tific works. He was one of the three greatest members of
this famous family. Died Mar. 17, 1782, at Bâle. (See CoN-
DoRo ET, “Eloge de Daniel Bernouilli,” 1782.)
Bernoulli (JACQUES), a Swiss mathematician, an uncle
of the preceding, was born at Bâle Dec. 27, 1654. He be-
came professor of mathematics in that city in 1687. He
solved Leibnitz’s problem of the isochronous curve, dis-
covered the properties of the logarithmic spiral, and wrote
Several treatises on mathematics, etc. Died at Băle Aug.
16, 1705. (See BATTLER, “Vita Jacobi Bernoulli,” 1705.)
Bernoulli (JACQUES), a nephew and pupil of Daniel,
was born at Băle Oct. 17, 1759; he became professor of
mathematics at St. Petersburg. He was drowned in the
Neva July 13, 1789.
Bernoulli (JEAN or JoHN), one of the most eminent
mathematicians of the Bernoulli family, was born at Bâle
July 27, 1667. He was the father of Daniel and brother
of Jacques (1654–1705). He discovered the exponential
calculus, and ascertained the curve of Swiftest descent. In
1705 he succeeded his brother Jacques as professor of
mathematics at Băle. His works were published in 4 vols.,
1742. Died Jan. 1, 1748.
Bernoulli (JEAN), a son of the preceding, was born
at Bāle May 18, 1710. He became professor of mathe-
matics at Băle in 1748, and wrote several treatises. Died
July 11, 1790.-BERNOULLI (JEAN), born at Băle Nov. 4,
1744, was a son of the preceding. He became astronomer-
royal at Berlin in 1764, and wrote various works. Died
July 13, 1807.-BERNOULLI (JáROME), a Swiss naturalist,
born at Băle in 1745; died in 1829.-BERNOULLI (NICOLAs),
a son of Jean and a brother of Daniel, noticed above, was
born at Băle Jan. 29, 1695. He was professor of mathe-
matics at St. Petersburg, where he died July 26, 1726.-
BERNOULLI (NICOLAs), LL.D., F. R. S., a cousin of the pre-
ceding, was born at Băle Oct. 10, 1687. He made several
discoveries in mathematics. Died Nov. 29, 1759.
Bern'storff (ALBRECHT), Count, a Prussian diplomatist
and statesman, born Mar. 22, 1809, became in 1857 Prus-
sian ambassador in London, was minister of foreign affairs
from 1861 to 1862, returned to London in 1862, and repre-
sented Prussia in the London Conference of 1871, Died
Mar. 26, 1873.
Bernstorff, von (Johann HARTwig ERNST), Count, an
eminent statesman, born at Hanover May 13, 1712. Hav-
ing entered the civil service of Denmark, he was appointed
minister of foreign affairs (prime minister) in 1761. He
was a liberal patron of learning and the arts, and he pro-
moted the commerce and manufactures of Denmark. He
retained power till 1770. Died Feb. 19, 1772. (See G. H.
AHLEMANN, “Ueber das Leben and den Charakter des Gra-
fen von Bernstorff,” 1777 ; G. NAVARRo, “Wie du Comte J.
H. E. Bernstorff,” 1822.)
Bern/ville, a post-borough of Berks co., Pa., 46 miles
E. N. E. of Harrisburg. Pop. 457.
Ber’öe, a genus of Radiata of the class Acalepha, and
of a division called Ciliograde (i. e. moving by means of
cilia). They are phosphorescent marine animals. The genus
is the type of a family characterized by an oval or nearly
globular body, of a delicate jelly-like substance, with an
alimentary canal passing through its axis, which is vertical
as the animal floats in the water. The body is strengthened
by bands of firmer texture, which are furnished with rows
of cilia, the motion of which is very rapid.
Beroe'a, or Berea, a large and ancient city of Mace-
donia, situated at the foot of Mount Bermius, about 30
miles from Pella. It was attacked by the Athenians in the
war which began about 430 B. C. Saint Paul visited Beroea,
and preached there. (See Acts xvii. 10.) Its site is occu-
pied by the modern town of Veria, 35 miles W. of Salonica.
(See VERIA.) -
Bero'sus [Gr. Bmpoorós], an eminent Chaldee historian,
was a priest of Belus at Babylon, and lived about 300 B.C.
. He wrote in Greek a “History of Babylonia and Chaldaea,”
which was highly esteemed by the ancient Greeks and
Romans, but it is lost except a few fragments. These were
edited by Richter in 1825. Pliny states that the Athenians
erected a statue to him.
Ber’rien, a county in S. Georgia. Area, 750 square
miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Allapaha, and on
the W. by Little River, and is drained by the Withlacoo-
chee. The surface is nearly level; the soil is sandy. Rice,
corn, cotton, tobacco, and wool are raised. It is intersected
by the Brunswick and Albany R. R. Capital, Nashville.
Pop. 4518. t
Berrien, a county which forms the S. W. extremity of
BERNOULLI–BERRYMAN.
*.
Michigan. Area, 600 square miles. It is bounded on the
W. by Lake Michigan, and intersected by the St. Joseph
River, navigable for keel-boats. The surface is undulating
and mostly covered with forests. The soil is fertile. The
county is intersected by the Michigan Central R. R. It
sends large quantities of corn, wheat, wool, timber, and
fruit to market. Capital, Berriem Springs.
Berrien, a township of Berrien co., Mich. Pop. 1405.
Berrien (John McPHERSON), LL.D., a distinguished.
lawyer and politician, born in New Jersey in 1781. He
removed to Georgia, and was elected a Senator of the U.S.
in 1824. He was attorney-general under President Jack-
son in 1829–31, and was again chosen Senator in 1840 and
1846. Died Jan. I, 1856.
Berrien’s Island, in the East River, is a part of
Newtown township, Queen’s co., N. Y. Area, 12 acres.
Berrien Springs, a post-village, capital of Berrien
co., Mich., on the St. Joseph River, about 15 miles from
Lake Michigan and 160 miles W. S. W. of Lansing. Pop.
662.
Ber’ry [Anglo-Saxon beria or berga, Lat. bac/ca ; Fr.
baiel, a botanical term used to designate a fruit which con-
sists of a pulpy pericarp without valves, containing seeds,
which have no covering except the pulp or rind, as the
grape, gooseberry, currant, barberry, service-berry, and
cranberry. Some of them have the calyx adherent to the
ovary and the placenta parietal, as the gooseberry. Others
have the ovary free and the placenta in the centre, as the
grape. The term berry is popularly applied to several
small fruits which are not berries in the scientific sense, as
the strawberry, which bears seeds (achenia) on the external
surface of an enlarged and pulpy receptacle. The orange
is a berry with a leathery rind, and is also called a hes-
periolium. -
Berry, or Berri, a former province of France, near its.
centre, now forms the departments of Cher and Indre.
Capital, Bourges. Berry was erected into a duchy about
1360, after which it was held by many princes of the royal
family of France. The last duke of Berry was the young-
er son of Charles X.
Berry, a township of Dane co., Wis. Pop. 1155.
Berry, or Berri, de (CHARLEs FERDINAND), DUC, born
at Versailles Jan. 24, 1778, was the second son of Charles
X. He emigrated with his father in 1793, returned to
France in 1814, and married in 1816 Caroline Ferdinande
Louise, a daughter of the king of Naples. He was assas-
sinated by Louvel Feb. 14, 1820. He was the father of the
count de Chambord (Henry V.), who is recognized by the
legitimist party as the heir to the French throne. (See
CHATEAUBRIAND, “Mémoires touchant la Vie et la Mort du
Duc de Berry,” 1820.)
Berry (HIRAM G.), a major-general of U. S. volunteers,
born at Rockland, Me., Aug. 27, 1824, killed at the battle
of Chancellorsville, Va., May 2, 1863. He was member of the
Maine legislature several times, mayor of his native city, and
president of Lime Rock Bank. At the first call for troops
to suppress the Confederate movement he raised three full
companies, and himself entered the service as colonel of
the Fourth Maine Volunteers. He was made a brigadier-
general Mar. 17, 1862, and major-general Nov. 29, 1862.
Killed at the head of his division by a shot while lead-
ing a bayonet charge on the morning of May 2, 1863.
G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Eng’rs.
Berryer (ANToINE PIERRE), a celebrated French orator,
lawyer, and legitimist, was born in Paris Jan. 4, 1790. He
defended General Cambronne about 1815, gained distinc-
tion as an advocate of defendants in political trials, and
was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1830. After
Charles X. had been dethroned (July, 1830), he remained
in the Chamber as the orator of the legitimist party, although
the other members of that party all retired. He made an
eloquent speech against the abolition of hereditary nobility
in 1831. Turing the first years of the reign of Louis
Philippe he was regarded as the foremost orator in the
Chamber. In 1840 he defended Louis Napoleon, who was
tried for his attempt to excite a revolution at Boulogne.
IIe was elected to the Constituent Assembly in 1848, and
the Legislative Assembly in 1849. In 1850 he went to
Wiesbaden to offer homage to the count de Chambord. He
opposed the republic, and protested against the coup-d'état
of Dec., 1851, after which he retired from political life. In
1852 he was elected a member of the French Academy.
Died Nov. 29, 1868. (See Louis MARIE DE LA HAYE DE
CoRMENIN, “Biographie parliamentaire de M. Berryer,”
1837.)
Ber’ryhill’s, a township of Mecklenburg co., N. C.
Pop. 1414.
Ber’ryman, a township of Jo Daviess co., Ill. P. 559.
Pop. 35,104. ,
*
BERRY'S-BERWICKSHIRE.
Ber’ry’s, a township of Montgomery co., Md. P. 4700.
Ber/rysburg, a post-borough of Mifflin township,
Dauphin co., Pa. Pop. 451. -
Berry’s Store, a township of Jackson co., Ala. P. 660.
Ber’ryville, a village of Mohawk typ., Montgomery co.,
N. Y., has a cotton factory, paper-mill, and grist-mill.
Berryville, the capital of Clarke co., Va., is situated 5
miles W. of the Shenandoah River and 10%. E. of Winches-
ter, and is on the line of the Shenandoah Valley R. R. It
contains 6 churches, 1 academy, 1 steam saw and 1 Sumac
mill, and 1 newspaper. It is often called “Battletown,”
owing to the many contests of Gen. Morgan of Revolution-
ary fame. In this vicinity are many scenes of historic in-
terest. Washington, in surveying the lands of this county
when it was a part of Frederick, had his head-quarters at
a beautiful spring just beyond the town. The small house
which he occupied is still standing. Gen. Morgan lived near
here. Pop. 580. JoHN 0. CRow N, ED. “CLARKE CourTER.”
Bersaglie'ri, the Italian name of the riflemen or sharp-
shooters who served in the army of Victor Emmanuel when
he was king of Sardinia. They took part in the Crimean
war, 1854–55, and fought against Austria in 1859. They
wear a dark-green uniform.
Ber’serker [probably from the Scandinavian berr-serkr,
“bear (-skin) shirt”], a hero of Scandinavian mythology,
who fought without coat-of-mail. He was the grandson of
Starkader, and overcame all opponents by his irresistible
valor. The name has also been given to a class of warriors .
who fought maked and performed extraordinary feats under
the influence of a kind of demoniac possession, and is per-
haps never strictly a proper name. -
Berthier, a county of Quebec (Dominion of Canada),
has an area estimated at 1200 square miles. It is bounded
on the S. E. by the St. Lawrence River. Its capital is
Berthier-en-Haut, which is on the St. Lawrence, about 55
miles N. E. of Montreal. Pop. in 1871, 19,804.
Berthier-en-Bas, a post-village of Montgomery co.,
Ontario, on the St. Lawrence, 24 miles S. W. of Quebec.
Berthier-en-Haut, a post-village, capital of Ber-
thier co., Quebec, on the left bank of the St. Lawrence, 55
miles N. E. of Montreal. It has extensive manufactures of
leather and a good trade. It has also several saline chalyb-
eate springs, and is in a fertile district. Pop. about 1700.
Berthier (Louis ALEXANDRE), prince of Wagram, a
French general, born at Versailles Nov. 20, 1753. He
served as captain under La Fayette in the U. S. 1778–82.
In 1796 he became general of division, and chief of the
staff of Bonaparte's army of Italy. He gained the con-
fidence of the general-in-chief, retained for many years the
position of chief of the staff, and accompanied Bonaparte
to Egypt in 1798. About the end of 1799 he was appointed
minister of war. He became a marshal of France in 1804,
and rendered important services in the campaign against
Austria, 1805. He usually rode in the carriage of Napo-
leon, whose plans he digested, and whose orders he des-
patched with remarkable rapidity and precision. . He was
admirably fitted for the duties of a staff officer by his strong
constitution, his methodical habits, and his excellent mem-
ory, but he was not so competent to command an army.
For his conduct at the battle of Wagram (1809) he received
the title of prince of Wagram. He entered the service of
Louis XVIII. in 1814, but when Napoleon returned from
Elba, Berthier preferred neutrality and retired to Bamberg,
where he was killed by a fall from a window Jan. 1, 1815.
He left autobiographic “Mémoires d’A. Berthier,” 1826.
Berthierite, or Hardingerite, a steel-gray, bronzy
mineral containing FeS + Sb2S3. -
Berthollet (CLAUDE LOUIs), M. D., Count, a French
chemist, born in Savoy Nov. 9, 1748. He discovered the
composition of ammonia, and invented the process of
bleaching by chlorine, that of filtration through charcoal,
and several fulminating powders. He published a valuable
work, “The Eléments of the Art of Dyeing ” (1790), and
“Essai de statique chimique” (2 vols., 1803). He was
associated with Lavoisier in forming a new chemical
nomenclature, and was one of the chief originators of mod-
ern chemistry. Died Nov. 6, 1822. (See CUVIER, “Eloge
de Berthollet,” 1824.) . -
BerthoIleſtia, a genus of trees of the order Lecythi-
daceae. The Bertholletia eaccelsa, a large South American
tree, produces a hard-shelled fruit (about six inches in
diameter), enclosing numerous elongated and triangular
edible seeds, which are called Brazil nuts. Large quanti-
ties of them are exported from Pará.
Bertie, a county of North Carolina, having the Chowan
River on the E. and the Roanoke on the S. Area, about
900 square miles. It contains extensive pine forests; its |
469
soil is quite level and fertile. Cotton and corn are the
staple crops. “Capital, Windsor. Pop. 12,950.
Bertin (Louis FRANÇors), called Bertin 1°Ainé, a
French journalist, was born in Paris Dec. 14, 1766. He
founded in 1800, together with his brother (Louis FRAN-
çois, surnamed DE WEAUX), the daily “Journal des Débats,”
a literary and political journal, which obtained great influ-
ence and success. He was hostile to Napoleon, who ban-
ished him. Bertin revived his journal in 1814, and con-
tinued to edit it until his death, Sept. 13, 1841.-His son
(LOUIS MARIE ARMAND), born Aug. 22, 1801, succeeded him
as editor. Died Jan. 12, 1854.
Bertimo'ro, a town in Central Italy, province of Forli,
on a mountain 7 miles S. E. of Forli. It is the seat of a
bishop. Pop. 6014.
Ber/tram, a post-township of Linn co., Ia, Pop. 827.
Ber/trand, a post-township of Berrien co., Mich.
Pop. 1522. * *
Bertrand, de (HENRI GRATIEN), Count, a French gen-
eral, was born at Châteaturoux Mar. 28, 1773. He followed
Napoleon to St. Helena in 1815. He died Jan. 31, 1844,
leaving “Memoirs of the Campaigns of Egypt and Syria,
dictated by Napoleon at St. Helena’’ (2 vols., 1847).
Ber/wick, a post-village of Cornwallis township, Kings
co., Nova Scotia, on the Windsor and Annapolis Railway,
47 miles E. N. E. of Annapolis. It has manufactures of
boots and shoes. -
Berwick, a post-township of Warren co., Ill. P. 1066.
Berwick, a post-township of York co., Me. Pop. 2291.
It has manufactures of lumber, shoes, carriages, doors, etc.
Berwick, a post-village in Seneca township, Seneca
co., O., on the Cincinnati Sandusky and Cleveland R. R.,
43 miles S. W. of Sandusky. Pop. 188.
Berwick, a borough and township of Adams co., Pa.,
28 miles S. S.W. of Harrisburg. Pop. of township, 507;
of borough, 325.
Berwick, a post-borough of Columbia, co., Pa., on the
North Branch of the Susquehanna and on the Lackawanna
and Bloomsburg R. R., 28 miles S. W. of Wilkesbarre. It
has a newspaper, one national bank, a car-shop, foundry,
machine-shop, rolling-mill, and an academy. Pop. 923.
D. MoRRIs KURTz, Ed. “INDEPENDENT.”
Berwick (JAMES FITZ-JAMEs), DUKE OF, an able gen-
eral, a natural son of James II. of England and Arabella
Churchill, was born in France Aug. 21, 1670. He had a
high command in his father’s army in Ireland in 1690, soon
after which he entered the French service. He obtained
the command of the French army in Spain in 1704, was
created a marshal of France in 1706, and gained a decisive
victory over the English and their allies at Almanza in 1707.
Philip V. rewarded him with the title of duke of Liria and
Xerica. He was killed at the siege of Philipsburg June
12, 1734. (See his own “Mémoires,” published by his son
in 2 vols., Paris, 1778.)
Berwick-on-Tweed, often called simply Berwick,
a fortified seaport-town of England, in Northumberland, on
the left (N.) bank of the Tweed, at its entrance into the
North Sea, 58 miles by rail E. S. E. of Edinburgh; lat. 55°
46' N., lon. 1959' W. The river is here crossed by an old
stone bridge of fifteen arches, 924 feet long, and by a mag-
nificent viaduct, over which the trains of the North British
Railway pass. It is crossed by the North-eastern, the
Midland, and the Great Northern Railways. It has a Gothic
church, a theatre, a public library, a town-hall, also large
manufactures of steam-engines, mill-machinery, etc.. Coal-
mines are worked in the vicinity. Pop. in 1871, 13,231.
The history of Berwick is full of interest. It was one of
the chief seaports of Scotland in the Middle Ages, and in
the border wars was often taken and retaken by the Eng-
lish and Scotch, who regarded it as an important military
position. It was finally ceded to England in 1502, and be-
came by treaty a free town, independent of both states.
These privileges were confirmed on the accession of James
I. to the English throne. Down to the time of George II.
it was customary in Parliamentary statutes to mention
specifically their application to “Berwick-on-the-Tweed.”
Ber/wickshire, a county of Scotland, forming its S. E.
extremity, is bounded on the N. by Haddington, on the
N. E. by the German Ocean, and on the S. E. by the river
Tweed, which separates it from England, on the S. by Rox-
burgh, and on the W. by Edinburgh. Area, 473 square
miles. It is drained by the Blackadder, the Whiteadder, and
the Eye. The surface is partly hilly in the northern part,
occupied by the Lammermuir Hills. The Merse district in
the S. part, and near the Tweed, is nearly level, and is one
of the most fertile and well-cultivated tracts in the island.
Carboniferous limestone, porphyry, and old red sandstone
occur here. Capital, Greenlaw. Pop. in 1871, 36,474.
470
BERYL–BETHANY.
Ber’yl [Gr. Bipwaxos; Lat. beryl/lus], a mineral which
occurs in the form of six-sided prisms, which are generally
blue, yellow, or green, but are sometimes colorless. Those
which display clear tints of sky-blue or sea-green are called
aquamarine by jewellers. The deep green crystals consti-
tute EMERALDs (which see). The sides of the prisms are
often longitudinally striated, but the terminating or trun-
cating planes are smooth. The beryl is one of the few min-
erals that contain glucina. It consists of 67 per cent. of
silica, 19 of alumina, and 14 of glucina. Gigantic crystals
of beryl are found at Acworth and Grafton in New Hamp-
shire. One specimen found at Grafton was four feet long,
and weighed more than 2500 pounds. Beryls of fine qual-
ity occur in Brazil, Siberia, and several parts of Europe.
Emeralds are obtained from Peru, Siberia, and Upper
Egypt. (See GEMs, by PROF. H. B. CoRNWALL, E. M.)
Be’ryx, a genus of fishes of the family Percidae, of which
few species are living in the present seas, while a large
number are found fossil. It begins with the first of the
teleosts in the chalk. Three species are found in the chalk
of England, and several in the tertiary, especially in the
fish-beds of Monte Bolca, near Verona in Italy. This is
therefore one of the oldest genera of living fishes.
Berze'lius (JoBIAN JACOB), M. D., F. R. S., BARON, a
distinguished Swedish chemist, was born in East Goth-
land, Aug. 20, 1779. He studied medicine and chemistry
at the University of Upsal, and published in 1806 a
“Treatise on Animal Chemistry” (2 vols.). He acquired
great excellence as an analyst, and made important dis-
coveries in chemistry. He was the author of the system
of chemical symbols, and he discovered the elements se–
lenium and thorium. His most important work is a
“System of Chemistry '' (“Lārebok i Kemien,” 3 vols.,
1808–18), which was translated into every European lan-
guage. He was professor of medicine and pharmacy at
Stockholm 1807–32. He contributed forty-seven articles
to the “Memoirs of Physics, Chemistry, and Mineralogy"
(6 vols., 1806–18), a work founded by Berzelius and Hisin-
ger. Died Aug. 7, 1848. (See G. Forch HAMMER, “J. J.
Berzelius,” 1849.)
Besançon (anc. Vesontio), a city of France, capital
of the department of Doubs, on the river Doubs, 58 miles
by rail E. of Dijon. It is connected with Paris and Lyons
by several railways, is well built and strongly fortified,
having a citadel which is considered impregnable. It was
formerly the capital of Franche-Comté. The most remark-
able edifices are a Gothic cathedral, a town-hall, a theatre,
the palace of Cardinal Granvelle, and the prefecture. It
has also a college, a public library, a museum, an academy
of sciences and arts, and extensive manufactures of watches,
jewelry, porcelain, carpets, etc. Vesontio was an important
town in the time of Caesar, who in 58 B. C. expelled the
Sequani from it. Here are many Roman antiquities, and
the remains of an amphitheatre and aqueduct. P. 46,961.
Bessara/bia, a province in the S. W. part of Russia,
is bounded on the N. by Podolia, on the E. by Podolia,
Cherson, and the Black Sea, on the S. by Moldavia, and
on the W. by Moldavia and Bukovina. Area, 14,014 square
miles. By the treaty of Paris (1856) part of Bessarabia.
adjacent to the Black Sea was ceded to Turkey. The sur-
face is mostly low and flat; the soil is fertile, producing
wheat, barley, maize, tobacco, etc. The chief articles of
export are cattle, wool, tallow, and salt. The greater part
of the land is in pasturage. The population is composed
of Russians, Germans, Bulgarians, Moldavians, Greeks,
Jews, Poles, etc. Capital, Kishinef. Pop. in 1867, 1,052,013.
Bessa’rion (JoBN), a learned Greek cardinal, born at
Trebizond in 1395, was a disciple of Plato in philosophy.
Pie favored the union of the Latin and Greek churches.
He was appointed a cardinal by Pope Eugenius IV., and
received in 1463 the title of patriarch of Constantinople.
He wrote several works, translated the metaphysics of
Aristotle into Latin, and was an efficient promoter of
Greek learning. Died Nov. 19, 1472. (See A. BANDINI,
“De Vita et Rebus gestis Bessarionis Cardinalis,” 1777;
AUBáRY, “Histoire des Cardinaux.”) -
Bess/borough, EARLs of (1739), Wiscounts Duncan-
non (1723), barons of Bessborough (1723, in Ireland),
Barons Ponsonby (1749, in Great Britain), Barons Dun-
cannon (1834, in the United Kingdom), a prominent family
of Great Britain.-JoBN GEORGE BRABAzoN PONSONBY, the
fifth earl, born Oct. 14, 1809, succeeded his father in 1847.
He was member of Parliament for Bletchingley in 1831,
for Higham Ferrers in 1831, and for Derby 1834–37.
Bes'sel (FRIEDRICH WILHELM), an ancient German
astronomer, born at Minden July 22, 1784. He became
assistant to Schröter at Lilienthal in 1806, and was ap-
pointed in 1810 director of a new observatory at Königs-
borg. In 1818 he published “Fundamenta Astronomiae,”
an important and capital work, on which he had expended
the labor of many years. After three years’ observations
he determined in 1840, the annual parallax of the star 61
Cygni, and published the result in his “Measure of the
Distance of the Star 61 Cygni, etc.” (1839). Having made
a series of 75,011 observations, he formed a catalogue of
stars within the zone from 15° N. to 15° S. declination,
containing all stars to the ninth order. Among his works
are “Astronomical Observations” (1841–42) and “Popular
Lectures on Astronomy” (1848). Died Mar. 14, 1846. (See
C. T. ANGER, “ Erinnerung au F. W. Bessels Leben und
Wirken,” 1846.)
Bes's emer (HENRY), an English inventor of Breton
descent, was born in Hertfordshire in 1818. He made vari-
ous improvements in machinery, but is chiefly known as
the inventor of the Bessemer process of refining steel—a
process now largely employed in Europe and America.
This invention has made Mr. Bessemer a very wealthy man,
Bessemer’s Process for Refining Iron. See
IRON, by A. S. HEWITT.
Bessières (JEAN BAPTISTE), duke of Istria, a French
marshal, born near Cahors (Lot) Aug. 5, 1768. He entered
the army as a private in 1792, served with distinction in
Italy and Egypt, became a general of division in 1802, and
marshal of France in 1804. He rendered important ser-
vices at Austerlitz, Jena, Friedland, and Eylau. Having
obtained in 1808 command of an army in Spain, he gained
a victory at Medina del Rio Seco. He had the chief command
of the cavalry of the grand army in 1813, and was killed
on the day before the battle of Lützen, May 1, 1813. (See
MIRAMONT, “Wie de J. B. Bessières;” “Victoires et Con-
quétes des Français.”)
Betan’zos (anc. Fla/vium Brigan'tium), a town of
Spain, in the province of Corunna, is 12 miles S. E. of Co-
runna. It is said to be the oldest town in Galicia, and has
remains of ancient fortifications. Here are manufactures
of linen, leather, and pottery. Pop. 5832.
Beſtel, or Pawn, a narcotic stimulant extensively used
as a masticatory by Oriental peoples, especially by tribes
of the Malay race. It consists of a portion of the nut of
the Areca Catechu (called betel-nut or pimang), rolled up
with lime in the leaf of the Piper Betel or other species of
pepper. The leaf is plucked green, and is smeared with
moistened quicklime before the slice of areca-nut is
wrapped in it. This mixture is chewed continually by
men, women, and children, and the use of it is so general
that a Malay presents his betel-box as a European offers
his snuff-box. This practice appears to be very ancient,
having prevailed before the Christian era. The betel
causes giddiness in those who are not accustomed to chew
it. The habitual use of it blackens the teeth, and perhaps
destroys them. According to Sir James E. Tennent, the
betel is beneficial, acting as a tonic, antacid, and carmin-
ative.
Beth, a Hebrew noun, meaning “house” or “habita-
tion,” employed some fifty times in the Scriptures as a
prefix in naming places, such as Bethel, Bethlehem, and
Bethany.
Bethab’ara, a place beyond the Jordan where John
baptized (John i. 28), though some of the best manuscripts
have Bethany. -
Betha’nia, a post-township of Forsyth co., N. C. Pop.
1162. -
Beth’any [Heb. “house of dates;” Gr. Bm9avia; Arab.
El-Azīzeh or Lazarieh], a village of Palestine, on the E.
slope of the Mount of Olives, nearly 2 miles (15 stadia)
E. of Jerusalem. As the home of Mary, Martha, and
Lazarus, it was the scene of interesting events in sacred
history. (See Matthew xxi. 17; xxvi. 6; John Xi. and xii.;
Luke xix. 29.) From some point near the village Christ
ascended into heaven. (Luke xxiv. 50.) Here is a cave or
excavation in a rock, which, according to a worthless tra-
dition, is the grave of Lazarus. The descent into it is
effected by twenty-six steps cut into the solid rock. The
modern village contains about twenty families.
Bethany, a post-village of Manvers township, Durham
co., Ontario, Canada, on the Midland Railway, 24 miles
N.W. by N. of Port Hope. It has three churches and one
weekly paper.
Bethany, a post-township of New Haven co., Conn.
Pop. 1135.
Bethany, a post-township of Genesee co., N. Y. Pop.
1652
Bethany, a township of Iredell co., N. C. Pop. 506.
Bethany, a township of Gratiot co., Mich. Pop. 1462.
Bethany, a post-village, capital of Harrison co., Mo.,
62 miles N. E. of St. Joseph, 20 miles S. of the Iowa line,
º BETHANY–BETHLEHEM.
471
has a good trade, and two weekly newspapers. Pop. of
township, 2460. ED. OF “WATCHMAN.”
Bethany, a post-village of Dyberry township, Wayne
co., Pa. Pop. 202.
Bethany, a post-village of Brooke co., West Va., on
Buffalo Creek, 7 miles from the Ohio River and 16 miles
N. E. of Wheeling. It is situated in a beautiful and fer-
tile region. It is the seat of Bethany College, established
in 1841 by Alexander Campbell, the founder of the sect
of “Disciples.”
Beth'el [Arab. Beit?n or Beiteen], an ancient town of
Palestine, noted as the scene of the dream of the patriarch
Jacob, was 10 or 12 miles N. of Jerusalem. It was near
the boundary between Judea, and Samaria. Here are ruins
of ancient churches and other edifices.
Bethel, a village and township of Wilcox co., Ala., on
the Alabama River, 50 miles S. W. of Selma. Pop. of the
township, 2456. -
Bethel, a borough of Fairfield co., Conn., on the Dan-
bury and Norwalk R. R., 3 miles E. S. E. of Danbury and
25 miles W. N. W. of New Haven. It has manufactures of
hats. Pop. of township, 2311. & *
Bethel, a township of McDonough co., Ill. Pop. 1040.
Bethel, a post-township of Morgan co., Ill. Pop. 1468.
Bethel, a township of Posey co., Ind. Pop. 581.
Bethel, a post-village and township of Oxford co., Me.,
on the Grand Trunk Railway, 70 miles N. N. W. of Port-
land. It has an academy, five churches, and manufactures
"of lumber, carriages, furniture, boxes, woollen goods,
starch, etc. The scenery is here very fine. Pop. of the
township, 2286.
Bethel, a post-township of Branch co., Mich. P. 1511.
Bethel, a post-township of Anoka, co., Minn. Pop. 216.
Bethel, a small post-village of Shelby co., Mo., about
40 miles W. N. W. of Hannibal. It was settled about 1842
by a community of Germans, who built several mills and a
glove-lactory. Pop. of the township, 1224.
Bethel, a post-village and township of Sullivan co.,
N. Y., 39 miles N. W. of Goshen. It has manufactures
of leather and lumber. Pop. of the township, 2737.
Bethel, a township of Cabarrus co., N. C. It is noted
for its fine scenery. Pop. 1095.
Bether, a township of Perquimans co., N. C. Pop. 1128.
Bethel, a township of Clark co., O. Pop. 3086.
Bethel, a post-village of Tate township, Clermont co.,
O. Pop. 634.
Bethel, a township of Miami co., O. Pop. 1801.
Bethel, a township of Monroe co., O. Pop. 1284.
Bethel, a post-township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 2285.
Bethel, a township of Delaware co., Pa. Pop. 554.
Bethel, a township of Fulton co., Pa. Pop. 861.
Bethel, a township of Lebanon co., Pa. Pop. 2272.
Bethel, a township of York co., S. C. Pop. 2330.
Bethel, a township of Windsor co., Vt., has two post-
offices, East Bethel and Bethel. It is on the Vermont Cen-
tral R. R., 25 miles N. W. of White River Junction and 40
miles S. of Montpelier. It has manufactures of shoe-pegs,
lumber, leather, etc., a national bank, one weekly newspa-
per, and seven churches. Pop. 1817.
ED. “WHITE RIVER STANDARD.”
Bethel, a township of Pendleton co., West Va. P. 714.
Bethel College, in McKenzie, Tenn. This institu-
tion of learning was founded, with a liberal charter, in
1850. Its career of usefulness met the most sanguine ex-
pectations of its ardent friends. In an incredibly short
time fine libraries of well-selected books were collected, an
excellent apparatus was obtained, and praiseworthy efforts
made by the board of trustees to secure a liberal endow-
ment. The very moderate charges, as at present, have
ever made it eminently the school of the people. The war
of the States in 1861–65 closed its doors, and left its de-
nuded walls all scathed and scarred, the endowment lost,
libraries scattered, the apparatus destroyed, and its friends
wasted and greatly disheartened. But since the dark clouds
of despondency have partially passed away the reorganiza-
tion of the college has been consummated. To secure
better accessibility, the college has been moved from Mc-
Lemoresville to McKenzie, Tenn. Her doors are again open,
and she comes forward to resume her position among col-
leges, that she may bear her part in the education and ele-
vation of the youth of our common country. A liberal pa-
tronage has been given since the reorganization. Successful
efforts for endowment are being made, the refilling of the
cases with valuable libraries has been undertaken with en-
couragement, and the furnishing of suitable apparatus is pro-
Q
gressing. Thus dark hours are yielding to a brighter dawning.
The college is under the control of the Synod of West Ten-
nessee of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church. A liberal
Christianity and a high standard of moral character are
inculcated, yet no peculiar sectarian or political princi-
ples are allowed in the literary department. Candidates
for the ministry of all denominations receive tuition free
of charge. “Church schools differ from the schools of
secular learning as differs the cold statue from the living
man.” Bethel College admits both sexes to her highest
honors. The course of study is as thorough as that of any
college of the country, and of an eminently practical cha-
racter. This institution has had her bright as well as her
dark hours. Many of the most useful in all the profes-
sions found in various parts of the country have obtained
their education in this college. There have been many of
the most powerful revivals of religion connected with its
history. Her presidents have been in the following order:
Rev. J. N. Roach, Rev. C. J. Bradley, Rev. A. Freeman,
D. D., Rev. Felix Johnson, D. D., Rev. B. W. McDonnald,
D. D., LL.D., Rev. J. S. Howard, A. M., Rev. M. Liles, A. M.,
Rev. W. W. Hendrix. McKenzie is in Carroll county, at
the junction of the Nashville and North-western and Mem-
phis Clarksville and Louisville R. Rs.
W. W. HENDRIX.
Bethes/da [Heb. “house of mercy” or “place of the
flowing of water”], a pool or tank at Jerusalem where the
lame man was miraculously healed (John v. 1–9). Some
identify it with Birket Israil, a large reservoir inside the
city walls, near St. Stephen's Gate; others with the Foun-
tain of the Virgin (intermittent), about 300 yards S. of the
Temple area; and others with the Pool of Siloam, about
300 yards farther S.
Bethesda, a township of York co., S. C. Pop. 2997.
Beſthia, a township of Marion co., S. C. Pop. 767.
Beth’lehem [Heb. Beth-lehem, the “house of bread,”
so called from its fertile soil], a town frequently mentioned
in both the Old and New Testaments, and especially dis-
tinguished as the birthplace of our Saviour, as well as of
his ancestor, King David. Anciently it was called “Beth-
lehem Judah,” to distinguish it from another Bethlehem
in the northern part of Palestine (Josh. xix. 15). It is
mentioned as existing in the time of Jacob, but was proba-
bly never very large or commercially important.
at present about 3000 inhabitants, all Christians. The
principal trade of the place is in crosses, beads, and relics.
Here are Greek, Latin, and Armenian convents; and the
monks show a cave which they claim to have been the
stable where our Lord was born. (See Robinson’s “Bibli-
cal Researches;” HACKETT's “Illustrations of Scripture;”
RITTER’s “Geography of Palestine.”)
Bethlehem, a township of Cass co., Ind. Pop. 993.
Bethlehem, a post-township of Clarke co., Ind. P. 763.
Bethlehem, a post-township of Grafton co., N. H.,
on the White Mountain R. R., 5 miles from Littleton. It
has manufactures of lumber and starch. Pop. 998.
Bethlehem, a post-village and township of Hunter-
don co., N. J., on the New Jersey Central R. R., 37 miles
N. N. W. of Trenton. Pop. of the township, 2211.
Bethlehem, a post-township of Albany co., N. Y.
Pop. 6950.
ethlehem, a township of Coshocton co., O. P. 850.
Bethlehem, a village and township of Stark co., O.,
58 miles S. S. E. of Cleveland. Pop, of township, 2148.
Bethlehem, a township and borough of Northampton
co., Pa., on the left bank of the Lehigh River, and on the
Lehigh Valley and Lehigh and Susquehanna R. Rs., 51
miles N. of Philadelphia and 5 miles E. of Allentown. It
is the northern terminus of the North Pennsylvania R. R.,
and is pleasantly situated on the slopes of several hills.
A bridge across the river connects it with South Bethlehem,
the seat of Lehigh University, founded by Asa Packer in
1865, and richly endowed, having a fine stone edifice on a
high and commanding position. Bethlehem was founded
in 1741 by the Moravians, who have here a large stone
church 142 feet long, a theological seminary, an ancient
chapel, and several benevolent institutions. There are also
a school for boys and a seminary for ladies, three news-
papers, two national banks, one savings bank, and another
banking-house. There are a large number of manufactories,
chiefly in South Bethlehem, including the Lehigh Shovel-
Works, several foundries, the Bethlehem Iron Company’s
rolling-mills, machine-shops, etc.—one of the largest estab-
lishments of the kind in the U. S.; Lehigh Zinc Company’s
rolling-mill, zinc, oxide, and spelter works; Lehigh Brass-
Works, gas-works in both boroughs, etc. Pop. of Beth-
lehem township, 2230; of Bethlehem borough, 4512; of
South Bethlehem borough, 3556.
D. J. GoDSHALK, ED. “DAILY TIMEs.”
It has
prevails more or less in all countries.
472
BETHLEHEMITES.–BEVERIDGE.
º
Beth'lehemites, an order of monks established at
Cambridge, England, in 1257; also an order of monks and
nuns founded at Guatemala, about 1665. They are found
in Central.and South America and the Canary Islands.
Bethlem, a post-township of Litchfield co., Conn.
Pop. 750. - -
Beth'mann-Hollºweg (MoRITz AUGUST), a German
jurist and statesman, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main April
8, 1795. He was professor of civil law at Berlin, and sub-
sequently at Bonn, and was Prussian minister of public
instruction from 1858 to 1862. He published several valu-
able legal works.
Beth'phage, a locality in Palestine, near Jerusalem,
appears to have been on or near the Mount of Olives. The
name occurs in Luke xix. 29 and Matthew xxi. 1. Its site
has not been exactly ascertained.
Bethsa’ida [Heb. “house of fish”], an ancient town
in Palestine, on the W. shore of the Lake of Galilee, the
home of Andrew, Peter, and Philip (John i. 44). Dr.
Robinson identifies it with Ain-et-Tabigbah, in a little bay
or cove between Khan Minyeh (Capernaum ?) and Tell
Hum (Chorazin 2). Another Bethsaida, afterwards called
Julias, was situated near the head of the lake, on the E.
side of the Jordan, about 2 miles from its mouth. It was
Ilea,I’ º Bethsaida that Christ fed the 5000. (Luke ix.
10–17.
Beth'shemesh [Heb. “ house of the sun”], the name
of four places mentioned in the Scriptures, the most im-
portant of which was a sacerdotal city of Judah, about 15
miles W. S. W. of Jerusalem, and about 2 miles from the
great Philistine plain. It was here the ark rested on its
way home from Ekron (7 miles). It was here that Amaziah,
king of Judah, was worsted and taken prisoner by Jehoash,
king of Israel (2 Kings xiv. 11—13). In the reign of Ahaz
it was captured by the Philistines (2 Chron. xxviii. 18),
and is not again mentioned in sacred history. It stood on
a low ridge. Only ruins now mark the spot, which bears
the name of Ain-Shems (“fountain of the sun”). The
greater part of Samson’s exploits were in its immediate
neighborhood.
Béthune, a fortified town of France, in the department
of Pas de Calais, near the river Lave and the . Canal of
Aire, 23 miles by rail N. N. W. of Arras. It has a fine
castle, a college, and a Gothic church; also manufactures
of oil, soap, and woollen goods. It was taken from the
Spaniards in 1645, retaken by Prince Eugène in 1710, and
restored to France in 1713. Pop. 8178.
Bethune (GEORGE WASHINGTON), D. D., an American
divine and poet, was born in the city of New York in 1805.
He graduated at Dickinson College in 1822, and at the
Princeton Theological Seminary in 1825. In 1828 he
became pastor of a Dutch Reformed church in Rhinebeck,
N. Y. He was afterwards settled in Utica, and still later
in Philadelphia. In 1849 he removed to Brooklyn, N. Y.
In 1861 he went to Europe for the benefit of his health, but
died at Florence April 28, 1862. Dr. Bethune was distin-
guished for his fine taste, his varied culture, and his love
of nature. Besides several literary and religious works, he
published “A Commentary on the 130th Psalm ’’ (1847),
“Lectures on the Heidelberg Catechism” (1864), “Lays
of Love and Faith” (1847). (See his life by DR. WAN NEST,
New York, 1867.)
Beton. See BRICK, CEMENT, and STONE, ARTIFICIAL,
by GEN. Q. A. GILLMORE, U. S. Army.
Bet/terton (THOMAs), a popular English actor, born
in London in Aug., 1635. He performed with great success
the parts of Hamlet, Macbeth, and Othello. He was the
chief ornament of the English stage for nearly fifty years.
His wife was a popular actress. He died April 28, 1710.
(See CHARLEs GILDON, “Life of T. Betterton,” 1710.)
Bet/ting, or Wa'gering, a vicious practice which
The English are
addicted to betting on horse-races to a ruinous extent. The
British Parliament passed an act, 16 and 17 Vict. c. 119,
to suppress the haunts of betters, called betting-houses,
which it declares to be a common nuisance and contrary to
law. But it provides that its enactments shall not extend
to stakes or deposits due to the winner of any race or law-
ful sport. The laws of the U. S. prohibit betting on elec-
tions.
Betts (SAMUEL RossITER), LL.D., one of the ablest of
American jurists, was born at Richmond, Mass., June 8,
1787, and graduated at Williams College in 1806, practised
law in Sullivan co., N. Y., served in the war of 1812,
became judge advocate, and was a member of Congress
(1815–17). He was a judge of the circuit court for the
State (1823–26), and U. S. district judge (1826–67). Died
Nov. 2, 1868. He published a treatise on “Admiralty
Practice” (1838).
Bett’s, a township of Sanford co., Ala. Pop. 1048.
Beudant (FRANÇors SULProE), an eminent French min-
eralogist, born in Paris Sept. 5, 1787, became professor of
mineralogy in Paris in 1820. Among his writings is an
“Elementary Treatise on Mineralogy” (2d ed. 1830). Died
Dec. 9, 1850.
Beugnot, de (ARTHUR AUGUSTE), CoMTE, a French
writer and liberal statesman, was born at Bar-sur-Aube in
1797. He wrote an “Essay on the Institutions of Saint
Louis” (Paris, 8vo, 1821), “The Jews of the West”
(Paris, 8vo, 1824), and a “History of the Destruction of
Paganism in the West” (2 vols., 1835). He became a peer
of France in 1841. As a member of the Legislative As-
sembly of 1849 he promoted freedom in public instruction.
Died in 1865. -
Beu'lah, a township of Lee co., Ala. Pop. 1299.
Beulah, a post-village, capital of Bolivar co., Miss.,
on the Mississippi River, 110 miles N. of Wicksburg.
Beulah, a post-township of Johnston co., N. C. Pop.
1105.
Beulé (CHARLEs ERNEST), a French archaeologist, born
June 29, 1826, took part in 1849–53 in the excavations of
the Acropolis in Athens, and became in 1854 professor of
archaeology in the Imperial Library in Paris. He wrote,
among other works, “L’Acropole d'Athènes'' (2 vols.,
1854), “Etudes sur le Peloponnèse’’ (1855), “Fouilles de
Carthage” (the results of his excavations in Carthage in
1858), and “Auguste, sa Famille,” etc. (1867). Died in 1874.
Beur/mann, von (KARL MoRITZ), a celebrated Ger-
man explorer, was born in 1835. In 1860 he attempted
to explore the country of the Bogos, but did not succeed in
reaching it until Mar., 1861. In Dec., 1861, he was en-
gaged to look for Vogel, who, it was supposed, had been
murdered in Wadai. Beurmann was to start from Tripoli,
while at the same time Heuglin should attempt to reach
Wadai from Abyssinia. He reached Kuka in Bornu in
Aug., 1862. As it was impossible to reach Wadai at that
time, he made a trip to Jacoba in Bautchi, from which he
returned to Kuka Dec. 13. Soon after he attempted the
voyage to Wadai, and having succeeded in reaching Wadai
after several futile attempts, he was murdered in Feb.,
1863, in Moa, in the most W. province of Wadai, by the
command of the governor. *
Beusa/lem, a township of Moore co., N. C. Pop. 1032.
Beust, von (FRIEDRICH FERDINAND), BARON, an able
German statesman, born at Dresden June 13, 1809. He was
appointed minister of foreign affairs in Saxony in 1849.
In Oct., 1866, he became minister of foreign affairs and
prime minister of the Austrian empire. He received the
additional title of chancellor of the empire in June, 1867,
when Austria was apparently on the verge of ruin. He
urged the emperor to adopt a liberal policy, and he effected
important reforms which promoted civil and religious lib-
erty. He insisted on the abolition of the concordat with
the pope, and induced Francis Joseph to enter into friendly
relations with the king of Prussia and emperor of united
Germany. Never since the time of Metternich was the
foreign policy of Austria, so wisely directed as it was by
Von Beust. He resigned in Nov., 1871, for reasons (as he
announced) not political, but purely personal. He was
then sent as ambassador to London.
Beu/then, a town of Prussia, in Silesia, 50 miles E. S. E.
of Oppeln, has manufactures of woollen cloth, zinc-ware,
and pottery. Pop. in 1871, 17,946.
Bev'el [Fr. beveau or buweavi], an instrument used by
masons and carpenters to take or measure angles. It is
movable on a point or centre, and may be set to any angle.
The term also denotes a slant or inclination of a surface
which is not at right angles with the adjacent surface; a
sloped or canted surface. It is nearly synonymous with
splay.
Bevel Gear, or Bevelled Gear, in mechanics, a
species of wheelwork in which the axes of two wheels
working into each other are neither parallel nor perpendicu-
lar, but inclined to each other at a certain angle. Some
wheels are also called comical wheels.
Bevereu, a town of Belgium, in the province of East
Flanders, 7 miles by rail W. of Antwerp. It has factories
of laces, woollen, linen, and cotton goods. Pop. in 1866,
7151. •
Bev/eridge (WILLIAM), an English Orientalist and
bishop, born at Barrow, in Leicestershire, in 1638. He was
a man of great learning and of profoundly religious cha-
racter. He published a “Treatise on Chronology (1669),
a work “On the Canons of the Greek Church * (ió72), and
several devotional treatises. In 1704 he was appointed
bishop of St. Asaph. Died in 1708. (See THOMAS H.
w
BEVERLAND–BHAGAVAT GITA.
473
HoRNE, “Memoir of Bishop Beveridge,”
edition of his works, 9 vols. 8vo, 1824.)
Bev'erland (ADRIAAN), a Dutch classical scholar and
heterodox writer, born at Middelburg about 1654, was a
friend of Isaac Vossius. He wrote “Peccatum Originale’”
(“Original Sin,” 1678), and other works which were cen-
sured for impiety. He was banished from Utrecht, and re-
moved to England, where he died insane in 1712.
Bev’erley, a market-town of England, in Yorkshire,
1 mile W. of the river Hull, and 10 miles N. N. W. of the
city of Hull. It is the chief town of the East Riding of
Yorkshire, and is handsomely built. The origin of the
name is said to be Beverlac, a “lake or dam of beavers.”
It has an ancient and beautiful Gothic minster, called the
church of St. John, which exhibits several styles of Gothic
architecture, and ranks next to York Minster among the
ecclesiastical structures of England. The oldest part of
this was erected in the thirteenth century. A priory was
founded here about 700 A. D. Beverley has an active trade
in corn, coals, and leather, and is on the railway from Hull
to York. Pop. in 1871, 10,218.
1Bev'erly, a post-township of Adams co., Ill.
prefixed to an
P. 1173.
Beverly, a thriving post-village of Essex co., Mass.,
is on a small inlet of the ocean, and on the Eastern R. R.,
2 miles N. N. E. of Salem and 18 miles N. N. E. of Boston.
A bridge across the inlet connects it with Salem. It de-
rives its prosperity chiefly from commerce and fisheries, and
has a national bank and manufactures of shoes, carriages,
cotton and woollen goods. It has one weekly newspaper,
ten churches, and an insurance company. Pop. of Beverly
township, 6507.
Beverly, a city of Burlington co., N.J., on the Delaware
River and the Camden and Amboy R. R., 15 miles above
Philadelphia. It has five churches, a woollen mill, an oil-
cloth factory, a very extensive ropewalk, and one weekly
paper. It is a place of summer resort. Pop. 1418; of Bev-
erly township, 2438. GEO. F. CLARKE, PUB. “VISITOR.”
Beverly, a post-village, capital of Randolph co., West
Va., is on the Tygart's Valley River, about 100 miles S. S. E.
of Wheeling. Pop. of Beverly township, 847.
Beverly, a post-village of Washington co., O., on the
Muskingum River, 20 miles above Marietta. It has a
national bank. Pop. 814.
Beverly Manor, a township of Augusta co., Va. The
town of Staunton is in this township. Pop. 8071.
Bevier', a post-village of Macon co., Mo., on the Han-
nibal and St. Joseph R. R., 5 miles W. of Macon City.
Pop. 833; of Bevier township, 1531.
Bewd'Iey (formerly Beaulieu, i. e. “fair place,” so
called from its situation), a market-town of England, in
Worcestershire, on the river Severn, 14 miles N. N. W. of
Worcester. It is pleasantly situated and neatly built, and
has manufactures of combs, carpets, brass-ware, and leather.
Pop. in 1871, 3018.
Bew/ick (THOMAs), a celebrated English engraver, born
near Newcastle-on-Tyne Aug. 12, 1753, was a pupil of Beil-
by. He was the founder of the modern English school of
wood-engraving, and none of his numerous pupils have
excelled him. He illustrated Gay’s “Fables,” 1779. Beilby
and Bewick published in 1790 a “History of British Quad-
rupeds,” with engravings, which procured for Bewick a high
reputation. He was assisted by his brother John in the de-
signs of Goldsmith’s “Traveller’’ and “Deserted Village.”
Among his best works is a “History of British Birds” (2
vols., 1804). Died Nov. 8, 1828.
Bexar [Sp. pron. bā-Har'], a county in the S. of
Texas. Area, 1456 square miles. It is intersected by the
Medina River, and bounded on the N. E. by the Cibolo,
and also drained by Salada Creek. The soil is generally
fertile, adapted to maize, cotton, wheat, and pasturage.
Capital, San Antonio. Pop. 16,043.
Bexar Territory, an extensive portion of Western
Texas, having an area of not less than 25,000 square miles.
It has few inhabitants except Indians. The N.W. portion
is an outlying part of the Llano Estacado, or “Staked
Plaim,” a region having little wood, a few springs and
“water-holes,” some of them salt, and a very few insig-
nificant streams and lakes. The Rio Pecos extends along
the western border. In the E. central portion there are
quite a number of streams, chiefly tributaries of the Colo-
rado. The S. central part has an extensive table-land.
Much of the region is mountainous and rocky. It has
some cedar timber. The chief settlement is at Fort Concho.
Its Indians are hostile and intractable. Pop. 1077.
Bey, or Beg, a title of the Turkish empire signifying
“lord.” The ruling officers of Tripoli and Tunis are beys;
and the same title is given to some local magistrates, to
and avowed himself a Protestant.
colonels and generals of the army, and to the sons of pashas.
In other cases it is a merely honorary title.
Beyle (MARIE HENRI), a French littérateur, who wrote
under the assumed name of STENDHAL, was born at Gren-
oble Jan. 23, 1783. He held several high civil offices under
Napoleon. Among his chief works are a “History, of
Painting in Italy’’ (2 vols., 1817), “Le Rouge et le Noir,”
a novel, a “Life of Rossini” (1824), “Memoirs of a Tour-
ist’” (1838), “Rome, Naples, and Florence,” and a novel
called “The Carthusian Nun of Parma” (1839). He passed
many years in Italy. Died in Paris in 1842. (See HoNORÉ
DE BALZAC, “Etudes sur M. Beyle.”) -
Bey'rootſ, Beyrout, Beirout, Beirut, or Bairut
[supposed by some to be identical with the Berothai of
2 Sam. viii. 8, and the Berothah of Ezek. xlvii. 16; Gr.
Bmpvrós; Lat. Berytus], a flourishing commercial town and
seaport of Syria, is finely situated on the Mediterranean at
the foot of Mount Lebanon, 85 miles W. N. W. of Damascus.
The harbor admits only small vessels, but in the bay about
3 miles from the city there is good anchorage for large
ships. This is the chief seaport of Damascus and Syria,
and has an extensive commerce, which is increasing.
French steamers ply weekly between Beyroot and Mar-
seilles, and British steamers ply regularly between this
city and Liverpool. The chief articles of export are mad-
der, silk, wool, olive oil, and gums. Here are important
manufactures of silk stuffs. Pop. in 1867, about 100,000.
Berytus was besieged and taken by Baldwin, king of Jeru-
salem, about 1110, and retaken by the Saracens in 1187.
American missionaries have been there since 1825. The
Protestant Syrian college was opened in 1866.
Be'za [Fr. De Bèze], (THEODoRE), an eminent Calvin-
istic theologian, born at Wezelay, in Burgundy, June 24,
1519. In his youth he enjoyed two benefices in the Cath-
olic Church, but in 1548 he went to Geneva, with his wife,
He became professor
of Greek at Lausanne, and an intimate friend of Calvin.
In 1554 he published a treatise, “De Haereticis a Civili
Magistratu Puniendis,” in which he defended the burning
of Servetus. He translated the New Testament into Latin
(1556), removed to Geneva in 1559, and became Calvin’s
ablest coadjutor. He succeeded Calvin as professor of
theology in 1564. He afterwards ruled the Genevan Church
with energy for forty years. Among his works are a “Life
of Calvin’ and a “History of the Reformed Churches in
France from 1521 to 1563 ° (3 vols., 1580). Died Oct. 13,
1605. (See BAUM, “Th. Beza,” 2 vols., 1843–51; HEPPE,
“Th. Beza,” 1861.)
Bezant’, or Besant, a gold coin struck at Byzantium,
or a circular piece of gold or silver without any impression,
supposed to be a part of the old coinage of Byzantium.
Some of these were brought home by the Crusaders, and
were current in England. Their value was 108. Sterling,
but some gold bezants were worth £15 Sterling. They
occur in heraldic charges, especially Cornish coat-armor,
and in the arms of banks or bankers (hence the “three
balls” of the pawnbrokers’ shops). Bezant in heraldry is
a globe or, or a circle argent.
Bez/dau, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bacs.
Pop. in 1870, 7573.
Béziers (anc. Baeter/ræ), a city of France, in the de-
partment of Hérault, on the river Orb and the Canal du Midi,
27 miles by rail E. S. E. of Cette. It is on the railway
which connects Montpellier with Toulouse, and has a de-
lightful situation, with a mild climate. Among its antique
and interesting edifices are a noble Gothic cathedral and
the church of La Madeleine. It has a college, a public
library, a theatre; also manufactures of silk, hosiery,
gloves, glass, soap, brandy, and leather. Béziers has some
Roman remains. It was the scene of a massacre of the
Albigenses in 1209. Pop. 27,722.
Beſzoar, a calculous concretion found in the stomachs
or intestines of goats, deer, and other ruminant animals,
was formerly prized for its supposed medicinal virtues and
as an antidote to poisons. That of the antelope was espe-
cially prized. The bezoar is sometimes, composed of the
superphosphate of lime. It is quite worthless as a medicine.
Bhagavat (or Bhagavad) Gita, modern Hindoo
ron. bhūg'a, viit geet—i.e. “the divine song” [from the
§. bhagavat, “adorable,” “divine,” and gita, a “song”].
a famous Hindoo poem usually regarded as an episode of
the MAHABHARATA (which see), though it is not found in
all the manuscripts of that great epic. The Bhagayat Gita
may be called a poetical treatise on the Hindoo philosophy,
ethical and religious. The discourse on these subjects is
represented as proceeding from the mouth of the god
Irishna (one of the avatars of Vishnu). The poem is re-
garded with great reverence by the Hindoos, and it has
been made the subject of numerous commentaries both in
474
BHAMO—BIBERACH.
India and in Europe. (See a translation by WILKINS, who
first introduced the poem to the notice of Europe; W. von
HUMBOLDT, “Treatise on the Bhaghavat Gita,” 1827.) The
Sanscrit text, with a Latin translation, was edited by A.
W. von Schlegel (2d ed., 1846).
Bhamo. See BAMo.
Bhar"tri-Ha'ri, a Hindoo poet celebrated as a writer
of apothegms, is supposed to have been a brother of King
Vikramāditya, who lived in the first century B. C. His
name is attached to a collection of 300 apothegms which
were published by Bohlen (Berlin, 1863). Bhartri-Hari
was the first Hindoo poet whose works became known in
Europe. *
Bhawl’poor, a state of Northern India, bounded on
the N. W. by the Ghara River and the Indus, and on the
S. W. by Sinde. Area, about 22,000 square miles. The
soil is mostly desert and sterile, except near the Ghara.
Cattle, poultry, sheep, rice, and provisions are plentiful
and cheap. The chief articles of export are cotton, sugar,
indigo, hides, wool, and drugs. Capital, Bhawlpoor. This
state is subject to a khan, and protected by the British.
Pop. about 500,000.
Bhawlpoor, a town of India, the capital of the above
state, is on a branch of the river Ghara, 210 miles S. W.
of Lahore. It is situated in a fertile district, which pro-
duces abundance of oranges, apples, and other fruits, and
has an extensive trade. Here are manufactures of Scarfs,
turbans, chintzes, and other cotton stuffs. Pop. about
20,000. ”
Bhil 'sa, a town of Hindostan, 190 miles S. of Gwalior,
on the Betwat River, is built on a trap rock, and is for-
tified. In the neighborhood are extensive ruins. Good
tobacco is raised here. Pop. about 30,000.
Bhooj, a fortified town of Hindostan, capital of Cutch,
170 miles S. E. of Hyderābād. It has numerous temples
or pagodas, mosques, and a beautiful mausoleum of
Row Lakka, a former ruler of Cutch. Its manufac-
tures of gold and silver are widely celebrated. Pop.
estimated at 25,000.
Bhoſpál’, or Bhapaul, a state of Hindostan
under British protection, is bounded on the S. by the
Nerbudda River. Area, estimated at 6764 square
miles. It is traversed by the Windhyam Mountains.
Capital, Bhopal. Pop. about 664,000. ºf º-
Bhurt/poor', or Bhurtpore, a “protected”
state of British India, is between 26° 30' and 27° 50' is
N. lat., and between 77° and 78° E. lon. Area, es-
timated at 1978 square miles. Good crops of cot-
ton, sugar, and grain are produced. The heat in sum-
mer is extreme. Pop. about 600,000.
Bhurtpoor, or Bharatpura, a large town of
India, capital of the above state, in a plain 33 miles W. of
Agra; lat. 27° 12' N., lon. 77° 33' E. Pop. estimated at
100,000. It was formerly fortified by a mud wall, and a
ditch which could be filled with water from a lake. Lord
Lake, having assaulted this town in 1805, lost 3000 men. It
was besieged and taken by the British in 1826.
Bi [from the Lat. bis, “twice”], a prefix which occurs
in many chemical and other Scientific terms, and denotes
duality or the number 2, as bivalve, “ having two valves;”
bicarbonate, a salt in which two equivalents of carbonic
acid are combined with a base; biceps, “double-headed.”
Biaf'ra, Bight of, a bay of the Atlantic Ocean, on
the W. coast of Africa, is the eastern portion of the Gulf
of Guinea, and lies between Cape Formosa and Cape Lo-
pez. It encloses the island of Fernando Po and other
smaller isles. The largest rivers which flow into the bight
are the Niger (or Quorra), the Calabar, and the Cameroon.
Bia'la, an Austrian town, in Galicia, situated on the
Biala, 42 miles S. W. of Cracow, has manufactures of cloth
and limens. It is connected by rail with Bielitz. Pop. in
1869, 6558.
Biala, a town of Russia, in the government of Siedlce.
It has several churches and a monastery. Pop. in 1867,
5662.
Bial’ystok, a fortified town of Russia, in the govern-
ment of Grodno, on the river Bialy, 52 miles by rail S. W.
of Grodno. It is well built and handsome, has several
churches, and a palace with a park, which have been called
the “Versailles of Poland.” Here are a gymnasium and
manufactures of woollen goods, hats, leather, and soap. It
is on a railway from Warsaw to Grodno. Pop. in 1869,
16,985.
Biancavil/ia (i. e. “white town”), a town of Sicily,
in the province of Catania, on the S. W. declivity of Mount
Etna, 13 miles N. W. of Catania. Grain, cotton, and silk
are exported from it. Pop. 9083.
Bianchi’mi (FRANCESCO), an eminent Italian astrono-
mer and antiquary, was born at Verona Dec. 13, 1662. He
lived mostly at Rome, and enjoyed a rich benefice, the gift
of Pope Alexander VIII. He published, besides other
works, a “Universal History, proved by Monuments and
illustrated with Symbols of the Antique” (1694). He
spent several years in an effort to draw a meridian line
from the Adriatic to the Mediterranean, but failed to com-
plete it. He succeeded in drawing a meridian line through
the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli. Died at Rome Mar.
2, 1729. (See FontFNELLE, “Eloge de Bianchini,” 1757; A.
MAzzoLENI, “Vita di F. Bianchini,” 1735.)
Biard (AUGUSTE FRANÇors), an eminent French painter,
born at Lyons June 27, 1800, travelled extensively in the
Levant, Egypt, etc., collecting materials for his art. He
excelled in several departments of painting, especially in
genre. Among his works are a “Family of Beggars,” “The
Strolling Players,” “The Wind of the Desert,” “A Battle
with Polar Bears,” “The Slave-Trade,” and the “Burning
of a Hindoo Widow.” (See L. BoIVIN, “ Notice sur M.
Biard.”)
Biarritz, a village and fashionable watering-place of
France, on the Bay of Biscay, in the department of Basses-
Pyrénées, 5 miles S. W. of Bayonne. Here are several
curious grottoes and mineral springs. The situation is
pleasant and healthy. This was recently the summer resi-
dence of Napoleon III. Pop. 3652.
Bi’as [Bias], one of the Seven Sages of Greece, was a
native of Priene, and a contemporary of Croesus, king of
Lydia. He lived about 570–550 B. C. He was distin-
guished for eloquence as well as wisdom, and was em-
ployed as a legal and political adviser or advocate. Ac-
cording to tradition, he said, “I carry all my goods (or
riches) with me.” -
Bib, called also Pout or Whiting Pout (Gadus lus-
cus or Morrhua lusca), a fish of the same genus as the cod
and haddock, is found on many parts of the British coasts
and farther N. It is seldom more than one foot long,
and is remarkable for the depth of its body, which equals
one-fourth of its length. It is esteemed for food.
Bibb, a county near the centre of Alabama. Area, 700
square miles. It is intersected by the Cahawba River.
The surface is hilly; the soil in parts fertile. Cotton and
corn are the chief crops. Iron ore and coal are found in
it. Capital, Centreville. Pop. 7469.
Bibb, a county near the centre of Georgia. Area, 250
square miles. It is traversed by the Ocmulgee River, and
also drained by the Tobesofka Creek. The surface is
hilly; cotton and corn are the chief crops. The county is
intersected by the Central, the Macon and Western, and the
Macon and Brunswick R. Rs. Capital, Macon. P. 21,255.
Bibb (GEORGE M.), born in Virginia in 1772, graduated
at Princeton in 1792, became a prominent lawyer of Ken-
tucky, and was several times chosen chief-justice of that
State, and once chancellor; was U. S. Senator (1811–14 and
1829–35), and secretary of the treasury under Tyler. He
published four volumes of Kentucky “Law Reports” (1815–
17). Died at Georgetown, D. C., April 14, 1859.
Bibb (WILLIAM WYATT), M. D., born in Virginia Oct.
1, 1780, was member of Congress from Georgia (1806–13),
U. S. Senator (1813–14), governor of Alabama Territory
(1817–19), and first governor of the State of Alabama (1819–
20). Died July 9, 1820.
Bi’ber (GEORGE EDWARD), an English clergyman, born
in 1801, was formerly associated with Pestalozzi in educa-
tional enterprises, and is author of several pedagogic works.
He has taken an active part in recent church controversies
in the High Church interest.
Biſberach’, a town of Würtemberg, is in a charming
valley and on the river Riss, 23 miles by rail S. S. W. of
Ulm. It has a realschule, a beautiful church, built in 1110,

BIBERICH-BIBLE SOCIETIES.
475
manufactures of paper, linen goods, leather, etc. Pop. in
1871, 7091. The French general Moreau here defeated the
Austrians under Latour in Oct., 1796, and the Austrian gene-
ral Kray in 1800. The poet Wieland was born near Biberach.
Bi’berich, or Bie/brich, a village of Prussia, in the
province of Hesse-Nassau, on the right bank of the Rhine,
3 miles S. of Wiesbaden. It has a ducal residence which
is said to be the finest palace on the Rhine. The river-
scenery here visible is almost unrivalled. Pop. including
Mosbach, in 1871, 6642.
Bibes/co (GEORGE DEMETRIUs), PRINCE, ex-hospodar
of Wallachia, born in 1804 in the banat of Crăiova, studied
at Paris, and became under-Secretary of state. In 1843
he led the movement which expelled Ghika, and succeeded
him as hospodar. He instituted many reforms, but was
forced to resign in 1848, on account of alleged Russian
predilections. He kept aloof from politics until in 1857 he
took part in the deliberations of the divan for the reorgan-
ization of Moldo-Wallachia. Died at Paris June, 1873.
Bible. See BIBLE, THE.
Bible Christians, called also Bryanites, from Rev.
William Bryan of Cornwall, England, who left the Wesley-
ans in 1815. They have in England 368 chapels, 65 preach-
ers, 957 local preachers, and 14,352 members; in Canada,
135 chapels, 46 preachers, and 4986 members; in Austral-
asia, 100 chapels, 34 preachers, 147 local preachers, and 2045
members. In the U. S. the only congregation of “Bible
Christians” is in Philadelphia, and they refer their origin
to Rev. William Cowherd, who left the Church of England
about 1800.
Bible Communists. See ONEIDA CoMMUNISTs.
Bible Grove, a post-township of Clay co., III. P. 998.
Bible Societies. While the sixteenth century is dis-
tinguished for the labor spent upon numerous translations
of the Holy Scriptures into the languages of Christian na-
tions, the nineteenth is no less memorable for the multipli-
cation of Bible societies as a means of securing the widest
diffusion of the Bible, not only in civilized lands and
among Christian communities, but throughout the world.
The British and Foreign Bible Society was established in
London, Mar. 7, 1804. Previous to that time eight socie-
ties in Great Britain had been engaged in publishing or
distributing Bibles, though only three, the Naval and Mili-
tary Bible Society (1780), the Dublin Association (1792),
and the French Bible Society (1792), had made this their
principal work, and these, it is believed, did not long sur-
vive. The great destitution which was found to prevail in
the principality of Wales in 1802, and the utter inability
of existing societies to supply the demand for Bibles, led
to the organization of the British and Foreign Bible So-
ciety, with the sole object of encouraging a wider disper-
sion of the Scriptures, first in the British dominions, and
then, according to its ability, in other countries, Christian,
Mohammedan, and Pagan. Three hundred persons of dif-
ferent religious denominations united in organizing it, and
£700 were at once subscribed. Its entire receipts the first
year fell a little short of £5600. -
The American Bible Society was founded in the city of
New York, May 11, 1816, with the sole object, as announced
in its constitution, of encouraging “a wider circulation of
the Holy Scriptures without note or comment.” This so-
ciety had, however, been preceded by fifty or sixty others,
which had come into being at one point and another in the
U. S. after the organization of the British and Foreign
Bible Society. The first of these was founded at Philadel-
phia in 1808; the second at Hartford, Conn., in 1809.
Next came the Massachusetts Bible Society at Boston, the
New Jersey Bible Society at Princeton, and the New York
Bible Society. Such local societies accomplished much
good within their own bounds, but having no bond of
union, their operations lacked efficiency and economy, and
it soon became apparent that a combination of effort was
essential for thorough work. Thirty-five local organiza-
tions sent delegates to the convention which founded the
American Bible Society, and eighty-four became auxiliary
to it during the first year of its existence. Among the
delegates were representative men of the leading denomi-
nations—Baptist, Congregational, Reformed Dutch, Meth-
odist Episcopal, Protestant Episcopal, Presbyterian, and
the Society of Friends; but every sectarian jealousy and
party prejudice being laid aside, all united with perfect
harmony and cordiality in the single object of “dissemi-
nating the Scriptures in the received versions where they
exist, and in the most faithful where they may be required.”
The announcement of this organization brought from the
British and Foreign Bible Society the expression of their
warmest congratulations, and the offer of a gift of £500.
At an early date Bible societies were formed on the conti-
ment of Europe, as at Băle (1804) and Berlin and Ratisbon
(1805), and nearly fifty others, chiefly in the north of Eu-
rope, before 1816. At that time also two had been estab-
lished in Africa, five in Asia, and others in Nova Scotia,
Canada, and the West Indies. About seventy principal
Societies may be named as having been actually engaged
in the manufacture and publication of Bibles. Auxiliary
and branch Bible societies and associations have been very
extensively formed with a view of enlisting local sympa-
thies, collecting funds from churches and individuals,
maintaining depositories, and looking after the circulation
of the Scriptures among the needy. The American Bible
Society has more than 2000 auxiliary societies, and with
them are connected nearly 5000 branches. Spich societies
are expected to supply the wants of their field from their
own resources, if possible, though receiving aid from the
national society when necessary, and paying over their
surplus funds annually into its treasury. The British and
Foreign Bible Society has also not far from 1200 auxiliaries
and branches, as well as 3134 Bible associations in the
management of which ladies have a principal part. Be-
sides these home institutions, it has many colonial auxilia-
ries, and also foreign agencies superintending its deposi-
tories of Bibles in the chief cities of Europe. Not far from
16,000 smaller organizations are thus connected with the
two principal Bible societies of the world; and when it is
remembered that many of the continental societies also
have adopted the auxiliary system, it is very clear that
this multiplication of associations for the distribution of
the Scriptures is one of the phenomena of the age.
The American and Foreign Bible Society was founded in
New York in 1836 by representatives of the Baptist denomi-
nation, owing to the refusal of the American Bible Society
to apply its funds to print and circulate versions of the New
Testament made by American Baptist missionaries, in which
Bairrigetv and its cognate terms were literally translated,
not transferred. The American and Foreign Bible Society,
thus inaugurated, instructed its translators “to endeavor to
ascertain the exact meaning of the original text, to express
that meaning as literally as the mature of the languages
into which they should translate the Bible would permit,
and to transfer no words which were capable of being
literally translated.” By vote of the representatives of
the two societies this society was to have been consoli-
dated with the American Baptist Publication Society, but
legal obstacles have been thrown in the way, and the Bible
Society still maintains an independent existence. Some of
the members of this society were earnest advocates of the
publication of a new version of the English Scriptures on
the same principle as that which governed its translations
into foreign tongues; and on the refusal of the society to
authorize such a revision the American Bible Union was
formed (1850)—a society which has published a revised ver-
sion of the New Testament, Psalms, Job, and Genesis in
conformity with the principle indicated—translating Bam-
Tigetv by “to immerse,” etc. Although some of the most
eminent scholars among the Baptists have been employed
on the versions of this society, it has never received the
support of the great body of American Baptists.
In general, several characteristics of Bible societies are
to be noted. They are voluntary associations, being neither
close corporations nor under ecclesiastical direction, and
the privileges of membership are secured by the payment
of money. They are unsectarian, inviting all men to com-
mon efforts on the simple basis of the Scriptures of the Old
and New Testament without note or comment. They are
Protestant organizations, however, because the rules of the
Roman Catholic Church are opposed to the free circulation
of the Scriptures without admixture of comment. They
are strictly benevolent societies, publishing not for profit,
but at prices as low as possible, and making large grants,
as their receipts may allow, for the supply of the destitute.
Their work is exceedingly helpful to Sunday-schools and to
various forms of missionary effort at home and abroad; and
their influence has been most happy in promoting Chris-
tian union, and presenting a form of religious activity in
which all denominations might participate without the sac-
rifice of principle. -
The work of Bible societies has constantly encountered
difficulties of one sort and another. The circulation of the
Bible in all lands creates a demand for new versions, the
preparation of which involves many nice points, while the
revision of existing versions can hardly fail to occasion
complaint. Even the determination of the canon of the
Scripture is not universally agreed on. The most violent
controversy in the British and Foreign Bible Society turned
upon the question whether the Apocrypha should be pub-
lished and circulated. The controversy continued for years,
and when in 1826 it was finally decided to withhold all aid
from associations circulating the uncanonical books, fifty
auxiliaries on the Continent withdrew from the parent
society. The Edinburgh society, which had earnestly op-
476
BIBLE, THE.
posed the circulation of the Apocrypha, also withdrew and
stood aloof. The proposal to combine men of different per-
suasions in Bible effort, and to circulate the Bible without
the Book of Common Prayer, encountered some opposition
in England at an early date, which after a few years died
away. The Russian Bible Society at St. Petersburg
(founded 1813) flourished until 1826, when its operations
were summarily suspended by the emperor Nicholas, on the
ground that it belonged to the Church, rather than to a
secular society, to furnish the people with the word of God.
In the American Bible Society differences of opinion con-
cerning the principles which should govern translations into
foreign tongues led to the formation of the American and
Foreign Bible Society in 1836; and at a later period (1858)
its harmony was again imperilled for a time in consequence
of dissatisfaction at some attempted modifications (numer-
ous though generally slight) in the English editions of the
society—a dissatisfaction which was allayed by abandoning
the proposed changes.
The work accomplished by Bible societies in seventy
years is vast in extent and of unspeakable usefulness. In
1872 the receipts of the American Bible Society for a year
were $689,923, of which $361,274 came from sales. The
same year it had issued 1,100,871 volumes, including
Bibles, Testaments, and integral portions of Scripture.
The British and Foreign Bible Society at the same time
reported its receipts for a year to be £184,196, and its issues
2,584,357 volumes. Its total issues since 1804 are 65,884,095,
and the total issues of the American Bible Society since
1816, 28,780,969. It is a low estimate to suppose that
I13,000,000 volumes of the Bible or separate books of the
Bible have been issued by Bible societies since the tears of
a little girl in Wales in 1802 led Thomas Charles to ask
what could be dome to secure Welsh Bibles for his congre-
gation. The aggregate number of volumes issued by no
means measures the results of Bible society work. From
motives of benevolence the prices of Bibles have been de-
termined by the cost of materials and of manufacture, with-
out regard to profit. The British and Foreign Bible Society
has its work done by contract; the American Bible Society
manufactures its publications on its own premises, and in
so doing gives constant employment to about 400 persons.
Besides the books which are sold at unremunerative prices,
a large part of the publications each year are given away to
destitute families and individuals, to charitable institutions,
Sunday-schools, missionary societies, soldiers, seamen, im-
migrants, travellers, prisoners, and other classes of persons.
The American Bible Society and its auxiliaries through the
U. S. are engaged for the third time in an effort to reach
every destitute family in the land with the offer of a Bible.
It has printed the Bible or parts of it in fifty different lan-
guages, twenty-seven of these being new translations; 205
new versions have been prepared since 1804. The British
and Foreign Bible Society has directly or indirectly pro-
moted the publication and distribution of the Scriptures in
at least 200 languages and dialects. (For further informa-
tion respecting Bible societies reference may be had to the
following works: Owl-N’s “History of the British and For-
eign Bible Society,” 1817; BRowNE’s “History" of same,
1859; DUDLEY’s “Analysis of the System of Bible Socie-
ties,” 1821; “Jubilee Memorial of British and Foreign Bi-
ble Society,” 1854; “ Jubilee Commemoration at Bombay,”
1854; STRICKLAND’s “History of American Bible Society,”
1856; “Manual of American Bible Society,” 1871; “Jubi-
lee Memorial,” 1866; Memoirs of S. H. Turner, Gardiner
Spring, and John C. Brigham ; numerous controversial pam-
phlets; “Bible Society Record,” and “Annual Reports” of
each Bible society.) E. W. GILMAN.
Bible, The [Lat. Bib'lia; Gr. 7& Bugxia (i. e. “the
books”); Fr. la Bible ; Ger. die Bibel ; It la Bibbia],
popularly known also as the Holy Bible and Holy
Scriptures, a collection of ancient writings, divided into
two parts, the Old and New Testaments, of which the first is
regarded by the Jewish Church, and both are regarded by
the Christian Church, as a divine revelation. With re-
spect to the more precise definition and character of the
Bible, the views are very diverse in the different churches.
The Roman Catholic Church, in consistency with the monar-
chical theory which it inherited from the Roman civil law,
denies any such character to the Bible as would make it a
constitutional limitation on the sovereign power. The
supreme authority of revelation does not, on this theory,
inhere in the codex, but in the personal representative, for
the time being, of the Church catholic. The Greek Church
lays chief stress on Orthodoxy—that is, on inflexible adhe-
sion to the dogmatic symbols in which the faith of Chris-
tianity was codified in the early centuries. The Scriptures
must therefore be interpreted in accordance with these
creeds, but as this elevates the creeds into the position of
supreme authority, the labor of interpreting Scripture be-
comes a superfluous trouble. The Scriptures have in conse-
/
quence fallen into neglect, and this neglect has become so
absolute, under a rigid traditional orthodoxy, that it is
impossible to state any positive attitude towards the Scrip-
tures as characteristic of this Church. The Protestants of
the sixteenth century, in reviving reverence for the author-
ity of the Scriptures, developed various schools of opinion.
Luther and his followers adopted a comparatively frce but
subjective position. They saw divine revelation in the
Bible, but not in all parts of it equally. Calvin’s position
was different and more scientific. Among his followers in
Switzerland, however, there sprang up a great zeal for the
doctrine of inspiration. The sacred writers were compared
to trumpets or to pens, in order to express their absolute
instrumentality in the hands of the Holy Spirit. The An-
glican Church at first held a less definite theory of the
Scriptures, and there was great diversity of opinion, but it
has gradually adopted the general theory of the Swiss Re-
formers, modified only so far as sober reflection has forced
the over-credulous or over-zealous to relinquish the theory
of verbal inspiration. Finally, the scientific and critical
school of biblical scholars, represented chiefly by modern
Germans, regards the Bible as the human record of a divine
revelation; not absolutely infallible, since there is no book
written in any human language but must partake in a
measure of the imperfections of that language. Many of
this school, while admitting the Bible to contain the record
of a true supernatural revelation, do not consider it to be
without positive errors of historical fact, not without false
coloring from popular legend and tradition, but neverthe-
less a record as good as human hands could make of a truly
divine revelation. Thus diverse are the conceptions of the
book which are held by different parties. Scarcely any of
these conceptions rely on an unbiassed examination of the
book, to see what it is; many of them are invented to obtain
the support of the Bible for some form of Christianity which
is first settled, independently of the Scriptures, on the basis
of religious or philosophical prepossessions. The Protest-
ant churches, however, are generally united in regarding
the Scriptures—1, as of divine authority; 2, as containing
all knowledge necessary to Salvation; 3, as the appropriate
form of a divine revelation (as opposed to tradition or the
immer light); 4, as the heritage of all Christians—i. e. it is
the right of all to read and become acquainted with the
teachings of the Bible.
A. The Old Testament.—The Old Testament was originally
written in Hebrew, but of course the Hebrew manuscripts
which we possess are separated by a long interval and many
vicissitudes from the original handiwork of the authors.
The History of the Hebrew teact is briefly as follows:
I. First Period (536–180 B. C.)—The Babylonian cap-
tivity (from 586, the chief deportation, to 536, the first re-
turn) forms an epoch in the history of the Jews. It is a gulf
dividing the independent from the subject position of the
nation. It was under the former that they had original
and productive power and a living revelation, and while
they had them they were indifferent to them. After the
captivity, when the Jewish nation had been purified by
adversity, they turned back to them with new interest. They
were able to see that Isaiah and Jeremiah had been the
only men of their times who had truly had “the mind
of the Spirit.” They desired to restore the ancient, law,
worship, and traditions. To this end the collection and
preservation of the ancient writings, which served as the
authority for, or bore witness to, the former observances,
became an object of great interest and importance. With
this movement, however, the nation entered on a new stage.
Its work was not original and creative, but preservative
and reconstructive. It did not look to the future, to an
ideal, but to the past, to a memory. Its spring was not in
thought, communion with God, foresight, and purpose, but
in tradition, reflection, and application. It had to make
the most of its inherited wealth, without adding to it.
In the work which now began Ezra had a prominent
part. He collected and arranged the ancient writings, and
so laid the foundation of the canon (see below, section on
the Canon); and from this point the history of the written
codex begins. The books were at this time written in the
ancient Phoenician characters which appear on some an-
cient Phoenician inscriptions, on the Moabite Stone, on
some coins of the Asmoneans, and in the Samaritan Penta-
teuch. The letters had no variation of form or shape for
capitals and small letters, and neither words, verses, nor
chapters were marked off in any way. Some of the books
which now appear separately were then united, and a few
which are now found in the canon had not yet been writ-
ten. The work, however, which was now to be done extend-
ed beyond the collection, arrangement, and preservation of
the ancient Scriptures. The Hebrew language was already a
dead language. The popular dialect was the Chaldee, and
the Hebrew of Moses, David, and the prophets had become
a sort of classical and Sacred language, known only to the
BIBLE, THE
477
oldest and to the learned. It was an object of academical
acquisition. It was, therefore, necessary to explain and
translate or expound the writings. This task maturally
devolved upon such as possessed the requisite knowledge,
and they constituted an informal body for this purpose. So
much is no doubt true, and it forms the historical basis of
the rabbinical tradition about the “Great Synagogue”
which was said to have done this work. -
When this much is said of the commencement of this
period, we have in fact told nearly all which is known
about it. We can only infer, from what we know of its
beginning and what we find at its close, that the following
movements were in progress: 1. The college of interpreters,
though not a formally or legally constituted body, and
though their business was primarily literary or academical,
were gaining in authority and dignity, and acquiring a cer-
tain official character from general consent. The “elders”
came to have civil and judicial authority from the lack of
others to fill these functions. Possibly the Sanhedrim was
an outgrowth of this body. 2. The canon (see below) was
being formed; the idea of Holy Scripture was being elab-
orated and formulated; the respect for the traditional
writings, and the disposition to set them by themselves,
were gaining ground; the doctrine of inspiration took its
rise. At the close of this period the canon is formed and
these doctrines are established dogmas. 3. The form of the
letters in use was undergoing a change. At the period
referred to, the square letters which are represented in our
printed texts had become established in use.
II. Second Period (180 B.C. to 500 A.D.).--The “schools”
begin with Simon the Just, in 180 B.C. These schools pro-
duced the Talmud, an immense work in a dozen folio vol-
umes, containing a commentary on the Mishna, which
is itself a “repetition.” of the “Law.” . The schools de-
veloped intense zeal for the text of the Scriptures—a zeal
which, though frivolous and fanatical in many of its mani-
festations, has been of immense value to biblical scholar-
ship. The scribes and Talmudists spent unwearying labor
in the establishment of the consonant text; they separated
the words by spaces (but characteristically ordained just
how great the space should be). They probably also intro-
duced the verse-mark (:), and therefore the division into
verses. The preservation of the text from corruption in
copying was secured by counting the letters or by other
devices, and by crabbed, rigid, and minute rules. This
work exercised its legitimate influence on the characters of
those who did it; it made them punctilious about trifles
and negligent of “the weightier matters;” but it preserved
the Old Testament text from corruption, and handed it
down to us in a comparatively pure and reliable form.
In their exegesis the Talmudists were generally guided
by arbitrary rules, by dogmatic prepossessions, by a view
of the Bible which made it a storehouse of occult wis-
dom, only to be unlocked by cabalistic and allegorical
treatment. It is asserted by some who are well acquainted
with the Talmud that it contains valuable geographical,
ethnological, historical, and exegetical information for the
elucidation of the Bible, but the commentaries of Jews and
Christians alike fail to bear witness to the truth of the
assertion. - -
The Targums.-One result of the zeal of the Jews for
the original Hebrew was the publication of paraphrases
in the Aramaic or popular dialect, which were called Tar-
gumim (from a root signifying to “interpret”). They
present the rabbinical and traditional interpretation of the
Scriptures. Their origin is very obscure.
III. Third Period (500–1488 A.D.).-The Talmud, having
grown by the work of successive generations for three or
four centuries, closed about the year 500—i. e., the last of
the commentators whose sayings are included in it lived at
that time. Then a new work began. The Jewish nation
had long been broken up and dispersed. Christianity had
grown into a powerful opponent. The latter fact had led
the Jews to abandon the Septuagint Greek version of
the Old Testament (see below, on the Versions of the Old
Testament), and the former fact made it necessary to pro-
vide still further for the preservation of the Hebrew text.
The pronunciation of a language written only with conso-
nants must, of course, be very uncertain ; that of the He-
brew had been preserved in the rabbinical schools by tra-
dition. There seemed to be danger that it would now be
lost if no means of recording it were devised. The Syriac
language had shortly before been provided with points to
designate the vowel sounds, and to make the written lan-
guage a complete representation of the spoken. The chief
seats of rabbinical learning at this period were Tiberias in
Galilee and Sora in the Euphrates valley, and the scholars
are known as the Massoretes. The Massorah was a mass
of notes, comments, emendations, and corrections of va-
rious kinds, which the Talmudists had adopted, committed
to memory, and handed down by tradition, but which they
had not ventured to mark in any way upon the pages of the
sacred text. The Massoretes now undertook to do this.
They marked in the text—1, the vowels, the shades of pro-
nunciation of the consonants, and the diacritical points
which distinguish two sounds expressed by one character;
2, the accents, which are partly marks of pronunciation,
and partly serve the purpose of musical notes, marking the
intomations of the chant; 3, the emendations and correc-
tions which the Talmudists had adopted. These they
mark on the margin by a peculiar device, which leaves the
consonants as they were, but suggests those which should
be read. Here, again, the superstitious reverence of the
rabbis for the text served the purpose of a true biblical
science, since their proposed amendments are still open to
criticism and review. It is difficult to pass a summary
judgment on their emendations, but perhaps in a majority
of cases modern Scholars retain the original reading and re-
ject the Massorah.
The work of the Massoretes did not begin before the sixth
century, and it was finished before 1106, the date of the
oldest manuscript now known to exist. This manuscript
presents the Massoretic text. The work certainly covered
a long period, and was done by many different hands. It
was not possible, even with the minute and stringent rules
which were adopted, to prevent errors in copying, and our
manuscripts, all of which belong to the period between
1106 and 1488, offer many variants. The Jews continued
to use in the synagogues copies 6f the Scriptures containing
only the consonant text.
IV. After the art of printing was invented some books of
the Old Testament were printed separately. In 1488 the
first edition of the whole Hebrew Bible was printed at Son-
cino. The second, based on the first, was published at
Brescia in 1494. This was the one used by Luther. An
independent version appeared in the Complutensian Poly-
glot, 1517. A collection of variants was made from 615
manuscripts by Kennicott, Oxford, 1780, and a better one
by De Rossi, 1788. The Hebrew Bibles in use are scarcely
more than reproductions of the two first printed editions.
They possess some critical advantages, but generally the ex-
cellence of a subsequent edition over the former consists in
typographical accuracy and neatness. A satisfactory crit-
ical edition, with a full account taken of the variants, is yet
to be prepared. -
V. The Old Testament in the Christian Church.--The
Church of the first and second centuries based the authority
and truth of its doctrines on the Old Testament, just as it is
used in the New Testament. The Church of the third and
fourth centuries wavered between acquiescence in the au-
thority ascribed to the Old Testament by our Lord and his
apostles, and hatred and suspicion of all things Jewish.
No Christians save converted Jews knew Hebrew, and of
these very few were of the class which “knew the Law.”
No man was converted who brought into the infant Church
a knowledge of the Hebrew. The Septuagint Greek ver-
sion (see below) was the form in which the Christians be-
came acquainted with the Old Testament. The first Chris-
tian scholar who undertook to learn Hebrew was Origen
(254 A.D.). He prepared a Hexapla, containing the He-
brew and five versions, which unfortunately is lost. We
possess, however, his commentaries, which show that he had
borrowed from the rabbis their allegorical mystical methods
of interpretation. He is counted among the Fathers of the
Eastern Church, and is the only biblical scholar of whom
that Church can boast.
Jerome (430 A.D.) endeavored to learn Hebrew of a Jew,
and did learn as much as his teacher could or would teach
him. His method of treating the Old Testament shows the
influence of his teacher. Through him the rabbinical ideas
of inspiration, etc. found their way into the Western Church.
His translation of the Scriptures (see Vulgate, in the sec-
tion below on the Versions) was regarded as a finality, and
all interest in the original text died out. In 1311, Clement W.
ordered that Hebrew should be studied at the universities,
but no results followed. Nicholas de Lyra (1340) was a
converted Jew. His commentaries carried great authority
among Christians, and influenced Luther so much that a
popular saying arose : “If Lyra had not played the lyre,
Luther would not have danced.” The Reformers returned
with zeal to the study of the Hebrew. That pursuit par-
ticipated in the general revival of learning, and in the most
recent times it has been wonderfully advanced by the de-
velopment of philological and historical science. It is
probably not too much to say that the Hebrew language is
more at the command of this generation than of any other
since the Babylonian captivity.
It follows from the above—1, That the only text we can
hope to establish on manuscript authority is that of the Mas-
soretes. 2, We have no manuscript, even of this text, older
than 1106. We shall see below, under Versions, what means
we have of learning what the text was at an earlier date.
478
BIBLE, THE
3, The vowel-points, accents, word, verse, and chapter divis-
ions are all many centuries more recent than the original
writings. Even the consonant text has been transliterated.
The chapter divisions were made in the thirteenth century,
and applied to the Vulgate. In the sixteenth century it
was asserted that the vowels, etc. were of later origin than
the text. This assertion was considered heterodox, as it
was inconsistent with the prevailing theory of inspiration.
It is only in the most recent times that this fact has been
admitted, and it is now undisputed. 4, The crude and
superstitious theories of inspiration which have prevailed
to some extent in the Christian Church are of rabbinical
manufacture. They were introduced into the Christian
Church first as attaching to the Old Testament, and then
extended over both in their purest and most original form.
VI. The Canon and the Apocryphal Books.-As we said
above (A, I.), when the period of creation and production
was ended, and the period of conservation and reflection
and application began, one of the first ideas which was
elaborated from the crude into the dogmatic form was that
of the Scriptures in their sacred character and divine au-
thority. Hence the terms Holy Scripture, Word of God,
etc. When this doctrine was established, the necessity of
defining and limiting its application at once made itself felt.
What books come under this designation ? What is the
Standard by which they must be tested in order to answer
this question ? It is certain that these questions never re-
ceived any authoritative answer. Ezra made a collection of
books, but he did not include those books which were not yet
written. The Hebrew Bible as we now possess it is divided
into three parts: 1, the Torah (i.e., Law—Pentateuch); 2,
the Nebiim (Prophèts, including Joshua, Judges, First and
Second Samuel, and First and Second Kings); 3, the Chetu-
bim (“Writings,” including all the other books in the Eng-
lish Version of the Old Testament). Ezra, and Nehemiah
probably collected a book. The addition of the third part
cannot be historically accounted for. The form of the collec-
tion, as a whole, bears witness to successive collections and
successive gradations of authority. This gradation may be
traced still farther. Besides and beyond the Chetubim.
were a number of books which were on the line, not ac-
cepted and not definitely rejected. Still again, beyond
these were others which were positively set aside. The
translators of the Septuagint included in their collection a
number which do not appear in the Hebrew collection
(they form the Apocrypha of the English Bible). The Ethi-
opic version contains others which belong even to the class
of the totally rejected. Thus, one who knew only the
Septuagint version would find the book of Exodus and the
book of Tobit side by side, presented to him as of equal au-
thority. Ethiopian Christianity would give the same au-
thority to the book of Adam as to the book of Genesis.
Thus it is certain that when these versions were made, the
strict definition of the books to which standard authority
belonged was not yet established. Fürst has even shown
from the Talmud (Kanon des Alten Testament, s. 25) that
this idea of the canon was not so definitely established at
the time of our Lord but that the rabbis ventured to pro-
pose to exclude the book of Ezekiel from the canon, on ac-
count of its contradiction to the Pentateuch. Here, then,
we have the idea of the canon. It is the limited collection
to which, and to which only, authority as the inspired word
of God appertains. The works which were in circulation,
and to which this authority was denied, were called apoc-
ryphal, from a Greek word meaning “to withdraw,” be-
cause they were withdrawn from use for public instruction.
The third class, the pseudepigraphs, were so called because
many of them bore names which were forged. In 2 Mac-
cabees ii. 13 we read: “The same things are narrated in the
Writings and memoirs of Nehemiah, and how he collected
the books about the kings and prophets, and those of David,
and the letters of the kings in regard to offerings.” The
Pentateuch had been restored to authority and use by Ezra
in 444 B.C. (Nehemiah viii.). Nehemiah added the “Ne-
biim,” which are distinctly described in this passage (“kings
and prophets”), and the Psalms, which are the nucleus of
the Chetubim. The “letters” are those of the Persian kings,
Such as we find in the books of Ezra, and Daniel. The subse:
quent omission of these letters from the canon bears witness
to the Soundness of the standard by which its formation was
governed. . The Massoretes were finally called upon to de-
cide what books they would recognize as canonical, but in
this, as in other things, they no doubt confined themselves to
the establishment of the tradition which they had received.
In the Christian Church the influence of the Septuagint se-
cured the introduction of the Apocrypha, with full canon-
ical authority. Jerome translated all into the Latin Vul-
gate. They thus remain in authority in the Greek and
Roman churches. Luther adopted the Hebrew canon, but
translated the apocryphal books, setting them by them-
Selves, and giving them a heading which recommended
the best-assured facts in regard to it.
them for edification, though not for dogmatic definition.
The English translators followed the same policy. Of late,
however, the Apocrypha has been omitted from the popu-
lar editions of the English Bible, because the presence in
the volume of works which formed a grade between it and
ordinary works seemed to detract from the supreme and
isolated position of Holy Scripture.
The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha are both quoted in
the New Testament. See Jude 9 (“Translation of Moses”);
14 (Book of Enoch); 1 Corinthians ii. 9 (said by Origen
to be from a lost apocryphal writing under the name of
Elijah). Compare also James iv. 5, John vii. 38, and
Luke xi. 40—citations which we cannot identify with pas-
Sages in any known book. -
It appears from the above—1, That the Canon was fixed
only after long experience, and by the general consent of
successive generations, who bore testimony, by their esteem
and veneration for particular books, to their intrinsic au-
thority and profitableness. 2, There is no broad and dis-
tinct line of demarcation between the Canon and the Apoc-
rypha. If we allow ourselves to form estimates of the com-
parative value of various books, we shall find that the first
book of Maccabees compares very favorably, as an edifying
religious history, with the book of Esther, and that the book
of Jesus the son of Sirach compares favorably with Ec-
clesiastes as a book of religious instruction.
VII. The Order of the Books of the Old Testament.—In the
arrangement which has been adopted there appears to have
been an effort to conform as far as possible to chronology,
not only in regard to the historical, but also the legal and
prophetic portions. The following are the principal divis-
1OD S >
1. Law (in Hebrew, Tinln, Torah; Gr. vágos) or Penta-
teuch (Gr. TrevrárevXos), because it consisted of five parts.
2. Prophets (Heb. D*S*H); Gr. IIpodjrat).
3. Holy Writings or Hagiographa (Gr. 3 yuáypada), called
in Heb. D'Elnº), Chetubim—i.e., the “writings,” par eaccel-
Čence).
#. Law included—1, Genesis, or “origin;” 2, Exo-
dus, or the “going out;” 3, Leviticus, or the book relating
to the Levites; 4, Numbers, so called because Moses was
commanded to “take the sum of all the congregation of
the children of Israel” (Numbers i. 2); 5, Deuteronomy
(from the Gr. 8eſ repos, “second,” and vôpos, “law'”), be-
cause it was the second laying down (or the repetition) of
the Law.
The Prophets were divided into the Former or Earlier
(Priores), including Joshua, Judges, First and Second
Samuel, First and Second Kings; and Later (Posteriores),
comprising the greater prophets, viz., Isaiah, Jeremiah, and
Ezekiel, and the minor prophets, Hosea, Joel, Amos, etc.
The Holy Writings, or Hagiographa, included the Psalms,
Proverbs, Job, The Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ec-
clesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, First and Second
Chronicles. (For a more particular notice of the different
books the reader is referred to their respective heads.)
VIII. Versions of the Old Testament.—As we saw above,
the oldest manuscript of the Hebrew Scriptures which we
possess dates from 1106 A.D., and presents the Massoretic
text. If we wish to go back of this to reach something nearer
to the original work of the authors, and to eliminate errors
which may have crept in, we have one means of doing so—
viz., the ancient translations which were made from the
text at a remote date.
1. The first and most important of these is the Greek ver-
sion, called the Septuagint (LXX.).—Passing over the fables
of the Jews and early Christians in regard to this version
(such as that it was made on a set occasion by seventy-two
men (six from a tribe) chosen by the high priest, and sent
to Egypt for the purpose—that they each separately trans-
lated the whole, but that, by virtue of divine inspiration,
the seventy-two translations were identical), we state only
The Pentateuch was
translated by Alexandrian (not Palestinian) Jews, but by
bow many is unknown. It was a result of the enlightened
interest of the Ptolemies (Lagus and Philadelphus) in all
literary and scientific progress. It was made in 285 B.C.
The work thus begun was carried on by various persons at
various times until all the canonical and apocryphal books
were translated. Some originally written in Greek were
added. The parts vary in fidelity to the original and in
literary excellence. Job and Isaiah are so poorly trans-
lated that one must know Hebrew to see the sense of the
Greek; Ecclesiastes is faithfully and correctly rendered.
At this time Greek was the language of popular intercourse.
The Jews of the time of Christ neglected the Hebrew, and
generally relied on the Septuagint version. It is the form
in which the Old Testament is quoted by Mark, Luke,
Peter, and, for the most part, by Paul. Matthew, John, and
Paul show acquaintance with the Hebrew, but they also
use the Septuagint. Its influence was at this time para-
BIBLE, THE
479
mount. It passed into the Christian Church as the authori-
tative form of the Old Testament. It soon began to be
asserted, however, by the Jews, when the Septuagint was
quoted in controversy by the Christians, that it was not a
faithful rendering of the original. Hence the Jews aban-
doned it and returned to the Hebrew, and the most scholarly
of the Christians attempted to acquire that language.
Nevertheless, the Septuagint remains the authority of the
Greek Church to this day. Other Greek versions, which
need only be mentioned, are those of Aquila, Theodotion,
and Symmachus.
2. The Peshito is a Syriac version, whose name signifies
“simple” or “faithful,” because it is a literal translation,
not a paraphrase. It includes the New Testament. Its
origin is obscure. It was in use in the time of Ephraim
Syrus (378 A.D.).
3. The Vulgate.-Augustine says (“De Doctr. Chris.”
ii. 11), in regard to the early Latin versions, that “in the
first days of the faith, if any one obtained a copy of the
Greek Scriptures, and gave himself credit for any know-
ledge of the two languages, he ventured to translate.” He
recommends only one of the versions existing at the time—
viz., the Itala. This is now lost, but seems to have been
made from the Septuagint. Jerome (430 A.D.) undertook
to learn Hebrew, in order to make a new translation from
the original. History repeats itself with regard to all new
translations of the Bible. This one was made avowedly in
order to meet the wants of the common people, and it was
called the “Vulgate” because written in the popular Latin.
It was met by the most violent opposition, by all the argu-
ments of tradition and prescription, and by all the con-
siderations of policy and expediency, which suggest them-
selves in such a case. It was finally adopted, and now it
has itself become sacred in the Latin Church. The text of
the Vulgate became so corrupt by repeated copyings that,
on the invention of printing, the true text seemed lost in a
chaos of variants. An attempt to revise it resulted in an
arbitrary decree of Sixtus V. (1598), deciding what it should
be, and this text is now the “received text'' in the Roman
Church. A text having critical and scientific authority is
still a desideratum. *
B. The New Testament.—With the advent of our Lord
the fountain of divine revelation once more began to flow.
Mankind once more received an original and creative reve-
lation, not whimsical traditions or weary reflections on the
record of past thought and life. The Greek language,
which, as we saw above, was at this time the medium of
popular intercourse, became the vehicle of the new revela-
tion. The Gospel of Matthew was probably originally
written in Aramaic, but the remainder of the New Testa-
ment was certainly Greek from the very hands of the
authors.
I. History of the Greek Teact.—The original handiwork
of the writers soon perished.
tion of the original manuscripts, and no tradition to bear
witness to any care for them. Copies were made from them,
and by the middle of the second century the interest in
them had become so great as to lead to extensive multipli-
cation of copies. The oldest manuscripts which we pos-
sess date from the fourth century. (See article on the Co-
DICEs of THE NEW TESTAMENT.) From that time on, the
number of manuscripts which we possess increases as we
come down, but as the copies increase in number, so also do
the variants. When printing was invented one of the first
uses to which it was put was the printing of the Greek Tes-
tament. This art gave ground to hope that the text-copies
might be multiplied for the future without the errors insep-
arable from manual copying. The first printed text was con-
tained in the Complutensian Polyglot, prepared under the
patronage of Cardinal Ximenes, at Alcalá (the ancient Com-
plutum), in Spain, in 1514. It is not known what manu-
script served as copy for this edition. Erasmus prepared
a very faulty text, published at Băle in 1516. These two
editions from manuscripts taken at hazard, no doubt fresh
ones, served as the basis of succeeding ones (Stephanus,
Paris, 1546; Beza, 1565; Elzevir, 1641). The last of these
(chiefly on account of its convenience of form and typo-
graphical beauty) became the “received text.” The
doubt between various authorities was settled in this case,
as in so many others, not by thoroughly investigating the
matter, but by giving arbitrary sanction to one. The El-
zevir remained supreme until the time of Griesbach (1812).
Here again we come to a department in which the credit
for what has been done belongs entirely to German scholars.
Griesbach, and after him Lachmann (1851), and at present
Tischendorf, have prosecuted the tedious labor of compar-
ing the variants and weighing the authorities. The effort
cannot be defined as one to re-establish the text of the apos-
tles, for that may be pronounced hopeless, but to recover the
text to which the oldest and best manuscripts bear witness.
The three scholars mentioned form a succession in which
We have no record or tradi-
this aim has been prosecuted with intelligence and zeal and
consistency. Some other editions, based on limited authori-
ties and imperfect grasp of the task and its method, have
only confused the labor (Bloomfield, Wordsworth, Alford).
The dialect of Greek in which the New Testament is
written is what is called the Hellenistic. This was not a
good dialect in point of grammatical accuracy, etc., and
the influence of the Septuagint makes the New Testament
even a sad specimen of it. This assertion was made in
the sixteenth century, and it was generally declared that
the New Testament was written in “bad Greek.” Such
an assertion was considered, in some quarters, derogatory
to the Bible, and a controversy arose as to whether the New
Testament was good Greek or bad. It ended in the general
and very sensible conclusion that any dialect is “good” as
soon as it contains a literature of any value. Nevertheless,
the lack of grammatical accuracy, of precision in the use
of words and particles, and of adherence to the rules of
style, adds greatly to the difficulty of interpreting the New
Testament.
The order of the books in the Greek differs from that
in the English Version, in that the catholic Epistles follow
the Acts.
II. Respecting the Separate Books of the New Testament.—
The following account includes such facts as can be relied
on, omitting questions which are involved in controversy.
The Gospels.-We possess a fourfold record of the life
and teachings of our Lord. It strikes the attention of the
reader at once, that the first three contain many passages
which are almost identical. On the other hand, each differs
from each in a manner equally remarkable. From the ear-
liest times efforts have been made, without much success,
to harmonize them into one consistent narrative. Within
a century these phenomena have again been examined with
great zeal. The question is raised: Do not these resem-
blances point to an interdependence between the synoptical
Gospels? If so, which is the original 2 If one served as
the original, how is it that the authors of the others, in
using it, failed to transfer passages of high interest ? In
fact, the phenomena of identity and difference are so per-
plexing that these questions seem unsolvable. The prevail-
ing opinion of scholars at the present time appears to be
that the Gospel of Mark presents the nearest approach to
the original of the synoptical Gospels; that Matthew was
originally written in Aramaic, and translated with the as-
sistance of Mark. That Luke is a subsequent compilation
of the gospel-material is certain. It was written about the
year 70. Before the historic interest in the Gospels arose,
and before the movement towards a New Testament canon
began, the Gospels no doubt exerted great influence on each
other. Passages appear to have been copied from one into
another, either inadvertently or at the pleasure or will of
the copyist, and hence our science is baffled when it at-
tempts to trace the intricacies of the movement.
The Gospel of John is clearly independent of the others
in its material, scope, and purpose. It takes up the life of
our Lord not so much pragmatically as philosophically and
mystically—in its religious rather than its historical aspect.
It has been vigorously attacked by the negative and ration-
alistic school of critics, and is held by many of them to be
falsely attributed to John, but to date from the latter half
of the second century. These opinions, however, rest chiefly
on philosophical and historical dogmas which are set up as
postulates; and one who refuses to admit the necessary a
priori truth of these postulates, finds that the true critical
grounds on which this opinion rests are meagre and in-
sufficient. Conservative scholars of every grade admit the
authenticity of the book, and even many who doubt if John
were the author, admit its evangelical authority.
III. The Canon.—The first century of the Christian era
produced a large number of literary works beyond those con-
tained in the New Testament. The idea of the canon there-
fore came to be applied here once more (see above, Canon
of the Old Testament). Such of these works as were of
genuine apostolic origin, or were faithful representatives
of Christian truth, must be separated and recognized apart
from all others. Here once more the same phenomenon ap-
peared as in the Old Testament. There was no distinct
dividing line to be drawn. The division did not make or
suggest itself. The whole body of works might be graded
from the Gospel of Matthew down to the most gross and
contemptible product of superstition, but the stages were
gradual all the way. Different persons differed in their
comparative estimate of two (e.g., the Epistle of Barnabas
and the Epistle of Jude, the Shepherd of Hermas and
the Epistle to the Hebrews), though they agreed in the gen-
eral range of estimate. Down to the middle of the second
century the Christians used the Old Testament for their apol-
ogetics and their polemics. Moreover, the tradition was still
so fresh that literary authority was not needed. We do not
find in any writers earlier than Irenaeus (202) references to
480
BIBLIA PAUPERUM-BIBLIOGRAPHY.
the New Testament writings as authoritative, or as inspired
in any such sense as the Old Testament was believed to be
inspired. From this time on, the chief interest of the Chris-
tian Church is rapidly transferred to the New Testament.
The books are collected and studied and compared. Their
respective authority is determined. The informal verdict
of the Church accepted certain books and rejected others,
but there were a number which were on the line or in doubt.
These were the Epistle of Jude, the Second of Peter, the
Second and Third of John, the Epistle to the Hebrews, the
Shepherd of Hermas, and the Epistle of Barnabas. In the
third century considerable disfavor to the book of Revela-
tion was manifested in the Western Church, though earlier
it had been very popular. To go into details of various au-
thorities would lead us too far. Eusebius (340 A.D.) bears
witness that the matter stood, in his time, in just about the
position above described. Not only the above-mentioned
doubtful books, but others also which had become familiar
and gained a footing in popular affection, were retained, as
the Apocrypha is still sometimes retained in our Bibles.
The Synod of Laodicea (360) made the first official list
(omitting the Apocalypse), and forbade the public reading
of uncanonical books. Pope Innocent I. (405) fixed the
canon by decree as it now stands.
IV. Modern Translations of the Bible.—1. German. In
the fifteenth century numerous attempts were made to trans-
late the Bible into German, but it remained for Luther to
present the German people with a national version. His
safety-imprisonment in the Wartburg gave him an oppor-
tunity. He there translated the New Testament (published
in 1522). He then undertook, with others, the task of
translating the Old Testament, and if he had no other claim
to rank among the Fathers of the Christian Church, with-
out regard to time or country, this work would establish it.
He had all the enlightened zeal for the popularization of
the Bible which animated Jerome (see under Vulgate),
though he resembled him in nothing else. He had to make
his own tools for the work, for he and his age inherited no
science and little knowledge from the scholasticism of the
Middle Ages. Heine's saying of him and his critics still
remains true, that many a dwarf has sneered at the giant
for not being able to see as far as himself after climbing
upon his shoulders. -
2. French. A French version by Le Fevre was published
first in parts, then as a whole, at Antwerp in 1530. An-
other by Olivetan, improved by Calvin, was published in
Switzerland in 1536. Neither, and no other, has ever won
the position of a national version in France.
3. English. John Wickliffe (1384) made the first translation
into the English language. He translated literally from
the Vulgate. His work in this respect, as in others, was a
pioneer of the Reformation. William Tyndale is the true
father of the English national version, founded on the
original languages. He conceived and undertook the work
when he risked his life if a proof-sheet of it were found on
him, and his work was the basis of all subsequent ones. He
published the New Testament (from Erasmus's text—see
above, History of the Greek Teact) at Wittenberg in 1526.
He and Coverdale commenced to translate the Old Testa-
ment at Antwerp, but they were discovered; Tyndale was
captured, and burnt near Brussels in 1536. His merits, ob-
scured by those who afterwards used his work when it was
safe and popular to do so, have never met with the recog-
nition they deserved. Coverdale finished the translation
of the Old Testament in 1535. “Matthew’s Bible * (1537)
was approved by royal authority. It contained notes. A
new edition (1539)—the “Great Bible *—and another in
1540 with Cranmer's preface—“Cranmer's Bible *—which
omitted the notes, supplanted the former. The “Geneva
Bible ’’ followed in 1560, with Calvinistic notes. This won
great popularity. Archbishop Parker went back to the
“Great Bible,” and appointed a commission (mostly bishops)
to revise it. This produced the “Bishops' Bible” (1568).
It also had explanatory notes. It was the “Authorized
Version,” and was read in the churches. It represented
the Church party, while the Geneva Bible retained its place
amongst the Puritans, and, in fact, with the popular ma-
jority. . In 1610 the Roman Catholics also produced a rep-
resentative version, translated strictly and solely from the
Vulgate, and known as the “Douay Bible.” In 1604, at
the “Hampton Court Conference,” it was proposed to su-
persede the two Protestant versions by a new one satisfac-
tory to both parties. James I. appointed a commission of
fifty-four learned men of all parties to do the work, and
fixed the rules under which they were to act. The “Bishops'
Bible ’’ was to be made the basis, and only altered where
necessary. This version was published in 1611, and it
gradually displaced the others by virtue of its intrinsic
merits. Under the Commonwealth the question of a new
version was raised, but the committee of Parliament re-
ported that the English version was “the best in the world.”
It certainly is one of the very best modern national ver-
sions. In 1870 the convocation of Canterbury proposed a re-
vision, which is now in progress. W. G. SUMNER.
Bib/lia Pau/perum [a Latin term signifying “the
Bible of the poor”]. The work known to bibliographers
under this name is one of the earliest “block books” printed .
before the use of movable type. The printing has been at-
tributed to Laurens Koster of Haarlem, and was probably
printed somewhere between 1410 and 1420. The work con-
sists of a series of cuts illustrating the history of our Lord,
as set forth in the New Testament and as predicted in the
Old. The descriptive text is in the abbreviated Latin of
the time. It has different titles, but Heineken gave it the
name which he found attached to a copy which he described.
It would seem ill adapted to the wants of the ignorant
laity of that time, when few among them were equal to the
task of deciphering the letter-press, and without this the
engravings would have been meaningless. There seems
good reason for the opinion of Jackson and Chatto (His-
tory of Wood-engraving), that the work was prepared to aid
the mendicant friars of the time in their preaching—the
text forming the topic for their sermons, and the pictures
an excitement for their imaginations. (See JACKSON and
CHATTO, and HUMPHREY’s “History of Printing.”)
Bib/lical Archaeol’ogy, the science which treats of
those things which illustrate the public and private life of
the people and places mentioned in the Bible. Our know-
ledge of these subjects is obtained from the ancient litera-
ture both of the Jews and Gentiles, and from the monu-
mental and other remains of ancient nations, such as in-
scriptions, ruins, coins, etc. The principal literary sources
of archaeological knowledge of this kind are the Bible, Jo-
sephus, Philo, the rabbinical and Arabian writers, Herodo-
tus, and a great number of modern works of travel and lit-
erary research. The monumental sources of knowledge may
not improperly include the interesting literary and other
remains of ancient Egypt, the coins of the Phoenicians, of
the Maccabees, and of the Syrians, the cuneiform inscrip-
tions of Babylon, Assyria, and Persia, the Moabite Stone,
and the remains of the ancient cities of Palestine and the
neighboring countries. The archaeology of the early Chris-
tian Church receives light also from the writings of the
IFathers, from the later classical authors, and from the cata-
combs of Rome. &
Among the immense numbers of treatises upon this sub-
ject we may mention Jahn’s “Biblical Archaeology " (1796–
1805); Robinson’s “Researches” (1856); Rheinwald’s
“ Kirchliche Archaeologie ’’ (1830); Kitto’s “Cyclopaedia.”
(1845–50); Michaelis's “Mosaisches Recht” (1770; 2d ed.
1775); Saalschütz, “Das Mosaische Recht” (1846–48);
Raumer’s “Palestima” (1650).
Bibliog/raphy [from the Gr. 8:8Atov, a “book,” and
ypébo, to “write”], that science which has for its object
the knowledge and description of the literary productions
of all ages and races. It is one of the most important aux-
iliaries in studying the history of Science and art. Distinc-
tion is often made between pure and applied bibliography.
The former considers the books by themselves, and aims
merely to show what has been written, while the latter con-
siders the books according to their character and contents.
Bibliography is also useful as facilitating the buying
and selling of books, while classified catalogues are often
valuable to the student of special subjects. Almost every
nation, as well as every science, has its own bibliography,
and there are also separate lists of scarce and peculiar
books, valuable to bibliomaniacs. The German books pub-
lished since 1700 are given in the “Allgemeine Bücher-
lexicon ’’ of Heinsius in alphabetical order (vol. i.-xvi.,
1812–69). Ersch gave a list of those published since 1750
in his handbook of German literature (1845–49). In Leip-
sic a trade catalogue is published semi-annually, as well as
Hinrich’s “Verzeichniss” and the monthly “Allgemeine
Bibliographie” of Brockhaus, comprising the most im-
portant works of every nation. The French literature has
been catalogued since 1811 in the “Bibliographie de la
France;” the Dutch in the “Nederlandsche Bibliographie”
since 1854; the Belgian in the “Bibliographie de la Bel-
gique” since 1838; the English in Longman’s “History of
New Books” since 1844; the Italian in the “Bibliographia
italiana” since 1861; the Spanish in the “Boletin biblio-
grafico español” since 1860. Danish, Swedish, Hebrew,
Greek, and Polish catalogues are also annually published;
while the Russian literature is given in the monthly maga-
zine “Russkaja Bibliografija.” The new books published
in the U. S. are given in the “Literary Gazette’’ (Phila-
delphia). Trübner’s “American and Oriental Literary
Record ” (London, monthly since 1865) gives a list of the
most important works published in America, China, and
India. (For the earlier literature of all nations see EBERT,
“Allgemeines bibliographisches Lexicon,” 2 vols., 1821–50.)
BIBLIOMANCY-BIDDEFORD."
481
The oldest known work with this title is De Bure’s “Bib-
liographie Instructive” (1763–68), but there were older and
very valuable bibliographies, such, for example, as Conrad
Gesner’s “Bibliotheca Universalis "...(1545). The works of
Robert Watt, Dibdin, Horne, and Lownde in Great Britain,
of Peignot, Brunet, Bourquelot, Louandre, and Quérard in
France, of Gamba in Italy, of Foppens in Belgium, of
Nyerup and Kraft in Denmark, and of Hain and Panzer in
Germany, are all of value to the student of general litera-
ture. The American works of Allibone, Duyckinck, Rich,
and Bartlett also deserve mention.
REVISED BY C. W. GREENE.
Bib'liomancy [Gr. 8:3Xta, the “Bible,” and gavreia,
“divination ”], a mode of divination used in both ancient
and modern times, by opening the Bible and observing the
first passage which occurred, or by entering a church and
taking note of the first words of the Bible heard after en-
tering. It seems to have originated with the Jews, and
to have been adopted from them by the Eastern Christians.
The application either depended upon the sound of the
words or upon the signification of the passage. Prayer
and fasting were used as a preparation for consulting the
divine oracles. Bibliomancy was prohibited, under pain
of excommunication, by the Council of Vannes, 465 A. D.
It continued, however, to prevail for many centuries there-
after. It came into use in the Roman Catholic Church in
the choice of bishops, and prevailed in some places for cen-
turies. Many eminent Protestant Christians have made
use of this practice in times of perplexity, as Bunyan and
John Wesley. - -
Biblioma/nia [from the Gr. 8:3xtov, a “book,” and ga-
via, “ madness”], a taste for collecting books, not for their
intrinsic value, but for their age or rarity, or on account of
their publisher's, printer's, or binder's fame, or even, in
some instances, for the mere caprice of fashion. For ex-
ample, a few years since the works of some of the Elzevirs
brought fabulous prices, while at present they are sold at
a comparatively low rate. First editions usually bring
high prices. The works of such ancient printers as Caxton
must always be sold high on account of their age ; so also
the books of Aldus Manutius, joining great textual beauty
and accuracy to extreme age; while the productions of
much later date are often sought for their beauty alone;
such, for instance, are the works of Foulis and Baskerville,
printers of the last century.
Bibliothe'ca [from the Gr. 8:3xtov, a “book,” and
6ixm, a “case ’’), the Latin word signifying library, a col-
lection of books ; often used, like our word “library,” as
a name for publications of various kinds, as “Bibliotheca
Hispama,” “Bibliotheca Sacra,” etc.
Bice [Ger. Beis, possibly from a root cognate with the
Sanscrit bisha or bisa, “poison "J, the name of two blue
and green pigments which are native carbonates of cop-
per, and have been used by painters from very early times.
The blue bice is sometimes called 'mountain blue and on-
garo. The synonyms of green bice are Hungarian green,
verdetto, malachite green, mountain green, etc. -
Biſceps [from the Lat. bis, “twice” or “two,” and
ca'put, a “head”], (“, double headed ”), is the large round
muscle lying upon the front of the arm. Above, it con-
sists of two portions or heads—whence its name—one being
attached to the coracoid process of the scapula; the other
to the margin of the shallow socket of the head of the
humerus. The former is the short, the latter the long, head
of the biceps. They unite to form a fleshy belly, which
terminates in a rounded tendon inserted into the tubercle
of the radius. The action of the biceps is to bend the fore
arm. Another biceps is found on the outer and posterior
aspect of the thigh. Its long head arises from the tuber-
osity of the ischium ; its short head, from the linea aspera
of the thigh-bone. Its tendon is the outer hamstring.
Bicêtre,” the name of an old castle, a hospital, and a
fort in the department of Seine, in the southern environs
of Paris. The castle, which is very large, has been con-
verted into a hospital for old men and for lunatics. Here
the prisoners sentenced to death or to the galleys were for-
merly kept until the sentence was executed. But in 1837
this prison was transferred to La Roquette. Situated on
an eminence, it commands a fine view of Paris and the
Seine. Here are accommodations for about 900 male lu-
natics, who receive gentle treatment. W
Bichat (MARIE FRANÇors XAVIER), an illustrious
French anatomist and physiologist, born at Thoirette, in
Jura, Nov. 11, 1771. In 1797 he began to lecture on anat-
omy, surgery, etc. in Paris. He published “Researches on
Life and Death '' (1800), and an excellent and profound
work entitled “General Anatomy applied to Physiology
*This name is said to be a corruption of Winchester. Its castle
was founded in 1290 by John, bishop of Winchester.
and Medicine” (4 vols., 1801). He simplified anatomy and
physiology by reducing the complex structures of the or-
gains to the simple or elementary tissues, and he was the first
who recognized the importance of the distinction between
the organic functions and the animal or vital functions.
Having impaired his health by close application, he died
before the age of thirty-one, July 22, 1802.
Bickanir', a native state of India, under British pro-
tection, situated between lat. 27° 30' and 29° 55' N., and
between lon. 72° 30' and 75° 40' E. Area, 17,750 square
miles. The soil is poor, consisting almost entirely of des-
erts. The inhabitants are mostly Rajpoots. Pop. 539,520.
Bickanir, a fortified town, capital of the above state,
is in an arid and desolate tract 240 miles W. S. W. of Delhi;
lat. 28° N., lon. 73° 22' E. It is surrounded by a battle-
mented wall three and a half miles in circuit, and has a
citadel, several temples, and lofty buildings, but the streets
are dirty and most of the houses mean. Pop. estimated at
60,000. *
Bick’erstaff (ISAAC), an Irish dramatist, born about
I735, was in his early life an officer of marines. He pro-
duced several popular comedies and comic operas, among
which are “The Maid of the Mill,” “The Padlock,” “Love
in a Village” (1763), and “The Captive.” Died after 1787.
Steele's “Tatler” was published under the assumed name
of Isaac Bickerstaff, which often occurs in the papers of
that work. &
Bick’ersteth (EDWARD), an English theologian, born
in Westmoreland in 1786. He took orders in the Anglican
Church, and was sent by the Missionary Society to Africa
in 1816 to reorganize their mission stations. On his return
he was chosen secretary to that society. He became rector
of Watton, in Hertfordshire, in 1830, and was one of the
founders of the Evangelical Alliance. Among his works,
which are highly esteemed, are a “Help to the Study of
the Scriptures” (1814), “The Christian Student,” “A Trea-
tise on Baptism,” and “The Promised Glory of the Church
of Christ.” Died in 1850. His collected works were pub-
lished in 16 vols., 1853. (See T. R. BIRKs, “Memoir of the
Rev. E. Bickersteth,” 2 vols., 1851.) - -
Bickersteth (EDwARD HENRY), a poet and clergyman
of the Church of England, son of the above, was born Jan.
25, 1825, and was educated at Cambridge. He has pub-
lished, besides numerous other works, “Poems ” (1849),
“The Rock of Ages” (1859), and “Yesterday, To-day, and
For Ever” (1866), which has had a great success. His
poetry, chiefly upon sacred themes, has many admirers.
Bick/more (ALBERT SMITH), PH. D., naturalist, was
born in St. George’s, Me., Mar. 1, 1839, and graduated at
Dartmouth in 1860. He studied under Agassiz at Cam-
bridge, and in 1865 sailed for the Dutch East Indies for
the purpose of collecting shells. He also travelled in China,
Japan, Manchooria, Siberia, and Russia. . He became in
1870 professor of natural history in Madison University,
and has devoted much time to the Museum of Natural
History founded by him at the Central Park, N. Y. He
has published “Travels in the East Indian Archipelago”
(1869). - -
Bidasso'a, a small river forming part of the boundary
between France and Spain. It rises in Spain, and enters
the Bay of Biscay at Fuentarabia. On the Isle of Pheas-
ants, in this river, the treaty of the Pyrenees was concluded
in 1659. In Aug., 1813, Wellington defeated the French
marshal Soult at San Marcial on the Bidassoa.
Bid/deford, a city of York co., Me., situated on the
Saco River, 9 miles from its mouth, on the Boston and
Maine and the Portsmouth Saco and Portland R. R.s., 15 miles
S. W. of Portland. The city limits measure 12 by 4 miles.
It was named from the city of Bideford, England. The first
settlement was made at the “Pool” (at the mouth of the
river) by Richard Viñes, in 1616–17. It was settled by a
patent to John Oldham and Vines, in 1630. York county
originally embraced all of the province of Maine, and while
settlements were made at a very early date along the sea-
coast (none earlier than this) to the Piscataqua River,
Bideford or Biddeford for a long series of years was the
chief settlement and centre. Here are inexhaustible ledges
of granite, which ranks among the best in the world, and
is largely exported. The business of the place is man-
ufacturing; among the chief corporations are the Pepperell
(capital $1,000,000, three extensive mills, 75,000 spindles,
average monthly product 1,200,000 yards of cotton cloth,
employs 1600 hands); Laconia (capital $1,200,000, four
extensive mills, one in process of erection, about 80,000
spindles, cotton cloth, monthly pay over $20,000); Water-
Power Machine Company, largest in Maine or New Hamp-
shire (cotton and woollen machinery, capital $300,000,
employs 500 men); Harding Machine Company (capital
$75,000); Gas Company (capital $71,600); Paper Collar
31
482
BIDDLE–BIELEF.
Company (capital $15,000). A large amount of lumber is
also manufactured; valuation, $5,682,402. Assessment, $25
per $1000; annual tax-list, about $83,000; debt, $142,589.76;
sinking fund amounts to $20,000. It has two national banks.
Biddeford has eight churches and one chapel, and is noted
for its church architecture. The average seating capacity,
800; average cost, $20,000. It has one daily and two weekly
papers. Pop, in 1850, 6095; in 1860, 9349; in 1870, 10,282.
J. E. BULLER, E.D. “UNION AND JOURNAL.”
Bid/dle (CHARLEs JoHN), a son of Nicholas Biddle, was
'born in Philadelphia in 1819, and graduated at Princeton
in 1837. He became a lawyer, served with distinction in
the Mexican war, winning a major’s brevet, and served also
in the late civil war; became editor of the “Age,” a lead-
ing Democratic journal of Philadelphia, which he con-
ducted with great ability. He published a masterly vindi-
cation of Washington’s conduct with regard to the execution
of André. Died Sept. 28, 1873.
Biddle (CLEMENT), an American officer and merchant,
born in Philadelphia May 10, 1740. He fought with the
rank of colonel at the battles of Trenton, Princeton,
Brandywine, and Monmouth, and quitted the army in
1780. He was a friend and correspondent of Gen. Wash-
ington, who appointed him marshal of Pennsylvania. Died
July 14, 1814. - -
Biddle (CLEMENT CoRNELL), a lawyer, a son of the pre-
ceding, was born in Philadelphia in 1784. He served as
colonel in the war against the British, 1812–15, and after-
wards applied himself to political economy. He produced
in 1821 a translation of J. B. Say’s “Treatise. on Political
Economy,” with notes. Died in 1855. w
Biddie (JAMEs), a naval officer, born in Philadelphia
Feb. 28, 1783, educated at the University of Pennsylvania,
and entered the navy in 1800. He served against Tripoli,
where he was a prisoner nineteen months. In the war of
1812 he served with distinction in several engagements,
and while commanding the Hornet captured the brig Pen-
guin, receiving a wound in the action (Mar. 23, 1814). For
his services he received a gold medal from Congress, besides
other honors. He became a captain in 1815. He was after-
wards commissioner to Turkey, China, etc., and held other
important positions. Died Oct. 1, 1848.
Biddle (John), the founder of English Unitarianism,
was born at Wotton-under-Edge, in Gloucestershire, in
1615, and graduated at Oxford. He was prosecuted about
1645 for the expression of heterodox opinions respecting
the personality of the Holy Spirit, and after a formal trial
by Parliament was condemned to imprisonment for five
years. While in prison he published in 1648a “Confes-
sion of Faith concerning the Holy Trinity.” He was lib-
erated about 1650, after the death of Charles I., and gath-
ered a congregation of his fellow-believers. He was sub-
sequently persecuted and imprisoned twice during the
Commonwealth. It is stated that Cromwell once banished
him in order to save his life. He died in prison Sept. 22,
1662. (See J. ToulMIN, “Life of John Biddle,” 1815.)
Biddle (John). See APPENDIx. -
Biddle (NICHOLAs), a American naval officer, born in
Philadelphia Sept. 10, 1750. He entered the royal navy
in 1770, and once served in a ship of which the famous
Nelson was mate. He obtained the rank of captain in the
U. S. navy in 1776, and took several prizes from the Brit-
ish. Early in 1777 he took command of the Randolph, a
frigate, which encountered the Yarmouth, a 64-gun ship,
Mar. 7, 1778. During the action that ensued the magazine
of the Randolph exploded and killed Captain Biddle, with
nearly all his crew. t
Biddle (NICHOLAs), LL.D., an American financier, a
nephew of the preceding, was born in Philadelphia Jan. 8,
1786. He was a son of Charles Biddle, who was vice-
president of Pennsylvania in 1786–87. He graduated at
Princeton in 1801, was elected to the legislature of Penn-
sylvania in 1810, and appointed a director of the U. S.
Bank by President Monroe in 1819. In 1823 he became
president of that bank, the affairs of which he managed
with great ability and success for many years, so that it
supplied the country with a sound and uniform currency.
The bill to recharter the bank having been vetoed by Pres-
ident Jackson in 1832, the bank was closed in 1836 by the
limitation of its charter. He was soon elected president
of a new State bank, called “The United States Bank,”
which was chartered by the legislature of Pennsylvania.
This bank became insolvent in the financial crisis of 1841.
He was president of the trustees of the fund ($2,000,000)
which Stephen Girard left to found a college for orphans.
“To his exertions alone,” says Judge R. T. Conrad, “the
country owes one of the most beautiful structures of mod-
'ern times, the Girard College. He proposed the present
plan, and in the midst of wild political excitement and
opposition persisted firmly, and secured a building which
every citizen now not only approves, but applauds.” Died
Feb. 27, 1844. (See a “Memoir of N. Biddle,” by R. T.
CONRAD, in the “National Portrait Gallery,” vol. iv., 1839.)
Biddle (RICHARD), a lawyer and writer, a brother of
the preceding, was born in Philadelphia Mar. 25, 1796.
He practised law at Pittsburg, was a member of Congress
(1837–41), and wrote a “Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, with
a Review of the History of Maritime Discovery’ (1831).
Died July 7, 1847.
Bid’eford, a seaport-town of England, in Devonshire,
on the river Torridge, 1% miles from its entrance into the
estuary of the Taw, 30 miles N.W. of Exeter. It has a
stone bridge of twenty-four arches, about 680 feet long, a
town-hall, a hospital, and manufactures of /ropes, sails,
earthenware, and leather. Among the articles of export
are linen arid woollen goods, iron, sails, and naval stores.
Vessels of 500 tons can come up to the centre of the town.
Pop. in 1871, 6953.
Bidsch’ow, or Bydcow, NEw, a town of Bohemia,
is 41 miles E. N. E. of Prague. Pop. in 1869, 5957.
Bid 'well, a township of Butte co., Cal. Pop. 337.
Bidwell (DANIEL D.), an American general of volun-
teers, born at Black Rock, now part of Buffalo, N.Y.,
Aug. 12, 1816. He held various important local offices,
and was actively identified with the militia organizations
of the city for many years. On the outbreak of the civil
war he enlisted as a private soldier, and was promoted to
be captain in the Sixty-fifth, and subsequently colonel of
the Forty-ninth, New York volunteers. He was engaged
in the various actions of the Peninsula campaign, in the bat-
tles of South Mountain and Antietam, Fredericksburg, and
Chancellorsville, and before Richmond and Petersburg,
being most of the time in command of a brigade. In July,
1864, he was commissioned a brigadier-general of volun-
teers, and assigned to a command under Gen. Sheridan in
the Shenandoah Valley, participating in the engagements
of that campaign, including the battle of Cedar Creek,
Oct. 19, 1864, where he was mortally wounded while gal-
lantly leading his brigade. -
G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Eng’rs.
Biel (GABRIEL), “the last of the Schoolmen,” was born
at Spire, in Germany, after 1442, was professor at Tübin-
gen from the establishment of the university there in 1477,
and died in 1495. Although a devout and earnest Catholic,
he sided with the Council of Bâle against the pope, and de-
plored the corruptions and abuses of his time. He is worthy
of note as having rejected the doctrine of sensible and in-
telligible species so widely prevalent among the Schoolmen.
Bieſdermann (ALOIs EMANUEL), a German rational-
istic theologian, was born Mar. 2, 1819. He wrote “Die
Freie Theologie ’’ (1844), founded the “ Kirche der Gegen-
wart,” 1845, and published in 1869 his “Christliche Dog-
matik,” one of the most important emanations of recent
rationalistic theology. -
Biedermann (FRIEDRICH KARL), a German journal-
ist and author, born in Leipsic in 1812. He became pro-
fessor of philosophy and public law at that city, and took
part in the political movement of 1848. He has written
numerous philosophical and historical works, and con-
ducted various liberal journals.
Bièfve (EDOUARD DE), a Flemish historical painter, born
in 1808, studied in Paris with Von Paelink, and lives at
Brussels. His chief work is “Compromise of the Bur-
gundian Nobles.”
Biela, von (WILHELM), BARON, a German astronomer,
born at Rosla, in Prussia, in 1782, discovered in 1826 the
comet noticed below. Died in 1856.
Biela’s Comet is a comet remarkable for its short
period, of about six and a half years, and for the near ap-
proach of its orbit to that of the earth. In 1846 and in
1852 it appeared as if broken into two distinct comets. It
has not been observed since 1852, and astronomers are un-
able to explain its apparent disappearance from the solar
system. A shower of shooting stars which occurred Nov.
27, 1872, as the earth was crossing the orbit of this comet,
is supposed by astronomers to have been derived from the
débris of the lost body. -
Bie/lefeld, a walled town of Prussia, in Westphalia,
is finely situated on the Minden and Cologne Railway, 20
miles S. W. of Minden. It has a large linen trade, and
manufactures of woollen stuffs, leather, soap, and meer-
schaum pipes. Here is the old castle of Sparrenberg, now
used as a prison. Pop. in 1871, 21,803. -
Bielef", an old town of Russia, in the government of
Toola, and on the river Oka, 70 miles S. W. of Toola. It
has a large trade, and manufactures of hardware, leather,
and soap. Pop. 8123.
BIELGORAI—BIG CREER.
483
Bielgorai, a town of Russian Poland, in the govern-
ment of Lublin. Pop. 6168.
Bielgorod, a Russian town, in the government of
Roorsk, on the Donitz, 80 miles S. of Koursk. Pop. 8190.
Bie/litz, a town of Austrian Silesia, on the river Biala,
48 miles S.W. of Cracow, with which it is connected by rail.
It has an active trade in woollen cloth and cassimeres.
Here is a castle of Prince Sulkowsky. A bridge across
the river connects Bielitz with Bialia, in Galicia. Pop. in
1869, 10,721.
Biel/ia, a town of Italy, in the province of Novara, is
on the Cervo, 50 miles by rail N. E. of Turin. It has man-
ufactures of paper, hats, and woollen goods. Pop. 8362.
Bieloſpol, a town of Russia, in the government of
Kharkof, on the Vira, 118 miles N. W. of Kharkof. It is
on the railway from Orel to Kiev. It has a considerable
trade and several distilleries. Pop. 12,178.
Bielzy, a town of Russia, in the province of Bessarabia,
145 miles N. W. of Odessa, has several factories. An
annual fair is held here. Pop. in 1867, 6070.
Bienne [Ger. Biel]. a town of Switzerland, in the can-
ton of Berne, at the N. E. extremity of the Lake of Bienne,
13 miles W. S. W. of Soleure. It is beautifully situated
at the foot of the Jura, is enclosed by old walls, and is con-
nected by railways with Berne and Lausanne. Here are
manufactures of watches, cotton goods, etc. Many Roman
coins have been found at Bienne, which is a place of great
antiquity. Pop. in 1870, 81.13. -
Bienne, Lake of, is in the Swiss canton of Berne.
It is 10 miles long, 3 miles wide, and 250 feet deep, is near
the base of the Jura Mountains, and has an elevation of
1419 feet above the sea. The Thiele passes through it
before joining the Aar. It encloses the island of St. Pierre,
which was the residence of J. J. Rousseau in 1765. In
digging peat, which is extensively procured from its marshy
border, the remains of a pre-historic village of lake-dwell-
ings has been found on the S. E. side of the lake.
Biennial Plants, a term including all plants which
live longer than annuals, and not so long as perennials.
They grow the first season without flowering, and produce
flowers in the second season, at the end of which they die.
Such are the turnip, parsnip, beet, and many other plants
which are cultivated. Many biennials, if sown early in the
spring, will flower in the summer or autumn of that year,
and become annuals. In botanical books, biennial plants
are often designated by the symbol of the planet Mars, Š.
Bien'ville, a parish in the N. W. of Louisiana. Area,
680 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by Lake
Bistineau (navigable by steamers), and drained by Salime
Bayou and other streams. The soil produces cotton and
maize. Capital, Sparta. Pop. 10,636.
Bienville, de (JEAN BAPTISTE LEMOINE), a French
officer and pioneer, born in Montreal Feb. 23, 1680, was a
brother of Lemoine d'Iberville. He accompanied the latter
in an expedition to the mouth of the Mississippi in 1699,
and was three times appointed colonial governor of Louis-
iana. He founded New Orleans in 1718. Died in France
in 1768.
Bier'stadt (ALBERT), a German painter, born at Düs-
seldorf in 1829, was brought to the U. S. by his parents in
I831. He studied at Düsseldorf, visited Rome, and re-
turned to the U. S. in 1857. He took part in General
Lander's expedition to the Rocky Mountains in 1858.
Among his works are a magnificent “View of the Rocky
Mountains—Lander’s Peak” (1863), “A Storm in the Rocky
Mountains,” and “The Domes of the Yosemite.”
Biºga (or Bi'gae, a plural form with the same signifi-
cation), a term applied by the ancient Romans to a vehicle
drawn by two horses abreast; a two-horse chariot used in
processions and games. Like the Greek war-chariot, it had
two wheels, was low and open behind, and higher and closed
in front. Figures of the bigae are often found upon ancient
COIIlS.
Big'amy [Lat. bigamia], the offence of contracting a
second marriage while a former marriage is still subsisting.
The more proper term for this offence is polygamy. It is
governed by statute. It is usual to provide that if a hus-
band or wife shall remain absent for a specified number of
years (seven) without being heard from or being known to
be living, and the other party shall marry again, no crime
will be committed, though the absent party be alive. The
same rule extends to the case of a party divorced from the
bonds of matrimony. In some of the States a person di-
vorced for his or her own adultery cannot marry again
during the life of the other party. A violation of this
rule is not a case of bigamy, but rather a breach of the
prohibitory statute. A sentence to imprisonment for life
is in New York a dissolution of a marriage, so that the
parties may lawfully marry other persons. ... The offence
consists in the act of marrying; so that if the parties
marry in one State and cohabit in another, the crime is
committed solely in the place of the marriage, and can only
be prosecuted there. In a prosecution for bigamy an actual
marriage must be established. Evidence of reputation, or
even of cohabitation, will not suffice. It does not follow
that proof of a ceremonial marriage is necessary. The
law of the States differs upon that point, some holding that
a case of bigamy may be established by proof of consent
before witnesses, without any ceremony. Such is the law
in New York.
Big Beaver, a township of Beaver co., Pa. P. 1559.
Big Beaver, a township of Lawrence co., Pa. P. 1406.
Big Bethel, the name given to the action of June 10,
1861. Gen. Butler, who had taken possession of and for-
tified Newport News a few days previously, found the Con-
federates under Gen. Magruder in possession of all the com-
manding points in his front; he accordingly directed a
reconnoissance in force to be made, with the object of Sur-
jprising and capturing the position called Little Bethel;
and to make the expedition more certain of success two
regiments, Duryea’s Zouaves and the Third New York
under Col. Townsend, were to start about midnight of
the 9th, and gain the rear of the position to prevent re-
treat, while a battalion of Vermont troops, Col. Phelps, and
a New York regiment, Col. Bendix, were to be ready to
attack in front by daybreak of the 10th. Though various
precautions had been taken against mistake, the commands
of Cols. Bendix and Townsend approaching each other
near daybreak, Col. Bendix's command opened fire on the
Third New York, killing two men and wounding a con-
siderable number, and throwing the whole command into
confusion before the mistake was discovered. The Confed-
erates, being thus notified, retreated to Big Bethel, where
they hastily threw up breastworks behind a deep creek.
Gen. Pierce, who was in command of the Federal expedi-
tion, after being reinforced, and finding Little Bethel de-
serted, advanced towards Big Bethel, a few miles to the N.,
where he found a Confederate force, estimated at 1800,
under the command of Col. J. B. Magruder, a graduate of
West Point, protected by the hastily constructed earth-
works. Gen. Pierce ordered an attack, which was continued
nearly four hours, during which time the Federal troops
were exposed to a deadly fire, while the Confederates were
almost entirely protected. Later in the day a more general
assault was made, led by Major Theodore Winthrop, in
which he was instantly killed while encouraging his men to
the assault. Gen. Pierce finally ordered a retreat, which
was effected in good order, the Confederates following at
some distance with cavalry. Lieut. John T. Greble of the
Second U. S. Artillery was killed while covering the defeated
troops. The Confederates, fearing reinforcements of the
Federals from Fortress Monroe, fell back that night to
Yorktown. The Federal loss in killed and wounded was
about 100 men; the Confederate loss was said to be only 1
killed and 7 wounded.
Big Black, a river of Mississippi, rises in Choctaw
co., flows south-westward, and enters the Mississippi at
Grand Gulf. Length, about 200 miles. It is navigable for
steamboats for 50 miles. General Grant’s army, moving to
the siege of Vicksburg, defeated the Confederates on the
Big Black, nearly 15 miles E. of that town, May 12, 1863.
The morning after the battle of Champion Hills, May 17,
1863, found the Confederate forces under Pemberton strongly
posted on both banks of the Big Black River. . The works
were successfully assaulted, and all the troops on the E.
bank, with seventeen pieces of artillery, captured, the re-
mainder of Pemberton’s army retreating to the fortifications
of Vicksburg.
Big Bone Lick, a salt “lick” or spring in Boone
co., Ky. It takes its name from the fossil bones found here
of the mastodon and other animals, which are thought to
have resorted to this place to “lick” the salt earth, and to
have perished in the marshy soil.
Big Bottom, a township of Independence co., Ark.
Pop. 938. - - -
Big Creek, a township of Limestone co., Ala. P. 1140.
Big Creek, a township of Craighead co., Ark. P. 487.
Big Creek, a township of Fulton co., Ark. Pop. 535.
Big Creek, a township of Hot Springs co., Ark.
Pop. 158. w
Big Creek, a township of Phillips co., Ark. Pop. 1699.
Big Creek, a township of Sebastian co., Ark. P. 1062.
Big Creek, a township of Sharpe co., Ark. Pop. 414.
Big Creek, a township of White co., Ind. Pop. 584.
lºs Creek, a township of Black Hawk co., Ia. Pop.
4. -
484
BIG CBEEK—BIG RAPIDS.
Big Creek, a township of Ellis co., Kan. Pop. 6.
Big Creek, a township of Neosho co., Kan. P. 1077.
Big Creek, a township of Cass co., Mo. Pop. 1097.
Big Creek, a township of Henry co., Mo. Pop. 1390.
Big Creek, a township of Taney co., Mo. Pop. 267.
Big Creek, a township of McDowell co., West Va.
Pop. 688.
Bigelow (ERASTUs BRIGHAM), LL.D., an eminent in-
ventor, born in West Boylston, Mass., April, 1814. While
a mere boy, he invented a loom for suspender-weaving and
other machines, and wrote a book on short-hand writing.
He subsequently invented looms for counterpanes (1838–40),
another for coach-lace, and in 1839 brought out his well-
known carpet loom. He is one of the principal manufac-
turers of Clinton, Mass. He published “The Tariff Ques-
tion ” (1862) and other works.
Bigelow (GEORGE TYLER), LL.D., was born at Water-
town, Mass., Oct. 6, 1810, and graduated at Harvard in
1829. He was a State senator of Massachusetts (1847–48),
a justice of the State supreme court (1850–61), and chief-
justice (1861–68).
Bigelow (JACOB), M. D., LL.D., an eminent American
physician and botanist, born in Sudbury, Mass., in 1787,
graduated at Harvard in 1806. He became professor of
materia medica, and clinic medicine at Harvard, and presi-
dent of the Massachusetts Medical Society. He practised
medicine in Boston many years, founded the Mount Auburn
Cemetery, and laid out the grounds with much taste. Among
his works are “American Medical Botany ” (3 vols. 8vo,
1817–21), an able “ Discourse on Self-limited Diseases”
(1835), “Nature in Disease ’’ (1854), and “History of
Mount Auburn’’ (1860).
Bigelow (John), an author and diplomatist, born in
Malden, N. Y., Nov. 25, 1817, graduated at Union College
in 1835. He contributed numerous articles to the “Demo-
cratic Review,” and in 1850 became assistant editor of
William C. Bryant's journal, the “New York Evening
Post.” Having visited Jamaica in that year, he published
“Jamaica in 1850, or the Effects of Sixteen Years of Free-
dom on a Slave Colony.” He was appointed American
consul at Paris in 1861, and minister plenipotentiary at
that court in April, 1865. He resigned this position in
1866. He published in Paris “Les Etats Unis d’Amérique
en 1863,” and in 1871 a work on the French monarchy. He
has also edited the “Autobiography of Franklin'' (1868).
Bigelow (TIMOTHY), born in Worcester, Mass., Aug.
12, 1739, was a blacksmith who became a member of the
provincial Congress of 1774–75, entered the Revolutionary
army as captain of minute-men in 1775, was captured at
Quebec, became a colonel of Massachusetts troops, serving
at Stillwater, Valley Forge, etc. Died Mar. 31, 1790.
Bigelow (TIMOTHY), a son of Col. Timothy Bigelow, was
born in Worcester, Mass., April 30, 1767, graduated at Har-
vard in 1786, practised law in Groton and Boston, Mass.,
where he long stood at the head of his profession, perform-
ing an immense amount of legal work. He was also long
a prominent Federalist leader. Died May 18, 1821. His
daughter became the wife of Abbott Lawrence.
Big Flat, a township of Searcy co., Ark. Pop. 472.
Big Flats, a post-township of Chemung co., N. Y.
Pop. 1902. A.
Big Flats, a post-township of Adams co., Wis. P. 89.
Big Fork, a township of Montgomery co., Ark. P. 206.
Big Fork, a post-township of Polk co., Ark. P. 274.
Big’ger, a township of Jennings co., Ind. Pop. 945.
Big Grove, a township of Kendall co., Ill. Pop. 1726.
Big Grove, a township of Benton co., Ia. Pop. 856.
Big Grove, a township of Johnson co., Ia. Pop. 1358.
Biggs'ville, a post-village of Henderson co., Ill. Pop.
353. -
Big Horn, or Rocky Mountain Sheep (Ovis
montana, Cuvier), is regarded by Cuvier as identical with
the argali of the Old World. It also resembles the wild
sheep (mouflon) of the Mediterranean Islands and of the
Atlas Mountains. It is very large and extremely wild, and
is found in the western and north-western mountains of
North America. Its flesh is highly prized, but its hair can
hardly be called wool. -
Big Horn, a county in the S. E. part of Montana. Area,
25,862 square miles. It is drained by the Yellowstone and
its branches. Lignite and other minerals are found here.
Pop. 38. •. -
Big Horm, a river of the U. S., is the largest affluent
of the Yellowstone. It rises in Wyoming Territory, among
the Wind River Mountains, and, flowing in a generally
northward direction, crosses the southern boundary of
Montana, and enters the Yellowstone at Big Horn City,
in Montana. Entire length, estimated at 450 or 500 miles.
The upper part or head-stream of it is called Wind River.
Big Island, a township of Marion co., O. Pop. 940.
Big Ivey, a township of Buncombe co., N. C. Pop.
270 -
Big Lake, a township of Mississippi co., Ark. Pop. 211.
Big Lake, a township of Sherburne co., Minn. Pop. 57.
Big’ler (John), born in Cumberland co., Pa., Jan. 8, 1804,
was a brother of Gov. William Bigler of Pennsylvania, be-
came a printer, a journalist, and subsequently a lawyer. He
removed to Illinois in 1846, and to California in 1849, where
he was a prominent Democratic politician, and was known
as “Honest John Bigler.” He was governor of California
(1852–56). Died Nov. 30, 1871.
Bigler (WILLIAM), governor of Pennsylvania, born Dec.,
1813, was of German descent. He received a common-school
education, and entered a printing-office. He was connected
with the press many years, and afterwards engaged in mer-
cantile pursuits. He was elected by the Democratic party
speaker of the State senate 1843, governor 1851 and 1854,
and U. S. Seriator 1855 and 1858.
Big Level, a township of Greenbrier co., West Va.
Pop. 1589.
Big Lick, a post-township of Stanley co., N. C. Pop.
1354.’
Big Lick, a township of Hancock co., O. Pop. 1179.
Big Lick, a post-village and township of Roanoke co.,
Va., on the Virginia and Tennessee R. R., 54 miles W. S.
W. of Lynchburg. Pop. of the township, 2592.
Big' low (WILLIAM), an American teacher and poet,
born at Natick, Mass., Sept. 22, 1773. He graduated at
Harvard in 1794, and became principal of the Latin School
of Boston, for which he prepared several text-books. He
contributed to different periodicals, and wrote poems, among
which is “The Cheerful Parson.” Died Jan. 19, 1844.
Big Mound, a township of Wayne co., III. Pop. 1168.
Bignon (Louis PIERRE EDOUARD), a French statesman
and historian, born at La Meilleraye Jan. 3, 1771. He
was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1817, and became
a peer of France in 1837. He wrote a “History of France
from the 18th Brumaire to the Peace of Tilsit ’’ (7 vols.,
1827–38), and other works. Napoleon I. bequeathed him
100,000 francs. Died Jan. 5, 1841.
Bigno'nia [named by Tournefort in honor of the Abbé
Bignon, the librarian of Louis XIV.], a genus of plants, the
type of the natural order Bignoniaceae, natives of the trop-
ical and sub-tropical parts of America. Many of them are
climbing plants, with compound leaves terminating in a
tendril, and handsome trumpet-shaped or bell-shaped flow-
ers, which are 5-lobed, or rather 2-lipped. The Bigno-
mias are probably the handsomest twining plants known.”
The trumpet-creeper or trumpet-flower of the U. S. is the
Bigmonia radicans (or Tecoma radicans). It has a large
and showy orange and Scarlet corolla, funnel-shaped and
5-lobed, with four stamens. -
Bignonia’ceae (so called from Bignonia, the principal
genus), a natural order of exogenous plants, natives of the
U. S. and of tropical climates. They are mostly trees or
shrubs, with compound leaves and showy flowers. The
corolla is monopetalous, tubular, or campanulate, and
irregular; the stamens are five, or four with the rudiment
of a fifth; the fruit is a capsule or a drupe. The order
comprises about 500 species or more, including those which
some botanists have placed in the separate orders of Cres-
centiaceae and Pedaliaceae. Some of them are noble trees
which are valuable for timber, as the Bigmonia Leucoacylon
of Jamaica, and the ipe-una of Brazil, which is said to be
the hardest timber of that empire. The red coloring-matter
called chica is obtained from the leaves of the Bignonia
Chica, which grows near the Orinoco River. Among the
North American species of this order is the Catalpa Bigno-
nioides, a well-known ornamental tree of the U. S., which
has simple cordate leaves. -
Big North Fork, a township of Fulton co., Ark.
Pop. 473.
Big Oak Flat, a post-township of Tuolumne co., Cal.
Pop. 1249.
Big Piney, a township of Pulaski co., Mo. Pop. 541.
Big Prairie, a post-township of Newaygo co., Mich.
Pop. 403. - -
Big Prairie, a township of New Madrid co., Mo.
Pop. 1089. º
Big Rapids, a township of Clare co., Mich. Pop. 132.
Big Rapids, a city, capital of Mecosta co., Mich., on
BIG RIVER—BILL.
485
the Muskegon River and Grand Rapids and Indiana R. R.,
also the terminus of the Big Rapids division of the Chicago
and Michigan Lake Shore R. R., 56 miles N. of Grand
Rapids and 55 miles N. of Muskegon. It has two banks,
one national and one under State law, two newspapers,
Holly Waterworks, extensive water-power, the river being
dammed in two places, a heavy lumber trade, and large
manufacturing interests. Pop. 1237; of the township, 1702.
E. O. RosB, ED. “MAGNET.”
Big River, a tp. of Mendocino co., Cal. Pop. 1911.
Big River, a township of Jefferson co., Mo. Pop. 2033.
Big River, a township of St. Francois co., Mo. Pop. 436.
Big Rock, a township of Pulaski co., Ark. Pop. 3990.
Big Rock, a post-township of Kane co., Ill. Pop. 829.
Big Sandy, a township of Jefferson co., Neb. Pop. 693.
Big Sandy, a tp. of Kanawha co., West Va. Pop. 876.
Big Sandy River, an affluent of the Ohio, is the
boundary between West Virginia and Kentucky. It is
navigable for more than 100 miles for steamboats. Its
main stream, or Tug Fork, rises in the S. of West Vir-
ginia. Its West Fork flows through Eastern Kentucky.
Its valley abounds in coal, timber, and mineral wealth.
Big Spring, a township of Fulton co., Ark. Pop. 228.
Big Spring, a post-tp. of Shelby co., Ill. Pop. 1755.
Big Spring, a post-village of Breckinridge co., Ky.,
lying partly in Hardin and Meade cos. A large spring
rises here which sinks into the ground and disappears
after flowing a few hundred feet. Pop. 134.
Big Spring, a township of Seneca co., O. Pop. 2084.
Big Stone, a county of Minnesota, bordering on Da-
kota, from which it is partly separated by Big Stone Lake.
Area, 325 square miles. It is intersected by the Minnesota
River. Pop. 24.
Big Valley, a township of Siskiyou co., Cal. P. 246.
Big Vermilion River. See WERMILION RIVER.
Big Wood (Boisé, or Boisée) River, of Idaho,
rises in or near the Salmon Mountains, flows westward,
and enters the Lewis or Snake River on the line between
Idaho and Oregon. Gold is found near this river.
Bihar, a county of Hungary, is bounded on the N. by
the county of Szabolcs, on the E. by the county of Middle
Szolnok and Transylvania, on the S. by Arad, and on the
W. by Bekes. Area, 4279 square miles. The eastern part
is mountainous, while the western is a plain, consisting
alternately of swamps, sandy plains, and fertile ground,
traversed by numerous small rivers. All kinds of grain
abound, especially wheat of an excellent quality. Wine
and tobacco are also raised in great quantities. Pop. in
1869, 555,337. Chief town, Debreczin.
Biisk, a town of Siberia, in the government of Tomsk,
300 miles S. of Tomsk. Pop. in 1867, 5952.
Bij'anagurº, Bijnagur, or Bijanaghur, a decayed
but once famous city of Southern India, in the presidency
of Madras, on the Tumbuddra, about 40 miles N. W. of
Bellary. It stands in a plain containing numerous granite
‘rocks, many of which have been rudely sculptured into
various forms. It was founded in 1336, and was the capi-
tal of a powerful Hindoo kingdom. It was sacked and
ruined by the Mohammedans of the Deccan in 1564, but
still presents traces of its former grandeur in a number of
granite temples and palaces.
Bij'nee, a rajahship of British India, in Bengal, hav-
ing on the S. the Garrows Mountains, and crossed by the
river Bramapootra. It is level and fertile, producing rice,
wheat, sugar, and betel. The people are divided between
the Bhakat worshippers of Krishna, and the Gorami, who
eat meat and drink liquors.
Bilbao, often written in English Bilbo'a, a seaport-
town of Spain, capital of the province of Biscay, is situ-
ated on the river Nervion, near the Bay of Biscay, and 28
miles N. W. of Vitoria; lat. 43° 15' N., lon. 29 54ſ W. It
is partly enclosed by high mountains, and is well built.
Small vessels can ascend the river to this, point, which is
here crossed by several bridges. Bilbao has a cathedral
and a number of convents; also manufactures of hardware,
hats, leather, paper, and earthenware. The chief articles
of export are wool, iron, oil, and fruits. This town was
founded in 1300, and was first called Belvao, and about
1500 was the seat of a famous commercial tribunal. Pop.
in 1860, 17,969. -
Bil’berry, or Whortleberry, the fruit of various
small shrubs, of the genera Vaccinium and Gaylussacia,
and of the natural order Ericaceae, natives of North Amer-
ica and Northern Europe. These fruits, under the name
of huckleberries, and blueberries, are extensively used in
the Northern U. S. and Canada. -
Bil'derdijk’ (WILLEM), an eminent Dutch poet and
philologist, born in Amsterdam Sept. 7. 1756, was a man
of great erudition and versed in many languages and sci-
ences. He studied law, and practised as an advocate at
The Hague. About 1808, Louis Bonaparte appointed him
president of the Institute of Holland. He was the author
of many poems, tragedies, and prôse works, which had a
high reputation, and display a vigorous imagination.
Among his important works are “Elius’’ (1778), “Miscel-
laneous Poems” (1799), “Rural Life,” and an epic poem
called “The Destruction of the First World.” Died at
Haarlem Dec. 18, 1831.
Bildt, a town of Holland in Friesland. Pop. 8362.
Bile [Lat. bilis], the secretion of the liver in animals.
In all vertebrates it is formed chiefly from the blood of the
portal vein, which is mingled, however, to some extent
with that of the hepatic artery. It is secreted slowly during
the intervals of digestion, attaining its maximum (according
to Dalton) about an hour after eating. It is in man a yel-
lowish-green, viscid fluid, with a bitter taste and a peculiar
Smell. In carnivorous animals it is brownish-yellow ; in
herbivorous, greenish. From twenty to fifty ounces of it
are secreted daily in a man. A portion of bile is com-
monly detained in the gall-bladder, where it becomes more
dense by the loss of water and the addition of mucus.
Bile contains certain resinous, coloring, and saline con-
stituents. The biliary resin, or bilin, consists of cholic
(glycocholic) and taurocholic acids, combined in man with
soda ; also with a little cholesterin, a fatty body. These
acids are formed in the liver, not being present in the blood,
unless from absorption after their elaboration in the liver.
Cholesterin and the coloring-matter of the bile are proba-
bly present in the blood. Arrest of their removal causes
unpleasant, sometimes serious, symptoms, recognized under
the term “biliousness.”
Entering by the common biliary duct into the duodenum,
the bile aids in the digestion of food, especially of fat; and
the greater part of it is then reabsorbed from the small
intestine. A portion, however, is excreted with the faecal
discharge. Bile stimulates the peristaltic muscular action
of the bowels, being the natural laxative. It acts also as
an antiseptic to the almost putrescent contents of the large
intestine. Solidification of the components of the bile (es-
pecially of cholesterin) causes gall-stones, the passage of
which through the duct often produces extreme pain.
The gall-bladder is not always present, even in the higher
animals. Oxen, sheep, and antelopes have it, but not deer
or camels. . It is absent in the elephant and horse, but
present in the hog. All carnivora have it. Among birds,
the ostrich, pigeon, and many parrots are without it. Some
species of the same genus have it, and others not. (See
DIGESTION.) It is interesting to observe that the bile of
salt-water fishes contains potash in place of soda, although
from their being surrounded by much common salt (chlo-
ride of sodium) in the sea-water, we should naturally ex-
pect to find soda in abundance; and the bile of land and
fresh-water animals contains soda, while, considering diet
and habitat, potash might more naturally be looked for.
PIENRY HARTSHORNE.
Bilin’ [Lat. Belina], a town of Bohemia, beautifully sit-
uated in the valley of the Bila, 17 miles W. of Leitmeritz. It
has celebrated mineral springs which are much frequented,
and two castles. Near Bilin is a remarkable isolated clink-
stone rock called Biliner Stein, or Borzenberg. The well-
known polishing-powder of Bilin is bergmehl. Pop. 3862.
Bilious Fever. See FEVER.
Bill, or Beak [Lat. ros' trum ; Fr. bec], the hard, horny
mouth of birds, consists of two parts called the upper and
lower mandibles, which may be regarded as mere exten-
sions of the upper and lower jaws. It is not furnished with
teeth, but the bills of the tribe Dentirostres have notches
like teeth, and Prof. Marsh has discovered a fossil bird at
Fort Harker, Kan., with true teeth. The bill is the prin-
cipal weapon of offence and defence of many birds, and is an
important character on which the distinctions of the orders
are founded, the various forms of the bill being intimately
connected with the peculiar habits of birds. These forms
are especially adapted to the nature of the food on which
the bird subsists, and to the operations by which that food
must be procured. In birds of prey (Raptores), the upper
mandible is hooked and sharp, and the whole bill is adapted
for seizing animals and tearing their flesh; birds that feed
on seeds have short, strong, and conical bills; while hum-
ming-birds have long, straight, and slender bills, fitted to
insert into long, tubular corollas. Many aquatic birds
have broad, obtuse, and comparatively soft and sensitive
bills, with laminae on the inner margin in order to strain
the mud in which they find their food. At the base of the
upper mandible is a membrane called the cere, which in
many birds is naked, in others feathered. -

486
RILL–BILL OF EXCEPTIONS.
Bill, in law, a formal statement or declaration in writ-
ing. It is commonly used in connection with some de-
scriptive word. The principal cases will be considered sep-
arately. Bills, may be conveniently arranged under the
following classes: - f
1. Contracts and commercial instruments—bill of ex-
change, bill of lading, bill of credit, bill of sale, single or
penal bill. -
2. A project of law pending before a legislature, as in
the U. S. Constitution, Article I., section 7, “bills for rais-
ing revenue.” After such a bill becomes a law, it is usually
termed an “act.” *
3. Laws actually passed by the legislature, as a bill of
indemnity, a bill of attainder or of pains and penalties.
4. Constitutional instruments or provisions—“bill of
rights.” w \
5. In mercantile and ordinary usage—bill of goods, bill
of health, bill of mortality, bill of parcels, bills payable
and receivable.
6. In pleadings, criminal and civil—original bill, bill of
Middlesex, bill of indictment, bill of privilege, bill in
equity. w
7. In legal practice—bill of costs, bill of exceptions, bill
of particulars. -
Bill, Brown-bill, or Gisarme, an ancient weapon
of the English infantry for fighting at close quarters. It
differed from the battle-axe in its sickle-shaped blade, to
which a drawing stroke was given. The bill was used by
the English at the battle of Hastings, and finally went out
of use in consequence of the introduction of firearms. Sim-
ilar weapons were used by mounted troops, as well as in-
fantry, both in England and on the Continent. The par-
tisans with which the yeomen of the Guard in England are
armed, and the halberd, are derived from the ancient bill.
Bil’lerica, a beautiful post-village of Middlesex co.,
Mass., on the Boston and Lowell R. R., 18 miles N. by W.
of Boston. It has five churches, an academy, and import-
ant manufactures. Pop. of Billerica township, 1833.
Bil/leting, a mode of feeding and lodging soldiers
when they are not in camp or barrack. It is a compulsory
process by which soldiers obtain food and lodging in tav-
erns, inns, or private houses. In 1745 all persons in Eng-
land were exempt from this burden except certain traders.
The persons liable to have soldiers billeted on them in Eng-
land at present are the keepers of hotels, inns, public-
houses, ale-houses, beer-shops, wine-shops, livery-stables,
and such-like licensed places. Those who supply food and
lodging receive tenpence per day for each soldier.
Bil’liards [Fr. billard], a game played with ivory balls
upon a rectangular table having resilient sides. The balls
are put in motion by means of rods called cues held by the
players. The place of the origin of this game is variously
given as in the East, in France, and in Italy, and the date
is entirely uncertain. Shakspeare alludes to this game in
“Antony and Cleopatra,” but this is undoubtedly an
anachronism. The rules of the game vary somewhat in
different countries. Various games are played at present
in the U. S., the French three-ball game being considered
the best. This game requires great skill and quickness of
hand and accuracy of sight, and is one of the most popu-
lar of games. (See PHELAN, “The Game of Billiards.”)
Bill in Eq'uity. This is a statement of the plaintiff's
case in a suit in court of equity. A bill is either original
or not original. An original bill initiates the suit; a bill
not original is used to controvert or suspend or revise a
proceeding in the cause, as a decree or order, or for cross-
litigation. Particular suits receive special names, with
which the word bill is connected, such as “bill of peace,”
“bill of interpleader,” “bill of discovery,” “cross bill,”
etc., etc.
Billings, a post-village of Christian co., Mo., 261 miles
S. W. of St. Louis, on the Atlantic and Pacific R. R., is the
seat of South-western Christian College and the Christian
Colony. It is beautifully situated, and has one monthly
newspaper, a steam flouring-mill, wagon and plough factory,
several stores, etc. . Chalybeate springs are within 10 miles.
W. H. GooDLOE, ED. “ CHRISTIAN MonTHLY.”
Bil'lings (ELKANAH), geologist, was born in Canada.
May 5, 1820. His father was a native of Massachusetts.
In 1845 he was called to the bar, but since 1856 has acted
as palaeontologist to the Canadian geological survey. He
has published valuable scientific memoirs and other im-
portant contributions to the geology and natural history of
Canada. -
Billings (JoséPH), an English navigator who entered
the service of Catherine II. of Russia in 1785. He com-
manded an exploring expedition sent out by that sovereign
in 1787. He explored the coast of Alaska, discovered seve-
ral islands in the Arctic Ocean, and returned in 1791.
Billings, Josh, the pseudonym of Mr. A. W. Shaw
of Poughkeepsie, N. Y., an American humorist, who is
known by his “ Allminax * and other works.
Billings: (LUTHER'G.), U. S. N., born in New York in
1840, entered the navy as an acting assistant paymaster
Oct. 24, 1862, became an assistant paymaster in 1865, and
a paymaster in 1866. He served in the steamer Waterwitch
when she was captured by Confederates on the morning of
June 3, 1864, and fought gallantly in her defence. Lieu-
tenant-Commander Austin Pendergrast, in his detailed
report of Oct. 22, 1864, says: “Notwithstanding the defeat
I have sustained, I cannot close this report without recom-
mending to the kind consideration of the department the
gallant conduct of those officers and men who so bravely
defended their ship. To C. W. Buck, acting master, Acting
Ensigns Charles Hill and A. D. Storer, Acting Assistant
Paymaster L. G. Billings, Acting Master’s Mate C. P.
Weston, Coast-pilot R. B. K. Murphy, Henry Williams,
captain of the hold, John Williams, captain of the after-
guard, John Parker, gunner’s mate, and John Y. Hazelton,
cockswain, I am indebted for a cordial support in the de-
fence of the ship; and though every one of them was
wounded, and many of them threatened with instant death
unless they would say that they surrendered, I am proud
to say that not one of them disgraced himself by doing so.”
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Billings (WILLIAM), an American musical composer,
was born in Boston, Mass., Oct. 7, 1746. He introduced a
new style of church-music, which became very popular in
New England. Died Sept. 26, 1800.
Bil'lingsgate, a wharf and fish-market of London,
below London Bridge, which was made a “free and open
market for all sorts of fish” in 1699. It is the only whole-
sale fish-market in London, and all fish, fresh or cured, if
imported in British vessels, are admitted free of duty. All
fish are sold here by tale, except salmon and eels, which are
sold by weight; oysters are sold by measure. No fish are :
sold on Sunday except mackerel. The women who vended
fish here were formerly notorious for ribaldry and vitupera-
tive personalities, so that “Billingsgate” became a syno-
nym of vulgar and foul expressions.
Bill’ion, in the French system of numeration, is a
thousand millions, but it is used by the English to denote
a million millions—1,000,000,000,000.
Bil/liton, or Billeton, a Dutch island in the East
Indies, is situated between Borneo and the S. E. end of
Sumatra, and is separated from Banca by Clement’s (or
Gaspar) Strait. It is about 3° S. lat., and 108° E. lon.
Area, estimated at 1150 square miles. Iron ore and good
timber abound here. Trepang, tin, birds' nests, and tor-
toise-shells are exported from it.
Bill of Attain’der is a legislative enactment declar-
ing the attainder of one or more persons. (See ATTAINDER.)
Formerly, persons were often attained of high treason in
England by act of Parliament, and during the war of the
Revolution bills of attainder were frequently passed in this
country. The Constitution of the U. S. provides that
neither a State nor Congress shall pass bills of attainder.
Such a bill is usually opposed to sound legislation in four
principal respects: It is adopted by the legislature, instead
of being a sentence by the judiciary; it departs from judi-
cial rules in establishing the commission of the alleged
criminal act, having no regular methods of trial or rules of
evidence; it may declare an act to be a crime which was
not so when committed; and it admits of the infliction of
cruel and unusual punishments. (An instance of such a
bill is found in FROUDE’s “History of England,” i., 286.)
Bill of Credit, in law. (1), in mercantile law, a letter
written by one person to another authorizing or requesting
| him to give credit to a third or his order, or to bearer.
Such a letter is either general or special. It is general
when addressed to any one who may see fit to give the
proposed credit, and who on giving credit may have re-
course to the writer of the letter. On such a letter several
persons may successively give credit. The letter is said to
be special when addressed to specified persons in such a
way that no other persons but those specified can give the
credit. -
2. Under the U. S. Constitution. That instrument pro-
vides that no State shall “emit bills of credit.” This expres-
sion is construed by the courts to mean instruments issued
for the payment of money—issued on the credit of the States
as such, payable at a future day, and intended to circulate
as money. The clause does not prevent a State from issu-
ing bonds for the payment of its indebtedness, payable at a
future day; nor is it supposed to prohibit the creation of
banks, which issue currency. The provision aims at the
use of the credit of the State in its corporate character.
Bill of Exceptions, a formal statement in writing
*—
of exceptions taken to the opinion, decision, or direction
of a judge during a trial. It sets forth the progeedings at
such trial, the decision or ruling made, and the exception
thereto, signed and sealed by the judge in testimony of its
correctness. The object of a bill of exceptions is to bring
the alleged error of the judge before the proper court for
review, and it usually contains only such portion of the
proceedings and evidence taken at the trial as is necessary
for that purpose. (The details of the subject will be found
in TIDD and other works on legal practice.)
Bill of Exchange, an open letter of request, whereby
one person requests another to pay a third or his order or
bearer a sum of money, absolutely and at all events. The
person who writes the letter is called the drawer; the one
to whom it is addressed is termed the drawee; and the per-
son who is to receive the money is the payee. A bill of ex-
change is either inland or foreign. Where the parties are
in the same State, it is inland; where the drawee resides
in a State or country different from that of the drawer, or
in any case where the bill is drawn in one State upon a
person in another, it is foreign. A bill may be considered
under the following heads—1, its nature; 2, endorsement;
3, acceptance; 4, presentment for payment, and steps to
be taken to charge drawer and endorsers. -
I. A bill of exchange having all the requisites referred
to in the definition as above given is negotiable. By this
word is meant that a transfer of it in good faith before ma-
turity will give the purchaser a right of action in his own
name in a court of law, as distinguished from a court of
equity; and he accordingly takes a title free from defences
that may have existed between the original parties. But
if any of the qualities referred to in the definition are
wanting, negotiability does not exist. The paper becomes
assignable, and the defences between the original parties
are let in. Negotiability, however, assumes that the in-
strument has a legal existence as to its outward form, and
is accordingly executed by a person competent to contract.
A bill of exchange drawn by or upon a married woman or
an infant would not create a valid obligation even as to a
purchaser in good faith. So if the instrument were declared
void by statute, as is sometimes the case when infected
with usury or given for a gaming consideration. Under
these rules, if an instrument otherwise in the form of a
bill of exchange were payable in something other than
money, or upon a contingency, or from a special fund, or
to a particular person, without the addition of the words
“ order” or “bearer,” it would not be negotiable. The
law presumes that a bill is given for a valuable considera-
tion. Evidence may be offered as between the original
parties, and as to all who cannot insist upon the protection
of negotiability, that there is no consideration. An import-
ant distinction thus arises between what may be called
business paper and accommodation paper. The former is
given for a valuable consideration as between the original
parties, such as for money lent or goods sold. In accom-
modation paper there is no such consideration, but the
person who makes it intends to lend his credit to some
person. . Every party to a bill may hold this relation to it.
Thus, there may be an accommodation acceptor, drawer, or
endorser. This kind of paper must be distinguished from
that which is simply without consideration, in which there
is no intent to have the credit of the party who makes it
used. A single illustration will show the distinction. If
a friend should draw a bill in favor of his friend on ac-
count of his affection, it would be simply without consider-
ation; if under the same circumstances it was drawn with
intent to have it discounted by a bank, it would be “ac-
commodation paper.” In the one case, if a purchaser
should acquire it with knowledge of all the circumstances,
he could not enforce it, while in the other case he could,
by reason of the intent. When accommodation paper has
been acquired for value, it is substantially equivalent, as
far as the holder is concerned, to business paper. Between
the original parties it would have no validity, and could
not supply the basis of an action. On the contrary, if an
accommodation party to the bill is obliged to pay, he has
his remedy against the party in whose favor he acted,
either on the bill or on an implied contract, as the case may
be. Thus, an accommodation acceptor could not bring an
action upon the bill against the drawer whom he had ac-
commodated, but would be driven to an action on an im-
plied contract on the part of the drawer to repay money
which had been paid for the drawer's use and benefit. When
one party gives his acceptance to another in return for the
other's acceptance, it is not a true case of an accommo-
dation acceptance, though sometimes so called. These
“cross” acceptances are based upon a consideration, the
one promise being a consideration for the other. They are
certainly dangerous contracts, as either party may be called
on to pay to a holder not only his own acceptance, but that
of the other party. Without further pursuing this dis-
BILL OF EXCHANGE.
487
tinction, attention should be called to a peculiarity in this
branch of the law which shows its close connection with
the subject of currency. It is a well-settled general rule
of the common law that a person having no title to goods
can transfer none, even to a purchaser in good faith. A
thief or a finder, for example, can create no better title
than he possesses. There is a marked exception to this
rule in the case of money. One who has stolen money
may give a perfect title to one who takes it in good faith
and for value. This exception is demanded by the neces-
sities of commerce. The rule is extended to negotiable
paper, payable to bearer, or even to order, when so en-
dorsed as to pass from hand to hand without further en-
dorsement.
It is plain that a bill when drawn imposes no obligation
upon the drawee. It is necessary that he should assent to
it in some legal form before he becomes liable. This act
is termed “acceptance.” Before acceptance the only per-
son liable to the payee. is the drawer. His liability is a
contingent one, and implied by law. There is thus a
marked distinction between the liability of a drawer and
acceptor—one is implied, and the other is express, and
created by express contract. The implied obligation of
the drawer is created by the custom of merchants, and is
conditional. It requires certain acts to be performed as a
condition precedent to recovery of the amount of the bill,
such as presentment either for acceptance or payment, and
due notice to be given of a failure to accept or pay, as the
case may be. This distinction between the implied lia-
bility of the drawer and the eacpress contract of an ac-
ceptor is of great consequence, and must be carefully
attended to. The same remark may be made as to the
liability of an endorser. This is also implied and con-
ditional. The nature of a check upon a bank should be
referred to. It resembles a bill of exchange, though it is
not precisely equivalent to it. The check, according to the
better opinion, creates no obligation against the bank in
favor of the holder without acceptance. In mercantile
phrase, a check when accepted by the act of an officer, such
as a teller, is said to be “certified.” The bank after such
an act is liable to the holder. The drawer of a check
having funds on deposit has an action against the bank for
damages for a refusal to honor his check, on the ground of
an implied obligation to pay checks according to the usual
course of business. While checks are usually drawn pay-
able immediately, they may be made payable at a future
day, when their resemblance to a bill of exchange is still
more close.
2. Endorsement.—The payee of a bill may transfer it by
writing his name upon the back of it. He is then termed
an endorser. When the name is simply written the en-
dorsement is said to be “in blank; ” when some person is
pointed out to whom payment is to be made, it is said to
be “in full.” When a bill is endorsed in blank, it will
pass from hand to hand, as though payable to bearer;
when endorsed in full, an endorsement by the person to
whom it is transferred will be necessary to its further
transfer. There may be a series of endorsers, called first,
second, third, etc. endorsers. Under these rules no holder
can claim a title to a bill payable to order except through
an endorsement made by the very person to whom it is
payable, or some one holding under him, such as his exe-
cutor, administrator, or assignee in bankruptcy. Accord-
ingly, if it should come into the possession of another person
of the same name as the owner, but acting without authority,
he could give no title to one acting in good faith. When an
owner of a bill endorses it for value, he can impose upon
the purchaser no valid restriction preventing its further
transfer. The right of sale is an inseparable incident to
ownership. On the other hand, if a person endorse a bill
to an agent, he may place valid restrictions upon the
agent's authority to sell. These, if incorporated in the en-
dorsement, will bind all purchasers. Where a bill is pay-
able to several persons, all must, in general, unite in an
endorsement. The regular effect of an endorsement is two-
fold: one consequence is to transfer the endorser's interest,
and the other is to create an implied obligation on his part
to pay the bill in case that the drawee does not accept, or
pay at maturity, and proper steps are taken to charge him.
In an accommodation endorsement, as there would be no
ownership, the sole effect would be to create an obligation
to pay. This obligation closely resembles that of surety-
ship. Thus, when a bill is accepted the acceptor is pri-
marily liable, and the endorser is, as it were, a surety. The
rules governing suretyship may in the main be invoked in
his favor. An endorser may avoid this liability by making
use of suitable words in his endorsement, such as “without
recourse.” The endorsement would then simply operate as
a transfer of such interest as he might have. Endorsers
are commonly liable in the order of time of their endorse-
ments. Thus, if there were three endorsers, if the third
f
facts in question.
488
BILL OF EXCHANGE.
(or last) was compelled to pay, he would be entitled to sue
the second or first, and recover in full. A holder need not
}. any prescribed order as between the endorsers.
e may select any one, who, if he pays, will be entitled
to proceed in the same way as to any one preceding him.
If, however, the bill is made payable to several payees, who
endorse, they are liable jointly and not successively, and
each, as between themselves, would be liable only for their
respective shares. Every endorsement is a new contract.
One of the consequences of this rule is, that though the
original bill may be void, the endorser will still be liable,
as if the bill be void for usury or be made by a married
woman. Another consequence is, that the rules of private
international law may cause a different effect to be giveſ
to the respective endorsements. Thus, if A should endorse
in one country, and B should endorse the same bill in
another, each endorsement would be governed as to its
effect by the law of the state, where it was made. The
mere act of writing one’s name is not an endorsement;
there must also be a delivery. Accordingly, if one should
write his name and die before delivery, an executor could
not deliver the bill so as to make a valid “endorsement.”
The proper course would be for the executor to endorse it
in his representative character.
3. Acceptance.—The object of acceptance is to show the
assent of the drawee of the bill to pay it according to its
terms. Without.such assent he would not be liable. The
regular and formal method of acceptance is to write the
name of the drawee upon the front of the bill. But no
particular mode of acceptance is necessary. It may be
made by writing separate from the bill or orally. It may
sometimes be implied, as, for example, by a detention on
the part of the drawee beyond a reasonable time. It may
be either absolute or conditional. A conditional acceptance
may be illustrated by one purporting to be made “on the
consignment of goods to the drawee.” A holder could
not collect in such a case if there was no such consignment.
An acceptance should not differ from the terms of the bill.
A holder may decline to take such an acceptance, and treat
the case as though there was no acceptance. Should he
assent to it, he would thereby discharge the drawer and
existing endorsers. It is not always necessary that there
should be presentment for acceptance as distinct from
one for payment, though in some cases it is requisite.
Where a bill is payable a fixed number of days “after
sight,” the word “sight” means acceptance, and it would
be necessary to present it once for acceptance, and, if
that act took place, again for payment. If, on the other
hand, the bill were payable a certain number of days
“after date,” it would only be necessary to present it once
for all for payment, though it would usually be an act of
prudence to present it for acceptance, as the holder would in
case of acceptance have an additional person to whom he
could have recourse, and in case of non-acceptance he could
take immediate steps to charge the other parties to the bill.
There has been great controversy on the question whether
bills payable “ at sight” must be presented for acceptance
as well as payment. In some of the States the doubt
is settled by legislation. The effect of acceptance is to
make the drawer the principal debtor. The other parties
stand in the relation of sureties, and if they are compelled
to pay, they have their remedy over against the acceptors.
This is clearly the case in business paper: in the case of
an accommodation bill the position of the parties is of
course reversed, so that the acceptor, as already explained,
has his remedy on an implied contract against the person
to whom he lent his credit, though as to the holder of the
bill he holds the place of a principal debtor. Under these
rules an acceptor is bound to know the handwriting of the
drawer, and if that be forged he is still liable to the original
holder. If acceptance is refused, the proper course, in the
case of foreign bills, is to have a protest made, and prompt
notice sent to the drawer and endorsers. In case of in-
land bills, protest is not essential, though presentment and
notice are. Statutes usually allow protest in case of in-
land bills as a convenient medium of proof that the neces-
sary steps have been taken to charge the parties to the
bill. The term “protest” is applied to an official act by
an authorized person (notary public), whereby he affirms
in a formal or prescribed manner, in writing, that the bill
has been regularly presented for acceptance or payment,
as the case may be, and that it has been refused. It is
used as presumptive evidence at a trial to establish the
The office of a “notice” is to give im-
mediate information to the drawer or endorsers of failure
of acceptance, so that they may take such steps as they
deem necessary for their protection. The protest and no-
tice are thus entirely distinct acts for different purposes,
and must not be confounded. Assuming that acceptance
has been refused and due protest made, mercantile law
allows any person to intervene and accept a bill “for the
honor” of a drawer or endorser. A holder is not bound
to take such an acceptance, though it is valid if assented
to. It takes place before a notary public, and is termed
an acceptance “supra protest.” The person thus interven-
ing states for whose honor he accepts. In case he pays,
he becomes the creditor of that party, and may also have
recourse to all who precede him on the bill, in opposition
to the general rule of law that one cannot become the
creditor of another without his consent. When the bill
matures it is again presented to the original drawee for
payment, who may in the mean time have been placed in
funds, and may now be willing to take up the bill. Should
he again refuse, it is protested, and presented to the ac-
ceptor supra protest for payment, which, if he refuses to
make another and final protest, will be necessary to charge
drawer or endorsers.
4. Presentment for Payment.—It is a general rule that as
between debtor and creditor no presentment for payment
is necessary. It is the duty of the debtor to seek the cred-
itor, and if the day for payment elapses without it, there
is an immediate remedy by action. The better opinion in
this country is, that this rule applies to an acceptor of a
bill of exchange, even where it is made payable at a par-
ticular place, such as a specified bank. On this view it
would not be necessary for the holder to prove a present-
ment, but the acceptor might show in his defence any facts
that would relieve him or diminish liability, such as that
he had left funds with the bank, which had failed. But to
charge drawer and endorsers the case is entirely different.
These enter into no absolute engagement, but only into an
obligation implied by law. It is a part of the implied con-
tract that presentment for payment shall be made, and pro-
test, where that is necessary, and notice given. These acts
must be alleged in the pleadings, and proved at the trial as
conditions precedent to a right of recovery. The modes of
performing these various acts branch out into much detail,
and only the leading ones can be brought within the com-
pass of this article. The general rule is, that the bill,
when payable without designation of place, must be pre-
sented, when it matures, to the acceptor, either at his res-
idence or place of business, and, if at the place of busi-
ness, within business hours. If a particular place, as a
bank, is designated, presentment must be made there with-
in the usual hours devoted to banking business. This duty
continues, though the place of business be closed or the
acceptor be notoriously insolvent. In the case of an ac-
commodation acceptance no presentment is necessary in
behalf of the person to whom the accommodation is given,
since he could have no action against such an acceptor.
The duty of presentment, as well as of the performance of
the succeeding acts, may be waived by a party to the bill
by appropriate acts. This waiver may take place either
before or after maturity of the bill. An instance would be
a writing on the bill, “I hereby waive demand of the
within bill,” or “I hereby waive notice of demand.” The
latter expression would be imperfect, since a waiver of no-
tice does not dispense with the necessity of presentment,
while a waiver of demand is, from the nature of the case,
a waiver of notice. -
A bill does not ordinarily actually mature on the day on
which it apparently falls due. Three days are allowed,
termed “ days of grace.” These have become so fully a
part of the contract that a presentment before the last day
of grace is nugatory. Should the last day fall on Sunday or
a public holiday, the bill matures on the preceding day.
This matter is sometimes regulated by statute. If present-
ment is made and refused, protest should take place in the
case of foreign bills, as already explained in reference to
non-acceptance, and notice given to the parties to be charg—
ed. The subject of notice requires a more full explanation
than has been given in connection with non-acceptance.
The object of notice is to give information to the respective
parties, to the end that they may protect themselves from
Ioss. The test of its sufficiency is whether it gives the re-
quisite information. No particular form is necessary. It
may be either oral or written. It is a common practice to
reduce it to writing, and either to give it to a party person-
ally or to send it to him by mail. By the general rule of
law the mail can only be used for the purpose of transmis-
sion, and accordingly cannot be resorted to where the holder
and the person to be notified obtain their letters from the
same post-office, though it is in some instances otherwise
by statute. . The law requires extreme diligence in des-
patching the notice. It should be sent as early as the
next day, and some authorities require by the first conve-
nient mail on the next day. If the notice is properly sent
by the mail, it will suffice, though never received. Any
endorser receiving notice has a day to send it to one pre-
ceding him. After notice the rights of the holder are fix-
ed, and it is not necessary for him to bring his action any
earlier than he would be required to do by the statute of
BILL OF LADING—BINGHAM.
489
/
limitations. Delay to collect the bill from the acceptor
does not of itself discharge the drawer and endorsers. If,
however, a bargain (based upon a consideration) is made
between the holder and acceptor, whereby the time of pay-
ment is extended, the drawer and endorsers are discharged,
unless their consent is obtained. . The drawer is not only
liable for the face of the bill, but for damages incidental to
non-payment. These damages are in some cases fixed by
statute. It is sometimes necessary to take into account the
difference in exchange between two countries; as, if a
bill drawn in New York were payable in London, exchange
being in its favor, and the action on the bill were brought
in New York, and it cost a certain per cent. to place the
funds in London, that amount should be included in the
recovery. The article on promissory notes may be referred
to. (See PROMIssoRY NotEs.) T. W. DWIGHT.
Bill of Lading, the written evidence of a contract
for the carriage of goods by water. It is usually signed
by the master of the vessel, either in duplicate or tripli-
cate, acknowledges the receipt of the goods from a person
(named the consignor), and undertakes to deliver them to .
a designated person (the consignee) or his assigns at a
specified place, for the compensation and on the condi-
tions therein specified. An endorsement of the bill of
lading transfers the title to the goods, and, if made in
good faith and for a valuable consideration, cuts off the
right of stoppage in transitw. For most purposes, a bill of
lading is assignable, and an assignee takes it subject to
any defence existing between the original parties. For the
single purpose of shutting out the right of stoppage in
transitu it is negotiable. (See STOPPAGE IN TRANSITU.)
This instrument consists of two parts—a receipt and a con-
tract. That portion of it which is a receipt can be con-
tradicted, as between the original parties, by parol evi-
dence. For example, if it were stated that the goods were
in good order, evidence may be adduced to show the con-
trary. This proposition would not extend to a person who
had made advances on the faith of the statement, as he
could invoke the doctrine of estoppel. (See ESTOPPEL.)
The part of the bill which is a contract cannot be contra-
dicted by parol evidence, even as between the original par-
ties. Although the term was originally applied only to a
memorandum of a contract for transportation by water, it
is now frequently used to denote the memorandum given
by any carrier of the terms on which he agrees to carry
the goods received by him. T. W. D WIGHT.
Bill of Pains and Penalties, a special act of the
legislature declaring a person guilty of some offence, with-
out any conviction in the regular course of judicial pro-
ceedings, and inflicting upon him some punishment less
than death. It differs from a strict bill of attainder in that
the punishment inflicted by the latter is death. Bills of
pains and penalties are within the provision of the U. S.
Constitution that neither Congress nor a State shall pass a
bill of attainder or an ex post facto law. Thus, a law of
Congress requiring all attorneys of the Supreme Court to
take an oath that they had not been engaged in rebellion,
or else to be disqualified from practice, was held to be in
the nature of “a bill of pains and penalties” as to those
who had thus participated, and accordingly void. (Ex:
parte Garland, 4 Wallace R., 333.)
Bill of Rights, an English statute enacted at the time
of the accession of William and Mary to the throne. It
declared, among other things, the right of the subject to
petition the king, freedom of election of members of Par-
liament, and freedom of speech in Parliament. It affirmed
that standing armies without the consent of Parliament
are illegal, and that the king had no power of suspending
or dispensing with laws. It provided that excessive bail
should not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor
cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. The provisions
of this act have had great influence in this country, and
are deemed of high consequence, as securing liberty to the
individual. A number of them are literally inserted among
the amendments to the U. S. Constitution, and are also
found in State constitutions. The phrase “bill of rights”
is frequently employed in this country to designate all
those portions of a constitution, State or national, designed
to secure liberty to the individual.
Bill of Sale, a writing under seal conveying the title
to goods and chattels. The seal by the common law is
conclusive evidence of consideration. Accordingly, a bill
of sale formally executed passes the title without any con-
sideration or delivery of the property. Where there is no
seal, there must be a consideration or delivery. A delivery
without consideration would amount to a gift. A bill of
sale may pass a title which would be valid as between the
parties, and yet not of force as to creditors or purchasers,
as if one who was indebted should make a bill of sale with-
Out actual consideration, or should sell, even with consid—
eration, and still retain possession of the goods. The
transaction might be regarded as infected with fraud, even
though there were no fraudulent intent. (See FRAUD and
CoNSTRUCTIVE FRAUD. As to the general law concerning
sales of chattels and the requisites to their validity, see
SALES.)
The phrase “bill of sale” is frequently used in a more
popular sense to indicate any written instrument, though
not under seal, executed as evidence of a sale. In sales of
ships the term “grand bill of sale” is sometimes employed.
The word “grand” indicates that the sale is made by the
builder. All subsequent transfers would be indicated by
the ordinary phrase “bill of sale.”
Biloxi, a post-village of Harrison co., Miss., on the
Mobile New Orleans and Texas R. R., 79 miles E. N. E.
of New Orleans, and on Biloxi Bay; lat. 30° 23.8' N.,
lon. 88° 53.1" W. It has an iron lighthouse, with a fixed
white light 62 feet above the level of the sea. Biloxi is a
place of summer resort. Pop. 954.
Bil’son (THOMAs), an eminent English prelate, born at
Winchester in 1536, became bishop of Worcester in 1596,
and bishop of Winchester the year following. Bilson was
a man of great learning, and a zealous enemy of Puritan-
ism. He assisted in the translation of King James's Bible.
He wrote, among other works, “The True Difference be-
tween Christian Subjection and Unchristian Rebellion ”
(1585), and “The Perpetual Government of Christ's
Church'' (1593), which is considered an able defence of the
doctrine of apostolic succession. Died in 1616.
Bils/ton, a market-town of England, in the county of
Staffordshire, 2 miles by rail S. E. of Wolverhampton. It
forms part of the parliamentary borough of Wolverhamp-
ton, and is an important centre of the hardware trade. It
is situated between numerous iron and coal mines, and has
large manufactures of japanned ware. Pop. in 1871, 24,192.
Biſmana [from the Lat. bis, “twice,” “double,” and
manus, a “hand”], a Latin term applied by some zoolo-
gists to the first or highest order of Mammalia, of which
man is the type and sole genus. Some persons have urged
an absurd objection to this classification, because it ignorcs
the spiritual and essential part of man, and does not make
a sufficiently wide distinction between men and brutes;
while others, again, object to the term on the ground that
man in his anatomy is not sufficiently distinct from the
Jhigher Quadrumana to require to be placed in a separate
order. (See QUADRUMANA, and also MAN.)
Biſmary Stars. See Dou BLE STARs.
Biſmary The'ory, in chemistry, is the name given to an
hypothesis proposed by Davy, and once supported by Lie-
big, which assumes that all salts are compounds of a metal-
lic and a non-metallic element. A large class of compounds
(like common salt, or sodium-chloride) readily come under
this rule. But in order to bring most salts into such a class,
it is necessary to suppose all the non-metallic elements in
any given salt to be combined into one compound element.
But, according to the later theories, it is not considered at
all necessary to try to represent the probable arrangement
of chemical atoms in compound bodies. (See CHEMISTRY.)
Binºche, a town of Belgium, province of Hainaut, well
built on the river Haine, 6 miles E. S. E. of Mons. It has
manufactures of cutlery, glass, pottery, etc.; also a trade
in marble, coal, paper, and lace. Pop. 6678. -
Bin'drabund', or Bindraban’ (anc. Vrindavana), a
town of British India, in the North-western Provinces, on
the river Jumna, about 40 miles N. N. W. of Agra. It has
several temples of Krishna, one of which is a remarkably
massive structure. This town is visited by multitudes of
pilgrims from distant parts of India, and their munificence
is the chief support of the place. Pop. about 20,000.
Bing'en (anc. Win/cum or Bin'gium), a town of Ger-
many, in Hesse, is finely situated on the left bank of the
Rhine, at the mouth of the Nahe, 20 miles by rail W. of
Mentz. The Nahe is here crossed by an old bridge sup-
posed to have been built by the Romans. Wine of superior
quality is produced in the vicinity. Near Bingen the Rhine
passes through a narrow channel called Bingerloch (i.e. the
“hole of Bingen”), in which the rocks and rapid current
once rendered the navigation dangerous, but in 1834 the
obstruction was chiefly removed. Bingen is opposite Rii-
desheim, from which it is separated by the Rhine. It has
manufactures of flannel, fustian, and leather. Here are in-
teresting ruins of an old castle and convent. Pop. in 1871,
5936.
Bing/ham, a post-township of Somerset co., Me. Pop.
826. f -
Bingham, a township of Clinton co., Mich. Pop.
29.10.
Bingham, a township of Huron co., Mich. Pop. 441.
490
BINGHAM—BINOMIAL.
Bingham, a township of Leelenau co., Mich. Pop. 637.
Bingham, a township of Orange co., N. C. Pop. 1604.
Bingham, a township of Potter co., Pa. Pop. 773.
Bingham (Rev. HIRAM), born in Bennington, Vt.,
about 1790, graduated at Middlebury College in 1816, at An-
dover in 1819, and was one of the first Congregational mis-
sionaries sent to the Sandwich Islands, where he long exer-
cised a powerful and salutary influence. He returned to the
U. S. in 1841. Died at New Haven, Conn., Nov. 11, 1869.
Bingham (John A.), an American legislator, born in
Pennsylvania in 1815, removed to Ohio. He was elected a
member of Congress by the Republicans of the Western Re-
serve in 1854, and was often re-elected. He was chairman
of the managers who conducted the impeachment of An-
drew Johnson in April and May, 1868. He was again
elected to Congress in 1870.
Bingham (KINSLEY. S.), born at Camillus, Onondaga
co., N. Y., Dec. 16, 1808, studied law, went to Michigan in
1833, held many public offices, was a judge of probate,
speaker of the house of representatives, member of Con-
gress (1849–51), governor (1855–59), and U. S. Senator
(1859–61). Died at Green Oak, Livingston co., Mich., Oct.
5, 1861.
Bingham (WILLIAM), born in Philadelphia in 1751,
graduated at Philadelphia College in 1768, was consul at
St. Pierre, West Indies, in 1771, and afterwards American
agent at Martinique. In 1787–88 he was a delegate to
Congress, and was U. S. Senator from Pennsylvania (1795–
1801). He was a man of wealth and of strong aristocratic
feelings. Died in England Feb. 7, 1804.
Bing/hamton, the county-seat of Broome co., N. Y.,
was incorporated a city in 1867. It is pleasantly situated
at the junction of the Susquehanna and Chenango rivers,
216 miles N. W. of New York and 142 miles S. W. of
Albany. The Erie R. R. passes through it, and it is the ter-
minus of the Albany " and Susquehanna, the Delaware
Lackawanna and Western, the Syracuse Binghamton and
New York, and the Utica. Chenango and Susquehanna Wal-
ley R. R.S. It is also the southern terminus of the Che-
nango Canal. The State inebriate asylum is situated here,
and also a State home for orphan and indigent children of
Broome, Tioga, Tompkins, Cortland, Delaware, and Sulli-
van counties.
The public schools are under a separate management
from the State schools, and are controlled by a board of
education consisting of ten commissioners, two from each
ward. The average annual number of pupils who attend
the public schools are 120 in the high school or academic
department, and 2200 at the seven ward school-houses.
Five teachers are employed in the high school and forty in
the ward schools, to whom $27,000 are annually paid in
salaries. The school library contains 2587 volumes, valued
at $3600, and provision is made for an increase annually
of 400 volumes; philosophical apparatus and cabinet
worth $2000; total value of public school property,
$260,000. Dean College, for females, a school conducted
with private capital, employs 13 teachers and is attended
by about 150 pupils. Board and tuition, $200 a year;
property valued at $50,000. St. Joseph’s (Catholic) Fe-
male Academy, conducted by Sisters of St. Joseph, has an
average of 85 pupils. Tuition and board, $175 a year;
library 300 volumes; property valued at $15,000. St.
James's (parochial) school for Catholic boys and girls has
an average attendance of 350 pupils; salary of principal,
$700. Lowell's Commercial College and Telegraphic Insti-
tute is a flourishing and important school of its class.
The churches are—3 Presbyterian, 3 Methodist Episco-
pal, 2 Protestant Episcopal, 1 Baptist, 1 Catholic, and 2
colored Methodist. Together they have a capacity of
seating 10,000 persons; value of church property, $700,000;
church membership, about 5500.
The city is supplied by Holly Waterworks, owned by the
corporation. The gasworks are owned by a private com-
pany. Three miles of street railway have been constructed
and equipped at a cost of $7500 per mile. A mile and a
half of street are paved with wood pavement. The prin-
cipal business streets are sewered.
Much of the business capital of the city is invested in
mercantile establishments, and the wholesale and retail
transactions amount to not far from $6,000,000 a year.
About $1,800,000 are invested in manufactories, which em-
ploy 1400 hands of all grades, to whom about $800,000 are
paid annually. The value of manufactured articles is about
$3,500,000 annually. The leading articles are boots and
shoes, tobacco and cigars, Scales, combs, sewing-machines,
machinery, and building materials, carriages, furniture,
tools, and children’s sleighs and carriages. The banking
institutions are three national banks, one private banking-
house, and two savings banks. There are four weekly, one
semi-weekly, and three daily newspapers. The city has an
... (3 vols., 1851, finely illustrated).
area of 972 acres. The assessors' valuation (on a basis of
a quarter of the real value) is $2,180,035 for real estate,
and $430,985 for personal property. About $110,000 are
raised annually for city and school purposes. The public
debt for which the city is bonded, for and in the construc-
tion of railroads, and for the construction of the high-
school building, waterworks, and bridges, is nearly $400,000.
Pop. of city, 12,692; city and township, 14,758.
- MALETTE & REID, EDs. “BINGHAMTON REPUBLICAN.”
Bing/ley, a town of England, in the West Riding of
Yorkshire, is situated on an eminence on the river Aire,
15 miles W. N. W. of Leeds. The Leeds and Liverpool
Canal passes by it. Here are manufactures of worsted
goods, paper, etc. Pop. 5019. -
Binºney (AMos), M.D., an American naturalist, born at
Boston Oct. 18, 1803, graduated at Brown University in
1821, was the owner of an ample fortune. He was a libe-
ral patron of artists and men of science, and was president
of the Boston Society of Natural History. He wrote “Ter-
restrial and Air-Breathing Mollusks of the United States”
Died at Rome Feb. 18,
1847.-His son, W. G. BINNEY, is also a distinguished con-
chologist.
Binney (HIBBERT), D. D., born in Nova Scotia in 1819,
was educated in London and Oxford, graduating at the latter
university in 1842. In 1851 he was consecrated lord bishop
(Anglican) of Nova Scotia and Prince Edward’s Island.
Binney (HoRACE), LL.D., an eminent American lawyer,
born in Philadelphia Jan. 4, 1780. He graduated at Har-
vard College in 1797, and divided the first honors with
his classmate, the late Judge White of Salem, Mass. Hay-
ing studied law with Jared Ingersoll in Philadelphia, he
was admitted to the bar in 1800, and rose in a few years
to the highest rank in his profession. He declined high
judicial positions which were offered him, but as a lawyer
he took a prominent part in important cases in the higher
courts of Pennsylvania, and was several times called to the
Supreme Court of the U. S. Elected to Congress in the
latter part of Jackson's first administration, he distin-
guished himself by his eloquence and ability. In 1843 he
made his celebrated argument in the Supreme Court of the
U. S. in the case of Vidal versus the mayor of Philadelphia.
This admirable argument is often cited by the bench and
bar of the U. S. as authority on questions involving the
law of charitable uses, and has been referred to by eminent
English jurists in the highest terms of praise. Mr. Binney
appeared for the last time before his legal brethren on the
occasion of the death of his friend, the Hon. John Ser-
geant, whose character he delineated in terms of deep feel-
ing and eloquence. Mr. Binney’s principal works, besides
the argument in the Vidal case, are “An Inquiry into the
Formation of Washington’s Farewell Address” (1859),
eulogiums on Chief-Justice Tilghman (1827) and Chief-
Justice Marshall (1836), and “Reports of Cases in the Su-
preme Court of Pennsylvania” (6 vols.).
Binney (HoRACE, JR.), a son of the foregoing, born in
Philadelphia Jan. 21, 1809, graduated at Yale in 1828, and
was admitted to the bar in 1831. He was eminent for his
literary knowledge, and was for a time president of the
Union League of Philadelphia. Died Feb. 23, 1870. A
memoir of his life by Dr. C. J. Stillé was published in 1870. .
Binney (THöMAs), born in 1798, an English dissenting
minister, pastor of King's Weigh-house Chapel in London
(1829–69). He wrote many controversial papers, “Con-
scientious Clerical Nonconformity,” “Service of Song,”
and several books for young men, besides several volumes
the products of a controversy with the Australian bishop
of Adelaide. Died Feb., 1874.
Binoc'ular Tel’escope [from the Lat. binus, “dou-
ble,” and oculus, an “eye”], a telescope to which both eyes
may be applied at once, and by which an object may be
observed with both eyes at the same time. There are also
binocular microscopes, having two tubes, one for each eye.
In some kinds of work they possess superior defining power.
Bino/mial [from the Lat. bis, “twice” and momen, a
“name”], in algebra, an expression having two terms
joined by the sign + or —. The “binomial theorem " has
for its object the expression of the law for the formation
of any power of a binomial. By means of this theorem
any power of a + a can be at once written down without
going through the actual multiplication. The older math-
ematicians were acquainted with this method of finding
such powers, but Newton first demonstrated the universal-
ity of its application. This is considered one of his great-
est discoveries, and the formula was placed upon his tomb.
It is usually written thus: -
Am—1 (m—1)(m—2
a8.cm-3, etc. 2 2 3
BINTURONG—BIOLOGY.
Binturong’ (Ictides or Arctictis), a genus of quad- |
v \ JS N ‘.
Sºº
The Black Binturong.
rupeds nearly, allied to raccoons, comprises two species,
natives of Java, Sumatra, and Malacca.
Biſobi’o, the largest river of Chili, rises in the Andes,
and enters the sea at Concepcion, after a course of 200 miles.
Biogen'esis, the origin of life from life by parentage
or descent; a term recently used in opposition to abiogen-
esis, or the origination of life in matter before not living.
(See SPONTANEOUs GENERATION.) -
Biog/raphy [from the Gr. 8tos, “ life,” and ypaſpi, a
“writing”] is the term applied to the literature which treats
of the lives of individual persons. Anciently, the leading
incidents of a man’s life were narrated in their historical
sequence, without elaborate attempts to analyze character.
Ancient biography was possessed of a stately dignity, col-
ored but sparingly with eulogy or censure. Modern biog-
raphy, on the other hand, like modern history, is often
full of criticism and disquisition. Of strictly biographical
works, the most valuable that has come to us from the
ancient Greeks is the “Lives” of Plutarch. Roman lit-
erature also possesses an admirable “Life of Agricola,” by
his son-in-law, Tacitus. Besides these may be mentioned
the “Lives” ascribed to Cornelius Nepos, the writings of
Suetonius, the “Life of Alexander the Great '' by Curtius,
“Lives of the Sophists” by Philostratus, and a “Life of
Plato ” by Olympiodorus. Later, we encounter the “Lives
of the Fathers” by Saint Jerome and others, while biog-
raphies of saints, martyrs, etc. are scattered profusely
through ecclesiastical literature. The monks of the Middle
Ages worked at the manufacture of biographies in which
the hunger for the marvellous was gratified. Modern bio-
graphical literature may be said to date from the seven-
teenth century. Among the most celebrated works written
since the Reformation may be mentioned Vasari’s “Lives
of the Painters” (Florence, 1550); Tillemont’s “Mémoires
pour servir à l’Histoire Ecclésiastique des six Premières
Siècles de l'Eglise,” in 16 vols. 4to (Paris, 1693); Bayle's
“Dictionnaire Historique et Critique” (Rotterdam, 1697);
the “Acta Sanctorum ” of the Bollandist Fathers; the
“Lives of the Saints” by Alban Butler; the “Biographie
Universelle” (1810–28); Charles Knight’s “English Cyclo-
paedia,” Biographical Section, 1856–57. The “Nouvelle
Biographie Générale’’ (42 vols., 1857–63) is of great value.
Among individual Lives a high place is given to Boswell’s
“Life of Johnson’’ (1793), “The Life of Charles XII.” by
Voltaire, that of Voltaire by Condorcet, and that of Mo-
lière and Corneille by Taschereau. . The biographical
writings of Carlyle are of the first importance. In Ameri-
can literature we may mention in general biography the
works of Sparks, Sprague, Allen, and Drake, and the
special biographical writings of Irving and the Abbotts.
REVISED BY C. W. GREENE.
Biol’ogy [from the Gr. Bios, “life,” and A6)os, “ dis-
course’’] is that branch of the study of nature which
treats of organized beings, under their diverse relations, in
contradistinction to mineralogy, which relates to the inor-
ganic or mineral substances; its subjects are therefore
animals (zoology) and plants (botany or phytology), living
and extinct. These agree with each other, and differ from
minerals in (1) the physical and chemical characteristics of
their primitive constituents or cells, and the concomitant
phenomena of life exhibited under certain conditions;
491
(2) the perpetual change during life in the organism by
loss of substance proportioned to the de-
mands on the system of exertion or ex-
istence, and the renewal of substance by
derivation and assimilation of nutriment
from without; (3) the segregation and
specialization, when the demand for rapid
growth has been fulfilled, of certain por-
tions of the organism as reproductive or—
gans, differentiated as receptive and pro-
creative (female), and impregnating and
vivifying (male); from the former of
which (after the conjunction of the two
under certain conditions) an organism
originates essentially like that from which
it proceeds; and (4) the existence, for a
vaguely determinate period, of the organ-
ism, and finally a disturbance of the
equilibrium or conditions of existence,
death and dissolution; (5) originating as
above indicated, the offspring repeats the
same cycle of phenomena as the parent,
and in turn contributes to the perpetua-
tion of the race. Our limits will only
allow us to briefly consider, in the order
indicated, these characteristic features of
the great empire of organic nature.
(1) The animal or vegetable organ-
ism is in the main constituted of four
elements, three of which are separately known only in
a gaseous state—oacygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen—and one
—carbon—in a simple condition is only known in a solid
form. From this predominance of gaseous elements re-
sults the degree of molecular mobility of the constitu-
ents of the organism, and, according to Herbert Spencer,
“that comparative readiness displayed by organic matters
to undergo those changes in the “arrangement of parts
which we call development, and those transformations
of motion which we call function.” The same author has
also insisted on facts that (1) the elements in question
(except oxygen) have affinities which are narrow in their
range, but low in their intensity; (2) that in all allotropism
(or the ability to assume different states) is inherent; and
(3) that they all present certain extreme antitheses (as, for
example, between oxygen and nitrogen as to chemical
affinity, and between carbon and the gases as to molecular
mobility); and that these extreme contrasts “fulfil, in the
highest degree, a certain further condition to facility of
differentiation and integration.” The primary form into
which these elements enter is a fluid substance called pro-
toplasm, which may or may not be nucleated, but in most
organisms assumes the nucleated condition (that is, of
cells); of such elements, more or less modified and disguised
according to circumstances (i.e. specialization and com-
plexity of parts), the entire organism is built up.
(2) By the absorption or ingestion of extraneous sub-
stances the organism derives a nutriment which is assimi-
lated and converted into its own substance, and supplies
the material (1) for the power for work, (2) the repair of
the system, and (3) for direct growth. Every action and
exertion is attended, with a loss of substance, and hence
exists the necessity for a corresponding supply of nutri-
ment. For a certain length of time (according to the
species or race), in addition to the preservation of an un-
stable equilibrium, there is also a demand for supply for
increase of bulk, or growth, of the organism. The period
and extent to which this is carried is, within certain
limits, constant for each species.
(3) When the full stature or phase of development has
been more or less nearly attained, the organs of reproduction
become functionally developed, and provision for the per-
petuation of the race is made. In plants, the female ele-
ment is termed a seed; in animals, an ovum or egg. The
male and female elements may be united in the same indi-
vidual, as in most plants and many animals, but in the
highest animals the sexes are always differentiated in dis-
tinct individuals. In mollusks, hermaphroditism is almost
of ordinal value, but not more, and in at least one case
(Valvatidae) hermaphroditism occurs in an order of which
the other members are dioecious. Among vertebrates, true
hermaphroditism is only known (as an exceptional develop-
ment) in certain fishes (Serranidae); it is entirely unknown
in the higher forms (mammals, etc.), all the reported cases
to the contrary being referable to males with the genitalia.
in an embryonic condition, or females with the clitoris
hypertrophied. The homologies of the male and female
organs render it impossible that there shall be a union of
the sexes in the same individual in the mammals. Actual
fecundation of individual germs (seeds or eggs) by the
male element is necessary, in most cases, for their develop-
ment, but in exceptional cases (e. g. certain insects, crus-









492
PION OF SMYRNA-BIRCH.
taceous mollusks), females produce broods of young without
having had direct previous intercourse with the male.
This peculiar capability has been designated partheno-
genesis ; the unimpregnated eggs (in some forms) produce
only females. The question of the determination of sex is
still involved in obscurity.
(4) After a certain period, if the individual has escaped
all the liabilities to death that occur from enemies, acci-
dents, and disease, there is a decline in the activity of the
functions, the system becomes disordered, and death ensues.
This period, like those of growth and development of the
reproductive power, is also, within certain limits, a con-
stant term, and all reports of extreme longevity—such as
the reputed ages of H. Jenkins (169 years), T. Parr
(150 years), the countess Desmond (140 years), and others
—are either based on very unsatisfactory evidence or de-
monstrably false.
(5) The offspring, although as a rule very similar to the
parent, is never exactly alike, being always distinguishable
by some more or less obvious difference or individuality of
character. Occasionally, however, the offspring differs
very markedly in some one character, which may or may
not be co-ordinated with other correspondingly important
differences. The newly developed peculiarity is apt to be
transmitted either to the immediate offspring or to a succeed-
ing generation, and sometimes in an exaggerated degree. But
such peculiarities, if the individuals so distinguished pair
with those not exhibiting them, generally disappear in their
descendants after a longer or shorter course. If, however,
the individuals thus characterized are set aside, and their
immediate and remote descendants selected in ratio to their
possession of some peculiarity, that peculiarity will be in-
definitely perpetuated, and a new race distinguished there-
by will be thus originated. By means of such artificial
selection, unintentional or studied, the various rāces of do-
mesticated animals have been produced. And as, in most
cases, there is an obvious fitness of organized beings to the
conditions under which they are found, it has been assum-
ed that such relations are the result of the survival of be-
ings possessing characteristics which may have spontane-
ously arisen, and which have gradually become (relatively)
perpetuated in the “struggle for existence;” and hence the
hypothesis of natural selection has originated. Inasmuch,
also, as no offspring is exactly like the parents, it follows
that no generation is exactly like the preceding; and al-
though there must be a certain unstable equilibrium, re-
sulting from constant interbreeding, in the incessant surge
of variations, the descendants must necessarily depart more
and more from their progenitors. While in an historical
epoch no very obvious changes may be perceptible, eventu-
ally (unless by the interposition of miraculous agency) there
must be a contrast between the extremes of a lineage, and
the exhibition of such must be merely a question of time, de-
termined to a greater or less degree by the changes of con-
dition. The assumption of this hypothesis, and the induc-
tive evidence furnished by various departments of science,
have culminated in the theory of evolution, and for an ex-
planation of the modus operandi of evolution, natural se-
lection (or Darwinism) has been evoked. The evidence
relied upon is chiefly derived from morphology (and the
contrast between it and teleology), embryology, the geolo-
gical succession and the geographical distribution of or-
ganisms. Af
While animals and plants differ from minerals, and agree
with each other in all the characters thus specified, there
are no such salient differences between themselves. It is,
indeed, easy to distinguish the higher animals and plants,
and they are, to a certain extent, antetypes and complemen-
tary to each other. On the one hand, plants derive their
nourishment by absorption from the inorganic world through
the external surfaces of their roots and leaves, and (under
most conditions) decompose carbonic acid gas, assimilate
carbon (and nitrogen), and eliminate oxygen. On the other
hand, animals derive their nutriment, immediately or medi-
ately, from plants, and ingest it either through a provision-
al or specialized alimentary cavity, imbibe oxygen, and
exhale carbonic acid gas. The mode of taking nutriment
is the most characteristic feature, and specialization es-
pecially tends to that end, but supplemented, in the animal,
by a specialization of other systems to guide it in the selec-
tion and pursuit of its food. Some rather high animals
(e.g. certain Entozoa) take their nutriment through their
external surfaces, but this is rather a teleological modifica-
tion co-ordinated with atrophy of the intestinal tube, su-
perinduced by peculiar conditions of life. In view of the
slight differences between animals and .plants, and their
contrast with minerals, it is evident that the ternary divis-
ion of natural objects into animals, plants, and minerals
does not express the degree of the relations between them;
and hence the animal and plant kingdoms have been com-
bined in an organic empire or realm on the one hand, and
some countries hats, shoes, and boots are made of it.
on the other minerals have been denominated an inorganic
empire. The impossibility or great difficulty of discrimina-
ting the lowest plants and animals has also led some nat-
uralists to separate them from the animal and vegetable
kingdoms, and combine them in a peculiar one, which has
received, with some varying limits, numerous names; e.g.
Infusory world (Infusorienwelt), régne de Zoophytes,
règnes Psychodaire, régne chaotique, régne Plantanimal,
regnum Amphorganicorum, régne organique Primitive,
kingdom of Protozoa, regnum Primigenium, kingdom of
Primalia, and Protistenreichs. Such propositions, however,
do not remove the difficulty, but only shift and complicate the
questions, and obscure the recognition of the tendencies of
the two antitypically functional divisions of nature. It need
only be added that there is also, to some extent, a contrast
in respect to individuality in the respective kingdoms, nu-
merous individuals (flowers) being developed from the out-
growth of the contents of a single seed, while in all except
some of the lower animals a single individual only origin-
ates from one egg. The subject of individuality, however,
is a somewhat obscure one, and has provoked much discus-
sion; and the question has been involved by the confusion
of potential and actual individuality. (For more detailed
information respecting the various subjects of biology, con-
sult Evolution, HERMAPHRODITISM, INDIVIDUALITY, LON-
GEv1TY, MoRPHologY, PALACONTologY, PARTHENOGENESIS,
TAxonoMY, TELEOLOGY, ZooLog ICAL GEOGRAPHY, and ZOOL-
oGY and BotANY, and their respective subdivisions.)
THEO. GILL, Smithsonian Inst.
Biſon of Smyrna, a Greek pastoral poet, was a friend
and contemporary of Moschus, and lived about 250 B.C.
His style is graceful and polished. He composed bucolic
and erotic poems, fragments of which are extant. Among
his extant works is a lament for Adonis.
Biot (JEAN BAPTISTE), an eminent French natural phil-
osopher and astronomer, was born in Paris April 21, 1774.
He became in 1800 professor of physics in the College of
France. In 1803 he was admitted into the Institute, and
in 1805 published “An Elementary Treatise on Physical
Astronomy” (2 vols.). An enlarged edition of this ap-
peared in 5 vols., 1841–57. Having been appointed a mem-
ber of the bureau of longitudes, he was sent to Spain with
Arago to measure the arc of the meridian. He contributed
many able articles to the “Biographie Universelle” and
the “Annales de Chimie et de Physique,” and published,
besides other works, a “Treatise on Experimental Physics
and Mathematics” (4 vols., 1816), which is highly esteemed,
and “Researches in Ancient Astronomy” (1829). In 1840
he received the Rumford medal of the Royal Society of
London for his researches on the circular polarization of
light. He was admitted into the French Academy in 1856.
Died Feb. 3, 1862.
Bi'otite, called also Uniax’ial, or Magne'sian
Mi’ca, occurs in six-sided tubular prisms, having a per-
fect basal cleavage, and generally dark green, brown, or
nearly black. It has a vitreous lustre, varies from trans-
parent to opaque, is sectile, flexible, and elastic when re-
duced to thin laminae. It consists chiefly of silica, alu-
mina, magnesia, and oxide of iron, with some potassa.
Biſped [from the Lat. bis, “twice,” “double,” and pes,
pedis, a “foot”], an animal which has two feet. Men and
birds are almost the only animals to which the term is ap-
plicable. The two-footed saurians are thought to furnish
a link between reptiles and serpents; certain two-footed
batrachians seem to approach the character of fishes; while
there are fossil biped reptiles which appear to have re-
sembled birds.
Bi'pont Editions, the name of certain editions of
the Latin classics, the publication of which was commenced
in 1779 at the German town of Zweibrücken (Deux-Ponts),
called in Latin Bipontium.
Bir, or Beer ſanc. Bir' tha; Turk. Bireh-jik], a town
of Asiatic Turkey, on the left (E.) bank of the Euphrates,
74 miles N. E. of Aleppo. It has about 2000 houses, a cita-
del or castle on a steep rock, and several mosques. Cara-
vans from Aleppo to Diarbekir and Bagdad cross the Eu-
phrates at this point. Pop. about 6000.
Birch (Bet/ula), a genus of trees or shrubs of the order
Betulaceae, natives of temperate and cold regions in Asia,
Europe, and America (several species are found among the
Himalayas). The genus Betwla is distinguished by ten to
twelve stamens and winged seeds (achenia), has alternate,
simple leaves, and flowers in scaly catkins. . The common
birch of Europe and Asia (Betula alba) is a handsome tree
with triangular or deltoid leaves, which are doubly serrate.
The bark is smooth and chalky white, and separable in
thin sheets or layers. This bark is very durable, and is
used for tanning, dyeing yellow, and other purposes. In
The
! BIRCH-BIRD OF PARADISE.
493
wood is firm, tough, and valuable, and is much used by
coopers, turners, and wheelwrights. The sap is esteemed
as a beverage in Scotland, both in a fresh state and fer-
mented. Europe produces a graceful variety called weep-
ing birch (Betula pendula of some botanists), which attains
a height of sixty feet, and has very slender and pendulous
branches. The American white birch, which, according to
Gray, is a variety of the above, is a small, graceful tree
with tremulous, deltoid, and shining leaves, but is not valu-
able for timber. Among the other species indigenous in
the U.S. are the Betula lenta (sweet or black birch), Betula
eaccelsa (yellow birch), and Betula papyracea (canoe or
paper birch). The Betula lenta is a rather large tree, the
bark of which is aromatic, yielding an essential oil iden-
tical with that of Gaultheria, and the timber is fine-grained
and valuable for cabinet-work. The Betula papyracea
grows in the Northern States to the height of about seventy
feet, has a fine-grained wood, and a very tough, durable
white bark, splitting freely into thin layers, which have
been used as paper. The Indians make canoes of this bark.
The Betula lutea (or eaccelsa) sometimes attains a height of
nearly eighty feet, and is remarkable for the brilliant yel-
low tint of its bark or epidermis. The leaves are from three
to five inches long. Besides the above and several less
important species, the U. S. have the Betw!a nigra, or river
birch, which grows on the banks of streams and has re-
markably tough wood. Russia leather is tanned with birch
bark. “Russian oil” is a tar-like, empyreumatic substance
obtained from birch-wood in Russia, and is useful in cer–
tain skin diseases.
Birch (SAMUEL), L.L.D., born in London Nov. 3, 1813,
one of the best modern Egyptologists, is the author of nearly
all the last volume of Bunsen’s work on Egypt, and has
published a treatise on “Hieroglyphics” (1857), the “Rhind
Papyri’’ (1866), and numerous, other treatises on archaeol-
ogy, etc. His studies embrace Chinese literature and all
departments of antiquities and ethnology.
Birch (THOMAs), D.D., F. R. S., an English biographer
and historian, born in London Nov. 23, 1705. He took or-
ders in the Anglican Church, and became rector of a parish
in London. Among his numerous works are “The General
Dictionary, Historical and Critical” (10 vols., 1734–41), a
“Life of Archbishop Tillotson " (1752), “Memoirs of the
Reign of Queen Elizabeth " (2 vols., 1754), and a “History
of the Royal Society” (4 vols., 1757). Died Jan. 9, 1766.
Birch Coo’ley, a post-township of Renville co., Minn.
Pop. 503.
Birch-Pfeif'fer (CHARLOTTE), a German actress and
dramatic writer, born at Stuttgart June 2, 1800, was married
to Dr. Birch of Copenhagen in 1825. She attained success
as a performer and a writer. Among her dramas are
“Die Günstlinge,” “Hinko,” “Dorf and Stadt’” (1848),
and “Anna of Austria” (“Anna von Oestreich,” 1850).
Died Aug. 25, 1868.
Birch Point Plantation, a township of Somerset
co., Me. Pop. 2.
Birch Run, a post-township of Saginaw co., Mich., 15
miles S. E. of Saginaw. Pop. 925.
Birch Tree, a post-township of Shannon co., Mo.
Pop. 312. *
Bird. See BIRDs.
Bird, a township of Jackson co., Ark. Pop. 1313.
Bird (EDwARD), an English painter of genre and rural
scenes, was born at Wolverhampton in 1772. His “Field
of Chevy Chase the Day after the Battle * is called his
masterpiece. Died in 1819. .*
Bird (FREDERICK MAYER), son of Robert Montgomery
Bird, noticed below, was born in Philadelphia June 28, 1838,
graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1857, and
at the Union Theological Seminary in New York City in
1860. For several years he was a minister in the Lutheran
Church, serving as chaplain in the Union army during the
winter of 1862–63. In 1868 he entered the Protestant
Episcopal Church, and in 1870 became rector of St. Peter's
church in Spottswood, N. J. He owns the largest hymn-
ological library, and is the best-informed hymnologist, in
the U. S. He was main editor of the Lutheran Hymn-Book
(1865), published “Charles Wesley seen in his Finer and
less Familiar Poems” (1867), assisted Bishop Odenheimer
in compiling “Hymns of the Spirit” (1872), and has con-
tributed many articles to reviews and newspapers.
Bird (GoLDING), M.D., an English physician and writer,
born in Norfolk in 1815, practised in London, where he
also lectured on medical botany. He published a valuable
work on the urine. Died in 1854.
Bird (Rob ERT MontgomſøRY), M.D., an American author,
born at New Castle, Del., in 1803. He practised medicine in
Philadelphia, and wrote, besides other works, “The Gladi-
ator,” a tragedy which was successful; “Calavar, a Ro-
mance of Mexico’’ (1834), and the “Infidel,” a novel (1835).
He became in 1847 one of the chief editors of “The North
American and United States Gazette,” a daily paper of
Philadelphia. Died Jan. 22, 1854.
Bird-Catching Spider (Mygale avicularia), a spider
of Cayenne and Surinam. Its body is nearly two inches
long, but its legs when stretched out occupy a space almost
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a foot in diameter. The hooks of its mandibles are black
and very strong. It does, not construct a net or web for
the capture of its prey, but it obtains it by the chase, and
hunts only in the night. This spider and other species of
Mygale will attack and kill small birds. It is asserted that
in some tropical countries there are spiders which feed upon
birds caught in their webs.
Bird Cherry, a name given in England to the Prunus
Padus, which is a small tree growing wild in Europe, and
called hagberry in Scotland. It bears racemes of Small
drupes of a sweetish and bitterish taste, which are used in
the north of Europe to make spirituous liquors. . Nearly
allied to this is the wild cherry or choke cherry of the U. S.
(See PRUNUs VIRGINIANA.) . .
Birde, or Byrd (WILLIAM), a distinguished English
composer of church music, born in 1540. In conjunction
with Thomas Tallis he became organist to Queen Eliza-
beth in 1575. He produced, among other works, “Sacred
Songs,” and a magnificent canon entitled “Non Nobis
Domine.” Died in 1623.
Bird Lime [Lat. vis/cus], a viscous adhesive substance
placed on the branches of trees to catch birds which may
perch there. It is prepared by boiling the middle bark of
the holly (Ilea:), the mistletoe ( Viseum album), or other
glutinous plants, and concentrating the decoction by evap-
oration. The gluten of wheat flour is sometimes used as a
substitute for bird lime. A tame bird in a cage is some-
times employed to decoy the birds to the tree on which the
bird lime is smeared.
Bird of Paradise, the name of several species of
birds of the genus Paradisea and kindred genera, of the
order Insessores, and of the tribe Comirostres, natives of
Papua and the neighboring islands, remarkable for the
beautiful form and splendor of their plumage. The name
was originally applied to the Paradisea apoda, which
was supposed to be destitute of feet, because the skins,
which are exported to Europe, are usually deprived of
wings and feet. The older naturalists imagined that they
passed all their lives floating in the air and feeding on
ethereal food or nectar. For these fabulous and fanciful
ideas science substitutes the prosaic truth that they are

494
BIRDS.
nearly allied to the Corvidae (crow family), and are omniv-
orous. The value of these birds arises chiefly from the
extraordinary development and light and beautiful struc-
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remarkable not only for brightness of tints, but also for a
velvety texture and brilliant metallic reflections. Tufts of
feathers growing from the shoulders are so prolonged that
they extend even beyond the tail, and they constitute the
most beautiful part of the plumes of the bird of paradise,
which are a highly prized article of commerce for female
ornament. The principal species of this genus are the
common bird of paradise (Paradisea apoda), the royal
bird of paradise (Paradisea regia), the red bird of paradise
(Paradisea rubra), the magnificent bird of paradise (Par-
adisea magnifica or speciosa), and the six-threaded (or
golden) bird of paradise (Pard disea sea-setacea), from the
head of which grow six long and threadlike feathers, three
on each side. The common bird of paradise is about as
large as a jay, and is mostly of a cinnamon color, with a
throat of emerald green, whence it is sometimes called “the
emerald bird of paradise.” The royal bird of paradise
has two long feathers or filaments, which extend behind
the tail and terminate in disks, like the tail-feathers of a
peacock. The red bird of paradise has two very long fila-
ments, extending far beyond its rich and beautiful tail-
feathers. They are generally gregarious, and they some-
times fly in flocks from one island to another. It is stated
that they can fly more easily against than with the wind.
In confinement they are lively and bold, and bestow great
care on their plumage. Eighteen species are described by
Wallače, whose list does not include all the known species.
A recent writer, referring to what he calls “the supremely
glorious members of the feathered tribes which have by
common consent been termed BIRDs of PARADISE,” ob-
serves that “The plumage of these birds is wonderfully
rich and varied, and not even the humming-birds them-
selves present such an inexhaustible treasury of form and
color as is found among the comparatively few species of
the birds of paradise.” (See WALLACE, “Malay Archipel-
ago.”) REVISED BY J. S. NEWBERRY.
Birds [Lat. aves ; Fr. oiseau, plu. oiseawa: ; Ger. Vögel],
a class of oviparous vertebrate animals, which in several re-
spects are peculiar, and separated from other animals by a
very distinct line of demarcation. They are all bipeds, and
are all covered with feathers, which nature has given to mo
animals of other classes. Nearly all birds have the power
of flight, which is enjoyed by few other vertebrate animals.
The most conspicuous external characteristic of birds is the
plumage, which invests their bodies and wings, serves as
clothing, and assists in motion through the air. The
feathers entangle among their fibres a considerable quan-
tity of air, and are well adapted to protect the bird from
extremes of cold and heat. The internal temperature
of birds is from 105° to 112° F., much higher than that
of men and beasts. Their buoyancy and muscular en-
ergy are increased by numerous air-cells which are con-
nected with the lungs, penetrate the substance of the bones,
insinuate themselves between the skin and subjacent mus-
cles, and enter the quills, so that the whole organism is
permeated by air. The general form of birds is adapted to
aërial navigation, and the body is somewhat boat-shaped.
The number of vertebrae in the neck varies from ten to
twenty-three, and is always greater than is found in any
mammal. Among their peculiar organs is the hard, horny,
toothless mouth, called a beak or bill. (See BILL.) The head
is so articulated to the neck by a single condyle or pivot that
a bird can turn its head round in a manner impossible to
Mammalia. The number of toes of each foot is generally
four, of which three extend forward and one backward; but
the Scansores (climbers) have two before and two behind.
The various forms of the toes are the characters which dis-
tinguish the five primary orders. (See ORNITHOLOGY.) The
sternum or breast-bone is very large and strong, serving
for the attachment of the powerful muscles which move the
expanded wings. In eagles and other rapacious birds the
ridge or keel of the sternum is very prominent. The wing
of a bird is the homologue of the arm of a man, and is com-
posed of bones which correspond to those of a human arm
or the fore leg of a quadruped. The wing is furnished with
feathers called quills, which are larger and stronger than
those of the other parts of the bird, and which display an
admirable combination of strength and lightness. The
names of the several varieties of wing-feathers are pri-
maries, secondaries, tertiaries, and coverts. The primaries
are quill-feathers arising from the first or terminal joint—
i. e. the part of the wing which corresponds to the hand and
fingers of a man. The form of these indicates the bird's
capacity of flight, and birds of powerful flight have long
and firm primaries. Next to these are the secondaries,
which are attached to the middle bone, the homologue of
man’s fore arm. The tertiaries grow from the part of the
wing between the elbow and the shoulder. The leg of a
bird is formed of bones which are homologous to those of
Mammalia, but are subject to modifications. The thigh-
bone is very short, and is so concealed within the body or
under the feathers that it is not apparent as a part of the
leg on a superficial view. The next division, often mis-












































































































































\
BIRDSALL–BIRDS OF PASSAGE.
495
taken for the thigh, is the tibia or proper leg-bone, which
is always the largest bone of the limb. The feet vary
according to the habits of the birds, some of which have
strong, hooked, and retractile claws fitted for seizing prey,
and others are adapted for swimming by a membrane which
unites their toes. -
The digestive apparatus is modified in accordance with
the nature of their food. A large majority of birds do not
masticate their food, which passes from the mouth into the
crop or craw, an enlargement of the gullet. The crop, or
first stomach, is large in birds that feed on grain and seeds,
and is wanting in those that eat fish. The second stomach,
or proventriculus, is largest in those birds in which the
crop is small or wanting. The third and principal stom-
ach is the gizzard, which is a powerful grinding apparatus,
especially in those birds which feed on grain and swallow
gravel and pebbles, as the common domestic fowl. Birds
sleep generally with the head under their wing, and some
prefer to stand on one foot while asleep. Others pass the
night on branches of trees, which without effort they clasp
with their claws, for the tendons of the muscles which close
the claws pass over the joints of the leg in such a manner
as to be stretched by the mere pressure when the weight
of the bird rests on the legs. The sense of sight in this
class is exceedingly keen, and is remarkable for its perfect
adaptation to near or distant objects. The swallow, when
darting through the air with a swiftness which has become
proverbial, is capable of accommodating its sight to the
insect which it pursues, even in the short time which is
occupied by its swoop at its victim. Some birds of prey
have an acute sense of smell, and nocturnal birds, such as
owls, have sensitive organs of hearing. Birds are distin-
guished among all dumb animals for their musical powers,
and song-birds are doubtless sensitive to sound and differ-
ences of pitch. All the best singing-birds belong to the
order Insessores.
Among the most interesting subjects connected with the
birds are their migrations and the vastly diversified in-
stincts and ingenuity which they exhibit in building nests.
The number of eggs in a state of nature varies from one to
twenty, and birds generally breed only once a year, which
is in spring. Many species of birds are gregarious, but
large rapacious birds are quite solitary in their mode of
life. They all moult—i. e. change their feathers once a
year—and the summer plumage of many birds is very dif-
ferent from the winter dress. The plumage of the males is
generally richer and more brilliant than that of the females.
Birds perform an important part in the economy of na-
ture. Their flesh and eggs are valuable as food for man,
and many species render him great service by checking the
increase of insects. “There are few objects,” says J. G.
Wood, “which will better repay investigation than the
young bird in its various stages of development. It is so
wonderful to see the manner in which a living creature is
gradually evolved from the apparently lifeless substances
that are contained within an egg. The being seems to
grow under our very gaze, and we arise from the wondrous
spectacle with an involuntary feeling that we have been
present at a veritable act of creation.” (For the classifica-
tion of birds, see ORNITHOLOGY.)
The earliest traces of the existence of birds on the globe
have been supposed to be the so-called birds’ tracks in the
triassic sandstones of the Connecticut Valley; but it is now
generally conceded that most if not all these tracks were
made by reptiles and amphibians. Feathers, supposed to
have belonged to birds, have been found in the Jurassic
rocks of England, and in the lithographic slates of Solen-
hofen (Jurassic) a nearly complete bird has been recently
discovered. This has been described by Prof. Owen, and
called Archaeopteryac. It exhibits some remarkable anat-
omical features, and is supposed to form a kind of connect-
ing link between birds and reptiles. (See ARCHAEOPTERYX.)
The remains of birds have been found in the greensand of
England, the eocene of the island of Sheppy, and the Paris
basin, as well as in the more recent tertiaries at various
European localities. In America fossil birds were un-
known until quite recently; they have now been found,
however, in the greensänd of New Jersey, the cretaceous
beds of Kansas, and the tertiary deposits of Wyoming and
Idaho. Nearly all these remains have been discovered by
Prof. O. C. Marsh, who has made them objects of special
search. The most important of Prof. Marsh's discoveries
in this branch of palaeontology is that of a bird with teeth
in the cretaceous beds at Fort Harker, Kan. In the super-
ficial deposits of New Zealand and Madagascar the remains
of several kinds of extinct birds have been met with, some
of which far exceed in dimensions the largest now living.
The great bird of Madagascar is called Æpiornis maximus.
It is supposed to have been at least twelve feet in height,
and very massive. The egg of this bird was over a foot in
length. The contents of one of these eggs were equal to
claws.
those of six ostrichs' eggs or 148 hens' eggs. The largest
extinct birds of New Zealand have been described under,
the name of Dinornis by Prof. Owen. They were from six
to ten feet in height; and one species, Dinormis elephan-
topus, had legs and feet nearly as massive as those of the
elephant. BEVISED BY J. S. NEWBERRY.
Bird’sail, a post-township of Allegany co., N. Y.
Pop. 755. - -
Birds/borough, a post-village of Berks co., Pa. It
has one weekly newspaper. -
Bird’s-Eye Limestone, a compact, dove-colored
stone, with whitish crystalline points, belonging to the
lower division of the Trenton group of the lower Silurian
strata of North America, apparently corresponding to the
Llandeilo flags. It contains many orthoceratites of enor-
mous size, and fossil brachiopods.
Bird’s-Eye View, a term used in the fine arts to
denote a picture or view arranged according to the laws of
perspective, in which the point of sight or situation of the
eye is placed at a considerable height above the object.
This is a convenient method of representing battles, or of
delineating a large city or a small tract of country. In
sketching a locality for military purposes this kind of per-
spective is used. A common kind of bird’s-eye view differs
from ordinary perspective only in that the horizontal line
is placed considerably above the picture.
Bird’s Foot (Ornith/opus), a genus of plants of the
order Leguminosae, sub-order Papilionaceae, derives its
name from the resemblance of the curved pods to birds’
One species, the Ornithopus sativus, an annual
plant, a native of Portugal, is cultivated in that country,
and affords a nutritious green fodder for cattle. Its Portu-
guese name is serradilla.
Bird’s Foot Trefoil (Lotus), a genus of plants of
the order Leguminosae, sub-order Papilionaceae, comprises
numerous species, natives of the temperate and cold regions
of the Old World. They are so called because a cluster
of their pods resembles a bird’s foot. The Lotus corniew-
latus is common in the pastures of Great Britain, and is
eaten with avidity by cattle. It bears yellow flowers, which
have a honey-like smell, and leaves which are trifoliate,
like those of clover. A larger species or variety, called
Lotus major, is also a native of England.
Birds? Nests, Edible, the nest of the sea-swallow
(Hirundo esculenta) of the Malay Archipelago, a bird of
the size of a common martin. It builds its nest of a glu-
tinous substance which it is said to derive from a sea-weed.
This weed is swallowed and partly digested, and then dis-
gorged and fashioned into a nest as large as a common
coffee-cup. When fresh these nests are of a waxy white
color, and are said to be worth twice their weight in silver
in the markets of China, where alone they are sold. The
poorer sorts bring $5 or more a pound, according to the
age of the nests. The taste of dishes prepared from these
nests is said to be insipid, but the Chinese prize them, not
perhaps so much for their taste as for their supposed tonic
and aphrodisiac powers.
Birds of Passage are birds which are migratory,
passing instinctively and habitually from one country or
latitude to another on account of the change of the season.
The migration of birds is generally from north to south, or
from south to north, in the temperate zones. They migrate
twice in a year, moving northward in the spring, and
southward in the autumn, directed by a sagacious instinct
to the regions in which their proper food is then most
abundant. Migratory birds which breed in the U. S. are
called summer birds of passage with reference to those
States. They return in autumn to the tropical regions,
and are winter birds of passage in the countries where they
ass the winter. Wild-geese and other waterfowl that
breed in the Arctic regions in Summer annually visit the
U. S. and Great Britain in autumn, and return northward
in the spring. Several other species that are not aquatic,
as the woodcock, fieldfare, and Snow-bird, pass the winter
in the temperate parts of Europe or the U. S., and spend
the summer in a more northern latitude. On the approach
of cold weather the swallows of Europe pass across the
Mediterranean into Africa. “Before the time of migra-
tion,” says Wood, “they may be seen assembled in great
numbers, chattering eagerly and appearing to be holding a
great parliament for the settlement of affairs before starting
on their long journey. They do not migrate in flocks, but
pass in little families of two or three in number across the
vast space that separates them from the end of their jour-
mey. Although such powerful and swift fliers, they become
fatigued in passing the sea, and will flock in great num-
bers to rest upon the rigging of some ship that may hap-
pen to pass their course. It is rather curious that the birds
almost invariably fly in a line directly north and south.”
496
BIREN–BISCHOFF.
Bi’ren, Biron, or Bu’ren (ERNEST JoHN), duke of
Courland, was born in 1687. He gained the favor of Anna
(a niece of Peter the Great), who became empress of Rus-
sia in 1730, and gave him the title of duke. He was a
powerful favorite during her reign, and abused his power
by the execution of many innocent persons. On the death
of Anna in 1740 he became regent, but he was exiled to
Siberia in 1741. When Elizabeth ascended the throne in
1741 she permitted him to return to Russia, and in 1763
the duchy of Courland was restored to him. Died Dec. 28,
1772. (See RUEHL, “Geschichte E. J. von Biron,” 2 vols.,
1764.)
Birkſenhead, a seaport-town of England, in Cheshire,
is on the left bank and near the mouth of the Mersey, op-
posite Liverpool, and 15 miles N. N. W. of Chester, with
which it is connected by railway. It is about 1% miles
S. W. of Liverpool, and is the residence of many merchants
who do business in that city. Steamers cross the river be-
tween these places once in fifteen minutes, or oftener.
Birkenhead was only a small fishing-village as recently as
1824, since which it has increased rapidly in consequence
of the construction of extensive docks and important pub-
lic works. It has wide streets, a fine public park, a college
called St. Aidan's (designed for the education of young
men for the Anglican ministry), and many handsome villas.
One of the docks occupies 120 acres. Pop. in 1871, 65,980.
'Bir/mingham, one of the greatest manufacturing
cities of England, is situated in the county of Warwick,
on the river Rea, 79 miles by rail S. E. of Liverpool, and
130 miles by rail N. W. of London.
eastern slope of three undulating hills, and has a gravelly
foundation. Its suburbs extend into Staffordshire and
Worcestershire. It returns three members to Parliament.
Birmingham is the chief town of Great Britain for the
manufacture of hardware and metallic products made of
gold, silver, brass, iron, steel, and mixed metal, including
firearms, swords, jewelry, buttons, tools, steel pens, locks,
steam-engines, and all sorts of machinery. The value of
the goods manufactured here in a year is estimated at more
than £4,500,000. Here are also extensive manufactures of
glass and papier-maché. Several railways extend from
this city to London, Liverpool, Manchester, etc. Birming-
ham contains about 100 churches; Queen’s College, con-
nected with the London University; a free public library;
a botanic garden; a Roman Catholic cathedral; and a
town-hall, which is a handsome edifice of the classic style,
with a very fine organ. A musical festival is held in this
hall once in three years. In the vicinity of Birmingham
are the famous Soho and Smethwick Works, founded by
Watt and Boulton, who there manufactured their first steam-
engines. Among the charitable institutions are an asylum
for the deaf and dumb, and an asylum for the blind. Pop.
in 1871, 343,676.
Birmingham, a new city in Jefferson co., Ala., at the
crossing of the South and North Alabama and Alabama
and Chattanooga, R. Rs. Other railroads are being con-
structed to the same point. This will doubtless soon be a
great railroad centre. It already (1873) claims several
thousand inhabitants. Exterisive beds of coal and iron
ore lie in its vicinity, and contribute essentially to the pros-
perity of the place. It has one national bank and one
weekly newspaper. .
Birmingham, a manufacturing borough of New Ha-
ven co., Conn., on the Housatonic River, at the mouth of
the Naugatuck, 9 miles W. of New Haven. A bridge across
the Naugatuck connects it with the village of Old Derby,
which is on the Naugatuck R. R. A new railroad, the
Derby and New Haven, connects it with New Haven. It
has one national bank, several rolling-mills, manufactures
of augers, chains, pins, and carriage-axles and springs, and
one newspaper. Steamboats ply daily between this place
and New York. Here is the first pin-factory established
in the U. S. Pop. 2103, or, including Derby Narrows, 3364.
- ED. “I) ERBY TRANSCRIPT.”
Birmingham, a post-twp. of Schuyler co., Ill. P. 1253.
Birmingham, a post-village of Union township, Van
Buren co., Ia. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 626.
Birmingham, a post-village of Marshall co., Ky. Pop.
322.
Birmingham, a former borough of Alleghany co.,
Pa., on the left (W.) bank of the Monongahela River,
1 mile S. of Pittsburg, with which it is connected by
a bridge 1500 feet long. It derives its prosperity chiefly
from manufactures of glass and iron, and has a national
bank. The name of its post-office is Buchanan. Pop.
8603. In 1872 it was united to Pittsburg.
Birmingham, a township of Chester co., Pa. Pop. 450.
Birmingham, a township of Delaware co., Pa. P. 765.
It is built on the .
Birmingham, a post-borough of Huntingdon co., Pa.,
77 miles N. W. of Harrisburg. Pop. 263.
Birmingham Falús, a village of Au Sable township,
Clinton co., and Chesterfield township, Essex co., N. Y., at
the head of the rapids of the Au Sable River, has a paper-
mill, two starch-factories, etc.
Bir/nam, a hill of Scotland, in Perthshire, 12 miles
N. W. of Perth, is 1580 feet high, and commands a fine view
of the valley of the Tay. It was formerly covered by part
of a royal forest, to which Shakspeare has given celebrity
in his tragedy of “Macbeth.”
Bir’ mey (DAVID BELL), an American general, born at
Huntsville, Ala., May 29, 1825, practised law in Philadel-
phia. He became a brigadier-general of Union volunteers
in 1861, and as such served at Fredericksburg, Dec., 1862.
He was raised to the rank of major-general, and commanded
a division at Gettysburg in July, 1863, and in several bat-
tles in Virginia in 1864. Died Oct. 18, 1864. -
Birney (JAMEs G.), a distinguished opponent of slavery,
the father of the preceding, was born at Danville, Ky., Feb.
4, 1792, graduated at Princeton in 1812, and became a law-
yer. He was the owner of about twenty slaves, whom he
liberated, and he founded at Cincinnati an anti-slavery
paper called “The Philanthropist.” His office was soon
attacked by a mob, which threw his press into the river.
Having become secretary of the American Anti-Slavery
Society, he removed to New York City about 1836. He was
nominated in 1840 for the presidency of the U. S. by the
Liberty party, which also supported him in the election of
1844. Died Nov. 24, 1857.
Biron, de (CHARLES DE GONTAUT), DUKE, a French
general, born in 1562, was a son of Armand (died 1592).
IHe served with distinction at Ivry, 1590, became a favorite
of Henry IV., marshal of France in 1595, and was ap-
pointed governor of Burgundy. He was ambitious, and
was convicted of forming a treasonable plot with the duke
of Savoy, for which he was put to death July 31, 1602.
(See DE THou, “Historia sui Temporis;” MARTIR-RIzo,
“Historia de la Vida del Duque de Biron,” 1629.)
Bisa/ccia (anc. Romulea), a town of Italy, in the prov-
ince of Avellino, on a hill 32 miles E. N. E. of Avellino.
Here is a much-frequented sulphur spring. Pop. 4977.
Bisaqui'no, Busaqui'no, or Busacchi'no, a
town of Sicily, in Palermo, 30 miles S. S. E. of Palermo, has
an extensive trade in grain and oil. Pop. 8585.
Bis/cay, or Bisca’ya [Sp. Vizca'ya], one of the four
Basque provinces of Spain, is bounded on the N. by the
Bay of Biscay, on the E. by Guipúzcoa, on the S. by Alava,
and on the W. by Santander. Area, 834 square miles.
It consists partly of mountains and partly of level plains.
The chief products are wine, fruit, walnuts, chestnuts, figs,
and grain. Capital, Bilbao. Pop. 778,229.
Biscay, Bay of [Fr. Golfe de Gascogne : anc. Gal'li-
cus Oce/anus, or Aquitan'icus Si’mus], a portion of the At-
lantic Ocean bordering on France and Spain, extends from
the French island of Ushant to Cape Ortegal. The depth,
which is greatest near the coast of Spain, varies from 20 to
200 fathoms. The southern or Spanish coast is bold and
rocky, but the E. coast, from the Adour to the mouth of the
Gironde, is low and sandy. The largest rivers that flow
into this bay are the Loire and the Gironde. The principal
ports on it are Nantes, Bordeaux, Bayonne, La Rochelle,
and Rochefort in France, and Bilbao and Santander in
Spain. Violent currents and winds render the navigation
of this bay difficult.
Biscayne, formerly Miam’i, a post-village, capital
of Dade co., Fla., on Biscayne Bay. It is celebrated for
its healthfulness and delightful climate. It has been pro-
posed to establish here a tropical botanic garden. On Key
Biscayne there is a lighthouse with a fixed white light 100
feet above the sea; lat. 25° 39' 51" N., lon. 80° 09' 24" W.
It has importänt sponge-fisheries.
Bisce/glia [Lat. Vigilise], or Bise'glie, a fortified
seaport-town of Italy, in Bari, on the -Adriatic, 25 miles
W. N. W. of Bari. It has a cathedral, a college, and sev-
eral churches and convents. Excellent currants and olives
are raised in the vicinity. It is connected by rail with
Foggia and all the points along the coast S. of Barletta to
Brindisi. Pop. in 1872, 21,371.
Bisch’of (KARI, GUSTAv), a German chemist, born at
Wörd, near Nuremberg, Jan. 18, 1792. He became pro-
fessor of chemistry at Bonn in 1822. His chief work is
a “Manual of Chemical and Physical Geology” (2 vols.,
I847–54; 2d ed., Bonn, 1863–66). Died Nov. 30, 1870.
Bischoff (THEODoR LUDWIG WILHELM), a German phys-
iologist and anatomist, born at Hanover Oct. 28, 1807. He
became professor of anatomy at Heidelberg in 1836, at
Giessen in 1843, and obtained a chair at Munich in 1854.
He gained distinction by his researches in embryology, on
which he wrote several treatises.
Bisch'weiler, a town of Alsace, on the river Moder,
14 miles by rail E. N. E. of Strasburg. It has manufac-
tures of linens, coarse woollen, cloths, gloves, and earthen-
ware. It is the centre of the hop-trade in Lower Alsace.
Near it is a rich mine of iron. It was formerly fortified.
Pop. in 1871, 9231.
Bis/cuit [Fr. bis, “twice,” and cuit, passive part., from
cuire, to “cook” or “bake”], a hard kind of unfermented
bread formed into small cakes or flat pieces, and sometimes
called ship-bread or sea-biscuit. It is composed of wheat
flour, water, and salt, and is rendered hard and dry by
baking, in order that it may be preserved for a long time.
Biscuits are exposed to the heat of an oven for about twelve
minutes, and afterwards dried in a warm room for two or
three days. “Captain's biscuit” is prepared with butter,
in addition to the ingredients mentioned above, and some-
times contains milk. Water or hard biscuits are made of
flour, water, with variable quantities of butter, eggs, and
sugar. Soft biscuits contain increased proportions of but-
ter and sugar. Several varieties of fermented biscuits are
manufactured. Meat biscuit consists of wheat flour, com-
bined with the essential or soluble part of beef, so that the
nutritive qualities of the meat may be preserved for a long
time. To prepare this biscuit large pieces of beef, with
water sufficient to cover them, are subjected to slow ebulli-
tion. The fat is skimmed off, the liquor is reduced by
evaporation to the consistency of syrup, and is then mixed
with wheat flour, rolled out to the thickness of ordinary
ship-biscuit, and cut, baked, and dried in the same manner
as common biscuits. One pound of meat biscuit contains
about one half pound of flour and the soluble part of five
pounds of meat. It is used in the form of soup, which is
made by boiling the biscuit in twenty times its weight of
water for half an hour. (See PEMMICAN.) &
BISCUIT, in pottery, is applied to porcelain and earthen-
ware after it has been hardened in the fire, and before it has
received the glaze. In this state it is porous and perme-
able to water. Biscuit in sculpture is a species of porce-
lain, of which groups and figures in miniature are formed,
which are twice passed through the furnace or oven.
Bish'areen’, a name given to several nomadic tribes
who live in the desert between the Red Sea, and the valley
of the Nile. Their most valuable possessions are camels,
horses, sheep, and goats. They have no firearms, but are
armed with bows and arrows, and are addicted to robbery.
They profess the Mohammedan religion. One tribe of
Bishareen is the largest Arab tribe of Nubia. Like all the
Arabs of Upper Egypt, they pay taxes to the khedive.
Bish’op [Gr. 3riorkomos (i. e. “overseer"); Lat. epis'-
copus; Fr. Évêque; Ger. Bish/of; Dutch, bis(cop], the name
applied to an ecclesiastic of the highest rank in the Chris-
tian Church—all archbishops, patriarchs, and the pope him-
self belonging to the order of bishops. In many Protestant
denominations the order of bishops is held to be identical
with that of presbyters or elders; and in such sects these :
names are used in preference to that of bishop. Other
churches claim for their bishops, by direct succession, an
authority derived from the twelve apostles. The principal
churches recognizing the superior rank of bishops are the
Greek, the Roman Catholic, the Armenian, Coptic, Abys-
sinian, Nestorian, and Jacobite, the various parts of the
Anglican, the Moravian, the Mormon, the Catholic Apos-
tolic (Irvingite), and a part of the Lutheran churches. The
Methodist Episcopal churches and some others give their
bishops a superiority of office, but not of order. In the
Roman Catholic and Anglican churches bishops have the
title of “right reverend.” In the former, bishops are of
six classes: 1st, the pope; 2d, patriarchs; 3d, primates,
who are archbishops of the principal sees of some countries;
4th, metropolitans, who are bishops of the large cities, and
have a certain authority over smaller sees; 5th, simple
bishops; 6th, inferior bishops, as episcopi vacui, bishops
without cures; bishops in partibus infidelivm, who are titu-
lar bishops, either without office or coadjutors to diocesan
bishops. The assistants of metropolitans are called suffra-
gans, but the bishops under a metropolitan are also termed
his suffragans. The insignia of bishops in the Greek and
Roman Catholic churches are the ring, staff, mitre, gloves,
pallium (now worn only by superior bishops), and pectoral.
In Great Britain and its dependencies bishops are called
lord bishops; and all English bishops, except the bishop of
Sodor and Man, and the junior bishop in England proper,
have votes in the House of Lords. (See WICAR APOSTOLIC.)
Bishop, a township of Effingham co., Ill. Pop. 564.
Bishop (ANNA), born in London in 1814, was the
daughter of Mr. Rivière, an artist. In 1831 she married
Sir H. R. Bishop. Her début was made in 1837. She has
- 32 •
BISCHWEILER—BISMARCK-SCHôNHAUSEN, VON.
497
won the highest distinction as a singer, both in classical
music and modern opera. Her second husband is Mr. M.
Schultz of New York, whom she married in 1858.
Bishop (Sir HENRY Rowl. EY), MUs. DR., an eminent
English composer of music, born in London in 1780. He
produced numerous popular operas, which are commended
for their long flowing melodies and animated style. Among
them are “Guy Mannering,” “Maid Marian,” “Native
Land,” and “The Virgin of the Sun.” His glees are very
fine. He was knighted in 1842, and was appointed profes-
sor of music in the University of Oxford in 1848. Died
April 30, 1855. His second wife was Anna Bishop, noticed
above.
Bishop Creek, a township of Inyo co., Cal. Pop. 624.
Bish/op’s Auck’land, an English market-town,
county of Durham, 10 miles S. W. of Durham. It is well
built and growing. The fine large castle of the bishop of
Durham is here. Pop. 6480.
Bish/op’s Stort/ford, a town of England, in Hert-
fordshire, on the river Stort, 32 miles by rail N. N. E. of
London. It is also connected by rail with Cambridge and
Colchester. It has a corn and malt trade. In Saxon times
it was owned by the bishop of London. Pop. 5280.
Bish’opville, a post-township of Sumter co., S. C.
Pop. 1701.
Bis' marck-Schön'hau’sen, von (KARL OTTO),
PRINCE, a celebrated Prussian statesman, born at Schön-
hausen on the 1st of April, 1815. He was educated at the
universities of Göttingen and Berlin. After he had studied
law, he resided for some years on his paternal estate in
Pomerania, and married Johanna von Putkammer in 1847.
He was chosen the same year a member of the united Diet
or parliament, in which he distinguished himself as a
Junker and an advocate of ultra-royalist principles. In
1851 he began his diplomatic career as Prussian secretary
of legation at the Federal Diet in Frankfort. Here he
manifested his hostility to Austria, and his determination
to aggrandize the Prussian monarchy. He was sent to
Vienna in 1852. In 1857 he had a conference with Napo-
leon III. in Paris. He was sent as ambassador to St.
Petersburg in 1859. In a letter dated St. Petersburg, May
12, 1859, he says: “I see in our position in the Diet a de-
fect of Prussia, which we shall have sooner or later to heal
ferro et igni” (with iron and fire). He had acquired the
confidence of the king, who sent him early in 1862 on a
mission to Paris, and in the autumn of that year he was
appointed minister of foreign affairs and prime minister.
His reactionary policy being resisted with success by the
liberals, he closed or dissolved the chamber in Oct., 1862,
and announced that he would enforce his measures without
the sanction of the deputies. He rendered himself very
unpopular, especially with the party of progress and the
friends of constitutional government. Austria and Prussia
co-operated in the spoliation of Denmark and the conquest
of Sleswick and Holstein in 1864.
The rivalry of Austria and Prussia was for a long time
a great obstacle to the reunion or reconstruction of Ger-
many as a nation. Bismarck adopted the axiom that Aus-
tria must be excluded from the German federation, and that
a new union of German states must be formed under the
leadership of Prussia. Both of these rivals prepared for
war, and as Austria was supported by a majority of the
Federal Diet, Prussia seceded from the confederation and
appealed to arms in June, 1866. The Prussian armies, as-
suming the offensive, marched rapidly into Bohemia, and
defeated the Austrians at the decisive battle of Sadowa,
July 3, 1866. The war was ended by a treaty signed in
August of that year, by which Austria was excluded from
the German federation. Among the results of this victory
was the annexation of Hanover, Electoral Hesse, Holstein,
and other states to Prussia, and the formation of the North
German Confederation, including all the states N. of the
river Maine. Bismarck negotiated in 1866 -secret treaties
of alliance with Bavaria, Baden; and Würtemberg, which
powers agreed that the king of Prussia should command
their armies in time of war. The great and sudden increase
in the power of Prussia which followed the victory at Sa-
dowa is ascribed chiefly to the energy and diplomatic genius
of Bismarck, who was appointed chancellor of the North
German Confederation in 1867.
The prestige of Napoleon was much impaired by the
great step which had been made in 1866 towards the unity
of Germany, and the rise of a new military power so alarm-
ing to the French. It is generally admitted that Napoleon
III. was not an equal match for Bismarck in the diplomatic
intrigues and contests that ensued after the war of 1866.
The ºf Edinburgh Review” (Oct., 1869) has the following
estimate of Bismarck: “We cannot consider him a really
great statesman, though he has certainly gifts of the high-
498
BISMARK–BISTRITZ.
est order. He is a first-rate diplomatist and negotiator.
No man can captivate more adroitly those he wants to win;
nobody knows better to strike at the right moment, or to
wait when the tide is running in his favor. His personal
courage is great, physically as well as morally; he shrinks
from nothing conducive to his end. He is not naturally
eloquent, but his speeches are generally impressive and full
of terse argument. He is a capital companion in society—
witty, genial, sparkling in his conversation. . . . But by
the side of these virtues the darker shades are not wanting.
He can tell the very reverse of the truth with an amazing
coolness; still oftener will he tell the plaim truth when he
knows he will not be believed.”
In July, 1870, Napoleon declared war against Prussia,
which was ready for the contest after a few days’ notice,
and was aided by all the German states except those of
Austria. Bismarck accompanied the German army which
invaded France, and which gained a series of decisive vic-
tories. He was present at the capture of Napoleon at Se-
dam, and followed King William to the siege of Paris. At
an interview with Jules Favre, the French minister of for-
eign affairs, who made overtures of peace in September,
Bismarck demanded the cession of Alsace and part of Lor-
raine. He spoke contemptuously of the ministers of the
new régime as “the gentlemen of the pavement.” After
the surrender of Paris in Feb., 1871, he negotiated the
treaty of peace by which France ceded to the victors Alsace
and a part of Lorraine, including the important fortress
of Metz, and agreed to pay in money an indemnity of five
milliards of francs, equal to $1,000,000,000. The definitive
treaty was signed at Frankfort in May. Bismarck received
the title of prince and became chancellor of the new empire
in 1871. In 1873 he resigned his position as prime min-
ister of Prussia. By his recent course in opposition to the
ultramontaine and conservative party he has gained great
popularity with the liberals. (See “Graf Bismarck, ein
Lebensbild,” 1867; BAMBERGER, “Herr von Bismarck,”
1868, also in French and English ; “Fürst Bismarck,” in
vol. vii., part 1, 1871, of “Unsere Zeit.”)
REVISED BY A. J. SCHEM.
Bis' mark, a post-village of St. François co., Mo., on
the St. Louis and Iron Mountain R. R., 76 miles S. of St.
Louis. A branch railroad extends from this point 11 miles
to Pilot Knob and to Piermont, 40 miles beyond.
Bis'muth (symbol Bi; specific gravity about 9.8;
equivalent 208), a brittle metal of a crystalline texture
and of a yellowish-white color, occurs native in Germany,
Trance, Cornwall, California, Texas, and Sweden. It is
also found in combination with oxygen, sulphur, and arse-
nic. Rich deposits of bismuth ore have recently been found
in Utah. It fuses at about 500°F. When strongly heated
it burns with a bluish-white flame, and is rapidly oxidized.
This metal is not often used in the arts in a pure state,
but its alloys are of considerable importance. Some of
them are extremely fusible. A compound of eight parts
of bismuth, five of lead, and three of tin melts in boiling
water, and is called fusible metal. Other alloys are even
more fusible. Bismuth is an ingredient of some kinds
of stereotype metal. The most important of several
compounds it forms with oxygen is the tri-oxide (Big03),
which is employed in the manufacture of porcelain
as an agent for fixing the gilding and for increasing the
fusibility of fluxes. The sub-nitrate is a tasteless, heavy
powder of pure white color, called pearl white, pearl pow-
der, blanc de fard, etc. This is used as a cosmetic. As a
medicine it acts as a tonic and antispasmodic. Other
medicinal preparations are the sub-carbonate, the sub-
oxide, the citrate, the tannate, and the valerianate.
Bis'muthine, a tri-sulphide of bismuth, is composed
of 81.6 per cent. of bismuth and 18.4 of sulphur. It occurs
in lodes and beds in the older rocks with ores of arsenic,
copper, iron, and lead, either crystallized in acicular prisms
or massive with a foliated structure. It is a rare mineral.
Bi’son, a genus of animals of the order Ruminantia and
family Bovidae, nearly al-
lied to the ox, natives of
Europe and North Amer-
ica. The bisons have
short horns, which are
curved inward at the esº . . ."
point. They are distin- ºt ===
guished from the ox by # #.
an additional pair of ribs #; sº
(having fourteen pairs), is º: º
and by long woolly or §
shaggy hair, which covers
the neck and shoulders of
the males. At least three
species of fossil bison have been discovered. (For the
European bison, see AUROCHS.) The American bison (Bi-
#
º
-----
son Americanus) is known in the U. S. by the incorrect
name of buffalo. This is the only species of the ox family
indigenous to America, except the musk ox. It is similar
to the European bison, but the fore parts are more shaggy,
and it is a powerful and ferocious-looking animal, which
no American beast can overcome or resist except the grizzly
bear. The color of its hair is mostly brown. Vast herds of
bisons roam over the plains and prairies between the Mis-
sissippi River and the Rocky Mountains, feeding on grass
and brushwood. They are generally inoffensive, and will
not attack men, but prefer to run rather than to fight.
During their migration they move in enormous herds,
which are innumerable and irresistible. Great numbers
of them are killed by Indians, who pursue them on horse-
back and subsist on their flesh. Their hides are also valu-
able, and under the name of buffalo robes are an important
article of commerce. The flesh of the cows is highly es-
teemed, and is similar to beef, being very juicy and savory.
The bisons are swift in running, and have so keen a sense
of Smell that the hunter cannot easily approach near
enough to shoot them. The Indians sometimes circumvent
them by setting fire to the prairie grass on several sides,
and thus driving them in confusion towards a central po-
sition. They also drive them over precipices in large
herds, the momentum of which is such that the leaders
cannot stop or retreat, being forced forward by the mass
behind them. The chase of bisons is attended with some
danger, as they sometimes turn upon an assailant, who is
liable to be trampled under the feet of the herd. Numerous
tribes of aborigines are mainly dependent on the bison for
their food and clothing. Their skins, which are covered
with soft hair or fur, are much used for blankets, and their
flesh and fat are converted into pemmican, the favorite food
of the fur-hunters and voyageurs of North America. The
bison differs from the true buffaloes in having a hump upon
the back, and in the absence of the dewlap, which is small
in the buffaloes. The buffaloes have cavities in their horns
communicating with the nasal passages—the bison has not;
the horns turn outward in the true buffaloes, and inward
in the bisons. (See BUFFAL0.)
- - REVISED BY C. W. GREENE.
Bissa'gos, or Bijoo'ja Islands, a group of numer-
ous small volcanic islands in the Atlantic, near the W.
coast of Africa, between lat. 10° and 12° N., and between
lon. 15° and 17° W. They have several good ports. Some
of them are densely peopled with a savage negro race who
cultivate maize, bananas, etc., and raise cattle. Pissão,
an island of the above group, is a settlement of Portuguese,
who formerly traded in slaves, and who export hides, wax,
and rice; it has about 8000 inhabitants.
Bis'sell (WILLIAM H.), M. D., born in Cooperstown,
N. Y., April 1, 1811, removed to Illinois in 1837. He-
practised law for several years, served as a colonel in the
Mexican war (1846–47), and was elected a member of Con-
gress by the Democrats in 1848, and served six years. In
1856 he was chosen governor of Illinois by the Republi-
cans. Died Mar. 18, 1860.
Bissex'tile [Lat. bisseactilis, from bis, “twice,” and
sea:tilis, “sixth *), called in English Heap-Year, a name
given to the year which contains 366 days. In the Julian
calendar the length of the year was fixed at 365+ days,
about 11 minutes more than the actual length. In order
that the year should always begin with the beginning of a
day, it was directed that every fourth year should contain
366 days, and the other years 365. The additional day
was given to February, and was inserted next after the
24th, which the Romans called Seacto Kalendas Martii.
This was reckoned twice, and the repeated day was Bis
Seacto Kalendas hence the name bisseactile. .
Bistineau, bis/te-nó', a lake in the N.W. part of Louis-
iana, forms the boundary between Bienville and Bossier
parishes. It is about 25 miles long, and has a mean width
of nearly 2 miles. Its water is discharged through a short
outlet into Red River. It is navigable by steamboats.
Bis/tort (Polygonum Bistorta), a perennial herbaceous
plant of the order Polygonaceae, is a native of Europe and
Asia. It bears flowers in a dense terminal spike. The
whole plant is astringent, containing much tannin. The
tortuous root is one of the most powerful vegetable as-
tringents, and is used both internally and externally.
Bis/tre, or Bis/ter, a pigment of a warm brown color
or reddish brown, used by painters in water-colors. It is
prepared from the soot of wood, especially the beech.
Bistric/za, a town of Austria, in Croatia, 14 miles N. .
E. of Agram. Pop. in 1869, 6117. /
Bis/tritz, a fortified town of Transylvania, is situated
in a beautiful valley on the Bistritz River, 52 miles N. E.
of Klausenburg. It has two monasteries, a gymnasium,
and several large cattle-fairs every year. Near it are the



BIT-BITUMEN.
499
ruins of an ancient castle, the former residence of the
family of Huniades. Pop. in 1869, 7212.
Bit, in ships, is a frame composed of two short but
strong vertical timbers fixed upon the deck in the fore part
of the vessel. Its main, purpose is for fastening the cable
when the ship rides at anchor, and for “leading” the prim-
cipal ropes of the rigging. To “bit the cable” is to fasten
it round the bit. Various kinds are called “riding-bits,”
“paul-bits,” “jeer-bits,” “topsail-sheet-bits,” etc. To re-
sist strains, the bits are strongly bolted to the beams that
support the deck.
Bitsch [Fr. Bitche; Lat. Bicina], a small fortified town
of Lorraine, in a pass of the Vosges, about 36 miles N. N.
W. of Strasburg and 64 miles E. of Metz. Here is a cit-
a.del on a steep isolated rock that is nearly impregnable. It
was in the French department of Moselle until 1870, when
possession was taken of it by the Germans at the general
cession of the country; for, in spite of a long siege and
bombardment, it was not surrendered. Pop. in 1866, 2740.
Bit”hoor', or Bittoor, a town of India, in the North-
western Provinces, and on the right bank of the Ganges,
about 12 miles N. W. of Cawnpore. It has numerous pago-
das, and is visited by multitudes of pilgrims. During the
mutiny of 1857 it was a stronghold of Nana Sahib, and was
taken by Gen. Havelock in Aug., 1857. Pop. about 8000.
Bithyn'ia, an ancient country of Asia Minor, was
bounded on the N. by the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea), on
the E. by Paphlagonia, on the S. by Galatia, and Phrygia,
and on the W. by the Propontis (Sea of Mármora), which
separated it from Europe. The chief towns were Nicomedia,
Chalcedon, Nicaea, Prusa, and Heraclea. Bithynia was
annexed to the Persian empire in 543 B.C., and afterwards
became an independent kingdom. Nicomedes I. began to
reign over it in 278 B.C., and died in 246. Prusias II.
was king of Bithynia in the time of Hannibal, who sought
refuge at his court. In 74 B.C., Bithynia became a prov-
ince of the Roman empire. Nicomedia was for a long
time the capital of the kingdom. In 1298 the Turks con-
quered the country, and in 1328 made Prusa, the capital
of their whole empire.
Bit/lis, Betlis, or Bedlis, a town of Asiatic Turkey,
60 miles W. S. W. of Wan. It is built in a wide ravine
between limestone ridges or hills which rise about 2000
feet higher than the town. It contains three mosques,
several convents, and an ancient castle, and has manufac-
tures of firearms, and cotton cloths of a bright-red dye.
Pop. from 10,000 to 12,000, of which about one-third are
Armenians. The Persians defeated the army of Solyman
the Magnificent near Bitlis in 1554.
Biton/to (anc. Butuntum or Bituntum), a town of Italy,
in the province of Bari, 11 miles W. of Bari. It is well
built, and has a fine cathedral and several monasteries.
Good wine is made in the vicinity. The Spaniards gained
a decisive victory over the Austrians here May 25, 1734.
Pop. in 1872, 24,978. -
Bitter Almond Oil. See ALMONDs, OIL OF.
Bitter Creek, a station on the Union Pacific R. R.,
in Sweetwater co., Wy., 785 miles W. of Omaha. The
railroad company has repair-shops at this point. Remark-
ably imposing scenery abounds in the neighborhood. P. 48.
Bitterfeld, a town of Prussia, in the province of
Saxony, on the Mulde River, 20 miles by rail N. of Leipsic.
It is on the railway from Berlin to Leipsic, with branches
to Halle and other places. It has important manufactures
of cloth, iron, machines, etc. Pop. in 1870, 4972.
Bitter King (Sowlaurea amara), a shrub or small tree
of the order Polygalaceae, derives its name from its intense
bitterness. It is a native of the East Indian Islands, has
large oval leaves and axillary racemes of regular flowers.
It is used as a remedy for fevers and other diseases.
Bitſtern (Ardea or Botaurus), a bird of the order Gral-
latores or waders, is regarded
by some naturalists as a spe-
cies of heron (Ardea). It has
a long, straight, and sharp
bill, long legs, and a long
neck. The neck is furnished
with a loose plumage or
fringe of feathers which it can
erect at pleasure. This hand-
some bird frequents marshy
fens and reedy shores of rivers š
and lakes, where it lies hid º
during the day, and feeds by # ; W
night on frogs, fish, etc. The *.
Ardea stellaris (common bit- º
term of England) is widely dif-
fused in Europe, Asia, and -
Africa. It utters a peculiar hollow and booming sound,
tº
glº-
§§ -
&
º
Bittern.
which is noticed in Goldsmith’s line, “The hollow-sound-
ing bittern guards its nest.” When assailed it defends
itself bravely with its sharp bill, which is about four inches
long. In the U.S. are found two bitterms similar in habits
to the Ardea stellaris—viz. Botaurus minor (“bittern” or
“bog bull”) and Ardea eacilis (“least bittern”).
Bittern, the mother-liquid remaining after the removal
of common salt from brines which have been partially evapo-
rated. The bitter taste is due to the magnesium salts pres-
ent. Sea-water and many salt-wells yield a bittern which
is valuable in the production of Epsom salts (sulphate of
magnesia), and especially of bromine.
Bitter Principle, a term applied to a great variety
of bitter substances of vegetable origin, most of which are
alkaloids or glucosides. Welter applies this name to car-
bazotic or picric acid, a crystallizable bitter substance
composed of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, obtained by
the action of nitric acid on indigo, etc.
Bitter Root River of Montana Territory rises in the
Rocky Mountains, flows northward, and enters Clark’s
River in Missoula, co. Length, estimated at 110 miles.
Gold is found near it.
Bit/ters, the name applied to certain medicines, simple
or compound, chiefly of vegetable origin, characterized by
a bitter taste, and for the most part having tonic virtues.
The simple bitter medicines are aromatic, if they have a
fragrant odor; pure, if bitterness is their principal charac-
teristic to the taste; and styptic, if they have an astringent
effect upon the tongue. “Bitters,” as popularly used, are
generally compounds of dilute alcohol with various bitter
drugs, as aloes if a cathartic effect be desired; if a tonic
effect is sought, the bitters used are calisaya bark, gentian,
quassia, columbo, and others. An aromatic is often added.
Bitter Spar, a name given to an easily cleavable va-
riety of Dolomit E (which see). It usually occurs in obtuse
rhombohedrons, and consists of about 55 per cent. of car-
bonate of lime and 45 of carbonate of magnesia. Fine
transparent crystals of it are found at Gap in France and
Traversella, in Piedmont.
Bitter-Sweet, or Woody Nightshade (Solanum
Dulcamara), a perennial plant with a shrubby stem, nearly
allied to the potato, is a native of Europe and Asia, and is
maturalized in the U. S. It has ovate, heart-shaped leaves,
the upper ones halberd-shaped or with two ear-like lobes
at the base, and purple flowers. The fruit is a poisonous
red berry. The stems or twigs gathered in autumn are
sometimes used in medicine in chorea and some cutaneous
disorders.
The name bitter-sweet is frequently given in this country
to a climbing woody vine, the Celastrus scandens, of the
natural order Celastraceae, which grows wild in the North-
ern and Atlantic States. This vine is also called Wax-work
and staff tree. It has been used in medicine, and is pop-
ularly believed to have great virtues as an alterative.
Bitter Wood, a name given to several trees and shrubs
of the genus Xylopia and the order Amonaceae, natives of
Brazil and the West Indies. They are remarkable for the
bitterness of their wood. The fruit of Xylopia sericea is
aromatic and pungent like pepper. The term is also ap-
plied to the Piorena excelsa and Quassia excelsa, the wood
of which is used in medicine as a tonic. (See QUASSIA.)
Bitu/men [perhaps from the Gr. Tírvs, a “pitch-pine
tree”]. This term applies to those mineral substances,
both solid and liquid, of an oily or resinous nature, com-
posed principally of hydrogen and carbon, sometimes
united with oxygen, for which the general formula is
n(C-HV) + m (CalPſy'O'). In general terms, therefore, the
bitumens are mixtures in Sundry proportions of many sim-
ple carbonated hydrogens, accompanied in the solid, and
viscous varieties by many oxygenated carburets of hy-
drogen. *
In general, the whole series of bitumens arrange them-
selves between two extremes, represented by pit-coal and
naphtha as types, as follows : -
Pit-coal. Naphtha.'
Carbon..................... 89.31 Carbon.............. 88.20
Hydrogen................ 4.92 Hydrogen......... 11.80
Oxygen and azote..... 5.77 100.00
100.00
Bitumen is employed as the binding substance in a va-
riety of bitumiñous mastics and cements, which, though
principally used as a surface-coating for timber to protect
it from decay, and for roofs, arches, walls, area. and cellar
floors, etc., to render them watertight, is also quite often
employed in masonry constructions, both as a matrix for
concrete and as a cement between bricks and stone, instead
of lime and calcareous cements. It is also used extensively
for street and other pavements, and in some of its forms
for fuel and for making illuminating gas and varnish.





500
A knowledge of bitumen dates back to a remote period, .
but its extensive and varied application in the builder’s art
is of quite recent origin. It is found in numerous localities
and in a variety of forms, principally in the secondary, terti-
ary, and alluvial formations, seldom in the primitive or older
strata. The several varieties pass into each other, from
naphtha, the most fluid, to petroleum and mineral tar, which
are less So, thence to maltha, which is more or less cohesive,
to asphaltum and elastic bitumen, which are solid. They
are insoluble in water or alcohol, but combine with the
fixed and essential oils. They are most commonly soluble
in ether, and generally the more solid varieties are soluble,
to a greater or less extent, in those that are more fluid.
Naphtha is a carburet of hydrogen (H5C6), is fluid and
transparent, exhales a strong odor, burns on the approach
of a lighted taper, and will unite with pure ammonia and
the fluid caustic alkalies. The principal use of naphtha
as an ingredient of cements and mastics is its power of dis-
solving the more solid bitumens. It also possesses the
remarkable property of dissolving india-rubber, which
gelatinizes when digested in it with gentle heat, and in
this pulpy state is used to render fabrics waterproof.
Naphtha is found near Baku, on the western shore of the
Caspian Sea, and various parts of Persia; also at Monte
Cain, near Piacenza in Italy, and near Amiano in the
duchy of Parma. It is also found in Calabria, in Sicily,
and in America. . -
Petroleum is less limpid than naphtha, is unctuous to
the touch, blackish or brownish in color, more or less trans-
lucid, has a strong odor and a pungent, acrid taste, and is
very inflammable, though less so than naphtha. When
Warm it is as fluid as common tar, but at the freezing-point
of water it becomes very viscid. It is much more abundant
than naphtha, being found in the secondary rocks, particu-
larly in the coal-strata and in the vicinity of beds of coal.
It rises in a spring on the base of Mount Vesuvius, and is
found in a stream at Gobian, France. At Beckelbronn in
Alsace it is found mixed with about 10 per cent. of sand,
from which it is extracted by boiling in water. It is
viscous, of a brown color, and is much used as a lubricator
for machinery and carriage axles. At Amiano, Italy, it is
extracted from a compact, greenish clay, and near Modena
it is found on the surface of certain springs. In Transyl-
Vania it occurs in most of the salt-mines. The most re-
markable and abundant sources of petroleum are found in
the U. S., in the vicinity of the coal-beds of Pennsylvania,
West Virginia, Ohio, and Kentucky, where it is procured
by means of artesian wells, and gives employment to im-
mense capital. The aggregate yield of the oil-wells of
Pennsylvania, alone has reached as high as 18,000 barrels
per day. -
Petroleum is a more or less perfect solvent of the more
Solid bitumens, and when rectified will dissolve india-rub-
ber; and it is in this way that it is useful for cements and
'mastics. . The residuum of refined petroleum will dissolve
solid asphaltum.
The viscous bitumens generally, when submitted to dis-
tillation, yield a more or less pale-yellow, oily liquid, called
by Boussingault petrolene, because it is an essential in-
gredient of petroleum. When pure, this oil, light yellow
in color, has a bituminous odor, little taste, boils at 536°
F., yielding a vapor of the density of 9.415. It is there-
fore isomeric with the essential oils of lemon and turpen-
tine. Petroleum at 694,9 F. has a specific gravity of 891,
and contains 1 equivalent of hydrogen and 1 of carbon,
and dissolves sparingly in alcohol. Its composition by
analysis is— -
Carbon...... * 88. = 1 equivalent.
Hydrogen ...................................... 12. = 1 equivalent.
100.
If the petroleum of Beckelbronn and other similar va-
rieties be heated in an oil-bath at a temperature of 482°
F., the petrolene is separated and passes off as vapor, and
there remains a brilliantly black body, heavier than water,
With a conchoidal fracture, and which burns like the resins
in general, leaving an abundant coke. As this body pos-
sesses the character of asphaltum, and forms an essential
part of that bitumen, it is called asphaltene. It is oxidized
petroleum, containing by analysis— -
Carbon...... ... 75.
Hydrogen........................ * * ... 9.9
Oxygen ...... $ 8 º' tº 8 tº g º 'º g º g g º g º º º e º º q & 15.1
-- - 100.00
Mineral tar is regarded as asphaltum containing a larger
proportion of bituminous oil than the solid asphaltum. It
is more viscid than petroleum, and of a glossy, black color.
The principal sources of the mineral tar of commerce are,
in France, at Bastenne (Landes) and at Pyrimont-Seysseſ
(Ain), and in Switzerland at Val-de-Travers in the canton
of Neufchâtel, where it is found in the Jurassic limestone
molasse) by boiling in water.
| BITUMEN.
formation. At Bastenne, and also at Gaujac, the bitumen
flows out from several openings or springs mixed with
water, and is also found richly impregnating a quartzy
sandstone, from which it is separated by the process of
boiling. The Bastenme mines are nearly exhausted. At
Seyssel the bitumen is found impregnating both sandstones
It is procured from the sandstone (called
The tar rises to the surface
or adheres to the sides of the vessels in brown lumps, or in
a semi-transparent brownish coating. Thus purified it is
called graisse. A specimen of this sandstone, considerably
richer than the average, gave by analysis—
and limestones.
§."..."... ." Bitumen.......... 100
Quartzy grains................................................... 69.00
Calcareous grains................................................ 20.40
100.00
Taken in bulk, the product of the mine is much less rich
than this specimen.
The bituminous limestone called asphalt rock is found
both at Seyssel and at Val-de-Travers. That from Seyssel
contains on an average about 90 per cent. of carbonate of
lime and 10 per cent. of bitumen. The Val-de-Travers
asphaltic rock is richer, containing about 80 per cent. of
carbonate of lime and 20 per cent. of bitumen. The stone
is massive, of irregular fracture, and of a liver-brown color.
Though easily scratched with the finger nail, it is difficult
to break up with a hammer, showing malleable properties
under the blows. Its specific gravity is 2.114, water being
1000.
Asphaltum is a dry and solid variety of bitumen, usually
very brittle, and at ordinary temperatures too hard to be
easily impressed with the finger mail. It is opaque, smooth,
slightly translucent at the edges, of black or brownish color,
and has little odor unless rubbed or heated. It is very in-
flammable, melts easily, and if pure burns with little or no
residue. It is soluble in alcohol, and not readily so in the
fixed and essential oils or ether, but naphtha dissolves one-
fifth of its weight of asphaltum at ordinary temperatures,
and forms a saturated solution of a deep-black color.
Asphaltum is found floating in the Dead Sea, and in
veins with calcareous spar and brown iron ore at Karms-
dorf in Saxony. In Cornwall it occurs with sulphurets of
lead and copper; near Syrs.an on the Wolga in compact
limestone; in embedded veins in the secondary limestone
in Fifeshire; in clay iron-stone at East Lothian ; in veins
in Shropshire, England; and in the Hartz Mountains, Ger-
many, along with sparry iron, heavy spar, and brown iron
ore. It is also found in the Ural and Caucasus Mountains.
It is found in many places in Mexico, and abounds in the
islands of Barbadoes and Trinidad. In Trinidad there is
a remarkable lake about three miles in circuit, covered
almost entirely with a stratum of asphaltum, traversed by
fissures and crevices filled with water. The color is ashy
or gray, approaching to black, and in portions of the lake
quite black. Near the shore it is generally hard, giving a
dull conchoidal fracture. Towards the centre it is softer,
and at some points fluid petroleum is formed, which gradu-
ally indurates on exposure to the air. A gentle heat ren-
ders the Trinidad asphaltum ductile, but it is quite brittle
at the freezing-point of water. It is employed on the island
in making roads and in paving courtyard areas, etc., and
for covering roofs, terraces, etc. Within the last few years
it has been imported into the U. S. to a considerable ex-
tent, where it is used in the fabrication of various road and
roof coverings, and for other kindred purposes. The prod-
ucts of its distillation are inflammable gas resembling that
obtained from pit-coal, a species of bituminous oil, a tarry
Substance resembling coal-tar, and a substance resembling
coke. *
The other forms of solid bitumen (cohesive mineral
pitch, elastic bitumen, retinite or retin asphaltum, fossil
copal, and hatchetine or mineral adipocere) have little or
no useful application in the industrial arts, and require no
extended notice. The elastic bitumen, known also as min-
eral caoutchouc, possesses the property, like india-rubber,
of effacing pencil-marks from paper, but is little used for
that purpose, as it soils the paper.
The bitumen employed by the ancient Babylonians was
a semi-fluid variety, obtained from the fountains of Is (the
modern Hit), on the right bank of the Euphrates. These
thermal fountains still flow copiously, yielding large quan-
tities of petroleum, mixed with intensely saline sulphu-
reous water. It was used to unite the sun-dried bricks
with which the Babylonians constructed their public and
private buildings, and the state in which the ruins of many
colossal structures are still found indicates the imperishable
character of the cement used. It was probably applied in
the plastic state, and indurated gradually by the evapora-
tion, and absorption of a portion of the bituminous oils.
In the fabrication of bituminous mastics and cements the
|BITUMINOUS COAL–BIVALVE.
501
forms of bitumen employed are principally petroleum, min-
eral tar, asphaltum, and, to a limited extent, naphtha. Of
petroleum, it is the residuum only (known as “still bot-
toms”), obtained in the refining process, that is used for
this purpose. This is a suitable solvent for solid asphal-
tum.
Bituminous mastic (sometimes called asphaltic mastic
or asphaltic cement) is generally composed of mineral tar
and some calcareous, silicious, or earthy substances in pow-
der. Instead of the mineral tar, solid asphaltum, that has
been softened by a liquid bitumen or other suitable solvent,
may be used. The bituminous mastics of Seyssel and Wal-
de-Travers are generally made by mixing the bituminous
limestones of these localities, preyiously pulverized, with a
suitable proportion of the mineral tar extracted from the
bituminous sandstone or molasse. Seven to eight per cent.
of mineral tar will be required for the Seyssel mastic, while
4} to 5 per cent. will answer for that of Val-de-Travers.
The tar is first heated in cast- or wrought-iron boilers over
a brisk fire, until the boiling liquid begins to emit a thin
whitish vapor. The heat is then moderated, and main-
tained at a uniform state, while the powdered stone is added
gradually, care being taken to avoid lowering the tem-
perature suddenly by adding too much at once. A yellow-
ish or brownish vapor indicates a degree of heat calculated
to scorch and injure the mastic. In such case thé material
should be stirred rapidly and the fire drawn or reduced.
For convenience of transportation the mastic is moulded
into blocks about twenty inches long, twelve inches wide,
and five or six inches deep. When remelted for use it is
necessary to add 2 to 3 per cent. of mineral tar, to compen-
sate for loss of oil by evaporation in reheating.
The bituminous limestone may be reduced to powder by
either grinding or roasting. For grinding, the stone is first
broken up into pieces not much larger than a hen’s egg,
and is then passed through some suitable mill. The cast-
iron mill, consisting of two horizontal iron plates, one re-
volving eccentrically upon the face of the other, answers
very well. Cold, dry weather is the best season for this
operation, which should be conducted under cover. If the
weather be too warm the stone is apt to cake. For roast-
ing, the stone is first broken up as for grinding; the frag-
ments are then gently heated in a closed iron vessel. They
gradually lose their coherence, and are reduced to powder
by stirring with an iron instrument. This process is not
only less economical than grinding when large operations
are carried on, but there is a loss of tar by evaporation, and
there is also danger of injury by too high heat.
Instead of the bituminous limestone, powdered limestone,
marl, or chalk has sometimes been used with the mineral
tar, giving very good results, the proportion of the tar be-
ing of course increased to compensate for its absence in the
powdered mineral.
Trinidad Bituminous Mastic.—A good mastic may be
made from the Trinidad asphaltum, provided a suitable
solvent for it be employed. This asphaltum melts read-
ily at a gentle heat, and is very brittle when cold. When
mixed up, without a solvent, with any pulverized material,
whether silicious, calcareous, or argillaceous, the mastic
produced is not, as it should be, hard, firm, and in some
degree malleable through the wide range of temperature
peculiar to the U. S. If the proportion of mineral ingre-
dient be so much increased as to give a hard and firm mas-
tic at 100°F., it will be quite brittle at the freezing-point
of water; while, on the contrary, if the proportions be ad-
justed with a view to firmness and tenacity in cold weath-
er, it will be much too soft at a summer heat. The residuum
produced in refining crude petroleum is so far a solvent for
solid Trinidad asphaltum that when the two are thorough-
ly mixed together by stirring in an iron boiler over a gen-
tle heat, in the proportion, by weight, of 3 of residuum to
7% or 8 of asphaltum, a mineral tar is produced much re-
sembling that of Bastennes or Seyssel, and which, like the
latter, may be employed for making mastic, in combination
with the bituminous limestone or other mineral substance.
The following formulae give a good mastic for covering
pavements, cellars, areas, and arches, and for other similar
purposes:
Solid Trinidad asphaltum.............. 21# lbs. l. tar 30 lb
1. K Residuum of refined petroleum..... g; a j-tar S.
Powdered marl or other amorphous limestone...... 70 “
- - 100 “
Solid Trinidad asphaltum.............. 17# lbs. U_
2. {; of refined petroleum..... § tº }= tar 24 lbs.
Powdered amorphous limestone 76 “
100 “
From the trials that have been made there appears no
reason to doubt that the Trinidad asphaltum, suitably soft-
ened with some of the liquid bitumens, or with substances
derived from them possessing the properties of a solvent,
is quite as good as the natural mineral tar in the fabrica-
...tion of mastics.
But it must be conceded that nothing has
yet been discovered which can replace, with entire satisfac-
tion, the bituminous limestone of Seyssel and Val-de-Travers.
An amorphous carbonate of lime, and even well-slacked
quicklime, have both been used with very good results; but
in the natural asphaltic rock the calcareous matter is so in-
timately and impalpably combined with the bitumen, re-
sists so thoroughly the action of air and water, and even
muriatic acid, and is so entirely free from moisture—prop-
erties due perhaps to the vast pressure and intense heat
under which the ingredients have been incorporated by na-
ture—that we are forced to attribute the excellence of this
material to the existence of certain natural conditions which
the most skilful artificial methods fail to reproduce.
The North American Neufchâtel Rock Paving Company
use for their pavement and other coverings in the U. S. the
Val-de-Travers asphalt rock, Trinidad bitumen, and “still
bottoms” or residuum of petroleum. They manufacture
by the following processes:
1. Mineral tar is produced by mixing together in an iron
boiler, with constant stirring, at a temperature of 470° F.,
Trinidad asphaltum.......................................... 85 lbs.
Still bottoms............ * * * * * * * * * * ... 15 “
100 “
2. Bituminous mastic is produced by mixing together, at
4009 F., -
Pulverized Val-de-Travers asphalt rock.............. 98% lbs.
Mineral tar (No. 1, as above) 1#. “
3. The pavement covering for sidewalks, roadways for
light traffic, areas, cellars, warehouses, and for similar
purposes, is made by mixing together at 400° F. the
following:
Bituminous mastic (No. 2, as above)........98% lbs. } = 100
Mineral tar (No. 1, as above)................... 1#. &
Grits or pulverized limestone.................. 35
This is laid one-half to three-quarters of an inch thick
on a concrete foundation four and a half to six inches
thick, and then rubbed down smooth with a dry mixture
of hydraulic cement and fine sand. The thickness of the
foundation should vary to suit the kind and quantity of
traffic to which the pavement is to be subjected. This
mixture (No. 3) is also suitable for covering roofs, arches,
and for watersheds generally. For pavements subjected
to traffic with heavy vehicles the covering should be Val-de-
Travers asphalt rock alone, and the pavement is laid as
follows: 1, prepare a concrete foundation seven to nine
inches thick; 2, pulverize the Val-de-Travers rock at a
temperature of 260° F.; 3, spread it over the foundation
with a rake, and ram it with red-hot rammers in a layer
one and a half to two inches thick; 4, Smooth it off with a
hot smoothing-iron; 5, roll it with a heavy roller, to remove
marks of rammer and compress it more solidly.
Q. A. GILLMORE, U. S. Army.
Bitu’minous Coal, a variety of coal which is valu-
able for fuel and burns with a Smoky flame. It is softer
than anthracite, and ignites more easily, but is less durable
in combustion. It is composed of carbon, with a small pro-
portion of hydrogen. Bituminous coal-fields of great ex-
tent occur in Western Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illi-
nois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Missouri, etc. This sub-
stance is also found in several parts of Europe, especially
in Great Britain. It is extensively used in the manufac-
ture of illuminating gas, and is burned as fuel in steam-
boats, manufactories, etc. (See CoAL, CORE, and GAS.)
Bituminous Limestone, carbonate of lime impreg-
nated with bituminous matter, derived from decayed veg-
etables or from the decomposed remains of those animals
the hard parts of which form a large portion of the rock,
which is sometimes very extensive. Within a few miles of
Chicago, Ill., it has been estimated by Prof. T. S. Hunt
that the limestone rocks contain as much petroleum as the
oil-wells of Pennsylvania yield in ten years. It is not,
however, believed to be separable for use. (For the uses of
this stone, see BITUMEN, by GEN. Q. A. GILLMORE, U. S.A.)
Bituminous Shałe, an indurated bed of clay, or a
tough clayey substance which occurs in many coal-fields,
and contains portions of carbon and volatile matter. These
shales have a slaty fracture, are often repeated like other
beds of clay, and occupy a definite position with regard to
coal. Oil, gas, and paraffine are obtained from them by
distillation. - e
Bi’valve [from the Lat. bis, “twice,” “double,” and
valva, plu. valvae, “folding doors”], a term applied in
conchology to a shell which consists of two concave calca-
reous plates or valves joined together by a hinge and an
elastic ligament, as the oyster. -
BIvALve SHELLs, or BIvalves, are those coverings of
mollusks which consist of two concave plates or Valves,
united by a hinge. (See CoNCHOLOGY.) A majority of
502
BIVOUAC–BLACKBERRY.
recent bivalve shells belong to the acephalous or lamelli-
branchiate Mollusca. There are also mollusks of the class
Brachiopoda which possess bivalve shells. The structure
and chemical composition of the shell, however, is dif-
ferent in the two classes. A very large proportion of the
bivalve shells of the older, fossiliferous rocks belong to
the class Brachiopoda. In the Brachiopoda one valve is
ventral and the other dorsal; in the Lamellibranchiata
both are lateral.
Bivouac, biv'wák [from the Ger. bei, “near,” and
Wache, “watch "l, a French word signifying an encamp-
ment of soldiers by night in the open air, without tents,
or the system by which soldiers on a march, or in expecta-
tion of a battle, remain all night in the open air, resting
with their arms by their side and ready for action. This
practice is said to have been common among the crusaders.
The generals of the French republic or the First Empire
introduced the plan of dispensing with the use of tents and
passing the night en bivouac. The same system was adopted
by the other great powers on the continent of Europe. In
recent times it is common for soldiers on the march to use
the temte d’abri or shelter-tent.
Bix’in, the coloring principle of annotto, the paste ob-
tained by bruising the seeds of Biaca Orellana.
Bizer'ta, or Benzer'ta (anc. Hippo Zarytus), a
fortified seaport of Tunis, and the most northern town of
Africa, about 38 miles N. W. of Tunis. The port, which
was formerly good, has been filled up, so that it will now
admit only small vessels. It is surrounded by walls and
defended by two castles, but is commanded by the adjacent
heights. This place was fortified by Agathocles about 308
B. C. Pop. about 10,000. --
Björne’borg, or Biornborg, a seaport of Finland,
at the mouth of the Kumo, 115 miles S. of Vasa ; lat. 61°
29' N., lon. 39° 23' E. It has various manufactures and
a considerable trade. Pop. 7270. .
Björn’son (BJöRNSTJERNE) was born Dec. 8, 1832, in a
lonesome and dreary parsonage in North-western Norway,
where his father was a minister. He was educated in the
Latin school at Molde, from which he went to the Univer-
sity of Christiania in 1851. But already in the next year
he broke off his scientific education and commenced a
literary life, in which there, as yet, have been no failures
and only a few mistakes, while its beneficial consequences
will reach far into the future, for with him begins the Nor-
WEGIAN LITERATURE. (See that article.) His first book,
published in 1856, was a little novel, “Synnøve Solbakken,”
descriptive of peasant life in Norway. It made a very
deep impression. The plot was simple, but at every move-
ment it touched the deepest laws of life, and nowhere
smacked of any narrow tendency. The characters were
pure psychological developments, never marred by explana-
tions or remarks from a merely individual moral stand-
point. The style was the short, pithy sentence from the
Saga, with all its power of signification, all its strength of
passion, and all its sweetness of feeling. The effect of this
book was truly wonderful, and the impression it made was
both deepened and widened by the novels which followed,
“Arne,” “Englad gut,” “Fiskerjenten,” etc. In spite of
the great variety of characters and situations which they
depict, they are all so singularly alike that in the reader's
mind they melt together into one book, into one picture of
life in Norway; and so touching and charming is this pic-
ture that more than one reader exclaimed in delight, “I
wish I had been born in Norway !” Alternating with the
novels he wrote dramas, and in this field he experienced
some opposition. When his first tragedy, “Halte-Hulda,”
was published in 1858, there were people who felt that a
new dramatic genius had arisen, greater perhaps than any
since the days of Shakspeare; but the great public was,
and will always be, incapable of appreciating a drama by
reading it only. Actual representation on the stage is
necessary, and the Scandinavian theatres were, at first,
singularly unwilling to try the new author. Moreover,
the expressions are, in “Halte-Hulda,” often forced and
obscure. The young poet had not yet learnt to say unim-
portant things in an unassuming manner, which alone can
set off the important in due relief. His next drama,
“ Kong Sverre,” was better in this respect, but it was not
until he published his great tragedy, “Sigurd Slembe”
(1862), that the public thoroughly felt the eminent great-
ness of his dramatical powers. “Sigurd Slembe” is a
grand conception, masterly executed; and when in 1866
the Royal Theatre in Copenhagen represented his lovely
little comedy, “The Newly Married,” and next year his
tragedy, “Marie Stuart,” the impression was irresistible.
Meanwhile, he worked alternately as a stage-manager and
as an editor, and in practical life he not only experienced
hard opposition, but he deserved it. . He has ideas, and
they are both sound and vigorous, but they are unsupported
by that experience or knowledge which alone can make
ideas fit for actual life. He has enthusiasm and energy,
but he lacks that patience with actual circumstances, and
that respect for other people's opinions, which constitute
true wisdom. In practical life he is apt to make every-
thing a question of party, and liable to forget that the
other party also may comprise honest people; and this
circumstance has now and then caused some passing trou-
bles in his life, otherwise so rich and happy and blessed in
every respect. CLEMENS PETERSEN.
Björn'stjer’ma (MAGNUs FREDRIK FERDINAND), Count,
a Swedish general and author, born at Dresden Oct. 10,
1779. He fought against the French in 1809–13, and ne-
gotiated the treaty by which Sweden and Norway were
united. He was ambassador at London for many years
(1828–46). Among his works is “The Theogony, Philos-
% and Cosmogony of the Hindoos” (1843). Died Oct.,
1847.
Blacas (PIERRE Louis JEAN CASIMIR), DUKE of, a
French statesman, born at Aups, in the department of War,
Jan. 12, 1771, was a faithful adherent of the Bourbons.
He negotiated the concordat of 1817, and was employed
on various important embassies. He founded the Egyptian
Museum in Paris, and became a member of the Institute.
Died Nov. 17, 1839. - -
Black [Lat. ni’ger], a term applied to things that ab-
sorb all the rays of light. It is considered the privation
or negation of color, and a symbol of evil, darkness, and
mourning. In blazonry, black (sable) denotes constancy,
wisdom, and prudence. Black dyes are produced by log-
wood, catechu, galls, or other substance containing tannic
acid, used with iron; or by various aniline compounds.
Black pigments are usually carbonaceous.
Black, a township of Posey co., Ind. Pop. 6291. It
contains the town of Mount Vernon.
Black (JEREMIAH. S.), an American jurist and Demo-
cratic politician, born in Somerset co., Pa., Jan. 10, 1810,
became a judge of the supreme court of Pennsylvania in
1851, attorney-general in the Cabinet of Buchanan in 1857,
and secretary of state in 1860.
Black (Joseph), an eminent chemist of Scottish extrac-
tion, was born at Bordeaux in 1728. He graduated as
doctor of medicine at Edinburgh in 1754, and became pro-
fessor of anatomy at Glasgow in 1756. His reputation is
founded chiefly on the theory of latent heat, which he pro-
pounded between 1759 and 1763. He obtained in 1766 the
chair of chemistry in the University of Edinburgh, where
he lectured for thirty years, and acquired great popularity.
Died Nov. 26, 1799. His “Lectures on Chemistry” were
published by Dr. Robison (2 vols. 4to, 1803). He was a
friend of James Watt.
Black (WILLIAM), a Wesleyan divine, born in England
in 1760, removed to Nova Scotia in 1775, and founded there
the Wesleyan Church. He was subsequently general su-
perintendent of the Wesleyan missions in British America.
His purity of life and eminent services to his denomination
have made him one of its most memorable characters. He
died Sept. 8, 1834.
Black Acts, the acts of the Scottish Parliaments passed
between 1425 and 1586—so called because they were printed
in the characters known as black letter. In English law-
books the term “black act” is applied to the 9 Geo. I. c.
22 (1722), because it was occasioned by the outrages com-
mitted by persons whose faces were blackened. . They de-
stroyed the deer in Epping Forest and committed other
offences. The act was repealed in 1827.
Black Art. See MAGIC.
Black/ball. In the elections of clubs and other asso-
ciations a black ball is deposited in the ballot-box or urn
by each person who votes in the negative, or votes against
a candidate for admission. Those candidates who are thus
rejected are said to be blackballed.
Black Band, a variety of clay iron-stone or compact
carbonate of iron, containing 25 or 30 per cent. of carbon-
aceous matter. It occurs abundantly in the coal-fields of
Scotland, and is the ore almost exclusively used for the
production of iron in that country. It is not very rich,
and does not yield iron ore of the first quality when Smelted
by itself, but it is easily reduced. Black band also oecurs
in the coal-measures of Ohio, and is extensively used for
the production of iron. Many black bands are so filled
with fossil bone and other phosphatic matter that they
cannot be profitably wrought. -
Black Bass, a highly esteemed game fish of the lakes
and rivers of the U. S., of which there are two or more spe-
cies—Grystes nigricans and Grystes megastoma. The name
is locally applied to various other fishes.
Black’berry, the common name of several species of
BLACKBERRY-BLACK COCK.
503
Rubus, natives of the U. S. They are shrubby plants called
brambles, armed with stout, curved prickles. The fruit
(which is not a berry in the botanical sense, but a collec-
tion of drupes) is edible and pleasant. The common or
high blackberry (the Rubus villosw8) has compound leaves,
with leaflets ovate, pointed, and unequally serrate. Several
valuable varieties have been extensively introduced into
cultivation. Among these are the sorts known as the Dor-
chester, the Lawton (or New Rochelle), the Kittatinny, and
the Wilson. A leading requisite for success in their man-
agement is to keep the bushes “pinched in ’’ during sum-
mer, so as to prevent a loose, straggling growth, and to give
them a neat, small, compact shape, by which their produc-
tiveness is greatly increased. The low blackberry, or dew-
berry, is Rubus Canadensis. Similar fruits are common in
Asia and Europe.
Blackberry, a post-township of Kane co., Ill. P.1173.
Black/bird, or Merle, a popular name given in Eng-
#0
NS
The Rusty Crow-Black
bird.
land to the Turdus merula or Merula vulgaris, a species of
thrush which abounds in Europe. In size it is interme-
diate between the song-thrush or mavis and the
missel-thrush. The plumage of the male is all
deep black, but that of the female is brown. It
has a powerful voice, and its song is more mel-
low than that of the song-thrush, but inferior in
compass and variety. The blackbird is often
kept in cages, and is very susceptible of being
trained. It feeds on worms, insects, and fruits,
and frequents hedges, woods, and thickets.
Quite distinct from this bird is the blackbird of
the U. S. (Quiscalus versicolor), sometimes called
“crow blackbird” or purple grakle. The “rusty
crow-blackbird” (Quiscalus ferrugineus) is a
rather less common bird of the U. S. It is a
great depredator of corn-fields. The swamps
and meadows of the U. S. are frequented by the
Agelaius Phoeniceus, or red-winged blackbird.
It is gregarious, and feeds on insects and grain.
Blackbird, a county in Nebraska, bounded
on the E. by the Missouri River, which separates
it from Iowa. Area, about 522 square miles. It #sº
is largely occupied by the reservation for the -
Omaha, Indians. The surface is undulating ; the z §.
soil is fertile. Pop. 31. =º
Black Bluff, a township of Sumter co., Ala.
Pop. 640.
Black/brook, a post-village and township
of Clinton co., N. Y. It contains extensive beds
of iron ore, and has large manufactures of ex-
cellent iron. Charcoal and lumber are also man-
ufactured. Pop. of township, 3561.
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Wis. Pop. 323.
Black/burn, a manufacturing town of Eng-
land, in Lancashire, is situated in a barren dis-
trict on a small stream called “The Brook,” 24
miles by rail N. N. W. of Manchester. It has
a beautiful Gothic parish church, a fine new ex-
change, also in the Gothic style, and numerous
chapels of the dissenters, a grammar school
founded by Queen Elizabeth, a hospital, a theo-
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logical academy, and a theatre. The principal business of
the town is the manufacture of cotton stuffs, chiefly coarse
calicoes and muslins, in which 10,000 persons or more are
employed. Coal and lime are abundant in the vicinity.
James Hargreaves, who invented the spinning-jenny in
1767, was born here. Railways extend from this point in
various directions. Blackburn sends two members to Par-
liament. It has a public park which is 700 feet above the
level of the sea. Pop. in 1871, 76,337.
Blackburn (WILLIAM MAxwell), D.D., born at Car-
lisle, Ind., in 1828, graduated at Hanover College, Ind., in
1850, and studied theology at Princeton. He has been
professor of biblical and ecclesiastical history in the Pres-
byterian Theological Seminary at Chicago since 1868, and
been for many years an active contributor to religious
literature in church history and books for the young. He
has also contributed largely to the “Princeton” and
“American Presbyterian * Reviews.
Black/burn’s, a township of Lauderdale co.,
Ala. Pop. 672.
Black Buttes, a station of the Union Pacific
R. R., in Sweetwater co., Wy., 794 miles from Omaha.
Mines of excellent lignitic coal abound in this region,
and are extensively wrought. Pop. in 1870, 18.
Black Cap, Black Cap Warbler, or Fau-
vette (Curruca atracapilla), a bird of the family
Sylviadae or warblers, is nearly allied to the night-
ingale. It is regarded as the sweetest song-bird in
Great Britain, except the nightingale, to which it is
somewhat inferior in size. The back, wings, and tail
are of an ash-brown color, the belly is white, and
the top of the head is jet black (in the male). Its
note is rich in tone, and has a great variety of sweet
and gentle modulations. It is a summer bird of pas-
Sage in England, which it enters in early spring, and
from which it migrates in September. It is highly
prized as a cage-bird, not only for its song, but for
its pleasant manners and temper.
BLACK CAP is also the name applied to a species
of raspberry (the Rubus occidentalis), of which sev-
eral varieties have recently been introduced for cul-
tivation into gardens in the U. S.
Black Chalk, a variety of shale, containing a
large proportion of carbon, is found in France, Spain,
Scotland, Wales, etc. It is made into artists’ crayons
and used for drawing, and is ground to powder for paint.
Black Cock, Heath Fowl, or Black Grouse,
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504
BLACK CREEK–BLACK HAWK.
(Tetrao tetriz), a bird of the order Rasores, is abundant.
in Scotland and the north of England. It also occurs in
the mountains and marshy parts of the continent of Eu-
rope, and abounds in Scandinavia and Russia. Its favor-
ite haunts are moors, bogs, and morasses covered with rank
herbage. The male, which weighs nearly four pounds, is
of a shining bluish-black color, with a conspicuous white
bar on the wings below the ends of the great wing-covers.
The outer tail-feathers on each side are elongated and
curved outward. The female is of a rust color, and is
called the “gray hen.” This species of grouse is grega-
rious, but in winter the males and females form separate
flocks. They build nests of very simple construction on
the ground, and lay in each six or eight eggs, which are
about two inches long. Their food consists of seeds, ber-
ries, insects, and the young shoots of the pine, fir, and
birch. Their flesh is highly esteemed for food.
Black Creek, a township of Perry co., Miss. Pop. 492.
Black Creek, a township of Shelby co., Mo. Pop. 1418.
Black Creek, a township of Mercer co., O. Pop. 1087.
Black Creek, a township of Lexington co., S. C. Pop.
474.
Black Creek, a post-township of Luzerne co., Pa.
Pop. 569.
Black Creek, a township of New Kent co., Va. P. 998.
Black Creek, a township of Outagamie co., Wis. P. 528.
Black Death. See PLAGUE, by STEPHEN SMITH, M. D.
Black Duck (Anas obscura), one of the best known
and most highly prized of American wild ducks, breeds
abundantly throughout the continent from Mexico to Lab-
rador and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It might be
readily domesticated. It is of a generally blackish-brown
color, with bright tints about the bill, neck, wings, etc.
Black Earth, a post-township of Dane co., Wis. It
has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 966.
Black/feet, a tribe of American Indians who infest
the Territory of Montana, and Wyoming on the E. side of
the Rocky Mountains, and between the Yellowstone and
the Missouri Rivers. They are divided into the true Black-
feet, the Bloods, the Piegans, and the Small Robes. They
were once a powerful and ferocious tribe, very hostile to
the white people, and addicted to robbery. They are dis-
tinct from the “Blackfeet Sioux,” who belong to the Da-
kota confederacy. The Blackfeet are also found in British
America, and are of Algonquin stock. A small vocabulary
of their language was published by George Catlin in the
second volume of his “Letters and Notes on the Manners,
etc. of the North American Indians” (1841).
Black'fish (Centrolophus Moris), a fish of the family
Scomberidae, is nearly allied to the Coryphenes, which are
called dolphins. It is found in the Mediterranean, and on
European Blackfish.
the western coasts of Europe, but is not abundant any-
where, at least in shallow water. It sometimes measures
thirty inches long and weighs fourteen, pounds. Its body
is covered with minute scales and a tough skin. The term
blackfish or tautog is applied in the U. S. to the Tautoga
Americana, which is esteemed for the table.
BLACKFISH (Physeter tursio) is also the name of a whale
closely akin to the spermaceti whale. It is sometimes
nearly sixty feet long, but usually much smaller. This
huge animal has an eye about the size of that of a common
haddock. It yields oil and spermaceti, and is found in the
Atlantic. Quite recently the existence of the Physeter tursio
has been denied. Several other whales are known by this
Ilºl, Iſle.
Black Flux, a mixture of carbonate of potash and
finely-divided carbon or powdered charcoal. It is prepared
by mixing in a crucible one part of nitre with two or three
parts of crude cream of tartar, and deflagrating the mix-
ture by ignited charcoal; or by heating in a covered cru-
cible crude cream of tartar or bitartrate of potash, when
the tartaric acid is decomposed and charred, forming car-
bonic acid, which remains in combination with the potash.
It is a valuable flux in reducing ores. The metal potas-
sium can be obtained by heating this flux in iron vessels.
Black/ford, a county in the E. N. E. of Indiana. Area,
180 square miles. It is drained by the Salamonie River.
The surface is undulating or nearly level; the soil is pro-
ductive. Corn, wheat, and wool are important products.
The county is intersected by the Fort Wayne Muncie and
Cincinnati and by the Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. Louis
R. Rs. Capital, Hartford. Pop. 6272.
Black Forest [Ger. Schwarzwald, anc. Hyrcinia
Sylvaj, a mountainous and wooded region in Baden and
Würtemberg, with a chain of mountains which extends
about 85 miles, and separates the basin of the Rhine from
that of the Neckar. It was a part of the ancient Hercynian
Forest. This region is remarkable for its extensive forests
and its mines of silver, copper, zinc, lead, and iron. The
highest point of this chain is the Feldberg, which rises
4903 feet above the level of the sea. The Danube, Neckar,
Kinzig, Murg, and Elz rise in the Black Forest. A num-
ber of small lakes are found here at elevations of 2500–3500
feet. Granite and gneiss form the foundations of these
mountains, and porphyry occurs on their sides, which are
also covered with abundance of fir trees. The descent is
precipitous on the western side, but the eastern slope is
very gentle. A valley called Murgthal, situated in this
forest, is famous for its beautiful scenery. . In the vicinity
of Neustadt is the mountain-pass of Hölle, which was cele-
brated in connection with Moreau's retreat in 1796. The
soil of these highlands is not adapted to tillage. The in-
habitants are extensively employed in the manufacture of
wooden clocks and toys.
Black Fork, a township of Scott co., Ark. Pop. 160.
Black Fork, a post-township of Tucker co., West Va.
Pop. 610.
Black/friars, a term applied, on account of the color
of their garments, to the Dominican order of monks, who
first came to England about, A. D. 1220, and settled at Ox-
ford. Their second house was the Blackfriars in London,
and from it the district still bears the name of the order,
which had nearly sixty houses in England and Wales at
the time of the abolition of monasteries. (See DOMINICAN.)
Black/guard. It is said that when the kings of Eng-
land made a progress with the court from one royal resi-
dence to another, it was customary for the scullions and
other menials to follow with loads of kitchen utensils, and
even coals; and from their dirty appearance they received
the derisive name of black guard, which has come to be
applied to any person of a vile character, or one who uses
vulgar or ruffianly language. (See TRENCH, “English,
Past and Present.”)
Black Gum, a popular name of the Nyssa multiflora,
an American tree, sometimes called pepperidge, hornpipe,
tupelo, and sour gum. It has oval or obovate leaves, com-
monly acuminate, which turn bright crimson in autumn.
The fruit is a bluish-black drupe, the wood close-
grained, tough, and very difficult to split. It is used
for cog-wheels, hatters’ blocks, and wheel-naves. It
belongs to the order Cornaceae.
Black/hammer, a township of Houston co.,
Minn. Pop. 709.
Black Hawk, a county in, N. E. Central Iowa.
Area, 576 miles. It is traversed and nearly bisected
by the Cedar River, which flows south-eastward. It
is also drained by Black Hawk Creek. Extensive
prairies occur in this county, which has a fertile soil.
Cattle, corn, wheat, oats, and wool are important pro-
ducts. It is intersected by the Illinois Central R. R. (Iowa
division) and the Burlington Cedar Rapids and Minnesota
R. R. Capital, Waterloo. Pop. 21,706. *~.
Black Hawk is a mining town of Gilpin co., Col., lo-
cated about 40 miles W. of Denver, the terminus of the
Colorado Central R. R. (narrow gauge through Clear Creek
Cañon). It contains, and is adjacent to, rich mines of gold
and silver. It has within its limits twenty quartz-mills
and the Boston and Colorado Smelting-Works, and is the
principal ore-reducing point in Colorado. It has two
churches, three hotels, forty stores, one foundry, a fine
public school, and a daily and weekly paper. Pop. 1068.
S. CUSHMAN, ED. “Journ AL.”
Black Hawk, a township of Rock Island co., Ill. Pop.
1723. -
Black Hawk, a township of Black Hawk co., Ia.
Pop. 716. - f
Black Hawk, a township of Grundy co., Ia. Pop. 396.
Black Hawk, a township of Jefferson co., Ia. Pop.
1019. -
Black Hawk, an American Indian, chief of the Sac
tribe, born in 1767. He waged war against the U. S. in
1832 for the recovery of lands which certain chiefs of the
Sacs and Foxes had ceded to the whites. Died Oct. 3, 1838.

BLACKHEATH-BLACK RIVER,
505
Black/heath, an elevated open common in the county
of Kent, England, 5 miles S. E. of London, adjoining Green-
wich Park, is a favorite holiday resort for Londoners. It
commands an extensive view, and is bordered by numerous
handsome villas. The Roman Watling Street crosses this
heath, which is the site of Morden College. This heath
was the scene of the insurrections of Wat Tyler and Jack
Cade, and was formerly infested by highway robbers.
Black Hills, a mountain-range in the S.W. part of
Dakota and the eastern part of Wyoming Territory. The
highest point of this range, Laramie Peak, in Wyoming,
rises about 8000 feet above the sea. It is in about lat. 42°
10' N., and 60 miles W. of Fort Laramie. -
Black Hole, the name of a small dungeon or cell in
Calcutta, which was the scene of a nefarious crime committed
by the nabob Suraja Dowlah in June, 1756. Having cap-
tured the English garrison of a fort at Calcutta, he confined
the prisoners, 146 in number, in a cell twenty feet square,
with only two windows. They suffered great agonies from
thirst, heat, and foul air, and 123 died from suffocation in
the first night. The twenty-three survivors were taken
out the next morning. One of them, John Z. Holwell,
published a narrative of their sufferings.
Black'ie (John STUART), a Scottish classical scholar,
born in Glasgow in 1809, studied at Edinburgh and Göt-
tingen. He translated Goethe’s “Faust” into English
verse, and produced in 1850 an able translation of the works
of AEschylus. In 1852 he became professor of Greek in the
University of Edinburgh. He contributed articles to the
“Encyclopaedia Britannica” and the “Imperial Dictionary
of Biography.” Among his numerous other works are
“Lays and Legends of Ancient Greece” (1857), “Lyrical
Poems” (1860), and “Homer and the Iliad” (4 vols., 1866).
Black'ing, a compound of bone-black, oil, sulphuric
acid, and sugar or molasses, employed in polishing boots,
shoes, or leather, on which it produces a black-glazed and
shining surface. The ingredients in Day & Martin’s black-
ing are finely powdered bone-black ground with sperm oil,
raw sugar or molasses, a little vinegar, and concentrated
sulphuric acid, which unites with the lime of the bone-black
to form sulphate of lime.
Black Jack, the name given by miners to blende (sul-
phide of zinc). It is also a popular name of a small species
of American oak (Quercus migra), sometimes called barren
oak and iron oak. Its wood is very hard and makes a
good firewood, but is rather perishable, and is not very
valuable for timber. There are several varieties.
Black Jack, a township of Richmond co., N. C. Pop.
799. -
Black Lead. See GRAPHITE.
Black Letter, a term applied to the Gothic or Old
English types or letters, which were used in the typography
of the first books ever printed in England. Books printed
before 1500 are generally in this character, which was com-
monly used in manuscripts by Europeans long before the
invention of the art of printing. A form of type similar
to this is still used by the Germans.
Blacklick, a township of Cambria, co., Pa.
Black Lick, a township of Indiana co., Pa. P. 1016.
Black Lick, a township of Wythe co., Va. P. 3489.
Black List, the name applied in Great Britain to
printed lists connected with insolvency, bankruptcy, and
other matters affecting the credit of firms and individuals,
and which are circulated for the guidance of the mercan-
tile community. These lists, which serve an important
purpose, are well known by commercial men in the United
Kingdom. The lists are extracts from public registers, as
are the ordinary lists of bankruptcies in the newspapers.
Similar information is furnished in America by commercia
agencies. - -
Black Mail was an impost formerly submitted to in
parts of Scotland and the north of England as a com-
promise with robbers. A class of men, often belonging to
families in good standing, levied a tax upon their neigh-
bors (generally about 4 per cent. of the rental of their
property), on the pretext of protecting them from cattle-
thieves. The celebrated Rob Roy was one of these black-
mailers. The practice ceased in Scotland after the rebel-
lion of 1745. It had already been long extinct in England.
In modern usage, black mail signifies money extorted from
a person by threats of accusation or exposure in the public
prints. Those who practise this extortion are said to “levy
black mail.”
Black/man, a township of Jackson co., Mich. Pop.
1470. -
Blackman (GEORGE CURTIs), M. D., one of the first
of American surgeons, was born at Newtown, Conn., April
Pop. 646.
20, 1819, and graduated in medicine at the College of Phy-
sicians and Surgeons, N.Y., in 1840. He afterwards studied
in the London hospitals, “studying covered with bed-
clothes to avoid the expense of a fire, and subsisting on two
penny rolls a day.” His excellent attainments and en-
thusiasm for his profession won him many eminent friends,
and he became a member of the Royal Medical and Chi-
rurgical Society, an honor rarely given to foreigners. He
became a resident of Cincinnati in 1854, and was appointed
professor of the principles and practice of surgery in the
Medical College of Ohio. He served as an army surgeon
throughout the late civil war. He was an able writer, a
brilliant lecturer, and a bold and skilful operator. He
crossed the Atlantic more than thirty-six times on ac-
count of his feeble health. He published numerous con-
tributions to professional journals, and several valuable
translations. Died July 21, 1871.
Black/more (Sir RICHARD), a court-physician of Wil-
liam III. and of Queen Anne, a voluminous writer of prose
and verse, was born about 1650. He was the object of the
satire of Pope and of the ridicule of the wits of his time,
but deserves mention as an honest man and a steady friend
of virtue at a time when virtue had but few influential
friends. His chief works are “Prince Arthur” (1696) and
“The Creation” (1712). Died Oct. 8, 1729.
Black Mountain, of North Carolina, is in Yancey
co., a few miles W. of the Blue Ridge. This group of
mountains derives its name from the forests of dark balsam
firs which crown its summits. It has the shape of a horse-
shoe. The highest of its peaks rises to 6707 feet, and is
called the Black Dome, or Mitchell’s High Peak in honor
of Dr. Mitchell of the University of North Carolina, who
perished while exploring this inhospitable region, and was
buried on its top. This is the highest point of the U. S.
east of the Rocky Mountains. ARNOLD GUYoT.
Black Oak, a large tree of the U. S., common eastward
of the Mississippi, generally considered a distinct species
(Quercus tinctoria), but regarded by Gray as a variety of
Quercus coccinea. It is a handsome tree, affording useful
timber, but is best known for its thick yellow bark, prized
for tanning purposes, and yielding quercitron, a valuable
yellow dye. It is also called yellow oak and dyers' oak.
Black Oak, a township of Mahaska, co., Ia. P. 936.
Black Quarter, Quarter Evil, or Black Leg,
a disease which attacks animals, especially thrifty young
neat cattle, which are kept on fertile but undrained land.
It is characterized by swelling of a joint, leg, or quarter, diar-
rhoea, extravasation of blood, and formation of abscesses.
It is usually fatal. It is probably the same disease which
is known in man as malignant pustule. Its causes are not
well understood. It is a hard disease to cure, but stimu-
lants, free incision in the affected part, with the application
of weak solutions of chloride of zinc and carbolic acid,
may prove useful. The best preventive is thorough under-
drainage of pastures. . -
Black River, or Big Black River, of Missouri and
Arkansas, rises in Iron co., Mo., and flows nearly southward
to the N. line of Arkansas. It afterwards runs south-west-
ward, and enters the White River (of which it is the largest
affluent) at Jacksonport, Ark. Length, estimated at 350
miles. It is navigable by steamboats about 100 miles
from its mouth, except when the water is low.
Black River of New York rises in Herkimer co., flows
in a general N. W. direction through Oneida, Lewis, and
Jefferson cos., and enters Lake Ontario about 6 miles below
Watertown. The whole length is about 125 miles. It falls
63 feet near Turin, in Lewis co.
Black River of Wisconsin rises in Marathon co.,
flows southward and south-westward through Clarke and
Jackson cos., and enters the Mississippi about 15 miles above
La Crosse. Its length is about 225 miles. Its Indian
name is Sappah. -
Black River of Vermont [Indian name Kaskatwacj
rises in ponds in the town of Plymouth, Windsor co., and
flows S. by E. through Ludlow, Cavendish, Weathersfield,
and Springfield, and empties into the Connecticut River.
It furnishes abundant water-power, which is employed in
numerous manufactories.
Black River, a township of Greene co., Ark. P. 131.
Black River, a twp. of Independence co., Ark. P. 1358.
Black River, a township of Lawrence co., Ark. P. 1189.
Black River, a township of Butler co., Mo. P. 492.
Black River, a township of Reynolds co., Mo. Pop.
280.
Black River, a township of Wayne co., Mo. P. 743.
Black River, or Lockport, a post-village of Rut-
land and Le Ray townships, Jefferson co., N.Y., on the Car-
w
506
BLACK RIVER—BLACKWELL’S ISLAND.
thage Watertown and Sacketts Harbor R. R., 6 miles E. by
N. of Watertown. Pop. 181.
Black River, a township of Cumberland co., N. C.
Pop. 760. º
Black River, a post-village and township of Lorai
co., O., the northern terminus of the Lake Shore and Tus-
carawas Valley R. R., on the S. shore of Laké Erie, 8 miles
N. of Elyria. Pop. 838.
Black River, a township of Georgetown co., S. C.
Pop. 960.
Black River Falls, an incorporated village, the
county-seat of Jackson co., Wis., on Black River and the
West Wisconsin R. R., 50 miles N. of La Crosse. It has nu-
merous saw-mills and flouring-mills, a graded high School
—with ten departments, iron in unlimited quantities, and one
weekly newspaper. Pop. 1101.
CoopFR & SoN, PUBs. “BADGER STATE BANNER.”
Black Rock, a former post-town of Erie co., N. Y.,
on the Niagara River, at its S. end, about I mile N. of
Buffalo, of which it is now a part. The river here affords
abundant water-power. +
Black Rood (of SCOTLAND), a cross of gold which
was alleged to contain a piece of the true cross, was brought
into Scotland in 1067 by Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheling,
queen of Malcolm III. It was regarded as a national pal-
ladium. It was taken twice, at least, by the English, who
after 1346 kept it in Durham Cathedral. It disappeared
at the Reformation.
Black’s Bluff, a township of Wilcox co., Ala.
I586.
Blacks’ burg, a township of Montgomery co., Va.
Pop. 3565. -
Black Sea, or Eux/ine [anc. Pontus Euxinus; Turk.
Rara Deng is], a large inland sea between Europe and Asia.
It extends from lat. 40° 45' to 46° 45' N., and from lon.
27° 30' to 41° 50' E. The extreme length is about 700
miles, and its greatest breadth about 380 miles. Area, es-
timated at 185,000 square miles. It communicates with the
Sea of Mármora by the Bosphorus, and with the Sea of
Azof by the Strait of Kerteh. The shores of this sea are
high and bold on all sides except the N. W., between the
Crimea, and the mouth of the Danube. In the middle of
it no soundings were obtained at 160 fathoms. It en-
closes no islands except a few small ones at the mouth of
the Danube, and the Symplegades, near the Bosphorus.
The largest rivers that flow into it are the Danube, Dnies-
ter, Bug, Don, Dnieper, Kooban, and Kizil Irmãk. This
sea has no tide, but strong currents are produced by
the influx of the large rivers, in consequence of which
the water is fresher than that of the Mediterranean. The
navigation of the Euxine is not dangerous except during
violent storms. It is supposed that this sea, once ex-
tended much farther E. than it does now. In ancient
times it was an important highway of commerce. The
Turks excluded the ships of all foreign powers from it until
1774, when the Russians obtained the right to navigate its
waters. By the treaty of Paris, 1856, this sea was neutral-
ized—that is, the Russians and Turks were not permitted
to keep ships of war in it. In 1871 the Russians again
were permitted to have men-of-war on this sea.
Black's hear, a post-village, capital of Pierce co., Ga.,
on Hurricane Creek and on the Atlantic and Gulf R. R.,
86 miles S. W. of Savannah. It has one weekly newspaper.
Pop. 490.
Black Snake (Bascanion constrictor), a species of
snake which is common in nearly all parts of the U. S.
Its length varies from four to six or seven feet. It is
remarkable for agility, climbs trees with ease, and moves
along the ground very swiftly. It feeds on frogs, mice,
lizards, eggs, birds, etc. Although it is harmless and has
no poison-fangs, it will sometimes attack or resist its human
enemies. The Bascanion Alleghaniensis is another large
black smake of the same regions, easily distinguished by
the keeled scales on its back.
Black/stock, a post-township of Chester co., S. C.
Pop. 479. t -
Black'stone, a post-village and township of Worcester
co., Mass., on the Boston Hartford and Erie R. R., 36 miles
S. W. of Boston, and on the Providence and Worcester R. R.
It has extensive manufactures, one national bank, seven
churches, and a public library. Pop. 5421.
Blackstone River of Massachusetts rises in Worces-
ter co., flows south-eastward into Rhode Island, and enters
through Providence River into Narraganset Bay. The
name Pawtucket River is given to that part of it which
is below the town of Pawtucket. It affords abundant
water-power, and flows through several manufacturing
villages. § -
*
Pop.
Blackstone (Sir WILLIAM), an English jurist and
eminent commentator on law, was born in London July
10, 1723. He was admitted to the bar in 1746, but ob-
tained little practice. In 1758 he became Winerian pro-
fessor of law at Oxford, of which he was a graduate, and
in 1761 was elected to Parliament. He was appointed
Solicitor-general in 1763, and a justice of the court of com-
mon pleas in 1770. His principal work is “Commentaries
on the Laws of England” (4 vols., 1765–69), which ac-
quired a high reputation and is extensively used by stu-
| dents of law. His style is clear, ornate, and graceful, but
his method is not scientific, and he was not well qualified to
judge of the law from a legislator's point of view. Died
Feb. 14, 1780. His “Commentaries” were severely criti-
cised by Bentham. ; According to Horne Tooke, his work
is “a good gentleman’s law-book—clear, but not deep.”
(See. CLITHEROE, “Life of Sir W. Blackstone,” 1780; Foss,
“The Judges of England.”)
Blackstone (WILLIAM), a clergyman of the Church
of England, and the first white inhabitant of Boston, Mass.,
who settled at Shawmut, now Boston, in 1623, but left the
place in 1633, not liking his Puritan neighbors. He is
said to have died in Rhode Island in 1675.
Black Swamp, a township of Winston co., Ala. P. 632.
Black Tin, the name given by miners to tin ore ready
for the process of smelting.
Black/ville, a post-village, capital of Barnwell co.,
S. C., is on the South Carolina R. R., 47 miles E. S. E. of
Augusta, Ga., and 90 miles W. N. W. of Charleston. It has
one weekly newspaper. Pop. of township, 2327.
Black Womit, the name of the haemorrhagic discharge
from the stomach peculiar to YELLow FEVER (which see).
Black Wad, a name sometimes given to the native
black oxide of manganese. (See MANGANESE.)
Black Walnut (the Juglans migra), a valuable timber
tree of the U. S., belonging to the order Juglandaceae, and
growing from Florida northward, and especially westward,
being rare at present in New England. It is a handsome
tree, which produces a nut which, though edible, is less so
than that of the European walnut, while its timber is even
more valuable. The wood is employed for gunstocks, fur-
niture, the finishing and flooring of rooms, and a great
variety of purposes. • -
Black War'rior, a river of Alabama, is formed by the
junction of the Locust Fork and Mulberry Fork, which
unite near the S. extremity of Walker county. It flows
south-westward, and enters the Tombigbee about 2 miles
above Demopolis. Its length is estimated at 175 miles.
Steamboats ascend this river from its mouth to Tuscaloosa.
Bituminous coal is found on this river.
Black/water, a township of Cooper co., Mo. Pop. 548.
Blackwater, a township of Pettis co., Mo. Pop. 1603.
Blackwater, a township of Saline co., Mo. Pop. 1784.
Blackwater, a township of Franklin co., Va. P. 1796.
Blackwater, a tp. of Prince George co., Va. P. 911.
Blackwater, a township of Surry co., Va. Pop. 1235.
Blackſwell (ANTOINETTE BROWN), an American lady,
born in Henrietta, N. Y., May 20, 1825, studied theology
at Oberlin College, O., and was ordained pastor of a Con-
gregational church at South Butler, N. Y., in 1853. She
has taken an active part in the Woman’s Rights movement
and other reforms. She was married in 1856 to Samuel C.
Blackwell.
Blackwell (ELIZABETH), M.D., born at Bristol, in
England, in 1821, was the first woman who ever obtained
the degree of M. D. in the U. S. She came to the U. S.
with her parents in 1831, and taught school at Cincinnati
from 1838 to 1847. Having studied medicine in private,
she applied for admission to the medical colleges of Phila-
delphia, New York, and Boston without success. She was
at last admitted by a unanimous vote into the College of
Geneva, N.Y., in 1847, and graduated as M. D. with honor
in 1849. She afterwards studied midwifery in Paris, and
began to practise in New York City in 1851, where she has
for the most part since resided. In 1854, with her sister
Emily, she opened the New York Infirmary for Women
and Children. In 1859 she delivered a course of medical
lectures in London.
Blackwell (Lucy STONE). See STONE (LUCY).
Black/well’s, a township of Polk co., N. C. Pop. 1179.
Blackwell’s Island, in the East River, is a part of
New York City, and has a lunatic asylum, workhouse, alms-
house, penitentiary, smallpox, charity, and fever hospitals,
one for incurables, one for epileptics and paralytics, and an
asylum for the blind. The island has an area of 120 acres,
and was named from a family which Tong owned it. At its
N. end is a stone lighthouse, with a fixed red light 54 feet
BLACK WOLF—BLAIR.
above the sea; lat. 42°46' 15" N., lon. 73° 56' 08" W. Pop.
57.17.
Black Wolf, a township of Winnebago co., Wis. Pop.
847.
Black/wood (WILLIAM), a Scottish publisher, born in
Edinburgh in 1776, was the founder of “Blackwood's Mag-
azine.” He commenced business as a bookseller in 1804,
and issued the first number of his magazine in 1817. It
obtained speedy success and a high reputation, to which
the writings of Scott, John Wilson, and J. G. Lockhart
greatly contributed. Its editors advocated the political
creed of the Tories with powerful sarcasm and considerable
virulence. Mr. Blackwood was the chief manager of the
magazine until his death in 1834, and was succeeded by his
sons. Under their direction it has maintained its reputa-
tion, and has received contributions from many eminent
authors, including Bulwer, W. S. Landor, De Quincey, and
W. E. Aytoun. Af
Blad/der [Lat. vesica; Fr. vessie], a musculo-mem-
branous sac contained in the anterior part of the pelvis. It
is absent in all invertebrate animals. A few cartilaginous
fishes possess it; so do Batrachia (frogs, etc.) and Chelonia
(turtles). No birds have it, although the ostrich and casso-
wary have a dilatation of the cloaca somewhat resembling
it. It is present in all Mammalia. In man the bladder is
nearly triangular when empty, oval when full. The ureters
(one on each side) convey the urine to it from the kidneys;
and this is voided, by the contraction of the bladder, through
the urethra. The entrance to the latter is guarded by a
valve, partly muscular, called by some anatomists the
sphincter vesiege. Distension of the bladder (retention of
urine) from any obstruction of the urethra is a very pain-
ful and sometimes dangerous affection. It may be spas-
modic, but it is more often the effect of a stricture or con-
traction of the passage from local disease. In low feversit
is not uncommon for a kind of paralytic distension of the
bladder to occur. In either of these cases the removal of
the urine by means of a catheter is of great importance.
The bladder is also liable to inflammation (cystitis) and to
chronic irritability; either of which may cause great dis-
tress. (For stone in the bladder see CALCULUS.)
Blad/der-Nut (Staphylea), a popular name of several
plants of the order Sapindaceae. They are so called because
the fruit is a bladdery, membranous, and inflated capsule
enclosing hard, bony seeds. They are shrubs or small trees
with pinnate ieaves, five stamens, and five petals. The
Staphylea pinnata is a native of Europe, and is planted as
an ornamental tree in English shrubberies. Another species,
the Staphylea trifolia, or American bladder-nut, is a native
of the Ü. Š. It is a shrub about ten feet high, having three
ovate leaflets. The seed of these species, is a perient, and
the wood is suitable for turning.
Blad/derwort (Utricularia), a genus of aquatic plants
of the order Lentibulaceae, comprises numerous species
which abound in tropical and temperate parts of both hemi-
spheres. Their flowers adorn the surface of lakes, ponds,
and stagnant or shallow waters.
of them are found in the Atlantic U. S. They are remark-
able for a provision by which the plant, which is ordinarily
submerged in water, is raised to the surface, in order that
the flowers may expand in the air. The leaves and stems
are furnished with little bladders or vesicles, which become
filled with air at the time of flowering. The air is after-
wards removed, so that the plant sinks again, and ripens
its seeds at the bottom. A few species which do not grow
in the water have no bladders.
Blaſden, a county in the S. E. of North Carolina.
Area, 800 square miles. It is intersected by Cape Bear
River, and bounded on the N. E. by South River. The
surface is mostly level, and partly occupied by pine forests
and many smali lakes, which abound in fish. A portion of
the soil is sandy, but marl occurs in considerable quantities,
and the river-bottoms and swampy tracts are highly fertile.
Rice, corn, and some cotton are produced. The county is
traversed by the Wilmington Charlotte and Rutherford
R. R. It has manufactures of tar and turpentine. Cap-
ital, Elizabethtown. Pop. 12,831.
Bla/denboro’, a post-twp. of Bladen co., N. C. P. 1005.
Blaſ densburg, a post-village of Prince George Co.,
Md., on the Eastern Branch of the Potomac and on the
Baltimore and Washington R. R., 6 miles N. E. of Wash-
ington. A battle fought here Aug. 24, 1814, between the
British and Americans, resulted in the capture of Wash-
ington. Pop. 410; of Bladensburg township, 3006.
Bladen Springs, a post-village of Choctaw Co., Ala.,
3 miles from the Tombigbee River and 85 from Mobile,
has six copious saline chalybeate springs, much resorted
to for the cure of bowel and kidney complaints and chronic
rheumatism and dyspepsia. The country around is hilly,
Dutch geographer and publisher, born in 1571.
Fourteen species or more
507
well-timbered, and healthful. It has one weekly news-
paper.
Blaeuw, Blaeu, or Blauw (WILLEM), an eminent
He was a
pupil of Tycho Brahe. He produced a terrestrial globe
which surpassed all former works of that kind, and a num-
ber of maps. Among his publications was an “Atlas of the
Seas or Aquatic World.” Tied Oct. 18, 1638.
Blagoweshtshensk’ (i. e. “good news”), the capital
of the province of the Amoor, in Siberia, 20 miles N. of
the Chinése city Aijun, on the Amoor. It was founded in
1858, and consists mostly of government buildings. Some
trade is carried on here between the Chinese and the Rus-
sians. Pop. in 1867, 3107.
Blain, a town of France, department of Loire-Inférieure,
22 miles N. N. W. of Nantes. Here are the ruins of a
strong castle. Pop. 6865. &
Blaine (JAMES GILLESPIE), an American legislator, born
in Washington co., Pa., Jan. 31, 1830. He graduated at
Washington College in 1847, removed to Maine in early
life, and became editor of the “Portland Advertiser.” He
was elected to Congress by the Republicans of Maine in
1862, and was re-elected five times. He gained distinction
as a debater, and was chosen Speaker of the House of Rep-
resentatives in Mar., 1869, and again in 1871 and 1873.
Blainville, de (HENRI MARIE DUCROTAY), M. D.,
F. R. S., a distinguished French zoologist and anatomist,
born at Arques, near Dieppe, Sept. 12, 1777. He studied
comparative anatomy under Cuvier, who employed him as
his assistant. In 1808 he received the degree of doctor of
medicine. He was appointed professor of anatomy and
zoology in the Faculty of Sciences of Paris in 1812, and was
admitted into the Institute in 1825. In 1832 he succèeded
Cuvier as professor of comparative anatomy in the Museum
of Natural History. He acquired a high reputation as a
teacher and a writer. Among his most important works are
“Lectures on General and Comparative 'Physiology” (3
vols., 1833), and “Osteography, or a Comparative Icono-
graphic Description of the Skeleton and Dentary System
of the Five Classes of Vertebrated Animals” (1839–49, un-
finished). Died May 1, 1850.
Blair, a county in S. Central Pennsylvania. Area, 650
square miles. It is intersected by the Frankstown Branch
of the Juniata River, and also drained by the Little Juni-
ata. The surface, is mountainous. The main range of the
Alleghany Mountains extends along the N. W. border of
the county, which is traversed by a parallel ridge called
Dunning's Mountain. The soil of the limestone valleys is
fertile. Grain and wool are important products. Iron is
one of the chief articles of export. Bituminous coal is ex-
tensively mined. The county is intersected by the Central
R. R., and has various manufactures. Capital, Hollidays-
burg. Pop. 38,051.
Blair, a township of Clay co., Ill. Pop. 857.
Blair, a township of Grand Traverse co., Mich. P. 383.
Blair, a post-village, capital of Washington co., Neb.,
in a township of the same name, on the Missouri River
and on the Omaha and North-western R. R., 29 miles
N. N. W. of Omaha, and on the Sioux City and Pacific
R. R. It has a brick court-house, a jail, and is in a fine
farming region. It has a school-house costing $20,000, and
one weekly paper. Pop. 494; of township, 917.
W. G. LANTRY, ED. “BLAIR TIMES.”
Blair, a township of Blair co., Pa. Pop. 1571.
Blair (AUSTIN) was born at Carolina, Tompkins co.,
N. Y., Feb. 8, 1818, and graduated at Union College in
1839, studied law, removed to Michigan, and has held
many public offices; was governor of the State (1861–65),
and member of Congress (1867–73).
Blair (FRANCIS PRESTON), an American journalist, born.
at Abingdon, Va., April 12, 1791. He graduated at Transyl-
vania University, and became in 1830 editor of the “Globe,”
a Democratic daily paper published at Washington, D. C.
He was a personal friend and adviser of Gen. Jackson
while the latter was President, and continued to edit the
“Globe” until 1845. He supported Van Buren as a can-
didate for the presidency in 1848, and joined the Repub-
lican party in 1855.
Blair (FRANCIS PRESTON, JR.), a lawyer, son of the
preceding, was born at Lexington, Ky., Feb. 19, 1821. He
graduated at Princeton in 1841, was elected a member of
Čongress by the Free-Soil party of St. Louis, Mo., in 1856,
after which he acted and voted with the Republicans for
several years. He joined the Union army in 1861, and ob-
tained the rank of major-general. In 1864 he commanded
a corps of Sherman's army in the campaign which resulted
in the capture of Atlanta. Having joined the Democratio
party, he was selected as a candidate for the vice-presidency
508
BLAIR-BLAKE.
by the convention which nominated Horatio Seymour for
the presidency in 1868, but was not elected. He was chosen
a U. S. Senator for Missouri in Jan., 1871.
Blair (HUGH), D. D., an eminent Scottish divine, born
in Edinburgh April 7, 1718, was licensed as a minister of |
the Church of Scotland in 1741. In 1758 he became one
of the ministers of the High Church of Edinburgh, the
highest promotion that a Scottish clergyman can obtain.
His sermons were admired for their polished style, but
were not remarkable for originality or profoundness. In
º, 1762 he was appointed professor of rhetoric and belles-
\lettres in the University of Edinburgh. He published five
volumes of sermons (1777–1800), which were once very
popular, but their reputation has declined. His “Lectures
on Rhetoric’’ were published in 1783, and were used in
many schools. Died Dec. 27, 1800. (See JAMES FINLAY-
son, “Life of Hugh Blair,” 1801.)
Blair (JAMEs), D. D., born in Scotland in 1656, entered
the Anglican ministry, came to America in 1685, in 1689
became commissary of the bishop of London for Virginia.
and Maryland, was the founder and first president of
William and Mary College (1693), and rector of Williams-
burg, holding all these and other important offices till his
death, Aug. 1, 1743. Besides other works, he published a
commentary on the “ Sermon on the Mount” (5 vols. 8vo,
1722), highly commended by Waterland, Doddridge, and
Bickersteth.
Blair (John), an American jurist, born at Williamsburg,
Va., in 1732. He graduated at William and Mary College,
and studied law in London. Having previously filled sev-
eral high offices, he was appointed by Washington judge of
the Supreme Court of the U. S. (1789). Died Aug. 31, 1800.
Blair (MonTGOMERY), an American officer and politician,
born May 10, 1813, in Franklin co., Ry., graduated at
West Point in 1835, serving while in artillery in Florida
war till he resigned, May 20, 1836; counsellor at law in
St. Louis, and U. S. attorney for the district of Missouri
1839–43, mayor of St. Louis 1842, judge of the St. Louis
court of common pleas 1843–49, solicitor of the U. S. in the
court of claims 1855–58, counsellor at law in Montgomery
co., Md., 1853–61, and since 1863, being counsel for plain-
tiff in the famous Dred Scott case; president of the Repub-
lican committee of Maryland 1860, and postmaster-general
of the U. S. 1861–64. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Blair (RoPERT), a Scottish poet, born at Edinburgh
in 1699, was a relative of Hugh Blair, noticed above. He
was ordained minister of Athelstameford in 1731. He wrote
a poem of undoubted merit entitled “The Grave,” which
was not printed until after his death. Died Feb. 4, 1746.
Blairs/burg, a post-township of Hamilton co., Ia.
Pop. 310.
Blairs/town, a post-village of Leroy township, Benton
co., Ia. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 682.
Blairstown, a post-township of Warren co., N. J.
Pop. 1379.
Blairs/ville, a post-village, capital of Union co., Ga.,
is about 90 miles N. by E. from Atlanta. Gold and marble
are found in the vicinity. -
Blairsville, a post-borough of Indiana co., Pa., on
the Conemaugh River and the Pennsylvania R. R., 56 miles
E. of Pittsburgh. . A branch railroad extends northward
16 miles to the town of Indiana. Grain, lumber, and coal
are shipped here. Blairsville has a national bank. P. 1054.
Blairsville, a post-village of York co., S. C. P. 487.
Blair’ton, a post-village of Belmont township, Peter-
borough co., Ontario, Canada, has extensive iron-mines
and a postal savings bank. Pop. about 350.
Blake, a township of Colleton co., S. C. Pop. 2255.
Blake (CHARLEs F.), U. S. N., born in 1842 in Penn-
sylvania, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1861, became
an ensign in 1863, a lieutenant in 1864, and a lieutenant-
commander in 1866. He served on board' the steam sloop-
of-war Brooklyn at the battle of Mobile Bay Aug. 5, 1864,
and is thus referred to in the report of Capt. James Alden,
her eommanding officer: “The other division officers, Cap-
tain Houston of the marines, Lieutenant Charles F. Blake,
Ensigns Cassel and Sigsbee, with their assistants, Master's
Mates Duncan and Stevens, fought their guns nobly and
well.” Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Blake (FRANCIs B.), U. S. N., born Nov. 8, 1837, in
Pennsylvania, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1857,
became a lieutenant in 1861, and a lieutenant-commander in
1863, resigned June 15, 1870. On the night of Sept. 14, 1861,
while serving on board the frigate Colorado, he participated
in the very gallant exploit of destroying the privateer Ju-
dith, “ moored at the S. end of the Pensacola, navy-yard,
under the protection of a battery and field-piece.” He
was attached to the steam gunboat Kennebec in her at-
tempted passage of Forts St. Philip and Jackson, April
24, 1862, and at Wicksburg, June 28, 1862.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Blake (GEORGE A. H.), colonel of U. S. cavalry and
brevet brigadier-general U. S. army, was born in Pennsyl-
vania, and became first lieutenant in the Second Dragoons
in 1836. He served honorably in Florida, Mexico, on the
frontiers, and in the late civil war. He was wounded at
Gaines’s Mill in 1862, and received his brevet for his con-
duct at Gettysburg. -
Blake (GEORGE SMITH), a naval officer, born at Worces-
ter, Mass., in 1803. He served in the Mexican war, and
was made superintendent of the U. S. Naval Academy at
Annapolis in 1857, and a commodore in 1862.
Blake (HoMER. C.), U. S. N., born Feb. 1, 1822, in Cleve-
land, O., entered the navy as a midshipman Mar. 2, 1840,
became a passed midshipman in 1846, a lieutenant in
1855, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a commander in
1866, and a captain in 1871. On the evening of the 11th
of Jan., 1863, Blake, in the merchant steamer Hatteras,
which had been converted into a government vessel for
blockading purposes, encountered the privateer Alabama,
built in England with all the latest improvements of a
man-of-war, and after a most spirited resistance was
forced to surrender, “the Hatteras going down, bow first,
ten minutes after the crew left her decks.” Capt. Blake, in
his official report of the action, dated Jan. 21, 1863, says:
“The battery upon the Alabama brought into action against
the Hatteras numbered seven guns, consisting of four long
32-pounders, one 100-pounder rifled gun, one 68-pounder,
and one 24-pounder rifled gun. The guns used in the ac-
tion by the Hatteras were two short 32-pounders, one 30-
pounder rifled Parrot, and one 20-pounder rifled Dahlgren.”
Blake was carried in the Alabama to Port Royal, Jamaica,
whence, after being paroled, he was permitted to return to
the U. S., and so soon as he was regularly exchanged he
obtained a command in the North Atlantic blockading
squadron, where he remained, doing good service in co-op-
eration with the Army of the James, until the close of the
civil War. Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Blake (John LAURIs), D. D., an American biographer
and compiler, born in Northwood, N. H., Dec. 21, 1788. He
graduated at Brown University in 1812, became rector of
an Episcopal church in Boston. He published many school-
books and a “Gen. Biographical Dictionary.” D. July, 1857.
Blake (Robert), born at Bridgewater, in Somersetshire,
in 1599, was elected to Parliament in 1640, and when the
civil war began in 1642 raised a troop with which he fought
against the royalists. He gained distinction by his defence
of Taunton in 1645. In 1649 he was appointed “general
of the sea.” He destroyed or captured nearly all of Prince
Rupert's fleet in the Tagus in 1651. In 1652 he became
chief admiral, and in May of that year gained a victory over
Van Tromp, who attacked Blake in the ensuing November
near Goodwin Sands. Blake was defeated, but in Feb.,
1653, he attacked Van Tromp and gained a victory in a
running fight of three days. In 1654 he chastised the dey
of Tunis. He destroyed the Spanish plate-fleet at Santa
Cruz in 1657. He died at Plymouth Aug. 17, 1657.
Blake (WILLIAM). See APPENDIX.
Blake (WILLIAM PHIPPs), A. M., PH. B., was born in
New York City June 1, 1826, and graduated at the Sheffield
Scientific School, New Haven, Conn., in 1852. In 1853 he
was mineralogist and geologist for the U. S. Pacific R. R.
exploring expedition in California, in connection with which
he wrote several reports; was editor of the “Mining Mag-
azine” 1859–60; he was 1861–63 mining engineer for the
Japanese government; in 1863 engaged in explorations in
California and Nevada, became professor of mineralogy,
geology, etc. in the College of California, and geologist to
the State board of agriculture; in 1867 was commissioner
of California, to the Paris Exposition, removed in 1867 to
New Haven, Conn., was chosen executive commissioner of
the Centennial Commission, and in 1873 went as special
agent to the Vienna Exhibition. He is vice-president of
the American Institute of Mining Engineers, and a promi-
ment officer of the International Patent Congress. Among
his numerous professional writings are “Silver Ores and
Silver Mines” (1861), a “Report on the Production of the
Precious Metals,” etc., and various contributions to the
U. S. reports on the Paris Exposition, which were edited
by him. In 1871 he published “Mining Machinery,” etc.
Blake (WILLIAM RUFUs), born in 1805 at Halifax,
Nova Scotia, studied medicine, but in 1825 (after playing
some time in the theatre at Halifax) he appeared at the
Old Chatham Theatre, N. Y. He soon attained the first
rank as a comedian, excelling particularly in eccentric cha-
racters. Died at Boston April 22, 1863.
PLAKELY-BLANK VERSE.
509
Blakely, a post-village, capital of Baldwin co., Ala.,
is on the Tensaw River, near Mobile Bay, and on the Mo-
bile and Montgomery R. R., 13 miles E. N. E. of Mobile.
Blakely, a post-town, capital of Early co., Ga., is about
88 miles S. of Columbus and 150 miles S. W. from Macon.
It has two churches, Baptist and Methodist, and one news-
paper. W. W. FEEMING, E.D. “EARLY County NEws.”
Blakely, a township of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 767.
Blakely, a post-borough of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 659.
Blakely (Johnston), a naval officer, born in Ireland
Oct., 1781. He came with his parents to the U. S., grad-
uated at the University of North Carolina in 1800, entered
the U.S. navy in 1800, and obtained command of the sloop
Wasp in 1813. In June, 1814, he captured the British
sloop-of-war Reindeer, and in the ensuing September de-
feated and sunk the sloop Avon. The Wasp never return-
ed to port, and the fate of Captain Blakely and his crew
Was never ascertained.
Blakely’s, a township of Chambers co., Ala. P. 1162.
Blakesburg, a post-village of Adams township, Wa-
pello co., Ia. Pop. 236.
Blanc (AUGUSTE-ALExANDRE-PHILIPPE-CHARLEs), a
distinguished writer on the fine arts, born at Castres,
France, Nov. 15, 1813. He is a brother of Louis Blanc.
Besides a long series of valuable contributions on subjects
connected with the fine arts to various French journals, he
is the author of a “History of French Painters of the
Nineteenth Century,” of which only the first volume has
been published; of a biographical notice of Grandville,
and of “The Works of Rembrandt,” which first appeared
in folio in 1853, and in 1859 was republished with additions
in 2 vols. 4to. A new edition, enriched with many addi-
tional illustrations, has just been announced (1873). It is
the best work on Rembrandt. He was the most important
contributor to the “History of the Painters of all the
Schools,” a very complete and extensive work begun in
1849 by Armengaud, and continued till its completion in
1859, under the editorship of Blanc, with the assistance
of able writers, such as Delaborde, Mantz, Silvestre, and
P. Chasles. Blanc has been twice Director of Fine Arts in
France—once in 1848, when he replaced M. Garraud, and
again in 1871. At present (1873) he still holds the place,
for which he is eminently fitted. CLARENCE Cook.
Blanc (JEAN Joseph Louis), a French historian and
radical, born in Madrid Oct. 28, 1813, was educated in
France. He founded in Paris in 1839 the “Revue du Pro-
grès,” which advocated social and political reform. In 1840
he published an able work on the “Organization of Labor.”
|His next important work was a “History of Ten Years—
1830–40,” which had a very damaging influence on the pop-
ularity of Louis Philippe. He was a member of the pro-
visional government formed in Feb., 1848, and was very
popular with the Socialists and workingmen of Paris, who
revolted and were defeated in June, 1848. He then went
into exile, and resided in England for many years. Early
in 1871 he was elected to the National Assembly by the
voters of Paris. Among his works is a “History of the
French Revolution” (12 vols. 8vo, 1847–62), the style of
which is eloquent and dignified.
Blan'cet, a township of Scott co., Ark, Pop. 325.
Blanc, Le, a town of France, in the department of
Indre, is finely situated on the river Creuse, 32 miles W. S.
W. of Châteauroux. It has manufactures of cloth, linen,
pottery, leather, etc. Pop. 5956.
Blanchard, a township of Hancock co., O. P. 1304.
Blanchard, a township of Hardin co., O. Pop. 1250.
Blanchard, a township of Putnam co., O. Pop. 1593.
Blanchard, a post-township of Piscataquis co., Me.
Pop. 164.
Blanchard (ALBERT G.), an American general, born
in Massachusetts about 1810, served in the Mexican war,
and having entered the Confederate service was made a
brigadier-general in 1861. ---
Blanchard (FRANÇois), a French ačronaut, born at
Andelys in 1753, was noted for his mechanical ingenuity.
He constructed a balloon with wings and a rudder, with
which he ascended in Mar., 1784. In 1785 he crossed the
Channel in this balloon, and landed in England, for which
exploit the king of France gave him a pension. He made
many other ascents. Died Mar. 7, 1809. His wife, who
had been his companion in several ačrial voyages, was
killed in consequence of the burning of her balloon in 1819.
Blanchard (LAMAN), an English littérateur, born at
Great Yarmouth May 15, 1803. He became in 1831 acting
editor, under Bulwer, of the “New Monthly Magazine.”
He contributed many verses and other articles to several
periodicals and annuals, and was assistant editor of the
“Examiner.” His wife became insane, and he committed
suicide Feb. 15, 1845. (See BULWER’s “Memoir of L.
| Blanchard,” prefixed to Blanchard’s “Essays and Sketches,”
1849.)
Blanchard (THOMAs), an American mechanic and in-
ventor, born in Sutton, Mass., June 24, 1788. He in-
vented a wonderfully ingenious machine for turning gun-
stocks, which is still in use, and he obtained twenty-four
patents for his various inventions. Died April 16, 1864.
Blanche of Castile, queen of France, a daughter
of Alfonso IX. of Castile, was born in 1187. She was
married in 1200 to the dauphin of France, who became
King Louis VIII., and she acquired much influence in
affairs of state. When Louis died, in 1226, she became
regent of the kingdom, which she governed with ability
during the minority of her son, Saint Louis. She was emi-
nent for virtue and wisdom. Died Dec. 1, 1252. (See
MACHECO, “Wie de Blanche Castile,” 1820; T. NISARD,
“Iſistoire de la Reine Blanche,” 1842.)
Blan'chester, a post-village of Clinton co., 0., on the
Marietta and Cincinnati R. R., 41 miles E. N. E. of Cin-
cinnati, at the junction of the Hillsboro’ branch. Pop. 513.
Blanch'ing [from the Fr. blanche, “white”], a process
by which gardeners arrest the progress of secretions in the
leaves of plants, in order to render them more wholesome
and palatable as food. Celery, sea-kale, and other plants
are usually blanched by the exclusion of light from them,
which deprives them of their natural green color and of
certain bitter properties. The blanching is effected in va-
rious modes, as heaping up the earth against the growing
plants, or covering them with boxes or blanching-pots made
of earthenware and perforated with many holes.
Blan'co, a county in Central Téxas. Area, 727 square
miles. It is intersected by the Pedermales River, and also
drained by the Rio Blanco. The soil is mostly prairie,
easily cultivated and productive. Stock-raising is the chief
pursuit. Cotton and corn are raised. Capital, Blanco.
Pop. 1187.
Blanco, a post-village, capital of Blanco co., Tex., is
45 miles W. S. W. of Austin City. It has one weekly news-
paper. -
Bland, a county in S. W. Virginia. Area, 330 square
miles. It is drained by the North Fork of the Holston
River and by several creeks. The surface is partly moun-
tainous. Grain, tobacco, and wool are the chief products.
Capital, Bland Court-house. Pop. 4000.
Bland, a township of Prince George co., Va. P. 2260.
Bland (RICHARD), an American writer and patriot,
born in Virginia in 1708, was educated at William and
Mary College and the University of Edinburgh, and was
elected to Congress in 1774. He published “A Letter
to the Clergy on the Twopenny Act” (1760) and “An In-
quiry into the Rights of the British Colonies” (1766).
Died Oct. 27, 1776. -
Bland (Col. THEODoRIC), M. D., born in Prince George
co., Va., in 1742, was an uncle of John Randolph of Roa-
noke. He entered the army in 1777, and gained the con-
fidence of Washington, who employed him in several im-
portant affairs. In 1780 he was elected a member of Con-
gress, in which he remained till 1783. Having been again
chosen a member of that body in 1789, he died at New York
June 1, 1790.
Bland Court-house, a post-village, capital of Bland
co., Va.
Bland'ford, a township of Hampden co., Mass. It has
a public library and some manufactures. Pop. 1026.
Blan’dinsville, a post-village of McDonough co., Ill.,
on the Toledo Peoria and Warsaw R. R., 78 miles W. by S.
from Peoria. Pop. 1565; of Blandinsville township, 1707.
Bland/ville, a post-village, capital of Ballard co., Ky.,
about 28 miles W. S. W. of Paducah. Pop. 385.
Blane (Sir GILBERT), F. R. S., a Scottish physician,
born at Blanefield, in Ayrshire, Aug. 24, 1749. He became
private physician to Lord Rodney, who took command of
the fleet in the West Indies in 1780. Dr. Blane served as
chief physician to that fleet during the war, and published
in 1783 “Observations on the Diseases of Seamen.” He was
physician to St. Thomas’s Hospital, London, from 1785 to
1795, and became first physician to William IV. in 1830.
Among his works is “Elements of Medical Logic” (1819).
Died June 26, 1834.
Bla/nes, a seaport-town of Spain, in the province of
Gerona, on the Mediterranean, 30 miles by rail S. of Ge-
rona. It is on the railway from Barcelona to Gerona.
Pop. 5888.
Blank Verse, the name applied to the heroic verse of
five feet without rhymes. Blank verse is peculiar to the
*
510
BLANQUI–BLAST FURNACE.
Italian, English, and German languages, having been im-
ported into the two latter from the first. In Italian the line
is of eleven syllables, and is used invariably in the drama,
and frequently in serious poetry, epic or didactic. In Eng-
land it was first adopted by the earl of Surrey in his trans-
lation of the fourth book of the “AEneid” (1547), and first
applied to dramatic uses by Lord Buckhurst in his tragedy
of “ Gorboduc’” (1561). It has since been the accepted
metre of English dramatic and heroic verse. The Miltonic
verse is constructed with closer attention to the melody of
the cadence and caesura than the dramatic; it admits also
less frequently of the eleventh syllable, which in English
poetry must be regarded as a sort of license; while Shaks-
peare and other dramatists occasionally double the short
syllable at the end, and thus extend the number to twelve.
Blanqui (JáRoME ADoIPHE), a French political econo-
mist, born at Nice Nov. 20, 1798. He became in 1833 pro-
fessor of economy in the Conservatory of Arts and Trades
in Paris. He advocated free trade. Among his works are
a “Summary of the History of Commerce and Industry’
(1826), and a “History of Political Economy in Europe
from the Ancients to the Present Time” (2 vols., 1837–38),
which is highly esteemed. Died Jan. 28, 1854.
Blanqui (Louis AUGUSTE), a French republican, born
in 1805, brother of the preceding, took an active part in
the revolutionary movements of 1830, 1839, and 1848, and
was a leading spirit in various incendiary secret societies.
He went beyond the most advanced in radical ideas. He
was condemned to death in 1840, and afterwards repeated-
ly to long terms of imprisonment, but the penalty was in
every case relaxed. He was a leader of the insurgents who
attempted to dissolve the National Assembly in May, 1848.
He founded the Société Republicaine Centrale, for which
he was, condemned to four years' imprisonment in 1861.
In the Paris Commune, in 1870, he was a central figure,
was captured by the Versaillists, who, it was claimed, re-
fused to exchange him for Archbishop Darboy, and was
transported in 1872.
Blaps [probably from the Gr. 8Xárro, to “injure,” so
called on account of its supposed dangerous character; see
below], a genus of insects of the order Coleoptera, is the
type of a family called Blapsidae. There are numerous
species of this genus, all of a dark color and destitute of
wings. They feed on decayed vegetable matter, frequent
dark and damp places, and have the power of secreting an
acrid, irritating fluid of a peculiar and penetrating odor,
which they can throw to a distance of six inches. A British
species, the Blaps mortisaga, is called darkling beetle and
churchyard beetle. In some parts of Europe the peasantry
have a superstitious dread of this insect. No Blaps is found
, in the U. S.
Blair’ney, a village and castle of Ireland, in Munster,
is on a rivulet of its own name, 4 miles N. W. of Cork, and
surrounded by beautiful scenery. The castle and groves
of Blarney are celebrated in song. The castle, which once
belonged to the earls of Clancarty, stands on a steep rock,
at the base of which is a deep valley. Among the relics
of this ruined castle is the famous “Blarney stone,” which,
according to the popular opinion, imparts to those who kiss
it a peculiar style of eloquence, or great skill in the use of
complimentary speech.
Blä’ser (GUSTAV), an excellent German sculptor, born
at Diisseldorf May 9, 1813. Among his numerous works
may be mentioned equestrian statues of Frederick William
III. and Frederick William IV., the colossal statue of
“Borussia, ’’ (Prussia) at Berlin, and a bust of Humboldt
in the New York Central Park.
Blas/phemy [Gr. 3Agorà muta], an indignity offered to
the Deity or to religion. According to Blackstone, it is
denying the being and providence of God, contumelious
reproaches of our Saviour Christ, and profane scoffing at
the Holy Scripture, or exposing it to contempt and ridicule.
It has been otherwise defined to be the act of wantonly utter-
ing or publishing words casting contumelious reproach or
profane ridicule upon God, Jesus Christ, the Holy Ghost,
the Holy Scriptures, or the Christian religion. If the
words were written or printed, there might be a case of
‘blasphemous libel. If oral, the case would be one simply
of blasphemy. The law does not brand as a crime serious
discussion or the promulgation in a temperate manner of
opinions opposed to Christianity. Blasphemy is an offence
punishable as a misdemeanor at common law. In many
of the States the crime is punishable by statute.
Christianity is declared by the courts to be a part of the
common law, which recognizes that the good morals and
orderly conduct of the community are closely connected
with a respect for religion, and that insults to the Author
of Christianity and malicious attacks on his religion tend
to the dissolution of civil government. While the law of
this country grants the fullest enjoyment of liberty of con-
science and religious belief, and free and decent discussion
on any religious subject, it will not allow malicious. and
blasphemous revilings of the Author of the religion pro-
fessed by the majority of the community, nor of the relig-
ion itself, nor of the Scriptures in which it is taught.
Blaste/ma [Gr. 8Aáatmula, a “bud” or “budding”], in
botany, the embryo in a seed, or the axis of growth of an
embryo; that is, the plumule and the radicle, with the part
which connects them. In biology, blastema is the name
applied to the rudimental mass or protoplasm from which
tissue is developed.
Blast Furnace [Ger. Hochofen; Fr. haut fourneau].
In its primary signification the term blast furnace implies
an elevated shaft lined with a refractory material, designed
for the reduction of metals from their ores. The shaft is
open at the top, where the ore, fuel, and fluxes are charged,
and supplied with a blast of air near the bottom, where
openings are provided for removing the metal and cinder.
The term has, however, by custom become almost entirely
restricted to furnaces for the reduction of iron. In its
essential details a blast furnace consists of a stack, in
whole or in part of masonry, surrounding a vertical cham-
ber or shaft of circular section. The diameter of the shaft
usually increases from the top downward and from the
bottom upward. The lower part of the furnace is called
the hearth, and has the smallest diameter. At its upper
part are one or more openings through which the blast
of air is introduced, and in the lower part, or crucible, the
molten iron and cinder collect. The hearth is prolonged
towards the front of the furnace, and is closed by the dam,
and covered in on top by the tymp-arch. The dam is formed
of firebrick or other refractory material. It slopes inward
towards the interior of the furnace, and has its outer ver-
tical face covered with a cast-iron plate, called the dam-
plate. At the bottom of the dam is a channel communi-
cating with the interior of the furnace, through which the
molten iron is tapped off, and on its upper edge is a notch,
called the cinder-notch,
over which the cinder
flows. The tymp-arch
is covered by the tymp,
a long, hollow casting,
through which water
constantly circulates.
The blast is supplied
through tuyeres, from
one to eight in number,
which are set into the
masonry of the furnace.
They are hollow trun-
cated cones, supplied
with a constant current
of water to prevent the
iron of which they are
composed from melting.
Into these water-tuyeres
are fitted the nozzles of
blast-pipes, which are
FIG. 1.
~
º
s
É
g
º
\
§
%|
º:I
\\ connected with the blast
main which encircles
|0}, É.ii N the furnace. The slop-
H=|}}|Hil ing walls connecting
—Sºlº/l= the hearth with the
#=/SRSS
i\# widest part of the fur-
Š nace are called the
22% % boshes. This term is
very generally, though
incorrectly, used to express the greatest diameter of the
furnace. In many cases there is no sharp line of demar-
cation between the hearth and the boshes, the former being
simply a continuation of the curved walls of the boshes.
In constructing a blast furnace, the upper portion is built
on pillars (of iron or masonry), and is entirely independent
of the boshes and hearth, which can be removed and re-
constructed without interfering with the body of the stack.
The top or mouth of the furnace, where the materials are
charged, may be either entirely and permanently open, or
provided with an arrangement which closes the furnace
except during charging, when it is opened by some simple
mechanism. The twmnel head is a hood or chimney, either
of sheet iron or brick, over the mouth of the furnace, pro-
vided with suitable openings to allow the charge to be
dumped into the furnace. The gases of the furnace, which
were formerly allowed to escape and burn at the mouth, are
now almost universally utilized. This is effected by mak-
ing openings in the walls of the furnace—some distance
below the top in open-mouth furnaces, but as near the top
as possible where the top is closed—and conducting the
gases by suitable channels either to the boilers or hot-blast








PLAST FURN ACE.
511
stoves, or both, where they are burned. With closed-top
furnaces the utilization of the gases is complete; with open-
top a considerable quantity escapes and burns at the mouth.
The essential accessories of a blast furnace are the blow-
ing-engine, hot-blast stoves, and hoist. There are three
varieties of blast-engines in use: the vertical-beam engine,
the horizontal, and the upright. The latter have the steam
cylinder either directly above or below the blast cylinder.
They are rapidly gaining in favor, owing to their compact-
mess and efficiency. The blast, on leaving the blowing
cylinder, passes to the hot-blast stoves. These consist of a
series of cast-iron pipes, through which the blast passes,
heated on the outside by the combustion of the gases of the
furnace. The gases are usually burnt in a combustion
chamber under the chamber containing the pipes. In this
way the heat is more uniformly distributed, and there is
less danger of the pipes being injured by the heat. Re-
cently Siemen’s system of regenerative heating has been
applied to hot-blast stoves with the best results. In this
system the gases are burned in a chamber, and the prod-
ucts of combustion pass through a network of firebrick,
which becomes intensely heated. The gases are then caused,
by means of valves, to pass into a second stove like the first,
and burned as before, while the blast is conducted through
the first stove. The blast and gases are made to alternate
in this way at regular intervals. The temperature of the
blast as it enters
the furnace varies
within wide lim-
its. There are
but comparative-
ly few furnaces at
the present day
driven with cold
blast, the temper-
ature employed
varying from 300°
to 10009 F. With
the firebrick stove
above mentioned
a temperature of
from 1500° to
1600°F. has been
attained. he
blast on leaving
the stoves passes
through the main
to the furnace,
and is there dis-
tributed to the
tuye res. The
pressure employ-
ed varies with the
kind of fuel used.
Charcoal furnaces
usually are blown
with a half to one
and a half pounds,
though sometimes
as high as four
pounds are used.
Coko furnaces are -
blown with three to four pounds, while anthracite furnaces
require four to seven pounds.
Hoists or lifts serve to raise the ore, fuel, etc. from the
ground to the level of the mouth of the furnace, where
they are charged. There are many varieties, as the pneu-
matic, hydraulic, and steam hoist. Occasionally a furnace
is favorably situated on a hill-side, and no hoist is needed.
Fig. 1 is a section of a modern blast furnace in the Cleve-
land district of England. Its height is 75 feet; greatest
diameter 24 feet at an elevation of 24 feet; diameter of
hearth, 8 feet; height of hearth, 8 feet; diameter of mouth,
15 feet. There are three tuyeres, 4% inches in diameter.
Cubic capacity, 20,000 feet. Yield, 350 tons of iron per
week. -
Figs. 2 and 3 represent an elevation and vertical section
of a modern American furnace at Chicago. Its height is
66 feet; greatest diameter, 17 feet; yield, 350 tons iron per
week. The gases are taken off at the top of the furnace, and
descend by a vertical flue, then by an underground chan-
nel to the boilers and hot-blast stoves. The contrivance
for closing the mouth of the furnace, shown in the draw-
ings, is known as the cup and cone, or bell and hopper.
This arrangement is one of the simplest, and the one most
generally adopted.
The blast furnace of the present day is an outgrowth of
the small primitive furnaces still to be met with in Eastern
countries for reducing iron ores. It differs from them, how-
ever, in three essential particulars. The low furnaces pro-
duce an unmelted mass of soft iron, and a cinder rich in
FIG. 2.
oxide of iron, and the process is intermittent. A blast
furnace produces a compound of iron and other substances,
principally carbon, which is fluid at the temperature of the
furnace; the cinder is composed of earthy ingredients, and
is almost entirely free from iron, and the process is contin-
uous. Intermediate between the two is the German Blau-
ofen, or Blaseofen, ten to sixteen feet in height, which, ac-
cording to the manner in which it is worked, can be made
to yield either soft or cast iron. These furnaces have no
fore-hearth, but are built with closed fronts—a construc-
tion which has lately been applied to large blast furnaces
successfully, but the system has not been extensively
adopted.
The history of the development of blast-furnace con-
struction for the last half century is almost entirely a
record of increasing dimensions, both in height and diam-
eter, having for a consequence greater yield, and, within
certain limits, greater economy of fuel. The flat boshes
of the older furnaces and the rapid marrowing upward
towards the mouth have been generally replaced by steeper .
boshes and wider mouths. There have been, however, no
universally accepted principles of blast-furnace construe-
tion developed, as far as regards the interior outline. The
Cleveland district of England affords a striking instance
of the growth of furnaces in height and capacity. Fur-
naces were built
In 1851, 42 feet high, 15 feet diam., capacity 4,566 cubic feet.
{ { 1861, 62 {{ { % 20 {{ {{ {{ 12,778 {{ {{
{{ 1870, 90 {\ {{ 30 {{ {{ {{ 41,149 {{ $g
The Blast-furnace Process.-The charge introduced into
the mouth of a blast furnace consists of iron ore, which
varies greatly in richness and purity in different regions;
fuel, either raw coal, coke, or charcoal; and, ordinarily,
limestone, the latter serving to unite with the earthy mat-
ters of the ore and form a fluid slag or cinder. The action
of the furnace, expressed in its simplest form, is as follows:
Air is blown through the tuyeres, and comes in contact
with incandescent fuel. The oxygen of the air is speedily
converted into carbonic oxide gas, which, together with the
nitrogen of the air, rises through the descending charge.
The reaction of the carbonic oxide and oxide of iron of the
ore results in the formation of metallic iron and carbonic
acid gas; the latter, ascending, escapes at the mouth of the
furnace, while the former descends to the hottest part of
the furnace, where it melts and drops into the hearth.
The earthy matters of the charge fuse likewise, and collect
in the hearth, floating on top of the molten iron. At reg-
ular intervals the slag and iron are tapped off: the former
is thrown away, and the latter is cast in moulds of sand or
iron, and forms “pigs.” Although this simple statement
of the blast-furnace process is correct as far as the end
result is concerned, yet the reactions which occur in the
furnace are, in reality, very complex and dependent on
many conditions. The reducibility of different varieties
of ore is very dissimilar: while some varieties require a
high temperature and long exposure to an atmosphere rich
in carbonic oxide gas, other varieties yield up their oxygen
at a comparatively low temperature and 'short exposure to
an atmosphere relatively poor in carbonic oxide. Accord-
ing to Bell, a gaseous mixture of 40 to 45 volumes of carbonic
acid to 100 of carbonic oxide fails to exert any appreciable
effect on Cleveland 1ron-stone at a temperature of melting
zinc (782°F.), but the same mixture possesses decided re-
ducing power at a red heat. Again, some ores are rapidly
reduced with the above gaseous mixture at a temperature
at which Cleveland iron-stone is unaffected. -
The reduction of iron ores, or the removal of the oxygen
of the oxide of iron, does not simply consist in the ab-
straction of oxygen by carbonic oxide. The investigations
of Bell prove that reaction of carbonic oxide and oxide of
iron is a very complex one. The first effect is the forma-
tion of some carbonic acid and some metallic iron. The
further action of carbonic oxide on the metallic iron thus
formed causes the carbonic oxide to break up into carbonic
acid and carbon, the latter being deposited in the 'form of
a black powder on the reduced metal. This combined pro-
cess of reduction and carbon deposition continues until the
iron is nearly all in the metallic state; but absolute reduc-
tion is never attained by the action of the carbonic oxide
alone. As this product, composed of iron and carbon and
some oxide of iron, descends into the hotter regions of the
furnace, the carbon thus deposited is partially removed by
the carbonic acid, but it is not until the point of fusion is
reached that the last traces of oxygen are removed. It is
probable that the carbon found in the pig iron is a part of .
the carbon deposited in the ore. The amount and rate of
carbon deposition depends on the temperature and the rel-
ative amount of carbonic acid present in the gases. It
may begin as low as 392° F., but decreases rapidly as soon
as a red heat is reached. The most favorable temper-
ature is between 752°F. and 842°F. The temperature of

. pacity suffices to attain the minimum expenditure of fuel.
#1 ton of pig iron produced. Furnaces of 30,000 and 40,000
512
incipient reduction of sesquioxide of iron by carbonic oxide
is variously given by different observers. Bell’s determin-
ation is the lowest by far—viz. 284°F.—while the oxidation
of metallic iron, according to the same observer, does not
begin below 752° F. • ,
It is evident that the economical production of iron in
the blast furnace is mainly a matter of the amount of fuel
used. A saving of the fuel in the process can be effected
in two ways: first, by increasing the heat of the descend-
ing charge; and second, by increasing the heat of the
ascending blast. The first of these conditions is realized
by adding to the height or diameter of the furnace; in
other words, increasing its capacity, so as more effectually
to intercept the heat of the escaping gases; and the second
condition is accomplished by direct heating of the air forced
into the furnace. It was long considered that there was no
limit to the saving that could be effected by increasing the
capacity of the furnace and temperature of the blast, but
Bell has shown that the profitable limit has probably been
attained in both instances, at least in so far as the smelting
of Cleveland ore is concerned. The practical limit of ca-
pacity in a blast furnace is reached when the gases, which
are given off at the mouth no longer have the power to
abstract oxygen from the ore—a condition dependent on
the temperature of the gases, and the relative amount of
carbonic oxide they contain. But gases which are inactive
on one ore at a given temperature may still have power to
reduce another ore at the same temperature; consequently,
the height and capacity of a blast furnace is dependent on
the kind of ore smelted in it. In the case of Cleveland
ore (containing in a calcined state 41 per cent. of iron),
of difficult reducibility, Bell finds that the profitable limit
is reached in furnaces of from 12,000 to 15,000 cubic feet
FIG. 3.
§
NY §
--- Z. %š
§% *
§%| §
§§ º
% às
§§ §
§% %
§% %N
§§ %
§§ %N
º %
% %š
%
% §
§
% §
% * A.
%
capacity, with temperature of blast about 900° F. The
escaping gases then have a temperature of 600 to 700°
F., and contain 6.58 hundredweight of carbon, in the
form of carbonic acid, for each ton of pig iron produced,
and 40 to 45 volumes of carbonic acid to 100 volumes of
carbonic oxide. The consumption of fuel under these cir-
ºcumstances is from 21% to 22 hundredweight of coke for
§cubic feet eapacity, driven with a blast of 1400 or 1500° F.,
do not exhibit any further economy of fuel. In smelting
... richer and more readily reducible, ores a small cubic ca-
A notable instance is the Urbna furnace in Austria, work-
ing spathic ores. It is 36 feet high, and has a capacity of
only 1200 cubic feet, but makes 140 tons of iron per week
with 14 hundredweight of charcoal per ton of iron, the
BLASTING.
--sº
The cause of the great economy of fuel effected by the
hot blast—say, on an average, 10 to 11 hundredweight per
ton of iron—has long puzzled metallurgists, and the sub-
ject cannot be said to be yet entirely removed from the
sphere of speculation. The researches of Bell in England
and Akerman in Sweden have, however, recently thrown
great light on the subject. The following considerations
show where the principal sources of economy lie; in other
words, why the combustion of a given amount of fuel, out-
side of the furnace and conveyed through the blast, is
more than equivalent to the same amount of fuel burnt in
the furnace itself. The fuel burnt before the tuyeres is
oxidized merely to carbonic oxide, and gives per unit of
carbon only 2400 heat-units; while the fuel in the hot-
blast stoves is burnt to carbonic acid, and gives, per unit
of carbon, 8000 heat-units, or more than three times the
amount in the first instance. Although not more than
one-half of this heat is available, owing to loss by the
chimney and by radiation, yet there is still a gain from
this source. The principal source of saving, however, is
to be found in the fact that the heat brought into the fur-
nace by the blast is unaccompanied by any increase in the
bulk of the gases in the furnace; whereas the same amount
of heat produced by the combustion of the fuel before the
tuyeres would have been accompanied by the amount of
air necessary for its combustion. This decrease in the
bulk of the gases, consequent upon the use of hot blast,
acts, first, by diminishing the rapidity of the upward cur-
rent, thus allowing longer contact of the gases with the
ore; and, second, as there is less gas escaping from the
furnace, less heat will be carried off in this way.
As the reduction of the ore is dependent upon the tem-
perature and composition of the gases, it is evident that
the amount of heat which we may supply by the blast has
a limit, for this heat is unaccompanied by the production
of carbonic oxide. When, therefore, the fuel used in the
furnace has been so far reduced in amount as only to sup-
ply the minimum amount of carbonic oxide needed for
reduction of any given ore, further increase of the temper-
ature of the blast can be of no advantage, as the heat thus
conveyed to the furnace.will either escape at the mouth, or
it will, by increasing the heat of the furnace, cause a loss
of fuel by enabling the escaping carbonic acid to take off
another equivalent of carbon. -
The product of the blast furnace is pig or cast iron. Its
composition is dependent on the ores and fuel used. It
always contains 3 to 4 per cent. of carbon, and in some
varieties as high as 5 per cent. The carbon exists in two
forms in pig iron—chemically combined, and in the form
of graphite. The darker and more highly graphitic varie-
ties are formed at the highest temperatures. The higher
the temperature and the more silica the charge contains,
the more silicon will be reduced and unite with the iron.
A high temperature has also the tendency, in very basic
charges, to reduce some of the metals of the alkaline earths.
Sulphur is more readily removed in the cinder at an ele-
wated temperature, while the total phosphorus of the charge
goes almost entirely into the pig iron, whatever the tem-
perature may be.
The production of a blast furnace depends on its ca-
pacity, the richness and reducibility of its ores, the nature
of the fuel, and the temperature of blast. While some
small furnaces yield but three tons daily, the production
of some of the mammoth furnaces of England is eighty
tons daily. The composition and character of the cinder
or slag from a blast furnace depends on the nature of the
ore and the temperature of the furnace. It consists mainly
of a double silicate of lime and alumina.
T. M. DRow N, Metallurgist.
Blast’ing [from the Ang.-Sax. blasan, to “blow”].
The use of gunpowder in quarrying stone probably dates
back almost to the invention of that explosive. In ordi-
nary practice the blocks of stone are separated from the
mass in the quarry by means of one or more blasts, each
blast being made by first drilling a hole into the rock by
the use of a drill, operated either by hand, or—as is now
the practice in large works, especially large tunnels or
shafts—by machinery driven by steam or compressed air.
In removing very large masses of rock quickly, to make
way for a railroad, to furnish stone in sufficient quantities
for the rapid construction of an important breakwater, or
to prepare the site for a fort, it has become the custom to
run galleries into the rock, and to place in chambers pre-
pared for the purpose very large charges of powder of suf-
ficient power to bring down the whole face of a cliff or side
of a mountain, as was the case at Dover and Holyhead in
England, and at Lime Point, entrance to San Francisco
Bay, Cal. Each of these methods for removing rock will
be described in turn.
In hand-drilling the operation is performed by means
temperature of blast being 392°F.
of a drill or jumper, which is formed from a bar of steel,


BLASTING.
513
or of iron tipped with steel at one end, which is flattened
out into a fan shape, with a sharp cutting edge extending
on each side a little beyond the body of the drill, as seen
in Fig. 1, so that the drill may have free
play in working. The drills are of lengths
suited to the depths of the holes to be
drilled, it being customary to use a short
drill in commencing a hole, and longer
ones in succession as the hole is deepened.
Their diameters also vary, generally with
the depths of the hole, but are also much
modified by the kind of explosive used,
blasting powder requiring much more space
for the charge than nitro-glycerine and its
compounds. -
In drilling shallow holes of one inch or
less diameter, the quarryman holds the
drill in one hand (see Fig. 2), turning it a
little with each blow, and with the other
hand wields a hammer weighing from four
to seven pounds. (See Fig. 3.) In this
way he can drill in granite an average of
eight feet in a day.
In drilling holes ranging from one to
three and a half inches in diameter, and
two to fifteen feet in depth, three men are
usually required (Fig. 4), one to hold and
turn the drill, and the other two to wield
hammers (Fig. 5) weighing from fourteen
to eighteen pounds, striking the drill al-
ternately. The progress thus made in
granite has been from two and a half to
twelve feet per diem, in holes varying re-
spectively from three and a half to one
and a half inches in diameter.
To prevent the cutting edge of the drill
becoming heated, and thereby softened,
water is frequently poured into the hole,
and a wisp of straw, hay, or a rag is laid
around the drill at the mouth of the drill-
hole to prevent the water spurting out
when the drill is struck by the hammer.
From time to time the fragments and
powdered stone have to be taken out of the drill-hole by
means of a spoon or scraper. (Fig. 6.) -
Another form of drill, called the churn-drill or churn-
jumper, is frequently used, when the holes are vertical or
nearly so. (Fig. 7.) It is usually seven or eight feet long,
but may be as much longer as required for deeper holes.
It is sharpened at each end into a cutting drill edge, and
sometimes has an iron bulb in the middle to give additional
weight in falling, and consequently greater effect in drill-
ing. Twó men are usually employed to operate it, raising
it, turning it about one quarter round, and letting it fall,
cutting the rock by the force of gravity. (Fig. 8.) Some-
times a spring rod and line are used to facilitate the opera-
tion, enabling one man to operate the drill. (Fig. 9.) The
progress made is better than with the drill and hammer,
being about sixteen feet per diem, but the cutting edges
suffer greater injury, becoming oftener dulled or broken,
rendering frequent sharpening necessary.
The next step, after finishing the drilling and removing
the chips, powdered stone, etc. from the bottom of the
drill-hole, is to determine the strength of the charge. In
former times an inferior kind of gunpowder, called blast-
ing powder, was generally used, and is still employed in
many quarries in preference to the quicker and stronger
explosives, apparently for the reason that its slower igni-
tion, by allowing a gradual development of its expansive
force, produces a greater, and, for their purposes, a better,
effect upon the rock, breaking it into large masses, better suit-
ed for “dimension stone.” In furtherance of this idea many
quarrymen have mixed with the powder certain propor-
tions of other mate-
rials, as fine dry saw- FIG. 2.
dust, in the propor-
tions of one-third
sawdust for small
charges, and one-half
for large, and quick-
lime in the propor-
tion of one-third lime;
and have also in some
cases managed to have
an alr-space over or
around the charge. 2:==
The results are stated *
to have been satisfac-
tory. At Cherbourg, - --
France, in blasting rock for the breakwater, sawdust, ob-
tained from the softer kinds of wood, as elm or beech, was
FIG. 1.
mixed with gunpowder in equal proportions, and the effect,
as far as concerns the quantity of rock removed, is reported
as having been equal to that of similar blasts in which the
charge was wholly gunpowder. The masses
were, however, larger, and therefore better
i suited for use upon the breakwater.
Of late years the necessity for a more
| active agent for use in gold and silver
mining, and in excavating railroad tun-
nels, and large cuttings in Solid rock, has
brought into use more powerful explosives.
Nitro-glycerine, first invented and used in
Iurope, has been introduced to a consider-
able extent in this country. At the Hoo-
sac Tunnel, where its qualities have been
much improved by Prof. Mowbray, it has
been manufactured and used exclusively
since the summer of 1868.' The result has
been an improvement in the rate of month-
ly progress, which, including that result-
ing from the use of machine drills, has in-
creased from 50 to 150 feet, and the quan-
tity of rock removed in the same time, from 1944; cubic
yards to 11471; cubic yards.
Many combinations of nitro-glycerine are also in use,
Some of which are claimed to be safer than, and almost if
not quite as effective as, nitro-glycerine. Of these dualin,
invented by Dittmar, and manufactured at Neponset,
Mass., is much used. This consists essentially of dried
sawdust soaked with as much nitro-glycerine as it will
contain. The nitro-glycerine, being thus fixed, is not ap-
parently liable to the changes incident to a liquid state,
nor to explosion by shocks. Giant powder or dynamite,
made by soaking nitro-glycerine into a silicious sand, or
infusorial earth consisting of millions of microscopic shells,
which readily absorb and retain the nitro-glycerine, is
claimed to be safe from shocks, and is much used in the
mines of California, Nevada, and other Western States and
Territories. Gun-cotton has been used in England, and
the trials of the disks prepared by Prof. Abel have shown
marked results of its great explosive power. In the demo-
lition of one of the towers erected in London for the Inter-
national Exhibition of 1862, some of the charges of gun-
cotton were only one-sixteenth, by weight, of the powder
used in similar charges in other parts of the same building.
To determine the quantity of powder or other explosive
that must be placed in a mine of any kind, we should take
FIG. 4.
Fig. 3.
Hand Hammer.
into consideration the nature of the soil or rock, its tena-
city, weight, and the quantity of the explosive necessary to
throw up a cubic yard of it. After ascertaining this by
actual experiment, the charge necessary for another mine
or blast in the same material may be found by what is
called the “miners' rule;” which is, that “the charges of
two similar mines are to each other as the cubes of their
lines of least resistance,” or c : c’ :: *: '8.
The “line of least resistance’ is the line along which
the exploded charge finds the least resistance to its vent
in the open air. Generally, it is the shortest line from the
centre of the charge to the surface of the rock or ground.
Quarrymen rarely understand the correct use of this line.
in determining the quantity of powder for a charge, usually
confounding it with the depth of the drill-hole. In some.
cases this is not far from correct, as is seen in Fig. 10,
where the line AB is the line of least resistance for the
charge BC. But were the hole drilled to the depth G, FG
being the position of the charge, the line HE becomes the
line of least resistance.
A simple rule, very generally followed, is to “fill the




514
BLASTING.
hole one-third full,”
than usual an excessive charge will be the result of its
application. This is readily seen from the fact that one-
third of the length of a 2-inch hole will contain nearly
twice as much powder as the same length of a 13-inch hole,
and a 23-inch hole will contain nearly three times as much.
The true line of least resistance is measured from the
centre of the charge, and not from the bottom of the drill-
hole. This distinction is important, as will be seen by
observing in the following table—taken from Gen. Pasley’s
“Memorandum on Mining”—the different spaces occupied
by the same charge in holes of various diameters:
Diameter of Powder contained , y ntai Depth of hole to con-
the hole. in one inch of hole. ſº.; º: tain one pound of
- - powder.
inches. Ibs. OZ, lbs. OZ, inches
1. 0. 0.419 0 5.028 8.197
1#. 0 0.942 0 11.304 16.976
2 0 1.676 1 4.112 9.549
2# 0 2,618 || 1 15.416 6.112
3 0. 3.77 2 13.24 4.244
3# 0 5.131 3 13.572 3.118
4 0 6.702 5 .0.424 2.387
4; 0 8,482 6 5.784 1,886
5 0. 10.472 7 13.664 1.528
5#. 0 12,671 9 8.052 1.263
6 0 15,08 11 4.96 1.061
Thus, if we have a 1-inch hole, 42 inches deep, charged,
FIG. 5. FIG. 6. FIG. 7.
/
Gºś.
.
-
--
-
-
-
-
Iarge Hammer.
according to the common rule, with 14 inches of
powder, the centre of the charge, being seven
inches from the bottom of the hole, will lessen,
by that distance, the commonly understood line
of least resistance (the depth of the hole), giving
35 inches, which is the true line. As the diameter |
of the hole increases the two lines approximate
more nearly, until with a 6-inch hole they differ
only by about half an inch.
Aware of the unequal results from following the
common rule, many quarrymen are accustomed to Churn
determine the charge by appearances, including Prºl.
in that term the nature of the rock, position of planes of
This for holes of medium diameter
may not be far wrong, but where the diameter is larger
stratification, diameter of drill-hole, and a mental com-
- parison with similar
FIG. 8. mines with which they
tº have had experience. In
those quarries and mines,
however, which are work-
ed with the best system
and economy the charges
are almost always deter-
mined by the “miners’
rule,” the charge in
pounds being obtained
by multiplying the cube
of the line of least resist-
ance, expressed in feet,
by a certain fractional
number, the value of
which depends upon the
nature of the rock to be
blasted.
The following table, ta-
* . ken from Lieut.-Gen. Sir
John Burgoyne’s “ Notes
22*. # = on Blasting Rock,” gives
####### the charges of “Mer-
#ſº chant's blasting powder.”
== # * used in the granite quar-
ries of Kingstown, near
Dublin, Ireland, which were generally found to be sufficient
to fracture the rock :
ines of least resist- | Charges of Merchant's
Linº ... st- || C †i. powder. Remarks.
Ibs. O2.
1 0 0% To make sure, # or # oz.
should be added to so
small a charge.
2 0 4
3 0 13%
4 2 0
5 3 14%
6 6 12
7 10 11%
8 16 0
The above charges, according to the “miners' rule,” are
all proportional to the cubes of the lines of least resistance
in feet.
In the demolition of the walls of the building erected for
the International Exhibition of 1862 the charges, when ar-
ranged in the wall in three-lined intervals, were equal to #
FIG. 9.
7
ºº
º
|
* * º
- % E- ?; º g
(l, l, r.)3 (five-eighths of the cube of the line of least re-
sistance, in feet); for two-lined intervals the charges were
# (l. 7. r.)3; and for one-lined intervals, from 3 (l. l. r.)” to
# (l. t. r.)3. * .
Tºr. blasting rock, a hard quartzose schist, for the con-
struction of a pier to form the new harbor of Holyhead, Eng-
land, in 1850–51, the charges of Merchant’s blasting pow-
der ranged from # (l. l. r.)* to ºr (l. t. r.)", depending upon
* “Professional Papers of the Corps of Royal Engineers,” vol.
xiv., p. 148.
















BLASTING.
515
the positions of the charges in relation to the planes of
stratification.* \
In the three large charges used to blast down Round
Down Cliff (composed of chalk) near Dover, England, in
1843, their strength was calculated at # (l. l. r.)”. f
At Delhi, India, in blasting hard quartzose rock the
charges for lines of least resistances of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.
feet were, respectively, 4, 8, 14, 20, 26, and 36 ounces. f.
FIG. 10.
ndstone at Lime Point, entrance
to San Francisco Bay, Cal., in 1868, the lines of least re-
sistance being between 45 and 50 feet, the charges were
4000 pounds and 3500 pounds, or about ºr (l. t. r.)3.
Charging the Drill-hole.—After the strength of the
charge has been determined by any of the above rules, and
all moisture removed from the bottom of the drill-hole by
means of wisps of straw, hay, or bits of rags, the Fig.11
charge is introduced. If the hole be vertical, the ; :-
powder is poured in by means of an ordinary fun-
nel of tin, or, preferably, copper; but if the hole
is inclined, the funnel is lengthened out by attach-
able sections, so as to reach nearly to the bottom
of the hole, in order that the powder may be lodged
at the bottom, without allowing any particles to
adhere to the sides, as they would do if poured in
loosely. The danger of premature explosion from
the tamping-bar striking fire against the sides of
the hole is thereby avoided. For this purpose,
* , also, the tamping-bar (Fig. 11). should be shod
with copper.
A wooden rod is used to press down the powder
and to dislodge any grains that may have attached
themselves to the sides of the hole. If the hole
be horizontal or nearly so, the charge is placed at
the bottom of the hole by using a semi-cylindrical
scoop with a long handle. The charge is placed
in the scoop, which is then carried to the bottom
of the hole, and being turned over is then with-
drawn, leaving the powder at the bottom.
If the hole is inclined upward, a cartridge to
contain the powder must be used; this is pressed
home by the wooden rod, and if the inclination .
of the hole be great, a wad of straw or hay is
pressed up against it to hold it in place until the
tamping can be introduced.
Tamping.—The priming-needle is next used.
This is a long wire tapering towards the point,
so as to be easily withdrawn after the tamping
is rammed around it, and enlarged at the other
end to form an eye for the introduction of an iron
bar in withdrawing it. (Fig. 12.) It should be
tipped with copper, and would be better if made
entirely of that material. The needle is intro-
duced so that its tip shall penetrate well into the
charge. It is usually wrapped with paper, so that
when withdrawn the paper may remain as a wall
to the fuse-hole, preventing any loose particles
of tamping from falling into and choking it. The
needle being held firmly against one side of the
drill-hole (Fig. 12), the tamping is introduced.
First, a wadding consisting of some loose elastic
material, as a wisp of straw, hay, or piece of dry sod, is
inserted over the powder; then an inch or two of broken
brick, or dry clay, or soft stone chips without any flinty
e
Tamping
IBar.
.* “Professional Papers of the Corps of Royal Engineers,” vol.
ll., p. 1.
† Ibid., vol. vi., p. 188.
3. Lieut.-Gen. Sir John Burgoyne, “Blasting and Quarrying
Stone,” p. 76. -
substances in , them, are thrown in and lightly rammed
with the tamping-iron and hammer; then a few more
inches of brick or stone chips are put in and well rammed,
and so on successively to the top of the hole, when the last
one or two inches are filled with damp clay and rammed;
after which the needle is, withdrawn. ,
* It is stated that if an air-space (as AB, Fig. 13) be kept
open between the charge and the tamping, leaving the
FIG. T2: . FIG. 13...
º
.-
:
%
|
H
-
*
-
---
-
#
FE
:E
#
º
==
º
****.*.
** & -
& ſº (2 &
* * **, *. §
º
*
s & e
e *
* sºs s? W
&
*
*,
*
*
N
... *e y ſei"
* * ... v. *
y
* -
N
Air-Space. -
§
- Priming-Needle.
charge AC to fill one-half or two-thirds of the space BC,
the effect will be the same as for a full charge filling the .
entire space. The expedient, however, is not often used in
practice. - *
Materials for Tamping.—Broken brick slightly moistened,
rotten stone, quarry chips not containing any flinty sub-
stances liable to strike fire, well-dried clay, and sharp pit-
sand, are good tamping materials. Opinions have been
much divided in this country and in Europe upon the com-
parative merits of sand and clay for tamping. Elaborate
experiments were made at Fort Adams, under the direction
of Colonel (afterwards Brigadier-General) Totten, U. S. En-
gineers, to determine the value of sand for blasting pur-
poses. Sand was forced upward through brass and iron
tubes by means of a piston to which great power was ap-
plied. The resistance of the sand to this force was so great
as to reduce to powder the sand in contact with the inside
of the tube before the mass could be forced out of it. Trials
were also made with gunpowder as the expelling force. “A
musket barrel of #-inch bore was charged with two inches
of powder and thirteen inches of packed sand. On firing,
the barrel was burst, but the sand was not driven out.”
“A piece of musket barrel taken from near the muzzle, and
'open at both ends, was charged at one end, with five and a
half inches of brick-dust, hard rammed, and at the other
with five and a half inches; of sand, well packed, with one
FIG. 14. . inch of powder between
them, a priming-hole be-
ing bored to communi-
º
– cate the fire. The ex-
% ‘plosion of the powder
burst the barrel, but
neither the sand nor the
brick-dust was driven
out.” In conclusion, the
report of Lieut. Brown
says: “The experience
at Fort Adams' proves
that the resistance of.
fered by sand is quite
sufficient for blasting
, , rocks, and the advan-
tages attending its use
- - are, that it is much less
troublesome than the usual mode, and that it is perfectly
safe. To ensure success, the space left above the charge
should have a length of ten or twelve times as great as the
diameter of the hole.” 3 - .-
Experiments made at the works carried on at Kingstown,
near Dublin, Ireland, to test the relative values of sand and
clay for tamping, exhibited in their results a marked supe-
riority in the latter over the former, which was very often
blown out without cracking the rock, while the clay tamp-
º
|
§
%.
*
*
(
D
Plug and Feather.
- àºjournal of the Franklin Institute,” July and Aug., 1836.







516
BLASTING.
ing in another hole of the same dimensions held firmly, the and of course water-worn. Sharp pit-sand would probably
rock being cracked. Sand well packed gave better results
than when poured loosely into the drill-hole, but not equal
to those given by clay. The Sand was from the sea-shore,
have given better results. Of the three varieties, coarse,
fine, and medium sand, the medium proved to be the best.
In blasting rock at Cherbourg, France, the experience
Bºllóſ]]||
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Fº-º-º: =F: {}
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lī ºr::::::::Hº:
was in favor of sand-tamping, which was used with great
Success and exclusively of all others.”
In using nitro-glycerine, sand-tamping is much prefer-
able, as the shocks from ramming any other kind of tamp-
ing are liable to explode the charge. . -
Many contrivances, such as comes, plugs, and wedges,
have been employed to place over the charge in the drill-
hole for the purpose of increasing the resistance of the
FIG. 19.
- º-ºº:
==#iºß
tamping, but they consume time in their proper placement
and confinement in position, and are also expensive. Their
use, therefore, is confined to particular blasts, which require
unusual time and trouble in their preparation, and from
which compensating results are expected.
* “Mémoire sur la digue de Cherbourg,” par J. M. F. Cachin,
page 51, note. .*. -
| *
Eºs:::::::::
ºùlliſ W
To obtain greater effect from a given drill-hole, the bot-
tom of the hole has sometimes been enlarged by the use
of acids to form a sort of chamber for the reception of the
charge. At Marseilles, France, in blasting a calcareous
rock, dilute nitric acid was poured to the bottom of the
drill-hole through a small leaden tube. The effervescence
produced by the decomposition of the rock, escaping to the
surface through an outer tube, carried with it the substances
of the dissolved rock.
Priming the Charge.—The usual way is to fill the needle-
hole with fine powder, then place in connection with the
powder at its mouth a slow match, made by soaking coarse
paper in saltpetre or a solution of powder. The slow match
is made long enough to allow the quarryman, after lighting
one end of it, to seek a place of safety before the explosion
takes place. Sometimes the priming is contained in straws,
joined together end to end so as to make a tube sufficiently
long to reach the charge. This is inserted in the needle-
hole, and fire is communicated, as above, by a slow match
or portfire. -
Bickford’s safety fuse and others of similar character are
frequently used, especially in wet localities. The fuse is cut
so that when one end is inserted into the charge the other.
| will project about an inch above the mouth of the hole.
The wadding is then put in, and after it the tamping is
rammed around it in the same way as around the needle.
. This fuse possesses great advantages over the common
priming when the drill-hole is horizontal or inclined up-
ward, or much water is present. In the latter case the
charge should be contained in a waterproof cartridge, and
the junction of the fuse with it be made watertight by
means of a wrapping of twine covered with wax.
At Cherbourg the use of the needle and the usual tamp-
ing was dispensed with. A straw tube, such as has been
described, filled with priming composition, was placed in
the drill-hole, the lower end being inserted into the charge.
Fine and thoroughly dried sand was then poured in until
the drill-hole was full. The upper end of the straw was
then opened and the composition ignited, the slowness of
burning affording time for the miner to seek shelter.
At Delhi, India, a reed filled with powder was used to fire
the charge. The reed was inserted into the needle-hole, and
the top being split, a piece of rock was laid upon one of the
splits to prevent it falling into the hole. The powder being
ignited by a piece of touch-paper and a train, the reed flew
to the bottom of the needle-hole like a rocket, and ignited
the charge.
Of late years the use of electricity in blasting has much
increased, especially since the introduction of nitro-glyce-
rine and its compounds, and gun-cotton, which can best be
fired by the shock of a minor explosion. If ignited, they
burn without any explosive effect. In firing a charge of
powder all that is necessary is to make a short interruption
of the conducting wires in connection with the charge. In
passing the electric current a spark is produced at the point
of interruption sufficient to ignite the powder. In firing
nitro-glycerine or gun-cotton an “exploder” containing a
sonsitive priming composition is necessary. Those used at the
Hoosac Tunnel are made there by Prof. Mowbray, by first in-
serting the ends of two insulated wires into a small wooden




























BLASTING.
cylinder, where they are accurately fixed in position, so as
to give a spark upon the passage of the electric current.
The wooden cylinder is then filled with the priming com-
position (composed of sulphide and phosphide of copper
and chlorate of potash), and this is then connected with a
FIG. 20.
º Yºjiſº cº
º ºš §§ º ź §§º
º
copper cap containing fulminate of mercury, and the whole
enclosed in a wooden cylindrical case made watertight.
The resistance of the copper cap adds much to the force
of the exploder, and ensures the effective explosion of the
nitro-glycerine.
A frictional electric machine made by Mr. H. Julius
Smith of Boston is very portable, and has been found use-
ful for firing mines. The ebonite disk for exciting elec-
tricity is turned by a small crank between two rubbers
covered with sulphuret of tin, and all is enclosed in a com-
pact case of vulcanite. By simply turning the crank back-
ward the connection of the poles of the battery with the
conducting wires is made, and the charge is fired.
A magneto-electric machine made by Ritchie & Sons of
Boston is used at the Hoosac Tunnel, and possesses the
power of firing 150 charges simultaneously. The conduct-
ing wires used are of copper encased in a watertight cover-
ing of gutta-percha.
Cutting up Large Blocks.-In reducing the masses thrown
out by a blast to the sizes of “dimension stone” required
for use, lines of small holes are usually cut in the direction
required, selecting, if possible, the natural lines of cleavage.
These small holes are wedge-shaped, about three inches
long, two inches deep, and three inches apart. Into these
iron wedges are inserted, and struck with a heavy iron
hammer, in succession, from one end of the row to the
other.
Splitting with the “plug and feather” is more generally
used where it is desired to obtain a uniform split surface to
a considerable depth. A row of circular holes, about one
inch in diameter, five or six inches in depth, and the same
distance apart, are drilled along the line to be split. Two
feathers are then placed on opposite sides of each hole.
The feather (Fig. 14), when in position, is like an inverted
iron wedge having a smooth surface to receive the plug,
and a circular back to fit the sides of the drill-hole. Be-
tween these feathers the plug (a long narrow wedge) is in-
FIG. 21.
–==#fff;
Annular Boring-Head.
serted, the faces of the plug and feathers being parallel to
the desired line of cleavage. The plugs are then driven in
succession as above, until the rock Splits.
In the large quarries at Aberdeen and Peterhead in the
517
north of Scotland the charges used are merely sufficient to
break the rock into large masses. A process called “bull-
ing” is then had recourse to. This consists in filling the
vertical cracks and fissures opened by the blast with pow-
der, and firing it. The explosion throws the blocks for-
ward in their beds some inches, if not several yards, into
positions convenient for splitting up.
Quarry Shields.-In a populous locality, or one where it
is difficult for the quarrymen to reach a place of shelter
from the small fragments of rock that are sent by the blast
flying through the air, it is usual to cover the rock around
the hole with brush or loose plank or timbers weighted
with stone. These prevent the fragments from flying so
far. Shields of boiler iron and of plank strongly nailed
together are used in very confined localities, as in drifts
and shafts of mines. The iron shields used in the quarries
near Glasgow, Scotland, were two and a half feet Square
by one-fourth of an inch thick.
Steam Drilling-Machines.—The length of time required,
as well as the great labor and expense of drilling by hand,
has led to the introduction, in large private and public
works, of drilling-machines driven by steam or compressed
air. Sommeiller invented a machine which was used with
success at the Mount Cenis Tunnel. This was driven by
compressed air conveyed into the headings in pipes, the
the compressors being situated near the E. and W. en-
trances to the tunnel. Subsequently the Burleigh drill,
similar to the above, was patented in this country, and is
now manufactured largely by the Burleigh Drill Manufac-
turing Company at Fitchburg, Mass. This has been used in
the Hoosac Tunnel since the summer of 1866, giving great
satisfaction, the progress by its use and that of nitro-gly-
cerine having since increased from 50 to 150 feet per month,
notwithstanding the size of the heading had been more than
doubled in the mean time. The value of this machine war-
rants a brief description.
FIG. 22.
ſº
º:
- t
fº. ſºulſtºniſſ wº-
º º f
#Tº 8
##| || 8 N
; : º ſº. 5
: it |
& E #º
§gºlº
l
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§§ |{}
Sºº Yº
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jilliili
= . . . .
- -T-T-
No. 1. Tunneling Drill.
Figs. 15 and 16 show a top and side view of the Bur-
leigh drill, as now made. It consists of three parts—the
cylinder, the cage, and the piston. “The cage is merely a
trough with ways on either side, in which the cylinder, by
means of a ſeed-screw and an automatic feed-lever, is
moved forward as the drill cuts away the rock. The pis-
ton moves back and forth in the cylinder, propelled and
operated substantially like the piston of an ordinary steam-
engine. The drill-point is attached to the end of the pis-
ton, which is a solid bar of steel. The piston is rotated as
it moves back and forth by ingenious and simple mechan-
ism. The forward movement of the cylinder in the trough
is regulated by an automatic feed as the rock is cut away,
the advance being more or less rapid as by the variation in
the nature of the rock the cutting is fast or slow.” When the
drill is in operation a small jet of water is kept playing into
the drill-hole to cool the drill-point and to soften the rock.
“When the cylinder has been fed forward the entire length
of the feed-screw, it may be run back, and a longer drill-point
inserted in the end of the piston.” The drilling-machine
is attached to the clamp (see Figs. 17 and 18) by means of a
circular plate (aa, Figs. 15 and 16) with a bevelled edge
cast upon the bottom of the cage near its centre. This
plate fits a corresponding cavity (bb, Figs. 17 and 18) in
one side of the clamp, and is held there firmly in any re-
quired position by the tightening of a screw. By the





518
BLASTING.
motions upon one plane of the plate in its cavity, and
upon another, at a right angle to the first, of the clamp
upon the bar, and the sliding endwise of the clamp upon
the bar, it will be seen at once that any position and direc-
tion of the drill is attainable. It only remains to attach
the bar, of any reasonable length, to a convenient carriage
or frame.” #
These frames are of various forms, made to suit the dif-
ferent circumstances under which the drill is usually used.
Of these various forms, the one shown in Fig. 19 is adapted
to quarry work, open-cut, surface, or shafting work. The
adjustable legs admit of its being placed upon uneven sur-
faces of the rock. Fig. 20 shows a frame adapted for use
in a tunnel. It mounts four drills upon two bars, the lower
of which may be raised or lowered by means of chains,
pulleys, and a windlass.
In the Hoosac Tunnel the motive-power is compressed
air, and this is much better than steam for all tunnel and
shaft work. By its escape, upon being worked off, it cools
the headings, refreshes the air, and creates a current out
of the drift or shaft, which carries off the vitiated air
caused by blasting, respiration, and burning candles. The
results of its use upon other works have also been very sat-
isfactory. The progress made in deepening the Illinois
and Michigan Canal is reported as being from twelve to
fifteen holes drilled daily, each hole being from 7 to 8 feet
deep and 4% inches in diameter, or from 90 to 110 feet per
diem, equal to the labor of thirty to thirty-five men. At
Poughguag, N. Y., in very hard, seamy rock, it drilled 40
holes, 4 inches in diameter, per day, equal to the work of
twenty men. At the works of improvement at Hallet’s
Point, carried on by the government, it was reported for
1868 and 1869 that the drill performed twice the amount
of work in the same time as, and at one-third the expense
of, hand-labor.
Diamond Drill.—The first application of the diamond to
drilling rock was made by Prof. Rodolphe Laschot, a civil
engineer of Paris, who found that a rotating drill armed
with diamond points could be made to bore holes in rock
rapidly to great depths by forcibly injecting a stream of
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water into the hole through the drill. He also arranged
the diamond teeth upon the end of a cylinder or boring-
head, so that a hole with an annular cross section could be
bored, leaving a cylindrical core in the middle. Fig. 21+
shows the arrangement of the black diamonds upon this
bit or boring-head, which is a steel cylinder about four
inches in length. They are placed in three rows—one on
the end, one upon the inner, and one upon the outer edge.
The diamonds in the row on the end cut the forward path
of the drill, while those in the two other rows enlarge this
path to admit the free ingress and egress of water to cool
the diamond point and moisten and soften the rock. Fig.
22 exhibits one of the numerous forms of the machine
adapted to tunnelling purposes.
The motive-power is furnished by two oscillating engines
+ Circular pamphlet of the Burleigh Rock-Drill Company,
Fitchburg, Mass. -
+ Circular pamphlet of Severance & Holt, manufacturers of
diamond-pointed rock-drills, 16 Wall street, N. Y.
AA, both attached to the same crank-shaft B. This up-
right shaft by the gear C communicates its motion, with
double velocity, to the bevelled gears D and F, and from
FIG. 24.
Aºw//er Jºoze
ry
Wº%
$671 º º s ! *
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-- - - ---
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thence to G and E. E is keyed to the screw-shaft H at the
clutch M. G. has a tubular axis which has a female screw
cut inside to receive the male screw on the shaft H, thus
forming a long nut in which the shaft revolves. The velo-
cities being different, the effect of the two screws, like that
of a differential screw, is to feed forward the drill to its
work. By changing the diameters of the bevelled gears G.
and F any desired feed may be obtained. In extremely
hard rock the feed of one inch for 400 revolutions is used,
allowing the diamonds to cut only rºw of an inch in each
revolution. The drill-rod being rotated at the rate of 600
revolutions per minute, the above feed will give a progress
of 1% inches per minute or 7% feet per hour. In rock of
ordinary hardness the drill is fed forward at the rate of 1
inch to 300 revolutions, boring 2 inches per minute or 10
feet per hour.
By throwing the clutch M out of gear, the revolution of
the drill-shaft is suspended, and by the action of the nut-
gear G is run rapidly back, thus withdrawing the drill-rod
from the hole bored. The drill-rod J consists of a tubular
boring shaft made of lapwelded tube, with the bit or boring-
head described above screwed on to one end. As the drill
cuts an annular channel into the rock, the cylindrical core
left by the cutters passes up into the hollow drill-rod, and
is drawn out with the drill-rod in sections of from eight to
ten feet. The drill-rod may be extended so as to bore any
depth required. It may also, by convenient arrangements
provided, be turned in any direction, or raised or lowered,
as desired. Water is injected into the drill-hole through
the hollow drill-rod by means of a double-acting plunger
pump situated at R.
Fig. 23 represents a more portable form of the machine,
adapted to use in a shaft. It is mounted upon a movable
frame, which is fixed in position by jack-screws pressing
against the sides of the shaft. The motive-power (steam
FIG. 25.
-N
§
*
‘. . . Złºżſzzºz. .
A, centre of mine.
B, top of crater.
C, superincumbent mass whose fall followed the removal of the
base.
D, débris remaining after the explosion, denoting proposed es-
carpment previous to blast.
or compressed air) is admitted through a pipe leading to
the surface above, the quantity being regulated by a stop-
cock near the hand of the attendant. The advantages
























. BLASTING.
519
claimed for this drill are—that holes may be bored to any
required depth, thus permitting the charge to be placed at
the point where its effect is desired, and enabling prospect-
FIG. 26.
Section and Elevation
On W. B
%
*-
%
s
2.
*
§
2
º
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ſº % ?Sºğl pº à
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ºšº §§ {^
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* * tº; 2°.
* *
º 2.
à
N. B. The section of the cliff at the entrance of the galleries
is shown by thick dotted lines, and the outline of the débris is
shown by thin dotted lines. The part removed by the explosion
is shown by light shading.
ing holes, or drain-holes for water, to be run in galleries or
sunk in the bottom of shafts of mines; that the holes are
perfectly cylindrical and of uniform diameter, thus permit-
ting the use of cartridges of very nearly the diameter of the
holes.
At Hallet's Point, where both drills were used by Gen.
Newton, the Burleigh drill gave the best results in tunnel-
work, but for prospecting or drilling long holes for other
purposes, it is stated that the diamond drill cannot be dis-
pensed with. -
Blasting by Galleries.—In cutting the way for the South-
eastern Railway it became necessary to blast down a por-
tion of Round Down Cliff, near Dover, England, composed
of compact chalk.” It was decided to run a gallery into
the cliff, and to place three large charges five feet in
rear of the centre line of the railway, and three feet above
its level. The gallery, 4' wide and 5' 6" high, was
run 20 feet above the level of the railway. (Fig. 24.)
Three shafts, made in the form of a truncated cone, 3' in
diameter at top and 5' at bottom, to offer greater resistance
to the tamping being blown out, were then sunk 17 feet.
(Fig. 25.) Branches were then run at right angles to the
drift–way, made of a wedge-shaped form, 2 feet wide at the
shafts and 4% feet at the chambers, for the reason stated
above. Chambers of oblong form were excavated at right
angles to the branch drifts.
The charges were calculated at #3 of the cubes of the
lines of least resistance, which for the middle charge was
72 feet, and for the two end ones 56 feet each, giving re-
spectively 7500 pounds and 5500 pounds, or a total charge
of 18,500 pounds. The powder for the charges, in bags, was
placed in deal boxes put together in the chambers, a vacant
air-space being left around the boxes. The galvanic wires
for exploding were connected with two branches, within
each chamber, each branch attached to a primer filled with
finest rifle powder, and having the ends of the galvanic
wires connected therein by fine platinum wires. The
tamping consisted of blocks of chalk laid dry and com-
pactly. It filled the branches, the shafts, and was extended
in the drift ten feet on each side of the shafts. The charges
were fired by means of three separate batteries, each con-
sisting of a Daniell battery of 18 cells, and two Grove's
batteries of 20 plates each. These were connected with
the charges by three separate sets of wires. The circuit
was completed and the mines fired simultaneously by three
attendants acting by words of command. The ignition
was followed by a deep hollow sound. “The bottom of
the cliff yielded very gently to the force of the powder,
.* “Professional Papers of the Corps of Royal Engineers,” vols.
vi. and viii. -
assuming a curved form beyond the general face; then the
upper part began to give way, and finally the whole slid
out into the sea, carrying everything before it in the most
magnificent manner.”f Four hundred thousand cubic
yards of the chalk cliff were removed. This blast is re-
markable as being the first large one, on land, at which the
galvanic wire was used to fire several charges simultane-
ously. *
In the construction of the large pier to form the new
harbor of Holyhead, England, it was found that the ordi-
nary process of blasting, even on the largest scale, could
not supply the quantity of stone réquired—2500 to 3000
tons per day. It was therefore decided to operate by
sinking shafts and running galleries, whichever would
soonest reach the seat of the charge, and to use large
quantities of powder, properly distributed in several cham-
bers.j. The rock consisted of an extremely hard quartzose
Schist.
The first large blast was made on the 1st of Nov., 1850,
and by the 2d of Aug., I851, the number had reached 58,
with a total result of 293,890 tons of rock removed by the
explosion of 103,092 pounds of Merchant’s blasting powder,
or an average of 21% tons to a pound, at a mean cost of
4#d. per ton. The charges of powder averaged one-four-
teenth of the cube of the line of least resistance, in feet.
They were so placed that this line should, if possible, be
perpendicular to the planes of stratification. The results
were so satisfactory that the method was continued.
The galleries were from 3 to 4 feet wide and 5 to 5% feet
high. In excavating them, holes were drilled from 1% to
2 feet deep, 1% inches diameter, which were charged with
from 4 to 6 ounces of powder, well tamped. Two parties
of two men each relieved each other day and night, ex-
cavating 13 feet per day. In the shafts, 6 feet by 4 feet,
the progress was not so great. In loading, the powder in
sacks was passed from hand to hand to the chamber, where
it was usually poured into a deal box prepared to receive it.
The tamping was formed of red clay, well rammed, every 6
inches for the first 10 feet, every 12 inches for the next 10
feet, and every 18 inches for the remaining distance. The
charges were fired by a Grove's voltaic battery.
Fig. 26 represents the arrangement of galleries and
chambers for a large blast of 12,000 pounds of fine-grained
powder, which was fired on the 22d of Nov., 1860.3. A
gallery was run in 34 feet from the face of the cliff; then
a shaft was sunk 14; feet, from the bottom of which level
galleries were driven right and left, and four returns were
made, at the extremities of which the chambers were
formed, about 3 feet below the level of the ground-line
of the quarry. The powder for the charge, in 50-pound
bags, was passed in by hand to the chamber, where the
loader emptied them into larger canvas bags coated with
tar. These were closely piled in the chamber. The tamping
was composed of red clay, and was extended out to the
entrance.
FIG. 27.
º
...”
:
*
s _Z"
sº
2.57 \ N
A' N
§ \\\\\\\\\
Sketch of a Drift at Lime Point, Cal., May 20, 1868.
In estimating the quantity of powder for the charges no
specific rule founded on the lengths of the lines of least
resistance was followed, but the cubical contents of the
rock to be removed was divided by the number of cubic
.# “Professional Papers of the Corps of Royal Engineers,” vol.
WI.
, p. 188.
; #. vols. ii. and vii.
Ibid., vol. x.
















































520
BLASTODERM.–BLEACHING.
feet in a ton, and this result divided by the number of tons
of rock that had been found, in previous blasting, could be
thrown up by one pound of powder. In this case it was 1
pound to 3 tons. The total charge (12,000 pounds) was
then divided into four charges, according to their lines of
least resistance, the tenacity of the rock near each one, and
the proximity of joints. The resulting charges averaged
one-fourth of the cubes of the lines of least resistance.
Jeetzozz ore a, Z. -Z’Azzzz,
Sketch of Powder—Chamber.
The charges were fired by one of Grove’s batteries. The
blast threw out 40,000 tons, of rock, thus averaging 3% tons
to the pound of powder used.
In May, 1868, a large blast was made in the face of the
bluff at Lime Point, entrance to San Francisco Bay, Cal.,
by Major Mendell, Corps of Engineers, to prepare the site
for a fort at that point. The rock is described as “a meta-
morphosed or changed portion of the sandstone formation.”
Its stratification was very much bent and contorted, “re-
sembling the compressed and crumpled leaves of a book.”
An entrance gallery was run into the cliff 45 feet (Fig. 27),
starting twenty feet above low water, and ascending 1 inch
in 10 feet to drain off the water; then the main gallery
made two turns to the left to gain a direction parallel to
the face of the cliff, extending 80 feet farther with the same
grade, at the end of which a chamber was formed for one
charge. Another chamber was formed 60 feet from the first.
The gallery was commenced with dimensions of 6'
height by 4' width, giving space enough for two men
to work and to swing the striking hammer. It was
then decided to use dualin and giant powder. This
permitted a reduction of the size of the drill-holes to
diameters of g inch, and depths of 18 inches, and a
consequent reduction of the drilling force and size of
the drift, one man being able to perform the drilling
in a drift 4 feet high by 3 feet wide. The cartridges
were 5 to 8 inches long, and were tamped. The prim-
ing, consisting of fulminate of mercury contained in a
copper cap, was fired by a fuse. The floor of the
chambers P and P’ were 13 feet above the floor of
the gallery. (Fig. 27.) Two wooden boxes were put
together in them, into which the gunpowder for the
charges was emptied as it was brought in in sacks
which had been filled from casks opened at the en-
trance to the gallery: 3500 pounds were placed in the
first and 4000 in the second chamber. Two priming
caps, connected with two sets of branch wires from the
main wires, were placed in each charge. The two
main wires, connecting with the battery were con- º
tained in a small wooden box, which also contained #
two lines of water fuse to be used if the wires failed. #
In tamping, the vacant space about the box was
filled with sand and sods, without ramming. A wall
of sods was then placed in front of the box; a little
way in rear of this a second wall of sods, with the
space between the two well rammed with clay. This
was continued, Sods and clay alternating, to the mouth
FIG. 29.
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A =
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Aº Čº
Aft: Aº
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A /ă A A =
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Jeezzanºr, AZ.
of the gallery. The face of the cliff in front had been cut
away (Fig.28), to increase the effect of the blast.
The charges were exploded simultaneously by means of
Jeczzoze ozz/ZZ
Beardsley’s magneto-electric machine. “The report was
dull, and scarcely noticeable. The base of the hill was
upheaved, and moved slowly outward. The rock and
earth above, left unsupported, slid in large masses, a con-
siderable portion falling into the sea.” The portion of the
hill near the entrance gallery was not displaced ; the tamp-
ing of this portion was therefore removed, and a charge of
2650 pounds of powder was placed in a third chamber at
P”. It was exploded in the same manner as the others,
and brought down that part of the cliff.
The dotted line (Fig. 27) shows the extent of the breach
made by the three charges. About 5500 cubic yards of
rock were blown down.
The above three examples sufficiently illustrate the course
that has been pursued in blasting by galleries since the
first blast of the kind in 1843, and afford an excellent in-
dication of the proper method to be followed in similar
operations. (See also SUBMARINE BLASTING, by GEN. JoHN
NEwToN, U. S. Eng’rs.) J. G. FostER, U. S. Army.
Blas/to derm [from the Gr. 8Aggrévo, to “germinate,”
and 8épua, the “skin’], a minute thin membrane on that
surface of the yelk which, whatever may be the position
of an egg, is, by a peculiar arrangement, always upper-
most ; the germinal membrane or cicatricula. (See EMBRY-
ology, by PROF. J. C. DALTON, M. D.)
Blat’ta, a genus of insects which includes the cock-
roaches, belonging to the order Orthoptera. Several species
of this insect are disgusting household pests, of which the
most offensive is Blatta orientalis. (See CockROACH.)
Blau (ERNST OTTo FRIEDRICH HERMANN), a German
Orientalist, born April 20, 1821, was sent in 1852 as attaché
to the Prussian embassy in Constantinople, and in 1854 and
1855 travelled through Asia Minor and the Greek Islands.
He has written, besides various articles for different maga-
zines, “ Commerzielle Zustände Persiens” (1858).
Blauw-Boc [Dutch for “blue buck,” so named from
its blue-black color], the Antilope leucophaea an exceed-
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The Blauw-Boc.
ingly swift antelope whose habitat extends from Cape Col-
ony to Senegambia. It is six feet long and three and a
half feet high. It fights when at bay,” and is then dan-
gerous. Its flesh is poor. The name is also given to the
pygmy antelope (Cephalophus pygmaea), which is only a foot
high. It is found in South Africa. It is of a bluish-slate
color.
Błaſzonry, the art of deciphering coats-of-arms; also
that of expressing or describing a coat-of-arms in appro-
priate language. The word is supposed to be derived from
the German blasen, to “blow,” and to have originated in
the ceremonial of tournaments, from which so many other
terms and usages in heraldry are derived, it having been
customary on these solemn occasions for the herald to blow
a trumpet when he called out the arms of a knight on
ushering him into the lists. Blazonry requires a know-
ledge of 1. The points of the shield, which are nine in
number; 2. The field—that is, the tincture or tinctures
forming the ground of the coat; 3. The charges or devices
borne on the field; 4. The ordinaries. -
Bleach'ing [from the Ger. blei'chen, to “whiten" (from
bleich, “white ” or “pale”); Fr. blanchir], a process by




































































PLEACHING.
521°
which the natural colors of various substances are dis-
charged, so as to whiten them. Bleaching is extensively
applied to the textile fibres; linen, cotton, wool, and silk;
and to straw, paper-stock, ivory, wax, animal and vege-
table oils, etc. Until the close of the last century the
agents employed were air, light, and moisture, aided by
weak alkalies and acids. More recently the process has
been wonderfully hastened by the use of such powerful
agents as chlorine and sulphurous acid. Numerous other
agents possessing bleaching properties have been from
time to time recommended, but they have not as yet been
used to any extent. Such are bromine, ozone, permanga-
nates, chromates, etc. The selection of the bleaching agent
depends as much upon the properties of the article to be
bleached as upon the coloring-matters to be removed.
Cotton, flax, and many other vegetable fibres, being com-
posed of cellulose, one of the most permanent of all organic
bodies, are capable of withstanding the action of acids, al-
kalies, and chlorine, while the animal fibres, silk and wool,
being of very different composition, are destroyed by these
agents, and must be bleached by the milder sulphurous
acid.
Modern bleaching includes much more than the mere ap-
pilgation of chlorine or sulphurous acid. The goods are
subjected to certain preliminary cleansing processes, such
as washing in cold or hot water, boiling with alkaline lyes or
soaps, and treatment with acids. By these operations many
resinous, fatty, and other impurities, either natural or in-
troduced during the preparation of the yarn, cloth, etc.,
are removed from the fibre. The more powerful agents
are then used for removing the last traces of coloring-
matter.
SPECIAL METHODs.
Bleaching Linen.—This is a very ancient art. We read
in the Scriptures of “fine linen, white and clean.” The
old method, still practised in some localities, consisted in
the alternate treatment of the cloth with alkaline and acid
liquids, and exposure on the grass to air, light, and moist-
ure. Holland long enjoyed the reputation of possessing
the best bleacheries. The brown linen of Scotland was
sent over early every spring to be bleached, and on its re-
turn in the late autumn was sold under the name of “ Hol-
lands,” a name still retained in the trade for certain kinds
of bleached linen. The word “ lawn" is another name of
similar origin, having been applied to a finer quality of
linen cloth bleached on better grass-plots, or lawns. The
Dutch process lasted from March till September, and con-
sisted of the following distinct operations, often repeated:
(1) steeping in water four or five days, or in an alkaline
lye forty-eight hours. (2) Bucking or bawking, boiling in
an alkaline lye. (3) Crofting, or exposing on the grass for
several weeks, and sprinkling from time to time with water.
(4) Souring with buttermilk. After every dipping the
cloth was washed with soap, then with water. The process
was necessarily very expensive and laborious. In 1749
the Dutch method was introduced into Scotland, where it
was considerably shortened by the employment of dilute
solutions of sulphuric acid in place of buttermilk. In 1784,
Berthollet investigated chlorine, publishing his results in
1787, and announcing the bleaching properties of this
element. Prof. Copeland introduced this agent at Aber-
deen. Chlorine was first used in aqueous solution, then in
alkaline solution, and finally, in 1798, Charles Tennant of
Glasgow introduced chloride of lime, which has been
almost exclusively used ever since. Bleaching linem is
still a tedious operation, as the fibres are heavily incrusted
with impurities; the actual loss during the operations of
bleaching being one-third the original weight, while cotton
loses only one-twentieth. Steeping, washing, bawking, and
crofting are still found necessary, and are several times re-
peated. Souring is effected with hydrochloric or sulphuric
acid. The goods are then chlorinated with hypochlorite of
potash, made by mixing chloride of lime with carbonate
of potash. Washing, souring, soaping, scalding in soap-
suds and weak lye, and crofting, complete the operation.
A fortnight is the shortest time in which the bleaching can
be effected, and often a much longer time is necessary.
Bleaching Cotton.—Cotton is either bleached in the yarn
or in the cloth. The following description of the process
employed in American print-works will sufficiently illus-
trate the methods in common use: The cloth is (1) “singed”
by a shearing-machine or by passing over a red-hot roll
or over a series of gas flames; (2) it is “limed,” boiled for
a night with milk of lime; (3) washed; (4) soured with
dilute sulphuric acid; (5) washed; (6) bawked, boiled for
a night with soda-ash and rosin; (7) washed; (8) bawked
with a weak soda-ash lye for seven or eight hours; (9)
washed; (10) chemicked with a weak solution of chloride
of lime; (II) washed; (12) soured with dilute sulphuric acid;
(13) washed—the entire series of operations being com-
pleted in three or four days.
Bleaching Wool.—Wool is (1) washed on the sheep, to re-
move sweat and much of the dirt, including a peculiar sub-
stance called suint, which is a neutral salt of potash with
a peculiar organic acid. Owing to the high price of potash,
this suint has recently attracted considerable attention, and
a special industry has been established in the French wool
districts for its preservation and utilization. The wool
contains from 15 to 33 per cent. of Suint, a nine-pound
fleece containing twenty ounces of suint, or six to seven
ounces of potash. This can be recovered from the water in
which the sheep are washed. It is estimated that 3,000,000
pounds of potash can be manufactured annually in the
French districts alone. (2) The wool is steeped in soap.
and water, weak alkaline lye, or putrid urine to re-
move a peculiar lime-soap which it contains, and other im-
purities. It is then oiled for spinning, and finally cleansed
and bleached, either in the yarn or in the cloth. The oper-
ations consist in passing it (3) through a weak warm solu-
tion of carbonate of soda and soap ; (4) washing with luke-
warm water; (5) exposing to sulphurous acid gas. Oper-
ations 3, 4, and 5 are sometimes repeated once or twice.
The goods may then be blued with carmine of indigo in a
weak solution of soap containing a little hydrate of alu-
IIll]18.
Silk Bleaching.—Raw silk contains about 40 per cent. of
gummy matter, consisting of albumen, gelatinous sub-
stances, wax, fat, resin, and yellow coloring-matter. This is
removed by boiling the silk in a solution of soap, and wash-
ing with pure water. Bran is sometimes added to the soap
to neutralize by the lactic acid it yields any free alkali
present. When the silk is to be left white, or dyed or
printed with very light colors, it is exposed for a few hours
to sulphurous acid gas. - -
Bleaching Paper-stock.-Cotton and linen rags are bleached
in the same manner as cotton yarn and cloth. Old paper
is treated with caustic soda, to loosen the ink, then with
soapsuds, and finally with chloride of lime. Tow and straw
are treated with caustic soda and lime, and finally bleached
with chloride of line.
Bleaching Straw.—For the manufacture of hats, bonnets,
etc., straw is bleached by (1) exposing it on a meadow to
air, sunlight, and dew, with occasional turning; (2) steam-
ing; (3) fumigating with sulphurous acid gas. -
Jute is bleached by caustic soda and a chlorine bath made
by mixing chloride of lime and sulphate of magnesia ir
equivalent proportions, and dissolving them in cold water.
Human hair is said to be bleached on the head to a blonde
by the action of aqua regia or of peroxide of hydrogen.
Feathers are bleached by immersion (1) in a dilute solution
of bichromate of potassa containing a little nitric acid, and
(2) in a weak solution of sulphurous acid. Sponges are
bleached by immersion in a warm solution of caustic
soda, followed by washing in water and treatment with a
hyposulphite of soda solution, to which a little hydro-
chloric acid has been added. Ivory is bleached by rubbing
it with pumice-stone and water, and placing it under a
glass shade in the sun. It may also be bleached by im-
mersion (1) in a solution of carbonate of soda, (2) in pure
water, (3) in a solution of sulphite of soda ; (4) to the sul-
phite of soda is added dilute hydrochloric acid (5) in pure
water. Beeswax is bleached by exposure to air, sunlight,
and moisture in thin ribbons. Animal and vegetable oils
are often bleached by heating them with a little caustic
alkali, by which a small quantity of soap is formed, which
settles to the bottom, carrying with it some of the coloring-
matter. They are also bleached by exposure in shallow
vessels to the sun under glass. Old engravings which have
turned yellow may be cleansed or bleached by exposure to
ozone, generated in a capacious vessel, by a stick of phos-
phorus partly immersed in water. Immersion for a min-
ute in Javelle water, hypochlorite of soda, is said to answer
equally well, though, to prevent injury to the paper, it must
: subsequently dipped in water containing hyposulphite
of soda.
The Chemistry of Bleaching.—The exact chemical cha-
racter of the changes which occur in bleaching is not fully
established. When the coloring-matter is absolutely de-
stroyed, it is probable that it is generally due to the action
of active oxygen, ozone, formed by the agents employed.
In some cases, however, sulphurous acid unites with the
coloring-matter, forming a colorless compound, the color
of which can be restored again. A red rose bleached by
this agent returns to its original color when placed in di-
lute sulphuric acid.
Antichlore.—If free chlorine is allowed to remain in the
articles bleached, it is liable to injure their strength and
damage the metallic parts of machinery. To prevent this,
substances such as hyposulphite or sulphite of soda, pro-
tochloride of tin, coal-gas, etc. are employed, but the first
mentioned is generally used. These are called ANTICHLORE
(which see). - C. F. CHANDLER.
* 522
BLEAK–BLENNERHASSETT.
Bleak (Leuciscus alburnus), a small and beautiful
fresh-water fish of the family Cyprinidae, belongs to the
##########
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The Bleak.
same genus as the minnow and dace. It is about six inches
long, is found in many European rivers, and is esteemed
as a delicate article of food. The inner surface of its
scales is lined with a silvery substance which is used for
making artificial pearls and white beads to adorn ladies'
dresses.
Bleb, or Bulla [Lat. bulla, a “bubble”], a blister-like
elevation of the cuticle containing a watery fluid. Blebs
are characteristic of some skin diseases, such as pemphigus,
and are occasionally seen in fevers and disordered condi-
tions of the digestion.
Blech/mum [Gr. BAºxvov], a widespread genus of ferns
which has representatives in Europe and North America.
Bied’soe, a county in Tennessee. Area, 330 square
miles. It is drained by the Sequatchie River. The surface
is hilly or mountainous. Grain, wool, and tobacco are the
staples. Coal is found. Capital, Pikeville. Pop. 4870.
Bledsoe (ALBERT TAYLOR), LL.D., an American officer
and teacher, born 1809 in Kentucky, graduated at West
Point in 1830. He served as lieutenant of infantry at Fort
Gibson till he resigned Aug. 31, 1832. He was adjunct
professor of mathematics and teacher of French in Kenyon
College, O., 1833–34, professor of mathematics in Miami
University, O., 1835–36, counsellor-at-law in Springfield,
Ill., 1840–48, professor of mathematics in the University
of Virginia, 1848–53, and during the civil war assistant
secretary of war of the Southern Confederacy. He is
author of an “Examination of Edwards on the Will,”
1845, and “A. Theodicy, or Vindication of the Divine
Glory,” 1856, and other works; contributor to the princi-
pal literary, scientific, and theological reviews of the U.S.,
and now principal of a female academy at Baltimore, Md.,
and editor of the “Southern Review'' (Methodist).
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Bleeck'er, a post-township of Fulton co., N.Y., has
manufactures of lumber and leather. Pop. 970.
Bleed'ing, or Haem’orrhage [from the Gr. oftwa,
“blood,” and fiéo, to “flow ’j, in surgery, denotes the es-
cape of blood from the vessels which normally contain it.
When the escape takes place into the tissues it is called
“extravasation.” Haemorrhage into an internal cavity is
said to be “concealed.” A slight cut through the integu-
ment is usually followed by loss of blood, chiefly from the
capillaries. Capillary bleeding will in many cases cease
spontaneously, or it may require compression or the appli-
cation of medicines, such as persulphate of iron or tannic
acid. These medicines are called haemostatics or styptics.
Arterial bleeding is recognized by the fact that the blood
escapes in jets and is of a bright-red color. . Arterial
bleeding tends spontaneously to grow less, both from the
feebleness of the heart’s action which naturally follows,
and from the retraction and contraction of the arterial
walls, and the consequent formation of a clot of blood,
which plugs the wound; but it may be necessary to resort
to ligation or tying, to acupressure or compression of the
artery by needles, or to pressure, mechanical or by hand,
upon the course of the artery between the heart and the
wound. A handkerchief may be tied around and then twisted
with a stick. The wounded part should be elevated if
possible. Venous bleeding is not generally very formid-
able. It may be recognized by the steady flow of dark
blood. A great source of danger when large veins are cut
is that air may enter the circulation; in which case death
may immediately follow. &
Haemorrhage from an internal and inaccessible surface
may be treated by astringents, as gallic acid, or by ergot,
which is especially important in puerperal haemorrhage.
Some individuals have what is known as the haemorrhagic
diathesis—a disposition to bleed excessively even after a
slight injury. A tendency to haemorrhage from the mucous
surfaces is characteristic of some diseases, such as typhoid
fever.
Bleeding, or Blood-letting, the abstraction of
blood from the circulation as a means of curing or pre-
venting disease. This operation is performed either by
*A
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ºššº
== Šºšº
opening a vein (venesection or phlebotomy), by abstraction
from the capillaries by means of leeches or cups, or more
rarely by opening an artery (arteriotomy). Bleeding
was formerly in extensive use in the treatment of many
diseases, generally of an acute or active character; and
though it has to a great extent been superseded by other
measures, of late years it has been attracting the atten-
tion of the medical profession as a valuable therapeutic
measure in a certain limited class of diseases. While it
is liable to abuse, and while, like many other active meas-
ures in the treatment of disease, it may become a Source
of mischief, it is nevertheless, when used with judgment,
a valuable help in the treatment of some disorders.
Bleek (WILHELM HEINRICH IMMANUEL), born in
Berlin Mar. 8, 1827, settled in Cape Town in 1856, where he
became librarian of Sir George Grey’s valuable library. He
wrote, among other works, a vocabulary of the Mozam-
bique languages (1856), a “Handbook of African, Aus-
tralian, and Polynesian Philology” (London, 1858), “Com-
parative Grammar of the South African Languages” (vol.
i., 1862), “Reynard the Fox in South Africa, or Hottentot
Fables and Tales” (1864), and “Ursprung der Sprache”
(1868). Bleek was probably the first to suggest a rational
explanation of grammatical gender. -
Biende [from the Ger. blenden, to “dazzle”], a name
given to the native sulphide of zinc, which British miners
call black jack. It abounds in primary and in secondary
rocks, and occurs both massive and crystallized in Octahe-
drons and rhomboidal dodecahedrons. Pure blende is com-
posed of 67 per cent. of zinc and 33 of sulphur. It is a
valuable ore, but is more difficult to reduce than calamine.
This is the chief ore employed in the important zinc indus-
try at Friedensville and Bethlehem, Pa. The term is some-
times applied to sulphides of antimony and of manganese,
the former of which is a rare mineral called red antimony.
Blen’don, a post-township of Ottawa co., Mich. P. 718.
Blendon, a township of Franklin co., O. Pop. 1771.
Blendon, a township of Nottaway co., Va. Pop. 3026.
Blenheim, blén'im, or Blind/heim, the name of a
celebrated village of Bavaria, near the Danube, 23 miles
N. N. W. of Augsburg. From it the English have named
the famous battle which occurred at the neighboring village
of Hochstädt, Aug. 13, 1704. Here the allied armies, com-
manded by the duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugène
(who had about 52,000 men), attacked the French and Ba-
varians (about 56,000 men), who were commanded by Tal-
lard and the elector of Bavaria. The duke of Marlborough
and Prince Eugène gained a decisive victory, and took
about 13,000 prisoners. The French and Bavarians also
lost nearly 10,000 killed and wounded, besides many
drowned in the Danube. The French and Germans call
this the battle of Hochstädt.
Blenheim, a thriving village of Harwich township,
Rent co., Ontario (Canada), 12 miles from Chatham, has
several large factories, and a large trade in grain and fruit.
Pop. about 850.
Blenheim, a tp. of Schoharie co., N. Y. Pop. 1437.
Blenheim Dog, or Marlborough Dog, a small
and beautiful variety of spaniel, much resembling the
cocker in form and appearance, but generally of a black
color, with flame-colored spots above the eyes and on the
breast and feet. The muzzle is also fuller. The Blenheim
spaniel is the Pyrame of Buffon. . It derives its English
name from Blenheim Palace, in Oxfordshire, where the
breed has been preserved since the beginning of the eight-
eenth century. These dogs are sometimes sold at an enor-
mous price.
Blenheim House, a magnificent palace in England,
near Oxford, was erected at the public expense for the duke
of Marlborough as a testimony of gratitude for his services
at the battle of BLENHEIM (which see). The nation at the
same time gave him the royal estate of Woodstock, now
called Blenheim Park, which is adjacent to Blenheim House.
This edifice was designed by Vanbrugh, and cost more than
£500,000. It occupies three sides of a square, and the
principal front extends 348 feet from wing to wing. The
collection of paintings which adorns the interior is one of
the largest and most valuable in England.
Blenk'er (Louis), a German patriot and soldier, born
at Worms in 1812. After the defeat of the revolutionary
movement of 1849, of which he had been one of the leaders,
he took refuge in the U.S. In 1861 he became a brigadier-
general in the Union army. Died Oct. 31, 1863.
Bien/merhas'sett (HARMAN), a rich Englishman, born
in Hampshire Oct. 8, 1767, who was ruined by his connection
with Aaron Burr. He was educated at Trinity College,
Dublin. In 1798 he purchased an island in the Ohio
River, 2 miles below Parkersburg, and erected on it an ex-






BLENNORREICEA-BLINDAGE.
523
pensive mansion. He advanced money to aid Burr in his
enterprises, and was indicted for treason in 1807 as an ac-
complice of Burr, but was released without a trial. Died
Feb. 1, 1831, in Guernsey.
Blennorrhoe'a [Gr. 8Aévva, “ mucous,” and Béo, to
“flow ’’), an abnormally copious discharge from any mu-
cous membrane. In discharges termed blennorrhoeal there
is a mixture of epithelial scales in large quantities from the
mucous membrane, with numerous pus-cells. After in-
flammation of the urinary mucous membrane a gleety dis-
charge frequently continues for a long period. The treat-
ment consists in establishing health by tonics, fresh air,
and careful regimen, with astringent lotions to lessen the
secretion, and occasional local stimulants to alter the de-
praved condition of the mucous membrane.
Bien'ny (Blen/nius), a genus of fishes of the order Tele-
ostea and family Blenniidae. To this family the wolf-fish
and the gunnel or butter-fish are referred. They are gen-
erally remarkable for the abundance of slimy matter with
which their skin is covered. Many are destitute of scales.
The body is generally of an elongated form. They have
only one dorsal fin, which, however, seems in many of them
as if composed of two parts. They are found in the seas
of many parts of the world. The blennies are small fishes,
living in shoals, and often found in pools left dry by the
tide. They possess the power of using their ventral fins to
aid them in moving about among rocks and sea-weeds.
They are seldom used as an article of food, but are in
request for the aquarium, on account of their tenacity
of life and their activity. They feed chiefly on small
crustaceans. The Blennius ocellaris (eyed blenny), called
also the butterfly-fish, has a large and prominent dorsal
fin, in which is a spot
resembling an eye. This
beautiful fish is com-
mon in the Mediterra-
nean, and is sometimes
found on the coast of
England. º
Many of the blenny
family retain their eggs
within the oviduct until
they are hatched, so that
the young are produced
alive, and capable of seeking food for themselves. An ex-
ample of this is found in the viviparous blennies (Zoar.ces
vivipara) of the British seas. Several blennies are found
on the American coasts.
Blen’s Creek, a township of Forsyth co., N. C.
Pop. 817. - -
Bleph'aris [Gr. 3Asdapts, an “ eyelash,” referring to
Eyed Blenny.
&::=ºs
The Blepharis.
the long filaments attached to the fins], a genus of fishes
allied to the mackerel and the dory, includes the hair-
finned dory, Blepharis crimitus, a fish found, though
rarely, on the North American Atlantic coast.
Bléré [Lat. Bliriaeum], a town of France, department
of Indre-et-Loire, on the river Cher, 16 miles E. S. E. of
Tours. It has a bridge built about 1150. Pop. in 1866,
3561. Near it is the château of Chenoneeaux, which Henry
II. of France gave in 1535 to Diana of Poitiers, who, hay.
ing sumptuously embellished it, was compelled to transfer
it to Catherine de Médicis. In 1733 it was purchased by
M. Dupin, the wit and beauty of whose widow caused it to
be frequented by Fontenelle, Voltaire, Buffon, Rousseau,
and others. The castle is in good preservation.
Bles-Bok (Damalis albifrons), an antelope of South
Africa. Its name is derived from the blaze (Dutch, bles) of
white in its face.
Bles'sed. This/tle (Cnicus benedictus), a plant of the
order Compositae, a native of Europe, sparingly naturalized
in the U. S. It was formerly regarded with great vener-
ation on account of its supposed medicinal virtues, which
are celebrated by Burton in his “Anatomy of Melancholy,”
and by Shakspeare, under the name of Carduus benedictus.
It is tonic and diaphoretic.
Bles/sington (MARGARET GARDINER), CountEss of, an
accomplished and beautiful Irish lady, born near Clonmel,
in Tipperary county, Sept. 1, 1789. Her maiden name was
Power. She was married in 1818 to the earl of Blessing-
ton, who was her second husband. She travelled with him
extensively on the Continent, and after he died in 1829 she
lived in Gore House, London, where her soirées were at-
tended by many literati and other eminent persons. She
published “Conversations with Lord Byron’ (1834), “The
Idler in France,” and other works. Died in Paris June 4,
1849. (See R. R. MADDEN, “The Literary Life and Corre-
spondence of Lady Blessington,” 3 vols., 1855.)
Bli'dah, or Blida, a town of Algeria, in the province
of Algeria, about 30 miles S. W. of Algiers. It is pleasantly
situated on the border of the Metidjah, is a station on a
railway, and is said to be very flourishing. It has been
occupied by the French since 1838. Pop. in 1866, 9975.
Bligh (WILLIAM), an English naval officer, born in 1753.
He commanded the ship “Bounty,” with which he was sent
to Tahiti in Dec., 1787, to procure plants of the bread-
fruit tree, in order to plant them in the West Indies. Dur-
ing his voyage for Jamaica with a cargo of these plants
a part of his crew mutinied, April 28, 1789, on account of
his harsh treatment. The captain and eighteen of his men
were sent adrift in the launch, and after much suffering
arrived at the island of Timor in June, having traversed
3600 nautical miles in an open boat. The mutineers settled
| on Pitcairn's Island. Bligh was appointed governor of
New South Wales in 1806, but his conduct was so tyran-
nical that he was expelled in 1808. Died Dec. 7, 1817.
Blight [probably from the Anglo-Saxon be and lihtan,
“to fall upon ’, a term in common use for supposed atmo-
spherical injuries received by plants. Before effects were
traced to their causes with the same care that they are at
present, the sudden discoloration of the leaves of plants,
their death, or their being covered with minute insects or
Small excrescences, was called by the general name of blight;
and this blight was attributed to some mysterious influence
in the air, to the east wind, or to thunder, because these
states of the atmosphere commonly accompanied those phe-
nomena. It is now found that what is called blight is in
some cases the effect of insects, to the progress of which a
peculiar state of the atmosphere often contributes; while
in other cases it is caused by parasitical fungi. These fungi
on grain crops are called fireblast, bunt, Smut, brand, and
rust. The ergot or spurred rye used in medicine is a some-
what similar fungus. Ergot in grain used as food may
lead to gangrenous diseases. A fungus upon the grape
constitutes mildew, a most destructive disease.
The sudden death of plants without apparent cause, and
also the withering and drying up of part of their leaves
and branches, to which appearance the term blight should
perhaps be restricted, are produced by the transpiration of
water from the leaves taking place with greater rapidity
than it can be supplied by the absorption of the roots, and
also by the roots becoming attacked by fungus spawn. In
very hot weather in summer branches of fruit trees trained
against walls, or of gooseberry bushes on espaliers, are
sometimes withered up in a few minutes from this cause.
| Blight on standard apple or other fruit trees in orchards is
often nothing more than the injuries done to the leaves and
buds by the caterpillars of certain moths; that on thorn
hedges by the caterpillar of the saw-fly or of the ermine, or
of some other moths; and that on roses, by the aphides or
green-fly.
Blind (KARL), a German liberal politician, born at
Mannheim Sept.4, 1820, had a prominent part in the revo-
lutions of 1848 and 1849, and in 1852 took refuge in Eon-
don. Having been pardoned by the government of Baden
in 1867, he returned to Germany, where he has since dis-
tinguished himself as a zealous opponent of the policy of
Bismarck. w
Blind’age, in fortification, a term applied to a screen
made of timber and earth, or any fixture designed to shelter
the garrison or conceal their operations from the enemy.
The blindage is sometimes formed of fascines, placed on
the inner orest of a battery and continued over the top of
the embrasures. Other blindages, used to protect the gun-
| ners of a battery from a vertical fire, consist of plain and


524
BLIND-FISH-BLISS.
*—
strong timbers, one end of which is placed on the inner
crest of the parapet and the other end on the ground.
Blinda fish.
BHind'ness [Lat. caecitas], the absence of the sense of
sight, is caused by disease, defect, or injury of the eye, of
the optic nerve, or of that part of the brain connected
with it. Blindness may be complete or incomplete; it may
exist from birth or may accompany extreme age. It may
be transient or permanent. Permanent blindness may fol-
low the various eruptive fevers, especially those of child-
hood, such as scarlet fever and smallpox. Congenital
blindness is generally from deficient development of the
nervous apparatus, and is detected by the child being
indifferent to light and throwing its head from side to
side. Very rarely the power of vision is subsequently
developed, except when congenital cataract is removed.
Opacity of the vitreous humor or of the crystalline lens
—the latter known as cataract—causes blindness, which
comes on gradually. The blindness from cataract is seldom
so complete as to prevent the person from distinguishing
day from night, or from being aware of opaque bodies
passing between him and the light. Opacities of the
cornea, if extensive or in the axis of vision, produce some
degree of blindness. Advances in knowledge of anatomy
have enabled surgeons to restore sight in cases which years
ago would have been hopeless.
Night blindness (hemeralopia) is a condition in which
a person finds, towards evening, that objects are becoming
less and less distinct, and at last that he is totally or
nearly blind. This affection has attacked bodies of troops
exposed to great fatigues and the glare of the sun. If
there is no disease within the brain, recovery generally
results from protecting the eyes from the light, entire
repose, and the use of such remedies as may correct any
constitutional defect in the individual attacked.
Day blindness (nyctalopia) is characterized by inability
to see in a bright light; the subjects of it see more than
usually well at night. Captives long immured in dark
cells are often affected with it. Among nocturnal animals,
as owls, bats, etc., it is the normal condition. It accom-
panies albinism in some instances.
“The world of the blind,” says Prescott, “is circum-
scribed by the little circle which they can span with their
own arms. All beyond this has no real existence.” Some
subjects of knowledge will always be beyond the blind
man’s reach. Light, color, and space he cannot fully
realize. Cheselden once successfully operated on a boy for
blindness. It was two months before he discovered that
pictures represented solid bodies; he thought them planes
differently colored, and when he began to have some notion
of the truth, in touching the canvas of a picture he ex-
pected to find something solid upon it. . The words sea and
sky do not convey the same image to the blind which they
convey to us, and there must be a large class of words
in the same category. But though the circle of which
Prescott speaks is narrow, yet within it the perceptions of
the blind are remarkably active and accurate. The fact
of their isolation renders their mental operations more
concentrated.
As a class, we find the blind to be thoughtful and quiet,
with peculiar sensitiveness of mind and feeling; grateful
for every kindness; equally tenacious in remembering the
least affront, and often self-willed and opinionative. These
are but the natural results of scanty information, and a
narrow field of observation and acquirement. Not a few
blind persons, however, are possessed of peculiar sweetness
of disposition, and it is obvious that different conditions
may produce great differences of character in such sensitive
natures. The logs of the sense of sight, as is well known, is
See AMBLYOPSIS.
partly compensated for by a wonderfully increased sensi–
tiveness of hearing and touch.
The making of baskets, mats, rugs, list shoes, brushes,
knitting, netting, wood-turning, and hair-work are among
the trades which the blind practise with success. The study
of music is often the blind man’s delight. Some blind men
have even become famous as musicians—two of them so
remarkable that even Handel expressed great delight at
their skill. But a pleasing mediocrity is the average attain-
ment of blind players.
Modern civilization is distinguished for its efforts to pro-
vide for the mental wants of this unfortunate class. The
first school devoted to the instruction of the blind was
established in Paris in 1784 by Valentine Haüy, a generous
and enthusiastic but impractical man. Asylums, without
systematic instruction, had been established at various
places in Europe during the Middle Ages, and some of
these still exist. The first school for the blind in the
U. S. was the New England Asylum (now the Perkins In-
stitution) at Boston, Mass., founded in 1829. Among those
who have been distinguished for their zeal and success
IYLOI’ê.
in this work we may mention Dr. John G. Fisher, the
founder of the above school, Dr. S. G. Howe of Boston,
Dr. Akerley of New York, Dr. Dunglison and Robert
Vaux of Philadelphia. Books for the blind are at pres-
ent generally printed with raised Roman letters, though
various other alphabets, some of them stenographic, have
been devised. Some blind persons, however, acquire such
a nice sense of touch as to be able to read ordinary printed
matter by the fingers alone. -
The census of 1870 reports 20,320 blind persons in the
U. S., but there is no doubt that many cases of partial and
some of total blindness were not reported to the census-
takers. The following is a list of institutions for the blind
in the U. S. :
3 &
Nume. Location. ; g
|}< gº
Institution for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind Talladega, Ala....... 1858
Institution for the Blind.................... Little Rock, Ark....|1859
Institution for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind |Oakland, Cal......... 1866
Academy for the Blind....................... acon, Ga............. 1853
Institution for the Blind.................... Jacksonville, Ill.....|1849
Institution for the Blind.................... Indianapolis, Ind...|1847:
Institution for the Blind.................... Vinton, Ia............. 1853
Institution for the Blind.................... Wyandotte, Kan... [1868
Institution for the Blind.................... Louisville, Ky....... 1842
Louisiana Institution for Instruction
of the Blind.................................... Baton Rouge, La...|1870
Institution for the Blind.................... Daltimore, Md....... 1853
Perkins Institute and Massachusetts
Asylum for the Blind.......... • * * * * * * * * * * * Boston, Mass.........|1829
Institution for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind |Flint, Mich............ 1854
Minnesota Institution for Deaf, Dumb,
and Blind....................................... Faribault, Minn.... 1863
Institution for the Blind.................... Jackson, Miss..... .. 1853
Institution for the Blind.................... St. Louis, Mo......... 1851
New York State Institution for the
Blind.............................................. Batavia, N. Y........ 1867
New York Institution for the Blind... |New York City, N.Y. 1831
Institution for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind ||Raleigh, N.C......... 1846
Institution for the Blind.................... Columbus, O.......... 1837
Institution for the Blind............. ...... Philadelphia, Pa... 1833
Institution for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind Cedar Springs, S.C.|1869
Institution for the Blind.................... Nashville, Tenn.... 1844
Institution for the Blind.................... Austin, Tex.......... 1856
Institution for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind Staunton, Va.........|1839
Institution for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind |Homney, W.Va..... [1870
Institution for the Blind.................... Janesville, Wis...... [1850
The following list gives the names of some of the chief
schools for the blind in Europe :
Founded Founded
Paris................................ 1784|Breslau ........................... 1819
Liverpool ......................... â791 |Barcelona ........................ 1820
Edinburgh........................ 1791|Naples.............................. 1822
London............................ 1800|Gmünd............................. 1823
St. Petersburg.................. 1806|Lintz................... 1824
Berlin.............................. 1806|Perth............................... 1825
Vienna ............................ 1804|Manchester........... .......... 1827
Prague............................. 1804. Glasgow........................... 1827
Amsterdam...................... 1808|Freisingen ....................... 1828
Zurich ............................. 1809|Bruchal ............................ 1828
Dresden.......................... 1809|Hamburg ........................ 1830
Dublin............................ 1810|York............................... 1838
Copenhagen..................... 1811 Cork ............................... 1840
Stockholm........................ 1817|Munich ........................... 1844
Koenigsberg .................... 1818|Iausall me......................... 1844
Besides the above, there is a very great number of local
schools for the blind, in Europe, some of them of the high-
est excellence. REVISED BY CHAs. W. GREENE.
Blind'story, or Trifo/rium, the second arcade in the
wall which separates the body from the aisles of a church.
It is so called as opposed to the clearstory, the uppermost
arcade, the apertures of which admit light into the church,
while the apertures of the triforium are dark. The blind-
story serves to give access to the various parts of the build-
ing, and to suspend banners on holidays. The gloom of the
blindstory contrasts well with the brightness of the clear-
story.
Blind’ worm, a popular name of the Anguis fragilis,
which, however, is not blind nor a worm. It has been
usually regarded as a serpent by naturalists, or a link be-
tween serpents and saurians (lizards). Mr.Gray has arranged
the Angwis and several other genera in the order Sauro-
phidia (“lizard serpents”). The blindworm has a cylin-
drical body, destitute of external limbs, but the bones of the
shoulder and pelvis exist in a rudimentary state. It is
found in nearly all parts of Europe, is inoffensive and
timid, and moves very slowly; hence it is sometimes called
slowworm. Its length varies from ten to fifteen inches or
When alarmed it contracts itself forcibly and be-
comes very brittle, so that it is easily broken in two by
bending it. (See GLASS SNAKE.)
Bliss (WILLIAM W. S.), A.M., an American officer, born
Aug., 1815, at Whitehall, N. Y., graduated at West Point
in 1833, and assistant adjutant-general (rank of major)
July 7, 1846. He served in the Cherokee Nation 1833–34,
as assistant professor at the Military Academy 1834–40, in
BLISSFIELD–BLOCK-HOUSE.
525
the Florida war 1840–41, being chief of staff to command-
ing general, as assistant adjutant-general at head-quarters
of Western military departments 1842–45, as chief of staff
of Maj.-Gen. Taylor in the military occupation of Texas
1845–46, in the war with Mexico 1846–48, in command of
the Western division 1848–49, engineer at Palo Alto, Re-
saca de la Palma (brevet major), Monterey, and Buena Vis-
ta (brevet lieutenant-colonel), as private secretary of Pres-
ident Taylor Mar. 4 to July 9, 1850, and as assistant adju-
tant-general of the Western division, head-quarters at New
Orleans, La., 1850–53. He was presented in 1849, by the
State of New York, in “appreciation of him as a soldier
and a man,” with a gold medal, with suitable devices, for
his gallant services in Mexico, and honored with member-
ship of learned associations at home and abroad. He was
highly distinguished for his acquirements in science, liter-
ature, and languages, was a most graceful and forcible
writer, as shown by the celebrated despatches of Gen. Tay-
lor from his pen, and his great wealth of learning and humor
made him a most entertaining companion. Died Aug. 5,
1853, at East Pascagoula, Miss., aged thirty-eight.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
- Bliss'field, a post-township of Lenawee co., Mich.
Pop. 1766.
Bliss'ville, or Fredericton Junction, a post-vil-
lage of Sunbury co., New Brunswick (Canada), on the Oro-
mocto River, and at the junction of the European and North
American R. R. with the Fredericton branch, 41 miles from
Fredericton. It has a fine railroad station, several steam-
mills, and is a place of growing importance.
Błistered Steel. See STEEL, by A. L. Holi, Ey.
Blis’ters are plasters which, when applied to the skin,
raise the cuticle into vesicles filled with serous fluid. They
have for their object a counter-irritation or diversion of in-
flammatory action from an internal part to the surface of
the body. The common blister is made of cantharides or
Spanish fly (Cantharis or Lytta vegicatoria), mixed with a
convenient proportion of lard and wax. If applied too
long it produces distressing affections of the urinary blad-
der. In children and sensitive persons a layer of thin
gauze may be placed between the blister and the skin. Un-
der no circumstances should a blister be left long upon chil-
dren, as it may produce sores which are difficult to heal. When
the blister has raised, the vesicles should be pricked and
their fluid contents allowed to trickle away, the vesicated
surface being then dressed with simple cerate or lard.
Blitt’ersdorf, von (FRIEDRICH LANDOLIN KARL), BAR-
ON, minister to the grand duke of Baden, a zealous support-
er of the Metternich policy, born Feb. 3, 1792, wrote “Einiges
aus der Mappe des Freiherrn von Blittersdorf.” Died
April 16, 1861.
Bii’tum [Gr. 8Atrov], a genus of plants belonging to the
order Chenipodiaceae. he common “strawberry blite ”
(Blitum capitatum) of North America is a plant perhaps in-
troduced from the south of Europe, but probably native of
both continents. There are several other species likewise
common on both sides of the Atlantic.
Block [Fr. bloc), a heavy piece of timber; a massy
body, solid and heavy ; the piece of wood on which crim-
inals are beheaded; the wooden mould on which a hat is
formed; any obstacle or obstruction; also a continuous row
of buildings. The term is applied in New York and other
cities to the space and buildings between each street and
the next street.
BLOCK, in architecture, is used to denote large, unworked
masses of marble or stone ; also a modillion in a cornice,
or the small projections left on the stones of some ancient
buildings, which are supposed to be indications of the un-
finished state of the work, though they are found in elab-
orately constructed buildings.
BLOCK, in the rigging of a ship, is the part of the appa-
ratus for raising sails and yards, tightening ropes, etc. The
uses of blocks are very numerous on shipboard, and to sub-
Serve these uses they are distributed about the masts and
yards. The block comprises a shell or exterior, a sheave or
pulley on which the rope runs, a pin on which the sheave
turns, and a strap to fasten the block in its place. A single
block contains only one sheave; a double block, two; and
so on. Besides the designation of blocks according to the
number of sheaves they contain (as single, double), they
receive other names—such as cheek block, clew—garnet
block, clew-line block, etc. Elm is used for blocks, and
lignumvitae for sheaves. -
Until 1781 ships' blocks were made by hand. But it re-
quired unusual skill and practice to fashion the pieces and
put them together so as to possess the requisite strength
and facility in working. More than 1400 blocks were re-
quired for one of the old seventy-fours, and a proportionate
number for other vessels. In 1781 a Mr. Taylor began to
make the sheaves and shells of blocks by machinery for
the British navy. Sir M. I. Brunel, in 1801, invented ma-
chinery for making blocks, which was put into successful
operation in 1808. Thomas Blanchard, the American me-
chanician, invented most ingenious machines for block-
making. For his invention and superintending the work,
Brunel received from the British government £20,000.
Block (MoRITz), a French writer on statistics and po-
litical economy, born at Berlin Feb. 18, 1816. Among his
works are “Statistics of France” (2 vols., 1860), “Europe,
Political and Social” (1869, both in French), “Die
Bevölkerung des Französischen Kaiserreichs’’ (1861), and
“Die Bevölkerung Spanien's und Portugals” (1861). Since
1856 he has published the “Annuaire de l'économiepolitique
et de la et statistique.”
Blockade, in international law, is the means in time
of war of prohibiting neutrals from all intercourse with an
enemy's port; and it is carried into effect by an armed
force (ships of war or forts), which blocks up and bars ex-
port or import to or from the place blockaded. This right
is sanctioned by all civilized nations. Blockades may be-
gin in the simple fact of obstructing entrance into a port,
or in official notice. According to French doctrine, a ves-
sel may approach the entrance of a port with impunity, and
must be warned off by a blockading vessel; but according
to English and American practice, due notice given to the
public authority of a state makes its vessels liable to pen-
alty for attempting to enter the port. Blockades without
notification are chiefly resorted to in an emergency, and are
temporary: they require notification at the mouth of the
harbor. To constitute a valid blockade, declared intention
and actual force are necessary. A blockade ends when a
blockading force is withdrawn voluntarily, or is driven off,
not by storm, but by a superior hostile force; and to renew.
it new notification is necessary. The Declaration of Paris
in 1856 defines valid blockade to be such as prevents in-
gress into a harbor. This is somewhat vague, but cuts off
all paper blockades, such as those laid by the Orders in
Council and the Berlin and Milan Decrees. Only harbors
or forts and mouths of rivers can be blockaded, and the
latter only so as not to prevent vessels from access to a port
of a neutral up the stream. The breach of blockade may
be either by coming out of the blockaded port or going in.
The breach of blockade subjects the property so employed
to confiscation; there is no rule of the law of nations more
established than this, and it is universally acknowledged
by all civilized governments. The violation of blockade
by the master, however, affects the ship, but not the cargo,
unless the cargo is the property of the same owner, or un-
less the owner of the cargo is cognizant of the intended
violation. - -
On the proclamation of peace, or from any political or
belligerent cause, the continuance of the investment may
cease to be necessary, and the blockade is then said to be
raised. The blockading force then retires, and the port is
open as before to all other nations.
THEO. D. WoOLSEY.
Blockade, in military art, signifies an operation and
effort to reduce and capture a fort or town without a bom-
bardment or regular siege, relying solely upon the stop-
page of supplies. The attacking party throws up redoubts
or other works on the neighboring heights and roads. A
part of the investing army sometimes remains in a tempo-
rary camp, ready to repel a sortie of the garrison. Forts
built on steep and rocky eminences may be reduced more
easily by blockade, because the roads or paths by which
supplies can be received are few, and can be guarded by a
small force. - -
Block Books. Previous to the invention of printing,
besides the calligraphists and illuminators who prepared
and adorned the books of scholars and clerics, there existed
a separate guild for the fabrication of school-books and
books of devotion, as well as calendars and popular medi-
cal books for the lay public. These were ornamented with
rude paintings. The card-painters were identical with this
craft until the beginning of the fifteenth century. As the
demand for the products of their art increased, they in-
vented the process of block-printing, cutting into blocks of
wood, and sometimes plates of metal, so as to leave the let-
ters and pictures standing out, and applying colors to these
and taking impressions. In these xylographic books,
sometimes one, sometimes both sides of the sheet were
printed. -
Block Creek, a township of Wilson co., N. C. P. 1474.
Block’ers, a township of Tuscaloosa co., Ala. P. 950.
Blockers, a township of Edgefield co., S. C. P. 1035.
Block-House, a wooden redoubt or temporary fort, is
always covered. It is usually rectangular, is built of logs,
and has two stories, one of which is sunk several feet below
\.
526
BLOCK ISLAND–BLOOD-HOUND.
the surface of the ground. The upper story projects a few
feet beyond the lower on all sides. It is loopholed for the
use of muskets. Block-houses have been much employed
in the U. S. as a defence against Indians. If exposed to
the fire of artillery, they should be formed of double rows
§ logs three feet, apart, with well-rammed earth between
them. - * *
Block Island, an island belonging to the State of Rhode
Island, situated between Montauk Point, the E. extremity
of Long Island, and Point Judith. It constitutes the town-
ship of New Shoreham in Newport county. It is 8 miles
long and from 2 to 5 miles wide. Block Island light, at the
N. extremity, is in lat. 41° 13' 46” N., lon. 71° 34' 17" W.
Pop. 1113. -
Block/Iey, a former township of Philadelphia co., Pa.,
on the W. side of the Schuylkill River, is now included in
the city of Philadelphia. It is the site of the Blockley In-
Sane Asylum, and of a large almshouse occupied by the
paupers of the city.
Block-Printing. See PRINTING.
Block Tim, a name of a variety of tin which is inferior
in quality to grain tin. During the process of melting or
reduction in a reverberatory furnace the purest tin first
fuses, and is withdrawn. The residue, being melted at a
higher temperature, is poured into moulds, and is called
block tin.
Błod'get (LORIN), an American scientist and writer,
born in Chautauqua co., N. Y., May 23, 1823. He received
a thorough common-school and academical education. In
1851 he became assistant professor at the Smithsonian In-
stitution at Washington. He sent, in 1852, the results of his
researches in climatology to the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, and the following year presented
a series of papers on the same subject at the meeting of the
American Association at Cleveland, which may be said to
have laid the foundation of American climatology. In
1853–54, Mr. Blodget had direction of the observations and
calculations of the Pacific R. R. survey. Near the close of
1854 he was transferred to the war department, but con-
tinued to have charge of the surveys. In 1855 he published
a quarto volume of climatological observations, and in 1857,
“Climatology in the U. S.,” a work extensively circulated.
and very favorably received in Europe. From 1859 to 1864
he was editor of the “North American,” published in Phila-
delphia, and secretary of the Philadelphia Board of Trade
from 1858 to 1864. From 1863 to 1865 he had charge of the
commercial bureau of the treasury department at Washing-
ton, and published several volumes of official reports. In
1865 he was made U. S. appraiser at large. He contributed
articles on finance to the “North American Review º' in
1866 and 1867, besides making contributions to various
other publications. Mr. Blodget's reputation is perhaps
even greater in Europe than in the U. S. Some of his
writings on climatology were warmly commended by Alex-
ander von Humboldt. -
Blodget (SAMUEL), born at Woburn, Mass., April 1,
1724, became a judge of common pleas in Hillsboro’ co.,
N. H., and served in the Louisburg expedition of 1745.
In 1783 he raised a sunken ship with a valuable cargo near
Plymouth, and went to Europe to prosecute similar enter-
prises, but met with small encouragement. He commenced
the duck manufacture in New Hampshire in 1781. He after-
wards undertook the construction of a canal around. Amos-
keag Falls. Died at Haverhill, N.H., Sept. 1, 1807.
Bloemfontein, the capital of the Orange River Free
State, in South Africa, on a tributary of the Modder, in
about lat. 29° 10' S., lon. 26° 40' E. Pop. about 1200.
Blois (ane. Ble'sse), a town of France, capital of the de-
partment of Loire-et-Cher, is finely situated on high ground
on both sides of the Loire, and on the railway from Örleans
to Tours, 36 miles by rail S. W. of Orleans, and 112 miles
by rail S. W. of Paris. . It has a fine cathedral, a college, a
public library, a botanic garden, an episcopal palace, and
a hôtel de ville. Here is the celebrated castle of Blois, the
scene of many interesting historical events, and once the
favorite residence of the kings of France. Francis I., Henry
II., and Charles IX. held their courts in this castle, which
has been inhabited by many princes. Blois is a place of
great antiquity, and was once more important than it is
now. It has manufactures of gloves and porcelain, and a
trade in brandy, wine, and timber. Here is an aqueduct
cut in the rock by the ancient Romans. Pop. 20,068.
Blom'field (CHARLES JAMEs), D.D., a learned English
prelate, born at Bury St. Edmund's, in Suffolk, May 29, I?86,
graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge. He edited sev-
eral dramas of Æschylus and the works of Callimachus
(1824). He became bishop of Chester in 1824, and bishop
of London in 1828. He was an efficient promoter of the
erection of new churches in London. His principles were
animal economy.
probably about 100°. F. in the deep-seated vessels.
specific gravity is about 1060, but is not uniform. The
-* -
“High Church.” Died Aug. 5, 1857. (See DR. BIBER,
“Bishop Blomfield, and his Times,” 1857; A. BLOMFIELD, .
“Life of C. J. Blomfield,” 1863.)
Blom/maert (PHILIPPUs), an eminent Belgian author
and philologist, born about 1809. He published editions.
of old Flemish poems, and translated the Niebelungen into
Dutch or Flemish iambics. His most important work is a
“History of the Belgians” (1849).
Blood [Ger. Blut], the principal nutritive fluid of ani-
mals, and the most abundant and complex fluid in the
It consists of a clear, transparent plas-
ma, the “liquor sanguinis,” and a great number of floating.
corpuscles, which are also nearly transparent; while the
two together constitute in all the higher animals an opaque
red fluid. In most of the invertebrates and in the Amphi-
oacus, a fish of a low type, the blood is clear and transpar-
ent. In vertebrates only are the corpuscles found. The
red color of the blood is brightest in the arteries, while in
the veins it assumes a dark, almost blue-black tint. It has
a faint odor, often characteristic of the animal from which
it is taken. The temperature of human blood in ºth;
tS
blood-plasma or liquor sanguinis consists of water holding
in solution a large proportion of albumen, a much smaller
amount of fibrin, a variable amount of the carbonates,
phosphates, sulphates, chlorides, and certain organic salts
of potash and soda, and of the sulphates and phosphates
of lime and magnesia, with a little iron, and certain un-
determined organic “extractives.” Sugar exists in the
venous blood, and so does a fatty emulsion. Urea, the
urates, cholesterine, creatine, carbonic acid, and other ex-
crementitious matters are borne along by the blood until
excreted by the proper organ. The liquor sanguinis, when
its fibrin is removed by coagulation, is called serum—a
term which is sometimes applied to the liquid before de-
fibrination. When blood is withdrawn from the circula-
tion, it rapidly separates into a rather firm clot (coagulum
or crassamentum), consisting of fibrin, which when alone is
white and clear, but unless washed it is usually colored red
by the red corpuscles which it entangles. -
If the plasma of blood be defibrinated and then heated,
or nitric acid be added, a large white coagulum of albumen .
will be observed. Albumen is the most abundant, and in
nutrition is probably the most important, of the principles
of the blood. -
The corpuscles already alluded to are of two kinds: (1)
the red corpuscles, which constitute nearly half the mass
of the blood, to which they give its color. They are flat,
biconcave disks, circular in all mammals, except the camels
and llamas, in which they are oval, as in the inferior verte-
brates. In man they are #2 on of an inch in diameter. (2)
The white corpuscles or leucocytes, which are very much
less abundant than the others. They are identical with the
pus-cells, the colostrum-corpuscles, and with the tissue-cells
generally. Their function in the blood is not well known.
The white corpuscle is a true cell, while the red corpuscle
is not. It is believed by many that the red corpuscles are
bearers of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. The
greater part of the iron of the blood is contained in them.
Their coloring-matter, haemoglobine or cruorine, is believed
by some theorists to owe its red color to this iron. The
composition and physical properties of blood are quite
variable, changing with changes of food, of health, or of
habits. The circulating fluid of the invertebrates differs
widely from true blood, though analogous in origin and uses.
CHAs. W. GREENE. .
Blood-bird (Myzomela sanguinolenta), a beautiful
little species of honeysucker, which receives its name from
the rich scarlet color of the head, breast, and back of the
male. It inhabits the thickets of New South Wales.
Blood-flower (Haemanthus), a genus of bulbous
plants of the natural order Amaryllidaceae, mostly natives
of South Africa, derive their name from the red color of the
flowers. They are cultivated in greenhouses for the beauty
of their flowers, which grow in heads or clusters. The
leaves of some species are linear, and those of others nearly
round. The inspissated juice of Haemanthus toxicarius is
used by the natives of South America to poison their arrows.
Blood-hound [so called because formerly employed
to track wounded game by their blood], a name applied to
several varieties of the dog, distinguished for the keenness
of their scent and the persistency with which they will fol-
low the track of game. They have been employed in many
petty wars to track small forces of partisans, to follow es-
caped prisoners, etc., as in time of peace they have been
trained to hunt felons, poachers, and fugitive slaves.
When kept for these purposes they acquire a peculiarly
ferocious and bloodthirsty character, but when employed
for the chase they are sagacious and trusty. The Cuban
BLOOD-MONEY-BLOOMINGDALE.
527
and Russian hounds are celebrated for their ferocity. They
differ much from the English hounds, but like them have
pendulous ears and lips and a compact and muscular build.
Blood-money, a term anciently applied to money
paid by a person guilty of homicide to the next of kin. In
England, before the Norman Conquest, the amount of this
money was fixed by law, and varied with the rank of the
person killed. Similar customs exist now among barbarous
Iſa,CeS. j
Blood-root (Sangwinaria Canadensis), a plant of the
natural order Papaveraceae, growing wild in many parts of
North America. It is one of our most beautiful early
spring flowers. It takes its name from the orange-colored
sap of the root, which contains the alkaloid sanguinarina,
remarkable for the fine red color of its salts. The root of
this plant is a valuable stimulant expectorant, but its use
requires caution, for its administration has been followed
by the symptoms of acro-narcotic poisoning.
Bloodstone. See HELIOTROPE.
Bloody Run, a post-borough of Bedford co., Pa., 90
miles W. S. W. of Harrisburg, and on the Huntingdon and
Broad Top R. R., 43 miles S. W. of Huntingdom. Here are
coal and iron mines. Pop. 557.
Bloom [from the Ger. Blume, a “flower”], a flower, a
blossom, an expanded bud, the opening of flowers in gem-
eral. A plant is said to be in bloom when its flowers are
open. Bloom is also the blue color or powder found on
plums, grapes, and other fruits. The term is also applied
to a state of development into the prime and vigor of life
and beauty.
BLOOM, in fine art, an appearance on paintings resem-
bling the bloom on plums and other fruits. It prevents the
transparency and impairs the general effect of a picture.
To obviate this defect the picture should be carefully dried
before the application of the varnish, which should be
heated before it is applied.
Bloom, a post-township of Cook co., Ill. Pop. 1213.
Błoom, a township of Fairfield co., O. Pop. 2071.
Bloom, a township of Morgan co., O. Pop. 987.
Bloom, a township of Scioto co., O. Pop. 2203.
Bloom, a township of Seneca co., O. Pop. 1492.
Bloom, a post-township of Wood co., O. Pop. 1394.
Bloom, a township of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop. 315.
Bloom, a township of Richland co., Wis. Pop. 1171.
Bloom'ary, or Blo’mary [from bloom, a mass of
iron], a furnace for converting pig or cast iron into malle-
able or “wrought ° iron, or for producing malleable iron
from iron ore directly. In the latter case it differs from the
BLAST FURNACE (which see), in reducing the ore and
producing the iron in a mass or “bloom * without melting
it, while the blast furnace produces an impure molten iron,
which is tapped off and cast into pigs; the blast furnace
working continuously, the bloomary (in many cases) inter-
ruptedly. The change of cast into malleable iron by the
bloomary process is generally superseded by PUDDLING
(which see), but the former is used to some extent in the
U. S. and Sweden in the production of the better kinds of
metal. , Bloomaries for the direct production of iron are of
various forms. The process is one of the oldest known in
metallurgy, and rude forms of it are at present used in
many barbarous countries. The two, best known modern
forms of the bloomary (the Catalan furnace and the Ger-
man bloomary) are at present used in Spain, Southern
France, Sweden, Russia, and parts of the U. S. for the re-
duction of ores, chiefly by means of charcoal. Only the
richest ores can be profitably used, and the loss of iron is
much greater than by the blast furnace. In the true Catalan
forge the charcoal, with a great part of the charge of iron
ore, is heaped on the small square hearth opposite to the tuy-
ere, fine ore and charcoal being thrown in from time to time.
A moderate blast is maintained, and the whole is stirred at
proper times; and in about six hours the iron (which has
settled to the bottom in a mass called a loup) is removed,
and forged at once into a bloom. In the ordinary or Ger-
man bloomary the ore is first made fine, and then thrown in
Small quantities upon a charcoal fire with a hot or cold
blast (the former being much the better); the iron. and
melted slag settling down into the hearth. The slag is
tapped off from time to time, and the iron loups are at
proper intervals withdrawn and wrought into blooms.
The bloomary process is an excellent one in régions
where wood is plentiful and cheap and iron ores of a high
grade are abundantly found. It is especially practised in
Northern New York, where it produces iron of the very
best quality, much sought for in the steel manufacture.
Bloom'er, a township of Pottawatomie co., Ia. P. 611.
Bloomer, a township of Montcalm co., Mich. P. 1422.
Bloomer, a township of Chippewa co., Wis. P. 1559.
Bloomer Costume, a style of dress for women,
characterized by skirts and Turkish trousers, which Mrs.
Ann Bloomer of New York attempted to introduce in 1849.
It had but a temporary success.
Bloom'field, a township of Nevada co., Cal. Pop. 636.
Bloomfield, a post-township of Hartford co., Conn.
Pop. 1473. -
Bloomfield, a township of La Grange co., Ind. Pop.
2254. --
Bloomfield, a township of Clinton co., Ia. Pop. 1231.
Bloomfield, the county-seat of Davis co., Ia, has
manufactures of ploughs, wagons, and furniture. It has a
high-school building costing $30,000, and is the centre of
a rich farming district. It is at the junction of the St.
Louis Kansas City and Northern and Burlington and South-
western R. Rs. . It has a public library of 2500 vols., two
weekly papers, a national bank, and a large trade. Pop.
1553; of Bloomfield township, 2543.
T. O. WALKER, ED. “DEMOCRAT.”
Bloomfield, a township of Polk co., Ia. Pop. 1132.
Bloomfield, a township of Winneshiek co., Ia. Pop.
11.83. -
Błoomfield, a post-village, capital of Greene co., Ind.,
on the Wabash and Erie Canal, 80 miles S.W. of Indianapolis.
It has 3 wagon and carriage shops, 3 saddlery and harness
shops, 1 planing mill and sash and door factory, 1 steam
flouring mill, 1 weekly paper, and an active trade. It is
8 miles E. of the Indianapolis and Vincennes R. R. It
is in Richland township. Pop. 656. ,
W. E. STROPES, PUB. “WEEKLY DEMocrat.”
Bloomfield, a post-village of Nelson co., Ky. P. 435.
Bloomfield, a township of Oakland co., Mich. Pop.
2] 05. -
Bloomfield, a township of Fillmore co., Minn. P. 888.
Bloomfield, a post-village, capital of Stoddart co.,
Mo., about 125 miles S. of St. Louis. It has one weekly
newspaper. Pop. 379. - - -
Bloomfield, a post-village and township of Essex co.,
N. J., 4 miles N. N. W. of Newark, on the Newark and
Bloomfield and the Montclair R. Rs. It is also connected
by horse-railroad with Newark. It has one woollen and
two paper mills, an iron foundry, a cabinet-organ factory,
a weekly paper, eight churches, and is lighted by gas.
Pop. of township, 4580.
STEPHEN M. HuDIN, ED. of “RECORD.”
Bloomfield, a township of Jackson co., O. Pop. 1775.
Bloomfield, a township of Logan co., O. Pop. 655.
Bloomfield, a post-township of Crawford co., Pa.
Pop. 1262. -
Bloomfield, a township of Trumbull co., O. P. 798.
Bloomfield, a borough, capital of Perry co., Pa., 24
miles N. W. of Harrisburg. The name of the post-office is
New Bloomfield. Pop. 655. -
Bloomfield, a post-township of Essex co., Vt. Pop.
:455.
Bloomfield, a post-township of Walworth co., Wis.
Pop. 1091.
Bloomfield, a township of Waushara co., Wis.
1123
Bloomfield (Joseph), born at Woodbridge, N. J., .
studied law, entered the Revolutionary army in the third
regiment of New Jersey troops as captain, serving bravely
throughout the war; became attorney-general of New Jer-
sey, governor of New Jersey (1801–12), brigadier-general
in the war with Great Britain (1812–15), and an influential
Jeffersonian member of Congress (1817–21). Died Oct. 3,
I823. -
Bloomfield (ROBERT), an English pastoral poet, born
at Honington, in Suffolk, Dec. 3, 1766, was apprenticed to
a 'shoemaker. He worked at that trade in London, and
wrote in a garret “The Farmer's Boy” (1798), a rural poem
which obtained great popularity, and was translated into
French, Latin, and Italian. Among his other works are
“Wild Flowers” and “Ballads and Songs.” Died Aug.
19, 1823. (See “Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties,”
vol. ii.; “Blackwood’s Magazine” for June, 1822.)
Bloom'ing, a township of Hampshire co., W. Va. Pop.
1195.
Bloom'ingburg, a post-village of Paint township,
Fayette co., O. Pop. 312. -
Bloom'ingdale, a post-township of Du Page co., III.
Pop. 1141.
Bloomingdale, a post-township of Van Buren co.,
Mich. Pop. 1496.
Pop.
528
BLOOMING DALE–BLOWPIPE-AND-ARROW.
l
Bloomingdale, a post-village of St. Armand town-
ship, Essex co., N. Y., has manufactures of lumber and
starch.
Blooming Grove, a post-township of Franklin co.,
Ind. Pop. 801. -
Blooming Grove, a post-township of Waseca co,
Minn. Pop. 676. -
Blooming Grove, a post-township of Orange co.,
N. Y. Pop. 2502.
Blooming Grove, a township of Richland co., O.
Pop. 1199.
Blooming Grove, a township of Pike co., Pa. P. 378.
Blooming Grove, a post-township of Dane co., Wis.
Pop. 1011. - -
Bloom'ington, a city and capital of McLean co., Ill.,
at the crossing of the Illinois Central, Chicago and Alton,
and Indianapolis and Bloomington R. R.S., at the N. ter-
minus of the Jacksonville branch of the Chicago and Alton,
and the western terminus of the La Fayette and Bloom-
ington division of the Toledo Wabash and Western R. R.,
60 miles N. N. E. of Springfield. It has 12 churches, man-
ufactures of boots, shoes, paper bags, and ploughs, car-
works and repair-shops, employing some 1200 hands, a
coal-mine, employing 180 hands, 5 banks, 5 furnaces, 3
weekly and 2 daily papers. It is connected by street rail-
road with Normal, two miles distant, which is the seat
of the State Normal University and the Soldiers’ Or-
phans’ Home. Bloomington is the seat of Major Female
College, the Illinois Wesleyan University, a Roman Cath-
olic college, and a business college. It is one of the most
flourishing and beautiful cities in the interior of the State.
Pop. 14,590; of township, 16,419. ERAINARD SMITH.
Bloomington, a post-village, capital of Monroe co.,
Ind., is on the Louisville New Albany and Chicago R. R.,
97 miles N. W. of New Albany and 51 miles S. W. of In-
dianapolis. It is the seat of the State University, organ-
ized in 1829, and has a national bank, important limestone
quarries, and manufactures of hard wood, of which there is
an unlimited quantity in the county. Large tanneries are
in successful operation here, the great oak region furnish-
ing unlimited supplies of bark for this purpose. It has one
semi-monthly and two weekly newspapers. Pop. 1032; of
|Bloomington township, 2860. ED. “PROGRESS.”
Bloomington, a township of Decatur co., Ia. P. 266.
Bloomington, a township of Muscatine co., Ia. Pop.
1411. -
Bloomington, a post-township of Hennepin co., Minn.
Pop. 738. -
Bloomington, a township of Buchanan co., Mo.
Pop. 1487.
Bloomington, a post-township of Macon co., Mo.
Pop. 156.
Bloomington, a post-village, capital of Franklin co.,
Neb. It has one weekly newspaper.
Bloomington, a post-township of Grant co., Wis.
Pop. 1245.
Blooms/burg, the capital of Columbia co., Pa., is on
Fishing Creek, near the North Branch of the Susquehanna,
and on the Lackawanna and Bloomsburg R. R., 56 miles
S. W. of Scranton and 25 miles N. E. of Sunbury. Iron
and limestone abound in the vicinity. The town has one
national bank and one private banking company, is the
site of a normal schóol with buildings capable of accommo-
dating 500 pupils, and has a number of iron furnaces and
foundries, and three weekly papers. Pop. 3341.
H. L. DIEFFENBACH, E.D. of “THE COLUMBIAN.”
Bloss, a township of Tioga co., Pa. Pop. 4008.
Bloss/burg, a post-village of Tioga co., Pa., on the
Tioga River and on the Blossburg and Corning R. R., 41
miles S. of Corning, N. Y. It has one weekly newspaper,
and mines of semi-bituminous coal and of iron.
Blount, a county in the N. of Alabama. Area, 950
square miles. It is drained by the head-streams of the
Black Warrior River. The surface is diversified by hills
or small mountains. Corn, cotton, and tobacco are pro-
duced. It is intersected by the South and North Alabama
R. R. Capital, Blountsville. Pop. 9945.
Blount, a county of Tennessee, bordering on North
Carolina. Area, 900 square miles. It is bounded on the
N. W. by the Holston River and on the S. W. by the Little
Tennessee. The surface is diversified by fertile valleys and
mountains, one of which is called Chilhowee Mountain.
Cattle, corn, wheat, oats, and wool are staple products.
The county contains extensive beds of marble, limestone,
and iron ore. Capital, Marysville. Pop. 14,237.
Blount, a township of Vermilion co., Ill. Pop. 1532.
Blount (WILLIAM), an American Senator, born in North
Carolina in 1744, was a member of the Continental Con-
gress, and became governor of Ohio Territory in 1790. In
1796 he was elected a U. S. Senator for Tennessee, and in
1797 was expelled from the Senate on a charge that he was
implicated in a plot to surrender a part of Louisiana to the
British. Died Mar. 21, 1800.
Blounts’ ville, a post-village, capital of Blount co.,
Ala., about 50 miles S. of Huntsville. Pop. of Blountsville
township, 539. -
Blountsville, a post-village, capital of Sullivan co.,
Tenn., about 100 miles E. N. E. of Knoxville. Pop. 180.
Blouse, a French term applied to a loose linen coat or
frock which is generally worn in France by operatives,
peasants, and the populace. It is similar to the smock-
frock often worn by English wagoners and farm-laborers.
In Germany the blouse is sometimes made of woollen stuff,
and is tightened to the body by a belt. This garment is so
characteristic of the workmen and lower classes of France
that the French populace are often called “blouses.” This
name is given to the loose fatigue-jacket worm by soldiers
in the U. S. army.
Blow (HENRY T.), born in Southampton co., Va., July 15,
1817, graduated at the University of St. Louis, Mo., whith-
er he had removed in 1830, acquired wealth in manufac-
turing, mining, and land speculation, was a prominent
Unionist and anti-slavery man before the civil war, was
U. S. minister to Venezuela (1861–62), member of Congress
(1863–67), and minister to Brazil (1869–71).
Blowing-Machines are used instead of bellows in
furnaces and manufactories requiring a large and steady
supply of air, and also in the ventilation of mines, where,
without an artificial supply, the air would become charged
with dangerous gases. These machines are of various con-
struction, but in many of them the blast is made by causing
fans enclosed in a hollow cylinder to revolve around a cen-
tral axis. Others have hollow cylinders in which pistons
work, as in the air-pump. The blast is sometimes pro-
duced by causing a stream of water to fall through a long
tube, in such a way that a large quantity of air is carried
down with it.
Blow'pipe [Fr. chalumeau; Ger. Löthrohr.], a tube bent
at right angles and terminating in a fine nozzle, for direct-
ing a current of air. from the mouth across the flame of a
lamp, candle, or gas-jet. It produces a conical-pointed
flame, intensely hot, which can be readily directed upon
small objects by the operator. It is constantly used by the
jeweller in soldering, but in the hands of the chemist and
mineralogist it is the basis of a distinct and comprehensive
system of analysis, both qualitative and quantitative. By
using a gentle current of air, and not permitting the nozzle
to enter the flame, the entire flame is brought into a hori-
zontal position, but its chemical character is not changed;
it is still composed of combustible gases rich in carbon ;
and as these, when directed upon many metallic oxides,
reduce or liberate the metals, this flame is called the redu-
cing flame. If, on the other hand, a more powerful current
of air is blown into the interior of the flame, a sharp-
pointed jet of a blue tint is the result. Many metals,
placed just beyond the point of this flame, are rapidly
oxidized; hence it is called the oacidizing flame. The chem-
ist is thus enabled by the aid of the blowpipe to expose
small quantities of minerals or other substances either to a
reducing or an oxidizing influence. By holding the sub-
stance in platinum-pointed forceps its fusibility can be de-
termined, or it may communicate to the flame some cha-
racteristic color. By placing it upon charcoal many im-
portant facts can be learned with regard to it; i. e. it may
produce white or colored deposits upon the coal, or evolve
a characteristic odor, etc. By subjecting it at the same
time to the action of carbonate.of soda it may yield me-
tallic globules or powder, with or without a coating. By
the aid of a loop of platinum wire the body under exami-
nation may be exposed to the action of borax or salt of
phosphorus, when glassy beads of characteristic colors may
result. Thus with the aid of the blowpipe the analyst Sub-
jects the substance to a series of tests, by which its exact
character is revealed. By the use of the balance, clay cru-
cibles, cupels of bone-ash, and a great variety of reagents,
the percentages of certain metals can be determined, such
as copper, cobalt, nickel, gold, and especially silver. The
art of keeping up an uninterrupted current of air through the
blowpipe is easily acquired. (See ELDESHORST’s “Manual
of Blowpipe Analysis,” and PLATTNER’s “Manual of Qual-
itative and Quantitative Analysis with the Blowpipe.”) (See
Oxy-HYDROGEN BLOWPIPE.) C. F. CHANDLER.
Blow/pipe-and-Ar’row, called also Gravata'na
and Pocu'na, a weapon used by some of the Indians of
South America, both in war and for killing game. It is a
A.
BLUBBER—BLUE BOOKS.
529
*-ºs
straight tube, in which a poisoned arrow is placed and
forcibly expelled by the breath. The tube, etc. is from
two to twelve feet long, the bore not large enough to admit
the little finger. It is made of reed or of the stem of a
palm. The arrows are from one or two to eighteen inches
long, made of the spines of a palm, sharp, notched so as
to break off in the wound, and their points covered with
curare or other poison. A little down is twisted round
each arrow, to fit the tube. In the hand of a practised
Indian it is a very deadly weapon. As his weapon makes
no noise, the hunter often does wonderful execution.
Blub'ber, the cellular membrane in which the oil or
fat of the whale is enclosed; the layer of fat which lies
just beneath the skin of the whale. A single whale often
contains thirty tons of blubber, from which about twenty
tons of oil are extracted. The blubber serves to protect
the whale from cold and to diminish his specific gravity.
It is an important article of food to the Esquimaux.
Blüſcher, von (GEBHARD LEBERECHT), prince of Wahl-
stadt, a celebrated Prussian general, born at Rostock Dec.
16, 1742. He entered the service of Prussia in 1760, be-
came a captain in 1771, and a colonel in 1790. In 1794 he
distinguished himself as a cavalry officer in the war against
the French, and was raised to the rank of major-general.
He led the vanguard at the battle of Auerstadt (1806),
from which he retreated to Lübeck. He was defeated and
taken prisoner near Lübeck in Nov., 1806. When the war
between the allies and Napoleon was renewed in Mar., 1813,
Blücher was appointed commander-in-chief of the Prus-
sian army, which he led at Lützen and Bautzen. He de-
feated Macdonald at the Katzbach in August, and took
many prisoners. On Oct. 16 he gained a victory over
Marshal Marmont at Möckern, and then formed a junction
with the allied armies, which, with his co-operation, de-
feated Napoleon at the battle of Leipsic, Oct. 17–19, 1813.
He was raised to the rank of field-marshal in 1813, and
led the Prussian army, about 60,000 strong, which invaded
France early in 1814. Between Feb. 10 and 15 he was
defeated by Napoleon at Champaubert, Montmirail, Weau-
champs, etc., and lost about 15,000 men, but he de-
feated the same enemy at Laon, Mar. 9, entered Paris
at the end of that month, and here received from his
king the title of prince of Wahlstadt. On the re-
newal of the war in 1815 he took command of the
Prussian army, and was defeated at Ligny, June 16,
but he reached Waterloo in time to decide the vic-
tory, June 18, 1815. Died Sept. 12, 1819. He was
noted for his energy and rapid movements, and was
surnamed Marshal Vorwärts (“Forward”). In 1826
a large bronze statue by Rauch was erected to him
in Berlin, and another in Breslau in 1827. (See
FoERSTER, “Blücher und sein Umgebung,” 1821;
PISCHON, “Blüchers Leben, Thaten, und Ende,”
1842; WARNHAGEN voN ENSE, “Blüchers Lebensbe-
schreibung,” 1827; “Life and Campaigns of Blü-
cher,” London, 1815; SCHERR, “Blücher, seine Zeit
und sein Leben,” 2 vols., 1862; BIEskE, “G. L.
Blücher von Wahlstadt,” 1862; and CHESNEY,
“Waterloo Lectures,” 1874.)
Blue [Lat. caerw’lews; Fr. blew; Ger. blau), one
of the three primary colors, and one of the seven
prismatic colors, of which the complementary is
orange. The blue coloring matter of flowers has
been called anthokyan or cyanine; little is known of its
chemical constitution. The blue pigments are (1) ultrama-
rine, obtained originally from lapis-lazuli, now manufactured
artificially ; (2) Prussian or Berlin blue, the sesquiferro-
cyanide of iron ; (3) smalt, glass colored blue by oxide of
cobalt ; modifications of this pigment are called azure
blue, cerulean blue, indigo blue, deep blue, king's blue,
etc.; (4) Thenard's or cobalt blue, a compound of alumina
and oxide of cobalt ; (5) verditer or Bremen blue, moun-
tain blue, etc., a basic carbonate of copper; (6) blue ochre
or iron blue, native Prussian blue, is a phosphate of pro-
toxide of iron found in many places.
The blue dyes are (1) Indigo. This is applied as Saxon
blue, or indigo extract, a solution of indigo in fuming sul-
phuric acid... Chemic, or chemic blue, is the very acid
solution; indigo garmine is the extract neutralized by an
alkali, as the indigo vat, indigo reduced to a colorless so-
lution by protoxide of iron or grape-sugar, which becomes
blue again in the air. (2) Prussian blue, already men-
tioned as a pigment. (3) Logwood blue, produced by log-
Wood extract on goods mordanted with alum and cream of
tartar., (4) Azuline, or phenol blue, prepared from phenol
or carbolic acid. (5), Aniline blues, (a) bleu de flyons,
triphenyl-rosaniline; (b) Nicholson's, or alkali blue, etc.
(6) Toluidine blue. (7) Diphenylamine blue. (8) Chino-
line blue, etc. (For details consult the above under their
respective ºnes) C. F. CHANDLER.
Blue, a township of Pottawattomie co., Kan. Pop. 544.
Blue, a township of Jackson co., Mo. Pop. 3603.
Blue Bayou, a township of Sevier co., Ark. Pop. 840.
Blue/beard [Fr. Barbe-bleu; Ger. Blaw/bart], the cen-
tral character of a celebrated fiction, according to which
the chevalier Raoul, who has a blue beard, tests his wife’s
curiosity by entrusting her, during his absence, with the
key of a chamber which she is forbidden to enter. She
cannot resist the temptation to explore the chamber; her
fault is discovered, and he puts her to death. Six wives
share this fate, but the seventh is rescued by her brothers,
and Bluebeard is slain. The tale appears in innumer-
able forms. Tieck, in his “Phantasus,” has worked up
this material into a drama, with romantic and Satirical
additions; Grétry has made use of it in his opera of
“Raoul,” and Offenbach has written an opéra bouffe called
“Barbe Bleu" (1866).
The historic original of Bluebeard is supposed to be
Giles de Laval, lord of Raiz, who was made marshal of
France in 1429, and fought valiantly against the English ;
but he is remembered chiefly for crimes which tradition has
painted in the blackest colors. He is said to have taken a
pleasure in corrupting young persons of both sexes, and in
murdering them for their blood, which he used in magical
incantations. Out of this fact, itself half mythical, the
tale of Bluebeard has probably grown. Laval was burnt
alive near Nantes in 1440.
Blue/bell, a name applied in Great Britain to two wide-
ly different wild flowers: (1) the Hyacinthus non-scriptus,
a hyacinth with beautiful blue flowers, and a root which
was formerly gathered for the starch it contains; (2) the
Campanula rotundifolia,the harebell, very common through-
out Europe, and having a wide range in Asia and North
America. This and other blue-flowered species of Cam-
panula are sometimes called “bluebell” in the U. S., where
the name is also in some places very incorrectly given to
the blue fringed-gentian. &
Blue-bird, or Blue Warbler (Sylvia sialis, Eryth-
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The Blue-bird.
aca sialis, or Sialia sialis], a bird of the family Sylviadae,
is a general favorite in the U. S., which it visits as a sum-
mer bird of passage, and is welcomed as a harbinger of
spring. It prefers the vicinity of human habitations, and
often builds in orchards and gardens. It is nearly equal
to an English robin in size. The upper part of it is a rich
sky-blue color; the breast and throat are a reddish chest-
nut. Its song is a mellow, Sweet-toned, and agreeable
warble. This bird lays about five pale blue eggs. The
male and female both defend their nest and young with
remarkable courage when attacked by serpents or other
animals.
Blue Books, the name applied to the reports and
papers printed by the British Parliament, because they are
usually covered with blue paper. The term is also applied
to the reports sent annually by the governors of colonies to
the colonial secretary. The practice of printing the pro-
ceedings of the House of Commons began in 1681, when dis-
putes ran high on the question of excluding the duke of
York from the succession. The documents printed by the
House of Commons accumulated gradually in bulk and
variety, until they reached their present extent. In 1836
the House adopted the practice of selling their papers at a
cheap rate. The chief contents of these papers at present
are the votes and proceedings of the House; the bills; the
estimates for the public services; the accounts of expendi-
tures; any documents which the ministry may voluntarily
















530
BLUE CREEK–BLUE ROCK.
or at the demand of the House produce; reports of commit-
tees or commissions appointed by the Crown and the govern-
ment. The blue books of a session often fill fifty or sixty
thick folio volumes. Their contents are heterogeneous, and
to a great extent cumbersome and valueless. They are not
prepared on any uniform system or subjected to general
revision or editing. There is an official list of the person-
nel of the U. S. government published annually at Wash-
ington, which is entitled “The U. S. Blue Book.”
Blue Creek, a township of Adams co., Ind. Pop. 820.
BIue Creek, a township of Paulding co., O. P. 163.
Blue Earth, a county in the S. of Minnesota. Area,
750 square miles. It is partly bounded on the N. by the
Minnesota River, traversed by the Mankato or Blue Earth
River, and also drained by the Maple River. The surface
is undulating, and diversified by fertile prairies, forests,
and small lakes. Grain, wool, cattle, and dairy products
are the chief staples. It is intersected by the St. Paul and
Sioux City R. R. Capital, Mankato. Pop. 17,302.
Blue Earth City, the capital of Faribault co., Minn.,
is on the Mankato or Blue Earth River, 100 miles in a di-
rect line S. S. W. of St. Paul. It has one weekly paper.
It is to be connected with Mankato by railroad. Pop. of
township, 1121. ED. OF “POST.”
Blue Eye (Entomiza cyanotis), sometimes called
Blue - Cheeked Honey-Eater, a beautiful bird
abundant in New South Wales. It is a species of honey-
sucker, and feeds on insects and honey, which it obtains
chiefly from the blossoms of the Eucalyptus. It is grega-
rious and remarkable for its graceful movements.
Blue Eye, a township of Talladega, co. Ala.
1414.
Blue/fields, or Blewfields, a river of Central Amer-
ica, in the Mosquito Territory, flows eastward, and enters
the Caribbean Sea, at the town of Bluefields, which has a
good harbor, and is in lat. 12° N., lon. 83° W. -
Blue'fish (Temnodon saltator), an acanthopterygian
fish of the family Scomberidae, is sometimes called “horse
mackerel.” The upper part of it is of a bluish color. It
derives its specific name from a habit of leaping out of the
water. It frequents the coasts of the U. S. in spring and
summer, is very swift and voracious, and preys on the
mackerel and other fishes. The weight of it varies from
five to ten pounds. It is a fine fish for the table.
Blue Gowns, or King’s Beadsmen, a former class
of privileged mendicants in Scotland. There was long a
custom of appointing beadsmen with a small royal bounty,
who ultimately degenerated into a class of authorized men-
dicants. In theory their duty was to pray for the king.
Each of the beadsmen on the king’s birthday received a
gown of blue, a loaf of bread, a bottle of ale, and a leathern
purse containing a penny for every year of the king’s life.
Every birthday another beadsman was added to the num-
ber. A large pewter badge was attached to the breast of the
gown, which, besides the name of the bearer, had the in-
scription, “Pass and Repass.” The practice of appoint-
ing beadsmen was discontinued in 1833, at which time
, there were sixty on the roll.
Blue Grass, called also Green Meadow Grass and
June Grass (Poa pratensis), a species of grass which is
a native both of Europe and America, distinguished from
other species of its genus by its flat panicles, smooth culms
and sheaths, and short, blunt ligules. Though common in
many regions, this grass attains its chief value in that part
of Central Kentucky which is called the “blue-grass re-
gion,” where it is considered to afford the most important
crop that can be raised by farmers. It is chiefly cultivated
for pasturage, though on certain soils it makes excellent
hay. To this grass Kentucky owes her great reputation as
a stock-raising State.
Blue Grass, a post-township of Scott co., Ia. P. 1420.
Blue Grass, a township of Highland co., Va. Pop.
1418.
Blue Hill, a post-township of Hancock co., Me. It
has an academy and some manufactures. Pop. 1707.
Blue Lake, a post-township of Muskegon co., Mich.
Pop. 381.
Blue Laws, a name applied to certain enactments
said to have been made by the legislature of the colony
of New Haven, now a part of Connecticut. These laws
are said to have interfered seriously with the private life,
religious conduct, and even the dress of citizens; but
while it is true that not only in New Haven, but in other
parts of New England, there was undue interference in
these affairs, it is equally certain that many of the “blue
laws " of which certain writers have told us never had an
existence in any statute-book.
Pop.
'South Wales, and N. of the Australian Alps.
Blue Lead, a name given by miners to galena.
Blue Lick Springs, a village of Nicholas co., Ky.,
where there are saline mineral springs, the waters of which
are sold for medicinal purposes in various of the U. S.
º: waters closely resemble those of Harrowgate, in Eng-
and.
Blue Light. See BENGAL LIGHT.
Blue Monday is said to have been so named from an
ancient custom in some parts of Europe of decorating
churches with blue on the Monday before Lent, this par-
ticular Monday, and afterwards all Mondays, being con-
sidered holidays for men whose business obliged them to
work on Sundays. This practice led to riotous excesses
still traditionally remembered, and it was generally sup-
pressed by legal cenatments; but the blue Monday is still
observed to some extent in certain places.
Blue Mound, a township of Macon co., Ill. P. 1089. .
Blue Mound, a township of McLean co., Ill. P. 1219.
Blue Mound, a post-township of Linn co., Kan.
Pop. 341. º
Blue Mound, a post-township of Livingston co., Mo.
Pop. 1048.
Blue Mound, a post-township of Dane co., Wis.
Pop. 1165.
Blue Mountain, a post-township of Izard co., Ark.
Pop. 454.
Blue Mountain (Pennsylvania). See KITTATINNY.
Blue Mountains, a range in the E. part of New
It is nearly
parallel with the sea-coast, from which it is about 100 miles
distant. The highest peaks of this range rise over 4000
feet above the level of the sea. The range long formed a
barrier between the settlements on the coast and the inte-
rior. In 1815 a road was opened through these mountains
to the rich pastures of Bathurst Plains; and now a rail-
road connects Sidney and Bathurst, crossing the Blue
Mountains at an elevation of over 3000 feet.
Blue Nile, or Blue River. See BAHR-EL-AzREK.
Blue Pill (Pilula hydrargyri), or Blue Mass, con-
sists of two parts of mercury rubbed with three parts of
conserve of roses till globules of mercury can be no longer
detected; to this is added powdered liquorice-root, so that
a pill of three grains contains one grain of mercury. In
cases of recent and mild disorder or torpor of the liver blue
pill is much used, either alone or combined with some other
drug, such as rhubarb. The dose is from one to three grains
twice a day. The doses given by physicians are, however,
much smaller now than formerly.
Blue Rapids, a village of Marshall co., Kan., on the
Central branch of the Union Pacific R. R., 95 miles W. of
Atchison, and on the Big Blue River. It has a developed
water-power of 1700 horse-power, large flouring and woollen
mills, beds of gypsum and water-lime, a weekly newspaper,
and Holly waterworks. Pop. of township, 1247. -
C. E. TIBBETs, PUB. of “BLUE RAPIDs TIMEs.”
Blue Ridge, the range of the Alleghanies which is
nearest to the Atlantic Ocean. It extends in a N. E. and
S. W. direction through Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia,
North Carolina, and Georgia. The part of this ridge in
Pennsylvania is called the South Mountain. In Virginia
it forms the S. E. boundary of the Great Valley, and is re-
markable for beautiful scenery. The Peaks of Otter, which
are the highest points of this ridge in Virginia, rise about
4000 feet above the level of the sea. From North Carolina,
southward, the name of Blue Ridge is invariably applied
to the watershed which divides the waters flowing into the
Atlantic from those of the Gulf of Mexico.
Blue Ridge, a township of Piatt co., Ill. Pop. 1120.
Blue Ridge, a post-township of Henderson co., N. C.
Pop. 1354. -
Blue Ridge, a township of Macon co., N. C. P. 157.
Blue Ridge, a township of Watauga co., N. C. P. 460.
Blue River of Indiana rises in Henry county in the
E. part of the State, and flows south-westward. After it
has united with several streams it receives the name of
Driftwood or East Fork of White River.
Blue River, a township of Hancock co., Ind. P. 1125.
Blue River, a township of Harrison co., Ind. P. 1198.
Blue River, a township of Henry co., Ind. Pop. 862.
Blue River, a township of Johnson co., Ind. P. 2573.
Blue River, a township of York co., Neb. Pop. 258.
Blue River, a post-township of Grant co., Wis. P. 660.
Blue Rock, a post-township of Muskingum Co., 0.
Pop. 1093.
|BLUE SPRINGS-BOA. 531
Blue Springs, a post-village and township of Gage
co., Neb., on the Big Blue, 12 miles S. of Beatrice. It has
a fine tubular iron bridge, an extensive water-power, and
a large plough-factory. Pop. of township, 354.
Blue Stocking [Fr. bas bleu), a term applied to lite-
rary ladies, and generally with the imputation of pedantry.
It originated in England in Dr. Johnson’s time, when there
existed blue-stocking clubs, at which literary ladies met to
converse with distinguished literati. According to Boswell,
they were so called because Mr. Stillingfleet, one of the
prominent members, always wore blue hose.
Blue Stone, a township of Mecklenburg, co. Va. Pop.
I984.
Blue Sulphur, a township of Greenbrier co., West
Va. Pop. 2148. - -
Blue Sulphur Springs is a post-village of Greenbrier
co., W.Va., 22 miles W. of the famous White Sulphur Springs.
The springs afford a copious supply of valuable saline chaly-
beate waters, useful in the treatment of many diseases.
Blue Throat, sometimes called Blue Breast, or
Blue-Throated Robin (Phoenicura Suecica or Sylvia
Suecica), a beautiful bird of the family Sylviadae, is com-
mon on the continent of Europe as a summer bird of pas-
sage, and is supposed to pass the winter in Africa. It re-
sembles a redbreast in form, but is rather larger, and has
a brilliant sky-blue plumage on its throat, below which is
a black bar. It sings sweetly, and imitates the notes of
many other birds. This is one of the birds which the
Italians call BECCAFICO (which see). It is esteemed as a
delicacy, and great numbers are caught in Alsace and
Lorraine. i
Blue Vitriol, the sulphate of copper. (See CoPPER.)
Blue/wing Duck, or Bluewing Teal, a species of
duck (Anas discors), an abundant game-bird of America.
Vast numbers spend the winter in the marshes near the
mouths of the Mississippi, to which they congregate both
from the North and the East; the summer migrations of
the species extend as far N. as the 57th parallel, and it
is plentiful on the Saskatchewan in the breeding-season.
It breeds also in the marshes of the South, and is common
in Jamaica, where it is a permanent resident. No duck is
in higher esteem for the table, and it has been suggested
that the bluewing is particularly worthy of domestication.
In the summer plumage of the male the upper part of the
head is black; the other parts of the head are of a deep
purplish blue, except a patch of pure white before each eye;
the plumage on the upper parts is brown mixed and glossed
with green, except that the wings exhibit various shades
of blue, the lesser wing-covers being of a rich ultramarine,
with an almost metallic lustre; the lower parts are reddish
orange spotted with black; the tail feathers are short and
pointed. It is a bird of extremely rapid and well-sus-
tained flight.
Bluff, a high bank or cliff presenting a steep or abrupt
front towards a river, lake, or sea. The term is often ap-
plied to the high banks of the Mississippi and other West-
ern rivers. Between the bluff and the river sometimes
occurs a flat tract of considerable width called a bottom.
On the Mississippi below Lake Pepin the bluffs of mag-
nesian limestone rise about 350 feet above the river, and
present picturesque scenery.
Bluff, a township of Johnson co., III. Pop. 1325.
Bluff, a township of Monroe co., Ill. Pop. 925.
Bluff Creek, a township of Monroe coº, Ia. Pop. 1015.
Bluff Dale, a post-township of Greene co., Ill. Pop.
1440.
Bluff Port, a township of Sumter co., Ala. Pop. 555.
Bluff'ton, a township of Chambers co., Ala. Pop. 2259.
Bluffton, capital of Wells co., Ind., on the Wabash
Tiver and on the Fort Wayne Muncie and Cincinnati R. R.
It has fine church and high-school buildings, 3 planing-
mills, corn-planter manufactory (steam), 2 barrel manufac-
tories, 2 foundries and machine-shops, 2 stave and heading
factories, 3 flouring mills, woollen mills, 2 weekly newspa-
pers, and a large grain, lumber, and stock trade. Pop. 1131.
ED. “BLUFFTON BANNER.”
Bluffton, a post-township of Winneshiek co., Ia. P. 809.
Bluffton, a post-village of Richland township, Allen
co., 0. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 489.
Bluffton, a post-village and township of Beaufort co.,
S. C., 16 miles S. W. of Beaufort. Pop. 2047.
Bluh’me (FRIEDRICH), a German jurisconsult, born
June 29, 1797, professor of jurisprudence at Göttingen, has
contributed materially to modern research in the history of
the Roman and ancient German law. He assisted Schrader
in his edition of Gaius, and Sevigny in the “History of the
Roman Law in the Middle Ages,” and published, among,
several learned works, “Die Ordnung der Fragmente in
den Pandectentiteln,” and an encyclopaedia of existing
German laws.
Blum (RobH.RT), a German democrat and popular ora-
tor, born of poor parents at Cologne Nov. 10, 1807. He
founded the “Schiller-Verein '' (“Schiller Society”) at
Leipsic in 1840, and the German Catholic Church at Leip-
sic in 1845. In 1848 he was the master-spirit of the Saxon
liberals or democrats, and a member of the Frankfort par-
liament, in which he was the leader of the Left or moderate
opposition. Having been sent by this party to Vienna, he
joined the insurgents of that city, which was soon cap-
tured by the Austrian army. Blum was arrested and shot
at Vienna Nov. 9, 1848. (See EDUARD DULLER, “R.
Blums Leben und Tod,” 1848; E. FRANKE, “Leben des R.
Blum,” 1848.)
Blu’menbach’ (Joh ANN FRIEDRICH), M.D., an emi-
nent German naturalist, born at Gotha May 11, 1752. He
graduated as M. D. at Göttingen in 1775, and wrote for
that occasion a remarkable thesis “On the Varieties of the
Human Race.” In 1778 he became professor of medicine
and anatomy in the University of Göttingen, where he
lectured for fifty years. He published a “Manual of Nat-
ural History” (1780), often reprinted. He may be said to
have first placed matural history on the scientific basis of
comparative anatomy. Among his works is a “Manual
of Comparative Anatomy” (1805), which was translated
into many languages. He advocated the doctrine of the
unity of the human species, which he divided into five
races—the Caucasian, Mongolian, Malay, American, and
Ethiopian. Died Jan. 22, 1840. (See C. F. H. MARx,
“Zum Andenken an J. F. Blumenbach,” 1840.)
Blum'field, a post-township of Saginaw co., Mich. P.
074.
Blun/derbuss [supposed to be a corruption of the
Dutch donderbus, from donder, “thunder,” and bus, a “tube;”
literally, a “thunder-tube”], a short musket or gun with a
large calibre or bore, which has sufficient capacity for sev-
eral bullets. It has a limited range, but is destructive at
close quarters, and was formerly used in the defence of
houses against burglars. In the army it has been super-
seded by the carbine.
Blunt (EDMUND), an American hydrographer, born at
Newburyport, Mass., Nov. 23, 1799, became in 1833 first
assistant in the U. S. Coast Survey. Died Sept. 2, 1866.
Blunt (EDMUND MARCH), the father of the preceding,
was born at Portsmouth, N. H., June 20, 1770. He pub-
lished, besides other valuable nautical works, “The Amer-
ican Coast Pilot” (1796). Died Jan. 2, 1862.
Blunt (GEORGE WILLIAM), born in Newburyport, Mass.,
Mar. 11, 1802, educated in New York City. He is the
author of various charts, “Atlantic Memoir,” “ Sheet An-
chor,” “Harbor Laws of New York,” “Plan to Avoid the
Centre of Violent Gales,” and compiler of the “American
Coast Pilot.” He was a commissioner of emigration
(1852–54), has been pilot commissioner since 1845, and
harbor commissioner since 1867. A man of great public
spirit, in the various positions he has held, and still holds,
he has been instrumental in correcting many abuses and
effecting reforms; and to the interests of New York, as
depending upon the preservation of its magnificent harbor
| and port, he has particularly devoted himself.
Blunt (JAMEs G.), M.D., an American general, born at
Trenton, Me., July 20, 1826, removed in 1856 to Kansas,
and was appointed in 1861 brigadier-general and com-
mander of the department of Kansas. He was made a
major-general in 1862. In 1863 he commanded the army
of the frontier.
Blunt/schli (Joh ANN KASPAR), professor of political
science at Heidelberg, born at Zurich Mar. 7, 1808, and
took part in the political movement of 1889 as a conserva-
tive. He published a history of Zurich, a history of the
Swiss federal laws, extensive treatises on public and private
law, and a dictionary of polities. -
Blyth (SAMUEL), a British naval officer, born in 1784,
commanded the brig Boxer in an engagement, off Portland,
Me., with the U. S. brig Enterprise, Sept. 5, 1813, during
which he was killed by a cannon-ball. His remains were
interred in Portland with the honors of war by the side of
Lieut. Burrows, who commanded the Enterprise, and was
also killed. G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Eng’re.
Blythe, a township of Marion co., Ark. Pop. 190.
Blythe, a township of Schuylkill co., Pa. Pop. 1924.
Bo'a, the name of a genus of large non-venomous ser-
pents, ali natives of the warm parts of America, the similar
large serpents of Asia and Africa forming the genus Python.
The family Boidae (containing the Pythons, etc. of the Old
World, as well as the true Boas, anacondas, etc. of the New)
532
EOADICEA-BOARD OF TRADE.
is almost exclusively tropical, and nearly all the species
are of great size and strength. It is related by Livy that
a serpent 120 feet in length devoured several soldiers and
caused alarm to a Roman army in Africa; the skin is said
to have been long preserved at Rome. The mouth of the
boas is destitute of poison fangs. Captain J. H. Speke
killed a serpent in Africa 51% feet long. Their teeth are long
Poa Constrictors attacking a Deer.
and directed backward, to prevent the escape of the prey,
which is first seized by the mouth, and then the serpent,
with a rapidity of motion which the eye of the observer
fails to follow, coils itself around it; the muscles of the
body afterwards compress it, so that in a few minutes life
is extinct. Deglutition then takes place, accompanied
with a flow of Saliva, not only for lubrication, but to hasten
the process of digestion. The food is always swallowed
cntire, and the process seems to require no small effort.
The neck is distended to an enormous degree as the prey
passes through. After a repast these serpents spend a
considerable time in a state of torpidity—several weeks
elapsing before they require a new supply—and in this
state they are easily killed.
The lungs consist of two lobes, one much larger than the
other, and at the extremity of the larger is a capacious air-
bag, supposed to serve for the aëration of the blood during
deglutition. The tail has great prehensile power, and its
grasp of a tree round which it may be coiled is aided by the
opposing action of two claws, one on each side of the anus,
which are the representatives of the hinder limbs of the
superior vertebrate animals, and which, on dissection, are
found to be connected not only with strong muscles, but
with bones entirely concealed within the serpent. The
head is thick and somewhat elongated; the eyes small; the
tail blunt; the scales numerous and rather small; the colors
in many species bright and elegantly disposed. The true
boas have the plates under the tail single, while in the
pythons they are double. They are of four species. The
Boa constrictor is far from being one of the largest, seldom
attaining a length of more than twelve feet. It is common
in parts of South Američa, where its skin is used for mak-
ing boots and saddles. Uric acid is prepared in Europe
from the excrement of the boa. The name boa constrictor
is, however, popularly extended to any very large non-
venomous serpent. The only known serpent of the boa
family in the U. S. is a small species of Wenona, found in
the Pacific States. REVISED BY C. W. GREENE.
Boadice/a, written also Voadica, a warlike British
queen, was the wife of Prasutagus, king of the Iceni, who
died about 60 A. D. Soon after this date she and her sub-
jects, exasperated by the rapacity and outrages of the
Roman soldiers, took arms against them. The Britons
took the Roman colonies of Camalodunum and Londinum
(London), and killed about 70,000 Romans. She was de-
feated in 62 A. D. by Suetonius Paulinus, and then killed
herself. (See TACITUs, “Annales.”)
Boar, the male of the Sus seroſa, or swine. When ap-
plied to the wild stock of swine found in various countries,
the term is used without particular reference to the sex of
the animals. The native country of this species is in the Old
World, where the wild stock abounds in parts of Europe, in
Asia, and in Africa. The wild boars found in the Southern
States (especially in Florida) are descended from the do-
mestic swine, but have reverted quite to the wild type in
respect to the form of the body, ears, and tusks, the bristly
crest on the back, the black or red color, and the striped
young. Most writers make all the domestic breeds of swine
descendants of the wild stock. Others think the small ma-
tive pig of the Pacific Islands is of a separate species; but it
is asserted by some that no swine were known on these islands
till after they were visited by European ships, which cer-
tainly left swine and other domestic animals in many parts
of Polynesia. A few writers regard the East Indian boar
as of a distinct species. Swine with solid hoofs are known
in Poland and Hungary. No true swine are native to
America or Australia. Boar-hunting has long been re-
garded as one of the most exciting sports of the chase. It
is practised in Europe, India, and Syria—in some places
with toils or nets, in others with dogs, which bring the boar
to bay, when he is despatched with a spear or long knife.
In India, he is hunted on horseback and killed with a boar-
spear. It is held unsportsmanlike to shoot the boar.
When at bay the wild boar is a very dangerous animal.
Board, a form of lumber; a piece of timber sawed
thin ; if more than one and a half inches thick, it is called
a plank; a table; entertainment or food; the deck of a ship
or vessel; a table at which a council or court is held; a
body of public men constituting a quorum in session.
Board is a general term applied to persons in a collective
capacity who have the management of some public office
or department, bank, etc.; thus the directors of a bank or
railroad are called the board of directors; the British lords
of the treasury, the board of treasury. In nautical lan-
guage, board is a space or portion of Sea over which a ship
passes in tacking.
To “go aboard” or “on board” is to enter a vessel, to
embark in it. The mast is said to “go by the board” when
it breaks and falls into the water.
To “board,” in naval warfare, signifies to enter a ship
by force in order to capture it. The assailants sometimes
throw on the enemy’s deck combustibles, etc., in order to
confuse the crew, and then board the ship armed with
boarding-pikes, pistols, and cutlasses.
Board/man, a township of Clayton co., Ia. Pop. 1806.
Boardman, a post-township of Mahoning co., 0.
Pop. 817.
oard/man (GEORGE DANA), an American Baptist
missionary, born in Livermore, Me., Feb. 1, 1801, graduated
at Waterville College (now Colby University) in 1822, and
at Andover Theological Seminary in 1825. He sailed for
Burmah July 16, 1825, and distinguished himself by his
zeal and devotion to the work among the Karens, being,
practically, the founder of the Karen mission. Died near
Tavoy Feb. 11, 1831.-His son (Rev. GEORGE D. BoARD-
MAN, D. D., of Philadelphia) is one of the most brilliant
and scholarly clergymen of the Baptist denomination. He
was born at Tavoy, in British Burmah, Aug. 18, 1828, and
graduated at Brown University in 1852.
Boardman (HENRY AUGUSTUs), D.D., an able and
eloquent American divine, was born at Troy, N.Y., Jan. 9,
1808. He graduated at Yale College in 1829, taking the
highest honors of his class, and afterwards studied theology
at Princeton. Since 1833 he has been pastor of the Tenth
Presbyterian church in Philadelphia. Chosen in 1853 by
the General Assembly to fill the chair of pastoral theology
at Princeton, he declined this position. He has published,
among other works, “The Scriptural Doctrine of Original
Sin” (1839) and “The Bible in the Counting-house” (1853).
Boardman (RICHARD), one of Wesley’s first mission-
aries to America, born in England in 1738, joined Wes-
ley’s conference in 1763, volunteered for America in 1769,
preached in New York, and generally through the Middle
States, till 1774, when he returned to England, and con-
tinued his itinerant ministry till his death at Cork, Ireland,
Oct. 4, 1782. He is justly esteemed as one of the chief
founders of American Methodism.
Board of Admiralty, a governmental department
which has the management of all the affairs of the British
navy. (See ADMIRALTY.) It comprises six lords commis-
sioners, who decide collectively on all important questions.
Besides this collective action, each has special duties.
There are two civil and four naval lords. The first civil
lord (always a cabinet minister), besides a general control
has the management of naval estimates, finance, appoint-
ments, and promotions. The first naval lord manages
the distribution of the fleet, discipline, appointment of
inferior officers, commissioning ships, sailing orders, and
the naval reserve. The second naval lord attends to
armaments, manning the navy, the coast-guard, the ma-
rines, marine artillery, dockyard brigades, and naval ap-
prentices. The third naval lord attends to naval architec-
ture, machinery, and new inventions. The fourth naval
lord has control over the stores, victualling ships, medical
affairs, transports, and pensioners. The junior civil lord
attends to accounts, mail-packets, Greenwich Hospital,
chaplains, and schools. Under these six lords are two see-
retaries-in-chief, who manage the office-work. The lords
all resign when the prime minister resigns.
Board of Ordnance. See ORDNANCE, by CAPT. R.
P. PARROTT. -
Board of Trade, in Great Britain, a permanent com- .

t - BOARFISH-BOBOLINK.
533
mittee of the privy council, comprising many of the high
functionaries of the government, who have the supervision
of marine affairs, railways, joint-stock companies, etc., and
who also collect and publish statistics and information of
all kinds which have a bearing upon the commerce, rev-
enues, and economic conditions of the nation, the colonies,
and foreign countries. The results are published in monthly
and annual reports.
In the U. S. and Canada boards of trade are voluntary
associations of business-men, which in most large towns are
organized to promote the financial and commercial interests
of the place, and to consider such questions with regard to
railway and water communication, foreign commerce, bank-
ing, insurance, exchange, supply and demand, etc. as may
from time to time demand their attention.
Boar'fish (Capros), a genus of fishes of the dory fam-
ily, or Zeidae, differing from the genus Zews in the still
The Boarfish.
more protractile mouth (the resemblance of which to the
Snout of a hog is supposed to have given origin to the name),
in the want of spines at the base of the dorsal and anal
fins, and of long filaments to the dorsal spines. The body
has the usual oval, much-compressed form of the family.
The common boarfish (Capros aper) is a well-known in-
habitant of the Mediterranean, rarely caught on the coasts
of England. The flesh is little esteemed.
Boat [Anglo-Saxon, bat; Fr. bateau ; Ger. Boot, Danish,
baad; Sw, bat], a small open vessel moved by oars, sails, or
horse-power. The name is also applied to a decked vessel
moved by steam and called a steamboat. Boats differ
greatly in form and dimensions according to the purposes
they are intended to serve, and receive various names, as
barge, cutter, gig, pinnace, skiff, gondola, yawl, jolly-boat,
wherry, canal-boat, ferry-boat, scow, etc. The principal boats
attached to a ship of war are the long-boat, launch, barge,
pinnace, cutter, jolly-boat, yawl, and gig. The long-boat
has a mast and sails, and is employed to fetch wood, water,
and heavy stores from the shore to the ship. The launch
is more flat-bottomed than the long-boat, and is adapted
for service in shallow waters or for ascending rivers. Large
vessels sometimes have steam launches armed with guns,
for fighting in shallow waters. The barge is a long, narrow
boat used to carry the principal officers to and from the
ship. The name is also applied to quite a number of other
kinds of craft, large and small. The pinnace has usually
eight oars, and is intended for the inferior officers. The
cutter is broader, deeper, and shorter than the pinnace, is
rowed with six oars, and is chiefly employed in carrying
light stores and the crew. The jolly-boat is similar in form
to the cutter, but smaller, and has only four oars. The yawl
is a small boat used for nearly the same purposes as the
cutter and jolly-boat. The gig is a long narrow boat of
six or eight oars, and is used to convey the chief officers
of the ship on expeditions requiring great speed. It is
only the larger ships of war that carry boats of all these
varieties. Life-boats are kept at dangerous points upon
the coasts, and are carried on board many ships. They
are designed to be so built that they cannot be capsized or
sunk. They were first patented in 1785, and have been
much improved since.
The coracle, the most ancient form of boat known in the
British Islands, still used in Wales, is a large wickerwork
basket, covered with skins or some thin waterproof sub-
stance, strengthened by a cross-seat. The birch-bark canoe
and skin boats of some of the Indian tribes are essentially.
identical with the coracle. The wherry is stoutly built,
and is designed to carry about eight passengers. It is
managed by one sculler or two oarsmen, and it is for the
conveyance of passengers or pleasure-parties. The boats
used for rowing as a sport are of a much lighter and sharper
build.
Boat-Bill (Cancroma cochlearia), a bird of the order
Grallatores and of the heron family. It differs from the
heron chiefly in the form of its bill, which is very broad,
and somewhat similar in shape to a boat. The mandibles
have been compared to the bowls of two spoons placed one
upon the other. It is found in the tropical parts of South
America, and feeds on fish. In size it is nearly equal to a
domestic fowl. -
Boat-fly (Notonecta), a genus of aquatic insects of
the order Hemipetra and sub-order Heteroptera, derives
its name from the form of the body, which resembles a
boat, and is well adapted to movement in the water. The
insects of this genus have a remarkable habit of always
swimming on their backs. The Notonecta glauca, called
water boatman, is common in England, and is about
half an inch long. It can fly well, but seldom uses its
wings. Many species are found in this country.
Boating. See REGATTA.
Boat-Haowering Apparatus is an arrangement
of ropes and pulleys for lowering boats from ships
quickly and safely. Every passenger-ship is compelled
by law to carry a certain number of boats, and every
ship of war carries boats for minor services. Many in-
É ventors have directed their ingenuity to this subject,
with a hope of devising some method of rapidly low-
cring boats in a storm, without the danger of accident.
The apparatus now most approved is Clifford’s, in which
the lowering and disengaging are effected by one man
seated in the boat. …”
Boat’swain (commonly pronounced by sailors
bö’sn), an officer on a ship of war who has charge of
the boats, sails, rigging, cables, anchors, and cordage.
He must frequently examine the masts, yards, sails,
and ropes, and report their condition. It is also his
duty to summon the crew to their work, and to assist
in the necessary business of the ship and in relieving
the watch. In the performance of his duties he is as-
sisted by a boatswain’s mate.
Bobadi’lla, de (FRANCISCO), a governor of Hispaniola
and knight of Calatrava, sent in 1500 by Ferdinand and
Isabella with plenary powers to investigate the affairs of
that colony. He immediately put Columbus, who was then
governor, in irons, and sent him to Spain. Columbus was,
however, well received at court and by the nation, and was
sent back on his fourth voyage, arriving there on the day
when Bobadilla started to return to Spain, for he had been
recalled. Bobadilla’s government had been very disorderly
and unfortunate, and hardly had he left the port when his
ship was lost in a hurricane, and he was drowned June 29,
1502.
Bob'bin, a cylindrical piece of wood, or a wooden
roller, flanged at each end, used to hold yarn, which is
wound on it, préparatory to warping, in the weaving of cloth.
In throstle-spinning bobbins are an essential part of the
machinery, as they receive the thread from the rollers. The
number of bobbins used in the various branches of busi-
ness is enormous. In the thread manufacture alone in Great
Britain it is stated that 2,000,000 gross are used annually.
Thread-bobbins are turned by a self-acting lathe, which
turns out one hundred gross in ten hours, a Saving of six-
teen-fold as compared with hand-turning; the attendant
has to feed the machine by dropping blocks into a hopper,
from which they pass into the lathe, where they are
finished.
Bob’binet (i. e. bobbin-met), a sort of lace or net-
fabric woven by machinery, and usually made of cotton,
It is a fine and elegant textile fabric of a peculiar texture,
which consists in the interlacing of a set of long threads,
representing the warp in common weaving with a set of
cross ones, in such a manner as to form a mesh texture.
Bobbinet is made at Nottingham, England, and in France.
Bobcay/geon, a post-village of Verulam township,
Victoria, co., Ontario, on an island in Sturgeon and Pigeon
lakes, 18 miles from Lindsay. The town is divided by a
canal which, with its locks, cost $150,000. It has a large
trade in lumber, and has daily lines of steamboats, except
in winter. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. about 1000.
Bobolink', Bob'link, Reed-bird, or Rice-bird
(Dolichomya oryzivorus), a beautiful American migratory
bird of the order Insessores, passes the winter in the West
Indies or in tropical regions. It comes northward early in
spring, and arrives in May in the latitude of New York State,
in which latitude it breeds. It builds its nest in meadows
among the grass, and renders service to farmers by the de-
struction of insects and worms. In May and June the

534
BOBRINEZ—BODE'S LAW.
male is very musical, singing in the air with great volu-
bility and hilarity, and rising and falling as if by a series
of jerks. “He chants out,” says Wilson, “such a jingling
NA
|
\\\\\\ ºf hiſ ill | -
242&4-4.4%;2 : f |
The Bobolink.
medley of short variable notes, uttered with such seeming
confusion and rapidity, that it appears as if half a dozen
birds of different kinds were singing all together.” The
summer plumage of the male is mostly black, variegated
with white on the scapularies and tail-coverts, and yellow,
which it exchanges in July or August for a plumage like
that of the female. This is marked with several shades of
brówn or dull yellow. Its length is seven or eight inches.
About the end of June the birds cease to sing, become gre-
garious, and move in large flocks to the Middle States.
They are called reed-birds in Pennsylvania, where many of
them are shot for the table in autumn. In the latter part
of autumn immense flocks of them attack the rice-crops of
South Carolina, where they receive the name of rice-bird,
rice bunting, or rice troopial. Many of them are kept in
cages for their song, but they do not sing in autumn or
winter.
Bobrinez’, a town of Russia, in the government of
Cherson, 135 miles N. E. of Odessa. Pop. 6553.
Bobruisk’, a town of Russia, on the Berezina, in the
government of Minsk, and 92 miles S. E. of Minsk, was
formerly fortified. It is connected by steamboat with the
towns on the river. Pop. 24,681.
Boſca Ti’gris (Chinese, Hw-mén or Fumén, i.e. “mouth
of the tiger”), the entrance of the Canton River into the
Outer Waters, or Lintin Bay. It is bounded on the E. by
the islands of Anunghoi and Chuenpee, and on the W. by
the island of Ty-cock-tow. A number of forts and batteries
called “ Bogue forts,” which guard the entrance to the
river, were stormed by the British in 1841 and 1857.
Bocca’ccio (Grov.ANNI), or Boccaccio di Certaldo,
a celebrated Italian novelist and poet, born in Paris or
Florence in 1313, was the son of a Florentine merchant
and a French woman. He collected many books, and
copied rare ancient manuscripts which he was not able to
purchase, and was one of the most learned men of that age.
At Naples he fell in love, about 1342, with a natural daugh-
ter of King Robert of Naples, and to please her he wrote
poems entitled “Il Filostrato,” “L’Amorosa Visione,” and
others. He became about 1350 an intimate friend of
Petrarch, and returned to Florence, the government of
which employed him in several diplomatic missions. His
principal work is the “Decamerone, or Hundred Tales”
(1353), in prose. These tales have extraordinary literary
merit, and are esteemed models of style, but some of them
are extremely obscene. From the “Decamerone.” Shak-
speare derived the subjects of several of his dramas. In
1373, Boccaccio was appointed to lecture at Florence on
Dante’s “ Divina Commedia.” He wrote a “Life of Dante.”
He died Dec. 21, 1375. “There is,” says Hazlitt, in Boc-
caccio's serious pieces, “a truth, a pathos, and an exquisite
refinement of sentiment which is hardly to be met with in
any other prose-writer whatever.” (Characters of Shak-
speare's Plays.) (See BALDELLI, “Vita de Giovanni Boc-
caccio,” 1806; MAzzuch ELL1, “Scrittori d'Italia;” LONG-
FELLow, “Poets and Poetry of Europe.”) *
Bochart (SAMUEL), a learned French Protestant Orien-
talist and theologian, born at Rouen May 30, 1599, studied
Arabic, Chaldee, and Syriac under Erpenius at Leyden, and
excelled in philology. He became in 1625 pastor of the
Protestant church at Caen, where he remained forty-two
years, and gained a high reputation as a preacher and
writer. His most important works are a “Sacred Geog-
raphy,” in Latin (1646), and “Hierozoicon,” or an account
of the animals mentioned in the Bible (1663). Died at
Caen May 11, 1667. His Geographia Sacra displays great
learning and sagacity. (See MoRIN, “De Vita et Scriptis
S. Bocharti,” 1692; EDwARD H. SMITH, “S. Bochart: Re-
cherches sur la Vie de cet Auteur illustre,” 1833.)
Boch'nia, a town of Austria, in Galicia, 23 miles by
rail E. S. E. of Cracow. It has several churches. Here
are mines of salt which yield about 15,000 tons annually.
Pop. in 1869, 8040.
Boch’old, or Bocholt, a town of Prussia, in West-
phalia, on the Aa, 42 miles W. S. W. of Münster. It has
a castle, and manufactures of silk fabrics, hosiery, and cot-
ton stuffs. Pop. in 1871, 6125.
Boch'um, a Prussian town, in Westphalia, 31 miles by
rail N. E. of Düsseldorf, has manufactures of woollens,
paper-hangings, hardware, iron, and tobacco, and import-
ant mines of coal. Pop. in 1871, 21,193.
Bock (KARL ERNST), a German pathologist and anat-
omist, born Feb. 21, 1809, became professor of pathological
anatomy in Leipsic in 1839. , His “ Bueh vom Gesunden
und Kranken Menschen” (9th ed. 1872) has had a wide
circulation.
Bock/enheim’, a town in Prussia, in the province of
Hesse-Nassau, 3 miles N. W. of Frankfort-on-the-Main.
It has manufactures of iron-ware, jewelry, and pianos, and
a large cattle-market. Pop. in 1871, 8476.
Böckh, or Boeckh (AUGUST), an eminent German
philologist and classical antiquary, born at Carlsruhe Noy.
24, 1785. He was educated at Halle, and obtained in 1810
the chair of eloquence and ancient (or Greek) literature in
the University of Berlin, where he taught for forty years
or more. His lectures comprised archaeology and the his-
tory of ancient literature, philosophy, politics, etc. Among
his greatest works, which have formed an era in archae-
ology and philology, are “The Political Economy of the
Athenians” (2 vols., 1817), which Sir George Cornewall
Lewis translated into English, and “Records of the Mari-
time Affairs of Attica” (1840). He commenced in 1824
the great work called “Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum”
(4th vol., 1867, unfinished). Died Aug. 3, 1867.
Böck'lin (ARNOLD), a German landscape painter, born
in Bâle in 1827, studied under Schirmer at Düsseldorf, and
became professor in the art-school of Weimar in 1860.
His works are remarkable for brilliancy and harmony of
color.
Bode'ga, a post-village and township of Sonoma co.,
Cal. The village is at the head of Bodega Bay, the en-
trance to which is in lat. 38° 18' 20.37’’ N., lon. 123° 02'
28.8' W. Pop. of township, 1407.
Bo'denstedtſ (FRIEDRICH MARTIN), a German poet
and journalist, born at Hanover April 22, 1819. He trans-
lated into German the works of several Russian poets,
published “The Nations of the Caucasus” (1848; 2d ed.,
2 vols., 1855), and became professor of the Slavic languages
at Munich about 1854. Among his works is a “Thousand
and One Days in the Orient” (2 vols. 1854; 4th ed. 1864).
Bode’s Law is the name given by astronomers to an
empirical formula which seems to mark the relative dis-
tances of the planets. The law, however, was not discovered
by Bode, having been put forward before his time by Kep-
ler, and by Titius in 1772.
The law may be thus exhibited : Under the names of
the several planets in the order of their distance set the
number 4. Then below this row of fours write in order
the numbers 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, and so on, the 0 falling
under Mercury, the 3 under Venus, and so on. Adding
the several columns thus obtained, we have the following
result :


BODIN–BOEOTIA. 535

Mer- AS- Jupi- Sat- Ura- Nep-
Venus. | Earth. | Mars. teroids.
cury. ter. Ulrris IłłlS. tune.
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
0 3 6 12 24 48 96 192 384
a-s-
4 7 10 16 | 28 52 100 196 388
The numbers thus obtained correspond closely with the
relative distances of the planets, except only in the case of
Neptune. The real distances, calling the earth’s distance
10, are as follows:
Mer- * Jupi- S t- Dra- Nep-
j. Venus. | Earth. | Mars. terºids. º: i. #. i.
39 || 7.2 || 10 || 15 || 27.5 52 95 || 192 || 300
It will be seen that the distance of Neptune falls far short
of that which Bode's law would assign to a trans-Uranian
planet. This empirical law has rendered important ser-
vices to astronomy. -
Similar relations have been detected among the distances
of the satellites of Jupiter and Saturn. In the case of Ju-
piter's system, the constant number is 7, the number mul-
tiplied is 4, and the constant multiplier 2%. In the case
of Saturn’s system, the constant number is 4, the number
multiplied is 1, and the constant multiplier 2.
It seems difficult to believe that a law so well marked,
and fulfilled so closely in so many instances, is not in real-
ity the result of physical relations of some sort, though it
is by no means easy to see what those relations may be.
Bodin (JEAN), an eminent French political writer, born
at Angers in 1530. He published in 1576 a treatise on
government entitled “De la République,” and in 1586 a
Latin version of the same. He advocated a limited mon-
archy as the best form of government. In the latter part
of his life he was an adherent of Henry IV. Died in 1596.
His “Heptaplomeres de abditis rerum sublimium arcanis”
(published by Noack, Schwerin, 1857) is considered one of
the most interesting books of that age.
Bodle/iam Library, the principal library of Oxford
University, restored by Sir Thomas Bodley in 1597, the
original library having been destroyed before 1556. Bodley’s
first presentation was a collection of books, purchased on
the Continent for £10,000. Through his influence and
example the library was enriched by numerous contribu-
tions. Among the earliest benefactors of the Bodleian
library, which was opened in 1602 with a collection of
about 3000 volumes, were the earl of Pembroke, who
presented 250 volumes of valuable Greek manuscripts;
Sir Kenelm Digby; and Archbishop Laud, who made a
gift of 1300 manuscripts in more than twenty different
languages. Upwards of 8000 volumes of the library of
Selden went to the Bodleian. Gen. Fairfax presented to
it many manuscripts, among which was Dodworth's col-
lection of 160 volumes on English history. During the
present century important bequests have been the collec-
tions of Richard Gough (1812) on British topography and
Saxon and Northern literature; of Edmund Malone (1812);
also £40,000 by the Rev. Robert Mason, the interest to be
expended on books. The library of Francis Douce was |
added in 1834. In 1870 it contained 500,000 volumes and
30,000 MSS. *
Bod/Iey (Sir THOMAs), an English diplomatist, born
at Exeter Mar. 2, 1544, graduated at Oxford in 1566. He
was sent by Queen Elizabeth on diplomatic missions to
France, Denmark, and Holland. He expended much
money in collecting rare and valuable books, and endowed
the great public library of Oxford, called the BoDLEIAN LI-
BRARY (which see). Died Jan. 28, 1612. (See T. HEARNE’s
“Reliquiae Bodleianae.”)
Bod/mer (JoHANN JAKOB), a Swiss critic and poet,
born near Zurich July 19, 1688. He founded in 1721 a.
literary journal called “Discurse der Maler,” which pro-
moted a reform in German literature, and waged a lite-
rary War against Gottsched. Among his numerous works
(which lack originality) is the “Noachide” (1752). He
was professor of history at Zurich for fifty years. . He
translated “Paradise Lost” into German. Died Jan. 2,
# § (See J. J. HoTTINGER, “Acroama de J. J. Bodmero,”
1783. *
Bod/min, a town in England, one of the capitals of
Cornwall, 26 miles W. N. W. of Plymouth, consists chiefly
of one long street in a valley between two hills. It was
once an important place. It now contains a court-house,
a jail, an ancient priory, and a grammar-school founded
by Queen Elizabeth. It is now one of the stannary towns
of Cornwall. Pop. in 1871, 4672.
Body Color, a term which, in oil-painting, is applied
to the opaque coloring produced by certain modes of com-
bining pigments. When, in water-color painting, colors
are laid on thickly, and mixed with white to render them
opaque, instead of in tints and washes, the work is said to
be executed in body color.
Body’s Island, the long, low, sandy strip of land be-
tween Roanoke and Albemarle Sounds and the Atlantic
Ocean, N. of Oregon Inlet. Body’s Island lighthouse, 2
miles N. of Oregon Inlet (lat. 35°48' 47" N., lon. 75° 33' 20"
W.), is a brick tower with a granite foundation and an iron
top, 150 feet high, showing a first-order dioptric white fixed
light, 156 feet above the sea. The island is here 2 miles
wide, and is in Dare co., N. C. -
Boece, or Boyce (HECTOR), a Scottish historian, born
at Dundee about 1465. He studied and graduated at the
University of Paris, where he became in 1497 professor of

philosophy. He was a friend of Erasmus. His chief work
is a “History of Scotland” (in Latin, 1526), which is highly
esteemed. Died about 1536. -
Boehme/ria [from G. R. Böhmer, a German savant], a
genus of plants of the order Urticaceae, was formerly in-
cluded in the genus Urtica (nettle). The fibres of several
species of this genus are used to make ropes, twine, nets,
and cloth. The beautiful fabric called China grass-cloth is
made of the fibres of Boehmeria nivea, a perennial herba-
ceous plant, with broad ovate leaves, without stings, culti-
vated by the Chinese, who call it tehoo-ma. It can be pro-
pagated by seeds, and it thrives best in shade and moisture.
It grows naturally in China, Sumatra, Burmah, and other
parts of the East Indies. The Malays call it ramie. The
cultivation of ramie has been tried in some of the Southern
U. S., with decided success. Nepaul produces an import-
ant species, Boehmeria frutescens, which grows from six
to eight feet high, the fibre of which is said to be equal
to flax. The natives call it pooee, yenki, or kienki. This
fibre also makes excellent paper, and will probably become
an important commercial product. (See RAMIE.) The
U. S. have one native species.
Boeotia [Gr. Boworta], a country or state of ancient
Greece, was bounded on the N. by Locris, on the N. E.
and E. by the Euboean Channel, on the S. by Attica and
. Megaris, on the S. W. by the Corinthian Gulf, and on the
W. by Phocis. Area, estimated at 1100 square miles. It
may be described as a hollow basin, enclosed on the N. by
Mount Parnassus and the Opuntian Mountains, on the E.
by a continuation of the Opuntian range, on the S. by
Mount Cithaeron and Mount Parnes, and on the W. by Mount
EHelicon. The surface is diversified by other mountains
and several valleys and plains. It contained a large lake
named Copais (now Topolias), which had no outlet except
subterranean channels in the limestone mountains. These
channels, now called Katabothra, were not sufficient to
carry off the water of the lake, which sometimes inundated
the surrounding plain. To obviate this evil the ancient
Boeotians constructed two tunnels through the rock. One
of these tunnels was nearly four miles long, with twenty
vertical shafts let down into it. These two great works are
perhaps the most remarkable monuments of what is called
the heroic age. The largest rivers of Boeotia were the
Asopus and the Cephissus, the latter of which rises in Pho-
cis and enters Lake Copais. The Asopus flowed eastward
through the southern part, and entered the Euripus. In-
stead of the pure and transparent air of Attica, the air of
Boeotia is rendered damp and heavy by vapors rising from
lakes and marshes. The winters were very severe, and the
snow sometimes lay on the mountains for many days. The
soil, which is mostly a rich mould, was very fertile, and
produced in ancient times, as well as in the present, abun-
dant crops of grain. The plain of the Copais is especially
remarkable for its fertility. Boeotia was famous for meadow
and pasture-land, on which were raised the excellent horses
of the Boeotian cavalry. The grape and other fruits flour-
ished in this region. Among the other productions was
the auletic or flute reed, which grew in the marshes of Lake
Copais, and had an important influence on the development
of Greek music.
The most remarkable tribes that inhabited Boeotia in the
heroic age were the Minyaº, who lived at Orchomenus, and
the Cadmeans or Cadmeones, who lived at Thebes. At
the commencement of the historical period, the Minyans
and other tribes had nearly disappeared, and the country
was occupied by the Boeotians, who are supposed to have
come from Thessaly. The principal cities formed a confed-
eracy under the presidency of Thebes. Orchomenus was
the second city in importance. Among the other towns
were Coroneia, Haliartus, Thespiae, Tanagra, Plataea, and
Anthedon. The Boeotians were regarded as a dull, unin-
tellectual people, and less refined and polished than most
of the Hellenic tribes. Their natural dulness was ascribed
to the dampness and ungenial quality of their climate. Ac-
cording to Cornelius Nepos, they paid more attention to the
development of their physical powers than the cultivation
*
SA
*..."
#
s
§
&
536 - BOERHAAVE–BOGLE.
of their minds. Yet this state produced a few great men—
Epaminondas, Hesiod, Pindar, and Plutarch. (See ForcH-
HAMMER, “Hellenika,” 1837; LEAKE, “Travels in Northern
Greece,” 1835; KLUTz, “De Foedere Boeotico,” 1821;
MURE, “Travels in Greece.”) WILLIAM JACOBs.
Boer'haave (HERMAN), PH.D., M.D., F.R.S., a Dutch
physician of great eminence, was born at Voorhout, near
Leyden, Dec. 31, 1668. He studied the ancient languages
and history at Leyden, where he took the degree of doctor
of philosophy in 1689. He began the study of medicine in
1690, and graduated as M. D. at Harderwick in 1693, after
which he practised at Leyden. In 1701 he was appointed
lecturer on the theory of medicine in the University of Ley-
den, and adopted the method of Hippocrates. He afterwards
deviated from that method, and substituted mechanical and
chemical hypotheses to explain diseases. He published in
1708 an excellent systematic work called “Medical Insti-
tutes” (“Institutiones Medicae in Usus annua Exercita-
tionis Domesticos”). He became in 1709 professor of
medicine and botany at Leyden, where he acquired great
popularity as a teacher. Among his important works are
“Aphorisms on the Diagnosis and Cure of Diseases”
(“Aphorismi de Cognoscendis et Curandis Morbis,” 1709),
which is a model for style and other merits, and “Elements
of Chemistry” (1724), which some persons consider his
capital work. His reputation extended to every part of
Christendom, and patients came to consult him from every
country of Europe. He received, it is said, a letter from a
Chinese mandarin, addressed “To Boerhaave, physician in
Europe.” He died Sept. 23, 1738, leaving one child, a
daughter. He was a sincere Christian and a man of high
moral character. (See Dr. S. JoHNSON, “Life of H. Boer-
haave,” 1834; BURTON, “Life and Writings of H. Boer-
haave,” 2 vols., 1743.)
Boer'ne, a post-village, the capital of Kendall co., Tex.
It is situated on the Upper Cibolo, in a rich and picturesque
valley. It was founded by Germans in 1851, and was
named in honor of the German writer Louis Börne. Pop.
500, almost all of whom are Germans.
Boers are the farmers in South Africa of Dutch descent.
After the annexation of Cape Colony by Great Britain,
troubles arose between the government and the boers, and
in 1836 many of them left the colony and founded the
Orange River Free State and the Transvaal Republic.
Boe'thius (ANIçIUs MANLIUS SEVERINUs), an emi-
nent Roman philosopher and statesman, was born in 470
A. D. He was liberally educated, became a good Greek
scholar, was chosen consul in 510, and gained the confi-
dence of Theodoric, king of the Goths, who reigned at .
Rome, and appointed Boethius magister officiorum in his
court. His political influence was exerted for the benefit
of the country, but his probity and virtues provoked the
enmity of powerful courtiers whose corrupt or oppressive
conduct he had opposed. He was accused of treasonable
designs, was confined in prison, and finally executed by
order of Theodoric in 524.A. D. Whether he was a Chris-
tian or not is a matter of uncertainty. He was considered
such in the Middle Ages, and the Bollandists gave him the
position of a saint. Several theological tracts are attributed
to him, and were included in the Leyden edition (1671) of
his “Consolation of Philosophy.” But there is a predomi-
.nance of argument in favor of the opinion that he was not,
in any proper sense, a Christian, and that the tract on the
Trinity was from another hand, probably from a monk of
the same name. Boethius holds a place in the history of
scholastic philosophy from the fact that a passage from
his commentary on the “Isagogé" of Porphyry gave rise
to the long-continued discussions between the Realists and
the Nominalists. While he was in prison he wrote, partly in
verse, “De Consolatione Philosophiae" (“On the Consola-
tion of Philosophy’), which is his greatest work, and was
very popular in the Middle Ages. It was translated into
Anglo-Saxon by Alfred the Great. It contains no allusions
to Christianity—a fact which can hardly be reconciled with
the hypothesis of his being a Christian, considering the
circumstances under which it was written. (See BAR-
BERINI, “Exposizione della Vita de Boezio,” 1783; Domſ
GERVAISE, “Histoire de Boëce,” 1715; HEYNE, “Censura
Ingenii Boethii,” 1806; “Life of Boethius,” prefixed to
Ridpath’s translation of the “De Consolatione Philoso-
phiae,” 1785.) M. B. ANDERSON.
Boethius (HECTOR). See BoECE.
Boeuf, a township of Franklin co., Mo. Pop. 3910.
Boeuf, a township of Gasconade co., Mo. Pop. 1277.
Boeuf, Bayou, bi'oo báf, a river or creek of Arkansas
and Louisiana, is fed by water which it receives from the
Mississippi River during inundations. It extends from
Chicot co., Ark., south-westward into Louisiana, and unites
with the Washita River at the S. extremity of Franklin
parish. Steamboats can ascend it 100 miles or more during
high water. -
Bog [Gaelic, bog, “soft,” “moist”], a swamp or tract
of wet land, covered in many cases with PEAT (which see).
Bogs, called mosses in Scotland and swamps in America,
often contain the well-preserved trunks of trees, especially
of the oak in Ireland and of the cypress in America. In
many cases these tracts are higher than the surrounding
country, and may thus be easily drained, when they often
become very fertile land. (See DRAINA.G.E.)
Bo'gansville, a township of Union co., S. C. P. 1891.
Bogard’, a township of Daviess co., Ind. Pop. 1170.
Bogard, a township of Henry co., Mo. Pop. 1117.
Bogar'dus (EveRARD), second minister of New York
(then New Amsterdam), came to America in 1633, and ob-
tained by marriage a farm (the “Dominie's Bouwerie”) of
62 acres, now owned by the Trinity church corporation.
Having much trouble with the magistrates and people, he
resigned in 1647 and sailed for Holland, but was wrecked
on the English coast, and with Governor Kieft and many
others was drowned Sept. 27, 1647. - -
Bogardus (JAMEs) was born at Cattskill, N. Y., Mar.
14, 1800. In 1814 he was apprenticed to a watchmaker.
He made important improvements in cotton-spinning in
1828, invented a gas-meter (1832), a machine for engraving
(1836), a pyrometer, and many other mechanical improve-
ments. In 1847 he built in New York the first iron build-
ing in the U. S. Died April 13, 1874.
Bog Butter, a substance which is found in peaty earth
in some of the bogs of Ireland. In composition and qual-
ities it exhibits the general properties of a fat, and melts
at 124° F. It is probably fossil butter.
Bo'genhauſsen, a village of Bavaria, on the Iser, 2
miles N. E. of Munich. Here is the royal observatory of
Munich, which was erected in 1817, and is one of the best
in Europe; lat. 48° 8' 54" N., lon. 11° 36' 22" E.
Boggs, a township of Centre co., Pa. Pop. 2135.
Boggs, a township of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop. 784.
Boggs (CHARLEs STUART), U. S. N., born Jan. 28, 1811,
in New Brunswick, N. J., entered the navy as a midship-
man Nov. 1, 1826, became a passed midshipman in 1832, a
lieutenant in 1837, a commander in 1855, a captain in 1862,
a commodore in 1866, a rear-admiral in 1870, and retired
from active service in 1873. He commanded the Varuna
at the passage of Forts St. Philip and Jackson and capture
of New Orleans. Admiral Farragut, in his official report
of the affair, says: “We were now fairly past the forts,
and the victory was ours, but still, here and there, a gun-
boat making resistance. Two of them had attacked the
Varuna, which vessel, by her greater speed, was much in
advance of us: they ran into her and caused her to sink,
but not before she had destroyed her adversaries; and their
wrecks now lie side by side, a monument to the gallantry
of Captain Boggs, his officers, and crew.”
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Bog' head Coal, a highly bituminous variety of the
cannel coal of Scotland, from Boghead, in Linlithgowshire.
The varieties of cannel pass into shale by insensible grada-
tions, so that it is impossible to draw a line which shall
properly limit the use of the term coal. The boghead is
one of these substances, more valuable for gas-making, and
for the oils and paraffine obtained from it by distillation,
than for fuel. Dr. Fife found a picked specimen to yield
on analysis 70 per cent. of volatile matter and 30 per cent.
of ash.
Bog-iron Ore, a mineral of variable composition, in
which the peroxide of iron often amounts to 60 per cent,
the water to 20, phosphoric acid from 2 to 11 per cent.,
while silicic acid, clay, and other substances make up the
rest. Bog-iron ore occurs in alluvial soils, in bogs, lakes,
etc. It is of a yellowish or blackish-brown colòr. Some
varieties are earthy and friable; some are in masses of an
earthy character, and some compact, with conchoidal frac-
ture. It is abundant in the northern countries of Europe
generally; also in various parts of the U. S. When smelted
it yields rather inferior iron, which, however, in Germany
is largely used for wrought iron. . From the large percent-
age of phosphorus present, bog iron is highly prized for
fine castings, since it makes an excellent surface with clean
lines and edges. The ore is easily and extensively wrought.
It is stated with confidence that bog ore consists chiefly
of the frustules of diatomaceous plants, many of which
incorporate into their frustules a large percentage of iron.
Gaillonella ferruginea is one of the most important of these
minute iron-making plants. It is well known that in some
places bog ore will again fill up the cavities in the earth
from which it has been removed.
Bo'gle, a township of Gentry co., Mo. Pop. 991.
BOGLIPOOR.—BOHEMIAN BRETHREN.
Bog' lipoor, or Bhag’ulpore, a city of India, in Ben-
gal, is on the right bank of the Ganges, here several miles
wide in the rainy season. It is about 265 miles by rail N.
W. of Calcutta. It has several mosques, and an English
Seminary; also manufactures of coarse silk fabrics. Here
are two curious round towers, the origin of which is un-
Known. Pop. estimated at 30,000.
Bogoduchou, a town of Russia, in the government
of Kharkov, on the right bank of the Merla, 30 miles N.
E. of Kharkov. Pop. 9999.
Bog'omiles [a name said to be derived from their
prayer in a Slavic language, “Bog milui,” “Lord, have
mercy”], a sect of the Eastern Church in the twelfth cen-
tury. They were founded by Basil, a physician, who is
said to have taught an impure Gnosticism, to have rejected
all rites, even baptism, and to have proposed to abolish
marriage. Basil was burned alive in 1119, but the sect
was in existence a century later. (See NEANDER, “ Chris-
tian History,” iv. 552.)
Bo'gos, a negro tribe inhabiting the highlands N. of
Abyssinia, which have only recently become known by the
explorations of Werner, Munzinger, and Th. Heuglin.
The flora and the fauna of the country of the Bogos are
exceedingly rich. Mighty Sycamores and tamarind trees,
and lions, elephants, buffaloes, and antelopes, as well as
the rhinoceros and many varieties of beasts of prey, are
found here. The total population is estimated by Mun-
zinger at 10,000 persons, of whom only one-third are true
Bogos, who speak the Belen language. The rest are tribes
subject to them, who speak the Tigre. The Bogos are well
formed, and profess Christianity, but have very little re-
ligious knowledge. For several years they have paid a
small annual tribute to Abyssinia. In recent times the
Bogos suffer much from the invasions of the inhabitants
of Barla. -
Bogota' (formerly SANTA Fá DE BogotA), a city of South
America, capital of the republic of Colombia, is pleasantly
situated on the San Francisco River, which here joins the
Rio de Bogotá, and at the foot of two high mountains. It
is on an extensive plateau which is about 8800 feet above
the level of the sea, and enjoys a mild and genial climate
like a perpetual autumn. Lat. 4° 35' 48" N., lon. 74° 13'
45'' W. The adjacent table-land is very fertile, and is
enclosed on several sides by high peaks of the Andes.
Bogotá is well built, but as it is subject to earthquakes, the
houses are generally only two stories high. No vehicles
are used in the streets, which are all narrow. It is the seat
of an archbishop, and contains a cathedral and numerous
churches, a palace of the president, a university, a national
academy, a public library, and a theatre. It has several
public squares adorned with fountains. Mines of coal,
salt, and precious stones occur in the vicinity. A few miles
below the city is the great Cataract of Tequendama, where
the Bogotá River has a perpendicular fall of 650 feet.
Bogotá was founded in 1537. Pop. about 40,000.
Bogue, a post-township of Columbus co., N. C. Pop.
1393.
Bogue (DAVID), D. D., a Scottish preacher, called the
founder of the London Missionary Society, was born in
Berwickshire Mar. 1, 1750. He preached at Gosport to an
Independent church, was the first editor of the “Evangel-
ical Magazine,” and wrote an “Essay on the Divine
Authority of the New Testament.” He was author, in
conjunction with James Bennett, of a “History of Dis-
senters” (3 vols. 8vo, 1689, 1808). He and others founded
the London Missionary Society in 1795. Died Oct. 25,
1825.
Bo'gus, an American word signifying “spurious,”
“fraudulent,” was originally applied to counterfeit coin,
said by Bartlett to be a corruption of Borghese, a noted
Western counterfeiter.
Bo'guslaw, a town of Russia, government of Kief, on
the river Rossa, 70 miles S. S. E. of Kief. Pop. about 6000.
Bo'gy, a township of Jefferson co., Ark. Pop. 1321.
Bohain, a town of France, in the department of Aisne,
16 miles N. N. E. of St.-Quentin. It manufactures clocks
d carillon, shawls, and gauzes. Pop. 5322.
Bohe’mia [Lat. Bohemia; Ger. Böhmen and Böheim],
a former kingdom of Europe, now a part of the Austro-
Hungarian monarchy. It is bounded on the N. by Saxony
and Prussian Silesia, on the E. by Moravia and Prussia,
on the S. by Lower Austria, and on the W. by Bavaria.
It is between lat. 48° 33' and 51°3' N., and between lon.
12° and 16° 46' E. Its area is 20,064 square miles. It
is enclosed on all sides by four chains of mountains, which
99nstitute its natural boundaries—namely, the Erzgebirge
(“Ore Mountains”), which separate it from Saxony on the
N. and N. W.; the Riesengebirge (“Giant Mountains”),
which extend along the N. E. frontier; the Moravian
537
Mountains, which separate it from Moravia on the S. E.;
and the Böhmerwald (“Bohemian Forest”), which extends
along the S. W. border. The Schneekoppe, which is the
highest peak of the Riesengebirge, rises 5275 feet above
the level of the sea. The surface of Bohemia is mostly
undulating, and belongs to the basin of the Elbe, which
rises in the N. E. part. The other principal rivers are the
Moldau, which rises in the Böhmerwald, flows northward,
and enters the Elbe; and the Eger, which flows through
the N. W. part into the Elbe. The Moldau and Elbe are
navigable for steamboats. The climate is healthy, and
mild in the valleys or lowlands. The mean annual tempera-
ture at Prague is 49° F. The soil is generally fertile.
The staple productions are rye, oats, barley, flax, and wheat.
The grapevine is also extensively cultivated. Nearly one-
third of the country is covered with forests. Large num-
bers of cattle and sheep are raised in some parts of the
country. Bohemia is rich in minerals, which are found
chiefly in the mountains. Among its mineral resources
are copper, tin, iron, lead, cobalt, silver, nickel, zinc,
arsenic, sulphur, coal, cinnabar, alum, and precious stones.
Here are also quarries of marble, granite, and sandstone.
Famous mineral springs occur at Marienbad, Carlsbad,
and Töplitz. The manufactures of Bohemia are very
important and varied, the principal products being linens,
cotton goods, woollens, glass, and paper. The manufacture
of damask, cambric, lawn, and other linen goods employs
about 400,000 flax-spinners and 50,000 weavers. Over
500,000 spindles are employed in the production of cotton
yarn. Beet-sugar is extensively manufactured. The num-
ber of paper-mills is over 100. Bohemia has long been
celebrated for its glass-works, which employ about 30,000
persons. A considerable quantity of iron is manufactured
here. Railways extend from Prague in several directions,
connecting it with Dresden, the cities of Bavaria, and
those of Moravia. The chief towns are Prague, Pilsen,
and Budweis. Bohemia has one university (Prague),
twenty-three gymnasia, as well as numerous realschulen
and other institutions of learning. A large majority of the
inhabitants belong to the Roman Catholic Church, that
being the established religion, but other churches are tole-
rated. The number of Protestants in Bohemia in 1869 was
106,000. Pop. in 1869, 5,140,544, of whom 3,074,000 were
Czechs, 1,941,300 Germans, 89,000 Israelites, while the
remainder belonged to different nationalities.
Bohemia derives its name from the Boii, a Celtic people .
who settled here before the Christian era, and were expelled
by the Marcomanni in the time of the Roman emperor
Augustus. It was conquered by the Cechi (or Czechs), a
Slavic race, who first established themselves in Bohemia in
the second half of the sixth century, and in 630 A. D. made
themselves independent. For several centuries the family
of the Przemyslides ruled with varying success until in 1310
the kings of the House of Luxemburg ascended the throne,
and ruled until 1437. John Huss effected a religious refor-
mation in this country (1400–14), and was burned by the
Catholics. The consequence was the sixteen years' war of
the Hussites. In 1526, Bohemia was annexed to the domin-
ions of Ferdinand I. of Austria. The majority of the Bohe-
mians in the sixteenth century were Protestants, who, for the
assertion of their religious liberty, revolted against the em-
peror of Austria, and in 1619 elected as their king Frederick,
the elector palatine. He was defeated near Prague in 1620
by the Austrians, who then commenced a cruel persecution
of the Protestants, and almost exterminated them. The
opulation was reduced in twenty years (1617–37) from
3,000,000 to 780,000. In recent times the country has
been agitated by a strong political antagonism between
the Czechs and the Germans, the former demanding the
re-establishment of a kingdom embracing Bohemia and
Moravia, and enjoying the same autonomy in point of ad-
ministration which has been conceded to Hungary. (See
AUSTRo-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY.) A. J. SCHEM.
Bohe/mian Breth’ren, the former name of a sect of
Christian reformers, who may be regarded as the remnant
of the HUSSITEs (which see). After the division of the
Bohemian reformers into Calixtines and Taborites, the
Council of Bàle (1432) granted the new sects the use of the
wine in the communion. This offer drew many of the Ca-
lixtines into the Roman Catholic Church, where they were
called Utraquists, from the use of both (utraque) elements
in the Eucharist. But the Taborites, remodelling and still
further reforming their creed, which was published in 1504,
took the name of Bohemian Brethren. Persecutions raged
against them for 150 years, and the vast majority were
killed or driven away from Bohemia. In 1567 they recov-
ered freedom of conscience, but numbers of them having
removed to Moravia, they took the name of MoRAVIAN
BRETHREN (which see). The Bohemian Brethren are looked
upon by most Protestants as deserving high regard on ac-
count of their purity, faithfulness, and the judicious mod-
538
BOHEMIAN FOREST – BOIL.
eration of their doctrines. (See Von ZEzschwitz, “Die
Katechismen der Waldenser und. Böhmischen Brüder,”
1863; PESCHECK, “Reformation in Bohemia,” London,
1846.) º
Bohe’mian For’est, or Böh/merwald, a chain of
mountains in Germany, which forms the boundary between
Bohemia, and Bavaria, and separates the basin of the Dan-
ube from that of the Elbe. It extends in a S. E. and
N. W. direction, and is about 130 miles long. The rocks
of which it is formed are granite and gneiss. The highest
summits of this chain are the Aber, 4848 feet, and the
Rachelberg, 4743 feet, above the level of the sea. A large
portion of these mountains is covered with dense forests.
A railway extending from Bavaria to Prague crosses this
range through the valley of the Cham.
Bohe’mian Lan’guage, a name commonly applied
to one of the principal dialects of the Slavic family of lan-
guages. It is sometimes called the Cechic (from Cechi,”
the native name of the people who speak it); it is regarded
not only as the harshest (most abounding in consonants),
but also as the richest and most expressive, of all the Slavic
dialects. The Cechic vowels, a, e, i, o, w, are essentially the
same as those of the Italian language; y resembles in sound
our i, but is somewhat more obscure; e, though written with
one letter, is a diphthong pronounced ya. The consonants,
b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, t, v, and 2, are pronounced as in Eng-
lish; c (as in Polish) has the same sound as our ts, even
before a hard vowel: thus ca is pronounced tsa ; g (like the
Swedish g) has before the soft vowels e, i, and y the sound
of our y consonant; j is like i or our y consonant; w sounds
like our v; 8 is always sharp, as in this ; r, as in French and
most other European languages, is always trilled. Certain
consonants are modified in sound by placing over them this
diacritical sign (X) : thus c, d, n, r, 8, t, and z are sounded
like our ch (in child), d (in verdure, i. e. dy uttered in one
sound), mi (uttered as one sound, as in minion), rzh (nearly),
sh, ty (uttered as one sound, or t in nature), and zh, re-
spectively. L, with a stroke through it, l (like the Polish),
has a sound unknown to our language. Ch is pronounced
as in German; sch, nearly as in Dutch. In the variety of
its terminations of both nouns and verbs the Cechic may
be said to resemble the Latin and Greek. The Bohemians
(Czechs) possess no contemptible literature. John Huss him-
self not only revised the translation of the Bible into the
Cechic tongue, but wrote tracts, and poetry in hexameter
verse. He appears to have been scarcely inferior to Luther
in the impulse which he gave to the mental culture of his
countrymen. The golden age of Cechic literature, and of
the highest intellectual culture of the Czechs, may be placed
between 1450 and 1620 (the opening of the Thirty Years'
war), after which both rapidly declined. After a period
of depression lasting nearly two hundred years, the litera-
ture of Bohemia, rose again into active life, and since the
commencement of the present century writers have ap-
peared in every department of learning and science. (See
WENZIG’s “Blicke auf das böhmische Volk, seine Geschichte
und Literatur,” 1855.) J. THOMAS.
Bo’hemond [Lat. Bohemum/dus] I., a famous leader
of the first Crusade, born about 1056, was a son of Robert
Guiscard, duke of Apulia and Calabria. He joined the
crusade with a large army in 1095, and took part in the
capture of Antioch in 1098. He remained at Antioch while
the other crusaders marched to Jerusalem, and he reigned
there as prince of Antioch. He waged war with varying
success against the Greek emperor Alexis, and married a
daughter of Philip I. of France. Died in 1111.
Bohemond II., a son of the preceding, was a minor
at his father's death. He became prince of Antioch in
1126, and fought against the Saracens as an ally of Bald-
win, king of Jerusalem. He was killed in battle in 1130.
Bohemond III., a prince of Antioch, was a grandson
of Bohemond II. He began to reign in 1163. Died in 1201.
Boh’len (HENRY), a native of Germany, removed to
Philadelphia, where he became a wine-merchant. Ap-
pointed a brigadier-general in 1862, he served under Fre-
mont and Sigel, and was killed near the Rappahannock
Aug. 22, 1862. {
Bohlen, von (PETER), a German Orientalist, born
Mar. 13, 1796. He became professor of Oriental languages
at Königsberg in 1830, and published, besides other works,
an able treatise on Indian antiquities entitled “Das Alte
Indien’’ (2 vols., 1830). Died Feb. 6, 1840. (See his
“Autobiography,” 1841.)
Böh’ler (PETER), a German theologian and Moravian
bishop, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main Dec. 31, 1712. He
is recognized, in Methodist history, as having given a de-
cisive impulse to Wesley's opinions and career. He re-
* Pronounced cha'kee.
moved to America in 1738, and in 1740 founded the
town of Nazareth, Pa. Died in London April 27, 1775.
Böhm (THEOBALD), a German musician, born in Bava-
ria in 1802, is noted for an improvement in the construc-
tion of the flute. The Böhm flute is more accurate and
even in tone, and more easily fingered, than those formerly
in use. He has also introduced improvements in other in-
struments, and has composed musical pieces.
Böhme, or Böhm (JAKOB), a celebrated German
mystic, born near Görlitz, in Upper Lusatia, in 1575. He
learned the trade of a shoemaker, worked at his trade at
Görlitz, and became a member of the Lutheran Church.
He had a very fertile imagination and a remarkable faculty
of intuition, and professed to be divinely inspired and
illuminated. His first work was entitled “Aurora, or the
Morning Redness” (about 1612). This was condemned
by the ecclesiastical authorities of Görlitz. He published
several other works, which were admired by some eminent
men, but they appear visionary and unintelligible to the
generality of persons. He died at Görlitz Nov. 24, 1624.
His works (10 vols., 1682) were translated into English (2
vols. 4to, 1764) by William Law, who was an admirer of
Böhme. He was a religious genius of great depth, and
can be understood only by people of strong religious feel-
ing and some religious experience: to them he is as sub-
lime as he is obscure to others. (See LA MoTTE-
Fouquí, “ Notice sur J. Boehm,” 1831; FECHNER, “Jakob
Böhme, sein Leben und seine Schriften,” Görlitz, 1857;
GEIss, “Jakob Böhme, der Deutsche Philosoph,” Leipsic,
1860.)
Böh/misch-Lei'pa, a town of Bohemia, on the Pol-
zen, 56 miles N. of Prague. It has a gymnasium, and
manufactures of woollen and cotton cloths, glass, and hard-
ware. Pop. in 1869, 9244.
Böh/misch-Trii/ban, a village of Austria, in Bohe-
mia, 44 miles by rail N. N. W. of Brünn. P. in 1869, 5141.
Bohn (HENRY GEORGE), a London bookseller of Ger-
man extraction, born Jan. 4, 1796, has promoted the popu-
larization of good literature by publishing translations from
ancient and modern languages, and has made several useful
compilations and written a “Handbook of Pottery.”
Bohrahs. See ISMAEELIAH.
Böht/lingk, or Boehtlingk (OTTO), an eminent Rus-
sian Orientalist, born at St. Petersburg May 30, 1815. He
has published, among other works, the text of Kãlidāsa's
“Sakuntalâ,” with a translation (1842), and, conjointly
with Roth, a “Sanscrit-German Lexicon,” which is said
to be unrivalled in this department of literature.
Boſhun U/pas [Malay for “poison tree”], the Antiaris
toacicaria, a tree of the Malay and Philippine archipelagoes,
of the order Artocarpaceae. Many grossly exaggerated re-
ports of its fatal qualities have been published. Its poison
appears to be of an acrid, not a narcotic character. The
stories of the upas valley in Java, where nothing can grow
but the upas tree, probably arose from the now well-ascer-
tained fact that certain close mountain-ravines in that
island so abound in poisonous volcanic gases that no plant,
not even the upas, can live there. Besides the above, an-
other bohun upas, the Strychnos Tieute, is found in that
region. It abounds in Strychnine, and is even more deadly
than the other.
Boiar'do (MATTEo MARIA), count of Scandiano, an
Italian poet, born at Scandiano about 1432. He was pat-
ronized by Ercole, duke of Este, and became governor of
Mödena, in 1481. His chief work is the romantic chival-
rous poem “Orlando Innamorato,” which he left unfinish-
ed, and which was published in 1495. He died Dec. 21,
1494. His poem was modified or written over by Berni,
whose version of it was so popular that it nearly supplant-
ed the original, the subject of which was also continued by
Ariosto in his “Orlando Furioso.” According to Hallam,
Boiardo was equal to Ariosto in point of novel invention
and just keeping of character. (See G. F. CREMONA, “Elo-
gio del Conte M. M. Bojardo,” 1827.)
Boi'i, an ancient Celtic people who emigrated across the
Po and occupied Umbria, where they waged war for sev-
eral centuries against the Romans. They were defeated by
the Romans in 283 B.C., and became allies of Hannibal
when he invaded Italy in 218 B. C. Many years later the
Romans expelled them from Umbria, and drove them be-
yond the Alps. A portion of the Boii migrated to the
country on the N. side of the Danube, and founded the king-
dom of Boiohemum (Bohemia), from which they were ex-
pelled by the Marcomanni in the time of Augustus. From
them also Bavaria takes its name.
Boil [Lat. furunculus], a hard, painful, inflammatory
tumor on the surface of the body, which begins as a point
of a dusky red color, and is hot, aching, and throbbing.
BOILDIEU–BOISE CITY.
539
These symptoms increase in severity for several days, when
it is of a conical form, with a broad firm base, and has
on the apex a whitish point, which contains a little matter;
this opens and after a few days more there is discharged
a slough of cellular tissue, and the cavity left heals, leav-
ing a depressed scar. Boils often attack young and pleth-
oric persons, and their appearance is not incompatible with
robust health, although they may be so numerous as to
greatly reduce the strength. Men in training for athletic
exercises, or others who have suddenly changed their hab-
its, are subject to them. Sometimes boils continue to succeed
each other for a length of time. The treatment of boils is
simple. The intestinal canal should be cleared by laxative
medicines, and the digestive powers improved by tomics
and antacids. The tincture of perchloride of iron is often
a useful remedy. The skin should be kept healthy by fre-
quent washing, while the inflamed point should be poulticed.
Wet lint is a sufficient application after the core has been
thrown off. Free incision of the boil greatly hastems its
COILY'Sø. -
Boildieu, or Boieldieu (ADRIEN FRANÇois), a French
composer, born at Rouen Dec. 15, 1775. He went to Rus-
sia in 1803, and was there appointed chapel-master to the
emperor Alexander, but he returned to Paris in 1811.
Among his works are the operas “La Dame Blanche,”
“Jean de Paris,” and “My Aunt Aurora.” Died Oct. 8,
1834. (See RíFúVEILLE, “Boieldieu, sa Wie et ses (Eu-
vres,” 1851.)
Boileau, or, more fully, Boileau-Despréaux (NIC-
OLAs), an eminent French poet and satirist, born near
Paris Nov. 1, 1636. He was liberally educated, and fol-
lowed no profession but that of an author. He began his
literary career by a satire entitled “Adieu of a Poet to the
City of Paris” (1660), the style of which was much admired.
In 1666 he produced “Seven Satires,” which were very suc-
cessful. He became a friend of Racine and La Fontaine.
His “Twelve Epistles,” which appeared after 1669, indi-
cate a more mature genius than his satires, and excel in
the ease and grace of the versification. He wrote to Racine
and other friends numerous letters, which are very interest-
ing as materials for the literary history of his time. Among
his best works are the “Lutrin’” (“Reading-desk,” 1674)
and the “Art of Poetry” (“L’Art Poétique,” 1674), which
is an exquisite performance, and is considered by some
French critics as equal to Horace’s “Art of Poetry.” Boi-
leau was admitted into the French Academy in 1684. He
had an immense influence on French literature. His cha-
racter is represented as pure and generous. He was visit-
ed in 1700 by Addison, to whom, as Macaulay remarks, he
talked on his favorite theme, literature, long and well; in-
deed, as his young hearer thought, incomparably well, He
died in Paris Mar. 13, 1711. (See D’ALEMBERT, “Eloge
de Boileau; DESMAIZEAUx, “Vie de Boileau,” 1712;
DAUNou, “Eloge de Boileau,” 1787; L. S. AUGER, “Eloge
de Boileau-Despréaux,” 1805.)
Boiler. See STEAM-ENGINE, by PROF. W. P. TRow-
BRIDGE.
Boiling-Point, the temperature at which the elastic
force of the vapor of any liquid is equal to the pressure of
the atmosphere. When a vessel containing water is heated,
the temperature rises and vapor silently passes off from the
surface; but at 212° F., or 100° C. (the barometric column
standing at 30 inches at the sea-level) steam begins to be
formed in bursts at the bottom, and rising through the
liquid, throws it into commotion. If the steam is allowed
freely to escape, the temperature of the water rises no
higher. The water is then said to boil, and the tempera-
ture at which it remains is its boiling-point. Every liquid
has a boiling-point of its own. -
TABLE OF BOILING-POINTS OF WARIOUS IIQUIDS.
Liquid sulphurous acid. 17.6° Water........................... 2120
Aldehyde ..................... 71.8 Butyric ether................ 238.8
Ether........................... 96.3 Perchloride of tin......... 240.2
Carbon bisulphide......... 118.5 Terchloride of arsenic... 273
aefone 133.3 || Bromide of silicon......... 308
Bromine....................... 145.5 Terebene...................... 322.9
Wood Spirit.................. 151.3 Naphthalin.................... 422.2
Ethylic alcohol.............. 173.0 Sulphuric acid............... 620
Benzole........................ 177.4 Mercury........................ 662
The boiling-point of liquids is altered by various circum-
stances. Water with common salt in it requires greater
heat to make it boil than pure water. In a glass vessel
the boiling-point is several degrees higher than in one of
metal. But what most affects the boiling-point is variation
of pressure. When the barometer stands at thirty inches,
showing an atmospheric pressure of fifteen pounds on the
square inch, the boiling-point of water is 212°. When
part of the pressure is removed, it boils before coming to
212°, and when the pressure is increased the boiling-point
rises. Thus in elevated positions, where there is less air
above the liquid to press on it, the boiling-point is lower
than at the level of the sea. An elevation of 510 feet makes
a diminution of one degree F.; at higher levels the dif-
ference of elevation corresponding to a degree of tempera-
ture in the boiling-point increases; and a method is thus
furnished of measuring the heights of mountains. At the
city of Mexico, 7471 feet above the sea, water boils at
198.1°; at Quito, 9541 feet, at 194°; in the Himalayas, at
the height of 18,000 feet, at 180°. Boiling water is thus
not always equally hot, and in elevated places many sub-
stances cannot be cooked by boiling. Under the receiver
of an air-pump water may be made to boil at the tempera-
ture of summer, and ether when colder than ice. This
effect of diminished pressure is largely turned to account in
Sugar-boiling, in preparing extracts, in distilling vegetable
oils, and in other processes where the substances are apt
to be injured by high temperature. By increasing the
pressure water may be heated to any degree without boil-
ing. Papin’s digester is formed on this principle. Under
a pressure of two atmospheres the boiling-point rises to
249°F.; of ten atmospheres, 356° F.; of fifty atmospheres,
51.1°F. At a depth of thirty-four feet the pressure of water is
equal to an atmosphere, or fifteen pounds on the square inch;
and thus at the bottom of a vessel of that depth the water
must be heated to 249°F. before it is at its boiling-point.
If a small quantity of water be poured into a silver basin
heated above the boiling-point, but below redness, it will
begin to boil violently, or perhaps burst into steam at once.
But if the basin is heated to redness, the water will gather
itself into a globule, and roll about on the hot surface without
coming to the boiling-point. It is remarkable that water
which has been freed from air by long boiling has its boil-
ing-point much raised. It has been known to reach 275° F.
without boiling. F. A. P. BARNARD.
Boiling Spring, a twp. of Lexington co., S. C. P. 354.
Boiling Spring, a twp. of Alleghany co., Va. P. 1388.
Bois Blanc Island, in Lake, Huron, 10 miles S. E.
of Mackinaw, Mich., is 10 miles long and 3 wide, and has
a lighthouse on the E. end; lat. 45° 45' N., lon. 84° 55' W.
Bois Brulé, a post-twp. of Perry co., Mo. Pop. 1337.
Bois de Boulogne, a grove or public park in the
environs of Paris, on the right bank of the Seine, about 3
miles W. of the city. It is nearly 3 miles long and 1 mile
wide. It was the finest promenade in the vicinity of Paris,
but many of the trees were cut down and burned when that
city was besieged by the Germans in 1870.
Bois d’Arc [Fr. for “bow-wood”], (popularly pro-
nounced bo'dock), a name given to the Osage orange tree
(Maclura aurantiaca, order Artocarpaceae) in some parts
of the U. S. It is often used for a hedge-plant: As a tree
its timber is tough, elastic, and extremely useful. It is a
near relative of the fustic tree, and its wood yields a yellow
dye. It was used by the Indians for making bows and
arrows. (For its use in hedge-fences, see OSAGE-ORANGE.)
Bois d’Arc, a township of Hempstead co., Ark. P. 632.
Bois d’Arc, a tp. of Montgomery co., Ill. Pop. 1177.
Boisé. See BIG WooD RIVER, -
Boisé, a county of Idaho, bordering on Montana, is
bounded on the E. by the Rocky Mountains. It is drained
by the Salmon River, the East Fork of the Salmon, and
by several forks of the Boisé River which rise within its
limits. The surface is partly mountainous. The inhab-
itants are mostly employed in mining gold, which is found
in various parts of the county. Grain and wool are raised,
and timber abounds. Many of the inhabitants are Chi-
nese. Capital, Idaho City. Pop. 3834.
Boise (JAMEs Robinson), PH. D., LL.D., born in Bland-
ford, Hampden co., Mass., Jan. 27, 1815, graduated at Brown
University in 1840, and was tutor of Latin and Greek in that
college from 1840 to 1843, and professor of Greek till 1850.
From 1852 till 1868 he was professor of Greek in the Uni-
versity of Michigan. Since then he has filled the same posi-
tion in the University of Chicago. Prof. Boise has pub-
lished several classical text-books, among which are edi-
tions, with English notes, of Xenophon’s “Anabasis” and
the first six books of Homer’s “Iliad.”
Boisé City, the capital of Idaho and of Ada county,
is in the southern portion of the Territory, on Boisé River,
50 miles above its confluence with the Snake, in the great
Snake River Valley; lat. 43° 34' N., lon., about 116° W.
It is surrounded by a fine agricultural and grazing country,
and derives large support from the rich placer and quartz
mines in the mountain districts within 50 miles N., S., and
E. The principal business-houses are fireproof brick. The
city has a national bank, U. S. assay-office, a penitentiary,
3 hotels, 2 churches, 1 high school, 2 grist-mills, a tri-
weekly and weekly newspaper, and job printing-office,
and various mechanical industries. Two large ditches,
bringing the water from Boisé River, give an abundance
of water-power, and side ditches for irrigating purposes
540
BOIS-LE-DUC–BOLETUS.
carry the water to every lot in the city. Four stages ar-
rive and depart daily, N., E., W., and S. Pop. 995.
MILTON RELLY, ED. “IDAHO STATESMAN.”
Bois-le-duc [Dutch Sº Hertogenbosch, i.e. “Duke's
Wood”], a fortified town of Holland, capital of North
Brabant, is at the junction of the rivers Aa and Dommel,
30 miles S. S. E. of Utrecht. It is a clean and well-built
town, intersected by several canals, and defended by a cit-
a.del and two forts. It has a fine cathedral, a college, an
academy of art, an arsenal, and a grammar-school in which
the celebrated Erasmus studied. Here are manufactures
of cutlery, ribbons, woollen goods, linen thread, etc. It
was founded in 1184 by the duke of Brabant in a wood
while hunting; hence its name. Pop. 24,579.
Boisserée (SULPIz), an eminent architect and anti-
uary of French extraction, was born at Cologne Aug. 2,
1783. He devoted himself to the collection of specimens
of early German art, in which he was aided by his brother
Melchior (1786–1851). They collected about 200 pictures,
which were purchased by the king of Bavaria, and are
called the “Boisserean Collection.” He published “Monu-
ments of Architecture on the Lower Rhine from the Seventh
to the Thirteenth Century” (1830–33), and “Views, Plans,
and Details of the Cathedral of Cologne, etc.” (1823).
Died May 2, 1841.
Boissonade (JEAN FRANÇors), a distinguished French
classical scholar, born in Paris Aug. 12, 1774. He be-
came professor of Greek in the University of Paris in
1812, was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in
1813, and became professor of Greek in the College of
France in 1828, which position he held until a few days
before his death. He edited several Greek classic authors,
and published “Sylloge Poetarum Graecorum ” (24 vols.,
1823–26). He acquired, a high reputation as a Hellenist,
and gave a powerful impulse to the study of classical liter-
ature. Died Sept. 8, 1857.
Boissy d’Anglais, de (FRANÇors ANToINE), Count, a
French statesman, born at Saint Jean Chambre (Ardèche)
Dec. 8, 1756. He became a moderate member of the
States-General in 1789, and of the Convention in 1792.
He was a member of the Committee of Public Safety in
1794, was chosen president of the Tribunate in 1802, was
created a senator and count by Napoleon in 1805, and a
peer of France by Louis XVIII. He wrote several politi-
cal essays and a “Life of Malesherbes’’ (1819). Died Oct.
20, 1826.
Boivin (MARIE ANNE VICTOIRE GILLAIN), M. D., an
eminent French midwife, born April 9, 1773, was educated
in a nunnery, and afterwards studied the elements of med-
icine. She married in 1797, but was soon left a widow
with one child. To gain a living she worked in the Ma-
ternité Hospital, of which she became superintendent in
1801. The king of Prussia, gave her the civil order of
merit, and the University of Marburg the degree of M. D.
She wrote valuable professional works. Died May 16, 1841.
Boſker (GEORGE HENRY), an American poet, born in
Philadelphia in 1823, graduated at Princeton, N. J., in
1842. He published “The Lesson of Life and other Poems”
(1847); “Calaynos,” a tragedy (1848), which was performed
with great success in England; “Leonore de Guzman,” and
“War Lyrics” (about 1862), which were received with favor.
In the autumn of 1871 he was appointed minister to Turkey.
Boke’s Creek, a township of Logan co., O. P. I344.
Bokha'ra [Lat. Bucharia ; anc. Sogdiana and Trans-
oaciana], or Uzebekistan’, called also Great Bu-
charia, a state of Central Asia, in Independent Toorkistan,
is bounded on the N. and W. by Russian Toorkistan, and on
the S. by Afghanistan and Toorkomania. Area, estimated at
76,200 square miles. The high mountain-range of Hindoo-
Koosh extends along the southern border of Bokhara, the
E. part of which is occupied by offsets from the Bolor
Tagh, but the greater part of the country is level. This
level tract resembles the dry steppes and sandy wastes of
the basin of the Caspian. The largest rivers of Bokhara
are the Amoo (Oxus), the Jihoon, and the Samarcand River,
or Kohik. Along the banks of these rivers there is arable
and fertile land, which is about one-tenth of the whole
country. The climate is moderate. Gold is found in the
Sands of the Oxus, but Bokhara is deficient in metals and
timber. Among the products of the soil are cotton, rice,
wheat, barley, silk, tobacco, and abundant fruits. The in-
habitants raise great numbers of camels, sheep, goats, and
horses. They manufacture silk stuffs, firearms, cutlery,
Shagreen, gold and silver ornaments, sabres, etc. This
country derives commercial advantage and importance
from its position between Russia and the south of Asia.
The population is composed of a mixture of races, who
mostly profess the Mohammedan religion. Bokhara partly
corresponds to the ancient Bactria. It was conquered by
Jengis Khan in 1222, and was famed as a seat of learn-
ing under Tamerlane. The Uzbecks became masters of it
in 1505. In 1864 the Russians moved up the Syr-Darya,
captured several important cities, together with the northern
half of Bokhara, and formed the government of Toorkistan.
Between 1866–68 the Russians conquered the cities of Sam-
arcand and Katty Kurgan, with the territory belonging to
them. Since then Bokhara has become more and more de-
pendent upon Russia. In 1870, Russia conquered Badak-
shan and gave it to Bokhara, and in 1873, owing to the
victory of the Russians over Khiva, the Amoo was made
the boundary between Khiva and Bokhara. Capital, Bok-
hara. Pop. estimated at 2,500,000.
Bokhara (i. e. “treasury of sciences”), a famous city
of Central Asia, the capital of Bokhara, is situated on a
plain near the river Sogd or Zerafshan, 138 miles W. S. W.
of Samarcand. The streets are very narrow and ill paved,
the houses are small, have flat roofs, and are built of sun-
dried bricks. Bokhara is probably the most important
commercial town of Central Asia, and has numerous ex-
tensive bazaars, in which nearly all kinds of goods can be
procured. Among the articles exported from it are silks,
cotton, wool, coarse chintzes, lapis-lazuli, and dried fruits.
This city is said to have 360 mosques, some of which are
beautiful structures. It has long been famous as a seat of
Mohammedan learning, and is said to contain over 100 col-
leges, with about 10,000 students. Amºng the principal
edifices is the palace of the khan, whicſ jis enclosed by a
wall about sixty-five feet high. . Bokhara was ruined by
Jengis Khan about 1232, and was rebuilt at the end of his
reign. The pop. is variously estimated at from 60,000 to
180,000.
BoI (FERDINAND), a Dutch painter and engraver, born
at Dort in 1611, was a pupil of Rembrandt. He painted
history and portraits with success, and produced some good
etchings. Died in 1681.
Bo'Ian Pass, a pass in the mountains of Beloochistan,
is 50 miles long, and is on the route from Sinde to Kanda-
har and Kelat. The highest part of the pass is 5793 feet
above the level of the sea. The average ascent is ninety
feet in a mile. The Bolan River rises here. In 1839 a
small British army with heavy artillery marched through
this pass from Sinde to Afghanistan.
Bo'las (the “balls”), a Spanish-American name for a
missile used by the Indians of the South American plains,
and borrowed from them by the Guachos. It consists of a
pair of balls (formerly made of clay by the Indians, but
now often of iron) fastened together by a thong of hide.
The bolas are hurled with great precision at the ox, horse,
guanaco, or ostrich, and, entangling the legs of the animal,
detain it till it can be captured or killed. Sixty feet or
more is a moderate range for the bolas, which are thrown
from the saddle. -
Bolbec, a town of France, in the department of Seine-
Inférieure, is on a small river of its own name, and 20
miles by rail E. N. E. of Havre, on the railway which con-
nects Paris with the latter place. It is well built, and is
adorned with fountains. Here are manufactures of cot–
ton, linen, and woollen fabrics, and chemicals. Pop. 9063.
Bold Spring, a township of Shelby co., Ala. P. 537.
Bole [Lat. bo'lus ; Gr. 86xos, a “lump or mass”], an
earthy substance resembling clay, and consisting essen-
tially of silica, alumina, and red oxide of iron. It occurs in
nests and veins in basalt and other rocks in various coun-
tries. It feels greasy between the fingers; is white, yel-
Jow, red, brown, or black; has a dull resinous lustre; is
friable, and adheres to the tongue. Armenian bole has a
red tint, is often used for coloring false anchovies, and is
also employed in coloring tooth-powders and in veterinary
medicine. Lemmian earth, a bole from the island of Lem-
mos, was at one time prescribed as a tonic and astringent
medicine, and acted beneficially from the large percentage
of oxide of iron present. The boles are employed in
veterinary practice. When bole is calcined it becomes
hard ; and when afterwards levigated, a coarse red kind
is used as a pigment under the names of English red and
Berlin red. French bole is pale-red; Bohemian bole, red-
dish-yellow; Silesia bole, pale-yellow; and Blois bole is
yellow. The boles are absorbent, astringent, and some-
what tonic.
Bole’ro (named from its inventor), a Spanish na-
tional dance, generally in the time of a minuet, and with a
peculiar rhythm. It is accompanied with the music of the
guitar and castamet, and with songs. The dancer seeks to
represent by pantomime the successive symptoms and emo-
tions of amorous affection.
Boles, a post-township of Franklin co., Mo. P. 5183.
Bole’tus [Gr. Boxtrms], a genus of fungi of the division
Hymenomycetes. It comprises several species, which re-
BOLEYN–BOLIVIA.
541
semble the mushroom (Agaricus) in form, but instead of
having gills, the under side of the cap (pileus) is occupied
by a layer (hymenium) quite distinct from the body of the
pileus in substance, and pierced by pores, so as to be com-
posed of numerous small tubes united together. Boletus
edulis is used as food in France and Germany, where it
grows on the ground in woods and mossy places. In
moist, warm summers it is very abundant. The part
which is eaten is the flesh of the cap, which is firm,
white, and delicate. Several other species are edible.
Bo'leyn, or Bul’len (ANNE), queen of England, born
in 1507, was a daughter of Sir Thomas Bullen, afterwards
earl of Wiltshire. Her mother was a daughter of the duke
of Norfolk. She was educated at the French court, and be-
came about 1525 one of the maids-of-honor to the English
queen, Catherine. Henry VIII., attracted by her beauty,
applied to the pope to obtain a divorce from Catherine, and
married Anne privately early in 1533. She became the
mother of the princess Elizabeth in September of that year.
She showed favor to the cause of the Reformation. Having
been supplanted in the favor of the king, she was accused
of criminal intercourse with several men, was condemned
by a jury of peers, and beheaded May 19, 1536. Some
writers think that her crime was not proven. (See FROUDE,
“History of England,” vol. ii.; Miss BENGER, “Memoirs
of Anne Boleyn;” MISS STRICKLAND, “Queens of England.”)
Bolgrad’, a ºwn of Roumania, on the river Yalpookh,
23 miles N. of Isºkail, and on the frontier between Russia.
and Turkey. In 1856 it was ceded by Russia to Turkey.
Pop. 8415.
Bo'li, a town in Asiatic Turkey, in Anatolia, 85 miles
N. W. of Angora, inhabited by Turks and Armenians.
The manufactures are gold ornaments and leather. Pop.
about 10,000.
Bol’igee, a township of Greene co., Ala. Pop. 1770.
Boliºmas, a post-township of Marin co., Cal. Pop. 625.
Bolingbroke (HENRY ST. John), WISCOUNT, a celebrated
English author and statesman, born at Battersea, Oct. 1,
1678. He was educated at Eton and Oxford, and was ex-
tremely dissipated in his youth. Having entered Parlia-
ment in 1700, he soon became a prominent orator of the
Tory party, and was appointed secretary of war in 1704,
He lost this office when the Whigs obtained power in 1708,
but he continued to be a favorite counsellor of Queen Anne,
who dismissed the Whigs in 1710, and placed Harley at the
head of a ministry in which St. John was secretary for for-
eign affairs. He received in 1712 the title of Wiscount Bol-
ingbroke, and in 1713 concluded the treaty of Utrecht, which
ended a long war between England and France. He quar-
relled with Harley (earl of Oxford), and supplanted him as
prime minister in July, 1714. His ambitious hopes were
blasted by the death of Queen Anne (Aug., 1714), which
also frustrated his designs and schemes to restore the Stuart
dynasty. He was attainted in 1715, but he had escaped to
France, and entered the service of the Pretender as his
prime minister. In 1724 he was permitted to return to
England, but not to enter Parliament. He wrote for the
“Craftsman” many articles against Walpole, and published,
besides other works, a “Dissertation on Parties” (1739)
and “Remarks on the History of England ” (1743). Died
Dec. 15, 1751. He was brilliant and versatile, but not pro-
found. His collected works, which have little merit except
style, were published by Mallet in five volumes in 1754.
(See GoLDSMITH, “Life of Lord Bolingbroke;” G. W. CookE,
“Memoirs of Lord Bolingbroke,” 1835; “Edinburgh Re-
view” for Oct., 1835; F. voN RAUMER, “Lord Bolingbroke
und seine Werke,” 1841; CHARLES DE RíMUSAT, “Boling-
broke, sa Wie et son Temps,” 1853.)
Bo'ling Green, a township of Pettis co., Mo. P. 2467.
Bol’ivar, a county in the W. of Mississippi. Area, 800
square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Mississippi
River, which separates it from Arkansas. The surface is
an alluvial plain, part of which is often inundated by the
river. The soil is fertile and produces cotton and corn
abundantly. Capital, Beulah. Pop. 97.32.
Bolivar, a township of Jefferson co., Ark. Pop. 1732.
Bolivar, a township of Poinsett co., Ark. Pop. 867.
Bolivar, a township of Benton co., Ind. Pop. 776.
Bolivar, a post-village, capital of Polk co., Mo., 110
miles S. W. of Jefferson City. It has a fine high-school
building, three churches, two newspapers, a woollen mill,
cotton-gin, flouring mill, and other manufactories, three
hotels, and a large trade. Pop. 635.
JAS. DUMARS, ED. “ FREE PRESS.”
Bolivar, a post-township of Allegany co., N. Y. P. 959.
Bolivar, a post-village of Lawrence township, Tusca-
rawas co., O. Pop. 413.
Bolivar, a post-village of Fairfield township, West-
•moreland co., Pa. Pop. 298.
Bolivar, a post-village, capital of Hardeman co.,
Tenn., I mile S. of Hatchee River, on the Mississippi Cen-
tral R. R., 28 miles S. of Jackson and 68 miles E. of Mem-
phis, in an excellent cotton region, with fine water-power
and plenty of timber. It has a foundry, steam saw and
grist mill, two male. and two female academies, seven
churches, and ome weekly newspaper. Pop. 889.
M. R. PARRISH, E.D. “ Boliv AR BULLETIN.”
Bolivar, a township of Jefferson co., W. Va. P. 2892.
Boli’var, one of the nine states of the South American
confederation of Colombia, is bounded on the N. by the
Caribbean Sea, E. by Magdalena and Santander, S. by An-
tioquia, and on the W. by Cauca. Area, 26,600 square
miles. Besides the Magdalena, which flows along its entire
W. boundary, the only river of importance is the Cauca.
The surface is mostly level, and covered with forests. The
principal towns are Cartagéna, the capital, and Mompox.
Pop. in 1870, 225,060.
Bol’ivar [Sp. pron. bo-lee'var], (SIMON), or Boli’var
y Pon'te, surnamed THE LIBERATOR, a South American
patriot, born at Caracas July 25, 1783, inherited an ample
fortune. He studied law at Madrid, and afterwards joined
the patriots who revolted against Spain in 1810. He served
as an officer under Miranda in several battles. Having ob-
tained the command of a separate army, he defeated the
Spaniards, and entered Caracas in triumph in Aug., 1813,
soon after which he was appointed dictator. He was de-
feated and driven out of Venezuela in 1814, but again rallied
to the standard of liberty near the end of 1816, and gained
several victories over the Spanish general Morillo in 1817.
In Feb., 1819, a congress was opened at Angostura, and
Bolivar was chosen president. In Dec., 1819, Venezuela
and New Granada were united to form the republic of
Colombia, of which Bolivar was elected the first president.
He gained a victory at Carabobo in June, 1821, and in
1822 led an army into Peru, which he liberated from the
Spaniards. He became dictator of Peru in 1823, and made
a tour through that country, in which he was received with
triumphal demonstrations. In honor of him the southern
part of Peru was named Bolivia, and erected in 1825 into
a separate state, of which he became president for life. He
was also re-elected president of Colombia in 1826. In 1829,
Venezuela seceded from the republic of Colombia, which
was much disturbed by faction. Bolivar had many enemies
who denounced his ambition. He died Dec. 17, 1830. (See
DUCOUDRAY-HolsTEIN, “Mémoires de S. Bolivar,” 1829.
Bolivar City. See ANGOSTURA.
Bolivar Point is at the N. side of the entrance to
Galveston Bay, Tex., in Chambers co., lat. 29° 22' 02" N.,
lon. 94° 45' 34" W. It has an iron lighthouse 110 feet
high, with a fixed white light 117 feet above the sea.
Boliv'ia, a South American republic, is bounded on the
N. and E. by Brazil, on the S. by the Argentine Republic
and Chili, and on the W. by Peru and the Pacific Ocean.
Area, 535,000 square miles. The population is estimated
(Behm and Wagner, “Bevölkerung der Erde,” Gotha, .
1872) at 2,000,000. The S. W., W., and central parts of
the republic contain the highest mountains in the New
World, comprising the Cordilleras from lat. 24° S., with
the plateau of Potosi, 13,000 feet high, from which two
chains branch off, the western, containing many volcanoes,
with its highest point, Mount Sajama, 22,760 feet high, and
the eastern, with Mount Illampu, probably the highest in
America, 24,744 feet, and Mount Illimani, 23,990 feet. The
only lake of any importance, Lake Titicaca, on the N. W.
boundary, is situated at an elevation of 12,850 feet, and
has an area of 5300 square miles. The most important.
rivers of Bolivia are the Veni or Beni, Mamore, and Gua-
pore, which empty into the Madeira, and the Pilcomayo and
Paraguay, which flow to the Parana. Five climatic re-
gions are distinguished: 1, the Puma brava, between the
elevation of 13,000 feet and the snow-limit; 2, the Puna,
between 11,000 and 13,000 feet, in which potatoes, oca,
quinoa, and barley are cultivated, and fine forests are met
with ; 3, the Cabezera de Valle, between 9000 and 11,000
feet, producing wheat, corn, and European vegetables; 4,
the Valle, or Medio Yunga, between 6000 and 9000 feet,
the finest region in Bolivia; besides the products found
in the regions above named, many tropical fruits occur
here, and the best cinchona is gathered; 5, the Yunga, the
region of the tropical forests, producing cacao, coca, bana-
nas, and all classes of tropical fruits.
Bolivia is rich in precious metals and useful minerals.
Silver is found all through the Bolivian cordillera, while
gold is not only found in large quantities, associated with
quartz, in the mountains, but is found in the beds of all
the numerous rivers that come down from the mountains.
542
BOLKHOV-BOLOGNA.
Besides these, copper, tin, mercury, lead, and iron are also
found. Salt is also produced in large quantities, while the"
rich beds of coal have as yet not been touched. Besides
the products mentioned above, coffee, cotton, tobacco, indi-
go, and sugar-cane are extensively cultivated. The inhab-
itants consist of whites, Indians, and a large number of
half-breeds, but very few negroes. The Indians are most-
ly Chiquitos, Majos, and Chiriquanos. The Roman Cath-
olic religion predominates, and the country contains the
archbishopric of La Plata and the bishoprics of La Paz,
Santa Cruz, and Cochabamba.
The public education of the nation is on a very low
stage as yet. It is under the direction of the presidents of
the three universities and the minister of education. The
state of the finances is very low indeed. The public debt
in 1871 amounted to 10,845,520 pesos, the receipts in 1867
to 4,529,345 pesos, and the expenses in the same year to
5,957,275, leaving a deficit of 1,427,930 pesos. The army
consists of 51 generals, 359 superior officers, 654 other offi-
cers, and about 2000 privates. The imports are estimated
at 6,000,000 pesos, and the exports at 5,000,000. No rail-
roads exist at present. A line has been projected from Tacna
to La Paz, and another from Caracoles to the Pacific. The
executive power is vested, according to the constitution of
1868, in a president elected for four years, and the legisla-
tive in a congress. Bolivia is divided into 11 departments:
Chuquisaca, Potosi, Oruro, Tarija, Atacama, La Paz, Mejil-
lones, Santa Cruz, Beni or Veni, Cochabamba, and Mel-
gareja. The capital is Sucre.
History.—The W. part of Bolivia belonged to the old
empire of the incas of Cuzco, which existed from about
1018–1524, and which had a high degree of civilization.
In 1538 the Spaniards entered the country and conquered it,
and in 1557 the inca Sairi Tupac resigned his power to
Philip II. But the Spanish dominion was not firmly es-
tablished until 1780. In this year Bolivia, under the name
of Charcas, became a part of the viceroyalty of La Plata
or Buenos Ayres. In 1809 the disorders in Spain also
caused considerable revolutionary movements in Bolivia.
The revolution gradually spread over the whole country,
and was carried on with varying successes until 1824. In
July, 1825, a congress assembled and declared the country
independent, and called the new state Bolivia, in honor of
Gen. Bolivar, who had materially aided them. Aug. 25,
1826, a constitution was adopted, and Gen. Sucre was elect-
ed president. In 1828 he was forced to leave the country.
After a terrible civil war Santa Cruz became president, and
succeeded in raising the prosperity of the country consid-
erably. In 1835 he invaded Peru, defeated the rebels, and
annexed a part of Southern Peru. A federal republic was
formed and Santa Cruz elected protector. But Chili and
the Argentine Republic, which had jealously watched his
growing success, now took up arms against him, and, al-
though at first victorious, he was in consequence of inter-
nal disorders defeated by Chili in 1839, and fled to Guaya-
quil. After some more revolutions, Gen. Ballivian suc-
ceeded in sustaining himself as president in 1840. He
conducted the government with vigor, and introduced many
reforms. . Gamarro, who tried to unite Bolivia, with Peru,
was repulsed, and the Bolivian troops even entered Peru.
Peace was concluded June 7, 1842, and the restoration of
the former boundaries was agreed upon. But new troubles
arose in the interior, and Gen. Velasco superseded Balliv-
ian, only to be himself superseded in Dec., 1848, by Gen.
Belzu. Belzu ruled for over six years, having gained the
favor of the lower classes. In 1855 he was compelled to
resign by the popular indignation against his arbitrary
measures, but had enough influence left to secure the elec-
tion of his son-in-law, Cordova, who continued the obnox-
ious policy of Belzu, and in Nov., 1857, was defeated by
Dr. Linares, who succeeded him. . Linares's attempts to
introduce reforms remained futile in consequence of the
opposition of his opponents. He was deposed in 1861, and
was succeeded by his minister of war, Acha. In 1864, after
increasing internal strifes, Belzu made an invasion from
Peru. In December of the same year Gen. Melgarejo first
defeated Acha, and then defeated and killed Belzu. In
1866, Bolivia joined the alliance of Peru, Ecuador, and
Chili against Spain, and in the same year settled amicably
the border difficulties with Chili. In 1868 a new congress
was elected, which legalized all the acts of Melgarejo. In
the same year a contract was made with Col. G. E. Church
of New York to open steam-navigation on the Madeira.
At the same time citizenship was extended to all Americans
who declared their intention to settle permanently in
Bolivia. In Feb., 1869, Melgarejo overthrew the constitu-
tion of 1868, but in May restored it again. In 1869 a new
revolution broke out, Melgarejo was defeated, and Morales
declared president. In 1872, Morales was shot by his
hºw La Faye, and was succeeded by Don Adolfo Bal-
1V1&n,
(See DoDENCE, “Bosquejo Estadistica de Bolivia,” 1851;
WAPPAUs, in Stein and Hörschelmann’s “Handbuch der
Geographie,” 7th ed., 1863–70; CoRTEs, “Ensayo sobre la
Historia de Bolivia,” 1861; and RECK, “Geographie und
Statistik der Republik Bolivia,” in Petermann’s “Mitthei-
lungen,” 1866 and 1867.) A. J. SCHEM.
Bol’khov, a town of Russia, government of Orel, on
the Nugra, 30 miles N. of Orel. It is built mostly of wood,
and has about twenty churches, also manufactures of
gloves, hosiery, hats, and leather. Hemp, hides, oil, and
tallow are exported. Pop. 18,491.
Bol’landists, a term applied to certain Jesuits who
compiled, and are compiling, a voluminous work called
“Acta Sanctorum,” or “Lives of the Saints” (53 vols.,
1643–1794). They derived their name from John Bol-
landus. (See BoLLANDUs.) After his death the work was
continued by a number of men, among whom were Daniel
Papebroek, Conrad Janning, P. van den Bosche, Suyskens,
and Hubens. In 1837, a new Bollandist association was
formed by the Jesuits in Belgium, who have continued the
work of publication. The sixtieth volume, published in
1867, comes down to the saints of October 29. It is stated
that 2000 saints remain whose lives are unwritten, and that
at least fifty volumes folio will be required to complete the
work. As far as they have gone they have by no means
exhausted the old calendars. According to Alban Butler,
their work, at least in the early º not exhibit
much scholarship. (See L. P. GACHAſſº; “Mémoire his-
torique sur les Bollandistes,” 1835.)
Bollan’dus, or Bol’land (John), a Flemish Jesuit,
born at Limburg Aug. 13, 1596. In conjunction with
Godfrey Henschen, he published in 1643–58 five volumes
of the “Acta Sanctorum.” Died Sept. 12, 1665. (See BoI-
LANDISTs.)
Bollème, a French town, in Vaucluse, on a hillside, 24
miles N. of Avignon. It manufactures silk. Pop. 54.12.
Bolles (LUCIUs), D. D., born at Ashford, Conn., Sept.
25, 1779, educated at Brown University, ordained pastor
of a Baptist church at Salem, Mass., 1805, and secretary
of the Baptist Board of Foreign Missions from 1824. Died
Jan. 5, 1844.
Bol/linger, a county in S. E. Missouri. Area, 500
square miles. It is drained by Castor and Crooked Creeks.
The surface is hilly or uneven ; the soil is fertile. Cattle,
grain, tobacco, and wool are produced. Iron ore and
kaolin are found here. It is intersected by the St. Louis
and Iron Mountain R. R. Capital, Marble Hill. P. 8162.
Bolo'gma, a province of the kingdom of Italy, was
previous to 1860 a delegation of the Papal States. It is
bounded on the N. by Ferrara, on the E. by Ravenna, on
the S. by Florence, and on the W. by Módena. Area, 1392
square miles. The southern part is mountainous; the soil
is mostly very fertile. Among the staple products are silk,
wine, grain, olive oil, hemp, flax, and rice. Capital,
Bologna. Pop. in 1871, 439,166. -
Bologna (anc. Felsina and Bononia), a famous city
of Italy, capital of the above province, is situated in a fer-
tile plain near the northern foot of the Apennines, 23 miles
by rail S. E. of Módena and 83 miles by rail N. of Florence;
lat. 44° 30' N., lon. 11° 21' E. Several railways extend
from this point to Ferrara, Ancona, Módena, and Florence;
that which connects it with Florence crosses the Apennines
by numerous tunnels. Bologna is a handsome city with
well-paved streets, lined with rich and varied colonnades,
which afford shelter from the rain and sun, and it is adorned
with many beautiful churches and fine palaces of the no-
bility, richly furnished with paintings of the old masters.
Among the remarkable edifices are the Palazzo del Podestà;
the Palazzo Maggiore del Publico; the leaning tower of
Asinelli, built about 1110, and 256 feet high; the cathedral,
rich in works of art; the church of San Stefano, one of the
oldest in Italy, and containing Greek frescoes of the twelfth
century; the church of San Petronio, a noble specimen of
the Italian Gothic style, adorned with many masterpieces
of painters and sculptors; and the church of San Domenico,
in which may be seen sculptures by Michael Angelo, and
paintings by Guido, L. Caracci, and Colonna. The num-
ber of churches in Bologna is about seventy-four.
Bologna is one of the great centres of learning in Italy.
Its university, said to have been founded as early as 425,
is the oldest in the peninsula. This school attained great
celebrity, and was attended by thousands of students from
all parts of Europe. The number of its students about the
year 1260 is said to have amounted to 10,000. Several
female professors have occupied chairs in this institution.
The library of the university has about 200,000 volumes
and 1000 valuable MSS. Bologna has an academy of fine
arts and several theatres. Here are important manufac-
tures of silk goods, velvet, crape, chemicals, paper, musical
BOLOGNA, DA—BOMBARDMENT.
543
instruments, and sausages. This city was the native place
of many eminent painters, including Albano, the three
Caracci, and Guido; also of Pope Benedict XIV., Galvani,
and Malpighi. A town called Felsina, founded here by
the Etruscans, was perhaps as ancient as the city of Rome.
The Romans, who obtained possession of it in 189 B.C.,
changed its name to Bononia. It was taken by Charle-
magne in 800 A.D., and was the capital of the most power-
ful Italian republic from 1118 to 1274. It was annexed to
the Papal States in 1514, and to the new kingdom of Italy
in 1859. Pop. in 1871, 115,957.
Bologna, da (GIov ANNI), a Flemish sculptor, born at
Douay in 1524, went to Italy when quite young, where he
won great and lasting fame. His chief works are the
“Rape of the Sabines” in the Loggia di Lanzi at Florence,
the “Mercury” of the Uffizi, and the great fountain of Bo-
logna (1564). Died in 1608.
Bologna Stone, a radiated variety of heavy spar
(sulphate of baryta) which is found near Bologna, and is
sometimes called “Bologna phosphorus.” When calcined,
pulverized, and made into cakes with gum-water, these
cakes, after exposure to the Sun, emit a phosphorescent
light. -
IBo’lor Tagh, or Belur Tagh, a high mountain-
chain of Central Asia, extends along the W. boundary of
the Chinese empire, which it separates from Khoondooz
and Kafiristan.
tends from lat. 35° to 45° N., and is connected with the
Hindoo-Koosh on the S. The altitude of its highest peaks
is said to be 19,000 feet or more.
Boise/ma (anc. Volsinii or Volsinium), a town of Italy,
on the N. shore of Lake Bolsena, about 20 miles N. N. W.
of Viterbo. It is now a small and mean village, but in
ancient times it was an important Etruscan city and the
capital of the Volsci. It was taken and destroyed in 280
B. C. by the Romans, who built here another city. This
was the native place of Sejanus. Pop. 2100. The lake was
celebrated in the Middle Ages for its eels. Pope Leo X.
visited the island in this lake, on which ruins of beautiful
castles, built by the Farnese, are, still visible.
Bolt, a dart or pointed shaft, a thunderbolt; also a
strong cylindrical pin of iron or other metal. Iron bolts
are often used to fasten doors and protect dwelling-houses
and warehouses against robbers. . Metallic bolts, with a
head at one end and a screw-thread and nut at the other,
are extensively used in building ships and houses, in order
to bind together timber or masonry. Bolts in shipbuilding
are usually either iron or copper, and are of various forms
and sizes, some being many feet long.
Bol/ton, a post-village of Albion township, Peel co.,
Ontario (Canada), on the Toronto Grey and Bruce Rail-
way, 25 miles from Toronto, has a large trade in provisions,
grain, and flour. It has one weekly newspaper.
Bolton, a post-township of Tolland co., Conn., has
quarries of excellent flagging-stone. Pop. 576.
Bolton, a post-township of Worcester co., Mass., on
the Boston Clinton and Fitchburg R. R., 43 miles W. N. W.
from Boston. It has a public library, and is the seat of
the Houghton School. Pop. 1014. -
Bolton, a post-village and township of Warren co.,
N. Y., on Lake George, is noted for fine scenery. P. 1135.
Bolton, a post-township of Chittenden co., Vt., 18
miles N. W. of Montpelier, has manufactures of tubs,
measures, boxes, lumber, etc. Pop. 711.
Bolton-le-Moors, an important manufacturing town
of England, in Lancashire, on the Croal, 11 miles by rail
N. W. of Manchester. Several railways extend from this
place to Liverpool, Manchester, and Blackburn. Bolton
returns two members to Parliament. It is one of the prin-
cipal seats of the cotton manufacture, and is the birthplace
of the inventors Arkwright and Crompton. The chief prod-
ucts of its manufactories are muslins, fine calicoes, counter-
panes, dimities, cotton shawls, and fustians. Here are also
paper-mills, foundries, and machine-shops. Numerous coal-
mines are worked in the parish of Bolton. The manufac-
ture of cotton and wool was introduced into this place by |
the Flemings about 1337. Pop. in 1871, 82,854.
Bo'lus [Gr. 36Aos, a “mass”], a dose of medicine given
in a mass larger than a pill, yet small enough to be swal-
lowed. The bolus is now seldom used.
Boſmarsundſ, a fortress of Russia, on the S. E. side
of the island of Aland; lat. 60° 12' 40” N., lon. 20° 15' E.
This important fortress was taken by the allied English and
French fleets in Aug., 1854, and was afterwards blown up
by the allies.
Bomb, bim [Fr. bombe; Lat. bom/bus], or Bombshell,
a kind of shell; a hollow ball of cast-iron which is filled
with powder or other explosive substance, is discharged
Its direction is nearly N. and S. It ex-.
from a mortar or heavy ordnance, and explodes when it
strikes the ground or before it falls. The powder in it is
usually exploded by a fuse or hollow tube filled with a slow-
burning compound, which is ignited by the discharge of the
mortar. The largest bomb in ordinary use is thirteen inches
in diameter, weighs about 195 pounds, and is charged with
seven or eight pounds of powder. Bombs are thrown at
angles varying from twenty to forty-five degrees. (See
MoRTAR.)
Bom/ba, a surname or nickname given to Ferdinand
II., king of the Two Sicilies, in consequence of his cruel
bombardment of Messina Sept. 2–7, 1848.
Bom/bard, an ancient kind of ordnance, very short,
thick, and wide in the bore. It differed from the mortar
in shooting forth stones instead of iron shells. Some of
the bombards used in the fifteenth century propelled stories
weighing from 200 to 500 pounds each.
Bombardment. In the strict meaning of the term,
a bombardment is the firing from mortars of bombs—(that
is, shells or incendiary projectiles) into a fortress or place
to compel, or aid in compelling, its surrender. “Bom-
bardments,” says Bardin (Dict. de l'Armée) “are an im-
politic and barbarous means, since it attacks non-combat-
ants, and is rather a warfare against the inhabitants than
against the armed defenders, exasperating the people and
nationalizing the strife.” Of the bombardments recorded
may be mentioned that of Genoa in 1684; of Tripoli in
1685, 1728, and 1747; Barcelona, 1691. Brussels was bom-
barded in 1694 by Louis XIV. (“3000 bombs and three
times as many red-hot shot” were thrown in); Pragué was
bombarded in 1759; Breda, Lille, Lyons, Maestricht, May-
ence in 1793, and Menin, Valenciennes, Le Quesnoy, OS-
tende, Nieuwpoort, and Lécluse in 1794. Some resisted—
as Lille and Mayence—others succumbed. That of Lille
is most noted, this small place being subjected for 140
hours (6 days and nights) to the fire of 12 mortars and 24
cannons. During the siege of Antwerp in 1832 thirty-one
thousand six hundred and eighty-nine shells were thrown
into the citadel without material effect in accelerating the
surrender.” Glogau, Breslau, and Schweidnitz were bom-
barded by the French in 1806 and 1807. During the long
two years’ blockade, 1809–10, of Cadiz by the French under
Marshal Victor it was found impossible to reach the city
, from the lines with shells from ordinary mortars: long
bronze howitzers of 10 inches calibre were cast at Seville
(one of which is now to be seen as a trophy (see Fig. 1)
in St. James's Park near the Horse Guards, London) and
called á la Villantroys, from the French colonel of artillery
who had proposed them. These, elevated 45°, threw their
projectiles 5000 metres (3 miles) into the heart of the city;
but to attain this range it was found necessary to load the
shells (already weighing 95 lbs.) with lead, to the exclusion
of most of the bursting-charge. In bursting they produced
no effect, and it is stated that the inhabitants were “Scarcely
aware of the bombardment.”
FIG. 1.
#
3 * } ... ." . . . "WA
ºfºº
§§ §
#.
É
#
º
wº
gº
:
3E
At the siege of Vera Cruz by Gen. Scott in Mar., 1847,
three mortar batteries each containing four (10-in.) mor-
tars and a battery of 8 large (8-in.) howitzers were estab-
* Monster-mortars, like monster-guns, date far back in the his.
tory of artillery. One made at Ghent and used in the siege Of
Oudenarde is yet exhibited in the latter city. At the siege ºf
Antwerp a mortar of sixty centimetres (24 inches) calibre, weigh-
ing 7000 kilogrammes and throwing a shell of 500 kil. (1100 lbs.),
designed by Čol. Paixhans, was used. It threw 15 shells in the last
two days of the siege. It was thought that if one fell on a mag-
azine it would destroy it; but the shells actually thrown caused
no serious damage. (Spéctateur Mil., 1833.) It was fired with 8
kil. of powder, but its full charge was 13 kil. Fired subsequently
with this charge it burst.

544
BOMBARDMENT.
lished bearing upon the quarter called “La Merced.” On
the 23d Gen. Scott summoned the place and a conference
was had ; it proving fruitless, the 12 mortars opened on
that day and the howitzer battery the day following. The
fire continued throughout the 25th, 26th, and 27th. The
La Merced quarter soon became ruinous—200 persons are
said to have been injured. The fears of an assault caused
Gen. Morales to surrender on the 27th. A shot from the
Fort St. Juan entered one of our mortar batteries on the
22d, killing by its “wind” (for though knocking off his
cap, the skin was not broken) Capt. Jno. R. Vinton, 3d
artillery. During the bombardment our fleet kept up a
cannonade on the fort which, though intact, Surrendered a
few hours after the city.
De Blois (Capitaine d'Artillerie) published in 1848 a
“Traité des Bombardements’ to maintain that this means
has not, as asserted, fallen into disuse; that bombardments
reduce places with much less loss of time, munitions and
blood than regular sieges; and, finally, to defend the
system “against the unjust reprobation cast upon it in
characterizing its employment as an act of barbarity.”
The cases cited by him, nearly all of which have been
referred to in this, scarcely sustain his thesis; still very
recent examples go to prove that it is an agent which will
continue, under certain circumstances, to be resorted to.
Grivel [“La Marine dams L’attaque des Fortifications et
le Bombardment des villes,” Paris, 1856] maintains that
in the use of curved fires, combined with direct, naval
armaments will in future find the most effective method of
attacking fortified places. By the term curved fires he in-
cludes fire by which projectiles from rifled guns (or even
Smooth-bores) can, by elevating the piece, be sent, at long
ranges, into the interior of a place. The increase of
calibre of modern artillery, and more especially the intro-
duction of the rifled principle, has made such fires as
effective as that from mortars, and the term “bombard-
ment” is now extended to such.
At Odessa this species of bombardment was first effect-
ively employed in 1854. The results attained there sug-
gested to the allies the advantages to be derived from this
application of floating artillery, and the subsequent bom-
bardment of Sweaborg was provided for, in 1855, by adding
to the fleet 21 mortar vessels which were towed to within
about 2 miles (3400 metres) of the centre of the Russian
arsenal, while the gunboats of the squadron, keeping in .
constant motion, approached to distances of two or three
thousand metres. The fire was maintained 45 hours dur-
ing which 4150 projectiles (2828 of which mortar shells)
were thrown into the place, killing and wounding 2000
men and destroying magazines, supplies, and shipping.
At an early period of our civil war the project of cap-
turing New Orleans was mooted. The reduction of the
Forts Jackson and St. Philip seemed a necessary prelim-
inary. For this object a fleet of 20 mortar vessels bearing,
each, one of the new model 13-inch mortars, weighing 11,500
lbs, were prepared and under command of Commander
(now Admiral) David D. Porter, added to Admiral Farra-
gut’s fleet. These vessels were moored to the right bank
of the river at distances of 3000 to 4000 yards from the
forts, their positions being screened from view by the
woods. The bombardment commenced on the 18th April,
1862, continued six days and six nights during which time
7500 bombs were fired, of which 1080 exploded in the air
and 1113 were afterwards counted as having fallen upon
the fort and solid ground of glacis and levees, and 3339
were computed—to have fallen in the wet ditches and over-
flowed lands surrounding the fort [for the levees being
broken by the shells the site was overflowed]. At the end
of this bombardment Admiral Farragut forced the passage
with his fleet, and, destroying the Confederate flotilla of
iron-clads and gunboats, the forts surrendered. ~
Fort Jackson has a portion of its guns in casemates of
the curtains; the arches were of brick of very moderate
thickness, roofed with concrete, affording at the crown a
thickness of 3 feet of masonry. These were covered by
the earthen parapet and terreplein. In the flanks of the
bastions were flanking casemates, the brick arches of which
were not only destitute of earth covering but of the usual
concrete roofing. All the guns of Fort St. Philip were “en
barbette.” An engineer officer (Gen. Weitzel) examined
the work immediately after its capture, and states:
“Fort St. Philip stands with one or two slight exceptions
to-day without a scratch. Fort Jackson was subjected to a
torrent of 13-inch and 11-inch shells during 144 hours.
To an inexperienced eye it seems as if this work were
badly cut up. It is as strong to-day as when the first shell
was fired at it. . The garrison did not bomb-proof the
citadel” (i.e. had not placed earth over the heavy timber
blindage spanning the walls for that purpose) “ conse-
quently the roof and furring caught fire. This fire with
subsequent shells ruined the walls so much that I am tear-
ing it down and removing the débris to the outside of the
work. Three, shot furnaces and three cisterns were de-e
stroyed. At several points the breast height walls were
knocked down. One angle of the magazine on the north
side of the postern was knocked off. Several shells went
through the flank casemate arches (which were not covered
with earth) and a few through the other casemate arches
(where two or more struck in the same place). At several
points in the casemates the thirteen inch shell would pene-
trate through the earth over the arches, be stopped by the
latter, them explode and loosen a patch of brickwork in
the soffit of the arch about 3 feet in diameter and three
quarters of a brick deep, at its greatest depth.” “To resist
an assault, and even regular approaches, it is as strong to-
day as it ever was.” Gen. Abbot subsequently examined
Fort Jackson, and reports that in one case a curtain case-
mate arch was broken through where there was 3 feet of
masonry and 63 feet of earth (the earth being a very per-
vious river formation). It does not appear that, other-
wise, the forts were much injured or that the efficiency of
their fire upon the fleet was seriously impaired, Doubtless,
however, the loss of “morale” in the garrison which in-
duced the surrender was due not merely to the successful
passage and the destruction of the floating defences, but to
the physical exhaustion arising from the six days bom-
bardment and subsequent furious artillery contest with our
fleet; and the bombardment is not therefore to be reckoned
as without influence in the final result. This conclusion
has an important bearing; for the writer, in calling for the
use of mortars, in a memoir prepared for the Navy Depart-
ment, did not maintain that the passage could not be
forced; but contended that “to pass these works, merely,
with a fleet and appear before New Orleans is merely a
raid—no capture. New Orleans and the river cannot be
held until communications are perfectly established.”
Mortar vessels as well as improvised iron-clads were at
an early date provided for our fleet in the upper Mississippi.
After the fall of Forts Henry and Donelson and the evacua-
tion of Columbus, the agency of bombardment (in conjunc-
tion with the fire of the cannon of the fleet) were first
brought to bear upon the fortified position of Island No. 10
in the Mississippi, a short distance below New Madrid
(Missouri). The bombardment was kept up from Mar. 16
to April 8 (1862), the mortar vessels at one time numbering
sixteen. The works and troops being disseminated over
an extensive area (the island being over a mile long and 1%
mile wide), neither the bombs nor the cannonade appear to
have had much influence in causing the surrender.
similar remark is applicable to Fort Pillow, situated on
the Mississippi, about 100 miles above Memphis.
When the course of events decided the establishment of
a siege before Yorktown, in April 1862, the Assistant Sec-
retary of the Navy, Mr. Fox, notified Gen, McClellan that
ten of the new 13-inch mortars, which had been provided
for naval purposes, would be placed at his disposal. As
easy water communication made their application practi.
cable, they were accepted and put in battery on the margin
of a navigable arm of Wormley Creek, at about 2500 yards
distance from the ramparts of the town.
FIG. 2.
§: jº J. 2 * £3.
; º ::::::::::
########
ºft
jº 2… . .”
g gº :*: *
#&#:
. Besides the above there were established a battery of ten
10-in. siege mortars at 2000 yards, another of five 10-in.
sea-coast mortars at 2500 yards, and another of five 10
and five 8-in. siege mortars at 1600 yards. The place
was evacuated before our siege and mortar batteries opened.
Eort Pulaski, situated on Cockspur Island, mouth of
Savannah River, Ga., and defending the river approach
to Savannah, was captured by bombardment and breach-
ing, April 11th 1862, by the U. S. forces under command Of
Gen. Gillmore. The fort is pentagonal in form with brick
casemates on all sides and brick scarp-wall. It mounted
one tier of guns in embrasure and one en barbette.
The artillery of the besiegers consisted of thirty-six


BOMBARDMENT.
545
pieces distributed in eleven batteries along the shore of
Tybee Island, at various distances from the work as follows
(see Fig. 3):
No. 1–3 heavy 13-in. mortars 3,400 yards distant.
** 2–3 {{ {{ {{ 3,200 {{ {{
• * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ~ *
“ 3–3 10-inch columbiads........ * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 3,100 “ {{
“ 4—3 8-in. “. ...........................3,045 “ “
“ 5–1 heavy 13-inch mortar ........... • * * * * * * * * e 2,790 “ ${
“ 6–3 “ {{ “ 's.............. .......2,600 “ * {
tº 7–2 “ {{ “ ............ .2400 “ “
s—{}}} columbiads ..................1740 a
tº q_ſ 5 30-pdr. Parrott rifles................. & &
*-ji º żºłºś. #5} 1,670 “ .
{{
“10– #: “ it &é § §:} 1,650 “ {{
“11–4 10-inch siege mortars. 1,650 “ {{
|
{
-- ---
Ét-fººt-º-º-º:
Batteries 8, 9, and 10 were designed to breach the scarp
wall of the work, and all the other batteries to keep down
its fire and destroy its barbette armament. Some of the
13-inch mortars were served with the view of breaching
the casemate arches. -
The bombardment began about 8 o’clock on the morning
of April 10th 1862. By half past 9 A.M. all the batteries
were in active operation, and were so maintained until the
dusk of evening, a period of about ten hours. Through-
out the night firing was kept up with two 13-inch mortars,
one 10-inch mortar, and one 30-pounder Parrott rifle, the
object being to prevent the garrisons making any arrange-
ment for their protection by piling sandbags behind that
portion of the wall selected for breaching or against the
wall of the magazine, which would be exposed to direct fire
FIG. 3.
Map showing the position of the batteries used by the U. S. Forces in the reduction of Fort Pulaski, April 10 and 11, 1862.
as soon as the breach should be effected in the scarp-wall.
During the first day’s firing the breach was fairly begun in
the pan-coupé connecting the South and South-East faces.
On the morning of the 11th, a little after sunrise, all the
batteries were again opened, the breach was rapidly en-
larged, and by 2 o’clock in the afternoon the scarp wall for
a length of about forty-five feet had fallen into the ditch.
The fire from the breaching batteries passed freely through
two of the casemates, endangering the safety of the pow-
der-magazine on the opposite side of the work. At two
o'clock the fort raised a white flag and surrendered.
The wall was found to be greatly shattered, much beyond
the limits of actual breach, so that one hundred feet of its
length had to be replaced by new brick-work. (See Fig. 4.)
T'ſ (3, 4.
The number of shots fired is shown below :
From-
Mortars: 1,144 13-in. shells and 58810-in, shells.
10-in. Columbiads: 203 shots and 321 shells.
8- “ $4 : 298 “ {{ 2 {{
84-pdr. James rifles (old 42-pdr. rifled): 190 shots and 207 shells.
64- {{ & 4 44 {{ 32 “ . {{ ): 380 {{ {{ 16 {&
48– {{ {{ {{ {{ 24 {{ {{ ): 133 & 4 {{ 116 44
30- “ Pºtt “ : 150 shots and 1,101 shells.
35
It was estimated that 110,643 pounds of metal thrown
from the breaching batteries struck the breached portion
of the wall, equal to 2,458 pounds per lineal foot of wall,
the average distance of the breaching gun from the work
being 1,687 yards. With small smooth-bore guns at 500
yards distance, used during the Peninsular war in Spain,
it was estimated by Sir W. Dennison that 2,544 pounds of
metal was expended per lineal foot of wall, in breaching
good rubble masonry backed by earth.
The barbette armament of Fort Pulaski was so much in-
jured during the first day as to render it unserviceable.
No injury was inflicted upon the arches by mortar shells.
Not more than one-tenth of the 13-inch shells fired fell in-
side the work.
Only twenty pieces of ordnance of the fort bore on the
besiegers' batteries on Tybee Island: -
The recapture of Fort Sumter and the occupation of
Charleston was from the first deemed by the federal gov-
ernment as of urgent importance.
Fort Sumter was a strong casemated brick-work of five
faces, designed to mount a total armament of 135 guns,
two tiers in embrasure and one en barbette, located on a
shoal on the south side of the entrance to the inner harbor,
at its narrowest point, and three and a half miles from the
nearest part of Charleston City. The scarp wall was 7%
feet thick and 40 feet high above the enrockment from
which it rose. The embrasures of the second tier had
never been finished, and before the siege began had been
walled up with brick. The fort never received its full
armament. The nearest land is the north end of Morris
Island, nearly due south about 1400 yards distant from the
fort, and from this point the island—a narrow strip of
sand—stretches along the coast in a southerly direction for
a little more than three miles and a half. When siege
operations began, the Confederates had possession of the
whole of Morris Island, and had erected a strong and
heavily-armed earthwork—Fort Wagner—1300 yards from
the north end of it, and 2700 yards from Fort Sumter, with
the object of holding at least the northern half of the
island, in order to prevent the establishment of batteries




{j46
BOMBARDMENT.
thereon, within effective breaching distance of Fort Sumter.
They also had defences on the south end of the island to
prevent its capture. The plan of attack agreed upon com-
rised :
p 1. The capture of the south end of Morris Island b
assault. *
2. The siege and capture of Fort Wagner.
3. The demolition of Fort Sumter by batteries estab-
lished on the north end of Morris Island; and .
4. The entrance of the monitors into the inner harbor,
and their passage up to the city of Charleston.
This programme was carried out with the following
results:
On the 10th of July, 1863, the south end of Morris Island
and the several batteries erected for its defence was cap-
tured by a brigade of infantry, which approached in small
boats and landed under fire. 9
Two open assaults of Fort Wagner—on the 11th and
18th of July respectively—demonstrated the impractica-
bility of carrying the position by that method of attack.
The plan of operations was then changed so as to give the
demolition of Fort Sumter precedence, in point of time,
over the capture of Fort Wagner, in order not to delay un-
necessarily the entrance of the fleet and the capture of
Charleston, for although Fort Wagner, in the hands of the
besieged, was intended to prevent the erection of effective
batteries against Fort Sumter, it did not protect the cham-
nel of approach by Fort Sumter to the inner harbor, or any
of the channel obstructions erroneously supposed to exist
there.
First Bombardment of Fort Sumter.—The demolition of
Fort Sumter over the heads of the garrison of Fort Wagner
was then the next step in the modified plan.
The armament placed in position for this purpose, and
their several distances from Fort Sumter, are shown in the
following table:
1. 2 8-inch Parrott rifles.............. 3,516 yards distant.
2. 3 (3.4 “ {{ “ ............. 447 {{ {{
3. 2 6.4 “ “ “ ............. 3.423 “ “
2 8 “ {{ {{ - . {{ {{
4. 3 80-pdr. Whitworth rides) .... 3,938
5. I 3-inch Parrott rifle…........... 4,172 £& {{
& & & &
6. {} 6.4 “ . “ “ ( ------------ 4,272 “ “
7. 26.4 “ “ “............... 4,278 “ “
8. 1 10 “ “ “............... 4.290 “ te
Firing from these batteries commenced on Aug. 17th, 1863.
Its first stage ended Aug. 23. The firing from the most
advanced of these batteries, which were less than 900 yards
distant from Fort Wagner, was seriously interfered with
and at times partially suspended, by the galling fire from
that work, to which the cannoniers were almost constantly
exposed. The combined fire of mortars and light pieces,
aided by the gunboats and iron-clads, failed to subdue it,
and it was necessary occasionally to turn the breaching
batteries upon it. The result of this seven days’ bombard-
ment is thus given in the official report of the chief of artil-
lery of the siege:
The fire from the breaching batteries upon Sumter was
incessant, and kept up continuously from daylight till
dark, until the evening of the 23d. For five days all the
guns were directed upon the gorge wall, and had resulted
it bringing it down to such an extent that on the evening
of the 21st a practicable breach had been accomplished.
On the morning of the 22d the fire from Batteries Nos. 1,
2 and 3 was directed upon the south-easterly face or right
flank of the work, with the view of dismounting the guns
on the barbette of this face, which commanded the entrance
to the harbor, as well as to destroy the guns on the north-
easterly face, which this fire would take in reverse. The
fire upon the gorge had, by the morning of the 23d, suc-
ceeded in destroying every gun upon the parapet of it, and,
as far as could be observed, had disabled or dismounted all
the guns upon the parapet of the two faces looking towards
the city, which it had taken in reverse. The parapet and
ramparts of the gorge were, for nearly the entire length of
the face, completely demolished, and in places every thing
was swept off down to the arches, the débris forming an
accessible ramp to the top of the ruins. * -
There being nothing further to gain by a longer fire
upon this face, all the guns were directed this day upon the
south-easterly flank, and continued an incessant fire
throughout the day. The demolition of the fort at the
close of this day’s firing was complete, so far as its offensive
powers were considered. Every gun upon the parapet was
either dismounted or seriously damaged; the terre-pleine
for the entire circuit of the place must have been shattered
and ploughed up by our projectiles, hundreds of which had
been seen to strike upon it. The parapet could be seen in
many places, both on the sea and channel fronts, com-
pletely torn away down to the terre-pleine. The place, in
fine, was a ruin, and effectually disabled for any immediate
defence of the harbor of Charleston.
Having accomplished the end proposed, orders were
accordingly issued, on the evening of the 23d, for the firing
to cease, having been continuously sustained for seven
days. There had been thrown, five thousand and nine
projectiles, of which about one-half had struck the fort.
The weight of metal thrown during the seven days ending
Aug. 23d was 2.89,986 pounds, omitting that expended by
the four rifles in the naval battery (No. 4), say 20,000
pounds. The enemy remained in possession of the work,
having constructed a system of subterranean galleries
within the ruined casemates of the fort.
Second Bombardment of Fort Sumter.—Fort Wagner was
captured on the morning of Sept. 7, thus giving the be-
siegers possession of the whole of Morris Island. Heavy
guns bearing upon Fort Sumter were at once established
in Fort Wagner and on the north end of the island. Up
to this time the gorge wall only had been breached. The
south-east face, the only one seen from Morris Island ex-
cept the gorge, remained standing, although badly shat-
tered in many places. Reports having been made by
reconnoitering parties that the garrison were attempting
to remount guns on this face, it was determined to cut
down that face with the rifled guns established in Fort
Wagner and on the north end of this island, so that the
fire of the besiegers passing over the débris of the gorge
and north-east face would take the casemates of the oppo-
site or channel fronts in reverse, and prevent the mounting
of guns there.
Fire was opened on the south-east face on the 26th of
October. The armament used for this purpose comprised
one 10-inch, two 8-inch and nine 6+,-inch rifles, one
10-in. columbiad and four 10-inch sea-coast mortars.
The distances of these several guns from Fort Sumter
varied from 2,500 to 1,300 yards.
In a few days the S. E. face was more completely a ruin
than the gorge wall. The débris formed a continuous
and practicable ramp, reaching from the water to the sum-
mit of the breach. The two faces of the work seen from
Morris Island were both in ruins, many of the casemate
arches of the channel fronts had fallen in from the reverse
fire, and the entire armament of the work had been de-
stroyed or removed to prevent destruction. (For these
notices of bombardments of Forts Pulaski and Sumter, the
writer is indebted to the distinguished officer who com-
manded, Gen. Q. A. Gillmore.) A view of the work after
the second bombardment is shown below.
FIG. 5.
---------
:--
==
=.
sº ~ -
ºft-tº-: Sºº Lº ºs- *-i- º: fº. 4 º'
IFort Sumter, Nov. 1. 1963, after the second bombardment.
ºº:: :=ºš
The recent great European war furnished numerous ex-
amples of a resort to bombardment as, an auxiliary to siege
or blockade, of which the most conspicuous are the sieges
of Strasburg and Paris. The former city, fully invested
on the 8th of August, was attacked by regular siege ap-
proaches and surrendered (Sept. 27) only after, its walls
breached, it became exposed (according to Gen. Ulrich) to
the “doubtful chances of sustaining an assault.” But a
bombardment from Krupp guns, howitzers and mortars
commenced Aug. 18th and threw shells into the streets of
the city with ruinous effect and to the serious injury of the
venerable and magnificent cathedral.
Paris was invested soon after the surrender at Sedan;
and it was doubtless believed that its surrender would
follow. No attempt or regular siege was ever made and
it was not until late in December (probably owing to the
difficulty of collecting siege artillery, the Strasburg and
numerous minor sieges employing all available) that from
the heights of Chatillon a cannonade was opened upon the
southern forts. Early in January shells commenced to be
thrown from the same point into the southern quarters of
Paris and this was continued till the 27th. On the 21st
January a violent cannonade and bombardment was opened
upon the detached forts of St. Denis and also upon the


town, 120 shells falling there in one hour (22d) and many
hitting the ancient cathedral.
in Paris.
were constructed the extreme range of projectiles did not
effect.
BOMBAX—BOMBAY. 547
exceed two and a half miles; and it was in relation to the
artillery service of the day that the forts were located.
Hence they did not perfectly protect Paris (as intended)
from bombardment, which, however, had no important
The population took refuge
At the time (1840–48) the defenses of Paris
FIG. 6.
Fort Sumter, Dec. 9, 1863. Interior view from the south-west angle—from a drawing made by the Confederates. The original bears
the autograph approval of the Confederate general commanding the Department of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, and ma
therefore be assumed to be correct. Morris Island and the U.S. fleet are seen on the right, and Sullivan's Island and Fort Mouj-
trie on the left. The right of yiew shows the gorge face and the top of the adjoining face iodicing down the harbor. Both were
breached by the Morris Island batteries, although oblique to the line of fire. "The débris formed an easy ascent from the water
to the crest. The left and foreground show the other faces, in ruins from the reverse fire from Morris Island. The interior
slopes were subsequently made much steeper by the besieged than shown in the view, and were revetted with gabions. Bomb-
proof quarters were also constructed under the ruins for the garrison. These quarters consisted of a continuous gallery all
around in the ruins, protected on top and on the side next Morris Island by thick embankments of earth. Throughout the
autumn of 1863 the ruins contained no mounted guns. It was simply an infantry outpost. It repulsed a naval assault from
ºnal boats Sept. 8, 1863, and was held until February, 1865. On April 14, 1865, the fourth anniversary of its capture by the
Confederates, the U.S. flag was again raised over the ruins with imposing ceremonies. -
The distance from the Prussian batteries on the Pulaski surrendered because its walls were thrown down
heights of Chatillon to the nearest fort (Vanvres) is about
one mile—to the nearest part of the “enceinte,” 2+ miles;
to the populous regions of the southern quarters 3 miles;
to the Palace of Luxembourg, Pantheon, Hotel des Inva-
lides, and the “monumental” portions of Southern Paris,
34 miles. Hence the modern rifle (Krupp's guns of the
Prussians) extends its range (with high elevation) to all
these regions.
In 13 days from 5th to 18th of January it is computed
that about 500 shells a day fell in Paris, hitting and wound-
ing 308 persons, a fourth of whom mortally, i.e., an aver-
age of 25 persons each day and 25 shells for each person
hit. The shells made little distinction of age or sex
though it is asserted that during the latter days more
women and children than men were struck. The number
of private edifices hit averaged 50 a day, double the num-
ber of persons hit. The surface over which the bombard-
ment extended was about 2000 hectares (5000 acres) or
one-fourth the total area of Paris. (The batteries being
mainly on the heights of Chatillon south of Paris and of
the southern forts this area is mostly on the left or south
bank of the Seine.) The population of this portion may
be estimated at about 500,000. The Pantheon, the Museum,
the Hotel des Invalides (with its church and tomb of Na-
poleon) are among the monumental structures of this por-
tion of the city. All were more or less injured.
It is asserted (L. Simonin, Revue des Deux Mondes,
Feb., 1871) that in a military point of view the bombard-
ment by itself was wholly inefficacious.
Nevertheless, though a city so extensive as Paris may
endure a protracted bombardment, the destruction of life
and property is something serious, and it must especially
be so in small fortified towns; hence the increased range
and accuracy of hollow projectiles have rendered the
old system of closely surrounding a town with a con-
tinuous rampart or enceinte both useless and dangerous
unless supplemented by a system of detached forts suffi-
ciently in advance to keep an enemy's artillery beyond
that distance, from which he might destroy the place by
his shells: and it is now contemplated to supplement the
fortifications of Paris by a second and much further re-
moved cordon of detached forts.
Small forts, by themselves, may however very safely defy
bombardment, if reasonably provided with casemates or
bomb-proofs. Fort Jackson, subjected to vertical fire only,
was materially intact after a six days' bombardment, though
doubtless the surrender was in some degree due to it. Fort
and its magazines exposed, by the agency of direct fire.
Fort Sumter was reduced to a ruin by breaching fire di-
rected against its exposed vertical walls, but it never sur-
rendered: while the little sand work, Fort Wagner, defied
both direct and curved fire for two months and was finally
evacuated. An attempt to destroy by shells the bomb-
proof or timber blindage covered with sand which shel-
tered its garrison—the exposed end of which could be
seen over the parapet—signally failed; the sand running
in #. as fast as it could be blown away by shells.
ence, though the fortification of capitals, great naval
or military depots, must, if attempted at all, be undertaken
on an immense scale, yet the applicability of modern rifled
guns (in place of mortars) to the purposes of bombardment,
and the increased range of their curved fire, has not de-
stroyed the utility of small forts as elements of the outer
cordon of great fortified places, or, used isolatedly, for the
special purposes of guarding great military routes, rail-
roads, or water approaches,
J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Bom/bax, a genus of large soft-wooded trees of the
natural order STERculiacEAE (which see), nearly related to
the baobab tree. They are natives of tropical climates,
especially America. They yield great quantities of cotton,
but the fibre is short, does not spin well, and is not durable.
Nevertheless, in India cloth is made of it to a small extent.
It would probably-make good paper.
Bombay', a presidency of British India, is bounded on
the W. by the Indian Ocean or Arabian Sea. Area, 87,639
square miles. A large portion of the surface is mountain-
ous. The long range of the Western Ghauts extends par-
allel to the sea-coast in a direction nearly N. and S. Be-
tween this range and the sea is a narrow tract called the
North and South Concans, the climate of which is very hot
and moist. The annual rainfall in the Concans is more
than one hundred inches, in consequence of the vapors of
the south-west moonsoon being intercepted by the Ghauts.
This province is intersected by the Nerbudda and Taptee
rivers, which flow westward into the Gulf of Cambay, and
is also drained by the sources of the Godavery and the
Kishna, which run in the opposite direction. The soil of
the valleys and plains is fertile. Cotton and rice are the
staple productions of this region, which contains the richest
cotton-fields of India. Sugar and indigo are also raised here.
Among the indigenous plants are the cocoa-palm and the
teak tree. Bombay has important manufactures of silkstuffs

548
BOMBAY – BONAPARTE.
and of woollen and cotton cloths. In 1867 it had 1159
miles of railway in operation. The administration of this
country is vested in a governor and three councillors, sub-
ject to the superintendence, direction, and control of the
governor-general of India in council. To this province
belongs the naval force for all the presidencies. Capital,
Bombay. The annual revenue for the fiscal year 1864–65
amounted to £9,393,160. Pop. in 1872, 13,983,998.
Bombay [from the Port. Bom Bahia (or Boa Bahia),
i. e. “good harbor”], a city and seaport of British India,
the capital of the above province. It is situated on the S.
end of the island of Bombay and on the Indian Ocean;
lat. 18° 56' N., lon. 72°54' E. It has an excellent harbor,
affording good anchorage for ships of the largest size, and
is favorably situated for commerce, being in a direct line
between Calcutta, and Aden. It is the W. terminus of a
railway which connects it with Calcutta. The mean tem-
perature is 82°F. At the southern end of the island, which
is eight miles long and three miles wide, is the fortified
European town, and one mile N. of that is the Black Town,
in which the Hindoos and Mohammedans reside. Between
these two towns is the esplanade and the barracks. Among
the most remarkable buildings are the town-hall, mint,
cathedral, the custom-house, the library of the Asiatic So-
ciety, the Elphinstone Institution, the missionary houses,
the Grant Medical College, the great Hindoo tempſe of
Momba Dévi, and the Jamsetjee Hospital. The chief arti-
cles of export are raw cotton, shawls, opium, coffee, pepper,
ivory, and gums. Bombay imports raw silk, sugar, and
silk stuffs from China, and cotton yarn, cotton cloth, hard-
ware, glass, copper, etc., from England. The exports of
Bombay for the year ending Mar., 1870, amounted to
£24,690,819; the imports for the same year were £22,232,435.
Bombay, excepting Calcutta and Canton, is the greatest
commercial emporium of Asia, and is the chief Indian port
connected with the establishment of steam navigation be-
tween India and England. There is now a regular commu-
nication by steamers between Bombay and England through
the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. Steamers also ply be-
tween this port and Point-de-Galle in Ceylon. Among the
races that compose the population of Bombay, the Parsees,
descended from the Persian fire-worshippers, are distin-
guished for their respectability, wealth, and commercial
enterprise. The Parsee family of Lowjee is extensively
engaged in shipbuilding, which is regarded as the most im-
portant interest of the city. Pop. in 1871, 646,636.
Bombay, a post-township of Franklin co., N. Y. Pop.
1488. It contains a part of the reservation of the St. Regis
Indians.
Bombay Hook Island, Delaware, is a part of Duck
Creek hundred, Kent co., and is separated from the main-
land by Duck Creek. Its N. end (lat. 39° 21'46" N., lon.
75° 30' 1971 W.) has a brick lighthouse 36 feet high, with
a fixed white light 46 feet above the water.
Bom/bazine [Lat. bombycina, “made of silk"], a
thin fabric, of which the warp is silk and the woof is worsted.
It is manufactured extensively at Norwich, England, for
ladies’ dresses and for mourning apparel.
Bomb-Ketch, an obsolete form of mortar-vessel,
which was nearly seventy feet long and drew eight or nine
feet of water. It was usually rigged with two masts, and
carried two mortars.
Bomb Lance, an explosive missile used in the whale-
fishery, consists of a cylindrical shell of iron armed with a
sharp and heavy point of a triangular form. It is charged
with powder, introduced through an opening at the rear
end of the shell, and the opening is afterwards stopped by
melted lead. The lance is discharged from the barrel of a
musket, and is exploded by a fuse after it has penetrated
the body of the whale. -
Bomb-Proof, a term applied to a military structure
of great thickness and strength which is capable of resist-
ing the explosive force of bombs falling on it. The powder-
magazine of a fort is usually protected by a bomb-proof
vault built of stone or brick, and covered with three or four
feet of earth. (See CASEMATE.) -
Bom/ford (GEORGE), an American officer, born in New
York in 1780, graduated at West Point in 1805, chief of
ordnance, U. S. A., May 30, 1832, with the rank of colonel.
He was engaged as an engineer upon the construction of
fortifications till 1812, when he was placed on ordnance duty.
To the skill and inventive talent of this invaluable officer
the country was largely indebted preceding and during
the war of 1812–15 with Great Britain, he being almost
the only one well informed as to the manufacture of ord-
nance and ordnance stores; he also introduced the bomb-
cannon under the name of “columbiads.” Brevetted lieu-
tenant-colonel Dec. 22, 1814, for meritorious services in the
ordnance department. After 1842 he was on inspection
duty, and made many ingenious and valuable experiments on
the best forms for heavy artillery. Died Mar. 25, 1848, at
Boston, Mass., aged sixty-eight.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Bomford (JAMES W.), a son of the preceding, born in
New York, graduated at West Point in 1832, served with
distinction in the Mexican war, winning several brevets.
He became colonel of the Eighth Infantry in 1864, and
served with honor in the late civil war.
Bom Jardim (i. e. “good garden”), a town of Brazil,
province of Bahia, in a rich and beautiful valley, 20 miles
S. by E. of Crato. It has a considerable trade and large
manufactures of millstones. Pop. about 6000.
Bo'na, or Bonah [Fr. Bone ; anc. Hippo Regius ;
called by the Arabs. Beled-el-Arab], a fortified seaport-
town of Algeria, in the province of Constantine, is on a
bay of the Mediterranean, 74 miles N. E. of Constantine;
lat. 36° 54 N., lon. 7° 48' E. It is finely situated at the
foot of a hill near the mouth of the river Seibous or Sebus,
and is defended by Fort Cigogne, which is on the top of
the hill. Bona was occupied by the French in 1832, since
which it has been murch improved. It has new markets,
bazaars, and reading-rooms; also manufactures of tapestry,
saddles, and native clothing. Wool, hides, grain, and
coral are exported from it by steamboats. Near Bona are
the ruins of the great city of Hippo Regius, once the see
of Saint Augustine. It was destroyed by the Arabs in 646
A. D. Pop. in 1866, 17,841. -
Bona (GIov ANNI), a cardinal of the Roman Church, was
born at Mondovi, in Piedmont, Oct. 10, 1609, was made
cardinal in 1669, and died at Rome Oct. 25, 1674. His
principal works are “De Divina Psalmodia,” 1663, and
“Res Liturgicae,” 1671. He was equally distinguished for
piety and learning.
Bo'na De'a (the “good goddess”), a Roman divinity,
the sister or wife of Faunus, was worshipped only by the
Roman women, who concealed her name from the men.
According to some authorities, she was identified with Ops.
Her annual festival was celebrated on the 1st of May, in
the house of the consul, with mysterious rites, from which
all males were strictly excluded. Her symbol was a Ser-
ent.
Bo'na Fi’de [Lat.], “in good faith,” without fraud,
innocently; without notice. A bona fide purchaser is one
who purchases for a valuable consideration, without notice.
This subject is of great importance in equity jurisprudence.
It is a general rule that a court of equity will grant no re-
lief against a purchaser in good faith. If, on the other
hand, the purchaser has notice, actual or constructive, of
the equitable rights of others, he will stand in no better
position than the person from whom he acquired his title.
Thus, if a mortgage of land were cancelled through mis-
take by a mortgagee, a purchaser in good faith from the
mortgagor would hold free from the mortgage. On the
other hand, if he had notice of the facts, a court would set up
the mortgage against him as well as against the mortgagor.
(See NoTICE.) The same question is presented in the case
of bills of exchange, promissory notes, and other commer-
cial paper. If the acceptor or maker has a defence to it
as to the payer, it will in general be shut off as to a pur-
chaser in good faith before maturity. But if the purchaser
had notice of the defence before the purchase, he would
stand in the same position as the payee.
Bonald, de (Louis GABRIEL AMBROISE), VICOMTE, an
eminent French publicist and ultra-royalist, born near Mil-
hau Oct. 2, 1754. He emigrated in 1791, and published a
“Theory of Political and Religious Power” (3 vols., 1796).
Having returned to France about 1806, he was elected to
the Chamber of Deputies in 1815, and acquired much influ-
ence under the Bonapartes and the Bourbons. He advo-
cated absolutism and the infallibility of the pope. In
1823 he became a peer of France. Among his works is “La
Législation Primitive ’’ (3 vols., 1820). Died Nov. 23, 1840.
(See HENRI DE BONALD, “Notice sur le Vicomte de Bo-
mald,” 1841.)
Bo'naparte, a town of Van Buren co., Ia., on the Des
Moines Valley R. R., 35 miles N. W. of Keokuk. It has
one of the largest woollen factories W. of the Mississippi,
an extensive furniture and sash, door, and blind establish-
ment, flouring mill, saw-mill, pottery, etc. It possesses
fine water-power. It has one weekly paper. Pop., of
township, 1341. ED. “WAN BUREN DEMOCRAT.”
Bonaparte (CARLo), a Corsican lawyer, born Mar.
29, 1746, was the father of Napoleon I. He married in
1767 Letitia (Letizia) Ramolino, and had five sons and
three daughters. He became counsellor and assessor of
Ajaccio in 1773. Died Feb. 24, 1785.
Bonaparte (CAROLINE MARIE ANNONCIADE), queen of
Naples, a daughter of the preceding, was born at Ajaccio
BONAPARTE–BONASA. 549
in 1782. She was married in 1800 to Joachim Murat, who
became king of Naples in 1808. She was the mother of
two sons and two daughters. After the death of her hus-
band she took the title of countess of Lipoma. Died in
1839. f
Bonaparte (CHARLEs LUCIEN JULES LAURENT), prince
of Canino, a son of Lucien Bonaparte, was born in Paris
May 24, 1803. He was distinguished as an ornithologist,
and took little part in political affairs. His wife was a
daughter of Joseph Bonaparte. He resided in Philadel-
phia and Italy, and published “American Ornithology, or
a. History of the Birds of the U. S.” (3 vols., 1825–33),
which is highly commended. Died in Paris July 30, 1857.
Bonaparte (JERöME), king of Westphalia, a brother of
Napoleon I., was born at Ajaccio Nov. 15, 1784. He en-
tered the French navy in 1800, and during a visit to the
U. S. married, in 1803, Miss Patterson of Baltimore, with-
out the consent of Napoleon. This marriage was annulled
by order of Napoleon in 1805. Jerome served as general
of brigade against the Prussians in 1806, and was crowned
king of Westphalia in 1807. In the same year he married
a daughter of the king of Würtemberg. He lost his throne
in Oct., 1813, and led a division at Waterloo in June, 1815.
After he had passed many years in exile he became a mar-
shal of France in 1850. Died June 24, 1860.
Bonaparte (JERöME NAPOL'ÉoN), a son of the preced-
ing by his first wife, was born in England in July, 1805,
and graduated at Harvard in 1826. He greatly resembled
Napoleon I. in appearance. He left two sons, Jerôme and
Charles Joseph. Died June 17, 1870.
Bonaparte (JERöME NAPOLíON), an American and
French officer, grandson of Jerôme Bonaparte, king of
Westphalia, and grand-nephew of Napoleon I., born 1830
at Baltimore, Md., graduated at West Point in 1852, and
till his resignation of his lieutenancy in the Mounted Rifle-
men, Aug. 16, 1854, served on frontier duty. He entered
the French imperial army Sept. 5, 1854, as second lieu-
tenant of the Seventh Dragoons, became -chef d'escadron
Third Cuirassiers Aug. 15, 1865, and was transferred Mar.
16, 1857, to the Dragons de l’Imperatrice. He served in
the Crimean war against Russia, 1854–55, engineer at Bala-
klava, Inkerman, Tchermaia, and the siege of Sebastopol;
for all of which active and distinguished services he was
decorated by the sultan of Turkey with the “Medjidie
Order,” made knight of the Legion of Honor of France,
and received the Crimean medal from the queen of Eng-
land. He was in the Algerian campaign in 1856–57, engaged
in several actions with the Kałyles; in Italian campaign
against Austria 1859, engaged at Montebello, Solferino,
and various outpost affairs, receiving for his gallantry the
French “medaille d’Italie” and the decoration of “Military
Valor” from the king of Sardinia; in garrison at various
posts 1859–67, and in the guard of the empress of France
1867–72. On the fall of the empire he with difficulty es-
caped from the hands of the Commune in Paris.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Bonaparte (Joseph), king of Spain, the eldest brother
of Napoleon I., was born in Corsica Jan. 7, 1768. He
studied law, married Julie Marie Clary, and was elected to
the French Council of Five Hundred in 1797. He nego-
tiated the treaty of Lunéville with Austria in 1801, and
that of Amiens with England in Mar., 1802. On these and
other occasions he showed considerable talents for di-
plomacy. Urged by the imperious will of Napoleon, he
accepted the throne of Naples in 1806, though he does not
appear to have been ambitious of such a position. He was
transferred in May, 1808, to the throne of Spain against
the will of the majority of the Spanish people, who obsti-
nately resisted the domination of the French. During his
nominal reign many battles were fought between the
French and the allied English and Spanish armies, who ex-
pelled him from Spain in June, 1813. In 1815 he emi-
grated to the U. S., and lived at Bordentown, N. J., under
the name of the count de Survilliers. He died at Florence,
in Italy, July 28, 1844. (See A. DU CASSE, “Mémoires et
Correspondance du Roi Joseph,” 10 vols., 1854; THIERs,
“History of the Consulate and the Empire.”)
Bonaparte (LETIZIA RAMoLINo), the mother of Napo-
leon I., was born in Corsica, Aug. 24, 1750. She was con-
sidered a beauty, and had an uncommon intellect. Accord-
ing to her son Napoleon, “she had a great character, with
much energy, elevation, and pride.” She was married to
Carlo Bonaparte in 1767. In 1804 she received the title
of Madame Mère. Died Feb. 2, 1836.
Bonaparte (Louis), a brother of Napoleon I., was
born at Ajaccio Sept. 2, 1778. He entered the army in
youth, and served at Areola and Rivoli (1797). In com-
pliance with Napoleon’s will, he married Hortense de Beau-
harnais in 1802, and became king of Holland in June, 1808.
He and his wife separated about 1807, in consequence of
their incompatibility. As nominal king of Holland he
was not able to pursue the policy which he preferred, but
was compelled by Napoleon to sacrifice the interests of the
Dutch to the designs of the emperor, who was offended be-
cause Louis was not sufficiently subservient. Louis abdi-
cated the throne in 1810, after which he resided in Italy.
He was the putative father of Napoleon III. Died at Flor-
ence June 29, 1846. (See THIERs, “History of the Consu-
late and the Empire;” “Mémoires sur la Cour de Louis
Napoléon et sur la Holland,” Paris, 1828.)
Bonaparte (Louis NAPOLEON). See NAPOLEON III.
Bonaparte (Louis LUCIEN), a son of Lucien and a
nephew of Napoleon I., was born Jan. 4, 1813. He was
elected to the French National Assembly in 1849, became
a senator in 1852, and grand officer of the Legion of Honor
in 1855. He is distinguished for his labors in philology
and chemistry.
Bonaparte (LUCIEN), prince of Canino, a brother of
Napoleon I., was born at Ajaccio May 21, 1775. He was
an active and energetic republican in the French Revolu-
tion. In 1795 he married Christine Boyer, a woman of
obscure birth. He was chosen in 1798 a member of the
Council of Five Hundred, in which he opposed the Direc-
tory. On the 18th Brumaire (Nov., 1799) he displayed
great resolution, and efficiently promoted the success of
Napoleon. Lucien became minister of the interior in Dec.,
1799, ambassador to Spain in 1800, and a tribune in 1802.
Having lost his first wife, he married in 1803 a widow
named Jouberthon without the consent of Napoleon, who
was angry at the match. Lucien went into exile, and re-
fused the throne of Italy, which Napoleon offered him on
condition that he should divorce his wife. He was in
France during the Hundred Days, 1815, and actively sup-
ported Napoleon in that crisis. He passed the latter part
of his life in Italy, and died at Viterbo June 29, 1840,
leaving five sons and six daughters. With the exception
of his brother Napoleon, he was undoubtedly the most emi-
ment and talented member of his family. (See LUCIEN
Bon APARTE's “Autobiographic Memoirs,” 1836; P. W.
Forch HAMMER, “Denkrede auf den Fürsten von Canino,
L. Bonaparte,” 1840.).
Bonaparte (LUCIEN LOUIS), a ‘son of Charles Lucien,
was born at Rome Nov. 15, 1828. He entered the priest-
hood, and on Mar. 13, 1868, was made a cardinal priest.
Bonaparte (MARIE ANNE ELISE), princess de Piombino,
a sister of Napoleon I., was born in Corsica. Jan 3, 1777.
She was married in 1797 to Felix Bacciochi, a Corsican
officer, and received in 1805 the title of princess of Lucca
and Piombino. She was for about six years (1809–14)
grand duchess of Tuscany, which she ruled with ability.
Died Aug. 7, 1820.
Bonaparte, Napoleon. See NAPOLEON I.
Bonaparte (NAPolíON Joseph CHARLES PAUL),
PRINCE, a son of Jerôme, king of Westphalia, was born
at Trieste Sept. 9, 1822. His mother was a daughter of
the king of Würtemberg. As a professed democrat he was
elected to the French Constituent Assembly in 1848. In
1852 he received the title of prince, and was recognized as
the heir of his cousin, Napoleon III., in case the latter
should die without issue. He married Clotilde, a daughter
of King Victor Emmanuel. His features resemble those of
his uncle, Napoleon I. He was banished from France in
1873.
Bonaparte (PAULINE), Princess Borghese, born at
Ajaccio in 1780, was the most beautiful of Napoleon’s sis-
ters. In 1801 she became the wife of General Leclerc, who
died in 1802. She was married in 1803 to Prince Camille
Borghese, an Italian, from whom she soon separated. . A
statue of Pauline, executed by Canova, is said to resemble
the Venus of Praxiteles. Died in 1825.
Bonaparte (PIERRE NAPOLáON), a son of Lucien, was
born at Rome Sept. 12, 1815. He passed his youth as an
adventurer in America, Italy, and Greece, and committed
several homicides. In 1869 he murdered, in his own house
near Paris, Victor Noir, for which he was sentenced to pay
a fine.
Bona'sa, a genus of gallinaceous birds of the family
Tetraonidae, and one of the genera included in the popular
term “grouse.” It comprises the hazel-grouse, a European
bird, the Tetrao bomasa of Linnaeus. This bird, which is
about as large as the common partridge, is prettily mºttled
with gray and reddish brown. It prefers the deep, solitude
of the forests. Its flesh is so highly esteemed that it is
consistent with German etiquette to serve it twice in Sug-
cession on the table of a prince. Another species of this
genus is the American ruffed grouse (Bonasa (or Tetrao)
umbellus), which is about eighteen inches long, and is called
the pheasant in Pennsylvania and the partridge in New
_s^
550
BONAVENTURA–BONE.
York and New England. The male has on each side a
large shoulder tuft or ruff. In the breeding season it struts
with erected ruff and tail like a turkey-cock. The loud
thumping or “drumming” sound heard in the localities
frequented by this bird is produced by the bird beating on
its sides with its wings. It is heard most often in the morn-
ing and evening. This handsome bird makes its nest on the
ground in the forests. Its flesh is a favorite article of food.
Bonaventu’ra (GIov ANNI DI FIDANZA), SAINT, an emi-
nent Italian scholastic theologian, born in Tuscany in 1221,
was called THE SERAPHIC DOCTOR. He taught theology in
Paris, became general of the order of Franciscans in 1256,
and a cardinal in 1273. He had great influence in the
Church, and was venerated for his ascetic piety and the
miracles ascribed to him. Bonaventura was one of the
most eminent of the Schoolmen. “His great mind,” says
Neander, “grasped the whole compass of learning as it
existed in his time.” Among his numerous works are
“Breviloquium,” “Biblia Pauperum ” (“Poor Man's Bi-
ble”), and “Itinerarium Mentis in Deum ” (“Progress of
the Mind towards God”). He died July 14, 1274, was
canonized in 1482, and was made a doctor of the Church
in 1587. (See J. C. Boule, “Histoire de la Vie de Saint
Bonaventure,” 1747; IGNAz A. FESSLER, “Bonaventura’s
mystiche Nächte, oder Leben und Meinungen desselben,”
1807.) &
Bonaventure, a county in the E. part of Quebec, is
bounded on the S. by the Bay of Chaleurs, and is inter-
sected by the Grand Cascapediac, Matapediac, and several
other rivers of considerable size. The Mistouche and Res-
tigouche, forming its S. W. boundary, separate it from New
Brunswick. Area, about 3200 square miles. Capital, New
Carlisle. Pop. in 1871, 15,923.
Bonavis’ta, a port of entry and capital of Bonavista
district, Newfoundland, is one of the oldest towns on the
island. It has a rather poor harbor, a jail, and a fine An-
glican church. Its people are mostly fishermen, but agri-
culture is also carried on. Pop. about 2600. The light-
house on Cape Bonavista (lat. 48° 41' 56” N., lon. 53° 5' 20"
W.) is a catoptric revolving white and red light, 150 feet
above the sea.
Bond [from the root of the noun band, and the verb
bind], in law, an instrument in writing, sealed and delivered,
whereby a person binds himself to pay a sum of money.
It is also called a deed. It is either simple or with a con-
dition. A bond is said to be simple when the engagement
to pay is absolute. An instrument in the form of an ordi-
nary promissory note becomes a simple bond if executed
under seal. The most common form of bond is one executed
under a condition. The instrument in this case consists
of two parts—the engagement to pay, and the condition
upon which the engagement to pay will become inoperative
and void. The condition may be either for the payment of
money or the performance of an act, such as the faithful
execution of the duties of a public office or of agency or
other authority. When for the payment of money, it is
usually called a “money bond.” In this case it is common
to make the engagement to pay, called the penalty, double
the amount expressed in the condition of the bond. The
penalty will not, however, necessarily limit the amount of
the recovery. In other words, in certain cases more may be
recovered than the amount named in penalty of the bond;
as, for example, the real debt and the interest accruing from
delay in payment. At an early day, if the money named
in the condition was not paid punctually, the whole penalty
could be recovered. Courts of equity, however, regarded
this result as in the nature of a forfeiture, and confined the
recovery to the debt and the interest. When the bond is
given for the performance of an act, the recovery is limited
to the damages sustained by non-performance. The person
who enters into the bond is called the obligor ; the person
to, whom the engagement is made is termed the obligee.
When it is executed by two or more persons, they may be
either “joint” obligors or “joint and several;” that is,
they may either bind themselves collectively, or both collec-
tively and separately. An execution of the instrument by
two persons simply would be joint. Express words should
be used to create a “joint and several ” obligation. This
is an important distinction where some of the obligors
are sureties, as is usual in bonds executed by incumbents
of a public office. In the case of a joint bond, if one of
the sureties should die, his estate would be discharged both
in law and equity. This would not be the case had it
been both joint and several, since the individual obligation
would remain, though that which is joint would be at an
end. A bond is otherwise termed a specialty. It is of a
higher grade than an ordinary contract, which is termed a
simple contract. Accordingly, if A should owe money to
B for goods sold or services rendered, and should give his
bond for the amount, the original claim would be merged
in the bond, and if the debt were not paid an action could
be brought only on the bond. This would not be the case
if A had given B his promissory note, or other engagement
not under seal, for the amount of the claim. If the note
were not paid at maturity, the original cause of action
would remain. A bond, as a general rule, is not negotia-
ble, but assignable. A purchaser would take it subject to the
equities between the original parties. (See Assign MENT.)
The obligor of the bond commonly professes not only to
bind himself, but his heirs, executors, administrators, etc.
However, if these words were omitted, his obligation would
be transferred to these successors in interest to the extent
of the assets received from the obligor, it being a general
rule in the U. S. that a debtor's property, both real and
personal, is liable for his debts in the hands of heirs and
other successors in interest. T. W. DWIGHT.
Bond, a county in Central Illinois. Area, 400 square
miles. It is traversed by Shoal Creek, an affluent of the
Raskaskia River, which touches the S. E. corner of the
county. The surface is diversified by fertile, undulating
prairies and tracts of woodland. Cattle, wool, grain, and
butter are important products. Coal is found here. It
is intersected by the St. Louis Vandalia and Terre Haute
R. R. Capital, Greenville. Pop. 13,152.
Bond, a township of Lawrence co., Ill. Pop. 1087.
Bond (GEORGE PHILLIPs), an American astronomer,
born at Dorchester, Mass., May 20, 1825, graduated at
Harvard in 1845. He aided his father, W. C. Bond, in the
observatory at Cambridge, and wrote several works, among
which is a “Treatise on the Construction of the Rings of
Saturn.” Died Feb. 17, 1865.
Bond (HENRY), M. D., born at Watertown, Mass., Mar.
21, 1790, graduated at Dartmouth in 1813, settled in Phila-
delphia as a physician in 1819, where he gained a high
reputation. He published, besides many professional pa-
pers, a “History and Genealogies of Watertown” (1855),
one of the best works of its class. Died May 4, 1859.
Bond (THOMAs EMERSON), D. D., M.D., a physician and
Methodist writer, born at Baltimore, Md., in Feb., 1782.
He became a professor in the medical college of Maryland,
and afterwards a local Methodist preacher. He edited the
“Christian Advocate and Journal,” an influential Method-
ist publication, for twelve years, and wrote important
pamphlets in defence of his Church. Died Mar. 19, 1856.
Bond (WILLIAM CRANCH), an American astronomer,
born at Portland, Me., Sept. 9, 1789, was a watchmaker.
He was appointed director of the observatory of Harvard
University. He distinguished himself by his observations
on Saturn, and discovered a satellite of Neptune. Died.
Jan. 29, 1859. -
Bon/dager, in Scotland, a laborer who rents a cottage
from a farmer under an obligation to work for him at cur-
rent wages at certain seasons. There are male and female
bondagers. When wanted, they are obliged to turn out,
though at a sacrifice of wages.
Bonded Warehouse. See WAREHOUSING SYSTEM.
Bön’der, a name given to the yeomanry of Sweden
and Norway. The bónder often claim an aristocratic
origin, and display a rude and antiquated hospitality to
visitors. They have many virtues as a class, and constitute
a large majority of the population.
Bondoo’, or Bondou, a small kingdom of Western
Africa, in Senegambia, is about lat. 14° to 15° N. and lon.
11° to 13°W. It is bounded on the E. by the river Falemé,
which separates it from Bambook. The surface is mostly
level; the soil is fertile, well watered, and extensively coy-
ered with forests. The staple productions are cotton, in-
digo, maize, tobacco, and millet. Among the forest trees
are the baobab and acacia. Iron is abundant here, and
wild animals are numerous. The Foolahs are the most
numerous of the tribes which inhabit Bondoo. The gov-
ernment is an absolute monarchy. Capital, Bulibani, a
mean town on the Falemé. Pop. estimated at 1,500,000.
Bone [Ger. Bein; a word found in various forms in all
Germanic languages], the substance of which the hard in-
ternal skeleton or framework of most vertebrate animals is
formed, although some of the lower fishes have no bony
skeleton, one of cartilage taking its place, while the sur-
face (exoskeleton) of some of these cartilaginous fishes is
covered with bony plates. In animals below the verte-
brates there is no true bone, for the hard internal shell
(“cuttle-fish bone”) of certain cephalopods differs in com-
position from bone. -
Living bone is of a reddish-white tint externally, and is
of a much deeper red within. It consists of two parts: (1)
an organic substance called ostein (converted by boiling
into gelatine), besides a little fat, nerves, and blood-vessels,
and some cartilage, amounting in all to about one-third of

BONE, CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF-BONGAR.
551
the whole, though the percentage is greater in young sub-
jects. If a bone be soaked in dilute hydrochloric acid for
a sufficiently long time, the organic matter alone remains,
having the form of the original bone, and being flexible,
tough, and translucent. If, on the other hand, a bone be
burned in a hot fire with a strong blast of air, the animal
matter is all burned away, leaving (2) the earthy or in-
organic matter, a white, brittle mass, with just the form
of the original bone. It consists of calcium phosphate
(which constitutes more than half the weight of the whole
bone), together with calcium carbonate and fluoride, mag-
nesium phosphate and sodium chloride, with traces of other
elements. The proportions vary in different parts of the
skeleton, in the same bone at different ages, in various dis-
eases, and in the corresponding bones of different species.
Bones are usually covered at their ends and in some other
parts by cartilage; but the greater part of the surface is
covered by a tough, skinny membrane called periosteum;
and hollow bones have a similar membrane within, called
endosteum. These membranes are of the utmost import-
ance in the growth, nourishment, and repair of bones. The
endosteum also nourishes the marrow, a substance the im-
portance of which in the animal economy has but recently
been duly appreciated. It is probable that the marrow,
like the closed glands, has, especially in the foetal state, an
important part in the preparation of nutriment for the or-
ganism generally.
From the periosteum, arteries and nerves enter the bone,
traversing the longitudinal “Haversian canals,” which are
from gº to gºod of an inch in diameter, and lined with a
delicate membrane resembling periosteum. Each canal is
surrounded by concentric layers of bone, constituting an
“Haversian rod" or “system ’’ in which are certain varia-
ble vacuities called “Haversian spaces,” which appear to
be produced by the absorption and disassimilation which
is continually going on in all tissues. Bone also contains
innumerable “bone-cells,” each occupying a cavity called
a “ lacuna.” The lacunae send out branches called “canali-
culi,” each Hºwa to goºwo of an inch in diameter, which
communicate freely with each other, and which are filled
with blood-plasma. Bones are said to consist of two kinds
of tissue, the compact and the cancellous; but the two differ
only in relative density and the relative size of the con-
tained cavities, in the proportion of oily matter, and per-
haps in the proportion of earthy ingredients, which appears
to be greatest in compact bones.
Osseous tissue is liable to several diseases, such as caries,
necrosis, rachitis (rickets), osteomalacia, periostitis, cancer,
exostosis, etc., each described under its own name. (For
descriptions of the several bones and of their relations to
each other, see OSTEOLOGY and the names of particular
bones, such as CLAVICLE, HUMERUs, etc.)
- CHAS. W. GREENE.
Bone, Chemical Composition of. Bones consist
of bone-cartilage, or ossein, and earthy salts, besides a cer-
tain quantity of fat, which is easily removed by ether, and
is not considered as a constituent of the bone. By burning
bones till white, the ossein is destroyed, and the earthy
salts remain as brittle bone-ash. By subjecting the bones
to the action of dilute hydrochloric acid the earthy salts
are dissolved and removed, and the ossein remains as a
flexible, translucent substance retaining the forms of the
bones. This ossein or bone-cartilage consists of about 50.13
carbon, 7.07 hydrogen, 18.45 nitrogen, and 24.35 oxygen.
By long boiling with water it is completely dissolved, being
converted into gelatine, which sets to a jelly on cooling.
The ratio of ossein to earthy salts is very variable in dif-
ferent animals, and also in the bones of the same animal.
Human bones average, perhaps, ossein 34 and earthy salts
66 per cent. The earthy salts contain, in 100, phosphate
of lime 83.889, phosphate of magnesia 1.039, carbonate of
lime 13.031, fluoride of calcium 0.470, and chloride of cal-
cium 0.286. . M. Papillon found that the bones of pigeons
and rats which he had fed with food containing phosphate
of strontia and phosphate of alumina contained consider-
able quantities of these compounds. Bones undergo con-
siderable changes in composition in certain diseases.
. Uses of Bones.—Bones are extensively used for soup,
though it is stated by Liebig and others that the gelatine
derived from them is not only valueless as food, but posi-
tively objectionable. Others strenuously deny the truth of
the statement. . In the arts, bones are employed as substi-
tutes for ivory for buttons, handles of knives, brushes, etc.,
and for combs; they are also used as cattle food in the
form of bone-meal; as a fertilizer, either in the form of
bone-meal, bone-ash, or after treatment with sulphuric
acid. They are used for the manufacture of Bon E-BLACK
(which see), of gelatine, of phosphorus, of phosphate of
soda, superphosphate of lime for raising bread, and bone-
ash is used for cupels. C. F. CHANDLER.
Bone - Ash is the residue left on burning bones; it
amounts to about 66 per cent. of the weight of the original
bones. It consists of the earthy salts of the bone, the com-
position of which in 100 parts is given above. , Bone-ash
is largely exported from South America. It is used as
manure, for the manufacture of superphosphates, phos-
phorus, cupels, and is an important constituent of English
china. C. F. CHANDLER.
Bone-Black, or Animal Charcoal, is the residue
left on calcining bones in close vessels. The bones are
placed either in retorts, like those used in making coal-gas,
or in iron pots. On the application of heat destructive dis-
tillation takes place. Combustible gases escape, accompa-
nied by vapors which condense to ammoniacal water and
offensive oils. Bone or Dippel’s oil is thus produced. The
residue in the vessels amounts to about 50 per cent. in
weight of the original bones. It is passed between rollers,
and separated by sieves into different sizes. Bone-black
usually contains, after exposure to the air, from 1 to 6 or 7
per cent. of mdisture. The average composition of dry
bone-black, in 100, is carbon, containing nitrogen, 10,
phosphate of lime, including a little phosphate of magne-
sia, 88, carbonate of lime, 8, sulphate of lime, 0.2, alkaline
salts, 0.8, oxide of iron, 0.1, and silica, 0.3.
Animal charcoal possesses to a high degree the property
of absorbing gases, and also of absorbing various sub-
stances from solutions. Its action is not limited to any
one class of substances. It absorbs vegetable bases, bitter
principles, astringent bodies, coloring-matters, iodine, me-
tallic oxides, salts, etc. Its chief application in the arts is
for the purification of sugar. The raw sugar is dissolved
in water, more or less completely freed from suspended
impurities by the aid of blood, and filtered through bags
of cotton cloth, and then passed through high cylinders of
iron containing the bone-black. It is thus almost com-
pletely decolorized, and at the same time freed from lime
and other salts, and from certain organic substances which
interfere with crystallization. On subsequently concen-
trating the solution in the vacuum-pain it readily yields
perfectly white loaf sugar. (See SUGAR.). By washing with
warm water, and subjecting to a red heat in suitable retorts,
the black is revivified, when it may be used again. Some-
times it is also purified by fermentation and treatment with
small quantities of dilute acids or alkalies. By repeated
reheatings, however, the black becomes greatly condensed,
owing to the semi-fusion of the phosphate of lime, and its
decolorizing and purifying power is reduced to such a de-
gree that it must be replaced by fresh black. This ex-
hausted black, as well as the fine dust which is not suited
for sugar-refining, finds a ready market for the manufac-
ture of superphosphates to be used as fertilizers, for the
manufacture of phosphorus, etc. In France, pulverized
bone-black in fine powder is often boiled with the raw
sugar before, it goes to the bag filters.
When bone-black is to be used for decolorizing acid so-
lutions, the phosphate of lime is first removed from it by
dilute hydrochloric acid. Bone-black is sometimes em-
ployed to remove lime from highly calcareous waters.
Many other forms of charcoal possess these properties, but
none of them have been found so well adapted for the use
of sugar-refiners as bone-black. Under the name of ivory-
black animal charcoal is used as a pigment, especially for
the preparation of shoe-blacking. C. F. CHANDLER.
Bone Creek, a township of Butler co., Neb. P. 384.
Bone-Dust, a valuable manure, obtained by grinding
bones in stamping-mills, by heavy revolving wheels, or by
passing them through toothed iron rollers. The bone is
sometimes subjected to the action of hot water and steam
in a digester at a temperature of about 275° F., which dis-
solves out two-thirds of the gelatine and leaves a friable
mass. Bone-dust is applied to the soil either in its ordi-
nary insoluble state or as dissolved bones, the fertilizing
force of which is expended in the first year.
Bone- Gelatine. See GELATINE.
Boneset, a common name of the Eupatorium perfo-
liatum, an herbaceous plant, a native of the U. S., grow-
ing in low or moist places. It is a bitter weed, having
hairy leaves, which are united at the base around the stem,
and are serrate, very veiny, and wrinkled. An infusion
of the leaves is used as a tonic, diaphoretic, etc.
Bon/fire [bann, a “beacon,” and fire], a fire kindled
as an expression of public joy in the º air, usually.
on a conspicuous place, as the top of a hill or in the street
of a city. The materials consumed are tar-barrels, Wood,
and other combustibles. The practice of kindling bonfires
is very ancient. -
Bon'gar (Bungarus or Pseudoboa), or Rock Snake,
a genus of venomous serpents, natives of the East Indies.
They are allied to the naja, and are distinguished by a
N-- -
}
\
552
BON HAM—BONNER.
much-keeled back, which has a row of hexagonal scales
larger than the rest. The Bungarus annularis sometimes
measures six or seven feet in length. -
Bon/ham, a city and capital of Fannin co., Tex., on
Bois d’Arc Creek, 270 miles N. N. E. of Austin, and on the
line of the Transcontinental R. R., has two fine flouring
mills, two newspapers, a saw and planing mill, several
benevolent societies, two churches, four Schools, and one
carriage factory. Pop. 928.
W. S. GAss, ED. “TExAs NEws.”
Bonham (MILLEDGE L.), a statesman and Confederate
general, born in South Carolina, about 1815, graduated at
South Carolina College in 1834, became a lawyer, and served
in the Mexican war. He was a member of Congress from
1856 to 1860, and became governor of South Carolina in
1862–64.
Bonha’nis, a township of Wilcox co., Ala. Pop. 1709.
Bonheur (ROSA), an eminent French painter of ani-
mals, born at Bordeaux Mar. 22, 1822, was a pupil of her
father, Raymond Bonheur. She produced in 1850 “The
Nivermais Ploughing,” in the Luxembourg gallery, “The
Horse Fair” (1853), “Horses in a Meadow,” and “Cows
and Sheep in a Hollow Road.”
Bonhomrºne, a county of Dakota, bordering on Ne-
braska. Area, 450 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by
the Missouri River. The soil is fertile, and adapted to the
production of grain. Capital, Bonhomme. Pop. 608.
Bonhomme, a post-village, capital of Bonhomme
co., Dak., on the Missouri River, 36 miles W. of Yank-
ton.
Bonhomme, a post-township of St. Louis co., º
Mo. Pop. 6162. §
Bo'ni, or Bony, a state in the S. W. peninsula º
of the island of Celebes, is about 80 miles long, and #
is on the W: side of the Gulf of Boni. The surface is tº
partly mountainous. The soil of the N. part is fertile, ſº
producing rice, Sago, and cassia. The natives manu- ſº
#
facture cotton cloth and articles of gold and iron. The
British attacked the Bonese in 1814, and killed their "
king as a punishment for their piracy.
Boni, Gulf of, called also Bughis Bay, sepa- -
rates the two southern peninsulas of Celebes. It is nearly
200 miles long, and from 40 to 80 miles wide. It is danger-
ous to navigation from its numerous reefs.
Bon/iface [Lat. Bonifacius] I., SAINT, Pop E, was
elected in 418 A. D. Saint Augustine dedicated several
works to him. Boniface died in 422.-Bon IFACE II., a
Goth, born at Rome, succeeded Pope Felix IV. in 530.
Died in 532 A. D.—BoNIFACE III. was chosen pope in 607,
and died the same year. He was the first to whom the
title of “universal bishop’’ was given by the Greek empe-
ror (Phocas).-BoniPACE IV., Pope, born at Valeria, in
Italy, succeeded Boniface, III. in 608. He converted the
pagan Pantheon of Rome into a church. Died in 615.-
Box1FACE V., a native of Naples, became pope in 619. He
died in 625, and was succeeded by Honorius I.-Bon IFACE
WI., a native of Rome, succeeded Formosus in 896, and died
fifteen days after his election. He was an abandoned cha-
racter.—BONIFACE VII., considered by some authors an
anti-pope, was elected in 974 as a rival of Benedict VI. He
was driven out of Rome in 975. He was starved to death
in prison in 985.-Bon IFACE VIII., CARDINAL (BENEDETTo
GAETANI), was born at Anagni about 1228. He became
pope in 1294. He issued a bull forbidding all the clergy
to pay any tax on ecclesiastical property, by which he was
involved in a contest with Philip the Fair of France. He
excommunicated Philip, who accused the pope of heresy
and simony, and caused him to be imprisoned at Anagni.
Boniface was skilled in both civil and canon law, and pub-
lished the sixth book of “Papal Decretals.” He died Oct.
11, 1303. (See DANTE, “Inferno,” canto xxvii.; W. DRU-
MANN, “Geschichte des Papstes Bonifacius VIII.,” 2 vols.,
1852; LUIGI TosT1, “Storia di Bonifazio VIII.,” 1847.)—
Bonif ACE IX. (PIETRO TOMACELLI) succeeded Urban VI. in
1389. He was a despotic ruler, and was accused of selling
benefices and indulgences. He died Oct. 1, 1404, and was
succeeded by Innocent VII.
Boniface [Lat. Bonifacius], (WINFRID); SAINT, called
THE APOSTLE OF GERMANY., was born in Devonshire, Eng-
land, about 680. He began in 716 to preach in Germany,
where he converted a great number of people and founded
schools and monasteries. He was made bishop by Pope
Gregory II. in 723, and in 732 Gregory III. made him
archbishop and primate of all Germany. In 718, in 723,
and again in 738, he visited Rome, and brought the Ger-
man Church into complete subjection to the papacy. Pepin
le Bref, whom he consecrated king of the Franks in 752,
appointed him archbishop of Mainz. June 5, 755, he was
assassinated by a pagan mob at Dockum in West Friesland,
and his remains were finally taken to the famous abbey of
Fulda, which was founded by him. (See WILLIBALD, “Life
of Saint Boniface;” GEORGE W. Cox, “Life of Saint Bon-
iface,” 1853.)
Bonifaſcio, Strait of (anc. Fretwm Gallicum), is be-
tween Corsica and Sardinia. The narrowest part of it is 7
miles wide. The navigation is obstructed by rocks, which
are favorable to the production of coral, a large quantity
of which is obtained here. -
Bo'nin, or Archbishop Islands, in the Pacific Ocean,
extend from lat. 26° 30' to 27° 44' N., and are about lon.
142° E. They are divisible into three groups, the most
northern of which are called Parry Islands, and the most
southern, Baily Islands. Area, about 120 square miles.
Peel Island, which is one of the middle group, is occupied
by a small number of European and Polynesian colonists,
the only inhabitants of the group. Spain claims this group.
Bonito, bo-nee/to, a name given to several fishes of
the family Scomberidae, which are allied to the mackerel.
One of these, Thynnus pelamys, sometimes called the stripe-
bellied tunny, is a native of tropical seas, and is often seen
pursuing the flying-fish. It is a beautiful fish, about two
and a half feet long, and resembles a mackerel in form.
The color of its back and sides is a brilliant steel-blue.
Four dark lines extend along each side of the belly from
the throat to the tail. Its flesh, though rather dry, is eaten
º:=º
=}|i
The Bonito.
and relished by many, but is sometimes poisonous. The
term bonito is applied to two species found in the Mediter-
ranean, the Awazis vulgaris and the Pelamys Sarda. The
former is of a uniform blue color, without stripes, and has
an average length of about fifteen inches. It is usually
eaten salted. The Pelamys Sarda is distinguished from the
tunny by large and strong teeth. It measures about two
feet in length, and is found on our Atlantic coast.
Boſnitz (HERMANN), a German philologist, born July
29, 1814, became professor at Vienna in 1849. He pub-
lished an edition of the “Metaphysics” of Aristotle (2
vols., 1849), “Platonic Studies,” and other works.
Bonn (anc. Bonna), a city of Rhenish Prussia, beauti-
fully situated on the left bank of the Rhine, 19 miles by
rail S. S. E. of Cologne. It is on the railway which con-
nects Cologne with Coblentz. It has an ancient cathedral,
which is a fine specimen of the Romanesque style. Here
are manufactures of cotton goods, earthenware, and soap.
Bonn is the seat of a celebrated university founded in 1818,
which has a library of 200,000 volumes, and is attended
by nearly 1000 students. Connected with it are an observ-
atory, a botanic garden, and a museum of natural history.
The buildings of this institution are excellent and very
extensive. Niebuhr, A. W. Schlegel, Hermes, Simrock,
and other eminent men have been professors in this uni-
versity. Here are several large and elegant hotels for the
accommodation of tourists, who are attracted by the pic-
turesque scenery of the vicinity. Bonn is a very ancient
town. Bonna, which was an important Roman station, is
said to have been rebuilt by the emperor Julian in the
fourth century. It was conquered by the French in 1802,
and annexed to Prussia in 1814. It is the native place of
Beethoven. Pop. in 1871, 26,020. • *
Bonnefenme, a township of Howard co., Mo. P. 1249.
Bon/mer (EDMUND), an English prelate notorious as a
persecutor, was born about 1495. He gained the favor of
Henry VIII., who about 1532 sent him on a mission to the
pope, and appointed him bishop of Hereford in 1538 and
bishop of London in 1539. . Having showed himself hostile
to the Protestant cause, he was deprived of his bishopric
in 1549, but he was restored on the accession of Queen
Mary in 1553. He was the principal instigator of the
bloody persecutions which disgraced the reign of Mary.
Refusing tô take the oath of supremacy on the accession
of Elizabeth in 1558, he was imprisoned in the Marshalsea,
where he died Sept. 5 1569. (See FROUDE, “History of
England.”) :





BONNER—BOODDHA.
Bonner (RoPERT), proprietor of the “New York Led-
ger,” was born in the north of Ireland April 28, 1824.
He came to America in early youth and learned the trade
of a printer. He went to New York in 1844 and purchased
the “New York Ledger,” which, by energy and business
talents, he made extremely successful. He has made mu-
nificent gifts of money to the College of New Jersey at
Princeton, and is noted for liberality in charitable causes.
Bon/net, in fortification of the old school, is a small
defence-work constructed at salient angles of the glacis or
larger works. It has only two faces, with a parapet three
feet high and ten or twelve broad. A larger kind, with
three salient angles, is called a priest’s bonnet.
Bonnet (CHARLEs), LL.D., F. R. S., an eminent Swiss
naturalist and philosopher, born at Geneva Mar. 13, 1720.
He made discoveries in the reproductive and other func-
tions of insects, etc., which he announced in his “Treatise
on Insectology” (2 vols., 1745). He published in 1754 a
valuable work “On the Use of the Leaves of Plants.”
Among his other works (all in French) are “Considerations
on Organized Bodies” (1762) and “Philosophical Palin-
genesis” (3 vols., 1769), in which he argued that the Chris-
tian revelation is true. Died May 20, 1793. (See H. B.
DE SAUssure, “Eloge historique de C. Bonnet,” 1787; J.
TREMBLEY, “Mémoire de la Vie de C. Bonnet,” 1794; A.
LEMOINE, “C. Bonnet de Genève, Philosophe et Natural-
iste,” 1850.)
Bonnet Carré, a post-village in St. John the Baptist
parish, La. It has one weekly newspaper.
Bonnet Piece, a gold coin of James W. of Scotland,
so called because the king’s head is decorated with a bonnet
instead of a crown. It weighed seventy-two grains, and was
struck in 1539. “In beauty and elegance of workman-
ship,” says De Cardonnel, “it approaches the nearest to
the Roman coins, and very much surpasses all the coinage
at that period or ever since.”
Bonneval, de (CLAUDE ALEXANDRE), Count, a French
adventurer, born in Limousin July 14, 1675. He deserted
from the French army and entered the service of Austria,
in which he distinguished himself by several daring ex-
ploits, and obtained the rank of general. Having quarrelled
with the governor of the Low Countries, he was condemned
to death by a court-martial about 1724, but the penalty was
commuted to exile. He entered the Turkish army, took
the name of Achmed, and became a pasha of three tails.
Died Mar. 27, 1745. (See D. FAssMANN, “Leben des Grafen
von Bonneval,” 1740; “Memoirs of the Bagshaw Count
Bonneval,” London, 1750.)
Bonneville (BENJAMIN L. E.), an officer, born in Ten-
nessee, graduated at West Point in 1815. He became a
captain in the U. S. army, and served in the Mexican war
(1846–47). He published a “Journal of an Expedition to
the Rocky Mountains.”
Bon'nycastle (CHARLEs), born at Woolwich, England,
in 1792, was a son of John, noticed below. He was one
of the professors brought over by Mr. Jefferson for the
University of Virginia in 1825. He at first occupied the
chair of natural philosophy, and afterwards that of math-
ematics. He published a treatise on “Algebra,” one on
“Inductive Geometry,” and various scientific papers.
Died at Charlottesville, Va., Oct., 1840.
Bonnycastle (John), an English mathematician, born
in Buckinghamshire. He was professor of mathematics at
the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, and published,
besides other works, “Elements of Geometry” (1789) and
“Elements of Algebra” (2 vols., 1813), which were highly
esteemed. Died May 15, 1821.
Bonnycastle (Sir RICHARD HENRY), a son of the fore-
, going, born in 1791, served in Flanders and against the
U. S. (1812–15), becoming in 1848 lieutenant-colonel of
British engineers. Most of his life was passed in British
North America. He published “Canada as it Was, Is, and
May Be,” and other works on Canada, and one on “Span-
ish America” (1818). Died in 1848.
Bo'no, a post-township of Lawrence co., Ind. Pop. 1005.
Bompas, a township of Richland co., III. Pop. 891.
Bonpland (AIMſ), an eminent French botanist, born
at La Rochelle Aug. 22, 1773. He studied medicine º
botany at Paris, and formed a friendship with Humboldt.
In 1799 he accompanied Humboldt in a scientific expedi-
tion to South America, where they travelled about five
years. After their return to France he published a splen-
did work entitled “Equinoctial Plants collected in Mexico”
(2 vols., Paris, 1808–16, with 140 plates).
lected 6000 species of plants, of which 3500 were entirely
new. He became professor of natural history at Buenos
Ayres in 1816, and departed in 1821 on an excursion to
the Andes, but as he was passing through Paraguay he
He had col-
553
was arrested by order of Dr. Francia, who detained him
as a prisoner nearly ten years. After his release in 1831,
he resided for many years in Uruguay, and died May 11,
1858. Humboldt, Bonpland, and Kunth published a work
called “Nova Genera et Species Plantarum” (7 vols.,
1815–25, with 700 plates).
Bonpland, Lake, of California, is in Eldorado co.
It is about 14 miles long and 6 miles wide.
Bo'nus (a Latin adjective signifying “good”) is used
in English to denote a premium given for a charter or
other privilege; also a special allowance or extra dividend
to the shareholders of a company. If the previous divi-
dend has been 4 per cent., and if the profits of the current
year are equal to 5 per cent. of the capital, the directors
sometimes declare a dividend of 4 per cent., and add a
bonus of 1 per cent.
Bonus, a post-township of Boone co., Ill. P. 1164.
Bonyhad, a town of Hungary, in the county of Tolna,
106 miles W. of Szegedin. Pop. in 1869, 5610.
Bony Pike (Lepidostews), a genus of ganoid fishes
found in America, especially remarkable as being examples
of a type of fishes now almost extinct, but which in the
old red sandstone period were extremely numerous. To
this genus belong the gar-pike and the alligator-gar of the
U. S. The latter is sometimes six feet in length, and re-
sembles the alligator in appearance. It is thought by
some naturalists to approach the character of the reptiles.
Bonze, a name given to the priests of Fo (or Booddha)
in Japan and China. They profess celibacy, and are ad-
dicted to ascetic practices and superstitious notions and
rites. They are generally very ignorant. Some of them
live in monasteries. They usually wear a yellow dress.
(See GAUTAMA.)
Boo’by (Sula fusca), a species of aquatic birds of the
same genus as the gannet, and of the family Pelicanidae.
It is found on the coasts of tropical and sub-tropical coun-
tries. It seldom swims, but is a bird of powerful wing,
and feeds on fish, which it. catches near the surface of the
water by a sudden plunge. It is remarkable for stupidity
and slow movement on the land, and will sometimes re-
main motionless when it is approached by a man, and
permit itself to be killed with a club. . The boobies are
persecuted by the albatross and frigate-bird, which some-
times compel them to give up the fishes they have caught,
and even to disgorge those they have devoured.
Bood/dha, or Buddha, the title of an Asiatic divin-
ity, or rather of a series of divinities, whose votaries or
worshippers are said to constitute more than one-third of
the human race. The name is derived from the Sanscrit
verb bud (“to know”), and signifies, literally, “wisdom,”
and also the “wise one’’ or the “sage;” but it has been
applied particularly to certain divine sages, who are be-
lieved to have become possessed of transcendent power as
well as wisdom. It is one of the remarkable features of
the Hindoo system of belief, Brahmanical as well as Booddh-
istic, that they hold the doctrine of accumulative merit
to an unlimited extent; not only can one in the present
life, by persevering prayer, penance, and sacrifice, gradu-
ally acquire great merit, but this merit is supposed to be
transferred to his account in the next life. It is thus that
those beings who become Booddhas are enabled to acquire,
in the course of innumerable transmigrations, an amount
of merit which for all practical purposes may be termed
infinite; and this merit, according to a commonly—received
belief, confers infinite wisdom and power. The aspirants
to the Booddhaship (called in Sanscrit Bödhissattvas) are
supposed, in the course of their countless transmigrations,
to be born sometimes as dévas (inferior deities), and some-
times in the form of various animals, even insects or ani-
malcules; but when they are about to assume the rank of
supreme Booddha, they are always born as men, and their
human form becomes glorified, when they attain their
highest perfection and take their rank as the supreme
power of the universe. But they continue only a very
brief period in this exalted state; they soon die and pass
into nirvâna—a term variously interpreted; according to
the majority of Booddhists, including those of Ceylon, it
signifies simply non-existence or annihilation, but accord-
ing to others, the soul, in nirvâna, does not cease to be—it
merely ceases its separate existence, having been absorbed
into the essence of the supreme, eternal Spirit. . The latter
view is held by the Aishwarikas of Nepaul, who call the
eternal Spirit Adi-Booddha (i.e. “First Booddha”). It is
supposed that there have been innumerable Booddhas in
the eternity of the past, each being separated from his
nearest successor by a space of several thousand years.
(For a more particular account of the doctrines of the
Booddhists, see GAUTAMA.)
- - J. THOMAS.
554
BOODROOM.–BOOKBINDING.
Bood’room/, Budroum, or Bodrun, a seaport-
town of Asiatic Turkey, in Anatolia, is finely situated on
the N. shore of the Gulf of Cos, about 96 miles S. of
Smyrna; lat. 37° 2'. N., lon. 27° 25' E. It has a safe har-
bor, defended by a castle which was built by the Knights
of St. John in 1402. The streets are narrow and dirty.
Pop. estimated at 12,000. It probably occupies the site of
the ancient Halicarnassus, a great city of Caria, the birth-
place of Herodotus. Here are remains of ancient mag-
nificence.
Boofa'rik, or Boufarik, a village of Algeria, 18 miles
S. S. W. of Algiers, on the road from Algiers to Blidah and
Oran, is an important military station. It has a trade in
cotton, grain, olives, oranges, etc. Pop. 5627.
Book [Anglo-Saxon, boe; Ger. Buch, supposed to be from
the root of Buche, “beech,” because thin pieces of this wood
were used for writing before paper was invented], the gen-
eral name of almost every literary composition, but in a
more limited sense applied only to such compositions as are
large enough to form a volume. Short and fugitive pieces
are denominated pamphlets, in contradistinction to books,
which are of greater length and embrace more general or .
permanent topics. According to their sizes and forms,
books are distinguished as folios, quartos, octavos, duode-
cimos, etc. The materials of which books have been com-
posed have differed much in different nations and in dif-
ferent stages of civilization. Plates of lead and copper,
bricks, stone, and wood were anciently employed for this
purpose. At a later period the bark of trees formed the
chief material, as is indicated by the meaning of the words
which in some languages are employed for the term book
(liber). Materials for books were afterwards derived from
the Egyptian plant papyrus, but as the demand increased
more durable materials were sought for, and leather, made
chiefly from the skins of goats or sheep, was employed for
this purpose. Next followed the use of parchment, on which,
the ancient manuscripts were chiefly written, but all these
systems were swallowed up by the invention of PAPER,
which, though long known in China and Japan, was not
made in Europe until about the thirteenth century, and
facilitated the circulation of knowledge to an incalcu-
lable extent. The first books were in the form of blocks
and tablets, but when flexible materials came into use it was
found more convenient to roll them up in a scroll, called by
the Romans volumen (from volvo, to “roll”). Books were
anciently written on one side only of rolls of paper or
parchment. When written on both sides they were called
opisthographi. To save the expense of writing materials,
it was sometimes the custom to wash out what were con-
sidered unimportant writings, and use the paper or parch-
ment again. These were then called PALIMPSESTs (which
see). Leaves of palm-trees are still used in parts of India,
etc. for making manuscript books.
REVISED BY C. W. GREENE.
Book/binding, the art of fastening together and en-
closing the leaves of a book for preservation and use, has
been practised for many centuries. Long before the inven-
tion of printing the written leaves of missals and other
books were united together, and enclosed in covers of wood,
parchment, and other materials. Much labor and expense
was bestowed on a single volume, and the covers were fre-
quently decorated with jewels and ornaments of gold and
silver. Some of these volumes are still preserved in the
monasteries and museums of the Old World, and are objects
of interest and study.
Since the invention of printing, and especially from the
beginning of this century, the rapid advancement of the me-
chanical arts, the extension of education, and the general
diffusion of knowledge have made books as much a neces-
sity of life as food and clothing, and their preservation is
therefore an object of importance.
The modern operations of bookbinding may be grouped
in two main divisions—“ forwarding” and “finishing,” the
first comprehending what is necessary for the preservation
of books, the latter pertaining to their embellishment. In
each of these departments there are various subdivisions,
which may be noted. The sheets are generally received
from the printer in bundles containing a thousand, more or
less, of one kind.
The first operation is to fold the sheet, by means of a
thin piece of ivory or bone, about nine inches long, called
a “folder.” The object of this is to bring the pages to-
gether in regular order; and on the care with which the
folding is done much of the appearance of the book depends.
The next process is “gathering ” and “collating.” Gath-
ering consists in putting together one each of the various
sheets of which the book is made, and collating is the ex-
amination of the numbers 1, 2, 3, etc., which are placed at
the foot of the outside page of the folded sections, and
which are called “signatures.”
The next thing required is to make the book solid. This
is done by placing it either in a hydraulic press or under
some other form of pressure, such as the nature and size of
the book may require. After being pressed the book is
prepared for sewing by having indentations made in the
back of the sheets by passing them over rapidly revolving
circular saws. They are now sewed on a frame called a
“sewing-bench,” each sheet being sewed around twine
bands, which are afterwards fastened to the boards. Much
of its durability depends on the sewing being well done,
and all large work is improved by having the sections at
the beginning and end of the book cross or “whip-stitched.”
The greater part of the labor has so far been done by
women, who by practice acquire great dexterity in the per-
formance of the various processes. Machinery has been
used, with considerable success in folding, and lately a
machine has been introduced for Sewing, but all work in
the early stages is still in great measure done by hand-
labor. In the more advanced stages of binding machinery
is used extensively, and our description will be in accord-
ance with the methods pursued where large quantities are
constantly being bound, and where machinery is used to
facilitate production. The book, after being removed from
the sewing-bench, and having about an inch of the twine
left on either side to fasten to the pasteboard cover, has
the end leaves applied. These are of colored, white, or
marble paper, as the nature of the work may require.
The book is now “cut” by being fastened tightly in a cut-
ting-machine, and a vibrating knife is brought down on
the edge, which is cut off smoothly at the point desired.
The edges are either left white, are colored by being sprin-
kled with color thrown on finely with a brush, or are
marbled, which is done by dipping the edge on colors
which float on the surface of gum-water. The “comb
edge” so much used is made by a comb being drawn
through the colors on the surface of the gum-water before
the book is dipped. If the book is to have gilt edges, it is
placed in a press and a coating of red color applied. The
edges are then sized with white of egg, and gold-leaf laid
over the size. When the sizing is thoroughly dry, the gold
is burnished with agate or bloodstone.
A coating of glue is now applied to the back, and when
partially dry by a slight hammering on the back a round
is formed in the front and back. The book is then fastened
firmly between iron clamps in a backing-machine, lately
invented, and a roller is pressed heavily across the back,
which turns part of it over either side of the clamps,
making a groove to hold the board of which the inside of
the cover is made. The piece of silk braid or colored cloth
which projects over the leaves of the back inside the cover,
and is called the “head-band,” is now fastened with glue,
and the whole back has a lining of cloth or strong rope
paper firmly applied to it with glue and paste. The open
or spring back is now made by applying two thicknesses
of paper, open in the centre, but fastened at the edges—
one thickness of the paper being attached to the back of
the book, and the other thickness to the leather or other
material of which the outside cover may be made. The
book is now ready for the cover, the outside of which may
be of muslin, sheepskin, calf, Turkey morocco, or such
other materials as may be desired. The cover, or “case,”
is made by boards being cut larger than the leaves of the
book, over which the outside material is fastened by glue
or paste, a space being left between the two boards large
enough to fit the back of the book in, the boards being re-
quired to fit micely into the grooves made in backing.
Much of the material used for boards of common books is
straw, but all good work should have a hard, Smooth board
made of rope. The edge of the board is frequently ground
off on a rapidly revolving emery wheel, which makes a
bevelled edge, now much used.
After the cover is dry the embellishment is done by .
stamping in gold, blank, and colors. If in gold, the leather
or cloth is sized with albumen, and gold-leaf laid on with
oil. The ornamental die or lettering being fastened in an:
“ embossing-press” and heated, it is brought with sufficient
pressure on the cover to make the gold-leaf adhere. The
surplus gold being brushed off, leaves the impression of the
die. The dies are cut in brass or steel, and very elaborate
and beautiful designs, which a few years ago would have
taken many weeks to execute by hand-labor, are now pro-
duced almost instantly by the embossing-press.
The cover having received all intended ornament, the
back of the book is glued and fitted into it, the end-papers
are pasted to the inside of the cover, and the book is placed
in a press to remain till dry. When removed from the
press it is ready for the publisher and the public.
“Half binding,” much used for library and reference
books, is that style of binding where the back and corners
are covered with leather, and the sides with cloth or paper.
The old process of “forwarding” by hand, in which each
BOOK-CATALOGUES-BOONDEE.
555
book is backed by a hammer and cut singly by press and
plough, and the book finished by the slow method of
former times, is still followed to some extent in small
binderies, but requires no minute description, as the system
is almost obsolete for books in quantities.
In America, during the last quarter of a century, machi-
mery for the binding of books has been invented, improved,
and applied to a greater extent than in any other country;
hence books in large editions are produced in a style of
great elegance and durability, and at prices so moderate
as to be within reach of all classes of the community. The
number of persons engaged in bookbinding throughout the
various States is very large." In the cities of New York,
Philadelphia, and Boston many of the establishments em-
ploy from 100 to 300 hands (about one-half of the number
being women), and produce from 1000 to 5000 volumes
per day. JAMEs SoMERVILLE, Bookbinder, New York.
Book-Catalogues. See CATALOGUES OF Books.
Books, Censorship of. See CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS.
Book-Club, a society for the purchase of books to be
read by its members. It is customary in book-clubs, after
the books have been read by all, to sell them at auction.
These clubs are quite numerous in Great Britain.
Book-keeping is the art of recording, in a regular
and systematic manner, the transactions of merchants or
other persons engaged in pursuits connected with money.
There are two modes of keeping books of account—the one
by what is termed single, and the other by double entry.
Both are in general use. The system of single entry is
much the simplest mode of book-keeping, and consists of
only a day-book and a ledger. In the day-book the dealer
enters his sales and purchases, and in his ledger he carries
the former to the debit of his customers, and the latter to
the credit of the merchants who supply him with goods.
By making at any time a list of the sums due to him by
his customers, and of those due by him to wholesale mer-
chants, the dealer may, after adding to the debts due to
him the value of his stock on hand, arrive at an approxi-
mation to the real state of his debts and assets. ' This,
however, is but an imperfect method of book-keeping, and
in the case of wholesale mercantile business, where exten-
sive and multifarious transactions have to be recorded, re-
course is had to the system of double entry. This system .
possesses all the advantages of single entry, besides being
so complete and comprehensive in its principles; and so
certain in its results, as to admit of universal application.
No authentic accounts exist of the origin of book-keep-
ing. The double-entry system appears to have been first
practised in the latter part of the fifteenth century in Italy,
then the great centre of the mercantile world.
The objects of book-keeping are to exhibit transactions
in the most minute detail and in the most condensed form;
advancing from the earliest stage to the latest by such clear
and lucid steps as to admit of every fact being traced in its
progress, so as to be secured at every step against error.
The three principal books required under the system of
double entry are a cash-book, journal, and ledger. In the
first of these every transaction is recorded where money is
one of the elements. The journal forms a most important
part of the system. It exhibits a narrative of every trans-
action of which an actual transfer of money does not form
one of the elements, arranging the facts in as simple a form
as correctness and intelligibility will admit of ; and the
results of those entries in the journal are afterwards intro-
duced into the ledger, which thereby becomes a key to the
history of every transaction. In like manner cash trans-
actions are often introduced into the journal, and are at
stated periods classed and arranged in a condensed form
and transferred to the ledger. The journal is advanta-
geously ruled with four columns—two for entries debtor,
and two for entries creditor; and all the transactions being
connected either with personal and property accounts or
nominal accounts, such as charges, profit and loss, and so-
forth, they are classed accordingly in the columns on the
debtor or creditor side of the journal respectively; and as
the debit entries are at all times equal to the credit entries,
the aggregate of the two columns on the debtor side must
tally with the aggregate of the two on the creditor side of
the journal. Experience and practice are occasionally sug-
gesting minor improvements upon the forms of the cash-
book, journal, and ledger to suit particular cases; and in-
deed an intelligent book-keeper may accomplish much by
a judicious classification of the facts in auxiliary books;
but the fundamental principles of the double-entry system
of book-keeping remain perfect and unchanged; and after
the length of time during which they have successfully
withstood all attempts at innovation or change, it may
safely be affirmed that the system is the best hitherto dis-
covered. -
Bookselling, or the Book-Trade, may be treated
of as consisting of two branches: 1st, the wholesale busi-
ness, usually in the hands of publishers; and 2d, the retail
branch, to which more frequently the term bookselling is
applied.
Booksellers are mentioned by Horace and other ancient
writers, and they are known to have existed as a distinct
class in university-towns of Europe during the Middle
Ages; but the book-trade was quite unimportant until
after the invention of printing, when a great stimulus was
given to this branch of industry, more especially at first in
Germany. In nearly all European countries the printing
and vending of books were subject to a great variety of re-
strictions, including a more or less strict government cen-
sorship, which, in England, ceased in 1695. On the other
hand, publishers seem about this time to have had a re-
markable disregard of the rights of authors, in whom copy-
right was first vested by act of Parliament in 1700. Since
the beginning of the present century the book-trade of the
U. S., from the smallest beginnings, has grown to a posi-
tion of great importance. The retail book-trade is con-
ducted both by subscription-agents and by regular dealers.
Boo’lāk, Boulac, or Bulak, a town of Egypt, on the
right bank of the Nile, about a mile from Cairo, and at the
origin of the Pelusiac arm of the Nile. It formerly stood on
an island. The vessels navigating the Nile discharge their
cargoes at Boolāk, which is the port of Cairo, and contains
a custom-house. It has manufactures of cotton and silk,
a government printing-office, and a very valuable museum
of Egyptian antiquities. Pop. about 13,000.
Boolga’rin, Boulgarine, or Bulgarin (THAD-
DEUs), an eminent Russian writer, born in Lithuania in
1789. He served as an officer in the army of Napoleon I.,
after whose fall he settled in St. Petersburg and devoted
himself to literature. He published popular novels en-
titled “Mazeppa” and “Ivan Vuizhegin” (1829), and other
works, among which is “Russia in its Historical, Statisti-
cal, Geographical, and Literary Aspects.” Died Sept. 13,
1859.
Boom [that is, “beam,” from the Dutch boom and Ger-
man Baum, a “tree” or “beam ”], in nautical language, is
a general name for long poles or spars employed to extend
the bottom of sails. Some of them taper regularly from
the middle towards each end. According to their different
modes and places of application, they are respectively named
jib-boom, flying-jib-boom, studding-sail-boom, main-boom,
square-sail-boom, spanker-boom, etc.
Booyſ is also the name of a strong iron chain or cable
stretched across a river or harbor to obstruct the passage
of hostile vessels of war. The chains are moored and are
floated by logs. They ought to be defended by a battery.
An iron steamer might cut or break the chain unless it is
very strong. It is desirable that two or more chains should
be stretched across.
Boom, bom, a town of Belgium, in the province of
Antwerp, is on the river Rupel at its junction with the
Brussels Canal, 9 miles S. of Antwerp. It has a gymnasium
and extensive brick- and tile-works, tanneries, ropewalks,
and manufactures of sail-cloth. Pop. 10,064.
Boo’mer (GEORGE B.), an American general, was born
at Sutton, Mass., July 26, 1832, and became a citizen of
St. Louis in early youth. At the battles of Iuka, Cham-
pion Hills, and Vicksburg he behaved with conspicuous
gallantry. He was killed in a charge at Vicksburg, May
22, 1863.
Boom/erang, an instrument used in war and the chase
by the aborigines of Australia. It is about two feet in
length, flat on one side and rounded on the other, and is
made of hard wood bent into a curve nearly resembling an
obtuse angle. The method of using this remarkable weapon
is very peculiar. It is taken by one end with the bulged
side downward, and thrown forward as if to hit some ob-
ject twenty-five yards in advance. Instead of continuing
to go directly forward, as might be expected, it slowly as-
cends in the air, whirling round and round, and describing
a curved line, till it reaches a considerable height, when it
begins to retrograde, and finally sweeps over the head of
the projector and falls behind him. This surprising motion
is produced by the reaction of the air upon a missile of this
peculiar shape. The Australians are said to be very dex-
terous in hitting birds and other small animals with this
weapon, as, being behind the thrower, they are perhaps not
aware that they are objects of attack. It is asserted that
a kind of boomerang is employed by some of the hill-tribes
of Southern Hindostan. -
Boon/dee, a town in East India, capital of a rajahship
of the same name, 90 miles S. E. of Ajmeer, has an old and
a new town, the former surrounded by a strong wall. . It
contains a palace, well-built houses, and level streets, and
a fine temple of Krishna, other large temples, fountains, etc.
556
BOONE–BOONSBROOR.
Boone, a county of Arkansas, bordering on Missouri,
is drained by the White River. Area, 696 square miles.
The surface is a fertile plateau, rich in minerals. Cotton,
corn, and tobacco are the principal crops. It was formed
in 1869 from parts of Carroll and Marion. Capital, Har-
rison. Pop. 7032.
Boone, a county of Illinois, bordering on Wisconsin.
Area, 280 square miles. It is intersected by the Kishwau-
kee River, an affluent of Rock River, and also drained by
the Piskasaw Creek. The surface is undulating, and diver-
sified by prairies and woodlands; the soil is very fertile.
Cattle, grain, wool, and dairy products are raised. The
county is traversed by several divisions of the Chicago and
North-western R. R. Capital, Belvidere. Pop. 12,942.
Boone, a county in Central Indiana. Area, 408 square
miles. It is drained by the Eagle and Sugar creeks. The
surface is undulating or nearly level, and was formerly
covered with dense forests of the oak, ash, beech, and
sugar-maple. The soil is fertile and deep. Grain, wool,
cattle, and dairy products are raised. It is intersected by
the railroad which connects Lafayette with Indianapolis.
Capital, Lebanon. Pop. 22,593.
Boone, a county in Central Iowa. Area, 576 square
miles. It is traversed and nearly bisected by the Des
Moines River, and also drained by Beaver Creek. The
surface is uneven or undulating; the soil is fertile. Cattle,
wool, and grain are the chief productions. Coal and tim-
ber abound in it. The county is intersected by the Chicago
and North-western R. R. Capital, Boonesborough. Pop.
14,584.
Boone, a county in the extreme N. part of Kentucky.
Area, 300 square miles. It is bounded on the N. and W.
by the Ohio River, and is adjacent to the “Great North
Bend” of that stream. The surface is hilly or undulating;
the soil is productive, and is based on Trenton limestone.
Live-stock, grain, and tobacco are raised. It is inter-
sected by the Louisville Cincinnati and Lexington R. R.
Capital, Burlington. Pop. 10,696.
Boone, a county in Central Missouri. Area, 648 square
miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by the Missouri River,
and on the E. by Cedar Creek, and is traversed by Roche
Percée River. The surface is undulating; the soil is very
productive. Tobacco, grain, and live-stock are raised.
Among the mineral resources are coal and limestone. It.
is intersected by the St. Louis Ransas City and Northern
R. R. Capital, Columbia. Pop. 20,765.
Boome, a county of the E. central part of Nebraska.
Area, 912 square miles. The S. part constitutes a portion
of the Pawnee reservation. The county is drained by the
Pawnee Loup and its branches; the soil is fertile. It was
organized since the census of 1870. Capital, Hammond.
Boone, a county of the S. W. part of West Virginia.
Area, 525 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by
Coal River, and also drained by Laurel Creek. The sur-
face is hilly or mountainous, and mostly covered with
forests. The soil of the valleys is fertile. Grain, stock;
and tobacco are extensively raised. Bituminous coal is
found. Capital, Madison. Pop. 4553.
Boone, a township of Columbia co., Ark. Pop. 827.
Boone, a township of Scott co., Ark. Pop. 937.
Boone, a township of Union co., Ark. Pop. 642.
Boone, a township of Boone co., Ill., Pop. 1536.
Boome, a township of Cass co., Ind. Pop. 1262.
Boone, a township of Crawford co., Ind. Pop. 494.
Boone, a township of Harrison co., Ind. Pop. 1870.
Boone, a township of Madison co., Ind. Pop. 1078.
Doone, a township of Porter co., Ind. Pop. 1215.
Boone, a township of Warrick co., Ind. Pop. 4042.
Boone (called Montana in the U. S. census of 1870),
a city of Boone co., Ia., is the end of a division of the
Chicago and North-western R. R., and a round-house and
machine-shops of the company are located here. It is a
thriving town, and has two weekly newspapers, a national
bank, six churches, and is a good manufacturing point,
being near both coal and timber. Immense quantities of
coal are shipped from here. Pop. 2415.
J. HoRNSTEIN, PUB. “Boon E County DEMOCRAT.”
Boone, a township of Dallas co., Ia. Pop. 552.
Boone, a township of Hamilton co., Ia. Pop. 1837.
Boone, a township of Wright co., Ia. Pop. 146.
Boone, a township of Bates co., Mo. Pop. 1257.
Boone, a township of Crawford co., Mo. Pop. 839.
Boone, a township of Douglas co., Mo. Pop. 480.
Boone, a township of Franklin co., Mo. Pop. 1655.
Boone, a township of Greene co., Mo. Pop. 1692.
Boone, a township of Maries co., Mo. Pop. 692.
Boone, a township of Texas co., Mo. Pop. 323.
Boone, a township of Wright co., Mo. Pop. 123.
Boone, a township of Davidson co., N. C. Pop. 1311.
Boone, a post-village, the capital of Watauga co., N.C.,
in a township of the same name, 177 miles W. by N. of
Raleigh. Pop. of township, 737.
Boone (DANIEL), a famous American pioneer and hun-
ter, born in Bucks co., Pa., Feb. 11, 1735. He emigrated
to North Carolina, where he married. In 1769, with five
companions, he penetrated into the forests of Kentucky,
which were then uninhabited'by white men. He was cap-
tured by Indians, but escaped, and continued to hunt
in that region for more than a year. Having returned
home early in 1771, he moved with his own and five other
families to Kentucky in the autumn of 1773. To defend
his colony against the savages, he built in 1775 a fort at
Boonesborough, on the Rentucky River. The Indians at-
tacked this fort several times in 1777, but were repulsed.
Boone was surprised and captured by them in Feb., 1778.
They took him to Detroit, and treated him with lenity, but
he soon escaped, and returned to his fort, which he de-
fended with success against 450 Indians in Aug., 1778.
He removed in 1795 to a place which is nearly forty-five
miles W. of St. Louis, Mo., and found there a new field for
his favorite pursuits. Died Sept. 20, 1820. (See SPARKs,
“American Biography,” vol. xiii., second series; W. H.
Bog ART, “Life of Daniel Boone,” 1857.)
Boone (ENOCH), son of the preceding, and the first white
male child born in Kentucky. Died Mar. 8, 1862, aged 84.
Boonesborough, a small village of Madison co., Ky.,
on the Kentucky River, about 18 miles S. E. of Lexington.
Here is the site of a fort built in 1775 by Daniel Boone, the
pioneer, which was the first fort erected in the State.
Boonesville, capital of Prentiss co., Miss., a thriving
town on the Mobile and Ohio R. R., 20 miles S. of Corinth,
at the highest point on that road, is the seat of Paine Male
School (Methodist) and Booneville Male Academy. It has
four churches, one weekly paper, one cotton-press, and one
planing-mill. Pop. 458.
John H. MILLER, PUB. “PRENTISS RECORDER.”
Booneville, a post-village, capital of Owsley co., Ky.,
on the South Förk of the Kentucky River, about 60 miles
S. E. of Lexington. Pop. III.
Booneville, or Boonville, a river-port, capital of
Cooper co., Mo., is situated on the right (S.) bank of the
Missouri River, 227 miles by water and 187 miles by rail-
road W. by N. of St. Louis. It stands on a bluff about 100
feet above the river, is very healthy, and has an advanta-
geous position for trade. It has a national bank. A rail-
road 25 miles long extends from Booneville southward to
the Missouri Pacific R. R. Lead, coal, marble, hydraulic
lime, and iron are abundant here. During the recent civil
war a Confederate camp was established at this place. On
the 16th of June, 1861, Gen. Lyon reached Rockport, op-
posite Booneville, and on the following day attacked the
forces in camp at Booneville under Col. Marmaduke. The
Confederate force amounted to only about 2500 raw troops,
poorly armed and utterly deficient in drill; they were
easily routed, abandoming two guns and a large quantity
of clothing, camp equipage, etc. . Booneville has three
weekly newspapers. Pop. 3506; of Booneville township,
5319. *
Boon Hill, a post-township of Johnston co., N. C.
Pop. 1445.
Boon Island, 10 miles E. of the harbor of York, Me.,
is in lat. 43° 07' 16" N., lon. 70° 28′ 16" W. It has a
granite lighthouse 123 feet high, showing a fixed white
dioptric light of the second order, 133 feet above the sea.
Boons/boro’, the county-seat of Boone co., Ia., 1%
miles E. of Des Moines River, on the Chicago and North-
western R. R., 121 miles W. of Cedar Rapids, 40 N. N. W.
of Des Moines, in the edge of the best body of timber in
the State. Coal is excellent, abundant, and extensively
mined. The river affords good water-power, and the
scenery in this part of the Des Moines Valley is picturesque.
It has six churches, two school edifices, a town-hall, public
library, a literary association, a weekly newspaper, two
farming implement factories, two furniture, two wagon and
carriage, and one stave and barrel factory, one steam grist-
mill, and two potteries. Pop. 1518.
MEANs & DownING, PUBs. “Boon E County REPUBLICAN.”
Boonsboro’, a post-village and township of Wash-
ington co., Md. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of
village, 835; of township, 2579.
Boons/brook, a township of Franklin co., Va. Pop.
BOON's LICK-BOOTH.
* -- *-
Boon’s Lick, a township of Howard co., Mo. Pop.
1686.
Boom’s Station, a township of Alamance co., N. C.
Pop. 1100.
Boom/ton, a city of Morris co., N. J., is on the Rocka-
way River and on the Boonton branch of the Delaware
Lackawanna and Western R. R., about 30 miles from New
York City and 16 miles from Paterson, N. J. It has iron-
works among the largest in the U. S., if not in the world,
the rolling-mills, nut-mills, plate-mills, nail-mills, and blast
furnaces covering at least 50 acres of land. It has one
weekly paper. Pop. of township, 3458.
S. L. GARRISON, ED. “REPUBLICAN.”
Boon/ville, the capital of Warrick co., Ind., is 11 miles
from the Ohio River and 17 miles from the city of Evans-
ville, at the crossing of the Lake Erie Evansville and
South-western and the Vincennes and Owensboro’ R. Rs.
It has one weekly paper. Pop. 1039.
WM. Sw1NT, ED. of “ENQUIRER.”
Boonville, a post-village of Oneida co., N.Y., on the
Utica and Black River R. R., 35 miles N. of Utica, and on
the Black River Canal. It has several churches and mills,
one bank and one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1418; of the
township, 4106.
Boonville. See Boon EVILLE.
Boonville, a township of Yadkin co., N. C. Pop. 1058.
Boor/hampoor', or Burhampoor [Hindoo, Barhan-
poora], a city of Hindostan, the ancient capital of the Can-
deish, is on the river Taptee, 309 miles by rail N. E. of
Bombay. It is on the Great Indian Peninsular R. R. It
is one of the largest and best-built cities of the Deccan,
and has wide and regular streets and brick houses. Among
the remarkable buildings is a mosque built by Aurungzeb,
and an old royal palace which is nearly ruined. This city
was taken by Akbār about 1600. It has manufactures of
gold and silver thread for brocade. Pop. 20,000.
Boor'Ios, or Bourlos, a shallow lagoon of Lower
Egypt, in the delta of the Nile, about 5 miles E. of Rosetta,
is 38 miles long. It communicates by a single channel
with the Mediterranean, from which it is separated by a
narrow tongue of land.
Boo/ro, Buru, or Bouro, an island of the Malay
Archipelago, is about 60 miles W. N. W. of Amboyna, and
lies between lat. 3° and 4° S., and between lon. 126° and
127° E. Area, estimated at 2000 square miles. The sur-
face is mountainous, but the soil is fertile. It contains
Mount Dome, which is said to be 10,400 feet high. Cajeli
Bay, on the N. side, affords good anchorage.
Boo'roogird’, Boorojird, or Burugird, a town
of Persia, province of Irak-Ajemee, is in a fertile valley
about 184 miles N. W. of Ispahan, and 74 miles S. S. E. of
Hamadan. It has a castle and several mosques. It has
an extensive trade in cotton goods, of which it is said to
export over 1,000,000 francs’ worth annually. Pop. 10,000.
Boos'sa, or Boussa, a town of Central Africa, in
Soodan, is on an island in the Niger, in about lat. 10° 20'
N., lon. 4° 30' E. It is enclosed by a wall. Pop. estimated
at 14,000. Mungo Park died here.
Boot [Fr. botte ; Sp. bota, a “boot,” originally a “leath-
erm bottle,” and applied to a boot from its fancied similar-
ity to a bottle], a covering for the foot and lower part of
the leg, which seems to have been worn in England as far
back as the times of the Anglo-Saxons. Various similar
coverings for the foot are known to have been worn in
Egypt and other countries in very ancient times, but they
all seem to have more closely approached the shape of the
modern shoe. Before the time of the wars of the Roses
the boot was a part of the regular dress of knights. The
names “top-boot,” “Wellington boot,” “jack-boot,” etc.
are applied to forms of the boot that have been worn at
various times.
Boot, an instrument for the judicial torture of accused
persons and recusant witnesses, once used in Scotland. It
was a case made of wood or iron, which enclosed the leg,
and wedges were driven between the boot and the leg until
the questions asked were satisfactorily answered. In many
cases the leg was crushed and still no answer was given.
The use of this torture was not abolished until the reign of
Queen Anne.
Boot (John FLETCHER). See APPENDIx.
Booſtan’, Boutan, Bhotan, or Butan, a state or
country of India, is bounded on the N. by the Himalaya
Mountains, which separate it from Thibet, on the E. by
Thibet, and on the S. and W. by Bengal. It extends from
lat. 26° 18' to 28° N., and from lon. 88° 30' to 92° 30' E.
Area, estimated at 64,500 square miles. The surface is
mountainous. The Peak of Shumalari on the N. border
rises about 27,000 feet above the sea. In the central parts
557
are mountains from 8000 to 10,000 feet high, covered with
forests of pine, ash, maple, birch, etc. Wheat, barley, rice,
and maize are cultivated here. The religion of Bootan is
Booddhism. The people practise polyandry and polyg-
amy. The state is ruled by an actual sovereign called
Deb-Rajah, and has a nominal head called Dherma-Rajah,
who is treated as a god, but has little power. Pop. about
1,500,000.
Boö/tes [Gr. Botörms], a name of PHILOMELUs, a son
of Ceres and a brother of Plutus. He is said to have in-
vented the plough, and used it in cultivation of the soil.
To reward him for this service he was translated into a con-
stellation, under the name of Boötes.
Boötes, a northern constellation, is represented on
celestial globes as a man holding in one hand a club, and
in the other a leash by which he leads two hunting-dogs.
This constellation comprises Arcturus, a star of the first
magnitude. Boötes is bounded on the N. by Draco, on the
E. by Corona Borealis and Serpens, on the S. by Virgo,
and on the W. by Canes Wenatici and Coma Berenices.
Booth, a name which seems to have been originally
given to tents and other temporary structures for the use
of dealers at fairs. These afterwards became permanent,
stall-like structures in streets and public places, and were
for a long time much employed by respectable merchants,
a's similar structures are even now in Oriental countries.
Booth (ABRAHAM), born at Blackwell, Derbyshire, Eng-
land, in May, 1734, from 1769 till his death pastor of the
Baptist church in Goodman’s Fields, London. He was
author of “The Reign of Grace” (1768) and “Pasdobap-
tism Examined,” 2 vols. 12mo, 1784. The latter work was
republished in 2 vols. 8vo in 1829, and is regarded by the
Baptists as an able argument in defence of their opinions.
Died in 1806.
Booth. This name, long eminent on the stage, was
first made famous by BARTON Booth, born in 1681. He
first appeared in 1698 at Dublin, Ireland, in Thos. South-
ern’s “Oroonoko.” In 1701 he first acted in London, as
Maximus in Lord Rochester’s “Walentinian.” Thencefor-
ward his career was prosperous and distinguished. He left
the stage in 1728, and died in 1733. He was deemed excel-
lent in such various parts as Hotspur, Antony, Othello, and
Henry VIII. He wrote a masque entitled the “Death of
Dido.” (1716). He was twice married, but left no children.
He was an Englishman of good family, a good classical
scholar, a quaint poet, and a notably handsome person.
IIis grave is at Cowley, near Uxbridge, England.—JUNIUS
BRUTUs Booth, born near London May 1, 1796, first ap-
peared on the stage Dec. 13, 1813, at Deptford, England,
as Campillo, in Tobin’s “Honeymoon,” and within four
years became famous in London as Richard III. and Sir
Giles Overreach. These and Pescara were his great parts.
He first acted in America, July 13, 1821, at Richmond, Va.,
as Richard III. His career on the American stage was one
long triumph—marred, however, by intemperance and in-
cipient insanity. He died on a Mississippi River steamboat,
Nov. 3, 1852, and was buried at Baltimore, Md. His wife
was a Miss Holmes, of Reading, England. His children
were: Junius Brutus, Rosalie Anne, Edwin Thomas, Annie
Sydney, and Joseph Addison, who are living (1873), and
Henry Byron, Mary, Frederick, Elizabeth, and John
Wilkes, who are dead.—EDWIN BOOTH, a son of J. B.
Booth, born at Baltimore Nov. 15, 1833, first appeared on
the stage, Sept. 10, 1849, at the Boston Museum, as Tressel,
in “Richard III.” After several years of “strolling” in
California, and Australia, he returned to New York and
other Northern cities, and speedily acquired a high profes-
sional rank. He opened Booth's Theatre, N.Y., Feb. 3,
1869–one of the best theatres in the World. His name, as
an actor, is identified with Hamlet, Richelieu, Iago, Ber-
tuccio, and Lucius Brutus. His acting is remarkable for
intellectual power, refinement, and gleams of passionate
fire. WM. WINTER, of the New York “Tribune.”
Booth (John WILKEs), the assassin of Abraham Lin-
coln, born in Harford co., Md., in 1838, was a brother of
Edwin, noticed above. He became an actor, and in the
civil war sided with the secessionists. To avenge the “lost
cause,” he formed a conspiracy with Suratt, Powell, and
others. On the 14th of April, 1865, he entered Ford’s
Theatre, Washington, and shot President Lincoln, who was
sitting in a private box. Exclaiming, “Sie semper tyrannis P’
he leaped down to the stage and broke his leg, but he
mounted a horse that was standing ready and escaped to
Virginia. He concealed himself in a barn near Bowling
Green, where he was discovered by the detectives, and, re-
fusing to surrender, he was shot, April 26, 1865.
Booth (MARY L.) was born at Yaphank, N. Y., April
19, 1831, has published a “History of the City of New
York” (1859–67), and more than thirty volumes of French
558
BOOTHBAY-BORDEAUX WINES.
translations, prominent among which are the works of De
Gasparin, Cochin, and Laboulaye on the American civil
war, and Henri Martin’s “History of France.” From its be-
ginning, in 1867, she has been editor of “Harper's Bazar.”
Booth'bay, a post-township of Lincoln co., Me., on
the Atlantic Ocean. Many of the inhabitants are employed
in coasting and the fisheries. Pop. 3200. s
Boothia Fe'lix, a peninsula or island of North Amer-
ica, in the Arctic Ocean, extends from lat. 69° to 75° N.
It is bounded on the E. by Boothia Gulf. It was discov-
i. ºy Sir John Ross, and named in honor of Sir Felix
Ooth.
Booth’s Creek, a township of Taylor co., West Va.
Pop. 1134.
Boott (FRANCIs). See APPENDIx.
Boo/ty [from the root of the Ger. bewten, to “buy,” to
“capture”], in international law, personal property cap-
tured on land by a public enemy in time of war. It differs
from prize, which is captured at sea. (See PRIZE.) In
the case of prize the ownership of the property does not
pass to the captor until condemnation by a prize court.
Booty belongs to the captor after an undisturbed possession
of twenty-four hours, and the right of post liminium is at an
end. (See Post LIMINIUM.) In strictness of law, booty be-
longs to the sovereign, and not to the individual soldier who
captures it. It is quite common for the sovereign power to
bestow a portion or the whole of it upon its subjects. This
matter, however, is not governed by international rules, but
by the municipal law of the captor. -
Bopp (FRANZ), an eminent German philologist, was
born at Mentz Sept. 14, 1791. He studied languages in
Paris and Göttingen, and became in 1821 professor of
philology at Berlin. He published a “Glossarium San-
scritum ” and a “Critical Grammar of the Sanscrit Tongue.”
He was an efficient promoter of the study of Sanscrit, and
is regarded as the founder of the science of comparative
philology. His most important work is a “Comparative
Grammar of the Sanscrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian,
Old Sclavonian, Gothic, and German Languages” (1833),
which has been translated into English and published at
Oxford (3 vols., 1845–50). Died Oct. 23, 1867. (See Pre-
face to the English translation of Bopp’s “Comparative
Grammar,” 1845.)
Bo/ra, von, or Boh’ren (KATHARINA), a German nun
who became the wife of Martin Luther, was born in Saxony
Jan. 29, 1499. She was converted to the Lutheran doc-
trines, and escaped from her convent in 1523. She was
married to Luther in June, 1525. In his last will he com-
mended her as a good wife. She died Dec. 20, 1552. (See
WALCH, “Geschichte der Catharina von Bora,” 2 vols.,
1752–54; HoFFMANN, “ Catharina von Bora,” 1845.)
Boraç'ic (or Bo'ric) Ag'id (B203), a compound of two
equivalents of boron with three of oxygen. It is obtained
in white shining scales, which are soluble in water and in
alcohol, to the flame of which this acid imparts a beautiful
green color. Boracic acid occurs native in certain lagoons
of Tuscany, and in a crater in the island of Vulcano (Vol-
cano), north of Sicily. The native boracic acid is of great
commercial importance in the manufacture of borax. It
also occurs in the form of borax (biborate of soda) in many
waters, especially in certain springs and lakes in Thibet
and California.
Bor’age (Borago), a genus of herbs of the order Bor-
aginaceae, have five stamens and a wheel-shaped corolla, the
mouth of which is closed with five teeth. The common
borage (Borago officinalis) is a native of Europe, has blue
flowers, and rough, hairy leaves and stems. It is muci-
laginous and emollient. It was formerly much cultivated,
and supposed to possess valuable medicinal virtues and ex-
hilarating qualities. -
Boragina’ceae, a natural order of exogenous plants,
natives of temperate climates. It comprises nearly 600
species, mostly rough, hairy herbs, with alternate entire
leaves. The corolla is generally regular and imbricated in
the bud, with five stamens inserted on the tube of the cor-
olla. It has a single style and a deeply 4-lobed ovary, which
forms in fruit four seed-like nutlets or achenia. The whole
plant is mucilaginous and emollient. Among the examples
of this order are borage, alkanet, and comfrey (Symphytum),
to which some botanists add the fragrant heliotrope.
Bo'rax, or Bibo'rate of Soda (sodium-biborate or
sodic-biborate), a compound of boracic acid and soda
(2NaBO2.B203.10IH2O), is found native as a saline incrusta-
tion on the shores of lakes in Persia, Thibet, and India.
The impure borax collected on these shores is called tâncal
or crude borax, which is also found in Peru, Chili, Cali-
fornia, Nevada, and other regions. Borax is also prepared
from boracic acid by solution in boiling water, and the ad-
dition of a boiling solution of carbonate of soda (Na2CO3).
It is also prepared from borate of lime, a salt largely pro-
cured from Chili, Peru, etc. The common hexagonal crys-
talline borax contains ten equivalents of water, one of
Soda, and one of boracic acid. When it crystallizes in oc-
tahedrons it contains only five atoms of water. Borax is
a white salt of a sweetish taste, soluble in twice its weight
of boiling water. It is useful as a flux in promoting the
fusion of metallic mixtures, and producing fusible silicates
in assaying and in welding iron. As an agent in experi-
menting with the blowpipe it is valuable for the readiness
with which it forms colored glasses with various metallic
oxides. It is also used in medicine, and as a detergent in
the laundry. More than 4,000,000 pounds are annually pro-
duced from native boracic acid in Italy, hot springs affording
the heat necessary in the manufacture. (See BoRACIC ACID.)
Borax Lake, a small lake in California, N. of San
Francisco, the water of which is a strong solution of borax.
Crystals of borax are also found in large numbers in the
muddy sediment at the bottom. Many hundreds of tons
of these have been collected and sent to San Francisco.
Borda (JEAN CHARLEs), an eminent French mathema-
tician and astronomer, born at Dax May 4, 1733. He served
as an engineer in the army, and became a captain in the
navy. As a naval officer he fought for the U. S. in 1778–82.
He wrote several scientific works, contributed much to the
progress of nautical science, and invented or improved the
reflecting circle. Aided by Delambre and Méchain, he
measured an arc of the meridian from Dunkirk to the
Balearic Isles. Died Feb. 20, 1799.
Bord à Piouffe, a post-village of Laval co., Quebec
(Canada), on the Isle Jesus and on the river des Prairies,
10 miles N. of Montreal, has a very large trade in lumber
and horses. Pop. about 1200. -
Bordeaux, a city and seaport of France, capital of
the department of Gironde, is finely situated on a plain
on the left bank of the river Garonne, 58 miles from its
mouth and 364 miles by rail S. S. W. of Paris; lat. 44°
50' N., lon. 0° 34' W. It has a capacious harbor, and is.
accessible by vessels of 600 tons at all stages of the tide.
The river, which is here about 650 yards wide, is crossed
by a noble bridge of seventeen arches. Bordeaux is an
archbishop’s see. It is connected by several railways with
Paris, Toulouse, Marseilles, and other towns. It is prob-
ably the most commercial city of France except Marseilles.
The harbor is large enough to admit 1200 vessels of the
largest size. Its commerce extends to all parts of the world.
The newer portions of the city have wide streets and pleas-
ant promenades lined with trees. Among its remarkable
edifices are the Gothic cathedral, built or commenced about
1100; the church of Saint Croix, more than 850 years old;
the town-hall; the Hôtel de la Marine; the bridge, which
cost about $1,300,000; and the Great Theatre, which is one
of the finest in Europe, and was built by Louis XVI. Bor-
deaux contains a mint, a college, a university or Académie
Universitaire, a normal school, a school of navigation, and
a public library of 120,000 volumes. Here are extensive
manufactures of wine, brandy, chemicals, printed calicoes,
woollen goods, carpets, hats, paper, etc. The chief articles
of export are wine, brandy, vinegar, dried fruits, turpen-
time, and glass bottles. Wine of superior quality, called
Médoc, claret, or Bordeaux wine, is produced in this vicinity.
The principal merchants of Bordeaux are engaged in the
wine-trade. The Canal du Midi affords a communication
with the Mediterranean. Pop. 194,241.
Burdigala was founded before the Christian era, and was
the capital of the Bituriges Vivisci. It became the capital
of Aquitania Secunda in the reign of Hadrian. In 1152 it
was transferred to the crown of the English kings by the
marriage of Henry II. with Eleanor of Guienne. The
famous Black Prince held his court here. It has belonged
to France since 1451. Among the remains of the ancient
city is a palace of Gallienus. During the revolution of
1789 this city was the head-quarters of the Girondists, and
suffered terribly at the hands of the Terrorists. In conse-
quence of the damage to its commerce by the continental
system of Napoleon, Bordeaux was one of the first cities
to declare for the Bourbons. On Dec. 10, 1870, the seat of .
government was transferred to Bordeaux while Paris was
besieged by the German armies and several members of
the provisional government were shut up in the metropolis.
The provinces were then subject to the authority of Gam-
betta, and his colleagues, who, after they had been driven
from Tours by the approach of the enemy, removed to Bor-
deaux. The National Assembly, elected in Feb., 1871, met
first in this city, but removed to Versailles in March of
that year. -
Bordeaux, a township of Abbeville co., S. C. Pop.
2232.
Bordeaux Wines, a general name for several sorts of
BORDEN.—BORLAND.
559
French wine produced in the department of Gironde. The
red wines of Bordeaux are commonly called claret in the
U. S., to which they are largely exported. The average
quantity produced annually in , the Gironde is about
48,000,000 gallons. Among the best of these wines are
the Médoc, which is red, and the Graves, which is white.
No French wines except champagne are so largely exported.
Borden (GAIL), the inventor of that industrial product
known as “condensed milk,” was born in Norwich, N. Y.,
in 1801. In 1829 he removed to Texas, where he was first
a U. S. surveyor, then a journalist, and at last collector of
the port of Galveston. In 1853 he succeeded in producing
condensed milk, after arduous and persevering efforts; and
after securing a patent on his invention he began to intro-
duce it in the market. He died Jan. 11, 1874, at Borden-
ville, Tex., where he had a large factory for the production
of concentrated foods. He lived to see his inventions uti-
lized very extensively.
Borden (SIMEON), a civil engineer and mechanician,
born in Fall River, Mass., Jan. 29, 1798. He was appoint-
ed in 1834 director of the geodetic survey of Mass., for which
he invented valuable apparatus. He was an engineer in the
construction of several railroads. Died Oct. 28, 1856.
Bor’dentown, a city of Burlington co., N. J., on the
Delaware River and the Camden and Amboy R. R., 30
miles N. E. of Philadelphia and 6 miles S. E. of Trenton.
It is the terminus of the Delaware and Raritan Canal. Its
site is about 60 feet above the river. It has 9 churches,
2 colleges, 1 bank, I weekly paper, a park, water and gas
works, an opera-house, 2 public halls, 3 building associa-
tions, 3 Masonic bodies, 2 lodges of Odd Fellows, 3 bene-
ficial Societies, 2 councils of American Mechanics, and sev-
eral foundries and manufactories. Here is a mansion built
by Joseph Bonaparte, ex-king of Spain. Pop. of Burling-
ton township, 6041. ED. OF “ REGISTER.”
Bore, called also Ea'gre (perhaps from the sea-jotun
CEGIR, which see). In estuaries into which large rivers
flow, the struggle between the ascending tidal wave and
the opposing current of the stream produces the imposing
phenomenon of a huge wave, which, like a moving wall
of water, advances with great rapidity and a deep roaring
noise up the river, often for hundreds of miles, to the limit
of tide-water. This is called the bore. In the Hoogly
River, one of the main mouths of the Ganges, the bore
rushes up the river with great impetuosity. In the Chi-
nese river Teintang it rises to thirty feet in height, and
travels at the rate of twenty-five miles an hour, sweeping
everything before it. In the Amazon River, at the time
of the equinoxes, bores of fifteen feet in height follow each
other in quick succession, and within the space of 200 miles
five such mighty waves may be seen travelling simulta-
neously up the river. The Indians, imitating the roaring
sound of the bore, call it pororoca. ARNOLD GUYOT.
Bore, the internal cavity of any kind of firearm, which
is more commonly cylindrical, but often furrowed spirally.
(See GUN-MAKING, by CAPT. R. P. PARROTT.) -
Borel'li [Lat. Borellus], (GIov ANNI ALFonso), an Ital-
ian physician and astronomer, born at Naples Jan. 28, 1608.
He is called the founder of the iatro-mathematical school,
which proposed to apply mathematics to medicine. He re-
sided for many years in Rome, and was patronized by Queen
Christina of Sweden. His most remarkable work is “De
Motu Animalium ” (1680). Died in Rome Dec. 31, 1679.
Boreman (ARTHUR INGRAHAM), born at Waynesburg,
Pa., July 24, 1823, settled in West Virginia, where he
practised law. He became the first governor of the new
State in 1863, and in 1869 was elected to the U. S. Senate.
Bo'rer, a name applied to the larvae of many insects
which feed upon trees and vegetables, in which they eat
holes. Their ravages are very great. The peach tree borer is
the larva of Ægeria exitiosa, a lepidopterous insect; and
species kindred to the last named attack the pear tree, the
currant bush, and many other useful plants. The locust
tree borer is the larva of a coleopterous insect, the Clytus
pictus, which, with other larvae, has seriously diminished
the supply of this valuable timber tree. The apple tree is
especially attacked by the grub of the Saperda bºvittata.
Borers are most easily destroyed by a wire or gouge while
they are in their holes; and though many plans have been
devised for preventing their ravages, none as yet are very
successful.
Borgetto, a town on the island of Sicily, in the prov-
ince of Palermo, 13 miles W. S. W. of Palermo, is finely
situated on a cliff. Pop. 5977.
Borghese (CAMIL1,0), PRINCE, was born at Rome July
19, 1775. He served in the French army in his youth, and
married in 1803 Pauline, a sister of Napoleon. He was
in 1806 created duke of Guastalla. He sold the Borghese
collection of antiquities and artistic treasures to Napoleon
for 13,000,000 francs. These had been collected by his
father, Marc Antonio. Died April 10, 1832.
Borghe'si (BARTOLOMMEO), Count, an Italian anti-
quary and numismatist, born at Savignano June 11, 1781.
He formed a rich collection of medals and coins, and dis-
tinguished himself by his successful efforts to illustrate the
military, political, and municipal institutions of ancient
Rome. His chief work is “ Nuovi Frammenti dei Fasti Con-
solari Capitolini” (2 vols., 1818–20). Died April 10, 1860.
Bor’gia (CESARE), duc de Valentinois, an infamous
Italian cardinal and soldier, was a natural son of Pope
Alexander VI. He was raised to the rank of cardinal in
1492, and received from Louis XII. of France the title of
duc de Valentinois in 1498. He married a daughter of the
king of Navarre in 1499. With the connivance of the
pope, his father, he waged with success an aggressive war
against several princes of the Romagna who were feud-
atories of the Roman see. He was guilty of many acts of
cruelty and treachery, and procured the death of several
persons by poison. He made himself master of the duchy
of Urbino, but his prosperity was ruined by the death of
Pope Alexander VI. in 1503, and the accession of Julius
II., who was an enemy of Cesare Borgia. The latter was
arrested and imprisoned in 1504, but he escaped in 1506
and joined the army of the king of Navarre. He was
killed in battle Mar. 12 1507. (See ToMASI, “Vita del
Duca di Valentino,” 1655; “Leben des C. Borgia,” Berlin,
1782.)
Borgia (LUCREZIA), an Italian woman renowned for
beauty, talents, and vices, was a sister of Cesare Borgia,
noticed above. She was married in 1493 to Giovanni
Sforza, lord of Pesaro, and in 1501 to Alfonso of Este, a
son of the duke of Ferrara. She patronized Bembo and
other literati, who complimented her in their works. She
was accused by contemporaries of incest and poisoning, but
several modern writers maintain that the charges against
her character are greatly exaggerated. Died in 1520. (See
GILBERT, “Lucretia. Borgia, Duchess of Ferrara,” 2 vols.,
London, 1869; GREGoRovrus, “Life of L. Borgia.”)
Borgne, a lake or bay in the S. E. part of Louisiana,
is 12 miles E. of New Orleans. It is 60 miles long, and 25
miles wide at the broadest part. It communicates with
the Gulf of Mexico on the E., and is connected with Lake
Pontchartrain by the Rigolets Pass, which is 10 miles long.
The lake is surrounded to a great extent by marshes and
cane-brakes, separated from it by a narrow ridge of shells.
Steamers plying between New Orleans and Mobile traverse
this lake. -
Bor'go, an Italian word signifying “town” or “castle,”
occurs as a part of the names of many places in Italy and
the Tyrol.
Bor'goo, a kingdom in Central Africa, W. of the Niger,
S. of Gourma, E. of the Fellatah country, and N. of the
kingdoms Egga and Yarriba. The banks of the Niger
are fertile and thickly populated, producing rice, indigo,
grain, cotton, yams, lemons, bananas, honey, and game in
abundance. The sorghum-fields yield five hundred-fold.
The forests are full of elephants of immense size. The
population consists of the original inhabitants and Fella-
tahs and a Mohammedan conquering tribe speaking a lan-
guage cognate with the Yarriba tongues. The government
is an hereditary monarchy.
Bo'rie (ADoIPH E.), born in Philadelphia in 1809, was
educated at the University of Pennsylvania and in Paris.
He became a successful merchant of Philadelphia, and in
1862 was one of the founders of the Union League, and
was a prominent supporter of the national government
throughout the late civil war. He was in 1869 for some
time secretary of the navy under President Grant.
Boring, for water, see ARTESIAN WELLs, by PROF. E.
H. HILGARD, PH. D.; CANNON-BORING, see GUN-MAKING, by
CAPT. R. P. PARROTT ; CYLINDER-BORING, see MACHINERY.
Borissov', a town of Russia, on the Berezina, in the
government of Minsk, 46 miles N. E. of Minsk. Near this
place the army of Napoleon suffered a great disaster in its
passage of the Berezina in Nov., 1812. Pop. 5233.
Borissoglebsk', a town of Russia, in the government
of Tambov, 100 miles E. S. E. of Tambov. Pop. 12,254.
Bor’kum, an island in the North Sea, is at the mouth
of the Ems, and 26 miles N. W. of Emden. It belongs to
Prussia, is about 6 miles long and 2 miles wide. A light-
house has been erected on it in lat. 53° 36' N., lon. 7°.
127 E. '
Hor’land (Solon), a general in the Confederate army,
and former U.S. Senator from Arkansas, born in Virginia,
studied medicine and settled in Arkansas. In the Mexican
war he served as major of volunteers, and was taken pris-
oner. He was elected to the U. S. Senate 1849, appointed
J. S. minister to Central America. 1853; and it was during
560
BORMIO-BORO BUDDOR.
his term that the inhabitants of Greytown committed the
act which he resented, and for which the town was destroyed
by Com. Hollins, U. S. N., acting under instructions of his
government. In April, 1861, and previous to the secession
of Arkansas, he organized a force and captured Fort Smith,
was appointed brigadier-general in the Confederate army,
and died in Texas Jan. 31, 1864.
Bor/mio [Ger. Worms], a town of Italy, in the prov-
ince of Sondrio, is near the Adda, and 32 miles N. E. of
Sondrio. In its vicinity are the celebrated saline baths
called Bagni di Bormio, having a temperature of 99°F.
Pop. 1630.
Bor/na, a town of Saxony, 15 miles S. S. E. of Leipsic.
It has manufactures of woollen cloths and earthenware.
Pop. in 1871, 5751.
Bör/ne (LUDwig), a German satirical writer, born of
Jewish parents at Frankfort-on-the-Main May 18, 1786,
studied at Berlin and Heidelberg, adopted the Protestant
faith in 1818, and edited the liberal “Waage” and “Zeit-
schwingen.” After 1830 he lived in Paris, was correspond-
ent of the “Allgemeine Zeitung,” and edited “Le Balance.”
|His “ Briefe aus Paris” and other writings on political
and aesthetical subjects are eloquent and witty, and display
a singularly delicate critical sense, but are marked with
bitterness of political feeling. (“Sämmtliche Werke,” 12
vols., 1862–63.) Died Feb. 13, 1837. (See biographies of
BEURMANN, 1841, and GUTzow, 1840, and “Heine tiber
Boerne.”) º
Bor/nemann (FRIEDRICH WILHELM FERDINAND), a
Prussian jurist and statesman, born at Berlin Mar. 28, 1798,
became minister of justice in 1848. He died Jan. 28, 1864,
leaving several valuable legal works.
Bor/neo, called by the natives Poolo-Kalaman-
tin, an island in the Malay Archipelago, extends from lat.
7° 1' N. to 4° 10' S., and from lon. 108° 50' to 119° 2' E.
Its length is 807 miles, and it is about 700 miles wide. The
area is about 289,000 square miles. The interior is trav-
ersed by chains of mountains, but has not been much ex-
plored by Europeans. Near the N. extremity of the island
is a peak called Kinibaloo, which rises 13,680 feet above
the sea. The maritime parts of the island are mostly
marshes or low plains covered with dense forests. It is
probable that a large portion of the interior consists of
fertile valleys and plains. The outline is nowhere deeply
indented by inlets. It is thought by many that the form
of Borneo was formerly similar to that of Celebes, but that
the bays have been filled up in the course of time, and now
form those marshy districts on the coast so unhealthy to
the inhabitants. Borneo is wateréd by numerous naviga-
ble rivers—viz., the Brunai, the Sarāwak, the Pontianak,
the FCootai, the Pembuan, the Murong, and others. These
mostly enter the sea through extensive deltas, and their
mouths are so obstructed that large vessels cannot enter
them; but they afford facilities for inland navigation.
The climate in the low grounds is hot. The rainy season
begins about October, and continues till April, during which
period heavy rains fall. In the higher lands of the interior
...the climate is moderate and healthy. The mountains are
chiefly formed of granite, syenite, limestone, and quartz.
Among the mineral resources are gold, tin, antimony, zinc,
diamonds, iron of fine quality, and coal, which latter is
very abundant, and is excellent and easily mined. The
principal commercial supply of antimony is at present fróm
Borneo. Diamonds are widely disseminated in the soil, at
a depth of several feet. One diamond found in Borneo
weighed 367 carats. The vegetation of Borneo is exceed-
ingly luxuriant. Among the forest trees are the teak, the
ironwood, the gutta-percha tree, the ebony, the cocoa-palm,
and various sago trees. The island produces also cinna-
mon, camphor, betel, pepper, ginger, cotton, rice, and
yams. The forests and jungles are infested with tigers,
bears, leopards, buffaloes, and orang-outangs. The
elephant also is found here. The population is composed
chiefly of four races—Malays, Dyaks, Boogis, and Chinese.
The Malays, who mostly occupy the maritime parts of the
island, are partly Mohammedans and partly pagans. The
Dyaks, who live farther inland, are the aboriginal inhab-
itants, and are the most numerous of all the races in the
island. They are divided into many tribes, and subsist
mostly by hunting, fishing, and piracy. “They are not
all,” says. Craufurd, “in an equally abject condition; for
while some are mere naked hunters, the majority have
fixed abodes, and have made some progress in the useful
arts. . . . With respect to religion, they have neither
priests nor temples, nor do they pray or fast.” The popu-
lation of the Dutch colonies in 1870 amounted to 1,189,353.
Borneo is divided into many separate states, governed by
native sultans. Among them are Borneo proper, Ponti-
anak, Sambas, Sarāwak, Matan, Simpang; Sooloo, and Ban-
jermassin. Borneo proper is a level tract which extends
celing,” 2 vols., 1854–56;
along the N. W. coast, and is bounded on the S. E. by a
chain of mountains. A large portion of the island is sub-
ject to the power of the Dutch, whose chief towns and
centres of authority are Pontianak on the W. coast, and
Banjermassin on the S. coast. Among the other towns are
Borneo, Sambas, Sarāwak, and Succadana.
History.—Borneo was discovered in 1518 by the Portu-
guese, who formed a settlement at Banjermassin in 1690.
The Dutch, who first visited the island in 1598, made a
treaty of commerce with the sultan of Sambas in 1609.
They erected a fort and a factory at Tatis in 1643, and an-
other at Pontianak in 1778. In 1841, Sir James Brooke,
an enterprising Englishman, was appointed rajah of Sarā-
wak by the Sultan of Borneo. He took strenuous mea-
sures for the suppression of piracy and the promotion of
commerce. The prosperity of Sarāwak increased under
his rule, and the British influence has become predominant
on the western coast of Borneo. The exports of Sarāwak
to Singapore amounted in 1858 to £300,000, and in 1864
(according to C. Brooke), £1,155,201. (See SCHWANER,
“Borneo,” 2 vols., 1853–54; VETH, “Borneo’s Westerafd-
C. BROOKE, “Ten Years in
Sarāwak,” 2 vols., 1866.) !
- REVISED BY A. J. ScHEM.
Borneo, or Brunai, a seaport-town on the N. W.
coast of Borneo, and on the river Brunai, about 10 miles
from its mouth. It is the capital of the sultan of Borneo
proper, and has considerable trade. The houses are built
on posts, and canals pass through all the streets. Pop,
about 25,000.
Born/holm, an island of Denmark, in the Baltic Sea,
90 miles E. of Zealand, and 25 miles from the southern ex-
tremity of Sweden. It is 24 miles long by 18 miles wide,
and has an area of 225 square miles. Pop. in 1870, 31,894.
The surface is mountainous, and the coasts rocky and dan=
gerous to navigators. A lighthouse has been erected on
Cape Hammeren, the most northern point of the island, in
lat. 55° 18' N., lon. 14° 47' E. The soil in some parts is
fertile. Valuable porcelain clay and rock-crystals are
found here.
Bornoo’, Bornu, or Bornou [native Kanowra], a
state of Central Africa, in the Soodan, is bounded on the N.
by the Sahara Desert, on the E. by Lake Tchad, on the S.
by Mandara (or Fumbina), and on the W. by Houssa.
The surface is mostly level; the soil is fertile, producing
maize, millet, rice, cotton, indigo, pulse, etc. Cattle, horses,
and sheep form a large part of the riches of the Bornooese.
The climate is excessively hot, the thermometer often rising
to 105° F. in the shade. The rainy season lasts from Oc-
tober to April. The principal rivers of Bornoo are the
Shary and Yeou, which flow into Lake Tchad. A large
portion of the country is inundated in the rainy season.
Lions, panthers, and other beasts infest the forests, which
occur only in the vicinity of the rivers. . Minerals are said
to be rare in Bornoo. The natives manufacture cotton
cloth and coats-of-mail, which they use in warfare. The
chief exports were until lately slaves and gold-dust. The
dominant race, called Shouas, are of Arab descent and are
bigoted Mohammedams. -
History.—Bornoo was formerly a part of the kingdom o
Kanem, which, founded in the ninth century, rose to its
highest point of power in the twelfth. At the end of the
fifteenth century, King Ali-Dunamání founded Bornoo.
It attained its greatest power under Edriss Alaoma (1571–
1603), who conquered all the surrounding tribes, and even
extended his territory to the shores of the Atlantic. Under
his peaceful and extravagant successors the power of Bor-
noo again declined, until in 1808 it could no longer resist
the continued attacks of the Fellatah, who took and de-
stroyed the old capital, Birni. The king then established
himself at Kuka. An Arab from Fezzan, however, soon
defeated the Fellatah at Ngornu. His son Omar removed
the old dynasty, and ascended the throme himself in 1835.
Although not as strong and determined against his neigh-
bors as his father, his rule has been extremely beneficial
for the country, as he has encouraged trade and industry.
He also assisted, as much as was in his power, the Euro-
pean travellers who visited his country, among them Den-
ham, Clapperton, Beurmann, and Rohlfs, the latter of
whom says in his account, “No European prince could
have assisted a traveller more than Omar, the negro prince
of Soudan, assisted me, the white Christian.” Chief town,
Kuka. Pop. about 5,000,000. A. J. SCHEM.
Bo'ro Bud' dor, or Boſro Bo’do, an ancient Booddh-
istic temple of Java, on the river Probo, 25 miles N. W. of
Yugyakarta, believed to be the most elaborate specimen of
Rooddhist architecture now existing, and to have been
built in 1350 A. D. It is a square pyramid, with nine ter-
races or stories (116 feet high, in all), and 400 feet square at
the base, each terrace covered with cells or small houses
BORODINO—BOSCAWEN.
561
for monastics, and the whole covered with profuse carv-
IngS.
Borodi'no, a village of Russia, in the government of
Moscow, and on the Kolocza River, 70 miles W. S. W. of
Moscow. It is celebrated as the scene of a great battle
between the army of Napoleon (125,000 strong) and the
Russian army, of about 130,000 men, commanded by Gen.
Kutusof, Sept. 7, 1812. The French remained masters of
the field and claimed the victory, but they lost nearly
30,000 men. The loss of the Russians was still greater;
some say 50,000 killed and wounded. The French took
Moscow a few days after this battle, which they call the
battle of the Moskwa ; this is the name of a river near the
battle-field. s
Bo'ron [Lat. borium], (symbol B; equivalent 11;
specific gravity about 2), a non-metallic element which Sir
Humphry Davy discovered about 1808 by exposing boracic
acid to the action of a galvanic battery. Combined with
oxygen, it forms boracic acid, and it occurs in nature only
in combination with oxygen, generally in the form of that
acid or of BoFAx (which see). Boron is obtained in the
form of an olive-brown powder, which is infusible, and has
neither taste nor smell. It is not used in the arts in a
separate state. It may also be obtained in a graphitoidal
form, in six-sided crystals. Crystallized boron is one of
the most unalterable and indestructible of all simple sub-
stances. Wöhler and Deville have obtained boron by
heating in a crucible a mixture of pure dry boracic acid
with the metal aluminium, when the latter unites with the
oxygen, leaving the boron as minute quadratic octahedral
crystals, called boron diamonds. These rival the real
diamond in lustre and refractive power, and are scarcely
inferior to it in hardness. They scratch glass and the cor-
undum, and resemble diamonds so much that they can
scarcely be distinguished by external characters. No acids,
pure or mixed, have any effect upon the boron diamond, nor
can it be oxidized even when raised to a high temperature.
Borough, bir’rüh, called in Scotland Burgh (pron.
büR’H, almost bir' rúh), in Great Britain and some of the
U. S. is a name applied to certain corporate municipali-
ties. Places in England sending burgesses to Parliament
are called parliamentary boroughs.
Borough, a township of Beaver co., Pa. Pop. 379.
Borough English is a custom that prevails in some
ancient boroughs in England, according to which the
youngest son inherits the property within the borough in
preference to his elder brothers. A posthumous son is en-
titled to this privilege, and dispossesses his elder brother.
Borovit’chi, a town of Russia, in the government of
Novgorod, on the river Msta, 92 miles E. S. E. of Novgorod.
It has an active trade in salt, coal, etc. Pop. 9108.
Borovsk', a town of Russia, in the government of
Kalooga, 45 miles S. W. of Moscow. Pop. 8826.
Borrade, a township of Richardson co., Neb. P. 886.
Borrome'an I'slands, a group of four small islands
of Northern Italy, in Lago Maggiore. They derive their
name from the family of Borromeo. In 1671, Count Bor-
romeo covered them with soil, and converted them from
barren rocks into gardens. Their beauty is such that they
are sometimes called the “Enchanted Islands.” The
largest of them is named Isola Madre, and is covered with
orange trees and exotic plants. The most celebrated of
the group is the Isola Bella, occupied by a beautiful palace
of the Borromeo family, and a garden which rises in ten
terraces, presenting the form , of a truncated pyramid.
Many tropical flowers are cultivated here.
Borrome'o [Lat. Borromaeus], (CARLo), often called
Saint Charles Borromeo, an illustrious Italian car-
dinal, born at Arona, on Lago Maggiore, Oct. 2, 1538, was
a nephew of Pope Pius IV. He inherited an ample fortune,
and was appointed a cardinal and archbishop of Milan in
1560. As legate of the pope he governed Bologna and
Ancona, with wisdom and moderation. Surrounded as he
was with luxury and temptations, he was virtuous, studious,
and a patron of literary men. He endeavored to reform
the morals of the clergy and monks, and distinguished
himself by acts of charity during the prevalence of famine
and pestilence (1576). He wrote several religious works
(5 vols. fol., Milan, 1747). Died Nov. 3, 1584. He was
canonized in 1610. (See PossEvīNo, “Vita di Carlo Bor-
romeo,” 1591; GoDEAU, “Wie de Saint Charles Borromée,”
1748; TouroN, “Vie de Saint Charles Borromée,” 3 vols.,
1761; ALBAN BUTLER, “Vita di S. C. Borromeo,” 1835;
ALEXANDRE MARTIN, “IHistoire de la Vie de S. C. Borro-
mée,” 1847.)
. Borrow (GEORGE), an English author, born at Norwich
in Feb., 1803. He became master of several modern lan-
guages, for learning which he had remarkable talents. In
his youth he associated with the gypsies. As an agent of
the British and Foreign Bible Society he travelled through
many countries of Europe. He published in 1841. “The
Zincali, or an Account of the Gypsies in Spain,” and in
1843 “The Bible in Spain, or Journeys, Adventures, and
Imprisonment of an Englishman in an attempt to Circulate
the Scriptures in the Peninsula,” which is a graphic and
interesting work. His next work, “Lavengro, the Scholar,
the Gypsy, and the Priest” (3 vols., 1851), is regarded as
an autobiography. He has also written “Rommany Rye.”
(1857), “Wild Wales” (1862), and many other works.
Bor/rower, one to whom a chattel is loaned without
compensation, which is to be returned in a specified time or
on demand. (See BAILMENT.) The word is often used in a
popular sense to denote a hirer of money, who pays a com-
pensation for its use. The difference between these two
transactions should be carefully moted. In the first signi-
fication the borrower agrees to return the specific thing
loaned. He is only liable for negligence or the absence of
due care. In the second case (loan of money) there is
only an agreement to return an equivalent sum. The re-
lation of debtor and creditor is created, and a failure to
pay causes the debt to bear interest. -
Bor'rowstounness’, or Boness’, a seaport-town of
Scotland, in Linlithgowshire, on a low peninsula in the
Erith of Forth, 17 miles W. N. W. of Edinburgh. It has
a safe harbor, and manufactures of soap, salt, malt, vitriol,
and earthenware. Here are coal-mines which extend under
the bed of the Forth. Limestone and ironstone are found
in the parish, which is traversed by the Roman wall of
Antoninus. * -
Borsa, a town of Hungary, in the county of Marmaros,
50 miles S. E. of Szigeth. Pop. in 1869, 5053.
Borsip'pa [Gr. Bópaviriraj, an ancient city, which ac-
cording to Strabo was in Babylonia, but there has been
much doubt as to its exact situation. Stephanus calls it a
city of the Chaldaeans. It was probably situated near
Babylon. Strabo states that it was sacred to Apollo and
Diana. Some modern writers believe that Borsippa is rep-
resented by the remarkable mound called Birs–Nimrood,
about 5 miles S. W. of Hillah, the site of Babylon proper.
(See BABYLON and BABEL.)
Bor’sod, a county of Hungary, is bounded on the N.
by the counties of Torna and Gömör, on the E. by Aba-
Ujvar and Szabolcs, and on the S. and W. by Heves. Area,
1370 square miles. The county consists chiefly of vine-
yards and wooded hills, except in the S. E., which is a
plain traversed by several small rivers, while the Theiss
forms the eastern boundary. The chief products are fruit,
hemp, tobacco, and wine, that of Miskolcz being the best
in Hungary. Copper, iron, and coal are found in the
mountains. Chief town, Miskolcz. Pop. in 1869, 195,037.
Bory de Saint-Vincent (JEAN BAPTISTE GEORGE
MARIE), BARON, an eminent French naturalist and traveller,
born at Agen in 1780. He explored the island of Mauritius
about 1800, and published a “Voyage among the African
Islands” (3 vols., 1804). He afterwards served as a cap-
tain in the army at Austerlitz and other battles, and be-
came an exile in 1815. With the aid of Van Mons he edited
at Brussels the “Annales des Sciences Physiques,” 8 vols.
He had the chief command of a scientific expedition which
the French government sent to Algeria in 1839. Died
Dec. 22, 1846. (See Hſ RICART DE THURY, “Notice sur le
Baron Bory de Saint-Vincent,” 1848.)
Bos (gen. bovis), the Latin for an “ox”, or “cow,” is
the systematic name for the genus of ruminant animals
which comprises the ox, buffalo, etc. (See BovidAE and Ox.)
Bos, Bosch, or Bosco (HIEROM), a Dutch painter
and engraver, born at Bois-le-Duc about 1470. Among his
favorite subjects were spectres, demons, and incantations.
He also painted some scriptural pieces. His picture of the
“Crucifixion ” is in the Escurial, in Spain. Died about 1530,
Bo'sa, a seaport-town of the island of Sardinia, is on
the W. coast, at the mouth of the Termo, in the province
of Cagliari, 30 miles S. of Sassari. Its harbor is safe, but
admits only small vessels. It is the seat of a bishop, and
has a cathedral, an old castle, and several churches. Wine,
oil, and grain are exported. Pop. 6329.
Bosca’wen, a post-township of Merrimack co., N. H.,
contains the village of Boscawen, which is on the Merrimack
and on the Northern R. R., 10 miles N. N. W. of Congord.
It has manufactures of furniture, lumber, leather, shoes,
and brick. Pop. 1637.
Boscawen (EDwARD), an English admiral, a son of
Wiscount Falmouth, was born Aug. 19, 1711. He served
with distinction under Anson at Cape Finisterre, May, 1747,
and commanded an expedition to the East Indies in 1748.
He became a vice-admiral of the blue in 1756, was sent
36
562
BOSCH-BOC–BOSSI.
to North America, and gained several victories over the
French in 1758. In Aug., 1759, he defeated the French
fleet in the Bay of Lagos. He received for this service an
annual: pension of £3000. Died Jan. 10, 1761. (See
CAMPBELL, “Lives of the British Admirals.”)
Bosch-Bok [Dutch for “bush-buck”], the Tragelaphus
sylvaticus, a South African antelope, which is almost always
found in thick underbrush which is not easily penetrated by
man. When surprised in the open country it is easily
caught, and is prized for its fine venison. It is about four
or five feet long, and has a voice like the barking of a dog.
Several other African antelopes have this name.
Bosch-vark [Dutch for “bush-pig’], a wild hog of
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uinea Hog.
Southern and Western Africa, in size and in habits much
resembling the common hog. It has long pointed ears, a
long tail, and is of a dull red color, with white marks. It
goes in herds, and the stroke of the boar’s tusks is much
dreaded. It is the Potamochoerus Africanus.
Bosſcobel, a post-village and township of Grant co.,
Wis. The village is on the Wisconsin River and on the
Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., 70 miles W. of Madison.
It has a national bank and one weekly newspaper. Pop.
1509; of township, 1650.
Bos’covich (RUGGIERo GIUSEPPE), F. R. S., an astrono-
mer and natural philosopher, born at Ragusa, in Dalmatia,
May 18, 1701. He entered the order of Jesuits in 1725,
and became professor of mathematics and philosophy in the
Roman College in 1740. He was one of the first on the
Continent who adopted the Newtonian philosophy. His
Latin poem “On the Eclipses of the Sun and Moon” (1764)
was much admired. He wrote various scientific works,
among which we notice “Philosophiae Naturalis Theoria.”
(1758) and “Opera Pertinentia ad Opticam et Astrono-
miam ” (5 vols., 1785). The latter is a collection of treatises
on optics and astronomy. He died at Milan Feb. 12, 1787.
(See FABRONI, “Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium ;”
RICCA, “Elogio storico dell’ Abate R. G. Boscovich,” 1789.)
Bo'shart, a township of Marshall co., Ala. Pop. 464.
Bo'sio (FRANÇors Joseph), BARON, an eminent sculp-
tor, born at Monaco Mar. 19, 1767. He worked in Paris,
and was patronized by Napoleon I., for whom he executed
busts of Josephine and her daughter Hortense; also the
bas-reliefs of the column of the Place Vendôme. Among
his masterpieces are the “Hyacinth '' in the Luxembourg,
“Cupid Darting Arrows,” and the “Nymph Salmacis.”
|His works are remarkable for grace and harmony. He was
a member of the French Institute. Died July 29, 1845.
Bosſma-Serai', or Sarajevo (anc. Tiberiopolis), a
town of European Turkey, capital of the province of Bosnia,
is beautifully situated on the Migliazza, 115 miles S.W. of
Belgrade. It is an important centre of commerce, and is
the dépôt of the caravan trade between Salonica and
Yánina. It is adorned with 150 mosques and churches,
the domes, minarets, and spires of which give it an Ori-
ental aspect. Here is a palace built by Mahomet II. The
town is defended by a citadel, and has manufactures of
. jewelry, woollen goods, and leather. Pop. about
45,000. -
Bosſnia, a province forming the N. W. extremity of
Turkey in Europe, is bounded on the N. by the river Save,
on the E. by the Drin, on the S. by Albania, and on the W.
by Austria. Area, 26,874 square miles. The surface is for
the most part mountainous, and the Dinaric Alps extend
along the western border. Some peaks of this range rise
about 7000 feet above the level of the sea. The largest
rivers, besides the Save, are the Bosna, the Verbas, the
Narenta, and the Drin (or Drina). The mountain-slopes
are covered with forests of oak, beech, chestnut, and other
trees. The soil of the plains and valleys is fertile, and pro-
duces good crops of maize, wheat, hemp, and various fruits.
Bosnia is rich in coal, iron, lead, and other metals, but
the mines are not worked to a great extent. This prov-
ince has few manufactures except firearms, sabres, and
knives. The population is a mixture of Bosnians, Croats,
Morlaks, Turks, Illyrians, Jews, gypsies, etc., the
majority being of the Slavic race. The Bosnians,
who are the most numerous, are partly Moham-
medans and partly members of the Greek and Ro-
man Catholic churches. They are brave, honest,
and industrious, but cruel and rapacious. The
Morlaks live mostly in the Herzegovina, and are
Christians. In ancient times this province was
part of Pannonia. It was annexed to the Ottoman
empire by conquest in 1522. Capital, Bosna-Serai.
Pop. in 1867, 1,100,000.
Nº W Bos’phorus, or Bos’ porus [Gr. Bóa tropos,
§.
--- N rº
i. e. the “ox-passage,” because cattle could swim
it], the ancient name of the strait which connects
the Black Sea (Pontus Euxinus) with the Sea of
Mármora (Propontis), and forms part of the bound-
ary between Europe and Asia. It is about 16 miles
long, and varies in width from a half mile to two
miles. The Bosphorus is deep, and flows between
high shores and cliffs, which present much pic-
turesque scenery, the beauty of which is enhanced
by many ancient ruins. Constantinople stands at
the S. W. end of the Bosphorus, which is sometimes
called the Strait of Constantinople. It was also
called the Thracian Bosphorus, to distinguish it
from the Cimmerian Bosphorus, the modern name
of which is the Strait of Yenikale.
Bos’phorus, Cimme’rian [Gr. Béatropos Ku-
peptos], the ancient name of the Strait of Yenikale (or
Strait of Kaffa), which connects the Black Sea with the
Sea of Azof (Palus Maeotis). The width of the narrowest
part is about 3% miles. On the W. side of it was a Mile-
sian colony and the city of Panticapaeum, which was the
capital of a kingdom founded by the Archaeanactidae in 480 .
B. C. This kingdom endured several centuries under vari-
ous dynasties, whose dominions were on both sides of the
strait.
Bosque, a county in N. Central Texas. Area, 905
square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Brazos
River, and intersected by the Bosque River. The surface
is undulating, and partly covered with forests; the soil is
based on limestone, and is fertile. Cotton and corn are the
chief crops. Wool is also raised. Capital, Meridian. Pop,
4981. *
Bosque River, Texas, rises in Erath co., flows south-
eastward through Bosque co., and enters the Brazos at or
near Waco. Its length is estimated at 100 miles.
Bosquet (PIERRE FRANÇoſs Joseph), a French general,
born at Pau Nov. 8, 1810. He served in many campaigns
in Algeria, became a general of brigade in 1848, and a
general of division in 1853. In the Crimean war he com-
manded a division at Alma, and rendered important Ser-
vices at Inkermann 1854, for which he received the thanks
of the British Parliament. He was disabled by a wound
at the siege of Sebastopol, Sept., 1855, and became a sen-
ator and marshal of France in 1856. Died Feb. 5, 1861.
Boss [Fr. bosse], a stud or knob; a protuberant orna-
ment of silver, ivory, or other material used on harness,
shields, etc.; a projecting ornament at the intersection of
the ribs of ceilings or vaulted roofs.
Boss, in mediaeval architecture, was a term applied to a
piece of stone, usually carved in a fanciful manner, which
covers the intersection of a series of arches. It is com-
monly finished with a flower or a human masque, and is
one of the most characteristic specimens of mediaeval deco-
ration.
Bossage, a French word used in architecture, denotes
a stone in a building which is left projecting and rough,
to be finally wrought into a sculptural decoration; also rustic
work, consisting of stones which advance beyond the nave
or level of the building.
Bossi (LUIGI), an Italian antiquary and historian, born
at Milan Feb. 28, 1785. He was appointed prefect of the
archives of the kingdom of Italy by Napoleon. Among
his numerous works are a “History of Italy” (19 vols.,
1819–23) and an “Introduction to the Study of the Arts of







BOSSIER—ROSTON.
563
Design.” Died April 10, 1835. (See G. B. CARTA, “Cenni
biografici intorno al Cavaliere L. Bossi,” 1835.)
Bossier, a parish of Louisiana, bordering on Arkan-
sas. Area, 1000 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by
Bayou Dauchite, and on the W. by the Red River. Lake
Bistineau forms the S. E. boundary of this parish, which
also contains Lake Bodeau. Cotton, corn, and wool are
raised. Capital, Bellevue. Pop. 12,675.
Bossuet (JACQUES BáNIGNE), D.D., a celebrated French
pulpit orator and theologian, born at Dijon Sept. 27, 1627.
He entered in 1642 the College of Navarre in Paris, where
he studied Greek, Latin, philosophy, and theology. In
1652 he was ordained a priest, received the degree of doctor,
and became canon of Metz. Having become renowned as
a pulpit orator, he was appointed to preach the Advent
sermons before the king and court in 1661. In the ensuing
years he preached in many churches of Paris, and con-
verted Marshal Turenne to the Catholic communion. He
was appointed bishop of Condom in 1669, and preceptor
to the dauphin in 1670. He defended his Church against
the Protestants in an eloquent work entitled “Exposition
of the Doctrine of the Catholic Church on Subjects of Con-
troversy” (1671). In 1671 he was admitted into the French
Academy. For the instruction of the dauphin he wrote a
“Discourse on Universal History '' (1681). He became
bishop of Meaux in 1681, and was the author of four arti-
cles which were adopted by an assembly of French clergy
in 1682, and which secured the liberties of the Gallican
Church against papal aggression. His capital polemical
work against the Protestants is his “History of the Varia-
tions of the Protestant Churches” (“Histoire des Variations
des Eglises Protestantes,” 2 vols., 1688). He was involved
in a controversy with Fénelon, whom he censured for his
defence of Madame Guyon and her quietism. He was the
chief French champion of the Catholic Church in that age.
He died April 12, 1704. Among his most admired com-
positions are funeral orations on the prince of Condé (1687),
on the duchess of Orleans (1670), and other eminent per-
sons. A good edition of his complete works was published
at Paris in 59 vols., 1825. (See D’ALEMBERT, “Eloge de
Bossuet; ” M. DE BAUSSET, “Histoire de Bossuet,” 4 vols.,
1814.)
Bossut (CHARLEs), a French geometer, born near Lyons
Aug. II, 1730, was a friend of Fontenelle. He was admitted
into the Academy of Sciences in 1768. Among his works
are a “Treatise on Mechanics and Dynamics" (1763), a
“Complete Course of Mathematics” (7 vols., 1795–1801),
and an “Essay on the General History of Mathematics”
(2 vols., 1802). He published an edition of Pascal's works.
Died Jan. 14, 1814. (See DELAMBRE, “Eloge de Bossut.”)
Bostan’, Al (i. e. the “garden"), a town of Asiatic
Turkey, pashalic of Marash, is in a plain and on the river
Sihun, near the northern base of Mount Tarsus, 32 miles
N. N. E. of Marash. It has several mosques, and a trade
in wheat. Pop. about 8000. Here the Egyptian Sultan
Bibars defeated the united Turks and Mongolians in a
great battle on April 16, 1277.
Bos/tick’s, a township of Pickens co., Ala. Pop. 479.
Bos/ton, an ancient borough and seaport of England,
in Lincolnshire, is on both sides of the river Witham. It
is on the Great Northern Railway, 107 miles by rail N. of
London. Vessels of 300 tons can ascend the river to this
place, which is supposed to be identical with Icanhoe,
where Saint Botolph founded an abbey in 654 A. D. About
I200, Boston was one of the chief seaports of England.
Here is the parish church of St. Botolph, built in 1309,
which is 245 feet long, and has a tower 290 feet high, sur-
mounted by a lantern which is visible nearly forty miles at
sea. Boston has manufactures of canvas, iron, brass,
ropes, hats, leather, etc. Pop. 15,576.
Boston, an important commercial city, the capital of
Massachusetts, and the most populous city of New England,
is finely situated on the W. side of Massachusetts Bay, at
the mouth of Charles River; lat. 42° 21' 27.6° N., lon. 71°
3' 30" W. It is 232 miles by railroad N. E. of New York,
200 miles E. by S. of Albany, and 44 miles N. N. E. of
Providence. It is the seat of justice of Suffolk county.
The site of Boston proper, formerly a small peninsula, the
surface of which was uneven, and the highest point about
138 feet above the level of the Sea, now in 1874 contains
about 19,150 acres, a large portion of the territory having
been obtained recently by annexation. The former isthmus,
known as The Neck, has recently been greatly changed,
large areas having been filled up on both sides, and cov-
ered with buildings. The city includes, besides Boston
proper, South Boston and East Boston (which latter occu-
pies an island nearly 2 miles long, and is about 600 yards
from Boston proper), Roxbury (annexed to Boston in 1868),
bury, and Brighton (annexed in 1874); and is about thir-
teen miles in length, and eight or more in width. It has
about 360 miles of streets, a large part of which are paved
or macadamized. Several bridges across Charles River con-
nect the city with large suburbs named Chelsea, Everett,
East Cambridge, and Cambridgeport. The Warren and the
Charles River bridges, leading northward to Charlestown,
are respectively 1390 and 1503 feet long; the bridges to
Cambridgeport, East Cambridge, Chelsea, and Everett are
much longer. The different railroads which converge to
this city have other bridges constructed expressly for their
accommodation. Washington and Tremont streets are much
frequented thoroughfares. The city has one fine park, called
Boston Common, which comprises nearly fifty acres, and ad-
joining it there is a large Public Garden, in which is a fine
equestrian statue of Washington, executed by Ball; also a
statue of Everett, by Story, and other works of the fine arts.
Boston has a spacious and excellent harbor, sheltered
from the sea by two peninsulas and numerous small islands,
and defended by Forts Warren, Winthrop, and Independ-
ence. The area of the harbor included between Point
Shirley and Point Allerton, which are 4 miles apart, is es-
timated at 75 square miles, about half of which affords
good anchorage-ground for the largest ships. The wharves
and docks are constructed on a scale of uncommon magni-
tude. Long Wharf extends into the harbor about 1800 feet,
and is lined with spacious warehouses.
Public Buildings, etc.—The State-house occupies a com-
manding site on Beacon Hill, fronting Boston Common.
The view obtained from its cupola is said to be unsurpassed
by anything in the U.S., comprising all parts of the city and
the harbor, with a multitude of beautiful islands. Faneuil
Hall, called the “Cradle of Liberty,” derives interest from
its historical associations, and has long been used as a place
for public meetings. It was presented to the citizens of
Boston by Peter Faneuil in 1742, and is 110 feet long and
80 wide. The custom-house is a granite edifice surmounted
by a dome, with a foundation formed by 3000 piles. It
cost $1,000,000 or more. . A new city-hall, built of granite,
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was completed about 1866. Among the other public edi-
fices are the Merchants' Exchange, which is 250 feet long,
and has a front of Quincy granite, with four pilasters, each
a single stone forty-five feet high ; the Masonic Temple,
Massachusetts Horticultural Hall, Quincy Market, City
Hospital, Massachusetts General Hospital, the Public Li-
brary, Odd Fellows' Hall, court-house, United States court-
house, post-office, Old State-house, jail, and those of the
reformatory institutions, the State prison at Charlestown,
and the Music Hall, one of the finest concert halls in the
U. S. This hall is furnished with an organ which has
nearly 6000 pipes, and cost $60,000. Among the best
hotels of Boston are the Tremont House, the Revere
House on Bowdoin Square, the Parker House, the Amer-
ican House, St. James, the Commonwealth, the Waverley
House, and Young’s Hotel. The Bunker Hill Monument
is now within the city limits. The principal railroads
that terminate here are the Boston and Albany, the Bostom
Dorchester (annexed in 1870), and Charlestown, West Rox-
and Maine, the Eastern R. R., the Old Colony and Newport





























564 / BOSTON.
R. R., the Boston and Providence R. R., the Fitchburg R. R.,
the Boston Lowell and Nashua R. R., and the Boston Hart-
ford and Erie. The navy-yard is situated in Charlestown
district; it was established in 1798, and is one of the most
extensive in the U. S. Among the scenes of historic in-
terest in Boston may be mentioned Breed’s and Bunker's
Hills; Faneuil Hall; Dorchester Heights, an important
point in the siege of Boston by the provincial troops dur-
ing the early part of the Revolution; Fort Independence,
on Castle Island, long known as “Castle William,” and
once the principal seaward defence of the town, though at
present Fort Warren, on George's Island, and other defen-
sive works are of much more importance.
The manufactures of Boston are varied and important,
including furniture, machinery of all kinds, shipbuilding,
oil and sugar refining, leather-dressing, the making of
clothing, jewelry, chemicals, boots and shoes, iron and
brass castings, etc. It is an important centre of the boot
and shoe and leather trade, of the wool business, and of
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the sale of domestic and foreign dry goods. It does a
heavy business in exporting grain, flour, ice, and pro-
visions. Its ancient India and China trade, destroyed by
the civil war, has been partly restored.
Churches, Institutions, etc.—This city contains 171 or
more churches, of which 29 are Unitarian and 30 Orthodox
Congregational, 26 Methodist, 27 Baptist, 20 Episcopal,
4 Jewish, 6 Presbyterian, 22 Roman Catholic, and 6 Uni-
versalist. Boston is distinguished among American cities
for the number and excellence of its literary and sci-
entific institutions. The Boston Athenaeum, on Beacon
street, is richly endowed, and occupies a building that cost
$136,000, besides the cost of the ground, which was $55,000.
It has a library of about 100,000 volumes, with a gallery of
paintings and another of sculpture. The American Academy
of Arts and Sciences, founded here in 1780, has a good
library. The Boston Public Library, founded in 1852,
and opened in its present building in 1858, fronts on Bos-
ton Common, is free to every citizen, and is one of the
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The State Capitol.
largest in the Union. The original cost of it was $363,633.
It contains about 275,000 volumes, and has branches
in most of the city districts. The Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology, a school of industrial science, sit-
uated near the Public Garden, is a very flourishing in-
stitution, and one of the best of its class in the U. S. It
has seven courses of study, each of four years—to wit, me-
chanical engineering, civil and topographical engineering,
geology and mining engineering, building and architecture,
chemistry, science and literature, and natural history. There
is also a free course of instruction in practical design and
working draughts for both sexes. The institute is crowded
with pupils, and it is proposed to erect additional buildings.
Among the other important literary and scientific institu-
tions are the Massachusetts Historical Society, the Massa-
chusetts Horticultural Society, the Medical College, con-
nected with Harvard College, and the Lowell Institute,
founded by John Lowell, who bequeathed a legacy of
$250,000 to maintain free lectures on chemistry, physics,
etc.; the Boston College (Roman Catholic) and the Boston
University (Methodist Episcopal), connected with which is
a homoeopathic medical college.
Boston has a well-organized system of graded public
schools, consisting of primary, grammar, and high schools.
The head-masters of the high Schools receive a salary of
$4000 per annum, and the masters of the grammar schools
receive $3200. The number of the public schools since the
annexation of the neighboring municipalities amounts to
about 464. The principal daily papers issued here are the
“Daily Advertiser,” the “Boston Post,” the “Boston Trav-
eller,” the “Herald,” the “Boston Journal,” the “Boston
News,” the “Boston Transcript,” and the “Boston Globe.”
Among the benevolent institutions are the Massachusetts
General Hospital, which is built of granite, and is liberally
endowed; the McLean Asylum for the Insane, which is at
Somerville, two miles N. W. of Boston; the Perkins In-
stitution and Massachusetts Asylum for the Blind; Home
for Aged Men, Home for Aged and Indigent Women, and
the City Hospital, completed in 1864 at a cost of about
$400,000; a homoeopathic hospital, a woman’s hospital, a .



























































































































l
- BOSTON.—BOSWELLIA.
565
consumptives' home (homoeopathic), a farm school on
Thompson's Island, and numerous other charities.
Commerce, Banks, etc.—In foreign commerce Boston is
considered as the second city of the U.S. Its enterprise
in this department extends to almost every nation on the
globe, and its trade is steadily increasing. The value of
the foreign imports received here in 1871 was stated to be
$62,000,000. The value of exports, which in 1870 was only
$12,000,000, amounted in 1871 to $19,000,000. The whole
number of arrivals in 1871, including coasting vessels, was
about 10,000. Among the chief articles of export are fish
and ice. The quantity of ice exported in 1864 was 104,354
tons. Boston has sixty mational banks, with a capital of
$49,000,000, and nineteen savings banks. It is supplied
with good water from Sudbury River and Cochituate Lake,
which is nearly 20 miles W. of the city, and Mystic Lake in
the towns of Arlington and Winchester. It is divided into
twenty-one wards. Steamships of the Cunard line depart
from this port to Liverpool once a week or oftener.
History.—Boston was founded in 1630, and the site was
originally called Shawmut. The first settlers gave it the
name of Tremont (or “Trimountaine,” because one of its
high hills had three points or summits). Benjamin Franklin
was born here in 1706. In Mar., 1770, occurred a conflict
between some British soldiers and the populace, several of
whom were killed. This was called the “lboston Massacre.”
Among the memorable events in the history of this place
was the battle of Bunker Hill (situated in Charlestown dis-
trict) June 17, 1775, after which the British army occupied
Boston until Mar., 1776. They were then compelled by
the American army to evacuate it. Boston was incorpo-
rated as a city in 1822. Pop. in 1800, 24,937; in 1820,
43,298; in 1830, 61,391; in 1840, 93,383; in 1850, 136,881;
in 1860, 177,840; and in 1870, 250,526; in 1874, about
320,000; besides which the suburbs contain more than
100,000. - -
On the evening of the 9th of Nov., 1872, a conflagration
broke out in a large five-story granite building at the cor-
ner of Summer and Kingston streets. This building was
surmounted by a mansard roof. The prevalence of the
horse-disease caused a delay in bringing fire-engines to the
spot. A strong N. W. wind prevailed at the time, and soon
blew with great intensity, causing the fire to spread at an
uncontrollable rate. The intense heat of the conflagra-
tion, together with the height of the buildings, rendered it
impossible for the steam fire-engines to render effective
service. The spread of the conflagration was promoted by
the great number of wooden roofs, covered with slate
only. The locality of the fire was occupied to a great
extent by wholesale warehouses of the best class, many of
them structures of great cost and architectural excellence.
Granite walls were disintegrated by the intense heat. Fire-
engines soon began to arrive from other cities, but their
most persistent and systematic efforts for the time proved
unavailing. At two o'clock on the morning of Sunday,
Nov. 10, attempts were made to stop the conflagration by
the blowing up of buildings by gunpowder. This process
was not considered successful in hindering the prog-
ress of the flames. The steam fire-engines worked with
efficiency, and by two o'clock on Sunday afternoon the
progress of the fire had ceased, after having burned over
sixty-five acres of ground, and destroying 776 buildings,
709 of which were of brick or stone. These buildings were
assessed at a valuation of $13,591,900, probably about half
their market value. The number of dwellings destroyed
was only sixty. The chief loss fell upon the shoe, leather,
and wool interests, and the heavy trade of Boston in these
commodities was for a time almost annihilated. The loss
of personal property was estimated at $60,000,000, of which
a large part was sustained by insurance companies. Only
fourteen lives are known to have been lost.
On the 30th of May, 1873, another fire broke out in Bum-
stead court, in a great furniture warehouse, destroying
property worth $1,500,000, including the Globe Theatre,
Chickering's piano-forte warerooms, and a large number
of stores on both sides of Washington street. -
Besides the “Back Bay lands,” above alluded to, and other
tracts of made land which have been added to the original
peninsula of Boston, it is proposed to fill a large tract of the
shoal water known as “South Boston Flats,” the material
for the work being chiefly obtained by dredging the harbor
to the minimum depth of twenty-three feet. The newly-
made land. is to be covered with a deep layer of clean
gravel. It is also proposed to construct tidal reservoirs on
the Mystic River, N. W. of Boston, so as to preserve the
scouring effect of the tides in preserving the depth of the
channels leading to the harbor. The harbor itself is one
of the best on the coast. Its entrance is marked by four
lighthouses, one on Minot's Ledge, lat. 42° 16' 09" N., lon.
70° 45' 14" W., a granite tower 100 feet high, showing a
fixed white light of the second class. -
The Boston light, on Little Brewster Island, is a stone.
tower 80 feet high, showing a flashing white light of the
second class, 98 feet above the sea. The Narrows light
on the Great Brewster, and the Long Island Head light-
house, an iron structure, are of smaller size, though of
hardly less importance. The islands to the eastward are
of the greatest importance, as they give safety to shipping
within the harbor during the prevalence of easterly winds.
The destructive action of the sea upon these islands has
been very remarkable, but their eastern shores are now
protected by heavy sea-walls. These important public
works for the preservation and extension of the commerce
of Boston are due not alone to the action of the general
government, but largely to that of the State and municipal
authorities. - NATH. B. SHURTLEFF, Eac-Mayor.
Boston, a township of Franklin co., Ark. Pop. 289.
Boston, a township of Newton co., Ark. Pop. 109.
Boston, a township of Wayne co., Ind. Pop. 894.
Boston, a township of Ionia co., Mich. Pop. 1947.
Boston, a post-township of Erie co., N. Y. Pop. 1633.
Boston, a township of Summit co., O. Pop. 1142.
Boston, a township of Darlington co., S. C. Pop. 1913.
Boston, a post-village, capital of Bowie co., Tex., 65
miles N. of Marshall. It has a good high school and a fe-
male academy. Pop. 273.
Boston (THOMAs), a Scottish Presbyterian minister,
born at Dunse, Berwickshire, Mar. 17, 1676, began to preach
at Ettrick in 1707, and acquired much popularity as a
preacher and a writer. Among his works are a “Body of
Divinity,” “Human Nature in its Fourfold State’” (1720),
and “The Crook in the Lot.” Died May 20, 1732. His
sentiments and peculiar modes of expression are said to
have colored the style of Scottish preaching more than those
of any other Calvinistic writer. (See his “Autobiography.”)
Boston Corners, a post-village, and station of the
New York and Harlem R. R., 100 miles from New York.
It was formerly a part of Berkshire, co., Mass., but being
nearly inaccessible from that State on account of an inter-
vening steep mountain-ridge, it became for a time the re-
sort of ruffians, prize-fighters, etc. In 1853 it was ceded
to New York, and is now a part of Ancram township, Co-
lumbia, co., N. Y. -
Bosſtra, or Bots/rah, sometimes called Boz'rah,
a great and ancient city of Arabia, in an oasis of the Syrian
desert, about 75 miles S. of Damascus, and about 40 miles
E. of the Jordan. Some half-dozen families now make their
home among the extensive ruins which mark the spot. It
was in the southern part of the district of Auranitis, the
modern Hauran, of which it was the capital in the Middle
Ages. It was beautified by Trajan, who made it the cap-
ital of the Roman province of Arabia about 105 A. D. The
Roman emperor Philip gave it the title of Metropolis, prob-
ably because it was his native place. It was described as
a great and populous city about 300 A. D. The important
ruins of Bostra are described by Burckhardt in his “Trav-
els,” and Robinson in his “Biblical Researches,” vol. iii.
Bostra, though sometimes called Bozrah, must not be con-
founded with the Idumean city of that name. (See BozRAH.)
Bostºwick (Rev. DAvHD), born at New Milford, Conn.,
Jan. 8, 1721, taught in the academy at Newark, N. J., and
entered the Presbyterian ministry and became disting-
uished for eloquence. He was a pastor at Jamaica, L. I.,
and in New York City. He published several works, of
which the best known was a defence of infant baptism.
Died, Nov. 12, 1763.
Bostwick (Mrs. HELEN LOUISE), born in 1826 at
Charlestown, N. H. Her father was Dr. Putnam Barrow.
She removed in her youth to Bucyrus, O., became a con-
tributor to periodical literature, and published a volume of
poems called “ Buds, Blossoms, and Berries.”
Bos’well (JAMEs) of Auchinleck, a famous Scottish
biographer, born at Edinburgh Oct. 29, 1740. He studied
law, and in 1763 became acquainted with Dr. Johnson, of
whom he was a devoted admirer. Having visited Corsica,
and espoused with ardor the cause of Paoli, he published
an “Account of Corsica” (1768). In 1773 he was chosen
a member of the literary club established by Dr. Johnson
in London. He diligently noted and recorded the sayings,
opinions, and actions of Dr. Johnson, of whom he was an
intimate associate. His “Life of Samuel Johnson’’ (2 vols.,
1791) is a remarkable and, in many respects, an admirable
biography. Boswell was eccentric, and noted for his yam-
ity. Died May 19, 1795. (See MACAULAY's review of Bos-
well’s “Life of Johnson” in the “Edinburgh Review "for
1831.
Håvenia (named in honor of John Boswell, a phys-
ician), a genus of trees of the order Amyridaceae, natives of
India, Persia, and Arabia. The flowers have five petals
566
POSWORTH-BOTANY.
and a crenelated granular disk. The fruit is a triangular
capsule with three valves, three cells, and one seed in each
cell. The number of known species is small. The Boswel-
lia thwrifera (or serrata) is a large tree with pinnate leaves,
each of which has about ten pairs of hairy, serrate leaflets
and one odd leaflet. It has small pink flowers in axillary
racemes. This tree yields the fragrant resin called olibanum,
which is believed to be identical with the frankincense of
the ancients. (See OLIBANUM.)
Bosſworth, a market-town of England, in Leicester-
shire, on an eminence 10 miles W. of Leicester. On a moor
near this town was fought in Aug., 1485, the battle of Bos-
worth, or Bosworth Field, in which Richard III. was de-
feated and killed. This battle terminated the civil War of
the Roses, and raised Henry VII. to the throne. -
Bosworth (Joseph), D.D., F. R. S., an English philolo-
gist, born in Derbyshire in 1788. He graduated at Leyden,
and received the degree of D. D. at Trinity College, Cam-
bridge. In 1817 he became vicar of Horwood Parva, in Buck-
inghamshire." He devoted much time to the study of Anglo-
Saxon, and published, besides other works, a “Dictionary
of the Anglo-Saxon Language” (1838), which is indispens-
able to the thorough student of English. He resided ten
years (1830–40) in Holland as British chaplain.
Böszörmeny, a town of Hungary, in the county of
Szabolcz, 16 miles N. N. W. of Debreezin. Pop. 19,208.
Botanic Gardens are collections of growing plants,
made for the purpose of instruction or for scientific observa-
tion. Of late, they have also been very serviceable in in-
troducing useful and ornamental plants from foreign coun-
tries. The Kew Gardens in England and the Jardin des
Plantes in France are among the most celebrated botanical
gardens in the world. In the U. S., the garden connected
with the Department of Agriculture at Washington prom-
ises to become highly useful in bringing new plants into culti-
vation. There is also a successful botanic garden connected
with Harvard College at Cambridge, Mass. The Missouri
Botanic Garden at St. Louis was founded by Henry Shaw.
Bot’any [from the Gr. Borávn, a “plant;” Fr. botanique;
Ger. Bota'nik) is the natural history of the vegetable king-
dom—i.e., the science that treats of plants. For the present
purpose there is no need to draw out the distinctions be-
tween the two kingdoms of organic nature, animal and
vegetable, for their ordinary representatives would never
be confounded. But the task, when attempted, is by no
means a light one; indeed, a complete definition, discrimi-
nating the lowest, forms of plants from the lowest animals,
is still a desideratum, if not an impossibility. (See on this
subject the article PLANT.) Probably the best general def-
inition of plants, and that which brings prominently into
view their nature and office, is this: they are those beings
which derive their sustenance from the mineral kingdom,
namely, from the earth and air. They only are capable of
converting earth and air into nourishment. Plants create
the food upon which animals live. Their office in the econ-
omy of nature is to transform lifeless mineral materials into
living matter, or into matter capable of supporting or com-
posing the corporeal structure of a living being. Animals
take that which plants have prepared for them, transform
it more or less, incorporate it into structures which manifest
powers and vitality of a higher order; but they originate
no organic matter. - *
The several departments of botany relate to the different
kinds of inquiry which may be made respecting plants.
They all fall under two primary divisions—namely, struc-
tural or biological botany, and systematic botany, with cer-
tain subsidiary inquiries. :
I. Structural or Biological Botany includes all inquiries
into the organic structure, life, growth, action, and propa-
gation of plants. The structure and the functions may be
regarded separately, although practically they are best
treated in connection. As to the first, pure structural bot-
any is sometimes denominated organography—i.e., the study
of the organs or members of plants. The study of the or-
gains as compared with each other—as, for instance, of the
different forms which leaf, stem, etc. may exhibit in
the same plant or in different plants—has taken the name
of morphology (the doctrine of forms or shapes)—a depart-
ment or mode of treatment of the subject which in modern
times has greatly enhanced the interest of botany. The
morphological study of abnormal parts or monstrocities
takes the name of teratology. The organs of plºnts in the
most general sense are their obvious parts or members, such
as leaf, stem, and root, flower, fruit, and seed. . But each
of these is made up of parts, and the parts themselves are
complex: the minuter parts or organic elements of plants,
which compose the obvious members, are in the stricter
sense the plants’ organs. Their investigation takes the
name of vegetable anatomy, or histology. The study of the
actions of these organs, whether of the obvious members
or of their minute components (which, indeed, are the parts
that act), is the province of physiological botany or vegetable
physiology. These are the principal departments of struc-
tural and biological botany. The leading facts and the
leading ideas which the botanist of the present day has to
consider under these several divisions, so far as they may
be clearly stated in a very brief compass, are as follows:
1. Structural Botany proper, including Morphology.—The
natural history both of the vegetable and animal kingdoms
in modern times is studied upon a morphological basis.
The minds which have dominated and shaped vegetable
morphology are those of Linnaeus, Goethe, Robert Brown,
and De Candolle, to which several more recent names might
be added.
As a proper representative of an animal would be some
species of the highest grade, rather than a polyp or an in-
fusory animalcule, so for the plant the higher grade must
be taken as a pattern. The following exposition therefore
takes into account, in the first instance, ordinary plants
only, such as our herbs, shrubs, and trees. These spring
from seed; they take root; they develop a stem, on which
they display leaves; and they develop flowers, the end of
which is the production of seed. The root avoids the light,
grows downward, fixes the plant to the soil, and ordinarily
ramifies in it. The stem rises into the light, develops leaves
at definite points of its surface, is at its summit capable of
extending farther and farther, until finally it bears a blos-
som or a cluster of blossoms, which end it. Stems take
root; if they did not do so, our power of multiplying plants
would be very much diminished. Some stems will strike
root into the ground freely and surely whenever placed in
favorable condition for it—namely, when screened from
light and supplied with moisture and a fitting temperature.
Most stems can be made to do so; hence propagation by
laying, by slips or cuttings, etc. A stem consists of a series
of what, in a loose way—although as to many plants (reeds,
grasses, etc.) a very natural and correct way—of speak-
ing, may be called joints; there is a point or portion from
which leaves (one or more) are or may be developed; this
is a mode. Between one node and another above or below
it—a space of variable length, according to the amount of
growth—no leaves can be produced; this intervening naked
portion is an internode. A stem is made up of a series of
nodes and internodes. The apex of a stem is theoretically
supposed to be, and generally actually is, so long as it lives,
a bud; that is, a growing point, consisting actually and
potentially of nodes and internodes. The growth of the
stem, as to length, is by the development of the internodes
in succession, beginning with the lowest and oldest; this
growth separating the nodes more or less according to the
amount of lengthening, and so spacing apart the leaves they
bear. This growth of the stem, accordingly, consists—1,
of the formation of new parts at the apex of the old; 2, of
the lengthening of the successive internodes. The length
any internode may attain is very variable, but each one
when it begins to grow usually acquires the length it may
attain rather rapidly, and when its tissues are matured is
incapable of any farther extension in length, leaving the
stem to be carried up by the development in their turn of
the younger internodes above it. Stems usually grow and
rest by stages. The bud is the undeveloped apex of a stem,
whether in a growing or resting state. Winter-buds, as
they are termed, are formed in summer or autumn, remain
quiescent through the winter until the coming spring, and
then develop. The larger and best-developed ones are pro-
vided with scales, which their nodes bear in place of leaves,
and they sometimes contain, already formed, all the nodes,
internodes, and leaves they are to develop the coming sea-
son, already discernible, although rudimentary. From such
buds there are all gradations down to those which are
hardly or not at all apparent until they begin to grow.
Branching takes place by the production of side-buds,
and these, as a rule, are produced only on the nodes; that
is, as each joint of the stem, when formed, ends with a
bud (the terminal bud) which is to carry on the stem yet
higher, so it also produces or may produce side or lateral
buds also. There is a definite place on the node for such
buds to arise (i. e., in the angle formed by the leaf with
the stem, on the upper side): this angle is called the aacil
(arm-pit), and buds springing from thence are said to be
axillary. Axillary buds develop into branches. As a rule,
there is only one to each leaf. -
Arrangement of Leaves (Phyllotaa:y) and Branches.—
That of the latter depends upon the former. Leaves are
symmetrically disposed upon the stem. A plant, no less
than an animal, is symmetrical. Leaves are either single
on each node—i.e., they follow one after another (are alter-
nate)—or else there is a pair, or more than a pair, upon each
node. When a pair only, they stand always upon exactly
opposite sides of the stem (are said to be opposite); when
BOTANY.
557
three, four, or any other number, they divide the circle
equally—that is, they stand as far apart from each other as
possible in the circle. A circle of three or more leaves, etc.
is called a whorl or verticil; such leaves are said to be
whorled. Evidently, opposite leaves present merely the
simplest case of whorled leaves, a whorl of two leaves. The
pairs or whorls of leaves follow each other in a fixed order;
each pair stands over the intervals of the pair next below,
and the leaves of the whorl of three or other number cor-
respond to the intervals of those of the whorl above and
below. In the alternate arrangement the single leaves suc-
ceed one another in a definite order, maintaining a complete
symmetry. Each leaf projects from the stem at a fixed
angle with that which precedes and that which follows it,
which is uniform for the species, but different in different
species. In the simplest case the second leaf is on exactly
the opposite side of the stem from the first—of course higher
up; the third leaf on the opposite side from the second, and
therefore vertically over the first; so the leaves are in two
vertical ranks; the angular divergence—i. e., the angle
which successive leaves make—is one-half the circumfer-
ence of the stem. Other plants have the angular diver-
gence one-third—i.e., the second leaf is placed one-third
round the stem; the third is one-third round from that,
completing a cycle of three, and bringing the fourth over
the first, the fifth over the second, and so on—that is, dis-
posing the leaves in three vertical ranks. A line traced on
the stem through the base or attachment of the successive
leaves forms a spiral; each turn, from one leaf round to the
one above which is placed directly over it, is termed a cycle.
Alternate leaves are never in four ranks, but they are very
commonly in five. In that case the angular divergence, or
portion of the circle between any two successive leaves, is
two-fifths of the circumference, and the spiral line ascends
through two whole turns round the stem in completing the
five vertical ranks of leaves, and bringing the sixth over
the first. These several modes of arrangement may be
designated by the fractions 3, 4, #, which measure the an-
gular divergence of the successive leaves in the spiral. The
denominators likewise express the number of vertical ranks,
and the numerators the number of turns round the stem in
completing a cycle. An obvious relation of these fractions
to each other is, that the sum of the numerators of the first
two fractions is the numerator of the third, and the sum of
the denominators is the denominator of the third fraction.
Now, the indication thus suggested is carried out in fact
when alternate leaves occur in more than five vertical
ranks; for the next higher number of vertical ranks is
eight, and their angular divergence is three-eighths of the
circumference; and the next is in thirteen vertical ranks,
with a divergence of five-thirteenths of the circumference,
and so on ; that is, the actual arrangements are expressed by
the series of fractions, #, #, #, #, ºr, ºr, and so on. The
subject is capable of very interesting mathematical devel-
opment. These are all modes of equable distribution of foli-
age on an axis; and the meaning of them appears in some
degree evident when it is understood that the work of vege-
tation is done by the foliage under the light of the sun;
so that there is an advantage in...having as large an amount
of foliage as possible within a given space, and most fully
displayed to the light. The study of the arrangement of
leaves is termed phyllotaxy, which is the Greek for leaf-
arrangement.
Metamorphoses of Leaves and Stems.-The most fertile
ideas in morphological botany are those which, indistinctly
sketched by Linnaeus and afterwards by Wolff, were first
well developed by the poet-philosopher. Goethe, and since
perfected by various minds. These ideas are best expressed
in the following propositions: Every plant of the higher
grade (high enough to exemplify the plan of vegetation) is
built up of a succession of joints of stem and leaves, of
which the embryo just developed from the seed, with its
primary stemlet and seed-leaves (cotyledons, one, two, or
rarely more, as the case may be), is the archetype and the
parent. All subsequent development consists of repetitions
of this. The primary stemlet, at the outset of germination,
sends out a root.from its lower end, which is often the
origin of the whole root of the plant; but any succeeding
joint of the stem may equally send out roots, and commonly
does so when favorably situated—i.e., when supplied with
moisture and excluded from light. The successive joints
of stem, with the leaves they bear and any roots they may
send downward, build up the plant, as it were, in a series
of generations, the greater part of which are capable of
independent propagation (as cuttings, layers, etc.), or else
they make a part of the common life and structure of the
vegetable. A plant, therefore, is to be likened to a coral
structure or to other compound polyps which construct
a polypidom, rather than to an animal of the higher
grade and complete individuality, such as a horse or a
man. But the plant constitutes a sort of corporate whole:
it may be likened to an organized community, in which
“all members have not the same office,” but Some are turned
to one account, some to another. The morphological bota-
mist's view is, that, root excepted, the plant's organs are
all constituted of stem and leaf, and all on the plan which
is displayed by the plantlet at the beginning of its growth.
The cotyledons, which compose the principal bulk of any
large embryo, and which develop in germination into the
seed-leaves in the convolvulus, gourd, and the like, and do
the work of leaves upon being raised above the ground by
the lengthening of the stemlet (or first internode) beneath
them, are equally discerned in those of the bean, although
so much thicker, hardly turning green, and never becoming
foliaceous: here the seed-leaves are made a storehouse of
nourishment: in a pea and an acorn they are still more
gorged, so as to be hemispherical, and never attempt any
foliaceous development, but simply feed abundantly the
bud between them (plumule), so that the succeeding joints
of stem and their leaves develop the more rapidly and
vigorously. So, again, where winter-buds are formed, their
scales represent leaves relegated to the function of protec-
tion. Lilac buds in their development show this well, in
the gradual and complete transition from the outermost
bud-scales, which fall off unchanged, to the ordinary leaves.
In the scales of bulbs the botanist sees leaves, or the bases
of leaves which are foliaceous above ground, converted into
reservoirs of nourishing matter, and when this is exhausted
the thinned and dried outermost scales serve for protection.
Leaves of barberry develop as spines; those of pea, cobaea,
and the like, convert a part of their leaflets into tendrils for
climbing, while those of maurandia, lophospermum, etc.
make their leaf-stalks, and those of clematis their partial
leaf-stalks, serve as tendrils for climbing, the blade of the
leaf remaining unchanged as foliage. In other cases (proba-
bly in gourds.and squashes) a whole leaf becomes tendril.
Equally may stem'or branches assume any of these forms
and functions. Tendrils of the grapevine and of the passion-
flower are stems or branches: so are thorns of hawthorn,
pear, honey-locust, etc.; the green rind of the stem of eac-
tuses, or flattened leaflike expansions in many of them
and in various other plants, take the function of foliage;
tubers (such as potatoes), root-stocks (as of iris, sweet-flag,
ginger, etc.), are portions of stem used as reservoirs of
nourishment, just as the thickened roots are in radish,
turnip, carrot, etc.
Returning to leaves and to the ultimate development in
the blossomi as the inflorescence is approached, manifest
leaves not rarely exchange the green of vegetation for the
brighter hues and delicate texture of floral-leaves, as in
painted-cup, calla, Poinsettia, etc. And in the leaves of
the flower themselves every one recognizes the appropriate-
ness of the term when the outer circle (calyac) is green, as is
commonly the case, and hardly less so for the inner circle
(corolla), although its members (petals) are of delicate
texture and of other hues than green. The evidence of
gradual transition from leaves outside of the flower (bracts),
through those of the calyx to those of the corolla, does not
always stop there. In water-lilies and some other flowers
the inner petals pass by degrees into stamens, and so supply
one of the clews which lead the botanist to his inference
that even the interior organs of the flower equally answer
to leaves. Cultivated flowers confirm this inference when
by becoming “double * (to use the florist's term) they turn,
some the stamens only, some both stamens and pistils, into
floral-leaves or petals, or, in some monstrosities, turn them
all into a rosette of green leaves. Finally, the arrangement
of the parts of the flower, of whatever shape or character,
conforms to that of leaves on a stem ; i. e., they follow the
laws of phyllotaxy, already described—are either in circles,
and the members of the successive circles alternating with
each other (decussating) after the manner of whorls of
leaves, or in cycles according to the spiral or alternate ar-
rangement of leaves. And the arrangement of the blos-
soms themselves upon the stem, or in their clusters, conforms
precisely to that of buds: flowers, like leaf-buds, are term-
inal or axillary. A flower is, as all lines of evidence go to
prove, a sort of bud with its leaves developed and the in-
termodes undeveloped or nearly so—with its leaves devel-
oped in peculiar forms, not always greatly different from
foliage in the outer parts, but very different in form and
in office as respects the inner and essential organs. In the
language of morphology, leaves, sepals, petals, stamens,
etc. are homologous organs, just as the fore leg of a dog, the
wing of a bat or bird, the flipper of the whale, etc. are ho-
mologous with the arm of a man. .
The Parts of the Flower need to be briefly specified before
its morphology can be completed. Here, again, the bota-
mist places before his mind a pattern flower—one complete
in its parts and free from complications or disguises. A
complete flower of this sort has two kinds of organs—1,
Envelopes or leafy parts, “the leaves of the blossom,” and
568
BOTANY.
these in two circles; the outer circle is the calyx, oftener
than otherwise green and leaflike; the leaves or pieces of
the calyx are named sepals; the inner, of delicate texture,
and almost always of other color than green, is the corolla;
its pieces or leaves are petals. 2, Essential organs within
the last; these are of two sorts, and at least in two circles;
the exterior sort are the stamens, the interior, occupying the
centre, are pistils. These two essential organs conspire to
the production of seed. The stamens are the fertilizing or-
gains. Each consists of a filament, usually a slender body
which may be likened to the stalk of a leaf; it is the stalk
of the other and only essential part—namely, the anther.
The anther is a two-celled sac, commonly opening at ma-
turity by a slit from top to bottom of each cell or com-
partment of the sac. In an anther the botanist thinks he
discovers the blade of the leaf in a peculiar guise; in the
two cells or compartments, standing side by side, he sees the
right and left half of the blade; in the solid part that usu-
ally connects them, the midrib of the blade; and the in-
terior, instead of the green pulp of foliage, contains a pow-
dery matter, commonly of yellow color, composed of minute
grains. This powder is named pollen; its production is the
essential thing; it is discharged by the opening of the an-
ther, and its office is to fertilize the pistil, or rather the im-
portant contents of the pistil. . A pistil, complete and sim-
ple, consists of three parts—1, the ovary at the base, the cell
or closed cavity of which contains one or more ovules, the
bodies which after fertilization become seeds; 2, the style, a
column or narrowed prolongation of the summit of the
ovary; 3, the stigma, which is sometimes a knob at the
apex of the style, sometimes a mere point, or a line running
down one side of it; it is always destitute of the epidermis or
skin which covers the rest of the plant, and has either a
roughened or a glutinous or a moist surface, to which pollen
may adhere. The ovary is an essential part, as it contains
the ovules or future seeds; the stigma, also, for the applica-
tion of the pollen to it is requisite to the maturation of the
ovules into seeds; the style is sometimes wanting, as the
stigma may as well be borne upon the apex of the ovary. A
simple pistil is conceived by the botanist to answer to a leaf
with its edges brought together and united so as to form a
closed sac (the ovary), the outer surface of which is the
lower surface of the leaf, the lining its upper surface; and
the ovules are borne on some part of the line (suture) which
represents the united edges of the leaf, or on some en-
largement of this line (placenta). The style is a prolong-
ation of the apex of this ideal leaf, with margins, as we may
suppose, rolled in ; the stigma answers to some portion of
leaf-margin or apex denuded, and sometimes enlarged for
the readier lodgment of pollen.
To this idea and type of a flower, which is simply and
completely realized in some, and incompletely so in others,
the botanist refers all flowers he meets with ; and he ex-
plains all deviations from it, and all disguises of it, in ac-
cordance with the laws that govern the arrangement, com-
binations, etc. of stem and leaves. For example: when the
calyx or corolla occurs as a cup or tube, he sees in it a con-
genital coalescence, or union by their adjacent edges, of the
leaves of a whorl or cycle; when these parts cohere below
with the surface of the ovary, he recognizes an adnation of
contiguous whorls. When the petals, stamens, or other
parts are numerous, this augmentation means that addi-
tional whorls or cycles (as the case may be) of metamor-
phosed leaves of that order have developed. When these
organs are fewer than the numerical plan of the flower in-
dicates, the botanist perceives that some of the members of
a cycle have failed to be produced—are suppressed, as he
would say—and he generally may detect either the rudi-
ments or vestiges of the missing organs, or the vacant places
which they should occupy—i. e., which the symmetry of
the blossom calls for. -
There is not only a general plan of flowers, but a par-
ticular plan for those of each natural order, and a still
more special plan for the flowers of the same genus or kind;
and so one flower of a group helps to interpret the others—
the more regular and complete ones throw light upon the
irregular, incomplete, or unsymmetrical ones, by which the
botanist sees through their disguises.
. So in the fruit, which is the ovary and its contents ma-
tured, the morphological botanist sees either single leaves
or whorls of leaves, either separate or combined, either free
from other parts or congenitally united with them, either
still retaining or resuming somewhat of foliaceous character,
as in a legume or pea-pod, or hardened, as in a nut, or
thickened and softened throughout, as in a berry, or with
an inner stratum hardened to form the stone, and the outer
stratum softened to form the Sapid pulp or flesh of a peach
or cherry. In an apple it is seen that the principal edible
portion of the fruit consists of calyx; in a strawberry, of
axis or the end of flower-stalk upon which the ovaries were
borne; and so on.
The pistils, or the carpels of which a pistilis composed, end
the morphological series, and in the seed—or rather in the
embryo formed in the seed—the series begins anew. Some
would see in the ovule, and consequently in the seed, a bud,
developed usually on the margin of the carpellary leaf, and
point to bryophyllum and other plants, whose leaves are apt
to develop leaf-buds upon their edges. In that view the
kernel of the ovule answers to axis, and its coats to leaves.
The other, and perhaps the better, view is, that ovules are
special appendages or transformed lobes of leaves conse-
crated to the reproduction of the species.
The lower grades of plants would require to have their
structure and morphology separately explained, for which
space is lacking; they will be treated under the heads,
Ferns, Mosses, Lichens, Fungi, Algae (Seaweed), etc. Suf-
fice it to say, that the general plan of vegetation, by stem,
and leaves symmetrically arranged upon it, prevails in the
higher orders of the lower grade of plants, such as ferns
and mosses; that stem and leaves begin to be fused into a
common foliaceous expansion in liverworts; that all dis-
tinction of this sort vanishes in lichens and algae, and still
more in fungi, which in all their multifarious diversity have
nothing which in any sense answers to foliage, root, etc.
As to organs of reproduction, the greatest simplification
of the flower occurs in coniferous plants (pines, cypress,
yew, etc.) and in the allied Cycas family. In these the
female flower is reduced to the pistillary leaf or carpel, and
that is open; style and stigma are done away with, and the
pollen falls directly upon the mouth of the ovules to fer-
tilize them. Sometimes, as in yew, the whole apparatus is
reduced to a naked ovule. Such are termed gymnosperm-
ows plants—i. e., naked-seeded; and in contradistinction
those of the ordinary sort with ovules in a closed ovary,
and therefore seeds in a pericarp (inside a fruit), are angio-
spermous. But what distinguishes completely the lower
grade of plants from the higher is a total change of type as
to reproduction. From ferns downward, flowers (and their
result, seeds) disappear. Their reproductive organs are
analogous to flowers and seeds, but not homologous with
them—not of the same type. In common language we say
that while ordinary plants are flowering, those of the lower
grade are flowerless. Linnaeus gave the technical term of
phaenogamous or phanerogamous to plants which produce
flowers (stamens and pistils), and cryptogamous to those
(such as ferns, mosses, lichens, algae, and fungi) which, as
the appellation denotes, have no obvious stamens and
pistils. His name implied that there were organs answer-
ing in function to stamens and pistils, although concealed
at least from his view. And the correctness of his surmise
is now confirmed. Cryptogamous plants possess organs
which act as stamens and pistils, as microscopical researches
have shown. The result, however, is not a seed containing
an embryo, but a much more simple body, called a spore,
which by germination grows into a new plant. The appa-
ratus for producing spores differs so widely in different
orders of cryptogamous plants that it must be separately
studied in each. To understand them requires a knowledge of
II. Vegetable Anatomy or Histology.—The space here de-
voted to morphological botany demands the curtailment of
the other departments. The history of vegetable anatomy
is that of microscopical research. The leading facts are,
that plants are built up of parts or integers, all essentially
of one nature, however diverse in form, of which a good
general idea may be obtained by likening the integers to
the bricks of an edifice, supposing the bricks to be hollow
and various in shape. These organic components of plants
are called cells. They consist of a wall of solid vegetable
matter, circumscribing a closed cavity, which, while the
cell is alive, contains some living vegetable matter, either
solid or liquid. Or, going back to the beginning, a vege-
table cell (not very appropriately so named) is or was a
mass of plastic vegetable matter, mostly of minute size,
which encases itself with a wall or shell, this wall remain-
ing permanent, although the living parts within may have
disappeared. A plant, such as an oak tree, began its exist-
ence, in an ovule of the parent, as a single cell of this sort.
The whole subsequent growth came from this; the capital
fact being that the living vegetable cell has the power of
multiplication. As it grows it is capable of dividing into
two, and these again into two, and so on. There are plants
(chiefly aquatic) of the simplest possible structure, which
consist of but one cell; for as the cell multiplies by succes-
sive divisions into two, these separate and thus become
so many individuals. There are plants which consist of a
single row of such cells developing in a chain, and remain-
ing adherent at least for a time; or of a plane of cells, di-
viding as they grow in two directions. But in all the higher
plants the cells build up a structure composed mostly of
distinct organs (stem, leaves, roots); and the cells them-
selves develop in various shapes, some round or polygonal,
Some lengthened into tubes, some with thin and delicate
BOTANY.
569
walls (as in the pith and green bark), some with thicker or
even very thick walls (as in wood, in the stone of a cherry,
etc.). Woody fibres, bast of bark, ducts, and all the ana-
tomical elements of a tree or herb, consist entirely of cells
or of combinations of them, all of the same type and origin,
however diverse in form, texture, etc. These are variously
combined, arranged, and modified, composing the particu-
lar anatomy of roots, stems, and leaves. In the stems of
flowering plants the distribution of the woody portion
(wood-cells with ducts, etc.) is upon two plans—one, that
of common wood, which is in concentric layers around a
pith and within a separable bark, and a new layer is every
year added outside of that of the year before ; this is the
exogenous stem, or outside-grower: the other, that of palms
and the like, has no annual layers, but the wood is in sep-
arate bundles, interspersed in the pithy or cellular part,
without apparent order, throughout the whole diameter,
but more accumulated towards the circumference; as the
newer wood or new bundles were thought to be added to-
wards the centre, this stem was named endogenous—i.e.,
an inside-grower.
In the leaves, the arrangement of the woody portion
forming their framework (ribs, veins, nerves, etc.) which
supports the green pulp or cellular portion, equally follows
two plans. In one, the leaves are reticulated or netted-
veined—i. e., the finer divisions of the framework branch
off from a central rib, or from one or more pairs of lateral
ribs also, and their subdivisions, or some of them, unite
(anastomose or inosculate) with other divisions to form a
network of veins; this occurs in plants with exogenous
stems, and only those, with some exceptions. In the other
plan, which is characteristic of plants with endogenous
stems, but not absolutely so, the leaves are parallel-veined
—i.e., the framework is composed of simple and parallel
veins (formerly called nerves), proceeding unbranched from
the base of the blade to the apex, or else from a midrib
to the margins. These differences are turned to much ac-
count in descriptive botany.
III. Physiological Botany, or Vegetable Physiology, which
is concerned with the actions or functions of plants con-
sidered as organisms, is a wide subject, which may be
treated under an independent head. The portion which
relates to nutrition connects itself with vegetable chemistry.
The action of the roots in absorbing, of the stem in con-
veying, and of the leaves in digesting or assimilating, the
materials upon which vegetables live, the use of assimilated
matter in growth, the expenditure of some of it in doing
work, are leading topics. The most fundamental idea in
all vegetable physiology is, that plants create all organic
matter, and consequently provide all the food upon which
animals live. The function of vegetation is the assimila-
tion of mineral matter—earth, air, and water, chiefly the
two latter—into organic matter, which is alone capable of
composing the living structure of vegetables and animals.
Animals appropriate this, but produce none. Plants do this
all-important work only in their green parts and under the
light of the sun. Under the solar radiance they decompose
carbonic acid and water, with the liberation of oxygen gas
(therefore purifying or renovating the atmosphere for the
breathing of animals); and they transform what they
retain into permanent plant-structure—that is, into cell-
walls, or else into equivalent substance of which cell-walls
may be made (such as starch, sugar, and the like). They
also convert these same mineral elements, along with some
form of combined nitrogen (ammonia, nitrates, etc.), into
proteine or protoplasm, which makes up the vitally-active
part of living plant-cells, and is the source of, and essen-
tially identical with, the flesh of animals.
And here a most important idea, of recent conception
and demonstration, is brought into view—namely, that.
vegetable matter, produced under the influence of the sun,
whether as plant-fabric (wood, etc.) or as prepared material
of which fabric may be made (starch, sugar, oil, fibrine,
etc.), as also the flesh or other fabric of animals derived
from these, is to be regarded as matter in a state of
energy; and energy is the power to do work. This, which
the animal derives from the food supplied by the vege-
table, the vegetable has stored up in the matter which the
sun's rays, acting upon the living plant, have brought into
this state of energy. |
In the function of reproduction, the mode in which the
pollen acts in fertilizing the ovules and originating the
embryo in the seed; the arrangements through which these
minute powdery grains are transferred from the anthers
in which they originate to the stigma upon which they are
to act, and by a growth from thence to the ovule, or, in
Some cases, the immediate application of pollen to the
ovule; the maturation of fruit and seed; the arrangement
for the dispersion of the latter; their germination,-these
are some of the leading inquiries. Lastly, the vital mani-
festations as displayed in the movements or changes of
direction which plants (no less really than animals) exe-
cute—some of them in connection with vegetation and
growth, some subservient to reproductive functions—form
extremely interesting subjects of physiological inquiry.
IV. Systematic Botany comprises all inquiries relative to
plants as consisting of kinds variously related to one
another—i.e., as manifesting resemblances and differences
in various degrees. Plants are thus considered as consti-
tuting a systematic whole or vegetable kingdom, Common-
wealth would have been a truer term, for the vegetable cre-
ation does not culminate in a head or actual archetype, as
does the animal realm in man. There are high and low
plants in grade, but no highest and no lowest. The princi-
pal departments of this great branch of botanical science
are—1, Taaconomy, and 2, Phytography, or Descriptive
Botany.
1. Taxonomy is the study of the principles of classifica-
tion, and of the grounds upon which divisions expressive
of the diverse grades of resemblance manifested among
plants may be made and defined. The fundamental facts
in nature upon which classification in natural history is
based are these two : 1st. Plants and animals occur in
kinds, and are reproduced true to their essential charac-
teristics, from generation to generation; in other words,
progeny is like parent. 2d. The numerous kinds exhibit
unequal and very various degrees of resemblance, some
being very similar, others widely dissimilar. Upon the first
rests the idea of species ; upon the second, that of genera,
orders, classes, etc. Species is the unit in natural history.
Individuals occur as links in the chain of generations which
have come down from the immemorial past: this “peren-
nial succession of individuals,” this ensemble of individuals
proceeding from a common stock, constitutes a species.
Genera, orders, classes, and the like are assemblages of
species, of various degrees of likeness, according to the
grade. Those species which are most alike are of one genus;
for example, red oak, white oak, Scarlet oak, live oak, etc.
are so many species of the oak genus. Those which concur
in a more general resemblance, as being on the same plan
of structure in all their important organs, with whatever
difference in details, represent an order or family (these
terms being synonymous in botany); e.g., the oak genus,
with the chestnut, beech, hazel, etc., are of one order. Those
which have only a more general resemblance are of one
class. Proceeding synthetically, from the species upward,
these are groups, successively more and more comprehen-
sive. Proceeding analytically from the vegetable kingdom
as a whole, distinguishable into parts, they are divisions.
The sequence of subordination, from general to particular,
in all natural history, invariably is—Class, Order, Genus,
Species.
This sufficed for the earlier naturalists; but in modern
times the vast increase in the number of known species, and
a more intimate knowledge of their structure, have called
for the recognition of more numerous grades. The term
tribe has been intercalated above genus, and sub-class, sub-
order, sub-tribe, sub-genus next under class, order, etc.;
the extended scaffolding to be used or not, according as
diversities in structure and the numbers of forms to be
classified may require.
Although species is the recognized unit in natural history
classification, no species is represented by absolutely iden-
tical individuals. The differences may be slight, apparently
casual and evanescent; or they may be more remarkable, in-
explicable by any known causes or conditions, and more en-
during. Some species are much disposed to vary; some
maintain a general uniformity. Even the branches from
the same stem may vary, and when variations or “sports”
of this character arise, they incline to be perpetuated in the
offshoots. Bud variations, however, are not common ; the
offshoot for the most part strictly reproduces the parent
stock. Most varieties originate from seed. Here the re-
sult of all observation leads to the conclusion that there are
two opposed tendencies in every sexual reproduction: 1.
That of the progeny to be like the parent or parents in all
respects: this ordinarily obtains such full mastery as to
have established the fundamental proposition that the spe-
cies reproduces itself; which, more strictly analyzed, means
that individuals reproduce their like. 2. The second is the
tendency to be unlike the parents by varying in some minor
particulars, to strike out something new and peculiar. The
law of inheritance generally prevails, but the tendency to in-
dividualize manifests itself strongly now and then in certain
and minor particulars, and sets up a variety. Unimportant
as this may be in wild plants, and in any single step, it be-
comes of the highest practical consequence in horticulture,
agriculture, and stock-breeding, in which all depends upon
favoring, strengthening, and preserving varieties. Varie-
ties of recent origination are seldom directly perpetuable
by seed, although they are so by buds (offshoots, layering,
grafting, etc.); the tendency of the offspring to inherit the
570
BOTANY.
peculiarities of the parent being likely to be overborne by
the ancestral tendency—i.e., the disposition to take after
grandparents, great-grandparents, etc. Also, in uncon-
trolled nature, the cross-breeding with individuals of the
unvaried stock is almost sure to obliterate the incipient
variation. The variation is preserved and led on, under
man’s care, by close-breeding in the first instance, and by
selecting for seed only those of the progeny that inherit
most of the peculiarity; then again selecting from the best
of these, and so on for a few generations. In this way the
force of atavism, or taking after ancestors, is weakened or
evaded; for the new generation is far more likely to take
after its immediate parents, grandparents, and great-grand-
parents when all are similar, than after a remoter ancestry,
the parental and the grandparental (or atavic) forces now
acting in the same line. In this way varieties, which at
first would come true only by bud-propagation, are devel-
oped into races, or varieties of greater fixity, which come
true from seed. Races in plants are naturally most im-
portant in annuals and biennials, which are capable of per-
petuation only by seed. There are perhaps no annuals or
biennials in cultivation which refuse to diverge into races.
Moreover, nearly related species may often, but not in all
cases, be cross fertilized, and so their peculiarities mixed in
the progeny, which takes after both parents; this gives
rise to hybrids. These are of transient existence, except
when perpetuated from buds—first, because they are com-
monly sterile per se; secondly, because they are liable to be
fertilized by the pollen of one or the other parent, and so
brought back to that type; thirdly, because even when fer-
tile per se, the progeny in a generation or two returns, some
to one and some to the other parental type by a dissever-
ance of the mixed characters, one part inheriting only the
peculiarities of the male, the other only those of the female,
parent of the hybrid.
Races and varieties, of whatever sort or degree of fixity,
have been regarded as of economical importance only, but
merely perplexing to the systematist. Recently, however,
they have assumed a new interest in the eyes of the philo-
sophical naturalist through the investigations and reasonings
of Mr. Darwin, which tend to the conclusion that varieties.
are incipient species, and cognate species only varieties of
greater divergence or fixity—offshoots of higher antiquity
from a common stock. To many of the leading naturalists
of the present day, even those who do not recognize the
agency of “natural selection ” as the operative cause, the
terms relationship, affinity, consanguinity, and the like, by
which the resemblance of one species or one genus to an-
other has always been denoted, are no longer regarded as
metaphors, but rather as unconscious expressions of the
idea that the resemblances are a consequence of community
of descent. -
The Methods of Classification, by which the principles of
taxonomy have been applied to the systematic arrangement
of the species of plants, may here be considered only so far
as concerns—1. The system which gave the great impulse
to botany in the later half of the eighteenth century, and
prevailed through the earlier part of the nineteenth; 2.
The system which has now taken its place, and under which
the science is attaining a truly philosophical development.
The first, the artificial sexual system of Linnaeus, was en-
tirely the work of this pre-eminent naturalist; to the sec-
ond, the natural system, he made early and important con-
tributions, and commended the work to his successors. The
two great ends of a classification of the vegetable kingdom
are—1, to exhibit the relationships which subsist among
plants, and bind them into a systematic whole; therefore to
arrange them in such order, and under such successive
grades, that each species and each group of species shall
stand next to those which it most resembles in all or in the
most important respects—i.e., in a system which shall ex-
press (so far as we can discover and express in terms) the
plan of nature, or, more worthily, the plan of the Creator
in the vegetable world; 2, to enable a learner readily to
ascertain the name, place in the system, and an account of
all that is known of any particular species. These two
ends should be subserved by one and the same classification.
In the last century this was not practicable. So Linnaeus
contrived the system which bears his name as a temporary
but much-needed expedient to subserve the latter purpose.
He named it an artificial system, because in-its classes and
orders it did not attempt to express all or the more import-
ant relationships of plants, but only those which could most
conveniently be used for a practical purpose. He named
it the seasual system, because he ſounded it upon the sta-
mens and pistils, of which he had just completed the proof
that they were the sexual apparatus; and he saw, with in-
stinctive sagacity, that agreement or similarity in the or-
gans and method of reproduction would furnish the best
characters for classification. Linnaeus accordingly ar-
ranged the vegetable kingdom under twenty-four classes,
characterized mainly by the stamens, as follows:
ſ Stamens 1........................ 1. MONANDRIA.
{{ 2........ .* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 2. DIANDRIA... .
{{ 3 ....................... 3. TRIANDRIA.
$$. 4.----------------------- 4. TETRANDRIA.
{{ 5........................ 5. PENTANDRIA.
{{ 6........................ 6. HEXANDRIA.
t r 6& 7........................ 7. HEPTANDRIA.
of equal “ 8...... ................ 8. OCTANDRIA.
length ; ; , “ 5...................... 9. ENNEANDRIA.
“ 10........................ 10. DECANDRIA.
p. . “ 11–19.................... 11, DODECANDRIA.
unconnected “ 20 or more, adhe- -
with each . rent to the calyx........... 12. ICOSANDRIA.
other, and “ 20 or more, not ad- . . .
herent to the calyx........ 13. POLY ANDRIA.
the . . .
Stam - two long and two short sta- - - -
j ~ of une ual IlleIlS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14. DIDYNAMIA,
from the length: four long and two short • ,
pistils, Stamens......................... 15. TETRADYNAMIA.
by their filaments in a sin- * *
both found by th ## e e º e º e º ºis in two 16. MONADELPHIA.
* < - ſº 5v their filaments in two * -
in ºne connected with each other '... & e º e º tº t e º tº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 17. DIADELPHIA.
! $ by their filaments in more * * * *
** than two sets................. 18. POLYADELPHIA.
stamens and by their anthers............... 19. SYNGENESIA.
piºn t the stamens adherent to the pistil........ “ 20. GYNANDRIA.
PLANTS in the same individuals..... 21. MONOECIA.
having - in º: i. Sct. 22. DICECIA.
some of the flowers perfect,
- in Separate flowers s & © tº º e e e º a e º e e º ºs º ºs e e º e º e º 'º & © tº a tº 8 tº $ e º e º 'º e o 'º e º 'º e º 'º e º e others separated, in the
same, or two or three dif-
- - ferent individuals......... 23. POLYGAMIA.
the stamens and pistils (concealed) represented only by analogues...................................“. . . . 24. CRYPTOGAMIA.
The orders were founded upon some considerations, re-
specting the pistils, their number, or the number of their
styles in compound pistils—e.g., Monogynia, with one,
Digynia, with two, and so on; and upon divers other con-
siderations in the other classes, which there is not space
here to specify. The interest of this artificial classification
is now only historical, except that it has firmly established
many names and terms in the science with which the bota-
nist has to be familiar.
The natural system, of which the endeavor is to arrange all
plants according to their true relationships, has now been so
far perfected that it is, on the whole, as easy for practical
as it is indispensable for all thoroughly scientific use. Its
first development as a complete system was by the Jus-
sieus, uncle and nephew, in the last century. Towards its
perfection many have contributed in the present century:
the two names most eminently and intimately associated
with it are those of Robert Brown and A. P. De Candolle.
It recognizes, first of all, two great series of plants, a higher
and a lower grade; the higher comprising the whole twenty-
three Linnaean artificial classes (above presented); that is,
all plants which are sexually propagated through stamens
and pistils (in other words, bear flowers), which result in
seeds, of which the essential thing is that they contain an
embryo, as stated in another part of this article. These are
phaenogamous, or more popularly flowering plants. The
BOTANY BAY-BOTHIE.
571
lower series, comprising the Linnaean class cryptogamia,
has sexual propagation effected through organs which are
only analogous in functions to stamens and pistils, result-
ing (as already explained) in spores, instead of seeds:
Ser. I. FLOWERING or
PHAENOGAMOUS
PLANTS, with |
Ser. II: FLOWERLESS
Or CRYPTOGAMOUS
PLANTS, with
Under these come the natural orders or families (between
one and two hundred in number when most comprehen-
sively treated); under these sub-orders, tribes, etc., when-
ever such have to be recognized; and finally the genera
and species. -
V. Phytography, or Special Descriptive Botany, is the
carrying out of the principles of classification in the actual
arrangement and characterization of these great divisions,
of the orders under them, of the genera and species, etc.;
and the application of names to each according to certain
fixed rules. This introduces Glossology (a better word than
the mongrel one, because half Latin and half Greek, ter-
minology), which prescribes the system upon which sub-
stantive names are given to the organs and parts of plants,
and adjective terms to their modifications and forms, mak-
ing a technical language through which plants and their
several parts may be compared and described with an ex-
actness and brevity not otherwise possible. Also Nomen-
clature, which prescribes the rules for giving names to the
plants themselves and to the groups which they compose.
The binomial system of nomenclature—which was one of
the happiest hits of Linnaeus, and of a value which those
only can rightly estimate who are aware of the inconveni-
ences suffered by the ante-Linnaean botanists in their en-
deavors to get on without it—has established for each plant
a double name—namely, that of its genus and that of its
species. A genus bears a name of one word, a substantive—
e.g., Quercus, the oak genus, Lilium, the lily genus. Genera
and generic names, in the modern sense, date back as far
as Tournefort (A. D. 1700). The specific name was the
invention of Linnaeus (say 1750), who first distinguished
the phrase or descriptive character of a species from its
name, making the latter consist of a single word, preferably
an adjective; e. g., Quercus alba, for white oak, Quercus
rubra, for red oak. The generic name answers to our sur-
name, as Brown or Jones; the specific to the baptismal
name, as John and James. If a variety has to be designated,
its name will be appended to that of the species—e.g.,
Quercus coccinea (scarlet oak), variety tinctoria, for the
quercitron oak. Names of groups higher than genera are
in the nominative plural, and are mostly formed by an ex-
tension of the name of a principal genus. For instance,
Rosa, the rose genus, gives its name Roseae to the rose tribe,
and of Rosaceae to the rose family. This is a short expres-
sion for Plantae Rosaceae—i.e., rosaceous plants.
Agricultural Botany, Medical Botany, and the like, sig-
nify so much of systematic botany as applies to agriculture,
medicine, etc. - -
Palæontological or Fossil Botany is the systematic and
structural botany, as far as it can be made out from fossil
remains, of the vegetation of former ages. Its lessons,
although fragmentary, are of the highest interest, as show-
ing that a vegetation predominantly of the lower grades
alone existed in the earlier geological eras; that gymno-
spermous plants long preceded angiospermous exogens; that
the latter were apparently not introduced until the creta-
ceous period; and that our existing genera largely origin-
ated in tertiary times, and were then represented by species,
some of them peculiar, but many much resembling, and
some obviously identical with, those of the present day. So
wº that it may be inferred that the actual flora of the United
States originated in the cretaceous and tertiary periods,
and has come down to the present day with change indeed,
but with a continuity of type which argues, genetic trans-
mission. (See FossIL BOTANY.) . -
Geographical Botany—the study of the relations of
plants to the earth, considered in reference to the natural
distribution of the species over its surface, and the causes
of that distribution—connects the Science of botany with
physical geography and climatology; also with geology as
it proceeds; and it becomes apparent that the present dis-
tribution of species is only to be explained, or clearly con-
ceived, by a study of the changes which the earth’s surface
| Exogenous growth and a dicotyledonous embryo.
a distinct axis, or stem and foliage, containing:
no distinction of stem and foliage, but all confounded in a thallus.
these are cryptogamous or flowerless plants. The primary
divisions or classes of the two series can here be presented
only in the following tabular form :
Class I. ExOGENS, or DICOTYLEDONS.
Seeds in a pericarp. Subclass 1. Angiosperms.
Seeds naked. - “ 2. Gymnosperms.
Endogenous growth and a monocotyledonous embryo. “ II. ENDOGENS, MONOCOTYLEDONS. \
woody and vascular tissue. Class III. ACROGENS.
cellular tissue only. * IV. ANOPHYTES.
“ V. THALLOPHYTEs.
and its climates have undergone since the types of the
actual vegetation came into existence. So that geographical
and fossil botany are co-related as modern is to ancient
history. - As A GRAY.
Bot/any Bay, a bay of Australia, in New South Wales,
which was discovered by Capt. Cook in 1770, and named
by him with reference to the great number of new plants
found there. It is 5 miles S. of Sydney, in lat. 34° 2' S.,
and lon. 151° 13' E. A colony of British convicts was
planted here in 1787, and was removed to Port Jackson in
1788, but the penal colony long continued to retain the
name of Botany Bay.
Bot’etourt, a county of the W. part of Virginia. Area,
550 square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the Blue
Ridge, and is traversed by several ridges of the Allegha-
nies, which are separated by fertile valleys. It is intersected
by the James River, and also drained by Craig's Creek.
The James River Canal connects this county with Rich-
mond. Grain and tobacco are the chief crops. Flour is
manufactured. Iron ore abounds. The Peaks of Otter are
near its S. E. border. Capital, Fincastle. Pop. 11,329.
Botetourt (NoFBONNE, Berkeley), LoRD, was born in
England about 1734. He was appointed royal governor of
Virginia in 1768, and dissolved the assembly of burgesses
in 1769 because they passed a remonstrance against some
acts of the British Parliament. Died Oct. 15, 1770. -
Botetourt Springs, a post-village of Roanoke co.,
Va., is the seat of Hollins Institute, a flourishing school for
ladies, and has a mild and pleasant saline spring known as
“Johnson’s Spring.” -
Bot-Fly, a name given to various dipterous insects of
the family CEstridae, but in the U. S. generally applied to
Bot—fly.
the horse bot-fly, Gastrophilus equi. The fly lays her eggs
upon the hairs Óf the horse, and after laying her eggs
almost immediately dies. The eggs, conveyed to the horse's
stomach, are hatched, and the larvae are provided with
mouth-hooks by which they hang on to the coats of the
stomach. In about a year's time they are discharged with
the excrement, and, in one month they are changed into
perfect flies. When very numerous there is reason to be-
lieve that bots are very injurious to the horse; but there is
some dispute among horse-breeders as to the extent of the
injury done by them. -
Both (JAN), a Flemish painter, was born at Utrecht in
1610. He was a pupil of Bloemaert, and worked in Italy.
He excelled in landscapes, and represented the atmospheric
effects of Italy with much fidelity. Died in 1651.
- Bo'thie [Gaelic bothag, a “hut”], the name applied in
Scotland to a sort of barrack or large temporary structure
for the lodging of farm-laborers, stone-cutters, and others.
There are also bothies where women are lodged. The
bothie system is considered by the best classes in Scotland as
a nätional disgrace, for the moral results of the plan have
been deplorable. -

572
BOTHNIA—BOTTLE.
Both’nia. [Sw. Botten], a name formerly given to a
country of Northern Europe, which belonged to Sweden,
and was situated on both sides of the Gulf of Bothnia. The
eastern portion is now comprised in Finland, and the west-
ern forms the Swedish provinces of Piteå and Umeå.
Bothnia, Gulf of, the northern portion of theel3altic
Sea, extends from Torneå southward to the island of Aland,
and is about 400 miles long. Its width varies from 60 to
130 miles. It is bounded on the E. by Finland and on the
W. by Sweden. Its greatest depth is about fifty fathoms.
The navigation of it is rendered difficult by many small
islands and sand-banks near the shores. The gulf is usu-
ally frozen in winter, so that sledges can cross it.
Bothrioceph’alus [from the Gr. 806ptov, a “little
pit,” and kebaxi, the “head,” named from the depressions
on each side of its head], a genus of cestoid intestinal
worms, once supposed to be identical with the Taenia, or
common tapeworm. It inhabits the bodies of the salmon,
stickleback, and other fishes, as well as human beings.
Two species occur in man, Bothriocephalus latus and Both-
riocephalus cordatus. The former is common only in Rus-
sia, Sweden, Norway, Lapland, Finland, Poland, and Switz-
erland. It is from six to twenty feet in length, composed
of numerous flat and wide segments, and an elongated,
compressed, obtuse head. The mouth is small, with a lon-
gitudinal depression extending from it on each side. Like
the Taenia, it is hermaphrodite, and besides discharging
ova multiplies by segmentation, the fragments or proglottides
being discharged with the faeces of the animal in which it
lives. Probably this parasite is introduced into the human
body not only from fish eaten as food, but in drinking
water from lakes and rivers. Near the Gulf of Bothnia,
scarcely a family is free from it, but a few leagues from the
coast and main water-courses it almost disappears. Both-
riocephalus cordatus has been found to inhabit the human
intestines only in North Greenland. In that country it is
quite common in dogs. . It is about a foot in length, and
receives its name from the cordate or heart-shaped head.
(Cobbold, Proceedings of the Zoological Society, London,
1862.) The means of destroying or expelling the “broad
tapeworm,”, as this parasite is sometimes called, are the
same as in the case of Taenia. (See TAPEWoRM.)
Both ſwell, a county in the S. W. part of Ontario (Can-
ada), is intersected by the Great Western Railway, and
bounded on the W. by the St. Clair River, and on the S. E.
by Lake Erie. Large quantities of petroleum are produced.
Area, 547 square miles. Pop. in 1871, 20,701.
Bothwell, a post-town of Zone township, Bothwell
co., Ontario (Canada), on the Great Western Railway, 23
miles S. W. of Chatham. It has numerous petroleum-
wells, and a trade inf cattle, grain, and lumber, the latter
being extensively manufactured here. It has one weekly
paper. Pop. about 1500.
Bothwell (JAMEs Hepburn), EARL OF, a profligate
and audacious Scottish courtier, was born about 1526. He
inherited the title and large estate of the earl his father in
1556. In 1562 he was imprisoned for a conspiracy to seize
the queen's person, but he escaped to France, after which
he was outlawed. He returned in 1565, and became an
enemy of Regent Murray and a favorite adviser of Queen
Mary. The murder of Lord Darnley (1567) is generally
imputed to him. He was indicted for this crime, but as he
came to court with 4000 followers, he was acquitted. In
April, 1567, many nobles signed a bond or document in
which they commended Bothwell as a fit husband to the
queen, whom he carried to Dunbar Castle. He married her
in May of the same year. A strong party soon took arms
against Bothwell, who fled to Denmark, where he was im-
prisoned. Died in 1576. (See BURTON, “History of Scot-
iand,” vol. iv.; Robertson, “History of Scotland.”)
Botocu'does, or Aymo/res, a native tribe of Brazil.
They live in the forests on the Rio Doce, along the bound-
ary of the provinces of Espirito Santo and Minas Geraes,
and are said to resemble the Chinese. They are brave
but treacherous, and have caused the government consider-
able trouble. They number about 4000, and are rapidly
dying out. They pierce the lower lip and insert a block of
wood in the hole. -
Botoshan’, or Bootosha’ni, a town in Roumania,
on the Schiska, 60 miles N. W. of Jassy, carries on a con-
siderable trade with Germany in cattle, wine, wool, to-
bacco, etc. Pop. in 1860, 27,147.
Bo Tree, or Pee/pul, the Ficus religiosa or sacred
fig tree of Hindostan and Ceylon, a species of tree which is
greatly venerated by the followers of Vishnu (who was
born under this tree), and especially by the Booddhists. It
is a large tree, whose sap abounds in caoutchouc, and which
yields a small edible fig, not much valued. Great amounts
of lac are gathered from its branches, for it is one of the
favorite abodes of the lac insect. The famous bo tree of
Amarajapoora in Ceylon is believed, on apparently good
grounds, to have been planted in 288 B. C.
Botrych'ium [from the Gr. Bórpus, a “bunch of grapes,”
the name referring to the appearance of the fruitful fronds],
a genus of ferns, having the spore-cases distinct, sub-glo-
bose, clustered, and on one side of a pinnated rachis,
2-valved, without any elastic ring and opening transversely.
The Botrychium Virginicum is remarkable for its wide
geographical distribution. It abounds in the U. S. and in
the Himalaya Mountains, and is found in Norway, Austra-
lia, Mexico, and many other countries. It is boiled and
eaten in some countries. -
Botryoi'dal [from the Gr. Bórpus, a “bunch of grapes,”
and eiðos, a “form *], a term used in mineralogy, and ap-
plied to substances the surface of which consists of a group
of clustered globular prominences which resemble grapes
in form. Examples of such formation are often seen in
chalcedony and haematite. -
Botrytis. See MILDEw.
Botta (ANNE CHARLOTTE LYNCH), an American poetess,
born at Bennington, Vt. She was married to Vincenzo
Botta in 1855. She published a volume of poems in 1849
and a “Hand-book of Universal Literature” in 1860.
Botta (CARLo GIUSEPPE GUGLIELMo), M.D., an eminent
Italian historian, born at San Giorgio, in Piedmont, Nov. 6,
1766. He studied medicine, and served as surgeon in the
French army in 1795–96. In 1803 he was elected to the
French legislative body. He published in 1809 a “His-
tory of the American War of Independence,” and in 1825
a “ History of the Nations of Italy from Constantine to
Napoleon,” 3 vols. His most important works are a “His-
tory of Italy from 1789 to 1814” (“Storia d’Italia dal 1789
al 1814,” 4 vols., 1824), and his “Continuation of Guic-
ciardini's History of Italy to 1789” (10 vols., 1832). He
died in Paris Aug. 10, 1837. (See F. BECCH1, “Elogia
storico di C. Botta,” 1839.) -
Botta (PAUL EMILE), a distinguished archaeologist and
traveller, a son of the preceding, was born in 1794. He en-
tered the service of Mehemet Ali of Egypt as a physician
about 1830, and became French consul at Alexandria.
Having visited Arabia in 1837, he published in French a
“Narrative of a Journey to Yemen, etc.” (1844). He was
next sent as consul to Mosul, and in 1843 began to exca-
vate the mound at Khorsâbâd on the Tigris for monuments
of ancient Assyria, and there discovered a palace with
statues and cuneiform inscriptions. With the aid of Le-
tronme, Burnouf, and the artist Flandrin, he published a
magnificent work entitled “Monuments of Nineveh, dis-
covered and described by M. Botta, with designs by Flam-
drin” (5 vols. folio, 1847–50). -
Botta (VINCENzo), PH. D., born near Turin, Italy,
Nov. 11, 1818, became professor of philosophy at Cuneo,
and afterwards at Turin; a member of the parliament in
1849; in 1850 inspected the educational system of Ger-
many, and in 1853 that of the U. S., and became professor
of Italian literature in the University of the City of New
York. Among his works are a “Life of Cavour,” “Dante
as Philosopher, Patriot, and Poet,” and a history of modern
philosophy in Italy.
Bött’ger, written Böttſcher, or Böt’tiger (JoHANN
FRIEDRICH), a German alchemist. noted as the inventor of
Meissen porcelain, was born at Schleiz Feb. 4, 1682. He
spent much time and money in the search for the philoso-
pher's stone. Died Mar. 13, 1719. • ?: -
Botticel/li (SANDRO), an early Italian painter of the
Tuscan school (1447–1515), was the most eminent of the
scholars of Filippo Lippi. He was the first who treated
mythological subjects, and excelled his predecessors in
moyement and drapery.
Böttiger, or Boettiger (KARE AUGUST), a German
archaeologist and littérateur, born at Reichenbach, in Sax-
ony, June 8, 1760. He was a friend of Goethe, Schiller,
and Herder, with whom he associated at Weimar. He edit-
ed several journals, and published many antiquarian trea-
tises. Died Nov. 17, 1835. A collection of his essays,
called “ Kleine Schriften,” appeared in 3 vols., 1838.
Bottle [Fr. bouteille ; Sp. botilla, the diminutive of
bota, a “leather bag for carrying liquids”], a vessel for
holding liquids, usually made of glass or earthenware.
The bottles mentioned in the Bible were made of the skins
of animals, and such vessels are still used for carrying
water in Asia and Africa. In Spain, wine-bottles made of
goats' skins are used at the present time. The glass used
in the manufacture of common bottles is of a coarse quality.
The process by which they are formed is briefly as follows:
A long iron tube is dipped into the melted glass, a portion
of which adheres to the end of the tube. After this material
&
BOTTLE GOURD–BOUCHETTE.
573
is partially cooled, the glass-blower puts the end of the tube,
with the portion of the glass adhering, into a mould, and
blows into the tube, which he holds in a vertical position. It
is then passed from the hands of the blower, and is finished
by several other workmen. -
Bottle Gourd (Lagenaria), a genus of plants of the
order Cucurbitaceae, is nearly allied to the genus Cucurbita,
in which it was formerly included. The Lagenaria vulgaris,
or common bottle gourd, is a native of India, but is culti-
wated in many Warm climates. It is a climbing annual,
having white flowers, and a large bottle-shaped fruit with
a hard rind, which is called a calabash, and is used for hold-
ing or dipping water. This fruit is sometimes several feet
long. Some varieties of Lagenaria have an edible pulp,
which is an important article of food to the poorer Arabs.
Bottle= nose Whale, sometimes called Bottlehead
(Hyperaodon bidens), a cetaceous mammal of the family
Physeteridae. It inhabits the North Atlantic and some-
times ascends rivers. It seldom exceeds twenty feet in
length. The name of BOTTLE-NOSE WHALE is sometimes
applied to another mammal, the Delphinus Tursio, a
dolphin which inhabits the North Sea.
Bottom Heat, a term applied in horticulture to the
temperature communicated to certain soils, either by fer-
menting and decomposing substances placed underneath
them, for which purpose leaves, fresh dung, and the refuse
bark of the tanyard are often used, or by means of flues or
hot-water apparatus. The system is applied to the culti-
Vation of pineapples, grapes, melons, cucumbers, and other
plants grown in hot-houses, pits, or frames. It is one of
the most important agents in the artificial cultivation of
tender plants of whatever kind, whether flower or fruit-
bearing. *
Bottomry [from bottom, a part of the ship being put
for the whole], the act of lending money on the pledge of
a ship or on the bottom of a ship. It may be considered
under the following divisions: 1, the nature of the contract;
2, its form; 3, by whom made ; 4, the mode of its enforce-
ment.
1. The Nature of the Contract.—It is a maritime contract,
and in the nature of a wager. The substance of the con-
tract is, that if the ship returns the loan is to be repaid
with interest. If it is lost in the course of navigation, the
debt is discharged, though the borrower may have abun-
dant means for repayment. The principal of the loan being
thus put at risk, the case does not come within the opera-
tion of the usury laws. Large interest is sometimes exacted
—15 or 20 per cent., or even a larger rate. The proper court,
however, has power, in extreme cases of excessive interest,
to grant relief. Should the ship deviate from her voyage
and be lost, the lender would not take that risk upon him-
self, but the borrower would still be liable. So if the ship
be lost by the wrongful act of the borrower or the master,
instead of the perils of the sea. It has been decided that
the doctrine of constructive loss which applies in insurance
law does not extend to a bottomry loan. This loan is not
within the act of Congress, which requires mortgages and
conveyances of vessels to be registered for the purpose of
giving notice to subsequent grantors or to creditors. Should
the ship return, the loan becomes due, and the principal and
maritime interest together form a new principal, on which
ordinary interest will be calculated until payment. A bot-
tomry loan is strictly on the ship. A corresponding loan on
the cargo is termed respondentia. It is governed by rules
closely resembling those applicable to bottomry. A bot-
tomry loan has this marked peculiarity, applicable, how-
ever, to other maritime liens: that where there are two or
more in succession, the latest may have the preference, as
it may be the price of the safety of the ship. In liens
created regularly upon-property on land it is a well-known
general rule that the earliest has the preference.
2. The Form of the Transaction.—There is usually exe-
cuted a bottomry bond. This is not, however, absolutely
essential. The courts do not look so much at the technical
forms as at the intent of the parties. Even if there were
a sale intended as a security for a loan, evidence to show
the true nature of the transaction could be adduced, and it
would be enforced accordingly.
3. By Whom Given.—A bottomry bond may be executed
either by the owner or the master of the ship in the owner's
absence. The owner can execute it, in general; whenever
he sees fit, so long as the transaction is in its nature mari-
time. A master of a ship, on the other hand, is governed
by special rules. His leading duty is to navigate the ship,
not to pledge nor to sell it. These latter powers are con-
ferred upon him in extraordinary emergencies, where the
exigencies require it. The lender must be prepared to show
that the case is one which justifies the loan, such as stress
of weather, necessity of repairs, and the like. Due meas-
ures must be taken to communicate with the owner where
such communication is feasible. At the present time the
telegraph must be resorted to where it is accessible. The
power of the master may in like manner in extraordinary
cases extend to a pledge, or even a sale, of the cargo. The
general test of his authority in all these cases is that he
must exercise the diligence of a prudent owner, and that
there must be an apparent necessity for the pledge or sale.
4. Enforcement.—A bottomry bond is enforceable in a
court of admiralty—in this country in the district courts
of the U. S. A proceeding is instituted against the ship,
or, in technical language, in rem. If necessary, the ship
may be sold, and the claim paid out of its proceeds. The
borrower is also personally responsible. The lien of seamen
for subsequent wages is superior to that of the bottomry
lender. Should the latter, in order to preserve his own
claim, discharge that of the seamen, he could have a lien
upon the proceeds of the ship for his reimbursement, as
well as a personal claim against the owners; or, in other
words, he would be allowed to stand in the place of the
SC3, IOleIl.
It may be added that if a ship, having incurred a bot-
tomry loan, does not set out on her intended voyage, the
property will not have incurred any maritime risk, and con-
sequently the maritime interest cannot be exacted, but only
ordinary interest. T. W. DWIGHT.
Botts (JoBN MINoF), an American statesman, born at
Dumfries, Prince William co., Va., Sept. 16, 1802. He was
elected to Congress as a Whig in 1839, and re-elected sev-
eral times. In 1844 he supported Mr. Clay for the presi-
dency. He opposed the repeal of the Missouri Compro-
mise in 1854, was a firm adherent of the Union during the
civil war, and afterwards favored the Republican party. He
wrote “The Great Rebellion ” (1866). Died Jan. 8, 1869.
Bot/zen, or Bozen [It. Bolzano], a trading town of
the Austrian Tyrol, at the junction of the river Talf with
the Eisach, 33 miles by rail N. N. E. of Trent. It is sit-
uated in a hilly or mountainous district, is well built, and
contains a gymnasium, a Gothic cathedral, and a castle; also
manufactures of silk, limen, hosiery, etc. It has four an–
nual fairs, and is an entrepôt of the trade between Italy,
Germany, and Switzerland. Pop. in 1869, 9357.
Bouchardat (APOLLINAIRE), a French pharmaceutist,
born about 1810, commenced young the study of medicine
and pharmacy at Paris, and became professor of hygiene
in 1852. His most important works are “Recherches sur
la Vegetation ” (1846), and elementary treatises on applied
chemistry, physical science, materia medica, therapeutics,
agricultural economy, and several original treatises on
wine and wine-culture. -
Bou'cher (JoNATHAN), an English philologist, born in
Cumberland in 1738. He removed to Virginia in 1756,
became rector of a parish church, and was a royalist in the
Revolution. He returned to England in 1775, and com-
piled a “ Glossary of Archaic and Provincial Words.”
Died April 27, 1804.
Boucher de Perthes (JACQUES), a French archaeolo-
gist and naturalist, born at Rethel Sept. 10, 1788. His
principal works are “The Creation ” (5 vols., 1839–41) and
* Celtic and Antediluvian Antiquities” (1847). He is re-
garded as the founder of the science of archaeo-geology.
Died Aug. 9, 1868. -
‘Boucherie (AUGUSTE), a French chemist, born in
Sept., 1801, invented a method of preserving wood. He
employed sulphate of copper.
Bouches-du-Rhône, a department in the S. E. part
of France, was formerly included in Provence. Its area is
1971 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Durance,
which separates it from Vaucluse, on the E. by War, on the
S. by the Mediterranean, and on the W. by Gard. It is
intersected by the Rhone, which enters the sea by several
mouths, and forms a delta called the “Ile de la Camargue.”
The surface in the E. part is hilly, and is elsewhere diver-
sified by plains, heaths, forests, and saline lakes. The
grapevine and olive flourish here, and large numbers of
silkworms and sheep are raised in this department. Among
its public works are several canals, a railway connecting
Marseilles with Lyons, and an aqueduct, fifty miles long;
from the Durance to Marseilles, which is the capital. It
has manufactures of cloth, hats, perfumes, wine, brandy,
soap, olive oil, and chemical products. It is divided into
3 arrondissements, 27 cantons, and 107 communes. Pop.
in 1872, 554,911. -
Bouchette (Joseph) was born in Canada in 1774. ... In
1790 he entered the surveyor-general’s office for British
America, and afterwards served in the volunteers and in
the navy of the lakes. In 1804 he became surveyor-general.
He served against the U. S. in the war of 1812. As sur-
veyor-general he was afterwards employed in establishing
the southern boundary of Canada. He published (1816) a
574
BOUCICAULT—BOULDER.
topographical and geographical description of Canada,
“The British Dominions in North America” (1831), and a
“Topographical Dictionary of Lower Canada,” (1832).
Died at Montreal April 9, 1841. -
Boucicault (DION) was born in Dublin, Ireland, Dec.
26, 1822, and was educated by his guardian, Dr. Dionysius
Lardner, and at the London University. His first success-
ful play was “London Assurance,” which he wrote in con-
junction with John Brougham, and which was acted in
i841 at Covent Garden, London. He was married to Miss
Agnes Robertson, came to America in 1853, and remained
till 1860, when he returned to London, and brought out, at
the Adelphi Theatre, his first, and still famous, Irish play,
“The Colleen Bawn.” This is founded on Gerald Griffin's
novel of “The Collegians.” In 1861 was produced at the
same theatre his play of “The Octoroon,” which vigorously
illustrated, and by implication denounced, the evils of sla-
very in the Southern U. S. He remained in England till
1872, and during these twelve years he furnished to the
London stage the following plays: 1862, “Dot,” “The Life
of an Actress,” “The Phantom,” “The Relief of Luck-
now ;” 1863, “The Trial of Effie Deans;” 1864, “The Streets
of London;” 1865, “Arrah-Na-Pogue,” “Rip Van Winkle,”
“The Parish Clerk” (the latter, written for Joseph Jeffer-
son, was not acted in London); 1866, “The Flying Scud,”
“Hunted Down,” “The Long Strike;” 1867, “How She
Loves Him I’” “Foul Play” (written in collaboration with
the novelist Charles Reade); 1868, “After Dark;” 1869,
“Lost at Sea,” “Formosa,” “Presumptive Evidence;”
1870, “The Rapparee,” “Jezebel;” 1871, “Elsie,” “Kerry;”
1872, “Babil and Bijou.” In the autumn of 1872 he ap-
peared at Booth’s Theatre, New York, as Shaun in “Arrah-
Na-Pogue.” In 1873 he produced, at Booth’s Theatre, his
beautiful Irish play of “Daddy O’Dowd;” at Wallack's
Theatre, his “Mora,” and his “Mimi;” and at the Union
Square Theatre, his “Led Astray.” On Dec. 25, 1873, he
opened, in conjunction with Mr. William Stuart, the New
Park Theatre, on Broadway, near Twenty-second street,
New York. Among his earlier works, prior to his first
visit to America, were “Old Heads and Young Hearts,”
“The Irish Heiress,” “The Willow Copse,” “The Corsican
Brothers,” “Faust and Marguerite,” and “The Vampire.”
The dramas of Boucicault are seldom, if ever, original in
plot, but they are often original, and sometimes superla-
tively good, in action, treatment of incidents, and bright-
ness of dialogue. His melodramas excel those of the ear-
lier school—which they have superseded—in vitality of
subject, lifelike character, human interest, and pointed
colloquy. The elevation of this class of stage literature is
directly traceable to his influence. He has also been the
means of great improvement and elevation to the Irish
drama, having replaced the “ranting, roaring Irishman,”
with stuffed stick and black bottle, by genuine men of the
Emerald Isle, such as Diogenes in “How She Loves Him!”
Johnny Reilly in “The Long Strike,” Myles-na-Coppaleen,
Shaun the Post, Kerry, and Daddy O’Dowd. As an actor,
Mr. Boucicault's best successes have been won in person-
ating eccentric characters, such as Mantilini, and rustic old
Irishmen, such as Daddy O’Dowd. He will be remembered,
however, for his Grinaldi and his Vampire. He will also
be remembered for having made dramatic authorship a
remunerative profession to dramatic authors in England.
This he did by asserting, maintaining, and finally estab-
lishing the principle that among theatrical attractions the
play should be made predominant, and should be suitably
recompensed. The change in practice that ensued may be
inferred from the fact that whereas, in the earlier part of
his career, Mr. Boucicault received but £60 for his “Corsi-
can Brothers,” he obtained, in 1866, for his “Flying Scud,”
#6500. Boucicault was educated as an architect and civil
engineer. As a manager he established a theatre in Wash-
ington, D.C., in 1858; reconstructed the Metropolitan The-
atre, New York, and converted it into the Winter Garden
in 1859; and remodelled Astley’s Circus and built the West-
minster Theatre—both in London—in 1862. He is the
author of numerous newspaper essays and letters on dra-
matic subjects, and of an unpublished work on the stage
and kindred themes, called “The Master of the Revels.”
WILLIAM WINTER, of the “ N. Y. Tribune.”
Bouck'ville, a post-village of Madison township, Mad-
ison co., N. Y., on the New York and Oswego Midland
R. R., 15 miles S. W. of Clinton. It has considerable man-
ufactures of lumber, cheese, and vinegar, and a distillery
of cider-brandy.
Bou'dinot (ELIAS), LL.D., an American patriot, born
in Philadelphia May 2, 1740. He practised law in New
Jersey, and supported the popular cause in the Revolution.
He was chosen a delegate to the Continental Congress in
1777, was a member of Congress (1789–95), and was direc-
tor of the Mint at Philadelphia from 1796 to 1805. In 1816
he became the first president of the American Bible Society.
He wrote several works, and gave large sums of money for
charitable purposes. His wife was a sister of Richard
Stockton. He died Oct. 24, 1821.
Boudoir, a small cabinet or private apartment, usually
near the bed-chamber, designed as a place of retirement for
the mistress of the house, who sometimes receives there her
intimate friends. Boudoirs became fashionable in France
in the reign of Louis XIV. -
Bouflers, de (Louis FRANÇors), DUKE, a famous'
French general, born Jan. 10, 1644. He served under
Turenne and Catinat, distinguished himself at Steenkerke
in 1692, and became a marshal of France in 1693. He
commanded at Namur when it was besieged by William
III. of England in 1695, and defended Lille with success
in 1708 against Prince Eugène. He commanded a wing at
Malplaquet (1709), from which he made a masterly retreat.
Died Aug. 20, 1711. (See “Wie du Maréchal du Bouflers,”
Lille, 1852.)
Bougainville, de (Louis ANToINE), a famous French
navigator, born in Paris Nov. 11, 1729. He was aide-de-
camp to Montcalm in America in 1756, and served with
distinction in Germany in 1761. He performed a voyage
round the world in 1767–69, and discovered several islands
in the South Sea, being the first Frenchman who circum-
navigated the globe, and he published in 1771 a narrative
of that voyage. During the American Revolution he had
a high command in several naval battles between the
French and English. Died Aug. 31, 1811.
Bought Note, a memorandum given by a broker who
effects a sale to the purchaser, in which he is notified that
the property therein described has been bought for him
of the seller, the price and terms being stated. A similar
memorandum given to the seller is called the sold note.
According to some authorities, the bought note is given to
the seller, and the sold note to the buyer. As a general rule,
the notes must correspond, or there will be no contract.
Boughſton (GEORGE H.), a painter of great merit, born-
in Norfolk, England, in 1836, removed to Albany, N. Y.
After a few years’ residence in America, he returned to
England. His works, chiefly landscapes and genre pic-
tures, are marked by delicacy of execution and tenderness
of sentiment. & - -
Bougie, boo’zhee' [a French word signifying a “wax
candle,” so called because sometimes made of waxed linen],
a slender surgical instrument designed to be introduced
into the male, urethra. It is usually made of gum-elastic
or gutta-percha, but may be made of other flexible sub-
stances. Bougies are often medicated, but more commonly
they are designed to act mechanically upon a contracted
passage. Bougies are sometimes made of a larger size for
the rectum or for the oesophagus.
Bouguer (PIERRE), a French mathematician and nat-
ural philosopher, born in Brittany Feb. 16, 1698. He pub-
lished in 1729 an “Essay on Optics and the Gradation of
Light,” and was associated in 1736 with La Condamine in
an expedition to Peru for the purpose of measuring a de-
gree of the meridian, in which they spent several years.
He published the results of this operation in an important
work entitled “Theory of the Figure of the Earth” (1749).
He wrote other works, and invented the heliometer. Died
Aug. 15, 1758.
Bouillon, de (GoDEFROI). See GoDFREx or Bouri,
LON. -
Boul’den, a township of Linn co., Ia. Pop. 937.
Boul’der, or Bowlder, a large mass or fragment of
rock lying on or near the surface of the ground, and found
at a distance from the place of its origin and from the
formation to which it belongs. . Boulders are usually
rounded by attrition. In many cases they have been
transported hundreds of miles by the action of icebergs or
glaciers. Large masses of Scandinavian rocks are scat-
tered over the plains of Denmark and Northern Germany.
The pedestal of the statue of Peter the Great at St. Peters-
burg was hewn out of an erratic granite boulder forty-two
feet long, twenty-seven feet broad, and twenty-one feet high.
In the Western States occur many granite boulders which
probably came from Canada. They abound along the coast
of New England, where they are so large as to form a
prominent feature in the landscape. The famous Plymouth
Rock is a boulder of syenite. (See DRIFT.)
Boul’der, a county in the N. part of Colorado. Area,
900 square miles. It is drained by Boulder and Saint
Vrain's creeks. It is bounded on the W. by a range of
the Rocky Mountains which separates it from the Middle
Park. The soil is fertile. Grain, hay, and butter are pro-
duced. Gold, silver, iron, and coal abound here. Capital,
Boulder. Pop. 1939.
Boulder, a post-village, capital of the above county,

BOULDER CLAY-BOURBON.
575
on Boulder Creek, near the E. base of the Rocky Moun-
tains, 25 miles N. W. of Denver. The celebrated Caribou
silver and the Gold Hill gold-mines are in the immediate
vicinity. It is a popular resort for excursionists. It has
one weekly newspaper. Pop. 343.
ED. “BouldER County NEws.”
Boulder Clay. See GEOLOGY, by PROF. J. W. DAW-
SON, LL.D., F. R. S.
Bou’le [Gr. Bovāń, a “council”], the name of the an-
cient Athenian senate, instituted by Solon as a check on
the ecclesia (ŠkrAmaria), which was an assembly of the whole
people. The boule was at first composed of 400 members,
but Cleisthenes increased the number to 500 when he di-
vided the Athenians into ten tribes. The number was sub-
sequently raised to 600. All freeborn Athenian citizens
above thirty years of age were eligible to this council.
Boulevard', a French word corresponding to the
English “bulwark” or “rampart,” was applied to the
fortifications erected around many towns in Europe. In
France and Germany these defensive works have been
generally levelled and converted into public promenades
or avenues lined with trees. The boulevards of Paris are
celebrated for their beauty, and are mostly curvilinear.
The Inner Boulevards form a magnificent central thorough-
fare, lined on each side by a double row of trees, under
which is a wide and elevated pathway, and bordered by
elegant shops and mansions, the whole presenting a scene
of gayety and splendor which no other capital can equal.'
The Italian Boulevard is a fashionable promenade.
Boulogne, a town of France, department of the Seine,
is on the right bank of the river Seine, 5 miles W. of
Paris, from which it is separated by the BoIS DE BoulognI.
(which see). A fine stone bridge connects it with the
ruined palace of St. Cloud. It is surrounded by beautiful
scenery. Pop. 17,343.
Boulogne, or Boulogne-sur-Mer, a seaport of
France, department of Pas-de-Calais, is on the English
Channel, at the mouth of the Lianne, 158 miles by rail
N. N. W. of Paris and 27 miles by rail S. W. of Calais;
lat. 50° 44' N., lon. 19 37' E. The railway which connects
Calais with Amiens passes through it. It is divided into
two parts—the upper and lower town, from the former of
which the English coast is visible. The upper town has
beautiful promenades, an old Gothic cathedral, a hôtel de
ville, and an episcopal palace. The lower town is newer,
more regular, and more populous. It contains a hospital,
a theatre, a museum, a public library, and an exchange.
Boulogne derives much of its prosperity from English resi-
dents and visitors, who are very numerous. Steamers ply
twice a day between this port and Folkestone. The harbor
will admit large vessels during high water. Here are
manufactures of linen and woollen goods, sailcloth, cord-
age, bottles, etc. It occupies the site of the ancient Gesori-
acum, which after the time of Constantine the Great was
called Bomonia, Oceanensis. Several centuries later the
name was changed to Bolonia. At this place Napoleon
assembled in 1804 an army of 180,000 men and a flotilla
of 2400 transports for the invasion of England. To com-
memorate this design, which, however, was never executed,
a column 164 feet high was erected. Pop. 40,251.
Boulogne (ÉtienNE ANTOINE), an eloquent French
prelate, born Dec. 26, 1747, edited during the Revolution
the “Annales religieuses,” which was several times sup-
pressed and revived with altered title. Under the empire
he, as bishop of Troyes, was imprisoned with two other
bishops for declaring that the emperor had no authority to
confine a bishop without the approval of the pope. He
was made an archbishop in 1822. His works appeared in
1826–28, 8 vols. Died May 13, 1825.
Boul/ton (MATTHEw), an English inventor, born at
Birmingham Sept. 3, 1728. He was noted for his energy
and enterprise as a manufacturer, and he became a friend
and partner of James Watt. He established at Soho, near
Birmingham, a manufactory of steam-engines in 1765.
Boulton invented an improved apparatus for coining
money and a new mode of inlaying steel. He was a man
of generous disposition. Died Aug. 17, 1809. (See “Life
of M. Boulton,” Birmingham, 1809.)
Bou-Maza (SI MoHAMMED BEN ABDALLAH, surnamed),
an Arab chief, born about 1820, followed for three years
the austere life of a dervish, and then, proclaiming that he
was an emissary of Heaven, he stirred up the Kabyles, the
warlike inhabitants of Dahra in Algiers, preached exter-
mination to Christians, and waged war upon the allies of
France, Hadj-Achmed and Sidi-Darribi. He surrendered
after a protracted conflict with Gen. Herbillon, Jan. 13,
1847, and was conveyed to Paris. He afterwards entered
the service of the Porte, and attained the rank of colonel.
Boul'ware, a township of Gasconade co, Mo. P. 983.
Bound, or Bound’ary, a limit; the line which in-
cludes the whole of any object or space; also a leap, a
spring, a rebound. The term “boundary’ is applied to
the limit line of demarcation which separates one state or
country from another, and which is sometimes an imagi-
nary line, sometimes a river, Sea, or other natural barrier.
In the mensuration and description of real estate, “bound”
is used to denote the utmost limits of land by which the
same is known and can be described, being in this sense
synonymous with abuttals.
Bound, or Bownd (NICOLAs), D.D., a clergyman of
the Church of England at Norton, in Suffolk, who died in
1607. He published in 1595 (enlarged edition in 1606) his
famous work, “Sabbathum Veteris et Novi Testamenti,”
in which the Puritan doctrine of the Lord’s Day was for
the first time broadly and prominently asserted.
Bound Bai' liff, in England, is a sheriff's officer whose
duty it is to discover and arrest debtors. (See BAILIFF.)
Bound Brook, a post-village of Bridgewater town-
ship, Somerset co., N.J., on the Central R. R. of New Jersey,
31 miles W. S.W. of New York. It is pleasantly situated
on the Raritan River and the Delaware and Raritan Canal.
It has five churches and important manufactures. Its
trade in lumber is very extensive. Pop. 556.
Bounty [from the Fr. bonté, “goodness,” “kindness”],
a premium given by government to foster some branch of
industry, or encourage enterprises which are believed to be
of national importance and conducive to the public in-
terests. The British government formerly gave bounties
to encourage the herring-fisheries and the exportation of
grain and Irish linen, and for other purposes. The mod-
ern political economists reject this factitious method of fos-
tering commerce, agriculture, etc., and argue that it pro-
motes a misdirection of capital, talent, and industry. The
impolicy of giving bounties for such purposes appears to
be now generally admitted. They are often given, partic-
ularly in new countries, for the destruction of ferocióus
animals, as wolves, bears, etc. Some of the U. S. give
bounties for tree-planting. Subsidies to steamship com-
panies and land grants to railways are common in the U.S.
A bounty in money is also often given to induce men to
enlist in the army and navy. The amount of this money
varies according to the exigency and the difficulty of ob-
taining recruits. In 1812 the British government offered
a nominal bounty of £23 17s. 6d., but this was subject to
large deductions and drawbacks. The bounty given in
Great Britain at present is about one pound sterling. In
the American civil war the recruits of the Union army re-
ceived in some cases a bounty of $500 or more. Many of
these recruits deserted soon after they had received the
bounty; these were called “bounty-jumpers.”
Bouquet (HENRY). See APPENDIX.
Bouquetin, or Ibex of the Alps (Capra ibea), [Ger.
Steinbock], a species of wild goat formerly found on the
Alps, and which ascends to the limit of perpetual snow. . It
is larger than the common goat, and has large horns which
curve backward. The horns of the male are sometimes
twenty inches long or more. It has no beard except a few
hairs in winter. The color of the hair is mostly brown.
This animal feeds on shrubs, lichens, and the scanty herb-.
age which is found on the confines of vegetation. It has an
extraordinary power of bounding from crag to crag, and of
climbing precipices which are almost perpendicular. The
bouquetin can be tamed if it is taken young, and it will
breed with the common goat. The bouquetin is now ex-
tinct in the Alps, except possibly near Cormayeur. There
are still probably 40 or 50 on the mountains S. of the Dora
Baltea. The bouquetin is preserved as royal game.
• Bourbaki (CHARLEs DENIS SAUTER), a French general,
born April 22, 1816, took part in the wars in the Crimea
and in Italy, and in the beginning of the German-French
war of 1870 he commanded the imperial guards before
Metz. After the deposition of Napoleon he organized the
Army of the North, then commanded in the E. of France,
and was forced to cross the Swiss frontier with 84,000 men,
Feb. 1, 1871. -
Bourbon, called also Ile de la Réunion, or Ile
Bonaparte, an island and French Colony in the Indian
Ocean, belongs to the Mascarene group, and is about 100
miles S. W. of Mauritius; lat. 20° 51' 43" S., lon. 55° 30'
16' E. It is 38 miles long, 28 miles wide, and has an area
of 956 square miles. Pop. in 1867, 209,688. It is volcanic,
and is traversed by a mountain-chain the direction of which
is N. and S. This mountain-range, of which one peak rises
10,000 feet above the sea, divides the island into two por-
tions, differing in climate and productions. The Piton de
Fournaise, 7200 feet high, is an active volcano, the eruptions
of which occur on an average at least twice a year. The
soil in some parts is very fertile, and the scenery is gener-
576 - *.
BOURBON.—BOURDON. \
ally extremely beautiful. The climate was formerly healthy,
but Europeans now suffer much from typhoid fever and
dysentery. The mean annual temperature is about 77° F.
It is often visited by terrific hurricanes, which demolish
houses and tear up trees by the roots. The chief articles
of export are sugar, coffee, and dyewoods. Maize, rice,
and tobacco are also cultivated. The island has no good
harbors, and the coast is consequently dangerous. In one
year (1843–44) eleven large vessels were wrecked here.
Capital, St. Denis. This island was discovered in 1545 by
the Portuguese, and was occupied by the French in 1649.
Bourbon, a county of Kansas, bordering on Missouri.
Area, 625 square miles. It is drained by the Little Osage
and Marmaton rivers. The surface is undulating or nearly
level; the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool
are produced. Excellent coal abounds. A large portion
of the county is prairie. It is intersected by the Missouri
River Fort Scott and Gulf and the Missouri Kansas and
Texas R. Rs. Capital, Fort Scott. Pop. 15,076.
Bourbon, a county of the N. central part of Kentucky.
Area, 300 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the
South Licking River and drained by several creeks. The
surface is undulating; the soil is calcareous and very fer-
tile. This county forms part of the “Blue-grass region,”
called “the garden of Kentueky.” Live-stock, grain, and
wool are staple products. This county gives its name to a
celebrated brand of whisky. It has several mineral springs,
and is intersected by the Kentucky Central R. R. Capital,
Paris. Pop. 14,863.
Bourbon, a township of Douglas co., III. Pop. 1457.
Bourbon, a post-village of Marshall co., Ind., on the
Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R., 53 miles from
Fort Wayne, and 95 from Chicago. It contains 2 churches,
1 academy, 1 graded school, 2 saw-mills, 1 large wagon
manufactory and several smaller ones, 1 steam furniture
manufactory, and 1 on a less extensive scale, a large flour-
ing mill, several extensive boot and shoe manufactories,
and various other mechanical enterprises; one literary so-
ciety with a library. The surrounding country is very fer-
tile, abounding in valuable timber, such as walnut, poplar,
oak, maple, beech, etc. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop.
874; of township, 2794.
I. MATTINGLY, ED. “Bourbon MIRROR.”
Bourbon, a township of Boone co., Mo. Pop. 2384.
Bourbon, a township of Callaway co., Mo. Pop. 1590.
Bourbon, the name of a celebrated French royal
family which reigned over France from 1589 to 1792, and
from 1815 to 1848. A prince of the Bourbon dynasty also
obtained the throne of Spain in 1700, and another that of
Naples and Sicily in 1735. The Bourbons derive their
name from the castle of Bourbon, which was built in the
thirteenth century, and was situated in the old province of
Bourbonnais, 16 miles W. of Moulins. The heiress of the
seignory was married in 1272 to Robert, a younger son of
King Louis IX. The seignory was erected into a duchy,
and Louis, a son of Robert, became about 1327 the first
duke of Bourbon. He died in 1341, and was succeeded by
his son Pierre, who was killed at Poitiers in 1356. Louis,
a son of Pierre, became the third duke of Bourbon. He
was one of the most powerful vassals of the crown of
France, and made large additions to the duchy by his mar-
riages. Died in 1410. His son Jean, born in 1381, was
the fourth duke. He was taken prisoner by the English at
Agincourt, and detained until his death (1434). He was
succeeded by his som Charles, born in 1401. He died in
1456, leaving a son Jean, who became the sixth duke of
Bourbon and constable of France. (See Bourbon, DE,
CHARLEs.)
Among the collateral branches of the Bourbon family
were those of Vendôme, Condé, Montpensier, Orléans, Conti,
and Soissons. Antoine de Bourbon, duke of Vendôme, be-
came by marriage king of Navarre. His son, Henry of
Navarre, was the first French king of the house of Bourbon,
and began to reign as Henry IV. in 1589. He had two
sons, Louis XIII. and Gaston, duke of Orleans; a daugh-
ter, Elizabeth, who was married to Philip IV. of Spain, and
Henrietta, who became the queen of Charles I. of England.
Louis XIII., who died in 1643, left two sons, Louis XIV.
and Philip, duke of Orleans, who was the ancestor of King
Louis Philippe. The dauphin, the eldest son of Louis
XIV., died in 1711, leaving three sons—1, Louis, duke of
Burgundy; 2, Philip, duke of Anjou, who became king of
Spain as Philip W.; 3, Charles, duke of Berry. Louis of
Burgundy, who died in 1712, was the-father of Louis XV.,
who succeeded his great-grandfather, Louis XIV., in 1715.
Louis XV. had one son, Louis, who died before his father,
leaving three sons, who all reigned successively—namely,
Louis XVI., Louis XVIII., and Charles X. Louis XVI.
left one son, who by the royalists was recognized as Louis
—-
XVII., but perished as a child during the French Revolu-
tion. As the circumstances of his death remained unknown,
many adventurers claimed to be Louis XVII. Louis XVIII.
had no issue. Charles X. had two sons—Louis Antoine, who
died without issue in 1844; and Charles Ferdinand, duke
of Berry. His only son, Henri, duke of Bordeaux, now
styled Count de Chambord, is the heir to the throne, ac-
cording to the Legitimists, who give him the title of Henry
W. (See CHAMBORD.) -
The House of Orleans is called the younger branch of the
royal family of Bourbon, and is descended from Philip of
Orleans, a younger brother of Louis XIV. His son Philip
was regent of France during the minority of Louis XV.,
and left a son, Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans. This last
was the grandfather of the duke of Orleans who figured in
the Revolution as Citizen Egalité. His eldest son, Louis
Philippe, became king of the French in 1830. This king
had five sons—the duke of Orleans, the duke of Nemours,
the prince de Joinville, the duke of Aumale, and the duke
of Montpensier. The count of Paris, the son of the eldest
of these five, is regarded as the heir to the throne by the
Orleanist party. *
Philip, duke of Anjou, who was placed on the throne of
Spain in 1700, was the founder of a Spanish dynasty,
which reigned in Spain until the dethronement of Queen
Isabella in 1868. He was also the ancestor of the Bourbon
dynasties of Naples and Parma. Francis II., who was de-
throned in Sept., 1860, was the last Bourbon monarch of
Naples (or the Two Sicilies). The Bourbons have also
ceased to reign in Parma, which was annexed to the king-
dom of Italy in 1860. (See ACHAINTRE, “Histoire Chrono-
logique et Généalogique de la Maison Royale de Bour-
bon,” 2 vols., 1825; CoxE, “Memoirs of the Kings of Spain
of the House of Bourbon,” 3 vols., 1813.)
REVISED BY A. J. ScHEM.
Bourbon, de (CHARLEs), DUC, usually styled CoNSTA-
BLE Bourbon (Connétable de Bourbon), a famous French
general, born Feb. 17, 1489, was a son of Gilbert Bourbon,
count of Montpensier. He married the heiress of the duke
of Bourbon, and became the owner of the vast estates of
both branches of the Bourbons. He was appointed con- .
stable of France in 1515, and was one of the generals who
gained a victory at Marignano in that year. He was very
popular with the soldiers. The mother of Francis I. was
enamored of him, but her overtures having been rejected,
she became his enemy. At her instigation, the estates
which he had acquired by marriage were seized by the
king. Bourbon deeply resented this injury, renounced his
allegiance to the king of France in 1523, and became the
ally of the emperor Charles V., for whose service he raised
about 6000 Germans. He contributed largely to the victory
which the imperial army gained over the French at Pavía.
in 1525. It appears that he was distrusted by Charles W.,
who neglected to pay Bourbon’s German mercenaries,
and these consequently became mutinous. He resolved to
quit the service of Charles W., and in order to satisfy his
troops with spoils of conquest he conducted a daring enter-
prise against Rome, in which he displayed great military
talents. His army took Rome by assault May 5, 1527, but
he was killed as he mounted the wall. (See ROBERTSON,
“History of Charles W.;” BRANTöME, “Wies des grands
Capitaines.”)
Bourbonnais, a township of Kankakee co., Ill. Pop.
2068.
Bourbon-Vendée, or Napoleon Vendée, a town
of France, capital of the department of La Vendée, on the
river Yon, 48 miles by rail S. of Nantes. It has a college,
a normal school, town-hall, and hospital. Pop. 8710.
Bourdaloue (Louis), an excellent French pulpit orator,
born at Bourges Aug. 20, 1632. He entered the order of
Jesuits in 1648, and became professor of rhetoric and phil-
osophy. In 1669 he removed to Paris, where he preached
for many years, and was often heard by Louis XIV., who
expressed a high opinion of his sermons. He was distin-
guished for the dignity of his manner, the wisdom of his
thoughts, and the earnestness of his piety. His style of
eloquence was less inflated and more simple than that which
then prevailed in France. He was a general favorite with
the common people, as well as the learned and higher classes.
Died in Paris May 13, 1704. His sermons were published
in 16 vols., 1707–34. (See PRIGNY, “Vie de Bourdaloue,”
1705; WILLENAVE, “ Notice sur Bourdaloue,” 1812; J.
LABoupſ. RIE, “ Notice sur Bourdaloue,” 1825.)
Bourdoin, a township of Texas co., Mo. Pop. 316.
Bourdon [a French word signifying “staff”], in music,
is applied to the humming sound produced by blowing
through a long hollow staff. Hence the apparatus in or-
gans, stringed instruments, etc. by which the deep sound
is made, *

BOURGELAT—BOUVET.
Bourgelat (CLAUDE), a French physician and writer,
noted as the founder of veterinary schools in France, was
born at Lyons Mar. 17, 1712. He wrote on materia medica,
farriery, contagious diseases, etc. In 1762 he founded a
veterinary school at Lyons. Died Jan. 3, 1779.
Bourg-en-Bresse, a town of France, capital of the
department of Ain, is pleasantly situated on the Reyssouse,
57 miles by rail N. N. E. of Lyons. Several railways con-
nect it with Lyons, Mâcon, and Besançon. It is well built,
has a college, a museum, a large hospital, and a public library
of about 20,000 volumes. Here are manufactures of limens,
cotton stuffs, hosiery, etc. Pop. 13,733.
Bourgeois, a French word signifying a citizen or resi-
dent of a city; a commoner, as distinguished from a noble-
man; a civilian, as distinguished from a soldier. A citizen
of the state or republic is called citoyen.
Bourgeois, the name of a type used in printing. It
is one size larger than brevier, and one size smaller than
long primer. (See TYPE.) -
Bourgeoisie, a French term, which is also much used
in English, defined in dictionaries as “citizens,” “citizen-
ship,” “commonalty.” It is applied to the great middle
class of French society, composed mostly of merchants,
manufacturers, master mechanics, lawyers, etc., who live in
towns and cities. They are inferior in rank to the aristoc-
racy, and superior to the peasantry and to the prolétaires
of the towns. -
Bourges (anc. Avaricum, afterwards Bituriges), a city
of France, near its centre, capital of the department of
Cher, is situated in a fertile plain at the confluence of the
Auron and the Eure, 146 miles by rail S. of Paris. It is
connected by railway with Paris, Orleans, Moulins, and
other cities. It was enclosed by ramparts, which have been
converted into promenades or boulevards bordered with
chestnut and walnut trees. The streets are crooked and
the houses mostly antique. Bourges has a college, a nor-
mal school, a public library of about 25,000 volumes, a fine
hôtel de ville, and a magnificent Gothic cathedral, which
is considered one of the finest in Europe. It is the see of
an archbishop. This town was formerly the seat of a
celebrated university. It has manufactures of cutlery,
woollen stuffs, etc. Avaricum, which occupied this site,
was a very ancient town, and was the capital of Celtic
Gaul about 500 B. C. It was the chief town of the Bitu-
riges in the time of Julius Caesar, who besieged and took it
in 52 B.C., after which it became the capital of the Ro-
man province of Aquitania. During the Middle Ages
seven councils of the Church were held here, and in 1438
the Pragmatic Sanction of the Gallican Church was estab-
lished here. Pop. 30,819.
Bourgoing, de (JEAN FRANÇois), BARON, an accom-
plished and amiable French diplomatist, born Nov. 20, 1748,
was ambassador at different courts. During a mine years'
residence in Spain he wrote a thorough book upon that
country, “Nouveau voyage en Espagne, etc.” (3 vols.,
1789–1808). Died July 20, 1811.
Bourignon (ANToINETTE), a Flemish visionary relig-
ionist, born at Lille Jan. 13, 1616, entered a convent in her
youth, and professed that she had received special revela-
tions. Having left the convent and renounced Catholicism,
she travelled in foreign countries, wrote several religious
works, and gained many converts to her sect, especially in
Scotland. She was an eloquent speaker and writer. Died
Oct. 30, 1680. (See a “Life of Antoinette Bourignon,”
prefixed to her works, 21 vols., 1676–84.) -
Bourmont, de (Louis AUGUSTE VICTOR), Comte de
Ghaisne, a French general, born in Anjou Sept. 2, 1773, was
a royalist in the Revolution. He fought against the repub-
lic in 1794–96, and entered the service of Napoleon about
1809. Having served with distinction in Russia, he was
raised to the rank of lieutenant-general in 1814. During
the Hundred Days, 1815, he deserted Louis XVIII. and
Napoleon by turns. He became minister of war in 1829,
and commander-in-chief of the army sent against Algiers
in 1830. He conquered Algiers, and was rewarded in July,
1830, with the baton of a marshal of France. Being de-
voted to Charles X., he was deprived of his command by
the revolution of 1830, and went into exile. Died Oct. 27,
# * DE LANSAC, “Notice sur le Comte de Bourmont,”
Bourne (HUGH), an English preacher, born in Stafford-
shire April 3, 1772, was one of the founders of the sect of
Primitive Methodists. He was “cut off” from the Wesleyan
connection in 1808 for holding camp-meetings, before which
he was a zealous layman of that denomination. His new
Sect was organized in 1810. He visited Ireland and the
U. S. Died Oct. 11, 1852.
Bourne, viscº, an English scholar and elegant
57 T
Latin poet, was born about 1698. He was an usher of
Westminster School. He wrote several short original Lat-
in poems, which are remarkably graceful, and produced
Latin versions of English ballads, which are wonderfully
felicitous. Cowper translated some of his original Latin
poems. Died Dec. 2, 1747.
Bourneville, a post-village of Twin township, Ross
co., O. Pop. 208.
Bour/nonite, or Endellionite, a triple sulphide of
copper, antimony, and lead, is composed of 41.8 per cent.
of lead, 26 of antimony, 19.4 of sulphur, and 12.8 of copper.
It occurs in crystals and massive.
Bournouse, or Bormouse, bor-noos', the Arabic
name of a garment worn in Algeria and other parts of
Northern Africa. It is a large woollen mantle, worn above
the other clothing of the natives, and has a hood which is
used to cover the head in rainy weather. It has been
adopted by the Spaniards, who call it albornoz.
Bourrienne, de (Louis ANToINE FAUVELET), a French
diplomatist, born at Sens July 9, 1769. He was a fellow-
student and friend of Bonaparte at the school of Brienne.
They met at Paris in 1792, and renewed their intimacy.
In 1796 Bourrienne became private secretary to General
Bonaparte, whom he followed to Egypt. In 1804 he was
sent as minister to Hamburg, but he was accused of pecu-
lation, and was recalled in 1811. Having deserted Napo-
leon in 1814, he was appointed minister of state by Louis
XVIII. in 1815. He published an interesting work enti-
tled “Memoirs of Bourrienne’’ (10 vols., 1829–31), which
is an important contribution to the history of Napoleon.
Died Feb. 7, 1834. (See BoulAY DE LA MEURTHE, “Bour-
rienne et ses Erreurs,” 2 vols., 1830.)
Bourse. See ExCHANGE.
Boussingault (JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH DIEUDONNá), a
French chemist, born in Paris Feb. 2, 1802, became a mem-
ber of the Institute in 1839. He was an officer under Bol-
ivar in South America in his youth. He co-operated with
Dumas in experiments to determine the composition of the
atmosphere. In 1844 he published a valuable work enti-
tled a “Treatise on Rural Economy '' (2 vols.). He was
a móderate republican member of the National Assembly
in 1848.
Boussu-sur-Haine, a
Haine, in the province of Hainaut.
and breweries. Pop. 6638.
Boustrophe’don [from the Gr. Boös, an “ox,” and
arpédo, to “turn"), a word used to describe a mode of writ-
ing practised by the ancient Greeks until about 450 B.C.
—namely, in alternate lines from right to left and from left
to right, as fields are ploughed in furrows, having an alter-
nate direction.
Bou’terwek (FRIEDRICH), a German philosopher and
critic, born near Goslar, in Hanover, April 15, 1766. He
wrote several poems and a romance called “Count Dona-
mar” (3 vols., 1791). He became extraordinary professor
of philosophy at Göttingen in 1797, and ordinary professor
in 1802. He published several works on philosophy and
a “Treatise on AEsthetics” (1806). His reputation is
founded on his excellent “History of Modern Poetry and
Eloquence” (12 vols., 1801–19), Died Aug. 9, 1828. (See
J. F. BLUMENBACH, “Memoria F. Bouterwekii,” 1832.)
Bout/well (GEORGE SEWALL), LL.D., an American law-
yer and statesman, born in Brookline, Mass., Jan. 28, 1818.
His education was partly obtained in the public schools
and by a course of thorough private study. He taught
school in his youth, was admitted to the bar at the age of
twenty-eight, and in 1851 and 1852 was chosen governor
of Massachusetts. He was long a member of the Massa-
chusetts board of education, of which he was secretary for
five years. He organized the internal revenue department
of the U. S. government, and in 1862 became its first com-
missioner. He was a member of Congress from Massa-
chusetts 1863–69, and secretary of the treasury 1869–73,
under President Grant. In 1873 he was chosen U. S. Sen-
ator from Massachusetts, in place of Hon. Henry Wilson,
Vice-President of the U. S.
Bouvar'dia (named in honor of Bouvard, physician
of Louis XIII.), a genus of plants of the natural order
Cinchonaceae, is allied to the trees from which Peruvian
bark is obtained. The corolla is tubular, 4-lobed, and has
four stamens included in it. The fruit is a capsule, 2-celled.
The species of this genus are natives of Mexico. The Bow:
wardia triphylla is cultivated in gardens for its beautiful
scarlet flowers.
Bouvet (FRANÇors Joseph FRANCISQUE), a French pub-
licist, born Aug. 15, 1799, has supported by his writings
the liberal party. He was editor of the “Revue Inde-
pendante” and “Reveil de l'Ain,” in which he developed
town in Belgium, on the
It has machine-works
…” . ,"
578
BOUVIER—BOWER-BIRD.
his ideas concerning universal peace. He has written “Du
Principe de l'autorité en France, et de la limite des pou-
voirs; conciliation des parties” (1839), “Du Pape” (1863),
and “Philalethe ; le problème européen.”
Bouvier' (HANNAH. M.), born in Philadelphia in 1811,
the only daughter of Judge John Bouvier, published “Fa-
miliar Astronomy '' (1857), a work which won the praise
of Sir John Herschel, Lord Rosse, Hind, Airy, De Morgan,
and many other eminent astronomers of Europe and the
Bouvier (John), a jurist and writer, born in the French
department of Gard in 1787. He emigrated to the U. S.
in 1802, and practised law in Philadelphia. In 1838 he
became a judge of the criminal court in that city. He pub-
lished a “Law Dictionary '' (1839), which has had a great
success, and “Institutes of American Law” (4 vols., 1851).
Died Nov. 18, 1851. -
Bovia/num, an ancient city of Italy, founded by the
Samnites on or near the site of the modern Bojano, was
surrounded by high mountains. According to Livy, it was
a wealthy and powerful city. It was besieged and taken
by the Romans in 311 B. C. In the second Punic war it
was several times the head-quarters of the Roman army.
During the Social war it was the capital of the confede-
rates.
Bov/idae [from the Lat. bos, gen. bo’vis, an “ox”], a
family of ruminating animals, comprises the ox, bison, buf-
falo, yak, Zebu, etc. The Bovidae are all large and grega-
rious animals, and they generally have unbranched horns.
This family is usually regarded as equal in extent to the
Linnaean genus Bos. Indigenous species of Bovidae are
found in Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America. They
have eight cutting teeth in the lower jaw, and no cutting
teeth in the upper, which is furnished with a fibrous and
elastic pad. They also have twelve grinders (molar teeth)
on each jaw. The exact number of species of Bovidae has
not been ascertained. They are all valuable to man for
their flesh, tallow, hides, horns, etc., and several species
besides the ox have been domesticated. (See ARNEE, BISON,
BUFFALO, Ox, URUs, YAK, and ZEBU.)
Bovi'na, a post-township of Delaware co., N. Y. Pop.
1022. -
Bovina, a township of Outagamie co., Wis. Pop. 437.
Bovi'no (anc: Vibinum), a fortified town of Italy, in
the province of Foggia, 14 miles S. S. W. of Foggia. It has
a cathedral and several churches. The imperialists de-
feated the Spaniards here in 1734. Pop. 6415. -
Bow, in nautical language, is the fore part of a ship.
In the plural the bows are the two sides of the fore extrem-
ity of the vessel, as the starboard and larboard bows. The
different shapes of these are distinguished by the terms a
narrow or lean bow, and a broad or bluff bow.
Bow, in music, the instrument by which the strings of
a violin and some other instruments are set in vibration.
It consists of a stick of elastic wood, on which horsehairs
are stretched.
Bow [Lat. arcus], a weapon used in war and hunting to
propel arrows, is made of wood or other elastic substance,
and is bent by a string fastened to each end. It is gen-
erally used by savages, but among civilized nations its use
as a military weapon has been superseded by firearms.
Bows have been constructed of various materials; besides
different kinds of elastic wood, steel has sometimes, and
horn frequently, been employed, particularly in ancient
times. (See ARBALEST, ARCHERY, ARRow.)
Bow, a post-township of Merrimack co., N. H. P. 745.
Bow’den, a township of Clay co., Ala. Pop. 274.
Bow' dich (THOMAS EDWARD), an English linguist and
traveller, born at Bristol in 1790. Having visited Ashantee
in 1816, he published a “Mission to Ashantee” (1819). He
undertook an exploring expedition into the interior of
Africa in 1822, but he died of fever on the river Gambia
near its mouth Jan. 10, 1824.
Bow’ditch (NATHANIEL), LL.D., F. R. S., an eminent
American mathematician, born at Salem, Mass., Mar. 26,
1773. He made several long voyages as an officer or super-
cargo of a merchant-vessel, and learned Greek and Latin
without a teacher. He published a valuable work called
“The Practical Navigator,” and a good translation of La-
place’s “Mécanique Céleste,” with an ample commentary
(4 vols. 4to, 1829–38). This was highly commended by the
English “Quarterly Review º' for July, 1832. He was a
fellow of the Royal Society of London, and a member of a
large number of the learned societies of Europe and America.
Died Mar. 16, 1838. (See a “Memoir of N. Bowditch,” by
his son, N. I. BowdTTCH, 1839.) :
Bowditch (NATHANIEL INGERSolf.), born at Salem,
Mass., Jan. 17, 1805, graduated at Harvard in 1822. He
was called to the bar in Boston in 1825, but became a con-
veyancer, acquiring great reputation for accuracy and in-
dustry. He wrote much for periodicals, and published a
“Memoir of N. Bowditch'' (1840), a “History of the Mas-
sachusetts General Hospital” (1851), and “Suffolk Sur-
names.” Died April 16, 1861. -
Bow/doin, a
Pop. 1345.
Bowdoin (JAMEs), LL.D., an American governor,
born at Boston Aug. 8, 1727, graduated at Harvard in
1745. He was president of the convention which in 1778
formed the constitution of Massachusetts, was chosen gov-
ernor of that State in 1785, and again in 1786. He sup-
pressed Shay’s rebellion in 1786. Died Nov. 6, 1790.
Bowdoin (JAMEs), a son of the preceding, was born in
Boston Sept. 22, 1752. He graduated at Harvard in 1771.
He was sent in 1805 on a mission to Spain, to procure the
cession of Florida, to the U. S., and to obtain indemnity for
injuries to American commerce. He was a benefactor of
Bowdoin College. Died Oct. 11, 1811.
Bowdoin (bö/den) College, the oldest college in
Maine, was founded in 1802 at Brunswick, Cumberland co.,
on the Androscoggin River, about 4 miles from the Atlan-
tic Ocean. It was named in honor of James Bowdoin,
governor of Massachusetts, whose son James gave to the
college 1000 acres of land, over £1000 sterling, and a val-
uable library and collection of paintings. The college was
also liberally endowed by the State. The college library
has about 17,500 volumes, and the other libraries connected
with the college have nearly as many more. Connected
with this flourishing college is a medical school, founded in
1820. The number of graduates, including those of the
medical school, amounted (June, 1872) to 2747. Much at-
tention is paid to physical education; instruction is also
given in military science.
Bow/doinham, a post-township and village of Saga-
dahoc co., Me., on the W. side of the Kennebec River.
The village is on the Augusta division of the Maine Cen-
tral R. R., 38 miles N. E. of Portland. It has been noted
for shipbuilding. It has four churches, a national bank,
and manufactures of lumber. Pop. 1804.
Bow’don, a post-village of Carroll co., Ga.
post-township of Sagadahoc co., Me.
It is the
seat of Bowdon College (not denominational), a flourishing
institution with an able faculty. Pop. of village, 350.
Bow/dre, a township of Douglas co., Ill. Pop. 1313.
Bow’em, a township of Madison co., Ark. Pop. 1023.
Bowen, a township of Colleton co., S. C. Pop. 1467.
Bowen (FRANCIs), LL.D., an American writer, born at
Charlestown, Mass., Sept. 8, 1811, graduated at Harvard in
1833. He edited the “North American Review º' about
eleven years (1843–54), and became in 1853 professor of
natural religion, moral philosophy, etc. at Harvard Uni-
versity. He has been an ardent defender of the philosoph-
'ical views of Locke and Berkeley, and a warm opponent
of those of Kant, Fichte, and Cousin. Among his works
are Lives of Baron Steuben, James Otis, and Benjamin
Lincoln in Sparks’s “American Biography,” and a treatise
on Political Economy.
Bowen (Rt. Rev. NATHANIEL), D. D., born in Boston,
Mass., June 29, 1779, graduated at Charleston College,
S. C., in 1794, held pastorates in Protestant Episcopal
churches at Providence, R. I., Charleston, S. C., and New
York City. In 1818 he was consecrated bishop of South
Carolina. Died Aug. 25, 1839. He wrote “Christian Con-
solation * (1831), “Private Prayers” (1837), and two vol-
umes of his sermons were published.
Bow’ensburg, a post-village of Hancock co., Ill.
Bowſer, a shady recess; a shelter or arbor in a garden,
formed of boughs of trees overarched or intertwined; also
a private apartment in ancient castles or mansions, used by
ladies as a parlor and a sleeping-chamber. -
BowFR, in certain games of cards, is the name of the
knave or jack of trumps; this word comes from the Ger.
Bauer, a “clown” or “peasant.”
Bower (ARCHIBALD), a Scottish writer of Roman Cath-
olic parentage, was born at Dundee in 1686, joined the
Jesuits, became a Protestant, rejoined the Jesuits, and
again became a Protestant. His “History of the Popes,”
in seven quarto volumes (1748–66), is characterized by
great partisan bitterness. He died in 1766.
Bower Bank Plantation, a township of Piscataquis
co., Me. (In 1860 the act of incorporation was repealed.)
Pop. 83. -
Bower-bird, a name given to certain Australian birds.
of the starling family, remarkable for their making bower-
like erections, adorning them with gay feathers, rags, bones,
shells, and other brightly-colored objects. These bower:
BOWERS–BOWSPRIT, ...
are not nests. The use made of them by the birds is im-
perfectly understood; their structure has been carefully ex-
amined, and specimens of them deposited in the British
Museum. The bowers of the satin bower-bird (Ptilono-
rhynchus holosericeus) are built in trees. The base is an
extensive platform of sticks, on the centre of which the
bower is built of flexible twigs. It is chiefly at and near
the entrance that the shells, feathers, etc. are placed. The
bowers of the spotted bower-bird (Chlamydera macu-
lata) are longer and more avenue-like than those of the
satin bower-bird; they are placed upon the ground, and
beautifully lined with grasses.
Bow’ers (THEODoRE S.), an American officer, born in
Pennsylvania about 1832. A printer by trade, he subse-
quently edited a paper in Illinois, but laying aside his pen
he entered the service in Oct., 1861, as a private in the 48th
Illinois volunteers, was promoted to be first lieutenant Mar.,
1862, made aide-de-camp to Gen. Grant April, 1862, and
appointed captain and aide-de-camp Nov., 1862, judge-ad-
vocate, with the rank of major, Feb., 1863, and, after the
surrender of Wicksburg, assistant adjutant-general of vol-
unteers, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. On the 29th
of July, 1864, he was commissioned a captain and assistant
quartermaster in the regular army, and later, Jan., 1865,
a major and assistant adjutant-general. He served contin-
uously, in the field and afterwards, at Washington, on the
staff of Gen. Grant, from April, 1862, to Mar. 6, 1866, when
he was accidentally killed by being thrown under a train
at . Garrison’s Station, N. Y. Brevet lieutenant-colonel,
colonel, and brigadier-general U. S. A. for gallant and meri-
torious services during the war.
G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Eng’rs.
Bowſie, a county which forms the N. E. extremity of
Texas, bordering on Arkansas. Area, 862 square miles.
It is bounded on the N. by the Red River, and on the S.
by the Sulphur Fork of Red River. It is extensively.cov-
ered with pine forests. The soil is fertile, and adapted to
cotton, wheat, and maize. Good iron ore and ligmite abound.
There are numerous mineral springs. Stock-raising is car-
ried on. Capital, Boston. Pop. 4684.
Bowie, a township of Chicot co., Ark. Pop. 207.
Bowie (A.) was born and educated in South Carolina,
but spent the greater part of his life in Talladega, Ala.,
where for six years he presided on the chancery bench. In
1845 he retired from public life, retaining only his position
as a trustee of the State University. He was a distin-
guished member of the Baptist Church. In politics he
was allied with the State Rights Democracy. In society
he excelled by his great conversational powers.
Bowie Knife, an American weapon, common in the
Southern U. S., invented by Col. Bowie of Texas.
sharp-pointed knife having a single edge, and is usually
carried in a sheath. The blade is sometimes ten inches
long or more. Its use is less frequent than in former
times. -
Bow’ing, an act of reverence or of worship, common
in the Roman Catholic, the Oriental, and the Anglican
churches. In the repetition of the creeds it is customary
to bow whenever the name of Jesus Christ occurs; and the
practice is said by some to be commanded by Phil. ii. 10–
“that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow ;” an
expression regarded by many as figurative. In some rites
it is customary to face the E. during the recital of the
creeds; and it is certain that bowing towards the E. was
common in ancient churches. In Roman Catholic and in
Some Anglican parishes it is customary to bow towards the
altar when entering and leaving church.
Bow/lan, a township of Shannon co., Mo. Pop. 156.
Bowles (SAMUEL), an American journalist, born at
Springfield, Mass., Feb. 9, 1826. Since 1844 he has been
the principal conductor of the “Springfield Republican,”
one of the most successful journals in the U. S. He has
published “Across the Continent” (1865), “The Switzer-
land of America,” (1869), and other works. - -
Bow-line of a ship is a rope fastened near the middle
of the perpendicular edge of the square sails by three or
four subordinate ropes called bridles. It serves to tighten
the edge of the sail during an unfavorable wind.
Bow/ling, or Bowls, a game of skill, played upon a
square piece of ground or “bowling green.” Each player
casts his ball or bowl (which is usually not a perfect sphere)
at a smaller ball or jack, the object being to leave the bowl
as near as possible to the jack. There are several forms:
of this game, which our narrow limits will not allow us to
describe particularly.
Bow’ling, a township of Rock Island co., Ill. P. 952.
Bowling (WILLIAM KENDALL), M. D. See APPENDIX.
Bowling Ailey, a long narrow structure made for
It is a .
579
playing the game of skittles, commonly called in America
NINEPINs or TENPINs (which see).
Bowling Green, a post-township of Fayette co., Ill.
Pop. 1097.
Bowling Green, a post-village, capital of Clay co.,
Ind., on Eel River, 60 miles W. S. W. of Indianapolis.
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 606. -
WM. TRAvis, PUB. “WEEKLY ARCHIVES.”
Bowling Green, the capital of Warren co., Ky., is on
|Barren River and the Louisville and Nashville R. R., 113
miles S. by W. of Louisville and 72 miles from Nashville.
It is at the head of navigation, and has an active trade in
pork, tobacco, etc. Here are several mills and factories.
Small steamboats navigate the river. It has two weekly
newspapers. Pop. 4574.
Bowling Green, a township of Chariton co., Mo.
Pop. 1496. -
Bowling Green, a post-village, capital of Pike co.,
Mo., is on the Missouri division of the Chicago and Alton
R. R., 12 miles S. W. of Louisiana, where that railroad meets
the Mississippi River. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop.
599.
Bowling Green, a township of Licking co., O. Pop.
Bowling Green, a township of Marion co., O. P. 903.
Bowling Green, a post-village of Centre and Plain
townships, capital of Wood co., O. It has one weekly
newspaper. Pop. 906.
Bowling Green, a post-village, capital of Caroline co.,
Va., 45 miles N. of Richmond. Pop. of Bowling Green
township, 4765.
Bow’man, a township of Sullivan co., Mo. Pop. 581.
Bowman (ALEXANDER. H.), an American officer, born
May 15, 1803, at Wilkesbarre, Pa., graduated at West Point
in 1825, lieutenant-colonel of engineers Mar. 3, 1863. He
served as assistant professor at the Military Academy 1825–
26, in building defences and improving rivers and harbors
on the Gulf of Mexico 1826–34, in constructing Memphis
and St. Francis military road 1834–39, improvement of
Cumberland and Tennessee rivers 1834–38, defences of
Charleston harbor, S. C., 1838–53, as instructor of practical
military engineering at the Military Academy 1851–52, in
charge of improvement of Charleston harbor 1852–53, chief
engineer U. S. treasury department and treasury building
extension 1853–61, member of lighthouse board 1857–59,
superintendent of Military Academy 1861–64, and member
of engineer boards 1847–65. Died Nov. 11, 1865, at Wilkes-
barre, Pa., aged sixty-two.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Bowman (THOMAs), D. D., born in Berwick, Pa., in
1819, graduated at Dickinson College in 1837. He became,
in 1859, president of the Indiana Asbury University, which
position he still held when he was elected a bishop of the
Methodist Episcopal Church in 1872.
Bowman (SAMUEL), D. D., born at Wilkesbarre, Pa.,
May 21, 1800, studied law, but became a deacon of the
Protestant Episcopal Church in 1823, and a priest in 1824.
He was long settled in Lancaster, Pa. In 1847 he was
chosen bishop of Indiana, but declined, and afterwards re-
fused the nomination for provisional bishop of New York.
In 1858 he was chosen assistant bishop of Pennsylvania.
He was greatly beloved by his people, and was very active
in his parochial and episcopal duties. Died Aug. 3, 1861.
Bow/manville, a port of entry of Durham co., On-
tario (Canada), in Darlington township, has an excellent
harbor on Lake Ontario, and is on the Grand Trunk Rail-
way, 43 miles N. E. of Toronto. It has good water-power,
and manufactures of lumber, hoop skirts, furniture, and
castings. It is visited by daily steamers during the season
of navigation, and has a bank and three weekly papers.
Pop. about 3000.
Bowne, a post-township of Kent co., Mich. Pop. 1275.
Bow/ring (Sir John), an English author and linguist,
was born at Exeter Oct. 17, 1792. He was an intimate
friend of Jeremy Bentham, and was well versed in modern
languages, especially the Slavonic. In 1825 he became
editor of the “Westminster Review.” He collected and
translated into verse the ancient and popular poems of
almost all the countries of Europe. In 1835 he was elected
to Parliament, in 1854 became governor of Hong-Kong,
China, and received the honor of knighthood. In 1859 he
retired on a pension. Among his works is “The Kingdom
and People of Siam ” (2 vols., 1857). He wrote a descrip-
tion of his visit to the Philippine Islands (1860). He also
wrote some excellent hymns. Died Nov. 22, 1872.
Bow’sprit, a large boom or spar which projects over
the stem or bow of a ship. It serves to support the fore-
580
BOWSTRING HEMP–BOYDELL.
mast, which is fastened to it by large stays or ropes; also
to carry sail forward, as a means of counteracting the effect
of the after sails and keeping the ship well balanced. In
many cases the bowsprit rises at an angle of about 45°. It
supports the jib and flying-jibbooms.
Bow'string Hemp, the fibre of the Sanseviera Zey-
lanica, a plant of the order Liliaceae and tribe Hemerocal-
leas, a native of the East Indies. The Hindoo name is
moorva. This fibre, which is white, silky, and elastic, is
used to make bowstrings. A similar fibre is obtained from
the leaves of Sanseviera Roacburghiana, a perennial Indian
plant which has leaves about three feet long, and from other
Asiatic and African species.
Bowtown Plantation, a township of Somerset co.,
Me. Pop. 14.
Box (Buacus), a genus of evergreen shrubs or small trees
of the natural order Euphorbiaceae, with opposite leaves
entire at the margins. It has male and female flowers
growing on the same plant. The male flower is a perianth
with four stamens, and the female flower is a perianth with
an ovary surmounted by three styles. The most important
species is the Buacus sempervirens (common box), which is
a native of Europe and Asia, has oval, shining, and deep-
green leaves, and is remarkable for its compact habit of
growth. In Southern Europe it grows twenty feet high or
more. A variety called dwarf box, which is only two or
three feet high, is extensively cultivated in gardens, and
is used to form edgings of flower-beds and gravel-walks,
being reduced by clipping to the height of a few inches.
The wood of the box, which is very hard, heavy, compact,
and fine-grained, is the best of all materials for wood-
engraving, and is highly prized by turners. It is also
commonly used to make flutes and other wind instruments.
It is of a pale yellow color, admits of a beautiful polish,
and is not liable to be worm-eaten. Large quantities of
boxwood are exported from Spain and Turkey.
Box, a township of Cedar co., Mo. Pop. 1307.
Box/borough, a post-township of Middlesex co., Mass.
Pop. 338.
Box Elder, or Ash-leaved Maple, a small tree of
the order Sapindaceae, the Negundo aceroides, which grows
from Florida to Pennsylvania and westward, especially
along the banks of streams. It is very beautiful, and is
one of the characteristic trees of the far West. In Minne-
sota, Nebraska, etc. it is tapped, like the sugar-maple, for
its sap, which affords sugar of good quality.
Box Elder, a county which forms the N. W. extremity
of Utah, bordering on Idaho and Nevada. It is inter-
sected by Bear River, and bounded on the E. by the Wa-
satch Mountains. The northern half of Great Salt Lake
is included in this county. Grain and wool are raised.
The Central Pacific R. R. passes through the county. Capi-
tal, Brigham City. Pop. 4855.
Box'ford, a post-township of Essex co., Mass., on the
Newburyport and Danvers R. R. Pop. 847.
Boxſhauling is a mode of turning a ship when the
swell of the sea renders tacking impossible, or when the
ship is so near the shore that there is not room for veering.
The operation is effected by a peculiar management of the
helm and the sails.
Boxing. See PUGILISM.
Boxing the Compass, a nautical phrase, means a
recital or enumeration of the several points, half points,
. quarter points of the mariner's compass in their proper
OrCler’.
Box' tel, a village of Holland, in North Brabant, on the
river Dommel, 6 miles S. of Bois-le-Duc. The river flows
through the streets and affords passage for boats. Fine
diaper is manufactured here. Pop. 4221.
Box-tortoise, or Lock-tortoise, popular names of
sº
Box-Tortoise.
the Cistuda Virginica and Cistuda Blandingii, tortoises of the
U. S., characterized by the division of the plastron into two
arº - É
=======E
:==EE====E:
parts by a crosswise division, united, however, by a ligament
which serves as a hinge on which the parts of the plastron
turn, thus enabling the animal to shut himself entirely up
in his shell. These tortoises are very timid and of gentle
disposition. Their legs are longer and their speed greater
than is usual among tortoises.
Boya/ca, one of the U. S. of Colombia, is bounded on
the N. E. and E. by Venezuela, on the S. and S. W. by
Cundinamarca, and on the N. W. by Santander. Area,
32,800 square miles. While in the W. the state is exceed-
ingly mountainous, the E. consists of a hot, dry plain.
Copper and precious stones are found in the mountains.
Capital, Tunja. Pop. in 1870, 482,874.
Boyaca, a village of Colombia, in the department of
its own name, is 5 miles S. W. of Tunja. Here Bolivar
gained over the Spaniards, Aug. 7, 1819, a victory which
secured the independence of Colombia.
Boy'ar [from a word signifying “battle’’), a title given
in ancient Russia to those who distinguished themselves
in war. This afterwards came to be the title of the nobility,
who under the grand duke of Moscow formed an aristocracy
whose powers differed according to the character of the
monarch, but which were so considerable that even Ivan
the Terrible in his ukases added to the words “The czar
has commanded,” also “The boyars have approved.” The
last boyar died in 1750.
Boyau (a French word signifying “bowel ” or “gut”),
in military engineering, is a winding or serpentine trench,
dug to form a path or communication between the differ-
ent armed trenches of a siege-work, and to prevent them
from being enfiladed.
Boy Bishop. During the Middle Ages the custom
grew up of allowing the choristers of cathedrals to choose
yearly one of their number to act the part of a bishop. The
practice was permitted probably from the same motives
which suffered the mummeries of the Abbot of Unreason
(a graphic account of which may be found in Sir W. Scott's
romance of “The Monastery’). If the boy bishop died
within his short period of office, he was buried in his epis-
copal robes. A tomb with the effigy of a boy so clothed
may be seen in Salisbury Cathedral.
Boyce (JAMES PETIGRU), D. D., LL.D., born Jan. 11,
1827, at Charleston, S. C., graduated at Brown University
in 1847, studied theology at Princeton, N. J., pastor of a
Baptist church at Greenville, S. C., 1851–55, professor of
theology in Furman University, Greenville, S. C., 1855–58,
professor of theology in the Southern Baptist Theological
Seminary (formerly Greenville, S. C., now Louisville, Ky.)
1858 to the present time (1873). He has published several
sermons, addresses, and articles, which have largely con-
tributed to mould the opinions of the Southern Baptists,
and holds, as president of the Southern Baptist Conven-
tion, a position of commanding influence.
Boyd, a county of Kentucky, bordering on West Vir-
ginia. Area, 225 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E.
by the Ohio River, and on the E. by the Big Sandy. The
surface is hilly. Grain, tobacco, and wool are raised. Iron
ore, coal, pig iron, and lumber are largely exported. Capi-
tal, Catlettsburg. Pop. 8573.
Boyd, a township of Transylvania co., N. C. Pop. 448.
Boyd (ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON), D. D., born in
Nov., 1825, the son of the incumbent of Auchinleck, Ayr,
was educated at King’s College, London, and at Glasgow.
He became rector of St. Andrew’s. Under the name of
“Country Parson’’ he has published contemplative essays
and sermons.
Boyd (John PARKER), an American general, born in
Newburyport, Mass., Dec. 21, 1764, entered the U. S. army
as ensign in 1786. A spirit of adventure led him to India
in 1789, where he obtained a command in the Mahratta
service, and rose to the rank of commander.
He returned to the U. S. in 1808, and was
%; commissioned colonel of the Fourth U. S.
ſº Infantry. In the war with Great Britain he
ºf A. was a brigadier-general, distinguished him-
self at Tippecanoe, at the capture of Fort
George, Canada, and Chrysler's Field; dis-
banded in 1815. In 1830, President Jack-
son appointed him naval officer of the port
of Boston, Mass. Died Oct. 4, 1830.
Boyd (LINN), an American statesman,
= ~ born at Nashville, Tenn., Nov. 22, 1800, was
a member of Congress from Kentucky for
twenty years, being first elected in 1835.
During his last term he served as Speaker of
the House of Representatives. Died Dec.
18, 1859. -
|Boy/dell (John), an English engraver and patron of
art, born Jan. 19, 1719, became a printseller in London, and
-º-º:--T



BOYDEN–BRABANT.
581
amassed a large fortune. He promoted the improvement
of British art by his liberal patronage of native engravers
and painters. He employed Opie, Reynolds, Northcote,
West, and other painters to illustrate Shakspeare’s works.
The result was the “Shakspeare Gallery,” from which was
engraved a volume of admirable plates (1803). He was
lord mayor in 1790. Died Dec. 11, 1804.
Boy'den (SETH), born at Foxboro’, Mass., Nov. 17, 1788,
went into the leather manufacture in Newark, N.J., in 1813,
began the making of patent leather in 1819, invented a
process for making spelter and a machine for leather split-
ting. In 1826 he made the first malleable cast iron. He also
discovered a process for making Russia, sheet iron, invented
an excellent doming-machine for hat bodies, and built the
first successful locomotive with cylinders outside. It is also
claimed that he produced the first daguerreotype in the
U. S., but the claim is also made for others. Died Mar. 31,
1870.
Boyd’ton, a town of Mecklenburg co., Va., and one of
the most flourishing towns of its size in the State. It con-
tains the residences of the county officers, a bank, news-
paper-office, two tobacco warehouses, tobacco factory, fur-
niture factory, saw and grist mills, an excellent hotel, and
numerous stores, workshops, fine schools and churches, etc.
The lands around are of superior quality. . Boydton has a
daily mail and a passenger service in connection with the
Richmond and Danville R. R., viá Barnesville. A railroad
is now constructing which will pass within a few miles.
Pop. 261; of township, 4708.
- - - - Ed. “Southside VIRGINIAN.”
Boy'er, a township of Crawford co., Ia. Pop. 135.
Boyer, a township of Harrison co., Ia. Pop. 589.
Boyer (ALExIs), a French surgeon, born Mar. 1, 1757,
was the son of a tailor, and acquired his profession under
great drawbacks. He was surgeon to Napoleon I. and chi-
rurgical professor of the university. His main works are
“Traité complet d’anatomie” (4 vols., 1797–99) and
“Traité des maladies chirurgicales et des operations qui
leur conviennent” (8 vols., 1814–22). Died Nov. 25, 1833.
Boyer (JEAN PIERRE), a president of Hayti, was born
at Port-au-Prince Feb. 28, 1776, and was a mulatto. He
entered the French army in his youth, and as an officer in
the army of Pétion fought against Christophe. On the
death of Pétion he was elected president of the republic in
1818. By partiality to the mulattoes and arbitrary meas-
ures he offended the negroes, who revolted in 1842 and ex-
pelled him from the island. He died in Paris July 9, 1850.
Boy'ertown, a post-village of Colebrookdale township,
Berks co., Pa., about 18 miles E. of Reading. It has one
weekly newspaper. Pop. 690. -
Boy/lºins, a village of Southampton co., Va., in a town-
ship of the same name, on the Seaboard and Roanoke
R. R., 26 miles from Portsmouth. Pop. of township, 2292.
Boyle, a county in Central Kentucky, in the “blue-grass
region.” Area, 180 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E.
by Dick's River, and also drained by the sources of Salt
River. The soil is based on limestone, and is deep and
very fertile. Grain, tobacco, wool, and live-stock are ex-
tensively raised. The county is intersected by a branch of
the Louisville and Nashville R. R. Capital, Danville.
Pop. 9515. -
Boyle (John ALEXANDER), a Methodist Episcopal
preacher, born at Baltimore, Md., May 13, 1816, removed
to Philadelphia in youth, entered the ministry in 1839, but
was twice compelled by ill-health to relinquish his chosen
profession. He became a lawyer, and afterwards an editor
in Elk co., Pa. In 1861 he became a captain and after-
wards a major of Pennsylvania volunteers, served with
great honor in Virginia and Tennessee, and was killed at
the battle of Chattanooga, Oct. 29, 1863.
Boyle (Robert), a celebrated experimental philosopher,
born at Lismore, in Ireland, Jan. 25, 1626, was the seventh
son of Richard, the first earl of Cork. He was educated at
Eton and Geneva. He took no part in political contests,
but devoted himself to the cultivation of science, especially
chemistry and natural philosophy. He became a resident
of Oxford in 1654, and was one of the founders of the
Royal Society. To qualify himself to defend the Chris-
tian religion, he learned the Hebrew and Greek languages.
He improved the air-pump, and made important discoveries
in pneumatics. Among his works are a “Disquisition on
Final Causes,” a “Discourse of Things above Reason,”
“Excellency of Theology,” and “Hydrostatical Paradoxes.”
He declined a peerage which was offered to him repeatedly.
He was remarkable for his benevolence and charity. By
his last will he endowed the Boy LE LECTUREs (which see).
He died in London Dec. 30, 1691. His complete works
were published by Dr. Birch in 5 vols. fol., 1744.
Boyle Lectures were so called from Robert Boyle,
who bequeathed an annual salary to be paid to some clergy-
man for preaching eight sermons in a year in order “to
prove the truth of the Christian religion against Atheists,
Deists, Pagans, Jews, and Mohammedans, not descending
to any controversies among Christians themselves.” The
first person selected to preach the “Boyle Lectures” was
the celebrated Richard Bentley (1691), who directed his
arguments against Atheism. In 1739 three volumes of
the lectures were published, and nearly 60 volumes since
then. The “Boyle Lectures” are still maintained.
Boyle’s Law is a statement of the fact that “the
volume of a gas is inversely as the pressure;” that is to
say, if we double the pressure upon a gas we reduce its
volume to one-half; if we make the pressure three times
what it was at first, the bulk of the gas is reduced to one-
º More commonly called MARRIOTTE's LAw (which
See ). *
Boyl'ston, a post-twp. of Worcester co., Mass. P. 800.
Boylston, a township of Oswego co., N.Y. Pop. 1053.
Boylston (ZABDIEL), F. R. S., an American physician,
born at Brookline, Mass., in 1680, was the first who
practised inoculation for the smallpox in America. Died
Mar. 1, 1766.
Boyne, the most important river in the E. of Ireland,
rises in the Bog of Allen, flows north-eastward through
Kildare, King’s county, Meath, and Louth, and enters the
Irish Sea after a course of 65 miles. Many ruins of mon-
asteries and castles occur on its banks. An obelisk 150
feet high, nearly 3 miles from Drogheda, commemorates
the great battle of the Boyne, in which William III. de-
feated James II., July 1, 1690.
Boyn’ton, a post-township of Tazewell co., Ill. P. 820.
Boynton (EDWARD C.), born in Vermont, graduated
at West Point in 1846. He entered the artillery, was
severely wounded at Churubusco, and was brevetted cap-
tain; was assistant professor of chemistry, etc. at West
Point (1848–55), professor of chemistry, etc. in the Uni-
versity of Mississippi (1856–61), and was brevetted major
in 1865. He published a “History of West Point” (1863)
and a “History of the U. S. Navy.”
Bozeman, a post-village, capital of Gallatin co., Mon-
tama, on an affluent of the Gallatin Fork of Missouri River,
100 miles S. S. E. of Helena, and 70 miles S. W. of the
National Park on the survey of the Northern Pacific R. R.
It has a national bank, one weekly paper, and immense
deposits of coal. Pop. 168; of township, 574.
Joseph WRIGHT, ED. “AvANT Courrºr.”
Boz'rah, an ancient city of Idumaea (Edom), often
mentioned in the Bible. (See Genesis xxxvi. ; Isaiah
xxxiv. and liii.) It was situated to the S. W. of the Dead
Sea, about halfway between the latter and Petra. Its site
is probably occupied by the modern Buseireh, a poor vil-
lage consisting of about fifty wretched huts. No ancient
ruins are visible. * ,
Bozrah, a post-village and township of New London
co., Conn., on the Yantic River, about 35 miles E. S. E. of
Hartford. Total pop. 984.
Boz'zaris, or Bot’zaris (MARCO), a famous Greek
patriot, born at Suli, in Albania, about 1790. He enlisted
in the French army about 1808, and served several cam-
paigns. When the Greeks took arms against the Turks in
1820, Bozzaris became the leader of a band of Suliotes,
and gained several victories. He defended Missolonghi
against the Turks in 1822. Aug. 20, 1823, he attacked and
defeated a superior force at Carpenisi, near the ground
where the battle of Plataea was fought, but he was killed
in the action.
Bra, a town of Italy, province of Cuneo, on the river
Stura, 38 miles S. S. E. of Turin. It has manufactures of
silk and metal-foundries; also a trade in grain, cattle, and
wine. Pop. 9125. e
Brabançons, a class of mercenary soldiers chiefly
from Brabant, whence they took their name. They served
principally in the armies of England and France from the
eleventh to the thirteenth centuries. They had little disci-
pline, and were not much better than robbers.
Brabant', a former duchy of the Low Countries. In
the sixth century it was conquered by the Franks. Dur-
ing the Middle Ages it changed masters very often, until
in the fifteenth century it came to the House of Habsburg.
Charles V. left it to his son, Philip II., under whom the
province revolted, but only the northern part succeeded in
gaining its independence, and joined the Netherlands in
1648, while South Brabant remained with the Spanish-
Austrian line until 1714, when it passed into the possession
of the imperial line of Austria. It was conquered by the
French in 1794, and divided into two provinces, and in
582
BRABANT, NORTH-BRACKLESHAM BEDS.
1810 Napoleon also conquered the Dutch part of Brabant.
In the treaty of Paris of 1814 Brabant became a part of
the Netherlands, and was divided into the provinces of
North Brabant, Antwerp, and South Brabant. In conse-
quence of the Belgian revolution of 1830, Antwerp and
South Brabant came to Belgium, while North Brabant re-
mained with Holland. The inhabitants in the N. are
Dutch, in the centre, Flemish, and in the S., Walloons.
The boundary-line between the Germanic and French
idioms runs S. of Brussels, past the villages of Braine
l'Alleud, Waterloo, Wavre, and Sodoigne.
Brabant, North, a province of Holland, is bounded
on the N. by the river Meuse (or Maas), Holland, and Gel-
derland, on the E. by Limburg, on the S. by Belgium, and
on the W. by Zeeland. Area, 1980 square miles. Capital,
Bois-le-Duc. It is drained by the Dommel, the Aa, and
the Lintel. The surface is flat; the soil is generally fer-
tile. The province is deficient in minerals and timber.
Many cattle and sheep are raised here. It has manufac-
tures of cotton, linen, and woollen goods. Pop. in 1870,
440,302.
Brabant, South, a province of Belgium, is bounded
on the N. by Antwerp, on the E. by Limburg and Liege,
on the S. by Namur and Hainaut, and on the W. by East
Flanders. The area is 1268 square miles. Capital, Brus-
sels. The principal rivers are the Dyle, Demer, and Senne.
The surface is partly hilly and partly level; the soil is
generally fertile and highly cultivated. This province
contains extensive forests, mines of iron, and quarries of
stone. It is intersected by several railways and canals.
It has important manufactures of cotton and woollen fab-
rics, fine lace, hats, leather, jewelry, fine linens, ribbons,
paper, machinery, etc. This is one of the most densely
peopled districts in Europe. Pop. in 1870, 879,814.
Brace (CHARLEs LoRING), an American philanthropist
and writer, born at Litchfield, Conn., June 19, 1826, gradu-
ated at Yale in 1846. Having travelled in Europe, he pub-
lished “Home-Life in Germany ” (1853), “Races of the Old |
World” (1863), and other works. He was the principal
founder of the Children’s Aid Society of New York.
Brace (JULIA), a blind deaf-mute, was born near Hart-
ford, Conn., in 1806. When she was four years old she
lost by sickness both sight and hearing, and not long after
forgot all the words she had previously learned. (See an
interesting notice of her in DUNGLISON’s “Physiology,” vol.
ii. # 160.)
racebridge, a post-village of Victoria co., Ontario
(Canada), in the Muskoka, region and in Macaulay town-
ship, on the Muskoka River, 195 miles from Lindsay, the
county-town. It is visited by steamboats, except in win-
ter, and has one weekly paper. Pop. about 200.
Bracelet [from bras (Lat. brachium), an “arm *], an
ornament worn around the arm at or near the wrist. These
ornaments have been worn by every nation, savage or
civilized, from the earliest ages. They are mentioned in
Genesis as worn by both women and men. The Medes and
Persians were remarkable for their love of gold ornaments
and jewelry. They wore bracelets, armlets, earrings, and
pearl necklaces. The ancient Greek ladies wore bracelets
and armlets of various materials and forms. They gener-
ally passed round the arm several times.
Braceville, a post-village of Grundy co., Ill., in a
township of the same name, on the Chicago and Alton
R. R., 61 miles S. S. W. of Chicago. Pop. 1188.
Braceville, a post-township of Trumbull co., O. P. 954.
Bra'chial [from the Lat. brachium, the “arm”]
Ar’tery, the main artery of the arm ; a continuation of
the axillary, as the latter is of the subclavian trunk. The
brachial vessel lies upon the inside of the humerus or arm-
bone, just back of the biceps muscle; near the elbow it
passes forward and divides into the radial and ulnar arte-
ries. Before this, it gives off four smaller branches. The
position of the brachial artery makes it quite practicable
to compress it firmly against the bone in case of serious
bleeding from a wound of the arm, fore arm, or hand.
Brachiop’oda (plu.), [from the Gr. 8paxtov, the “arm,”
and trojs, troSós, the “foot,” alluding to their two long fringed
and coiled arms], or Palliobranchia'ta, a class of
marine bivalve, molluscoid organisms which have sym-
metrical dorsal and ventral valves; the former of which
(according to the general opinion of observers) is usually
much the smaller, being free and imperforate, but accord-
ing to E. S. Morse the so-called dorsal valve is really ven-
tral. The valves articulate by two curved teeth developed
from the border of the larger valve. Brachiopods are
among the most ancient of fossil organisms, the Lingula
being found from the Cambrian to the existing fauna.
Brachiopods have also the greatest range of elimate and
depth. Morse considers them closely related to Vermes.
Brachis/tochrone [from the Gr. 8páxuatos, “shortest,”
and xpdvos, “time”], the plane curve down which a material
particle must fall in order to pass in the shortest possible
time from the upper to the lower of two given points not
in the same yertical line. It is the common cycloid. The
problem of the brachistochrone is celebrated in the history
of mathematics. It was first proposed by John Bernoulli
in 1696, and was solved by Sir Isaac Newton and James
Bernoulli. It is often called “ the curve of quickest
descent.”
Brach'vogel (EMIL ALBERT), a German novelist and
dramatist, born at Breslau April 29, 1824. Among his
principal works are the novels entitled “A New Falstaff.
(1862), “Beaumarchais” (1864), “The German Michael.”
(1868), and “Narcissus,” a drama.
Brachycephalic. See DOLICHOCEPHALIC.
Brachyp’terae, or Brachypteres [from the Gr.
8paxºs, “short,” and trepôv, a “wing”], that section of the
web-footed birds in which the wings are so short and the
feet so far back as to compel the birds to assume an erect
posture when on land. They are aquatic, and excel in
diving, so that the name divers is sometimes used as equiv-
alent to Brachypterae; but that name is also frequently
applied to other birds, especially to the genus Colymbw8.
The auks, puffins, penguins, grebes, and guillemots are
among the Brachypterae.
Brachyu'ra [from the Gr. 8paxºs, “short,” and otpá, a
“tail”], a tribe of decapodous crustaceans which takes its
name from the post-abdominal segment, which is short and
folded beneath the trunk. (See CRAB.) -
Brackſen, a county of Kentucky, separated from Ohio
by the Ohio River. Area, 200 square miles. It is drained
by the North Fork of Licking River. The surface is hilly.
The soil is calcareous and productive. Tobacco, grain,
and wool are the chief products. Capital, Brookville.
Pop. 11,409. -
Brack'enridge (HENRY M.), a judge and writer, born
at Pittsburg, Pa., May 11, 1786. He held judgeships in
Louisiana and Florida, and was U. S. commissioner to the
South American republics (1817–19). Among his numerous
writings are a “Voyage to South America” (1820) and
“Recollections of Persons and Places in the West” (second
edition, 1869). He was elected to Congress from Pennsyl-
vania in 1840. Died Jan. 18, 1871.
Brackenridge (HUGH HENRY), the father of the pre-
ceding, was born in Scotland in 1748. He emigrated to
the U. S. in childhood, graduated at Princeton in 1771, and
became a judge of the supreme court of Pennsylvania in
1799. He wrote a satirical work called “ Modern Chivalry,
or Adventures of Captain Farrago” (1792). Died June 25,
1816.
Brack’et, an ornamental projection in the shape of a
console standing isolated on the face of a wall, and used to
support a statue, bust, or other work of art. Brackets may
be either of wood or stone, and they are sometimes elabo-
rately carved. The term bracket is applied to a piece of .
wood or metal employed to support a shelf or gallery. Also
one of two marks [ ] used in printing to enclose a word,
remark, explanation, etc. When a word in a classical work
is included in bračkets it implies that the word so enclosed
does not properly belong to the original text, but has been
either introduced by a mistake of the copyist, or has been
inserted to supply an omission, correction, or explanation.
Brack’ett (ALBERT GALLATIN), an American officer,
born in Cherry Valley, N. Y., Feb. 14, 1829. He served
during the Mexican war as first lieutenant Fourth Indiana
Volunteers, appointed captain Second U.S. Cavalry Mar.
1855, engaged principally on frontier duty and against
hostile Indians in Texas prior to 1861, when, on Twiggs's
surrender, he effected his escape, and was in command of
cavalry at Blackburn’s Ford, Va., July 18, 1861, commission-
ed colonel Ninth Illinois Volunteer Cavalry Aug., 1861, and
served during the civil war in the Western and South-
western armies. He was promoted to be major First Cav-
alry U. S. A. July 17, 1862, and lieutenant-colonel Second
Cavalry June 9, 1868. Since the close of the war he has
been in command of various departments, and actively en-
gaged in operating against hostile Indians. He is author
of Lane's Brigade in Mexico” and “History of the U. S.
Cavalry.” G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Eng’rs.
Brackett (EDw1N E.), an American sculptor, born at
Vassalborough, Me., Oct. 1, 1819. His works are princi-
pally portrait-busts.
Brackett (WALTER M.), a brother of the preceding,
born at Unity, Me., June 14, 1823. He has won a high
reputation as a painter. His specialty is the painting of
fish.
Brack/lesham Beds, a group of fossiliferous strata,
--- - x - r ~
BRACT-BBADFORD.
583
in the middle eocene formation, overlying the London clay
series, in England. On the coast of Hampshire they are
500 feet thick. -
Bract [from the Lat. bractea, a “thin plate”], a floral
leaf or an altered leaf, placed at the base of a flower on the
outside of the calyx. It is a leaf from the axil of which a
flower or floral axis is produced, instead of an ordinary
leaf-bud or branch, and is regarded as the first attempt
made by the leaves to change into floral organs. The bract
is sometimes large and brightly colored. In several species of
Arum it constitutes the large enveloping-leaf called a spathe.
An involucre is a collection of bracts arranged in a whorl. '
Bracºton, de (HENRY), a distinguished English jurist
and writer on law, lived during the reign of Henry III.
His principal work, entitled “De Consuetudinibus et Legi-
bus Angliae,” is a complete treatise on jurisprudence and
legislation. He was an arch-deacon (1263–64), and a judge
in eyre in 1265. Died probably in 1267. -
Brad/burn (SAMUEL), the son of a soldier, was born at
Gibraltar. Oct. 5, 1751. He became a local Wesleyan
preacher at Chester, England, in 1773, and an itinerant in
1784. He was very eloquent, and was throughout his life
extremely popular and influential. Died July 24, 1816.
Brad/bury (WILLIAM .B.), composer of sacred music,
born at York, Me., in 1816, and residing from 1836 till his
death (Jan. 7, 1868) in or near New York. He published
(sometimes in conjunction with other authors) numerous
books for the use of choirs and Sunday-schools, the most
celebrated of which are “The Shawm,” “The Jubilee,”
“The Temple Choir,” “The Cantata of Esther,” “The
Golden Chain,” and “Fresh Laurels.” The sale of the last
two books (designed for Sunday-schools) was immense.
Bradbury Isle, a township of Hancock co., Me. Pop. 6.
Brad/dock, a borough of Alleghany co., Pa. Pop. 1290.
Braddock (EDWARD), an English general, born about
1715. He commanded in a war against the French and
Indians in North America. As he was marching to attack
Fort Duquesme he was surprised by the Indians near Pitts-
burg, and was defeated and mortally wounded. Died July
13, 1755.
Brad/don (MARY ELIZABETH), a popular English nov-
elist, born in London in 1837. Among her works are “Lady
Audley’s Secret” (1862), “Aurora Floyd,” “Eleanor’s Vic-
tory,” “Henry Dunbar,” and “Rupert Godwin.”
Brad/ford, an important manufacturing town of Eng-
land, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, is on a small branch
of the Aire and on the Leeds Railway, 9 miles by rail W.
of Leeds. It is situated at the meeting of three vales, and
is built of stone. It returns...two members to Parliament.
Among the principal buildings are a handsome exchange,
an elegant public hall, the parish church, erected in the
reign of Henry VI., and a cloth-hall. The Saltaire alpaca
and mohair mills, which are three miles from. Bradford, are
said to be the most splendid manufactories in. England.
Bradford is the chief seat in England of the manufacture
of worsted fabrics, alpaca, mohair, etc. Broadcloths and
cotton goods are also made here. Mines of coal and iron
are worked in this vicinity. The value of the goods ex-
ported from this town to the U. S. in 1868 amounted to
about $12,000,000. Baptist, Independent, and Wesleyan
colleges are near this city. Pop. in 1871, 145,827.
Bradford, a county in the N. E. of Florida. Area,
940 square miles. The surface is but little elevated above
the sea. It is intersected by the Florida, R. R. Grain and
live-stock, with some rice and cotton, are raised. Capital,
Lake Butler. Pop. 3671.
Bradford, a county of Pennsylvania, bordering on
New York. Area, 1170 square miles. It is intersected by
the North Branch of the Susquehanna River, and also
drained by the Tioga River and several creeks. The sur-
face is hilly, and extensively covered with forests of pine,
Sugar-maple, and other trees. Sandstone underlies the
greater part of the county, which also contains beds of
bituminous coal, which, with lumber, is among the chief
articles of export. Cattle, grain, hay, and dairy products
are largely raised. It is intersected by the Williamsport and
Elmira R. R., and by another railroad, connecting Wilkes-
barre with Waverley. Capital, Towanda. Pop. 53,204.
Bradford, a post-village of Simcoe co., Ontario (Can-
ada), on the Northern Railway, 41 miles N. of Toronto.
It has a weekly paper. Pop. in 1871, 1130.
Bradford, a township of Lee co., Ill. Pop. 1086.
Bradford, a post-village and township of Chickasaw
co., Ia, about 30 miles N. of Cedar Falls. Pop. 2076.
Bradford, a post-village of Stark co., III. Pop. 280.
lºadford, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. Pop.
Bradford, a post-village and township of Essex co.,
Mass. The village is on the S. bank of the Merrimack
River, and on the Boston and Maine R. R., 32 miles N. of
Boston, at the junction of the Newburyport R. R. A bridge
across the river connects it with Haverhill. It is the seat
of Bradford Female Academy, and has manufactures of
shoes, etc. Pop. 2014.
Bradford, a post-township of Merrimack co., N. H. It
has manufactures of lumber and leather. Pop. 1081.
Bradford, a post-township of Steuben co., N. Y. Pop.
0. -
Bradford, a post-village of Newberry township, Mi-
ami co., O. Pop. 166.
Bradford, a village of Adams township, Darke co., O.
Pop. 243. -
Bradford, a township of Clearfield co., Pa.
Bradford, a post-township of McKean co., Pa.
1446. -
Bradford, a post-village in Bradford township, Orange
co., Vt., on the Connecticut River and on the Connecticut
and Passumpsic Rivers R. R., 29 miles S. E. of Montpelier.
It has an academy, a savings bank, and manufactures of
paper, casks, sash and blinds, machinery, woollen goods,
etc. It has two weekly newspapers. Total pop. 1492.
Bradford, a township of Rock co., Wis. Pop. 1006.
1Bradford (Rev. ALDEN), LL.D., was born in Duxbury,
Mass., Nov. 19, 1765, and graduated at Harvard in 1786,
and was a tutor there 1791–93; was successively a Con-
gregational minister in Wiscasset (now in Maine), a clerk
of the Massachusetts supreme court, a bookseller, sec-
retary of state for Massachusetts (1812–24), and a jour-
nalist. He published numerous historical, biographical,
and antiquarian books and papers. Died Oct. 26, 1843.
Bradford (ALExANDER WARFIELD), LL.D., born in
Albany, N. Y., in 1815, graduated at Union College, be-
came a prominent lawyer of New York, being especially
well versed in the civil law. He was surrogate of New
York 1848–51, and for a time was one of the editors of the
“Protestant Churchman.” He published several volumes,
mostly of legal reports. Died Nov. 5, 1867.
Bradford, EARLs of, and Wiscounts Newport (1815, in
the United Kingdom), Barons Bradford (1794, in Great
Britain), and baronets (1660), a prominent family of Great
Britain.—ORLANDO GEORGE CHARLES BRIDGEMAN, the third
earl, was born April 24, 1819, and succeeded his father in
1865. He was member of Parliament for South Shropshire
1842–65. • '
Bradford (John), an English Protestant martyr and
a popular preacher, was born at Manchester about 1500.
He became a chaplain to Edward VI., and after the acces-
sion of Mary was burned at the stake July 1, 1555. (See
WILLIAM STEvKNs, “Life of John Bradford,” 1832.)
Bradford (Joseph M.), U. S. N., born Nov. 4, 1824, in
Sumner co., Tenn., entered, the navy as a midshipman Jan.
10, 1840, became a passed midshipman in 1846, a lieutenant
in 1855, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a commander in
1866, and a captain in 1871. From Nov., 1863, to June, 1865,
he served as fleet-captain of the South Atlantic blockading
squadron, during which period he was frequently in battle.
Rear-Admiral Dahlgren, in his. “general order” of June
16, 1865, speaking of the services of the officers of his
staff, says: “First is Fleet-Captain Joseph M. Bradford.
Perhaps no one but a commander-in-chief can rightly
understand the many and never-ceasing cares imposed by
the proper discharge of the duties of this office, especially
in war and in a command so large as this has been, to say
nothing of the abnegation of all opportunity of personal
distinction which such a position demands. I shall never
think but with great pleasure and satisfaction of the excel-
lent service which this gentleman has rendered, and the
never-failing energy and ability with which he has dis-
charged his many onerous duties.” Died at Norfolk, Va.,
April 14, 1872. Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Bradford (WILLIAM), one of the Pilgrim Fathers, was
born in Yorkshire, England, in Mar., 1588. He emigrated
to New England in the Mayflower in 1620, and was elected
governor of Plymouth Colony in 1621. Having been re-
elected annually, he held the office till his death except five
years, when he declined the election. A patent or charter
for the colony was granted in 1630 to William Bradford,
his heirs and associates. Died May 9, 1657. He left a
“History of Plymouth Colony,” which was printed in 1856.
Bradford (WILLIAM), an American lawyer, born in
Philadelphia Sept. 14, 1755, graduated at Princeton in 1772,
served as an officer in the war of the Revolution. He was
appointed attorney-general of the U. S. by Washington in
1794. Died Aug. 23, 1795.
Pop. 1172.
Pop.
584
BRADFORD-BPADLEY.
Bradford (WILLIAM), a distinguished American painter,
born in 1827 at New Bedford, Mass. His best pictures are
scenes from the Northern Atlantic coast. He was formerly
a merchant of Fairhaven, Mass. He is of Quaker stock,
and is now (1874) a resident of New York City.
Bradford (WILLIAM H.), a Presbyterian minister and
journalist, was born in Aug., 1814, at Cooperstown, N. Y.,
studied law, and afterwards theology. After serving two
years as pastor of a church at Berkshire, N.Y., he became
assistant editor of the “New York Evangelist,” acting a
part of the time as its sole editor. Here he remained sev-
enteen years. He was an accomplished writer and scholar.
Died April 1, 1861. -
Bradford Clay, the middle member of the upper
division of the lower oolite, occurring at Bradford, near
Bath, England. It extends only a few miles, and is never
more than fifty or sixty feet thick. It is remarkable for
the abundance of a peculiar fossil, the Apiocrinites Parkin-
sonii. The surface of the calcareous rock on which the clay
rests is encrusted with a pavement formed by the bases of
this crinoid.
Bradford, Great, a market-town of England, in the
county of Wilts, on the river Avon, and on the Kennet and
Avon Canal, 10 miles by rail E. S. E. of Bath. It has a
fine old church, and manufactures of broadcloth, kersey-
meres, and india—rubber goods. Pop. in 1871, 8032.
Bradford Springs, a post-township of Sumter co.,
S. C. Pop. 1142.
Brad’ish (LUTHER), LL.D., was born in Cummington,
Mass., Sept. 15, 1783, and graduated at Williams in 1804.
He studied law, and was employed as a government agent
in affairs relating to Levantine commerce. He settled in
Franklin co., N.Y., became prominent in State politics,
was lieutenant-governor (1829–43), and under Fillmore was
assistant U. S. treasurer at New York. He was prominent
in religious, educational, and other charitable and benevo-
lent enterprises. Died Aug. 30, 1863.
Brad/laugh (CHARLEs), an eminent English atheist
and republican, was born in Hoxton, London, Sept. 26,
1833. Owing to the extreme poverty of his parents, he
ceased attending school before he was eleven years old.
He developed an early taste for politics, for at the age of
fifteen he appeared as an orator before street audiences
during the political turmoils of 1847–48. The origin of
his atheistical opinions dates from the same period. Study-
ing to fit himself for a Sunday-school exhibition before the
bishop of London, he became skeptical, and declared his
inability to reconcile the Thirty-nine Articles with the
Four Gospels. His father, influenced by the clergy, gave
him three days in which to alter his opinions, on penalty
of losing his situation. He accepted the penalty, and
quitted the situation and his home for ever. For a year
he earned an inadequate support by selling coals on com-
mission, and then, becoming slightly involved in debt, he
enlisted in the service of the East India Company, where
he remained until a small legacy enabled him to purchase
his discharge. He now secured a clerkship in a solicitor’s
office in London, and entered at once upon his life-career
of a political and atheistical writer and speaker. In 1858–
59 he gained considerable notoriety by editing a journal
called the “Investigator,” which was soon suspended for
want of capital. He was now well known under the ap-
propriate name of “Iconoclast,” which he signed to all of
his writings, and was met with the fiercest opposition on all
sides. A year later the journal which he now edits, the
“National Reformer,” was established, and in the conduct
of this his reputation for ability was greatly increased.
By persistently attacking every opponent he could reach
with his voice or pen, his fame as a debater and popular
orator steadily grew until he reached the high position of
political power which he now occupies. Systematic at-
tempts were made to suppress his journal, but their only
effect was to increase its circulation. His sympathies for
the oppressed were not confined to his own country. When
Italy was fighting for freedom he raised by his own exer-
tions one hundred guineas and sent them to Garibaldi. He
visited Ireland, conferred with the advocates of “home
rule,” and raised his voice in their justification. In 1868
he was a candidate for Parliament in Northampton, and
after a canvass of extraordinary excitement with five oppo-
nents he succeeded in polling 1086 votes in a constituency of
over 9300. In the following year an attempt was made by
the Gladstone ministry to suppress his journal because he
refused to have it licensed. He argued his own case, and
won a brilliant victory. Since then he has pursued his
course unmolested. The “Reformer’’ claims a circulation
of 7000. Like himself, in politics it is republican, in re-
ligion atheistic, in social economy Malthusian, after the
standard of the late John Stuart Mill. Mr. Bradlaugh’s
republicanism is simply an advanced type of that to which
thousands of his countrymen are irresistibly advancing.
It assumes that the “right to deal with the throne is in-
alienably vested in the English people, to be exercised by
them through their representatives in Parliament;” argues
that the House of Brunswick occupies it only from the acts
of Settlement and Union, and seeks the repeal of those acts
after the abdication or demise of the present monarch. . It
aspires to a commonwealth after the American model, to be
attained as peaceably as possible. Mr. Bradlaugh's per-
sonal popularity is very great. Sir Charles Dilke said of
him in 1873 that he had the largest personal following of
any man in England. In the autumn of 1873, Mr. Brad-
laugh visited the U. S., and delivered lectures in most of
the prominent cities. His reception in all cases was hearty
and cordial—notably so in New York and Boston. At his
lecture in the latter city Wendell Phillips presided, and in-
troduced him to an immense audience, and Charles Sumner
and William Lloyd Garrison sat upon the platform. His
subjects were “Republicanism in England,” “The Irish
Question,” and “English Workingmen.” While lacking
the polish of the perfect orator, Mr. Bradlaugh's manner
has much of that personal magnetism which enables a man
to be a leader of his fellows. The want of modulation in
his strong, vibrating voice, and the absence of grace in his
tall, powerful figure, are fully compensated for in the com-
pact and skilful arrangement of his thoughts, and the un-
mistakable earnestness and sincerity of his manner.
J. B. Bishop, of the “ N. Y. Tribune.”
Brad'Iee (CALEB DAvis), a Unitarian minister and au-
thor, born at Boston, Mass., Feb. 24, 1831, graduated at
Harvard in 1852, was pastor of the Allen street church,
Cambridge, Mass., 1854–57, and since 1864 has been pastor
of the church of the Good Samaritan in Boston. He has
published occasional sermons and many contributions to
periodical literature, and is a member of various literary
and historical associations.
Brad'Iey, a county in the S. S. E. of Arkansas. Area,
958 square miles. It is traversed by the Saline River, and
bounded on the W. by Moro River. The soil is adapted to
cotton and maize. Tobacco and wool are also raised.
Timber, marl, gypsum, and lignite abound. The county
is traversed by the Mississippi Ouachita and Red River
R. R. Capital, Warren. Pop. 8646.
Bradley, a county of East Tennessee, bordering on
Georgia. Area, 400 square miles. It is bounded on the
N. E. by the Hiawassee River. The surface is partly moun-
tainous; the soil is mostly fertile, and well supplied with
timber. It is a part of the beautiful valley of East Ten-
nessee. Grain, tobacco, and wool are raised. It is inter-
sected by the East Tennessee Virginia and Georgia R. R.
Capital, Cleveland. Pop. 11,652.
Bradley, a post-village of Jackson co., Ill., in a township
of the same name; 15 miles from Murfreesboro’. Pop. 1297.
Bradley, a township of Penobscot co., Me. It has
manufactures of lumber and shingles. Pop. 866.
Bradley (EDwARD), better known as “Cuthbert Bede,”
an Englist novelist and humorist, born in 1827, was edu-
cated at Durham University, entered the Anglican minis-
try, and received a number of church preferments. He is
the author of many volumes of prose and verse, chiefly
novels, of which his first venture, “Verdant Green,” is the
best known. He has contributed largely to periodical lit-
erature.
Bradley (JAMEs), D.D., F. R. S., an eminent English
astronomer, born at Sherborne, in Gloucestershire, in 1692,
excelled as an observer and as a theorist. He graduated
at Oxford, was ordained as a priest, and obtained several
livings, but resigned them when he became Savilian pro-
fessor of astronomy at Oxford in 1721. In 1727 he an-
nounced the important discovery of the aberration of light,
which serves to demonstrate the earth's motion around the
sun. In 1741 he was appointed astronomer-royal, and be-
gan to make observations at Greenwich. His next discovery
was that the inclination of the earth’s axis to the ecliptic is
not constant, a fact which explained the precession of the
equinoxes and the mutation of the earth's axis. This dis;
covery forms an important epoch in astronomy. . He died
July 13, 1762, leaving in manuscript thirteen volumes of
observations, which were published in 1798–1805. (See
“Biographia Britannica.”) -
Bradley (Joseph P.), LL.D., associate justice of the
U. S. Supreme Court, was born at Berne, Albany co., N.Y.,
Mar. 14, 1813, graduated at Rutgers College, New Bruns-
wick, N. J., with honors, in 1836, was admitted to the bar
in 1839 at Newark, N. J., where he has since resided. He
married in 1844 a daughter of Chief-Justice Hornblower.
Besides his labors in every branch of his profession, he has
devoted much attention to mathematics and the study of
BRADLEY-BRAGG.
585
law as a science, extending his researches to the civil law
—researches which have been of great service in his judi-
ºcial duties in Louisiana and Texas. Engaged in many
important causes in the State and U. S. courts, he has
never taken a very active part in politics. He was for-
merly a Whig, warmly sustained the national cause in the
civil war, headed the electoral ticket for Grant in 1868,
and has ranked as a moderate Republican. He was ap-
pointed to the bench of the U. S. Supreme Court Mar. 21,
1870. He received the degree of LL.D. from Lafayette
College in 1859. -
Bradley (Josh UA), a Baptist minister and educator,
was born July 5, 1773, at Randolph, Mass., and graduated
at Brown University in 1799. He was ordained at New-
port, R.I., in 1801. Mr. Bradley became a kind of trav-
eling missionary, chiefly in the Western States, residing for
short times at many places, and establishing great numbers
of churches, schools, and colleges. He died at St. Paul,
Minn., in 1855.
Bradley (STEPHEN Row), LL.D., born at Wallingford,
Conn., Oct. 20, 1754, graduated at Yale in 1775, and served
as an officer of the Revolutionary war for some time. In
1779 he removed to Vermont, where he was an able and
active public officer, representing that State in the U. S.
Senate (1791–95, 1801–13). He possessed marked ability,
but was eccentric in his manners. He was a friend of
Ethan Allen. Died at Walpole, N. H., Dec. 16, 1830.
Bradley (WILLIAM CzAR), L.L.D., a son of S. R. Brad-
ley (an able lawyer of Vermont), was born at Westminster,
Vt., Mar. 23, 1782, and graduated at Yale: He was elected
to Congress in 1813, 1817, 1823, and 1825, and held several
other important offices. Died Mar. 3, 1867.
Brad'shaw, a township of Greene co., Ark. Pop. 535.
Bradshaw (John), the most prominent of the famous
English regicides. He was born in Cheshire, probably in
1602, became in 1627 a barrister, chief-justice of Chester in
1647, a commissioner of the great seal in 1646, sergeant-at-
law in 1648, and was in 1649 president of the High Court
which condemned Charles I. He conducted that cause
with unfeeling sternness and severity, but with dignity, and
probably with a conscientious desire to do justice to the
king and the country. He afterwards opposed Cromwell’s
ambitious designs, and was removed from his chief-justice-
ship, but still later held various important positions. He
died in 1659. At the Restoration his body was exhumed
from Westminster Abbey, gibbeted, and then beheaded.
Brad'street (ANNE), wife of Gov. Simon Bradstreet,
and daughter of Gov. Thomas Dudley, was born in Eng-
land in 1612. She published a volume of poems, which
won her the titles of “the tenth muse” and “the morning
star of American poetry.” These poems and her other
writings have been several times reprinted (the last and best
edition in 1867), and some of them are not without merit.
Died Sept. 16, 1672.
Bradstreet (SIMON), colonial governor of Massachu-
setts, was born at Horbling, Lincolnshire, England, in
1603. He studied at Cambridge, and was for a time the stew-
ard of the countess of Warwick. He came to Salem, Mass.,
in 1630, as an assistant judge, was one of the founders of
Cambridge and Andover, and resided also at Ipswich and
Boston. Besides holding other important positions, he was
governor (1679–86 and 1689–92). Died Mar. 27, 1697.
Brad'wardine (THOMAs), a distinguished English
prelate and scholastic theologian, called THE PROFound
Doctor, was born in 1290. He became confessor to Ed-
ward III., and afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. His
principal work, “De causa Dei adversus Pelagium,” is a
masterly argument for the doctrine of Augustine. He was
an able mathematician of Oxford University. Died Aug.
26, 1349, of the plague.
Bra’dy, a post-village of Kalamazoo co., Mich., on the
Peninsular Railway where it is crossed by the Grand
Rapids and Indiana R. R., 68 miles S. W. of Lansing.
Pop. of Brady township, 1382.
Brady, a township of Saginaw co., Mich. Pop. 471.
Brady, a township of Williams co., O. Pop. 1681.
Brady, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 600.
Brady, a township of Clarion co., Pa. Pop. 263.
Brady, a township of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop. 2009.
Brady, a township of Huntingdon co., Pa. Pop. 904.
Brady, a township of Lycoming co., Pa. Pop. 394.
Brady (HUGH), an American general, born in Northum-
berland co., Pa., in 1768. He served under Wayne in
1792, and won distinction by his bravery at the battle of
Chippewa, 1812. He was a relative of Capt. Samuel
Brady, a famous Indian fighter. Died April 15, 1851.
Brady (JAMES Toph AM), an American lawyer and poli-
AEneid” (4 vols., 8vo, 1726).
tician, born in New York City April 9, 1815, was a promi-
ment leader of the “War Democrats” during the civil war.
He held a very high position as a lawyer, and was greatly
beloved in private life. His literary tastes were fine and
well cultivated. Died Feb. 9, 1869.
Brady (NICHOLAs), D. D., born at Bandon, Ireland,
Oct. 28, 1659, was educated at Oxford and Dublin, sided
with King William against James II., and in consequence
was made chaplain to the king. He received several Eng-
lish church preferments, but is best known for his share in
the metrical version of the Psalms, which he made in con-
junction with Nahum Tate (1652–1715), the poet-laureate.
Tate and Brady’s Psalms, though justly ridiculed for their
clumsiness, quaintness, and bombast, have some noble
passages. Brady also published a “Translation of the
He died May 20, 1726.
Brady (WILLIAM MAZIERE), D.D., was born in Dublin,
Ireland, in 1825, of a prominent family, and graduated at
Trinity College with honor. Entering the Irish State
Church, he received lucrative appointments, which he haz-
arded, and in part lost, by his many bold and able attacks
upon the Church establishment to which he himself be-
longed. He was one of the foremost leaders of the move-
ment which resulted in the disestablishment of the Irish
Church. He is the author of several works, chiefly upon
the ecclesiastical history and antiquities of Ireland and
“Great Britain.
Brady’s Bend, a post-village of Armstrong co., Pa.,
on the Alleghany River and the Alleghany Valley R. R.,
68 miles N. N. E. of Pittsburg. Pop. of township, 3619.
Bra’ga (anc. Bracara Augusta), a town of Portugal,
capital of the province of Minho, is on an eminence near
the river Cavado, 39 miles N. N. E. of Oporto. It is the
seat of an archbishop. It has a fine Gothic cathedral and
a college. Braga is enclosed by old walls and defended by
a castle. Here are manufactures of linen, cutlery, firearms,
jewelry, etc. It is a very ancient town, and has ruins of a
Roman temple and amphitheatre. It was the capital of
Lusitania after the latter had been conquered by the Suevi.
Its archbishop is titular primate of Portugal. Church
councils were held at Braga in 563, 572, and 672 A. D.
Pop. in 1863, 19,514.
Bragan’za, a fortified town of Portugal, province of
Tras-os-Montes, situated on a small stream 35 miles N. W.
of Mirandi. It has a citadel, a college, and a castle partly
ruined, which was the seat of the dukes of Braganza. It
is the seat of a Catholic bishop. The name of the reign-
ing family of Portugal and Brazil, the House of Braganza,
is derived from this town. It has manufactures of velvet
and other silk fabrics. Pop. 5111. -
Braganza, or Caite’, a seaport-town of Brazil,
province of Pará, on the river Caite, near its mouth, 106
miles E. N. E. of Pará. It has a trade in sugar.
Bragam'za, or Bragança, the name of the royal
family of Portugal and the imperial family of Brazil,
which is descended from Affonso, duke of Braganza, a
natural son of John I., king of Portugal. He died in 1461.
The first member of this family that became king of Por-
tugal was the eighth duke, who began to reign as John IV.
in 1640. The first emperor of Brazil was Dom Pedro I.,
the eldest son of King John VI. .
Bragſdon (C. P.), a distinguished Methodist Episcopal
preacher, was born at Acton, Me., Sept. 9, 1808, entered the
ministry in 1834, and labored with great zeal and success
in Maine, New York State, and Illinois. He was distin-
guished for the power and effectiveness of his preaching.
Died at Evanston, Ill., Jan. 8, 1861.
Bragdon (EDMUND ERASTUs EASTMAN), D.D., an emi-
ment Methodist Episcopal divine and educator, was born at
Acton, Me., Dec. 8, 1812, and graduated at the Wesleyan
University, Middletown, Conn., in 1841. With the excep-
tion of three years in the pastorate, one year of which was
in New York City, his life was devoted to the cause of edu-
cation. He held professorships of ancient languages in
the Ohio University, Athens, O., in the Indiana Asbury
University at Greencastle, and in Genesee College, Lima,
N. Y. He was a faithful and successful instructor, and a
man of devout life. Died Mar. 20, 1862.
Bragg (BRAxton), an American officer, born in 1817 in
Warren co., N. C., graduated at West Point in 1837, and
became captain June 18, 1846, in the Third Artillery.
Served at seaboard posts 1837–45, in Florida war 1837–38
and 1838–42, in removing Cherokees to the West 1838, in
military occupation of Texas 1845–46, in war with Mexico
1846–48, engaged at Fort Brown (brevet captain), Monte-
rey (brevet major), and Buena Vista (brevet lieutenant-
colonel), and on frontier duty 1849–55. On his resignation,
Jan. 3, 1856, he became sugar-planter at Thibodeaux, La.,
1856–61, and commissioner of public works for Louisiana
no being can comprehend.”
observer of ancient or modern times.
586
BRAGG–BRAHMAPOOTRA.
1859–61. In the civil war he was in command of the forces
of the Southern army at Pensacola operating against Fort
Pickens 1861, of Second Corps at Shiloh 1862, being pro-
moted to general on the death of Gen. A. S. Johnston;
movement against Buell to Kentucky 1862, from which he
was compelled to retire after defeat at Perrysville; after a
brief arrest opposed Rosecrans at Chickamauga 1863, re-
lieved from command Dec. 2, 1863, for loss of ‘Mission
Ridge, and led a small force from North Carolina to Georgia.
in 1864. Resumed planting in Louisiana, and is now
chief engineer of Alabama of improvements in Mobile
harbor. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Bragg (John) was a brother of Braxton and Thomas
Bragg. In 1836 he settled in Mobile, Ala. In 1842 he was
appointed judge of the tenth circuit, and in 1851 he was
elected to Congress. He served but one term, then retiring
from public employments to take care of his large plant-
ing interests.
Bragg (THOMAs), a brother of Braxton Bragg, born at
Warrenton, N. C., Nov. 9, 1810, was admitted to the bar
in 1831, was governor of North Carolina 1854–58, U. S.
Senator 1859–61, and attorney-general in Jefferson Davis’s
cabinet 1861–63. Died Jan. 21, 1872.
Braggado'cio, a township of Pemiscot co., Mo. P. 90.
Bragg’s Store, a post-twp. of Lowndes co., Ala. P. 1035.
Bra’gi, written also Braga and Brage [derivation
very uncertain], in Scandinavian mythology, a son of
Odin, was the god of eloquence and poetry. He is repre-
sented as an old man with a long beard. His wife Iduna
keeps the apples of immortality, which bestow immortal
youth on those that partake of them. This myth probably
has allusion to the power of poetry to confer immortality.
Braſhe (TYCHo), the celebrated Danish astronomer, was
born in 1546 at Knudstrup, in Skaane, which at that time
was a province of Denmark. The king, Frederic II., gave
him the island of Huema, where he built the finest observa-
tory (Uranienborg) which ever had been erected in Europe.
He enriched the science of astronomy very much, partly
by his very numerous observations, partly by inventing
new instruments. He formed a catalogue of 777 stars, in-
creased by his pupil, Kepler, to 1000 from the records which
he left behind, and his recorded observations of the planet
Mars furnished to the same distinguished successor the
material from which he deduced his famous “Laws.” He
entered the University of Copenhagen in 1559, and was
destined for the law, but his attention was diverted to as-
tronomy by the eclipse of the sun in Aug., 1560. In 1562
he was sent to Leipsic to pursue his studies. An uncle who
died in 1565 left him an estate. Having passed several
years in Augsburg, he returned to his native country in
1570. He rejected the Copernican system, which in his
tiree was not supported by the conclusive evidence we
now have in its favor. In fact, Tycho's theory, which made
the sun move round the earth, and all the other planets
round the sun, explained all the phenomena then known
equally well with that of Copernicus. After the death of
his royal patron in 1588, he was first neglected, and then
so persecuted by the court that he emigrated to Germany
in 1597, and was induced by the emperor Rudolph to settle
at Prague, where he died Oct. 13, 1601. He published, be-
sides other works, “Astronomiae Instauratae Progymnas-
mata.” (1587–89). “As a practical astronomer,” says Sir
David Brewster, “Tycho has not been surpassed by any
The splendor and
number of his instruments, the ingenuity which he ex-
hibited in inventing new ones, and his skill and assiduity
as an observer, have given a character to his labors and a
value to his observations which will be appreciated to the
latest posterity.”
Brahilof’, or Brail off" [Turk. Ibraſſla], a fortified
town of Wallachia, on the left bank of the Danube, about 100
Emiles from its mouth and 102 miles N. E. of Bucharest. Large
quantities of grain and other produce are shipped at this
place, which is the chief port of Wallachia. Pop. 15,767.
Brähm, written also Brahme (but pronounced in one
syllable), in the Hindoo mythology, the name of the eternal,
self-existent Spirit, whom Manu describes as follows: “Iſe
whom the mind alone can perceive, whose essence eludes
the external organs, who has no visible parts, who ex-
ists from eternity—even He, the soul of all beings, whom
His image is the external
universe. His attributes or powers took a personal form
in BRAHMA, VISHNU, and SIVA (which see). “Of that in-
finite, incomprehensible, self-existent Spirit no representa-
tion is made, to his direct and immediate honor no temples
rise; nor dare a Hindoo address to him the effusions of his
soul, otherwise than by the mediation of a personified at-
tribute, or through the intervention of a priest.” (MooR's
“Hindu Pantheon.”) The Hindoos make no images of
Brahm, but the devout Brahmans meditate with silent and
unspeakable awe on his mysterious attributes.
Bräh/má, a Sanscritterm which literally signifies “wor-
ship ’’ or “prayer,” but now used as the name of one of the
great Hindoo deities, called the “Creator,” but who is in
fact the personification of the creative power of BRAHM
(which see). Brahma, though regarded as the first of the
gods, is much less worshipped by the Hindoos than either
Vishnu or Siva. The votaries of the last-named gods are
stimulated by hope and fear. (See WISHNU and SIVA.) But
the votaries of Brahma may be said to be actuated only by
the feeble principle of gratitude. Accordingly, there are
no temples and no rites exclusively dedicated to Brahma,
though his images are occasionally found in the temples of
the other gods. The all-producing earth being the most re-
markable of the external types of creation, earth is taken
as the symbol of Brahma, as water is the symbol of Wishnu,
and fire that of Siva. The pictures of Brahma are com-
monly of a reddish hue, this being the usual color of the
earth. Viewed in another relation, Brahma represents
matter, while Vishnu represents spirit, and Siva time. (See
MooR, “Hindu Pantheon.”)
Brah'manism, the name given to the religious system
founded by the Brahmans of India. Scarcely any trace of
Brahmanism is discoverable in the Védas, the oldest writ-
ings of the Hindoos. We first find it developed in a work
of somewhat uncertain date entitled the “Institutes of
Manu” (or Menu), which was probably composed between
600 and 900 years before the Christian era. The deities of
the Védas are such as would naturally have been suggested
by the phenomena or objects of external nature, such, for
example, as the heavens, called Varuna (Uranus), Mitra,
the Sun, Fire (Agni, Ignis), and so on. The greatest and
most powerful of the Védic divinities is Indra (perhaps
allied to the Latin imber), the god of the atmosphere, of
clouds, and of storms, and hence the Thunderer, correspond-
ing in this respect to the Jupiter of the classic, and to
Thor of the Northern, mythology. But in the Brahmanical
system all these deities of nature retire into the background,
and are replaced by the great gods (the Dii majores), such
as Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, with their consorts (saktis),
their various avatars, etc.
In the primitive ages the head of each family among the
Aryas (see ARYA) appears to have acted as priest, sac-
rificing to the gods in his own name; but as the people
receded from their primitive simplicity, they employed
professional priests, who were believed to understand the
wishes of the gods, and to know how their favor could best
be propitiated. Having thus become a necessary element
in the community, the priestly class soon established them-
selves as the dominant power in the state; and in order to
secure the position which they had thus acquired, they
founded the distinctions of CASTE (which see).
The doctrine of “emanation,” as it is called—with its as-
sociated doctrine of transmigration—may be said to form
the philosophical basis of the Brahmanical system. Ac-
cording to this doctrine, BRAHM (which see) is the centre
and source of all the various beings of the universe, these
being nothing more than emanations from him ; and as
He is the source whence, all things have been evolved, so
all things will ultimately return to him, and be absorbed
into the essence of the Self-existent. This final absorption
is regarded by the Hindoo as his salvation. His aversion
to activity or excitement makes the motion of complete re-
pose necessary to his ideal of perfect felicity. Hence the
final aim of all the efforts of the devout Hindoo is to bring
his transmigrations to an end, that his individual existence
may cease, and his soul be completely swallowed up in
Brahm. The same general doctrine, with some modifica-
tions, forms also the basis of Booddhism. -
One of the most remarkable features of the Brahmanical
system is the great importance which it attaches to the per-
formance of penance and prayer. According to the Chris-
tian and Hebrew Scriptures, prayer and sacrifice are of no
avail if they are not acceptable to God. But the Brahmans
teach that persevering prayer, if made in due form, though
prompted by the most unworthy motives, can, especially
when it is combined with penance and sacrifice, compel the
gods to accede to the wishes of the suppliant. (See MooR,
“Hindu Pantheon;” Prof. H. H. WILSON, “Essays on the
Religion of the Hindus;” “Institutes of Menu,” translated
by Sir W. Jon Es.) J. THOMAS.
Brahmapoo/tra, written also Burrampooter (anc.
Dyardanes or CEdanes), a great river of Asia, rises in
Thibet, on the N. side of the Himalaya Mountains. It
flows nearly eastward to the E. extremity of Bootan, thence
turns southward, and breaks through the Himalayas into
Assam. Its general direction is nearly W. S. W. until it
passes through Assam and enters Bengal. It flows south-
ward through Bengal, and enters the Bay of Bengal close
BRAHMAPOOTRA FOWL–BRAIN.
to the mouth of the Ganges. It is connected with the
Ganges not only by a common delta, but by a large branch
or channel called the Jena, which leaves the Brahmapootra
about lat. 25° N. Its entire course is estimated at 1700
miles. It inundates the level tracts of Bengal from April
to September, and is said to discharge into the sea more
water than the Ganges. The violence of its current and
its tidal bore render navigation difficult.
Brahmapootra Fowl. See PoulTRY.
Brah/mo. So’maj (i. e. “worshipping assembly”) is
the name of a society of Theists in India. Founded in
1830 by Rammohun Roy, it increased in numbers and ag-
tivity after 1842, under the leadership of Debendro Nath
Tagore, who succeeded in emancipating it from Vedantism:
In 1859 a new impulse was given to it by the ability and
enthusiasm of Keshub Chunder Sen, who effected the Sep-
aration of those who were willing to abolish caste in their
communion, as the “Brahmo Somaj of India.” The more
conservative members remained in the Somaj or Church
of Calcutta. The whole number of Brahmos is probably
not more than 1000. Many of them are young Hindoos
educated at the English colleges. The first building for
public worship of the progressive Brahmos was opened at
Calcutta in 1869. In 1873 there were only 143 Brahmos
registered in Calcutta, and only 40 in Bombay.
Keshub Chunder Sen, in his "sermons and published
tracts, avows a belief in the unity of God, in immediate
revelation, in the necessity of a new birth, in the immor-
tality of the soul, and in the efficacy of prayer. His mo-
rality is pure, and he inculcates reverence for the character
of Jesus Christ, but repudiates the doctrines of his divinity,
mediation, and atonement as taught in the New Testament.
This “ Unitarian Theism * is said to resemble the theolog-
ical rationalism of Theodore Parker. (See “Six Months
in India,” by Miss CARPENTER; “Hours of Work and
Play,” by Miss F. P. CoBBE; an article in the “Contem-
porary Review” on “Indian Theism,” etc., 1869; Dr.
JARDIN's paper in “Proceedings of the Allahābād Confer-
ence,” 1872.) -
Braid/wood, a post-village of Reed township, Will
co., Ill., on the Chicago and Alton R. R., 58 miles from Chi-
cago. It has two weekly newspapers and a national bank.
Brain [Gr. 3ykéðaxos; Lat. cerebrum ; Fr. cervedw or cer-
velle; Ger. Gehirn], the encephalom or contents of the head;
the material instrument of thought, impulse, and percep-
tion in man and the higher animals. Only vertebrates
have a true brain; in others ganglia or nerve-centres exist;
but, in the view of anatomists, the “cephalic ganglia.” of
insects and other invertebrate animals are not strictly ho-
mologous with the brain.
The amphiocus is the only brainless vertebrate; it is a
small oceanic fish, exceptional in many respects of struc-
ture. There is an ascent in the endowment of brain from
the fishes, batrachians, reptiles, birds and lower mammals,
until the culmination is reached in man. The proportion, by
weight, of the encephalon to the whole body is in fishes on
the average (according to Leuret) about as 1 to 5668; in
reptiles, 1 to 1321; birds,ºl to 212; mammals, 1 to 186; in
man, I to 36. The elephant has the largest brain, in actual
weight, of all animals, sometimes. reaching nine or ten
pounds; next is that of the whale, about five pounds. The
heaviest human brains have never weighed so much as
this. Yet the proportion of weight of the brain to the
whole body in the elephant is as 1 to 500. In some small
animals and birds the proportion is relatively larger; as in
the marmoset, 1 to 22; field-mouse, 1 to 31; linnet and
canary-bird, 1 to 20; and blue-headed tit, 1 to 12. But it
must be remembered that the kind of brain varies also ;
and the sensori-motor portions at the base of the brain are
of much greater relative size in the lower animals than in
man. There is an obvious connection between the degree
of cerebral development in the different groups of animals
and their intelligence; and the human brain is greatly
Superior to any other in its endowment. As Huxley has
pointed out, the difference in the structure of the brains of
men and of the higher apes is not very marked, and the
disparity in size is less than between the highest and the
lowest of the quadrumana. But the gap is evidently a very
wide one; as Professor Huxley admits that an average
European child of four years old has a brain twice as iarge
as an adult gorilla, whose weight is perhaps four times as
great. Cephalization is a term applied by Professor Dana
to the predominance of the head and its prehensile ap-
pendages, by which the higher are distinguished from the
lower animals; and of which the erect position and large,
evenly-balanced head of man furnish the only perfect ex-
emplification.
The typical encephalon of vertebrate animals may be
regarded as constituted mainly of the following parts, in
varying proportions: olfactory ganglia, cerebral hemi-
587
spheres, optic lobes, and cerebellum, besides the medulla
oblongata, which, as its name implies, is the continuation
of the spinal axis within the skull. In fishes, those parts
which (in a rudimentary manner) represent the cerebral
hemispheres are generally no larger than the optic lobes; a
condition to which, at a certain stage of development, the
brain of the human embryo presents a near though not ex-
act resemblance. In reptiles and batrachia, there is not
much advancement, but the cerebral hemispheres are larger
and the cerebellum smaller. Birds have a considerable in-
crease in the size of the hemispheres, which, in them, cover
the olfactory ganglia in front and the optic lobes behind;
the cerebellum in them is large. To each of these the em-
bryonic human brain has, at certain stages, a general resem-
blance. -
Mammals present great diversity, from the smooth-
brained (Lissencephala of Owen) Monotremata, Marsupi-
alia, and Rodentia, up through the other groups to the
highly-convoluted (Gyrencephala) and otherwise complex
brains of the anthropoid apes, as the gorilla and chimpanzee.
In mammals only do we find the large transverse commis-
sure (connecting band) called the corpus callosum, between
the hemispheres; and in the lowest of them, as the duck-
billed platypus of Australia, it is wanting. In the higher
apes, as well as in man, the cerebral hemispheres roof oyer
and conceal, when looked at from above, the cerebellum be-
hind, as well as the olfactory bulbs in front; but in the lowest
Quadrumana (as the lemurs) the cerebellum is uncovered,
and the surface of the cerebrum is almost devoid of convo-
lutions.
Of the different lobes into which the cerebral hemispheres
are imperfectly divided, the last to appear in the ascent
from lower to higher groups of vertebrates, and the last to
be developed in the growth of the human embryo, is the pos-
terior lobe. This is among the facts which suggest a dif-
ferent hypothesis concerning the relative functions of the
anterior, middle, and posterior lobes from that which is
generally entertained. - - -
An adult man's brain weighs, on the average, 48 ounces;
a woman’s, 44 ounces; yet, as Tiedemann (Philadelphia
translation, 1836) observes, since the female body is lighter
than the male, there is no inferiority in the relative size of
the brain. º
In capacity, the largest human brain of 900 measured
(R. Wagner) was that of a woman, 115 cubic inches; the
smallest adult male's, 62 cubic inches. Morton, however
(“Crania Americana,” p. 132), mentions a skull of the Inca
Peruvian race, 60 cubic inches. The Hindoos probably
have the smallest skulls of all known races. The following
table is from Morton :
RAces. à § C *#y. Largest. Smallest.
Caucasian, . . 52 87 109 75
Mongolian, . . 10 83 93 69
Malay, . . . . 18 81 89 64
American, 147 82 100 60
Ethiopian, 29 78 | 94 65
The human brain is enveloped, within the skull, by three
membranes—the outer, fibrous, dura mater ; the middle,
C
§}º
º|§§º
:
i
º \
; : - § §liº
i *] § §§§
§ | | A
) §º sº
yº, §W º
|
°,
..
sº º
Nilº-
§ %
*\\º
N § º § º º º y
N sº
is x. º !
& c \||
- |
Nº.
Fig. 1. Brain viewed from above.
* Sºil
§§ §§
§§ & wº
§§ J
§
º º ; & &
|
§


























588
BRAIN.
serous, arachnoid : the inner, pia mater, consisting of small
blood-vessels, with connective tissue between them. As
usually described, the parts of the emcephalon are, the cere-
brum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and pons varolii. *
The cerebrum is composed of the right (Fig. 1, a) and
left (b) hemispheres, partially separated by the longitu-
dinal fissure (c c). The convolutions on the two sides
do not correspond (unless in a few principal forms) with
each other; nor are they the same in different subjects.
The fissure of Sylvius (Fig. 2, a a), on each side, separates
(partly) the anterior from the middle lobe. On the surface
of the hemispheres, gray (cineritious) vesicular nerve-sub-
stance predominates, although thin alternating layers of
white substance exist in the convolutions. The central
mass of the cerebrum is mainly composed of white, fibrous
nerve-substance.
Laying the brain over so as to examine its base, the cere-
bellum (Fig. 2, b b), pons varolii (c), and medulla oblongata
(d) are seen posteriorly. The relative positions of these parts
ºS *N
* /
A\|
ſ
\
º
|
º: º Sºś
Fig. 2. The base of the Brain.
can be understood by the aid of the figure. In front of these
the cranial nerves. They are commonly enumerated in the
order of their emergence from the brain, as the 1st (most
anterior), olfactory nerve; 2d, optic ; 3d, motor oculi, etc.
To inspect the interior of the brain, it should be placed
upon its base and sliced away above the corpus callosum,
(Fig. 3, a) which bridges transversely the two hemispheres.
Fig. 3. Horizontal section of the Brain, showing the lateral
ventricles.
The lateral ventricles (b b) may be thus exposed, and other
parts, the technical names of which would cumber the
memory of the general reader, especially as the particular
uses of all of them have not yet been clearly determined.
The figure will suffice to locate some of them.
The most important parts of the floor of the ventricles
are the corpora striata (c) and the thalami (d and Fig. 4,
a q).
latter posterior. Both are rounded masses, partly of gray
and partly of white nerve substance.
Connected with the thalami on each side by commissural
filaments, and lying between the cerebrum and cerebellum,
Fig. 4. Brain, showing horizontal section of the third (d) and
fourth (e) ventricles.
are the (four) tubercula quadrigemina, which correspond
nearly with the optic lobes of birds, reptiles, and fishes.
The optic nerves principally terminate in them.
The cerebellum (c) is much smaller than the cerebrum, and
lies behind and below it; they are separated by the mein-
bramous tentorium. The cerebellum consists of a right and
a left hemisphere, with a fissure between them, interrupted
by commissural connections. The outer portions of these
hemispheres are arranged in nearly parallel delicate lamellae
or layers of gray nerve-matter. When a vertical section is
made, we see an arborescent internal structure of white
nerve-substance enclosed in the gray; this is called the
arbor vitae by anatomists. The pons varolii is principally
composed of bands of transverse filaments, connecting the
hemispheres of the cerebellum. The crura cerebri are bun-
dles of white substance diverging from the pons varolii into
the hemispheres of the cerebruhn, widening as they pass
forward.
The medulla oblongata (f) is a pyramidal mass of nerve-
substance, continuous with the spinal marrow, as well as con-
nected with the cerebrum and cerebellum. It is divisible on
each side into four portions. The anterior of these, corpora
pyramidalia, are composed of bundles of white nerve-fibres,
which decussate—i.e., cross each other, a little below the poms.
They are connected with the antero-lateral columns of the
spinal cord, and their crossing explains some facts in con-
nection with one-sided motor palsy. The posterior pyra-
mids are continuous with the posterior tracts of the spinal
cord. The other portions of the medulla oblongata are
called corpora olivaria and corpora restiformia. (For a
more detailed description, the reader is referred to works on
special anatomy.)
The functions of the brain, except as regards the general
fact of its serving as the instrument of mental action, in-
cluding perception, thought, emotion, and will, constitute
a difficult subject of study, whose investigation has not yet
been completed. We can give here only those views upon
which physiologists are most nearly agreed. (For the con-
sideration of some others, see PHRENoLoGY.)
The medulla oblongata, besides fibres of a commissural
mature, is believed by most inquirers (Brown-Séquard ex-
cepted) to contain the ganglionic centre, under the control
of which, through reflex action, are performed the move-
ments connected with breathing and swallowing. A serious
injury to it is always fatal, by interruption of respiration.
The cerebellum (believed by Gall to be the seat of the
organ of amativeness or sexual propensity) has, since the
inquiries and experiments of Flourens, been generally
thought to have the office of harmonizing or co-ordinating
The former (one on each side) are anterior, the . .







BRAINARD–BRAINTREE.
589
voluntary movements. Animals which climb, as the ape
and the bear, have a larger cerebellum than those of simple
locomotion, as the dog and the hog. Among birds, those
of rapid and varied flight, as the swallow and many birds
of prey, have it larger than the heavily-flying pheasant
family, of which the barn-fowl is an example. Possibly the
cerebellum may be the seat of the “muscular sense” of some
physiologists. It is an unexplained fact that it has often
been found considerably altered in persons who have died
1Ia83, Ilê,
Mitchell of Philadelphia appear to throw doubt in the way
of the acceptance of the co-ordinative theory, concerning
the cerebellum. He found that in animals which survived
the entire removal of the cerebellum, although the order
and balance of locomotor actions was lost for a consider-
able time, it was finally restored. Doctor Mitchell suggests,
therefore, that the cerebellum cannot be the earclusive centre
of muscular co-ordination, however it may share this office
with other parts of the cerebro-spinal axis, but that it may
be a great reservoir for accumulation of motor force.
The corpora striata are probably connected with the
direct emanation of the motor impulses, upon which vol-
untary actions depend. -
The thalami (formerly called nervorum opticorum) appear
to be the ultimate termini of the nervous filaments which
bring from the spinal cord impressions of common sensa-
tion or touch. These, with the corpora striata, the tuber-
cular quadrigemina, and other central masses at the base
of the brain, constitute the group of sensori-motor ganglia,
believed by Carpenter and others to be the immediate seat
of consciousness and will. Sensori-motor actions are those
in which motion is guided by sensation, through the medium
of this ganglionic apparatus. The importance of such
guidance is easily illustrated by many familiar actions. We
walk by sight; if one closes his eyes, his steps become un-
certain. So, every one speaks or sings by aid of his hear-
ing; the phrase “a good ear for music" is justifiable. One
born deaf is also mute, from lack of this guidance. A
blind person learns to substitute the use of the senses of
touch and hearing for sight, but some guidance by sensa-
tion must always be had. All confused or unusual impres-
sions make action difficult or irregular, as when one en-
deavors, without practice, to walk a narrow plank at a
great height from the ground.
The cerebral hemispheres are, by universal consent, regard-
ed as the material organs of intellect and of the emotions.
Commonly it is believed that the anterior portion of the brain
(the “gray matter” of its convolutions) is the seat of intel-
lectual activity; the emotions, if separately located at all—
which Carpenter disputes—being connected with the mid-
dle and posterior lobes. Yet the order of development,
compared with the successive periods of maturing of the
impulses and the reasoning powers, would point rather to
the posterior lobes as being the organs of intellect.
The nature of the relation between mind and brain is a
topic of endless controversy. (See MATERIALISM and MEN-
TAL PHILosophy.) Certain propositions may be here ad-
vanced, as open to very little question at the present time:
1. The two hemispheres of the brain, under normal condi-
tions, act as one. We are not conscious of anything but
unity in our mental activity. 2. Yet the brain is probably,
in relation to our faculties, a multiple organ. This is shown
by the partial consciousness of dreaming and somnambulism;
partial insanity or monomania; limited disturbance of men-
tal or moral powers after certain injuries; and the special
gifts of mind so different in different individuals, recognized
under the name of genius. 3. Reflex action, as pointed
out first by Dr. Laycock, affects the brain, as well as the
lower nervous centres. Emotional actions, excited by the
presence of particular objects or impressions, exemplify
this. 4. Mental action, intellectual as "well as emotional,
is often truly automatic or involuntary. The will (as all
psychologists recognize) controls thought and feeling only
by the directing and selective power of attention, by which
one, rather than another, kind of impression or ratiocina-
tion acquires momentum and continuance. Great mental
capacity is, indeed, often combined with deficiency of will,
as in such striking examples as Mozart and S. T. Coleridge.
5. There is reason to believe, as Doctor Carpenter has
shown, that mental activity may sometimes be unconscious
—the “unconscious cerebration” of authors. During sound
sleep, for instance, most persons are able to awake at a de-
termined time. When we have forgotten a once-familiar
name or number, our attention being withdrawn from the
search, it frequently comes back unsought." Many other
facts may receive the same kind of explanation. (See
“Human Physiology,” by W. B. CARPENTER, M.D., chap-
ters on the “Nervous System.”)
HENRY HARTSHORNE.
Brain’ard (John GARDINER CALKINs), an American
poet of merit, born at New London, Conn., Oct. 21, 1796.
Some recent investigations of Doctor S. Weir.
IHe graduated at Yale in 1814. He published a volume of
poems in 1825, and was for six years editor of the “Con-
necticut Mirror.” Died Sept. 26, 1828. (See “Memoir of
Brainard,” prefixed to his works, by J. G. WHITTIER, 1832.)
Braimard (LAWRENCE L.), a prominent citizen and
business-man of St. Albans, Vt., born about 1794, was
several times candidate for governor, and was U. S. Sena-
tor from Vermont 1854-55. Died May 9, 1870.
Brain Coral, a name of various corals of the order
Madreporaria and family Maeandrinidae, especially applied
to the Maeandrina cerebriformis, which grows in warm seas,
and takes its name from the fact that its surface has con-
volutions shaped somewhat like those of the human brain.
Braine (DANIEL L.), U. S. N., born May 18, 1829, in
the city of New York, entered the navy as a midshipman
May 30, 1846, became a passed midshipman in 1852, a lieu-
tenant in 1858, a "lieutenant-commander in 1862, and a
commander in 1866. In 1861–62 he commanded the steamer
Monticello, taking part in the engagement with the bat-
tery at Sewell’s Point, near Norfolk, Va., May 19, 1861,
and in the capture of Forts Hatteras and Clark, N. C., Oct.
5 of the same year. He was frequently under the fire of
Forts Fisher and Caswell while blockading the port of
Wilmington, and participated in both the Fort Fisher
fights, and in the capture of Fort Anderson on the 19th of
Feb., 1865. For the “cool performance” of his duty in
these battles Braine was recommended for promotion by
Rear-Admiral Porter in his “commendatory despatch"
of Jan. 28, 1865. Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Braine-1’Alleud, a town of Belgium, in Brabant. It
has cotton-factories. Pop. 5578.
Braine-le-Comte, a town of Belgium, in the prov-
ince of Hainault, on the railway from Brussels to Valen-
ciennes, 20 miles by rail N. N. E. of Mons. It has a church
built about the year 1300, also cotton-mills and dyeworks.
Fine flax is raised in the vicinity. Pop. 6464.
Brain’erd, a post-village of Crow Wing co., Minn., on
the Northern Pacific R. R. where it crosses the Mississippi
River, 115 miles W. S. W. of Duluth. It has one weekly
newspaper.
Brainerd (DAVID), an American missionary, born at
Haddam, Conn., April 20, 1718. He entered Yale College in
1739, but was expelled in 1742 for a very trivial offence. In
1743 he began his famous labors among the Indians in a vil-
lage about halfway between Stockbridge, Mass., and Albany,
N. Y. The year following he went among the Delawares
in Pennsylvania, and afterwards to Crosweeksung in New
Jersey, where he had his most signal success. In the summer
of 1747 he returned to Massachusetts in broken health, and
died at Northampton Oct. 9, 1747. Jonathan Edwards,
to whose daughter he was engaged to be married, and at
whose house he died, published a memoir of him in 1749.
A new (and now the standard) edition of this, with his
journals, was published by Rev. Sereno E. Dwight in 1822.
Brainerd (John), a younger brother of the preceding,
was born at Haddam, Conn., Feb. 28, 1720, graduated at
Yale College in 1746, and was for a time missionary among
the Indians in New Jersey. In 1757 he was settled at New-
ark, and in 1777 at Deerfield, N. J., where he died Mar. 17,
1781. (See his “Life,” by Rev. THOMAS BRAINERD, 1865.)
Brainerd (THOMAs), D.D., of the same stock as the
above, was born at Weston, N.Y., June 17, 1804, graduated
at Hamilton College and at Andover Theological Seminary
in 1831. From 1831 to 1833 he was pastor of the Fourth
Presbyterian church in Cincinnati, O., from 1833 to 1836
edited the “Cincinnati Journal” and “Youth’s Magazine,”
and from 1837 till his death at Scranton, Pa., Aug. 21,
1866, was pastor of the Pine Street church, Philadelphia.
He was an accomplished and able writer. Besides various
sermons and pamphlets, he published in 1865 the “Life of
John Brainerd,” referred to above.
Brain Fever is a popular name for acute cephalic
meningitis (see MENINGITIS), a dangerous disease, charac-
terized in its earlier stages by very high fever and intense
headache, usually followed by delirium and death. In-
flammation of the brain itself (encephalitis) is less com-
mon, but is even more fatal than the former. It is not
easy to discriminate between the two during life. Cold
applieations to the head and mild but persistent derivative
treatment are generally indicated.
Brain'tree, a post-township and village of Norfolk co.,
Mass. The village is on the Old Colony and Newport R. R.,
10 miles S. of Boston. Here are manufactures of machi-
nery, woollen goods, boots and shoes, paper, tacks, cordage,
etc. Pop. of township, 3948.
Braim tree, a post-township of Orange co., Vt., 25 miles
S. of Montpelier. It has three churches, and manufac-
tures of lumber. Pop. 1066.
590
|BRAINTRIM—BRANDENBURG.
r—
Brain'trim, a township of Wyoming co., Pa. P. 620.
Braize, or Becker (Pagrus vulgaris), a sea-fish of
jºb
§ º
K&
º
§§
º
IBraize.
Europe, represented in American Atlantic waters by the
big porgy or scup (Pagrus argyrops), which is prized both
for the table and for its oil.
Brake, a term with various significations; it sometimes
denotes a thicket, a place overgrown with shrubs, bram-
bles, or ferns. In the U. S. a thicket of canes is called a
“canebrake.”
BRAKE is a name applied, especially in America, to plants
of the order Filices. The more correct name is FERN (which
see, by PROF. D. C. EATON, LL.B.).
BRAKE, an instrument used to break flax or hemp ; the
hand or lever by which a pump is worked; a large harrow
used in agriculture; a sharp bit or snaffle (of a bridle).
BRAKE, a machine attached to the wheels of heavy car-
riages and railroad cars, which, when pressed against the
wheels, retards or stops their motion by friction. Patents
have been obtained in the U. S. for numerous machines or
inventions for this purpose. Among these are “steam car-
brakes,” in the use of which the friction is produced by
steam-power, and the engineer of a locomotive applies the
brakes by the turning of a cock; and the “Westinghouse
air-brake,” now extensively used. -
Braſma, a genus of fishes of the family Chaetodontidae,
having the body very deep and compressed, a single elon-
gated dorsal fin, and a forked tail, the points of which are
widely divergent. The Brama raii, sometimes called bream,
is cornmon in the Mediterranean, and is highly esteemed for
food.
Braſmah (JosłPH), an English machinist and inventor,
born in Yorkshire April 13, 1749. He carried on business
in London, and gained distinction by numerous and valu-
able inventions, among which are a safety lock, a hydro-
static press, and improvements in fire-engines and steam-
engines. Died Dec. 9, 1814.
Bramah’s Press. See HYDROSTATIC PRESS. -
Braman’te (DONATO LAzzARI), a celebrated Italian
architect and painter, born near Urbino in 1444, was a rela-
tive of Raphael. He studied and worked at Milan from
1476 to 1499, and afterwards removed to Rome, where he
was patronized by Pope Julius II. He designed the vast
galleries which connect the Vatican with the palace of Bel-
vedere. He was the first architect of St. Peter's church,
which he began to build in 1506. Only a small portion
of his design had been realized when he died in 1514, and
the succeeding architects deviated from the original plan.
(See WASARI, “Lives of the Painters;” PUNGILEONI, “ Me-
moria intorno alla Vita di Donato Bramante,” 1837.)
Bram/bling, Bram’blefinch, or Mountain
Finch (Fringilla montifringilla), a small bird nearly
allied to the chaffinch, than which it is rather larger. The
predominant colors of the upper parts are black and brown,
with white bands on the wings. The belly is white, and
Some of the wing-coverts are yellow. It breeds in the
northern parts of Sweden and Norway, and visits England,
Italy, and other countries as a winter bird of passage.
" Brampſton, a post-village, capital of Peel co., Ontario,
on the Grand Trunk Railway, 21, miles W. of Toronto, has
manufactures of flour, farming implements, pumps, etc.,
and a large trade. It has two weekly papers. Pop. in
1871, 2090.
Bran, the husk, or outer covering of wheat, which in
the process of flouring is separated from the fine flour. In
100 parts of bran there are of water, 13.1; albumen, 19.3;
oil, 4.7 ; husk (with a little starch), 55.6; ash or saline
matter, 7.3. Calico-printers use bran and warm water to
remove coloring-matter from those parts of their goods
which are not mordanted. Bran and the flour united—
i. e. unbolted wheat flour—make a good bread, which is
considered more digestible than that made of fine white
flour.
Branch [Fr. branche; Lat. ramus], a limb
of a tree or plant; a bough, or division of the
stem or trunk; a ramification ; any member or
part of a body or system; a distinct article or
section, as a branch of science or education.
In geography several streams which unite to
form a river are called its branches. The term
“branch” is also applied to an individual of
a family descending in a collateral line; any
descendant of a common parent. In botany each
branch originates in a leaf-bud, which is pro-
duced at a node of the stem or of an already ex-
isting branch. The arrangement of the branches
as alternate or opposite corresponds to the re-
lative position of the leaves.
Branch, a county of Michigan, bordering
on Indiana. Area, 528 square miles. It is trav-
ersed by the St. Joseph River and is drained by
several creeks. The surface is diversified by for-
ests, oak-openings, and small lakes; the soil is a fertile
Sandy loam. Cattle, grain, and wool are staple products.
Iron ore is found. It is intersected by the Michigan South-
ern R. R. Capital, Coldwater. Pop. 26,226.
Branch, a township of Stanislaus co., Cal. Pop. 787.
Branch, a township of Schuylkill co., Pa. Pop. 1200.
Branch (John), born at Halifax, N. C., Nov. 4, 1782,
graduated at the University of North Carolina in 1801, be-
came a lawyer, was made a judge of the superior court,
governor of North Carolina (1817–20), U. S. Senator (1823–
29), secretary of the navy (1829–31), member of Congress
(1831–33), governor of Florida Territory (1844–45), besides
holding other important offices. Died at Edgefield, N. C.,
Jan. 4, 1863.
Branch (LAwRENCE O’BRIEN), son of the preceding,
born in Halifax co., N. C., in 1820, graduated at Princeton
in 1838, was a Democratic Representative in Congress from
1855 to 1861. He was made a brigadier-general in the
Confederate army in 1861, and was killed at Antietam in
1862.
Branch/burg, a twp. of Somerset co., N.J. Pop. 1251.
Branchiop’oda [from the Gr. 8páyxia, the “gills,”
and troºs, Troöös, a “foot.”], an order of entomostracous
crustaceans, deriving their name from the peculiarity of
having the gills, which are numerous, attached to the feet.
They are small, many of them almost microscopic, and
abound in stagnant fresh waters. A few are found in salt
water. Some are known by the name of water-fleas; the
genera Cyclops and Cypris may be mentioned, the former
on account of its frequency in stagnant waters, the latter
because its fossil shells are abundant. Western North Amer–
ica abounds in species; Eastern North America has none.
Branch/port, a station on the Raritan and Dela-
ware Bay R. R., in Ocean township, Monmouth co., N. J.,
1 mile N. of Long Branch. It has a fine bay, a coasting-
trade in lumber and oysters, and has many summer resi-
dences. -
Branchport, a post-village of Jerusalem township,
Yates co., N. Y., at the head of the W. arm of Keuka Lake.
It has five churches.
Branch/ville, a township of St. Clair co., Ala. Pop.
4.19.
Branchville, a post-village of Orangeburg, co., S.C.,
in a township of the same name, on the South Carolina
R. R., 75 miles E. S. E. of Augusta. Pop. 1339.
Brand, a burning piece of wood, or a stick of wood
partly burned; a sword (this use of the word is obsolete
except in poetry); a thunderbolt; a mark made by burn-
ing with a hot iron on a criminal or on a cask, etc.; a
stigma. (See BRANDING.) The term brand is applied in
England to some diseases of plants, especially of cereal
grains, which are also called blight, bunt, mildew, rust, or
smut. These diseases are caused by minute parasitic vege-
tation. Perhaps the most common application of this term
is to a peculiar spotted and burnt appearance of leaves and
bark, the cause of which is probably not known.
Brande (WILLIAM THOMAs), F. R. S., an English chem-
ist, born in London in 1788. He lectured with success on
chemistry at the Royal Institution, and filled for many
years an important office in the Mint. Among his Works
are a valuable “Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art.”
(1842) and a “Manual of Chemistry.” Died in 1866.
Brand’enburg, the most important province of Prus-
sia, and that which formed the nucleus of the Prussian
kingdom. . It corresponds nearly to the old Mark of Bran-





BRANDENBURG-BBANDY WINE CREEK.
591
denburg, and has. an area of 15,402 square miles. It is
mostly a level, plain which has but little elevation above
the sea. It contains numerous lakes, is intersected by the
Oder, and also drained by the Warthe, the Spree, the Ha-
vel, and the Elbe, which latter forms part of its W. bound-
ary. The soil is sandy and moderately fertile. The prov-
ince is traversed by several canals and railways. . It has
extensive manufactures of cotton, wool, linen, silk, paper,
leather, sugar, etc. The chief towns are Berlin, Potsdam,
Rönigsberg, and Frankfort-on-the-Oder. The inhabitants
are mostly Protestants. It is divided into two regencies
(Regierungsbegirke) and thirty-three circles. This coun-
try was conquered by Charlemagne in 789 A. D. The first
margrave of Brandenburg was Albert the Bear, who is
called the founder of the House of Brandenburg. . He be-
gan to reign in 1134. Early in the fifteenth century the
margrave became an elector of the German empire, and
took the title of elector of Brandenburg. Frederick Wil-
liam, who became elector in 1640, added the duchy of
Prussia and part of Pómerania to his dominions, and his
son took the title of king of Prussia in 1701. Pop. in
1871, 2,863,461.
Brandenburg (anc. Brennaborch or Brennabor), a
town of Prussia, in the above province, is situated on
both sides of the river Havel, and on the Berlin and Mag-
deburg Railway, 38 miles by rail W. S. W. of Berlin. It
is enclosed by walls, and divided by the river into the old
and new town, between which, on an island, is a quarter
called “Venice,” containing a castle and a mediaeval cathe-
dral. . The town has a ritter: alcademie, a gymnasium, a
realschule, and a public library; also manufactures of
woollen and linen goods, hosiery, paper, leather, etc. Pop.
in 1871, 25,828. -
Brandenburg, a post-village, capital of Meade co.,
Ky., is on the Ohio River and on a high bluff, 40 miles be-
low Louisville. . Pop. 427.
Brandenburg, New, a walled town of Mecklenburg-
Strelitz, is situated near the N. end of Tollensee, 18 miles
N. N. E. of Strelitz and 53 miles W. N. W. of Stettin. It
has wide and regular streets, and is said to be the most
beautiful town in Mecklenburg-Strelitz. It has a grand-
ducal palace, and manufactures of cotton and woollen
goods, damasks, paper, and chemical products. Pop. in
1871, 7245.
Brandºing, a mode of punishment formerly practised
in England, by burning the face or hand of an offender
with a hot iron. - This penalty was inflicted in the case of
all clergiable offences (see BENEFIT of CLERGY), but it was
abolished by an act of Parliament in 1822. Branding is
now obsolete except in the case of.deserters from the army,
who are marked with the letter D, not by a hot iron, but
by ink or gunpowder. . By the Mutiny act of 1858 it is
enacted that the court-martial, in addition to any other
punishment, may order the offender to be marked on the
left side, two inches below the armpit, with the letter D,
such letter to be not less than one inch long.
Bran'dis (CHRISTIAN AUGUST), professor at Bonn Uni-
versity, born at Hildesheim; in Hanover, Feb. 15, 1790,
was the son of Joachim Dietrich Brandis, a celebrated
physician. He edited, with Emmanuel Bekker, a critical
edition of Aristotle. He was the secretary of King Otho
in Greece. His main work was a history of the Greek and
Roman philosophies (2 vols., 1835–44; the third volume
appeared in 1860–66) and a “History of the Development of
Greek Philosophy’’ (2 vols., 1862–64). Died July 24, 1867.
Branſdon, a township of Jackson co., Ia. Pop. 1103.
Brandon, a post-township of Oakland co., Mich. Pop.
1284.
Brandon, the capital of Rankin, co., Miss., on the
Wicksburg and Meridian R. R., 13 miles E. of Jackson,
contains twenty-one stores, a large hotel, a bank, a large
female college, five churches, and one newspaper. It is
surrounded by numerous mineral Wells, limestone and
marl-beds. Pop. 756.
A. J. Fr. ANTz, ED. of “BRANDON REPUBLICAN.”
Brandon, a township of Franklin co., N. Y. . P. 692.
Brandon, a post-village of Rutland co., Vt., , is in
Brandon township, near Otter Creek, on the Vermont Cen-
tral R. R. (Rutland division), 16 miles N. N. W. of Rut-
land. It has a newspaper; a graded academy, two parks,
two national banks, five churches, twenty-five stores, two
hotels, and manufactures of Howe Scales, iron castings,
carriages, flour, lime, lumber, paint, marble, pill-boxes,
spools, and tassel-moulds. ' The township contains also the
village of Forestdale. Pop. of the township, 3571.
A. N. MERCHANT, PUB. of “ UNION.”
Brandon, a post-township of Prince George co., Va.
Pop. 1600.
Brandon, a post-village of Fond du Lac co., Wis. It
has one weekly newspaper. . .
Brandt, a post-village of Bethel township, Miami co.,
O. Pop. 240.
Bran’dy [Ger. Branntwein (i. e. “burnt wine"); Fr. eau
de viej is the liquid obtained by distilling the fermented juice
of the grape. It is generally manufactured from white and
pale-red wines. White wine yields a richer brandy than
red wine, as it contains more of the essential oil of grapes,
to which the flavor of the brandy is due. The peculiarities
of the wine pass to a certain extent to the brandy. Wines
which taste of the soil communicate the same taste, the
goët de terre, to the brandy distilled from them. Wines of
Selleul in Dauphiny yield a brandy having the odor and
taste of Florentine iris; those in St. Pierre in Vivarais
give a spirit which smells of violet. The stronger the wine
the greater the yield. The wines of the S. of Europe, be-
ing richest in alcohol, yield the most brandy. The usual
yield is from 100 to 150 gallons from 1000 gallons of wine.
The best brandy,that distilled in the department of Charente,
known as cognac and armagnac (names of towns), is made
from very choice wines. Inferior brandies are distilled from
dark-red wines of France, Spain, and Portugal, also from
the fermented marc or refuse of the grape, and from the
lees of wine and the scrapings of the casks. The catawba
brandy, made from the lees, of catawba wine in Ohio, is a
very good brandy, though it has the peculiar flavor of this
wine. The brandy distilled from catawba marc has an un-
pleasant taste, and contains much fusel oil. The wines of
California yield brandy abundantly and of good quality.
Various other liquors are known as brandies, such as
“cider brandy” or “apple jack,” distilled from cider or
from the “pomace” or refuse ground apples from the
cider-press. This, when new, is a harsh, fiery liquor, but
is much improved by age. “Peach brandy” is extensively
made from the pulp of ripe peaches in some of the South-
ern States. -
Fresh brandy is colorless, and remains so in glass vessels.
The sherry—wine color which brandy generally exhibits is
either derived from the cask or from burnt sugar purposely
added. Brandy is almost pure alcohol and water, the per-
centage of alcohol varying from 48 to 56 per cent. It has
an agreeable vinous, aromatic 6dor, and a peculiar well-
known taste. . Its specific gravity is from 0.902 to 0.941.
Besides alcohol and water it contains the volatile oil of the
wine; a little acetic acid, acetic ether, aldehyde, etc., to-
gether with the coloring-matter and tannic acid derived
from the cask.
Brandy for medical use should be free from disagreeable
odor and taste, and should be at least four years old. The
advantage of keeping brandy a few years in the cask is
due to the oxidation and removal of the ranker fusel oils,
and to the precipitation of possible traces of copper or lead
derived from the still by the tannic acid of the cask.
The greater part of the brandy and cognac of commerce
is made from alcohol derived from Indian corn,-rectified
and deodorized whisky. This is diluted to proof, 50 per
cent., and flavored with acetic ether, Oenanthic ether, oil
of grapes, argol, and tannin, and colored with burnt sugar.
It is improved by the addition of a little real brandy, and
by keeping it a few years in the cask. The following
recipe for cognac brandy is taken from the circular of a
New York firm, whose business is to supply the necessary
materials to the manufacturers of wines. and liquors: “To
40 gallons of cologne spirit, double distilled and free from
odor, and reduced to proof with distilled water, add &
ounce of our best cognac oil, distilled from grapes, 1% pints
burnt-sugar coloring, and + ounce of tannin.” At the
prices charged for the materials this choice brandy would
cost the compounder $1.25 per gallon, and would sell at
from $10 to $25. g
Brandy is an esteemed cordial and stomachic. It is fre-
quently given in the sinking stages of low fevers and to
convalescents, and to check diarrhoea.
C. F. CHANDLER.
Brandy Station, a post-village of Culpeper co., Va.,
on the Orange Alexandria and Manassas R. R., 56 miles
S. W. of Alexandria, the scene of conflicts between the
Federal and Confederate forces on the 9th of June and 11th
of Oct., 1863. y
Bran’dywine, a hundred of New Castle co., Del. Pop.
3180. -
Brandywine, a township of Hancock co., Ind. Pop.
T061.
Brandywine, a township of Shelby co., Ind. Pop.
1224.
Brandywine Creek is formed by the East and West
branches, which unite in Chester co., Pa. It flows south-
eastward into the State of Delaware, and enters the Dela-
592
BRANFORD–BRATTLEBORO”.
ware River near Wilmington. It furnishes water-power
for numerous mills. On its banks, in Chester county, the
British general Howe defeated Washington Sept. 11, 1777.
Bram'ford, a borough of New Haven co., Conn., in
Branford township, on Long Island Sound and on the New
Haven and New London R. R., 8 miles E. S. E. of New
Haven. It has three churches, a foundry, etc. The harbor
will admit vessels of 300 tons. It is a place of summer re-
sort. It has various manufactures, and is the seat of an
academy. Pop. of township, 2488.
Branks, an instrument formerly used in England and
Scotland for the punishment of scolding women. It was
of various forms, but consisted essentially of a bridle of
iron or leather, to which was attached a piece of iron which
held the tongue firmly. It is asserted that in some obscure
places in England its use came down to quite recent times.
Bran'nan (John MILTON), an American officer, born in
1819 in the District of Columbia, graduated at West Point in
1841, major First Artillery Aug. 1, 1863, and Sept. 28, 1861,
brigadier-general U. S. volunteers. He served at seaboard
posts 1841–73, in suppressing Canada border disturbances
1841–42, in the war with Mexico 1846–48, engaged at Vera
Cruz, Cerro Gordo, La Hoya, Contreras, and Churubusco
(brevet captain), and the city of Mexico (severely wound-
ed at Belen Gate), as adjutant First Artillery 1847–54, in
Florida, hostilities 1856–58. In the civil war he served in
command of the department of Key West, Fla., 1862, in
the department of the South 1862–63, engaged on expedi-
'tion to St. John’s River, Fla. (brevet lieutenant-colonel),
at Pocotaligo, S. C., and several minor actions, in Tennes-
see campaign 1863, engaged at Hoover's Gap, Tullahoma,
Elk River, and Chickamauga (brevet colonel), as chief of ar-
tillery department of the Cumberland 1863–65, engaged at
Missionary Ridge, in the various operations of the Atlanta
campaign 1864 (brevet brigadier-general), in command of
the district of Savannah, and temporarily of department
of Georgia, 1865–66. Brevet major-general Mar. 13, 1865,
for meritorious services in the field.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Brant, a county in the S. part of Ontario (Canada).
Area, 416 square miles. It is intersected by Grand River
and the Grand Trunk R. R. The staple productions are
lumber, wool, potatoes, maple-sugar, butter, and cheese.
Capital, Brantford. Pop. 32,259.
Brant, a township of Saginaw co., Mich. Pop. 331.
Brant, a post-township of Erie co., N. Y., on Lake
Erie. Pop. 1359. -
Brant. See BARNACLE Goose.
Brant (Joseph THAYENDANEGA), an Indian Mohawk
chief, born in 1742, fought in the British army against the
Americans in the war of the Revolution. He published
the Gospel of Mark in Mohawk. Died Nov. 24, 1807. (See
W. L. STONE, “Life of Brant,” 1838.)
Brant (SEBASTIAN), a German poet, born at Strasburg
in 1458. He was appointed an imperial councillor by the
emperor Maximilian. He wrote a satirical poem entitled
“Das Narrenschiff” (“The Ship of Fools,” 1494). Died
May 10, 1520. -
Brant/ford, a town of Ontario (Dominion of Canada),
the capital of Brant county, is on Grand River and the
Grand Trunk Railway, 24 miles W. S. W. of Hamilton and
84 miles S. E. of Goderich. The river, an affluent of Lake
Erie, is navigable to Brantford, which has an active trade.
Here are large machine-shops and engine-houses of the
railway company, and manufactures of brass and iron cast-
ings, farming-implements, etc. The county buildings are
substantial. There is an orphans’ home for girls and a
widows’ home supported by the charitable. , Brantford has
two weekly newspapers. Pop, in 1871, 8107.
Brant'Iey (WILLIAM THEOPHILUs), D. D., born May 1,
1816, at Beaufort, S. C., educated at Brown University,
pastor of the First Baptist church at Augusta, Ga., 1840–
48, professor of belles-lettres and evidences of Christianity
in the University of Georgia 1848–56, pastor in Philadel-
phia, 1856–61, Atlanta, Ga., 1861–71, and of the Seventh
Baptist church of Baltimore since 1871.
Brantôme (PIERRE DE BourDEILLEs), a French his-
torian, born of a noble family at Périgord about 1540. He
served in the army in several campaigns, and gained
the favor of Charles IX., at whose court he passed some
years. He wrote “Les Vies des Hommes Illustres et grands
Capitaines, etc.,” a work of high reputation. His style is
charming, vivacious, na'if, abounding in ingenious turns,
and sometimes rising to eloquence. Died July 15, 1614.
Brashear (WALTER), M. D. See APPENDIX.
Bra'shear City, a town and port of entry of St. Mary’s
parish, La., on the Atchafalaya River, 80 miles from New
Orleans, is the southern terminus of Morgan's Louisiana
and Texas R. R., and is connected with Galveston and
other Texas ports by Morgan’s line of iron steamships; it
is connected with Havana and Mexican ports by a line of
iron steamers. Its port may be entered by vessels drawing
15 feet. It is connected with the Tèche country by a daily
line of steamboats, and has one of the best harbors in the
State. It has a resident collector of customs, and is des-
timed to be one of the largest commercial towns in the State
outside of New Orleans. It was captured from the Union
forces by Gen. Dick Taylor in 1863, with a large quantity
of military stores. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop.
776. W. B. MERCHANT, ED. “NEws.”
Brash'er, a township of St. Lawrence co., N. Y., con-
tains the post-village of Brasher Falls (pop. 450), which is
on the St. Regis River, 36 miles by rail E. of Ogdensburg.
It has important manufactures of lumber, pumps, and agri-
cultural tools. Brasher Iron-works, a post-village, has a
furnace, and other shops. Pop. 250. Bog-iron ore is ob-
tained in this township. Pop. of township, 3342.
Brasſidas [Gr. Bpaoričas], an eminent Spartan general
in the Peloponnesian war, which began in 431 B. C. He
relieved Megara in 424, and gained several victories over
the Athenians. He was killed in 422 B.C. at Amphipolis,
where he was opposed to the Athenian general Cleon. His
memory was long honored by annual sacrifices. Plato com-
pared him to Achilles. --
Brass [Lat. aes, gen. aeria; Fr. airain], an important
alloy of copper and zinc extensively used for a great variety
of purposes in the arts, on account of the ease of working
and its acceptable color. It is made (1) by fusing copper
and zinc in crucibles, placing the latter below; consider-
able of the zinc is lost during the operation, owing to its
volatility; (2) by heating copper in grains or sheets with
oxide of zinc and charcoal; (3) the ancient method, by
heating copper with calamine, a native ore of zinc, and
charcoal. Different varieties of brass, adapted to special
uses, are obtained by varying the proportions of the com-
ponent metals. Common brass for ordinary purposes,
which is cast in moulds and finished by turning and filing,
contains about 70 parts of copper and 30 of zinc. Munz or
yellow metal, which is rolled into sheets and used for sheath-
ing ships, contains from 50 to 63 parts of copper and 37
to 50 of zinc. Tombac, pinchbeck, prince’s metal, Mannheim
gold, mosaic gold, similar, etc., contain 80 parts or more
of copper to 20 or less of zinc. A little lead diminishes
the ductility, while tin increases the hardness of brass.
Articles of brass are cleaned by immersion in aqua fortis
(nitric acid), and lacquered with shell-lac in alcohol. Brass
is harder than copper, is malleable and ductile, and can be
readily cast, rolled, stamped, and turned in the lathe. Next
to iron in its different forms, it is the most important metal'
used in the arts. C. F. CHANDLER.
Bras'sarts, or Bras'sards, jointed plates of steel
which in plate-armor protected the upper part of the arms,
and united the shoulder and elbowpieces. The ancient
name of them was brachiale. When the front of the arm
only was shielded the pieces were called demi-brassarts.
Brasses, Monumental, are either plates or inlaid
figures of brass or latten, which occur in old churches of
Europe, generally designed to represent the figure and the
heraldic honors of the dead. Monumental brasses were
often wrought with fine artistic taste. This ancient prac-
tice, which had become nearly obsolete, has been lately re-
vived. …”
Brasseur de Bourbourg (CHARLEs ETIENNE), a
French priest, born Sept. 8, 1814, travelled extensively in
North and Central America, and published, as the result of
his travels, “Histoire de Canada, ’’ (2 vols., 1851), “His-
toire des nations civilisées du Mexique et de l’Amérique
Centrale’’ (4 vols., 1857–59), “Gramatica de la lengua
Quiche ’’ (1862), and other works.
Brass/field’s, a township of Granville co., N. C. Pop.
3015. -
Bras'sica, a genus of herbaceous plants of the order
Cruciferae, distinguished by a round and tapering 2-valved
pod (silique), globose seeds in one row in each valve, and
conduplicate cotyledons. The species of this genus, which
comprises the cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, turnip, rape,
etc., are natives of the temperate and cold regions of Europe
and Asia. The species just named are extensively culti-
wated in gardens and fields. (See CABBAGE and TURNIP.)
Brass/town, a township of Clay co., N. C. Pop. 395.
Brat’tice, in mining engineering, is a term applied to
a partition of iron plate and other fit material which di-
vides the great general shaft into two chambers, which
serve as up-cast and down-cast shafts for ventilation.
Bratſtleboro’, a post-village of Windham co., Vt., on
the Connecticut River and the Vermont Central R. R., 24
| BRATTON.—BRAZIL.
miles S. of Bellows Falls and 127 miles by rail S. of Mont-
pelier. It has seven churches, an asylum for the insane,
three newspaper-offices, two national banks, a paper-mill,
and important manufactures of machinery, musical instru-
ments, furniture, and many other articles. West Brattle-
boro' has two seminaries for young ladies. Pop. of Brat-
tleboro’ township, 4933. Valuation of taxable property in
1873, $2,272,371; number of polls, 1330.
• * IED. OF “WERMONT PHOENIX.”
Bratſton, a township of Mifflin co., Pa. Pop. 852.
Brauns/berg, a walled town of Prussia, in the province
of Prussia, on the river Passarge, about 35 miles S. W. of
Königsberg. It has manufactures of woollen and linen
goods, and an active trade in grain, timber, etc. Pop. in
1871, 10,471.
Bra’vo (NICOLAs), a Mexican general, born about 1792,
fought against the Spaniards in several campaigns. He
was elected vice-president of Mexico in 1824, revolted
against Vittoria in 1827, and was defeated. He officiated
as the executive chief and substitute of Santa Anna in the
absence of the latter, from Oct., 1842, to Mar., 1843. Died
April 22, 1854.
Bra/vo-Muri’llo (JUAN), a Spanish statesman, born in
June, 1803, became in 1847 minister of justice, then of
public instruction and of the finances. In 1851 he became
the head of a new cabinet, in which position he followed
a reactionary policy. In April, 1868, he again became
president of the cabinet. On the expulsion of the queen
he followed her to Bayonne. Died in Jan., 1873.
Braw/ley, a township of Scott co., Ark. Pop. 183.
Brawn, the flesh of a boar, or the animal itself; the
fleshy, protuberant muscular part of a man or animal;
bulk, muscular strength; sometimes the arm; also a prep-
aration of meat made of the head and belly of a young
pig, with the addition of ox feet to render it gelatinous.
The whole is rolled up tight in sheet tin and boiled for
four or five hours. The moisture is then pressed out, and
after it has stood about ten hours, the meat is put into
cold salted water and is ready for use.
Braxton, a county of West Virginia. Area, 646
square miles. It is intersected by the Elk and Little
Ranawha rivers. The surface is hilly, and extensively
covered with forests; the soil is mostly fertile. Grain and
wool are the staple products. Coal, iron, and salt are
found. Capital, Braxton Court-house. Pop. 6480.
Braxton, a township of Colleton co., S. C. Pop. 1971.
Braxton (CARTER), an American planter, born in New-
ington, Va., Sept. 10, 1736. He graduated at William and
, Mary College in 1756. He was elected to the Continental
Congress in 1775, and signed the Declaration of Independ-
ence. Died Oct. 10, 1797.
Braxton Court House, or Sutton, a post-village,
capital of Braxton co., W. Va., on Elk River.
Brazeau, a township of Perry co., Mo. Pop. 2281.
Brazen Sea, a great bowl of cast metal, probably of
copper or bronze, which stood in the priests’ court in Sol-
omon's temple. (1 Kings vii. 23–26; Josephus’s “Antiq-
uities,” viii. 3, 5.) Its purpose was to hold water for the
ablutions of the priests. The brazen sea stood upon twelve
oxen, the latter facing outward. The exact shape and
size of the brazen sea are not known, but the best com-
mentators think its contents exceeded 11,000 wine gallons.
Brazen Serpent, the name of a copper or bronze
figure of a serpent erected by Moses during the journey of
the Israelites from Egypt to the land of promise, for the
miraculous cure of those who had been bitten by venomous
serpents. This brazen serpent became an object of super-
stitious worship among the Israelites, and was consequently
destroyed by Hezekiah. In accordance with John iii. 14,
the brazen serpent is regarded as a type of Christ.
Brazil’, an empire, and the only monarchy on the con-
timent of America, occupying almost one-half of South
America, extends from Cape Orange, in lat. 4° 23' N., to
the S. point of the peninsula of Mirim, in lat. 33° 44' S.,
and from the most eastern point on the coast near Olinda,
in lat. 34° 40' W., to the most western part of the course
of the river Javari, in 73° 15' W. It is bounded on the
N. by Colombia, Venezuela, British, Dutch, and French
Guiana, on the N. E. and E. by the Atlantic, on the S. and
W. by Uruguay, Paraguay, the Argentine Republic, Bolivia,
Peru, and Ecuador. Area, estimated at 3,252,900 square
miles. . -
Face of the Country, Mountains, etc.—Brazil may be
divided into three different regions—the low coast, a table-
land with an elevation of from 2000 to 2500 feet, and a
large plain, watered by the Amazon and its tributaries, and
having very little declination. Beginning in the S. of the
empire, the first mountain-range we meet with is the Serra
593
do Mar, extending along the coast to lat. 26° 30' S., here
separates into two branches, which enclose the valley of
the Uruguay. The Serra de Mantiqueira, extending from
lat. 20%9 to 23° S., may be regarded as the central chain
of the empire. This chain, mostly in the provinces of
Minas Geraes and Goyaz, contains the highest elevations
in Brazil. The northern continuation, under the name of
Serra do Espinhago, runs parallel to the coast in an almost
N. direction. Parallel to this chain, and enclosing with it
the valley of the Rio San Francisco, the Serra da Tabatinga
runs from lat. 20° to 11° 20' S. Among its branches, the
Serra Piauhy and the Serra Ibiapaba, in the E. almost ex-
tend to the ocean, while its western branch terminates on
the Tocantins River. In about lat. 163° S. the Pyreneos
Mountains connect the Serra da Tabatinga with the Cor-
dillera Grande, running parallel to it. The low chains
along the southern branches of the Amazon (the Araguay,
Xingu, Topayos, and Madeira) are all connected with each
other at their southern extremity. The theory formerly
held, that these chains running parallel to the Andes
belonged to their system, has been shown to be erroneous,
as the Brazilian highlands decline towards, and, as in the
provinces of Matto Grosso, are separated by, extensive
plains from the Andes.
Rivers and Lakes.—Among the rivers, the Amazon is the
most important, and at first, like all its tributaries, flows
northward. Upon its entrance into Brazil it flows east-
ward, and keeps this direction throughout its entire course.
Its first important tributary on the right bank is the Rio
Madeira, and then the Topayos and the Xingu. On the
left bank we find the Rio Negro, coming from Colombia.
Near the Amazon, the Tocantins or Para, formed by the
junction of the Araguay and the true Tocantins, empties
into the Atlantic. We next find the Maranhão, which
flows through the province of the same name, and empties
into the Bay of San Luis after a course of 650 miles. On
the E. coast the Rio San Francisco. forming the boundary
between the provinces of Sergipe and Pernambuco, empties
into the ocean after a course of 1480 miles. . Numerous
smaller rivers rise on the mountains running parallel to
the coast, and empty into the Atlantic. Among these the
most important are the Rio Grande de Belmonte, the Rio
Doce, the San João de Parahiba, and the Rio Grande do
Sul, which connects Lakes Patos and Mirim. Among the
rivers rising in Brazil, but having the larger part of their
course in other states, are the Rio Paraná, the Paraguay,
and the Uruguay. There are numerous small lakes in the
plains, but none of any great extent. The Laguna dos
Patos and Lake Mirim, both in the province of Rio Grande
do Sul, in the extreme S. of the empire, are the most im-
portant. Steam navigation has been successfully estab-
lished on the Brazilian rivers. -
Geology and Mineralogy.—Nearly all the geological for-
mations are represented in Brazil. In the highlands of the
interior is a large area of granitic and other metamorphic
rocks, with extensive basins of Devonian and carboniferous
strata. These reach down the Tocantins and Xingu to
near their mouths, and form the southern margin of the
valley of the Amazon. The valley itself is occupied by
tertiary rocks. At Rio and along much of the coast gra-
mitic rocks prevail, but near Pernambuco are extensive areas
of cretaceous deposits, with many of the chalk fossils of
Europe. In the caves of Brazil are found the bones of
many large animals now extinct (Megatherium, Machairo-
dus, etc.). The mineral wealth of Brazil includes gold,
silver, iron, and diamonds and other precious stones. To
these may be added the euclase, beautiful crystals of iron-
glance, crystallized talc, rock-crystals with adhering to-
pazes, as well as topaz-crystals with included rock-erystals,
and kyanite. Beautiful red-lead spar or chromate of lead
occurs, and beds of iron-glance over 1000 feet thick are
found in some places. Among the gold-mines first discov-
ered in Brazil were those of Jaraguá. The whole amount
of gold produced is less than a fourth of what it was a
hundred years ago. Coal is found on the Amazon.
Brazil is perhaps richer in diamonds than any other
country in the world. The most noted mines are those of
the Serra do Frio. The diamonds were first found in this
district about 1730 by a colony of miners from Villa do
Principe, 60 miles to the S.E. of Tejuco. While employed
at this place in search of gold they frequently met with
little shining stones, which at first they threw away. But
one of the overseers, suspecting that they might be of value,
transmitted specimens to the governor, who sent them to
Lisbon, and they were pronounced genuine diamonds. The
diamonds have hitherto been found in the beds of rivers,
and are washed from the sand in a manner similar to that
practised in washing gold. A diamond was found in the
Rio Abaste in 1791, which weighs 138% carats; another,
worth £45,000, was found in 1847. In 1852 rich mines
were discovered in the province of Minas Geraes. Not-
38
594
BRAZIL.
withstanding the immense wealth of Brazil in these two
minerals, neither of them has proved so profitable as her
agricultural productions. In one year and a half the ex-
ports of sugar and coffee amounted to more than the value
of all the diamonds found in eighty years. (See C. F.
HARTT, “Geology and Physical Geography of Brazil.”)
Climate.—In such an extensive region as Brazil both the
climate and soil must, of course, vary greatly according to
the locality. But these variations are by no means so large
as under corresponding latitudes of the northern hemi-
sphere. In the northern provinces of Ceará, Pernambuco,
and their neighborhood, sometimes no rain falls at all for
two or three years at a time. A famine ensues, cattle and
other animals die of thirst, and numbers of the inhabitants
of starvation. This, however, is a rare exception, as most
of the northern provinces are subject to heavy rains, while
in the S. the climate is healthy and settled. Over all
Brazil, December, January, and February are the hottest
months—June, July, and August the coolest. A great ad-
vantage of Brazil over the rest of the tropics is, that a
foreigner may without fear enjoy the gifts of nature. Most
of the European diseases are unknown here, while the yellow
fever, with very few exceptions, is not known in Brazil.
Vegetable Productions.—Brazil is probably not surpassed
by any other country in the world in natural fertility;
comparatively little attention, however, is given to agri-
culture, and the growth of vegetation is so rank in some
places as seriously to impede agricultural labor. It is esti-
mated that less than one-hundredth part of the soil is un-
der cultivation, and this portion is almost entirely limited
to the vicinity of the coast, and to the N. E. part of the
empire, where the soil seems peculiarly well adapted to the
production of coffee, sugar, and maize. The pastures are of
immense extent, and are covered with herds of horned cat-
tle. The most useful plants are the sugar-cane, coffee, cot-
ton, cacao, rice, tobacco, maize, manioc, beans, bananas,
ipecacuanha, ginger, yams, lemons, oranges, figs, etc.
Sugar and coffee are the staple products. Manioc (the
plant which produces the tapioca) is native of Brazil, and
its farina is used as meal by almost every household. It is
said to produce six times as much nutriment to the acre as
wheat. No part of the world can excel Brazil in the ex-
tent and luxuriance of her forests. Many of the largest
trees bear brilliant blossoms, others are clothed with a
drapery of epiphytes and climbing plants. Many trees of
the largest size stand so close together that it is impossible
to clear a passage between them. The cocoanut-palm
grows near the sea-shore, and the Bertholletia is met with
in many localities. The kernels of this tree are exported
in great quantities, and are called Brazil nuts. Another
productive tree of Brazil found in the Amazonian forests is
the caoutchouc (Siphonia elastica), which grows to the
height of forty or fifty feet without branches. A peculiar
characteristic of Brazilian vegetation is the large number
of species of myrtaceous trees which fill the air with per-
fume; other trees are the purga das Paulistas (Anda Go-
mezii), the seeds of which yield a tasteless oil, more power-
fully cathartic than castor oil; the Brazil-wood, the rose-
wood, fustic, mahogany, and others well adapted to ship-
building. The inhabitants of Brazil distinguish the
different kinds of forests and woods by particular names.
There are the Matos Virgens, or the virgin forests, such as
those along the whole maritime cordillera; the Catingas,
consisting for the most part of low deciduous trees; the
Carascos, close-growing shrubs; and the Capiveira, being
such wooded tracts as are formed by small trees and shrubs
springing up where virgin forests have been cleared away.
The flowers of Brazil are no less extraordinary than its
other vegetable products, there being the greatest abun-
dance of thern, representing every variety of color. Some
of the crops come to maturity in Brazil very quickly. The
common garden pea has, it is said, been sown and gathered
in the neighborhood of Rio within twenty-one days.
Animals.-The chief domestic animals of Brazil are
horned cattle and horses; the numbers of both are im–
mense. The greater part of them live in a wild state;
those in the countries S. of the parallel of 25° S. lat. have
multiplied to such an extent that large numbers of them
are slaughtered chiefly for their hides, thousands of which
are exported annually to Europe and the U. S. The immense
number of cattle would afford extensive trade in provisions
were not salt so dear on account of the inland carriage in
a region wholly destitute of roads. Swine and goats are
abundant. Many rapacious animals, such as the puma,
the jaguar, and several native Canidae, as well as sloths
and porcupines, are numerous. The peccary is common,
also the capybara, a rodent animal. Monkeys and vam-
pire-bats abound. Among the feathered tribes are the
humming-bird (found in immense numbers and in great
variety); vultures, ducks and geese, toucans, and a great
number of large and brilliant species which are peculiar to
assembly in 1869 at 20,000 men.
the country. Among the reptiles are the anaconda, the
boa constrictor, the corral snake, the Surucucti, and the
jararaca; the three last named are venomous and much
dreaded by the inhabitants. The insects of Brazil are bril-
liant, presenting many different shapes and colors; of all,
the butterflies are the most beautiful; 700 species have
been seen in the environs of the town of Pará alone, while
the whole number known in Europe is 390. Some scor-
pions attain a length of six inches. The bees of this coun-
try are mostly stingless. Large numbers of fish, which
form a principal part of the subsistence of the inhabitants,
are caught in the Amazon and other rivers. Professor
Agassiz found in the Amazon alone 1163 new species of fish,
which is more than the Mediterranean Sea produces.
Commerce.—Brazil chiefly imports breadstuffs, furniture,
paper, linen, liquors, etc., and exports cotton, coffee, sugar,
hides, horse-hair, caoutchouc, drugs, gums, diamonds, dye-
woods, etc. The total amount of coffee produced in Brazil
in 1820 was estimated at 5,312,000 pounds; in 1851 the
amount produced was 303,556,960 pounds. In 1869 the
imports amounted to 166,000,000 and the exports to
202,000,000 milreis (1 milreis = 54 cents).
JPopulation, Races, etc.—The population of the several
provinces of Brazil in 1867, according to Packenham, was
as follows:
Population.
Provinces.
Rio de Janeiro.............. & e º e e s a tº a s a se e º e º s º ºs e e < * * * * * * * * * * * 1,370,000
São Paulo....................................................... 835,000
Santa Catharina............................................. 140,000
Paraná........................................................... 90,000
Rio Grande do Sul....................................... ... 420,000
Espirito Santo................................................ 65,000
Bahia.................... ........................................ 1,400,000
Parahiba do Norte.......................................... 280,000
Pernambuco................................................... 1,250,000
Alagoas.......................................................... 300,000
Sergipe........................................................... 275,000
Rio Grande do Norte....................................... 230,000
Ceará tº e º e s w tº a º a sº e s a & e & & © e º 'º s is a º e s tº a º 4 s is a s a 4 gº tº s & e s tº & 550,000
Piauhy........................................................... 232,000
Maranhão... .................................................. 385,000
Pará............................................................... 320,000
Minas Geraes................................................. 1,450,000
Goyaz ............................................................ 151,000
Matto Grosso............................................... ... 46,000
Alto Amazonas............................................... 70,000
Total.................. 9,858,000
Of this number, 1,674,000 were slaves. The number of
uncivilized Indians is about 200,000. The whites have
gradually forced the natives back from the coast into the
interior. The latter are mostly peaceable, and civilized to
a certain degree. In the N. and in the extreme W. the
Indians are still in a savage state, and oppose the advance
of the whites. The number of tribes is very large, but it
is not improbable that they originally belonged to one
family and spoke one language. The most prominent are
the Tupi, the Puris, the Guaryeurnes in Matto Grosso, the
Tapinambas in Bahia, the Taperivas in the N., and the
Botocudoes. While the Indians predominate in the N.,
the negroes are in a majority in the S. But throughout
Brazil the different races have mixed considerably. The
descendants of whites and Indians are called Mamelucoes,
of Indians and negroes, Cafuzoes, and the settled Indians,
Caboclos. The white inhabitants consist almost entirely of
the descendants of the Portuguese settlers. While the in-
habitants of Minas Geraes are farthest advanced in intel-
lectual culture, manufacturing industry is most advanced
in Bahia. The inhabitants of Pernambuco are of the true
type of a slaveholding aristocracy, while those of Rio Grande
do Sul are an independent race of shepherds. .
Religion, Government, etc.—The Roman Catholic is the
established religion of Brazil, though other religions are
tolerated since 1811. The number of Protestants is esti-
mated at 20,000 to 25,000, mostly Germans. English are also
found in all the commercial cities. A Presbyterian mis-
sionary association has several missionaries here, and pub-
lishes a paper. The Catholic Church has 986 parishes and
11 dioceses, which are subordinate to the archbishop of
Bahia, the metropolitan and primate of Brazil. The gov-
ernment of the country is an hereditary constitutional mon-
archy. The legislative power is vested in the general as-
sembly, which consists of two chambers, the senate and
the chamber of deputies; the former elected for life, and
the latter for four years. The head of the government is
the emperor, who belongs to the house of Braganza.
The standing army in time of peace was fixed by the
In 1870 the imperial
navy consisted of 89 men-of-war, of which 52 were steamers.
Literature, Education, etc.—Through the enlightened
policy of the present emperor, schools have been established
in many of the largest towns, where the first rudiments of
education are taught. Considerable attention has been
paid to the study of the French system. A handsome mu-
BRAZIL–RRAZIL-WOOD.
595
seum has been established at Rio Janeiro. There is a school
for engineers, a naval college, and several fine libraries.
Brazil has two law schools—one in São Paulo, the other in
Pernambuco, and two medical schools—at Babia and Rio
Janeiro. In Rio there are also a military academy, a na-
val academy, etc. Printing-presses are common through-
out the empire. The press is free, and over 300 newspapers
are published. The official language of the empire, and
the language of the inhabitants of European descent, is
Portuguese. -
History.—Brazil was first discovered on May 3, 1500, by
Vincente Yanez Pinçon, who was one of the companions
of Columbus. It was subsequently taken possession of by
Pedro Alvarez Cabral. Soon after the first discovery of
Brazil the Portuguese made numerous settlements in that
country, which continued gradually to extend, notwith-
standing the jealousies and opposition of the English,
Dutch, and Spaniards, who repeatedly attacked and even
destroyed some of their settlements. In 1755 a decree was
passed by the Portuguese government, declaring all Indians
exempt from slavery, which curse in future should rest only
on the African race. When Portugal was invaded by
the French in 1808, the sovereign of that kingdom, John
VI., sailed for Brazil, accompanied by his court. Soon after
his arrival he placed the administration on a better footing,
threw open the ports to all nations, and improved the con-
dition of the country generally. On the fall of Bonaparte
the king raised Brazil to the rank of a kingdom, and as-
sumed the title of king of Portugal, Algarve, and Brazil.
A revolution in 1820 forced the king to return to Portugal,
and he left Pedro, his eldest son, as regent. In 1822, Dom
Pedro, forced by a desire on the part of the Brazilians for
complete independence, and not wishing the control of
Brazil to go outside of his family, declared Brazil a free
and independent state, and assumed the title of emperor,
and was recognized by the king of Portugal in 1825. A
series of disturbances and general dissatisfaction throughout
the empire ended in the abdication of Dom Pedro, who left
Brazil April 7, 1831, leaving a son, who was under age, as
his successor. The rights of the latter were recognized and
protected, and a regency of three persons appointed by the
chamber of deputies to conduct the government during his
minority. In 1840 the young emperor was declared of
age, being then in his fifteenth year, and was crowned July
18, 1841. The early part of his reign was disturbed by a
servile insurrection and a war with Buenos Ayres. In
1826, Dom Pedro I. had made a treaty with England for
the abolition of the slave-trade. Dom Pedro II. emanci-
ated the slaves of the government in 1866, and in 1871 the
egislature provided for the gradual abolition of slavery
throughout the entire empire. Brazil, with some aid from
the Argentine Republic, carried on a war with Paraguay
from 1865 to 1870, This war terminated in complete vic-
tory for Brazil. In 1866 an imperial decree opened all the
important rivers to the commerce of foreign nations. Ten
large steamships navigated the Amazon in 1869, while
smaller steamers carried on a trade with Peru and Ecuador.
The construction of railways is also rapidly progressing.
The first one was made between Rio de Janeiro and Petrop-
olis, and was opened for commerce in 1854. The railway
of Dom Pedro II. extends from Rio Janeiro to São Fran-
cisco. The Bahia Railway is to unite Bahia to São Francisco.
The Pernambuco Railway traverses the province diagon-
ally from Recife, and is to extend to São Francisco. The
São Paulo Railway is to connect Santos with Campinas.
The aggregate length of Brazilian railroads in 1871 was
503 miles; the aggregate length of telegraph lines, 920
miles, but it has since been doubled.
The public debt of Brazil in 1870 was 581,323,430 milreis,
of which sum less than one-fifth was due in foreign coun-
tries. The receipts of the revenue for 1869–70 were
77,611,950 milreis, about one-half of which came from im-
port duties. There are also duties on certain exports, and
there is a system of internal taxation. The expenses of
the government in the years 1869–70 were nearly 71,000,000
milreis, of which 15,000,000 were paid towards the reduc-
tion of the public debt. The government pays subsidies
to steamboat companies, railroads, and many schools, and
owns one railway, that of Dom Pedro II. (See SouTHEY,
“History of Brazil,” 3 vols., 1810–19.; HANDELMANN, “Ge-
schichte von Brazilien,” 1860; WAPPAUs, in the 7th ed. of
Stein and Herschelmann’s “Handbuch der Geographie
und Statistik,” 1871; FEETCHER and KIDDER, “Brazil and
the Brazilians,” 8th ed., Boston, 1868.)
- A. J. ScHEM.
Brazil, a city of Clay co., Ind., on the Terre Haute and
Indianapolis R. R., 16 miles E. N. E. of Terre Haute. It
is an important centre of the block coal and iron business.
It has one weekly paper. There are several blast furnaces
and collieries in the vicinity. Pop. 2186 ; of Brazil town-
ship, 2772. ED. OF “ MANUFACTURER AND MINER.”
Brazil Cabbage, the Caladium sagittifolium, a plant
of the natural order Araceae, having arrow-shaped, pointed
leaves. It is supposed to be a native of tropical America,
but is now in cultivation throughout the tropics; not only
the root being used for food, but also the leaves, boiled as
greens. Both root and leaves are almost entirely destitute
of the acridity so generally characteristic of the order.
Brazil’ian Grass, a popular name of a substance used
in the manufacture of hats, sometimes called chip hats. It
is not grass, but the leaves of a species of palm (Chamaerops
argentea) which are imported from Cuba.
Brazil-nuts, the seeds of the Bertholletia excelsa, a
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beautiful tree of the natural order Lecythidaceae. This
tree, which attains a height of 100 feet or more, abounds
on the banks of the Orinoco and in the northern parts of
Brazil, and bears a round woody pericarp nearly as large
as a man’s head. This pericarp contains about twenty-four
seeds or nuts, which have the form of a triangular prism,
and a hard shell enclosing a white kernel, which is very
agreeable when fresh, but soon becomes rancid. They yield
a large quantity of oil, which is valuable for burning in
lamps. Many Brazil nuts are exported from Pará to Eu-
rope and the U. S.
Brazil-wood, an important dyewood from the Caes-
alpina crispa, a tree of the order Leguminosae. There are
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Brazil-wood.
several varieties, known as Pernambuco, Lima, Santa Mar-
tha, Sapan or Japan, etc. The wood contains a colorless































596
PRAZING—13READ.
principle, brazilin (C18H14.06), which changes by oxidation to
brazilein (C18H1407), which is the red coloring-matter which
gives the wood its value. Pernambuco and Lima wood
contain as high as 2.7 per cent. of brazilein, Sapan 1.5, and
Santa Martha (also called Peach or Nicaragua) still less.
Brazil-wood is very heavy and hard, is pale when freshly
cut, but becomes red by exposure to the air. The coloring-
matter is soluble in water, but more so in alcohol or am-
monia. It is used in dyeing to produce reds with alumina,
purples with tin, etc., for coloring wall-paper and for red
ink. C. F. CHANDLER.
Bra/zing, the joining of two or more pieces of metal
(iron, copper, German silver, brass, etc.) by means of
“hard solder,” an alloy of zinc and copper, which is fused
and fluxed with borax upon the joint, and forms a hard
alloy with the other metals, firmly uniting them.
Braz' law, a town of Russia, in the government of Po-
dolia, 60 miles S. E. of Bar. Pop. 5211.
Brazo/ria, a county in the S. E. of Texas. Area, 1260
square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the Gulf of
Mexico, and intersected by the Brazos and Sam Bernard
rivers and other navigable streams. The surface is nearly
level; the soil is fertile. Cattle, wool, corn, and cotton are
raised. A large part of the county is prairie. It is well
timbered. It is traversed by the Houston Tap and Brazo-
ria R. R. Capital, Brazoria. Pop. 7527.
Brazoria, a post-village, capital of Brazoria co., Tex.,
is on the right (W.) bank of the Brazos River, about 30
miles º, its mouth, and 60 miles W. S. W. of Galveston.
Pop. 725. -
Bra/zos, one of the largest rivers of Texas, rises in the
high table-land in the N.W. part of the State, and flows
first nearly eastward to Baylor. It afterwards pursues a
S. E. course for about 200 miles. In the subsequent part
of its course the general direction is S. S. E., and it entors
the Gulf of Mexico about 40 miles S. W. of Galveston. Its
whole length is estimated at 900 miles. In the rainy sea-
son, from February to May inclusive, it is navigable for
steamboats about 300 miles from its mouth. It flows
through forests of live-oak and red cedar.
Brazos, a county in Central Texas. Area, 578 Square
miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Navasota River,
and on the S. W. by the Brazos. The former river unites
with the Brazos at the S. E. extremity of the county. The
soil is fertile; the surface in part undulating and well
timbered. Cattle, corn, cotton, and wool are raised. The
county is intersected by the Houston and Texas Central
R. R. Capital, Bryan. Pop. 9205.
Bra/zos Santia/go, an inlet and seaport of Texas, in
Cameron co., between the N. end of Brazos Island and the
S. extremity of Padre Island. It has some trade, but it
has a bad and shifting bar. The settlement is on Brazos
Island, in lat. 26° 04' N., lon. 97° 12' W. A railroad has
been constructed to White Ranche, on the Rio Grande.
Point Isabel lighthouse on the mainland is a brick tower,
with a white flashing light; lat. 26° 04' 52° N., lon. 97°
11' 04" W. Brazos Island extends southward 10 miles to
“Boca Chica,” a small outlet of the Rio Grande. The isl-
and is a waste of sand.
Breach, as a military term, signifies a gap or opening
made by the besiegers in a wall or defensive work of a city
or fortress. The operation by which the gap is produced
is called breaching, and the guns used for this purpose are
breaching batteries. (See Assau LT and BOMBARDMENT, by
GEN. J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.) &
Breach of the Peace, the offence of disturbing the
public peace, either by actively or constructively breaking
it. Unlawful assemblies, riots, affrays, challenges to fight,
and libels are breaches of the peace, and by the common
law the offender is indictable. The phrase is sometimes
used to distinguish civil from criminal cases, as in the clause
of the U. S. Constitution which grants to members of either
house of Congress freedom from arrest except in cases of
treason, felony, and “breach of the peace.” In this con-
nection it seems to include all indictable offences, not only
those which are in fact attended with force and violence,
but also those which are constructive breaches of the peace
of the government, as tending to violate good order.
Bread [Gr. &ptos; Lat. panis; Fr. pain; It. pane;
Ger. Brod; etymology uncertain], the most common kind
of prepared food. It is made from the flour or meal of
some grain, which is moistened with water, and mixed or ||
kneaded till uniform. It may or may not be raised by
the development in the mass of carbonic acid or other
gas ; it is then formed into loaves or cakes, and finally
baked before a fire or in an oven.
I. Bread which is not raised is often called whleavened
bread. This may be made from the whole grain by Soak-
ing it in water, forming it in the hands, and either drying
it in the sun or baking it before a fire. This is the sim-
plest process of bread-making, and is still practised to
some extent among savages. Generally, unleavened bread
is made from grain which has been pounded or brayed in
a mortar or between flat stones, reduced to meal in a mill,
or even further reduced to flour. Coarse oat, barley, and
pease meals are in Scotland made into bread by simply
kneading with water, flavored with salt, and baking
before a fire. Wheat bread is made in a similar manner
in many localities. The passover cakes of the Israelites
were thus prepared. In the U. S., especially among the
poorer classes in the South, Indian corn meal is thus made
into corn bread. From wheat flour, sea biscuit and the
various kinds of crackers are prepared.
II. Raised bread is bread which is made porous and
spongy by the aid of some gas, produced either before or
during the baking. This gas may be carbonic acid, either
generated by fermentation, produced by the decomposition
in the bread of an alkaline bicarbonate, or mingled with
the flour in solution in water under pressure. It may be
air which is incorporated with the dough during the knead-
ing and expanded during the baking, as in pastry, Sponge
cake, etc., or it may be carbonate of ammonia, which is
vaporized during the baking. ;
The best bread is made of wheat flour, although the flour
of rye, oats, and other grains, is used. (See FLOUR.) Wheat
flour owes its superiority to the large percentage of gluten
which it contains. This body, when moistened with water,
becomes adhesive, elastic, and tenacious, and holds the bub-
bles of gas formed during the process of raising the loaf,
although it be distended to a spongy mass several times the
original volume of the dough. The other cereals contain
scarcely any gluten; hence it is difficult to make light-
raised bread from them. (See GLUTEN.) The bread from
wheat flour is whiter than that of other grains. The com—
position of the most important kinds of flour and meal is,
according to Won Bibra, as follows:
Wheat, Rye Barley Cat
Flour. Mcal. Meal. Mical.
Water................... 15.54 14.60 14.00 11.70
Albumen............... 1.3 1.56 1.20 1.24
Vegetable glue...... 1.76 2.92 3.00 3.25
Casein .................. 0.3 0.90 1.3 0.15
Fibrin................... 5.19 7.36 8.24 14.84
Gluten.................. 3.50
Sugar.................... 2.33 3.46 3.04 2.19
Gum..................... 6.25 4.10 6.33 2.81
Fat....................... 1.07 1.80 2.23 5.67
Starch .................. 63.64 64.28 53.15 58.13
Sand......................... ...... ...... 6.85
Besides the above constituents the flour and meal contain
small but important quantities of potash, soda, lime, mag-
nesia, oxide of iron, chlorine, sulphuric and phosphorio
acids, silica, etc., although the larger part of these sub-
stances remain in the bran, which is separated by bolting
or sifting during the milling of the grain.
1. Fermented bread is prepared either with leaven or yeast.
Leaven is dough—i. e. flour and water—in a state of in-
cipient putrefaction. When flour is moistened with water
and placed in a warm situation, spontaneous chemical
action begins in the nitrogenous constituents, casein, fibrin,
gluten, etc. This change extends later to the sugar, gum,
and starch. At one stage of the decomposition the prod-
ucts of vinous fermentation may be detected, alcohol and
carbonic acid; at a later stage an acid fermentation Super-
venes, producing lactic acid. The alcohol, carbonic acid,
and lactic acid are formed from Sugar, either the Small
quantity originally contained in the flour, or an additional
quantity formed during the decomposition from the gum
and starch. (See FERMENTATION.) The change of sugar
in the vinous and lactic acid fermentations is shown in the
following formulae: .
Sugar. . Carbonic acid. Alcohol.
C6H12O6 = 2CO2 + 2C2H60.
Sugar. Lactic acid. -
C6H12O6 == 2C3H603.
It is here seen that the transformation from Sugar to alco-
hol and carbonic acid, or to lactic acid, is very simple.
Where leaven is used for raising bread, a portion of the
dough is set aside at each baking to serve as leaven for the
next. The process of making the bread is very simple.
The proper quantity of flour is mixed with tepid water, the
leaven, and a little salt, the whole being well incorporated
by kneading. The mixture is placed in a warm situation
and left over might to ferment. If the leaven is in the
proper stage of decomposition, it will induce vinous fer-
mentation, producing alcohol and carbonic acid gas; the
latter, held by the elastic and tenacious gluten, Will expand
the mass into a light, porous sponge, which becomes in the
oven a palatable loaf. If, however, the leaven be in a
more advanced state of decomposition, or if some other
BREAD,
necessary condition fail, instead of alcohol and carbonic
acid, lactic acid will be formed, and the dough will not be
raised by gas, but will be heavy and sour. To avoid this
latter result, Sal ačratus, bicarbonate of potassa, or soda, is
added to the dough. This neutralizes the lactic acid as
fast as it is formed, and by liberating carbonic acid gas at
the same time inflates the sponge and makes it light and
porous. Were there any certainty as to the quantity of
lactic acid that would be generated, it might be possible to
add the proper amount of sal ačratus to neutralize it, but
in practice there is generally an excess or a deficiency.
In the former case the bread is alkaline, yellow, and dis-
agreeable; in the latter case, sour. Leaven is also liable
to communicate a disagreeable taste and odor.
Notwithstanding the difficulty of making good bread with
leaven, and the frequent failures in private families, in
Paris, where bread-making has reached a high degree of
perfection, the bread is raised chiefly by leaven, a little
yeast only being added to facilitate the fermentation.
According to Prof. Horsford, the following is the common
method practised in Paris: At eight o’clock in the evening
a mass of paste (leaven or sour dough) is taken, composed
of 8 kilogrammes of flour and 4 kilogrammes of water.
This is left until six o'clock in the morning, and consti-
tutes the main leaven; 8 kilogrammes more of flour and
4 kilogrammes of water are then added: this forms the
first quality of leaven. At two o'clock in the afternoon
16 kilogrammes of flour and 8 of water are added: this is
the second quality of leaven. At five o’clock the complete
leaven is prepared by adding 100 pounds of flour and 52
kilogrammes of water, mixed with from 200–300 grammes
of yeast. At seven o’clock 132 kilogrammes of flour and
68 kilogrammes of water, holding in solution 2 kilo-
grammes of salt, and mixed with from 300–600 grammes
of yeast, are added to the leaven, and made into well-
kneaded dough. *
With this quantity of paste five or six batches of bread
are made in the following manner: 1st Batch.-This is
composed of half the dough prepared as above, which is
moulded and left to rise, and then set in the oven. The
bread of this first baking is sour, rather brown, and not
particularly light. 2d Batch.-The dough remaining of
the first batch is mixed with 132 kilogrammes more of
flour and 68 kilogrammes of water, mixed with the same
proportion of salt and yeast as the preceding batch. Half
of this dough forms the second baking, the bread of which
is whiter and better than the first. 3d Batch.—The same
quantity of flour, water, and salt, with 300 grammes of
yeast, is again added to the dough, of which half is baked
as usual. 4th Batch.-Same proceeding as for the third.
5th Batch.--This is prepared like the foregoing, and pro-
duces what is called fancy bread, the finest quality of any.
The use of leaven is of great antiquity. The usual agent
for raising bread in the public bakeries in the U. S. and in
many families is yeast, either obtained from some brewery
or specially prepared for the purpose. (See YEAST.) The
following is a recipe in common use in New England:
“Take eight good-sized potatoes, boil, mash fine, pass
through a sieve, and work in a cup of flour. Thin to a
cream with hot water, and add a tea-spoonful of salt and a
table-spoonful of sugar. When cooled to lukewarm, add a
cupful of old yeast, and set aside in a warm place. In six
hours the yeast will be ready to use. Bottled it will keep
for a week. Use a cupful for two loaves of bread.” (My
Mother.)
A very essential element of success in bread-making is
thorough kneading. When the bread has risen sufficiently
it is baked. There is a loss of about 25 per cent. in baking,
chiefly water. In bread raised by fermentation some alco-
hol is evolved. Liebig estimated that 150,000 gallons of
alcohol are thus lost annually in London alone,and 12,000,000
gallons in Germany. Efforts have been made to save it by
condensation, but thus far without success.
The carbonic acid which gives lightness to fermented
bread is derived chiefly from the small amount of sugar
contained in the flour. If wheat is exposed to dampness
after harvesting, or if the flour has been exposed to heat
and moisture, the albumen which it contains is transformed
into diastase (see BEER), which possesses the property of
changing starch to dextrine (gum) and sugar. Bread made
from such flour is sweet, sticky, heavy, and dark-colored.
Several substances have been used to prevent these results.
Alum is said to have been extensively used in London; its
use being now forbidden by law, lime-water was recom-
mended by Liebig, and is largely used by the Glasgow
bakers. Sulphate of copper is a poisonous salt, said to be
used in Belgium, softwo to rºotſ being sufficient for the
purpose. Mege-Mouriès announced some years since
(Compt. Rend., xxxvii., 775; xxxviii., 351, 505; xiii., 1122;
xliv., 40, 449; xlvi., 126; xlviii., 431; l., 467) the discovery
of a body, “ cerealine,” found almost wholly in the bran,
597
which possesses properties similar to those of diastase.
He devised means for getting rid of this agent, or at least
of its effects, and the following method of bread-making
bears his name: It is assumed that 100 kilogrammes of
wheaten meal have given -
72 kil. 750 grammes finest white flour,
15 “ 750 “ dark groats,
11 * 500 (4 bran.
1. At six o'clock in the afternoon take 40 litres # of
water at 18° R. (72%.9 F.), add 70 grammes of pure yeast, or
700 grammes common grocer's yeast, and 100 grammes of
starch-sugar. (Instead of the yeast and sugar, take, if
necessary, 26 grammes of tartaric acid.) The place where
the mixture is set aside must be maintained nearly at the
temperature of 18° R. 2. The next morning, at six o'clock,
the fluid will be saturated with carbonic acid. Stir in the
15 kilogrammes 750 grammes of groats. Fermentation
will commence immediately. 3. At two o'clock in the after-
noon add 30 litres of water, and pass the whole through a
very fine silk or silver-wire sieve, to separate the fine bran.
4. The 70 litres with which the groats have been treated,
after passing through the sieve, will be reduced to about
55 litres, with which the 72 kilogrammes 750 grammes of
white flour and 700 grammes of salt are to be kneaded into
a dough. (The bran is again extracted with 30 litres of
water, and the extract employed in the next batch.). 5. The
dough is then placed in baking-pans to ferment. 6. When
raised, it is placed in the oven.
The baking of bread can be effected at 212° F., but no
crust will be formed; to secure the best result a temperature
of 350° to 570° F. should be employed. A high heat
should be avoided at first, lest a hard crust be formed while
the interior of the loaf remains unbaked. 100 pounds of
flour yield from 125 to 135 pounds of bread, the increase
being due to the water added. The most common faults
of wheat bread are due to its being (1) sour, from the flour
having been partly spoiled, the yeast or leaven having been
too old, or the dough having been allowed to stand too
long before baking; (2) bitter, from excess of yeast or bad
yeast; (3) heavy, from insufficient kneading, raising, or
bad leaven; (4) mouldy, from the flour having been kept
too long in a damp place. -
Graham bread is made from the unbolted meal of wheat,
a mixture of bran and flour; it is used by dyspeptics.
Rye bread is largely used in Northern Europe, and to some
extent in the U. S. It is dark-colored, is harder than
wheat bread, and has a peculiar taste.
2. Substitutes for Fermentation.—Carbonic acid may
be developed in the dough by the decomposition of bi-
carbonate of potassa (sal, ačratus) or of bicarbonate of
soda by some acid. Sour milk, hydrochloric acid, tar-
taric acid, bitartrate of potassa (cream of tartar), and
the acid phosphate of lime have been used for this pur-
pose. . They give rise respectively to lactate, chloride,
tartrate, double potassic tartrate (Rochelle salt) of po-
*
tassium or sodium, or to (in the case of the last men-
tioned) a mixture of phosphate of lime and soda or po-
tassa. As neither of these agents causes fermentation, none
of the elements of the flour are lost, and a greater yield
of bread is claimed. This saving is, however, very trifling,
as the loss in fermentation is small. The use of the acid
phosphate of lime, suggested by Prof. Horsford, is claimed
to restore to the flour the phosphates of the wheat which
were removed in the bran. The process has been com-
mended by Liebig. One strong recommendation for these
“baking-powders” is the fact that bread may be mixed
and baked at once, without the delay of several hours
which is necessary where fermentation is resorted to. As
cream of tartar and acid phosphate of lime do not act on
bicarbonate of soda, in the absence of water, either of these
acid salts may be mixed with the flour, together with the
bicarbonate, thus producing what is now extensively sold
in the U. S. under the name of “self-raising flour,” which
is already salted, and merely requires to be mixed with
water and baked to produce a palatable loaf. Carbonate
of ammonia (sal volatile) is sometimes used alone to raise
bread; being very volatile, it is converted into vapor dur-
ing the baking and raises the loaf to a light sponge. Mr.
Dauglish introduced ačrated bread, which is prepared by
kneading flour in a closed vessel with water supersaturated
under pressure with carbonic acid gas. On bringing the
dough into the air, the carbonic acid gas set free by the
removal of the pressure expands it into a sponge. “Sponge
cake” is raised by means of air which is incorporated with
the flour by first beating eggs to a froth, stirring in the
flour, and quickly baking. “Pastry” is made flaky, but
not really spongy like bread, by mixing flour and water to
a dough, rolling it out into sheets, applying butter liber-
* A litre of water weighs 1000 grammes = 1 kilogramme = 2.2
pounds avoirdupois.
598
BREAD ALBANE–BREAKWATER.
ally, doubling over the sheet, rolling it out again, and
again applying butter. These operations are repeated till
the dough becomes a sheet of innumerable layers of dough
alternating with a thin coating of butter. On exposing
this to the heat of the oven, the different layers of dough
separate, either from the expansion of the imprisoned air
or from steam, and the mass becomes light and flaky.
- , § C. F. CHANDLER.
Breadal’bane, EARLs of, earls of Holland, viscounts
of Tay and Paintland, Lords Glenorchy, Benederaloch,
Ormelie, and Wreik (1677, in Scotland), and baronets (1625,
in Scotland), a prominent family of Scotland.—GAVIN
CAMIPBELL, the seventh earl, was born in 1851, and suc-
ceeded his father in 1871.
Bread-fruit Tree (Artocarpus incisa), an important
tree of the order Artocarpaceae, a native of Southern Asia,
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of the islands of the South Pacific and of the Indian
Archipelago, now naturalized in some of the West Indies.
This tree grows to the height of forty or fifty feet, and has
large, glossy, dark-green leaves, which are pinnatifid or
deeply divided into pointed lobes. The leaves are some-
times eighteen inches long. The fruit, which is a sorosis,
is nearly spherical, and is covered with a rough rind, which
is marked with small irregularly hexagonal divisions, hav-
ing each a small prominence in the middle. The fruit
sometimes weighs four pounds or more, contains a large
portion of starch or fecula, and is a principal part of the
food of the natives of the South Sea Islands. The pulp is
juicy and yellow when it is fully ripe, but it is in a better
condition for eating before it arrives at that stage of ma-
turity. When it is gathered before ripeness and baked,
the pulp is white and mealy, very nutritious, and resembles
wheat bread. The usual practice is to cut the fruit into
three or four slices, and bake them in an oven. Sometimes
the people of a village join to make a huge oven—a pit
twenty or thirty feet in circumference—in which several
hundred bread-fruits are baked at once on heated stones.
Baked in this mode, the bread will keep good for several
weeks. The tree produces two or three crops in a year. It
has been introduced into the West Indies with some suc-
cess. The timber, which is light and of a rich yellow color,
is used in building houses and for other purposes, but if
exposed to the weather is not very durable. A sort of
cloth is made of the fibrous inner bark. The tree abounds
in a glutinous milky juice, which, when boiled with cocoanut
oil, is used as a cement and as bird-lime.
Bread=Nut, the fruit of the Brosimum Alicastrum, a
tree of the order Artocarpaceae, is a native of Jamaica. It
is allied to the bread-fruit. The genus Brosimum has male
and female flowers on separate trees in globose catkins. Its
fruit is a 1-seeded drupe, which is edible, and is used instead
of bread after it has been boiled or roasted. The tree has
ovate, lanceolate, evergreen leaves, and abounds in a gum-
my milk.
Break'water. An artificial barrier designed to break
the force of waves in sea-ports and harbors and thus to
protect shipping from damage ; but more commonly to
erecte a harbor or a secure anchorage where none existed
before. Among ancient works the piers of the ancient
Piraeus and of Rhodes may be denominated Breakwaters,
as also similar modern structures projected from the shore
and called pier8 or moles ; but the term Breakwater has of
late years been considered as more peculiarly appropriate
to large insulated aggregations of stone, whether of regular
masonry or sunk promiscuously in rough masses, so placed
as to form an artificial island across the mouth of an open
roadstead, and thereby, in obstructing and breaking the
waves of the sea, to convert a dangerous anchorage into a
safe and commodious harbor for the reception of ships of
war or merchantmen. In this sense of the term the Break-
water of Cherbourg (Fr. “Digue de Cherbourg’’) was the
first work entitled to the name,” and it remains still the
greatest. It had long formed a favorite project of the
French government to establish a great maritime port in
this quarter of the kingdom, in order to counterbalance in
some measure the great naval station of Portsmouth, sit-
uated on the opposite side of the Channel, and the whole
coast had been frequently surveyed and examined by the
most celebrated engineers for that purpose, but nothing
definite was done until the year 1712, when a plan was pro-
posed to the Minister of Marine to construct a detached
mole or breakwater, in order to protect the roadstead of
Cherbourg. The subject was dropped till 1777 when M.
de la Bretonniere, a distinguished naval officer, proposed a
plan to construct a detached breakwater, 2000 toises or
12,792 English feet long, having three openings, viz. one
in the centre and one at each end : these breakwaters or
moles he proposed to make by sinking the hulls of vessels
filled with stone, in order to form a nucleus or base for the
work in the first instance (similar to the plan which had
been adopted at Rochelle by Cardinal Richelieu in the year
1629), and then to cover the hulls of the vessels with loose
angular blocks of rubble stone or pierre perdue, so as to
form one continued breakwater. He proposed this plan
of commencing the work because he was fearful that the
undercurrents and waves during storms were so strong that
it would be impossible for the rubble to lie without some
nucleus of the kind to bind it together in the first instance.
The objections made to the plan of M. de Bretonniere were,
First, that it would require a number of vessels which France
could not furnish in ten years. Secondly, that there would
be great difficulty in getting a sufficient number of work-
men. Thirdly, that although the plan had succeeded very
well at Rochelle, yet there was no similarity between the
two cases; for whilst at Rochelle there were only from 5 to
6 feet at low water, at Cherbourg there were generally 40
feet, and in some places more, and as the moles at Rochelle
were attached to the shore, the difficulties were compara-
tively trifling to what they would be at Cherbourg, where
they would be isolated. . Fourthly, that the upper part of
the breakwater would be so much exposed that it would
not withstand the shock of the waves. Fifthly, that it was
not high enough to give sufficient protection to the ship-
ping within.
In 1781 the matter was referred by the Minister of Ma-
rine to M. de Cessart, an engineer of reputation for hy-
draulic constructions of this character. M. de Cessart en-
tertained great doubts of the probability of making a con-
tinuous mole of such gigantic dimensions, composed only
of loose rubble stone, sufficiently strong to be able to with-
stand the effects of the waves and currents, the more so as
the only similar work at Rochelle had failed just after its
completion in 1628; he therefore conceived the idea of
breaking and destroying the effects of the waves in the first
instance by a series of 90 detached cones, made of wood
and filled with stone, sunk in the line of the proposed
breakwater, touching each other, or at such distance only
from each other as would be sufficient to break and disperse
the waves without allowing them to pass bodily through
between the cones, by which he considered that sufficient
tranquillity would be produced within, so as to form a safe
and secure rogdstead. The plan of M. de Cessart was ap-
proved and adopted and himself appointed the Chief En-
gineer of the work. The comes were proposed to be 142
feet diameter at the base 113 feet diameter at the top, the
sides inclining at an angle of 60°, and 65 feet high: the
total weight of each was 2,000,885 lbs., and would displace
27,418 cubic feet of water; and in order to give as little
resistance as possible, and to render it more buoyant, he
proposed to attach to it 68 great casks, 12 feet long and
7 feet diameter: it was calculated that in calm weather it
would require 250 men in boats to tow out one of the cones;
*Mr. George Rennie in his letter of Dec. 31, 1835, concerning
the proposed Madras Breakwater (Engineering Oct. 18, 1872)
enumerates many other ancient and modern works as “break-
waters.” It is evident enough, from the tentative process by
which the Cherbourg advanced, that no previous work furnished
adequate information as to the principles of such constructions
and hence that none was entitled to be named with these here-
after described. The numerous “moles” he mentions differ
from such breakwaters in many respects besides their connection
with the land.












BREAKWATER.
599
this operation would occupy five or six hours, and the sink-
ing 36 minutes; the depth of water where they were to be
sunk was from 6 to 7 fathoms, and the rise of tide at or-
dinary springs 18 feet, so that the upper part of the cone
would be from 8 to 10 feet above high water. Immediately
after the caisson was sunk, it was to be filled with stone,
viz. rubble to the level of low water and masonry above.
Eighteen of these 90 cones were put in place at an expense
of about £14,000 each. Their expense and the repeated
damage occasioned to them by storms induced the Commit-
tee of Direction to abandon the plan of M. de Cessart, not-
withstanding his dissent and strong remonstrances against
it. No more than eighteen cones were deposited, the last
being placed on the 19th of June, 1788, and they subse-
quently adopted the plan of throwing down nothing but rub-
ble, wholly against the advice of M. de Cessart, who said
that the rubble alone would never be able to resist the force
of the sea, and that it would be utterly impossible to con-
struct the mole or digue in that manner. Fortunately, how-
ever, the advice of M. de Cessart was not taken, and the
contrary opinion prevailed. - -
The foregoing is interesting as showing that the funda-
mental knowledge of the force and action of waves upon
such structures being unknown at that day, how feeble and
groping were the efforts to design an efficient breakwater.
Says Sir John Rennie, (“Theory and Construction of
British and Foreign Harbours”) “The well-known princi-
ple, that all materials take their angle of repose more or
less according to the density, tenacity, and gravity of their
component parts, combined with the external forces acting
upon them, does not appear to have inspired M. de Cessart
with sufficient confidence to trust to the rubble alone; and
the moles at Rochelle, which he seems to have studied with
great care, did not inspire him with greater confidence, al-
though the small rubble of which they were composed, the
steep slope at which the rubble was laid, and the heavy sea.
to which they were exposed might readily have suggested
to him the cause of their failure. It is still more extraordi-
nary (if he doubted the efficiency of the small stones which
he employed, weighing only from 30 to 100 lbs. each), that
he did not employ blocks of much larger size, as he was
doubtless aware that they would be moved with much
greater difficulty by the sea; in fact, by the mere inspec-
tion of the sea-shore he would have found that within the
range of the waves it invariably takes the angle or inclina-
tion according to the materials composing its surface; for
example, sand lies at an angle of 1° 30', or 40 to 1; beach,
or loose pebbles, at angles of 11° or 8°, or 5 and 7 to 1;
and heavier materials at a steeper angle, or almost perpen-
dicular; but, abandoning the simple laws of nature, he
went out of his way to invent the expensive unwieldy cones,
which were no sooner fixed in their places, than nature, as
it were, deriding his feeble efforts, at once destroyed and
overturned them.” &
The cones having been abandoned small rubble continued
to be thrown in until 1790 with an inside slope of forty-
five degrees, and, outside, one upon three. In 1792 a com-
mission of the French government reported that the digue
had hitherto been constructed with small stones only one-
fifth of a foot cube each, and that these had undergone con-
siderable alteration as to the form of the mass, to the depth
of 16 feet (English) below low water of the lowest tides, so
that it was impossible to construct a permanent mole with
such small materials; but they found in a small portion, 50
toises long, where blocks of 20 cubic feet had been employ-
ed, that they maintained their position tolerably well, and
preserved the small blocks within them, although where
there were only smaller blocks, they were sensibly damaged
and removed, and displaced, particularly near the cones,
which, although cut down to low water, materially increas-
ed the shock or recoil of the waves, while they acted with
greater force upon the small loose rubble near them. They
therefore came to the unanimous conclusion, that as blocks
of from 15 to 20 cubic feet would withstand the effects of
the waves, still greater durability would be obtained by em-
FIG.
ploying larger blocks. The question as to the height to
which the mole should be carried, in order to ensure the
necessary tranquillity within the roadstead, was much more
difficult to determine: it was found that the action of the
waves was most severe two hours before and two hours
after high water, or when the tide had risen about 16 feet ;
and at such times, during gales of wind, vessels riding with-
in the breakwater suffered great inconvenience, so that it
was necessary to raise the breakwater or digue at least to
that height; but even this would not ensure sufficient tran-
quillity to enable boats to communicate from the shore with
vessels in the roadstead at all times; and considering that
this great advantage would only be obtained by raising it
to the height of 9 feet above the level of the highest tides, .
so as to place it beyond the general reach of the waves,
they finally resolved to recommend that it should be carried
to that height.
In the year 1802 the work which had at different times
been raised nearly its whole length to the level of low water
of spring tides, had been lowered by the violence of storms
to a depth of from 12 to 15 feet below low water: the in-
ner slope was 1 to 1, or 45°; the exterior 1% to 1, or 33°,
from the bottom to 18 feet above it; and from thence to
within 6 feet of low water of spring-tides it had assumed
the slope of nearly 8 or 10 to I, or an angle of 7° and 5°,
at which it seemed to be permanent. Such being the state
of the work, notwithstanding the employment of larger
blocks of stone, great difficulties were anticipated in con-
structing a battery upon it, which the Government never-
theless determined to do.
For the next six years operations appear to have been
confined to the enlargement and raising of the central
part of the dike and construction of the battery. Several
severe storms occurred in this period doing great damage.
The most severe was Feb. 12, 1802, when the sea covered
the whole platform of the battery, and the barracks with
60 men were swept away. The mass, properly speaking,
of the battery suffered but little, although the pavement .
was torn up and the blocks were wedged into fresh slopes
with great regularity, as if they had been cemented together
by the hand of man. The real effect of the storm was
generally to consolidate the mass of the work more firmly to-
gether. New wooden barracks were erected, and after this
repair the battery remained in a good condition throughout
the war. - -
Thereafter until 1830 little was done except to preserve
the central battery and to raise the remainder by means of
rubble to low water level; but finding it extremely difficult
to maintain it in that position, and feeling that, in order to
secure the desired tranquillity within the roadstead, it was
necessary to raise the superstructure at least from 9 to 10
feet above high water of spring-tides, it was finally resolv-
ed, at the recommendation of several engineers, to construct
a wall of solid masonry, with almost vertical sides, from
low water upwards, upon the top of the rubble base; this
upright wall extends from thence up to the full height of
6 feet above the level of high water of spring tides; it is
composed of rubble masonry faced with granite ashlar or
dressed stone, in horizontal courses from 18 inches to 2 ft.
thick, and 3 to 4 ft. wide, set in mortar. This part of the
work is 36 feet 3 inches wide at the base, and 29 feet 3
inches wide at the top, the outer slope being # to 1, and
the inner slope nearly the same : on the outside of this su-
perstructure there is a solid parapet 8 feet 3 inches thick,
6 feet high, and eight feet six inches wide at the top. The
exterior base of this wall is founded on a bed of beton or
concrete, set in wooden boxes or cases 10 feet long, 6 feet
6 inches wide, and 3 feet 3 inches deep dove-tailed together,
and well bedded in and covered with large blocks of rubble
Stone.
No sooner was this vertical wall raised above the level
of high water than it presented such a sudden resistance
to the waves, rolling upwards along the rubble slope, that
they broke against the face of the vertical wall with the
greatest violence, and rising perpendicularly against it,
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fell down upon the rubble, undermining the base of the
vertical wall and threatening to overwhelm it entirely.
To obviate this, it became necessary to raise the rubble ||
slope still higher, and to case the surface with large heavy
blocks, well wedged together; still this only partially
remedied the evil, for, notwithstanding this casing, during.























600
BREAKWATER.
heavy N. W. and N. E. gales at high water the waves beat
with such violence against it, that heavy masses of water
wash over the top, so as to render it both difficult and dan-
gerous to walk along it, although nearly 10 feet above
high water of the highest tides; and it has been proposed
(1850) to carry the rubble slope still higher in front of it,
also to raise the wall 8 feet higher.
Sir John Rennie from whose great work on Harbours
the foregoing is taken draws the following “conclusions”:
First. The plan of making the digue or breakwater iso-
lated or detached from the shore is the best, and, if carried
into effect with greater judgment, would have been more
advantageous to the harbor.
Secondly. The cone system, although ingenious, was in-
applicable and failed.
Thirdly. The rubble system for the mass of the work is
correct, and if blocks of greater size had been employed,
the result would have been more advantageous in economy
of time, labor, and materials. -
IFourthly. The vertical wall system is inferior to the flat
slope.
#. history of the Cherbourg Breakwater has been thus
given in some detail, since, being the first work of the kind,
the experience derived has furnished data for subsequent
Works.
The next great breakwater in order of time and import-
ance is the “Plymouth,” intended to render Plymouth
Sound a safe roadstead for ships of war. It was recom-
mended by Messrs. Rennie and Whidby as the most prac-
ticable and best mode of constructing this great work, to
heap together promiscuously large blocks of stone, which
were to be sunk in the line of the intended breakwater,
leaving them to find their own base,” and take their own
position; and it was conceived that stones of the weight of
from one and a half to two tons each would be sufficiently
large to keep their places, without being rolled about by
the tremendous swell which, in stormy weather, is thrown
into Plymouth Sound; and thus avoid the inconvenience
as well as loss of time and labour which the French had
experienced at Cherbourg by throwing down small rubble
stones. It was thought, that, in those places where the
water was five fathoms or thirty feet deep, the base of the
breakwater should not be less than seventy yards broad,
and the summit ten yards, at the height of ten feet above
the low water of an ordinary spring-tide; in other words,
that the dimensions of the breakwater in these places
should be forty feet high, thirty feet across the top, and
210 feet wide at the foundation. There are in this work
about 900,000 tons of stone of which in blocks
Tons.
Of one ton each stone, and under...................... 423,904
Of one to three tons each............. s 309,706
Of three to five tons each.................................. 150,593
Of five tons and upwards............... -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12,760
The cost of the work was £364,000; a little over eight
shillings per ton of stone. More recently the surface above
low water has been covered (or “paved”) with blocks of
stone of great size, of regular dimensions, and closely and
smoothly laid. The work has completely answered the ex-
pectations of its advocates. -
FIG. 2.
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The Port LAND Breakwater, designed to create a harbor
of refuge, commenced in 1849, has recently been finished.
It commences with a pier projecting from the shore, of 1900
feet in length. . Then follows a gap or opening of 400 feet
to admit vessels of the largest class, coming from the South-
ward. Beyond this gap the breakwater proper commences,
and extends seaward 6000 feet. The pier is formed by a
rubble mound, composed of stone of all sizes, from 6 and 8
tons down to small chippings; and this mound is carried
up to a few feet above the level of high water of spring
tides. When it has been washed by heavy Seas, a trench.
is excavated within the body of the mound to the level of
low water of spring tides, and a wall of masonry erected.
The face course is formed by large ashlar blocks, the body
of the wall being of heavy rubble work set in mortar made
of blue lias lime and pozzuolana. The ashlar face courses
up to about 6 feet above high water are of granite, all the
remainder of the stone employed being from the quarries
in Portland. The sea wall is strengthened by counterforts
placed 20 feet apart, and an arch being turned between
each, a platform is obtained 15 feet wide, exclusive of foot-
way and parapet. Instead of throwing overboard from
vessels, the deposit of stone and other operations were car-
ried on from a timber staging, the rubble stone being con-
veyed in waggons drawn by locomotive engines, a mode
introduced by the late Mr. Rendel, C. E., which proved en-
tirely successful. Guided by results obtained elsewhere, it
was decided when the work was commenced to keep all the
horizontal timbers of the staging at least 12 feet above high
water of the highest tides; and experience proved that this
was necessary to ensure safety. The breakwater proper is
simply a rubble bank, the material of which it is formed
being for the most part the “cap-stone” which covers the
valuable Portland stone, but which of itself is valueless,
except for this purpose. The rubble, as in the pier, in-
cludes stones of all sizes, from large masses down to chips,
which latter the action of the water has driven in between
the larger blocks until (as is said) they have become united
into a compact and almost solid mass.
During the construction the 400 feet opening was bridged
FIG, 3.
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Portland Breakwater.
by a staging, which withstood the severest storms. It was
designed by Mr. Rendel and consisted of piles formed of
creosoted logs. To the lower end a Mitchell screw was at-
tached which was screwed 6 or 8 feet into the clay. These,
about 80 feet apart, supported the platform to which of
course they were strongly bolted and bound. The cost of
this work exceeded £1,000,000.
The works just described illustrate the most common
mode of breakwater construction, i. e. the “pierre perdue,”
“long slope,” or (as we call it) the “rip-rap * system. This
is simply the deposit in the sea of a vast amount of loose
rubble stone, rising to about the level of high water, allow-
ing it to take its own level and to be acted upon by the sea,
suntil its section assumes the permanent form which this
action gives it. The seaward side obeys the laws of ordi-
mary sea-beaches, and forms itself into a long sloping shore,
involving the employment of an enormous amount of ma-
terial before the mound reaches the height to give the
required protection. Such a system is only applicable
where stone is abundant, and can consequently be depos-
ited at a cheap rate. But stone is not everywhere to be
had, especially in large blocks, and experience has shown
that unless blocks of considerable magnitude are applied
to the upper portions, permanence cannot be ensured.
|Hence a substitute has been found in large blocks of con-
# It is stated by Mr. Rennie (see latter hereafter) that the orig-
inal section was triangular with outer slope of 18°.









BREAKWATER. 601
crete (Fr. beton). M. Poirel (see his “ Mémoire sur les
Travawa, d ta Mèr”) was the first to introduce this system
in the construction of a mole at Algiers, which he con-
structed at first wholly of blocks of bàton of 10 cubic
metres, or about 22 tons each, launched into the sea as
pierre perdue. M. Poirel states that although the profiles
“differed somewhat from each other, yet they gave gene-
rally for the slopes at which the artificial blocks arranged
themselves, a rate of 1 base to 1 perpendicular (45°) for
the exterior, and of $ base to 1 perpendicular (57°) for the
interior side.” He adds “that it appears, on a comparison
of the cubic contents of the mole as given by these profiles,
with the account kept of the quantities contained in the
blocks immersed, that the interstices are very nearly one-
third of the solids; or, which is the same thing, that the
voids are equal to one-fourth of the whole mass.” In
prolonging the mole, since 1847, the French had adopted a
cheaper system, by forming the mass from the bottom with
blocks of natural stone, which were brought up till the uni-
form depth of 33 feet under water was attained at slopes of
1 to 1. This method was subsequently employed in form-
waves in deep water are chiefly oscillatory in their charac.
ter, the fluid having little progressive motion in itself, and
consequently exerting but little force on objects opposed
to it; but when deep sea waves approaching the shore, feel
the influence of gradually shoaling depth, they assume an
entirely different character, acquire progressive motion,
and become waves of translation, in which the fluid is car-
ried bodily forward in a horizontal direction, and in con-
sequence it strikes any body opposed to it with great per-
cussive force. Vertical walls, therefore, which rise from
the deep water, being only subject to the oscillatory move-
ment of the waves, are least exposed to the destructive
effect of storms. The evidence taken before the Royal
Commission in 1859 seemed to be conclusive on this point,
and the opinions of the Commissioners, as developed in their
report, may be considered to have set this subject at rest.
But whatever difference of opinion there may still be upon
this matter, there can be no question as to the vast saving
of material by vertical walls, and of the great economy
which would result, provided a simple and easy mode of
construction could be adopted. The vertical system has,
besides, the great advantage of being applicable in
Fig. 4 SEA FA Cº. many cases as quays for vessels lying alongside te
-...----. 46 O 4Azzºzºwº - load and discharge, which may be turned to valu-
==# able account both for commercial purposes, and in
92; : times of war, for the rapid shipment or debarkation
\ *sº. s of troops, stores, and other materials. (See Paper
S
* *-* *, *-
****
Mole at Algiers.
ing the new port of La Joliette, at Marseilles; and, more
recently, for the jetees forming the artificial harbor of Port
Saïd at the entrance to the Suez Canal.
FIG. 5.
List
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Nº || || |2.É. Scººt.) Tº Arc, ºr .-- " -> * >22:22.2%
at #2%:==Z &
Mole of Joliette at Marseilles.
In other situations destitute of suitable stone, another
form, "the vertical-wall system, is adopted. In this mode
the walls are built upright from the bottom, and as all the
material below low-water is put in place by diving appa-
ratus, and is of an expensive nature, the cost of a work
executed in this way is very great. The Dover breakwater
is the most prominent example. It is built up solid from
the bottom of the sea, the exterior facing being of ashlar
granite blocks, and the hearting of rectangular blocks of
concrete, built in the same way as ashlar masonry up to the
level of high-water, above which it is filled in with concrete.
Concrete blocks are a costly substitute at best for rough
quarry stone (when that is at hand), and with a system of
construction which requires each block to be “laid” (under
water), the expense must be very great. The Dover Break-
water has cost over £400 per lineal foot.
FIG. 6.
sea Face
Pł. W.
Dover (West) Breakwater.
It has been a subject of discussion whether the “Iong
$º
tºº.
* **, *.
%
slope” or the “vertical wall” system were preferable:
by D. Miller, “C. E. and Arch. Journal,” 1865.) But
it is implied that the wall springs from deep water;
i. e. fifteen feet at least, the experience at Cherbourg,
Alderney, Portland, and Holyhead having shown
that the sea did not disturb rubble at a depth of 15
feet below low water; and, hence, there may be a
*
2.
- > combination of the vertical wall and slope, which is
nearly equal to a vertical wall;-as when a nearly
perpendicular wall is built upon a rubble mound, as near
to the edge of the slope as was consistent with the safety
of the foundation ; the surface of the mound being 15 feet
below low water, and the slope being the
natural one of about 1 to 1.
It is to be observed that the vertical con-
struction on the Cherbourg breakwater, in-
stead of springing from great depth, com-
mences at low-water mark—an arrange-
ment which we believe is now generally con-
# demned. (The Civil Engineer and Archi-
N tects’ Journal of 1865 furnishes graphic
S sections of the different works alluded to
's and of others, as of Cette, La Ciotat, Cas-
§§3) sis, Vendres, with interesting discussions
§xºe, as to the form and cost of breakwaters.)
Żzzzzz. In the construction of a sub-aqueous
mass on the “riprap ’’ system, whether
for a breakwater or a foundation, a ques-
tion arises as to the size of the material to be used. The
Cherbourg work was first constructed wholly of very small
stones; it was subsequently found necessary to cover its
more exposed surfaces with large blocks. In the Ply-
mouth, the system at first was to use the largest stones ob-
tainable from the quarries. At Portland and at Holyhead
the large and small stones were used promiscuously, even
the quarry rubbish being deposited for the purpose of fill-
ing up the interstices. The French engineers, on the con-
trary, considered the best system of employing rubble was
not to mix the small with the large blocks. In one of their
best constructed moles, that of La Joliette, at Marseilles,
this method has been strictly adhered to. The large blocks
being only used where required, were not unnecessarily
wasted in the heart of the work. Small pieces of stone
mixed with large rubble, far from consolidating the work,
very often had the effect of allowing the larger masses to
be more readily displaced. Stones weighing 5 tons and
even 7 tons are thrown out of place by the waves, in con-
sequence of the small stones getting in between them, and
keeping them in motion during every storm. If, however,
heavy blocks only are employed, so as to remain stationary
under the greatest action of the waves, nothing would be
gained by the interstices being filled up.
M. Cachin deduces from the experience of Cherbourg,
as developed by observations after exposure to the severest
tempests, the following facts concerning the natural slopes
assumed by the exposed face of the breakwater. Above
the highest storm tides the talus assumes a slope of 1 upon
1.8; between extreme high and low water I upon 5%; be-
tween the level of lowest storm-tides and a plane 5 metres
(16% feet) below this level, 1 upon 3; thence to the bottom
I upon I#. Hence it is generally assumed that at three
fathóms below low water the force of the waves is insig-
nificant. Hence the nucleus of a breakwater may be con-
structed to that height of small stones, say of blocks of #
ton down to quarry rubbish. Larger stone is required .







602
BREAKWATER.
above this, say from 2 to 5 tons; but if the surface is to be
finished with loose blocks, alone, those of the outer coating
must be of large dimensions. The French engineers, in
the construction of the new mole at Algiers found by ex-
perience that blocks of 10 metres cube, or about 22 tons,
were requisite to withstand the shock of the waves. At
Marseilles and at Cette the beton blocks weighed 25%
tons; but at Cassis, in a more exposed situation, with very
deep water outside, and a long stretch of sea, the outer face
of the mole required blocks of 20 metres cube; for on trial,
blocks of 10 and even of 15 metres cube were found in-
sufficient.
The experience at Cherbourg gives about the same re-
sults; a block of beton of 4 metres X 2.25 × 1.40, or 12.60
cubic metres volume and 28,980 kilogrammes weight, lying
loosely and exposed, resisted the most violent tempests. M.
Cachin estimates the force required to move this stone at
3900 kil. per sq. metre (or 800 lbs. per square foot) of eac-
posed surface. At Skerryvore stones of 5 tons were swept
over the top of the rock and Mr. Stevenson’s Dynamometer
measured pressures of 6000 lbs. per sq. foot, and this ex-
treme pressure has been confirmed in a few instances else-
where (see a remarkable instance in the Journal Des Ponts
et Chausées April, 1859).
It remains to allude to our own great work, the Delaware
Breakwater. This, unlike those of Plymouth and Cher-
bourg, mainly undertaken in reference to naval aggrandize-
ment of the respective nations, was designed solely for the
benefit of trade and commerce and the preservation of life.
The need of a harbor of refuge near the mouth of the Dela-
ware Bay was early recognized. Commissioners appointed
by Congress in 1828 selected Cape Henlopen as the site.
They said “the objects to be gained by an artificial harbor
in this roadstead are to shelter vessels from the action of
the waves caused by the winds blowing from east to north-
west round by the north, and also to protect them against
injuries arising from floating ice descending from the
north-west.” Having these objects in view, the commis-
sioners proposed two works—the breakwater proper, to
secure the first object; and the ice-breaker, an auxiliary to
the breakwater but chiefly to accomplish the second pur-
pose. The first mentioned was designed with a length of
1200 yards. The ice-breaker was designed with a length
of 500 yards. -
FIG. 7.
-*...* - - ~.
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As now constructed the length of the breakwater proper
is 2589 feet and the ice-breaker nearly 1500 feet long. In
designing the work the Commissioners had the two great ex-
amples which we have described before them,-Cherbourg
and Plymouth—both, originally, on the “rip-rap ’’ system.
Adopting that system they copied the slopes from the first
but fixed a width on top 8 feet less than that of Plymouth.
The great mass of the breakwater consists of blocks ranging
from 4 ton to 3 tons; the seaward slopes being coated with
stones of from 1% to 7% tons. The eacposure is by no means
so severe, owing to the shoals off the mouth of the bay, as
at others we have noticed. Blocks of 6000 lbs. weight have
been moved several feet, as in the gale of March, 1843; but
the injuries inflicted by the waves have been but slight.
In an official report of the writer when (1853) in charge
of this work, occurs the following passage: “I consider
the profile and the principles upon which it is based radi-
cally vicious. They are to trust to the isolated mass of
each block of stone, exposed on the surface, to retain its
position, while at the same time an accumulated mass is
heaped up twice as great as necessary to resist the total
effort of the waves. Though little attention has been paid
to the recommendation of the Commissioners as to the ar-
rangement and mass of stone above low water, the break-
water has resisted every storm which has yet spent itself
upon it; and if occasionally a block of considerable dimen-
sions has been moved from its place, it has been utterly
disconnected from the mass of the work, and generally on
unfinished portions over which the sea swept with all its
violence.”
afe *** *** *** ** ***
3& ***
***
&
*** ----- Rººm, *sº
s * º;s º
. . . “in the future arrangement of the work I should
urge that, from the extreme low water line, the work should
consist of dimension stone carefully laid in courses of
headers to the sea, having dimensions of at least nine feet
in length, and two by three on the head, and that the top
should be capped with stone twelve feet in length, covering
the whole with such blocks as would, even if isolated, be
able to maintain their stability when thus placed length-
wise to the sea.”
The method of construction above recommended in 1853
has been sanctioned by the practice at all the more recent
works at Holyhead, Portland, Alderney, etc., which have
vertical walls starting from low water. But not only is
wave action developed with all its violence by a sloping
surface reaching from low water to 2% or 3 fathoms but it
is these long slopes which render the total rip-rap mass so
great. The vertical wall should therefore extend below low
water to the region of comparative quiescence. The Del-
aware Breakwater contains 900,000 tons (very nearly) of
- stone costing (all expenses includ-
ed) an average of $2.35 per ton.
Previous to 1839 when 835,000
tons had been placed the average
was $2.27—the average has subse-
quently been over $4.00. Assum-
ing an average depth of 5 fathoms
(30 ft.) and that the “rip-rap * is
only raised 15 feet above the bot-
tom, with 30 feet width at top, an
inner slope of 1 upon 1 and an
outer as gentle as experience might
rove to be necessary, the total
length, 4000 feet (about), of break-
water and ice-breaker would not,
with large allowance for sinking
into the sand, consume more than
300,000 tons which, at the earlier
8 rates, would have cost $675,000.
A wall with 20 feet base and rising
12 25 feet with 15 feet width at top
built of quarried dimension stone
o 9 in large blocks may be laid (with-
out mortar), even at present more
s# than doubled prices, at $10 per tom.
For a length of 4000 feet there
would be needed say 120,000 tons
costing $1,200,000, and making the
total cost say $1,875,000. The act-
ual cost is officially reported to have
been $2,123,505. The vertical-wall
construction would, of the two,
probably be the least expensive,
while, instead of presenting to the
violence of wave-action a collection
of loose isolated blocks it would,.
with regularity of shape, possess
the strength derived from the union
of its elements in mutual support,
into an integral mass. It would
also serve as a quay wall alongside
which vessels could haul, if through damages received at sea,
it were necessary to remove portions of cargo or ballast. A
recent work, the MANORA. BREAKWATER (Scinde, see “Engi-
neering” May 3, 1872), more properly speaking, a “Jetty,” is
referred to in illustration of the principle of construction just
10
|3. 11.
sketched and which was contemplated in the report of 1853.



































BREAM—BREATHITT.
603
The general principle of that breakwater is that of a
bank of rubble stone laid upon the natural bottom and
brought up to a level of 15 ft. below low water, but near
the shore, where the original depth is less than this, to 10
ft. below low water. Upon this bank of rubble stone a
Superstructure is raised, consisting of blocks of concrete
each 12 ft. × 8 ft. × 44 ft., and weighing 27 tons, set upon
the narrowest side, so that the whole superstructure con-
sists of two blocks in width and three in height, forming
a solid wall, with vertical sides 24 ft. wide and 24 ft. high.
The blocks are set in place by means of an overhanging
crane. (See Fig. 9.)
The peculiar form of structure adopted for the Manora
Breakwater has the advantage, under these circumstances,
that its does not depend for its strength on bonding or
lateral connection of the several blocks as in ordinary
masonry. Any security that this bonding may afford while
the foundation holds good is at once lost when the founda-
tion yields and the superstructure sinks unequally. In the
present case, if the foundation under one block fails, that
block and those immediately over it must drop, but those
on either side are in no way affected.
“It has been determined, on data based on experience,
that the most favorable depth for the foundations of the
superstructure is 15 ft. below low water, and for the future
the rubble base will be in the first instance kept down to
that level so that little or no dredging or excavation by the
divers will be required; and if, under these more favorable
circumstances, the foundations can be prepared—as it is
expected they may be—there is no reason why 300 ft. of
breakwater should not be built in each month of the work-
ing season.”
The “Monsoons” blow with great violence at Manora,
and the wave action is described as only somewhat less
than at Alderney, but none of the blocks on the sea-side
have ever been forced out.
Mr. Rennie in the letter already referred to, after stating
that the Plymouth work was “originally designed to be on
the triangular system with interior slope of 45° and exterior
of 18° or 1 upon 3% (by which in 20 ft. depth the base
would be 250 ft.) was changed (see section) in consequence
of the top having been swept away by the storm of 1829,
“thus pointing out the necessity of a further augmentation
of the base and a change in the slopes;” so that the base
became (in that depth) 350 ft. “The above form has been
found to answer most effectually, and to remain undisturbed
during the greatest storms. A casing of cut granite has
been put over a considerable part of the surface, and the
previous filling the interstices between the large stones with
quarry rubbish has tended to consolidate the whole into
one great mass.” Doubtless with “a casing of granite ”
the “long slope” system may be made stable; but that
casing, in the case before us, consumes more large dimen-
sion stones than the hypothetical wall I have mentioned in
connection with the Delaware Breakwater.
A mean section (for it is very irregular) of the Delaware
Breakwater is given below. In the language of an official
report already referred to the “harbor of refuge ’’ which it
creates, is in no sense a work “ of mere local interest. It
was constructed for, and is resorted to by, the floating com-
merce of the nation, and in this light only should it be re-
garded. It has been the means of Saving millions of prop-
erty and countless lives from destruction; property whose
owners or underwriters are as widely distributed as are the
merchants and ship-owners of the nation, and lives whose
preservation is a duty which a nation owes to humanity.”
Its utility is best exhibited by the statement that since
1833, 246,011 vessels have taken refuge from storm under
its protection, of which 17,307 in the year 1871 alone.
“Let a threatening sky foretell the approaching storm, and
a few hours will suffice to fill a previously vacant harbor.
Let a north-easterly storm continue a day or two, with
severity, and the harbor becomes crowded entirely beyond
its capacity. The fleet of vessels which now fill it, are seen
to come in, in rapid succession, from the seaward; and
there is no single fact more capable of impressing on the
mind the magnitude of our coasting trade than the great
number of vessels which a few hours’ time will, under the
FIG. 8.
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º 7-Y-2 º 2%
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- -*.*
Delaware Breakwater (section).
above circumstances, congregate at this point.” Jetties, such
as the interesting works at Port Said; at the sea termina-
tion of the North Sea Canal of Holland; and those recently
constructed to form a new mouth to the river channel to
Rotterdam and also at the Sulina mouth of the Danube
have much in common with breakwaters, but in general
their direction, normal to the shore, saves them from the
severe exposure of breakwaters. They will be mentioned
in the article HARBOR; and reference is made to a Report
:-
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Manora Breakwater.
on the North Sea Canal of Holland, Prof. Papers, Corps
of Engineers, No. 22. (Works to be consulted : “Theory
and Construction of British and Foreign Harbours,” by Sir
John Rennie; “La Digue de Cherbourg’’ (Cachin); “Cours
de Construction des Ouvrages Hydrauliques des Ports de
Mer” (Minard); “Mémoire sur les Travaux à la Mer”
(Poirel); “Civil Engineer and Architects’ Journal;” “An-
males des Ponts et Chaussées;” “The Engineer;” “En-
gineering,” etc. etc.) J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Bream [Fr. brème], a name given to several species of
fishes. One is a fresh-water fish of the family Cyprinidae,
the Abram is brama. It is found in many rivers and lakes
of Europe. Several true breams occur in North America.
The name sea-bream is given to various European fishes
of the genera Pagellus, Cantharus, Brama, etc. Among
these are the black bream (Cantharus griseus) and the Pa-
gellus centrodontes. Bream is also a synonym of the Po-,
motis vulgaris, or sunfish, a fresh-water fish of the U. S.,
which is remarkable for its beautiful colors, and is esteemed
for food. It constructs a curious nest, and is abundant
throughout a great part of the U. S.
Breast. See MAMMARY GLANDs.
Breast Wheel, in hydraulics, the name given to a
water-wheel so placed as to be struck by the stream of water
nearly on a level with the axle, the lower quadrant of the
circumference on the side opposed to the stream being
placed in a race or channel concentric with the wheel,
through which the water is conducted in its descent from
the higher to the lower level.
Breast/work, in fortification, is a hastily-constructed
earthwork, generally without a banquette. It is sufficiently
high to afford shelter to the soldiers standing on the level
of the ground and firing over the crest. It is usually a
pile of earth, but may be formed of gabions, bags of sand,
or bales of cotton. It is intermediate in size and import-
ance between a parapet and an épaulement.
Breath. See RESPIRATION.
Breath’itt, a county in the E. of Kentucky. Area,
600 square miles. It is intersected by the North and Mid-
dle Forks of Kentucky River. The surface is hilly and
extensively covered with forests; the soil of the valleys is
fertile. Corn and tobacco are the staple crops. Coal and
iron ore are found here. Capital, Jackson. Pop. 5672.
Breathitt (John), born near New London, Va., Sept. 9,
1786, removed in youth to Kentucky, where he was a sur-
veyor and teacher, and was admitted to the bar in 1810,










































604 t
BRECCIA—BREED.
He was a zealous Jacksonian Democrat, and was lieutenant-
governor of Kentucky (1828–32) and governor (1832–34).
Died at Frankfort, Ky., Feb. 21, 1834.
Bre’ccia, an Italian word applied by geologists to a
collection of angular fragments of any hard rock cemented
into a compact mass either by carbonate of lime or other
natural cement. Rounded fragments under similar circum-
stances form conglomerate or pudding-stone. The Potomac
marble, of which some columns of the Capitol at Washington
are made, is a breccia composed of marble, sandstone, etc.
Bre'chin, a town of Scotland, in Forfarshire, on the
left bank of the South Esk, 38 miles by rail S. S. W. of
Aberdeen. It stands on an abrupt declivity, and some of
the streets are very steep. It has a cathedral, part of which
was built in the thirteenth century, now used as a parish
church. Adjacent to this church is a remarkable round
tower eighty-five feet high, and surmounted by a spire of
Ełere are manufactures of linens and sail-
twenty-five feet.
cloth, bleaching-works, etc. It is the seat of an Anglican
bishop. Pop. of Parliamentary borough in 1871, 7933.
Breck (DANIEL), LL.D., born at Topsfield, Mass., Feb.
12, 1788, graduated at Dartmouth in 1812, and became a
lawyer of Richmond, Ky., in 1814. Besides holding other
offices of responsibility, he was for a time judge of the
county court, and afterwards of the supreme court of Ken-
tucky. He was a member of Congress (1849–51).
Breck'enridge, a county of Kentucky, bordering on
Indiana. Area, 450 square miles. It is bounded on the
N. W. by the Ohio River, and on the S. by Rough Creek.
The surface is rolling; the soil is based on limestone, and
is fertile. Cattle, grain, wool, and tobacco are staple prod-
ucts. Bituminous coal abounds. Sinking Creek in this
county passes for five or six miles under the ground, and
returns to the surface. Capital, Hardinsburg. Pop. 13,440.
Breckenridge, a township of Jackson co., Ark. Pop.
Breckenridge, a post-village, capital of Summit co.,
Col., is near the base of the Rocky Mountains, 70 miles
W. S. W. of Denver. Rich gold-mines abound here.
Breckenridge, a post-village, capital of Wilkin co.,
Minn., on the Red River of the North, at the terminus of
the St. Paul and Pacific R. R. (main line), 217 miles W. N.W.
of St. Paul. Steamers ply between this point and the
Manitoba, settlements.
Breckenridge, a post-village and township of Cald-
well co., Mo. Pop. of village, 515; of township, 1336.
Breckenridge (JoFIN), a native of Virginia, born in
1760, removed to Kentucky. He was elected to the U. S.
Senate in 1801, and was appointed attorney-general by
President Jefferson in 1805. Died Dec. 17, 1806.
Breckenridge (John), D. D., born at Cabell's Dale,
Ky., July 4, 1797, graduated at Princeton in 1818, was an
eminent Presbyterian preacher, an able polemic writer, and
an influential and useful citizen. He was professor of the-
ology at Princeton (1836–38). Died Aug. 4, 1841, near
Lexington, Ky. -
Breckenridge, or Breckinridge (John CABELL), a
statesman and general, a grandson of John, first noticed
above, was born near Lexington, Ky., Jan. 21, 1821. He
studied law, which he practised at Lexington, and was
elected to Congress by the Democrats in 1851. He was
chosen Vice-President of the U. S. in 1856, when James
Buchanan was elected President. In 1860 he was nomi-
nated for the presidency by the Anti-Douglas Democrats who
seceded from the convention that met at Charleston. His
competitors were Abraham Lincoln, John Bell, and Stephen
Douglas. Breckenridge received seventy-two electoral
votes, being supported by all the Southern States except
Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri. Having
been elected to the U. S. Senate, he took his seat in Mar.,
1861, but he joined the Confederate army in the autumn of
that year. He served as major-general at the battle of
Stone River, which ended Jan. 2, 1863, and at Chickamauga,
Sept. 19 and 20 of that year. In May, 1864, he defeated
Gen. Sigel at Newmarket, in Virginia. He became secre-
tary of war at Richmond in Jan., 1865, visited Europe
about five months later, and returned to the U. S. in 1868.
Breckenridge (RobºFT JEFFERSON), D. D., LL.D., an
eminent Presbyterian minister, born at Cabell's Dale, Ky.,
Mar. 8, 1800, was an uncle of the preceding. He graduated
at Union College in 1819, and practised law in Kentucky
eight years (1823–31). Having preached for some years in
Baltimore, he removed to Lexington, Ky., in 1847, and be-
came professor of theology at Danville in 1853. He pub-
lished “Travels in Europe” (1839) and several works on
theology. -
Knowledge of God, objectively considered” (1857), and
“The Knowledge of God, subjectively considered” (1859).
His principal work is in two volumes, “The
He was a loyal friend of the Union in the civil war.
at Danville, Ky., Dec. 27, 1871.
Breck'inridge (Gen. JAMEs), born in Botetourt co.,
Va., Mar. 7, 1763, was a soldier of the Revolution, gradu.
ated at William and Mary College in 1785, and became an
eminent Federalist lawyer and a public-spirited citizen of
Virginia. He was a member of Congress (1809–17), and
co-operated with Jefferson in establishing the University
of Virginia. Tied in Aug., 1846.
Breckinridge (ROBERT J., J.R.), M.D. See APPENDIx.
Breck'nock, a township of Berks co., Pa.. Pop. 813.
Brecknock, a township of Lancaster co., Pa. P. 1600.
Brecks/ville, a township of Cuyahoga co., O. P.1007.
Brec'on, or Breck'nockshire, an inland county of
South Wales, has an area of 719 square miles. It is bounded
on the N. by Radnor, on the E. by England, on the S. by
Glamorgan, and on the W. by Caermarthen. The surface
is occupied by several mountain-ranges and deep, beautiful,
and fertile valleys. The highest point of this county is
Brecknock Beacon, which has an altitude of 2862 feet. Old
red sandstone underlies the southern and middle parts of
the county, and Silurian rocks are found in the N. The
chief rivers are the Wye (which forms the N. E. boundary),
the Usk, Elam, and Tawe. The staple products are oats,
barley, wheat, and cattle. It has extensive iron-works.
Capital, Brecon. Pop. in 1871, 59,904.
Brecon, Brecknock, or Aber-PHonddu, a town
of Wales, the capital of the above county, is finely situated
in a valley on the river Usk, at the mouth of the Honddu,
38 miles by rail W. S. W. of Hereford. It has beautiful
promenades, an old castle, a collegiate church, and a col-
lege; also considerable manufactures. Pop. in 1871, 5845.
Breda’, a fortified town of Holland, in North Brabant,
is situated at the confluence of the navigable rivers Aa and
Merk, 16 miles S. S. E. of Dordrecht. It is connected by
railway with Antwerp and The Hague. It has a castle
built in 1350, a Gothic cathedral, the spire of which is
362 feet high, and a magnetic observatory; also manufac-
tures of linens, carpets, hats, soap, leather, etc. This town
can be protected against an invading army by inundating
the country around it. It is celebrated as the scene of the
“Compromise of Breda,” by which the patriots protested
against the tyranny of Philip II. in 1566. Pop. in 1868,
15,265. -
Bree (MATHIEU IGNACE), an eminent Flemish historical
painter, born at Antwerp Feb. 22, 1773. Among his works
are “Rubens dictating his Last Will,” and “Van der Werff
addressing the Famished Populace during the Siege of
Leyden, 1574.” Died Dec. 15, 1839.
Breech, the end of a gun which is farthest from the
muzzle; the solid part behind the bore. The breech of a
cannon is made very massive, to enable it to resist the
shock caused by the explosion of the powder.
Died
Breech'ing of a naval gun or carronade is a strong
rope by which the recoil of the gun is checked at such a
point that the muzzle is brought wholly within the porthole,
where the seamen can sponge and reload it. Breeching or
breech-band is a part of the harness of a carriage-horse,
by means of which he can push the carriage backward or
support its pressure in going down hill.
Breech-loading Firearms are those which are
loaded by putting the cartridge directly in at the breech,
instead of ramming it in at the muzzle. It is said that
breech-loading guns were used early in the reign of Henry
VI. of England, and it is certain that they were used in
Scotland about that time. There are several ancient speci-
mens in the Tower of London. Many attempts to improve
this kind of arms have been made, and of late with much
success. Among the most celebrated weapons of this cha-
racter are the Armstrong and Whitworth guns, the Krupp
steel guns, the mitrailleuse, and among small-arms the
needle-gun and the Chassepot, Sharp, Snyder, Spencer,
Ward-Burton, and Remington rifles. These will each be
described under its own name.
Breed, a variety produced in any animal species in conse-
quence of domestication by changes somewhat analogous to
those which occur in cultivated plants. The changes origi-
nated by breeding (artificial selection) are in some species,
as in the dog and pigeon, very marked, producing external,
and even structural, differences, which, if they were perma-
nent and originated by natural and unexplained causes,
would confessedly be regarded as sufficient to establish dif-
ference of species. But the fact that thoroughbred animals,
when neglected or allowed to go wild, tend to revert to the
original type, and the not less important fact that animals
of the most widely different varieties of the same species
will (with a few possible exceptions) breed freely with each
other, producing fertile young (which is rarely the case
BREED––BREMER.
605
with those of different species), are by many held to show a
radical difference between varieties or breeds and species.
The study of the variations produced by domestication
seems to have suggested to Mr. Darwin his doctrine of the
origin of species by natural selection. (See DARWINISM, by
Profs. E. L. YoUMANs and J. H. SEELYE.)
Some of the results of artificial selection on animals are
truly marvellous. The numerous varieties of the dog and
the pigeon have been, to a great extent, produced by de-
sign; animals being bred to develop certain desired pecu-
liarities, the principle being that “like produces like,” or
that certain qualities possessed by the parent may be per-
petuated and increased in the offspring. The milk-pro-
ducing qualities of the Ayrshire cow, the butter-making
excellence of the Jersey breed, the long-wooled Cottswold
sheep, and the new breeds of easily fattened swine afford
illustrations of the industrial importance of this remark-
able plasticity or adaptability of the various domestic ani-
mals—an adaptability which has only of late been scien-
tifically studied, and the limitations of which are as yet
not well known. (See DARWIN, “Domesticated Animals and
Cultivated Plants,” 1867.) CHAs. W. GREENE.
Breed (WILLIAM P.), D. D., born in 1816, at Greenbush,
N. Y., removed in childhood to New York City, graduated
in 1843 at the University of New York, and has held Pres-
byterian pastorates in Steubenville, O. (1847–56), and in
Philadelphia. He is the author of numerous religious
works, chiefly for the young.
Breeds' ville, a post-village of Columbia township, Van
Buren co., Mich. Pop. 255.
Breese (KIDDER RANDOLPH), U. S. N., born April 14,
1831, in Philadelphia, entered the navy as a midshipman
Nov. 6, 1846, became a passed midshipman in 1852, a lieu-
tenant-commander in 1862, and a commander in 1866. At
the close of 1861 he was placed in command of the third
division of Porter's mortar flotilla, and took part in the
bombardment of Forts Jackson and St. Philip prior to and
during the passage of Farragut's fleet by the forts on its
way to the capture of New Orleans, and participated in
the attacks on Wicksburg during June and July, 1862. In
Oct., 1862, he was appointed to the command of Admiral
Porter's flag-ship, the Black Hawk, and in her took part
in nearly all the severe engagements on the Mississippi
and its tributaries during 1863 and 1864. In Sept., 1864,
when Admiral Porter assumed command of the North At-
lantic blockading squadron, he selected Breese as his fleet-
captain, in which capacity Breese took part in the Fort
Fisher fights, and in the fight with Fort Anderson ; and in
the naval assault on Fort Fisher of Jan. 15, 1865, he com-
manded the storming party. His services throughout the
civil War are thus honorably mentioned by Admiral Porter
in his “commendatory despatch” of Jan. 28, 1865 : “Lieu-
tenant-Commander K. R. Breese, my fleet-captain, has
been with me nearly all the time since the rebellion broke
out. In command of a division of the mortar flotilla
which opened the way to New Orleans, he made his first
record there. In the Mississippi with me for two years,
engaged in harassing and dangerous duties, he always ac-
quitted himself to my satisfaction. In charge of the mor-
tars at the siege of Wicksburg, he helped to hasten the
surrender of that stronghold. At Fort Fisher he led the
boarders in the assault, and though we were not successful
in getting into the fort in the face of equal numbers, yet
that assault gained the day, as is generally admitted on
every side. Our troops obtained a footing without much
resistance, and then nobly maintained what they had won.
Lieutenant-Commander Breese did all he could to rally his
men, and made two or three unsuccessful attempts to re-
gain the parapet; but the marines having failed in their
duty to support the gallant officers and sailors who took
the lead, he had to retire to a place of safety. He did not,
however, leave the ground, but remained under the para-
pet in a rifle-pit, using a musket until night favored his
escape. He is a clever, gallant officer, and I strongly
recommend his immediate promotion to a commander.”
FOXHALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Breese (SAMUEL L.), REAR-ADMIRAL, was born in New
York in 1794, entered the navy in 1810, served against
Great Britain and Mexico, became captain in 1841, and
fºr admiral in 1862. Died Dec. 17, 1870, at Mount Airy,
3.
Breese (SIDNEY), born at Whitesboro’, Oneida co., N.Y.,
July 15, 1800, graduated at Union College in 1818. In
1821 he was called to the Illinois bar, and attained great
distinction, was an officer in the Black Hawk war, U. S.
Senator from Illinois (1843–49), and was speaker of the
Illinois legislature in 1850. He was made circuit judge in
1835, and again in 1855, becoming chief judge of that
bench. He was one of the originators of the Illinois Cen-
tral R. R.
Brees/port, a post-village of Horseheads township,
Chemung co., N. Y. Pop. 292.
Breeze, a soft wind, a gentle gale. Land and Sea.
Breezes.—In a fair day, near the sea-shore, an hour or two
after sunrise, a gentle wind begins to blow from the sea.
towards the land, gradually increasing in force during the
day. With the declining sun the sea-breeze loses its power,
and dies out before sunset. A lull then ensues, after which
a land-breeze sets in from the land towards the Sea, and con-
tinues all night until before sunrise, when another calm oc-
curs. The cause of these alternate winds is to be found in the
fact that the land is more readily heated by the rays of the
sun, and more quickly cooled in their absence, than the
sea. In an island, for instance, in proportion às the sun
rises above the horizon the land becomes warmer than the
neighboring sea. Their respective atmospheres participate
in these unequal temperatures; the fresh air of the sea.
rushes from all directions in the form of a sea-breeze, which
makes itself felt along the whole coast, and the warmer and
lighter air of the island will ascend into the atmosphere.
During the night it is the reverse. The island loses heat
by radiation, and cools quicker than the sea. Its atmo-
sphere having become heavier, flows into that of the sea in
the form of a land-breeze and this interchange lasts until
the temperature, and consequently the density, of the two
atmospheres have again become the same. This is the phe-
momenon observed almost daily on nearly all the sea-boards.
Mountain-Breezes.—Similar alternate breezes are ob-
served to play between the great mountain-chains and the
neighboring plains, as in the Alps. On a fair day strong
breezes rush up the valley towards the overheated moun-
tain-slopes, and descend with equal force during the night;
for during the day the mountains absorb more heat than the
neighboring free atmosphere, and radiate more during the
night. (See WINDs, CIRCULATION OF.) ARNOLD GUYoT.
Breitmann, Hans. See LELAND (CHARLEs GoDFREY).
Brem’em, a free city of Germany, situated on both
sides of the river Weser, about 45 miles from the sea and 60
miles S. W. of Hamburg; lat. 53°4' 36” N., lon. 8° 48' 54”
E. It is divided into the old and the new town, the former
of which is on the right bank of the river, and has narrow,
crooked streets. The new town, which is connected with the
old by two bridges, is more regular. The old ramparts have
been levelled and converted into beautiful promenades and
pleasure-grounds. The most remarkable edifices are the
cathedral, built about 1100; the fine old Gothic town-hall,
with a famous wine-cellar; the exchange, the museum, and
the observatory of Olbers. Bremen has a large public li-
brary, a normal school, a theatre, and a hospital, also man-
ufactures of woollen and cotton goods, paper, starch, and
cigars. As a commercial city this is one of the most im–
portant of Germany, having an extensive foreign trade,
especially with the U. S. It is connected by railway with
Hanover, Bremerhafen, and other towns. Vessels drawing
seven feet of water can ascend to this point, and large
ships stop at Bremerhafen. The trade of Bremen has in-
creased rapidly in the last fifteen years. The chief articles
of export are woollen goods, linens, glass, hemp, hides, rags,
wooden toys, and wool. The imports consist of cotton,
coffee, sugar, rice, tobacco, wines, dyewoods, oil, tea, etc.
Shipbuilding is carried on here extensively. The imports
in 1858 amounted to £8,232,000, and the exports to about
£8,000,000. In 1863 the imports had increased to about
#11,190,000, and the value of the exports was nearly
#10,000,000. In 1868 the imports amounted to 98,130,000
thalers (about $68,690,000), and the exports to 89,970,000
thalers. The number of emigrants that embarked here was
73,971 in 1867, and 66,433 in 1868. In 1871, 8,513,882 gal-
lons of petroleum were exported from Philadelphia to
Bremen. The total produce imported here from the U. S.
in 1868 was valued at $23,285,000. Pop. in 1871, 82,950.
Bremen was founded before 788 A. D., and was made a
bishopric by Charlemagne. It was one of the chief towns
of the Hanseatic League. In 1815 it was admitted into
the Germanic confederation by the Congress of Vienna.
The government of this city and the territory attached to
it (with an area of 74 square miles) is a nominal republie,
the total pop. of which in 1871 was 122,565. It is govern-
ed by four burgomasters and twenty-four senators, who
are elected for life. Bremen is the native place of Heeren
and Olbers. A. J. SCHEM.
Bremen, a township of Cook co., Ill. Pop. 1501.
Bremen, a township of Lincoln co., Me. Pop. 797.
Bremen, a post-village of Rush Creek township, Fair-
field co., O. Pop. 265.
Bre/mer, a county in N. E. Central Iowa. Area, 430
square miles. It is intersected by the Cedar and Wapsi-
pinicon rivers, and also drained by several creeks. The soil
is generally fertile. Grain, cattle, and wool are raised. It
606
BREMER-BREST.
is traversed by a branch of the Illinois Central R. R. Cap-
ital, Waverley. Pop. 12,528.
Bremer, a township of Delaware co., Ia.
Bremer (CHARLEs). See APPENDIX.
Bremer (FREDRIKA), a popular Swedish novelist, born
at Abo, in Finland, Aug. 17, 1801. She was educated at
Stockholm, and became in early youth familiar with Ger-
man literature. Among her first works was “The Neigh-
bors,” a novel (1842), which Mrs. Howitt translated into
English. She afterwards produced “The Home” (1843),
“The President's Daughters,” “Nina,” “Brothers and Sis-
ters,” and “Hertha’’ (1856), which were translated into
English, French, and German. She visited the U. S. in
1850, and after her return published “The Homes of the
New World” (1853). Died Dec. 31, 1866. (See “Life,
Letters; and Posthumous Works of Fredrika Bremer,” ed-
ited by her sister Charlotte, New York, 1868.)
Bre"merha’fen, a town and port of Germany, on the
right bank of the Weser, near its mouth, about 35 miles
N. N. W. of Bremen. It is a part of the republic of Bre-
men, and was built by the citizens of Bremen (1827–30) for
the accommodation of large ships which cannot ascend the
river. It has an outer and inner harbor. Pop. 10,594.
Bre/mond, a post-village of Robertson co., Tex., at the
junction of the Houston and Texas Central and the Waco
and North-western R. Rs. s. It is in a beautiful and fertile
region, abounding in coal and iron. It has a cotton-seed
oil mill. -
Bren'ham, a post-village, capital of Washington co.,
Tex., on a branch of the Houston and Texas Central R. R.,
95 miles E. of Austin City. It is in a fertile region adapted
to the growth of cotton. It has a seminary for ladies, sev-
eral manufactories and two weekly newspapers. Pop. 2221.
Bren’ner Pass, the lowest pass in the main chain of
the Alps, is on the route between Innspruck and Botzen,
and is 4775 feet above the level of the sea. The mountains
on each side rise about 7500 feet above the pass, which is
open at all seasons of the year. In 1867 a railway was
opened through this pass from Innspruck to Botzen; at
which point it connects with the railways of Germany and
Italy. At the summit of the pass is the small village of
Brenner.
Bren/nus [Celtic bran, a “chief.” Bran, as a proper
name, is well known both in Cymric and Erse tradition], a
famous chief of the Senones, a tribe of ancient Gauls who
crossed the Apennines in 390 B.C., invaded the Roman
state, and defeated its army. Brennus then captured
Tºome, except the Capitol, which he besieged for about six
months.
garrison by night, but he was repulsed by Manlius, who
was awakened by the cackling of some geese. The Romans
purchased peace by the payment of one thousand pounds
of gold. To increase the price, Brennus is said to have
thrown his sword on the scale. (See, on this subject, AR-
NoLD’s “History of Rome.”) t
Brennus, a Gallic chief who invaded Greece with a
large army about 280 B.C., and ravaged Macedonia and
Thessaly. He was defeated at Delphi by the Greeks, who
were said to have been aided by an earthquake.
Brenta'no (CLEMENs), a German novelist and drama-
tist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main Sept. 9, 1778. He was
a brother of Goethe's friend, Bettina von Arnim. He pro-
duced dramas entitled “Ponce de Leon” (1804) and “The
Foundation of Prague” (1816). Among his admired novels
is “The History of Caspar the Brave and the Fair Annerl.”
In conjunction with Arnim he published the collection of
ballads called “Des Knaben Wunderhorn’” (1806–08; 2d
ed. 1815). Died July 28, 1842.
Brentano (LoRENZ), a German jurist, born at Mann-
heim in 1812. He was actively engaged in the Baden
revolution of 1848, and afterwards removed to America,
and became in 1860 editor of the “Illinois Staatszeitung”
at Chicago. He sold his interest in the “Illinois Staats-
zeitung” in 1867, and returned to Germany soon after.
In 1868 he was elected a presidential elector on the Grant
ticket.
Brent/ford, a market-town of England, the capital of
Middlesex, is on the Thames, at the mouth of the Brent, 7
miles W. S. W. of London. It is connected with Kew by a
bridge across the Thames, has large gin-distilleries, and
the works of the West London Water Company. It con-
sists mostly of one long street. Pop. 9521.
Bren/ton, a township of Ford co., Ill. Pop. 1073.
Brenton (SAMUEL), born in 1810 in Gallatin co., Ky.,
became a Methodist Episcopal preacher in 1830, and sub-
sequently a lawyer. In 1841 he returned to the ministry,
but having become disabled by paralysis, he again left the
profession. He was a member of Congress from Indiana
Pop. 821.
During this siege he attempted to surprise the
1852–57, and at the same time president of Fort Wayne
College, Died Mar. 25, 1857. t
Brenton (WILLIAM) emigrated to Boston from Ham-
mersmith, England, held important offices in Massachusetts
and Rhode Island, where he was several times lieutenant-
governor. He was president of Rhode Island (1660–61),
and governor (1666–69). Died at Newport in 1674.
Brents/ville, a small village, capital of Prince Wil-
liam co., Va., on the Occoquan Creek, 104 miles N. of Rich-
mond. Pop. of Brentsville township, 937.
Brent/wood, a post-township of Rockingham co.,
N. H. It has manufactures of paper, leather, lumber, etc.
Pop. 895.
Brentwood, a post-village of Williamson co., Tenn.,
on the railroad between Nashville and Franklin, about 9
miles from each place.
Brenz (Joh ANN), [Lat. Brentius], a German Reformer,
born at Weil, in Swabia, June 24, 1499, was educated at
Heidelberg, and became a Protestant under Luther's in-
fluence. He was a popular preacher at Halle, but in 1530
had to flee to Stuttgard, to the protection of Duke Ulrich
of Würtemberg against Charles W. There he died Sept.
11, 1570. He was a man of great ability, and wrote much,
chiefly expository lectures on the Bible. These writings
are still highly prized. He taught that the Lord’s body is
everywhere present, hence his followers are called Ubiqui-
tarians, but in the main his doctrines are those of Luther.
Bres/cia, a province of Italy, is bounded on the N. by
the Tyrol, on the E. by Lago di Garda and Verona, on
the S. by Cremona, and on the W. by Bergamo. Area, 1784
square miles. The soil is fertile. Silk and wool are among
the staple productions. It has manufactures of woollen
goods, firearms, and cutlery of superior quality. Capital,
Brescia. Pop. in 1871, 450,750. -
Brescia (anc. Briaria), a handsome city of Italy, in
Lombardy, capital of the above province, is pleasantly
situated on a wide plain and on the river Garza, 62 miles
by rail E. N. E. of Milan. It is on the railway which con-
nects Milan with Venice. It has an old cathedral, a me-
diaeval structure, and a new marble cathedral (Duomo
Nuovo) commenced in 1604; also many churches richly
adorned with works of art by celebrated masters, an epis-
copal palace, a college, a good public library, a museum of
antiquities, a botanic garden, and a theatre. Here are
manufactures of cutlery, silk, linen, and woollen, fabrics,
paper, and wine. The streets and public squares are
adorned with numerous fountains. Brixia was a very
ancient town, and was the capital of the Cenomanni, a
Gallic tribe. It was plundered by Attila, but soon recov-
ered from this injury. The emperor Otho I. declared it a
free city about 936. It was bombarded and taken by the
Austrian general Haynau in 1859. Pop. in 1872, 38,906.
Bres/Iau, or Breslaw [Lat. Bratislavia ; Polish,
Wraclaw], a large city of Prussia, the capital of Silesia, is
situated on the river Oder, at the mouth of the Ohlau, and
on the railway from Berlin to Vienna, 221 miles by rail
S. E. of Berlin; lat. (of observatory) 51° 6' 56.5” N., lon.
17° 2' 18" E. It is, next to Berlin, the most populous city
of Prussia. It is divided by the Oder into the old and new
towns, which are connected by numerous bridges. The
new town has wide and regular streets. It is the seat of a
Roman Catholic bishop. The most remarkable edifices are
a cathedral founded in the twelfth century, St. Elizabeth’s
church, the theatre, the Rathhaus, exchange, mint, and
university buildings. The university has a library of
350,000 volumes. Breslau contains other public libraries,
an observatory, a botanic and zoological garden, four gym-
nasia, and numerous other schools of different kinds. It
has an extensive trade, and is the greatest market for
wool in Germany. It has manufactures of woollen, linen,
cotton, and silk fabrics, broadcloths, lace, jewelry, soap,
earthenware, starch, and ardent spirits. The number of
distilleries in it is about 100. Railways extend to ‘Dresden,
Posen, Warsaw, and Vienna. Pop. in 1871, 208,025.
Breslau, a thriving post-village of Babylon township,
Suffolk co., N. Y., on the South Side R. R. of Long Island,
33 miles E. by S. of Brooklyn. Its inhabitants are mostly
Germans.
Brest [Lat. Brestum], an important fortified city and
seaport of France, department of Finistère, 314 miles W.
of Paris, is said to be the strongest military port in France.
It is on the N. shore of the Road of Brest, in lat. 48° 23' N.,
lon. 4° 29' W. Its outer harbor is one of the best and most
capacious in the world, having ample room for 500 ships
of the line. The harbor or road communicates with the
ocean by a single channel called the Goulet, which is 1750
yards wide. In the middle of this channel are the Mignan
Rocks, which render the entrance of hostile ships very dif-
ficult and dangerous. The outer harbor or roadstead is
BREST LITOWSK–BREVIARY.
607
about 6 miles long, and is defended by powerful batteries.
The inner harbor is also secure and spacious. From its
natural advantages and the strength of its defensive works,
Brest is considered one of the first naval stations of Europe.
Here are five large basins, extensive quays, an arsenal, vast
magazines, large barracks, and a prison, the Bagne, which
can accommodate 4000 convicts. Brest is the western
terminus of a railway which extends to Paris vià Rennes
and Le Mans. The city is built on the slopes of several
hills, and is divided into two parts, which can communi-
cate only by boats. Is is encircled by ramparts, which,
being planted with trees, form pleasant promenades. It
has a naval school, a medical school, a communal college,
besides numerous other schools, a public library, a botanic
garden, an observatory, etc. This port has little trade ex-
cept for the supply of the naval department, and its indus-
try is confined to the equipment of the navy. This place
was not of much importance until Cardinal Richelieu com-
menced in 1631 the fortifications, which were completed by
Vauban. A submarine telegraph cable connects this harbor
with Duxbury, Mass. Pop. 79,847.
Brest Litowsk’, a town of Russia, in the government
of Grodno, 92 miles S. of Grodno. It has several factories,
and is the seat of a United Armenian bishop. Pop. 22,493.
Bretagne [Lat. Britannia Minor], usually called
Britſtany by the English, or Little Brittany, a former
province of France, is an extensive peninsula, bounded on
the N. by the English Channel, and on the W. and S. W. by
the Atlantic Ocean. It is now comprised in the depart-
ments of Finistère, Côtes-du-Nord, Morbihan, Ile-et-Vi-
laine, and Loire-Inférieure. It was divided into Haute-
Bretagne (Upper Brittany), capital, Rennes, and Basse-
Bretagne (Lower Brittany), capital, Vannes. Among the
other towns are Brest, Quimper, and St. Malo. The sur-
face is partly mountainous, and the scenery wild and
beautiful. This province, which in ancient times was
called Armorica, was settled by the Cymri, a Celtic race to
which the ancestors of the Welsh belonged. It contains
large tracts of heath nearly uncultivated, and extensive
forests. The outline is indented with numerous bays and
imlets, which afford facilities for navigation and commerce.
Brittany abounds in ancient monuments and cromlechs,
which are ascribed to the Druids. The modern Bretons
are tenacious of their ancient customs and peculiarities,
and are generally Catholics. They are more loyal and de-
vout than the majority of the French. Their language
(the Armorican) is peculiar, and closely resembles the
Welsh. This region and its people have a special interest
for antiquarians. It became subject to the Franks in the
time of Charlemagne. In 848 A. D., Nominoé, an Armor-
ican chief, assumed the title of king of Bretagne, and de-
feated the army of King Charles the Bald. The Normans
conquered it in the tenth century.
Geoffroi, count of Rennes, became in 992 the first duke
of Bretagne, which continued to be an almost independent
feudal duchy until it was annexed to France in 1531. Pop.
in 1872, 2,947,348. (See DARU, “Histoire de Bretagne,”
1826; Courtson, “Histoire des Peuples Bretons, etc.,”
1847.) -
Brethren. See PLYMoUTH BRETHREN ; also DUNKERs
and UNITED BRETHREN.
Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit, a sect of
extremely pantheistic and immoral semi-monastic enthusi-
asts, who probably originated in the sect of Almericians,
followers of Amalric of Bena, who died in 1209. They
suffered much from the severity of the authorities, but be-
came very numerous in Germany, France, and Italy. The
sect lasted till about 1450. They were otherwise known as
Homines Intelligentiae (“men of understanding ”), also as
Adamites, Turlupins, Schwestriones, Picards, etc.; and it
is believed that the immoral “Adamites” now existing in
Bohemia are their descendants.
Brethren of the Christian Schools, an order in
the Roman Catholic Church founded in 1679, at Rheims,
by the Abbé La Salle, and confirmed in 1725 by Benedict
XIII. Its members are not allowed to enter the priest-
hood. They devote themselves to teaching, and especially
to the instruction of the poor, mostly in rudimentary
branches, but sometimes in more advanced studies. They
are numerous in France, Ireland, Italy, the U. S., and most
other countries. They are a branch of the Jesuits.
Brethren of the Common Life [Lat. Fratres Vitae
Communis], an association of pious clergymen founded in
Holland by Gerhard Groot in 1384. They soon were joined
by many laymen, who were associated closely with the
priests, but had separate habitations. A semi-monastic
discipline was maintained, generally according with the
rule of Saint Augustine, without lifelong vows. The order
Spread to Germany, and “Sisters of the Common Life”
which their commission specifies.
cium, the “full service.”
afterwards appeared. The Brethren became partly identi-
fied with the Canons Regular. Thomas à Kempis, Wessel,
and Erasmus were educated by them. Luther and Melanch-
thon esteemed the brotherhood highly, and many of them
became Protestants, others Jesuits, etc., and before 1650 the
fraternity was extinct.
Breton, a township of Washington co., Mo. Pop. 2396.
Breton (JULEs-ADoIPHE), a French artist, distin-
guished for his serious and sympathetic treatment of sub-
jects connected with the rural life of France. He was
born at Courrières (Pas-de-Calais). His most important
pictures are “Blessing the Wheatfield,” 1857, “The Call-
ing Home of the Reapers,” 1859, both in the Luxem-
bourg Gallery; “A Girl Guarding Turkeys,” 1864; “Young
Girls Guarding Cows,” 1872. CLARENCE Cook.
Brett (PHILIP MILLEDOLER), D.D., born in New York
City July 13, 1817, graduated at Rutgers College, New
Brunswick, N. J., was ordained to the Dutch Reformed
ministry in 1838, held pastorates at Nyack, N. Y., St.
Thomas, W. I., and at Mount Pleasant and Tompkins-
ville, N. Y. He was very influential, and greatly beloved
by his denomination. Died of cancer Jan. 14, 1860. A
volume of his sermons has been published.
Breu’ghel (JAN), a famous Flemish painter, born at
Brussels in 1568, was called WELVET BREUGHEL, in refer-
ence to the material of his clothing. He painted land-
scapes, animals, flowers, and small figures, which are finely
finished. Among his chief works are “Adam and Eve in
Paradise” and “The Four Elements.” The figures of these
were painted by Rubens. Died in 1625.
Breughel (PIETER), a Flemish painter, the father of
the preceding, was born at Breughel, near Breda. He
painted with success village festivals, comic subjects, and
the amusements of rustic life. Died in 1569.
Brevard’, formerly St. Lucie, a county in the S. E.
of Florida, is bounded on the E. by the Atlantic Ocean.
Area, 5600 square miles. Stock-raising is the chief pursuit.
The climate is pleasant and healthful. Corn and rice are
raised. It is intersected by the Kissimee River, and includes.
the greater part of Lake Okechobee, which is about 30 miles
in diameter. The surface is generally low and flat. Capital,
St. Lucie. Pop. 1216.
Brevard, a post-village, capital of Transylvania co.,
N. C., in a township of the same name, about 240 miles
W. S. W. of Raleigh. Pop. of Brevard township, 784.
Breve, in music, a note formed thus , or k=|, or
|=|, and equivalent to two semibreves. The note for a
whole bar in modern notation is called a semibreve. The
breve is now only used in d la capella movements, psalm-
tunes, and fugues, or at the close of a composition.
BREve, in printing, is a curve marked over a vowel to
indicate that it is short, as é.
Brevet’, a French word signifying a patent, a warrant,
a license, a commission, a royal act in Writing conferring
some privilege or distinction.
BREVET is also a military term used in England and the
U. S. In the British army it is a promotion of officers
which takes place on such special occasions as a coronation
or the termination of a great war. By this promotion the
officers obtain an increase of pay, even if they have never
served in a campaign. On these occasions lieutenant-gen-
erals, major-generals, colonels, lieutenant-colonels, majors,
and captains receive a promotion of one grade. Each colonel,
for instance, becomes a major-general. Officers below the
rank of captain are excluded from the benefit of this brevet,
which applies to the navy as well as the army, so that
commanders become captains, captains become rear-ad-
mirals, etc. Besides this general promotion by brevet, there
is (in England) brevet rank conferred on individual officers
for special services. This does not entitle them to an in-
crease of pay, but only to hold a rank next above that
This kind of brevet is
not used in the navy, and it does not apply in the army to
other officers than captains, majors, and lieutenant-colonels.
In the army of the U. S. a brevet is a commission giving
an officer a nominal rank higher than that for which he re-
ceives pay. A brevet major, for instance, only receives the
pay of a captain or of a lieutenant. These honorary titles
are given for meritorious services. -
Bre/viary [Lat. breviarium (from brevis, “short”); Fr.
bréviaire], an abridgment or epitome; also a book con-
taining the daily service of the Church of Rome or of the
Greek Church. It is so called, probably, because ; it was
abridged from another service-book, called Plenarium offi-
The Roman Catholic Church has
several breviaries, some being used in particular dioceses
or in special monastic orders, but the Breviarium Romanum
(“Roman Breviary") is the most generally used, and is
608
BREVIER—BRIBERY.
rapidly taking the place of the others throughout the Latin
rife, and it has been translated into some of the Eastern
rites. It is in four parts : the Psaltery, or psalms for
canonical hours, recited daily by all the beneficiary clergy :
the Proprium de Tempore, for festivals in honor of Christ;
the Propriwin de Sanctis, for festivals of special saints; and
the Cominutive Sanctorum, for other days. The Greek Brew-
iary (ºpoagy-ov) or “dial” is used in the Greek Church and
the Roman Catholic churches of the Greek rite. (See
CANONICAI, HouRs and LITURGY.)
Brevier', in typography, a type which is larger than
minion and one size less than bourgeois. (See TYPE.)
Brevipen/nes [from the Lat. brevis, “ short,”, and
penna, a “wing”], or Brevipennates (i. e. “short-
winged "I, a term applied in the system of Cuvier to that
tribe of the order Grallatores which comprises the ostrich,
cassowary, emeu, rhea, apteryx, and perhaps the extinct
dodo. They have wings so short that they are not fit for
flight, but they serve to accelerate the speed with which the
birds run on the ground. Some ornithologists give them
the name of Struthionidae, and some rank them among the
gallinaceous birds. Their sternum (breast-bone) has no
keel or ridge. The gigantic Dinornis and some other fossil
birds exhibit the characters of the brevipennes. Birds of
this tribe flourish only in solitudes and deserts, and are per-
haps destined to extinction, as the progress of population
is hostile to their increase or existence. (See CURSORES.)
Brew/er, a township of Pike co., Ark. Pop. 597.
Brewer, a post-township and village of Penobscot Co.,
Me., on the Peñobscot River, opposite Bangor, with which
it is connected by a bridge. It has a savings bank, and
important manufactures of lumber, bricks, leather, boots,
shoes, harness, carriages, sails, boats, etc. Total pop. 32.14.
Brewer (THoMAs M.). See APPENDIX.
Brewer (WILLIAM HENRY), born , at Poughkeepsie,
N. Y., Sept. 14, 1828, was educated at the scientific school
of Yale College and at the universities of Heidelberg and
Munich, was professor of chemistry and geology in Wash-
ington College, Pa.. (1858–60), first assistant in the geologi-
cal survey of California. (1860–64), professor of chemistry
in the College of California, and professor of agriculture
in the Sheffield Scientific School, New Haven, Conn., since
1864. He has prepared a work on the “Botany of Cali-
fornia,” and various scientific papers. º
Brew/erton, a post-village of Cicero township, Onon-
daga, co., and of Hastings township, Oswego Co., N. Y., on
both sides of the Oneida River, at the foot of Oneida Lake,
and on the Syracuse Northern R. R., 15 miles N. of Syra-
cuse. The old British Fort Brewerton stood on the Oswego
side. Pop. in Onondaga co., 322; in Oswego co., 196.
Brewerton (HENRY), LL.D., an American officer, born
1801 at Newburg, N.Y., graduated at West Point 1819, colo-
nel Corps of Engineers April 22, 1864, served as assistant
professor at the Military Academy 1819–21, in construc-
tion of fortifications 1821–32, Cumberland road 1832–36,
improvement of Hudson River 1836–42, building Fort
Montgomery, N. Y., 1841–45, superintendent of the Mili-
tary Academy 1845–52, constructing defences of Baltimore
harbor 1852–64, of the Delaware 1862–64, of Point Look-
out, Md., 1864–65, and of Hampton Roads 1864–70, im-
provement of harbors in Maryland 1852–64, and member
of engineer and other boards 1839–67. Breyet brigadier-
general Mar, 13, 1865, for long, faithful, and meritorious
services, and retired from active service Mar. 7, 1867.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Brew/erville, a township of Sumter co., Ala. P. 1520.
Brew/ington, a township of Clarendon co., S. C. P. 199.
Brew'ster, a post-township of Barnstable co., Mass.,
on the Cape Cod R. R., 89 miles from Boston. Pop. 1259.
Brewster (Sir DAVID), LL.D., D. C. L., F. R. S., an
eminent British natural philosopher and writer, born at
Jedburgh, Scotland, Dec. 11, 1781. He was educated at
the University of Edinburgh, and became in 1808 editor
of the “Edinburgh Encyclopædia,” for which he wrote
many articles. He received in 1815 the Copley medal of
the Royal Society for an “Essay on the Polarization of
Tight by Reflection.” He invented the kaleidoscope in
1816. In conjunction with Professor Jameson he founded
the “Edinburgh Philosophical Journal” in 1819. About
this date the Royal Society awarded to him the Rumford
gold and silver medals for his discoveries in optics. He
was knighted in 1832, and elected in 1849 one of the eight
foreign associates of the French Institute, the highest
scientific distinction in Europe. Among his works are a
“Treatise on Optics” (1831), “ More Worlds than One.”
(1854), and “Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Sir
Isaac Newton’’ (2 vols., 1855). In 1859 he was chosen
principal of the University of Edinburgh. His wife was
a daughter of Macpherson, the author of Ossian's poems.
Died Feb. 10, 1868. -
Brewster (JAMEs), born about 1785, was a prominent
merchant and philanthropist of New Haven, Conn. He
founded in that city Brewster Hall, the Franklin Institute,
and the Orphan Asylum, and was the active promoter of
many benevolent and business enterprises. Died Nov. 22,
1866. -
Brewster (WILLIAM), one of the Pilgrims of Plymouth,
born at Scrooby, England, in 1566, was educated at Cam-
bridge, entered the public service, became a non-conform-
ist, and in 1607 was imprisoned at Boston, Lincolnshire.
He was liberated with great expense and difficulty, and
went to Leyden, where he taught English. In 1620 he
came to America on the Mayflower's first voyage. He was
an elder of the Church, preaching frequently, but never
administering the Sacraments. Died at Plymouth, greatly
venerated, April 16, 1644.
Brewster’s Station, a post-village of South-east
township, Putnam co., N. Y., on the Harlem R. R., 53 miles
from New York. It has two fine mines of magnetic iron
ore, one national bank, and one weekly newspaper. Great
quantities of milk are sent to market from this point.
Brew’ton, a post-twp. of Escambia, co., Ala., P. 1312.
Brezo’wa, a town of Hungary, in the county of Neu-
tra, 19 miles N. W. of Leopoldstadt. It has several tan-
neries and distilleries. Pop. in 1869, 5886.
Brial mont (ALExIs HENRI), a distinguished Belgian
officer, engineer, and military writer, born May 25, 1821,
at Wenloo, Province of Limburg, Pays-Bas; entered the
military school of Brussels in 1839 from which he grad-
uated as sous-Lieutenant du Genie (Engineers) in 1843.
Entered the staff corps (d’Etat major) as Captain, 1855, and
passing through successive grades became Colonel, 1868,
Chevalier of the Order of Leopold, 1846—officer, 1859,
“Commander,” 1870, and maj.-gen, Mar. 25, 1874. Member
of the Belgian Academy of Sciences of Stockholm in 1865.
As an officer of Engineers has participated in the fortifica-
tion of Antwerp and Diest, and when the present magnifi-
cent system of fortifications was decided upon he had the
distinguished honor of planning works “unrivalled in Eu-
rope in the intelligent application of true principles of art
to a great practical example.” Colonel Brialmont is now
an acknowledged authority on the modern art of fortifica-
tion—his military publications are numerous; among the
most important may be named, “Précis d’Art Militaire,”
1850, 4 vols., 12mo, Considerations Politiques et Militaires
sur la Belgiques,” 1851–52, 3 vols., 8vo, “Histoire du Due
de Wellington,” 1856–57, 3 vols., 8vo, “Etudes sur la Defense
des Etats et sur la Fortification,” 1863, 3 vols., 8vo, with
atlas, “ Etudes sur l'organization des Armées,” 1867, 1 vol.,
8vo, “ Traité de Fortification Polygonale,” 1869, 3 vols.,
8vo, with atlas, “La Fortification & Fossés Seca,” 1872, 3
vols., 8vo, with atlas; “Etudes sur la Fortification des
villes Cupitales’ (1873), besides minor works and a great
number of pamphlets upon current military or political
topics; and he is author of the article on INTRENCHED
CAMPs in the present work. J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Brianchon’s Theorem, in comic sections, is the re-
ciprocal of Pascal's theorem, and was first discovered by
Brianchon. It is thus enunciated: “The three diagonal;
of every hexagon circumscribed to a conic meet in a point.”
Briançon (ame. Brigantium), a town of France, in the
department of Hautes-Alpes, on the river Durance, 56 miles
S. E. of Grenoble, and near the Italian frontier. It is
strongly fortified, is the principal French arsenal among
the Alps, and is considered almost impregnable. Pop. 3579.
Briansk', a town of Russia, in the government of Orel,
on the river Desna, 74 miles W. N. W. of Orel. It has
several churches, a cannon-foundry, an imperial building-
yard, and a manufactory of small-arms. Pop. 13,881.
Briar Creek, a township of Columbia co., Pa. P. 1077.
Briſbery [from the Fr. bribe, a “piece of bread,” or a
gift to a beggar], in criminal law, the offence of taking or
offering any gift or reward to influence one's behavior in a
public office, whether executive or judicial. It is an offence
at common law. It also includes the case of influence or
attempting to influence, by money, voters at an election to
Parliament. The crime may be committed though it turn
out that the person whose vote is thus solicited has no
right to vote. It is an offence in any case to offer the bribe,
though it is not received. The U. S. Constitution brands
it as a crime of magnitude by declaring that the President
and other civil officers are liable to impeachment for “trea-
son, bribery, and other high crimes and misdemeanors.”
It is usual to pass statutes in the States extending the cases
to which bribery as an offence may be applied, and fixing
the punishment. -
BRICK.
609
Brick, a species of artificial stone made by moulding
plastic clay into blocks, and burning them. A very in-
ferior quality of bricks is made by simply drying the blocks
in the sun. The earths most employed in brickmaking are
(1) the plastic clays, composed principally of silica and
alumina in varying proportions; (2) the loams or sandy
clays; and (3) the marls, which are either sandy, clayey,
or calcareous, according as silica in the form of Sand,
alumina, or carbonate of lime preponderates in the mixture.
These brick-clays almost always contain a small percentage
of oxide of iron, carbonate of lime, soda, and carbonate
of magnesia. The purer clays contain about 1 part of
alumina to 2 of silica, with a percentage of water varying
greatly among the different clays. They all mix up freely
with water in either large or small proportions, and are
characterized by a tenacious plasticity. If moulded and
baked, they shrink and warp greatly out of shape, and
crack. Hence, these rich clays all have to be tempered
with sand, ashes, or cinders before they can be used for
bricks. Some clays contain too much sand, and are weak
and brittle after burning; these must be mixed with the
richer clays. From the greatly varying character of the
raw material, it results that the methods pursued in brick-
making must vary among different localities. Some clays
require but very little change in the natural proportion of
their ingredients, and but very little labor to prepare them
for moulding into bricks, it being merely necessary to add
the requisite quantity of water to render the clay plastic ;
While others, such as the fire-clays and some of the marls,
have to be pulverized by machinery before they can be re-
duced to a sufficiently plastic condition. The red color of
burnt bricks is caused by the presence of a small per-
centage of oxide of iron, generally the protoxide. When
there is more than 10 per cent. of iron oxide present the
clay burns to a blue and almost a black color. A large per-
centage of iron, if lime also or an excess of silica be pres-
ent, renders the clay fusible.
very little or no iron. These burn white, and require a less
intense heat than any other clays to produce hard brick,
the lime being a flux on the silica. When carbonate of
lime, whether as chalk, marl, modules of calcareous petri-
factions, or in any other form, is present in the clay, it is
converted into quicklime in burning, and only such por-
tions of it will combine with the silica and alumina as come
into actual contact with them. The balance remains quick-
lime, which will slake when the bricks become wet, and de-
stroy them. Hence clay containing too much carbonate
of lime is unfit for bricks. Other clays contain iron and
lime with an excess of the latter, in which case the bricks
burn to a light dun or a whitish color. Magnesia gen-
erally produces a brown color.
The presence of iron pyrites is objectionable, for the
burning expels the sulphur, leaving oxide of iron or a
basic sulphate, which occupies less volume than the original
pyrites, and makes the bricks porous and weak. Vegetable
remains; such as roots, grass, etc., should be excluded for
a similar reason.
Some clays contain lime and .
It is impossible to ascertain, by chemical analysis alone,
whether or not a given clay or any mixture of two or more
clays will make good bricks. The best chemical tests will
furnish only a close approximation. The composition of
four clays—two suitable for common bricks and two for
fire-brick—are given below. Nos. 3 (from Stourbridge,
England) and 4 are the fire-brick clays:
| -
No. 1. No. 2.. No. 4.
º No. 3.
Silica................................. 50.40 49.44 51.80 58.40
Alumina......................... 24.00 34.26 30.40 35.78
Oxide of iron................... º 7.74 4.14 3.02
Carbonate of lime............... 2.70 1.48 -
- (t of magnesia....... 1.30 5.14 .30 2.72
Water, etc 21.60 1.94 13.11
100. 100. 99.95 99.92
Some of the fire-clays contain as high as 65% to 66 per
cent. of silica, 273 to 26% per cent. of alumina, and 5% to 6
per cent. of oxide of iron, the balance being the alkalies
and water.
Fire-bricks are used for lining furnaces, kilns, ovens, etc.
subjected to an intense heat that would destroy common
bricks or stone. The Stourbridge fire-bricks are noted for
their excellence. The clay is dug up and exposed from
three to eighteen months, according to the Weather, in
“ spoil heaps,” spread over as large an area as practicable,
until thoroughly disintegrated by weather and frost; in
winter three months will suffice. The clay weighs six tons
to seven cubic yards, and some of the spoil heaps contain
10,000 tons. After weathering, the clay is ground in a cir-
cular pan under two cylindrical stone rollers, each weigh-
ing two and a half to three and a quarter tons, and faced
with iron. After grinding, the clay is carried on an end-
less band to a “riddle * of 4 or 6 meshes to the inch for
fire-bricks, 6 to 10 meshes for fine cement clay, and 12 to
14 meshes for glass-house or pot clay. After passing the
riddle the clay is tempered with water to a suitable degree
of plasticity, and is then passed through a cylindrical cast-
iron pug-mill, where it is cut and stirred by revolving
helicoidal blades, which force it out through an opening at
the bottom in the form of a bar, which is received and
carried by an endless band to the moulding shed. The
fire-bricks are moulded by hand in the usual manner, dried
in artificially heated sheds at a temperature of 60° to 70°
F., or by the sun in clear weather. They are burned in
circular domed kilns or cupolas, called ovens, where they
remain from eight to fourteen days, being subject to the
intensity of flame or white heat for about four days and
three nights. In burning, the heat is slowly increased
and gradually lowered, and the burnt contents require seven
days to cool. Most of the kilns contain 12,000 bricks—
some, exceptionally, 30,000 to 35,000. The chimney-stack
is on the outside, and the flame burns with a down draught,
descending through holes in the floor. Coal is used for fuel.
Excellent fire-bricks are made in New Jersey at Perth
Amboy, Woodbridge, South Amboy, Trenton, and other
places in the vicinity. The process of manufacturing is
essentially the same as for common bricks. The fire-clays
- FIG. 1.
2
of these idºlities contain generally more alumina and less
silica than those of Stourbridge, England, and are there-
fore richer, the alumina reaching in some cases as high as
37+, to 39.1% per cent, with only 43% to 45% per cent.
of silica. The composition of the bricks consists of about
§ raw clay, # cement, # kaolin, and & fine sand. The ce-
ment is fire-clay that has been burnt; the kaolin is a clay
consisting of very fine sand, mica, and fire-clay, found in
the vicinity, and the fine sand is clean coarse, angular-
grained quartz, found remarkably pure near by.
Many machines have been employed for making bricks,
of which two that have proved to be successful will be
described. s" the French machine, invented by M. Ter-
9
rason-Fougères, the frame is composed of two side-pieces
A B (Figs. 1 and 3) from sixteen to twenty feet long,
framed together as shown in the figures, and mounted on
wheels to permit of its being easily moved from place to
place. The clay, being previously moistened, is fed to the
pug-mill Y (Fig. 3) by means of an endless chain Z, the
chain and mill being both operated by a sweep worked by
from two to four horses. The clay, on feeding out of the
pug-mill, is received upon a plank k (Figs. 2 and 3) sup-
ported on rods, and sanded to prevent adhesion. The width
of the plank is equal, or nearly equal, to the length of the
bricks to be made.
Three pairs of rollers D, E, G (Fig. 3) fastened under-

610
*—
neath the frame give movement and direction to two end-
less belts H (Fig. 3) by means of a crank and pinion on
the shaft E. On each belt is riveted or screwed a series of
wooden blocks h (Fig. 3) exactly equal in size. Each block
has a hole bored in it near the belt, through which the
rods pass from side to side. The distance between the
two belts can be regulated by sliding the rollers on their
shafts, so that the space between the blocks h may be ad-
justed to the length of brick required. In the intervals
between D, E, G the belts are supported on friction-rollers i
(Fig. 3). Motion is given to the belt by means of the
teeth e (Fig. 2), which take hold of the projecting ends of
the rods h’.
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BRICK.
The endless belts being put in motion, the plank k, loaded
with clay, is drawn forward under the cylinder L (Figs. 1,
2, 3), which just grazes the top of the blocks h. The clay
is thus pressed between the plank k and the cylinder L,
and is prevented from spreading laterally by the blocks h.
When one plank has advanced sufficiently, another is
added, and so on.
The prism of clay, constantly advancing, comes next
under the cylinder M (Figs. 1 and 3), which compresses it
down to the thickness required, while two wires n (Fig. 3),
one on each side, cut it to the desired width.
Passing through the die O (Figs. 1 and 3), the prism is
brought to its accurate calibre. When working a prism
£’
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two bricks thick the die contains a wire o (Fig. 3) which
cuts the mass horizontally. . *
The cylinder L is of wood; a wire j (Fig. 2) stretched
between its lower surface and the top of the blocks H pre-
vents the clay from adhering to it. The cylinder M is also
of wood, but is surfaced with felt, kept constantly moist-
ened. The die O is also supplied with a small stream of
water from the same source, at its upper corners, through
the tube o' (Fig. 3).
When the prism, after passing through the die, has ad-
vanced sufficiently far, a small chock upon the plank k
rings a bell P, upon which the man who is turning the
crank stops, and by means of a lever, not shown in the
figure, allows the frame R. R. (Fig. 1) turning on the hinges
q q to drop, and by means of the wires which it contains
to cut off a certain number of bricks of the proper width.
By means of this machine 4800 bricks per hour may be
turned out—48,000 per day of ten hours. The actual daily
production, howeyer, rarely exceeds 20,000 to 25,000, unless
the crank is relieved. -
In the drawing the pug-mill is represented as feeding
directly into the machine. As, however, the mill can
rarely supply the machine fast enough, it is usually de-
tached, and a proper quantity of clay prepared beforehand,
and then shoveled on to the machine as required.
The leading type of the machines used at Haverstraw,
N. Y., and vicinity for the manufacture of common bricks,
where about 2,000,000 per day are made during the work-
ing season, is shown in Fig. 4, and is known as the “Ver-
valen machine.” The object of this machine is merely to
fill the moulds more rapidly than could be done by hand,
and not to produce a pressed brick.
A is a wooden box or tub about 3 feet 4 inches square
inside, and from 4 feet 6 inches to 5 feet high, into which
the clay to be moulded is cast. B is a vertical iron shaft
about 5 inches in diameter, geared with the engine shaft
C, which imparts to it a horizontal rotary motion. The
lower end of B is provided with a heavy casting, shaped
like the letter S, called the wiper, which sweeps the clay
through a lateral opening in the front side of A into the
cast-iron box D.
The shaft B is provided with a number of projecting arms,
from fourteen to twenty-two, which clear the sides of the
tub by about one inch, and serve to mix the ingredients
before they are expelled by the wiper. When, however,
the clay is previously mixed by a tempering wheel, these
º
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arms are removed, leaving only the wiper, and the tub then
serves merely as a hopper. The bottom of the cast-iron
box D is provided with six openings, through which the
prepared clay is forced into corresponding openings in the
s
E=
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mould E. A sort of rectangular piston works up and down
in the box D by means of a connecting rod F run by a
drum G. A crank at the end of the drum-shaft H com-
municates a stroke of about seven inches to the piston,
which stroke, however, can be diminished at pleasure by
shifting the position of a pin at the lower extremity of F.
The bottom of the piston does not come nearer than about
six inches to the bottom of the box D.
The action of the machine will now be readily under-
















BRICK, ARCHAEOLOGY OF.
611
stood. The prepared clay is swept by the wiper out of A
into D, whence it is expelled by a down stroke of the pis-
ton into a mould placed under it. . While this mould is
being filled an empty one is inserted behind it through the
aperture I. The drum G continuing its revolution in the
direction of the arrow, a cam K strikes the lever L, throw-
ing it forward, as shown in the figure. It carries with it
the shaft M, which by means of a horizontal rod attached
to two cranks (one of which is shown partially in the figure
at N) and passing behind the empty mould, forces it for-
ward, thrusting out the full one upon the table Q, and pla-
cing the empty mould in position to be filled. The drum G
continuing its revolution, another cam, placed so as to clear
the top of the lever L, strikes the upper arm of the lever P,
causing it, by means of the projection Q, to return L to its
primitive position. A chock prevents L from falling too far
back. And so on.
Whenever the nature of the materials used admits, the
mixture of the ingredients is made by the pug-mill work-
ing in the tub. In this case a rectangular pit is prepared
directly behind the machine, capable of containing the
amount of clay required for a day’s work. The clay is
placed over night in this pit, and is wet down with a cer-
tain amount of water, varying according to the nature of
the clay used. In the morning the other ingredients, con-
sisting of sand and anthracite coal-dust, are carted to the pit
and roughly mixed by two spaders, who afterwards throw
it up into the tub, where the pug-mill completes the mixing.
The proportion of sand used varies according to the
quality of the clay and the relative proportions in which
the two are found in the bank. It may be taken, on an
average, at one-third sand to two-thirds clay. The Haver-
straw sand is of excellent quality, and, more than the clay,
gives the bricks of this locality their peculiar character.
Coal-dust is used in the average proportion of 3 pecks to
the 1000 bricks. For burning properly in the kilns, a cer-
tain number of what are called dowble-coal bricks is re-
quired, in which the proportion is about 5 bushels of dust
per 1000 bricks. When mixed in a circular pit by means
of a “tempering wheel,” the clay and coal-dust are dis-
posed in alternate layers and cut up by the wheel. The
sand is then added, and incorporated by the wheel. This
operation consumes the entire day.
When the moulds, which are made mostly of cherry or
locust wood, and contain six bricks each, are thrust from
under the press upon the table, they are placed on trucks
and wheeled under the drying shed. The bricks are thrown
out upon the flat. When sufficiéntly dry they are “edged
up " by means of an instrument called an edger, then
“spatted,” or tapped with a flat board called a “spatter,”
to give them a clean edge, and then “hacked up,” or placed
in long and narrow rows on edge. When dry enough—
that is, in one to three days, according to weather—they
are built up in “arches,” set on edge in the order called
“ three over one.” The arches contain 28,000 to 35,000
bricks each, and are 6 bricks or 4 feet wide, about 44
bricks or 30 feet deep, and from 45 to 55 courses high.
Each arch has an opening at the bottom—hence the name
—in the centre of its width, in which the wood used in
baking is placed. On the outside are placed the “double-
coal” bricks, to the number of about 3000 per arch. Bricks
containing only the usual proportion of coal would not burn
properly at this distance from the fire. -
A number of arches, five, ten, or more, are built up con-
tiguously, so as to form a solid mass. The whole is then
covered with a dry wall of baked bricks, the lower courses
being one brick thick, and the rest half a brick. At the
bottom they leave a vacancy between the wall and the face
of the arch, which gives a batter to the covering wall, and
affords a better draught. Arch-irons or cast-iron frames
having an opening of about one square foot are inserted
in the openings, and the whole is smeared over with clay.
The heap so prepared is called a kiln. This system of
burning is pursued rather than that with permanent kilns,
on account of the greater number of bricks which may be
burned in a given space. At Haverstraw, yards control-
ling only 200 feet frontage can thus make from 5,000,000 to
6,000,000 bricks per season of 150 working days.
About four cords of wood are used per arch, and the
burning requires six days, fires being lit on Monday morn-
ing and drawn on Saturday evening. Moulding is usually
carried on during the forenoon of each day—about five to six
hours—the rest of the day being spent in “hacking up,” etc.
The machines above mentioned turn out, in ordinary
working, ten moulds or sixty bricks per minute, or 18,000
to 20,000 per forenoon. They require the following plant
and help per machine: 25 moulds, 4 trucks, and 8 men.
If operated by steam, a machine turning out 18,000 per
day requires eight horse-power nominal, high pressure.
The standard of full work in this section is to turn out
1000 bricks per day for every soul employed, from the time
the clay is dug till the bricks are loaded in the vessels.
Thus, an establishment employing forty hands, all told,
should turn out 40,000 bricks per day. The Morand brick-
machine, Fig. 5, consists
essentially of a pug-mill,
under which revolves a
horizontal iron table, in
which there are eight
openings or moulds of
the size of a brick. The
mill mixes the clay, and
forces it downward by its
helicoidal arms through
a slot in the bottom of
the mill, thus filling the
moulds as they pass un-
der the slot. Each mould
then passes under a pres-
sure-plate, which con-
fines the clay on top,
while a movable plate,
which closes the mould
at the bottom, is forced
up by passing over a
- cam. This compresses
the plastic brick, forcing out the air and excess of clay
through a small hole in the pressure-plate. After passing
the pressure-plate the bricks are thrust up to the top of table,
and then moved automatically to an endless band, which
carries them away. From the band they are loaded upon
cars, which convey them into drying-ovens. They go to
the kiln the next day. Q. A. GILLMORE, U. S. Army.
Brick, Archaeology of. This material has in recent
times attracted much archaeological interest. The Bible
mentions brick as the material of which the tower of Babel
was made : “Go to, let us make brick and burn them thor-
oughly ’’ (Gen. xi. 5); and it is precisely in this region, the
valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris, that the most inter-
esting archaeological remains of this character are found.
The Babylonian bricks were usually burned in a kiln, while
those of Nineveh were more frequently sun-dried. We
learn also from the Bible that sun-dried bricks were ex-
tensively employed in Egypt; and that it was one of the
principal employments of the enslaved Israelites to make
such bricks, in which straw was mingled with the clay so
as to increase the durability of the mass. But Egyptian
buildings made of unburnt brick, even without straw, are
still standing in good preservation. Some of these build-
ings are with confidence referred to the remotest periods
of history. Similar though scarcely parallel examples of
the durability and excellence of unburnt bricks are afford-
ed by the adobe buildings of Mexico, New Mexico, and
Arizona, many of which were erected by the natives long
before the advent of the white race. Adobe buildings
erected for public uses in Santa Fé, New Mexico, by the
Spanish authorities long before the foundation of the Eng-
lish colonies of North America, are still in use, having stood
for more than three centuries with but the most insignif-
icant repairs. This durability, however, both in Egypt and
Spanish America, is largely due to the dry weather which
prevails in both regions, and is not observed in brick made
from inferior clays. The ancient Peruvians made bricks
of the greatest excellence, as well as sun-dried bricks of
good quality. The Chinese have for ages made excellent
bricks, to some of which they give a glazed surface, like
that of porcelain. The people of India make bricks—those
of some regions finely ornamented, and superior in quality
to the bricks of Europe and America. The old ruins of
Farther India and Java attest the antiquity of the art of
brickmaking in those regions.
But the great discovery of the secret of the cuneiform
writing has of late attracted renewed attention to the bricks
of Babylon, each of which bears at least the name of some
king (notably that of Nebuchadnezzar), the writing having
been in most cases made upon the soft clay by a stylus of
iron. This practice of marking, bricks with some name,
as that of the ruler or the manufacturer, has prevailed in
other countries, notably in ancient Rome. The Romans
made many public and private buildings of brick, often
of excellent character; but in some of their subterranean
water-courses, recently cleared out, the brick lining has
disappeared, leaving a honeycomb of projecting mortar.
It has been assumed that Roman brickmaking was derived
from that of Greece, in the latter country a very important
and extensive industry in ancient times; and the Greeks,
it is stated, learned the art of brickmaking from the Egyp-
tians. But if it were necessary to find any such origin for
so universal an art in such countries, the Greeks might perſ
haps be imagined to have acquired it from the Assyrian
in Cyprus, for there the two civilizations had a point of
contact. CHARLEs W. GREENE.

612
BRICK–BRIDGE.
Brick, a township of Ocean co., N. J. Pop. 2724.
Brick Creek, a township of Halifax co., Va. Pop.
5563.
Brick Meeting-House, a post-township of Cecil co.,
Md. Pop. 1564. -
Bricks' burg, a post-village of Brick township, Ocean
co., N.J., on the Raritan and Delaware Bay R. R., 44 miles
S. by W. of New York. It is a new and thriving settle-
ment, and has manufactures of lumber, sash and blinds,
brick, etc. Considerable capital is invested in raising
small fruits for market. It has one weekly paper, a ladies’
seminary, and a fine public school building.
Bridesburg, a former township of Philadelphia co.,
Pa., now included within the limits of Philadelphia. It is
about 7 miles N. by E. of the State-house. It contains a
U. S. arsenal. * -
Bridewell, a name sometimes given to a house of cor-
rection for offenders. This name was originally applied to
a well which was dedicated to Saint Bride in London, and
a hospital founded on that site by Edward VI. Henry
VIII. also built here about 1522 a palace called Bridewell,
which Edward VI. gave to the city of London to be used
as a workhouse and house of correction “for the strumpet
and idle person, for the rioter that consumeth all, and the
vagabond that will abide in no place.”
Bridge. (The etymology of the word is obscure ; but,
according to Richardson, its derivation is believed to imply
that which reaches, stretches, or eactends; i. e. from bank to
bank, across a river, from side to side, point to point—any-
thing built, raised, and stretched or eactended across.) If, as
defined by Rankine (see ENGINEERING) the engineer “is he
who by art and science makes the mechanical properties of
matter serve the ends of man,” it may further be said that
the form of matter which earliest presented the problem
of its reduction to subservience to his purposes was the
surface of the earth. To a social being—a member of com-
munities in which civilization has made any advances—
paths of communication from place to place are among the
earliest felt necessities; and in connection with them the
surmounting, by bridges, of the barriers presented by ra-
vines, rivulets, and rivers. In a rude state of Society the
most obvious and simple bridge is a tree thrown across the
stream (if but a rivulet), and hence, says Rankine, “the
first man who bridged a torrent with a fallen tree had in
him something of the engineer;” putting bridge building
among the very first exhibitions of the engineering art.
Nor should it be overlooked that from the engineer’s art,
as exhibited in bridge-building, was derived the title of the
Roman high priest; a title transmitted to the Roman
Bishop and now symbolizing to the faithful of the Roman
Church, the successor of St. Peter, the infallible head of
the Church of Christ, otherwise styled THE POPE. The
word “Pontiff,” says Webster, is “ said to be derived from
pons, a bridge, and facere, to make, because the first bridge
over the Tiber was constructed and consecrated by the high
riest.”
p We have indicated “the fallen tree as the rudest and,
most probably, the earliest bridge. Singularly the next
step in bridge-building seems to have been one which, in
its full development, involves the refinements of the con-
structive art and of the mathematical science. “Another
step in advance (Tomlinson's Encya. of the Useful Arts)
is to stretch across a river a number of ropes, made of
rushes or leathern thongs, secured on the opposite banks
between trees and posts, and connected and covered, so as
to form a slight bridge. This method is practised in some
of the mountainous districts of South America. The ropes
are formed of thongs of ox-hide, consisting of several
strands, about six or eight inches in thickness, arrd across
these, in a transverse direction, sticks are laid, and these
are covered with a flooring of branches of trees. In other
cases, an ox-hide rope is extended from one side of the
river to the other, and is secured to each bank by means
of strong posts. On one side is a kind of wheel, or winch,
to straighten or slacken the rope, from which hangs, by a
clue at each end, a kind of leathern hammock, capable of
holding a man. A rope fastened to either clue, and ex-
tended to each side of the river, is used for drawing the
hammock to the side intended. A push at its first setting
off sends it quickly to the other side. Mules are carried
over in this way.”
To use these cables in pairs and to suspend from them a
flooring is all that is needed to make a suspension bridge.
“Such bridges are very numerous in various parts of the
world. In China, where the germ of nearly everything
connected with the Useful Arts is found, suspension bridges
are formed of five parallel chains with links one foot in
diameter, on which a loose bamboo flooring is laid. An-
other form is described as consisting of two parallel chains
four feet apart, suspended over stone piers about eight feet
high on each bank. . The ends of the chains pass back
from thence, turn obliquely, and are bedded in the rock,
each being fastened round a large stone, which is kept
down by a mass of smaller stones laid upon it. A plank
about eight inches wide, extending across the river, is sus-
pended from the chains by bands made of roots, of such
length that the path is four feet below the chains in the
middle of the length of the bridge. The suspending bands
are renewed every year, and the planks are loose, so that
any part can be prepared separately. The length of one
of these bridges is described as being 59 feet. It is only
used for foot-passengers; but it is a proper suspension
bridge, with a horizontal platform suspended from the
main chains.”
But to return to the “fallen tree.” Instead of “felling”
a tree in place, the transition to stretching the trunk of a
tree, a “log” or “beam,” over a ravine with suitable, how-
ever rude, artificial bearing-points, or “abutments,” is nat-
ural and obvious. As the art of “Carpentry” developed
itself, and as a more scientific knowledge of the “Strength
of Materials” was acquired—particularly in its applications
to the resistance to flexure and stress of beams, the “Tim-
ber Bridge” becomes the natural development of the fallen
tree. It would soon be discovered that the simple “beam ”
stretched between two bearing points would receive its
maarimum bending strain at its middle point; that thence,
towards each abutment the strain would rapidly diminish.
Hence, to get the greatest strength, with the least weight
(for its own weight is the preponderating cause of strain)
the obvious expedient of making the beam thicker in the
middle.
Again, the discovery would soon be made that the upper
or top fibres of a beam are compressed and those at the
bottom extended, while the middle ones are comparatively
without strain; and the transition to the truss or framed
girder in which the lower or tie-beams, alone, suffer ex-
tension—the upper, or brace timbers, are compressed.
FIG. 1.
T-
r
In applying the above to long spans it becomes necessary
that the lower or tie-beam (which may indeed be made up
of more than one piece “fished” together) should have
points of support intermediate between the two abutments;
also that the upper (or thrust-bearing pieces) should be
stiffened by the application of intermediate bearing points.
To meet these requirements the truss assumes more com-
plicated forms, thus: - -
FIG, 2.
The latter figure exhibits nearly the principles of con-
struction of the celebrated bridge over the Rhine at Schaff-
hausen.
Since, in a bent beam it is found that the top fibres are
compressed, the bottom ones extended, while the middle
ones, neither compressed nor extended (longitudinally) serve
to bind the other parts together, an artificial beam on a
large scale may be made by uniting the top and bottom
longitudinal pieces by a web of diagonals which shall serve
the purpose of the middle fibres of the pure beam. This is
accomplished in the various kinds of “trusses” in which
the upper and lower members are connected by different
systems of diagonal bracing combined with vertical ties:
as in Fig. 3. -
FIG. 3.
•.” % /
º | ź
Hence, also, the “lattice bridge" so much in use for or-
dinary road bridges in this country, of which the sketches
below exhibit the “Town” lattice.



BRIDGE.
613
The following is the inventor’s statement of its merits.
1. There is no pressure against abutments or piers, as
arched bridges have, and, consequently, perpendicular sup-
ports only are necessary. This saving in wide arches is
very great; sometimes equal to two-thirds of the whole ex-
pense of the superstructure. º
FIG. 4.
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2. The shrinking of timber has little or no effect, as the
strain upon each plank of the trusses, both of the braces
and string-pieces, is an end-grain strain, or lengthwise of
the wood, that is, a tension or thrust strain. ^
3. Suitable timber can be easily procured and sawed at
common mills, as it requires no large or long timber. De-
fects in timber may be discovered, and wet and dry rot
prevented much more easily than could be in large tim-
ber.
4. There is no iron-work required, which at best is not
safe, especially in frosty weather. This fact has, of late,
been abundantly and most satisfactorily proved.
º i * tºr
8. Draws for shipping to pass through, may with perfect
safety be introduced in any part of the bridge, without
weakening it, as in arched bridges, where the strength and
safety of the arches depend so much on their pressure
against each other and the abutments, that a draw, by de-
stroying the connection, weakens the whole superstructure;
this advantage is of the greatest importance.
9. The great number of nearly equal parts or intersec-
tions, into which the strain occasioned by a great weight
upon the bridge, is divided, is a very important advantage
over any other mode; as by dividing the strain or stress
into so many parts, that what falls upon any one part or
joint is easily sustained by it, without either the mode of
securing the joints, or the strength of the material, being
insufficient. Such is the advantage of this mode in this
one respect alone, that no substitute in other modes, that
can possibly be introduced, will ever equal it; this is equal
to mathematical truth, and cannot be erroneous.
10. The expense of the superstructure of a bridge of this
kind, would not be more than two-thirds that of other
modes of constructing one over the same span or opening.
This is a very important consideration, especially in the
southern and western states, where there are many wide
rivers, and a very scattered population to defray the ex-
penses of bridges.
In the “Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures,” of La-
boulaye (Paris, 1867), is the following: “the bridges thrown
over American rivers attain dimensions of which we find
no examples in France.” # * * “Almost universally they
present the characters of boldness and -economy which
American constructors know so well how to stamp upon
their works. We shall here examine only the ingenious
arrangement of ‘lattice” bridges of Mr. Ithiel Town,
which, under the name of ‘ponts Americains’ is the only
American bridge generally known in France. This quite
new combination of bois de charpente offers in many cases
incontestable advantages.”
Familiarity with the principles by which weight-bearing
power is obtained in the simple truss (Fig. 1) would soon
suggest the fact that the top or thrust bearing timbers
would sustain weight even though the bottom, or tie-beam,
FIG. 5.
were removed, provided a substitute were found in faced
abutments. From this idea proceed various forms which
are analogous to the arch in masonry. One of the most
simple is shown in Fig. 5.
By dividing the span into shorter lengths than is here
shown, little or no advantage is gained, because the angles
of junction become more obtuse or open, and the strain in
the direction of the pieces is much increased. Although
such a bridge might bear a constant load, a load moving
over it would soon derange it, because the strength of such
a system to resist a variable load must depend wholly on
the strength of the joinings, which cannot be made very
strong. (Fig. 6.)
FIG. 6.
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Combinations of this kind naturally lead to the con-
tinued curved rib which possesses advantages not found in
a series of beams merely abutting end to end; for when
the rib is built of short lengths with the joints crossed and
the different thicknesses firmly bolted together it becomes
as one solid beam. (Fig. 7.)
As a bridge with a curved rib and of considerable span
yields at the centre, by depression, and at points midway
between the centre and abutments, by elevation, when the
load is applied at the middle, the strength must be in-
creased by increasing the depth of the rib. This leads to
the construction of a framed rib, Fig. 8. But in such case
the two curved ribs must be continuous, and put together
so as to resist either extension or compression.
FIG. 8.
The analogy of such structures to the arch proper has
been already suggested; it is only an analogy however-
that is, they have some of the properties of the masonry
arch. But the essential characteristic of the arch proper
is that it is composed of isolated members (voussoirs)
whereas in timber, continuity is one of the elements of
strength and, says Tredgold, “it is losing one of the
greatest advantages of the material to interrupt the con-
nection of the parts; besides, many joints should be avoided,
on account of the difficulty of making them fit so as to






614
BRIDGE.
bring every part alike into action, and also of the diffi-
culty of preventing decay at the joinings.”
Inasmuch as the thrust of such structures against the
abutments, when heavily loaded, must be great, while
their weight is, compared to that of masonry arches in-
tended to bear equal loads, very small, isolated piers,
especially if of timber or piles, would be ill-adapted to
resist it—moreover the roadway passes above the top of
such arches while it is often convenient to have it lower.
Hence, the wooden arch is usually provided with a tie-
beam to take the thrust and the roadway is laid upon
these beams, which are themselves supported (against sag-
ging) at numerous points by suspension braces running up
to the arch; while the stiffness of the whole structure is
increased by the further insertion of diagonal braces, or
by various combinations with the truss and the lattice.
Although the “fallen tree" and its development, the
timber bridge, must have been the earliest of bridges yet
with the exception of drawings made by Palladio and others
from the description given in Caesar's Commentaries of his.
bridge over the Rhine, we have no satisfactory account of
any ancient bridge.”
This famous bridge has been cited in the works of the
most celebrated engineers and architects as worthy of
record. It was constructed over the lower Rhine some-
where between Emerich and the Wesel, perhaps (and quite
probably when the situation of Caesar's camp at that time
is considered) at the very place where the city first named
is now built. Its length must have been somewhere be-
tween 550 and 650 yards. Caesar (according to Rondelet)
describes his own work as follows:
“Urged by these powerful motives Caesar resolved to
cross the Rhine with his army. The use of boats offered
no sufficient security for such an operation, and, moreover,
a resort to this means seemed to him unworthy of his
glory and of the honor of the Roman name. On the
other hand the establishment of a bridge presented great
difficulties on account of the width, depth, and velocity of
the current. He persisted nevertheless in regarding this
as the only fit means; and the bridge was executed in the
following manner in accordance with the idea of it con-
ceived in his own mind.
“Timbers of a foot and a half thickness, sharpened at
the foot, and of a length corresponding to the depth of the
river, were assembled in couples, allowing an interval of
two feet between them. Thus united by means of suitable
apparatus, they were let down into the water, not vertically
like ordinary piles, but inclined in the direction of the cur-
rent, and thus driven. Another couple with opposite in-
climation was then fixed (or driven) 40 feet below the first.
These double pieces, thus disposed, received at their ex-
tremity a beam of 2 feet thickness which filled the interval
between the pieces of each pair, and which was thus sup-.
ported at each end by double ties. . . -
“This frame-work composed of pieces inclined in oppos-
ing directions, strongly connected with each other, formed
a very solid combination; for the property of such a dis-
position of materials is that the force of the current adds
to its stability by exerting a strong pressure on the assem-
blage.
gAfter making a number of similar structures, placed at
equal distances and extending from shore to shore, a con-
tinuous flooring was added composed of beams covered
with fascines. Besides these arrangements inclined (brace)
piles were driven on the lower side and connected with the
rest of the work, forming a whole capable of resisting the
greatest impetuosity of the current. -
“The same was done above to protect against floating
trees or boats which the enemy might send down the
stream with a view of destroying the structure.
“The tenth day after the cutting and assembling of the
timbers, the bridge was entirely finished and the army ac-
complished its passage.”
Rondelet gives two “restorations” (as they may be
called) of this interesting bridge (see Plate XCVIII.
“Art de Batir”), of which the sketch herewith is one;”
but the foregoing description is, like all the works of
its great author, so lucid as to scarce need pictorial illus-
tration.
FIG. 9.
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Among the earlier wooden bridges of which we have
record the boldest and most ingeniously constructed Was
that at Schaffhausen on the Rhine.
A stone bridge that had spanned the Rhine here having
fallen, and the project of rebuilding it being found imprae-
ticable, Ulric Grubenmann, a common carpenter of Tueffen,
produced a model for a wooden bridge, supported only by
the abutments on the banks of the river. After some hesi-
tation on the part of the committee of Schaffhausen, his
proposal was adopted, and he completed this truly extraor-
dinary work in the year 1758. The total length of the
bridge was 364 feet, and its breadth 18 feet. ... It was eight
feet out of a straight line, the angle pointing down the
river; and 171 feet from the town abutment. This mag-
nificent and ingenious bridge was destroyed by the French
in April 1799.
FIG. 10.
Fig. 10 represents a single span of the bridge.
Still more worthy of admiration, though less known, was
the bridge of Wettingen over the Limmat, near Baden,
constructed by the same Ulric jointly with his brother John
Grubenmann. Its span was 366 feet, without intermediate
support. This bridge too was destroyed in the campaign
of 1799. “The destruction of these bridges,” says Ronde-
let, “would have been an irreparable loss, not only to the
public but more especially to the Art of Carpentry had not
the plans and details, the knowledge of which cannot be
too widely disseminated, been carefully preserved.”
Fig. 11 represents a half span.
In our own country, until the comparatively recent in-
troduction of iron, timber has been almost exclusively em-
* The oldest wooden bridge on record is the bridge of Sublicius
which existed at Rome 500 years B. C. It is celebrated for the
combat of Horatius Cocles, a Roman knight, who saved the city
by his noble defence of this bridge. It is stated to have been
put together without iron or nails. (Tomlinson.)
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ployed in Bridge-building, the early history of which de-
scribes many noteworthy structures. The most remarkable
of these was that over the Schuylkill at Philadelphia,
styled by its builder, Lewis Wernwag, “The Colossus of
Fairmount.” It is thus described by Cresy.
“It was a beautiful piece of carpentry, composed of a
single arch, the span of which was 340 feet, and it had no
other support than that of the two abutments; the versed
sine was 38 feet, and the breadth of the carriage way 30
feet. The principal timbers, which were of large dimen-
sion, were all sawn down the middle, for the purpose of as-
certaining whether they were perfectly sound; and when ap-
plied to the bridge they were placed at a sufficient distance
to allow the tenons of 29 king-posts, which radiated to the
centre, to pass, without any mortises being cut to receive
them; by this means the air circulated freely round all the
timbers, and dry rot was prevented: the main ribs consisted
# There is also one in the book of Thomas Pope, cited here.
after.




BRIDGE,
615
—º
of three double rows of timber, laid three deep, or one above were introduced, which kept the heads from approaching
the other, the whole bound together strongly with wrought
each other, and in addition two other timbers, placed diag-
iron. Between the tops of the king-posts straining beams onally like St. Andrew’s cross, were inserted in each of the
FIG. 11.
y
divisions, strutting the king-posts more firmly and prevent-
ing the arch from springing. The abutments, against
which the timber arch pressed, were of solid masonry, and
carried up considerably higher than the top of the arch.
The floor of the bridge was upon girders, laid upon should-
ers formed in the sides of the king-posts, to which they were
firmly bolted: on the tops of the kings, and in the direction
of the transverse girders, were the tie-beams of the roof;
these latter not only served to maintain the roof securely,
proper position.
but also the heads of the kings in their perpendicular and
- n. The roof was lightly formed, and the
sides of the bridge were close boarded, so that the timbers,
or the principles of their construction, could not be seen.”
Fig. 12 exhibits the arrangement described; its great
simplicity compared with the two just before described
is striking. The builder asserts that he can build to 500
feet span “by making the ribs of more pieces in depth and
thickness and all the parts in proportion.” -
FIG. 12.
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Span, 340 ft. 34 in.
This beautiful structure was compared by Fanny Kemble
in her “Journal,” to “a scarf rounded by the wind and
flung over the river.”
The writer is informed that the upper part of the West
abutment had yielded (receded) three or four inches under
the thrust of the arch but, apparently, without detriment
to stability. On one occasion an unusual load (a heavy
stone) was allowed to pass over this single stretch of 340
feet 3% inches (the accurate lineal span) which had been
refused passage over the Market street triple span bridge.
(See Fig. 13.)
Like its famous predecessors of Schaffhausen and Wett-
ingen, this beautiful structure has ceased to exist; not like
them a victim of “man’s ravage,” but of the arch enemy
to all wooden monuments—accidental combustion (1838).
Another notable bridge was thrown over the Schuylkill at
a much earlier period of which a sketch is given herewith.
3.
It is described by Thomas Pope * as follows:
FIG. 13.
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“It is composed of three arcs of wood, supported by two
stone piers, with two abutments and wing-walls. The
western pier is sunk in an astonishing depth of water, per-
haps greater than ever any bridge pier was before sunk, in
any part of the world; the surface of the rock on which it
is placed being forty-one feet nine inches below common
high tides. The piers were built with coffer-dams. The
dam for the western pier was curiously constructed, from a
design furnished by Mr. William Weston, a celebrated
hydraulic engineer of Gainsborough, in England. We may
have some conception of its magnitude when we are told
that eight hundred thousand feet of timber were employed
in it.”
§: $3 $3. # §§ : $3
“The eastern abutment and wing-walls are founded on a
rock. Those on the western side are built on piles. There
are upwards of seven thousand five hundred tons of ma-
sonry in the western pier. Many of the stomes composing
both piers weigh from three to twelve tons. A number of
massive chains are stretched in various positions across the
piers. These are worked in with the masonry, the exterior
of which is clamped, and finished in the most substantial
and workmanlike style.
“The frame of the superstructure was designed and
erected by Timothy Palmer of Newburyport, Massachusetts.
It is a masterly piece of workmanship, combining in its
principles that of king-posts and braces with that of a stone
arc. Half of each post, with the brace between them, will
form the voussoir of an arc, and lines through the middle
of each post would describe the radii or joints.”
Another notable bridge is described by the same author
as follows: - *
“ PiscATAqu A BRIDGE. In the year one thousand seven
hundred and ninety-four, a bridge was built over the River
Piscataqua, seven miles above Portsmouth. Its length is
twenty-six hundred feet; of which twenty-two hundred
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feet are planked. The greater part of this Bridge is built
of piles driven into the bed of the river in the common way.
But that part which engages the attention of travellers, is
an are nearly in the centre of the river, uniting two islands,
over water forty-six feet deep. This stupendous are of two
hundred and forty-four feet on the chord, is allowed to be a
masterly piece of Architecture, planned and built by the
ingenious Mr. Timothy Palmer of Newburyport. This
bridge cost the proprietors sixty-eight thousand dollars.”
This bridge is alluded to in the Edinburgh Encyclopædia
as one over the “Portsmouth River;” and by Col. Douglass
in his work on military bridges, who says: “It was put
together with wooden keys, on Price's method of construc-
tion, applied to a larger span, except that there is some
difference in the form of the keys.” The Writer observes
that the arch is extremely flexible, and that diagonal braces
would be an improvement in it. Also that if the three ribs
had been placed close above one another, and firmly con-
nected together, the bridge would have been much better
adapted to resist any unequal load, because, in such case,
they would have formed a solid beam, equal in depth to the
sum of their depths.
And even Tredgold treats of it, saying “it would have
been still better to have made the same quantity of timber
into two ribs, with cross ties and diagonal braces between
them; that the method of connecting the parts by means
of dove-tail keys is objectionable, as the timber must be
greatly weakened by such large mortices, and a very slight
degree of shrinkage renders them useless; that it is still
more objectionable as applied to the radial pieces, which
would have been much better notched on in pairs, and
bolted through.” -
* “A Treatise on Bridge Architecture,”, New York, 1811; A
very curious, and, as a history of bridge-building up to that date,
valuable book. The Society and Mercantile Libraries possess
copies.
























616
BRIDGE.
The special object of the work of Thomas Pope was to
promulgate the project of a “Patent Bridge.” of his own.
* A model was built to illustrate a Bridge suitable to span
the East River at New York, with a single arc, the chord
of which would be 1800 feet, the altitude or versed sine
223 feet, the abutments were built in the form of so many
warehouses, and the whole was erected by a Scale of § of
an inch to one foot; the length of model of half bridge, in
real measure, is nearly fifty feet. The weight that the
unsupported arm of this diminutive Model bore at one
time, since finished, has been ten tons; and which has as-
tonished the mind of every beholder.”
“The Shipwrights of New York” (among which we find
the well-known names of HENRY ECK FORD, Christian Bergh,
Adam and Noah Brown, Joseph Webb, &c., &c.) certify to
the effect that “we have no hesitation in asserting as our
joint opinion, that the strength thus furnished is more
than equal to all that can be needed.” • ,
The plan is not without merits; but the time when “Riv-
ers North and East may have a Bridge,” waited for a Roeb-
ling. The inventor gives his plan of construction in great
detail, together with a view twice repeated of the entire
bridge spanning “the spacious Hudson.” But inasmuch as
it was to be projected out from its abutments without aid of
centreing or “false works,” he has given a view (Fig. 14)
of the half bridge thus projected, with the motto :
FIG. 14.
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“Like half a rainbow rising on yon shore
While its twin partner spans the semi o'er
And makes a perfect whole that need not part
Till time has furnished us a nobler art.”
But the frontispiece exhibits the “perfect whole” striding
the “ Broad Hudson,” with the more ambitious motto:
“Ilet the Broad Arch the spacious Hudson stride,
And span Columbia's Rivers far more wide,
Convince the world America begins,
To foster Arts the ancient work of Kings.”
Of recent wooden bridges, the Railroad bridge at Bellows
Falls, and the Susquehanna Bridge erected by the Phila-
delphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore R. R. Co., are the most
notable—the former with spans of 250 feet has been stand-
ing since 1850, and has proved as efficient as any of less
dimensions, though it has been subject to uncommon trials.
The centre deflection, when this bridge was tested by three
heavy locomotives, drawing a freight train at a speed of 25
miles to the hour, was nine-tenths of an inch, the perma-
nent set remaining being about one-sixteenth of an inch.
This bridge was designed and built by Parker, and was the
first timber bridge for a railroad of so long a span, erected
in this or any other country.
The Susquehanna Bridge, also designed by Mr. Parker,
is thus described by him :
“The structure between the shores of the river is about
three thousand five hundred feet in length. It has thirteen
supporting piers and two guard piers at the draw, and two
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FIG. 15.
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The piers are built in water varying from ten
to forty-five feet in depth. The spans are two hundred
and fifty feet in length between bearings. The draw span
is one hundred and seventy-six feet long. Height of super-
structure twenty-five feet. The superstructure is an im-
proved form of the Howe truss. When completed each
truss is to be encased entirely in iron, thus making it fire-
proof and free from exposure to the weather. The peculi-
arity of the hydraulic engineering connected with this
work is the disuse of the Coffer dam.
“Instead thereof water-tight wrought-iron caissons have
been used.
“The whole cost of the magnificent structure has been
something less than $2,000,000.
“The bridge is approached from the main road on the
east side by a track laid over heavy trestle work, fourteen
hundred feet long. This trestle work is but temporary,
and, as soon as practicable, will be replaced by an earth
embankment, supported by retaining walls of appropriate
masonry. At the end of this is a firm abutment of strong
masonry, handsomely constructed of granite from the
quarries in the vicinity of Port Deposit, only six miles
from the structure. This granite is of a dark color, of
elegant appearance when worked, and is said to be the
hardest and heaviest in the world—heavier by three pounds
to the cubic foot than that of the famous Egyptian Pyr-
amids. There is one of these abutments in each end,
similarly constructed.
“The bridge is secured to the piers by means of bolts,
three inches in diameter, which pass through holes drilled
for that purpose to near the surface of the water, where
they are, by means of a ring at the end, attached to a
similar horizontal bar that passes through the sides of the
pier.” The upper ends of these perpendicular bars pass
through a heavy oak bolster, and are fastened with a mut
at the top, by means of the screw, upon which they can be
tightened if occasion should require.
“The timber of this structure has been very carefully
selected. It has also gone through the process of Burnet-
tizing, by which its durability is not only increased at
least two-fold, but by which it is rendered indestructible
by fire. This treatment was applied by Mr. Charles P.
Bent, who has an establishment for the purpose at Perry-
ville, and several others upon railroads in different States.”
“This process is familiar to our readers, and consists in
removing air, etc., from the fibres of the wood, by placing
it in an exhausted vessel and then injecting chloride of
zinc.” &
“The timbers of the bridge are secured by means of iron
bars and butt seats. These bars are about twenty-five feet
long, and vary in thickness from one to three inches, the
largest weighing seven hundred pounds. In the construc-
tion of the bridge nearly seventeen hundred of these bars
are used. The immense weight of the structure may be
estimated from the fact that there is used upon each span
about two hundred tons of wood and iron. Iron is much
more extensively.used than is common in timber structures.
As an instance, the bottom chords, where most exposed to
a tensile strain, are entirely sheathed on the sides with
plate iron three-eighths of an inch thick.”
“For five years from five hundred to one thousand men
have been employed upon this great work. Upon its con-
struction nearly five million feet of timber, twenty thousand
cubic yards of masonry, three million pounds of wrought
and cast iron have been used.” -
Fig. 15 exhibits an elevation of four spans, including
the draw, of the bridge just described.
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To convey an adequate idea of the relative merits of the
different kinds of “truss” for wooden bridges (known as
Burr's, Long's, Howe's, “ McCallum's inflexible arch,” etc.)
would require more space than can be devoted to it in a
work not professedly technical. The clearest description
and analysis of merits will be found in Spon’s Dictionary
of Engineering, or Cresy’s Encyclopaedia.
Although, as we have seen, suspension bridges of a sim-
ple character are among the primitive structures of man-
kind, yet their development into important structures
capable of meeting the needs of civilized intercourse, de-
manded an advance in the scientific knowledge of materials
and the principles of construction, which has only been
made within the last two or three centuries. Bridges of
rope or cordage are described in works on Military Engi-
\
neering early in the 17th century; and in 1741 the first
European Chain Bridge was built in England across the
Tees. It was a rude work attracting no attention at the
time; and not until 1814 did English engineers apply
themselves to their construction. In our own country, in
reality, was the Suspension or (as it was called) the
“Chain Bridge” first introduced. Thomas Pope states .
that a “Patent Chain Bridge” was patented by James Fin-
lay in 1808 and that there existed eight of these bridges.
In the “Portfolio” of June, 1810, is the following descrip-
tive notice of four of the eight:
First bridge erected on this plan in 1801 was on Jacob's
Creek, 70 feet span, 12% feet wide, and warranted for 50
years (all but flooring), cost $6,000. Exclusive right se-
cured by patent 1808. Largest at Falls of Schuylkill, 306




















BRIDGE.
617
feet span, aided by intermediate pier; passage 18 feet wide,
supported by 2 chains of 1% inch square bar.
One at Cumberland, Md., supported by two chains of 1+
inch bar; span 130 feet, 15 feet wide.
Another over the Potomack above the Federal city of
nearly the same dimensions as at Cumberland. (Fig. 16.)
The “Portfolio’ mentions besides the foregoing (making
up the eight of Thomas Pope) :
• FIG. 16.
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One over the Brandywine at Wilmington, 145 feet span,
no pier, thirty feet wide, supported by four chains of inch
and three-eighths bar. Two carriage-ways and one foot
ath.
p One at Brownsville, Fayette County, one hundred and
twenty feet long, eighteen feet wide, one inch and a quar-
ter bar.
One near the same place, one hundred and twelve feet
long, fifteen feet wide, one inch and a quarter bar.
Finlay says that he entered into an agreement with John
Templeman% of Georgetown, Md., concerning the disposi-
tion of his patent right, and hence we presume the attribu-
ting of the Powtowmack bridge to the latter in some publi-
cations, as he was probably its builder.
This latter bridge has a history: it was standing in the
beginning of 1839 when the writer, in company with the
present Quarter Master General of the U. S. Army, who
has kindly furnished these items of information, crossed it.
Not long after it was carried away by a freshet, replaced
by a truss bridge (Long's probably), and that by two spans
of iron (by Geo. Thom), which fell before completion;
when Randolph Coyle built a wooden bridge over the
whole Potomac bed, doing away with the causeway which,
in restricting the flood-water area, had caused the destruc-
tion of the original “Chain Bridge.” This last is thus
alluded to in the “Report on the Defenses of Washing-
ton.” (Prof. Papers, Corps of Eng’rs., No. 20.)
“The Chain Bridge (for the name still holds) owed its
name to a former suspension structure, long since carried
away by floods. It had been replaced by a fine timber
trussed bridge of over four hundred yards in length, rest-
ing on masonry abutments and seven masonry piers. At
ordinary stages the river, rapid and unfordable, flowed
beneath the single span next the Virginia shore; the rest
of the bed being dry, and strewn with fragments of rocks
of large size. At high stages the whole width spanned
was swept over by a furious flood. This was the sole ex-
isting bridge between Washington and Harper's Ferry at
the breaking out of the war, the one formerly existing at
Berlin having been destroyed by fire. It connected Wash-
ington with the Leesburg Turnpike and neighboring parts
of Virginia. Its ordinary uses ceased with the outbreak
of the war, but it immediately acquired a high military
importance. Though not strictly necessary to a mere pas-
sive defence of Washington, it had, nevertheless, a high
incidental utility as a means of maintaining communica-
tion with the Virginia theatre of war, and of throwing
forces on the flank of an enemy menacing the lines of Ar-
Iington.”
The existing timber trusses have
to be replaced by others of iron. .
Thomas Pope, in commenting upon the accounts of the
ancient bridge of Bootan, East Indies, says, “the mode
decayed, and are soon
* John Templeman subsequently constructed the Chain Bridge
over the Merrimac three miles above Newburyport. This was a
much superior-work to those just described. The span was two
hundred and forty-four feet, and width thirty feet, with two
- roadways of fifteen feet each. The abutments were of masonry
forty-seven feet long and thirty-seven feet high, upon which
supporting towers were erected. Ten chains, three at each
outer edge of the bridge, and four in the centre, were made to
bear, with perfect safety, five hundred tons.
of construction is so exactly similar to those we see erected
lately in the United States that we are ready to conclude
the ancients lived yesterday.”
“Were the Chain Bridges erected of late in the U. S. a
new invention, the notorious defects contained in the sys-
tem would remain the same. i
“It is an axiom that when a structure of any kind de-
pends wholly on two parts, if one of these parts fail and
the other is not competent to support the whole a downfall
must ensue; hence we infer there can be no security in a
bridge wholly dependent on two chains, &c., &c.” Know-
ing only chain bridges he almost anticipates Roebling
when the latter says “there is not one good suspension
bridge in Great Britain, nor will they ever succeed as long
as they remain attached to these chains, and present mode
of superstructure.”
In 1814 Telford undertook a course of experiments upon
the tenacity of malleable iron prompted by the necessity
of such knowledge to the testing of the feasibility of such
bridges with large spans and thus epitomizes his results:
“From these experiments I had reason to be satisfied
that English iron made with wood charcoal, had sufficient
tenacity to bear itself, and a portion to spare equal to the
purposes of a bridge across an opening of 1000 feet, and
therefore considered myself justified in proceeding to form
designs.”
The Menai Bridge, commenced in 1819, and finished in
1826, was the culmination of Telford’s labor in this con-
nection ; but several smaller suspension bridges had been
previously erected in England, among others that across
the Tweed at Dryburgh Abbey on the system of “inclined
wires.” In 1818, six months after the completion of the
bridge, a violent gale of wind caused so great a vibration
of the chains that the longest chains broke, the platform
was carried away and the whole bridge destroyed. The
vertical motion of the roadway was said to be, just before
breaking, as great as the horizontal motion, and sufficiently
violent to have thrown a person off the bridge. -
The Menai Bridge has a clear span between the summits
of the main pyramids of 579 feet 10% inches.
The deflection of the chains in the middle......... 43 ft. 0 in.
The clear height of the roadway, above high water... 102 ft. 0 in.
Breadth of the platform........... 28 ft. 0 in.
The main chains are on Capt. Brown’s plan of straight
bars, united by coupling bolts. The main chains are 16
in number, each containing a series of links composed of
5 wrought-iron bars, 9 feet 13, inch long, 3} inches broad, and
1 inch thick. They are disposed, four chains one under the
other, on each side of the central footpath, and four at each
outside of the platform. So that there are in all 80 bars
in the main chains, and their united section is 80 × 3} =260
square inches of iron. The bars are united by coupling
plates 16 inches-long, 7% inches broad, by .1 inch thick,
and screw-bolts 3inches diameter, each bolt weighing 56 lbs.
This bridge was seriously injured by a violent gale and
has been strengthened.
The Conway Bridge completed at the same time differs
but little in construction from the Menai. Its span is but
327 feet.
The Brighton Chain-Pier on the same plan consisted of
four spans each of 225 feet running out into the sea 1014
feet from its origin in the esplanade wall and was built in
























































































618
BRIDGE.
1822–23. “It withstood the shock of many a violent tempest;"
but at length, in November, 1836, it yielded to a gale of wind,
The roadway of the pier gave way half an hour after mid-
day of the 29th, about which time Osler's anemometer
recorded the pressure caused by the wind’s force at Bir-
mingham as equal to 113 pounds on the square foot.
barometer at Greenwich had sunk to 29.24; the wind’s
force there also being denoted by 11% lbs. There was a
double motion in the pier, for both chains and roadway
oscillated laterally, and undulated longitudinally ; but the
latter movement increased greatly, whilst the former dimin-
ished, just before the fracture took place. It was probably
owing to this double motion that half the upper part of
the roadway, and half the under part, were visible to the
spectators at the same instant. As soon as the side rails
gave way the undulations greatly increased, and almost
immediately afterwards the roadway broke. It was re-
marked at the time that, had the side-railing been a trussed
rail, the pier would probably have withstood the force of
the storm.”
The Suspension Bridge over the Esk at Montrose, com-
pleted in 1829, had a span of 432 feet and a deflection of
42 feet. The iron work built by Capt. Brown was mainly
the same as in the two bridges just described. There were
no joints to the suspending rods, and the main-chains
rested upon detached cast-iron saddles, built into the ma-
sonry of the towers, and their ends were secured by cast-iron
plates let into the masonry 10 feet under ground. The road-
way of this bridge, which weighed 203 tons 9 cwt., was de-
stroyed on the 11th of October, 1838, when the platform fell
in one mass, in consequence of the failure of the suspension
rods, which having no joints were twisted off close to the
floor by the undulatory motion. It was afterwards repaired,
when suspension rods of 13 inch diameter were introduced,
with flexible joints at the level of the platform.
We need mention but one other European Bridge—a
harbinger of our own more magnificent construction in that
form of the suspending material which is declared by
Roebling the only fit one for such structures—the bridge
of Freyburg, in Switzerland, completed in 1834. This
bridge has a span, from pier to pier, of 870 feet, and is
suspended at the height of 167 feet above the river which
flows under it. It is thus 319 feet longer than the Menai
Bridge, and 65 feet higher. It is supported on 4 cables of
iron wire each containing 1,056 wires, the united strength
of which is capable of supporting three times the weight
which the bridge will ever be likely to bear, or three times
the weight of two rows of wagons extending entirely
across it.
It was completed at an expense of about $125,000, and,
in 1834, was subjected to various severe trials, to prove its
strength. First, 15 pieces of artillery, drawn by 50 horses,
and accompanied by 300 people, passed over it at one time,
and were collected in as close a body as possible, first on
the centre and then at the two extremities, to try the effect
of their concentrated weight. A depression of 39% inches
was thus produced in the part most weighed upon ; but no
sensible oscillation was occasioned. A few days after, the
bridge was opened by the bishop and the authorities of the
town, accompanied by about 2000 persons, who passed over
it twice in procession, preceded by a military band, and
keeping step. On this occasion a slight horizontal vibra-
tion was produced; but it is very improbable that the
bridge, in its ordinary service, will ever receive such a mul-
titude at once.
“The first wire bridge,” (says Stuart) “an American in-
vention, was over the Schuylkill,” and was constructed by
Charles Ellet, whose name should be associated with that
of Roebling as a pioneer, of the wire suspension principle.
It succeeded the famous wooden “Colossus ” of Lewis
Wernwag which we have described. This bridge, of 408 feet
span, has recently (1874) been replaced, though still in good
condition, by an iron-truss bridge of greater capacity.
In 1846, continues the same writer, in his sketches of the
“Civil and Military Engineers of America,” the attention
of Mr. Roebling * was invited by him (Stuart) to the erec-
tion of a railroad bridge across the Niagara River, who, in
response, states: “Although the question of applying the
principle of suspension to railroad bridges has been dis-
posed of in the negative by Mr. Robert Stephenson, when
discussing the plan of the Britannia, Bridge over the Menai,
on the Chester and Holyhead Railway, I am bold enough
* Mr. Roebling had previously constructed four Suspension
Aqueducts on the Delaware and Hudson Canal of 115,144, 145,170,
feet span, and one for the Pennsylvania Canal over the Alle.
ghany River of seven spans of 162 feet each ; also the wire sus-
pension bridge over the Monongahela at Pittsburg, of eight
spans of 188 feet each. 2
After the abandonment of the trans-montane portion of the
Pennsylvania Canal the aqueduct mentioned fell into ruins
(1856–59). The stones of its piers were subsequently used in the
Fort Wayne R. R. Bridge.
The .
to say that this celebrated Engineer has not at all succeeded
in the solution of this problem. That a suspension bridge
can be built to answer for a railroad, is proven by the
Monongahela Bridge, which is only intended for common
travel, but with some additional expense could be made
stiff enough (it is strong enough) for railroad trains at a
moderate rate of speed. Castings of ten tons weight, sus-
pended to two pairs of large timber wheels, have lately
been hauled over this bridge ; the six-horse coal trains
which pass over it hourly weigh seven tons.”
“It cannot be questioned that wire cables, when well
made, offer the safest and most economical means for the
support of heavy weights. Any span within fifteen hun-
dred feet, with the usual deflection, can be made perfectly
safe for the support of railroad trains as well as common
travel.” ^,
% # º; º: $: % º; #
“Imaintain that wire cable bridges, properly constructed,
will be found hereafter the most durable and cheapest
railroad bridges.for spans over one hundred feet.”
To Mr. Roebling, we think, must be conceded the claim
of practically establishing the sufficiency of the suspension
principle.for railroad bridges and of developing the man-
ner of their construction. His first great work—the Niagara
Bridge—is so well known as to need little description in
this place. The span is 821 feet 4 inches from centre to
centre of the towers; it forms a slightly curved hollow
beam or box of a depth of 18 feet, width at bottom of 24
feet, and at the top of 25 feet, the lower floor of which is
used for common traffic, whilst the upper is devoted to the
railway. The two floors are connected by two trusses of
simple construction, so arranged that their resisting action
operates both ways, up as well as down. The suspenders
are 5 feet apart. The beams of the upper and lower floor
are connected by posts arranged in pairs, leaving a space
between for the admission of truss rods. The ends of the .
posts are secured between the beams, in a manner that no part
is weakened, and that any amount of strain can be thrown
upon them without injuring or loosening their connections.
There are no joints to work loose; and if the timber should
shrink, the truss rods simply require tightening. The de-
pressing action of any loads is by these posts transmitted
from one floor to the other.
From the end of each pair of posts a truss rod extends
each way to the fourth pair of posts, at an angle of 45
degrees. The rods therefore cross each other, and form a
diamond figure; they are 1 inch in diameter, with screw
ends of an inch and an eighth; by these rods the pressure
upon any pair of posts is spread 40 feet apart. All the
nuts work on cast-iron plates placed above or below the
OStS.
Without adding much to the weight of the structure, a con-
siderable degree of stiffness has been obtained by this simple
construction. The pressure of an engine and whole train of
cars is so much distributed that the depression caused by a
light freight or ordinary passenger train is scarcely per-
ceptible. A freight train of twelve loaded cars, with a 25
ton engine, covers about half the length of the floor; and
its effect is more noticeable than either a smaller or larger
train. When in the centre, the camber is a little flattened;
but when near the towers, where the grade forms nearly a
straight line, the depression is from 3 to 4 inches. A longer
train, of greater weight in proportion, disturbs the equilib-
rium less, as it covers a greater extent. Passenger trains
of fifteen long cars, which frequently cross the bridge, make
so little impression that the eye can scarcely detect it.
The height of the railway track above the middle stage
of the river, is 245 feet.
The Cincinnati and Covington Bridge over the Ohio,
completed in 1867, was erected by the same Engineer.
From his report, as quoted by Stuart, the following par-
ticulars are extracted :
“The floor of the bridge is formed of a strong wrought-
iron frame, overlaid with several thicknesses of plank, and
suspended to the two wire cables by means of suspenders
attached every five feet, arranged between roadway and
footpaths; the latter seven feet wide, and are protected by
iron railings towards the river. The roadway is twenty
feet wide, forming two tracks of four lines of iron trams,
on which the wheels run, each tram being fourteen inches
wide, to accommodate all kinds of gauges. The whole
width of the floor between the outside railings is thirty-six
feet. No stays or other obstructions are put up below the
floor, such as may be seen under the Niagara Bridge. No
such means to prevent the floor from rising was used in
this work; its security and stability are provided for by
other appliances. The rock under the Niagara Bridge af-
forded a very cheap mode of anchorage; it would have
been a great oversight on my part not to avail myself of
under-floor stays in such a favorable locality. But in the
Ohio River no such appendages were admissible.
BRIDGE,
“Great doubts are yet entertained by many engineers,
particularly in Europe, in regard to the fitness and safety
of suspension bridges for railway purposes. By an addi-
tional expenditure of fifty thousand dollars, and a railroad
track laid down in the centre of the floor, the Ohio bridge
could have been made serviceable for the passage of loco-
motives and trains at the highest speed. Let any person
who doubts this, observe the very slight tremor which is
produced on this bridge by a long line of heavily loaded
teams, frequently ten in a row, and he will readily under-
stand that but a small addition of rigidity is wanted in
order to pass railroad trains.” -
The principal dimensions are given by Mr. Stuart as
follows: “Main span, from centre to centre of towers, one
thousand and fifty-seven feet. Side spans, from abutment
to centre of tower, two hundred and eighty-one feet. To-
tal length between abutments, one thousand six hundred
and nineteen feet. Elevation of floor above low water at
tower, ninety-one feet. Elevation of floor above low water
at centre, one hundred and three feet. Length of Cincin-
nati approach from Front street to abutment, three hundred
and forty-one feet. Total length, including approaches,
two thousand two hundred and fifty-two feet. Number
of cables, two, each twelve and one-third inches in diame-
ter. Number nine wires, in each cable, five thousand two
hundred. Ultimate strength of one cable, four thousand
two hundred and twelve tons. Weight of main span be-
tween towers, one thousand five hundred tons. Number
of stays in main span, seventy-six—strength of each, ninety
tons. Weight of main span between towers, as far as sup-
ported by cables, one thousand three hundred tons. De-
flection of cables in main span, eighty-nine feet. Perma-
nent tension to strength, one-eighth. Ordinary working
tension to strength, one-seventh. Maximum tension to
strength, one-sixth. Section of each anchor chain in
Square inches, one hundred and ninety. Area of each
foundation in square feet, eight thousand two hundred and
fifty. Cubic contents of masonry of each tower, four hun-
dred thousand feet.
Although not vieing in importance with the bridges just
named yet from its, as yet, unrivalled span, and the pecu-
liarity of its site, the Clifton Bridge, Niagara Falls, de-
serves a notice.*
The end of the bridge resting on the right bank is sit-
uated in Porter's Grove, at the foot of Niagara street, 300
yards below the American Fall. The end resting on the
left bank, lands upon the main road running along the
bank of the river, and is 100 yards below the Clifton House,
and about three quarters of a mile below the great Horse-
Shoe Fall on the Canada side.
A section of the river on the line of the bridge gives a
slopes away to the water's edge.
distance of 1190 ft. from rock to rock at the top cliff, and
850 ft. at the water’s surface. The rock on the left bank
is 175 ft. above the water, and on the right bank 180 feet.
The American Fall is 164 feet. On the Canada side the
rock is covered with 2 ft. of earth. It falls off perpen-
dicularly 54 ft. to the débris which covers the fort and
FIG
H. E.
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--- ---
The history of the experimental development and actual
construction of this celebrated bridge has been so fully
and so often given that we content ourselves with simply
giving a cross section of one of the tubes. (Fig. 18.)
But the most stupendous structure (considering merely
ºnagnitude)—probably the last of the kind—is the Victoria
Bridge, over the St. Lawrence at Montreal, on the line of
the Grand Trunk Railway to Portland, Maine. It contains
twenty-five openings of two hundred and forty-two feet,
with the exception of the extra span, which is three hun-
dred and thirty feet, hence the length of tube is six thou-
Sand six hundred feet, approached by embankments, the
Montreal end being one thousand two hundred feet, the
Southern shore of eight hundred feet, which, including the
.*There is, near Bath, England, a chain bridge of this name, and,
like this, over a chasm of great depth; span 7023 feet; height
above the Avon, 257 feet. The chains are those of the dismantled
Hungerford (Thames). Bridge. A remarkable wire suspension
bridge exists at La Caille, between Geneva and Annécy, over the
Cañon des Fées. The floor is 636 feet long, and is 656 feet above the
100ter. Built in 1839, overturned and much damaged by a gale in
1861, it has been rebuilt with adequately increased strength.
C-
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619
On the American side it
is covered with 20 ft. of drift (clay, sand, and gravel),
which, when removed to make room for the towers, ex-
posed a water-worn surface. Here the rock overhangs
some 10 ft., and the plumb line strikes the débris at a dis-
tance of 80 ft. from the surface.
The span between the points of suspension, or centres of
towers, is 1268 ft. 4 in. The deflection of the cables at
centre, or greatest depression below the horizontal line,
varies from 89 ft. in winter to 92 ft. in summer. The dif-
ference of 3 ft. is owing to the effect produced upon them
by the changes of temperature, ranging through 100°Fahr.
The road way is suspended at an elevation of 183 ft. above
the water on the Canada side, and 188 ft. on the American
side, while the centre, according to the season, varies from
190 to 193 ft., there being a rise of 4 ft. in the curvature
of the bridge in summer, and 7 ft. in winter. The tops
of the towers being in the same horizontal plane, are there-
fore 105 ft. high on the left bank, and 100 ft. high on the
right bank. The length of the cables at medium temper-
ature is 1286 ft. between centres of towers; 1828 feet be-
tween the anchor pins, where they are connected with the
anchor chains, and 1888 ft. in all, between the anchors
embedded in masonry on either side. The prolongation
of the cables under ground is effected by anchor chains of
Lowmoor iron 30 ft. in length, made in links of 10 feet
each, firmly built in hydraulic masonry.
But the crowning, example of the suspension bridge—
the last great work of John A. Roebling—is found in the
East River Bridge, connecting the cities of New York and
Brooklyn—the stupendous piers of which (themselves won-
derful monuments of the engineering skill of the age) are,
under the direction of Col. W. A. Roebling, the son of the
deceased projector, far advanced toward completion. The
superstructure is described under a special heading EAST
RivKR BRIDGE. Under the heading Fou'NDATIONS, will be
found a further account of this work up to date.
A transition from the suspension to the iron tubular rail-
way bridge is proper here, owing to controversies which
have prevailed among engineers as to the relative merits
of the two constructions. The suspension principle was
condemned by Mr. Stephenson in discussing the project
of a bridge over the Menai Straits; and to this engineer is
due the merit of the original conception of the tubular
bridge, though it was owing to “the determined persever-
ance” of Mr. Fairbairn (to use his own expression) “that
Mr. Stephenson’s original conception has been carried into
execution.” The first work of the kind was the bridge at
Conway on the line of railway from Chester to Holyhead.
But the great typical work of this character is the Bridge
over the Menai Straits on the same great railway route
(from London to Dublin), eighteen miles distant from Con-
way. . It owed its creation to the necessity imposed by the
Lords Commission of the Admiralty of preserving a clear
height of water-way of 105 feet from pier to pier. There
are two spans over the straits each of 460 feet; and two
shorter (230 feet) for the land connections. (Fig. 17.)
âlîTÉIITTālīā
abutments, makes a total of nine thousand and eighty-four
feet, or one and three-quarter miles nearly. The abut-
ments are, at the base, each two hundred and seventy-eight
feet long, divided into cells of twenty-four feet, with inter-
vening tie-walls of five feet, but at the top they correspond
exactly with the length of a tube two hundred and forty-
two feet in length, and indeed are carried up to the same
height, the cells being filled with gravel. To resist the
thrust of the ice, both the abutments and piers are fur-
nished with a cutwater, which meets the pier proper thirty
feet above summer water, the whole height of the abutment
being thirty-six feet above summer water, the centre pier
being sixty feet; hence the bridge rises in a grade of one
inch in one hundred and thirty-two, or forty feet to the
mile, the centre again being a pure level. The centre pier
is twenty-four feet in width, the remaining piers are but
sixteen feet. These dimensions are directly under the gir-
der, for at the foundation the piers are twenty-two feet in
width, and at summer water sixteen feet. Transversely the
piers are thirty-three feet under the girder. Thus the di-
mensions at the junction with cutwater, sixteen by thirty-
three feet, extending outwards to the foundation up stream,







620
|
BRIDGE, *
make the area of the course whence the cutwater is com-
menced sixteen by ninety feet.
There are three millions of cubic feet of masonry in the
Victoria Bridge. That is to say if turned into lineal meas-
ure it would reach five hundred and ten miles, or as a solid
would form a pyramid two hundred and fifteen feet high,
having a base of two hundred and fifteen feet square. These
figures will give some idea of the solidity of the structure,
and the warrant that exists for its endurance for all time.
The stone itself was mostly quarried from Point Claire,
and forms the first in the series of the Lower Silurian, and
is known by the geological term of Chazy, resting immedi-
ately on the calciferous sand-rock and the Potsdam sand-
stone. At the quarry the stones were taken out in, as large
masses as in any quarry in the world. We shall be borne
out in this statement of this fact in the dimensions of the
piers. The courses being three feet ten inches and three
feet to two feet six inches above water level, and thence
verging into a course eighteen inches under the plates,
being in length from seven feet to twelve feet.
This bridge cost $7,000,000. The peculiarity of the erec-
tion of these tubes is that they were built in place, on false
works erected in the rapids. The ice which holds the sur-
face of the rapids bound during many months of the win-
ter, Was made a useful auxiliary in the construction.
IFIG. 18.
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REQMAN-KENN.Y., NY.
Mr. Peter W. Barlow, an eminent English engineer
visited America in the summer of 1860 (a fellow-passenger
across the Atlantic with the writer) expressly to examine
the Niagara Suspension, Bridge. His conclusions were
given in a pamphlet published by Weale. The Civil En-
gineer and Architects’ Journal, 1861, comments upon it as
follows: “Are tubular bridges costly blunders? This is
in effect the question raised by Mr. Barlow's pamphlet,”
and, referring to two papers in same Journal, (1860) says
“from these two papers it is at least obvious, that in com-
paring suspended and unsuspended girders the former have
greatly the advantage in point of economy. And this con-
clusion is supported by a very high authority on this sub-
ject, Prof. Macquorn Rankine, in two letters in our numbers
of December and January last. In the latter of these let-
ters Prof. Rankine arrives at the conclusion that a sus-
pended girder need have only about one-seventh of the
strength of an unsuspended girder of the game span and
required to sustain the same travelling load.”
* It is notorious that tubular bridges, of which that over
Menai Straits and the Victoria Bridge in Canada are the
most conspicuous examples, are enormously expensive. It
is motorious that the cost of those two bridges has been
ruinous to the companies which constructed them. There
is not much difficulty in arriving at the reasons of this re-
sult. In the first place, tubular bridges are extremely
complicated structures, consisting of a vast number of
parts which have to be fitted together with extreme accu-
racy. In order to prevent the top of the tube from bulg-
ing or “buckling’ from the compression to which it is sub-
ject, the expedient of a cellular structure of that part of
the tube is adopted, and it consists of numerous cells
formed of iron plates, with an immense number of joints
and rivets. Now all this difficulty of counteracting the
tendency to distortion is avoided in suspension bridges,
for in them the strains, being tensile instead of compres-
sive, tend to counteract instead of tending to cause distor-
tion. Again, in suspension chains the material is so dis-
posed as to more directly sustain the travelling load than
is the case in girders or tubular bridges. In the latter the
source of strength is rigidity;-that is, the moment of the
elastic forces of tension and compression; and this mo-
ment of forces is limited by the depth of the structure; so
that, to speak in popular language, the elastic forces can
never have a greater leverage than the distance between
the top and bottom of the tube. But in suspension bridges
the similar leverage is far greater. For the equilibrium
of the half-span, the moment of the weight upon it about
the abutment is equal to the moment about the same axis
of the tension, which acts at the summit of the chain.”
. It is further observed that the Niagara Bridge “notwith-
standing certain defects in its construction has proved in
a great degree successful,” while instead of the 3000 tons
of iron in the 460 feet span of the Britannia (Menai) Bridge,
there is in the former, in 821 feet span, but 400 tons of
iron, combined with 600 tons of wood.
The extension of railways over the immense territorial
areas of Europe and America, and the quite recent appli-
cation of this powerful agent to the development of new
countries, or to the spanning of uninhabited regions in
order to connect populous ones, has given a vehement im-
pulse to bridge construction as well as to the inventive
faculties of its engineers. Few more instructive and sug-
gestive studies can be made than that of the comparative
characteristics of the recent railway bridges of India—of
Russia—of Holland—of England—and of our own coun-
try. These countries are named as exhibiting typical con-
structions which reflect the peculiar civilized status of the
peoples, and the peculiar engineering problems offered by
different regions, modified as they are by the different na-
ture of the building materials which those regions afford.
We cannot enter into this subject, nor can we go at length
into modern science and practice of iron bridge construction.
In our own country the problem is presented in almost
every possible variety of aspect—rivers of unrivalled
magnitude to be spanned by erections to rest upon foun-
dations of the most difficult character, while necessity has
rigidly limited outlay. Hence arises a special fertility of
invention and a special class of work.
Russia is commencing iron railway bridge-building on a
greater scale than any other European country. Hitherto
her railway bridges have, for the most part, been made of
timber, and are to be replaced. Especially on the Nicolai
Railway it has been recently decided to reconstruct sixty-
eight wooden viaducts—a decision hastened through the
destruction of one 1200 feet long by fire.
Holland has been building great bridges of a remarkable
character. The Moerdyck Bridge on the great railway
route connecting Antwerp, Rotterdam, and Amsterdam,
consists of fourteen spans of 328 feet each. The framed
iron girders for this bridge, built on shore, were floated to
their destination and, by aid of the tidal rise, elevated to
their final positions. The railway bridges in construction,
or just completed, over the Maas and Lek at Bommel and
Crèvecoeur are works of the same character; the former
has eight spans of 187 feet and three of 394 feet and has
cost over 270,000 pounds, or $1,350,000. In England the
great bridge over the Tay (noticed on another page) is
styled “the most important civil engineering work now
being carried out in Great Britain.”
We can allude to but few of the remarkable construc-
tions of our own country.* The Quincy Bridge is the
longest bridge spanning the Mississippi, the river at the
point of crossing being 3250 feet in width, the navigation
channel, however, being only 800 or 900 feet broad. The
* The longest truss span in the U. S. is in the Newport and
Cincinnati R. R. bridge; the span is 420 feet (400 feet clear open-
ing). In Europe the bridges over the Leck at Kuilenberg (Hol-
land) and Moldau at Prague have 515 feet span. In each of these
latter are used over 2000 tons of iron and steel. The longest
pivot draw is in the just finished railroad bridge over the Mis-
sissippi at Louisiana, Mo.—200 feet.

BRIDGE. 621
bridge is divided into seventeen spans, two of 250 feet, three
of 200 feet, eleven of 137 feet, and one large draw span
360 feet long, the girder of the latter being 36 feet in
depth. The piers of the fixed spans are all of masonry,
that of the swing is formed of four wrought-iron cylinders
14 feet in diameter, sunk through 50 feet from the water
level; upon the top of these a turn-table, 30 feet diameter,
rests, and carries the span. This bridge, designed and
constructed under Mr. Thomas C. Clarke, cost over a mil-
lion of dollars.
The bridge at Omaha, over the Missouri, designed by
\ºn. Dodge, engineer of the Union Pacific Railroad, is 2800
feet in length, divided into eleven spans of 250 feet each,
res ºting upon concrete filled cast-iron cylinders 8 feet 8
inch les in diameter. Some of them require to be sunk to a
depth of 70 feet below low water, making the total length
of ºolumn 139 feet. The superstructure of this bridge is
fort ºned of ordinary wrought-trussed girders, with cast-iron
top member. In addition to the bridge itself, approaches
three miles in length are also required, principally formed
of trestle work. - sº
The railway bridges over the Mississippi, at Dubuque,
Iowa; at Hannibal, Missouri; and the great work over the
Missouri at Kansas City are noteworthy constructions—as
also that over the same river at St. Joseph. The super-
structure of this latter bridge is of iron throughout (with
floors for both railway and highway traffic) resting on stone
piers and abutments sunk to the bed rock. Its total length
is divided into three fixed spans of 300 feet each, one of 80
feet, and one pivot draw-span of 365 feet. The character
of the river bed renders the sinking of the pier foundations
(difficult in all the works just cited) especially interesting.
Fig. 19 represents the part of the bridge over the Ohio
at Louisville from the Indiana shore to the nearest (Indi-
ana) channel.
This bridge is the longest iron bridge yet erected in the
FIG. 19.
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udes amongst its openings two of
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ss the Ohio a line connecting
with the Jeffersonville and
rming a connecting link
Nºns, the northern and
all of twenty-seven
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between tw
the southern
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and these span;
5280 feet, or ào
The bridgóe. of 370 and
399 feet, arto; iv this bridge
giving twº ope One ºn each
side of thº, lºt-pie
the middle
he Indiana
diana chute
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is, we may
The loweſt point of
chute is 90% feet abo
“chute ’ 96% feet—th
being 6% feet lower that
rise of the river at Loui
mention, 40% feet.
As will be seen by these
the case of the two long S 18
tops of the girders, these
Fink truss. In this bridge a
connects the foot of the princi
ot in
From the report of its eminefit engineer, Jas. B. Eads,
the following account of the superstructure is taken:
St
ribbed arches made of cast steeſ.
each truss, with the ends of the top chord. This pair of
diagonal bars supports one-half of the whole weight of the
truss and its load. Each half span is subdivided by a strut, -
and two diagonal tension bars extend, one to the nearest
end of the top chord, and the other to the top of the centre
post. . Each querºr span iègrimsºdivided into eighths,
anººgain, for spans greater than 100 feet, intô six-
UCC *
ge over the Hudson River at Albany connects
Jºentral with the Hudsor River, Harlem, and
)any roads.
Itogether of fifteen spans (four of 185 feet,
idge 274 feet long) and has a total length of
}arly a third of a mile.
ructure is entirely of Wrought iron, except
ing, and joint blocks, which may be of cast
7, at the bottom thºreof, a double track
wo sidewalks, each sidewalk being 6 feet
to be with two lines of main girders, 26
lear on the straight portion of the bridge,
in the clear on the burved part.
markable structure is the Illinois and St.
in progress over thé Mississippi River at
ºemarkable whether considered in con-
establishment of its piers (for account of
DATIONS) or its superstººmrº. (Fig. 20.)
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feet a
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Loui
“The bridge will have three spans, each formed with four
The centre span will be






























































































622
BRIDGE,
515 feet and the side ones 497 feet each, in the clear. The
rise of the centre one will be one-tenth of the span; that
of the side ones 47 feet 10 inches each.
“The four arches forming each of these spans will each
consist of an upper and lower curved member or rib, extend-
ing from pier to pier. Each of these members will consist
of two parallel steel tubes, 9 inches in exterior diameter,
placed side by side. The upper and lower members will be
12 feet apart, measured from the centre of the upper to the
centre of the lower tubes. At regular intervals of about 9
feet, these members will be braced from each other by a
vertical system of cast-steel bracing on each side of them.
These braces will be secured at each end to cast-steel plates,
formed something like the voussoirs of a stone arch, and
against which the tubes will be abutted and secured every
9 feet throughout the arches. A horizontal system of bra–
cing will extend from pier to pier between the four upper
curved members, and a similar system between the four
lower ones, for the purpose of securing the four arches in
their relative distances from each other, and to sustain them
against lateral pressure.
“The two centre arches of each span will be 13 ft. 9% in.
apart from centre to centre, and will have, in addition to
the upper and lower horizontal bracing just described, a
system of diagonal bracing, securing the upper member
of one arch to the lower one of the other arch, and the two
other members in like manner. The outside arches are
each 15 ft. I; in. from the middle ones, and are joined to
the latter by three systems of bracing similar to those
described as between the two centre arches. These sys-
tems, however, on the outside of the middle arches, extend
only from the piers to the under side of the railways, the
latter bejag carried between the twº outer and the two
_º near their crowns. The outside ºrghes being.
supported in this interval against lateral mo y
rigid connections from both the upper and lower S.
“The roadways are formed by transverse iron 2
in. in depth, supported by iron struts of cru -
resting on the arches at the points where th &=
cing of the latter is secured. That portion S
which passes below the crown of the arches lied
from them. Between the iron beams forming ày S,
four parallel systems of longitudinal woode 8, T0
introduced, extending from pier to pier to
maintain the iron beams in position. Th |CIIl-
bers are each about 9|ft. long, and their e the
flanges of the beams, and are there secu ving.
On these the wooden beams for the car st in
one roadway, and the cross-ties for th n the
other. Fröm the oppº site ends of the ir uble
system of diagonal jº. iron brac nd
the whole together, add gives additiona SJ,
wind pressure. -
“The upper roadway is 34 ft. wide betw
:
'--
--~~
\
º
t
s t -
º *
- Wºr:=re: ===========%Zºº ºraarº.2&plºy £ºllºid Pagº
so:f :--—---
º
l, miles above Plymo
-: l
walks. The latter are each 8 ft. wide, making the bridge
50 feet wide between the railings.
“The railway passages below the carriage-way will each
be 13 ft. 6 in. in the clear and 18 ft. high, and will extend
through arched openings of equal size in the abutments
and piers.”
This superstructure is estimated to cost over two millions
of dollars. -
In 1870 the French Minister of Public Works, at the .
instance of the “Conseil de l’Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées,”
despatched one of its engineers, M. Malezieux, to the
United States to inspect the public works, who thus com;
ments on American Bridge Engineering.
“A distinctive feature in American Bridge engineering
is undoubtedly the almost entire abandonment of plate for
lattice girders, and the adoption almost universally (if ºve
except the cases of unusually large spans where the suits-
pension system is resorted to) of one or the other arrange-
ments of trussed structures.” M. Malezieux considers th at
the practice of American engineers in this respect, and a "so
their extended application of the suspension system is
worthy of the special attention of their brethren in Europé
and especially in France; and after giving a summary o
the general dimensions, etc., of a number of the more im-
portant bridges in the United States, he proceeds to describe
in detail the principal systems of trus ridges in use.
An exhaustive analytical discussio ks of the
“principal systems” of trussing, wily york
“Iron Truss Bridges for Railroa *ºſ!,
U. S. Engineers.
The subject of iron railwa. opped
without allusion to one of f those
structures: the “Roya to carry
the Cornwall railway Mash, a few
… hole:str penings, two
* Ave he remaining
e . The River
smaller ones
bringing the side of the
. ... G al length of
The main er's e \ and Sup-
port the end
ing the riºr. These
are of cours
ruction, and more re-
semble the pt than the works of
modern eng ite 29 feet wide by 17
feet thick ſ from the foundation to
the su ed in each of these piers
Wºl,S $c which that in the centre
O is a column was required
ng short of the solid rock
on. But to reach the rock
difficulty, inasmuch as it lay
*ā- *… *
Bºx2 ==== - - Z Zºº’
-, -º- ***:::::::::::-->>.º.º.
beneath 20 feet of mud and concrete gravel, over which
flowed 70 feet of salt water. To erect a stone pier in the
ordinary manner would be here entirely out of the question,
but by an ingenious contrivance the granite column requisite
to sustain the enormous load to which it is subject was
reared. An immense wrought-iron cylinder, 100 feet high
and 37 feet in diameter was sunk upon the site of the in-
tended pier, and proper means being taken to exclude the
water from the interior of this cylinder, the above-men-
tioned column was raised within it. Upon this column
four octagonal cast-iron pillars, each 10 fect wide and 88
feet 9 inches high, were erected 10 feet apart, and strongly
braced together, forming a square of about 30 feet. The
weight of each column is 150 tons, each being in pieces 6
feet long, 2 inch&s thick, and strengthened inside by stout
ribs and brackets.NAs fast as these pieces were cast, planed
down, and accuratēNy fitted, they were sent to the centre
pier ready for erectiou. Upon these columns the top fram-
ing of the pier is fixe e *
Upon this centre pièº and the two side piers, rest the
massive ribs by which \the great spans are sustained.
They consist each of an Narched tube, and a suspension
chain strongly braced together, to which the small side-
girders are attached. The arched tubes are in section of
P.







BRIDGE.
623
an elliptical form, the major axis of the ellipse being
placed in a horizontal position; they are made of stout
wrought-iron plates strongly riveted together, and ren-
dered more rigid by stiffeners and diaphragms. The width
of each tube is 16 feet 9 inches, and its depth is 12 feet 3
inches, the diaphragms being placed about 20 feet apart.
The rib complete presents the appearance of a double
bow, and it may be regarded as such, the tensile action of
the chain upon the bed-plates being counteracted by the
thrust exerted upon the same by the arched tube. The
depth of the rib from the centre of the main tube to that
of the main chain is 56 feet 3 inches, or about of the clear
span. The alteration of length of the rib, by contraction
and expansion under variations of temperature, is provided
for to the amount of six -inches (although the greatest dif-
ference yet observed amounts only to three inches in the
entire length of both spans) by placing the frames, which
carry those ends of the main tubes which are supported by
the side piers, upon 48 wrought-iron rollers, each 3 feet 3
inches long and 3% inches diameter, in a double cast-iron
frame or bed-plate. *
The total quantity of wrought-iron used in this structure
is 2700 tons; of cast, 1300 tons; masonry and brickwork,
17,000 cubic yards, and about 14,000 cubic feet of timber.
Each of the main ribs was constructed entire, adjacent
to the site of the intended structure, and after being tested
was floated out on pontoons and raised by hydraulic presses
of immense power. The foundations intended to support
the bridge were used to sustain these presses. As the spans
were raised, by the means described, the iron columns were
built up under them. The pressure upon the foundation
of the centre pier will amount to more than 8 tons per square
foot of bearing area, or double the pressure upon the foun-
dations of the Victoria Tower. (Fig. 21.)
One more example of modern bridge-building for rail-
way purposes must be introduced here. The TAY BRIDGE
is styled (“The Engineer,” Apl. 4, 1873), “the most im-
portant civil engineering work now being carried out in
Great Britain. Indeed, the magnitude of the bridge, and
the novelty and ingenuity of the means employed in its
erection, entitle it to take rank with the most interesting
civil engineering works ever carried to completion.” The
Tay Bridge will be, when finished, the largest iron bridge
in the world. It will cross the river about one and a quar-
ter miles west of Dundee. The total length from shore to
shore is 10,320 ft. Commencing from the south, or Fife
side, there will be three spans of 60 ft., two of 80 ft., twen-
ty-two of 120 ft., fourteen of 200 ft., sixteen of 120 ft.,
twenty-five of 66 ft., one of 160 ft., and six of 27 ft. The
first three spans (60 ft.), south side, are on a descending
gradient of 1 in 100, the two 80 ft. spans are level; the
bridge then rises with a gradient of 1 in 353 to the centre
of the 200 ft. spans. It again descends with a gradient of
1 in 73.56 to the north shore, passing at a height of about
18 ft. over Magdalen Point and the Esplanade now being
river. Over these fourteen spans the rails run on the bot-
tom of the girders, giving a clear headway of 88 ft. above
high water. On reaching the 120 ft. spans on the north side,
the rails are again on the top of the girders, which is con-
tinued, with the exception of the 160 ft. bowstring span, to
the north shore. From the south side the first five spans
are on a curve of twenty chains radius. The bridge then
runs straight across the river as far as the end of the six-
teen 120 ft. spans on the north side; thence the whole of
the 66 ft. spans, 160 ft. bowstring, and the 27 ft. spans are
on a curve also of 20 chains radius, forming nearly a quad-
rant of a circle, the length being about 2000 feet. This
long curve is necessary to bring the bridge—which runs
nearly due north—at right angles across the river into the
town, alongside the Caledonian Railway. (Sec FounDA-
TIONS.) -
In the foregoing we have felt constrained for want o
space to confine our notices of iron bridges to those which,
owing to the amount and character of the moving weight
they carry, develop more fully the art of the engineer—
railway bridges; but there is another class of bridges, in
which, indeed, iron construction for bridge purposes first
developed itself, i.e. cast-iron arched bridges, which should
at least be mentioned. } &
The first cast-iron bridge erected in England was over
the Severn at Colebrook Dale, in the year 1777; it has five
arch ribs, with a clear span of 100 feet 6 inches, and a
rise of 45 feet, a width of 26 feet, and a sectional area in
each rib of 563 square inches. l
In 1796 a more notable bridge, the Sunderland Bridge
over the Wear, was completed, having six arch ribs, with a
span of 236 feet, and rise of 34 feet, and a width of 32 feet,
the sectional area of rib being 46.5 square inches.
In 1806 the Bristol and in 1812 the Bonar bridges were
built, the latter having a span of 150 feet, four ribs and 20
feet rise. (These two re described and delineated
in the Ency. Ed.) s * -- . . . .
The Southwark Brº tºs built in 1818 with 8 ribs, 240
feet span, and 24 feet rºse. The Cauxhall, Tewkesbury:
and Plymouth bridges have spans of 78, 179, and 100 feet;
The Westminster (renewed in 1859, as mentioned on a later
page) has arches partly ºf wrought and partly of cast iron
of 120 feet span, and 20 feet rise. i
The foregoing (English) bridges are all still in use. The
“Pont de Caroussel” at ſparis, built in 1836, has spans ºf
187 feet, five ribs with 15% feet rise. The bridge across thº
Neva at St. Petersburg (built by Joseph Harrison, Jr., of
Philadelphia) though subjected to the most severe changes
in temperature stands monument to American profes-
sional skill. It has seven spans, with 157 feet as the
largest.
In our own country t
construction, and, in th
by which purposes forei
the same material agen
imple of an iron bridge
implicity of conception
ër are subserved by
markable oncºis the
e fi
constructed. Aqueduct Bridge, over Washin 1 City ;
The bridge thus comprises eighty-nine spans, and at the built by Captain (now E - Master
commencement on the south side the rails are 78 ft. above General U. S. Army) M 22) is
high water, running over the tops of the girders as far as an elevation, and its dist y fur-
the 200 ft. spans which cross the navigable channel of the nished the following des
FIG. 22.
—ºbiº- tº it i 1|1}} tº hit 4 it riſis || 3 || ||}} ºf Jalīºltii'lúlt lit}llº ºf ºti litt, ‘ ‘tiltſhifºliº #if:{jaït *T*}:{{### jºll!}} {{#if:
-F H t H-I tre+º * ºf tº
t-Pi—TTT–l-H- : = 5: Bºst
*s j f r- | 23. : ELEWA TUAW rº. zº"
Éll:#Eliº § *ś
ºccº CRFEA.
=\" -
&z
“The ribs are circular pipes forty-eight inches in interior
diameter of cast-iron, and are 1* inches thick. No addi-
tional thickness is given to them on account of the loading
by the bridge.
“The thickness, 1% inches, is the standard thickness for
water pipes of 48 in. under the head of water which these
bear, and all the strains caused by their being loaded wit
a bridge platform and its traffic are at right angles to thq
caused by the pressure of the water. These two sets
strains therefore do not affect each other plus or minuſ
“The joints are flange joints turned plain and smooth
held together by pressure and by screw bolts as in P
dinary method of joining steam pipes. Originally t
pipes were lined with wooden staves as a non-conductor
under an apprehension of danger of injury, by freezing.
The temperature of the air sometimes, though rarely, hero
touches () or even falls below 0. -
“But the wood acted too well as a non-conductor. The
2 sº :-ºfflº
$Eº::=><==
sº-sº-j
g
######## //
ºr -º- % %
ſ Af
iron took its to
from the wateſ,
and contraction
jerature \{rom the air and sunshino, not
hºce a diurnal motion from expansion
Ilever a 8 twº ing.” of the joints produced
ºrcam, but yºſing of water.
“This ipoon.” dºſed me to an investigation of the
condition of te #8&lre, the quantity and rate of trans-
! *: iº. the water as it passed through the
tº-dº, which satisfied me that it would be safe to
the non-conducting lining. I took it out and
ra ºlge has now stood some 12 years and no trouble
from ice in the pipes has ever been noted.
“This bridge is, or was when first erected, unique of its
kind.” #
The only cast-iron arched bridge since erected (we bo-
lieve) is the Chestnut Street Bridge, over the Schuylkill, at
* Another arch of cast-iron, of 30 inches diameter, of 120 feet
span, carries the water across “College Branch.”









624
BRIDGE.
Philadelphia, commenced in 1861 and opened for travel
July 4, 1866; designed and built under direction of Mr.
Strickland Kneass, C. E. It has two main spans (over
the waterway) each of 185 feet, each span is composed of
six segmental arches with versed sines of 20 ft. placed at
distances of 8 feet 85 inches, and 7 feot 10% inches from
centre to centre. They are four feet in depth, and 2%
inches thick, with upper and lower webs of same thickness,
and 8 inches wide; thus giving a compressive area of 147.5
square inches to each arch rib. These arches were cast in
lengths of 12 feet 10 inches, with end flanches 12 inches
wide, having three side-stays from body of segment, and
were secured to each other by four screw-bolts 1} inches in
diameter. The outside arches or ribs are slightly reduced
in section, and are cast with ornamental face.
As regards strength of this structure, and treating the
arches as built with a succession of voussoirs, and per-
forming functions the same as if built of stone, we find that
the horizontal pressure at the crown of each road-way rib
is, with 100 lbs. per square foot of transient load, 512,585
lbs., equal to 3,475 lbs. per square inch of section, and at
skewback, 529,542 lbs., cr 3,590 lbs. per square inch of
section. Taking the crushing power of best iron at 107,000
lbs. per square inch, thq maximum load that would proba-
bly be placed upon it, would give a pressure at crown of
but ºf its ultimate stree.gth.
The cost of this bridge was about $500,000.
We have progressed thus far without even mentioning
that class of structures to which has seemed pre-eminently
to attach the title of BRIDGE and which furnishes the prin-
cipal theme of most writers, viz., the phasonry arched
bridge. The arch seems to have been knbwn to the Chi-
nese (see Tomlinson and Ency. Iºd.) for many ages. The
gateways of the great wall are arched and Kirchco speaks
of stone bridges three or four miles long and of an arch of
...]
'eet. But it is to the
fed for the practical
the incredible span of six ºf
Romans that the #&ld is reall
ºpplication of the arch to bridges ight of these bridges
dvěr the Tiber are described in history.
But perhaps the most magnifficent of all the Roman
bridges, and one of the nobles: mº numents of antiquity, is
the bridge of Alcantara upon thº, Tagus, at the town of
that name. The town has probably taken its name from
that structure, as the word ālcanºkra, in the Arabic, signi-
fies “the bridge.” It consists of six arches; its whole
length is 670 Spanish feet, and from the bottom of the river
to the roadway tho height is 205 fºet.
Whatever constructive energy Was exerted during the
Middle Ages was devoted either toll religious purposes (wit-
ness the Convents, Churches, and Cathedrals), or to the
agencigs of War, or of self-preser ration, as exhibited in
the numberless eastles lled l towns. The destruc-
tive tendencies of war bemed to be peculiarly
direct gå against bric gn hardly be expected,
therefoxe, that an tS, ºry man’s hand was
*gainst ºneighbg Rothese adjuncts to the
occupa łvt.neral insecurity there
Wà,S I) (ſ eigely in passing rivers,
where ing banditti.
To rijndry persons formed
them: ame a religious order,
under idge. ... The obseº of
his i #establish érry boats,
K.
untºlº
tutulullûll: Tilſillºlillºtillllllllllllllll mºſt Tylºilº. !.
#º Ǻ º º #
SS PT
Ele - -
FE ſºlºſſ
B-E lºttinguttu
== **º------- -t: f
:#1:
- - - - - i
It consists of five arches, eacº T20 French: 9: 128.2 Eng-
e :ench ..., tº \feet rise; the
lish fººt spºº. ...Woº.
breadth, including the parapetºs, is 4%. Nench, 9.4
. it was begun in April $º.sº opened Q º
1773; the masonry was gomplete ****, twº Ads, an
other operations connected with this brid e, W \\ du
in 1780. A great peculiarity in this bridge *...* *.
the attention of engineers employed in Siº
that the sofits of the arches are shaped to suit the Č
ed vein of water, as formed in the entrance and
pipes. . This is accomplished, by making the general º
§f the body of the arch elliptical, with a rise of 30 º
or 32 English feet, or # of the Span; but making the hea h
ers follow the segment of a circle, the versed sine of whic
is only 13% French or 14.5 English feet, or about 1–9 of º:
span. This, besides affording facility for the passage .
flood waters, gives a great appearanº” of lightness to the
fabric (Ed. Encyc.).
• *
and receive travellers in their hospitals on the shores of the
rivers. It is stated “that Saint Benezet (the patron saint
of Avignon) who proposed and directed the building of the
bridge of Avignon, was a shepherd, and that he was not
twelve years of age when repeated revelations from heaven
commanded him to quit his flock and undertake this en-
terprise.”
This bridge, which was composed of 18 arches, was be-
gun in 1176, and completed in 1188. In 1385, during the
contentions of the popes, some of its arches were destroyed;
three others fell in 1602, from the neglect of repairing a
fallen arch. In 1670, the frost was so great that the IRhone
for several weeks bore the heaviest carriages; when the
thaw followed, the ice destroyed the piers; but the third
pier, with the chapel of St. Nicholas, has stood notwith-
standing all these accidents (ibid).
It is worthy of remark, that the bridge of Avignon was
begun under the direction of Saint Benezet in 1176, and
that of London begun to be built of stone under the direc-
tion of Peter of Colchester, a priest, in the same year
(1176). The French “Brothers of the Bridge ’’ accom-
plished their magnificent and useful work in 12 years, the
labours of the English priest occupied 33 years; but this
may be accounted for, by considering the interruptions
which must be experienced in a river where the tide rises
twice every day from 13 to 18 feet.
In London bridge there were 19 arches, and it was 45
feet in breadth. For many ages there were houses along each
side of it; but these were removed, the middle pier was
taken away, and the space including the two adjacent
arches, converted into one arch of 72 feet span, in 1758.
The remaining old arches are very narrow, and the piers
enormously large, being from 15 to 25 feet in thickness
above the sterlings.
Some of the old piers of the Old London Bridge were
larger than the original openings of the arches; they con-
sisted of small rubble stones laid in lime-mortar, surrounded
by a thin casing of squared stones. The Roman bridges
were probably constructed in the same manner. In modern
bridges, the piers consist wholly of squared stones, each
course being of equal height quite through the body of the
pier. The thickness ought to be regulated by the span and
rise of the arches, combined with the height of the piers.
At the bridge of Neuilly the thickness is only one-ninth
art of the span from the springing of the arches. The
i. is regulated according to circumstances, attention ,
being given to the highest point to which the waters have
ever been known to have risen (ibid).
The next (in order of time) important bridge was that
at Westminster, built in the years 1739–50, consisting of
13 large and two small arches, semi-circular, the middle
one having a span of 76 fect. This bridge, of which a
Mr. Labalye was the engineer, was not only, for the time,
the greatest work of that kind in England, but it formed,
in what regards laying foundations in deep water and con-
structing centres for large arches upon navigable rivers, a
new school for bridge-building (Ed. Encyc.).
Like the Old London Bridge it has since been Super-
seded by another structure—in this case with iron arches
of from 104 to 120 feet span.
The finest of the earlier French bridges and the greatest
work of the celebrated Perronet, is that over the Seine at
Neuilly. (Fig. 23.)
The construction of a magnificent stone bridge, says the
Edinburgh Encyc., “is justly looked upon as one of the
greatest performances of the masonic art; for if we com-
pare the enormous weight of a great arch, with the strength
- which the cohesion of the firmest cement can give, we readi-
Sºlished , ly admit that it is only by the nicest adjustment and bal-
ncing of its parts, that they are hindered from instantly
ling to pieces.”
nd in consonance with the above dictum, the theory of
rch has always formed one of the prominent compo-
of works on theoretic civil engineering, while the
eatures of treatises on bridge-building have usually
e art of constructing arches, picrs, centering and
coffer-dams. But this class of works has now become al-
most purely monitmental. The “enormous weight of a great
arch” is rivalled by its enormous expense, and it imposes
the necessity of proportionate care and expense in giving
to its piers sure foundations; and these costly pilos are













































BRIDGE, MILITARY,
625
multiplied, to the great detriment of the water-way of the
river, by the limitation of span which masonry arches can
compass; or, at least, by the enormous ratio by which cost
increases with increase of span. In our country there are,
naturally, few examples of masonry arched bridges, properly
so called; but it would be an unpardonable omission in an
account of American Engineering, and would be doing an
injustice to its distinguished engineer (now Quarter Master
General, U. S. A.) to omit to notice the superb, and unrival-
ed in span, bridge and aqueduct combined, over the Cabin
John Valley*, Potomac Aqueduct. The main road, macad-
amized by Act of Congress, leading up the Potomac Valley
passes over the Cabin John Creek by the “Union” Arch.
It is noteworthy as exhibiting the longest (220 feet) stone
span in the world. The arch (circular) has a rise of 53%
feet, and is 101 feet high above the bed of the stream.
It is of cut granite, 4 feet thick at crown, 6 feet thick at
spring; but re-inforced by the spandrils (of coursed rubble
and Seneca sand-stone) being laid in course normal to the
main arch.
When the centre was struck there was no perceptible mo-
tion of the arch which could be detected when watched
by two cross-wire telescopes. This fact is worthy of men-
tion as Engineers are all taught to read the descriptions of
the first long arches built over the Seine, at Paris, some of
which, on striking the centre, moved 18 inches. In fact
the arch of Cabin John in warm weather in a great measure.
if not entirely, relieved itself from the centre, owing to
expansion, before the centre was removed. Its key was
laid in a cool season.
The bridge is 20 feet wide. The spandrils are hollow, hav-
ing the two outer walls and one wall in the middle line or
axis of the bridge. Upon these rests a platform of mason-
ry upon which the conduit of brick, 9 feet clear diameter,
is built. Made water-tight by asphalte between the brick
rings. (For view of this structure see Fig. 6, article AQUE-
DUCT, by GEN. M. C. MEIGs, U. S. Army.)
The magnificent arched structure carrying the Croton
Aqueduct over the Harlem River, is purely an aqueduct.
In both these cases the resort to the masonry arch was
natural and proper. Save these, the fine viaducts of the
Baltimore and Ohio Railway, built in the early days of
American Engineering, are the only considerable works of
the kind which we recall; and it is safe to say that the fu-
ture of engineering construction in our country (or in any
other, unless for monumental purposes or for exceptional
reasons, we might say) will never exhibit a specimen of a
great masonry-arched bridge.
The subject of Bridge would not be complete without a
few words concerning MILITARY BRIDGEs.
Wherever warfare has been so far reduced to a system
and a science, as to call into the field, for protracted cam-
paigns, large and organized armies, the very necessities of
the case call for some systematic method of passing streams,
and, as belonging to it, special organizations of men (per-
8onnel) for making bridges, and a portable bridge appa-
3°CLövt.8.
The bridge of boats of Xerxes for passing the Helles-
pont—the timber pile bridge of Caesar (of which an ac-
count has been given) for passing the Rhine, were not or-
dinary, but eactra-ordinary constructions necessitated by
the magnitude of the obstacles; and they owe their record
probably to that peculiarity. It is quite likely, however,
that during ages when roads for wheeled vehicles scarcely
existed, and, on the other hand, forest timber was abun-
dant, the felled tree (elaborated into a rude bridge), or some
such improvised expedient, could generally be resorted to,
and that a regular “bridge-equipage,” in the modern sense
of the term did not exist. The Romans are known to have
had a species of “ponton ’’ (as we now call it) to carry
with their armies. In fact the wooden boat has naturally
offered the readiest means of support to portable bridges;
but these, generally large and heavy, are with difficulty
transported. Hence, various expedients for creating a ves-
sel of considerable flotation power, yet lighter and more
portable than ordinary boats (such as frame-work, covered
by skins, canvas, etc.) have been resorted to. The French,
the systematizers of the modern “Art of War,” were nat-
urally the first to provide a regular organization and es-
tablished type of construction for the military bridge, and
to organize a “personnel ” by which it should be operated.
Their first ponton was of copper. Their system has un-
dergone successive modifications and improvements, and
instead of metal, wood is used in their ponton. As fixed
in 1853 the French ponton, as described by Gen. Cullum in
his work on Military Bridges, is a flat-bottomed wooden
* Previous to the construction of this Aqueduct, the bridge
Over the Dee, at Chester, England, built in 1833, exhibited the
greatest span of any masonry arch in the world. This arch is
circular with a chord (span) of 200 feet and a rise of 42 feet. The
material is sand-stone.
boat, 31 feet long : the middle part or body of which, for a
length of 16 feet has a trapezoidal section of 5' 7" width
at top, and 4.4" at bottom, and 2' 7" deep; the fore part
8' 9'ſ long, diminishes to 2' 6" in width at the bow, and
has a sheer of 5}"; and the aft part, 6' 3" long, diminishes
to 4' 7" in width at the stern, and has a sheer of 3%.
Each bateau weighs 1,455 lbs., is borne on the shoulders of
16 to 20 men, has a flotation of 18,700 lbs., carries 25 in-
fantry soldiers, is convenient for disembarking troops, and
can be easily navigated in a rapid current by five men.
The material for the French bateau bridge consists of 8
abutments, 8 trestles, 32 bateaux, 4 mooring-boats, 339
balks (84 abutment, 24 claw, and 231 bateau), 784 chesses,
32 anchors, and all the accessories for forming a bridge of
41 bays, 262 yards long, and 12" 9%;" wide.
The Russians have a somewhat lighter equipage; the
ponton (of canvas) is a flat-bottomed bateau, having, ex-
cept at the ends, a rectangular section. The length at top
is 21 feet, and at bottom 18’4”; the width 5' 4"; and the
depth 2' 4". The skeleton consists of two side-frames,
connected by movable transoms—all of four inch Scantling.
The canvas cover is 10' 8" wide, 30 feet long in the mid-
dle, and 23' 3" along the edges: both sides being tarred or
painted black with a composition, applied hot, composed of
hempseed oil, strong loam, india-rubber, soap, wax, and soot.
The cover is brought over the ends of the frame, and lashed
to the top-transoms; it is secured, along the sides, to the top
string-pieces of the side-frames by small nails passing
through eyelet-holes along the edges of the cloth. A
plank is laid on the bottom for the pontoniers to stand
upon. The canvas ponton, frame and cover complete,
weighs 718 lbs. ; and has a flotation of 13,428 lbs.
The complete bridge is composed of 32 canvas pontons,
with bridge-flooring and accessories for 33 bays; and a sec-
tion of the Birago equipage consisting of 8 trestles and 15
wooden pontons (8 bow and 7 body pieces), with a bridge-
flooring for eight bays.
The Austrians, after satisfactory trials in the passage of
the broad, deep, and rapid current of the Danube, adopted,
in 1841, a system named from its inventer, Col. Birago, of
the Austrian Imperial Engineers.
This equipage has fixed and floating bridge-supports, the
former consisting of abutments and trestles, and the latter
of pontons of one to six pieces assembled together accord-
ing to the requirements of the bridge for the passage of
infantry, cavalry, or artillery, and whether designed for
one, two, or three distinct roadways.
The pontons are flat-bottomed, wooden bateaux, of one
piece, or from two to six assembled together, end to end,
by suitable bolts and fixtures. The cap is adjustable ;
being partly supported at the proper height by suspension-
chains, at one end of which are large rings passed over
the tops of the legs, the free ends being run through sus-
pension-rings on the upper side of the cap. After the
chains are made taut, and the cap is at its proper height,
the latter is held in place by the toggles inserted in the
last link which has passed through the suspension-rings.
The Birago trestle is composed of a cap and two legs, to
the lower ends of which shoes are attached, to increase their
bearing surface, and give greater stability to the trestle.
Nothing like a “bridge-equipage” had belonged to our
military service until 1846. The Engineer Department
had long foreseen the necessity of a corps of well-drilled
pontoniers and a bridge-equipage for our army, and year
after year had urged their great importance upon the at-
tention of Congress, but not until the 15th of May, 1846,
was its sanction given to the project of the department,
and when too late to aid the passage of the Rio Grande
by our forces, then invading Mexico.
With the sanction of Congress finally obtained, a com-
pany of sappers, miners, and pontoniers was organized as
part of the Corps of Engineers, and an india-rubber pon-
ton bridge of 46 pontoms was prepared by direction of
the Chief of Engineers, but under the superintendence of
Captain (now Bwt. Major General) G. W. Cullum. Another
of 36 pontons was subsequently despatched with the army
under General Scott. Owing to the lightness of these
pontons only thirty-five sić-horse carriages are necessary to
transport, over the worst roads, a complete train for the
formation of a bridge of two hundred yards. For the
French bateau bridge of nearly two hundred and forty
metres, seventy-seven six-horse carriages are used.
The rubber pontons in use for drill purposes at West
Point having become unserviceable, and it having become
evident that rubber was not adapted to their construction,
experiments were undertaken by the then Instructor of
Practical Engineering, Captain J. C. Duane. (Vid. “Or-
ganization of the Bridge Equipage of the United States
Army,” Official.) -
The immense trains with which our armies are unavoid-
ably encumbered, the long marches to be made, and the
40

626
BRIDGE, MILITARY.
numerous wide and rapid rivers to be crossed, demand an
equipage of the most substantial character. On the other
hand, the extended expeditions of light columns, which
necessarily attend our military operations, require a train
light enough to keep pace with the most rapid cavalry
movements. - ./
Hence we require both a reserve and advance-guard train.
The experiments included the trial of the bridge equip-
ages used by those European armies most experienced in
the art of military bridge-building.
Pontons were constructed after the models of the French
bateau, the Austrian sectional ponton, and the Russian
canvas boat. Corrugated-iron boats were procured, cor-
responding as nearly in form and dimensions to the French
and Austrian boats as the nature of the material would
permit. A number of Birago trestles were also constructed.
All of the above material, with the exception of the iron
boats, was prepared by the enlisted men of the Engineer
Company (“A”) then stationed at West Point.
The bridges formed of this material were exposed as
much as possible to the action of heavy loads, storms, the
tide, and floating ice. The material was also packed on
carriages of various patterns in order to ascertain the best
form, both of bridge material and of carriage, for trans-
portation. -
The selection of the French, Russian, and Austrian
trains for these experiments, was made after a careful study
of the various equipages used at present by the armies of
Europe. These three nations alone appeared to have def-
initely settled on their systems, and this after much experi-
ence and thorough research.
After experimenting for two years, the conclusion was
arrived at that the French ponton should be adopted. Ex-
periments followed to determine the material of which the
ponton should be made. Life-boats having been success-
fully made of corrugated-iron, it was presumed it might
be, with equal advantage, applied to pontons. . It was not
only found that to get adequate strength, the weight must
be increased beyond that of the wooden ponton, but that
iron failed in other respects. In fact, it would not bear
land transportation; as, in travelling over a rough road,
the joints open by the yielding of either the rivets or sheet
iron. When in the bridge, if the boat grounds on an un-
even or rocky bottom, a hole is frequently punched through
it, and such injuries cannot be repaired in the field. The
wooden ponton is not only much less liable to such acci-
dents, but can be readily repaired when they do occur.
Previous to the battle of Gettysburg, a ponton bridge
over the Potomac at Harper's Ferry was destroyed, the
pontons being scuttled and set adrift above the rapids.
About three weeks after, the water having fallen, the boats
were recovered, repaired with pieces of hard-bread boxes
obtained from the commissary, and used in constructing a
bridge at Berlin, over which the entire army passed into
Virginia.
With regard to the canvas boat it soon became apparent
that it was precisely what we required for our advance-
guard train. It is light, simple, strong, easily repaired,
and when packed can safely be transported with the super-
structure of the bridge as rapidly as any column of troops
can move. A strong argument in favor of its adoption
was that it had been used successfully by the Russians for
more than a hundred years, under every variety of circum-
stances likely to occur in this country.
The French ponton wagon not being adapted to our
rough roads, further experiments ensued to fix upon the
selection of a proper carriage for transporting our bridge-
equipage. -
Through the information gained by these experiments
resulted the system of bridge-equipage adopted at the com-
mencement of the late Civil War.
“During the winter of 1861–62, five trains werew con-
structed, each composed of thirty-four pontons and eight
trestles—the pontons being nearly of the same form and
dimensions of the French bateau. The frame was some-
what different, the ribs being entire and strongly ironed,
and the ironing stronger throughout. The stern was pro-
vided with a locker. There were also other alterations in
the details of construction. The balks were stronger, and
the Birago trestle was modified by substituting built beams,
instead of solid timber, for the trestle caps and balks. -
“At the same time several canvas trains were organized.
In constructing the ponton frame, the dimensions and
form of the Russian boat were exactly retained. The
scantling for the frame was considerably lighter, but, being
strongly braced and ironed, the strength was about the
same. One train was composed of canvas boats and tres-
tles; being, in truth, a trestle train, with auxiliary pon-
tons to be used only where the depth of water, or muddy
bottom, prevented the use of trestles.
“In the month of February, 1862, a ponton bridge
composed of about sixty boats of the reserve train, was
thrown across the Potomac at Harper's Ferry. The river
was then a perfect torrent, the water being fifteen feet
above the summer level, and filled with drift-wood and
floating ice. The greatest difficulty was experienced in
pulling the pontons into position, and it was necessary to
make use of ship anchors and chain cables to hold them
in place. Notwithstanding these unfavorable circumstances,
the bridge was completed in about eight hours, and the
corps commanded by General Banks, with all its trains and
artillery, passed over it without accident or delay.
“Several of these trains accompanied the army in the
Peninsular campaign. The pontons were used in dis-
charging quartermaster and commissary stores at Ship
Point; in disembarking General Franklin’s command at
West Point (York River); and in constructing bridges
over Hampton Creek, the streams in front of Yorktown,
and the Upper Chickahominy. Finally, a bridge was
built over the Lower Chickahominy, about two thousand
feet long, over which nearly the whole army of the Poto-
mac, with its immense trains, artillery, and cavalry, passed
with promptness and safety.
“After the army had passed the bridge was dismantled
and the balks, chess, etc., packed into the pontons, which
were formed into rafts and towed by steamers to Washing-
ton. The bridge trains were next transported to Harper's
Ferry, where a bridge was constructed a second time, but
under entirely different circumstances from that built dur-
ing the previous winter. The water was now not deep
enough; and, as it continued to subside shortly after the
bridge was laid, many of the pontons grounded on a very
uneven and rocky bottom. Some of them were completely
out of water, yet the heavy trains continued to move over
the bridge without seriously injuring them ; and when the
water rose, most of them floated as well as ever.
“Discovering in this way that the boats were much
stronger than we had supposed, we were enabled to im-
prove the method of bridging tidal streams.
“It had formerly been considered necessary to build out
to low-water mark with trestles, so that the ponton should
always be afloat. The bridge is now commenced at high-
water mark, building with pontons alone. As the water
subsides, the pontons nearest shore ground successively,
forming a gentle ramp from the abutment to the floating
portion of the bridge, instead of making the descent in
twenty feet as formerly. This method, of course, applies
only to wooden pontons, and to cases where the bottom is
favorable.
“During the Fredericksburg campaign, it became neces-
sary to force the passage of the Rappahannock. The
enemy having entrenched themselves on the bank, prevented
for some time the construction of the bridge; until, at
length, troops were embarked in the pontons and ferried
across, where they stormed the rifle-pits, and held them
until the bridge was completed. - •
“During the year 1863, the ponton trains accompanied
the army in all its marches backward and forward through
Virginia, frequently bridging the Potomac, Rapidan, and,
Rappahannock. In the latter stream, the bridges remained
in position all winter; and, notwithstanding the frequent
floods and the quantity of ice formed, but few interruptions
occurred on these thoroughfares. *
“During the campaign of 1864, trains, composed of four-
teen pontons and two trestles, accompanied each of the
three army corps of the army of the Potomac. These
trains attended their corps in the long march from Culpep-
er to the James River; and, although the roads were fre-
quently very bad, in no instance did they delay the march
of the troops, or arrive late when a bridge was to be laid.
“The headquarters train was followed by a canvas train;
which, when a crossing was to be made by surprise, was
sent forward, with the cavalry, who covered the construc-
tion of the bridge and held the position till the main body
arrived.
“On reaching the James River, a bridge was laid, oppo-
site Charles City Court-House (at a point selected by the
writer of this article) about two, thousand feet in length.
The water was so deep and rapid that the pontons could
not be held by their own anchors, and it was found neces-
sary to attach their cables to schooners anchored above
and below the bridge.” “For the next 40 hours a con-
...tinuous stream of wagons passed over the bridge, from
4000 to 6000 wagons, some said, 50 miles of wagons, and
nearly all the artillery of this army, and by far the larger
portion of the infantry and all its cavalry present, and
even to its heads of 3000 or more of beef cattle—the most
injurious of all—without an accident to man or beast.”
(Report of Gen. Benham.) The length of the bridge was
made up of 200 ft. in trestle work and 2000 ft. in pontons
(101 in all); depth of the river 85 ft.
“Thus the wooden ponton train through four years of
BRIDGE, MILITARY.
627
war during which the bridges constructed were without
parallel in number and magnitude, amply fulfilled all the
requisites of a good bridge equipage. The frequent cross-
ing of the Potomac, Chickahominy, and James Rivers
proved that, even under the most unfavorable cirèum-
stances, it could furnish a bridge capable of passing a
large army, with its heaviest trains over wide and rapid
streams, with safety and despatch. -
“Its capabilities in ferrying troops were shown at Ship
Point, West Point, and Fredericksburg; and of the mo–
bility of the equipage there was abundant proof in the
long marches during the last two years of the war.
“The canvas equipage, also, was perfectly successful as
an advance-guard train. In the cavalry raids, it was al-
ways able to keep pace with the columns; and, although
they frequently marched hundreds of miles, it was in-
variably ready to furnish a prompt and secure means of
crossing all the streams on their route. It also often fur-
nished bridges for the heavy trains of the army over
streams of moderate width and rapidity. -
“The only part of the bridge equipage which did not
realize all our expectations was the Birago trestle. -
“As already stated, a train was organized early in the
war on the Austrian principle, in which the trestle is the
main dependence, the ponton being merely auxiliary. It
was supposed that many streams would be encountered
which would be bridged best with trestles alone, but none
such were met with. In fact, when a stream is more than
two feet deep, a ponton bridge may be laid; when less than
that depth, if the bottom is hard, it may be forded, and no
bridge is required; should the bottom be soft, the trestle
legs will usually settle so as to render the bridge unsafe.
As it was not deemed advisable to transport with the army
a train which could only be used in exceptional cases, this
description of equipage was abandoned. The trestle was,
however, very useful as an auxiliary, especially with the
canvas train; for, as these boats when in the bridge should
never be allowed to touch the bottom, it is frequently neces-
sary to build out several bays from the shore before suffi-
cient depth of water can be obtained to float the ponton—
and for this purpose nothing could be better than the
Birago trestle, which is also equally useful for a similar
purpose with the reserve train, when the river bottom is
rough near the shore. e
“The canvas train was extensively used by the western
army, and with such success that it was proposed to em-
ploy it exclusively. Experience, however, in the East has
clearly proved that this train cannot fulfil all that is re-
quired of the bridge equipage of a large army. The
bridges of the Potomac and James rivers could not have
been built with canvas boats, which will not resist ice and
drift-wood; neither are they suited to the disembarkation
of troops or the passage of a river by force.
“Experience would therefore lead us to concur with
General Barnard in his remarks on this subject, viz.:
“‘The numerous proposers of “flying ” bridges forget
that if a military bridge is intended to be carried with an
army, it is also intended to carry an army, its columns of
men, its cavalry, its countless heavy wagons, and its pom-
derous artillery. It must carry all these, and it must do it
with certainty and safety, even though a demoralized corps
should rush upon it in throngs. No make-shift expedient,
no “ingenious” invention not tested by severe experiment,
no light affair of which the chief merit alleged is that it is
light, will be likely to do what is required, and what the
IFrench ponton has so often done.’”
The experienced engineer officers, from whose Introduc-
tory History we quote, constituted a Board which, in 1870,
established the present authorized organization. It was
based upon the experience we have described in their lan-
guage.
As now fixed the United States bridge-equipage is com-
posed of reserve and of advance-guard trains. The former
are intended to accompany large bodies of troops in the
field, and are provided with the material necessary for the
construction of bridges of sufficient capacity to pass large
armies with their heaviest trains over rivers of any size
and rapidity.
The advance-guard, equipage is intended for the use of
light troops, such as advance guards, cavalry expeditions,
etc. It is organized, both as regards material and car-
riages, with a view to rapidity of movement. At the same
time it is capable of furnishing a bridge which will fulfil
all the requirements of troops engaged on such service.
The basal elements of these distinct equipages—the
French wooden bateau and the Russian canvas ponton—
are of dimensions very nearly corresponding to those
(already given) of their original prototypes; but with modi-
fications in details of construction derived from our own
experience. -
The Reserve Equipage is divided into trains, each of
which is composed of four ponton divisions and one supply
division. Each division is accompanied, by a tool wagon
and travelling forge.
Each ponton division is complete in itself, containing all
the material necessary for constructing a bridge of eleven
bays, or 225 feet in length. * -
Each of these divisions is subdivided into four sections,
two of which are ponton and two abutment sections; the
former contains three ponton wagons and one chess wagon;
the latter, one ponton, one chess, and one trestle wagon
each. -
The ponton section contains the material for three bays,
and should never be subdivided. The division may be in-
creased or diminished at pleasure, by changing the number
of its ponton sections. -
The supply division is provided with articles necessary to
replace material lost or worn out, such as balk, chess, spare
parts of carriages, a few complete carriages, etc.
The carriages of this division consist of ponton, chess,
and tool wagons, and of forges. Their number and pro-
portion will be determined by the nature of the country
in which the army is operating, and by the proximity of the
main depot." -
The trains of the Advance Guard Equipage are composed
of 4 ponton divisions, each of which consists of 8 ponton,
2 chess, and two trestle wagons.
The ponton wagon carries all the material necessary for
constructing a complete bay. The division may, therefore,
be increased or diminished by one or more ponton wagons
without disorganizing it. When a forced march is to be
made, and it is desirable to lighten the loads, the chess may
be removed from the ponton wagons, the rope from the
trestle wagons, and the load of the chess wagons be reduced
to 40 chess. The number of the latter wagons in this case
must be increased to 5. º
The ponton wagons of reserve train are drawn by 8 mules
or 6 horses, those of the advance-guard train by 6 mules or
4 horses; the “loads” being about 3000 and 2000 lbs. re-
spectively. It would be out of place to enter more fully
into this subject in this work; but these historical details
concerning the development of our military bridge system
—a matter in which we had no experience whatever—during
the war cannot fail to be interesting.
Another interesting branch of the subject—the remark-
able constructions applied to the improvisation of railroad
bridges, in place of destroyed ones, and the noteworthy
system of repair and construction introduced into our mili-
tary railway service, can only be alluded to. The military
railroad construction and repair corps were a part of the
Quartermaster's Department, which organized, hired, and
paid all their members, and bought and paid for all the
material, and possessed and operated the railroads at an
expense which at one time amounted to about $2,000,000
per month. Under the Chief of that Department, and es-
pecially charged with this duty, the principal organizer and
conductor of military railroad transportation and repairs
was Brig.-Gen. D. C. McCallum (who has since made a
valuable report on this subject), well known as an able
civil Engineer and inventor of the “Inflexible Arch Truss;”
but the credit of the military railroad operation, and repair
and success belong to no individual altogether, but to the
Quartermaster’s Department, and to the body of Railroad
Engineers, superintendents, and operatives who came into
its service to aid the country during the War.
In the occupation, for protracted periods, of the same
ground (as in investments, sieges, etc.) military bridges
assume frequently a semi-permanent character.
Thus, while the Army of the Potomac occupied a position
near Richmond (May and June 1862) its wings were sep-
arated by the formidable barrier of the Chickahominy
rivulet and swamp. One of the bridges is thus described
in the report of the Chief of Engineers of the Army of the
Potomac : -
“The bridge was built over the stream upon frame tres-
tles; through the swamp it was supported by cribs. The
approaches to the bridge over the low bottom-lands were
either raised corduroy or (on the north side) simply earth
raised two or three feet (the soil being here Sandy), with a
layer of brush one foot below the upper surface; deep lat-
eral ditches being made. The whole structure of the bridge
and approaches was about fourteen hundred yards long.
The trestle-work and crib-work bridge was mostly done by
troops of the Engineer brigade under General Woodbury;
the approaches on the north, by the 9th and 22d Massa-
chusetts regiments (Colonels Cass and Gove, both of whom
were killed in the battles following), and those on the
south side by the 3d Vermont. The bridge was ready for
the passage of teams on the 14th, covered with earth, and
the approaches entirely completed on the 17th., The bridge
proper was 1,080 feet long; roadway, 11 feet wide; number
of Cribs, 40; of framed trestles, 6.” (Fig. 24.)
628
BRIDGE CREEK–BRIDGEPORT.
The combined armies under General Grant occupied po-
sitions before Petersburg and Richmond from June 1864 to
The James River separated the Army of the
An
April 1865.
James (in its final position) from the centre and left.
assured communication was indispensable, and at the same
time one which would not impede the navigation to our own
vessels, whether transports or armed.
Col. P. S. Michie, Chief of Engineers Army of the
James, designed and submitted for approval a timber pile
bridge with a floating draw (the floats being our ordinary
pontons) of which an elevation of a portion, including the
“draw,” of pontons is here given. (Fig. 25.)
FIG. 25.
The piles of trestles were guarded against ice (which in
the winter forms freely in the upper James) by highly in-
clined guard pieces, the feet of which were secured to piles
in the bed of the river. Each trestle was made up of a cap
piece and six piles (in pairs) driven into the bed of the
river. This bridge constructed late in 1864 was in use up
to the close of the war. During the period above indicated
the gap in our lines made by the Rappahannock was occu-
pied by one or more ordinary ponton bridges.
Limiting the scope of the word bridge, by the radical
meaning (as given in our definition) we have omitted in the
foregoing nearly all reference to a very essential portion of
the art of bridge-building, viz.: the establishment of pier
and abutment foundations. For this subject see “Found A-
tions.” Consult “Dictionary of Engineering” (Byrne).
“Theory of Strains on girders and similar structures”
(Stoney). “The Strains upon Bridge Girders.” (Cargill).
* Woodbury on the Arch.” “Roebling on the Niagara
Suspension Bridge.” “Boudsot, Ponts Suspendus.” “The
Pesth Suspension Bridge.” “Iron Truss Bridges” (Col.
W. E. Merrill). “The Theory of Strains” (Diedrichs).
“Theorie élémentaire des Poutres Droites” (Collignon, an
excellent little French work); also Humber's great work
on Bridges and “Modern Examples” and the published
accounts of the Quincy and Kansas City Bridges. (See also
Flexure of BEAMs, by Col. W. E. MERRILL, U. S. Engi-
neers.) J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Bridge Creek, a twp. of Ouachita co., Ark. Pop. 375.
Bridge Creek, a township of Eau Claire co., Wis. Pop.
1538.
Bridgehampton, a township of Sanilac co., Mich.
Pop. 936.
Bridgehampton, a post-village of Southampton town-
ship, Suffolk co., N. Y. Pop. 1334.
Bridge-Head. See TÉTE-DE-Pont.
Bridge, Natural. See NATURAL BRIDGE.
Bridgenorth (anc. Bruges or Brugia), a town of
England, in Shropshire, on both sides of the Severn, 19
miles S. E. of Shrewsbury, and 123 miles N. W. of London.
The upper part of the town is picturesquely built on a rock
sixty feet higher than the river. It has an old castle, alms-
houses, a public library, a blue-coat or charity school, a
handsome bridge, and manufactures of carpets, nails, to-
bacco-pipes, boats, and worsted stuffs. It has a heavy com-
merce upon the river. It is supposed to have been founded
by a daughter of Alfred the Great. Pop. in 1871, 5871.
Bridge of Allan. See APPENDIx.
Bridgeport, a post-village of Waterloo township and
co., Ontario (Canada), 2 miles from Berlin, has extensive
water-power and some manufactures. Pop. about 700.
Bridgeport, a post-village of Cape Breton Island, in
Sydney township, Cape Breton co., 13 miles from Sydney,
with which it is connected by railway, has important coal-
mines. Pop. about 300.
Bridgeport, a post-twp. of Jackson co., Ala. P. 1002.
Bridgeport, a post-village, capital of Mono co., Cal.,
about 160 miles E. of San Francisco. It is near the Sierra
Nevada. Pop. of Bridgeport township, 174.
Bridgeport, a township of Nevada co., Cal.
found here. Pop. 1829.
Bridgeport, a village of Green Valley township, So-
lano co., Cal., on the California Pacific R. R., 39 miles N. E.
of San Francisco. Pop. 80.
Bridgeport, a city and seaport, one of the capitals of
Fairfield co., Conn., is on an inlet of L.I. Sound, at the mouth
of Pequonnock River and on the New York and New Ha-
ven R. R., 58 miles E. of New York and 18 miles W. S. W.
of New Haven; lat. 41° 10' 30" N., lon. 73°11'46" W. It
is the southern terminus of the Housatonic R. R., which
extends to Pittsfield, Mass., and of the Naugatuck R. R.,
which connects it with Waterbury. It is mostly built on
a small plain, behind which rises an eminence called Gold
Hill, which is about 60 feet above high-water mark, and is
occupied by elegant mansions. Bridgeport contains 25
churches, 5 national and 3 savings banks, a public library,
and an orphan asylum. It has two daily newspapers, one
semi-weekly, and two weekly. It is the third city in
size and importance in Connecticut. Since the census of
1870 three square miles of the adjacent town of Fairfield
have been added to Bridgeport, and the population has
Gold is



BRIDGEPORT-BRIDGEWATER.
629
been largely increased. It derives its prosperity chiefly
from its manufactures of carriages, sewing-machines, mis-
cellaneous hardware, machinery, brass and iron castings,
leather, cartridges, hats, shirts, saddles, springs and axles,
etc. Here are the large manufactories of Wheeler & Wil-
son’s, Elias Howe's, and the Secor sewing-machines, with
the Union Metallic Cartridge Co., Wood Brothers' carriage-
factory, The New York Tap and Die Co., Glover Sanford
and Sons’ hat manufactory, and many others. There are
53 corporate companies doing business within the city lim-
its, on an aggregate capital of over $6,000,000. The city
has a paid fire department and an electric fire-alarm tele-
graph. It has two fine parks, and a horse-railroad con-
necting its eastern, southern, and western extremes. Pop.
(in 1870, before the annexation of a part of Fairfield),
18,969; of the township, 19,835. -
G. C. WALDO, ED. of “DAILY STANDARD.”
Bridgeport, a post-village of Christy township, Law-
rence co., Ill. Pop. 435.
Bridgeport, a post-township of Saginaw co., Mich.
Pop. 1171. -
ºridgeport, a post-township of Warren co., Mo. Pop.
2 -
Bridgeport, a post-village of Sullivan township, Madi-
son co., N. Y. Pop. 217. -
Bridgeport, a post-village of Belmont, co., O., on the
Ohio River, opposite Wheeling, with which it is connected
by a bridge. It is on a branch of the Cleveland and Pitts-
burg R. R., and has a national bank and an active trade.
Pop. 1178. -
Bridgeport, a post-borough of Fayette co., Pa., on the
Monongahela, adjoining Brownsville, 35 miles S. of Pitts-
burg. Pop. 1199.
Bridgeport, a post-borough of Montgomery co., Pa.,
on the Schuylkill, opposite Norristown. Pop. 1578.
Bridg'er’s Pass, a defile in the Rocky Mountains, in
the S. part of Wyoming Territory, about lat. 41° 39' N., lon.
107° 30' W. The overland mail route passed through it be-
fore the Pacific R. R. was opened. It is described by Fitz
Hugh Ludlow as “a narrow gallery, walled by noble preci-
pices of red granite and metamorphic sandstone, rising
directly from the traveller's side to the almost perpendicu-
lar height of from 1000 to 2500 feet. In some places this
gallery appears scarcely more than a crevice of disloca-
tion, a mere crack between stupendous naked rocks, which
would match joints exactly if slid back to their old position.
Though the passage is in reality ample for an army, the
vast height of its lateral walls makes it seem proportion-
ally narrow. This American Simplon is Bridger's Pass. It
is several miles in length.” (The Heart of the Continent.)
Brid'ges, a township of Ozark co., Mo. Pop. 532.
Bridg’et, SAINT, or Saint Bride, one of the three
patron saints of Ireland, lived about 500–520 A. D. St.
Bridget's Day is Feb. 1st.
Bridget, Brigit’ta, or Bir'get, SAINT, a daughter
of Birger, prince of Sweden, was born in 1304. She was
the mother of Saint Catharine of Sweden, and author of a
work entitled “Revelations.” (See BRIGITTINEs.). Died in
1373. i. ETIENNE BINET, “Vie de Sainte Brigitte,” 1634.)
Briðgeton, a post-village and township of Cumber-
land co., Me., 38 miles from Portland. It has three woollen
mills at the Centre Village, a printing-office, a weekly
paper, sash and blind factories, etc., and is accessible by
steamboat from the foot of Sebago Lake. Pop. 2685.
ED. OF “BIRIDGETON NEWS.”
Bridgeton, a post-township of Newaygo co., Mich.
Pop. 397. -
Bridgeton, a city, port of entry, and the capital of
Cumberland co., N. J. (a rich agricultural county), is situ-
ated on both sides of Cohansey River, a fine tide-water
stream, 20 miles from Delaware Bay, 37 miles S. of Phila-
delphia, and 127 miles S. of New York. Its area is 15.39
square miles, or 9849 acres. Its population was in 1800
about 400; 1829, 1736; 1838, 2315; 1850, 3480; 1860,
5104; 1870, 6830; and now (1873) is 8000. As a port of
entry it is second in the State, having a tonnage, Jan. 1,
1873, of 16,067.33 tons. Three steamers and a large num-
ber of Sailing-vessels, barges, etc. are employed in the
direct trade of the city, transporting annually over 150,000
tons, while an equal amount is carried by the different
railroads. The receipts of leading articles are, coal, 21,000
tons; pig iron and iron ore, 10,200 tons; lumber, 4,000,000
feet; lime and shells, 175,000 bushels; fertilizers, 1500
tons; and manufactured goods, 30,000 tons. The princi-
pal shipments are 110,000 kegs of nails, 2,200,000 feet of
gas and water-pipe, 70,000 cases of canned fruits, 290,000
yards of woollen goods, 20,000 boxes window-glass, $200,000
worth of hollow-ware, and 25,000 bushels of grain, pota-
toes, etc. It is the leading city of Southern New Jersey
in the variety and value of its manufactured products,
which consist in part of nails, water and gas-pipe, cast-
ings, machinery, woollen goods, glass, canned fruits, lum-
ber, brick, shipbuilding, etc. Companies and firms to the
number of 143 are engaged in 60 different branches of
manufacture, with a capital of $1,231,350, employing 1210
males, 637 females, and 143 children, to whom $632,821
are annually paid as wages, using raw material worth
$2,236,339, and producing articles to the value of $3,413,769.
The assessed valuation of the city for 1873, about two-
thirds of the actual value, was $3,541,000, on which the .
assessment was $1.35 on $100. The expenses were, State
tax, $5,056.47; county, $13,847.29; schools, $17,741.96;
city government, $13,301. The city is out of debt. Edu-
cational facilities are fine. The South Jersey Institute,
for both sexes, opened in 1870, has a handsome and well-
appointed building, which cost over $65,000, on a com-
manding site, with 8 teachers and 100 scholars during the
last school year. The West Jersey Academy occupies a
fine building on a beautiful location, and has 5 teachers
and 50 scholars. Ivy Hall, a select boarding-school for
young ladies, has a high reputation, and has 10 teachers
and 54 scholars. There are 6 public schools of a high
order, with 22 teachers (to whom are paid salaries amount-
ing to $9,469.19) and 1238 scholars. A handsome building
for a new school is now being erected at a cost of about
$16,000. A good public library has over 1300 volumes.
The newspapers comprise 1 daily, circulation 400; 3 weekly,
circulation 4200 ; 2 monthly, circulation 7500 copies. The
churches number 13, owning 13 church buildings, 6 chapels,
and 8 parsonages, valued at $288,500, with sittings for
6750 persons, and having a membership of 2833. There
are national and savings banks, a flourishing board of
trade, two building and loan associations, a large number
of benevolent societies, and a children’s home for the care
of destitute children. Three bridges span the river, and
the streets are well laid out, graded, and lighted with gas.
Water-works are about being erected. It is a railroad
centre; the New Jersey Southern, from New York to Bal-
timore, passes through the city; the West Jersey connects
it with Philadelphia; the Bridgeton and Port Norris, 22
miles long, connects it with the celebrated Maurice River
oyster-grounds. Several others are projected.
As the head of navigation and a fording-place on the
Cohansey, a settlement early grew up. Before the Revo-
lution there were not over 200 inhabitants, but they were
staunch patriots. Dr. Jonathan Elmer, a Bridgetonian,
was a member of the Revolutionary Congress. A company
from Bridgeton served under Gen. Schuyler, and a privateer
schooner built here made one successful voyage, but was
captured when returning from the second. During the
present century the place has had a steady growth, and was
incorporated in 1865. The climate is mild and healthy, the
city and its surroundings most beautiful, and its inhabitants
intelligent and social. CHARLEs E. SHEPPARD, Att'y,
Member of Board of Trade.
Bridgeton, a borough of Bucks Co., Pa. Pop. 944.
Bridgetown, the capital of the island of Barbados, is
on its W. coast, and extends along the N. side of Carlisle
Bay, which forms its roadstead; lat. 13° 4' N., lon. 59° 38'
W. It is the residence of the bishop of Barbados and the
governor of the Windward Islands, and has an arsenal and
barrack in the vicinity. Pop. about 25,000. -
Bridgetown, a post-village of Granville township,
Annapolis co., Nova Scotia, on the Windsor and An-
napolis R. R., 14 miles from Annapolis, at the head of
navigation of Annapolis River, has a fine water-power and
one weekly paper. The surrounding country is very fertile.
Pop. about 800.
Bridgeville, a post-twp. of Pickens co., Ala. P. 1265.
Bridgeville, a post-village of North-west Fork hun-
dred, Sussex co., Del. Pop. 300.
Bridgewater, a town and river-port of England, in
Somersetshire, on both sides of the river Parret, 33 miles
by rail S. W. of Bristol. It is neatly built, and the houses
are mostly of briek. Vessels of 200 tons can ascend the
river to this town. Here is St. Mary’s Church, which has
a remarkable and lofty spire. This is the native place of
Admiral Blake. Bridgewater became a free borough in
1200. Pop. in 1871, 12,101. -
Bridgewater, a post-village of New Dublin township,
Lunenburg co., 12 miles from Lunenburg, Nova Scotia.
has manufactures of lumber, etc., an active trade, and one
weekly newspaper. Pop. about 1000.
Bridgewater, apost-village of Elzevir township, Hast-
ings co., Ontario, has mines of iron, copper, and other min-
erals, and quite extensive water-power and manufactures.
White marble is found here. Pop. 450.
630
1BRIDGEWATER—BRIG.
Bridgewater, a post-township of Litchfield co., Conn.
Pop. 877. •
Bridgewater, a post-township of Aroostook co., Me.
It has manufactures of lumber, leather, etc. Pop. 605.
Bridgewater, a post-village and township of Plymouth
co., Mass., is on the Old Colony and Newport R. R., 27
miles S. of Boston. It contains a State normal school,
academy, State almshouse, extensive iron-works, cotton-
gin, and other manufacturing establishments, and is the
seat of the county agricultural fair. It has a weekly paper
and a savings bank. Pop. 3660.
PRATT & Co., PUBs. “ BANNER.”
Bridgewater, a post-township of Washtenaw co.,
Mich. Pop. 1379.
Bridgewater, a township of Rice co., Minn. Pop. 957.
Bridgewater, a post-twp. of Grafton co., N. H. P. 453.
Bridgewater, a township of Somerset co., N.J., con-
tains Somerville, the county-seat. Pop. 5883.
Bridgewater, a post-township of Oneida, co., N. Y.
The village is on the Utica, branch of the Delaware Lacka–
wanna and Western R. R., 15 miles S. of Utica. Pop. 1258.
Bridgewater, a post-township of Williams co., O.
Pop. 1207. -
Bridgewater, a borough of Beaver co., Pa. Pop. 1119.
Bridgewater, a township of Susquehanna co., Pa.,
contains Montrose, the county-seat. Pop., exclusive of
Montrose, 1459. -
Bridgewater, a post-township of Windsor co., Vt.
It has manufactures of woollen goods, etc. . Pop. 1141.
Bridgewater (FRANCIS HENRY EGERTON), EARL OF,
born Nov. 11, 1758, was a son of John Egerton, bishop of
Durham. He inherited the earldom in 1823, and died with-
out issue in 1829. By his last will he left £8000 to be paid
to the author of the best treatise “On the Power, Wisdom,
and Goodness of God as manifested in the Creation.” He
was an Anglican priest. (See BRIDGEWATER TREATISEs.)
Pridgewater Treatises, a celebrated series of works
named in honor of the earl of Bridgewater. (See preceding
article.) The trustees who had the control of his bequest
of £8000 pounds placed it at the disposal of Gilbert Davies,
president of the Royal Society, who appointed eight gentle-
men to write separate treatises illustrative of the power,
wisdom, and goodness of God. They are—1. “The Adapta-
tion of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Con-
stitution of Man,” by Thomas Chalmers, D. D. (1833); 2.
“ Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Digestion
considered with Reference to Natural Theology,” by Wil-
liam Prout, M. D. (1834); 3. “On the History, Habits, and
Instincts of Animals,” by the Rev. William Kirby (1835);
4. “On Geology and Mineralogy,” by the Rev. Dr. Buck-
land (1837); 5. “The Hand, its Mechanism and Vital En-
dowments, as Evincing Design,” by Sir Charles Bell (1837);
6. “The Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical
Condition of Man,” by John Kidd, M. D. (1837); 7. “As-
tronomy and General Physics considered with Reference
to Natural Theology,” by the Rev. William Whewell (1839);
8. “Animal and Vegetable Physiology considered with
Reference to Natural Theology,” by Peter Mark Roget
(1840).
Bridg’ man (LAURA), a blind deaf-mute, affording a
remarkable instance of the development of intellectual and
moral powers under the most adverse circumstances. She
was born at Hanover, N. H., Dec. 21, 1829. When two
years old, through a severe illness, she lost her sight, hear-
ing, and smell; her sense of taste being at the same time
greatly impaired. At the age of eight she was placed under
the instruction of Dr. Howe of Boston, principal of the Per-
kins Institution. She soon learned to read and spell with
a manual alphabet; and she afterwards learned to write
and to sew, and to play very well on the piano.
Bridgman (WILLIAM R.), U.S. N., born Nov. 28, 1844, in
Iowa, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1861, became an
ensign in 1862, a lieutenant in 1864, and a lieutenant-com-
mander in 1866. He served in various vessels of the West
Gulf and Mississippi River squadrons during 1862 and
1863, participating in the action with Forts Jackson and
St. Philip and capture of New Orleans, and in many of the
most important fights on the Mississippi.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Brid/lington, or Bur’lington, a market-town of
England, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, and on the North
Sea, 54 miles by rail E. by N. of York. Here are remains
of a rich priory founded by a grand-nephew of William the
Conqueror. Numerous ancient tumuli or barrows occur in
this vicinity. Bridlington Quay, a seaport and bathing-
place, is on the sea 1 mile S.E. of the town. It has a
chalybeate spring and several hotels; also an active trade
butter and cheese.
latter were victorious.
in corn, which is exported from it. This place is noted for
chalk-flint fossils. Pop. of Bridlington and Quay, 5775.
Brid/port, a seaport-town of England, in Dorsetshire,
on the Brit or Bride River, 16 miles N. W. of Dorchester.
It is surrounded by hills, and consists chiefly of three spa-
cious streets. It has a Gothic church, an almshouse, a
town-hall; also manufactures of cordage, sail-cloth, shoe-
thread, and fish-nets. The vicinity is celebrated for its
Pop. in 1871, 7666. '
Bridport, a post-township of Addison co., Vt. P. 1171. .
Briec, a village of France, department of Finistère, 9
miles N. N. E. of Quimper. Pop. 5726.
Brief [Lat. breve], Papal, a letter addressed by the
pope to temporal princes or communities on subjects of
discipline or public affairs. It differs from the papal bull
in several respects, giving decisions on matters of inferior
importance, which do not require the deliberations and
assent of a conclave of cardinals. It is not signed by the
pope, but by the segretario de’ brevi, an officer of the papal
chancery. It is written on parchment, and sealed in red
wax with the pope's private seal, called the “Fishermen's
Ring” (Annulus Piscatoris).
Brief [from the Lat. brevis, “short”], in law, an abridged
statement of the plaintiff's or defendant’s case, prepared by
his attorney for the use of counsel. It should contain a
Summary of the pleadings, a concise statement of the facts
involved, the names of the witnesses, the substance of their
testimony, and usually observations by the attorney in the
nature of suggestions to counsel.
The word “brief” is also employed in this country to
indicate the sketch of the argument of counsel, which is
either used by him or submitted to the court under its rules.
“Brief” is also sometimes employed in the sense of breve,
to demote one of the writs by which all suits in the higher
courts were originally begun.
Brieg, a town of Prussia, in Silesia, on the Oder, and
on the railway from Breslau to Oppeln, 29 miles by rail
N. of Neisse. It is well built, and has a gymnasium, a
good library, and manufactures of hosiery, ribbons, lin-
ens, and woollens. Pop. in 1871, 15,367.
Brieg, in Valais. See APPENDIx.
Briel, or The Brill, a fortified seaport-town of Hol-
land, in the province of South Holland, and near the mouth
of the river Meuse, 13 miles S. S. W. of The Hague; lat.
of lighthouse, 51° 54' 11" N., lon. 4°9' 51" E. It has a
good harbor, is intersected by several canals, and contains
several magazines. The capture of this town by William
de la Marck in 1572 was the first important event in the
long contest between the Dutch and Philip II. of Spain.
Van Tromp and De Witt were born here. Pop. 4168.
Brienne, or Brienne-le-Château, called also
Brienne=Napoléon, a small town of France, in the
department of Aube, on the river Aube, 23 miles E. N. E.
of Troyes. Here was a military school in which Napoleon
I. was educated. The place derived its name from a châ-
teau built by the last count de Brienne. In Jan., 1814, a
battle was fought here between Napoleon and the allies,
commanded by Blücher and Schwarzenberg, in which the
Pop. in 1866, 2078.
Brienz, Lake of [Ger. Brienzer-See], in Switzerland,
is formed by the river Aar, at the foot of the Hasli Walley.
It is 8 miles long, 2 miles wide, and from 500 to 2100 feet
deep. The surface is 1847 feet above the level of the sea.
It is surrounded by high mountains, one of which, called
the Rothhorn, commands a grand view of the Alps. The
surplus water of this lake flows through the Aar into Lake
Thun. A small steamer plies on the lake daily.
Brier Creek of Georgia rises in Warren county, flows
south-eastward, and after a course of about 100 miles enters
the Savannah near Jacksonborough. Mar. 4, 1779, the
British, under Prevost, defeated a force of Americans, under
Gen. Ashe, on this creek.
Brier Hill, a post-village of Morristown township, St.
Lawrence co., N. Y., on the Black River and Morristown
R. R., is an active business-place. -
Brierre de Boismont (ALEXANDRE JACQUES FRAN-
çois), a French physician, born Oct. 18, 1797, has published
numerous treatises on medico-psychological subjects; among
others, “De l'Ennui,” “Sur le Suicide et la folie-suicide ’’
(rev. ed. 1865), and “Des Maladies Mentales’’ (1866).
Bries [Hum. Breznobanya], a royal free city of Hun-
gary, in the county of Sohl, 20 miles N. E. of New Sohl.
Pop. in 1869, 11,766.
Brig, a square-rigged vessel with two masts. It has a
boom mainsail, and is otherwise square-rigged—i.e. having
the sails brought to yards hung horizontally by the middle.
The hermaphrodite brig is the same with the BRIGANTINE
(which see).
BRIGADE—BRIGHTON.
631
Brigade [It. brigata, a “company ”], a group of regi-
ments or battalions combined into one body. In the Brit-
ish army it denotes a body formed by the union of two or
more regiments or battalions under one commander, called
a brigadier. It is, a temporary grouping which can be
broken up whenever the commander of the army thinks
proper. In the U. S. army two or more regiments of
infantry or cavalry may constitute a brigade; two or more
brigades under one command constitute a division, and two
or more divisions an army corps.
Brigade-Major, an officer of the British army whose
duties in a brigade are analogous to those of the adjutant
in a regiment. When regiments or battalions are formed
into a brigade, a brigade-major is detailed, usually from
among the captains. He conveys orders, keeps the roster,
inspects guards and pickets, directs exercises, etc.
Brigadier', or Brigadier-General, the commander
of a brigade; an officer who is one degree higher than a
colonel, and one lower than a major-general. In the Brit-
ish army a brigadier is an officer (usually a colonel) who
for a limited time and for a special service is appointed to
the command of a brigade. When this is broken up he
either falls back to his colonelcy, or is raised to the rank of
major-general.
Brigandine, a part of the defensive armor of the Mid-
dle Ages, was an assemblage of small plates of iron sewed
upon quilted leather or linen. It formed a sort of coat or
tunic, and derived its name from the irregular, light-armed
troops called brigans or brigands, who were addicted to
marauding and plundering.
Brigan'tes, a powerful nation of ancient Britain, in-
habiting what is now the north of England, including the
counties of Cumberland, Westmoreland, Durham, York,
and Lancaster.
Brigantine, or Hermaphºrodite Brig, a two-
masted vessel, with the main mast of a Schooner and the
foremast like that of a brig. The mainsail of a brigantime
is a fore-and-aft sail, like that of a Schooner.
Briggs (CHARLES FREDERICK), an American writer,
born at Nantucket, Mass. He became an editor of the
“New York Times,” and published, besides other works,
“The Adventures of Harry Franco, a tale of the Great
Panic” (1839), “The Haunted Merchant” (1844), and
“The Trippings of Tom Pepper” (1847).
Briggs (GEORGE NIXON), LL.D., an American lawyer
and judge, born in Adams, Mass., April 13, 1796. He was
a member of Congress for two years, and governor of Mas-
sachusetts from 1844 to 1851, and afterwards judge of the
court of common pleas. He was a distinguished philan-
thropist, and for many years president of the Baptist Mis-
sionary Union. Died Sept. 12, 1861. -
Briggs (HENRY), an English mathematician, born near
Halifax, Yorkshire, in 1556, was educated at Cambridge.
He became in 1619 Savilian professor of geometry at Ox-
ford. He made important contributions to the theory of
logarithms, and published in 1624 a great work entitled
“Arithmetica. Logarithmica,” giving the logarithms of
natural numbers from 1 to 20,000, and from 90,000 to
100,000, calculated to fourteen places. Died in 1631.
Briggs (JAMEs McPHERSON), M.D. See APPENDIX.
Brig'ham (AMARIAH), M. D., born near New Marl-
borough, Mass., Dec. 26, 1798. He became superintendent
of the lunatic asylum at Utica, N.Y., in 1842. Among his
works is “The Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of
the Brain" (1840). Died Sept. 8, 1849.
Brigham (Rev. CHARLEs H.), born in Boston, Mass.,
July 27, 1820, graduated at Harvard, was from 1844 to 1866
pastor of the First Congregational church in Taunton,
Mass., and since 1865 has been pastor of the Unitarian
church at Ann Arbor, Mich. Since 1866 he has been pro-
fessor of biblical archaeology and ecclesiastical history in
the Meadville (Pa.) Theological School. He is a prominent
member of the American Oriental Society, of the Philologi-
cal Society, and of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, and is the author of a very great
number of contributions to periodical literature.
Brigham City, a post-village, capital of Box Elder
co., Utah, near Bear River, and near the Central Pacific
R. R., about 50 miles N. of Salt Lake City. It has manu-
factures of leather, woollen goods, etc. Pop. 1315.
Bright, a post-village of Oxford co., Ontario (Canada),
on the Buffalo and Goderich branch of the Grand Trunk
Railway, has some manufactures and a postal Savings
bank. Pop. about 500. -
Bright (JESSE D.), born at Norwich, Chenango co.,
N. Y., Dec. 18, 1812, became a lawyer of Indiana, circuit
judge in the State courts, lieutenant-governor, etc., and
U. S. Senator from Indiana (1845–62). •,
tions to persons in pursuit of health and pleasure.
Bright (John), an eminent English orator and states-
man, born near Rochdale on the 16th of Nov., 1811. He
is a member of the Society of Friends. About 1840 he
became a personal and political friend of Richard Cobden,
and gained distinction as an orator of the Anti-Corn Law
League, in advocacy of which he addressed many public
meetings. He was elected a member of Parliament for the
city of Durham in 1843, and was returned for Manchester
in the general election of 1847. Cobden and Bright be-
came the principal leaders of the Manchester school or .
party, which was not identified with either of the great
political parties, but advocated a pacific foreign policy and
electoral reform. He was defeated in the election of 1857,
because he had opposed the Crimean war against Russia
and the Chinese war, but he was elected in the same year
by the Liberal voters of Birmingham, which he continued
to represent for many years. During the great civil war
in the U. S. he expressed his sympathy with the Union
cause in several eloquent speeches. After the Reform bill
of Russell and Gladstone had been rejected by the House
of Commons in 1866, Mr. Bright advocated the cause of
electoral reform by vehement speeches at immense public
meetings in London, Manchester, Birmingham, and other
places. Referring to these speeches, the “European Times”
of Dec. 8, 1866, remarked: “In all Mr. Bright's previous
career he has never put forth such extraordinary power,
such floods of the very highest order of eloquence, on the
great question of the day, as during the last four months.”
In 1867 the friends of reform triumphed, and procured the
passage of a bill granting the right of suffrage to every
householder in a borough. He entered the cabinet formed
by Mr. Gladstone in Dec., 1868, as president of the board
of trade, and resigned office on account of ill health about
Mar., 1871. As an orator he is distinguished for racy hu-
mor, passionate declamation, and nervous diction.
Bright/on, formerly Brightheimstone, a town and
fashionable watering-place of England, in Sussex, and on
the English Channel, 50 miles S. of London. It is the
southern terminus of the London and Brighton Railway.
Lat. of lighthouse, 50° 50' N., lon. 0° 8' W. It extends 3
miles along the coast, and is sheltered on the N. and N. E.
by the South Downs. To resist the inroads of the sea,
which formerly undermined the chalk-cliffs at Brighton, a
sea-wall of great strength has been constructed. It is 60
feet high, and forms an admirable promenade. In the
middle of the town, in an open space called the Steyne, is
the Pavilion or Marine Palace, a fantastic structure of
Oriental style built by the prince of Wales (George IV.).
It was finished in 1827, and is now owned by the corpora-
tion of Brighton. The town is well built, and consists
mostly of new and elegant streets and terraces. It is a
favorite resort for the aristocracy and the opulent classes,
has numerous magnificent hotels, two theatres, assembly-
rooms, and many boarding-schools. Among its institutions
are Brighton College, founded in 1847 for the education of
the sons of noblemen, a hospital, and the Sussex Literary
and Scientific Institution. Brighton returns two members
to Parliament. Steamers ply between this place and Dieppe.
A fine terrace, called the Marine Parade, extends about a
mile between the Steyne and Kempton, an eastern suburb
of Brighton. It has little or no maritime trade, and owes
its rapid increase to the salubrity of the air and its attrac-
It en-
tertains, on an average, about 20,000 visitors. Pop. in
1871, 90,013. -
Brighton, a port of entry of Northumberland co., On-
tario, Dominion of Canada, on Lake Ontario and on the
Grand Trunk Railway, 69 miles W. S. W. of Kingston.
Pop. in 1871, 1357.
Brighton, a post-township of Sacramento co., Cal.,
on the Central Pacific R. R., 5 miles E. of Sacramento. Pop.
909. * .
Brighton, a township of Cass co., Ia. Pop. 337.
Brighton, a post-village of Washington co., Ia, is in
Brighton township, 50 miles by railroad W. S. W. of Mus-
catine. It has a national bank and one weekly newspáper.
Pop. 785; of the township, 1384.
Brighton, a post-village of Macoupin co., Ill.
one weekly newspaper.
Brighton, a post-twp. of Somerset co., Me. Pop. 627.
Brighton, a former post-township and village of Mid-
dlesex co., Mass. The village is on the Boston and Albany
R. R., 5 miles W. of Boston, and has a public library, two
national and one savings bank, and one weekly newspaper.
Brighton has a celebrated cattle-market and abattoir. To-
tal pop. 4967. The town of Brighton, and also the city of
Charlestown and town of West Roxbury, were annexed to
Boston Oct. 13, 1873, to become a part of that municipality
It has
| Jan. 5, 1874.
632
BRIGHTON.—BRISSOT DE WARVILLE.
Brighton, a post-village and township of Livingston
co., Mich., 43 miles S. E. of Lansing, on the Detroit Lan-
sing and Lake Michigan R. R. The village is rapidly
growing, has good water-power, a manufactory of pumps
and cradles, a planing-mill, a foundry, a weekly newspaper,
a graded school, and a public library. Pop. 454; of town-
ship, 1440. G. W. AxTELL, Ed. “CITIZEN.” .
Brighton, a township of Franklin co., N. Y. Pop. 204.
Brighton, a post-village of Monroe co., N. Y., is in
Brighton township, on the Erie Canal and the Central R. R.,
about 4 miles E. S. E. of Rochester. Pop. of township, 4304.
Brighton, a post-township of Lorain co., O. Pop. 508.
Brighton, a township of Beaver co., Pa. The village
of Brighton is on the W. bank of Beaver River, nearly op-
posite NEW BRIGHTON (which see). Pop. 844.
Brighton, a post-township of Essex co., Vt. Pop.
1535. It has manufactures of flour and lumber.
Brighton, a post-village and township of Kenosha co.,
Wis., about 16 miles W. S. W. of Racine. Pop. 1185.
Bright’s Disease (or Ne/phria), so called after the
English physician, Dr. Bright, who first investigated its
character, consists essentially of a degeneration of epithe-
lium of the kidneys. This impairs the excreting powers
of the organ, so that the urea is not properly removed from
the blood. The disease is characterized by albumimuria.
When we apply heat and nitric acid to the urine from a kid-
ney so affected, albumen is coagulated; under the micro-
scope we observe moulds of the tubules of the diseased organ.
Headache and sickness of stomach are common symptoms,
and dropsy usually attends the disease. The retina is usu-
ally attacked by a degenerative inflammatory disease, which
impairs the sight, and is detected by the ophthalmoscope.
The causes are, indulgence in strong drinks, exposure
to wet and cold, gout, and syphilis. The indications for
treatment are, to remove any of those causes which may
be present, relieve congestion of the kidneys, at the same
time endeavoring to increase strength by iron and other
tonics. When considerable dropsy occurs, cathartics may
be called for. Bright’s disease may be either acute or
chronic. The prospect of recovery is small, but patients
sometimes attain a comfortable, but generally a precarious,
degree of health. REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Brights/ville, a township of Marlboro’ co., S. C. P. 857.
Brigittimes, or Order of the Saviour, a monastic
order affiliated with the Augustinians, founded by Saint
Bridget of Sweden in 1344. It originally included monks
and nuns, who lived in the same house, but were forbidden
to see each other. There are at present few if any Brigit-
tine monks, and not many nuns. Sion House was the only
English convent. QEcolampadius, the Reformer, was once
a Brigittine monk. -
Brignoles, a town in the S. E. of France, department
of War, is beautifully situated in a valley on the Small
river. Calami, 23 miles S. W. of Draguignan. It has a
normal school, a public library, and manufactures of broad-
cloth, silk twist, pottery, soap, and leather. Pop. 5945.
Bri'gus, a port of entry and post-town, capital of
Brigus district, Newfoundland. It has a small but good
harbor, having over 820 cod-fishing boats and 30 trading
vessels, and is visited by steamers from St. John’s. It has
a convent of Sisters of Mercy and a jail. It has consider-
able agriculture. Pop. about 2000.
Bril (PAUL), an eminent landscape-painter, was born at
Antwerp in 1556. He was a pupil of his brother Mattheus,
and worked for many years in Rome, where he died in 1626.
The Brill.
A
the light, by which it is rendered more brilliant.
from which it may be distinguished by its want of tuber-
cles on the upper surface, and by the color, which is a
reddish sandy brown on the upper side, varied with darker
brown, and sprinkled with white pearly spots. It seldom
weighs more than eight pounds.
Bril/liant [Fr. brillant], a diamond of fine quality
formed into a number of facets, so as to refract and reflect
It has a
face or flat table in the middle on the top. (See DIAMOND.)
Bril/lion, a post-township of Calumet co., Wis. P. 672.
Brim'field, a post-village and township of Peoria co.,
III., about 20 miles W. N. W. of Peoria. Pop. 1547.
Brimfield, a post-township of Hampden co., Mass.
Pop. 1288. -
Brimfield, a post-township of Portage co., O. Pop.
Brižm/stone, a commercial and common name for SUL-
PHUR (which see), by PROF. C. F. CHANDLER. 4
Brin/disi, a fortified seaport of Italy, provinee of
Lecce, situated at the head of a bay of the Adriatic, 38
miles by rail N. N. W. of Lecce; lat. of fort, 40° 39' N.,
lon. 18° 1' E. The ancient Brundisium was taken from
the Sallentines by the Romans in 267 B. C., and was
afterwards the principal naval station of the Romans
on the Adriatic. It had an excellent landlocked har-
bor, and was long one of the most important maritime
cities of Italy. It was the port from which the Romans
embarked on the voyage to Greece. Virgil died here in 19
B. C. The crusaders used it as their chief port of embarka-
tion to the Holy Land. The harbor having become choked
with sand, its importance greatly declined. Here is a medi-
aeval cathedral and an ancient castle. The large steamers
of the Peninsular and Oriental Company now enter this
port, which has recently been improved. Since 1860 the
government has dredged the harbor, so that a depth of
nearly six fathoms has been obtained, and has constructed
two breakwaters and about 3000 feet of quay. The posi-
tion of Brindisi has been rendered very advantageous
for commerce by the opening of the Suez Canal. A rail-
way extends from this town along the coast to Ancona,
Milan, etc. Pop. 8403.
Brind’ley (JAMEs), an eminent English mechanic and
engineer, born at Thornset, in Derbyshire, in 1716. He
made improvements in the machinery of mills, and was the
engineer of a canal projected by the duke of Bridgewater
from Worsley to Manchester, and completed in 1761. This
was the first navigable canal made in England. He was
employed as engineer of other canals. Died Sept. 27,
1772. *
Brine Shrimp, an active, translucent crustacean, the
Artemia salina, a branchiopod one inch long, found espe-
cially in the half-evaporated sea-water of the salt-works
of Lymington, England. The workmen believe that these
animals clarify the brines, and they therefore are careful to
put them into such brines as appear to be without them.
They breed rapidly and become very numerous. Artemia
fertilis is extremely abundant in the Great Salt Lake.
Brink/ley’s, a twp. of Somerset co., Md. Pop. 2536.
Brinvilliers (MARIE MARGUERITE D’AUBRAY), MAR-
CHIONESS OF, a French woman motorious as a poisoner, was
married in 1651 to the marquis de Brinvilliers. She poisoned
her father, her sisters, and two of her brothers. For these
crimes she was tried and put to death July 16, 1676.
Brion (GUSTAvP), a French artist of considerable repu-
tation, was born at Rothau (Vosges) in 1824. His princi-
pal pictures are the “Potato Harvest during the Inunda-
tion,” 1853; “A Funeral in the Vosges,” 1855;
“A Marriage in Alsace;” “Jesus and Peter on the
Water,” 1863; “The Dance of the Cock” (Alsace),
1872. A picture by M. Brion, “The Sixth Day of
Creation,” exhibited in the Salon in 1867, was
brought to New York in 1872, where it attracted
much attention. Brion is an earnest painter, most
at home in scenes in which the half-German, half
French peasantry of Alsace take part. C. C.
Bris/bane, a seaport and the capital of Queens-
land, Australia, on Brisbane River, about 20 miles
# from its entrance into Moreton Bay, and about 600
miles N. by E. of Sidney. Wool and other pro-
duce are exported from this place. It is connected
by rail with Ipswich and Dalby, and is in direct
steamship communication with London and Liver-
pool. It is the seat of an Anglican and a Roman
Catholic bishop. Pop. in 1871, 19,413.
Brissot de Warville (JEAN PIERRE), an emi-
nent French Girondist and political writer, born
coasts, and esteemed as food, though inferior to the turbot, near Chartres Jan. 14, 1754. He published in 1780 a “Theory


BRISTED–BRISTOL CHANNEL.
of Criminal Laws.” In 1785 he was unjustly imprisoned in
the Bastile for about four months. With the aid of his friends
he founded about 1788, the “Society of the Friends of the
Negroes,” and visited the U. S. to promote the abolition of
the slave-trade. After his return to France he founded and
edited the “Patriote Français,” an able republican journal.
In 1791 he was elected to the National Assembly by the
voters of Paris. He was so prominent a leader of the
Girondists that they were often called Brissotins. Having
been elected to the Convention, he opposed the execution
of the king. He was guillotined in Paris Oct. 31, 1793.
(See BRIssot's “Mémoires pour servir à l’Histoire de la
Révolution,” published by his son, 4 vols., 1830.)
Bris/ted (CHARLEs AsTor), son of the following, born
in New York Oct. 6, 1820, educated at Yale College, New
IHaven, and Trinity College, Cambridge, author of an edition
of Catullus (1849), “Five Years in an English University”
(1851, revised 1872), “The Upper Ten Thousand ” (1852),
“Pieces of a Broken-down Critic” (1858), “The Inter-
ference Theory of Government” (1867), “Anacreontics”
(1872), and a frequent contributor to leading periodicals.
Died at Washington, D. C., Jan. 14, 1874.
Bristed (John), an Episcopal clergyman, born in 1779
in Dorsetshire, England, educated at Winchester School, re-
moved to America in 1806, and practised law in New York,
studied divinity and was ordained in the Episcopal Church.
He was author of “Resources of the British Empire,” “Re-
sources of the U. S.,” and “Anglo-American Churches.”
Died at Bristol, R. I., in 1854.
Bris’tle [Lat. Seta], the name of the stiff strong hairs
which grow on the backs of swine, and are used exten-
sively in the manufacture of brushes; also by shoemakers
and saddlers as substitutes for needles. Bristles are an
important article of commerce. There is a great variety
in their color and quality. The white are considered the
most valuable. The best bristles are obtained from the
hogs of cold climates, as from Russia.
Bris' tol, an important maritime city of England, situ-
ated on the Avon at its confluence with the Frome, 8 miles
from the sea, 11% miles by rail N. W. of Bath, and 118 miles
by rail W. of London; lat. 51° 27' N., lon. 20 35' W. It
is chiefly in the county of Gloucester, and partly in Somer-
setshire, and it occupies several hills and valleys. It is
the terminus of the Great Western, the Bristol and Exeter,
and the Midland Railways. Bristol returns two members
to Parliament. Among its remarkable buildings are the
cathedral, which was founded about 1150; the fine church
of St. Mary Redcliffe, which was completed in 1376; the
Temple church, which has a leaning tower; the guildhall;
the exchange, used as a corn-market; and the new general
hospital. The modern portions of Bristol, including Clif-
ton and other suburbs, consist of handsome residences in
squares, terraces, crescents, and detached villas. This city
has a public library, a bishop's college, a medical school,
an infirmary, an asylum for the blind, an asylum for deaf-
mutes, and other benevolent institutions. The Avon here,
though narrow, is deep enough for large vessels. About
£650,000 have been expended in turning this river into a
new course, and its old channel now forms a harbor fur-
nished with locks and quays 6000 feet long. Bristol was
the first British port between which and the U. S. a regular
communication by steam was established. It has an exten-
sive trade with Canada, the U. S., the West Indies, France,
Russia, the shores of the Mediterranean, etc. . The chief
articles of export are copper, iron, brass, coal, salt, and
manufactured goods. The manufactures of this city are
chiefly cotton goods, refined sugar, glass, woollen goods,
chemical products, machinery, and earthenware. Here are
extensive shipyards, which turn out excellent vessels. This
place was called Caer-oder by the Britons, and Bricstowe or
Briestow by the Anglo-Saxons. A fortified town existed
here as early as 500 A. D. It was formerly the second com-
mercial city in England. During the civil war it was taken
alternately by Royalists and Roundheads. Among the dis-
tinguished natives of Bristol were Sebastian Cabot and the
poets Chatterton and Southey. Pop. in 1871, 182,524.
Bristol, a county in the S. E. of Massachusetts. Area,
517. Square miles. It is bounded on the S. by Buzzard's
Bay, and is drained by the Taunton River and other
streams, which afford water-power. It has many good
harbors on the sea-coast. The surface is nearly level; the
soil is partly fertile. Garden products, wool, and grain
are raised. The manufactures of iron, cotton and woollen
goods, etc. are very important. It is intersected by several
railroads. Capitals, Taunton and New Bedford. Pop.
102,886.
Bristol, a county in the E. of Rhode Island. Area, 25
Square miles. It is washed on several sides by Narragan-
sett Bay and Mount Hope Bay, and has great facilities for
navigation and the fisheries. The soil is fertile, and the
633
surface is finely diversified. Hay, grain, garden products,
and wool are raised. It is intersected by the Providence
Warren and Bristol R. R. Capital, Bristol. Pop. 9421.
Bristol, a post-village of Hartford co., Conn., in Bris-
tol township, on the Hartford Providence and Fishkill R.R.,
18 miles W. S. W. of Hartford. It has one weekly paper,
“a large manufacture of clocks, several foundries, machine-
shops, stocking-mills, and a printing-office. Pop. of town-
ship, 3788. ED. OF “ BRISTOL PRESS.”
Bristol, a post-village, capital of Liberty co., Fla., 59
miles S. W. of Tallahassee.
Bristol, a post-village and township of Kendall co.,
Ill., on Fox River and the Chicago Burlington and Quincy
R. R., 49 miles W. S. W. of Chicago. Pop. 1352.
Bristol, a post-village and township of Worth co., Ia,
is about 20 miles S. of Albert Lea, Minn. Pop. 503.
Bristol, a post-village of Washington township, Elk-
hart co., Ind. Pop. 681.
Bristol, a post-township of Lincoln co., Me., on the
Atlantic Ocean. It has important manufactures of lum-
ber, fish oil, barrels, etc. It is on the site of the old city
and port of Pemaquid, and was first settled in 1625, unless,
as is believed by some, the Dutch settled here still earlier.
Pop. 2916.
Bristol, a township of Fillmore co., Minn. Pop. 993.
Bristol, a post-township of Grafton co., N. H., on the
Bristol branch of the Northern R. R. This town has a
deposit of good graphite, and a mineral spring. It has
manufactures of leather, lumber, gloves, paper, hosiery,
flannels, etc. It has a high school and a savings bank.
Pop. 1416.
Bristol, a post-township of Ontario co., N. Y. P. 1551.
Bristol, a post-township of Morgan co., O. Pop. 1469.
Bristol, a township of Trumbull co., O. Pop. 983.
Bristol, a post-borough of Bucks co., Pa., on the Dela-
ware River, 19 miles above Philadelphia, and nearly oppo-
site Burlington, N. J. It is on the Philadelphia and
Trenton R. R., and has almost hourly communication with
Philadelphia by steamboats. Here is a national bank, a
valuable mineral spring, and one quarterly and one weekly
newspaper. Pop. 3269; of township, 2040.
Bristol, a port of entry and capital of Bristol co., R.I.,
is on Narragansett Bay, 16 miles S. S. E. of Providence
and 7 miles S. W. of Fall River. It has a good harbor,
which is easy of access and will admit large vessels. It is
on the Providence Warren and Bristol R. R. A beautiful
eminence called Mount Hope rises about 300 feet high in
Bristol township, which has an area of 12 square miles.
It has two national banks, and manufactures of cotton
goods and other articles. It has one weekly newspaper.
Pop. of Bristol township, 5302. '
Bristol, a city of Sullivan co., Tenn., is situated partly
in Washington co., Va., on the East Tennessee Virginia and
Georgia R. R., 130 miles E. N. E. of Knoxville. It is a
thriving place, and the seat of King College. It has one
weekly and one monthly newspaper in Tennessee, and one
weekly newspaper in Virginia.
Bristol, a post-township and village of Addison co.,
Vt., about 25 miles S. of Burlington. It has an academy,
and manufactures of lumber, furniture, barrel staves, boxes,
sash and blinds, agricultural tools, etc. Pop. 1365.
Bristol, a township of Dame co., Wis. Pop. 1274.
Bristol, a post-village in Bristol township, Kenosha
co., Wis., is on a railroad, 12 miles W. by S. of Kenosha.
Pop. of the township, 1140.
Bristol, MARQUESSEs or (1826, in the United King-
dom), earls of Bristol (1714, in Great Britain), Earls Jer-
myn (1826, in the United Kingdom), and Barons Hervey
, (1703, in England), a noble family of Great Britain.--
FREDERICK WILLIAM JoHN HERVEY, the third marquess,
born June 28, 1834, succeeded his father in 1864. He was
member of Parliament for West Suffolk 1859–64.
Bristol Bay, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean, in North
America, between Cape Newnham and the peninsula of
Alaska. -
Bristol Brick, or Bath Brick, a variety of brick
used for scouring steel table-cutlery and other polished
steel surfaces. It is made at various places in England
and the U. S., a peculiar fine sånd being used in the
manufacture.
Bristol Channel, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, in
the S. W. part of England, is bounded on the N. by Wales
and on the S. by Somerset and Devonshire. At the E. end
it communicates with the estuary of the Severn. It is the
largest inlet of Great Britain, and has a coast-line of 220
miles. The tides rise here to an extraordinary height—at
634
PRISTOW–BRIVE,
Bristol about forty, and at Chepstow sometimes seventy,
feet. The principal bays are Swansea Bay, Caermarthen
Bay, Cardiff Road, the Severn Estuary, and Barnstable Bay.
Bristow (BENJAMIN H.). See APPENDIx.
Bristow Sta/tion, a post-village of Prince William
co., Va., on the Orange and Alexandria, R. R., 4 miles
W. S. W. of Manassas Junction. A severe engagement
took place here the afternoon of Aug. 27, 1862, between the
U. S. forces under Gen. Hooker and the Confederates under
Gen. Ewell, darkness closing the conflict, with severe loss
on both sides. On Oct. 14, 1863, the Confederate general
A. P. Hill attacked the force under command of Gen. G. K.
Warren, U. S. army, at this place; the attack was hand-
somely repulsed by Warren, who captured several pieces of
artillery and many prisoners.
Brit, the Clupea minima, a very small species of herring
found on the coasts of New England and the British prov-
inces of North America. It occurs in immense shoals, but
is only from one to four inches long, and is chiefly import-
ant as furnishing food to larger fishes.
Britan/mia, the ancient name of the island of Great
Britain. It was inhabited by rude, uncivilized tribes of
Britons (Lat. Britanni), who were perhaps, but not prob-
ably, the aborigines, when Julius Caesar invaded the island
in 55 B. C. Their religion was a sanguinary Druidism.
Many of the Britons were Cymric Celts, while those
of the northern part were probably largely Gaelic. (See
BRITON.) They obstinately resisted the Roman invaders,
but without success, and the southern half of the island
was conquered by the armies of Vespasian. In the reign
of Domitian, Agricola extended Roman power to Scotland,
and erected a chain of forts between the friths of Clyde
and Forth about 84A. D. The northern part of the island
was inhabited by the Caledonians and Picts, whom the Ro-
mans failed to subdue. These warlike barbarians made
frequent inroads into the southern province, to obviate
which the Romans built the wall of Antoninus about 140
A. D. Another rampart, called the Wall of Hadrian, ex-
tending from Solway Frith to the mouth of the Tyne, was
completed by Severus about 210 A. D. The part of the
island S. of this wall was for several centuries under the
dominion of the Romans, who founded many towns (muni-
cipia), and diffused Roman culture, arts, and civilization
in the country. They made numerous roads from London
to the provinces, the remains of which are still visible.
Many parts of England abound in Roman antiquities, in-
cluding remains of camps, baths, mosaic pavements, weap-
ons, ornaments, utensils, pottery, sculptures, and coins. It
appears that the Romans intended to keep Britain as a
permanent conquest, but in consequence of the internal
disorders and external dangers that menaced the stability
of the Roman empire, the legions were withdrawn from
the island about 420 A.D., soon after which it was invaded
and conquered by the Saxons. It is said that Caesar was
the first who gave the name Britannia to this island, which
before his time was called Albion. The term Britannicæ
Insulae, however, was applied to the British Islands collec-
tively before Caesar invaded Albion. Britannia is usually
personified in the fine arts as a woman seated on an insu-
lated rock, leaning on a shield and holding in her hand a
spear or trident. (See CAMDEN, “Britannia; ” HoRSELEY,
“Britannia Romana.”)
Britan/nia Met/al, an alloy of tin with a little anti-
mony, zinc, and copper, is largely used in the manufacture
of coffee-pots, tea-pots, and other vessels. It is harder than
pewter, and not so easily indented or bent. The propor-
tions of the metals combined to make this alloy are various.
The average composition in 100 parts is—tin, 85% ; anti-
mony, 10%; zinc, 3; and copper, 1. The present composi-
tion of the alloy used at Birmingham, England, is stated
to be 90 of tin, 8 of antimony, 2 of copper.
British Amer/ica is usually applied to that portion
of North America which lies N. of the parallel 49° N., ex-
cept Alaska. It also extends several degrees farther S.,
where the great lakes form the boundary between it and
the U. S. It is bounded on the N. by the Arctic Ocean,
on the E. by the Atlantic and Davis Strait, on the S. by
the U. S., and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean and Alaska.
The Rocky Mountain chain extends through the western
part. The principal rivers are the St. Lawrence, the
Mackenzie, the Saskatchewan, and the Churchill. It con-
tains several large lakes—namely, Winnipeg, Athabasca,
and Great Slave Lake, and includes a large inland sea,
named Hudson's Bay. This vast region was formerly di-
vided into numerous territories or provinces, but in 1873
the whole of it had been admitted into the Dominion of
Canada, with the exception of Newfoundland and Labrador.
BRITISH AMERICA, in a more extended sense, comprises
all the British possessions in America, including British
Guiana, the British West Indies, etc.
British Burmah. See BURMAH, BRITISH.
British Colum/bia, a province of the Dominion of
Canada, is bounded on the S. by the U. S. (Washington,
Idaho, and Montana), on the E. by the Rocky Mountains,
and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. It includes the im-
portant islands of Queen Charlotte and Vancouver (which
last was formerly by itself a British colony). British Co-
lumbia was united to Canada in 1871. The soil of portions
of the province near the sea is good, and the climate mild,
though rainy; but in the interior the surface is extremely
rugged and the climate is severe. The coast-line is cha-
racterized by remarkable fiords, called “canals,” which are
often walled in by mountains. Furs are largely exported.
There is much valuable timber, and the fisheries promise
to become important. Cod, haddock, herring, halibut,
trout, sturgeon, anchovies, and especially salmon, abound.
There is much fine grazing-land. Large amounts of gold
have been obtained here, and silver, copper, zinc, mercury,
coal, and marble are found. Estimated area, 240,000 square
miles. Capital, Victoria. Pop. in 1871, exclusive of In-
dians, 14,043. Total pop. estimated at 50,000. The best
harbor is at Esquimault. British Columbia has an Angli-
can bishop, whose seat is at New Westminster.
Certain islands in the Strait of San Juan de Fuca, hav-
ing been claimed by both the U. S. and Great Britain, were
held under joint military occupation until Oct., 1872, when
by a decision of the emperor William I. of Germany, to
whom the dispute was referred, they became U. S. territory.
These islands, of which San Juan is the most important,
are ten in number. Their entire population in 1870, ex-
clusive of the garrisons, was 554.
British Empire. See GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND.
British Guiana. See GUIANA.
British Gum. See DExTRINE, by PROF. C. F. CHAN-
DLER, PH. D., LL.D. -
British India. See INDIA.
Brit/ish Muse'um, The, in London, was established
in 1753 by act of Parliament in pursuance of a bequest of
Sir Hans Sloane to the nation of his cabinets of natural
history and library, numbering 50,000 volumes, in return for
a sum of £20,000 to be paid to his heirs. The palace of
the duke of Montague. on Russel street was purchased for
the reception of the collection. In 1801 the Elgin Marbles,
in 1823 the library of George III., containing 80,000 vol-
umes, were added to the museum, and it has been subse-
quently enriched by the Granville library, the Sir William
Temple coin cabinets, the Layard and Loftus collection of
Assyrian, and the Lady Webster collection of Mexican, an-
tiquities, and other extensive accessions. The building was
in 1823–47 enlarged and renovated at a cost of £150,000.
The library numbers at present 750,000 volumes, besides
41,180 MSS. and 33,000 documents and state papers. The
collections of antiquities are altogether the completest, in
Europe. The museum contains also the finest collection
of vases, among them the famous Portland Vase, and the
largest collections of Greek and Roman sculpture in the
world, and the cabinets of natural objects embrace every
province of science.
Brit' on, a native or citizen of ancient Britain or BRI-
TANNIA (which see); a name given to the aboriginal or
ancient inhabitants of that island. When Caesar invaded
Albion about 54 B.C., he found in it two different peoples.
The interior was occupied by the primitive or indigenous
Celtic inhabitants, who had been driven back from the
coasts by a people of probable Gothic descent. The latter
had colonized the S.E. part of the island, and were less
numerous than the Celtic Britons. The language of the
Southern Celtic Britons was very similar to the present
Welsh. “The Gaels and Britons,” says R. G. Latham,
“are the fundamental populations of the British Isles. The
Picts were either aboriginal or intrusive. If aboriginal,
they were like the Gaels and Britons, Keltic.” (See PICTs.)
When Caesar invaded the island, the Britons were divided
into a number of petty kingdoms or states. Some of these
were called Silures, Brigantes, Ordovices, Trinobantes, and
Cantii. Their religion was Druidism. (See DRUIDS.) The
primitive Britons were brave and warlike, but, in conse-
quence of their divisions, they were conquered by the Ro-
mans without much difficulty. They were rude barbarians, .
who painted their bodies blue. The term Briton is often
applied to a modern inhabitant of Great Britain.
Brittamy. See BRETAGNE.
Brit/ton’s Neck, a post-township of Marion co., S.C.
Pop. 884.
Britt’s, a township of Robeson co., N. C. Pop. 1159.
Brive, or Brives-la-Gaillarde, a town of France,
department of Corrèze, is situated in a rich plain on the
river Corrèze, 44 miles by rail E. of Périgueux. It has
BROADALBIN–BROCKEN, THE.
635
manufactures of muslims, woollen stuffs, silk handkerchiefs,
etc.; also a college and public library. Pop. 10,389.
Broadal'bin, a post-township of Fulton co., N. Y.
It contains several mills and factories. Pop. 2492.
1Broad Arrow, the British government mark placed
upon all solid materials used in ships or dockyards, to pre-
vent embezzlement of royal stores. The origin of the mark
is obscure. Before 1698 the authorities prosecuted a dealer
in marine-stores for having in his possession certain stores
bearing the broad arrow of his majesty. The defendant,
when asked what he had to say, replied that it was very
curious that the king and he should both have the same
private mark on their property. The man was acquitted,
and this led to the passing of a law that persons in pos-
session of stores or goods of any kind marked with the
broad arrow shall forfeit all such goods, with £200 and
COStS.
Broad Bay, a township of Forsyth co., N. C. Pop. 993.
Broad'cast, in agriculture, is a method of sowing
seeds by casting or scattering them abroad, so as to dis-
tribute them evenly over the entire surface of the soil, in-
stead of planting them in drills or rows. The operation
of sowing broadcast is generally performed by the hand
of a man, who carries the seeds in a bag or basket. Clover
and timothy seeds are usually sown in this method. In
the U. S., wheat, barley, and oats are often sown broadcast.
Broad'cloth, a woollen fabric about four and a half
feet wide, extensively used for coats. The best quality of
this article is manufactured in France, Germany, and
England. *
Broad Creek, a hundred of Sussex co., Del. Pop. 3480.
Broad/dus (Rev. ANDREW), D. D., born in Caroline co.,
Va., Nov. 4, 1770, died Dec. 1, 1848. The “ Dover Selec-
tion’ of hymns and the “Virginia Collection,” compiled
by him, were long popular in several States; and he “was
commonly regarded as the most eloquent preacher ever
known in Virginia.” A rare timidity led him to decline
the pastorate of leading Baptist churches in Boston, New
York, Philadelphia, and various Southern cities, and he
lived and died a country pastor. Some of his sermons,
with a memoir by J. B. JETER, D. D., were published in
New York in 1852.
Broad'hagen, a post-village of Logan township,
Perth co., Ontario (Canada), 60 miles N. of London. It
has a weekly paper. Pop. about 200.
Broad/Riln, a hundred of Sussex co., Del. Pop. 2419.
Broad Mountain, a high ridge in the anthracite
coal-region of Pennsylvania, in Carbon and Schuylkill
cos. It has an altitude of about 2000 feet above the sea,
and is nearly 50 miles long. Its direction is nearly N. E.
and S. W. The Mine Hill R. R. crosses this mountain.
Broad River of the U. S. rises at the foot of the Blue
Ridge, in the W. part of North Carolina. Having entered
South Carolina, it flows in a S. S. E. direction through fer-
tile uplands, and unites with the Saluda at Columbia to
form the Congaree. Total length, estimated at 150 miles.
Broad River, a township of McDowell co., N. C. Pop.
399.
Broad River, a township of Lexington co., S. C.
Pop. 1116.
Broad River, a township of York co., S. C. Pop. 1455.
Broad Run, a township of Loudon co., Va. Pop. 2582.
Broad'side, in naval warfare, is the simultaneous dis-
charge of all the guns on one side of a ship of war. The
fighting power of a ship is sometimes estimated by the
weight of her broadside. That of some British war-
steamers amounts to 2400 pounds. In printing, a broad-
side is a sheet of paper containing one large page or
printed on one side only.
Broad's word, a sword with a broad blade, adapted
for gutting, but not for stabbing. It is not sharp-pointed.
The broadsword was especially used in Scotland.
Broad Top, a township of Bedford co., Pa. Pop. 1626.
Broad Top, a post-village of Carbon township, Hunt-
ingdon co., Pa., near the E. terminus of the Broad Top
City branch of the Huntingdon and Broad Top R. R.
Pop. 327.
Broad Top Mountain, Pennsylvania, is in the N. E.
part of Bedford co. and the S. part of Huntingdon. It
rises about 2500 feet above the level of the sea. Here are
extensive beds of bituminous coal, for the transportation
of which a railroad has been opened from this mountain to
Huntingdon.
Broad/us (John ALBERT), D. D., LL.D., born Jan. 24,
1827, in Culpeper co., Va., graduated at the University
of Virginia in 1850, was assistant professor in that univer-
sity in 1851–53, its chaplain in 1855–57, and pastor of
the Baptist church in Charlottesville, Va., (the seat of the
university), from 1851 to 1859, since which time he has
been professor of the interpretation of the New Testament
and of homiletics in the Southern Baptist. Theological
Seminary, Greenville, S. C. In 1870 he published an ex-
cellent “Treatise on the Preparation and Delivery of Ser-
mons,” which has passed through several editions, and was
republished in London.
Broad/way, a township of Anderson co., S. C. Pop.
1378.
Broad'well, a post-township of Logan co., Ill. Pop.
920.
Brocade [It. broccatal, a silk fabric variegated with
gold and silver threads, or a silk fabric on which figures of
flowers, foliage, or other objects are formed by the threads
of the warp and woof being raised by the Jacquard loom or
other means. Brocade bears nearly the same relation to
silk textures as damask to limen fabrics.
Broc'chi (GIov ANNI BATTISTA), an Italian naturalist,
born at Bassano Feb. 18, 1772. He published, besides
other works, “Sub-Apennine Fossil Conchology, with
Geological Observations on the Apennines, etc.” (2 vols.,
1814). During a journey to Sennaar he died at Khartoom,
on the Nile, Sept. 28, 1826.
Broc/coli, a highly-esteemed garden vegetable, a va-
riety of the cabbage (Brassica oleracea). It has consider-
able resemblance to cauliflower, from which it differs by the
purple or green color of its heads, and its greater hardness. .
It is propagated by sowing the seeds in the spring or in
autumn, and transplanting the young plants once or twice.
The leaves are often tinged with purple. There are several
kinds of broccoli, some of which are preferred for sowing in
early spring. Others are sown in autumn, and are ready
for use in the ensuing spring.
Brock (Sir TsAAc), a British general, born Oct. 6, 1769,
who in 1812 captured General Hull and his army at De-
troit. He was killed at the battle of Queenstown Oct. 13,
1812.
Brock/en, The, or Blocks/berg (anc. Mons Bruc-
terus), a mountain of Prussia, in the province of Saxony, 20
miles W. S. W. of Halberstadt, is the highest summit of the
Hartz Mountains, and is 3740 feet above the level of the
sea. It is cultivated nearly to the top, which commands a
fine view in clear weather. The Brocken is the cradle of
many popular superstitions. It is, according to an ancient
#3 &#3: É;
The Spectre of the Brocken.
belief, the scene of the annual dance of the witches on Wal-
purgis Night (May 1st). This superstition, in all proba-
bility, owes its origin to the phenomenon known as “The
Spectre of the Brocken,” seen here and elsewhere, which is





636 BROCKETT–PROILING.
simply the reflection of the forms of men and other objects
against the sky, the vapors of the atmosphere acting as a
vast concave mirror; hence the objects reflected are seen
greatly magnified.
Brock/ett (LINUs PIERPONT), A. M., M. D., born Oct. 16,
1820, at Canton, Hartford co., Conn., educated at Suffield
Literary Institution and Brown University, entering the
latter in 1837. He studied medicine in New Haven, Conn.,
Washington, D. C., and New York City, and graduated as
M. D. from Yale Medical College in 1843. After practising
his profession for some years, he devoted himself to literary
pursuits at Hartford, Conn., and from 1847 to 1857 was
partner in a publishing-house in that city. Resuming
literary labor in 1856, he has been since connected with
several religious newspapers, was a large contributor to the
“New American Cyclopaedia,” and has had charge of
several departments in the “American Annual Cyclopaedia.”
from its beginning in 1862 to the present time. In 1857,
Amherst College conferred on him the honorary degree of
A. M. He has published many works, among which the
following are best known: “Geographical History of New
York,” 1847 (with J. H. Mather); “History of Education,”
1859; “The National Almanac for 1863;” “History of the
Civil War” (with S. M. Schmucker), 3 vols., and 1 vol. 8vo,
1866; “Our Great Captains,” 1865; “Philanthropic Re-
sults of the Civil War,” 1864; “Woman’s Work in the
Civil War,” 1867; “Men of Our Day,” 1868 (revised and
mostly written anew, 1872); “Woman, her Rights, Wrongs,
Privileges, and Responsibilities,” 1869; “The Year of
Battles, a History of the Franco-German War of 1870–71,”
1871; and “Epidemic and Contagious Diseases: their His-
tory, Symptoms, and Treatment,” 1873. He has also edited
and largely rewritten “A Hundred Years’ Progress of the
U. S.,” 1871–73; the American biographies of “Men of
the Time,” 8th ed., London, 1872; “Una and her Pau-
Wi. 1872; “The Thorough Business-Man: Life of
alter Powell,” 1873; and has been a frequent contributor
to magazine and review literature, etc.
Brockett’s Bridge, a post-village of Manheim town-
ship, Herkimer co., and Oppenheim township, Fulton co.,
N. Y., on East Canada Creek, has a cheese-factory, box-
shop, tannery, and two churches.
Brock/haus (FRIEDRICH ARNOLD), an eminent German
publisher, born at Dortmund May 4, 1772. He was the
founder of the firm of Brockhaus in Leipsic, and published
six editions of the “Conversations-Lexikon.” Ho was
distinguished for his literary culture, enterprise, and
patriotism. He became a citizen of Leipsic in 1817. Died
Aug. 20, 1823.−HEINRICH, a son of the preceding, was
born at Amsterdam Feb. 4, 1804. He succeeded his father
as proprietor of the publishing-house, and published new
editions of the “Conversations-Lexikon.”
Brock/port, a post-village of Monroe co., N.Y., on the
Erie Canal and the New York Central R. R., 17 miles W.
of Rochester. It is in the heart of a wealthy and populous
farming country. It has two well-sustained newspapers,
eight churches, and two banks. It has an extensive trade
in beans. A State normal school, accommodating from
400 to 500 students, is located here; also the Johnston
harvester-works (200 men employed) and Seymour & Mor-
gan mower and reaper works (150 men employed), Ithaca
wheel-rake works, and other manufactories. Pop. 2817.
JoHNSON BRIGHAM, ED. “BROCKPORT DEMOCRAT.”
Brock’s, a township of Etowah co., Ala. Pop. 490.
Brock’s, a township of Henry co., Ala. Pop. 663.
Brock’s Gap, a tp. of Rockingham co., Va. P. 1366.
Brock/ton, a tp. and post-v. of Plymouth co., Mass.;
was incorporated as North Bridgewater in 1821, and in 1874
received its present name; is a handsome, compact town, 20
miles S. of Boston on the Old Colony R. R.; is one of the first
towns in the county for wealth and population, and is an im-
portant business-centre. The manufacture of boots and shoes
is a leading industry; furniture, carriages, needles and shoe-
tools, etc. are also manufactured. Its annual business ex-
ceeds $10,000,000; has a national and savings bank, 4 hotels,
newspaper, 9 churches, public library, and an efficient fire de-
partment; and is the seat of courts for the first Plymouth
district. Pop. 8007. A. T. Jon Es, E.D. “ GAZETTE.”
Brock/ville, a port of entry of Ontario, Canada, cap-
ital of the county of Leeds, on the St. Lawrence River and
the Grand Trunk Railway, 125 miles by railway S. W. of
Montreal and 75 miles by railway S. of Ottawa. Hardware,
chemicals, white lead, gloves, farming tools, steam-engines,
and machinery are manufactured here. It is the Southern
terminus of the Brockville and Ottawa Railway. It is
connected by ferry with Morristown, N. Y., and has three
weekly papers. Pop. in 1871, 5102.
Brock'way, a post-tp. of St. Clair co., Mich. P.1330.
-mº
*rockway, a post-township of Stearns co., Minn. Pop.
478.
Brock/wayville, a post-village of Jefferson co., Pa.
It has one weekly newspaper. *
Broc'ton, a post-village of Portland township, Chautau-
qua co., N. Y., at the junction of the Lake Shore and Buf-
falo Corry and Pittsburg R. Rs. It is the seat of a religious
community established here in 1867 by T. L. Harris. P. 329.
Bro’ derick (DAv1D CoIBRETH), an American Senator,
born at Washington, D. C., in 1818. Having removed to
California in 1849, he was elected a Senator of the U. S. by
the Democrats in 1856. He opposed the extension of
slavery, and in 1858 ceased to act with the Democratic
party. He was killed in a duel by Judge Terry, a political
opponent, near San Francisco, Sept. 21, 1859.
Brod'head, an incorporated village of Decatur town-
ship, Green co., Wis., beautifully situated on Sugar River
and on the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., 90 miles W. of
Milwaukee, has a large graded school, five churches, a
printing-office, a national bank, a foundry, machine-shops,
wagon and carriage factories, large flouring mill, etc., one
weekly paper, and an extensive trade. The country sur-
rounding is exceedingly fertile. Pop. 1548.
E. O. KIMBERLEY, PUB. “BRODHEAD INDEPENDENT.”
Brod/head (John Romſey'N), LL.D., an American his-
torian, son of Rev. Dr. Jacob Brodhead, was born in
Philadelphia Jan. 2, 1814, graduated at Rutgers College in
1831, and was admitted to the bar in New York City in
1835. After two years he began to devote himself to the
study of American history. In 1839 he went to Holland
as secretary of the U. S. legation at The Hague. In 1841
he was appointed by Governor Seward to search out and
copy documents relating to the early history of New York.
When he returned in 1844 he brought with him more than
5000 separate documents, which led Mr. Bancroft to say that
“the ship in which he returned was more richly freighted
with new materials for American history than any that had
ever crossed the Atlantic.” These documents were after-
wards published in eleven quarto volumes. From 1846 to
1849 he was secretary of legation under Mr. Bancroft in
London. From 1853 to 1857 he was naval officer of the
port of New York, and in 1855 declined the appointment of
consul-general to Japan. Years of patient labor were be-
stowed upon his “History of the State of New York,” the
first volume of which appeared in 1853, and the second in
1871. After two or three years of declining health, he died
in New York City May 6, 1873. He was a high-toned
Christian scholar and gentleman. As an historian he was
scrupulously exact and fair.
Bro/die (Sir BENJAMIN Collins), D. C. L., F. R. S., an
English surgeon, born in Wiltshire June 9, 1783, became in
1832 surgeon to William IV., and was created a baronet in
1834. Among his works are “Lectures on Local Nervous
Affections” (1837) and “Psychological Inquiries as to the
Mental Faculties” (1854). He received the Copley medal of
the Royal Society in 1811 for his contributions to physiol-
ogy. Died Oct. 21, 1862. (See his “Autobiography,” 1865.)
Bro’dy, formerly called Lubicz, a trading town of
Austria, in Galicia, is near the Russian frontier, 50 miles
E. N. E. of Lemberg. It has an imperial chamber, a the-
atre, and a castle; also manufactures of linen and leather.
The majority of its inhabitants are Jews. It has an exten-
sive trade with Russia, Poland, and Turkey. Pop. 18,733.
Prog/dem, a township of Wayne co., N. C. Pop. 2560.
Broglie, de (ACHILLE LíoNCE VICTOR CHARLEs), DUC,
a French statesman, was born in Paris Nov. 28, 1785. He
married in 1816 the daughter of Madame de Staël. He was
a friend of Guizot, and co-operated with him as a leader of
the party called Doctrinaires. He was minister of foreign
affairs from Oct., 1832, to April, 1834. In 1849 he was a
conservative member of the Legislative Assembly. He was
elected to the Academy in 1856. Died Jan. 26, 1870.
Broglie, de (ALBERT), PRINCE, a writer and diplomat-
ist, a son of the preceding, was born June 15, 1821. He
wrote, besides other works, “The Church and the Ro-
man Empire in the Fourth Century” (2 yols., 1856), “La
Souveraineté pontificale et la Liberté’ (1861), and “La
Liberté divine et la Liberté humaine” (1865). He was ap-
pointed minister to London by M. Thiers in Feb., 1871, and
became minister of foreign affairs in the MacMahon admin-
istration in 1873, and favored the royalist cause.
Broil’ing is a simple and expeditious mode of cooking
pieces of meat, by laying them on a gridiron over a bright
fire or on the coals themselves. Broiling is a quicker Sort
of roasting. The albumen of the outside being sealed up
at once, the meat is rendered extremely nutritious. But to
broil meat so as to preserve its odor, juice, and fat requires
care and skill.
tº
BROKEN ARROW-BROMOFORM. •ºr-
637
Broken Arrow, a post-township of St. Clair co., Ala.
Pop. 760. *
Broken Straw, a township of Warren co., Pa.
I048.
Broken Wind, a disease of the horse, the nature of
which is not well understood, though it is characterized by
difficulty in the act of expiration, the horse making a spas-
modic effort to expel the air from the lungs. The symptoms
are best observed when the horse is exercised, the breathing
becoming labored, the nostrils dilated, the eyes bloodshot,
showing imperfect purification of blood in the lungs. A
broken-winded horse has a bad hollow cough. When the
animal is oppressed by work, the pulse is excessively rapid
and the heart beats energetically. From this circumstance
it is regarded by some as a disease of the heart. Low-bred
horses are especially liable to broken wind if fed on innu-
tritious and bulky food, and at the same time kept at hard
work. The treatment is unsatisfactory, and we can only
hope for palliation by keeping the alimentary canal in
order, administering occasional purgatives, and feeding on
a proper quantity of the best oats, which should always be
bruised; also allowing the best hay in spare quantities—
ten to twelve pounds daily. The hay should be cut and
wet. Fresh grass in its season is the proper food. Dusty
hay and dry meal as food should especially be avoided.
Broker [Norman Fr. broggour], in general, a species of
agent employed to act as a middleman or negotiator be-
tween distinct parties, such as buyer or seller, though this
statement would not include a pawnbroker. He differs
from a factor, since he does not have possession of the
property with which he deals. He is in a certain sense the
agent for both parties, though primarily of the party by
whom he is employed. Accordingly, until he closes the
negotiation he is the agent of the party who employs him.
If he were employed to buy, he could not sell his own goods,
but must buy of a third person, even though his engage-
ment be gratuitous. Regularly, a broker discloses his
agency on the face of the transaction; should he fail to do
so, he would, by the general principles of the law of agen-
cy, make himself personally liable. When he has closed
the negotiation, he usually gives to either party a memo-
randum of the transaction, and in the case of the sale of
goods gives a “bought-and-sold note.” For the purpose
of complying with the rule of law requiring in certain sales
a written memorandum, he is the agent of both parties. A
broker is to be distinguished from an auctioneer; a broker
may both sell and buy—an auctioneer only sells. A broker
buys and sells at private sale—an auctioneer only sells
at public sale. His compensation is usually derived from
commissions upon the transaction, termed “brokerage.”
The commission is earned when the negotiation is complet-
ed. The real inquiry in such a case is, Did the broker's
services result in bringing the buyer and seller together?
If that be the case, he will be entitled to his commissions,
though the contract, from subsequent causes, was not in
fact carried out. On the other hand, if the negotiation
failed at the time, and the parties were subsequently brought
together by other means, his commissions would not be
payable.
In the large cities brokers form a distinct class of per-
sons, devoting themselves to special departments of agency,
such as insurance-brokers, stock-brokers, real-estate brokers,
produce-brokers, and the like. A person, however, may
act as a broker in a single transaction without following
the business, and be governed in the main by the rules al-
ready stated. (See AGENT for the more general principles
governing this subject.) T. W. DWIGHT.
Bro’mal, C2HBr30 = C2Br30.H, a compound analogous
to chloral, produced by the action of bromine on alcohol.
Bromſberg [Polish Bydgoszcz], a town of Prussia, in
the province of Posen, on the river Brahe, about 6 miles
from its junction with the Vistula, and 65 miles N. E. of
Posen. It is on the railway from Berlin to Dantzic, and
on the Bromberg Canal, which connects the Vistula, with
the Oder. It has a normal school and a gymnasium; also
manufactures of linen and woollen fabrics, tobacco, Prus-
sian blue, etc. Here are several distilleries, potteries, and
breweries. Pop. in 1871, 27,734.
Brome, a county in the S. part of Quebec (Canada), is
bounded on the E. by Memphremagog Lake. The soil is
fertile. Copper ore is found. Capital, Knowlton. Area,
470 square miles. Pop. in 1871, 13,757. -
Brome Grass (Bromus), a genus of plants of the
order Graminaceae, with flowers in panicles, spikelets many-
flowered, glumes unequal, membranaceous, the outer palet
bifid at the extremity and awned beneath. It comprises
numerous species, natives of both continents. The Bromus
ºmollis grows well on poor soils, and is readily eaten by
cattle, but is not much esteemed by farmers. The tail
brome grass (Bromus giganteus), a native of Europe, grows
*
Pop.
nearly five feet high, and affords a large bulk of foliage, not
much relished by cattle. The Bromus Secalinus, commonly
called chess or cheat, is a troublesome weed which infests
grain-fields both in Europe and the U. S. In the latter it
is a naturalized or adventive exotic. It resembles rye
(secale) when it is young, hence the specific name secalinus.
The seeds retain their power of germinating for years.
This weed is so common in wheat-fields that many farmers
believe that wheat will turn into chess.
Brome’lia, a genus of plants of the order Bromeliaceae,
named after the Swedish botanist Bromel, are natives of
tropical America, though many have naturalized themselves
in Asia and Africa. The fruit is succulent, and the leaves
have spiny serratures on the margins. The genus com-
prises a number of species, the fibres of which are used for
cordage, ropes, nets, etc. Among them are Bromelia pigma,
which abounds in the Philippine Islands, and is cultivated
for its fibre by the Chinese; and the Bromelia pinguis of
the West Indies, from the fruit of which a vinous liquor is
prepared.
Bromelia/ceae, a natural order of endogenous plants,
natives of tropical climates. (See BROMELIA.) They have
six stamens and a single style, with a 3-celled ovary. The
leaves are hard, rigid, channeled, and often spiny. Some
of the species have beautiful flowers. The order comprises
more than 150 species, among which are the pineapple (An-
anas sativus) and the Tillandsia usneoides, which is called
Spanish moss or old man’s beard. It grows in the Southern
U. S. on forest trees, from the branches of which it hangs
down in long gray threads. The fibre of this is used to
stuff mattresses. Many of the species are epiphytic, grow-
ing on trees, and are capable of vegetating for a long time
without contact with the earth, and will flower if suspended
in the air after being severed from their roots. The leaves
of some are so formed as to retain near their base a quan-
tity of water, and thus supply travellers with refreshment.
Many plants of this order afford valuable fibres, which are
used in the fabrication of cordage, cloth, etc. The fibre of
the leaves of Ananas 8ativus has been made into a fabric
resembling white muslin.
Bro’mide, a chemical term applied to a salt formed by
the combination of bromine with a metal. Several bro-
mides, especially bromide of potassium, are used in medi-
cine; others are used in photography.
Bro/mine, or Bro’mium [from Gr. 8pôpos, a “strong
and fetid odor”], symbol Br, a chemical element discovered
in 1826 by Balard. It resembles chlorine in chemical hab-
itudes, and exists in minute quantity in sea-water and the
ashes of marine plants. It is also found in many mineral
springs, especially those of Kissingen, Kreuznach, and
Armstadt (13.6 grains per imperial gallon), in Germany,
Tembury in Worcestershire (12% grains), Saratoga and
Ballston, N. Y., and in many brines, especially those of
Pennsylvania, and West Virginia, and in the waters of the
Dead Sea (121 grains). Bromine also occurs as a bromide
of silver in the mines of Chili and other countries. It is
usually extracted from the mother-liquors or bitterns of
brines, or from the purification of rock salt and chloride
of potassium by the agency of chlorine or of binoxide of
manganese and sulphuric acid. Formerly, most of the
bromine was obtained at Schoenebeck, Prussia; since the
discovery of the Stassfurth deposits larger quantities
(21,000 pounds per annum) have been made there. In the
U. S. much bromine is made at Tarentum, Sligo, and
Natrona, Pa., at Pomeroy, O., and Kanawha, West Va.
The total product of these localities is estimated at 125,000
pounds for 1870. To obviate the danger attending the
transportation of bromine, much of the bromine of Stass-
furth is shipped as bromide of ethyl, from which it is easily
set free.
Bromine is a dark reddish-brown liquid, having a pow-
erful suffocating odor and emitting heavy red fumes. Its
specific gravity is 2.976; it boils at 145.4°F., and freezes
at 19.4°. It is very poisonous; is soluble in alcohol and
ether, slightly so in water. Its equivalent is 80. . It com-
bines readily with metals; forms hydrobromic acid (H.Br.)
with hydrogen, and with oxygen bromic acid (HBrO3) and
hypobromous acid (HBrO), all of which are analogous in
their properties to the corresponding compounds of chlorine.
Bromine possesses bleaching and disinfecting properties.
It is used to a limited extent as a disinfectant, but its most
important application is for the manufacture of bromide of
potassium (KBr), which is used in medicine and in pho-
tography. Bromide of ammonium, cadmium, etc. are also
prepared for the latter purpose. The high price of bromin
is the chief obstacle to its more extensive use.
C. F. CHANDLER.
Bro/moform, the ter–bromide of formyl (CHBr3), a
compound analogous to chloroform and iodoform. It is a
heavy, volatile liquid..
638.
BROMPTON FALLS-BRONZING,
Bromp'ton Falls, a post-village of Brompton town-
ship, Richmond co., Quebec (Canada), on the Grand Trunk
Railway, 94 miles E. of Montreal, has extensive manufac-
tures of lumber. Pop. about 500. -
Broms'grove, a market-town of England, in Wor-
cestershire, 16 miles by rail S. W. of Birmingham, is in a
richly-wooded valley on the Birmingham and Bristol
Railway. It has a fine old church, and a grammar-school
founded by Edward VI.; also manufactures of buttons and
mails. Pop. 5262. º
Bron/chi [plural of the Lat. bronchus ; Gr. 8póyxos, the
“windpipe”], sometimes called Bron/chia [Gr. rāgpöyxia],
are the subdivisions of the trachea, or windpipe. Opposite
the third dorsal vertebra, the latter divides into two branches
or bronchi of similar structure to itself. (See TRACHEA.)
Of these bronchi, one goes to each lung, the right being
little more than an inch, the left, about two inches, in
length. A foreign body entering the windpipe is more
likely to fall into the right than into the left bronchus.
On entering the lung, the bronchi divide into smaller
branches, which again subdivide, until they terminate in
small cells, which seem to cluster round their extremities
and open into them. These are the air-vesicles. (See
LUNGS.)
Bronchi’tis [from bronchus, and -itis, a suffix denoting
inflammation], a diseased condition characterized by in-
flammation or hyperaemia (congestion) of the mucous mem-
brane lining the air-passages, and usually accompanied by
a more or less excessive secretion of mucus from that mem-
brane. Young children, old people, and those who are
feeble or ill-nourished are especially liable to it. More or
less bronchitis is usually associated with pulmonary con-
sumption, with obstructive heart disease, and with asthma.
It is often seen in patients with intermittent fever, ty-
phoid, measles, and smallpox. Perhaps the most fruitful
cause is exposure to sudden and extreme changes of the
weather, leading primarily to that form of acute bronchitis
which is known as a “cold on the lungs.” Influenza is an
epidemic bronchitis caused by some unknown influence
probably existing in the air.
The symptoms of bronchitis are of various character,
varying according as the disease is seated in the larger or
the smaller bronchi; the disease is also much more for-
midable in young children and in aged persons than in
others. There is especial danger in the case of infants
that collapse of small portions of the lung may ensue.
Bronchitis may be either chronic or acute. Uncompli-
cated chronic bronchitis may require the use of seda-
tives or tonics, with systematic exercise and careful atten-
tion to the other hygienic conditions, but the treatment of
individual cases will vary with the circumstances and spe-
cial condition of the patient. The inhalation of medicated
vapors and atomized liquids is especially recommended in
some cases. Acute bronchitis is in general to be treated
by expectorants or emetics, to remove the secretion, and
by diaphoretics and counter-irritants, such as mustard, on
the extremities and the chest, to relieve the congested
blood-vessels of the bronchi. When the case is extreme
and suffocation threatened, an infant may be often relieved
by a warm bath. There are other special remedial mea-
sures which may be resorted to under the advice of the
physician.
The diagnosis of bronchitis may be somewhat obscure, but
to the practitioner the stethoscope reveals the extent and
character of the disease by signs which to the untrained
observer might appear insignificant. It may be observed
that, except in children and old persons, the great propor-
tion of cases of acute bronchitis recover spontaneously.
REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Bronchocele. See GoITRE.
Brongmiart (ALEXAND:RE), an eminent French savant,
born in Paris Feb. 5, 1770. He became in 1800 director of
the porcelain manufactory at Sèvres. In 1815 he was ad-
mitted into the Institute. He wrote, besides other works,
an “Elementary Treatise on Mineralogy” (1807) and a
“Treatise on the Art of Pottery’ (1845). He classified
reptiles, to the divisions of which he gave the names of
Saurians, Batrachians, Chelonians, and Ophidians. Died
Oct. 14, 1847.
Bron’son, a township of Branch co., Mich. Pop. 2100.
Bronson, a post-township of Huron co., O. Pop. 980.
Bron'te, a town of Italy, in Sicily, in the province of
Catania, near the W. base of Mount Etna, 28 miles N. N.
W. of Catania. It has manufactures of paper and woollen
goods. Pop. 11,760.
Bronte, a port and post-village of Trafalgar township,
Halton co., Ontario (Canada), on Lake Ontario, at the
mouth of Twelve Mile Creek and Ön the Great Western
Railway, 26 miles S. W. of Toronto. It has a good harbor
for vessels of 300 tons, and has one weekly paper. Pop.
about 550.
Bron’té (CHARLOTTE), “Currer Bell,” an English nov-
elist, born at Thornton, in Yorkshire, April 21, 1816. Her
eccentric father, Patrick Bronté, originally Prunty, became
curate of Haworth (Yorkshire) in 1820. She lost her
mother in 1821, and was sent to a boarding-school, where
her health was impaired by impure air and unwholesome
food, and then taught until in 1842 she and her sister
IEmily went to Brussels to learn French. In 1846, Charlotte
and her sisters Emily and Anne published a volume enti-
tled “Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell.” Her first
successful work was “Jane Eyre, an Autobiography, edited
by Currer Bell” (1847), which was very popular. Her other
chief works are “Shirley’ (1849) and “Villette” (1852).
She was married in 1854 to the Rev. A. B. Nichols, her
father’s curate, and died Mar. 31, 1855. (See E. C. GAS-
KELL, “Life of Charlotte Bronté,” 2 vols., 1857.)
Bronx’dale, a village of Westchester and West Farms
townships, Westchester co., N. Y., has manufactures of
importance.
Bronx'ville, a post-village of East Chester township,
Westchester co., N. Y., on the Harlem R. R., 16 miles from
the Grand Central dépôt in New York. It has a large
cutlery establishment, good hotels, etc.
Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin in variable propor-
tions, is harder and more fusible than copper, but less mal-
leable. Bell-metal is a variety of bronze, and the cannon
commonly called brass are made of this alloy. Bronze was
used by the ancients for weapons and utensils before the
art of working iron had been invented. The metal which
the Romans called aes was probably bronze. The brass
mentioned in the Bible is supposed to have been either
pure copper or an alloy of copper and tin. Bronze is exten-
sively used in the form of statues, machinery, and ordnance.
Its hardness and durability render it well adapted for the
speculums of telescopes. Bronze when well prepared is
the most durable of metallic materials, except gold, pla-
tinum, and some rare metals. The French and English
have recently issued bronze coins for currency. Tempering
produces on bronze an effect directly opposite to that on
steel; and in order to render bronze malleable it must be
heated to redness and quenched in water. A mixture of
90 parts of copper with 10 of aluminium produces a valu-
able alloy which is used as a substitute for bronze. The
varieties of bronze are composed of the following propor-
tions: Bronze cannon, copper 9, tin, 1 ; Chinese gongs,
copper 5, tin 1; musical bells, copper 6, tin 1; house bells,
copper 4, tin 1; large bells, copper 3, tin 1; bronze for
toothed wheels, copper 10, tin 1; telescope or speculum
metal, copper 2, tin 1; bronze for mathematical instru-
ments, copper 12, tin 1.
Bronze, Age of. It is held by some archaeologists
that when primeval man first began to become civilized,
the first weapons of war and utensils for industry were
made of stone; that in the next stage of progress (in most
nations before the beginning of history) there succeeded a
time when copper and its alloys were used in the place of
stone for many purposes, as is known to have been true
among the Peruvians, and also among some of the ancient
races of North America, ; and that in the third stage men
learned how to smelt and work iron. Hence these three
hypothetical stages are respectively termed the Age of
Stone, the Age of Bronze, and the Age of Iron. These
terms are convenient, though it is certain that the so-called
ages interpenetrated and overlapped each other. In Den-
mark and Scandinavia, especially there have been inter-
esting and extensive collections made of the relics of the
“Age of Bronze,” and it appears certain that a large part
of these curious weapons and tools (which are in many cases
finely wrought) were made in pre-historic times; neverthe-
less there are many able men who deny that the facts, so
far as known, sustain the above-mentioned theory of the
origin of civilization.
Bronze Wing, or Bronze Pigeon, the name of
several species of pigeons, natives of Australia, mostly
belonging to the genus Peristera of Swainson. They have
wings marked with lustrous bronze-colored plumage. The
common bronze-wing (Peristera chalcoptera) is distributed
over all the Australian colonies. It weighs about one
pound, and is esteemed as food. -
Bron’zing is the covering of articles made of clay,
metal, wood, or other material with a substance, which
gives them the appearance of being made of bronze.
Sometimes bronze or some other alloy of copper is actually
spread upon the articles to be bronzed; which may be done
by the electrotype process, or by applying the powdered
alloy by means of gold size, which is a mixture of linseed
oil and gum animé. There are also certain chemical re-
IBRONZITE–BROOKLYN.
639
agents which when applied to various metals will give
them a bronzed appearance.
Bronzite, a name which has been given to varieties
of Enstatite and PyRoxENE (which see).
Brook/dale, a post-village, capital of Rice co., Kan.
Brooke, a county of West Virginia, bordering on
Pennsylvania. Area, 75 square miles. It is part of the
“Pan Handle,” and is bounded on the W. by the Ohio
River. The surface is hilly; the soil is fertile. Wool,
grain, and dairy products are extensively raised, and the
manufacturing interests are important. Coal and iron ore
are found in it. Capital, Wellsburg. Pop. 5464.
Brooke (FRANCIs J.) was born at Smithfield, Va., Aug.
27, 1763, served as an officer in the Revolutionary war, be-
came a lawyer in 1788, held various offices, was elected to
the Virginia senate in 1800, and became its Speaker, and
was for many years a judge of the court of appeals, of
which he was for some time president. Died Mar. 3, 1851.-
His son, FRANCIs J. BROOKE, an officer of the U. S. army,
was killed at the battle of Okeechobee, Fla., Dec. 25, 1827.
Brooke (GUSTAvus WAUGHAN), born in Dublin, Ireland,
about 1818, was educated for the law, but went upon the
stage in 1833, and attained eminence as a tragedian, play-
ing with success in the principal cities of Great Britain
and the U. S. He was lost on the steamer London while
on a voyage to Australia, Jan. 11, 1866.
Brooke (HENRY), a dramatist and novelist, born in the
county of Cavan, Ireland, in 1706, was a friend of Pope.
Eſe wrote, besides other works, “ Universal Beauty,” a
poem, a novel called “The Fool of Quality” (1767), and
tragedies entitled the “Earl of Essex.” and “Gustavus
Vasa.” Died Oct. 10, 1783.
Brooke (Sir JAMEs), rajah of Sarāwak, was born of
English parents in Bengal April 29, 1803. He served in
the British army in India, and having formed a project to
suppress piracy in the Malay Archipelago, went to Borneo
in 1838. He rendered some service to the sultan of Bor-
neo, who in 1841 appointed him governor of Sarāwak. He
framed a code of laws for the natives of Sarāwak, and dis-
played great energy in the extirpation of pirates. He and
his coadjutors received £20,000 as “head-money’’ for the
pirates whom they killed. In 1847 he was created a knight
by Queen Victoria. Died in England June 11, 1868.
Brook/field, a post-township of Fairfield co., Conn.
Pop. 1193. -
Brookfield, a township of La Salle co., III. Pop. 1230.
Brookfield, a post-township of Clinton co., Ia. Pop.
1040. -
Brookfield, a township of Worth co., Ia. Pop. 274.
Brookfield, a post-township of Worcester co., Mass.
It is on the Boston and Albany R. R., 67 miles W. by S. of
Boston. It has extensive manufactures of boots and shoes,
cottons, leather, brick, iron-wares, etc. Pop. 2527.
Brookfield, a post-township of Eaton co., Mich. Pop.
1057.
Brookfield, a township of Huron co., Mich. Pop. 116.
Brookfield, a post-village of Linn co., Mo., on the
Hannibal and St. Joseph R. R., is the central station and
division head-quarters of the road. Several of its offices,
its round-house, and extensive shops are located here. It
has a weekly paper, fine schools and churches. There is a
coal-mine near the town. Pop. of village, 402; of Brook-
field township, 2321. W. D. CRANDALL, ED. “GAzETTE.”
Brookfield, a post-township of Carroll co., N. H. Pop.
416. -
Brookfield, a post-township of Madison co., N. Y.,
about 18 miles S. of Utica. It contains the villages of
North and South Brookfield, Leonardsville, Clarksville,
etc., and has an academy and several manufactories. Pop.
3565. -
Brookfield, a township of Noble co., O. Pop. 978.
Brookfield, a post-village and township of Trumbull
co., O., near the Erie and Pittsburg R. R., and 180 miles
N. E. of Columbus. Pop. 2657. t
Brookfield, a post-township of Tioga co., Pa. Pop.
895.
Brookfield, a post-township of Orange co., Vt., 16
miles S. of Montpelier. It has five churches and manufac-
tures of axes, forks, hoes, rakes, etc., and two cheese-fac-
tories. Pop. 1269.
Brookfield, a post-township of Waukesha co., Wis.
Pop., containing the village of Brookfield Centre, 2281.
Brookhaven, a city, capital of Lincoln co., Miss., on
the New Orleans Jackson and Great Northern R. R., 54
miles S. by W. of Jackson. It is an important point in
the lumber trade and manufacture. It has a weekly paper,
a foundry and machine-shops, and a flourishing female col-
lege. Pop. 1614. J. S. MAGEE, E.D. of “CITIZEN.”
Brook/haven, a township of Suffolk co., N. Y. This
township extends across Long Island, and has thirty-three
churches, a large number of Small villages, and consider-
able manufactures. Pop. 10,159.
Brook’ings, a county of Dakota, bordering on Min-
nesota. It is drained by the Big Sioux River, which rises
within its limits, and it contains several small lakes. Area,
750 square miles. Pop. 163.
Brook/ite, a mineral named in honor of Brooke the
crystallographer, is pure native titanic anhydride. It oc-
curs in reddish, yellowish, or hair-brown crystals, which
are more or less translucent and have a brilliant lustre, in-
clining to metallic. It is found in Perthshire, Scotland, at
Tavistock, in Savoy, and other places. A variety found in
the Ozark Mountains, Ark., is called arkansite.
Brook/land, a township of Henrico co., Va. P. 3612.
Brook/lime (Veronica. Beccabunga), a perennial plant,
a native of Europe, grows in ditches and wet places. It
has a procumbent stem and elliptical serrate leaves, which
are succulent, and are used in England as an ingredient in
spring salads. They are sometimes sold with water-cresses.
In the U. S. is found a similar plant, the Veronica Amer-
icana, or American brooklime.
Brook/lin, a post-village of Whitby township, county
and province of Ontario (Canada), 7 miles from Whitby.
It has large manufactures of furniture. Pop. about 650.
Brook/line, a post-village and township of Norfolk co.,
Mass., on the Charles River, which separates it from Bos-
ton and Cambridge, and on the Boston and Albany and
Boston Hartford and Erie R. Rs. It is a place of resi-
dence for people doing business in Boston, and has many
fine villas and country-seats. A small part of this town-
ship has been annexed to Boston since the census of 1870.
Brookline has a public library building costing $50,000,
and a granite town-house costing $150,000. It is connected
with Boston by a horse railroad, and has one weekly news-
paper. Pop. 6650. B. KINGMAN, ED. “TRANSCRIPT.”
Brookline, a post-township of Hillsborough co., N. H.
Pop. 741.
Brookline, a township of Windham co., Vt. P. 203.
Brook/Iym, a post-township of Conecuh co., Ala.
Pop. 937. -
Brooklyn, a post-village in Brooklyn township, Ala-
meda, co., Cal., is on the E. side of the Bay of San Fran-
cisco and 10 miles E. of the city of San Francisco. It is
on the Central Pacific R. R. It has a good harbor, a cot-
ton-factory, a pottery, and a large shoe-factory. Pop.
1603; of the township, 2816. -
Brook/lyn, a post-village, capital of Windham co.,
Conn., is about 40 miles E. of Hartford and 2 miles W. of
the Quinebaug River, which is the E. boundary of Brook-
lyn township. It has a national bank. Pop. of the town-
ship, 2354. -
Brooklyn, a township of Lee co., Ill. Pop. 1235.
Brooklyn, a post-township and small village of Schuy-
ler co., Ill., about 40 miles N. E. of Quincy. Pop. 1071.
Brooklyn, the commercial centre of Poweshiek co.,
Ia., close to the centre of the county, is the end of the rail-
road division of the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific
R. R., 104 miles W. of Davenport. It has a large brick
round-house, 7 church buildings, 2 graded Schools, 4 grain-
elevators, I foundry, 1 flour-mill, 4 hotels, and 2 weekly
papers. Pop. 971. HENRY MARTIN, PUB. “Journal.”
Brooklyn, a post-township of Hancock co., Me. Pop.
66. - e
Brooklyn, a post-village of Jackson co., Mich., on the
Raisin River and on the Detroit and Hillsdale R. R., 15
miles S. E. of Jackson. Pop. 544; of township, 1691.
Brooklyn, a township of Hennepin co., Minn. Pop.
24. -
Brooklyn, a city, seaport, and capital of Kings co.,
N. Y., situated at the W. end of Long Island, on New
York Bay and the East River, an arm of the Sea or estuary
which divides it from New York City and connects Long
Island Sound with the Atlantic Ocean. Brooklyn is the
third city of the Union in population, and is distant from
Albany i47 miles, and from Washington 226 miles. Its
latitude (at the navy-yard) is 40° 51' 30" N., longitude
73° 59' 30// W. from Greenwich. Its area as at present
constituted is about 16,000 acres or 25 Square miles, but it
is expected that in 1874 the other towns of the county will
be annexed, and its area will then include the whole of
Kings county, which is 72 square miles.
Population.—In 1698, Breuckelen had 509 inhabitants;
640
BROOKLYN.
in 1800, 3298; in 1810, 4402; in 1820, 7545; in 1825, 8800;
in 1830, 15,292; in 1835, 24,310; in 1840, 36,233; in 1845,
59,574; in 1850, 96,850; in 1855, 205,250; in 1860, 266,661;
in 1865, 296,112; in 1870, 396,350. In 1873 its population
is estimated, on the basis of school censuses and directory
returns, at 520,000.
Commerce.—Brooklyn is a commercial port of great and
constantly increasing importance. The city of New York,
naturally desirous of concentrating on its own shores and
at its own docks, slips, and piers its vast commerce so
long as it could find room for it, discouraged all efforts for
the erection of wharves, piers, docks, or warehouses on the
Brooklyn side for many years. There had been a govern-
ment navy-yard in the city limits since 1801, and it had
ranked as first class since 1824, but the commerce of the
city had no existence beyond a moderate coasting-trade
prior to about 1844. In that year the Atlantic Docks Com-
pany, incorporated in 1840, completed their first warehouse.
This company, after passing through many discourage-
ments, has now 3 miles of wharf accommodation, 40 acres
of water-area, warehouses covering 20 acres, 9 steam-ele-
vators, and every facility for shipping and storing cargoes.
There have been in this dock at one time 130 sea-going
vessels. The Erie Basin, S. of this, has a water-area of 60
acres, and the Brooklyn Basin, still farther S., a surface of
40 acres. Both are surrounded with warehouses, and are
thoroughly equipped for accommodating shipping of the
largest class. Since 1844 there has been invested in docks
and warehouses a private capital of more than $125,000,000
on the shore-line of Brooklyn, which extends 8% miles, and
has 25 miles of dockage, with vast warehouses, piers, slips,
docks, and basins along the whole distance. The follow-
ing statistics, gathered by careful examination in 1872,
will give some idea of the extent of this commerce :
In the warehouses of the Atlantic Dock Company, and
others S. therefrom to Red Hook Point, there is stored—
grain, $20,000,000; sugar and molasses, $15,000,000; pro-
visions, $2,200,000; flour, $1,000,000; lumber and stone,
$1,200,000; cotton, $1,500,000; guano, $1,500,000; rags,
$500,000; saltpetre and brimstone, $100,000; salt, $500,000;
iron, $2,000,000; miscellaneous, including resin, turpen-
tine, etc., $4,000,000; total, $50,000,000; in the section N.
from Atlantic Docks to South Ferry, $60,000,000. That
which diverges to the Gowanus Canal, comprising coal,
building, and other material, valued at $4,000,000; from
South to Fulton Ferry, $126,000,000; from Fulton Ferry to
Main street, $25,000,000; making an aggregate to this
point of $261,000,000 annually stored. These figures seem
enormous, but are borne out by facts. The warehouses
from Red Hook to Main street are full of merchandise,
and literally overflowing. A number of other large ware-
houses are now (Sept., 1873) in process of erection. From
Main street, N. E. to the bridge over Newtown Creek, a dis-
tance of 4 miles, there is an extensive commerce. Many
shipyards, gas-works, lumber-yards, coal-yards, sugar-re-
fineries, and most of the vast petroleum-refineries and
shipping-houses, are on this part of the coast-line. The
annual commerce from this section, aside from the navy-
yard, is somewhat more than $40,000,000. All through
the year, with more or less activity, the business of load-
ing and unloading vessels is going on. It is estimated
that 2500 vessels are unloaded every year between Red
Hook and Main street. In the business of warehousing
alone some 5000 men are engaged along the shore-line.
Brooklyn is already the largest grain dépôt in the world.
Immense steam-elevators are employed to lift and deliver
the grain. The stores of E. C. Lockwood & Co. have stor-
age for 3,000,000 bushels at a time, employ 1000 hands,
and pay to the city a tax of $50,000. The flour-mills of
F. E. Smith & Co. deliver 1200 barrels per day. During
the receiving season, from October to December, canal-
boats arrive by the hundred to be discharged. On the
closing of navigation as many as 600 canal-boats loaded
with grain lie up for the winter in the basins, in many
cases with the captains and their families on board until
the cargoes can be sold. The value of the boats engaged
in the grain-carrying trade is estimated at $18,000,000.
The bulk of grain afloat seeking port frequently amounts
to 5,000,000 bushels at one time. -
Continuing the shore-line from Main street to the navy-
yard, and beyond to the north-eastern boundary, including
the large interior dockage made by the Wallabout improve-
ments, on Newtown Creek and at Gowanus Creek and Canal,
it is apparent that the capacities of the city for extensive
commerce can hardly be over-estimated. These are likely
to be greatly aided by the removal of the obstacles at Hell
Gate, at the confluence of the East River with the Sound.
Five lines of steamships now ply between Brooklyn and
their respective ports: The State line, to and from Glas-
gow; the North American line, to and from London, New-
Castie, Christiania, and Bergen; the South American line,
in 1870, $700,000,000.
with U. S. mail, to and from Rio and other ports; the
White Cross line, to and from Antwerp ; the Netherlands
and Rotterdam line, to and from Rotterdam. The “Brook-
lyn Eagle” now gives daily reports of arrivals and de-
partures to and from this port.
Manufactures.—Brooklyn is a great manufacturing city.
A very large proportion of the goods and wares professedly
manufactured in New York City are really produced in
Brooklyn, and sent from thence to the New York warehouses.
In some classes of goods and wares, such as pianos, cabinet
organs, hats, caps, men’s and children’s clothing, oil-cloths,
iron castings and ware, carpets, lace, etc., from one-fourth
to one-half of all that is credited to New York City is actu-
ally produced in Brooklyn. Considerable quantities of all
these wares are also produced and sold direct by Brooklyn
dealers and manufacturers. According to the census of
1870, Kings county had 1043 manufacturing establishments,
employing 286 steam-engines. The internal revenue office
reported for the year ending July 1, 1873, 1440 stationary
steam-engines; the same census reported 18,545 persons
employed in manufactories; capital employed, $25,287,981;
wages paid, $9,273,994; raw material used, $39,899,971;
and annual product, $60,848,673. That these statistics very
imperfectly represent the manufacturing industry of Brook-
lyn will appear from an analysis of a few items of this ag-
gregate. The census reports the production of stoves, heat-
ers, etc., at $120,000; at the industrial exposition of Kings
county in Sept., 1873, one manufacturer in Brooklyn re-
ports a production of these wares of over $2,000,000 the
previous year; tobacco, Snuff, and cigar manufacturers re-
ported in the census as producing $4,414,000, paid in the
year ending July 1, 1873, a tax of $2,042,016.17, and their
entire production was over $8,000,000. The census reported
seven establishments for refining sugar and molasses, pro-
ducing an annual amount of $16,706,851, while at the in-
dustrial exposition of Sept., 1873, one of these sugar-
refiners reported a production from July, 1872, to July,
1873, of $12,300,000, and another of over $5,000,000; and
the production of the whole seven was somewhat more than
$24,000,000. Ropes, cordage, and twine, reported by the
census as producing $688,641, reported to the internal reve-
nue office for the year ending July, 1873, a production of
over $3,000,000; carpets, not specified in the census report,
were produced in 1873 to the value of over $1,000,000; hats
and caps, put down in the census at $1,074,948, were pro-
duced in 1872–73 to the value of $4,100,000; lace, guipure,
thread, Nottingham, etc., not mentioned in the census, are
produced to the extent of about $1,200,000; artificial stone,
not mentioned in the census, is produced to the extent of
over $3,000,000; distilled and malt liquors, reported by the
census at $2,220,929, paid revenue-tax in 1872–73 on a
production of $7,500,000; campheme, not specified in the
census, is produced to the extent of over $2,000,000; steel
is produced to the extent of $1,500,000; flouring-mill prod-
ucts, in which there are now six large houses engaged, pro-
duce annually over $7,000,000, instead of $2,692,000, as re-
ported by the census. The rectification and packing of
coal oil, petroleum, and petroleum products in Brooklyn
make use of a capital of over $4,000,000, and produce annu-
ally of these various articles to the value of over $8,000,000;
gas is produced to the extent of about $3,500,000; oil-cloths,
about $1,500,000; paper-hangings, $1,300,000; the book,
job, and newspaper printing establishments turn out work
annually to the value of over $2,300,000; woollen goods
are manufactured to the extent of $1,800,000; linseed oil is
produced of the value of nearly $2,000,000; drugs and
chemicals, including the production of sulphuric acid (of
which there are several factories), produce goods to the
value of more than $5,000,000. Other large manufactures
are of men’s, women’s, and children’s clothing, machinery,
shipbuilding, lumber, sawed and planed, sash, doors, and
blinds, hardware, marble and stone work, gas and lamp
fixtures, tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware, and soap and
candles. As the result of careful and thorough examination,
continued for several months, the annual production of the
Brooklyn manufacturing establishments, aside from those
owned in and run from New York City, is stated as be-
tween $125,000,000 and $130,000,000.
Finances.—
Tax levy in 1872 for 1873: -
For State purposes................................................... $1,086,530.78
“ county “ ................................................... 1,336,177.94
“ city “ ................................................... 5,550,981.18
- $8,023,739.90 .
Assessed value of real estate and personal property...#216,073,170
The census gives, as the true valuation of Kings county.
The valuation of the other towns
of the county in 1873 was $11,626,043. The assessed valu-
ation of 1872 was $207,952,332. The budget of expenditure
for the city government in 1873 was—
BROOKLYN. - - 641
Principal of city debt............................................... $2,002,540.72
“ of certificates........................................... 31,000.00
Interest on city bonds.............................. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,021,290.00
“ on certificates............................................ 11,377.57
One-fifth of one-third of assessments........................ 110,353.91
General purposes..................................................... 891,500.00
Salaries city officers.............................. * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 295,000.00
Wells and pumps..................................................... 8,700.00
Health department.................................................. 50,000.00
Department city works........."... ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... ... 325,000.00
Fire department...................................................... 661,650.00
Police department................................................... 661,650.00
Board of education.................... 929,666.46
Park commissioners................................................ 45,000.00
- $4,900,878.68
Less revenue fund...... $471,981.27
Less surplus and tax arrears.................... 341,134.56 813,115.83
$4,087,762.85
The debt of the city, funded and unfunded, is about
$32,000,000.
Courts.-The principal court of Brooklyn is “the city
court,” with three judges at salaries of $10,000 each per
annum, with civil jurisdiction equal to that of the Supreme
court, and also criminal jurisdiction. It holds both gen-
eral and special terms. Number of arraignments and con-
victions from Jan. 1, 1872, to Jan. 1, 1873, 289; years sen-
tenced, 353; from Jan. 23d to May 23d, 1873, 148 arraign-
ments. In 1872 judgments entered, 1561; motions, 2183;
naturalizations, 693. The city has also six district justices’
courts and one police court. Terms are also held, in the
city, of U. S. circuit and district courts, the supreme court,
and county court. The city jail is on Raymond street;
the penitentiary, at the corner of Nostrand and Flatbush
avenues; the almshouse, hospital, and lunatic asylum are at
Flatbush; the city hospital, on Raymond street; the Long
Island College Hospital, on Henry street, near Atlantic.
Education.—The public school system of Brooklyn is
managed by a board of education of forty-five members.
It has under its charge 52 distinct organizations, 46 school-
houses, 4 colored schools, and 11 evening schools. Number
of children in 1870 within the legal school age, resident in
the city, between the ages of five and fourteen, 86,842; be-
tween the ages of fourteen and twenty-one, 38,355; total,
136,769. This number is now (1873) 175,000. Total school
registration to Jan. 1, 1873, 104,628. Daily attendance,
including evening schools, 50,500 ; number of sittings,
48,622; number of teachers, exclusive of evening schools,
915; evening schools, 109; teachers' wages, $563,940.67;
value of school property, $1,986,114; average cost of tu-
ition, $10.18; total expenses for all purposes, $812,969.20.
This year (1873) upwards of $900,000 will be required.
The Catholic schools have a separate organization, attended
by religious as well as secular instruction, which comprises
2 colleges, 3 academies, 1 select school, 1 asylum school, 2
industrial schools, 20 parish schools, 2 night schools—30
in all, with a registry of 16,144 scholars. The grades of
study are primary, intermediate, and collegiate. Of private
schools there are 200. Of schools for female education
none stand higher than the Packer Collegiate Institute, or-
ganized in 1845, and largely endowed by Mrs. Harriet S.
Packer and others. This institute has 38 teachers, 5 males
and 33 females; 793 pupils, of whom 153 are in the pre-
paratory department; 53 free scholarships; and had grad-
uated 628 alumnae in 1872. Its preparatory course occupies
five years, and the collegiate course four years. The build-
ing and grounds are admirably adapted to their purpose,
and have a fine chapel for public worship. The library
contains 4000 volumes. The Brooklyn Heights Female
Seminary, the Athenaeum Seminary, and many others have
a high reputation for the instruction of young ladies, and
the Adelphi Academy, a more recent institution, on “the
Hill,” receives pupils of both sexes, and has already at-
tained a high reputation. Its pupils numbered in 1872–73
a little more than 600. For boys and young men, the
Brooklyn Collegiate and Polytechnic Institute has a de-
servedly high character. In 1872 it had 27 teachers, of
whom 25 were males and 2 females; 562 pupils, of whom
400 were in the preparatory department, and 162 in the
collegiate. Each course (preparatory and collegiate) is for
four years. The institute has fine buildings, and a li-
brary of 3000 volumes. The Juvenile High School is in
some sense a tender for the Polytechnic, being intended for
boys under twelve. Mr. Lockwood’s academy in Adelphi
street and many other of the private schools are of high
character. There are two business and commercial colleges
in the city—Clarke, Bryant, and Stratton’s and Brown’s.
The Polytechnic has also a commercial and business de-
partment. A college or university has been chartered by
the Catholics, and buildings are now erecting for it, but it
has not yet been organized. There is a medical college,
the Long Island College Hospital, founded in 1859, which
has 8 professors and 5 other instructors.
Libraries.—The principal libraries of the city are the
Mercantile Library, with 45,959 volumes, and rapidly grow-
ing; the Long Island Histórical Society’s Library, with
24,000 volumes; the library of the Brooklyn E. D. Library
Association, with 20,000 volumes; the Youths’ Free Library
at the Brooklyn Institute, 11,000 volumes; the Young Men’s
Christian Association Library, 6000 volumes; the Law
Library, 8000 volumes; Consolidated Public School Li-
brary of the Eastern District, 8000 volumes; and the thirty
public school libraries of the Western District, numbering
together over 37,000 volumes.
Newspapers.-Brooklyn has four daily papers, nine week-
lies, and several monthlies, mostly advertising journals.
There are, however, two monthly magazines, not of very
large circulation. The morning papers of New York City
circulate almost as largely in Brooklyn as in New York,
but the Brooklyn evening papers have a very large circu-
lation.
Churches.—The first denomination which planted a
church in Brooklyn (or, as it was then called, Breuckelen)
was the Reformed (late Dutch) Church. Their first church
in Kings county was built at Flatbush, then called Mid-
wout, in 1654, but though their dominie, Rev. Theodorus
Polhemus, ministered to the few settlers scattered over the
present limits of Brooklyn, there was no church edifice in
the present city till 1666, when one was built in Fulton street,
near the present Hoyt street. A hundred years later (in
1766) this gave place to a second on the same site; in 1807
the third church edifice was erected on Joralemon street, and
this was replaced by the present tasteful edifice of that
church on the same site in 1835. In 1787 the first Episco-
pal church was consecrated. It stood on Fulton street, on
the present site of St. Ann’s building. In 1795 it was
reorganized and incorporated as St. Ann’s church. The
first Methodist Episcopal church was erected in Sands
street, and dedicated June 1, 1795. The Protestant Method-
ists had a church here in 1833, and the Primitive, Method-
ists in 1839. The Roman Catholics erected their first
church (St. James's) on the corner of Jay and Chapel streets
in 1823. The first Presbyterian church on the present site
of Plymouth church was erected in 1822–23. The first
Baptist church was organized in 1823, but their church
edifice, on Pearl street between Nassau and Concord,
was not erected till 1826. The first Unitarian church (Church
of the Saviour) was organized in 1833, and purchased the
Second Presbyterian church in Adams street in 1835. An
effort was made to establish an Independent or Congrega-.
tional church in this city in 1785, but it failed, and the first
Congregationalist church (the Church of the Pilgrims)
was organized in Dec., 1844, but the church on the corner
of Remsen and Henry streets was not completed till May,
1846. The first Universalist society was organized in 1842,
and their church on the corner of Fulton and Pineapple
streets was completed in 1843. The first Lutheran church
was incorporated and its edifice erected in 1847, in Graham
avenue, corner Wyckoff street, E. D., and the first Evan-
gelical Lutheran in Brooklyn on Henry street in 1856. The
first Jewish synagogue was built in 1862. The Swedenbor-
gian society was organized in 1859, but did not obtain their
present place of worship till 1869. The Moravian church
in Jay street is older, but their present church edifice was
built in 1869. There are now in the city 250 churches—
viz., Methodist Episcopal, 40; Methodist, not Episcopal,
4; Episcopal, 38; Baptist, 33; Roman Catholic, 34;
Jewish synagogues, 6; Universalist, 4 ; Congregationalist,
18; Lutheran, 12 ; Presbyterian of various connections,
32; Reformed (Dutch), 15: Unitarian, 3; miscellane-
ous, II. Many of these church edifices are remarkable for
their architectural beauty. The new Roman Catholic
cathedral, on Lafayette avenue between Vanderbilt. and
Clermont avenues, will, when completed, be one of the
stateliest ecclesiastical structures in the U. S.; the church
of St. Charles Borromeo in Sidney place, St. Peter's, corner
of Hicks and Warren, and St. Vincent de Paul, on N. Sixth
street, are all very fine edifices. The church of the Holy
Trinity (Protestant Episcopal), St. Ann’s-on-the-Heights,
St. Paul’s, Clinton corner Carroll street, St. Peter's, on State
street, and Christ church, E. D.; the Lafayette avenue
Presbyterian church, Westminster Presbyterian church, and
the Ross street Presbyterian church; the Church-on-the-
Heights, First Reformed (Dutch), on Joralemon street, the
Bedford avenue Reformed church, E. D., and the East
Reformed church, also on Bedford avenue, corner Madison
street; the Church of the Pilgrims, the South Congrega-
tional church, the Central Congregational church on Han-
cock street, and the Church of the Puritans; the Simpson
Memorial M. E. church, the Pacific street M. E. church,
First place M. E. church, and Summerfield M. E. church;
and the Strong place and the Washington avenue Baptist
churches, are all church edifices noteworthy for architect-
ural taste and beauty.
Benevolent and Charitable Institutions.—The city has.
41 -
642
- BROOKLYN.
eight hospitals—viz., The Brooklyn City Hospital, on Fort
Greene; the Long Island College Hospital, corner of
Pacific and Henry streets; the King's County Almshouse
and Hospital at Flatbush; St. Mary's Female Hospital and
St. Peter's Hospital, both under the care of the Roman
Catholic Sisters; the U. S. Naval Hospital; the Brooklyn
Eye and Ear Hospital, 190 Washington street; and the
|Homoeopathic Maternity Hospital. There are thirteen in-
firmaries and dispensaries; three nurseries or crèches;
seven orphan asylums, of which four are Roman Catholic,
one general, one Episcopal, and one colored. The Chil-
dren’s Aid Society of Brooklyn sustains also a newsboys’
home, a home for friendless and unprotected girls, and a
nursery. There are also the House of the Good Shepherd,
the Home for Poor Boys, the Helping Hand, the “Home”
in Concord street, the Association for Improving the Con-
dition of the Poor, the Truant Home, the Industrial School
Home, and the Temporary Home for Friendless Women—
all benevolent institutions. For the aged and infirm there
are the Graham Home for Respectable Aged Indigent Fe-
males, the Church Charity Foundation, the “Home” of
the Little Sisters of the Poor, and the Baptist “Home,”
now erecting in the eastern part of the city. The Kings
County Inebriates’ Home" is also one of the city charities.
There are also numerous local relief and benefit societies,
among them 44 Masonic lodges, 26 Odd Fellows’ lodges,
28 United American lodges, and a large number of Good
Templars, Sons of Temperance, Father Matthew Total
Abstinence Benevolent societies, Hibernian Benevolent,
Sons of Erin, German Mutual Benefit, Trades Unions, etc.
There is also a society for the prevention of cruelty to ani-
mals, three Young Men’s Christian associations, an asso-
ciation for Christian work, numerous local, literary, and
Christian associations. -
Principal Buildings.-The Brooklyn City Hall; the
Kings County court-house, costing $550,000, and the ad-
jacent grounds about $650,000 more; the Williamsburg
Savings Bank, $450,000; Kings County Savings Bank,
$195,000; the Mercantile Library buildings, $219,932;
Academy of Music, $200,000; Long Island Safe Deposit
building; $150,000; the Academy of Design, in Montague
street; the Packer Collegiate Institute, in Joralemon street;
the Adelphi Academy; the Church Charity Foundation;
the new Brooklyn Orphans’ Asylum ; the College of St.
John the Baptist, Lewis and Willoughby avenues, are all
fine buildings.
Public Parks and Cemeteries.—Since the consolidation.
of 1855 the city has increased the magnitude of its enter-
prises, public and private, in every direction. Of its parks
the principal is Prospect Park, which consists of 522 acres,
and is laid out and improved upon a plan of beauty, con-
venience, and magnificence which will compare with any
other in the Union. It has lakes, drives, and boulevards,
one of the latter, 202 feet in width, and six miles in length,
is adorned with trees, and is intended to reach the ocean ;
and another extends to East New York. Cost of land
taken $2,268,909.70, and expenditure for improvements
$1,169,604.70; entire cost to Jan., 1868, $3,438,514.40.
: A fine parade-ground of 40 acres for the exercise of troops
has been added. Washington Park, taken in 1837 (com-
prising 30 acres), is the remaining height and grounds of
old Fort Green or Putnam of the Revolution and of the
line of works of 1812. It has been surrounded by an ele-
gant and substantial wall, neatly buttressed and coped,
the height itself terraced and laid out in convenient walks
and avenues, properly shaded with appropriate shrubbery.
The object of these grounds, which will enlist an interest
as wide as the Union, is the preservation of the tombs of
the martyrs of the prison-ships of the Revolution, of
whom 11,000 were buried on the shores surrounding the
IBrooklyn navy-yard. In the excavation for this work
many were unburied and enclosed in large coffins. In 1808
these coffins were borne through the streets on catafalques,
orations were made, after which they were deposited in a
temporary vault on Jackson street (now Hudson avenue),
adjoining the navy-yard wall. Here they rested till June
17, 1873, when they were privately taken up by the park
commissioners and placed in their present permanent tomb
fronting on Myrtle avenue. There are also five other small
parks in the city. -
Of the cemeteries, Greenwood is well known as peerless
in extent, having 413 acres enclosed, as well as in the
beauty of its grounds, the number of burials, and the mag-
nificence of its monuments. The Evergreens, 207 acres,
and others, make Brooklyn as eminent in this regard as in
her churches. -
Railroads and Rapid Transit.—No city is better pro-
vided with local railroads traversing it in every direction.
Steam does not come within the limits, except in a few
cases by dummy-engines. To provide rapid transit by
means of tunnelling, a company has been formed, to which
engines.
$502,000 have been subscribed. While two of the Long
Island railroads discharge their passengers at Hunter’s
Point, the South Side R. R. passes through Williamsburg
by a dummy, and has its dépôt in Brooklyn at the foot
of S. Eighth street. From all these roads the travel
reaches the City Hall and ferries by cross-town cars.
There are 26 city railroad companies in the city (one of
them, the Brooklyn City, having thirteen routes), and
their aggregate length is about 135 miles. There are five
ferry companies with twelve ferries; over these ferries
nearly 80,000,000 of persons are carried annually. The
New York Bridge Company is erecting a suspension bridge
over the East River, to connect Brooklyn and New York
City. Its estimated cost is about $10,000,000. The trial
boring began in 1867, and the last of four anchor-plates
was fixed in place July 29, 1873. Two lofty towers stand
on either side of the river, the Brooklyn tower now being
184 feet above high water. The New York terminus is
opposite the City Hall in Chatham street, the Brooklyn
terminus in the square bounded by Fulton, Sands, Wash-
ington, and Prospect streets. Total length, 5989 feet.
The central span will cross the river from pier-line
to pier-line, without impeding navigation, in one single
span of 1595 feet 6 inches from centre to centre of towers.
There has been received up to Sept. 1, 1873, about
$4,000,000, and expended about $3,800,000. All the stock,
except $500,000 subscribed by citizens, is held by the
cities of New York and Brooklyn.
TWaterworks.-These are now managed by a board of
commissioners of city works. The water is derived from
a number of ponds and streams on the S. side of Long
Island, and is raised to its reservoirs by powerful steam-
Time has vindicated the completeness of the
system and the fine quality of the water for all purposes.
Cost $7,000,000. From Jan. 1, 1871, to Jan. 1, 1872—
Total gallons......... 8,288,509,360, Miles of sewerage............... 232.
Daily supply.............. 22,708,245|Amount expended
Amount of receipts. $971,414.98 to Jan. 1, 1872....... $239,533.21
Expenses of man- Streets paved, miles............ 298
agement............... $297,225.23|Unpaved, “. ............ 210
Number of miles of Intersections, “ ............. 38
Streets............................ 546
The New City Charter.—This was passed at the recent
session of the legislature, June 28, 1873. It increases the
salary of the mayor to $10,000, and divides the city into
twenty-five wards with thirty-six aldermen till the new
census of 1875, after which the representation will be
12,000 to each alderman. This charter has gone, into
operation.
Annexation Commission.—A legislative commission which
sat in Aug. and Sept., 1873, in Brooklyn, composed of six
commissioners from Brooklyn and five from the county
towns, with power to agree upon terms of annexing the
other five towns, Flatbush, Flatlands, New Utrecht, New
Lots, and Gravesend to Brooklyn as one city, reported a
plan of consolidation which is to be voted upon early in
1874, and will doubtless result in the extension of the city
limits over the entire county.
Banks and Associations.—The city has 12 banks of
discount, 17 savings banks, 1 trust company, 3 safe-deposit
companies, 6 gaslight companies, 2 art associations, 7 clubs,
1 philharmonic society, 1 academy of music, 3 musical
conservatories, 2 theatres, 2 minstrel operas, 33 religious
and benevolent societies, 1 industrial exposition, 1 gym-
nasium, 7 libraries and literary societies, 6 public parks, 8
cemeteries, a paid fire department, 8 regiments of the
national guard, etc.
History.—Brooklyn was named from Breuckelen (“marshy
land”), in the province of Utrecht in Holland, 6 miles from
the city of Utrecht, from which some of its earliest settlers
came. The first step towards its settlement was the pur-
chase from the Indians in 1636, by Willem Arianse Bennet
and Jaques Bentyn, of a tract of 630 acres, lying at
Gowanus, between Twenty-seventh street and the New
Utrecht line; the second step, the purchase by Joris
(George) Jansen de Rapalje of 325 acres at the Wallabout
Bay, June 16, 1637. *
At the time of the discovery of the Long Island shores
in 1609 by Hendrik Hudson, several tribes or settlements
occupied Long Island, one of which was at Canarsie, and
another, the Mareckawick tribe, at Brooklyn, which, from
the spot where they were located (sandy place or shore) at
the Wallabout, gave the name Mareckawick to that locality,
Brooklyn Heights, overlooking the East River, was called
in the Indian dialect Ihpetonga (highlands). Families
of these Indians were at New Utrecht and Gowanus in
1680, on the visit of the Labadists to those places in that
year. The first ferry was established by license in 1642,
running from Peck Slip to a point near the present Fulton
ferry, from this period named “The Ferry.” There were
at that time five hamlets—“The Ferry;” “Breuckelyn,”
BROOKLYN-BROOKS.
near present Hoyt on Fulton street, where stood the church;
“Gowanus,” around Gowanus Bay; “Bedford,” inland;
and “ the Wallabout,” around Wallabout Bay. The first
house known to have been built in Brooklyn was that of
Willem Arianse Bennet, located on his purchase, with
Jaques Bentyn, from the Indians, prior to 1643, as in that
year it was burnt by the Indians in the Indian wars, and
replaced by the Schermerhorn House, on or near the same
site; and the second probably that yet standing, and known
as the De Hart or Bergen house, which was existing and
visited by the Labadists in 1680, being then occupied by
Simon Aertsen de Hart, grantee of Bennet. George Jansen
de Rapalje did not come over from New Amsterdam to
occupy his farm till about 1654. Later history has entirely
exploded the story that his daughter, Sarah Rapalje, was
the first Christian born child in New Netherlands, and also
that her birthplace was Brooklyn at the Wallabout. The
Labadist manuscript, published by the Long Island. His-
torical Society, shows that this distinction of first birth in
the colony probably belongs to a male person, Jean Vignè,
who was born in New Amsterdam in 1614, eleven years
before the birth of Sarah, who was born in 1625. Besides,
it is clear that Sarah, instead of being born at the Wall-
about, as often asserted by early historians, was born in
Albany (Fort Orange) in 1625, removed with her parents
to New Amsterdam in 1626, lived there till after her mar-
riage, between the age of fourteen and fifteen, was a church
member in New York, and united with the Brooklyn church
by certificate in 1661; was twice married in the Wallabout,
gave birth to fourteen children, and died in 1685, aged
about sixty. There is no proof that any white person
lived upon Long Island prior to 1636. -
Immediately upon the establishment of the ferry in 1642,
grants of building lots at that point began, and that local-
ity, as well as the other hamlets, increased. The union of
all the hamlets into one incorporated jurisdiction named
Breuckelen took place in 1646, under Director-General
Kieft. The Labadists, who crossed this ferry in Sept.,
1679, speak of it as “a considerable thoroughfare,” and
say, “a considerable number of Indians live upon Long
Island, who gain their subsistence by hunting and fishing;
and they as well as others must carry their articles to mar-
ket over this ferry, or boat themselves over, as it is free to
every one to use his own boat if he have one, or to hire one
for the purpose. The fare over the ferry is three stuivers
in German (less than half a cent English) for each person.”
In 1665, Breuckelen had attained the leading position
among the towns in point of population and wealth, and
was granted the privilege yearly of “a fayre and market.
near the ferry for all graine, cattle, or other produce of the
country.”
have been very gradual, as (to skip a long period) the can-
vasser for the “New York and Brooklyn Directory '' in
1796, passing up “the old road” (Fulton street), and down
“New Ferry” (Main street), and through the intervening
streets, gives but 125 names. The statistics of population,
and the picture painted by Francis Guy of its condition up
to 1820, also show that, up to this time, it held but the
rank of an inconsiderable village, without institutions,
commerce, or manufactures.
Over the spaces now occupied by Prospect Park, Wash-
ington Park, Greenwood Cemetery, Evergreen and Cypress
Hills Cemeteries, was fought on the 27th of Aug., 1776, the
important battle which has been properly designated “the
battle of Brooklyn,” the first great battle of the Revolution
after the Declaration of Independence. The British army
was under the command of Lord Howe, the Hessians under
Gen. von Heister. Gen. Greene being ill, Gen. Putnam
was in command of the American forces. The result is
well known. An important pass was left unguarded in
Howard's Hills, just beyond Bedford, by which the English
troops gained the rear of the American army, and defeated
it with heavy loss. Those who escaped within the lines
were rescued by the masterly retreat effected by Gen.
Washington on the 28th to New York by means of boats
and under cover of a heavy fog, by which their movements
were concealed. A memorable incident of this battle was
the death of Gen. Nathaniel Woodhull of Suffolk co., L. I.,
while engaged on the 28th, the day after the battle, in
driving the cattle eastward.
Carpenter house,” two miles E. of Jamaica. While there
a body of horsemen rode up, commanded by Captain Oliver
de Lancey, who struck the general several times with his
sword, and wounded him so severely that he died a few
days after at New Utrecht, where he had been conveyed as
a prisoner.
The Brooklyn navy-yard was begun with the purchase
by the U. S. government of 40 acres in 1801, which were
converted into a navy-yard, and which was designated in
1824 by the secretary of the navy as one of the first-class
navy-yards of the nation. It has since added largely to
ſing the magnificent sum of $402,943.74.
Whatever the increase of population, it must ||
He had entered the “Increase'
643
its domain by other valuable purchases, upon which are
placed the U. S. hospital, a dry-dock, and costly buildings
for the repair and construction of the largest vessels. -
The War of 1812.-On Aug. 9, 1814, the patriotic citi-
zens of Brooklyn and the surrounding country flocked to
Fort Greene, and aided in rehabilitating that old fortifica-
tion and following out the line of earthworks across the
island, conformably to the plans of Gen. Joseph G. Swift,
after whom one of the forts which cornered on Atlantic
street (the “Cobble Hill Fort’” of 1776) was named “Fort
Swift.” Every preparation was made to meet the dangers
to which New York was liable from her exposed situation
by sea and land. By these precautions or otherwise Brook-
lyn did not, as in the Revolution, bear the brunt of the first
systematic strategic conflict.
The Civil War of 1861–65.-In this emergency the city .
of IBrooklyn was not exceeded by any other city in raising
regiments and supplying material aid. Her Sanitary Fair
of Feb. 22, 1864, was extraordinary as an effort of local
unity and successful effort, the pecuniary realization reach-
This was aptly
characterized as the first great act of self-assertion ever
made by the city of Brooklyn, and did much to bring her
citizens together for other efforts. -
The village charter of Brooklyn is dated April 12, 1816;
the first city charter was passed April 8, 1834; the consoli-
dation act uniting Williamsburg and Greenpoint with it
passed April 17, 1854, and took effect Jan. 1, 1855. The
new charter was passed in 1873, and went into effect the
same year. The institutions which have had the greatest
influence upon the social organization and material pro-
gress of the city have been the Apprentices' Library and
Graham Institute (founded July 4, 1825), the Academy of
Music (opened Jan. 15, 1861), the Mercantile Library As-
sociation, the Atlantic Docks, and the Long Island His-
torical Society. ALDEN J. SPOONER,
LATE ED. of “THE LONG ISLAND STAR.”
Brooklyn, a post-village and township of Cuyahoga
co., O. The village is about 3 miles S. of Cleveland. Pop.
648; of township, 3712. -
Brooklyn, a post-township of Susquehanna co., Pa.
Pop. 1128.
Brooklyn, a post-twp. of Green co., Wis. Pop. 1111.
Brooklyn, a twp. of Green Lake co., Wis. Pop. 1339.
Brooks, a county of Georgia, bordering on Florida.
Area, 550 square miles. It is intersected by the Ocopilco
River. The surface is level and the soil sandy. Corn,
oats, rice, cotton, and wool are raised. It is traversed by
the Atlantic and Gulf R. R. Capital, Quitman. Pop. 8342.
Brooks, a township of Buena Vista, co., Ia. Pop. 71.
Brooks, a post-township of Waldo co., Me., on the Bel-
fast branch of the Maine Central R. R., 13 miles N. by W.
of Belfast. It has manufactures of lumber, spools, car-
riage-wheels, etc. Pop. 868.
Brooks, a township of Newaygo co., Mich. Pop. 974.
Brooks, a township of Cedar co., Neb. Pop. 40.
Brooks (CHARLEs SHIRLEY), an English journalist, lec-
turer, dramatist, and novelist, born in Oxfordshire in 1815.
He produced dramas entitled “The Creole,” “Our New
Governess,” etc. Among his novels are “Aspen Court”
(1857), “The Silver Cord,” and “Sooner or Later.” He
was for several years editor of “Punch.” His style was
delightfully genial and witty, and he was personally greatly
beloved. Died Feb., 1874.
Brooks (CHARLEs TIMOTHY), a Unitarian minister and
poet, born at Salem, Mass., June 20, 1813. He graduated
at Harvard in 1832, and became in 1837 pastor at Newport,
R. I. He is eminent as a translator of “Faust,” “Hes-
perus,” “Titan,” and many small poems from the German.
Brooks (ELBRIDGE GERRY), D. D., born at Dover, N. H.,
July 29, 1816, studied law (1833–35) with Chief-Justice
Tenney of Maine, began preaching in 1836, was ordained
over a Universalist church in West Amesbury, Mass., 1837,
has been pastor in East Cambridge, Lowell, and Lynn,
Mass., in Bath, Me., in New York City, and since 1868 in
Philadelphia, Pa. He was general secretary of the Uni-
versalist General Convention (1867–68). - -
Brooks (ERASTUs), an American journalist, born at
Portland, Me., Jan. 31, 1815. He graduated at Brown Uni-
versity, and became editor of the “N. Y. Express” in 1836.
Brooks (Hon ACE), U. S. army, b. in Boston, Mass., was
a son of Maria G. Brooks, the poet. He graduated at West
Point in 1835, and was assistant professor of mathematics
there 1836–39; served with distinction in Florida, Mexico,
and the civil war, becoming in 1863 colonel of the Fourth
Artillery, and in 1865 brevet brigadier-general. -
Brooks (JAMEs) was born in Portland, Me, Nov. 10,
644
1810, and graduated at Waterville in 1831. He was edu-
cated by his own industry and self-denying efforts. He
studied law with John Neal the novelist, taught school,
and at the same time engaged in political journalism.
When twenty-one years of age he was elected to the State
legislature, and in the following year became a newspaper
correspondent at Washington. He afterwards travelled in
the South and in Europe. In 1836 he established the “New
York Express.” He was a member of Congress 1849–53,
1864–67, his seat being at last successfully contested by
Hon. W. E. Dodge, and 1868–73. He died April 30, 1873.
Brooks (John), M. D., LL.D., born in Medford, Mass.,
May 31, 1752, practised medicine at Reading, fought with
the greatest honor as an officer at Lexington, White Plains,
Saratoga, Monmouth, etc., becoming a colonel and adjutant-
general. He practised medicine at Medford, Mass., after
the war, and held many important offices. He was governor
of Massachusetts (1816–23), and president of the Massa-
chusetts Medical Society (1817–25). Died Mar. 1, 1825.
Brooks (KENDALL), D. D., born at Roxbury, Mass.,
Sept. 3, 1821, graduated at Brown University 1841, New-
ton Theological Institute 1845, tutor in Columbian College
1841–43, pastor of the Baptist church at Eastport, Me.,
1845–52, professor of mathematics and natural philosophy
in Waterville College 1852–55, pastor at Fitchburg, Mass.,
1855–65, editor of the “National Baptist,” Philadelphia,
º, and since 1868 president of Kalamazoo College,
ich. -
Brooks (MARIA Gowen), a poetess, born at Medford,
Mass., about 1795. She was married young to a Mr. Brooks,
a merchant of Boston. Her chief work is “Zophiel, or the
Bride of Seven '' (1825), which was praised by the poet
Southey, who called her MARIA DEL OccIDENTE (“Maria of
the West”). She died at Matanzas Nov. 11, 1845.
Brooks (PETER CHARDON), born in North Yarmouth,
Me., Jan. 6, 1767. He engaged in marine insurance in
Boston, and attained great wealth. He held many public
offices of trust. Edward. Everett, Charles Francis Adams,
and N. L. Frothingham, D. D., were sons-in-law of Mr.
Brooks. Died Jan. 1, 1849.
Brooks (Rev. PHILLIPs), an eloquent American divine,
born in Boston Dec. 13, 1835, and graduated at Harvard in
1855. He studied in the Episcopal Theological Seminary
at Alexandria, Va., was ordained in 1859, became the same
year pastor of the Church of the Advent in Philadelphia,
and in 1862 of the Church of the Holy Trinity, where he
remained until 1870, when he accepted the pastoral charge
of Trinity church in Boston. -
Brooks (NATHAN CovingtoN), LL.D., an American .
scholar, born in Cecil co, Md., Aug. 12, 1809, became presi-
dent of the Baltimore Female College in 1848. He has
published a number of poems and a popular “History of
the Mexican War,” besides numerous school-books of
merit.
Brooks (PRESTON S.), a politician, born in Edgefield co.,
S. C., Aug. 4, 1819, graduated at South Carolina College in
1839. He was elected a member of Congress in 1853 and
1855. He violently assaulted Senator Sumner (for words
spoken in debate) in the Senate chamber in May, 1856. He
was censured by the majority of the Representatives, and
resigned his seat, but was re-elected. Died Jan. 27, 1857.
Brooks (WILLIAM T. H.), an American officer, born
in Ohio in 1821, graduated at West Point in 1841, major
Eighteenth Infantry Mar. 12, 1862, and Sept. 28, 1861, briga-
dier-general U. S. volunteers. He served in the Florida war
1841–42, on frontier duty 1843–45, in the military occupa-
tion of Texas 1845–46, in the war with Mexico 1846–48, was
engaged at Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, Monterey (bre-
vet captain), Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Churu-
busco (brevet major), and the city of Mexico, as aide-de-
camp to Brevet Major-general Twiggs 1848–51, in active
operations in New Mexico in 1838, and engaged in several
skirmishes against Navajos. In the civil war he served in
the Virginia Peninsula campaign 1862, engaged at York-
town, Golden's Farm, Savage Station (wounded), and Glen-
dale, in the Maryland campaign 1862, engaged at Crampton
Pass and Antietam (wounded), and commanding division
in the Rappahannock campaign 1862–63, in command of
the department of the Monongahela 1863–64, when Pittsburg
was threatened by a raid, in command of the Tenth Corps
before Richmond 1864, engaged at Swift's Creek, Drury’s
Bluff, Bermuda Hundred, Cold Harbor, and the siege of
Petersburg. Failing health from exposure and wounds
caused him to resign from the army July 14, 1864, and in
1866 he retired to a farm in Huntsville, Ala., where he re-
posed upon his well-earned laurels till his death, July 19,
1870, aged forty-nine. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
, Brooks’ton, a post-village of Prairie township, White
co., Ind. Pop. 406. , --
and bears handsome yellow flowers.
BROOKS-BROOME.
—-ses
Brooks’ ville, a post-township of Hancock co., Me.
Pop. 1275. It has four churches and manufactures of lum-
ber, etc. . -
Brookſville, a post-township of Blount co., Ala. Pop.
510. -
Brookville, a township of Coosa co., Ala. Pop. 689.
Brookville, a post-village, capital of Hernando co.,
Fla.
Brookville, a post-township of Ogle co., Ill. Pop. 746.
Brookville, a post-village, capital of Franklin co., Ind.,
is at the confluence of the forks of the White Water River,
and on the White Water Valley R. R., 42 miles N. W. of
Cincinnati. It has water-power in abundance, a national
bank, two paper-mills, two flouring mills, two weekly
papers, and one grain distillery. Pop. of Brookville town-
ship, 4207. WM. A. BEASLEY & Co.,
EDs. AND PUBs. “BRookvil, LE AMERICAN.”
Brookville, a post-village of Spring Creek township,
Saline co., Kan. Pop. 201.
Brookville, a post-village, capital of Bracken co., Ky.
Pop. 348.
Brookville, a village of Oyster Bay township, Queen’s
co., N. Y., is the seat of “Jones Institute’’ for the support
of the poor of Oyster Bay and North Hempstead.
Brookville, a post-village, capital of Jefferson co., Pa.,
on Red Bank Creek, 170 miles W. N. W. of Harrisburg.
It has a national bank and two weekly newspapers. Coal,
timber, and iron abound. Pop. 1942. -
Brookville, a township of Campbell co., Va. P. 4960.
Broom, a name given to several shrubs of the order
Leguminosae. They belong to the allied genera of Spar-
tium, Genista, and Cytisus. The common broom of Europe
(Cytisus Scoparius) grows on dry and sandy soils and heaths,
The branches, which
are very tough and angular, are used for making brooms.
The young tops and seeds, being strongly diuretic, are
used in medicine, and are beneficial in dropsy. All kinds
of broom have long, slender branches. The Spanish
broom (Spartium junceum) grows wild in the south of Eu-
rope, and possesses medical properties like the common
broom. The fibre of its branchlets is used in Italy and
Spain for making cloths and ropes. The Cytisus albus, or
white broom, also a native of Europe, is cultivated in Eng-
land as an ornamental shrub, and bears white flowers which
are much admired. It sometimes attains a height of fifteen
feet or more. The broom (Fr. genét) gave name to the
royal family of Plantagenet, one of its ancestors having
the broom for his crest.
Broom Corn (Sorghum vulgare), a plant of the order
Graminaceae, is a native of the East Indies, and is culti-
vated in the U. S. It has a jointed stem, which grows to
the height of eight or ten feet, and bears spikelets, two and
three together, on the ramifications of an open panicle.
Only the middle or terminal one of these is fertile; stamens
three. The panicle is extensively used in the manufacture
of brooms, and the seeds are valuable as food for domestic
animals. It is stated that this plant was first introduced
into the U. S. by Dr. Franklin, who, finding a seed on a
whisk that had been imported, planted it and propagated
it. It succeeds best in alluvial soils, but will generally pro-
duce a fair crop on any land that is adapted to maize.
Broom corn is largely cultivated by the Shakers, who make
brooms of a good quality. It is planted in rows about three
feet apart, and in hills about eighteen inches apart. The
weeds are removed from the growing crop by the cultivator
or the hoe. The average produce of an acre is about 500
pounds of the brush or material for brooms. The usual
practice in harvesting is to bend the stalks about three feet
from the ground, leave them for a few days to dry, and then
cut them six or eight inches below the brush or panicle.
Broome, a county of New York, bordering on Penn-
sylvania. Area, 706 square miles. It is intersected by
the Susquehanna River, and also drained by the Chenango
and Otselic rivers. The surface is hilly or undulating; the
soil in some parts is fertile. Cattle, grain, tobacco, wool,
hay, fruit, and dairy products are extensively raised. It
has manufactures of leather, lumber, flour, wagons, etc. It
is traversed by the Erie R. R., and other railroads extend
from this county to Albany and Syracuse. Capital, Bing-
hamton. Pop. 44,103.
Broome, a township of Schoharie co., N. Y. Pop.
1834. -
Broome (John L.), U. S. M. C., born Mar. 8, 1824, in
the State of New York, was appointed a second lieutenant
in the marine corps Jan. 12, 1848, became a first lieutenant
in 1857, a captain in 1861, and a major in 1864. He served
with the marine battalion in Mexico during the Mexican
war. While in command of the marine guard of the Hart-
BROOMFIELD–BROUGHAM.
ford during 1862 and 1863 he participated in the attack on
Forts St. Philip and Jackson and capture of New Orleans,
and in all the many actions of that famous vessel in the
waters of the Mississippi. In his official report of the
action of June 28, 1862, with the Wicksburg batteries, Com-
mander Richard Wainwright writes: “The marine guard,
under the command of Captain J. L. Broome, had charge
of two broadside guns, and fought them well, thus sustain-
ing the reputation of that distinguished corps.” At the
close of the war, Captain Broome, who had been twice
wounded, received the brevets of major and lieutenant-
colonel “for gallant and meritorious conduct.”
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Broom'field, a post-township of Isabella, co., Mich.
Pop. 118. - -
|Bro’ra Beds, a series of strata at Brora, a village in
the county of Sutherland, Scotland. Here is a seam of
good coal three and a half feet thick, and the thickest bed
of true coal hitherto discovered in any secondary strata of
Great Britain. The fossils indicate that it belongs to the
lower oolitic series.
Bross (WILLIAM). See APPENDIx.
Broth’ers, Lay, an inferior class of Roman Catholic
monks, not in holy orders, but bound by monastic rules,
and employed as servants in monasteries.
Broth’ers’ Wal/ley, a tp. of Somerset co., Pa. P. 1597.
Broth’ertown, a post-township of Calumet co., Wis.
Pop. 1605.
Brough (John), born in Marietta, O., Sept. 17, 1811,
was a printer in his youth, and studied at Ohio University.
He edited several political journals, became a powerful
Democratic orator, and held important public offices. In
1846 he became a lawyer. In 1848 he left political life for
a time and became a railroad president. In 1864 he be-
came governor of Ohio, receiving the joint vote of all par-
ties who were in favor of prosecuting the war against the
insurgent States. Died at Cleveland Aug. 29, 1865.
Brough/am (HENRY), LORD, an eminent and learned
British orator, lawyer, and writer, was born in Edinburgh
Sept. 19, 1779. His mother was a niece of Dr. Robertson,
the historian. He graduated in the University of Edin-
burgh, studied law, and was admitted to the Scottish bar
in 1800. He was intimate with Francis Jeffrey and Syd-
ney Smith, whom he aided in founding the “Edinburgh
Review º' in 1802, and he continued to contribute to that
review for many years. In 1808 he removed to London,
was called to the English bar, and chose the common-law
courts as the scene of his practice. He became a Whig
member of Parliament in 1810, and soon acquired a high
reputation as a debater as well as a forensic pleader. He
was considered at that period the most powerful speaker in
the House of Commons except Canning, who was his polit-
ical opponent. As a parliamentary orator he was distin-
guished for vehemence and energy, and the rather free use
of sarcasm and invective. He represented Winchelsea from
1816 to 1830. Among his famous performances as an ad-
vocate was his defence of Queen Caroline (1821), by which
he gained great popularity. In 1819 he married Miss Eden,
a daughter of Thomas Eden and niece of Lord Auckland.
He distinguished himself as a promoter of popular educa-
tion, as a reformer of laws, and a friend of political reform
and progress. In 1825 he published “Practical Observa-
tions on the Education of the People.” He took a prom-
inent part in founding the Society for the Diffusion of Use-
ful Knowledge, of which he became in 1827 the first chair-
man. In a great speech which he delivered in 1827 he
enumerated the defects in nearly every branch of English
law, and made proposals for dealing with law reform on a
proper scale. He made a powerful speech against slavery
in 1830, soon after which he was returned to Parliament by
the great popular constituency of Yorkshire. In the same
year he was appointed lord chancellor in the new Whig
ministry, and was raised to the peerage as Baron Brough-
am and Vaux. He retired from office with his colleagues
in Nov., 1834, after which he ceased to act with the Whigs,
without joining any other party, but pursued an independ-
ent political course. . --
Having cultivated various sciences with success, and
written many and various works, he was chosen a foreign
associate of the French Institute in 1833. Among his
writings are a “Treatise on the Objects, Advantages, and
Pleasures of Science;” “Sketches of Statesmen of the Time
of George III.” (3 vols., 1839–43); “Political Philosophy"
(3 vols., 1840–44); and “Contributions to the “Edinburgh
Review,’ Political, Historical, and Miscellaneous” (3 vols.,
1857). He had only two children, who died before their
father. He died at Cannes, in France, May 9, 1868. He
had published an edition of his collected works in 10 vols.,
1857. (See LORD CAMPBELL, “Life of Lord Brougham,”
645
1869; “Quarterly Review” for April, 1859; “Edinburgh
Review” for April, 1858.) WILLIAM JAcobs.
Brougham (John), actor and author. Brilliance of
mind, warmth of heart, and genial courtliness of manners
have seldom been united to form so fascinating a public
character as this comedian. John Brougham was born at
Dublin, Ireland, in 1810, and there he passed his child-
hood and went to school. He was educated well, and was
trained to be a surgeon. He walked the Peter Street Hos-
pital, in Dublin, for eight months. Reverses of fortune,
affecting his family, led, however, to a change of plan, and
threw him upon his own resources, whereupon he drifted into
the dramatic profession, making his entrance upon the stage
at the Tottenham Theatre, London, in 1830. His first effort
was characteristic of his prodigious mental force and vi-
vacity, since he undertook twelve or fourteen parts in the
play of “Tom and Jerry,” then new and a popular favor-
ite. After this he was engaged by Madame Vestris to act
in her stock company at the London Olympic Theatre.
Here he rose rapidly, both in talent and favor. His first
dramatic composition was a burlesque, written for Mr. Wil-
liam E. Burton, them an actor at the Pavilion Theatre, Lon–
don, afterwards famous in the U. S. It succeeded, and he
wrote many similar pieces of a light description. Madame
Vestris, having been wedded by Mr. Charles Mathews, re-
moved from the Olympic to Covent Garden, and Brougham
acted for a while at that theatre. It was at this period that
he wrote, in conjunction with Mr. Dion Boucicault, the
comedy of “London Assurance,” the authorship of which
is commonly ascribed to Mr. Boucicault alone. A little
later he undertook the management of the London Lyceum
during several seasons, and for this stage he wrote “Life
in the Clouds,” “Love's Livery,” “Enthusiasm,” “Tom
Thumb the Second,” and—in association with Mr. Mark
Lemon—“The Demon Gift.” -
In 1842 Brougham came to America, accompanied by his
first wife, an English actress, known to the London stage
as Miss Emma Williams. They acted at the Park Theatre
Oct. 4 in that year—one as O’Callaghan in “His Last
Legs,” and the other as Lady Teazle. Afterwards they
made a professional tour of the theatrical cities of America.
Brougham then settled down as a member of the stock com-
pany of Burton’s Theatre, New York. Here he wrote
“Bunsby's Wedding,” “The Confidence Man,” “Don Cae-
sar de Bassoon,” “Vanity Fair,” “The Irish Yankee,”
“Benjamin Franklin,” “All's Fair in Love,” “The Irish
Emigrant,” and a dramatization of “Dombey and Son.”
He then undertook the management of Niblo’s Garden, and
wrote a fairy play called “Home,” and a piece for Made-
moiselle Blazy called “Ambrose Germain.” On Dec. 23,
1850, he opened Brougham's Lyceum. This building stood
on the W. side of Broadway, and was the second structure
S. of the corner of Broome street. It afterwards became
Wallack's Theatre, and so remained till 1860. Brougham
did not keep it long, but while there he wrote “The World’s
Fair,” “Faustus,” “The Spirit of Air,” “Row at the Ly-
ceum,” a dramatization of “David Copperfield,” and, for
Charlotte Cushman, a new version of “The Actress of
Padua.” His next venture was made at the Old Bowery
Theatre (1856–57), where he brought out “Ring John,”
with a cast of parts that included Mr. and Mrs. Edward
L. Davenport, Mr. William Wheatley, Mr. J. B. Howe, and
Miss Kate Reignolds. Afterwards he wrote, and produced
at the Bowery, “The Pirates of the Mississippi,” “The
Red Mask,” “Tom and Jerry in America,” “The Miller
of New Jersey,” and other dramas of a common sort, but
profitable. Then he accepted an engagement at Wallack's
Theatre, and while there he wrote “The Game of Love,” a
version of “Bleak House,” “My Cousin German,” “A De-
cided Case,” “The Game of Life,” “Pocahontas,” “Nep-
tune’s Defeat,” “Love and Murder,” “Romance and Real-
ity,” “The Ruling Passion,” and “Playing with Fire.” A
little later he left Wallack's and rejoined Burton at the
Metropolitan Theatre—first known as Tripler Hall, and
last as the Winter Garden, burned in 1866—and here he
produced his burlesque of “Columbus.”
In 1861–62, Brougham went to London, where he re-
mained upwards of four years. During this time he wrote
“The Duke's Motto’’ and “Bel Demonio”—based on
French originals—for Mr. Charles Fechter; dramatic ver-
sions of two novels by Miss M. E. Braddon called “Lady
Audley's Secret” and “Only a Clod,” for Miss Herbert;
“While There's Life There's Hope,” played at the Strand
Theatre; “The Might of Right,” played at Astley's The-
atre; and “The Golden Dream,” played at Manchester.
He also wrote the words of three operas—“Blanche de
Nevers,” “The Demon Lovers,” and “The Brides of Ven-
ice.” Shortly after his return to America, in 1866–67, he
appeared in one of the finest of his compositions, an Irish
drama, entitled “O’Donnell’s Mission.” On the 25th of
Jan., 1869, he opened Broughām's Theatre, on the S. side
646
of Twenty-fourth street, N. Y., adjacent to the Fifth Av-
enue Hotel. This afterwards became Daly’s Fifth Avenue
Theatre, and was destroyed by fire Jan. 1, 1873. Brough-
am kept it ten weeks, when he was dispossessed of his
lease by the owner, the notorious adventurer James Fisk,
Jr. At this place he brought out, among other pieces, his
burlesque called “Much Ado about a Merchant of Venice.”
Among his later works are “The Lottery of Life,” “Little
Nell and the Marchioness”—dramatized from Charles Dick-
ens's novel of “The Old Curiosity Shop”—“The Lily of
France,” a play on the story of Joan of Arc, and a melo-
drama, called “Atherley Court.” -
Brougham started in New York a comic paper called
“The Läntern,” and he is the author of two volumes of
miscellaneous writings, entitled “A Basket of Chips” and
“The Bunsby Papers.” He was separated from his first
wife in 1845. The lady died near New York in 1865, under
the name of Mrs. Robertson. . His second wife, Miss Nel-
son, whom he wedded in 1847, was known as an actress and
celebrated as a person of extraordinary beauty. This lady
died in Twenty-fourth street, N. Y., in 1870. Brougham
has latterly acted at Wallack's Theatre, at Daly’s Grand
Opera-House, and miscellaneously at provincial theatres.
In Oct., 1873, he appeared for the first time in the lyceum,
giving, at Boston, Mass., a reading from his own works.
In earlier times he was noted for his personal beauty, and
he won many successes in light-comedy characters, to
which his immense animal spirits, grace of motion, polish
of manners, and drollery of temperament made him ad-
mirably suitable. In maturer years he was excellent as a
delineator of Irish character, and possessed in this a very
wide range of power and skill, being equally at home in
Dennis Bulgruddery, Sir Lucius O’Trigger, Maurice Fitz
Maurice, and Tim O’Brien, which it seems fair to denote as
representative parts. His engaging personal qualities and
mental attributes, however, account, better than his artis-
tic powers, for his great popularity. Magnanimity, charity,
scholarship, wit, a charming ease in conversation, the spon-
taneous habit of sympathy with weakness, sorrow, worth
of character, and worth of effort, and the frank, off-hand
demeanor of rugged yet gentle mainliness, shown in a long
career of steady usefulness to the stage and to society, have
won affection and respect, as well as reputation and com-
petent fortune, for John Brougham.
WILLIAM WINTER, of the “N. Y. Tribune.”
Broughſton, a twp. of Livingston co., Ill. Pop. 823.
Broussa. See BRUSA. -
Broussais (FRANÇors Joseph VICTOR), M. D., an emi-
ment French medical writer, born at Saint-Malo Dec. 17,
1772, is called the founder of the so-called physiological
school of medicine. He became in 1832 professor of pa-
thology in the faculty of Paris, and was a member of the
Institute. His chief works are a “History of Chronic In-
flammations” (1808), and an “Examination of the Medical
Doctrine generally adopted ” (1816). Died Nov. 17, 1838.
(See PRIou, “Notice historique sur Broussais,” 1841.)
Brousson (CLAUDE). See APPENDIX.
Broussone’tia, a genus of trees allied to the mulberry,
comprises the paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera),
the fibrous bark of which is used by the Chinese and Japan-
ese in the manufacture of paper. It is a small tree with
deciduous leaves of variable shape. It is planted as a
shade tree in some American cities.
Brow'ers, a township of Randolph co., N. C. P. 781.
Brown [Fr. brun], in painting, a dark dusky color,
inclined to red, of various degrees of depth. It belongs
to the tertiary colors known, as russets and olives, in which
the hue is modified by an admixture of black or a dark
pigment. Among the brown pigments are bistre, umber,
raw and burnt sienna, and brown madder.
Brown, a county in the W. part of Illinois. Area, 320
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Illinois Riv-
er, and on the N. E. by the La Moin or Crooked River.
The surface is undulating or level; the soil is fertile. Coal
is found in some parts. Cattle, grain, tobacco, wool, and
hay are raised extensively. Stone and earthen ware is
manufactured at various points. It is intersected by the
Toledo Wabash and Western R. R. Capital, Mount Ster-
ling. Pop. 12,205. . .
Brown, a county in the S. part of Indiana. Area,
325 square miles. It is drained by Bean Blossom and Salt
creeks. The surface is diversified with hills of moderate
height; the soil is mostly fertile. Grain, tobacco, and wool
are the staple products. Capital, Nashville. Pop. 8681.
Brown, a county of Kansas, bordering on Nebraska.
Area, 576 square miles. It is drained by the Sauterelle,
Wolf, and Webster creeks. The surface is somewhat di-
versified; the soil is productive. It is intersected by the
St. Joseph and Denver City R. R. Grain, wool, and to-
BROUGHTON.—BROWN.
bacco are the staple products. Capital, Hiawatha. Pop.
6823. - * *
Brown, a county in the S. part of Minnesota. Area,
450 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Min-
nesota River, and intersected by the Big Cottonwood River.
The county contains several small lakes. The soil is fer-
tile. Grain and wool are the staple products. Capital,
New Ulm. Pop. 6396.
Brown, a county of Ohio, bordering on Kentucky.
Area, 500 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Ohio
River, and "drained by the Eagle and White Oak creeks.
The surface is mostly undulating; the soil is based on lime-
stone, and is very fertile. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool
are largely raised. Lumber, saddlery, etc. are manufac-
tured extensively. Capital, Georgetown. Pop. 30,802.
Brown, a county in the central part of Texas. Area,
1050 square miles. It is nearly all prairie. Stock-raising
is the principal pursuit. It is bounded on the S.W. by the
Colorado River, and drained by Pecan and Jim Ned creeks.
Capital, Brownwood. Pop. 544.
Brown, a county in the E. part of Wisconsin. Area,
525 square miles. It is partly bounded on the N. by Green
Bay, and intersected by Fox or Neenah River, which is
navigable for steamboats. This county was originally
covered with dense forests. The soil is fertile. Grain and
wool are largely raised. It is intersected by the Chicago
and North-western R. R. Capital, Green Bay. P. 25,168.
Brown, a township of Sanford co., Ala. Pop. 459.
Brown, a township of Columbia co., Ark. Pop. 1090.
Brown, a township of Champaign co., Ill. Pop. 486.
Brown, a township of Hancock co., Ind. Pop. 1329.
Brown, a township of Hendricks co., Ind. Pop. 1233.
Brown, a township of Martin co., Ind. Pop. 1048.
Brown, a township of Montgomery co., Ind. Pop.
2126.
Brown, a township of Morgan co., Ind. Pop. 1673.
Brown, a township of Ripley co., Ind. Pop. 2234.
Brown, a township of Washington co., Ind. Pop. 1521.
Brown, a township of Linn co., Ia. Pop. 1581.
Brown, a township of Manistee co., Mich. Pop. 459.
Brown, a township of Carroll co., O. Pop. 2022.
Brown, a township of Darke co., O. Pop. 1239.
Brown, a township of Delaware co., O. Pop. 1108.
Brown, a township of Franklin co., O. Pop. 819.
Brown, a township of Knox co., O. Pop. 1242.
Brown, a township of Miami co., O. Pop. 1639.
Brown, a township of Paulding co., O. Pop. 1140.
Brown, a township of Vinton co., O. Pop. 1297.
Brown, a township of Lycoming co., Pa. Pop. 347.
Brown, a township of Mifflin co., Pa. Pop. 1192.
Brown, a township of Darlington co., S. C. P. 1598.
Brown (AARON V.), an American statesman, born in
Brunswick co., Va., Aug. 15, 1795, graduated at Chapel
Hill in 1814, removed to Tennessee in 1815, was a member
of Congress 1839–45, and was elected governor of the State
in 1845. He became postmaster-general of the U. S. in
1857. Died in 1859.
Brown (ALBERT G.), born in Chester district, S. C., May
31, 1813, was chosen governor of Mississippi in 1843, and
elected to the U. S. Senate in 1853. He was re-elected in
1858 for six years, but withdrew from the Senate in 1861.
|Brown (BENJAMIN GRATz), born in Lexington, Ky.,
May 28, 1826, graduated at Yale in 1847. He commenced
the practice of law at St. Louis, Mo., was a member of the
State legislature (1852–58), and edited the Missouri “Dem-
ocrat” (1854–59). On the breaking out of the war in 1861,
he raised a regiment and fought on the side of the Union.
He afterwards commanded a brigade of militia. He was
among the most active and influential in procuring the
adoption of the ordinance of freedom in 1864 by the State
of Missouri. He was U. S. Senator in 1863–67, and was
made governor of Missouri in 1871. He was nominated at
the Cincinnati Convention, May, 1872, for the office of Vice-
President of the U. S., the Hon. Horace Greeley being the
nominee for President.
Brown (CHAD) went from Massachusetts to Rhode
Island in 1636, on account of his religious opinions, and in
1642 became one of the elders of the Baptist church at
Providence. He was the ancestor of many distinguished
citizens. Died in 1665.
Brown (CHARLEs BRocKDEN), an American novelist,
born at Philadelphia Jan. 17, 1771. He published “Wie-
land” (1798), “Ormond, or the Secret Witness” (1799),
BROWN.
and “Arthur Mervyn " (1800). He founded in 1803 “ The
Literary Magazine and American Register,” which he edit-
ed for nearly five years. His mind was remarkable for in-
genuity and imagination. Among his other works are
“Clara. Howard” (1801) and “Jane Talbot” (1804). He
married a Miss Linn in 1804, and died Feb. 22, 1810. “His
peculiar merits,” says Prescott, “appeal to a higher order
of criticism than is to be found in ordinary and superficial
readers.” (See PRESCOTT, “Life of C. B. Brown,” in
Sparks's “American Biography,” vol. i.; W. DUNLAP's
“Life of Charles B. Brown,” prefixed to an edition of his
works, 1827.) -
Brown (DAVID PAUL), a distinguished American law-
yer, born in Philadelphia in 1795. He published in 1856
“The Forum, or Forty Years’ Full Practice at the Phila-
delphia Bar,” besides several dramatic and other works.
Died July 11, 1872.
Brown (FRANCIs), D. D., was born at Chester, N. H.,
Jan. 11, 1784, graduated at Dartmouth College in 1805,
was tutor from 1806 to 1809, was settled over the Congre-
gational church in North Yarmouth, Me., in 1810, and was
chosen president of his alma mater in 1815. It was during
his presidency that the famous Dartmouth College case
was carried up to the U. S. Supreme Court. Jeremiah
Mason and Daniel Webster admired the ability with which
he served them in their management of the case. Rufus
Choate, one of his pupils, speaks in the highest terms of
his genius, character, and culture.
pamphlets and sermons. Died July 27, 1820.
Brown (Sir GEORGE), a British general, born near
Elgin, Scotland, in 1790, served in the Peninsular war. In
the Crimean war he commanded a division, and was se-
verely wounded at Inkerman in Nov., 1854. He directed
a storming-party which attacked the Redan of Sebastopol
in 1855. Died Aug. 27, 1865.
Brown (GEORGE), U. S. N., born June 19, 1835, in
Indiana, entered the navy as a midshipman Feb. 5, 1849,
became a passed midshipman in 1855, a lieutenant in 1856,
and a commander in 1866. He was in command of Admi-
ral Porter's flag-ship, the Octorora, at the attack on Wicks-
burg, June 28, 1862, and is thus commended by the admi-
ral in his official report of that battle: “The officers and
crew of the Octorora, behaved like veterans; and I am
much indebted to that excellent officer, Lieutenant George
Brown, for the drill of the crew and the perfect arrange-
ments made for going into action.” On the night of Feb.
24, 1863, Brown, in the steamer Indianola, defended his
vessel for an hour and twenty-seven minutes against the
rams Queen of the West and William H. Webb, and two
large “cotton-clads,” surrendering the Indianola, only
when she was “fast filling with water.” He commanded
the steamer Itasca at the battle of Mobile Bay Aug. 5,
1864, and during the subsequent operations against the de-
fences of Mobile. FOXHALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Brown (GEORGE L.), an eminent American landscape-
painter, born in Boston in 1814. Among his masterpieces
are a view in the White Mountains entitled “The Crown
of New England,” and “New York Harbor.” (both in pos-
session of the prince of Wales).
Brown (GOOLD), an American grammarian and teacher,
born in Providence, R.I., Mar. 7, 1791. He published
“Institutes of English Grammar” (1823), which was very
successful, and “Grammar of English Grammars” (1850).
Died Mar. 31, 1857.
Brown (HARVEY), an American officer, born in 1795
at Rahway, N. J., graduated at West Point in 1818, colo-
nel Fifth Artillery May 5, 1861. He served chiefly at sea-
board posts 1818–61, as aide-de-camp to Maj.-Gen. Brown
1824–25, on quartermaster duty 1826–29, in the Black
Hawk expedition 1832, in the Florida war 1836–38; en-
gaged at Wahoo Swamp, suppressing Canada, border dis-
turbances 1839–41, in the war with Mexico 1846–48; en-
gaged at Monterey, Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Contreras
(brevet lieutenant-colonel), Molino del Rey, and the City
of Mexico (brevet colonel), on recruiting service 1848–52,
being superintendent 1851–52, in Florida hostilities 1852–53,
in command of the artillery school for practice 1857–58,
and inspector of artillery 1859–60. In the civil war he
was engaged in the defence of Fort Pickens, Fla., 1861–62
(brevet brigadier-general), and as military commander of
the city of New York Jan. 15–July 16, 1863, suppressed
the draft. riots (brevet major-general). Retired from ac-
tive service Aug. 1, 1863. Died at Clifton, Staten Island,
N. Y., Mar. 31, 1874. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Brown (HENRY KIRKE), an American sculptor and
painter, born at Leyden, Mass., in 1814. Among his best
works are the equestrian statue of Washington in Union
Square, New York, a colossal statue of Governor Clinton
at Greenwood Cemetery, the “Angel of the Resurrec-
He published only .
,647
tion,” also at Greenwood, and a colossal equestrian statue
of Gen. Winfield Scott. His statue of Gov. Clinton at
Washington is perhaps the finest. He is also a painter of
no mean ability. His versatility is remarkable.
Brown (JACOB), born in Bucks co., Pa., May 9, 1775,
removed to New York in 1798. He joined the army in
1812, and defended Sackett's Harbor in 1813. Having
been raised to the rank of major-general, he invaded
Canada in the spring of 1814, and commanded with suc-
cess at Chippewa and Niagara Falls in July of that year.
He became commander-in-chief of the U. S. army in 1821.
Died Feb. 24, 1828. -
Brown (JAMEs), born near Staunton, Va., Sept. 11,
1766, graduated at William and Mary College, became an
eminent lawyer of Kentucky and Louisiana, representing
the latter State in the U. S. Senate (1812–17 and 1819–24),
and was minister to France 1824–29. Died April 7, 1835.
He was one of the compilers of the Louisiana code.
Brown (John), a Scottish religious writer, was born in
Perthshire in 1722. He preached at Haddington, and had
a high reputation for piety and learning. It is stated that
he knew nine languages. Among his works are a “Dic-
tionary of the Bible” (1769), and a “Self-Interpreting
Bible” (1778). Died June 19, 1787. º
Brown (John), M.D., a Scottish physician, the author
of the Brunonian system of medicine, was born at Dunse
in 1735. He published in 1780 “Elementa Medicinae,” in
which he propounded his new system. This was received
with favor by many physicians. His favorite medicines
were alcohol and opium. Died in London in 1788.
Brown (John), born in Providence, R.I., Jan. 27, 1736,
became a partner with his three brothers in a mercantile
firm. He was leader of the men who on the night of June
17, 1772, destroyed the “Gaspe’ sloop-of-war, for which
he was arrested and put in irons, but escaped. He supplied
the troops around Boston with powder during the siege.
He was a man of wealth, a liberal patron of Brown Uni-
versity, and a member of Congress from Rhode Island
(1799–1801). Died Sept. 20, 1803.
Brown (John), a patriot, born in Sandisfield, Mass.,
Oct. 19, 1744, graduated at Yale in 1761. He became
king's attorney in the New York colony, and afterwards
practised law at Pittsfield, Mass. In 1774 and 1775 he
operated for the cause of freedom in Canada, aided in the
capture of Ticonderoga, took Fort Chambly, fought at
Quebec, became a lieutenant-colonel, and in 1777 surprised
the outposts at Ticonderoga, and made important captures.
|He left the service for a time from hostility to Arnold the
traitor. He was killed by the Indians in the Mohawk Wal-
ley campaign Oct. 19, 1780. - -
Brown (John), a brother of Senator James Brown, was
born at Staunton, Va., Sept. 12, 1757, served in the Revo-
lutionary war, studied at Princeton and at William and
Mary College, removed to Kentucky in 1782, was a mem-
ber of Congress from Virginia (1787–88 and 1789–93), and
U. S. Senator from Kentucky (1793–1805). Died Aug. 29,
1837.
Brown (John), M. D., a son of Rev. Dr. John Brown
(1784–1858), a celebrated preacher, was born in Scotland
Sept., 1810. He practised in Edinburgh, and published a
work entitled “Horae Subsecivae '' (1858), containing the
well-known “Our Dogs” and “Rab and his Friends.”
Brown (John) of Ossawatomie, a zealous oppo-
ment of slavery, was born, at Torrington, Conn., May 9,
1800. He removed to Ohio in early youth, and married
and worked at the trade of a tanner. In 1855 he emi-
grated to Kansas, where he fought against the pro-slavery
party, and lived at Ossawatomie. He was the master-
spirit of the convention which met at Chatham, Canada,
in May, 1859, and organized an invasion of Virginia in
order to liberate the slaves. In July of that year he rented
a farmhouse about six miles from Harper’s Ferry. On the
16th of October, aided by about twenty friends, he sur-
prised Harper's Ferry, and captured the arsenal and ar-
mory. He was wounded and taken prisoner by the Vir-
ginia militia on the next day, and was hung at Charles-
town Dec. 2, 1859. (See REDPATH, “Life of Captain John
Brown,” 1860; WEBB, “Life and Letters of John Brown.”)
Brown (John A.) was a son of Alexander Brown, a
banker of Baltimore. He was born in Ballymena, Ireland,
May 21, 1788, came in youth to the U. S., and became
manager of the Philadelphia branch of the great banking
firm of Brown Brothers. He was eminent for upright dealing
and benevolence. Among numerous other gifts, he pre-
sented $300,000 to the Presbyterian Hospital of Philadel-
phia. Died Dec. 21, 1872. -
Brown (John G.), a painter, born in the north of
England, settled at Brooklyn, N.Y., in 1856. His portraits
of children are greatly admired. -
648
BROWN-BROWNIE. \
Brown (John NEwToN), D. D., a Baptist divine, born
at New London, Conn., June 29, 1803, published in 1831
an “Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge,” and in 1834
“Memorials of Baptist Martyrs.” Died May 15, 1868.
Brown (Joseph E.), a distinguished citizen of Georgia,
was born in Pickens co., S. C., April 15, 1821. During
his youth his father moved to Georgia. He was elected
governor of that State for two years, and was re-elected
four times. While he was in the executive chair he took
a leading part in the secession movement in 1861. When
the war was over he took a prominent part in support of
the reconstruction measures of Congress. Under the new
State constitution he became chief-justice of the Supreme
court in 1868, and supported Gen. Grant for President of the
U. S. that year. He resigned his position in 1871 to as-
sume the presidency of the Western and Atlantic R. R.
Company. He supported Mr. Greeley for President in
I872.
Brown (MASON), L.L.D., father of B. Gratz Brown, was
born in Philadelphia Nov. 10, 1799, graduated at Yale in
1820, was a judge of a Kentucky circuit court for many
years, and secretary of state of Kentucky (1855–59). He
was one of the authors of “Morehead and Brown’s Digest.”
Died at Frankfort, Ky., Jan. 27, 1867.
Brown (MILTON), born in Ohio, became a resident of
Tennessee, and was a member of Congress from that State
(1841–47). He was in 1845 the author of the resolution
for incorporating Texas into the Union.
Brown (NICHOLAs), a benevolent merchant, born at
Providence, R.I., April 4, 1769, graduated at Rhode Island
College in 1786. He gave to that college about $100,000 at
various times, and in 1804 it took the name of Brown Uni-
versity in his honor. He gave largely to other institutions.
Died Sept. 27, 1841.
Brown, or Browne (ROBERT), an English theologian,
the founder of the sect of Brownists, was born in 1549.
His doctrines differed little from those of the Anglican
Church, but he maintained that the congregation has a
right to elect its own minister. Died after 1630. -
Brown (RoPERT), F. R. S., D. C. L., an eminent botan-
ist, was born at Montrose, Scotland, Dec. 21, 1773. He
studied medicine in the University of Edinburgh, but did
not practise it long, preferring to devote himself to botany.
He was employed as naturalist of the expedition which Cap-
tain Flinders conducted to Australia in 1801. In 1805 he
returned with a collection of 4000 species of Australian
plants, and in 1810 he published a Flora of that region,
* Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae.” He also wrote
“General Remarks, Geographical and Systematical, on the
Potany of Terra, Australis” (1814). He adopted the mat-
ural system of Jussieu, and made important discoveries in
vegetable physiology. In 1827 he became keeper of the
botanical department of the British Museum, and in 1833
was chosen one of the eight foreign associates of the French
Academy of Sciences. Humboldt styled him “Botanicorum
facile princeps.” Died in London June 10, 1858.
Brown (SAMUEL), M. D. See APPENDIX.
Brown (SAMUEL GILMAN), D. D., LL.D., son of Presi-
dent Francis Brown, noticed above, was born at North
Yarmouth, Me., Jan. 4, 1813, graduated at Dartmouth
College in 1831, and at Andover Theological Seminary in
1837, travelled in Europe from 1838 to 1840, was professor
in Dartmouth College, first of oratory from 1840 to 1863,
and then of intellectual philosophy from 1863 to 1867,
when he was chosen president of Hamilton College. Be-
sides numerous addresses and articles in reviews, he has
published a “Biography of Self-Taught Men,” 1847, and
“The Life of Hon. Rufus Choate,” 1862. He has also lec-
tured with marked success on “British Orators.”
Brown (THOMAs), M. D., an eminent Scottish meta-
physician, born near Dumfries Jan. 9, 1778. He was a
pupil of Dugald Stewart in Edinburgh. In 1798 he pub-
lished an able refutation of Darwin’s “Zoonomia..” Hay-
ing studied medicine, he graduated in 1803, and practised
medicine about seven years. In 1810 he was appointed
colleague of Dugald Stewart as professor of moral philos-
ophy in the University of Edinburgh. He was very pop-
ular as a lecturer, and published “Lectures on the Philos-
ophy of the Human Mind” (4 vols., 1820). His other
chief work is “Observations on the Relation of Cause and
Effect” (1804; 3d ed., enlarged, 1818). His chief contri-
bution to psychology is an explication of the sixth or mus-
cular sense. Died April, 1820. (See DR. WELSH, “Account
of the Life and Writings of Thomas Brown,” 1825. -
Brown (THOMPsoN S.), an American officer and engineer,
born 1807 in New York, graduated at West Point in 1825.
He served, while lieutenant of engineers, as assistant pro-
fessor at the Military Academy, 1825, in the construction
of Fort Adams, R.I., 1825–26, and 1828–33 as aide-de-camp
to his uncle, Maj.-Gen. Brown, 1826–28, in the improvement
of Arkansas River, 1833, in charge of Cumberland road in
Illinois, 1833–34, in the construction and repair of defences
| of Charleston harbor, S. C., 1834–35, and the improvement
of Lake Erie harbors and lighthouses, 1835–36. He re-
signed Oct. 31, 1836, and till his death was an cminent civil
engineer. He was chief engineer of Buffalo, N. Y., and
Erie, Pa. (Lake Shore), R. R., 1836–38, of Lake Erie har-
bor improvements, 1836–38, of western division of the New
York and Erie R. R., 1838–42, and of the entire road,
1842–49. Upon the invitation of the czar of Russia he
became consulting engineer of the St. Petersburg and
Moscow. Railway. Died Jan. 30, 1855, at Naples, Italy,
aged forty-eight. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. § Army.
Brown (W. M.), a popular American painter, born at
Troy, N. Y., in 1827. His works are chiefly landscapes
and fruit-pieces.
Brown Coal. See LIGNITE.
Browne (CHARLEs FARRAR), known as Artemus
Ward, a humorous writer, born at Waterford, Me., April
26, 1834. He learned the business of a printer, and gained
distinction by writing for the public journals a series of
“Letters from Artemus Ward, Showman.” He became a
popular lecturer, visited California in 1863, and London in
1866. Died at Southampton, England, Mar. 6, 1867. He
had published “Artemus Ward his Book,” and other works.
Browne (John Ross), an American writer, born in Ire-
land in 1817. Among his works is “Yusef, or the Journey
of a Frangi: a Crusade in the East.” He was minister to
China in 1868–70. He is a citizen of Oakland, Cal.
Browne (SAMUEL J.), born in England Mar. 19, 1788,
became in 1798 a resident of Cincinnati, O. He was long
a minister of the United Brethren, and afterwards of the
Presbyterians. Died Sept. 10, 1872, leaving a large amount
of money to found a church, a university, and a free school.
Browne (Sir THOMAs), M. D., an English philosopher
and writer, born in London Nov. 19, 1605. He practised
medicine at Norwich for many years. He published, be-
sides other works, “Religio Medici.” (1642), which is highly
esteemed, and “Inquiries into Vulgar and Common Errors”
(1646). He was knighted by Charles II. in 1671. Died
NNov. 19, 1682.
Brownell (HENRY HowARD), born in Providence, R.I.,
Feb. 6, 1820, graduated at Washington College, Hartford,
Conn., in 1841, was admitted to the bar, but became the
author of numerous works, such as “The Old World,”
“The New World,” and several other historical works, a
volume of “Poems” (1847), “Lyrics of a Day ” (1864),
“War Lyrics” (1866). His poetry has more than ordinary
merit. In the civil war he was a volunteer naval officer,
serving on Farragut's staff. Died Oct. 31, 1872.
Brownell (Rt. Rev. THOMAs CHURCH), D. D., LL.D.,
was born at Westford, Mass., Oct. 19, 1779, and graduated
at Union College in 1804. He held various professorships,
etc. in the college until 1816, when he took orders in the
Protestant Episcopal Church. In 1819 he was consecrated
bishop of Connecticut, and was the first president of Trinity
College, Hartford (1824–31). He published an “Exposi-
tor” of the New Testament, a “Commentary on the Book
of Common Prayer,” “Religion of the Heart and Life”
(5 vols., 1839–40), and other works. Died Jan. 13, 1865.
Brown/field, a post-township of Oxford co., Me., on
the Portland and Ogdensburg R. R., 43 miles N. W. of
Portland, has manufactures of leather, tubs, etc. P. 1323.
Brown'helm, a post-twp of Lorain co., O. Pop. 1461.
Brown'hill, a township of Franklin co., Va. P. 1692.
Brownian Movements are those seen with the mi-
croscope among minute particles (not living) in a limpid
liquid. Robert Brown the botanist first described them in
1827. These molecular movements have often been mis-
taken for vital motions. When the minute organisms called
Bacteria are exposed to a heat of 200°F. they are killed,
but molecular motion still goes on in a manner obviously
different from their living movements. The same phenom-
enon can be exhibited by rubbing fine powder of gamboge
in water, and placing it under a microscope. Beale con-
siders of the same nature the motions of very minute bub-
bles (goºd of an inch in diameter) within certain crystals.
These movements have not been satisfactorily explained.
Beale suggests their possible connection with heat.
Brown'ie, a spirit of the fairy order in the old super-
stitions of Scotland. The tradition is that he was a good-
humored goblin, who attached himself to farmhouses, and
occupied himself when the family were in bed in perform-
ing any work, such as churning, threshing, etc.—a spirit
not seen or spoken to, and only known by the performance
of voluntary labors. In Cornwall a goblin known as
Browny is called to assist at the swarming of bees.
BROWNING—BROWN UNIVERSITY.
649
Brown'ing, a post-township of Schuyler co., Ill. Pop.
2.139. -
Browning (ELIZABETH BARRETT), an eminent English
poetess, born in Herts in 1809. She was liberally educated,
and studied the Greek and Latin languages with success.
She published in 1826 a volume entitled an “Essay on
Mind, and other Poems,” and in 1833 translated from the
Greek of Æschylus “Prometheus Bound.” Her next pro-
duction was “The Seraphim, and other Poems” (1838).
Her health, having been impaired by the rupture of a
blood-vessel, she passed several years in seclusion. In 1846
she was married to the poet Robert Browning, and went
with him to reside in Italy. She published in 1850 her
collected works, including “The Drama of Exile,” and a
new poem called “Lady Geraldine's Courtship.” Amon
her other poems are “Casa Guidi Windows” (1851), “Au-
rora Leigh’’ (1856), and “Poems before Congress” (1860).
She died at Florence June 29, 1861, with the reputation of
being the greatest poetess England had ever produced.
Browning (ORVILLE H.), a statesman, was born in
Harrison co., Ky., was educated at Augusta College, studied
law, was called to the bar in 1831, and removed to Quincy,
Ill. He served in the Black Hawk war, became a promi-
nent State politician, was U. S. Senator (1861–63), secre-
tary of the interior (1866–68), and acting attorney-general
of the U. S. (1868–69).
Browning (RoPERT), an eminent English poet, born
at Camberwell, a suburb of London, in 1812, was educated
in the University of London. He published in 1835 the
drama of “Paracelsus,” a poem remarkable for subtlety of
thought. His tragedy of “Strafford” (1837) was performed
without success. He married Miss Barrett in 1846, after
which he resided in Italy until 1861. In 1855 he pro-
duced two volumes entitled “Meri and Women,” which are
much admired. According to an anonymous critic, “they
are unsurpassed in the English language for depth and
subtlety of conception and profound analysis of the human
mind.” Among his other works are “Pippa Passes,” “The
Ring and the Book” (1869), “Fifine at the Fair, and other
Poems” (1872), and the “Red Cotton Night-cap Country”
(1873). His poetry is too obscure to please the general
public.
Brown'ington, a post-township of Orleans co., Vt.,
2 miles from Barton Landing. It has three churches, an
academy, and manufactures of lumber, starch, and car-
riages. Pop. 901.
Brown/Iow (WILLIAM GANNowAY), an American
Methodist divine and politician, born in Wythe co., Va.,
Aug. 29, 1805, removed to Tennessee, where he edited the
“Knoxville Whig.” After the breaking out of the war of
1861 he was a firm adherent of the Union party, and in
1865 was elected governor of Tennessee by the Republi-
cans, and re-elected in 1867. He became a member of the
U. S. Senate in 1869.
Brownlow, EARLs, and Viscounts Alford (1815, in the
United Kingdom), Barons Brownlow (1776, in Great
Britain), and Baronets (1677), a prominent family of Great
Britain. — ADELBERT WELLINGTON BRowNLow, the third
earl, born Aug. 19, 1844, succeeded his brother in 1867. He
was member of Parliament for North Shropshire 1866–67.
Brown/marsh, a post-township of Bladen co., N. C.
Pop. 800. #
Browns/burg, a post-village of Lincoln township,
Hendricks co., Ind. Pop. 551.
Brown-Séquard (C. EDou ARD), M.D., a distinguished
physiologist, was born in the island of Mauritius in 1818.
He was the son of Edward Brown, a Philadelphian, and a
French lady named Séquard. He studied in Paris, where
he graduated as M. D. in 1840. He gained distinction by
experiments on blood, animal heat, and the spinal cord.
These highly important researches are believed to have
thrown as much light as those of any other observer upon
the physiology and diseases of the nervous system. In
1869 he was appointed professor in the School of Medicine
in Paris. He has published valuable professional works,
and resides chiefly in the U. S.
Brown’son (NATHAN), a physician and statesman of
Georgia, graduated at Yale in 1761, was a member of the
provincial Congress (1775), a surgeon of the Revolution-
ary army, member of the Continental Congress (1776
and 1778), was chosen governor of Georgia in 1781, and
was afterwards a prominent official of the State. Died in
Liberty co., Ga., in 1796. e
Brownson (ORESTEs AUGUSTUs), LL.D., an American
journalist and theologian, born at Stockbridge, Vt., Sept.
16, 1803. He founded in 1838 “The Boston Quarterly Re-
view,” of which he was editor for five years, and was a fre-
quent contributor to the “Democratic Review.” He joined
the Catholic communion in 1844, having previously been a
member of the Presbyterian, Universalist, and Unitarian
churches. He has published “Charles Elwood, or the In-
fidel Converted,” a novel, and other works. -
Brown Spar, a name given to a variety of dolomite or
magnesian limestone, which is tinged with oxide of iron and
manganese, and is sometimes called pearl spar.
Brown’s Store, a township of Lunenburg co., Va.
Pop. 2147.
Browns/town, a post-village, capital of Jackson co.,
Ind., on the Ohio and Mississippi R. R., 98 miles W. of
Cincinnati and 70 miles S. of Indianapolis. Iron ore and
timber abound here. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop.
572; of Brownstown township, 2580. &
Brownstown, a post-township of Wayne co., Mich.
Pop. 2037. s
Brownstown, a township of Davidson co., N. C. P. 987.
Browns'ville, a township of Lee co., Ala. Pop. 1425.
Brownsville, a post-village of Prairie co., Ark., 27
miles E. of Little Rock, on the road to Memphis, Tenn.
Here an engagement took place, Aug. 25, 1863, between a
division of U. S. cavalry under Gen. J. W. Davidson and
the Confederate force under Gens. Marmaduke and Walker.
The Confederates were driven from the town after a brief
struggle. -
Brownsville, a post-township of Union co., Ind.
Pop. 900.
Brownsville, a post-village, capital of Edmondson co.,
Ky., on Green River, 130 miles S. W. of Frankfort and 10
miles W. of the Mammoth Cave.
Brownsville, a post-village of Saline co., Mo.
one weekly newspaper.
Brownsville, a post-village and township of Houston
co., Minn. The village is on the Mississippi River, about
11 miles below La Crosse. Pop. 615; total pop. 1589. Grain
is shipped here in steamboats.
Brownsville, a post-borough of Fayette co., Pa., on
the Monongahela, 35 miles S. of Pittsburg, has four banks,
nine churches, large glass-factories, coal-mines, iron-foun-
dries, machine-shops, distilleries, planing-mills, and nume-
rous other industries. It has one weekly newspaper, and
is connected with Pittsburg by steamboat navigation. It
is in a very wealthy agricultural and mineral region. It
has a fine bridge across the river. Pop. 1749.
SETH. T. HURD, ED. “CLIPPER.”
Brownsville, a post-township of Marlborough co.,
S. C. Pop. 1597.
Brownsville, a post-village, capital of Haywood co.,
Tenn., is on the Memphis and Louisville R. R., 57 miles
N. E. of Memphis. It is in a rich cotton-growing district,
5 miles N. of the navigable river Hatchie. It ships 23,000
bales of cotton yearly, and has a $500,000 cotton factory,
4 colleges (3 female, 1 male), 2 weekly newspapers, and
gas-works. Pop. 2457. ED. “IBEE.”
Brownsville, a river-port, capital of Cameron co.,
Tex., is on the left bank of the Rio Grande, opposite Mat-
amoras (Mexico), and about 40 miles from the mouth of the
river. It is about 280 miles S. W. of Galveston. It has
the advantage of steam-navigation on the Rio Grande, and
has an extensive trade with the Mexicans. Here is a cus-
tom-house and a Roman Catholic college. Brownsville
was taken from the Confederates by General Banks in
Nov., 1863. It has one daily, one semi-weekly, and two
weekly newspapers. Pop. 4905. - -
Brown University, an institution of learning founded
in 1764 at Warren, R. I., and removed to Providence, its
present seat, in 1770. Its first name was Rhode Island
College, but in 1804 it received its present name, in honor
of Nicholas Brown, one of its chief benefactors. James Man-
ning, D. D., was its first president (1765–90); Jonathan
Maxcy, D.D., was president 1792–1802, and Asa Messer,
D. D., 1802–27. From 1827 to 1855, the Rev. Francis Way-
land, D.D., was president of this university, and contributed
greatly to its reputation. He was succeeded by the Rev.
Dr. Barnas Sears, who resigned in 1867 to accept the presi-
dency of the Peabody Educational Fund. His immediate
successor was Dr. Caswell, who had maintained almost a
lifelong connection with the university. He gave place, in
1872, to the Rev. E. G. Robinson, D.D., for many years presi-
dent of Rochester Theological Seminary. Brown Univer-
sity is distinguished by its unsectarian character, though
the Baptists are its chief patrons, and a majority of the
board of trustees must be of that denomination. One of
the chief attractions of this seat of learning is its choice
library of 38,000 volumes, one of the very best in America
for educational purposes. Its statistics for 1873 are as
follows: instructors, 13; undergraduates, 204; alumni,
It has
in favor of Baliol.
650
BROWN VILLE-BRUELLETT’S.
2554; invested funds, $602,653; property (at least),
$1,200,000. -
Brownville, a township of Clay co., Ala. Pop. 795.
Brownville, a township of Piscataquis co., Me. P. 860.
Brownville, a city, capital of Nemaha Co., Neb., on
the W. side of the Missouri River, 95 miles by water S. E.
of Omaha, or 65 by rail, and at the same distance N. W. of
St. Joseph, Mo. It has Presbyterian, Methodist, Baptist,
Episcopal, and Roman Catholic churches, and a congrega-
tion of Christians, 3 benevolent societies, 1 national and 1
private bank, graded schools, 2 weekly papers, 3 manufac-
tories of tobacco and cigars, 2 of wagons, 1 brewery, 1 soap-
factory, and 1 flouring mill, besides other less important
industries. Five railroads are projected to this point. Pop.
1305; of Brownville precinct, 2386.
- R. O. WHITE HEAD, ED. “DEMocrat.”
Brownville, a post-village of Jefferson co., N. Y., on
the right bank of Black River, and on the Rome and Wa-
tertown R. R., 4 miles N. W. of Watertown, and about 5
miles from Lake Ontario. It has several manufactories and
mills. Pop. of Brownville township, 3219.
Brown/wood, a post-village, capital of Brown go.,
Tex., about 125 miles N. W. of Austin City.
, Bruce, a county in the W. part of Ontario (Cânada).
It is bounded on the N. W. by Lake Huron, and inter-
sected by the Saugeen River. Area, 922 square miles. Pop.
48,515. Capital, Walkerton.
Bruce, a township of La Salle co., Ill. Pop. 1921.
Bruce, a township of Benton co., Ia. Pop. 567.
Bruce, a township of Macomb co., Mich. Pop. 2145.
Bruce, a township of Guilford co., N. C. Pop. 1034.
Bruce, the name of a noble family of Scotland, de-
scended from Robert de Bruis (or de Brus), a Norman
knight who followed William the Conqueror to England in
1066. He derived his lineage from Brusi, a Northman, a
son of the famous Sigurd. His younger son, Adam, who
acquired a large estate in Yorkshire, left a son, Robert, who
received from David I. of Scotland a grant of the lordship
of Annandale, held by the tenure of military service. He
died in 1141, and left a son, Robert, who was the second lord
of Annandale. This second lord had a grandson, Robert,
who was the fourth lord of Annandale. He married Isa-
bel, a daughter of David, earl of Huntingdon, younger
brother of King William the Lion, and thus laid the foun-
dation of the royal house of Bruce. He died in 1245. Rob-
ert de Bruce, a son of the preceding, and the fifth lord of
Annandale, was born in 1210. When the Scottish throne
became vacant by the death of Queen Margaret in 1290,
this Robert de Bruce and Baliol claimed the throne.
dispute was referred to Edward I. of England, who decided
Robert died in 1295, leaving a son,
Robert, who by his marriage with the countess of Carrick
obtained the title of earl of Carrick (1271). He fought in
the English army against Baliol at the battle of Dunbar.
He died in 1304, and left a son, Robert, who became king
of Scotland.
Bruce (ARCHIBALD), M. D., born in New York in 1777,
was the son of a British army surgeon. He graduated at
Columbia College in 1795, and studied medicine and min-
eralogy five years in Europe. He was (1807–11) professor
of materia, medica and mineralogy in the College of
Physicians and Surgeons, N. Y., became a member of many
learned societies, and in 1810 edited the “Journal of
American Mineralogy.” Died Feb. 22, 1818.
, Bruce (Sir FREDERICK WILLIAM ADoIPHUs), a British
diplomatist, born at Elgin Castle in 1814, was a brother of
Lord Elgin. He was consul-general in Egypt in 1849, and
in 1865 succeeded Lord Lyons as ambassador at Washing-
ton. Died in Boston in 1867.
Bruce (GEORGE), born in Edinburgh, Scotland, June
26, 1781, came in 1795 to the U. S., and became a printer
in Philadelphia. In 1803 he became publisher and printer
of the New York “Daily Advertiser; ” in 1806, with his
brother David, he began printing books; in 1812 they in-
troduced stereotyping into the U. S., and soon after estab-
lished an extensive type and stereotype founding business,
in which they acquired great reputation. George, with
his nephew David, invented a successful type-casting
machine. Died July 6, 1866.
Bruce (JAMEs), a Scottish traveller, born in the county
of Stirling Dec. 14, 1730. He was appointed consul-gen-
eral at Algiers in 1763, after which he studied several
Oriental languages, dnd explored the antiquities of Bar-
bary. In 1768 he departed from Cairo on a journey to
Abyssinia, in order to discover the source of the Nile.
Passing through Syene, Cosseir, and Jidda, he reached
Gondar in Feb., 1770. He discovered the source of the
The
Blue Nile in November of that year, and remained about
two years in Abyssinia, the king of which treated him
kindly. He passed through great dangers and hardships
in his return, and arrived in England in 1774. In 1790 he
published “Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile.”
(5 vols.). His veracity was at first doubted by many, but
his statements have been confirmed by Salt, Belzoni, and
others. Died April 27, 1794. (See A. MURRAY, “Life of
Bruce.”)
Bruce (MICHAEL), a Scottish poet, whose productions
(mostly hymns) are characterized by singular pathos and
beauty, was born at Kinneswood, in the county of Kin-
ross, Mar. 27, 1746. He died of consumption July 5, 1767.
In 1770 his “friend,” the Rev. John Logan (1748–88), pub-
lished what purported to be his literary remains. In 1781
this same Logan published another volume of poems, which
he called his own. The best of these, it is now almost ab-
solutely certain, came from the pen of Michael Bruce. A
baser act of literary piracy was never perpetrated. (See
“The Works of Michael Bruce,” edited by REv. ALExAN-
DER B. GROSART, 1865.)
Bruce (RoPERT), a heroic and famous king of Scotland,
born Mar. 21, 1274, was a son of Robert de Bruce, earl
of Carrick. In 1296, as earl of Carrick, he swore fealty to
Edward I. of England, but he soon joined the Scottish
leaders who were fighting for the independence of Scot-
land. Having made peace with Edward I., he became in
1299 one of the four regents who ruled the kingdom. In
1305 he was involved in a quarrel with the Red Comyn,
who was a nephew of Baliol and was a claimant of the
throne. Bruce killed Comyn, and then assembled his vas-
sals and was crowned at Scone in the spring of 1306. His
small army was soon defeated by the English, and he was
compelled to take refuge in the island of Rathlin, on the
coast of Ireland, where he remained all winter. Renewing
the contest in the spring, he defeated the English at Lou-
don Hill in May, 1307. In less than two years he made
himself master of nearly all Scotland, and in 1309 he drove
back an invading army of Edward II. The latter invaded
Scotland again in 1314 with an army of about 100,000
men. Bruce, who had less than half as many, gained a
complete victory at Bannockburn, June 24, 1314. In 1318
the Scots invaded England, and after several other cam-
paigns the war was suspended in 1323 by a truce. By a
treaty of peace concluded in 1328 the English king recog-
nized the independence of Scotland. Bruce died in June,
1329, and was succeeded by his son David.
Bru/cea, a genus of shrubs which has been referred to
the order Rutaceae. A species called Brucea antidysen-
terica is a native of Abyssinia. Its leaves are said to be
tonic, astringent, and efficacious in dysentery. The leaves
of Brucea Sumatrama, a native of Sumatra, and China,
have similar medicinal virtues, and are very bitter.
Bruce Mines, a port of entry of the Algoma district,
Ontario (Canada), near the N. end of Lake Huron, 35 miles
below Sault Ste. Marie. It has very productive mines of
copper, and exports considerable quantities of fish. Pop.
about 1250. -
Bruceville, a post-township of Bullock co., Ala. P. 862.
Bruch'sal, a town of Germany, in Baden, on the river
Salzbach, and on the railway from Heidelberg to Carls-
ruhe, 14 miles by rail N. E. of the latter. It is the north-
western terminus of a railway which extends to Fried-
richshafen, on Lake Constance. It has an old castle, a fine
palace, a gymnasium, and a paper-mill. Pop. in 1871,9786.
Bru/cia, or Brucine, a very bitter and poisonous
vegetable alkaloid found in Strychnos nua, vomica. It is
characterized by giving a blood-red color with concentrated
nitric acid. It was discovered in bark incorrectly Sup-
posed to be that of Brucea antidysenterica, whence its
name. Its toxicological effects are like those of Strychnia,
but it is far less active. ,
Brü'cite, the native magnesic hydrate, MgH2O2. It is
found in serpentine at Hoboken, N. J. The finest speci-
mens occur in the chrome-mines of Texas, Pa.
Brück'e (ERNST WILHELM), a German physiologist,
born at Berlin June 6, 1819, became in 1846 teacher of an-
atomy at the Berlin Art Academy, and in 1849 professor of
physiology in Vienna. He is the author of “Anatomische
|Beschreibung des Augenapfels” (1847), and “Grundzüge
der Physiologie und Systematik der Sprachlaute’” (1856).
Bruck'er (Joh ANN JAKOB), a German historian and
Protestant minister, born at Augsburg Jam. 22, 1696.
Among his works is a “Critical History of Philosophy.”
(in Latin, 5 vols., 1741–44), which has a high reputation.
It contains valuable biographical materials, but is deficient
in critical analysis. Died Nov. 26, 1770.
Pruel'lett’s, a township of Edgar co., Ill. Pop. 1086.
BRUGES-BRUNO.
651
Bru’àes [Dutch Brugge, or Bruggen (i.e. “bridges”);
Lat. Brugge], a fortified city of Belgium, capital of the
province of West Flanders, is situated on a fertile plain
about 8 miles from the ocean, and 64 miles by rail N. W.
of Brussels; lat. 51° 12' N., lon. 3° 14' E. The railway
from Ostend to Brussels passes through Bruges, which is
connected with the ocean by several canals. It derives its
name from the numerous bridges (about fifty-four) which
here cross the canals. It contains many fine Gothic edi-
fices, some of which were built in the fourteenth century,
and are richly adorned with works of art. Among these
are the church of Notre Dame, which has a spire 450 feet
high, and contains a splendid monument of Charles the
Bold; the town-hall, with a lofty tower and a celebrated
chime of forty-eight bells; and the cathedral of St. Sau-
veur, furnished with paintings of eminent artists. Mem-
ling’s “Shrine of St. Ursula” and his other works at Bruges
are of great importance in the history of mediaeval art.
Bruges has an academy of painting, a public library, a
museum, an episcopal college, a hospital, a school of sur-
gery, and an institution for the blind. Here are manufac-
tures of cottom, linen, and woollen fabrics, lace, leather,
cordage, tobacco, and soap. Several thousand females are
employed in the manufacture of lace of fine quality. Bruges
was an important commercial town before the Norman con-
quest (1066), after which it continued to increase in riches
and population. In the thirteenth century it was the great
central mart of the Hanseatic League. Its manufactures
were also very extensive. The tapestry and cloths of
Bruges were celebrated for their excellence. The popula-
tion once exceeded 200,000. Its prosperity was injured by
a popular revolt in 1488, and by the persecutions and vex-
ations which it suffered under Philip II. of Spain. P. 47,621.
Brugsch (HEINRICH KARL), PH.D., a German archae-
ologist, born at Berlin Feb. 18, 1827. He was Prussian
consul to Cairo in 1864, and in 1868 was charged by the
viceroy of Egypt with the organization of the first Egyp-
tian university in Cairo, where he now (1873) resides. He
has published a “Grammaire Démotique,” “Monuments
of Egypt,” a “Hieroglyphic Demotic Dictionary” (4 vols.,
1867–68), and other similar works.
Brühl (GUSTAvus), M. D., born at Herdorf, Prussia,
May 31, 1826, studied in the colleges of Siegen, Münster-
eifel, and Treves, where he graduated; studied medicine at
Munich, Halle, and Berlin; graduated M. D. at the univer-
sity Sancti Ludovici; became in 1848 a physician of Cin-
cinnati, O.; was physician of St. Mary’s Hospital, lecturer
on laryngoscopy, etc. in Miami Medical College; one of the
founders and first president of the Peter Claver society for
the education of colored children; was in 1871 Democratic
candidate for State treasurer; acquired fame as a lecturer
and political speaker; edited the German Pioneer 1869–71;
has written much in prose and verse for journals; author
of Poesien des Urwalds (1871); is (1874) one of the exam-
iners of public schools, Cincinnati, O., and a member of
many learned and literary Societies.
Brumaire, the second month in the calendar of the
French Republic, is perhaps derived from brume, a “mist,”
a “fog.” It comprised the time from Oct. 23 to Nov. 21.
The 18th Brumaire (Nov. 9), 1799, was a famous epoch in
French history. Then, occurred the coup-d'état which
subverted the power of the Directory and raised Bonaparte.
to supreme power as first consul. The Directory was not
popular, and was weakened by dissensions among the di-
rectors themselves, two of whom, Sieyes and Ducos, pro-
moted the design of Bonaparte by resigning on the eve
of the crisis. The Council of Elders and Council of Five
Hundred were dispersed or overawed by the soldiery, and
the new régime was established with little fighting.
Bru/math, a town of Germany, in Alsace-Lorraine,
10 miles by rail N. N. W. of Strasburg. Pop. 5601.
Brum/mel (GEORGE BRYAN), “Beau Brummel,” a
famous fop, born in London in 1778, was educated at Ox-
ford. He had elegant taste in dress, became intimate with
the prince of Wales, lived in sumptuous style, was recog-
nized as an oracle in questions of etiquette and dress,
squandered a fortune, went into exile in 1815, and died at
Caen Mar. 29, 1840.
Brum/met’s Creek, a tp. of Mitchell co., N. C. P. 217.
Brunai, a state and seaport of BORNEO (which see).
Brunck (RICHARD FRANÇois PHILIPPE), an eminent
classical scholar, born at Strasburg, in Alsace, Dec. 30,
1729. He was liberally educated in Paris, and became an
ingenious critic and bold emendator of the classics. He
edited Anacreon, Aristophanes, Sophocles, and Terence,
and published “Analecta Veterum Poetarum Graecorum ”
(1772–76). In the French Revolution he warmly supported
the popular cause. Died June 12, 1803.
Brundisium. See BRINDISI.
Brunehaut, or Brunehilde, a famous queen, was a
daughter of Athanagildus, king of the Visigoths. She was
married in 568 A.D. to Sigebert, king of Austrasia. She
was beautiful, ambitious, and high-spirited. Her husband
was assassinated in 575 by the order of Fredegonda, queen
of Neustria. She afterwards governed the kingdom with
ability, and obtained an ascendency over her son Childe-
bert, who was the nominal king. Having been defeated in
ibattle and captured by Clotaire II., she was murdered in
613 A. D.
Brunel’ (ISAMBARD RINGDOM), D. C. L., F. R. S., a
British engineer, born at Portsmouth April 9, 1806. He
was employed under his father as assistant engineer of
the Thames Tunnel, in the construction of which he dis-
played great energy and ability. In 1833 he was appointed
chief engineer of the Great Western Railway. He was
the designer and engineer of the Great Western steamship
and of the Great Eastern, said to be the largest vessel ever
built in the world, and of the Royal Albert Bridge, Saltash.
(See BRIDGE, by GEN. J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.) Died
Sept. 14, 1859. -
Brunel (Sir MARK ISAMBARD), F. R. S., a celebrated en-
gineer, born near Rouen, in France, April 25, 1769, was the
father of the preceding. Driven from France by the Reign
of Terror, he removed to New York in 1793, and designed
the Bowery Theatre of that city. In 1799 he went to Eng-
land, and married a Miss Kingdom. He was distinguished
for his mechanical ingenuity, and invented several useful
machines. His most important work is the Thames Tunnel,
which was commenced in 1825 &nd opened in 1843. Died
Dec. 12, 1849. (See R. BEAMISH, “Life of M. I. Brunel.”)
Brunelles/chi (FILIPPo), an eminent Italian architect
and sculptor, born at Florence in 1377. He improved the
theory of perspective, and efficiently promoted the restora-
tion of the ancient style of architecture as a substitute for
the Gothic, which in his youth prevailed in Italy. About
1418 he was appointed architect of the cathedral of Flor-
ence (Santa Maria del Fiore), which had been commenced
about 1296, and was unfinished. He raised over it a grand
and beautiful dome, which is one of the largest in the world.
Among his other works is the Pitti Palace of Florence.
Died in 1444. (See BALDINUCC1, “Vita di F. di Ser Bru-
mellesco,” 1812.)
Bru/mi (LEONARDO), a learned Italian writer, a native
of Arezzo, and hence called LEONARDO ARETINO, was born
in 1369. He obtained a high office at Florence, promoted
the study of Greek literature, and translated into Latin
some works of Aristotle and other classics. Among his
original writings is a “History of Florence,” in Latin.
Died Mar. 9, 1444.
Brünn [Slavic, Brno, the “ford”], a fortified city of
Austria, and the capital of Moravia, is beautifully situated
at the confluence of the Schwarza and the Zwittawa, 94
miles by rail N. N. E. of Vienna and 159 miles by rail S. E.
of Prague; lat. 49°11' 39” N., lon. 16° 36' 39" E. Here
is the castle of Spielberg, used as a state prison. Among
the remarkable public buildings are the cathedral, the
Gothic church of St. James, the Landhaus, formerly a rich
Augustine convent, several palaces of the nobility, and a
theatre. Brünn also contains a museum, a public library,
and a botanic garden. It has important manufactures of
woollen, cotton, and silk fabrics, ribbons, glass, Soap, and
tobacco." It is the seat of the highest civil and military
authorities of Moravia and Austrian Silesia, and of a Roman
Catholic bishop. Its manufactures of woollens are said to
be the most extensive in the Austrian empire. Over 15,000
persons are employed in the factories, according to the
census of 1869. Napoleon used Brünn as his head-quarters
before the battle of Austerlitz. Pop. in 1869, 73,464.
Brun/now, von (PHILIPP), a diplomatist, was born at
Dresden Aug. 31, 1797. He entered the Russian civil ser-
vice in his youth, and was employed in several important
offices and missions. He was sent as ambassador to Lon-
don in 1840, was transferred to Frankfort in 1854, and at-
tended the Conference of Paris in 1856. In 1858 he re-
sumed his former position in London, and took part in the
Conference of London in 1862.
Bru/no [Lat. Brunus], (GIORDANO), an eminent Italian
philosopher, born at Nola, in the kingdom of Naples, in
1548. He was a man of independent and speculative spirit,
and rejected the orthodox doctrines of the Church. On ac-
count of his opinions he was obliged to flee to Geneva in
I580, a few years after which he removed to Paris, and
passed some time in England. His principal works are
# Spaccio della Bestia trionfante” (1584), “Della Causa
Principio e Uno,” and “Del Infinito Universo e Mondi.”
About 1592 he returned to Italy and became a resident of
Pavía. Having been accused of heresy, he was imprisoned
at Rome for nearly two years, and was burned as a heretic
652
BRUNO-BRUSA.
Feb. 17, 1600. His system is called Pantheism, and has
had much influence in modern philosophy. (See C. G. von
MURR, “Leben und Schriften des G. Bruno,” 1805; N.
MoELLER, “G. Bruno, sa, Vie et ses Doctrines,” 1840;
BERTI, “Wita di Giordano Bruno,” 1868.)
Bruno, SAINT, founder of the Carthusians, was born at
Cologne about 1040. In 1086 he retired from the worlä,
and with a few friends began to live in solitude near Gre-
noble. He founded there the order of Carthusians, who
adopted the rule of Saint Benedict. The monastery of the
Grande Chartreuse was afterwards built at the same place.
He died Oct. 6, 1101.
Bruno the Great, archbishop of Cologne, born 925
A. D., was a younger brother of the emperor Otho I. He
was a man of great talents, virtue, and learning, and had
a powerful influence in the Church, and State. He became
lord high chancellor of the empire. Died in 965.
Bruno City, a township of Elko co., Nev. Pop. 122.
Brunoi'ic Acid, a substance which occurs in oil of
coal-tar, associated with carbolic, cresylic, and rosolic acids.
Bruns' wick, a duchy of the German empire, consists
of three larger parts and several enclaves. Area, 1425
square miles. The larger part, containing the capital, is
entirely surrounded by Prussia. The chief mountain-range
is a part of the Hartz Mountains in the S., the highest point
of which in the duchy is the Wormberg, 3245 feet high. It
is traversed by the Ocker in the N., and the Leine, Aller,
and Bode. The chief products are grain, flax, and hops.
Among the mineral products are silver, lead, iron, -lignite,
salt, etc. It has extensive manufactures of linen, wooden
wares, glass, sugar, tobacco, paper, cloths, etc., also large
beer-breweries. It has five gymnasia, one polytechnic school,
a theological seminary, two normal, and numerous other
schools. The government is a constitutional monarchy,
and the Supreme power is vested in a duke and a legislative
body of forty-six members. The receipts and expenses for
the three years 1870–72 were each estimated at 7,196,400
thalers. The public debt in 1871 amounted to 23,765,768
thalers. Brunswick is represented by two members in the
Bundesrath of the empire, and three deputies in the im-
perial Reichstag. Its contingent to the German army forms
part of the tenth army corps. Pop. in 1871, 311,819.
History.—Brunswick formed originally a part of the
duchy of Saxony, and was given in 1194 to Henry the
Lion. His grandson Otto became first duke of Brunswick
in 1235. After having been divided and reunited by the
descendants of Otto, they were again united under Ernest
the Confessor (died 1546). His two sons, Henry and Wil-
liam, again divided the country, and formed the two
branches Brunswick-Oels and Brunswick-Lüneburg, the
latter of which reigned as electors of Hanover, and in the
person of George I. ascended the British throne. Bruns-
wick was annexed to the kingdom of Westphalia in conse-
quence of the treaty of Tilsit, but in 1813 it again became
an independent state under Frederick William, who was
killed in the battle of Quatrebras in 1815. He was suc-
ceeded by his son Karl, who was expelled from the country in
1830, and was succeeded by his brother Wilhelm, who is the
present duke. Brunswick joined the German customs-
union in 1844, assisted Prussia in the war of 1866, joined
the North German Confederation in the same year, and
became a member of the German empire upon its revival
in 1870. With the death of Duke Wilhelm the ducal line
of Brunswick will become extinct, Duke Charles having
died in Aug., 1873, without issue. While the duke desires
the ex-king of Hanover or his son for his successor, it is
believed that Prussia would favor the succession of one of
the sons of Queen Victoria. A. J. SCHEM.
Brunswick [Ger. Braunschweig; anc. Brunonis Wi-
cus], a city of Germany, capital of the duchy of the same
name, is on the river Oker and in a level district, 47 miles
by rail E. S. E. of Hanover; lat. 52° 16' 11" N., lon. I0°
32' 09" E. The old fortifications have been demolished and
converted into pleasant promenades. It contains a magnif-
icent ducal palace, an ancient cathedral, the church of St.
Andrew, with a steeple 316 feet high, a mint, an opera-
house, a town-hall, and a museum which contains paintings
by Albert Dürer, Rembrandt, Holbein, and other great
masters. Railways extend from this town to Hanover,
Magdeburg, and other places. Here are manufactures of
linen and woollen goods, lacquered wares, papier-maché,
tobacco, hardware, etc. A great annual fair is held here.
Among its institutions are a college, a gymnasium, a real-
schule, and an asylum for deaf-mutes.
town. It was enlarged and beautified by Henry the Lion
in the twelfth century. It formerly belonged to the Hanse
League. Pop. in 1871, 57,883.
Brunswick, a county of North Carolina, bordering
on South Carolina. Area, 950 square miles. It is bounded
This is a very old,
on the S. by the Atlantic Ocean, on the E. by the Cape Fear
River, and on the W. by the Waccamaw. The surface is
level, and partly occupied by swamps. Corn, rice, cotton,
and wool are produced. It is intersected by the Carolina
Central and the Wilmington Columbia and Augusta R. Rs.
Capital, Smithville. Pop. 7754. -
Brunswick, a county of Virginia, bordering on North
Carolina. Area, 600 square miles. It is intersected by the
Meherrin River, and bounded on the N. by the Nottoway.
The surface is undulating ; the soil is productive. Grain,
tobacco, and wool are raised. Capital; Lawrenceville.
Pop. 13,427.
Brunswick, a port of entry, capital of Glynn co., Ga.,
on St. Simon’s Sound, 8 miles from the Atlantic Ocean and
80 miles S. S. W. of Savannah. It is the S. E. terminus
of the Macon and Brunswick R. R., and the E. terminus
of the Brunswick and Albany. R. R. It has a safe and
spacious harbor, and is chiefly engaged in the manufacture
and export of yellow-pine lumber. It has one weekly
paper. At the S. end of St. Simon’s Island, and on the N.
side of the entrance to the sound, is St. Simon’s light-
house; lat. 31° 08' 03" N., lon. 81° 23' 26" W. It is of
brick, 108 feet high, and shows a fixed light varied by red
and wbite flashes. Pop. 2348.
T. F. SMITH, ED. “SEAPORT APPEAL.”
Brunswick, a post-village of Cumberland co., Me., on
the right bank of the Androscoggin River, and on the Maine
Central R. R., 30 miles N. E. of Portland and about 8 miles
W. of Bath; lat. 43° 54' 5" N., lon. 69° 57' 4" W. It is
the S. terminus of the Androscoggin R. R., and is the site
of Bow DoIN Col.I.EGE (which see). The river here falls
nearly 50 feet in the distance of half a mile, affording
abundant water-power. Brunswick has six churches, three
national banks, a cotton-mill, and other manufactories. It
has a weekly paper. Many ships are built and owned here.
Pop. 1449; of Brunswick township, 4687.
Brunswick, a post-village, capital of Kanabec co.,
Minn., on Snake River, 64 miles N. of St. Anthony. P. 93.
Brunswick, a post-village of Chariton co., Mo., on the
N. bank of the Missouri River, 292 miles by water from St.
Louis, and on the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. R.,
90 miles E. by N. from Kansas City. A branch railroad
extends from this place north-westward to Chillicothe. It is
situated on a level, fertile prairie. . It has one weekly news-
paper. Pop. 1645; of Brunswick township, 4576.
Brunswick, a township of Rensselaer co., N. Y., con-
tains a part of the suburbs of Troy. Pop. 3128.
Brunswick, a post-township of Medina co., O. Pop.
980. .
Brunswick, a post-township of Essex co., Vt. It con-
tains a mineral spring of some note. Pop. 221.
Brunswick, a township of Eau Claire.co., Wis. Pop.
575.
Brunswick-Bevern (AUGUST WILHELM), DUKE OF,
a Prussian general, born Oct. 15, 1715, took part in the wars
of Frederick the Great against Austria. He distinguished
himself in the battles of Lowa.sitz, Reichenberg, Prague,
and Kollin. He was defeated and taken prisoner at Bres-
lau in 1757, and was released in 1758. Died Aug. 1, 1781.
He was the tallest soldier of his time in the Prussian army.
Brunswick Black is a varnish employed to coat over
coarsely-finished iron grates, fenders, etc. It is composed
mainly of lampblack and turpentine. It is applied with a
brush, dries quickly, and leaves a shining, jet black surface.
Brunswick Green, a pigment used in the arts, con-
sisting of the hydrated chloride and the oxide of copper. It
is obtained by exposing metallic copper to the action of mu-
riate of ammonia, or by mixing sulphate of copper and
common salt into a paste with water. It is also generated
by the action of sea-water on copper, and occurs native in
Atacama in the form of green sand, hence called atacamite.
Bruns/wick-Lü'neburg (KARL WILHELM FERDI-
NAND), DUKE of, a German general, born Oct. 9, 1735, was
a nephew of Frederick the Great, and the eldest son of Duke
Rarſ. He fought for his uncle in the Seven Years' war, and
succeeded to the dukedom in 1780. He became in 1792
commander-in-chief of the allied armies of Austria and
Prussia, which invaded France and were repulsed by Du-
mouriez. In 1793 he resigned the command. He took
command of the Prussian army in 1806, and was defeated
by the French at Jena in October of that year. . In this
battle he was mortally wounded. Died Nov. 10, 1806.
Bruſsa, or Bur'sa (anc. Prusa ad Olympum), a city
of Asia Minor, in Anatolia, is pleasantly situated at the N.
base of Mount Olympus, about 60 miles S. by E. from Con-
stantinople. It is on a beautiful and fertile plain, and pre-
sents a magnificent external appearance, having more than
200 mosques and minarets, some of which are very hand-
BRUSANTINI–BRUSSELS.
653
some. The streets are narrow, but are kept clean by run-
ning water. Here are many colleges and schools, several
Armenian churches, and large bazaars supplied with Eu-
ropean goods. Brusa is one of the most commercial cities
in Asiatic Turkey, and raw silk is the chief article of ex-
port. It has manufactures of silk, satin, gauze, cotton
cloths, and tapestry. The silks of Brusa are highly esteem-
ed in the European markets. Here are warm mineral springs
which were celebrated in ancient times. Prusa was the cap-
ital of ancient Bithynia. It was taken by the Turkish
sultan Orkhān in 1326, after which it was the capital of
the Turkish empire until 1453. Feb. 28, 1855, the town
was nearly destroyed by an earthquake. Pop. about 70,000.
Brusanti'ni (VINCENzo), Count, an Italian poet of the
sixteenth century. He went in youth to Rome to seek his
fortune, but forgot his purpose, and was put into prison on
account of certain indiscreet acts. In prison he suffered
much. He afterwards made a long tour throughout Italy,
and his talents won him the patronage of many princes.
His indiscretion, however, lost him whatever favors he had
gained, and in 1570 he died at Ferrara, his native town.
He is known by his “Angelica Inamorata.” and “Cento
Novelle,” imitations, the one of the “Orlando Furioso '' of
Ariosto, and the other. of the “Decameron ’’ of Boccaccio.
Both are clumsy, cold, and untasteful performances.
Brusasor'ci (properly DoNENIco Ri'ccio), a painter,
born at Verona, Italy, in 1494. His title of “the Titian
of Verona’’ was conferred upon him on account of his
imitation of the style of that master. His works, which
have been greatly overpraised, are chiefly at Verona.
Many of them are in fresco. Died in 1567.--His son,
FELICE RICCIo, called THE YouNGER BRUsAsorcſ (1540–
1605), was a skilful painter on marble and alabaster.
Brus’chius, or Brusch (GASPARD), a German his-
torian, born Aug. 19, 1518, at Schlakenwald in Bohemia,
was in 1552 made a count palatine and poet laureate by
Ferdinand, king of the Romans. He favored Luther and
Melanchthon, and in 1559 was murdered in a forest by some
gentlemen who thought themselves satirized by him. His
chief historical works are “De Germaniae episcopatibus
epitome” (1549) and “Monasteriorum Germaniae praecip-
uorum Chronologia’’ (1551). -
Brush, an instrument for removing dirt from various
surfaces by friction, for adjusting the hair, or for polish-
ing, or applying paints, whitewashes, and the like. Hogs'
bristles furnish a large part of the material for the friction
surface of the best brushes, but for delicate work camel's,
badger's, sable's, and rabbit's hair is used. Wire brushes
are used in various departments of manufacturing industry.
Split whalebone is sometimes employed as a substitute for
bristles. Broom-corn and twigs of trees are often employed
for stiff brushes, and the coarse instruments used in clean-
ing streets are partly made from piassaba and other im-
ported palm fibres. Most brushes are made by joining
some of the above materials to a stock of wood, leather,
bone, or metal, by various methods—a business which gives
employment to many thousands in Europe and the U. S.
Ingenious machines have been invented for the performance
of various parts of the work of making brushes; and these
machines have greatly reduced the labor and expense of
making some kinds of brushes. Other kinds are still made
by hand.
Brush (GEORGE JARVIs), born at Brooklyn, N.Y., Dec.
15, 1831, was educated at Yale College, at the University
of Munich, the Mining Academy of Freiberg, Saxony, and
the School of Mines in London. He became in 1855 pro-
fessor of metallurgy in Yale, to which the professorship of
mineralogy was added in 1864. He is executive officer of
the Sheffield Scientific School, and has published numerous
papers in the “American Journal of Science,” and is author
of parts of the fifth edition of Dana’s “Mineralogy.”
Brush Creek, a twp. of Washington co., Ark. P. 740.
Brush Creek, a township of Faribault co., Minn.
Pop. 422.
Brush Creek, a township of Yancy co., N. C. P. 495.
Brush Creek, a township of Jefferson co., O. P. 697.
Brush Creek, a post-township of Muskingum co., 0.
Pop. 1292. - i
Brush Creek, a township of Scioto co., O. P. 1410.
Brush Creek, a township of Fulton co., Pa. P. 876.
Brush Turkey (Tallegalla Lathami), sometimes call-
ed Wattled Tallegalla and New Holland Vulture,
a bird of Australia remarkable for the peculiar manner in
which its eggs are hatched. Several pairs of these birds
having united to build a nest, collect leaves, grass, etc. into
a heap, sometimes to the amount of several cart-loads. In
this mass the several females deposit their eggs, where they
remain till hatched by the artificial heat of the mound.
The bird is about the size of our common turkey, and has
wattles on its head and neck. When pursued, it endeavors
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Brush Turkey.
to make its escape by running through the tangled brush
or by flying into the low branches of a neighboring tree.
Besides the above, there are several other species and gen-
era, all Australian, and nearly all closely resembling the
above bird in its peculiar habits. These now constitute the
family Megapodidae, which is now regarded as gallinaceous.
The birds are edible, and are much sought as game.
Brush Walley, a post-township of Indiana co., Pa.
Pop. 1606.
Brushy Creek, a post-township of Anderson co., S. C.
Pop. 1752.
Brushy Lalºe, a township of Cross co., Ark. Pop. 313.
Brushy Mountain, a township of Wilkes co., N. C.
Pop. 434. -
Bruso'ni (GIROLAMo), an Italian historian and poet,
born at Legnano Dec. 10, 1610. He wrote many Latin
and Italian poems, and was for a time confined in prison at
Venice for assuming improperly the dress of a Carthusian
monk. He wrote many historical and other works, of
which the most celebrated is “Istoria d’Italia” (1656–80).
Died after 1679. -
Brus'sels, a post-township of Door eo., Wis. P. 406.
Brus'sels [Dutch, Brussel; Fr. Bruacelles], the capital of
Belgium, is situated in the province of Brabant, on the river
Senne, 27 miles by rail S. of Antwerp, and 227 miles by rail
N. N. E. of Paris; lat. 50° 51’ 10” N., lon. 4° 22' 13” E.
It is built partly on the slope of a hill which rises 220 feet
above the level of the sea, and partly on a fertile plain.
The upper town on the hill is the most modern and fashion-
able, and contains the royal palace, public offices, and the
finest hotels. Brussels is the most important and populous
city of Belgium, is remarkable for the number and richness
of its antique buildings, and ranks among the finest cities
of Europe. The walls which formerly surrounded this
city have been converted into boulevards, broad promen-
ades lined with double rows of shade trees. The Allée
Verte is a fashionable promenade along the Scheldt Canal,
and extends to the royal palace of Laeken, about 3 miles
N. of the city. The principal public squares are the Place
Royale, the Grande Place, in which stands the hôtel de
ville, and the Place de la Monnaie, which contains the
mint, the theatre, and the exchange. Among its remark-
able edifices are the hôtel de ville, a fine Gothic structure,
with a spire 364 feet high, in the grand hall of which the
emperor Charles V. abdicated in 1555; the Gothic cathe-
dral of St. Gudule, which was built about 1270, and is cele-
brated for its painted windows, numerous statues, and
carved pulpit; the church of Notre Dame de la Chapelle,
commenced in 1134; the royal palace; the modern church
of Notre Dame de Bon Secours; the former palace of the
prince of Orange; and the Palace of the Fine Arts, which
contains a large collection of paintings of the Flemish
school. Brussels has a public library of about 200,000
volumes; a botanic garden; an astronomical observatory,
one of the finest in Europe; a magnetic observatory; a
free university, founded in 1834, with four faculties—viz.
law, medicine, mathematical and physical sciences, and
belles-lettres; a normal school, a polytechnic school, and in-
stitutions for the blind and for deaf-mutes. The only mint
of the kingdom is situated here. Brussels is one of the
great centres of Belgian industry, and is celebrated for the
manufacture of lace which is considered the finest in the
world. The other chief products of its manufactories are
fine linens, damasks, ribbons, gold and silver embroidery,
glass mirrors, jewelry, paper, porcelain, hats, mathemati-
cal and musical instruments, carriages, and chemical prod-
ucts. Its trade is facilitated by a canal which connects
it with Antwerp, and by railways which radiate in many





















654
PRUSSELS CARPETS-BUBALUS.
directions. About one-third of the º of this city
speak French, and the others Flemish or
1869, with the suburbs, 314,077.
History.—Brussels became a fortified town about 1044,
but was not a very important place until the House of
Austria began to reign over Flanders. In 1507 the seat of
government of the Low Countries was fixed here. Under
the emperor Charles W. it was a residence of the court and
capital of a viceroyalty. Here he abdicated in 1555 in
favor of his son, Philip II., in whose reign Brussels was
the scene of the atrocities committed by the duke of Alva
and the Inquisition. It was taken by the French in 1747,
restored to the Austrians in 1748, and annexed by conquest
to France in 1792. It was a part of the kingdom of the
Netherlands 1815–30, and then became the capital of the new
kingdom of Belgium. REVISED BY A. J. SCHEM.
Brussels Carpets, a name of carpets of excellent
quality manufactured mostly at Tournay. They were prob-
utch. Pop, in
ably so named because extensively sold at Brussels, which
has long been a great centre of trade. (See CARPET, by
WILLIAM BERRI, J.R., editor of “The Carpet.”)
Bru/ton, a township of York co., Va. Pop. 1839.
Bruſtus, a township of Cayuga, co., N. Y. It contains
the village of Weedsport. Pop. 2621.
Brutus (LUCIUs JUNIUs), a famous Roman patriot, was
a son of Tarquinia and a nephew of Tarquin the Proud.
According to tradition, that tyrant was about to put him
to death, but he saved his life by feigning idiocy, which
was the origin of his surname Brutus—i. e. “stupid or
brutish.” Aruns and Titus, the sons of Tarquin, for their
amusement took him with them to consult the oracle of
Delphi. In answer to the question which of those three
should be king of Rome, the oracle replied, “He who
shall first kiss his mother.” On landing in Italy, Brutus,
pretending to stumble, kissed the earth. When the tragic
fate of Lucretia had prepared the people to revolt, Brutus
became their leader, expelled the Tarquins, and founded a
republic (509 B.C.). He was then elected one of the con-
suls. He ordered the execution of his own sons, Titus and
Tiberius, who were convicted of treason. About 507 he
was killed in a battle against the Tarquins. (See CHOM-
PRí, “Vie de Brutus, Premier Consul de Rome,” 1730;
ARNOLD’s “History of Rome.”) t
Brutus (MARCUs JUNIUs), a Roman republican, a
descendant of the preceding, was born in 85 B. C. He mar-
ried Porcia, the daughter of Cato Uticensis, who was his
maternal uncle. In the civil war he fought under Pom-
pey against Caesar, but after the battle of Pharsalia, he
was kindly treated by the dictator, with whom he en-
tered into friendly relations; he was appointed governor
of Cisalpine Gaul. His zeal for republican liberty and the
influence of his friend Cassius induced him to join the
conspiracy against Caesar. After the death of the latter
(44 B. C.), Brutus and Cassius were the most prominent
leaders of the republican party. They raised a large army
in Macedonia, and encountered that of Antony and Octa-
vius at Philippi (42 B.C.). Brutus, who commanded the
right wing, gained the advantage over Octavius, whom he
imprudently pursued. In the mean time, Antony defeated
Cassius so completely that Brutus killed himself on the
field. (See PLUTARCH's “Lives.”)
Brüx, or Brix, a town of Bohemia, on the river Bila,
14 miles N. of Saaz. . It has a gymnasium, a realschule,
numerous churches, coal-mines, and manufactures of salts
from the famous mineral spring of Seidlitz. P. in 1869, 6308.
Bry’an, a county of Georgia, bordering on the Atlantic.
Area, 472 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the
Ogeechee River, and intersected by the Cannouchee. The
surface is nearly level; the soil is sandy. Rice, corn, oats,
cotton, and wool are raised. The Atlantic and Gulf R. R.
passes through it. Capital, Eden. Pop. 5252.
Bryan, a post-village of Sweetwater co., Wy. It is on
the Union Pacific R. R., 858 miles W. of Omaha, Neb.,
and has machine-shops of the railroad.
Bryan, a township of Surry co., N. C. Pop. 1032.
Bryan, capital of Williams co., O., on the Air-Line
R. R., 54 miles W. of Toledo. It has two banks, an
academy, and important manufactures, and is noted for its
artesian wells. Two newspapers are issued here. Pop.
2284. P. C. HEYES, PUB. “PRESS.”
Bryan, a city, capital of Brazos co., Tex., on the Texas
Central R. R., 100 miles N. W. of Houston and 8 E. of
Brazos River, has a cotton-gin and mill-factory, a manu-
factory of tobacco, one of carriages, one of soap, and one
of cotton-seed oil. It has a college, a newspaper, two
academies, three benevolent Societies, eight churches, and
is the seat of the State Agricultural and Mechanical Col-
lege. GooDWIN & SMITH, EDS. “BRYAN APPEAL.”
| Bryanites. See BIBLE CHRISTIANs.
Bry/ant (WILLIAM CULLEN), LL.D., an American poet,
was born in Cummington, Mass., Nov. 3, 1794. He published
at the age of thirteen “The Embargo,” a political satire in
verse. He was educated at Williams College, studied law,
and was admitted to the bar in 1815. In 1816 he produced
“Thanatopsis,” a poem which is greatly admired. He prac-
tised law nearly ten years, and removed to New York City
in 1825. In 1826 he began to edit the “New York Even-
ing Post,” which he conducted with great ability. This
paper has advocated free trade and opposed the extension
of slavery. A complete edition of his poems was published
in 1832. He visited Europe in 1834 and at several subse-
quent periods, and published “Letters of a Traveller in
Europe, etc.” During the civil war he supported vigor-
ously the cause of the Union. He produced in 1869 a
translation of the “Iliad,” and later, 1871, a translation
of the “Odyssey,” which are regarded by competent critics
as the best metrical translations of Homer.
Bry/antown, a post-twp. of Charles co., Md. P. 3629.
Bryd'ges (Sir SAMUEL EGERTON), an English writer and
bibliographer, born in Kent Nov. 30, 1762, published, be-
sides many novels, letters, poems, etc., “Censura Literaria,
containing Titles and Opinions of Old English Books”
(10 vols., 1805–09), “The British Bibliographer ” (4 vols.
8vo, 1810–14), and “Res Literariae" (3 vols., 1821). He
claimed that he was the lawful heir to the barony of Chan-
dos, but his title was not recognized. Many of his works
were privately printed. His works on bibliography are
highly prized. Died at Geneva Sept. 8, 1837. (See his
“Autobiography,” 2 vols., 1834.)
Bryen/nius (NICEPHORUs), a Byzantine historian and
general, was a minister of Alexis Commenus, whose daughter,
Anna Comnena, he married. Died about 1137. His “His-
tory of Constantinople” was edited by MEINEKE (1836).
Bryn'hild, or Brynhil'da, a beautiful maiden, cele-
brated in the Norse mythology. Though called a valkyria,
she is evidently the same person as the Princess Brunhild
of the “Nibelungen Lied.” (See THoRP’s “Northern My-
thology,” vol. i. ; see also NIBELUNGEN LIED, in this work.)
Bry/ony (Bryonia), a genus of plants of the order
Cucurbitaceae, having triadelphous stamens, with distinct
anthers, and stems which climb by means of lateral ten-
drils. The flowers are campanulate, 5-partite, and uni-
sexual. The common bryony (Bryonia dioica) is a native
of England, has palmate or 5-lobed leaves, and bears red
berries about as large as a pea. It abounds in a fetid and
acrid juice. The large perennial root is a purgative and
emetic, and is employed in medicine, especially in homoe-
opathic practice. The root of Bryonia alba possesses.simi-
lar properties, and contains a bitter poisonous principle
called bryonine. The Bryonia Boykinii grows in the
Southern U. S.
Bryony, Black (Tamus communis), a plant of the
order Dioscoreaceae, is a native of many parts of Europe.
It has long twining stems, cordate, undivided leaves, and
red berries which are succulent but unwholesome. The
whole plant is acrid, but the young suckers, in which the
acrid principle is not fully developed, are eaten in Greece
like asparagus.
Bryozo'a [Gr. 8ptſov, “ moss,” and gºov, “an animal”],
an order of animals which appear to occupy an interme-
diate place between mollusks and articulates. Most writers
have called them mollusks; others class them with the “mol-
luscoids;” while some refer them to the Articulata. They
are very small, and moss-like or polyp-like in appearance,
mostly marine, but some species live in fresh water.
Bry’son, a village of Pontiac co., Quebec (Canada), has
one weekly newspaper.
Bryson (ANDREw J.), U. S. N., born July 25, 1823, in
the city of New York, entered the navy as a midshipman
Dec. 21, 1837, became a passed midshipman in 1843, a lieu-
tenant in 1851, a commander in 1862, and a captain in 1866.
He commanded the iron-clad Lehigh in 1863 and 1864 at
the reduction of Fort Macon, and was in all the important
fights with the defences of Charleston harbor. On the 17th
of Nov., 1863, the Lehigh, having grounded, was exposed
for an hour to the fire of nine batteries on Sullivan’s Island.
Rear-Admiral Dahlgren, in his official report of this affair,
says: “Commander Bryson and Lieutenant-Commander
Cornwell, with their officers, did their duty handsomely on
the occasion.” Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Bu’aze, an African plant, of which the botanical rela-
tions are not yet known, but which is likely to prove of
importance on account of its fibre. Dr. Livingstone found
it growing in large quantities north of the Zambesi, and
thinks its fibre stronger and finer than that of flax.
Bu’balus, Bubalis, or Bubalé [Gr. BoiſBaxos, a term
BUEASTIS-BUCHANA.N.
655.
anciently applied to a species of antelope], a genus of
Bovidae which is formed by the buffaloes of India and
Africa, the amoa, and perhaps the musk-ox of North Amer-
ica (Bubalus or Ovibos moschatus). It includes those species
which have the bony core of the horn excavated, with
large cells or sinuses communicating with the cavity of the
nose. The horns are flattened, and bend laterally with a
backward direction. The Antilope Bubalus, a native of
Barbary, is about the size of a large stag, and has a head
and muzzle like an ox. Its horms are furnished with a
number of thickened rings, and are curved so that the
points are directed backward. It is gregarious. The figure
of this animal is found on the monuments of ancient Egypt.
Bubas'tis (the Pi—beseth of Scripture and modern Tel-
basta), a ruined city of Lower Egypt, in the Delta of the
Nile, about 75 miles a little E. of N. from Cairo; lat. 30°.
36' N., lon. 31° 33' E. The site is now occupied by ex-
tensive mounds containing the remains of brick houses
and broken pottery. -
Bubastis, a goddess of ancient Egypt, a deification
of the moon corresponding to the Greek Artemis, said to
signify literally “she who multiplies her aspects;” so called
in allusion to the changes of the moon. According to other
authorities, Bubastis was the deification of the cat, which
animal, as is well known, was an object of worship in an-
cient Egypt. Her name, according to modern Egyptolo-
gists, was Pecht or Pasht.
Bub'ble [Lat. bulla ; Fr. bulle], a globular film or ves-
icle of water or other liquid inflated with air, vapor, or gas.
The air usually expands until the film is burst by the dis-
tension. Bubbles formed with a mixture of water and
soap will float in the air and exhibit interesting optical
phenomena. “The colors,” says Sir J. Herschel, “which
glitter on a soap-bubble are the immediate consequence of
a principle the most important from the variety of phe-
nomena, it explains, and the most beautiful from its sim-
plicity and compendious neatness, in the whole science of
optics.” (See THIN PLATEs, CoLoRs of.) The formation
of bubbles of steam (ebullition) always occurs when water
is heated to the boiling-point.
Buccaneer’ [Fr. boucanier], a name applied to the
famous adventurers or filibusters who in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries infested the West Indies and the
Spanish colonies of South America. They were mostly
English and French, and were united by a common hos-
tility to the Spaniards, to plunder whom was their princi-
pal object and business. For mutual protection against the
cruelty of the Spaniards, they organized themselves into an
association or community bound by a simple code of laws.
The island of Tortuga, was at one time occupied by them,
and was their chief base of operations. They took immense
booty from the Spanish galleons which conveyed precious
metals to Spain, and often attacked towns on the coasts.
Among the famous and able leaders of the buccaneers were
the French Montbar, surnamed THE EXTERMINATOR, and
Henry Morgan, a Welshman, who was born about 1637.
He organized fleets and armaments, took strong fortresses,
and displayed remarkable military talents. He was knighted
by Charles II. The navigator Dampier also took part with
the buccaneers in some expeditions against the Spaniards.
(See JAMEs BURNEY, “History of the Buccaneers.”)
Buccina’tor [Lat. buccino, “to swell the cheeks,” as
in blowing a trumpet, from bucca, the “cheek”], the name
of a muscle situated in the substance of the cheeks; so
called because, when the cheeks are distended with air, the
contraction of the buccinator muscle forces it out. Its
principal use is to compress the food during mastication.
Bucci'no, a town of Italy, in the province of Salerno,
is on the river Botta, here crossed by an old Roman bridge,
23 miles W. of Potenza. Here are quarries of fine marble.
Pop. in 1861, 54.93.
Buc'cinum [a Latin word signifying a “trumpet”], a
genus of gasteropod mollusks, characterized by a shell with
a smooth nonplicated columella, and with a fissure or short
respiratory canal inflected towards the left. The shape of
some species of this genus resembles that of a trumpet.
Buccinum whdatum is the systematic name of the shell
called whelk. Most of the living species are found in the
cold zones; many are fossil.
Buc'cleugh, DUKES OF (1663), dukes of Queensberry,
marquesses of Dumfriess-shire, earls of Drumlanrigand
Sanquhar (1684), earls of Buccleugh (1619), earls of Dal-
keith (1663), viscounts of Nith, Torthorwold, and Ross,
and Barons Douglass (1684), Barons Scott of Buccleugh
(1606), Barons Scott of Eskdale (1619), Lords Scott of
Winchester (1663, in Scotland), earls of Doncaster, and
Barons Tynedale (1662, in England), a noble family of
Scotland, descended from Sir Walter Scott of Branxholm
and Buccleugh, a brave and powerful chieftain who lived
in the reign of James V. He fought at the battle of Pinkie
in 1547, and died in 1552. Some incidents of his life
formed the subject of Scott's poem, the “Lay of the Last
Minstrel.” His great-grandson, also named Sir Walter,
was raised to the peerage as Lord Scott of Buccleugh in
1606. The first duke was beheaded in 1685, but the duchess
retained the title and estates. Henry, the third duke, born
in 1746, was a pupil and friend of Adam Smith. He dis-
tinguished himself by his efforts to improve his extensive
estates by planting trees, enriching the soil, making roads,
and improving the breed of sheep. Died in 1812.-His
grandson, WALTER FRANCIS, born Nov. 25, 1806, the fifth
duke of Buccleugh and the seventh of Queensberry, is said
to have spent £320,000 in improving the harbor of Granton,
about two miles from Edinburgh, the greatest public work
ever-executed in Scotland by an individual at his own ex-
pense. He succeeded his father in 1819, was lord of the
privy seal 1842–46, and president of the council in 1846.
Bucenºtaur [It. Bucentoro], the name of a celebrated
Venetian galley which was gilded and sumptuously fur-
nished, and was used only once a year in a splendid aquatic
procession when the doge performed the ceremony of es-
pousing the Adriatic on Ascension Day by dropping a ring
into the water. It was about 100 feet long, and was pro-
pelled by oars. In the annual procession the Bucentaur,
which conveyed the doge and other high functionaries,
was followed by many gondolas and feluccas. It was
* in 1797, having been kept for this service since
1177.
Buceph'alus [Macedonian Gr. BovkedáAas, for Bovkéða-
Aos, i. e. “ox-head " or “big-head”], the favorite horse of
Alexander the Great, who rode on him in all his campaigns.
He was purchased in Thessaly by King Philip, and cost,
according to Pliny, sixteen talents, equal to $20,000,
nearly, of our money. The royal grooms were unable to
manage him, but Alexander, then very young, tried and
succeeded; and Bucephalus would never permit any one
but Alexander to ride him. Bucephalus died in India
from the effect of wounds received in battle about 326 B.C.,
and Alexander built in his honor the city Bucephala on the
Hydaspes.
Buſ cer [from the Gr. 8o0s, a “cow,” and képas, a “horn,”
being a literal translation of his German name, Kuhhorn),
(MARTIN), a German Reformer, was born near Strasburg
in 1491, and was for a time a Dominican friar. He be-
came a Protestant in 1521. He was a friend of Luther,
and studied Greek and Hebrew at Heidelberg. He intro-
duced the Reformed doctrines at Strasburg 1523, and was
for many years professor of theology at that city. When
dissensions arose between Luther and Zwingle, Bucer acted
the part of mediator. His opinions in relation to the sac-
rament accorded more nearly with those of Zwingle than
those of Luther. He attended the Diet of Augsburg in
1548, and there conducted himself with moderation, but
he refused to subscribe to the “Interim.” At the invita-
tion of Archbishop Cranmer he went to England in 1549,
and became professor of theology at Cambridge. He wrote
in Latin and German numerous religious works and com-
mentaries on Scripture. Died Feb. 27, 1551.
Bu’ceros [from Bojs, an “ox,” and képas, a “horn’],
a genus of birds of the order Insessores, remarkable for
the excessive size of the mandibles, of which the upper in
some species supports a large horn-like protuberance.
These birds are called horn-bills. They are natives of the
Old World. -
Buch, von (LEoPold), a celebrated Prussian geologist,
born at Stolpe-on-the-Oder April 25, 1774. He studied
mineralogy under Werner at Freiberg. He explored the
geology of many countries of Europe, generally travelling
on foot. In 1805 he witnessed an eruption of Mount Ve-
suvius, which converted him to the Plutonic theory.
Among his principal works are “Geognostic Observations
during Travels in Germany and Italy ” (2 vols., 1802–09),
“Travels in Norway and Lapland” (1810), and “On the
Mountain-Systems of Russia” (1840). He published an
excéllent geological map of Germany (1824). He was
the author of the doctrine of the slow upheaval of conti-
nents. Died in Berlin Mar. 4, 1853. (See the English
translation of FLOURENs’ “Eulogy on L. von Buch,” in the
Smithsonian Report for 1862, p. 358.)
Buch'an, a district of Scotland, in the north-eastern
part of Aberdeenshire, consisting of about one-fourth of
the county lying between the Doveran and the Ytham.
Buchan, EARLs of, and Lords Auchterhouse (1469),
Barons Cardross (1606, in Scotland), a noble family of
Scotland.—DAvHD STUART ERSKINE, the thirteenth earl,
was born in Nov., 1815, and succeeded his father in 1857.
Buchan'an, a county in N. E. Central Iowa. Area,
576 square miles. It is intersected by the Wapsipinicon
656 \
BUCHANAN–BUCHEZ.
River, and also drained by Buffalo Creek. The soil is fer-
tile. Cattle, grain, and wool are raised. The Dubuque
and Sioux City R. R. passes through this county. Capital,
Independence. Pop. 17,034.
Buchanan, a county of Missouri, bordering on Kan-
sas. Area, 400 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by
the Missouri River, and intersected by the Platte or Little
Platte. The soil is very productive. Cattle, grain, to-
bacco, and wool are raised. This county is traversed by
the Hannibal and St. Joseph R. R., the Kansas City St.
Joseph and Council Bluffs, and the St. Joseph branch of
the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. Rs. Capital,
St. Joseph. Pop. 35,109.
Buchanan, a county of Virginia, bordering on Ken-
tucky. Area, 500 square miles. It is drained by the
Louisa. Fork and Russell Fork of Sandy River. The
Cumberland or Big Black Mountain extends along the
N. W. border of this county, the surface of which is moun-
tainous. Grain, tobacco, and wool are raised. Capital,
Grundy. Pop. 3777.
Buchanan, a post-village, capital of Haralson co.,
Ga., about 50 miles W. of Atlanta. Pop. 768.
Buchanan, a township of Jefferson co., Ia. P. 1499.
Buchanan, a township of Page co., Ia. Pop. 771.
Buchanan, a flourishing village of Berrien co., Mich.,
on the St. Joseph River and on the Michigan Central R. R.,
87 miles E. of Chicago and 197 miles W. of Detroit. It is
situated in the midst of a rich agricultural and fruit re-
gion, has a large trade, and contains a national bank, two
large bedstead and furniture factories, a zinc collar-pad
factory, a large wagon factory, several flouring and saw
mills, one sash and blind factory, one foundry and machine-
shop, a large washing-machine and clothes-wringer factory,
and a weekly newspaper and steam printing establishment.
Pop. 1702; of township, 2857. WAGNER & KINGERY,
PUBS. “BERRIEN County RECORD.”
Buchaman, a township of Atchison co., Mo. Pop. 905.
Buchanan, a township of Douglas co., Mo. Pop. 430.
Buchanan, a township of Sullivan co., Mo. Pop. 1104.
Buchanan, Alleghany co., Pa. See BIRMINGHAM.
Buchanan, a post-village and township of Botetourt
co., Va. The village is on the S. bank of James River, 135
miles W. of Richmond. Pop. of township, 4000.
Buchanan, a township of Outagamie co., Wis. P. 823.
Buchanan (CLAUDIUs), D.D., a Scottish preacher, born
near Glasgow Mar. 12, 1766. He was professor in the Col-
lege of Fort William in Bengal. He wrote “Christian
Researches in Asia” (1811), and promoted the spread of
the gospel in India. Died Feb. 9, 1815.
Buchanan (FRANKLIN), born at Baltimore, Md., be-
came a midshipman of the U. S. navy in 1815, and passed
through the various grades of the service, becoming a cap-
tain in 1855. In 1861 he resigned, intending to enter the
Confederate service, but subsequently he asked to be re-
stored. His request was refused, and he then joined the
Southern navy. He commanded the Merrimack frigate after
she was fitted up as an iron-clad, and with her engaged and
sunk the wooden frigates Congress and Cumberland. Being
wounded in this affair, the command of the Merrimack in the
encounter with the Monitor devolved upon Lieut. Catesby
Jones. Became a rear-admiral; was defeated and made
prisoner by Farragut in Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864, when he
fought on board the Tennessee iron-clad, and lost a leg.
Buchaman (GEORGE), an eminent Scottish poet and his-
torian, born at Killearn, in the county of Sterling, in Feb.,
1506. He was well educated in Paris, and became a pro-
fessor in a college of that city. Having adopted the Re-
formed doctrines, he returned to Scotland in 1537, and
wrote “Somnium,” a satire against the monks, for which
he was persecuted. He took refuge in England, and passed
over to France about 1540. He was employed as a teacher
in Bordeaux and Paris for several years, during which he
wrote some Latin tragedies. After several changes of resi-
dence and adventures, he returned to Scotland in 1560.
In 1562 he was appointed classical tutor to Mary queen of
Scots. His religious and political principles rendered him
a supporter of Regent Murray in the civil war that ensued.
He became preceptor to the young king, James VI., in
1570, and keeper of the privy seal in the same year. Died
Sept. 28, 1582. As a scholar he was almost unrivalled by
any of his contemporaries. He wrote Latin verse with
great purity, and was humorous, sarcastic, and profound.
JHis chief works are a “History of Scotland” (“Rerum
Scoticarum Historia,” 1582), a metrical Latin version of
the Psalms (1570), and “Franciscanus,” a poetical satire.
(See his “Autobiography,” 1608; DAvid IRVING, “Memoirs
of the Life of George Buchanan,” 1807.)
Buchanan (ISAAC), a Canadian politician, born in
1810, became a leading merchant and president of the
board of trade of Hamilton, Ontario. He was active in
putting down the rebellion of 1837, and has for many years
been prominently engaged in public affairs. He has pub-
lished “The Relations of the Industry of Canada with the
Mother-country and the U. S.”
Buchanan (JAMEs), fifteenth President of the U. S.,
born in Franklin co., Pa., April 23, 1791, graduated at
Dickinson College, Carlisle, in 1809, and was admitted to
the bar in 1812. He was a Federalist in his youth, but
voted for General Jackson in 1828, and was then elected to
Congress. In 1831 he was sent as minister to Russia, was
U. S. Senator 1833–45; and was then appointed secretary
of state. After four years of private life, he was sent as
minister to England in 1853. He was nominated by the
Democrats and elected President of the U. S. in 1856. The
other candidates were John C. Fremont, Republican, and
Millard Fillmore, “American.” Mr. Buchaman received
174 electoral votes. His policy was hostile to those who op-
posed the extension of slavery. In his message of Dec.,
~1860, he blamed the Northern people for the disruption of
the Union, and affirmed that the Executive had no power
or right to prevent the secession of a State. He published
in 1866 “Mr. Buchanan’s Administration,” a work in de-
fence of his policy as President. Died June 1, 1868.
Buchanan (ROBERT C.), an American officer, born in
1811 in Maryland, graduated at West Point in 1830, and
Feb. 8, 1864, colonel Tenth Infantry. He served at fron-
tier posts 1830–70, in Black Hawk war 1832, engaged in
command of gunboats in the battle of Bad Axe River, as
adjutant Fourth Infantry 1835–38, in Florida war 1836–38
—1841–42, engaged at Camp Izard, Oloklikaha, and Okee-
cho-bee, emigrating Cherokees to the West 1838, in the
military occupation of Texas 1845–46, in the war with
Mexico 1846–48, engaged at Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma
(brevet major), Monterey, San Antonio, Churubusco, Moli-
no del Rey (brevet lieutenant-colonel), Chapultepec, and,
the city of Mexico; in command of district of Oregon and
Northern California 1856, engaged against Rogue River
Indians, and as superintendent of Western recruiting 1857–
59. In the civil war he served in the Virginia Peninsula
1862, engaged at Yorktown, Gaines’ Mill (brevet colonel),
Glendale, and Malvern Hill (brevet brigadier-general), in
Northern Virginia campaign 1862, engaged at Manassas,
in the Maryland campaign 1862, engaged at Antietam and
Potomac Run, in the Rappahannock campaign 1862–63,
engaged at Fredericksburg (brevet major-general), as
assistant provost marshal, etc. for New York 1864, and
member of commissions 1865–68. Retired from active ser–
vice Dec. 31, 1870. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Buchanan (THoMAs McKEAN), U. S. N., born Sept. 10,
1837, at Bellefonte, Pa., graduated at the Naval Academy
in 1855, and became a lieutenant in 1860, and a lieutenant-
commander in 1862. He was in many engagements with
the enemy on the lower Mississippi in co-operation with
our army, and on the 15th of Jan. fell, with a bullet
through his head, while “encouraging in his own person
his officers and men to fight courageously ’’ in the sharp
action at Bayou Tèche. In his report to the navy depart-
ment of this battle Rear-Admiral Farragut writes:
“Lieutenant-Commander Buchanan was one of our most
gallant and persevering young officers. He informed me
two days ago that he thought the enemy was about to
make an attack on him, and that he would anticipate
them. In reply to my letter, in which I enjoined him to
do his whole duty on this occasion, he assured me that I
need give myself no uneasiness upon that score, as they
had all determined to go down rather than surrender.”
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Buch'amites, a Scotch fanatical sect, now extinct,
which derived its existence (in 1783) and its name from a
Mrs. Buchan, whose maiden name was Elspeth Simpson.
She was born in 1738, and claimed to be the woman men-
tioned in Rev. xii. The last of the sect died in 1846.
Bu/charest, the capital of Wallachia, is situated in
a fertile plain on the river Dimbovetza, about 140 miles
N.W. of Varma; lat. 44° 25' 30" N., lon. 26° 5' 24” E.
The houses are mostly mean, and the streets dirty and not
well paved. It is said to contain ninety-five churches, one
college, a public library, several hospitals, and an exces-
sive number of gaming-houses. This city has the reputa-
tion of being the most dissolute capital in Europe. It is
the entrepôt for the trade between Austria and Turkey,
the chief articles of which are grain, wool, salt, building
timber, cattle, and wax. The treaty of peace by which
the sultan ceded Bessarabia and part of Moldavia to Rus-
sia was concluded here in May, 1812. Pop., according to
the “Almanach de Gotha ’’ for 1872, 141,754.
Buchez (PHILIPPE Joseph BENJAMIN), an able French
“, BUCHHOLZ-BUCKLAN D.
657
philosophical writer and republican, was born in Ardennes
in 1796. He studied medicine, and took part in several
plots against the Bourbons. He wrote, besides other
works, “The Science of the Development of Humanity”
(1833), and a “Complete Treatise on Philosophy from the
Catholic and Progressive Point of View” (3 vols., 1840).
Buchez and Roux published “The Parliamentary History
of the French Revolution ” (40 vols., 1833–38). He was
president of the National Assembly in May, 1848. Died
in 1865.
Buch/holz, a town of Germany, in Saxony, 46 miles
S. W. of Dresden. Pop. in 1871, 5247.
Büch'ner (FRIEDRICH KARL CHRISTIAN LUDWIG), born
at Darmstadt, in Germany, Mar. 29, 1824, is a leading
writer of the present time in advocacy of “humanitarian,”
materialistic, and atheistic opinions. His best-known
work is entitled “ Kraft und Stoff” (“Force and Matter,”
1854). He has written also two volumes with the title
“Physiological Pictures '' (1861); one on “Natural Phil-
osophy,” “Six Lectures on Darwin’” (1868), and a work
on “Man in the Past, Present, and Future” (1869–70).
The latter has been translated (1872) into English by W.
S. Dallas, F. L. S. With considerable acquaintance with
recent science, an easy style, and some ingenuity of argu-
ment, the principal attraction of Büchner's works to most
readers is, probably, his audacity. In 1872–73 Büchner
made a lecturing-tour in the U. S., under the auspices of
the German Turnverein, but without marked results in the
propagation of his opinions.
Buſchu [a South African word], the leaves of Barosma.
crenata, crematula, and serratifolia, and of other strong-
smelling South African plants used in medicine for their
diuretic properties. They belong to the order Rutaceae,
and are used by the Hottentots for many diseases. The
natives also prize them for their fragrance, and use them
in perfuming their bodies. In commerce the various kinds
of buchu are known as “round ’’ and “ long’” buchu, etc.
They all contain a volatile oil.
Buck, a name given to the male of the fallow deer and
other species of deer; also to the male of sheep, goats, and
antelopes. The term is not properly applied to the male
of red deer or American deer, which is called a stag. . The
term doe is applied to the females of those species of deer
the males of which are called bucks.
Buck, a township of Edgar co., Ill. Pop. 794.
Buck, a township of Hardin co., O. Pop. 1259.
Buck, a township of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 574.
Bucka’ria, a township of Halifax co., N. C. Pop. 1782.
Buck'au, a town of Prussia, in the province of Saxony,
forms a suburb of Magdeburg. Pop. in 1871, 9696.
Buck Bean, or Marsh Trefoil (Menyanthes trifo-
liata), a plant of the order Gentianaceae, the only known
species of its genus. It is indigenous in Europe and the
U. S., and is widely distributed in the colder parts of the
northern hemisphere. It grows in bogs and marshes. The
leaves are ternate, the corolla funnel-shaped and 5-parted,
and the fruit is a pod or 2-valved capsule. A bitter ex-
tract obtained from the leaves is a valuable remedy for
dyspepsia and disorders of the bowels. The whole plant
is tonic, and is used in Germany as a substitute for hops.
Buck Creek, a township of Hancock co., Ind. P. 1227.
Buck’eye, the popular name of certain American ex-
ogenous trees and shrubs of the genus ABsculus and the
order Sapindaceae. The Ohio buckeye (AEsculus glabra),
growing in the Valley of the Mississippi, is a large tree
with a strong-smelling bark, Small, obscure flowers, and
prickly fruit containing the seed, which is a large nut re-
sembling that of the horse-chestnut tree, which is a near
relative of this buckeye. The sweet buckeye (AEsculus
flava), a tree, sometimes a shrub, of a range rather more
to the S. than that of the preceding, has yellow or some-
times dull purple flowers. The red buckeye (AEsculus
Pavia) has a still more southern habitat, ranging south-
ward from the Ohio River to Florida. It is generally
small, and has bright-red flowers. The white buckeye
(AEsculus parviflora) is a shrub of the mountains of the
Southern States, with panicles of white flowers. There
are various other species in Asia.
Buckeye, a post-township of Yolo co., Căl., Pop. 860.
Buckeye, a township of Stephenson co., Ill. Pop. 1761.
Buckeye, a township of Hardin co., Ia. Pop. 159.
, Huckeye, a post-township of Frederick co., Md. Pop.
Buck/field, a post-village of Oxford co., Me., on the
Portland and Oxford Central R. R., 48 miles N. of Port-
land. It has considerable manufactures. Pop. of Buck-
field township, 1494.
Buckhan’non, a post-village, the county-seat of Up-
shur co., West Va., on Buckhannon River, 28 miles S. of
the line of the Baltimore and Ohio R. R., and near the cen-
tre of the State. It has one weekly paper. Pop. 475; of
Buckhamnon township, 1674. -
C. G. RAPP, FoR ED. “DELTA.”
Buck'hart, a post-tp. of Christian co., Ill. Pop. 2028.
Buckhart, a township of Fulton co., Ill. Pop. 1577.
Buck'horn, a township of Talladega co., Ala. P. 1614.
Buckhorn, a post-township of Brown co., Ill. P. 1050.
Buckhorn, a township of Harnett co., N. C. P. 1438.
Buckhorn, a township of Wake co., N. C. Pop. 1694.
Buckhout (Is AAC CRAIG). See APPENDIX. -
Buckingham, a post-village and township of Ottawa
co., Quebec (Canada), on the river du Lièvre. It has an
academy of the Sisters of Charity, and manufactures and
trade in lumber and leather. Pop. of village about 1200.
Buckingham, a county in the central part of Vir-
ginia. Area, 680 square miles. It is bounded on the N.
and N. W. by the James River, and on the S. by the Ap-
pomattox, and also drained by Slate River. The surface
is partly hilly; the soil near the rivers is fertile. Tobacco,
grain, and wool are raised. Valuable gold-mines and slate-
quarries have been opened in this county. Capital, Mays-
ville, or Buckingham Court-house. Pop. 13,371.
Buckingham, a post-township of Tama co., Ia. P. 634.
Buckingham, a post-township of Bucks co, Pa.,
about 27 miles N. by E. of Philadelphia. Pop. 29.10. -
Buckingham, a township of Wayne co., Pa. Pop.
27. -
Buckingham (GEORGE WILLIERs), DUKE OF, the fa-
vorite of James I. of England, was born in Leicestershire
Aug. 20, 1592. He became in 1617 a gentleman of the
bed-chamber, and obtained in the space of two years the
titles of baron, viscount, and earl. In 1616 he was ap-
pointed lord admiral of England. He accompanied Charles,
prince of Wales, when he went to Madrid in 1623 to obtain
in marriage the infanta of Spain. The failure of this suit
was ascribed to the arrogance of Williers, who in his ab-
sence was created duke of Buckingham. After the death
of James I. he became the favorite and prime minister of
Charles I., but he made himself odious to the nation. He
was assassinated by John Felton Aug. 23, 1628.
Buckingham (GEORGE WILLIERs), DUKE OF, a son of
the preceding, was born in Westminster Jan. 30, 1627. He
was an adroit courtier, but profligate and unprincipled.
On the defeat of the royalist party in 1651 he went into
exile. At the Restoration (1660) he became a member of
the privy council and an enemy of Lord Clarendon, after
whose fall (1667) he was a confidential minister of Charles
II. He was the president of the ministry called the
“Cabal.” He wrote the “Rehearsal,” a comedy, and other
plays. Died April 16, 1688. *
Buckingham (Joseph TINKER), an American writer,
born at Windham, Conn., Dec. 21, 1779, published “Speci-
mens of Newspaper Literature, etc.,” and became succes-
sively editor of the “New England Galaxy,” the “Boston
Courier,” and the “New England Magazine.” Died April
11, 1861.
Buckingham (WILLIAM ALFRED), LL.D., born at
Lebanon, Conn., May 28, 1804, was governor of the State
(1858–66), and in 1869 was elected to the U. S. Senate by
the Republicans.
Buckinghamshire (England). See BUCKS. -
Buckingham and Chandos, DUKES OF, marquesses
of Chandos and Earls Temple of Stowe (1822, in the United
Kingdom), marquesses of Buckingham (1784), Earls Tem-
ple (1749), Viscounts and Barons Cobham (1718, in Great
Britain), Earls Nugent (1776, in Ireland), Barons Kinloss
(1601, in Scotland), a noble family of Great Britain.-
ièICHARD PLANTAGENET CAMPBELL TEMPLE NUGENT-
BRyDGES CHANDos GRENVILLE, the third duke of this
family, born in 1823, succeeded his father in 1861. He
was iord president of the council 1866–67, secretary of
state for the colonies 1867–68, and is at present lord lieu-
tenant of Bucks. 1
Buckingham Court-house, or Maysville, a post-
village, capital of Buckingham co., Va. -
Buck/inghamshire, EARLs of (1746, in England),
Barons Hobart (1728, in Great Britain), and baronets
(1611, in England), a noble family of Great Britain-
AUGUSTUS EDwARD HoRART, the sixth earl, born Nov. 1,
1793, succeeded his brother in 1849. f
Buck’land, a post-township of Franklin co., Mass.
The village of Shelburne Falls is partly in this town,
Pop. 1946. - -
42 -

658
BUCKLAND–BUCKWHEAT,
Buckland (CYRUs), an American inventor and ma-
chinist, born at Manchester, Conn., Aug. 10, 1799, invented
machines for working gunstocks, and a machine to cut the
grooves in the barrel of a rifle.
Buckland (WILLIAM), D.D., F. R. S., an English geol-
ogist, born at Axminster in 1785, was educated at Oxford.
His principal work is the Bridgewater Treatise entitled
“Geology and Mineralogy, considered with reference to
Natural Theology” (2 vols., 1836). In 1825 he became a
canon of Christ Church, Oxford. Died Aug. 14, 1856.
Bucklan’dia, a large and beautiful evergreen tree of
the order Hamamelaceae, a native of the Himalaya Moun-
tains. The trunk is sometimes seven feet in diameter at
five feet from the ground, and grows to the height of forty
feet before it branches. The foliage is thick and glossy,
but the timber is not very valuable.
Buck’le (HENRY THOMAs), a popular English author,
born at Lee, in Kent, Nov. 24, 1822. . His father was a
merchant, at whose death he came into the possession of an
ample fortune, and was enabled to gratify his fondness for
books, forming, it is said, one of the finest private libraries
to be found in all Europe. He published in 1857 the first
volume of the “History of Civilization in England,” a
work displaying great boldness as well as affluence of
thought, and characterized by an easy and vigorous style.
It is, however, wanting in that accuracy of knowledge and
closeness of reasoning which are so important in the treat-
ment of those profound and recondite inquiries which form
the subject of his work. The second volume of Mr. Buckle's
“History” appeared in 1861, but having been written un-
der the great disadvantage of declining health, it attracted
less attention than the first had done. To recruit his fail-
ing health, Mr. Buckle set out on an Eastern tour in 1861.
IHe died at Damascus May 29, 1862.
Buck'Iey, a post-village of Iroquois co., Ill.
Buckley (SAMUEL BotsFord), PH. D. See APPENDIX.
Buck'Iin, a post-village of Linn co., Mo.
Buck/minster (Jose,PH), D.D., an orthodox divine,
was born at Rutland, Mass., Oct. 14, 1751, graduated at
Yale in 1770, became pastor of a church at Portsmouth,
N. H., in 1779, and an eloquent and popular preacher.
Died June 10, 1812. -
Buckminster (Joseph STEVENs), D. D., a Unitarian
minister, a son of the preceding, born at Portsmouth, N. H.,
May 26, 1784. He graduated at Harvard in 1800, and be-
came minister of the Brattle Street church, Boston, in
1804. He sailed to Europe for his health in 1806. Died
June 9, 1812. -
Buck/mer (SIMON Boliva R), born 1823 in Kentucky,
graduated at West Point in 1844, in infantry 1844–52,
and subsequently as commissary of subsistence, rank of
captain. He served at frontier posts 1844–52, as assistant
professor at the Military Academy 1846, in the war with
Mexico 1846–48, engaged on the march through Coahuila,
at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Amazoque, San Antonio, Churu-
busco (wounded and brevet first lieutenant), Molino del
Rey (brevet captain), Chapultepec, and the city of Mexico,
and quartermaster Sixth Infantry, as assistant instructor at
the Military Academy 1848–50, and on commissary duty at
New York City 1852–55. Resigned Mar. 26, 1855. He
was superintendent of construction of Chicago custom-
house 1855, adjutant-general, rank of colonel, of Illinois
1857, colonel of Illinois volunteers for Utah expedition
(not mustered into service), inspector-general commanding
Rentucky home guards 1860–61, and farmer near Louis-
ville 1860–61. He joined the Southern army in the civil
war, and was in command of Bowling Green, which he
evacuated on the capture of Fort Henry, falling back to
Fort Donelson (surrendered Feb. 16, 1862, to Gen. Grant,
with 16,000 troops and vast stores); prisoner of war at
Fort Warren till Aug., 1862, in command of a division of
Hardee's corps in Bragg's army in Tennessee, as major-
general assigned to the third grand division, engaged at
Murfreesboro’ and Chickamauga, and included, May 26,
1865, in Kirby Smith's surrender to Gen. Canby. -
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Buck Prairie, a tp. of Lawrence co., Mo. Pop. 1514.
Bucks, or Buck’inghamshire, an inland county of
England, is bounded on the N. by Northampton, on the E.
by Bedford and Hertford, on the S. by Berks, and on the
W. by Berks and Oxford. It has an area of 730 square
miles. The surface is diversified by valleys and hills of
moderate height. The Chiltern range of chalk-hills, about
900 feet high, extends across the county in a N. E. and
S. W. direction. Near the middle of the county is the
fertile Vale of Aylesbury, which is farther N. than the
Chiltern Hills; the soil is generally fertile, and contains a
large portion of clay. It is drained by the Ouse, the
Thame, and other small rivers. The staple products are
wheat, beans, butter, cattle, and mutton. The sheep of
the Vale of Aylesbury are noted for their fine and heavy
fleeces. Bucks county is intersected by the Great Western
and North-western Railways. The chief towns are Ayles-
bury, Buckingham, and Marlow. Pop: in 1871, 175,870.
Bucks, a county of Pennsylvania, bordering on New
Jersey. Area, 600 square miles. It is bounded on the
N. E. and S. E. by the Delaware River, and is drained by
the Neshaminy and Perkiomen creeks. The surface is
mostly undulating or hilly; the soil is productive and well
cultivated. Cattle, grain, tobacco, wool, and hay are staple
products. Quarries of limestone and sandstone, valuable
for building, have been opened in this county, and iron, .
titanium, and zircon are found in it. The manufacturing
interests include lumber, leather, cigars, wagons, clothing,
and many other commodities. It is intersected by the
North Pennsylvania R. R. and the Philadelphia and Tren-
ton R. R. Capital, Doylestown. Pop. 64,336.
Bucks, a township of Tuscarawas co., O. Pop. 1127.
Buck’s, a township of Horry co., S. C. Pop. 1481.
Buck'shoal, a township of Yadkin co., N. C. Pop.
1390.
Bucks/port, a township and village of Humboldt co.,
Cal. The village is on Humboldt Bay; lat. 40° 46' 37.09”
N., lon. 124° 10' 43.8' W. Pop. 388.
Bucksport, a post-village of Hancock co., Me., in
Bucksport township, and on the left (E.) bank of the Pen-
obscot River, 18 miles S. of Bangor. It derives its support
from shipbuilding, fisheries, and commerce. It has a ma-
tional bank, manufactures of various kinds, and is the seat
of the East Maine Conference Seminary. Pop. of the
township, 3433.
Buck'skin, a township of Ross co., O. Pop. 2229.
Buck'stone (John B.), an English dramatist and comic
actor, born in 1802. He performed with success in Lom-
don, and wrote a great number of popular dramas, among
which are “The Green Bushes,” “The Rough Diamond,”
“The Wreck Ashore,” and “Good for Nothing.”
Bucks/wort, a township of Marshall co., Ala. P. 390.
Buckſthorn, a township of Mecklenburg co., Va. Pop.
2046.
Buckthorn (Rhamnus), a genus of shrubs or small
trees of the order Rhamnaceae, distinguished by a bell-
shaped calyx which is four or five cleft, and petals which
are small and sometimes wanting. The fruit is a berry-
like drupe, containing two to four separate seed-like nutlets.
The species are numerous, and natives of many temperate
and tropical regions. The common buckthorn (Rhamnus
catharticus) is a deciduous shrub, a native of Europe, and
naturalized in the U. S. It has spiny branches, ovate
leaves, and small black berries (or drupes) which are nau-
seous and purgative, and which yield the pigment called
sap-green (or bladder-green). This shrub is planted for
hedges in the U. S. The Atlantic U. S. have two native
species. The alder buckthorn (Rhamnus Frangula) is a
European shrub which is not armed with spines, and has
ovate, entire leaves. The berries are violently cathartic.
The bark has been employed in medicine, and is used for
dyeing yellow. The unripe fruit of dyers’ buckthorn .
(Rhamnus infectorius), a shrub which grows in Southern
Europe, yields a bright yellow dye. The so-called French
berries or Avignon berries used by dyers are the fruit of
the last and other species. -
Buck/town, a township of Dorchester co., Md. P. 885.
Buck/wheat” (Fagopyrum esculentum or Polygonum
Fagopyrum), an annual plant of the order Polygonaceae, is
said to be a native of Central Asia, and the basin of the
Volga. It is cultivated for food in Europe and the U. S.,
thrives on poor soils, and grows to the height of two feet
or more. It has triangular, heart-shaped or halberd-
shaped leaves. The seeds are triangular and resemble a
beech-nut in form. Cakes of buckwheat eaten warm are a
favorite article of food, which is very nutritious. Buck-
wheat meal contains about 10 per cent. of gluten and 50
per cent. of starch. Bees are partial to the flowers of this
plant, which secrete a large portion of honey, which, how-
ever, is not of the first quality. Buckwheat comes to
maturity in a shorter time than most other grains, and
may be sown late. In the U. S. the seeds are usually
sown broadcast. The quantity of seed required for one
acre is a bushel or one bushel and a half. It requires little
manure, and does not exhaust the soil. A good crop of
this grain yields about forty bushels on an acre, and a
bushel of it weighs from forty-five to forty-eight pounds.
* Originally “beech-wheat,” because its seeds are shaped like
beech-nuts; in German it is Buchweizen, which is literally
“beech-wheat.”
BUCKWHEAT
TREE-BUELL.
659
Another species, called Tartarian buckwheat (Fagopyrum
Tartaricum), is a hardy native of Siberia, and is adapted to
cold climates. . It is distinguished from the common buck-
wheat by the toothed edges of its seeds, and is inferior in
quality. -
Buckwheat Tree, a small tree or shrub of Georgia
and the Gulf States (the Cliftonia ligustrina), a smooth,
elegant evergreen of the order Cyrillaceae. It has clusters
of white, fragrant blossoms in March, April, and May. It
grows around swamps, ponds, and streams, and is often
called titi. Its pendulous winged fruit is sometimes shaped
like a kernel of buckwheat; whence the name.
Bucol’ic [Gr. Bovkoxvicós (from BovkóAos, an “ox-herd,”
derived from Bojs, an “ox,” and koxéco, to “care for,” a
word which only occurs in compounds, but whose root is
seen in the Lat. colo); Lat. bucolicus], pastoral or pertain-
ing to herdsmen. This term is applied to a kind of pastoral
poetry written in hexameter verse. The poems of Theocri-
tus and the “Eclogues” of Virgil are the most perfect models
of bucolic poetry. .
Buctouche, a port of Wellington township, Kent co.,
New Brunswick, on Buctouche River, has considerable
shipbuilding, and a trade in oysters and lumber. Pop.
about 500. . -
Bucy’rus, the county-seat of Crawford co., O., on San-
dusky River, on the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago
R. R., 62 miles N. of Columbus. It is the seat of a large
farming and manufacturing community, has the largest
union school-house in the State, and is well supplied with
churches. There are mineral springs in the town and neigh-
borhood. The skeleton of a mastodon was found in the
vicinity in 1838. It has one national bank and two weekly
and one semi-weekly paper. Pop. 3066; of township, 4,184.
J. R. CLYMER, ED. “CRAwford County ForuM.”
Buczacz, a town of Austria, in Eastern Galicia, often
mentioned in the wars between Poland, Hungary, and
Turkey. Pop. 8523.
Bu’da [Ger. Ofen; Slavonic, Budin; Lat. Buda], a free
city of the Austrian empire, capital of Hungary, is on the
right bank of the Danube, opposite Pesth, with which it is
connected by a magnificent suspension bridge. It is 130
miles S. E. of Vienna, and in lat. 47° 29' N., lon. 19° 3' E.
It is built in the form of an amphitheatre around a hill
which rises 485 feet above the level of the sea, and presents
a picturesque appearance. This hill is crowned by a cit-
a.del and a royal palace. The other remarkable edifices
are the cathedral, the palaces of the nobility, and the ob-
servatory, which is on the top of a hill called Blocksberg.
Here are hot sulphur springs, from which Buda derives its
German name of Ofen—i.e. “oven.” It has manufactures
of silks, velvets, cotton and woollen goods, leather, and
gunpowder. Large quantities of excellent wine, called
Ofner, are produced in this vicinity. Buda was formèrly
considered the key of Christendom. It was taken by Soly-
man the Magnificent in 1541, and occupied by the Turks
until 1686. Pop. in 1869, 53,998.
Buda, Old [Ger. Alt Ofen; Hun. O’Buda], a muni-
cipal town of Hungary, in the county of Pesth, on the
Danube, almost adjoining the suburbs of Buda. It is sup-
posed to be the ancient Sicambria. Pop. in 1869, 16,002.
Buddae/us (John FRANCIs), a distinguished Lutheran
theologian and philosopher, born, at Anclam June 25, 1667.
At the age of twenty he was master of arts and adjunct
professor in the philosophical faculty at Wittenberg, and in
1689 at Jena. He was elected in 1692 professor of the
Greek language at Coburg, and in 1693 he was invited to
take the chair of moral philosophy at Halle. In 1705 he
became professor of theology at Jena. His position was one
which harmonized orthodoxy and pietism. His erudition
was enormous (he was the most universal scholar among
the theologians of his time), yet accurate, and his judg-
ment was of the most solid kind. He wrote more than a
hundred books, most of which are still sought by scholars,
and several of which are acknowledged standards. His
practical skill as an instructor was of a high order, and
many of his pupils rose to great eminence. His writings
which are most read in our day are “Institutiones Phil-
osoph. eclecticae,” “Theologia Moralis,” “Historia Eccle-
siae Veteris Testamenti,” “Theologia Dogmatica,” “Isagoge
ad. Theologiam Universam,” “Ecclesia Apostolica..” In
philosophy he was an eclectic. His writings are marked
by tact, clearness, logical arrangement, and ease of style.
His Latin is above the common standard. He was distin-
guished for his eminent purity of character, his fidelity to
the faith of the Church, and his firmness and moderation
towards those who dissented from it. Died at Jena, Nov.
19, 1729. C. P. KRAUTH.
Buddha, or Buddhism. See BooDDHA.
Bud’ding, or Inocula/tion, is a mode of propagating
apples, pears, roses, etc.
improved and choice varieties of fruit which cannot be re-
produced by seeds. It is the best mode of propagating
peaches, and is convenient in the case of plums, cherries,
The best time for budding is the
last half of summer. The operation is performed by open-
ing the bark of the stock with a vertical and transverse cut,
nearly like a letter T, and inserting into it a leaf-bud of
another variety. The length of the bark and wood cut off
with the bud is about one inch. These buds are taken from
a branch formed in the present or preceding year. They
should be cut squarely at the top, so as to fit the transverse
section of the bark of the stock. The leaf growing close to
the bud should be cut off. The process is finished by tying
the bud with bass matting, soft cotton twine, or woollen
yarn. The operation just described is called “shield-bud-
ding,” and is more rapidly performed than grafting.
Bud’dlea, a genus of shrubs of the natural order Scroph-
ulariaceae, comprises many species, which are natives of warm
climates. Some of them are prized for the beauty of their
flowers. Buddlea globosa, a native of Chili, is cultivated
in gardens, and is hardy enough to bear the climate of Eng-
land. It has globose heads of orange-colored flowers. Bud-
d!ea Neemda, a native of India, has beautiful flowers.
Bude Light, a name originally applied to a brilliant
light invented by a Mr. Gurney of Bude, in Cornwall, Eng-
land. He introduced a stream of oxygen into a flaming jet
of oil or gas. The expense of this system has prevented
its general use. The same name is sometimes inappropri-
ately given in England to other similar inventions.
Budg’ell (EUSTACE), an English essayist, born at Ex-
eter in 1685, was a friend of Addison. He contributed to
the “Spectator” a number of essays signed “X.” Having
lost about £20,000 by the South Sea. Bubble, he committed
suicide May 4, 1737. -
Bud'get [Fr. bougette], originally a bag, a small sack
with its contents; hence a stock, a store, or collection of
things. In England the term is applied to a condensed
statement of the revenue and expenditure of the nation;
an annual financial statement which the chancellor of the
exchequer presents in a speech to the House of Commons.
It comprises an exposition of the relative amounts of money
received and expended during the past year, an estimate
of the probable expenditures of the ensuing year, and some-
times a scheme to meet by a loan or new taxes the actual
or anticipated deficit. Budget is also used in France to
denote the annual financial statement. *
Bud/ington (WILLIAM IVEs), D. D., a Congregational
clergyman, born April 21, 1815, at New Haven, Conn.,
graduated at Yale College in 1834, studied theology at the
Yale Divinity School and at Andover, leaving the latter
institution in 1839. He was ordained pastor of the First
church, Charlestown, Mass., April 22, 1840, where he re-
mained fourteen years. In 1855 (April 22) he took charge
of the Clinton avenue Congregational church, Brooklyn,
N. Y. In 1845 he published “History of the First Church,
Charlestown, Mass.,” and has also published occasional
sermons. He is an eloquent and acknowledged leader in
the denomination to which he belongs.
Bud/ukhshan, or Fyºzâbâd, a town of Independent
Tartary, is on the river Budukhshan, 180 miles N. N. E. of
Cabool. It was once an important place, having valuable
mines of rubies in the vicinity.
Budſweis, or Bud’witz, a town of Bohemia, on the
Moldau, 77 miles S. of Prague. It is well built, has a
cathedral, a gymnasium, and an academy; also manufac-
tures of woollen cloths, muslims, damasks, etc. A railway
extends from this town to Linz. Pop. in 1869, 17,413.
Bu'el, a post-township of Sanilac co., Mich. Pop. 216.
Buel (JESSE), a journalist, born at Coventry, Conn.,
Jan. 4, 1778. He founded the “Albany Argus,” a Demo-
cratic journal, in 1813, and in 1834 became the first editor
of the “Albany Cultivator,” an agricultural paper. He also
published the “Farmer's Companion.” Died Oct. 6, 1839.
Bu’ell (DoN CARLos), an American officer, born Mar. 23,
1818, near Marietta, O., graduated at West Point in 1841,
and after serving in the infantry till 1848, became, July 17,
1862, assistant adjutant-general U. S. A., rank of colonel,
and Mar. 21, 1862, major-general U. S. volunteers. He
served in the Florida war 1841–42, on frontier duty 1843–
45, in the military occupation of Texas 1845–46, in the war
with Mexico 1846–48, engaged at Palo Alto, Resaca de la
Palma, Monterey (brevet captain), Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo,
and Churubusco (severely wounded and brevet major), and
as adjutant of the Third Infantry 1847–48, as assistant
adjutant-general at Washington, D. C., 1848–49, and at
head-quarters of various departments 1849–61. In the
civil war he was in command of the department of the Ohio
1861–62, in command of the army of the Ohio 1862, engaged
660
BUEL’S GORE-BUFFALO.
at the battle of Shiloh, siege of Corinth, operations in
Northern Alabama, and the retreat to Louisville to cut off
the army of Bragg, which he drove from Kentucky, and
before a commission to investigate his operations 1862–63.
He resigned from the army June 1, 1864, and since 1865
has been president of the Green River (Ky.) Iron-works.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Bu’el’s Gore, a township of Chittenden co., Vt. P. 29.
Bue/na Wis/ta, a county in the N. W. of Iowa. Area,
600 square miles. It is drained by the Little Sioux ànd
Raccoon rivers. The surface is undulating; the soil is
fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are raised. It is inter-
sected by the Dubuque and Sioux City R. R. Capital, Sioux
Rapids. Pop. 1585. #
Buena Vista, a township of Columbia co., Ark. P. 538.
Buena Vista, a township of Stanislaus co., Cal. Pop.
357.
Buena Vista, a post-village, capital of Marion co.,
Ga., 33 miles S. E. of Columbus. Pop. 525.
Buena Vista, a township of Schuyler co., Ill.
1152.
Buena Vista, a township of Clayton co., Ia. P. 308.
Buena Vista, a township of Jasper co., Ia. P. 1073.
Buena Vista, a post-township of Saginaw co., Mich.
Pop. 1005.
Buena Vista, a township of Humboldt co., Nev. Pop.
520.
Buena Vista, a township of Atlantic co., N. J. Pop.
8.
Pop.
94.
Buena Vista, a township of King and Queen co., Va.
Pop. 2985.
Buena Vista, a post-township of Portage co., Wis.
Pop. 624.
Buena Vista, a township of Richland co., Wis. Pop.
1044.
Buena Vista, a hamlet in Mexico, situated about 90
miles S. W. of Monterey and 7 miles S. of Saltillo, famous
for the battle fought in its vicinity between the American
forces under Gen. Zachary Taylor and the Mexican army
under Santa Anna, Feb. 22–23, 1847. Gen. Taylor, having
become assured, from reconnoissances on Feb. 20, that the
enemy was in heavy force at Encarnacion, 30 miles in front
of Agua Nueva, with the evident intention of attacking his
position, withdrew his army on the 21st from the camp at
Agua Nueva, which could be turned on either flank, and
took up a strong line a little in front of Buena Vista, 7
miles south of Saltillo. A cavalry force left at Agua Nueva
for the purpose of covering the removal of supplies was
driven in during the night, and on the morning of the 22d
the Mexican army appeared immediately in front of Buena
Vista, and at 11 A. M. (Feb. 23) a flag was sent from Santa
Anna, with a summons of unconditional surrender, to which
Gen. Taylor laconically replied that he “declined to accede
to the request.” - -
The line occupied by the American troops was one of re-
markable strength. The road at this point becomes a nar-
row defile, the valley on its right being rendered imprac-
ticable for artillery by a system of deep and impassable
gullies, while on the left a succession of rugged ridges and
precipitous ravimes extends back towards the mountain
which bounds the valley. The features of the ground were
such as nearly to paralyze the artillery and cavalry of the
enemy, while his infantry could not derive all the advan-
tage of his numerical superiority. The action was com-
menced about 3 o'clock in the afternoon of the 22d, between
the light troops on the left, and skirmishing continued till
dark, but no serious attack was made until the morning of
the 23d. During the night of the 22d the Mexicans had
occupied the mountain-side by light troops, with the inten-
tion of forcing the left flank of the American army, and it
was here that the action commenced on the 23d, and an
obstinate and Sanguinary conflict was maintained, with
short intervals and varying success, throughout the day,
resulting in the repulse of the enemy from our lines, which,
however, had been much contracted since morning. An
attack of cavalry upon Buena Vista, and a demonstration
upon Saltillo were also repelled, and during the night Santa
Anna abandoned his position and fell back upon Agua
Nueva. A reconnoissance made on the 26th disclosed the
fact that the retreat had been continued in the direction of
San Luis Potosi, and Gen. Taylor resumed his former camp
at Agua, Nueva on the 27th.
The American force engaged was about 5200, while the
Mexican army was stated by Santa Anna in his summons
to be 20,000 strong. The American loss was 746, of which
267 were killed; the Mexican loss in killed and wounded
was about 2000.
Much of the credit of final success in this.
unequal contest is due to the uniform bravery and efficiency
of the regular artillery; the volunteers, though at times
displaying the greatest courage, were wanting in discipline
and experience, and but for the steady behavior of the
regular troops the result must at least have been less decis-
ive and complete. -
Buen Ayre, one of the Dutch West India Islands, is
near the coast of Venezuela, 30 miles E. of Curaçoa. Length,
20 miles; average width, 4 miles. It has a tolerable har-
bor, and produces cattle and salt. Pop. in 1870, 3870.
Bue/nos Ay’res, a province of the Argentine Republic,
is bounded on the N. E. by the Rio de la Plata, on the E.
and S. E. by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the S. W. by the
Rio Negro, which separates it from Patagonia. The area
is estimated at 72,400 square miles. The surface is an al-
luvial plain, in which timber and stones are scarce; the
soil is mostly fertile. Here are vast treeless, grassy plains,
called Pampas, which afford pasture to immense herds of
cattle and horses. These constitute the principal riches of
the inhabitants. This province is not liberally supplied
with rivers or running streams, but contains a great num-
ber of salt lakes. The principal river besides the Paraná
(La Plata) is the Rio Colorado, which traverses the S. W.
part of the province. The climate in the N. part is mild,
and has a mean summer temperature of 90°. F. It be-
came independent of Spain in 1810, seceded from the Ar-
gentine Republic in 1853, and was reunited to it in June,
1860. A large number of Europeans have recently emi-
grated to this province. Capital, Buenos Ayres. Pop. in
1869, 495,107.
Buenos Ayres, a seaport of South America, and the
largest city of the Argentine Republic, is situated on the
right bank of the La Plata, and 150 miles from the ocean ;
lat. 34° 36' S., lon. 58° 22' W. It is the capital of the state
or province of Buenos Ayres, and is nearly opposite to Mon-
tevideo, which is 100 miles distant. The streets cross each
other at right angles, are paved with granite, and bordered by
low brick houses, which usually have each a garden adjoining.
The principal public buildings are a large cathedral, nume-
rous churches, the house of representatives, and a college,
with which are connected a large library, an observatory,
and a normal school. The adjacent country is alluvial, and
nearly destitute of timber. The climate is dry and healthy,
but variable. Among the disadvantages of this city is a
scarcity of fresh water, which can be obtained only from
the river, and is conveyed about the streets in carts. The
trade and prosperity of Buenos Ayres are impeded by
the want of a safe and commodious harbor. Vessels draw-
ing more than twelve feet of water cannot come within five
miles of the city, and smaller vessels usually anchor one
mile from the shore. During a S. E. wind vessels are here
exposed to a violent surf. The chief articles of export are
precious metals, hides, beef, wool, tallow, horns, and skins.
In 1866 the exports amounted to $22,312,400, and the im-
ports to $31,218,000. Several English and French news-
papers are published here. This city was founded by the
Spaniards in 1580, and became the capital of the vice-
royalty in 1776. Its growth has been retarded by civil
wars and political commotions. Pop. in 1868, 180,000.
Buffalo, a name given to two species of ruminant
animals of the family Bovidae, the Bubalus Buffelus and
ę “—- Bubalus Caffer. The for-
A sº. 4. . . . mer is a native of India,
§ §/h, = where it has been long
*::= domesticated, and is an
N= important and useful ani-
---
§ mal. It is generally used
*-a- # E as a beast of burden in
## º ſº # India and also in Italy,
:#fff;: { º ºtſ º - º º * *
§ ºftºff #% ºwhere it was introduced
% § % º §§
º §%. % about 600 A. D. It is
§ ºº § º lſº º larger and more powerful
§§§ W | % # than an ox, and has a
Cape Buffalo. larger head in proportion
to the size of the body; the dorsal line rises into a consid—
erable elevation above the shoulders. It has large crooked
horns, which are curved first outward and downward, and
next backward and upward. The buffalo is partial to
marshy places, and is addicted to wallowing in the mud
and shallow water. Its flesh is inferior to that of the ox,
but the milk of the female is said to be excellent in quality.
The tame buffaloes of India are easily managed and guided
by a mere rope, and the driver often rides on their backs.
The jungles of India are also infested by wild buffaloes of
the same species, sometimes called arma or arnee, a fierce
and dangerous animal, which is more than a match for a
tiger. The Cape buffalo (Bubalus Caffer) is a native of
South Africa, and has not been domesticated. It has large
horns, the bases of which are close together. The horns
spread or diverge laterally, are next bent downward, and

















BUFFALO.
661
have the point curved upward and inward. The ani-
mal measures about eight feet from the base of its
horns to its tail, and is about five and a half feet in height.
It is a dangerous animal, which will attack men without
provocation, but it is sometimes mastered by the lion. Its
hide is so thick and tough that the Caffers make of it
shields impenetrable to a musket-ball. Vast herds are
found in S. Africa. (For the American buffalo see BIsoN.)
Buffalo, a county of Central Dakota, bounded on the
W. by the Missouri River. Area, 750 square miles. Iron
ore is found. Pop. 246.
Buffalo, a county of Central Nebraska. Area, 850
square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Platte River,
and also drained by Wood River and a stream called South
Branch. The soil is fertile. The county is intersected by
the Union Pacific R. R. Capital, Gibbon. Pop. 193.
Buffalo, a county of Wisconsin, bordering on Min-
nesota. Area, 650 square miles. It is bounded on the
S.W. by the Mississippi River, on the W. by the Chippewa.
The surface is diversified; the soil is fertile. Grain and
wool are staple products. Capital, Alma. Pop. 11,123.
Buffalo, a township of Craighead co., Ark. Pop. 221.
Buffalo, a township of Marion co., Ark. Pop. 268.
Buffalo, a township of Searcy co., Ark. Pop. 195.
Buffalo, a township of Ogle co., III. Pop. 3524.
Buffalo, a township of Buchanan co., Ia. Pop. 598.
Buffalo, a township of Linn co., Ia. Pop. 508.
Buffalo, a post-township of Scott co., Ia. Pop. 1435.
Buffalo, a township of Cloud co., Kan. Pop. 303.
Buffalo, a post-village, capital of Wright co., Minn.,
in a township of its own name, on a small lake about 45
miles W. N. W. of St. Paul. Pop. of the township, 508.
Buffalo, the capital of Dallas co., Mo., 4 miles W. of
Niaugua River and 33 miles N. E. of Springfield, has
fine iron and lead ore, several mines in operation, and
also has coal. It is on the line of the Laclede and Fort
Scott R. R., and has a fine court-house and two weekly
papers. P. 278. A. G. HollFNBECK, ED. “REFLEx.”
Buffalo, a township of Morgan co., Mo. Pop. 543.
Buffalo, a township of Newton co., Mo. Pop. 785.
Buffalo, a township of Pike co., Mo. Pop. 2880.
Buffalo, a township of Caldwell co., N. C. Pop. 792.
Buffalo, a city, port of entry, and shire-town of Erie
co., N. Y., in lat. 42° 53' N., lon. 78° 55' W., at the foot
of Lake Erie, and at the head of Niagara River. It is
also the western terminus of the Erie Canal. In popula-
tion and wealth it is the third city in the State. The city
is delightfully situated, having a water-front of about five
miles, with numerous substantial and extensive piers,
breakwaters, basins, and canals, constructed at an ex-
pense of several millions of dollars, partly by the Federal
government and partly by the State and municipal authori-
ties. The city extends down the Niagara River five miles,
and at right angles with it about the same distance, but
the northerly and easterly portions are sparsely settled.
On the 31st of Dec., 1813, Buffalo, then containing about
200 inhabitants, was burned by the British. After the war
it speedily began to increase, and in 1828 contained about
7000 inhabitants, the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825
giving a strong impetus to its growth. It became a city
in 1832, and then had 15,000 inhabitants; in 1835 it con-
tained 15,700; in 1840, 18,200; in 1845, 30,200; in 1850,
42,300; in 1855, 74,200; in 1860, 81,130; in 1865, 94,210;
and in 1870, 117,714. A private enumeration in 1873 indi-
cated that the population had reached 161,782. The re-
port of the State assessors for 1873 puts the valuation, for
the purpose of taxation, at $38,000,000. The “true valua-
tion,” according to the census of 1870, was $110,100,000.
Buffalo is noted for its wide and beautiful streets, and the
profusion of trees and shrubbery with which they are dec-
orated. It claims to be the best paved, best lighted, and
best sewered city in the U. S. It has long been a most
important commercial entrepôt, especially in the receipt,
handling, and shipment of grain. In 1872 there were re-
ceived by lake over 62,000,000 bushels of grain (includ-
ing flour estimated as wheat), and at least 30,000,000 bush-
els by rail, making 92,000,000 bushels in a single year. In
addition there were receipts of lumber, live-stock, and
other property, estimated to equal the grain receipts in
value. In addition to the water-communication by lake
and canal, which is practically unlimited, Buffalo has
railroad trunk-lines in almost every direction—viz. the
New York Central, the Erie, the Lake Shore, the Buf-
falo New York and Philadelphia, the Grand Trunk and
the Great Western, the Canada Southern, and the Buffalo
and Jamestown R. Rs. The New York and Oswego Mid-
land, the Lake Ontario Shore, and the Northern Pacific
R. Rs. will be important auxiliaries to Buffalo's growth
and commerce. The Niagara is here crossed by a fine iron
truss railroad bridge.
In the public works essential to a large city Buffalo is
either already well supplied or is rapidly becoming so. It
has extensive waterworks, the property of the city; three
gas companies; a magnificent park, and boulevards almost
surrounding the city; a State normal school, a central
grammar School, and thirty-six first-class district schools.
A city and county hall will be completed in 1875. It is to
be of granite, and the estimated cost is $1,250,000. The
State is erecting an insane asylum, to accommodate 1000
patients, and to cost over a million dollars. The city
contains a penitentiary and a county almshouse. There
are four large markets; thirty grain-elevators; a stone
post-office belonging to the U. S. government; a State
arsenal; a commodious hall and library building belonging
to the Young Men’s Association ; and over seventy church
edifices. Of the latter, two (one Roman Catholic and the
other Episcopalian) are imposing cathedrals. With liter-
ary, benevolent, and educational institutions Buffalo is
well supplied. Among them may be named the Young
Men’s Association, with a library of 20,000 volumes, and
real estate and buildings worth $250,000; the Society of
Natural Science, with an extensive collection and a large
museum of casts of fossil remains; a well-endowed art-
gallery; an historical society, law library, mechanics' in-
stitute, Young Men's Christian Union, Grosvenor Library
(free), a general hospital, orphan asylums, special hos-
pitals, a medical college, a female seminary, and several
Catholic colleges. There are ten lodges of Free Masons,
four chapters of Royal Arch Masons, two councils, two com-
manderies, and a Masonic brotherhood of 2000. The Odd
Fellows have ten lodges and two encampments. There are
a number of singing societies and three clubs. Buffalo
has twenty newspapers and periodicals, seven of them
dailies. Their aggregate circulation, aside from adver-
tising sheets, is about 75,000. There are eleven banks
of discount, with an aggregate capital of $3,150,000; four sav-
ings banks, with deposits amounting to about $15,000,000;
one fire insurance company, with $200,000 capital and
$352,857 assets in July, 1873.
Buffalo is divided into thirteen wards, and its city gov-
ernment is composed of a mayor and twenty-six aldermen.
It has a paid fire department, with twelve steam fire-
engines, seven hose companies, three hook-and-ladder
companies, one ladder-and-bucket company, and one tar-
paulin-protection company. -
At present the most important interest of the city is its
commerce. The registered marine of the port. on the 1st
of Jan., 1873, was 726 vessels, of 145,116 tons, repre-
senting an investment of $54,000,000, and doing a busi-
ness of $250,000,000 per annum. The lake tonnage was
valued at but $24,000,000 in 1862, showing the remark-
able growth of thirty millions in a single decade. The
manufactures are rapidly increasing, especially those of
iron. There are upwards of thirty large establishments,
employing at least 5000 men, to say nothing of the smaller
enterprises. The city has four blast furnaces, two large
rolling-mills, several machine-shops, stove-foundries, iron
shipyards, forges, etc. etc. It has large manufactories of
agricultural implements, car-shops, tanneries, flouring-
mills, etc. The opening of the Buffalo New York and
Philadelphia Railway to the bituminous coal-fields of
Pennsylvania has given a largely added impetus to man-
ufactures. The census of 1870 gives the statistics of man-
ufactures only by counties. We have therefore only the
estimated manufactures of Erie county, and not those of
Buffalo by itself; yet as most of the manufacturing of
the county is conducted within its limits, we should not
exceed the truth if we regarded the statistics of Erie county
in 1870 as representing those of Buffalo in 1873. The
growth of some manufactures within three years is un-
doubtedly greater than the total amount of manufacturing
out of Buffalo in Erie county in 1870, when there were 1429
establishments, employing 13,274 persons and a capital of
$13,043,790, paying wages to the amount of $4,946,414,
using raw material to the value of $15,274,440, and pro-
ducing annually $27,446,683. Iron and iron wares were
produced to the value of $5,471,000; flour, etc., $1,981,932;
clothing, $1,481,485; malt and distilled liquors, $2,240,330;
lumber, planed and sawed, $1,786,441, besides $225,950 in
sash, doors, and blinds; machinery, $1,252,445; leather,
tanned and dressed, $1,701,044; metallic wares, $502,244;
boots and shoes, $696,010; agricultural implements,
$499,305; furniture, $590,719; tobacco, Snuff, and cigars,
$400,711; gas, $427,481; carriages and wagons, $363,257;
malt, $600,821; boats, $311,820; cooperage, $286,800;
vinegar, $271,000; bricks, $278,800; soap and candles,
$341,599. S. M. CHAMBERLAIN,
of THE “CourtLIER AND REPUBLIC.”
662
Buffalo, a township of Noble co., O. Pop. 780.
Buffalo, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 1495.
Buffalo, a township of Perry co., Pa. Pop. 779.
Buffalo, a township of Union co., Pa. Pop. 1521.
Buffalo, a post-township of Washington co., Pa. Pop.
1189.
Buffalo, a township of Kershaw co., S. C. Pop. 1764.
Buffalo, a township of Prince Edward co., Va. Pop.
3415.
Buffalo, a township of Rockbridge co., Va. P. 2445.
Buffalo, a township of Brooke co., West Va. Pop.
2191.
Buffalo, a township of Clay co., West Va. Pop. 790.
Buffalo, a post-township of Putnam co., West Va. Pop.
1448.
Buffalo, a post-township of Buffalo co., Wis. P. 1594.
Buffalo, a township of Marquette co., Wis. Pop. 712.
Buffalo Bayou (or River) of Texas flows eastward
through Harris co., passes by Houston, and enters Galves-
ton Bay. Steamboats can ascend from its mouth to Hous-
ton, which is about 40 miles from the bay.
Buffalo Heart, a township of Sangamon co., Ill.
Pop. 538.
Buffalo Lick, a township of Chariton co., Mo. Pop.
1267.
Buffalo Prairie, a post-township of Rock Island co.,
Ill. Pop. 1291.
Buffalo Springs, mineral springs of Mecklenburg co.,
Va., 7 miles W. of Clarksville. The waters of the springs
are remarkably stimulant, arid belong to the saline chalyb-
eate class. They are especially recommended for various
diseases of the mucous membranes.
Buffalo Station, a township of Wallace co., Kan.
Pop. 10.
Buffer, an elastic cushion attached to a railway car or
carriage, in order to break or moderate the shock when
one car is pushed against another. It is usually formed of
horse-hair covered with leather, of Vulcanized caoutchouc,
or of strong iron springs.
Buf'fington, a township of Indiana co., Pa. Pop. 877.
Buffon, de (GEORGEs Louis LECLERC), CoMTE, a cele-
brated French naturalist and philosopher, born at Mont-
bar, in Burgundy, Sept. 7, 1707. He was liberally educated,
and travelled in his youth in Italy and England. In 1739
he was elected to the Academy of Sciences, and appointed
intendant of the royal garden in Paris. He published in
1749 the first three volumes of his “Natural History "
(“Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière’), in which
he was assisted by Daubenton. Twelve other volumes of
it appeared between 1749 and 1767. This work, which made
an epoch in the study of the natural sciences, displays a
brilliant imagination and presents many ingenious ideas.
His writings obtained great celebrity, due partly to the fas-
cination of his style. “Like all great poets,” says Condor-
cet, “ he knows how to render interesting the delineations
of natural objects, by blending with them moral ideas which
affect the soul at the same time that the imagination is
amused or astonished.” He was admitted into the French
Academy in 1753, and married a lady named Saint-Belin
in 1762. Among his most admired works is the “Epochs
of Nature” (“Epoques de la Nature”), which appeared in
a supplement to his “Natural History.” He received from
the king the title of Count de Buffon in 1776. Died in Paris
April 16, 1788. (See CoNDoRCET, “Eloge de Buffon;” CU-
vrBR, “Eloge de Buffon,” prefixed to an edition of the “Nat-
ural History,” 36 vols., 1826; FroURENs, “Buffon : Histoire
de sa, Vie, etc.,” 1844.) * - -
Bu'ford, a township of Union co., N. C. Pop. 1158.
Buford (John), an American officer, born in 1826 in
Kentucky, graduated at West Point in 1848, captain Sec-
ond Dragoons Mar. 9, 1859, and Dec. 16, 1863, major-gen-
eral U. S. volunteers. He served on frontier duty 1848–61,
as quartermaster of the Second Dragoons 1855–58, in the
Sioux expedition 1855, engaged at Blue Water, in quelling
the Kansas disturbances 1856–57, on the Utah expedition
1857–58. In the civil war he served as assistant inspector-
general (major), making inspections 1861–62, in command
of cavalry brigade in Northern Virginia campaign 1862,
engaged at Madison Court-house, Kelley’s Ford, Thorough-
fare. Gap, and Manassas (wounded), as chief of cavalry of
the Army of the Potomac in Maryland campaign, engaged
at South Mountain and Antietam, in Rappahannock cam-
paign, commanding cavalry brigade, 1862–63, engaged at
Fredericksburg, Stoneman’s raid, and Beverly Ford, in com-
mand of a division of cavalry in the Pénnsylvania cam-
paign 1863,engaged at Gettysburg and numerous skirmishes,
BUFFALO–BUGULMA.
in Central Virginia 1863, engaged at Culpeper, Bristow
Station, and numerous movements and skirmishes. He was
an admirable cavalry officer, and from the effects of expo-
sure and wounds died Dec. 16, 1863, at Washington, D. C.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Buford (NAPOLEON B.), an American officer and en-
gineer, born Jan. 13, 1807, in Woodford co., Ky., gradu-
ated at West Point in 1827, and April 15, 1862, brigadier-
general U. S. volunteers. He served, while lieutenant of
artillery, on garrison and topographical duty, and as assist-
ant professor at the Military Academy till Dec. 31, 1835,
when he resigned. He was civil engineer on the Licking
River improvement 1835–42, iron-founder at Rock Island,
Ill., 1843–61, president of the Rock Island and Peoria R. R.
1857–61, and president of the bank of the Federal Union,
Rock Island, 1858–61. In the civil war he was colonel of
the Twenty-seventh Illinois Volunteers till promoted brig-
adier-general, engaged in the battle of Belmont, demonstra-
tion on Columbus, Ky., attack of Island No. 10, capture of
Union City, Ky., expedition to Fort Pillow, siege and bat-
tle of Corinth, Miss., siege of Vicksburg, and in command
of Helena, Ark. Brevet major-general U. S. volunteers
Mar. 13, 1865, for gallant and meritorious services, and
Aug. 24, 1865, mustered out of volunteer service. He was
superintendent of a mining company in Colorado, special
U. S. Indian commissioner 1867–68, and Union Pacific
Railway commissioner 1868–69.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Buford Bridge, a post-township of Barnwell co.,
S. C. Pop. 1385.
Bug, or Bog, a river of Russian Poland, rises in Gali-
cia, flows nearly northward and north-westward, and after
a course of about 400 miles enters the Vistula at the fort-
ress of Modlin, about 18 miles N. W. of Warsaw. -
Bug, or Bog (anc. Hiſpanis), a river of Russia, rises
in Podolia, flows nearly south-eastward, and enters the es-
tuary of the Dnieper 30 miles W. of Kherson. Its whole
length is estimated at 400 miles. It is navigable for small
vessels from its mouth to Vosmesensk, upwards of 100 miles.
Bug'bie’s Mill, a township of Baker co., Ala. Pop.
1436. -
Bugeaud (THOMAS ROBERT), duc d’Isly, a French gem-
eral, born Oct. 15, 1784. Soon after the revolution of 1830
he was created a marshal of France. Having won several
victories in Algeria, he was appointed governor-general of
the same in 1840. He defeated the army of the emperor of
Morocco at Isly in 1844. During the revolution of Feb.,
1848, he commanded the army at Paris. Died of cholera
in Paris June 10, 1849.
Bu'genhagen (JoBANN), surnamed PomprANUs, a
learned German Protestant Reformer, born at Wollin, in
Pomerania, June 24, 1485. He was converted to the doc-
trines of Luther in 1520, and became professor of theology
at Wittenberg in 1522. He was a devoted friend of Lu-
ther, whom he assisted in the translation of the Bible,
and he wrote several religious works. He organized
churches in Hamburg, Brunswick, and Denmark. Died
April 20, 1558. t -
Bug'hail, a township of Bullock co., Ala. Pop. 1823.
Bug'hill, a township of Columbus co., N. C. Pop. 513.
Buſgis, a people of the Malay Archipelago, chiefly in-
habiting Celebes and Macassar. They are noted for their
commercial enterprise, and own many vessels employed in
the navigation of the East Indian seas. They are muscu-
lar, middle-sized, and of a light-brown color, and have
made considerable progress in civilization. They manu-
facture cottom cloth, build durable sailing-vessels, and are
said to be skilful workers in copper and iron.
Bu’gle, a brass musical wind instrument, which has
been improved by keys so as to be capable of all the inflec-
tions of the scale.
Bugle (Ajuga), a genus of plants of the natural order
Labiatae, has an irregular corolla with a very short upper
lip and trifid lower lip. The species are mostly natives of
the colder parts of Europe or Asia. The Ajuga reptans is
common in British pastures and woods. The Alpine bugle
(Ajuga Alpina) has beautiful flowers.
Bu'gloss [Gr. Boöyawaroos, i. e. “ox tongue,” perhaps
from the shape and roughness of its leaves], a common
name given to several species of plants of the order Bora-
ginaceae and of the genera Anchusa and Lycopsis. The
Lycopsis arvensis is a common weed in the grain-fields of
Great Britain. The Lycopsis has a funnel-shaped corolla
with a curiously curved tube. The Echium vulgare, called
* is a native of Europe and naturalized in
the U. S.
Bugul/ma, a town of Russia, in the government of
Samara, 170 miles S. E. of Kasan. Pop. 5455.
BUGURUSSLAU—BULL-DOG.
Buguruss/lau, a town of Russia, in the government of
Samara, 65 miles S. of Bugulma. Pop. 7440.
Buhle (Joh ANN GOTTLIEB). See APPENDIx.
Buhl-Work, or Boule-Work, a kind of marquetry
or inlaid work in wood, gilt metal, or tortoise-shell, the
name of which is derived from its inventor, Boule, a French
cabinetmaker (1642–1732). He employed veneers of dark-
colored tortoise-shell, inlaid with brass, and was patronized
by several sovereigns. A German named Reisner made
cabinets which were highly prized, in which he used woods
of contrasted colors.
Bujalan/ce, a town of Spain in the province of Cór-
dova, about 18 miles E. of Córdova. It is surrounded by
a wall flanked with old towers, and has an old Arabian
castle and a college. Here are manufactures of woollen
goods, glass, and pottery. Pop. 83.12.
Bukā’a, the Arabic name of CoELE-SYRIA (which see).
Bukovi'na, a province of Austria, is bounded on the
N. by Galicia, on the E. and S. by Roumania, and on the
W. by Hungary, Transylvania, and Galicia. Area, 4035
square miles. With the exception of both banks of the
Pruth, its chief river, the country is mountainous through-
out. The climate is severe, but healthy. It has very little
commerce and industry. The chief occupations of the in-
habitants are agriculture and cattle-raising. Iron, copper,
and rock-salt are mined in large quantities. Bukovina
was originally a part of Transylvania, with which country
it passed under Turkish rule in 1529, was ceded to Austria.
in 1777, united with Galicia in 1786, and organized as a
separate crown-land in 1849. Pop. in 1869, 513,404.
Bula/ma Boil, a painful affection of the skin some-
what resembling an ordinary boil in appearance. It pre-
vails in Bulama and the neighboring islands, known as the
BISSAGOS (which see). It is said to be caused by the larva
of some insect, and that the only cure for it is to remove
the larva, which burrows beneath the skin.
Bulb [Gr. BoABós; Lat. bulbus], in botany, a short stem
or bud (usually subterraneous), covered with imbricated
scales, having at their base a disk, from which the roots
grow downward, while from the middle of the scales an
annual herbaceous stem grows upward. The scales are
regarded as modified leaves, and are sometimes all fleshy;
sometimes the outer scales are membranous, as in the onion.
The corm of the crocus is often called a solid bulb. Plants
which are produced from bulbs are usually called bulbous-
rooted. The bulb is generally subterranean, but sometimes
grows above ground in the axils of the leaves, as in the
tiger lily. When the scales are broad and enwrap all that
is within, so as to form a succession of coats one over an-
other, the bulb is said to be tunicated. The onion, tulip,
and hyacinth are familiar examples of such bulbs. Most
bulbs, if removed from the ground when vegetation is most
dormant, may be kept in a dry place without injury. The
flora of the Cape of Good Hope is remarkable for the
abundance of bulbous-rooted plants, many of which bear
beautiful flowers.
The term “bulb" is also applied to the round cavity at
the lower end of the tube of a thermometer.
Bul/bul, the Persian name of the nightingale, is some-
times used by English poets. The same name is given by
the people of India to a different species of bird, the Pyc-
monotus hæmorrhous, of the tribe Dentirostres. It is a small
bird of brilliant plumage, and remarkable for its pugnacity
and its sweet song.
Bulga’ria (anc. Moesia Inferior), a province of Euro-
pean Turkey, is bounded on the N. by the Danube, on the
E. by the Black Sea, and on the S. by.the Balkan Moun-
tain range, which separates it from Rumili, and on the W.
by Servia. Area, 28,700 square miles. The surface is
level in the N., and mountainous in the S., and is gene-
rally well wooded. The soil in some parts is fertile. It
is drained by numerous small tributaries of the Danube.
The chief articles of export are horned cattle, grain, wine,
iron, wood, hides, wax, and attar of roses. The principal
towns are Varna, Widin, Silistria, Sophia, and Schoomla.
The Bulgarians belong to the Greek Church, but have for
many years been endeavoring to become independent of
the patriarchate of Constantinople, and to have all the
Bulgarian dioceses of Turkey united under one Bulgarian
exarch. The demand was granted by the Turkish govern-
ment in 1872. They are of the Slavic race, as is shown by
their language. This province was conquered by the
Turks in 1392. Pop. about 2,250,000.
Bulk/heads, in a ship, are the partitions between the
several portions of the interior, whether to separate it into
rooms or as a safeguard in case of wreck. In ships of
War, the bulkheads or partitions between the several cabins
or storerooms are chiefly of wood, and most or many of
these are removed when preparing for action, in order to
born at Bergen Feb. 5, 1810.
663
obtain clear space for working the guns. In emigrant
ships the bulkheads between the cabins are frequently
mere lattice-work. -
Watertight bulkheads are among the improvements in
modern shipbuilding; they are iron walls running athwart
the hold, as a means of dividing it into several portions;
the interior is thus cut off into cells, each watertight in
reference to its neighbors. When such a ship is leaking
in any one of the compartments, there is thus a chance
that the others may be kept dry until the damage is re-
paired. Most of the large passenger-steamers are to some
extent provided with these bulkheads.
Bullºſley (ELIPHALET ADAMs), born at Colchester, Conn.,
June 29, 1803, graduated at Yale in 1824, became a lawyer
of Hartford, Conn., was for many years the president of
life insurance companies, and accumulated a large fortune.
Died Feb. 13, 1872. * *
Bull [Lat. taurus ; Fr. taureau], the male of animals
belonging to the family Bovide and genus Bos. (See Bo-
VIDA and Ox.) Also the name of one of the twelve signs
of the Zodiac, and of a constellation which does not coin-
cide with the sign. (See TAURUs.)
Bull [Lat. bulla, a “seal;” so called from the seal men-
tioned below], or Papal Bull, an ordinance or decree
of the pope, equivalent to the edicts, proclamations, or
letters-patent of secular sovereigns, some of which are,
however, called bulls. (See BULL, GoLDEN.) All bulls are
written in Latin, except those addressed to the United
Greek churches. They are generally designated by the
first words of the text; thus the bull issued in 1536 against
heretics was called the bull “In Coena Domini,” and that
directed against the Jansenists in 1713 was the bull “Uni-
genitus.” The publication of a bull is termed fulmination
(from the Lat. fulmino, fulminatum, to “hurl a thunder-
bolt,” fulmen). Bulls are written on parchment, and the
leaden seal of the Church is appended to every bull by
means of a silken cord if the bull be a gracious one, but if
it be severe the cord is of hemp. A collection of papal
bulls is called a “bullarium.”
Bull (OLE Born EMANN), a famous Norwegian violinist,
He visited Paris in his youth,
and afterwards performed in Italy and England with great
applause. In 1845 he came to the U. S., purchased a large
tract of land in Pennsylvania, and founded the colony of
Oleona. This proved to be a failure, and he returned to
Europe. He has since resided in the U. S. several times.
Bul’Ia, a Latin word signifying a “bubble,” also a stud
or boss with which the ancient Romans ornamented their
dress or military equipments; an amulet or ornament, in
the shape of a heart, worn round the neck by noble Roman
children until they were seventeen years old, when the bulla
was consecrated to the Lares.
eropodous mollusks, having the
Imale and female organs of sex
in the same individual. They
have a convoluted and gene-
rally thin shell, which serves as
a protection for the gills, and
which in some species is large
A enough for the entire animal;
*A in others it is itself enveloped
# in the mantle. The mouth of
# the shell is large, extending the
jºy whole length, widening towards
Ž one end, the lip being acute.
The gizzard is very muscular,
and among its thick coats, in
Some species, are found calcare-
ous plates, which, being moved
against each other by muscles, serve to grind the food. All
the species are marine, and some are found on the Ameri-
can coasts. Some, from their form and fragility, are called
bubble-shells. The Bulla velum of the Indian and Euro-
pean seas is one of the most elegant.
Bull-baiting, a sport once very common in England,
and in which all classes delighted, but now rare even
among the lowest. It consists in causing a bull to be
attacked by dogs; and that the bull may be made as
furious as possible, his nose is sometimes blown full of
pepper. Another form of this sport is to fasten the bull
by a rope, and to send bull-dogs against him, one at a
time, to seize him by the nose; this is called pinning the
bull. No small enjoyment is derived from the success
with which the attacks of the dogs are met by the bull
lowering his head and receiving them on his horns, often
tossing them to a great distance.
Bull-dog [so-called from the now obsolete practice of
causing this animal to fight with the bull], a variety of the
dog especially bred in England, and more remarkable for

664
BULLET-BULLOCK.
courage, persistency, and strength than for docility or in-
telligence. . It is now much less frequently bred than in
past times. The size of the neck and fore quarters of this
dog is quite in excess of the development of the other parts.
The bull-dog is one of the most fierce, and even dangerous,
of his species. Its chief value at present is for crossing
with other breeds. The greyhound, the terrier, and the
pointer, each have their courage and persistency much im-
proved by this cross, if judiciously made.
Bull’et [Fr. balle; Ger. Kugel], a projectile of lead to
be discharged from various kinds of small-arms. For
smooth-bore arms bullets are usually spherical, but for
rifled musketry various forms of the elongated bullet are
used. Most of these bullets have an expansive base,
either hollow or plugged with wood; the design being to
force the soft lead outward, so as to cause it to fit the
grooves of the rifle, and thus give the bullet a rotation
around its long axis during the motion forward. This
rotation, as is well known, increases the range and pre-
cision. Bullets were formerly always cast, but now they
are more frequently stamped in steel dies. Copper bullets
are used by the Circassians.
Bull’etin [Fr.], in diplomatics, a term equivalent to
schedule, and variously applied to different public acts.
In recent times the word is often used to denote an official
report, a despatch of a military commander, and in a wider
sense any public notice or announcement, especially of
recent events. In France the ticket or slip of paper which
each elector uses in voting at elections is called a bulletin.
In the U. S. official bulletins of the weather are issued daily
by the war department.
Bull-fight [Sp. corrida de toros or festa de toros], a
combat of men with bulls for public entertainment. They
were common in Thessaly and in Rome under the empe-
rors, where they were introduced by Julius Caesar B. C. 45,
though in later times they were forbidden. They were in-
troduced into Spain by the Moors before 800 A. D. They
are still a favorite pastime in Spain, Spanish America, etc.
In Spain they were abolished by Charles IV., but Joseph
Bonaparte re-established them, the mass of the population
being passionately fond of the sport. Bull-fights were at
one time instituted by the monarchs themselves; at pres-
ent they are held either as private speculations or for the
benefit of public institutions. In Madrid the proceeds go
to the hospital. The fights take place in the Plaza de Toros,
round which the seats rise like the steps of a stair, with a
tier of boxes over them. This plaza at Madrid is capable
of containing 10,000 people, who pay a high price for ad-
mission. The men employed in the fight have generally
been bred to it, but amateurs may take part. The bull-
fight is divided into three acts. The performers in the
first are the picadores; in the second, the Chulos; the last
act devolves on the matador. The picadores are mounted,
dressed like knights of the olden time, and armed with a
lanee; they take position in the middle of the arena. The
chulos, on foot, are gay with ribbons and bright-colored
cloaks. The matador, or chief combatant, is on foot. He
is handsomely dressed, and holds a sword and a muleta, a
stick with a piece of scarlet silk attached. On a sign given
by the magistrate a bull is let out; the picadores stand .
waiting his charge. With a brave bull they act on the de-
fensive; with a cowardly one, on the offensive; and should
their stabs be ineffectual in rousing the animal, the beast
is hooted by the crowd, and stabbed ingloriously. The
bull frequently kills several horses, and sometimes one or
more men. When the bull begins to tire the picadores are
succeeded by the chulos with banderillas—darts about two
feet long, ornamented with flags—which they-stick into the
animal. Sometimes these darts have fire-crackers attached.
The matador now enters alone. As soon as the bull sees
the muleta, he generally rushes at it, and the matador dex-
terously plunges the sword in before the left shoulder, and
the animal falls. The matador is greeted with acclama-
tions, and not less so the bull should he wound or kill the
matador, in which case another matador steps into the
arena. Ten and sometimes even twenty bulls are des–
patched in a day, twenty minutes being about the time
taken for one. -
Bull-Finch (Pyrrhula vulgaris), a European bird of
the family of Fringillidae, is a little larger than the com-
mon linnet, now naturalized to some extent in the U. S.,
and often kept as a cage-bird, especially by the Germans.
It is easily trained. The genus is characterized by its short,
thick, rounded bill, of which the sides are inflated and bulg-
ing, and the tip of the upper mandible overhangs that of the
lower. The plumage is bluish-gray above, the breast is
of a bright tile red, and the crown of the head and the
greater wing-coverts are black. It builds on bushes or
trees near the ground, and feeds chiefly on seeds, berries,
and buds. Its song is not naturally very agreeable, but it
can be improved by education, and trained bull-finches are
sold for high prices. The pine bull-finch (Orythus euclea-
- & Šs ſ: §
. º Wººl <--
rº." SS - N R §§ *
l
.***20-sº W § |
Bull-Finch.
tor), is a beautiful northern bird of both hemispheres.
The male is of a splendid red, the female an orange-green.
Bułł=frog (Rana pipiens), a frog found in the U. S.,
is of an olive-green color, and is generally eight to twelve
inches long, though in some cases it attains the length of
nineteen to twenty-one inches. It derives its name from
the remarkable loudness of its voice, which is bass and
resembles the bellowing of a bull. It is almost wholly
aquatic. The hind legs of this frog are often used as food.
Bull, Golden, a term applied to a decree or enact-
ment of Charles IV., emperor of Germany, published in
1356, in two diets held in succession at Nuremberg and
Metz, in order to fix the laws in the election of emperor
and to regulate the number and privileges of electors. It
is preserved at Frankfort-on-the-Main. Another “golden
bull,” of Andrew II. of Hungary in 1222, fixed the priv-
ileges of the nobles, and was regarded as a national con-
stitution.
Bull/head, the popular name of small fishes of the
genus Cottus, of which there are several species in Europe
and America. Another name commonly given them is
“ miller’s thumb.” The common catfish and several others
are locally known as bullheads.
Bullion, uncoined gold and silver in bars or other
masses. In political economy the term is also used to
denote gold and silver coin. The word was originally
applied to the mint, or place where the precious metals
were alloyed and converted into stamped money. In 1810
a celebrated bullion report was made to the British Par-
liament by Francis Horner and Sir Robert Peel, who pro-
moted the resumption of specie payments, which had long
been suspended.
Bul/lion, a post-village, capital of Piute co., Ut. P. 82.
Bul/lions (PETER), D. D., a learned divine and edu-
cational writer, born in Perthshire, Scotland, in 1791, re-
moved to America in 1817, and became in 1824 professor
of Latin and Greek in the Albany academy. He published
a “Latin Reader,” a “Greek Reader,” a “Latin-English
Lexicon,” etc., which are highly esteemed. Died Feb. 12,
1864.
Bull'itt, a county of Kentucky, near the Ohio River.
Area, 300 square miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by
Salt River, and is intersected by the East Fork of that
river. The surface is moderately hilly; the soil is pro-
ductive. Grain and wool are the chief products. It is
traversed by the Louisville and Nashville R. R. Capital,
Shepherdsville. Pop. 7781. -
Bullitt (ALEXANDER SCOTT), born in Prince William co.,
Va., in 1761, emigrated to Kentucky in 1784, became a
prominent politician, was president of the State senate for
several years, and lieutenant-governor (1800–04). Died in
Jefferson co., Ky., April 13, 1816.
Bull’ock, a county in S. E. Alabama. Area, 600
square miles. It is drained by the sources of Pea River.
The soil is mostly fertile. Corn, oats, and cotton are raised.
It is intersected by the Mobile and Girard R. R. and the
Montgomery and Eufaula R. R. Capital, Union Springs.
Pop. 24,474.
Bullock, a county in the E. of Georgia. Area, 900
square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Ogeechee,
and on the S. W. by the Cannouchee River. The surface
is level; the soil is sandy, and partly covered with forests

LULLOCK–BULL
RUN, BATTLE OF. 665
of pine. Corn, oats, rice, cotton, and wool are raised.
Capital, Statesborough. Pop. 5610.
Bullock (ALEXANDER HAMILTON), L.L.D., was born in
Royalston, Mass., Mar. 2, 1816, and graduated at Amherst
in 1836. He was called to the bar in 1841, became a res-
ident of Worcester, Mass., and held many important public
offices. He was governor of Massachusetts (1866–69).
Bullock (ARCHIBALD), a native of Charleston, S. C.,
was a delegate to the Philadelphia Congress from Georgia
in 1775, and in the following year president of the execu-
tive council of Georgia, the highest office in the State.
Died in 1777.-His son, WILLIAM B. BULLOCK (died Mar.
6, 1852), was in 1813 U. S. Senator from Georgia.
Bullock (RUFUs B.), the first governor of Georgia
under the new constitution adopted in pursuance of the
reconstruction measures of Congress. He was a native of
New York, but had resided some years before and during
the war in the city of Augusta, Ga. He was a member of
the constitutional convention which was called in 1867, and
took an active part in its proceedings. On the adoption
of the constitution formed by it, he was declared to be duly
chosen at the same election in 1868 governor of the State
under it for the term of four years. This office he held
until the fall of 1871, when he resigned it and abandoned
the State. +
Bullock’s Creek, a post-township of York co., S. C.
Pop. 3068.
Bull Pond, a township of Barnwell co., S. C. Pop.
2400.
Bull Run, a township of Elko co., Nev. Pop. 43.
Bull Run, Battle of. The battle of Bull Run has,
with propriety, been classed as one of the “Decisive bat-
tles of the War.” As the first pitched battle—the first
trial of strength between the North and South—its incep-
tion and issue were pregnant with grave consequences to
the future of a struggle in which the two combatants were
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yet hesitating to engage. In its purely military results it
has been well said that “ the cannon of Bull Run echoed
henceforth on every battle-field of the war.” The bom-
bardment of Fort Sumter found the government completely
destitute of an organized force—the army scattered on
distant frontiers (a large portion indeed captured through
the agency of its commander), and the navy dispersed to
remote quarters of the earth. For no inconsiderable period
the possession of the national capital seemed to be due
rather to hesitation or irresolution of the Confederates than
to its capability of vigorous defence. But the President’s
call for 75,000 volunteers for “three months” (his power
to call out the militia to “suppress insurrection” being
thus legally limited) had assembled in Washington and
elsewhere a large militia force which, strengthened by
such portions of the regular force as could be made avail-
able, had been diligently trained under direction of army
officers. - -
Simultaneously with our occupation of the Virginia
shore of the Potomac, the Confederates had established
themselves at “Manassas Junction,” a point on the rail-
road twenty-five miles west from Alexandria, and the junc-
tion of the great southern railroad route (connecting Wash-
ington with Richmond and the South) and the Manassas
Gap Railroad, leading to the valley of the Shenandoah,
where another Confederate force under Johnston confronted
Patterson, who had recently crossed the Potomac at Har-
per's Ferry.
The occupation of Manassas was recommended to the
Confederates by the fact that it controlled the railroad
routes, and was itself a strong position. An elevated
plateau, in the crotch, formed by the Occoquan and its
principal tributary from the north, Bull Run, of which the
beds are canal-like cuts in horizontal strata of red sand-
stone, it was of difficult approach to an attacking army,
while the general character of the country, broken, wooded,
with few roads fit for the movement of an army, was fa-
vorable to the defence. -
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Map of the Battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861.
Leading almost directly west from Alexandria, diverg-
ing slightly to the north from the railroad, a macadamized
road led to Centreville, twenty-two miles distant.
From Centreville, a little west of south and six or seven
miles distant, lay Manassas Junction. About midway be-
tween these two points flowed the rivulet of Bull Run (the
real defensive line of the enemy) in a general direction
from north-west to south-east.
A road led from Centreville almost directly to the
“ Junction,” crossing Bull Run three miles from Centre-
ville at “Mitchell's Ford,” a short distance below which is
“Blackburn’s Ford.” The turnpike before mentioned con-
tinued its westerly course towards Warrenton, in a nearly
straight line beyond Centreville, crossing Bull Run at the
“Stone Bridge,” four miles distant. Somewhat eastwardly
of south, a country road from Centreville crossed Bull Run
and the railroad at “ Union Mills.”
The Confederate force was distributed along Bull Run
from Union Mills to the Stone Bridge (nearly eight miles),
with reserves and a fortified position at or near the Junction.
The line was a strong oné, for the stream, though con-
taining but little water at that season, was, owing to the
character of the bed and to the abrupt and wooded slopes
of its right bank, a formidable obstacle.









|
666 BULL RUN,
BATTLE OF.
The army of General McDowell, which marched to the
attack of this position, numbered about 30,000 men, Save
perhaps 700 or 800 regular troops (fragments of regiments)
of the old army, it was composed wholly of raw volunteers, #
none of whom had been in a soldier's garb more than two
or three months, and at least half of whom were enlisted
only for a term of three months, then just about expiring.
Such an army as this was certainly not the best suited for
an offensive campaign. Troops wtterly raw ; brigades and
divisions, the component parts of which had never been
brought in contact before, commanded by officers who,
though generally of ability, were for the first time exer-
cising these extensive commands, and who had hardly
seen the troops they commanded.
Such was the army which marched from the banks of the
Potomac on the afternoon of July 16th. It moved in four
columns, one by the turnpike, one by the lateral country
roads on the right, one on the left of the railroad, and
another between the turnpike and railroad, following what
is known as the “ Braddock” road, from its having been
made by that general on his memorable march to Fort
Duquesne in 1754, which terminated in his disastrous de-
feat and death. - -
The “plan” of the campaign organized by General
McDowell had been carefully studied by him in conjunction
with his staff officers for a week or two before the move—
ment commenced. It was a feature of it, after reaching
Fairfax Court-house, to make a sudden movement to the
left, crossing the Occoquan just below the junction of that
stream with Bull Run, aiming at the enemy’s railroad com-
munications. His personal reconnaissances in that direc-
tion, made on the 18th, led him to consider the country im–
practicable for the operations of his army.
However imperative it was (for many reasons) to lose no
time (a regiment the term of which expired on the eve of
the battle, actually marched “to the rear,” as Gen. McDow-
ell expressed it, “to the sound of the enemy’s cannon ’’) it
was out of the question to attack until some plan could be
devised which would promise success. A day was accord-
ingly spent in reconnaissances.
The “Stone Bridge,” already mentioned as forming the
left of the enemy’s defensive position, was a single arched
structure over the narrow stream. The passage was found
to be guarded by field-guns, and the road and adjacent
ground beyond obstructed by formidable abattis. Several
roads were ascertained to lead to fords between Blackburn’s
and the Stone Bridge, but they were mere by-paths, the
opposite banks of the stream generally steep and tangled,
and probably obstructed. -
It was found that a couple of miles above the Stone
Bridge there was a good ford at “Sudley Spring,” which
was but slightly guarded, and that above that point the
stream was, almost everywhere, easily passable. No contin-
uous road communicated from the turnpike with the “Sud-
ley ’’ ford, but our reconnaissances showed that the inter-
vening country was almost everywhere practicable to all
8,I’DºlS. * * *
The writer finds in his note book the following memoran-
dum of a “plan of battle” or attack, which, founded upon
the above results of reconnaissance, was submitted to Gen.
McDowell. -
1st.—One division, to advance on Warrenton Turnpike
at 3 o'clock to-morrow morning. The leading brigade to
threater, the bridge over Bull Rum—throwing skirmishers
into the woods on both flanks. No serious effort will be
made on the bridge but artillery may be opened upon it,
as if to open the way for an assault, and the operation to be
conducted as if an assault were intended.
The 2d, 3d, and 4th Brigades to turn to the right at the
road # to # of a mile beyond “Cub Run.” On reaching
the forks to the two fords a Brigade will turn off on the
left fork advancing on it just enough to clear the route for
the passage of the two following Brigades which take the
right fork towards Sudley Spring. The ford at Sudley
Springs will be turned by a march around and some 200
yards above it. The leading brigade will be followed by
the one in rear and the whole force advance rapidly by the
road from Sudley Spring southward to reach the Warren-
ton ’Pike by the shortest route. The brigade left on the
road to the lower ford will then pass over. Detachments
from the advanced brigades should be sent to take in rear
the defenders of the lower ford and Warrenton 'pike bridge.
The brigade left at the Stone Bridge will cross over and
join the other two.
2d.—Another division should follow to take position be-
hind Bull Run to be ready to pass over if necessary—but
unless ordered from Hå. Qrs. to remain on the E. side.
3d.—Another division should simultaneously with the
commencement of the first operation commence the sem-
blance of an attack on Blackburn’s Ford. Every appearance
of a formidable assault should be made, but no attempt to
force the passage, unless the enemy shows unmistakable
signs of retiring. -
4th.—Another division should remain in reserve at Cen-
treville. *. -
. This plan was adopted by the General, modifying the
composition only of the different columns thus, -
One division under Colonel Miles to remain in reserve at
Centreville, and to make, with one of its brigades, a false
attack on Blackburn’s Ford ; another division (Tyler’s) to
move by the turnpike up to the Stone Bridge and threaten
that point, and, at the proper time, to carry it and unite
with the principal column, which, consisting of the two
divisions (of Hunter and Heintzelman) of about 12,000
men, was to diverge from the turnpike, and, by a flank
movement, reach the Sudley Ford, and descending the right
bank of the stream, take the defences of the Stone Bridge
in the rear. The united force would then give battle, strike
at the enemy’s railroad communication, or act otherwise, as
circumstances might dictate. -
This plan was carried out in its main features, but it
failed in one important particular. It was calculated that
the marching column should diverge from the turnpike by
early daylight (the route being so wooded that a night
march was deemed imprudent) and reach Sudley Ford by
six or seven A. M. The Stone Bridge division did "not
clear the road over which both, for a certain distance, had
to pass, so that the column could take up its march until
near six o'clock. The route through fields and Woods to
Sudley proved to be far longer and more difficult than was
believed. The column did not reach the Sudley Ford till
near half-past nine, three or four hours “behind time.”
When it reached the ford the heads of the enemy’s columns
were visible, on the march to meet the attack.
This loss of time caused the loss of the battle. It might
have been unwarrantable to have counted on punctuality
with an army so utterly inexperienced in tactical man-
oeuvres and in marching; nevertheless the immediate end
aimed at was gained—the passage of Bull Run was ac-
complished and the Confederate left turned. While the
appearance of Tyler's column in the front of the Stone
Bridge had disconcerted his plan of attacking our left
by crossing at the lower fords. Hunter, having crossed
at Sudley Spring, led his column down to take in reverse
the Stone Bridge position. Evans who held the con-
federate left at that point had had his attention occupied
through the morning hours by Tyler in his front; but
the march of Hunter’s column, became evident long before
the ford was reached and ere it reached the bridge, Evans,
sending for re-inforcements, had formed “en potence”
across Hunter’s line of march. A sharp combat ensued
which resulted in forcing the confederate position and in
opening the Stone Bridge to Tyler's division, two of the
brigades (W. T. Sherman’s and Keyes”) immediately passed
and joined their force with Hunter's. Thus had been
gained the immediate end of the tactical plan of the oper-
ation. The Confederate left had been turned, the Warrenton
turnpike taken from them (opening to us the Stone Bridge);
and their line had been driven back a mile and a half.
Gen. McDowell had thus brought nearly all his three divis-
ions into position on the enemies left flank and was ad-
vancing nearly 18,000 strong. The Confederate left (all his
troops that had been engaged) had been thrown into con-
fusion. Gen’ls Johnston and Beauregard hastened to the
scene, ordering up to their routed left all the brigades
which could be spared from the centre and left of their
line. “We came,” says Johnston, “not a moment too
soon,” for “the long contest had greatly discouraged the
troops of Bee and Evans.” He found “that the aspect of
affairs was critical;” but by great efforts, “ and some ex-
ample,” the “battle was re-established,” and, after a time,
“many of the broken troops, fragments of companies,
and individual stragglers, were re-formed and brought
into action.”
The position on which a stand was now made was a
broad table land in which the slopes from Young's Creek
(crossing our line of march at right angles and emptying
into Bull Run near the Stone Bridge) terminate in the
general level of the country. To carry the position, Mc-
Dowell advanced the brigades of Wilcox and Howard on
the right, supported by part of Porter's brigade, and the
cavalry under Palmer; the brigades of Franklin and Sher-
man in the centre and up the road, and Keyes’ brigade on
the left. Schenck’s brigade (of Tyler's division) was still
at Centreville; but the positions of these troops, coupled
with the demonstrations made, still detained several Con-
federate brigades confronting them.
A severe contest ensued for this position with varying
success; the result of which was at 3 P. M., the possession
of the hill; the fighting having commenced at 10.30 A.M.
of a July day. The men who had been up since two o'clock
in the morning were exhausted by fatigue, want of food
BULL RUN, SECOND BATTLE OF.
667
and water, and somewhat demoralized by the vigorous re-
sistance they had encountered. -
“It was at this time,” says Gen. McDowell, “that our
adversary’s reinforcements came to his aid from the rail-
road train, understood to have just arrived from the valley
with the residue of Johnston’s army. They threw them-
selves in the woods on our right, and toward the rear of
our right, and opened a fire of musketry on our men, which
caused them to break and retire down the hill-side. This
soon degenerated into disorder, for which there was no
remedy. Every effort was made to rally them, even beyond
the reach of the enemy’s fire, but in vain. According to the
statement of the Confederate commander, Gen. Beauregard
(Gen. Johnston, the ranking officer, having waived the com-
mand for the reason that, just arrived, he was unfamiliar
with the country and troops), it was not wholly “reinforce-
ments just arrived from the Valley” vić Manassas Junction
—Elzey's brigade, under Gen. E. K. Smith—which at this
critical moment “threw themselves on our right, etc.,” with
consequences described by Gen. McDowell. In fact, our
extreme right was flanked by Early’s brigade of Beaure-
gard’s forces, which having been employed in partial exe-
cution of his plan of attack on our left and rear at Centre-
ville, had been thus decisively brought up when that plan
failed by the miscarriage of his orders to Ewell (who was
to begin the movement from his extreme right), coupled
with the development of our attack on his left. *
Enough has been written to show how greatly misrepre-
sented and misunderstood has been this battle. It was one
(and the first) of the few battles of the whole war deliber-
ately planned beforehand, eacecuted (except as to punctual-
ity in time) in full accordance with its plan, and successful
up to a point at which it was believed the final result must
be decided. That the success so far accomplished did not,
as it should have done, prove decisive, was due to causes
inherent in the raw and otherwise unsuitable character of
the attacking force for tactical movements and long-con-
tinued aggressive action. The battle was pronounced by the
• Confederate President, himself a soldier, who at Buena Vista
had learned the meaning of such words, “a hard-fought field.”
On the authority of Gen. Jordan, Beauregard’s chief of
staff, Ewell’s, Longstreet's, Jones's, Holmes’s, and half of
Bonham's brigades, not engaged at all, Early’s and Elzey's
brigades and other regiments, some newly arrived—in all
over 15,000 men—were “in excellent condition:” the real
obstacle to an advance after the battle was “the lack.abso-
lutely of one day’s rations, coupled with insufficient trans-
portation for the indispensable small-arms and artillery
ammunition—as the advance would have been, not upon
the Federal position at Arlington, but by crossing the Poto-
mac somewhere about Edwards' Ferry, and taking Washing-
ton in reverse.” On our part, Miles's whole division, in re-
serve at Centreville, and Runyon's, seven miles farther back,
guarding communications, had been unengaged, whilst How-
ard’s and Keyes’s brigades were nearly fresh. Both sides had
received severe handling, and the language already quoted
from Gen. Johnston shows the critical aspect and gloom on
the Confederate side of the field up to the moment when the
elation of scarcely-expected victory came to dispel it. '
And concerning the “panic” which, although military
writers have generally been free from this injustice, has
been so commonly held up as the picture of the battle the
instances even with armies of veteran troops like Napo-
leon’s (Albuhera and Vittoria, &c.) are so numerous that
the exceptional case of Bull Run, when the army was
almost wholly made of three months’ men, should excite
no surprise : moreover, it was not such as to prevent a
stand at Centreville, “the apparent firmness” of which,
says Gen. Johnston, “checked our pursuit.” The dis-
order and mob-like appearance was rather, as described by
Major (now Brevet Major-General) H. J. Hunt, the result
of “sheer fatigue.” They were, says he “footsore, hungry,
and tired; but had we been attacked I have little doubt
that a stout resistance would have been made.”
Let us rather admire the courage and fortitude with which
men just from their farms and firesides, for whom the bat-
tle-field and the cannon's roar had been divested of none
of their horrors, unsustained by the confidence in each
other which association and discipline engender, vindi-
cated, in this the first great battle of the long and sadden-
ing series, the American claim to those qualities, and to
the patriotism which could call forth their exhibition.
J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Bull Run, Second Battle of. A junction, upon
the Rappahannock, of the forces under Gens. McClellan
and Pope having been determined upon, McClellan was
ordered (Aug. 3, 1862) to transfer his army from Har-
Tison's Landing to Acquia Creek; to which point Burnside
was also ordered (Aug. 1). The latter moved promptly,
arriving Aug. 3, but the evacuation of Harrison’s Land-
ing was not commenced until Aug. 14.
To gain time and facilitate the withdrawal of the Army
of the Potomac, Pope crossed the Rappahannock, occupied
Culpeper and threatened Gordonsville. Jackson’s and Ew-
ell’s forces were hurried back to the Rapidan where on the 9th
of August they encountered Bank’s corps at Cedar Moun-
tain, a severe contest ensuing resulting in the defeat of the
latter, Jackson holding his position on the mountain for
two days when he withdrew across the Rapidan. As in-
formation received showed that Lee was moving the main
body of his army by forced marches, to attack Pope before
a junction could be formed between him and the Army of
the Potomac, Pope was advised by the Gen.-in-Chief to
take up his position in rear of the Rappahannock, which
he accordingly did Aug. 17–18, prepared to hold its passes
as long as possible; he had been reinforced by King's di-
vision, and a part of Burnside's corps under Gen. Reno.
Burnside occupied Barnett's and Richard’s fords between
him and Pope, and though repeated attempts were made
by the Confederates to cross at different points on the Rap-
pahannock they were all repulsed and the line of this river
was held for eight days, during which time it was hoped
sufficient forces from the Army of the Potomac would reach
Acquia Creek, and prevent any further advance of Lee and
eventually with the combined armies to drive him back
upon Richmond; but the expected aid not arriving Pope
telegraphed to Washington that he was overmatched and
unless reinforced must retreat. He was directed on the 21st
to maintain his position two days longer when he would be
reinforced; but though he held his ground for four days he
received during that time but about 7000 men. On the 21st
a portion of Confederate cavalry under Gen. Stuart crossed
the river at Waterloo Bridge and on the night of the 22d,
during a furious storm, surprised Pope's headquarters at
Catlett’s station capturing his despatch books, and much
of his personal baggage, numerous horses and wagons; the
latter were burned. Pope's actual Headquarters at this
time were at Rappahannock Station. . -
On the 24th by a flank movement Lee crossed a portion
of his forces under Jackson above Waterloo bridge; but
being repulsed here moved further up the river and en-
tered the valley which lies between the Blue Ridge and
Bull Run mountains; the object of this movement being to
gain Pope's rear and cut off his supplies, at the same time
gaining a position by which Washington could be attacked
or Maryland invaded. Jackson passed through Thorough-
fare Gap and reached Bristow Station Aug. 26, from whence
he sent Stuart with a detachment of cavalry to capture
Manassas Junction which was accomplished that night,
immense quantities of commissary and quartermaster’s
stores, besides 8 pieces of artillery, 10 locomotives, and
large trains falling into their hands: the main body of the
Confederate army in the meantime engaging Pope at Sul-
phur Springs and Waterloo Bridge. The Confederate army
at this time numbered probably 80,000, while Pope had
barely 40,000; but, relying, with reason, on being rein-
forced by as many more veterans from the peninsula, he
indicated the positions to be taken up by them on arrival
and laid his plans for the impending struggle with the firm
belief that it was to be fought by the combined armies.
Discovering the movement on his right flank, and failing
to receive any adequate reinforcements, Pope fell back in
three columns from Warrenton and Warrenton Junction,
and was at this time joined by Heintzelman’s corps of
10,000 (but without artillery, wagons, or horses for officers)
and Porter's corps, foot-sore and fatigued by long marching
night and day. Under these circumstances Pope could not
maintain his front, after detaching a sufficient force to meet
Jackson operating on his flank.
Gen. Pope's disposition of his troops at this juncture
(27th) was as follows: the corps of McDowell and Sigel
and the Pennsylvania Reserves under Reynolds were ad-
vanced to Gainesville, Reno and Kearny were directed upon
Greenwich, while Hooker’s division was sent against Ewell
along the railroad; the movement however was too late, as
a large part of Lee's army was already east of Thorough-
fare Gap.
Hooker encountered the Confederates near Kettle Run
(27th) and a sharp engagement ensued, resulting in driving
Ewell from the field.
As McDowell, Sigel and Reynolds had reached their
positions there was every prospect that Jackson could be
overwhelmed, before reinforcements could reach him. On
the evening of the 27th Gen. Pope ordered Gen. Porter to
be at Bristow Station by daylight on the morning of the
28th, with Morell, and also directed him to communicate
to Banks the order to move forward to Warrenton Junc-
tion. All trains were ordered this side of Cedar Run and
to be protected by a regiment of infantry and section of
artillery. For some reasons Porter did not comply with
this order and his corps was not in the battles of the 28th
and 29th. (Porter was afterward tried and cashiered.)
t;
668
BULL's EYE-BUNCE.
Heintzelman’s corps pressed forward to Manassas on the
morning of the 28th and forced Jackson to retreat across
Bull Run by the Centreville turnpike. McDowell had suc-
ceeded in checking Lee at Thoroughfare Gap, but the latter
took the road from Hopewille to Newmarket and hastened
to the relief of Jackson who was already in rapid retreat.
A portion of McDowell’s corps encountered the retreating
column on the afternoon of the 28th near the Warrenton
turnpike and a severe but successful contest ensued. Jack-
son was again attacked on the 29th near the old battle
ground of July, 1861. Rinowing that Longstreet was not
distant he made a most desperate stand; the fight con-
tinued nearly all day, and was terminated only by dark-
ness. It was renewed in the morning (30th), and a des-
perate battle continued all through the day, but Pope
could not hold out against the combined strength of Lee’s
army, now united, and after a hard day’s fighting was forced
to fall back behind Bull Run. Pope's loss during this
campaign was nearly 30,000 men; the Confederate loss
about 15,000.
Bull’s Eye, in architecture, the technical name given
to a glass lens used for the purpose of concentrating the
light of a given centre upon an object. It is also applied to
a circular window of plain glass. On shipboard the bull’s
eye is a small pulley in the form of a ring, with a rope
spliced round the outer edge, and another sliding through
a hole in the centre. In rifle practice the small black cen-
tre in the gircle on the target is called the bull’s eye. In
astronomy, the bull’s eye is Aldebaran, a bright star in
Taurus.
Bull'skin, a township of Fayette co., Pa. Pop. 1657.
Buł1 Swamp, a township of Lexington co., S. C. P. 933.
Bull-terrier, a dog bred by a cross, more or less re-
mote, between the bull-dog and some one of the terriers,
and frequently uniting in a remarkable degree the courage
and strength of the bull-dog with the docility, activity,
quick scent, and intelligence of the terrier. This little an-
imal is especially famous for its zeal and success in killing
rats.
Bull Trout, Gray Trout, Whitling, or Sewen,
sº
Bull Trout.
the Salmo Erioac, a fish of Europe closely resembling the
Salmon in size, appearance, and habits, but much inferior
as food. It is common in England and Wales. It affords
good sport to anglers. -
Bulsar', or Bulsaur, a seaport of India, on the Gulf
of Cambay, and in the presidency of Bombay, 44 miles S.
of Surat. It has manufactures of ginghams, and an active
trade in grain, salt, and sugar. Pop. about 8000.
Bul'ti, Iskar’do, or Little Thibet, the upper end
of the Indus Valley, subject to Cashmere, having Chinese
Tartary on the N., Afghanistan on the W., and Cashmere
on the S., between lat. 34° 30' and 36° N. and lon. 74° 40'
and 76° 30' E. The inhabitants are Mohammedans of
Thibetan origin. The climate has greater extremes than
that of Cashmere; the soil produces grains and fruits in
abundance. This region is also called Baltistan.
Bul' wark [Fr. boulevard], in fortification, a rampart
or bastion; an outwork for defence; that which secures
against an enemy; a shelter or means of protection. On
shipboard a bulwark is the parapet raised round the deck
for the purpose of protecting men and goods from slipping
overboard, and of excluding the waves from the deck. In
ships of war the bulwark is sufficiently high and solid to
afford the crew some protection against the shot of the
enemy.
Bulwer (EDWARD GEORGE EARLE Lytton), BARON
LYTTON, a celebrated English novelist, born in Norfolk in
May, 1805, was the youngest of the three sons of William
Earle Bulwer and Elizabeth Lytton. Both parents were de-
Scended from ancient families. His early education was
Superintended by his mother, a woman of intellectual tastes
and culture. Having entered Cambridge, he gained the
chancellor's prize for English verse by his poem on “Sculp-
ture * (1825), and in 1826 graduated at Trinity Hall. He
soon after visited France, and published after his return
his novel of “Falkland” (1827), which was followed by
“Pelham, or the Adventures of a Gentleman” (1828), “The
Disowned'' (1828), “Devereux” (1829), “Paul Clifford”
(1830), “The Siamese Twins,” a poem (1831), and “Eu-
gene Aram ” (1832). In 1831 he was returned to Parlia-
ment for St. Ives, and from 1832 to 1841 he represented
the city of Lincoln. He published in 1833 “England and
the English,” and the same year visited Germany and Italy.
He produced in rapid succession “The Pilgrims of the
Rhine,” “The Last Days of Pompeii,” “Rienzi, the Last
of the Tribunes” (1835), and “The Student,” a series of
contributions to the “New Monthly Magazine,” of which
he was for some time editor. His drama entitled “The
Duchess of La Vallière’” (1836) was not well received. In
1837 he brought out “Athens, its Rise and Fall,” and
“Ernest Maltravers,” a novel, which was continued under
the title of “Alice, or the Mysteries.” His dramas entitled
“The Lady of Lyons” (1838) and “Richelieu’’ were very
successful, as well as the comedy of “Money,” which came
out soon after. His “Night and Morning,” a novel, pub-
lished in 1841, was followed by “Zanoni” (1842), “The
Last of the Barons” (1843), “Lucretia, or the Children of
the Night” (1846), and “Harold, the Last of the Saxon
Kings” (1848). His novels entitled “The Caxtons” (1850),
“My Novel” (1851), and “What will he Do with It?”
(1858) first appeared in “Blackwood's Magazine,” to
which Bulwer has been a frequent contributor. “A Strange
Story” came out in “All the Year Round” in 1861. Although
his reputation rests chiefly on his novels, he has distin-
guished himself in various departments of literature. His
translations of Schiller's poems (1844) were received with
favor, and he has published original poems—“O’Niel, or
the Rebel” (1827), “The New Timon.” (1846), and “King
Arthur” (1848). His novels have great popularity in Eng-
land, America, and on the Continent, and have been trans-
lated into several languages. Bulwer was made a baronet
in 1838, and in 1844, on the death of his mother, came into
possession of the Knebworth estates and assumed the name
of Bulwer-Lytton. He had published in 1835 a liberal
political pamphlet entitled “The Crisis,” which caused a
great sensation. He was elected lord rector of the Uni-
versity of Glasgow in 1856, and in 1858 he held for a time
the office of secretary of state for the colo-
nies. He was made a peer in 1866 with the
title of Baron Lytton. In 1827 he married
Miss Rosina. Wheeler of Limerick, who wrote
“Bianca Capello,” “The Budget of the Bub-
# ble Family,” and other books. The union
i was unhappy, and the parties were divorced.
§ Died Jan. 18, 1873.—His son, EDWARD ROB-
§§§ ERT BULwÉR LYTToN, born Nov. 8, 1831, pub-
& lished “Lucile” and other poems under the
pseudonym of “Owen Meredith,” besides
other works. J. THOMAS.
Bul/wer (HENRY LYTTON EARLE), BARON
DALLING AND BULwFR, an English diplomatist and author,
a brother of the preceding, was born in 1804. He was
elected to Parliament in 1830, and was sent as ambassador
to Madrid in 1843. In 1849 he was transferred to Wash-
ington, and in 1851 was created a knight grand cross of
the Bath. He became minister plenipotentiary at Con-
stantinople in 1858. He was afterwards ennobled. Among
his works are “France, Social and Literary,” and a “Life
of Lord Byron.” Died May 27, 1872.
Bummalo'ti (Saurus ophiodon), a fish of the family
Séopelidae, which is regarded as a subdivision of the family
Salmonidae. It is a native of the seas of India, from
which it is exported in large quantities, salted and dried,
being highly esteemed for its flavor. In commerce it is
known by the appellation of “Bombay duck.” It is long,
with a very large mouth, the gape of which extends behind
the eyes, and which is furnished with a great number of
long, slender, barbed teeth. -
Bum/mingtown, a township of Macon co., N. C. Pop.
320.
Bum'stead (FREEMAN Josi AH), M.D., born at Boston,
Mass., April 21, 1826, graduated at Williams College in
1847, studied medicine in Paris, and became a practitioner
in New York, where he was appointed professor of vene-
real diseases in the College of Physicians and Surgeons,
also surgeon to the Eye and Ear Hospital and the Charity
Hospital. He has published “Pathology and Treatment of
Venereal Diseases” (1861), and valuable translations from
Ricord and Cullerier.
Bunce (FRANCIs M.), U. S. N., born Dec. 25, 1836, in
Hartford, Conn., graduated at the Naval Academy in 1857,
became a lieutenant in 1861, a lieutenant commander in
1863, a commander in 1871. Had charge of the naval
howitzers in the combined army and navy expedition of
July 10, 1863, which resulted in the capture of a part of
Morris Island. Participated in all the important attacks
§

BUNCOMBE–BUNKER HILL.
669
on the defences of Charleston harbor during the summer
and fall of 1863, and was in the disastrous assault upon
Fort Sumter of Sept. 18, 1863, where, for his “gallant
support and zealous co-operation,” he received the thanks
of his commanding officer, Captain Thomas H. Stevens,
- Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Bun'combe, a county in the W. of North Carolina.
Area, 450 square miles. It is intersected by the French
Broad River, and bounded on the E. by the Blue Ridge.
The surface is partly mountainous; the soil of the valleys
is fertile. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are raised.
Capital, Asheville. Pop. 15,412. The phrase “talking
for Buncombe,” often heard among politicians, was first
used by a member of Congress from this district. During
a long speech which he made, several members, who had
not patience to listen, retired from the hall. He then told
the remaining members that they also might go, for he
“ was only talking for Buncombe.”
Buncombe, a post-township of Johnson co., III. Pop.
1385. w
Bun/delcundſ, or Bundlecund, a territory of Hin-
dostan, is bounded on the N. E. by the river Jumna. It
extends from lat. 24° to 26° 26' N., and from lon. 78° to
81° 36' E. Area, about 18,000 square miles, of which
about 8700 square miles are subject to the British, while
the rest of the country is governed by numerous native
princes, who are tributary to the British. It is situated in
the North-western Provinces. The surface is diversified by
many hills or isolated precipitous rocks. The soil is fer-
tile, but requires irrigation. It is said to contain dia-
monds and rich beds of iron ore. The chief towns are
Calpe, Banda, Jhansi, and Callinger. Pop. 2,592,800.
Bundermeer’ (anc. Araxes), a river of Persia. It flows
through a richly wooded valley, emptying into the Bakh-
tegan Lake after a course of 150 miles.
Bun'galow [from the Hindostanee bênglá, a “summer-
house”], the name of a kind of rural dwelling very common
among the Europeans in India. Bungalows usually have
but one story, and are always surrounded with a verandah,
the covering of which affords shelter from the sun. Be-
sides private bungalows, there are military bungalows for
the use of soldiers in cantonments, and for the accommo-
dation of travellers there are public bungalows belonging
to the government on all the principal roads in India.
Travellers sometimes carry their provisions, servants, etc.
with them, paying a rupee (a half dollar of our money) per
day for the use of the bungalow. But on the most fre-
quented roads one can nearly always find native cooks, or
rather “stewards” (khánsámán), as they are called, who
furnish food for travellers, and cook it.
Bun/ion, or Bunyon [said to be from the Gr. Boövtov,
the “earth-nut,” from its fancied resemblance in shapel, is
a painful inflammation of the bursa mucosa, or membranous
sac of the joint which connects the great toe with its meta-
tarsal bone. The pressure of a boot causes this bursa to
inflame and swell, and this may go on to suppuration.
Rest and poulticing are generally sufficient to subdue the
attack, and wearing a shoe so constructed as to save the
bunion from pressure will generally prevent a recurrence.
Bunka'ra, or Blue River, of Colorado, rises in the
Middle Park, among the Rocky Mountains, flows, nearly
south-westward, and unites with the Gunnison River to
form the Grand River. Total length, estimated at 200
miles. - *
Bun’ker Hill, a post-village of Macoupin co., Ill. It
has one weekly newspaper.
Bunker. Hill, a post-township of Ingham co., Mich.
Pop. 957. -
Bunker Hill, the county-seat of Russell co., Kan., on
the Kansas Pacific R. R., 176 miles W. of Topeka, has one
weekly paper. J. B. CARBOLT, ED. “Nºw REPUBLIC.”
Bunker Hill, a rounded eminence in Charlestown, now
a part of Boston, Mass. It is about 110 feet high and con-
nected by a ridge with another small eminence 700 yards
distant called Breed’s Hill. These two elevations are fa–
mous for the battle fought here between the British and
American forces June 17, 1775. The American redoubt was
on Breed's Hill, but by common usage the event is known
as the battle of Bunker Hill.
After the stirring events of the spring of that year the
troops organized in New England had taken up a line ex-
tending from Roxbury to Cambridge under command of
Gen. Artemas Ward; Putnam, 'Starke, Prescott, Gridley,
and Pomeroy were there, and by the middle of June not
less than 20,000 men had assembled.
Gen. Gage was in chief command of the British at Bos-
ton, and had been recently largely reinforced by Gen’ls
Howe, Burgoyne and Clinton. -
It having been ascertained by the provincial army that
Gage meditated seizing and fortifying Bunker Hill and the
heights of Dorchester on the night of the 18th, it was deter-
mined by the Americans to forestall this design, and, on the
night of the 16th, a detachment of 1000 men under command
of Col. Wm. Prescott, was despatched from Cambridge to
Charlestown for the purpose of fortifying Bunker Hill.
They were joined at Charlestown Neck by Gen. Putnam
and Major Brooks and at a council it was decided to fortify
Breed’s Hill not as high as Bunker Hill but nearer Boston.
By daylight a formidable work had been thrown up on the
spot now marked by the Bunker Hill Monument. #. be-
ing discovered by daylight the “Lively ’’ opened fire upon
it which soon extended to all the shipping and the bat-
tery on Copp's Hill in Boston; the British troops were call-
ed to arms and preparations for an attack were made ;
Prescott meanwhile continued to strengthen his position
and sent to Cambridge for reinforcements; the entire Amer–
ican force engaged, however, did not probably exceed, at
any time, 1500. s
A force of British under Gen’ls Howe and Pigot, covered
by the guns of their shipping, had embarked in boats and
landed at Morton’s Point east of the foot of Breed’s Hill. This
movement produced the greatest excitement in Cambridge
and reinforcements, were hastened to Charlestown, Gen’ls
Warren and Pomeroy arriving at 2 P. M. at the moment
Howe, whose force by this time had been increased to about
4000, began his advance around the eastern slopes of Breed's
Hill and along the Mystic river with the intention of gain-
ing the rear of the American lines; but this movement hav-
ing been anticipated Knowlton had taken up a position
near Bunker Hill and thrown up a breastwork nearly two
hundred and fifty yards in length, and another line had
been built in front of a stone and rail fence between which
was placed new mown hay, and between the breast work
and the rail fence the artillery was placed. The Conn. and
N. H. troops were west of the redoubt and a force was post-
ed at the foot of the S.W. side of Breed’s Hill, near Charles-
town, and a work had been commenced on Bunker Hill.
Gen. Warren, who was with Prescott in the redoubt;..having
refused to take command from either Prescott or Putnam,
saying he came to fight as a volunteer. . Howe was foiled
in his flank movement and compelled to make a direct attack
and having ordered the guns of the shipping and the bat-
tery at Copp's Hill to open fire on the redoubt moved for-
ward under its cover up the slopes of Breed's Hill in two
wings, the right under his own command the left under
Pigot : Gen. Howe with his command to carry the position
at the rail fence while Pigot attacked the redoubt. Pres-
cott’s orders to his men were to reserve their fire on the ad-
vancing columns till the whites of the men's eyes could be
seen. The British opened fire when within gunshot but
no reply was heard from the breastworks till they were
within close range when volley after volley was poured into
their ranks causing them to fly in disorder toward their
boats. Howe succeeded, however, in quickly rallying his
troops and being reinforced by some 400 marines and pro-
vided with artillery, of which latter they were deficient in
the first attack, a second advance was made over the same
ground. &
In the meantime reinforcements had been sent to Prescott
but those sent from Cambridge were prevented from cross-
ing Charlestown Neck by the severe fire of the batteries
and shipping of the British, and but few additional troops
reached the redoubt before the Second attack.
As before the Americans reserved their fire till the British
line was at short range when it was delivered with the same
deadly effect. .
Hot shot from Copp's hill having meanwhile set fire to
some houses in Charlestown the whole town was soon in
flames and Gen. Howe hoped to storm the redoubt under
cover of the smoke; but a light wind which had just sprung
up cleared away the smoke and disclosed the advancing col-
umns which were again broken and driven in confusion by
the fatal fire from the patriots within the redoubt. Howe
was now reinforced by Clinton and a third attack was made
upon this little band whose ammunition was now nearly
exhausted and Howe, having discovered the weakness of
this part of the line, attacked the position between the rail
fence on the east of the redoubt and the breastwork, sweep-
ing it with his artillery and forcing its defenders within the
redoubt. The ammunition of the Americans was now com-
pletely exhausted and the British advancing scaled the
work but were met by the Americans with muskets clubbed
and a hand to hand conflict ensued. But the Superiority
of the British in numbers was too great and Prescott was
compelled to order a retreat, himself and Warren being the
last to leave the works. Stark and Knowlton maintained
their position at the rail fence until the retreat had been
effected, when they retired slowly and in good order. War-
ren had hardly left the redoubt when he fell shot through
the head; Prescott escaped uninjured. Falling back across
67()
BUNODES GEMMACEA-BUNYAN.
Bunker Hill, Putnam here made an ineffectual attempt to
rally the retreating army within the partially finished
Works. The retreat continued across Charlestown Neck
where many were killed by a severe fire from the shipping
and batteries; but the British did not continue their pur.
suit beyond this point.
The British loss in killed and wounded was about 1050;
the American loss was not over 450.
A granite obelisk 221 feet in height now marks the scene
of this important struggle on Breed's Hill, and is known as
Bunker Hill Monument. Gen. Lafayette laid the corner
stone June 17, 1825, and Daniel Webster delivered one of
his most memorable orations on the occasion. The mon-
ument was completed in 1842 and was dedicated June 17,
1843 in the presence of the President of the U. S. and his
Cabinet, Daniel Webster being, as before, the orator of the
OCCà,SIOI).
Buno'des Gemma'cea, called in English gem pimp-
let, a Zoophyte of the or— -- a ... - - -.
der Actinoida (sea ane-
mones ; see ANEMONE, a -
SEA). When open it #.
bears a striking resem- #
blance to a flower, but #
spherical form, having
the appearance of an
echinus stripped of its
spines. The generic name
is from the Greek gov-
vööms, signifying “resem- #
bling an eminence or a
woman’s breast” (refer-
ring to its form when
closed); the specific name
is from the Latin gemma,
a “bud,” or small pro-
tuberance, and has allu-
sion to the wart-like pro-
tuberances on the exte-
rior surface.
Bun'sen (Rob BRT
WILHELM), a very distin-
guished German chemist,
born at Göttingen Mar.
31, 1811, became in 1851
professor of chemistry at
Breslau, and in 1852 at
Heidelberg. He is the
author of several works,
the most important perhaps being on gas analysis. His in-
vestigations on organic compounds of arsenic, kakodyl, etc.,
in 1841, attracted much attention. He has invented several
most important pieces of apparatus, several of which bear
his name, as the Bunsen battery, gas-burner, photometer,
filter pump, etc. His most brilliant discovery was prob-
ably that of spectrum analysis and the SPECTRoscoPE (which
see), made in connection with Kirchoff. This instrument
established a new era in astronomy, and has already led
to most valuable discoveries in chemistry. By its aid
Bunsen himself discovered two new alkaline metals, caesium
and rubidium, and Lamy and Crookes discovered thalliwm
and Rich and Richter indivin. He also devised a new sys-
tem of analysis by flame reactions. His laboratory is still
a favorite resort for Americans studying chemistry in
Europe. C. F. CHANDLER.
Bunsen, von (CHRISTIAN KARL JosLAs), PH.D., D. C. L.,
CHEv ALIER, an eminent German writer and diplomatist,
born at Korbach, in Westphalia, Aug. 25, 1791. He studied
the Oriental languages in his youth. He was appointed
secretary to the Prussian embassy at Rome in 1818, where
he remained many years and devoted much time to philol-
ogy and historical research. In 1827 he succeeded Niebuhr
as Prussian minister at Rome. He was sent as ambas-
sador to London in 1841, and acquired a greater influence
and a higher position in English society than any German
diplomatist had ever enjoyed. His principal works are
“Die Verfassung der Kirche der Zukunft” (1845), “Egyp-
tens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte ’’ (5 vols., 1845–57),
“Christianity and Mankind” (7 vols., 1854), and “Gott
in der Geschichte” (2 vols., 1868). He had a high repu-
tation as an Egyptologist, and was liberal in religion and
politics. He was recalled from the court of St. James in
1854, and was raised to the peerage as Freiherr (baron) in
1858. Died at Bonn Nov. 29, 1860. (See “Memoirs of
Baron Bunsen,” by his wife, 2 vols., 1868.)
Bunt. See MILDEw.
Bun’ter Sand'stein (“variegated sandstone”), a Ger-
man term imported into English geology, and applied to
the “new red sandstone,” the lowest portion of the tri-
--> -
--~~
Bunodes, closed.
assic Series, called grès bigarré by French geologists. As
the trias is more perfectly developed in Germany than in
Great Britain, the German beds are considered the typical
group of the triassic period. Large quantities of bunter
Sandstein flank the Vosges Mountains. It is there gene-
rally a fine-grained, solid sandstone, useful as a material
for building, and is often of a blue, red, or greenish tint.
The most remarkable fossils of this formation are the re-
mains of huge batrachians, including the Labyrinthodon.
Bun'ting [cognate with the Ger. bunt, “ variegated,” a
term appropriate to many of the species], a name properly
- * * | fift.
|####
The Cirl Bunting (Emberiza cirlws).
given to numerous small birds of the genera Emberiza,
Euspiza, and Plectrophanes. These birds are mostly Euro-
pean, but some are found in America. One of their num-
ber is the ortolan of Europe, so, highly prized for the table.
The bobolink is sometimes called rice-bunting, and several
other birds are often improperly called buntings.
Bunting (JABEz), D. D., an English Wesleyan minis-
ter, born at Manchester May 13, 1779. He gained dis-
tinction as an eloquent preacher, and had much influence
in the Church. Died June 16, 1858. (See his Life by T.
P. BUNTING, 1859.)
Bunt of a Sail is that portion nearest the central per-
pendicular line. If a sail be divided into four equal por-
tions from side to side, the bunt would comprise the two
middle strips.
Buntz’lau, or Bunzlau, a town of Prussia, in Sile-
sia, is on the Bober, 28 miles by rail W. N. W. of Liegnitz.
It has a normal school, and manufactures of woollen goods,
hosiery, linens, etc. Pop. in 1871, 8817.
Buntzlau, or Bunzłau, Jung (i. e. “Young Buntz-
lau”), a town of Bohemia, on the river Iser, 37 miles N. E.
of Prague. It has an old castle, a gymnasium, and man-
ufactures of cotton and woollen fabrics, leather, and Soap.
Pop. in 1869, 8695.
Bun’yan (John), author of “Pilgrim’s Progress,” was
born near Bedford, England, in 1628, and learned the trade
of a tinker. He was dissipated in his youth, and enlisted
in the army of the Parliament about 1645. He married
about the age of twenty, Soon quitted the army, and
joined the Baptists. After passing through severe spiritual
conflicts he became a preacher in 1655. He preached at
Bedford until 1660, and was then committed to Bedford
jail, in which he was confined twelve years. In this jail
he wrote “Pilgrim's Progress” (1678), and other religious
works, amounting in all to sixty volumes, large and Small.
After his liberation he resumed his ministerial labors at
Bedford. Died Aug. 31, 1688. “We are not afraid to
say,” says Macaulay, “that though there were many clever
men in England during the latter half of the seventeenth
century, there were only two great creative minds. One
of these produced the ‘Paradise Lost,’ and the other the











BUOL-SCHAUENSTEIN–BURCE HARD']. - 671
* Pilgrim’s Progress.’” (See MACAULAY, “Essay on
Southey’s edition of ‘Pilgrim’s Progress;’” Iv1MEY, “Life
of John Bunyan,” 1809.)
Buſol-Schau'enstein, von (KARL FERDINAND),
Count, an Austrian diplomatist, born in Switzerland May
17, 1797. He was sent as ambassador to St. Petersburg in
1848, and was transferred to the court of St. James in
1851. He was minister of foreign affairs from 1852 to
May, 1859. Died Oct. 28, 1865.
Buoy (pron. byoy or boy), a floating body usually in-
tended as a mark for the guidance of mariners. It is
made either of wood or metal, and is often hollow. Buoys
are generally moored by chains to the bed of the channel.
They are of various shapes, sizes, and colors, partly to
render them conspicuous, and partly to distinguish them
one from another. Sometimes buoys point out the best
channel; sometimes they warn the mariner away from
shoals; sometimes they form a continuous double line be-
tween which ships can with safety pass. A hollow conical
buoy is called a “can-buoy,” a double conical buoy is
called a “num-buoy,” a floating wooden spar is a
“spar-buoy.” The bell-buoy is a contrivance for
rendering a buoy audible, whether it is visible or
Bur/bank, a post-township of Monongalia co., Minn.
Pop. 523. w
Burbank, a post-village of Canaan township, Wayne
co., O. Pop. 258.
Bur’beck (HENRY), an American officer, born in Bos-
ton June 8, 1754. He was a soldier in the Revolution,
and was appointed captain under the Confederation May
1, 1787. In 1789 he was commissioned a captain of artil-
lery, major in 1791, lieutenant-colonel in 1798, and colonel
in 1802. He served with distinction in the Revolutionary
war, that of 1812 with Great Britain, and on frontier ser–
vice. He was brevetted brigadier-general 1813, and re-
tired from , the army June, 1815. Died at New London,
Conn., Oct. 2, 1848.
Bur/bois, a post-township of Gasconade co., Mo.
Pop. 800.
Bur/bot (Lota vulgaris), a fish of the same genus as
the ling, is found in certain rivers of England, and is the
not; so long as any stream of water, caused by a tide ºf º y
or current, passes through the lower part of the buoy, Ś
it moves an undershot wheel, which rings a bell. In {
laying submarine telegraphs buoys are used when
cables are thrown overboard in stormy weather. Such
weather might severely strain the telegraphic cable,
but it may be cut, buoyed, and abandoned during the
rough weather, and afterwards picked up and repaired, and
the work of laying the cable can go on as before the storm.
A buoy-rope, on shipboard, is the rope which connects
the anchor with a buoy floating above it. It is simply in-
tended to point out the locality of the anchor, but if it be
strong it is useful in assisting to raise the anchor at times
when the proper cable is cut or injured.
Buphaga. See BEEFEATER. -
Bupres’tis [from the Gr. Boſtrpmarris, the name of an
zºº
~!
Žºlš
§ lº
$
§º
㺠Sº
º
\ --->| }." § § * *
\ º §§
*\ - Méj -
- º
§
$3:
E-2
ºº
#S
sº
Nºs. gºsº
*-
The Giant Buprestis.
insect whose bite is said to have caused cattle to swell up;
derived from Boös, an “ox,” and irp;90, to “puff up" by
blowing], a genus of coleopterous insects of the family
Buprestidae, which includes more than 1000 species. They
are remarkable for the splendor and richness of their colors.
They are found in North America, but are more abundant
in tropical countries. The Buprestis gigas, of Cayenne, is
about two inches long, and is larger than any of the North
American species.
Bur, a rough, prickly covering (involucre) of the seeds
of some.plants, as the chestnut. The term is also applied
to the flower-head or involucre of the Arctium lappa (bur-
dock), the prickles of which are hooked at the point. In
engraving on steel or copper, bur is a slight ridge raised
on the edges of a line by the graver or the dry-point.
Bura'no, an island and town of Italy, in the Adriatic,
5 miles N. E. of Venice. The inhabitants are employed in
fishing and cultivating vegetables for the market of Venice.
Pop. 5693.
Bur’bage (RICHARD), an English actor, one of Shaks-
peare's associates. Died in 1619. -
The Burbot.
is also found in the northern parts of the continent of
Europe, and in Asia. The larger specimens weigh eight
or ten pounds. It has two dorsal fins, the second of which
is very long, and a very long anal fin. Its flesh is white,
firm, and is esteemed as food. It is capable of living a
long time out of water. Several burbots are found in the
S.
Bur/bridge (STEPHEN GANO), an American general of
volunteers, born in Scott co., Ky., Aug. 19, 1831; educated
at Georgetown College and at
Rentucky Military Institute,
Frankfort; studied law in the
office of the late Senator Gar-
rett Davis at Paris, Ky. In
1849 he returned to Georgetown,
and engaged in mercantile busi-
ness till 1853, when he turned
his attention to farming, and at
the outbreak of the recent civil
war was conducting a large farm
in Logan county. He at once
ardently espoused the cause
of the U. S., and by his voice
and influence raised the famous
Twenty-sixth Kentucky, which
he led in the field until the bat-
tle of Shiloh, where, for distin-
\ guished gallantry, he was pro-
moted to be a brigadier-general
\ of U. S. volunteers. Upon
Bragg's invasion of Kentucky
in 1862 he was ordered there,
remaining till Bragg was driven
from the State, when he was
ordered to join the expedition
> - &=$$$. Šºš >S - º
§§§s • * * ***** * * Šºšš-S$ against Vicksburg. He led the
ºxºtºs sº Fº: SSS:ºssº:S G-5-
REDMAN KENNw ENGWSNY. charge at Arkansas Post and
at Port Gibson, being among
the first to enter each place. In the various actions about,
and at the siege of, Vicksburg he was conspicuous. He
subsequently commanded the military district of Kentucky,
and it was during this time that he defeated John Morgan
in his raids, and drove him into Tennessee. For this ser-
vice he received the thanks of President Lincoln, and was
brevetted major-general. He resigned in 1865.
Burch/dale, a township of Todd co., Minn. Pop. 124.
Burch/ville, a township of Lawrence co., Ala. P. 656.
Burchville, a township of St. Clair co., Mich. Pop. 726.
Burckhardt (JAKOB). See APPENDIX.
Burck/hardt (JoBANN LUDWIG), an enterprising Swiss
traveller, born at Lausanne Nov. 24, 1784. He went to
London in 1806, and entered the service of the African
Association, which in 1809 sent him to explore the interior
of Africa. He spent about two years in Syria, and pre-
pared himself by the study of Arabic and medicine. He
travelled through Cairo and Nubia to Mecca, where he
arrived in 1814, Disguised as a Moslem hāji, he made a
pilgrimage to Mount Ararat and to Medina. ... He died at
Cairo Oct. 15, 1817. He was eminently qualified for the
















672 BUR DEN-BURGLARY.
part of a traveller and explorer. His “Travels in Nubia.”
(in English, 1819), “Travels in Syria and Palestine” (1822),
“Travels in Arabia.” (1829), “Notes on the Bedouins and
Wahabis” (1830), and “Manners and Customs of the Mod- |
ern Egyptians” (1830), are highly esteemed.
Bur’den (HENRY), born at Dumblane, Scotland, April
20, 1791, was educated at Edinburgh, and in 1819 came to
the U. S., where he finally became a large iron manufac-
turer at Troy, N. Y. He made the first cultivator used in
America, and invented several useful machines. His horse-
shoe machine he brought out in 1835, and the hook-headed
spike used on railroad tracks in 1843. Died Jan. 19, 1871.
Burden of Proof, the obligation or necessity of prov-
ing the fact in dispute in an issue joined in a court of jus-
tice. The general rule is, that the burden of proof is with
the party who asserts the affirmative of the issue. The
same rule is applied if he grounds his case on negative
statements or allegations. The rules concerning the bur-
den of proof are of great importance in criminal prosecu-
tions. The burden of proof is on the government through-
out the whole case.
Burdett', a post-village of Hector township, Schuyler
co., N. Y., has a tannery, foundry, a factory of agricultural
tools, a woollen mill, and three churches. . .
Burdett (Sir FRANCIs), a popular and liberal English
legislator, was born Jan. 25, 1770. In 1793 he married a
rich heiress, Sophia Coutts. He was elected to Parliament
about 1795, became an effective speaker, opposed the min-
istry, and advocated parliamentary reform. He represented
Westminster for many years (1807–36), and was the idol of
the London populace. Died Jan. 23, 1844.
Burdett-Coutts (ANGELA GEORGIANA), BARONESS, a
daughter of Sir Francis Burdett, born April 25, 1814. She
gained distinction by the liberal use of her vast fortune.
She is now a baroness in her own right.
Bur'dock (Lappa officinalis), a plant of the order
Compositae, has a globular involucre with imbricated coria-
ceous scales, each tipped with an abrupt and spreading, awl-
shaped, hook-pointed appendage. This involucre, which is
called a bur, catches hold of the clothes of persons who come
into contact with it. It is a native of Europe and natural-
ized in the U. S., growing as a weed in waste places, fence-
corners, and near dwellings. It is used in medicine as a
diuretic and diaphoretic.
Burd'wan, a town of India, in Bengal, is on the Dum-
modah, and on the Grand Trunk Road, 68 miles by rail
N. W. of Calcutta. It has manufactures of silk and cotton
fabrics, and a large palace, but the houses are generally
rather mean. Pop. estimated at 50,000. -
Bu’reau, a French word, much used also in various
other languages. In France it signifies a writing-table, a
desk, an office in which public business is transacted. It
is also applied to each one of the numerous committees of
the French National Assembly. The treasury office is called
bureau des finances. The parliamentary phrase déposer sur
le bureau signifies “to lay upon the table.” In the U. S.
the term bureau is commonly applied to a chest of drawers,
a piece of furniture for a bed-chamber. Soon after the end
of the civil war in the U. S., a department called the Freed-
men’s Bureau was organized, in order to protect, feed, and
clothe the liberated slaves. The term is also applied to the
minor divisions of the executive departments at Washington.
Bureau, a county of Illinois. Area, 800 square miles.
It is bounded on the S. E. by the Illinois River, and inter-
sected by Green River and Bureau Creek. The surface is
undulating or nearly level; the soil is fertile. The greater
portion of the county is prairie-land. It has important
mines of coal. Cotton, grain, dairy products, wool, and
hay are raised extensively. The chief manufactures are
carriages, wagons, Saddlery, etc. It is traversed by the
Chicago Burlington and Quincy and Chicago Rock Island
and Pacific R. Rs. Capital, Princeton. Pop. 32,415. -
Bureau, a township of Bureau co., Ill. Pop. 1145.
Burg, a German word signifying a “castle,” a “fort-
ress,” occurs as the termination of the names of many towns
of Europe.
Burg, a town of Prussian Saxony, is on the river Ihle,
17 miles by rail N. E. of Magdeburg, and on the railway
which connects Magdeburg with Berlin. It was settled by
French and Walloon colonists, and in one of the churches
the service is in French. It has been for many centuries
celebrated for its manufactures of woollen cloth, which are
still flourishing. The annual value of the cloth made here
is about 7,500,000 thalers. Here are also manufactures of
linen, machinery, pottery, etc. Pop. in 1871, 15,184.
Burg/dorf [Fr. Berthoud], a town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Berne, on the river Emmen, 13% miles by rail N.
I. of Berne. It has a castle and manufactures of ribbons
ute.
and silk. Pestalozzi opened a school here in 1798. The
Sommerhaus baths are in the vicinity. Pop. in 1870, 5078.
Bür’ger (GOTTFRIED AUGUST), a popular German poet,
born near Halberstadt Dec. 31, 1747. He studied at Göt-
tingen, and his literary career was greatly influenced by
reading Shakspeare. His works consist chiefly of ballads
and songs, which, though very popular, did not relieve him
from poverty. Among his best productions are “Lenore”
(1772) and the “Wild Huntsman.” Died June 8, 1794.
Bur’ges (TRISTAM), LL.D., an American statesman and
orator, born at Rochester, Mass., Feb. 26, 1770, and grad-
uated at Brown University in 1796. He studied law, which
he practised with success at Providence, R.I., and became
a leader of the Federal party. He was for a time chief-
justice of Rhode Island, and afterwards a professor in
Brown University. In 1825 he was elected a member of
Congress, in which he continued ten years, and gained a
high reputation. He was eminently logical and terribly
sarcastic. Died Oct. 13, 1853. *
Bur’gess, a citizen or freeman of a borough; a repre-
sentative or magistrate of a borough. This title was for-
merly given to members of the lower branch of the Vir-
ginia, legislature. *
Burgess (Rt. Rev. GEORGE), D. D., born at Providence,
R. I., Oct. 31, 1809, graduated at Brown University in
1826, and was a tutor there for a time. He studied in
Germany two years, was rector of Christ church (Protest-
ant Episcopal), Hartford, Conn. (1834–47), and was in
1847 consecrated bishop of Maine, acting also as rector of
Christ church, Gardiner. He went to Hayti to found a
mission, and died there of apoplexy April 3, 1866. He
published “Pages from the Ecclesiastical History of New
England,” “The Last Enemy Conquering and Conquered,”
a volume of sermons, and other works. (See his Life, by
ALEXANDER BURGEss, his brother.)
Burgk'mair (HANs), a noted German painter and en-
graver on wood, was born in Augsburg in 1472. He was
a friend of Albert Diirer. Died in 1531.
Bur/glary [from burg, a “town,” and the Old Fr. laire
(Lat. latro), a “thief”], in criminal law, the act of break-
ing and entering into a dwelling-house of another or a
church in the night-time, with intent to commit a felony
therein. There are four circumstances necessary to consti-
tute the offence, referring to place, time, the acts done, and
the intent. The place is a dwelling-house or a church. It is
not necessary, in order to constitute a “ dwelling-house,”
that there should be any person residing in the house at
the time. It is enough if it be habitually used as a dwell-
ing, though it may at the time be closed, as in the case of
a person having two or more residences. Difficult questions
sometimes arise as to buildings connected with the house
and within the curtilage, and as to the case of lodgers
having separate rooms and entering by a common door. In
the last instance the inquiry would be whether each lodger
has a distinct dwelling-house.
(Consult BISHOP or WHAR-
Ton on “Criminal Law.”) &
As to time, the rule is that the offence must be committed
by night. The better opinion is, that both the breaking
and entering must be by night, though the two acts, so far
as they are distinct in their nature, may be committed on
separate nights. It is held to be night when a person can-
not by the light of the sun clearly discern the face of
another. This is quite indefinite, and as burglary is a
heinous offence, some fixed though arbitrary rule seems
desirable. In some of the States the time is fixed by stat-
The fact that the face can be seen by moonlight does
not affect the question. - -
The acts to be done are breaking and an entry. The
word “breaking ” is not to be construed so as to require
any great degree of force or violence. Unlatching a door .
or raising a window is sufficient. If a door or window
be left open, an entry through them would not be a
breaking, though the act of coming down a chimney
would be. Any entry will suffice, such as thrusting the .
hand or an instrument through a broken pane of glass.
The act of discharging a loaded pistol or gun through a
door or the glass of a window would be both a breaking
and an entry. It is doubtful whether the act of breaking
out of a house will be sufficient, though the other ingre-
dients of the offence, except breaking in, be present.
Finally, there must be an intent to commit a felony. If
a felony be actually committed, the intent may be inferred.
It will be immaterial whether the felony exists at common
law or is created by statute. An intent to commit a tres-
pass will not suffice.
The common-law ingredients of this crime have been
modified in this country by statute. Burglary is some-
times divided into. degrees; some of these degrees would
include breaking and entry in the daytime, or into build-
,
BURGOS—BURI.
ings other than dwelling-houses and churches, or breaking
out of a building, as well as into it. In some of the States,
statute law makes the intent to commit any crime sufficient.
T. W. DWIGHT.
Bur'gos, a province of Spain, in Old Castile, is bounded
on the N. by Santander, on the E. by Biscay, Alava, and
Logroño, on the S. E. by Soria, on the S. by Segovia, and
on the W. by Valladolid and Valencia. Area, 5651 square
miles. It is drained by the Douro and the Ebro, which
rises within its limits. The surface is partly mountainous.
Gold, silver, copper, iron, and lead are found in it. Pop.
in 1867, 357,846.
Burgos [Lat. Burgi], a city of Spain, capital of the
above province, is situated on the river Arlanzon, at the
foot of the Sierra de Oca, 140 miles by rail N. of Madrid;
lat. 42° 20' N., lon. 3° 45' W. It was formerly the capital
of Old Castile, and was far more populous than it is now.
It was founded in 844 A. D., and has many antique build-
ings. The court was removed from Burgos to Madrid in
the sixteenth century, after which the importance of the
former declined. The most remarkable edifice here is the
cathedral of white marble, which is one of the noblest
specimens of Gothic architecture in Europe. This was
commenced in 1221. Burgos is the seat of an archbishop,
and has a college and some manufactures of woollen and
linen fabrics. The railway which connects Bayonne with
Walladolid passes through this town. Pop. 25,721.
Burgoyne (JOHN), a British general and dramatist,
born in 1730. He commanded a force which captured
Alcántara, in Spain, in 1762. In the summer of 1777 he
took command in Canada of an army of about 8000 men,
which was ordered to enter New York State and operate
against the revolted colonists. He was repulsed at Stillwater
in September, and was captured with his whole army at
Saratoga in Oct., 1777, by Gen. Gates. He wrote successful
dramas called “The Maid of the Oaks” (1780), “Bon
Ton,” and “The Heiress” (1786). Died June 4, 1792.
Burgoyne (Field-Marshal Sir John Fox), son of the
general above named, and godson of Charles James Fox,
was born in London July 24, 1782, entered the Royal En-
gineers as second lieutenant in 1798. “During a period
of 73 years’ service, he slowly but steadily ascended, until
at an age far beyond the scriptural limit of the life of man,
he reached that summit of his professional career, which,
in a published letter, dated Wilhelmshohe, Oct. 29, 1870,
earned for him from the French Emperor, Napoleon III.,
the designation of
“LE MOLTKE DE L’ANGLETERRE.”
He served as Commanding Engineer under General Frazer
at the assault of Alexandria and siege of Rosetta (Egypt)
in 1807; and under Sir John Moore in his Portuguese cam-
paign and retreat, in 1808. Through the Peninsular war,
as an engineer officer he took a prominent part in its greater
sieges and battles, e.g. the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo, the two
sieges of Badajoz, as Commanding, Engineer at the desperate
siege of Burgos and of that of Sebastian (shot through the
neck in the assault) and the battles of Busaco, Salamanca,
Bidassoa, Nivelle, &c. He came out of the Peninsular war,
aged 32, the senior officer of Engineers who had been en-
gaged in the sieges of Spain. As commanding engineer
under Gen. Pakenham he was present at the assault of
Gen. Jackson's lines below New Orleans, January 8, 1815,
as also at the capture of Fort Bowyer (Mobile Point) Feb-
ruary 11. He was called again to the field (aged 72) for
the Crimean war, rendering distinguished services both in
the debarkation, the battle of the Alma and subsequent
march, and in the siege. Against the opinion of the French
engineers he pointed out at the beginning the Malakoff as
the proper and decisive object of the siege operations. On
his recall he resumed his position at the War office as In-
spector General of Fortifications, to which place he had
been appointed in 1845. His services in this capacity and
his home services during the long interval .between the
Peninsular and Crimean wars are numerous and important
and his various reports and official writings have been
deemed of such importance as to justify the publication
of a work entitled “Military Opinions” of Sir John Bur-
goyne. After 70 years’ service he retired in 1868 with pro-
motion to the rank of Field Marshal, and the appointment
of Constable of the Tower of London. Though then aged
86 his physical powers were good and his mind unimpaired.
“Seventy years of work have left in me,” he writes, “a
train of thought that I now continue to indulge in.” A
past history and experience of 70 years had had no effect
in blunting his mind to the present and its progress. His
interest in all that concerned our own great war was un-
flagging and his mind keenly open to every “improve-
ment” he could discern. Our reports on military bridges,
military railway transportation, sieges, torpedoes, sub-
marine blasting, &c., he sought for and appreciated. How
673
much longer a noble life and a grand career might have
been protracted it is useless to speculate, for a blow fell in
September, 1870, in the loss of his only son, Capt. Hugh
Burgoyne, W. C., Commander of the ill-fated “Captain,”
from the effects of which he never rallied. He died Oct.
7, 1871. For one who “ has done more under fire than any
soldier in Europe,” even though, to use his own modest ex-
planation, he “had been a long time about it,” whose life
is a shiming illustration of the motto of the Royal Engi-
neers, “Quo fas et gloria ducunt Ubique,” this tribute from
one who was honored with his friendship and who rev-
erently followed his remains to their last resting place, in
the historic Tower of London, is due.
J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Bur’gundy [Fr. Bourgogne ; Lat. Burgundia], one of
the most important of the former provinces of France, now
forming the departments of Côte d’Or, Saône-et-Loire,
Yonne, part of Ain, and part of Aube. The whole popu-
lation of the departments of Ain, Saône-et-Loire, Côte
d'Or, Yonne, Aube, Haute-Marne, and Haute-Saône amounts
to 2,460,730. The name was derived from an ancient Ger-
man tribe called in Latin Burgundi or Burgundiones, who
settled in this part of Gaul about 408 A. D. Gondemar,
king of Burgundy, was defeated and killed in 534 by the
Franks, who then obtained possession of Burgundy. The
kingdom of Burgundy re-established in 561 was much
more extensive than the province of that name, and its
extent varied in different periods. It included the prov-
inces of Burgundy, Franche-Comté, Dauphiné, a part of
Switzerland, Lyonnais, and nearly all the basin of the
Rhone. In 879 A. D., Burgundy renounced its allegiance
to the weak Carlovingian king, and became an independent
state ruled by King Boso. It afterwards in part belonged
to the kingdom of Arles (933–1032). Upper Burgundy
was a kingdom from 888 to 933. In these ages there were
often several lines of princes claiming the title of king
of Burgundy, and ruling over parts of the country. King
Rudolf III., dying without male issue in 1032, bequeathed
his kingdom to the emperor Conrad II. Conrad's son,
Henry, erected it into a duchy, feudal to Germany, some-
times called Little Burgundy. Meanwhile the north-western
portion of old Burgundy remained a fee of the French
crown, governed by a line of dukes. This line became ex-
tinct in 1361, but John II. of France made his son, Philip
the Bold, duke in 1364. After - this Burgundy became an
important state, which was much of the time virtually in-
dependent. Several of the dukes who reigned over it were
powerful and famous princes. On the death of Charles the
bold, in 1477, the ducal line became extinct, and the duchy
was annexed to France. From 915 to 1384 Franche-Comté
was under a line of counts of Burgundy, but Philip the
Bold made it a part of his dominions in 1384. (See DE
BARANTE, “History of the Dukes of Burgundy,” 13 vols.,
1826.)
Burgundy, DUKEs of. See CHARLES THE BOLD, PHILIP
THE Bold, PHILIP THE Good. *
Burgundy (Louis), DUKE of, dauphin of France, born
in 1682, was a grandson of Louis XIV. and the father of
Louis XV. He was a youth of violent passions and ex-
tremely haughty, but his character was, it is said, reformed
by Fénelon, who was his preceptor. He married Adelaide
of Savoy about 1698. On the death of his father he be-
came dauphin and heir-apparent to the throne. Died in
1712.
Burgundy Pitch (Piac Burgundica), a resinous sub-
stance, is a concrete exudation from the Abies eaccelsa or
Norway fir. It is prepared by melting it in hot water, by
which process part of the volatile oil which it contains is
separated from it. By straining it through a coarse cloth
some impurities are removed. It is of a yellowish-white
color, is hard and brittle when cold, but is softened by a
moderate degree of heat. It has a pleasant resinous odor
and a slightly bitter taste. It is used in medicine as an
external application in the form of a plaster. The Bur-
gundy pitch of commerce comes chiefly from the neighbor-
hood of Neufchâtel, Switzerland.
Burgundy Wines, the name of excellent French
wines produced in the former province of Burgundy, chiefly
on the range of hills called Côte d’Or, between Dijon and
Châlons. These hills are about 800 to 1000 feet high.
The wines are celebrated for richness of flavor and per-
fume. The best red wines of Burgundy are called Clos-
Vougeot, Chambertin, Romané-Conti, Volnay, Pomard,
and Richebourg. The white wines of Burgundy are said
to be the finest in France, but the quantity produced is
less than that of the red. The total annual product of
Burgundy wines is from 2,500,000 to 3,500,000 hectolitres.
Bu'ri, a name of a species of palm, a native of the Phil-
ippine Islands. Its trunk is employed in the construction
of houses; sugar and spirituous liquors are made of the
43
674
BURI–BURFCE.
sap ; the pith yields a valuable article of food (sago); and
mats and sails are made from its fibre. This palm is the
Saguerw8 saccharīfer.
Bu'ri, or Bure [from a root cognate with the Anglo-
Saxon bora, “one who bears” or produces, because, being
the first of the gods, he was the progenitor of all the others],
the first of the gods of the Norse mythology (AEsir). It is
related that when the mythic cow Audhumla (whose name,
from awdr, “desert,” and hum, “ darkness,” may be said to
symbolize the original chaotic darkness) began to lick the
frost-covered rocks of the primeval chaos, there came forth
a beautiful and mighty being in human form called Buri,
whose son Bör (that is “born,” and hence, like the Latin
natus, signifying a “son”) was the father of Odin.
Buridan (JEAN), a French scholastic philosopher, born
at Béthune, in Artois, flourished about 1350. He was a
pupil of Occam, lectured at Paris, and belonged to the
Nominalist school. He wrote commentaries on Aristotle’s
“Metaphysica,” and other works, and was the reputed au-
thor of a celebrated sophism called “Buridan's Ass.” The
subject of this was an ass placed between two equidistant
and equal bundles of hay, and starving on account of the
equal balance of the two motives.
Bu’rin, a post-town and port of entry of Newfound-
land, capital of Burim district, has a fine harbor on the W.
side of Placentia Bay, and has a jail. Pop. 1850.
Burke, a county of Georgia, bordering on South Caro-
lina. Area, 1640 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E.
by the Savannah River, and on the S. by the Ogeechee, and
is intersected by Brier Creek. The surface is undulating or
nearly level; the soil is fertile. Corn and cotton are staple
crops. Limestone abounds here. Burke county is inter-
sected by the Central R. R. Capital, Waynesborough.
Pop. 17,679.
Burke, a county in the W. of North Carolina. Area,
450 square miles. It is intersected by the Catawba River,
and also drained by Linville River. The Blue Ridge
extends along the N. W. border of this county, which pre-
sents beautiful mountain-scenery. Grain, tobacco, and
wool are raised. It contains gold, native antimony, and
small quantities of silver and platinum. True diamonds
have been found here. The soil of the valley is fertile. It
is traversed by the Western R. R. Capital, Morganton.
Pop. 97.77. *
Burke, a post-township of Franklin co., N. Y. P. 2141.
Burke, a post-township of Caledonia co., Vt. It has
five churches, and manufactures of lumber, shingles, and
starch. Pop. 1162.
Burke, a township of Dane co., Wis. Pop. 1127.
Burke (EDMUND), L.L.D., an eminent statesman, orator,
and writer, born in Dublin Jan. 1, 1728, or, according to
some writers, in 1730. He was the son of Richard Burke,
a distinguished attorney, and Miss Nagle, a lady of a Ro-
man Catholic family. He was one of four children, the
only survivors of a numerous family, and at an early agé
became the pupil of Abraham Shackleton, a Quaker of
superior attainments and excellent character, who taught
a school at Ballitore. Having entered Trinity College,
Dublin, he devoted himself to history, philosophy, the
classics, etc., not neglecting poetry and other works of
imagination. He afterwards studied law at the Middle
Temple, but returned to Ireland in 1751, and took the de-
gree of A. M. His “Vindication of Natural Society,” an
ironical criticism of Lord Bolingbroke’s attacks on Chris–
tianity, came out anonymously in 1756. “The imitation
of Bolingbroke's style and manner was so perfect,” says
Prior, “as to constitute identity, rather than resemblance.”
This was followed by a “Philosophical Inquiry into the
Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful,” which
was highly commended by Dr. Johnson. Burke married,
in 1757, Mary Jane, daughter of Dr. Nugent of Bath, and
the union appears to have been a very happy one. Soon
after this he formed an intimacy with Dr. Johnson and
Garrick; the former, from his first acquaintance with
Burke, felt the warmest admiration for his talents, and was
accustomed to say that “no man of sense could meet Mr.
Burke, by accident under a gateway, to avoid a shower,
without being convinced that he was the first man in Eng-
land.” In 1759 he became private secretary to William
Gerard Hamilton, through whose influence chiefly he re-
ceived a pension from the government of £300 per annum;
but finding that his political independence would be com-
promised by its acceptance, he threw it up at the end of
the year. He was returned to Parliament for Wendover,
in Buckinghamshire, about 1765, and re-elected in 1768.
Having soon after purchased an estate, he wrote to his
friend Shackleton, “I have made a push with all I could
collect of my own, and the aid of my friends, to cast a little
root into this country. I have purchased a house with
forebodings.
600 acres of land in Buckinghamshire, 24 miles from Lon-
don.” The “Letters of Junius,” which appeared about
this time, were almost universally ascribed to Burke, but
his repeated denials were not generally believed until the
publication of the “Grenville Papers.” His “Thoughts on
the Cause of the Present Discontent” came out in 1770, and
in 1771 he was appointed agent to the colony of New York.
In 1772, Sir Charles Colebrook, in the name of the directors
of the East India Company, offered to Burke, who had al-
ready considerable knowledge of Indian affairs, “the first
position in a supervisorship of three, empowered to trace
out in detail the whole administrative system of India, and
to remedy all they could find a miss.” This offer he de-
clined, feeling perhaps unwilling to leave Parliament at a
time when American affairs were becoming more compli-
cated, and the condition of France filled him with anxious
Soon after his return from a short residence
in Paris he said in a speech in Parliament, “I see propa-
gated principles which will not leave to religion even a tol-
eration, and make Virtue herself less than a name.” In
April, 1774, he made a speech on American taxation, and
he appears to have been the only member of Parliament
who fully comprehended the dangers which threatened the
_American colonies. An intelligent American gentleman,
who was present on this occasion, is said to have exclaimed,
“You have got a most wonderful man here; he under-
stands more of America than all the rest of your House put
together.” In Nov., 1774, Burke represented the city of
Bristol in Parliament, and in Mar., 1775, made an admi-
rable speech in favor of conciliatory measures towards the
American colonies. Fox said of this oration, “Let gentle-
men read this speech by day and meditate upon it by
night; they would there learn that representation was the
sovereign remedy.for every evil.” In 1780 he delivered his
speech “On the Economical Reform,” and in 1782 became
a privy-councillor and paymaster-general of the forces
under the Rockingham ministry. His speech on the “East
India Bill” in Dec., 1783, is esteemed one of his best.
The bill was lost in the House of Lords, although it passed
that of the Commons. Burke retired from office soon after
the accession of Pitt as prime minister, and held no position
afterwards under the government. In Feb., 1785, he
made a speech on the debts of the nabob of Arcot, which,
says Prior, “ was one of those outpourings of a fertile and
vigorous intellect which on an unpromising theme seemed
to combine all that could instruct, dazzle, and even over-
power the reader.” His prosecution of Hastings, the most
arduous enterprise of his life, was commenced in Jan.,
1786. The articles containing the different charges were
so numerous and extensive as to require the attention of
the House for a considerable part of two sessions. After
Sheridan’s speech on the Begum case in Jan., 1787, a com-
mittee of impeachment was formed, and on the 10th of
May, Burke, as chairman of the committee, accused Hast-
ings at the bar of the House of Lords in the name of the
Commons of England. On the 15th of Feb., 1788, Burke
made his memorable speech in Westminster Hall, in the
presence of an immense assembly. Although a verdict of
acquittal was passed in 1795, the noble efforts of Burke
led the way to great reforms in the government of India.
“Never,” says Lord John Russell, “has the great object of
punishment, the prevention of crime, been attained more
completely than by this trial—Hastings was acquitted, but
tyranny, deceit, and injustice were condemned.” In 1790
Burke published his “Reflections on the Revolution in
France,” of which more than 30,000 copies are said to have
been sold within a few months. It was translated into
French, and received with enthusiasm in all parts of
Europe. Soon after this he published “An Appeal from
the New to the Old Whigs,” in which he refutes the charge
brought against him by Fox of having abandoned the
principles of his party. About 1795, Burke received con-
siderable pensions granted at the desire of the king, and
without solicitation on his part or that of his friends.
His acceptance of these well-merited rewards exposed him
to severe attacks upon his character, in reply to which he
wrote his “Letter to a Noble Lord,” which was received
with great favor. Burke's only son, Richard, a young man
of great promise, had died in 1794, and this severe afflic-
tion probably hastened the father’s death, which took place
July 9, 1797. “If we are to praise a man in proportion to his
usefulness,” says Schlegel, “I am persuaded that no task
can be more difficult than to do justice to the statesman and
orator Burke. This man has been to his own country, and
to all Europe, a new light of political wisdom and moral
experience. He corrected his age when it was at its
height of revolutionary frenzy; and without maintaining
any system of philosophy, he seems to have seen farther
into the true nature of society, and to have more clearly
comprehended the effect of religion in connecting indi-
vidual security with national welfare, than any philosopher
BURKE—BURLINGTON.
675
of any preceding age.” A writer in the “London Quar-
terly Review" observes of Burke's speeches on the Stamp
Act, “This was the appropriate start of a man who,
whether as a statesman, a thinker, or an orator, was with-
out an equal. Pitt and Fox were great, but Burke belongs
to another order of beings, and ranks with the Shakspeares,
the Bacons, and the Newtons. . . . By the incessant prac-
tice of composition he learned to embody his conclusions
in a style more grandly beautiful than has ever been
reached by any other Englishman with either the tongue
or the pen" (London Quarterly Review for January and
April, iS58). (See PRIoR, “Life of Burke;” DR. GEO.
CROLY, “Political Life of Edmund Burke;” LoRD JEFFREY,
“Miscellanies.”) J. THOMAS.
Burke (Sir John), a genealogist, born in Ireland in
1786. He published, besides other works, a “Dictionary
of the Peerage and Baronetage of the British Empire”
(1826), often reprinted. He was for some time Ulster King
of Arms. Died in 1848.-His second son, Sir John BER-
NARD BURKE, LL.D., born in 1815, is (1873) Ulster Ring of
Arms, an office which he has held since 1853. He has writ-
ten many works on heraldry and kindred subjects.
Burke (WILLIAM). See APPENDIX.
Burke’s Fork, a township of Floyd co., Va. P. 671.
Burkesville, a post-village, capital of Cumberland co.,
Ky., on the Cumberland River, about 125 miles S. by W.
of Frankfort. It has one weekly newspaper.
Burkesville, a post-village of Nottoway co., Va. It
is situated at the crossing of the Richmond and Danville
and the South Side R. Rs. It has one weekly newspaper.
Burkittsville, a post-village of Petersville township,
Frederick co., Md. Pop. 293.
Bur'Ieigh (WILLIAM Cecil), Lori, an able English
statesman, born at Bourne, in Lincolnshire, in 1520. He
graduated at Cambridge, studied law, and married Mildred,
a daughter of Sir Anthony Cook. In 1548 he was appointed
secretary of state. As he was a Protestant, he resigned
office on the accession of Queen Mary in 1553. He was
one of the few eminent Protestants who escaped from per-
secution in that reign. He was again appointed secretary
of state by Queen Elizabeth in Nov., 1558, and he was
virtually prime minister for forty years from that date. In
1571 he received the title of Baron Burleigh, and in 1572
became lord treasurer. According to Hume, “he was the
most vigilant, active, and prudent minister ever known in
England.” He died in 1598, and left no less than 300
landed estates. “Lord Burleigh,” says Macaulay, “can
hardly be called a great man. He was not one of those
whose genius and energy change the fate of empires.
Nothing that is recorded either of his words or actions in-
dicates intellectual or moral elevation. But his talents,
though not brilliant, were of an eminently useful kind.
He had a cool temper, a sound judgment, great powers of
application, and a constant eye to the main chance.” (See
ARTHUR Collins, “Life of William Cecil,” 1732; MoTI.E.Y.,
“History of the United Netherlands,” chaps. vi., viii., and
xviii.; FROUDE, “History of England,” vol. v.) -
Burleigh (WILLIAM HENRY), an American poet, born
at Woodstock, Conn., Feb. 2, 1812. He was an opponent
of slavery and editor of several journals. In 1848 he pro-
duced a volume of poems. Died Mar. 18, 1871.
Burſleson, a county of the S. central part of Texas.
Area, 976 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the
Brazos River, and on the S. by Yegua Creek. The soil is
fertile. Great numbers of cattle are raised. Wool, cotton,
and corn are staple products. Capital, Caldwell. P. 8072.
Burleson, a post-township of Franklin co., Ala. Pop.
1050.
Burlesque [It. burlesco, from burla, a “jest,” “mock-
ery ºl, a species of ludicrous composition. The Italian
“poesia burlesca ’’ signifies comic or sportive poetry. The
term in French and English is commonly restricted to com-
positions of which the humor consists in a ludicrous mix-
ture of things high and low, as high thoughts clothed in
low expressions, or, vice versé, ordinary or mean topics in-
vested with the artificial dignity of poetic diction. Scar-
ron’s works and Butler’s “ Hudibras” are remarkable ex-
amples of the burlesque.
Burlet/ta, an Italian word, signifies a comic operetta
or musical farce.
Bur/linigame, the county-seat of Osage co., Kan., on
the Atchison Topeka and Santa Fé R. R., 24 miles S. S.W.
of Topeka. Coal is found in abundance here, also a fine
quality of fire-clay. It has four churches and a fine brick
School-house. The surrounding country is unsurpassed in
productiveness. The climate is healthy. It has one news-
paper. Pop. 655; of Burlingame township, 1549.
ED. of OSAGE County “CHRONICLE.”
Burlingame (ANSON), LL.D., an American diplomatist,
born at New Berlin in Chenango co., N.Y., Nov. 14, 1822,
and graduated at Harvard in 1846. He became a lawyer
and a resident of Boston, and represented the fifth district
of Massachusetts in Congress from 1854 to 1860. He acted
with the Republicans, and gained distinction as an orator.
In 1861 he was sent as commissioner to China, and in 1867
was appointed ambassador from China to the U. S. and the
great powers of Europe. Died Feb. 23, 1870.
Burſlington, a county of New Jersey. Area, 600 square
miles. It extends entirely across the State. It is bounded
on the N. W. by the Delaware River, and on the S. E. by
the Atlantic Ocean. It is drained by Little Egg Harbor
River and Rancocus Creek. The surface is mostly level;
the soil is fertile in the N. W. part, and sandy in the other
portions. Grain, cattle, hay, and dairy and garden prod-
ucts are the chief staples. It has manufactures of lumber,
clothing, boots, shoes, etc. It is intersected by the Cam-
den and Amboy R. R. and the New Jersey Southern R. R.
Capital, Mount Holly. Pop. 53,639.
Burlington, a post-village of Boulder co., Col., on the
St. Vrain River, 42 miles N. W. of Denver.
Burlington, a post-township of Hartford co., Conn.
Pop. 1319. -
Burlington, a post-township of Kane co., Ill. P. 919.
Burlington, a post-township of Carroll co., Ind. Pop.
1198.
Burlington, a city and river-port of Iowa, capital of
Des Moines co., is situated on the Mississippi River, 45
miles above Keokuk, 207 miles W. S. W. of Chicago, 250
miles by water above St. Louis, and 296 miles by railroad
E. of Omaha. The river is here a broad, deep, and beauti-
ful stream. The plan of the city is regular, and the houses
are mostly of brick or stone. Many of the private resi-
dences are built on high bluffs which afford extensive views
of river-scenery. This place is the seat of Burlington Uni-
versity. It contains about fourteen churches, three national
banks, and several manufactories. It is the eastern terminus
of the Burlington and Missouri River R. R., and is con-
nected with Chicago by the Chicago Burlington and Quincy
R. R. The Burlington Cedar Rapids and Minnesota. R. R.
connects it with Cedar Rapids and St. Paul. Here occurs
a valuable variety of carboniferous limestone. (See BUR-
LINGTON LIMESTONE.) Burlington is sometimes called the
“Orchard City.” It has two daily, one tri-weekly, one
semi-weekly, and three weekly newspapers. Pop. in 1860,
6706; in 1870, 14,930.
Burlington, a post-village, capital of Coffee co., Kan.,
on the right bank of the Neosho River, and on the Missouri
Kansas and Texas R. R., 28 miles S. E. of Emporia and
65 miles S. of Topeka. It has an abundant water-power, a
national bank, a weekly paper, a public school-house cost-
ing $30,000, and first-class mills. Pop. 960; of Burlington
township, 1600. A. D. BRow N, PUB. of “PATRIOT.”
Burlington, a post-village, capital of Boone co., Ky.,
is 16 miles S. W. of Cincinnati. It has four churches. Pop.
277.
Burlington, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me.
Pop. 553. -
Burlington, a post-township of Middlesex co., Mass.,
has a public library and woollen print-works. Pop. 626.
Burlington, a post-township of Calhoun co., Mich.
Pop. 1485. --
Burlington, a township of Lapeer co., Mich. P. 880.
Burlington, a city of Burlington co., N. J., is on the
Delaware River, nearly opposite Bristol, 20 miles above
Philadelphia and 12 miles S. W. of Trenton. It is on the
Camden and Amboy R. R. The river is here nearly 1 mile
wide, and encloses an island of 300 acres. The city is the
seat of Burlington College (Episcopalian), founded in 1846,
and contains ten churches, a public library, a national
bank, and two weekly newspapers. Pop. 5817; of Bur-
lington township, 1025. -
Burlington, a post-township of Otsego co., N. Y. Pop.
1476. -
Burlington, a township of Licking co., O. Pop. 1061.
Burlington, a post-village in Burlington township,
Bradford co., Pa., 8 miles W. of Towanda. Pop. of town-
ship, 1375. -
Burlington, a city and capital of Chittenden co., Vt.,
is situated on Burlington Bay of Lake Champlain, 40 miles
W. from Montpelier, the capital of the State. It was in-
corporated as a city in 1865, and is the largest place in the
State. Pop. in 1840, 4271; in 1850, 7585; in 1860, 7713;
in 1870, 14,387; in 1873, estimated from registered vote,
17,000. Area of original township, 6 Square miles; about
two-fifths were included in the municipal limits, the rest
{
676 -- BURLINGTON.—BURMAH.
forming a new town called South Burlington. Estimated
value of property in the city (April 1, 1873), $9,307,500;
city and State taxes for 1873, $95,391; city debt, Feb. 1,
1873, bonded and floating, $214,000; expenses of city
government, 1872, $78,000.
The heaviest trade in the city is in lumber. There are
five planing-mills, one of which alone dresses 50,000,000
feet a year, and the whole amount dressed is 8,000,000 or
10,000,000 feet per month. The capital invested is over
$1,000,000, and, including the sales made by firms here of
lumber which goes elsewhere, Burlington is the third mar-
ket in the U. S. for size. There are large quarries of
building-stone, of limestone, and fine marble within or
near the city limits; lime-kilns and brick-yards are in
active operation, and steam marble-mills, machine-shops,
foundries, sash-factories, chair and furniture factories,
paper-mills, and many smaller manufacturing trades, are
thriving. On the N. E. limit of the city the abundant
water-power of the Winooski is utilized for woollen and
cotton mills, flour-mills, machine-shops, chair-factories, etc.
A line of passenger steamers and a large fleet of tugs and
barges ply between Burlington and every port on the lake.
The University of Vermont and State Agricultural Col-
lege is situated here; it was chartered in 1791, has 8 pro-
fessors and an average attendance of 100 students, besides
a flourishing medical department, and ranks as one of the
best institutions in the country. Since 1872 young women
have been admitted to the classical and scientific depart-
ments on the same terms as young men. The college
buildings stand on the crown of the hill on whose side the
city is built, overlooking the lake in a most beautiful and
commanding position. The library and museum are in a
fireproof building, and the third story of the edifice con-
tains an art-gallery. A park of 7 acres lies in front of the
college buildings, and lands of the university in the rear.
The city schools are 14 in number, having 37 teachers and
800 pupils, divided in three grades, besides the high school,
and are under control of a board of commissioners elected
by the people. The high-school building, erected in 1871
at a cost of $20,000, is one of the best in the State. The
cost of maintaining schools in 1872 was $22,726. There
are also two large Roman Catholic schools and an Episco-
pal institute for boys within the city limits, and several
private schools. The churches are—two Congregational,
one each Baptist, Methodist, Episcopal, and Unitarian, and
two Roman Catholic, besides several mission chapels. The
edifices are all good, and most of them new, all but one of
stone or brick; and St. Mary’s (Roman Catholic) cathedral
is one of the finest church edifices in this part of the
country. There are two orphan asylums—one Roman
Catholic, accommodating 60 children, and one Protestant,
with 35 inmates. The chief public buildings are the city
hall, the county court-house (a handsome stone building,
erected in 1872), the county jail, and the U. S. post-office
and custom-house (a large fireproof brick building, erected
in 1858). The banks are the Merchants’ National and
Howard National, united capital $1,100,000, the Burlington
Savings Bank, deposits $214,000, and the Farmers’ and
Mechanics' Trust Company, capital $100,000. The libraries
are the University Library, 15,000 volumes; Young Men's
Association, 2000 volumes; Young Men’s Christian Asso-
ciation, 1000 volumes, and the Fletcher Free Library, to be
under control of the city, and not yet opened, fund $20,000.
There are three newspapers, one daily and weekly, and two
weekly. The Vermont Life and Champlain Mutual Fire
Insurance Companies have their head offices in this city.
The city is supplied with water from the lake, raised by
steam-pumps to a reservoir on the hill, which gives a head of
280 feet; the water-works are under the control of the city,
but the gas-works are the property of a corporation. Some of
the streets are sewered and paved, and $20,000 was appro-
priated by the city council for the street department for
1873. Lakeview Cemetery, opened by the city in 1868, on
the bluff overlooking the lake, is already a beautiful spot,
and Green Mount Cemetery, on the eastern side of the city,
overlooking the valley of the Winooski, a magnificent lo-
eation, contains the monument to Ethan Allen, who was
one of the early settlers and buried here—a shaft of granite
surmounted by a heroic statue of Allen in marble, which
was unveiled with imposing ceremonies July 4, 1873.
Burlington was first settled in 1773, but no permanent
residences were made till the close of the Revolutionary
war, and in 1800 the population was 600. The principal
streets are four rods wide, laid out at right angles, many
of them well shaded with elm and maple trees. The loca-
tion of the city is unequalled in this part of the country,
and the beauty of its scenery unsurpassed anywhere. The
geographical position of the city, midway of the eastern
shore of Lake Champlain, and the facilities for transporta-
tion by rail and water, make the whole valley of the lake
tributary to it in the way of business. Railroads run di-
rect to Boston, Albany, and New York, Montreal, Ogdens-
burg, and the West, while other lines are under construe-
tion to centre here or connect with roads already built.
When the proposed Caughnawaga Ship Canal is completed
Lake Champlain must become a portion of the great high-
way between West and, East, and Burlington a chief place
of transshipment of goods for the Eastern cities and Europe.
B. L. BENEDICT, - -
OF THE CITY DIRECTORY AND “FREE PRESS,”
Burlington, a post-village of Racine co., Wis., on the
Pishtaka or Fox River, and on the Western Union R. R.,
27 miles W. by S. of Racine. It has several factories and
mills, one national and one State bank, and one weekly
paper. Pop. 1589; of Burlington township, 2762.
ED. “BURLINGTON STANDARD.”
Burlington Limestone, a variety of sub-carbon-
iferous magnesian limestone, which derives its name from
IBurlington, Ia., the typical locality where it was first
studied. It also occurs as a surface-rock in Missouri and
Illinois, adjacent to the Mississippi River. It is a valu-
able building-stone, and is peculiarly interesting to natu-
ralists. The upper bed is of a light gray color, and is
nearly pure carbonate of lime. The lower bed contains
more magnesia. “It is,” says A. H. Worthen, “exceed-
ingly rich in fossils, especially Crinoidea, and has afforded
a greater number both of species and individuals than all
the other palaeozoic rocks of this continent combined.”
Bur/mah, Birmah, or Birma, sometimes called
the Burmese Empire or Kingdom of Ava [native
Myamma or Bramma : Chinese Meen-teen], a country of
Farther India, mostly included between lat. 19° and 27° N.
It is bounded on the N. W. by Assam, on the N. by Thibet,
on the E. by China...and the river Salwen, on the S. by the
British province of Pegu, and on the W. by Munnipoor and
Aracan. Area, estimated at 190,500 English square miles.
It is enclosed on several sides by mountain-ranges. The
surface is diversified by high ridges, rolling uplands, and
alluvial basins. The soil is generally fertile, and the cli-
mate in most parts is healthy. The rainy season in the
southern part lasts from May to October, and is followed
by several months of cool, dry, and pleasant weather. It
is intersected by the river Irrawaddy, which divides it into
two nearly equal parts. Burmah is rich in minerals, in-
cluding gold, silver, copper, antimony, lead, tin, iron, mar-
ble, coal, and sulphur. It has valuable mines of rubies
and sapphires, and wells of petroleum. The annual value
of the gems found in Burmah is estimated at about £14,000.
The staple productions of the cultivated soil are rice, maize,
millet, pulse, cotton, indigo, tobacco, yams, and bananas.
Among the indigenous plants are the bamboo, the cocoa-
nut palm, the palmyra palm, the betel, the oak, and the
teak tree, of which last Burmah has inexhaustible for-
ests. The principal wild animals found here are the ele-
phant, rhinoceros, tiger, leopard, and buffalo. The elephant
and buffalo are tamed and employed as domestic animals.
The Burmese belong to that branch of the Mongolian-race
which is characterized by a monosyllabic language. Their
figure is short, squat, and robust; their hair is black,
coarse, and lank; and their complexion is light-brown or
yellowish. They have eyes obliquely placed and lozenge-
shaped faces. A large majority of them profess the relig-
ion of Booddha, to which a great number of pagodas and
temples are dedicated in Burmah. Connected with this
religion is a monastic system and a multitude of monks
bound by vows of poverty and celibacy. Besides the Bur-
mese proper there are a great variety of other peoples,
among which are the SHANs and KARENS (which see). The
government is an hereditary despotism. The Burmese
excel in boatbuilding, and are skilful workers in metals.
They weave cotton fabrics and manufacture lacquered
wares. They export teak-timber, petroleum, gold-leaf,
silver, copper, indigo, tobacco, cotton, horns, and gums.
Capital, Mandelay. The total population is estimated at
4,000,000. -
History.—This empire was formerly much more exten-
sive than it is now. In this region the rival kingdoms of
Ava and Pegu long contended-for mastery. The seat of
government was fixed about 1364 at Ava, which continued
to be the capital for 369 years. The most celebrated mar-
tial king in Burmese history was Alompra, the founder of
the present dynasty of Burmah, who conquered Pegu about
1756 and died in 1760. The empire attained its greatest
extension about 1822, soon after which date the Burmese
were involved in war with the British, who reduced the
limits of the empire by the conquest of Aracan, Martaban,
Pegu, and the Tenasserim provinces. In 1873 the Chinese
troops invaded Northern Burmah and burned some towns.
(See WINTER, “Six Months in Burmah,” 1858; MALCOM,
“Travels in the Burman Empire;” J. W. PAIMER, “The
Golden Dagon,” 1853.) REv1SED BY A. J. SCHEM.
BURMAH, BRITISH-BURNING GLASSES AND BURNING MIRRORS.
677
Burmah, British, a collective term applied to sev-
eral provinces of the Anglo-Indian empire conquered from
the kings of Burmah. These are Aracan, Martaban, Pegu,
and the Tenasserim provinces of Maulmain (or Amherst),
Tavoy, and Mergui. Aracan and the Tenasserim prov-
inces were ceded to the British by a treaty signed in Feb.,
1826, at the end of the first war with Burmah. Pegu and
Martaban were retained as compensation after the war of
1852. The American Baptist missionaries have in British
Burmah one of the most successful missions of modern
times. The area of British Burmah is 93,879 square miles.
Pop. in 1869, 2,392,312. (See ARACAN and PEG.U.)
Bur/mann (PETER), an eminent philologist, was born
at Utrecht July 6, 1668. He became professor of history,
eloquence, and the Greek language at Leyden in 1715. He
edited Horace, Ovid, Virgil, Quintilian, Lucan, and other
classics, and wrote several works, among which is a treatise
“On the Revenues of Rome’” (“De Vectigalibus Populi
Romani,” 1694). His writings are esteemed for their ac-
curate erudition. Died Mar. 31, 1741.
Bur/meister (HERMANN), a German naturalist, born
at Stralsund Jan. 15, 1807, became professor of zoology at
Halle in 1842, and in 1860 director of a museum of natural
history in Buenos Ayres. Among his works are a “Manual
of Entomology” (4 vols., 1832–44) and “The Animals of
Brazil” (2 vols., 1854–56). ,
Bur’nap (GEORGE W.), D.D., born at Merrimack, N. H.,
Nov. 20, 1802, graduated at Harvard in 1824, became in
1828 pastor of a church in Baltimore, and was the author
of numerous works, principally for the defence and ex-
position of the school of Unitarianism to which he belonged.
Died at Philadelphia Sept. 8, 1859. -
Burmes (Sir ALEXANDER), a noted traveller and Orien-
talist, born at Montrose, Scotland, May 16, 1805. He en-
tered the-army of India in his youth, and by his knowledge
of Oriental languages gained a rapid promotion. In 1832
he started from Lahore on an exploring expedition in Cen-
tral Asia, and visited Balkh, Bokhara, Astrābād, Teheran,
etc. Having returned to England in 1833, he published
“Travels into Bokhara.” In 1838 he was sent on a mis-
sion to Cabool, where he passed some years as political
resident. He was murdered there Nov. 2, 1842, by the
Afghan insurgents.
Bur'net, the popular name of two genera of plants,
the Sangwisorba and Poterium, generally referred to the
natural order Rosaceae. The great burnet (Sanguisorba
officinalis) is cultivated in Germany as a forage-plant, and
yields a good crop on poor soils. A similar species grows
wild in North America. The common burnet (Poterium
Sangwisorba) furnishes valuable pasturage for sheep on
the English downs. It is sometimes seen in American
gardens, and is used in Salads.
Burnet, a county in Central Texas. Area, 995 square
miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Colorado River, by
which the southern part of the county is intersected. The
surface is partly hilly; the soil is productive. Good iron
ore, petroleum, and marble abound. The water-power is
great. Cedar timber is plentiful. Cattle, corn, cotton, and
wool are largely produced. Capital, Burnet. Pop. 3688.
Burmet, a village, capital of the above county, is 45
miles N. W. of Austin, and 10 miles E. of the Colorado
River. Pop. 280.
Burnet (GILBERT), F. R. S., an eminent British his-
torian and prelate, born in Edinburgh Sept. 18, 1643. He
became professor of divinity in the University of Glasgow
in 1668, resigned that chair in 1675, and removed to Lon-
don. In 1679 he published the first volume of his “History
of the Reformation in England” (3 vols., 1679–1715). He
refused a bishopric which was offered to him by Charles II.
He was a courageous and able asserter of civil liberty in
the important crisis which preceded the revolution of 1688,
and gained the favor of William III., who appointed him
his chaplain, and in 1689 bishop of Salisbury. Among his
works are a “Life of Sir Matthew Hale’” (1682) and a
“History of his Own Times” (2 vols., 1724–34). Died
Mar. 17, 1715. “The utmost malevolence of faction,” says
Macaulay, “ could not deny that he served his flock with a
zeal, diligence, and disinterestedness worthy of the purest
ages of the Church.” (History of England.)
Burnet (JACOB), LL.D., an American jurist, born at
Newark, N. J., Feb. 22, 1770. He graduated at Princeton
in 1791. He was one of the founders of Cincinnati, whither
he removed in 1796. He became a judge of the supreme
court of Ohio in 1821, and was elected to the Senate of the
U. S. in 1828. He wrote “Notes on the Early Settlement
of the North-west Territory.” Died April 27, 1853.
Bur'nett, a county of Wisconsin, bordering on Min-
nesota. Area, 1100 square miles. It is bounded on the
N. W. by the St. Croix River, and is drained by the Name-
kagon and Shell rivers. The surface is uneven, and partly
covered with forests of pine. Capital, Grantsburg. Pop.
706.
Burnett, a township of Santa Clara co., Cal. Pop. 802.
Burnett, a post-township of Dodge co., Wis. Pop. 981.
Burnett (WALDo IRVING), M.D., a naturalist and mi-
croscopist, born at Southborough, Mass., July 12, 1828. He
wrote, besides other works, “The Cell; its Physiology,
Pathology,” etc. Died July 1, 1854.
Burnett Prizes, The, are two premiums founded by
Mr. Burmett, a merchant in Aberdeen, who for many years
spent £300 annually on the poor. On his death in 1784
he bequeathed his fortune to found the above prizes, as well
as to relieve poor persons and to support a jail-chaplain.in
Aberdeen. He directed the prize-fund to be accumulated
for forty years at a time, and the prizes (not less than
#1200 and £400) to be awarded to the authors of the two
best treatises on the evidence that there is a Being all-
powerful, wise, and good, by whom everything exists;
“ and particularly to obviate difficulties regarding the wis-
dom and goodness of the Deity, and this independent of
written revelation and of the revelation of the Lord Jesus;
and from the whole to point out the inferences most neces-
sary and useful to mankind.” The competition is open to
the whole world, and the prizes are adjudicated by three per-
sons appointed by the trustees, with the ministers of the
Established Church of Aberdeen, and the principals and
professors of King's and Marischal Colleges. On the first
competition in 1815 the judges awarded the first prize,
#1200, to Dr. Wm. L. Brown of Aberdeen for an essay en-
titled “The Existence of a Supreme Creator;” and the
second prize, £400, to the Rev. J. B. Sumner, afterwards
archbishop of Canterbury, for an essay entitled “Records
of Creation.” In 1855 the judges awarded the first prize,
#1800, to the Rev. R. A. Thompson, for an essay entitled
“Christian Theism;” and the second prize, £600, to the
Rev. Dr. John Tulloch of St. Mary’s College, St. Andrew’s,
for an essay on “Theism.” The above four essays have
been published.
Burnett’s Disinfecting Fluid is a strong solution
of chloride of zinc, with a small amount of iron, and when
used it is mixed with water in the proportion of one pint
to five gallons of water. The liquid acts only as a deodori
zer and antiseptic, and does not exhibit the properties of a
true disinfectant. It is of service in preserving dead ani-
mal tissues, as in the dissecting-room and in jars contain-
ing anatomical specimens. It has little action on steel
instruments. When added to sewage water, the chloride
of zinc mainly acts by decomposing the sulphide of am-
monium, forming the sulphide of zinc and chloride of
ammonium, both of which are odorless. It has been ap-
plied to the preservation of timber by a process called
burnettizing. Crewe's disinfectant liquid is the same.
Bur'nettsville, a village of Jackson township, White
co., Ind. Pop. 270.
Bur/ney (CHARLEs), F. R. S., MUs. DR., an English com-
poser, born at Shrewsbury in 1726, was a friend of Dr.
Johnson and Edmund Burke. He wrote, besides other
works, a “General History of Music from the Earliest
Ages” (4 vols., 1776–89), which is highly esteemed, and a
“Life of Handel.” He was the father of Madame d’Arblay.
Died in 1815.
Burney (FRANCEs). See D’ARBLAY, MADAME.
Burn/ham, a village township of Waldo co., Me., at the
junction of the Maine Central and Belfast and Moosehead
Lake R. R.S., 30 miles N. W. of Belfast. It has manufac-
tures of leather and lumber. Pop. 788.
Burnham (HIRAM), an American general of volunteers,
entered the army as colonel Sixth Maine Volunteers, lead-
ing his regiment with daring and ability through the Pen-
insula campaign, at Antietam, Fredericksburg, and Gettys-
burg. Appointed brigadier-general of volunteers 1864,
and in the memorable “Wilderness” campaign of that
year he took a prominent part. His entire military career
was conspicuous for gallantry and coolness; at the battle
of Chapin’s Farm, Sept. 29, 1864, he fell in the noble per-
formance of his duty.
G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Eng’rs.
Burning Glasses and Burning Mirrors, the
names given to glasses or mirrors so formed as to collect the
sun’s rays which fall on them into a point or focus, and
thereby produce intense heat. The rays of light or heat
may be concentrated either by refraction or reflection; in
the former case they must pass through a transparent re-
fracting substance, as glass formed into a proper shape; in
the latter they fall on a concave polished surface of silvered
glass or bright metal.
678
BURNING SPRINGS–BURNS.
The method of exciting heat or producing fire by the
concentration of the sun’s rays was known from remote
antiquity, but the most famous recorded achievement of
this kind is that of Archimedes, who is reported to have
burned by means of mirrors the Roman fleet in the harbor
of Syracuse.
each about six inches square, set fire to planks of beech 150
feet distant, and this with the faint rays of the sun at Paris
in the month of March. .*
In preparing a burning glass, the first thing to be con-
sidered is the figure necessary to collect all the rays into
the smallest possible space. Descartes, in his “Optics,”
showed that a disk of glass convex on the one side and
concave on the other, the convex side being a portion of an
elliptic surface, and the concave a portion of a sphere,
would cause parallel rays falling on its convex side to con-
verge in a single point. But as the practical difficulties of
forming a glass accurately into this shape are insuperable,
both sides are ground into portions of a sphere. In a lens
the focal length depends on the curvature, or the radius of
the sphere, and on the refractive power of the substance
of which the lens is formed.
The proper form for a burning mirror is the parabola,
but as a parabolic curve is exceedingly difficult to obtain
either upon metal or glass, opticians frequently rest con-
tent with a spherical curvature of long focus. Recently,
burning mirrors have been constructed of glass, upon the
curved surface of which pure silver is precipitated by
chemical means. By this plan the curved surface is pro-
duced upon glass, and thus becomes permanent, whilst the
reflection is effected by the polished surface of the silver,
which can be easily renewed from time to time. The focus
of a burning mirror is one-half of the radius of curvature.
Among those who have experimented, in modern times,
upon the effects of burning glasses or mirrors, are reckoned
Baron Napier, the illustrious inventor of the logarithms,
Rircher, Dr. James Gregory, Sir Isaac Newton, and many
others. The most powerful solid lens ever constructed was
the work of Mr. Parker, an ingenious London artist. It was
made of flint glass, was three feet in diameter, 3+ inches
thick at the centre, its focal distance 6 feet 8 inches, the
diameter of the burning focus 1 inch, and its weight 212
pounds. The rays refracted by this lens were received on
a second, the diameter of which in the frame was 13 inches,
and its focal length 29 inches. The diameter of the focus
of the combined lenses was half an inch, consequently, by
the addition of the second lens, the burning power was in-
creased four times. With this lens some of the most re-
fractory substances were fused in a very short space of
time: for example, 10 grains of common slate in 2 seconds;
10 grains of cast iron in 3 seconds; 10 grains of lava in 7
seconds; 10 grains of jasper in 25 seconds, etc. One ac-
count says, “the most infusible metals were instantly
melted and dissipated in vapor.” The difference in the
statements may be reconciled by supposing the circum-
stances attending the use of the glass to be different, as
there is a very great difference in the power of the sun’s
rays at different times, and especially in different countries.
This glass was afterwards carried to China by one of the
officers who accompanied Lord Macartney, and left at
Pekin. A remarkable lens, formed by bending or mould-
ing two plates of glass over a parabolic mould, and filling
the cavity between with ninety quarts of spirits, was con-
structed by Rossini of Gratz, in Styria. The diameter of
the plates was three feet three inches, and they were united
by a strong ring of metal. The whole was mounted on a
heliostat. In its focus a diamond was instantly kindled
and dissipated, and a piece of platinum twenty-nine grains
in weight was melted and thrown into violent ebullition.
This lens now belongs to the French government. (For
detailed information on this subject the reader may con-
sult the article “Burning Glasses” in the “Encyclopædia
Britannica,” 8th edition.)
REVISED BY J. THOMAS.
Burning Springs, a post-township of Wirt co., West
Va. Pop. 1368. -
Burnſley, a market-town of England, in Lancashire,
on the Brun, near its entrance into the North Calder and
20 miles N. of Manchester. It is connected by railway
with Blackburn, Liverpool, and other cities. It has
manufactures of cotton and woollen fabrics, calico-printing
works, brass and iron foundries, machine-shops, tanneries,
and rope-walks. Its prosperity is partly derived from
the collieries in the vicinity. Pop. in 1871, 31,608.
Burnouf (EUGäNE), DR. LIT., an eminent French Ori-
entalist, born in Paris Aug. 12, 1801. He studied the lan-
guages of Persia and India, was admitted into the Academy
of Inscriptions, and became in 1832 professor of Sanscrit
in the College of France. Among his works are a “Com-
mentary on the Yagna, one of the Liturgic Books of
The celebrated Buffon, with 168 mirrors,
Persia” (1834), and an “Introduction to the History of
Booddhism * (1845), which is highly commended. Died
May 28, 1852. (See CHARLEs LENORMANT, “Eugène
Burnouf,” 1852.)
Burns, a post-township of Henry co., III. Pop. 1144.
Burns, a post-township of Shiawassee co., Mich. Pop.
1557. -
Burns, a township of Anoka co., Minn. Pop. 340.
Burns, a post-township of Allegany co., N. Y., on the
Buffalo division of the Erie R. R. It contains Canaseraga
Academy and several mills. Pop. 1340.
Burns, a post-township of La Crosse co., Wis. P. 743.
Burns (FRANCIs), D.D., a colored bishop of the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church, was born in Albany, N.Y., Dec. 5,
1809, was sent as missionary to Liberia, Africa, in 1834,
taught in a school at Cape Palmas, joined the Liberia
Conference in 1838, founded the Monrovia Academy in
1851, was ordained bishop of his denomination, in Liberia,
in 1858, and, after nearly five years of eminent episcopal
service, died in 1863.
Burns (ROBERT), a gifted Scottish poet, was born near
the town of Ayr on the 25th of Jan., 1759. His father was
the son of a farmer, and “was thrown by early misfor-
tunes,” says the poet, “on the world at large, where, after
many years’ wanderings and sojournings, he picked up a
pretty large quantity of observation and experience, to
which I am indebted for most of my little pretensions io
wisdom.” Although his life seems to have been one long
struggle with misfortune, Burns's father was at great pains
to give his children a good education. When he was able
he sent them to school; and not unfrequently when the
day’s work was ended he taught his children himself. “I
owed much,” says Burns, “to an old woman who resided in
the family. . . . She had, I suppose, the largest collection
in the country of tales and songs concerning devils, ghosts,
fairies, brownies, witches, warlocks, enchanted towers, and
other trumpery. This cultivated the latent seeds of
poetry.” Burns was early familiarized with those trials
and hardships to which the poor are so often exposed, and
to which he sometimes alludes with such power and pathos
in his poetry. “My father,” says the poet, “ was advanced
in life when he married; I was the oldest of seven chil-
dren, and he, worn-out with early hardships, was unfit for
labor. . . . We lived very poorly. I was a dexterous
ploughman for my age.” The poet had a robust frame
and active body, as well as a strong intellect and acute sen-
sibilities. He is said to have done at the age of fifteen the
work of a man. In a touching account which his brother
Gilbert wrote of the troubles of their early years, he says:
“I doubt not but the hard labor and sorrow of this period
of his life were in a great measure the cause of that de-
pression of spirits with which Robert was so often afflicted
through his whole life afterwards.”
In the case of Burns, as in that of Sappho, it was love
that taught him song. A little before he reached his
sixteenth year he “first committed the sin of rhyme.” A
“bonnie sweet sonsie lass * had been associated with him
in the labors of the harvest-field. Her singing “made his
heart-strings thrill like an AEolian harp,” and first inspired
him with the idea of writing songs. An irresistible attrac-
tion towards what he calls the “adorable half of the human
species” was perhaps his most remarkable characteristic;
and hence it was as an amatory poet that he was especially
distinguished. Unhappily, this remarkable susceptibility
to the tender passion degenerated, under the influence of
evil company, from its first purity, and led him into illicit
amours, which were the cause of his principal misfortunes.
In proportion as he cast off the restraints of morality, he
seems to have lost his reverence for religion. He was one
day seen, says Lockhart, “at the door of a public-house
holding forth on religious topics to a whole crowd of coun-
try-people, who presently became so shocked with his levi-
ties that they fairly hissed him from the ground.” With
his other faults and vices, intemperance went hand in
hand. But he had too much sense of right, and too much
feeling, to be able to drown altogether the reproving voice
of conscience. He sometimes alluded to his faults in a
manner full of pathos and self-reproach; and he had at .
least the merit of not seeking to defend his errors.
He had formed in 1785 a liaison (which was, according
to the usage of Scotland, virtually a marriage) with Jean
Armour, a person somewhat above his own position in life.
She bore him twins, and although he had previously given
her a written acknowledgment of marriage, her father was
greatly incensed against the poet, so that he determined to
leave Scotland and seek his fortune in the New World.
But before quitting his native country for ever, he resolved
(1786) to publish his poems. The success of the experi-
ment induced him to change his plans. He was encouraged
of his life.
BURNS-BURR.
679
to visit Edinburgh, where he made the acquaintance of
many men at that time distinguished in literature, including
Dugald Stewart and Dr. Blair, besides many others. It
was during Burns's visit to the capital that Scott, then a
very young man, had an opportunity of beholding and
listening to the gifted stranger. He has left a very inter-
esting account of Burns's appearance. He seems to have
been most struck with the eye of the rustic poet. “I never
saw,” says Scott, “such another eye in a human head,
though I have seen the most distinguished men of my
time. It was large and of a dark cast,” and “literally
glowed when he spoke with feeling or interest.” “His
conversation expressed perfect self-confidence, without the
slightest presumption.” r
Among men of rank who interested themselves in the
poet, Lord Glencairn, was especially prominent. Burns
always remembered his kindness with the most heartfelt
gratitude, and afterwards dedicated to his memory the
beautiful and touching lines entitled the “Lament for
James, earl of Glencairn.” Soon after his visit to Edin-
burgh he published (1787) a new edition of his poems. In
1788 he openly declared his marriage with Jean Armour,
and about this time was appointed an officer of the excise,
with a salary of fifty pounds a year; it was subsequently
increased to seventy-five pounds. His intemperate habits,
which had been aggravated by the excitement and irregu-
larities of his recent life in Edinburgh, and his Subsequent
pecuniary distresses, gradually gained a great ascendency
over him, but rarely if ever to the extent of rendering him
incapable of performing the duties of his office. He re-
moved in 1791 to Dumfries, where he passed the remainder
He died July 21, 1796. Nearly twenty years
after his death a splendid mausoleum was erected to his
memory in the churchyard at Dumfries, whither his remains
were removed on the 5th of June, 1815. (See LOCKHART's
“Life of Burns,” 1828; CURRIE’s “Life of Burns,” prefixed
to the “Correspondence” of the poet; A. CUNNINGHAM,
“Life and Land of Robert Burns,” 1840; CARLYLE, “Mis-
cellanies;” also F. G. HALLECK's and THOMAS CAMPBELL’s
beautiful lines to Burns's memory.) -
- J. THOMAs.
Burns (WILLIAM W.), GENERAL, was born in Ohio, and
graduated at West Point in 1847. He became a brigadier-
general of volunteers in 1861, major-general volunteers in
I862, and brevet brigadier-general U. S. A. in 1865. He
served in the Army of the Potomac until 1863.
Burns and Scaids of the body differ in the mode of
application of the excessive heat which is the cause of in-
jury—burns arising from the application of a hot solid body
or flame, and scalds from hot water or steam. Severe burns
are often fatal, especially to children; quite as much, per-
haps, from the shock which attends them as from any appre-
ciable injury. Burns which are not fatal frequently leave
extensive scars, which often have a tendency to contract in
such a way as to lead to frightful disfiguration. When the
clothes take fire, the flames should be extinguished if pos-
sible by wrapping in a blanket or rug, that being usually
the most available means at hand. In all cases the clothes
should be removed with great care, so as not to remove the
cuticle with them. If cold water be agreeable to the pa-
tient, it may be cautiously applied. Pain and shock may
often be relieved by opiates or stimulants. . The injured
surfaces are to be dressed with carron oil (a mixture of olive
oil and lime-water), with collodion, with oiled cotton, or
they may simply have flour dredged over them. When the
surface takes on an unhealthy action and granulations are
excessive, a weak solution of nitrate of silver or other local
stimulant may produce good results.
REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Burn'side, a post-township of Lapeer co., Mich. Pop.
II 73.
Burnside, a township of Goodhue co., Minn. Pop. 396.
Burnside, a township of Centre co., Pa. Pop. 386.
Burnside, a post-township of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop.
1624. -
Burnside, a township of Trempealeau co., Wis. P. 542.
Burnside (AMBRosB EveRETT), an American officer and
governor, born May 23, 1824, at Liberty, Ind., graduated
at West Point 1847, and as lieutenant of artillery served in
war with Mexico 1847–48; at various posts 1848–53; on
frontier duty in New Mexico 1849–50, engaged with Jaca-
rillo Apaches (wounded); and with Mexican boundary com-
mission 1851–52. Resigned Oct. 2, 1853. Manufacturer at
Bristol, R. I., 1853–58, of breech-loading rifles, which he
had invented; cashier of land department Illinois Central
R. R. Company 1858–59; and treasurer Illinois Central
R. R. Company 1860–61. In the civil war, as colonel
Rhode Island three-months’ volunteers, served in Maj.-
Gen. Patterson’s operations about Cumberland, Md., and
in the Manassas campaign 1861, engaged at Bull Run.
Appointed brigadier-general U. S. volunteers Aug. 6, 1861,
and promoted to major-general May 18, 1862, serving in
organizing the coast division and in command of depart-
ment of North Carolina 1862, engaged at Roanoke Island,
Newbern, Camden, and Fort Macon; in command of forces
(Ninth army corps) at Newport News and Fredericksburg
1862; in Maryland campaign, engaged at South Mountain
and Antietam, in command of left wing; in general charge
of Harper's Ferry 1862; in command of Army of Potomac
Nov. 7, 1862, to Jan. 28, 1863, defeated at Fredericksburg;
in command of department of Ohio 1863, engaged against
Morgan’s raiders, capture of Cumberland Gap, occupation
of East Tennessee, in several actions and siege of Knox-
ville; in command of Ninth corps in Richmond campaign
1864, engaged at Wilderness, Spottsylvania, North Anna,
Tolopotomy, Bethesda Church, and Petersburg, including
Mine assault. Resigned April 15, 1865, from volunteer
service. Civil engineer 1865–66; president of Cincinnati
and Martinsville R. R. Company since 1865; of Rhode
Island Locomotive Works since 1866, and of Indianapolis
and Vincennes R. R. Company since 1867; and governor
of the State of Rhode Island 1866–71.
- GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Burns'ville, a post-township of Dallas co., Ala. Pop.
497. jº
Burnsville, a township of Dakota co, Minn. Pop. 361.
Burnsville, a township of Anson co., N. C. Pop. 1038.
Burnsville, a post-village, the capital of Yancey co.,
N. C., 120 miles W. of Lexington.
Burnt Corn, a post-township of Monroe co., Ala. Pop.
959.
Burnt Offerings. See SACRIFICE.
Burnt Prairie, a post-township of White co., III.
Pop. 2186.
Burnt Sien/na, a fine orange-red pigment, transpar-
ent and permanent, obtained by burning the ferruginous
ochreous earth called terra di Sienna. It is used both in
oil-painting and painting with water-colors. Mixed with
Prussian blue, it produces a beautiful green.
Burnt Swamp, a township of Robeson co., N. C. Pop.
1511. .
Burnt Um/ber, a pigment of a russet-brown color, is
semi-transparent, mixes well with other pigments, and
dries quickly. It is prepared by burning umber, an ochre-
ous earth first discovered in Umbria, Italy.
Bur Oak (the Quercus macrocarpa), a species of oak of
medium size found in the U. S., principally E. of the Mis-
sissippi. It is also called over-cup oak and mossy-cup oak.
Its timber is valuable.
Burr (AARON), father of the Vice-President, was born at
Fairfield, Conn., Jan. 4, 1716, graduated at Yale in 1735,
licensed to preach in 1736, settled over the Presbyterian
church in Newark, N. J., in 1738, chosen president of the
College of New Jersey in 1748, and died Sept. 24, 1757.
In 1752 he married Esther, daughter of the elder President
Edwards. She died April 7, 1758, in the 27th year of her
age. They left two children—a daughter, who married
Hon. Tapping Reeve, chief-justice of the supreme court
of Connecticut, and a son, Aaron, noticed below. He
was both a scholarly and an eloquent man. He published
a Latin Grammar, 1752, known as “The Newark Gram-
mar,” a pamphlet on “The Supreme Divinity of our Lord
Jesus Christ,” reprinted in 1791, and several discourses.
Burr (AARON), born at Newark, N.J., Feb. 6, 1756, was
a son of the preceding and a grandson of Jonathan Edwards.
He graduated at Princeton in 1772, joined the Provincial
army at Cambridge, Mass., in 1775, served as a private
soldier, and afterwards as aide to Montgomery on the
Quebec expedition, served on the staffs of Arnold, Wash-
ington (whom he disliked), and Putnam, becoming a lieu-
tenant-colonel, and commanding a brigade at Monmouth.
He resigned from the army by reason of ill-health in 1789.
He practised law at Albany in 1782 and in New York City
in 1783, and became attorney-general of New York in 1789.
He was a Republican U. S. Senator 1791–97. In 1800 he
and Jefferson each had 73 electoral votes for the office of
President of the U. S. The choice was thus left to Con-
gress, which, on the thirty-sixth ballot, chose Jefferson for
President and Burr for Vice-President. In 1804 he mor-
tally wounded in a duel his rival Alexander Hamilton, and
in consequence lost greatly in political and social influence,
and soon after embarked in a wild attempt upon Mexico
and, as was asserted, upon the South-western territories of
the U. S., thereby involving in ruin his friend Blennerhas-
sett. He was in 1807 tried at Richmond, Va., on a charge
of treason, but was acquitted. To escape his creditors he
retired to Europe for a time, but returned to New York in
and fruit.
680
1812, and again practised law. Died Sept. 14, 1836. Burr was
a man of much ability and very brilliant and popular talents,
but his influence was destroyed by his unscrupulous politi-
cal acts and his grossly immoral conduct in private life.
(See his “Life,” by M. L. DAvis, 1836–37; by JAMES PAR-
Tox, 1857.) *
Burr (Exoch FITCH), D. D., a kinsman of President
Burr of the College of New Jersey, was born at Greens
Farms, Fairfield, Conn., Oct. 21, 1818, graduated at Yale
in 1839, spent several years in New Haven in scientific and
other studies, became greatly broken in health, obtained
partial relief by a year of foreign travel, and was settled
over the Congregational church in Lyme, Conn., in 1850.
After nearly twenty years of secluded and patient study,
his reputation was suddenly made by several works of
marked ability. He has published “A Treatise on the
Application of the Calculus to the Theory of Neptune,”
1848, “Ecce Coelum,” 1867, “Pater Mundi,” 1870, “Ad
Fidem,” 1871, “Doctrine of Evolution,” 1873, “A Song of
the Sea” (an illustrated poem), 1873, and “Pasee Agnos,
or What I have to Say to the Children,” 1873.
Burrampooter. See BRAHMAPOOTRA.
Bur’rell, a township of Decatur co., Ia. Pop. 852.
Burrell, a township of Armstrong co., Pa. Pop. 964.
Burrell, a township of Indiana, co., Pa. Pop. 1374.
Burrell, a post-township of Westmoreland co., Pa.
Pop. 1819.
Burria/ma, a town of Spain, in the province of Cas-
tellon de la Plana, on the Rio Seco, near the Mediterranean,
8 miles S. of Castellon de la Plana. It exports wine, oil,
Pop. about 6200. *
Bur'rill (ALExANDER. M.), born about 1807, graduated
at Columbia, College with the highest honors in 1824, studied
law with Chancellor Kent, and published a number of legal
works, including a “Law Dictionary.” Died at Kearney,
N. J., Feb. 7, 1869.
Burrill (JAMEs), LL.D., born in Providence, R. I.,
April 25, 1772, graduated at Brown University in 1788,
was called to the bar in 1791, and attained eminence. He
was attorney-general of Rhode Island (1797–1813), chief-
justice of the State supreme court (1816), U. S. Senator
(1817–20), besides holding other important offices. Died
Dec. 25, 1820. -
Bur'rillville, a post-township of Providence co., R. I.
It has numerous manufactures, and a national bank at
Pascoag village. Pop. 4674.
Bur'ritt, a post-township of Winnebago co., Ill. P. 991.
Bur'ritt (ELIHU), a reformer and linguist, called THE
LEARNED BLACKSMITH, was born in New Britain, Conn.,
Dec. 8, 1811. He worked for many years at the trade of
a blacksmith, and became a self-taught master of many
ancient and modern languages. As a public lecturer he
advocated temperance and peace in the U. S. and in Eng-
land. Among his works are “Sparks from the Anvil”
(1848) and “Thoughts on Things at Home and Abroad”
(1854).
Burr Oak. See BUR OAK.
Burr Oak, a township of Mitchell co., Ia. Pop. 425.
Burr Oak, a post-township of Winneshiek co., Ia.
Pop. 960.
Burr Oak, a township of Doniphan co., Kan.
1015.
Burr Oak, a post-village and township of St. Joseph
co., Mich. Pop. of village, 724; of township, 1911.
Bur’roughs (GEORGE), a victim of the witchcraft de-
lusion, graduated at Harvard College in 1670, and was a
preacher in Salem, Mass., in 1681. He soon after went to
Falmouth (now Portland), Me., where he remained until
the Indians sacked the town in 1690; returning to Salem,
he was accused in 1692 of witchcraft, placed on trial, and,
owing to the infatuation then prevailing, was declared
guilty of exercising diabolical powers, and executed Aug.
19, 1692. At the scene of execution he declared his inno-
cence, his appeal moving the spectators to tears; and
though he repeated the Lord’s Prayer, which no witch was
supposed to be able to do without mistake, he was doomed
to suffer.
Burroughs (STEPHEN), a famous adventurer, the son
of a Congregational minister of Hanover, N. H., was born
in 1765, and early became noted for mischievous conduct.
When fourteen years old he enlisted in the Revolutionary
army, deserted, and entered Dartmouth College, which he
soon left to serve on a privateer. He became a ship's sur-
geon and schoolmaster, and under an assumed name was
for a time minister of the church at Pelham, Mass. He was
soon convicted of passing counterfeit money, and was con-
fined at Northampton, Mass., in irons, but set fire to the
Pop.
BURR—BURSLEM.
ºs---sº
jail, and was removed to Castle William (now Fort Inde-
pendence) in Boston harbor, whence he escaped, but was
retaken. After his sentence was served out he again be-
came a counterfeiter in Canada, but reformed, and was for
several years an exemplary Roman Catholic instructor of
youth. He appears to have always possessed engaging
and popular qualities. He published a remarkable auto-
biography in two volumes. Died at Three Rivers, Canada,
Jan. 28, 1840.
Bur’rowing Owl (Striæ cunicularia or Athene cunic-
wlaria), called also the Coquimbo Owl, is a remark-
able bird, which, “ disdaining all the traditions of its fam-
ily,” hunts for its prey (consisting chiefly of beetles and
other insects) in broad daylight, facing the glare of the
noonday sun without any inconvenience. It is a small,
#####-- /
M% ºf
lively bird, and is found in many parts of America, being
especially abundant beyond the Mississippi, and inhabit-
ing the same localities as the marmot (or prairie dog),
whose dwelling it often shares, the rattlesnake sometimes
making the third member of this singular family. On the
Pacific slope a green snake (Bascanion) makes a fourth
member of this group. Although the Coquimbo owl pre-
fers to dwell in the holes already excavated by the marmot,
it will, if obliged to do so, dig burrows for itself; but these
are not so deep nor so neatly made as those of its friends
and neighbors the prairie dogs.
Bur’rows (WILLIAM), an American naval officer, born
near Philadelphia Oct. 6, 1785. He entered the navy at
the age of fourteen and served on the Barbary coast; on
the outbreak of war with Great Britain (1812), while on
his way to the U. S., he was taken prisoner. He reached
home in June, 1813, and immediately resumed his duty.
He commanded the brig Enterprise in an engagement with
the British brig Boxer off Portland, Me., Sept. 5, 1813,
during which he was mortally wounded. He lived, how-
ever, long enough to receive the surrender of the British
vessel. His remains were interred in Portland by the side
of the commander of the Boxer, who was also killed in
the same action.
Burr'stone, or Buhrstone, a silicious rock contain-
ing small cells, which give it a roughness of surface adapt—
ing it for millstones. It is a sedimentary rock, and its
cavities are often produced by the removal, through solu-
tion, of its calcareous fossil shells. Burrstone occurs in
several geological formations. That which comes from
Paris is eocene. The Alabama burrstone is of the same
age. That of Ohio, West Virginia, etc. is of the carbon-
iferous age. There are different varieties; those in which
the cells are small and regularly distributed are most es-
teemed. Good burrstone is found in Wales, Scotland, Ger-
many, and Italy, also in Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Caro-
lina, and Alabama, but the finest stones are obtained from
La Ferte-sous-Jouarre, near Paris. It is not unusual to
form millstones of pieces of burrstone, bound together by
iron hoops. The stone is found in beds or detached masses.
It is cut out into the form of a cylinder; around this
grooves are cut at the intended thickness of the millstones;
into these grooves wooden wedges are driven, and water is
thrown upon the wedges, which, causing the wood to swell,
splits the cylinder into the slices required. Millstones are
not always made of burrstone, but sometimes of silicious
gritstones, of sandstone, and even of granite. Burr-mill-
stones are extremely durable. *
Burs’lem, a market-town of England, in Staffordshire,
2% miles N. W. of Newcastle-under-Line, on an eminence
near the Trent Canal. The occupation of the inhabitants
is earthenware manufacture, and it is the principal place
in the district called the Potteries. Pop. 17,821.
G
*
º ºgº
r—



BURSONS-BUSHIRE.
681
Bur’sons, a township of Randolph co., Ala. Pop. 1214.
Burt, a county of Nebraska, bordering on Iowa. Area,
500 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Missouri
River, and intersected by Logan's Creek. The surface is
undulating; the soil is fertile. Grain and wool are raised.
Capital, Tekama. Pop. 2847. t
Burt, a township of Cheboygan co., Mich. Pop. 72.
Burt (WILLIAM A.), born in Worcester, Mass., June 13,
1792, became a surveyor of Erie co., N.Y., and in 1824 re-
moved to Michigan, surveyed Northern Michigan (1840–47),
introducing important improvements in surveying. At
the World’s Fair in London, 1851, he obtained a medal for
his solar compass. He was for a time a judge in one of
the Michigan State courts, and one of the originators of
the canal at Sault Ste. Marie. Died Aug. 18, 1858.
Burſton, a post-township of Adams co., Ill. Pop. 1423.
Burton, a township of McHenry co., Ill. Pop. 218.
Burton, a township of Genesee co., Mich. Pop. 1667.
Burton, a post-village, capital of Sunbury co., New
Brunswick, is on the St. John’s River, about 45 miles by
land N. N. W. of St. John’s.
Burton, a post-township of Geauga, co., O. Pop. 1004.
Burton (ASA), D. D., was born at Stonington, Conn.,
Aug. 25, 1752, graduated at Dartmouth College in 1777,
and on Jan. 19, 1779, was settled over the Congregational
church in Thetford, Vt., where he died May 1, 1836. He
was the champion of the so-called “Taste scheme,” in op-
position to the “Exercise scheme’’ of Dr. Emmons, and
conducted the controversy with great ability. Besides
occasional sermons, he published, in 1824, a volume of
“Essays on Some of the First Principles of Metaphysics,
Ethics, and Theology.”
Burton (John HILL), LL.D., F. R. S. E., a Scottish
historian and advocate, born at Aberdeen Aug. 22, 1809.
He published, besides other works, “The Life and Corre-
spondence of David Hume’” (2 vols., 1846), “Political and
Social Economy” (1849), and “The History of Scotland
from Agricola’s Invasion to the Revolution of 1688° (1867),
which is highly esteemed.
Burton (RICHARD FRANCIs), an eminent English trav-
eller, born in Norfolk in 1821. Having served many years
in the Indian army, he published in 1851. “Sindh, and the
Races that inhabit the Valley of the Indus.” Disguised
as a Mussulman, he performed a perilous exploration of
Arabia in 1853, and published a “Personal Narrative of a
Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah '' (3 vols., 1856).
Among his other works are “The Lake Regions of Central
Africa,” (1860) and “The Highlands of Brazil” (2 vols.,
1869).
Burton (ROBERT), an English clergyman, born at
Lindley, in Leicestershire, Feb. 8, 1576, was educated at
Oxford. He became rector of Segrave. in 1628. He was
author of a quaint and popular work entitled “The Amat-
omy of Melancholy; what it is, with all the Kinds, Causes,
Symptoms, Prognostics, and several Cures of it: Philo-
sophically, Medicinally, Historically opened and cut up,
by Democritus Junior ’’ (1621). It is an amusing medley
of quotations and reflections. Died Jan., 1640.
Burton (WILLIAM Eva Ns), a comedian and writer, born
in London in Sept., 1802. He acted with distinguished
success both in England and America. While in England
he wrote a drama, “ Ellen Wareham,” which for a time
enjoyed a great popularity. He compiled the “Cyclo-
paedia of Wit and Humor.” He was also very successful
as a manager. He built the National Theatre in Philadel-
phia, and in New York purchased Palmo's Opera-house,
and afterwards the Metropolitan Theatre on Broadway.
Died in New York Feb. 10, 1860. -
Burton-on-Trent, a town of England, in Stafford-
shire, on the river Trent, 11 miles by rail S. W. of Derby.
The Trent is here crossed by a stone bridge of thirty-six
arches, which was built before the Norman conquest, and
is 1545 feet long. Burton has large breweries of celebrated
ale; also iron-works and manufactures of cotton goods. It
is on the Grand Trunk Canal. Pop. 13,671.
Burſtonville, a post-village of Charleston township,
Montgomery co., N. Y., on Schoharie Creek. Pop. 160.
Burt'scheid, or Borcette, a town of Rhenish Prus-
sia, about half a mile from Aix-la-Chapelle, of which it is
properly a suburb. Here are warm sulphur springs and
manufactures of woollen cloths and cassimeres. Pop. in
1871, 10,079.
Bu’ry, a manufacturing town of England, in Lancashire,
on the river Irwell, 10 miles by rail N. W. of Manchester.
It is on a railway which connects it with Bolton and Liv-
erpool. It contains more than twenty churches and dis-
senting chapels, several public libraries and literary insti-
*
tutions. Here are important manufactures of cotton and
Woollen goods, machinery, and paper, also calico-printing
works and dye-works. Mines of coal and quarries of good
freestone have been opened in the vicinity. Bury returns
one member to Parliament. The eminent statesman Sir
Robert Peel was born near Bury. Pop. of the parliamentary
borough in 1871, 41,517. -
Burying Beetles are certain insects of the order
Coleoptera and family Sylphidae, famous for their valuable
habits of interring the bodies of dead animals. When the
carcass of a mouse or other small animal is found, several
of them collect around it, and by digging the earth from
beneath gradually sink it several inches below the surface.
In it the female deposits her eggs, and when the larvae are
hatched, they find themselves in the midst of suitable food.
Bury St. Edmunds, or St. Edmundsbury, an
ancient borough of England, in the county of Suffolk, is
finely situated on the river Larke, 26 miles by rail N. W.
of Ipswich and 95 miles by rail N. E. of London. It is
well built and remarkably clean. It has a botanic garden,
a guildhall, a fine Gothic church (St. Mary’s), a celebrated
grammar-school founded in 1550, and some remains of a
large Benedictine abbey (505 feet by 212), which was found-
ed by Canute, and became the richest (except one) in
England. Here is an old belfry or quadrangular tower
about eighty-five feet high, which is one of the finest re-
mains of Saxon architecture extant in Britain. Parliaments
were held here in 1272, 1296, and 1446. Bury has a large
trade in wool, butter, grain, and cheese. Sir Nicholas Bacon
was born here. Pop. in 1871, 14,928.
Bus’ becq, or Boushecq (AUGIER GHISLEN), [Lat.
Bugbequivs], an eminent Flemish scholar and traveller,
born at Commines in 1522. He was employed on several
important diplomatic missions, and was sent as ambassador
from the emperor Ferdinand to Solyman II. of Turkey.
He wrote a valuable account of this embassy, entitled
“Legationis Turcicae Epistolae Quatuor ’’ (1589). Died Oct.
28, 1592.
Bus’by (Dr. RICHARD), a famous English schoolmaster,
born at Lutton, Northamptonshire, Sept. 22, 1606. He was
head-master of Westminster School for about fifty-five years
(1640–95), was a very successful teacher, and a strict dis-
ciplinarian. He is said to have educated a larger number
of eminent men than any other teacher who ever lived.
Died April 6, 1695.
Biisch'ing (ANTON FRIEDRICH), an eminent German
geographer, born in Schaumburg-Lippe Sept. 27, 1724.
He became in 1761 minister of a Protestant congregation
in St. Petersburg, and in 1766 removed to Berlin, where he
was employed as director of a gymnasium. He published
a “Description of the Earth '' (1754), which was the most
complete work on geography that had then appeared; also
a “Magazine for History and Geography” (25 vols., 1767–
93). Died May 28, 1793.
Busen/to [Gr. TIvéoùs; Lat. Buacentum], a river of Italy,
in the province of Salerno, empties into the Gulf of Busento
at the city of Policastro. Upon the death of Alaric, the
Visigoth king, his followers turned the course of the river,
and after having buried him, again led the river into its old
course, thus covering all trace of Alaric's grave from the
eyes of his enemies.
Bush (GEORGE), a theologian and biblical scholar, was
born at Norwich, Vt., June 12, 1796, graduated at Dart-
mouth College in 1818, at Princeton Theological Seminary
in 1821, in the same class with Albert Barnes, and from
1824 to 1829 was pastor of a Presbyterian church in In-
dianapolis, Ind. He became in 1831 professor of Hebrew
and Oriental literature in the University of New York, and
was converted to the doctrines of Swedenborg in 1847.
Among his works are a “Life of Mohammed” (1832), a
“Hebrew Grammar” (1835), and “Bible Commentaries”
(8 vols., 1840 et seq.). Died Sept. 19, 1859.
Bush Creek, a township of Wayne co., Ill. P. 1470.
Bush Creek, a twp. of Gasconade co., Mo. Pop. 566.
Bush Creek, a township of Highland co., O. P. 1601.
Bush'el [Fr. boisseau], an English measure of capacity,
containing eight gallons or four pecks. Each gallon holds
ten pounds avoirdupois of distilled water, and measures
277.274 cubic inches; consequently the imperial bushel
contains eighty pounds of distilled water, and is equal to
2218.192 cubic inches. The old Winchester bushel con-
tains 2150.42 cubic inches. The State of New York, by
statute of 1829, adopted the imperial bushel, but in the
revised statutes of 1851 this was abolished, and the Win-
chester bushel substituted. -
Bushire, or Aboo-shehr, a seaport of Persia, on the
Persian Gulf, about 120 miles W. S.W. of Sheeraz; lat.
29° N., lon. 50° 50' E. It is at the N. extremity of a sandy
682
peninsula, and is the principal commercial emporium on the
coast of Persia. The anchorage, which is the best on the
coast, consists of an outer harbor, exposed to the N. W.
winds, and a safe inner harbor. It has a large trade with
British India, from which it imports rice, indigo, sugar,
and English cotton goods. The chief articles of export are
raw silk, shawls, horses, carpets, silk goods, grain, Sheeraz
wine, pearls, dried fruits, etc. Pop. about 18,000.
Bush’kill, a township of Northampton co., Pa. P. 1901.
Bush’ men, or Bosjesmans, a name given to some
roaming tribes of savages who live in Southern Africa,
along the Orange River. They are similar to the Hotten-
tots, are very diminutive in stature, and of a dark-brown
complexion. They build no houses and have no tents. They
are said to be malicious and intractable.
Bush'nell, a city of McDonough co., Ill., at the junction
of the Chicago Burlington and Quincy, the Toledo Peoria
and Warsaw, and the Rockford Rock Island and St. Louis
R. R.s., 60 miles W. of Peoria, 70 miles N. E. of Quincy,
and 194 S. W. of Chicago. It has one mational bank, four
hotels, good schools, a publishing-house, several manufac-
tories, and a good supply of timber, coal, and excellent
water. It is in a fine, high, and healthy prairie region, and
has two weekly papers. Pop. 2003; of Bushnell township,
exclusive of the city, 578. ED. of “BUSHNELL RECORD.”
Bushnell, a post-township of Montcalm co., Mich.
Pop. 1266.
Bushnell (HoRACE), D. D., a Congregational clergy-
man, was born at Litchfield, Conn., April 14, 1802, gradu-
ated at Yale College in 1827, was tutor from 1829 to 1831,
and was settled over the North church in Hartford, Conn.,
from 1833 to 1859, when the failure of his health compelled
him to resign his pastorate, though he was still able to do
literary work and preach occasionally. He is distinguished
for the originality and boldness of his thinking, and for the
brilliancy and vigor of his style. Among his published
works are a Phi Beta Kappa oration in 1837 on “The
Principles of National Greatness,” “Christian Nurture”
(1847), “God in Christ” (1849), “Nature and the Super-
natural” (1858), “The Vicarious Sacrifice” (1865; revised
in 1873).
Bush/whackers (in the language of our late civil war)
were those men who rarely or never wore a uniform, and
claimed to be peaceful farmers or herdsmen when in pres-
ence of a superior hostile force, but had firearms concealed
at a convenient distance, and did not
scruple to use them on any opportunity
to pick off a soldier from an ambush
while he was moving in fancied secur-
ity. Bushwhackers were especially
murderous in Missouri, and were often
treated, when captured, with unrelent-
ing severity.
Bush’y, a township of Saline co.,
III. Pop. 1040.
Bushy Fork, a post-township of
Person co., N. C. Pop. 1425.
Busi’ris [Gr. Boiſoripts], in Greek
mythology, a fabulous personage, Sup-
posed to have been a son of Neptune,
and a king of Egypt, who sacrificed all
the foreigners who entered his domin-
ions, and was killed by Hercules.
Bus/kim [Lat. cothurnw8], a cover-
ing for the leg or for the ankle and foot;
a shoe reaching up to the middle of the
calf and tightly laced. The word bus-
kin is used by English writers as a
translation of cothurnus, which was a
high shoe worn by ancient tragic actors,
and had thick cork soles. The term is
also used to denote the tragic drama or
tragic style, having been used in con-
tradistinction to soccus, a sock or flat-
soled shoe worn by comedians.
Bus'seron, a post-township of
Enox co., Ind. Pop. 1283.
Bus'sey (BENJAMIN), born at Can-
ton, Mass., Mar. 1, 1757, served in the º ºf
Revolutionary army at Burgoyne's cap- §
ture. He was a silversmith of Ded- N -
ham, Mass., and afterwards a very suc- Š-ºš X^\xºiſ,
cessful merchant of Boston. Died Jan. " .7%%z.
13, 1842, leaving $350,000 to Harvard
University, half to found the Bussey
School of Agriculture, and half to
Divinity Schools.
sustain the Law and
BUSHKILL–BUSTARD.
Bus/su Palm (Manicaria saccifera), a palm growing
in the tidal swamps of the Amazon, the only known species
of its genus. The stem is ten to fifteen feet high, curved
and deeply ringed. The leaves are undivided, and are the
largest of the kind produced by any known palm, being
often thirty feet long and four or five feet wide. The leaves
make excellent and durable thatch, being split down the
midrib, and laid obliquely on the rafters, so that the furrows
formed by the veins lie in a vertical direction, and serve as
gutters to carry off the water. The spathe is used by the
Indians as a bag, and the larger ones to make caps.
Bust [It. busto; Fr. buste], a sculptured representation
of the head and upper part of the human body. The ear-
liest busts formed by the Greeks were probably heads of
Mercury, which, when elevated on quadrangular blocks of
stone, received the name of Hermae. These blocks were
afterwards frequently surmounted by representations of
other divinities; and they gradually assume more of the
human form, but they still were called Hermae even after
Alexander's time, when busts began to be used. for por-
traiture in Greece. During the learned period of Greece,
which commenced with Aristotle, portrait-busts formed an
important department of art. The artists of this period
exhibited remarkable ability in expressing the character.
We have well-authenticated busts of Socrates, Plato, and
other philosophers; of Isocrates and Demosthenes; of
Athenian statesmen and distinguished, women. In Rome,
representations of the kings and persons of distinction be-
longing to the earlier period were probably made from the
images of his ancestors which every patrician preserved,
and which were commonly madé of wax. These were often
fanciful representations. The earliest well-authenticated
Roman bust which we possess is probably that of Scipio
Africanus the Elder, but we possess many examples of
later date. In recent times portrait busts constitute an im-
portant department of plastic art.
Bustaman’te (often incorrectly written Busta-
mente), (ANASTASIUs), M.D., a patriotic Mexican gen-
eral, born in 1782. He was a physician by occupation.
He obtained power as president of Mexico in 1830, was
banished by Santa Anna about 1833, and was elected
president in 1837. He was again banished in 1841. Died
in 1851.
Bus/tard (Otis), a genus of birds which belongs to the
order Cursores. They have three toes, which are all di-
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Little European Bustard.
rected forward, long naked legs, and bills of moderate
length. They are mostly inhabitants of open plains, to
•º








BUSTI—BUTILER.
which all their habits are adapted. Although they are
capable of flying, they often endeavor to escape from danger
by running. The great bustard (Otis tarda) is the largest
of European land-birds, and sometimes weighs thirty
pounds. It is found in the eastern and southern parts of
Europe, and abounds in the open plains or steppes of Tar-
tary. The plumage is of a pale chestnut color on the upper
parts, finely variegated with black. The wings are diver-
sified with black and white, and the tail is tipped with
white. The male has on each side of the chim or neck a
tuft of feathers nearly nine inches long, under which is a
spot of naked skin, and in the throat a sac or pouch capa-
ble of holding three or four pints of water. Their flesh is
highly esteemed as food. The little bustard (Otis tetraw)
is common in Southern Europe and Northern Africa, and
is not half so large as the Otis tarda. South Africa pro-
duces a species called Otis Kori, or Kori bustard, which is
five feet high or more, and is a noble-looking bird. Its
flesh is good. Macqueen’s bustard is a fine Asiatic bird.
Several other bustards are known, all Old World species,
except one, which is Australian.
Bus’ti, a post-township of Chautauqua co., N.Y. P. 1844.
Bus’ to Arsiz’io, a town of Italy, in the province of
Milan, 23 miles by rail N. W. of Milan, is situated on a fer-
tile plain. It has several churches, one of which is adorned
with fine old frescoes by Ferrari. Here are manufactures
of cotton thread. Pop. 9978.
Busuluk’, a town of Russia, in the government of Sa-
mara, 60 miles S. of Bugurusslau. Pop. 9932.
Butcher’s Broom (Ruscus aculeatus), a biennial
evergreen plant of the natural order Liliaceae, has a stem
from one to three feet high, and ovate, alternate, sharp-
pointed leaves. The fruit is a red berry nearly as large as
a wild cherry. It is indigenous in the south of Europe, and
is cultivated for ornamental purposes. The root is a perient
and diuretic.
Bute, an island of Scotland, in the Frith of Clyde, sepa-
rated from the mainland by a narrow strait called the
Kyles of Bute, which is about 1 mile wide. The island is
about 16 miles long, and has an area of nearly 60 square
miles. The mildness of the climate renders it a favorite
resort for invalids. The chief town is Rothesay. Here are
Rothesay Castle and Dungyle, a vitrified fort on the S. W.
coast.
Bute, or Buteshire, a county in the S. W. part of
Scotland, comprises the islands of Bute, Arran, the Cum-
brays, Holy Isle, Pladda, and Inchmarnock. Area, 171
square miles, or 109,375 acres, of which 60,000 are culti-
vated. Chief town, Rothesay. Pop, in 1871, 16,977.
Bute, MARQUESSEs of, earls of Windsor and Viscounts
Mountjoy (1796), Barons Mountstuart (1761), Barons Car-
diff (1766, in Great Britain), earls of Dumfries (1633), earls
of Bute (1703), viscounts of Ayr (1622), Wiscounts King-
airth, Lords Mountstuart, Cumbrae, and Inchmarnock
(1703), Lords Crichton and Cumnock (1633), Barons Crich-
ton of Sanquhar (1488, in Scotland), and baronets (1627, in
Scotland).-John PATRICK CRICHTON STUART, the third
marquess, born Sept. 12, 1847, succeeded his father in 1848.
IHe is said to be the richest man in England.
Bute (John STUART), EARL OF, a minister of state, born
in Scotland in 1713. He became groom of the stole to the
prince of Wales, who was afterwards George III, over
whom he acquired a great influence. In Mar., 1761, he was
appointed one of the principal secretaries of state. He was
prime minister from May, 1762, to April 8, 1763, and be-
came very unpopular. His policy tended to exalt the royal
prerogative. He was a liberal patron of literature and art.
Died in 1792. -
Buſtea [named in honor of the earl of Bute], a genus
of trees and shrubs of the natural order Leguminosae, re-
markable for the length of the standard of the flower, and
having a compressed, 1-seeded pod. The Butea frondosa,
called dhak tree, and Butea superba, are natives of India,
and bear racemes of large and beautiful scarlet flowers,
which present a gorgeous spectacle. The twigs yield a re-
sinous exudation in the form of lurid red tears, which is
one variety of lac. The sap of the trunk also yields gum-
kino. A beautiful dye is obtained from the flowers, and
the bark has a useful fibre.
But/ler [Old English boteler (i.e. “bottle-er”), a man
who has charge of the bottles], a servant or household offi-
cer who has care of the wines, plate, etc. The “chief but-
ler” of Pharaoh, mentioned in the Bible, an officer of high
rank, was more properly a cup-bearer to the king.
Butler, a county in the S. of Alabama. Area, 850
square miles. It is drained by the Sepulga and Pigeon
rivers. The soil is moderately fertile, and adapted to cot-
ton. Oats, corn, and wool are also raised. Forests of
683
pine timber abound. It is intersected by the Mobile and
Montgomery R. R. Capital, Greenville. Pop. 14,981.
Butler, a county in Central Iowa. Area, 576 square
miles. It is intersected by Shell Rock River and the West
Fork of Cedar River. It contains extensive prairies. The
soil is productive. Grain and wool are staple products.
It is traversed by the Burlington Cedar Rapids and Min-
nesota and the Dubuque and Sioux City R. R. Capital,
Butler Centre. Pop. 9951. -
Butler, a county in the S. of Kansas. Area, 720 square
miles. It is drained by the Walnut and Whitewater creeks.
The surface is undulating ; the soil is fertile. Cattle and
grain are raised. Capital, Eldorado. Pop. 3035.
Butler, a county in S. W. Kentucky. Area, 500 square
miles. It is intersected by Green River, which is here
navigable for steamboats. The surface is hilly ; the soil
moderately fertile. Tobacco, grain, and wool are staple
products. Coal is mined in this county. Capital, Mor-
gantown. Pop. 9404.
Butler, a county of Missouri, bordering on Arkansas.
Area, 560 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the
St. Francis, and intersected by the Big Black River. The
surface is nearly level. Grain, tobacco, and wool are sta-
ple products. Capital, Poplar Bluff. Pop. 4298.
Butler, a county in the E. of Nebraska. Area, 576
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Platte River,
and drained by the Big Blue River. The soil is produc-
The county
tive. Grain and wool are the staple products.
contains a large proportion of prairie. Capital, Savannah.
Pop. 1290.
Butler, a county of Ohio, bordering on Indiana. Area,
455 square miles. It is intersected by the Great Miami
River and the Miami Canal. The surface is nearly level;
the soil is very productive. Cattle, grain, tobacco, wool,
hay, and butter are largely raised. Trenton limestone,
valuable for building, is abundant here. The manufac-
tures are varied, including flour, metallic Wares, carriages,
clothing, saddlery, etc. The county is traversed by the Cin-
cinnati Hamilton and Dayton, the Cincinnati Richmond and
Chicago, and the Cincinnati and Indianapolis R. R.S. Capi-
tal, Hamilton. Pop. 39,912.
Butler, a county in the W. of Pennsylvania. Area,
800 square miles. It touches the Alleghany River on the
N. E. and the S. E., and is drained by the Conequenessing
Creek. The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. Cat-
tle, grain, dairy products, wool, and hay are largely raised.
Bituminous coal, iron, and limestone are found here. The
manufactures include lumber, furniture, leather, carriages,
brick, saddlery, etc. Capital, Butler. Pop. 36,510.
Butler, a post-village, capital of Choctaw co., Ala.,
about 110 miles N. of Mobile.
Butler, a post-village, capital of Taylor co., Ga., on
the South-western R. R., 50 miles W. S. W. of Macon.
Butler, a post-village of Montgomery co., Ill., on the
Indianapolis and St. Louis R. R., 63 miles N. E. of St.
Louis, and 3 miles N. W. of Hillsborough. Pop. 1648; of
the township, 2107.
Butler, a township of Vermilion co., Ill. Pop. 925.
Butler, a post-township of De Kalb co., Ind. P. 1209.
Butler, a township of Franklin co., Ind. Pop. 1488.
Butler, a township of Miami co., Ind. Pop. 1535.
Butler, a township of Butler co., Ia. Pop. 1329.
Butler, a township of Jackson co., Ia. Pop. 857.
Butler, a township of Scott co., Ia. Pop. 889.
Butler, a post-village of Pendleton co., Ky. Pop. 144.
Butler, a post-township of Branch co., Mich. P. 1430.
Butler, a post-village, capital of Bates co., Mo., is in
a fertile prairie, about 75 miles S. by E. from Kansas City.
It has a national bank and two weekly papers. Pop. 1064.
Butler, a township of Harrison co., Mo. Pop. 748.
Butler, a township of Pemiscot co., Mo. Pop. 298.
Butler, a township of St. Clair co., Mo. Pop. 646.
Butler, a township of Platte co., Neb. Pop. 328.
Butler, a township of Wayne co., N. Y. Pop. 2023.
Butler, a township of Columbiana co., O. Pop. 1558.
Butler, a township of Darke co., O. Pop. 1524.
Butler, a township of Knox co., O. Pop. 701.
Butler, a township of Mercer co., O. Pop. 1801.
Butler, a township of Montgomery co., O. Pop. 2153.
Butler, a post-township of Richland co., O. P. 768.
Butler, a township of Adams co., Pa. Pop. 1833.
Butler, capital of Butler co., Pa., on the Conequenes:
sing Creek, 31 miles N. of Pittsburg. A branch railroad
684
BUTLER,
extends from the Alleghany River to the town. It has
four banks, an educational institute, and a fine School
building. It is situated in the “oil region,” and two lines
of pipe bring petroleum ten miles to the railroad. There
are several machine-shops, two planing mills, two steam-
grist-mills, and three weekly papers. Pop. of borough,
1935; of Butler township, 984. J. ZIEGLER,
ED. OF “ DEMOCRATIC HERALD.”
Butler, a township of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 1423.
Butler, a township of Schuylkill co., Pa. Pop. 5905.
Butler, a township of Darlington co., S. C. Pop. 1099.
Butler, a township of Edgefield co., S. C. Pop. 2080.
Butler, a township of Greenville co., S. C. Pop. 1646.
Butler, a township of Hancock co., W. Va. Pop. 979.
Butler, a township of Wayne co., W. Va. Pop. 1992.
Butler (ALBAN), a learned Roman Catholic divine, born
at Northampton, England, in 1710; died May 15, 1773. He
wrote “Lives of the Saints’’ (5 vols., 1745) and other
works.
Butler (ANDREw PICKENs), born in Edgefield district,
S. C., Nov. 18, 1796, graduated at South Carolina College
in 1817, was admitted to the bar in 1818, became a judge in
1833, and was U. S. Senator from South Carolina (1846–57).
—His father, WILLIAM BUTLER (1759–1821), was a brave sol-
dier of the Revolution. A. P. Butler died May 25, 1857.
Butler (BENJAMIN FRANKLIN), lawyer and statesman,
born at Deerfield, N. H., Nov. 5, 1818, son of Captain John
Butler, who commanded a company of dragoons during the
war of 1812, and served under Jackson at New Orleans.
Reared by an excellent mother, B. F. Butler graduated at
Waterville College, Me., and in 1840 was admitted to the bar
at Lowell, Mass., where he rapidly advanced to an exten-
sive and lucrative practice, in which he acquired a con-
siderable fortune. He served in the State militia through
all grades from private to brigadier-general. A Democrat
by inheritance and conviction, he took an active part in
politics, and in 1853 represented Lowell in the legislature,
where he lent powerful aid to the bill for reducing the hours
of labor in the factories of the State from thirteen to eleven.
In 1853 he was a member of the constitutional convention,
and in 1859 a member of the senate of Massachusetts. On
April 15, 1861, upon a call for troops to hasten to the de-
fence of Fortress Monroe and Washington, Brigadier-gen-
eral Butler, who at 5 P. M. was in court in Boston trying a
cause, issued the requisite orders for mustering the regi-
ments of his brigade. April 16, the Sixth regiment left
Boston, and on the 18th General Butler, at the head of the
Eighth, took his departure, having been ordered to proceed
to Washington by way of Baltimore. Two regiments of
his brigade had, in the mean time, sailed for Fortress Mon-
roe, which they garrisoned, and saved from falling into the
pected in New York City by which the election was to be
carried by the Democracy. With a small force he held
the city in peace and quiet, and compelled an orderly elec-
tion. He was sent against Fort Fisher in Dec., 1864, but
the navy not having reduced the fort by bombardment, a
storm arising so that he could not land his troops, he took
the responsibility of disobeying orders and returning;
the enemy withdrew their troops, deeming all further at-
tack upon that point to be given up ; so that when another
command was sent down against Fort Fisher, the enemy
were found unprepared. Before the second expedition
Gen. Butler was relieved of his command. In 1866 he
was elected to Congress from the Essex district in Massa-
chusetts, in which he had become a resident for that pur-
pose, and has remained in Congress ever since.
JAMES PARTON.
Butler (BENJAMIN F.), an American lawyer and resi-
dent of Albany, N. Y., born Dec. 15, 1795, was attorney-
general of the U. S. under President Jackson from Dec.,
1831, to June, 1834. Died Nov. 8, 1858. (See his “Life”
by W. L. MACKENZIE.)
Butler (CHARLEs), a learned English jurist and writer,
born in London in 1750, was a Roman Catholic. He wrote,
besides other works, “Horae Biblicae" (1797), “Historical
Memoirs of the English, Irish, and Scottish Catholics,”
and a continuation of his uncle's (Alban Butler’s) “Lives
of the Saints.” Died in 1832.
Butler (CLEMENT M.), D.D., an American divine and
scholar, was born in Troy, N. Y., Oct. 16, 1810. He was
ordained a minister of the Protestant Episcopal Church
in 1836, was rector of St. John’s Church at Georgetown,
D. C., from 1841 to 1844, rector of Grace Church, Boston,
from 1844 to 1847, and rector of Trinity Church at Wash-
ington from 1847 to 1854. He officiated as chaplain of the
Senate of the U. S. from 1849 to 1853. He was subse-
uently rector of Grace Church at Rome (in Italy) from
1862 to 1864; in the last-named year he was appointed
professor of ecclesiastical history in the Divinity School
of the Protestant Episcopal Church in West Philadelphia.
Besides numerous sermons and lectures, Dr. Butler has
published “The Book of Common Prayer Interpreted by
its History” (1849), “Old Truths and New Errors” (1850),
“The Flock Fed,” etc. (1859), “St. Paul in Rome” (1865),
“Inner Rome” (1866), “Manual of Ecclesiastical History
from the First to the Thirteenth Century” (1868); also a
“Continuation of the same from the Thirteenth to the
Eighteenth Century,” and various other works.
Butler (EzRA), born about 1762, was in the early years
of Vermont history a prominent Jeffersonian of Weathers-
field and Waterbury. He held justiceships and chief-jus-
ticeships of the courts of Chittenden and Jefferson coun-
ties, Vt., 1803–26, was a member of Congress (1813–15),
and governor 1826–28. Died July 19, 1838. -
hands of the enemy. Prevented from reaching Washington
by way of Baltimore in consequence of the burning of
bridges, he seized Annapolis, repaired the railroad between
that city and Washington, and thus the Eighth Massachu-
setts and Seventh New York reached the capital in time to
prevent all attempts on the part of hostile forces to seize
it. May 13, 1861, at the head of 900 men, he marched
upon Baltimore, and encamped on Federal Hill, in the
midst of the city, without opposition—a service immedi-
Butler (GEORGE), U. S. M. C., born Jan. 20, 1839, in
the District of Columbia, appointed a second lieutenant in
the Marine Corps Feb. 11, 1859, became a first lieutenant
in 1861, and a captain in 1862. Led the marines of the
Minnesota in the assault upon Fort Fisher Jan. 15, 1865,
and is thus honorably referred to by Lieut.-Commander
James Parker, in his official report of the assault: “Cap-
tain George Butler of the marines also deserves mention
ately (May 16) rewarded by President Lincoln with the
commission of major-general in the service of the U. S.,
and by assigning him to the command of Fortress Monroe,
where he arrived May 22. He here refused to send back
the runaway slaves to their masters, on the ground, origi-
nated by him, that the slaves were “property contraband
of war.” Feb. 23, 1862, he was assigned to the command
of the troops, 18,000 in number, forming part of the ex-
pedition against New Orleans, Captain Farragut command-
ing the naval force. After the heroic passing of the forts
defending the Mississippi by Captain Farragut, General
Butler (May 1, 1862) landed and took possession of the
city, where he remained until Dec. 16 following, when he
was relieved by Major-general N. P. Banks. During his
administration of the department of the Gulf he taxed
the wealthy Confederate citizens to support the thousands
of inhabitants reduced to destitution by the war, and gov-
erned the city with an ability and justice never surpassed.
Nov., 1863, he was appointed commander of the depart-
ment of Virginia and North Carolina. In the winter he
conceived the project of attacking Richmond from City
Point and Bermuda Hundred. On May 5, 1864, he occu-
pied City Point and Bermuda Hundred, and intrenched
himself upon that peninsula, holding it with supplies, aid-
ing the movement of General Grant upon Petersburg, after
the repulse of the Wilderness and Cold Harbor. He
went with a detachment of his forces in Nov., 1864, to New
York during the presidential election, a rising being ex-
for coolness and bravery. He reached and remained near
the ‘palisades,” a short distance inside of them.” At the
close of the rebellion Captain Butler was brevetted major
“for gallant and meritorious conduct.” -
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Butler (John J.), D. D., a Free-will Baptist minister,
born at Berwick, Me., in 1814, graduated at Bowdoin Col-
lege in 1837, studied theology at Andover, Mass., was pro-
fessor of sacred literature in Whitestown Theological Semi-
nary (1844–54), of systematic theology at the Theological
School of New Hampton, N. H. (1854–70), when he was
appointed professor of sacred rhetoric and homiletics in
Bates College Theological Seminary, Lewiston, Me. For
many years he has been connected with the “Morning
Star,” a religious paper of Dover, N. H. He has published
several commentaries on parts of the Bible, and a work on
natural and revealed theology. -
Butler (Joseph), an English bishop and eminent writer,
was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, in 1692. About 1714
he wrote an able refutation of Dr. Samuel Clarke's cele-
brated a priori argument. He entered Oriel College, Ox-
ford, in 1714, was appointed preacher at the Rolls, Chapel
in 1718, and obtained the rich benefice of Stanhope in 1725.
He became chaplaim to Lord Chancellor Talbot in 1733, and
bishop of Bristol in 1738. In 1750 he was translated to the
see of Durham. His chief work is “The Analogy of Relig-
ion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course
of Nature” (1736). He died unmarried June 16, 1752. (See
EUTLER—BUTTER.
685
T. BARTLETT, “Memoirs of the Life of Joseph Butler, Bish-
op of Durham.”)
Butler (PIERCE), born in Ireland in 1744, was a rela-
tive of the Ormond family and an officer of the British
army. While stationed at Boston, Mass., he resigned his
major's commission, removed to South Carolina, was a
member of Congress (1787), a member of the convention
which drew up the Federal Constitution (1788), and U. S.
Senator from South Carolina (1789–96 and 1802–04). Died
Feb. 15, 1822. -
Butler (PIERCE M.), CoLONEL, and former governor of
South Carolina, born in Edgefield district, S. C., April 11,
1798. He entered the army in 1819 as second lieutenant
of infantry, was promoted to first lieutenant 1822, captain
1825, resigned from the army in 1829, and was president
of a bank at Columbia until 1836, when he accepted the
appointment of lieutenant-colonel in Goodwin’s regiment
of South Carolina volunteers, and served against the Semi-
nole Indians in Florida. On his return was elected (1838)
governor of South Carolina; at the end of his term became
Indian agent, and was acting as such at the outbreak of
the Mexican war, when he was elected colonel of the
“Palmetto regiment” of South Carolina volunteers, which
regiment he gallantly led to the seat of war, distinguishing
himself at Cerro Gordo and subsequent battles; at the bat-
tle of Churubusco Aug. 20, 1847, he continued to lead his
men after being wounded, when he was shot a second time,
through the head, and killed.
Butler (SAMUEL), a witty English poet, born in Wor-
cestershire in 1612. He was liberally educated, and became
in early youth clerk to a justice of the peace, and after-
wards entered the service of Sir Sámuel Luke, who is sup-
posed to be the prototype of Hudibras. About 1661 he
married a widow named Herbert, who had an easy fortune,
but it was lost by investment in unsound securities. He
published in 1663 the first part of “ Hudibras,” a witty and
satirical poem which obtained great popularity. The sec-
ond part appeared in 1664, and the third in 1678. He died
poor Sept. 25, 1680. He was hostile to the Puritans, whom
he satirized in his famous poem. “The sense of Butler,”
says Hallam, “is masculine, his wit inexhaustible, and it
is supplied from every source of reading and observation.
But these sources are often so little known to the reader
that his wit loses its effect through the obscurity of the
allusions.” (See A. RAMsAY, “Butler and his Hudibras.”)
Butler (WILLIAM ALLEN), an American lawyer and
poet, born at Albany, N. Y., 1825, graduated at the Uni-
versity of New York in 1843. He wrote, besides other
works, an admirable poem, “Nothing to Wear, an Episode
of City Life” (1857).
Butler (WILLIAM ARCHER), a philosopher, born near
Clonmel, Ireland, in 1814, was a writer of high promise.
He became professor of moral philosophy in Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin, in 1837. Among his works are “Lectures on
the History of Ancient Philosophy” (2 vols., 1846). Died
July 5, 1848.
Butler (WILLIAM ORLANDo), an American general, born
in Kentucky in 1793. He served in the war of 1812 and
the Mexican war, and became a major-general in 1846.
He was the Democratic candidate for the office of . Vice-
President in 1848, but was not elected.
But/lerage, an ancient duty belonging to the Crown of
England, otherwise called the prisage of wines. This duty
is mentioned in the Great Roll of Exchequer, 8 Richard I.
The Crown could take two tuns of wine from every ship
(English or foreign) importing into England twenty tuns
or more, one before and one behind the mast; by charter
of Edward I., it was changed into a duty of two shillings
for every tun imported by strangers.
Butler Centre, a post-village, capital of Butler co.,
Ta., near the West Fork of Cedar River, about 95 miles
N. N. E. of Des Moines. . Pop. 152.
Butler’s Isle, a township of Hancock co., Me. P. 12.
Butler’s Landing, a post-village of Clay co., Tenn.
Butoma’ceae, a natural order of endogenous aquatic
plants, nearly related to the Alismaceae. It derives its name
from the Butomus wºmbellatus (Gr. Boös, an “ox,” and Téuvo,
to “cut,” because the edges of its leaves cut the mouths of
cattle), an aquatic plant which grows in ditches and ponds
in many parts of Europe and Asia, commonly called flow-
ering rush. The leaves are all radical, linear, triangular,
and about two feet long. The scape terminates in a large
umbel of beautiful rose-colored flowers, each of which has
nine stamens. This plant was formerly used in medicine.
Its root is eaten in Asia. None of these plants are found
in North America. -
Butte, a French word signifying a “ small hill,” a
“knoll,” a “rising ground.” In parts of the U. S. the
term is applied to mountains, as the Downieville Buttes,
8840 feet high.
Butte, a county in the N. part of California. Area,
1200 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Sacra-
mento River, and is intersected by Feather River and its
forks. The surface is hilly or mountainous, and the scenery
picturesque. The name of the county is derived from the
Butte Mountains on the Sacramento River. Gold is found
imbedded here in quartz rock. Cattle, wool, hay, grain,
and dairy products are raised, and lumber is sawed. It is
intersected by the Oregon division of the Central Pacific
R. R. Capital, Oroville. Pop. 11,403.
Butte, a township of Colusa co., Cal.
Butte, a township of Sierra co., Cal. Pop. 1182.
Butte, a township of Siskiyou co., Cal. Pop. 410.
Butte, a township of Sutter co., Cal. Pop. 1359.
Butte City, a post-village of Deer Lodge co., Mon.
But/ter [Ger. Butter ; Fr. beurre; Lat. butyrum ; Gr.
Boörvpov, supposed to be from Boös, a “cow,” and rvpás
“cheese.”] is the fatty substance extracted from milk. In
ancient times the Hebrews made use of butter as food, but
the Greeks and the Romans used it only as an ointment in
their baths; and it is probable that the Greekš obtained
their knowledge of the substance from the Scythians, Thra-
cians, and Phrygians, whilst the Romans obtained it from
Germany. In Southern Europe, at the present time, butter
is very sparingly used, olive oil often taking its place; and
in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Southern France it is sold
by apothecaries as a medicinal agent for external applica-
tion. In the East Indies the natives use ghee, which is
butter clarified by boiling. Butter is usually made from
cow’s milk, which has the following average composition :
Pop. 604.
Fat (butter) 3.83
Caseine.......................................------------------- 3.88
Sugar (lactose) 4.08
Salts (alkaline and earthy).............................. 0.76
Water 87.45
100.00
The composition varies, however, with the breed, age, and
food of the cow, the age of the calf, the time and frequency
of milking, etc. The last milk drawn at a milking is
richer in butter than the first. (See MILK.) The caseine,
sugar, and most of the salts are in solution, while the fat
is in suspension in the form of minute globules, which are
readily seen by the aid of the microscope. They vary in
size from sº to #5 of an inch in diameter. They are
quite transparent, refract light strongly, and give the milk
its white color. It was formerly supposed that each globule
was covered with a thin membrane or envelope, but this
has been disproved by Von Baumhauer and F. Knapp.
Cream.—When milk is allowed to stand, the fat globules
rise to the surface and form a layer of cream, while below
remains a blue transparent fluid, serum, containing the
other constituents of the milk. The separation of fat and
serum is never complete; each retains a certain quantity
of the other. Dr. Woelcker gives the composition of cream
as follows:
Fat (butter)....................................... 33.43 25.40
Caseine..........................................--- 2.62 } 7.61
Sugar..............................------------------ 1.56 e
Salts................................................. 0.72 2.19
Water...................................“...... 61.67 64.80
100.00 100.00
To allow the cream to rise for the manufacture of butter,
the milk is placed in a cool cellar, at a temperature of 55°
to 599 F. If much cooler than this, the cream rises too
slowly; if warmer, the milk, sours rapidly. The pans for
holding the milk should be perfectly clean and dry. Two
inches is considered the best depth for the milk. . In from
twenty-four to thirty-six hours the separation of the cream
will be complete, when it is skimmed off and put into a
stone pot, or, if a sufficient quantity is at hand, it may be
churned at once. Owing to a kind of fermentation (see
FERMENTATION) that takes place in milk on standing, it
becomes somewhat sour before all the fat globules have
separated, and as it thickens or partially coagulates the
further separation of cream is prevented. In zinc pans it
remains sweet four or five hours longer than in Wooden or
earthen vessels, and consequently yields a somewhat larger
proportion of cream; but the poisonous character of zinc
salts makes the use of such pans dangerous. Glass vessels
are really the best, but tin (tinned iron) is the material
usually employed. When the cream is to be kept for a few
days before churning, it is poured into a clean stoneware
vessel; and some butter-makers add a little saltpetre,
which prevents moulding and keeps the cream free from a
cheesy taste. -
Churning.—The butter is obtained from the cream by the
process of churning—violent agitation in a wooden vessel,
686
BUTTER.
a churn. The fat-globules are thus caused to unite in
larger masses, and finally to separate entirely from the
watery liquid, called buttermilk. The temperature of the
cream when it enters the churn should be between 53° and
55° F. During the churning it rises several degrees. If
the cream is too cold, the fat is hard and will not coalesce;
if it be too warm, the fat is semi-liquid and will not unite.
The time at which the butter separates, as well as its quan-
tity and the quality, depends largely upon the temperature.
From forty-five minutes to one hour should be occupied in
churning; if the butter comes much seoner, it is generally
soft and frothy; if a much longer churning is required, it
is badly flavored. The butter is separated from the liquid,
thoroughly washed with cold water, and kneaded or worked
to expel the buttermilk as completely as possible. It is
then fashioned into rolls or moulded into forms for imme-
diate use, or it is packed in stone jars or wooden firkins for
winter use. A little salt is generally added to improve the
flavor—about a quarter of an ounce to a pound if the
butter is intended for immediate use, but when it is to be
packed for winter use as much as an ounce to the pound is
used. Great care is necessary in selecting the salt for this
purpose, as even minute quantities of the chlorides of cal-
cium and magnesium, which are common impurities of salt,
give the butter a bitter, disagreeable taste. The English
Ashton and the Syracuse factory-filled dairy salt are spe-
cially adapted for dairy use. The buttermilk is never com-
pletely expelled from the butter, and although it gives an
agreeable taste to the butter, it also causes it to rapidly
become rancid unless some means are adopted to prevent
this result. The caseine of the buttermilk acts as a fêrment
both upon the sugar and the butter. The former is changed
to lactic acid; a little of the latter to free fatty acids and
glycerine. The pure fat of butter may be kept for months
without becoming rancid. ' To protect the butter from ran-
cidity it is generally salted as above mentioned, or, in addi-
tion to salt, white sugar and saltpetre are added. Two
tablespoonfuls of a mixture of 3 pounds of salt, I pound
of sugar, and 1 pound of saltpetre to a pound of butter is
sufficient to keep it sweet and good for a year. Butter may
be completely purified, though with a serious loss of flavor,
by melting it at as low a temperature as possible and allow-
ing the buttermilk to settle out. . .
The average yield of butter is about one pound from
twenty-four pounds or twelve quarts of milk, or about a
pound of butter from two quarts of cream. It is computed
that a cow will give 1800 quarts of milk per annum, pro-
ducing 140 pounds of butter. In the same time she will
eat 8000 pounds of hay, which contain, as shown by analy-
sis, 168 pounds of fat. Butter is made in many localities
from the whole milk, which is allowed to stand till it be-
comes sour. The churning is more laborious, owing to the
large quantity of material and the longer time required to
bring the butter. The yield is greater, however, than when
cream is used, and the butter is very good. Great success
has attended the establishment of butter and cheese factories
in some parts of the U. S., which receive the milk daily
from the farmers and manufacture butter or cheese, or both,
on a large scale in the most approved manner. It is claim-
ed that owing to the possibility of regulating temperatures
with more certainty on a large scale, to the advantage of
steam for cleansing vessels, and to the ability of large
establishments to employ more skilful labor, the products
are obtained of better quality and at less cost than when
each farmer handles the milk of his own farm. At the fac-
tory of the “Wallkill Milk Association,” in Orange co.,
N. Y., the milk is set in tin pails twenty-two inches deep
and eight inches in diameter. These pails are placed in
running spring-water at 48° to 56° F., where they remain
over night. The cream is then skimmed with a conical cup
having an upright handle. The cream is put immediately
into the churns, and the skimmed milk is made into cheese.
Each churn receives fifty quarts of cream and one pail of
cold spring-water. The temperature is always between 56
and 64°F. The churning is effected by horse-power, and
is continued forty-five to sixty minutes. The butter is then
taken out, washed with spring-water, salted with 18 ounces
of salt to 22 pounds of butter, and well worked. It stands
till evening, when it is worked again, then packed in sixty-
pound pails and sent to New York. For winter butter a
small teaspoonful of pulverized saltpetre and a large table-
spoonful of white sugar is added to every twenty-two
pounds. The butter is worked on an inclined slab with a
wooden lever. The yield was—
Milk, qts. Butter, lbs. Cheese, lbs.
May 18, from 3512 213 560
May 26, {{ 3300 210 550
Sept. 12, &&. 3128 200 546
Oct. 14, {& 2027 120 407
The “Orange County Milk Association” find that it requires
an average of 14 quarts (wine) or 28 pounds of milk to
make 1 pound of butter and 2 pounds of cheese. -
When newly prepared, butter is of a yellow color, which
is deeper as the pasture on which the cow is fed is richer.
Hence the poorer kinds of butter are often colored with
amnatto, turmeric, infusion of calendula flowers, or the juice
of carrots. -
Butter differs very much in composition according to the
care taken in working it. The pure fat varies from 77 to
95 per cent., the buttermilk from 5 to 23 per cent. The fat
is a mixture of several neutral fats or glycerides, chiefly
the liquid, oily fat oleine and the solid fats palmitine and
stearine, with smaller quantities of myristine, butyrine,
caproine, capryline, and caprine. To these latter bodies
the peculiar odor and flavor which distinguish butter from
other fats are due. Prof. E. N. Horsford has detected phos-
phorus in butter. Butter melts at from 85° to 90° F. It
is generally harder and less fusible in winter than in sum-
mer, owing to the relative increase in summer of the oily
constituent, oleine. -
The adulterations most frequently found in butter are ex-
cess of water and salt. They may be detected and esti-
mated by melting a weighed quantity of the butter and
allowing them to settle out. Lard is said to be added
to butter. Lactate of zinc, derived from the zinc pails and
pans used in the dairy, has been reported; when present in
sensible quantities, it produces violent vomiting.
Butter powders for largely increasing the yield of butter
are advertised to some extent in the U. S. One of these,
the “Star Butter Powder,” is a mixture of equal parts of
alum and sugar. The directions for its use are: “To one
quart of milk, twelve hours old, add one pound of butter;
warm by setting the churn in blood-warm water. Add one
teaspoonful of the powder, and churn as usual. You will
have two and a half pounds of delicious fresh butter.”
The effect of this and similar powders is to coagulate the
milk and enable the operator to mix it with the butter,
forming a frothy mixture (emulsion) of butter and sour
milk, which is anything but fresh and delicious.
Artificial Butter.—Mége-Mouriéz, investigating the pro-
duction of milk, noticed that cows deprived of food con-
tinued to give milk in some quantity, and that the milk
continued to contain butter. This led him to infer that the
fat of the animal was changed to butter, and, acting upon
this hint, he succeeded in extracting from beef tallow (suet)
a fat having the consistence of butter, which he converted
into an excellent substitute for genuine butter. As already
mentioned, butter consists chiefly of oleine, palmitine, and
stearine. The same is true of suet, but the oily oleine is
not present in so large a proportion as in butter. Mouriéz,
therefore, removes such a proportion of the palmitine and
stearine as to leave a mixed fat having the consistence of
butter. His process is as follows: Fresh suet is cut very
fine, placed in a vessel containing water, a little carbonate
of potash, and fresh sheeps' stomachs cut in pieces are
added. . The whole is warmed to 112° F. Under the in-
fluence of the heat and the pepsin of the stomachs the fat
separates from the cellular tissue. This fat is allowed to
cool till it solidifies, when it is subjected to pressure in a
hydraulic press, when it separates into two portions—a hard
white stearine and palmitine, suitable for the manufacture
of candles, and a liquid oil, which on cooling further solidi-
fies into a white fat having the consistence of butter.
Mouriéz calls this oleo-margarine, from the old idea, now
disproved, that a fat margarine existed in butter and suet.
To produce butter, the oleo-margarine is poured into a
churn while still liquid with about half its volume of fresh
milk and nearly as much water. A little annatto is added
for color, and a little water in which pieces of cows' udder
and milk glands have been soaked. The mixture is then
churned, yielding a sweet, palatable butter which may be
salted as usual. As nothing unwholesome is used in the
manufacture of this butter, its use in place of real butter is .
a mere matter of taste. As it can be made for from one-
fifth to one-third the cost of real butter, and does not readily
become rancid, it bids fair to become an important article
of manufacture. It is certainly a good substitute for the
olive oil so freely used in Southern Europe, or the lard
which is used on bread in place of butter in many families
in Germany. Mr. Alfred Paraf has simplified the process,
and erected a large factory for making this butter in New
York, under the name of the “Oleo-margarine Company.” .
Vegetable Butters.-The name “butter” is applied to
several vegetable fats, such as palm, cacao, cocoanut, nut-
meg, and shea, butter. The latter is made from a nut like
the olive, and is used in Africa as a substitute for butter.
Metallic Butters.-In chemistry the name butter was for-
merly applied to certain oily compounds which resembled
melted butter; as the butter of antimony, bismuth, zinc,
and tin, which were the chlorides of the respective metals.
Bog butter is a fossil butter found occasionally in the Irish
BUTTERCUP–EUTTON.
687
eat-bogs. . It is believed to have been made by man.
ock butter is an iron alum which appears as a pasty
exudation on alum slates. C. F. CHANDLER.
Buttercup. See RANUNCULUs.
But/terfield (DANIEL), born in Oneida, co., N. Y., in
1831, was educated at Union College. Soon after the break-
ing out of the civil war he was made brigadier-general of
volunteers, and took part in many actions under Generals
McClellan, Pope, and Burnside, and was chief of General
Hooker's staff at Lookout Mountain, and afterwards. He
was brevetted major-general for gallant and meritorious
conduct. -
Butterfield (John), born at Helderberg, N. Y., about
1783, became an extensive proprietor of passenger stages,
and after the construction of railroads and telegraphs was
largely interested in the railroad, express, and telegraph
business. He removed to Utica, N. Y., in 1822, and died
there Nov. 15, 1869. He was one of the founders of the
American Express Company.
But/terfly, the name of the Papilionidae, diurnal lepi-
dopterous insects, forming many genera in the recent en-
tomological systems. Butterflies exhibit a great similarity
in most respects to other lepidopterous insects. They are
distinguished in most cases without difficulty by their
knobbed antennae, and by brilliancy of coloring, which in
butterflies belongs to both sides of the wings, whilst the
beauty of moths appears chiefly on the upper side. The
abdomen is shorter and smaller than in other families.
Butterflies, at rest, hold their wings erect, the under side
being thus chiefly exhibited; while the other lepidopterous
insects hold their wings in a horizontal or inclined position,
and some have them wrapped round the body. Butterflies
are the only insects of their order which have no sockets,
spines, bristles, or hooks by which the second wing on each
side can be attached to the first, but both when flying and
at rest have all their wings quite separate. Their cater-
pillars have always sixteen feet, ten of which are abdomi-
mal. The pupa or chrysalis is angular, especially on the
thorax, is seldom enveloped in a cocoon, is generally sus-
pended by the tail by means of a silky substance, but is
sometimes supported by bands around the middle, and
generally exhibits more or less of that golden color from
which both the names aurelia (from the Lat. aurum, “gold”)
and chrysalis (from the Gr. xpwards, “gold”) are derived.
Some species of butterflies possess no small power of
flight. Short-lived as they are generally believed to be,
some of the tropical species perform wonderful migrations.
The number of species is very great; not less than 5000
species being known, and the number will doubtless be
increased. There are probably 1000 species in North
America. Their arrangement is difficult, on account of the
similarity which prevails among them.
Some butterflies measure almost a foot across the ex-
panded wings. The largest species are tropical. Some
species are widely distributed: Cynthia cardui is found
throughout nearly all the world. The geographical limits
of other species are restricted. Caterpillars of some species
are furnished with spines, those of others have fleshy
prominences, horny at the tip, perhaps intended as means
of defence. The hinder wings of many butterflies are
prolonged into tail-like appendages, one or more on each
wing, which vary in form.
These insects are objects of admiration, associated with
the most lovely scenes, but they are also a cause of annoy–
ance and vexation by the ravages of their caterpillars.
There is, however, one species, the bugong (Euploea ham-
ata), which affords food to the aborigines of Australia.
Butterflies §º congregate in such vast num-
bers in rocky esevices that they are collected by simply
making fires under the rocks, in the smoke of which they
are suffocated. Bushels of them are thus procured, and
baked by placing them on the heated ground, the down
and wings removed, and the bodies made into cakes which
resemble lumps of fat. It is probable that the oil of this
species may become commercially important. As an ar-
ticle of food it is irritant and nauseating, even to the na-
tives. * REVISED BY C. W. GREENE.
But/terfly-Weed, a common name of the Asclepias
tuberosa, an herbaceous plant which is indigenous in many
arts of the U. S., and is sometimes called Pleurisy
Root. It has nearly sessile leaves, varying from linear
to oblong-lanceolate, and has showy orange-colored flowers.
The root is diaphoretic and expectorant, and has been used
in medicine. (See ASCLEPIAs.)
But/termilk, the part of milk that remains after the
butter has been separated from it. It contains casein,
Sugar, water, and all the original ingredients of milk, ex-
cept the oily matter. It is a nutritious beverage, and is
extensively used in many places as food. -
Buttermilk Falls, a cataract in Le Roy township,
Genesee co., N. Y. The Oatka Creek falls 90 feet over a
cliff of limestone. Also a series of cascades on Bog Meadow
Creek in Cornwall township, Orange co., N.Y., below West
Point, and near the Hudson River.
But/ternut, or White Walnut, a name given to the
Juglans cinerea, and its fruit, which is indigenous in the
U. S. The tree grows to the height of from thirty to fifty
feet, and has oblong-lanceolate leaflets, which are serrate,
pointed, and rounded at the base. The fruit is oblong and
clammy, and contains an oily, edible kernel. The wood
is valuable in the arts.
But/ternuts, a post-township of Otsego co., N. Y.
It contains four churches and several manufacturing estab-
lishments. Pop. 2174.
Butternut Valley, a post-township of Blue Earth co.,
Minn. Pop. 590.
Butter Tree, a name given to several tropical trees,
the fruits of which yield concrete fixed oils which are sim-
ilar to butter and used as food. The butter trees of India,
and Africa belong to the genus Bassia and the order
Sapotaceae. Those of Brazil and Guiana belong to the
genus Caryocar. - º
But/terwort (Pinguicula), a genus of herbaceous
plants of the natural order Lentibulariaceae, distinguished
by a 2-lipped calyx, the upper lip trifid, the lower bifid;
and a spurred corolla, 2-lipped and gaping, the upper lip
arched. The Pinguicula vulgaris is a small stemless peren-
nial, growing in marshes and on wet rocks in Europe and
the U. S. It has the power of coagulating milk, and is
used for that purpose by the Laplanders.
But/terworth (John), well known as the author of a
concordance and dictionary of the Scriptures, born in Lan-
cashire Dec. 13, 1727. He was pastor of the Baptist
church at Coventry for fifty-two years. Died in 1803.
Butt Hinge, a hinge of iron or brass, the flaps of which
close like a book. It is usually let in flush with the bead
of a joint left for the purpose of concealing it. Such hinges
are commonly used for doors. -
Butt'mann (PHILIPP KARL), an eminent and profound
German philologist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in Dec.,
1764. He was appointed secretary of the Royal Library
of Berlin in 1796, and chief librarian of the same in 1811.
IHe was a friend of Niebuhr, and an excellent Greek
scholar. He edited several Greek classics, and published,
besides other works, a “Greek Grammar for Schools”
(1792), a large “Greek Grammar” (“Ausführliche Grie-
chische Sprachlehre,” unfinished), and “Lexilogus, or
Explanation of the Greek Words” (1818). Died June 21,
I829. *
But/ton [Fr. bouton, a “button;” originally, a “bud”],
a well-known appendage to dress used for fastening or for
ornament. Buttons are of various kinds and materials.
Military buttons are for the most part of brass. Circular
disks, called “blanks,” are cut from sheet brass by ma-
chines, which cut a row of eight or ten blanks at once, the
machine itself pushing the metal forward. The edges are
trimmed, and the blank planished by stamping with a die.
The shanks are made by a machine which is fed with wire,
which it pushes in short lengths to a pair of shears. The
pieces of wire are forced into a vice which bends them to
the required shape, the ends are made flat with a hammer,
the shanks soldered to the blanks, and the buttons finished
in the lathe and lacquered or gilded. “Shell” buttons
are made of two blanks, that forming the face being larger
than the back to which the shank is attached. These
blanks are pressed into the required shape by dies, and
then, by another die, the edge of the larger blank is lapped
over the smaller, and thus attached without soldering.
Common metal buttons are cast in moulds in which the
shanks are previously placed, and are thereby attached
without soldering. When the body of the button is of
pearl-shell, bone, or wood, the blanks are cut by means of
a tubular saw. ... The shanks are fixed by cutting a hole
half through the blank; this is enlarged as it deepens,
and after inserting the shank a blow spreads it out, so as,
to fill up the inner and larger part of the cavity. Buttons
with holes, when of shell, wood, bone, or ivory, are cut
with the tubular saw, and drilled. Covered buttons are
often made by sewing cloth upon “moulds”—i. e. flat bone
or wooden disks with a hole in the middle. These have
been to a great extent superseded by various patented
buttons. Many of these are made of combinations of
metal and cloth.
Many buttons are now made of plastic materials, like
vulcanized rubber, papier maché, etc. which are pressed in
moulds to the shape required. Horn buttons are made by
pressure, the horn having been softened by heat. A very
cheap substitute for pearl buttons is made by forcibly com-
&
688
BUTTON.—BY-BIDDING.
pressing clay into moulds. There are several compositions
of this kind used. Buttons of horn, vegetable ivory, bone,
mother of pearl, the coquilla nut, hard wood, glass, etc. are
largely manufactured.
REVISED BY C. W. GREENE.
Button, a township of Ford co., Ill. Pop. 610.
Button (Sir THOMAs), an English sailor who in 1614
sailed to discover the N. W. passage, wintered in Hudson's
Bay, which he called “Carey's Swan's Nest,” and named
many places on its shores. For these services he was
knighted.
Button-bush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), a common
American shrub of the Cinchona family, has a white flower
in globose heads, whence its name. When in flower it is
much frequented by bees.
But/tonwood, a common name of the Platanus occi-
dentalis, a tree which is a native of the U. S., and is also
called PLANE TREE (which see).
But/tress [Fr. arc-boutant], in architecture, a projection
for the purpose of giving additional support or strength to
a wall; a mass of masonry or brickwork built to resist the
horizontal thrust of another mass. In the classical style no
buttresses were used, their place being to some extent sup-
plied by pilasters, antae, etc.; but in Gothic architecture
they are much used to counteract the outward thrust of the
arches or of the vaulting which covers the naves and aisles
of cathedrals. The different stages of Gothic architecture
are marked by the form of the buttresses employed almost
as distinctly as by the form of the arch. The Norman but-
tress was broad, often semicircular, never projecting from
the wall to any great extent. Early English buttresses
project more boldly, and are narrower than the Norman.
They are frequently broken into stages, which diminish in
size as they ascend. Buttresses of which the upper portion
or the whole upright part is detached from the wall (with
which they are connected by an arch) are called flying but-
tresses or arch-buttresses.
Butts, a county in Central Georgia. Area, 180 square
miles. It is bounded on the E. and N. E. by the Ocmulgee
River, and drained by Tussahaw and Sandy creeks. The
surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Corn, cotton,
and wool are produced. Capital, Jackson. Pop. 6941.
Butts Road, a township of Norfolk co., Va. P. 2039.
Butyl. See TRITYL.
Butyr’ic [from the Lat. butyrum, “butter”] Acid,
HC4H102, may be obtained by saponifying butter with
potash, adding dilute sulphuric acid, and distilling about
one half of the mixture, adding water, and continuing the
distillation till the residue is not acid. Butyric acid may
also be obtained by allowing a small quantity of milk-curd
to act upon a solution of sugar at a temperature of 77° to
86°. Chalk is added to take up the butyric acid when
produced. The butyrate of lime is left in the vessel, and
on acting upon that by dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric
acid, and distilling, the free butyric acid passes over, and
is condensed. Butyric acid is a transparent, thin, oily
liquid, with a most persistent rancid odor. It is miscible
in all proportions in water, alcohol, ether, and sulphuric
acid; has a specific gravity of .973, boils at 314°.
Butyr’ic E/ther, or Ethyl'ic Bu’tyrate, C2H5.C4-
H702, an exceedingly fragrant liquid obtained by distilling
butyric acid (or the butyrate of lime), alcohol, and sulphuric
acid. Butyric ether is mixed with alcohol, and sold as
artificial pineapple oil. There is little doubt that pine-
apples owe, their flavor to the presence of natural butyric
ether. A small quantity is also found in rum. The arti-
ficial variety is used for flavoring various articles and for
sophisticating bad rum. Butyric ether alone cannot be
used in perfumery, as, when inhaled in even a small quan-
tity, it tends to cause irritation of the lungs and intense
headache, but it is employed in the manufacture of com-
pound perfumes. Other butyric ethers are the methylic,
butylic, propylic, amylic butyrates, etc. v
Buxbaum’ia [named in honor of J. C. Buxbaum, a
German botanist], a genus of mosses, of which only one
species is known, Buacbawmia aphylla, a rare European
and American plant, apparently destitute of leaves. The
part of it visible above the ground is merely a little conical
bulb, with minute scales, which are its leaves.
Bux'ton, a town and watering-place of England, in
Derbyshire, is situated in a deep valley near the source of
the Wye, 32 miles N.W. of Derby, and 160 miles N. N. W.
of London. Here are calcareous and chalybeate springs,
which are annually visited by about 14,000 persons. Bux-
ton is surrounded by beautiful scenery, has several good
hotels, and baths which are regarded as among the finest
in Europe. One of the dukes of Devonshire expended
#120,000 here in the erection of a pile of stone buildings
!
Judaica,” (1680).
called the Crescent. Buxton was onee the residence of
Mary queen of Scots, then a captive. Near this town is:
Diamond Hill, famous for its crystals. • Pop. 1877.
Buxton, a post-township of York co., Me., on the
Portland and Rochester R. R., 17 miles W. of Portland.
It has a savings’ bank, and manufactures of lumber, fur-
niture, woollen goods, etc. Pop. 2546.
Buxton (Rev. JARVIs BARRY), born at Newbern, N.C.,
Jan. 17, 1792, was ordained pastor of a Protestant Episco-
pal church at Elizabeth City, N. C., in 1827, and removed
in 1831 to Fayetteville, N. C., where he was distinguished
for his devotion to his work as a minister. Died May 30,
1851. A volume of his “Discourses,” with a memoir of
his life, was published by his son in 1853.
Buxton (JEDIDIAH), an Englishman, born near Ches-
ter in 1705. Though below mediocrity in respect of intel-
lect, he possessed such marvellous powers of arithmetical
calculation that he was regarded as one of the wonders of
his time. His insight into the relations of numbers was so
far intuitive that he never could explain the processes by
which he arrived at his conclusions, which were almost
always correct. Died about 1774. -
Buxton (Sir THOMAS Fow ELL), an English philanthro-
pist, born in Essex April 1, 1786, was the son of opulent
parents. He married in 1807 Hannah Gurney, a sister of
Joseph John Gurney and of Mrs. Fry, and was elected a
member of Parliament in 1818 by the voters of Weymouth,
which he represented nineteen years. He was an eminent
advocate of the abolition of slavery and other humani-
tarian measures, and had much influence in public affairs.
Died Feb. 19, 1845. (See “Life of T. F. Buxton,” by his
son, SIR CHARLES.)
Bux'torf [Lat. Buactorſius], (JoBANN), an eminent Ger-
man scholar, born at Kamen, in Westphalia, Dec. 25, 1564.
He was well versed in the Hebrew language and rabbinical
literature. In 1591 he became professor of Hebrew at
Bâle. His chief works are a “Lexicon Hebraicum et
Chaldaicum ” (1607) and “Biblia Hebraica Rabbinica”
(1618). Died Sept. 13, 1629.
Buxtorf (Joh ANN, JR.), a son of the foregoing and
father of the following, was born Aug. 13, 1599, became in
1630 professor of Hebrew at Bâle, where he later held other
professorships. Died Aug. 16, 1664. He published various
learned works, among which are a treatise on the Hebrew
vowel-points and a Chaldee and Syriac lexicon.
Buxtorf (Joh ANN JAKOB) was born Sept. 4, 1645, and
died April 1, 1704. He also was a good Hebraist, but
published nothing except a preface to his grandfather's
“Tiberias” (1665), and a revised edition of his “Synagoga
He was professor at Băle from 1669.
Buxtorf (JohANN, TERTIUs), nephew of the preceding,
was born Jan. 8, 1663, became professor at Băle in 1704,
and died June 19, 1732. His principal work is the “Cata-
lecta Philologico-theologica,” etc.
Buxus. See Box. * -
Buyck'ville, a township of Elmore co., Ala. Pop. 806.
Buzançais, a town of France, department of Indre,
on the river Indre, 46 miles S.E. of Tours. . Here are ex-
tensive iron-works. Pop. in 1866, 5145.
Buz'zard (Buteo), a genus of birds of the order Rap-
tores and family Falconidae, having a small bill, which
bends from the base and is not notched. They resemble
the eagle and falcon in form, but are inferior in size and
courage. The common buzzard (Buteo vulgaris), a native
of Europe and North America, measures nearly four feet
from tip to tip of the wings. It is sluggish and inactive.
compared with other birds of prey. The prevailing color
of its plumage on the upper parts is brown, with a mixture
of black. The rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus) is
similar to the Buteo vulgaris, but it may be distinguished
by its having the tarsi feathered to the toes. It is widely
distributed in Europe and Africa, and is found in North
America. Among the other species of this genus is the
red-tailed hawk of the U. S. (Buteo borealis), which often
kills poultry. The American bird called turkey-buzzard
belongs to the genus CATHARTEs (which see).
Buzzard’s Bay, in the S. part of Massachusetts, is 30
miles long, has an average width of 7 miles, and contains
the harbors of New Bedford, Fairhaven, and Wareham.
It is sheltered from the ocean by the Elizabeth Islands.
By-bidding, bidding at an auction sale by a person
on behalf of the owner of the property sold, and with no
intent of purchasing it. It may be for either one of two
purposes—either to prevent the property from being sold
below its value, or to raise its price beyond its value. The
former act is supposed to be lawful; the latter is illegal,
and the buyer may make use of it to avoid the sale. By-
bidders are sometimes called “puffers.” (See AUCTION.)
BYELOS—BYEON.
689
Byb'Ios, or Byblus [Gr. BºbAos], an ancient city of
Phoenicia, on the Mediterranean, about 22 miles N. N. E.
of Berytus, was called Giblah by the Hebrew writers. It
was near the base of Mount Lebanon, and was said to be
the native place of Adonis or Thammuz. This site is oc-
cupied by the modern town of Jubeil, and ruins of a Ro-
man theatre.
Byblos [Gr. Bøgxos], an ancient town in the delta of
Egypt, was celebrated for its manufacture of papyrus, the
chief writing-material of the civilized world. It stood in
a marshy tract which produced in abundance the byblus
or papyrus plant (Cyperus antiquorum).
By/ford (WILLIAM HEATH), M. D., was born at Eaton,
Preble co., O., Mar. 20, 1817, was self-educated, became an
active practitioner in Chicago, president of faculty and
professor of clinical surgery in the Woman's Hospital
Medical College, was twice president of the American
Medical Association, author of “Philosophy of Domestic
Life,” “Chronic Inflammation of the Unimpregnated Ute-
rus,” “Practice of Medicine and Surgery applied to Dis-
eases and Accidents peculiar to Women,” “Theory and
Practice of Obstetrics,” etc.
By-laws, regulations made by a corporation for its own
government or that of its members. It is a general rule
that the power to make by-laws is incidental to the exist-
ence of a corporation. It is sometimes conferred expressly
in the charter upon the corporation, or vested in a select
body of persons, such as directors. Where the charter is
silent, the power appertains to the corporation itself. By-
laws must be reasonable and consistent with law. If a
penalty for breach of a by-law be imposed, it may be col-
lected by action. The by-laws of municipal corporations are
usually termed “ordinances.” A city in making such an
ordinance usually acts in a quasi legislative character. It
would not, for example, be responsible if the ordinance
should be broken by one of the citizens and a person should
suffer damage by the breach. Thus, if there were an ordi-
nance that no owner of swine should allow them to run at
large, yet if an owner did so permit them to run to the in-
jury of his neighbor, an action would not lie against the
city, but only against the wrong-doer.
Byles (MATHER), D. D., born in Boston, Mass., Mar.
26, 1706. His father was a native of England; on his
mother’s side he descended from the Rev. Richard Mather
and the Rev. John Cotton. He graduated at Harvard Col-
lege in 1725, and was ordained first pastor of Hollis street
church, Boston, 1733. He soon attained eminence in his
profession, and also attracted considerable attention by his
poetical talents. He continued happily with his parish
till the excitement preceding the Revolution, created a dis-
trust against him, and he was accused of being a Tory,
and separated from his parish. Charges were afterwards
made against him that he prayed for the king and received
visits from British officers, and in May, 1777, he was pub-
licly denounced in town-meeting. On the 2d of June fol-
lowing he was placed on trial, pronounced guilty and
ordered to be confined on a guardship, and in forty days
to be sent to England with his family; this sentence, how-
ever, was not executed, but he was confined to his own
house, where a guard was placed over it, which was after-
wards removed, but again replaced and again dismissed,
causing him to say that he was “guarded, reguarded, and
disregarded.” His literary talent was recognized by many
men of genius in England, and among his correspondents
were Pope, Swift, Lansdowne, and Watts. He continued
to reside in Boston, but was not again connected with any
parish, till his death, which occurred July 5, 1788.
Bynae/us (ANTHONY), a Dutch Orientalist, born at
Utrecht Aug. 6, 1654, became a Protestant minister and a
proficient in Hebrew and Syriac literature, and published a
treatise on Hebrew vowel-points and several sermons and
commentaries. Died at Deventer Noy. 8, 1698.
Byng (John), an admiral, a son of Lord Torrington,
was born in 1704. He gained the rank of admiral of the
red in 1748. In 1756 he commanded an expedition sent
to relieve Minorca, then blockaded by the French. He
failed, and was accused of cowardice by the ministers, who
sought to divert attention from their own inefficient meas-
ures by sacrificing him to the public indignation. He was
tried by a court-martial and shot Mar. 14, 1757.
Byng Inlet, a port of entry of the province of On-
tario (Canada), on the N. side of Georgian Bay, Lake
Huron, has very extensive saw-mills, whence 20,000,000
feet of lumber are yearly sent to the U. S. It is visited in
winter by dog-sledges, and in summer by regular steamers.
Pop. about 200.
By’ram, a township of Sussex co., N.J. Pop. 1332.
Byrd, a township of Cape Girardeau co., Mo. P. 2112.
Byrd, a township of Brown co., 0. Pop. 1251.
Byrd, a township of Goochland co, Va. Pop. 3216.
Byrd (WILLIAM), F. R. S., born at Westover, Va., Mar.
28, 1674, studied law in London, and long held important
offices in Virginia. He was a patron of literature, and
laid out in 1733 the towns of Petersburg and Richmond.
He wrote many valuable sketches of his travels in Vir-
ginia. Some of his writings were published by Edmund
Ruffin as “The Westover Manuscripts” (1841). Died
Aug. 26, 1744.
By’rom (John), F. R. S., an English writer, born near
Manchester in 1691, was educated at Cambridge. He
wrote prose and verse, contributed to Addison’s “Specta-
tor,” and invented a system of shorthand. Died Sept.
28, 1763.
By’rom, a post-village of Shiawassee co., Mich.
Byron, a post-township of Ogle co., Ill. Pop. 1093.
Byron, a township of Buchaman co., Ia. Pop. 1195.
Byron, a post-township of Oxford co., Me. It has
manufactures of lumber. Pop. 242.
Byron, a township of Kent co., Mich. Pop. 1326.
Byron, a township of Wauseca, co., Minn. Pop. 253.
Byron, a post-township of Genesee co., N.Y., contains
several mineral springs. Pop. 1734. -
Byron, a post-township of Fond du Lac co., Wis. Pop.
1441.
Byron (GEORGE GoRDON NoFL), LORD, an eminent Eng-
lish poet, was born in London the 22d of Jan., 1788. He
belonged to an ancient Norman family whose name was
variously written Burun, Biron, and Byron. John Byron,
the poet’s grandfather, was a noted English admiral. Cap-
tain Byrom, the son of the admiral, married Catherine Gor-
don, a Scottish heiress, who had only one son, the subject of
this notice. Captain Byron was distinguished for nothing
but his vices. #. squandered a large portion of his
wife's property, he deserted her, after which she retired to
Scotland, and resided for some time at Aberdeen, where
young Byron received the first rudiments of his education.
Before he was seven years old, with his mother he visited
the Highlands, the picturesque beauty of which, even at
that age, made, it is said, a powerful impression on his
mind. When he was ten years old he succeeded to the
estate and title of his grand-uncle, William, fifth Lord
Byron, who had resided at Newstead Abbey, where he died
in 1798. The poet had a congenital deformity of his feet,
which rendered him lame, and which was during his whole
life a bitter mortification to him. When he was about
twelve years old he was sent to school at Harrow. While
here he became acquainted with Miss Chaworth, for whom
he conceived a romantic and passionate love. She was the
heiress of Annesley, which was adjacent to Newstead, the
estate to which Byron had succeeded. This appears to
have been one of the truest and deepest attachments of his
life, and he seems to have fully persuaded himself that if he
had married Miss Chaworth he would have been a far bet-
ter as well as a happier man. He went in 1805 to Cam-
bridge, which he left two years afterwards without taking
a degree. While at the university he published (1807) a
volume of poems, “Hours of Idleness,” which was criticised
in the “Edinburgh Review.” This critique was written by
Mr. (afterwards Lord) Brougham, but Byron always sup-
posed that Jeffrey was the author. In retaliation he wrote
“English Bards and Scotch Reviewers,” which may be said
to have laid the foundation of his fame. This satire, though
evincing great talent in its way, is in many parts egre-
giously unjust, as, for example, where the satirist speaks
of Scott. It is but just to add that Byron himself after-
wards deeply regretted the publication of the poem, and
did everything in his power to suppress it.
In 1809, in company with his friend Mr. Hobhouse, By-
ron commenced his travels through different parts of Europe,
Spain, Portugal, European Turkey, and Greece. After an
absence of about two years, he returned to England and
published the first two cantos of “Childe Harold’s Pilgrim-
age,” which were received with extraordinary favor, so that,
as he himself informs us, he “awoke one morning and found
himself famous.” He soon after took his seat in the Brit-
ish House of Peers. At one time it would appear that he
thought seriously of giving himself up to politics, but he
soon changed his purpose and turned his attention again
to poetry. Within the next two or three years he pro-
duced several minor poems of exquisite beauty—namely,
“The Giaour,” “The Bride of Abydos,” “The Corsair,”
“Lara,” “The Siege of Corinth,” “Parisina,” and “The
Prisoner of Chillon.” On the 2d of Jan., 1815, he was
married to Miss Isabella Millbanke, only daughter of Sir
Ralph Millbanke, afterwards Noel. , She was regarded as a
great heiress. But, if Byron may be believed, his fortune
was but little improved by this marriage. He says, “All
44
690
I have ever received or am likely to receive (and that has
been twice paid back, too) was £10,000.” The union was
a very unhappy one, as well on account of Lord Byron's
licentious habits as the incompatibility of temper of the
two parties.
Lady Byron gave birth to a daughter, Ada, who became
afterwards the countess of Lovelace. She was Lord Byron's
only legitimate child; he addresses her in “Childe Harold”
as “ sole daughter of my house and heart.”
Not long after the birth of Ada, his wife left him, and,
taking the child with her, went to her father's. He left
England early in 1816, resolved never again to return to
his native land. Passing through Belgium, he visited the
field of Waterloo; he subsequently went to Switzerland,
and resided near Geneva. Here he wrote the third canto
of “Childe Harold.” He afterwards abode some time in
Venice. He next visited Ravenna, where he formed a
liaison with the countess of Guiccioli, whose sprightly and
imaginative character, no less than her personal beauty,
powerfully attracted him. While at Pisa in 1822 he expe-
rienced a great sorrow in the tragic death of his friend,
the poet Shelley. Early in 1822, Byron, Shelley, and Leigh
Hunt were associated in the publication of a journal styled
“The Liberal,” but Byron and Hunt quarrelled soon after
the death of Shelley, and “The Liberal” was discontinued.
While in Italy, Byron wrote several of his most admired
poems, including the fourth canto of “Childe Harold,”
“Mazeppa,” “Manfred,” “Cain, a Mystery,” “Marino
Faliero,” “The Two Foscari,” “Sardanapalus,” “Werner,”
and “Don Juan.” He espoused with enthusiasm the cause
of Greek independence, and in 1823 passed over from Italy
to Cephalonia, where he spent several months. In the early
part of 1824 he arrived at Missolonghi. He took, April 9,
a severe cold, which caused his death on the 19th of April,
1824. - a
Byron's, poetic genius was of a very high order, but he
was more distinguished for the clearness and intensity of
his intellect (if we may use this expression) than for its
breadth or versatility. It has been said that Brougham's
galling article in the “Edinburgh Review" “stung Byron
into a poet,” but this expression of course implies that
he previously possessed the potentiality of genius. But
whether the above remark be true or not, it is certain that
Byron’s intellect partook in a remarkable degree of the
character of his emotional nature. It was only under the
influence of intense feeling or passion that he could put
forth his poetical powers with any success. And hence it
is that everything he has written is so strongly colored with
his own personal feelings. He was perhaps the most in-
tensely subjective of all the great poets that ever lived.
This explains why he had no genius for dramatic com-
position. He could only represent successfully those cha-
racters which resembled his own. His soul was not capa-
cious nor calm enough to reflect without distortion the
infinitely varied pictures presented by the comedy and
tragedy of human life. But in his own department he has
probably never been equalled—certainly never surpassed—
by any poet either in ancient or modern times. His two
most remarkable characteristics are, first, his power of ex-
pressing intense passion, particularly of the darker and
fiercer kinds. “Never,” says Macaulay, “had any writer
so vast a command of the whole eloquence of scorn, mis-
anthropy, and despair.” . Again, no poet ever displayed a
more exquisite taste in the choice of his expressions, or a
more admirable art in his manner of presenting to the im-
agination of his readers any subject, whether of the delight-
ful or of the opposite kind. (See MooRE’s “Life of Byron;”
“Recollections of the Last Days of Shelley and Byron,” by
E. J. TRELAwNEY, 1858.) J. THOMAs.
Byron (HENRY JAMEs), an English writer of burlesque
dramas, is a lawyer by profession, and has contributed
much to “London Fun,” of which he was for a time the
editor. His principal works are travesties of various pop-
ular and standard dramas and operas, but he has produced
several comedies, pantomimes, and novels. He has also
acquired distinction as an actor in London.
Byron (JoBN), WICE-ADMIRAL, grandfather of the poet
and son of the fourth Lord Byron, born at Newstead Nov.
8, 1723, entered the navy, served in Anson's expedition of
1740, served against Louisburg in 1760, circumnavigated
the globe (1764–66), and fought D’Estaing off Granada
July 6, 1779, in the American war.
He was familiarly known as “Foulweather Jack,” and was
a popular hero. - - -
Bys'sus [Gr. Bijargos], a Greek word which occurs in the
New Testament, and is translated “fine linen.” (See Luke
xvi. 19; Rev. xviii. 12.) Some suppose it was cotton or
silk.
Byssus, a name given to a bundle of silky or shining,
semi-transparent, horny filaments by which many bivalve
- base of the foot of the animal.
Died April 10, 1786.
BYRON-BYZANTINE EMPIRE.
mollusks attach themselves to rocks or other fixed sub-
stances. These filaments are secreted by a gland at the
They are guided to their
place by the foot, and expand into a sort of disk at the
point of attachment. An example of the byssus may be
seen in common mussels. The Pinna of the Mediterranean
produces long and strong filaments of a silky lustre, which
can be woven into cloth. This cloth is highly prized, but
the Pinna has become so rare that it cannot be produced in
large quantities.
By'ström (JoHAN NILs), a Swedish sculptor, born at
Philippstad Dec. 18, 1783, studied at Rome. He became a
resident of Stockholm in 1816. Among his works are
“Pandora Combing her Hair,” a statue of Linnaeus, and a
colossal statue of Gustavus Adolphus. Died at Rome Mar.
13, 1848. --
Byttneria/ceae [from Byttneria, one of the general,
a natural order of exogenous plants, closely allied to the
Malvaceae, consists of trees and shrubs, mostly tropical
or sub-tropical, with simple, leaves and monadelphous
stamens, the anthers of which are turned inward. The
order comprises nearly 400 species, many of which have
beautiful flowers. Florida has a few unimportant spe-
cies. The Guazuma ulmifolia, a native of Brazil, bears an
edible fruit. The fibrous bark of this and other species
is used in the manufacture of cordage. The Abroma ow-
gustum, an East Indian tree, is commended as worthy of
cultivation for its fibre, which is beautiful, fine, and strong,
and is produced in abundance. This tree bears beautiful
purple flowers. Among the other species of the order is
Theobroma Cacao, from the seeds of which chocolate and
cacao are obtained, Several others are useful, as yielding
fibres, fruits, or medicines.
Byz'antine, or Bezant [from Byzantium, the old
name of Constantinople], in numismatics, is a term ap-
plied to a coin of the Byzantine empire. These coins were
of gold, silver, and bronze, bore impressions distinct from
the earlier Roman coins, and were copied in several coun-
tries. They were current in the north of Europe, and even
in India. The silver bezant was worth about 10s. sterling.
The gold bezant was worth at one time fifteen pounds
Sterling.
Byzantine Art, in ornament and architecture, is that
symbolic system which originated at Byzantium (or Con-
stantinople), and was developed by the Greek artists out
of the Christian symbolism. During the Dark Ages, after
Rome had been conquered by the Goths and Huns, and the
fine arts had been nearly extinguished by the influx of bar-
barism, many Western artists retired to Constantinople,
and founded a school by which the traditions of antique
and classical art were cherished, and modified by whatever
was new and peculiar in the Christian system. The great
features of this style are the circle and dome, the round
arch, and all the various details of form which are derived
from the lily, the cross, the nimbus, and other symbols.
Among the finest specimens of this style of architecture
are the mosque of St. Sophia at Constantinople and the
church of St. Mark at Venice.
At the Renaissance, Italian and other artists in every
department derived from living Greek or Byzantine artists
the technical rudiments of their respective arts, which could
scarcely have been learned by a mere examination of ancient
works. The school of Byzantine art, as modified by Chris-
tian ideas and symbols, commenced in the time of Justin-
ian, and continued to flourish until 1200 or later. After it
had been banished from Constantinople by the Turks, who
captured that city in 1453, it was cherished by the Greek
Church to form the basis of artistic life in Russia.
Byzantine Empire, also called the Eastern or
Greek Empire, is the name of a former empire of Europe
which came into existence in 395 A. D., upon the death of
the Roman emperor Theodosius the Great, who divided his
empire between his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius.
While the latter received the western half as his portion,
Arcadius became ruler of the Eastern empire, then com-
prising Syria, Asia Minor, Pontus, Egypt, Thrace, Moesia,
Macedonia, Crete, and Greece, with the capital, Constanti-
nople. The history of the Byzantine empire extends from
395 A.D. to 1453. During the reign of Arcadius ambitious
politicians wielded an unlimited power, and oppressed the
people to satisfy their rapacity. Arcadius was followed by
his seven-year-old son, Theodosius II. (408–450), for whom
a prefect ruled with wisdom and strength. In 415 he took
his sister Pulcheria as co-regent, who from that time took
charge of the entire administration. Peace and prosperity
reigned during Theodosius's rule, and were only interrupted
by a short war with Persia in 422, which led to the acquisi-
tion of a part of Armenia. But peace with Attila, king of
the Huns, could only be purchased by large tracts of land
on the Danube and large sums of money. Upon the death
BYZANTINE HISTORIANS.–BZOVIUS,
of Theodosius he was succeeded by his sister Pulcheria. She
married the senator Marcianus, who reigned until 457. Under
Justinian (527–565), who became famous by his legislation
and the victories of his generals, Belisarius and Narses, the
Byzantine empire gained great influence and power among
the other nations, while in the interior the dissensions of
the parties were quelled effectually. Under the nephew
and successor of Justinian (Justinus II., 565–578) the em-
pire suffered from invasions of the Lombards and Per-
sians. In 718, Leo III. ascended the throne, and continued
to sustain himself in spite of the contest concerning the
worship of images, which continued for over a century,
and the attacks of the Arabs. He died in 741. He con-
quered Phrygia from the Arabs, but lost the last remnant
of territory in Italy. Basilius I. Macedo, the founder of
the Macedonian dynasty, ascended the throne in 867. He
introduced reforms in all branches of the administration,
and revised the laws of Justinian. He was succeeded by
his son, Leo VI., who called upon the Turks to aid him
against the Saracens, and thus opened the way for the
Turks. After the extinction of the Macedonian dynasty,
in 1057, Isaac Comnenus was raised to the throne by the
unanimous vote of the army. He introduced many re-
forms, and entered a monastery in 1059. Among his suc-
cessors, Alexius I., who began to rule in 1081, was the
most important. He increased the area of the empire con-
siderably. The dynasty of the Comnenian emperors con-
tinued to rule until 1204. In 1204, Constantinople was
taken by the French and Venetians (called the Latims),
who then became masters of the whole empire. They
divided it into four parts, giving the first, with the capital,
to Baldwin, count of Flanders, who was made emperor,
and whom the other participants in the expedition recog-
nized as their sovereign. The Venetians received as their
share the countries bordering on the Adriatic and Ægean
Seas, a part of the Morea, together with several islands;
Bonifacius, count of Montferrat, Macedonia, and part of
Greece; dukedoms, countships, principalities, etc. were
established at various places; while a number of Greek
princes maintained their independence. Under Theodorus
Lascaris, who had been elected emperor at Constantinople,
an empire was formed at Nicaea (Nice), and in Trebizond
Alexius Comnenus ruled with absolute power. One of his
successors, John Comnenus, became emperor of Trebizond.
Neither Baldwin nor his successors could do anything to
avert the impending ruin. Baldwin was taken prisoner by
the Bulgarians, and died in 1206. His brother Henry
ruled bravely and wisely till 1216, when the empire became
a prey to utter anarchy. f
The dynasty of the Palaeologi began with Michael VIII.
Palaeologus, who, by the help of the Genoese, captured Con-
stantinople in 1261. Michael, the first of the Palaeologi,
was an able prince, but offended both clergy and people by
an -attempt to unite the Greek and Latin churches. An-
dronicus III., a great-grandson of Michael, became em-
peror in 1328. During his reign the Turks took Nicaea
and Nicomedia and devastated the European coasts. In
the reign of his son, Johannes W., the Turks began to gain
ground in Europe, and in 1362 Sultan Amurath had made
Adrianople his capital. Under the following rulers the
empire rapidly declined, giving way more and more to the
advancing forces of Turks, until on May 28, 1453, with the
capture of Constantinople by Mohammed II. and the death
of Constantine XI., the Byzantine empire came to an end,
and the Turkish rule was, after centuries of fierce warfare,
firmly established in Europe. - A. J. ScHEM.
Byzantine Historians are those Greek writers who
have treated of the history of the Byzantine empire. They
are divided into three classes: 1. Those whose works refer
exclusively to Byzantine history; 2. Those who professedly
occupy themselves with universal history, but at the same
time treat Byzantine history at disproportionate length; 3.
Those who write on Byzantine customs, antiquities, archi-
tecture, etc. The most interesting and instructive among
them are those who confine their attention to a limited
number of years, and to the events which transpired under
their own observation or in which they took part. The Byz-
antine historians flourished from about 300 A.D. to 1453,
the date of the capture of their city by the Turks. Among
the most eminent of these very numerous writers we may
reckon Procopius (about 500–565 A.D.), an excellent his-
torian; Acropolita (1220–83), whose chronicle is but short;
Cinnamus (twelfth century), an able but strongly preju-
diced writer; Georgius Pachymeres (1242–1310), one of
the best of the later Byzantines; Anna Comnena (1083–
II48), a romantic and untrustworthy writer; Nicephorus
Bryennius (died 1137), the husband of the last named, and
one of the most accomplished historians of his age; the
emperor John (V.) Cantacuzenus (about 1300–55), a very
partial historian; Nicephorus the patriarch (758–828), one
of the best of all; Nicetas (twelfth and thirteenth centuries),
691
-g
whose writings are highly valued; and Nicholas Chalco-
condyles (who was alive late in the fifteenth century), one
of the latest, treating of the history both of his own people
and of the Turks. Of some of these, and of others, there
are many writings yet unpublished, so that this field of
historical research contains much fresh, if perhaps unpro-
ductive, soil. As a class, the Byzantine writers are turgid
and bombastic, full of prejudice and conceit, and the proper
estimation of their value requires much labor and dis-
crimination. The principal Byzantine histories were col-
lected and published at Paris in 36 vols., with Latin trans-
lations, under the editorship of P. Philippe Labbé, a Jesuit,
and his successors (1648–1711). This magnificent collection
was reprinted, with additions, at Venice (1727–33). In
1828, Niebuhr, assisted by Bekker, the two Dindorfs, Scho-
pen, Meinecke, and Lachmann, began a new “Corpus Scrip-
torum Historiae Byzantinae,” the forty-eighth volume of
which appeared in 1855.
Byzantine Rescension is a Greek text of the New
Testament, which was used in Constantinople after it be-
came a metropolitan see in the Eastern Church. It is cited
by several Greek Fathers, and was used as the basis of the .
old Slavic version. It corresponded quite nearly with the
present “received text” and with many existing MSS.
Byzan’tium [Gr. Bugévrtov], an ancient Greek city,
situated on the Thracian Bosporus and on the site of the
modern Constantinople. It is said to have been founded
by a colony of Megarians in 667 B.C. It increased rap-
idly, and soon became an important commercial city. Few
cities could boast so magnificent a position. Commanding,
as it did, the two shores of both Europe and Asia, at the
same time secure and advantageously situated for com-
merce, it had at its command the choicest gifts of nature
and the most charming scenery. Byzantium was very
anciently the site of extensive tunny-fisheries, the fishes
visiting the port periodically in immense numbers, as they
do at the present day. The fish were salted and exported.
The name “Golden Horn,” still applied to a part of the
channel of Constantinople, was probably derived from the
great revenue flowing from this fishery. The Byzantines
also levied a considerable toll on vessels passing from sea
to sea. The levying of these tolls once involved them in
war with the Rhodians. They also derived much profit
from their rich corn-fields, not far from the city. On the
S. it was bathed by the Propontis (Sea of Mármora), and
on the N. by the waters of the Golden Horn. Having been
captured by a general of Darius Hystaspis, it was liberated
by Pausanias about 478 B. C. A few years later Byzantium
became an ally or tributary of Athens, against which it
revolted in 440 B. C. It was besieged and taken by Alci-
biades in 408. Philip of Macedon besieged it in 340 B.C.,
but Demosthenes persuaded the Athenians to send a fleet
which compelled him to raise the siege. This repulse of
Philip was one of the proudest feats of the great orator,
who often recurs to it in his speech “On the Crown.” By-
zantium was for ages especially exposed to the attacks of
barbarians, but the long wars did not beget much valor in
the people. From their great commercial prosperity they
early became corrupted, and they were proverbially indo-
lent, cowardly, and luxurious. Byzantium was probably
either a kingdom or the seat of a tyrannus; afterwards it
became an aristocracy, and later a crude democracy.
The Byzantians suffered much from the predatory incur-
sions of the Gauls, and being unable to resist them in bat-
tle, agreed about 279 B.C. to pay them an annual tribute.
This city supported Pescennius Niger in the civil war against
Septimius Severus, who captured it in 196 A.D., after a
brave resistance of three years’ duration. He then re-
duced it almost to ruin, but afterwards relented and par-
tially restored it. The name of Augusta Antonina was given
to it in his time. The Greek Christians ascribe the foun-
dation of the Byzantine Church to the labors of Saint
Andrew the apostle, but this statement is unsupported by
trustworthy evidence. It is, however, certain that soon
after 200 A.D. there were numerous Christians in the city.
In 330 A. D. Constantine the Great selected this place as
the capital of his empire, and founded a new city, to which
he gave the name of New Rome. This city of Constantine
was much more extensive than Byzantium, which occupied
in all probability only §. most eastern of the seven hills on
which the modern capital is built. (See CoNSTANTINOPLE.)
REvisBD BY C. W. GREENE.
Bzo/vius, or Bzowski (ABRAHAM), a Roman Catho-
lic historian, born at Proczovic, Poland, in 1597. He was
a zealous Dominican prior, and was called to Rome by
Pius V., where he wrote nine volumes of a continuation of
the “Annals of Baronius,” an “Ecclesiastical History’
(3 vols. folio, 1817), and other historical works, besides nu-
merous sermons and biographies of several popes. Died
Jan. 31, 1637.
692
C–CABINET.
C.
C, the third letter of most European alphabets, is in
English either a palatal mute, with the sound of k, a sound
which it has before a, o, u, and the consonants (except h),
unless marked with the cedilla, thus, º, as in façade and
other words, mostly from the French and Portuguese.
When marked with the cedilla, or when occurring before e,
i, or y, it has the sibilant sound of 8. Ch has (L) the Span-
ish sound, as in the word church; (2) the French sound
(equivalent to sh, the German sch), as in chaise ; and (3)
the hard sound, equivalent to k, as in chord. The German
guttural ch is never used in English. C in music is the
first note of the natural diatomic scale. C in Latin stood
for 100, and also for the praenomen Caius. In chemistry
it is the symbol of carbon ; and c. c. is an abbreviation for
“ cubic centimétre.”
Caa'ing Whale [Scottish for “driving whale "I, the
Globiocephalus deductor, a large porpoise which abounds in
large herds on the coasts of Great Britain, North America,
Iceland, etc. It takes its name from the fact that when one
of the herd is stranded, the rest all follow it, sometimes as
many as 100 at once rushing to their own destruction in
this manner. They are the source of rich booty to fisher-
men. Other species of the genus inhabit the Mediterranean,
the Pacific, etc. It is one of the “bottle-head” whales of
North America, and is most frequently caught in Scotland.
Cabal', a secret council formed under the reign of
Charles II. (1667), consisted of the following members:
Sir Thomas, afterwards Lord Clifford, Lord Arlington, the
duke of Buckingham, Lord Ashley, afterwards earl of
Shaftesbury, and the earl of Lauderdale. The Cabal was
dissolved in 1674. The prevailing opinion, that the word
was formed from the initials of the names of its members,
is perhaps erroneous, as it had been used before to denote
a secret cabinet, and is said to be derived from the Hebrew
(see CABBALA), but this accidental association of the initial
letters may have suggested this particular application of
the name.
Cabanel (ALEXANDRE), a French historical painter,
born at Montpellier Sept. 28, 1823, obtained a first medal
at the Paris exhibition of 1855. Among his masterpieces
we may name “The Florentine Poet ’’ and “The Lost
Paradise.”
Cabanis (PIERRE JEAN GEORGE), an eminent French
philosopher and physician, born near Saintes (Corrèze)
June 5, 1757. He was a friend and political partisan of
Mirabeau, whom he attended in his last illness. He was
admitted into the Institute in 1796, and became professor
of medicine in Paris in 1797. In the early part of his life
he was an atheist. His principal work is the “Relations
between the Physical System and Mental Faculties of
Man” (“Rapports du Physique et du Moral de l'Homme,”
1802), in which he maintained that “the brain secretes
thought as the liver secretes bile.” But he afterwards
changed his opinions in this respect, and adopted theistic
views. Died May 5, 1808.
Cabar/rus, a county in S. W. Central North Carolina.
Area, 350 square miles. . It is drained by branches of Rocky
River. The surface is hilly; the soil in some parts is fer-
tile. Gold and copper are found. Cattle, grain, cotton,
and wool are the chief products. It is intersected by the
North Carolina R. R. Capital, Concord. Pop. 11,954.
Cab'bage [Fr. chow; Ger.: Kohl), a variety of the Braş-
sica oleracea, a plant of the order Cruciferae. Other va-
rieties of this species are the broccoli, cauliflower, and kale.
Cabbages are of many sorts, which are divided into com-
mon and Savoy cabbages, the latter being characterized by
wrinkled leaves. They are also divided into early and late
cabbages, which differ remarkably in their periods of growth.
The cabbage requires a good soil and clean culture, and
furnishes not only a cheap, palatable food for mankind, but
is very useful as a forage plant. It”may be remarked that
although boiled cabbage occasionally acts as a poison on
certain peculiar constitutions, uncooked cabbage in the form
of a salad is generally very wholesome.
Cab'bage Butterfly, a name common to several
species of butterfly, the larvae of which devour the leaves
of plants of the cabbage tribe, and are popularly known as
cabbage worms. They belong mostly to the genus Pieris,
are natives of Europe, but have been introduced into
America. The excessive multiplication of these insects is
generally prevented by small birds, which devour them and
their caterpillars, and by insects of the ichneumon tribe,
which lay their eggs in the caterpillars, that their own lar-
vae may feed on them.
Cabbage-Fly (Anthomyia brassicae), a fly of the same
family with the house-fly, flesh-fly, etc., of which the mag-
gots often do injury to the roots of cabbages. It is of the
same genus with the turnip-fly, onion-fly, etc. They are
found in both continents, and are very destructive.
Cabbage-Palm, or Cabbage Tree, a name given
to several species of palm, the great terminal bud of which
is eaten like cabbage. The cabbage-palm of the West In-
dies is the Areca oleracea, which grows to the height of
130 feet or more. (See ARECA.) The palmetto (Chamaerops
palmetto) is sometimes called cabbage-palm.
Cab'bala [Heb., nºap, “that which is received ” (by
tradition), from Şip (kibbel), to “receive”], an ancient
Jewish system of religious philosophy or theosophy. Those
who have studied the subject with the greatest care are not
fully agreed among themselves as to its origin and charac-
ter. The Cabbala attempted to explain the nature of God
and of the universe. Some of the late writers of this school
taught that God has neither will, intention, desire, nor
action, but that ten Sephiroth, or intelligences, emanated
from God. The first Sephirah is called the Inscrutable
Height (from which the second was derived, as the third
from the second, and so on). The names of the other in-
telligences in order are wisdom, intellect, grace, power,
beauty, firmness, splendor, foundation, and authority. As
God became active in these Sephiroth, so these become exter-
nally manifested in the universe.
The psychology of the Cabbala teaches the doctrine of
the transmigration of souls, but as the literature of the sys-
tem is immense, and its teachings recondite and often
puerile, it is difficult and unnecessary to state exactly what
this philosophy taught. It probably influenced and was
influenced by the philosophy known as Neo-Platonism.
According to Hallam, the Cabbala originated with the
Alexandrian Jews near the beginning of the Christian era.
Cab'balists, the name given to those Jews who believe
in the Cabbala, or traditional interpretation of the Penta-
teuch, said to have been received by Moses from God on
Mount Sinai. (See preceding article.)
Cab'ell, a county in the W. part of West Virginia. Area,
448 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by the Ohio
River, and intersected by the Guyandotte. The surface is
hilly or uneven; the soil is partly fertile. Tobacco and grain
are the chief products. Capital, Cabell Court-house. It is
intersected by the Chesapeake and Ohio R. R. Pop. 6429.
Cabell (JAMES LAWRENCE), A. M., M.D., LL.D. See
APPENDIX.
Cabell Court-house. See BARBoursville.
Cabet (ETIENNE), a French socialist, born at Dijon Jan.
2, 1788. He was a radical democrat in politics and a leader
of the Carbonari. In 1842 he published a romantic work
called “Travels in Icaria,” which was very popular among
the workingmen of Paris. He planted in 1840 a colony on
the communist system in Texas, from which he and his
followers removed in 1849 to Nauvoo, Ill., after that town
had been deserted by the Mormons. Died Nov. 9, 1856.
His colony was broken up in 1857.
Cabe'za del Buey, a town of Spain, in the province
of Badajos, on the northern slope of the Sierra Pedregoso,
112 miles by rail E. S. E. of Badajos. It has manufactures
of linen and woollen goods. Pop. 6294. -
Cab' in [Fr. cabane], a small room or enclosure; a cot-
tage, small house, or rudely-built temporary residence.
Also an apartment in a ship or steamboat for the use of
the officers and passengers. These apartments in steam-
boats are often called saloons. In ships of war the rooms
of the admirals and captains are called state cabins, and
are fitted up with much elegance, with a gallery or balcony
projecting at the stern. All the cabins of a ship of war
are enclosed by light panelling, so that the partitions are
readily removed when it is necessary to clear the decks for
action. -
Cabin Creek, a township of Kanawha co., West Va.
Pop. 2437.
Cab’inet, a closet; a small room or retired apartment,
a private room in which consultations are held; a piece of
furniture, consisting of a chest or box with drawers and
CABINET-CACERES.
693
doors; a small room used as a repository for works of art,
antiquities, medals, specimens of natural history, etc. The
term cabinet is also applied to a collection of such objects.
A cabinet picture is a painting suitable for a cabinet or
small room. These are generally of small dimensions and
finely finished.
Cabinet, in politics, a select council of an executive
chief; a committee of ministers or the governing council
of a country, so called from the cabinet or apartment in
which the ruler assembles his privy council. In the U. S.
the cabinet is composed of seven heads of departments—
namely, secretary of state, secretary of the treasury, Secre-
tary of war, secretary of the navy, secretary of the interior,
postmaster-general, and attorney-general. In England a
variable number of ministers (usually about fifteen) are by
official usage members of the cabinet, and are called cabi-
net ministers, but they have no recognized legal character.
The names of the members who compose the cabinet are
never officially announced; no record is kept of its resolu-
tions or meetings, nor has its existence been recognized by
any act of Parliament. The British cabinet always includes
the first lord of the treasury (who is prime minister), the
lord chancellor, the chancellor of the exchequer, the presi-
dent of the council, and five secretaries of state.
Cabin Run, a township of Mineral co., West Va. Pop.
822.
Cabi'ri, or Cabeiri [Gr. Ká8stpot), ancient divinities
worshipped in Samothrace, Phoenicia, Greece, and other
countries. The myth of the Cabiri is obscure, and not
well explaimed by ancient writers. Their worship was per-
formed with much solemnity and mystery.
Ca’ble, a rope or a chain, employed on shipboard to
suspend and retain the anchors, and for other purposes.
The name is often applied to wire ropes, especially such as
are used in suspension bridges, to submarine telegraph
lines, etc. Rope cables are made of the best hemp, of
manilla, or of coir. The circumference varies from about
three inches to twenty-six. A number of yarns are twisted
to form a lissum ; three lissums, twisted in an opposite
direction, form a plain-laid or strand ; and three or four
strands twisted in the direction of the yarns in a lissum
form a cable. The strength of a cable eighteen inches in
circumference is about sixty tons; the strength varies ac-
cording to the cube of the diameter. On shipboard, cables
receive the names of chief cables, bower cables, etc., accord-
ing to the anchor to which they are attached. Hempen
cables are now generally spun by the wonderfully ingenious
machinery invented by the late Prof. Treadwell of Harvard
College.
Chain cables consist of links, the length of each of
which is about six diameters of the iron of which it is
made, and the breadth about three and a half diameters.
The stay-pins, to strengthen the links, are of cast-iron.
The sizes of chain cables are denoted by the thickness of
the rod-iron for the links.
The defects in chain cables as compared with those of
hemp are the greater weight, the less elasticity, and the
greater care required in management; but the advantages
more than counterbalance these defects, and have led to the
very extensive adoption of chain cables. Wire cables are
sometimes used for the standing rigging of ships.
Cable City, a post-township of Deer Lodge co., Mon.
Pop. 280.
Cabo chiens, a number of journeymen butchers who
took their name from their leader, Jean Caboche. They
were partisans of John, duke of Burgundy, whose cause
they maintained against the Armagnacs. Their outrages
in Paris caused the citizens to rise against them in 1418.
Caſbo Fri'o (i.e. “cool cape”), a city and seaport of
Brazil, is on the Atlantic, near a cape of its own name, 75
miles N. E. of Rio Janeiro. It is at the S. E. extremity of
Lake Araruama.
Cabomba/ceae [from Cabomba, one of the general, a
small natural order of exogenous aquatic plants, allied to
the Nympheaceae. They are indigenous in North and South
America and Australia, and are distinguished by their dis-
tinct carpels, abundant albumen in the seeds, and the ab-
sence of a torus. They are included in the order Nymphe-
aceae by some botanists.
Cabool’, or Cabul, a fortified city of Afghanistan, on
the Cabool River, here crossed by three bridges, is 80 miles
N. N. E. of Ghuznee, and is elevated about 6400 feet above
the level of the sea; lat. 34° 30' N., lon. 69° 6' E. The cli-
mate in winter is very severe. The citadel, called Bala. His-
Sar, includes the palace of the khan, the government offices,
royal gardens, and numerous dwellings. The 'streets are
narrow ; the houses are two or three stories high, and have
flat roofs. The public buildings are not remarkable. Cabool
is widely celebrated for the variety and excellent quality of
Capital, Cáceres.
its fruits, apples, pears, pomegranates, grapes, etc. It has
an extensive trade as an entrepôt between India and
Toorkistan. The people of Cabool are Mohammedans and
a mixture of several races. Under the emperor Bäber,
Cabool was the capital of the Mogul empire. It was taken
by Tamerlane about 1400, and by Nādir Shah in 1738. The
British captured it in 1839, but in Jan., 1842, the Afghans
revolted and massacred the British army. Pop. estimated
at 60,000.
Caboose, or Camboose [Ger. Kabuse], a name of
the kitchen or cook-room in a merchant-ship. In coasting-
vessels the term is applied to a portable cast-iron cooking-
stove on the deck. -
Cab'ot, a post-township of Washington co., Vt. It
has manufactures of lumber, woollens, etc. Pop. 1279.
Cabot (GEORGE), a statesman and Federalist, born at
Salem, Mass., Dec. 3, 1752. He was elected to the Senate
of the U. S. in 1790, and was president of the Hartford
Convention in 1814. He was distinguished for sound judg-
ment, and was well versed in political economy. Died
April 18, 1823. -
Cabot (John), a foreign merchant of Bristol who after
the discovery of America by Columbus was placed in com-
mand of a fleet of five vessels, which sailed in the spring
of 1497. They reached the coast of Newfoundland June
24, and were in England again in August.
Cabot (SEBASTIAN), an eminent navigator, a son of the
preceding, was born in Bristol about 1477. He commanded
a ship in his father's voyage, and in 1499 conducted
another expedition, and visited the Gulf of Mexico. Hav-
ing entered the service of Ferdinand, king of Spain, in
1512, he commanded an expedition which examined the
coasts of Brazil and La Plata in 1526. He returned to
England in 1548, after which a pension was granted to
him by Edward VI. Died about 1557. (See RICHARD BID-
DLE, “Memoir of Sebastian Cabot,” 1831.)
Ca'bra (anc. AEgabrum), a town of Spain, in the prov-
ince of Córdova, 30 miles S. S. E. of the city of Córdova.
It has a college, a cathedral, a convent, and manufactures
of linens, hats, soap, bricks, etc. The neighboring region
is volcanic, and produces excellent wine. Pop. 11,500.
Cabral’ (PEDRO ALVAREz), a Portuguese navigator
noted as the discoverer of Brazil, was born about 1460.
He commanded a fleet which Emmanuel of Portugal sent
to the East Indies in 1500. Having been carried out of
his course by a westward ocean current, he discovered
Brazil in April, 1500. He afterwards pursued his voyage
to Calicut, and made conquests in India, where he founded
the first Portuguese factory. He returned to Lisbon, where
he arrived in June, 1501. Died about 1526.
Cabre/ra (RAMON), a Spanish general and Carlist,
noted for his cruelty, was born at Tortosa, Aug. 31, 1810.
In the civil war which began about 1834 he fought for
Don Carlos against the Christinos, and became a leader of
guerillas. He gained a victory at Buñol in Feb., 1837,
and took Valencia, but he was driven out of Spain by Es-
partero in 1840, and retired to France. He returned in
1848 and renewed the contest, but he was defeated and
went into exile in Jan., 1849.
Caca/o, the fruit of the Theobroma Cacao, a tree of
tropical America, of the order Byttneriaceae. Chocolate
is made of the roasted oily kernels of the cacao nut, which
also yields cacao butter. This tree should not be con-
founded with the cocoanut tree nor with the coca of Peru.
Cacao Butter, a fixed oil, hard and solid at ordinary
temperatures, which is yielded in large quantities by the
fruit of Theobroma Cacao. It is extracted by heat and
pressure. It contains a very large proportion of stearin,
with some olein and palmitin. It is largely used in the
preparation of cosmetics, and is especially useful in phar-
macy in the preparation of suppositories. The mafurra
tallow which is brought from Madagascar closely resembles
the above in chemical and physical properties. Cacao but-
ter is not to be confounded with cocoa, butter, which is a
kind of palm oil, used in the manufacture of soap.
Cac/apon, or Great Cacapon, a river of West Vir-
ginia, rises near the S. extremity of Hardy county, flows
nearly north-eastward through Hampshire and Morgan
counties, and enters the Potomac. Length, about 140 miles.
Cacapon, a township of Morgan co., West Va. P. 958.
Cacca/mo, a town of Sicily, in the province of Pa-
lermo, about 18 miles W. of the city of Palermo. P. 7233.
Cáceres, a province of Spain, bounded on the N. by
Salamanca, on the E. by Avila, Toledo, and Ciudad Real,
on the S. by Badajoz, and on the W. by Portugal. Area,
8014 square miles. It is intersected by the river Tagus.
The surface is diversified by several ranges of mountains.
Pop. 303,700. -
694
CACERES-CACHICAMA.
Câceres (anc. Castra Cecilia), a town of Spain, cap-
ital of the above province, is situated on high ground 25
miles W. by N. from Trujillo. It contains an old castle,
an episcopal palace, several convents and hospitals, a
theatre, a Jesuits’ college, and a bull-ring which is one of
the largest in Spain. It has manufactures of limens,
Woollen goods, hats, soap, wine, etc. Interesting Roman
and Maorish antiquities are found here. Pop. 13,466.
Ca' ceres, Nue'va (i.e. “New Cáceres”), a town of
the Philippine Islands, in Luzon, on its S. E. coast, 184
miles S. or S.E. of Manila, a seat of a bishop. Pop. in-
cluding suburbs, about 12,000. -
Cachalot, kasha-lot, or Sperm Whale (Catodon
*s- <-- ~ *>.
Cachalot, or Sperm Whale.
macrocephalus), one of the largest of all the Cetacea, is
much sought after, not only on account of the oil, but
also for the spermaceti and ambergris which it yields.
Unlike the right-whale family, it affords no whalebone.
The cachalot belongs to the family of Cetacea called Phy-
seteridae, of which there are three or four existing genera.
The common cachalot has a very wide geographical range.
It may be said to inhabit all seas, except those near the
poles, although most abundant in the southern hemisphere.
The cachalot sometimes attains the length of seventy or
eighty feet. The head is enormous, forming about one-
half of the entire bulk of the animal, and more than one-
third of the length. The body tapers from the head to the
tail. The color is dark gray, nearly black on the upper
parts, but lighter beneath. Old males, or, bull-whales,
have a large gray spot on the front of the head. The
muzzle is obtuse, as if suddenly cut off in front. In a
protuberance on the front surface of the head is the blow-
hole, which is single, and situated a little on the left side.
The mouth is very large; and the throat, unlike that of the
Greenland whale, is sufficiently wide to admit the body of
a man. The upper jaw projects beyond the lower, and is
destitute of teeth and whalebone, though rudimentary teeth
exist within the gums; the lower jaw has from twenty to
twenty-five teeth on each side, according to the age of the
animal. The teeth are conical, projecting about two inches
from the gum. The lower jaw is very narrow, the two
branches being in contact throughout the greater part of
its length. The cervical vertebrae, except the first, are
consolidated into one. The dorsal fin is represented by a
protuberance halfway between the neck and the tail; and
these parts are seen above water in the ordinary swim-
ming of the animal. The pectoral fins are small, and seem
scarcely to aid in progression, which is accomplished by
the large and powerful tail-fin, which is very broad, and is
divided into two lobes, called flukes.
The head is in part occupied by a cartilaginous cavity
in front of and above the skull, called by whalers the case,
which is the chief receptacle for spermaceti. This sub-
stance being light, the animal in swimming raises its head
above the surface of the water, which it also does even
when at rest. The case frequently holds as much as ten
large barrels of spermaceti. It is divided into compart-
ments communicating with each other. The substance
which it contains is a semi-fluid, but hardens on cooling;
it consists of spermaceti and oil; the oil is separated by
draining and Squeezing. What purpose the spermaceti
serves is not well known, except that of giving buoyancy
to the fore part of the body; it is distinct from the brain,
which is small. Cavities filled with spermaceti are dis-
tributed over the body and through the external fat or
blubber. The blubber of the cachalot is not nearly equal
in thickness to that of the Greenland whale, being only
from eight to fourteen inches thick. It is removed from
the body in great strips, and is heated in large pots, the
skin of the whale serving for fuel. The junk, a thick
elastic mass which lies immediately under the case, yields
also considerable oil.
Squids and cuttle-fishes appear to be its chief food. Its
herds are called schools or
pods by whalers. Five hun-
dred or more have been seen
in a single herd. Large herds
generally consist of females,
with a few males; herds of
young males also occur; Soli-
tary individuals are almost
always old males. Terrible
conflicts take place among the
males, and it is not unusual to
find the lower jaw dislocated
or broken in consequence of
these fights.
REVISED BY C. W. GREENE.
Cache, kāsh, a French
word signifying a “hiding-
: place,” is a name given in
the Western U. S. to subter-
ranean holes in which trav-
ellers and trappers hide pro-
visions and other property,
to preserve them from the
depredations of the Indians
and wild animals. They are
carefully covered with sods,
and the surface.is made close-
ly to resemble the surround-
ing earth, care being taken to
leave no trace of the work.
Cache, a county of Utah,
Area, about 2000 square miles. It
bordering on Idaho.
is intersected by Bear River, and bounded on the W. by
the Wasatch range of mountains.
ductive. Some wool is raised.
8229.
Cache, a township of Green co. Ark. Pop. 766.
Cache, a township of Jackson co., Ark. Pop. 377.
Cache, a township of Lawrence co., Ark. Pop. 128.
Caché, a township of Monroe co., Ark. Pop. 1452.
ºache Creek, a post-township of Yolo co., Cal. Pop.
3067.
Cache River of Arkansas rises near the N. E. extremity
of the State. It flows in a S. S. W. direction, and enters
the White River near Clarendon. Length, about 150 miles.
Cachet, Lettres de; 1étr deh kä'shā’, was a term ap-
plied in France under the old régime to letters or orders
signed with the private seal of the king and used as instru-
ments of despotic power. Before the seventeenth century
they were not often employed, but in the reign of Louis
XIV. they became very common. Many persons were ar-
rested by such warrants and imprisoned without trial in the
eighteenth century. It is stated that in the reign of Louis
XV. lettres de cachet were sold by one of the mistresses of
the king to any one who would pay money for them. About
twenty-two of these warrants were issued against the famous
Mirabeau. They were abolished in Jan., 1790.
Cachex’ia [from the Gr. kaxeşta, a “bad habit” of
body], in medical practice, a diseased or abnormal condi-
tion of the body. Cullen having given extensive circula-
tion to the word as indicating a large group of chronic dis-
eases, cachexia has come to be chiefly employed with refer-
ence to conditions in which the general nutrition of the
body is at fault. Thus, cancerous cachexia indicates the
state of ill-health associated with the growth of cancer in
various parts of the body; gouty cachexia, the state of the
general system in gout, as opposed to the mere local attack.
All cachexias are associated with constitutional diseases,
and most of them tend to become hereditary. The term
is nearly synonymous with dyscrasia.
Cachica/ma, called also Tatou-pe/ba, the “nine-
banded armadillo” (Dasypus movem-cinctus), an edentate
mammal found from Texas to Paraguay. It is sixteen
inches long, and has a long tail. Both body and tail are
covered with plates, those of the tail in horny rings, and.
The soil is partly pro-
Capital, Logan. Pop.



CACHOLONG—CADENCE.
695
those of the body (in part) disposed in nine bands, so
united as to admit of some motion. This animal can be
Nº
Cachicama.
readily tamed. Its food is principally ants, but it also is
fond of vegetables and of carrion.
Cach’olong, a beautiful mineral, sometimes called
Pearl Opal, is a milk-white variety of opal, nearly al-
lied to hydrophane. It is opaque and pearly, has a con-
choidal fracture, and sometimes has a reddish tinge. The
name is derived from the river Cach, in Bucharia, where it
was first discovered.
Cac'odyle, or Arsen dimethyl, is an extremely
poisomous organic Substance containing carbon, hydrogen,
and arsenic (C4H6As). It has been proposed to employ the
oxide of cacodyle as a deadly agent in war. This com-
pound, known as Cadet's fuming liquor, has the property
of taking fire spontaneously when exposed to the air, evolv-
ing abundant deadly fumes. Thus, a shell filled with it
would, on bursting, cover the deck of a man-of-war with
a liquid which would take fire of its own accord, and would
likewise spread death by its fumes. The term cacodyle is
from the Greek kakós, “bad,” &go, to “smell,” and 5Am,
** matter ’’ or “ stuff.”
Cacouſma, a post-village and parish of Temiscouata
co., province of Quebec (Canada), on the S. E. bank of the St.
Lawrence, is the terminus of the Rivière du Loup division
of the Grand Trunk Railway, and is a place of summer re-
sort for salt-water bathing and for fishing and hunting.
Pop. of village in 1871, 641; of parish, 1335.
Cacta' ceae (named from Cactus, one of the genera), a
natural order of exogenous plants remarkable for their
gay and large flowers, and for the grotesque forms of some
of the species, which are nearly all succulent. It comprises
about 500 species, all natives of America, growing in hot
climates and arid situations, to which they are well adapted
by their thick skins, almost impervious to moisture. The
so-called cactuses of the Old World are often Euphorbiaceae;
or, if they are really cactaceous, they are naturalized plants.
The Cactaceae for the most part are easily naturalized, and
hence some species abound in Southern Europe and Asia.
Most of them are leafless, and instead of leaves have
clusters of hairs or prickles. Among their characteristic
features are the numerous undistinguishable sepals and
petals, the scattered stamens, the confluent styles, and the
exalbuminous seeds. Their curious and vastly diversified
forms constitute a remarkable feature in the vegetation of
the warm regions of America. In some species, as the melon
cactus or melon thistle, the stem swells into a globe.
Other species have long creeping or trailing stems. This
order comprises the night-blooming cereus, the Opuntia or
prickly pear, which bears an edible fruit, and the nopal, on
which the cochineal insect feeds. The stems of the Cac-
taceae abound in a juice which affords a wholesome and
valuable beverage to men and animals in the long dry
season which prevails where they grow. Many species
occur as epiphytes on forest trees. The Cactaceae are ex-
tensively cultivated in greenhouses and hothouses in Eng-
land and the U. S. Most of them are easily propagated
by branches, which are allowed to dry a little before they
are planted. Numerous species are natives of the U. S.,
especially in the extreme S. W.
Cactus. See CACTACEAE.
Caſcus, in classic mythology, an Italian robber and
giant, said to be a son of Vulcan. He stole some oxen of
Hercules, and dragged them by their tails into the cave
which he usually inhabited, so that they could not be dis-
covered by their tracks. Hercules, however, heard them
bellow, and killed Cacus.*
Cadam/ba, or Kudum"ba, the wood of several spe-
cies of Nauclea, a genus of East Indian trees of the order
Cinchonaceae. The Nauclea Cadamba is a noble tree which
bears orange-colored fragrant flowers, and is highly prized
for its shade. The wood, which is yellow, soft, and fine-
grained, is useful for several purposes. The wood of Wau-
clea cordifolia, a large tree which grows in the mountains
of Hindóstan, is used for flooring-planks.
Ca'da Mos/to, da (LUIGI), a navigator, born at Wen-
ice in 1432. Having entered the service of Prince Henry
of Portugal, he explored in 1455–56 the W. coast of Africa
as far as the mouth of the Gambia. He wrote a narrative
of his voyage (1507). Died in 1464.
Cadas’tral Sur'vey [Fr. cadastre], a term recently
adopted by the English and other European nations, is
used to denote a survey on a large scale. A cadastral as
opposed to a topographical map may be defined as one on
which the objects represented agree as to their relative
positions and dimensions with the objects on the face of the
country, while a topographical map, usually drawn on a
small scale, exaggerates the dimensions of houses and the
width of roads and streams, for the sake of distinctness.
The usual scale of cadastral maps is nearly twenty-five
inches to a mile.
Caddett’s Pass, a township of Lewis and Clarke co.,
Mon. Pop. 71. - -
Cad/dice-fly, or Caddis-fiy (Phryganeidae), a family
of insects of the order Neuroptera, considered by Mr. Kirby
a distinct order, Trichoptera. The caddice-flies differ in
important particulars from the other neuropterous insects,
and exhibit points of intimate resemblance to the Lepidop-
tera. These insects are most interesting, however, on ac-
count of their larvae, of which the larger kinds are the cad-
dice-worms or cad-bait of British anglers. The species of
caddice-fly are numerous in the U. S., and they are more
so in the north than in the south of Europe. The angler
looks for cad-bait about the edges of streams and under
stones, or on the stalks of aquatic plants. As a bait, the
caddice is almost as deadly as the May-fly, and more so, in
running streams, than the ordinary worm.
Cad/do, a parish which forms the N. W. extremity of
Louisiana, has an area of 1200 square miles. It is bounded
on the E. by the Red River and the Great Raft, and is
partly occupied by Caddo and Soda lakes, which are navi-
gable and communicate with Red River. Cotton and corn
are the chief crops. It is intersected by the Texas and
Pacific R. R. Capital, Shreveport. Pop. 21,714.
Caddo, a township of Clarke co., Ark. Pop. 2717.
Caddo, a township of Montgomery co., Ark. Pop. 234.
Cade (JACK), an Irishman who called himself MoRT1-
MER, the leader of an insurrection which broke out in Kent
in June, 1450. He marched with about 16,000 insurgents
towards London, and encamped on Blackheath. Among
their motives for rebellion was oppressive taxation. Hav-
ing defeated a royal army which was sent against him,
he entered London, in which he maintained strict order, but
he caused Lord Say, a royal favorite, to be put to death.
Many of his followers were induced to disperse by a prom-
ise of pardom. Cade fled, but was pursued and killed July
11, 1450.
Cade, Oil of [Fr. h.wile de cade], a thin tar distilled
from the wood of Juniperus oacycedrus, is used in the medi-
cal treatment of diseases of the skin.
Ca' dence [from the Lat. cado, to “fall”], a fall; a de-
cline, a state of sinking; a fall of the voice at the end of a
sentence; a sound or tone. In horsemanship, an equal
measure or proportion observed by a horse in all his mo-
tions.
CADENCE, in music, the conclusion of a song or of some
parts in certain places of the piece, dividing it into so many
numbers or periods. The cadence takes place when the
parts fall on a note or chord naturally expected by the ear,
just as a period completes the sense in a discourse. A
cadence is either perfect or imperfect—the former, when it
consists of two notes sung after each other, or by degrees
conjoined in each of the two parts, the harmony of the fifth
preceding that of the key-note; and it is called perfect, be-
cause it satisfies the ear. It is imperfect when the key-note
with its harmony precedes that of the fifth without its
* It has been suggested that this name is from the Greek kakós,
“bad,” having been given in contradistinction to Evander
(Eöavôpos), i. e. “good man.” (See VIRGIL, “ABneid,” book viii.)

696
CADENCY-CADUCEUS.
added seventh. A cadence is said to be broken or inter-
rupted when the bass rises a major or minor second, instead
of falling a fifth.
Ca/dency [from the Lat. cado, to “fall” or “ descend”],
in heraldry, the marks by which the shields of the younger
members of families are distinguished from those of the
elder and from each other. No distinction is usually made
between marks of cadency, differences, distinctions, or bri-
sures, though the last term is used to include not only dif-
ferences in general, but also the so-called abatements.
There is convenience in the practice followed in Scotland,
of appropriating the marks of cadency to distinguishing
the sons from the father, and from each other during the
father's lifetime, and of adopting other distinctions after
the death of their father. Another mode of differencing
the shields of brothers in early times was by changing the
tinctures, but this is now regarded as too extensive a change.
The differences used by the British royal family are found
in some peerages. The label of the prince of Wales is
plain, whilst those of the other princes and princesses are
charged with crosses, fleurs-de-lis, hearts, or other figures
for the sake of distinction. Labels, crescents, mullets,
martlets, etc. are the usual marks of cadency, and the rules
governing their use are complicated and fanciful.
Caden’za, in music, an ornamental succession of notes
introduced at pleasure at the end of a phrase.
Cadet' (fem. cadette), [a French word signifying
“younger,” “junior ’’). Cadet as a noun means younger
son, younger brother: a military officer who is junior to
another is a cadet in respect to him. The term is also ap-
plied in France and other countries to a student of the art
of war and military science. The students of the Military
Academy at West Point, N. Y., are called cadets, as are
those of the Naval Academy at Annapolis. There are also
medical cadets, recognized as of a distinct rank in the U. S.
“Army Regulations.” (See MILITARY ACADEMY (U. S.),
by PROF. GEORGE L. ANDREws.)
Cadet, Naval, is the lowest grade of officer in the
British navy. Cadets enter the naval service at twelve to
fourteen years of age. Every captain on being appointed
to a ship has a right to nominate a cadet, and every flag-
officer can nominate two on receiving his flag. The others
are nominated by the first lord of the admiralty, subject to
the regulations for competitive examination. They first
pass three months on a training-ship in port to learn the
rudiments of seamanship, and are thence transferred to sea-
going ships. After the cadet has served fifteen months at
sea, he is eligible for promotion to the rank of midshipman.
(See NAVAL ACADEMY, by PROF. R. S. SMITH.)
Ca' dis an Arabic word signifying judge or jurist, is the
title of an inferior judge among the Turks and other Mo-
hammedan nations. They must be chosen from the ranks
of the priesthood, as the precepts of the Koran constitute
their code of laws. -
Ca' dion, a township of Van Buren co., Ark. Pop. 587.
Că/diz, a province which forms the S. W. extremity of
Spain, is bounded on the N. by Seville, on the E. by Málaga,
on the S. by the Strait of Gibraltar, and on the W. by the
Atlantic and Huelva. Area, 2809 square miles. The soil
is fertile, and the province contains large forests. Capital,
Cadiz. Pop. 417,346.
Cadiz (anc. Gades), an important city and seaport of
Spain, capital of the above province, is situated on the
Atlantic Ocean and on the N. W. extremity of the isle of
Leon, about 94 miles by rail S. by W. of Seville; lat. 36°
32' N., lon. 6° 18' W. Its site is a long narrow isthmus
or tongue of land surrounded by water on three sides, hav-
ing on the N. and N. E. an inlet called the Bay of Cadiz,
which forms a good and capacious harbor. It is accessible
from the mainland only by a tongue of land, which in
some places is only 200 yards wide, and is strongly de-
fended by several forts. The houses, built of white free-
stone, present a bright appearance from the sea. The
streets are narrow, but well paved and regular. Among
the principal edifices are two cathedrals, an old and a new,
the lighthouse of San Sebastian, 172 feet high, and a hos-
pital called Casa de Misericordia. The convent of the
Capuchins possesses two excellent pictures by Murillo.
The city contains two theatres, a medical school, a botanic
garden, and an academy of fine arts. Cadiz is one of the
first commercial cities of Spain, but is probably inferior to
Barcelona in the value of its imports. The chief articles
of export are sherry wine, olive oil, salt, metals, and fruits.
Among the imports are tobacco, sugar, coffee, hides, indigo,
cotton, dyewoods, fish, and coal. The commerce of this
port is much less extensive than it was formerly. Cadiz
is the southern terminus of a railway which connects it
with Seville. The isle of Leon is separated from the main-
land by a narrow channel, which is crossed by a bridge.
Here are manufactures of mantillas, fans, glass, soap, cot-
ton and silk stuffs, hats, etc. Cadiz, which is one of the
most ancient towns of Europe, was founded by the Phoe-
nicians, probably before the foundation of Rome. The
Carthaginians became masters of it during the first Punic
war, but the Romans obtained possession of it in 206 B.C.,
after which it became a city of great wealth and import-
ance. It was taken and pillaged by the earl of Essex in
1596, and was blockaded in 1656 by Admiral Blake, who
captured two rich galleons. It was besieged by the
French from Feb., 1810, until Aug., 1812. Pop. 61,750.
Cadiz, a post-village, capital of Trigg co., Ky., on
Little River, 230 miles W. S. W. of Frankfort. It has one
weekly paper. Pop. 680.
Cadiz, a post-village, capital of Harrison co., O., is
about 22 miles N. W. of Wheeling, and 120 miles E. N. E.
of Columbus. A branch railroad, six miles long, connects
it with the Pan Handle route from Pittsburg to Cincinnati.
It has two national banks, two private banks, two news-
papers, and is the commercial centre of a great wool-grow-
ing district. Pop. 1639. ED. “REPUBLICAN.”
Cadiz, a post-township of Green co., Wis. Pop. 1401.
Cad/mium, a white metal having a slight bluish cast,
discovered in 1817 by Stromeyer, and also independently
by Hermann, named from cadmia fossilis, a name given to
an ore of zinc mentioned by Dioscorides and Pliny. The
name is said by some to have come from that of Cadmus.
Symbol, Cd; atomic weight, 1.12; sp. gr. after fusion, 8.6;
hammered, 8.7, nearly. Cadmium is lustrous, takes a finé
polish, and possesses a fibrous fracture. It tarnishes very
slightly in the air, and only burns at a high heat. It is
more tenacious than tin, though, like that metal, a bar of
it gives a “cry” when bent. It melts below 260°, and vola-
tilizes at about 360° C. It occurs in nature as the sulphide
“greenockite” at Bishopstown, Renfrewshire, Scotland, and
incidentally as a constituent of various zinc ores, as the car-
bonate, silicate, etc., as well as the sulphide in several local-
ities. The zinc flowers in the flues of zinc-reducing furnaces
contain even as much as 11 per cent. of cadmium. Commer-
cial English zinc often contains cadmium. The metal is read-
ily soluble in nitric acid, and but slightly so in other acids,
except at a boiling temperature. It forms two oxides, Cd6
and CdZ0, of which the former (the monoxide) is the basis
of a series of salts. The suboxide is greenish. The mon-
oxide varies in color from brownish to blackish yellow, ac-
cording to the mode of preparation. It is infusible and
not volatile. Its salts are mostly colorless, and when taken
into the stomach act as emetics; their taste is disagreeably
metallic. The cadmium chloride forms double salts with
hydrochlorates of many of the alkaloids. Cadmium is pre-
pared by collecting the first products of distillation from the
Zinc ores containing it, and subjecting them, when mixed
With charcoal, to two successive distillations in iron retorts
at a low red heat. Instead of the last distillation, solution
in acid and purification in the wet way is resorted to. The
demand for cadmium is, however, so small that the working
up of the furnace products containing considerable amounts
of that metal has been discontinued in some places in Sile-
sia. It is necessary, however, to remove it from the zine,
as it renders that metal brittle when 3 per cent. or more is
present. Cadmium finds its chief application in the arts
in the form of the sulphide, which has an intense yellow
color, and is used for coloring soaps, and in paints, etc. It
is known as cadmium yellow and jaune brillant. The
iodide and bromide of cadmium are used in photography.
The metal is used for forming a fusible with lead, tin, and
bismuth for filling teeth. This element is recognized in
the laboratory by being the only one which affords a yel-
low sulphide, insoluble in ammonium sulphide.
- C. F. CHANDLER.
Cad/mus [Gr. Káðuos], in classical mythology, was a
son of Agenor, king of Sidon, and a brother of Europa.
After Europa had been carried off by Jupiter, Cadmus was
tent in quest of her. According to tradition, he founded
she city of Thebes, in Boeotia, and invented sixteen letters
of the Greek alphabet, or introduced them from Phoenicia
into Greece.
Cad/ron, a post-township of Conway co., Ark. P. 502.
Cadu/ceus, in classic mythology, the symbol and
winged staff of Mercury (Hermes), to whom it was pre-
sented by Apollo. From this staff Mercury derived the
surname of Cadweifer. The term caduceus was also applied
by the ancients to a staff or rod of laurel or olive which
was carried by ambassadors and heralds as a symbol of
peace. It had the figures of two serpents twisted around
it. Among the moderns the caduceus is used as an emblem
of commerce, over which Mercury was supposed to preside.
Still more frequently it is the emblem of health and of the
healing art.
CADWALADER—CAESAR.
Cadwal’ader (Gen. GEORGE), a native of Philadelphia,
where he practised law, served as a brigadier-general in
the Mexican war, and was brevetted major-general for
services at Chapultepec. He was major-general of Penn-
sylvania troops 1861–62, and in 1862 became major-general
of U. S. volunteers. -
Cadwalader, or Cadwallader (John), an Amer-
ican general, born in Philadelphia in 1743. He served as a
brigadier-general at the battles of Princeton, Brandywine,
and Monmouth (1778). Died Feb. 10, 1786.
Caſdy (ALBEMARLE), an American officer, born in 1807
in New Hampshire, graduated at West Point 1829; and
Oct. 20, 1863, colonel Eighth U. S. Infantry. He served
chiefly at frontier posts 1829–61; on engineer duty 1834–37;
in Florida war 1838–42; in war with Mexico 1846–48, en-
gaged at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Amazoque, San Antonio,
Churubusco, and Molino del Rey (wounded and brevet
major); on Sioux expedition 1855, engaged at Blue Waters,
Dak.; and superintendent of general recruiting 1857–59.
In the civil war was in command of the district of Oregon
1861–62; acting inspector-general of the department of
the Pacific 1863, and in command of draft rendezvous at
New Haven, Conn., 1864–65. Brevet brigadier-general
U. S. A. Mar. 13, 1865, for long and faithful services; and
retired from active service May 18, 1864.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Caecil’ia [from the Lat. caecus, “blind”], a genus of
batrachians formerly placed among serpents on account of
their form, although breathing by gills when young and
undergoing a metamorphosis. The body is almost cylin-
drical, the head small, the eyes very small, and in some
species imperfect or wanting; on which account the name
was given. The skin is viscous and annularly wrinkled,
appearing naked, although minute scales are found be-
tween its wrinkles. The vertebrae are articulated as in
fishes and not as in serpents, and the skull is united to
the first vertebra by two condyles. The ribs are short.
The original genus has been subdivided, now forming a
family, Caeciliadae. The species are inhabitants of marshy
or moist places, chiefly in Africa and South America.
Caecil/ius Staſtius, a Roman comic poet of high
reputation, was a native of Milan and a friend of Ennius.
He wrote nearly forty comedies, of which only small frag-
ments are extant. Died in 168 B. C. He was regarded by
ancient critics as a comic poet of the first rank.
Caeciſna Alie'nus (AULUs), or A. H.icinius Caeci-
na, a Roman general who entered the servige of Vitellius
in 68 A.D., and obtained command of an army. In the
year 69, Caecima, and Valens defeated the army of Otho at
Bedriacum. He soon deserted Vitellius, and became an
officer of Vespasian, but he formed a conspiracy against
the latter, and was put to death in 79 A.D.
Caeſcum [the neuter gender of the Lat. adjective caeſ-
cus, “blind”], literally, the “blind intestine,” applied to a
sac or branch of an intestine having only one opening.
In man there is only one caecum, not very large, at the
extremity of the small intestine, where it terminates in the
colon. In the herbivorous Mammalia it is comparatively
large, and secretes an acid fluid, perhaps supplementing
the gastric juice in completing digestion. The caecum is
wanting in bats and in the bear and weasel families.
Birds have two Gaeca, generally long and capacious in
those that are omnivorous or granivorous. Reptiles sel-
dom have a caecum. Fishes have the caeca attached to
the intestine at its uppermost part. The number of these
is extremely various; sometimes there are only two, and
sometimes more than a hundred. The number is different
even in nearly allied species. In some fishes, as the cod,
the caeca divide into smaller branches. The intestinal
canal of some of the infusoria is furnished throughout its
length with caeca.
Caed/mon, an ancient Anglo-Saxon poet, was originally
a cowherd attached to the monastery of Whitby, in Eng-
land. He afterwards became a monk, and composed, pro-
fessedly under divine inspiration, poems on religious sub-
jects, which are thought to have suggested to Milton his
“Paradise Lost.” Some of these are the oldest extant
specimens of Anglo-Saxon metrical composition. Died
about 680 A. D.
Cae'lius Aureliaſmus, an eminent medical writer who
belonged to the sect of Methodici, was born at Sicca, in
Africa. He is supposed to have lived between 100 and 300
A. D. He wrote two Latin works, “De Morbis Chronicis”
(“On Chronic Diseases”), and “De Morbis Acutis” (“On
Acute Diseases”), which are extant and are highly prized.
Caen [Lat. Cadomus or Cadomum], a city of France,
capital of the department of Calvados, is situated on the
river Orne, 10 miles from the sea, and 148 miles by rail
W. N. W. from Paris; lat. 49° 11’ 12” N., lon. 00 217 W.
697
-
It was formerly the capital of Lower Normandy. It has
wide, regular, and clean streets, several fine public squares,
and many noble specimens of ancient Norman architecture.
The houses are generally built of an excellent cream-
colored freestone which is quarried in the vicinity, and is
called CAEN STONE (which see). Caen is connected with
Paris by a railway, and with the sea by a navigable canal.
Among its remarkable edifices are the cathedral of St.
Etienne, founded by William the Conqueror; the church
of La Trinité, or Abbaye-aux-Dames, founded by Queen
Matilda in the eleventh century; and the church of St.
Pierre, the tower or spire of which is much admired. The
castle, commenced by William the Conqueror and finished
by his son, Henry I., was partially destroyed in 1793.
This city contains a large public library, a museum, a
botanic garden, a eustom-house, the hôtel of the prefecture,
an academy of arts and sciences, a medical School, a nor-
mal school, and an asylum for deaf-mutes. It has manu-
factures of lace, crape, linens, cotton fabrics, porcelain,
cutlery, flannel, hats, and gloves. Caen has long been
celebrated for its manufacture of Angora and woollen
gloves. This was an important place as early as 912,
when it became subject to the Normans. It was the resi-
dence of William, duke of Normandy, before he conquered
England. In 1346 it was taken and pillaged by Edward
III. of England. The poet Malherbe and Auber the com-
poser were born here. Pop. 41,564.
Caen Stone, a fine cream-colored or light yellow
building-stone which is exported from Caen to England
and the U. S. It is an oolite or sandstone, and is easily
worked. It was extensively used in England in the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries. The cathedrals of Winchester
and Canterbury are built of this stone.
Caerle'on (anc. Isca Silurum), an old town of Eng-
land, in Monmouthshire, on the river Usk, here crossed by
a bridge, 2 miles N. E. of Newport. It is supposed to have
been the capital of the Roman province Britannia Secunda
(modern Wales), and, according to tradition, was a resi-
dence of King Arthur. Many Roman antiquities and
relics have been found here, as baths, altars, statues, coins,
inscriptions, and aqueducts. Here is also a ruined amphi-
theatre 222 feet in length. Pop. 1281.
Caernarvon, a township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 927.
Caernarvon, a township of Lancaster co., Pa. Pop.
1566.
Caesalpin’ia, a genus of trees of the order Legumi-
mosae, the type of the sub-order Caesalpinieae. This sub-
order is characterized by irregular flowers which are not
papiliomaceous, and comprises numerous species, some
of which have purgative properties, as senna (Cassia).
Others bear edible fruits, as the tamarind and the carob.
Among the products of the sub-order are CoPAIBA, LoG-
wooD, and CAM wood (which see). They are mostly natives
of warm climates. The genus Cesalpinia has pinnate or
bi-pinnate leaves, and ten stamens in each flower. The
red dyewood called sappan-wood is obtained from the Caes-
alpinia Sappan. Other species yield the Brazil-wood of
commerce. Among the species of the above sub-order
that grow wild in the U. S. are the Cercis Canadensis, the
Gleditschia triancanthos and monosperma (honey locust).
Cae’sar, the cognomen of a patrician Roman family of
the Julia gens, which was one of the most ancient in the
state, and claimed a descent from Iulus, a son of Æneas.
The first member of the family mentioned in history is
Sextus Julius Caesar, who was praetor in 208 B. C. After
the family had become extinct (at the death of Nero), the
succeeding emperors of Rome assumed the name of Caesar
as a title. It subsequently became the title of the heir-
presumptive to the throne.
Cae/sar (JULIUs), or, more fully, Caius Julius Cae-
sar, one of the most remarkable men that ever lived,
was born on the 12th of July, 100 B.C. He belonged to
the Julian tribe (gens Julia), which boasted its descent
from Iulus (or Julus), the son of Æneas. In 83 Caesar di-
vorced Cossutia, and married Cornelia, the daughter of
Cinna. This act offended Sulla (then in the height of his
power), who commanded Caesar to divorce the latter. On
his refusal to obey he was proscribed. He was under the
necessity of concealing himself for a time, but on the inter-
cession of mutual and influential friends the dictator re-
luctantly pardoned him. Sulla is reported to have said to
some of his friends who interceded for him, that Caesar
would some day be the ruin of the aristocracy, adding,
“In that young man there are many Mariuses.” (Marius
had proved himself the most formidable enemy that the
aristocratic party had ever encountered.) Soon after, Caesar
went to Asia Minor, and served with distinction in the
Roman army. Afterwards, while on his journey to Rhodes
with a view to study oratory under Apollonius Molo, he
698
CAESAR.
was taken by pirates. While detained by them he often
threatened (in jest, as they supposed) that he would put
them to death when he got his liberty. The required ran-
som having at last been paid, he manned some vessels,
pursued and took the pirates, and crucified them all.
Having returned to Rome, he became a candidate for
popular honors. He was elected quaestor in 68 B. C. This
same year his wife Cornelia died, and the next he married
Pompeia, a relative of Pompey the Great and a grand-
daughter of Sulla. This was done to ingratiate himself
with Pompey, who, since the death of Sulla, was all-pow-
erful at Rome. He was made an aedile in 65 B.C., and
sought to render himself popular by the exhibition of pub-
lic games which are said to have surpassed in magnificence
everything of the kind ever before seen at Rome. He was
elected pontifex maximus in 63 B.C. In 63 occurred the
conspiracy of Catiline, and many suspected Caesar of being
accessory to it. When Cicero asked the opinion of the
senate respecting the punishment which ought to be in-
flicted on the conspirators, all the senators gave judgment
in favor of their death, until it came to Caesar's turn to
speak. . He maintained that it was contrary to justice
and highly inexpedient to put men of their rank to death
without a full trial. His argument had great weight with
the senators. But Cato followed in a powerful speech,
accusing Caesar of complicity with the conspirators, and
carried a large majority of the senate with him. The
conspirators were condemned to death; Caesar himself
narrowly escaped.
In 62 B. C. he was made praetor, and was sent the next
year as propraetor to Spain, where.he greatly distinguished
himself both as a magistrate and general, and was saluted
as imperator by the army. In 60 he was elected consul, L.
Calpurnius Bibulus being his colleague. One of his lead-
ing measures was to propose an agrarian law, by which a
considerable tract of the public land was to be divided
among the poorer citizens, particularly those who had a
number of children. This measure was carried, in spite of
the opposition of Bibulus. With a view to strengthen his
interest with Pompey, Caesar gave him in marriage his
daughter Julia, though she had already been affianced to S.
Caepio. He formed in 60 B.C., with Pompey and Crassus,
a secret alliance known in history as the first triumvirate.
Supported by such powerful influence, Caesar was enabled
to carry through the Senate whatever laws or measures he
pleased. The government of Cisalpine and Transalpine
Gaul having been decreed to him for five years, he left
Rome in the spring (of 58 B. C.), and before the ensuing
winter he had ended successfully two important wars in
Transalpine Gaul—one with the Helvetii, a nation inhab-
iting what is now Switzerland; the other with Ariovistus,
the king of a powerful German nation who had a few years
before crossed the Rhine and established themselves in
Gaul. In the next seven years he not only subdued the
greater part of Gaul, but crossed over (55 B.C.) into
Britain, defeated Cassivelaunus, one of the kings of that
country, took hostages, and fixed the tribute the Britons
were to pay to Rome: * -
Caesar’s daughter Julia, whom he had given in marriage
to Pompey, had died in 54 B.C. The triumvir Crassus
had been killed in the war with the Parthians. A coolness
gradually arose between Caesar and Pompey. The latter
appears to have become jealous of the new favorite of for-
tune, since all his own exploits, splendid and unparalleled
as they were at the time they were performed, had been
eclipsed by the moré recent and more glorious achievements
of his great rival. Pompey had succeeded to the position
of Sulla, as the leader of...the aristocracy, while Caesar’s
policy had been from the first to cultivate the favor of the
common people. The two parties became more and more
hostile to each other. Some of the more violent of the pa-
tricians were determined to crush Caesar at all hazards. It
was at length proposed in the senate, in 50 B.C., by Mar-
cellus, that Caesar, the Gallic war having been brought to
an end, should lay down his command and disband his
army; but Curio, a tribune whom Caesar had gained over to
his interests, vetoed the decision of the senate; Caesar, how-
ever, was deprived of two of his legions. But desirous,
by the moderation of his conduct, to fasten upon his oppo-
ments the responsibility and odium of beginning the quar-
rel, he sent a proposition to the senate that he would agree
to dismiss his army if Pompey would do the same. But
the senate even refused to consider the proposal. It was
afterwards decreed that Caesar should disband his army by
a certain day or be considered a public enemy. This was
virtually a declaration of war, for no one could believe that
Caesar would thus tamely abandon the contest. On learn-
ing the decision of the Senate, Caesar assembled his army,
and in an eloquent harangue inspired them with his own
indignant spirit. Accompanied by only 5000 infantry and
300 cavalry (for his other troops were beyond the Alps), he
advanced to the river Rubicon, which then marked the limit
between Italy and Cisalpine Gaul. After revolving in his
mind for some time his perilous enterprise, he at length ex-
claimed, “The die is cast !” He instantly crossed the river,
and proceeded with rapid strides through Ariminum, Ar-
retium, and Ancona towards Rome. Every town seemed
ready to open its gates as he approached. In the general
consternation, Pompey, with the two consuls and many of
the Senators, fled from the city towards Brundisium, closely
pursued by Caesar. He passed over into Greece, whither
Caesar, for want of ships, was unable to follow him. Caesar
Soon after set out for Spain, where Afranius and Petreius,
Pompey’s lieutenants, had a formidable army under their
command. Having compelled them to sue for and accept
peace on his own terms, and captured Massilia (Marseilles),
he returned to Rome, whence he proceeded to Brundisium.
After some delay he evaded the vigilance of Pompey’s fleet,
and succeeded in transporting his army into Greece. In
his first engagement with Pompey, near Dyrrhachium, Cae-
Sar was worsted, and was obliged to retreat. He withdrew,
pursued by Pompey, to Thessaly. At length the two armies
met on the plains of Pharsalia. Caesar had only 22,000
foot-soldiers and 1000 horse, while the army of Pompey
amounted to 45,000 infantry and 7000 horse. The latter
sustained a disastrous defeat; 15,000 men fell in battle, and
upwards of 24,000 were taken prisoners. Pompey escaped
to Egypt, where he was basely assassinated. (See Pom PEY.)
The power of his enemies having been utterly broken in
Greece, Caesar followed Pompey to Egypt, where he was
detained for a time, captivated by the charms of Cleopatra,
whose pretensions to the throne of Egypt he supported
against those of her brother Ptolemy. He next marched
against Pharnaces, a son of Mithridates the Great, king of
Pontus. Having defeated and destroyed the army of Phar-
naces, he wrote to the senate his celebrated letter of three
words only— Veni, vidi, vici. He next turned his arms
against the Pompeians in Africa, who were under the com-
mand of Cato and Scipio, whose forces were defeated and
almost exterminated at Thapsus, not far from Carthage
(46 B.C.). Caesar returned to Italy the undisputed master
of the Roman world. But he had scarcely time to cele-
brate his recent triumphs when word was brought that the
sons of Pompey, Cneius and Sextus, had collected a for-
midable army in Spain. Caesar advanced to meet them
with his usual celerity. After a severe and bloody battle
he gained a complete victory. He said afterwards to his
friends that he had often fought for victory, but then only
for his life.
Having thus risen to power on the ruins of the republic,
Caesar appears sincerely to have sought to promote the true
interests of his country. He procured the enactment of
several salutary laws. One of the subjects which claimed
his earnest attention was the regulation of the calendar.
His improvements have been adopted, with some modifica-
tions, by all the European nations. (See CALENDAR.) He is
said to have contemplated the preparation of a complete
digest of the Roman laws, the draining of the Pontine
Marshes, and other important public works, when death put
an end to all his schemes. The senate had conferred upon
him the title imperator (whence our “emperor”), for life;
he was also made dictator and praefectus morum (“chief or
ruler of manners or customs”), and pontifex maximus. To
these dignities he wished to add that of king, that he might
transmit his power to his successor. Having no legitimate
children of his own, he had adopted his grand-nephew,
Octavius, the son of Attia, who was a daughter of Caesar's
sister Julia. On a certain public festival, the Lupercalia
(sometimes called in English the Lupercal), Antony, a
zealous adherent of Caesar, publicly offered him a regal
crown, but he, perceiving that it displeased the people, re-
fused it, but very reluctantly, according to some accounts.
From the time of Tarquin the Proud the name of king
had always been particularly odious to Romans of every
class. Caesar's evident desire to be a king stimulated the
hostility of his enemies, who were encouraged to hope that
the taking of his life would be approved even by many of
the people. A conspiracy in which sixty persons were
implicated was formed. Caesar had many warnings, it is
said, of his approaching fate, but as he scorned to live in
constant terror of death, he disregarded all the admoni-
tions of his friends, saying it was better to die at once
than to suffer the anguish of death many times by con-
stantly fearing it. It had been planned that when Caesar
came into the senate on the ides of March, Cimber, one of
the conspirators, should present a petition to him, and that
while the paper was being read the others should crowd
around, as if very anxious that Cimber should obtain his
request, and make an attack upon their victim all at once.
At first Caesar resisted with great spirit, but when he
perceived the number of his enemies he resigned him-
self to his fate, and, wrapping his toga about him, fell at
CAESAREA –CAGLIOSTRO.
699
the foot of Pompey’s statue, the base of which was bathed
in Caesar's blood. One account states that he resolutely
defended himself until he saw the dagger of M. Brutus
among those of the other conspirators, when, exclaiming
“Thou too, Brutus !” he yielded without any further strug-
gle. He was assassinated 44 B. C., in the fifty-sixth year
of his age. In person, Caesar was tall and of a command-
ing presence. His constitution was naturally delicate, but
by exercise and exposure he became so hardy that none of
his soldiers could better bear the fatigues and privations
incident to a military life. He was sometimes, though
rarely, subject to attacks of epilepsy.
As a general, Caesar was probably superior in genius to
every other commander of whom history makes mention,
excepting, perhaps, Hannibal alone. (See HANNIBAL.) In
the fertility of his resources, indeed, he appears to have
surpassed all other generals that ever lived. It has been
said that Napoleon taught his enemies how to conquer him,
but Caesar's enemies never learned how to conquer him, be-
cause he had not a mere system of tactics, but a new strat-
agem for every new emergency. But he was not only a
great general, but a pre-eminent statesman, and the great-
est orator of his age except Cicero. Caesar was also distin-
guished as a historian ; he wrote the first seven books of
the commentaries treating of the Gallic war, and three
books relating to the civil war. His style is remarkable
for ease, clearness, and simplicity.
Referring to those remarkable men in history who have
compelled “nations unaccustomed to control” to bow obe-
dient to their will, Macaulay observes: “In this class three
men stand pre-eminent—Caesar, Cromwell, and Bonaparte;
the highest place in this remarkable triumvirate belongs
undoubtedly to Caesar. He united the talents of Bonaparte
to those of Cromwell, and he possessed also what neither
Cromwell nor Bonaparte possessed—learning, taste, wit,
eloquence, the sentiments and manners of an accomplished
gentleman.” f WILLIAM JACOBs.
Caesare'a [Gr. Katarapeta; anciently called Turris Stra-
tonis], an ancient city and seaport of Palestine, now in
ruins, was situated on the Mediterranean, about 37 miles
N. of Jaffa, and 55 miles N. N. W. of Jerusalem. It was
founded by Herod the Great (22 B. C.), who erected here
several magnificent edifices, and protected its port by a
semicircular mole, which is said to have been one of the
most wonderful works of antiquity. Caesarea was the
scene of several events recorded in the book of Acts. (See
Acts, chaps. x., xxiii., xxv.) It was taken by the crusaders
in 1101. The site is now covered with shapeless ruins.
Caesarean Operation. See HYSTEROTOMY.
Caesare’a Philip’pi, or Pa’neas, an ancient town
of Palestine, situated about 20 miles N. of the Sea of Gali-
lee and 45 miles W. S. W. of Damascus. It is mentioned
in Matthew xvi. 13. This site is now occupied by the vil-
lage of Banias, in which some ancient ruins are visible.
Caesar’s Creek, a township of Greene co., O. Pop.
III.4.
Cae’sium (symbol Cs; atomic weight, 133), an alkali
metal discovered with the spectroscope by Bunsen and
Kirchoff in 1860 in the water of some saline springs in
Germany. The salt spring of Dürkheim contains 0.17
parts of the chloride in 1,000,000. The hot spring of
Wheal Clifford was found to contain 0.12 grains of the
chloride in a gallon. Caesium is widély diffused in nature,
though in exceedingly small quantities; it has been found
with rubidium in lepidolite, petalite, and some felspars.
The mineral pollua of Elba is reported to contain 34 per
cent. of caesium. In its chemical relations caesium is closely
analogous to potassium, though it is more electro-positive,
being, indeed, the most electro-positive element known. A
fused mass of caesium chloride may be decomposed by the
electric current, but the caesium rises to the surface and
burns with a reddish flame. Bunsen obtained it as an
amalgam with mercury, but even in amalgam or alloy it
absorbs oxygen with great rapidity. The platin-chloride
is more insoluble than that of potassium, and this fact has
formed the basis of its separation from that element. The
Spectrum of caesium is characterized by two blue lines.
C. F. CHANDLER.
Caffraria. See KAFFRARIA.
Caf'feine, an alkaloid existing in coffee, tea, Paraguay
tea (Ileac Paraguayensis), and guarana (Guarana officinalis,
or Paullinia sorbilis), called also Theine and Guara-
nine. Chemical formula, C8H10N402. It was discovered
by Runge in 1820, and almost simultaneously by Pelletier,
Caventou, and Robiquet. Oudry in 1827 extracted an al-
kaloid from tea which he supposed to be a distinct com-
pound, and called it theine, but in 1838 Jobst proved caf-
feine and theine to be identical. Stenhouse extracted caf-
feine or theine from the leaves and twigs of Paraguay tea,
while Martius extracted it from the dry pulp of the Paul-
linia sorbilis or guarana, and called it guaranine, but after-
wards proved the alkaloid to be identical with caffeine.
Van Corput first showed that the leaves of the coffee-plant,
as well as the berries, contained caffeine. It probably also
exists in other plants. - &
Caffeine occurs in the raw and also in the roasted coffee,
the amount varying with the variety of coffee, the ripeness
of the sample, the season of the harvest, etc. The mean
amount of caffeine, as determined by Stenhouse in samples
of various coffees, was 0.8 to 1 per cent. Domingo coffee
contains the least and Martinique coffee the most caffeine.
Tea, contains somewhat more caffeine than coffee, 2.5 to 3.4
per cent. having been found in hyson tea, 2.2 to 4.1 in gun-
powder tea, and 0.9 to 2.1 per cent. in various black teas.
(Stenhouse.) Mean, about 2 per cent. The Paraguay tea
used in several South American countries to prepare the
drink known by the natives as “maté º contains 1.1 to 1.2
per cent. of caffeine. The guarana, which is a sort of
chocolate, the seeds of the plant being roasted and ground
to a paste with water, contains about 5 per cent. of caffeine.
Guarana is used by the Brazilians to counteract dysentery,
retention of urine, etc. Caffeine is supposed to exist in cof-
fee-berries and tea-leaves, combined with tannic acid and
potassa—i.e. as potassium caffeo-tannate.
Several methods of extraction have been practised, as
precipitating the infusion of tea or coffee with basic lead
acetate, freeing from excess of lead salt by hydrosulphuric
acid, and then crystallizing out from the solution, precipi-
tating by milk of lime, and extracting the caffeine from
the precipitate by water or alcohol. Another process is
based on the volatility of the alkaloid.
When pure, caffeine appears in white silky needles hav-
ing no odor, containing 8.4 per cent. of water of crystalli-
zation, which it parts with at 150° C.; sparingly soluble
in cold water, and much more so in hot, less soluble in al-
cohol, and still less so in ether. It acts as a weak base,
dissolving in acids, from which it may be crystallized by
evaporation. Boiled with fixed caustic alkalies, it decom-
poses, giving methylamine. Heating with basic hydrate
alters it to a stronger base—caffeidine. Boiled with an ex-
cess of nitric acid and then evaporated at a gentle heat, it
gives a red color, resembling that obtained from murexide,
on the addition of ammonia, which is quite characteristic.
C. F. CHANDLER.
Ca/gliari, one of the two provinces into which the island
of Sardinia is divided, is bounded on the N. by the province
of Sassari, and on the E., S., and W. by the Mediterranean
Sea. Area, 5224 square miles. The ground is marshy and
the climate unhealthy. The chief articles of export are
grain, oil, almonds, sugar, molasses, and wine. Chief town,
Cagliari. Pop. in 1871, 392,958. -
Cagliari (anc. Calaris or Caralis), a city of Sardinia,
the capital of the above province, is situated on a spacious
bay on the S. coast; lat. 39° 13' N., lon. 9° 7' E. It has a
large and secure harbor, which is defended by several forts,
and is the emporium through which nearly all the foreign
trade of the island passes. It contains a cathedral, about
thirty churches, numerous convents, a public library, sev-
eral hospitals, an arsenal, a mint, and a college. Here are
manufactures of cotton fabrics, soap, gunpowder, leather,
and furniture. Among the articles of export are grain,
wine, oil, salt, saffron, and rags. Pop. in 1871, 32,834.
Cagliari (PAOLI), an eminent Italian painter of the
Venetian school, often called PAUL VERONESE, was born at
Verona 1530. He was a pupil of his uncle, Antonio Badile,
and he worked successively in Venice, Rome, and other
cities of Italy. He was an excellent colorist, and was dis-
tinguished by the richness and fertility of his imagination.
Among his masterpieces are “The Marriage at Cana”
(which is now in the Louvre), “The Calling of Saint An-
drew to the Apostleship,” “The Rape of Europa,” and
“The Presentation of the Family of Darius to Alexan-
der.” He was a contemporary of Titian. Died April
19, 1588. *
Caglios/tro (ALEXANDER), Count, a famous Italian
charlatan and impostor, whose proper name was GIUSEPPE
BALsAMO, was born at Palermo June 2, 1743. He learned
a little chemistry and medicine in a monastery, where he
was assistant apothecary. Having assumed the title of
count and become a Freemason, he travelled through many
countries, professing to be a physician and alchemist, and
raising money by quackery and other forms of imposture.
In some of his adventures he was attended by his wife, and
travelled in his own coach in an ostentatious style. About
1780 he visited Paris, where fie made many dupes among
the higher classes, and revived an old Egyptian Masonic
order, of which he became grand kophta. He was patron-
ized by Cardinal de Rohan, with whom he was implicated
in the affair of the “ diamond necklace,” and was impris-
700
CAGNOLA—CAIRO.
oned in the Bastile in 1785. Having been liberated in
1786, he visited England, where he obtained little success.
He afterwards went to Rome, where he was arrested in 1789
as a Freemason, and condemned to imprisonment for life.
Died in 1795. (See CARLYLE, “Miscellanies,” vol. iv.)
Cagno'la (LUIGI), MARQUIs, an eminent Italian archi-
tect, born in Milan June 9, 1762. He became president
of the Institute of Milan. His greatest works are two
triumphal arches of Milan—viz. the Porto del Ticino (once
called Porta di Marengo) and the Arco della Pace or Porta
del Sempione, commenced in 1807 and finished about 1837.
The latter is built of white marble, and is seventy-eight
feet high. Died Aug. 12, 1833.
Cagots [Fr.], a despised race of social outcasts (re-
sembling in some respects the gypsies) who have wandered
over parts of France for centuries, and were considered de-
scendants of the Visigoths, whom Clovis nearly annihilated
in battle in the fifth century. Before the great French
Revolution they were bound by law to wear a peculiar
dress, to live apart, to labor in none but menial occupa-
tions, and only to enter churches by a special door in each.
The Revolution relieved them from all legal disabilities,
but could not release them at once from social outlawry
and general detestation. Vulgar prejudice still regarded
them with abhorrence as foul and depraved, and they were
still objects of aversion and loathing. Of late, however,
they would seem to have sunk out of sight, being either
absorbed into the lower class of the peasants or dwindled
to a handful. In 1872 they were reported to number 5000.
(See MICHEL, “History of Outcast Races,” 1847.)
Cahaw/ba, a river of Alabama, rises in the N. central
part of the State, flows in a general S. S. W. direction, and
enters the Alabama at Cahawba, in Dallas co. Length,
estimated at 150 miles.
Cahawba, a post-village, capital of Dallas co., Ala.,
is on the Alabama, River just below the mouth of the Ca-
hawba, about 8 miles S. W. of Selma. Cotton is shipped
here in steamboats. Pop. of Cahawba township, 1859.
Cahier, kāyā’, a French word signifying primarily a
copy-book; a bundle of writing-paper or manuscript; a
number of sheets of paper loosely tied together. The term
is also º to the memorial or report of a public assem-
bly or body, and the official instructions of the electors to
the deputies who were sent to the States-General in 1789.
Caho/ka, a post-village of Clark co., Mo. It has one
weekly newspaper.
Caho’kia, a post-village of St. Clair co., III., on the
Mississippi River, 10 miles N. W. of Belleville. It was
settled by the French about 1683, and its present inhabit-
ants are of French descent, and preserve many of their
old ancestral customs. Coal is found in the neighborhood.
The name is derived from a tribe of Indians long extinct.
Cahors (anc. Divona), a town of France, the capital
of the department of Lot, is on the river Lot, 57 miles N.
of Toulouse. The site is a rocky eminence enclosed on
several sides by the river. It contains a large cathedral, a
college, a theatre, a public library, and a normal school;
and has manufactures of glass, paper, woollen goods, cot-
ton yarn, etc. Here are remains of a magnificent Roman
aqueduct. Pop. 13,846.
Cailliaud (FRíDíRIC), a French traveller, born at
Nantes Mar. 17, 1787. He discovered in Mount Zabarah,
in Egypt, the emerald-mines which were worked in ancient
times. He published a “Journey to the Oasis of Thebes”
(1821), and “Researches into the Arts and Trades and the
Civil and Domestic Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,
Nubians, and Ethiopians” (1831). Died May 1, 1869.
Caillié, or Caillé (RENá), a French traveller, born in
Deux-Sèvres Sept. 19, 1799. He gained a prize of 10,000
francs which the Geographical Society of Paris offered to
the first traveller who should visit Timbuctoo. He per-
formed the journey from Sierra Leone to Timbuctoo in
1827–28, and published a narrative of his adventures
(1830). Died May 25, 1838.
Cain, a township of Fountain co., Ind. Pop. 1802.
Cain'ites, or Cain’ians, a Gnostic sect of the second
century, who maintained that Cain was superior to Abel,
since the latter was easily overcome by him. They also
professed reverence for Judas and all the worst characters
mentioned in the Bible. -
Cainozo’ic, Kainozo’ic, or Caenozo’ic [from the
Gr. katvös, “new,” and goés, “living”], a geological term
synonymous with tertiary, and applied by some writers to
rocks which were formed after the mesozoic.
Cain’s, a township of Marion co., S. C. Pop. 1007.
Caique, a small boat for conveying passengers, used
principally on the Bosphorus near Constantinople.
Caird (John), an eloquent Scottish pulpit-orator and
Presbyterian, was born at Greenock in 1823. He was or-
dained a minister in 1845, and became pastor at Errol,
Perthshire, in 1849. He gained a wide reputation by a
sermon on “Religion in Every Day Life,” preached before
Queen Victoria in 1855. He removed to Glasgow in 1858.
Cairn, a Celtic word signifying a “heap or pile,” is
applied to artificial and conical heaps of unhewn stones
which are frequently found in Europe on tops of hills.
Many cairns are found near the circles of unhewn stone
pillars which are sometimes called Druidical. In some
cases the heaps of stones are girdled round by large unhewn
stones set upright in the ground. It appears that the ma-
jority of them were raised as sepulchres and monuments
for the dead. Human bones are often found buried under
them, together with stone hammers, flint arrow-heads, flint
axes, bronze weapons, etc. In Scotland and Ireland oc-
cur large cairns called “chambered cairns.” The most
remarkable of these is at New Grange, on the river Boyne,
near Drogheda. It is 400 paces in circumference, about
eighty feet high, and is supposed to contain about 180,000
tons of stones. It presents the appearance of a grassy hill
partially wooded, but on examination the coating of earth
is found to be superficial. An opening accidentally dis-
covered is the external entrance of a gallery leading to a
large cruciform chamber containing three granite basins
or urns. The sides or walls of the chamber are formed of
immense blocks of stone, some of which are covered with
carved figures, supposed to be symbolical. In countries
where stones are scarce the place of the cairn is supplied
by the barrow or earthen mound, which differs from a cairn
only in the material of which it is made.
Cairngorm Stones, a name given by jewellers to
brown or yellow quartz or rock-crystal found at Cairn-
gorm, in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. The color is produced
by a little oxide of iron or manganese. They are used as
ornamental stones, and the yellow variety is often called
topaz, but it is inferior to the true topaz in hardness and
brilliancy.
Cairns (HUGH McCalmont), LoRD, a distinguished
orator and lawyer, born near Belfast, Ireland, in 1819.
He was returned to Parliament for Belfast in 1852, and
was appointed attorney-general by JLord Derby in 1866.
He was lord chancellor of England from Feb., 1868, until
December of that year, and was leader of the Conservative
party in the House of Lords in 1869.
Cai'ro [called by the Arabs Al Masr or Musr; also
Al Kahīreh (or Qahera), i. e. “the victorious ”], a famous
city, the capital of modern Egypt, is situated in a sandy
plain on the right (E.) bank of the Nile, 5 miles S. of the
commencement of the Delta; lat. 30° 3' N., lon. 31° 18' E.
Elevation, forty feet above the level of the sea. The cli-
mate is warm, dry, and healthy, with a mean annual tem-
perature of about 72°F. The mean temperature of sum-
mer is 85°, and that of winter, 58°. Cairo is bounded on
the E. by the ridge of Mokattam, and is surrounded by
stone walls with antique battlements. The streets are narrow,
crooked, and ill-paved. The houses, which are mostly built
of brick, are substantial, have flat roofs, and two or three
stories. The city is divided into quarters, which are ap-
propriated to the several religious sects, and occupied re-
spectively by the Mussulmans, the Jews, the Christians,
etc. These quarters are separated by gates that are closed
at night. Cairo is connected with Alexandria by a railway.
The most remarkable edifices of Cairo, which comprise
many of the finest remains of Arabian architecture, are
the mosques and minarets; the latter, which are very lofty,
and built of alternate layers of red and white stone, are
considered the most beautiful in the Levant. The city con-
tains about 350 mosques, one of which, the great mosque
of Sultan Tooloon, was built 879 A. D. It exhibits the
oldest specimens of the pointed arch. . The magnificent
mosque of Sultan Hassan has two very high and graceful
minarets. The majestic “Tombs of the Caliphs,” which
are in the environs without the walls, are beautiful speci-
mens of Saracenic architecture. Here are handsome pub-
lic gardens with groves of orange, citron, and palm trees.
Among the remarkable objects in the vicinity of Cairo are
the palace of the viceroy, the obelisk of Heliopolis, and the
old and celebrated Nilometer, on the island of Rodah, which
is a graduated column indicating the height of the inunda-
tions of the Nile. The Great Pyramid is about 10 miles
S. W. of this city. Cairo has long been celebrated as a seat
of Oriental learning and Mohammedan theology. It has a
university or college which is attended by nearly 2000 stu-
dents. Here are numerous iron-foundries, calico-printing
works, and extensive manufactures of cotton and silk fab-
rics. The Arabs are the most numerous of the races which
compose the population. Cairo, which is supposed to oc-
cupy the site of the ancient Latopolis, was founded by the
CAIRO—CALAIS.
701
Arabs about 970 A. D., and was ruled by the Fatimite ca-
liphs until 1171, when Saladim became master of Egypt. It
was the capital of the sultans of Egypt until it was cap-
tured by the Turks in 1518. Pop. in 1871, 353,851.
Cairo, kā'ro, a river-port of Illinois, capital of Alex-
ander county, situated at the southern extremity of the State,
upon the point formed by the junction of the Ohio and Mis-
sissippi rivers, 175 miles below St. Louis. It is the termi-
nus of the Illinois Central, Cairo and St. Louis, Mississippi
Central, and Cairo Arkansas and Texas R. R.S., and a mar-
ket for the supply of a large portion of Southern Illinois,
South-east Missouri, and Western Kentucky. It is an im-
portant dépôt for the products' of Northern Illinois, Iowa,
and Wisconsin seeking southern markets. Over 4000 steam-
boats land at its wharf annually. It has a considerable
manufacturing industry, costly public-school buildings, and
a fine custom-house. It has two national banks and three
daily and three weekly papers. The low site of the city
necessitated the construction of a levee to protect it from
inundations. Pop. in 1870, 6267; local census of 1873, 8315.
M. B. HARRELL, ED. “ GAZETTE.”
Cairo, a township of Renville co., Minn. Pop. 326.
Cairo, a post-village and township of Greene co., N.Y.,
has four churches and some manufactures, and contains the
county poorhouse. Pop. of township, 2283.
Caisse, a French word, the primary meaning of which
is a “chest,” “box,” “case,” or “coffer.” It has important
applications in commerce, finance, etc. In mercantile busi-
ness it signifies “cash ’’ or “cash-box.” In anatomy, caisse
is the drum of the ear. In financial affairs the term is ap-
plied to a fund; also to the pay-office. “Caisse d'Epargne”
signifies a savings fund or savings bank.
Caisson, a French word which in architecture signifies
a coffer, a sunken panel in a flat or vaulted ceiling or in the
soffit of a cornice. In civil engineering the term is applied
to an enclosure or large vessel in which the foundations of
the piers of a bridge are built and gradually lowered to the
bottom of a stream. Caisson is also a name given to a
tumbril or ammunition-cart used in the artillery service.
In maritime affairs it is applied to an apparatus for lifting a
vessel out of the water for repairs or inspection. It is usu-
ally a hollow structure which contains an air-chamber, and
is sunk by letting water into it. After it has been placed
under the vessel the water is pumped out, and the caisson
rises with the vessel. (See FounDATIONs.)
Caith'ness, the northernmost county of Scotland, is
bounded on the W. by the county of Sutherland and by
the ocean on the other three sides. Area, 712 square miles.
The sea-coast is bold and rocky, with many inlets or bays.
The surface is nearly level, except a mountain-range formed
of granite and gneiss, which extends along the western
border, and rises to the height of 2300 feet. A large part
of the county is moorland, destitute of trees. The staple
products of the soil are oats, potatoes, and turnips. Many
of the inhabitants are employed in the herring, cod, and
Salmon fisheries, and over 150,000 barrels of cured fish are
annually exported from this county. Chief towns, Wick
and Thurso. In the Middle Ages the kings of Norway
ruled over this part of Scotland. Pop. in 1871, 39,989.
Caithness, EARLs of, and Barons Berriedale (1455, in
Scotland), Barons Barrogill (1866, in the United Kingdom),
and baronets (1629, in Scotland).-JAMES SINCLAIR, the
fourteenth earl, was born Dec. 16, 1821, and succeeded his
father in 1855.
Caithness Flagstones are dark-colored bituminous
schists, slightly micaceous and calcareous, found in Caith-
ness, Scotland. Their great toughness and durability ren-
der them valuable for pavements, cisterns and other pur-
poses. They belong to the old red sandstone formation.
Caſius [the Latinized form of Kaye, Key, or Cay],
(Joh.N.), M. D., a learned English physician, born at Nor-
wich Oct. 6, 1510. He practised medicine at Cambridge
and in London, and was appointed physician successively
to Edward VI., Queen Mary, and Elizabeth. In 1557 he
founded Caius College, Cambridge. He wrote, besides other
works, a “Treatise on the Sweating Sickness” (1552).
Died July 29, 1572.
Caiva' no, a town of Italy, in the province of Naples,8
miles N. of Naples, was fortified in the Middle Ages. It
has remains of its old walls and towers. Pop. 944 i.
Caj'etan [It. Cajetano or Caietano; Lat. Cagtanus],
the surname of THOMAS DE VIo, an Italian prelate, born at
Gaeta (Caieta) Feb. 20, 1470. He became the general of
the Dominican order in 1508, and a cardinal in 1517, soon
after which Leo X. sent him as legate to Germany in order
to induce Luther to recant. In 1519 he became bishop of
Gaeta. He was one of the first who maintained without
reserve the infallibility of the pope. Died Aug. 9, 1534.
Caj’uput, or Cajeput (Melaleuca Cajeputi), a tree of
the order Myrtaceae, sub-order Leptospermeae, from the
leaves of which the pungent, aromatic volatile oil of cajuput
is obtained by distillation. The cajuput is common on the
Moluccas and in the southern part of Borneo. It is rather
a small tree, with a crooked trunk, thick spongy bark, white
wood (whence the name cajuput, properly kayuputi, signi-
fying white wood), and terminal spikes of white flowers.
The greater number of the species of this genus are natives
of Australia, some of them very beautiful ornaments of hot-
houses. Much of the oil of cajuput of commerce is pre-
pared in the island of Banda, and at Amboyna and Bouro.
Several other species yield this oil. Two sackfuls of leaves
yield scarcely three drachms of the oil, which is green,
transparent, limpid, with a strong odor, agreeable only
when much diffused. It is sometimes used as a stimulating
aromatic in medicine, and is considered very efficacious in
rheumatism.
Cal'abar Bean, the seed of the Physostigma venenosum,
a twining, half-shrubby leguminous plant, a native of
Western Africa. It belongs to the sub-order Papilionaceae,
and is nearly allied to the kidney bean. The beam is used
as an ordeal among the Africans. It is very poisonous;
fifteen of the beans have produced death in an hour. It is
used by surgeons, in Small amounts, to cause contraction
of the pupil of the eye, the opposite of the effect of bella-
donna. It is also sometimes given in tetanus and some
other diseases. It is a powerful depressant to the nervous
action.
Cal’abash Tree (Crescentia Cujete), a tree of the
order Bignoniaceae, is a native of the tropical parts of
America. It bears a large fruit, sometimes one foot in
diameter, the hard shell of which is used as a substitute for
bottles and other vessels. These shells are so hard that
water may be boiled in them. They are sometimes polished,
carved with figures, and converted into ornamental vessels.
The wood of this tree is tough and flexible, and a suitable
material for coaches. The term calabash is also applied to
the fruit of the gourd, which is used for holding water.
Calabo’zo, a town of Venezuela, in the province of
Guarico, on the Guarico River, 106 miles S. S. W. of Ca-
racas. It has considerable trade with the interior. The
valley in which it is situated is subject to great inundations.
The city is the residence of many wealthy cattle-graziers
(hatos), and has a fine church. Pop. 10,000.
Cala/bria, the ancient name of the south-eastern part
of Italy, coinciding nearly with the modern province of
Lecce. It was bounded on the N. E. by the Adriatic, on
the S. W. by the Sinus Tarentinus (Gulf of Taranto), and
on the N. W. by Apulia. Among its chief towns were
Brundisium and Tarentum.
Calabria (anc. Bruttium), a region of Southern Italy,
forming the southern part of the former kingdom of Naples,
is a long peninsula enclosed by the sea on all sides except
the N., and separated from Sicily by the Strait of Messina.
Area, 6663 square miles. It is divided into three prov-
inces, Cosenza, Reggio Calabria, and Catanzaro. It is
traversed by the Apennines through its whole extent.
These mountains, which are here nearly 4000 feet high, are
partly covered with forests of pine, oak, and beech trees.
Between the Apennines and the sea are fertile and beau-
tiful valleys, which produce wheat, cotton, rice, sugar,
oranges, figs, grapes, and olives. This region is subject
to earthquakes. Chief towns, Cosenza, Reggio, and Catan-
zaro. Pop. in 1871, 1,209,315.
Cal’ahalm, a post-township of Davie co., N. C. Pop.
1232.
Calahor/ra (anc. Calagurris), a town of Spain, in the
province of Logroño, on the river Ebro, 19 miles E. S. E.
of Logroño. It has an old cathedral and some ancient re-
mains. It is the seat of a bishop. Quintilian was born
here. Calagurris was taken by Pompey or Afranius about
78 B.C., after a long and famous siege. The sufferings
of the inhabitants were extreme : hence the Romans gave
the name “Calagurritan famine” to any severe famine.
Pop. 7104.
Calais [Lat. Caletum, from the ancient tribe Caletil,
a fortified seaport-town of France, department of Pas-de-
Calais, on the Strait of Dover, 122 miles by rail N. N. E.
of Amiens, 19 miles N. E. of Boulogne, and 26 miles E. S. E.
of Dover; lat. of the lighthouse, 50° 57° 45' N., lon.
1o 51, 1877 E. The town and harbor are defended by a
castle and several forts, and can be rendered inaccessible
by land by flooding the adjacent ground, which is low and
marshy. The harbor, which is formed by two moles, is
nearly dry at ebb-tide. The town is regularly built, mostly
of brick, and has wide, well-paved streets. It has a Gothic
cathedral, a public library, and a theatre. A large portion
of the English tourists who visit the Continent pass through
702
CALAIS-CALATAFIMI.
Calais, which has daily communication with Dover by steam-
boats. The number of persons who arrived here from Eng-
land in 1865 is said to have been 133,562. Calais is the
terminus of a railway which connects it with Amiens and
Paris. Here are flourishing manufactures of bobbinet,
hosiery, soap, leather, etc. In 1347 this town was taken
after a long siege by Edward III. of England, who was
then persuaded by his queen, Philippa, to spare the lives
of six devoted citizens of Calais. It remained in the power
of the English until 1558, when it was taken by the duke
of Guise. Pop. in 1866, 12,934. -
Calais, kál’is, a city and port of Washington co., Me.,
is on the St. Croix River, at the head of navigation, 28
miles N. by W. from Eastport, and 264 miles N. E. of
Portland. It is the S. E. terminus of the St. Croix and Pe-
nobscot R. R. Bridges across the river connect it with St.
Stephen's, in New Brunswick. Calais derives its prosper-
ity from the lumber-trade and shipbuilding. It has one
national bank, nine churches, a savings bank, a public
library, thirteen school-houses, one academy, an opera-
house, a dry dock, two marine railways, a planing-mill, a
sash-and-blind factory, three machine-shops, two foun-
dries, ten shipyards, and two weekly papers. The river,
which affords water-power, is part of the eastern bound-
ary of the U. S. Pop. 5944. ED. “ADVERTISER.”
Calais, a post-township of Washington co., Vt. Pop.
1309. It has some manufactures. . . * ,
Calaman/der Wood, a valuable cabinet-wood which
resembles rosewood, but is far more beautiful and durable.
It is produced by the Diospyrus hirsuta, a tree of the order
Ebenaceae, a native of Ceylon and Southern Hindostan,
which belongs to the same genus as the ebony and per-
simmon tree. This wood is very dense, takes an exquisite
polish, and exhibits great richness, and variety of colors,
among which is chocolate or fawn-color. It is said to be
so hard that it cannot be worked with edge tools. The
tree has become rare in consequence of the wasteful opera-
tions of the Dutch and English. Several similar species
are found in the Indian Archipelago. -
Calamary. See SQUID. - -
Calamat/ta (LUIGI), a French engraver of Italian
birth and of great merit, born at Cività Vecchia in 1802.
Died in 1869.
Calam bu'co, a valuable timber tree which grows in
the northern part of the island of Luzon. It is an excel-
lent material for shipbuilding, and resembles the teak in
appearance. It is very durable, and is never eaten by the
white ant, which is so destructive in the Malay Archi-
pelago. Calambuco-wood is also used in the manufacture
of farming-implements and other articles. It is also a
name of aloes-wood.
Calamia/nes, a group of islands in the Malay Archi-
pelago, about midway between Mindoro and Palawan; lat.
12° N., lon. 120° E. Calamianes, the largest of the group,
is about 35 miles long and 15 miles wide. ..It is fertile, and
has a Spanish settlement. -
Calamich'thys [Gr. KáAapºos, a “rush,” and tx00s,
“fish ’’), a ganoid fish found in the rivers of Western
Africa. It takes its name from its slender, cylindrical
form. It is closely allied to the Polypterus of the Nile.
Cal'amine (Lapis calaminaris), an important and
abundant ore of zinc, a native carbonate, containing,
when pure, 52 per cent. of zinc. Crystals of this mineral
are rare. It is opaque or translucent, has a vitreous lustre,
and occurs in kidney-shaped, botryoidal, cellular, and other
imitative forms. It is found in veins, beds, and large de-
posits termed pockets in metamorphic limestone and in the
Devonian and carboniferous formations. Large quantities
of it are exported from Spain. This ore is called Smith-
somite by Dama and other mineralogists, who apply the
term calamine to the silicate of zinc, the primary form of
which is a rhomboid.
Cal'amint (Calamintha), a genus of plants of the order
Labiatae. The common calamint (Calamintha officinalis) is
indigenous in England. It has serrated leaves, with an
agreeable aromatic odor, and is used in domestic prac-
tice as a pectoral medicine. The U. S. have several spe-
GleS. |
Cal'amis [KáAapºts], an eminent Greek sculptor and
erabosser who worked at Athens about 450 B. C. He re-
produced the forms of horses with success, and executed
a bronze statue of Apollo, which Lucullus transported to
Rome. Among his works was a marble statue of Apollo,
which some persons identify with the Apollo Belvedere.
Cal'amite, an extinct genus (Calamites) of great plants,
perhaps of the order Equisetaceae, approaching in character
(in the opinion of some observers) the dicotyledonous plants
and the conifers. The remains of nearly sixty species have
been observed, chiefly in carboniferous strata (none later
than the Jurassic) in both continents. These plants must
have contributed largely to the production of coal.
Cal'amus [Gr. KáAagos], a Latin word signifying a .
“reed,” a “stalk” (of a plant), was used by the ancient
Romans to denote an arrow, a musical pipe, and a pen
which was made of a reed. This reed is supposed to have
been the Arundo domaac. Calamus also denotes the golden
tube through which, in some church services, the eucha-
ristic wine is taken.
Calamus, a name of the Sweet flag. (See Acorus.)
Calamus, a genus of Palmaceae, yields a great part of
the canes and rattains of commerce, which are used in Eu-
rope and the U. S. for the seats of chairs and other purposes.
Among the species of this genus are Calamus Rotang and
Calamus viminalis, which are natives of the warm or tropi-
cal parts of Asia. The Calamus rudentum has been found
500 feet long (Humboldt). Calamus Draco yields the best
dragon’s blood. Several species are climbers.
Calamus, a township of Dodge co., Wis. Pop. 1140.
Cal/amy (EDMUND), an English divine, born in London
in Feb., 1600. He bécame an eloquent Presbyterian minis-
ter, and preached for many years in London. In the civil
war he sympathized with the royalist party. He was one
of the authors of a famous treatise against episcopacy called
“Smectymnuus ” (1641). Died Oct. 29, 1666.
Cal’and (PIETER), an engineer of Holland, born in Zie-
rikzee in 1826. His father, A. Caland, was an engineer-in-
chief of the “Waterstaat” of Holland, and author of a
work on dyke-construction, embracing the methods of
Dutch engineering as exhibited in the works of protection
against the encroachments of the ocean and the inundations
of rivers, etc. The son above named was educated at the
Royal Military Academy at Breda, was appointed a sub-
engineer of the “waterstaat” in 1845, and passing through
successive grades became engineer-in-chief of the second
class in 1867, then in 1873 promoted over the intermediate
grade to be inspector (the highest grade, of which there are
but two) of the “waterstaat.” ..e.
He is author of a work (in French), “Etude sur l’Effet
des Marées dams la partie maritime des fleuves;” also (in
Dutch) of a work on the protection. of the coast against
the encroachments of the sea, and of numerous reports.
Rnight of the order of the Netherlands Lion, and vice-
chairman of the Royal Institution of Engineers of Hol-
land. As a member of a commission upon the “improve-
ment of the water-communication from Rotterdam to the
sea,” and as the executive engineer of the work by which
an existing mouth of the combined Rhine and Meuse has
been closed and another made, and a channel navigable for
ships of the greatest draught (600 passing per month)
created where before naught but light-draught vessels (10
to 12 feet) could under favorable circumstances of wind and
tide venture, M. Caland’s highest claim to fame as an
engineer will be founded on the great seaport of Rotterdam,
through the works with which he is thus identified in giv-
ing an easy and direct water-communication with the sea, in
place of the tedious and circuitous ones (see “Prof. Papers
Corps of Engineers,” No. 22) before available. For this
important work M. Caland received from the Vienna Expo-
sition the first prize—a certificate of honor.
J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Calam’do, an Italian musical term, signifies diminish-
ing gradually from forte to piano. It differs from decres-
cendo and diminuendo, as the tempo at the same time is
slightly retarded, but not so much as in ritardando.
Cala'nus [Gr. KáAavos], an ancient Hindoo philosopher,
was one of those whom the Greeks called Gymnosophists.
According to Plutarch, his proper name was SPHINEs. He
passed some time in the camp of Alexander the Great in
India. Having become sick at Pasargadaº, he was at his
own request burned alive.
Calas (JEAN), a French Protestant and victim of fanat-
icism, born in Languedoc in 1698, lived at Toulouse. He
was condemned and executed Mar. 9, 1765, by eight judges
of Toulouse on a false charge that he had murdered his own
son. Voltaire exposed the iniquity of this outrage, and in-
duced the king to give 30,000 livres to the family of Calas.
(See CoqugREL, “Jean Calas et sa famille,” Paris, 1869.)
Calascibet/ta, a town of Sicily, in Caltanisetta, about
60 miles S. E. of Palermo, is on an isolated hill which rises
nearly 2500 feet above the sea. It is said to have been
founded in 1080. Pop. 5255.
Cala'tabello’ta, a town of Sicily, province of Gir-
genti, 25 miles N. W. of the city of Girgenti. It is very
near the site of the ancient Tricala, and is on the ancient
river Crimisus. Here is a fine mediaeval church. Pop. 5572.
Calatafiſmi, a town of Sicily, province of Trápani, is
CALATANAZOR—CALCULUS,
703
in a fertile valley 5 miles S. W. of Alcamo. Here in 1860
Garibaldi defeated the royalist troops. Pop. 8731.
Calatanazor', a small town of Spain, in Old Castile,
10 miles S. W. of Soria. Here Al-Mansoor gained a great
victory over the Christians in 1101. -
Calatayud’, a town of Spain, province of Saragossa,
on the river Jalom, 45 miles S. W. of Saragossa. It has an
episcopal palace, a noble old castle, and several churches,
convents, and hospitals; also manufactures of linen and
woollen fabrics, paper, leather, etc. About 2 miles E. of
this place is the site of the ancient Bilbilis. Pop. in 1860,
98.23.
Calatra'wa (Josí MARIA), a Spanish statesman and
eloquent lawyer, born at Mérida Feb. 26, 1781. He was a
leader of the liberal party and a member of the Cortes.
He passed many years in exile between 1814 and 1830.
Died Jan. 24, 1846. -
Calatra’va, the Order of, was founded in 1158 by
Sancho III. of Castile, and confirmed by Pope Alexander
III. in 1164. After the death of Sancho.the knights elected
as grand-master Don Garcías de Redon. For a long period
the war against the Moors was carried on almost entirely
by the Knights of Calatrava. The influence exercised by
the grand-master on public affairs at length excited the
jealousy of the king, and in 1487 the grand-mastership
was united to the crown.
Calave/ras, a small river of California, rises in Calave-
raS county, flows nearly south-westward, and enters the
San Joaquin River about 15 miles below Stockton.
Calaveras, a county in N. Central California. Area,
1100 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by the
Mokelumne River, and on the S. E. by the Stanislaus.
It is also drained by the Calaveras River. The Sierra
Nevada extends along the eastern border. The surface is
finely diversified with mountains and valleys. Cattle, bar-
ley, and wool are the chief products. . It has rich copper-
mines. Gold is found here imbedded in quartz rock. In
the eastern part is the famous grove of mammoth trees, in
which was found a Sequoia gigantea about thirty feet in
diameter and 300 feet high. Capital, Mokelumne Hill.
Pop. 8895.
Całbur’ga, or Kulbur'ga, a town of India, in the
Nizām’s dominions, on an affluent of the Beemah, 110 miles
W. of Hyderābād. It is now unimportant, but was for-
merly the capital of several Hindoo and Mohammedan
Sovereigns. -
Całca/reous [Fr. calcaire, from Lat. calc, gen. calcis,
“lime”], containing much lime. The term “calcareous”
is applied to rocks which are chiefly composed of lime—
i. e. to limestone, marble, and chalk, which are carbonates
of lime. They are sedimentary and stratified rocks, and
consist chiefly of shells of marine animals, corals, and en-
crimites. The presence of lime in rocks can easily be de-,
tected by the application of nitric or hydrochloric acid,
which produces an effervescence in any of the various forms
of carbonate of lime. Calcareous soils are derived from the
disintegration of limestone, chalk, etc., but they often con-
tain a portion of clay, which increases their fertility. The
term calcareous is applied to springs and to water which
hold in solution carbonate or sulphate of lime. Such water
is commonly called hard, and is not so good for washing
as soft water.
Calcareous Spar, or Calc Spar, a common name.
of crystallized carbonate of lime, composed, when pure, of
44 per cent. of carbonic acid and 56 of lime. It is one of
the most abundant of all minerals, and is found in all geo-
logical formations and in every part of the world. The
primary form of its crystals is a rhomb or rhombohedron.
Its secondary forms are more numerous than those of any
other mineral, and are said to amount to 700 or more. . In
a pure state this mineral is colorless and transparent, but it
often contains impurities which render it red, green, brown,
yellow, etc. The purest and most limpid variety of this
crystal is called Iceland spar, which is found in Iceland,
and exhibits double refraction in a remarkable degree.
Calcasieu, kal'ka-shu, a river of Louisiana, rises in
the Western part of the State, flows in a general S. S. W.
direction through Calcasieu parish, and enters the Gulf of
Mexico. At its mouth stands an iron lighthouse 53 feet
high ; lat. 29°45' N., lon. 93° 17' E. Length, estimated at
200 miles, including Calcasieu Lake, which is an expan-
sion of the river. The lake is about 18 miles long and 5
wide, and the foot of it is nearly 5 miles from the Gulf of
Mexico.
Calcasieu, a parish in the W. of Louisiana. Area,
1500 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Sabiné
River, and is intersected by the Calcasieu River. The
surface is nearly level, and occupied by extensive savannas
or grassy plains. Corn and rice are the
Capital, Lake Charles. Pop. 6733.
Calceola'ria [from Lat. calceolus, a “little shoe,” a
“slipper”], a genus of plants of the order Scrophulariaceae,
comprises numerous species, natives of South America.
They mostly grow on that part of the Andes which is more
than 9500 feet above the level of the sea, and are herba-
ceous plants or shrubs with beautiful flowers. The corolla
is 2-lipped, and the lower lip is inflated, so as to form a
bag which has some resemblance to a slippér. They are
so abundant in some parts of Chili and Peru as to give a
peculiar aspect to the scenery. They are cultivated by
florists in Europe and the U. S.
Cal'chas [KáAxas], a celebrated Greek soothsayer who
was present at the siege of Troy. He was consulted by the
Grecian chiefs in the most important affairs during that
Slege. -
Cal'cite [from calc, “lime”], a general term under
which are comprised all the varieties of carbonate of lime.
Cal'cium (symbol Ca), the metal present in lime, dis-
covered in 1808 by Sir Humphry Davy. Its atomic weight
or equivalent is 20. Combined with oxygen it forms lime
or oxide of calcium, which consists of 20 parts of cal-
cium + 8 of oxygen. It is a yellowish-white malleable
metal, having a specific gravity of 1.578. It does not occur
naturâlly in a separate state, but may be obtained by pass-
ing a powerful current of voltaic electricity through fused
chloride of calcium, when the metal separates in minute
chief products.
globules. When brought into contact with water, it rapidly
decomposes the water and is converted into lime. At a red
heat it melts and burns with a dazzling white light and
with scintillations. r
Cal’culating Machine, a machine for performing
arithmetical operations, or for computing logarithmic or
other mathematical tables in which the successive results
are to be obtained by substituting, in an invariable formula,
the consecutive numbers of a simple series, uniformly in-
creasing. The two kinds of work here mentioned are es-
sentially different, and require different machinery. For
simple arithmetic the most successful machine yet con-
structed is that of M. Thomas of Colmar in France. For
tabular numbers, the computations are made by the “method
of differences;” and the machines are called “difference-
engines.” Such are those of Babbage (which was never
finished) and of the Messrs. Scheutz of Stockholm, of which
there is an example at the Dudley Observatory, Albany,
and another in the office of the registrar-general, London.
(See MECHANICAL CALCULATION, by F. A. P. BARNARD.)
Cal/culus [Lat. a “little stone” or “pebble”]. The
term is derived from the ancient use of pebbles as counters
or for making computations, and it, in general, denotes some
particular method of performing mathematical investiga-
itions. Those, e.g., of arithmetic, algebra, logarithms, etc.,
have received the name of calculus, as the Arithmetical,
the Algebraic, the Exponential, the Trigmometrical (which
latter, according to De Morgan, “ contains that of undulat-
ing magnitude;” or of Circular Functions); but the term
applies, in modern tisage, more appropriately to mathe-
matical methods of peculiar power involving unusual re-
finements of reasoning, or reference to relations of mag-
nitude, which may be styled “transcendental.” Among
such are the “Antecedental Calculus’’ of Mr. Glenie,” the
“Calculus of Derivations” of M. Arbogast, the “Calcu-
Ius of PROBABILITIES” (see this head), and the more mod-
ern creation of Sir Wim. Rówan Hamilton, “Quaternions.”
But, pre-eminently, by the word calculus is denoted the
Differential Calculus, including under this head the com-
plementary branches of “Differential and Intégral,” of the
Leibnitz system of symbolization, or the “Fluxions” and
“Inverse Method of Fluxions ° of the Newtonian. The
calculi of Leibnitz and Newton are essentially the same,
though the logical basis on which Newton places his
method is generally considered more satisfactory than that
of Leibnitz. The method of Leibnitz was first to make
its appearance before the public in 1684; but Newton's
method of drawing tangents (wherein the method of flux-
ions was sufficiently explained) was communicated in a
letter to a Mr. Collins in 1682. Upon the allegation that
Leibnitz had seen this letter was based the charge (sus-
tained by the Royal Society of London) that Leibnitz had
plagiarized therefrom. This charge is now considered un-
founded, and the glory is conceded to him of having been
a contemporaneous discoverer of a calculus that has been
styled “one of the greatest, most subtle, and sublime dis-
* Jas. Glenie, F.R.S. of London and Edinburgh, invented
this calculus in 1774; it was published in 1794, Accºrding to the
writer in Ree's Encyclopædia, “both the differential and flux-
ional calculi may be derived from the doctrine of proportions
(therein expounded) in a manner altogether unexceptionable.”
704
CALCULUS,
coveries of this or, perhaps, of any age : opening a new
world to us, and extending our knowledge, as it were, to
infinity; and carrying us beyond the bounds that seemed
to have been prescribed to the human mind; at least in-
finitely beyond those to which ancient geometry was con-
fined.”
The Continental mathematicians usually defined the cal-
culus as the arithmetic or analysis of infinitely, or rather
indefinitely small quantities. (“Analyse des Infiniment
Petits.”) Sir Isaac Newton and the English authors
styled these infinitely small quantities moments—i.e. the
momentary increments of variable quantities; e.g. of a
Iine considered as generated by the movement (flua) of a
point, or of a surface by the “flux" of a line. Although
it may have been impracticable to expound the rationale
of the calculus, or of fluxions, without allusion to “infin-
itely small” or “indefinitely small” or “vanishing” quan-
tities; nevertheless, all the mystification attending these sub-
jects and nearly all the contests about the logical basis have
had their raisoni d’étre in the use of these words. There can be
nothing “small,” nothing “great,” except relatively. “The
expression infinitely little magnitude,” says Mr. Glenie, author
of the “Antecedental Calculus,” “implies a contradiction,
since what has magnitude cannot be infinitely little.” And
furthermore, it may be said that the relations of magnitude
(which form the subjects of all mathematical reasonings)
can be of but one kind: we must either discard the infin-
itely little, or treat it quantitatively (if we assign it mag-
nitude), as we treat other quantities. No elaborate discus-
sion of the differential method can be attempted here, but
most briefly I think it can be defined as the method by
which, from the law of growth, the “full stature,” that is,
the complete expression for the value of a function, is ob-
tained; or vice versä. A quantity or magnitude is said, in
mathematics, to be a function of another quantity when
it depends for its value upon the value of that other
quantity. Thus, the particular ordinate, y, of a parabola,
at any point of which the abscissa is ac, depends for its
actual value or magnitude, upon the arbitrary value we
may give to ac, and (referred to its axis of ordinates and
vertex) the expression for y in terms of ac is py = ac”, or y
= zac”. The ordinate, y, is here a function of the arbitra-
rily assumed magnitude ac (hence called, as well as y, which
varies with it, a variable) and of the parameter, p, which,
remaining the same for the same parabola, is called a con-
stant. As distinguished from y (the function), ac is an inde-
pendent variable.
If ONN' be a branch of the parabola, let a = OM, then
y is represented by MN. If
we add the magnitude MM’,
which we will call dac (al-
luding thereby to the dif-
ference between the original
and the new abscissa), to
OM (or ac), the ordinate cor- *
responding, M'N', will differ ->
from MN by the magnitude
PN', which we will call dy. -
Thus, to an arbitrary increment da' of ac, corresponds an
increment dy of y; and the value of this last increment
depends—1st, upon the nature of the function, or the al-
gebraic relation between y and ac; and 2d, upon the arbi-
trary value of da!.
N'
:
MT *
iy da:
QC IMI TM'
O
In the equation y= }* we substitute y + dy for y and
a + da: for ac, develop and subtract y, and its value from
the two members respectively, then divide by daº, we have
& –
dac -
dy of the function y to that of the variable ac; and this
ratio depends upon the value we may assign to doc, which,
so far, may have been any lineal magnitude whatever. In
fact, from the curvature of the line ONN' to which the
ordinates are drawn, it is clear that the ratio of dy to da:
must vary with the greater or less distance of M' from M.
Let us suppose that the point M' is moved towards M
until MM" or da becomes indefinitely small (compared with
OM or with our unit of linear dimension or with some
dimension to which we attribute ordinary magnitude,
such as that of the parameter), “ smaller than any as-
signable quantity,” “infinitely small,” or zero; that is,
“vanishes.” So must also dy; but the value of the ratio,
l (2a, + da:); which gives the ratio of the increment
#, does not vanish, but becomes (as its algebraic ex-
1.
pression shows) = 2;2; that is, it has a finite determ-
inable value which depends upon the form of the func-
tion alone. Had y been given as a multiple of some
other power, say = p.cº, we should have found the limit-
da -
#to be npa:”-1, etc. etc. By this it is seen
that the ratio of two mutually dependent variable quan-
tities does not necessarily vanish, nor even necessarily
become small, as the quantities themselves diminish; but
that it approaches more and more nearly a determinate
ing value of
limit, just as in algebra and geometry the expression;
takes (generally) a finite and determinable value. Although
it is, in general, with this limit, called the differential co-
efficient, that we have to deal, yet the symbols dy, dac, etc.
(styled differential of y, etc.) are often met with separately
and treated as real, though indefinitely small, quantities.*
It is also to be remarked that in the exemplar expressions
# –2+ #-nº-etc.,. is itself a function of the
variable ac, and would yield (by the repetition of the same
30,
process) 2; and n(n-1) acº - ?, as their differential coeffi-
cients; styled second differential coefficients of the original
function, and expressed, by reference to its symbol y, as
d2
. implying a second differentiation of y, as a function of
ac. The process may be continued (to a third and fourth,
etc.) so long as the resulting expression continues to be a
function of the variable.
Geometrically, the idea of limit may be illustrated by
supposing, in the figure, a secant to be drawn through the
given point N of the curve, cutting it again in some other
point N'. The nearer this second point is made to ap-
proach the first, the more nearly will the secant approach
to coincidence with the tangent drawn at N. Thus, “the
tangent to a curve is the right line which limits the po-
sition of all the secants which can be drawn through the
point of contact, though, strictly speaking, it be no secant;
so, also, a ratio may limit the variable ratio of increments,
though it cannot be said to be the ratio of any real incre-
In fact, the limit of the ratio # is the trigono-
metrical tangent of the angle which the tangent line at N
makes with the axis of abscissas. Newton’s “method of
drawing tangents” of 1682, in which the method of flux-
ions is said to be “sufficiently explained,” is founded on
this relation of tangents to this limit-ratio of increments.
This ratio, now known as the “Differential Coefficient,” is
really the expression for what I have styled the law of
growth of the function as depending upon the growth or
increase (or decrease) of the variable. To determine the
differential coefficients, knowing the integral expression for
the function, and to deduce by aid of them unknown prop-
erties of the functions themselves, is the object of the
“Differential Calculus.” On the other hand, given this
law of growth, the integral expression for the function is
determined by the methods of the “Integral Calculus.”
The peculiar power of the calculus as an instrument of
mathematical investigation depends upon this, that the
more difficult problems of pure Mathematics, and far the
greater proportion of those of Mechanics or Physico-
Mathematics (in which the action of forces is concerned),
can only be stated in terms involving not merely rela-
tions between integral quantities known and sought, but
between their simultaneous and mutually dependent in-
crements—i.e. the data involve besides, perhaps, the quan-
tities themselves, their law of growth, in the form of their
differential coefficients; and, hence, can only be solved by
the processes of the Calculus. -
Thus, in mechanics, the velocity generated by a constant
or uniformly accelerating force is proportional to the time
ments.”

d
it acts, whether finite or indefinitely small, or v = gt or #
= g (if the force be gravity). Also the distance traversed
is proportional to the velocity; and this, though the veloci-
ty constantly increases, is the law of growth, as a function
of the time; hence, # = v = gt, and hence (by integration)
y (the distance fallen in the time t) = }gt”, the well-known
expression for the height of fall in terms of the time. The
expression can be arrived at without the use or even the
knowledge of the formal methods of the calculus, but it
will be found that its fundamental principles are involved
in such solutions. *
These fundamental principles are in much more common
* In the modern improved system these illogical symbols are
wholly discarded (e. g. Prof. Peirce's “Analytic Mechanics”),
and the real element of the calculus—the differential coefficient
—is symbolized by the letter D, with the independent variable
sub-fixed; followed by the symbol of the function; e. g. D. 9,
instead of dy,
da:
CALCULUS.
use than is supposed. When we assign, for example, a
specified velocity to a cannon-ball at a given instant of
time or at a certain point of its trajectory, we speak of a
thing which has no permanent—indeed, I might almost
say no real—existence; for there is no portion of that tra-
jectory, however minute, which the ball really traverses at
the supposed rate. It would travel, e.g., 1000 feet per
second, if at the given instant its variable velocity were
made invariable; and this is what we mean. The result-
ing direction would be the tangent to the actual trajectory;
the invariable velocity, the differential coefficient of the space
traversed as a function of the time. The practical meas-
urement of the velocity involves the same conceptions. We
place two screens along the path of the ball, and by skil-
fully-devised instrumental agencies, measure the minute
time of transit. The quotient of the distance apart of
the screens, divided by the time, gives us the required ve-
locity. If this distance were “infinitely small,” the quo-
tient would be the true “differential coefficient.” The
nearer we place the screens (and we place them as near as
the practical difficulties of measuring the time will permit),
the more nearly do we approximate to that coefficient.
Even with a very measurable (finite) distance, we obtain
results of error less than we can assign any expression for.
If, instead of placing screens very close together, they
were many hundred feet apart, the distance divided by the
time of transit would still give us the mean velocity be-
tween the screens, but evidently not (accurately) the velo-
city at any one point; for the variation or differential of
velocity from one screen to the other is considerable, com-
pared with its total value. Hence, by diminishing indef-
initely the distance, this variation becomes less and less
appreciable, and the ratio of the indefinitely diminished
space and time becomes the ultimate ratio—the differential
coefficient—which (in this particular case) is the velocity
sought. We have then, in this practical operation, an illus-
tration of peculiar notions and fundamental principles of
the calculus: indefinitely small—vanishing, or infinitesimal,
quantities; ultimate ratios, limits, or (what is equivalent)
differential coefficients. w
Besides the direct solution of problems, the calculus has
been the most effective and indispensable of agents in
widening the sphere of mathematical investigation, and
in enhancing the power of its instruments. Scarce one
of the modern methods of analysis but depend on it for
their development. The CALCULUS OF WARIATIONs, origi-
nating with Lagrange, is but an extension of the methods
of the calculus to the discovering of functions, in cases in
which, instead of the law of growth, some condition (such
as that of producing a maximum or minimum under cer-
tain conditions) which the function when found must fulfil,
is given. The CALCULUs OF OPERATIONS is but an exten-
sion of algebra to the symbols of operation of the calculus:
algebra itself being really a calculus of operations, since
it deals only with symbols with a view to reduce the ope-
rations they indicate to their simplest expression. Modern
“Higher Algebra” might with propriety be so styled. (See
DETERMINANTS, INVARIANTS.) “. ,
The mathematical method (another development of the
Differential Calculus), commonly referred to by English
writers as that of LAPLACE’s CoEFFICIENTs, is, generalized
and enlarged, now termed “Spherical Harmonic Analy-
sis,” and is a calculus of great power for a large class of
physical problems involving arbitrary data over a spher-
ical surface. Hence its applicability to the calculation
of the “tides” and other problems connected with the
“figure” and “attraction’ of the earth; also to certain
problems relating to the distribution of electricity and
magnetism, etc.
Sir William Rowan Hamilton’s “Calculus of Quater-
nions,” by many believed to be an invention of importance
vieing with that of the calculus itself, has indeed a ration-
ale, or logical basis, radically distinct from and independ-
ent of the calculus; yet for its full development it has re-
course to the methods and principles of the CALCULUs.
Mr. Cauchy has shown that for the explanation of cer-
tain properties of functions, even for real values of the
independent variable, it is indispensable to generalize the
investigation by including the case of imaginary values for
that variable (i.e. values involving the well-known expres-
sion of impossibilty, w=1). All geometricians are aware of
the service which the consideration of imaginary quanti-
ties has rendered to Algebra. The theory of equations is
dependent upon it, and it seems destined to render yet
greater service to the theory of “functions.” It would be
impossible to attempt any explanation of the method or
Calculus of Imaginaries, an outline of which may be found
in Book I. of “ Théorie des Fonctions Doublement Périod-
iques,” Briot and Bouquet, Paris, 1859. Resulting from
it is the Residwary Calculus, or Residuation by which (see
705
the “Integral Calculus,” of PROF. B. PEIRCE) developments
are obtained for functions where Taylor’s theorem fails in
consequence of its first term becoming infinite.
In an antecedent paragraph we found the expression
for the algebraic relation between the finite increments
(or “differences”) of the co-ordinates of the parabola
when one of these is “any lineal magnitude whatever.”
The “Calculus of FINITE DIFFERENCEs,” invaluable. in the
practical application of analytic formulae to numerical cal-
culations, for the summation of infinite series, and for IN-
TERPOLATION, results from such relations between finite in-
crements or “differences,” and is defined by Lacroix, to
have for its object “the determination of the values of in-
crements, by deducing them not merely from the analytic
expression of the functions, but also from their numerical
(or particular) values, when that expression fails or is too
complicated.” Except a general similarity in notation and
terms employed, it has little in common with the Differ-
ential Calculus; the fundamental element of which latter—
the Differential Coefficient—having no place in it.
J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Calculus, or Stone, in medicine, a concretion formed
within the body from the deposition of matters which nor-
mally remain in solution. The most important calculi are
those formed in the kidneys or bladder (urinary calculus),
and those formed in the gall-bladder or biliary ducts (bil-
iary calculus, or gall-stone). Both of these give rise to
intense pain, and may even threaten life. Calculi of less
importance may form in the salivary ducts and elsewhere.
Biliary calculus may generally be assumed to exist when
excessive pain suddenly arises in the right side beneath the
ribs, and when in a few hours jaundice comes on. But
absolute proof that these symptoms depend on calculus is
often wanting. The pain is more severe while it lasts than
almost any other form of suffering. It may be relieved by
large doses of opium or by the inhalation of ether, but
such a remedy requires to be cautiously given. Gall-stones
impacted in the ducts sometimes have proved fatal, but
much more frequently they find their way, sooner or later,
into the intestines. They are, in the human subject, almost
invariably composed of cholesterine, with coloring-matter
and mucus arranged in layers. The Oriental bezoar-stone
is a biliary calculus from an antelope. It consists chiefly
of crystalline lithofellic acid. e
Urinary calculus is a disease most common in advanced
life and in the male sex. It is frequent in gouty persons,
or among those who pursue sedentary occupations and live
freely. Among sailors it is rare. Certain local conditions
promote it, especially an excess of mineral matter in drink-
ing-water. It is common in England, Ireland, Russia,
France, Northern Italy, and Egypt. In the U. S. it is
most frequent in Kentucky, Tennessee, West Virginia,
Ohio, and Indiana. In its early stages the disease not un-
frequently presents itself in the form of gravel, shown by
the passage of numerous small gritty concretions, observed
in the urine as a deposit like sand. When such deposits
are present at the time of passing the urine, and not merely
after it has cooled, there is reason to apprehend the forma-
tion of calculus. If in these circumstances there are pains
of a dull character in the loins, with occasional twinges,
no time should be lost in seeking medical advice. Calculus
in the bladder is at first attended with little pain, as com-
pared with that caused by the stone in its passage down-
ward from the kidney; but unless removed the calculus is
sure to enlarge, and it then.becomes the cause of most in-
tense distress. Perhaps the most trustworthy evidence of
stone in the bladder, apart from the use of the sound, is
smarting and burning pain experienced after the bladder
has been emptied, with occasional temporary stoppages of
the urine.
The chief varieties of urinary calculus are—1. Uric acid,
urates of ammonia, soda, lime, etc. (brick-dust sediment,
red sand); 2. Phosphates of ammonia and magnesia, lime,
etc. (the lime phosphate, mixed with ammonio-magnesian
phosphate, constitutes the “fusible calculus,” one of the
commonest kinds); 3. Oxalate of lime (mulberry calculus);
4. Carbonate of lime (chiefly in domestic animals); 5. Cys-
tine; 6. Xanthic oxide (very rare); 7. Very rarely indeed
do leucine, tyrosine, and other disease-products form cal-
culous concretions. 8. Calculi of fibrine, etc. are also re-
ported. 9. Calculi are frequently composed of numerous
layers, having perfectly distinct chemical composition.
When calculus has once formed in the urinary organs no
cure exists except the removal of it from the body (see
LITHOTOMY and LITHOTRITY), but in the earlier stages much
may be done to check the malady by careful regulation of
the diet and mode of living, with the use of solvents
adapted to the particular form of deposit found.
Urinary calculi have been often observed in horses, cat-
tle, and pigs, and are very frequent in the common rat.
- & REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
45

706
CALCUTTA–CALDWELL.
Calcutſta [Sanscrit, Kalikáta, “ dwelling of Kali,” an
Indian deity], the capital of British India, situated in the
province of Bengal, on the E. bank of the Hoogly, an arm
of the Ganges, about 75 miles from the sea; lat. 22° 34'
N., lon. 88° 20' E. The city extends along the river about
6 miles, and has an average breadth of 1% miles. The
river, here a mile wide, is constantly full of shipping. In
the southern part of the city, called Chowringhee, are the
residences of the Europeans, which in a great part are finely
built in Grecian style, and many of them surrounded by
groves of fruit trees. A quarter of a mile to the S. W. is
Fort William, built at a cost of £2,000,000, the largest
fortress in the British dominions, octagonal in form, re-
quiring a garrison of 10,000 men and mounting 619 guns.
Its usual garrison consists of one English and two native
regiments. Between the fort and the city is the Maidan
or glacis, a handsome park, and the Esplanade, on which
is the Government House, a magnificent building sur-
mounted by a dome, and in a line with it a row of hand-
some dwellings. Beyond Chowringhee is the native or
“Black Town,” consisting mostly of mud or bamboo cabins
and narrow dirty streets. Here and there an idol of painted
wood or plaster is set up in the street. The principal build-
ings of Calcutta are the Government House, the mint, the
town-hall, the cathedral, the Hindoo college, and the hos-
pital. On the other side of the river, opposite the citadel,
is the botanic garden. Calcutta is the residence of an Eng-
lish bishop. The Asiatic Society have a valuable museum
and library of Oriental MSS. There are several educational
institutes, supported by the government—the Hindoo, the
Madriassa or Mohammedan, the Sanscrit, and the Fort Wil-
liam Colleges. Calcutta has the largest commerce of any
city in Asia, and commands the entire inland trade of Ben-
gal. Ships of 1400 tons can anchor in the river. It has
railway connection with Bombay, 1420 miles distant by
rail, and with Delhi, and through the Punjāb with the In-
dus. The chief articles of export are opium, indigo, sugar,
saltpetre, rice, raw cotton, raw silk, piece goods, hides, lac,
etc. The exports in 1868–69 were estimated at £20,728,159,
and the imports for the same year at £16,934,771. Euro-
pean society at Calcutta is very convivial and fond of
amusement. Calcutta was founded by Job Charnock, agent
of the East India Company, about 1690. In 1756 it was
captured by Surajah Dowlah, who confined 123 prisoners
in the horrible “Black Hole.” Lord Clive retook it in
1757, and built the fortress. Pop. 616,249; of these 238,325
are in the suburbs. Of the 377,924 inhabitants in the inner
city, 239,190 are Hindoos and 113,059 Mohammedans.
Calda'ni (LEOPOLDo MARCO ANTONIO), an eminent Ital-
ian anatomist, born at Bologna Nov. 21, 1725. He suc-
ceeded Morgagni as professor of anatomy at Padua in 1771.
He published several works on anatomy and physiology,
and a series of accurate plates entitled “Icones Anato-
micae" (4 vols., 1801–14). Died Dec. 20, 1813.
Calda'ra (PolipoRo), an Italian painter, born in the
Milanese about 1495, was often called CARAVAGGIO, from
the name of his native place. He went to Rome, and was
employed by Raphael to paint the friezes in the Vatican.
He was a skilful painter of landscapes and historical
pieces. He was murdered by his servants in 1543.
Cal’das, or Caldeſtas, a Spanish term applied to
warm springs, and forming part of the name of many
places in Spain. Among these the most noted is Caldas
de Mombuy, 18 miles N. of Barcelona. Here are thermal
baths and some antiquities.
Calderon’ de la Bar/ca (PEDRO), the most eminent
Spanish dramatic author, born in Madrid Jan. 17, 1600,
was educated at the University of Salamanca. He began
to write dramas about the age of thirteen, and having en-
tered the army in 1625, served several campaigns in Italy
and Flanders. After he had gained distinction as an
author, he was patronized by Philip IV., who invited him
to his court in 1636, and created him a knight of Santiago.
He was a very prolific author, and produced about 500
dramas. In 1651 he entered the Church, and beeame chap-
Iain in the royal chapel at Madrid 1663. Among his great-
est works are a tragedy entitled “The Constant Prince’
(“El Príncipe Constante”), “Love is no Joke,” “Life is a
Dream,” and “The Physician of his Own Honor.” In the
latter part of his life he wrote many religious poems called
“Autos Sacramentales.” His imagination was brilliant,
and not restrained by conventional rules. He is ranked
among the greatest Spanish poets by native critics, and
his dramas are popular in Germany. His works display
great fertility of invention, and abound in beautiful pas-
sages, but are deficient in fidelity to nature. Died May
25, 1681. (See RICHARD C. TRENCH, “The Life and Genius
of Calderon,” 1836; TrcKNOR, “History of Spanish Litera-
ture.”) • - -
Cai’derwood (DAVID), a Scottish Presbyterian minis-
ter and historian, born in 1575. He was banished for his
opposition to episcopacy in 1619, and then retired to Hol-
land, where he published a controversial work called “The
Altar of Damascus” (1623). He returned to Scotland in
1636, and wrote a “History of the Kirk of Scotland.”
Died in 1651.
Cal’dicot (THOMAs Ford), D.D., born at Buckby, Eng-
land, in 1803, removed to Canada in 1824, held Baptist
pastorates in Hamilton, Lockport, and Brooklyn, N. Y.,
Boston, Mass., and Toronto, Canada, where he died July 9,
1869. As a scholar, writer, and orator he was alike dis-
tinguished.
Caldie/ro (anc. Caldarium), a town of Northern Italy,
where Napoleon I. was defeated by the Austrians under
Alvinzi, Nov. 11, 1796. It is 12 miles by rail E. of Verona,
and is noted for its thermal springs. Massena was re-
pulsed here by the archduke Charles in 1805.
Cald'well, a county in the W. of Kentucky. Area,
275 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Trade-
water Creek. The surface is nearly level; the soil is fer-
tile. Grain, tobacco, cattle, and wool are raised. It is in-
tersected by the Elizabethtown and Paducah R. R. Capi-
tal, Princeton. Pop. 10,826.
Caldwell, a parish in N. Central Louisiana. Area, 528
square miles. It is intersected by the Washita River, navi-
gable for steamboats, and bounded on the E. by Boeuf
Bayou. Wool and cotton are the chief products. Capital,
Columbia. Pop. 4820.
Caldwell, a county in the N. W. of Missouri. Area,
435 square miles. It is intersected by Shoal Creek. The
surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Grain, wool,
and cattle are raised. The county is traversed by the
Hannibal and St. Joseph R. R. Capital, Kingston. Pop.
11,390.
Caldwell, a county in the N. W. of North Carolina.
Area, 450 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the
Catawba River, and drained by the Yadkin, which rises
within its limits. The Blue Ridge extends along its N. W.
border. The soil is mostly fertile. Corn, wheat, tobacco,
and wool are raised. Excellent iron ore is found. Cap-
ital, Lenoir. Pop. 8476.
Caldwell, a county of the S. central part of Texas.
Area, 535 square miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by the
San Marcos River, and drained by several creeks. The
surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. It is an excellent
region both for farming and grazing. Corn and tobacco
are the chief crops. Capital, Lockhart. Pop. 6572.
Caldwell, a township of White co., Ark. Pop. 451.
Caldwell, a post-township of Appanoose co., Ia. Pop.
1201. e
Caldwell, a post-village in Caldwell township, Essex
co., N.J., is about 10 miles N. W. of Newark. Pop. of the
township, 2727.
Caldwell, the capital of Warren co., N. Y., is situated
near the head of Lake George, 62 miles from Albany. It
has two churches and four hotels, and is a place of Summer
resort. Steamers ply upon the lake. Fort William Henry
and Fort George were situated within the limits of this
township. Pop. of township, 2329.
Caldwell, capital of Noble co., O., on the Marietta and
Pittsburg R. R., 35 miles N. of Marietta, is situated in the
centre of the Duck Creek oil-region. The vicinity yields
coal and iron. It has one national bank and two weekly
newspapers. P. 318. Ed. “Noble County REPUBLICAN.”
Caldwell, a township of Newberry co., S. C. P. 1791.
Caldwell, a post-village, cap. of Burleson co., Tex., 85
miles E. by N. of Austin; has a male and female academy.
Caldwell (CHARLEs), M. D., an American physician,
born in Caswell co., N. C., May 14, 1772. He was for
many years professor of medicine in Transylvania Uni-
versity in Kentucky. He wrote, besides other works, a
“Life of General "Greene’’ (1819). Died July 9, 1853.
(See APPENDIX.) -
Caldwell (CHARLEs H. B.), U. S. N., born June 11,
1828, in Massachusetts, entered the navy as a midshipman
Feb. 27, 1838, became a passed midshipman in 1844, a
lieutenant in 1852, a commander in 1862, and a captain in
1867. In 1858, while attached to the sloop-of-war Vandalia,
Caldwell had charge of an expedition against a tribe of
cannibals inhabiting Wega, one of the Fejee Islands, which
he conducted with ability, defeating the Wegans in a pitched
battle and burning their town. While commanding the
steamer Itasca he took part in the bombardment of Forts
Jackson and St. Philip April 24, 1862, but was unable to
pass the forts with the rest of the fleet, “owing to a 42:
pound shot entering the boiler, the steam from which filled
the fire and engine-room, driving every one up from below,
CALDWELL–CALENDAR.
707
and almost suffocating those on the quarter-deck.” He
participated in the action with the Grand Gulf batteries,
Mississippi River, June 9, 1862, and in command of the
iron-clad Essex took part in all the operations at Port
Hudson during the spring and summer of 1863.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Caldwell (JAMEs), a patriot, born in Charlotte co., Va.,
in April, 1734. He graduated at Princeton in 1759, became
pastor of a Presbyterian church at Elizabethtown, N.J.,
and efficiently promoted the popular cause during the Rev-
olution. He served in the army as chaplain and also as a
soldier. He was murdered by a sentinel June 6, 1780.
Caldwell (Jose,PH), D. D., born in Leamington, N. J.,
April 21, 1773, graduated at Princeton in 1791, became in
1796 principal professor in the University of North Caro-
lina, and its first president in 1804. Died Jan. 24, 1835.
Caldwell (MERRITT), A. M., a distinguished author
and educator in the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born
at Hebron, Me., Nov. 29, 1806, graduated at Bowdoin Col-
lege in 1828, became principal of the Maine Wesleyan
Academy at Readfield in 1828, was elected professor of
mathematics and vice-president of Dickinson College, Pa.,
in 1834, professor of metaphysics and English literature at
Dickinson in 1837, visited England, and assisted in found-
ing the Evangelical Alliance at the “World’s Convention,”
London, 1846. Died June 6, 1848. He was a distinguished
and able advocate of total abstinence, a gifted and indus-
trious writer, and was author of a “Manual of Elocution ”
(1846), “Philosophy of Christian Perfection” (1847),
“Christianity Tested by Eminent Men” (1852), “The
Doctrine of the English Verb '' (1857), and numerous re-
views. He was a man of great talents and excellenice of
character.—His brother, ZENAs CALDw ELL (born Mar. 31,
1800; died Dec. 26, 1826), was a brilliant and able instruc-
tor, whose early death was widely lamented. A volume of
his writings has been published.
Cald'well’s, a township of Catawba co., N. C. P. II.01.
Cal’edon, EARLs or (1800), Wiscount Alexander (1797),
Baron Caledon (1789), all of the Irish peerage.—JAMEs
ALEXANDER, fourth earl, was born July 11, 1846, and suc-
ceeded his father in 1855.
Caledo'nia, the ancient name of Scotland, probably
first given to that country by the Romans. It was inhab-
ited by a rude and warlike people called Caledonii, who are
supposed to have been a Gaelic race. The first Roman
general who invaded Caledonia was Agricola, who defeated
a chief named Galgacus in 84 A. D. Pliny is the first au-
thor who mentions Caledonia. Tacitus describes the natives
as having red or sandy hair, as living in tents without cities,
as addicted to predatory warfare, and fighting in chariots.
The Romans made several unsuccessful efforts to subdue
these barbarians, who not only repulsed the invaders, but
harassed the Roman colonies in Britain by frequent in-
roads. To defend themselves against these inroads, the
Romans built about 140 A. D. the Wall of Antonine from
the Frith of Forth to that of the Clyde.
Caledonia, a village of Cape Breton co. and island,
Nova Scotia, 10 miles from Sidney, has mines of coal.
Pop. about 250. -
Caledonia, a county in the E. N. E. of Vermont.
Area, 650 square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the
Connecticut River, and drained by the Passumpsic, La-
moille, and Wells rivers. The surface in the W. part is
mountainous; the soil is fertile. Oats, wool, maple-sugar,
and hay are the chief products. Lumber, carriages, sad-
dlery, and a great variety of articles are manufactured.
It is intersected by the Connecticut and Passumpsic Rivers
and Portland and Ogdensburg R. Rs.
bury. Pop. 22,235.
Caledonia, a village of Ontario, Canada, in Haldi-
mand co., on Grand River and the Grand Trunk Railway,
59 miles W. N. W. of Buffalo, N. Y., and about 16 miles
S. S. W. of Hamilton. Pop. in 1871, 1247.
Caledonia, a village and township of Boone co., Ill.
The village is on a branch of the Chicago and North-west-
ern R. R., where it is crossed by the Kenosha and Rockford
R. R., 13 miles S. E. of Beloit. Pop. of township, 1345.
Caledonia, a post-village, capital of Pulaski co., Ill.,
on the Ohio River and on the Cairo and Vincennes R. R.,
14 miles above Cairo. Pop. 222.
Caledonia, a post-twp. of Kent co., Mich. Pop. 1599.
Caledonia, a township of Shiawassee co., Mich. P. 891.
Caledonia, a post-village, capital of Houston co.,
Minn., is 14 miles W. of the Mississippi River and 20 miles
S. W. of La Crosse. It has four churches, one academy,
two public schools, and one plough and two wagon manu-
factories. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of town-
ship, 1628. J. L. CHRISTIE, Ed. AND PROP. “Journal.”
Capital, St. Johns-
Caledonia, a post-village and township of Livingston
co., N. Y., on the Attica branch of the Erie Railway, 17
miles E. by S. of Batavia. The township yields excellent
lime and limestone for building purposes. Caledonia
Spring, two acres in area, affords good water-power. Pop.
597; of township, 1813.
Caledonia, a township of Halifax co., N. C. P. 2118.
Caledonia, a post-village of Marion co., 0., on the
Whetstone River, and on the Atlantic and Great Western
R. R., 94 miles N. E. of Dayton. Pop. 419.
Caledonia, a township of Columbia co., Wis. P. 1180.
Caledonia, a township of Racine co., Wis. P. 2800.
Caledonia, a twp. of Trempealeau co., Wis. P. 507.
Caledonia, a township of Waupacca co., Wis. P. 661.
Caledo'nian Canal', 'The, in Scotland, connecting
the Atlantic Ocean with the North Sea, near Inverness, was
built by Telford, and opened in 1823. It is 61% miles in
length, and is formed by cuts 120 feet broad at the surface,
50 feet at the bottom, and 17 feet deep, connecting the
Lochs Ness, Oich, Lochy, and Eil. The combined length
of the artificial portions is 23 miles. This canal saves ves-
sels the stormy passage by the Hebrides, which takes nine
or ten days longer. Ships of 600 tons can pass through.
The highest part is Loch Oich, 94 feet above the sea-level.
Caledo'nia Springs, in Caledonia township, Prescott
co., province of Ontario (Canada), are 40 miles from Mon-
treal and 9 miles S. W. of L'Orignal. They are resorted to
especially for the cure of cutaneous, scrofulous, and rheu-
matic diseases. There are four principal springs, all
strongly alkaline, one with considerable iodine and bromine
in its waters. -
Cal'endar [Lat. calendarium, the “money-lender's ac-
count-book,” because interest was payable on the calends;
hence, a register of times and seasons—an almanacl, a
term applied to any systematic and comprehensive method
of dividing, distributing, and reckoning time, or to a book
or table exhibiting such a method. There are two natural
divisions of time, or regularly recurring periods, which all
calendars must recognize—the day and the year. The
month seems to have been suggested by the period of the
moon’s revolution (294 days nearly), to which in some
calendars (as the Jewish and the Greek) it has been made
closely conformable. The week is, approximately, one
quarter of a lunation. It is found in the Oriental and
Egyptian calendars, and in that of the Israelites, from
whom we have received it, but it was not known to the
Greeks or the Romans. The Greeks instead employed
decades of ten days each, and the Romans periods of eight
days, the last of which was called mundinae (movem, “mine;”
dies, “ day”), or ninth day; the count including both the
nundine at the beginning and that at the end of the period.
In the ancient calendars the nundine periods were distin-
guished by setting opposite the successive days the first
eight letters of the alphabet (A to H inclusive), repeating
these letters throughout the year. From this usage was
derived that of the Christian calendar of marking the days
by the first seven letters (A to G), similarly repeated.
The manner of denoting days of the month was peculiar.
The first day was always called kalendae, “calends;” the
fifth or seventh, nonae, “nones;” and the thirteenth or fif-
teenth, idus, “ides.” The mones were the seventh, and
the ides the fifteenth in March, May, July, and October,
the first, third, fifth, and eighth months of the Roman
year (easily remembered by associating them with the
notes of the common chord in music); in the remaining
months they fell on the fifth and thirteenth. Any other
day was denoted by its distance counted backward from
one of these points of reference, the reference-day itself
counting one. Thus, the 31st day of March is Pridie Kal
Apr., or II. Kal Apr. ; the 30th day of March is III. Kal
Apr. ; the 6th of July is Pridie Non. Jul.; the 5th, III.
Non. Jul., etc. It is difficult to understand how so cum-
brous a system as this could have maintained itself for
centuries among a cultivated people.
In the regulation of the year we find the calendars of
different peoples materially differing. The Egyptian year.
had 12 months of 30 days each, and counted five unallotted
days at the end. It was too short by nearly a quarter of
a day; and hence the beginning of the year went back-
ward through the seasons once in 1460 natural years or
1461 Egyptian years. This was known as the SoTHIAC
PERIOD (which see). Because of this incessant movement
the Egyptian year is called vague or wandering. The
Greek year consisted of 12 lunar months of 30 and 29
days alternately. This made the length of the year 354
days, or 114 days too small. To compensate for the defi-
ciency, an intercalary month of 30 or 29 days was intro-
duced every alternate year, which made the average length
seven days too great; for which reason the intercalary
2-

708
CALENDERING.
month was omitted once in about eight years. The earliest
Roman year, attributed to Romulus, had only ten months,
of which the first, third, fifth, and eighth (those in which,
as above mentioned, the nones fell on the ninth and the
ides on the fifteenth) had 31 days, and the rest 30 each.
This year of only 304 days was shorter than the natural
year by about one-sixth. Each Romulian year therefore
began two months earlier in the season than the last, and
the sixth came to an end at the same time with the fifth
natural year. This circumstance, according to Niebuhr,
determined the period of the lustrum. (See LUSTRUM.)
The months of the original Roman year were named
Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Junius, Quintilis, Sextilis, Sep-
tember, October, November, December. Numa Pompilius,
second king of Rome, added, according to Solinus, Janu-
arius to the beginning and Februarius to the end of the
year. This year was a lunar year of 354 days, but it was
made a day longer, or 355, because there was supposed to
be luck in odd numbers. To prevent displacement, an in-
tercalary month of 22 and 23 days, alternately, was intro-
duced every second year. This made the year to consist
in effect of 366+ days. About the year 450 B.C. the decem-
viri regulated the calendar once more, and placed February
between January and March, both at the end of the year.
The months were now—whether so settled by Numa or the
decemvirs is uncertain—Martius, 31 days; Aprilis, 29;
Maius, 31; Junius, 29; Quintilis, 31; Sextilis, 29; Sep-
tember, 29; October, 31; November, 29; December, 29;
Januarius, 29; Februarius, 28. The intercalary month was
inserted between the 23d and 24th days (as we count them)
of February, or, in the Roman manner of speaking, before
the sixth calends of March. The reason for so placing it
was, that the seventh calends of March, or the 23d day of
Rebruary, was the last day of a round year of 360 days,
and was celebrated as the festival of Terminus, the god of
limits, under the name Terminalia. The Romans, like the
Egyptians, seem to have regarded the remaining five days
as hardly belonging to the year, but as being a sort of in-
terval between two years. The odd day added to the 354
for luck was not, however, intercalated in this place, but
was introduced wherever it might be necessary to prevent
the mundinae from falling on the calends of January or the
nones of any month—such a coincidence being deemed inau-
spicious. The year on this system being, as we have seen,
a day too long, added twenty-four days too much in twenty-
four years. It was provided, therefore, that during the last
eight years of this period these twenty-four days should be
deducted in making the intercalations. The pontiffs, how-
ever, who had the control of the intercalation, used their
power capriciously for personal ends—sometimes to lengthen
or shorten the term of a magistrate, sometimes to benefit or
injure the farmer of the public revenues. As a natural
consequence, the calendar fell into extreme confusion; so
that in the time of Julius Caesar the civil differed from
the astronomical equinox by nearly three months. This
powerful ruler resolved on a thorough reform. Under the
advice of the astronomer Sosigenes he abolished the lunar
year. He readjusted the months to their proper seasons by
making the year 708 A. U. C. 445 days long, extending from
October 13, inclusive (according to our present count), to
the 31st day of the second ensuing December. This year
is known in chronology as the year of confusion. He re-
constructed the months, giving 31 days each to the first,
third, fifth, seventh, ninth, and eleventh, and 30 days each
to the rest, except February, which had 29 only, but every
fourth year received an intercalary day, making 30. The
intercalation took place, for a reason already given above,
immediately after the feast of Terminalia, and was made
by repeating the sea to Kalendas Martius; whence the year
in which it occurred came to be called bissextile. Finally,
the beginning of the year was transferred from the first of
March to the first of January. To flatter the vanity of
Octavius after he had secured the supreme power and had
received the title of Augustus, a day was taken from Feb-
ruary by a sycophantic senate and given to August, which
had been named from him, for the frivolous purpose of
giving to his month no less dignity in point of numbers
than July, which had received its name from the first
Caesar. The lengths of the later months were then altered
to prevent three long months from occurring consecutively.
The Julian year consisted of 365+ days, and consequently
differed in excess by 11 minutes 13.95 seconds from the true
solar year, which consists of 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes
46.05 seconds. In consequence of this difference the equi-
nox, in the course of a few centuries, fell back sensibly
towards the beginning of the year. In the time of Julius
Caesar it corresponded to the 25th of March; in the six-
teenth century it had retrograded to the 11th. The cor-
rection of this error was one of the purposes sought by the
reformation of the calendar effected by Pope Gregory XIII.
in 1582. By suppressing ten days in the calendar, Gregory
it fell at the time of the Council of Nice in 325.
restored the equinox to the 21st of March, the day on which
This
council determined that the Eastern churches should cele-
brate Easter at the same time as the Western—i.e. on the
Sunday following the Paschal full moon, and not on the
fourteenth day of the Paschal moon. The Gregorian rule
of intercalation may be expressed as follows: Every year
of which the number is divisible by 4 without a remainder
is a leap year, excepting the centesimal years, which are
only leap years when divisible by 4 after suppressing the
two zeros. Thus, 1600 was a leap year; 1700 and 1800
were common years; 1900 will be a common year, 2000 a.
leap year, and so on. The length of the mean year thus
fixed is 365.2425 days, or 365 days 5 hours 49 minutes 12
seconds, which exceeds the true solar year by 25.95 seconds,
an error which amounts only to one day in 3325 years.
The intercalations might be so made as to make the calen-
dar year correspond even more closely than it does now
with the solar year, but no other method could be as con-
venient as the Gregorian.
The new calendar was received immediately or shortly
after its promulgation by all Roman Catholic countries.
The Protestant states of Germany and the kingdom of
Denmark adhered to the Julian calendar till 1700; and in
England the alteration was successfully opposed by popular
prejudices till 1752. In that year the Julian calendar, or
old style, as it was called, was abolished by act of Parlia-
ment, and the date used in all public transactions rendered
coincident with that followed in other European countries,
by enacting that the day following the 2d of Sept., 1752,
should be called the 14th of that month. When the altera-
tion was made by Gregory it was only necessary to drop ten
days; the year 1700 having intervened, which was a com-
mon year in the Gregorian, but a leap year in the Julian
calendar, it was now necessary to drop eleven days. The
old style is still adhered to in Russia and the countrie
following the communion of the Greek Church; the differ'.
ence of date in the present century amounts to twelve days.
For fuller information on this subject, see DELAMBRE, “As-
tronomie Théorique et Pratique,” tom. iii., chap. xxxviii.;
IDELER, “Lehrbuch der Chronologie;” and ANTHON, “Greek
and Roman Antiquities.”
Ecclesiastical Calendar.—The adaptation of the civil to
the solar year is attended with no difficulty, but the church
calendar for regulating the movable feasts imposes condi-
tions less easily satisfied. The festival of Easter commem-
orates the resurrection of our Lord, which momentous event
having occurred near the time of the Jewish Passover, was
naturally associated in the minds of the early disciples with
that anniversary, and its annual returns were made depend-
ent upon the same calendar regulations. The Passover was
observed on the fourteenth day of the moon—that is, near
the full moon. The question what day is most proper for
the observance of Easter became early a subject of warm
controversy. In order to put an end to an unseemly con-
tention, the Council of Nice ordered that Easter should be
celebrated on the Sunday which immediately follows the full
moon that happens upon or next after the vernal equinox.
In order to determine Easter according to this rule for any
year, it is necessary to reconcile three periods—namely, the
week, the lunar month, and the solar year. To find the
day of the week on which any given day of the year falls,
it is necessary to know on what day of the week the year
began. In the Julian calendar this was easily found by
means of a short period or cycle of twenty-eight years,
after which the year begins with the same day of the week.
In the Gregorian calendar this order is interrupted by the
omission of the intercalation three times out of four in the
last year of the century. But to render calculation unneces-
sary, a table is given in the prayer-books, showing the
correspondence of the days of the year and the week for
the current century. The connection of the lunar month
with the solar year is an ancient problem, for the resolution
of which the Greeks invented cycles or periods, which re-
mained in use with some modifications till the time of the
Gregorian reformation. See, on this subject, DELAMBRE,
“Histoire de l’Astronomie Moderne,” tom. i., liv. i.; also
DE MoRGAN, “Companion to the British Almanac,” 1845;
also, BARNARD, “How to Find the Church Festivals,” New
York, 1872. -
A new reform of the calendar was introduced in France
during the period of the Revolution. The commencement
of the year was fixed at the autumnal equinox, which
nearly coincided with the epoch of the foundation of the
republic. The names of the ancient months were abolished,
and others substituted having reference to agricultural
labors or the state of nature in different seasons of the year.
But the Alteration was found to be inconvenient and im-
practicable, and after a few years was formally abandoned.
F. A. P. BARNARD.
Cal’endering [a corruption of the word cylindering].
CALENDS—CALHOUN.
709
the process of finishing by pressure the surface of linen,
cotton goods, or paper, by passing the material between
cylinders pressed together with force; the domestic pro-
cesses of starching and ironing afford simple illustrations
of the object and result of calendering. The mangle effects
the same object as the flat-iron, and is a near approach in
construction to the calendering-engine. The calenders
were originally of wood. Hollow iron and copper cylinders
are used where heat as well as pressure is required, the cyl-
inders being heated by steam passed through the interior or
by red-hot heaters; but it is desirable that one of the cylin-
ders shall be of material combining considerable hardness
with a degree of elasticity; for this purpose solid paper
cylinders are used. -
Before the final calendering the fabric is flatly smoothed
by passing over warm cylinders. Cotton goods are starch-
ed with flour, thickened with plaster of Paris, porcelain clay,
etc., to give an appearance of stoutness, which of course
vanishes when the article is washed. The fabric is then
simply passed between plain cylinders, which produces the
desired effect by flattening the threads. When, by means
of a cylinder with a pattern raised upon it, the amount of
this flattening is unequal on different parts of the cloth,
the effect known as watering is the result. Glazing is pro-
duced by the rollers being made to move with different
Velocities, so that one side of the fabric is rubbed as well
as pressed by the roller whose surface moves with the great-
er rapidity. A copper roller is used for glazing, so hot that
if the machine stops it burns the goods. For glazing on a
small scale a polished flint is rubbed over the fabric, which
is laid upon a smooth wooden table.
Cal'ends [Lat. calendae, from calo (Gr. kaxéo), “I call”],
the first day of each Roman month, because, according to
Macrobius, before Cn. Flavius the scribe, against the will
of the patricians, made the fasti (propitious days—days
when courts were open) known to all the people (about
300 years B. C.), it was the duty of one of the minor
priests, on the first appearance of each new moon, to sum-
mon the plebeians to a place in the Capitol near the Curia
Calabria, and there to announce the number of days before
the nones (always five or seven, including the day of call-
ing and the day of the mones itself), by so many times re-
peating the word calo. If the part of this statement which
makes the beginning of each month dependent on direct
observation of the moon is correct, it is impossible that
the months of the early Roman calendar should have had
the fixed and rather arbitrary lengths usually assigned to
them. As to this question historians differ, some asserting
that the Roman months were strictly lunar down to A: U. C.
448; others, as Censorinus, that their lengths were fixed by
Numa, the second king. (See CALENDAR, by F. A. P. BAR-
NARD.) . T
Cal/enture [Sp. calentura, a “fever,” a “heat”], a
species of temporary delirium occurring on board ship in
hot climates, and probably due to the effect of exposure to
the direct rays of the sun. The descriptions of the disease
seem rather fanciful and contradictory, and the term is near-
ly obsolete. It is said that persons having a calenture fan-
cied the sea was a green field, and leaped overboard.
Cale/ra, a post-village of Shelby co., Ala., at the cross-
ing of the Selma Rome and Dalton and South and North
Alabama, R. R.s., 10 miles W. by S. of Columbiana.
Calf Creek, a post-township of Searcy co., Ark. Pop.
511.
Calhoun', a county in the E. N. E. of Alabama.
Area, 700 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the
Coosa River. The surface is diversified by hills and fertile
valleys. Cotton, corn, and wool are the staple products.
It is intersected by the Selma Rome and Dalton R. R.
Capital, Jacksonville. Pop. 13,980.
Calhoun, a county in the S. of Arkansas, Area, 650
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by Moro River, and
on the S. W. by the Washita. The surface is undulating
and well timbered; the soil is fertile. Chief products,
corn and wool. Capital, Hampton. Pop. 3853.
Calhoun, a county of Florida. Area, 464 square miles.
It is bounded on the E. by the Appalachicola River, and on
the S. W. by St. Joseph’s Bay, a part of the Gulf of Mex-
ico. The surface is low and nearly level. Tobacco, rice,
and corn are the chief crops. Capital, Ocheesee. P. 998.
Calhoun, a county in the S. W. of Georgia. Area,
300 square miles. It is intersected by the Ichawaynoch-
away Creek. The surface is level; the soil is productive.
º crops, cotton and corn. Capital, Morgan. Pop.
• I
Calhoun, a county of Illinois, bordering on Missouri.
Area, 260 square miles. It is a narrow peninsula, bounded
on all sides except the N. by the Mississippi and Illinois
rivers, which unite at the S. E. extremity of the county.
570 square miles.
The surface is uneven. Grain, wool, Iive-stock, and pota-
toes are largely raised. Capital, Hardin. Pop. 6562.
Calhoun, a county in N. W. Central Iowa. Area,
Grain and stock are raised. Capital,
Lake City. Pop. 1602. -
Calhoun, a county in S. W. Central Michigan. Area,
720 square miles. It is intersected by the Kalamazoo and
St. Joseph rivers, and is also drained by Battle Creek.
The surface is undulating; the soil is a rich sandy loam.
It is intersected by the Michigan Central R. R. Quarries
of sandstone occur here. Grain, dairy crops, wool, fruit,
and potatoes are very extensively raised. Carriages and
wagons, lumber sawed, flouring-mill products, clothing,
cooperage, saddlery, and harness are chief manufactures.
Capital, Marshall. Pop. 36,569.
Calhoun, a county in N. Central Mississippi. Area,
560 square miles. It is intersected by the Yallobusha Riv-
er and Loosascoona Creek. The surface is undulating or
nearly level; the soil is fertile. Corn, cotton, cattle, wool,
and grain are the chief products. Flouring-mill produce
is extensively manufactured. Capital, Pittsboro’. Pop.
10,561.
Calhoun, a county of Texas, bordering on the Gulf
of Mexico. Area, 684 square miles. It is bounded on
the N. E. by Lavacca Bay, and on the S. W. by Espiritu
Santo Bay and the Guadalupe River. The surface is
nearly level. Cattle and wool are largely raised. The
county is traversed by the San Antonio and Mexican Gulf
R. R. Capital, Indianola. Pop. 3443.
Calhoun, a county in Central West Virginia. Area,
300 square miles. It is intersected by the Little Kanawha
River. The surface is hilly. Grain and wool are the chief
products. Capital, Grantsville. Pop. 2939.
Calhoun, a post-village and township of Lowndes co.,
Ala., about 30 miles S. S. W. of Montgomery. Pop. 2781.
Calhoun, a post-village of Columbia co., Ark. P. 806.
Calhoun, a post-village, capital of Gordon co., Ga.,
on the Western and Atlantic R. R., 78 miles N. W. of At-
lanta. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 427.
Calhoun, a township of Calhoun co., Ia. Pop. 263.
Calhoun, a post-township of Harrison co., Ia. P. 371.
Calhoun, a post-village, capital of McLean co., Ky.,
is on Green River, about 40 miles S. S. E. of Evansville, Ind.
Calhoun (JAMEs M.), a nephew of J. C. Calhoun, was
born in South Carolina, but removed to Alabama, where in
1831 he was elected a member of the House. He served
for several years, then retired for fifteen years, but served
once more in the Senate from 1857 to 1861.
Calhoun (JoHN CALDWELL), L.L.D., an eminent Ameri-
can statesman, born in Abbeville district, S. C., Mar. 18,
1782. He graduated at Yale College in 1804, studied law,
and was sent to Congress in 1811. He began his political
career as a Democrat and a leader of the war-party. He
supported the tariff of 1816 and the U. S. Bank. In Oct.,
1817, he became secretary of war in the cabinet of Presi-
dent Monroe. He approved the Missouri Compromise of
1820, and was elected Vice-President of the U. S. in 1824,
in which canvass he was supported by the friends of Jack-
son and those of Adams. Having joined the Jackson
party, he was again elected Vice-President in 1828, when
General Jackson was chosen President. About this time
he became an advocate of free trade and of the doctrine
of the sovereignty of the States. He was the author of
the “South Carolina Exposition,” which affirmed that any
State can nullify unconstitutional laws of Congress. Cal-
houn and Van Buren having become aspirants for the office
of President of the U. S., Gen. Jackson, by promoting the
nomination of the latter, incurred the enmity of Calhoun.
He resigned the office of Vice-President in 1832, and was
then elected a Senator of the U. S. for South Carolina. A
convention held in South Carolina, near the end of 1832
adopted what was known as the Nullification ordinance.
Its object was to test the constitutionality of the protective
tariff policy through the instrumentality of the State in-
stead of the Federal courts, and to prevent the collection
of duties on imposts in that State under the act of Con-
gress of 1832, levied, as was alleged, with a direct view
rather to the protection of American manufactures than
the collection of revenue, until the protective principle,
so-called, should be so tested and decided by the State
courts. This was in pursuance of Mr. Calhoun’s peculiar
doctrines, known as mullification. He held that under the
Federal system the judiciary of each State had the reserved
sovereign right to decide in the last resort upon the extent
of the powers delegated under the Constitution by the
States respectively. This ordinance was to go into effect
on the 12th of Feb., 1833. The determined attitude of
Gen. Jackson against these nullification-doctrines caused
710
CALHOUN–CALICO-PRINTING.
general and serious alarm lest a conflict of forces should
ensue between the Federal and State authorities. It was
in this condition of affairs that Mr. Clay, as a mediator,
came forward with his famous “tariff compromise” of 1833,
which was founded upon the avowed principle of an
abandonment of the protective policy after 1843.
measure Mr. Calhoun gave his cordial support, and in this
way the anticipated perils of the crisis were averted.
As a debater, Mr. Calhoun occupied the foremost rank
among the American Senators, and was scarcely equalled
by any of his contemporaries, except Mr. Clay and Mr.
Webster. These three were known as “the Great Trio.”
The debate between Mr. Calhoun and Mr. Webster on the
nature of the Federal government and the doctrine of mul-
lification, so-called, in Feb., 1833, was one of the most
noted for ability and eloquence in the annals of this coun-
try. Mr. Calhoun retired from the Senate in Mar., 1843,
and was appointed secretary of state by Mr. Tyler in Mar,
1844. It was under his auspices that the “Tyler treaty,”
as it was called, for the annexation of Texas, was nego-
tiated in the same year. He was re-elected to the Senate
in 1845, and opposed the Mexican war in 1846. He con-
tinued in the Senate until his death, which occurred 31st
of Mar., 1850. His mind was eminently metaphysical,
and his private character was without reproach. Among
his writings are two posthumous works—one, a “Disqui-
sition on Government,” and the other, “A Discourse on the
Constitution and Government of the U. S.” These are
both held in high estimation by his admirers and men of
his school of politics. ALEx. H. STEPHENs.
Calhoun (WILLIAM BARRON), LL.D., born at Boston,
Mass., Dec. 29, 1795, graduated at Yale in 1814, became a
prominent lawyer of Springfield, Mass., was speaker of the
Massachusetts house of representatives (1834–35), member
of Congress (1835–43), president of the Massachusetts
senate (1846–47), and State secretary 1848–51, besides
holding of her important offices. Died Nov. 8, 1865.
Calhoun Mills, a post-village and township of Abbe-
ville co., S. C., about 87 miles W. of Columbia. Pop. 2208.
Ca/li, a town of the United States of Colombia, 70 miles
N. by E. of Popayan, is on a western declivity of the An-
des. It has two fine churches and an active trade. Pop.
about 5000.
Cal’ibre, or Caliber, a French word which is also
much used in English, signifies the diameter of the bore
of a gun or any firearm. It is usually measured and de-
cribed in inches or parts of inches. The cannon in which
solid shot is used are often denoted by the weight of each
shot, as a twenty-four pounder, but mortars which throw
shells or hollow shot are usually designated by such terms
as a thirteen-inch mortar, etc. -
Cal’ico, a kind of cotton cloth, said to be so named
from Calicut, a city of India, where it was first manufac-
tured. It was imported into England by the East India
Company in 1631.
Calico-Printing is the art of producing patterns on
cottom cloth, either by printing in colors, or in mordants
which become colors when subsequently dyed. Cloth made
from cotton and wool, when similarly printed, is known as
mousseline de laine. Calico-printing originated in India
in very ancient times. Pliny describes the art as prac-
tised by the Egyptians. For a long time chintz counter-
panes were imported into England from India. The art
spread westward to Asia Minor and the Levant. It was
imported into Holland by the Dutch East India Company,
and spread into Germany. At the close of the seventeenth
century Augsburg in Bavaria was noted for its printed
linens and cottons. Calico-printing was introduced into
England during the seventeenth century, but the develop-
ment of the art was for a long time seriously retarded by
the opposition of the silk and woollem weavers. At their
instigation the importation of chintz from Calicut was pro-
hibited, and a heavy revenue tax was placed upon English
calicoes. Finally, in 1720 a law was enacted prohibiting
the wearing of any printed calicoes whatever, either of
foreign or domestic origin. This law was repealed in
1736, but a duty of 6d. per yard was still levied. In 1831 all
duties were repealed. England is now the largest producer
of calicoes ; the U. S. stand second. The finest calicoes are
made in Alsace, at Mühlhausen. Calico-printing involves
a variety of operations, some of which are peculiar to cer-
tain styles, while others are common to all.
Singeing.—The first operation is the removal from the
surface of the cloth of the fibrous map or down, which, if
not removed, would seriously interfere with the uniform
application of the colors. The removal of the map is ef-
fected either by passing the cloth rapidly over a red-hot
plate (Fig. 1) or between lines of gas-jets. A shearing-
machine is also in use for this purpose.
To this i
FIG. 1.
§§
|##||
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ſºlºilº. ºf
º
C’
|ll
º
Bot-plate Singeing.—G is the grate; C is the semi-cylindrical red- .
hot plate of iron or copper; F and D are rolls on which the
cloth is wound; M and N are brushes for raising the map; L is
a lever for raising the cloth from the plate, slots being made
in the hood H to permit its being raised to the position indi-
cated by the dotted line. C' is a ridged plate used in some
establishments.
Bleaching is then effected by boiling the cloth with lime,
souring with sulphuric acid, boiling with soda-ash and
rosin, boiling with soda-ash alone, treating with bleaching-
powder, souring again, and finally washing thoroughly
with water. (See BLEACHING.)
Calendering is resorted to in order to make the cloth
smooth and even. It is effected by passing it between very
heavy rolls. -
Fiacing the colors upon the cloth is effected (1) by the aid
of mordants, substances which have an affinity for both
fibre and color, as madder, logwood, Brazil-Wood, etc.,
fixed by alumima or oxide of iron; Persian berries, fixed
by chloride of tin; aniline colors, fixed by gluten, etc.
Sumach and cutch, which produce drabs and blacks with
oxide of iron by the action of the tannic acid they contain,
belong to this class. It is impossible to make a distinc-
tion between the action of true mordants and of agents
which simply produce insoluble colors in the tissue of the
cloth, as the two classes pass into each other by insensible
gradations. These insoluble colors are produced by double
or simple decomposition, by the successive treatment of the
cloth with the necessary reagents. Thus, Prussian blue is
fixed on the cloth either by first applying an iron salt and
then treating it with ferrocyanide of potassium, or it is
produced by the decomposition of ferrocyanide of potas-
sium alone, under the influence of certain acids. Chrome
yellow is produced by the successive application of a lead
salt and bichromate of potassa. Indigo is fixed by apply-
ing it in solution as colorless reduced indigo, and develop-
ing it as insoluble blue pigment by oxidation in the air.
Brown oxide of manganese is formed by applying sulphate
of manganese, withdrawing the sulphuric acid by an alkali,
and oxidizing to a brown oxide by hypochlorite of lime.
Aniline black is produced by the oxidation of an aniline
salt in the cloth. (2) Colors are fixed by agents which,
being first mixed with the color, are applied to the cloth
and then rendered insoluble, when they hold the color upon
the fibres mechanically, as ultramarine blue, Guignet green,
chrome yellow, madder lake, and aniline colors, fixed by
albumen coagulated by heat. -
Patterns are produced (1) by printing the mordant in
figures, and subsequently producing the colors in the dye-
liquors: madder styles. (2) By printing one component of
the color, and then passing the cloth through a solution of
the other component, or of the agent necessary to develop
the color: padding, bronzing, indigo, pencil blue, and China
blue styles. (3) By printing the color together with the
mordant or fixing agent, and rendering it insoluble or de-
veloping it by air or steam. This is called topical or sur-
face printing: steam colors, spirit colors, aniline black,
aniline colors by albumen, pigment printing, metallic print-
ing. (4) By printing resist or reserve pastes, which protect
certain portions of the cloth, and prevent the fixing of the
color in the subsequent dyeing operations: resist styles.
(5) By discharging the color from portions of the cloth
previously dyed : discharge styles.
The colors most frequently employed in calico-printing
are (1) the dyestuffs proper—madder in the various forms
of powdered root, garancine, extract, alizarine, etc.; log-


wood, Brazil-wood, Sandal,
CALICO-PRINTING.
cam, and bar wood, and fustic ;
quercitron bark, indigo, Persian berries, cochineal and ani-
line colors; (2) the astringents which contain tannic acid,
catechu, sumach, nutgaills, etc.; (3) the pigments chrome
yellow and orange, Prussian blue, Guignet green, ultrama-
rine, Scheele's green, oxide of iron, oxide of manganese.
(For details see each under its own name, also DYEING and
DYESTUFFs.)
The mordants most frequently used are salts of alumina,
iron, and tin, caseine, albumen, and gluten.
Thickenings.-In preparing the colors and mordants for
printing it is necessary to thicken them to prevent spread-
ing and running. The agents generally used for this pur-
pose are wheat flour, starch, dextrine, gum-arabic, Senegal,
and tragacanth, and glue.
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- Block-printing by hand.
Printing Apparatus.--The mordants, and colors are ap-
plied to the cloth either
by wooden blocks or cylinders
with raised patterns, or by copper plates or cylinders with
sunken patterns; the copper cylinders being most generally
used for common calicoes.
FIG. 3.
|
º
§ M. Perrot of Rouen.
Block Printing.
PreSS for
Each color or tint requires a
separate block, plate, or cyl-
inder. In the printing of
cloth very nearly the same
principles apply as in the
printing of paper. Blocks
are applied by hand (Fig. 2)
or by presses (Fig. 3). The
Perrotine is a machine for
applying three blocks succes-
sively; it was invented by
The
plombine (Fig. 4) was a ma-
chime invented by Ebinger of
St. Dénis for the printing of
calico by a continuous pro-
cess with wooden relief cyl-
inders. The introduction of
copper cylinders or rolls upon
which the pattern is engraved
É
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sion of the calico-printing
industry. Figs. 5 and 6 ex-
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hibit the disposition of the more essential parts in printing
with engraved cylinders.
The cloth F passes over a huge
drum B, against which the rolls A are pressed. Each roll
is supplied with thickened mordant or color by a wooden
cylinder C, which dips in
to a vessel E containing it. A
blunt knife D, called the color doctor, scrapes off the Super-
fluous mordant or color from the unengraved portion of
the roll; another knife, called the lint doctor, cleanses the
roll as it leaves the cloth. By enlarging the drum the
capacity of the machine
twenty colors by adding to the number of rolls.
may be increased from one to
Fig. 7
exhibits a ten-color machine; Fig. 8 an eighteen-color
FIG. 4.
Plombine Printing.—R is
the color-trough. The
roll A applies the color
to the Troll B, which
transfers it to the end-
less web N, by which
it is applied to the re-
lief cylinder P, which
prints it upon the cloth
as it passes over the
drum G.
FIG. 5.
}
711
machine. The pieces of cloth,
measuring each about forty yards,
are stitched together, and the pro-
cess becomes continuous, miles of
calico being printed without stop-
ping the machine. A similar ma-
chine is now employed in printing
wall-paper. As each roll prints
only a portion of the pattern, it is
of course very important to regu-
late the tension of the cloth to
secure the proper location of the
parts of the figure. It is found
that the cloth stretches in length,
and consequently diminishes in
width, in the machine; so each roll
must be made to print a slightly
narrower pattern than those which
precede it. To prevent the run-
ning of the mordants or colors, the
cloth passes directly from the ma-
chine to a heated drying-room.
Madder Style.—This is the most
important and extensively prac-
tised style of calico-printing, ap-
plicable not only to the coloring-
matter from which it derives its
name, but to nearly all Organic
coloring-matters which are soluble
in water and capable of forming
insoluble compounds with mor-
dants. The thickened mordants
are printed on the cloth, and the
colors are produced by passing
the cloth through the dye-beck,
which contains the dyestuffs and
water. For pinks the mordant
employed is acetate of alumina ;
FIG. 6.
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712
CALICO-PRINTING.
for reds, the same, more concentrated; with an addi-
tion of chloride of tin; for purple, acetate of iron;
for chocolate, acetate of alumina, with a little acetate of
iron ; for brown, catechu, with a little nitrate of copper;
for drab, catechu, with a little nitrate of copper and chlo-
ride of iron; for black, a strong solution of acetate of iron;
for orange, acetate of lead, chloride of ammonium, and
chloride of tin. After the mordants have been printed on
the cloth, it is run into the drying-room, and then exposed
to the process of ageing. This has for its object the setting
or rendering insoluble of the mordants. It is effected by
hanging the cloth in a room where it is exposed to air,
warmth, and a certain degree of moisture. The alumina
loses most of its acetic acid, and passes into the condition
of an insoluble basic salt; the iron loses acetic acid and
takes up oxygen, passing into the condition of an insoluble
basic salt of the sesquioxide. The goods are next exposed
to a cleansing process called dunging. Formerly, cow-dung
was used for this purpose; it was mixed with water, and
the goods were passed through the mixture and subjected
to a kind of scouring. Phosphate of soda, arseniate of
soda, and silicate of soda, have now almost entirely dis-
placed the dung. The effect of the treatment is to remove
the excess of mordant, render what is left quite insoluble,
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and clear the unmordanted portions of the cloth. The next
step is the dyeing, which is effected in the dye-beck. Water
and the proper coloring-matters are introduced, and by
means of steam the whole is heated to the proper tempera-
ture. The dyestuffs employed depend somewhat upon the
tints to be produced. Madder alone is used for pinks; for
reds, purples, chocolates, etc., a portion of the madder is
replaced by Brazil-wood. For orange Persian berries are
added, with quercitron and fustic ; for blacks, logwood.
In order to brighten the colors, to render them more per-
manent, and to clear the whites, the cloth is next subjected
to the clearing process. This consists in exposing it to a
bath containing bran and soap, and then to a very weak
solution of bleaching-powder, hypochlorite of lime. If the
colors employed include Persian-berry orange, the cloth is
passed through a very weak bath of chloride of tin. The
cloth is then washed, starched, and calendered, when it is
ready for market. Calico dyed in madder styles is the
most durable, resisting the action of light and soap better
than any other style. Garancine styles are mordanted in
the same manner, but are dyed with garancine—madder
which has been treated with sulphuric acid. (See MADDER.)
This is a more economical way of using madder. It is
FIG. 8.
preferred for dark, heavy colors where the cloth is much
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Eighteen-color Machine. '
covered. The soaping operation is omitted, and the colors
are not as fast as those dyed with madder. Carbonate of
lime, whiting, is added to the dye-beck, to neutralize the
free acid in the garancine. Artificial alizarine madder
red is now extensively manufactured from anthracene, a
hydro-carbon obtained from coal-tar. It is employed as a
substitute for the various preparations of the madder root,
both in the dye-beck and in topical printing. (See ALI-
ZARINE.) Padded styles are specially adapted to min-
eral colors. Sometimes padding is resorted to for the
production of a ground of a uniform tint, the figures
to be subsequently applied by topical printing. . In
this case the cloth is first passed through a mordant,
then dried, and passed through the dye. To produce a
pale blue ground the cloth is first passed through a
weak iron solution, then dried, passed through chalk sus-
pended in water to fix the iron, then through ferrocyanide
of iron to produce Prussian blue. To produce a design in
chrome yellow the cloth is printed with a thickened solu-
tion of acetate of lead, dried, passed through a carbonate-
of-soda solution to fix the lead, and then through a solu-
tion of bichromate of potassa. A common padded style is.
iron buff, produced by passing through an iron solution
and fixing by an alkaline bath. Bronzes were once a favor-
~
, aged cloth to
dant, and fibre is effected. Such goods are very brilliant
ite style. They were prepared by padding with chloride of
manganese, then through caustic soda, and finally through
hypochlorite of lime. A uniform brown ground was thus
produced. By printing figures with protochloride of tin
mixed with pigments or decoctions, the brown color was
discharged, and colored patterns on a brown ground were
produced. Topical printing has displaced to a considerable
degree the old madder styles. The colors and the mordant
or fixing agent being applied to the cloth together, the
operations of dunging and dyeing are rendered unneces-
sary, and a much greater variety of colors and shades can
be employed; and as the colors do not come in contact with
the whites, there is a great economy of materials. Woollen
fabrics and de laines are always printed in this manner, as
they are not well adapted for mordanting and dyeing in the
madder style, owing to the affinity which wool possesses for
most coloring-matters. Steam colors are produced by print-
ing upon the cloth the madder and dyewood extracts, mixed
with the mordants, to fix them and to produce the desired
tints, and properly thickened. On exposing the dried and
steam, an intimate union of the color, mor-
and permanent to light, but do not withstand hot soap so-
lution, which alters the shades. For steam reds, prepara-























































































































CALICO-PRINTING.
713
tions of madder, cochineal, and various dyewood extracts,
especially Brazil-wood, are employed. Madder extract,
nearly pure alizarine, prepared from madder root by va-
rious processes, is extensively used, not only for pinks and
reds, but also for purples and chocolates. Artificial ali-
zarine is now largely used in place of madder extract.
For reds and pinks it is mixed, in the form of paste, with
solutions of acetate of alumina and acetate of lime, and a
thickening composed of wheat starch, acetic acid, gum
tragacanth, and olive oil boiled to a paste with water.
For purples, pyrolignate of iron is used in place of acetate
of alumina. Cochineal is prepared for steam-printing by
boiling the cochineal liquor with starch, and adding oxalic
acid and protochloride of tin.
For steam yellows, either decoction of quercitron bark
mixed with alum and gum Senegal, or a decoction of Per-
sian berries with alum, protochloride of tin, and gum sene-
gal, is employed. Prussian blue is ground with chloride
of tin and thickened for topical printing. To convert it
into green the cloth, after rinsing, is passed through a
solution of bichromate of potash. Spirit colors are extremely
brilliant topical tints, obtained by the use of larger propor-
tions of the spirits or metallic mordants. As they are ap-
plied very strong and acid, they cannot be steamed, but are
simply dried in the air, aged, and rinsed with water. For
a spirit purple a mixture of logwood liquor, thickened with
starch, to which some perchloride of tin is added as a mor-
dant, is employed. For chocolate, extract of Brazil-wood
and extract of logwood, with the chlorides of tin and cop-
per, properly thickened, is used. For red, peach-wood
liquor, with starch, nitrate of copper, perchloride of tin,
chloride of tin and ammonium, and oil. Aniline black
is a topical style recently introduced, which has almost
entirely displaced logwood and other blacks for certain
kinds of patterns. It is produced by printing a thick-
ened mixture of an aniline salt with a powerful oxidizing
agent, such as chlorate of potassa, with chloride of am-
monium, sulphate of copper, etc. The color is developed
by steaming, and the goods are finally passed through a
weak solution of carbonate of soda. When applied to
large surfaces this black injures the strength of the fabric;
its use is consequently restricted to light patterns show-
ing a large proportion of white. It is also specially
adapted for use with other topical styles. It is practically
indelible. By substituting naphthylamine for the aniline
salt the beautiful naphthylamine violet is produced.
Aniline Styles.—While the different aniline colors are
more especially adapted to wool and silk dyeing and print-
ing, they are nevertheless employed to some extent in
calico-printing, either in the dye-beck or by topical appli-
cation as steam colors. In the former case the cloth is
printed with (1) albumen, caseine, gluten, or chloride of
tin, followed by a nutgall decoction to produce insoluble
tannates, and then passed through an acid solution of the
aniline color; or the cloth is mordanted with either of the
above-mentioned substances, the nutgall decoction printed
on, and then passed through the acidulated color. Single
tints are thus produced. For use as topical colors, to be
fixed by steam, the aniline colors are mixed with albumen,
gluten (either putrid or dissolved in soda-lye, weak acid
or saccharate of lime), caseine in lye or weak acid, glue,
tannate of glue, tannic acid, oleo-sulphuric acid, shell-lac
in borax, arsenious acid in glycerine (method of Alfred
Paraf), or with a solution of arsenite of alumina in acetate
of alumina. The last process, devised by Perkin and
Schultz, is more extensively employed than any other,
except perhaps that with albumen. Of course in topical
printing any desired number of aniline colors may be used
at the same time. Pigment printing involves the applica-
tion of the pigments used in painting to the surface of the
cloth by means of some cementing agent. Caoutchouc
dissolved in naphtha was first employed with excellent
results, but the danger of fire attending the use of naphtha.
has caused the substitution of albumen, caseine, or gluten
for the caoutchouc. The pigments generally used are
ultramarine, chrome yellow and orange, Guignet green,
and lampblack for drabs. Metallie precipitates, as tin pre-
cipitated by zinc, are sometimes printed on cloth.
Indigo Styles.—Indigo is in some respects a very peculiar
dye; it is insoluble in its ordinary blue form, C16H10N202,
but is changed by reducing agents, such as grape-sugar in
Soda-lye, or protoxide of iron, produced by the action of
lime on copperas, to colorless, soluble, hydrogenized indigo,
C16H12N202. By passing the cloth through such a solu-
tion, and exposing it to the air, the indigo is oxidized and
becomes blue again, being fixed as an insoluble pigment
in the fabric. By repeating the treatment any desired
shade is obtained. By the use of reserve pastes or dis-
charges, with topical printing, white or colored figures on
a blue ground are produced. Pencil blue is a name given
to a style of calicoes which were prepared by printing on
copper thickened with gum or dextrine.
the white cloth and allowed to dry. When the cloth is
“Die Musterzeitung für Färberei, Druckerei,” etc.
by hand, with a piece of wood called a pencil, the colorless
reduced indigo. On oxidizing it produced figures in fast
blue. The China blue or pottery style (so called from its
resemblance to old china) was once very popular, but,
owing to its cost and the ease of imitating it with Prussian
blue, is now almost obsolete. The blue indigo was printed
on the cloth, forming blue figures on a white ground. To
render the color fast, the indigo was worked into the cloth
by treating it alternately with lime and copperas. Resist
styles involve the use of a resist or reserve which protects
the cloth in mordanting, dyeing, padding or covering, so
that the mordant or color does not adhere. Some resists
act mechanically, as clay, fat, oil, resin, wax, and sulphate
of lead. Others act chemically, as citric, tartaric, or oxalic
acid, or bisulphate of potassa, which are printed on cloth
mordanted with alumina or iron to remove them and pre-
vent the fixing of the color. Sulphate of zinc, sulphate
and acetate of copper, and chloride of mercury are special
resists used in indigo styles. White resist, for cylinder
printing, consists of a mixture of acetate or sulphate of
It is printed on
handled in the indigo vat containing the soluble colorless
indigo, it is dyed a uniform blue, the insoluble indigo
being precipitated as insoluble blue pigment in the fibres,
except where the resist has been applied. Here the copper
salt having been changed to oxide of copper by the alkali
of the vat, the colorless indigo is oxidized by the oxide of
copper (which becomes suboxide), and deposited on the
surface. On subsequently passing the dyed goods through
dilute sulphuric acid, the suboxide of copper is dissolved
and the indigo detached, leaving white figures on a blue
ground. Often the resist is mixed so as to contain a mor-
dant for some other color; thus, the resist applied to cloth
to be dyed in the indigo vat may contain an iron or
alumina mordant; so that after the ground with the white
figures is produced, the white becomes colored red, purple,
or black in the dye—beck with madder, woods, or bark.
This style is sometimes called lapis, from a remote re-
semblance to lapis lazuli.
Discharge Style.—After cloth has been uniformly dyed of
one color, agents called discharges are sometimes employed
to remove the color and produce a white pattern; or by
adding to the discharge certain agents the original color is
not only removed, but another color takes its place. By
printing a mixture of tartaric acid with pipeclay and gum
on a piece of cloth dyed red or purple with madder or wood,
or blue with indigo, and passing it through weak hypo-
chlorite of lime, the color will be discharged, leaving a
white pattern. Were a salt of lead added to the mixture,
it would be fixed by the hypochlorite of lime, and on sub-
sequently passing the cloth through bichromate of potassa,
would develop chrome yellow in place of the whites. A
modification of this style is the well-known bandanna
style for handkerchiefs. Several folds of cloth dyed Tur-
key red with madder are placed between perforated lead
plates, and firmly squeezed together in a hydraulic press.
A solution of chlorine is forced through the perforations,
destroying the color. This is followed by water, and on
removing the cloth from the press it is found to present
white figures on a red ground. Indigo is oxidized to solu-
ble isatine (C16H10N204.H2O), which is removed by washing,
by the action of chromic acid (applied in the form of bi-
chromate of potash), or by a mixture of potash and ferri-
cyanide of potassium. Reducing agents are also employed
as dischargers, especially the protochloride of tin, or tin
salt. When this compound comes in contact with oxide
of iron, a soluble protochloride of iron is formed, which is
readily removed by washing, while at the same time the
sesquioxide of tin (Suð,SuO2) is fixed upon the cloth, and
is ready to fix red or yellow dyes on the spots treated.
Combination Styles.—By combining two or more of the
above styles the greatest variety of result may be obtained.
Some of the finest French and English cretonnes exhibit the
most elaborate designs and most pure and brilliant colors,
and are really works of art. (For further details see
URE’s “Dictionary;” MUSPRATT's “Dictionary,” especially
the last German edition, from which the cuts used to illus-
trate this article were obtained; SCHüTZENBERGER’s “Traité
des Matières Colorantes,” especially the German edition;
O’NEILL’s “Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico-Printing,” .
and KRIEg’s “Theorie und Practische Anwendung von
Anilin in der Färberei und Druckerei;” the annual vol-
umes of WAGNER’s “Jahresbericht ueber die Fortschritte
der Chemischen Technologie.” The following periodicals
are especially devoted to dyeing and calico-printing:
“Moniteur de la Teinture;” “Bulletin de la Société In-,
dustrielle de Mulhouse;” REIMANN’s “ ºng ;”.
&6)
also MoUssBLINE DE LAINE, SILK-PRINTING, and WOOL-
PRINTING...) - C. F. CHANDLER.
714
CALICUT-CALIFORNIA.
Cal’icut, or Kalikat, a seaport-town of British In-
dia, presidency of Madras, on the Indian Ocean, 102 miles
S. W. of Seringapatam, and about 570 miles S. S. E. of
Bombay; lat. 11° 15' N., lon. 75° 46' E. . It was the first
place in India visited by Vasco da Gama, who arrived
here in May, 1498. It was then a populous and important
city, and it continued to be for nearly two centuries a
flourishing emporium. Its prosperity afterwards declined,
partly because its harbor became filled with sand. Pop.
about 24,000.
Califor’nia, one of the Pacific States of the American
Union, lying between the parallels of 32°28' and 42° N.
1 * * * * * * * * , -
*...* *UPEKA * x
*-* * * *- :----
ºf:
California Seal.
lat., and between the meridians of 114° 30' and 124° 45'
W. lon., from Greenwich. It formed a part of the cession
and purchase from Mexico after the Mexican war, and is
bounded on the N. by Oregon, E. by Nevada, and Arizona,
the Colorado River being the dividing-line between it and
Arizona, S. by Lower California, and W. by the Pacific
Ocean, which along the whole California coast trends from
N. W. to S. E. Its area is 188,981 square miles, or
120,947,840 acres, or somewhat more than the combined
area of New England, New York, and Pennsylvania. Its
length is 700 statute miles, and its average breadth more.
than 200 miles.
Face of the Country.—The mountain-system of Califor-
nia, vast in extent, diversified in character, abounding in
mineral wealth, and unsurpassed in beauty and grandeur
of scenery, deserves our first attention. It may be classed
under two grand divisions: the Sierra Nevada, extending
along the eastern border, and the Coast Range, along the
western—near the sea, as its name implies. These ranges,
uniting on the S. near Fort Tejon, in latitude 35° N., and
again in latitude 40° 35', form the extensive and fertile
valleys of the San Joaquin and Sacramento. These divis-
ions embrace many separate groups of mountain-chains
differing in geological formation and mineral character.
The Sierras, or Snowy Mountains, comprise a series of
ranges 70 miles in width, while the several chains of the
Coast Range aggregate 40 miles in width, and extend from
the northern to the southern limits of California. The
Sierras may be traced in regular order for a great distance
in two lines of culminating crests, but there is no apparent
order in the position and direction of the peaks of the
Coast Range, and many of the high mountains in close
proximity to each other are remarkably different in their
mineral composition. The peaks of this range rise to a
height of 1500 to 8000 feet above the level of the sea. The
peaks of the Sierra Nevada—Mount Shasta, Lassens Butte,
Spanish Peak, Pyramid Peak, Mounts Dana, Lyell,
Brewer, Tyndall, Whitney, and a number of others—
reach from 10,000 to 15,000 feet above the sea. E. of the
culminating crest of the Sierras is situated a series of
lakes—of which Klamath, Pyramid, Mono, and Owens
lakes, wholly E. of the mountains, and Lake Tahoe—
occupying an elevated valley at a point where the range
separates into two summits. The southern limit of the
depression in which these lakes are located is at the con-
fluence of the Colorado and Gila rivers. A similar de-
pression exists on the western slope of these mountains,
about 50 miles in width, also containing a series of lakes.
The section of country lying E. of the range of cul-
minating peaks of the Sierras is termed the Eastern Slope.
The depression between the foot-hills of the Sierras and
the Coast Range is called the California Valley, while the
Coast Range forms still another section. A further geo-
graphical division is made by drawing an E. and W. line
across the State in the latitude of Fort Tejon, that part
lying S. of this line being termed Southern California.
The country between this line and one extending E. and
W. through Trinity, Humboldt, Tehama, and Plumas
counties, is called Central California; all N. of this is con-
sidered as Northern California. Central California contains
nearly seven-eighths of the known wealth and population
of the State.
The most thoroughly explored division of the Coast
Mountains is the Mount Diablo Range, about 150 miles in
length by 50 in width. The peak from which this range
takes its name was selected as one of the three initial
points governing the public surveys in the State, its iso-
lated position rendering it a marked feature of the land-
scape, whether viewed by land or sea, while from its sum-
mit may be had a more extended view than from almost
any other point in the State. On the N., E., and S. may
be seen a large portion of the magnificent valleys of the
Sacramento and San Joaquin, with the numerous flourish-
ing towns and villages, surrounded by highly cultivated
farms. Stretching away in the distance are the verdant
plains and hill-sides, dotted with ranches and teeming
with countless flocks and herds. Bordering this extensive
vista on the E., and stretching along the horizon for more
than 300 miles, rise the Sierras, range above range, their
rugged peaks extending upward to the regions of perpetual
snow. On the W. are the beautiful valleys of the Coast
Range; the busy city of San Francisco, with its broad bay,
in which the ships of every commercial nation ride at an-
chor, and in the distance the blue waters of the Pacific,
flecked with the white sails of numerous vessels plying to
and fro on the peaceful errands of commerce.
. The most interesting and picturesque feature of Califor-
nia mountain-scenery is the Yosemite Valley, six or eight
miles in length, with an average width of not more than
half a mile, enclosed by perpendicular walls of granite
rising from 3000 to 5000 feet. Over these walls pour
streams of water from the narrow valleys above, some of
them passing into mist long before they reach the bottom
of the valley; others leaping by a series of falls from 400
to 600 feet each; the Yosemite Fall is 2600 feet in height,
or fifteen times that of Niagara. Through the centre of
the valley, among verdant meadows, groves of majestic
oaks and pines, and thickets of willow, birch, and bay
trees, winds the Merced River, which enters the valley by
a descent of 2000 feet in two miles. This valley has been
ceded by Congress to the State of California, to be held as
a place of public resort.
On the whole coast of California, but one navigable river,
the Salinas, connects directly with the ocean ; but a num-
ber, navigable for steamers, flow into San Francisco, San
Pablo, and Suisun bays, and are hence equally important
for the purposes of trade and commerce as if they emptied
directly into the ocean. Of these the principal are the
Sacramento and San Joaquin, the former navigable for
steamers and sailing vessels as far as Sacramento City at
all seasons of the year, and by small steamers far beyond,
into the interior of the country. The San Joaquin, which
traverses one of the most beautiful and fertile regions in
all California, is navigable for moderate-sized steamers
within a few miles of Fort Miller, near the foot of the
Sierras. N. of the Golden Gate are a number of rivers
of considerable magnitude, but their rapid descent from
the interior precludes their use for the purpose of navi-
gation. -
Of the harbors of California, that of San Francisco ranks
first—indeed it is the most commodious on the Pacific
coast—being 50 miles in length and 9 in width, securely
landlocked, protected by surrounding hills from the violent
winds of every quarter, and approached by the Golden
Gate, 5 miles in length, with a width of 1 mile, in which,
notwithstanding the rapid outward current at ebb tide, there
is never less than 30 feet of water. Next in importance is
San Diego, 456 miles S. of San Francisco, and near the
southern boundary of the State. It is protected on all
sides from violent winds, easily approached through a chan-
nel half a mile in width, and of sufficient depth to float the
largest vessels at all times. It has not, however, the ad-
vantages of San Francisco for inland traffic, though, if
connected with the East by a continental railway, it might
prove a formidable rival. The harbor of San Pedro, 370
miles S. of the Golden Gate, is formed by a spur from Point
St. Vincent and Deadman’s Island. This harbor is shelter-
ed from all but southerly winds, yet the water for several
miles from the mainland is very shallow, vessels being com-
pelled to anchor two miles from the shore, and to receive
and discharge their cargoes by means of lighters. The
other harbors are San Luis Obispo, 200 miles, Monterey
Bay, 92 miles, Santa Cruz Harbor, 80 miles, and Half
Moon Bay, 46 miles, S. of San Francisco; and Drake's,
Tomales, Bodega, and Trinidad bays, and Crescent City
Harbor, N. of the Golden Gate. These are all more or less
exposed to gales from certain points of the compass, and




CALIFORNIA.
in order to render them perfectly secure breakwaters and
other improvements are needed. -
There are a number of islands off the coast of California,
varying in size from a few acres to 150 square miles, the
smaller ones being extremely rugged, and inhabited only
by seals, sea-lions, and aquatic birds, while several of the
larger are adapted to grazing; and on Santa Catalina Isl-
and several of the small valleys are under cultivation.
The arable lands of the State, including those which only
need irrigation to make them largely productive, and the
reclaimed twlé or swamp-lands, which when reclaimed and
protected from overflow yield the largest crops in the world,
comprise nearly 60,000,000 acres, or almost one-half the area
of the State; while those adapted to grazing and vinicul-
ture are estimated at nearly 40,000,000 more. The remainder
of the surface is covered by lakes, rivers, bays, salt lakes,
etc., and by mountain-ranges, which, too steep for cultiva-
tion, are often covered with heavy timber. Still, the State
has but a very small proportion (only 477,880 in farms, and
but 9,604,607 acres in all; only about one-thirteenth of
her territory) in woodland, and this is rapidly diminishing.
Geology.—The Coast Range and its foot-hills belong in
general to the tertiary formation, but at San Pedro Bay
the cretaceous rocks come to the coast, and these in turn,
from the mouth of the Margarita River southward, are re-
placed by the recent alluvial formation, which extends S. E.
to the head of the Gulf of California. At two points of
the Coast Range there crop out beds of tertiary coal or lig-
nite—viz. at the Monte Diablo coal-mines, in Contra Cos-
ta, co., in the vicinity of the San Joaquim River, though
about 800 or 900 feet above it ; these are the only coal-
mines as yet worked to any extent in the State, and yield
about 120,000 tons annually ; and a second and more recent-
ly discovered outcrop of similar character in Mendocino
co., not yet exploited. The valley, or rather succession of
valleys, already described as lying between the Coast Range
and the Sierras are mostly of the cretaceous formation,
though in the extreme S. they rise into the alluvial sands.
But a small portion of these valleys contain gold, except
in placers washed down from the mountains; but occasion-
ally there have been found considerable quantities of gold
and silver in metamorphic rocks belonging as high up in
the series as the cretaceous. Still, the greater portion of
the auriferous and argentiferous rocks of the State belong
to the triassic and Jurassic strata, which form the surface-
rocks of the Sierra Nevada, and extend from the Columbia.
River nearly to the head of the Gulf of California. It is
in the rocks of these strata that the greater part of the
gold and silver deposits of the region, from the foot-hills
of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, occur. W. of the
Sierras, in the vicinity of the upper waters of Kern River
and its tributaries, is a volcanic region, where basaltic and
porphyritic rocks, sulphur and chalybeate springs, deposits
of sulphur, and extensive tracts of lava and lava-ashes are
found. A somewhat similar region exists in Sonoma co.,
in what are known as the Geysers. Much of the region E.
of the Sierras is of recent formation, and is sterile and for-
bidding to the last degree. The lakes or sinks, often very
deep, are always salt and bitter, and often without water
most of the year, but the beds of the lakes are covered with
alkaline deposits. The famous Death Valley, the Dry
Lakes, Dry Salt Lake, Owen’s Lake, and other sinks of
this region give striking evidence of its former volcanic
character, and of the great changes which have taken place,
some of them within modern times, in this part of the State.
The earthquakes of 1871 were most violent in this section.
Mineralogy.—Gold is found pure in scales, nuggets,
crystals, and in combination with cinnabar, bitumen, tel-
lurium, iridosmine, etc. The yield of the California gold-
mines has been immense. Silver is found native, though
rarely, but largely in combination with copper, as copper
glance, with galena, as proustite, or red silver ore, kuargy-
rite, etc. Copper exists native at various localities, as
malachite, copper glance, eubescite, azurite, chalcopyrite,
and chrysocolla, and in combination with sulphur, etc.
Mercury in the cinnabar ore is very abundant throughout
the Coast Range, as coccinite in Santa Barbara, and native
in the “Pioneer Claim * and elsewhere. Lead is abundant
as galena ore all over the State, and the molybdate of lead
(wulfenite) is found at one or two localities. Tin, in the
form of cassiterite or binoxide of tin, is found in the Tem-
escal Range, about 60 miles from Los Angeles. Arsenic
occurs pure in Monterey co., and as arsenilite in one or two
localities; iron as chromic iron, as hematite; tellurium,
native, and in combination. Diamonds are found in sev-
eral localities; graphite in Tuolumne co. and elsewhere;
borax and boracic acid, salt as rock-salt, Sulphur, carbon-
ate of soda, gypsum, barytes, antimony, ochre, alabaster,
fluor spar, corundum and cobalt, in the form of erythrine,
abound in various parts of the State. Magnesite, iridos-
mine, magnetite, limonite, tourmaline, pyrolusite (bin-
possess very valuable qualities.
oxide of manganese), zircon, garnets, chrysolite, and hay-
sime are the other principal minerals. Coal, as has been
already mentioned, occurs in two or more localities. Petro-
leum and bitumen are found all along the coast counties.
|Wegetation.—There are 48 genera and 105 species of
forest trees in California, the greater part not only in-
digenous, but peculiar to the Pacific slope. Of these, 40
species are evergreens, found mostly on the mountains of
the Coast Range and the Sierras. Most remarkable of
these are the two species of Sequoia (the Sequoia gigantea
or mammoth tree), of which there are seven or eight groves
known in the State. Some of these trees have attained a
height of 450 feet, with a circumference near the ground of
120 feet or more. The largest now standing is said to be
376 feet in height and about 106 feet in circumference. This
tree seems to belong to the cedar family; its wood is soft,
elastic, straight-grained, light when dry, and red in color.
The Sequoia sempervirens, or California redwood, is a very
stately tree, attaining a height of 300 feet and from 75 to 80
feet in circumference. This is the most valuable timber-tree
of California, though confined to the upper portion of the
Coast Range, not appearing below San Luis de Obispo, and
but sparingly below-San Francisco. When felled, it is re-
placed by other trees. The sugar-pine (Pinus Lambertiana)
is the peer of the redwood in size and commercial value.
Its wood is white, straight-grained, clear, and free-split-
ting. Its height is sometimes 300 feet and its circumfer-
ence 45. It has comes eighteen inches long and four thick;
a sweetish resinous gum exudes from the harder portion of
the wood, tasting much like manna and having cathartic
properties. There are fifteen other species of pine, of
which the Pinus ponderosa, or yellow pine, 225 feet high,
the Sabiniana, or Sabine's pine, 140 feet, and the insignis,
or Monterey pine, 100 feet, are the most remarkable. The
yellow and Monterey pine are similar to our yellow or
pitch-pines at the East, and are in demand for flooring
purposes. Sabine's pine is the nut-pine, having an edible
cone or nut, much valued by the Indians. The other spe-
cies rise from 30 to 100 feet in height, but are not so much
prized as those we have named. There are six species of
true fir, one of them (Abies Douglasii, Douglas's spruce)
300 feet in height, and three of the others stately trees 100
feet or more in height; the Western balsam fir (Picea
grandis) grows to the height of 150 feet. The California
white cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) is a very stately tree,
140 to 150 feet in height. There are also four species of
cypress, three of juniper, two of arborvitae, and one of yew
(Taacus brevifolia), which attains to the height of 75 feet.
The wild nutmeg (Torreya Californica), the California
laurel (Oreodaphne Californica), the Arbutus Menziesii, or
madrona, and the Arctostaphylog glauca, or manzanita,
are all beautiful and remarkable evergreens. There are
twelve species of oak, two of them live-oaks or evergreens,
the rest deciduous. The burr-oak is the largest and state-
liest, but its wood, like most of the others, is principally
valuable for fuel. The Quercus Garryana, sometimes called
white oak, though not a large tree, has a dense, fine-grained
wood, used for making agricultural implements. There is
one member of the chestnut family, the Western chinqua-
pin, which is a fine tree, sometimes attaining a height of
125 feet. There are four acacias, none of them remark-
able; three poplars or cottonwoods, one of them a fine
shade-tree; two alders; the Mexican sycamore; one species
of walnut (Juglans rupestris), a fine tree; three species of
cornel or dogwood, all differing from the Eastern cornels;
four of the wild lilac ; two of the wild cherry, both shrubs
rather than trees; two maples, Acer macrophyllum, here
called white maple, a stately and beautiful tree, and Acer
circinatum, or vine maple, a smaller tree, found only in the
mountains. There are three yuccas, two species of wil-
low, a box elder, an Oregon ash, and the flowering ash,
which is not a true ash; a species of buckeye, one of iron-
wood, a Parkinsonia or greenwood, small but elegant; two
species of cactus, a persimmon, the pistachio-nut, and
many species of semi-tropical trees which are unknown
elsewhere. The shrubs and Small fruits are nurgerous.
There is but one species of native grape, which is found
in Southern California, but most of the European and
Bastern vines flourish well in the foot-hills, and the cul-
ture of the vine is becoming one of the great industries of
California. The edible berries and fruits of California are
very abundant, though in the wild state most of them are
inferior in size and flavor to those of the Atlantic coast.
Medicinal plants and shrubs abound, and many of them
Grasses are very numer-
ous, and many of them highly nutritious, but except in the
foggy regions along the coast there are hardly any native
grasses which will make a sod or which are adapted for
hay. The wild oat (Avena fatwa) is the principal depend-
ence of the farmer (except cereals sown expressly for that
purpose) for fodder.
715
There are twenty-six known species
716
CALIFORNIA.
of these indigenous grasses and grains, but not more than
four or five of them are of much value for pasturage. Al-
falfa, a species of lucerne clover from Chili, has been largely
introduced, and is regarded as the best plant for pasture
and fodder found in the State. The native clovers are
good, but do not grow very freely or abundantly. Wild
flowers abound in California, most of them remarkable for
their beauty of form and color, and a few of them exceed-
ingly fragrant. The lily and syringa families, many of
them shrubs and even trees, are conspicuous both for beauty
and fragrancy, filling the air for long distances with their
perfume. Of cryptogamous plants the quantity and variety
is simply boundless. More than 100 species of mosses have
been described, while the mushrooms, sea-weeds, lichens,
and fungi are still more abundant.
Zoology.—There are 115 species of mammals in California,
of which twenty-seven are carnivorous, including the grizzly,
black, and brown or Mexican bear, the raccoon, badger,
two species of skunk, the wolverine fisher, American sable
or marten, mink, and yellow-cheeked weasel, California,
otter and sea-otter, the cougar, jaguar, wild-cat or red lynx
and banded lynx, raccoon fox or mountain cat, gray wolf,
coyote or barking wolf, five species of fox, three or four
species of sea-lion, two species of seal, and the sea-elephant.
Of the insect-eaters there are two species of mole and two
of shrew; of the bats, sixteen species. Of the rodents
there are the beaver, the sewellel or mammoth mole, five
species of ground-squirrels, and five of tree-squirrels. Of
the mouse family there are eighteen species, including
three maturalized ones; the muskrat, jumping mouse, four
species of kangaroo mice, and five of gophers; the yellow-
haired porcupine; six species of hares and rabbits, and a
coney or rat-rabbit. Of ruminants there are the elk, the
white-tailed, black-tailed, and mule deer, the American
antelope, and the mountain-sheep or bighorn. Of the
Cetacea, there are the right and California gray whale, the
humpback and finback, two of the beaked whales, the
sperm whale, the black-fish, and three species of porpoise.
Of birds there are 350 species recognized as native to Cali-
fornia. There are twenty species of climbers, fifteen of
them woodpeckers; of birds of prey there are thirty-seven
species, including five of the eagle family, ten species of
buzzard-hawks, four hawks, and four falcoms; twelve
species of owls; the king of the vultures, and the turkey-
buzzard or turkey-vulture. Of the perchers there are
eleven species in the first group, including the crows, ravens,
magpies, jays, and kingfishers; in the second and third
groups, the insectivorous and granivorous perchers, there
are 148 species, including the flycatchers, humming-birds,
swallows, waxwings, shrikes, tanagers, robins and thrushes,
wrens, chickadees, grosbeaks, finches, linnets, larks, orioles,
and sparrows. The pigeon tribe has but three species in
the State—the band-tailed pigeon and the turtle and ground
doves. The grouse family are more numerous—blue grouse,
sage-fowl, prairie-hen, and ruffed grouse, and three species
of quail, all distinct from the quails of the Atlantic coast.
Of the waders there is a great variety, fifty-one species hav-
ing been described. These include cranes, herons, bitterns,
ibises, plover, kill-deer, avocets, Snipes, Sandpipers, curlews,
rails, and coots. The swimmers are still more numerous,
ninety species having been described, including a great
variety of geese, brants, teal, ducks, Scooters, coots, shel-
drakes, mergansers, pelicans, cormorants, albatrosses, ful-
mars, petrels, gulls, terms, looms, dippers, auks, sea-pigeons,
and murres. Of the reptiles there are great numbers, though
there are no true saurians (alligators or crocodiles) in the
State, and the rattlesnake is the only poisonous serpent.
There are three tortoises, thirty-one lizards, five rattlesnakes,
twenty-five species of harmless snakes, twenty-three frogs,
toads, salamanders, etc. One hundred and ninety-four
species of fish had been discovered in the lakes, bays, rivers,
and on the sea-coast of California in 1868, and since that
time the number has been greatly increased. About 180
species are edible. These include nine species of the sal-
mon family, four of the cod family, a dozen eels, seven
speciés of mackerel, numerous species of the perch family,
and its congeners; two tautogs—viz. the redfish and kelp-
fish; thirteen flatfish and flounders; seven species of shad,
herring, and anchovies; twenty-two carps, and thirty-two
species of cartilaginous fishes, sturgeons, sharks, rays, sun-
fish, etc. etc. There are fifty-five species of mollusks, in-
cluding a great variety of claims, oysters, mussels, scollops,
whelks, limpets, sea-snails, cuttle-fish, squids, nautiluses,
etc. Of crustaceans there are seven species, including
crabs, lobsters, shrimps, and crawfish.
'Climate.—Extending over almost ten degrees of latitude,
the climate of California is too varied to be regarded as a
whole. It may be divided, in the first place, into the land
climate and the sea climate. W. of the Coast Range, and
extending to the sea-shore, the climate is governed by the
temperature of the ocean. . The cold current of water which
flows out from Behring Strait, and hugs the W. coast of
the American continent inside of the Kuro-sievo or Pacific
Gulf Stream, has a temperature of from 52° to 54° the year
round. From April to October, inclusive, N. or N. W.
winds prevail, and almost daily during this period a deluge
of cold damp air, of nearly the same temperature as the
ocean over which it has passed, is poured upon the land.
It is mostly laden with mist in dense clouds, which it de-
posits at the foot-hills and on the slopes of the highlands, or
carries a short distance into the interior wherever there is
a break in the mountain-wall which shuts off these mists
from the sunny valleys of Middle California. The land
climate is as nearly as possible the opposite of this in every
respect. It is modified by the configuration of its surface.
In summer and autumn it is hot and dry. Even the moun-
tains, which retain the snow till a late period in the season,
have a high temperature in the middle of the day, and the
presence of snow on their summits in June is due rather to
the great mass which has accumulated on them than to the
lowness of the temperature at this season. The great in-
terior valleys, as of the Sacramento and San Joaquin,
have a most torrid temperature in summer. The thermo-
meter in June, July, and August marks at 2 or 3 P. M.
from 104° to 117° F., sometimes for several successive days.
Yet this intense heat is not as prostrating as a considerably
lower temperature on the Atlantic coast, for two reasons:
1st, the heat is dry, and accompanied by a considerable
breeze: during those three months the aggregate rainfall
is seldom more than 1% of an inch; and 2d, the nights
and mornings are always cool, the average of the nights
never rising above 70°, and in June not above 65° F. In
South-eastern California, in the valley of the Colorado and
its vicinity, there is still more intense heat, the mean for
the month of July for twelve years being upwards of 100°
at noon, and 91.5° at 9 P. M. The maximum temperature
of these twelve years was 130° in the shade at 12 M. to 3
P. M.–a heat unsurpassed, we believe, in any part of the
torrid zone. In San Francisco, on the contrary, and in
most of the towns on the coast N. of that port, the summer
temperature is almost too cool for comfort, from the cause
we have already assigned. A table of the temperature and
rainfall in that city for each day of July, 1872, from the
signal service bureau, gives the monthly average tempe-
rature as only 58°, and the highest mean daily thermom-
eter, that of July 13, was only 63.2°, while on several
days of the month it was as low as 54°. The entire rain-
fall for the month was only one one-hundredth of an inch.
It should be said, however, that the range of the thermom-
eter in San Francisco during the year is very small. The
mean temperature of the year is 56.6°; the mean tempe-
rature of the year at sunrise is 49.5°; and the mean at
noon 63.7°. The minimum temperature of the year is sel-
dom below 32°, and in some years not below 40° ; in the
average of seventeen years the mercury rose to 90° only
six times, and but two of these were in the summer months.
Usually, the maximum is not above 82° or 83°, and the
entire range of the thermometer for the year seldom ex-
ceeds 50°. This small range and uniform mean of the
thermometer characterizes the climate of the whole coast-
region lying W. of the Coast Range. In the nine degrees
of latitude between the mouth of the Columbia River and
Monterey the mean temperature of the year varies not
more than three or four degrees at most, but the summers
are hotter and the winters cooler in the northern part than
in the S. In Yreka, in the extreme northern portion of
the State, an elevated district, the winters are very severe;
in Jan., 1868, the mercury stood below zero for several
days in succession, and sometimes twelve to fifteen degrees
below. Between the coast and the interior valleys there is
a large district under the joint influence of the two climates,
and consequently enjoying the most delightful climate in
the world. This is composed chiefly of valleys surround-
ing the Bay of San Francisco and penetrating into the
interior in every direction. The sea-breeze, with its clouds
and abundant moisture, prevents these valleys from being
parched with drought, tempers the fierceness of the heat,
and moderates the cold of winter. Except in the northern
counties there is nothing which can legitimately be called
winter, the year being divided into the rainy and the dry
seasons. The rainy season commences in November and
lasts through April, and the dry season, beginning with
May, continues to the end of October. These terms, how-
ever, are not used in any absolute sense. During the rainy
season, even in San Francisco and on the coast generally,
no more rain falls than in the Atlantic States during the
summer. The mean rainfall of each of the rainy months
for seventeen years (1850–67) in San Francisco was No-
vember, 2.74 inches; December, 5.37 inches; January, 4.51
inches; February, 3.08 inches; March, 2.76 inches; April,
1.74 inches. The dry season for the same term of years
showed the following mean: May, 0.82 inch; June, .05
CALIFORNIA.
717
inch ; July, .02 inch; August, .01 inch; September, .09
inch; October, 0.57 inch; or for June, July, August, and
September, ſº of an inch, and for the whole six months
1.56 inches. The mean rainfall of the year was 20.79
inches. In many of the interior towns the yearly average
is less than this. At Sacramento the yearly mean was
18.23 inches; at Benicia, 22.86 inches; at Monterey, 12.20;
at San Diego, 10.43; at Fort Yuma, 3.24. On the other
hand, among the foot-hills of the Sierras the precipitation
was very great. At Red Dog, Nevada co., the average
mean of three years was 64 inches; at South Yuba the
rainfall of 1866–67 (not an exceptional year) was 81.56.
Klamath co., in the N. of California, seems to partake of
the characteristics of the Oregon climate. In 1861–62,
which was a year of remarkable rains all over the Pacific
coast, the rainfall in Hoopa Valley, Klamath co., was
129.15 inches, or almost thirteen feet. The following table
gives the average temperature and rainfall for each quarter
and the whole year in several widely separated towns of
the State for a period of from twelve to seventeen years:
Places. Spring. Sum'r. Aut'n. Winter. Year. Rainfall.
San Francisco.... 56.59 || 60.09 || 59.09 || 51.09 || 56.6° 20.79 in.
Sacramento ....... 56.09 || 69.05 || 61.00 46.50 || 58.00 | 18.23 “
Benicia .............. 56.50 67.09 || 60.59 49.00 || 58.00 22.86 “
Monterey .......... 54.09 || 59.00 57.09 || 51.00 55.5o | 12.20 *
San Diego • * * g e º e - © e 60.00 || 71.09 || 64.50 52.59 || 62.00 10.43 “
Fort Yuma......... 72.00 90.00 || 75.5o 57.09 | 73.50 3.24 “
Humboldt Bay...] 52.00 57.59 |:53.00 43.50 || 51.50 | 57.24 “
Agricultural Products.-The assessors of the counties of
the State reported to the surveyor-general the following as
the agricultural products of the State in the year 1872:
Turnips......... 2,324 tons. |Oats, 88,056 ac. 2,152,047 bushels
Pumpkins and Rye, 2899 ac.... 35,955. “
squashes...... 24,535 “ Corn, 39,996 ac. 1,356,372 “
Silk cocoons ... 106,168 pounds. Buckwheat,464
Broom corn.... 917 acres. aCTeS ........... 7,598 “
Butter............ 7,734,469 pounds. Peas, 2258 ac... 91,164 “ .
Cheese............ 2,741,198 “ Beets.............. 9,647 tons.
Wool.............. 24,255,468 “ Onions, 1645;
Honey........... 400,922 “ 3.CrêS .......... 143,966 bushels
Apple trees..... 1,370,971 number Hay, 352,867 ac 411,420 tons.
Peach ............ 882,33 {{ Flax, 4287 ac.
Pear............... 297,841 “ (seed) ......... 2,052,200 pounds.
Plum.............. 249,464 “ Hops, 534 ac... 445,036 “
Cherry .......... 144,120 “ Tobacco, 151#.
Nectarine ...... 43,776 “ aCl’CS ........... 53,050 “
Quince........... 6,940 “ Peanuts,442 ac 435,648 “
Apricot ......... 92,326 “ Beans, 7275 ac. 137,438 bushels
Fig................ 52,550 “ Castor beans,
Lemon........... 8,973 “ 765 acres...... 642,800 pounds.
Orange .......... 5,156 “ Pot a to e s , *
Olive.............. 13,282 “ 31,035% acres 1,067,256 tons.
Prunes .......... 15,325 “ Sweet potatoes
Mulberry........ 553,032 “ 897; acres ... 5,2673 tons.
Almond......... 484,868 “ Brandy........... 147,135 gallons.
Walnut ......... 127,615 “ Wine ............. 4,542,879 “
Gooseberr Breweries, 137 3,770,464 “
bushes......... 21,187 “ To which are
Raspberry to be added,
bushes......... 79,084 “ Wheat............ 13,360,302 bushels
St r a wberry Barley............ 528,494 “
Vines .......... 7,524,688 “ - |Cotton............ 360,000 pounds.
Grape vines....30,889,366 “
The arrivals of wheat at San Francisco from July to
Dec., 1872, were 7,069,600 centals = 11,782,666 bushels;
which indicates what is probably true, that these returns
of the assessors are considerably below the actual produc-
tion. Four counties made no return of agricultural prod-
ucts.
The assessors’ report of live-stock for the year 1872 was
as follows:
No. No.
Horses ....................... 237,280|Total neat cattle......... 816,897
Mules ........... ............ 24,176|Sheep ........................ 3,158,193
Asses 1,356|Cashmere and Angora
CoWs.......................... 260,145 goats ...................... 18,073.
Calves........................ 200,726|Hogs.......................... 219,057
Beef cattle.................. 218,454|Hives of bees.............. 23,118
X&D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,529
The estimates of some kinds of live-stock by the agri-
cultural department at Washington for Jan., 1873, were:
horses, 250,000, valued at $11,037,500; mules, 25,000,
valued at $1,776,500; oxen and other cattle, 442,200, valued
at $10,042,362; milch cows, 270,000, valued at $11,728,800;
sheep, 4,002,800, valued at $11,888,316; and 427,300 hogs,
valued at $2,610,803.
The agricultural products of the State, as was to be ex-
pected from its varied climate and its very rich and deep
soil, are many of them very different from those of other
portions of the country. In some sections there are exten-
sive vineyards, and the best of European grapes have been
planted here and yield bountifully; in the valleys of the
interior there are vast crops of the cereals; and the culture
of the mulberry and rearing of silkworms have become a
prominent industry. The culture of cotton is also becom-
ing very popular. . In Southern California, the best-paying
crops are oranges, lemons, olives, almonds, English walnuts,
figs, prunes, nectarines, apricots, and pomegranates. The
culture of the sugar-beet is also becoming an important in-
dustry, and a successful beginning has been made in the
cultivation of tea and in the raising of coffee. In the
northern counties butter, cheese, and the hardier, fruits
are produced, and large flocks of sheep are kept, over
24,000,000 pounds of wool being grown in 1872. In
short, in one part of the State or another, all the trees,
fruits, vegetables, and shrubs of the tropical, sub-tropical,
and temperate regions can be cultivated with success.
Manufactures and Mining Industry.—The assessors’ re-
turns on these topics are very incomplete, and we are un-
der the necessity of taking those of the census of 1870,
except on a few points, though these are known to be im-
perfect and under-estimated. The manufacturing statistics
of California, according to the census, are: manufacturing
establishments, 3984; steam-engines, 604, of 18,493 horse-
power; water-wheels, 271, of 6877 horse-power; operatives
employed, 25,392, of whom 24,040 were men, 873 women,
479 children; capital employed, estimated at $39,728,202;
wages paid, $13,136,722; raw material used, $35,351,193;
annual product, $66,594,556. More than four-sevenths
of the entire manufactures ($21,170,956 capital, $7,238,528
wages, $20,046,321 raw material, and $37,410,829 annual
product) belonged to San Francisco. The heaviest item
was flouring and grist-mill products, $9,036,386 of annual
product; the next largest were those of lumber, sawed and
planed, and sash doors and blinds, yielding a product of
$7,066,924. The quartz-mills were either understated or
have greatly increased since 1870. The census reports
114, the assessors 3II; the census reports the annual pro-
duct at $3,405,708, while the assessors report 572,913 tons
crushed, which, at the very low rate of $25 per ton (which
is below probability), would yield $14,322,800. Refined
sugar was produced, according to the census, in three re-
fineries, to the annual amount of $3,904,645. Of liquors,
distilled, malt, and vinous, there were produced $3,342,934
worth in 1870. The production of wines and brandy from
wines has greatly increased each year since, and in 1872
these two items alone amounted to $3,944,287. Boots and
shoes were reported as manufactured to the value of
$2,214,807 in 1870; tobacco and cigars of the value of
$1,967,717 were reported in 1870, doubtless an under-
estimate, as the import of unmanufactured tobacco in 1872
was valued at over $2,000,000, aside from that grown in
the State, and the expense of manufacture. Printing and
publishing yielded an annual product in 1870 of $2,279,339;
machinery of various kinds was produced to the value of
$3,814,817; iron and iron castings and wares to the value
of $1,715,141; carriages and wagons, $1,309,443; carpenter
work and building, $1,391,163; gas, $1,356,753; brick,
$1,185,820; blacksmithing, $1,161,790; clothing, $1,828,609;
woollen goods, $1,102,754—an evident under-estimate, as
in 1872 the seven mills reported by the assessors used
4,191,000 pounds of wool, which, at the ruling price, 32
cents, made the cost of raw material $1,341,120, and the
annual product nearly double that sum; and yet this did
not include all the woollen mills of the State. The only
other considerable manufactures of the State were cordage
and twine, $850,000; gunpowder, $526,487; drugs and
chemicals, $617,870; and bags other than paper, $501,310.
The census of 1870 reports the mining industry of

California, as employing 7589 persons and a capital of
$20,079,975, producing $8,281,623. Of this amount,
$817,700 is said to be yielded by cinnabar and other quick-
silver ores, gold in placer, hydraulic, and quartz mining,
$7,365,833, and silver, $98,100. How far below the truth
these statistics are will appear from the production of these
metals in 1872. Gold and silver were produced in Cali-
fornia in that year to the known value of $19,049,098; the
export of quicksilver that year was $861,795, which was
less than one-half the yield; copper ores were exported to
the value of $120,261. There is also a very considerable
amount of lignitic coal obtained from the mines already
mentioned. The greater part of the coal-supply of the
State is from the lignitic mines of Oregon, British Colum-
bia, Washington Territory, and Wyoming. It is of very
fair quality, but is generally quite inferior to true coal
of the carboniferous period. The amount raised is un-
known. -
Railroads.-On the 1st of Jan., 1873, there were 1102
miles of completed railroad in the State in actual operation,
nearly all of it controlled, either by lease or purchase, by
the Central Pacific R. R. Company. The following sum-
mary shows the length of each line and its present termini.
Of the 882 miles of the Central Pacific R. R. proper, 276
are comprised between the State line of Nevada and San
Francisco. The other lines under its control are:
718
CALIFORNIA.
San Francisco to Holister 94 m.
Gilroy to Salinas............. 37 “
Niles to San José............ 18 “
Lathrop to Tipton..........167 “
Stockton to Milton......... 30 “
Donahue to Cloverdale.... 56 “
San Quentin to San Rafael 4 “
Wilmington to Los An-
Peters to Oakdale............ 19 “ geles........................... 22 “
Sacramento to Vallejo..... 60 “ | Sacramento to Folsom..... 23 “
Davisville to Yuba City. 50 “ Folsom to Shingle Springs 26 “
Vaca to Vacaville........... 7 “ Marysville to Oroville..... 26. “
Napa Junction to Calis- Total........................ 1102 “
toga. ....................-------. 34 “
These roads do a fair though not a large passenger
traffic—the through passengers arriving in California from
the East over the Central Pacific and Western Pacific in
1872 being 34,040, and those returning to the East number-
ing 21,645—but their principal business is a freight traffic.
The through freight sent eastward over the Central Pacific
in 1872 was 60,120,497 pounds; the westward-bound
through freight weighed 160,370,044 pounds; while the
local freight amounted to 1,676,436,753 pounds, making a
grand aggregate of 948,463.65 tons moved over these
roads. This is wholly independent of the express freight,
a large proportion of it bullion and ores, sent over these
lines by Wells, Fargo & Company’s express.
Ocean Steamers and Sailing Vessels.-The number of
passengers arriving in California by ocean routes (Panama.
and China lines) in 1872 was 17,651; the number leaving
the State by ocean steamers was 11,305. The freight
landed at San Francisco in 1872 by the two lines was—
from Panama, 27,071 tons; from the China line, 26,850
tons. Notwithstanding the existence of the Pacific R. R.
and the Panamaa steamers, there is still considerable freight
business done by sailing-vessels from New York by way
of Cape Horn. The freight money received for cargoes of
all inward-bound vessels, sail and steam, for the year, was
$5,331,762.
JFinances.—The funded indebtedness of the State Jan. 1,
1873, was $3,372,500, bearing 7 per cent. interest, payable
semi-annually, a reduction of $750,000 since 1871. In
1870 the total assessed valuation of personal and real
estate in California was $269,644,068; the estimated true
valuation by the U. S. marshal was $638,767,017. In Jan.,
1873, the assessed valuation of real and personal estate
liable to taxation for the year 1872 was $636,907,181. In-
cluding property not subject to taxes, and the low valua-
tion, the real amount of real and personal property in the
State must be more than double this amount. The funded
debt of the counties at the close of 1872 was $5,701,000,
and the floating debt $1,448,000. The taxes of all classes
for 1872 were in round numbers, $9,500,000.
Commerce and Navigation.—We have no returns of en-
tries or departures of vessels from the smaller ports of Cal-
ifornia, but as these must have been mostly coasting-ves-
sels, and as the district of San Francisco covers the entire
California, coast, the following statement may be relied
upon as accurate so far as arrivals in 1872 were concerned.
The clearances of coasting-vessels sailing under a coasting
license are not reported at the custom-house.
ARRIVED. - CLEARED.
Wessels Tons. Wessels. Tons.
Domestic Atlantic ports....... 4 96,739 8 6,845
Domestic Pacific ports......... 3,018 634,872 243 148,577
Great Britain...................... 74 71,623 204 197,726
France • e º e s a see e s e a “* * * * * * * * 8 4,771
Germany............................. 8 3,522
China-------..................--------- 67 109,531 9 7,783
Japan ................................. 12 4,795 22 77,822
Peru ................................... 32 21,063 56 32,905
Chili.................................... 7 4,572 10 6,772
Other South American ports. 4 1,646 5 1,284
Hawaiian Islands................ 36 25,160 36 26,078
Society Islands .........---------- 29 4,454 28 3,642
Philippine Islands............... 11 8,472 12 11,021
East Indies - & 16 8,520 5 4,985
Australia............................. 78 87,848 38 40,415
Central America.................. 18 5,078 13 2,973
Mexico................................ 34 13,858 42 16,580
British Columbia................. 51 40,267 72 48,480
Russian Possessions............ 10 1,372 8 1,423
Panama 28 77,243 30 81,139
New Zealand © º & a e s e º ºs 1. 3.
Other foreign ports............. e 9 1,870 9 5,798
Whaling voyages................. 28 9,078 19 5,947
Cogſfishing voyages.............. 7 793 6 744
Salmon-fishing voyages........ 1 110 -º-º-º-º:
Totals........................... 3,670 1,237,257 876 729,981
The freights on inward cargoes were thus distributed,
as between American and foreign vessels:
American vessels from American ports were paid for
freight...... = • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * $1,938,383
American vessels from foreign ports were paid for
freight..............................................-------------------- 1,616,973
Foreign vessels from
freight..................... 1,776,406
Total paid for freights $5,331,762
The total domestic exports by sea, except coin and bul-
lion, were as follows, showing the great variety of the pro-
ductions of the State : -
Articles. Quantity. Value. Articles. Quantity. Walue.
Albalones, sks. 1,573 $16,123|Lumber, M. ft... 16,517 $309,325
Asphaltum, pkgS. 72 227|Macaroni, bys... 3,653 7,836
Barley, 100 lb. Mustard seed,
Sks............... ..176,085 222,949|...100 lb., sks.... 5,143 21,041
Beans, sks........ 5,311 14,477|Oats, 100 lb. sks. 10,170 18,086
Bones, pkgs...... 727 - 1,300|Onions, plºgs..... 1,575 3,790
Borax, cs.......... 3,297 94,563|Ores, Copper, ts. 2,106 120,261
Bran, etc., plºgs. 15,808 22,942|| “ Silver, ts. 751 206,412
Brandy, gallons 58,155 122,670 “. Various, ts 6,410 1,714,249
Brandy, cases... 94 3. Pickets, No....... 58,856 1,104
Bread, pkgs...... 10,902 34,974|Posts, No......... 4,300 537
Brick, M.......... 51 577|Potatoes, plºgs... 33,969 54,723
Brooms, doz...... 9,516 24,070|Quicksilver, flks 13,098 864,795
Broom corn, Rosin, plºgs...... 73 726
centals.......... 103 615|Salt, plºgs......... 428 924
Coal, plºgs........ 247 802|Seeds, pkgs....... 120 4,574
Corn, sks......... 690 1,302|Shingles, M...... 4,243 11,252
Fish, salmon, p. 30,717 206,675|Skins, etc. pkgs. 473 110,170
Flour, bbls....... 246,843 1,336,985|Spars, No......... 73 1,392
Fruit, b}{S........ 5,360 10,423|Spirits turpen-
Glue, plºgs........ 16 257| "tine, plºgs...... 136 1,316
Hay, bales......... 3,603 9,358|Tallow, plºgs..... 253 5,322
Hides, No......... 86,683 380,783|Vegetables, pks 720 1,872
Horns, No........ 82,494 2,475|Wheat, 100 lb. s.
Laths, M.......... 4 66 6,071,383 10,671,180
Leather, plºgs.... 4,402 258,778|Wine, gallons... 532,241 U. 415,802
Lime, bbls........ 2,112 4,029|Wine, cases...... 9,147 ;
Live-stock, No. 337 30,587|Wool, lbs.......... 3,607,717 1,124,799
Total.............................................................. $18,466,495
The following statements show the articles and amount
of through and local freight shipped by railroad from Cal-
ifornia in 1872, but not its value:
Number of pounds through freight moved west-bound over the Central
Pacific Railroads during the twelve months ending Dec. 31, 1872:
Agric'l implements 4,810,145|Lumber................. 1,947,522
Bullion.................. 1,903,898|Mowers.................. 77,607
Butter................... 1,127,662|Machinery............ 1,445,138
Cheese................... 858,898|Meats.................... 12,968,313
Coal ...................... 6,868,135|Merchandise.......... 100,799,291
Crude metal.......... 903,606|Oil........................ 3,369,184
Cartridges ............. 24,436|Oysters.................. 658,266
Corn meal............. 414,546|Ore........................ 6,349,132
Car (street)............ 21,818|Paper.................... 757,135
Eggs...................... 287,291|Staves.................... 987,272
Engines................. 220,364|Spokes................... 21,818
Furniture............. e 702,545|Shovels.................. 161,673
ish...................... 1,342,974|Sheep.................... 109,090
Game..................... ,818|Spirits................... 1,091,684
Hogs..................... 2,315,476|Stock..................... 785,455
Hides..................... 376,740|Tobacco................. 2,430,185
Ce -----------------------. 283,637|Whisky................. 390,993
Iron, bar................ 332,411|Wagons................. 2,694,927
Iron, sheet............. 87,611|Wool...................... 76.256
Lard...................... 823,374|Yeast powders....... 21,818
Aggregate..................................................:------ 160,370,044
The tonnage for the month of December is estimated.
Number of pounds local freight forwarded over the Central Pacific
Failroads during the twelve months ending Dec. 31, 1872:
Bark..................... 21,818|Ore........................ 12,121,295
Brick.................... 70,909|Posts..................... 6,627,897
Base metal............. 14,560,949|Powder.................. 458,181
Broom corn............ 30,448|Pig iron................. 3,490,590
Coke..................... 216,000|Railroad iron......... 57,271,646
Charcoal................ 2,487,273|Scrap iron............. 21,818
Coal...................... 18,882,302|Sand ..................... 271,691
Fruit .................... 1,081,985|Salt....................... 4,311,385
Flour.................... 19,107|Stone .................... 16,117,304
Grain.................... 311,039,069|Shingles................ 5,955,774
Hay...................... 6,882,459|Shakes.................. 2,926,067
Ice........................ 14,613,341|Stave bolts............ 6,024,677
Lime..................... 6,282,356|Stock..................... 63,980,000
Lumber................. 201,887,950|Telegraph poles..... 329,090
Laths.................... 1,492,367|Ties...................... 37,392,916
Mill-stuff............... 1,153,964|Wine..................... 110,480
Machinery............ 145,611|Wool..................... 7,321,305
Merchandise ......... 807,263,935|Wood .................... 62,692,694
Total.............................................................” 1,676,436,753
The number of pounds for December estimated.
The shipments of coin, bullion, gold-dust and ores of the
precious metals from California in 1872, by express and
other conveyances, except that sent by mail, was $19,049,048.
The custom-house duties in 1872 were $8,184,481.
Banks, Savings Banks, Insurance Companies, etc.—There
were in the State in Nov., 1872, three national gold banks
and nine State banks; the national banks had an aggregate
capital of $2,800,000; nine State banks, one, the Bank of
California, having a capital df $5,000,000, and the other
eight an aggregate of $3,100,000. There were 20 savings
banks, ten of them in San Francisco, and the other ten in
the interior towns. The ten savings banks of San Fran-
cisco had on the 1st of Jan., 1873, 46,060 depositors; the
amount of the deposits was $42,474,935, their gross earn-
ings were $2,091,113, the reserve fund $1,852,771, the
amount of their dividends $1,818,406, and the average rate
of dividend between 9 and 10 per cent. The ten interior
savings banks had 18,441 depositors; the amount of de-
posits was $8,956,391, the gross earnings were $642,991,
the reserve fund was $1,870,212, the amount of dividend
$469,898, and the rate of dividend an average of a little
more than 11 per cent. There are about sixty private
banking-houses and agencies of banking companies in the
CALIFORNIA.
State. There are seven fire and marine insurance com-
panies in the State, with an aggregate capital of $2,304,725
capital and about $3,968,000 of assets. There is one
mutual life insurance company, the Pacific Mutual Life,
at Sacramento, with $100,000 capital and $1,064,320 assets.
There are numerous mining and other incorporated com-
panies, of which a part pay regular dividends.
Education.—Much attention is paid to education in Cali-
fornia.
report of the superintendent of public instruction, so far
as public and private schools are concerned, in 1871 and
1872. The State has a State superintendent, and county
superintendents of schools for each county:
The number of inhabitants of all races 10 years old and
over, unable to write, in 1870, was 31,716, including 2853
Chinese and 1789 Indians. Of these, 22,196 were of foreign
*10 cents on every hundred dollars of taxable property.
#IDecrease.
The following table gives a summary of the latest.
School, CHILDREN. 1871. 1872. Increase.
White boys between 5 and 15........ 65,359| 68,840 3,481
White girls between 5 and 15........ 62,549| 66,368 3,819
Total whites between 5 and 15... 127,908| 135,208 7,300
Negro boys between 5 and 15........ 480 489 9
Negro girls between 5 and 15........ 421 385) dec....... 36
Total negroes between 5 and 15.. 901 874|dec....... 27
Indian boys between 5 and 15....... 765 708 dec....... 57
Indian girls between 5 and 15....... 542 57.1 29
Total Indians between 5 and 15. 1,307| 1,279|dec....... 28
Total children between 5 and 15| 130,116| 137,361 7,245
Whites under 5 years................... 65,799; 69,222 3,423
Negroes under 5 years.................. 249 254 5
Indians under 5 years.................. 254 247|dec.........7
Total children under 5 years...... 66,302. 69,723 3,421
Whites between 5 and 15 at public -
School....................................... 83,039| 92,265 9,226
Negroes between 5 and 15 at public
school...................................... 449 385|dec....... 64
Indians between 5 and 15 at public
School................. ..................... 140 144 3
Total bet. 5 and 15 at pub. school 83,628| 92,794 9,166
Number of children in Chinese
Schools...................................... 1,800 1,850 50
Whites between 5 and 15 at private -
School....................................... 15,452| 13,677|dec...1,775
Negroes between 5 and 15 at pri-
Vate School................................ 58 90 32
Indians between 5 and 15 at private
School....................................... 14 - 20 6
Total bet. 5 and 15 at pri. school 15,524| 13,787|dec...1,737
Whites between 5 and 15 at no
School....................................... 28,587| 29,266 679
Negroes between 5 and 15 at no
School....................................... 270 399 129
Indians between 5 and 15 at no
School....................................... 602 1,115 513
Total bet. 5 and 15 at no school....] 29,459| 30,780. 1,321
Total number enrolled............... 91,332, 94,720 3,388
Average number belonging...........| 72,031 72,972 941
Average daily attendance............. 64,286 65,700 1,414
Percentage of attendance on aver-
| age number belonging............... 89 90 1
Total number of schools.......... ** * * * 1,550 1,612 62
Total male teachers................'...... 820 881 61
Total female teachers................... 1,232 1,420 188
Total number of teachers............. 2,052, 2,301 249
New School-houses erected............ 125 124|dec......... 1
Number of School-houses.............. 1,326 1,450 124
Number of schools maintained
nine months and over............... 388 421 33
Number of volumes in teachers'
libraries.................................... 10,5701 11,380 810
RECEIPTs. 1871, 1872. Increase.
State apportionment *...] $423,550 89; $424,021 85 $470 96
County taxes................. 889,622 86| 988,636 21 99,013 35
Miscellaneous................ 571,413 09| 719,125 52| 147,712 43
Total receipts.............|51,884,586 84|$2,131,783 58 $247,196 74
ExPENDITURES."
Teachers' salaries..........|$1,103,125 14|$1,282,799 15 $179,674 01
Sites, etc....................... 390,158 40| 290,119 01| #100,039 39
Libraries ...................... 26,766 30 25,793 54 +972 76
Apparatus..................... 3,689 46 4,720 13 1,030 67
Rent, fuel, etc............ ... 204,094 19| 277,900 99 73,806 80
Total expenditures..... $1,727,833 49|$1,881,332 82] $153,499 33
Value of property...... $3,362,580 18133,822,663 15| $460,082 97
719
-*
birth. Of 1941 white illiterates from ten to fifteen years of
age, 1092 were males and 849 females; of 2018 white illit-
erates between the ages of fifteen and twenty-one, 1179
were males and 839 females; and of 22,199 white illiterates
twenty-one years old and over, 12,362 were males and 9837
females; making 26,158 white illiterates in all. Of the col-
ored illiterates, 24 males and 21 females were under fifteen,
30 males and 34 females between fifteen and twenty-one,
and 468 males and 339 females over twenty-one; making
916 colored illiterates in all.
California is very well supplied with universities, col-
leges, academies, and seminaries for superior and secondary
instruction. The State Normal School at San José is in
reality a teachers’ college, and is liberally sustained by the
State government. It has 6 teachers and 181 students, and
has graduated 270 teachers. There are about twenty insti-
tutions bearing the name of college or university in the
State, some of them as yet unorganized, except in the pre-
paratory departments, but others institutions of a high
grade. The University of California, formerly at Oakland,
but now permanently established at Berkeley, is already an
institution of great merit, and with some claims to the high
title of a university. Its president, D. C. Gilman, LL.D., is
an able and distinguished scientist, and its corps of eigh-
teen professors contains many eminent names. It had in
1872, 355 students. It is liberally endowed by the State,
and has also a grant of 150,000 acres of land from the U. S.
government. The Agricultural College, also situated at
Berkeley, is to be a department of the university, which
has a well-endowed professorship of the languages of
Eastern Asia—a professorship eminently appropriate for a
California university, since through its Golden Gate the
nations of Eastern Asia are probably to enter the Western
World. The California Military Academy at Oakland,
under the charge of President David McClure, has 10 pro-
fessors and 125 students. The other colleges of the State
are the Missionary College of St. Augustine at Benicia
(Protestant Episcopal), with 8 instructors and 94 students;
St. Vincent’s College, Los Angeles (Roman Catholic), with
4 instructors and 45 students; St. Ignatius College at San
Francisco (Roman Catholic), with 19 professors and 450
students; St. Mary’s College at San Francisco (Roman
Catholic), with 12 professors and 218 students; University
College (Presbyterian), also at San Francisco, with 28 in-
structors and 180 students; Franciscan College (Roman
Catholic), at Santa Barbara, with 9 professors and 40 stu-
dents, all in the preparatory departments; Santa Clara
College (Roman Catholic), at Santa Clara, with 16 profes-
sors and 80 students, all in the preparatory department;
University of the Pacific (Methodist Episcopal), at San José,
for both sexes, with 7 instructors; Pacific Methodist College
(M. E. Church South), at Santa Rosa, with 9 professors
and 160 students of both sexes; College of Our Lady of
Guadalupe (Roman Catholic), at Santa Inez, with 5 instrue-
tors and 20 students, all in the preparatory department;
California College (Baptist), at Vacaville, with 4 professors
and 68 students; Hesperian College (Disciples), at Wood-
land (female), with 6 professors and 193 students; College
of Notre Dame at San José (Roman Catholic, female), with
25 professors and 486 students; Female College of the Pa-
cific at Oakland, now, we believe, merged in the State
university; Washington College at Washington, for both
sexes, with 80 students. . Of Petaluma College at Peta-
luma, Union College at San Francisco, San Rafael Col-
lege at San Rafael, and Sonoma College at Sonoma, we
have no recent information. In addition to the agricultural
and scientific departments of the University of California,
which receives the Congressional land-grant, there is a
scientific department to St. Mary’s College, San Francisco,
which has 5 instructors and 32 students. There are two
theological seminaries in California—the Pacific Theolog-
ical Seminary at Oakland (Congregational), with 3 profes-
sors and 5 students, and an endowment of $75,000; and the
San Francisco Theological Seminary (Presbyterian), with
4 professors and 6 students, and 7000 volumes in its library.
Some of the Roman Catholic colleges have also seminaries
of theology connected with them. There are two medical
colleges in the State, both at San Francisco—Toland Med-
ical College, with 10 professors and many students, and the
Medical College of the Pacific, connected with University
College, with 10 professors and 28 students. The Califor-
nia. Institution for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind, at Oakland,
has 23 instructors and employés, 37 blind and 59 deaf-mute
pupils. Its property is valued at $250,000, and its annual
receipts from the State $30,000, and from other sources $1000.
There are four or five orphan asylums in the State, all in a
prosperous condition. There is an industrial school or re-
formatory for boys at San Francisco, with 243 inmates.
The Mechanics’ Institute at San Francisco is a very efficient
institution, having a library of 19,000 volumes, a cabinet, a
reading-room, and scientific apparatus, and holds biennial
720
CALIFORNIA.
exhibitions, which have always been successful. Its prop-
erty is estimated at $150,000.
Libraries.—The colleges, schools of higher instruction,
professional and scientific schools have libraries amounting
to about 32,000 volumes; and beside these there are the
following public and society libraries, not including school
or Sunday-School libraries: -
Location. No. -Wols. | I.ocation. No. Vols.
Sacramento.............. 1 42,000|Stockton.................. 5 8,500
Oakland.........----...... 4 8,000|Redwood City.......... 3 800
Jackson...... ...... ...... 1,200|Woodside............. ... 1. 600
Pacbeco............... ... 1 300|San José.................. 2 2,800
Oroville................... 1 1,500|Santa Clara.............. 2 13,300
Crescent City........... 1 300|Santa Cruz............... 2 850
Placerville............... 1 1,800|Watsonville............. i 500
Arcata...................... 1 00|Shasta...................... 1 500
Eureka..................... 1 200|Oro Fino.................. 1. 600
Sawyer's Bar............ 1. 350|Scott River............... 1. 700
Los Angeles............. 3 800|Yreka..................... 1 300
San Quentin............ 1. 560|Benicia................. ... 4 2,200
Monterey................. 1. 1,000|Vallejo..................... 3 3,200
Napa City................ 1 400|Petaluma................. 1. 1,000
Grass Valley............ 1. 500|Enight's Ferry......... 1 1,000
Nevada.................... 2 3,300|Yuba City................ 1. 450
Auburn................... 1 300||Red Bluff.................. 1 200
Spanish Ranch......... 1. 500|Weaverville.............. 1. 240
Meadow Valley........ 1 400|Woodland ............... I. 200
San Diego................ 2 600|Marysville ............... 4 6,500
San Francisco.......... 18 94,000. Totals................... 88 202,450
Newspapers and Periodicals.-The census of 1870 states
the entire number of newspapers and periodicals in Cali-
fornia at that time as 201, having an aggregate circulation
of 491,903, and issuing annually 47,472,756 copies. Of
these, 33 were dailies, having 94,100 circulation; 4 were tri-
weeklies, having 9500 circulation; 4 semi-weeklies, with
2700 circulation; 140 weeklies, having an aggregate circu-
lation of 298,603; 1 semi-monthly, with 300 circulation; 17
monthlies, with 82,200 circulation; 2 quarterlies, with
4500 circulation. Four of these papers (1 weekly and 3
monthlies) were advertising sheets, having an aggregate
circulation of 26,000, and issuing 432,000 copies annually ;
two (1 weekly and 1 monthly) were agricultural and hor-
ticultural, with a circulation of 3800, and issuing 165,600
copies annually; four (3 weeklies and 1 monthly) were the
organs of benevolent or secret Societies, and had a circula-
tion of 18,000, and issued 536,000 copies annually; fifteen
(2 dailies, 2 tri-weeklies, 8 weeklies, 2 monthlies, and I
quarterly) were commercial and financial, with an aggre-
gate circulation of 31,600, and issuing 2,906,600 copies
annually; six (4 weeklies and 2 monthlies) were illustrated
literary or miscellaneous periodicals, having a circulation
of 47,000, and a total annual issue of 2,084,000 copies;
seven (2 dailies, 1 tri-weekly, 2 semi-weeklies, and 2 week-
lies) were devoted to the different nationalities represented
in California; these had a total circulation of 13,950, and
an annual issue of 2,697,800 copies. One hundred and
forty-one (viz. 28 dailies, 1 tri-weekly, 2 semi-weeklies, 108
weeklies, and 2 monthlies, the whole having a circulation
of 239,253, and an annual issue of 33,849,556) were politi-
cal and the organs of the great parties. Fourteen (11
weeklies, 1 semi-monthly, and 2 monthlies) were religious;
these had a circulation of 93,400, and a total annual issue
of 3,968,400 copies. There was one weekly sporting paper
with a circulation of 4000, and an annual issue of 208,000
copies; there were seven technical and professional journals
(1 daily, 1 weekly, 4 monthly, and 1 quarterly), with a
circulation of 14,900, and a total annual issue of 624,800.
Churches.—The census of 1870 reports 643 churches of
all denominations in the State, 532 church edifices, 195,558
sittings, and $7,404,235 of church property. Of these,
there are reported 60 Baptist churches, 44 church edifices,
16,775 sittings, and $271,600 church property. The Bap-
tist “Year Book” for 1873 reports, in 1872, 5 associations,
82 Baptist churches, 74 ordained ministers, and 3628 mem-
bers; 62 Sabbath schools, 1240 teachers, 3200 scholars;
$34,318 of benevolent contributions. The census reports
30 “Christian’” churches, 22 church edifices, 6380 sittings,
$34,160 of church property. It also reports 40 Congrega- .
tional churches, 36 church edifices, 11,915 sittings, $282,400
church property; the “Congregational Quarterly ’’ for Jan.,
1873, reports, in 1872, 55 churches, 55 ordained ministers,
2577 members, 5274 children in Sabbath schools; church
property, $378,270; benevolent contributions, $44,616.
The census reports 45 Episcopal churches, 38 church edi-
fices, 13,095 sittings, $398,200 of church property. The
“Episcopal Almanac ’’ for 1873 reports, in 1872, 41 parishes
and missions, 53 clergymen, 2741 communicants, 357 S. S.
teachers, 3398 S. S. scholars, $50,460 of benevolent contri-
butions. There was in 1870 one church and one church
edifice of the Evangelical Association, with 200 sittings
and $5000 property. There were the same year 2 societies
and 2 meeting-houses of Friends, with 500 sittings and
$16,000 property. There were also 7 Jewish congregations
and 7 synagogues, with 3610 sittings and $314,600 of church
property. There were 6 Lutheran churches, with 6 church
edifices, 5350 sittings, and $54,000 church property. The
census reported 184 Methodist churches, 155 church edifices,
43,035 sittings, $677,625 of church property. In 1872 the
Methodist Episcopal Church North reported 147 churches,
134 travelling and 109 local preachers, 6.242 members,
$679,950 of church property, 133 Sunday-schools, 1417
teachers, 9730 scholars, and about $7200 in benevolent con-
tributions. The Methodist Episcopal Church South the
same year reported 60 travelling and 69 local preachers, 63
churches, 3749 members, and $2340 collections for benev-
olent objects. The census reports 7 Chinese congregations,
with 5 temples, sittings 2600, property $22,500; two con-
gregations of the Greek Church, 2 church edifices, $6000
of property; 4 Mormon societies, 3 edifices, 550 sittings,
$3100 property; 1 New Jerusalem (Swedenborgian) con-
gregation, 1 church edifice, 400 sittings, $12,000 property;
79 Presbyterian (regular) churches, 59 church edifices,
21,798 sittings, $453,050 of church property. In 1872 the
“Presbyterian Almanac" gave in the Synod of the Pacific
(General Assembly of the Church North), which embraces
somewhat more than the limits of California, 89 ministers,
83 churches, 5292 communicants, 7157 S. S. scholars, and
$140,400 benevolent contributions and church support. The
census reported, in 1870, 160 Roman Catholic churches, 144
church edifices, 66,640 sittings, $4,692,200 of church prop-
erty. The “Catholic Almanac" for 1873 gives, in 1872,
181 churches, chapels, and stations, 161 church edifices, 173
priests, and over 100,000 estimated adherent Catholic pop-
ulation. The census also reports 3 Second Advent churches,
3 church edifices, 300 sittings, $4000 of church prop-
erty; 6 Spiritualist organizations, with 2 edifices, 750 sit-
tings, and $3300 of property; two Unitarian societies,
with 2 church edifices, 1400 sittings, $151,000 church prop-
erty; 3 churches of United Brethren in Christ (German
Mothodists), with 1 church edifice, 100 sittings, $500 of
church property; 1 Universalist society, with 1 church edi-
fice, 160 sittings, $3000 of property.
Population.—The true population of California in 1870,
including nomadic Indians and Indians sustaining tribal
relations, was 582,031. The Indians in the State number
29,025, of whom 21,784 sustain tribal relations, and are
not usually reckoned among the population of the State.
As the State came into the Union in 1848, the census of
1850 was the first in which it appeared; its population
was then 92,597, of whom 91,635 were whites, 962 colored,
and no enumeration was made of the Indians. In 1860 the
population was 379,994, of whom 323,177 were whites,
4086 colored, 34,933 Chinese, 17,798 Indians. In 1870
there were, excluding tribal Indians, 560,247 inhabitants,
of whom 499,424 were whites, 4272 colored, 49,310 Chinese
and Japanese, and 7241 civilized Indians. The density
of the population to the square mile in 1850 was .049; in
1860, 2.01; in 1870, 2.29. Of the 560,247 inhabitants in
1870, 349,479 were males and 210,768 females; 350,416
(199,421 males and 150,995 females) were native born ;
209,831 (150,058 males and 59,773 females) were of foreign
birth. Of the 499,424 whites, 297,648 were males and
201,776 females. Of the 4272 colored, 2514 were males
and 1758 females. Of the 49,310 Chinese and Japanese,
45,429 were males and 3881 females; 487 of these (290
males and 197 females) were born in California. Of the
7241 civilized Indians, 3888 were males and 3353 females;
of these, 6895 were natives and 346 of foreign birth. Of
the entire population, 71,086 males and 66,043 females
were between five and eighteen years of age; of these,
64,203 males and 62,083 females were native born, and
6883 males and 3960 females of foreign birth; 66,446
males and 64,340 females were white; 484 males and 464
females colored; 3123 males and 449 females Chinese; and
1033 males and 790 females Indians. There were 194,935
males of all races between eighteen and forty-five years of
age; of these, 77,828 were natives, 117,107 foreigners,
154,200 whites, 1264 colored, 37,800 Chinese, 1671 Indians.
There were 227,256 males of all classes of twenty-one
years old and upward; of these, 145,802 were citizens,
1812 Indians, 36,890 Chinese, and the remainder foreigners
not naturalized. *
Constitution, Courts, etc.—The constitution of the State
was adopted in 1850, and, though it has been modified and
amended in a few particulars, is still the organic law of the
State. By its provisions all legal distinctions between in-
dividuals on religious grounds are prohibited; the utmost
freedom of assembling, of speech, and of the press is al-
lowed, subject only to restraint for abuse; in trials for libel
the jury are required to judge upon the law and the fact,
and proof of the truth of the charges and of the good in-
tentions of the writer is made a bar to damages; foreigners
who are actual residents have the same rights in regard to
property as citizens; there is to be no imprisonment for
debt, except where fraud can be proved; slavery and in-
CALIFORNIA. 721
voluntary servitude, except for crime, were prohibited;
wives were secured in their separate rights of property
beyond their husbands’ control; the exemption of a part
of the homestead and of other property of heads of fam-
ilies from forced sale was recognized; no public debt was
to be created exceeding at any time the sum of $300,000,
except upon a specific vote of the people, and then only
within certain specified limits (this provision was subse-
quently modified by vote of the people); no divorce could
be granted by the legislature; lotteries and the sale of
lottery-tickets were prohibited; corporations and joint-
stock companies were to be organized only under general
Iaws, and the stockholders were to be individually liable
for corporate debts; no charters for banking purposes were
ever to be granted (this was subsequently modified), and
the circulation of paper money in any form was prohibited
(this, too, has been modified, though the circulating me-
dium of the State has always been gold and silver); the
credit of the State was not to be loaned to any individual
or corporation, nor was the State ever to become a stock-
holder in any corporation. On the qualifications of electors
the constitution provides that every white male citizen of
the U. S., and every white male citizen of Mexico who shall
have elected to become a citizen of the U. S. under the
treaty of peace exchanged and ratified at Queretaro May
30, 1848, of the age of twenty-one years, who shall have
been a resident of the State six months next preceding the
election, and of the county or district in which he claims
his vote thirty days, shall be entitled to vote at all elections
which are now or hereafter may be authorized by law. The
ratification of the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to
the Constitution of the U. S. led to such a modification of
this provision as permitted the negroes to vote, but the
elective franchise has not yet been permitted to the Chinese.
Convicts and idiotic persons are excluded from the fran-
chise. The legislative department of the State government
consists of a senate of 40 persons, elected for four years,
one-half being elected every second year; and a House of
Representatives, 80 in number, elected for two years. All
citizens who have resided for one year in the State, and for
six months in the district, are eligible for membership. The
executive department consists of a governor, lieutenant-
governor, comptroller, treasurer, attorney-general, sur-
veyor-general, and superintendent of public instruction, all
of whom are chosen for the term of four years, commencing
with the first Monday in December after the election. The
judiciary consists—1st, of a supreme court, with a chief-
justice and four associate justices, having appellate juris-
diction in all cases in equity, in all cases at law involving
the title or possession of real estate, or the legality of any
tax, toll, fine, etc., or in which the matter in controversy
exceeds $300; also in all cases arising in the probate courts,
and in all criminal cases amounting to felony on questions
of law alone. It has power to issue writs of mandamus,
certiorari, prohibition, and habeas corpus, and all writs
necessary and proper to the exercise of its appellate juris-
diction. 2d, of district courts, of which there are now
fourteen, one to each judicial district. These courts have
original and co-ordinate jurisdiction in all cases in equity
and law in which the supreme court has appellate jurisdic-
tion. They have criminal jurisdiction in criminal cases
not otherwise provided for. 3d, of county courts, having
original jurisdiction of actions of forcible entry and de-
tainer, insolvency, nuisance, and of all such special cases
as are not otherwise provided for. A justice of the supreme
court may issue writs of habeas corpus in and to any part
of the State; a district judge in and to any part of his
district; and a county judge in and to any part of his
county. The justices of the supreme court are elected by
the qualified electors of the State at special elections for
judicial officers, and no others, except the superintendent
of public instruction, for a term of ten years; judges of
district courts by the qualified electors of their district, at
similar elections, for six years; and judges of county courts
by the qualified electors of their county, at similar elec-
tions, for four years. California has four representatives
in Congress under the new apportionment law.
Objects of Interest.—California has numerous natural
wonders, so remarkable that they attract visitors from all
parts of the world. We have already alluded to the Val-
ley of the Yosemite. This valley, one of the wonders of
the world, is elsewhere more fully described. (See Yo-
SEMITE.). It is sufficient to say here that it is a deep valley
8 miles long by 2 wide, with walls averaging nearly 4000
feet in height; that there are seventeen sentinel peaks
keeping guard over the valley, and ranging from 1800 to
6034 feet in height, while the outlying summit-mountains,
Lyell, Dana, and Cathedral, rise to the height of over
13,000 feet; and eleven waterfalls, the lowest 350 feet in
height, and the highest 3000 feet; and in the various
Scenery of mountain-peak and valley, of the gentle flowing
river and the endless variety of cataract, rapid, spray,
and mist, of the precipitous mountain-spires and gentle
grassy slopes, nature seems to have exhausted all forms of
the beautiful. Near this wondrous valley are two of the
groves of the sequoias or monster trees—the Calaveras and
the Mariposa groves. These are visited by many tourists.
The Geysers or hot springs of Calistoga, at the head of
Napa Valley, are in a narrow valley or cañon which is
filled with flowing (not spouting) hot springs, and the
whole soil is covered with a crust of sulphur, iron-rust,
and other mineral deposits, and filled with steam from the
boiling water. The surface of the ground is so hot as to
render walking over it uncomfortable. There has recently
been discovered another of these deep valleys with its sur-
rounding peaks and waterfalls, N.W. of Yosemite, which
has a larger volume of water and falls equally lofty, and
bids fair to rival the Yosemite Valley. The natural bridges
and the Chyote caves in Calaveras co., with their bell-
sounding rocks, the beautiful Lake Tahoe, and the smaller
but romantic Donner Lake, on the boundary-line of Ne-
vada, Mono (salt) Lake, near Yosemite; the wild volcanic
region with its horrors in Mono, Fresno, and Kern coun-
ties, and the terrible Death Walley in the last-named
county; Tulare Lake and the tulé swamps and lakes of
the southern counties, some of them covered, with bitumen;
and the wild and waterless region bordering on the Colo-
rado River in S. E. California, all have their attractions
for those who desire to witness Nature in her unknown
haunts and in her strangest attire.
Counties.—There are now 51 counties in the State, the
last, Ventura, having been organized from the Southern
part of Santa Barbara in Jan., 1873. The table appended
gives the population in 1860 of each county then organized,
the population of each race, and the entire population of
each county in 1870, and the population, as estimated by
the assessors and surveyor-general at the close of 1872:

=;
º: e ge • & §3
Countries. # § 2. g g .g. 3. # #
3 - : 5 .: t; § .5 ±,
g <! r:5 3 *: o tº 2
Pl: , : C 5 <! E-i ºlt
Alameda......... 8,927 22,106 86|| 111| 1,934 24,237| 35,000
Alpine ...........] ...... 76|| 1 | ...... 8 685 00
Amador.......... 10,930| 7.870 || 81 | ...... 1,631|| 9,582| 11,360
Butte............. 12.107| 9,185| 84| 40| 2,094 11.403| 12,500
Calaveras........ 16,299| 7,400| 45| 18 1,432, 8,895| 9,986
Colusa............ 2,274 5,389 81| 424, 271 6,165; 8,000
Contra Costa....] 5,328 8.271| 21 160| 8,461 10,000
Del Norte....... 1993] 1,009| 22| 774 217| 2.022| 2,500
El Dorado....... 20.562| 8.589 || 133 1,581 10,309|| 9,600
Fresno............ 4,605 || 3,259 15|2,635 6,336|| 4,250
Humboldt...... 2,694| 6,025 ...... 76. 39| 6,140 11,500
Inyo...............] ...... 1,608| 87 23 29, 1,956| 2,100
Kern..............] ...... 2,193| 4 || 585) 143| 2,925. 4,000
Klamath......... 1,803| 1,069| 2 | 61| 542; 1,674| 3,300
Lake..............] ...... 2,825 8| 17| 119| 2,969| 2,969
Lassen............] ...... 1,309| ...... 1 17| 1,327 | 1,500
Los Angeles...| 11,333| 14,720, 184| 219, 236|| 15309|| 17,400
Marin'............ 3,334|| 6.394 22| 126|| 361| 6,903
Mariposa ........ 6,243| 3,344. 116|| 8 || 1,104 4,572| 4,560
Mendocino....... 3,967 6,865 9| 542| 129| 7,545| 11,000
Merced........... 11,141 2,548| 37| 36|| 186| 2,807 3,500
Mono .............] ...... 3861 ...... 2 42 430] 550
Monterey........ 4,739| 9,428| 15| 203] 230|| 9,876. 10,887
Napa.............. 5,521| 6,725] 112| 66 , 260 7,163| 11,200
Nevada........... 16.446; 16.334|| 162 9| 2,629| 19,134|| 19,13
Placer............. T3.27() 8,850 99 1| 2,407 11,357 14,000
Plumas........... 4,363| 3,571 2 5| 911| 4,489 7,000
Sacramento...... 24,142| 22,725| 479| 28 3,598| 26,830 35,000
S. Bernardino. 5551, 3,964| 8 |...... 6| 3,989 || 7,000
San Diego........ 4,324| 4,838|| 15| 28 70 4,951 || 7,859
San Francisco. 56.802||136,059||1341 55|12,018|149,473|175,000
San Joaquin..... 9,435 | 19,192|| 230|| ...... 1,628 21,050 25,000
S. Luis Obispo. 1782| 4,567 9| 13 59| 4,772| 6,000
San Mateo........ 3,214 6,099| 10 7| 519| 6,635| 7,370
Santa Barbara | 3.543; 7.483| 109 163 29| 7,784 8,400
Santa Clara...... 11,912| 24,537| 179| 12| 1,518| 26,246 27,000
Santa Cruz....... 4,944| 8,532 53 2| 156| 8,743| 9,000
Shasta............ 4,360| 3,529| 44; 26|| 574 4,173| 6,000
Sierra............. 11.387 4,781| 29| ...... 809| 5,619| 5,800
Siskiyou......... 7,629| 5,312|| 32| 47; 1,457 6,848 8,000
Solano............. 7,169| 15,871 78 3| 919| 16,871. 16,571
Sonoma .......... 11,867 | 19 184| 80| 82| 473| 19,819, 25,000
Stanislaus....... 2,245 6,189| 4 | ...... 306| 6,499| 6,500
Sutter............. 3.390| 4,791 || 31|| ...... 208 5,030| 6,550
Tehama.......... 4,044|| 3,166|| 146 ...... 275|| 3,587| 6,500
Trinity.......... 5.125 | 1.950| 29| 139| 1,095| 3,213| 3,775
Tulare............ 4,638|| 4,379| 39 4 99| 4,521 7,400
Tuolumne ....... 16,229| 6,540 68 3| 1,539| 8,150| 8,000
Ventura*........ *
Yolo............... 4,716|| 9,321| 69| 117| 392 9,899| 11,000
Yuba.............. 13.668 || 8,367 151 | ...... 2,333|_10,851 || 11,500
Total........... 379,994|499,324'4,611 (7,059 |49,229.1560.223|657,821
Principal Towns.—San Francisco, the principal seaport
and commercial metropolis of our Pacific coast, has a pop-
* New county, organized from Santa Barbara in 1873.
46
722
CALIFORNIA.
ulation of 149,473; Sacramento, the capital of the State,
in the Sacramento Valley, has 16,283 inhabitants; Oakland,
across the bay from San Francisco, 10,500; and Stockton,
in the San Joaquin Valley, 10,066, are the only other towns
of the State which had over 10,000 inhabitants in 1870.
San José, 9089; Los Angeles, 5728; Marysville, 4738;
Santa Cruz, 2561; and San Diego, 2300, were the only
other towns having more than 2000 inhabitants.
History.—By the treaty of Feb. 2, 1848, with Mexico,
the territory comprising the present States of California
and Nevada and the Territories of Utah, Arizona, and
New Mexico (except the strip S. of the Gila River), part
of Colorado and part of Texas, were ceded to the U. S.
Of all this region California was best known, and, though
its mineral wealth was as yet undiscovered, it had long
been celebrated as the El Dorado of the Pacific. Origin-
ally, the name California embraced the long peninsula now
called Lower or Old California (which still belongs to Mex-
ico) and an indefinite extent of territory northward along
the coast, to which the name of Upper or New California
was given. The Spaniards claimed to the Arctic Circle,
but their settlements never extended N. of San Francisco.
The origin of the name is involved in doubt. It is first
found in an old Spanish romance published at Seville in
1510, entitled the “Sugas of Esplandian, the son of Ama-
dis of Gaul.” It is twice named in the book, as follows:
“Rnow that on the right hand of the Indies there is an
island called California, very near to the Terrestrial Para-
dise, which was peopled by black women, without any
men among them, because they were accustomed to live
after the manner of the Amazons. They were of strong
and hardened bodies, of ardent courage, and of great
forcés. The island was the strongest in the world, from
its steep rocks and great cliffs. Their arms were all of
gold, and so were the caparisons of the wild beasts they
rode.” Another passage reads: “In the island called Cal-
ifornia are many griffins, on account of the great Savage-
ness of the country, and the immense quantity of wild
game to be found there.” The present State of California
(not the peninsula—that was discovered considerably ear-
lier) was first discovered and partially described by Juan
Rodriguez Cabrillo in the year 1542. Cabrillo was a Por-
tuguese by birth, but was a navigator in the Spanish ser-
vice. The highest latitude reached by him was 40° 30',
where he encountered the great western headland which he
called Cape Mendoza, now known as Cape Mendocino.
He also discovered and named the Farallones Islands, from
his pilot Farallo. In 1578, Sir Francis Drake passed along
this coast, landed at what is now known as Drake’s Bay,
N. lat. 37° 59' 5", and, ignorant of any previous discovery,
took possession of it in the name of Queen Elizabeth, call-
ing it New Albion. In 1602, General Sebastian Viscayno,
under orders from Philip III. of Spain, explored the coast
from San Diego northward as far as the Bay of Monterey
and the islands which form the Santa Barbara channel.
There is no record of any successful attempt to plant a
colony on this territory for 167 years after this exploration
of Wiscayno. There had been numerous unsuccessful ex-
peditions prompted by the thirst for gold, for there was a
strong though vague impression that there were gold, silver,
and precious stones among its mountains, but in every case
they had failed miserably.
In 1767 the Jesuit missionaries were expelled from Lower
California (the peninsula) by order of Charles III. of
Spain, and their missions and property granted the Fathers
of the order of St. Francis. These zealous propagandists
began the next year to take measures for extending their
missions into Upper or New California, and in the winter
and spring of 1769 organized expeditions, both by sea and
land, to found colonies and missions in that hitherto un-
known region. After great suffering and heavy loss by
scurvy and starvation, two of the three vessels reached
San Diego—one April 11th, the other May 1st. The land
expedition was in two divisions, the first of which reached
San Diego May 15, and the second on the 1st of July.
From San Diego a new party was organized, which pro-
ceeded northward along the coast to find Monterey. Miss-
ing this, they continued northward and discovered the Bay
of San Francisco (which till then had been unknown to
white men) on the 25th of Oct., 1769. They gave it its
present name after their patron saint, but presently re-
turned to San Diego, which they reached Jan. 24, 1770.
It was not until Oct. 9, 1776, that these Fathers founded a
mission at San Francisco—the Mission Dolores, as it is
now called. It was the sixth they had founded within the
present limits of the State. Within about fifty years they
had founded twenty-one of these missions, the farthest N.
being that of San Francisco de Solano de Sonoma, in lat.
38° 30' N. These missions, at first instituted for the con-
* Cronise's “Natural Wealth of California,” page 2.
version and civilization of the Indians, soon became the
means of reducing these hapless aborigines to a condition
of slavery for the benefit of the Franciscan Fathers and
their dependents. Within fifty-five years from the time
of the planting of the first mission at San Diego the
Fathers had accumulated enormous wealth. They owned
all the land along the coast, the landed estate of one mis-
sion joining another, though they were twenty-five to thirty
miles apart; according to the report of Rev. Calvin Colton,
who made very thorough investigation of their condition
in 1825, they had more than 1,200,000 head of cattle, over
100,000 horses and mares, from 12,000 to 15,000 mules,
more than 1,000,000 sheep, many thousand hogs, and not
less than $1,000,000 in specie and bullion, besides the rich
gold and silver ornaments, statues, crucifixes, etc. in their
churches. They carried on a thriving trade in hides and
tallow, wool and wine, with the Russians and other traders
who came to Yerba Buena (now San Francisco), Monterey,
and San Diego in ships, for their produce. Nearly 20,000
Indians were domesticated at the missions, whipped and
tortured if they did not perform the work allotted to them,
and in the most abject condition of fear and degradation.
Only a very few of these were taught to read, or even in-
structed in the elements of Christianity. They were merely
farm-slaves. They were to defend the missions, which
were strong, walled villages, and to prevent any free settlers
from coming into the territory. The Indians of the inte-
rior, at that time numbering 100,000 or more, were left to
their ignorance and heathenism, and no efforts were made
to civilize or convert them.
With the downfall of the Spanish power in Mexico in
1822, the missions began to wane, and after years of decay
they were at last formally abolished and their property
confiscated in 1845. For fifteen or twenty years previous
to this time a large and constantly increasing number of
settlers had been pouring into California—Mexicans, at-
tracted by the fine climate and fertile soil; trappers and
hunters, who had emerged from the deserts E. of the
Sierras, and who found game abundant, the lands fertile,
and the Indians less warlike and ferocious than those they
had before encountered; Russians from Russian America;
sailors and adventurers of all nations, who had escaped
from merchant-ships or had been left here at their own
request; and now and then citizens of the Eastern States,
who had come in search of health. Between 1840 and
1845 more than 5000 persons crossed the Plains and scaled
the mountains to make their homes in California, Some of
the parties, like that of Captain Donner in 1846, perishing
by the way from encountering terrific snow-storms, or, as
in other instances, from drought and starvation in S. E.
California. Great numbers, too, came by sea. In Oct.,
1842, Commodore Jones, U. S. N., under the impression
that there was actual war between Mexico and the U. S.,
entered the harbor of Monterey, captured the fort, hoisted
the Stars and Stripes, and declared California a territory
of the U. S., greatly to the satisfaction of most of the in-
habitants; but finding himself in error, he next day hauled
down his colors and apologized to the Mexican authorities
for his conduct. The expeditions of Lieut. (since Major-
Gen.) John C. Fremont to the Pacific aroused great inter-
est in this region, and, in spite of the hardships to be
endured, led thousands of emigrants to undertake the
perilous journey. Before the close of 1846 there were
2000 American citizens in California, about 3000 foreign-
ers who were friendly to them, and about 3000 more who
were neutral or hostile. In Mar., 1847, Col. Stevenson’s
picked regiment of California volunteers, nearly 1000
strong, was added to this number, and other U. S. troops
came in soon after. On the 7th of July, 1846 (war having
already commenced between the U. S. and Mexico), Com-
modore John D. Sloat took possession of Monterey, and
issued a proclamation as governor of the territory. Two
days later, the U. S. troops took possession of San Fran-
cisco, July 10th of Sonoma, and July 12th of Sutter’s Fort.
Commodore Sloat acted as governor until Aug. 17, 1846,
when Commodore Robert F. Stockton was proclaimed his
successor. Commodore Stockton gave his immediate at-
tention to fighting the Mexican forces under Flores, who
had recaptured Los Angeles and Santa Barbara, and whom
he defeated in two battles—at Rio San Gabriel and on the
plains of Mesa, Jan. 8 and 9, 1847—and drove out of the
country. In Jan., 1847, Commodore Stockton appointed
Col. John C. Fremont governor. This was a blunder, as
Gen. Stephen W. Kearney, as commander of the forces,
was rightfully governor, and assumed command Mar. 1,
1847. Fremont was afterwards tried by court-martial for
this offence, but was cleared, it being proved that he had
acted in good faith and without a knowledge of Gen.
Rearney’s rights in the matter. Col. Richard B. Mason
was appointed governor May 31, 1847, and held office till
April 13, 1849; Capt. (afterward Maj.-Gen.) Henry W.
CALIFORNIA.
723
Halleck was secretary of the territory under Col. Mason,
and rendered great services to the country then and subse-
quently. On the 13th of April, 1849, Gen. Bennet Riley
was appointed military governor, and on the 3d of June
following called a convention to meet at Monterey on the
1st of Sept. to frame a State constitution. This conven-
tion, consisting of forty-eight members, assembled at the
time appointed, and after six weeks of deliberation re-
ported, adopted, and signed a constitution (Oct. 13, 1849),
which was submitted to the people for ratification on the
13th of Nov., 1849, when 12,064 votes were polled in favor
of its adoption, 811 against it, and 1200 were set aside for
informality. In Dec., 1849, Peter H. Burnett was elected
governor under this constitution, and application was
made in due form for the admission of the State into the
Union. After a long and acrimonious struggle in Con-
gress between the advocates of slavery and free soil, which
lasted from Dec. 22, 1849, to Sept. 7, 1850, California
was admitted into the Union as a State Sept. 9, 1850.
In Feb., 1848, gold was discovered on the estate of Gen.
Sutter in Coloma, co., and as the news of its discovery
spread the gold-hunters flocked in from all parts of the
world, and in a very short time (in 1852) California had a
population of over 250,000, a large proportion of them
emergetic, daring, reckless men, capable of almost any
crime, and mad in their pursuit of gold. Gambling and
its concomitant vices bore almost universal sway. Whole
squares were devoted to gambling-houses in San Fran-
cisco, and theft and murder were rife in its streets. It was
found that the courts protected instead of punishing
rogues and ruffians, and in 1851 a “vigilance committee”
of some of the best citizens was formed, which seized,
tried, and hanged in the streets some of the worst villains.
This alarmed the dangerous classes for a time, but the
courts and civil authorities were all thoroughly corrupt,
and some of the worst men in the community were occupy-
ing high offices, upon which they had seized by the most
open and unbkushing frauds. The vigilance committee
was revived in May, 1855, and for eight months held
sway in San Francisco, arresting, trying, hanging, and
banishing those whose crimes had rendered them obnox-
ious to the community. It was a desperate remedy, and
one fitted only to a desperate condition of affairs; but it is
the universal testimony of the best citizens that the com-
mittee used their absolute powers wisely and well, and
disbanded as soon as the occasion for which they were
called into action had passed. They executed four, one
of their prisoners committed suicide while they were de-
liberating on his case, and nearly twenty were banished
from the State. One of their prisoners, who was at the
time one of the justices of the supreme court of the State,
was released by them after trial, but his subsequent course
verified their judgment of his ruffianly character. The
State has passed through many vicissitudes, the succession
of excitements in regard to new gold-fields depopulating
some districts and causing a rapid growth of others. Of
late years, however, it has been developing its other re-
sources—the culture of grain and the production of wine,
of silk, and semi-tropical fruits, and of some descriptions
of manufactures; and though the yield of gold in the
State has partially fallen off, it has been much more than
made up in the increase of the crops and manufactured
goods, and these afford a better and more certain return to
the producer than mining products. During the late war
California, contributed her full share both in men and
money towards achieving the success of the Union arms;
her magnificent gifts to the Sanitary Commission and to
all organizations for the welfare of the soldiers will never
be forgotten. By the completion of the Union and Central
Pacific R. Rs. the State was brought into closer connection
with the Eastern States, and all danger of the creation of
a separate Pacific empire, if such danger ever existed, was
for ever removed from the thoughts of its people.
Gold Product of California.-Mr. T. F. Cronise, in his
“Natural Wealth of California,” gives the following table
of the gold product of California, which we have brought
down to the beginning of 1873. It is in round numbers,
but is the closest approximation to the truth:
Year. Amount. Year t Amount.
1848.....................#10,000,000 | 1861,................. ...#40,000,000
1849..................... 40,000,000 | 1862..................... 34,700,000
1850..................... 50,000,000 | 1863...................... 30,000,000
1851.............. • - e. e. e. e. a 55,000,000 | 1864..................... 26,600.000
1852..................... 60,000,000 | 1865..................... 28,500,000
1853..................... 65,000,000 | 1866..................... 26,500.000
1854..................... 60,000,000 | 1867..................... 25,000,000
1855..................... 55,000,000 1868 .................... 28,000.000
1856,.................... 55,000,000 | 1869..................... 27,800,000
1837..................... 55,000,000 | 1870..................... 28,500,000
1858..................... 50,000,000 | 1871................... ... 25,000,000
1859..................... 50,000,000 | 1872..................... 20,000,000
1860..................... 45,000,000 ---
Total for 25 years $990,600,000
Governors of the State, Territory, and Province.—Cali-
fornia has been within the past 106 years under the gov-
ernment of four different powers—viz. 1st, the Spanish
rule from 1767 to 1823 (previous to 1767 it was parceled
off among numerous tribes of Indians, some of them Pue-
blos or dwellers in towns and villages, and others nomadic);
2d, the Mexican rule; 3d, the American territorial and
military government; 4th, the State government.
Spanish Rule.
Gaspar de Portala.......... 1767–71) José J. de Arrillaga........1792–94
Felipe de Barri.............. 1771–74||Diego de Borica;.......... 1794–1800
Felipe de Neve............... 1774–82|José J. de Arrillaga........ ;:
Pedro Fajés................... 1782–90; José Arguello................. 1814–1;
José Antonio Romen...... ižjºió Vicente de Sola....1815–22
JMezican Rule.
Pablo Vicente de Sola........................... ... .1822–23
Luis Arguello................................................................ 1823–25
José Maria de Echeaudia........................... June, 1825–Jan., 1831
Manuel Victoria......................................... Jan., 1831–Jan., 1832
Pio Pico..................................................... Jan., 1832–Jan., 1833
José Figueroa tº Jan., 1833–Aug., 1835
José Castro................................................ Aug., 1835–Jan., 1836
Nicolas Gutierrez...................................... Jan., 1836–April, 1836
Mariano Chico April, 1836–Aug., 1836
Nicolas Gutierrez.................. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Aug., 1836–Nov., 1836
Juan B. Alvarado....................................... Nov., 1836–Dec., 1842
Manuel Micheltorena................. eºs s e s a s e s - a we w e º 'º' Dec., 1842–Feb., 1845
Pio Pico w Feb., 1845–July, 1846
American. Military and Territorial Rule. . .
Com. John D. Sloat.............................. July 7, 1846-Aug. 17, 1846
Com. Robert F. Stockton.......................... Aug. 7, 1846–Jan., 1847
Col. John C. Fremont.............................. Jan., 1847-Mar. 1, 1847
Gen. Stephen W. Kearney................... Mar. 1, 1847-May 31, 1847
Col. Richard B. Mason....................... May 31, 1847–April 13, 1849
Gen. Bennet Riley................................. April 13, 1849–1)ec., 1849
&tate Government.
Peter H. Burnett...Dec., 1849–51 ||John.G. Downey............ 1860–62
John McDougall (acting)1851–52|Leland, Stanford............ 1862–63
John Bigler................... 1852–56. Frederick F. LOW.......... 1863–68
J. Neely Johnson........... 1856–58)||Henry H. Haight........... 1868–72
John B. Weller.............. ###|Newton Booth............... 1872–75
Milton S. Latham.......... 1860–60
Electoral Vote for President and Vice-President–The
first presidential election in which California participated
was that of 1852, and her electoral votes have been cast
from that time as follows:

Year. CANDIDATES. Electoral vote.
l
1852 Pierce and King... 4
1856 Buchanan and Breckenridge.................. 4
1860 Lincoln and Hamlin 4
1864 Lincoln and Johnson.,.............------------- 5
1868 Grant and Colfax...................--------------- 5
1872 Grant and Wilson................... 6
Popular Vote for President and Vice-President.
* Pop.
: CANDIDATEs. Fºr CANDIDATEs. Fºr CAND1DATES. Fºr cºpiºus. .
1852|Scott and Graham.......... 35,407 ||Pierce and King.................. 40,626 Hale and Julian............. 10()|.
1856|Fremont and Dayton......|20,691 |Buchanan and Breckenridge..] 53,365 |Fillmore and Donelson.... 36.1% - *
1860|Lincoln and Hamlin....... 39,173 || Douglas and Johnson........... 38,516 |Breckenridge and Lane...| 34,334 Bell and Everett..., |6817
1864; McClellan and Pendleton |43,841 ||Lincoln and Johnson........... 62.13 -
1868|Seymour and Blair......... 54.077 |Grant and Colfax................. 54,583
1872|Greeley and Brown......... 140,718 Grant and Wilson................ 54,020
(For the recent statistics of this article we are indebted to the Hon. Drury Melone, secretary of state of California.)
California, a township of Madison co., Ark. Pop. 313.
California, a township of Starke co., Ind. Pop. 251.
California, a township of Coffey co., Kan. Pop. 645.
California, a post-township of Branch co., Mich.
Pop. 803. - -
California, a city, capital of Moniteau co., Mo., on the
L. P. BROCKETT.
Missouri Pacific R. R., 150 miles W. of St. Louis. It is the
geographical centre of the State, and has fine county build-
ings, seven churches, four hotels, graded schools, bank,
public library, and two weekly papers, and is surrounded
by a rich agricultural district, abounding in lead and other
minerals. R. E. HUNTINGTON, ED. “MoNITEAU Journal.
California, a township of Pitt co., N. C. Pop. 3626.
724
CALIFORNIA—CALLAWAY.
California, a post-borough of Washington, co., Pa.
Pop. 659. -
California, Gulf of, or Sea of Cortes [Sp. Mar
Bermejol, an arm of the Pacific Ocean, separates the penin-
sula of Lower California from the Mexican provinces of
Sinaloa and Sonora. It is about 700 miles long, and varies
in width from 40 to 100 miles. It encloses many islands.
The river Colorado enters it at the N. extremity. This
gulf was once famous for its pearl-fisheries, and mother-of-
pearl is still obtained here.
California, Lower or Old, a long, narrow peninsula,
a territory of Mexico, is bounded on the N. E. by the Gulf
of California, and on the S. W. by the Pacific Ocean. It is
about 750 miles long, and varies in width from 30 to 150
miles. Its most southern point, Cape Lucas, is in lat. 22°
527 N., from which it extends in a N. N. W. direction to lat.
32° 30' N. It is a mountainous, arid region of volcanic
formation, having a sparse population. Capital, La Paz.
This peninsula was discovered by Grijalva in 1534. Pop.
in 1868, 21,645.
California, University of, was established by an
act of the State legislature, approved Mar. 23, 1868. It
was an outgrowth of the College of California, which was
chartered in 1855, and maintained on a non-sectarian
basis. Prof. Henry Durant opened its preparatory school
at Oakland, and thus became one of the earliest pioneers
of education in the State. In 1860 the college admitted its
first class, and it graduated classes yearly from 1864 to
1869. It had no president. From 1863 to 1869, Rev. S.
H. Willey was vice-president. Finding the college fettered
by its want of endowments, and wishing to see a larger
and stronger institution, the trustees in 1867 offered all
their property to the State. This included a new, unoccu-
pied site of 160 acres at Berkeley, 5 miles N. of Oakland,
and 9 miles from San Francisco. The State had accepted
the Congressional provision for an agricultural college. It
was now proposed to unite all interests in a university
adequate to the wants and worthy of the name of the State.
The proposition was agreed to. The first board of regents,
appointed in 1868, kept the college in existence another
year. In 1869 the university was organized for instruc-
tion, and received its first class. That class graduated in
the summer of 1873. The classes have steadily increased,
and the university now numbers 180 students. The uni-
versity has already two large buildings at Berkeley.
The first president of the university, elected in 1870, was
Henry Durant, LL.D., formerly of the College of Cali-
fornia. The present president is Daniel C. Gilman, late of
Yale College. DANIEL C. GILMAN.
Calig’ula (CAIUS CAESAR), a Roman, emperor, born at
Antium in 12 A. D., was a son of Germanicus. His mother
was Agrippina, a granddaughter of the emperor Augustus.
He succeeded to the throne 37 A. D., at the death of Tibe-
rius, against whose cruel jealousy he had guarded himself
by habitual dissimulation. His reign was at first mild and
popular, with an ostentation of generosity, but he soon
showed himself a monster of cruelty, and indulged his
vicious propensities without restraint. He expressed a
wish that all the Roman people had but one head, that he
might decapitate them at one blow. He ordered that sac-
rifices should be offered to himself as a god. In 41 A. D.
he was assassinated by conspirators, and was succeeded by
his uncle Claudius. -
Ca/liph [Arab. khalīfah, a “successor”], the “com-
mander of the faithful,” the spiritual and temporal head
of orthodox Mohammedanism—so called as being the
“successor” of Mohammed. The caliphs are usually
classed as follows: (1) The four “Arabian caliphs” of
Medina, A. D. 632–661; (2) the fourteen “Ommyiades" of
Damascus, 661–750; (3) the twenty-seven “Abbasides” of
Bagdad, 750–1258; besides these there were rival caliph-
ates; (4) in Egypt the “Fatimites,” fourteen in number,
909–1171; and (5) in Cordova, 756–1031, there were twenty-
seven successive caliphs (Ommyiades) who had authority in
Spain and N. W. Africa. The later Moorish dynasties, such
as the “Almoravides” (1050–1145) and the “Almohades”
(1129–1269), are not usually reckoned as caliphs, that term
being, in strict language, only applicable to sultans of the
family of Mohammed. Nevertheless, the Turkish sultans
have long claimed the caliphate, and the claim is generally
admitted by orthodox Mohammedans. The Shiite Mo-
hammedans recognize of the above only Ali, the fourth
Arabian caliph, as the lawful heir of the prophet, and
. him the present royal house of Persia claims a lineal
eSGent. -
Calisthenics. See CALLISTHENICS.
Calisto'ga, a beautiful post-village of Napa co., Cal., the
N. terminus of the Napa Valley R. R., 42 miles from Wal-
lejo, is celebrated for its warm springs and its picturesque
scenery. The town is supplied with water from the adja-
cent mountains, and is a place of considerable business.
Five miles to the S. E. is a famous petrified forest.
Cali’tri, a town of Italy, in Principato Ulteriore, near
the Ofanto, 23 miles S. E. of Ariano. Pop. 6208.
Calix’tines, the name given to a party of the Hussites,
because they insisted on giving the cup (calyx) in the Eu-
charist to all who were not guilty of mortal sins. They
defeated the Taborites (the other branch of the Hussites)
in a battle at Lippau (1434). The Calixtines had been
reconciled to the pope in 1433. The term Calixtines
has also been applied to the adherents of G. Calixtus,
a Lutheran professor of theology at Helmstedt. (See CA-
LIXTUS.)
Calix’tus, originally Callisen (GEORGE), an eminent
Protestant theologian, born at Medelbye, in Sleswick, Dec.
14, 1586. He became professor of theology at Helmstedt
in 1614, and wrote several treatises against the doctrines of
the Roman Catholics. He was distinguished for his learn-
ing and tolerance as well as his talents. Among his works
are an “Epitome of Moral Theology” (1634) and “De
Tolerantia Reformatorum ” (“On the Tolerance of Re-
formers,” 1658). He was accused of heresy and cryp-
topapism by some Lutherans, but his doctrines were ac-
copted by many followers, who were called Calixtines.
Died Mar. 19, 1656. (See W. C. Dowding, “Life of Calix-
tus,” 1864.) -
Calixtus I. (Pope), SAINT, succeeded Zephyrinus 219
A. D. Died 223.−CALIXTUS II. succeeded Gelasius II. in
1119. Ho concluded the concordat of Worms with the em-
peror Henry V., which ended the difficulty with respect to
investitures. Died Dec. 12, 1124.—CALIXTUS III. (ALONZo
Borg1A), born in 1379 in Valencia, succeeded Nicholas W.
in 1455. He attempted to institute a crusade, without suc-
cess. Died Aug. 6, 1458.
Cal’ken, a village of Belgium, in East Flanders, on the
Scheldt, 8 miles E. of Ghent. Pop. 5227.
Calk’ing, or Caulking, the process of filling with
tarred oakum the seams between the planks of ships, in
order to render the joints impervious to water. The oakum
is driven into the seams by a wedge-shaped tool called a
calking-iron. The seams are finally payed over or coated
with melted pitch or resin. The quantity of oakum used
in a ship of the largest size is about thirty tons.
Call, a military musical term, signifies a signal given
by a trumpet, bugle, or drum.
CALL, a metallic whistle used on shipboard by the boat-
swain and his mate. Various kinds of sounds denote sig–
nals or orders for hoisting, lowering, veering, etc.
CALL To THE BAR is the formal expression by which the
admission of students of law to the rights and privileges of
the degree of barrister in England and Ireland is publicly
announced. In Scotland the corresponding expression is
“passing advocate.”
Cal’la, a genus of plants of the natural order Araceae.
The genus is characterized by a flat spathe, within which
is a cylindrical spadix covered with naked flowers, appear-
ing as a mere mixture of stamens and pistils, and a 1-celled
ovary. The Calla palustris is a native of Europe and the
U. S., growing in swamps and bogs. It has cordate leaves,
a white spathe, and very acrid rhizomes, which are cooked
for food by the Laplanders. The Calla AEthiopica or Rich-
ardia AEthiopica is prized for the beauty of its flowers.
Cal’lahan, a county in the N. of Texas. Area, 900
square miles. It is drained by several affluents of the
Colorado and Brazos rivers. The surface is hilly or moun-
tainous. Here are two peaks, called the East Caddo and
West Caddo. Timber is scarce. Stock-raising is the only
pursuit. Returned as having no population by U. S. cen-
sus of 1870. -
Cal’land’s, a post-village and township of Pittsylvania
co., Va., 45 miles S. W. of Lynchburg. Pop. 2848.
Calla’o, a fortified town of Northern Peru, on the Pa-
cific Ocean, 6 miles W. of Lima, of which it is the port; lat.
12° 4: S., lon. 77° 13' W. It is connected with Lima by a
railway, and has a commodious quay and a fine fortress.
The harbor or roadstead, which is sheltered by the island .
of San Lorenzo, is the best on the coast of Peru. The chief
exports are specie, copper, cotton, hides, and bark. The
town was destroyed by an earthquake in 1746. Pop. about
10,000.
Cal’iao, a post-village of Macon co., Mo., on the Han-
nibal and St. Joseph R. R., 9 miles W. of Macon City.
Pop. of Callao township, 1643.
Cał'Iaway, a county of Kentucky, bordering on Ten-
messee. Area, 450 square miles. It is bounded on the E.
by the Tennessee River, and is drained by Clark’s River.
The surface is hilly, except the extensive river-bottoms;
CALLAWAY-CALMET.
725
the soil is fertile. Tobacco, corn, wheat, and wool are sta-
ple products. Capital, Murray. Pop. 9410.
Callaway, a county in E. Central Missouri. Area, 743
square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Missouri
River, and on the W. by Cedar Creek. The surface is un-
dulating; the soil is very fertile. About one-third of it is
prairie-land. Bituminous coal, iron, fictile clay, and fine
limestone are abundant here. Tobacco, grain, wool, and
cattle are extensively raised. Capital, Fulton. Pop. 19,202.
Callaway, a township of St. Charles co., Mo. P. 1745.
Callaway (ELISHA). See APPENDIX.
Call/cott (Sir AUGUSTUs WALL), an English landscape
painter, born at Kensington (London) Feb. 20, 1779. He
was chosen a member of the Royal Academy in 1810, was
knighted in 1837, and became conservator of royal pictures
in 1844. Among his works are “Morning,” “Evening,”
and “Harvest in the Highlands.” Died Nov. 25, 1844.
Callcott (John WALL), MUs. DR., an eminent English
composer, a brother of the preceding, was born at Kensing-
ton in 1766. He composed many anthems, glees, and other
pieces of music. He published a “Musical Grammar”
(1805). Died in May, 1821.
Calleja (Don FELIX DEL REY), a Spanish general,
born in 1750. He commanded the royal army in Mexico
against the insurgents who revolted in 1810, and he became
viceroy of Mexico in 1813. Died in 1820.
Cal’iender (JoHN), born in Boston, Mass., in 1706,
graduated at Harvard in 1723, became pastor of the Bap-
tist church of Swansey, Mass., in 1728, and in 1731 of the
church at Newport, R. I. His best-known work is a cen-
tennial historical discourse, delivered in 1738, which is of
great value in the early history of Rhode Island. Died
Jan. 26, 1748.
Cal'lensburg, a post-village of Licking township,
Clarion co., Pa. Pop. 255.
Cal'licoon, a post-township of Sullivan co., N. Y., has
manufactures of lumber and leather. The soil is good.
Sand for glass-making has been procured here. Jefferson-
ville, which is partly in this township, has a weekly paper.
Pop. of township, 2763.
Callic/rates [Gr. KaNAukpárms], an eminent Greek archi-
tect who flourished about 440 B.C. Among his works was
the Parthenon of Athens, in which he was assisted by Icti-
nus. It was adorned with sculptures by Phidias, and was
surrounded by forty-six Doric columns.
Callicrat’idas [Gr. KaaXukpatíðas], a Spartan general
who obtained command of the fleet in 406 B. C. He de-
feated the Athenian general Conon, and blockaded him at
Mitylene. The Athenians soon sent to the relief of Conon
another fleet, which defeated the Spartans at Arginusae in
406 B. C. Callicratidas was killed in this action.
Callig’onum, a genus of plants of the order Poly-
gonaceae, having a quadrangular fruit (achemium) winged at
the angles. The Calligonum Pallasia, a succulent shrub, is
found in the sandy steppes near the Caspian Sea. Its acid
fruit and shoots serve to allay the thirst of travellers. From
its root exudes a nutritious gum which is similar to traga-
canth, and is used as food by the Calmucks.
Callig’raphy [Gr. kaxAtypadia, from káAAos, “beauty,”
and ypaſpi, “writing”], the art of beautiful writing. The
scribes who copied manuscripts before the invention of
printing have been termed calligraphers or calligraphists.
Their art consisted not merely in writing, but also in em-
bellishing their work with ornamental devices. (See ILLU-
MINATION.) Some extant manuscripts, written in the early
part of the Middle Ages, exhibit admirable specimens of
the art, with letters of gold, vermilion, etc.
Callim'achus, a Greek sculptor and architect who is
supposed to have lived about 450–400 B. C. His statues
were finely finished. The invention of the Corinthian
capital is ascribed to him.
Callimachus [Gr. KaxAtwaxos], a celebrated Greek
poet and grammarian, was born at Cyrene, and flourished
about 260–240 B. C. He was patronized by Ptolemy Phila-
delphus, and was appointed chief librarian of the great
Alexandrian library. He was a prolific writer and an emi-
ment teacher; among his pupils was Eratosthenes. He
wrote an epic poem entitled “Galatea,” several important
prose works, and tragedies, elegies, comedies, etc. His
works are nearly all lost, except his epigrams and hymns.
Quintilian regarded him as the best of the Greek elegiac.
poets. - -
Calli'nus [KaxAïvos] of Ephesus, the earliest of the
Greek elegiac poets, is supposed to have lived about 600 or
650 B.C. Only small fragments of his poems are extant.
Calli’ope [Gr. KaxAtóm], one of the Nine Muses, pre-
sided over epic poetry, and was said to be the mother of
Orpheus and Linus. She was represented as holding a
tablet or closely-rolled parchment in her hand. t
Calliope, a post-village, capital of Sioux co., Ia., is on
the left bank of the Sioux River (which is here the western
boundary of the State), about 38 miles N. of Sioux City.
Pop. 40. -
Callip/pic Period, a correction of the Metonic cycle
proposed by Callippus. The Metonic cycle was a period
of nineteen solar years, at the end of which the new moons
return again on the same days of the year. The period
contained exactly 6940 days. Now, 6940 days exceed 235
lunations by only seven hours and a half. At the end of
four cycles, or seventy-six years, the accumulated excess of
seven and a half hours amounts to one day and six hours.
Callippus proposed to quadruple the period of Meton, and
to deduct a day at the end of it.
Callip'pus, or Calippus [Gr. KáAAttiros or KáAttriros],
an ancient Greek astronomer, born at Cyzicus, lived about
330 B.C. at Athens. He associated with Aristotle. He
invented a new cycle of seventy-six years, which was
adopted by astronomers, and was called the “Callippic
Period.” It began 331 B. C.
Callis'themes [Gr. Kaxxta:0évns], an historian, born at
Olynthus, in Thrace, about 365 B. C., was a relative and
pupil of Aristotle. He accompanied Alexander the Great
in his expedition against Persia in 334 B. C., and gained
the favor of that prince, but afterwards offended him by
his boldness of speech, and was put to death on a charge
of treason in 328 B. C. He left a history of Alexander’s
expedition against Persia, which is not extant. -
Callisthenſics, or Calisthenics [from the Gr.
káAAos, “beauty,” and a 0évos, “strength "J, a system of
exercises designed to promote beauty and strength; in
other words, to impart grace of movement and physical
strength at the same time. These exercises are better
adapted to girls than ordinary gymnastics, as they do not
subject the muscles to so violent a tension. The apparatus
used in these exercises consists of a light wooden staff
about four feet long, a pair of light dumb-bells, parallel
bars, two square weights, and a short roller fixed in sockets
near the top of an open doorway. Good substitutes for
this apparatus may be found in the game of battledoor, in
swimming, riding on horseback, etc.
Callis’tratus [Gr. KaxAtartparos], an eloquent Athenian
orator who lived about 380–360 B. C. His eloquence and
the applause which he received excited the emulation of De-
mosthenes, and induced him to cultivate the art of oratory.
Callistratus was banished from Athens in 361 B. C. Hav-
ing returned without permission, he was put to death.
Cal’Iitris, a genus of trees of the order Coniferae.
The cones consist of four to six woody scales, which sepa-
rate one from another, each scale having from three to six
winged seeds. Callitris quadrivalvis, a large tree of Bar-
bary, called arar, yields a very hard, almost indestructible,
fragrant wood, and the aromatic gum-resin called san-
darach. The timber is highly prized, and is used for the
floors of mosques.
Callot (JACQUES), a French engraver, born at Nancy in
1592 of a noble family, who greatly opposed his pursuit of
art as a profession. He studied at Rome, and attained great
excellence, chiefly as an etcher and designer; was patron-
ized by Richelieu and Louis XIII., for whom he executed
battle-pieces. The best of his numerous plates are small,
and deal with familiar and grotesque subjects. Among his
works are notable the series of etchings “Les Misères de la
Guerre.” His drawings are highly esteemed, and were exe-
cuted with great care. He was a man of most generous
sentiments. Died Mar. 24, 1635.
Calluma. See HEATH.
Cal'Ius [Lat.], the exuded material by which fractured
bones are consolidated together. If the broken ends are
accurately adjusted, there is merely a slight deposition of
callus between the two surfaces; if, however, the adjust-
ment is not accurate, it is effused in such quantity as often
to form a considerable hard swelling round the seat of the
fracture; any excess is, however, usually absorbed during
the last stage of the repair of a fracture. The term callus
is also applied to the thick skin formed on hands or feet
which are exposed to much rubbing and pressure.
Calmar. See KALMAR. -
Cal'mar, a post-village of Winneshiek co., Ia, on the
Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., 43 miles W. by N. from
Prairie du Chien. It is the eastern terminus of a branch
of the same railroad. Pop. of Calmar township, 1864.
Calmet (AUGUSTINE), a learned French Benedictine
and commentator on Scripture, was born near Commercy,
in Lorraine, Feb. 26, 1672. He became in 1728 abbot of
Senones, where he resided for many years. He published,
726
CALMS-CALTROP.
besides other works, a “Commentary on the Bible” (23
vols., 1707–16), and a “Historical and Critical Dictionary
of the Bible” (2 vols. folio, 1720), which was translated
into several languages. Died Oct. 20, 1757.
Calms. Equatorial Calms.-A belt of calms, variable
winds, sudden squalls, and tornadoes, and almost daily
thunder-showers, situated about and somewhat N., of the
equator, 4° to 6° of latitude in breadth, and separating the
two bodies of N. E. and S. E. trade-winds. This is the region
where the heated air at the equator ascends to return from
the height of the atmosphere towards the poles. (See
WINDs, GENERAL CIRCULATION OF.)
Calms of the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.—Two
belts of calms, and light winds, almost rainless, situated in
the neighborhood of, but outside, the tropics. They are
found at the polar limit of the trade-winds, which they
separate from the region of variable winds of the temperate
zones. Each belt occupies but a few degrees in latitude,
but the pósition and limits of both are less defined than
those of the equatorial belt. The region of the calms of
Cancer, in the Atlantic, is called by American mariners the
horse latitudes. It is said that in colonial times the mu-
merous vessels freighted with horses from New England
for the West Indies were often long detained in these
dreaded calms, under the burning rays of the Sun of these
latitudes, causing a great mortality among their living
freight. Hence the name. (See WINDs, GENERAL CIRCU-
LATION OF.) ARNOLD GUYOT.
Ca1/mucks, called by the Tartars Khalimick (“rene-
gades”), the largest of the Mongolian peoples, inhabiting
large regions of the Chinese and also Russian dominions.
They are divided into four tribes: the Choshots, ruled by
descendants of Gengis Khan; the Soongars, in the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries the masters of the other
races; oppressed by the Chinese, they migrated in great
numbers in 1758 to Russia, but, finding the new yoke still
more grievous, returned in 1770 to Soongaria; the Derbets,
who dwell in the valleys of the Don and Ili; the Torgots,
formerly united with the Soongars. The former in 1616
removed to the plaims of the Volga, but a large part sought
their native regions again. The Calmucks are a nomadic
race. Their wealth consists in herds of horses, camels,
sheep, and cattle. In Russia there are at present about
120,000, the greater part of whom are found in Astrakhan.
The European Calmucks are mostly Booddhists, but some
are Mohammedans and some are Christians.
Caln, a post-township of Chester co., Pa. Pop. 984.
Calomar’de (FRANCISCO TADEO), Count, a Spanish
minister of state, born at Villel in 1775. He studied law,
joined the absolutist party, and became in 1823 minister
of grace and }. He persecuted the liberals, favored
the Jesuits, and abused his power with cruelty. In 1833 he
was disgraced and exiled in consequence of his abortive
intrigues to raise Don Carlos to the throne. Died in 1842.
Cal' omel [from the Gr. kaxós, “beautiful,” “good,”
and agxas, “black,” perhaps so named because it was sup-
posed to be good for black bile] is one of the compounds
of mercury (Hg) and chlorine (Cl), known to chemists as
the subchloride of mercury, or, according to the new
nomenclature, mercurous chloride (Hg2Cl2). It is prepared
by taking two equal portions of mercury, dissolving one
portion in hot sulphuric acid, which forms, sulphate of
mercury, then adding the second part, and triturating the
whole in a mortar till the metal becomes incorporated with
the sulphate. This mixture is added to one-half its weight
of common salt, and heated in a retort, when calomel con-
denses in the cool part of the receiver as a white powder.
It is also sometimes prepared by precipitation. A minute
quantity of corrosive sublimate which accompanies it is
removed by washing. Calomel is very heavy. It is not
soluble in water, and sparingly so in acids. It turns
black on the addition of lime-water, potash, soda, or am-
monia. When heated it sublimes unaltered, and readily
condenses again on any cool surface held near it. Its
medicinal properties are of a decided character, and
though capable of being misused, and thus doing great
harm, it is still of great value in the treatment of certain
diseases. REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Calonne, de (CHARLES ALEXANDRE),a French courtier,
born at Douay in 1734. He was appointed controller-gen-
‘eral of finances in 1783, at a time when the public revenue
was not equal to the expenses of the state. He was profuse
in the expenditure of the public money, and supplied the
deficit by loans, extraordinary taxes, and other temporizing
expedients, in which he showed himself fertile. In 1786 he
advised the king to convoke an assembly of the Notables,
in order to devise some remedy for the financial crisis. He
was removed from office in 1787. Died Oct. 30, 1802.
Calophyl/ium [from the Gr. kaxós, “beautiful,” and
natives of warm climates.
diſaxov, a “ leaf”], a genus of trees of the order Guttiferae,
Some of the species produce
edible fruits and valuable timber. The resin called East
Indian tacamahac exudes from the trunk of Calophyllum
Inophyllum, a beautiful tree, which has large shining leaves
and fragrant white flowers. This is one of the most valu-
able timber trees of the South Sea Islands. The timber is
very durable, and resembles mahogany, but is of a lighter
color. It is used for building and for the masts of vessels.
The fruit of this and the other species is a drupe.
Caloric. See HEAT, by PROF. W. P. TRow BRIDGE.
Caloric Engine. See HoT-AIR ENGINE, by F. A. P.
BARNARD.
Calorimo/tor [from calor, “heat,” and moveo, motum,
“to move ", a name given to a peculiar form of the vol-
taic apparatus, invented by Dr. Hare, composed of one pair
of plates, which have great extent of surface, the electric-
ity of which, when transmitted through good conductors,
produces intense heat.
Calottistes (Le Régiment de la Calotte), an association
of wits and satirists under the reign of Louis XIV. They
were so called from their custom of sending to a public cha-
racter who had made himself ridiculous a “patent,” au-
thorizing him to wear the calotte, a small cap, to protect
the weak part of his head. The society was dissolved un-
der the ministry of Cardinal Fleury. -
Caloy'ers (i. e. “good old men’’), [from the Gr. kaAós,
“good,” and yépov, an “old man”], a name applied to the
monks of the Greek Church. They mostly follow the rule
of Saint Basil, but those at Mount Sinai and Mount Lébanon
follow the rule of Saint Anthony; from the caloyers the
bishops and patriarchs are chosen. Among their numerous
monasteries those of Mount Sinai in Asia and Mount Ath-
os in Europe are the most celebrated. **
Cal’pee, or Kalpee, a city of India, in Bundelcund,
is on the right bank of the Jumna, in lat. 26° 7' N., lon.
97° 28′ E. It is 46 miles S. W. of Cawnpore. Paper and
refined sugar of superior quality are made here. Calpee
was conquered by the British in 1803. In May, 1858, it
was captured by Gen. Rose from the mutinous Sepoys,
of whom Calpee was one of the head-quarters. Pop.
21,812.
Calpel’la, a township of Mendocino co., Cal. P. 807.
Calpur’nia, the fourth wife of Julius Caesar, was mar-
ried to him in 59 B. C. She was a daughter of L. Calpur-
nius Piso, who was consul in 58 B. C. She urged her hus-
band not to leave home on the day of his assassination, the
ides of March, 44 B. C.
Calpur’nius (TITUs JULIUs), a Latin poet, surnamed
SICULUs, is supposed to have lived about 280–300 A. D.
The events of his life are unknown. Several of his eclogues
are extant, and have some merit. .”
Caltagiro'ne (anc. Calata Hieronis 3) a city of Sici-
ly, in the province of Catania, on the slope of a hill about
32 miles S. W. of Catania. It is the see of a bishop, and
has a college, a hospital, and several convents; also man-
ufactures of cotton fabrics and pottery. The inhabitants
are esteemed the best workmen in Sicily in the useful arts.
Pop. in 1872, 25,978.
Caltaniset/ta, an Italian province, bounded on the
N. by Palermo, on the E. by Catania and Siracusa, on the
S. by the Mediterranean, and on the W. by Girgenti, in the
central part of Sicily. Area, 1455 Square miles. Pop. in
1872, 226,156.
Caltanisetta, a fortified town of Sicily, capital of the
above province, in a fertile plain near the Salso, 23 miles
N. E. of Girgenti. Here are mineral springs and extensive
sulphur-works. This place is supposed to be the site of the
ancient Nissae. Pop. in 1872, 26,156. -
Caltavutu'ro, a town of Sicily, province of Palermo,
30 miles S. E. of the city of Palermo, is of Saracenic origin.
Jasper is found in this vicinity. Pop. 5119.
Cal'tha, the Latin name of the marigold. Caltha pa-
lustris is the systematic name of the marsh marigold, often
called in America “cowslip,” a plant of the natural order
Ranunculaceae, which grows in swamps and wet meadows
in Asia, Europe, the U. S., and even in Alaska. It is
boiled and eaten in the spring as a potherb, the poisonous
properties which it is said to possess being destroyed by
cooking.
Cal/trop, or Calthrop, a thistle of the genus Tribu-
lus, growing in the S. of Europe; its burs are armed with
strong spines, which inflict wounds upon the feet of men
and beasts if trodden upon. This name is also applied to
a four-pointed piece of steel, so shaped that one prong al-
ways points upward. It is used in military operations to
annoy an advancing enemy. -
CALUIRE-ET-CUIRE–CALVINISM.
727
Caluire-et-Cuire, a village of France, in the depart-
ment of Rhone, a suburb of Lyons, on the Saône, 3 miles
N. N. E. of that city. Pop. 9182.
Cal’umet [said to be of French origin], the pipe of
peace used by the North American Indians in the ratifica-
tion of treaties. It is a tobacco-pipe, having a long stem
made of hollow reed and ornamented with feathers. Some
tribes of the aborigines appear to think that a treaty is not
valid or complete until both parties have smoked the calu-
met together. -
Calumet, a county in the E. of Wisconsin. Area, 300
square miles. It is bounded on the W. by Winnebago Lake,
and is drained by the sources of Manitoowoc River. The
rocks which underlie this county are limestone and Sand-
stone. Grain, wool, and dairy products are largely raised.
Capital, Chilton. Pop. 12,335.
Calumet, a post-township of Cook co., Ill. Pop. 1253.
Calumet, a post-township of Houghton co., Mich.
Pop. 3182.
Calumet, a township of Pike co., Mo. Pop. 5185.
Calumet, a township of Fond du Lac co., Wis. Pop.
1460.
Calvados, a maritime department of France, formed
of part of the old province of Normandy, is bounded on
the N. by the English Channel, on the E. by Eure, on the
S. by Orne, and on the W. by Manche. Area, 2181 square
miles. The southern part is hilly, but extensive plains oc-
cur in other portions. The soil is fertile. The chief rivers
are the Orne, Dromme, and Wire. Among the mineral pro-
ductions are iron, coal, marble, and slate. Many horses,
cattle, and sheep are raised here. Qapital, Caen. Pop. in
1866, 474,909.
Cal' vary, Mount, the scene of our Saviour's cruci-
fixion, is commonly thought to be an eminence which lay at
the north-west, and just on the outside, of the ancient city
of Jerusalem, but the locality is by no means certainly
known. Calvary, or Calvaria, is a translation into Latin
of the Hebrew word Golgotha, signifying a “skull,” either
because the mount was a place of public execution, or be-
cause it was shaped like a human skull. The word occurs
but once in our authorized version of the New Testament
(Luke xxiii. 33); the term in the Greek being Kpaviov. It
was not improbably so named from its shape.
Calvary, a township of Clarendon co., S. C. P. 1152.
Calvel'Io, a town of Italy, in the province of Basili-
cata, 12 miles S. of Potenza. It has two convents. P. 5172.
Cal’vert, a county in the S. of Maryland. Area, 250
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by Chesapeake Bay,
and on the W. by the Patuxent River, which enters that
bay at the S. extremity of the county. The soil is fertile.
Tobacco, corn, wheat, and wool are the chief products.
Capital, Prince Fredericktown. Pop. 9865.
Calvert, a township of Grant co., Ark. Pop. 476.
Calvert, a city, the capital of Robertson co., Tex., on
the Houston and Texas Central R. R., 130 miles N. N. W.
of Houston. It has a weekly newspaper.
Calvert (GEORGE and CECIL). See BALTIMORE, LORD,
by HoN. HENRY STOCKBRIDGE.
Calvert (GEORGE HENRY), born at Baltimore, Md., Jan.
2, 1803, is a descendant of Lord Baltimore and of the painter
Rubens. He graduated at Harvard in 1823, studied at Göt-
tingen, and became a journalist of Baltimore. Besides many
dramas, translations, and poems, he has published “Scenes
and Thoughts in Europe” (1846–52), “An Introduction to
Social Science (1856), “The Gentleman’” (1861), and other
works. Since 1843 he has been a citizen of Newport, R. I.
Calvert (LEONARD), younger brother of Cecil, second
Lord Baltimore. He was the first governor of Maryland,
whither he led the first colony in 1634. He was a Roman
Catholic, and appears to have been a man of liberal views,
but existing details of his life are few. Died June 9, 1647.
Cal’vi, a seaport and fortified town of Corsica, on a
peninsula of its N. W. coast, 38 miles W. S. W. of Bastía.
It has a good harbor and a strong citadel. Calvi was be-
sieged and taken by the English in 1794. Pop. 2069.
Calvi (anc. Cales), a decayed town of Italy, 7% miles
N. N. W. of Capua, is a bishop's see. It was formerly im-
portant, and was celebrated for its baths.
Calvin, a post-township of Cass co., Mich. Pop. 1788.
Cal/vin, written also Cauvin, and Chauvin (John),
the great Protestant Reformer, was born at Noyon, in Pic-
ardy, July 10, 1509. When Calvin was about sixteen years
old he was made curé of Marteville, and subsequently of
Pont l'Evêque. He began early to preach openly the doc-
trines of the Reformed religion. In 1532 he published a
commentary on Seneca's treatise “De Clementia.” Hav-
ing incurred the displeasure of the Sorbonne, he withdrew
from Paris to Angoulême. For a brief period he was pro-
tected by Margaret of Navarre, a sister of Francis I., but
was soon obliged to fly to Bâle, where he published in 1536
his most important work, “Christianae Religionis Insti-
tutio,” the object of which is to explain and vindicate the
doctrines of the Reformers. The same year, with a view
to promote the cause of the Reformation, he visited Fer-
rara, where he was kindly received by the duchess Renata,
a daughter of Louis XII. of France, and consort of Ercole
d’Este. But she was unable to protect him against the
power of the Inquisition, and he again sought safety in
flight. Having sold his patrimonial estate, with his sister,
his brother, and some devoted friends, he escaped to Swit–
zerland in Aug., 1536, expecting to proceed to Germany.
But Farel prevailed on him to remain at Geneva. In con-
junction with Farel, he composed a confession of faith and
a system of ecclesiastical discipline. But Calvin and Farel
were in 1538 banished from the city. Calvin retired to
Strasburg, and founded there a church which was regarded
as a pattern for all Protestant churches. After the banish-
ment of Calvin, Cardinal Sadolet made great efforts to bring
Geneva back to his Church. A letter of Calvin’s, designed
as a refutation of an epistle by Sadolet, made a powerful
impression on the Genevese, and in 1540 he received from
the senate of Geneva, a pressing invitation to return. Al-
though reluctant to leave Strasburg, he appears always to
have regarded the church of Geneva as especially his care.
In Sept., 1541, he returned to Geneva, and was received
by all classes with every demonstration of affection. The
rest of Calvin’s life was spent in efforts to establish the
church and civil government of Geneva. The effects of
his exertions in promoting learning and morality (not to
speak of religion) are visible in Geneva, after a lapse of
more than three hundred years. At Strasburg he had
married (in 1539) a widow named Idelette de Bures, a
woman of rare virtues. Their only child, a son, died in
infancy. Calvin died in 1564. Nothing perhaps in the
history of this great man is more admirable than the self-
denying simplicity of his life. He received what was
barely sufficient to support him with the utmost parsimony,
and yet he would never accept a present except for the
poor. The central doctrine in Calvin’s system of theology
was unconditional election and reprobation. (See CALVIN-
ISM.) As a writer on theology he is distinguished for his
clearness, method, scientific precision, and logical acute-
ness. Scaliger regarded him as the greatest of all theolo-
gians, using this forcible language: “Solus inter theologos
Calvinus.” The literary influence of Calvin’s writings, es—
pecially of his admirable French translation of his own
“Institutes,” was great and salutary.
Calvin has been much censured, and not without cause,
for the part he took in the condemnation and death of Ser-
vetus. "Calvin regarded Servetus as a dangerous man, not
merely on account of his heresies, but also of his arrogant
and reckless spirit, joined as these were with abilities of
no common order; he exerted his utmost influence to pre-
vent his being burned; for, though he deemed Servetus
worthy of the punishment of death, he wished to save him
from a death so dreadful as that by fire. (See HENRY,
“Life of Calvin;” THíoDoRE DE Bāzī, “Histoire de la Vie
et la Mort de Calvin.” J. THOMAs.
Cal’vinism. Calvinism, as also Pelagianism and Luther-
anism, is a term used to designate, not the opinions of an
individual, but a mode of religious thought or a system of
religious doctrines, of which the person whose name it bears
was an eminent expounder. There have from the beginning
coexisted in the Christian Church three, and only three,
generically distinct systems of doctrine, or modes of con-
ceiving and adjusting the facts and principles understood
to be revealed in the Scriptures. One of these is the Pela-
gian, which denies the guilt, pollution, and moral impotence
of man, and makes him independent of the Supernatural
assistance of God. At the other pole is the Calvinistic sys-
tem, which emphasizes the guilt and impotence of man,
exalts the absolute justice and Sovereignty of God, and
refers salvation absolutely to the undeserved favor and the
new creative energy of God. Between these comes the
manifold and elastic system of compromise once known as
Semi-Pelagianism, and in modern times as Arminianism,
which admits man’s original pollution, but denies his guilt,
regards redemption as a compensation for innate and con-
sequently irresponsible disabilities, and refers the moral
restoration of the individual to the co-operation of the
human with the Divine energy, the determining factor being
the human will. The system to which this article is devoted
was known originally, and is now designated more gener-
ally and indefinitely, by the title Augustinianism, from its
earliest champion, the illustrious Augustine, bishop of Hippo
Regius in Northern Africa (395–430 A.D.); while the more
modern and specific title is Calvinism, from the fact that it was
developed into a perfect form, and infused into the creeds
728
CALVINISM.
of all Protestant churches, and into the life of modern na–
tions, through the instrumentality of John Calvin, the Re-
former of Geneva (1509–1564). The authentic statement
of its constituent.doctrines is not to be drawn exclusively
from the writings of either of the great men mentioned, but
from the public confessions of those churches which have
professed this form of doctrine, and from the classical
writings of their representative theologians. w
It is proposed in this article to present, in necessarily
meagre outline, a statement (1) of the fundamental charac-
teristics of the system; (2) of the history of its develop-
ment and prevalence both before and after Calvin; and (3)
of its practical moral influence upon individuals and upon
communities.
A. Statement of Principles.—Calvinism, as a system of
doctrines, derives its character from the following funda-
mental positions or foci of organization :
I. The Relation of the Creator to the Creation.—There are
three generically distinct views as to the relation of the
Creator to the creation, each, of course, embracing many
specific varieties under it. -
1st. The Deistical view, which admits a creation eac mihilo,
and an original endowment of the elements with their active
powers, and the subjection of the whole system of things to
certain general laws, adapted to the evolution of certain
fixed plans. The general plan and order of the creation is
attributed to the Creator, and all events are referred to Him
in a general sense as the indefinitely remote First Cause,
who inaugurated the ever-onflowing line of second causes.
This view, however, denies the continued immanence of the
Creator in the creation, and the momentary dependence of
the creature on the Creator for the continuance of its sub-
stance, the possession of its properties, and the exercise of
its powers.
2d. The opposite extreme is the Pântheistic mode of
thought, which identifies God and the universe as His ex-
istence-form, or at least so confines Him to it as to deny His
transcendence beyond the universe as an extra-mundane
Spirit and conscious Person whose actions are rationally-
determined volitions.
3d. Between these extremes stands Christian Theism. It
emphasizes at once the transience of God beyond, and the
immanence of God within, the world. He remains ever a
conscious personal Spirit, without and above the world,
able, in the exercise of His free volitions, sovereignly to ex-
ercise a supernatural influence (potestas libera) upon any
part of that system of nature which He has established,
ordinarily working through second causes, “yet free to
work without, above, and against them at His pleasure.”
At the same time He continues to interpenetrate the inmost
being of every element of every creature with the infinite
energies of His free intelligent will, and His creatures mo–
mentarily continue absolutely dependent upon the energy
of that will for substance and for the possession of the
powers communicated to them as second causes in all, their
€XCrCl SèS. -
All Christians, of course, are Theists in the sense thus
defined, but the different schools of Christian theology take
their points of departure here, as, on the one hand, they
press the essential dependence of the creature upon the
Creator in substance, properties, and actions, or as, on the
other hand, they press the self-active power of second
causes, and by consequence their self-sufficiency and inde-
pendence. Here we have the ultimate antithetical grounds
of Pelagianism and Augustinianism. Pelagius, who was
characterized by a rationalistic habit of thought and a su-
perficial religious experience, believing that power to the
contrary is an inalienable attribute of every act of free-will,
necessary to render it responsible and therefore moral,
maintained, in the supposed interests of morals, that every
free agent is so adequately endowed by God as to be self-
sufficient for action, each in a manner appropriate to his
kind. Augustine, on the contrary, held that every creature
exists and acts only as its substance is momentarily sus-
tained, and its action conditioned, by the omnipresent
and omnipotent energy of God. While admitting the free
self-determining power of the human soul, he referred the
moral character of the volition to the disposition which
prompted it, and the moral nature of man to the influences
of the Spirit of God. Anterior to apostasy, therefore, the
spirit of man depended for spiritual life and moral integrity
upon the concursus of the Spirit of God, the withdrawal
of which is the immediate cause of spiritual death and
moral impotence.
in one mode or another, is-common to all creatures and all
their actions, and it is called “grace’ when, as an unde-
served favor, it is in a supernatural manner restored to the
Souls of sinful men with the design of affecting their moral
character and action. This view of Augustine was subse-
quently elaborated by his disciples into the theory of the
“previous,” “simultaneous,” and “determining” concursus
of the Thomists and Reformed theologians.
This Divine influence, in one degree and .
(Summa of
Tho. Aquinas, 2.1. 10; and Turretin, 6. 6. 6 and 7.)
II. The End or Design of God in Creation.—Every in-
telligent Theist must regard the universe as one system,
and must therefore believe that the Creator had from the
beginning one general end, for the accomplishment of which
the whole and all its parts were intended. This general end
must have determined, the Creator in every step He has
taken in the evolution of the universe, and hence our con-
ception of it will give shape to any speculations we may
form with respect to the relations of God and His works.
It is evident that no solution of this transcendent question
can be reached by reasoning from a priori principles, or by
generalizations drawn from the comparatively few facts at
present accessible to our observation, and that it can be
rationally sought for only in a direct revelation. For the
most part, this general end has been referred to the essen-
tial benevolence of God, prompting Him to confer the great-
est possible amount of blessedness, in the highest forms of
excellence, upon innumerable objects of His love. Leibnitz,
in his “Théodicée" (1710), which has exerted a wide influ-
ence on all modern speculation, lowered this view by em-
phasizing the “happiness” of the creatures as the great
end of the creative goodness.
The Scriptures, on the contrary, emphatically declare
that the manifestation of His own glorious perfections is
the actual and most worthy possible end of the great De-
signer in all His works of creation, providence, and re-
demption, and hence likewise the final end of all His intel-
ligent creatures in all moral action. The recognition of
this great principle, and its application to the interpretation
of all God’s dealings with man, and of all man's duties to
God, has always been an essential characteristic of Calvin-
ism. Pelagians and Semi-pelagians, with more or less de-
cision, place the general end of the system of things in the
well-being of the creature: Calvinists place it absolutely in
the glory of the Creator, which carries with it, not as a co-
ordinate design, but as a subordinate yet certain effect, the
blessedness of all loyal creatures.
III. The Relation which the Eternal Plan of God sustains
to the Actual Evolution of Events in Time.—Every Theist
believes that the eternal and absolutely perfect intelligence
of the Creator must have formed from the beginning a plan
comprehending the entire system of creation and providence
in reference to the great end for which they were designed.
Pelagius himself admitted that the absolute foreknowledge
of God embraced the future volitions of free agents, as well
as all other classes of events, while he denied their fore-
ordination. The Socinians, who have developed Pelagian-
ism into a complete system, more consistently deny fore-
knowledge, as well as foreordination, since, if it is essential
that a volition should be purely contingent in order that it
should be responsible, it must be indeterminate before the
event, and while indeterminate it cannot be certainly fore-
known. The Arminians admit foreknowledge, but deny
foreordination. The Calvinists maintain the following po-
sitions: 1. This eternal and immutable plan of God has
constituted man a free agent, and consequently can never
interfere with the exercise of that freedom of which it is
itself the foundation. 2. However, according to the prin-
ciples above stated, this created free-will is not independent,
but ever continues to have its ground in the conserving
energies of the omnipresent Creator. 3. In the case of an
infinitely wise, powerful, and free Creator of all things ea:
nihilo, it is obvious that the certain foreknowledge of all
events from the absolute beginning virtually involves the
predetermination of each event, without exception; for all
the causes and consequences, direct and contingent, which
..afe foreseen in creation, are, of course, determined by crea-
tion. As Sir William Hamilton asserts (Discw88ions, Ap-
pendix I, A.), “the two great articles of foreknowledge
and predestination are both embarassed by the selfsame
difficulties.” 4. Since all events constitute a single system,
the Creator must embrace the system as a whole, and every
infinitesimal element of it, in one all-comprehensive in-
tention. Ends more or less general must be determined as
ends, and means and conditions in all their several rela-
tions to the ends which are made dependent upon them.
Hence, while every event remains dependent upon its causes
and contingent upon its conditions, none of God’s purposes
can possibly be contingent, because in turm every cause
and condition is determined in that purpose, as well as the
ends which are suspended upon them. All the decrees of
God are hence called absolute, because they are ultimately
determined always by “the counsel of His own will,” and
never by anything exterior to Him which has not in turn
been previously determined by Him. 5. This determina-
tion, however, instead of interfering with, maintains the
true causality of the creature, and the free self-determina-
tion of men and angels. Since the holiness of the created
moral agent is conditioned upon the indwelling of Divine
CALVINISM,
grace, and its turning from grace is the cause of sin, it fol-
lows that all the good in the volitions of free agents is to
be referred to God as its positive source, but all the evil
(which originates in defect, privation) is to be referred sim-
ply to His permission. In this view, all events, without
exception, are embraced in God’s eternal purpose; even
the primal apostasies of Satan and of Adam, as well as all
those gonsequences which have flowed from them.
It is in view of these principles that Calvinism has been
so often confounded with fatalism, and held up as distin-
guished from the majority of human opinions by its pre-
eminent offensiveness. It should be remembered, however,
that the philosophy which has underlain the religions and
the speculations of the immeasurable preponderance of the
most intelligent nations in the past (Augustinian Chris-
tianity excepted), as well as of the advanced thinkers of the
present, has been fatalistic. Witness the fatalism of the
ancient Stoics and the modern Mohammedans and Deists
—the eternal and necessary conflicts of the dualism of
Zoroaster, perpetuated among the Gnostics and Manichaeans
—the ceaseless modifications of the one eternal essence in
the pantheism of the Booddhists, the Brahmanists, the an-
cient Greeks, and the modern disciples of Spinoza—the
eternal interplay of unconscious and immutable matural
laws as held by Positivists, Humists, and all modern scien-
tific materialists, after the manner of the ancient Epicureans.
How infinitely superior to all this is the Calvinistic eon-
ception of the all-penetrating and all-energizing will of the
personal Jehovah, who, being at once perfect Love and
perfect Light, constitutes and conserves our free agency,
and through its free spontaneity works continually the
ever-blessed counsel of His own will, weaving even rebel-
lious volitions into the instrumentalities of His purpose,
and making every consenting soul a conscious co-worker
with Himself.
As to the bearing of this principle upon the question of
the design of God in the application of redemption (pre-
destination), see below.
IV. The Manner in which the Divine Attributes of Be-
nevolence, Justice, and Grace are illustrated in the Scheme
of Redemption.—Arminians have generally held, with Leib-
nitz, that “justice is benevolence acting according to wis-
dom”—i.e., inflicting a lesser pain in order to effect a
greater or more general happiness. The necessity for pun-
ishment therefore lies not in the essential and inexorable de-
mands of righteousness, but in its being the best means to
secure the moral reformation of the sinner, and the best
motive to restrain the community from disobedience. Gro-
tius maintained that the moral law is a product of the Di-
vine will, and therefore capable of being relaxed by that
will. In the gospel scheme, therefore, God, in the exercise
of His sovereign prerogative, relaxes His law by forgiving
sinners upon repentance and reformation, while as an ad-
ministrative precaution He makes an exhibition of severe
suffering in the person of His Son, in order that all other
subjects of His moral government may be deterred from
making the impunity of repentant men an encouragement
to disobedience. The atonement, therefore, was an exhi-
bition solely of the Divine benevolence, but not of justice
in the ordinary sense of that word.
Calvinists, on the contrary, hold that justice as well as
benevolence is an essential and ultimate property of the
Divine nature, and hence lies back of, and determines the
character of, the Divine volitions. By the perfection of
God’s nature He is always benevolent to the innocent, and
just as certainly is He determined to punish the guilty.
In the gospel, God has sovereignly separated the sin from
the sinner in certain cases; in the vicarious penal sufferings
of His Son punishing sin in strict rigor of justice, and then
treating the believing sinner as a righteous person—that
is, as a person with regard to whom all the demands of
justice are fully satisfied. Hence He has exercised both
justice and benevolence—justice to the sin and to the law,
benevolence to the sinner; which benevolence to the unde-
Serving is sovereign grace. While Arminians in their view
of the gospel emphasize benevolence, Calvinists in their
view emphasize justice and grace.
V. The Degree of Gwilt and Moral Damage entailed
through the Apostasy of Adam atpon his Posterity.—The
answers respectively given to this question impose form
and character upon all the various systems of theology.
1.-Pelagius held that free-will (liberum arbitrium), in the
sense of an absolutely unconditioned power of choice be-
tween good and evil, is essential to responsible moral
agency, and hence inalienable from human nature. Since,
then, all men continue after the apostasy to be responsible
moral agents, their nature in this essential respect must
remain in the same condition in which it was created. The
moral agency of a man at any one moment cannot deter-
mine the character of his moral agency at any other moment,
and he possesses throughout his entire existence ability
729
to will and to do all that God has any right to require of
him. Hence Pelagians deny—(1.) All original sin or cor-
ruption of nature, because sinfulness can bo predicated only
of free acts, and man in order to be responsible must always
possess plenary ability to will aright. (2.) All original
guilt or desert of punishment common to the race, and prior
to actual transgression, since it would be a violation of
justice to hold one moral agent responsible for the wrong
volitions of another. (3.) Hence men need redemption
through Christ only to deliver them from the guilt of actual
and personal transgression, and only those need it who have
thus sinned. Those dying in infancy can be benefited by
Christ only by being raised to a higher plane of blessed-
mess—the regnum coelorum as distinguished from the vita,
aete?'na.
2. Augustinians and Calvinists, on the contrary, main-
tain—(1.) That the entire soul, with all its constitutional
faculties and acquired habits, is the organ of volition, the
agent willing...(2.) That this soul possesses the inalienable
property of Self-determination, the moral character of which
determination always depends upon the moral condition
of the soul acting. (3.) That the holy moral condition of
the soul, and hence its spontaneous disposition to will that
which is right, depends upon the indwelling of the Divine
Spirit. The free agency of God is an absolute self-existent
and self-sufficient perfection, self-determined to good and
incapable of evil. The freedom of saints and angels is de-
pendent upon Divine assistance, but, like that of God him-
self, it is the very opposite to the “liberty of indifference”
or “power to the contrary,” being a non posse peccare, a
Jºeliac necessitas boni. Adam was created in fellowship with
God, and hence with a holy tendency of heart, with full
power not to sin (posse non peccare), but also, during a
limited period of probation, with power to sin (posse pec-
care). He did sin. As a punishment, the Holy Spirit is
withdrawn from the race, and he and his descendants lost
the posse non peccare, and retained only the posse peccare,
which thus became the fatal mon posse nom peccare.
This theological doctrine of total moral inability has
nothing whatever to do with the psychological theory of
“ philosophical necessity” as an attribute of voluntary ac-
tion, which, since the time of President Edwards, has been
too frequently regarded essential to the defence of Calvin-
ism. It has been conclusively shown by Principal Cun-
ningham (Theology of the Reformers, Essay IX.) that this
metaphysical doctrine is not essential to Calvinism; while
Sir William Hamilton (Discussions, Appendix, 1, A.) and
Sir James MacIntosh (Dissertations on the Progress of Ethi-
cal Philosophy, Note 0) propose to prove that it is abso-
lutely inconsistent with Calvinism as historically taught.
The phrases “bondage of the will,” etc., so frequently
used by all classes of Augustinian theologians, and above
all by Luther in his treatise “De Servo Arbitrio,” are in-
tended to apply only to the corrupt spontaneous tendency
of fallen man to evil, which can be reversed only by a new
creating energy from above. At the same time, every Cal-
vinist holds devoutly to the free self-determination of the
soul in every moral action, and is at liberty to give what-
ever psychological explanation of that fact may seem to
him most reasonable. (See Confession of Faith, ch. 9, and
Calvin's De Servitute et Liberatione Humani Arbitrii.)
Hence Calvinists hold—First. As to original guilt. (1.)
Human sin, having originated in the free apostatizing act of
Adam, deserves God’s wrath and curse, and immutable jus-
tice demands their infliction. (2.) Such, moreover, was the
relation subsisting between Adam and his descendants that
God righteously regards and treats each one as he comes
into being as worthy of the punishment of that sin, and
consequently withdraws his life-giving fellowship from him.
Some refer this responsibility of Adam’s descendants for
his apostatizing act to a purely sovereign “ divine constitu-
tion ” (New England view); others hold that we all were in
our generic essence guilty coagents with him in that act
(Realistic view); while the common opinion is that God, as
the guardian of our interests, gave to us all the most favor-
able probation possible for beings so constituted in Adam
as our covenant representative (Federal view). The whole
race, therefore, and each individual it embraces, is under
the just condemnation of God; and hence the gift of Christ,
and the entire scheme of redemption, in its conception, ex-
ecution, and application, are throughout and in every sense
a product of sovereign grace. God was free to provide it
for few or many, for all or none, just as he pleased. And
in every case of its application the motives determining
God cannot be found in the object, but only in the good
pleasure of the will of the Divine Agent. -
Calvinists also hold—Secondly. As to original sin. (1.)
Since every man thus comes into the world in a condition of
antenatal forfeiture because of Adam’s apostasy, he is ju-
dicially excluded from the morally quickening energy of
the Holy Ghost, and hence begins to think, feel, and act
*
730
CALVINISM.
without a spontaneous bias to moral good. (2.) But since
moral obligation is positive, and the soul is essentially act-
ive, it instantly develops in action a spiritual blindness and
deadness to divine things, and a positive inclination to evil.
This involves the corruption of the whole nature, and abso-
lute impotency of the will to good, is, humanly speaking,
without remedy, and necessarily tends to the indefinite in-
crease both of depravity and of guilt. It is therefore said
to be total. Some Calvinists hold original guilt to be con-
ditioned upon original depravity (e. g., the advocates of
mediate imputation and the ea: traduce origin of souls).
Others, as the writer of this article, hold original depravity
to be the penal consequence of Adam’s apostatizing act, and
therefore to be conditioned upon original guilt (hence im-
mediate imputation and creationism). -
3. The advocates of the middle scheme have, of course,
varied very much from the almost Pelagian extreme occu-
pied by many of the Jesuits and the later Remonstrants,
to the almost Augustinian position of the Lutherans and of
the great Wesleyan Richard Watson. The Semi-pelagians
admitted that the nature of man was so far injured by the
fall that he could do nothing in his own strength morally
good in God’s sight. But they held that man is able to in-
cline himself unto good, though he is not able to effect it;
so that in every case of spiritual reformation the first move-
ment towards good is from the soul itself, while the per-
formance of it is the result of the co-operation of Divine
grace with the human will. They consequently denied the
gratia praeveniens, but admitted the gratia co-operans.
The modern Protestant Arminians (Limborch, Episco-
pius, etc.) admit original sin, while they deny original
guilt, and regard innate corruption rather as a vice or fault
of nature than as a sin in the full sense of that term. Dr.
D. D. Whedon (“Bibliotheca Sacra,” April, 1862) admits—
1. That Adam and Eve by their apostasy morally corrupted
their own nature and that of all their descendants; 2. That
every child of Adam is born with an inherent tendency to
sin which he cannot remove by his own power; 3. That Adam
and Eve were fully responsible for their apostasy, because
they sinned in spite of possessing power to the contrary,
and therefore might justly have been damned ; 4. Never-
theless, their descendants, although corrupt and prone to sin
from birth, are neither responsible nor punishable until
there has first been bestowed upon them redemptively a
gracious ability to the right; 5. After Adam sinned, there-
fore, only one alternative was open to Divine justice—either
that Adam should be punished at once without issue, or
that he should be allowed to generate seed in his own moral
likeness, when equity required that an adequate redemption
should be provided for all; 6. Hence Christ died for all
men, and sufficient grace (including gratia praeveniens and
gratia co-operans) is given to all men, which is essential to
render them responsible, and they become guilty only when
they abuse (by failing to co-operate with) that gracious
power to the contrary (posse mon pecare) which has been
conferred on them in the gospel.
Quoting the dictum of Pres. Edwards (Will, pt. 4, 31),
“The essence of the virtue or vice of dispositions of the
heart and actions of the will lies not in their cause, but in
their nature,” Whedon says: “To this we oppose the coun-
ter-maxim, that in order to responsibility for a given act or
state, power in the agent for a contrary act or state is requi-
site. In other words, power underlies responsibility.” The
only limit he allows to this principle is in the case of that
moral inability which results from the previous. abuse of
freedom by the agent himself. This he declares is the funda–
mental ground upon which all the issues between Armin-
ianism and Calvinism depend. Thus, while Calvinism ex-
alts the redemption of Christ in its execution and in each
moment of its application as an adorable act of transcend-
ent grace to the ill-deserving, Arminianism, in its last
analysis, makes it a compensation brought in by the equit-
able Governor of the world to balance the disabilities
brought upon them without their fault by the apostasy of
Adam. This difference is the practical reason that Calvin-
ism has such a strong hold upon the religious experience
of Christians, and that it finds such frequent irrepressible
expression in the hymns and prayers of evangelical Ar-
Ill Illarl S.
VI. The Nature and Necessity of that Divine Grace which
is eacercised in the Moral Recovery of Human Nature.—
Grace is free Sovereign favor to the ill-deserving. It is the
motive to redemption in the mind of God. It is exercised
in the sacrifice of His Son, in the free justification of the
believing sinner on the ground of His vicarious obedience
and sufferings, and in the total change wrought in that sin-
ner’s moral character and actions by the energy of the Holy
Ghost. While the word grace applies equally to the ob-
jective change of relations and the subjective change of
character, it is used in this connection to designate that en-
ergy of the Holy Ghost whereby the moral nature of the
human soul is renewed, and the soul, thus renewed, is en-
abled to act in compliance with the will of God. ... • ‘
Pelagius found in his system neither need nor room for
this Divine energy, except in the way of objective revela-
tions and educational and providential influences.
Semi-pelagians admitted its necessity to help man to com-
plete that which he had himself commenced, and that it is
actually given to all those who had thus prepared themselves
for it and made themselves worthy of it.
Arminians admit that it is necessary in order that the
corrupt will shall be even predisposed to good, but they re-
gard it as a compensation for the irresponsible defects of an
inherited nature, which restores the native power for either
good or evil, and which depends for its effects wholly upon
the use made of it by the soul in which it acts. This is
styled the theory of co-operation as held by the Arminians,
and of “synergism” as held by the followers of Melanch-
thon in Germany. Regeneration is the result of the co-
working of two energies, but the determining factor is the
human will. Hence grace is sufficiens in every case, and
efficaac ab eventu vel congruitate.
Augustinians and Calvinists, on the other hand, hold—
1. That, for Christ's sake, and in spite of all human de-
merit, a gracious influence is excited on the minds of all
men of various intensities. This is “common grace,” and
is a moral and suasory influence on the soul, tending to
good, restraining evil passions, and adorning the soul with
the natural virtues; which may be resisted, and is always
prevailingly resisted, by the unregenerate. 2. But at His
pleasure, in certain cases, God exerts a new creative energy,
which in a single act changes the moral character of the
will of the subject, and implants a prevailing tendency to
co-operate with future grace in all forms of holy obedience.
This is gratia efficaac, “effectual calling,” which is always
effectual because it consists in effecting a regenerative
change in the moral nature of the will itself. The change
which this grace effects is the “new heart” of Scripture,
the conversio habitualis sew passiva, of which God is the
agent and man the subject, which as a new habit of soul
lays the foundation for all holy activities. Augustine has
been followed by many in styling this grace “irresistible,”
because it cannot be resisted. But this is as incongruous
as it would be to call the creation of the world or the gen-
eration of a child irresistible. Effectual calling consists in
a new creative energy within the soul, making it willing,
upon which it spontaneously embraces Christ and turns to
God (the conversio actualis sew activa). It merges itself
into the very spontaneity of the will, and enfranchises it
from the corruption which had hitherto held it in bondage,
and restores it to its normal equilibrium, in harmony with
reason and conscience and the indwelling Spirit of God.
3. Afterwards this same Divine energy continues to sup-
port the soul, and prepare it for, and to concur with it in,
every good work. This grace is now prevailingly co-operated
with by the regenerated soul, and at times resisted, until the
status of grace is succeeded by the status of glory.
Calvinists hold that this “grace” in all its stages is purely
undeserved favor, and therefore sovereignly exercised by
God upon whom and at what times He pleases; hence it is
called gratia gratuita et gratis data, otherwise grace would
be no more grace. It also works in its various stages pro-
gressively, except in the single regenerative act. It is at
first the gratia praeveniens, then the gratia operans, then
the gratia co-operans, and finally the gratia perficiens, in-
cluding the domum perseverantiae, infallibly securing perse-
verance in faith, and obedience unto the complete redemp-
tion of soul and body in glory. -
VII. The Relation which the Eternal Plan of God bears
to the Application of Redemption to Individuals.-Predes-
tination, or the purpose of God to secure the salvation of
some men and not of all, has been popularly regarded as
the distinguishing feature of Calvinism, and one most re-
volting to the moral sense. Some Calvinists, reasoning
downward from the nature of God as absolute, and develop-
ing this doctrine in a strictly speculative manner, have
made it the foundation of their whole system. These have
necessarily conceived of it in the high and logically coherent
Supralapsarian sense, which, in a speculative point of view,
is impregnable. The vast majority of Calvinists, however,
are brought to this point by practical rather than specula-
tive considerations, such as the explicit authority of Scrip-
ture and the personal sense of absolute unworthiness and
moral impotency, and therefore of absolute dependence
upon grace. These are all willing to stop in the Infralap-
sarian view of the decree of redemption, which, if less logic-
ally complete, is nevertheless exactly conformed to all the
facts open to our inspection or embraced in our experience,
and to all the representations of Scripture. The Scriptures
never speak of God as creating men in order either to save
or damn them, nor of electing certain individuals consid–
ered merely as creatable, and then allowing them to fall in
CALVINISM. * 731
order that they might be redeemed; but they uniformly
represent God as electing His people out of the mass of
guilty sinners, and then as providing redemption for them
in order to carry out the purpose of election. Arminians
maintain that this decree of election is conditioned on God’s
foresight of faith and repentance; but Calvinists insist that
if faith and repentance are the gifts of God and the fruits
of His Spirit, they cannot be the conditions upon which
election is suspended, but rather its predetermined and
graciously effected results. Augustine held the Infralap-
sarian scheme. The position of Calvin has been disputed.
Beza, his successor in Geneva; Gomarus and Voetius, the
great opponents of the Remonstrants of Holland; Twiss,
the prolocutor of the Westminster Assembly, have been the
most conspicuous advocates of Supralapsarianism. On the
other hand, the canons of the Synod of Dort (1619), the
Confession and Catechisms of the Westminster Assembly
(1648), the Formula Consensus Helvetica (1675), and the
vast majority of Calvinists, ancient and modern, are de-
cided Infralapsarians.
Gottschalk (848–868) insisted much upon a predestinatio
duplea of the elect to salvation and of the reprobate to
damnation, and this view has often been offensively in-
sisted upon as essential to Calvinism by its enemies. It is,
however, a gratuitous assumption and without scrip-
tural warrant, and not taught in the recognized standards
of Calvinism. God positively decrees grace, and thus pro:
duces all that is good. . He only determines the permission
of sin, and punishes it because he forbids and in every way
morally discountenances it. He elects of free grace all
those he purposes to save, and actually saves them, while
those whom he does not elect are simply left under the
operation of the law of exact justice, whatever that may be.
Archbishop Whately, himself an Arminian, in his “Essays
on Some of the Difficulties in the Writings of the Apostle
Paul,” honorably admits that the apparent harshness of
Calvinism lies in the facts of the case as admitted by all
Christians. All infants, idiots, and all believers in Christ
are saved by grace—all others are left to the operation of
pure justice. It is obvious that all who are born, sin and
die, that all do not believe, and that all are not saved.
Calvinistic “particularism" admits the actual results of
salvation in their widest scope, and refers all to the gracious
purpose and power of God, but does not restrict it one iota
within the limits determined by the facts themselves. -
B. The History of Calvinism.—Pantheism, which is the only
philosophical basis of polytheism (in the forms of Booddh-
ism, Brahmanism, and underlying all forms of Greek
philosophy), and the Dualism of Zoroaster (which was re-
vived in the second and third centuries in a Christianized
form in the various systems of the Gnostics and Manichaeans),
together constituted the substratum of all ancient philos-
ophies and religions. All such systems were consequently
essentially fatalistic, and made sin either an essential attri-
bute of an eternal self-existent Principle, or a necessary
condition of the etermal evolution of the infinite and abso-
lute into the finite and contingent. In necessary antagon-
ism to these fundamental heresies, the early Fathers, espe-
cially Origen and all his colleagues and followers of the Alex-
andrian school from the reaction of Neo Platonism (200–350
A.D.), were led in a very unqualified manner to insist upon
the independent, self-determining power of the human will,
and to maintain that sin is the product of that freedom
abused. They universally held that human nature was
morally ruined by Adam’s sin, and that it was redeemed
by the blood and restored by the Spirit of Christ; but they
conceived of these great principles in a crude and indefinite
manner, without determining their relations to each other.
All the ancient Fathers were induced to render special at-
tention to the defence of human self-determining power as
the basis of responsibility. As a general fact, the Greeks
were specially distinguished for emphasizing the autocracy
of the will, without denying the need of grace, while the
Latins especially emphasized inherited depravity, without
denying the freedom of the will. And the anthropology
of the Greek Church has continued to preserve the same
characteristics to the present day (Athanasius, Earpos. in
Psalmos, Ps. 1. 7 ; Orthodox Confession of Peter Mogilas,
1642). On the other hand, there was during the third cem-
tury a marked tendency in the Latin Church to more pro-
found views as to the moral and spiritual nature and rela-
tions of man. This characteristic was developed most
obviously in Tertullian of Carthage (220 A.D.), who taught
the propagation (eac traduce) of a corrupt mature from
Adam to each of his descendants; in Hillary of Poietiers
(368); and in Ambrose of Milan (397), the most explicit
defender in that age of the sovereignty of God and the
moral impotence of man, and the immediate teacher of
Augustine. But the “history” of all systematic theology
properly commences with the great controversy of Augustine
and Pelagius in the first quarter of the fifth-century. On
the one hand we have Augustine (354–430), a native of •
Tagaste, in Numidia, the son of a heathen father and of
the sainted Monica, in turn a prodigal, unbeliever, Mani-
chaean, Platonist, disciple of Ambrose, Christian of pro-
found experience, preacher and teacher of transcendent
genius, bishop of Hippo Regius from 395 to 430, and the
greatest theologian of all time. On the other hand we have
Pelagius (Morgan), a British monk, student of the Greek
Fathers, a man of pure life, clear, practical intellect, and
earnest zeal for the moral interests of human life. He was
the moral author of the system which bears his name, while
its intellectual constructor was Coelestius, a youthful Roman
advocate; and its most effective advocate was Julian, the
deposed bishop of Eclanum, in Campania. The opinions
of Pelagius were universally condemned by the whole
Church, Eastern and Western, at the councils held at Car-
thage, 407 and 416 A. D., at the council at Mileve, 416 A.D.,
by the popes Innocent and Zosimus, and by the oecumenical
council held at Ephesus, 431 A. D. This rapid and univer-
sal condemnation of Pelagianism, after making all due
allowance for extraneous influences, proves that, however
indefinite the views of the ancient Greek Fathers may have
been, nevertheless the system taught by Augustine was in
all essentials the common and original faith of the Church.
In the history of the entire Church to the present moment,
Pelagianism has been never adopted into the public creed
of any ecclesiastical body except that of the Socinians
(Racovian Catechism, 1605), and it has prevailed practically
only among Rationalists, whose Christianity was disente-
grating into Deism. -
In the mean time, John Cassian, a disciple of Chrysostom,
abbot of the monastery at Marseilles, brought into promi-
nence the middle system of compromise, whose advocates
were at first styled Massilians; during the Middle Ages and
at present in the Romish Church, Semi-pelagians; among
Lutherans, Synergists; and among the Reformed, Armin-
ians. His most influential supporters and followers were
Vincentius of Lerinum (434), Faustus, bishop of Rhegium
(475), Gennadius, and Arnobius; and his opinions pre-
vailed in France for a long time, and were confirmed by the
provincial synods of Arles (472) and of Lyons (475). -
Against this party. Augustine wrote his great works “De
IPraedestinatione Sanctorum,” and “De Dono Perseveran-
tiae,” and he was ably represented by Prosper and Hilarius,
and the unknown author of the great work “De Vocatione
Omnium Gentium,” ascribed to Pope Leo I. (461); by Avitus,
archbishop of Vienne (490–523), Caesarius, archbishop of
Arles (502-542), and by Fulgentius of Ruspe (1533). Semi-
pelagianism was condemned by the decree of Pope Gelasius
(496), and finally in the synods of Orange and Valence
(529), which were confirmed by the edict of Pope Boniface
(530); from which time a moderate form of Augustinian-
ism became the recognized orthodoxy of the entire Western
Church. It was taught by Gregory the Great, and held by
the emperor Charlemagne, the two persons who exerted
the greatest influence in the reconstruction of Europe at
the commencement of the Middle Ages. It was held through-
out those ages by all the greatest Church teachers and or-
naments, as the Venerable Bede (673-735), Alcuin (804), and
Claudius of Turin (839). The history of the persecution
and condemnation of Gottschalk, under the influence of
Rabanus Maurus and Hinckmar, with which Scotus Erigena
was involved (about 850), prove beyond question that the
entire Church of that age, and even the part most opposed
to Gottschalk, was agreed in adopting the Augustinian
system (as they understood it), and all the consequences
that flowed from it. (Neander.) All the most illustrious
teachers of the scholastic age, making allowance for the
extravagance of many of their speculations, were disciples of
Augustine; as, for example, Anselm, archbishop of Canter-
bury (910); St. Bernard, bishop of Clairvaux (1140); Peter
Lombard, “Magister Sententiarum;” Hugo de St. Victor;
and, above all, Thomas Aquinas, “Doctor Angelicus” (1247),
and Thomas Bradwardine, archbishop of Canterbury (1348).
The Dominicans as a class followed Aquinas, while the
Franciscans followed their champion, Duns Scotus (1265),
“Doctor Subtilis,” and in that age the ablest advocate of
Semi-pelagianism. The controversies then revived have
continued to agitate the Romish Church up to the present
time, when they have been annihilated by the capitulation
of the whole body to the Jesuits in the Council of the Wat-
ican (1870). The Council of Trent (1546) attempted to
satisfy both parties by indefinite decrees, and accordingly
both Augustinians and Semi-pelagians, Thomists and Scot-
ists, have claimed that their respective views were sanctioned.
The truth is, that while the general statements of doctrines
which are to be found among the canons are Augustinian
in form, the more detailed explanations which follow are
uniformly Semi-pelagian in sense. The Jesuit society,
whose doctrines and casuistry have been signally ventilated
in the “Provincial Letters” of the, immortal Pascal, has
t
732
CALVINISM.
always advocated Semi-pelagianism. The illustrious gen-
tlemen of Port Royal, Paris, called Jansenists from Jan-
senius, bishop of Ypres (Tillemont, Arnauld, Nicole, Pas-
cal, Quesnel, etc.), were at the same time devout Catho-
lics, and in the matters of grace and predestination earn-
est Calvinists. They were persecuted by the Jesuits, and
finally outlawed by the bulls of Popes Innocent X. and
Alexander VII. (1653 and 1656 A.D.), and of Clement XI.
(1713). By the suicidal action of the CEcumenical Council
of the Vatican (1870) all Scripture, traditions, canons of
councils, and classical theology have been superseded by the
plenary inspiration of a pope who in turn is a creature of
the Society of Jesus. Thus at last Popery has become
definitely Semi-pelagian. -
All the great evangelical teachers and forerunners of the
Reformers in the century immediately preceding the Re-
formation were decided Augustinians (Neander’s Hist. Doc.,
vol. ii., p. 609). This is most conspicuously true of Wick-
liffe (1384), Jerome of Prague, John Huss (1415), John of
Goch (1475), John of Wesalia, Jerome Savonarola, a Domi-
nican (1498), John Wessel (1499), “the Light of the World,”
and his disciple, the great Grecian, John Reuchlin, in his
turn the teacher of Melanchthon, and Staupitz, vicar-general
of the Augustines and the spiritual teacher of Luther.
All of the great national Reformers, Zwingle of Switz-
erland, Luther of Germany, Calvin of France, Cranmer of
England, and Knox of Scotland, although each movement
was self-originated and different from the others in many
permanent characteristics, were alike strictly Calvinistic.
The complete agreement of Zwingle with what was after-
wards called Calvinism on the point of absolute predesti-
nation, although denied by Mosheim and Milner, is beyond
question. (See his work “De Providentia Dei,” written
when Calvin was twenty years old; also Scott’s “Continua-
tion of Milner,” vol. iii., p. 142–231; Neander’s “Christ.
Doc.,” vol ii., p. 668; and, Cunningham’s “Theology of the
Reformers,” Essay W.) That Luther agreed with Calvin
on all points considered characteristic of his system, with
the exception of the sacraments, is demonstrated by his
great work, “De Servo Arbitrio’’ (1525), written against
the “De Libero Arbitrio” of Erasmus, the sentiments of
which were never retracted, and are obviously in harmony
with all his religious opinions in their entirety. Melanch-
thon, in the earliest editions of his. “Loci Communes”
(1521), took extreme ground as to the moral impotence of
the human will and absolute predestination, which, how-
ever, he gradually and radically modified in subsequent edi-
tions, until he finally assumed Synergistic or Arminian
ground. The personal followers of Melanchthon excited the
strong opposition of the stricter Lutherans, and the struggle
came to an explosion in the Weimar Confutation (1558).
The result was the triumph of the stricter party, who left
to posterity that grandest monument of Lutheran symbol-
ism, the “Formula Concordae '' (1580). The system here
presented agrees in all its deepest positions with Calvinism
as presented in this paper. It differs from it (a) by making
the sacrament of baptism the efficient means by which ordi-
marily regeneration is effected; (b) by making the difference
between the saved and the lost to be ultimately determined
by the “non-resistance” to grace of the former in contrast
with the resistance of the latter. In all other respects, as
to the guilt, pollution, and helplessness of the condition
into which all children are born, as to justification, and the
necessity and the efficacy of regenerating and sanctifying
grace, it is one with Calvinism. -
By far the greatest of the Reformers, viewed either as a
theologian, an interpreter of Scripture, as a social organizer,
and founder of churches and republics, was John Calvin.
His “Institutes” (1530), written when he was twenty-seven
years old, the first and grandest work of systematic di-
vinity the world has seen, has recast Augustinianism in its
final Protestant form, and handed it over to the modern
world stamped with its great author's name. His “Com-
Imentaries” are acknowledged by the most advanced mod-
ern scholars of every school to be upon the whole the ablest
and most complete work of the kind ever achieved by a
single hand. His “Tractatus” consists of various contro-
versial treatises in defence of the truth, and his “Epistolae’’
consist of his voluminous correspondence with princes,
nobles and commoners, statesmen and churchmen in every
part of the Protestant world, concerning the important
movements then revolutionizing Europe, both in Church
and State. By him Calvinism and its correlates, Presby-
terianism in the Church and republicanism in the State,
were not invented, but advocated and disseminated with
transcendent ability and success. His doctrines have been
most consistently developed and illustrated in the writings
of such men as Bullinger, Martin Bucer, Theodore Beza,
Diodati, Heidegger, Turretin, Cocceius, Witsius, Vitringa,
Markius, De Moor, Pictet, John Owen, and Jonathan Ed-
wards; in the deliverance of the international Synod of
Dort (1618–19), of the national Assembly of Westminster
(1648), of the French synods of Charenton and Alez, and
in the following creeds and confessions of the Church: The
Creed of the Waldensian pastors at Angrogne (1532), the
two Helyetic, the Gallic, Belgic, and Scotch Confessions, the
Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England, the Lambeth
Articles (1595), the Articles of Religion of the Dublin Con-
vocation (1615), the Heidelberg Catechism, the Savoy Con-
fession of the English (1658), and the Boston Confession
(1680) of the American Independents. Calvinism is pro-
fessed by all those Protestants of Germany who embrace the
Heidelberg Catechism, the national (Protestant) churches
of France, Switzerland, Holland, England, and Scotland,
the Independents and Baptists of England and America,
and the various branches of the the Presbyterian Church
in England, Ireland, and America, in all about thirty-six
millions of adherents, if the Episcopal churches are in-
cluded. From the time of Archbishop Laud (1644) a large
proportion of the clergy and influential writers of the Epis-
copal churches have been Arminian, and it has eyen been
disputed whether the Church of England was originally
Calvinistic or not. The fact that the founders and leading
ministers of that Church were thorough Calvinists during
the first hundred years of its history, and that its creed
remains such to this day, is as certain and as conspicuous
as any other fact in the history of mankind. The seven-
teenth article, “On Predestination,” corresponds in spirit,
design, and expression with all the other Calvinistic creeds
in the world. Tyndal, Frith, Barnes, who suffered under
Henry VIII.; Hooper, Latimer, Ridley, who suffered under
Bloody Mary; Cranmer, the real author, and Jewel, who gave
the finishing touch to the Thirty-nine Articles, were all Cal-
vinists. Jewel wrote to Peter Martyr of Zurich, “We do
not differ from your doctrine by a hair's breadth.” Cran-
mer put Martin Bucer and Peter Martyr into the divinity
chairs of Oxford and Cambridge. “The same is proved
by the whole history of the proceedings connected with the
Lambeth Articles, the cases of Baro and Barret (1595), the
Irish Articles (1615), and the Synod of Dort (1619).” (Cun-
mingham.) The sources of information, and the arguments
on both sides of this controversy, may be found in the
“Works of the Parker Society,” Richmond’s “Fathers of the
English Church,” the “Zurich Letters,” the works of Hey-
lin, Winchester, Daubeny, Tomline, and Lawrence on the
Arminian side, and the works of Prynne, Hickman, Top-
lady, Overton, Goode, and Principal Cunningham on the
Calvinistic side.
Over this vast area of time, and under all these various
conditions of national and ecclesiastical life, Calvinism pre-
serves its essential identity as a system of theological prin-
ciples. It has, of course, undergone within these limits
very various modifications as to details of structure and
modes of statement. In Germany it has been rendered
less thorough and definite through the influence of the com-
promising school of Melanchthon. In Holland, England,
and Scotland it has been modified in form by the “Federal
Scheme * introduced by Cocceius and the Westminster di-
vines (1650). In France it was temporarily modified by the
“ Universalismus Hypotheticus,” or the universal impetra-
tion and limited application of redemption (1642), as held
by Amyraldus, Daillé, and Placeus on the Continent, and
by Baxter, Davenant, and in modern times by Wardlaw and
others, in England. In America, it has been coerced through
more radical and more transient transformations in the
speculations of Hopkins, the younger Edwards, Emmons,
N. W. Taylor, and others of the New England school.
C. The Practical Effects of Calvinism on Personal Moral
Character, and wipon the Social and Political Interests of
Men.—From the time of Coelestius and Julian, in the fifth
century, to that of Heylin (1659) and Tomline (1811), the
a priori objection has always been brought against Calvin-
ism that its principles are necessarily immoral, and must
lead either to licentious liberty or to abject subserviency, to
discouragement in the use of means, and to undue dispar-
agement and neglect of human reason. It is argued that
the doctrine of the absolute moral impotence of man’s will
must destroy all sense of accountability, and that the doc- .
trine of absolute decrees must cause the use of means to ap-
pear either unnecessary or ineffectual, and to lead to despair
upon the one hand, or to licentiousness upon the other.
The advocates of Calvinism have triumphantly vindicated
the moral character of their system in two ways: 1st, on
the ground of reason. The recognition of the true (i.e.,
actual) condition of man’s mature and relations to God, as
this is revealed in Scripture and experience, must be more
moral in its effect than the most skillful misrepresentation
Fº of that actual condition can be. The historian
roude, himself held by no trammels of sect or party, says
in his late address at St. Andrew’s (1871): “If Arminianism
most commends itself to our feelings, Calvinism is nearer to
the facts, however harsh or forbidding those facts may
, CALVINISM.
733
seem.” Archbishop Whately, himself an Arminian (in his
essay, on “Some of the Difficulties in the Writings of St.
Paul”), acknowledges that the ordinary objections against
the moral attributes of Calvinism are in effect objections to
the open facts of the case. That standard of morals which
places: the ground of obligation in the supreme will of the
All-perfect, instead of a tendency to promote happiness,
and which utterly condemns fallen man, is obviously higher,
and therefore more moral, than a more self-pleasing one
which either justifies or excuses him. The system which
teaches the total depravity and guiltiness of human nature
from birth, its absolute dependence upon Divine grace, to-
gether with the universal sweep of God’s absolute decrees,
at once maintaining the free agency of man and the infal-
libility of the Divine purpose, must of course empty man
of self, make all men equal before the law, and exalt the all-
wise and all-powerful Father to the control of all events;
such a system must make the highest attainments the con-
dition and the fruit of God's favor, and must raise even the
weakest believer to the position of an invincible champion
for God and the right, “a co-worker together with God.”
2d, In the second place, Calvinists claim that on the ground
of an illustrious and unparalleled historical record they can
show that their system has been eminently distinguished by
the effects produced by it upon all the communities which
have embraced it in its purer forms, as to the following par-
ticulars: (a) the general standard of moral character prac-
tically realized in personal and social life; (b) the amount
of rationally regulated liberty realized both in Church and
State; (c) the standard of popular intelligence and educa-
tion actually attained; (d) the testimony yielded to the
power of the truth by the number and illustrious character
of its martyrs; and (e) the zeal and devotion expressed in
sustained missionary efforts for the extension of the king-
dom of Christ.
1st. As to the influence of Calvinism on the moral cha-
racter of individuals, it is only necessary here to quote the
ex-rector Froude's citation of the names of “William the
Silent, Luther, Calvin, Knox, Andrew Melville, the regent
Murray, Coligny, Cromwell, Milton, John Bunyan—men
possessed of all the qualities which give nobility and
grandeur to human nature.” As to its effect upon the
general moral character of communities, it will be sufficient
to cite the Waldensians; the little radiant state of Geneva,
whose Protestant reconstruction began with the establish-
ment of a Court of Morals; the Huguenots, as compared with
their Catholic fellow-citizens; the Jansenists, as compared
with the Jesuits; the Dutch Protestants prior to the latter
half of the seventeenth century; the Scotch Covenanters;
the English Puritans, whose very name signalizes their emi-
ment moral character, in contrast with the unparalleled cor-
ruption brought in at the Restoration in association with
the ecclesiastical revolution effected by the despot Laud
(see Macaulay’s “Essays on Milton’ and Hallam’s “Con-
stitutional History”); and finally, all those sections of
America settled by English Puritan New Englanders, by
the Scotch and Scotch-Irish, and by Presbyterians from
France and Holland.
Mr. Froude (Address, p. 7) says: “The first symptom of
its operation, wherever it established itself, was to oblit-
erate the distinction between sins and crimes, and to make
the moral law the rule for states as well as persons.” Pas-
cal, the sublime avenger of the persecuted religionists of
Port Royal, shows in the first nine of his “Provincial Let-
ters ” the connection between the infamous morality of the
Jesuits and their Semi-pelagian views as to sin and grace.
Sir James MacIntosh, in vol. xxxvi. of the “Edinburgh Re-
view,” vindicates at length the morality of the theological
doctrine of predestination by a general review of the his-
tory of its most conspicuous professors. -
2d. It appears superfluous to prove the tendency of Cal-
vinism to promote freedom and popular government, both
in Church and State. Its principles strip the ministry of
all Sacerdotal powers; they make all men and all Christians
equal before God; they make God absolute and supreme
over all, and the immediate controller and disposer of hu-
man affairs. Hence all churches accepting Calvinism, un-
less prevented by external conditions, have immediately
adopted popular constitutions, either Presbyterian or Inde-
pendent. This is true of all the churches of Switzerland,
France, Holland, the Palatinate, Scotland, America, and the
free churches of England and Ireland. The apparent ex-
ception is the English Establishment. The history of its
political relations explains its prelatical character. Cran-
mer and the other Calvinistic founders of that Church held,
as did Archbishop Usher, a very moderate theory of the
espiscopate, and submitted to the constitution actually es-
tablished only for state reasons. Afterwards, as Calvinism
became more thoroughly incorporated in the public faith,
Presbyterianism was established by the Long Parliament,
and Independency by the Puritan army and Protector. It
is a conspicuous fact of English history that high views
as to the prerogatives of the ministry have always an-
tagonized Calvinistic doctrine. * .
The political influence of Calvinism was at an early pe-
riod discerned by kings as well as by the people. The
Waldenses were the freemen of the ante-Reformation pe-
riod. The republic was established at the same time with
Presbytery at Geneva. The Hollanders, grouped around
the sublime figure of William the Silent (Calvus et Calvin–
ista), performed deeds of heroism against odds of tyranny
unparalleled utterly in all foregoing and subsequent his-
tory. This battle was fought by Calvinistic Holland, and
the victory won (1590) completely before the Arminian
controversies had commenced. Add to these the French
Huguenots, the Scotch Covenanters, the English Puritans in
the Old and in the New World, and we make good our claim
that Calvinists have been successful champions of regu-
lated freedom among men. -
Bancroft, the historian of our republic, attributes over
and over again the modern impulse to republican liberty to
the little republic of Geneva and to its Calvinistic theology
(vol. i., 266; ii., 461–464). He credits the moulding of .
American institutions chiefly to New England Independ-
ents, and to Dutch, French, and Scotch-Irish Presbyterians.
“The Mecklenburg Declaration, signed on the 20th of
May, 1775, more than a year before that of July 4, 1776,
signed in Philadelphia, was the first voice publicly raised
for American independence. And the convention by which
it was adopted and signed consisted of twenty-seven dele-
gates, nine of whom, including the president and secretary,
were ruling elders, and one, Rev. H. J. Balch, was a Pres-
byterian minister.” Tucker, in his life of Jefferson, says:
“Every one must be persuaded that one of these papers
must have been borrowed from the other;” and Bancroft
has made it certain that the Declaration of Jefferson was
written a year after that of Mecklenburg. The corro-
spondence between the representative system and the grada-
tions of sessions, presbyteries, provincial synods, and na-
tional general assemblies, developed in the Westminster
Confession, to the federal system of State and national gov-
ernments in the Constitution of the United States, is too
remarkable to have been accidental.
3d. The relation of Calvinism to education is no less con-
spicuous and illustrious. The little republic of Geneva be-
came the sum of the European world. The Calvinists of
France, in spite of all their embarrassments, immediately
founded and sustained three illustrious theological schools at
Montauban, Saumur, and Sedan. The Huguenots so far sur-
passed their fellow-countrymen in intelligence and skill that
their banishment on the occasion of the Revocation of the
Edict of Nantes (1685) quickened the manufactures and
trades of Germany, England, and America, and for a time
almost paralyzed the skilled industries of France. (See
Weiss's “History French Protestant Refugees.”) The frag-
ment of marshy sea-coast constituting Holland became the
commercial focus of the world, one of the most powerful
communities in the society of nations, and the mother of
flourishing colonies in both hemispheres. The peasantry of
Scotland has been raised far above that of any other Eu-
ropean nation by the universal education afforded by her
parish schools. The common-school system of Puritan
New England is opening up a new era of human history.
In this country, for the first two hundred years of its his–
tory, “almost every college and seminary of learning, and
almost every academy and common School even, which ex-
isted, had been built up and sustained by Calvinists.” (See
“New Englander,” October, 1845.)
4th. The martyrology of Calvinism is pre-eminent in the
history even of the entire Church. We call to witness John
Huss and Jerome of Prague, who perished for their adhe-
rence to this faith one hundred years before Luther. The
Waldenses, of whom were the “slaughtered saints whose
bones lie scattered on the Alpine mountains cold,” the vic-
tims of the reign of “Bloody Mary,” John Rodgers and Bish-
ops Hooper, Ferrar, Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer, and their
fellow-martyrs, were all Calvinists, as well as Hamilton
and Wishart, the victims of Claverhouse and the “Rilling
Time” of I684 in Scotland, and the victims of the High
Commission and of the “Bloody Assizes” of England (1685).
Under Charles W. and Philip of Spain, Holland had been
made a spectacle to all nations by her sufferings, and had
surpassed all other Christian communities with the number
and steadfastness of her martyrs. When the duke of Alva
left the Netherlands, December, 1573, he boasted that within
five years he had delivered eighteen thousand six hundred
heretics to the executioner. (Motley’s “Rise of the Dutch
Republic,” vol. ii., p. 497.), Moreover, Calvinists claim the
victims of the Inquisition in Spain and Italy; the history.
of the Huguenots of France, from the martyr-doom of Le-
clerc (1523) to the promulgation of the Edict of Nantes,
1598; the victims of the unparalleled atrocity of the mas-
734
CALVINISTIC METHODISTS-CALYX.
sacre of St. Bartholomew, August 22, 1572, when some
fifty thousand princes, noblemen, and commoners perished
at one time by the hand of assassins; and all the hundreds
of thousands of the very flower of Franáe who fell victims
either to the wars which raged with comparatively short
exceptions from the Reformation to 1685, or to the dra-
goonings, the galleys, and the expatriation which preceded
and followed that dreadful time.
5th. Calvinism has been proved an eminent incentive to
all missionary enterprises, domestic and foreign. It is, of
course, acknowledged that several Christian bodies not
characterized by what are generally regarded as the pecu-
liarities of Calvinism have been in the highest degree dis-
tinguished by missionary zeal and efficiency. The most
remarkable instances of this kind have been the Nestorians
in Western and Central Asia from the fifth to the ninth
century, the Moravians from 1732, and the Wesleyan Meth-
odists from about 1769 to the present time. These bodies
(except the Nestorian) may be said to be eminently evan-
gelical and Augustinian in the general usage of that term,
nearly agreeing with the Calvinism set forth in this article
in its most essential principles of total depravity, moral
inability, and dependence upon divine grace. And it is ob-
vious that these evangelical principles, common to these
great missionary churches, with others whose Augustinian-
ism is more pronounced, must supply the strongest incen-
tives and encouragements possible to urge all Christians to
the rescue of their perishing fellow-men.
. In the early Church, St. Patrick, the missionary of Ire-
land, fifth century; Augustine, the missionary of Gregory
the Great to England; and Columba, and his missionary
college at Iona in the Hebrides, and his disciples the Cul-
dees, in the sixth century, as well as the Lollards, the fol-
lowers of Wickliffe, in the fourteenth century, were all of
the general school of St. Augustine. In 1555, through Ad-
miral Coligny, Calvin sent two ministers to the heathen in
Brazil. Cromwell in the next century proposed to appoint
a council to promote the Protestant religion in opposition
to the congregation De Propaganda Fide in Rome. One
of the principal objects of the promoters of the Plymouth
and Massachusetts colonies was the conversion of savages
and the extension of the Church. The charter of the “So-
ciety for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts”
was granted by the Calvinistic prince William III. As to
the number of missionaries to the heathen employed by
the different branches of the Protestant Church at present,
the following may be regarded as a fair statement as to the
proportion of the several confessions in England and
America and on the Continent: Congregational, including
the Baptists (all Calvinists), about 400; Episcopal, a
majority of those supporting missions being of the Evan-
gelical school, and many of these being Calvinists, about
310; Presbyterians, about 430; Moravians, about 160;
Methodists, about 300. -
D. Literature.—This is so immeasurable that only a few
books of the greatest interest from the stand-point of this
article will be mentioned: “S. Aurelii Augustini Hippo-
nensis episcopi Opera,” of different editions, especially his
Anti-pelagian writings collected in the the tenth tome of
Ed. Bened, Par. 1690; “The Works of John Calvin,” espe-
cially his “Institutes,” his “Consensus Genevensis,” and
his “Letters,” by Bonnet; “The Treatise on Predestina-
tion,” by Moses Amyraldus, Saumur, 1634, and his “An-
swer to Hoard’s “Doctrinae J. Calvin Defensio;” “The
Works of John Owen,” Edinburgh, 1850; “The Institutes
of Theology” of Francis Turretin, Geneva, 1682; “Col-
lectio Confessionum in Ecclesiis Reformatis Publicatarum,”
Niemeyer, and “Libri Symbolici Ecclesiae Evangelicae sive
Concordia,” Hase; Wigger’s “Historical Presentations of
Augustinianism and Pelagianism,” translated by Ralph
Emerson; “The Works of the Parker Society,” 1841–55;
Mozley’s “Treatise on the Augustinian Doctrine of Pre-
destination ;” Goode’s “Vindication of the Defence of the
Thirty-nine Articles,” and his “Effects of Infant Baptism;”
“The Works of Jonathan Edwards;” “The Reformers and
the Theology of the Reformation,” and “IHistorical The-
ology,” by William Cunningham, D. D.; “Calvinism,” an
address by James Anthony Froude, M. A., delivered at St.
Andrew’s, March 17, 1871; “History of the Christian Re-
ligion and Church,” by Augustus Neander, translated by
Torrey; Neander’s “History of Christian Dogmas,” trans-
lated by Ryland; “History of the Christian Church,” by
Philip Schaff, D. D.; Pascal’s “Provincial Letters,” trans-
lated by Thomas McCrie, D. D.; Motley’s “History of the
Rise of the Dutch Republic;” Neal’s “History of the Puri-
tans;” Macaulay’s “History of England” and “Miscel-
Ianies;” “Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philos-
ophy,” note 0, included in the miscellaneous works of Sir
James MacIntosh ;” “Our Theology and its Developments,”
by Dr. E. P. Humphrey, Presbyterian Board of Publica-
tion ; “Comparative Influence of Calvinism and Arminian-
ism on Civil Liberty;” “The New Englander,” Oct., 1845;
Bancroft’s “History of the U. S.” (See also the article
ARMINIUS, ARMINIANISM, by D. D. WHEDON, D. D., LL.D.)
A. A. HoDGE.
Calvinistic Methodists, in Great Britain, are in
three divisions: (1) “Whitefield’s Connection,” dating from
1741; (2) “Lady Huntingdom’s Connection,” dating from
1748; (3) “Welsh Methodists,” from about 1750.
Cal’vy, a post-village and township of Franklin co.,
Mo., about 55 miles E. S. E. of Jefferson City. Pop. 2100.
Calx (gen. calcis), the Latin name of quicklime, was
applied by the alchemists to many products of combustion
or oxidation, especially to those obtained from metals and
other minerals, which were supposed to be converted into
earths.
Calycan'thus [from the Gr. KáAvē, a “cup,” and &v60s,
a “flower;” the bottom of the flower being cup-shaped], a
genus of plants of the order Calycanthaceae, allied to
Rosaceae. It comprises only a few known species, which
are natives of the U. S. and Japan, and are shrubs with
square stems. The flowers, bark, and leaves are fragrant
and aromatic. The Calycanthus floridus, a native of Caro-
lina, called Carolina allspice and sweet-scented shrub, is
cultivated in many gardens of the U. S. Its flowers are of
a lurid purple or rich-brown color.
Cai’ydon [Gr. Kaavöövl, an ancient and celebrated city
of AEtolia, on the river Evenus, a few miles from its en-
trance into the sea. It is often mentioned by Homer, and
continued to be an important city in the historical period.
Calydo’nian Hunt, The, in classic mythology, was
a celebrated enterprise against a wild boar which ravaged
the dominions of OEneus, king of Calydon. Among the
heroes who took part in this hunt were Meleager, Theseus,
Jason, and Nestor.
Calym/ene, a genus of fossil trilobites, which is distin-
º º faculty which the animal
Sº º * had of rolling itself up into
ſ |ſ. `
º)
guished from the other
Sºlº genera of that order by the
º
ū
º a ball, in which form they
\ \\y\\ are often found. This ge-
tº ºr
º Calymene Blumenbachii,
sometimes called “Dudley
locust,” is remarkable as .
a long-surviving species which is found in beds of several
successive periods in England and the U. S.
Calyp’so [Gr. Kaxviltà), a beautiful nymph and demi-
goddess of classic mythology, who was, according to Homer,
a daughter of Atlas. She reigned over the island of Ogygia,
on which Ulysses landed after he had been shipwrecked.
She treated him kindly, and tempted him to marry her with
the promise of immortality, which he declined for the sake
of Penelope.
Calyp’so Borea’lis, a rare and beautiful plant of the
natural order Orchidaceae, growing in cold bogs and wet
woods of the Northern U. S. and Canada. The flower is
variegated with purple, pink, and yellow. It has a single,
nearly, heart-shaped leaf.
Calypſtra, the hood which covers the urnlike spore-
case of certain mosses.
Calyptrae'a [Gr. kaxºn'tpa, a “head-dress or veil”], a
genus of gasteropod mollusks, the type of a family, Calyp-
traeidae, formerly included in the genus Patella, or limpet,
and still known as chambered limpets, bonnet limpets, and
slipper limpets. The shell is limpet-shaped, but the apex is
spiral, and has a calcareous process from its inner surface
for the attachment of a muscle. The Calyptraeidae differ in
shape, some being very flat, and others very conical; some
are elongated and slipper-like. The species are generally
natives of the shores of warm climates. Calyptraeidae are
common in the older fossiliferous rocks. Fifty living spe-
cies are known.
Ca/lyx, plu. Cal’yces [Gr, káAvē, a “cup;” Fr. calice],
a botanical term applied to the flower-cup, which is the
outermost of the proper floral envelopes, or of the circles
of modified leaves which surround the organs of reproduc-
tion, and along with them constitute the flower. The leaves
or separate parts of the calyx are called sepals. They are.
generally green, but in some cases are richly colored and
Žetaloid, as in the Mirabilis, Salvia splendens, and Fuchsia.
The calyx serves to protect the interior organs of the flower.
If it falls off before the corolla, it is called caducows, and
if it remains until the fruit is ripe it is called persistent.
When the calyx is adherent to the sides of the ovary, it is
superior, and when quite free from the sides of the ovary,
it is inferior.
Calymene Blumenbachii.


CAM—CAMBODIA.
735
Cam', or Granta, a river of England, rises in Essex,
flows north-eastward through Cambridgeshire, and enters
the Ouse 3% miles above Ely. Length, about 40 miles. It
is navigable from its mouth to Cambridge, which derives
its name from it. The Cam is considered as a classic
stream, on account of its associations with Cambridge
University. &
Cam, or Camb, in machinery, is a contrivance for
converting a uniform rotatory motion into a varied rec-
tilinear motion. The end of a rod which is free to move
only in the direction of its length is held in contact, by
the action of a spring or weight, with the edge of an ir-
regularly-shaped mass which revolves uniformly upon an
axis. A varied motion is thus communicated to the rod,
which carries with it the machinery by which the motion
is to be applied.
Cam (Drogo), a Portuguese navigator who in 1484 ex-
plored the W. coast of Africa. S. of the equator.
Camaieu. See CAMAYEU.
Camaldulem’sians, or Camal'dolites, an order
of monks founded about 1018 by Saint Romuald at Camal-
doli, in the Apennines, about 30 miles from Florence.
They are divided into two classes—Caenobites and Ere-
mites—and follow the rule of Saint Benedict. There are
also a few houses of Camaldolite nuns.
Caman/che, a post-village of Clinton co., Ia., on the
Mississippi River, about 35 miles above Davenport. It
is on a railroad which extends from Clinton to the Mis-
souri River, and is 5 miles S. W. of Clinton. Pop. 840;
of Camanche township, 1453.
Camanche Indians. See CoMANCHE INDIANs. .
Camar'go, a post-township of Douglas co., Ill. P. 1808.
Camargue, La., a populous island of France, depart-
ment of Bouches-du-Rhône, is at the mouth of the Rhone,
and enclosed on two sides by the arms of that river. It is
an alluvial fertile delta, partly occupied by marshes. Area,
about 240 square miles. Large quantities of salt are ob-
tained here.
Camari/Ila, a Spanish word, the diminutive of camara,
a “chamber,” signifies, literally, a “little chamber.” It is
applied to the private chamber or cabinet of the king of
Spain, or to his courtiers and confidential advisers, who
usually had great power in the government and exerted a
pernicious influence. The term is also used in other Euro-
pean countries and languages to denote the influence of
courtiers and secret counsellors, counteracting the opinions
and policy of the legitimate ministers.
Camari'na, a celebrated Greek city of Sicily, on the
southern coast, about 20 miles E. of Gela. It was founded
by a colony of Syracusans in 599 B.C. It is said that no
trace of it now exists.
Camas'sia [from its Nootka Indian name, camass or
quamash], a genus of plants of the natural order Liliaceae,
consists of a single species, the Camassia esculenta, the qua-
mash of the Nootka, Indians. It grows in swampy places
in the U. S. west of the Rocky Mountains, and resembles
the Scilla, having bulbs which the Savages use as food.
Camayeu (or Camaieu) and Mon’ochrome are
French terms used to denote a painting in a single color.
Pictures of several tints, which do not represent the natural
colors of objects, are said to be en camayew. The same
term may be properly applied to drawings in India ink
and red chalk, as well as engravings.
Camb. See CAM. .
Cambacérès (JEAN JACQUES RíGIS), duke of Parma,
an able French statesman and lawyer, born at Montpellier
Oct. 18, 1753. He was elected in 1792 a member of the
National Convention, in which he acted a cautious and
moderate part. After the death of Robespierre (9th Ther-
midor, 1794) he was president of the Committee of Public
Safety, and opposed the continuance of the Reign of Ter-
ror. He became a member of the Institute about 1796.
About the end of 1799 he was appointed second consul by
Bonaparte, of whom he became a faithful adherent. He
took a prominent part in the rédaction of the civil code.
Under the empire he was arch-chancellor and president of
the council of state. During the Hundred Days he was
Napoleon’s minister of justice. He held no office after the
Restoration of 1816. Died Mar. 5, 1824.
Cambay', a seaport-town of Hindostam, is at the head
of the Gulf of Cambay, and on the right bank of the Myhee,
82 miles N. N. W. of Surat. It has a fine mosque, several
Hindoo temples, and a curious subterranean Booddhist
temple. Ruined palaces and mosques attest the former
magnificence and extent of this town, which was once
much more populous than it is now. One cause of its
decline was the increasing shallowness of the gulf. It still
exports cotton, grain, ivory, etc. Pop. about 10,000.
their ivory and skins.
other 2400.
Cambay, Gulf of, is an inlet of the Arabian Sea, in
the W. part of Hindostan. It is about 75 miles long, and
extends in a nearly N. and S. direction. The width of the
entrance, which is the widest part, is 32 miles or more. It
receives the rivers Nerbudda, Taptee, Myhee, and Subber-
muttee. The tide here is very rapid, and rises about thirty
feet.
( -
Cam/ber [Fr. cambrel, a term applied by builders to
the slight degree of arching which is usually given to
beams or other parts of a frame in order to compensate the
settlement of the various parts or the subsidence of the
joints. Camber in shipbuilding signifies a curvature up-
ward, or a convexity. A deck is said to be “cambered”
when it is higher amidships than at the bow or stern.
Cambis/ta, an Italian word signifying “a banker,”
“a money-changer.” It is also used as the title of a book
in which the moneys, weights, and measures of various
nations are given in the equivalents of some particular
nation.
Cam’bium, in botany, a mucilaginous, viscid sub-
stance which is secreted between the liber and alburnum of
exogenous trees and other plants in early spring. It is
supposed by some physiologists to be the matter out of
which new wood and bark are formed; by others, to be a
preparation of organizable matter out of which the hori-
zontal growth of the cellular system and the vertical growth
of the woody system may be nourished during their re-
spective developments. Delicate cells (cambium cells) are
formed in it, which certainly fulfil important functions in
the production of new wood.
Cambo/dia is known under three different names: first,
Kampootcha, which is given to it in the sacred books; You-
dra Skan, the appellation by which it is best known to for-
eigners; and Khamain, the common name used among the
natives themselves. This vast kingdom lies between Laos
on the N. and Cochin China on the E., the China. Sea and
the Gulf of Siam on the S., and the kingdom of Siam proper
on the W. The country between Cambodia and Siam is an
inclined plane falling off to the sea, beginning from the
Khoa Dong Rèke, or the highlands of Korat, which con-
stitutes the first platform of the terraces that gradually
ascend to the mountain-chain of Laos. Khoa Dong Réke,
the Cambodian Atlas, includes in its domain a magnificent
and extensive forest, Dong Phya Fai, or “the forest of the
Lord of Fire,” whence issue many beautiful streams to flow
into the Pachim River. Its area is about 250,900 square
kilomètres. Its population is estimated at a little over
1,000,000. The religion is Booddhism, with a small but
rapidly growing proportion of converts to Roman Catholic-
ism. It is subdivided into Northern and Southern Cam-
bodia, and the great province of Cancao on the S. E., and
it teems with every species of mineral and vegetable wealth.
Near the coast the country is covered with woods; a little
farther inland, especially along the banks of the rivers and
lakes, the land is well cultivated. But in the interior it
abounds with impenetrable jungles, where elephants, lions,
tigers, and wild buffaloes find shelter and afford excellent
sport to the natives, who hunt them in large parties for
Deer, hogs, goats, and a great many
species of wild fowl abound in the forests, as well as in the
more cultivated districts. The country abounds in iron,
tin, precious stones, teak, sandal, and other wood, gam-
boge and numerous other dyestuffs. The finest gamboge is
produced by the tree Garcinia gambogoides; and Bantabang
is noted for its gold-mines. Saigon annually exports quan-
tities of pepper, rice, cardamoms, cotton, hides, horns, and
cocoanut oil.
The climate is warm but wholesome, the scenery varied
and beautiful ; the navigation of the Gulf of Siam and the
China Sea, along with such splendid rivers as the Meikong
and the Saikong, magnificent forests of fine woods, endless
crops of rice, Indian corn, sugar-cane, and tea, and vast
plantations of mulberry trees for the rearing of silkworms,
producing the finest article of silk, are some of the pros-
pective advantages of the superb region to which Saigon
is the key. The export of rice alone for the month of
Aug., 1870, amounted to 130,000 piculs, sent to Europe,
Mauritius, Singapore, Malacca, China, and Japan. The
arrivals for that month at the port of Saigon alone were
thirty-two vessels, of from 200 to 2000 tons, and there were
twenty vessels loading under the British, French, and Ger-
man flags, aggregating 9000 tons; and indigo and silk are
now cultivated with splendid prospects of success.
The kingdom of Cambodia was in its day not only inde-
pendent, but powerful. As to its antiquity, two opinions
prevail; one ascribing to it a duration of 1300 years, the
The native historians reckon 2400 years from
the building of the wonderful temples found in the neigh-
borhood of Angkor, near the great lake Talasap. Angkor
has even at this day sufficient proof, in its memorable ruins,
try with the kingdom of Annam.
736
CAMBON.—CAMBRIDGE.
that it was at some remote period the centre of a wealthy,
powerful, and highly civilized state. Its decline probably
dates from the dispersion of the Indian Booddhists, which
took place from seven to five centuries before Christ. The
ruins of Angkor Tom or watt are still in a tolerable state
of preservation, and are composed of a central tower sur-
rounded by four turrets and flanked by two other towers,
all connected together by extensive galleries. At the top
of the central tower are four immense heads in the Egyptian
style, and every available space on these buildings is filled
with exquisite sculptures in bas-relief. The scenes are
drawn from the ancient mythological books of the Cam-
bodians. There are here, also, several gigantic stone
bridges of almost superhuman magnitude and solidity.
During the reign of His Siamese Majesty Phra-Chow-
Maha-Chakraphat, who reigned in Ayodhia, the ancient
capital of Siam, in the Siamese civil era 900 (correspond-
ing to 1540 of our Christian era), the Cambodians fitted out
an immense army and attacked Siam, marched their forces
as far as Bangnah and Phrakanong, ancient seaport-towns
of Siam, which they pillaged and destroyed. The Siamese
thereupon set out with a powerful army and took possession
of Inthapataburee, the ancient capital of Cambodia, and
remained masters of the citadel until the emperor of Cam-
bodia, acknowledged himself penitent and willing to become
tributary to Siam. About a hundred years ago dissensions
among the reigning family led to weakness, and Cambodia
fell under the control of the Annamites, who exacted heavy
tribute, and at last, in 1809, unblushingly divided its prov-
inces between themselves and the Siamese.
The name Cochin China was applied to it by the Portu-
guese, who thought they saw a likeness in it to Cochim on
the coast of Malabar. In 1471 it was reunited to the great
province of Tomkin. In the sixteenth century it broke
away, and in 1774, after a long and terrific war, Tonkin
was reduced to submission and incorporated that fine coun-
It was about this time
that European influence first began to be felt in this region.
The emperor of Cambodia, Chow Ngayen, felt the need of
some support, and offered, through a Christian missionary
who was a bishop in the country, to place himself under the
protection of France. On this many French officers went
to the new kingdom in the East, disciplined its armies, and
took a share in the government. In 1820 the old-school
Booddhists, in order to revenge the indiscriminate pillage
of the French officers on the property of the simple inhab-
itants, instituted a ferocious persecution of the Christians.
Since then, French fleets have been sent out to demand in-
demnities and protect the Catholic missionaries. Thus,
France and other European nations have made their way
into Annam, until now France holds the best part of South-
ern Cochin China and the whole of the fine province of Cam-
bodia. MRs. ANNA. H. LEONOWENs.
Cambon (Joseph), a French statesman and financier,
born at Montpellier June 17, 1756. He was elected to the
National Convention in 1792, voted for the death of the
king, and became a member of the Committee of Public
Safety in 1793. He promoted the fall of Robespierre in
1794. As a member of the committee on finance he made
several able reports, and is said to have laid the foundation
of the modern financial system of France. He procured
the adoption of the great book or register of the public
debt. He held no office under the empire, was exiled in
1816, and died Feb. 15, 1820.
Cam’borne, a town of England, in Cornwall, 11 miles
N. W. of Falmouth. Here is a church which has a stone
inscription of the tenth century. Productive mines of cop-
per, tin, and lead are worked in this vicinity. Pop. 7500.
Cambray [Lat. Camaracum], a fortified city of France,
in the department of Nord, on the Schelde, 45 miles by rail
N. N. E. of St.-Quentin, the seat of an archbishop, cele-
brated for its fine linens, called cambrics. Cambray is an
ancient city, with gabled houses, handsome streets, and is
surrounded by a wall with ancient towers and gates. It
has manufactures of laces, tulles, leather, soap, etc. Pop.
22,207. -
Cam’bria, the ancient and Latin name of Wales, which
the Romans called Britannia Secunda. Cambria is derived
from Cymry, by which name the Welsh people have always
called themselves.
Cambria, a county in S. W. Central Pennsylvania.
Area, 670 square miles. It is drained by the West Branch
of the Susquehanna and Conemaugh Creek, both of which
rise within its limits. The surface is elevated and uneven,
and traversed by precipitous ravines. Grain, wool, pota-
toes, and dairy products are extensively raised. Bitu-
minous coal and iron are abundant here, and lumber is the
chief article of export. It is intersected by the Central
B. R. Capital, Ebensburg. Pop. 36,569.
Cambria, a township of Hillsdale co, Mich. P. 1683.
Cambria, a township of Blue Earth co., Minn. P. 339.
Cambria, a post-township of Niagara co., N. Y. With-
in its limits there are pre-historic remains of a fortification,
etc. covering six acres. Pop. 2145.
scambria, a post-borough of Cambria co., Pa. P. 1744.
Cambria, a township of Cambria co., Pa. Pop. 1086.
Cambria, a post-village of Courtland and Randolph
townships, Columbia co., Wis. Pop. 502.
Cam’brian Rocks (or System), a name given by
Prof. Sedgwick to the oldest known fossiliferous rocks, on
account of their extensive development in North Wales
(Cambria). They are in part the equivalents of rocks de-
scribed by Murchison as lower Silurian. The Cambrian
is therefore regarded by some geologists as a subordinate
member of the Silurian group. The government geological
surveyors confined the term to a series of sandstones, slates,
and gritstones which underlie the Silurian lingula beds.
Câm/bric, the name generally given to the lightest and
finest of linen and cotton fabrics, originally made at Cam-
brai, in France, whence the name is derived. In 1563 Dutch
emigrants introduced the manufacture into England.
Cam'bridge [anc. Granta; Lat. Cantabrigia], a town
of England, capital of Cambridgeshire, is situated on both
sides of the river Cam, and on the Eastern Counties Rail-
way, 48 miles N. N. E. of London. The site is level, and
the town is embosomed among lofty trees. It is the seat
of one of the great universities of England, and contains
many noble edifices belonging to that institution. Among
the remarkable buildings of the town are Trinity church
and the church of the Holy Sepulchre, which was built in
the reign of Henry I., and has a round tower. It is said
that Cambridge was destroyed by the Danes in 871 A. D.
The Doomsday Book mentions it as an important place
under the name of Grentebrige. It obtained a charter from
King John in 1200. Jeremy Taylor was born here. Cam-
bridge returns two members to Parliament, besides those
who represent the university. Pop. in 1871, 30,074.
Cambridge, a post-village of Union township, Storey
co., Ia. Pop. 200.
Cambridge, a post-village, capital of Henry co., Ill.,
140 miles N. by W. from Springfield, is the chief inter-
mediate station and grain-market on the Peoria and Rock
Island Railway. It has two weekly papers. Pop. 1200.
GEO. C. SMITH, E.D. “HENRY County CHRONICLE.”
Cambridge, a post-township of Somerset co., Me.
Pop. 472. -
Cambridge, a post-village, capital of Dorchester co.,
Md., is on the S. side of the Choptank River, 50 miles S.
E. of Annapolis. The river is here about 2 miles wide.
Cambridge is the western terminus of the Dorchester and
Delaware R. R., which extends 33 miles to Seaford. It
has academies for both sexes, four hotels, five churches—
four M. E. and one Episcopal—a flouring mill, a tobacco
and a stave factory, and four canning establishments.
It has three weekly papers. Pop. 1692.
Joseph P. Johnson, E.D. “NEws.”
Cambridge, a city of Massachusetts, and one of the
shire-towns of Middlesex co., is on the N. W. bank of the
Charles River, which is here about 1 mile wide, and sepa-
rates Cambridge from Boston. Cambridge, though incor-
porated as one city, was formerly divided into several
villages, the local names of which still survive; these are
Old Cambridge, Cambridgeport, East Cambridge, &nd North
Cambridge. Harvard University is in Old Cambridge.
Cambridgeport and East Cambridge contain many mer-
cantile houses and manufactories, mostly of glass, furni-
ture, organs, steam-engines, and boilers. East Cambridge
is connected with Boston and Charlestown by bridges.
West Boston Bridge connects Cambridgeport with Boston.
In the whole city there are thirty churches, six national
banks, and four savings banks. Extensive printing estab-
lishments exist here, and the first printing-office in America
was located in Cambridge. There are two weekly news-
papers. Near Harvard University is a fine soldiers’ monu-
ment, erected in 1869–70 at a cost of $35,000. The city
hall is in Cambridgeport. Cambridge is beautifully situated
on a plain, contains some handsome public buildings, and
a great number of elegant private residences, with spacious
grounds ornamented with shrubbery and flowering plants.
The city is furnished with water from Fresh Pond, the con-
sumption being about 2,000,000 gallons daily. Pop, in
1850, 15,215; in 1870, 39,634; in 1873 (estimated), 50,000.
Valuation of real and personal property in 1873, $62,421,215.
The town is one of the oldest in New England, having been
settled in 1630. (See HARVARD UNIVERSITY.)
- H. R. HARDING, ED. “CAMBRIDGE PRESS.”
CAMBRIDGE–CAMBRIDGE, UNIVERSITY OF.
Cambridge, a post-township of Lenawee co., Mich.
Pop. 1110.
Cambridge, a post-village, capital of Isanti co., Minn.,
on Rum River, about 44 miles N. of Minneapolis. Pop. of
Cambridge township, 374.
Cambridge, a post-village of Blackwater township,
Saline co., Mo. Pop. 375.
Cambridge, a township of Coos co., N. H. Pop. 28.
Cambridge, a post-village of Washington co., N. Y.,
on the Rensselaer and Saratoga R. R., 35 miles N. E. of Al-
bany. It has a national bank, a fine academy, a foundry
and machine-shop, two tanneries, a cigar-factory, seven
churches, four hotels, and one weekly newspaper. It has
also a fine driving park. Pop. 1530, of which 967 are in
White Creek township; pop. of Cambridge township, 2589.
ED. “WASHINGTON County Post.”
Cambridge, a post-village, capital of Guernsey co.,
O., situated on Will's Creek and the Baltimore and Ohio
(Central Ohio division) and Marietta and Pittsburg R. R.S.,
in a good agricultural and mineral region, 85 miles E. of
Columbus and 65 miles N. of Marietta. It has five churches,
two monthly and three weekly newspapers, a national bank,
and several mills. P. 2193; of Cambridge township, 3624.
LENFESTY & GooDERL, PUBs. “GUERNSEY TIMEs.”
Cambridge, a post-borough and township of Crawford
co., Pa., on French Creek and on the Atlantic and Great
Western R. R., 14 miles N. N. E. of Meadville. It has one
weekly paper. Total pop. 1199.
Cambridge, a post-township of Lamoille co., Vt., sit-
uated at the foot of Mount Mansfield on the Lamoille River
and the Lamoille Valley R. R. It contains two villages,
Cambridge Borough and Jeffersonville. Surrounded by
fine scenery, it is extensively visited by pleasure-seekers
in summer. It has one newspaper. Pop. 1651.
A. N. MERCHANT, PUB. “WALLEY SENTINEL.”
Cambridge (ADoIPHUS FREDERICK), DUKE of, the
seventh son of George III. of England, was born Feb. 25,
1774. He entered the army about 1790, was appointed
governor of Hanover in 1816, and viceroy of that king-
dom in 1831. Died July 8, 1850.
Cambridge (GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK CHARLEs),
DUKE of, a British general, a son of the preceding, was
born Mar. 26, 1819. He became a major-general in 1845,
served in the Crimean war in 1854, and was appointed
acting commander-in-chief of the British army in 1856,
and field-marshal in 1862.
Cambridge City, a post-village of Wayne co., Ind.,
on the Whitewater River, 15 miles W. of Richmond, and
at the junction of the Pan-Handle R. R. with the White
Water Walley, the Fort Wayne Muncie and Cincinnati and
the Jeffersonville branch roads. It has a national bank
with a capital stock of $350,000, the car-shops of the Indiana
Car Company, employing 300 hands and manufacturing
six cars a day, and other manufactures. There is one
newspaper. P. 2162. ED. “CAMBRIDGE CITY TRIBUNE.”
Cambridge Platform, a system of church govern-
ment drawn up by a synod at Cambridge, in the colony of
Massachusetts Bay, in 1648. The Congregational churches
of New England at that time differed somewhat in regard
to discipline, some being inclined to Presbyterianism and
others to Independency, while the majority avoided both
extremes. The synod reaffirmed the doctrines taught in
the Westminster Confession, but recommended a form of
church discipline substantially the same as that which now
prevails in the Congregational churches.
Cam'bridgeshire, a county of England, is bounded
on the N. by the river Nen, on the E. by Norfolk and Suf-
folk, on the S. by Essex and Hertford, and on the W. by
Bedford and Huntingdom. Area, 820 square miles. Pop.
in 1871, 186,363. The surface is mostly flat, and about one-
fourth of the county is occupied by fems or marshes. The
northern portion is part of the BEDForL LEVEL (which see).
The soil is fertile, and the inhabitants are mostly engaged
in agriculture. Among the staple products are wheat,
beans, hay, oats, butter, and cheese. It is intersected by
the river Ouse, and also drained by the Cam. In the N.
part is a tract called the Isle of Ely. The chief towns are
Cambridge, Ely, and Newmarket. -
Cambridge, University of, one of the two ancient
universities of England. In 1110, Joffrid, abbot of Croy-
land, sent to his manor of Cottenham, near Cambridge,
Gislebert, a professor in divinity, with three other learned
monks. They in a short time drew together so great a
number of scholars that in the second year no single build-
ing was able to contain them. When Alfred of Beverly
was there, in 1129 A.D., there were no public halls, but
each one lived in his own lodgings. About the year 1257
students began to live together in hostels, under a princi-
737
pal, at their own charges. The hostels were named after
saints or the churches which they adjoined, or the persons
who built them. Trinity hostel survived to 1540. The
hostels were the beginning of the college system, which
distinguishes the universities of Oxford and Cambridge.
A hostel for medical students was opened in 1859, and an-
other has been opened in connection with Trinity College.
|Before the close of the sixteenth century nearly all the
foundations were endowed which now constitute the uni-
versity. The predominance of the religious element in
the discipline is to be attributed to the usage of the times
in which the colleges were founded. There had been, from
very early times, “religious houses,” which were in many
cases united with collegiate foundations, as, for example,
the Dominicans, whose house is now Emmanuel College.
The friars who lived in these convents kept their “acts”
or exercises for degrees like other university-men. To the
same cause is traced the condition of celibacy, upon which,
with scarcely an exception, the fellowships are tenable.
With some exceptions, the fellows are obliged to take holy
orders within a limited period or to vacate their fellowships.
The present statutes were confirmed July 31, 1858. The
governing body is a senate of eight members. All uni-
versity laws are approved by the council, consisting of a
chancellor and vice-chancellor, before they are submitted
to the senate. The executive powers are a chancellor, high
steward, vice-chancellor, commissary, and assessor. There
are three terms—Michaelmas, Lent, and Easter. Dissent-
ers are not excluded from taking degrees, except in divinity.
There are four classes, or orders, of students—viz. fel-
low-commoners and noblemen, pensioners, sizars, and
scholars on the foundation of their college. The first are
so called from their dining at the fellows’ table; they wear
silk or embroidered gowns and pay heavier fees. The
pensioners are the students not on the foundation, who,
pay for their own commons and for their chambers. The
sizars are the poorer students, who are admitted at lower
charges than the pensioners, but wear the same dress, and
no longer perform menial offices, as they once did. St.
John’s and Trinity have very liberal endowments for sizars,
and pecuniary assistance is given. All students coming
to the university are entered in one of the above classes.
The scholars are elected, by examination, from the pen-
sioners and sizars; they have rooms and commons free,
and other emoluments. The fellows are generally elected
from the scholars. The fellowships are given to members
of the college, and are not, as at Oxford, open to the whole
university. Before a student can be admitted he must be
sufficiently instructed in Latin, Greek, and mathematies.
When the undergraduate comes in he is called a “fresh-
man;” in his second year, a “junior soph;” in his third
year, a “senior soph.” The degree of bachelor of arts
requires usually nine terms, or three years, of residence.
The master’s degree is conferred three years later. The
candidates for degrees are called questionists.
The mathematical examination embraces the whole range
of mathematics. The successful candidates are arranged
in a tripos—i.e. in three classes, called respectively wrang-
lers, senior optimes, and junior optimes; the first mathe-
matician is called the senior wrangler. In the examina-
tion for classical honors the candidates are arranged in a
tripos, and distinguished as first, second, and third class.
The examinations for degrees are called the “great go.”
The previous examination, which comes in the second year
of residence, is called the “little go.” There is also a
tripos for the natural sciences. The pecuniary value of
the first place in either the classical or the mathematical
tripos has been estimated at £10,000, for it secures to its
possessor high social position, as well as lucrative employ-
ment. The next prizes are the fellowships, of which there
are 430 tenable for life. The office of tutor is one of great
honor and emolument. In 1870 the members of the uni-
versity amounted to 9241. The undergraduates for the
same year numbered 2019. -
The following is a list of the colleges and halls:
Name. Founded
St. Peter's College........................................... 1257
Clare College..........................................."------------------- 1326
Pembroke College............................................. 1347.
Gonville Hall and Caius College.............. 1348
Trinity Hall........................ s Y. 1350
Corpus Christi College................ * - - - - - - - 1351
King's College..........................................------------------ 1441
Queen’s College..............................................------------- 1448
St. Catherine's College.............. - 1473
Jesus College...........................................-------------------- 1496
Christ's College..............................................------------- 1505
St. John’s College....................................-------------------- 1511 ,
Magdalene College.............................. . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 1519
Trinity College........ * * *- * e º e o e º a e 1546
Emmanuel College................ .................. “--------....... 1584
Sidney Sussex College.............. ..........---------------------... 1598
Downing College..................... e e º e - - - - 1800
47
738
CAMBYSES—CAMDEN COURT-HOUSE,
The Fitzwilliam Museum is the finest modern addition
to the university. Wiscount Fitzwilliam bequeathed, in
1816, £100,000, the interest of which was to build and
support a museum. He bequeathed also a valuable collec-
tion of books, paintings, etc. The University Library is a
fine mass of buildings of different periods, and contains at
present more than 230,000 volumes, without reckoning those -
in the college libraries, some of which are very important.
The Geological Museum contains the collection of Dr.
Woodward, with recent numerous and interesting acquisi-
tions. Besides this, there are other valuable scientific mu-
seums. (For full information about the university see the
“Cambridge Calendar.”) REVISED BY T. D. WoolsFY.
Camby’ses [Gr. Kapagºans; Old Persian cuneiform in-
scriptions, Kabujiya], king of the Medes and Pérsians, and
a son of Cyrus the Great, whom he succeeded about 530
B. C. He invaded Egypt in 525, defeated Psammenitus,
its king, in battle, and captured Memphis, the capital of
Egypt. Having completed the conquest of that country,
he led an army to Ethiopia, but was compelled by famine
to retire before he had conquered it. He afterwards in-
dulged in violent and capricious acts of tyranny and
cruelty in Egypt, so that many believed him to be insane.
Cambyses was an epileptic, but a man of strong though
very cruel character. By his Egyptian subjects he was
utterly detested. Died in 522 B. C. º -
Cam’den, a county which forms the S. E. extremity
of Georgia. Area, 600 square miles. It is bounded on the
E. by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the S. by the St. Mary’s
River, and is intersected by the Santilla (or Satilla) River.
The surface is level; the soil is sandy. Rice and corn are
the chief crops. It embraces some of the Sea Islands.
Capital, St. Mary's. Pop. 4615.
Camden, a county in S. Central Missouri.
square miles.
also drained by the Niangua. The surface is diversified
by hills and valleys; the soil is moderately fertile. Lead
is found in this county. Grain, tobacco, and wool are the
chief products. Capital, Linn Creek. Pop. 6108.
Camden, a county in the S. W. of New Jersey. Area,
235 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by the Del-
aware River, which separates it from Philadelphia, and is
drained by Big Timber and Cooper's creeks, and other
streams. The surface is nearly level; the soil is mostly
sandy, and in the W. part is a fertile loam. Marl is abun-
dant in this county, which is intersected by the Camden
and Atlantic R. R. Corn, wheat, fruit, and garden and
dairy products are extensively raised. It has manufac-
tures of flour, machinery, and a great variety of goods.
Capital, Camden. Pop. 46,193.
Camden, a county of North Carolina, bordering on
Virginia and Albemarle Sound. Area, 280 square miles.
It is bounded on the S. W. by the Pasquotank River. The
surface is level, and partly covered with forests of cedar
and cypress. Indian corn is the chief crop. The northern
portion of the county is part of the Dismal Swamp. Cap-
ital, Camden Court-house. Pop. 5361.
Camden, a post-village, capital of Wilcox co., Ala., is
about 4 miles S. of the Alabama River and 80 miles S. W.
of Montgomery. It has a weekly paper. Pop. of Camden
township, 3060. -
Camden, a post-village, capital of Ouachita co., Ark.,
is on the right bank of the Washita River, 110 miles S. by
W. from Little Rock. Steamboats ascend the river to this
point, which is connected by navigable water with New
Orleans, and for two-thirds of the year stealmers ascend
the river to Arkadelphia. There are two weekly papers.
Camden is an important commercial centre. It was once
called Ecore dº Fabre, and was a great hunting rendezvous.
Pop. 1612.
Camden, a post-village of North Murderkill hundred,
Kent co., Del., near Wyoming Station, on the Delaware
R. R., 3 miles S. of Dover. Pop. 657.
Camden, a post-township of Schuyler co., Ill. P. 1173.
Camden, a post-village of Jackson township, Carroll
co., Ind., on the Logansport Crawfordsville and South-
western R. R., 14 miles S. W. of Logansport. Pop. 476.
Camden, a post-village of Knox co., Me., on the W.
side of Penobscot Bay, about 8 miles N. N. E. of Rockland.
It derives its support from the burning of lime, shipbuild-
ing, commerce, and manufacture of cars, car-wheels, rail-
road spikes, and ship’s furniture of various kinds. It has
a weekly paper. Pop. including Camden township, 4512.
- - DUNTON BRos., PUBs. CAMDEN “HERALD.”
Camden, a post-township of Hillsdale co., Mich. The
township is on the Ohio and Indiana State line, and on the
Fort Wayne Jackson and Saginaw R. R. Pop. 1883.
Camden, a township of Carver co., Minn. Pop. 414.
Area, 600
It is intersected by the Osage River, and
Camden, a township of De Kalb co., Mo. Pop. 1359.
Camden, a post-village and township of Ray co., Mo.,
on the St. Louis Ransas City and Northern R. R., 5 miles
S. W. of Richmond, and on the N. bank of the Missouri
River. Pop. of village, 357; of township, 3347.
Camden, a post-township of Seward co., Neb. P. 309.
Camden, a city and river-port of New Jersey, and the
capital of Camden co., is situated in a plain on the Dela-
ware River opposite Philadelphia, and 32 miles by railroad
S. W. of Trenton. It is the terminus of the Camden and
Amboy R. R. and the Camden and Atlantic R. R., and of
the West Jersey R. R., which extends to Cape May, Mill-
ville, etc. The plan of the city is regular. It contains a
court-house, near thirty churches, and two national banks;
also several iron-foundries and manufactures of machinery,
chemicals, and other goods. There is a large manufactory
of steel pens. Numerous steam ferry-boats cross the river
at various points, and connect Camden with Philadelphia.
It has three weekly papers. Pop. 20,045.
Camden, a post-village of Oneida co., N. Y., on the
Rome Watertown and Ogdensburg R. R., 18 miles N. W.
of Rome. It has three churches, one weekly paper, and
manufactures of lumber, leather, pumps, and sash and
blinds, etc. Pop. 1703; of township, 3687.
Camden, a township of Lorain co., O. Pop. 858.
Camden, a post-village of Somers township, Preble
co., O., on the Cincinnati Richmond and Chicago R. R.,
44 miles N. of Cincinnati. Pop. 648. -
Camden, a post-village, capital of Kershaw co., S. C.,
is on the E. bank of the navigable Wateree River, 33 miles
N. E. of Columbia. Camden is the terminus of a railroad
which extends southward and connects it with Charleston.
It contains seven churches and four academies, and has
good water-power. Gen. Gates was defeated here Aug. 16,
1780, by Lord Cornwallis, and April 25, 1781, Gen. Greene
was defeated by Lord Rawdon at Hobkirk’s Hill, near
Camden. During the recent civil war this place was cap-
tured, Feb. 24, 1865, by the Federal forces under Gen. Sher-
man after a lively skirmish.; 2000 bales of cotton and a
large quantity of tobacco were destroyed by burning. Cam-
den has two weekly papers. There are ancient mounds
near this town. Pop. 1007.
J. B. KERSHAw, ED. of CAMDEN “Journ AL.” .
Camden, a post-village, capital of Benton co., Tenn.,
on the Nashville and North-western R. R., 82 miles W. of
Nashville. Pop. 148. -
Camden, MARQUESSEs of, earls of Brecknock (United
Kingdom, 1812), Earls Camden (1786), Wiscounts Bayham
(1836), Barons Camden (1765, Great Britain).-JoBN
CHARLEs PRATT, born June 30, 1840, was member of Par-
liament for Brecon in 1866, and succeeded to the marquisate
in the same year.
Camden (CHARLEs Pratt), FIRST EARL OF, an eminent
English statesman and lawyer, born in 1713, was a son of
Chief-Justice Sir John Pratt. He was called to the bar in
1738, became attorney-general about 1758, and chief-jus-
tice of the court of common pleas in 1762. His decision
against the legality of general warrants, which he gave in
the trial of John Wilkes, rendered him very popular. He
received the title of Baron Camden in 1765, and was ap-
pointed lord chancellor, but he resigned that office in Jan.,
1770. He afterwards distinguished himself as a champion
of constitutional liberty, and acted with Lord Chatham in
opposition to the American policy of Lord North. In 1783
he became president of the council. He was created Earl
Camden in 1786. Died April 18, 1794. “Among the names
that adorn. the legal profession,” says Lord Brougham,
“ there are few which stand so high as that of Camden.”
On account of his liberal policy during the Revolutionary
war his name became very popular in the U. S., and was
given to several counties and many towns and villages.
Camden (WILLIAM), an eminent English antiquary,
born in London May 2, 1551, graduated at Oxford. He was
appointed second master of Westminster School in 1575.
His most important work is a description of Great Britain
in Latin, entitled “Britannia sive Regnorum Angliae,
Scotiae, et Hiberniae, ex intima Antiquitate Chorographica
Descriptio” (1586). He published several new editions of
it, enlarged and improved. Among his works is “Annals
of the Reign of Elizabeth’ (in Latin), highly commended
by Hume. He became head-master of Westminster School
in 1593, and Clarenceux king of arms in 1597. His pro-
motion to this position over the heads of all the College of
Heralds led to many heart-burnings and recriminations,
and embittered many years of the life of this worthy man,
who has been called “ the judicious Camden º’ and “ the
British Pausanias.” He was buried in Westminster Ab-
bey. Died Nov. 9, 1623.
Camden Court-house, a post-village, capital of
CAMDEN MILLS.–CAMEL’S THORN.
739
Camden co., N. C. It is a port of entry, and is on the nav-
igable Pasquotank River.
Camden Mills, Ill. See MILAN.
Camden Society, an association organized in 1838
in London for the purpose of publishing the MSS. of old
British authors, historical documents of importance, old
records, visitations, both heraldic and ecclesiastical, and
other matter of antiquarian, literary, or historical interest
relating to England. Some of their materials are not very
ancient, but are published for their general interest. The
results of their work are contained in a large number of
volumes, which are, as a whole, of very great value. The
name was given in honor of William Camden, the historian.
Cam'el [Lat. camelus; Ger. Kameel; Gr. Káumaos; Ara-
bic, gammel], a genus of ruminant quadrupeds of which
only two species now exist. This genus is the type of the
family Camelidae, which includes the genus Awchemia, the
Ilama, alpaca, etc. The Camelidae exhibit a wonderful
adaptation to their native regions both in the Old World
and the New. The dentition differs from that of all other
ruminating animals in the presence of incisor teeth in the
upper jaws, camels having canine teeth in both jaws, and
the Auchenia, in the lower jaw; the feet have not the cloven
hoof of the rest of the order, but two elongated toes, each
tipped with a nail-like hoof, the feet resting not upon the
hoofs, but upon elastic cushions. In the camels the toes
are united by a common sole, instead of having each a sepa-
rate one, as in the genus Auchenia; the broad foot enabling
the animals of the one genus easily to traverse the sand of
the desert, while the separation of the toes in the other is
suited to rocky heights. Camels have a hump or humps
upon the back, of which the others exhibit no trace. With
similarity of form the Camelidae of the Andes exhibit a
gracefulness which strongly contrasts with the gaunt angu-
larity of those of the East. The Arabian camel (Camelus
dromedarius) has only one hump on the back, while the
Bactrian camel (Camelus Bactrianus) has two. The first-
named species is found chiefly in Arabia, Syria, and North-
ern Africa. The other is a native of Central Asia, where
it is still found wild. The Arabian camel is bred to some
extent in Italy; the Bactrian in the Crimea. The two are
sometimes crossed. The Bactrian is the larger, being often
ten feet high. It is much hardier than the other. Confu-
sion has arisen from the employment of the name drome-
dary as a designation of the former species, it being prop-
erly limited to a slender, graceful, and fleet variety of that
species. The hump on the camel's back is chiefly a store
of fat, from which the animal draws as the wants of its
system require; and the Arab is careful to see that the
hump is in good condition before a long journey. Another
interesting adaptation is the thick sole which protects the
foot of the camel from the burning sand. The mostrils may
be closed by valves against blasts of sand. Most interest-
ing is the provision for drought made by providing the
second stomach and a portion of the first with great cells,
in which water is long retained. This store of water is
known to the Arabs, who sometimes avail themselves of it
by killing some of the camels of the caravan. Sight and
smell are extremely acute in the camel.
The Arabian camel carries about 500 pounds. The Bac-
trian camel is sometimes loaded with 1000 or even 1600
pounds weight, but can carry the latter weight but a short
distance. The East India Company had at one time a corps
of camels, each mounted by two armed men. The Persians
mount light swivel guns upon the saddle of the camel. The
pace of the loaded camel is steady and uniform : it proceeds
from day to day at a rate of about two and a half miles per
hour. Some of the dromedaries, however, can carry a rider
more than 100 miles in a day. The motion of the camel is
peculiar, jolting the rider in a manner extremely disagree-
The camel pro-
It lives
able to those who are unaccustomed to it.
duces a single young one at a time, or rarely two.
thirty or forty years.
celebrated by authors. But with all its general submissive-
mess, it is resentful of injury, and, according to some ob-
servers, is always ill-humored and morose, and during the
rutting season is particularly vicious. The flesh and milk
of the camel are valued by the Arabs as food. Its dung is
a very useful fuel in the desert. . The hair is used for the
manufacture of cloth, some kinds of which are coarse, and
others soft and fine. Camel's hair is also imported for the
manufacture of pencils or small brushes used by painters.
A fossil camel (Camelus Sivalensis), larger than either ex-
isting, species, has been discovered in miocene deposits in
Hindostan. Numerous remains of fossil Camelidae occur in
the tertiary of Dakota, and Nebraska. These are of many
species and several genera. The U. S. government in 1857
introduced a humber of camels for service in the arid re-
gions along the South-western frontier. These were owned
and employed by the government, and performed good ser-
vice; but, owing to the civil war and the unsettled condition
of that region, the attempt to naturalize them for general use
has not been successful. But their descendants still exist
in Nevada, where they have proved very useful.
REVISED BY J. S. NEWBERRY.
Camel, a contrivance by which ships are floated over
sandbars and shoals. A long caisson, or “camel,” nearly
filled with water, is fastened to each side of the ship : when
the water is pumped out the caissons rise and lift the ship
with them. The principle is more fully explained in the
article Dock (which see, by SAMUEL H. SHREVE, C. E.), for
it is essentially the principle of all floating docks. Camels
were formerly used at Nantucket and New Bedford, Mass.
A similar machine is employed in raising sunken ships.
Camel'Iia [in honor of G. J. Kamel, D. D., a German
Jesuit missionary to Luzon in the last century], a genus of
evergreen plants of the order Camelliaceae, natives of China,
India, and Japan, and extensively cultivated in green-
houses in Europe and the U. S. for the beauty of their
flowers. The most admired species is the Camellia Japon-
tea, a shrub which has ovate-elliptical, Serrate, and shining
leaves, and large, polypetalous flowers, which resemble a
rose. Many others belong to Camellia reticulata and to
hybrid varieties. In the wild state it bears red and single
flowers, but the flowers of the cultivated varieties are gen-
erally double. Among their various colors are red, white,
and yellow. Many of the varieties originated in China or
Japan, and others have been raised by European and
American florists. New varieties of them are annually
produced. . The value of the camellia is increased by the
fact that it flowers in autumn and winter. The single
camellia is propagated by seed, and the cultivated or
double varieties by grafting, cuttings, or layers. The
proper soil for these is a loose, black mould. They should
be protected from frost, and liberally supplied with water,
but are liable to be injured with an excess of moisture. It
is important that they should receive a free access of fresh
air and light. C. Oleifera and C. Sasanqua are cultivated
in China, for their seeds, which yield an oil similar to olive
oil. Some writers refer the tea-plant to this genus.
Camellia/ceae, a natural order of exogenous trees and
shrubs, mostly natives of Southern and Eastern Asia and
South America. North America has four species (loblolly
bays and Stuartias), while Africa has also a few. They
generally have beautiful flowers. The Camellia and the
tea-plant are the most important.
Camelopard. See GIRAFFE.
Cameloparda/lis, a constellation of the northern
hemisphere of the celestial globe called the GIRAFFE. It
It is situated be-
contains only sparsely scattered stars.
It was added
tween Cassiopeia, Perseus, Ursa Major, etc.
by Hevelius to the list of constellations.
Camel’s Hair is used by the Arabs and Persians,
who weave it into stuff for tents and clothing. A fine
quality of camel's hair is imported from Persia, and is
used to make pencils for artists. Camel's hair was exten-
sively worn by monastics in the Middle Ages for the mor-
tification of the body. It was harsh and rough. Camel's
hair is woven to some extent in Europe, but most of the
goods now so called are of wool.
Camel’s Rump, or Camel’s Back Mountain,
in Vermont, is one of the highest peaks of the Green
Mountains, and is 17 miles W. of Montpelier. Its height
is 4188 feet.
Camel’s Thorn [Dutch, kameel-doorn], (Alhagi), a .
genus of plants of the order Leguminosae, comprises nu-
The patience of the camel has been .

740:
CAMENAE–CAMERON.
merous herbaceous and shrubby species, mostly natives of
the deserts of Asia and Africa. They have simple leaves
and jointed pods, with one seed in each joint. These plants
grow where other vegetation is scarce, and afford valua-
ble food for camels, which are fond of them. The Alhagi
camelorum yields a kind of manna, which appears in the .
form of drops on the leaves. In South Africa fences of
the camel's thorn are used to protect camps by night from
wild beasts.
Came/nae, the general name of four prophetic nymphs
of Roman mythology—viz. Antevorta, Postvorta, Car-
menta, and Egeria. The Nine Muses were also called Ca-
menae by the Latin poets.
Ca' menz, or Kamenz, a town of the kingdom of
Saxony, on the Black Elster, 20 miles N. E. of Dresden.
It has manufactures of earthenware, tobacco, starch, etc.
Lessing was born here in 1729. Pop. in 1871, 6406.
Cam’eo [Fr. cama'iew], a term applied to gems of vari-
ous colors carved in relief, especially to diminutive pieces
of sculpture, which are formed of precious stones having
two strata or layers of different colors, the uppermost of
which is partly removed so as to expose the lower stratum,
which forms the background of the figure. The art of cut-
ting cameos is of great antiquity, having been practised by
the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians. It was brought
to great perfection by the Greeks, and practised with suc-
cess in ancient Rome. The cameos of the ancients were
formed mostly of the onyx, agate, and sard, and were some-
times executed on a factitious stone called vitrum obsid-
ianwm. The famous Barberini or Portland Vase is a beau-
tiful specimen of cameo in glass. The ancients used cameos
as personal ornaments, and as cups, vases, and other articles.
Many of the antique cameos now extant are marvellously
beautiful in design and perfect in execution. Among the
finest antique specimens are the Gonzaga cameo, which rep-
resents the head of a king and his queen, and is now at St.
Petersburg; “The Judgment of Paris,” in the cabinet of
Prince Piombino at Rome; and the onyx called the “Apo-
theosis of Augustus,” which is now in Paris. The last is
twelve inches high, and ten inches wide. The art revived
in Italy in the fifteenth century, and was patronized by the
Medici. Some specimens of this period are perhaps as per-
fect as the antique. The fabrication of cameos, both in
pietra dura and in shell, has become in Italy an important
branch of art.
SHELL CAMEos are made from such shells as have layers
of differently-colored material, such as the conch-shells of
the Bahamas. The art—a modern one—of cutting these
shells has been carried to a high degree of perfection.
These cameos began to be cut at Rome about 1805, and the
best work is done there now ; but many shells are cut at
Paris, especially for exportation to England and America.
Cam’era Lu’cida [Lat. a “light chamber”], an in-
strument invented by -
Wollaston, and intended A.
to facilitate the delinea-
tion of objects, consists
of a quadrilateral prism We -
of glass (A B) in a frame
attached to an upright b.
rod, having at its lower
end a clamp to fix it to
the edge of a table. The
prism has its upper face
-:
-.2°
Camera Lucida.
horizontal, and two of its faces are at a right angle at A.”
Rays from an object (PQ) falling nearly perpendicularly
on the first surface enter the prism and undergo reflection at
the contiguous surface; they then fall at the same angle
on the next surface, and are reflected again; finally they
emerge nearly perpendicularly to the remaining surface.
The eye receives the emergent light in such a way that an
image of the object is seen projected upon a sheet of paper
upon the table. The pencil and image being seen together
upon the paper, a sketch of the latter can be taken. But
the image and the pencil are at different distances from the
eye, and cannot be seen together distinctly at the same
time. To obviate this, a plate of metal with a small eye-
hole is placed under the eye, so that the rays through the
prism and those from the drawing-pencil, which both pass
through the eyehole, form only very small beams of light.
By this the difficulty is diminished. It is, however, diffi-
cult to use the instrument satisfactorily, though many ac-
quire readiness in its use. Besides this form of the camera
lucida, which is the most common, there are others. Its
simplest form is a piece of smooth glass fixed at an angle
of 45° to the horizon. An image from a horizontal object
falling on this glass.will be perfectly reflected, so that the
eye looking vertically down will see the image, and the
artist will be able to trace it upon paper. The name has
been applied to other optical instruments. -
by the Rio Grande.
Cam'era Obscu'ra [Lat. a “dark chamber”], an in-
strument whose invention is ascribed to Baptista Porta in
the sixteenth century, but Roger Bacon described it 300
years before. It is known in a simple form as a box furnished
at one end with a lens whose focal length is equal to the
length and depth of the box, at the opposite end of which
a plane reflector is placed at an angle of 45°, which throws
the image of any objects to which the lens may be directed
upon an opaque surface which is viewed through a slit in
the box.
The camera obscura, being indispensable in photography,
has received improvements which make it rank as a scien-
tific instrument. The principle involved in all forms may
be made intelligible by the following experiment: Let a
hole be bored in a window-shutter and the room darkened.
If the light entering the room by this hole be intercepted
by a sheet of white paper at a small distance from the hole,
an inverted image of objects without will be seen upon the
paper. By placing a convex lens in the hole this image is
rendered much more distinct. At a certain distance from
the hole the image attains a maximum degree of sharp-
ness, and if the paper be removed to a position either
nearer to the hole or farther from it, the image becomes
indistinct. “ - -
Camera’rius (JoACHIM), an eminent German scholar,
born at Bamberg April 12, 1500. His proper name was
LIEBHARD. His ancestors were chamberlains to the bishops
of Bamberg; hence he took the Latin name CAMERARIUS,
which signifies a “chamberlain.” He was a friend of Me-
lanchthon, and became president or principal of the Uni-
versity of Tübingen in 1535. He was rector of the Univer-
sity of Leipsic for many years after 1541. Among his works
are numerous translations of Greek authors, a “Life of Me-
lanchthon” (1566), “Elements of Rhetoric,” and Latin
“Commentaries on the Greek and Latin Languages” (1551).
Died April 17, 1574. . -
Cam’eron, a new parish in the S. W. part of Louisi-
ana, made from parts of Calcasieu and Vermilion parishes.
Cotton, corn, and stock are raised. Capital, Grand Che-
nière. Pop. 1591.
Cameron, a county in N. W. Central Pennsylvania.
Area, 400 square miles. It is drained by Sinnemahoning
Creek. The surface is hilly, and mostly covered by forests.
Grain, timber, potatoes, and butter are the chief products.
Coal, iron, and salt are found. It is intersected by the
Philadelphia and Erie R. R. Capital, Emporium. Pop.
4273.
Cameron, a county which forms the S. extremity of
Texas, bordering on Mexico. Area, 3000 square miles. It
is bounded on the E. by the Gulf of Mexico, and on the S.
The surface is nearly level; the soil
is partly productive. Cattle, corn, and wool are raised.
Several saline lakes occur in this county. Capital, Browns–
ville. Pop. 10,999.
Cameron, a post-village of Clinton co., Mo., on the
Hannibal and St. Joseph R. R., where it is crossed by the
Chicago and South-western R. R., 35 miles E. of St. Joseph.
It has a weekly paper. Pop. 1428.
Cameron, a post-village and township of Steuben co.,
N. Y., on the Erie R. R., 22 miles N.W. by W. of Corning.
Pop. 161; of township, 1334.
Cameron, a thriving post-village of Lumber township,
| Cameron co., Pa., on the Philadelphia and Erie R. R., 6
miles S. E. by S. of Emporium. Here are valuable mines of
gas-coal and beds of iron ore. Lumber is manufactured
here.
Cameron, a township of Northumberland co., Pa.
Pop. 603. -
Cameron, a post-village, capital of Milam co., Tex.,
on Leon River, 63 miles N. E. of Austin, has a weekly
paper.
Cameron, a post-township of Marshall co., West Va.
Pop. 1627.
Cameron (DoNALD) of Lochiel, a Highland Scottish
chief who fought for the Pretender in 1745. He was wound-
ed at the battle of Culloden, and escaped to France in 1746.
Died in 1748. He was the subject of Campbell's poem en-
titled “Lochiel’s Warning.” .
Cameron (JAMEs), brother of Simon Cameron, born at
Maytown, Pa., Mar. 1, 1801, learned the trade of a printer,
subsequently became an editor, and studied law. He enter-
ed the army at the beginning of the civil war as colonel of
the Seventy-ninth New York Highlanders. In the battle
of Bull Run, July, 1861, he was killed while gallantly
leading his men in a charge. -
G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Engineers.
Cameron (RICHARD), a Scottish minister, born at Falk-
land, was the founder of the sect of Cameronians or “Cov-


CAMERON-CAMPAGNA.
741
.."--->
enanters.” He strenuously opposed the measures by which
the government endeavored to establish the Episcopal
Church in Scotland. He persisted in preaching in fields,
which was prohibited by law. In June, 1680, he, with about
twenty armed adherents, entered the town of Sanquhar
and formally renounced their allegiance to Charles II. He
was killed in a fight with the royal troops July 20, 1680.
(See CAMERONIANs.)
Cameron (SIMON), an American Senator, born in Lan-
caster co., Pa., in 1799. He was elected Senator of the
U. S. by the Democrats in 1845, and having joined the Re-
publican party, he was re-elected a Senator in 1856. He
was secretary of war from Mar., 1861, to Jan., 1862, and
was then sent as minister to Russia, from which he return-
ed in 1863. In 1866 he was again elected to the Senate of
the U. S. He was elected to the national Senate for another
term (1873–79). -
Camero/nians, the followers of Richard Cameron, who
in 1680 made a public declaration that Charles II., by his
suppression of civil and religious liberty, had forfeited all
right to the crown. They were also called Covenanters,
from their having demanded the strict observance of the
Solemn League and Covenant received by the Parliament
in 1643. The Cameronians still exist as a sect, both in
Great Britain and America, under the name of REFORMED
PRESBYTERIANs (which see). -
Cam/eronites were the adherents of John Cameron, a
native of Scotland, who went to France in 1600, and be-
came professor of theology at Saumur. “He devised a
method,” says Mosheim, “ of uniting the doctrines of the
Genevans, as expounded at Dort, with the views of those
who hold that the love of God embraces the whole human
race.” They have sometimes been called Hypothetical
Universalists. -
Camerooms', or Camerones, a river of Africa, in
Upper Guinea, enters the Bight of Biafra about lat. 4° N.
and lon. 9° 40' E. by an estuary 20 miles wide. Its length
is not known. It has a cataract 90 miles from its mouth.
Cameroons Mountains, of Western Africa, culmi-
mate in a peak which is near 13,000 feet high, and about
lat. 4° 13' N. and lon. 9° 10' E. -
Camil’la, a fabulous Italian virgin, celebrated for
swiftness of foot, was said to be a daughter of the Volscian
king Metabus, and aided Turnus against Æneas.
Camilla, the capital of Mitchel co., Ga., is on the At-
lantic and Gulf R. R., 28 miles S. of Albany. It has two
churches, an academy, and a newspaper. From 6000 to
8000 bales of cotton are shipped from here annually. Pop.
289. T. M. MASON, ED. CAMILLA “ENTERPRISE.”
Camil’lus, a post-village of Onondaga co., N. Y., on the
New York Central R. R., 8 miles W. of Syracuse, has three
churches. Camillus township contains valuable limestone
and gypsum, and several sulphur Springs. Pop. of village,
598; of township, 2423.
Camillus (MARCUs FURIUs), a celebrated Roman dic-
tator and patrician, who became a tribune in 403 B. C. He
was chosen dictator in 396, and soon captured Veii. About
390 he was exiled, and retired to Ardea. After Brennus
and the Gauls had captured Rome in 390 B.C., Camillus
was recalled and appointed dictator. According to the
popular tradition, which is perhaps mixed with fable, he
defeated the Gauls, and afterwards gained victories over
the Volsci and other enemies. In 367 he was chosen dic-
tator for the fifth time. Died in 364 B.C. (See PLUTARCH's
“Life of Camillus;” ARNOLD’s “History of Rome.”)
Camisards, French Protestants who lived in the Ce-
vennes early in the eighteenth century, so named from
the camise or loose outer garment which they wore. They
strove to obtain the religious liberty which had been sacri-
ficed by the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, but although
they gained several victories over the royal troops, they
were subdued by the duke of Berwick in 1705. (See ScHULTz,
“Geschichte der Camisarden,” Weimar, 1790.)
Cam’let, a fabric originally made of camel's hair, but
in more recent times of the hair of the Angora goat. It is
also made of wool, or a mixture of wool with other mate-
rials. Camlets are mentioned in Marco Polo’s narrative
as among the articles manufactured in Thibet.
Camo'êns (LUIs or LUIz), a celebrated Portuguese epic
poet, was born of a noble family, probably at Lisbon, in
1524. He was educated at Coimbra, and soon after he left
college fell in love with a lady of honor at court. He was
consequently banished to Santarem. Having joined the
army, he served with valor in several battles against the
Moors. Before this time he had written some verses, which,
like his military services, had been treated with neglect.
He therefore resolved to emigrate, and embarked for India
in 1553, exclaiming with Scipio, “Ingrata patria, non pos-
sidebis ossa mea.” He wrote a political satire called
“Follies in India,” for which he was banished in 1556
from Goa to Macao, where he composed his great epic poem
“The Lusiad” (“Os Lusiadas”), which celebrates the mar-
tial exploits of the Portuguese warriors and heroes, and is
pervaded by patriotic sentiments. . It was first printed in
1572. He was recalled from exile in 1561, and returned in
1569 to Lisbon, where he passed his later years in great
poverty, and died June 10, 1580. Among his works are
elegies, sonnets, odes, satires, and epigrams. The versifi-
cation of “The Lusiad” is remarkably stately. (See JoHN
ADAMSON, “Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Luis de
Camoens,” 1820; SouzA Bote:LHo, “Vida de L. Camoens,”
1817.) ~, -
Camor'ra, the name of a secret society of outlaws and
robbers called Camorristi who infested the former king-
dom of Naples. This society had a rendezvous in every
large town. Under the Bourbon dynasty its members
openly presented themselves at markets and public spec-
tacles, where they extorted a portion of the money that
passed from hand to hand. They were also addicted to
violent crimes, and could be hired to commit murder.
The society was thoroughly organized and subject to a
strict discipline. Candidates for membership were not ad-
mitted until they had passed through a probation for a
year, and given proofs of courage and obedience. They
are said to have been tolerated by King Ferdinand II.
Camp [from the Latin campus, a “plain ;” Fr. camp;
Ger. Lager], in a general sense the ground (constructions
included) upon which tents, huts, etc. are erected for the
shelter of any collection of human beings; in a military
sense, that occupied by an army under tents or temporary
shelter in the field. It is usually distinguished from
bivouac by the use of shelter (such as tents), as distin-
guished from passing the might in the open air (& la belle
étoile). More exclusively yet, the ground and shelter of
an army in tents; but in our “Army Regulations” a camp
is the place where troops are established in tents, in huts,
or in bivouac. The Roman camp (Lat. castra, a word
which in the form of the termination cester or chester in-
dicates the origin of numerous English towns, as arising
from a Roman camp, and to which also are due the words
château and castle), described with great detail in most
cyclopaedias, was in reality an intrenched camp (see BARDIN,
“Dictionnaire de l'Armée de Terre”). Such were con-
structed in the heart of invaded countries to secure for the
troops a place of retreat, to control the district, to provide
secure dépôts for provisions of all kinds, and to protect the
communications with the frontier. A Roman army might
occupy its camp several winters. In the mean time it
sallied forth to resume its operations. Most commonly,
when the legions had thus vacated them to undertake long
marches, veterans remained behind to guard the ramparts,
and thus became a kind of permanent garrison, which, by
intermarriage, became the origin of a town or colony; e. g.
the English “ Chesters” and the German Cologne or Köln
(Colonia). -
The Romans necessarily had, besides these, temporary
camps, sometimes of huts, but more generally tents of skins
of animals. The details of these Roman camps are of
little interest (unless to antiquarians); neither indeed, ex-
cept to soldiers, those of the modern military camp. Its
arrangements (as practised with us) are set forth in our
“Army Regulations.” . Strictly speaking, the arrangements
of a camp for a regiment of infantry or cavalry are gov-
erned purely by considerations of discipline and adminis-
tration. The encampment of an army must indeed be
sedulously governed by tactical considerations, such as the
defence of the position and the formation of line of battle,
the character of the issues, the approaches, etc. But these
arrangements belong to “Tactics.” An INTRENCHED CAMP
is a fortified position of greater or less extent, usually of
field-works to be occupied during a campaign or the dura-
tion of a war. (See INTRENCHED CAMPs, by GEN. A. BRIAL-
MonT, Belgian Army.) J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army. .
Camp, a township of Polk co., Ia. Pop. 1558.
Camp, a township of Renville co., Minn. Pop. 418.
Camp-and-Garrison Equipage is a general name
for the tents, furniture, utensils, etc. used in an army which
serve to supply the wants of the soldiers, rather than to
aid their military operations.
Camp-Followers, the sutlers and dealers who follow
an army, and carry a variety of articles which they sell to
the soldiers. In India the camp-followers of British armies
are very numerous, comprising sutlers, servants, hostlers,
water-carriers, snake-charmers, conjurers, and Women. An
army of 15,000 men which invaded Afghanistan in 1839 is
said to have been accompanied with 85,000 camp-followers.
Campa’gna, a town of Italy, in Principato Citra, is
742
CAMPAGNA DI ROMA–CAMPBELL.
situated amidst high mountains, 18 miles E. of Salerno. It
is a bishop's see, has a fine cathedral, a college, and several
convents. Pop. 8776. -
Campa’sma di Ro’ma, an extensive undulating,
desolate plain of Central Italy, nearly coinciding in limits
with the ancient Latium, was formerly a province of the
Pontifical States. It is bounded on the S. W. by the Medi-
terranean, extends along the coast from Cività Vecchia to
Astura and the Pontine Marshes, and surrounds the city of
Rome, which is near its centre. Its length is estimated at
75 miles, and its width varies from 27 to 40 miles. The
highest parts of it rise about 200 feet above the level of the
sea. The soil is of volcanic formation, and the climate is
rendered unhealthy by pestilential malaria or miasmatic
effluvia. This region, once rich and populous, is now
almost deserted and uncultivated. In autumn the inhab-
itants of the Apennines descend into the Campagna with
their flocks and herds, for which some parts of it afford good
pasture. Numerous ancient monuments, aqueducts, and
other ruins are scattered over this plain. It contains sev-
eral lakes, which occupy craters of extinct volcanoes.
Campaign’ [Fr. campagne], a connected series of mil-
itary operations forming a distinct stage in a war; the time
that an army keeps the field, either in fighting or marching,
without entering into winter quarters. The term had a
more definite meaning formerly, when armies kept the field
*only in the summer and autumn, than it has now, when the
operations of armies are not interrupted by winter or any
ordinary degree of cold.
Campan (JEANNE LOUIs GENEST), born Oct. 6, 1752,
was reader to the daughters of Louis XV. and a companion
and friend of Marie Antoinette. After the Revolution she
was an instructress of high reputation. Died May 16,
1822. She wrote, among other works, “Memoirs of the
Private Life of Marie Antoinette.”
Campa'na, La., a town of Spain, in the province of
Sevilla, on the river Madre Wiega, 30 miles E. N. E. of
Seville. It has a trade in grain, wine, and fruit. Pop.
about 5500. ſº
Campama’rio, a town of Spain, in Estremadura, 72
miles E. of Badajos. It has manufactures of linen fabrics,
wine, oil, and ropes. Pop. 6145.
Campanel/la (ToMMAso), an eminent Italian phil-
osopher and Dominican monk, born in Calabria. Sept. 5,
1568. He published in 1591 “Philosophy Demonstrated
by the Senses,” which opposed the scholastic philosophy
and gave offence to the partisans of Aristotle. On a charge
of heresy and conspiracy against the Spanish government,
he was in 1599 committed to prison in Naples, where he
was confined about twenty-seven years, during which he
wrote several works. Pope Urban VIII. procured his re-
lease in 1626. Campanella, after passing several years in
Rome, retired to France in 1634, in order to avoid the re-
newed persecution of the Spaniards. He was kindly treated
by Cardinal Richelieu. Among his important works are
“Civitas Solis,” etc. (“The City of the Sun, or the Idea of
a Philosophic Republic,” 1623), “The Five Parts of Ra-
tional Philosophy” (1638), and a “Discourse on the Spanish
Monarchy’’ (in Latin, 1640). Died in Paris Mar. 21, 1639.
(See BALDACCHINI, “Vita e Filosofia di T. Campanella,”
1840; DARESTE, “Thomas Morus et Campanella,” 1843.)
Campa/nha, a town of Brazil, in the province of
Minas Geraes, about 156 miles N. W. of Rio de Janeiro.
It has several churches, a hospital, and a theatre. Gold is
found in the vicinity. Pop. about 6000.
Campa’nia, a province of ancient Italy, was bounded
on the N. E. by Samnium, on the E. and S. by Lucania, on
the S. W. by the Mediterranean, and on the N. W. by
Latium. The Apennines extended along the N. E. border.
Between these mountains and the sea was an extensive and
very fertile plain, which produced abundance of corn, wine,
and oil.
soil, the genial climate, and the beautiful landscapes of
Campania, which was the Regio felia of the Romans. It
was traversed by the Appian Way (Via Appia), the greatest
thoroughfare of ancient Italy. Its principal cities were
Capua, Pompeii, Neapolis (Naples), Cumae, Salernum, and
Herculaneum. Among its physical features was Mount
Vesuvius. During the Roman empire, Campania was the
favorite resort of wealthy Romans, who adorned its shores
with villas and palaces. It is supposed that the original
population of this region was an Oscan or Ausonian race.
The earliest fact which can be affirmed as historical in rela-
tion to Campania is the foundation of the Greek colony of
Cumae, which is said to have been the most ancient of the
Greek colonies in Italy. The Campanians were conquered
by the Samnites about 430 B.C., but they continued to
speak the Oscan language after that event. The Romans
gained a decisive victory over the allied Latims and Cam-
Ancient writers concur in extolling the fertile
panians in 340 B.C., when Campania became subject to
Rome. It embraces the modern provinces of Benevento,
Naples, Principato Citeriore, Principato Ulteriore, and
Terra di Lavoro, with an area of 6937 square miles and
2,625,830 inhabitants.
Campaniſle, a structure standing by the side of the
main church in many Italian cities, is a lofty belfry tower,
often of elaborate, but of a lighter, profaner architecture
than the sacred edifice. The finest of the campaniles
are—that at Florence, designed by Giotto, the Leaming
Tower of Pisa, and in Spain the beautiful Giralda of
Seville, built by Guever the Moor.
Campan’ula, a Latin word signifying a “little bell,”
from campama, a “bell,” is the name of a genus of hardy
herbaceous plants, the type of the natural order CAMPANU-
LACEAE (which see). The genus is characterized by a bell-
shaped, 5-lobed corolla, five stamens, the filaments of which
are dilated at the base, and a top-shaped capsule, with two
to five cells opening by lateral clefts. It comprises nume-
rous species, with beautiful blue or white flowers, to many
of which the common name of bell-fiower is given. Among
the remarkable species are the Campanula medium or Can-
terbury bell, a native of Europe, and the Campairula ro-
tundifolia, or harebell, which is indigenous both in Eng-
land and the U. S.
Campanula'ceae [from Campanula, one of the general,
a natural order of exogenous plants, herbaceous or suffruti-
cose, with a milky, juice, alternate leaves, and a calyx ad-
herent to the ovary. The corolla is regular, monopetalous,
bell-shaped, and valvate in the bud. The stamens, five in
number, are free from the corolla, which is generally blue
and showy. This order comprises nearly 500 known species,
mostly natives of the temperate, and cool climates of the
northern hemisphere. Two genera are indigenous in the
U. S.—viz. Campanula and Specularia.
Campbell, kam'el, a county in N. W. Central Georgia.
Area, 360 square miles. It is intersected by the Chatta-
hoochee River. The surface is hilly or undulating; the
soil is fertile. Corn, cotton, and wool are staple products.
Gold has been found in the county. Capital, Campbellton.
Pop. 9176. -
Campbell, a county in Northern Kentucky, borders on
the Ohio, and is bounded on the W. by the Licking River.
Area, 120 square miles. Grain, wool, and tobacco are the
chief products. The soil is based on Trenton limestone,
and is fertile. Capital, Newport. Pop. 27,406.
Campbell, a county in N. N. E. Tennessee, bordering
on Kentucky. Area, 450 square miles. It is drained by
New River and other streams. Coal is found. Wool, grain,
and tobacco are the chief products. The surface is hilly
or mountainous. Capital, Jacksboro’. Pop. 7445.
Campbell, a county in the S. of Virginia. Area, 576
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by James River,
and on the S. by Staunton River. The surface is hilly;
the soil is mostly productive. Grain, wool, and tobacco are
the chief products. Granite is found here. The Atlantic
Mississippi and Ohio R. R. passes through the N. part of
the county. Capital, Campbell Court-house. Pop. 28,384.
Campbell, a township of Lawrence co., Ark. P. 576.
Campbell, a post-township of Pulaski co., Ark. Pop.
1304.
Campbell, a township of Searcy co., Ark. Pop. 359.
- Campbell, a township of Jennings co., Ind. P. 1563.
Campbell, a township of Warrick co., Ind. P. I437.
Campbell, a post-township of Ionia co., Mich. P.1120.
Campbell, a township of Douglas co., Mo. Pop. 413.
Campbell, a township of Greene co., Mo., contains the
town of Springfield. Pop. 8694.
Campbell, a post-village and township of Steuben co.,
N. Y., on the Rochester division of the Erie R. R., 9 miles
N. W. of Corning. Pop. of the township, 1989.
Campbell, a township of La Crosse co., Wis., 5 miles
N. of La Crosse. Pop. 2084.
Campbell (ALExANDER), D. D., a theologian, born in
the county of Antrim, Ireland, in June, 1788, emigrated to
the U. S. in 1809, after studying at the University of Glas-
gow. He founded a sect called Disciples of Christ, who
accept the Bible as their only creed. In 1841 he founded
Bethany College, West Va., of which he was long president.
Died Mar. 4, 1866. (See DISCIPLES OF CHRIST.)
Campbell (ARCHIBALD), an American officer and en-
gineer, born 1813 in New York, graduated at West Point
1835, serving while in infantry at frontier posts till he re-
signed, Sept. 30, 1836. Civil engineer 1837–44, chief clerk
U. S. war department 1846–49 and 1853–57, and commis-
sioner to establish the North-western boundary of the U. S.
between Washington Territory and British America. 1857–
CAMPBELL–CAMPHENE.
743
69, and to run the 49th parallel from the Lake of the
Woods to the Rocky Mountains, since 1872.
GEORGE W. Cullumſ, U. S. Army.
Campbell (Sir CoELN), LoRD CLYDE, a British general,
born in Glasgow Oct. 20, 1792. He entered the army in
1808, and served in the Peninsular war (1809–14). In 1842
he obtained the rank of colonel. Having served with dis-
tinction in India, he was appointed in 1854 to the command
of the Highland brigade, which he led at the battles of
Alma and Balaklava in the Crimea. In 1855 he was raised
to the rank of major-general, and created a knight grand
cross of the Bath. He was appointed in July, 1857, com-
mander of the army in India, then fighting against the
mutinous Sepoys. He relieved Lucknow in Nov., 1857,
defeated the Sepoys at Cawnpore, and quelled the mutiny
in 1858. He was raised to the peerage as Baron Clyde in
the same year. Died Aug. 14, 1863.
Campbell (DUNCAN R.), D. D., born in Scotland about
1797, received a university education, came while young
to the U. S., was ordained to the Baptist ministry, and
was president of Georgetown College, Ky. (1849–65).
Died Aug. 11, 1865.
Campbell (GEORGE WASHINGTON), born in Tennessee
in 1768, graduated at Princeton in 1794, was a member of
Congress 1803–09, U. S. Senator (1811–14 and 1815–18),
became secretary of the treasury in 1815, and minister to
Russia in 1818. Died Feb. 17, 1848.
Campbell (JAMEs), an American jurist and statesman,
born in Philadelphia in 1813, was a judge of the court of
common pleas (1841–50); and became attorney-general of
the State in 1852, and postmaster-general under President
Pierce in 1853.
Campbell (John), LORD, an eminent British lawyer,
was born in Fifeshire, Scotland, Sept. 15, 1779. He was
called to the English bar in 1806, and soon obtained an
extensive practice. In 1830 he became a Whig member
of Parliament, and in 1834 attorney-general. He was
made chancellor of Ireland and a peer of the United King-
dom in 1841. He was appointed chief-justice of the court
of queen's bench in 1850, and lord chancellor of England
in 1859. He published “Lives of the Lord Chancellors
and Keepers of the Great Seal of England” (7 vols., 1846),
which obtained much popularity, and “Lives of the Chief-
Justices of England” (3 vols., 1849–57). Died June 23,
1861.
Campbell (John A.), an eminent jurist, born in Wash-
ington, Ga., June 24, 1811, was the son of Dungan G. Camp-
bell, a distinguished lawyer of that State. He was educated
in the Georgia, University, where he graduated with dis-
tinction in 1826, and was admitted to the bar by special
act of the legislature in 1829, some time before his majority.
IIe moved to Alabama, where he soon took high rank in
his profession, and was appointed associate justice of the
U. S. Supreme Court by President Pierce in 1853. This
position he resigned in 1861, after the outbreak of the con-
flict between the two sections. While he had opposed the
policy of secession, he yet believed in its rightfulness.
He was afterwards appointed assistant secretary of war of
the Confederate States. He was one of the commissioners
appointed by Mr. Davis to meet Mr. Lincoln and Mr.
Seward at the Fortress Monroe conference in Feb., 1865.
After the fall of Richmond and the surrender of the South-
ern arms, he was arrested and imprisoned for some time at
Fort Pulaski, but was finally discharged on parol. Since
then he has been engaged in the practice of the law in
New Orleans.
Campbell (THOMAs), a popular British poet, born in
Glasgow July 27, 1777. He was educated at the university
of his native city, and became a good classical scholar. He
produced in 1799 his admirable poem, “The Pleasures of
Hope,” which was considered by Lord Bryon as “one of
the most beautiful didactic poems in the English language.”
During a visit to the Continent he witnessed the battle of
Hohenlinden, Dec., 1800, on which he composed a lyrical
poem of great beauty and celebrity. He soon afterwards
published short poems entitled “The Exile of Erin’ and
“Ye Mariners of England.” Having married his cousin,
Miss Sinclair, he removed to London in 1803, and adopted
literature as a profession. In 1809 he produced “Gertrude
of Wyoming,” which is generally and greatly admired.
He became editor of the “New Monthly Magazine” in
1820, and was elected lord rector of the University of
Glasgow in 1827. He published, besides other works in
prose, “The Life and Times of Petrarch " and a “Life of
Frederick the Great.” Among his finest poems is a spir-
ited ode called “The Battle of the Baltic.” He died June
15, 1844, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. “No
poet at such an age,” says Moir, referring to the “Pleas-
ures of Hope,” “ever produced such an exquisite specimen
of poetic mastery—that is, of fine conception, and high art
combined.” (See “The Life and Letters of Thomas Camp-
bell,” by WILLIAM BEATTIE, 3 vols., 1850.)
Campbell Court-house, a post-village, capital of
Campbell co., Va.
Camp'bellford, a post-village of Seymour township,
Northumberland co., Ontario (Canada), on the river Trent,
has great water-power and considerable manufactures.
Pop. about 1000.
Campbellites. See DISCIPLES OF CHRIST.
Camp/bell’s, a township of Clarke co., Ala. Pop. 401.
Campbell’s Station, a post-village of Knox co., Tenn.
Here Gen. Burnside's army was attacked Nov. 16, 1863, by
the Confederates under command of Gen. Longstreet. The
engagement lasted from noon till dark, the Confederates
being repulsed. Pop. in 1870, 1807.
Camp'bellsville, a post-village, capital of Taylor co.,
Ry., 75 miles S. S. W. of Frankfort. Pop. 512.
Camp'bellton, a post-village, capital of Campbell Co.,
Ga., on the Chattahoochee River, about 20 miles S. W. of
Atlanta. Pop. 119.
Campbelton, a royal borough and seaport of Scot-
land, in the county of Argyle, and near the S. end of the
peninsula of Cantire, 65 miles W. S. W. of Glasgow. It
has a good harbor on the E. coast of Cantire, is the chief
town in Argyleshire, and is a favorite resort in summer.
Here are more than twenty distilleries of whisky. Pop. in
1871, 6628.
Camp Branch, a township of Shelby co., Ala. P. 637.
Camp Branch, a township of Cass co., Mo. P. 1258.
Camp Branch, a township of Warren co., Mo. P. 901.
Camp Colora’do, a post-village, capital of Coleman
co., Tex.
Camp Creek, a township
Pop. 1007.
Camp Creek, a township of Pike co., O. Pop. 743.
Cam'Pe (JoACHIM HEINRICH), a German philanthropist
and writer on education, was born in Brunswick in 1746.
IHe was appointed superintendent of schools in the duchy
of Brunswick in 1787, after which he was the proprietor of
a publishing-house. He wrote several popular books for
the instruction of youth, among which is “ Robinson the
Younger.” Died Oct. 22, 1818.
Campeach/y, a state of Mexico, is bounded on the N.
by Yucatam, on the E. by the Caribbean Sea, on the S. by
Belize and Guatemala, and on the W. by the Gulf of Cam-
peachy. Area, 23,958 square miles. Many ruins of ancient
cities have been found in this province, the most extensive
of which are the ruins of Tekel. Chief town, Campeachy.
Pop. in 1868, 80,366.
Campeachy, a city of Central America and the prin-
cipal seaport of Yucatan, is situated on the Gulf of Mexico
and the W. coast of that peninsula, 90 miles S. S. W. of
Mérida; lat. 19° 50' N., lon. 90° 33' W. It contains many
good stone houses, a college, about six churches, several
convents, and a theatre. The harbor is capacious, but
shallow. Logwood, wax, and cotton are exported from
this port. Pop. about 18,000.
Campeachy Wood, a name of LOGWOOD (which see).
Cam/per (PIETER), M.D., PH.D., born at Leyden May
11, 1722. He became professor of medicine at Amsterdam
in 1755, and at Groningen in 1765. He wrote a number
of works on anatomy and physiology, and gained distinc-
tion as a lecturer as well as a writer. Among his works is
“Anatomico-Pathological Demonstrations” (1760–61). He
discovered the presence of air in the bones of birds. In
1785 he was chosen a foreign associate of the Academy of
Sciences in Paris. Died April 7, 1789. -
Cam/perdown, a village of Holland, 27 miles N. W.
of Amsterdam, famous for the victory gained off its coast
by the English, under Admiral Duncan, over the Dutch,
commanded by Admiral de Winter, Oct. 11, 1797.
Camp Halleck, a post-township of Elko Co., Nev.
Pop. 160. -
Camp'hausen (LUDOLF), a Prussian statesman, born
at Hünshoven in 1803. He became president of the coun-
cil of ministers in Berlin in Mar., 1848, resigned in June
of that year, and was soon appointed ambassador to the
Diet at Frankfort. In 1851 he retired from political life.
Camphausen (Otto), a Prussian statesman, born
of Rutherford co., N. C.
Oct. 12, 1812, was appointed minister of finance in 1869.
Through him the corn-tax and other burdensome taxes
have been removed and replaced.
Camphene, or Camphine, a term applied to puri-
fied oil of turpentine, obtained by rectifying it over dry
*—
744
CAMPHILENE–CAMPUS MARTIUS.
chloride of lime. It consists of 10 atoms of carbon com-
bined with 8 of hydrogen, and is represented by the equiv-
alent number 68. Camphene has been burned in lamps
for the purpose of illumination, but many fatal accidents
having resulted from its use, it has been superseded by
coal oil, or rectified petroleum. Ordinary camphor is a
protoxide of campheme, which is sometimes called cam-
phogen. Borneo camphor is by some chemists considered
to be a binoxide of camphene.
Cam/philene, or Artificial Camphor, is obtained
from the oil of turpentine, by acting on it with dry vapor
of hydrochloric acid, and keeping the whole at a low tem-
perature by immersing the vessel in a freezing mixture. A
solid substance is produced in the form of white crystals,
with the taste and aromatic smell of natural camphor. It
is regarded as a hydrochlorate of camphene.
Camp Hill, a post-township of Tallapoosa, co., Ala.
Pop. 373. -
Camphime. See CAMPHENE.
Cam’phogen [from camphor, and the Gr. yewváo, to
“ produce,” because from it is obtained artificial camphor],
a synonym of CAMPHENE (which see). -
Cam/phor [Lat. camphora; Sp. alcanfor or camfor;
Arabic al kāfoor, not improbably derived from the Sanscrit
khapwr, a name applied to several fragrant plants] is a
concrete substance found in many plants, particularly
those of the order Lauraceae. The greater part of the
camphor of commerce is the produce of the camphor laurel
or camphor tree (Camphora officinarum, formerly known
as Lawrus camphora), a native of China, Japan, Formosa,
and Cochim-China, and which has been introduced into
Java, and the West Indies. The camphor laurel is a tree
of considerable height, with evergreen leaves and yellowish-
white flowers in panicles. The fruit is not unlike a black
currant. Every part of the tree smells strongly of cam-
phor. The wood is much valued for carpenter's work. In
the extraction of camphor the wood is chopped up and then
steeped and boiled in water, when the steam carries off the
camphor in vapor. The camphor is deposited around the
straw (with which the head of the still is filled) in minute
grains. The crude camphor is heated in a vessel, from which
the steam is allowed to escape at a small aperture. The cam-
phor sublimes as a semi-transparent cake. Camphor was
unknown to the Greeks and Romans, and was first brought
to Europe by the Arabs. It is a white, tough solid, slightly
lighter than water. It is sparingly soluble in water, but
freely soluble in alcohol, ether, acetic acid and the essen-
tial oils. It fuses at 347°, and boils at 399°, is very in-
flammable, and burns with a white smoky flame. When
set fire to upon water it floats with a curious rotary motion.
It has a peculiar aromatic taste and a characteristic odor.
Camphor is used in medicine, internally and externally,
as a stimulant. In small doses it is an anodyne and anti-
spasmodic ; in very large doses a narcotic poison. Its alco-
holic solution (spirits of camphor) and liniments in which
it is an ingredient are much used in sprains and bruises,
chilblains, and chronic rheumatism. Paregoric is a cam-
phorated tincture of opium. The effluvium of camphor is
very noxious to insects, and it is therefore much used for
preserving specimens in natural history, as well as clothing.
The Borneo camphor, sometimes called hard camphor, is
the produce of Dryobalanops aromatica, a large tree of the
order Dipteraceae. . The camphor is obtained by cutting
down the tree and splitting it into small pieces, being
found in crystalline masses in natural cavities of the wood.
To this substance the Chinese ascribe extraordinary medi-
cinal virtues, so that it is taken in exchange by them for
more than fifty times its weight of common camphor. It is
seldom brought to Europe as an article of commerce. The
tree yields also a pale-yellowish limpid fluid, which gushes
out when deep incisions are made in the tree with an axe,
and which is called liquid camphor, camphor oil, or borne-
ole. When this oil is distilled it yields a light fragrant
liquid called borneene, which is used in perfumery. It is
sometimes imported into Europe. It has a smell somewhat
resembling that of camphor, but more like oil of cajuput.
It is supposed that from this fluid the hard camphor is
deposited. REVISED BY C. W. GREENE.
Campido'glio, Pala/zzo del, the name of a palace
or pile of buildings erected by Michael Angelo on the
Capitoline Hill in Rome, on the site of the ancient Capitol.
Campidoglio appears to be a corruption of Capitolium.
Campi'nas, or São Carlos, a city of Brazil, about
65 miles N. of São Paulo. Much sugar is produced here.
Pop. about 6000.
Cam'pion, or Campian (EDMUND), a learned Catho-
lic priest, born in London in 1540. He visited Rome in
1573, and having joined the Jesuits returned to England
on a mission. He challenged the clergy of the Anglican
school building.
Church to dispute with him. In 1581 he was convicted on
a charge of treason, and put to death Dec. 1. . He was
author of a “History of Ireland” and other works.
Cam'Do Bas’so (formerly called Māolise), a province
of Central Italy, is bounded on the N. by Chieti, on the
N. E. by the Adriatic Sea, on the S. E. by Foggia, on the
S. by Benevento, and on the W. by Caserta. Area, 1778
square miles. The country is mountainous and sterile,
and there is very little industry. Chief town, Campo Basso.
Pop. in 1871, 363,943.
Campo Basso, a fortified city of Italy, capital of
the province of Campo Basso (formerly Molise), is on the
declivity of a mountain, about 55 miles N. N. E. of Naples.
It has a fine cathedral, a ruined castle, a college, several
convents and palaces of the nobility; also celebrated
manufactures of cutlery and arms. Pop. 13,354.
Campobel’lo, a town of Sicily, in the province of Tra-
pani, 50 miles S. W. of Palermo. Pop. 5141.
Campobello, an island in Passamaquoddy Bay, 2
miles E. of Eastport, Me. . It is a part of Charlotte co.,
New Brunswick. It is 8 miles long, its N. point being in
lat. 44° 57' N., lon. 66° 55' W. Copper and lead ores exist
in the island. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in the
herring, cod, and mackerel fisheries. Pop. in 1871, 1073.
Campo Bello, a post-township of Spartanburg co.,
S. C. Pop. 2951. -
Campobel'Io di Lica'ta, a town of Sicily, in the
province of Girgenti, 15 miles N. W. of Licata. Here are
mines of sulphur. Pop. 5764.
Cam'ro de Cripta'na, a town of Spain, in the prov-
ince of Ciudad Real, about 50 miles N. E. of Ciudad Real.
It has manufactures of coarse cloths, and a trade in grain
and fruit. Pop. about 5500. -
Cam’po For/mio, Campio Formio, or Campo
Formido, a village of Northern Italy, in Friuli, about
66 miles N. E. of Venice and 7 miles S. W. of Udine. An
important treaty of peace was concluded here between
Austria and the French republic, Oct. 17, 1797. Alarmed
by the recent victories gained by Bonaparte in Italy, Aus-
tria was inclined to peace, and negotiated with the French
general this treaty, by which she ceded the Netherlands
and recognized the independence of the Cisalpine republic,
including Milan, Mantua, and other parts of Austrian
Italy. In return for these concessions the French gave
up Venice, Istria, and Dalmatia to Austria.
Camp of Seventh Cavalry on Saline, a township
of Ellis co., Kan. Pop. 80.
Campoma'nes (PEDRO RODRIGUEz), Count, an emi-
ment Spanish author and minister of state, was born in the
Asturias July 1, 1723. He gained a high reputation by his
writings on political economy, and was distinguished for
his probity and enlightened policy. He became president
of the royal council of Castile in 1788, and afterwards a
minister of state. Among his works are a “Discourse on
the Promotion of Popular Industry” (1774) and a “Dis-
course on the Popular Education of Mechanics” (1775).
Died Feb. 3, 1802.
Cam/po Mayor', a fortified town of Portugal, in Alem-
tejo, about 16 miles N. W. of Badajos. Pop. 5277.
Camp Point, a village and township of Adams co.,
Ill. It has two mills, a manufactory of agricultural imple-
ments, and one weekly newspaper. There is a fine public-
Pop. 2130. -
GEO. W. CYRUs, ED. CAMP PoſNT “Journ AL.”
Camp Stur’gis, a township of Ellis co., Kan. P. 320.
Camp/ton, a township of Kane co., Ill. Pop. 957.
Campton, a post-village, capital of Wolfe co., Ky.,
about 65 miles E. S. E. of Lexington. Pop. 67.
Campton, a post-township of Grafton co., N. H. It
has four churches and manufactures of woollens, lumber,
etc. Pop. 1226.
Camp/tonville, a post-village of Yuba co., Cal.
Cam'pus, a Latin word signifying a “plain,” “an open
field,” any level surface, as of the sea. It was sometimes
used to denote a field of battle, and was applied figuratively
to a subject of discourse, a field of debate or speculation.
The grounds about college buildings in some places are
called the campus.
Cam/pus Marſtius (i. e. the “field of Mars”), a tele-
brated plain and open field of ancient Rome, was on the
left bank of the Tiber, outside of the walls of the city. It
was the place in which the Roman youth performed military
exercises and evolutions, and in which the comitia assem-
bled for the purpose of enacting laws and electing magis-
trates. It was subsequently used as a public park or pleas-
ure-ground.
CAMPVEER—CANADA, DOMINION OF.
Campveerſ, Kampveer, or Weer, a decayed mari-
time town of the Netherlands, province of Zeeland, on the
N. E. coast of the island of Walcheren, 4 miles N. N. E. of
Middelburg. It has a beautiful cathedral, and a town-
house with an elegant tower. The Scotch Staple was trans-
ferred from Bruges to Campveer in 1444, after which this
town had peculiar trading relations with Scotland for seve-
ral centuries.
Ae
Camus (CHARLEs ETIENNE LOUIs), a French mathema-
tician, born at Crécy-en-Brie Aug. 25, 1679. He was a
member of the Academy of Sciences, which in 1727 sent
him, with Maupertuis, to Lapland, to determine the figure
of the earth. He wrote scientific works. Died Feb. 2, 1768.
Cam’wood, or Bar/wood, a dyewood which yields
a brilliant but not permanent red color, and is used along
with sulphate of iron as a dyestuff. It is the wood of the
Baphia mitida, a tree of the order Leguminosae, a native of
Angola.
Ca/na, a village of Galilee, was the scene of Christ's
first miracle. (John ii.) Its site is supposed to be indicated
by some ruins 6 miles N. of Nazareth. The natives call
this place Cana-el-Jelil.
Ca'naan, an ancient patriarch, was a son of Ham and
the ancestor of the Canaanites, who lived in Palestine before
the Israelites conquered it. Palestine was called the land
of Canaan by the Hebrew writers. It was bounded on the
E. by the Jordan and on the W. by the Mediterranean Sea.
(See PALESTINE, by How ARD CROSBY, D. D., LL.D.)
Canaan, a post-township of Litchfield co., Conn., at the
crossing of the Connecticut Western and Housatonic R. Rs.
The scenery here is very fine. It has a national bank at
Falls Village. Pop. 1257. -
Canaan, a township of Henry co., Ia. Pop. 784.
Canaan, a post-village of Somerset co., Me., about 35
miles N. by E. from Augusta. It has manufactures of
lumber and cloth. Pop. of Canaan township, 1472.
Canaan, a post-township of Gasconade co., Mo. Pop.
II.07.
Canaan, a post-township of Grafton co., N. H. It has
manufactures of straw-board and boots and shoes, and has
one newspaper. Pop. 1877.
Canaan, a post-township of Columbia co., N. Y., on the
Boston and Albany R. R., 34 miles S. E. of Albany, con-
tains several villages, has valuable water-power, several
paper-mills and other manufactories, four churches, and a
slate quarry. The township has two communities of Sha-
kers, who have a farm of 1400 acres, where they raise gar-
den-seeds and manufacture brooms, etc. Pop. 1877.
Canaan, a township of Athens co., O. Pop. 1543.
Canaan, a township of Madison co., O. Pop. 729.
Canaan, a township of Morrow co., O. Pop. 1109.
Canaan, a post-township of Wayne co., O. Pop. 1997.
Canaan, a post-township of Wayne co., Pa. Pop. 680.
Canaan, a post-township of Essex co., Vt. It has
manufactures of starch and lumber. Pop. 419.
Can'ada, Dominion of, a country of North America,
which is to embrace all of the American possessions of
Great Britain lying N. of the U. S. Founded in 1867 by
the union of the provinces of Canada West, Canada East,
New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, it embraced in 1872,
besides these four provinces named, also the provinces of
Manitoba, and British Columbia and the North-west Ter-
ritory. The only portion of British North America, which
in 1873 had not yet joined the Dominion of Canada was
the province of Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island
having joined the Dominion in June of that year. ..It is’
bounded on the S. by the U. S., on the E. by the Atlantic,
on the N. by the Arctic Ocean, and on the W. by the Pa-
cific. It comprises the whole country N. of the U.S., with
the only exception of the Territory of Alaska and of Green-
land. A part of the southern frontier is formed by the
lakes Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario. The frontier-
line which separates it from the State of Maine was fixed
in 1843 by the Ashburton Treaty. The long-pending’ dis-
pute between Great Britain and the U. S. as to the island
of San Juan in the Pacific was in 1872 decided by the
arbitration of the emperor of Germany. The principal
rivers on the Atlantic side are the St. Lawrence, the Ot-
tawa, the St. Maurice, and the Saguenay, which enter the
St. Lawrence from the left. On the Pacific side the most
important rivers are the Columbia and the Frazer. The
Saskatchewan, rising in the Rocky Mountains, traverses
fifteen degrees of longitude, or a distance of at least 900
miles, and falls into the great Lake Winnipeg in 53° N.
lat. This lake is connected with Hudson’s Bay, the most
remarkable indentation of the American coast, by the Nel-
son or Port Nelson, about 500 miles in length. Lake
745
Athabasca, situated about lat. 58° N. and lon, 110° W.,
receives, among others, the Peace River and the Athabasca,
a large stream rising in the Rocky Mountains near the
source of the Columbia. The Mackenzie, entering the
Arctic Ocean, is one of the largest rivers on the globe.
Climate and Soil.—The climate of the Atlantic provinces
is similar to that of Sweden and Norway. The heat of
summer and the cold of winter are greater here than in the
corresponding latitudes in Europe. At Montreal the mer-
cury in winter often sinks to 24° or 30° below zero, and
rises in summer to 96° or 100°. The climate of Ontario
(Canada West) is milder than that of Quebec (Canada
East), because it is farther S., and is modified by the vicin-
ity of the great lakes. Peaches flourish and ripen on the
N. shore of Lake Erie, and near Toronto on Lake. Ontario.
The transition from winter to summer is sudden, especially
in the north-eastern parts of Canada. The most fertile
portion of this part of the Dominion is Ontario, especially
the peninsula formed by Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario.
The climate of British Columbia, like that of the Pacific
coast in general, is more uniform and moderate than that
of the Atlantic provinces. The soil of the peninsula formed
by Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario produces good crops
of wheat and other grains. The greater part of Canada is
covered with forests of good timber, from which large.
quantities of pine lumber are exported. The province of
Quebec abounds in romantic and picturesque scenery.
Seven miles below Quebec is the cataract of the Montmo-
renci, with a perpendicular, descent of 240 feet. Among
other remarkable objects is the sublime scenery of the Sag-
uenay, which flows between high and precipitous rocks.
The northern portion of the Dominion will undoubtedly be
doomed to everlasting sterility on account of the severity
of the climate. The country on the lower Saskatchewan
and on the Red River, it is believed, will be long among the
most fertile regions of the Dominion.
Area and Population.—The area of the Dominion in 1872
was estimated at 3,389,442 square miles, being almost equal
to the extent of the U. S. The population of the four old
provinces of the Dominion (Ontario, Quebec, New Bruns-
wick, and Nova Scotia), according to the census of 1871,
was 3,484,924, against 3,089,659 in 1861—an increase in
ten years of 12.79 per cent. The population of Manitoba,
according to the census of 1870, was 11,953. The popula-
tion of British Columbia was in 1871 estimated at 50,000,
and that of the North-west Territory at 28,700; total for
the whole Dominion in 1871, 3,575,577. The number of
immigrants entering the St. Lawrence in 1870 was 44,475;
the mumber who entered from the U. S. was estimated at
24,544; making a total immigration during the year of
69,019—a figure considerably exceeding the immigration
of any previous year. During the period from 1851 to 1870.
the aggregate number of arrivals by the St. Lawrence was
560,996, and of arrivals from the U. S. 399,461. The num-
ber of those who settled in Canada was calculated to be
418,910, while the remainder went on to the U. S. The
large majority of the population of Quebec (847,615 out of
1,111,566) are of French origin; in all the other provinces
the descendants of the British largely predominate. The
city of Ottawa has been made the capital and seat of legis-
lation. The largest cities are Montreal, Quebec, Toronto,
St. John, Halifax, and Hamilton. The Indian population
in Canada proper is estimated at 25,673; of the former
Hudson’s Bay Territory, 42,870; of British Columbia,
18,000; total, 86,543. -
Church and Edweation.—There is no state Church in the
Dominion and in the whole of British North America.
According to the census returns of 1861, there were in the
four original provinces of the Dominion, 1,372,913 Roman
Catholics, 471,946 Presbyterians, 465,572 Anglicans, 431,927
Wesleyans and "Methodists, 189,080 Baptists, 29,651 Lu-
therans, 17,757 Congregationalists, 76,176 of miscellaneous
creeds, 18,860 of “no religion,” and 16,682 “no creed
stated.” Roman Catholics were most numerous in the
province of Quebec, and they also constituted a plurality
in New Brunswick; the leading religious denomination of
Ontario is the Wesleyans, and the leading denomination
of Nova Scotia the Presbyterians. The provinces of Que-
bec and Ontario have separate school laws adapted to
the religious elements prevailing in either. The common
schools are supported partly by government and partly by
local self-imposed taxation, and occasionally by the pay-
ment of a small fee for each scholar. All common-school
teachers must pass an examination before a county board
of education or receive a license from the provincial normal
school. Similar arrangements exist in the other provinces,
nearly all the public schools of which possess endowments
of land and personal property. *
Commerce, etc.—Canada enjoys great advantages for com-
merce by the navigation of the great lakes and the river
St. Lawrence, which give the Canadians ready access to the
746
CANADA—CANADIAN RIVER,
markets of the U. S. The greater portion of the Canadian
exports go to the U. S., while the greater part of the im-
ports are from Great Britain. The trade is also facilitated
by several canals and railways. The Rideau Canal, 135 miles
long, extends from Kingston, on Lake Ontario, to the Ot-
tawa River, and the Welland Canal connects Lake Erie with
Lake Ontario. The principal railways of Canada are the
Grand Trunk Railway (1377 miles), which connects Montreal
with Detroit (Mich.) on one hand, and with Portland (Me.)
on the other; the Great Western (351 miles), which with
several branches traverses the south-western part of Onta-
rio; the European and North American Railway (108 miles),
which extends from Bangor (Me.), viá St. John, to Point
du Chêne, in New Brunswick; the Nova Scotia Railway
(145 miles), which extends from Halifax to Pictou, on the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, with a branch line (32 miles) from
Halifax to Windsor, on the Bay of Minas; the New Bruns-
wick and Canada Railway (116 miles), which extends from
St. Andrew’s on the sea-coast to Richmond, with branch
lines to St. Stephen, Woodstock, and Houlton. At the be-
ginning of the year 1872 over 3000 miles were in operation,
besides which 1100 more were in the process of construc-
tion, and charters had been obtained for more than 800
miles in addition, apart from the Canadian Pacific Railway,
which is to be 2500 miles long, will connect Lake Nipissing
with some port in British Columbia, and is to be completed
in ten years. The longest among the railways in the course
of construction is the Intercolonial Railway, which will ex-
tend from the Grand Trunk at Rivière du Loup to Truro,
Nova Scotia, a distance of 499 miles. The receipts and
expenditures for the financial year ending June 20, 1870,
amounted to $22,895,077.87, each. The monthly publications
of the revenue and expenditure for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1871, showed a very large surplus of revenue over
expenditure. The debt of the Dominion on July 1, 1870,
amounted to $115,993,706; total assets, $37,783,964; net
debt, $78,209,742. The fisheries of British North America.
are the finest in the world, and inexhaust.ble. The value
of fish exported in 1871 exceeded $7,000,000, and the min-
ister of marine and fisheries states the aggregate annual
value of the fish-product of the provincial fisheries at nearly
$17,000,000. The total exports of Canada in 1870 were
valued at $73,573,540, of which $28,772,312 were exported
to the U. S. The imports for that year amounted to
$71,239,187, of which $24,724,071 were imported from the
U. S. The merchant-navy of the Dominion consisted in
1868 of 5822 vessels, of a total burden of 776,343 tons.
Government.—The constitution of the Dominion, which
was adopted in 1867, is formed after the model of the
mother-country. The Parliament consists of the queen of
Great Britain, an upper house, styled the senate, and a
house of commons. The queen is represented by a gov-
ernor-general, who is appointed by the Crown, and exer-
cises his authority with the aid and advice of a council
appointed by himself. The senate consists of not more than
seventy-two members, who are chosen by the governor-
general, and hold the appointment for life. The house of
commons consists of about 180 members, elected by the
people. Each of the provinces has also its local or pro-
vincial legislature and administration, with a lieutenant-
governor at the head of the executive. The troops main-
tained by the imperial government have been reduced to
5000 men. The militia, which was organized in 1868 by a
statute of the first federal Parliament, consists of all male
British subjects between eighteen and sixty, divided into
an active and a reserve force. In 1870 the number of men
on the rolls was 675,000. The naval forces of Canada in
1871 consisted of eight armed screw steamers, maintained
on the great lakes and the river St. Lawrence, and two
coast-steamers, which are available as gunboats.
History.—The first settlement made by Europeans in
Canada was made in 1541 at St. Croix's Harbor by Jacques
Cartier, a French navigator, who sailed up the St. Lawrence.
The French founded Quebec in 1608, after which numerous
French colonists settled in Lower Canada, near the St. Law-
rence River. The English general Wolfe captured Quebec
in 1759, and the conquest of Canada was completed in 1760.
Upper Canada was settled mostly by English emigrants. In
I791 Canada was divided into two provinces, called Upper
and Lower Canada (afterwards called Canada West and Can-
ada East). Both of these provinces were disturbed by an in-
surrection in 1837, and were reunited in 1840. By an act
of the British Parliament, which was passed Mar. 29, 1867,
and came into force June 1 of that year, the Canadian prov-
inces, Ontario and Quebec, and New Brunswick and Nova
Scotia, were federally united into one Dominion of Canada.
The legislature of Newfoundland declared in favor of
joining the Dominion, but the people, in Nov., 1869, by a
large majority, declared against it. From the Hudson’s
Bay Company the government of the Dominion purchased
in the same year its vast territory. An insurrection of col-
onists and natives, who protested against having their land
treated as a dependent territory, induced the government
to organize in 1870 that part of the newly-purchased terri-
tory which is situated between lon. 96° and 99'W., and the
U. S. boundary-line and lat. 50° 38' N., as an independent
province of the Dominion, under the name of Manitoba.
The immense unorganized territory beyond the limits of
Manitoba is called the North-western Territory. On Mar.
31, 1871, British Columbia was received into the Dominion.
Invasions of Canada by armed Fenians from the U. S. were
attempted in 1866 and 1870, but were repelled without dif-
ficulty. The long-pending controversies with the U. S.
were mostly settled by the Washington treaty of 1871. In
1873 Prince Edward Island joined the Dominion.
A. J. ScHEM.
Canada, a township of Labette co., Kan. Pop. 480.
Canada Baisalm [Lat. Balsamum Canadense] is a
turpentine or oleoresin obtained from the Abies balsamea, a
species of fir which grows in Canada and the U. S., and is
sometimes called balsam fir. It is a pale yellow, trans-
parent liquid, having a peculiar and agreeable odor.
When it exudes from the bark it has the consistence of
honey, but by age and exposure to air it becomes solid. It
is used in medicine, in photography, in mounting objects
for the microscope, and is an ingredient in varnishes. It
is also valuable to opticians, who use it as a cement.
Canada Goose, or Wild Goose (Amser Canaden-
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Canada Goose, or Wild Goose.
sis), an inhabitant of the entire continent of North Amer-
ica, belonging to the order Natatores, family Anatidae, is
thirty-five inches long, brownish above, lighter beneath,
with the head, neck, bill, and feet black. “It spends the
winter in the warmer regions, chiefly in the South-western
States and in the everglades of Florida, but in spring
moves northward in large flocks.” While on the wing the
birds generally arrange themselves in a <-shaped figure
(though sometimes they fly in a straight line), led by an
experienced gander, who frequently gives utterance to his
familiar honk. “ Their spring migrations usually take
place from the 20th of March to the last of April, but are
wholly dependent upon the state of the season. They breed
at the north, and ſinger there till the hard frosts warn
them that the lakes and streams will soon be frozen over.”
While performing their long journeys they usually fly at a
great height, probably a quarter of a mile or more.
Camadian, a township of Mississippi co., Ark. Pop.
330. -
Canadian River rises in the N. E. part of New Mex-
ico, and flows through the N. part of Texas into the Indian
Territory. Its general direction is nearly eastward. After
a course of about 900 miles it enters the Arkansas River
about 50 miles W. of Fort Smith. The North Fork of the
Canadian is sometimes called Rio Nutria. It rises in the
N. E. part of New Mexico, flows in an E. S. E. direction,
and enters the Canadian about 50 miles from its mouth.
Length, estimated at 600 miles.






























































CANADICE—CANALSY OF CANADA, THE.
747
,----
Can/adice, a post-township of Ontario co., N. Y. Pop.
905. -
Canajohar'ie, a post-village and township of Mont-
gomery co., N. Y., on the S. bank of the Mohawk River
and on the Erie Canal, and opposite Palatine Bridge on
the New York Central R. R., 55 miles W. N. W. of Albany.
The village has five churches, an academy, a school district
library of 800 volumes, a weekly paper, two national banks,
a planing mill, two malt-houses and an extensive paper-
bag factory. The township has another academy, six other
churches, six cheese-factories, and a woollen mill. Pop. of
village, 1822; of township, 4256.
ED. “RADIT AND TAx-PAYERs’ Journ AL.”
Canal’, a post-township of Venango co., Pa. P. 1205.
Canal. See INLAND NAVIGATION, by WM. J. McALPINE.
Canal’, or Canalet/to (ANTONIO), an Italian painter,
was born at Venice Oct. 18, 1697. He worked in his native
city, and acquired a high reputation. He painted many
views of Venetian palaces, canals, etc., which are highly
commended by some critics, but others charge him with
mannerism. He is said to have been the first who used
the camera obscura for artistic purposes. Died Aug. 20,
1768.
Canalet/to, a surname of BERNARDO BELOTTO, a Vene-
tian painter, born in 1724. He was a nephew and pupil of
the preceding. He worked in Rome, London, Dresden, and
other places, and excelled in perspective. He painted
many buildings and the environs of cities. Died at War-
saw in 1780.
Canal’ Do’ver, a post-village of Dover township, Tus-
carawas co., O., on the Tuscarawas River, the Ohio Canal,
the Lake Shore and Tuscarawas Valley R. R., and the
Tuscarawas branch of the Cleveland and Pittsburg R. R.
It has several mills and iron-furnaces, and one weekly
paper. Pop. 1593.
Canal’ Ful’ton, a post-village of Stark co., O., on the
Ohio Canal and on the Lake Shore and Tuscarawas Wal-
ley R. R., and on the Tuscarawas branch of the Cleveland
and Pittsburg R. R., 56 miles S. of Cleveland. Pop. 1048.
Canals’ of Can'ada, The, may be classed under the
following heads: - •
1st, The St. Lawrence and lake navigation, including
the Lachine Canal, the Beauharnois, Cornwall, Farran’s
Point, Rapide Plat, and Galops canals, commonly desig-
nated the St. Lawrence canals, in the river St. Lawrence,
surmounting its rapids between Montreal and Kingston;
and the Welland Canal, between Lake Ontario and Lake
Erie, surmounting the falls and rapids of Niagara; to
which may be added the Burlington Bay Canal, through a
sandbar at the mouth of that bay, at the head of Lake
Ontario.
2d, The Ottawa and Rideau navigation, including St.
Anne's Lock, the Carillon, Chute à Blondeau, and Gren-
ville canals, surmounting the rapids of the Ottawa be-
tween Montreal and the city of Ottawa; and the Rideau
Canal, connecting the river Ottawa with the St. Lawrence
at Kingston, through the rivers Rideau and Cataraqui.
3d, The Richelieu and Champlain navigation, being the
St. Ours Lock and Chambly Canal, surmounting obstacles
on the river Richelieu from the St. Lawrence to Lake
Champlain.
4th, The river Trent navigation, consisting of locks and
dams on the river Trent, a large tributäry of Lake Ontario,
extending into the interior of the Newcastle district, orig-
inally proposed as a line of communication with Lake
IHuron. *
5th, The St. Peter's Canal, connecting the Bras d’Or, a
bay of the sea in the interior of the island of Cape Breton,
with St. Peter’s Bay, on the S. coast of the island.
Along with the foregoing may be noticed the following
projected canals: the Caughnawaga Canal, to connect
Lake Champlain with the river St. Lawrence above the
Lachine Rapids; the Ottawa and Huron Canal, to form a
direct and short route between Montreal and Lake Huron
by the Ottawa, and French River; a canal at Sault Ste.
Marie; the Huron and Ontario, or Georgian Bay Canal;
the Bay Vert Canal, from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the
Bay of Fundy; and the Shebandowan and Lake of the
Woods navigation, forming 311 miles of the route from
Lake Superior to Red River.
The canals of Canada derive an extraordinary import-
ance from the vast extent and importance of that great
system of inland navigation, the river St. Lawrence and
its lakes, the obstructions in which they are almost exclu-
sively designed to overcome. -
When we consider the great extent of fertile lands o
the States and provinces adjoining it, and the still vaster
territories behind them of fertile prairies and wooded lands
in the U. S. and Canada, for the traffic of which this great
water-system must be the highway; and also that as the
western extremity of Lake Superior reaches the middle of
the continent, a considerable trade with the Pacific will
naturally be directed to it to gain the advantage of cheaper
transport by water, it will be seen how enormous must be
the amount of future traffic passing through the canals
constructed to avoid or surmount the obstacles in its
COURTSé. -
With the extent and character of the great North-west-
ern States and Territories of the Union the public are
already familiar. The States of Wisconsin, Iowa, Minne-
sota, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, for whose
surplus produce the St. Lawrence and its great lakes are
more or less the natural highway to the ocean and Euro-
pean markets, embrace a grain-growing region unequalled
on this continent, or perhaps in the world. It may be
sufficient to remind the reader that it is but little more than
thirty years since settlement and cultivation had advanced
sufficiently in the territories on the Western lakes to have
any considerable amount of surplus produce to export,
but that their progress since has been so great that in
1871 the grain or its equivalent in flour brought to the five
principal ports on these lakes for shipment amounted to
upwards of 140,000,000 bushels, though the productive
capacity of the region that yielded it is still far from being
fully developed, and the territories in rear of it as yet
comparatively unoccupied. -
The country on the Canadian side of the boundary, being
hitherto much less known, may require a little more notice.
The valley of the Saskatchewan or Nelson River and its
tributaries resembles very much in formation, soil, and
climate, as well as extent, that of the Volga of Russia, the
greatest river in Europe. The region N. W. of it, drained
by the Athabasca and the Peace River, the main arms of
the river Mackenzie, each about a thousand miles in length,
is fully as suitable for settlement; the Peace River country
especially being superior in soil, both richly wooded and
interspersed with rich, well-watered prairies, with a cli-
mate better than that of Red River Settlement or Northern
Minnesota.
The extent of country within the valleys of these three
rivers, and within the limits of successful cultivation of
wheat, estimated on carefully selected evidence confirmed
by recent explorations, is equal to ten times the area of
the State of New York. It is remarkable for the great
extent of very fertile and arable prairie and wooded land
it contains, its vast coal-fields, and its abundance of petro-
leum. Iron ore is found in it, and gold that promises to
afford profitable diggings has recently been definitely as-
certained to exist on Peace River, besides what was already
found on the Saskatchewan.
The cost of transport will no doubt check the exporta-
tion of heavy produce from the remote parts of these ter-
ritories especially; but there are farm products, such as
flax, wool, cured meats, etc., that can be carried with profit
much farther than grain, which has hitherto been the chief
export of the West; and every improvement in our means
of transport, by canals or otherwise, that reduces the cost
of it, will extend the distance from which grain can be ex-
ported. The gold of the mountain countries westward,
alike in the U. S. and Canada, will encourage settlement
and stimulate commerce, compensating as a remittance, in
payment for imports, for the reduced value, as such, of
heavier products. The outward and inward traffic, from
all sources, by the Northern Pacific and Canadian Pacific
R. R.s. will, from the greater economy of transport by water,
to the utmost possible extent, consistent with the destina-
tion of the freight, use the route by the great lakes, the St.
Lawrence, and its canals.
Reverting to the North-west territories of Canada, it may
be worth noticing here, as connected though remotely with
the route by the great lakes and the St. Lawrence as a
commercial highway, that it has been ascertained, by a
recent exploration for the Canadian government by Mr.
Horetzki, C. E., of Ottawa, that the valley of the Peace
River offers a site for the Canadian Pacific Railway pre-
senting several important advantages over any other route
known or surveyed. Its summit-level in passing through
the Rocky Mountains is less than 1700 feet in elevation
over the sea (the Peace River being there large and may-
igable); that is, less than half the summit-elevation of the
Yellow Head Pass, which previously was justly considered
the most favorable known. The Peace River route, by
passing farther N., avoids the exceedingly rugged, almost
insurmountable, region between the Yellow Head Pass and
the Frazer River, the caput mortuum on that route, and
which would entail great crookedness and extraordinary
cost. It also avoids the necessity for bridging that river
and the chasm in which it flows. It has the advantage
also of being free from the heavy falls of Snow which the
other passes at higher levels are subject to; and, as was
748
CANALS OF CANADA, THE.
previously known as to the general character of the coun-
try, traverses to a greater extent the best lands for settle-
ment. - g
From Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie, about 400 miles
N. of this route, that great river is navigable uninter-
ruptedly downward for about 800 miles,” with a depth suffi-
cient for the largest sea-going ships, to the Arctic Sea at
its mouth, where there are whales in great abundance.
The country between the Peace River and Fort Simpson is
generally very fertile, arable land, and two-thirds of it is
within the limits of successful wheat cultivation. Whale-
fishing, as now carried on, has ceased to be profitable,
owing to the competition of mineral and other oils, the in-
creasing scarcity of whales, and their having to be sought
farther into the Arctic, the dangers of the voyage, and the
great distance the oil has to be carried—from the Arctic
within Behring Strait to the Sandwich Islands, and thence
home, in all about 24,000 miles. Were the Mackenzie
connected by rail with the Canada Pacific Railway, the
richest whale-fishing in the world could be rendered avail-
able, and 800 miles of transport on the Mackenzie, where
coal and wood abound for steamers that might be used
with great advantage in the fishing, and 1800 miles by
rail, would bring the products of the fishing to Duluth on
Lake Superior. Though the prospect of such communica-
tion be remote, it may be noticed in considering the area,
for which the St. Lawrence may be the commercial outlet.
The acquisition by Canada of the great territories former-
ly held by the Hudson’s Bay Co., including so much val-
uable country, has greatly changed the position of Canada.
in relation to the improvement of the navigation of the St.
Lawrence. Previously, it might be argued that it was ab-
surd for the Canadian people to task their resources for
the construction of a gigantic system of canals on the St.
Lawrence to render it the great highway of the West, as
the benefit of it would chiefly be to reduce the cost of
transport and increase the value of the produce of the great
Western grain-growing regions of the U. S.; but now that
Canada has acquired an equal share of the vast fertile re-
gions of the West, she has a common interest with the
U. S. in the improvement of that great inland route of nav-
igation, which must more or less be their common outlet.
Though there may be antagonism between rival shipping-
ports and routes of transport on the one side of the inter-
national boundary and the other, and large though such
interests may be, they cannot be considered otherwise than
secondary to that of the millions of producers, present and
future, having a common interest in every work of im–
provement that tends to reduce the cost of transport, and
thereby enhance the value of the products of the great re-
gions of the West. With this view, the canals of Canada.
may be considered of important interest to the American
people, especially now, since the right of using them for
commercial purposes has been secured by the treaty of
Washington.
Before describing the canals of Canada, it may be suit-
able to take a brief view of the general character of the
river St. Lawrence, and of the obstructions in its course
which they are chiefly intended to overcome.
Notwithstanding these obstructions, it has certain speci-
alities as a water-system which otherwise render it pecu-
liarly suitable as a commercial highway for trade of the
greatest magnitude. Its course is so free from minor sinu-
osities that though scarcely 2000 miles in length from its
mouth at Anticosti to the W. end of Lake Superior, it ex-
tends as far into the continent as the Mississippi does with
its course of 3160 miles; the upper part of which, even
where navigable, is of insignificant capacity for transport
compared with the great lakes of the St. Lawrence. Direct-
ness (which means shortness of route) and great capacity
are most important advantages. The great proportion of
it that consists of lakes and wide water—that is, three-
quarters of its whole length—affording sea-room admitting
of free navigation by sailing-vessels, is another important
advantage. So also is the uniform height of its waters;
from their being held in reserve in the great lakes, it
never falls one-twentieth below its mean volume ; and its
navigation is free from all the disadvantages arising from
low water that other rivers are liable to.
Its enormous volume also is attended with an important
commercial advantage in the depth of water it affords on
its rapids, which is such as to admit of large passenger
steamers and lake vessels of 500 or 600 tons, if lightly
loaded, passing as freely down through its vast swaying
surges as the lightest bark carioe of the Indian descends
the rapids of an ordinary river, and with an increased
speed, instead of the delay necessarily attending the pag-
*With the exception of the Stony Rapid above Fort Simpson,
the Mackenzie is navigable throughout its course of 1000 mileš
into Slave Lake.
sage through the canals and locks which are so essential for
vessels going upward. *
The St. Lawrence drains an area of 565,000 superficial
statute miles. The mean volume passing Niagara is given
in the New York State reports as 389,000 cubic feet per
second. But this is the drainage of only 237,300 square
miles of the basin of the St. Lawrence. Before reaching
the Galops Rapid it is augmented by that of the basin of
Lake Ontario and all its tributaries, and has an average
width of about a mile. Before reaching the Lachine Ra-
pids it receives nearly half of the waters of the Ottawa;
the remainder passes N. of the island of Montreal. The
Ottawa, according to the careful measurements taken in
the canal survey of it, has a mean discharge of 83,000
cubic feet per second.ſ -
Between the seaports of Montreal and Quebec the St.
Lawrence has an average width of a mile and three-quar-
ters. Midway it receives the St. Maurice (which discharges
as much water as the Ottawa) and other large tributaries.
From Quebec it increases rapidly in width; below the
island of Orleans, where still fresh water, it is eleven miles
wide. At 100 miles lower it receives the Saguenay, nearly
equal to the Ottawa in volume of discharge, besides other
large rivers below it. Taking the 327,700 square miles of
the basin of the St. Lawrence as yielding as much water
in proportion to its area as the 273,000 above it, the total
discharge of the St. Lawrence past Anticosti must at least
be 926,035 cubic feet per second. But it is known by all
observers that the tributaries of the lower St. Lawrence,
coming from mountainous wooded regions, where the snow
falls from four to eight feet in depth, deliver more water
comparatively than its upper tributaries. With the smallest
addition admissible for that difference, the total discharge
of the St. Lawrence must be upwards of 1,000,000 cubic
feet per second. Darby, the great American hydrographer,
who surveyed the Mississippi, computed the mean dis-
charge of the St. Lawrence as fully one-half greater than
the Mississippi, but afterwards thought he had under-esti-
mated the former. -
Other rivers after their floods shrink to comparative
littleness, but the St. Lawrence flows on at all seasons with
unabated grandeur; and it remains to be determined by
scientific observation how far any other river in the world
exceeds the mass it pours to the Gulf, where the stern
Laurentides and the lofty mountains of Notre Dame faintly
skirt its remote horizon on the one side and the other.
As the treaty of Washington, besides securing the right
of using the canals of Canada, provides that the river St.
Lawrence, to and from the sea, “shall for ever remain free
and open for the purposes of commerce to the citizens of
the U. S.,” the lower course of that river, with which the
treaty secures unbroken communication, may now be con-
sidered as a subject of greater interest to Americans than
heretofore. The right of in-shore fishing in the St. Law-
rence, and the Gulf, and of having fishing establishments
along their coasts, will doubtless lead to great extension of
the fisheries there and business connected with them. As
the provisions necessary for their use can be supplied with
much greater advantage from lake ports by the way of the
St. Lawrence than otherwise, a considerable trade in that
way will no doubt arise. This new interest in the lower
St. Lawrence may justify its being noticed here in connec-
tion with its canals. -
To ascend the St. Lawrence from the Atlantic we traverse
the Gulf for 426 miles from the entrance of the Straits of
Belle-Isle to the mouth of the river St. Lawrence, which
is at an imaginary line from Cape Gaspe to the head of
the island of Anticosti, and thence to the N. shore.
To Quebec, 400 miles, the river is navigable for the largest
ships that float, including the Great Eastern. Thence to
Montreal the distance is 160 miles; midway is Lake St.
Peter. Extensive shoals in the upper part of it had orig-
inally a depth of only 113 feet at low water. A channel has
been dredged through them to the depth of nearly if not
quite 20 feet at low water. It is 11% miles in length and
300 feet wide at bottom. It was begun in 1844, and com-
pleted in 1865, and cost $1,347,018. Many large vessels,
drawing from 18 to 23 feet laden, now ascend to Montreal
harbor. The parliamentary commission recommend deep-
ening this channel to 22, and ultimately to 24 feet.
The seaport of Montreal, 586 miles from the mouth of
the St. Lawrence, is situated at the foot of the Lachine
Rapids, which are surmounted by the Lachine Canal, 8%
miles in length, the first of the series of St. Lawrence
canals. From the head of it, at Lachine, it is 15+ miles
through Lake St. Louis to the “Cascades,” which, together
--- Tº . ~~~~ :=> ---- --- - - -
# This seems an under-calculation, being only two-thirds of
the rate of discharge to its area in proportion to the St. Law-
rence, which, being exposed to much evaporation, should be less
for its area than the Qttawa.
CANALS OF CANADA, THE.
749
with the “Cedars” and “Coteau” Rapids, are overcome
by the Beauharnois Canal, 11+ miles in length. . Thence
through Lake St. Francis it is 32% miles to the foot of the
“Longue Sault” Rapids, which are surmounted by the
Cornwall Canal, 11% miles in length. At 5 miles farther,
ascending the river, is “Farran's Point Rapid’’ and canal,
# of a mile in length. At 10% miles farther by the river is
the “Rapide Plat” and its canal, 4 miles in length. At 4%
miles is Galops Canal, 73 miles in length, surmounting the
“Pointe aux Iroquois,” “Pointe Cardinal,” and “Galops”
Rapids. These, from Farran’s to * “Galops” inclusively,
are called the Williamsburg canals, terminating 73 miles
below Prescott. The descent from the head of the “Galops”
to Montreal harbor, 1114 miles, is 234 feet; Kingston, 178
miles from Montreal, is 59 miles above Prescott. From
Kingston, where we enter Lake Ontario, to Port Dalhousie,
at the foot of the Welland Canal, 27 miles from the head
of that lake, the distance is 170 miles.
By the Welland Canal it is 27 miles to Lake Erie at Port
Colborne, from which to the head of the lake, at the mouth
of the Detroit River, as the entrance of the St. Lawrence
is there called, is 232 miles. The Detroit River, 18 miles,
Lake St. Claire, 25; and St. Claire River, 33 miles, reach to
Lake Huron. *
Lake Huron to its head at river St. Mary is 270 miles in
length, river St. Mary up to the Sault, 47 miles; in all 625
miles of unbroken navigation from the head of the Wel-
land Canal to the Sault Ste. Marie Canal, which is 1 mile
in length; thence it is 7 miles to Lake Superior, which is
390 miles long to Fond du Lac, at the head of it; making
in all the total distance of 2384 miles from the Atlantic at
the entrance of the Straits of Belle-Isle, of which 713 miles
are artificial navigation, and 2312# open navigation.
Reverting to the rapids between Montreal and Kingston,
the navigation of them by steamboats was not attempted
till 1842. Daily passenger steamers have run these rapids
from Kingston to Montreal during open navigation for
many years past. These steamers in returning ascend the
Lachine, Beauharnois, and Cornwall canals, but ascend the
Iroquois Rapid, Rapide Plat, and the Galops without en-
tering the canals. It is not usual for freight vessels to run
the lower rapids; but as the saving of time is very great
in descending the rapids, compared with passing through
the canals at much lower speed, besides detention in lock-
age, the improvement of the channel there necessary, so as
to admit of the largest freight vessels fully laden descend-
ing the rapids at lowest water with perfect safety, has long
been advocated, and is one of the works recommended to
be prosecuted by the canal commission of the Canadian
Parliament in 1871. In the “Galops Rapid’’ there is a
short shoal, having not more than 9 or 10 feet water over
it when lowest. In the “Longue Sault” the water is often
over 50 feet in depth, but there is one shoal in it with only
12 feet of water over it. On the “Coteau Rapid” the depth
is often over 20 feet, but there are two shoals with only
from 7% to 10 feet depth at lowest water. The “Cedars”
are generally 12 to 25 feet in depth, but one or two shoals
have been found with only 9% to 10 feet depth at lowest
water. In the “ Cascades” there is a shoal having 6 or 7
feet in depth in dry weather; this is the shallowest spot in
all the rapids of the St. Lawrence. In the lower part of the
Lachine Rapids there are two shoals having not more than
8 feet over them at lowest water. The cost of completing a
12 to 13 feet channel from Lake Ontario level to Lachine
by blasting has been estimated at $720,000, which probably
might be much reduced by adopting a system of side-dams
to gorge the channel as far as practicable.
Taking the works constructed to surmount the obstacles
in the navigation of the St. Lawrence in the order in which
they have been mentioned, the first is the Lachine Canal.
The Lachine Canal is 84 miles in length, extending
from the harbor of Montreal to the village of Lachine on
Lake St. Louis. It surmounts the St. Louis or Lachine
Rapids. Its construction was urged as a necessity as early
as 1791; a grant by the legislature of £25,000 was obtained
in aid of the project in 1815, on the recommendation of the
governor-general, Sir George Prevost, who considered it
important in a military point of view. In 1819 the grant
of 1815 was repealed, and an act passed incorporating a
joint-stock company for carrying out the design; but it
proved abortive. . In May, 1821, a bill was passed repeal-
ing its incorporation, and authorizing the construction of
it by government in the month of July following. In
1825 the canal was opened for the passage of vessels. Its
dimensions as then constructed were 28 feet in width at
bottom and 48 feet at the water-line, with 43 feet depth of
water. It had seven locks, 100 feet long and 20 wide, built
substantially of stone. The cost of that canal up to Mar.,
1826, was $438,404.15, of which the British government
contributed $50,000 and the province the remainder. This
canal being found insufficient, a little before the union of
the provinces of Lower and Upper Canada, Lieut.-Col.
Phillpotts, R. E., at the instance of Earl Durham, made a
report and estimate for the construction of a new line of
canal, with locks 200 feet by 45, and 9 feet depth of water.
, After careful consideration of what were then considered to
Ye the requirements of the trade of the great lakes, and
with a view of satisfying the wants of Upper Canada, it
was decided that the canal should be continued in the same
site, and that it should be enlarged to its present dimen-
sions (with the exception of the lowest two locks), which
are as follows:
Breadth of the canal at bottom........................
{{ 4 & {{ 120
- Dimensions of locks 200 by 45 “
Depth of water on Sills, 2 locks........................ 16 “
& 4 {{ {{ 3 “ ....................... 9 “
No. of locks...... 5
Total rise of lockage........................................ 44% feet.
Length of Canal............................................. 8% miles.
The two locks of 16 feet depth of water on sills were so
made to allow the largest vessels then trading to Montreal
to enter the first basin of the canal. During the enlarge-
ment navigation was not discontinued, the new locks being
built by the side of the old ones. The total cost of this
work, up to 1st July, 1867, is given, in the report of the
department of works of Canada, for that year, as being
$2,587,532.85; cost since for works and repairs to 1st
July, 1870, $42,640.30. It was not till, early in 1862 that
the excavation of the enlargement was completed to its
full width.
But, though this enlargement has been but so recently
completed, the increase of trade by the St. Lawrence in
the products of the West has been such as again to call for
further enlargement and increased accommodation. It
having been shown in evidence before the Canadian canal
commission of 1871 that the Montreal entrance to this canal
was quite insufficient, especially in view of the enlarge-
ment of the Welland Canal, and even now causing much
delay, and that an additional entrance was necessary, so
as to admit of one being used for vessels ascending and
the other for those descending the canal, contracts have
been entered into for the construction of a new entrance
to the canal, with two locks, and of two new basins, and
for the enlargement of present basin No. 2. One of the
new basins is to be 1250 feet in length and 225 feet in
breadth; the other is to be 540 feet in length by 260 in
breadth. Both are to be 19 feet in depth. The locks are
to be 270 feet long and 45 feet wide, with a depth of 18
feet of water on the mitre sills; the locks, and also the
walls of the basins, to be of the most substantial structure
and best quality of masonry, laid in hydraulic cement
mortar, as usual. This is mentioned as indicating the
common character of work of the Canadian canals. But
though the length of 270 and breadth of 45 feet has been
adopted for these locks, in accordance with the scale rec-
ommended by the Canadian canal commission for the St.
Lawrence canals throughout, as well as the Welland Canal,
the depth of 18 feet is exceptional, 12 feet being the stand-
ard depth recommended' by the commissioners, together
with the improvement of the channel of the St. Lawrence
above Montreal, so as to give 14 feet of water throughout.
The Canadian government will no doubt be governed by
the practicability of obtaining that depth throughout with-
out unreasonable outlay. But the depth of water in the
locks should not be limited to the capacity of lowest water,
but be made to correspond with the greater depth of chan-
nel that may be obtained in future. - -
It is to be observed that the scale of 200 feet by 45,
with 12 feet of water on the sills, recommended by the com-
missioners, will admit vessels of about 1300 tons, instead
of 700, which is the limit of the capacity of the lesser locks
on this canal and others on the St. Lawrence, excepting
the Cornwall Canal. W -
The navigation of the Lachine Canal is open in general
for 210 to 220 days during the year, and may be safely
counted upon from the last week in April to the last week
in November. In some years its period of navigation is
considerably longer. In 1839 it opened on the 11th of
April; in 1852 it was open till, December 16th; in 1849
it was open 234 days. The freight that passes through the
Lachine Canal is much greater than that passing by the
canals between Lake St. Louis and Lake Ontario, as the
trade of the Ottawa and the Rideau Canal joins that of
the St. Lawrence in Lake St. Louis, and the export of sawn
lumber from the Ottawa is very great. •
The next in succession of the St. Lawrence canals is the
Beauharnois Canal, 113 miles in length, connecting Lake
St. Louis with Lake St. Francis, and surmounting the
“Cascades,” “Cedars,” and “Coteau” rapids. Previous to .
the construction of the Beauharnois Canal four short canals
had been made which admitted of boats carrying thirty
750
CANALS OF CANADA, THE.
barrels of flour, descending from Lake St. Francis to Lake
St. Louis. Several small improvements were subsequently
made on this part of the navigation of the St. Lawrence.
In 1833 the increasing importance of the subject led the
government of Lower Canada to appoint commissioners
for the improvement of the navigation from Lake St. Louis
to Lake St. Francis. Their engineer, Mr. Mills, made a
survey with that view, and his reports and plans, which
were for the construction of three short canals at the rapids,
were approved of by a committee of the house of assembly,
who recommended a grant of $960,000 for that purpose.
The report, however, fell to the ground, and in 1839 Col.
Phillpotts, before mentioned, recommended a canal on the
N. side of the river for military reasons. After other proj-
ects had been entertained and abandoned, the present site,
on the S. side, after much discussion, was adopted as the
most favorable, on the recommendation of the chief en-
gineer of the department of public works of Canada, and
in 1842 contracts were entered into for the construction of
it. The canal was opened at the close of the season of
1845, but it was found that its upper entrance was imper-
fect, its channel crooked, too shallow in dry seasons, and
impeded by cross currents. On account of these and other
difficulties, in the course of years up to a recent date con-
siderable sums have been expended in constructing dams,
regulating weirs, and dykes to give the required facilities
for the trade passing through it, and the original difference:
of opinion as to which side is the best canal route exists up
to this day. The work, however, was constructed in the
same substantial manner and superior quality of masonry
and workmanship as the Lachine Canal.
The present dimensions of the Beauharnois Canal are as
follows: -
Breadth at bottom......................................... 80 feet
t{ “ surface......................................... 120 “
Length of canal............................................. 11+ miles
Total rise of lockage...................................... 82; feet
Dimensions of locks............................... 200 by 45 “
No. of locks 9; depth of water on sills 9 feet.
Total cost to 1st July, 1867, $1,611,424.11; works and re-
pairs since to 1st July, 1870, $26,120.03.
The navigation of this canal is open on an average for
221 days of the year, opening about the 20th of April and
closing about the 28th of November. Earliest opening on
record, 12th of April; latest, 5th of May. Earliest closing,
24th of November; latest, 13th of December.
The Cornwall Canal is the next in ascending the St.
Lawrence. It is on the N. side of the river, and extends
from the town of Cornwall. It is 11% miles in length, and
surmounts the Longue Sault Rapids. This is the first of
the St. Lawrence canals that was constructed on the present
scale. In 1817 the governor of Upper Canada called the
attention of the legislature of that province to the import-
ance of improving the navigation of the river below Pres-
cott, which is situated a few miles above the head of the
rapids of the St. Lawrence. In 1818 a joint commissión
was appointed by the governments of Upper and Lower
Canada, and reported favorably on the subject, recommend-
ing the construction of small canals of 4 feet depth of
water. In this report the cost of transport from Montreal to
Prescott, a distance of 119 miles, is stated as being then $16
a ton, and thence to Niagara, $8. Nothing further was done
till 1826, when, at the instance of the legislature of Upper
Canada, a report was laid before it with estimates for such
canals, and also others of larger dimensions, 8 feet in depth.
In 1832 an appropriation was made for a scale of canals 9
feet in depth. In 1834 the work was put under contract,
but its progress was retarded by the insurrection and finan-
cial difficulties, and it was not completed till 1843. This
canal is similar in construction to the others already de-
scribed, excepting that instead of striking back for a direct
route, it winds along the shore of the river, having neces-
sarily heavy embankments towards it, in which breaks have
taken place that have been repaired at considerable cost.
Its present dimensions are:
Breadth at bottom.......................................... 100 feet.
{ at Water-surface................................. 150 “
Length............................................................ 11% miles.
Locks, 7 in number.................................. 200 by 55 feet.
Depth of water on sills.................................... 9 “
Total lockage............. tº a 48 “
Cost to 1st July, 1867, $1,933,152.69; cost since for works
and repairs to 1st July, 1870, $46,962.79.
On an average this canal is open for 230 days of the year,
opening about four days sooner and closing as much later
than the Cornwall Canal. It has been known to open as
early as the 7th of April, and the latest closing was on the
18th of December.
The next in the order of succession are the Farran’s
Point, “Rapide Plat,” and “Galops” canals, known col-
lectively as the Williamsburg canals.
Farran’s Point Canal commences 5 miles above the head
of the Cornwall Canal. It surmounts the Farran’s Point
Rapid, and is only three-quarters of a mile in length. Its
dimensions are : / -
Breadth at bottom............................................. 50 feet.
{ % at Water-surface 90
1 lock.................. 200 by 45 “
Total rise of lockage.......................................... 4 “
Depth of water on sills 9 “
Less breadth was considered necessary for this canal
than the others below it, as it is used principally by ves-
sels ascending. Descending vessels run down the rapids
with ease and safety. Though proposed and surveys made
of a site for it, this canal was not commenced till four years
after the union of Upper and Lower Canada. It was com-
pleted for traffic in Oct., 1847. -
The “Rapide Plat” Canal commences 10% miles above
the head of Farran’s Point Canal. It surmounts the rapids
after which it is named. Its other dimensions are the same
as the preceding; it is narrow in width for the same reason.
It has two locks, and a total lockage of 11% feet.
The “Galops” Canal commences 43 miles above the
“Rapide Plat” Canal. It surmounts the rapids at “Pointe
aux Iroquois” and the “Galops.” It originally was in
two parts, that were opened in Sept., 1847. The connect-
ing portion was completed in 1856. It is 73 miles in
length. Its other dimensions are the same as the two pre-
ceding, for the same reason. It has three locks, and a
total lockage of 15% feet. y
These three canals are on an average open for navigation
233 days in the year; the dates of opening and closing close-
ly resemble those given for the Cornwall Canal. The total
cost of these three canals to 1st July, 1867, was $1,320,655.54;
cost since for repairs to 1st July, 1870, $20,975.60.
For the year to 30th June, 1872, on the St. Lawrence
canals, including the Lachine Canal:
The total of tolls accrued was......#84,675.09
Of tonnage of vessels passed...... {*:::::: #. Gºgºdian vessels.
Of goods transported, tons............ 940,645
The Welland Canal is the next that occurs in ascending
the St. Lawrence navigation. The distance to it from the
last is 226 miles. It is the most important of Canadian
canals. It leaves Lake Ontario at Port Dalhousie, 12 miles
westward of the mouth of the Niagara River, and at Port
Colborne, 17 miles westward of the head of that river,
it enters Lake Erie, surmounting the falls and rapids of
Niagara. Its length, apart from that of its branches, is
27 miles.
In 1816 the project of connecting these lakes by a canal
was first taken into consideration, and reported upon by a
committee of both houses of the Upper Canada. Parliament.
In 1821 a commission appointed to consider the subject
of inland navigation reported favorably upon it, and sug-
gested the formation of a commission to carry out the
work. This led to the incorporation of a company, on the
petition of W. H. Merritt and others, in 1824, who proposed
constructing a combined canal and railway, the canal to
admit of passing boats of 40 tons. In 1825 this scheme
was abandoned, and another adopted of connecting the
Welland River with Lake Ontario by a canal, with wooden
locks 110 feet by 22, and 8 feet of water on the sills, to
admit of the passage of sloops and schooners. The com-
pany went into operation in 1825 with limited capital and
partial assistance from the imperial and provincial govern-
ments, encountering many difficulties, financial and phys-
ical; among others, a land-slide caused them to abandon
the river Welland as a feeder and adopt the Grand River
instead of it. In 1829 water was let into the canal, and
two schooners ascended by it to the river Welland. Subse-
quently, the company obtained an extension of capital, and
adopted the design of carrying the canal over the Welland
River to Port Colborne, nearly on its present site, which
was completed accordingly in 1833, but with small wooden
locks. In 1839 an act was passed authorizing government
to purchase all the private stock, which was not done till
1841, when the canal was placed under the board of works
of Canada, and the enlargement of it decided upon. It
was determined to rebuild all the locks in stone, 120 feet
by 24, with 8% feet water; the aqueduct to be rebuilt in
stone; the Grand River feeder to be converted into a navi-
gable canal; the harbors of Port Colborne and Port Dal-
housie, one lock at the former and two at the latter, to be
200 feet by 45, with 9 feet of water; the Port Maitland
branch to be constructed with a similar lock at its Lake
Erie entrance. This led to the works being carried out in
their present dimensions, which are as follows, the main
line from Lake Ontario to Lake Erie :
Length of canal.
3 pairs of guard gates.
27 miles 1099 feet.
2 lift-locks............ ...200 by 45 feet.
24 “ ............. 150 by 26; “
1 “ 230 by 45 “
CANALS OF CANADA, THE.
751
Total rise of lockage to Lake Erie............ 330 feet,
8 feet by 2 feet Grand River level............ 16 “
Total lockage up and down...................................... 346 feet.
Depth of Water on Sills........................................... 10+ “
. For 14 miles the summit-level is 8 feet above Lake Erie,
making 16 feet of lockage up and down, in addition to the
difference in level of 330 feet between the lakes. The sum-
mit-level receives the branch from Grand River, which is
the feeder of the main canal, besides being a navigable arm
of it. But as the supply from it is found inadequate to
meet the requirements of the steadily increasing traffic, the
Iowering of this summit-reach to the level of Lake Erie,
which is to be the feeder of the canal, has been for some
years in progress.
The breadth of the main canal varies in different parts
of it from 26 feet at bottom and 66 at surface to 70 feet at
bottom and 110 at surface. The enlargement of this canal
to a uniform scale of dimension of 100 feet breadth at bottom
and 12 to 13 feet depth of water, with locks of 270 feet in
length between the gate-quoins, and 45 feet in breadth,
with 12 feet depth of water on the sills, has been decided
upon in accordance with the recommendation of such di-
mensions by the Canada canal commission of 1871, as a
general scale to be adopted throughout all the Canadian
canals on the St. Lawrence navigation. In pursuance of
this decision, the Canadian government has advertised for
tenders to be received on Oct. 18, 1873, for the enlargement
and deepening to the above dimensions of a great part of this
canal (including the Deep Cut, which is 1% miles in length
and 60 feet deep in parts), together with the construction
of new portions of canal between Thorold and Port Dal-
housie, and of fourteen new locks of the above size and
depth, and their weirs; and also for the deepening and en-
Iargement of Port Colborne. When enlarged to this the
Welland Canal will admit of vessels of 1300 tons burden
passing through it.
The existing twenty-seven lift-locks and their weirs, and
three guard-locks, are all substantially constructed of du-
rable stone masonry, excepting a guard-lock at Port Rob-
inson, which is of wood and masonry. There is on it a
substantial stone aqueduct, which carries this canal over
the river Welland. A lock into the Welland above the
aqueduct, and the connection by another below Port Rob-
inson, enable vessels to pass down that river without serious
obstruction from the aqueduct.
The Welland Canal has two branches—the Welland
River or Chippewa branch, and the Grand River feeder;
the latter has a short branch connecting it near its termina-
tion with Port Maitland on Lake Erie. The Welland Riv-
er or Chippewa branch descends from the main line into the
Welland River by means of a lock at Port Robinson. The
river Welland is then descended 8% miles, with a short cut
to the Niagara River at Chippewa. The canalling on this
branch consists of
The cut from Port Robinson to Welland River 2622 feet.
Length of lock above aqueduct........................ 300 “
“ “ Chippewa Cut to Niagara River....... 1020 “
2 locks, each................................................... 150 by 26; “
Depth of water on sills................................... 9 feet 10 inches.
The Grand River feeder is 26 feet wide at bottom and
60 to 70 at the surface, and 8 feet deep. It taps the Grand
River at Dunnville, where a dam 564 feet long raises the
water of the river, making it navigable for 16 miles up to
Cayuga.
Length of Grand River feeder..................... 21 miles.
Locks 1 of..................... ...............------------. 150 by 26; feet.
*it of..............................….......…. 200 by 45 “
Depth of water on Sills................................ 10; “
Total rise of lockage.................................... 7 to 8 “
Its branch to Port Maitland is 13 miles long, with one
lock of 185 by 45 feet, and 11 feet depth of water on sills,
with a total lift of 8% feet. º -
For the year ending June 30, 1872, on the Welland
Canal— \
The total of tolls accrued was. $254,781.92. *
Oftonnage of vessels passed..... § #. tºº Mºses.
Of goods transported, tons...... 1,319,356
The total cost of the Welland Canal and its branches to
July 1, 1867, was $7,638,239.83; cost since to July 1, 1870,
for works and repairs, $224,375.07.
It is on an average open for 241 days in the year. Its
earliest opening on record was 25th of March; the latest,
5th of May. Its earliest closing, 15th of November; its
latest, 19th of December. -
The Burlington Bay Canal is generally classed in the St.
Lawrence navigation. It is merely a cutting of half a mile
in length through a piece of low land which separates Lake
Ontario from a large sheet of deep water, called Burling-
ton Bay, at the W. end of it. It enables vessels to reach
the city of Hamilton and the Desjardin Canal (a deepen-
ed channel), the property of a private company, leading
up 5 miles to the town of Dundas. The canal is navigable
for vessels drawing 12 feet of water; its width is from 108
to 138 feet between the piers on each side of it, that are of
cribwork filled with stone. The outer end of the S. pier
extends 300 feet into Lake Ontario. This work was begun
in 1843; the upper part of the piers has been rebuilt since
1855. The total cost of this canal to July 1, 1867, was
$432,684.40; cost since to July 1, 1870, for repairs, $682.53.
This completes the list of existing Canadian éanals on
the St. Lawrence and its lakes. •
The second part of the canals of Canada that presents
itself for consideration is the Ottawa and Rideau naviga-
tion, which includes the St. Anne's, Carillon, Chute à Blon-
deau, and Grenville canals on the Ottawa, surmounting the
rapids on that river between Montreal and the city of Otta-
wa, and the Rideau Canal, connecting the Ottawa with the
St. Lawrence, at Kingston, by the rivers Rideau and Cat-
araqul.
The Lachine Canal already described forms the first link
in this line of navigation, as it serves alike the traffic of
the Ottawa and the St. Lawrence between Lake St. Louis,
where these rivers meet, and the harbor of Montreal. From
the head of the Lachine Canal, 8% miles from Montreal,
there is a channel of fifteen feet and upwards in depth, but
crooked in parts, through Lake St. Louis for fifteen miles,
nearly to the St. Anne's lock. The formation of a new and
direct channel of 120 feet in width and of ample depth,
flanked with a guide-pier of cribwork, through the shoal
below the entrance, has been contracted for and is in
progress.
St. Anne’s Canal is situated on the N. side of a channel
of the Ottawa between Ile Perrot and the head of the isl-
and of Montreal. It overcomes a short rapid with a fall
of 3 feet, the difference of level between Lake St. Louis
and the Lake of the Two Mountains above it. The canal
is half a mile in length, and the lock is 190 feet by 45, and
has a depth of from 6 to 7 feet of water on the sill. It is
built of substantial masonry. The lock was contracted for
in 1840, and opened for use in 1843. The total cost of these
works to July 1, 1867, was $134,456.51; cost since to July
1, 1870, for repairs, $3528.44. w
For the year to June 30, 1872, on St. Anne's lock—
The total of tolls accrued was. $2,991.98 .
Of tonnage of vessels passed..... 3,460 in U. S. vessels.
91,425 in Canadian vessels.
Tons of goods transported......... 100,865
It is generally open from the last week in April to the last
week in November.
From St. Anne's lock, with the exception of the imper-
fect upper entrance to it, and a shoal with 13 feet of water
a little above it, the Lake of the Two Mountains is 20 to
30 feet deep ; the distance through it and a short part of
the Ottawa, above it to the foot of the Carillon Canal is 27
miles. e -
The “Carillon,” “Chute a Blondeau,” and “Grenville.”
canals were constructed by the imperial government of
Great Britain. They were projected in 1819, but it was
not till April, 1834, that the Grenville Canal, the latest of
them in being completed, was opened for navigation. In
1856 they were transferred to the province of Canada. It
would be difficult to ascertain the cost of the original con-
struction of these works under the direction of the royal
staff corps. The expenditure upon them by the provincial
government up to 30th June, 1867, was $63,053.64.
The Carillon Canal, as it at present exists, is of the fol-
lowing dimensions:
Breadth at bottom.... 30 feet
“ “ surface ................................. 44
Length of canal...................................... 2# miles.
3 locks, two rising ; in all ....................... 21% feet.
one falling.................................. 13 “
Total rise............................................... 83 “
3
Dimensions of locks from 126% to 128 by 32% “
Depth of water on Sills........................... 6
All built of substantial masonry.
The inadequacy of this canal for the requirements of the
increasing trade of the Ottawa, the lockage up and down
of 34% feet to overcome a rise of 8% feet, and the insuffi-
ciency of the supply by the summit-feeder were reasons
for abandoning the present canal; especially as, in accord-
ance with the recommendation of the canal commission of
1871, the Canadian government decided on adopting an
increased scale of dimensions for the Ottawa canals, with
locks of 200 feet by 45, and 9 feet depth of water on the
sills, and as the designed improvement could be better.
effected by damming the rivers.
Acting accordingly, the Canadian government has (in
1873) contracted for the construction of a wooden dam
across the Ottawa on the Carillon Rapids of sufficient
height to flood them out, and also the Chute à Blondeau
Rapids, with three-quarters of a mile of canal, with two
752
CANALS OF CANADA, THE.
locks descending from it, on the N. side, and a raft-slide
220 feet in width and 550 long on the S. side. The locks
are to be built of the above dimensions and of the most
substantial masonry. The canal is to be made by embank-
ment in the river-bed, faced with substantial masonry, and
all to be completed by the 1st of Nov., 1875. This dam
will afford an enormously great and very available water-
power in a commanding position on a great line of naviga-
tion. But the chief advantage of it is that by flooding
out both of these rapids it will supersede the “Carillon”
and “Chute à Blondeau’’ canals, and the necessity of en-
larging them; and by substituting its lockage of 12% feet
and the broad river for the narrow canals and their 38%
feet of lockage, it will much reduce the time of vessels
passing.
The “ Chute à Blondeau.” Canal commences 4 miles above
the head of the present Carillon Canal. It surmounts the
rapid of that name, and is half a mile long, cut through
solid rock, on the N. side of the river. It is 30 feet in
breadth at top and bottom, has one lock, 130; feet by 32;
at the upper and 36% at the lower end, and 6 feet depth of
water on the sills. The total rise of lockage is 33 feet.
The Grenville Canal commences 13 miles above the pre-
ceding. It is 5% miles long, and surmounts the “Longue
Sault” Rapid. As originally constructed, its breadth at
bottom was from 20 to 30 feet and at surface 30 to 60 feet,
but much of it has been very recently enlarged. It has
seven locks. The first and second are combined, and also
the third and fourth. They vary from 128 to 130 feet by 31;
to 32}, with 64 feet of water on sills. The remaining three
locks originally were about 107 feet by 19, with 6 feet of
water on sills, but two of them have been already rebuilt
on the enlarged scale of 200 feet by 45, with 9 feet of water
on sills, recommended for the Ottawa, and the third is now
being so enlarged. The total rise of lockage is 45% feet.
The cost of these three canals since their transfer to
Canada, to 1st July, 1867, was $63,053.64; for repairs and
work to 1st July, 1870, $47,034.56.
The navigation of the Ottawa and the works upon it are
noticed so fully here because they form part of the pro-
posed Ottawa and Huron navigation, which, when the
Caughnawaga Canal is constructed between Lake Cham-
plain and Lake St. Louis, will offer by far the shortest and
apparently the most advantageous line of navigation be-
tween New York and Chicago. These Ottawa canals are
generally open from the 25th of April to the 30th of No-
vember. -
From the head of the Grenville Canal to the entrance
of the Rideau Canal, at the city of Ottawa, is, by the course
of the river, 56 miles, making a total distance of 120 miles
from the city of Montreal. The ordinary breadth of the
river between Grenville and Ottawa is about half a mile,
and its depth of channel 30 feet, excepting one short shoal
of 8 feet at low water.
The Rideau Canal is 126% miles in length. From Ottawa
to Kingston it is a system of continuous slack-water navi-
gation, obtained by damming the rivers Rideau and Cat-
araqui between the river Ottawa and Lake Ontario. . It
was constructed by the British government, chiefly with a
view to the defence of the province, by securing, in connec-
tion with the Ottawa, an interior route of water-communi-
cation between Montreal and Lake Ontario, avoiding alike
the rapids of the St. Lawrence and the danger in time of
war of transporting stores along that river where it formed
the international boundary. Though fortunately never
required for use under such circumstances, it was of great
use commercially to the provinces from 1834, when the
Ottawa canals were first opened to the public, till the open-
ing of the St. Lawrence canals. Steamers with long lines
of barges with up-freights ascended to Kingston by the
Ottawa and Rideau, and the barges returned down through
the St. Lawrence laden to Montreal. Since the opening
of the St. Lawrence canals that traffic has been altogether
discontinued, and the Rideau Canal has become of com-
paratively little importance. With respect to the Ottawa
canals the case is otherwise in a very great degree, owing
to the growth of the city of Ottawa, the progress of settle-
ment, and the great development of the lumber-trade of
the Ottawa, especially the manufacture of sawn lumber.
During the year ending on 30th June, 1872, the traffic
through the Ottawa and Rideau canals amounted to up-
wards of 500,000 tons, three-fourths of which was sawn
lumber.
For the year to 30th June, 1872, on the Ottawa and
Rideau Canals—
The total of tolls accrued was....#38,017.14
Of tonnage of vessels passed....... ; #. ºels.
Of goods transported, tons............ 519,040
The construction of the Rideau Canal was first taken
into consideration in 1814, after various reports and proj-
ects respecting it had been submitted. The construction
of it was decided on by the British government in 1825.
In Sept., 1826, Colonel By was sent out to superintend
the work, and on the 21st of the same month the excava-
tion for ten locks was begun. It was completed and
opened to the public in the spring of 1832. The works are
all of the most substantial description, no expense being
spared in their construction. -
The length of the Rideau Canal from Ottawa to Kings-
ton is 1263 miles, but the total length of actual canals con-
necting the slack-water reaches is only 8% miles. It has
forty-seven locks, of which thirty-three ascend 282+ feet
from the Ottawa level to Rideau Lake, the summit, from
which fourteen locks descend 164 feet to the Lake Ontario
level at Kingston. The locks are all of the most sub-
stantial masonry, 134 feet by 33, with 5 feet of water on
the sills. The breadth of the canal cuttings is at bottom
60 feet in earth and 54 in rock; at surface of water it is 80
feet in earth and 54 in rock. The line throughout admits
of vessels passing of 43 feet draft. Between Ottawa and
the summit there are seven stone dams, from 200 to 548
feet in length and from 5 to 29 feet in height, and 11 of
wood or earth, from 108 to 1616 feet long and 6 to 45 in
height. Between the summit and Kingston there are four
stone dams, 130 to 300 feet long and from 16 to 60 feet
high. The extent of flooded lands caused by the dams and
the broad lakes upon the line of the Rideau Canal made it
impracticable to have a towpath along it.
The total cost of it to 1st July, 1867, was $4,064,764.47,
of which the original outlay by the imperial government
was £758,966 12s. 11%d. Sterling, apart from land damages.
This canal was transferred to the Canadian government in
I856, and the cost for works and repairs from 1st July,
1867, to 1st July, 1870, was $58,666.51.
The distance from Montreal to Kingston is 683 miles
longer by the Ottawa, and the Rideau Canal than by the
St. Lawrence. The Rideau Canal is generally opened in
the last week of April, and closed at the end of November.
3. The Richelieu and Champlain navigation is the next
to be considered. -
The river Richelieu enters the St. Lawrence 46 miles
below Montreal. It is rendered navigable from the St.
Lawrence to Lake Champlain by a dam and lock at St.
Ours, 14 miles above its mouth, and a canal of 12 miles in
length 32 miles farther up the river, known as the Chambly
Canal.
The St. Ours Locks and Dams.-At St. Ours the river
divides into two deep channels. In the eastern channel a
lock in cut stone, with a dam 300 feet long of earthwork,
has been constructed, and in the western channel a dam
600 feet long, of cribwork filled with stone, has been made.
The length of canal is one-eighth of a mile. The lock is
200 feet by 45, with 7 feet water on the sills at lowest; its
total lift is 5 feet. These works raise the river from 4 to
7 feet above its natural level, and give a depth of not less
than 7 feet up to the entrance of the Chambly Canal. They
were commenced in 1844, and finally completed in 1851.
The Chambly Canal is 12 miles in length. It has nine
locks of cut stone, varying from 118 to 125 feet in length
and about 23% feet in width, with 7 feet of water on their
sills. The total rise is 74 feet. The canal is 36 feet wide
at bottom and 60 at the surface of the water.
The construction of this canal commenced in Oct., 1831.
After much delay in the progress of the work the charge
of it was assumed by the department of public works of the
united provinces, and in 1843 it was opened for use. The
lock walls having proved weak, and the excavation of the
canal being imperfect, an expenditure of $69,758 was found
necessary for completing and repairing the work.
The account of cost of the St. Ours and Chambly canals
is undivided in the public accounts. The total expenditure
before and since the union of the provinces, up to 1st July,
1867, is given by the department of public works report
as $756,249.41, of which $634,711.76 is stated to be for the
Chambly Canal and $121,537.65 for the St. Ours works.
The further cost for repairs to 1st July, 1870, for the St. Ours
locks is $3159.24, and for the Chambly Canal, $43,179.38.
For the year to 30th June, 1872, on these works—
The total of tolls accrued was....#30,610.38
Of tonnage of vessels passed..... *::::: #. ºdian veſſels.
Of tons of goods transported......346,148
The St. Ours lock generally opens about the middle of
April and closes in the beginning of December. The
Chambly Canal closes about the same time, but opens a
little later. w
The trade of the Richelieu Canal is steadily increasing,
being swollen by sawn lumber from the Ottawa, passing
through to Lake Champlain for markets in the U. S. It is
now taxed to nearly its utmost capacity of transport; dur-
ing the year to 30th June, 1872, the freight that passed
CANALS OF CANADA, THE.
753
through it amounted to 346,128 tons. This large trade will
continue till the Caughnawaga Canal from the St. Lawrence
to Lake Champlain is constructed. Then the Ottawa lum-
ber will go by it instead of the Richelieu ; the latter, how-
ever, will still have the transport of lumber from the St.
Maurice and other tributaries of the St. Lawrence below
Montreal, which will steadily increase, as the exhaustion
of the pine forests will bring the spruce lumber of Lower
Canada, more into demand.
The Canadian canal commission have recommended the
enlargement of the Chambly Canal locks to the Ottawa
standard of 200 feet by 45, which doubtless will be done
before long in the required rebuilding of them.
4. The river Trent navigation is the next subject in suc-
cession. It has to be noticed separately, not from its im-
portance, but because it does not properly come under any
other head. - *
The river Trent discharges into the Bay Quinté, Lake
Ontario, about 67 miles above Kingston. It was originally
proposed to form a line of slack-water navigation by it and
the lakes of the New Castle district of Upper Canada through
to Lake Huron, as a means of shortening the distance by
water from Kingston to the far West. But that idea had
to be abandoned, as the summit-level was found to have an
elevation at Balsam Lake of 589% feet, and the route is so
crooked as to be more than double the direct one of 112
miles from Kingston to Lake Huron. In Feb., 1833, how-
ever, the legislature of Upper Canada appointed commis-
sioners and authorized the raising of a loan for the im-
provement of this route, as a line of inland communication
and for the descent of timber, as far as Lake Scugog, a dis-
tance of 190 miles, including the length of that lake. Work
was commenced in 1833, and a short piece of canal and a
wooden lock (since rebuilt in stone) were completed in 1855
at the rapid below Sturgeon Lake, 140 miles up the route,
which permitted vessels navigating Chemong, Buckhorn,
and Pigeon lakes to pass through Sturgeon Lake up to the
town of Lindsay. *
Afterwards several grants of money were obtained, and
dams and other works constructed. After the union of the
provinces various unfinished works were completed and
others made, including four stone locks, 133 feet by 33,
with 6 feet of water on the sills, and one of wood; also
nine dams, one of which is of stone, and some short pieces
of canal.
The total expenditure on these works, apart from timber-
slides, roads, and bridges, up to 1st July, 1867, amounts to
$319,371.31. There is no account of tolls and tonnage in
the public accounts for the Trent navigation.
Steamers navigate the upper lakes above mentioned,
chiefly for the towing of rafts and other purposes of the
lumber-trade. Of the whole distance of 190 miles to the
head of Scugog Lake, 1524 miles are navigable, and 37}
not practicable, even for boats. The Peterboro’ and Port
Hope Railway has diverted traffic from part of this route,
and for some years the works were neglected. The open-
ing and closing of this navigation may be taken to be nearly
the same as of the Rideau Canal.
5th. The St. Peter's Canal is the only existing Canadian
eanal remaining to be noticed. It is the only canal in ac-
tual operation in the maritime provinces of Canada. It
connects the Bras d’Or Lake of Cape Breton with the At-
lantic at St. Peter’s Bay on the S. coast of that island. The
Bras d’Or is a large landlocked arm of the sea in the in-
terior of the island. It is 60 miles long from its entrance
on the N. E. coast to its southern extremity, and 15 miles
in greatest breadth. It has several bays or arms that reach
far inland in different directions. Its southern extremity
reaches within half a mile of St. Peter's Bay, and it is
across this narrow isthmus that the St. Peter's Canal is cut.
The project of constructing this canal was adopted by
the legislature as designed by Captain Barry, and the work
commenced in Sept., 1854. It was suspended for a time,
and resumed at the instance of the Cape Breton represent-
atives in 1864. It was handed over to the Dominion in
1867. It is 2400 feet in length and 26 feet wide at bottom.
It has one tidal lock 122 feet by 26, with 13 feet depth of
water on the sills at lowest tide. The lock has four pairs
of gates. The extreme rise and fall of the tide in St. Peter's
Bay is 9 feet. The total cost of it up to 30th June, 1870,
was $302,037.53, including $138,433.09 since confederation
for further work.
The Bras d’Or and its arms abound in fish, and the sur-
rounding country is rich in mineral and agricultural re-
sources. The traffic on this canal during the year ending
30th. June, 1871, consisted of 656 vessels, freighted with
coal, limestone, marble, fish, and flour, making an aggre-
gate of 26,757 tons; besides 262 open boats. The canal
opens about the 20th of April, and closes about the last of
December.
The projected canals of Canada claim consideration, not
only for the unusual magnitude of most of them as en-
gineering works, and the importance of the objects to be
attained by them, but especially because they are all cal-
culated more or less to benefit the people of the U. S. by
giving them improved outlets for the products of the great
West, and otherwise facilitating their commerce and fish-
eries—some of them, indeed, to a greater degree than they
can benefit the Canadian people. This is decidedly the
case as to the Caughnawaga, Canal. It was first brought
prominently before the public by Messrs. John Young, L.
H. Holton, and other merchants of Montreal in 1848. Mr.
J. B. Mills, by direction of the governor-general, made a
survey and reported in favor of a line from the Indian vil-
lage of Caughnawaga, on the St. Lawrence opposite the
head of the Lachine Canal, to St. John on the Richelieu, at
the head of the Lake Champlain navigation. It was re-
commended by the commissioner of the public works in
1852, but no action was taken about it by government, ex-
cepting the obtaining of further surveys and reports by
Mr. Jarvis and others of various routes. In 1870, at the
instance of Mr. Young and others, a bill was passed incor-
porating a company to build the Caughnawaga Ship Canal
from Lake St. Louis on the St. Lawrence to Lake Cham-
plain, the locks not to be less than those of the Beauharnois
Canal—that is, 200 feet by 45—and 9 feet of water on the
sills; the canal to be completed in five years, otherwise the
charter to expire.
Lake Champlain is only 29 feet above the St. Lawrence
at Caughnawaga in Lake St. Louis. One of the proposed
routes would be about 34% miles long, with Lake Champlain
as its summit-level and feeder; another of 25% miles in
length would have its summit 37% feet above Lake Cham-
plain, with a feeder from the St. Lawrence; and a third
route, 37% miles long, would connect Lake Champlain with
the lower part of the Beauharnois Canal, of which it would,
in a manner, form a branch. The opening of this canal
would have very important results. It would very greatly
benefit and expand the lumber-trade of the Ottawa. Its
sawn lumber in barges, on reaching the mouth of the Ottawa
in Lake St. Louis, instead of descending the Lachine Canal
and St. Lawrence, 55 miles, and ascending the Richelieu and
its canals, 58 miles, to St. John’s, would pass from Lake St.
Louis to St. John’s, 28 miles, or thereby, by this canal,
saving about 85 miles in distance and 86 feet of lockage.
During the year ending June 30, 1869, 220,000,000 feet of
sawn lumber passed down through the Ottawa canals, be-
sides what descended through the rapids; 150,000,000 of
this probably passed by the Richelieu to Lake Champlain.
Had the Caughnawaga Canal been in operation, the sav-
ing by it on the freight on that quantity would have been,
at reasonable rates, $100,000, besides a corresponding re-
duction in the cost of transport of return cargoes of coal
and other merchandise. When it is made and in operation,
much inferior timber, and of various kinds, that would
not now pay its freight, will be manufactured and taken to
market with profit. ;
When the New York Champlain Canal is enlarged and
this canal opened, they, with the enlarged Welland Canal,
will no doubt form a more eligible route for the trans-
port of the grain of the West to New York than the Erie
Canal ever can, even if it were enlarged to the utmost ca-
pacity its summit-supply of water will permit. It is true
that the distance from Lake Erie to New York will be
about 217 miles longer by this route than by the Erie
Canal, but as the Welland and the St. Lawrence canals,
when enlarged on the scale begun, will pass vessels of 1300
tons (the latter already can pass vessels of 700 tons, and
one passed in 1872 of 760), the much quicker trips, far less
lockage, and the great economy of the very much larger
cargoes, either by propellers or barges going through to
New York without transshipment at Albany, must obviously
give the route by the Caughnawaga Canal a most decided
advantage. In short, the opening of such a route would
render every improvement on the St. Lawrence by the people
of Canada for the purpose of drawing the trade of the West
to Montreal necessarily equally effective in favor of New
York, and draw to it much trade which Montreal, in virtue
of the advantages of the St. Lawrence route, is now rapidly
appropriating. That would be so far advantageous to
Montreal; but it is alike the interest of the U. S. and
Canada that the producers of both countries on the great
lakes and in the Western territories should have the cheap-
est transport of their produce to market, irrespective of the
interest of either city; and that the rivalry on equal terms
would certainly ensure.
A glance at a map will show that the entrance of this
Caughnawaga route is directly opposite the mouth of the
river Ottawa, the entrance to the proposed line of the Ot-
tawa and Huron navigation, the next projected work to be
noticed. -
The projected Ottawa and Huron Canal, as it is called,
48 .
754
CANALS OF CANADA, THE. .
offers, according to the report of that. eminent engineer,
Mr. Walter Shanly, a route to Chicago 368 miles shorter
than that by the St. Lawrence. It is true that the recent
correction of the reputed distance by the lakes to Chicago
by U. S. engineers will reduce this difference, but will no
doubt more or less affect the lake portion of both routes;
and the difference to Lake Superior and Duluth will in any
case be 40 miles more in favor of the Ottawa and Huron
route. The lockage by this route would be 157 miles more
than by the St. Lawrence; nevertheless, by Mr. Shanly’s
calculations, based upon McAlpine’s well-known rates for
comparison, the movement of freight would cost fully one-
ninth part less from Montreal to Chicago than by the St.
Lawrence and Welland canals, or by the St. Lawrence and
the Georgian Bay canals. The saving of time he estimates
at 44 hours as compared with the St. Lawrence and Welland
route, and 22 hours as compared with the route by the
Georgian Bay Canal..
The Ottawa and the French River, which the route foll-
lows to Lake Huron, offer great facilities for canalization
in the lakes and long trench-like reaches of deep navigable
water which characterize their courses, and both are re-
markable for their great volume of water, well sustained in
dry weather. Lake Nippiseongue, the proposed summit-
feeder of this route, presents an enormously redundant sup-
ply. The navigable reaches of the Ottawa vary from 10
or 15 to 50 or 60 miles in length. They are navigable now
by steamers for upwards of 300 miles above its mouth.
One of the upper boats draws 9% feet, plying on a reach of
40 miles.
Mr. Clarke, who completed the canal survey of the Ottawa
for government, estimated that canalling, where required,
the whole route through to Lake Huron, 431 miles, with
locks 250 feet by 45, with 12 feet of water on the sills, would
cost $12,057,680, to be effected chiefly by damming; 21 miles
of actual canalling only being required. Locks of 200 feet
by 45, with 9 feet of water on the sills, is the scale adopted
on the recommendation of the Canada canal commission for
the progressive improvement of the Ottawa.
No doubt this route would be very advantageous, espe-
cially as a barge route, as the dangers of the lakes would be
avoided between St. Joseph Island and Montreal, while the
great, size of the river navigation would give room for the
utmost speed. But as the Canadians have constructed
great works for the perfecting of the St. Lawrence route,
and are enlarging and completing them, it would seem un-
wise for them to undertake the task of opening another
rival route before the trade of the country needed it. The
requirement of the lumber-trade, and the increasing settle-
ment and prosperity of the Ottawa country, will lead gradu-
ally to the construction, successively, of the requisite works
for surmounting the obstacles on this route, till little be
needed to complete it as a highway to the West. It will
then afford, in conjunction with the Caughnawaga, Canal, a
most direct and favorable route from Duluth and Chicago
to New York. Two locks are being built by government
now, 200 feet by 45, at L'Islet's Rapids, 213 miles up the
Ottawa, that by connecting two reaches will give 70 miles
of uninterrupted navigation.
It is argued that as the dams to be built to flood out the
rapids, together with the falls on the Ottawa and French
rivers, will, from the great volume of the rivers, afford un-
limited water-power at numerous points on the route, they
will become the sites of important manufactories, as on the
Erie Canal, but with incomparably greater available water-
power; and that the grain of the West may, with great ad-
vantage, be manufactured there into flour while on its way
to market.
This route is deservedly advocated by the inhabitants of
the Ottawa valley; but they are a minority, and it was not
to be expected that the inhabitants of the far more popu-
lous districts of Canada, upon the St. Lawrence, and their
parliamentary representatives, who would chiefly have to
bear the burden of the cost, should readily consent to the
Ottawa, far from them, which they cannot use, being, at
great outlay, made the commercial highway of the West,
instead of their own route, the St. Lawrence, in the im-
provement of which they are so deeply interested.
Apart from its claims as a highway to the West, the im-
provement of the Ottawa route is of great importance to the
provinces of Ontario and Quebec in opening up their inte-
rior country, as the Ottawa is the boundary between them
for 400 miles of its course. In that respect the Georgian
Bay Canal, the next projected work to be noticed, is very
different. Connecting Lake Ontario at Toronto with the
S. extremity of the Georgian Bay of Lake Huron, it would
be almost, perhaps quite, equal to the Ottawa and Huron
route in shortening the distance for the trade of the West.
It would feed the Erie Canal eastward of Oswego, but it
would be of no use to the country around Lake Erie, and
passing through an already occupied country, that has a
railway connecting the same points as the canal, would, in
its 100 miles of course, develop nothing new of importance.
The chief objection to it is its impracticability except at
enormous cost. - -
The canal commission of Canada in 187 1 state in their
report “that the public should be reminded of the facts
that the proposed canal is of equal length with the Suez
Canal, that has cost $80,000,000 and occupied fifteen years
in construction. But it is encompassed with difficulties in-
finitely greater. While the Suez, being on a dead level
from sea to sea, is unencumbered by a single lock, the Huron
and Ontario has an intermediate summit of 470 feet above
Ontario to surmount, which requires forty-two locks and
600 feet of lockage. It has also no less than three deep
cuts, the least of which is larger than the celebrated deep
cut on the Welland, and the largest of which exceeds it in
volume of material eighty-fold.”
The commission concludes with the opinion that, “ad-
mitting it to be physically possible, the cost of carrying
out such a project would render it commercially worthless.”
A canal at Sault Ste. Marie is the next Canadian project
to be noticed. It is stated that a canal on the Canadian
side of the river St. Mary would be much more commodious
and secure, especially at the upper entrance, than the ex-
isting canal on the U. S. side of the river; that it would
have deeper approaches and be one-third shorter; in short,
that it would have every advantage over the latter. There
was strong testimony in favor of it given before the Cana-
dian canal commission, already mentioned, and the com-
mission recommended it as a work of the first class in im-
portance. This arose, no doubt, chiefly from the passage
of vessels with troops for Red River Settlement through the
Sault Ste. Marie Canal having been refused, at the time of
the disturbances there. Possibly, the better understanding
and agreement as to the use of canals in common through
the treaty of Washington may abate the urgency for this
work. But it is not unlikely that the necessity of having
a passage through Canadian ground for the transmission
of troops in case of disturbances between Indians and set-
tlers, or other necessity, will ultimately lead to the construc-
tion of the proposed canal.
The next project proposed to be noticed is the Bay Verte
Canal, which also has been included as of first-class im–
portance by the canal commission. The object of this
canal is to connect the waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence
at Bay Verte with those of the Bay of Fundy at Cumber-
land Basin, by cutting across the isthmus of Chignecto,
which unites Nova Scotia, with New Brunswick, so as to
admit of vessels engaged in the coal-trade of Pictou and
the fisheries of the Gulf, and the coasting-trade of the St.
Lawrence, the Gulf, and the Bay of Fundy, passing directly
between these waters, which are only 15% miles apart, in-
stead of having to make a circuit of 600 miles out through
the Gut of Canso to the Atlantic, and round the peninsula
of Nova Scotia. In addition to former surveys, one has
just been made by order-of the government of the Do-
minion of Canada for a site for this canal. It will present
serious and unusual difficulties in its construction, owing
to the great difference in the height to which the tide rises
on each side of the isthmus. Spring tides rise 453 feet in
the Bay of Fundy, and but 10% in Bay Verte. The canal com-
mission recommended a canal with locks of 270 feet length
of chamber, by 40 feet in width, having 15 feet in depth of
water on the sills. The estimated cost is $3,250,000.
The last route of communication proposed to be noticed
in this article is the Shebandowan and Lake of the Woods
navigation, which forms about 31.1% miles of the line of
communication established by the Canadian government
between Thunder Bay of Lake Superior and Fort Garry in
Manitoba, known as the Dawson route, which is 451% miles
in length. This is the route by which the military expe-
dition under Col. Wolsey passed through to Red River
Settlement in 1870. Since, then the route has been much
improved by the Canadian government, and emigrants
and their luggage are conveyed over it at moderate rates.
The 31.1% miles of water-conveyance on this route, though
not, strictly speaking, a canal, are admirably adapted for
canalization. The connection of its principal reaches has
been proposed, and will no doubt before long be carried
into effect to a considerable extent. It consists of ten nav-
igable reaches, varying from 8 to 120 miles in length.
The last and greatest is formed by Rainy River and the
Lake of the Woods, separated only by the falls at Fort
Francis from Rainy, Lake, which is navigated for 44 miles.
On the Lake of the Woods and Rainy River a steamer of
120 feet keel and 20 feet beam plies from the falls to the
N. W. angle of the Lake of the Woods; on Rainy Lake
one of 100 feet keel and 19 feet beam. On the eight other
reaches the transport is effected by barges towed by small
steam-launches. The smallness of the crafts is not caused
by want of depth of water. On the contrary, the slack
CANAL WIN CHESTER—CANARY GRASS.
755
water consists of deep trench-like lakes generally, with the
exception of Rainy River, which is large and deep. The
ten portages amount together to nearly 7# miles.
The total fall to be overcome by lockage in the distance
of 31.1% miles from the summit-level at the commencement,
to be obtained by damming, to the N. W. angle of the
Lake of the Woods, is 425 feet, or an average of 11% feet
per mile. This is more favorable than the Erie Canal,
which has an average of 11% ; the Rideau Canal has 31%.
There is much valuable pine and other timber on the trib-
utaries of Rainy Lake. As the supply of water is abun-
dant and permanent, with prevailing deepness, it could be
made a line of water-communication of great capacity.
For the W. half of its extent it is the boundary of the
U. S. Its eastern extremity reaches within 45 miles of
Lake Superior. An important lumber-trade for the Sup-
ply of the prairie country beyond will necessarily arise in
this wooded region. From the Lake of the Woods west-
ward the Canadian Pacific Railway and its connections
will give the means of distributing the manufactured
lumber.
The following table of tonnage and tolls levied on freight
and passengers on all Canadian canals from 1850 to 1870,
shows the progress of traffic upon them during that period;
it also shows the extent to which they were used by Ameri-
Carl CORY, IOlerCé 3
Tonnage and Tolls levied on Freight and Passengers passed through all the Canadian Canals from 1850 to 1870, inclusive, distinguishing
whether from or to Canadian or U. S. Ports.
(Abridged from the “Report of the Canada Canal Commission ” of 1871.)

From Cana- From Cana- | From Ameri- From Ameri- g Tolls Collected on r; jº enue ºis
REMARKs. * |††† |ºlº
- TCIlln(IS.
Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. $ cts $ CtS.
1850 538,477 224,835 52,183 221,895 1,037,390 258,123 58 || 258,123 58
Ottaw a canals 1851 830,212 217,500 103,962 265,120 1,416,794 304,864 90 304,864 90,
hºt" indij || #3 896,030 153,006 38,858 409,720 1,497,614 343,306 || 96 || 338,409 || 32
under "controi! | #3% 1,015,202 241,801 85,211 463,495 1,805,709 390,487 || 02 | .382,915 50
of imperiaigow. || # 1,006,006 149,636 118,663 412,999 1,687,304 333,101 || 85 || 332,081 57
€r j g 1855 49,007 203,923 181,851 437,623 1,714,642 335,690 21 || 324,691 || 42
e 1856 922,626 258,761 220,343 542,842 2,007,263 398,259 || 58 || 381,582 || 08
1857 856,093 264,141 215,566 423,825 1,837,007 355,691 || 28 || 330,107 || 33
1858 1,424,313 259,537 162,936 471,432 2,335,480 314,447 51 || 302,410 59
1859 1,563,599 338,437 126,707 380,601 2,447,766 228,962 41 223,427 38
Season of naviga-'l #% 1,351,186 473,365 169,671 589,479 2,583,701 333,262 56 205,921 | 93
ti O § 1861 1,522,029 246,742 299,798 546,323 2,614,892 419,385 02 | 185,521 || 75
IOIl. 1862 1.545,219 552,606 371,510 644,393 3,113,728 497,305 || 96 || 213,487 || 41
1863 1,664,908 491,112 274,897 621,358 3,052,275 385,220 21 || 385,220 21
1864% 498,449 127,756 69,112 158,764 812,496 106,611 80 102,078 || 75
1865 1,390,930 433,575 346,463 257,846 2,537,897 299,905 47 282,757 17
1866 1,538,111 671,042 194,404 465,715 2,955,386 318,597 || 74 || 304,312 24
Fiscal years 1867 1,690,316 736,057 234,223 461,074 ,235,754 325,283 42 318,439 || 54
ISCal years........ 1868 1,752,425 810,939 278,706 644,946 3,599,043 381,129 18 || 365,776 || 32
1869 1,716,529 743,946 305,221 690,881 3,605,039 369,982 | 10 || 367,556 82
1870 2,368,871 858,870 330,794 685,350 4,276,820 444,932 25 | 407,463 22
Canal’ Win/chester, or Winchester, a post-village
of Madison township, Franklin co., O. It has one weekly
paper. Pop. 633.
Canandai'gua, capital of Ontario co., N. Y., on the
Auburn branch of the New York Central R. R., the E.
terminus of the Niagara Falls Branch R. R., and the N.
terminus of the Northern Central R. R. It is 28 miles
S. E. of Rochester, at the N. extremity of Canandaigua,
Lake, which is navigated by daily lines of steamers. It
is picturesquely situated on high ground which commands
an extensive view of the lake. The beautiful scenery of
the lake and the fishing and boating accommodations make
Canandaigua, a popular pleasure resort. Canandaigua (or,
as originally, Canandarqwa, signifying in the Indian tongue
the “chosen spot”) is a beautiful village with wide shaded
streets, fine public buildings, and handsome residences.
There are two weekly newspapers, seven churches, an acad-
emy, a female seminary, a library association and museum,
four banks, various manufactures, two orphan asylums (one
public and one private), a private lunatic asylum, a jail,
and a fine court-house built jointly by the county and the
U. S. government. Pop. 4862; of township, 7274.
N. J. MILLIKEN, ED. “TIMEs.”
Canandaigua Lake of Western New York is mostly
included within Ontario co. It is 15 miles long, and varies
in width from three-fourths of a mile to 1% miles. It is
surrounded by high banks which present beautiful and
diversified scenery. The water is discharged at the north-
ern extremity of the lake by an outlet which communicates
with Clyde River, an affluent of the Seneca River. The
surface of this lake is 437 feet higher than that of Lake
Ontario, and 668 above the sea. The lake is navigable by
Steamers.
Cana’ries, or Cana'ry Islands (anc. Fortunatae
Insulae), a group of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, belong-
ing to Spain, are about 60 miles W. from the coast of
Africa. They are between lat. 27° 49' and 29° 26' 30' N.,
and between lon. 13° 25' and 18° 16' W. The names of
the seven largest islands are Lanzarote, Fuerteventura,
Gran Canaria, Teneriffe, Gomera, Palma, and Ferro (or
Hierro); besides which there are several small islets. Their
total area is 2806 square miles. The Canaries are of vol-
canic formation, and have high rocky coasts. The surface
is mountainous, and the highest point, the Pico de Teyde,
in Teneriffe, rises 12,182 feet above the level of the sea.
The climate is mild and equable, the heat being moderated
by the sea-breezes. The vegetation is arranged in zones,
* Half year.
A. J. RUSSELL. .
according to the height above the sea. The first or lowest
zone produces the date-palm, sugar-cane, etc.; in the second
flourish the grapevine, olive, and maize. The highest
summits are barren and naked rocks. The largest island
of the group is Teneriffe, which is nearly 60 miles long,
and has an area of about 900 square miles. The Canaries
have belonged to Spain since 1493, and the population is
Spanish. The aboriginal race, called Guanches, was con-
quered in the latter year. The meridian of the island of
Ferro (17° 39' 51" W. of Greenwich) is usually taken as
the dividing-line between the eastern and western hemi-
spheres. Pop. 267,036.
Cana’rium, a genus of trees of the order Amyridaceae,
natives of the East Indies, having compound leaves and
dioecious flowers. The fruit is a drupe. The Canarium
commune is cultivated in Java and the Moluccas for the
sake of its fruit, which is edible and yields a lamp oil.
This tree grows about fifty feet high, and is supposed to be
one of the trees which produce elemi. -
Cama/ry Bird, a small singing-bird of the family Frin-
gillidae, is nearly related to the finches, and is a native of
the Canary Islands. The species of canary bird which is
commonly kept in cages is called Carduelis Canaria by
some naturalists, but others place it in the genus Linota or
Fringilla. In its wild state it builds on shrubs or trees,
and produces five broods in a year. In confinement it
seems to be contented, and breeds readily several times in
a year. The color of its plumage is mostly a rich and
delicate yellow. Its favorite articles of food are canary
seed, hempseed, sugar, and bland green leaves, such as
those of chickweed or lettuce. It has great imitative
powers, and can be trained to sing various notes. Some
of the wild canary birds are said to surpass the best trained
singers in loudness and clearness of note.
Canary Grass (Phalaris Canariensis), a grass the
seed of which is used as food for cage-birds. It is a native
of the Canary Islands, and is cultivated for its seed in
England and continental Europe. This plant is sparingly
naturalized in the U. S., and is also somewhat cultivated
for its seed. A fine flour is prepared from canary seed,
which is employed as dressing in fine cotton-weaving and
for the finishing of silks. The groats and flour of this
seed are also used in the Canary Islands, in Barbary, and
in Italy as food, the flour being made into bread which is
very nutritious and palatable. The reed canary grass
(Phalaris arundinacea) is very common on the banks of
lakes and rivers and in other places in Europe and Amer-
ica. It yields a great bulk of coarse grass, very nutritious
When cut early, but it is stated that its seeds are so infested
756
CANARY SEED–GANCRUM ORIS.
wº-
with ergot as to render it sometimes poisonous to cattle.
A variety with curiously striped leaves is well known in
gardens as ribbon grass. -
gana, seed, the product of CANARY GRAss (which
See ). w
Canary Wine, or Teneriffe Wine, is produced in
the Cariaries, and so much resembles Madeira wine that it
is often sold for that article. It is improved by a long
voyage. The term Canary is properly applied to the Bi-
dogue wine, which is the juice of grapes gathered before
they are ripe, and is not good until it is rendered mellow
by age.
Canasera’ga, a post-village of Burns township, Al-
legany co., N. Y., on the Buffalo division of the Erie R. R.,
has an academy and several manufactories.
Canasto’ta, an incorporated village of Madison co.,
N. Y., on the Erie Canal and the Central R. R., 20 miles
E. of Syracuse. It has one national bank, four churches,
a high school, and an academy. Salt brine in paying
quantities has been found by boring. There are sulphur
and sulphur-and-iron springs within the village. It has a
weekly paper. Pop. 1402. -
- A. R. BARLow, PUB. “ HERALD.”
Can’by (EDWARD RICHARD SPRIGG), L.L.D., born in
1817 in Kentucky, graduated at West Point 1839, major-
general U. S. volunteers May 7, 1864, and July 28, 1866,
brigadier-general U. S. A.; being in infantry till June 18,
1846, assistant adjutant-general to Mar. 3, 1855, and in
infantry till July 28, 1866. He served in Florida 1839–42
on quartermaster duty; in emigrating Indians, garrison
duty, etc., 1842–46; as adjutant Second Infantry 1846–47;
in war with Mexico 1846–48, engaged at Vera Cruz, Cerro
Gordo, Contreras, Churubusco (brevet major), and city of
Mexico (brevet lieutenant-colonel); as assistant adjutant-
general of Pacific division 1849–51; in adjutant-general’s
office, Washington, D. C., 1851–55; on Utah expedition
1857–60; and in command of Navajo expedition 1860–61.
In the civil war he served in command of the department
of New Mexico 1861–62, where, after the defection of his
seniors, he displayed great energy and skill in defending
the country at Fort Craig, Valverde (brevet brigadier-gen-
eral), and Peralta against a formidable inroad from the
South; on special duty in war department at Washington
and suppressing New York draft riots 1863–64; in com-
mand of division of West Mississippi 1864–65 (wounded
on White River); in command of the expedition which
captured Mobile and its defences (brevet major-general),
Montgomery, Ala., and received the surrender of the armies
of Gen. R. Taylor and E. K. Smith; in command of various
Gulf departments 1865–66, and of department of Wash-
ington 1866–67. After the war he was placed on various
important special duties, and when fatigued by a long and .
laborious career in 1869 he voluntarily consented to take
command of the department of the Columbia, which he held
till treacherously shot dead April 11, 1873, by the chief
“Jack” while he was endeavoring to mediate for the re-
moval of the Modocs from their rocky fastness on the
northern border of California. * - -
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Cancale, a seaport-town of France, in the department
of Ile-et-Vilaine, is situated on the English Channel, 9
miles E. N. E. of St. Malo. It has good anchorage. Large
Quantities of good oysters are procured from a chain of
rocks, called Rochers de Cancale, which partly enclose the
port. Pop. 6400. -
Cancan, a French word, the primary signification of
which is noise, pother. It is also the name of an irregular
French dance which is not restrained by conventional pro-
prieties. - - * * -
Cancella’ria, a genus of univalve mollusks of the
class Gasteropoda and order Prosobranchiata. The shell
is oval or turreted, the spire is prominent, the last whorl is
ventricose, the surface reticulated, and the columella pli-
cated. All the recent species are natives of tropical or
sub-tropical seas.
the strata above the chalk. -
Can'cer [from the Lat. cancer, a “crab,” the swollen
veins around it being likened to crabs’ claws], the popular
name for carcinoma, a disease characterized by tumors or
slow ulcerations in various parts, occurring either simultane-
ously or in succession, and having a malignant character;
that is, a tendency to spread to other parts, and to grow
worse, resisting medication, and usually ending in the
death of the patient. N
Among the tumors admitted by general consent into the
order of cancers there are widely different degrees of malig-
nancy; some having the tendency to spread rapidly and
infect the system at an early period, while others remain
Numerous fossil species are found in
local for a considerable time, and may be removed with
good hope of a permanent recovery.
The practical distinction or diagnosis of these, tumors is
founded upon a careful comparison of the characters of
malignant and non-malignant tumors, and also upon a
thorough knowledge of the anatomy and relations of the
textures in which they arise. The attempts to distinguish
these from other growths call for the highest qualities of
the surgeon, including a knowledge of minute structure as
obtained by the use of the microscope. What the charac-
teristic microscopical element of cancer is it is, however,
not easy to define. But Billroth confidently asserts that
it always springs from true epithelium, and that the modi-
fied epithelial cell is the constant characteristic element
of cancer.
The most common seats of cancer are, among external
parts, the female breast, the eye, the tongue, the lip, the
male genital organs; among internal organs, the liver,
stomach, uterus, rectum, gullet, peritoneum, and lymphatic
glands. Scirrhus or hard cancer, observed most frequently
in the breast, uterus, and stomach, is more frequently
solitary than encephaloid (brain-like), otherwise called
medullary or soft cancer; the rare colloid cancer is of a
glue-like consistency; melanosis, or melanic cancer, a va-
riety charged with brown or black pigment, is almost
always multiple in its occurrence; while epithelial cancer,
or epithelioma, of which examples are frequently found in
the lip, scrotum, or tongue, is so generally solitary as to
have led some pathologists to place it in a class altogether
apart from the truly cancerous growths. Again, there are
varieties of fibrous and of cartilaginous tumor, as well as .
certain tumors of bone and bone-like tumors in soft parts
(osteoid), which occupy a doubtful position between the
malignant and non-malignant growths, the so-called “cauli-
flower excrescence” being one of the number.
A tumor falls under the suspicion of being cancer when
it infiltrates the texture in which it arises and passes into
the surrounding textures; when it invades the lymphatic
glands; when it is attended by stinging or darting pains,
or by obstinate and slowly extending ulceration; when it
occurs in a person having impaired health or past middle
life, and is not traceable to any known cause of inflamma-
tory disease or local irritation, nor to any other known con-
stitutional disease, such as syphilis or scrofula. But the
elements of diagnosis here referred to ought to be early
submitted to the scrutiny and judgment of a Well-educated
medical adviser.
The removal of cancerous tumors is resorted to by Sur-
geons, and when performed early in well-selected cases it
has been followed by long-continued exemption. Opera-
tions are rarely performed after the lymphatic glands are in-
volved, or when there is evidence of a deteriorated consti-
tution or of internal disease; but sometimes great pain or
profuse and exhausting discharge from an external tumor
may justify its removal, as a palliative measure, even under
these unfavorable circumstances. . .
REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Cancer, the Latin name of a crab. In astronomy, it
is the fourth sign of the Zodiac, and is denoted by the fig-
ure &R. The sun enters this sign about the 21st of June.
The first point of Cancer is 90° distant from the first point
of Aries, and is called the summer solstice. Cancer is also
the name of a constellation of the Zodiac, which does not
coincide with the sign just described. (See PRECESSION
of THE EQUINoxEs, by GEN. J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.)
Cancer Root, or Beech Drops, a name given to
the Epiphegus Virginiana, a parasitic plant of the natural
order Örobanchaceae. It is a native of the U. S., and
grows on the roots of beech. The plant is astringent, and
the root has been reputed a remedy for cancer, but it has
no favorable effect upon that disease.
Cancer, Tropic of, in geography, one of the lesser
circles of the earth, a parallel about 23° 27' N. of the equa-
tor. At the summer solstice (June 21st) the sun is vertical
over this line. There is a corresponding circle on the as-
tronomical globe. This circle touches the ecliptic in the
first point of the sign Cancer. Hence the name.
Cancrin’ (GEORG), Count, a German financier, born at
Hanau Dec. 8, 1774. He entered the service of Russia in
1796, became a councillor of state in 1811, and lieutenant-
general in 1815. He was Russian minister of finance for
twenty-one years (1823–44), and performed the duties of
that office with ability and success. Died Sept. 22, 1845.
Can/crimite, a silicate of alumina and soda with car-
bonate of lime, is found in Norway and at Litchfield, Me.
It is remarkable as an instance of a silicate containing
carbonic acid. . -
Can'crum O’ris (synonyms, noma, aqueous cancer),
a mortification of the cheek, mostly in children who have
CANDAHAR–CANEA.
757
long suffered from poverty, moist or close air, or fever.
The proximate cause is generally found in an imprudent
administration of mercury, or in the inanition and disso-
lution of the blood from measles, typhoid fever, hooping-
cough, or dysentery. It is almost always fatal. Usually
but one cheek is affected. A small vesicle shows itself half
an inch or an inch from the angle (mostly the left) of the
mouth ; it soon bursts and gives way to a yellow hardening
surface. The surrounding parts swell and exhibit a waxy
color. A day or two after a hard spot is felt in the cheek
which extends rapidly. The skin become black and fetid,
and the whole cheek is perforated. The destruction spreads
rapidly over the cheek, nose, upper lip to the median line,
eyelids, neck, and jaw-bones. The teeth fall out, the stench
is intolerable. Haemorrhages are rare. While in this man-
ner half of the face is being destroyed, the patient may be
without fever, inclined to play and to eat. After about a
week has elapsed fever will set in, depression will take the
place of indifference; pneumonia or diarrhoea, with swelling
of the feet, will make its appearance and accelerate the
fatal termination. Recoveries have been observed, but are
rare. Amongst the best preventives early attendance in
cases of the common forms of ulcerous inflammations of
the mouth, restriction in the use of mercurial medicines,
and the improvement in the condition of the poor, take
prominent places. When the malady is developed the dis-
eased portion must be disinfected by hypermanganate of
potassa or carbolic acid, or destroyed by concentrated min-
eral acids, chloride of zinc, arsenic paste, or the red-hot
iron. The general condition of the patient requires a gen-
erous diet, and the administration of stimulants and iron,
or quinia, or both combined. ABRAHAM JACOBI.
Candahar’, or Kandahar, called by the Afghans
Ahmed Shahee, the capital of Central Afghanistan, is
situated in a fertile plain, 220 miles S. W. of Cabool. It
is well supplied with water by two canals. The houses are
mostly mean and built of wood. Candahar has an exten-
sive trade and some manufactures. About 2 miles N. of
this town is a precipitous rock which is crowned by a strong
fortress or citadel. Candahar is supposed to have been
founded by Alexander the Great. It was captured by
Tamerlane in 1384, and by Shah Abbās of Persia in 1620.
The British army occupied it in 1839–42. Pop. estimated
at from 50,000 to 80,000.
Candela’brum [Lat., plu. candelabra), a “candle-
stick,” a support for lamps. There were perhaps few
articles in which the ancients so combined the beautiful
with the useful as in their candlesticks and lamps. Can-
delabra, usually were of wood, but marble and metals
were used for their construction, and sometimes they were
adorned with gems. The candelabra found at Hercula-
neum and Pompeii are mostly of bronze; they were also
frequently of marble. The base in many instances con-
sists of three feet of a lion, goat, or other animal, real or
imaginary. In addition to the various kinds of candela-
bra, which seem to have stood on the floor, the ancients had
others intended to be placed on a table. These consisted
either of a pillar or of a tree, and from the capital in the
former case, or from the branches in the latter, lamps were
suspended.
Can/dia, or Meg'alo-Casºtro, a fortified seaport
and capital of the island of Crete, is on the N. coast; lat.
35° 21' N., lon. 25° 8' E. It contains several mosques, a
cathedral, a pasha's paláce, and an arsenal. Its massive
fortifications and its cathedral were erected by the Vene-
tians, who owned the island until it was captured by the
Turks in 1669. Pop. 15,000.
Candia, a post-township of Rockingham co., N. H.
Pop. 1456. -
Candia. See CRETE. -
Can’didate [Lat. candidatus], the name given by the
Romans to a person soliciting the office of quaestor, consul,
etc., from his appearing in public dressed in a white (cam-
dida) toga. Among the early Christians converts newly
baptized were called candidates, on account of the white
robes worn by them eight days after baptism. In Ger-
many, at the present time, a theological student who has
been approved before the highest authorities in the Church
is called a candidate, and the term is generally given to
any applicant for office, religious or secular.
Cam’dle [Lat. candela (from candeo, to “shine”); Fr.
chandelle], a cylinder of wax or fat with a central wick,
intended for giving light, and used in various religious
ceremonies. Candles are made of tallow, of stearine,
bleached wax, spermaceti, and paraffine. They are either
dipped, moulded, or rolled. “Dips” are made by hanging
wicks upon a frame, at a distance from each other equal to
about double the intended thickness of the candle; these
are then dipped in melted tallow, and hung upon a rack
until cooled, then dipped again and again, until the re-
quired thickness is obtained. Mould candles are cast by
pouring the tallow down a tube, along the axis of which
the wick has been previously adjusted. These tubes are
smooth inside, and several are fitted in a frame, the upper
part of which forms a trough into which the moulds all
open; and by pouring into the trough all the moulds are
filled at once. Wax candles are not moulded, on account
of the contraction which wax undergoes in cooling, and
the difficulty of drawing it from the moulds. The wicks
are warmed, and melted wax is poured over them until
they acquire the proper thickness; they are then rolled
between flat pieces of wet hard wood.
Certain fatty acids are also used in making the best can-
dles. Lime is used to separate the glycerine from the fatty
acid of tallow, palm oil, etc. The lime forms an insoluble
soap by combining with the fatty acid, and the glycerine
remains in solution with the water. This lime-soap is then
reduced to powder, and the fatty acid separated by means
of sulphuric acid, which combines with the lime. The
whole being heated, the fatty acid is skimmed off, and the
candles moulded from it. These are called star or compo-
site candles; they give a purer light than ordinary tallow,
Stearic acid, the principal fatty acid of tallow, is a hard
crystalline substance, perfectly dry and free from any greasi-
ness, with a somewhat pearly lustre. Its crystalline struc-
ture presents a difficulty in the manufacture of candles, for
when cast in moulds it contracts on cooling and leaves
small spaces between the crystals. This is obviated by
mixing the “stearine’’ with a little wax.
Various ingenious arrangements have been introduced
to obviate the necessity of snuffing candles; in nearly all
of them the object is effected by causing the wick to bend
over and its end to fall outside of the flame, and thus, by
coming in contact with the oxygen of the air, to be com-
pletely burned, for such combustion cannot take place
within the flame. This bending over is variously brought
about. One method is by braiding the wick with one
strand shorter than the rest. Another process loads the
wick with metallic bismuth, which fuses to a bead in the
flame, and the weight of the bead bends the wick.
REvised BY C. W. GREENE.
Can’dlemas, a festival to commemorate the purifica-
tion of the Virgin Mary, is observed by the Roman Catholics
on the 2d of February, when they form a procession with
many lighted candles. On this day all the church candles
for the year are blessed. * ,
Candle-Nut (Alewrites triloba), a tree of the order
Euphorbiaceae, a native of Java, the Moluccas, and the
Pacific islands. It bears a nut as large as a walnut, having
a hard shell and a kernel which is edible when roasted. It
yields an excellent bland oil, which is used for food and is
burned in lamps. The natives of the Society Islands ar-
range the perforated kernels on a string or rush and use
them as torches.
Cand/lish (Robert SMITH), D.D., a Scottish preacher,
born in Glasgow Mar. 23, 1807. He was licensed as a min-
ister in 1831, and began to preach in Edinburgh in 1834.
He was one of the prominent leaders of the popular party,
and co-operated with Dr. Chalmers in organizing the Free
Church after the disruption which occurred in 1843. He
acquired much distinction as a pulpit-orator and a debater
in religious assemblies. He published several religious
works. Died Oct. 19, 1873.
Can'dor, a post-village of Tioga co., N. Y., on the
Cayuga, and Susquehanna R. R., has four churches, a
weekly paper, a bank, and some manufactures. Pop. of
Candor township, 4250. . '
Candy, a town of Ceylon. See KANDY.
Can'dytuft (Iberis), a genus of plants of the natural
order Cruciferae, are indigenous in the countries bordering
on the Mediterranean. The flowers have unequal petals
and grow in dense corymbs. Some of the species are cul-
tivated in gardens for the beauty of their flowers.
Cane [Lat. canna], a name given to several species of
plants, and to the stems of the smaller palms and the larger
grasses. The canes or rattans of commerce, which are used
in making cane-seats of chairs, etc., are the product of the
palmaceous plants Calamus Rotang and Calamus viminalis.
The term cane is also applied to the Arundingria macro-
sperma, an arborescent grass which grows in the Southern
W. S. on the alluvial banks of rivers, and forms thickets
called canebrakes which are almost impenetrable. This
plant often grows to the height of fifteen or twenty feet.
(See RATTAN and SUGAR-CANE.) -
Cane/a, or Can'na, called Khami’a by the modern
Greeks, a seaport-town of Candia or Crete, is on the N.
coast, about 70 miles W. of Candia. It occupies the site
of the ancient Cydonia. It is the most commercial town
7.58
CANEADEA–CANNABIS.
in the island, and has a safe but shallow harbor, which
will admit vessels of 300 tons. It has a lighthouse, an
arsenal, and a fort. Oil, soap, wax, etc. are the chief ar-
ticles of export. Pop. about 7000. f
Canea/dea, a post-village and township of Allegany
co., N. Y., contains valuable stone-quarries. Pop. of vil-
lage, 236; of township, 1869.
Cane Creek, a township of Clarke co., Ala. Pop. 480.
Cane Creek, a post-township of Butler co., Mo. P.323.
lºane Creek, a township of Lancaster co., S. C. Pop.
59
Cane Hill, a township of Washington co., Ark. Pop.
1611. It is the seat of Cane Hill College.
Canel’la Al’ba, a large tree which grows in Florida.
and the West Indies, and is called wild cinnamon. It has
fragrant flowers and an aromatic bark, which is exported
in quilled pieces of a pale buff color and a pungent taste.
This is sometimes used in medicine as a stimulant tonic.
The genus Canella belongs to the order Clusiaceae.
Ca’nes Wenat'ici (i. e. the “Hunting Dogs”), the
Latin name of a constellation of the northern hemisphere.
It is represented on the celestial globe by the figures of two
dogs named Asterion and Chara, which are held in leash
by Boötes, and appear as if pursuing Ursa Major.
Caſney, a township of Independence co., Ark. Pop.
Caney, a post-township of Ouachita co., Ark. Pop. 845.
Caney Fork, a township of Pike co., Ark. Pop. 199.
Caney Fork, a township of Jackson co., N. C. Pop.
951.
Caney River, a township of Yancy co., N. C. Pop.
1202.
Can'field, a post-village, capital of Mahoning co., O.,
on the Niles and New Lisbon R. R., 69 miles S. E. of Cleve-
land. It has one large leather-belt factory, a good ma-
chine-shop, and one weekly paper. The exhibition grounds
of the Mahoning Agricultural Society are located here.
Pop. 640; of Canfield township, 1513.
WM. R. BRowNLEE, ED. “MAHONING COUNTY NEws.”
Can'gas de Tine’o, a town of Spain, in the province
of Oviedo, 37 miles S. W. of Oviedo, on the Narcea. Pop.
21,337. -
Canicat’ti, a town of Sicily, in the province of Gir-
genti, on the river Naro, 15 miles E. N. E. of Girgenti. It
is well built, and has sulphur-minés in the vicinity. Pop.
in 1871, 20,908.
Canic'ula, a name formerly given to Sirius, the dog-
star, a star in the constellation Canis Major. This name
signifies in Latin “little dog.”
Canic/ular Year, the ancient year of the Egyptians,
so called because its commencement was determined by
the heliacal rising of Sirius (or Canicula). Their reason
for computing time from the rising of that star was perhaps
because it occurred about the same date as the annual in-
undation of the Nile. The common year of the Egyptians
consisted of 365 days, and every fourth year of 366.
Can’idae [from the Lat. canis, a “dog”], a family of
the digitigrade carnivorous Mammalia, to which belong
the dog, fox, wolf, etc. The hyaenas are sometimes re-
ferred to this family, and sometimes to the Viverridae
(civets, ichneumons, etc.). These families are closely con-
nected, and hyaenas may be said to form a connecting link
between them. The Canidae have two flat tuberculous
molar teeth on each side behind the great cheek tooth of
the upper jaw, a dentition resembling that of the bear fam-
ily, or Ursidae, to which they exhibit a further resemblance
in their power of adapting themselves to the use of vegeta-
ble food. They have generally three incisors or cutting
teeth, with one large canine tooth, and four praemolars on
each side in each jaw, two true molars on each side in the
upper jaw, and three in the lower.
Camiſma (LUIGI), CAVALIERE, an Italian architect and
antiquary, born at Casal Oct. 23, 1795. He was professor
of arehitecture at Turin, and published, besides other
Works, “Ancient Architecture Described and Illustrated
by Monuments” (9 vols., 1844). Died Oct. 17, 1856.
Ca'nines, or Canine Teeth [Lat. dentes canini, from
canis, a “dog”], a name given to four teeth which are
pointed and are placed between the incisors and bicuspi-
date teeth. Each jaw has two of these, which are some-
times called eye-teeth or stomach-teeth. In the Carnivora
they are very large and adapted to tearing flesh.
_Canis’ius (PETRUs), SAINT, a Dutch Jesuit, born at
Nimeguen May 8, 1521. His proper name was PIETER DE
HONDT. He became in 1549 professor and rector of the
University of Ingolstadt, and was also a prominent mem-
ber of the Council of Trent in 1545. He wrote, besides
other works, “Summa Doctrinae Christianae.” Died Dec.
21, 1597. He was canonized by Pope Pius IX. in 1864.
Ca/nis Major (i. e. the “Greater Dog”), a constella-
tion which appears in the celestial globe under the feet of
Orion. It comprises Sirius, the dog-star, which surpasses
all the stars of the firmament in splendor and apparent,
magnitude.
Ca^nis Mi'nor (the “Lesser Dog”), a constellation
adjacent to Canis Major and to Gemini. It comprises
Procyon, a star of the first magnitude, which is nearly in a
direct line between Sirius and Pollux.
Caniste’o, a post-village of Steuben co., N. Y., on the
Canisteo River and the Erie R. R., 55 miles W. N. W. of
Elmira. It has some manufactures and a weekly paper.
Pop. of Canisteo township, 2435. -
ED. CANISTEO “REPORTER.”
Canister, a township of Dodge co., Minn. Pop. 880.
Canister Shot. See CASE SHOT. A.
Cank'er [from the same root as cancer]. Canker in
plants is especially injurious to fruit trees. It is a kind of
gangrene, usually beginning in the young branches and
gradually descending to the trunk. Wet subsoils appear
to cause canker in some cases. Varieties of fruit trees
which have been long propagated by grafting and budding
are most liable to this disease. (For the diseases of the
human mouth known as canker, see . STOMATITIs and
APHTHAE.)
Canker-Worm (Amisopterya), a genus of destructive
insects, of the order Lepidoptera and family Phalaenidae or .
Geometridae. The common American species (Anisopterya:
vernata) is rather smaller than the European, and with
darker wings. The female is wingless. The male has four
thin, silky wings, which have an extent of about an inch
and a quarter when expanded. The moths come out of the
ground principally in the spring, sometimes also in the
autumn. The female lays from sixty to one hundred eggs,
glued in clusters to branches of trees; they hatch in the
early part of May. The larvae then feed upon the leaves,
especially of apple and elm trees, which they pierce with
multitudes of holes. When fully grown the larva is nearly
or quite an inch in length. After about four weeks of
feeding, the larvae descend, by crawling or hanging down
by their threads, to the ground, burrowing generally to the
depth of a few inches. Within twenty-four hours after-
wards they are changed to light-brown chrysalids. From
these the moths emerge after a variable time. As the female
canker-worms are wingless, trees may be protected from
them by leaden troughs containing tar or fish oil being
placed around their trunks. It is also desirable, however,
to destroy as many of the caterpillars as possible. Shak-
ing the trees will often dislodge them. (See HARRIs, “On
Insects Destructive to Vegetation,” Boston, 1862.)
Can’na [a Latin word signifying a “cane” or “reed”],
the name of a genus of plants of the order Marantaceae.
The fruit is a capsule containing hard black seeds, which
are called Indian shot. The flower has one fertile petal-
like stamen, and a petaloid style. One or more species are
extensively cultivated as ornamental plants. The starch
of Canna coccinea is used sometimes instead of arrow-root,
funder the name tow8-les-mois. The Canna flaccida is a na-
tive of the Southern U. S., near the coast.
Cannabina'ceae [from Cannabis, “hemp ’’l, a small
natural order of exogenous plants which most botanists in-
clude in the order Urticaceae. They are distinguished by
solitary suspended ovules and a hooked or spiral embryo.
This order comprises only two genera of plants, the hemp
(Cannabis) and the hop (Humulus).
Can'nabis [Gr. Kávvages], the typical genus of plants
of the order Cannabinaceae. The only known species of it
is Cannabis sativa, or hemp, a tall dioecious annual with
elegant palmate leaves, which grows wild in India, and is
cultivated for its fibre, etc. (See HEMP, by PROF. E. M.
SchAEFFER, M. D.
The intoxicating drug called hasheesh by the Arabs and
bhang by the Hindoos is procured from a variety called Can-
nabis Indica. Under the name of gunjah the dried female
flowering hemp-plants are sold in bundles for smoking.
The resinous extract called churrus is swallowed for intoxi-
cating effect. Several native African tribes use it. There
appears to be more of the active resinoid (cannabin) in the
Indian than in the European variety, owing probably
to the difference of climate. It has been proved by the
experiments of Dr. H. C. Wood, Jr., of Philadelphia, that
the extract of American hemp has the same kind of influence
on the brain and nervous system as that from India. Trans-
portation must induce some change in the latter, as the
medicinal dose found to be safe by physicians in England
CANNAE—CANO. - 7.59
is about ten times as large as that used by Dr. O'Shaugh-
nessy and others in Bengal. The effects of Indian hemp
vary considerably with different persons. Mostly, they are
agreeably exciting, the plant being known in India as the
“increaser of pleasure,” the “cementer of friendship,” and
the “laughter-mover.” Some persons become violent under
its use. The word assassin is said to be derived from the
Arabic hashishin, one who drinks or smokes hasheesh.
With many there is an exaggeration of ordinary impres-
sions, so that slight sounds are taken for thunder, one’s head
seems as large as a house, etc. Others have their sensi-
bility diminished or suspended by it. The pupil of the
eye is dilated under its internal use. It does not, like
opium, affect the secretions, and seldom produces nausea.
As with other stimulants, the habit of taking it becomes a
pernicious slavery. *
The ancients possessed some knowledge of the narcotic
powers of hemp. Dioscorides and Galen mention its juice
as a remedy for earache. The Scythians made a vapor-
bath of its fumes by throwing the seeds on red-hot stones.
Dr. Royle suggests that it may have been the neponthes
(bápuakov vntrev6és) which, according to Homer, Helen re-
ceived from an Egyptian woman and gave to Telemachus
in the house of Menelaus.
Extract of hemp (Extractum cannabis Indicae) is now
used as a medicine for neuralgia and some other nervous
affections. The variability of its effects, however, has
hitherto interfered with its extensive employment.” (See
PEREIRA, “Materia Medica and Therapeutics,” Philada.
ed., 1866.) REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Can'nae, an ancient Roman town in Apulia, on the
river Aufidus (Ofanto), near its entrance into the Adriatic
Sea. Here, on Aug. 2, 216 B.C., Hannibal gained a deci-
sive victory over the Roman army commanded by Q. Tor-
entius Varro. According to Livy, the Romans on this day
lost about 45,000 infantry and 3000 cavalry. The site of
Cannae is occupied by a village called Canne, about 10
miles W. S. W. of Barletta.
Can’nel Coal [originally candle coal, because its bright
flame was a substitute for candle-light], a variety of bitu-
minous coal which is very dense and compact, and breaks
with an uneven or largely conchoidal fracture. It some-
times exhibits a brilliant waxy lustre, and is generally of
a brown or black color. It burns with a bright flame, and
during the process of combustion splits and crackles with-
out melting. This coal, which is found in England and
the U. S., is used for fuel and is valuable for making gas.
(See CoAL, by PROF. J. S. NEwBERRY, M. D., LL.D.)
Can'nelton, a post-village, capital and principal town
of Perry co., Ind., is on the Ohio River, about 68 miles
above Evansville. It has a large cotton factory, built of
sandstone, about 300 feet long and five stories high, which
employs over 400 operatives; also Emanufactories of draining-
tiles, pottery, chairs, flour, etc. Bituminous coal abounds
in the adjacent hills, and is supplied in large quantities to
steamboats. It has two weekly newspapers. Pop. 2481.
C. H. MASON, ED. “REPORTER,” .
Cannes, a seaport-town of France, in the department
of Alpes-Maritimes, on the Mediterranean Sea, 25 miles
S. E. of Draguignan. It has an old Gothic castle and a
good quay. The mildness and salubrity of the climate
render this a favorite winter resort for English families.
Napoleon landed at Fréjus, near Cannes, after his escape
from Elba on Mar. 1, 1815, and Lord Brougham died hero
in 1868. Pop. 96.18.
Can'nibal [etymology doubtful], a person who feeds
on human flesh. The practice appears to have prevailed
in ancient as well as in modern times. Facts show that
the people addicted to the eating of human flesh are not
always the most degraded of the human race. For in-
Séance, in Australia, where the large animals are scarce,
there are tribes of an extremely degraded type, who have
only been known in exceptional conditions to feed on
human flesh. The New Zealanders, on the other hand,
who are one of the most highly developed aboriginal races
with which civilization has had to compete, were, down to
a late period, habitual cannibals. Cannibalism is chiefly
found in the islands of the Pacific and in Africa. Among
certain tribes of aborigines of America cannibalism is said
to have formerly prevailed. It is also believed by some
archaeologists that the inhabitants of Europe in the pre-
historic stone-period were to some extent cannibals.
Can'ning (CHARLEs JoHN), EARL, an English states-
man, a son of George Canning, noticed below, was born
Dec. 14, 1812. He succeeded to the peerage on the death
of his mother in 1837, and began his public life as a con-
servative. In 1852 he became postmaster-general in the
ministry of Lord Aberdeen. He was appointed governor-
general of India in 1855. During his administration oc-
curred the great Sepoy mutiny (1857–58). Died in Eng-
land June 17, 1862.
Canning (GEORGE), an eminent English statesman and
orator, born in London April 11, 1770. He was educated
at Christ's Church College, Oxford, where he distinguished
himself as a classical scholar. In 1793 he entered Parlia–
ment as a supporter of Pitt, who was then prime minister,
and he became an under secretary of state in 1796. About
1797, Canning, Ellis, and others began to publish the witty
and famous political satires called “The Anti-Jacobin.”
He married a daughter of General John Scott. After the
resignation of Mr. Pitt, in 1801, Canning joined the oppo-
sition against the ministry of Addington. In April, 1807,
he became minister of foreign affairs in the Tory cabinet
formed by the duke of Portland. He ſought a duel in 1809
with Lord Castlereagh, who was the favorite leader of the
Tories. Soon after this duel he ceased to be a cabinet min-
istor. He advocatcd Catholic emancipation in 1812, was
returned to Parliament for Liverpool in that year, and was
appointed president of the board of control in 1816. In
the latter part of his life Canning and Lord Brougham
were considered the most eloquent and powerful orators in
the House of Commons. On the death of Lord Castle-
reagh, in 1822, Canning succeeded him as secretary of for-
eign affairs in the cabinet of Lord Liverpool. He infused
a more liberal spirit into the cabinet, and rendered an im-
portant service to his country by pursuing a foreign policy
that was not subservient to the interests and designs of
the Holy Alliance. In April, 1827, he became first lord of
the treasury as the successor of Lord Liverpool, who was
disabled by paralysis. He formcd a cabinet partly of
Tories and partly of Whigs. Died Aug. 8, 1827. (See
RoDERT BELL, “Life of George Canning,” 1846; A. G. STA-
PLETON, “The Political Life of G. Canning,” 1859; RUEDER,
“G. Canning, seine Leben, etc.,” 1827.)
Canning (STRATFoRD). See STRATFORD DE REDCLIFFE.
Can’mington, a post-village of Brock township, On-
tario co. and province (Canada), on the Toronto and
Nipissing Railway, 59 miles N. of Toronto. It has a
weekly paper and some manufactures. Pop. about 800.
Cannon. See ARTILLERY, by GEN. WILLIAM F. BARRY,
U. S. Army.
Can’non, a county of Middle Tennessee. Area, 220
square miles. It is drained by Stone River and other
small streams. The surface is undulating or hilly ; the
soil is mostly fertile. Grain, wool, and tobacco are the
chief products. Capital, Woodbury. Pop. 10,502.
Cannon, a township of Kent co., Mich. Pop. 1206.
Cannon (NEwToN), born in Guilford co., N. C., about
1781, served in the Tennessee mounted riflemen as colonel
at Tallahatchie (Nov. 3, 1813), was a member of Congress
from Tennessee (1814–17 and 1819–23), and was governor
(1835–39). Died Sept. 29, 1841.
Cannon (WILLIAM), born at Bridgeville, Del., in 1809,
was governor of Delaware in 1864–65. Died Mar. 1, 1865.
Cannonade, in general, is the discharge of balls or
shells from cannon or great guns; the act of firing artil-
lery in a battle or a siege. As a technical term it is some-
times used to denote an action between two armies in which
the artillery is employed almost exclusively.
Cannon-ball Tree (Couroupita Guianensis), a large
tree of the order Lecythidaceae, a native of Guiana. It
bears racemes of white and rose-colored flowers, and a
fruit which has a hard woody shell and is nearly round.
This fruit is about the size of a thirty-six pound cannon-
ball.
Cannon City, a post-township of Rice co., Minn.
Pop. 510.
Cannon Falls, a township of Goodhue co., Minn.
Pop. 957.
Can/non’s, a township of Newberry co., S. C. P. 1224.
Cannonsburg, Pa. See CANONSBURG.
Can/nonsville, a post-village of Tompkins township,
Delaware co., N.Y., on the Delaware River, 8 miles above
Deposit, has three churches, and manufactures of leather,
flour, etc. Pop. 319. -
Cann'stadt, a town of Würtemberg, is situated in a
beautiful and fertile valley, on the river Neckar, 24 miles
It is connected by railways
by rail N. E. of Stuttgart.
It has manu-
with Carlsruhe, Heilbronn, and other cities.
factures of cotton and woollen fabrics and an active trade,
for which the navigable Neckar affords facilities. Here
are many mineral springs, which are much frequented in
the summer. Pop. in 1871, 11,904.
Ca/no, a township of Iowa co., Ia. Pop. 235.
Cano (ALonzo), a celebrated Spanish painter, sculptor, -
and architect, was born at Granada Mar. 19, 1601. He
760
CANOE–CANOPUS,
studied painting under Pacheco and Juan de Castillo, and
became the founder of the school of Granada. In 1638 he
was appointed court-painter by Philip IV. Among his
chief works is a “Conception of the Virgin.” Died Oct.
5, 1665. -
Canoe [etymology uncertain], a rude boat made of the
trunk of a single tree hollowed out. Canoes are generally
open boats, propelled by paddles and steered by oars. The
length and other dimensions vary greatly. On sea-coasts
canoes are sometimes made of light wooden frames covered
with seal skins, which are drawn across as a deck, with
only a hole large enough for one man to sit in. The name
is also applied to boats made of birch bark, and to other
rude craft, and of late to a pleasure-boat designed for long
excursions by a single person.
Canoe, a township of Escambia co., Ala. Pop. 479.
Canoe, a post-township of Winneshiek co., Ia. P. 864.
Canoe, a township of Indiana co., Pa. Pop. 998.
Canoe Creek, a township of Rock Island co., III. P. 413.
Cano'ga, a post-village of Fayette township, Seneca
co., N. Y., has an extensive water-power furnished by an
immense spring, which discharges also nitrogen gas. The
village is on the W. shore of Cayuga Lake. Pop. 197.
Canſon [Gr. Kavčv, a “rule”], a term of various signi-
fications in theology, science, and art, means, in general, a
law, rule, or standard. In ecclesiastical language it is
applied to a law or rule of doctrine or discipline, or the de-
cree of a general council; also to the genuine books of the
Holy Scripture, called the Sacred Canon. The Roman
Catholic Church recognizes as parts of the eanon of Scrip-
ture the apocryphal books, which Protestants reject. In
the canon of the New Testament the agreement of the
Christian churches may be said to be unanimous. (See
BIBLE, THE, by PROF. W. G. SUMNER.)
Canſon [Lat. canonicus], the name of a dignitary of
the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches. In each
cathedral and collegiate church there are canons, who per-
form some parts of the services and receive a portion of the
revenue of the church. In a collective capacity the canons
are called a chapter, and form the council of the bishop.
Canons (in England) must reside at the cathedral for three
months in each year. Canons were originally monks or
priests who lived in a community or monastery. They are
historically known as Canons Regular, and followed the
rule of Saint Augustine, Saint Benedict, Saint Anthony,
etc.
orders. They are still found in some parts of Europe.
Can’on, in music, a perpetual fugue; a kind of fugue
in which not merely a certain period or phrase is to be
imitated or answered, but the whole of the first part with
which the canon begins is imitated throughout by all the
other parts. The canon is composed for two, three, four,
Gr IIl Ore VOICeS.
Canon (SACRED).
SUMNER.
Cañom, a Spanish word, pronounced cányon, meaning
a tube, and applied by the American Spaniards to long and
narrow mountain-gorges, or deep ravines with precipitous
slopes assuming almost a tubular form. The Rocky Moun-
tains, the Sierra Nevada, and the great Western plateaus
of North America furnish numerous and striking examples.
The Great Cañon of the Colorado, in the middle course of
the river, above its last great bend, between 111° and 115°
W. lon., is the most remarkable of its kind, and may serve
as a type. It is hollowed out below the general surface of
a vast plateau to the depth of 3000 to 5000 feet, opening
to view, in its perpendicular walls, all the series of geolog-
ical strata down to their granite foundation. At the bottom
of this vertiginous chasm, occupying its whole width, roll
the waters of the stream, now foaming through wild rapids,
now flowing peacefully in its deep and narrow channel.
Its tributaries, Grand River, the Little Colorado, and others,
are hardly less remarkable.
The Snake River, er Lewis branch of the Columbia, runs
through a deep valley full a thousand feet below the surface
of the surrounding country. The nature of these chasms,
their winding course, the disposition of their affluents, seem
to force us to ascribe their origin to the erosive action of
the flowing waters, and these wonderful structures prove
the enormous power of the agent which was capable of
scooping out such channels. In the far West the name of
cañon has been extended to almost every narrow mountain-
gorge, whatever be its origin and character.
- ARNOLD GUYOT.
Cañon City, capital of Fremont co., Col., situated on
the Arkansas River where it emerges from the Rocky
Mountains, on a branch of the Denver and Rio Grande
R. It is a resort for invalids, having both cold and warm
See BIBLE, THE, by PROF. W. G.
They were once the most numerous of the religious.
mineral springs and a healthful climate. In this vicinity
is fine scenery. It has unlimited water-power, and in the
neighborhood are coal, iron, oil-wells, marble and lime-
stone quarries, and rich copper and silver mines. It con-
tains a planing mill, a grist-mill, three churches, a public
school and seminary, and contains the Colorado peniten-
tiary. It has one weekly newspaper. The city is 5280
feet above the sea-level. Pop. 229. -
HENRY RIPLEY, ED. CANoN CITY “TIMES.”
Cañon City, a post-village, capital of Grant co., Or.,
about 150 miles S. E. of Dalles City. It contains several
fine fireproof buildings. Gold-mines have been opened
in the adjacent hills.
Cañon Creek, a post-township of Lewis and Clark
co., Mon. Pop. 39.
Can'oness [Lat. canonissa]. The canonesses were
members of certain religious orders of the Roman Catholic
Church, who often took no monastic vows, though they
lived in common and usually observed the rule of Saint
Augustine. Many noblemen sought well-endowed canon-
ical livings for their daughters, who were at liberty to
marry when they chose. The custom prevailed in Ger-
many even after the Reformation, and there were many
houses (Stifter) of Protestant canonesses, especially in
Westphalia and Mecklenburg.
Canonſical, according to the canon or rule. The
canonical books of Scripture are those which are admitted
to be genuine and of divine origin. (See BIBLE, THE.)
Canonical Hours, in the Roman Catholic Church,
are certain fixed times in the day for devotions. These
hours are called nocturnes, matins, lauds, tierce, nones,
vespers, and complines. The breviary has seven canonical
hours, because the Psalter says “Seven times in the day
will I praise Thee.” In England the hours between 8 A.M.
and 12 M. are canonical, and no marriage can take place in
any church except in canonical time.
Canonical Virgins, in the early ages of the Church,
were young women who, remaining in their homes, took
upon themselves vows of perpetual virginity. They were
enrolled in a list or canon, whence their name.
Canon'icus, an American Indian, chief of the Narra-
gansetts, who, though at first hostile to the Pilgrims who
landed at Plymouth in 1620, subsequently became friendly
to the whites, and especially to the inhabitants of the col-
ony of Roger Williams. Died June 4, 1647.
Canon'icut, or Comanicut, a beautiful island in
Narragansett Bay, nearly 8 miles long and 1 mile wide.
The island constitutes the township of Jamestown, in New-
port co., R. I. Pop. 378.
Canonization, the act of declaring a person a saint;
a ceremony in the Roman Catholic and Greek churches by
which deceased beatified persons are enrolled in the cata-
logue or canon of Saints. In the Roman Catholic Church
the pope has exclusive authority to canonize since the year
1170, but before that date other bishops had the same right
or power. When it is proposed to canonize a person, a
formal process is instituted by which his merits and cha-
racter are investigated. After it has been proved that he
died in the odor of sanctity, the ceremony is performed in
St. Peter’s church, Rome. The day of his death is annu-
ally celebrated by the Church.
Canon Law, a system of rules for the discipline of the
Church. The name is especially applied to the rules of the
Roman Catholic Church, which are also in force to some
extent in the churches of England, Scotland, and Germany.
This system of laws is based largely upon decisions of an-
cient councils, and also shows marks of the influence of the
Bible and of the Roman jurisprudence. It received fre-
quent additions and other modifications from the decre-
tals, bulls, and extravagants of the popes. In England,
the kings and parliaments were always jealous of the intro-
duction of foreign canons, but permitted to some extent
their introduction in cases where they did not interfere
with the statutes of the land. In this way the common law
came to receive the influence of the papal decretals; which
are sometimes cited as of authority in matters of marriage,
divorce, inheritance, etc., since these affairs were under the
control of the ecclesiastical courts. In Scottish jurispru-
dence the influence of canon law is very great, it having
been originally received as of equal force with the statutes
of the realm. (See LAw, by PROF. T. W. DWIGHT, LL.D.)
Can’onsburg, a post-borough of Washington co., Pa.,
on the Chartiers Valley R. W., 22 miles S. W. of Pittsburg.
It is the seat of Jefferson College. It has one newspaper,
a planing mill, and a woollen factory. The Pennsylvania
Reform School is near by. Pop. 641.
T. M. Potts & Co., PUBs. CANoNSBURG “ HERALD.”
Cano/pus, or Cano/bus [Gr. Kávoiros], a very bril-
". CANOPUS-CANTERBURY.
761
liant star of the first magnitude in Argo, a constellation of
the southern hemisphere. It is never visible in the North-
ern or Middle U. S., being only 37%% from the South Pole.
Canopus, or Canobus, an ancient city of Lower
Egypt, was situated on the Mediterranean, near the west-
ern mouth of the Nile, 15 miles E. of Alexandria. Before
the foundation of Alexandria, it was the principal seaport
of the Delta. Here was a famous shrine and oracle of
Serapis. Canopus was notorious for the dissolute morals
of its people and the number of its religious festivals. Its
ruins are still visible about three miles from Aboukir.
Can’opy [Gr. Kovometov, from kövo!, a “gnat,” because
canopies were used to keep off gnats, like our mosquito-
curtains; Lat. canopeum], ah ornamental covering over a
throne or bed; also a covering which is carried over the
heads of kings on journeys, and over the holy Sacrament
in Roman Catholic processions. The latter is called BAL-
DACHIN (which see). In architecture and sculpture, canopy
is a magnificent decoration which covers an altar, throne,
pulpit, or tribunal. In Gothic architecture, the term is
applied to the rich coverings which are often seen over
niches and tombs. .
Cano'sa (anc. Canusium), a town of Italy, in the prov-
ince of Bari, is situated on the declivity of a steep hill 14
miles S. W. of Barletta. It has an ancient cathedral. Here
are interesting ruins of the ancient Canw8ium, an important
city of Apulia. In the subterranean tombs of this place
were found painted vases and magnificent funereal furni-
ture, with precious stones and jewels. Pop. 12,769.
Cano/va (ANTONIO), a celebrated Italian sculptor, born
at Possagno, in Venetia, Nov. 1, 1757. He studied art in
Venice, and Rome, and aspired to restore the pure and
classic style of the antique. Among his early works were
a statue of Apollo and a group of “Daedalus and Icarus.”
He settled in Rome in 1782, and acquired celebrity by his
“Theseus and the Minotaur.” He did not adhere strictly
to the severe simplicity of the antique, but modified it by
a peculiar grace, which is apparent in, his “Cupid and
Psyche ’’ and his “Venus and Adonis.” Having been in-
vited by Napoleon, he went to Paris in 1802, and executed
an admirable statue of that emperor. Among his other
works are a “Venus Victorious,” a monument to Clement
XIII., erected in St. Peter's church, a statue of Washing-
ton, and a “Perseus with the Head of Medusa.” In 1816
he received the title of marquis of Ischia. He was the
founder of a new school of sculpture, and was reputed the
greatest sculptor of his age. Died at Venice Oct. 13, 1822.
Canrobert (FRANÇors CERTAIN), a French general, born
at St. Ceré, Lot, June 27, 1809. Having served many cam-
paigns in Algeria, he became a general of brigade in 1850,
and a general of division in 1853. He commanded a divis-
ion in the Crimea in 1854, and was wounded at Alma. In
Sept., 1854, he succeeded Marshal St.-Arnaud as commander-
in-chief of the French army, and he began the siege of Se-
bastopol. He resigned the command to General Pelissier
in May, 1855, and was made a marshal of France in 1856.
In June, 1859, he commanded a corps at Solferino. On the
outbreak of hostilities in 1870, the Sixth corps, under Can-
robert at Châlons, was, immediately after the disaster of
Forbach and Reichshofen, summoned to Metz to reinforce
Dazaine. As its commander, Canrobert took a prominent
part in all the battles and events preceding and attending
the investiture and capitulation of Metz (see BAZAINE);
and at the trial of Bazaine the bearing and evidence of
this veteran soldier excited popular admiration.
Can’so, Gut of, a strait which separates Nova Scotia.
from the island of Cape Breton, and connects the Atlantic
with the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is 17 miles long, and
has an average width of 2% miles.
Cant, a term used in architecture to express the sides
of a polygon turned from the spectator, or an angular deflec-
tion of a straight line which is neither in the same direction
to the horizontal nor to the perpendicular line of the base.
CANT, ,0m shipboard, is a term applied to timbers which
lie obliqûely to the line of the keel, and are near the bow or
Stern. It is also applied to anything sloping or inclined.
CANT also signifies an impulse with a sudden jerk; ob-
liquity of position ; a whining or affected tone; a whining
pretension to goodness; the peculiar words and phrases of
professional men; any barbarous jargon in speech.
. Cantaſ bri, a rude race of ancient mountaineers who
lived in Cantabria, the northern part of Spain, near the
Bay of Biscay. Their chief towns were J uliobrigas, Con-
Cana, and Wellica. They made a brave resistance to the
Romans in the Cantabrian war (25–19 B.C.). They are
said to have been of Iberian origin.
Canta'brian Mountains, a general name of several
ranges in the N. part of Spain. They are connected with
the Pyrenees, from which they extend westward to Cape
Finisterre. The highest summits are estimated at 10,000
feet high. Several portions of these mountains receive the
local names of Salvada, Ordunte, Peña, Anafia, Mellara, etc.
Cantacuze/nus, Anglicised as Cantacuzene [Gr.
Kavrakovšnvós], (John), a Byzantine emperor and historian.
He was prime minister under Andronicus III. (who died
in 1341), and he became emperor in 1342. He was in-
volved in a civil war with Anna, the wife of Andronicus
III., and abdicated in 1355. He wrote a work on Byzan-
time history from 1320 to 1357. Died Nov. 20, 1411.
Cantal, a central department of France, formed of the
S. part of the old province of Auvergne. It is bounded on
the N. by Puy de Dôme, on the E. by Haute-Loire, on the
S. E. by Lozère, on the S. by Aveyron, and on the W. by
Lot and Corrèze. Area, 2217 square miles. It is drained
by the sources of the Dordogne. The surface is moun-
tainous, and mostly occupied by the débris of extinct vol-
canoes. The soil is mostly sterile. Among the staple prod–.
ucts are cattle, butter, cheese, and chestnuts. Capital,
Aurillac. It is divided into 4 arrondissements, 23 cantons,
and 200 communes. Pop. in 1872, 231,867.
Can'taloupe (commonly pronounced kan'ta-lôp) Mel-
on, or Răusk-melon, named from Cantalupo, in Italy,
the Cucumis melo of botanists, is of the same genus with
the cucumber, family Cucurbitaceae. It has round, heart-
shaped leaves, a creeping stem, yellowish flowers, and
fleshy fruit, which is much esteemed. It is largely culti-
vated in New Jersey. *
Cantaſta [Fr. cantate], an Italian musical term, de-
rived from cantare, “to sing.” It is the name of a local
composition, not easily defined, which consists of choruses,
arias, and recitatives with instrumental accompaniment.
Later forms of it are much simpler.
Canteen' [Fr. cantine], a military term used in several
senses: 1, a small tin or wooden vessel, which each soldier
carries and uses for holding water; 2, a small wooden or
leathern chest or coffer containing the table equipage and
utensils of an officer when he is in active service; 3, a pub-
lic-house licensed in British garrisons and barracks for the
sale of malt liquor, ardent spirits, and groceries, in order
that the soldiers may obtain such articles without going
beyond the precincts of the barracks.
Cantemir’ (DEMETRIUs), an historian, was born in 1673.
He was appointed waivode of Moldavia by the Sultan of
Turkey in 1710. Having become an ally of Peter the
Great, he was expelled from Moldavia by the Turks in 1711.
He wrote in Latin a “History of the Origin and Decay of
the Ottoman Empire.” Died in 1723.
Can'terbury, a city and county of England, in Kent,
on the river Stour, 56 miles E. S. E. of London, with which
it is connected by railway. It is the metropolitan see of
England, being the seat of the archbishop of Canterbury,
who is primate of all England and the first peer of the
realm. It stands in a vale or level space between hills of
moderate height. It contains fourteen old churches, mostly
built of flint; also remains of St. Augustine's Benedictine
abbey, and the ruins of a Norman castle. Among its in-
stitutions are several hospitals, a museum, and a theatre.
Canterbury returns two members to Parliament. It has
manufactures of linen damask, and is noted for its brawn.
St. Augustine became the first archbishop of Canterbury in
597 A.D. About this time the town was the capital of the
kingdom of Kent, and was called Caer Cant (i. e. “city of
Kent”). Archbishop Cuthbert built here, about 740 A.D.,
a church which received numerous additions in succeeding
ages. The choir having been destroyed by fire in 1174, it
was soon rebuilt by William of Sens. This restored choir
is probably one of the oldest parts of the cathedral, which
presents a magnificent union of almost every style of Chris-
tian architecture. The central tower is 234 feet high, and
the total exterior length of the cathedral is 545 feet. Im-
mense numbers of pilgrims came here to worship at the
shrine of Thomas à Becket, who was killed here in 1170.
Pop. in 1871, 20,961.
Canterbury, a post-village of Windham co, Conn., on
the Quinebaug River and on the Hartford Providence and
Fishkill R. R., 40 miles W. S. W. of Providence. Pop. of
Canterbury township, 1543.
Canterbury, a post-township of Merrimack Co., N. H.,
on the Boston Concórd and Montreal R. R., 8 miles N. of
Concord. It has a community of Shakers and Some manu-
factures. Pop. 1169.
Canterbury, a village of Cornwall township, Orange
co., N.Y., has six churches, and manufactures of cord, fish-
lines, and woollen yarn.
Canterbury, a settlement of about 2400 square miles
on the E. coast of the N. island of the New Zealand group.
762
CANTERBURY-CANTON.
Capital, Christchurch; Lyttleton is its chief port. The
products are potatoes, oil, whalebone, gold-dust, and hides.
Canterbury, Wiscounts (United Kingdom, 1835).-
John HENRY THOMAS MANNERS-SUTTON, third viscount,
K. C. B., governer of Victoria colony, born May 27, 1814,
was member of Parliament for Cambridge borough 1841–
47, under-secretary for the home department 1841–46, has
been lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick and governor
of Trinidad, and succeeded his brother Nov. 13, 1869.
Canterbury Bell. See CAMPANULA.
Can'tharis [Gr. kav0apts], plu. Canthar’ides, a genus
of insects of the order Coleoptera and family Meloidae.
The Spanish fly, or blister beetle (Cantharis or Lytta vesi-
catoria), the most important of the genus, is about an inch
long; has a large head and -
long antennae,and soft wing- "
covers concealing the ab-
dómen. It is of a bright
green. Its brilliancy is of
use in detecting cases of
poisoning by cantharides,
golden-green particles be-
ing always seen in powders
made of these insects, and
these particles remaining
long unchanged. The com-
mon blister fly is found in the south of Europe and in
Asia. It is rare in England. They are imported from
Spain, France, Italy, Russia, and the Levant. The perfect
insect is taken by beating the branches of trees in the
morning or evening, when it is comparatively lethargic, a
cloth being spread below to receive the insects as they fall.
Those who collect them wear gloves and veils. Unpleasant
effects have been experienced from even sitting under trees
on the leaves of which cantharides were numerous. They
are killed with the vapor of vinegar, sulphurous acid, or
oil of turpentine. Unless kept with great care, they lose
their active properties. They are liable to be injured by
mites. Some of the species of the genera Meloe and Myla-
bris are occasionally used as vesicants. The American
Lytta vittata (potato-fly) and other native species have very
similar properties.
The active principle of the flies is cantharidin, of which
+}o of a grain placed on the lip rapidly causes the rise of
bſisters. Internally, the flies cause heat in the throat,
stomach, kidneys, etc., and in large doses they give rise to
inflammation of a serious nature. There are various prepa-
rations of blistering flies, such as tincture of cantharides,
cantharidal collodion, etc., but that most commonly em-
ployed is blistering plaster, made by mixing powdered flies,
yellow wax, resin, and lard.
Can’ticles [in the Vulgate, Canticum Canticorum, the
“Song of Songs”], called in the common English version of
the Bible Solomon’s Song, the Hebrew D"T"º", "l't')
(i.e. “Song of the Songs”), is a collection of poems, per-
haps with a dramatic arrangement, whose subject is chaste
love. The rabbis first began to interpret it allegorically
of God and His people, and this interpretation was so
established before the time of the Massoretes that they
did not hesitate to recognize the book as canonical. The
same method of interpretation passed into the Christian
Church, only that the allegory was there accepted as refer-
ring to Christ and the Church. The more crass forms of
this method of interpretation have been abandoned, but the
effort is still made by types or symbols or other devices to
give to the book another significance than that which it
bears on its face. Not a syllable appears in the book to
suggest any such hidden significance, and this interpreta-
tion rests on the assumption that, since the book is in the
canon, it must be something more than it appears to be.
Niebuhr is said to have replied to a young man, who re-
gretted its place in the canon, that he would not consider the
Bible complete as “the book of humanity,” if it contained
no representation of pure and faithful love. The book
probably belongs to the time of Solomon, though there are
no satisfactory data for deciding as to its date and author.
Cantire, kan-tir', or Kintyre, a long narrow penin-
gula of Scotland, forms the S. end of the county of Argyle.
It is bounded on the E. by the Frith of Clyde or Kilbran-
man Sound, and on the W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Its length
is 40 miles, and its average width 6% miles. It contains a
large portion of arable land. A lighthouse stands at the
S. W. extremity, which is called the Mull of Cantire.
Can’to Fer/mo, in music, the subject-song or theme.
Every part that is the subject of counterpoint, whether
plain or figured, is called canto fermo by the Italians. In
church music this term means plain song or choral song in
unison, and in notes all of equal length.
Can’ton [from the It. canto, a “corner’], a small
Cantharis, or Spanish Fly.
piece of territory; the name of each of the states or in-
dependent provinces which united form the federal repub-
lic of Switzerland, each retaining its autonomy in matters
of internal administration. -
Canton, in heraldry, occupies a corner of the shield,
either dexter or sinister, and in size is the third of the chief.
It is one of the nine honorable ordinaries.
Canton' [a corruption of Quang-Tong, the name of
the province; Chinese Sang-Ching], a populous city, the
greatest commercial emporium of China, and the capital of
the province of Quang-Tong, is on the left (N.) bank of
the Canton or Pearl River, about 70 miles from its entrance
into the China Sea; lat. 23° 7' N., lon. 113° 14' E. The mean
annual temperature is 69° F. The city is enclosed by a
brick wall about seven miles in extent, and is entered by
twelve gates. It is also defended by four strong forts,
erected on the hills which rise on its northern side. Several
islands in the river below Canton are also fortified. The
city is divided into the old and new town, the former of
which is occupied by Tartars, and the latter by the Chinese.
The European merchants occupy one of the suburbs called
hongs, which face the river and are separated from it by a
quay 100 feet wide. The streets of Canton are crooked
and narrow, having an average width of about eight feet.
The houses are built of brick, stone, or wood, and are sel-
dom more than two stories high. Many thousands of peo-
ple called Tankia, having no homes on the land, live on
boats and rafts, and gain a subsistence by fishing and rear-
ing poultry. Canton contains several many-storied pago-
das, a Mohammedan mosque, and about 120 joss-houses or
Booddhist temples. The most remarkable of these is on
the island of Honam, which is opposite the city. This tem-
ple covers about seven acres. Canton has extensive man-
ufactures of silk, cotton, brass, iron, and wood.
The city has an advantageous position for foreign and in-
ternal trade, and has access to the rich provinces of Quang-
See and Quang-Tong by its large navigable river. The chief
articles of export are tea and silk goods, of the former of
which 24,477,411 pounds were exported in 1863. Sugar,
porcelain, and precious metals are also exported. All the
legitimate foreign trade of China was confined to Canton
before 1843, when the more northern ports of Amoy, Foo-
choo, Ningpo, and Shanghai were opened to foreigners,
since when the importance of Canton has declined. The
exports from this city to Europe and America in 1844 were
valued at $26,755,626, and in 1871 they were valued at
about $13,840,000. The quantity of tea exported in 1847
is said to have been moré than 72,000,000 pounds. Large
quantities of opium, produced in Hindostan, are imported
into Canton contrary to law.
Canton is supposed to be the oldest city of China. Its
population is notorious for profligacy, turbulence, dishon-
esty, and other vices. The European factories have been
more than once attacked by mobs of Cantonese, actuated
by a violent hostility to foreigners. The police is render-
ed inefficient or worse by the venality and rapacity of its
officers, who share in the profits of robberies, and are often
bribed to liberate offenders. In May, 1841, the British
forces captured the defences of Canton, but before they en-
tered the city they were induced to retire by the payment
of £6,000,000. The city was occupied by the British and
French armies in Dec., 1857. Pop. about 800,000.
A. J. SCHEM.
Canton, a township of Wilcox co., Ala. Pop. 1528.
Canton, a post-village and township of Hartford co.,
Conn., 15 miles N. W. of Hartford. Pop. 2639.
Canton, a post-village, capital of Lincoln co., Dak., on
the Sioux River, in a good farming region. It has good
water-power, and one weekly newspaper.
R. H. MILLER, ED. Sioux VALLEY “NEws.”
Canton, a small post-village, capital of Cherokee co.,
Ga., on the Etowah River, about 37 miles N. of Atlanta.
Gold is found in this county. Pop. 214.
Canton, an incorporated city in Fulton co., Ill., 28
miles W. S. W. of Peoria, 12 miles W. of Illinois River, at
the crossing of the Toledo Peoria and Warsaw R. R., and
the Rushville and Buda branch of the Chicago Burlington
and Quincy R. R., is situated in a coal-region with mines
within the city. It has 7 churches, 1 national and 2 private
banks, 3 iron-foundries, large agricultural implement and
wagon manufactories, 4 cigar manufactories, and a large
packing-house, putting up meat for the English market.
There is a good library, four ward and one high school,
erected at a cost of $10,500 each, a good fire department,
etc. It has two weekly newspapers. Pop. 3308; of town-
ship, 4472. W. P. TANGUARY, ED. “REGISTER.”
Canton, a township of Benton co., Ia. Pop. 1509.
Canton, a post-township of Oxford co., Me., on the
Androscoggin River, at the N. terminus of the Portland

CANTON.—CAPACITY.
763
and Oxford Central R. R., 50 miles from Portland. . It has
manufactures of furniture and carriages. Pop. 984. -
Canton, a post-village of Norfolk co., Mass., on the Bos-
ton and Providence R. R., 14 miles S. of Boston. Canton
township has one national bank, and manufactures of cotton
and woollen goods, sewing silk, machinery, etc. Pop. 3879.
Canton, a post-twp. of Wayne co., Mich. Pop. 1392.
Canton, a township of Fillmore co., Minn. Pop. 1012.
Canton, a post-village, capital of Madison co., Miss.,
is the southern terminus of the Mississippi Central R. R.,
which here connects with the New Orleans Jackson and
Great Northern R. R. It is 23 miles N. N. E. of Jackson.
It has two weekly newspapers. Pop. 1963.
Canton, a post-village of Lewis co., Mo., on the Mis-
sissippi River, about 185 miles above St. Louis. The Mis-
sissippi Valley and Western R. R. connects it with Quincy,
Ill., 17 miles distant, Keokuk, and St. Louis. It is one of
the chief shipping-points of the county, and contains Can-
ton University, an institution of the “ Christian * connec-
tion. There are two public schools, two banks, two wagon
and plough factories, and various other manufactures. It
has one weekly and one monthly newspaper. Pop. 2363;
of Canton township, 3434. ED. “PRESS.”
Canton, a village of Van Buren township, Onondaga
co., N. Y. Pop. 223.
Canton, a post-village, and capital of St. Lawrence co.,
N. Y., on the Rome Watertown and Ogdensburg R. R., 60
miles N. E. of Watertown, and on Grass River, which af.
fords valuable water-power, used in manufacturing lumber,
flour, machinery, leather, castings, etc. Canton contains a
court-house, jail, almshouse, good graded schools, and nine
churches, and is the seat of St. Lawrence University (Uni-
Versalist), having law and theological schools connected
with it. The university buildings are very elegant. It has
one weekly newspaper. P. 1681; of Canton township, 6014.
Canton, the capital of Stark co., O., is a handsome city
at the confluence of the East and West branches of Nimi-
shillen Creek, and on the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chi-
cago R. R., 102 miles W. N. W. of Pittsburg and 54 miles
S. S. E. of Cleveland. It is on the line of the Valley R. R.,
now in course of construction, from Cleveland, O., to Wheel-
ing, W. Va. It contains 14 churches, 6 banks, 1 academy,
St. Vincent’s College (Roman Catholic), 4 weekly news-
papers (1 German), 3 manufactories of mowers and reapers,
1 printing-press works, I manufactory of safés, 1 saw and
Spring manufactory, 2 woollen and 5 flouring mills, 2 plough
manufactories, and a variety of smaller manufactures. The
city is supplied with water from a lake three miles N. W.
of the town by means of a Holly engine. Coal is abundant
in the vicinity, and the city derives its prosperity chiefly
from its manufactures, though the surrounding country is
a very rich agricultural one. Canton is rapidly increasing
in population and business. Pop. 8660; including Canton
township, 10,612. ED. “REPOSITORY AND REPUBLICAN.”
Canton, a township and post-borough of Bradford co.,
Pa. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of township,
1840; of borough, 710.
Canton, a township of Washington co., Pa. Pop. 592.
Canton, a post-village, capital of Van Zandt co., Tex.,
about 200 miles N. N. E. of Austin City. It has two
weekly newspapers. Pop. 183.
Canton, a township of Buffalo co., Wis. Pop. 648.
Canton (John), F. R. S., an English natural philoso-
pher, born at Stroud in 1718. He made some discoveries
in electricity, and received from the Royal Society a gold.
medal in 1765 for his demonstration that water is compres-
sible. Died in 1772.
Can’tonment# [Fr. cantonnement], a military term
applied to temporary resting-places of European armies.
When troops are detached and quartered in several adjacent
towns or villages they are said to be in cantonments. In
India, the term is applied to permanent military stations
of the British army, or to regular military towns at a con-
siderable distance from any city. A cantonment on a large
scale comprises, besides barracks for European soldiers and
huts for native troops, magazines, public offices, and bunga-
lows for the officers.
Cantú (CESARE), a popular Italian historian and poet,
born near Milan Sept. 5, 1805. He wrote “Storia Uni.
Versale" (20 vols., 1837–42), which has been translated into
English and French, and “Della Indipendenza Italiana ’’
(1872). He supported the liberal cause in 1848.
. Canu'sium [Gr. Kavčgtov], an important and very an-
cient city of Apulia, in Italy, on the river Aufidus (Ofanto),
about 15 miles from its mouth. It was probably founded
* Frequently pronounced kan-too'ment in the British army.
self.
by the Greeks. The inhabitants were called bilingues by
Horace, because they spoke Greek and Latin. It was
captured by the Romans in 318 B. C. Its site is occupied
by the modern CANos.A (which see). Here were found,
about 1803, remarkable remains of ancient art, among which
were painted vases, marble statues, and jewels of exquisite
workmanship.
Canute, Knut, or Knud, king of Denmark and the
conqueror of England, was the son and successor of Sweyn,
king of Denmark, who died in 1014. After the death of
Edmund Ironsides, in 1016, Canute reigned as sole mon-
arch of all England, having completed by arms the subju-
gation of the Anglo-Saxons. He confirmed his power by
mildness and prudent policy, and became the most power-
ful European monarch of his time. He founded monaste-
ries, patronized minstrels, and wrote verses or ballads him-
He died in 1036, leaving three sons, Sweyn, Harold,
and Hardicanute. -
Can’vas [from the Lat. cannabis, “hemp ’’), a coarse
hempen or linen cloth which is extensively used in the form
of tents and the sails of ships. It is also the principal
material on which artists paint oil-pictures. The word is
sometimes employed as synonymous with sail. In Old Eng-
lish it meant also a straining-cloth or sieve.
Can’vas-back (Fuligula valismeria), a species of
North American duck, the flesh of which is highly prized.
It is considered by some persons as the most delicious of
all waterfowl. It is not found in Europe. It frequents the
bays of the sea and the estuaries of rivers. The plumage
is diversified with black, white, chestnut-brown, and slate-
color. The length is about twenty inches. These birds,
after breeding in the northern parts of the continent, mi-
grate southward about November. During the winter
many of them are shot on Chesapeake and Delaware bays.
Those found on the Chesapeake are considered better than
any others.
Canzo'ne, a form of Italian lyrical poem adopted,
with some alteration, from the poetry of the Troubadours.
The canzone is divided, like the Greek strophic ode, into
stanzas, in which the number and place of rhymes and
metre of verses respectively correspond. The last stanza,
commonly shorter than the others, is called congedo or ri-
pressa. This form of poetry was adapted by Petrarch to
the expression of different veins of thought—eleyated and
heroic. - -
Caoutchouc, Gum EHastic, or India = Rubber, a
valuable substance used in the arts for a great variety of
purposes, is the inspissated juice or sap of several species
of plants of the natural orders Euphorbiaceae, Moraceae,
Artocarpaceae, and Apocynaceae. It is produced chiefly in
tropical and sub-tropical countries, especially in the East In-
dies and South America. . The milky juice of the tree is ob-
tained by incisions in the bark, and is dried on clay moulds
over smoky fires, which gives it its usual black color. Puro
caoutchouc is a hydrocarbon, C8H14. It is extremely valu-
able in the arts on account of its elastic and waterproof
properties. By combining it with less than 25 per cent.
of sulphur, and exposing it to a temperature of about
270° F., it is converted into soft vulcanized rubber, a sub-
stance much more valuable than the original caoutchouc.
By adding 50 per cent. or more of sulphur, and heating to
300° F., it forms hard vulcanized rubber or ebonite. (See
elaborate article on the manufacture of caoutchouc prod-
ucts by PROF. C. F. CHANDLER, under INDIA-RUBBER.)
Cap, in shipbuilding, is a strong, thick block of wood
fixed near the top of each mast. It has a hole to receive
the upper end of the lower mast, and another to receive the
lower end of the topmast, with eyebolts to aid in hoisting
the topmast. When made of iron the cap is called a cranee.
Caſpac, a post-village of St. Clair co., Mich.
Capac’ity [from the Lat. capaa, “ capable *l, in law,
ability or power to do a particular thing, such as to take or
to hold land, to sue and to be sued, and the like. Capacity
may sometimes exist to do one of these acts, and not to do
another. Thus, one may be able to take and hold land,
and not have capacity to dispose of it, as in the case of an
infant; or one may be able to take, and not have the pow-
er to hold against another, as in the case of an alien, who
may at common law take land as between himself and his
grantor, but cannot hold it as against the state. Capacity
may be conveniently considered under two general heads
—capacity to have rights, and capacity to act. Some rules
as to incapacity depend upon natural disabilities; others
rest upon arbitrary grounds. This subject is closely con-
nected with the doctrine of status, as treated by Writers on
public law. This has been shown by Mr. Maine in his
work on “Ancient Law'” to have had its principal origin
in the early idea of the family. The arbitrary rules of
archaic law have been, to a considerable extent, gradually
764
CAPANNOR.I-CAPE DUCATO. - *-
supplanted by the modern idea of fixing one's relations to
another by contract, so that the movement of modern pro-
gressive society has been from status to contract. This doc-
trine is well illustrated in the case of master and servant.
In ancient law the position of the servant was fixed by an
arbitrary rule, so that he was a slave. In modern times
the relation depends on contract. Still, there always will
be a class of cases where legal capacity is denied, as where
persons have not the mental power to enter into a con-
tract, including infants, insane persons, and habitual drunk-
ards, or where a supposed rule of public policy may inter-
vene, as in the case of aliens. These are still in Some of
the American States denied the power to hold land by pur-
chase, or even to take it at all by descent. In fact, capa-
city to have rights largely depends on the general convic-
tions of the people of a state, while the capacity to act is com-
monly determined by a desire to protect one who has rights
from an improvident surrender of them. (See as to the re-
lations of this subject to private international law, WEST-
LAKE's or SAVIGNY’s treatises on that topic, and PHILLIMORE
or WHEATON on international law.) T. W. DWIGHT.
Capamno'ri, a city of Italy, in the province of Lucca,
and 5 miles E. of Lucca. It is situated in a fertile plain
on the railway from Florence to Pisa, and has considerable
trade. Pop. in 1871, 48,313.
Cape Ann, the eastern point of Essex co., Mass., is 31
miles N. E. of Boston. . Here is a rocky headland, in which,
at Rockport, valuable quarries of syenite are worked. Lat.
42° 38' 3" N., lon. 70° 34' 2" W. Two stone lighthouses
stand on Thatcher’s Island, # of a mile distant, each 11.2%
feet high, showing fixed white dioptric lights of the first
class, 1653 feet above the sea.
Cape Arago, or Greg'ory, is a point at the S. side of
the entrance to Coos Bay, in Coos co., Or. Its lighthouse
stands on a small island, lat. 43° 20' 38' N., lon. 124° 22'
11" W., and shows a flashing light 75 feet above the sea.
Cape Bab-el-Man' deb, on the Arabian side of the
strait of that name, lat. 12° 40' N., lon. 43° 31' E., is a
rock of basalt 865 feet high.
Cape Béarn, a promontory of France, in the Mediter-
ranean; lat. 42° 31' N., lon. 3° 7' 30" E. Here is a light-
house of the first class, 751 feet above the sea.
Cape Bianco, lat. 37° 20' N., lon. 9° 48' E. This is
the most northern point of Africa.
Cape Bian/co (i.e. “White Cape ’’), on the Atlantic,
is, next to Cape Verde, the westernmost point of Africa; lat.
20° 47' N., lon. 17° 4 W.
Cape Blanco, or Orford, on the Pacific, is the most
western point of Oregon; lat. 42° 50' N., lon. 124° 32' 29”
W. Its lighthouse shows a fixed white dioptric light of the
first order, 256 feet above the sea.
Cape Boe/o (anc. Lilybaeum Promontorium) is the
most western point of Sicily. It was in ancient times an
important naval station, near which the Romans gained a
great naval victory in the First Punic war. Lat. 37° 48' N.,
lon. 12° 25' E.
Cape Boj'ador', a bold headland of Western Africa,
is the termination of a range of Mount Atlas, in lat. 26°
7, N., lon. 14° 29' W. - º
Cape Bon, or Ras Adder, on the N. coast of Africa,
58 miles N. E. of Tunis; lat. 37° 6' N., lon. 11°3' E.
Cape Breton (brit’tn), an island of North America, be-
longing to Great Britain, and forming a part of the prov-
ince of Nova Scotia, is in the Atlantic Ocean, and is sepa-
rated from the north-eastern extremity of Nova Scotia by
a narrow strait called the Gut of Canso. It is a rocky
island of very irregular shape, and has an area of 3120
square miles. The chief articles of export are fish, coal,
and lumber. It is noted for its fisheries of cod and mack-
erel. It is divided into four counties, Cape Breton, Inver-
ness, Richmond, and Victoria. The climate is severe. Pop.
in 1871, 75,483.
Cape Breton, a county of Nova Scotia, Dominion of
Canada, is a part of the island of Cape Breton, and borders
on the Atlantic Ocean. Bituminous coal is the chief prod-
uct. Capital, Sidney. Pop. in 1871, 26,454.
Cape Canav/eral, on the E. coast of Florida, in Vo-
Iusia, co., lat. 28° 27' N., lon. 80° 33' W., is nearly surrounded
by dangerous shoals, and has on its N. E. pitch a revolving
light of the first order, 139 feet above the sea.
Cape Canso, the most easterly point of Nova Scotia,
has a lighthouse on Cranberry Island; lat. 45° 19.5° N.,
lon. 60° 55' 3" W. It is also a port of entry in Wilmot town-
ship, Guysborough co., having active trade and fishing in-
terests. It has a U. S. consul. Gold has been found here.
Pop. about 1000.
Cape Cato/che, the north-eastern extremity of Yuca-
tan, is on the Gulf of Mexico. This was the part of the
American continent on which the Spaniards first landed;
lat. 21° 34' N., lon. 86° 57' 51" W.
Cape Charles, Va., is the southern point of the “East-
ern Shore,” a peninsula, which separates Chesapeake Bay
from the Atlantic Ocean. A lighthouse stands on Smith’s
Island near this cape with a flashing light of the first
order; lat. 37° 07' 08" N., lon. 75° 53' 12" W.
Cape Clear, the most southern point of Ireland, is in
the county of Cork. Here is a lighthouse on a cliff 455 feet
above the sea; lat. 51° 26' N., lon. 9°29' W.
Cape Coast Castle, a British settlement and town on
the W. coast of Africa, in Upper Guinea; lat. 5° 6' N., lon.
1° 15' W. This is the capital of the British colonies on the
coast of Guinea. It is defended by several forts. The cli-
mate is unhealthy. The chief articles of export are palm
oil, gold-dust, and tortoise-shell. Pop. about 10,000.
Cape Cod, Mass., is a long and narrow sandy penin-
sula, which nearly coincides with Barnstable county. It is
about 65 miles long, and from 1 to 20 miles wide. The form
of it is similar to a man’s arm bent at the elbow. On the
northern extremity, which is called Race Point, is a revolv-
ing light 47 feet above the sea; lat. 42° 03.7' N., lon. 70°
I4.3' W.
Cape Colon’na (anc. Sunium Promontorium), the
most southern point of Attica, on the Mediterranean; lat.
37° 39' N., lon. 24° 2' E. Its summit is crowned by the
ruins of a marble temple 269 feet above the sea.
Cape Col’ony, or Cape of Good Hope, a British
territory which forms the southern extremity of Africa, is
bounded on the N. by the Orange River, on the E. and S. .
by the Indian Ocean, and on the W. by the Atlantic. Area,
221,311 square miles. The interior of this region is de-
scribed as a succession of plateaus and mountain-ranges,
which increase in elevation as they recede from the coast.
The highest mountains are estimated at nearly 10,000 feet
above the level of the sea. The sea-coast presents several
comparatively safe and commodious harbors, among which
the most frequented are Table Bay and Algoa Bay. Cape
Colony has no rivers that are of much value for navigation.
The climate is healthy, but the extremes of temperature
have a wide range. But little rain falls in the interior.
The vegetation of this region is peculiar, and rich in beau-
tiful flowers, among which are the ixia, gladiolus, tritonia,
strelitzia, pelargonium or Cape geranium, and xeranthe-
mum. The characteristic vegetation of the vicinity of Cape
Town consists of Ericaceae (heaths), Stapeliae or carrion
flowers, and Proteaceae. Here are about 400 species of
Ericaceae. Among the indigenous animals of Cape Colony
are the elephant, giraffe, rhinoceros, lion, buffalo, panther,
wild-boar, hyaena, antelope, quagga, Springbok, and ostrich.
Many cattle and sheep are raised here. The soil in some
parts is fertile, but a large portion of it is arid and barren
without irrigation. Wheat and other cereals are cultivated
extensively. The chief articles of export are wool, wine,
copper, hides, horses, flour, aloes, fish, fruits, and maize.
The value of the exports in 1870 amounted to £2,603,000,
and that of the imports to £2,502,000. In 1870, 28,813,583
pounds of wool were exported, valued at £1,835,390.
The colony is divided into two provinces—the eastern
and western, the respective capitals of which are Graham's
Town and Cape Town. The pop. in 1865 was 496,381, of
which 81,598 were Hottentots, 100,536 were Kaffers, and
181,592 were Europeans.
History.—The Dutch were the first Europeans who col-
onized this region. They founded Cape Town in 1652. The
colony was captured in 1806 by the British, to whom it was
formally ceded in 1814. The European colonists have been
often disturbed by the hostility of the Kaffers, a warlike race
of negroes. In 1836 the BoERS (which see) left the country
in great numbers, and founded the independent Transvaal
Republic and Orange Free State. In 1866, British Kaffraria,
and in 1868 a part of the Basuto country, were annexed to
the colony. A. J. ScHEM.
Cape Com/orin, in the Indian Ocean, is the southern
extremity of Hindostan; lat. 8° 5' N., lon. 77° 30' E.
Cape Di’amond, in Canada, is at the confluence of the
St. Charles River with the St. Lawrence. It is 333 feet above
the river, to which it presents a precipitous bluff. On this
point stands the citadel of Quebec. -
Cape Disappointment, or Cape Hancock, the
S. W. point of Washington Territory and of Pacific co., at
the mouth of the Columbia; lat. 46° 16' 33' N., lon. 124°
02' 13' W., has a lighthouse 40 feet high, showing a fixed
white light of the first order 232 feet above the sea.
Cape Duca/to, or the Leuca/dian Prom'ontory,
sometimes called The Lover’s Leap, is the S. point of the
Greek island of Leucadia or Santa, Maura ; lat. 38° 34' N.,
lon. 20° 32' 45" E. It is a perpendicular white cliff over
CAPE ELIZABETH-CAPE PRINCE OF WALES.
765
2000 feet high, whence Sappho is said to have cast herself
for love of Phaon. From this precipice the ancients once
a year cast a criminal, first tying a great number of birds
to him. If the flight of the birds was strong enough, so
that the man was alive when he reached the Sea, he was
taken up in a boat and set at liberty. Mariners have
always regarded this cape with dread. -
Cape Eliz’abeth, a township of Cumberland co., Me.,
1 mile from Portland, contains seven churches, and has a
rolling-mill, oil-refinery, a dry-dock, and important man-
ufactures. Cape Elizabeth is a suburb of Portland, and a
place of summer resort. The township takes its name from
the cape; in lat. 43° 33' 56” N., lon. 70° 11/41" W. It has
two stone lighthouses, one with a fixed and one with a flash-
ing light. Pop. 5106.
Cape Farewell’, the southern extremity of Greenland,
is in lat. 59° 49' N., lon. 43° 54" W.
Cape Fear, on the Atlantic, is the southern extremity
of Smith's Island, N. C., and is the most southern point of
the State; lat. 33° 52.3' N., lon. 77° 59.8' W.
Cape Fear, a township of Chatham co., N. C. Pop.
2285.
Cape Fear, a township of New Hanover co., N. C.
Pop. 996.
Cape Fear River is formed by the Haw and Deep
rivers, which unite at Haywood in Chatham co., N. C. It
flows south-eastward, passes Fayetteville and Wilmington,
and enters the Atlantic near Cape Fear. The length, ex-
cluding the branches above named, is estimated at 200
miles. Steamboats can ascend it to Fayetteville, 120 miles.
Capefigue (BAPTISTE HONORí, RAYMOND), a French his-
torian, born at Marseilles in 1802. He became a royalist
and editor of several journals of Paris. Among his numer-
ous works on French history are “Europe during the Con-
sulate and the Empire” (1839–41), a “listory of the Re-
storation” (1842), and (his best work) a “History of Philippe
Auguste” (1831–34, 4 vols.). -
Cape Flatſtery, the N. W. point of Washington Terri-
tory and of Clallam co. On Tatoosh Island, half a mile
distant, is a small lighthouse, in lat. 48° 23' 20" N., lon.
124° 43' 48" W. This is the most western point of the
U. S., exclusive of Alaska.
Cape Flor’ida, the S. point of Key Biscayne, off the
S. E. point of Florida, has a lighthouse standing in a grove
of cocoanut trees; lat. 25° 39' 50" N., lon. 80° 09' 24" W.,
with a fixed white light. -
Cape Foulweath/er, or Yaqui'na. Head, the west-
ernmost point of Tullamook co., Or., has a brick lighthouse
81 feet high, showing a fixed white light of the first order
150 feet above the sea; lat. 44° 16' 33” N., lon. 124° 05' W.
Cape Gas/pe, the point of land at the N. side of the
entrance to Gaspe Bay, Quebec (Canada). It is in lat. 48°
45' N., lon. 64° 12' W.
Cape Girardeau, a county in E. S. E. Missouri. Area,
875 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Mississippi
River, and drained by the Whitewater. The surface is nearly
level; the soil is fertile. Grain, wool, tobacco, cattle, and
timber are among the chief products. Lumber, cooperage,
saddlery, harness, etc. are the principal manufactures. Cap-
ital, Jackson. Pop. 17,558.
Cape Girardeau, a city in Cape Girardeau co., Mo.;
on the W. bank of the Mississippi, 150 miles S. of St. Louis,
is the seat of St. Vincent’s College, and contains also a fe-
male academy and a public school. There are four news-
papers, one of them German. Its exports are cotton, ploughs,
lime, mineral paints, etc. There are seven churches in the
city, two of them Catholic. Pop. 3585; outside township,
1651. A. M. CASEBOLT, PUB. “MARBLE CITY NEws.”
Cape Guar/dafui, or Gardafui, the easternmost
point of Africa, is in lat. 11° 50' N., lon. 51° 21' E.
Cape Hatſteras, the eastern extremity of North Caro-
lina, is a point of a low sandy island, separated from the
mainland, by Pamlico Sound. The navigation is dangerous
in this vicinity, on account of shoals which extend far out
into the sea; lat. 35° 15.2’ N., lon. 75° 30.9/ W. Two miles
N. of the extremity stands the lighthouse, 190 feet in height,
showing a flashing dioptric light of the first order.
Cape Hayſtien, formerly Cape Français, a sea-
port of Hayti, 90 miles N. of Port-au-Prince. It has a safe
harbor and some handsome squares. It has some trade with
the U. S. and England. Lat. 19° 46.4. N., lon. 72° 11, W.
Pop. estimated at 10,000.
Cape Hemloºpera, Del., is at the entrance of Delaware
Bay, 13 miles S. S. W. of Cape May; lat. 38° 46.6/ N., lon.
75° 04.7' W. It has a stone lighthouse, showing a fixed
White dioptric light of the first order, 128 feet above the sea.
Cape Henry, Va., is at the entrance of Chesapeake
Bay, 12 miles S. of Cape Charles. Here is a fixed light 129
feet above the level of the sea; lat. 36° 55.5' N., lon. 76°
0.2/ W. - -
Cape Horn, the southernmost point of America, is an
island of the archipelago of Terra del Fuego; lat. 55° 59'
S., lon. 67° 16' W. It is a high, steep, naked rock. Vessels
which pass from the Atlantic to the Pacific, or the reverse,
usually double this cape, rather than pass through the Strait
of Magellan.
Cape la Hague, a headland of France, in Normandy,
on the English Channel, is the N. W. extremity of the
peninsula of Cotentin, and about 16 miles N. N. W. of
Cherbourg. On the E. side of Cotentin is Cape la Hogue,
near which the English and Dutch fleets defeated the French
in 1692. Lat. 49° 44' N., lon. 19 56' W.
Ca'pelin, or Caplin, a little marine fish of the salmon
family (the Mallotus Groenlandicus), which visits the coasts
of Labrador and Newfoundland in vast shoals, furnishing
bait for the cod-fishermen. Capelins are also taken and
dried for the European market, and are very good eating.
They are about the size of the smelt. -
Capºeil (EDWARD), an English Shakspearian critic,
born at Troston in 1713. He published the works of Shaks-
peare in 10 vols. 8vo, 1767, “Notes and Various Readings
of Shakspeare” (1775), and the “School of Shakspeare,” 3
vols. 4to (1783). Died Feb. 24, 1781.
Capel’Ia (i. e. the “Rid”), a bright star of the first
magnitude in the constellation of Auriga, is also called a
Aurigae. It is a double star. *
Cape Lookout', the S. E. extremity of the islands off
Carteret co., N. C., has a lighthouse 150 feet high near its
extremity, in lat. 34° 37' 16" N., lon. 76° 31' 07' W., with
a fixed white light of the first order.
Cape May, the southernmost county of New Jersey.
Area, 250 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the
Atlantic Ocean and on the W. by Delaware Bay. The sur-
face is level; the soil is alluvial, and partly sandy. The
chief crops are grain, potatoes, and dairy products. The
county is intersected by the West Jersey R. R. It con-
tains a deposit of cedar-wood which is still sound, although
it has probably been buried many centuries. Capital,
Cape May Court-house. Pop. 8349.
Cape May, or Cape Island, a celebrated watering-
place of Cape May co., N.J., is on a small island in the
Atlantic Ocean, 81 miles by railroad S. of Philadelphia.
The distance from that city by water is nearly 100 miles.
This place is the southern terminus of the West Jersey
R. R., and has daily communication with Philadelphia by
steamboats in summer. It has two weekly newspapers.
It is one of the most fashionable summer-resorts in the
U. S., and contains numerous hotels.
Cape May, the southern extremity of New Jersey, is
at the entrance of .Delaware Bay. Here is a revolving
light elevated 152 feet above the sea, in lat. 38° 55.8' N.,
lon. 74°. 57.3% W. t - ...'
Cape May Court-house, capital of the above county,
is on the West:Jersey R. R., 68 miles S. of Camden. Pop.
1248. - -
Cape Mendoci'no, a lofty headland of Humboldt co.,
Cal., is the westernmost point of that State. It has a
wrought-iron lighthouse, with a flashing white light of
the first order, 428 feet above the sea; lat. 40° 26' 24” N.,
lon. 124° 23' 27” W. -
Cape North, a promontory in the Arctic Ocean, is the
northernmost point of Europe. It is the N. extremity of
the island of Magerö, separated by a narrow channel from
the mainland of Norway; lat. 71° 10' 12" N., lon. 25° 46' E.
Cape of Good Hope, a promontory near the south-
ern extremity of Africa, is the termination of Table Moun-
tain, rising about 1000 feet above the level of the sea; lat.
34° 22' S., lon. 18° 30' E. It is about 30 miles S. of Cape
Town. This cape was discovered by Bartholomew Diaz in .
1486, and was first doubled by Vasco da Gama in 1497.
Cape Pal/mas, the S. extremity of Liberia, lat. 4° 22'
N., lon. 7° 44' W., is a high point with a lighthouse. It is
also the popular name of that part of the country. It is
included in the Liberian state of Maryland. Cape Palmas
is the diocese of a bishop of the Protestant Episcopal
Church. - -
Cape Pine, Newfoundland, lat. 46° 37'4” N., lon. 53°
31' 45° W., has an iron lighthouse with a fixed catoptric
white light of the first order, 314 feet above the sea.
Cape Poge, the N. E. point of Chappequiddick Island,
in Edgartown, Dukes co., Mass., lat. 41° 25' 14' N, lon.
70° 26' 44" W., has a wooden lighthouse 36 feet high, with
a fixed white light of the fourth order.
Cape Prince of Wales, the westernmost point of the
766
American continent, on the E. side of Behring Strait;
lat. 65° 45' N., lon. I68° 17' W. It is a lofty headland,
with dangerous shoals in the vicinity.
Caſper, the common name of the pickled flower-buds
of the Capparis spinosa, of Southern Europe and Barbary.
Several other species yield buds which are similarly used.
It is a trailing shrub of the order Capparidaceae, growing
on rocks and walls, and extensively cultivated in Sicily
and the south of France. The flowers are large and beau-
tiful. Capers have an agreeable pungency of taste, and
are used as a condiment and ingredient of sauces. They
have medicinal properties, being anti-scorbutic, stimulant,
and laxative. The buds are gathered every morning, and
immediately put into vinegar. They are sorted, and the
best are sent to market in jars. Florida has two native
species of the caper tree, which are erect and not trailing.
The plant called “caper” in England is the caper spurge,
a Euphorbia.
Cape Race, near the S. E. extremity of Newfoundland,
lat. 46° 39' 30" N., lon. 53° 4' 30" W., is a point very dan.
gerous to ships sailing in foggy weather between the U. S.
and Europe. It has a revolving light 180 feet above the
Sea. It was established by the British government, and
(with Cape Pine light) is sustained by a tax upon all ships
Sailing from or to Great Britain to or from Canada and the
North-eastern U. S.
Capercail'zie, Capercail/lie, Wood Grouse, or
Cock of the Woods (Tetrao urogallus), a large galli-
º
º º
. … º #3% ~
§º º §
Fº
%
§§
§§ §§
\\ }% ſº # § \
lº
The Capercailzie.
naceous bird, a native of Europe, is a species of grouse.
The male sometimes weighs fifteen pounds or more. The
plumage of the male is variegated with black, brown, and
white, and the chest is dark green. Above the eye is a
Scarlet patch of naked skin. The legs and feet are feathered
to the toes. This bird is found in the pine-covered moun-
tains of several countries of Europe and Northern Asia,
and feeds on berries, seeds, insects, and young shoots of
the fir and pine. It builds on the ground. The flesh is
highly esteemed for food. -
Caper/naum, an ancient city of Palestine, situated on
the N. W. coast of the Sea of Galilee. Some authorities
identify it with the modern Tel-Hām.
, Cape Romain', on Raccoon Key, Charleston co., S. C.,
has a brick lighthouse 150 feet high, with a flashing light
of the first order; lat. 33° 01' 08" N., lon. 79° 22' 12" W.
CAPER—CAPE TITMOUSE,
Caſpers (SAMUEL WRAGG). See APPENDIx.
Capers (WILLIAM), D. D., an eloquent preacher and
bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church South, born in
St. Thomas parish, S. C., Jan. 26, 1790, educated at South
Carolina College, studied law, entered the Methodist min-
istry in 1809, was sent as delegate from his denomination
to the Wesleyan Conference, in England, in 1828, professor
of evidences of Christianity in Columbia College T835, edi-
tor of the “Southern Christian Advocate” 1836–40, mis-
sionary secretary of the M. E. Church 1840–44, and super-
intendent of colored missions in the Southern States 1844.
He took an active part in the proceedings of the Meth-
odist General Conference of 1844, which resulted in the
division of the Church, and was elected bishop by the
Southern division in 1844. Died in Anderson, S. C., Jan.
29, 1855. He was author of an “ Autobiography” (in
Wightman’s “Life of Capers”), “Catechisms for the Ne-
gro Missions,” and “Short Sermons and True Tales for
Children.” He was an able and highly venerated man.
Cape Sa’ble, the S. E. point of Nova Scotia, is in lat.
43° 26' N., lon. 65° 38' W. It has a lighthouse, and is on
Cape Sable Island, in Barrington township, Shelburne co.
The island has ‘some 600 inhabitants, mostly fishermen,
descended from loyalists who left the U. S. during the
Revolution. A ferry connects it with the mainland. The
name Cape Sable Island is also given to Sable Island.
Cape Sable is the most southern point of the peninsula
of Florida; lat. 25° 06' N., lon. 81°09'W. It is sandy and
low, and is the site of Fort Poinsett.
Cape San Blas, the S. extremity of Calhoun
co., Iºla., has a brick lighthouse 96 feet high, with
a flashing white light of the third order 102 ſeet
above the sea, in lat. 29° 39' 46” N., lon. 85° 21'
38// W.
Cape San Lucas, the southernmost point
of the peninsula of Old California; lat. 22° 44'
N., lon. 109° 54" W.
Cape Spear, Newfoundland, lat. 47° 31' 11"
N., lon. 52° 36' 59’W., has a colonial lighthouse,
showing a revolving catoptric light of the first
order, 264 feet above the sea.
Cape St. George, the S. point of St. George's
Island, Franklin co., Fla.; lat 29° 35' 15" N.,
lon. 85° 02' 40” W., has a brick lighthouse 68
feet high, with a fixed white light of the third
order 73 feet above the sea.
Cape St. Mary’s, Newfoundland, lat. 46°
49' 30' N., lon. 54° 11' 34" W., has a brick (co-
lonial) lighthouse, with a flashing red and white
catodioptric light of the first order, 300 feet above
the sea.
Cape St. Roque, a promontory on the coast
of Brazil; lat. 5° 28′ S., lon. 35° 16' W.
Cape St. Vin’cent (anc. Promontorium Sac-
rum), the S. W. extremity of Portugal; lat. 37°
3! N., lon. 9° W. Near this cape the British ad-
miral Jervis defeated the Spanish fleet on Feb.
14, 1797. - 4.
Capet (HUGH), king of France, was the
founder of the Capetian dynasty. He was a son
of Hugh the Great, count of Paris, and was born
about 940 A. D. The throne having become
vacant by the death of Louis V., the last Carlo-
vingian king, in 987, Hugh assumed the royal
power with the consent of many of the barons.
He ruled with moderation, and selected Paris as
the capital of France. He died in 996, and was
succeeded by his son Robert.
Cape/tian Dy’nasty, the third dynasty of
French kings, was founded by Hugh Capet, who
ascended the throne in 987 A. D. (see CAPET),
and is said to have been the ancestor of thirty-two kings
of France. According to some authorities, the last of the
direct line of Capetian kings was Charles IV., who died in
1328, without male issue. He was succeeded by his cousin
Philippe, who founded the house of Valois. The Bour-
bon line, from Henry IV. onward, were descendants of
the youngest son of Saint Louis, or Louis IX., and so of
Capet.
Cape Tit/mouse (Parus Capensis), a small bird be-
longing to the order Insessores, family Paridae, found at the
Cape of Good Hope. It is remarkable for the ingenuity it
displays in constructing its nest, which is made chiefly of
cotton, and is shaped like a bottle, as shown in the accom-
panying illustration. Whilst the female is hatching inside,
the male, a most watchful sentinel, remains outside, resting
in a pouch made for the purpose fixed to one side of the

CAPE TOWN-CAPILLARY ACTION.
767
neck of the nest. But when his mate moves off, and he
wishes to follow her, he beats the opening of the nest vio-
&
§ºs
Cape Titmouse.
Iently with his wing, and succeeds in closing it, in order to
protect his young from enemies.
Cape Town, a seaport of South Africa, the capital
of Cape Colony, is on the S. W. shore of Table Bay, and
between that bay and Table Mountain ; lat. of observatory
33° 56' 3.2” S., lon. 18° 28′ 45" E. It is intersected by
several canals, is built on a regular plan, and lighted with
gas. Close behind rise the perpendicular rocks of Table
Mountain. The town contains an exchange, a college, an
observatory, a public library, and a botanic garden. It
is the see of a bishop of the Church of England. This port
is visited by a large number of vessels, and is a convenient
place for mariners to stop for rest and provisions in the
voyage between Europe and India. The Constantia wine
is produced in this vicinity. Cape Town was founded by
the Dutch in 1652, and ceded to Great Britain in 1815.
Pop. 28,457.
Cape Trafalgar', a headland of Spain, on the Atlan-
tic Ocean, between Cadiz and Gibraltar; lat. 36° 10' N.,
lon. 6° E. Near this cape, on Oct. 21, 1805, the English
fleet gained a great victory over the French, and Lord
Nelson, who commanded the former, was killed. &
Cape Verd, or Werde (“Green Cape”), the most
western point of Africa, projects into the Atlantic Ocean
between the rivers Senegal and Gambia; lat. 14° 44' N.,
Ion. I'ſ Q 33' W. - f -
Cape Verd, or Verde (called also Cape de Verd)
Islands [Port. Ilhas Verdes], a group belonging to Port-
ugal, in the Atlantic, 320 miles W. of Cape Verd. They
are between lat. 14° 47' and 17° 12' N., and between lon.
22° 45' and 25° 25' W. Area, 1650 square miles. The
group consists of fourteen islands, nine of which are in-
habited—namely, Sal, Boavista, Mayo, Fogo, Brava, São
Nicolào, São Thiago, São Antão, and São Vicente. They
are all mountainous and of volcanic formation, and the
highest point is the peak of Fogo, which rises 9157 feet,
and is an active volcano. The climate is hot. They have
mostly a fertile soil, and are covered with luxuriant vege-
tation. Sugar, cotton, coffee, maize, indigo, salt, and to-
bacco are the staples. The majority of the inhabitants are
negroes. Pop. in 1867, 67,347.
Capeville, a post-village and township of Northamp-
ton co., Va. The village is 3 miles from Chesapeake Bay.
Pop. of township, 2381.
Cape Win/cent, a port of entry of Jefferson co., N.Y.,
on the St. Lawrence River and the Rome Watertown and
Ogdensburg R. R., 25 miles W. N. W. of Watertown. Ex-
tensive shingle manufactories and flouring mills are located
here. It has one weekly paper. In the vicinity is good
fishing, and it is a favorite resort for summer tourists.
Pop. 1450; of township, 3390. -
W. W. AMEs, PROP. “CAPE VINCENT EAGLE.”
t
Cape Wrath, the north-western extremity of Scotland,
projects from Sutherland into the Atlantic Ocean. It is a
pyramid of gneiss about 600 feet high, and is remarkable
for the wildness and grandeur of its scenery. Herc is a
lighthouse 400 feet above the sea, in lat. 58° 37' N., lon.
40 58' W.
Caſpias [Lat. “you may take”], in law, a writ to take a
person into custody. It assumes a number of forms, still
designated by the leading words in the old writs, which were
framed in Latin, such as (1) Capias ad audiendum, or (2)
ad respondendum, (3) ad satisfaciendum, (4) in withermam,
(5) wilagatum. The first of these writs is issued to bring
up for judgment a defendant who has been found guilty of
a misdemeanor or minor crime; the second is resorted to
as a mode of commencing an action. This was originally
the most important of all these writs, and is frequently
called a “capias,” without additional words. It has been
much modified in England, and altogether abolished in
some of the American States. The third writ designates
an execution against the person, and commands the sheriff
to take the person named, and to have his body before the
court on a specified day to satisfy the claim of the party
resorting to it. The result is that the party is retained in
custody until discharged by due course of law. The Writ
is frequently called, by way of abbreviation, ca. 8a. The
fourth writ (in withernam) is used in an action of replevin
where the goods in question cannot be found by the sheriff.
By means of it he seizes other goods belonging to the
party who has removed them, and detains them until res-
titution is made. These goods cannot be replevied until
those which are the subject of the action are restored.
The writ wilagatum is used to arrest an outlaw.
Capillaire, a name given to simple syrup flavored
with orange flowers or orange-flower water; also to a med-
icinal syrup which is used as a pectoral in chronic catarrhs,
and is prepared by adding sugar and orange-flower water
to an infusion of the European fern called maiden-hair
(Adiantum capillus-veneris), the French name of which
form is capillaire. This species also grows in the Southern
|U. S. Its virtues are said to be shared by the common
maiden-hair (Adiantum pedatum), and by several European
species. • *
Cap/illaries [from the Lat. capillus, a “hair”], the
minute blood-vessels intermediate between arteries and
veins. They have but a single coat, which is elastic, but
not muscular. In size they vary considerably, most of
them being too small to admit the passage of more than
one or two blood-corpuscles at a time. Their arrangement
differs very much in the different tissues and organs. They
can be examined only by the aid of the microscope after
their injection with colored fluid; hence their existence
was not known to the ancients. During life the capillary
movement of the blood may be seen in the Web of the frog,
the tail of the tadpole, or the wing of a bat. The use of
the capillaries is to subdivide and distribute the blood
among all the organs and tissues of the body. Their im-
portance in nutrition and in the performance of all the
organic functions is very great. (See CIRCULATION OF THE
BLoop, by PROF. HENRY HARTSHORNE.)
Cap'iliary Ac/tion in its primary signification denotes
the elevation or depression of liquids in fine hair-like tubes,
as compared with the level of liquids in equilibrium in ves-
sels or in wide tubes. If a clean wide open tube be plunged
into water, mice observation will show an elevation of the
fluid both within and without the tube; but if the tube be
very fine the water within rises very considerably above its
level outside, and the finer the bore the higher the rise.
Careful examination will show that the upper surface of the
water in the capillary tube is concave. The concavity, or
“meniscus,” is greatest in the finest tubes. If two glass
plates are united at one edge, the opposite edges being
slightly separated, and the plates are placed in water with
the united edges vertical, the water will rise between the
plates, forming a curve which assumes the form of a right-
angled hyperbola, of which the asymptotes are the common
vertical edge and a line at right angles to this edge so
drawn as to be equidistant from the two panes of glass. If
mercury be substituted for water, the capillary action is re-
versed; the mercury not rising in the tube or between the
plates, but being depressed. The meniscus, too, is convex
in this case, and the hyperbola is likewise reversed. In the
barometer and eudiometer it is necessary to make correc-
tions for this capillarity.
The cause of capillarity is well understood, and its results
can be mathematically explained. It depends on the ad-
hesion (or repulsion) which exists between the fluid and the
material of the tube; while the degree of cohesion between
the particles of the fluid itself must affect the result. As
the size of tubes increases, the column within increases
with the square of the diameter, while the attracting surface


768
CAPITA—CAPITALS.
increases only with the diameter. Attraction is therefore
relatively much greater in fine tubes.
The following table exhibits the relative capillary eleva-
tion of certain fluids in glass tubes one millimëtre in diam-
eter at zero C., according to Frankenheim :
Height of cap. column
Liquid. in millimetres.
Water............... * * c e s e e º º e º 'º e s e g º e º e º ºs e º e º is is tº e º & © & ſº * * * * * * * * * 15,336
Acetic acid.................................................... 8.510
Sulphuric acid................................................ 8.40
Oil of lemons...................................... 7.23
“ “ turpentine ...--------------- 6.76
Alcohol.......................................................... 6.05
Ether.............................................. ... 5.40
Carbon disulphide.......................................... 5.10
. The temperature of the tubes and the liquid exercises an
important influence upon capillarity. Heat diminishes the
cohesion of the particles of the liquid among themselves,
and hence greatly favors capillary action. -
Capillarity is, however, not confined to tubes, but is seen
in pounded glass, sand, sponge, bread, and other porous
substances. The principle in these cases is obviously the
same as in the case of fine tubes. It has been proved that
the principle of attractive and repulsive capillarity exer-
cises a most important influence upon the circulation of
nutritive fluids in both plants and animals.
Cap'ita [Lat. “heads”], in law, is principally used to
denote the mode of taking either real or personal property
from an intestate in case of several claimants. Personal
property is taken under the provisions of statute law,
based on a well-known English act termed the “statute of
distributions,” the provisions of which were derived from
the civil or Roman law. Primogeniture having disappeared
in the main in the U. S. as to the inheritance of land, the
laws of descent also recognize division per capita. These
words are contrasted with “pe” stirpes.” Persons are said to
take in the former manner (per capita) when, standing in
an equal degree of relationship to the intestate, they re-
ceive equal shares, as if he had left four children. They
take in the latter manner, or per stirpes, when the claim-
ants, not being in equal relationship to the intestate, some
of them represent one who, if he had lived would have
stood on an equality with others of nearer relationship to
the intestate than themselves. Thus, if the claimants were
A, a son, and C, D, E, and F, children of B, a deceased
son of the intestate, these children representing B would
take his share and no more.
Cap/ital [Lat. capitalis (from caput, “head”); Fr.
capitale], pertaining to the head or life; important, prin-
cipal, chief; affecting life, as capital punishment; large, as
capital letters. Capital crimes are those which are punish-
able with death.
CAPITAL, in geography, the chief city or town of a state,
empire, province, or county; the seat of government or
residence of the court.
CAPITAL [Lat. capitulum; Fr. chapiteau], in architecture,
is a term applied to the head or uppermost part of a column
or pilaster. Each of the orders of ancient classic architec-
ture—viz., Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and Compos-
ite—had a peculiar form of capital. The capitals were the
prominent characteristic features of the Corinthian and
Ionic orders. They became more ornate in proportion to
the development of art, the Doric, the most ancient, being
very plain and simple compared with the Corinthian cap-
ital. (See CoRINTHIAN, DoRIC, IONIC, etc., respectively.)
CAPITAL, in political economy, is that portion of wealth
which is employed in production. More specifically, it is the
sum-total of the products of former labor employed to pro-
vide materials and instruments for the processes of production,
and support for the laborers during the process. The term
is often loosely employed as synonymous with money, but,
strictly, capital, in some or all of the three forms named, is
only represented by money as an instrument of exchange.
In the discussion of questions in political economy the term
should be held to its technical meaning. In all the operations
of productive industry capital and labor must unite as part-
ners—co-operators for a common end, sharers in a joint re-
Sult.
combinations of capitalists on the one hand and in trades-
unions and strikes on the other, is unnatural, and must Work
ruinous results to both parties. An important problem of
political economy is to guard the rights of both, so that their
common interest shall bind them in harmonious union; and
its solution will come through a better knowledge on the part
of all respecting the elementary principles involved. (See
INTEREST, and PoliticAL ECONOMY.) A. L. CHAPIN.
Capital Account, a term used especially in connec-
tion with railroad or other stock companies, as distinguished
from the revenue account. It includes the money obtained
for shares of stock and that borrowed upon mortgages (de-
bentures) or the property of the company, and begins with
the first preparatory operations of the company; whereas
discriminative qualification whatever.
The antagonism between the two, which appears in
the revenue account commences with the returns from ac-
tual traffic or other productive business.
Cap'italist, a person who owns or possesses capital,
usually applied to a rich man or one who has a large cap-
ital employed in trade or manufactures.
Cap'ital Punishment; the punishment of death (so
called from the Latin caput, “head,” also “life”). As the
penalty for murder it has prevailed from the earliest times
in all parts of the world. In most nations treason or rebel-
lion against lawful government has also been thus punished;
and in England and elsewhere, down to a very recent period,
the same has been true of counterfeiting, forgery, mail-
robbery, and several other crimes. The manner of execu-
tion varies greatly. Militäry criminals, in modern times,
are usually shot. In civil administration the modes most
prevalent have been decapitation upon the “block,” used
for political criminals of rank in Great Britain; the GUIL-
LoTINE (which see) in France; in Spanish countries the
GARROTE (which see); and hanging. . In Japan, for some
offences, the criminal is condemned to take his own life in
the presence of officials. (See HARA-KIRI.)
In Christendom the tendency. has been in the present
century to limit capital punishment to the greatest crimes
only, and many intelligent persons believe that it should
be abolished altogether. The grounds upon which the
question is argued are chiefly—1, common right; 2, Scrip-
ture; 3, expediency. The marquis of Beccaría (“Essay on
Crimes and Punishments,” 1775) denies the right of govern-
ments to take human life, under any circumstances, in
punishment of crime. It appears to be evident, however,
on any theory of society, that such a right exists in all
cases in which the safety of the community requires it.
As to Scripture, the Old Testament, in accordance with the
words, “Whoso sheddeth man’s blood, by man shall his
blood be shed” (Gen. ix. 6), affords very numerous exam-
ples of its enforcement under Divine authority; and the
New Testament contains no prohibition of it. It is urged,
nevertheless, that the benevolence of Christianity and its
high regard for human life oppose the continuance of the
death-penalty. In William Penn’s code of laws for Penn-
sylvania it was prescribed for two crimes only—murder and
treason. The chief reason for its retention in Christendom
is, perhaps, its biblical injunction, especially as this injunc-
tion (as above) was given to Noah when he represented the
whole human race, and is not therefore merely a Mosaic or
Jewish statute, which might be supposed to be superseded,
like the Mosaic system generally, by Christianity. It has
been plausibly replied, however, that the Noachic law may
reasonably be supposed to be subject to modification by
the progress of the race, like the Mosaic; and that Christen-
dom has practically recognized this fact by abolishing the
capital punishment of brutes, which was enjoined in the
same Noachic law that enjoins it for man, and without any
In the early train-
ing of the race such means of teaching the value of human
life, it is argued, might be necessary; but as one part of
the law is now deemed unnecessary, and its execution
would be esteemed preposterous, it is inferable that the
other is equally subject to change. Beccaría and many
others deny the expediency of capital punishment, assert-
ing that it does not lessen the amount of crime. It is well
known that in the crowds often assembled in England to
witness a public execution, manslaughter has been several
times committed. There is no doubt reasonable objection
to publicity on such occasions, but this is not necessary.
Other objections to capital punishment are the occasional
uncertainty of evidence, and the frequent unwillingness of
juries to convict in cases where it will follow. On the
whole, while the death-penalty would seem to be needful,
at least in all imperfectly-settled countries not provided
with secure prisons, it may be regarded as an open question
whether imprisonment for life might not, with advantage,
be substituted for it in the great centres of advanced civil-
ization. This experiment has been tried for a number of
years in one or two European countries and in some of the
U. S., but the time has not yet been sufficient to afford
decisive results. (See BASIL MONTAGU, “On the Punish-
ment of Death,” 1809–13; “Memoirs of Sir S. Romilly,”
1840; JEREMY BENTHAM, “Rationale of Punishment,”
1830; E. G. WAKEFIELD, “Facts Relating to the Punish-
ment of Death in the Metropolis,” 1831; F. HILL, “Crime:
its Amount, Causes, and Remedies,” 1853; BovKE, “Rea-
sons against Capital Punishment.”) (See PUNISHMENT, by
PROF. T. W. DwighT, LL.D.) ABEL STEVENS.
Cap'itals, or Capital Letters [Lat. majuscula], a
term applied in typography and chirography to letters
which are larger than the others, and also different in form,
except in a few cases, as O, S, V, and W. Every sentence
and every proper name should begin with a capital, which
is a modern invention. No distinction of capitals and
§
CAPITOL–CAPERIMUL.GIDAE.
769
small letters was made by the writers and seribes of the
Middle Ages or by the ancients, but distinction existed be-
tween uncial and cursive writing. In German books every
substantive (or noun) begins with a capital.
Cap'itol [Lat. Capitolium], a term originally applied
to the magnificent temple of Jupiter Capitolimus, and the
citadel or fortress which occupied the Capitoline Hill (Mons
Capitolinus), in ancient Rome. These edifices were founded
by the Tarquins about 600 B. C., and dedicated in 507
B. C. The temple was burned in the time of Sulla, in 83
B. C., but was soon rebuilt. Here was also the Tabularium,
containing the public archives. The site of the Capitol is
now occupied by the palace called Palazzo del Campi-
doglio, built by Michael Angelo. The term Capitol is also
applied to the magnificent edifice in which the Congress
of the U. S. holds its sessions at Washington, and to the
State-houses which are erected at the capitals of the several
States. - -
Cap'itoline Hill (Mons Capitolinus or Mons Tar-
peius), one of the seven hills of ancient Rome, was very
near the left bank of the Tiber, and adjacent to the Campus
Martius. It was occupied by the great temple of Jupiter
and the citadel, or Capitol, with some other public build-
ings. The steepness of its sides rendered it a natural fort-
ress. On one side of it was the Tarpeian Rock, from which
traitors and state criminals were thrown. This hill is now
occupied by the church Ara Coeli and the Palazzo del
Campidoglio. (See CAPITOL.)
Capitoli'nus (JULIUs), a Latin biographer, one of the
authors of the “Historia Augusta,” lived about 300 A. D.
The biographies of the emperors Antoninus Pius, Marcus
Aurelius, Pertinax, Opilius Macrinus, the two Maximins,
and others, are ascribed to him.
Capit/ularies [Lat. capitularia], a name applied to
the laws enacted by the Frankish kings from the time of
Childebert. These laws were general for all the states of
the kingdom, while those called leges were issued for the
several states. The most celebrated capitularies were those
of Charlemagne and St. Louis. After Charles the Simple,
in 922, they were no longer issued. The best collections
of them are those of Baluze (Paris, 1677 and 1780), and of
Pertz, in the “Monumenta, Germaniae.”
Capitula/tion [from the Lat. capitula, “ heads or
chapters”], the act of capitulating or surrendering to an
enemy upon stipulated terms; a treaty of surrender to an
enemy, which is concluded when the garrison or besieged
force does not surrender at discretion or unconditionally.
The treaty often consists of several specified conditions or
articles, and those who surrender are sometimes permitted
to retain their arms and to march out with the honors of war.
Caſpo d’Istria (anc. AEgida), a fortified seaport-
town of Austria, in Trieste, is situated on a rocky island
in the Gulf of Trieste, 8 miles S. W. of Trieste. It was
formerly the capital of Istria. It is connected with the
mainland by a bridge about half a mile long. It is the
seat of a bishop, has a cathedral and other churches; also
manufactures of soap and leather. Pop. 9186.
Capo d’Istria (John ANTHONY), Count, the first
president of Greece, was born at Corfa in 1776. He en-
tered the diplomatic service of Russia in 1808, and repre-
sented that power at the Congress of Vienna in 1814–15.
In 1816 he became secretary of foreign affairs in Russia.
Though he had little or no sympathy with republican prin-
ciples, he was elected president of the new republic of
Greece in 1827 for five years. His policy was arbitrary,
and gave offence to the liberal party. He was assassinated
Oct. 9, 1831, by George and Constantine Mauromichali.
Caſpon [Gr. Katrióv; Lat. capol, a domestic cock castrated
when young to improve his size and the flavor of his flesh.
Capons' flesh is regarded as much superior to that of or-
dinary fowls, but is inferior to that of the powlarde or spay-
ed pullet.
mºon, a township in Hampshire co., West Va. Pop.
Capon, a township of Hardy co., West Va. P. 1541.
Caponiere, kap-o-meer’ [Fr. caponnière], in fortifica-
tion, is a parapet eight or ten feet in height, with a supe-
rior slope extending to the ground like a glacis. It is
placed in the ditch of a fortified place, to screen its de-
fenders while passing from one part of the works to another.
If there is a passage between two such parapets, it is a
full caponiere—if on one side only, a half caponiere.
Another kind, the casemated caponiere, constitutes one of
the most essential features in the modern German (or poly-
gonal) system of fortification. It is a large casemated
structure in the main ditch, and usually opposite the mid-
dle of the curtain, by which the entire front is defended
by flanking artillery fires.
Capon Springs, Hampshire co., West Va., 17 miles E.
of Romney and 22 N.W. of Winchester, has celebrated and
very valuable warm springs, alterative, and useful in a
very wide range of diseases. The scenery is fine and the
trout-fishing excellent. The hotels and bathing-houses are
extensive.
Cappadoſcia [Gr. Katriračokia], an ancient province of
Asia Minor, was bounded on the N. by Pontus and Galatia,
on the E. by Armenia, on the S. by Mount Taurus (which
separated it from Syria and Cilicia), and on the W. by Ly-
caonia. It was traversed by the river Halys. Among its
chief towns were Comana, Ariarathia, and Tyana. It was
conquered by Cyrus the Great of Persia, and was ruled by
independent kings from the time of Alexander the Great
until 17 A. D., when Tiberius reduced it to a Roman prov-
ince. The greater part of it is included in the modern
Karamania.
Capparida’ceae [from Capparis, the typical genus],
a natural order of exogenous plants akin to the Cruciferae,
mostly of tropical and sub-tropical countries, and having
four-parted flowers, which are generally very beautiful.
The leaves are mostly alternate, and undivided or palmate.
The order comprises about 350 species, herbaceous plants,
shrubs, and trees. They have a strong pungent or acrid
taste, and some species are poisonous. They have long
silken stamens, which are in some cases gayly colored, as
in the CAPER (which see). Among the interesting species
of this order is the Capparis sodata, or siwák, a bush or
small tree which is a characteristic feature of the vegeta-
tion of Africa. It bears pungent berries, which are used
as a condiment by the natives. Several species of the caper-
bush grow in Florida, and the West Indies, and a num-
ber of herbaceous plants of the order are found in the U. S.
Capreºra (literally, “Goat Island ”), one of the Bucci-
narian Islands, in the Mediterranean, 4 or 5 miles from the
N. E. coast of Sardinia, belongs to Italy. It is nearly 6
miles long, and abounds in goats and rabbits. The patriot
Garibaldi since reaching middle life has often resided here.
He built a house here about 1854. }.
Ca/pri (anc. Caprea), a charming island of Italy, in the
Mediterranean, at the entrance of the Bay of Naples and
20 miles S. of the city of Naples. It is about 4% miles long
and 3 miles wide. The shores of the island are steep and
inaccessible. The town of Capri is the seat of a bishop.
Upon this island is a remarkable cavern called the “Grotto
of the Nymphs” or the “Blue Grotto.” The emperor Ti-
berius passed the last ten years of his life here, and built
twelve villas or palaces, of which the ruins are still visible.
Pop. 3911.
Capriſocio, an Italian word signifying “caprice,”
“whim,” or “fancy,” is a musical term applied to a species
of free composition which is not subject to rule as to form
Or Iſléa,Sll I’e.
CAPRICCIo, in art, is a picture or other work which in-
tentionally violates the ordinary rules of composition.
Cap'ricorn [Lat. Capricornus], the “Goat,” the name
of the tenth sign of the Zodiac, which the sun enters at
the winter solstice, about the 21st of December. It is de-
noted by this figure, VF. Capricorn is also the name of a
constellation.
Capricorn, Tropic of, in geography, one of the less-
er circles of the earth, a parallel nearly 23° 27' S. of the
..equator. At the winter solstice (Dec. 21st) the sun is ver-
tical over this line. There is a corresponding circle on the
astronomical sphere. This circle touches the ecliptic in
the first point of the sign Capricorn, which therefore gives
name to this tropic.
Cap/ridae [from capra, a “goat”], a family of ruminant
quadrupeds which, according to some naturalists, consists
of the two genera Ovis (sheep) and Capra (goat). Other
naturalists extend the term so as to include the antelope.
Caprifolia’ceae (see CAPRIFOLIUM), a natural order
of exogenous plants which have opposite leaves without
stipúles, epipetalous stamens, and monopetalous flowers.
The fruit is generally a berry, sometimes dry, but not split-
ting open when ripe. This order is nearly allied to Ru-
biaceae, and comprises more than 200 species, mostly na-
tives of temperate and cold climates. Among those that
are indigenous in the U. S. are the Sambucus (elder),
several species of Viburnum, and many species of Lonice-
ra, called woodbine, honeysuckle, etc.
Caprifo/lium [from capra, a “goat;” also a “branch
with tendrils” (from the fancied resemblance of the tendrils
to a goat’s horns), and folium, a “ leaf”], a genus of plants
(twining shrubs) which are natives of Europe and other
parts of the northern hemisphere. They mostly have fra-
grant tubular flowers. The honeysuckle is an example.
Caprimul’gidae [named from the Caprimwglus, or
49
770
CAPRINO—CAPYBARA.
“goatsucker”], a family of insectivorous birds of the order
Insessores and tribe Fissirostres. They have long wings,
short legs, and toes united at the base by a membrane.
The base of the bill is furnished with long stiff bristles.
This family includes the goatsucker (Caprimulgus) and the
American whippoorwill, as well as the night-hawk, the
chuck-will's-widow, the poor-will of the Western States, and
other native species.
Capri'no, a town of Italy, in the province of Verona,
15 miles N. W. of Verona. It has a beautiful church and
many fine country-seats. Pop. 5111. -
Cap Rouge, a post-village of Quebec and Portneuf
cos., province of Quebec (Canada), has extensive manufac-
tures of pottery. Pop. about 800.
Caps and Hats, the name applied to the political
parties in Sweden in 1738. The former favored the alli-
ance with Russia, while the latter opposed it. They were
both suppressed by Gustavus III. in 1772.
Cap Sante, a post-village, capital of Portneuf co.,
Quebec (Canada), 30 miles above Quebec, on the N. shore of
the St. Lawrence. Pop. about 400. -
Cap'sicin, an exceedingly acrid, soft, resinous alkaloid
of a reddish color, obtained from the seed-pods of the Cap-
sicum annuum or Cayenne pepper, of which it is the active
principle. -
Cap'sicum, a genus of plants of the order Solanaceae,
natives of the warm parts of America, Africa, and Asia.
They are mostly annual or biennial plants, with more or
less woody stems, and have a wheel-shaped corolla, with
five convergent protruding anthers. The fruits of Capsi-
cwm annuum, frutescens, fastigiatum, baccatum, grossum, and
cerasiforme, with perhaps those of other species, form, when
pulverized, the Cayenne pepper which is extensively used
as a condiment. It is extremely pungent, and is often
employed with excellent results in medicine as a derivative
and stimulant. The Capsicwm annuum is a hardy plant,
cultivated in the U. S., where pickles are made of its un-
ripe fruit. It is stated that the fruit of Capsicum toarica-
rium of tropical America is a narcotic poison. The Cap-
sicum frutescens grows wild in Florida, as well as in most
warm countries. It is the true Cayenne pepper.
Cap'stan [Fr. cabestan], a strong, massive column of
timber, shaped somewhat like a truncated come, and having
its upper part pierced to receive bars or levers for the pur-
pose of winding a rope round it, to raise heavy weights or
otherwise exert great power. It is chiefly used in vessels
for drawing in cables in order to raise anchors, etc. There
are several improved forms in use on ships.
Cap'sule [Lat. capsula, dimin. of capsa, “ a box or
case ’’l, in botany, a dry, syncarpous, dehiscent fruit or
seed-vessel. The term is applied to all dry fruits which
are dehiscent, whether simple or compound, one-celled or
many-celled, and whether they open by valves or by pores.
The capsule or pod is a general name of dry seed-vessels
which split or burst open at maturity. The capsule is the
pod of a compound pistil. The poppy, lobelia, iris, and
Snapdragon afford examples of it. -
Capſtain [Low Lat. capitaneus or capitanus, a “head-
man’” (from caput, the “head”); Fr. capitaine], a military
term which in a general sense signifies a commander, a man
skilled in war or the military art. In some countries the
commander-in-chief is called captain-general. In a more
limited and technical sense, captain is the title of an officer,
who commands a troop of cavalry, a company of infantry,
or a battery of artillery. He is the next in rank below a
major. In the U. S. army a captain is responsible for the
camp-and-garrison equipage, the arms, ammunition, and
clothing of his company. A captain of the U. S. marines
is of a rank corresponding with that of a captain in the
army, and that of a lieutenant in the navy.
CAPTAIN (of the navy) is an officer of higher rank and
holds a more responsible position than a captain of the
land forces. He has the command of a ship, and is respon-
sible for everything on board—all that relates to the per-
sonnel or the matériel of the vessel. The commanders of
all British vessels, from first-rates down to ship-rigged
sloops, are captains. A captain in the royal navy is the
next in rank above a commander. A captain in the U. S.
navy takes rank with a colonel in the army, and next below
a flag-officer. He rises by regular succession to the rank
of rear-admiral, but he cannot attain that rank unless he
has first served for six years in a sea-going vessel with the
rank of captain. Before the civil war (1861–65) there was
nó definite rank in the U. S. navy higher than that of cap-
tain. (See CoMMODORE.) The term.captain is also applied
to the master of a merchant-vessel.
Capſtion [Lat. captio, a “taking”], in law, is that part
of a legal document, such as an indictment or commission,
which shows the time and place where, and the authority
by which, it was made or executed. It is of considerable
consequence in the case of indictments. While a caption
is not strictly a part of an indictment, its absence or im-
perfection may be of serious import. Its office in this case
is to state the style of the court, and the time and the place
of its meeting, and the time and place where the indictment
was found, and the number of the jurors who found it, though
their names need not be mentioned. Care that it be prop-
erly drawn is particularly requisite where the indictment is
removed into a higher court (see CERTIORARI), in which
case it is said that there must be enough in the caption to
show that the inferior court has jurisdiction in the case.
(The details of the subject will be found in WHARTON's
“Criminal Law'” and in ARCHBOLD’s “Criminal Pleading
and Practice,” where useful forms of captions are given.)
Capture. See INTERNATIONAL LAW, by PREs. THEO. D.
WoolsFY, S. T. D., LL.D.
Cap/ua [Gr. Katröm), an important city of ancient Italy,
the capital of Campania, was situated on a plain about 2
miles from the river Vulturnus, and about 18 miles N. of
Naples. It is supposed to have been founded by the Etrus-
cans, who called it. Vulturnum. It was probably nearly as
ancient as Rome itself. Capua was the greatest and most
opulent city of Italy about 350 B.C. It was conquered by
the Romans in 340 B.C., but it continued to prosper under
the Roman power, and in the time of the second Punie
war was scarcely inferior to the great cities of Rome and
Carthage. Capua was noted for its luxury and refinement.
After Hannibal had defeated the Roman army at Cannae in
216 B.C., the popular party of Capua, in hopes of render-
ing their city independent of Rome, opened their gates to
the Carthaginians, who spent the winter in Capua and be-
came enervated by its luxury. The Romans, having be-
sieged the city and captured it in 211, punished its revolt
with severity, nullified its political importance, and reduced
it to the condition of a provincial town of the most degraded
class. It continued, however, to be a popular city for sev-
eral centuries, but it was taken and ruined in 456 A. D. by
Genseric the Wandal. The site is now partly occupied by a
large village called Santa Maria di Capua, with 9733 in-
habitants. Here are visible the remains of a grand amphi-
theatre.
Capua (anc. Casilinum), a fortified city of Italy, in the
province of Caserta, is beautifully situated on the river
Volturno, 27 miles by rail N. of Naples. It is on the
railway which connects Naples with Rome, and is a mili-
tary station of the first class. It was considered one of
the keys of the former kingdom of Naples. Capua con-
tains a remarkable old cathedral, a college, and several
convents. It was founded on the site of Casilimum, 2 or 3
miles E. of the ancient Capua, in 856 A. D. Pop. 12,548.
Capuchin’ [Fr. Cappucin; It. Cappuccino] Friars, a
branch of the order of Franciscan monks which originated
in Italy in 1525. They derived their name from a hood or
head-dress (in Italian cappuccio). They are a branch of
the Minorites of the strictest observance. In 1859 they
numbered about 11,300. They are found in most countries
of Christendom, and are said to be increasing in numbers.
They have a few convents in the U. S. The Capuchins
are remarkable for their austere discipline. They have
never cultivated learning, and have produced few eminent
men. One of the best known of its recent members was
the late Father Matthew, the distinguished advocate of
total abstinence. There is also an order of Capuchin nuns
who are also Franciscans of the strictest observance.
Capuchin Monkey, a species of South American
monkeys, Cebus capucinus, which receives its specific name
from the cowl-like appearance of the hairy covering of
its head. Other species of the genus receive the same
In 8,016,
Capudan/ Pasha (i. e. “captain-pasha,” capudan
being a corruption of the It. capitano), the high admiral
or commander-in-chief of the Turkish navy. He has the
control of all naval affairs, appoints all the officers of
the navy, and is governor of the Turkish islands in the
Archipelago.
Caſput Mor’tuum [Lat.], i.e. literally, “dead head,”
the inert residue of distillation and sublimation. When
sulphate of iron is distilled at a red heat, it leaves a res-
idue of red oxide of iron, which the alchemists called
caput mortuum vitrioli. Its symbol was a death’s head and
cross-bones; hence caput mortuum signified also a “bug-
bear,” a source of groundless terror.
Capyba'ra, or Capiba'ra (Hydrochoerus Capybara),
is the largest known quadruped of the order Rodentia, and
belongs to the family Cavidae. It is an aquatic animal, a
native of South America, and feeds on vegetable food ex-
clusively. Its dentition resembles that of the cavy, except
that the grinding teeth are formed of many transverse
CAR.—CARACC.I.
771
plates, the number of plates increasing as the animal ad-
vances in age. It is inoffensive and easily tamed. The
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flesh is esteemed good food. It is somewhat smaller than
the common hog.
Car. See RAILROAD EQUIPMENT.
Carab’idae, a family of coleopterous or beetle-like in-
sects, equivalent to the Linnaean genus Carabus. Its species
are very numerous and of various habits. Most of them
are voracious devourers of other insects and of worms; the
larvae have similar propensities. Some of them are more
than an inch in length, and with rather long legs, used in
pursuing their prey. A few species have only rudimentary
wings. Several have considerable beauty of color and
lustre.
Carabo'bo, a province of Venezuela, is bounded on the
N. by the Caribbean Sea, on the E. by Caracas, Aragua,
and Guarico, on the S. by Portugueza, and on the W. by
Barinas, Barquisimeto, and Coro. The province of Cojedes
has lately been detached from this province, but nothing
definite being known of the boundaries of Cojedes, we treat
of the two as one. Area, 7300 square miles. The northern
part of the province is \
mountainous, while it is --~~
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unhealthy on the sea- NY.
shore. The chief prod- jº
ucts are coffee, cacao, and º
sugar. Chief town, Va.- -º-º-º-º:
lencia. Pop. 230,509.
Car’acal (Felis Car-
acal), a species of lynx
found in the warm parts
of Asia and in Africa,
supposed to be the same
animal as that which the
ancients called lynx. It
is larger than a fox, and
is powerful enough to kill
a hound with ease. The
fur of the upper part is
of a deep brown or wine-
red, its ears being tufted
with long black hair. It
is naturally fierce, but is
capable of being tamed.
and has been employed
in hunting.
Caracal/la (MARCU's
AURELIUS ANTONINUs BASSIANUs), a Roman emperor, a son
of Septimius Severus, was born at Lyons in 188 A.D. On
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the death of his father, in 211 A.D., he ascended the throne,
and caused his brother Geta to be murdered. He also mas-
sacred several thousand friends of Geta,
including Papinian, the great jurist. His
reign was disgraced by many acts of
cruelty and infamy. He was assassinated
near Edessa in 217 A. D., at the instiga-
tion of Macrinus, who became his suc-
cessor. The Baths of Caracalla are among
the most striking ruins of Rome.
Caraca'ra, or Caracara Eagle
(Polyborus), a genus of rapacious birds
peculiar to America, and regarded as a
connecting link between the eagle and
the vulture. They feed on carrion, like
the vulture. The Polyborus Braziliensis,
which is found in Brazil and other parts
of America, has fine plumage, and meas-
ures about four feet from tip to tip of the
wings. Other species are known.
Carac'as, a state of Venezuela, South
America, is bounded on the N. by the
Caribbean Sea, on the E. by Barcelona,
on the S. by Guarico, and on the W. by
Aragua and Carabobo. Area, 6038 Square
miles. The surface is mostly mountain-
ous, with fertile valleys in the interior.
This state contains the best cultivated
districts of the republic. Capital, Car-
acas. Pop. 173,042.
Caracas, a city, the capital of the
above province and of the republic of
Venezuela, is situated 12 miles S. of La
Guayra, and nearly 3000 feet above the
level of the sea; lat. 10° 30' 50" N., lon.
67° 5' W. It is separated from La Guayra, its seaport, by
a high mountain-ridge. It is liberally supplied with water
by several streams which run through or near the city. The
streets are marrow, straight, and well paved. Among the
principal edifices are the cathedral and the church of Alta
Gracia. Caracas is the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop,
and contains a college and several hospitals. The climate
is healthy, but the place is subject to earthquakes, one of
which in 1812 destroyed about 12,000 people. The chief
articles of export are cacao, cotton, indigo, coffee, hides,
etc. Pop. in 1869, 47,597.
Cara/cci, or Carracci (ANNIBAL or ANNIBALE), an
excellent painter, was born in Bologna in 1560. He was
a pupil of his uncle, Ludovico Caracci, with whom he was
associated as a founder of the Bolognese school of paint-
ing. The pictures which he painted in the Farnese Gallery
in Rome, on which he expended eight years, are considered
his best works. He is generally regarded as the greatest
painter of the Caracci family. Died at Rome in 1609. (See
KUGLER’s “Schools of Painting in Italy.”)
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Caracal.
Caracci, or Carracci (LUDov ICO), the founder of the
Bolognese school of painting, the son of a butcher of Bo-















































































772
CARACCIOLI–CARAUSIUS.
logna, was born in 1555. He was noted for his fidelity to
nature. Among his works are a “Transfiguration ” and
“The Preaching of John the Baptist.” He had several
eminent pupils, including Domenichino and Guido Reni.
Died in 1619.
Caraccio/li (FRANCESCo), PRINCE, an Italian admiral,
born at Naples about 1748. He entered the service of
the Parthenopian Republic formed at Naples in 1798, and
obtained the command of a small fleet. He repulsed the
Anglo-Sicilian fleet in 1799. After Naples had surrendered
to the royalists he was arrested and hung by the order
of Lord Nelson in 1799. -
Car/acole [Sp. caracol], a French term used in horse-
manship or the manège to denote a semi-round or half-
turn. When cavalry advance to charge in battle they
sometimes perform caracoles in order to perplex the
enemy, and excite a doubt whether they will attack the
flank or the front.
Caractacus, or Cara/doc, a brave king of the Si-
lures, a tribe of ancient Britons who lived in Wales. He
resisted the Roman invading armies for nine years, but
was at length defeated, and was carried a captive to Rome
in 51 A. D. His deportment in the presence of the em-
peror Claudius was admired by the Romans, who treated
him with clemency.
Cara/doc Sand'stone, a deposit originally described
by Murchison as one of the principal members of his
lower Silurian series. It is found at Caer Caradoc, in
Shropshire, and is remarkably rich in trilobites. Among
the other fossils of this deposit are Brachiopoda and Grap-
tolites. The thickness of the beds in some places reaches
9000 feet.
Cara/fa de Colobra'no (MICHELE), an Italian musi-
cian and composer, born at Naples Nov. 28, 1785. He be-
came a resident of Paris about 1821. Among his works
are operas entitled “Il Sonnambulo” and “Massaniello.”
Died July 28, 1872.
Ca/raites, or Ka'raites [from cara, “to read”], the
modern Jewish Sadducees, founded by Anan ben David,
and dating from about 760 A. D., though they are disposed
to claim for themselves a much higher antiquity. Like the
old Sadducees, they cling to the letter of Scripture and re-
ject Talmudical traditions. They are found chiefly in
South-western Russia, also in Asia Minor and Persia, and
number less than 10,000.
Car'alis, or Cal’aris, the capital or chief town of
ancient Sardinia, is said to have been founded by the Car-
thaginians before the Second Punic war. It had a good
port, and was for many centuries an important place. The
site of it is now occupied by Cagliari.
Carambo’Ia, an East India fruit produced by the
Averrhoa Carambola, a small evergreen tree of the natural
order Oxalidaceae. The fruit is about as large as a duck’s
egg, and has five longitudinal ribs, with a thin, smooth,
yellow rind. The pulp has an agreeable flavor (sweet or
acid), and is used in making sherbets, tarts, etc. It is
one of the most generally-cultivated fruits in India, and is
sometimes called Coromandel gooseberry. The tree has
irritable or sensitive leaves, and exhibits in a remarkable
degree the phenomenon called sleep of plants. The acid
fruit called bilimbi grows on another species of Averrhoa.
Car’amel [said to be from Lat. canna, “cane,” and mel,
“honey” or “sugar,” i. e. “cane-sugar.”], a name given to
the dark-brown substance produced by burning sugar or
exposing it to a great heat. It is also formed in the pro-
cess of roasting coffee and malt. It is used to color wine
and to adulterate coffee. Caramel is also a sort of confec-
tionery. - -
Cara'na. Resin, or Gum-Cara'na, the product of
an unknown South American tree. It is soluble in alcohol,
and melts at a low temperature.
Cara/pa, a genus of plants of the order Meliaceae, na-
tives of warm climates. Carapa Gwiamensis is a large tree
called anderaba, which grows in Guiana, and has large
pinnate leaves. Its bark is reputed a valuable febrifuge,
and is used in tanning. Masts of ships are made of the
trunks. Lamp oil. is obtained from the seeds of this tree
and from those of the Carapa Guineensis, which is a native
of Guinea. Its oil is used to protect the bodies of the na-
tives from the bites of insects.
Car’apace, the upper shell or dorsal shield of chelo-
nian reptiles (turtles and tortoises) and of the Crustacea
Malacostraca (crabs and lobsters). In the Chelonia it is
chiefly an expansion of the ribs covered by a thick layer
of horny substance. The latter is most peculiar in the
hawk’s-bill turtle, furnishing the tortoise-shell of commerce.
Caraquette, Lower, a port of entry in Gloucester
co., New Brunswick, has a good harbor and extensive fish-
eries. Pop. about 1500.-The settlement of Upper CARA-
QUETTE, in the same parish, has about 600 inhabitants.
Carat [from the Gr. kepártov, a “little horn;” a “pod”
of the locust tree; also a minute weight], a term used by
jewellers in weighing gold and precious stones. For dia-
monds a carat is three and Öne-sixth troy grains, a “carat
grain” being one-fourth of this. In assaying gold, either
the pound, ounce, or any other weight is divided into
twenty-four parts, in order to designate the proportion of
pure gold in an alloy with another metal or metals. That
which contains ##.of gold is said to be “twenty-two carats
fine.” There is here no absolute designation of weight.
Carau'sius, one of the three Augusti who shared the
rule of the Roman world between the years A. D. 286 and
294, and emperor of Britain, was one of the most re-
markable men of whom so little is known, except results,
that scárcely any history does justice to the extraordinary
ability which first discovered and developed the real bent
of Saxon and Dutch genius for the naval service. He was
a Menapiam, that is, a member of a confederation (Meen-
aft) which inhabited the debatable or sea-land at the mouth
of the Rhine, Maas, and Schelde, a coast which has given
birth to the greatest admiral of the world, Ruyter, and to
Tromp, in Holland, and in France, to John Bart and Du-
quesne. Whether he was of noble and conspicuous or of
humble parentage is not certain, neither his real name, for
Carausius is most probably a Latin corruption of one whose
base was Karl. Nothing is stated of his birth, youth, and
education, nor of the steps by which he rose to high rank,
extensive influence, and vast power, except a brief notice
of his co-operation in putting down the rebellion of the
Bagaudae, A. D. 285, in Gaul. His name, indeed, in gen-
eral history, is first mentioned in connection with the ex-
alted position of “count of the Saxon shore” “ and admiral
of the northern seas”—a maritime jurisdiction which would
have satisfied even the towering ambition of a Wallenstein.
His services were so brilliant in this connection that the
Britons, suffering from the depredations of the Saxon and
Frank pirates, whom he had first beaten into submission
and then converted through admiration into devoted allies,
besought him to assume the sovereignty of their island.
Having organized a marine victorious against the pirates,
which before his advent had filled the “narrow seas,” and once
in possession of Britain, he established a navy which over-
threw so triumphantly all that Rome could marshal against
him that the two Augusti, Diocletian and Maximian, ac-
knowledged him as the Third, as contemporary coins attest.
Space being denied to do more than flash a telegraphic
indication of the magnitude and brilliancy of Carausius,
the curious reader is referred to three books which contain
all that is known of this wonderful man : Dr. William
Stukeley’s “Medallic History of Marcus Aurelius Valer-
ius Carausius, emperor in Britain,” 1757; Guenebrier's
less extensive but even more satisfactory treatise, both
in the De Peyster alcove N. Y. Historical Society; and
“Carausius,” 1858, and “Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern
Netherlands,” 1859, by the author of this article, the two last
the result of the labors of years, without regard to expense
in the collection of authorities. Carausius maintained him-
self as independent monarch of Britain and of a Frank con-
federation at the mouth of the Rhine for about seven years,
during which time he destroyed two Roman fleets or navies;
carried his arms into the Highlands of Scotland; chastised
the Picts and Scots, leaving a name whose mention in their
songs and traditions testified the respect he inspired. Ossian
in his poems gives him the most appropriate title of “King
of Ships.” He rebuilt the wall of Severus, constructed a
trophy or triumphal memorial which excited the curiosity
of the learned, until it was wantonly destroyed within a
century, on the banks of the Carron, a stream which takes
its name from him. His munificence attracted the finest
artists of the day to his island empire, of whose ability nu-
merous specimens exist in coins exquisite for the period,
some of which bear the effigies of Carausius and his em-
press, Queen Oriuna. He established a fair at Sturbich
or Stourbridge, near Cambridge, that continues to exist
until this day, and a water-communication between the
Humber and the Peterborough rivers by means of a canal
known as the Car-dic or dyke, which served for the three-
fold purpose of obviating the dangerous navigation of the
Cimbric Ocean, for military communication, and for drain-
age, especially of the Lincolnshire fens. Of this vestiges
still exist. In the midst of his developing military power,
administrative sagacity, general munificence, and prescient
organization, he was assassinated at York, the vicarian or
Roman capital of Britain, A. D. 293–294, by his prime min-
ister and confidential friend, Allectus—a name by some con-
sidered rather as a title indicative of office than a proper
appellation. The military and naval preparation of Carau-
sius enabled the traitor to maintain his usurped dominion
CARAVACA–CARBON. 773
for three years, when the Roman power, under the caesar
Constantius Chlorus and his lieutenant-general Asclepioda-
tus, made a triple invasion up the Bristol Channel from the
W., across the Channel from the S., and up the Thames from
the E., and put an end to the independent sovereignty of
Britain, and reunited it to the empire by a series of con-
flicts, the last in the streets of London. In the most im-
portant, in the W., Allectus was slain. Of all the series
of monarchs, two decidedly among the greatest or ablest
who have honored the British crown by the wearing of it
were the Hollanders Carausius of Menapia and William
III. of Orange. J. WATTS DE PEYSTER.
Carava/ca, a town of Spain, in the province of Murcia,
is on the slope of a hill 40 miles N. W. of Murcia. It has
an old castle, a college, and a fine church. Excellent wine
is produced in the neighborhood. Pop. 6839.
Carava’ggio, a walled town of Italy, in the province
of Bergamo, 38 miles by rail E. of Milan. Here are two
handsome churches. The melons of this place are noted
throughout Italy. Pop. 5535.
Caravaggio, da (MICHAEL ANGELO), an Italian
painter, born at Caravaggio in 1569. His proper name
was MICHAEL ANGELo AMERIGHI (or MoRIGI). He imitated
no model except nature, and formed an original style. He
excelled in chiaroscuro and coloring. His wild and
gloomy character is reflected in his works. Among his
masterpieces are a “Supper at Emmaus” and “The Fraud-
ulent Gamblers.” His temper was quarrelsome. Died in
1609. -
Car’avan [Arabic and Persian karawán], a company
of merchants or pilgrims who associate together in order
to traverse with greater security the deserts of Africa and
Asia. The commercial intercourse of those regions has
been from the remotest ages carried on chiefly by caravans
of camels. In Mohammedan countries large caravans of
pilgrims are annually assembled to perform the journey to
Mecca. The most important regular caravans are those
which annually travel to Mecca from the three following
points—Damascus, Cairo, and Babylon. The caravan of
Damascus is said to consist of more than 30,000 pilgrims
and merchants, many of whom are Europeans. Each
caravan is under the command of a chief.
Caravan'serai’, or Caravan'sary [Arabic karawán,
a “caravan,” and seráž, a “palace” or “inn”], also called
Khan, an Oriental public-house or unfurnished inn for
the shelter and lodging of travellers in Asia and Africa.
The travellers in those regions usually carry their own
food with them. Each of these inns is commonly a square
building of four wings built round a courtyard, in which
the beasts of burden are confined. There is always a well
or spring of water in it. The wings are divided into small
lodging-rooms, in which the traveller finds no bed or furni-
ture but that which he carries with him. In many caravan-
serais the hospitality is gratuitous. It was in the stable
of one of them (called inns in the Bible) that our Saviour
was born.
Car’away (Carum Carwi), a plant of the order Um-
belliferae, grows wild in Southern Europe and in some parts
of Asia. . It is cultivated in Europe and America for its
aromatic seeds (carpels), which are used in medicine as a
carminative and tonic. They are also used as a condiment
by confectioners, pastry-cooks, and perfumers. Their aro-
matic principles depend on a volatile oil called oil of cara-
way, which is obtained by distilling the crushed seeds
with water. It is administered by physicians to correct
the nauseating and griping tendencies of some cathartic
medicines.
Carbazo/tic Ac/id, or Piſcric Acid (C6H3(NO2)03),
a bitter crystallizable acid, composed of carbon, nitrogen
(azote), and oxygen, and obtained by the action of nitric
acid on indigo, on carbolic acid, and on many other organic
substances. It occurs in the form of yellow crystals, which
are soluble in alcohol, and dissolve in eighty or ninety
times their weight of cold water. It is an important dye-
stuff. When silk which has been treated with a mordant
of alum is immersed in a solution of this acid, it is dyed
of a beautiful permanent yellow color. The picrate (car-
bazotate) of potassium, when heated, explodes with tre-
mendous violence, and was used in the Franco-Prussian
war in blowing up bridges, etc. As this salt is nearly in-
soluble in water, the acid has been proposed as a test for
potash. It is sometimes called nitro-phenisic acid.
Car' bides, formerly called Carburets, are chemical
compounds of carbon with a metal. None of them occur
in a natural state.
Car/bine, or Car'abine [It. carabino, probably from
carabin, a light-horseman among the Arabs], a light mus-
ket, a firearm used by cavalry and artillery, is shorter in
the barrel than the infantry musket or rifle. The best car-
bines are now rifled. The American breech-loading car-
bine has usually a barrel about twenty-two inches long, is
simple in construction, has a long range, and may be fired
with rapidity.
Car’bo (CNEIUs PAPIRIUs), a Roman general who was
elected consul in 86 B.C., and was a partisan of Marius in
the civil war that ensued. He commanded in a battle
against Sulla at Clusium, and soon after that event was de-
feated by Metellus at Faventia. Having fled to Africa, he
was taken prisoner and put to death in 82 B.C.
Carbohy/drogens, or Hydrocar' bons, in organic
chemistry, a series of compounds, composed of carbon and
hydrogen in such proportions that the members of the
group differ from each other in definite and regular num-
bers of atoms. The best-marked group of carbohydrogens
commences with methylene (CH2), which may be regarded
as the first step in the series, and by the successive addi-
tion of two atoms of carbon and hydrogen we obtain ethy-
lene or olefiant gas (C2H4), propylene or propene (C4H6), etc.
Carbol’ic Acid, also called Phen'ic Acid, Phe'-
mol, and Car"bol, a substance discovered by Runge in
1834, is obtained by repeated distillation of coal-tar at a
moderately elevated temperature. Its formula (new nota-
tion) is C6H5,0H. When pure it crystallizes in colorless
needles, which liquefy on the addition of a small amount
of water. It dissolves in twenty parts of water by weight,
and also in alcohol, ether, and the oils. Specific gravity,
1.066. It melts at 95° F., and boils at 356°, and is inflam-
mable. In odor, taste, and caustic property it resembles
wood-creasote, for which, indeed, it is often sold. It is
not, chemically, an acid, being more allied to the aromatic
alcohols. When applied to the skin it causes at first a
sense of burning, with the appearance of a white spot, and
then the loss of sensibility in the part. This anaesthetic
action has been recently applied in medicine and surgery.
The most important property of carbolic acid is its in-
fluence upon organic matter and living organisms as an
antiseptig and disinfectant. It coagulates albumen (when
warm) by abstracting its water. This enables it to pre-
serve animal tissues from putrefaction for some time, but
not so effectually as alcohol. It is destructive to minute
forms of life, and has hence been generally supposed to be
one of the most useful of disinfectants. Lister of Glasgow
has especially advocated its use in connection with the
“germ-theory” of disease. Doubts have been recently cast
upon its value by the observations of Dr. Parkes in Eng-
land, Dr. Bill in the U. S., and others. It is certainly a
feeble deodorizer as compared with chlorine. Internally,
it has been used in the treatment of many diseases with
benefit, especially in cancer. Locally applied, in solution
with water or oil, it lessens considerably the tendency to
suppuration. (See ANGUs SMITH, M. D., “On Disinfection,”
Edinburgh, 1869; A. E. SANSOM, M. D., “The Antiseptic
System,” London, 1871; and I. H. BILL, M.D., “American
Journal of Medical Sciences,” July, 1872.) (See also the
article PHENOL, by PROF. C. F. CHANDLER, PH. D., LL.D.)
HENRY HARTSHORNE.
Car/bon [Lat. carbo, “a coal”], symbol C, an im-
portant chemical element or simple substance which is
abundant in the mineral, vegetable, and animal, kingdoms.
It occurs in a great variety of forms and combinations,
being the combustible base of charcoal and fossil coal. It
also occurs uncombined in the diamond, which is pure crys-
tallized carbon, and in graphite or plumbago. Its atomic
weight is 6, or, according to the new notation, 12. It is
remarkable for its allotropic character, and is extremely
infusible and unalterable at ordinary temperatures. It is
the only element that is always present in animal and
vegetable substances. In its ordinary forms it is a good
conductor of electricity, but the diamond is a non-conduc-
tor. United with oxygen, it forms carbonic acid (CO2),
which occurs in the atmosphere, in limestone, marble, dolo-
mite, etc. (See CARBONIC ACID.) With nitrogen it forms
an important compound called cyanogen. In plants and
animals it occurs as one of the principal constituents of
wood, gum, starch, sugar, oil, gelatin, fibrin, etc., in which
it is combined with hydrogen and oxygen. The various
forms of carbon are combustible, but they are not affected
by any degree of heat except in the presence of air or
oxygen. Carbon resists the action of many reagents which
alter other simple substances. It is insoluble in all known
liquids. In the classification of the elements it is arranged
with sulphur, phosphorus, and boron, which are called
tetratomic metaloids, or non-metallic substances. A com-
pound of carbon with a metal is called a carbide or carburet.
Coke and lampblack are more or less impure artificial forms
of carbon.
Carbon, a county in Eastern Pennsylvania. Area, 400
774
CARBON.—CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM.
square miles. It is intersected by the Lehigh River, and
also drained by the Mahoning and other creeks. It is
bounded on the S. E. by the Kittatinny or Blue Mountain,
and traversed by several other high ridges. This county
derives its name and its prosperity from its rich mines of
good anthracite coal. The stratum or bed of coal near the
top of Mauch Chunk Mountain is about fifty feet thick.
Wheat, corn, rye, buckwheat, and potatoes are the chief
crops raised. Lumber is manufactured quite extensively.
Carbon county is intersected by the Lehigh Valley R. R.
Capital, Mauch Chunk. Pop. 28,144.
Carbon, a county of Wyoming Territory, bordering on
Colorado. It is intersected by the North Fork of the Platte
River, arid also drained by the Medicine Bow River. The
surface is diversified and mountainous, and partly occupied
by elevated plains. The southern part is traversed by the
Medicine Bow Mountains. Iron and good lignitic coal
abound here. The Union Pacific R. R. passes through this
county. Capital, Rawlings Springs. Pop. 1368.
Carbon, a township of Huntingdon co., Pa.
2233.
Carbon, a post-village of Carbon co., Wy., on the
Union Pacific R. R., 83 miles N. W. of Laramie, has coal-
mines which give employment to a large number of men.
It is 7008 feet above the sea.
Carbona'ri is the name of a secret political society,
founded during the French rule in Naples in the beginning
of the present century. After the restoration of the Bour-
bons in Naples the society rapidly increased. In 1820
they organized branches in France, and after the defeat of
the revolutionary party in Naples and Piedmont, Paris
became their head-quarters. After the revolution of 1830
the society disappeared, although as late as 1841 a society
of Carbonari was found to exist in Southern France. In
the revolution of 1848 they took no part.
Car’bonated (or Acid'ulous) Waſters are those
which contain a large proportion of carbonic acid gas. The
term is applied to mineral springs, as those of Seltzer, Pyr-
mont, Salzbrunn, and Reinerz. Such waters sparkle much
when poured from one vessel to another. They are re-
freshing and exhilarating, and are useful in some disordered
states of the stomach. At St. Nectaire, in France (Puy-de-
Dôme), the proportion of gas condensed in the water is
said to be as four volumes to one; in most waters it is
much less.
Car"bonates, salts containing carbonic acid. They
may be easily identified by the effervescence which results
when they are brought into contact with dilute hydrochloric
or nitric acid. Of this numerous class of salts the most
important are carbonate of lime, which occurs in the form
of limestone, marble, etc., carbonate of potash, and car-
bonate of soda. (See PotASH and SoDA, by PROF. C. F.
CHANDLER.) Crystallized carbonate of lime is called CAL-
CAREOUs SPAR (which see).
Carbon Bisulphide is a heavy, clear liquid com-
pound of carbon and sulphur, very volatile and very in-
flammable. It is composed of one atom of carbon and two
of sulphur, and is obtained by passing the vapor of sulphur
over red-hot charcoal. Its symbol is CS2. It has great
solvent power, and is largely used in chemistry and the
arts as a solvent of caoutchouc and other organic matters.
This compound is a sulphur acid, and when combined with
sulphur bases it produces compounds of the class known
as sulpho-carbonates.
Car/bondale, a city of Jackson co., Ill., at the junc-
tion of the Illinois Central, Grand Tower and Carbondale,
and Carbondale and Shawneetown R. R.S., 27 miles E. of
the Mississippi, is the seat of the Southern Illinois Normal
University. It has an active trade in cotton, tobacco, fruit,
lumber, building-stone, and farm produce, and has one
weekly newspaper. Pop. 2400; of township, 3370.
ANDREW LUCE, ED. “OBSERVER.”.
Carbondale, a post-village of Osage co., Kan., at the
junction of the Atchison Topeka and Santa Fé and the
Lawrence and South-eastern R. R.S., 68 miles from Atchi-
son. It has extensive mines of coal.
Carbondale, a city of Luzerne co., Pa., is on the
Lackawanna River, and at the head or north-eastern end
of the Lackawanna Valley. It is on the Delaware and
Hudson R. R., about 17 miles N. E. of Scranton, and is the
southern terminus of a branch railroad which connects
with the Erie R. R. at Susquehanna. It contains about
nine churches, one national bank, one savings bank, and
two newspaper-offices. Large quantities of anthracite coal
are mined in this vicinity. Pop. 6393, or, including Car-
bondale township, 7114. ED. CARBONDALE “ADVANCE.”
Carbonear’, a port of entry of Newfoundland, on the
N. side of Conception Bay, 31 miles from St. John's. It
Pop.
has an extensive trade in fish, a commercial and a gram-.
mar school. Pop. about 2000.
Carbonſic Acid is the popular and former scientific
name of a compound of carbon and oxygen, in the propor-
tion of one atom of carbon to two of oxygen. It is called
in the new chemical nomenclature CARBONIC oxiDE, CARBON
DIOXIDE, or CARBONIC ANHYDRIDE. It is easily prepared by
putting marble-dust or chalk into dilute sulphuric or hydro-
chloric acid. The latter acid, combining with the lime,
sets free the carbonic acid as a colorless, slightly pungent
gas of the specific gravity 1.524. When this gas is sub-
mitted to a pressure of thirty-six atmospheres at 32° F., it
becomes a light limpid liquid, without acid properties,
readily miscible with alcohol and ether, but not with water
or fixed oils. When this liquid is allowed to evaporate in
the open air, it produces cold so intense that the unevap-
orated residue of the liquid solidifies into a snow-like sub-
stance, below 100°F. in temperature. By evaporating this
substance in a vacuum the spirit-thermometer can be made
to fall to —166°F. Carbonic acid gas is regarded by many
authorities as poisonous, while others assert that it destroys
life by exclusion of oxygen, like water in drowning. These
last authorities state that the narcotic effects attributed to
this gas are really due to the presence of carbonous oxide
(CO), which is an undoubted poison. (See article next be-
low.) The choke-damp of coal-miries contains both these
gases. Carbonic acid is a constant result of ordinary com-
bustion and fermentation, and of the respiration of animals.
It furnishes to plants, through their leaves, a very import-
ant part of their mourishment.
Carbon’ic Oxſide, called in the new nomenclature
Carbonous Oxide or Carbon Monoxide (symbol
CO), a compound of one atom of carbon with one atom of
oxygen, has the atomic weight of 14 or (new) 28. It is
fatally deleterious to animals if they inhale it, and extin-
guishes flame, but it burns with a blue flame in contact with
air, and thus forms carbonic acid. It is a colorless and
insipid gas, which has never been liquefied nor solidified.
Specific gravity, .967. It does not occur naturally, but
may be obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on oxalic
acid, by passing carbonic acid over red-hot charcoal, or by
heating to redness chalk or pounded marble with iron-
filings or zinc. Even when largely diluted with air, it acts
as a narcotic poison to those who inhale it. This gas does
not perform any active part in natural phenomena, but in
the reduction of ores, as in the blast furnace, it is of the
greatest importance.
CARBONIC Ox1DE, in the new nomenclature, is a name for
CARBONIC ACID (which see). - -
Carboniferous [from the Lat. carbo, “ coal,” and
fero, to “bear”], producing or containing carbon or coal,
a geological term applied to the strata of rocks which are
connected with the coal-beds and are interstratified with
them. The period which followed the. Devonian age is
called by some geologists the carboniferous age. It was the
third and last age of the palaeozoic era.
Carboniferous Formation, the series of rocks
(sandstones, shales, limestones, etc.) which occur in con-
nection and alternation with the coal-beds, and were depos-
ited during the carboniferous age. (See CoAL and AN-
THRACITE, by PROF. J. S. NEWBERRY, M. D. LL.D.)
Carboniferous Limestone, sometimes called Sub-
Carboniferous or Mountain Limestone, is one of
the lower and older rocks of the carboniferous system. It
mostly contains magnesia, is of coralline formation, and is
rich in organic remains, among which are many encrimites
or Crinoidea and marine shells. This limestone is largely
developed in Yorkshire and Derbyshire in England, in
Russia, Germany, Illinois, Missouri, and other parts of the
U. S. Some varieties of it are valuable for building-stone.
Carboniferous System, the name given to the strata
which were deposited during the carboniferous age of geol-
ogy, and which are interposed between the Devonian sys-
tem and the Permian strata. Most of the great coal-fields
of the world belong to this system of formation, which is
largely developed in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, and other
States of the Union.
The chief characteristic of the lower and older member
of the carboniferous system in England and Western Eu-
rope generally, as well as in North America, is a vast de-
posit of coralline limestone, crystalline for the most part,
and abounding in shells, encrimites, and corals. It has
long been known as the mountain limestone, from its large
development in the mountain districts of Yorkshire, Derby-
shire, and Lancashire, where it is the source of much pictu-
resque beauty. (See CABBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE.). Among
the limestones are many bands of coal, some thick enough
and good enough to pay for working. In other parts of
England, and in Russia, very poor and imperfect coal-
A.
CARBOY—CARDIFF.
775
measures represent the carboniferous limestone. In Ireland
there is a peculiar sandy deposit of the same age.
Over the carboniferous limestone lies the millstone grit,
a rock occasionally represented by bituminous shales and
covered by pebbly grits. Here come in some of those
valuable deposits of iron more common among the coal-
measures, but helping to give value to the middle part of
the carboniferous system. Here also are valuable building-
Stones.
The natural divisions between the beds of limestone and
its numerous crevices and caverns are often filled, more or
less completely, with ores of lead and zinc. Rich masses
of galena occupy the fissures, large deposits of calamine
fill the interspaces between the beds, and where none of
these valuable minerals exist, large bodies of water accu-
mulate, and occasionally make their way out in Springs or
are available when tapped by accident or intention.
Much of the carboniferous limestone is of organic origin,
and appears to have been deposited in a coral sea, not far
from islands covered with luxuriant vegetation. The
almost perfect identity of species observable when fossils
obtained from the quarries in Central Europe are com-
pared with others from high northern districts either in
Europe or North America renders it highly probable that
a remarkable uniformity of climate prevailed at that time
over the whole northern hemisphere. The nature of the
prevailing fossils—goniatites, orthoceratites, etc. among
the univalves, and the numerous species of terebratula
and spirifer among the bivalves—points to conditions dif-
ferent from any that have since affected the same districts.
Over the millstone grit come the sandstones and shales
that contain the coal-measures, the lower part of which in
England is most prolific in coal. At least a quarter of a
million of square miles of the earth’s surface in the various
tracts of land now above the water are covered with sand-
stones and shales of the carboniferous period, among which
coal is buried; and this coal is for the most part accessible.
As in each square mile of country there are upwards of
three millions of square yards of surface, and a cubic yard
of coal weighs nearly a ton, while in many coal-fields there
is an average of workable coal from ten to twenty yards
thick, the reader may obtain for himself a rough but suf-
ficient estimate of the possible extent of supply of this
mineral. (See CoAL, by PROF. J. S. NEwBERRY.)
The coal-measures abound in the remains of plants of
extinct species, which mostly grow in marshes or low
places. The principal fossil plants found in this system
are Coniferae, Equisetaceae, the Lepidodendrons, the Sigil-
laria, Calamites, and ferns of colossal size.
REVISED BY J. S. NEWBERRY.
Carſboy, a large globular bottle of green glass pro-
tected by basket-work or enclosed in a wooden box. Car-
boys are used to contain acids and other corrosive liquids.
A carboy of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) usually contains
about 160 pounds of that acid.
Carſbuncle [Lat. carbunculus], a name given by lapi-
daries to a beautiful mineral which mineralogists call
pyrope. The carbuncle of the ancients appears to have
been either pyrope or a deep-red variety of precious garnet
which is very similar to pyrope.
Carbuncle [Lat. carbunculus, a “ small coal”], the
anthraac of surgical writers, is a violent and painful inflam-
mation, larger than a boil, on any part of the skin, most
frequently on the back. The part swells and hardens, and,
as the disease advances, assumes a livid redness. The
cuticle often rises in blisters, and a number of small open-
ings may occur, through which matter escapes. The ori-
gin of carbuncle seems to be constitutional, and it is usually
attended by great suffering and considerable prostration.
It is sometimes fatal, especially to old people. In its
treatment, besides supporting the patient's strength and
softening the skin by warm poultices, it is usual to divide
the skin early and freely with a knife, or to destroy its
surface with caustic.
Car/buret [Fr. carbure], the generic term formerly ap-
plied to compounds of carbon with the simple elements.
(See CARBIDEs.)
Car/buretted Hydrogen, a chemical term applied
to two gaseous compounds of carbon and hydrogen. The
light carburetted hydrogen or methane is known by the
popular names of marsh-gas and fire-damp. It is a nearly
odorless gas, evolved abundantly in some coal-mines, where
it has caused tremendous and fatal explosions. When
pure it is not poisonous. Its symbol is CH4. A mixture
of one volume of this with three volumes of oxygen ex-
plodes with great violence when inflamed. It is one of the
principal constituents of the coal-gas which is used for
illuminating houses and streets. The bicarburetted hy-
drogen or ethene (C2H4) is the same as OLEFIANT GAs
(which see).
Carcajen'te, a town of Spain, in the province of Wa-
lencia, 22 miles by rail S. S. W. of Valencia. It is on a
fertile plain near the river Juncar, and is well built. Here
are manufactures of linen and woollen fabrics. Pop. 8842.
Carcassonne (anc. Carcaso), a city in the S. of France,
capital of the department of Aude, is on the river Aude
and the Canal du Midi, 56 miles by rail E. S. E. of
Toulouse. The river is here crossed by a bridge of ten
arches, and separates the old from the new town. The old
town, which stands on high ground, is enclosed by walls
of great solidity, has an ancient castle, and retains in a
remarkable degree the aspect of a fortress of the Middle
Ages. Carcassonne is the seat of a bishop, and has a ca-
thedral, a town-hall, a theatre, a public library with about
22,000 volumes, and a college. Here are extensive manu-
factures of fine woollen cloth which have long been cele-
brated. This city suffered much in the crusades against
the Albigenses. Pop. 22,173.
Car’cel Lamp, one in which oil is pumped up by in-
ternal machinery, so as to be constantly overflowing the
wick. The invention originated in France.
Carcinoma. See CANCER.
Car/damom [Lat. Cardamomum], a name of the cap-
sule and seed of several species of plants of the genera. Amo-
mum and Elettaria and natural order Zingiberaceae. The
capsules are three-celled, and contain numerous seeds,
which are aromatic and pungent, with a peculiar and
agreeable taste. They are used as a condiment in Asia.
and Germany. Having mild cordial and stimulant proper-
ties, they are used in medicine and in combination with
cathartics. The officinal cardamom of the U. S. and British
Pharmacopoeias is the seed of the Elettaria Cardamomum, a
native of India. The cardamoms of commerce are pro-
duced in India, Ceylon, Madagascar, and the Malayan
Archipelago.
Car/dan [It. Cardano], (JEROME), a celebrated Italian
philosopher, author, and physician, was born at Payſa
Sept. 24, 1501, graduated as M. D. at Padua in 1525, and be-
came professor of mathematics at Milan. He also prac-
tised medicine, and acquired a wide reputation as a physi-
cian. In 1552 he visited Scotland and cured the primate
of that country of asthma. He afterwards resided succes-
sively at Pavía, Bologna, and Rome. He was an astrologer,
and professed to be an adept in magical arts. In 1545, he
published in his “Ars Magna” a formula for the solution
of cubic equations, which is called “Cardan’s Formula.”
He wrote numerous works on physics, astrology, medicine,
astronomy, etc. Among them are “De Rerum Subtilitate.”
(“On the Subtilty of Things”) and “De Rerum Varie-
tate” (“On the Variety of Things”). He died at Rome
Sept. 20, 1576. (See his autobiography, entitled “De Vita.
Propria,” 1643; H. MoRLEY, “Life of Cardan,” 1854.)
Card/board is made by pasting and pressing together
a number of layers of paper, making either three-, four-,
six-, or eight-sheet boards. Bristol board, used by artists,
is entirely of white paper; common card-board is white on
the outside only. Mill-board, employed in bookbinding,
is composed of coarse brown paper, glued and pressed be-
tween iron rollers. The enamelling of cardboard is effected
by brushing over it a mixture of white lead (China or
Kremnitz white) with size. After drying, the surface is
lightly rubbed with flannel which has been dipped in pow-
dered tale; it is then polished with a hard, fine brush.
Car’denas, a seaport-town of Cuba, on the N. coast of
the island, 120 miles E. by S. from Havana, with which it
is connected by railroad. It has a good harbor. P. 7225.
Car/diac [Lat. cardiacus], belonging to the heart or
connected with the heart. Stomachic and stimulating
remedies or cordials are called cardiac medicines; the car-
diac orifice is the superior opening of the stomach.
Cardi'adae, a numerous family of lamellibranchiate
bivalve mollusks, includes those species in which the man-
tle is open anteriorly for the foot, and has two orifices, one
for respiration and the other for excretion, as the cockle
(Cardium edule).
Cardialºgia, or Car/dialgy [from kapāia, the “heart,”
and 3.x.yos, “pain”], literally, “pain in the heart.” . The
term is commonly applied, however, to the uneasiness
(heartburn) connected with indigestion, the seat of which
is really in the stomach.
Car/diff, a seaport-town of South Wales, the capital of
Glamorganshire, is on the river Taff, 171 miles by rail W.
of London. It contains a town-hall, a fine old castle
owned by the marquis of Bute, a theatre, and about thirty
churches and chapels. Railways extend from this town to
the mining districts of South Wales, the products of which
are exported from Cardiff. It has a good harbor, im:
proved by the construction of a magnificent basin and
776
CARDIFF–CAREX.
docks. Coal and iron are the chief articles of export. The
population has increased rapidly since 1840. Cardiff
Castle, built in the eleventh century, is partly in ruins.
Robert, duke of Normandy, was confined in it about
twenty-seven years by Henry I. Cromwell obtained pos-
session of it in 1648 by stratagem, after bombarding it for
three days. Pop. in 1871, 39,675.
Cardiff, a post-village of Lafayette township, Onon-
daga, co., N. Y., on Onondaga Creek, is the place of the
pretended discovery of the “Cardiff giant,” a statue of a
man ten and a half feet long, which was cut from a block
of gypsum quarried at Fort Dodge, Ia., sculptured at Chi-
cago, buried for some months at Cardiff, and “accidentally ”
discovered Oct. 16, 1869. It was exhibited for many months
with great success as a petrified giant, but the fraud was
finally confessed by its perpetrators. Pop. 147.
Car'digan, a seaport of South Wales, the capital of
Cardiganshire, is on the river Teify, 240 miles by rail W.
by N. from London. It has an old and stately church, and
the ruins of a castle which is supposed to have been founded
in 1160. Romantic scenery occurs in the vicinity of Car-
digan. Pop. in 1871, 3535.
Cardigan (JAMES THOMAS Brudenell), EARL of, an
English general, born Oct. 16, 1797, was obliged to leave
the service when a lieutenant-colonel on account of bul-
lying conduct towards a brother officer, but was restored
to his rank, became known as a daring dragoon officer, and
rose in India to be a major-general. At the battle of Bala-
klava, Lord Cardigan led the famous charge of the “six hun-
dred.” Died Mar. 27, 1868.
Car'digamshire, a maritime county of South Wales,
is bounded on the N. by Merioneth, on the N. E. by Mont-
gomery, on the E. by Radnor and Brecknock, on the S. by
Carmarthen and Pembroke, and on the W. by Cardigan Bay.
Area, 693 square miles. The surface is diversified with
rugged hills, fertile valleys, and small lakes. The rocks
which underlie this county are lower Silurian slates and
shales, in which rich veins of copper, lead, and zinc occur.
The chief articles of export are cattle, sheep, oats, barley,
butter, slates, and pigs. Capital, Cardigan. Pop. in 1871,
72,245.
Car' dinal [Lat. cardinalis, from cardo, cardinis, a
“hinge ’’], an epithet implying importance, and applied to
the principal virtues, the four points of the compass, and
other objects. The numbers 1, 2, 3, etc. are called “car-
dinal” numbers, to distinguish them from 1st, 2d, 3d, etc.,
which are called “ordinal ‘’ numbers.
Cardinal [It. cardinale ; for etymology see above],
the tile of an ecclesiastic in the Roman Catholic Church.
The cardinals are the highest dignitaries of the Church,
except the pope, of whom they are the electors and the
counsellors. They are distinguished by a scarlet hat and
a short purple mantle worn over the rochet. Pope Urban
VIII., in 1630, gave them the title of Eminence, which is
still used. They are appointed by the pope, who often em-
ploys them as ambassadors, and a cardinal so employed is
called a legate a latere. The body of cardinals is called
the Sacred College. The total number of these prelates
has been for several centuries limited to seventy, of whom
six are bishops of certain Italian dioceses; fifty, styled
cardinal-priests, hold their titles from parishes in Rome
(many of them being at the same time bishops of foreign
dioceses); and fourteen are cardinal-deacons. The actual
number of cardinals is often less than seventy. When the
pope dies, a successor is chosen by the cardinals, who are
assembled in conclave at Rome, and who must elect one of
their own number to the vacant pontificate. During the
election, which is sometimes protracted several months by
their inability to agree, they are confined in a certain
building, usually the Quirinal Palace, and debarred from
intercourse with the public. (See CoNCLAVE.)
Cardinal, a post-village of Boulder co., Col., 2 miles
from Caribou. It has rich silver-mines. -
Cardinal Bird (Cardinal or Cardinalis Virginianus),
called also Red Bird, Cardinal Grosbeak, Cardi-
nal Finch, and Virginia Nightingale, a native of
the U. S., is one of the finest of American song-birds, and
is remarkable for the beauty of its form and plumage.
The bill is thick and broad, but not long. It belongs to
the family Fringillidae. The back of the male is a dusky
red, and the rest of the plumage is a bright, vivid scarlet.
It has on the crown long feathers erected into a conical or
pointed crest, which it is said to raise and lower at pleas-
ure. The total length is about eight inches. It visits the
Northern States as a summer bird of passage, and passes
the winter in the Southern States, where some of them re-
main all the year. Many of them are taken to England
and kept in cages.
Cardinal FIower [so called from its bright red flow-
ers, in color like a cardinal’s hat], the name of the Lobelia
cardinalis, a perennial herbaceous plant of the order Lo-
beliaceae, common in most parts of the U. S. in wet places.
It usually has a very rich red corolla, but the Mexican car-
dinal (Lobelia fulgens) and other foreign species are still
richer. All the above are prized in cultivation.
Cardinal Virtues, those regarded as of primary im-
portance to character. Among the ancients they were jus-
tice, prudence, temperance, and fortitude.
Car’dington, a post-village of Morrow co., O., on the
B. branch of the Olentangy River, and on the railroad
which connects Cleveland with Columbus, 41 miles N. by E.
from Columbus. It has a national bank. Pop. 918; of
Cardington township, 2199.
Cardinſia, a genus of fossil Conchiferae, comprising
about eighty-five species, which extend from the Silurian
formation to the lower oolite. They have an oval or ob-
long shell, attenuated posteriorly, and marked with lines
of growth and an external ligament.
Cardiſtis, inflammation of the heart. (See ENDoCARDI-
TIS and PERICARDITIs.)
Cardoon' (Cymara cardunculus), a perennial plant of
the same genus as the artichoke, is a native of Southern
Europe. It is cultivated for the sake of the leaf-stalks and
midribs of the leaves, which are blanched and used as a
Salad or as a boiled vegetable.
Cardo’zo (ISAAC N.), born at Savannah, Ga., June 17,
1786, became in 1816 editor, and some years later propri-
etor, of the “Southern Patriot,” a free-trade journal of his
native town. In 1820 he published “Notes on Political Econ-
omy.” He established the “Evening News” in 1845. He
was active in commercial affairs, and, though opposed to
the tariff of 1828, was not of the extreme nullification party.
He was drowned in Virginia Aug. 26, 1850.
Cards. See PLAYING CARDs.
Cards, a device for preparing the fibres of wool, cotton,
or other textile material for the spinning process. The ope-
ration was formerly performed by hand-cards, but at pres-
ent machines of surprising ingenuity are employed. The
manufacture of cards is itself accomplished by wonderfully
perfect mechanism. The subject is more fully discussed un-
der SPINNING (which see). Other forms of cards are empleyed
for currying or cleaning the hair of domestic animals.
Carduus Benedictus. See BLESSED THISTLE.
Card’well, a county in the Dominion of Canada, in
the central part of Ontario, was formed out of parts of
Simcoe and Peel counties. Pop. in 1871, 16,500.
Cardwell (EDWARD), an English statesman, born in
Liverpool in 1813. He was elected to Parliament in 1842,
joined the party called Peelites, and was president of the
board of trade from 1852 to 1855. In the latter year he
was returned to Parliament for Oxford. He became secre-
tary for Ireland in 1859, and secretary of state for the col-
onies in April, 1864. Having resigned with his colleagues
in June, 1866, he entered the cabinet of Gladstone as sec-
retary of state for war in Dec., 1868.
Career’ [Fr. carrière, literally, a “track or course for
carriages or cars”], the ground on which a race is run; a
course; a race; the entire course of one’s public life. The
term was often applied to the course which was run in a
tournament or tilt by two mounted knights from the start-
ing-place to the place where they encountered in the mid-
dle of the lists.
Ca/ret [from Lat. careoj signifies “it is lacking.” It
is the name of a character formed thus N, and denotes that
some word or letter has been omitted.
Carew' (THOMAs), an English poet and courtier, born
in 1589. He was patronized by Charles I., in whose court
he served as gentleman of the chamber. He wrote sonnets
and short lyrical poems which are remarkable for elegance
and ease. Died in 1639. (The name Carew is by some Eng-
lish families of the name pronounced like CAREY.)
Ca/rex (gen. caricis), [a classical Latin word signifying
“ sedge”], is the botanical name of a vast genus of coarse
grass-like plants of the order Cyperaceae. They abound
in temperate and cold climates, and are perennial herbs,
often growing in dense tufts in swamps and wet places.
The genus is characterized by male and female flowers,
separated (mostly monoecious), with an ovary enclosed in
an inflated sac called a perigynium. Stamens three, rarely
two. More than 450 species of Carea are known, and 150
species are described in Gray’s “Manual of Botany” as
natives of the Northern U. S. The Carea: arenaria is
planted in Holland on the dikes for the purpose of binding
the sandy shores with its spreading roots (rhizomes) and
resisting the encroachments of the sea. Few of the spe-
cies are good for pasture, but they tend to convert swamps
CAREY—CARIES,
777
gradually into fertile soil. In the U. S. they are harvested
in large quantities from wet lands, but produce a poor
quality of hay.
Ca'rey, a post-village of Crawford township, Wyandot
co., 0., at the junction of the Findlay branch with the
Cincinnati Sandusky and Cleveland R. R., 50 miles S. by
W. of Sandusky. Pop. 692.
Carey (HENRY CHARLEs), a political economist and
writer of distinction, was born in Philadelphia Dec. 15,
1793. He became in 1821 the head of the firm of Carey
& Lea, publishers. He has advocated a protective tariff,
and has written, besides other works, “The Principles of
Political Economy” (3 vols., 1837–40), “The Past, the
Present, and the Future” (1848), and “The Principles of
Social Science” (3 vols., 1858–59). He is the founder of
a school of political economy whose principles are consid-
ered more progressive and liberal than those of Malthus
and Ricardo. He has been distinguished especially for
the zeal with which he has urged the principle of protec-
tion as opposed to that of free trade.
Carey (MATTHEW), a writer, born in Dublin, Ireland,
Jan. 28, 1760, was the father of the preceding. He emi-
grated to Philadelphia in 1784, and became a bookseller.
He published “The American Museum ” (1787–93), wrote
several political pamphlets and “Essays on Political Econ-
omy,” and had much influence in public affairs. Died
Sept. 16, 1839.
Carey (WILLIAM), D.D., born in Northamptonshire,
England, in Aug., 1761, was a shoemaker in early life, but
becoming impressed with the duty of giving the gospel to
the heathen, he went to India in 1794 and founded the
Baptist mission at Serampore; became (1800) professor of
Sanscrit, Bengalee, and Mahratta, at the College of Fort
William ; published a Sanscrit grammar, a Bengalee-Eng-
lish dictionary, and other works, besides assuming the
principal labor in the translation of the Scriptures into
several Oriental languages. Died in 1834. He takes rank
among the most distinguished of modern missionaries for
his fidelity, success, and learning. . (See “Life,” by J. C.
MARSHMAN, also by F. CAREY.)
Car'go [Sp. cargo, i.e. “load”], a general name
for all the merchandise carried by a merchant-vessel.
It is nearly synonymous with freight. The master
of every British coasting-vessel is required to keep
a cargo-book, in which are recorded the name of the
vessel, the name of the owner, the port of departure,
the port of destination, the goods which constitute
the cargo, etc.
Ca/ria [Gr. Kapta], an ancient province in the
extreme S. W. part of Asia Minor, was bounded on
the N. by Lydia, on the E. by Phrygia, on the S. by
the Mediterranean, and on the W. by the AEgean Sea.
The surface is mountainous. It was drained by the
river Meander. The chief towns were Miletus, Hali-
carnassus, and Cnidus, which were founded by the
Greeks, and were important places. The natives of
Caria, were called Cares.
Caria/ma, a wading bird of South America, akin
to the cranes, is thirty inches high, brown above and
whitish beneath. It is easily domesticated, and asso-
ciates peaceably with other fowls. It is the Micro-
dactylus cristatus.
Caribbe'am Sea, a grand inlet of the Atlantic
Ocean, is between North and South America, and
is separated from the Pacific by the Isthmus of Da-
rien (or Panamá) and by Central America. . It sep-
arates the West India Islands from South America,
and communicates with the Gulf of Mexico by a pas-
sage about 120 miles wide, which divides Cuba from
Yucatan, and is called the Channel of Yucatan. The
water accumulated in the Caribbean Sea by an oceanic
current flows continually into the Gulf of Mexico,
from which it can only escape by the narrow passage
between Florida and the Bahamas, thus forming the
great Gulf Stream. The depth of this sea is generally
more than 500 fathoms. Its navigation is not ob-
structed by reefs, rocks, or islands.
Car’ibbee Bark, or Piton Bark, is obtained
- from the Exostemma Caribbaeum, a small tree of Mex-
ico, Florida, and the West Indies. It belongs to the
cinchona tribe, and, although possessing none of the
active principles of cinchona, it resembles it so much as to
be sometimes substituted for it. The flower differs from
that of the cinchona in having its stamens exserted, instead
of their being included in the corolla.
Caribou', or Cariboo (Rangifer caribou), the Ameri-
can reindeer, inhabits Maine, New Brunswick, and other
cold regions of North America. The caribou is remarkable
for the great development of the brow-antlers or branches,
which extend in both sexes forward over the forehead.
The color of its hair in summer is a rich reddish-brown.
The average weight of this animal is about 250 or 300
pounds. Its flesh is much esteemed as food, and its skin
is of value. The “barren ground caribou.” (Rangifer
groenlandicus) is found farther N. -
Caribou, a post-village of Boulder co., Col., in th
“Grand Island District,” has valuable placer gold-mines
and one weekly newspaper.
Caribou, a post-village of Lyndon township, Aroostook
co., Me. It has one weekly newspaper.
Ca/ribs, the former Indian inhabitants of the Caribbee
Islands. Remnants of the Caribs exist at the present time
in the West Indies, Guiana, Honduras, and near Panama.
Ca'ries, a Latin term signifying “rottenness,” applied
to a disease of the bones analogous to the ulceration of
the soft tissues; a term used to designate both open ulcer
of bone and chronic ostitis or inflammation of the con-
nective tissue of bone, with solution of the earthy part.
It begins as an inflammation, accompanied by periostitis,
followed by exudation of new materials and softening.
Sometimes the bone-cells are filled with a reddish fluid,
and there are masses of tubercle. After caries has existed
for some time the abscess bursts; its aperture remains open,
discharging a fluid which contains particles of bone. If
a probe be passed through this opening, it will be felt to
sink into a soft, gritty substance; this is carious bone.
Pathologists give different names to the somewhat various
forms of the disease. Thus we have “osteoplastic,” “tu-
berculous,” and “suppurative” caries, etc. It is mole-
cular death of bone, while necrosis is death of a large
mass of bone.
Caries usually selects the vertebrae, the bones of the
wrist and foot, and the soft ends of long bones forming
joints. Carious vertebrae yield under the weight of the
trunk, and the spine curves forward or to one side. In
joints the part enlarges, the cartilages become affected,
matter forms, and amputation of the limb or excision of
the joint is frequently necessary. The causes of caries
Cariama.
are constitutional, such as bad nutrition, syphilis, old age,
and other depressing conditions. It may be accidentally
determined by any irritation, such as a blow or exposure to
atmospheric changes. The treatment consists in support-
ing the patient by judicious change of air, by the use
of tonics, such as cod-liver oil, which in scrofula. *
pears to combat the constitutional predisposition. In
&

778
CARILLON.—CARLISLE SPRINGS.
those parts where the diseased bone can be reached it may
be carefully removed, so as to leave a healthy surface.
Caries of the teeth is a very common disease. It is be-
lieved to be caused by dyspepsia and the use of too hot
food and drink, but especially by neglect to clean the teeth
after eating. (For its treatment see DENTISTRY, by Dr.
C. N. PIERCE.) REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Carillon, a post-village of Argenteuil co., Quebec
(Canada), on the Ottawa River, has an academy, and is
connected with Grenville by canal and railway. Pop.
about 500. -
Carima/ta, a group of small islands in the passage be-
tween Borneo and Billiton. *
Carimo'na, a post-township of Fillmore co., Minn.
Pop. 788.
Cari'na, a Latin word signifying the keel of a ship or
boat; also a botanical term applied to the sharp thin ridge
or keel of any organ, and to the two anterior petals of a
papilionaceous flower, which adhere by their lower edges
and form a body somewhat like a boat.
Carina’ria [from the Lat. carina, a “keel”], a genus
of gasteropodous mollusks, characterized by having the
heart, liver, generative organs, etc. protruded from the
body, and encased in an extremely fragile and beautiful
shell, which is sub-transparent, symmetrical, and com-
pressed. The convexity of the shell is terminated by a
single keel.
Cari’ni, a town of Sicily, in the province of Palermo,
beautifully situated 10 miles W. N. W. of Palermo. It has
a Gothic castle. Near it are the ruins of the ancient
Hyccara. Pop. 12,539.
Carin/thia [Ger. Kärnthen], a division of the Austrian
empire, is bounded on the N. by Salzburg and Styria, on the
E. by Styria, on the S. by Carniola and Italy, and on the
W. by the Tyrol. Area, 4006 square miles. It is inter-
sected by the river Drave, the valley of which separates the
Noric from the Carinthian Alps. The Noric Alps extend
along the N. border of Carinthia, which is mostly moun-
tainous. It was comprised in the ancient Noricum. Its
inhabitants were anciently called Carni. Chief town, Klag-
enfurt. Pop. in 1869, 337,058.
Cari’mus (MARCUs AURELIUs), a Roman emperor, was
the son of the emperor Carus. On the death of Carus,
in 284 A. D., Carinus and Diocletian became competitors
for the throne. The former gained an advantage in Moesia.
over Diocletian in 285, but was killed by his own soldiers,
whom he had offended by his cruelty.
Caris'sa, a genus of plants of the family Apocynaceae.
Carissa, Carendas is a thorny shrub much used for fences in
India, and its fruit is eaten.
Carl, a post-township of Adams co., Ia. Pop. 301.
Carlén' (EMILIE FLYGARE), a popular Swedish novelist,
born at Stockholm Aug. 8, 1807. She published in 1838
her first novel, “Waldemar Klein.” She was married a
second time in 1841 to a lawyer named Carlén. Translated
into English, among her works, are “Home in the Valley,”
“The Lover's Stratagem;” “The Professor,” and “Woman’s
Life.” -
Carleton, a county of New Brunswick (Dominion of
Canada), bordering on Maine. Area, about 900 Square
miles. It is intersected by the river St. John and the New
Brunswick and Canada Railway. The soil is fertile. Tum-
ber is produced, and excellent iron ore is mined and
smelted. Manganese is also found. Capital, Woodstock.
Pop. 19,938.
Carleton, a thriving suburb of St. John, New Bruns-
wick, and within the city limits, but separated from the
main city by the St. John River. It is the S. E. terminus
of the European and North American Railway, and has
seven churches, a large foundry, and several steam Saw-
mills. A steam ferry here crosses the river. Carleton has
extensive fisheries.
Carleton, a county in the E. part of Ontario (Canada).
Area, 647 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the
Ottawa River, and drained by the Rideau. It is intersected
by the St. Lawrence and Ottawa Railway. The county-
town is Ottawa, which is also the capital of the Dominion
of Canada. Pop. 21,739.
Carleton, a small post-village and township of Bona-
venture co., Quebec (Canada), on the Bay of Chaleurs. It
is a port of refuge, has fine mountain-scenery, extensive
herring-fisheries, a convent of Sisters of Charity, and is a
place for holding the circuit courts.
Carleton (Sir GUY), LORD DORCHESTER, a British gen-
eral, born at Strabane, in Ireland, Sept. 3, 1724. He be-
came governor of Quebec in 1772, which he defended
against the American army in Dec., 1775. He invaded
New York in 1776, and fought a battle against Arnold on
Lake Champlain. In 1777 he was relieved of the command,
but he succeeded Sir Henry Clinton as commander-in-chief
in North America in 1781. Died Nov. 10, 1808.
Carleton (WILLIAM), an Irish novelist, born in Tyrone
county in 1798. His first work was “Traits and Stories of
the Irish Peasantry” (1830), which was received with favor.
In 1839 he published “Fardorougha the Miser,” which was
very successful. He described Irish life and manners with
much vigor and accuracy in other works, among which are
“Rody the Rover” (1846) and “Willie Reilly” (3 vols.,
1855). Died Jan. 30, 1869.
Carleton Place, a post-village of Beckwith township,
Lanark co., Ontario (Canada), at the junction of the Brock-
ville and Ottawa and the Canada Central Railways, 28
miles from Ottawa, on a navigable stream called the Mis-
sissippi River. It has manufactures of woollen cloth and
iron castings, and very extensive lumber-mills. It has one
weekly paper. Pop. about 1500.
Car/li, or Car’li Rub'bi (GIov ANNI RINALDO), Count,
an Italian political economist, born at Capo d'Istria April
11, 1720. He acquired a high reputation by an important
work entitled “Delle Monete e delle Instituzione delle Zecche
d’Italia” (“On Italian Coins and the Institution of Mints
in Italy,” 4 vols., 1754–60). He was appointed president
of the council of commerce and public economy at Milan.
Among his other works is a treatise “On Italian Antiqui-
ties” (1788). Died Feb. 22, 1795.
Car/lin, a township of Calhoun co., Ill. Pop. 534.
Carlin, a post-village of Elko co., Nev., is on the Hum-
boldt River and the Central Pacific R. R., 583 miles N. E.
of San Francisco. Pop. of township, 295.
Carºlinville, a post-village, capital of Macoupin co.,
Ill., on the Chicago and Alton R. R., 57 miles N. N. E. of St.
Louis and 38 miles S.W. of Springfield. It has one national
bank, six churches, and is the seat of Blackburn University,
connected with which is a theological seminary. Its court-
house cost $1,800,000, and is said to be the finest in the
U. S. Coal is mined here. It has one semi-weekly and
two weekly newspapers. P. of Carlinville township, 5808.
Carlisle, kar-lil' (anc. Luguvallio or Luguvallum), an
ancient episcopal city of England, the capital of Cumber-
land county, is situated on an eminence at the confluence
of the Eden and Caldew rivers, by which it is nearly sur-
rounded. It is 301 miles by rail N. N. W. of London,
98# miles by rail S. of Edinburgh, and 12 miles E. of
Solway Frith. Several railways converge to this point,
which also has communication by steamboats with Liver-
pool and Belfast. It has a cathedral founded by William
Rufus, dedicated in 1101, greatly damaged by fire in 1292,
and restored about 1854. The choir, which is 138 feet long
and 72 feet high, is one of the finest in England. Here is
a castle founded in 1092. Carlisle sends two members to
Parliament. It has manufactures of ginghams and cotton
checks, print-works, iron-foundries, etc. It was the resi-
dence of the ancient kings of Cumbria, and was destroyed
by the Danes in 900. During the wars between the Eng-
lish and Scotch it was an important fortified border-town,
and was often besieged. Pop. in 1871, 31,074.
Carlisle, capital of Cumberland co., Pa., is situated in
the fertile limestone valley between the Kittatinny and
South Mountains, and on the Cumberland Valley R. R., 18
miles W. by S. from Harrisburg and 125 miles W. of Phila-
delphia. It is well built, and has wide streets and a pub-
lic square. It contains about twelve churches, one national
bank, one other bank, two weekly newspapers, one car-
factory, and two machine-shops. Carlisle is the seat of
Dickinson College, founded in 1783. This town was shelled
by the Confederates July 1, 1863. It contains also Carlisle
(U.S.A.) Barracks. Pop. 6650.
Carlisle, a post-village of Haddon township, Sullivan
co., Ind. Pop. 499. -
Carlisle, a post-village of Warren co., Ia. Pop. 200.
Carlisle, a post-village, capital of Nicholas co., Ky.,
about 35 miles N. E. of Lexington. It has one weekly
newspaper. Pop. 606.
Carlisle, a post-township of Middlesex co., Mass.
Pop. 569. - -
Carlisle, a post-township of Schoharie co., N. Y. Pop.
1730.
Carlisle, a township of Lorain co., O. Pop. 1219.
Carlisle, EARLs of, Wiscounts Howard of Morpeth
and Barons Dacre of Gillesland (England, 1661).-WILLIAM
GEORGE HowARD, eighth earl, rector of Londesborough,
born Feb. 23, 1808, succeeded his brother in 1864.
Carlisle Springs, a post-village of Cumberland co.,
Pa. It has good hotels and mild sulphurous waters.
CARLISTS-CARLTON.
779
Carºlists, a political party of Spain, consisting of the
followers of Carlos of Bourbon and his descendants. (See
CARLos OF BOURBON.)
Car/loman, or Karloman, a French prince, was a
son of Charles Martel, at whose death, in 741 A. D., he be-
came king of Austrasia, Suabia, and Thuringia. He abdi-
cated in favor of his brother, Pepin le Bref, in 747, and
became a monk. Died in 755 A. D. r -
Carloman, a son of Pepin le Bref and a brother of
Charlemagne, was born in 751 A. D. On the death of his
father in 768 he began to rule over Neustria and Burgundy.
He died in 771, and Charlemagne then obtained possession
of Carloman’s dominions.
Car/los, a township of Douglas co., Minn. Pop. 116.
Carlos, DoN, infante of Spain, the son and heir-appa-
rent of Philip II., was born July 8, 1545. He was a youth
of violent temper and sickly constitution, and appears to
have been deficient in intellect. He attacked or menaced
the duke of Alva with a poniard in 1567. The king re-
garded him with suspicion, and ordered him to be tried by
the Inquisition, which pronounced him guilty. He died in
1568, but the cause and manner of his death are involved
in mystery. He is the subject of Schiller's tragedy of “Don
Carlos.” (See PREscott, “History of Philip II.”)
Carlos of Bourbon, DoN, count de Molina, born Mar.
29, 1788, was the second son of King Charles IV. of Spain.
He was the heir-presumptive to the throne until the birth
of Isabella in 1830. On the death of his brother, Ferdi-
mand VII., in 1833, Don Carlos claimed the throne, and
was supported by a party called Carlists, between whom
and the partisans of Isabella a civil war ensued. The
priests and absolutists mostly preferred Don Carlos, but his
claim was rejected by the Cortes in 1836. The Carlist army
was defeated in 1839, and Don Carlos fled to France. He
abdicated in favor of his son, Don Carlos, count de Monte-
molin, in 1845. Died Mar. 10, 1855.
CARLOS, DON, count de Montemolin, a son of the preced-
ing, was born Jan. 31, 1818. After the death of his father
he was a pretender to the throne of Spain, and was recog-
nized as Charles VI. by the Carlists, who revolted in 1860
without success. Died in 1861.
CARLOs, DoN, duke of Madrid, a nephew of the preceding,
son of Don Juan of Bourbon and grandson of Don Carlos,
count of Molina, was born in 1848. His father, Don Juan,
abdicated in his favor on Oct. 3, 1868, and from that time
he was recognized by the Carlists as Charles VII. He made
in 1869, 1870, and again in 1872, unsuccessful efforts to
overthrow the government of King Amadeus, and in 1873
waged war against the republican government. His eldest
son, Jayme, prince of Asturias, was born June 27, 1870.
Carlovin' gian [Fr. Carlovingien], the name of the
second dynasty of French or Frankish kings. The origin
of the family is traced to Arnulph, bishop of Metz, who
died in 631. The dynasty derived its name from Charles
Martel or his grandson Charlemagne. Charles Martel be-
came in 714 A. D. mayor of the palace and king in reality,
but he permitted Childeric to retain the name and form of
royalty. The Merovingian dynasty ended in Childeric, a
roi fainéant, who after a merely nominal reign was deposed
in 752 by Pepin le Bref, a son of Charles Martel. Pepin
usurped the throne, and was the first Carlovingian who
took the title of king. He was succeeded by his son Char-
lemagne, who began to reign in 771, extended his domin-
ions by conquest, was the most powerful European monarch
of his time, and the founder of the Germanic empire. He
was crowned as emperor of the West by Pope Leo III. in
800 A. D., and died in 814. Under his descendants the
empire continually declined in power. His son and suc-
cessor, Louis le Débonnaire, divided his dominion among
his three sons, Lothaire, Pepin, and Louis. Louis le Dé-
bonnaire, who died in 840, had another son, Charles the
Bald, who became king of France. He died in 877, and
was followed by a succession of feeble princes. The last
of the Carlovingian dynasty was Louis W., who died in 987.
Hugh Capet then assumed the royal power. This house in-
cluded a number of German and Italian monarchs.
Car/low, a county of Ireland, in Leinster, is bounded
on the N. by Kildare and Wicklow, on the E. by Wicklow,
on the S. E. by Wexford, on the W. by Queens county and
Kilkenny. Area, 353 square miles. The surface is mostly
level or undulating; the soil is fertile. The rocks found near
the surface are granite and limestone. It contains many
dairies, and exports grain, flour, and butter. Coal is mined
near the western border of this county. Chief town, Carlow.
Pop. in 1871, 51,472.
Carlow, a town of Ireland, capital of the above county,
is on the navigable river Barrow, at the mouth of the Bur-
ren, 57 miles by rail S. S. W. of Dublin. It is well built,
has two bridges, a Roman Catholic cathedral, a college for
and an active transit trade.
students of divinity, a lunatic asylum, and a handsome
court-house; also extensive flour-mills. Here are the pic-
turesque ruins of a large Anglo-Norman castle founded in
1180. This castle was taken and dismantled by the army
of Gen. Ireton in 1650. Pop. in 1871, 7773.
Car’lowitz, a town of Austria, on the right bank of
the Danube, 8 miles S. E. of Peterwardein. It contains
a Greek cathedral, and is the seat of the Greek arch-
bishop of the Serbian nationality. It is noted for its ex-
cellent wine, the product of which sometimes amounts to
1,750,000 gallons in a year. An important treaty was con-
cluded here in 1699, between Turkey on one side and Austria,
Russia, and Venice on the other. Pop. in 1869, 4419.
Carſlowville, a post-township of Dallas co., Ala. Pop.
800.
Carls/bad, or Karlsbad (i.e. “Charles's Bath *), a
town in Bohemia famous for its hot springs, is on the right
bank of the river Eger, about 76 miles W. N. W. of Prague.
It belongs to the emperor of Austria, and is said to be the
most aristocratic watering-place in Europe. It is in a nar-
row valley between steep granite mountains, and is sur-
rounded by very beautiful scenery. It contains a theatre,
several reading-rooms, and good hotels. The temperature
of the waters varies from 117° to 165° F. They contain
sulphate of soda and other salts, and about 2,000,000 gal-
lons are discharged daily. The number of annual visitors
here is from 12,000 to 15,000. Carlsbad was a favorite re-
sort of Goethe. A congress of German powers was held
here in 1819. Pop. in 1869, 7291.
Carls/burg, or Karlsburg, a fortified town of Aus-
tria, in Transylvania, on the right bank of the Maros, 46
miles S. S. E. of Klausenburg. Saltpetre is manufactured
here. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, and has
a gymnasium, a theological seminary, a normal school, and
several convents. Pop. in 1869, 7955.
Carls cro/na, or Karlskro’ma (i. e. “Charles’s
Crown”), sometimes called in English Cariscroon', a
seaport in the S. of Sweden, is situated on several small
islands, which are connected by bridges with each other
and with the mainland, 258 miles S. S. W. of Stockholm ;
lat. 56° 10' N., lon. 15° 36' E. It has an excellent and
safe harbor, with sufficient depth of water to float the
largést ships, and is the principal station of the Swedish
navy. The entrance to the harbor is defended by two
strong forts. Here are dry-docks blasted out of the granite
rock, and a naval arsenal. It has manufactures of linen
cloths, naval equipments, etc. Pop. 17,564.
Carls/hamn, a seaport of Sweden, on the Baltic, 27
miles W. of Carlscrona. It has a small but secure harbor,
and an active trade in iron, timber, etc.; also manufactures
of sailcloth, hats, soap, and tobacco. Pop. in 1868, 5578.
Caris/ruhe, or Karlsruhe (i.e. “Charles's Rest”), a
city of Germany, capital of the grand duchy of Baden, 46
miles by rail S. of Mannheim. It is connected by rail-
ways with all parts of Germany. The streets are arranged
like the radii of a semicircle, converging towards a central
point, which is occupied by the palace of the grand duke.
Connected with this palace is a museum and a library of
80,000 volumes. The town also contains a large public
library, a botanic garden, a mint, a theatre, an arsenal, and
several hospitals. Here are manufactures of carpets, jew-
elry, chemical products, carriages, etc. Carlsruhe was
founded in 1715 by Charles William, margrave of Baden.
Pop. in 1871, 36,622. - :
Carl'stad, a town of Sweden, on the island of Ting-
valla, in Lake Wener, about 141 miles W. of Stockholm.
It is connected with the mainland by a large and hand-
some bridge. It has a cathedral, a college with an obser-
vatory, and a cabinet of natural history. Copper, iron,
timber, and grain are exported from this town through
Lake Wener and the Gotha Canal. Pop. 5433. -
Carl'stadt, a fortified town of Croatia, in the county
of Agram, 33 miles S. W. of Agram, has a large garrison
Pop. in 1870, 5175.
Carlstadt, a post-village of Bergen co., N. J. It has
two weekly newspapers.
Carlſton, a county of Minnesota, bordering on Wis-
consin. Area, 860 square miles. It is drained by the St.
Louis and Nemadji Rivers. The surface is moderately
diversified, and partly covered with forests of pine and
other trees. It is intersected by the Northern Pacific R. R.
Capital, Thomson. Pop. 286. -
Carlton, a township of Tama co., Ia. Pop. 812.
Carlton, a township of Barry co., Mich. Pop. 1125.
Carlton, a township of Freeborn co., Minn. Pop.
378. -
Carlton, a post-village and township of Orleans co.,
780
N. Y., 33 miles N. W. of Rochester and 1 mile from Lake
Ontario. Pop. 2327.
Carlton, a post-township of Kewaunee co., Wis. P. 1185.
Carlton (THoMAs), D.D., a clergyman of the Meth9-
dist Episcopal Church, was born at Derry, N.H., in 1809.
He began his ministry in the Genesee (now Western New
York) Conference in 1829, and occupied important pulpits
in Rochester, Buffalo, and other places during some years.
His superior administrative and financial abilities led to
his appointment as agent, for three years, of the Genesee
Wesleyan Seminary, as presiding elder of important dis-
tricts for seven years, was twenty years principal agent or
publisher of the “Methodist Book Concern” in New York,
and treasurer of the Methodist Missionary Society. Died
April 16, 1874.
Carludovi’ca Palma/ta, a tree or shrub of the order
Pandanaceae, grows in the tropical parts of South America.
It produces the leaves of which Panama hats are made.
Those of the best quality are plaited from a single leaf
without any joints. As this process requires several
months, the price of such a hat is very high.
Carlyle, kar-lil', a post-village, capital of Clinton co.,
Ill., on the Kaskaskia River and the Ohio and Mississippi
R. R., 47 miles E. of St. Louis, has fine churches and
school-houses, two newspapers, and considerable iron man-
ufactures. The public library contains 5000 volumes. It
has a new female seminary. Pop. 1364.
HARDIN CASE, Ed. CARLYLE “CoNSTITUTION AND BANNER.”
Carlyle, a post-village of Allen co., Kan., on the
Leavenworth Lawrence and Galveston R. R., 73 miles S.
of Lawrence.
Carlyle (THOMAs), the famous English historian and
philosopher, was born in 1795 at Ecclefechan in Scotland.
He was educated in the University of Edinburgh, which he
entered at the age of fourteen, and very early he embraced
literature as a profession. In 1824 he wrote a “Life of
Schiller.” Soon after he translated Goethe’s romance
“Wilhelm Meister;” and these books, as well as his biogra-
phical essays on Fichte and Jean Paul, contributed very
much to call the attention of the English public to the Ger–
man literature, of whose ideas he himself is the English
representative. In 1834 he moved from Craigenputtock,
near Dumfries, where he had led a very secluded and
almost solitary life, to London, and his literary activity
Soon widened and became more varied. In 1837 he wrote
the “History of the French Revolution” (3 vols.). In
1840 he delivered his celebrated course of lectures on “Be-
roes and Hero-Worship.” In 1845 he published “Oliver
Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches, with Elucidations and a
Connecting Narrative ’’ (5 vols.). In 1851 he wrote “The
Life of John Sterling,” and from 1858 to 1864 published the
“Life of Frederick the Great” (6 vols.), besides producing
a great number of essays, reviews, and pamphlets of a
miscellaneous character. Carlyle’s stand-point as a histo-
rian and philosopher is not one of conviction, but of tem-
perament. He can only write when in the attitude of an
opponent. What all the world hates he will defend, admire,
and love. What all people strive after he will mock and
scorn and deride. But he can keep the attitude through
six volumes without vacillating, and he is as eloquent and
brilliant when he defends as he is grotesque and sardonic
when he attacks. Taken as a whole, his writings are one
maze of glaring confusion. In 1837 he represented history
as an evolution of natural forces according to necessary
laws, against which all efforts of individual passion or
shrewdness are ridiculous. In 1840 he represented history
as the work of the great men, of the heroes, in whose track
the mass of the people have to follow like sheep. In all
his writings he tells us that human greatness is truth, and
truth alone. A man is great in proportion to the amount
of truth, there is in him. But his heroes happen to be
among the greatest liars history knows of as, for instance,
Frederick the Great and Mirabeau. With Carlyle his ideas
contradict his ideals. His ideas are those of the German
philosophy as it culminated with Hegel—lofty, but without.
power of progress, radiant like the stars, but like them in-
different to what they shine upon. His ideals are those of
the English middle class: what has power must be revered;
what is successful, must be admired. To bring these ideas
into harmony with these ideals is impossible, and the under-
current of sadness and sourness which flows through all
Carlyle’s writings, and which now and then bursts forth to
the surface with weird chants, is the natural result of such
an attempt. But the almost violent mental vigor which is
Carlyle’s nature, and the perfect veracity which is his cha-
racter, have produced a combination of these inconsistent
elements which, in the details, is always stirring and excit-
ing, even when it makes us sick at heart, and which in our
days of harmony of mediocrity is exceedingly refreshing.
CARLTON.—CARMI.
Carlyle is never mediocre. Even when he plays the part
of a clown, he is unsurpassed. Indeed, there is only one
thing in history which he cannot master—the fact. He
likes to mock the German historians, and addresses them
generally as Mr. Dryasdust; but whenever he himself tries
to state a fact and keep it intact, he at once becomes a Mr.
Drierthandust. CLEMENS PETERSEN.
Carmagnole, the name of a political song which was
sung by the popular party of Jacobins in the French Revo-
lution. The term was also applied to a popular dance of
that period, and to a jacket which was worn by the revo-
lutionists as a symbol of patriotism.
Carmar'them, or Caermarthen (anc. Maridunum),
[Welsh, Caer Fyrddyn], a seaport-town of South Wales,
the capital of Carmarthenshire, is on the river Towy, 8
miles from its entrance into the Bristol Channel. It has a
picturesque situation, but the streets are steep and narrow.
The Towy, which is here crossed by a bridge, is navigable
for vessels of 200 tons from its mouth to this point. Tin
plates, cast iron, timber, slates, lead ore, marble, and grain
are exported from it. The famous prophet Merlin is said
to have been born here. Pop. in 1871, 10,499.
Carmar’thenshire, or Caermarthenshire, a
county of South Wales, is bounded on the N. by Cardigan,
on the E. by Brecon, on the S. E. by Glamorgan, on the
S. by the Bristol Channel (here called Carmarthen Bay),
and on the W. by Pembroke. Area, 974 square miles. The
surface in the northern and eastern parts is mountainous;
the soil of the valley is fertile. It is bounded on the N. by
the river Teify, and intersected by the Towy, which flows
through the celebrated Vale of Towy, 30 miles long.
Among its mineral resources are copper, coal, iron, lead,
slate, and marble. Capital, Carmarthen. Pop. in 1871,
116,944.
Carmel, a post-village of Penobscot co., Me., on the
Maine Central R. R., 15 miles W. of Bangor. Pop. of
Carmel township, 1348. -
Carmel, a township of Eaton co., Mich. Pop. 2504.
Carmel, a post-village, capital of Putnam co., N. Y., is
in Carmel township, about 50 miles N. by E. from New
York City and 15 miles E. of the Hudson River, on the
New York Boston and Montreal R. R. It has one national
bank, three churches, two newspapers, and a young ladies’
seminary. Pop. 590; of township, 27.96.
J. D. LITTLE, ED. “PUTNAM County Courſe:R.”
Car’ melites, or the Order of St. Mary of Mount
Carmel, a celebrated monastic order of the Roman Cath-
olic Church. It was probably founded on Mount Carmel
in the twelfth century, but the Carmelites claim to have
been instituted by the prophet Elijah. They were com-
pelled by the Saracens to wear a striped dress, whence they
were formerly called in England Barred Friars. They were
at first under the rule of Saint Basil, but afterwards a part
of them came under the mitigated rule of Innocent IV.; hence
these were called Mitigated Carmelites. In the tenth cen-
tury a part of the Carmelites sought and obtained a severer
rule. These are called Barefooted Carmelites (Discalceati).
They are entirely independent of the former. Their man-
ner of life is very austere. The Carmelite monks and nuns
(who were first admitted to the order in 1452) are found,
both Mitigated and Discalceate, in almost every country,
though in numbers they are much reduced. The best
known member of the order in modern times is the French
pulpit orator, Father Hyacinthe.
Car’ mel, Mount, a mountain-ridge of Palestine, ex-
tends from the plain of Esdraelon to the Mediterranean,
and terminates in a steep promontory in that sea, about 9
miles S.W. of Acre; lat. 32° 51’ 10” N., lon. 34°57' 42'' E.
It is formed of limestone, and has an altitude of nearly
1400 feet above the sea. Oaks, pines, olives, and laurels
grow on its summit and sides. Carmel is mentioned in
Scripture as the place where the prophet Elijah slew the
priests of Baal. The meaning of the word in Hebrew is a
park or garden. Near the top of this mountain is a mon-
astery, the inmates of which are called CARMELITEs (which
see). The ORDER OF MoUNT CARMEL was a body of one
hundred knights, all of noble descent, instituted by Henry
IV. of France. *
Carmen/ta, a prophetic divinity of ancient Italy, was
one of the Camenae, and was worshipped by the Roman
matrons at a festival called Carmentalia.
Car/mi, a city, capital of White co., Ill., at the junction
of the St. Louis and South-eastern and the Cairo and Win-
cennes R. R.S., is at the head of navigation on the Little
Wabash River, 150 miles S. E. of Springfield. It has iron
and woollen manufactures and several flour-mills. It has
two weekly newspapers. Pop. 1369; of township, 3669.
W. F. PALMER, Ed. “CARMI CourtER.”
º
CARMICHAEL–CARNELLAN.
781
Car/michael, a township of Marion co., S. C. P. 910.
Car/michael’s, a post-borough of Greene co., Pa. P.491.
Carmin/atives [from Lat. carmen, a “charm *l, med-
icines to relieve flatulence and pain in the bowels, such as
cardamoms, peppermint, ginger, and other stimulating aro-
matics.
Car/mine [Fr. carmin, from the Arabic KERMES (which
see)], a beautiful red pigment composed chiefly of cochineal,
mixed with alumina and a little oxide of tin. It is em-
ployed by artists and silk-dyers, and is an ingredient in
the best red inks. It is considered the most beautiful of
all red pigments, and has been in use since the middle of
the seventeenth century. Under the name of rouge it is
used by ladies to paint their cheeks. One of the processes
by which it is prepared is as follows: Digest one pound of
cochineal in three gallons of water for fifteen minutes; add
one ounce of cream of tartar, heat gently for ten minutes,
add half an ounce of alum, and boil it for several min-
utes. After the impurities have settled, the clear liquid is
placed in clean glass pans or shallow glazed dishes, in
which it is allowed to stand while the carmine is slowly de-
posited. Imitations of carmine are made ofred sandal-wood,
Brazil-wood, and other, substances, and are often sold as
Towge.
Carmo/na (anc. Carmo), a town of Spain, in the prov-
ince of Seville, is picturesquely situated on a hill or high
ridge 21 miles N.T.E. of Seville. It is near the railway
which connects Seville with Córdova. It contains a fine
old Gothic church, a ruined castle, and a university. Here
are manufactures of woollen fabrics, hats, soap, leather, etc.
It has a large annual cattle fair. Pop. 20,074.
Carnac, a village of France, department of Morbihan,
19 miles S. E. of Lorient. On a wide plain adjacent to
Carnac, and near the sea, is a remarkable monument, con-
sisting of about 1100 to 1200 (formerly over 4000) rude
obelisks of granite, standing with their smaller ends on the
ground, arranged in eleven parallel rows and from six to
twenty-one feet high. Most writers have called these re-
mains Druidical or Celtic, but late authorities ascribe them
to a pre-historic race. Pop. 2864.
Car/nahan (JAMEs), D. D., LL.D., a Presbyterian di-
vine, born near Carlisle, Pa., Nov. 15, 1775, graduated at
Princeton in 1800, and was a tutor there 1801–04. After
holding several pastorates, he became in 1823 president of
Princeton College, performing his duties with fidelity and
wisdom till his resignation in 1854. Died Mar. 2, 1859.
Carnahu/ba Palm, or Caramai’ba Palm (Coper-
nicia cerifera), a beautiful palm which abounds in the N.
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Carnahuba Palm.
part of Brazil. It seldom attains a height of more than
forty feet. The fruit is edible, and the timber is valuable
for several purposes. The leaves of this tree are covered
beneath with wax, which is collected, and, like the wax of
certain other species of palm, is an article of commerce.
Its timber is exported to England, where it is used for
veneering.
Car’nallite, a hydrated chloride of potassium and
magnesium, which occurs in coarse granular masses, mixed
with rock-salt, near Magdeburg, in Prussia. It is used as
a fertilizer of the soil.
Carnar/von, or Caernarvon (ane. Segontium), a sea-
port-town of North Wales, capital of Carnarvonshire, is
on the E. side and near the S. W. end of the Menai Strait,
which separates it from the island of Anglesey. It is 7
miles S. W. of the Menai Bridge, and about 60 miles
W. S. W. of Liverpool. The harbor will admit vessels of
400 tons, and steamboats ply between this port and Liver-
pool. Carnarvon is a much-frequented watering-place, and
has beautiful scenery in the vicinity. Here is a castle
founded by Edward I. in 1282, which now forms one of
the most imposing ruins in the kingdom. It has thirteen
embattled towers surmounted by turrets. Carnarvon is
about half a mile from the site of Segontium, an ancient
Roman town or station. Pop. in 1871, 9370.
Carnarvon (HENRY HowARD MoLYNEUx HERBERT),
EARL of, an English conservative statesman, born in Lon-
don June 24, 1831. He was appointed secretary of state
for the colonies in June, 1866, and he framed a plan for the
confederation of the British North American colonies,
which was approved by Parliament. He resigned in Mar.,
1867, because he was opposed to the Reform bill which
Disraeli introduced.
Carnar/vonshire, or Carnarvon, a county of
North Wales, bordering on the Irish Sea, has an area of
544 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by Menai
Strait and Carnarvon Bay, on the N. by the Irish Sea, on
the E. by Denbigh, and on the S. by Merioneth and Car-
digan Bay. The surface is very mountainous, and the
scenery is remarkably grand. Here is Snowdon, which is
the highest mountain in Wales, and rises 3571 feet above
the level of the sea. Among the minerals of this county are
copper, lead, zinc, coal, and roofing-slate. The chief branch
of rural industry is the rearing of black cattle for the
dairy. Carnarvonshire is traversed by the Chester and
Holyhead Railway, which crosses the Menai Strait. Capi-
tal, Carnarvon. Pop. in 1871, 106,122.
Carnatſic, The, a former division or region of India,
on the coast of Coromandel, was bounded on the E. by
the Indian Ocean or Bay of Bengal, and extended from
Cape Comorin to about 16° N., lat. Its other dimensions
were not well defined. It contains numerous large temples,
and other monuments which attest its former splendor.
Carna’tion [Lat. carnatio, from caro, gen. carnis,
“flesh”], “flesh-color.” This term is used in painting, and
is applied to the flesh-tints or natural color of flesh, also to
the parts of a picture which represent the nude human fig-
ure. The art of producing a good carnation appears to be
difficult, and not well understood by most modern painters.
Carnation, a beautiful and fragrant double-flowering
variety of the Dianthus Caryophyllus, or clove pink. It is
a universal favorite of florists, and exists only in a state of
cultivation. Scarlet, purple, and pink are the prevailing
colors of the flowers, which are often three inches in diam-
eter. Florists prefer those in which the colors are perfectly
distinct. The numerous varieties which have been pro-
duced by the florist's art are arranged in three classes—
flakes, bizarres, and picotées. The flakes have only two
colors, disposed in broad stripes; the bizarres have three
colors, in irregular spots and stripes, and the picotées have
an edging of scarlet, red, or purple on a white or yellow
ground. Carnations prefer a rich soil, and should have
free access to the fresh air. They are propagated either by
layers or pipings—i.e. short cuttings.
Carne/ades [Gr. Kapveóðms], a Greek philosopher and
orator, born at Cyrene, in Africa, in 213 B.C. He opposed
the doctrines of the Stoics, was the founder of a school
called the New Academy, and maintained that man has no
criterion of truth. He was distinguished for his subtle
dialectic and powerful and specious eloquence. In 155
B. C. he was sent as ambassador from Athens to Rome,
where he gained much applause by his orations. One day
he eulogized justice, and the next day refuted himself by a
sophistical argument tending to confound the distinction
between justice and injustice. This offended Cato, who
caused him to be expelled from Rome. Died at Athens
about 129 B. C.
Carne/lian, or Corne/iian [Fr. cornaline], a name
given to a fine variety of chalcedony which is composed
chiefly of quartz. The color is red or flesh-color, and rarely
milky white. It has a conchoidal fracture. Fine speci-
mens of it are found in Hindostam, where they are highly
prized, and are manufactured into various ornamental arti-
cles. Carnelians are also found in Europe and the U. S.
The bright, clear red are most valued. -














































782
CARNESVILLE-CAROB.
Carnesville, a post-village, capital of Franklin co.,
Ga., about 90 miles N. E. of Atlanta. Pop. 266.
Carſnifex Ferry, over the Gauley River, Nicholas co.,
Va., about 8 miles below Summerville, gives its name to
the severe action on the N. bank of the river near this ferry,
Sept. 10, 1861. The Confederates under Gen. Floyd, num-
bering about 5000, had strongly intrenched themselves in
this position, where they were attacked by the forces under
Gen. Rosecrans on the afternoon of the 10th Sept. Dark-
ness terminated the battle of the day, and during the night
Gen. Floyd, being largely outnumbered, escaped with his
command across the Gauley River, destroying his bridge
behind him, which prevented pursuit. All the camp equip-
age and munitions of war fell into the hands of the Federal
forces.
Carnio'la [Ger. Krain], a division or crown-land of
the Austrian empire, is bounded on the N. by Carinthia,
on the N. E. by Styria, on the S. E. and S. by Croatia, and
on the S. W. by the Adriatic Sea and the Littoral prov-
ince. It was formerly a part of the kingdom of Illyria.
Area, 3857 square miles. The surface is mountainous, and
partly occupied by the Carinthian Alps. Among its re-
markable physical features is Lake Zirknitz, and the rock-
bridge of St. Kanzian, which is 130 feet high. The chief
river is the Save. Carniola contains the quicksilver-mine
of Idria, which is one of the richest in the world. Iron,
coal, and marble also occur here. Among the products are
flax, silk, honey, and wine. The chief town is Laybach.
Pop. in 1870, 466,334. --
Car/nival [from the Lat. caro, gen, carnis, “flesh,”
and vale, “farewell”], a festival in the Roman Catholic
countries of Europe just preceding Lent. It was formerly
most brilliantly celebrated at Venice; later, especially in
Rome. Like many other usages in modern Europe, the
customs connected with the Carnival probably originated in
the heathen spring-time festivals, as the Lupércalia, and
Bacchanalia, of the Romans, and the Yule-feasts of the
Germans. During the Middle Ages costly banquets with
the rich, and drinking-bouts amongst others, marked the
time. Recently, the Carnival at Rome has lasted eight
days, during which the whole city is given up to revelry,
the centre of which is the street called the Corso. In this
all the houses are hung with crimson drapery, and each
afternoon a constant line of carriages and promenaders is
passing through it. Most of those who appear in the street
are masked, and an incessant interchange of bouquets,
confetti, and other harmless missiles makes a scene of ex-
treme liveliness. At six o'clock, after the firing of cannon
and the clearing of the Corso by troopers, a number of
horses are let loose at one end of the street, and are urged
by the shouts of the people to full speed. The last event
of the Carnival week is the celebration of the Moccoletti.
For this, after dark, all the revellers, on foot, in carriages,
and at the windows of the Corso, provide themselves with
a number of small lighted tapers, which each endeavors to
preserve, while he puts out as many as possible of those
of his neighbors. The political disturbances of Italy threw,
for a time at least, somewhat of a cloud over these festiv-
ities from 1859 to 1870.
Carniv'ora [Fr. carnivores, from Lat. caro, gen. carnis,
“flesh,” and voro, to “devour”], devouring flesh, feeding
on flesh; applied to animals which prefer flesh and eat
little or no vegetable food. They belong to the class Mam-
malia, and are synonymous with the old order Ferae. It is
characteristic of them to have sharp cutting teeth, simple
stomachs; very muscular bodies, and active habits. This
order includes, among other animals, all those quadrupeds
which are properly called beasts of prey, excepting a few
of the marsupials of Australasia, which are carnivorous in
their habits, and resemble in their external characters cer-
tain animals of this order, which they may be said to rep-
resent in the native fauna of that region. Interesting
fossil remains of Carnivora, are referred to the eras just
preceding and just following the glacial period. The order
is divided into several families, as FELIDAE, MUSTELIDAE,
URSIDAE, CANIDAE, PHOCIDAE, etc. (which see).
Car/no chan (John MURRAY), M. D., born in Savan-
nah, Ga., in 1817, received a university education at Edin-
burgh, and studied surgery with Dr. Valentine Mott, and
afterwards in Europe. He began practice in New York in
1847, and soon gained distinction for his bold and success-
ful surgical operations. In 1851 he became professor of
surgery at the New York Medical College and surgeon-in-
chief to the State Immigrant Hospital. He has published
many valuable professional monographs and lectures, a
treatise on “Congenital Dislocations” (1850), a translation
of Rokitansky’s “Pathological Anatomy,” and other trans-
lations and original works.
Carmot (LAzARE HIPPOLYTE), a French radical repub-
lican, son of the following, born at Saint-Omer April 6,
1801. He was a member of the Chamber of Deputies from
1840 to 1848, and was minister of public instruction from
February to July of that year. From 1864 to 1868 he was
again a member of the legislative assembly. In 1871 he
was again elected to the Assembly, where he voted with the
extreme left. He wrote an able work on Saint-Simonism,
and published the memoirs of his father (2 vols., 1860–64).
Carnot (LAZARE NICOLAS MARGUERITE), Count, a cele-
brated French statesman and geometer, born at Nolay, in
Burgundy, on the 13th of May, 1753. He was educated at
the military school of Mézières, and published in 1783 an
“Essay on Machines,” in which he gave a new and im-
portant theorem on the loss of force. As an earnest friend
of the popular cause he was elected to the National Con-
vention in 1792. He voted for the execution of Louis XVI.,
and was chosen a member of the Committee of Public
Safety in Aug., 1793; but he took no part in the contest
between the Girondists and Jacobins, nor in the cruel ex-
cesses of the Reign of Terror. He rendered important
services to the republic as war minister by the formation
of plans of the campaigns, the selection of generals, and
the organization of the army. In this arduous labor he
displayed administrative abilities of the highest order. In
1795 he was elected a member of the Institute, and also
one of the five members of the Directory. He was pro-
scribed by Barras and the majority of the Directors, and
condemned in 1797 to deportation, but, escaped to Ger-
many. He was Bonaparte's minister of war in 1800, but
he soon resigned, being too independent and too earnestly
republican to serve under that chief. After the emperor
had suffered reverses, he returned to his aid, and defended
Antwerp heroically in 1814. During the Hundred Days
(1815) he was Napoleon’s minister of the interior. He
went into exile on the restoration of 1815, and died at
Magdeburg Aug. 3, 1823. He published, besides other able
works, “Geometry of Position ” (1803), which contains
several new theorems. (See D. F. ARAGo, “Biographie de
Carnot,” 1850; P. F. Tissot, “Mémoires historiques sur
Carnot,” 1824.) As a military engineer he is referred to
by all subsequent writers upon the art of fortification. His
own “system,” and his great work, “Sur la défense des
places fortes” (the latter written to stimulate a more pro-
tracted defence of fortresses during the decline of Na-
poleon’s power), though open to criticism, have exerted no
small influence upon the progress of the art.
REVISED BY J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Carnſwath, EARLs of (1639), Barons Dalzell (Scotland,
1628), and baronets (1666).-HENRY ARTHUR HEw DAL-
zELL, twelfth earl, born in 1858, succeeded his father in 1867.
Car’my, a township of Montgomery co., Kan. Pop. 361.
Ca/ro, a post-village, capital of Tuscola co., Mich., on
Cass River, about 80 miles N. E. of Lansing. It has two
weekly newspapers. -
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Carob,
Siliqua), a tree of the natural order Leguminosae, is a na-
tive of the countries around the Mediterranean. It has


CAROGA—CARPENTER.
783
pinnate, evergreen leaves, with two or three pairs of large |
oval leaflets. The fruit is a brown pod, four to eight inches
long, having a fleshy or mealy pulp of an agreeable taste,
which is extensively used as food by the Arabs, Moors, and
Italians. This fruit or pod is supposed to be the same as
the article translated “husks” in the parable of the Prod-
igal Son; and it is thought by some that the locusts eaten
by John the Baptist were these pods. They aré imported
into England and the U. S. under the name of locust beans;
also called “St. John’s bread.” The Wood of the carob is
hard and valuable.
Caro'ga, a township of Fulton co., N. Y., contains nu-
merous lakes and forests, and has manufactures of lumber
and leather. Pop. 828.
Caroli'na. Mariº, queen of Naples, born Aug. 13,
1752, was a daughter of Francis I. and Maria. Theresa of
Austria. She was married in 1768 to Ferdinand, king of
the Two Sicilies, over whom she obtained great influence.
She persuaded him to join the coalition against Bonaparte,
who expelled King Ferdinand from his kingdom in 1806.
She died in Vienna Sept. 8, 1814.
Carolina, North. See North CAROLINA.
Carolina, South. See SouTH CAROLINA.
Carſoline, a county of Maryland, bordering on Dela-
ware. Area, 330 square miles. It is intersected by the
Choptank River, and partly bounded on the W. by the
Tuckahoe. The surface is level; the soil is mostly sandy.
Wheat, corn, and fruit are the chief crops. It is inter-
sected by the Maryland and Delaware R. R. Capital,
Denton. Pop. 12,101.
Caroline, a county in the E. of Virginia. Area, 480
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Rappahan-
nock, and on the S. W. by the North Anna River, and is
intersected by the Mattapony. The surface is undulating.
Corn, tobacco, and wheat are raised. The county is trav-
ersed by the Richmond and Fredericksburg R. R. Cap-
ital, Bowling Green. Pop. 15,128.
Caroline, a township of Pulaski co., Ark. Pop. 2802.
Caroline, a post-township of Tompkins co., N. Y., has
several villages, ten churches, and is on the Delaware Lacka-
wanna and Western R. R. It has beds of iron ore. P. 2175.
Carſoline Ame’lia Eliz’abeth, queen of England,
born May 17, 1768, was a daughter of the duke of Bruns-
wick and a niece of George III. of England. She was
married in 1795 to the prince of Wales, afterwards George
IV., who regarded her with aversion, and separated from
her soon after the birth of their daughter, the princess
Charlotte. On the accession of George IV. in 1820, she
was prosecuted on a charge of adultery, was defended by
Mr. Brougham, and was not convicted. Died Aug. 7, 1821.
Carſoline Islands, or New Phil’ippines, an archi-
pelago of Oceanica, is situated between the Philippines, the
Ladrones, the Marshall Islands, and New Guinea, and ex-
tends from lat. 3° 5' to 12° N. Area, 872 square miles.
They number about 500 islands. The greater portion of
the inhabitants are of the Malay race. They are ruled by
numerous petty chiefs, and are noted for their commercial
enterprise. The islands were discovered in 1543, and named
after Charles V. The Spaniards have always claimed them
as forming part of the Philippines. On July 9, 1868, this
archipelago was taken possession of by England. Pop.
estimated by Dr. Gulick in 1872 at 25,000–30,000.
Caron/delet, a former village of Missouri, on the Mis-
sissippi River, about 5 miles S. of St. Louis. In 1860 it
was annexed to St. Louis.
Carondelet, a township of St. Louis co., Mo. Pop. 5387.
Carot'id [perhaps from the Gr. kapá, the “head,” and
oùs, gen. Örós, the “ear,” because it passes to the head under
the ear] Ar’tery, the great anterior artery which on each
side distributes blood to the head. In man, each primitive
or common carotid at the upper margin of the larynx or
organ of voice separates into two of nearly equal size—
the external and the internal carotid. The external
carotid supplies the larynx, tongue, face, and scalp; its
principal branches are the superior thyroid, the lingual,
the facial, the occipital, the posterior aural, the internal
maxillary, and the temporal. The internal carotid enters
the cavity of the skull through a tortuous canal in the
temporal bone, and separates into the anterior and middle
cerebral arteries, which are the principal arteries of the
brain; in its course through the dura mater it gives off the
ophthalmic artery, which subdivides into small branches
which afford the eye its principal supply of blood. /
Wounds of the carotids are generally from stabs dr cuts.
Those attempting suicide often try to cut them, but rarely
cut sufficiently deep by the side of the windpipe. But
should either vessel be wounded, death results almost im-
mediately. Punctured wounds may not be immediately
fatal; they may heal, or a false aneurism may result.
Sir Astley Cooper was the first to tie the common carotid
for aneurism, in Nov., 1805; Abernethy had tied it for a
wound in 1798, and others probably had tied it before him,
and the operation has been successfully performed in a num-
ber of cases. Owing to the interchange of branches between
the two sides, cutting off the blood through one carotid is
seldom followed by affections of the brain. Dr. Mussey
tied both carotids within twelve days of each other without
any such result. REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Carouge, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Geneva, on the river Arve, 13 miles S. of Geneva, is beauti-
fully situated, and surrounded by elegant villas and or—
chards. It has manufactures of watches, leather, pottery,
and thread. Pop. in 1870, 5873.
Carouse, a township of Ouachita co., Ark. Pop. 528.
Carp (Cyprinus carpio), a fresh-water fish of the family
:==#E=E. sº- Cyprinidae, is a native
of Europe and Asia, and
#E has been long natural-
# ized in countries in which
it is not indigenous. It
is found in lakes and
= rivers, prefers still wa-
ters, and feeds on aquatic
plants, worms, insects,
etc. Its length in some
E-ºº:
=###: :=#E: #:
Carp.
cases is two feet or more, but it is generally less than a
foot long. It is very tenacious of life, and is said to attain
the age of 200 years. The flesh of the carp is highly
esteemed as food, but it is not a very valuable fish to the
angler, because it does not bite freely. It is remarkable
for its fecundity, and 700,000 eggs have been found in a
carp of moderate size. The gold-fish is a species of carp.
Carpa'thian (or Karpathian) Mountains [Ger.
Rarpathem; anc. Carpates], a long curvilinear range of
mountains, chiefly in the Austrian empire. It separates
Hungary from Galicia, and Transylvania from Moldavia
and Wallachia, and is nearly in the form of a semicircle,
one end of which meets the Danube at Presburg, and the
other touches the same river at New Orsova. This chain,
which is about 800 miles long, is divisible into two por-
tions, called the Eastern and the Western Carpathians, the
latter of which extend along the N. border of Hungary.
The highest points of the Eastern Carpathians, which are
of primitive formation, are Negui, 8573 feet, and the Kuh-
horn, 7303 feet. Among the Western Carpathians the
Eisthalerspitze rises 8875 feet above the sea. Many of the
Hungarian mountains are formed of limestone, The sides
of the Carpathians are mostly covered with forests of pine,
beech, and other trees. They are rich in minerals, includ-
ing gold, silver, copper, iron, and quicksilver.
Carpeaux (JEAN BAPTISTE), a French sculptor, born
in Valenciennes in 1827. He established his reputation in
1863 by the group “Ugolino and his Children.” His most
celebrated works are a group representing “The French
Empire spreading Light over the World, and protecting
Agriculture and Science,” made for one of the pediments
of the Flora Pavilion of the Tuileries in 1865, and another
representing “La Danse,” made in 1869 for the New Opera.
He is one of the most prominent representatives of the
naturalistic school.
Carſpel [from the Gr. kaprás, “fruit”], a botanical
term applied to a transformed leaf which becomes a simple
pistil or one of the elements of a compound pistil. The
upper surface of the leaf forms the inner surface of the
carpel. The number of ovaries and stigmas of a pistil
depends on the number of carpels of which it is composed,
but several are often united so as to appear as one.
Carpenta'ria, Gulf of, is a broad and deep indent-
ation of the N. coast of Australia, and is a portion of the
South Pacific Ocean. It extends from Cape Arnhem to
Cape York, and is about 500 miles long from N. to S. and
350 miles wide. It is mostly included between lat. 10° 40'
and 17° 30' S., and between lon. 138° and 142° E. Its
shores are generally low. It encloses numerous islands.
It is visited by vessels for the béche de mer, which is foun
in its waters. It was named in honor of Peter Carpenter,
who from 1623 to 1627 was governor-general of the Dutch
possessions in the East Indies. It has been explored by
Cook (1770), Flinders (1802), Stoke (1841), Leichardt
(1845), Gregory (1856), Landsborough (1861–62), and
McKinlay (1862).
Car/penter, a township of Jackson co., Ala. Pop. 903.
Carpenter, a township of Jasper co., Ind. Pop. 1081.
Carpenter (CHARLEs C.), U. S. N., born Feb. 27, 1834,
in Greenfield, Mass., entered the navy as a midshipman
Oct. 1, 1850, became a passed midshipman in 1856, a lieu-
tenant in 1858, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, and a
commander in 1869. While attached to the iron-clad Cats-


784
CAR PENTER—CARPENTRY.
kill as executive officer he participated in the attacks upon
the forts of Charleston harbor of April 7 and July 10, 1863,
and is honorably mentioned in the reports of his command-
ing officer, Commander George W. Rodgers. He was in
the severe engagement with Fort Wagner on the 17th of
Aug., 1863, when the Catskill was struck thirteen times
and Commander Rodgers killed, and bore himself bravely
and well. ** Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Carpenter (FRANCIS B.), an American artist, born at
Homer, Cortland co., N. Y., Aug. 6, 1830. His portrait of
President Lincoln and his “Emancipation Proclamation ”
are esteemed his best works. He published an interesting
narrative entitled “Six Months at the White House.”
Carpenter (GEORGE W.), born at Germantown, Pa.,
July 31, 1802, became a successful merchant of Philadel-
phia, and was from 1823 till his death treasurer of the
Academy of Natural Sciences in that city. He took a great
interest in science, particularly in geology, mineralogy, and
the medical sciences. He was a member of many learned
societies. Died June 7, 1860.
Carpenter (LANT), LL.D., an English theologian, born
at Kidderminster April 5, 1780. He published an “Intro-
duction to the Geography of the New Testament” and
“ Unitarianism the Doctrine of the Gospel.” In 1817 he
became minister of a Unitarian church at Bristol. He was
drowned in 1840 in the passage from Naples to Leghorn.
Carpenter (MATTHEw H.), an American lawyer, born
at Moretown, Vt., in 1824, was at the U. S. Military Acad-
emy two years, studied law with Rufus Choate, and was
admitted to the bar in 1845. In 1848 he removed to Wis-
consin, where he resumed his profession; elected to the
TJ. S. Senate Mar. 4, 1869.
Carpenter (WILLIAM BENJAMIN), M.D., LL.D., F. R. S.,
an eminent English physiologist, a son of Dr. Lant Car-
penter, born in 1813, studied medicine and graduated as
M. D. in Edinburgh in 1839. In the same year he pub-
lished an important work entitled “Principles of General
and Comparative Physiology.” His reputation was widely
extended by an excellent work called “Principles of
Human Physiology” (1846). This has gone through sev-
eral editions, and is considered by many to be the best work
extant on that subject. He became professor of medical
jurisprudence in University College, London, and for many
years edited the “British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical
Review.” Among his works are “Zoology, and the Instinct
of Animals” (2 vols., 1838), and “The Microscope: its
Revelation and Uses” (1856). He has few living equals
in acquaintance with natural science, capacity for original
inquiry, and skill as a scientific writer. Some of his latest
investigations have been in regard to oceanic currents. He
was president of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science in 1872. -
MARY CARPENTER, sister of the above, born in 1807,
a distinguished philanthropist, has been especially known
in connection with “ragged schools,” and other agencies
for juvenile reform. She visited the U. S. in 1873.
Carſpenter Bee is a name popularly applied to vari-
Bee.
ous hymenopterous insects of the bee family, distinguished
from other bees by their skill in working wood. They
mostly inhabit warm countries. Perhaps the most cele-
brated of the tribe is the Xylocopa purpurea of Southern
Europe, a beautiful insect of a rich blue color, about the
size of a large humble bee. It attacks dry wood, especially
when partly decayed, cutting a longitudinal canal about a
foot deep and more than a third of an inch wide. After
finishing one of these canals, it lays an egg at one extremity
of the hole, and places near it a mass of pollen and honey
as food for the future larva. The egg and its accompany-
ing store of food are then hermetically sealed up by a thin
wall composed of powdered wood, formed into a very hard
compound by being mixed with a substance secreted by the
insect. In this manner the mother-bee divides her house
into many little chambers with one egg in each. In due
time the eggs hatch, each of the larvae devours the food
prepared for it, and then passes into the chrysalis state.
At last, when the perfect insects are developed, they de-
stroy the partitions made by the parent bee, and escape
into the air; the one produced from the egg first laid
escaping first, through an opening made for it by the
mother, and the others following in order. The genus is
also American. -
Carpenter, Ship’s, is a warrant officer whose duty
it is to repair the hull, masts, and spars of a ship of war.
During a battle he watches for shot-holes, and is prepared
to stop them with plugs.
Carſpentersville, a post-village of Kane co., Ill.
Carpentras (anc. Carpentoracte), a town of France, de-
partment of Vaucluse, is on the river Auzon, 15 miles by
rail N. E. of Avignon, and near the base of Mont Ventoux.
It is surrounded by walls which were built about 1365, and
are flanked by towers, and is mostly well built. It has a
Gothic cathedral, part of which was erected in the tenth
century, and a public library of 22,000 volumes, containing
also a large collection of medals and antiquities; also manu-
factures of cotton and woollen fabrics, brandy, etc. Here
are remains of a Roman triumphal arch. Pope Clement
V. removed the papal court to this town in 1313. Pop.
10,848.
Car/pentry implies the art of building structures in
wood, and signifies more especially that branch of industry
which is applied to the construction of wooden buildings,
wooden bridges, and the framings of heavy machines. The
labors of the carpenter are necessarily directed by some
knowledge of the forces which may be brought to act upon
the structure when completed; that is, by some knowledge
of the principles of engineering.
The lesser and lighter works of wood, such as furnish
the interiors of dwellings, are the products of another
branch of labor, termed joinery. The work of the joiner
is guided more or less directly by the artist, and bears less
reference to strength, rigidity, and the forces concerned
than to external proportion and aesthetic fitness to sur-
roundings. |
The skill of the carpenter is directed towards giving two
distinct qualities to the structures he builds—viz. strength
and rigidity. The first is secured mainly by dimensions
assigned to the different parts, and the skill with which
these parts are united; and the latter depends largely upon
the arrangement of the several members.
We will treat these two topics more fully.
Strength.-Timbers designed for structures are subjected
to one or more of the following varieties of strain : trans-
verse, tensile, compressive. A transverse strain is a force
applied to a beam in a direction more or less perpendicular
to its length; the timbers of a floor afford examples.
tensile strain is one that tends to elongate, and a compres–
sive strain one that, acting in the direction of the length
of the member, tends to shorten or crush it.
When the entire structure is of such dimensions that each
member of it may be formed of a single stick of timber,
the work of the artisan is comparatively simple, and is
guided by plain and brief rules. But when by reason of
the size of the entire work single parts are required of
greater dimensions than can be supplied by single pieces
of timber, then skilful joining of smaller parts must be
relied upon to meet the emergency. Now, to so combine
separate pieces of timber as to form a single member, and
thereby employ the available strength of the component
parts, at the same time to form such a connection with ad-
jacent portions of the structure as to transmit properly
the force assigned to the position, is to apply in the fullest
sense the science of carpentry.
It may be remarked here that even in our most important
bridges no special effort is made to secure solid timbers for
the larger members, because the quality of thorough sound-
ness can be more easily secured by a judicious selection of
smaller parts, and then a proper combination can be made
to ensure the requisite strength. -
When a beam is subjected to transverse strain the fibres

CARPENTRY.
upon the side that tends to become convex under the action
of the strain are subjected to a tensile or pulling force, while
upon the opposite side they are at the same time compressed.
The simple experiment of bending a twig that has bark
upon it will illustrate this fact. The bark on the convex
side is torn asunder and on the other side compressed into
wrinkles. It becomes evident upon slight reflection—1st,
that the extreme upper and lower fibres are most severely
strained; and 2d, that the central portion of the stick is
acted upon by forces comparatively slight. The obvious
conclusion is, that the original force is best sustained by
portions of the stick at some distance from the middle of
its depth, and consequently that beams acted upon by trans-
verse forces should present considerable width in the direc-
tion of the bearing force. It is easily demonstrated that
the strength of a beam of given length and breadth, to
bear a weight between two supports, varies as the square
of the depth of the beam. Floor-beams are accordingly
made narrow and deep. *: -
To secure depth of beam without employing material
which is comparatively of little use the method has been
employed of joining two sticks by blocks and bolts, as
shown in Fig. 1. FIG. 1.
It will readily be seen that the condition of providing ma-
terial where the strains are greatest has been secured, pro-
vided the combination when under strain acts as a single
stick. The plan fails when through want of secure bolting
there is any motion among the component parts. The
chances of failure increase very rapidly as the halves of
the compound beam are separated by larger space, as the
point is soon reached where each half acts like a simple
beam; and whereas in the perfect system the upper half
is urged by compressive and the lower by tensile strains
only, when by insecure joining there is a slipping among
the parts, each of these halves is acted upon by both kinds
of force, and has near its centre material of but little use.
FIG. 2.
Another method of making a compound beam, though not
often employed, is represented in Fig. 2. In either of the
cases above represented some advantage is gained by em-
ploying different kinds of timber for the upper and lower
members.
The most common way of reinforcing the strength of a .
simple beam is by the addition of iron rods, as shown by
FIG. 3. .
Dºs _-T
TSUL| IIL”
Fig. 3.
The consideration of such a combination belongs to
the subject of trusses.
When a stick of timber is employed so as to resist a ten-
sile force, the manner of connecting it with the portions of
the structure through which or to which the force is to be
transmitted becomes a matter of great importance. In the
case of an iron rod, which can be furnished with a head, an
eye, or a nut, the problem of attaching it so as to resist a
tensile force is easily solved; but when the conditions re-
quire a wooden tie-beam, the problem of uniting the various
parts so that the strength of the stick shall not be too largely
sacrificed requires consideration, because to join timbers
implies more or less cutting of their substance, and this in
turn sacrifices material.
In the common king-post truss, as the combination rep-
resented in Fig. 4 is termed, the methods of uniting parts
that fulfil different functions are employed. . This truss is
FIG. 4.
frequently employed in roofs, and also bridges of moderate
span. In the latter case the flooring is sustained by the
horizontal member or tie-beam ; a large portion of the
weight sustained is transmitted through the upright, and is
received by the inclined pieces or struts and conveyed to the
extremities of the tie-beam. The tie-beam and post are thus
subjected to tensile, and the struts to compressive, strain.
785
In order that the tie-beam shall properly receive the
thrust of the struts, the former must be notched to receive
the ends of the latter. Fig. 4 shows the method usually
employed; an enlarged view of the ends of the strut and
tie-beam are given in Fig. 5. In constructing this truss it
FIG. 5.
is necessary to regard the tendency which the strut exerts
to split off the portion ABC. It is considered sufficiently
secure in most kinds of timber if the length BC is ten times
the depth AB, as, when this proportion is observed, the
cohesion which resists splitting off is equal to that which
resists the crushing of the fibres exposed to the direct pres–
sure on the lesser surface.
When the length of the tie-beam is such as to require the
uniting of two or more pieces, the skill of the earpenter is
again called in requisition to produce such a joint as shall
safely resist the forces to be met.
The simplest of all is the so-called fish joint (Fig. 6); the
strength of which depends partly upon the few fibres of the
2ſ.
º, C.
C-f. ſº- U-
timber that bear upon the bolts, and partly upon the frie-
tion arising from the pressure of the fish-plates. These
latter are sometimes made of iron, and furnished with pro-
jections that are let or forced into the timber when bolted
on. But the expedient is regarded as a clumsy one, and is
only tolerated where, as in some roofs, the subsequent ad-
ditions to the structure hide it from view.
Another and a common form is the single-lock joint or scarf,
shown in Fig. 7, in which the resistance to direct tensile
strain depends upon the surfaces opposed to each other at
I ºf
EI-
,a, and which may be one-third the sectional area of the
beam. A modification of this method of scarfing is exhib-
IFIG. 7.
P- º-
ſ |
J |
l |
! |
| |
! i
*-ū i-
ited in Fig. 8, in which one-half of the beam is made avail-
able in resisting tensile strain, as the joints A and B are each
FIG. 8.
r-l tº-1 -
J i f
|
p ſ B f -
} i ! . .
| A F-Ti-
I } } Sº
P- E-T- {-l
one-fourth of the depth of the beam. The method of Fig. 8
has the advantage over Fig. 7 of greater strength, but it is
also far more difficult of construction, as there are two
bearing surfaces that must act together; the fitting of the
joint therefore requires especial care. This difficulty is
sometimes met by leaving spaces at A and B, into which
wedges or keys are driven as the scarf is bolted together.
Fig. 9 represents a form of scarf in which no bolts are
used, the method of locking at C being employed instead:
the key at A is made of hard wood, and forced in so as to
bring the surfaces of the scarf to a firm bearing. Of course
this method of locking the scarf can be equally well applied
to the methods shown in Figs. 7 and 8. -
FIG. 9.
Many intricate forms of scarfing have been devised, and


50
786
are exhibited in treatises on carpentry. They belong most-
ly to the time when but little iron was employed as an ad-
junct to timber construction; and even then most of the
elaborate forms were rather fanciful than useful.
When timbers are united to resist thrust or compressive
strain only, less skill is required than in the constructions
just described. But little more is required than to bring
the opposing surfaces fairly together, and secure them by the
simplest possible means. Hence the “fished joint” shown
in Fig. 6 will fully satisfy the conditions, and will employ
the full available strength of the timber. Care must be
taken, however, that the joint is not strained by a tendency
which is manifested in long columns or struts to bend side-
ways when under pressure. *
When a strut is joined to its neighboring member at an
angle, as in the case shown in Fig. 4, the precaution is
taken to so form the joint as to present either the whole of
the end surface to the end pressure, as in the upper end of
the strut of the king-post truss, or a part of it, as in the
lower end shown more fully in Fig. 5. To prevent any dis-
placement in such joints through accidental forces, they are
secured by various methods, either a bolt, a notch, a tenon,
or even a few nails, being employed according to the liabil-
ity to lateral forces.
The temon employed is exhibited in Fig. 10; the cut which
receives it is called the mortise. -
FIG. 10. y
}. O 3.
If the joint is liable to be urged by a force tending to pull
it asunder, some security is obtained by the use of a stout
pin through the tenon. A dove-tail joint is also employed
for the same purpose (see Fig. 11). This form is common
in joinery, but should not be relied upon in carpentry.
TIG. 11.
||
º
*
–.
|\ 3.
3.
Rigidity, a quality which was referred to as somewhat
distinct from strength in structures, is secured by such a
disposition of material that no change of form of the en-
tire system can occur without bringing into action the ten-
sile or compressive resistances of certain members of it. A
plain square frame, fastened however securely at the cor-
ners, may be lengthened and shortened cornerwise without
calling into action the strength of the materials of the
framing, except such as is concerned in fastening the
corners. If, however, a stick be firmly secured to the
frame, diagonally across it, no change of form can take
place without extending or compressing this added brace.
A triangular frame will not admit of change of form with-
out a change in the length of at least one of its sides
Hence diagonal braces are important members of timber
framings, inasmuch as they ensure stiffness or rigidity
appellation.
CARPET-BAGGER—CARPETs.
The braces themselves are secured by mortising, by iron
straps, or more rudely by outside pieces fastened after the
manner of the joint shown in Fig. 6. -
(For extended treatises on carpentry see TREDGOLD's
“Carpentry,” by Hurst; also EMY’s “Traité de la Char-
pentérie.”) GEO. W. PLYMPTON.
Car/pet-Bag'ger (in recent American politics) is a
Republican born and reared in the North or West, who
went South with or after the Federal armies, planted him-
self in one of the States lately reconstructed, and aided in
organizing and drilling the negroes to vote the Republican
ticket. Of course the term originated with those of adverse
politics, who applied it as a stigma, and with considerable
looseness, any one not a native of the South being de-
nounced as a “carpet-bagger” if an active Republican; if
“native there and to the manor born,” he was termed a
“scalawag.” HORACE GREELEY.
Car'pets. The word “carpet,” denoting floor-covering,
is of unknown origin; it is supposed, by some, to be de-
rived from “Cairo,” probably because Egypt is the country
credited with first using floor-coverings as articles of lux-
ury in her ancient days of splendor.
As a commercial term, “carpet” or “carpeting” is the
generic name for the various grades of goods in that line,
whatever their material, mode of construction, or technical
The original form of the carpet was that of
a large rug, which was spread upon the floor when occa-
sion required; and the Eastern carpets, the manner of
whose manufacture has undergone but little change for
many cénturies, are invariably made so to this day. The
modern way of weaving carpeting in long, narrow strips, to
be sewn together, doubtless had its origin in the greater
convenience and cheapness which that form admits of
through its adaptation to the ordinary loom.
Before the invention of the Jacquard loom, however,
carpets were either of very simple pattern, or, if elaborate
in their designs, necessarily very expensive. The ancient
royal manufactory of the Gobelins in Paris has always oc-
cupied the first place in regard to artistic perfection. Some
of the carpets produced there cost from 100,000 to 200,000
francs, requiring five to ten years for their completion.
None of them have been for sale since the year 1791; they
have been presented to the different sovereigns of Europe,
and are only to be found in the palaces of courts. The in-
vention of Jacquard, so peculiarly adapted to the weaving
of various grades of carpets, together with the still more recent
improvements in looms, has greatly facilitated the produc-
tion of carpeting at once beautiful and durable, and at the
same time cheap enough for persons of moderate means or
economical tastes; so that the use of carpets has probably
increased more during the last fifty years than that of any
other commodity of equally ancient origin. At present, the
U. S., in proportion to population, is by far the greatest
consumer of carpets of all the nations in the world.
The principal grades of carpeting known to commerce
(leaving out the Gobelins, Turkish, Persian, and others of
similar rug-like make) are Aubusson, Moquette, Axminster,
Wilton, velvet, Brussels, tapestry Brussels, ingrain (two or
three ply), and Venetian, taking rank, as to value and gen-
eral desirability, in the order named. -
Aubusson, Moquette, and Axminster are very similar in
appearance and construction, and are made with a high,
tufted pile, thick, durable, and expensive. They are con-
structed with a firm groundwork of linen or cotton, upon
which the pile, containing the design, is fastened in tufts
of soft woollen yarn. As these tufts are supplied from a
series of rollers corresponding in number to the picks or
wefts completing one pattern, and in length to the width
of the carpet, and in their action entirely independent of
the warp and woof composing the body of the fabric, the
employment of an almost unlimited number of colors is
admissible, and the designs in those grades are therefore
generally of the most perfect and elegant description. They
are principally manufactured in England and France. One
factory of Axminster carpets is in operation in the U. S. ;
it has been very successful, and its productions rank well
with the imported articles as regards quality and beauty.
Wilton and Brussels are woven alike and of the same
materials (limen back and worsted face); the face of both



is formed by inserting wires between the warp threads in
such a manner that on their withdrawal a series of raised
loops of the worsted warp is formed, upon which the de-
sign appears. In Wilton these loops are cut open and
sheared smooth, while in Brussels they remain uncut. The
worsted portion of the carpet being exclusively in the warp,
the threads of which are of continuous color throughout
the piece, each particular color requires a special set of
threads, worked in an independent manner by what is
technically called “frame.” This arrangement secures great
perfection and clearness of design, for each color being
CARPI-CARRAGEEN.
787
brought to the surface entirely by itself, while the others
are carried under or through the linen back until brought
up in their turn, the work has" the appearance of em-
broidery on canvas. But as the colors in the direction of
the warp are limited to five (no larger number of frames
being convenient), the designs in these goods are of neces-
sity simple, and no patterns requiring elaborate shading
can be attempted in them. From the number of colors
thus employed, the different qualities of these carpets re-
ceive the names of two, three, four, and five frame respect-
ively.
Velvets and tapestry Brussels are also manufactured
alike in a manner corresponding to Wilton and Brussels,
with the difference that only one set of worsted warp
threads is used, upon which all the colors are printed by
means of color-rollers before the fabric is woven, and upon
the correct proportioning of spaces of the various colors
the perfection of the goods is in a great measure dependent.
In designing patterns for these goods the artist is allowed
free scope as to the number and arrangement of colors, and
profuseness in that respect does not add very greatly to
the cost; hence we find these goods usually much more
elaborate of design and more lavishly colored and shaded
off than Wilton and Brussels. The manufacture of tapestry
(both velvet and Brussels) was commenced in England in
1842. It was soon after introduced in this country, but
for twenty years, by reason of patent restrictions, two |
establishments monopolized the business here. Since the
expiration of the patents new concerns are rapidly organ-
izing, and the indications are that in a few years this will
be the most important branch of carpet manufacture in
the country. Tapestry carpets are now used to an extent
greater than that of all other grades combined, with the
exception of ingrains. The largest concern in the world
manufacturing these goods (in connection with the other
principal grades) is that of John Crossley & Sons', Halifax,
England, a stock company. They employ nearly 6000
hands.
The ingrain carpet (also called Kidderminster, after the
city which formerly manufactured it largely) is the only
kind of carpet made exclusively of all wool, and it may be
worn Ön either side, though usually one side is more de-
sirable in coloring than the other. The names “ingrain "
and “three-ply ’’ are derived from the modes of their con-
struction. The former is composed of two distinct thick-
nesses, interwoven or “ingrained ” wherever the colors
change or mingle; the latter of three layers, also inter-
lacing each other. The design is very similar on both
sides, but the colors are reversed. The American con-
sumption of these goods is supplied by home manufacture.
Philadelphia has upwards of 5000 looms employed on them,
and very large establishments in Connecticut, Massachu-
setts, and New York State turn out the better qualities.
Venetian is the name given to a fabric composed of woollen
warp and coarse hemp filling, usually striped in color, and
made in widths suitable for stair coverings. Philadelphia
furnishes in that grade nearly all the cheap stair carpets
used throughout the country.
The carpet manufacturing business of the U. S. has been
rapidly growing since the close of the civil war, and is now
a very important industry. The capital invested is up-
wards of $15,000,000; the last census sums up the principal
products per annum :
Ingrains (two and three ply), yards................. 16,924,711
Tapestry Brussels, “ ................. 1,711,000
Venetian, “ ..... ........... 1,350,017
Brussels, “ ................. 806,505
Felt, “ ................. 586,000
Velvet, “. ................. 107,000
WILLIAM BERRI, J.R., EDITOR or “THE CARPET.”
Carpi, a fortified town of Northern Italy, province of
M6dena, is on the canal of Carpi, 12 miles N. N. W. of
Módena. It is the seat of a bishop, and has a citadel, a
fine cathedral, a seminary for priests, and manufactures of
silk. Pop. 5076.
Carpi'no, a town of Italy, in the province of Foggia,
and on Mont Gargano, 30 miles N. E. of Foggia. P. 6264.
Carp Lake, a township of Ontonagon co., Mich. P. 25.
Carpocºrates, or Carſpocras, a heretic who lived
at Alexandria in the reign of the emperor Hadrian, and
founded a Gnostic sect about 130 A. D. He believed in
the transmigration of souls, and maintained that the world
was created by angels. He is accused of teaching princi-
ples that tend to subvert morality. His followers existed
as late as the sixth century.
Car'polite [from the Gr. kapirós, “fruit,” and Atºos, a
“stone”], a name applied to fossil fruits. Many such
have been described, mostly belonging to the carboniferous
formation.
Car'pus, a Tlatin term signifying the wrist, in anatomy
denotes the series of bones between the fore arm and hand.
In man there are eight small bones in two rows; the upper
row consists of the Scaphoides, lunare, cuneiforme, and pisi-
forme; the lower, of the trapezium, trapezoides, magnum,
and unciforme. The upper row is articulated with the
radius of the fore arm; the lower with the metacarpal bones
of the HAND (which see). The number and form of the
bones of the carpus vary much in different animals, but
rudiments of them, at least, appear in all mammals. They
are quite distinct in the flipper or paddle of the whale, as
well as in the fore leg of the ox and the horse.
Carp'zov, a Saxon family of the seventeenth century
celebrated for learning, of which the most distinguished
members were BENEDICT, professor of Wittenberg, author
of “Definitiones forensis,” “Practica, nova rerum crimi-
malum,” “Jurisprudentia consistorialis,” and “Processus
juris”—works which had an extended influence on Ger-
man laws; died Aug. 30, 1666; Joh ANN BENEDICT, pro-
fessor of theology at Leipsic, brother of the above, who
wrote “Systema, theologicum,” born in 1607; died in 1657;
JoHANN Gottlob, born Sept. 20, 1679, grandson of the
above, professor of Oriental languages at Leipsic, who
wrote “Introductio in libros canonicos’ and “Critica,
sacra Veteris Testamenti.” Died April 7, 1667.
Carquiſnez (written also Karquemas), a strait of
California which connects the Bay of San Pablo with
Suisun Bay; lat. 38° 04' 16" N., lon. 122° 15' 197' W. It
is from I to 2 miles wide and 7 miles long, and is naviga-
ble for steamboats. Large ships can ascend it to Benicia.
It has sixteen feet of water at low tide. It forms the
boundary between Solano and Contra Costa counties.
Carr, a township of Clarke co., Ind. Pop. 692.
Carr, a township of Jackson co., Ind. Pop. 1665.
Carr (EUGENE A.), an American officer, born Mar. 20,
1830, in Erie co., N.Y., graduated at West Point 1853, and
July 17, 1862, major Fifth Cavalry. He served on frontier
duty 1850–61; scouting against Lipan Indians 1854 (se-
verely wounded in skirmish near Diablo Mountain); on
Sioux expedition 1855, Utah 1858, and Kiowa and Ca-
manche expedition 1860, engaged in several skirmishes.
In the civil war became colonel Third Illinois Volunteer
Cavalry Aug. 15, 1861, and was promoted brigadier-general
U. S. volunteers Mar. 7, 1862, serving in operations in
Missouri 1861–62, engaged at Wilson’s Creek; in command
of division in pursuit of Price into Arkansas 1862, engaged
at Pea Ridge (thrice wounded); in command of the army
of S. W. Missouri 1862, and of district of St. Louis 1862–63;
in command of division in Vicksburg campaign, engaged
in operations against the place; at Port Gibson, Champion
Hill, Edward’s Station, Black River Bridge (brevet col-
onel), and capture of Vicksburg; in the department of
Arkansas, commanding cavalry division on Camden expe-
dition 1864, engaged at crossing of Little Missouri; in
command of the district of Little Rock 1864 (brevet briga-
dier-general), engaged at Clarendon and Camden; in com-
mand of a division of the Sixteenth corps in operations
against Mobile 1865, engaged at Spanish Fort; and in vari-
ous districts and post commands since 1865. Brevet major-
general U. S. A. Mar. 13, 1865, for gallant and meritorious
services in the field. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Carr (Joseph B.), an American general of volunteers,
born in Albany, N. Y., Aug. 16, 1828, educated at Troy,
N. Y. On the outbreak of the recent civil war he was
commissioned (April 14, 1861) lieutenant-colonel of the
Second New York Volunteers, and colonel May 10, 1861.
The Second regiment was the first volunteer regiment to
leave the State. In 1862 Carr was commissioned a briga-
dier-general of volunteers; he was at the battle of Big
Bethel, and bore a conspicuous part in all the battles of the
Army of the Potomac up to the final surrender of Lee's
army, April, 1865. He was brevetted major-general Mar.,
1865, and mustered out of service Sept., 1865. He holds
at present the commission of major-general third division
National Guard State of New York, head-quarters at Troy,
where he is engaged in the manufacture of chain cable.
Carr (Sir RoberT), a British gentleman who was ap-
pointed by Charles II. in 1664 one of the royal commis-
sioners to New England. He assisted in the capture of
New Amsterdam from the Dutch, and changed its name to
New York in honor of the duke of York, afterwards James
II. Died June 1, 1667.
Carrageenſ, or Irish Moss, is a name given to sev-
eral species of sea-weed which are not mosses, but algæ.
The species which yields the greater part of the carrageen
of commerce is the Chondrus crispus. It is used as med-
icine and as an article of food, and is esteemed for its
cmollient and demulcent properties. It grows on the
rocky coasts of several countries of Europe and on the
eastern shores of North America. It is from two to twelve .
788
CARRARA-CARRIAGES, COACHES, CHARIOTS, WAGONS, AND CARTs.
inches long, branched, cartilaginous, flexible, and reddish-
brown in color. It is considered easy of digestion. Jelly
and blanc-mange are made by boiling the carrageen in
water or milk, with an addition of sugar and spices. The
Iceland moss (Cetraria Islandica) is a wholly different
plant, though used in a similar way. It is not a true moss,
but a lichen. - -
Carra'ra (anc. Cararia), a town of Italy, in the prov-
ince of Massa-Carrara, is on the Avenza, near the Mediter-
ranean, 133 miles by rail N. W. of Pisa. It has an old
collegiate church, a ducal palace, and an academy of fine
arts. Here are celebrated quarries of white statuary mar-
ble, which have been worked for two thousand years or
more. Many foreign artists come here to work, in order
to save the expense of transporting the marble. The quar-
ries, of which there are more than thirty in the vicinity,
are in high hills or mountains formed chiefly or entirely of
marble. Pop. 6797.
Carrara Marble is a white, fine-grained, saccharine
marble obtained at Carrara, Italy, and well adapted for
statuary. It is a metamorphic limestone of the oolitic
formation. Besides this fine white marble, several inferior
varieties are obtained in the quarries of Carrara. Some of
these are veined and blue.
Carratra'ca Springs, a post-village of Plantagenet
township, Prescott co., Ontario (Canada), has large hotel
accommodations, and a copious mineral spring whose waters
are very highly esteemed for their alterative effects.
Carratunk Plantation, a township of Somerset co.,
Me. Pop. 214. * -
Carrel (NICOLAs ARMAND), an eminent French writer
and leader of the republican party, was born at Rouen
May 8, 1800. He served in the army in his youth. He
gained distinction by an able “ History of the Counter-
Revolution in England.” Carrel, Mignet, and Thiers be-
came in 1830 chief editors of the “National,” a liberal
daily paper of Paris. In 1830 Thiers and Mignet retired
from the editorship, and Carrel obtained the control of the
“National,” which he edited with great ability. He was
an eloquent and popular writer, and was qualified by
sound judgment and moderation to be the leader of a party.
He was mortally wounded in a duel by Emile de Girardin,
and died two days after, July 24, 1836. -
Car’rell (Rt. Rev. GEORGE ALOYSIUs), D. D., born at
Philadelphia, Pa., June 13, 1803, studied at Mount St.
Mary’s College, became in 1829 a Roman Catholic priest,
was stationed in Philadelphia, Pa., Wilmington, Del., and
St. Louis, Mo., where he was a professor and afterwards
rector in the university; in 1849–53 was president of the
Purcell Mansion College at Cincinnati, O.; in 1853 he was
consecrated bishop of Covington, Ky. Died Sept. 25, 1868.
Carre/ra (RAFAEL), a general of mixed Indian and
negro extraction, was born in Guatemala in 1814. He
fought against the federal party in the civil war (1837–39),
and became the general-in-chief of the insurgents. He was
chosen president of Guatemala in 1847, and re-elected in
1851 president for life. He was an absolute monarch
while in power. Died April 14, 1865.
Carriacou, kār'e-a-koo’, the largest of the Grenadine
Islands, in the British West Indies, 20 miles N. E. of Gre-
nada. It is 7 miles in length and about 3 miles in breadth.
Chief crop, cotton. Hillsboro’ is on its western side.
Carriages, Coaches, Chariots, Wagons, and
Carts. We have chosen to place all these vehicles under
one head, since they are so closely connected that it is al-
most impossible to make any other satisfactory classifica-
tion. It is probable that the idea of a vehicle with wheels,
to be drawn by animals, must have occurred to man soon
after the domestication of the horse and the ox. The first
attempts in this direction must have been very rude, much
like the bullock-carts of India, and South Central Africa.
of the present day—the wheels solid pieces of wood, thin
slices of the trunk of a tree, and the axle a solid beam,
with the ends rounded and thrust through the rude
wheels, which creaked horribly as they revolved. From
this cumbrous axle a pole or shafts extended forward,
while attached directly to it was the body of the cart or
wagon, no springs or intervening elastic substance miti-
gating its inevitable jolting. The cart was undoubtedly of
earlier origin than the chariot; but though progress in
those days was slow, yet within 600 years after the Flood
the Egyptians, and probably the Assyrians also (for the
two nations kept pace with each other in mechanical in-
ventions), were constructing both chariots and earts or
wagons, which indicated a great advance in mechanical
knowledge. They were at first, and indeed for several
centuries, two-wheeled vehicles, but the wheels were no
longer solid pieces of wood, but had a hub in which the
axle was inserted, and at first four, then six, then eight,
and finally (though not till near the close of the Assyrian
or Medo-Persian monarchy) twelve spokes, the diverging
ends of which were inserted in a rim of wood, which was
bound with a tire of bronze. Whether this rim was origin-
ally whole or composed of several pieces or felloes is uncer-
tain, but at the period of the Assyrian monarchy felloes
were in use. The chariot was box-shaped, but open in the
rear, the front being about four feet in height. It was
probably three or four hundred years later that those in-
tended as state carriages were provided with a back, and a
seat in which the nobles or royal personages sat or reclined,
while a charioteer stood in front and drove the horses.
The chariots were used for two purposes: first, as an
evidence of the great dignity and exalted station of the
king or prince who occupied them, as when Pharaoh made
Joseph “ride in the second chariot which he had " (Gen.
xli. 43), and as when the funeral procession for Jacob went
up out of the land of Egypt, and “there went up with
Joseph both chariots and horsemen,” in token of the high
rank of the deceased (Gen. l. 10). It is noteworthy that
during the time which elapsed between these two incidents
we find Joseph sending wagons (probably carts, or simple
two-wheeled vehicles, drawn by oxen) from Egypt to
Canaan for his brethren to bring their wives and children
to Egypt (Gen. xlv. 19). A second use of these chariots
was for war-purposes. It is hardly probable that they
were used in this way so soon as for regal pomp and dis-
play. There is a tradition that Erichthonius of Athens
built the first war-chariot about 1586 B. C. At the time
of the Exodus (B. C. 1491) Pharaoh had 600 war-chariots,
and it is implied (Ex. xiv. 7) that besides these there were
other chariots in Egypt which were employed for the same
purpose. These war-chariots had on their sides cases for
the bow and sheaf of arrows, and also for the spears or
lances, and usually an archer or a spearman stood on either
side of the charioteer, and shot his arrows or hurled his
spears at the enemy as the charioteer drove furiously to
the conflict. The Canaanitish kings and the kings of
FIG. 1.
Assyrian War-Chariot.
Moab in the next 150 years after the Exodus are often
spoken of as having numerous chariots of iron ; by which
is generally understood, not chariots constructed of iron,
but having iron or bronze scythes attached to the axles of
their chariots. These, driven at great speed against a force
of footmen or cavalry, proved terribly destructive. The
Israelites under the theocracy were prohibited the use of
chariots, but in the time of David, and still more in that
of Solomon, they began to accumulate them, and Solomon
maintained a force of 1400 chariots; these and the horses
which drew them were mostly imported from Egypt at a
cost of about 1050 shekels for each chariot—about $650, or,
reckoning the difference in the value of money then and
now, equivalent to at least $3000 of our money; so that his
force of chariots must have been worth at least $4,200,000.
But another item in the cost of these establishments were
the richly embroidered housings and trappings for the
horses and the cloths for the chariots, manufactured for a
long period in Tyre or in some of its tributary states (Ezek.
xxvii. 20).
Until near the close of the Assyrian monarchy the char-
iot was generally drawn by three horses. At that time the
third horse was withdrawn, but the Persians a little later
drove four horses, attached, like our stage horses, to the
chariot in pairs. The chariot continued to be a two-
wheeled vehicle until near the Christian era, when its use
for war-purposes was discontinued, and among the Romans,
Greeks, and the Sybaritic nations of the Orient it became
the synonym of luxury and effeminacy. It was mounted
on four wheels, and drawn by four or six horses elegantly
caparisoned, and the chariot itself was trimmed and cush-
ioned with the most luxurious embroidered cloths of the
East. Usually but two persons besides the driver occupied
it, though there was often room for six. There were
chariot-races in the Olympian and Isthmian games, and
the nobles of Greece and Rome drove at full speed along
the magnificent Roman roads and highways. It was prob-
*

CARRIAGES, COACHES, CHARIOTS, WAGONS, AND CARTS.
789
ably in one of the more modest of these vehicles that the
Ethiopian treasurer of Candace, queen of Ethiopia, was re-
turning to his country from his visit at Jerusalem when he
met Philip (Acts viii. 27, 28). During the period of the
later Roman empire and the decline of its power these richly
decorated carriages multiplied, with the other indications
of the luxury and effeminacy of the people. There was
not, however, even in the most costly of these vehicles,
anything answering to the springs of our modern coaches
and carriages. Leather and steel of the best quality were
both abundant, but the idea of using either for rendering
the motion of these carriages easier did not occur to the
carriage-builders of those days. -
During the Dark Ages the roads were so rough and poor
that carriages were almost entirely abandoned as a means
for the conveyance of persons, the only method of land-
travel being on horseback, and even the broad-wheeled
heavy wagons or wains, used to some extent.for the trans-
portation of goods, moved over the highways with the
greatest difficulty. On the Continent, asses, mules, and the
Iarge but slow and sure-footed Norman horses were used
for the packing of goods from one country to another, the
huge panniers on either side of the animal almost conceal-
ing him from sight. In 1280, according to Beckman,
Charles of Anjou and his queen entered Naples in a caretta,
a small but highly decorated chariot. Fourteen years later,
in 1294, Philip the Fair issued an ordinance forbidding
the wives of citizens to use carriages, or perhaps more ac-
curately cars, probably open two or four-wheeled vehicles,
which seem to have come into use about that time. For
the next 200 years their use was very infrequent, and seems
to have been confined to royal personages. Yet in this
time there had been introduced one change which was per-
haps an improvement. The canopy (probably borrowed
from the Oriental umbrella, held over the monarch in his
chariot), which had hitherto been sustained by four pillars,
and had been open at the sides, now gave place to a close.
drapery, which concealed the occupant from view except
when looped up. The emperor Frederic III, attended the
council or diet at Frankfort in 1474 and 1475 in close or
covered carriages, that of the latter year being magnifi-
cently decorated. Soon after this time the German princes
seem to have entered upon a rivalry to outshine each other
in the splendor of their equipages. In 1509, at a tourna-
ment in Rappin, the electress of Brandenburg's carriage
was completely covered with gold, and those of the other
duchesses were ornamented with crimson and purple cur-
tains and draperies of the richest satin. From this time
the use of coaches by the nobility, and especially by the
feudal lords, spread gradually over continental Europe;
but, though the coaches were low and broad-wheeled, the
condition of the, roads was a serious obstacle to their use.
In 1550 there were only three coaches in Paris. In 1610,
Henry IV. was assassinated in his coach. Rude carriages
FIG. 2.
- S4%
=ºſſº
Henry IV.’s Coach.
called whirlicotes, two-wheeled vehicles without straps or
springs, and having the horses attached to them by ropes,
had been occasionally seen in England as early as the time
of Richard II. (1377–99), and it is recorded that his mother
was conveyed in one at the time of the rebellion of 1399.
But the state coach was first introduced in the time of
Queen Elizabeth, in the year 1555, it is said, by Walter
Rippon, a Dutchman, who built one in that year for the
earl of Rutland, and in 1564 another for the queen, who
made him her coachman. Of this coach, and a later one
built by the same man for her when attended by her maids
of honor or her ministers, we give an illustration copied
FIG. 3.
33
º
**
C
\ &
&
º £º R& Ø (3
w -E
: § N Sº §
- º
§§ §
ŞN. - §
gº : **
Queen Elizabeth's State Carriage.
from Höfnagel's print of Nonsuch Palace. These coaches
were without springs of any kind, though that of Henry
IV., figured above, appears to have been suspended on
heavy bands of leather or steel.
The English nobility soon set up their carriages, and, as
Buckingham quaintly expresses it, “within twentie years
there became a great trade of coachmaking.” Some of the
nobles increased the number of horses attached to these
coaches to six, or even eight. The use of private carriages
was confined to the aristocracy for the next hundred years,
FIG. 4.
- Eº- - - •- *-*.
Private Carriage of the Seventeenth Century.
but a few hackney-coaches (so called from the French
coche-à-haguenée, a vehicle with a hired horse) were kept
for hire after 1625. Fifty years later there were twenty
of these in Edinburgh, but such was the condition of the
roads and streets that there was not much demand for
them, and a hundred years later the number had dwindled
to mine. During nearly the whole of the eighteenth cen-
tury these hackney-coaches, the heavy and slow-going
stage-Čoaches, and the post-chaises, were the only vehicles
in England for the accommodation of those travellers who
did not own horses or coaches. There was, indeed, one
other mode of travelling, very slow and inconvenient, which
was resorted to by the common people, and sometimes by
the middle classes. The huge broad-wheeled covered wag-
ons used for the transportation of goods, and drawn by
six, eight, or twelve of the great Normandy horses, had a
space partitioned off at the hinder end and strewn with
straw, in which they could carry six or eight passengers,
all of whom had to sit on the straw on the floor of the
wagon. This was called “riding in the tail of the wagon.”
But even this limited accommodation was only to be found
on the great thoroughfares, as away from these goods were
carried on pack-horses. Even as late as in 1750 the journey
from London to Birmingham by stage-coach, a distance of
116 miles, occupied nearly the whole of three days and
nights. In 1754 the first line of stage-coaches was estab-
lished between London and Edinburgh, and the advertise-
ment stated that “a two-end glass coach machine, hung
on steel springs, exceeding light and easy, would go
through in ten days in summer and twelve in winter, the
passengers lying over during the Sabbath at one of the
villages on the route.” The distance between the two
cities is about 400 miles, and it is now run by the ordinary
fast trains of the Great Northern Railway in ten or eleven
hours. The introduction of steel springs for coaches dates
from about 1750, but these were not at that time the elliptic
or the C spring, but a bow of steel, the two ends of which
were secured to the axle, and the centre reinforced by
shorter strips of steel, much like the heavy springs we see
on some of the passenger cars on the railways. The leather
thorough-braces, whether attached to a crossbar, as they
were at first, or to the C spring, as was done later, did not
come into use till near the close of the eighteenth century.
The great improvement in the public highways in Great
Britain, which was the result of the labors of Macadam,
Telford, and other civil engineers at the close of the last and












790
CARRIAGES, COACHES, CHARIOTS, WAGONS, AND CARTS.
the commencement of the present century, and the reor-
ganization of the postal arrangements, led to the establish-
ment of those lines of stage-coaches on all the principal
thoroughfares which De Quincey has so eloquently described
as “the glory of England” and “the poetry of motion.”
These coaches were well built, strong, and so well provided
with springs that their motion was easy, and did not weary
the traveller even on long journeys. They were run by
time-tables, and made their ten miles an hour regularly.
sº
From about 1795 to 1835 these vehicles were the favorites
of travellers, and carried hundreds of thousands of pas-
sengers annually; but when the railway lines were con-
structed between the large towns the stage-coaches began
to fall into disuse, and they are now only employed on short
and subordinate routes, and their number is decreasing
every year. But with their decrease there has been a vast
increase in the number of private carriages of all descrip-
tions, till now these are numbered by hundreds of thou-
FIG. 5.
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sº º º º; #. | ST: #ºg; 𠧧 | {{Iſlfil º § º
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The Viceroy of Egypt's Carriage, built in Paris in 1867; cost $15,000.
sands. They are of a great variety of designs, and are in-
tended for one, two, four, or even six horses, and vary in
their capacity from the skeleton or sulky for a single pas-
senger, who is his own driver, to the family coach, phaeton,
or carryall, into which from eight to a dozen can be stowed.
The hackney-coaches have very generally given place to
cabriolets or cabs, as they are generally called, vehicles
drawn by a single horse and carrying two or four passen-
gers besides the driver, which were introduced about 1820.
There are now nearly 60,000 of these vehicles in use in
London. Omnibuses, introduced about 1831 from France,
have been used to some extent.
In this country the prevalent mode of travelling for the
first two centuries was on horseback, the roads preventing
any very extensive use of wheeled vehicles. There were, how-
ever, even at the time of the Revolution and for some de-
cades before, a few family coaches, maintained by the
wealthy and aristocratic families of the larger towns. These
were heavy, lumbering affairs, drawn by six large horses,
and seldom moved faster than a very slow trot. In New
*.*.
º
ſº
= x*:-
Washington’s Carriage.
York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey the great Conestoga
wagon, broad-wheeled, and with its huge canvas-covered
body elevated both in front and rear, drawn sometimes by
the Normandy horses, sometimes by four or six yokes of
oxen, crept at a slow pace over the rough roads to carry
goods from the seaports into the rural districts. These
same wagons in our times have been used in the Mississippi
Valley and on the Western plains, as well as in Western
Pennsylvania, West Virginia, the mountain districts of
North and South Carolina, Georgia, and East Tennessee, to
transport both goods and emigrants, and have received the
name of “prairie schooners.” At the time of the Revolu-
tion the stage-coach was unknown on this continent. In
1791 there were but 1905 miles of post-roads in the U. S.,
and over the greater part of these the mails were carried
in heavy wagons, occupying three or four days in the trip
from Philadelphia to New York, or making the round trip
in a week, while they took ten days for the journey from
New York to Boston. The improvements in the roads led
to improvements in the vehicles, and on the great thorough-
fares from 1810 to 1845 the stage-coaches were, of their
kind, admirable vehicles. Accommodating nine inside, and
usually six, including the driver, on the outside, with a
good supply of baggage covered with a heavy leather boot
in the rear, and drawn by four or six spirited horses, these
vehicles, though not making quite as good time as the Eng-
lish stage-coaches, were the admiration of all beholders.
Troy, N. Y., became celebrated for its coaches, as it has
since for its horse-cars, and the stage-proprietor who could
assure his customers that he used only the best Troy coaches
was sure of ample patronage. For the travel in newer
regions and over somewhat rougher roads what were called
the Concord wagons or coaches, originally made in Con-
cord, N. H., but now manufactured also in Chicago and in
other Western cities and towns, were preferred. The coaches
of the Overland Mail, and indeed most of those in use in
the Pacific States, are of this description. They are fur-
nished with strong brakes to check their too rapid descent
of the mountain declivities. We give an illustration of
one of the Overland coaches.
The omnibus has not been used to any great extent ex-.
cept in cities and large towns, but in these, until the street-
cars of the horse-railroads began to take its place, it was
the favorite vehicle for public travel. At one time, about
1857 or 1858, there were nearly 500 plying on the streets
of New York City. The present number is not more than
120. The omnibus is too well known to need description
or illustration. It is a French invention, introduced into
Paris about 1827, and into New York in 1830.
The other public carriages for hire have been hackney-
coaches, or hacks, as they are generally called, four-wheeled
close carriages, drawn by two horses, and of which there
are now several styles, such as the close coach, the caleche,
the quarter coach, the C-Spring coach, the double caleche,
the barouche, the six-seat rockaway, and the clarence, the
last having a glass front and sides. Cabriolets or cabs, either
two or four-wheel vehicles drawn by one horse, are also used
to some extent, but have never been as popular here as in
London. The hansom cab, with a caleche top and the
driver's seat at the back, the reins extending over the top,
has been very little used here. A style called crystal cabs,
























CARRIAGES, COACHES, CHARIOTS, WAGONS, AND CARTS.
791
having a glass front like the clarence, but on a very much
smaller scale, was for a time much liked.
As the country has increased in wealth, and the highways,
drives, boulevards, and city and town streets have improved,
the demand for private carriages has grown, until now this
constitutes by far the largest department of the trade. It is
stated by the organ of the trade that there are now about
1,000,000 carriages and wagons of all descriptions sold annu-
ally, and the annual product is valued at nearly or quite
$100,000,000. The variety as well as the quality of these
vehicles is almost infinite. A single manufacturing house
had in their catalogue in 1862 more than 300 styſes, and
now number about 500, yet there are hundreds of styles
which they never attempt to manufacture. The great seats
of carriage manufacture are—for strong and heavy top-
wagons, Concord, N. H.; for buggies, open wagons, and
light cheap wagons, which are yet very serviceable, Ames-
bury and Belchertown, Mass.; for private coaches and car-
riages of all styles, New Haven and Bridgeport, Conn. (there
are in the former of these cities thirty-six manufacturing es-
tablishments); Troy, now mostly restricted to stage-coaches,
street-railroad cars, and omnibuses, but doing a moderate
share of other work; New York City, which has a high
reputation for the excellence of the work of some of its
FIG. 7. - -----
===E=- -º-
*-ºs-
:==º
*
fºßatifing. Kåriº:
Overland Mail Coach.
º:
* * * *
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Alºftii########
#fff;
º
§§§ III.
§§
sº
ë. 3. N Çiğällſ
t - t }
§
Jiliſſiſſimilitimulullûl
• *
|
sº;
:3-
£|
ſº
A Glass-Quartered Coach.
manufactories; Newark, N. J., where are manufactured
many of the lighter class of carriages; Philadelphia, which
has long maintained a reputation for good work in some
styles; Wilmington, Del.; Pittsburg and Chicago, both
largely engaged in the manufacture of various styles, both
heavy and light. But there are very few cities or large
towns in the U. S. in which there is not a considerable
number of carriages and wagons produced.
. It would occupy too much of our space to enumerate a
tenth of the styles of carriages which are now or have
recently been most popular. For family use, to be drawn
by two horses, the preference seems to be for some form of
the clarence, the phaeton, the brett, the coupé, the landau,
or of late the landaulette, or the higher grades of four or
six-seat rockaways. Some of the latter are very light and
graceful. For a single horse there are rockaways with four
or five sittings, light octagon-front coupés, broughams,
stanhope-phaetons, victorias, chariotees, English, French,
and American styles, top buggies, with or without jump.
seats, tilburies, doctors' gigs and carriages; and among
the open wagons the French, English, and American dog-
carts, the dos-à-dos, the two-wheeled dog-carts and stan-
hopes, the turn-out seat and drop-front buggieş, the road
sulky, etc. etc. The illustrations show a few of these styles.






























792
CARRICAL–CARRICKFERGUS.
The manufacture of children’s carriages on any consider-
able scale has been only attempted within the past twenty-
FIG, 9.
Şs
The “Deacon’s One-Horse Shay.”
FIG.
gº
English Six-Seat Rockaway.
FIG. 13.
Stanhope–Phaeton.
within that time the production of dolls' carriages, which
five years, and has only become an extensive industry
Within the last fifteen years.
There has been added to it
FIG, 12.
The DOS-à-DOS.
the progress of the carriage manufacture in the U.S. within
is also rapidly extending. The following table exhibits the past thirty-four years:
&
ºS Nº.:* Eºa. Wages Paid. Carriages Produced. Value of Raw Material. Value of Annual Product.
1840 92 2,274 18,881 |................................. $1,708,741
1850 1,822 14,000 • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 95,000 |................................. 12,000,000
1860 7,234 37,457 $13,547,356 270,000 $12,008,675 35,927,192
1870 11,944 56,294 21,749,625 800,000 23,385,683 67,003,730
1873 #12,500 75,000 29,500,000 1,000,000 30,000,000 100,000,000
For many of the facts and estimates in this article, as
well as for a considerable number of the illustrations, we
are indebted to the courtesy of Messrs. William H. Bradley
& Co. of New Haven, successors to Brewster & Lawrence.
L. P. BROCKETT.
Carrical’, or Karrical, a French town and seaport
of Hindostan, on the Bay of Bengal, 152 miles S. of Mad-
ras. It was formerly fortified, and was captured by the
British, who restored it to the French in 1814, on condition
that it should not be fortified or garrisoned.
Car'rick, EARLs of (1748), Wiscounts Ikerrin (1829),
and Barons Butler (Ireland, 1607).-SoMERSET ARTHUR
* Estimated by editors of the “Hub.” This is exclusive of the
manufacture of sleighs, which is of itself a vast industry.
BUTLER, fifth earl, born Jan. 30, 1835, succeeded his brother
in 1846.
Carrickfer/gus, a seaport-town and borough of Ire-
land, on Belfast Lough, 10 miles by rail N. N. E. of Belfast,
is situated in the county of Antrim, but forms a county by
itself, called “the county of the town of Carrickfergus.”
It has a fine old parish church, said to have been founded
in 1164; also several spinning-mills and manufactures of
linen and starch. Here is a remarkable and picturesque
castle, supposed to be 700 years old, standing on a high
rock and on the sea. It is used as an arsenal, barracks,
and a fort for the defence of the harbor. Carrickfergus
has important fisheries, and is celebrated for its oysters,
lobsters, and scollops. It has considerable trade with





CARRICKMACROSS—CARRIERS, COMMON.
793
Liverpool, though its harbor is shallow and poor; it might,
however, be easily improved. The people are mostly Prot-
estants of Scotch descent. A part of the ancient wall is
still standing. The town is connected with Larne by rail-
way. It returns one member to Parliament. There are
mines of salt in the vicinity. Pop. in 1871, 9452.
Carrickmacross’, a town of Ireland, in the county
Monaghan, Ulster, is 46 miles N. W. of Dublin. One of
its churches serves as the cathedral for the Roman Catho-
lic archbishop of Clogher. It has a savings bank and a
well-endowed grammar school, and has a fair held five
times a year. Pop. 2063.
. Carrick-on-Shannon, a town of Ireland, the cap-
ital of the county Leitrim, Connaught, is situated on both
sides of the navigable Shannon River, 85 miles W. N. W.
of Dublin. It is partly in the county Roscommon, and is
on the Midland Great Western Railway. It has consider-
able trade, chiefly in provisions. A canal has been cut
from this place to Lough Erne. Pop. 1587.
Car'rick-on-Suir, a town of Ireland, in the county
of Tipperary, is on the river Suir, 13 miles by rail E. of
Clonmel. It has an old bridge, a parish church of high
antiquity, a hospital, a convent, and a picturesque ruined.
castle built about 1310.
vsoil are exported from this place by
river. Pop. in 1871, 4986. -
Car'rick’s Ford, a point on the Cheat River near St.
George, Tucker co., West Va. The Confederate forces under
Gen. R. B. Garnett, in retreat from Laurel Hill, where they
had abandoned most of their artillery and stores, were here
attacked by three regiments of U. S. troops under Gen.
T. A. Morris.
Confederates were routed and Gen. Garnett killed. The
Unionists captured the Confederate wagon-train and one
piece of artillery. This affair occurred July 13, 1861.
Grain and other products of the
the navigation of the
Carrier (JEAN BAPTISTE), a French Jacobin notorious
for his cruelty, was born near Aurillac in 1756. He was
elected to the National Convention in 1792, and was sent in
1793 to Nantes, where he found many Vendean prisoners.
He murdered multitudes of men, women, and children by
various modes. Many of these victims were crowded into
boats which were scuttled and sunk in the Loire. This was
called republican baptism. The cruelties and obscenities
related of this worst of Jacobin leaders are almost incred-
ible. More than 15,000 persons were put to death by him
in a single month. He was guillotined Dec. 16, 1794.
Carrier (JosBPH AUGUSTE), a French painter of por-
traits, miniatures, and forest scenery, was born in 1800 at
Paris, and studied under Gros, Prud’hon, and the chevalier
Saint. He first exhibited in 1824, has won several medals,
and in 1866 was decorated with the cross of the Legion of
Honor.
Carrier (THoMAs), died May 16, 1735, at Colchester,
Conn., aged 109. He was a native of the west of England,
settled in Andover, Mass., and married Martha. Allen in
1664. His wife was hung at Salem in 1692 on a charge of
witchcraft, she having, it was alleged, appeared to her
daughter in the form of a black cat. About 1715, Carrier
removed to Colchester. He retained his strength and fac-
ulties in a surprising degree till his death.
Carrière (Joseph), a French abbé and theologian, born
at Aveyron Feb. 19, 1795, was especially noted for a Latin
work treating upon marriage, upon justice and law, and
upon contracts. This work is highly esteemed. Died
April 23, 1864.
Carrière (MoRrtz), a German littérateur, born at Grie-
del, in Hesse, Mar. 5, 1817, studied philosophy at Giessen,
Göttingen, Berlin, and in Italy. In 1849 he became pro-
fessor of philosophy at Giessen, and after 1853 held that
position at Munich. He has published “Der Kölner Dom
als frie deutsche Kirche” (Stuttgart, 1843), “Abelard und
Heloise ’’ (Giessen, 1844), “Die Religion in ihrem Begriff,”
etc. (1841), “Die philosophische Weltanschauung der Re-
formationszeit” (1847), “Die letzte Nacht der Girondisten.”
(a poem, 1849), “Religiöse Reden und. Betrachtungen für
das deutsche Volk” (1850), “Das Characterbild Crom-
wells” (1851), “Das Wesen und die Form der Poesie”
(1853), “Deutsche Geisteshelden im Elsass” (1871), “Die
Kunst im Zusammenhange der Culturentwickelung und die
Ideale dez Menschheit.” (1863–71), and other works. He
defends Christianity, opposes Ultramontanism, and is of
the liberal school. As an art-critic he takes a high rank.
Carrier Pig'eon, a variety of the domestic pigeon
(Colºmbo livia), is remarkable for the sagacity with which
it returns to its home after it has been conveyed to a dis-
tant place. It is trained to carry messages in various
countries. The letter sent by this mode is sometimes en-
A brisk engagement ensued, in which the .
closed in a quill and tied to the bird’s leg, neck, or wing.
Pigeons are trained by a progressive system, the young
birds being at first taken to a small distance from their
home and set loose. The distance to which they are taken
is gradually increased to thirty miles or more. When they
are liberated and thrown up for a journey, they first rise
spirally to a great height in the air. Before the invention
of the electric telegraph they were often employed to carry
news of the changes in the prices of stocks. The balloons
which the Parisians sent up during the siege of Paris in
the winter of 1870–71 carried each a number of these birds,
which were employed as bearers of despatches in the pub-
lic service. Some of them, after being taken more than
100 miles, returned to Paris, notwithstanding the inclem-
ency of the season. They have been known to fly 1000
miles or more, and at times to fly more than 100 miles an
hour. They have been sent home from great distances at
sea, with no possible guide as to direction—a seeming dem-
onstration of the theory that these birds are prompted as
to the direction in which to fly by some instinct at present
altogether inexplicable. Some birds, however, are puzzled
by foggy weather or by a coating of snow upon the ground.
Many pigeons fly well only in a general N. and S. direc-
tion, others E. and W. There are several breeds of the
carrier pigeon, the Belgian stock being generally regarded
as affording the best messenger birds. There are, however,
various forms of the Belgian breed, but most of the birds
have considerable family likeness. They should be over
fourteen inches long, and in weight should exceed one
pound. A wattle of larger or smaller size generally ex-
tends across the bill. Most Belgian birds have a short
head, long neck, and very broad, muscular shoulders.
Many have a wide circle, without feathers, around the eye.
The Turks are regarded as training this bird most success-
fully. The Asiatics, it is stated, have employed the carrier
pigeon from the earliest times. Anacreon mentions it as a
carrier of letters; Pliny mentions its use at the siege of
Modena. The Turks employed it during the Crusades,
but the crusaders kept falcons which were flown at the
pigeons with some success. The English merchants in
Aleppo, in the palmy days of the Turkey Company, had
regular communication with Scanderoon, 80 miles distant,
by means of this bird. It is related that in the East reg-
ular relays of pigeons were formerly flown from towers
thirty or forty miles apart, the birds being trained to carry
messages both ways. The message was transferred from
bird to bird, and thus great distances were traversed in a
short time. Before the electric telegraph was invented
there were lines of birds flown from Halifax, N. S., to
Boston, Mass., and from Sandy Hook to New York, with
the European news. In the Franco-German war very lorig
documents were micro-photographed, and sent in packages
of only a few grains weight with complete success.
REVISED BY CHARLEs W. GREENE.
Carrières, de (Louis), a Roman Catholic theologian,
was born in 1662 at Cluvilé, near Angers, France. He be-
came a soldier, and in 1689 joined the Congregation of the
Oratory. He became distinguished as a theologian, and
published, at the request of Bossuet, a “Commentaire
Littéral” (24 vols. 12mo, 1701–16). This work is very
popular in France even at the present day. Most of the
comments are made in the translated words of the Bible
itself. It has been often reprinted. Died at Paris June
11, 1717.
Carriers, Com/mon, those who undertake for hire
to transport from one place to another the goods or persons
of such as choose to employ them. They are distinguished
from private carriers by this readiness to afford accommo-
dation to the public generally, and are subjected in law to
a different responsibility. They may be either carriers by
land or carriers by water. Familiar examples of the former
kind are stage-coach proprietors, railway companies, ex-
press companies, wagoners, and teamsters, etc.; of the
iatter, the owners and masters of steamships, ferry-boats,
and vessels of all kinds engaged in a general transporta-
tion business. The principles of law exhibiting the rights
and duties of common carriers form a subordinate depart-
ment under the general subject of BAILMENT, and, as in
other varieties of the same legal relation, the degree of
care necessary in the custody and treatment of whatever is
received by the bailee is not dependent in all respects for
its determination upon the contract of the parties, but
arises by force of established legal rules. The difference
in these requirements, depending upon the circumstance
whether there be a carriage of goods or a carriage of pas-
sengers, demands that these two branches of the subject be
examined separately. * .
Common carriers of goods are placed under a responsi-
bility of excessive stringency. They are held liable for all
loss or damage which occurs during transportation exeept
794
CARRIERS,
COMMON.
|
that occasioned by “the act of God or the public enemy.”
They are made virtually insurers of the goods against all
perils except those arising from these two sources, and the
infrequency of exemption must be so great as to afford re-
lief but very rarely. The reasons for imposing a duty so
severe grow out of considerations of public policy. The
facility with which the carrier or those who may collude
with him can purloin or injure goods entrusted to his over-
sight and disposal, and the difficulty of ascertaining the true
cause of the loss, are thought to place the members of the
community so entirely at his mercy that their interests de-
mand the most ample protection. Moreover, the fact that
the application of this rule has not proved detrimental to
the growth and prosperity of transportation companies in-
dicates that its apparent undue severity, while conducing
greatly to the advantage of the public, has worked no
practical injustice even to the carriers themselves. The
phrase “act of God” is held to extend only to such in-
evitable accidents as occur without the intervention of
human agency. Thus, losses directly occasioned by winds,
floods, lightning, and earthquakes would be properly in-
cluded under this designation, and the carrier would be
relieved from liability. But robbery, even if committed
unexpectedly and by an irresistible force, or fire occasioned
by some incendiary, wholly without the carrier's negligence
or connivance, would be causes of loss containing that, ele-
ment of human agency which makes the exemption inap-
plicable. Damage resulting from natural causes, such as
frost, fermentation, evaporation, the natural decay of perish-
able articles, or the inherent viciousness of animals, are
placed upon the same footing as losses caused by the “act
of God.” By the phrase “public enemies” is meant those
with whom the nation is at war or pirates on the high
seas. Thieves, robbers, and mobs would not be included
under this term.
It is a carrier's duty to receive for transportation all
goods offered of the kind which it is his usual custom to
carry. He may, however, demand the payment of freight
in advance, and may refuse all articles of a dangerous
quality. All persons who engage his services must be
charged for the same service equably. Suitable vehicles
for transportation must be provided, in charge of competent
servants; the goods must be carried safely to the proper
place of destination by the usual route and with all rea-
sonable despatch, and there delivered, or held ready for
delivery, to the owner or consignee. Reasonable instruc-
tions given by the owner or his agent relative to the mode
of carriage of the goods must be followed, unless com-
pliance is impracticable. The carrier is also held account-
able for all acts of his employés within the scope of their
employment, even though they violate his instructions as
to the mode of performance. He cannot escape from his
obligations as to the carriage of the goods by attributing
default to his own agents.
The responsibility of common carriers begins upon the
delivery of the goods for transportation. A delivery at the
usual place of receiving freight or to the employés in the
usual course of business is sufficient. But where goods
are transferred to carriers with instructions not to transport
them until further notice, the extraordinary liability already
considered does not attach in the mean time, and it is only
necessary that the ordinary care which is obligatory upon
warehousemen be exercised until carriage really commences.
- The responsibility terminates when the goods have reached
their destination and been actually delivered. But if, upon
the lapse of a reasonable time after arrival, they are not
claimed and removed, the carrier’s liability is not entirely
ended, but only modified in degree. It is then his duty to
store the property in a safe and secure warehouse to await
the owner’s demand, and he is only accountable thereafter for
ordinary care. Important distinctions are drawn between
various classes of carriers in reference to the proper mode of
delivery. These are rendered necessary by the different
kinds of transportation adopted in the several cases. Thus,
express companies employ conveyances which can be readily
sent from dwelling to dwelling, and they are consequently
held bound to make actual personal delivery at the owner's
place of business or residence. Carriers by water, on the
other hand, can proceed no farther than the wharf. Hence,
according to a well-settled usage clearly applicable to sea-
going ships, no other delivery is demanded than can be
made there; but the convenience of the consignee is still
regarded, as far as practicable, by imposing upon the car-
rier the obligation, rendered necessary by the uncertain
time of arrival, that notice be given when the vessel has
reached her place of discharge of the cargo. In railway
transportation, again, the circumstances are still different.
The cars are confined to a given line, have a regular ter-
minus, and trains are run uniformly in accordance with
published time-tables. Hence, according to some author-
ities, personal delivery is so completely excused that not
even notice of arrival is necessary. The better opinion
seems to be that notice is required, and that the consignee
has a reasonable time within which to take the goods before
the strict liability of the carrier is modified into that of
the warehouseman.
The purpose of these various regulations manifestly is,
that the interests of both carrier and owner be promoted.
The “reasonable time ’’ after arrival during which the car-
rier's heavy responsibility as insurer is to continue will be
most speedily terminated when the owner has immediate
knowledge that the goods lie at his disposal.
There are instances, however, in which delivery is suffi-
cient to discharge the carrier, though not made to the owner
himself. This occurs when several parties are engaged suc-
cessively in the transportation of the same articles. The
liability of each, in the absence of special circumstances,
terminates when the next undertakes the duty of carriage.
At least, such is the doctrine upheld generally by the de-
cisions of the American courts. In England, on the con-
trary, the rule is maintained that the first carrier who
receives the goods, if he accepts them for a destination be-,
yond his own route, continues liable until the entire journey
is completed, and the subsequent parties, though the injury
or loss may occur on their own lines of travel, are exempted
from liability on the contract. This proceeds upon the notion
that the contract for transportation is tacitly made with
the first carrier. According to the prevailing opinion in
the U. S., the cases in which these views should be followed
are those in which the first carrier engages by special con-
tract for the entire route. It should be added that there
may be such a business connection between various parties
concerned in continuous transportation as to make them all
liable as partners for the entire transportation.
Questions of much importance arise as to how far a car-
rier's duty and responsibility may be modified by usage or
custom, or by specific contract entered into with the owner,
or by notice given him. - It is well established that com-
mon usage, if uniform and reasonable, may be pleaded in
justification of peculiar regulations adopted. Thus, the
nature of the goods which will be received or the route
which will be generally pursued may be determined in this
Iſlah I, CI’.
But these common modes of reducing responsibility are
comparatively insignificant in view of those qualifications
established by contract or notice. The policy of allowing
the carrier to so limit his liability has been much ques-
tioned, but the validity of such agreements is now gener-
ally recognized. Bills of lading and instruments of an
analogous character, given by the carrier on accepting
goods for transportation, contain almost invariably stip-
ulations in regard to exemptions from loss by fire and
other enumerated perils, and are regarded as constituting
a contract between the carrier and shipper. In like man-
ner, notice brought home to the knowledge of the owner of
the goods and assented to by him will have in general the
same effect. At this point there is a great practical diffi-
culty. The question is, What will be sufficient evidence
of assent on the owner's part to a notice 2 It is plain, at
least, that the notice must be so given by the carrier as
naturally to attract the attention of the shipper, and must
be so precise and clear that he can readily acquaint himself
with its contents. Assuming this to be so, can the carrier
shake off his eactraordinary responsibility by notice # It is
now quite clear that he cannot. He may make in this
manner reasonable regulations in the nature of by-laws,
pointing out the articles that he will carry, or requiring a
statement of their value, so as to know what care will be
properly demanded of him, and what reasonable charge
he should make. But when all this is done he cannot
shake off his character of insurer by notice. To do this
there must be a contract—some evidence of assent ; and
notice by the carrier is no evidence of assent by the ship-
per. He, by his silence, should fairly be assumed to insist
on the carrier's common-law responsibility. The English
courts held otherwise at one time, but the salutary doctrine
here maintained is now substantially established in Eng-
land by statute. Under its legislation the carrier may re-
lieve himself to a considerable extent by notice, but cannot
escape entirely the consequences of his own neglect or mis-
conduct. The notice must not only be really or presump-
tively known to the owner of the goods, but must also be
reasonable in its character. -
Common Carriers of Passengers.-These are not held to
as stringent a liability as carriers of goods. They are not
made insurers of the passengers’ safety, but are neverthe-
less required to use the utmost care, and are responsible
for even the slightest negligence. The reason for this
difference is, that they can have no such complete control
over persons as over goods. Passengers must largely re-
tain freedom of movement and self-direction. It is no
more than just, therefore, that the carrier’s duty should be
CARRION FLOWERS–CARROLL.
795
correspondingly modified. Extreme vigilance may be de-
manded, but not the duty of preventing injuries to which
the passenger's own heedlessness may expose him. In
accordance with this principle, injuries occurring from any
defect in the construction of machinery or vehicles which
proper care could have guarded against, or from their un-
skilful management, subject the carrier to responsibility.
He is answerable for the acts of his agents, whether negli-
gent or wilful, done within the scope of their employment.
It is his duty to exclude lawless and disorderly persons
from his conveyances, or, failing to do so, he may, accord-
ing to some authorities, be held responsible for any violence
they may perpetrate on the passengers. --
When, however, the passenger's own negligence is the
proximate cause of the injury, the carrier is not liable.
Thus, if an attempt should be made to get upon a train
while the cars were in motion, or a passenger's head or arm
should be thrust from a window, and accidents occur in
consequence, his own imprudence would be fatal to any
claim for damages. This proposition leads to an important
branch of the law termed “ contributory negligence,”
which may be defined to be that negligence without which
the injury would not have happened, while at the same
time, on the part of the carrier, on being made aware of
the passenger's negligence, there must be reasonable care
used to avert its effects.
The common duties of passenger carriers are, to receive
all who offer to take passage as long as their vehicles
suffice, to carry them the entire route, to treat all with
civility and propriety, and bring them to their destination
within the stipulated time. They are not, however, com-
pelled to receive persons of offensive or disorderly conduct,
or any who by reason of disease or disgusting habits are
unfit associates for the other passengers. Reasonable reg-
ulations may be adopted concerning the control of passen-
gers, such as that fares must be paid in advance, tickets
must be exhibited when called for, and the like. Expul-
sions of persons in a suitable manner and without unneces-
sary force from their vehicles for refusing to comply with
such rules are considered justifiable.
The liability of passenger carriers for baggage committed
to their charge is in general the same as that of common
carriers of goods. In other words, they are held bound as
insurers. If, however, the passenger prefers to retain ex-
clusive control of his own property, as a coat, an umbrella,
or a satchel, the carrier's responsibility is modified. The
liability continues until delivery is made, either to the
owner at the final destination or to another carrier in a
continuous line of transit, and the duty of storing and pre-
serving goods is the same that has been already detailed
in the ordinary case of carriage of goods. The effect of
contract or notice is also similar. The obligation to con-
vey baggage arises independently of any special agree-
ment in relation thereto, being considered as incidentally
connected with the undertaking to carry the passenger
himself, and no additional payment is necessary. . But
some measure of relief is granted to the carrier on ac-
count of this lack of remuneration by defining his account-
ability more narrowly. He is only liable for articles prop-
erly denominated baggage, and not for everything which the
passenger may choose to consider such. Articles of neces-
sity or personal convenience are reasonably included within
the meaning of the term, but not merchandise or large
sums of money or silver plate, and the like. For instance,
jewelry used for personal ornament, a reasonable amount
of money for travelling expenses, the instruments of a sur-
geon required in practice in the course of his journey,
have all been considered “baggage,” and the carrier made
accountable for the loss. But the samples of a traveller
acting for a commercial house would not be baggage, but
merchandise, unless the carrier was made aware of their
nature, and them without objection received them as bag-
gage. The principle governing this matter is that con-
cealment of the true nature of the package presented as
baggage is a fraud on the carrier. All inference of fraud
is dispelled if the contents be disclosed, and there is no
objection to the carrier accepting merchandise in trunks if
he see fit.
Appropriate remedies exist in favor of carriers. They
may detain goods for the freight. They have an action
against strangers who interfere with their possession, and
may even recover the full value of the goods, holding the
surplus above their charges in trust for the owner.
In this brief summary of the rights and duties of com-
mon carriers attempt has only been made to exhibit com-
mon-law provisions and principles. Statutory enactments
exist in England and in various States relating to the
subject, the details of which must be sought by reference
to the acts themselves. In particular, the so-called Eng-
lish “Carriers’ Act” may be referred to. (The subject is
treated in much detail in such works as REDFIELD “On
Railways,” and ANGELL “On Common Carriers.” The
rules of damages will be found in SEDGWICK or MAYNE
“On Damages.”) T. W. DWIGHT.
Car/rion Flowers, a name given to the flowers of
several species of Stapelia, the smell of which resembles
that of carrion. They are natives of the Cape of Good
Hope. The genus Stapelia belongs to the order Asclepia-
daceae, and is remarkable for an excessive development of
the cellular tissue of the stem at the expense of the leaves.
Car/roll, a county of Arkansas, bordering on Missouri.
Area, 700 square miles. It is drained by King's River and
other small affluents of White River, which touches its
N. E. extremity. The soil is fertile, producing excellent
crops of grain. Tobacco and wool are also staple products.
The timber and pasturage are unsurpassed. Fine varie-
gated marble, iron, and lead ore are found here. Capital,
Carrollton. Pop. 5780.
Carroll, a county of Georgia, bordering on Alabama.
Area, 57.2 square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the
Chattahoochee River. The surface is partly hilly. Grain,
wool, and cotton are staple crops. Among the minerals
found here are gold and granite. Capital, Carrollton.
Pop. 11,782.
Carroll, a county of Illinois, bordering on Iowa. Area,
425 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Missis-
sippi River. The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile.
Lead is found here. A large portion of the county is
prairie. Grain, cattle, and wool are largely produced. The
most numerous manufactories are those of saddlery and
harnesses. It is intersected by the Western Union R. R.
Capital, Mount Carroll. Pop. 16,705.
Carroll, a county in N. W. Central Indiana. Area, 378
square miles. . It is intersected by the Wabash River, and
also drained by the Tippecanoe. The surface is nearly
level; the soil is productive. Wheat, corn, wool, and dairy
products are staple exports. Lumber and flour are man-
ufactured. The Toledo Wabash and Western R. R. passes
through it. Capital, Delphi. Pop. 16,152.
Carroll, a county in W. Central Iowa. Area, 576 square
miles. It is drained by the Raccoon River and the Middle
Coon. The soil is fertile. Grain and cattle are raised ex-
tensively. It is intersected by the railroad which extends
from Cedar Rapids to the Missouri River. Capital, Car-
rollton. Pop. 2451.
Carroll, a county in the N. of Kentucky. Area, 200
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Ohio River,
and intersected by the Kentucky River. The surface is
mostly undulating; the soil is fertilé. Wheat, corn, wool,
and tobacco are the chief products. Limestone occurs here
as a surface-rock. It is intersected by the Louisville Cin-
cinnati and Lexington R. R. Capital, Carrollton. P. 6189.
Carroll, a parish which forms the N. E. extremity of
Louisiana. Area, 1000 square miles. It is bounded on the
E. by the Mississippi River and on the N. W. by Boeuf
Bayou. The surface is nearly level; the soil produces cot-
ton and maize. Capital, Lake Providence. Pop. 10,110.
Carroll, a county of Maryland, bordering on Pennsyl-
vania. Area, 453 square miles. It is drained by the sources
of the Patapsco and Gunpowder rivers. The surface is
hilly; the soil is good. Tobacco, grain, and butter are ex-
tensively produced. It has manufactures of leather, me-
tallic wares, flour, clothing, carriages, saddlery, etc. Soap-
stone quarries and iron and copper mines have been opened.
It is intersected by the Western Maryland R. R. Capital,
Westminster. Pop. 28,619. *
Carroll, a county in N. W. Central Mississippi. Area,
900 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Talla-
hatchie and Yazoo rivers, and also drained by the Yallo-
busha. The soil is fertile. Corn and cotton are the chief crops.
Cattle and wool are largely raised. It is intersected by the
Mississippi Central R. R. Capital, Carrollton. P. 21,047.
Carroll, a county in N. W. . Area,
670 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by Grand River,
and on the S. by the Missouri. The surface is partly un-
dulating; the soil is fertile. Corn, tobacco, and dairy prod-
ucts are the staple crops. It contains prairies, with groves
of oak, hickory, and other trees. Limestone abounds here.
A branch of the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. R.
passes through it. Capital, Carrollton. Pop. 17,446.
Carroll, a county in E. Central New Hampshire. Area,
500 square miles. It is partly bounded on the S. W., by
Lake Winnipiseogee, and drained by the Ossipee and Saco
rivers. The surface is hilly; the soil is productive. Grain,
wool, and butter are the chief products. The manufactur-
ing interests are varied. It is intersected by the Portland
and Ogdensburg R. R. Capital, Ossipee. Pop. 17,332.
Carroll, a county in the E. of Ohio. Area, 360 square
miles. It is drained by Comotten and Sandy Creeks. The
796 CARROLL–CARSON.
surface is diversified by hills of moderate height; the soil
is fertile. Wool, grain, and dairy products are extensively
produced. . Coal and iron ore abound in this county, which
is traversed by a branch of the Cleveland and Pittsburg
R. R. Capital, Carrollton. Pop. 14,491.
Carroll, a county of West Tennessee. Area, 625 square
miles. It is intersected by the Big Sandy River, and also
drained by the South Fork of the Obion. The surface is
nearly level; the soil is very fertile. Cotton, corn, tobacco,
and wool are staple products. It is traversed by the Nash-
ville and North-western and Memphis and Louisville R. Rs.
Capital, Huntingdom. Pop. 19,447.
Carroll, a county in the S. W. of Virginia. Area, 440
square miles. It is drained by the New River or Kanawha,
and bounded on the S. E. by the Blue Ridge. The surface
is hilly. Grain and wool are the chief products. Copper,
; and iron are found here. Capital, Hillsville. Pop.
9I47.
Carroll, a township of Ouachita co., Ark. Pop. 713.
Carroll, a township of Vermilion co., Ill. Pop. 2032.
Carroll, a post-village and township of Carroll co., Ia.
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 384; of township, 578.
Carroll, a township of Tama co., Ia. Pop. 382.
Carroll, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. P. 632.
Carroll, a township of Platte co., Mo. Pop. 2691.
Carroll, a township of Reynolds co., Mo. Pop. 605.
Carroll, a township of Texas co., Mo. Pop. 519.
Carroll, a post-township of Coos co., N. H. It has
manufactures of lumber and starch, and is one of the prin-
cipal places of resort in the White Mountain region. P. 378.
Carroll, a township of Chautauqua co., N. Y. It has
manufactures of lumber. Pop. 1548.
Carroll, a post-village of Greenfield township, Fair-
field co., O. Pop. 187.
Carroll, a township of Ottawa, co., O. Pop. 1036.
Carroll, a township of Cambria, co., Pa. Pop. 1780.
Carroll, a township of Perry co., Pa. Pop. 1425.
Carroll, a township of Washington co., Pa. Pop. 3178.
Carroll, a township of York co., Pa. Pop. 898.
Carroll, a township of Lincoln co., West Va. P. 1123.
Car’roll (CHARLEs) of Carrollton, an American pa-
triot, born at Annapolis, Md., Sept. 20, 1737. He inherited
a large estate in land, and was regarded as the richest man
in Maryland. He was chosen a delegate to the Continental
Congress in 1776, and signed the Declaration of Independ-
ence. To distinguish himself from another man of the same
name, he signed himself “Charles Carroll of Carrollton.”
He was elected to the Senate of the U. S. in 1788. He was
of the Roman Catholic faith, and was a man of great dig-
nity and worth. He was a lawyer by profession, educated
in France and England, and was especially honored as the
last survivor of the signers of the Declaration of Independ-
ence. Died Nov. 4, 1832.
Carroll (John), D. D., LL.D., first Roman Catholic
bishop of the U. S., and cousin of the preceding, born Jan.
8, 1735, at Upper Marlborough, Md., became in 1773 pro-
fessor at Bruges, in Belgium. In 1786 he was, at the in-
stance of Franklin, appointed vicar-general, and in 1790
he was consecrated as bishop of Baltimore. In 1791 he
founded St. Mary’s College. A few years before his death
he was raised to the archiepiscopacy. Died Dec. 3, 1815.
Car’rollton, a post-village, capital of Pickens co., Ala.,
on Lubbub Creek, 172 miles W. N. W. of Montgomery.
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of Carrollton town-
ship, 1841.
Carrollton, a township of Boone co., Ark. Pop. 577.
Carrollton, a post-village in a township of the same
name, capital of Carroll co., Ark., on Long Creek, 125 miles
N. N. W. of Little Rock. Pop. of township, 808.
Carroilton, a post-village, capital of Carroll co., Ga.,
is on the Little Tallapoosa River, about 50 miles W. S. W.
of Atlanta, at the intersection of three railroads, one re-
cently completed. It has two schools and one weekly news-
paper. EDWIN. R. SHARPE,
- ED. “CARROLL County TIMES.”
Carrollton, a city, capital of Greene co., Ill., on the
Chicago and Alton R. R., 34 miles N. N. W. of Alton. It
has a fine public-school building, an academy, seven
churches, two newspapers, a library association, and va-
rious manufacturing industries. It has two weekly news-
papers. Pop. of township, 2760. -
G. B. PRICE’s SoNS, PUBs. “CARROLLTON GAZETTE.”
Carrollton, a township of Carroll co., Ind. Pop. 1046.
Čarrollton, a post-village, capital of Carroll co., Ia.,
is on the Middle Coon (or Raccoon) River, about 70 miles
W. N. W. of Des Moines. Pop. 384. .
Carrollton, a post-village, capital of Carroll co., Ky.,
on the Ohio River, at the mouth of the Kentucky River, 62
miles above Louisville, manufactures cloth, flour, etc. It
has five churches and a newspaper. Pop. 1098.
ED. CARRollton “DEMOCRAT.”
Carrollton, a city in Jefferson parish, La., on the left
bank of the Mississippi River, above and adjoining New
Orleans. It contains the court-house and public buildings
of Jefferson parish, and is connected with the centre of New
Orleans by street-cars, which start every three minutes.
Here are public gardens which attract many visitors. It
has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of ward, 6495.
AMos S. Collins, Ed. “Lou IsIANA STATE REGISTER.”
Carrollton, a post-township of Saginaw co., Mich.
Pop. 1564.
Carrollton, a post-township of Fillmore co., Minn.
Pop. 1646.
Carrollton, a post-village, capital of Carroll co., Miss.,
will be soon connected with the Mississippi by a railroad.
It has one weekly, newspaper. Pop. 377.
P. W. Robertson, Ed. “MISSISSIPPI CoNSERVATIVE.”
Carrollton, a post-village, capital of Carroll co., Mo.,
on the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. R., 207 miles
N. W. of St. Louis and 66 miles E. N. E. of Kansas City.
It contains mine churches, a school-house built at a cost of
$40,000, two banks, two flour-mills, a woollen factory, and
two weekly newspapers. Pop. 1832.
Jos. H. TuRNER, ED. “WAKANDA RECORD.”
Carrollton, a township of Cattaraugus co., N. Y., has
manufactures of leather and lumber and an oil-well. Pop.
1142.
Carrollton, a post-village, capital of Carroll co., O., is
about 125 miles E. N. E. of Columbus. A branch railroad,
twelve and a half miles long, extends from this place to
Oneida, which is on a branch of the Cleveland and Pitts-
burg R. R., and the Ohio and Toledo R. R. is being built
through it. It has two weekly newspapers. Pop. 813.
J. W. LAWLER, PUB. CARRoIL County “ CHRONICLE.”
Car’rolltown, a post-borough of Cambria co., Pa.
Pop. 416.
Carronade, a short iron cannon for naval service, in-
vented by Mr. Gascoigne, and named after the Carron Iron-
works in Scotland, where it was first made. It is lighter
than the ordinary guns, and has a chamber for powder like
a mortar. Carronades are now little used, and are nearly
obsolete. In the war of 1812 the carronades of the Amer–
ican navy did excellent service. They have a short range,
and are only suitable for fighting at close quarters.
Car’rom Brook, a post-village of Hibbert township,
Perth co., Ontario (Canada), on the Buffalo and Goderich
branch of the Grand Trunk Railway. It has various manu-
factures, of which the most important is that of salt from
salt-wells. There is one weekly paper. Pop. about 1000.
Carron Oil, a mixture of lime-water and oil, useful as
an application to burns. . It was named from the Carron
Iron-works, where it has been much used.
Car’rot (Daucus), a genus of plants of the order Um-
belliferae. The common carrot (Dawcus carota) is a bien-
nial plant, a native of the East, but naturalized both in
Europe and America. Its leaves are pinnately compound;
the flowers creamy white. The root of the cultivated plant
is much thicker and more agreeable to the taste than the
wild. It is largely given to cattle, for which, as well as for
men, it is a wholesome and moderately nutritious article of
food. The plant has some beauty, its leaves having been,
during the reign of Charles I., worn in England by ladies
instead of feathers. The root is sometimes used for poul-
tices.
Carrou'sel, a knightly exercise, in imitation of the
tournament, common in Europe until the beginning of the
eighteenth century. It consisted in contests of skill, in
horsemanship, and in the use of the sword, lance, or other
weapon. The Place du Carrousel in Paris was named from
a fête of this kind held in honor of Mademoiselle de la Val-
lière in 1662. The Eglinton tournament, so called, at Eg-
linton Castle, in Scotland, in 1839, was really a carrousel.
Carryall, a post-township of Paulding co., O. Pop.
I.087. . . . .
Carse, a term applied in Scotland to low alluvial land
adjacent to rivers. In Perthshire it is extended to the whole
of the slightly undulating land on the north of the Tay,
which is called the Carse of Gowrie, Carse soils usually
consist of argillaceous deposits, which produce crops of
great luxuriance, but in some cases they are rather sterile.
Car’son (ALExANDER), L.L.D., of Tubbermore, descend-
\
CARSON.—CARSTAIRS.
ed from the Covenanters who sought the same kind of an
asylum in North Ireland as the Puritans found in North
America. Probably the world has had no grander type of
men than those produced by colonizing Scots in Ireland;
and perhaps of all the men that grew from this rugged
grafting, no one was a more characteristic scion than Alex-
ander Carson. He was born in 1776, in county Tyrone,
Ireland. His father and mother were Presbyterians, and
in his youth they set him apart for the ministry, and gave
him his education at the University of Glasgow. Here he
was facile princeps. He paid especial attention to Greek,
and drove his studies in all departments so hard that his
firm constitution seemed ready to sink. His tremendous
power of concentration was fully shown in his college life,
and was of the highest service in all his life's work. He
became pastor of the Presbyterian church in Tubbermore
when he was in his twenty-second year. “In the same year
he was married to the companion of his life, Margaret
Ledlie. The Unitarian controversy which shook the Pres-
byterian churches in North Ireland during the early part
of this century was to him a cause of great mental anguish.
The prevailing worldliness and evil practices of many
members of the synod of Ulster constrained him at last to
say that all the wealth of the Indies could not induce him
to celebrate another communion service when he must
share in the responsibility of such doctrines and practices.
About the year 1805 he drew up his “Reasons for Separat-
ing from the Synod of Ulster.” In this he argues for the
independence of each church from all others. Thus he
became a Congregationalist, or an Independent, as the
term is used in Great Britain. In doing this he resigned
all the earthly support he had. The majority of his con-
gregation clave to him, and the law decided that the church
property should be theirs, but as they could not retain it
without strife, he gave it up, and “preached for many years
in cold, incommodious barns, and often in the open fields.”
Afterwards a rude stone building was raised in the village
of Tubbermore. Its interior was neither painted nor plas-
tered, and the seats were hard benches. Here he preached.
for thirty years. Not long after his views on church gov-
ernment were changed, one of the Baptist missionaries
supported by the Haldanes of Scotland came over to the
north of Ireland, and Carson’s congregation were much
troubled in mind by the new-comer. The pastor attempted
to confute the Baptists, but after a month spent in prayer,
reading the New Testament, and ransacking the Greek
language, he burned his manuscripts and proclaimed him-
self a Baptist. He devoted all his scholarship and much
of his time to enforcing the views of the Baptists.
His preaching was entirely expository. During his long
ministry in Tubbermore he expounded the entire Scriptures,
and was well on his way through them a second time when
death silenced him. His custom was to take a chapter in
course, in the Old Testament, for his morning discourse,
and a verse or two of the New Testament, in course, for the
afternoon. He was scrupulous to observe whatever was
ordained by Christ and the apostles and practised in the
Church, including the ceremony of the kiss of holiness and
love. The singing of his great congregation was of the
most artless kind. A few of the old minor tunes and the
Scotch metrical Psalms, with Watts' and some other hymns,
was the whole apparatus from year to year. He taught
that the ordinance of the Lord's Supper should be observed
every Lord's Day, and the church, in common with
nearly all the Baptist churches in Ireland, so practised.
It is said that the salary he received from the church did
not average more than thirty pounds a year. He sustained
his large family chiefly by farming, teaching, and whatever
he realized from time to time by the sale of his books. He
was a wonder to many, in that he was able to educate his
Sons and provide for his daughters. He had thirteen chil-
dren. Many of his congregation came many miles every
Lord’s Day to hear him. Old women there were who
Walked, on going and returning, distances varying from
five to twenty miles. . In the doctrines of the gospel Dr.
Carson held the very highest ground. He maintained the
federal headship of Christ, the actual imputation of his
righteousness to the redeemed, and the actual imputation
of their sins to the atoning Saviour. He believed and
maintained the verbal inspiration of the Scriptures; that
the atonement of Christ was made for his Church only;
that man is entirely powerless to do good, yet entirely re-
sponsible for sin; that the gospel is to be preached to all;
and that the sinner's guilt is increased by rejecting it.
There were five great subjects which chiefly occupied his
pen : the mode, and subjects of baptism, the Godhead of
Jesus Christ, the Romish controversy, the inspiration of
the Scriptures, the harmony of God’s attributes in the gos-
pel, and the wonders of God’s providence towards his
Church. He was most diligent in the use of his time, and
testified of himself that he had scarcely ever lost an hour.
797
He had such a power of abstraction that he wrote some of
his profoundest treatises while his children were climbing
over his chair. His style of writing is remarkable. His
sentences are short, and of the simplest possible construc-
tion. He was a reasoner who would as soon be guilty of a
larceny as of an intentional fallacy. He very rarely at-
tempted anything like fine writing, but sometimes a few
words are so used as to produce a sublime effect. He
preached always entirely without notes. His eloquence
has been described as “volcanic.” He threw such light
upon the most recondite parts even of the Old Testament
that there grew up under his ministry a multitude of people
unlearned in everything else, but mighty in the Scriptures.
So rapt was his auditory in his discourses that many times
they half rose from their seats. The common people
thronged to hear a man who hardly ever spoke a word they
could not understand, and yet who dealt with the deepest
things that can busy the mind of man. In unfolding the
glory of the gospel his face absolutely shone; he seemed
to be caught up to heaven, and to be ministering between
a living God and a dying world.
In person, Dr. Carson was well fitted for his laborious life.
He was of middle height, broad-shouldered, deep-chested,
stout-limbed. His eye was clear and piercing, his features
of a noble Roman cast, and when he died, nearly seventy
years old, he had scarcely a gray hair. His voice was very
powerful, and so tireless that four hours of almost continu-
ous exercise did not weary it, week after week. His deliv-
ery was lively and natural. Those who only knew him from
his controversial writings, thought of him as a fiery and
unrelenting polemic, and indeed he treated any thing like
a weak argument without mercy; yet in private life he was
gentle and kindly, without a tincture of pride or vanity. His
Christian character was remarkable. He prayed like a little
child. His spirit may be judged from the words with which
he closed his essay on the “Doctrine of the Trinity:”
“Lord Jesus, I own thee before men—demy me not before
thy Father and the holy angels l’” He resolved at one time
to come to America, but after his preparations were well
advanced his congregation were so apparently broken-
hearted at the thought of his leaving them that, to use one
of the beautiful, homely idioms of the north of Ireland, “he
could not find it in his heart to leave them.”
He died in Belfast in 1844; his death was the result of a
fall into the water from a steamer's plank. He was making
way for a lady to go aboard, and lost his balance; he was .
rescued, but somewhat injured, and a fever ensued, which
in a few days ended his life. He was a man of rare and
saintly self-denial, of zeal that was bounded only by
strength, of learning vast and varied, of logic keen to divide
between truth and error, and of singleness of purpose to know
nothing but Christ crucified. And this man lived for thirty
years the pastor of a humble village church in Ireland, and
desired no title among men but that of “minister of the
gospel !” - THOMAS ARMITAGE.
Carson (CHRISTOPHER), an American trapper, commonly
called KIT CARson, was born in Rentucky Dec. 24, 1809.
He served as a guide to Fremont in his Rocky Mountain
explorations. He was an officer in the U. S. service in both
the Mexican war and the great civil war. In the latter he
received a brevet of brigadier-general. Died May 23, 1868.
Carson City, the capital of the State of Nevada and
county-seat of Ormsby co., is situated near the E. base of
the Sierra Nevada, about 3 miles W. of Carson River and
15 miles S. S. W. of Virginia City. It is surrounded by
grand and picturesque scenery, and is about 10 miles E.
of Lake Tahoe. Here are rich silver-mines, which in 1864
yielded $1,994,884. It has one daily paper. Pop. of the
township, 3042.
Carson Lake, a township of Mississippi co., Ark.
Pop. 74.
Carson River, Nevada, rises in the Sierra Nevada,
flows nearly north-eastward, passes through Ormsby and
Lyon counties, and enters Carson Lake in Churchill county.
Length, estimated at 150 miles. Carson Take has no out-
let, and is about 15 miles long.
Car'stairs, or Carstares (WILLIAM), a Scottish nego-
tiator distinguished for learning and Sagacity, was born
near Glasgow Feb. 11, 1649. He became chaplain to Wil-
liam, prince of Orange, who trusted him as a confidential
adviser in affairs relating to Great Britain. Having been
sent to England in 1682 as the secret agent of William of
Orange, he was arrested as an accomplice in the Rye-House
plot, and was put to the torture, which could not extort
from him any confession, although he was the depository
of important secrets. After the accession of William to the
throne, Carstairs had great influence in Scottish affairs, and
was five times chosen moderator of the General Assembly.
He became minister of Gray Friars' Church, Edinburgh, in
1704. Died Dec. 28, 1715. His virtues and abilities are
798
CARSTENS-CARTESLAN PHILOSOPHY.
highly extolled by Macaulay. (See McCoRMICK, “Life of
W. Carstairs,” 1774.)
Car’stems (ASMUs JAKOB), a German painter, born May
10, 1754, at St. Jürgen, Sleswick, the son of a poor miller,
travelled on foot to Rome to study art. His great drawing,
“The Fall of the Angels,” procured him a professorship at
the Berlin Academy of Arts. He took the lead in reforming
taste in Germany, but painted few pictures. His drawings
have been engraved by Müller, 43 plates, 1869. Died May
25, 1798.
Cart. See CARRIAGES, etc., by L. P. BROCKETT, M. D.
Cartage/ma, a city and fortified seaport of Spain, is in
the province of Murcia and on a bay of the Mediterranean,
27 miles S. S. E. of Murcia; lat. 37° 36' N., lon. 19 1' W.
It occupies the declivity of a hill, and a small plain which
is between the hill and the sea. The harbor, which is one
of the best in the Mediterranean, is capacious enough to hold
the largest fleets, and is protected from winds by highlands
which enclose it on several sides. The entrance to the har-
bor is defended by a fortified island. Cartagena was for-
merly the chief naval arsenal of Spain, and had a popula-
tion of 60,000, but its importance has declined. It has a
Moorish cathedral, numerous churches and convents, a
theatre, and an observatory; also manufactures of Sailcloth
and glass. Red marble is abundant here, and is used for
building. Mines of silver and lead have been opened in the
vicinity. Pop. 54,315. The ancient Carthago Nova was
founded by Hasdrubal in 242 B.C. (See CARTHAGo Nov.A.)
Cartage/na, written also Carthagena, a fortified
city and seaport of the United States of Colombia, in South
America, the capital of the state of Bolivar, is on the Carib-
bean Sea, about 275 miles E. N. E. of Panamá; lat. 10° 25'
36" N., lon. 75° 38' W. It was founded in 1532, and was
formerly the chief mart of New Granada and Central Amer-
ica, with over 25,000 inhabitants. It stands on a sandy
peninsula, is well built, and has well-paved streets. The
houses are mostly stone, and two stories high. It contains
numerous churches, some of which are said to be splendid,
several convents, a theatre, and a college. The climate is
very hot, damp, and unhealthy. Cartagena has a good
landlocked harbor. Sugar, coffee, tobacco, hides, and bul-
lion are exported from this place. Pop. estimated at 9000.
Carta'go, a town of Central America, the former cap-
ital of Costa Rica, one of the oldest cities in Central Amer-
ica, having in 1823 over 37,000 inhabitants, is about 20 miles
E. of San José. It once contained eight churches and about
3000 houses, but it was ruined by an earthquake in Sept.,
1841, which is said to have destroyed seven churches
and 2900 houses. Present pop. estimated at from 3000 to
5000. Near this place is Mount Cartago, 11,480 feet high.
Cartago, a town of the United States of Colombia, in
the state of Cauca, and on the river Cauca, about 135 miles
W. of Bogotá. It has a cathedral, and a trade in coffee,
cacao, dried beef, tobacco, etc. Pop. 7000.
Carte, a French word, signifies a “card,” a “ticket,” a
“map,” a “chart.” Carte blanche (literally, “white card”)
is a blank paper signed by a person and given to another,
that he may prescribe or insert such conditions as he pleases.
Carte (THOMAs), an English historian, born at Clifton
in April, 1686. He became a priest and Jacobite. During
the rebellion of 1715 a large reward was offered for his arrest,
but he escaped to France. His chief work is a “History
of England” (4 vols., 1747–55), which is prized for its facts,
but is not well written. Many volumes of his manuscripts
are preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Died
April 2, 1754.
Carſtel, an Anglicised French word, which in France
signifies a “challenge.” As a military term it is used to
denote an agreement between two belligerents for the ex-
change of prisoners. A vessel used in exchanging prison-
ers or carrying proposals to an enemy is called a cartel-ship.
Carſter, a county in the N. E. of Kentucky. Area, 550
square miles. It is intersected by the Little Sandy River.
The surface is hilly. Iron ore and coal are found here.
Indian corn is the chief agricultural product. Capital,
Grayson. Pop. 7509.
Carter, a county in the S. E. of Missouri. Area, 500
Square miles. It is intersected by the Current River. The
surface is diversified by hills and valleys. It contains
mines of copper and quarries of limestone. Corn, wool,
and tobacco are the chief products. Capital, Van Buren.
Pop. 1455.
Carter, a county of Tennessee, bordering on North
Carolina. Area, 350 square miles. It is intersected by Wa-
tauga River, and bounded on the S. E. by the Iron Moun-
tain. The surface is mountainous. Corn, wool, oats, and
wheat are raised. Iron abounds here. Capital, Elizabeth-
town. Pop. 7909. - - -
T)artmouth in 1811.
Carter, a township of Ashley co., Ark. Pop. 960.
Carter, a township of Spencer co., Ind. Pop. 1420.
Carter, a township of Carter co., Mo. Pop. 760.
Carter, an important military and commercial point
on the Union Pacific R. R., in Uintah co., Wy. Ter., 53
miles N. E. of Evanston, has a large warehouse for the
Montana trade.
Carter (ELIZABETH), a learned English authoress, born
at Deal, in Kent, Dec. 16, 1717, was a friend of Dr. John-
son. She was a good classical scholar, and gained a wide
reputation by a translation of Epictetus from the Greek
(1758), which, according to Warton, is better than the
original. She wrote two numbers of Johnson’s “Rambler”
(Nos. 44 and 100) and a number of poems, among which
is an “Ode to Wisdom" (1746). Died Feb. 19, 1806.
Carter (JAMEs Gorpon), an American educator, born
at Leominster, Mass., Sept. 7, 1795, and graduated at Har-
vard in 1820. He was chairman of the committee on edu-
cation in the legislature of Massachusetts, and drafted the
bill which appointed the Massachusetts board of education.
He became chairman of that board. Died July 22, 1849.
Carter (NATHANIEL HAzELTINE), an American author,
born at Concord, N. H., Sept. 17, 1787, and graduated at
In 1820 he became editor of the “New
York Statesman.” He afterwards published “Letters from
Europe,” in two volumes. Died at Marseilles Jan. 2, 1830.
Carter (S.P.), U. S. N., born Aug. 6, 1819, in Carter
co., Tenn., entered the navy as a midshipman Feb. 14, 1840,
became a passed midshipman in 1846, a lieutenant in 1855,
a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a commander in 1865, and
a captain in 1870. He served on the E. coast of Mexico
during the Mexican war. While attached to the steamer
San Jacinto in 1856 he participated in the attack on the
Barrier Forts at the mouth of the Canton River, China,
which resulted in their capture. In July, 1861, Carter was
ordered to report to the secretary of war for duty, and pro-
ceeded at once to East Tennessee, where he organized the
Tennessee brigade. He was now appointed a brigadier-
general of volunteers, and continued on active duty with
the army during the entire war, doing most important and
gallant service in Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, and North
Carolina, and receiving the brevet of major-general “for
gallant and distinguished services.”
- IFox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Carſteret, a county in the S. E. of North Carolina.
Area, 450 square miles. It is bounded on the E. and S. by
the Atlantic Ocean. The surface is level, and partly covered
with pine forests. Indian corn is the principal crop. It is
intersected by the Atlantic and North Carolina R. R. Cap-
ital, Beaufort. Pop. 9010.
Carteret (PHILIP), an English navigator who took part
in the expedition to the South Sea commanded by Wallis,
in 1766. He discovered a number of small islands, one of
which he called by his own name.
Carter’s Crossing, a township of Sumter co., S. C.
Pop. 947.
Carſtersville, a post-village, capital of Bartow co.,
Ga., is on the Western and Atlantic R. R., 48 miles N. N.
W. of Atlanta. Gold, copper, and other minerals are
found in this vicinity. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop.
2232.
Carte'sian Philosſophy, the name of the system of
philosophy brought forward by Réné Descartes (1596–1650),
one of the most original thinkers of France or of any coun-
try. The scholastic philosophy which had prevailed in the
Middle Ages, though based upon the teachings of Aristotle,
had so far departed from the spirit of its great master as to
have become almost vain and fruitless. What Descartes
and his contemporary, Bacon, did, was, each in his own
way, to help arouse a spirit of independent research in
philosophy and in science. It must not be forgotten, how-
ever, that the independence of Bacon and Descartes was
a result as well as a cause of this new spirit. The new
current had begun to flow before their day, but they each
contributed largely to swell that current.
Descartes proposed as a basis for his system, and as a
ground for all knowledge, the act of conscious thought, as
necessarily involving the idea of existence. His celebrated
dictum, “Ego cogito, ergo sum”—i.e. “Ithink, therefore I ex-
ist”—is the starting-point of his philosophy. And although
the dictum itself has been severely criticised, it may be
fairly questioned whether the fault be not in the expression
rather than in the thought intended to be expressed, and
whether the appeal to our consciousness be not indeed the
ultimate ground of philosophy. Those writers who deny
the validity of the testimony of consciousness are neverthe-
less continually appealing to the same testimony when it
serves their purpose. Descartes was a firm believer in the
CARTESIANS-CARTHAGE. 799
existence of a personal God, and attributed all the phe-
nomena of nature to the continual and actual presence of
an all-pervading Deity.
The ultimate conclusions reached by Descartes need not
be stated here. Founded to some extent upon unwarranted
hypotheses, many of his opinions are now known to have
been fallacious. But the great value of his philosophy has
been in the grand stimulus of thought which it has given
to others. Spinoza, Malebranche, and even the modern
*German philosophers, are confessedly much indebted to
him.
Carte'sians [from Cartesius, the Latin name of DES-
CARTEs], the name given to the disciples of Descartes, or to
those who adopted his system of philosophy. In the sev-
enteenth century nearly all the philosophers of France were
ranged under two parties, Cartesians and Gassendists.
Carºthage [Gr. ) Kapxmööv ; Lat. Carthago], an ancient
and celebrated commercial city of Africa, and the capital
of the republic of Carthage, was a Phoenician colony
founded by emigrants from Tyre about 850 B. C. It was
situated on a bay of the Mediterranean about 20 miles S.
of Utica, and near the site of the modern town of Tunis.
Lat. about 36° 47' N., lon. 10° 6' E. The Punic or native
name of Carthage is said to have been Carthada or Karth
Hadtha. According to a tradition which has been immor-
talized by the genius of Virgil, it was founded by Dido, a
sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre, and she purchased of the
natives the site of the new city. Ancient authorities con-
cur in affirming that it was founded many years later than
Utica, which was also a Phoenician colony. No record of
the early history of Carthage has been preserved. “This
great city,” says P. Smith, “furnishes the most striking
example in the annals of the world of a mighty power
which, having long ruled over subject peoples, taught them
the arts of commerce and civilization, and created for it-
self an imperishable name, has left little more than that
name behind it, and even that in the keeping of the very
enemies to whom she at last succumbed. Vast as is the
space which her fame fills in ancient history, the details
of her origin, her rise, her constitution, commerce, arts, and
religion, are all but unknown. Of her native literature
we have barely the scantiest fragments left. The treas-
ures of her libraries were disdained by the blind hatred of
the Roman aristocracy, who made them a present to the
princes of Numidia, reserving only the thirty-two books of
Mago on agriculture for translation, as all that could be
useful to the republic.” Our information respecting the
Carthaginians is derived mostly from Roman historians,
who were deficient in impartiality, and from Polybius, who,
has preserved some genuine Punic documents.
Carthage seems to have been almost from its foundation
independent of Tyre, but friendly relátions were main-
tained between the colony and the metropolis, and the re-
ligious supremacy of the latter was recognized by an an-
nual offering to the temple of Hercules at Tyre of a tithe
of all the revenues of Carthage. The Carthaginians grad-
ually acquired a dominion over the other Phoenician col-
onies of Northern Africa, and also over the Libyans and
Numidians or nomadic tribes who occupied this region be-
fore the foundation of Carthage. This city became one of
the greatest commercial emporiums of the world before the
first Punic war. During the period of her greatest pros-
perity, Carthage was probably the greatest maritime power
in the world. The population of the city amounted to
about 700,000 in 150 B. C. The Carthaginian (or Punic)
language resembled the Hebrew, and belonged to the Se-
mitic or Aramaic family. The government was a republic
or an oligarchy, in relation to which our information is
very scanty.
A condensed summary of all that is known on this sub-
ject is given by Grote, from which we extract the chief
points: “Respecting the political constitution of Carthage,
the facts known are too few and too indistinct to enable us
to comprehend its real working. The magistrates most
conspicuous in rank and precedence were two kings or
suffetes, who presided over the senate. They seem to have
been renewed annually, though how far the same persons
were re-eligible we do not know ; but they were always se-
lected out of some few principal families or gentes. There
is reason for believing that the genuine Carthaginian citi-
zens were distributed into three tribes, thirty curiae, and
300 gentes. From these gentes emanated a senate of 300,
out of which, again, was formed a smaller council or com-
mittee of thirty principes, representing the curiæ. . . .
The purposes of government were determined, its powers
wielded, and the great offices held—suffetes, senators, gen-
erals, or judges—by the members of a small number of
wealthy families. In the main, the government was con-
ducted with skill and steadiness, as well for internal tran-
quillity as for systematic foreign and commercial aggran-
dizement. Within the knowledge of Aristotle, Carthage
had never suffered either the successful usurpation of a
despot or any violent intestine commotion.” ?
At a period little later than her first distinct appearance
on the stage of recorded history, Carthage possessed an
imperial authority, in a greater or less degree, over the
northern coast of Africa, from the Pillars of Hercules to the
Great Syrtis, a distance of about 16,000 stadia (2000 miles).
But the only part of this extensive territory that was en-
tirely subject to the dominion of Carthage was the country
which extended S. of the city about ninety miles, and
the boundaries of which were nearly the same as those of
Zeugitana, and the strip of coast along which lay Byzacium
and Emporia. Like other great commercial states, Car-
thage found that her maritime enterprise led her on almost
inevitably to engage in foreign conquests and to contend
for the dominion of the sea. The first foreign province
that she acquired appears to have been the island of Sar-
dinia, which belonged to Carthage at the time of her first
treaty with Rome, 509 B. C. This island was the principal
emporium of her trade with Western Europe, and always
ranked as the chief among her foreign possessions. Among
the earliest objects of the military enterprise of the Cartha-
ginians was Sicily, then occupied by several Greek colonies.
For the conquest of this island they sent a fleet of 3000
ships, with an army of 300,000 men, commanded by Ha-
milcar. He was defeated by Gélon, tyrant of Syracuse, at
Himera, in 480 B. C., and was killed in this action, which
was one of “the decisive battles of the world,” and was
important in a degree which no contemporary could esti-
mate. The Carthaginians in 410 B. C. renewed the war
against the Greeks of Sicily, and obtained possession of
part of that island, where they were involved in a long con-
test with Dionysius of Syracuse. They planted colonies in
Hispania (Spain), and derived much riches from the gold
and silver mines of that peninsmla, but their relations with
the natives were peaceful, and they did not attempt to sub-
jugate Spain before the Punic wars. Polybius states that
all the islands of the Western Mediterranean belonged to
Carthage at the commencement of the Punic wars, 264 B. C.
In 509 B. C. a commercial treaty was concluded between
Carthage and Rome. This celebrated document has been
preserved by Polybius. The second treaty between these
two powers was made in 348 B. C. It appears that the
Carthaginians never came into hostile contact with the Athe-
nian republic, although the latter was a great maritime
power while Carthage was near the zenith of her prosperity.
The army of Carthage was composed chiefly of Libyan
conscripts and slaves and foreign mercenaries. This defect
in her military system was probably one of the chief causes
of her ruin. This system could not afford the republic in-
ternal security, for the soldiers had little devotion to the
cause for which they fought, and the enemies of Carthage
found it their best policy to “carry the war into Africa.”
It would be an error to regard the Carthaginians as a
merely commercial people. Agriculture was a favorite
pursuit of the nobles, citizens, and colonists, and the soil
of her African territory was extremely fertile. Her pros-
perity was also promoted by manufactures and mechanical
arts. Gold and silver were the standard of value at Car-
thage, but we have no evidence that the republic coined
money, as no Punic coins are now extant which were struck
before the Romans conquered that state. Her merchant-
ships passed beyond the Pillars of Hercules and made
voyages to the British Islands. The Carthaginians also
carried on an extensive inland trade by caravans, which
traversed the deserts to the valleys of the Nile and Niger.
Carthage and Rome were the two greatest powers of the
world when their competition for the rich island of Sicily
involved them in the first Punic war, 264 B. C. The Ro-
mans, who had no navy when the war began, suffered
several defeats at sea, and one of their generals, Marcus
Regulus, who invaded Africa, was taken prisoner. They
gained a great naval victory near Lilyboeum in 241 B. C.,
which ended the war. The Carthaginians obtained peace
by ceding Sicily and Sardinia to the victors. Carthage
was so impoverished" by this long war that she could not
pay her armies. The mercenaries revolted in 240 B.C.,
and were joined by most of the subject Libyans in a civil
war which brought Carthage to the brink of ruin. After
the suppression of this revolt the peace and stability of the
state were menaced by a feud between Hanno and Hamil-
car Barca, who became respectively the leaders of the
aristocratic and democratic parties. The great abilities
and sagacity of Hamilcar restored the prosperity of the
republic by the conquest of Spain, which, says, Heeren,
“was then the richest country of the known World.” He
invaded Spain in 237 B. C., and gained several victories,
but he subdued the Spaniards by kindness rather than
force. Before he had conquered all the Peninsula, he died
in 229, leaving the completion of the enterprise to his son-
800
CARTHAGE–CARTOON.
in-law, Hasdrubal, and his own son, the famous Hannibal.
The latter succeeded to the chief command of the army in
Spain in 221 B. C. His conquests provoked the hostility
of the Romans, and he began the second Punic war by
marching across the Alps and invading Italy in 218 B. C.
After he had defeated the Romans at several places in
Northern Italy, he gained a most signal and complete vic-
tory at the great battle of Cannae in the summer of 216
B. C. The second Punic war seems to have been con-
ducted by Hannibal rather than the state, from which he
received little aid or co-operation. By his military genius
and personal resources he maintained himself in Italy for
about fifteen years. (For the details of this war, which
was ended by the victory of the Roman general Scipio at
Zama in 202 B. C., the reader is referred to the article
HANNIBAL.) The treaty which the victors dictated in 201
B. C. deprived Carthage of all her dominions outside of
Africa. Hannibal, who soon obtained the ascendency in
Carthage, made important reforms, which reduced the
power of the aristocracy and the judges, but he was driven
into exile by a hostile faction in 195 B. C. The Romans,
who resolved to destroy Carthage, found a pretext to com-
mence the third Punic war in 150 B.C. The Carthaginians
made an heroic and desperate resistance, but their capital
was taken and utterly ruined in 146 B. C. On the com-
manding site of the Punic Carthage the emperor Augustus
founded a Roman town, which was also called Carthage,
and became a very rich and populous city. Herodian states
that in his time it was next to Rome in population and
wealth. In 439 A.D. it was taken by Genseric, who made
it the capital of the Vandal kingdom in Africa. It was
captured and finally destroyed by the Arabs in 647 A. D.
Few vestiges of its ancient grandeur remain to indicate its
site, except some broken arches of a great aqueduct which
was fifty miles long. (See ARNOLD, “History of Rome,”
vol. ii.; HEEREN, “ Historical Researches into the Politics,
Commerce, etc. of the Ancient Nations of Africa,” 1824; BöT-
TIGER, “Geschichte der Carthager,” 1827; MüNTER, “Re-
ligion der Karthager,” 1821.) WILLIAM JACOBs.
Carthage, a post-township of Hale co., Ala. P. 960.
Carthage, a post-village, capital of Hancock co., Ill.,
is at the crossing of the Keokuk branch of the Toledo
Wabash and Western R. R. and the Burlington and Quincy
R. R., 13 miles E. of Keokuk. It has one national bank,
seven churches, one academy, and two newspapers. Pop.
1448; of Carthage township, 2448.
THos. C. SHARPE, E.D. CARTHAGE “ GAZETTE.”
Carthage, a post-village of Ripley township, Rush co.,
Ind. Pop. 481.
Carthage, a township of Franklin co., Me. Pop. 486.
Carthage, a small town, capital of Leake co., Miss., is
about 60 miles N. E. of Jackson, and is on the line of the
Natchez Jackson and Columbus R. R., which is now in
course of construction. It has one weekly newspaper.
L. M. GARRETT, ED. of “THE CARTHAGINIAN.”
Carthage, a city, capital of Jasper co., Mo., on Spring
River and on the line of the Memphis Carthage and North-
west R. R., situated in the centre of the rich lead-regions
of South-west Missouri, with numerous manufactories, an
academy, two public schools, two parks, a public library,
and one national bank. Four newspapers are published in
this place. On the morning of July 5, 1861, a force of Con-
federates under Gov. Jackson and Gen. Price, numbering
about 3500 men, while retreating from the army of Gen.
Lyon, were confronted about 7 miles E. of this town by a
body of Federal troops under Gen. Sigel, numbering about
1500. Gen. Sigel was superior in artillery, while the Con-
federates, largely outnumbering him, had the advantage also
of a body of cavalry. Gen. Sigel, availing himself of his
superior strength, opened fire with his artillery, which he
continued, to the severe loss of the Confederates, for several
hours, when, to avoid being outflanked by the Confederate
cavalry, and to protect his baggage-train, he was obliged
to fall back, which he accomplished in good order, con-
tinuing his retreat to Carthage and ,to Sarcoxie, 15 miles
eastward. The Federal loss was less than 50 killed and
wounded, while the Confederate loss was reported to be 50
killed and about 150 wounded.
J. A. BoDENHAMER, E.D. “PEOPLE's PRESS.”
Carthage, a post-village of Wilna and (West Carthage)
of Champion townships, Jefferson co., N. Y., on the Utica
and Black River R. R., and on Black River and its canal,
23 miles by rail E. of Watertown. It has extensive water-
power, lumber-mills, forges, foundries, and manufactories
of nails, machinery, leather, furniture, wooden-ware, etc.,
and has also a bank, a weekly newspaper, and seven churches.
Carthage, a post-village, capital of Moore co., N. C.,
about 60 miles S.W. of Raleigh. Pop. of Carthage town-
ship, 1786. • * -
on paper for a fresco, oil picture, or a tapestry.
Carthage, a township of Athens co., O. Pop. 1272.
Carthage, a post-village, capital of Smith co., Tenn.,
is on the Cumberland River, 50 miles by land E. N. E. of
Nashville. Pop. 477. -
Carthage, a post-village, capital of Panola co., Tex.,
about 45 miles S. of Jefferson.
Cartha'go No’va [the Lat. for “New Carthage”], an
ancient and celebrated city of Hispania (Spain), on the
Mediterranean, was founded by Hasdrubal in 242 B.C. It
had an excellent harbor, and became a great commercial
city of the Carthaginians. It also derived much prosperity
from its rich silver-mines, in which 40,000 men are said to
have been employed, In 210 B.C. it was captured by
Scipio Africanus. Strabo informs us that it was in his time
a great emporium of exports and imports. It was destroyed
by the Goths before 550 A. D. The site is occupied by
CARTAGENA (which see).
Car/thamine, a dyestuff obtained from the Carthamus
tinctorius, a plant which is a native of India and Egypt,
and is sometimes called saffron or safflower. This is the
plant used in domestic medicine and known as saffron, but
it is very different from the true saffron, or Crocus 8ativus.
It is used to dye cotton and silk, to which it imparts a
beautiful red color which is not very permanent.
Carthu'sians [Lat. Carthusian: ; Fr. Chartreux (fem.
sing. Chartreuse)], a monastic order founded in France by
Saint Bruno in 1086. It was sanctioned by the pope in 1170,
and was propagated in England and Italy. The monas-
teries of these monks in England were called Charter-
houses, a corruption of the French Chartreuse. Their rules
require them to perform manual labor, to abstain from eat-
ing flesh, and to observe ascetic practices, among which is
a vow of continual silence. They built near Grenoble a
magnificent convent called La Grande Chartreuse. Their
houses are few at present. The Carthusian nuns were dis-
persed during the French Revolution. They have been
restored, but are very few in number.
Cartier (Sir GEORGE ETIENNE), BART., an eminent Ca-
nadian statesman, a descendant of the following, was born
Sept. 6, 1814. He became distinguished as the leader of
the French Canadian conservatives, and was the author of
many legal and political reforms. Died May 20, 1873.
Cartier (JACQUES), a French navigator, born at St.
Malo Dec. 31, 1494. He discovered the river St. Lawrence
in 1534, and ascended it as far as the site of Montreal. He
returned to France in 1536. Died about 1554.
Cart'ilage [Lat. cartilago] is a firm, opaque, highly
elastic substance of a pearly white or bluish-white color
(rarely yellow), presenting to the eye a homogeneous ap-
pearance, but in reality composed of cells (corpuscles) vari-
ously combined with a fibrous, granular, or structureless in-
tercellular substance. Cartilages may be classified as the
temporary, the permanent, and the accidental. The tem-
porary cartilages are substitutes for bone in the earlier
periods of life, and after a time become ossified. At birth
the extremities and larger eminences of the long bones and
the margins of the flat bones are still cartilaginous, and
this cartilage does not altogether disappear till puberty.
Permanent cartilages are articular or non-articular. Artic–
ular cartilages are attached to the extremities of bones and
enter into the formation of joints. Non-articular cartilages
are usually more flexible than the articular. They are some-
times attached to bones to lengthen them out, as, for in-
stance, in the nose and some of the ribs. In other cases
they form the basis of distinct organs, as the larnyx, the
Eustachian tubes, the external ear, the trachea, and the
eyelids. Accidental cartilages are cartilaginous concretions
which are occasionally found in situations where they do
not normally occur, and are of little general interest, ex-
cept as the basis of chondromata or cartilage-tumors.
There is also a substance called fibro-cartilage, composed
of cartilage mixed with white fibrous tissue. There is
another substance known as spongy cartilage found in a
few organs. Osseine (ostein) is frequently but incorrectly
called bone-cartilage.
Cartilag’inous Fishes, those whose skeletons are
destitute of true bone. (See FISHES.)
Cartoogacha’yo, a township of Macon co., N. C. Pop.
80 *
Cartoon’ [Fr. carton ; It. cartone, from the Lat. charta,
“paper”], a term applied in the fine arts to a design drawn
The
cartoon is of the same size as the subsequent work, and is
sometimes primed or washed with ground-color. The ar-
tist draws the cartoon in order that he may adjust the
*The French carton and the Italian cartone are properly aug-
mentatives from carta, “paper,” and signified originally large,
coarse, strong paper. (See also APPENDIX.)
---
CARTRIDGE–CARY.
801
drawing and composition of his subject in circumstances
in which alterations can be made with facility. The draw-
ing is made either in chalk or in distemper. The cartoon
when finished is transferred to the canvas or plaster, either
by tracing with a hard point or by pricking with pins, char-
coal in both cases being used.
The use of cartoons is particularly important in fresco
paintings, of which only a small portion can be executed
at a time, because the plaster must be moist when the pig-
ment is applied to it, and it would be impossible to sketch
the whole design on the plaster in the first instance. There-
fore the cartoon must be traced in compartments so small
that the artist can finish one before the plaster becomes
dry. The most famous works of this kind are seven car-
toons of Râphael which are preserved at Hampton Court in
England. These are a part of a set of twenty-five in num-
ber which were sent to Flanders to be copied in tapestry
for Pope Leo X. After the fabrication of the tapestry,
which is said to be extant in Rome, the cartoons lay neg-
lected at Brussels, and many of them were destroyed. The
seven which were purchased by Rubens for Charles I. of
England represent the following subjects: 1, Saint Paul
preaching at Athens; 2, the death of Amanias; 3, Elymas
the sorcerer struck with blindness; 4, Christ delivering
the keys to Saint Peter; 5, the sacrifice at Lystra; 6, the
apostles healing the sick in the temple; 7, the miraculous
draught of fishes. These have been engraved by Dorigny
and Audran. When the collection of Charles I. was sold
these cartoons were purchased for the nation by Cromwell's
special command.
Carſtridge, a case containing the proper quantity of
powder or ammunition required to charge a gun or firearm.
Cartridges for muskets are usually paper tubes, each con-
taining a small amount of powder and a leaden ball. These
are called ball cartridges. The paper used for this purpose
is strong, and is made into a tube by means of a mandrel.
Thinner paper is applied to certain parts of the tube, so
that the powder has two or three thicknesses of paper
around it, but the ball has only one. Besides this form
there are several patent cartridges. A cartridge which
contains powder only is called a blank cartridge. Cartridges
for cannon or large guns are chiefly made of serge or flan-
nel sewed up in the form of a bag, which, filled with a
given weight of powder, is tied around the neck and
strengthened by iron hoops. Cartridges for pistols are
usually copper cylinders, having at the base the proper
amount of fulminating powder, which inflames the charge
of gunpowder upon being struck by the hammer, and these
cartridges are used in most breech-loading firearms.
Cart/wright, a twp. of Sangamon co., Ill. Pop. 1851.
Cartwright (EDMUND), an English clergyman, noted
as the inventor of the power-loom, was born at Marnham
April 24, 1743. He wrote “Arminia and Elvira” and
other poems. In 1785 he exhibited his first power-loom,
the introduction of which was violently opposed by the
operatives, who burned a mill containing 500 of his looms.
In 1809 he received a gift of £10,000 for his invention.
Died Oct. 30, 1823.
Cartwright (JoBN), MAJOR, a brother of the preceding,
was born at Marnham Sept. 28, 1740. He became an offi-
cer in the navy, but he refused to fight against the U. S.
He gained distinction as an advocate of parliamentary re-
form and as a friend of liberty. Died Sept. 23, 1824.
Cartwright (PETER), D.D., a Methodist preacher, born
in Amherst co., Va., Sept. 1, 1785. He labored with great
success for upwards of sixty years, and is said to have
preached 18,000 sermons. His labors were chiefly in the
Mississippi Valley. Died Sept. 25, 1872.
Cartwright (SAMUEL A.), M.D., one of the most distin-
guished physicians of the South-west, and who was chief
surgeon during Andrew Jackson's campaigns. He was
born in Virginia in 1793, studied medicine under the cel-
ebrated Dr. Rush, and graduated at the University of
Pennsylvania. He commenced the practice of his profes-
sion in Huntsville, Ala., but soon moved to Natchez, Miss.,
which became his field of labor for a quarter of a century.
His numerous contributions to medical science may be
found scattered through the journals of his day; he re-
ceived valuable medals and prizes on medical topics—for
he was a vigorous writer—especially for his labors on
yellow fever, cholera infantum, etc., and a golden testi-
monial from the planters of his own county for his success-
ful treatment of the Asiatic cholera. In 1836 he visited
Europe, and in 1848 he removed to New Orleans. During
1862 he was consulted by Mr. Davis how to improve the
sanitary condition of the Southern troops stationed near
Port Hudson and Vicksburg. It was while in the dis-
charge of this duty that he contracted the disease of which
he died. Cartwright's treatment of haemorrhoids by the
sulphate of iron was generally adopted in the army; and
that for prevention of the constitutional symptoms of syph-
ilis was confirmed in the New York Hospital. Of him it
has been said, “Full of charity and good-will towards all
men, he fulfilled faithfully his station in all the relations
of life.” His last days, as all his life had been, were
passed in doing good. PAUL F. EVE.
Carus (KARI, GUSTAV), a celebrated German physiol-
ogist, was born at Leipsic in 1789. His lectures on com-
parative anatomy, delivered in his native town in 1812,
attracted great attention, and still more his book on the
circulation of the blood in insects. It is, however, his
writings on subjects belonging partly to science, partly to
art—as, for instance, “Psyche ’’—which have gathered a
brilliant circle of the greatest scientists and artists to his
house in Dresden, where he lives as court-physician.
Car’ver, a county in S. E. Central Minnesota. Area,
375 square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the Min-
nesota River, and is also drained by the South Fork of the
Crow River. The surface is undulating and the soil is fer-
tile. Wheat, corn, wool, and oats are extensively raised.
It contains several small lakes. Cap., Chaska. P. 11,586.
Carver, a post-township of Plymouth co., Mass. Iron
ore is here obtained, and castings extensively manufactured.
Pop. 1092. •
Carver, a post-township of Carver co., Minn., on the
N. Pacific and the Hastings and Dakota. R. R.S., and on the
Minnesota River, 25 miles S. W. of Minneapolis. P. 521.
Carver (John), a native of England, came in the May-
flower to America in 1620, and was elected first governor
of the Plymouth Colony. Died in 1621.
Carver (JonATHAN), an American traveller, born in
Connecticut in 1732. He made an exploring expedition
across North America to the Pacific Ocean in 1766–68, and
published “Travels through the Interior Parts of North
America.” Died in London in 1780.
Carver’s Creek, a twp. of Bladen co., N. C. P. 996.
Carver’s Creek, a twp.of Cumberland co., N. C. P. 1391.
Carvin-Épinoy, a town of France, in the department
of Pas-de-Calais, is on a railway 11 miles S. S. W. of Lille.
It has manufactures of beet-root Sugar, starch, and earthen-
ware. Pop. 6546.
Car’ving, a branch of sculpture, performed on metals,
bone, stone, wood, and ivory. It is a branch of sculpture,
but the latter term more especially denotes the construction
of independent figures of men and animals, while carving
represents designs of all kinds on the surface of various
objects, such as furniture, doors, walls, goblets, crucifixes,
etc. Ivory was the favorite material in the East from an
early period. During the palmy days of Grecian art ivory
was largely employed. The earliest statues of the gods
were generally of wood, different kinds, of wood being ap-
propriated to different divinities. Carvings in ivory form
an important branch of early Christian sculpture. During
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries we find ivory
again extensively employed. Ornamental carving is now
executed on a large scale by various machines. (See WooD
CARVING, by PREs. A. D. WHITE, LL.D.)
Caſry (ALICE), a talented poet and prose-writer, born
April 26, 1820, 8 miles from Cincinnati, O., was the daugh-
ter of one of the first settlers of Cincinnati. Her family
was of New England origin, and her parents were persons
of cultivation and in good circumstances, but, as they lived
in a newly-settled country, the daughters had but imper-
fect school advantages. When eighteen years of age she
commenced writing for the press, both in prose and verse.
Her sketches, signed “Patty Lee,” in the “National Era,” at-
tracted much attention. In 1850, with her sister Phoebe, no-
ticed below, she published a successful volume of poems. In
1851 the first series of her “Clovernook Papers” appeared.
In 1852 the two sisters removed to New York and devoted
themselves to literature. In this they were successful, for,
without becoming wealthy, they were able to maintain a
pleasant and comfortable home, made not less pleasant by
the genial hospitality and good taste which distinguished its
owners—a hospitality which was highly prized by all who
had the good fortune to share it. Among her earliest and
most constant friends was the late Hon. Horace Greeley. A
place at the tea-table of the Cary sisters was always re-
served for him, and he was one of their most frequent and
welcome guests. Their Sunday evening receptions were
for years the resort of members of the guild of letters, both
authors and publishers making it a place of pleasant
social intercourse. Besides several volumes of poetry and
a great number of contributions to periodical literature, she
published two additional series of “Clovernook” (1853–
54), “Hagar, a Story of To-day ” (1852), “Married not
Mated” (1856), “Pictures of Country Life” (1857), “The
Lover's Diary” (1867), “Snowberries” (1869), and several
5||
802
CARY-CASAR.E.E.P.
other works. Her poetical style is graceful and of a high
order of merit. Her prose is perhaps even better than her
verse. She delighted in the description of simple domestic
scenes, which she presented with much felicity. She was
an untiring worker, though many years of her life were
passed in great suffering, which she endured with remark-
able patience. She died at New York Feb. 12, 1871.
Cary (Col. ARCHIBALD), an American patriot, born in
Virginia about 1730, took an active part in the convention
of 1776 which framed the constitution of Virginia, and
was afterwards a member of the Senate. Died in Sept.,
1786.
Cary (Rev. HENRY FRANCIs), an English poet, born at
Birmingham in 1772, was educated at Oxford. He became
in 1797 vicar of Bromley Abbots. His reputation is
founded on an admirable translation of Dante’s “Divina
Commedia” (1814), which is very accurate and expressive,
and is generally considered the best translation of that
celebrated poem. He was for some years assistant librarian
of the British Museum. Died Aug. 14, 1844.
Cary (PHOEBE), a younger sister of Alice. Cary, noticed
above, was born near Cincinnati, O., Sept. 4, 1824. One
of her earliest productions, written at the age of seventeen,
was the well-known poem commencing “One sweetly solemn
thought comes to me o'er and o’er.” Of the first volume
of poems published by the two sisters, her share was much
the smaller in bulk, though in the opinion of many critics
her poetry was in-no way inferior to that of her sister,
being characterized by more variety, spirit, and humor
than that of Alice. She published “Poems and Parodies”
(1854), “Poems of Faith, Hope, and Love” (1868), besides
numerous hymns and occasional contributions to period-
icals. Phoebe Cary was remarkable for genial and ready
wit in conversation. She did not long survive the death
of Alice. Worn out by anxiety during her sister’s long ill-
ness, and overwhelmed by grief after her death, her system
was unable to throw off an attack of malarial fever, of which
she died at Newport, R.I., July 31, 1871. The sisters were
buried in Greenwood Cemetery, where a beautiful monu-
ment has been erected to their memory at a cost of about
$1000, Mr. Greeley heading the subscription for the purpose.
(See “Alice and Phoebe Cary,” by M. C. AMEs, 1873.)
Cary (SAMUEL F.). See APPENDIx.
Caryat’ides [Gr. Kapvárw8es], the Latin plu. of Caryatis,
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t. e. a woman of Caryae (a city of Laconia), or a virgin
Caryatides, from the Erechtheum at Athens.
dedicated to the service of the Caryan Diana. The term
is applied in Greek architecture to female figures which
were used instead of columns to support a roof or entabla-
ture. They were usually dressed in long robes. The cor-
responding male figures are called Atlantes and Telamones.
Cary/ocar, a genus of large trees of the order Rhizo-
bolaceae, which comprises but few other genera. They are
natives of Brazil and Guiana, and are sometimes called
pekea trees and butter trees. The fruit is a drupe or nut
which has a soft, edible, and delicious kernel, and is known
by the names of butter-nut and souari-mut. The drupe
contains, besides the kernel, a pulp which is like butter,
and is used in cookery as a substitute for it. Oil of good
quality is obtained from the kernels. The timber of the
caryocar is good for shipbuilding. The Caryocar nucifera
is cultivated in the island of St. Vincent.
Caryophylla/ceae [from the specific name of the carna-
tion (Dianthus Caryophyllus)], a matural order of exogen-
ous plants, mostly herbaceous and natives of temperate and
cold countries. They have opposite, entire leaves, often
united at the base, regular flowers, and stems usually swol-
len at the articulations. The fruit is a 1-celled capsule or
pod. The order comprises nearly 1000 species, some of
which have beautiful flowers, as the pink (Diamthus).
Among the other genera are the Silene, Lychnis, Arenaria,
Stellaria (chickweed), and Saponaria (soapwort), which is
said to be a substitute for Soap.
Caryop/sis [from the Gr. Kápvov, a “nut,” and Šipts,
“appearance”], in botany, a fruit in which the seed and
pericarp are so closely united as to be inseparable and un-
distinguishable. The fruit or grain of wheat, barley, maize,
and other graminaceous plants is a caryopsis. It is a
1-celled, 1-seeded, and indehiscent pericarp.
Caryo/ta, a genus of palm, sometimes called the jag-
gery-palm or sugar-palm, growing in India, and Ceylon.
Caryota wrens, a lofty, spreading tree, yields a large amount
of fermentable juice (toddy) when its spathes are incised;
this is boiled down to produce sugar. Its farinaceous pith
resembles sago, and its fibres are used for making ropes.
The quantity of sugar produced in India from this and
a few other palm trees is very great, but the quality is in-
ferior. The cultivation of the jaggery-palm is entirely in
the hands of a caste, or sub-caste, of Soodras, who devote
their whole labor to this crop. The genus Caryota is botani-
cally very distinct from all other known palms.
Ca/rysfort Reef, a dangerous coral-reef at the edge
of the Gulf Stream, near the S. point of Florida, lat. 25°
13' 15" N., lon. 80° 12' 45” W., has an iron-pile lighthouse
112 feet high, with a flashing light of the first order 106
feet above the sea.
Ca/ryville, a village of Oakfield township, Genesee co.,
N. Y., is the seat of Cary Collegiate Institute (Episco-
palian). -
Ca'sa, an Italian and Spanish word signifying a
“house,” a “home,” a “family,” and forming a part of
many Italian and Spanish names.
Casacalen/da, a town of Italy, in the province of
Campobasso, is about 18 miles N. E. of Campobasso. It
has three churches and a convent. Silk and wine of good.
quality are produced in this vicinity. Pop. 6000.
Casa'ie, a fortified town of Italy, in the province of
Alessandria, is on the river Po, 37 miles E. of Turin. It
has an iron bridge across the river, an old castle, and a
cathedral founded in 1474; also several convents, a college,
a public library, a theatre, and two hospitals. Here are
manufactures of silk twist. Casale is the seat of a bishop-
ric, and was formerly the capital of the duchy of Mont-
ferrat. Many Roman remains are found here, Pop. in
1871, 27,514.
Casal' Pusterien/go, a town of Italy, in the prov-
ince of Milano, on the Brembolo, 29 miles S. E. of Milan.
It has manufactures of silk and linen and carthenware, and
a trade in Parmesan cheese, which is made here. Pop.
5437.
Casamas'sima, a town of Italy, in the province of
Eari, 12 miles S. E. of Bari. It has a convent and two
abbeys. Pop. 5941.
Casano/va de Seingalt’ (Grov.ANNI GIACOMO), a cele-
brated Italian adventurer, born at Venice April 2, 1725.
He travelled extensively, passed his life successively in
many European capitals, and mixed with aristocratic so-
ciety. He fought several duels, and was confined in the
dungeons of Venice for nearly two years. About 1790 he
became librarian to Count Waldstein in Bohemia. He is
said to have been witty, dissipated, and greatly addicted to
intrigues. Died June 4, 1798. He left entertaining auto-
biographic memoirs, which were published in 1822.
Casſareep’, Cassareep, or Casaripe, a sauce or
}














CASAS, DE LAS–CASEINE.
803
condiment made of the juice of the bitter cassava or manioc
root. It is highly esteemed in Guiana, where it is em-
tº: to flavor nearly every dish. It is the basis of the
est Indian pepper-pot, and is imported into Great Britain.
It is a powerful antiseptic, by means of which meat can be
kept fresh for a long time. The fresh juice is poisonous,
but its noxious properties are removed by cooking.
Caſsas, de las (BARTOLOMá), a benevolent Spanish
Dominican missionary, born at Seville in 1474. He ac-
companied Nicolas d’Ovando, governor of San Domingo,
to America in 1502, and preached the gospel in Hispaniola.
His sympathies were excited by the cruelty with which he
found that the Indians were treated, and he directed un-
tiring efforts to the improvement of their condition, inter-
ceding with the governor, Velasquez, and the emperor
Charles V. The statement that he suggested the introduc-
tion of African slaves is not now accepted. After he had
officiated as bishop of Chiapa in Mexico, he returned to
Spain in 1551. Died July, 1566. (See ARTHUR HELPs,
“Life of Las Casas,” 1868.)
Casaubon (Is AAC), an eminent Protestant scholar and
critic, born of French parents at Geneva, Feb. 18, 1559.
He was appointed professor of Greek at Geneva in 1582,
and married, about the year 1585, Florence, a daughter of
the well-known Henri Etienne (or Stephanus). He dis-
played great critical sagacity and learning in editions of
classical authors, including Athenaeus, Polybius, and Aris-
totle. In 1599 he removed to Paris, where he taught Greek,
and was made royal librarian by Henry IV. Among his
works is a treatise on religious liberty, “De Libertate Ec-
clesiastica,” (1607). Having emigrated to England in
1610, he was appointed prebendary of Canterbury by.
James I. Died July 1, 1614. (See C. NISARD, “Le Tri-
umvirate littéraire, Juste Lipse, Scaliger, et Casaubon,”
1851.)
Cascade, a post-township of Dubuque co., Ia. Pop.
1289.
Cascade, a post-township of Kent co., Mich. Pop.
1157.
Pop.
Cascade, a post-township of Olmsted co., Minn.
2.
Cascade, a township of Lycoming co., Pa. Pop. 595.
Cascade Range, a chain of mountains in Oregon and
Washington Territory, is nearly parallel with the coast of the
Pacific Ocean, and is a continuation of the Sierra Nevada
of California. The direction of the range is nearly N. and S.
Its distance from the sea-coast is in Oregon about 120 miles.
The Columbia River breaks through this range, forming
the cascades from which the name is derived. Among the
highest summits of this range are Mount Hood, which rises
about 14,000 feet above the sea, and Mount Jefferson, both
in Oregon. Some of the peaks are volcanic, as Mount St.
Helen, about 12,000 feet high.
Cascades, a post-village, capital of Skamania, co.,
Washington Territory, on the N. bank of the Columbia
River, about 50 miles W. of Dalles City.
Cascaril/Ia [diminutive of cascara, the Spanish word
for “bark”], a name given in South America to different
kinds of bitter medicinal barks, including Peruvian bark.
European and American physicians and apothecaries ap-
ply the term to the bark of the Croton Eleutheria, a small
West Indian tree. . This bark is imported into Europe and
the U. S., and is used in medicine as a stimulant tonic.
Cas’ co, a post-township of Cumberland co., Me. It
has manufactures of canned goods, leather, lumber, starch,
etc. Pop. 998.
Casco, a township of Allegan co., Mich. Pop. 1264.
Casco, a post-township of St. Clair co., Mich. Pop.
1991.
. . . Casco, a post-township of Kewaunee co., Wis. Pop.
794.
Casſco Bay, in Maine, washes the shore of Cumber-
land county, and is about 20 miles long. The city of Port-
land is at the western extremity of this bay, which encloses
about 300 islands.
Case [Fr. cas; Lat. casus, a “fall,” an “accident,” a
“casualty,” from cado, casum, to “fall”], a term used in
various senses, signifies an event; a condition in which a
person is placed; the state of the body with respect to health
or disease; a predicament; a situation or contingency; in
grammar, the inflection of nouns or a change of termina-
tion ; in law, a cause or a suit in a court. A wooden box
in which dry goods and hardware are packed is called a
case. To be in good case signifies “to be fat.” Case, in
printing, is a receptacle for types; this is divided into com-
partments, each of which contains ‘the types of but one
letter. Commonly there is an upper and a lower case; the
upper holding the capitals, small capitals, and sorts little
used; the lower, the small letters, points, figures, etc.
Case, in law, is used in a number of significations.
(1) It indicates a form of action, called “an action on the
case.” This action did not exist in the early English law,
but was introduced by a statute of the reign of Edward I.
(Westminster 2d). It is founded on the peculiar circum-
stances of the case, and supplies a remedy for such wrongs
as cannot be included under the term “trespass,” and
which are in their nature indirect and consequential. It
applies to such wrongs either committed against one’s per-
son or property, whether real or personal. The action is
sometimes called “trespass on the case,” and at other
times simply “case.” Out of this action grew the modern
action of “assumpsit,” which is really instituted to re-
cover damages for breach of contract. (2) It sometimes
means a suit or action in court. Thus, in the U. S. Con-
stitution it is said that the judicial power of the Federal
courts shall extend to all cases in law and equity. The
meaning of the word has been settled by adjudication, as
shown in approved treatises on the Constitution. (3)
Another sense is a written or printed statement of facts for
the opinion of counsel or for the decision of a court with-
out regular trial. The question then to be decided is a
question of law, and the facts are sometimes presented by
agreement, and at other times through the formal interven-
tion of a jury. This is frequently called a “case stated.”
(4) In legal practice the word is used to denote the mode
of presenting the facts which occurred at a trial to an ap-
pellate court for review. If the respective parties fail to
agree on a statement of facts, the court before which the
trial occurred passes definitively upon them in a prescribed
manner, and is thereupon said to “settle” the case.
Case (AUGUSTUs LUDLow), U. S. N., born Feb. 3, 1831,
in Newburg, N. Y., entered the navy as a midshipman
April 1, 1828, became a passed midshipman in 1834, a lieu-
tenant in 1838, a commander in 1855, a captain in 1863, a
commodore in 1867, and a rear-admiral in 1872. He served
on the E. coast of Mexico during the Mexican war, par-
ticipating in the capture of Vera Cruz and Tobasco. Early
in 1861, Commander Case was appointed fleet-captain of
the North Atlantic blockading squadron, in which capacity
he took part in the capture of Forts Hatteras and Clarke,
Aug. 29, 1861, and in the operations in the sounds of North
Carolina in the winter of 1862. In 1863, in command of
the Iroquois, and assisted by the steamers James Adger
and Mount Vernon, he cut out the blockade-runner Kate,
under the fire of the forts and batteries at New Inlet, N. C.
Referring to the capture of Forts Hatteras and Clarke, Flag-
officer Stringham, in his official report of Sept. 2, 1861,
writes: “I here take the opportunity of mentioning with
great pleasure the name of Commander A. Ludlow Case,
my fleet-captain, for very prompt and efficient services
during all the time we have been occupied in the expe-
dition so successfully terminated.” And Flag-officer Golds-
borough, in a letter to the navy department dated Feb. 18,
1862, says: “It is really difficult for me to state, in ade-
quate terms, how largely I feel myself indebted to Com-
manders Rowan and Case for their constant and signal
services. They, hand in hand, with their marked ability
and sound sense, and in the absence of all ordinary facil-
ities, brought about, at Hampton Roads, the arming, man-
ning, and equipment of the many vessels sent to us, from
necessity, in an unprepared condition; and subsequently
they both labored, most conspicuously and faithfully, in
their respective spheres of action, to vanquish difficulties
. . . at Roanoke. In short, their assistance has been in-
valuable to me.” He was chief of the bureau of ordnance
from Aug., 1869, to May, 1873; in June, 1873, he was ap-
pointed to the command of the European squadron.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Case-hardening is forming a covering of steel on the
surfaces of gun-locks, tools, the upper surface of railroad
iron, grates, fenders, etc. The articles are first heated to
redness, sprinkled with yellow prussiate of potash, and
heated again. The heat decomposes the prussiate of pot-
ash, and the liberated carbon combines with the iron, form-
ing a coating of steel on the surface. Another mode is to
surround the articles with a layer of animal matter, such
as powder from charred hoofs or waste leather, with a little
common salt, and heat them in an iron case to redness, re-
taining them at that temperature for half an hour or more;
the articles are then taken out and cooled in cold Water or
in oil. The coating of steel is very thin, seldom exceed-
ing one-sixteenth of an inch. The steel covering makes
the articles more durable, and admits of a better polish.
Ca'seine [from the Lat. caseus, “ cheese ’j, a nitrogen-
ous organic substance allied to albumen, found in milk,
and most abundantly in that of flesh-eating animals. It
is said to be occasionally found in the fluid of cysts. It is
804.
CASEMATE–CASHMERE.
also found (as legumine, and probably as amandine, both
being regarded as identical with it) in peas, beans, almonds,
and other seeds. Vegetable and animal caseines behave
exactly alike with chemical tests, and when pure cannot
be distinguished by the taste. The proportion in cow's milk
is about 4 per cent. ; in dried peas, 25 per cent. Caseine
is coagulated (curdled) by acids or by rennet, and is the
chief constituent of CHEESE (which see). It also forms in-
soluble precipitates with corrosive sublimate, with nitrate
of silver, and with acetate of lead. Hence, copious draughts
of milk afford a ready antidote in cases of poisoning with
either of the above salts. Caseine is also used in calico-
printing. The probable proportions of the constituent ele-
ments of caseine in 100 parts have been given as follows:
carbon, 53.83 parts; oxygen, 22.52; nitrogen, 15.65; hy-
drogen, 7.15; sulphur, 0.85, with perhaps a little phos-
phorus; but its composition is not exactly known.
- CHARLES W. GREENE.
Casemate [from the Sp. casa, “house,” and matar, “to
kill”] was originally a loopholed gallery excavated in a
bastion, from which the garrison could fire on an enemy
who had obtained possession of the ditch. The term was
afterwards applied to a bomb-proof vault in a fortress,
which is designed for the protection of the garrison, and is
sometimes used as a barrack or hospital. A casemated bat-
tery consists of such a vault or vaults, with openings for
the guns, called “embrasures” or ports. The term ease-
mate is also applied to the part of an iron-clad vessel
armored to protect broadside guns.
Casement, a portion of a window-sash made to open
or turn on hinges; a frame with hinges enclosing part of
the glazing of a window. Such windows are very common
on the continent of Europe. The term is also applied to a
deep, hollow circular moulding, similar to the Scotia of clas-
sical and the cavetto of Italian architecture.
Caseno’via, a township of Muskegon co., Mich. Pop.
1094.
Caserta. See TERRA DI LAVORO.
Caser'ta, a town of Italy, capital of Terra di Lavoro,
is situated on a plain about 21 miles by rail N. E. of Naples.
It has, besides numerous churches and a military school, a
magnificent royal palace, which was built by Vanvitelli
about 1755, and is one of the largest in Europe. Con-
nected with the palace is a fine park and an aqueduct.
Here is a royal silk-factory, in which about 700 persons
are employed. Pop. in 1871, 29,142.
Case-Shot [Fr. mitraille; Ger. Kartätschenschw88 (i. e.
“cartridge-shot”)] is the name of a projectile, consisting
of several balls or bullets of lead or iron packed in a case.
When the case is a cylinder of tin with a wooden bottom,
the whole is called cylindrical-case or canister. The num-
ber of shot in each canister varies from 40 to 126. Some
armies use canister with an explosive charge in the centre,
but more commonly it has no such charge. When the balls
are affixed to a central spindle without a case, or enclosed
in a canvas bag, they are called grape-shot. This is espe-
cially used in garrison-artillery. Against advancing lines
the effect of grape and canister at close range is often ter-
rible, but solid shot and shell are preferred against columns.
Spherical-case or shrapnel (so named from its inventor) is
a thin cast-iron shell, containing a chamber with a light or
bursting charge of gunpowder, around which are packed
bullets of lead or iron. It should burst at least forty yards
in advance of the enemy. This missile is effective at three
times the range of canister, but at long distances its effect
is often lost from lack of precision in the aim or in the cut-
ting of the fuse.
Caseville, a post-township of Huron co., Mich. P. 382.
Caſsey, a county in S. Central Kentucky. Area, 350
square miles. It is intersected by Green River. The sur-
face is uneven or hilly. Wheat, tobacco, and corn are the
chief crops; cattle and wool are also raised. Capital, Lib-
erty. Pop. 8884. -
Casey, a post-village of Cumberland township, Clark
co., Ill., on the St. Louis Vandalia Terre Haute and Indian-
apolis R. R., 18 miles W. S. W. of Marshall. It has one
weekly newspaper. -
Casey, a post-village of Thompson township, Guthrie
co., Ia., on the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific R. R., 82
miles E. by N. of Council Bluffs. It has one weekly news-
paper. -- ſ
Casey (SILAs), an American officer, born July 12, 1807,
at East Greenwich, R.I., graduated at West Point 1826,
and Oct. 9, 1861, became colonel Fourth Infantry, and May
31, 1862, major-general U. S. volunteers. He served on
western and northern frontiers 1826–36, in Florida war
1837–41, engaged at Pilaklikaka, on northern frontier 1842–
47, in war with Mexico 1847–48, engaged at Contreras and
Churubusco (brevet major), Molino del Rey, and Chapul-
tepec (wounded in leading assault, and brevet lieutenant-
colonel), on the Pacific frontier 1848–54, on tactical and
arms boards 1854–55, and at Puget Sound post 1856–61,
engaged in several Indian skirmishes. During the civil war
he served in preparing volunteers for the field at Washing-
ton, D.C., 1861–62, in the Virginia peninsula 1862, engaged
at Fair Oaks (brevet brigadier-general), as president of
board for examination of officers of colored troops 1863–65,
in command at Detroit, Mich., 1865–67, and commissioner
to examine war-claims of Ohio. Brevet major-general
U. S. A. Mar. 31, 1866, for gallant and meritorious servièes.
Compiled and edited a system of “Infantry Tactics” for
the U. S. service 1862, and “Infantry Tactics for Colored
Troops,” 1863, and was retired from active service July 8,
1868. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Casey (SILAs, J.R.), U. S. N., born Sept. 11, 1841, in
Rhode Island, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1860,
became a master in 1861, a lieutenant in 1862, a lieutenant-
commander in 1866. In 1861 he was attached to the steamer
Wissahickon, South Atlantic blockading squadron, and
participated in the first attack on Fort Sumter, and in va-
rious engagements with the forts and batteries in Charles-
ton Harbor. Rox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Casey (THOMAS LINCOLN). See APPENDIX.
Ca/seyville, a post-village of St. Clair co., Ill., on the
Ohio and Mississippi R. R., 9 miles E. of St. Louis. Coal .
is here extensively mined.
Caseyville, a post-village of Union co., Ky., on the Ohio
River, 13 miles below Shawneetown. Pop. 560.
Cash [Fr. caisse; Ger. Kasse], money; coin or current
bank-notes; ready money. It is often used to denote im-
mediate payment, and goods are said to be sold for cash
when they are not sold on credit.
Cash-book, a book in which merchants, bankers, and
others keep an exact and methodical account of each sum
of money received or paid by them.
Cash'el, a town of Ireland, in the county of Tipperary,
is 105 miles by railway S. W. of Dublin and 49 miles
N. N. E. of Cork. It is built on the slopes of an isolated
limestone hill rising abruptly from a rich plain. Cashel
was the residence of the kings of Munster, and is now a
bishop's see. The top of the hill called the “Rock of
Cashel” is occupied by the most interesting ruins in Ire-
land. These consist of a round tower ninety feet high, the
palace of the kings of Munster, a chapel of Saxon and Nor-
man architecture, and a cathedral which was founded in
1169, and is said to have been the largest in the country.
It was built of limestone. Pop. in 1871, 3976.
Cash'er’s Wal’ley, a post-township of Jackson co.,
N. C. Pop. 509.
Cashew’-nut (Anacardium occidentale), a tree of the
order Anacardiaceae, is a native of the tropical parts of
America, and perhaps of Asia. It abounds in a clammy,
milky, and acrid juice which turns black on exposure to the
air, and is used in India as a varnish. The fruit is a kid-
ney-shaped nut attached to the larger end of a pear-shaped,
fleshy stem, from which the botanical character of the genus
is derived. The shell, which is double, encloses an oily
kernel which is very agreeable and wholesome; and is a
common article of food in tropical countries. The fleshy
stem, sometimes called the cashew-apple, is also edible and
refreshing, having an acid taste. In size it is nearly equal
to an orange. A pleasant vinous beverage is prepared from
its fermented juice. The oil is used as a remedy for leprosy.
Cashew is a corruption of the French acajou.
Cash'gar, the former capital of Chinese Toorkistan, on
the side of a mountain and on a stream 140 miles N. W.
of Yarkund. It is encircled by an earthen wall, and is
divided into the Chinese and Mohammedan cities, the
latter much the larger. There is considerable luxury
among the people, as well as an industrious and skilful
artisan class, workers in gold and jasper, weavers of silk
and carpets, and dyers of calico. It has a trade with Bok-
hara, exchanging tea, porcelain, silk, etc. for European
merchandise. The Chinese acquired dominion over this
place about eighty years ago, and have here a garrison of
8000 men. Pop. 40,000 to 50,000.
Cashier’ [Fr. caissier], a cash-keeper, a person who
has charge of the cash in a bank, counting-house, or other
place of business. The president and the cashier are the
highest officers of a bank, and they write their signatures
on each bank-note. The cashier superintends the books
and transactions of the bank, under the order of the direc-
torS.
Cashmere, kash-meer', written also Kaschmir and
Rachemir (anc. Caspira), a country and valley of North-
ern Hindostan, bordering on Thibet, belongs to the domin-
CASHMERE
GOAT—CASS.
805
ion of Gholab Sing, which comprises Baltistan, Cashmere,
and Loday, the whole of which is sometimes called the ,
empire of Cashmere, and has an area of 60,100 square
miles, and a population of 3,000,000. The valley of Cash-
mere is surrounded on all sides by lofty mountains (the Him-
alayas). It is mostly included between 33° 30' and 34° 35'
N., and between 74° 20' and 75° 40' E. Area, estimated at
5100 square miles. Pop. about 400,000. The bottom of
the valley is about 5500 feet above the level of the sea.
Among the highest peaks on the frontier of Cashmere is
the Pir Panjal, which rises about 15,000 feet above the
level of the sea. The mountains are partly of basaltic
formation, and limestone is abundant in the valley. The
mountain-barrier is indented by several passes, none of
which are practicable for wheel-carriages. The chief river
is the Jhylum, which rises in the S. E. part, traverses the
middle of the valley, and flows out through the Baramoola
Pass. Cashmere may be said to equal or surpass almost
every other portion of the earth in the beauty of its scenery.
Cashmere contains several lakes, and is admirably supplied
with the means of irrigation. The soil is mostly alluvial
and exceedingly fertile. The staple production is rice, be-
sides which wheat, maize, and barley are cultivated here.
This valley is renowned for the abundance and fine quality
of its fruits—apples, pears, apricots, cherries, etc. Among
the forest trees is the deodar (Cedrus Deodara), the pine,
and the walnut. The inhabitants are mostly Mohammedans.
In physical qualities they excel the natives of the other
parts of Hindostan.
widely celebrated and bring high prices. The material of
these is the wool of the CASHMERE GoAT (which see). The
Cashmerians are excellent lapidaries, and are noted for the
fabrication of firearms. Chief town, Serinagur or Cashmere.
Cashmere was conquered by the emperor Akbār in 1586,
and annexed to the Mogul empire. The Afghans became
masters of it in 1752, and held it until 1819, when it was
subjugated by the Sikhs. In 1849 it was ceded to the
British, who transferred it to Gholab Sing.
REVISED BY A. J. SCHEM.
Cashmere Goat, a variety of the goat remarkable for
its long, fine, and silky hair, from which Cashmere shawls
are made. This goat is found in Thibet, from which the
finest hair is imported into Cashmere, to be there manu-
factured. The hair is longer than that of the Angora goat,
and not, like it, curled, but straight, and about eighteen
inches long. A single goat does not yield more than three
ounces, and the fleeces of ten goats are requisite for a shawl
a yard and a half square. The hair is spun by women, and
dyed after it is spun. Some 16,000 looms are in constant
employment in Cashmere, producing annually about 30,000
shawls. Woven in rude looms, a pair of shawls sometimes
occupy three or four men a year in weaving. Plain shawls
are simply woven, but those with varied patterns are worked
with wooden needles. These shawls are in the highest re-
quest, but the hair of other breeds of goats is employed for
the manufacture of shawls called by the same name. Im-
itations are manufactured in France, some from the Thibet
wool, and others of a mixture of this with silk and cotton.
Attempts have been made to introduce the Cashmere
goat into Europe and America. In Northern South Caro-
lina, and the neighboring regions it thrives well, as also in
California. A mixed race, produced by crossing the Cash-
mere and the Angora goat, possesses valuable qualities, the
hair being long, fine, and more abundant than in the parent
breeds. *
Cas’imir III., surnamed THE GREAT, king of Poland,
born in 1309, was a son of Ladislaus, king of Poland,
whom he succeeded in 1333. He enlarged his dominions
by the conquest of Red Russia about 1366, and repelled the
aggressions of the Tartars. He promoted education and
founded colleges and hospitals. He died Nov. 8, 1370,
and was succeeded by his nephew, Louis of Hungary.
Casimir IV., son of the prince Jagello of Lithuania,
born Nov. 29, 1427, was in 1444 elected king of Poland.
He carried on, for nearly twenty years, a war with the
Teutonic Order, which in the peace of Thorn (1466) had to
cede West Prussia, to Poland; and by convoking in 1468
the nobility became founder of the Polish constitution.
Died June 7, 1492.
Casi'no [diminutive of Italian casa, a “house”] signi-
fies a place for social reunions. Italian nobles have long
had casinos detached from their palaces, and public casinos
were the result of an attempt made by the middle classes
to imitate them. A casino is generally a place where
musical or dancing soirées are held, containing a conver-
sation-room and rooms for amusement, as well as apart-
ments where refreshments may be had. They are numer-
ous in Italy and Germany, and have been introduced into
England. In general, they are not believed to exert a
good moral influence. *
They manufacture shawls which are
Casi'no, or Monſte Casi'no, a mountain of Italy,
in Terra di Lavoro, about 55 miles N. N. W. of Naples.
It is close to the town of San Germano, and is the site of a
celebrated Benedictine abbey founded in 529 A. D. by
Saint Benedict. This abbey is remarkable for its archi-
tecture, its wealth, its library, and the learning of its
monks. Several valuable works have been issued from the
press of Monte Casino. - -
Cask’s, a township of Talladega co., Ala. Pop. 737.
Caso/ria, a town of Italy, in the province of Napoli,
6 miles N. N. E. of Naples. It has four fine churches.
Silk is produced in this vicinity. Pop. 6934.
Casſpe, a town of Spain, in Aragon, province of Sara-
gossa, is situated near the river Ebro, 53 miles S. E. of
Saragossa. It has three churches, a town-hall, and man-
ufactures of oil and soap. Pop. 9402.
Casſper, a township of Union co., III. Pop. 2718.
Cas/pian Sea [Lat. Mare Caspium, or Mare Hyrca-
nium ; Gr. Kaa tria O&Aaaraaj, a large inland Sea forming
part of the boundary between Europe and Asia. It has on
the N. European Russia, on the E. the Khirgeez steppe, or
Toorkomania, on the S. Persia, and on the W. Persia and
Georgia. It is about 690 miles long from N. to S., and has
an average width of near 200 miles. The area is esti-
mated by Berghaus at 156,800 square miles. The depth
of water towards the S. is said to be 3000 feet, but
towards the N. it is generally shallow, seldom being more
than 3 feet deep at a distance of 100 yards from the shore.
According to some authorities, the greatest depth is only
600 feet. The depression of the surface of the Caspian be-
low that of the Black Sea is about eighty-four feet. The
Caspian receives several large rivers—viz. the Volga, the
Ural, and the Koor. It has no outlet, and its superfluous
water can only escape by evaporation. Between the Cas-
pian and the Sea of Aral is a low flat tract forming part
of the steppes of Western Asia. This tract, which is said
to be lower than the surface of the Atlantic Ocean, was
probably once covered by the Caspian Sea. This region
is considered one of the most interesting subjects in the
physical geography of the globe. That the Caspian and
the Sea of Aral were once connected is rendered evident
by the nature of the rocks in the vast plains which extend
from them in several directions. Great numbers of stur-
geons and salmon are caught in this sea, in which various
other kinds of fish are also abundant. A communication
has been opened between the Caspian Sea and the Baltic
by a canal which connects the Volga with the rivers
Tvertza and Schlina. Steam-packets navigate the Caspian,
the commerce of which is mostly in the hands of the Rus-
sians. The chief ports are Astrakhan and Derbend. .
Cass co., Dak. See APPENDIX. -
Cass, a county in W. Central Illinois. Area, 350 square
miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by the Illinois River
and on the N. by the Sangamon. The surface is nearly
level; the soil is very fertile. Corn, oats, wool, and live-
stock are largely raised. It is intersected by the Peoria
Pekin and Jacksonville and the Rockford Rock Island
and St. Louis R. Rs. Capital, Beardstown. Pop. 11,580.
Cass, a county in N. Central Indiana. Area, 420
square miles. It is intersected by the Wabash River, and
also drained by the Eel River. The surface is nearly level;
the soil is fertile. Grain, wool, and dairy products are ex-
tensively raised. Iron ore and good building-stone are
found here. The most numerous manufactories are of
cooperage. The county is traversed by the Toledo Wa-
bash and Western R. R., and by a railroad which connects
Chicago with Cincinnati. Capital, Logansport. Pop. 24,193.
Cass, a county in S. W. Iowa. Area, 576 square miles.
It is intersected by the East Nishnabatona River, and also
drained by Turkey and other creeks. The surface is un-
dulating; the soil is fertile. Grain and dairy products are
staple crops. It is traversed by the railroad which con-
nects Des Moines with Council Bluffs. Capital, Lewis.
Pop. 5464. *
Cass, a county of Michigan, bordering on Indiana.
Area, 528 square miles. It is drained by the Dowagiac
River, and contains several small lakes. The surface is
nearly level; the soil is very fertile. Grain, cattle, and
wool are largely produced. ... The county has extensive
prairies and * oak openings.” Lumber, wagons, etc. are
manufactured. It is intersected by the Central and Penin-
sular R. Rs. Capital, Cassopolis. Pop. 21,094.
Cass, a large county in N. Central Minnesota. A large
part of its boundary is formed by the Mississippi River,
which rises on its north-western border. It contains
numerous lakes, among which are Leech and Itasca Lakes.
The surface is partly covered with forests. Pop. 380.
Cass, a county of Missouri, bordering on Kansas.
806
CASS—CASSEL.
Area, 700 square miles. It is drained by the two main
branches of Grand River. The surface is undulating, and
diversified with groves and extensive prairies; the soil is
fertile. Corn, oats, tobacco, wool, and live-stock are ex-
tensively raised. Limestone is abundant here. The
county is intersected by the Osage division of the Missouri
Kansas and Texas R. R. Capital, Harrisonville. Pop.
19.296.
Cass, a county in the E. of Nebraska. Area, 570
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Missouri
River, and on the N. by the Platte River. The greater
part of it is undulating prairie, the soil of which is calca-
reous and fertile. Grain and wool are staple products.
Limestone occurs here as a surface-rock. The county is
traversed by the Burlington and Missouri River R. R. Cap-
ital, Plattsmouth. Pop. 8151. 4.
Cass, a township of Fulton co., III. Pop. 1283.
Cass, a township of Clay co., Ind. Pop. 470.
Cass, a township of Greene co., Ind. Pop. 819.
Cass, a township of La Porte co., Ind. Pop. 1214.
Cass, a township of Ohio co., Ind. Pop. 772.
Cass, a township of Pulaski co., Ind. Pop. 460.
Cass, a township of Sullivan co., Ind. Pop. 1488.
Cass, a township of White co., Ind. Pop. 451.
Cass, a township of Boone co., Ia. Pop. 895.
Cass, a township of Cass co., Ia. Pop. 1200.
Cass, a township of Cedar co., Ia. Pop. 591.
Cass, a township of Clayton co., Ia. Pop. 1272.
Cass, a township of Guthrie co., Ia. Pop. 1754.
Cass, a township of Hamilton co., Ia. Pop. 433.
Cass, a township of Harrison co., Ia. Pop. 217.
Cass, a township of Jones co., Ia. Pop. 913.
Cass, a township of Shelby co., Ia. Pop. 120.
Cass, a township of Wapello co., Ia. Pop. 859.
Cass, a township of Douglas co., Mo. Pop. 410.
Cass, a township of Greene co., Mo. Pop. 1531.
Cass, a township of Stone co., Mo. Pop. 592.
Cass, a township of Texas co., Mo. Pop. 779.
Cass, a township of Hancock co., O. Pop. 759.
Cass, a township of Muskingum co., O. Pop. 851.
Cass, a township of Richland co., O. Pop. 1274.
Cass, a township of Huntingdon co., Pa. Pop. 599.
Cass, a township of Schuylkill co., Pa. Pop. 4621.
Cass, a township of Monongalia co., West Va. Pop.
1449.
Cass (GEORGE W.), an engineer, born in 1810 at Browns–
ville, Fayette co., Pa., graduated at West Point in 1832.
He served while lieutenant of infantry on topographical
and engineer duty till he resigned Oct. 26, 1836. Civil
engineer 1836–41; merchant of Brownsville, Pa., 1842–52;
president of Adams Express Co., 1854–57; of Ohio and
Pennsylvania R. R. 1856; of Pittsburg Fort Wayne and
Chicago R. R. 1856–58 and since 1859, and of Northern
Pacific R. R. since 1873.
- GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Cass (IEWIs), L.L.D., an American statesman, born at
Exeter, .N. H., Oct. 9, 1782. He studied law, which he
began to practise at Zanesville, O., in 1802. Having
entered the army as a colonel in 1812, he served in Canada,
under Gen. Hull, and was taken prisoner. He was raised
to the rank of brigadier-general in 1813, and appointed
governor of Michigan Territory in 1814. After he had
held that office sixteen years, and negotiated many treaties
with the Indians, he was appointed secretary of war by
President Jackson in 1831. He was sent as minister to
France in 1836, returned home in 1842, and was elected a
Senator of the U. S. for Michigan in 1844. Having opposed
the Wilmot Proviso, he was nominated as Democratic can-
didate for the presidency of the U. S. in 1848, but he was
defeated by Gen. Taylor, the Whig candidate, who received
163 electoral votes; Gen. Cass received 137 electoral votes.
In the winter of 1850–51 he was re-elected to the Senate
of the U. S. He supported Douglas's Kansas-Nebraska
bill in 1854, and became secretary of state in Mar., 1857.
He resigned in Dec., 1860. Died June 17, 1866.
Gen. Cass's history well illustrates the great possibilities
which have justly served as an encouragement to young
men of this country born in humble circumstances. With:
out fortune or friends, and with an imperfect education, he
went to Ohio on foot when seventeen years old. Elected
to the legislature, his zeal against the suspected treason of
Burr brought him to the favorable notice of President Jef-
ferson and the people. His services in the war with Great
Britain were useful to the nation, and greatly increased
his popularity. During his long governorship of Michi-
gan his success in managing the disaffected Indians, and
in developing the resources of the Territory, demonstrated
his great abilities. To his power of making strong per-
sonal friends much of his success was due. He was demo-
cratic in his tastes and habits, as well as in his political
opinions. He attained a large fortune and much political
influence. Throughout the civil war he was in favor of the
maintenance of the Federal union. Gen. Cass was a
man of literary tastes. His published writings are not
numerous, but are well written and display much ability.
(See H. R. ScHoolon AFT, “Life of General Cass,” 1848;
W. L. G. SMITH, “Life of Lewis Cass,” 1856.)
Cassada/ga, a post-village of Stockton township, Chau-
tauqua co., N. Y., on Cassadaga Lake. Pop. 225.
Cassan/der [Gr. Káororavčpos], a Macedonian prince,
was a son of Antipater, regent of Macedonia. When An-
tipater died, in 318 B.C., Cassander and Polysperchon
became competitors for the regency, and appealed to arms.
Cassander was victorious, and having taken Athens, re-
stored the aristocracy under Demetrius Phalereus in 316
B. C. He married Thessalonice, a sister of Alexander the
Great, and obtained possession of Alexander's infant son,
whom he put to death in 309, and usurped the throne. He
joined Seleucus and Ptolemy in a coalition against Antig-
onus, whom these allies defeated at the battle of Ipsus in
301 B. C. He died in 297, and was succeeded by his son
Philip.
Cassan/dra [Kaororáv8pa], an ancient Trojan princess,
a daughter of Priam, was celebrated for her prophetic in-
spiration. According to the poetical legend, Apollo was
enamored of her, and taught her the secrets of fate, but he
ordained that her prophecies should not be credited. Dur-
ing the siege of Troy she predicted the ruin of that city,
but she was regarded as a lunatic by the Trojans. She
was carried away as a captive by Agamemnon.
Cassandra, Gulf of (ame. Toronaicus Silvus), is a
part of the AEgean Sea, in European Turkey, and extends
between two peninsulas, the extremities of which are called
Cape Drepano and Cape Pailluri. It is nearly 25 miles
long. - -
Cassa/no, a town of Italy, in the province of Calabria
Citeriore, 30 miles N. of Cosenza. It stands in the concave
recess of a steep mountain, in the midst of beautiful
scenery. It has a cathedral, several convents, and an old
castle; also manufactures of silk, limen, cotton, and leather.
Pop. 7456. -
Cassation. See CourTs, by GEORGE CHASE, LL.B.
Cassa’va, a West Indian name of the plant called
manioc or manihot, and of the starch or fecula prepared
from its root. It is known in the U. S. by the name of
TAPIOCA (which see).
Cassay’, Mummipoor', or Munepoor, a country
of Farther India, is bounded on the N. W. by Assam, and
|E. and S. by the Burmese dominions and the country of
the independent Kookies. It is mostly included between
lat. 24° and 26° N., and between lon. 93° and 95° E. The
area is said to be 7584 square miles. The surface is diversi-
fied by valleys and high mountains which are covered with
forests. The staple productions are tea, rice, cotton, indigo,
sugar, opium, and tobacco. The finest pineapples in the
world are produced here. The Cassay ponies are celebrated
throughout the East, and much sought in Burmah for cay-
alry horses. Capital, Munipoor. Cassay became independ-
ent in 1826, before which it was part of the Burmese
empire. It is governed by a native rajah.
Cass co., Tex. See DAVIS Co., Tex.
Cassel (anc. Castellum), a town of France, department
of Nord, is on an isolated hill 550 feet in height, 27 miles
N.W. of Lille, with which, it is connected by a railway.
It was formerly fortified, and was the scene of several
military events. Here are manufactures of lace, hosiery,
and linen thread. It commands a very extensive view of
the level surrounding country. Pop. 4242.
Cas/sel (anc. Castellum Cattorum), a walled city of
Prussia, the capital of the province of Hesse-Cassel, is
pleasantly situated on both sides of the river Fulda, about
132 miles W. of Leipsic, and 28 miles S.W. of Göttingen.
It is connected by railways with Leipsic, Frankfort, and
other towns. It has several public squares, in the largest
of which, called Friedrichsplatz, stands the palace of the
electors of Hesse. Near this palace is a handsome museum
with a library of about 100,000 volumes. Cassel contains
an observatory, a valuable picture-gallery, a theatre, sev-
eral hospitals, a normal school, and academies of painting
and sculpture. It has manufactures of cotton, silk, and
woollen fabrics, lace, gloves, carpets, hardware, etc. In
the environs of Cassel is the royal palace of Wilhelmshöhe,

CASSEL–CASSOPOLIS.
807
with beautiful gardens and fountains. This palace was
occupied by the emperor Napoleon III. while he was a
captive in the autumn of 1870 and the ensuing winter.
Pop. in 1871, 46,375.
Cas'sel (Douglas R.), U. S. N., born Oct. 9, 1845, in
Ohio, graduated at the Naval Academy as ensign in 1863,
became a lieutenant in 1866, and a lieutenant-commander
in 1868. While attached to the steam-sloop Brooklyn was
slightly wounded at the battle of Mobile Bay, but remained
at his quarters until the close of the action. He is thus
honorably noticed by his commanding officer, Capt. James
Alden, in his report of Aug. 6, 1864: “The other division
officers—Capt. Houston of the marines, Lieut. Charles F.
Blake, Ensigns Cassel and Sigsbee, with their assistants,
Master’s Mates Duncan and Stevens—fought their guns
nobly and well.” He served in the Brooklyn during both
the Fort Fisher fights, and led the seamen of the Brooklyn
in the assault on the fort of Jan. 15, 1865.
IFox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Cas'serly (EUGENE), born in Ireland in 1822. In 1824
he emigrated to America with his parents, became a lawyer
and journalist of New York, and removed to California in
1850, where he became a Democratic politician and editor
in San Francisco. In 1869 he was chosen U. S. Senator
from that State, but resigned in 1873.
Cas'sia, a fragrant bark mentioned in the Bible, and
supposed to be the cassia-bark of the shops, a coarse
variety of cinnamon from China, Anam, and other eastern
countries. It is generally sold as cinnamom, which it
much resembles, though cheaper and generally inferior in
quality. It yields the oil of cinnamon. “Cassia buds.”
are the dried flower-buds which are brought from China
and used in confectionery.
CASSIA is the name of a genus of leguminous herbs,
shrubs, and trees, natives of both continents. Several
African and Asiatic species are valuable for their leaves,
which when dried constitute the drug senna. The U. S.
have numerous species, one of which (Cassia Marilandica)
yields leaves which have the cathartic properties of senna
in a milder degree. “Cassia pulp ’’ or “purging cassia.”
comes from the pods of Cathartocarpus Fistula or Cassia
Fistula, a tree of India and Egypt, now naturalized in
most tropical countries. It contains a large percentage of
Sugar, and is used in making laxative conserves for med-
icinal use.
Cas'sian [Lat. Cassianus], (John), a monk noted as a
promoter of monachism and as an opponent of Saint
Augustine, was born about 350 A. D. He founded a large
monastery at Marseilles (about the year 415), which was a
model for many others in Gaul and Spain. He differed
from Saint Augustine respecting grace, and taught doc-
trines which were called semi-Pelagian. Among his works
is a “Treatise on Monastic Institutions.” Died about 433
D.
Cas'sican, a name applied to the baritas of Australa-
sia and other birds, but appropriately belonging to the
genus Cassicus, resembling the orioles. The best known
species is the Cassicus cristatus of South America, a bird
twenty inches long, which makes a large nest exhibiting
great skill in construction. The nests are often three feet
long, and are hung upon the branches of trees. They are
gregarious birds, and often build several of their huge
nests upon the same tree.
Cas'simere [formerly kerseymere, not improbably de-
rived from Cashmere; Fr. casimir; Ger. Kasimir], a twilled
woollen or cotton and woollen fabric, either plain or figured,
much used for men’s clothing. Cassimeres are largely
woven in England and the U. S., but especially on the
continent of Europe.
Cas'sin (John), an American naturalist, born in Dela-
ware co., Pa., Sept. 6, 1813. He published, besides other
works, “American Ornithology: a General Synopsis of
North American Ornithology, containing Descriptions and
Figures of all North American Birds not given by former
American Authors” (1856). Died Jan. 10, 1869.
Cassiºni (GIov ANNI DOMENICO), an eminent astronomer,
born near Nice, June 8, 1625. He discovered in 1665 that
Jupiter performs a rotation in nine hours and fifty-six
minutes, and published in 1668 his ephemerides of the
satellites of Jupiter. Invited by Colbert, he removed to
Paris in 1669, and became director of the observatory of
that city. In 1684 he discovered four satellites of Saturn.
His descendants for several generations were able astrono-
mers. Died Sept. 14, 1712. (See his “Autobiography;”
also FONTENELLE, “Eloge de J. D. Cassini.”)
Cassiſmo, a town of Italy, in the province of Caserta,
49 miles by rail N. W. of Caserta. Large ruins of Roman
theatres and palaces are in the neighborhood. Just above
the city, on a high mountain, is the celebrated monastery
Monte Cassino, connected with which is a seminary, a gym-
nasium, and a large library containing many Valuable
manuscripts. Pop. 5641.
Cassiodo'rus (MAGNUs AURELIUs), a Latin historian
and minister of state, was born at Scylacium (Squillace), in
Italy, about 468 A. D. He entered the service of Theodoric,
king of the Ostrogoths, about 494, and became his chief
minister. He had a high reputation for ability and learn-
ing, and continued in power for many years. He wrote,
besides works on grammar and rhetoric, a “History of the
Goths,” and a valuable collection of state papers entitled
“Variarum Epistolarum Libri XII.,” which was printed
in 1533.
Cassiope'a, or “pia, Cassiepe'a, or Cassi'ope
[Gr. Kaorováirewa, Kaorotéireta, Kaaratóm], in classic mythology,
the wife of Cepheus and the mother of Andromeda. She
was said to have been transformed into a constellation.
Cassiope'ia, or “Lady in the Chair,” a constellation
in the northern hemisphere, has several stars of the third
magnitude. It is represented on the celestial globe as a
lady sitting in a chair. Five of its most conspicuous stars
are arranged in a figure like a W. In 1572 a new and
brilliant star suddenly appeared in Cassiopeia. It was ob-
served by Tycho Brahe in November, and is said to have
surpassed all the fixed stars in splendor. It disappeared
in Mar., 1574, after a gradual diminution of Justre.
Cassiquia’re, or Cassiquia’ri, a river of South
America, in Venezuela, is a deep and rapid stream, forming
the S. bifurcation of the Orinoco. It issues from the Ori-
noco about lat. 3° 10' N. and lon. 66° 20' W., and flowing
south-westward about 130 miles, enters the Rio Negro near
Sam Carlos. This remarkable river opens a navigable com-
munication between the Orinoco and the Rio Negro. It is
600 yards wide at its entrance into the latter.
Cassis, the French name of the black currant bush and
its fruit. A liqueur called liqueur de cassis is made from
the fruit, and is used in Europe very extensively.
Cassiter/ides [from the Gr. Kaorairepos, “tin’’, the
ancient name of certain islands (supposed to be the Scilly
Isles) from which the Phoenicians procured tin.
Cas' siterite [from the Gr. Kaorarírepos, “tin,” and Atéos,
a “stone”], native peroxide of tin, composed, when pure,
of 21.62 per cent. of oxygen and 78.38 of tin. It is the
common ore of tin, and the only one from which the metal
is obtained. It occurs massive (as tin-stone), disseminated
and fibrous (as wood tin), in rolled pieces, and in grains
as sand (stream tin); also crystallized in quadrangular
prisms, terminated by four-sided pyramids. Its lustre is
splendent. It is obtained chiefly in Cornwall, Banca,
Sweden, France, Spain, Chili, and California.
Cas'sius Longiſmus (CAIUs), a famous Roman con-
spirator and general, was a friend of Marcus Brutus, whose
sister he married. He served as quaestor under M. Cras-
sus, and distinguished himself in the expedition against the
Parthians in 53 B. C. After the death of Crassus he de-
feated the Parthians. In the civil war that ensued he
fought for Pompey against Caesar. He was one of the
conspirators who killed Caesar in 44 B.C., soon after which
event he commanded with success in Syria. His army was
subsequently united with that of Brutus. Brutus and Cas-
sius, who were the principal leaders of the republican
party, were defeated by Antony and Octavius at Philippi
in 42 B. C., and then killed themselves. (See PLUTARCH,
“Life of Brutus.”) º
Cas'sius Parmen’sis, or Caſius Cas'sius Se-
ve/rus, a Latin poet who wrote epigrams and elegies. He
was one of the conspirators who killed the dictator Caesar,
44 B. C. Having entered the service of Mark Antony, he
fought against Augustus, by whose order he was put to
death about 30 B. C. Only small fragments of his works
are extant.
Cassivelau/mus, or Cassibelau/nus, sometimes
Anglicised as Cassib’elan, a chief of the ancient Britons
who ruled over the country N. of the Thames. He fought
bravely against Caesar when the latter invaded Britain in
54 B. C., but Caesar took his capital and compelled him to
pay tribute. º …” t
Cas’sock, a long loose garment like a frock-coat, worn
under the surplice by the clergymen of the Anglican and
Roman Catholic churches. It has a single upright collar.
The Catholic priests wear cassocks of various colors, but
those of the Anglican élergy are always black, except the
purple cassocks which are sometimes used by bishops.
Cassop'olis, a post-village of Cass co., Mich., at the
junction of the Chicago and Lake Huron and the Michigan
Central R. R.S., 98 miles S. W. of Lansing. It has a na-
tional bank, three churches, and two newspapers. P. 728.
PROP. “WIGILANT.”
*
A

808
CASSOWARY-CASTE.
Cas’sowary (Casuarius), a genus of birds nearly allied
to the ostrich (see BREv1PENNEs and OSTRICH), but dis-
tinctively characterized by still greater shortness of wing,
by a laterally compressed bill, by a bony crest, by pendent
wattles on the naked neck, and by three toes on each foot,
all furnished with claws, the inner toe short, and armed
with a very long and sharp claw. Only one species is
known, Casuarius galeatw8, sometimes called emu by the
older naturalists before that name was appropriated to the
Australian bird, which now alone receives it. The casso-
wary is a native of the Moluccas, New Guinea, and other
Asiatic islands, chiefly inhabiting deep forests. In appear-
ance it is not unlike the ostrich, but has a much shorter
neck. It is the largest known bird except the ostrich, and
its height is about five feet. It feeds on fruit, eggs, and
succulent herbage. When attacked, it defends itself by
kicking obliquely backward with its feet, and by striking
with its short wings, the rigid barbless shafts of which are
otherwise useless, even to aid it in running.
Cass/town, a post-village of Lost Creek township, Mi-
ami co., O. Pop. 241.
Cass/ville, a township of Neosho co., Kan. P. 1070.
Cassville, a post-village and capital of Barry co., Mo.,
200 miles S. W. of Jefferson City. It has one weekly news-
paper. P. 287. John RAY, ED. CAssvillE “DEMOCRAT.”
Cassville, a post-village of Paris township, Oneida co.,
N. Y. Pop. 152.
gassville, a post-borough of Huntingdon co., Pa. Pop.
416. - *
Cassville, a post-village of Grant co., Wis., on the
Mississippi River, about 32 miles above Dubuque. Lead
is shipped here in steamboats. Pop. 551, or, including Cass-
ville township, 1318.
Casta’lia, or Cas/taly [Gr. Kaoraxtal, a fountain which
issued at the base of Mount Parnassus, near Delphi, and
was sacred to Apollo and the Muses. The ancient poets im-
agined that it filled the minds of those who drank of it with
poetic inspiration. All persons who visited the temple of
Delphi for any religious object were obliged to purify them-
selves by bathing their bodies or their hair in this sacred
fountain. It is now called the fountain of St. John.
Casta’lia, a post-village of Erie co., 0., on the Cincin-
nati Sandusky and Cleveland R. R., 5 miles S. W. of San-
dusky. Here is a spring which petrifies vegetable sub-
stances.
Casta’ mea, the classical Latin name of the chestnut;
also the botanical name of a genus of trees of the order
Cupuliferae. Three species of this genus are indigenous in
the U. S.—viz. Castamea vesca (chestnut tree), the Castamea
pumila (chinquapin), and the golden chinquapin, or chest-
nut of the Pacific coast. (See CHESTNUT.)
Casſtanets, a musical instrument consisting of two
hollow shells of ivory or wood, which are bound together
on the thumb, and struck by the fingers to produce a trill-
ing sound in keeping with the rhythm of dances. Castanets
were introduced into Spain by the Moors. They take their
name from the Lat. castamea, a “chestnut,” from their being
made of chestnut wood. The castanets are used in the
ballet and in the opera.
Casta’íos, de (FRANCISCO XAvTER), duke of Baylen,
a Spanish general, born April 22, 1756. He obtained the
command of a corps in 1808, and defeated the French gen-
eral Dupont at Baylen in July of that year. Dupont then
surrendered his army, amounting to 18,000 men. TCastaños
distinguished himself at the battle of Vitoria, June, 1813.
He was appointed captain-general in 1823. Died Sept.
24, 1852. ~.
Caste [from the Port. casta, a “race”], a term origin-
ally applied to the distinct classes of society established
under the Brahmanical régime in India. When the Portu-
guese first visited that country, at the close of the fifteenth
century, they found their intercourse with the natives seri-
ously interfered with by arbitrary social laws; certain pur-
suits were invariably followed by persons of a certain class,
and any attempt to induce a man to perform offices which
did not, according to the prevailing notions of the country,
belong to his class, was obstinately resisted. The difference
in appearance between some of these classes—as, for exam-
ple, between the Soodras and persons of the priestly or mili-
tary class—was so striking as to suggest the idea of an
original difference of race; and hence the Portuguese em-
ployed the word casta (“race”) as a general term to desig-
mate the distinctions above referred to.
According to the “Institutes of Manu" (considered by
the Hindoos to be a work of divine authority, and regarded
by them, indeed, in much the same light as the Law of
Moses was regarded by the Israelites), there are four pure
castes or classes: 1st, the priestly class, fabled by the Brah-
mans to have proceeded from the mouth of Brahmā, the
Creator; 2dly, the military class (called Kshatriyas, or Chut-
trees), supposed to have sprung from his arm; 3dly, the
mercantile class (Vaisyas), said to have been produced from
his thigh ; and lastly, the servile class (Soodras or Sudras),
fabled to have sprung from his foot. There is reason to
believe that the three higher classes were composed of per-
sons of the original Aryan race (see ARYA), but that the
Soodras came from the tribes which the Aryas had con-
quered. Besides the four pure classes, there are yarious
mixed or impure classes, some of which (the Chandālas, for
example) are so vile that their very shadow is pollution,
and a Brahman is forbidden to take shelter under the same
tree with one of these miserable outcasts. The term pariah
(a word said to be derived from the Tamul, and to signify
“inhabitant of the mountains;” see PARIAH) is used in the
south of India in a more general sense to denote any of the
impure or degraded classes.
The Brahmans or priestly caste having (as they claim)
proceeded from the mouth of Brahmā, became his spokes-
men or the interpreters of his will. The appropriate occu-
pation of a Brahman is to teach the Véda. It is proper to
observe that the Brahmans are not all priests, but from
their class alone priests are to be chosen. Many of them at
the present day follow the profession of arms. *
The military class is composed of warriors, chieftains, and
kings. To the members of this class (Kshatriyas) only
is the eacecutive power of the state properly to be entrusted,
though in some rare instances Brahmans have performed
the part of princes, and, as already intimated, they share,
at the present time, the profession of arms with the Ksha-
triyas.
The Vaisyas are supposed to compose the mercantile
class, and also to include agriculturists, herdsmen, etc.; but
in point of fact members of the two upper classes also not
unfrequently engage in mercantile pursuits. Manu ex-
pressly states that in case a Brahman is unable to support
himself by the offices appropriate to his calling—viz.
“ assisting to sacrifice, teaching the Védas, and receiving
gifts from a pure-handed giver”—he may follow the pro-
fession of a soldier or engage in mercantile pursuits.
It is the duty of Soodras to serve the superior classes,
and especially the Brahmans. It is their place to perform
various menial duties, but the lowest offices in the commu-
nity (that of scavenger, for example) are invariably per-
formed by persons of the impure or mixed classes.
With respect to the first origin of caste, there can be no
reasonable doubt that the institution was the invention of
the Brahmans. This is shown by the manner in which the
Brahmans are spoken of in the “Institutes,” more particu-
larly in those parts which treat of the duties of the other
classes. “From his high birth alone a Brahman is an
object of veneration,even to the gods” (chap. xi. 85).
“Though Brahmans occupy themselves with all sorts of
mean occupations, they must invariably be honored, for
they are something transcendentally divine” (ix. 319).
“Let not a king, although in the greatest distress for
money, provoke Brahmans to anger by taking their prop-
erty; for they, once enraged, could immediately, by sacri-
fices and imprecations, destroy him, with his troops, ele-
phants, horses, and cars ” (ix. 313). “No greater crime is
known on earth than slaying a Brahman’” (viii. 381). “A
Brahman is born above the world, the chief of all creatures.
. . . Whatever exists in the universe is all, in effect,
though not in form, the wealth of the Brahman’’ (i. 100).
In order to guard the sanctity of the priestly caste against
all encroachments, a man of any of the lower castes is
strictly prohibited from marrying a Brahmani (a Brahman
woman), and the children of such marriages are irredeem-
ably base. The offspring of a Brahmani and Soodra (called
a Chandāla) is accounted the vilest of mortals. By thus
affixing an indelible mark of abhorrence upon the children,
they inspire perhaps a stronger fear of such marriages than
they could do by the most terrible punishments inflicted
upon the parents themselves.
Whether the regulations respecting caste, as they are
laid down in the “Institutes of Manu,” were ever strictly
enforced, has been doubted by many. Respecting this in-
teresting question, in the entire absence of all historical
testimony,” we can only reason from probabilities. The
great reverence with which the “Institutes of Manu” seem
to have been always regarded among the Hindoos who ac-
cept the Brahmanical religion renders it not improbable
that at one time those regulations may have been as strictly
observed as the ritual of the Levitical law was observed by
the ancient Israelites. It would certainly be unreasonable
to infer that because such an observance has not obtained
* It is scarcely necessary to inform the intelligent reader that
nothing deserving the name of history can be found in any of
the ancient Hindoo writings, if we except those relating to the
little state of Cashmere.
CASTEL-A-MARE-CASTILE, OLD.
809
in modern times, when the entire Hindoo nation has been
subjugated first to one foreign despotism and then to an-
other, it may not have prevailed in a remote antiquity,
when (as there is every reason to believe), a large part of
India was under the rule of sovereigns professing the Brah-
manical religion. Nor can we safely argue against such an
observance from the state of society represented in Hindoo
dramas written near the time of the Christian era, for that
was after the rise of Booddhism had broken the Brahman-
ical yoke, and though the new religion was subsequently
displaced, the influence of the freedom which it had intro-
duced was not wholly lost upon the people of India; in the
same manner as the influence of the Revolution was felt in
France even after the restoration of the Bourbons.
The doctrine of the transmigration of Souls (which ap-
pears to have been almost universally accepted in India.
among all classes and in all ages of which we have any
definite knowledge) became the principal and a most ter-
rible engine in the hands of the Brahmans for curbing and
breaking the spirit of the other classes. It may well be
doubted whether the comparatively vague fear of eternal
punishment taught among the nations of the West was cal-
culated to exert anything like so powerful an influence on
the mind as the definite, though infinitely varied, terrors
which the priests of India presented to the imagination of
the laity. Thus, one who steals the gold of a priest (un-
less he makes expiation in this life by some voluntary and
cruel penance) will be born a thousand times in the form
of a spider or some disgusting reptile; he who kills a
Brahman, after having passed a long period in terrible
torture will be born as a boar or some other low animal,
or as a Chandāla. The poet Lucretius expressed his anx-
iety lest his friend Memmius, through fear of “eternal
punishment after death,” should be prevented from a can-
did and dispassionate examination into the false religious
views then prevailing, because in the face of such awful
terrors the mind has no means or power of standing firm.
But the terrors to which the Hindoos were exposed were
still more difficult to be resisted, because they appeared
naturally, if not inseparably, connected with a belief (that
of transmigration) which seemed indigenous, so to speak,
in the Hindoo mind. There is great reason to believe that
it was the intolerable tyranny of caste under the Brahmans
which prepared the people of India for the rise and rapid
spread of Booddhism. (See GAUTAMA.) At all events, there
can scarcely, we think, be a reasonable doubt that the rise
of Booddhism, which absolutely rejected all the distinctions
of caste, has essentially contributed to mitigate the extreme
rigor of the system as it originally prevailed.
J. THOMAS.
Castel/-a-Ma're (i.e. “fortress on the sea”), or Cas-
tellama/re di Stabia, a fortified city and seaport of
Italy, in the province of Naples, is finely situated on the
Gulf of Naples, 17 miles by rail S. E. of Naples. It has a
royal palace, a cathedral, several convents, a military hos-
pital, and a royal dockyard; also manufactures of cotton,
linen, silk, and sailcloth. The castle from which the town
takes its name was built in the thirteenth century by the
emperor Frederic II. It is near the site of the ancient
Stabiae, where Pliny was killed by an eruption of Vesuvius
in 79 A. D. Pop. in 1872, 26,381.
Castel-a-Mare del Golfo, a seaport-town of Sicily,
in the province of Trápani, is on a gulf of its own name, 20
miles E. of Trápani, near the site of the ancient Segesta.
It exports cotton, wine, fruit, and manma. Pop. 8986.
Castelar' (EMILIo), an eminent Spanish orator and re-
publican, was born in 1832. He founded in 1864 a journal
called “La Democracia,” in which he developed his social
and political principles. He was condemned to death in
1866, but he escaped to France. In 1868 he returned to
Spain, and became a member of the Cortes and a leader
of the republican party. He is considered the most elo-
quent political orator in Spain. He has contributed articles
to the “Fortnightly Review,” published in London. He be-
came minister of foreign affairs Feb. 12, 1873, and president
of the Spanish republic Sept., 1873 to Jan. 3, 1874.
Castel'-Buo/no (i.e. “good castle”), a town of Sicily,
in the province of Palermo, is in the Madonian Mountains,
4 miles S. S. E. of Cefalù. It has mineral springs, and a
trade in manna. Pop. 7948. -
Castel’= Gandol/fo, a village of Italy, picturesquely
situated on the N. W. side of Mont Albano, about 13 miles
S. E. of Rome. Here are numerous villas and the pope's
Summer residence.
Castella/ma, a town of Italy, in the province of Bari,
24 miles S. E. of Bari. Pop. 9061.
Castellane/ta, a town of Italy, in the province of
Lecce, 21 miles N. W. of Taranto. It has a cathedral and
Several convents. Pop. 6363.
Castel/lo Branſco (i. e. “white castle”), a town of
Portugal, in the province of Beira, 55 miles S. E. of Coim-
bra. It is a bishop’s seat, and has a ruined castle. Pop.
6585.
Castel'Io de Wiſde, a walled town of Portugal, in
Alemtejo, about 124 miles E. N. E. of Lisbon. It has a
castle, and manufactures of woollen cloth. Pop. 5285.
Castellon’, a province of Spain, bounded on the N. by
Tarragona, on the E. by the Mediterranean, on the S. by
Valencia, and on the W. by Teruel. It is a wild moun-
tainous region, and contains many mines and mineral
springs. Area, 2447 square miles. Capital, Castellon de
la Plana. Pop. 288,981.
Castellon’ de la Plaſma, a town of Spain, capital
of the province of the same name, is in an extensive and
fertile plain about 2 miles from the Mediterranean, and 40
miles N. N. E. of Valencia, with which it is connected by a
railway. It is well built, with wide and straight streets, and
is supplied with water by a magnificent aqueduct. It has a
handsome episcopal palace, a theatre, a hospital, and sev-
eral convents; also manufactures of linen, woollen, and
hempen fabrics, sailcloth, paper, firearms, glass, soap, etc.
Francisco Ribalta, the famous painter, was a native of this
town. Pop. 20,123.
Castelnaudary (anc. Sostomagus), a town of France,
department of Aude, is on an eminence near the Canal du
Midi, 22 miles W. N. W. of Carcassonne. It has manufac-
tures of silk and woollen fabrics and earthenware. The
canal here expands into a commodious basin 1300 yards in
circumference. This town was founded on the site of Sog-
tomagus by the Visigoths, who called it Castrum. Wovum
Arianorum. It was taken by the English Black Prince in
1355. Pop. 9075.
Castelnuo/vo, a city in Austria, province of Dalmatia,
on the canal of Cattaro and the Bay of Topla, has ancient
walls and towers. Pop. 7423.
Castelnuovo, a market-town of Northern Italy, in the
province of Alessandria, 14 miles N. W. of Asti. It has a
mineral spring. Pop. 5011.
Castel-Sarrasin, a town of France, department of
Tarn-et-Garonne, is near the river Gâronne, 14 miles W.
of Montauban. It was formerly fortified. It has manu-
factures of serge and worsted stockings. Pop. 6838.
Castel Ter/mini, a town of Sicily, in the province
of Girgenti, 16 miles N. of the city of Girgenti. It has
mines of rock-salt and sulphur. Pop. 7346.
Castel/-Vetra/no, a town of Sicily, province of Trá-
pani, 23 miles S. E. of Trápani. It has several convents
and an old castle and cathedral. Articles of coral and ala-
baster are made here. Pop. in 1872, 20,420.
Castiglio/mi (CARLO OTTAVIo), Count, an Italian
philologist, known as the editor of Ulfila's Gothic Bible
(1819), was born in 1784. He also wrote a memoir upon
the history of the Arab cities of Africa (1826). Died April
10, 1849. - -
Castile, kas-teel' [Sp. Castilla, the “land of castles”],
a former kingdom of Spain, occupied the central table-land
of the peninsula, and was the nucleus and central seat of
the Spanish monarchy. The kingdom of Castile was found-
ed about 1035 by Ferdinand I., who conquered Leon and
annexed it to Castile. By the marriage of Ferdinand the
Catholic with Isabella of Castile in 1469, Castile and Ar-
agon were united into one kingdom. The Castilians have
been long distinguished for their pride or haughtiness.
The Castilian dialect is considered purer than the dialects .
spoken in other parts of Spain. Pop. 3,270,516. Castile
was divided into two portions, OLD and NEW CASTILE (see
below).
Castile, a post-village and township of Wyoming co.,
N. Y., on the Erie R. R., 75 miles N. W. of Corning. Pop.
of village 712; of township, 2186.
Castile, New [Sp. Castilla la Nueva.], an old province
of Spain, the S. portion of the kingdom of Castile, has an
area of 21,081 square miles. Former capital, Madrid.
Tt is a table-land, bounded on the N. by the Sierra Guadar-
rama and on the S. by the Sierrá. Morena. This range of
mountains is rich in minerals. The soil of this region is
partly sterile and not well watered. The plains receive
little rain, and are nearly destitute of trees. Large flocks
of sheep are raised here. New Castile is divided into four
provinces—viz. Madrid, Toledo, Cuenca, and Guadalajara.
Pop. 1,289,145.
Castile, Old [Sp. Castilla la Vieja), an old province
of Spain, is bounded on the N. by the Cantabrian Moun-
tains, on the E. by Aragon, on the S. by New Castile, and
on the W. by Leon. Area, 25,412 Square miles. The Sur-
face is diversified by several ranges of mountains and high
table-lands, which are arid and nearly destitute of forests.
810
CASTILLA—CASTOR AND POLLUX.
The soil in many parts is rendered sterile by deficiency of
water. The chief rivers of this region are the Douro and
the Ebro. Sheep and cattle constitute the principal riches
of the inhabitants. Old Castile is divided into the prov-
inces of Burgos, Valladolid, Palencia, Avila, Logroño, Se-
govia, Santander, and Soria. Pop. 1,716,193.
Casti’īla (Don RAMon), a general in the Peruvian war
of independence, born Jan. 31, 1797, after the annexation
of Peru to Bolivia, in 1835 fled the country. He returned
upon the restoration of independence in 1839, and became
finance minister. In the second war with Bolivia, he was
taken prisoner and exiled; he returned in 1844, deposed
the dictator Vivanco, and became president of Peru 1845–51,
to which dignity he was re-elected in 1855, and again in
1858. Died May 30, 1867. *
Castille (CHARLEs HIPPOLYTE), a French author, born
Nov. 8, 1820. He wrote a number of romances in which the
interest is of a dreadful character, and later biographical
parallels, a history of the Second Republic (1854), and
political portraits (1856–60).
Castine, kas-teen', a port of entry of Hancock co.,
Me., is on the E. side of Penobscot Bay, at the mouth of
the Penobscot River, 34 miles S. of Bangor. It is 9 miles
E. of Belfast, which is on the opposite side of the bay. It
has a good harbor, a custom-house, and manufactures of
boats, ships and ship furniture, cordage, brick, etc. It has
a State normal school. Pop, including Castine township,
1303.
Cast/ing Vote, the vote of the president or chairman
of a public assembly, or the Speaker of a legislative body.
This vote decides the question whenever there is a tie–
i. e. when the votes of the assembly are equally divided.
The Vice-President of the U. S. never votes except in
case the Senators are equally divided. The Speaker of
the British House of Commons never votes except in a
similar contingency. It is usual for the Speaker to give a
casting vote in such a way that the House will have an
opportunity of reconsidering its decision.
Castings. See METALLURGY.
Castle (kas’l), [Sax. castel; Lat. castellum, dimin. from
castrum, a “camp ’l, a name given to a building con-
structed as a dwelling, as well as for the purpose of repel-
ling attack. The name is especially given to buildings of
this kind constructed in Europe in the Middle Ages. The
castella of the Romans were constructed on the model of
their stationary encampments, and may have suggested
the castles of the Middle Ages, though designed for mili-
tary purposes only. Traces are found in various parts of
Great Britain of castles which are ascribed to its aboriginal
or early inhabitants. Traces of Saxon, and even Norman,
workmanship are found in structures originally Roman.
But of . castles for residence as well as defence few are of
higher antiquity than the Conquest. The absence of strong-
holds was one reason why William the Conqueror so easily
became master of England; as a protection against the
resentment which the conquest occasioned most of the
great Norman castles were built. As these castles grew in
strength they afforded their possessors not only security
from their fellow-subjects and their subordinates, but inde-
pendence as regarded the monarch. Similar conditions in
other countries led to similar results. No small portion of
the history of Europe during the feudal period consists of
an account of the attempts which were made by the mon-
archs to extirpate these dens of thieves.
The castle was generally surrounded by a moat, foss, or
ditch ; and that the ditch might be readily filled with
water, the site was usually the bank of a river or a lake.
Inside the ditch mounds were constructed, with walls and
towers, both supplied with battlements and bastions. The
gates were protected by towers usually of great strength.
The bridge across the moat was made to draw up and down,
and the entrance, in addition to thick doors, was protected
by a portcullis, dropped down through grooves at the sides.
The gate was further defended by a barbican and by machico-
lations. Passing the external wall, one entered the bailey,
or ballium, which consisted of several courts, and contain-
ed the barracks, magazine, well, and chapel. Within the
ballium was the donjon, keep, or citadel, a species of in-
ternal castle, placed in the most advantageous position to
afford a last chance to the garrison when driven from the
external works. The protection which the castle afforded
to the retainers of a baron led to the construction of houses
around the moat, and to this custom a very large number
of the towns in Europe owe their origin.
Cas’tlebar, a town of Ireland, capital of the county
of Mayo, is on the Castlebar River, about 160 miles W. N. W.
of Dublin. It has an old castle, once a stronghold of the
De Burgh family; also manufactures of coarse linen. The
earl of Lucan has a country-seat near this town. Castlebar
was taken by the French general Humbert in 1798. Pop.
2960.
Castle Grove, a post-township of Jones co., Ia. Pop.
839.
Castle Hill Plantation, a township of Aroostook
co., Me. Pop. 237.
Cas’tlemaine, a city in Australia, province of Victoria,
in the neighborhood of rich gold-mines, connected by rail
with Melbourne, 70 miles distant. Pop. 9683.
Castle Peak, California, is a peak of the Sierra Ne-
vada, about lat. 38° 10' N. Its height is estimated at
13,000 feet.
Casſtlereagh (RoPERT STEwART), WISCOUNT, marquis
of Londonderry, an able British Tory statesman, born in
the county of Down, Ireland, June 18, 1769. He was the
eldest son of the first marquis of Londonderry. He entered
the House of Commons in 1794, and efficiently promoted
the union of Ireland with England in 1800. In 1802 he
was appointed president of the board of control by Mr. Pitt.
He became secretary of state for the department of war and
the colonies in 1805, and fought a duel with George Can-
ning in 1809. About this time he was the favorite leader
of the Tory party, and a political rival of Canning. He
entered the ministry of Lord Liverpool as secretary for
foreign affairs in Feb., 1812, and as such was a powerful
director of the coalition against Napoleon. He represented
Great Britain at the Congress of Vienna, 1814, and the
Congress of Paris, 1815. On the death of his father, in
1821, he inherited the title of marquis of Londonderry. He
committed suicide Aug. 12, 1822, and left no issue. (See
his “Memoirs and Correspondence,” 8 vols., 1848.)
Castle Rock, a post-township of Dakota co., Minn.
Pop. 703. -
Castlestu’art, EARLs of (1800), Wiscounts Stuart
(1793), Barons Castlestuart (1619, Ireland), and baronets
(Scotland, 1637).-CHARLES ANDREw KNOx, fourth earl,
born 23d April, 1810, succeeded his brother Feb. 20, 1857.
Castleton, a township of Barry co., Mich. Pop. 1738.
Castleton, a township of Richmond co., N. Y., on the
N. side of Staten Island. The township contains the vil-
lages of New Brighton and Tompkinsville, and a “Sailor’s
Snug Harbor,” an asylum for the children of seamen,
several extensive dyeing and color-printing establishments,
and other manufacturing interests. It has many elegant
residences of New York merchants and manufacturers.
Pop. 9504.
Castleton, a post-village of Schodack township, Rens-
selaer co., N. Y., on the Hudson River and the Hudson
River R. R., 9 miles S. E. of Albany. It has a national
bank. Pop. 580.
Castleton, a post-village of Rutland co., Vt., on Cas-
tleton River and on the Rensselaer and Saratoga R. R., 11
miles W. of Rutland. It is the seat of Castleton Seminary
and a State normal school, and has five churches, a
national bank, and manufactures of agricultural imple-
ments, marbleized slate, etc. Pop. of Castleton township,
3243.
Cas’tletown, an English town, capital of the Isle of
Man. It has a Danish fortress, Castle Rushen.
Castlewood’s, a township of Russell co., Va.
1886. .
Castor. See BEAVER.
Cas/tor, a remarkable binary or double star of the
second magnitude in the constellation Gemini, is called also
a Geminorum. The two stars rotate around their common
centre of gravity, and according to Sir John Herschel per-
form a rotation in 253 years.
Castor, a township of Madison co., Mo. Pop. 1000.
Castor, a township of Stoddard co., Mo. Pop. 2785.
Castor and Pol’lux [Gr. Káatop and IIoxv8etſkms],
heroes of classic mythology, called also Bioscu'ri (“soms
of Jove”), were twin brothers. They were supposed to be
sons of Jupiter and Leda, or, as some say, of Tyndareus
and Leda. They took part in the Argonautic expedition
and the Calydonian hunt. Castor excelled in horseman-
ship, and Pollux in pugilistic contests. According to tra-
dition, Pollux was immortal, and when Castor was killed
offered to share his fate, and they were permitted to enjoy
life by turns. They were translated into or identified with
the constellation Gemini, “The Twins.”
Castor and Pollux, the name given to an electrical
meteor which sometimes appears at sea, attached to the
extremities of the masts of ships, under the form of two
balls of fire. Sailors consider this phenomenon a sign of
fair weather, but a single ball, which is called Helena, is
supposed to portend a storm.
Pop.
CASTOR–CAT.
Castor (ANTONIUs), an ancientF." of high repu-
tation who lived at Rome in the Augustan age, and died
about 80 A. D. Pliny states that he had a botanic garden,
the first mentioned in history.
Casto’reum, or Cas’tor, a substance secreted in
glandular sacs closely connected with the reproductive
organs of the beaver (Castor fiber). Each beaver produces
two of these sacs or pouches. This substance is used by
perfumers, and was formerly esteemed a valuable remedy
for hysteria, catalepsy, and other diseases. It is an anti-
spasmodic.
Casto'ria, a township of San Joaquin co., Cal.
1184.
Castor’idae, a family of Mammalia of the order Ro-
dentia, comprises the beaver (Castor), which is the typical
genus, the coypu (Myopotamw8), and the musquash.
Cas/tor Oil (Oleum Rigini), a fixed oil from the seeds
of the castor-oil plant. The best variety is obtained by
pressure in the cold, and is known as cold-pressed castor
oil. But the warm-pressed Italian oils are the pleasantest
as a medicine. In the Indies great quantities are prepared
by boiling the seeds, but the oil is irritating, dark in color,
and not fit to use as a medicine. Exposure to the Sun's
light bleaches the oil. When pure, castor-oil is of a light-
yellow color, but when of inferior quality, it has a greenish,
and occasionally a brownish, tinge. It is sometimes thick
and viscid. Its specific gravity is about 960 (water being
taken as 1000). It has a nauseous Smell and a disagree-
able taste. The principal acid present in it is ricinolic,
allied to oleic acid.
The best castor oil is one of the mildest of purgatives. In
doses of one or two tea-spoonfuls it forms a gentle laxative,
while a dose of a table-spoonful will almost always open the
bowels freely. The only objection to the use of castor oil
is its disagreeable flavor; some attempt to get over this diffi-
culty by floating the oil on hot coffee, or mixing it with
twice its bulk of spiced syrup of rhubarb. It is also much
used in the arts as a lubricant for machinery, carriage-
wheels, and leather. In Hindostan it is extensively em-
ployed as a lamp oil.
The CASTOR-61E, PLANT (Riginus communis) is a native
of the south of Asia and of Northern Africa, naturalized
in the south of Europe and in other warm regions. . It
belongs to the order Euphorbiaceae, and has panicled
flowers; the fruit a three-celled capsule, with one seed in
each cell. The castor-oil plant is often cultivated in gar-
dens in Europe and the U.S., where except in Southern
Florida, it is only an annual, attaining a height of three
to ten feet, highly ornamental by its stately growth, its
large, broad, palmate peltate leaves and its purplish hue.
In warmer climates it is perennial, and becomes arbores-
cent, attaining even thirty feet in height. From the re-
semblance of its seeds to an insect called ricinus, it re-
ceived that name from the Romans. The Seeds are oval,
and about four lines long. They are chiefly valued for the
oil which they yield, on account of which the plant is cul-
tivated in the Levant, Spain, Provence, the Indies, Brazil,
and the U. S. Illinois and Missouri are the chief seats of
its culture, and St. Louis of the oil manufacture in the U. S.
Castres, an ancient town in the S. of France, depart-
ment of Tarn, on the river Agout, 34 miles by rail N. E.
of Castelnaudary. It is the most populous town in the
department, and is the seat of a Protestant consistory,
having been one of the strongholds of the early Hugue-
nots. Castres has important manufactures of cassimeres,
military clothing, cotton goods, paper, soap, and copper-
ware. Pop. 21,357.
Castro (anc. Mitylene), a seaport-town of Asiatic
Turkey, capital of the island of Mitylene, is on its E.
coast, 55 miles N. W. of Smyrna. It has a large castle
and several churches and mosques. Some remains of the
ancient Mitylene are visible here. Pop. 6000.
Cas/tro del Riſo, a town of Spain, in Córdova, on
the river Guadajoz, 21 miles S. E. of Córdova. The streets
are mostly wide and regular, and lined with well-built
houses. It has a spacious church with a high tower, two
colleges, two hospitals, and several convents; also manu-
factures of limen and woollen fabrics, brandy, wine, etc.
Pop. 8852. -
Cas/tro Giovan'ni (anc. Enna), a town of Sicily, in
the province of Caltanisetta, is on a fertile plateau 4000
feet above the level of the sea, 14 miles N. E. of Caltani-
setta. Here is a feudal fortress of Saracenic origin. The
ancient Enna was the site of the most famous temple of
Ceres, and was supposed to be a favorite resort of that
goddess. Pop. 14,084.
Castrovilla'ri, a fortified town of Italy, in the prov-
ince of Cosenza, 32 miles N. of Cosenza. It has an old
castle, and a trade in silk, manna, and wine. Pop. 7931.
Pop.
}
811
Cas/troville, a post-township of Monterey co., Cal., .
near the mouth of the Salinas River. It is connected with
San Francisco by steamboat. Pop. 1302.
Castroville, a post-village, capital of Medina co.,
Tex., on the Medina River, 25 miles W. S. W. of San An-
tonio. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 515.
Cast Steel. See STEEL, by A. L. Hol.1, Ey, C. E.
Castue’ra, a town of Spain, in the province of Badajoz,
75 miles E. S. E. of Badajoz, near the river Guadiana. It
has manufactures of earthenware and a trade in fruit and
wine. Pop. 6221.
Casuariſma, “the cassowary tree,” a genus of trees of
the order Amentaceae, sub-order Casuarineae, mostly natives
of Australia. Some of them are large trees, producing
hard and heavy timber of excellent quality, which is called
beef-wood, from its resemblance to the color of raw beef.
One species, the Casuarina equisetifolia, grows wild in the
South. Sea Islands, the peninsula of Malacca, and other
places. It is a lofty tree, which is valued in India for its
timber, which is very durable and hard. All the trees of
this genus have a peculiar appearance, having long, slender
creeping or drooping branches, which are jointed, and
bear scales instead of leaves. The flowers have neither
calyx nor corolla, and the stamens and pistils are in
separate flowers.
Cas’uistry [from the Lat. casus, a “situation”] is
that branch of ethics which deals with delicate or per-
plexing moral questions, and which supplies rules for re-
solving the same, partly from natural equity, and partly
from the authority of Scripture, the councils, Fathers, etc.
Casuistry has been studied chiefly by ancient Jewish, and
later by Roman Catholic writers, who generally call it
“moral theology.” Traces of it are, however, found in the
philosophers of ancient Greece, but the healthy reason of an-
tiquity could not enter into the refinement of morals found
in certain Jewish and Christian writers. The Schoolmen
elaborated it into a science, and the Jesuits Molina, Escobar,
Sanchez, etc. became notorious for their ingenuity in the
construction of moral puzzles, and for the immorality of
their solutions. Certain Protestant writers, as Baxter,
Jeremy Taylor, and others, have written much on these
subjects with a different animus. The University of Cam-
bridge has a professorship of this science, which is now gen-
erally regarded as practically obsolete, for most modern
authorities are of the opinion that an educated moral sense
is the best practical guide in cases of conscience.
Ca'sus Bel’li (a “case of war,” or, in other words, a
“case justifying war”), a Latin phrase used to denote an
act or event, which involves war or justifies a declaration
of war. It is the reason alleged by one power for waging
or declaring war against another.
Casſwell, a county of North Carolina, bordering on
Virginia. Area, 400 square miles. It is drained by the
Dan and Hycootee rivers. The surface is undulating; the
soil is fertile. Iron ore is found. Grain, tobacco, and
wool are important products. The Richmond and Dan-
ville R. R. crosses the N. W. part of the county. Capital,
Yanceyville. Pop. 16,081.
Caswell, a township of Calhoun co., Ark. Pop. 220.
Caswell, a township of New Hanover co., N. C. P.1087.
Caswell (ALExIs), D.D., LL.D., an American edu-
cator, born about 1805, was a professor of mathematics in
Brown University from 1828 to 1864. He was president
of that institution from 1868 to 1871, and was one of the
corporators of the National Academy of Sciences.
Caswell (RICHARD), an American patriot and states-
man, born in Maryland Aug. 3, 1729, removed to North
Carolina, where he served with distinction against the
British, and subsequently became governor of the State.
He assisted in framing the Federal Constitution in 1787.
Died Nov. 9, 1789.
Cat [a word found in various forms in many Indo-
European and in some other languages], a name sometimes
extended to the whole family Felidae, including the lion,
tiger, lynx, etc., sometimes limited to the smaller species
of that family, and sometimes to the genus Felis proper,
which is distinguished from the rest of the family by hay-
ing a longer tail and four molar teeth on each side of the
upper jaw, while the others have but three. This genus
includes the lion, tiger, and all the larger Felidae, as Well
as the domestic cat and the wild-cat of Europe, but not
the wild-cat of America, which is a lynx.
It is not easy to say what was the original abode of the
domestic cat (Felis domestica). It not unfrequently escapes
to a wild state, but no properly wild species exactly resem-
bles it. It is asserted that the domestic cat of ancient
Egypt was the Felis maniculata, a species differing consid-
erably from ours. The cat is scarcely mentioned in the
812
CATACAUSTICS.–CATALOGUE.
authors of ancient Greece, Rome, and Judaea, and it is
known that in the earlier mediaeval period of Europe cats
were comparatively rare and costly animals. They seem
to have been long known in China, which affords a fine
variety with a soft and beautiful fur and pendulous ears.
It is, however, regarded as probable that the wild-cat of
ax. S
Łºsº
---
*
gº-º-º-º:
Aetius and his ally, Theodoric the Visigoth, gained a great
victory over Attila in 451 A. D.
Cat'alepsy [from the Gr. kará, intensive, and Aap.g4vo,
to “take”], a condition in which a person becomes more
or less completely unconscious, but does not fall. If stand-
ing at the commencement, he remains so during the attack,
the countenance retaining the expression the patient
wore at the outset. If the limbs of the patient be
placed in a new position by attendants, the position
is retained. This disease is a rare one, and indeed is
probably not so much a peculiar disease as a symp-
tom of other diseases. It has been observed in both
sexes, and may occur in insane persons or in those
suffering with chorea and other nervous affections.
It has been described as sometimes epidemic. The
immediate attack is seldom fatal, and is usually short, ,
but may be indefinitely prolonged. Treatment must
be addressed to the general condition. Catalepsy is
§ §A so rare that its character is not well understood.
§§ s REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
$E. º Cataliſma, a port of entry of Newfoundland, on
{ & Nº the N. side of Trinity Bay, has an excellent harbor,
§ §s though difficult to approach. It has a lighthouse and
European Wild Cat.
Europe and Asia, though somewhat different anatomically,
may be the progenitor of the domestic cat. Among the
more remarkable varieties are the Manx or Cornish cat,
with a merely rudimentary tail; the Angora cat, with long
hair; the Maltese and Chartreuse cats, with a bluish-slate
color, etc.
Catacaus/tics [from the Gr. kará, “ down” or “back,”
and kato, “to burn’] are the caustic curves formed by the
reflection of the rays of light, and are so called to distin-
guish them from the diacaustic, which are formed by re-
fracted rays. (See CAUSTIC.)
Cat'acombs [probably from the Gr. Kará, “down,” and
küugm, a “hollow’], a pit or excavation under ground, em-
ployed usually as a receptacle for the dead. The name is
applied especially to those at Rome, but also to those of
Egypt, Naples, Syracuse, Malta, and other places. Even
the quarries under Paris, now used as charnel-houses, are
often called by this name. The earliest catacombs of Rome
are believed by many to date from the persecution of Nero,
and they were probably all finished before the fifth century.
It has been held that the catacombs of Rome were orig-
inally quarries, but most writers now admit that they were
executed, principally to serve the purpose of burial-places
for the déad, tombs or loculi being cut on either side of the
long galleries and transverse corridors, which run to great
distances through the tufa. Some writers assign them a
Jewish origin. They were also places of refuge in times
of persecution, and Christian worship was no doubt often
held there. Still, the traditions of the “Church in the
catacombs,” of Pope Stephen's subterranean court, and his
final martyrdom there, are thought by many to be greatly
exaggerated. The catacombs abound in symbols and in-
Scriptions, mostly of Christian origin and commemorative
of the dead. They have been of late explored with much
care, and the results are very important in the study of
Christian archaeology. (See Bosſo, “Roma Sotterranea,”
1532; PERRET, “Les Catacombes de Rome,” 1852–53;
ROSSI, “Roma Sotterranea Christiana,” 1864 seq.; KIP,
“The Catacombs of Rome,” 1854.)
Catahouſia, a parish of Louisiana. Area, 1200 square
miles. It is bounded on the E. and S. E. by the navigable
Tensas and Washita Rivers, and also drained by other
streams. The soil in some parts is fertile. Cottom, corn,
and live-stock are raised. This parish contains Catahoula
Lake, which is nearly twenty miles long. Capital Har-
risonburg. Pop. 8475.
Catala/mi (ANGELICA), a celebrated Italian singer, born
at Sinigaglia in 1784. She had a voice of immense vol-
ume, range, and flexibility. Having made her début in
Italy at an early age, she afterwards performed with great
applause in Paris and London, and amassed large sums of
money. She was married to a Frenchman named Vala-
brègue, with whom she resided for some years in Paris.
In 1830 she retired from the stage. Died June 13, 1849.
Catalau'nian Plain [Lat. Campi Catalaunicil, the
ancient name of the wide plain surrounding Châlons-sur-
Marne, in France. On this plain the Roman general
a fine Anglican church. Pop. 1300. -
Cat'alogue [Gr. karáAoyos ; Lat. catalogus], a list;
an enumeration of the names of books, stars, or other
things. The term is used to denote a list of the books
contained in a library, or of the works kept for sale
by a bookseller.
CATALOGUE RAISONNí (rā-zon-ā’), a French term
used in statistics, natural Science, bibliography, etc.,
signifies a catalogue of objects arranged in appropri-
ate classes. For example, books are arranged under their
several subjects, with a general abstract of the contents of
the works where the title does not sufficiently indicate it,
thus serving to direct the reader to the sources of informa-
tion on any topic. The want of alphabetical arrangement
is supplied by an index at the end.
CATALOGUES of Books.-There is nothing connected with
the management of any large public library which can
compare in importance with the character of its catalogues
of books. However large and select its stores, however
able its administration, however accessible its contents to
the student, its usefulness will be much diminished if its
catalogues be not well arranged, frequently revised, and
thoroughly at the command of those who use them. “A
library,” says Carlyle, “is not worth anything without a
catalogue; it is a Polyphemus without any eye in his head;
and you must front the difficulties, whatever they may be,
of making proper catalogues.”
And these difficulties are neither few nor small. “There
is,” says the late Mr. C. C. Jewett (a most competent au-
thority), “no species of literary labor so arduous and per-
plexing.” Indeed, many of the largest libraries of this
country and Europe have entirely abandoned the issue of
catalogues; and the trustees of the New York State Li-
brary in 1872 contented themselves with issuing a catalogue
of the authors whose works are in their library, the names
of the authors being arranged under the various subjects
treated of. Even this meagre subject-catalogue is a large
volume. Not one of the first-class libraries of Europe, it
is said, has a complete catalogue; and many of those which
are most complete are, from their defective arrangement,
of little value to the student.
Catalogues may be arranged in an alphabetical table of
the names of books and of their authors. But the same
author may have issued books under two names, as White
and Albius. It is the librarian’s duty to be so well in-
formed in bibliography as to be able to bring the works of
such an author under one head, and make all necessary
references. Again, the number of anonymous, pseudon-
ymous, apocryphal, and supposititious works is very great.
Even Voltaire saw fit to publish works under the names of
other famous men. All such matters it is the part of the
catalogue to explain. Others, again, prefer to have books
catalogued under the heads of the various subjects of which
they treat. This plan is of very great use to editors and
compilers, and indeed to all literary men. Much discus-
sion has prevailed, especially in France, as to the relative
merits of the two plans just referred to; and among the
numerous class who prefer the arrangement by subjects
there is great difference of opinion as to how the subjects
themselves shall be arranged. For example, under the
head of theological books, there must be many minor heads
to enable the reader conveniently to find in a large library
the book he may desire. -
The plan of combining into one both the above systems
of dataloguing was perfected by Mr. Lloyd P. Smith, the
accomplished librarian of the Philadelphia Library. His
catalogues are arranged according to subjects, and at the










CATALONIA—CATARACT.
813
end of the volume is a full alphabetical index, as well of
authors as of all the important words of each title. Good
judges pronounce his catalogues the best yet published.
In rapidly-growing libraries there is much difficulty and
expense in keeping the catalogues up with the times. Wa-
rious plans have been proposed to overcome the difficulty.
The British Museum has catalogues interleaved with blank
pages, on which the names of new books are written—a
clumsy and unsatisfactory arrangement. Mr. Jewett in
1850 brought forward the plan of having the name of each
book stereotyped on a separate block, so that it is easy to
insert the names of new books in their proper places in a
new catalogue without the great expense of setting up type
anew for the whole volume.
The present approved plan of keeping up a manuscript
catalogue is to write the title of each book on a card, and
to keep the cards so prepared, together with those contain-
ing the necessary cross references, arranged alphabetically
in drawers. (For the subject of general catalogues of books,
see BIBLIOGRAPHY.) CHAS. W. GREENE.
Catalo'nia [Sp. Cataluñal, an old province of Spain,
is bounded on the N. by France, on the E. by the Mediter-
ranean, on the S. by Valencia, and on the W. by Aragon.
Area, 12,514 square miles. Pop. in 1867, 1,744,052. Capital,
Barcelona. The Pyrenees extend along the northern border
of this region, which is extremely mountainous. The high-
est summits are covered with perpetual snow. The soil of
the valleys is fertile, and this is said to be the best culti-
vated part of Spain. The orange, the olive, the grape, and
cereal grains flourish here. The principal rivers are the
Ebro and Llobregat. Among its minerals are copper, co-
balt, lead, zinc, coal, sulphur, and marble. Catalonia Sur-
passes every other province of Spain in the importance of
its manufactures, the chief products of which are cotton,
silk, and woollen fabrics, paper, firearms, cordage, and
leather. Catalonia is divided into the provinces of Barce-
lona, Tarragona, Lerida, and Gerona. The Catalans speak
a peculiar language, different from the Castilian, and nearly
related to the Provençal. They surpass the other Spaniards
in energy and industry. This region was in ancient times
a Roman province called Hispania Tarraconensis. The
Goths and Moors successively became masters of it. In
1137 it was united with Aragon by a marriage of the sov-
ereigns.
Cataloo'cha, a township of Haywood co., N. C. P. 198.
Catal’pa, a genus of trees of the order Bignoniaceae.
The Catalpa bignonioides is indigenous in the Southern
U. S., and is planted as an ornamental tree in the Northern
States and in Europe. It has large cordate and pointed
leaves, and showy flowers in open compound panicles. The
fruit is a pod which is often one foot long, and usually re-
mains on the tree all winter.
Catalpa, a township of Culpeper co., Va. Pop. 3388.
Catal’ysis [from the Gr. katá, intensive, and Ajo, to
“ dissolve *] is a term applied in chemical physics to a force
exerted by one substance upon a second, whereby the lat-
ter is subjected to change or decomposition, whilst the
former, or acting substance, remains comparatively unal-
tered, and does not combine with it. The force, indeed,
has been ascribed to the mere “action of contact.” No
Satisfactory theory has been brought forward to account for
these changes, or to define what the force of catalysis is.
Catamaran' [said to mean “floating trees” in Sin-
ghalese], a sort of raft used by the Hindoos of the Coro-
mandel coast, is formed of three planks or pieces of wood
lashed together. The middle piece is longer than the others.
The catamaran, which is propelled by a paddle, is used by
the people of Madras to maintain communication between
the shore and ships where the surf is so violent that
Ordinary boats are unsafe. The catamaran is also used on
the coast of Brazil.
Catamar'ca, a province or department of the Argen-
time Republic, is bounded on the W. by the Andes. The
soil is mostly fertile, producing grain and botton. Area,
35,760 square miles. "Capital, Catamarca. Pop. 110,000.
Catamarca, San Fernando de, the capital of the
above province, is about 650 miles N. W. of Buenos Ayres.
Pop. 5150.
Catame/nia (plu.), [Gr. from kara, “according to,”
and wiv, “ month *), the monthly Sanguineous uterine dis-
charges. They commence in hot climates usually from the
age of ten or eleven, and considerably later in colder re-
gions. Each period in a state of health commonly lasts
from three to six days. The final cessation occurs, with
some exceptions, at the age of forty-five or fifty.
Catamount. See PUMA.
Cata'nia, a province of Italy, in Sicily, is bounded on
the E. by the Mediterranean, on the N. by Messina, on
the W. by Căltanisetta, and on the S. by Noto. Area, 1948
square miles. The surface is partly mountainous. Among
its prominent features is Mount Etna. Capital, Catania.
Pop. in 1871, 479,850.
Catamia (anc.. Catana), a city of Sicily, capital of the
above province, is beautifully situated on the E. coast, at
the foot of Mount Etna, 31 miles N. N. W. of Syracuse; lat.
37°28' N., lon. 15° 5' E. It presents a noble appearance
from the sea, and is internally handsome, being well built,
with wide and straight streets, which are paved with lava.
Some of the public buildings are also constructed of lava.
It has been several times nearly ruined by earthquakes
and eruptions of Mount Etna, but it has risen again with
greater beauty and splendor, and is now perhaps the finest
city of Sicily. The most remarkable edifices are the cathe-
dral, rebuilt after the great earthquake of 1693; the town-
hall; the university, founded in 1445; and the grand Bene-
dictine convent and church of San Niccolò. Catania has
about fifty churches, several hospitals, and a college of arts.
In a fine square adjacent to the cathedral is a statue of an
elephant formed of lava. The harbor, which was formerly
good, has been partly choked by lava from Mount Etna.
This city has manufactures of silk and linen fabrics, and
of articles and wares formed of amber and lava. The chief
articles of export are grain, wine, silk, olives, manna, figs,
soda, and snow from Mount Etna. The ancient Catana was
founded by the Phoenicians or Greeks, and was nearly as
old as Rome. It was taken by the Athenian general Nicias
about 413 B.C., and was an important city under the Ro-
mans, who adorned it with magnificent edifices. The re-
mains of an aqueduct, a temple of Ceres, and a large am-
phitheatre are still visible here. Catania was severely in-
jured by earthquakes in 1693, 1783, and 1818. Pop. in
1872, 84,397.
Catanza/ro (formerly called Calabria UPteriore
II.), a province of Southern Italy, is bounded on the N. by
the province of Cosenza, on the E. by the Gulf of Taranto,
on the S. by the province of Reggio, and on the W. by the
Mediterranean Sea. Area, 2158 square miles. The soil is
fertile and the climate healthy. The chief products are
wool, cotton, linen, cheese, butter, hemp, oil, silk, wine, and
Iumber. Chief town, Catanzaro. Pop. in 1871, 412,226.
Catanza/ro, a city of Italy, in the province of the
same name, is finely situated on a mountain near the
Gulf of Squillace, 33 miles S. S. E. of Cosenza. It has an
old castle of the Norman period, a cathedral, a large col-
lege, and a royal academy of sciences. Many of its public
buildings were destroyed by the earthquake of 1783. Here
are manufactures of velvet and of silk and Woollen fabrics.
Pop. in 1872, 24,901.
Cataplasm. See POULTICE.
Cat/apult [Lat. catapulta, from the Gr. kará, intensive,
and ráxxo, to “hurl”], an engine of war used by the an-
cients for discharging arrows. We are not able, from any
descriptions the ancients have left us, to form any exact idea
of either the catapult or the ballista. It appears that in the
catapult a rope, suddenly freed from great tension, gave
impulse to an arrow placed in a groove. . There were great
catapults, fixed upon a scaffold with wheels, which were
used in sieges, and small ones, carried in the hand, which
were employed in the field. Originally, ballista were em-
ployed to throw stones, and catapults to shoot darts; but
the terms were often confounded by the later Roman Writers.
Cat'aract [Gr. karaśākrms, from kará, “down,” and
piyyuut, to “break,” so named because the ancients be-
lieved that a kind of veil fell down within the eye, obscur-
ing vision], an opaque state of the crystalline lens of the
eye, of its capsuſe, or both. Cataracts are thus lenticular,
capsular, or lenticulo-capsular. Various other kinds are
enumerated, such as the soft cataract, in which the lens is
soft, and sometimes even liquid; the hard cataract, when
the lens may be as hard as bone, With many of intermediate
consistency. Lamellar cataract affects a limited part of
one or more of the lamellae, or layers of the lens. “Gold-
leaf cataract” is of a shining yellow, and contains choles-
terime and crystalline degeneration products. Cataract is
generally white, but sometimes is brown, black, bluish,
silvery, etc. It sometimes has a pearly lustre. . .
Cataract begins in a gradual impairment of vision, Some
months generally elapsing before sight is lost. The pupil
is sensitive to light and atropia, vision being clearest when
the pupil is large. There is no pain or intolerance of light.
The patient sees as in a mist, but almost always can per-
ceive at least the presence of light. The pupil on examina;
tion is seen to be opaque, but the eye is neither hardened
nor softened and the expression of the face is quite natural,
One or both eyes may have cataract. It is most frequent
in elderly persons, but may occur at any age; children are
sometimes born with it. Medical treatment for oataract is
814
CATARACTS AND RAPIDS—CATECHISM.
useless, but the skilful surgeon can treat the disease often
with the happiest results. The operation is either (1) ex-
traction of the lens and its capsule, (2) depression or
couching of the same, or (3) laceration with appropriate
instruments, with a view of inducing absorption of the
diseased part. This last operation is the most common,
and often is the only one admissible. Great care should
be taken for a long time to prevent inflammatory action.
The place of the lens is supplied by a kind of spectacles
called cataract glasses. By these means the sight is often
to a great degree restored.
REvrSED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Cataracts and Rapids. The regular slope of the
river-bed is sometimes interrupted by more inclined and
rocky planes, over which the stream, flowing with increased
velocity, forms rapids, or by abrupt and nearly perpendic-
ular walls, from which the foaming water descends from
rock to rock, or in a single leap, in imposing cataracts or
picturesque waterfalls. Usage, however, often confounds
these names. The famous cataracts of the Nile are merely
rapids, which impede, but do not entirely prevent, naviga-
tion. The Falls of St. Anthony, in the Upper Mississippi,
the great falls of the Upper Missouri, and, the grandest
of all, the rapids of the St. Lawrence at Long Sault and
Lachine, above Montreal, are among the noblest examples
in our American rivers.
The highest waterfalls are found in mountainous regions
in the upper course of rivers; the largest in their middle
course. Among the first, that of the Yosemite, in Califor-
nia, is perhaps the most remarkable. It falls from an al-
most perpendicular ledge of rock over 2500 feet high to
the bottom of the valley of the same name, forming three
cataracts, the first descending by a single leap of 1500 feet
on a shelf of rock, from which it makes a series of cascades
and a final plunge of 450 feet to the base of the precipice.
The Reelfoss, in Norway, near the Sognefiord, the highest
fall in Europe, has an uninterrupted descent of 2000 feet,
and the Cascade of Gavarnie, in the Central Pyrenees, falls
from a height of over 1300 feet; the Staubbach, in the
Swiss Alps, from a 900-feet wall, and is reduced to spray
before reaching the ground. In the Falls of Tequendama,
in the Andes of New Granada, the river Bogota, compressed
in a chasm thirty feet wide, precipitates itself 560 feet into
a deep recess amidst the most gorgeous tropical vegetation.
Among the great cataracts of the middle course of rivers
Niagara, takes the first rank by the volume of its waters,
presenting the grand spectacle of a river over half a mile
wide pouring itself in two magnificent sheets from a height
of 160 feet into the whirlpool below. The Shoshonee
Falls in the Snake River branch of the Columbia in Idaho,
the Victoria, Falls of the Zambese in the heart of South
Africa, the Falls of the Cavery in Southern India, which
fall 500 feet in seven magnificent cascades, the newly dis-
covered and splendid Cataract of Kaieteur, in British Gui-
ana, formed by a large affluent of the Essequibo, which jumps
in a single foaming sheet of water into a vast basin 740 feet
below, the Falls of the Rhine, though but 60 feet high, all
are said to equal in picturesque beauty, though not in
grandeur, the Falls of Niagara. ARNOLD GUYOT.
Catarrh' [from the . Gr. kará, “ down,” and fiéo, to
“flow”], in medical language is a condition characterized
by hyperamia (or congestion) of the blood-vessels of any
mucous surface, with great increase of the proper secretion
of the part. Thus, there may be catarrh of the nose, the
throat, the air-passages, the bowels, the vagina, the blad-
der, or the urethra; but in popular language “catarrh"
designates either a “cold” in general, a “cold in the head,”
or a chronic catarrh of the posterior mares (nostrils) and
throat. Catarrhs in general arise from exposure to cold
and wet and to sudden atmospheric changes. They are
most common in persons who are ill-fed, and who are not
accustomed to out-of-door exercise. The variety of ca-
tarrh known as a “cold” is by no means always easy of
cure. The popular belief that “a cold must have its run"
. has some foundation. Hot foot-baths, laxatives, sedatives,
demulcents, mild stimulants, or diaphoretics may, however,
prove useful in many cases. Judicious exercise, bathing,
and life in the open air tend to overcome the morbid in-
clination to take cold from which some patients suffer.
Chronic catarrh of the posterior nostrils is an obstinate
disease, best treated by systematic exercise and attention
to other hygienic conditions, and by the use of water as a
nasal douche. REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Catasau'qua, a post-borough of Lehigh co., Pa., on
the Lehigh River and the Lehigh Valley R. R., 3 miles N.
of Allentown; it is also on the Lehigh and Susquehanna
R. R., and is the E. terminus of the Catasauqua and
Fogelsville R. Rs. It contains about seven churches, one
national bank, two machine-shops, two rolling-mills, and
five blast furnaces. It has two Weekly newspapers. P. 2853.
Catas/trophe [Gr. karaorpoºl, from karaatpého, “to
overturn ‘’l, the final event of a drama or romance, to which
the other events are subsidiary ; a disastrous revolution or
event; a calamity ; an unfortunate conclusion. The term
is used by geologists to denote a violent convulsion or phys-
ical revolution, causing the elevation or subsidence of por-
tions of the globe, and the destruction of large tribes or
multitudes of animals. *
Cataw/ba, the name of an excellent wine of a rich
muscadine flavor which is produced in various parts of the
U. S. It is made of the Catawba grape, which originated
probably near the Catawba River in North Carolina. This
grape, which is highly esteemed for dessert, is red or cop-
per-colored. The first person who cultivated it extensively
for wine was Nicholas Longworth of Cincinnati, whose
vineyards covered the southern slopes of the hills in the
environs of that city. The Catawba grape flourishes in
the Middle, Southern, and Western States. A large quan-
tity of this wine is produced in the Ohio Valley, the climate
and soil of which are especially adapted to the culture of the
grape. The best sparkling Catawba is considered nearly
equal to champagne.
Catawba, or Great Catawba, a river of the U.S.,
rises in McDowell co., N. C., and flows nearly eastward to
Iredell co. It afterwards runs southward into South Caro-
lina, and forms the E. boundary of York and Chester
counties. Below Rocky Mount it is called the Wateree.
Its length from its source to Rocky Mount is 250 miles.
Catawba, a county in the W. of North Carolina. Area,
250 square miles. It is bounded on the N. and E. by the
Catawba River, and is also drained by the Little Catawba.
The surface is diversified; the soil is fertile. Corn, wheat,
and wool are important products. Iron ore and marble are
found. It is intersected by the Western R. R. Capital,
Newton. Pop. 10,984.
Catawba, a township of York co., S. C. Pop. 2893.
Catawba, a post-twp. of Roanoke co., Va. Pop. 845.
Catawba Indians, a once warlike tribe in the Car-
olinas, now represented by a few half-breeds on a reserva-
tion near the Catawba River. They were always friendly
to the whites and hostile to their Indian enemies. Their
language was akin to that of the Creeks.
Catawba Island, a post-twp. of Ottawa co., O. P. 515.
Catawba Springs, a twp. of Lincoln co., N. C. P. 2097.
Catawis'sa, a post-village of Columbia, co., Pa., on the
North Branch of the Susquehanna, and on the Danville
Hazelton and Wilkesbarre and the Catawissa R. R.s., 52 miles
S. E. of Williamsport. Here are several iron-works. The
scenery is very fine. Pop., including township, 1614.
Cat-Bird (Turdus felivoac), a bird common in the U. S.,
is related to the mocking-bird, which it resembles in its
vocal powers. It derives its common name from a note or
cry which it utters. It occurs in the Middle States as a
summer bird of passage, and breeds in gardens or in the
vicinity of dwelling-houses. The color of its upper plu-
mage is dark gray or slate-color. It is serviceable to man
in devouring insects and worms. It sometimes imitates
the song of other birds, and is remarkable for its boldness
and vivacity. ºr-
Catch, a kind of music for men's voices; a sort of
round or fugue intended for convivial parties. This kind
of music is chiefly English, and was especially popular in
Charles II.'s time. The effect of the best catches is very
fine.
Catch-drains, open drains across a declivity to inter-
cept the surface-water. The term is sometimes applied to
under-drains across a declivity. ~
Cateau, Le, or Cateau-Cambresis, a town of
France, department of Nord, on the river Selle, 14 miles
E. S. E. of Cambrai. It is well built, and was formerly
fortified. It has manufactures of shawls, merinoes, and
calicoes. The important treaty of Cateau-Cambresis was
concluded here between Henry II. of France and Philip
II. of Spain, in 1559. Pop. 9974.
Catechet'ical Schools, a name given to the ancient
Christian schools of theology, of which the principal were
those of Alexandria (160–400 A.D.) and Antioch (from 290
A. D. through the fifth century). The most noted teachers
in the great school of Alexandria were Clement and Origen.
Cat'echism [from the Gr. karmkéo, to “sound into *
one's ears, to “instruct orally ”], an arrangement of ques-
tions and answers, generally designed to teach religious
doctrine to the young. Catechetic instruction has long
prevailed among the Jews, and in the early Christian
Church the catechumens (or persons receiving instruction .
preparatory to baptism) constituted, according to several
of the Fathers, a separate order in the membership of the
Church. This order comprised both the children of be-
CATECHU–CATHARINE.
815
lievers and adults from heathen society who desired admis-
sion into the Church. What would now be called catechisms
were used to some extent in those remote times. Catechisms
were used in the Middle Ages by the Waldenses, and later
by the Bohemian Brethren. It has been said that the
catechisms of Luther (1518–29) were the first which re-
ceived this name, but this point is not quite certain. The
Roman Catholic Church had long used catechisms, though
called by other names. ICero of St. Gall in the eighth
century prepared one of the earliest in the German lan-
guage. The principal catechisms of later times have been
those of Luther (the Exposition of 1518, the Catechism of
1520, the Smaller and Larger Catechism of 1529), still ex-
tensively used in the Lutheran Church; Calvin’s cate-
chisms, the Smaller and Larger (1536–39); the Heidelberg
Catechism (1562), (Reformed); that of GEcolampadius
(1545), of Erasmus (1547), of Leo Judae (1553); the Triden-
tine Catechism (1566), a standard in the Roman Catholic
Church ; the Anglican catechisms—the Larger (Latin,
1570), the Shorter or Middle Catechism, and the Smaller,
which, with a few changes, is published in the Book of
Common Prayer; the British Presbyterian catechisms—
the shorter (1647) and Larger (1648), which, with the
Westminster Confession (1646), are standard books with
most Presbyterian churches in the U. S. and Great Britain.
The Russian Church has a “Primer for Children’’ (1720)
and a “Shorter” and “Longer Catechism” (1839). Besides
these may be mentioned the three Wesleyan catechisms
prepared by Richard Watson, and the three Methodist
Episcopal Church catechisms (New York, 1852). The num-
ber of symbolical or authorized standard catechisms of the
various churches is quite large, besides an immense num-
ber of private or unauthorized works of the kind.
REVISED BY R. D. HITCHCOCK.
Cat'echu [etymology uncertain], a material employed
in tanning leather, as a coloring-matter, and medicinally
as an astringent. The catechu of commerce is derived
from East Indian trees, such as the catechu tree (Acacia
Catechu); also from the areca-palm and various other trees.
It is known in India by the name kutt (our cutch). The
heart-wood of the former (now naturalized in Jamaica)
yields catechu by cutting it into chips and boiling in water,
straining the liquid from time to time, and adding fresh
chips, till the extract is of sufficient consistence to be poured
into moulds of a square or circular shape; or when of the
thickness of tar it is allowed to harden, and is formed into
balls about the size of oranges. The catechu manufacturers
in India move to different parts of the country at different
seasons, and erect huts in the jungles, where they carry on
their operations. The catechu tree abounds in Bombay
and Bengal and in Burmah and Siam, and is a small
thorny tree, with a roundish head. Its sapwood is yellow,
the heart dark red. Catechu is brittle, soluble in water,
and possesses an astringent taste, but no odor. It affords
permanent colors, and is employed in the dyeing of blacks,
browns, fawns, drabs, and greens. It contains much tannin,
which is of a peculiar kind, called mimo-tannic acid, also
catechuic acid, which can be isolated in white silky crys-
tals. This latter acid is often called catechine, and is of
important use when catechu is employed as a dyestnff. It
is sometimes adulterated with earthy substances, but its
solubility in water and alcohol at once show their presence.
The catechu of the betel-nut is obtained by boiling first the
nuts, and then the extract. A first boiling of the nuts
yields a black catechu, called kassu; and a second boiling,
after the nuts are dried, a yellowish kind, called coury,
which is the best. The former appears in commerce under
the name of Ceylon catechu, in circular flat cakes. Gam-
bir may be regarded as a kind of catechu, and is frequently
called “pale catechu.” Kino is sometimes confounded
with catechu, which it much resembles.
Catechu' men [Gr. karmxoşuevos], a person who is
learning the elements of any science, but especially one who
is receiving instruction preparatory to admission into the
Christian Church. Catechumens were anciently divided
into three, or, as some writers say, four classes. The pro-
bation commonly lasted from two to three years, although
it was frequently reduced to a much smaller compass. It
was assumed that the children of Christian parents required
less instruction than Jewish converts, and Jewish converts
less than the heathen. -
Cat'egory [from the Gr. Karmyopéo, to “accuse,” and
hence to “affirm strongly ;” Lat. praedicamentum]. In
philosophical terminology the categories are the ultimate
classes in which all objects of knowledge can be systemat-
ically arranged. Philosophy and science, acknowledging
the impossibility of knowing all things individually, re-
duce objects to classes; and when we gain knowledge of
the class, we have a formal or general knowledge of its con-
stituent objects. This attempt to render knowledge in some
sense universal has been made in the philosophy of all ages,
and has given rise to various systems of categories—liter-
ally, things that may be affirmed. Aristotle seems to have
been the first of the Greeks to make anything like a com-
plete classification of them. He makes them ten in num-
ber—viz. Substance, quantity, quality, relation, place,
time, position, possession, action, passivity. This system
was unquestioningly received for a long time, but modern
criticism has shown that there may be many predicates
which could not be contained in any of these categories.
Accordingly, Kant and others have attempted to make
better classes. Rant makes twelve categories, in four
classes of three species each—viz., singularity, plurality,
and universality; reality, unreality, and indefiniteness;
substance, dependence, and reaction ; possibility, exist-
ence, and necessity. Various other arrangements have
been proposed, but criticism has shown that thus far, per-
haps, none are perfect. It is remarkable that the cate-
gories of the Hindoo philosopher Kanāda are almost iden-
tical with those of Aristotle. Kamāda probably lived before
the time of Aristotle. (See MAx MüLLER’s paper on “In-
dian Logic,” appended to ARCHBISHOP THOMsoN’s “Laws of
Thought.”)
Cate/ma [Lat. catena, a “chain”], in biblical literature,
is a commentary made up of selections from various writers.
The number of catenae is very considerable, and some are
of great antiquity. Perhaps the most celebrated is the
“Catena Aurea,” (i.e. “Golden Chain”) of Thomas Aquinas.
Cat'enary [from the Lat. catena, a “chain”], the curve
formed by a cord or flexible chain of uniform density and
size when suspended or allowed to hang freely from two
fixed points. This curve was first noticed by Galileo, but
he imagined it to be the same as the parabola. Its true
nature was first demonstrated by James Bernoulli. It has
several remarkable properties, one of which is that its cen-
tre of gravity is lower than that of any curve of equal peri-
meter and with the same fixed points for its extremities. It
is interesting on account of the light it throws on the theory
of arches, and by reason of its application to the construc-
tion of suspension bridges.
Cat'erpillar. See ENTOMOLOGY, by PROF. SANBORN
TENNEY, A. M.
Catesby (MARK), F. R. S., an English naturalist and
artist, born in 1679. He visited America, in 1710, and after
his return to England published a “Natural History of
Carolina, Florida, etc.,” with colored figures drawn and
etched by himself. Died Dec. 24, 1749.
Cat-fish (Pimelodus), a well-known genus of fresh-
water fishes, of the family Siluridae, comprising, it is said,
thirty or more species in the U. S., divided by some of the
later authors into several genera, as Aminºrus, Ichthalurus,
Hopladelus, etc. They are also called bull-heads and pouts.
Some of them are armed with sharp spines. It is said that
cat-fish have been taken in the Mississippi weighing more
than two hundred pounds. As a rule, they are not very
savory as food. The sea cat-fish (Galeicthys marinus) is
kindred to the above genus, and is a fine fish for the table.
Cat/gut, a material employed for the strings of violins
and other musical instruments, for the cords used by clock-
makers, bow-strings, fishing-lines, and for belt-stitching in
mills, etc. It is generally prepared from the intestines of
sheep, and sometimes from those of the horse and ass. It
is prepared by an elaborate process, and preserved from
putrefaction by treating it with a dilute solution of alkali.
The best violin-strings are manufactured in Italy, and are
called Roman strings.
Caſtha, a genus of plants of the natural order Celas-
traceae. The Catha edulis, which the Arabs call khāt, is
a shrub, a native of Arabia, having narcotic and stimulat-
ing leaves, which are eaten by the Arabs. They also make
a decoction of the leaves, which is used as a beverage.
Cath'ari [Gr. Ka8apot, the “pure”], a name applied at
different times to various sects of Christians, such as the
Novatians of the third century, and to the Albigenses,
Patarenes, Waldenses, and others in the twelfth century.
The name is analogous to “Puritans,” and was apparently
in some cases assumed, and in others ironically conferred
in consequence of their professed aim at greater purity of
life than was ordinarily attained. The Cathari proper were
Dualists, and were perhaps of Slavonic, possibly of remote
Gnostic, origin. They appeared in Italy in the eleventh
century, and attained their greatest prosperity in Southern
France, where they were confounded with the Albigenses,
and were exterminated with them in the thirteenth century.
The strict Cathari held no property, abstained from mar-
riage, war, and the killing of animals, and rejected Water-
baptism.
Cath'arine, a post-township of Schuyler co., N. Y.
Pop. 1629.
816
CATHARINE–CATHCART.
Catharine, a township of Blair co., Pa. Pop. 907.
Catharine de’ Medici [Fr. Catherine de Médicis],
queen of France, was born at Florence in 1519. She was
a daughter of the duke of Urbino, who was a nephew of
Pope Leo X. She was married in 1533 to a son of Francis
I. of France; who ascended the throne as Henry II. in 1547.
On the death of her son, Francis II., in 1560, she became
regent of France during the minority of Charles IX., who
was her son. She was ambitious, crafty, and perfidious,
and made bad use of her power. Her intrigues promoted
the civil or religious war by which France was for many
years afflicted. She also appears to have been one of the
instigators of the massacre of St. Bartholomew (Aug.,
1572). Died Jan. 5, 1589. (See EUGENIo ALBERI, “Wita
di Caterina de' Medici,” 1834.)
Catharime Howard. See HENRY VIII.
Cath'arime [Russ. Ekaterina] H., empress of Russia,
was born of poor parents at Ringen, near Dorpat, in Livonia,
April 15, 1684. Her first husband was a subaltern Swedish
officer. She was taken a captive by the Russians in 1702,
and was married to Peter the Great in 1711. Peter, hav-
ing invaded Turkey in 1711, was reduced by want of pro-
visions to a critical position, from which he was extricated
by Catherine, who bribed the Turkish vizier. She was
crowned as empress in 1724, and died May 17, 1727. Her
daughter Elizabeth became empress.
Catharine HM., empress of Russia, born at Stettin May.
2, 1729, was a daughter of the prince of Anhalt-Zerbst. She
was married in 1745 to Peter, a nephew and heir of Eliza-
beth, empress of Russia. They soon quarrelled and became
estranged from each other. On the death of Elizabeth, in
1761, he ascended the throne as Peter III. In July, 1762,
he was assassinated by conspirators, of whom Catherine
was probably an accomplice, and she assumed sovereign
power, for which she was qualified by superior talents; but
she was a woman of very dissolute character. She admin-
istered the government with energy and success, and in-
creased both the extent and power of the empire. She
co-operated with Austria and Prussia in the partition of
Poland in 1772, and in the second partition of 1793. The
Russians were victorious in a war against the Turks, which
was ended by the treaty of Kainardji in 1774. She was a
liberal patron of scientific men. She died Nov. 17, 1796, and
was succeeded by her son, Paul I. “IHer capacity,” says
Lord Brougham, “ was of an exalted order. Her judgment
was clear and sure. The history of princes affords few ex-
amples of such force of character on a throne perverted to
the working of so much mischief.” (Statesmen of the Time
of George III.) (See TooKE, “History of Catherine II.,”
1803; CASTERA, “Wie de Catherine II.,” 1796; TANNEN-
BERG, “Leben Catherinens II.,” 1797.)
Catharine of Aragon, queen of England, a daugh-
ter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile, was born in 1486.
In 1501 she was married to Arthur, who was the eldest son
of Henry VII. of England, and who died in 1502. She
was married in 1509 to Arthur's brother, Henry VIII., who
was six years younger than herself. She gave birth in 1516
to a daughter, Mary, who became queen. The king, who
had conceived a passion for Anne Boleyn about 1527, ex-
pressed doubts of the legality of his marriage with Cath-
arine, and applied to the pope for a divorce. The disagree-
ment between the pope and Henry VIII. on this subject
was one of the causes of the prevalence of Protestantism
in England. Cranmer declared the marriage void in 1533.
She died in 1536.
Catharine of Braganza, the queen of Charles II.
of England, born in 1638, was a daughter of John IV.,
king of Portugal, and brought in dower Tangiers and
Rombay. She had been religiously bred, and the licentious
customs of the English court she found strange. After
the death of Charles (1685) she returned to Portugal in
1693, and was made regent by her brother Pedro in 1704.
Died Dec. 31, 1705.
Catharine of Valois, queen of Henry V. of Eng-
land and daughter. of Charles VI. of France, was born
Oct. 27, 1401. Her hand, together with the right of suc-
cession to the French throne, was given to Henry by the
treaty of Troyes. After the death of the king, Catharine
became the wife of Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentleman. She
died Jan. 3, 1437.
Catharine Parr, the sixth wife of Henry VIII. of
England, was born in 1513. She was married to Lord Lat-
imer, and after his death became, in 1543, the queen of
Henry VIII. She was a woman of considerable learning
and no little tact. After the death of the king she was
married to Sir Thomas Seymour. Died Sept. 30, 1548.
Cathar’tes Au’ra, the turkey-buzzard, a vulture which
is so called from its close resemblance to the common turkey.
It mostly inhabits North America, but is sometimes found
in Jamaica, where it is called the John crow. The adult
bird measures about two feet and a half in length, and is
--
Cº-º- - - - - -
---------------- -
-
#
cº-º-
*-
:-"
J.
Cathartes Aura.
six feet between the tips of the wings. The general color
of the plumage is black mingled with brown. Turkey-buz-
Zards as scavengers are of much service to man, devouring
all refuse substances that are injurious to health. When
gorged they perch themselves on some neighboring tree,
where they sit with their wings half open, apparently too
lazy to hold them in their proper position. They do not
construct much of a nest, but generally deposit their eggs
in some hollow tree or log. Another species, Cathartes
atratus, commonly known as the carrion crow or black
vulture, is smaller than the above, and is found in the
Southern States. In the Southern towns, especially Charles-
ton and Savannah, large numbers may be seen sauntering
about the market-places, or, if the weather be cool, perched
on the chimney-tops, the heat from which they greatly en-
joy. Both species are protected by law, and are in an al-
most perfect state of domestication.
Cathar’tics [from the Gr. Ka8aipo, to “purify "1, a
name at first given to medicines supposed to purify the
body from the matter of disease, assumed by the ancients
to exist in cases of acute disorder, and to require to be
thrown off by the excretions. Ultimately, the term cathar-
tics became limited to remedies acting on the bowels, which
are popularly called purgatives. Among the principal
cathartics are aloes, colocynth, rhubarb, Scammomy, jalap,
senna, Epsom and Rochelle salts, and castor oil. Sulphur
and cream of tartar form a useful mild laxative; mag-
nesia is also administered in cases of indigestion with
acidity. The resin of podophyllum (may-apple) is now
sometimes used. The most agreeable of all cathartic med-
icines is the effervescent solution of citrate of magnesia.
Croton oil and elaterium belong to a dangerous class of
cathartics, as also does the favorite remedy of the ancients,
the black hellebore. The number of cathartics is great.
Cathar’tin is the supposed active principle in senna.
It can be isolated as a yellowish-red uncrystallizable sub-
stance, which is deliquescent, and has a very bitter taste,
a characteristic odor, and purging powers, causing nausea
and griping. Three grains of cathartin are a full dose. It
is not much used, and is perhaps not a definite compound.
The same name is given to a purgative principle obtained
from buckthorn berries. º
Cathay. See APPENDIx.
Cath’ cart, EARLs or (1814), Wiscounts Cathcart and
Barons Greenock (United Kingdom, 1807), Barons Cath-
cart (Scotland, 1447).-ALAN FREDERICK CATHQART, third
earl, born Nov. 15, 1828, succeeded his father July 16, 1859.
Cathcart (WILLIAM SHAw), EARL or, a British general
and diplomatist, born Sept. 17, 1755. He became a major-
general in 1794, and was sent on a mission to the court of
Russia in 1805. He commanded the land forces which,
with aid of the fleet, captured Copenhagen in 1807. In
1813 he was sent as ambassador to St. Petersburg. He was
raised to the rank of earl in 1814. His eldest Son, Charles

CATHEDRAL–CATLIN.
817
Murray, born in 1783, became a general, and inherited the
title of earl. Died June 17, 1843.
Cathe/dral [from Gr. ka948pa, a “chair,” a “seat”],
the principal church of a diocese, in which is the cathedra
or throne of the bishop. It is the parish church of the
whole diocese. The difference between a cathedral and a
collegiate church consists chiefly in the fact that the for-
mer is the see of a bishop. The governing body of a cathe-
dral is called the dean and chapter—i. e. the dean and
canons. In the Anglican Church all the members of the
cathedrals, except the dean, are styled canons, and their
seat in the cathedral is called their stall. Among the re-
markable cathedrals of the world are the Duomo at Flor-
ence, the cathedral of Milan, that of Notre Dame in Paris,
the Strasburg cathedral, and St. Paul’s in London. The
church of St. John Lateran in Rome is the cathedral or
episcopal church of the pope.
Catherine, SAINT, of Alexandria in Egypt, suffered
martyrdom about 307 A. D. She is supposed to have been
a patroness of learning and philosophy.
* Cath/eter [Gr. ka9erſip, from ka9aijut, to “send down ''
or “thrust into *], in surgery, the name of various instru-
ments used for passing along, mucous canals. It is, how-
ever, generally applied to tubes through which fluids may
pass, and which may give exit to the accumulated contents
of such organs as the urinary bladder. The ancients made
catheters of copper. In the ninth century silver was sub-
stituted by the Arabian surgeons, and still generally used.
The urinary catheter for the male varies in length from ten
to twelve inches; the female catheter need not be more than
four or five inches, and is nearly straight. For the male
urethra most surgeons prefer an instrument. straight to
within the last few inches of its length; the latter should
be curved into the segment of a small circle.
ever, use a double curve.
ing of short, hollow joints of silver, united into a continuous
flexible tube, is often extremely useful. Flexible catheters
of gum elastic are used either alone or supported on a wire.
Great tact and care are required in introducing catheters into
the urinary bladder. It must not be done by force, but by
gentle management. Violence in the operation may cause
serious injury. EEVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Cath’ey’s Creek, a township of Transylvania co.,
N. C. Pop. 515. -
Cathlam’et, a post-village, capital of Wahkiakum co.,
Wash. Ter.
Cathode.
TON, PH.D. *
Catholic or United Copts, that portion of the
Coptic Church in Egypt which acknowledges the supremacy
of the pope. They number about 13,000. (See CoPTs.)
Cath’olic Apostol’ic Church, The, is the name of
a body of Christians popularly known as the Irvingites,
being followers of the Rev. Edward Irving, who died in
1834. They are distinguished by their claim to the ex-
ercise of apostolic gifts, such as prophecy, the use of un-
known tongues, and the miraculous healing of disease.
They receive only the Apostles', the Nicene, and the Atha-
nasian creeds; their officers are called apostles, prophets,
evangelists, angels, pastors, deacons, under-deacons, and
deaconesses; they are ritualists, imitating closely the ser-
vice of the Roman Catholic Church, professing to select all
that is desirable from all Christian churches. This sect
originated in London, but it is found in small numbers in
most Protestant countries. (See IRVING, EDWARD.)
Cath’olic [Gr. ka90Atkós, “universal,” from kará,
“throughout,” and 6Aos, “all”] Church. The phrase
Catholic Church is equivalent to “universal church,” and
cannot properly be limited to any particular sect or body.
See ELECTRICITY, BY PREs. HENRY MOR-
It was once employed to distinguish the Christian Church
from the Jewish, the latter being restricted to a single ma-
tion, while the former was intended for the world. After-
Wards, it served to mark the difference between the so-called
orthodox Church and the sects which sprang from it, such
as the Arians, Gnostics, etc. The name has been especially
claimed by the Church of Rome. Protestant divines have
been careful to deny its applicability, yet the term Catholic
is still popularly used as synonymous with Roman Catholic.
(See RoyſAN CATHoLICs.)
Cath’olic Emancipa/tion, in British history, the
measure enacted April 13, 1829, by which the political dis-
abilities previously resting upon Roman Catholics were
chiefly removed. These disabilities weighed most heavily
itpon the Roman Catholics of Ireland, and the history of
the oppressions of Irish Catholics is almost identical with
the history of English rule in Ireland, for these oppressions.
had their origin quite as much in political and social as in
religious prejudice.
Others, how-
A vertebrated catheter, consist-,
with about 3000 of his partisans.
After the subjugation of Ireland in 1691 by the forces
of William III., the whole people were disarmed; priests
were banished the country; no Roman Catholic could
act as guardian for any child; after 1704 a son turning
Protestant could dispossess his father and take his estate;
a Catholic heir to landed property was to be set aside in
favor of the next Protestant heir; no office, military or
civil, could be held by a Roman Catholic; he could not
vote or marry a Protestant wife; his son might force him
to settle an allowance upon him (the son) at the discretion
of a court of chancery; no Roman Catholic could practise
law or teach school; no Protestant lawyer could marry a
Catholic wife; a priest marrying a Catholic and Protestant
Was to be hanged. Many of these measures became obso-
lete in practice, and more were repealed by the Irish Par-
liament of 1790; and at the union (1800) Mr. Pitt pledged
himself to secure an act of emancipation, but through the
opposition of George III. he failed. Subsequently, in con-
sequence of the agitation of O’Connell and the Catholic
Association, the subject was again taken up, was brought
forward in Parliament by Mr. Peel Mar. 5, 1829, and was
carried by large majorities in both houses. The only dis-
abilities Ieft upon Catholics were their exclusion from the
regency, the chancellorship of England or Ireland, the
viceroyship of Ireland, and from the offices and patronage
of the Anglican Church, the universities and the Church
schools; the prohibition of episcopal titles, the public use
of clerical insignia, the extension of monasticism, and the
increase of the number of Jesuits. These latter prohibi-
tions are, however, practically overlooked.
Cath’olic Epis’tles, the name given to certain epistles
of the New Testament addressed not to particular churches
or individuals, but to the Church universal or to a large and
indefinite circle of readers. Originally the Catholic Epis-
tles comprised only the first Epistle of John and the first
of Peter, but as early as the fourth century the term was
applied also to the Epistle of James, of Jude, the second
of Peter, and the second and third of John. These seven
thus constitute the Catholic Epistles.
Cathol/icos, the title of the patriarchs or chief eccle-
siastics in the hierarchy of the Armenian Church, and also
of the prelates of the Christians of Georgia, and Mingrelia.
Cat/iiime [Lat. Catilina], (LUCIUS SERGIUs), a famous
Roman demagogue and conspirator, born about 108 B. C.
In his youth he was a partisan of Sulla in the civil war.
He was elected praetor in 68 B. C., and afterwards aspired
to the office of consul. He was notorious for his crimes,
and was ruined in fortune, but his talents and his audacity
combined to render him a popular favorite of a large party,
many of which were insolvent debtors and desperate adven-
turers. Having been defeated in the election for consul, he
formed a conspiracy against the state. It appears that he
and his numerous accomplices proposed to massacre the
senators and the friends of order, and to involve Rome in a
general conflagration. The leaders of this plot met on the
6th of Nov., 63 B.C., and made arrangements for its speedy
execution; but the secret was revealed by Fulvia, the mis-
tress of one of the conspirators, who were baffled by the
vigilance and energy of Cicero. On the 8th of November,
Cicero uttered in the senate his first oration against Cati-
line, who was present and attempted to reply, but his voice
was drowned by cries of “Traitor l’’ and “Parricide l’”
Catiline left Rome in the next night, and went to the camp
of Manlius, who was his accomplice and was at the head
of an army in Etruria. Lentulus and other conspirators
who remained in Rome were put to death in Dec., 63 B. C.
The army of the Senate encountered that of Catiline near
Pistoria (now Pistoia) in 62 B.C. He stimulated the courage
of his soldiers with an eloquent harangue, and a desperate
battle ensued, in which Catiline was defeated and killed,
(See SALLUST, “Bellum
"Catilinarium;” RosB, “History of Catiline's Conspiracy,”
1813; CICERO, “Orationes in Catilinam.”)
Catſkin, or A/ment (amentum), in botany, a term ap-
plied to a form of inflorescence of which the willow, poplar,
birch, and alder afford examples. It is a close spike of
numerous small, unisexual flowers, destitute of calyx and
corolla, and furnished with scale-like bracts. The trees
which bear catkins form the natural order AMENTACEA,
(which see).
Cat'lettsburg, a post-village, capital of Boyd co.,
Ky., on the Ohio River, at the mouth of the Big Sandy,
about 150 miles E. N. E. of Frankfort. It has a trade in
lumber and various manufactures. It has one Weekly news-
paper. Pop. 1019. ED. “CENTRAL METHODIST.”
Cat'lin, a post-township of Vermilion co., Ill. P. 1826.
Catlin, a township of Chernung co., N. Y. Pop. 1342.
Catlin (GEORGE), an American traveller and artist,
born in Wilkesbarre, Pa., in 1796. He passed many years
52
818
CATMINT—CATTEGAT.
among the North American Indians, and published “Illus-
trations of the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the
North American Indians,” with engravings (2 vols., 1841).
He exhibited in Europe his Indian gallery and collection.
Died in Jersey City Dec. 23, 1872, aged seventy-eight.
Catſmint, or Cat'nip (Nepeta Cataria), an herbaceous
plant of the natural order Labiatae, is a native of Europe,
and is a common weed in the U. S., but not indigenous
here. It has cordate and crenate leaves, which are whitish,
downy underneath, and emit a peculiar odor. Cats are
extremely fond of this plant, which they eat with avidity
and signs of excitement.
Caſto, a post-township of Montcalm co., Mich. P. 523.
Cato, a post-township of Cayuga, co., N. Y. P. 2091.
Cato, a post-township of Manitowoc co., Wis. P. 1675.
Cato (DIONYSIUs), a Latin moralist of the third cen–
tury, of whom nothing is known, is the reputed author of
a small volume of moral precepts, entitled “Disticha de
Moribus ad Filium,” which was a popular book in the
Middle Ages. Each precept is expressed in two hexameter
verses. Great difference of opinion exists respecting the
merit of this work.
Cato (MARCUs Poſtcrus), often called CAT0 CENSORIUs
(i.e. “Cato the Censor”), a celebrated Roman statesman
and patriot, born of a plebeian family at Tusculum in 234
D. C. He was surnamed THE ELDER, to distinguish him
from Cato Uticensis. He fought against Hannibal in the
second Punic war, after the end of which he cultivated a
small Sabine farm, adopted a simple and frugal mode of
life, and became a model of austere and pristine Roman
virtue. Having removed to Rome, he gained distinction
as an advocate in the courts of justice, and was elected
praetor in 198 B. C. He was chosen consul in 195, and
commanded an army in Spain, where he displayed superior
military talents, and was so successful that he received a
triumph on his return to Rome. In the year 184 he was
elected censor, in which capacity he acted with uncommon
rigor. He was a zealous asserter of old-fashioned princi-
ples, and opposed the growing tendency to luxury, and all
innovations, good or bad. He was an implacable enemy
of Carthage, and often repeated in the senate the phrase
Detenda est Carthago (“Carthage must be destroyed”). He
wrote, besides other works, a treatise on agriculture (“De
Te Rustica.”), which is extant. Died in 149 B. C. (See
PLUTARCH, “Life of Cato;” Corn ELIUS NEPOs, “ Cato;”
IIvy, “History of Rome;” WEBER, “Programma de M.
P. Catonis Vita et Moribus.”)
Cato (MARCUs Porcius), surnamed THE YouNGER and
UTIGENSIs (i.e. “ of Utica,”), an eminent Roman patriot and
statesman, born in 95 B.C., was a great-grandson of the
preceding. He studied and adopted the doctrines and dis-
cipline of the Stoic philosophers. In 72 B.C. he served
in the campaign against Spartacus. Having been elected
quaestor (treasurer), he effected some reforms in the treasury
department. He became tribune of the people in 63 B.C.,
and heartily co-operated with Cicero, who was then consul,
in his efforts to defeat the treason of Catiline and his ac-
complices. He opposed the triumvirs, Caesar, Pompey, and
Crassus, after they had formed a coalition. In 54 B. C. he
was chosen praetor, and used his power to prevent bribery
in elections. He was an uncompromising opponent of cor-
ruption, and inflexible in his adherence to what he consid-
ered the right and the patriotic policy. As a candidate for
the consulship he was defeated, because he declined to gain
votes by bribery and other means which were customary,
but not strictly right. In the civil war which began about
49 B.C. he adhered to the side of the senate and Pompey.
He was not present at the battle of Pharsalia, soon after
which he was appointed commander of the army in Africa,
but he resigned the command to Scipio. The republican
cause having been ruined by the defeat of that army at
Thapsus in 46 B.C., Cato killed himself at Utica in the
same year. He was regarded as a model of pure and dis-
interested virtue. (See DRUMANN, “Geschichte Roms;”
PLUTARCH, “Life of Cato the Younger.”)
Catoc/tim, a township of Frederick co., Md. P. 1326.
Caſton, a post-township of Steuben co., N. Y. P. 1544.
Catoo/sa, a county of Georgia, bordering on Tennes-
see. Area, 175 square miles. It is drained by Chicka-
mauga Creek. The surface is hilly. Wool and grain are
important products. . It is intersected by the Western and
Atlantic R. R. Capital, Ringgold. Pop. 4409.
Catoosa Springs, a saline chalybeate spring of Ca-
toosa, co., Ga. There are accommodations for several hun-
dred visitors, and the springs are extensively patronized
in the summer.
Catoptrics. See REFLECTION OF LIGHT.
Cats [Lat., Catsius], (JAKOB), an eminent Dut:h poet,
!
the U. S. and Europe.
born at Brouwershaven, in Zealand, in 1577. He studied
law, which he practised. He also filled several high civil
offices. He was grand-pensionary of Holland from 1636
to 1648, when he became keeper of the grand seal. His
poems were very popular. He wrote “Moral Emblems,”
fables, songs, allegories, etc., which are distinguished by
simplicity of style and good moral tendency. Died in
1660. (See ALSCHE, “ Commentatio de J. Catsio,” 1828.)
Cat’s Eye, a beautiful variety of chalcedonic quartz
of various shades of greenish-gray or brownish-red. It
displays, when polished, a peculiar pearly opalescence
(chatoyance) or floating intermal light, much resembling
the mutable reflections exhibited by the contracted pupil
of the eye of a cat. This results from the parallel arrange-
ment of the minute fibres of the mineral or of the fibres of
amianthus or asbestos which it contains. ... It is obtained
chiefly in Ceylon, and is found in Scotland. It is used in
jewelry, and is cut en cabochon.
Cats'kill, a post-village, capital of Greene co., N. Y.,
on the W. bank of the Hudson River, at the mouth of Cats-
kill Creek, 34 miles below Albany, and 109 miles by rail
N. of New York. It contains a court-house, seven churches,
two national banks, and two newspaper-offices. Pop. 3791;
of Catskill township, 7677. The Hudson River R. R. passes
on the other side of the river.
Catskill Group, the uppermost division of the Devo-
nian system in America. It was named from the Catskill
Mountains, which were supposed to be formed of these
rocks, but are now known to be mainly composed of strata
of the Chemung group. The Catskill rocks are best seen
in the northern counties of Pennsylvania—Tioga, Bradford,
Potter, etc. They are mainly red sandstones and shales,
and contain as characteristic fossils the scales and bones
of large ganoid fishes.
Catskill Mountains, of New York, a group of the
great Appalachian system, included mostly in Greene
county. The highest summit, Hunter Mountain, has an
altitude of 4050 feet. On the border of the eastern ter-
races are the Overlook House, placed at an elevation of
2977 feet, and the Catskill Mountain House, at 2235 feet
above the Hudson. The last, which has long been a favor-
ite summer resort, is about 12 miles W. of the village of
Catskill. The summits of the mountains command exten-
sive and beautiful prospects. The view at sunrise from
these mountain-houses is magnificent and beautiful in
the highest degree. The scenery of this group is diver-
sified by cascades, rocky precipices, Small lakes, and deep
T3, W1110 S. º
Cat’s =Tail Grass, a name of the Phleum pratense.
(See TIMOTHY.)
Cat Tail, or Cat’s Tail (Typha latifolia), an aquatic
herbaceous plant of the order Typhaceae, is indigenous in
It bears ſlowers in a long and very
dense cylindrical spike terminating the stem. Its leaves
are of late employed with success in France as a material
for paper-making.
Cattarau'gus, a county of Western New York, bor-
dering on Pennsylvania. Area, 1334 Square miles. It is
intersected by the Alleghany River, and bounded partly
on the N. by Cattaraugus Creek. The surface is uneven
or hilly; the soil is fertile. Dairy products, grain, and
potatoes are largely produced. Leather, lumber, cooper-
age, metallic wares, flour, cheese, saddlery, etc. are among
the manufactures. It is traversed by the Erie, the Atlantic
and Great Western, and the Buffalo. New York and Phila-
delphia R. Rs. Capital, Little Valley. Pop. 43,909.
Cattaraugus, a post-village of New Albion township,
Cattaraugus co., N. Y., on the Erie R. R., 22 miles E. of
Dunkirk.
Cat(taro, a seaport-town of Austria, in Dalmatia, on
the Gulf of Cattaro, about 37 miles S. E. of Ragusa. It is
situated at the base of a steep limestone hill, is strongly
fortified, and is surrounded with walls. It has a castle on
a precipitous rock, a cathedral, and several churches. It
was formerly the capital of a small republic of the same
name. Pop. 3589.
Catſtaro, Boc/ca di (i.e. “Gulf of"), a tortuous
inlet of the Adriatic, at the S. extremity of the coast of
Dalmatia, is 30 miles long. It is protected from winds by
high mountains on several sides, and forms the best harbor
in the Adriatic. The entrance from the sea into this gulf
is about 1% miles wide.
Catſtegat, or Kattegat (anc. Codanus Sinus), a part
of the ocean which, separates Denmark from Sweden and
washes the eastern side of Jutland. It communicates with
the Baltic by three channels—the Great Belt, the Littlo
Belt, and the Sound. On the other side the Skager-Rack
connects it with the German Ocean. It is about 150 miles
long and 85 miles wide. Dangerous sand-banks occur in it.
CATTELL–CAUCUS.
819
Catten' (ALExANDER G.), born in Salem, N.J., Feb. 12,
1816. He became a successful merchant of Philadelphia.
in 1846, becoming president of the Corn Exchange and of
the Corn Exchange Bank. In 1855 he removed to Mer-
chantville, N.J., and was U. S. Senator from N. J. 1866–71.
Catteil (WILLIAM CASSIDAY), D. D., a brother of the
preceding, was born at Salem, N. J., Aug. 30, 1827, grad-
uated at Princeton College in 1848, at Princeton Theolog-
ical Seminary in 1852, became professor of ancient languages
at Lafayette College in 1855, pastor of a Presbyterian church
at Harrisburg, Pa., in 1860, and president of Lafayette Col-
lege in 1864. His administration of the affairs of the col-
lege has been marked by energy and success.
Cat’tle [Old Eng. catel, “chattels,” “goods,” because
in ancient times a man’s cattle were his principal goods],
a collective term which in its widest sense includes all
domestic animals, and in the usage of some writers includes
also deer and other wild grazing animals. In America,
however, its application is limited very generally to beasts
of the species Bos tawrats, the domestic ox, the “neat cat-
tle” or “black cattle” of British writers. There are many
varieties or “breeds” of cattle, some of which, in Southern
Asia, are distinguished by a large hump or mass of fat
upon the shoulders. The original wild stock from which
cattle are descended is not well known. The principal
breeds in the U. S. are of British origin. The old “na-
tive ’’ stock is of extremely mixed descent, but of late years
much attention has been paid, with the best results, to the
rearing of pure-blooded and “grade” stock. The best are
the “short-horn” or “Durham ” breed, which produce ex-
cellent beef-cattle, and are extensively reared in the U. S.,
chiefly for fattening purposes; the “Herefords,” for work-
ing oxen and beef; the beautiful “Devons;” the “Ayr-
shires,” prized for milking qualities; the “Jerseys” or
“Alderneys,” which yield extremely rich and excellent
milk. The continent of Europe has many fine breeds which
are little known in the U. S., though the “Dutch '' and
“Holstein ’’ cattle have been introduced. The Texas cattle
are descended chiefly from Spanish stock. (See SoLON
RoBINSON, “Facts for Farmers.”)
Cattoi'ica, a town of Sicily, in the province of Gir-
genti, 14 miles N. W. of the city of Girgenti. It has pro-
ductive sulphur-mines. Pop. 5749.
Catul'lus (VALERTUs), a Roman lyric poet of high
reputation, was born at or near Verona about 87 B. C. He
became in early life a resident of Rome, and enjoyed the
Society of Cicero and Caesar. He was the first Roman who
excelled in lyric poetry. He wrote, besides numerous odes
and epigrams, a heroic or narrative poem entitled “The
Nuptials of Peleus and Thetis,” which is his longest work,
and a poem called “Atys,” which is highly commended.
The date of his death is unknown. One hundred and six-
teen of his poems are extant. They are admired for the
exquisite grace and beauty of their style, but are grossly
licentious. Died about 47 B. C. -
Cat’ulus (QUINTUs LUTATIUs), a Roman general and
writer. He was chosen consul and a colleague of Caius
Marius in 102 B. C. Catulus and Marius commanded two
armies, which united and defeated the Cimbri near Vercelli
in 101 B. C. He was a partisan of Sulla in the civil war.
Having been condemned to death by the Marian party, he
killed himself in 87 B. C. His works are lost except two
epigrams.
Catulus (QUINTUs LUTATIUs), a son of the preceding,
was a conservative and meritorious statesman. He became
consul in 78 B.C., and censor in the year 65. Cicero ap-
plied to him the epithet “clarissimus ” (“illustrious”).
Died in 60 B. C.
Cau'ca, a river of South America, rises in the Andes
and flows nearly northward through Popayan, Cauca, and
Antioquía. After a course of 600 miles it enters the Mag-
dalena in lat. 9°25' N. The valley of the Cauca is one of
the most fertile and populous districts of South America.
Cauca, a state of the republic of Colombia. The sur-
face is partly mountainous. Area, 68,300 English square
miles. It is traversed by the river Cauca. Capital, Po-
payan. Pop. in 1870, 435,708.
Caucaſsian (i.e. “pertaining to Caucasus”), a term
somewhat loosely employed to designate the principal white
races of mankind. The Circassians and Georgians, dwell-
ing at the foot of Mount Caucasus have been taken as the
type of the Caucasian race, and suggested the name. Ac-
cording to Blumenbach, the Caucasian race is the principal
of the five divisions of the human family, and the original
stock from which the other races have sprung. It also
forms one of the three varieties of Cuvier. It comprises
the most enlightened and powerful nations of the earth, in-
cluding, besides the Aryan races (see ARYA), the Hebrews,
Phoenicians, and Arabs. But the inhabitants of the Cau-
casus, so long held to be types of the European variety,
are now by some excluded from it altogether, and classed
with the Mongols. The question of their relationship is a
very obscure one. The basis upon which the theory of the
Caucasian type was formed is thus stated by Latham :
“Blumenbach. had a solitary Georgian skull, and that
skull was the finest in his collection, that of a Greek being
the next. Hence it was taken as the type of the skull of
the more organized divisions of our species. More than
this, it gave its name to the type, and introduced the term
Caucasian. Never has a single head done more harm to
Science than was done in the way of posthumous mischief
by this well-shaped head of a female from Georgia.” As
commonly used, the term Caucasian is objectionable, as
confounding under one name nations (as, for example, the
Arabs and Germans) who have at best a very remote rela-
tionship; while it has often led to a still greater error—
that of separating, on trivial and superficial grounds, na-
tions who are unquestionably closely related, such as the
dark-complexioned Hindoos and the light-complexioned
Teutons and Celts. It is as if a botanist, instead of class-
ifying fruits according to their internal structure and es-
sential nature, should divide them into classes according
to their color, putting the yellow fruits into one division,
the red into another, and so on.
Cauca/sian Prov'inces, or Cauca'sia, a portion
of the Russian empire, situated on both sides of the cen-
tral chain of the Caucasus. It is bounded on the E. by
the Caspian Sea, and on the W. by the Black Sea, being
partly in Europe and partly in Asia. The European por-
tion, called Cis-Caucasia, comprises Circassia, Caucasus,
and Daghestan. The Asiatic part, called Trans-Caucasia,
comprises Georgia, Mingrelia, and Russian Armenia, and
has an area of 169,632 square miles. The chief towns are.
Tiflis, Stavropol, Derbend, and Erivan. (For the physical
geography of this region, see CAUCASUS.) Pop. 4,661,824.
Cau’casus [Gr. 6 Kaijkaaros or ö Kaijkaats], an important
and lofty mountain-range which extends between the Black
Sea and the Caspian, and forms part of the boundary be-
tween Europe and Asia. It is 690 miles long, and extends
from the Peninsula of Taman on the Black Sea, in an
E. S. E. direction, to the peninsula of Apsheron on the
Caspian. Connected with this central chain are several
branches or transverse ridges on both sides. The culmina-
ting point of the Caucasus is Mount Elboorz, which is near
the middle of the central chain, and has an altitude of
about 18,570 feet. Its base is 7660 above the sea-level.
The next highest is Mount Kasbek, 16,552 feet, east of
which is the Dariel Pass. This is said to be the only pass
by which carriages can cross the Caucasus. The highest
summits of this chain are formed of trachyte or porphyry,
below which occur granite, syenite, etc. Limestone, slate,
and other stratified rocks appear at the base and on the
sides of these mountains. The limit of perpetual snow is
here about 11,000 feet above the level of the sea. Some
parts of the Caucasus are destitute of trees, but the second-
ary ranges near the Black Sea are covered with magnificent
forests of oak, beech, ash, maple, and walnut. The cereal
grains flourish 7000 feet above the level of the sea, and the
lower valleys produce rice, cotton, indigo, and the grape.
The principal rivers that rise among these mountains are
the Kooban, Koor, and Terek. The scenery of this region
is said to be very beautiful and picturesque. Among its
minerals are copper, iron, and lead. The inhabitants of
the Caucasus comprise a variety of tribes, who speak dif-
ferent languages and are subject to Russia. Among these
tribes are the Circassians, Georgians, and Lesghians.
They are noted for their love of freedom; and to maintain
their independence they waged a long war against the
Russian invaders, which was terminated by the capture of
their leader, Schamyl, in 1859. The Caucasus Mountains
have been celebrated from a remote antiquity. From them
the finest physical type of man derives its name, the Cau-
casian race. (See CAUCASIAN.)
Caucasus, Indian. See HINDoo-Koosh.
Cauchy (AUGUSTIN LOUIS), a French mathematician,
born in Paris in 1789. He gained a prize of the Institute
in 1815 for his “Memoir on the Theory of Waves.” He
became a member of the Academy of Sciences and profes-
sor of mechanics in the Polytechnic School in 1816. He
published, besides other works, “Lectures on the Differen:
tial Calculus” (1826), and succeeded Biot as professor of
astronomy in 1848. Died in 1857.
Cau/cus, a meeting of legislators or citizens for the
selection of candidates to be supported at a pending elec-
tion, or to shape and direct political movements of what-
ever kind. The word is of American coinage, and Boston
gave it being about a century ago, during the popular dis;
content and agitation which culminated in our fathers'
Revolutionary struggle—Boston, the cradle and focus of
820.
CAUDEBEC–CAULONIA.
this agitation, being then a straggling maritime village,
mainly supported by commerce and the seaboard fisheries,
which gave importance to the arts subsidiary to naviga-
tion. The calkers of vessels were thus relatively numer-
ous; they were robust, active citizens in the prime of life,
and they were enlisted, heart and soul, in the patriot cause.
Their work was done at the North End, where but few
houses had yet been built, and their dwellings were mainly
in that neighborhood. If they had a place of meeting as
a craft, it would naturally be chosen for their political
gatherings as well; and the Tories or loyalists, seeing
these convened at the calkers’ head-quarters, would call
them calkers’ meetings, implying that none but low-bred
mechanics and their like were hostile to the royal cause.
Caucus—at first a corruption of calkers—thus became the
received designation of a political meeting, especially if
held with closed doors. The word first appears in the
diary of John Adams, under date of Feb., 1753, as follows:
“This day found that the Caucus Club meets at certain
times in the garret of Tom Dawes, adjutant of the Boston
(militia) regiment.” Adams adds that the town-officers
and representatives were first chosen in this club before
they were elected in town meeting. Gordon’s “History
of the Revolution ” asserts that the caucus dates back at
least to 1725, and that Samuel Adams's father and some
twenty others devised and employed it to concentrate the
power of the town in their own hands. He adds that
Samuel Adams was first made representative of Boston
through the instrumentality of the caucus, which thence-
forth formed an important part of the machinery whereby
the Revolution was incited and maintained.
That the majority of a legislative body should hold a
caucus for the selection of the officers of that body cannot
be reasonably gainsaid, the minority being at perfect lib-
erty to do likewise; while any member of the majority,
dissatisfied with its choice, may claim and exercise, if he
will, the right to bolt. But when, about 1804, a caucus of
the Republican (Jeffersonian) members of Congress was
held expressly to recommend persons to be supported at
the polls by Republicans living in districts represented by
Federalists, thus giving to the people of those districts no
voice in the selection of their candidates, the legitimacy of
the assumption involved in such nominations was gravely
questioned. Yet the candidates of the caucus continued
to be chosen—with docility, if not with alacrity—until
1824, when the system broke down ignominiously upon,
William H. Crawford of Georgia, being nominated for
President, with Albert Gallatin of Pennsylvania for Vice-
President. This ticket was badly defeated, the friends of
John Quincy Adams, General Andrew Jackson, and Henry
Clay, forming two-thirds of those elected to either House,
uniting in a public recommendation that the fiat of the
caucus be disregarded—in fact, defied. Mr. Crawford re-
ceived less than a fourth of the electoral votes; the vote
standing Jackson 99, Adams 84, Crawford 41, Clay 37.
This sent the election to the House of Representatives,
which elected Adams by a coalition of the supporters of
Adams and Clay; the vote standing—for Adams, 13 States;
Jackson, 7 ; Crawford, 4. This was the last caucus of
members of Congrešs which assumed to nominate candi-
dates for the people, and legislative caucuses with like
purposes have also been discarded by all parties, though
caucuses continue to be held for the choice of candidates to
be supported by the body whose members make the nomi-
nation. -
The first nominating national convention was held in
1832 by the Anti-Masons, who presented William Wirt of
Maryland for President, with Nathaniel Ellmaker of Penn-
sylvania, for Vice-President. In 1836 the Democrats held
a like convention, which nominated Martin Van Buren of
New York for President, with Richard M. Johnson of Ken:
tucky for Vice-President. The Whigs held their first ma-
tional convention at Harrisburg in Dec., 1839, and pre-
sented General William Henry Harrison of Ohio for Presi-
dent, with John Tyler of Virginia, for Vice-President.
. These were elected over Van Buren and Richard M. John-
son, the Democratic incumbents, who had triumphed four
years previously. Each and every national party has
since selected its candidates mainly by a delegated con-
vention.
But this in time develops abuses, especially in the case
of a party whose nomination all but ensures an election;
and the latest fashion is that called “the Crawford county
(Pennsylvania) system,” whereby all the members of a
party residing in a designated district are invited to attend
a poll in their respective precincts and cast a ballot directly
for sheriff, clerk, etc., he who polls the largest vote for any
office being the whole party’s candidate for that post. But
Such preliminary elections, being unsanctioned by law, are
often corrupted by systematic frauds; and it is manifest
that, while a caucus may serve for the choice of Speaker,
remains.
clerk, etc., of a legislative body, or even of U. S. Senators
by a legislature, a perfect mode of selecting candidates for
the popular suffrage has not yet been devised.
HoRACE GREELEY.
Caudebec, a handsome seaport town of France, on
the right bank of the Seine, 26 miles E. of Havre, was
formerly fortified. It has a remarkable Gothic church
built in the fifteenth century, and manufactures of cotton
stuffs. Pop. 2181.
Caudebec-les-Elbeuf, a town of France, depart-
ment of Seine-Inférieure, on the river Oison, 12 miles S. of
Rouen. It has manufactures of cloth. Pop. 9184.
Caude'te, a town of Spain, in Murcia, 50 miles E. S. E.
of Albacete, was formerly fortified. Here are some Roman
Pop. 6413.
Cau'dex, a Latin word signifying a “trunk of a tree,”
was also a botanical term applied by Linnaeus to the axis
of vegetation, or the woody centre around which the leafy
organs are arranged. He called the stem caudea, ascendens,
and the root caudea, descendens.
Cau/dine Forks [Lat. Furculae Caudinae], two nar-
row mountain-gorges or defiles near the town of Caudium,
in ancient Samnium. They are celebrated in connection
with a humiliating disaster which the Roman army suf-
fered in 321 B. C. A large army commanded by the con-
suls Titus Veturius and Spurius Postumius were marching
against the Samnites. According to Livy, this army, Sup-
posing the Samnites to be far distant, marched through
one gorge or pass into a small valley enclosed by high
mountains, and soon found that both of the passes were
blocked up with trees and stones. The Romans were com-
pelled by famime to surrender unconditionally to Caius
Pontius, the Samnite general, who required them to pass
under the yoke, and then permitted them to return to
Rome. Caudium was on the Appian Way, 21 Roman miles
E. of Capua. Niebuhr expresses an opinion that the Ro-
mans must have been defeated in battle before they were
shut up between the two passes, and Cicero twice alludes
to the battle and defeat of the Romans at Caudium. In
one place he says, “Cum male pugnatum ad Caudium
esset.” (De Officiis, iii., 30.)
Caugh/denoy, a post-village of Hastings township,
Oswego co., N. Y. Pop. 220.
Caughnawa’ga, a village of Laprairie Co., province
of Quebec (Canada), at the foot of Lachine Rapids and on
the S. side of the St. Lawrence, 9 miles from Montreal. It
is on the Montreal Lachine and Province Line Railway,
and is entirely inhabited by Iroquois Indians, who mum-
ber about 500. It is to be the terminus of the great Caugh-
nawaga Ship Canal. (See CANALs of CANADA, by A. J.
Russell, C. E., Crown Inspector of Timber Agencies.)
Caul. See OMENTUM.
Caulaincourt, de (ARMAND AugusTIN LOUIS), duke
of Vicenza, a French diplomatist, born in Picardy in 1773,
entered the army about 1789, and obtained the rank of
general. In 1807 or 1808 he was sent as ambassador to
Tºussia, from which he returned in 1811. He afterwards
served in the army, and was the travelling companion of
Napoleon in his hurried journey from Russia to Paris in
1812. He was appointed minister of foreign affairs in
1813. Died in 1827.
Cau'liflower [Sp. coliflor; Ger. Blumenkohl, i. e.
“flowering cole’], a highly-prized variety of the cabbage
(Brassica oleracea). The cauliflower differs from the other
varieties of its species, its leaves being not fit for use. The
parts eaten are the flower-buds and the stalks of the plant
transformed by cultivation, and forming a compact mass,
generally of a white color. There are many sub-varieties
which are more tender than the ordinary forms, and re-
quire protection during winter. The seed is sown in hot-
beds, that the plants may be ready for planting out, in
spring. Later sowings are made in the open ground. The
cauliflower requires a moist, rich, loamy soil, with abun-
dance of manure, and careful cultivation.
Cau/line [from Lat. caulis, a “stem”], a botanical
term applied to any parts or organs which grow on the
stem of a plant. Leaves which arise directly from the
stems are called cauline, to distinguish them from radical
leaves.
Caulo/nia, an ancient Greek city and seaport of Italy,
in Bruttium, between Locri and the Gulf of Scyllacium. It
was an important city about 500 B.C. According to Por-
phyry, Pythagoras sought refuge in Caulonia after his ex-
pulsion from Crotona. The people of Caulonia formed a
ieague with those of Crotona and Sybaris. In 389 B. C.
Dionysius the Elder invaded Magna Graecia with a large
army, and besieged Caulonia, which he took. He then re-
moved the inhabitants to Syracuse.
CAULOPTERIS-CAVAIGNAC.
821
Caulopſteris, a generic name for the stems of fossil
tree-ferns found in the carboniferous and triassic measures.
They are hollow, and covered with markings similar to the
leaf-scars on recent tree-ferns. Twelve species have been
described.
Caus, de (SALOMON), a French engineer, born in Nor-
mandy, is considered by his countrymen as one of the in-
ventors of the steam-engine. He published in 1615 a work
on motive-powers entitled “Les Raisons des Forces mou-
vantes,” etc., which gives a theorem on the expansion and
condensation of steam. He is supposed to have died about
1630.
Cau'sa, a Latin word extensively used by the ancient
Romans as a legal and political term. Its meanings and
applications were nearly the same as those of the word
cause in English. It signified in law a “lawsuit,” a “ju-
dicial process;” in politics, the measures or principles
adopted by one party and opposed by another; in general,
a subject, affair, reason, etc.; efficient cause, or that which
produces any effect. -
Cause, in law, an action at law or suit in equity or in
a court of probate. It is found in such connections as
the following: “matrimonial cause,” “testamentary cause,”
“ calendar of causes,” “ title of a cause,” etc. etc.
Cause, in ONTOLOGY (which see), means in general any
PRINCIPLE (which see) which in any way whatever em-
braces the GROUND (which see) or REASON (which see) why
anything diverse from itself exists. The principle cor-
respondent with this principle is called EFFECT (which
see), and the relation which exists between cause and effect
is casuality.
Causes have been divided into five classes (four by Aris-
totle) : I. The efficient or operative cause. Its activity
may be intransitive—that is, immanent—or transitive or
transient—that is, emanent. The efficient cause is by
pre-eminence the cause, and is usually meant if the word
cause is not qualified. There may be requisites or con-
ditions, even to the degree of 8ine qua mon, and there may
be occasion, but these ideas are not to be confounded, as
they often are, with that of cause. Efficient causes are
subdivided into primary and secondary; universal or gen-
‘eral, and particular; principal and instrumental; univocal
and equivocal ; causes per se and per accidens; adequate
and inadequate; free and necessary; physical and moral;
proximate, remote, and ultimate; relative and absolute.
There is in the train of causes a subordination, and this is
MATERIAL or FoEMAL (which see).
The oNTologICAL principles deduced are: There is no
effect without a cause; out of nothing nothing comes;
nothing can be the efficient cause of itself; two things can-
not be the reciprocal cause of each other; the effect and
the cause are always proportioned to each other; whatever
is in the effect must in some sense be in the cause ; the
cause of the cause is also the cause of the effect; the same
causes always produce the same effects; the cause must be
present, either immediately or mediately, with that which
it effects.
II. The Material; III. The Formal; IV. The Exemplary
(Plato); and V. The Final Cause.
The names most distinguished in connection with the
philosophical theories of cause are—Heraclitus and Pro-
tagoras (denial of the notion), Plato (idea, matter, opera-
tive principle; immediately evident, free and physical;
conditional and absolute), Aristotle (fourfold division; first
cause of motion), Bruno (principle, internal; cause, ex-
termal; first cause, final), Hobbes (potency and act), Des-
cartes (assistance), De la Forge, Malebranche (occasional
causes), Spinoza (adequate cause; cause of divine acts iden-
tical with cause of divine existence), Locke (appearance
of changes), Leibnitz (pre-established harmony), Hume,
Brown (observation of sequence, habit, not by, but after,
natural instinct, apart from reason, blind belief), Kant (a
fundamental, synthetical, a priori judgment, a postulate of
pure reason, category of relation), Reid, Stewart (intuition),
De Biran, Cousin (self-consciousness, personal causation),
Fichte (positings of the Ego, self-originated subjective
modification), Schelling, Hegel (spontaneity, all being has
in it the internal impulse and power to become), Hamilton
(the conditioned; mental impotence), Schopenhauer (the
occasion for the phenomenon of Will). Among later points
made, the most important is that each sphere of nature is
controlled by a specific modification of the law of causality.
All the views are reducible to two : the conception of cause
is either a priori or a posteriori, and each of these is either
original or derivative. In the application of the idea of
cause arise the terms causal principle, causal judgment,
causal nexus, causal connection, causal union, causal rela-
tion.
One of the most specious and widely accepted fallacies
is that cause precedes effect. Cause and effect are absolute
correlates, so that in point of time cause cannot be before
effect, but the two sides of the relation come into simulta-
neous being. Nor can cause, as such, exist without effect.
As a term of relation, cause is as dependent on effect as
effect on cause. The order of priority is therefore purely
logical and mental. Nor is it true that a thing must be (in
time) before it becomes a cause. It is only necessary that
it shall be when it becomes a cause. Hence the thoughts
of an eternal mind, the acts of an eternal being, may be
eternal. In the world about us all that becomes cause eacists
&n deed before it becomes cause, but the reason of this is that
every source of cause, in our sphere, is also an effect, and
must be as an effect before it can act as a cause. Neverthe-
less, it becomes cause strictly simultaneously with the effect,
not before it. The true conception of cause therefore is de-
monstrably not that of sequence in time, as Hume contends,
but the one we have given—to wit, that cause is that which
contains the reason of the effect, and hence that the relation
is a necessary one, and is as certain where we cannot observe
its result as where we can. Innumerable instances can be
given of the invariable sequence, in time, of one thing which
is not the effect of another.
That in virtue of which a causal agent can become cause,
we call power. Some of the postulates which hold good as to
cause and effect in the inorganic world are not demonstrably
valid in the organic, and seem to fail entirely in the sphere
of freedom and of intellect. So complete is the mind's re-
cognition of the nature of cause that on a statement of any
number of purely hypothetical cages it will at once decide
which of the two terms is cause, which is effect, if the state-
ment is such as to help the mind to see which of the terms
must contain the reason of the other. C. P. KRAUTH.
Caus/tic [from the Gr. kato, to “burn’], a term ap-
plied to substances which exert a disintegrating or destruc-
tive effect upon animal tissues. They usually produce a
sensation as of burning, whence the name. “Lunar caus-
tic” is the silver-nitrate, so called because luna (the “moon’’)
is the old alchemical name for silver. Caustic lime, pot-
ash, soda, and magnesia are these substances When pure, so
called to distinguish them from their less active carbon-
ates. Many other chemical reagents are used in surgery
as caustics, notably the nitric, chromic, and arsenious acids.
CAUSTIC, in optics, is a term applied to curved lines and
surfaces formed by a series of points where (from the inter-
section of reflected or refracted rays) the heat and light
are most intense. Reflected rays produce catacaustics
—refracted rays, diacaustics. The study of caustic Sur-
faces and curves is of the greatest importance in the con-
struction of lenses and mirrors. For example, it has been
found that the caustic by reflection from a paraboloid of
revolution is reduced to a point when the incident rays are
parallel to the axis of the paraboloid. For this reason
parabolic reflectors have been introduced with great suc-
cess into many optical instruments. -
Cauſtery [Gr. Kavriptov, a “branding-iron’], in surgery,
the application of a white-hot iron or of a moxa. It is
otherwise called “actual cautery,” to distinguish it from
“potential cautery,” or the application of a chemical re-
agent as a caustic. “Cautery” is also the small iron instru-
ment which is heated and applied in this operation. The ac-
tual cautery is useful in destroying certain morbid and gan-
grenous tissues, in staying haemorrhages, and in relieving
severe local pain. It has a valuable derivative effect in
many cases, and when properly applied produces com-
paratively little pain. It is sometimes used to produce
a slight, and sometimes a profound local effect.
Cau/tion [from the Lat. caveo, cautum, to “be on one's
guard”], a legal term derived from the Roman law, and
employed in the admiralty courts. . It is substantially
equivalent in meaning to security or bail. When security
is given under oath, it is called “juratory caution.” The
word caution is employed in the same general sense in
Scotch law.
Cavaignac (GoDEFROY), a French republican journal-
ist, son of Jean Baptiste Cavaignac (1762–1829), who fig-
ured in the Revolution, born in Paris in 1801. He was
driven into exile in 1835, returned in 1841, and became one
of the editors of “La Réforme.” He was one of the most
popular leaders of the liberal party. Died May 5, 1845.
Cavaignac (Louis EUgáNE), an eminent French gene-
ral and statesman, brother of the preceding, was born in
Paris Oct. 15, 1802. He served with distinction in Algeria,
to which he was sent in 1832, became a colonel in 1841, and
governor of the province of Oran in 1847. In Mar, 1848,
he was appointed governor-general of Algeria, and in the
inext month was invited by Lamartine to come to Paris and
defend the government against the mob. He reached that
capital on the 17th of May, and was then appointed minis-
ter of war. He displayed much energy, skill, and presence
of mind in his operations against the Socialists and Com-
'822
CAVAILLON.—CAVALIER.
munists, who began a great insurrection in Paris June 23,
and were defeated in a battle which lasted three days.
About the 28th of June he was chosen chef du powvoir eacé-
cutif, or president of the republic, by the National Assem-
bly. He was a moderate republican, and used his power
with clemency. In the autumn of 1848 he was a candidate
for the office of president, and received 1,448,302 votes,
but was defeated by Louis Napoleon. He retired from
power on the 20th of Dec., and took his seat in the Nation-
al Assembly. He was excluded from political life by the
coup-d'état of Dec., 1851, and by his refusal to take the
oath of allegiance to Napoleon III. Died Oct. 28, 1857.
(See HENRI MONTFoRT, “Biographie du Général Cavai-
gnac,” 1848.)
Cavaillon (anc. Cabellio), a town of France, depart-
ment of Vaucluse, on the river Durance, 16 miles S. E. of
Avignon. It has an old cathedral and remains of a Roman
triumphal arch. Here are manufactures of silk twist and
vermicelli. Pop. 8034. Cabellio was a city of the ancient
Cavares, and Pliny calls it an oppidum. Latinum.
Cavalier' [Sp. caballero ; It cavaliere, from the Lat.
caballus, a “horse ’’), an Anglicized French word, signifies
a horseman, a knight, an armed horseman, a gentleman (at-
tendant on a lady), a gallant, a soldier who fights on horse-
back. In English history it is applied to the royalist party
which fought for Charles I. against the Roundheads. Ca-
valier is the French for the knight in the game of chess.
CAvALIER, in fortification of the old school, is a defence-
work constructed on the terre-plein or level ground of a
bastion. It rises to a height varying from eight to twelve
feet above the rampart, and has a parapet about six feet
high. Its uses are to command any rising ground held by
the enemy within cannon shot, and to guard the curtain,
or plain wall between two bastions, from being enfiladed.
Cavalier (John), (1679–81 (Morel says 1685) 1740),
often styled the “Baker’s boy of Anduze,” because at one
time apprenticed to that trade, was the son of a Protestant
peasant of the Cevennes, of the village of Ribaute near
Anduze (Gard), and in his early youth served as a shep-
herd lad or herdsman. When the Cevenol uprising in
defence of the Protestant religious rights broke out in
Languedoc in 1702, Cavalier, who had fled in 1701 for safety
to Geneva, returned to share the lot of his persecuted
brethren, and was soon after recognized as their military
commander-in-chief. Such was his instinctive military
genius that although he knew nothing more of tactics than
what he had picked up by watching the drill of the militia
of his district in the streets of his native town, he soon had
his rude volunteers under a rigid system of discipline, such
as Martinet would have envied, and made them a match for
triple (if not quintuple) their number of the very best reg-
ulars opposed to them. His grand tactics were unexcep-
tionable, and his handling of troops on the field of battle
perfection itself. He could make them perform with re-
sultive effect the most complicated evolutions under the
severest fire, demonstrating that he was one of the rarest
of mortal phenomena, uniting a power of control, in-
struction, and influence such as scarcely any general on
record has proved equal to. Very shortly after he first ex-
ercised any command he undoubtedly became by election
or unanimous choice commander-in-chief (commandant-
général) of all the Camisard of Cevenol insurgents in arms.
Michelet and others question this fact, and attribute the
chieftainship to the charming or exquisite Roland, but the
facts as set forth by Morel (i., vii., viii.), and the language
used by Roland himself, who addresses Cavalier as “com-
mandant les troupes religionaires, ou il se trouvera, en
Languedoc,” would set the question at rest, were it not
further established by his possession of absolute power of
life and death in all cases upon his own personal judg-
ment, without calling a council of war. That he never
abused this enormous prerogative, at the same time that
he did exercise it, testifies to a remarkable self-control
in a young man of twenty. In the organization of the
Cevenol forces Cavalier was called upon to draw upon
the almost obsolete resources of the past as to weapons,
as well as to improvise them until his men were armed
with the best firearms of the day, captured from his ad-
versaries. He even improvised cannon, but never had time
to bring them into the field.
To enter closely into all the details of the carcer of this
Cromwell in miniature, or of a mountain-warfare which
under his supreme command did not last over two years,
is impossible within the space accorded. His greatest and
most glorious engagement was that of Nages (16th April,
1704), which was deemed of sufficient importance by the cele-
brated engineer and map-maker, Cassini, for a special indi-
cation upon his map of the district in which it occurred.
Upon this field, surprised through the physical prostration
of his men, and no fault of his own, and surrounded by
six or seven to his one, Cavalier extricated himself, and in
so far defeated the finest soldiery in France that he foiled
all the plans of their best commanders. His tactics were .
not only astonishing in their precision, but sufficiently ad-
mirable in their originality to extort the praise of his ad-
versaries; and, if such a thing were possible, the military
capacity of this comparative youth exceeded the heroic
courage and unsurpassable devotion of the troops he had
made and commanded. Although he enjoyed the triumph of
treating with Villars, the superb representative of the mag-
nificent Louis XIV., Cavalier certainly betrayed his trust
in that he capitulated under stipulations for his own per-
sonal benefit, without insisting upon reliable guarantees to
ensure the maintenance of the treaty he extorted in behalf
of his religious brethren. There is no question but that
Villars and Louis both deceived the Cevenol leader, more
loyal to his pledges than either marshal or king. More-
over, Louis wounded his pride in a personal interview, and
alarmed him for his personal safety.) Like Prince Eugène,
he quitted the French service for that of his enemies, and
with that prince and the duke of Savoy took part in the
invasion of France in 1707; and it is questionable if either
imperial prince or royal duke inspired more apprehension
to the government authorities than the former Cevenol-
peasant-generalissimo. From the Dutch he passed into
the British service, and remained in it until his death in
1740. He distinguished himself at Almanza (25th April,
1707), where his regiment, composed of Cevenol refugees,
was opposed to a French organization in which the Hugue-
nots recognized a portion of their former persecutors. There-
upon this mutual recognition led to such a fearful conflict
with the bayonet, that only three hundred of the combat-
ants survived. This is according to the statement of the
impassible bigot the duke of Berwick, who never could re-
call the circumstance without horror. Morel (i., 389) says,
“This (Cavalier's) terrible Camisard regiment rushed with
the bayonet on the Franco-Spanish army, and made the
balance of victory tremble.”
The distinguished Malesherbes, after a full consideration
of the character of Cavalier, pronounces him “one of the
rarest characters which history presents. for our contempla–
tion.” Villars, no better judge, concedes his vast military
capacity. His treating with Cavalier as equal with equal
would attest the latter’s influence, had we not the marshal’s
very words to establish the fact. The same is admitted in
more or less eloquent language by all the historians of this
struggle for religious freedom. Whether Cavalier needed
only a wider stage to demonstrate his worthiness to rank
with the most distinguished commanders of olden or modern
times, or whether his lights were not strong enough to il-
luminate a vaster space, he had no opportunity to determine.
That he did not rise higher and more quickly than he did in
the English army is easily explained. William of Orange
preferred purely professional soldiers, and his very sense
of religious inspiration doubtless marred his prospects,
even under the succeeding monarch, Anne. That he was
deemed worthy of confidence is shown by his elevation to
the rank of major-general in the British service, and his
appointment as governor of Jersey, one of the Channel
Islands, an outpost of her dominions and nearest their
most dangerous enemy. In this position he died in 1740.
Without one man—an obscure citizen of Nijmi-Novgorod
—Kosma, Minin, a butcher, “ distinguished by nothing but
a sound head (strong common sense) and a brave, honest,
unselfish heart,” Russia, in 1611–12, would have become a
Swedish or a Polish possession; and without another one,
an equally obscure man, this John Cavalier, a peasant, .
imbued with instinctive capacity for war and the govern-
ment of men, France, in 1704, would have acquired such
authority in Europe, and resultively in America, that the
preponderance of the Latin race would not have been a
question for Napoleon III. to attempt to solve, and fail in
solving, as in Mexico. Indeed, Cavalier’s career exemplifies
the rule of great events depending on “small things.” The
Cevenol uprising and his successes in Languedoc attracted
to the south, into Languedoc, 10,000 to 20,000 veteran in-
fantry, besides dragoons, and a large body of artillery, the
latter of no use in the mountains of the Cevennes, but Sorely
needed, to the east, on the Rhone, and to the north, in Flan-
ders. A cabal of women aggravated the evil as regarded
the Roman Catholic cause by sending the favored Villeroy
where men and a man were most needed, and a man, Villars,
into Languedoc. This alone made Blenheim a possibility.
FIad no Cavalier arisen, Villars would have been in Flanders
to prevent Marlborough's flank march into Germany, or to
“remedy Marson’s and Tallard's blunders, there, in 1704.
It is admitted that the effect of the Cevenol-Huguenot in-
surrection, in which Cavalier was the prominent figure, had
a momentous effect on the fortunes of the war elsewhere, on
the prospects of Louis XIV., and on the future of France.
J. WATTS DE PEYSTER.
CAVALRY. 823.
Cavalry [from caballus, a “horse”], that class of troops
which serve mounted. It is recognized in modern warfare
as one of the three great arms of service, and in earlier times,
when war consisted more of predatory expeditions than of
regular campaigns, it occupied the chief place. But even
among the ancients it appears that this arm was not used
to any extent in the earliest wars of which we have any
record. The Egyptians, who were the first to organize a
standing army, had no cavalry, its place being supplied by
armed chariots. It is true that, on the monuments left by this
people, pictures of mounted men are to be found, but there
is every reason to suppose that these men were used only
as messengers or couriers. Later, the Carthaginians, who
contended with the Romans for the conquest of the world,
in the organization of their armies gave a prominent place
to the cavalry, which was made up of the most noble and
distinguished citizens. Besides this body of picked troops,
furnished by the city, Carthage employed vast numbers
of Numidian horsemen. Such fine riders were these latter
that they rode not only barebacked, as did all cavalry at
first, but without bridles, guiding their horses in all their
evolutions with the voice alone. It was to the great su-
periority of his cavalry that Hannibal, in his memorable
campaigns against the Romans, was chiefly indebted for
his success. His first five battles show the reliance he
placed on this arm, and the efficiency with which he used
it. At Cannae his cavalry turned the issue of the day, and
he owed his defeat at Zama to the superiority of Scipio's
horse. In Asia, an organized army was established among
the Medes and Persians about 700 B.C., and in this the lan-
cers, archers, and cavalry were placed in separate divisions.
This force was rendered effective under Cyrus, and its
main strength consisted in its cavalry. Leaving the East,
which was the nursery of arms, as of arts, and turning to
the West, we come to the military systems of Macedonia.
and Greece as the first organized, and upon which most
others of antiquity were formed. In their armies both in-
fantry and cavalry were used. The latter, as well as the
former, was divided into heavy and light, and there was
also another class which fought either mounted or on foot.
In the heavy, which was composed of citizens, both horse
and rider were clad in mail. Their arms were long spears
pointed at both ends. Mercenaries armed with javelins and
arrows made up the light cavalry. These wore no mail,
nor did their horses, which in all cases were ridden bare-
backed. The organization of the Greek cavalry approach-
ed that of modern times in many particulars. Their ile,
corresponding to our troop, consisted of 64 men; the hip-
parchy, equivalent to our regiment, contained 512; while
their largest formation, an epitagma, had 4096, being about
equal to a modern division of eight regiments. Philip and
Alexander employed cavalry with great success, especially
the latter, who was indebted to this arm for many of his
most splendid victories. He won that of the Granicus
with his cavalry, and in his two great battles with Darius,
those of Issus and Arbela, his judicious use of his horse
secured the victory, though he had in the latter not more
than 8000 to oppose to 40,000 of the Persians. Among the
Romans, even as early as the time of Romulus, each of the
three tribes was required to furnish, besides its quota of
infantry, 100 horse. In addition to this legionary cavalry
there were 300 which constituted the body-guard of the
king. In the formation of the legion it was customary to
allow one mounted man to every ten of foot. Thus, the
numbers to make up the legion, as at first constituted, were
3000 infantry and 300 cavalry. Servius Tullius increased
these numbers to 4000 infantry and 400 cavalry, and he
raised his cavalry to 2400 men. This force was made up,
as with the Greeks, of the most noble citizens. The Ro-
man cavalry was trained to fight on foot as well as mount-
ed, and the light-armed infantry would sometimes spring
up behind the horsemen, dismounting when the enemy was
reached. Horses were furnished by the state. The cavalry
was generally divided into ten parts; thus, when 300 of
this arm were attached to a legion, they were divided into
ten turmae or troops, and were formed in three, or some-
times six, ranks. Their defensive arms were helmet, cuirass,
and shield; their offensive, a sword fit for striking only, a
dagger, and a lance. Caesar found that the Gauls used for
their cavalry a very broad sword, suitable for cut and
thrust. The order of battle among the Romans, though
changed at different periods in many particulars, always
preserved the system of keeping the flanks covered by
cavalry. Sometimes a strong force of this arm was sta-
tioned in rear of the centre, which was always held by a
Roman legion; and on the repulse of the enemy the in-
fantry opened to allow the cavalry to pass through in pur-
suit. On the march the head and rear of the column were
protected by cavalry. After the fall of the Roman empire
the different nations which had for so many ages waged
war, either as allies or enemies of Rome, having learned
from their great mistress much of the art of war, as well
as many of the blessings of civilization, organized military
systems so soon as they had established permanent govern-
ments. Thus grew up the feudal system of the Middle
Ages, in which the mail-clad knights, with their men-at-
arms, made up the great body of cavalry and constituted
the chief strength of all armies in the field. Their arms
consisted of lance, battle-axe, and Sword, the latter being
generally straight and double-edged. Later, the Germans
borrowed the curved sword from the Saracens, and they too
invented the spur. In the earlier stages of the cavalry
service, as has been mentioned, saddles were not used, but
these were subsequently introduced, the first being a mere
cushion, which has been developed into the almost count-
less styles of saddles now in use. During the wars of the
Middle Ages the cavalry were used in heavy masses, which
by their mere weight and superiority in arms could gener-
ally ride down the ill-armed and lighter infantry; but with
the invention of gunpowder a new era, in warfare com-
menced. The changes worked by this new and powerful
agent were very gradual, for it was used for many years
only for heavy artillery. As soon, however, as it was ap-
plied to small-arms, the whole system of warfare under-
went a radical change. Heavy defensive armor was dis-
carded as useless ; strategy and tactics overcame mere
weight of numbers, and war became a science. To be en-
abled to perform the great movements dictated by strategy,
and to employ properly the tactics requisite on a battle-
field, it was necessary to have disciplined troops; and from
this need grew up the standing armies of modern times.
In all of these cavalry occupies a prominent position, as a
glance at the various military systems of modern times
will show. In Prussia, the army grew out of the body-
guard established by the elector Frederick I. This force
was increased and disciplined under his successors, espe-
cially the great elector, and Frederick III. had a body of
36,000 admirable troops. But it was to Frederick the
Great that the army owed its discipline, its organization,
and its fame. Soon after his accession to the throne he
issued his military regulations, and in his efforts to perfect
the efficiency of his army he paid special attention to his
cavalry. To his reign belong two of the ablest and most
brilliant cavalry leaders of history—Ziethen, who formed
the Prussian hussars; and Seidlitz, who framed the cavalry
tactics. So desirous was Frederick to bring this arm of
the service to the highest perfection that he called to his
aid the most distinguished Hungarian cavalry officers to
drill and discipline his troops; and so efficient did they
become that under the great leaders just named they
gained some of his most important victories. Some of
these battles give the happiest illustration of the efficiency
of cavalry when properly used and ably handled. In
that of Rossbach, Seidlitz threw his troopers against the
French columns, broke them, and never allowed them to
rally again. So brilliant were his services on this field
that Frederick conferred on him the order of the Black
Eagle—the highest mark of favor—and made him lieu-
tenant-general. On the bloody field of Zorndorf it was
reserved for the same gallant leader to save the day, for
when the Prussian infantry gave way he charged the ad-
vancing Russians, broke both their cavalry and infantry,
and sabred thousands of them. Ziethen, too, Frederick’s
other great leader of cavalry, contributed largely to the
success of the Prussian army in Frederick’s campaigns,
especially on the field of Torgau, which was won by him.
The Prussian cavalry has well sustained the reputation it
won during the wars of Frederick the Great, and it has been
regarded as among the finest in the world. It is divided
into cuirassier, dragoon, hussar, and Uhlan regiments. The
first are armed with long straight swords; the others, with
curved sabres, pistols, and carbines for dragoons, and lances
for Uhlans. Each regiment is made up of 616 men—636
in those of the guards—and is composed of four squadrons.
The Austrian cavalry is made up of the same class of
troops as the Prussians, but there are some differences in
arms and organization. The dragoons carry long carbines,
and in the Austrian service the regiments are also larger
than in the Prussian. The cuirassier and dragoon regi-
ments contain six squadrons and 1294 men; the light-
horse and hussar regiments have eight Squadrons, and
their strength in war is 2044 men. The Uhlan regiments
have the same formation and arms as the last named, while
they carry also a lance. -
Among the French the cavalry is divided into cuiras-.
siers, carbiniers, dragoons, lancers, chasseurs à cheval,
hussars, and chasseurs d’Afrique. The regiments are
made up of five squadrons, to which number one can be
added in time of war. Their arms are very similar to
those of the Prussians. The French cavalry seems to owe
its origin to Charles VII., who about the middle of the
fifteenth century took into his pay fifteen companies, as
824
CAVALRY.
they were called, each of 500 men. In the reign of Louis
XII. the cavalry appears to have been first organized in a
separate body, with its own general officers and staff. Na-
poleon used his cavalry with terrific effect, and he called to
its command some of his most distinguished lieutenants,
though the ablest in this arm of the service was Murat.
The battle of Marengo was converted from a defeat into a
victory by the charge of Kellermann at the head of a small
force of cavalry; and one of the most extraordinary ex-
ploits ever achieved by this arm was performed as Na-
poleon approached Madrid in 1808. Near the city, in the
mountain-pass of Sorno-Sierra, were posted 20,000 men
and 16 guns, which force checked the advance of the
French. The emperor, after a personal reconnaissance, or-
dered a small body of Polish lancers to charge the for-
midable works, which they did with complete success.
This is one of the most striking instances on record to
show not only what can actually be accomplished by cav-
alry when properly directed, but the powerful moral effect
produced by this arm when used with celerity and boldness.
The cavalry of England consists of life guards, which
are cuirassier regiments, composed of eight troops of fifty
to sixty men each—arms, straight Sword; dragoon guards,
same strength as life guards—arms, straight sword, pistols,
and carbine; heavy and light cavalry—arms, Sabre, pis-
tols, and carbine; and lancers—arms, Sabre, pistols, and
lance. The English cavalry is the best in the world, hav-
ing proved itself generally superior in the field.
The organization of the cavalry in the smaller states of
Europe is very similar to that of the great powers already
given, and we therefore do not deem it necessary to enter
into details regarding it. In the East, too, especially among
the Turks, an effort is being made to conform to European
organization, armament, and drill. The khedive of Egypt
is making rapid progress in this direction, and he has in
his service several American officers who served either in
the Confederate or Federal armies during the late civil war.
In the U. S. military system the organization of the
cavalry is, with some slight modifications, the same gen-
eral one which prevails in Europe. A regiment consists
of ten companies or troops of sixty-four men each ; two
troops form a squadron. All the cavalry in the U. S.
should be classed as dragoons, their arms being Sabre, pis-
tol, and carbine. During the war, when large masses of
cavalry were brought together they were formed into bri-
gades, divisions, and corps, a brigade being composed of
several—generally four or five—regiments; a division, of
two or more brigades; and a corps of all the divisions
serving with any army. When in active service it is usual
to attach batteries of horse artillery to the cavalry, allow-
ing generally one battery to each brigade. The cannoneers
are all mounted for this service, and the guns used are usu-
ally light rifled pieces, though occasionally the light how-
itzer is employed. As an illustration of the organization
of the cavalry in this country when in the field, we append
a tabular statement of the formation of the cavalry corps
of the Army of the Potomac, and that of the Army of
Northern Virginia, in the campaign of 1864:
CAVALRY CoRPS ARMY OF THE POTOMAC.
First Division, commanded by Gen. Torbert.
Regiments. * Regiments.
e ge 1st Michigan. 1st U. S. Caw.
First Brig., H M iſ, hi
#ºn. ###: Rºº, ſº.
Custer. †hi. jº" iºn is ºw.
4th New York. * . |; New York.
Second Brig., J 6th New York. 6th Pa.
Col. Devin. 9th New York.
- 17th Pa. -
Second Division, commanded by Gen. Gregg.
º wº 1st New Jersey. 1st Maine.
Fº Brig., 1st Mass. y 2d Pa.
§. *" i 1st Pa. Second Brig., J 4th Pa.
& 6th Ohio. Col. Gregg. 8th Pa.
13th Pa.
16th Pa.
Third Division, commanded by Brig.-Gen. J. H. Wilson.
; §"; k. |S. B 1st §: H. t
y: sº 2d New York. econd Brig. 1st Vermont.
F.º, #- | 5th New York. Col. Čhap. 3d Indiana.
tosh 2d Ohio. Iſlall. 8th New York.
& 18th Pa. 22d New York.
3d New Jersey. |Detachment | 8th Illinois.
from 10th New York.
Raulz's Division, commanded by Brig.-Gen. A. V. Kautz.
Jºrs; Brig., 5th Pa. Second Brig., 11th E’a,
Col. R. M. - . & Col. S. P. &
West. *' ſ 3d New York. Spear. 1st D. C. Cay.
Horse Artillery attached to Cavalry Corps.
Randall's Bâttery, Cos. H and I, 1st U.S. Artillery.
Pennington’s “ {{ M, 2d “ . § {
Williston’s {{ {{ * amºmºs ºssºmsº ºmºsºsº
Dennisson’s {{ {{ *º — — . —
FIeaton’s {{ “ B and C, 2d U. S. Artillery.
& 4th {{ {{
Fitzhugh’s {& { E,
A
Bansom's Battery, Co. C, 3d U. S. Artillery.
Maynardin’s “ “ K, 1st “ {{
Ring’s {{ * *-* ==º ºsºmsºmº
Attached to Kawtz’s Division.
Horse Battery, Co. B, 1st U. S. Artillery.
By this official return of the cavalry serving with Gen.
Grant in his operations before Richmond, and which fell
into the hands of the Confederates, it appears that the
corps consisted of forty-one regiments, nine brigades, and
four divisions. The total effective of nineteen regiments
is given, making an average of 431 to each regiment.
Putting each of the other regiments at the same strength,
the whole force present for duty would amount to 17,641.
To these troops were attached twelve batteries, mostly of
six guns each.
The cavalry corps of the Army of Northern Virginia at
this time was constituted as follows:
CAVALRY CORPS ARMY OF North ERN VIRGINEA.
First Division, Maj.-Gen. Wade Hampton:
Regiments. Regiments.
4th S. C. 7th Virginia.
*** {###3 |Rosser's Brig. {#Y;
Cobb Legion. White's Batt.
| Phillips Leg'n
Young's Brig. Jeff. Davis L.
7th Georgia.
Millen's Batt.
Love's Batt.
Second Division, Maj.-Gen. Fitzhugh Lee.
1st Virginia. 5th Virginia.
2d Virginia. 6th Virginia.
3d Virginia. 15th Virginia.
4th Virginia.
Third Division, Maj.-Gen. William H. F. Lee.
1st N. C.
Wickham's B'g. Lomaa's Brig.
d N. C Chambliss' B º;
$º 2d N. C. ambliss’ Brig. th Virginia.
Garden's Brig. { i N. & 9 {# Włºś.
5th N. C. 3.
Horse Artillery attached to Cavalry Corps.
Breathitt's Battery........ 4 guns. Shumaker’s Battery....... 4 guns.
BIart's “ ........ 4 “ |McGregor's “ . ........ 4 “
Thompson’s “ ........ 4 “
This was the organization of the cavalry of the Army of
Northern Virginia in May, 1864. Later in the campaign
two other small brigades, those of Brigadier-generals
Gary and Dearing, were added to it, but the second divis-
ion was transferred to the Valley of Virginia, as was Ros-
ser's brigade of the first division. One other battery,
Graham's, was added to the artillery. The field return of
Aug. 31, 1864, gives the “total effective” at 5907, and em-
braced the first and third divisions, with Dearing's brigade,
the second division having moved to the Valley.
During the war the cavalry was used on both sides to
picket all approaches, to cover all movements, to protect
advances or retreats, and to make reconnaissances. The
character of the ground on which the armies operated pre-
vented as active participation in the great battles of the
contest as is usual in European warfare, but the history of
the late war, when fully and impartially written, will show
that on both sides this arm was not inferior in courage,
discipline, soldiership, and achievements to any other.
During this war, however, the cavalry arm was not em-
ployed in the same manner or with the same effect as it
has been in European armies in the great battles. In
point of fact, as one of the “three arms,” it was com-
paratively ineffective on the great battlefields. Cavalry
charges in actual battle were seldom made, except in cav-
alry-combats, although on a few occasions they were em-
ployed against infantry. Most of the notions prevailing
on the subject were found inapplicable to the actual con-
ditions. Hence, the use of cavalry was little more than to
serve as mounted infantry; that is, for the purpose of con-
veying men rapidly from point to point, for the purpose
of striking some sudden isolated blow or making what is
called a raid. . In most of the battles, however, the cavalry
were dismounted and fought as infantry, often taking an
important part. Two most notable instances of the kind
occurred—one at the fight at Ream's Station, Aug. 25,
1864, where the dismounted Confederate cavalry carried a
line of breastworks held by infantry; the other at Five
Forks, where the Federal cavalry performed the same feat.
During the war there were many instances in which dis-
mounted cavalry fought with the constancy and discipline
of the best infantry, and despite the circumstances which
prevented their use in heavy masses on the great battle-
fields of the civil war, many of the most gallant actions in
that contest were performed by this arm of the service.
The circumstances under which the war was fought, par-
ticularly the topographical features of the battlefields,
were such as to make it difficult to bring cavalry to bear in
mass. (For more full information on modern European
systems, see MoUNTED TROOPS, by Gen. J. WATTS DE PEYS-
TER.) WADE HAMPTON.
CAVAN–CAVEAT EMPTOR.
825
re-—
Cav'an, a county of Ireland, in Ulster, has an area of
746 square miles, with Fermanagh and Monaghan coun-
ties on the N. E., and Leitrim, Longford, Westmeath, and
Meath on the W. and S. The surface is partly hilly and
partly occupied by bogs. It is drained by the rivers Erne
and Woodford. About three-fourths of the land is arable,
but the soil is mostly poor, except near the rivers. Among
the rocks found here are clay-slate, gray-wacke, and car-
boniferous strata. It contains coal, iron, copper, and lead.
There are many mineral springs, and numerous highly pic-
turesque lakes. There are some linen manufactures. The
county returns two members to Parliament. The principal
towns are Cavan, Cootehill, Belturbet, and Bailieborough.
Capital, Cavan. Pop. in 1871, 140,555.
Cavan, a town of Ireland, capital of the above county,
is situated in a fertile vale on the railway from Dublin to
Enniskillem, 65 miles N. W. of Dublin. It is mostly ill-
built, but has a fine public garden. Pop. 3532.
Cava/mas, or Cabañas, a port of Cuba, on the N. W.
coast, 38 miles S. W. of Havana. Here is a deep bay
which affords anchorage for several hundred ships.
Cavani'Iles y Cen'ti (Don ANTONIO), a prominent
Spanish historian, born at Coruña, in Galicia, in 1805, be-
came in 1841 a member of the Royal Academy of History,
and soon after also a member of the Academy of Moral
and Political Sciences. His “History of Spain.” (5 vols.,
1860–64, not finished) is among the best historical works
of Spanish literature. Died in 1864.
Cavarze're, a town of Italy, in the province of We-
netia, on the river Adige, 25 miles S. W. of Venice. It
has an active trade in silk, cattle, and firewood. Pop. with
suburbs, 11,903.
Cavati'na. [It], a short operatic air, differing from the
aria in consisting only of one part, and that more in the
form of a song. Many composers, however, disregard this
difference.
Cave, or Cav/erm [Lat. caverna, from cavus, “hollow;”
Fr. caverne], a hollow place beneath the surface of the
earth. Natural caves have been produced by the upheaval
of the strata, by water, or by both combined. The eroding
power of water has formed caverns in the courses of rivers
and on the coast-line of the sea.
By far the greater number of caves are found in limestone,
and they are here formed by the solution of the limestone by
atmospheric water, which always contains carbonic acid.
The most extensive caves known are subterranean water-
courses which have been excavated in limestone by the
dissolving power of the stream or streams which flow or
have flowed through them. They especially abound in the
oolitic limestone, which on this account is sometimes called
by geologists “cavernous limestone.” The caves of Fran-
conia, of Kentucky, and many others occur in this form-
ation. Next to limestone, caves are mostly found in the
strata containing rock-salt, a substance easily removed
by water. They are also sometimes met with in igneous
rocks; the cave of Fingal, in Staffa, is formed in basalt, .
and in some places recent Java contains large caverns.
Many caves have a calcareous lining, giving them a gor-
geous appearance. Sometimes this deposit is pure white,
and has, when the cave is lighted up, a wonderful richness
and transparency. It is, however, generally colored. To
incrustations descending from the roof like icicles the name
stalactite is given; those rising from the floor are stalag-
mites. Sometimes the stalactite meets the ascending stal-
agmite and forms a column, as if to support the roof. The
material of the stalactites and stalagmites originates as
follows: The superficial soil, acted upon by moisture and
air, evolves carbonic acid, which is dissolved by rain-water,
which, permeating the calcareous strata, has the power of
taking up lime, until from evaporation the excess of car-
bonic acid and water is parted with, when the lime returns
to its Solid state and forms a crust. Caves are inhabited
by peculiar species of fishes (such as the blind fish of the
Mammoth Cave), by remarkable reptiles (such as the Pro-
teus), and by various characteristic insects and crustaceans.
They also have an interest from the occurrence, in many,
of fossil remains under the incrustations of the floor, fre-
quently concreted into a firm breccia. They belong to the
pleistocene period, when Europe was inhabited by hyaenas,
bears, and lions. Portions of other animals were dragged
into their dens as food. In this way the bones of herbiv-
orous animals are mixed with those of the beasts of prey;
they have a gnawed appearance, similar to what is pro-
duced on bones by the hyaena. Remains of thirty-three
Species of mammals and five of birds have been discovered
in the caves of the British Islands, of which about one-
half still survive in Europe, Asia, Africa, and perhaps in
America, for the cave-bear has been pronounced to be iden-
tical with the living grizzly bear. Among the mammals
are species of ox, deer, horse, wolf, dog, fox, bat, hippo-
potamus, rhinoceros, hyaena, bear, and lion. It is confi-
dently asserted by some geologists that the bones of men.
are also found in these caves, in circumstances showing
that man was coeval with the cave-bear and the mammoth,
and lived before the glacial period. The most famous
ossiferous cavern in Great Britain is at Kirkdale, 25 miles
from York. Ossiferous caves occur in many parts of the
globe. The fossils of those in Australia, show that the
fauna of the pleistocene period in that country had a re-
markable resemblance to that of the present day. The re-
mains are chiefly those of kangaroos and other marsupials.
The caves of Brazil have yielded many interesting remains.
REVISED BY J. S. NEWBERRY.
Cave (EDwARD), an English printer, born at Newton in
1691, was the founder of the “Gentleman’s Magazine,”
first issued in 1731. He was a friend and patron of Dr.
Johnson. T)ied in 1754. -
Cave (WILLIAM), an English scholar and writer, born in
Leicestershire in Dec., 1637. He became canon of Windsor
in 1684, and vicar of Isleworth in 1690. He published
“Primitive Christianity” (1672), a “History of Christ and
the Apostles” (1675), and “Lives of the Fathers of the
Church in the Fourth Century” (1682), which were highly
esteemed. Died Aug. 4, 1713. s
Ca/veat [Lat. “let him beware "J. This word is used
in law in two senses. -(1) A notice given to a court or judge
to stay the performance of certain, acts, judicial or min-
isterial. It is used to prevent the enrolment of a decree
in chancery, or the issuing of a commission of lunacy, or
the grant of letters testamentary to an executor. (2) In
patent law it has a statutory effect. It is filed in the office
of the commissioner of patents. An inventor makes use
of it to obtain time to perfect his invention. It should set
forth the design, and pray protection of the inventor’s right
until the invention is matured. The caveat is filed in the
confidential archives of the patent office, and preserved in
secresy. It is operative for one year after its filing. When,
however, an application is made within the year by an-
other person for a patent interfering with the caveat, it is
treated as confidential, and notice given by mail to the cave-
ator, who must thereupon file his specifications prepared for
a patent within three months from the time of mailing the
notice, added to the time usually required for the transmis-
sion of mail-matter from Washington to the caveator. Resi-
dent aliens, under certain regulations, may avail them-
selves of the privilege of a caveat. (See section 40 of
chap. 230 of “Laws of Congress,” 1870.)
Ca/veat Emp/tor (“let the purchaser beware”). This
is an important rule in the law of sales of personal prop-
erty. Its general meaning is, that a purchaser must judge
for himself of the quality of goods purchased. He will ac-
cordingly have no remedy against the seller if the goods
turn out to be of an inferior character and of much less
value than the price paid. The common law of England
differs widely from the civil or Roman law, where the rule
prevailed that a “sound price warrants a sound article.”
The rule (caveat emptor) must be confined to the quality
of the goods. In the case of failure of the title to chattels
sold by a person in possession, there is, according to the
American decisions, an action against the Seller, on the
theory of an implied warranty. To the general doctrine of .
“caveat emptor” there are important qualifications. (1)
The rule does not extend to cases of fraud. Where there is
positive or active fraud, this is extremely clear. There is
more doubt in the case where there is only concealment on
the part of the seller. A distinction has here been taken
between intrinsic and extrinsic defects. The latter would
refer to cases where external circumstances affect the value
of a chattel, as the outbreak of war or the conclusion of
peace. The rule in such cases is that concealment is not
a legal fraud, unless there is an active attempt to mislead.
In the case of intrinsic defects there is great diversity of
opinion. Some authors of repute hold that “the seller may
allow the buyer to cheat himself ad libitum, but that he
must use no effort to mislead.” It is to be regretted that a
view of the law should be taken So widely at variance with
the dictates of common morality, and an effort should be
made to find some satisfactory ground upon which they can
be reconciled. It is believed that the seller is bound, in
law, to disclose any facts within his knowledge of the na-
ture referred to which cannot be discerned by the exercise
of ordinary observation and good judgment on the part of
the buyer, and which materially affect the value of the chat-
tel in ordinary estimation. To use a familiar illustration, if .
a seller knew that a horse which he exposed for sale in the
ordinary manner had a secret defect not discernible by a
careful purchaser, it would be a fraud on his part not to dis-
close it. Of course, this conclusion would not be arrived at
if he expressly stated that the sale was “with all-faults,” etc.
826
CAVE CITY –CAVY.
(2) When a sale is made by a manufacturer for a special pur-
pose, the better opinion is that the rule in question has no
application. In other words, there is an implied warranty
that the chattel is reasonably fit for the purpose for which it
is bought. Some authorities of weight maintain that there
is an implied warranty in all sales by manufacturers that
there is no defect in the process of manufacturing, though
they would not extend the doctrine to the materials used.
(3) Wherever the reason on which the rule is founded fails,
the rule itself gives way. The only rational ground of the
doctrine of caveat emptor is, that when a purchaser has an
opportunity to examine goods he should act in the way in
which a prudent man usually manages his affairs, and
should notice such defects as he may be able to discover.
Where there is no such opportunity for inspection, or where
the seller takes the burden of selection upon himself, there
is no room for the application of the rule. Accordingly, it
does not apply to a true sale by Sample; that is, where the
bulk of the commodity is not present. In this case, the
seller impliedly warrants that the bulk of the commodity is
equal to the sample. The purchaser must czamine the
sample for himself. If, however, that course is not open to
him, the bulk of the commodity must be equal to the ap-
parent qualities of the sample. Thus, if an article like
madder were sold by a sample contained in a sealed bottle,
the bulk must equal the sample as it appears to the eye.
The same general rule would apply to so called executory
contracts of sale, as where goods are sold at sea “to arrive”
at a prescribed time. In the special case where the selection
is made by the seller, the rule also fails. The distinction
is put by one of the English judges in an apt form. He
says: If the buyer says to the seller, “Sell me a gray
horse to ride,” there must be a horse supplied which the
purchaser can ride.
that gray horse to ride,” pointing to a particular animal,
there would be no remedy, in the absence of fraud, if the
horse were unfit to ride. In these cases another view might
be taken. There is really no contract if the stipulated
article is not supplied, the minds of the parties not having
met. It seems very clear that if A proposes to sell B wheat
by sample, and he furnishes on delivery wheat that does not
correspond with the sample, there has been no agreement
to buy the thing furnished, and it may accordingly be re-
turned to A when its true character is discovered. (4)
There is an exception to the rule in American law resting
upon peculiar grounds, and it may be maintained though
there be no fraud or other special circumstances. This is
the sale of provisions for domestic w8e. There is an implied
warranty that the goods are wholesome. The exception is
not extended to sales by one dealer to another. It may be
added that there is a corresponding rule (caveat venditor)
applicable to the seller, who is bound in like manner to be
on his guard in dealing with the purchaser, though this
would also give way in cases of fraud. An instance is
where the buyer, having learned that a war has ended,
takes advantage of his superior knowledge to make pur-
chases. Such a purchase would be legally valid, though if
he misled the seller the fraud would vitiate the transaction.
(See also, on this subject, SALES.) T. W. DWIGHT.
Cave City, a post-village of Barren co., Ky., on the
Louisville and Nashville R. R., 85 miles S. of Louisville
and about 6 miles S. E. of the Mammoth Cave. Pop. 387.
Cave in Rock, a post-township of Hardin co., Ill., on
the Ohio River, 5.1 miles above Paducah, Ky., was once the
haunt of a band of river-pirates under one Mason, an out-
law. Pop. 869.
Cav/endish, a post-township of Windsor co., Vt., on
the Rutland and Burlington diyision of the Vermont Cen-
tral R. R., 23 miles N. by W. of Bellows Falls. It has
manufactures of woollen cloth, leather, lumber, furniture,
etc. It includes the village of Proctorsville, which has a
national bank and important manufactures. Pop. 1823.
Cavendish (HENRY), an eminent English chemist and
philosopher, born at Nice Oct. 10, 1731, was a son of Lord
Charles Cavendish and a grandson of the duke of Devon-
shire. He was a man of eccentric and unsocial habits, who
devoted himself exclusively to science. From an uncle
who died about 1773 he inherited a very large fortune. As
a chemical philosopher he occupies the first rank. He was
one of the founders of pneumatic chemistry, ascertained
the proportions of oxygen and nitrogen in common air in
1783, and discovered the composition of water in 1784 by
burning oxygen and hydrogen in a glass vessel. He was
profoundly versed in geometry and mathematics. In 1803
he was chosen an associate of the French Institute. He
died in London without issue Feb. 24, 1810, and left a for-
tune of one million pounds sterling. (See G. WILSON, “Life
of H. Cavendish.”) -
* Cavendish Experiment, an experiment for deter-
If, however, he had said, “Sell me
mining the mean density of the earth. (See DENSITY OF
THE EARTH.)
Caver/ma, a post-village of Hart co., Ky. Pop. 479.
Cave Rock, a township of Douglas co., Nev. P. 120.
Cave Spring, a township of Jackson co., Ala. P. 378.
Cave Spring, a post-village of Floyd co., Ga., is the
seat of the State asylum for deaf-mutes, and has an exten-
sive cavern and a medicinal spring. It is also the seat of
Harm School for young men.
Cave Spring, a post-township of Roanoke Co., Va.
Pop. 2261.
Cavetown, a post-twp. of Washington co., Md. P. 1899.
Ca/very, or Cauv'ery (anc. Chaberis), a river of In-
dia, in the Deccan, rises near lat. 13° N. and lon. 76° E.
It flows south-eastward through Mysore, and after a course
of about 470 miles enters the sea by many mouths. Its
delta is mostly in the district of Tanjore. It is eminently
available for irrigation and useful in agriculture.
Caviare, kav/iar or kaveer', the prepared and salted
roe of the sturgeon, made chiefly in Russia, the Caspian
fishery alone sometimes yielding several hundred tons an-
nually. There are six or seven species of sturgeon caught
for their yield of caviare—species chiefly living in the Cas-
pian and Black seas and their tributary streams. The roe
of the sterlet (Acipenser ruthenw8) is the best, and its cavi-
are is reserved for the imperial court. Caviare is proverb-
ially disagreeable to the uneducated palate, though highly
esteemed by the initiated. It is now manufactured quite
extensively in the U. S.
Cavi'te, a fortified seaport-town of Luzon, one of the
Philippine Islands, is on the Bay of Manila, 3 miles S. W.
of the city of Manila. It has an arsenal, and is the chief
naval dépôt of the Spanish possessions in the East. Here
is a manufactory of cigars. Pop. about 6500.
Cavour', di (CAMILLO BENSO), Count, an illustrious
Italian statesman, born Aug. 1, 1810, of an aristocratic
Piedmontese family, the son of the marchese Michele di
Cavour and his wife Adelaide Syllon d’Allamar, an ac-
complished Swiss lady. Camillo, a younger son, was des-
tined for the army, In the military academy at Turin he
showed such proficiency in mathematical studies that he
was made an engineer officer at the age of sixteen and
given responsible commands. Military life was repugnant
to his tastes, and he entertained radical opinions which he
did not hesitate to utter, and thereby displeased the king,
Charles Albert. He therefore left the army in 1831, and
turned his attention to agriculture, taking part also in the
reform agitations of the time. He pursued a zealous in-
quiry into social and industrial questions, visiting England
and France for that purpose. He was one of the founders
of the “Associazione Agraria,” an emergetic reform society,
and started the liberal journal “Il Risorgimento * in 1847.
When in 1848 the liberal party came into power and a
constitutional frame of government was accorded to Sar-
dinia, Cavour stood at the head of the moderate republican
press, and, elected to the Chamber, he took an important
part in the debates, supporting the moderate ministry of
D'Azeglio and opposing the violent demands of the Left,
whereby he lost in great measure his popularity. In 1850
he was appointed minister of commerce, in 1851 of finance,
and in 1852 became premier, accomplishing a fusion of the
Right Centre with the Left Centre under Ratazzi. From
that time forth he conducted the policy of Italy, bringing
about finally its political consolidation amid stormy in-
ternal commotions and foreign complications. He promoted
free trade and religious toleration, opposed the encroach-
ments of the papal power, and formed an alliance with
England and France in the war against Russia, 1854–55.
The grand aim of his diplomacy was to promote the union
of the Italian peoples and the liberation of Italy from
foreign domination. He thus provoked the hostility of
Austria, which invaded Italy in April, 1859. The Austrians
were defeated, and obtained peace by ceding Lombardy,
which was annexed to the Sardinian states. Cavour re-
signed office in July, 1859, because he disapproved the
treaty of Villafranca, but he resumed the position of prime
minister in Jan., 1860. In consequence of the victories
of Garibaldi and the general uprising of Italian patriots
in 1859 and 1860, nearly all Italy was liberated and united.
Cavour was prime minister of the new kingdom of Italy
when he died on the 6th of June, 1861. He was never
married. He left the reputation of being one of the greatest
statesmen of modern times. (See “Reminiscences of the
Tife of Cavour,” translated from the French by EDWARD
RoMILLY ; also EDWARD DICEY, “Cavour, a Memoir.”)
Ca/vy, the name of various South American tailless
rodent mammals, closely related to the porcupine family,
arid by most naturalists referred to the Hystricidae, but
CAW CAW-CAYUGA LAKE.
827
by others to the family Cavidae, differing from the hare
family in the want of clavicles, and in having the incisors
situated not in the manner characteristic of the hares.
There are four molar teeth in each jaw, and in the genus
Cavia these are compound; there are four toes on each of
the fore feet, and three on the hind feet, the feet not being
webbed. The females have only two teats. One species,
Cavia Cobaya, has long been domesticated as a pet and
plaything of children. It is called the “restless cavy,” or
more frequently the “Guinea pig,” although it is neither
a pig nor a native of Guinea. The Guinea pig multiplies
with rapidity, producing young ones when only two months
old, and afterwards at intervals of two months, from four
to twelve in a litter. This fecundity serves for the preser-
vation of the race in a wild state, the little animal being
very defenceless. The other species are very numerous in
parts of South America. -
Caw Caw, a township of Orangeburg co., S. C. Pop.
934.
Cawker City, a post-village and township of Mitchel
co., Kan. It is the seat of the U. S. land-office for the
tiful conical form, and an altitude of 19,541 feet. It is
covered with perpetual snow, and forms one of the most
remarkable landmarks on the globe.
Cayenne, a seaport-town of South America, capital
of French Guiana, is on the Atlantic, and on an island of
its own name at the mouth of the Cayenne River; lat. 4°
56' N., lon. 52° 13' W. It has a shallow harbor, and is
defended by a fort and batteries. Considerable quantities
of coffee, sugar, cotton, indigo, and cacao are exported
from this place. Pop. about 6000. Cayenne Island is
about 30 miles in circumference, and is separated by a
narrow channel from the mainland. Cayenne is a penal
colony to which political offenders are transported.
Cayenne Pepper. See CAPSICUM.
Cayes, a seaport-town of Hayti, on its southern coast,
92 miles W. S. W. of Port-au-Prince. Pop. 3000.
Cay’man, ki’man [a word belonging to the Guinaulam-
guage of South America] is either the distinctive appella-
tion of some, or the common name for all the Crocodilidae of
South America and the West Indies. The genus Alligator
is by some naturalists divided into three genera, to one of
north-western district of Kansas, and is favorably situated which the name Caiman is given. The eye-browed cayman
at the junction of the two
branches of the Solomon River.
It has one weekly newspaper, a t
high school, three churches, and
a large wholesale and retail
trade. Pop. of township, 38.
FLAVIUS MACMILLAN,
ED. AND PUB. OF “SENTINEL.”
Cawn' poor, or Cawn-
pore, a town of Hindostan, on -
the right bank of the Gangos, \\
which is here nearly a mile wide,
about 96 miles S. W. of Luck-
... • * *
º O f O sº º
now ; lat. 26° 29' N., lon. 80 *ºssº
25' E. It is an important Brit- * - "I
ish military station, having can- sº ºs -
tonments which accommodate º \º
about 7000 men. It is not well ly s
built, and contains few remark- É; =#
able public edifices. Connected
with the cantonments are several
hundred bungalows for the offi-
cers, which are fitted up luxu-
riously and have large gardens. .
During the mutiny of the Se- #3
poys in 1857, Nana Sahib mas- #
sacred here a number of English =
captives, including women and
children. Pop. 108,796.
Caxamarca, or Caja =
marca, kā-Há-mâR/ká (i. e. a “place of frost’’), a depart-
ment of Peru, is bounded on the N. by Ecuador, on the E.
by Amazonas, on the S. by Libertad, and on the W. by
Libertad and Piura. The department, with the exception
of the extreme N., is crossed by mountain-ranges, in con-
sequence of which the climate is cool and pleasant. It is
irrigated by the Marañon, which flows along its eastern
boundary. All products of the tropics and the temperate
zones are raised here, as wheat, barley, potatoes, tobacco,
etc. Chief town, Caxamarca. Pop. about 120,000.
Caxamar'ca, or Cajamarca, a town of Peru, cap-
ital of a province of its own name, is near the eastern foot
of the Andes, about 83 miles N. N. E. of Trujillo. It has
several churches, and manufactures of cutlery and Woollen
cloth. Silver-mines have been opened in the vicinity.
Caxamarca is celebrated in the history of the Spanish con-
quest. The ruined palace in which Pizarro confined the
inca Atahualpa is still to be seen. Pop. 18,330.
Caxatam’bo, or Cajatambo, a town of Peru, capital
of a province of its own name, is on the W. slope of the
Andes, 140 miles N. of Lima. Pop. about 6500.
Caxſtom (WILLIAM), an English merchant, born in
. Kent about 1412, was the first to introduce printing into
England. In 1464 he was employed to negotiate a treaty
of commerce between Edward IV. of England and the
duke of Burgundy. He translated from the French a
“History of Troy,” which he printed probably in 1471,
but perhaps earlier. . This is said to be the first book ever
printed in the English language. After he had resided for
some time at the court of the duchess of Burgundy, he
returned to England and established a printing-office in
Westminster in 1476, where he printed several other books.
Died about 1492.
Cayam’be, or Cayambe-Urcu', a mountain in Ecua-
dor, a peak of the Colombian Andes, is directly under the
equator, and about 45 miles N. E. of Quito. It has a beau-
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(Alligator palpebrosus), to which the name cayman is ap-
plied in Guiana, is not the largest of its tribe. The three
bony plates which form each eyebrow, projecting as large
knobs, and the scarcely webbed feet, constitute the charac-
ters of the genus or sub-genus Caiman, to which belong
also Alligator trigonatus and Alligator gibbiceps.
Caynhamss The, three small islands in the Caribbean
Sea, belonging to Great Britain, 130 miles N. W. of Ja-
maica. They have few inhabitants, and chiefly produce
turtles.
Cayu'ga, a county in W. Central New York. Area,
756 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by Lake Ontario,
and partly on the W. by Cayuga Lake. It also contains
Owasco Lake, and is traversed by Seneca River. The sur-
face is undulating; the soil is very fertile. Wool, cattle,
butter, cheese, fruit, grain, and tobacco are extensively
raised. Among the minerals found here are gypsum and
corniferous limestone. The rocks of this county are of the
Silurian and Devonian formations. The county has various
manufactures, including metallic Wares, castings, lumber,
flour, carriages, agricultural tools, etc. It is intersected
by the Central, the Southern Central, and the Cayuga Lake
R. Rs. Capital, Auburn. Pop. 59,550.
Cayuga, a post-town of Ontario (Canada), capital of
Haldimand co., is on Grand River, which is navigable, 14
miles from its entrance, into Lake Erie and 25 miles S. of
Hamilton. It has two newspapers and a heavy trade in
grain and plaster. -
Cayuga, or Cayuga Bridge, a post-village of Aure-
lius township, Cayuga co., New York, on Cayuga Lake
near its outlet, and on the New York Central R. R., 11 miles
W. of Auburn at its junction with the Cayuga Lake R. R.
It has four churches. The railroad here crosses the lake
by a bridge nearly a mile long. Pop. 435.
Cayuga Lake, a beautiful lake of New York, forms
the boundary between Cayuga and Seneca counties, and is

























828
CAYUGAS–CECROPIA.
about 38 miles long. Its width varies from one to three
miles, and its greatest depth is supposed to be above 500
feet. The surface is 387 feet above the level of the sea. Its
banks are formed of Silurian and Devonian rocks. White-
fish and many other species of fish are caught in it. Steam-
boats ply daily between Cayuga Bridge and Ithaca, which
is at the head of the lake. The outlet of this lake flows
into Seneca River, which separates Central from Western
New York.
Cayugas. See SIx NATIONS.
Cayuſta, a post-township of Schuyler co., N. Y. P. 641.
Caza'īla de la Sier'ra, a town of Spain, province
of Seville, 39 miles N. N. E. of the city of Seville. It is
on a declivity of the Sierra Morena, and in a district which
abounds in silver, copper, iron, and marble. It has manu-
factures of linen, machinery, etc. Here are several ruined
villas and Roman and Arabic antiquities. Pop. 6852.
Cazem’ be, or Kazembe, the name of a country in
the S. E. of Africa. It is between Lake Tanganyika and
the river Zambesi, but its limits are not definitely known.
Its fortified capital, Lucenda, is between lat. 8° and 9° S.,
and between lon. 28° and 29° E. The soil is well Watered
and fertile. Among the chief productions are maize, manioc
or cassava, Sugar, palm wine, ivory, copper, and sesamum.
Cazeno’via, a post-township of Woodford co., III.
Pop. 990.
Cazenovia, a post-village of Madison co., N.Y., is on
a small lake 18 miles S. E. of Syracuse. The Cazenovia
and Canastota. R. R., 15 miles long, connects it with the
Central R. R. The Syracuse and Chenango Valley R. R.
connects, it with Syracuse on the N., and with the New
York and Oswego Midland R. R., at Earlville on the S.
It is the seat of Central New York Conference Seminary. .
It has a woollen-mill, a pasteboard-factory, a paper-mill, a
lock-factory, and a machine-shop, one national bank, and
one newspaper-office. Pop. 1718; of Cazenovia township,
4265. IRVING C. Foot'E, PUB. CAzENOVIA “REPUBLICAN.”
Ceano/thus America/nus, New Jersey Tea, or
Red Root, a shrubby plant of the order Celastraceae, is
a native of the U. S. It is about two feet high, and has
ovate, serrate leaves, which were used as a substitute for
tea during the Revolutionary war. It has small white
flowers in clusters, which are crowded in dense panicles.
The beautiful native shrubs called in California wild lilac
belong to this genus.
Ceará, or Ciará, a maritime province in the N. E.
of Brazil, has a coast-line of nearly 350 miles. Area,
36,887 square miles. Pop. in 1867, 550,000. Gold, copper,
and iron are found here. Ceará is covered by fine forests,
and produces balsams and resins. Capital, Fortaleza.
Ce/bes [Gr. Ké8ms], sometimes written Kebes, a Greek
philosopher, born at Thebes, was a disciple and friend of
Socrates. One of his works, entitled “Pimax” (the “Tab-
let or Picture”), is extant. It is a dialogue on human life,
which is highly commended, and has been translated into
many languages.
Ce/bus [Gr, kā80s, a “monkey’], a genus of American
*-
Cebus, or Sajou Monkey.
numerous, remarkably intelligent and active, and live in
trees. They feed chiefly on fruits, but also on eggs, insects,
worms, and mollusks. They are included under the desig-
nation Sapajou in its wider sense, and among them are the
monkeys to which this name is more strictly applied. The
names capuchin, Sajou, weeper, and Sai are also given to
them. The name Cebidae is given to the American mon-
keys as a family by those who recognize the limits of this
family as being the same as those of the tribe Platyrrhinae.
Cecidomyi'a [from the Gr. knktövov, a “gall-nut,” and
pºvia, a “fly.”], a genus of two-winged insects of the gnat
and mosquito family, having downy wings, which are hor-
izontal when at rest; antennae as long as the body, with
joints, and whorls of hairs at the joints; long legs, and the
first joint of the tarsi very short. The species are numer-
ous, of small size, but some of them are very important on
account of the ravages which their maggots effect in grain
crops. Cecidomyia cerealis, called the barley midge, a
brownish-red fly with silvery wings, of which the maggot
is vermilion-colored, is very destructive to barley and
spelt. The maggots live in families between the stalk and
the sheath of the leaf, abstracting the juice of the plant.
The wheat-fly and the Hessian-fly belong to this genus.
Some of the species of Cecidomyia deposit their eggs on the
young buds of trees, which the larvae transform into galls.
Ce/cil, a county which forms the N. E. extremity of
Maryland, is at the head of Chesapeake. Bay. Area, 409
square miles. It is partly bounded on the W. by the Sus-
quehanna River, and is intersected by the Elk River. The
soil is productive. Wheat, corn, oats, fruit, and wool are
extensively raised. The county contains large quarries of
granite and valuable mines of chromium, iron, and fire-
clay. The manufactures include flour, iron, paper, etc. It
is traversed by the Philadelphia Wilmington and Baltimore
and the Philadelphia and Baltimore Central R. Rs. Cap-
ital, Elkton. Pop. 25,874.
Cecil, a township of Washington co., Pa. Pop. 1102.
Cecil (Rev. RICHARD), an eminent evangelical clergy-
man of the Church of England, born in London in 1748,
died in 1810. He was a devout, fervent Christian, and an
impassioned pulpit orator. His works were published
(London, 1811) in 4 vols. 8vo. The fourth volume, con-
taining his “Remains,” is considered the most valuable.
There is also an American edition (New York, 1845) in
3 vols. 8vo.
Cecil, Lord ROBERT. See SALISBURY, MARQUIs of.
Cecil. See BURLEIGH. - -
Cecil’ia, SAINT, a Roman virgin who is supposed t
have suffered martyrdom in the second or third century.
She is regarded as the patroness of musicians and the in-
ventor of the organ. Raphael, Domenichino; and other
great artists painted pictures of her, and Dryden wrote a
celebrated “Ode for St. Cecilia's Day,” which is the 22d
of November.
Cecil’ian Col/lege, a Catholic male boarding school
at Cecilian, Hardin co., Ky., on the Elizabethtown and
Paducah R. R. It was founded in 1860, and chartered in
1867. Its proprietors and profes-
sors are laymen. Its average num-
ber of matriculants for thirteen
years is 150. No uniform is requir-
ed. The discipline is firm and strict,
the students being at all times in the
* * care of the officers of the school.
Degrees are conferred by this college
both in the classical and business de-
- sº partments. The school term is of
Q-- .*.*. forty weeks, at a charge of $5 per
#3% º
º sº week, covering all expenses.
# ſº H. A., S. G., and A. D. CECIL,
% & % r - PROPRIETORS.
r غ
Cecilius. See CAECILIUs. .
Ce/cilton, a post-village and
township of Cecil co., Md. Pop.
462; of township, 3337.
Cecro/pia, a genus of trees of
the order Artocarpaceae. . The Ce-
cropia peltata, a very common tree
of the West Indies and South Amer-
ica, called trumpet-wood and snake-
wood, is remarkable for its hollow
stem and branches, with membranous
partitions at the joints. The small
branches are made into wind instru-
ments. The wood is very light,
readily takes fire by friction against
monkeys characterized by a round head, long thumbs, and hard wood, and is much used by the Indians for procuring
a long prehensile tail covered with hair. The species are
fire. The fruit. is agreeable, and resembles a mulberry.





*
CECROPIA MOTH-CEDAR CREEK.
829
The trunk and branches yield a large quantity of Saline
matter, employed by planters in the purification of Sugar.
The bark is strong and fibrous, and is used for cordage.
It is also astringent, and is employed in diarrhoea and
gomorrhoea. The juice yields caoutchouc.
Cecro/pia Moth, a lepidopterous insect of the family
Bombycidae, and nearly related to the silkworm. The
systematic arrangement of this family is unsettled, but of
the numerous names proposed for this insect perhaps
Platysamia cecropia, is the best. This is the largest North
American moth yet known. When expanded it often
measures six inches and a half across. It is of a dusky-
gray color, variegated with white, black, and various neu-
tral tints. It appears in the U. S. in June, and is a most
striking and beautiful object. Its larva is over three
inches long, of a light-green color, with red and yellow
warts armed with bristles. The cocoon is of a very strong
silk, which is abundant in quantity, but it cannot be reeled.
It has, however, been carded and spun into an excellent
thread, and but for the delicate character of the larvae,
which are hard to raise, it would become an important
article of commerce. The Telea polyphemus, an American
relative of this moth, has attracted much attention from the
excellence of its silk and the hardiness of its young. The
ailanthus silkworm of China also closely resembles the
larva of the cecropia moth. From the fact that the com-
mon silkworm has become subject to several destructive
diseases, the scientific world is much interested in the effort
to find another silkworm which shall be hardy and pro-
ductive of useful cocoons.
Ce/crops, or Kekrop's [Gr. Kékpoºl, a semi-fabulous
hero of the Pelasgian race, was called the first king and
legislator of Attica. According to tradition, he instituted
marriage and instructed the Athenians in agriculture, nav-
igation, religion, etc. The people of Attica were some-
times called Cecropidae.
Ce/dar [Gr. kéðpos; Lat. cedrus ; Fr. cedre], the com-
mon name of several species of evergreen trees of the order
Coniferae. They afford durable and valuable timber. The
name red cedar is given to the Juniperus Virginiana, a na-
tive of the U. S., which is prized for its durable, compact,
and odorous wood, and is used by cabinet-makers. It
grows mostly in dry and sterile soils. In the Western
States it attains the height of seventy feet or more, but in
the Eastern States it is a small tree. The American white
cedar (Cupressus thyoides), an evergreen tree, abounds in
the swamps of the U. S., and grows from thirty to seventy
feet high. The timber of this tree will remain for a long
time under water without decaying, and is an excellent
material for posts of fences and for shingles. Various other
coniferous trees are called cedars in the U. S. The name
white cedar is given in America, to the wood of Cupressw8
thyoides and Thuya occidentalis—the latter throughout the
Northern States. --
The cedar of Lebanon, perhaps the most celebrated
of the cedars, is now assigned to the genus Cedrus, which
differs from Lariac, the larch, in having evergreen leaves
and in other less conspicuous characters. This famous
tree is not confined to Lebanon, but grows in the Atlas
Mountains, and is half naturalized in parks and landscape
gardens in Europe and America, thriving well even in the
north of Scotland. According to Dr. Hooker, it is highly
probable that the deodar of the Himalaya Mountains is spe-
cifically identical with the cedar of Lebanon, though the trees
differ considerably in growth, aspect, and size of cones. The
deodar is much larger. It is prized for its timber and its
resin, tar, and pitch; which were also once produced by
the cedar of Lebanon. Its timber is much better than that
of the latter. Of the celebrated cedars on Mount Lebanon,
eleven groves still remain, two of them numbering thou-
sands of trees.
young and old. Twelve of these are of an extreme age, esti-
mated by some at 2000 years. The largest is 63 feet in
girth and 50 feet high, one-third the maximum height
of the deodar.
The so-called “ cedar ” of the West Indies and South
America, much used for cigar-boxes, and sometimes for lead-
pencils, is the fragrant redwood of the Cedrela odorata of the
order Cedrelaceae.
Cedar, a county in the E. of Iowa. Area, 576 square
miles. It is intersected by the Cedar and Wapsipimicon
rivers. The surface is diversified by woodlands and undu-
lating prairies, the soil of which is very fertile. Grain,
wool and beef-cattle are very largely raised. It is trav-
ersed by a branch of the Chicago and North-western R. R.,
and contains quarries of good Devonian limestone. Cap-
ital, Tipton. Pop. 19,731.
Cedar, a county in the W. S. W. of Missouri. Area,
435 square miles. It is intersected by Sac River, and also
The famous B'Sherreh grove is three-quar- .
ters of a mile in circumference, containing some 400 trees,
drained by Horse Creek. The surface is uneven ; the soil
is fertile. . Corn, tobacco, and wool are staple products.
Capital, Stockton. Pop. 9474. -
Cedar, a county of Nebraska, bordering on Dakota, has
an area estimated at 700 square miles. It is bounded on
the N. by the Missouri River, and also drained by Big Bow
Creek. The soil is productive. Wool, wheat, and corn are
the chief products. Capital, St. James. Pop. 1032.
Cedar, a township of Clarke co., Ark. Pop. 897.
Cedar, a township of Knox co., III. Pop. 2153.
Cedar, a township of Benton co., Ia. Pop. 1041.
Cedar, a township of Black Hawk co., Ia. Pop. 731.
Cedar, a township of Cherokee co., Ia. Pop. 250.
Cedar, a township of Floyd co., Ia. Pop. 415.
Cedar, a township of Greene co., Ia. Pop. 306.
Cedar, a township of Jefferson co., Ia. Pop. 816.
Cedar, a township of Johnson co., Ia. Pop. 1094.
Cedar, a township of Lee co., Ia. Pop. 1196.
Cedar, a township of Lucas co., Ia. Pop. 764.
Cedar, a township of Mahaska co., Ia. Pop. 1265.
Cedar, a township of Mitchell co., Ia. Pop. 733.
Cedar, a township of Monroe co., Ia. Pop. 831.
Cedar, a township of Muscatine co., Ia. Pop. 421.
Cedar, a township of Van Buren co., Ia. Pop. 1090.
Cedar, a township of Washington co., Ia. Pop. 957.
Cedar, a township of Wilson co., Kan. Pop. 539.
Cedar, a township of Boone co., Mo. Pop. 5020.
Cedar, a township of Callaway co., Mo. Pop. 2453.
Cedar, a township of Cedar co., Mo. Pop. 788.
Ce/darburg, a post-village of Ozaukee co., Wis., on
Cedar Creek and on the Milwaukee and Northern R. R.,
20 miles N. of Milwaukee. It has a national bank. Pop.
of Cedarburg township, 2557.
Cedar Creek, in the N. part of Virginia, rises in
Shenandoah co., and enters the North Fork of the Shenan-
doah about 4 miles below Strasburg. On this creek the army
of Gen. Sheridan was encamped when, Oct. 19, 1864, during
Sheridan's absence, it was surprised at daylight, at Alacken,
by the Confederate army under Gen. Early, its left flank
turned and driven in confusion, the remainder of the army
retiring, yet in good order. Gen. Wright, in command at
the time, after having succeeded in restoring something
like order among the surprised troops, seeing that the posi-
tion they had fallen back to was an exposed one, ordered a
general retreat, to enable him to restore communications.
The retreat was conducted in good order, and Gen. Wright
had halted and restored his line when, at 10 A. M., Gen.
Sheridan, who had heard of the disaster at Winchester,
arrived on the field. He was informed by Gen. Wright of
the dispositions made by him, to which Sheridan gave his
approval. The pursuit by the Confederate army had ceased,
the men being occupied plundering the camps of the Eighth
and Nineteenth corps. Gen. Sheridan arrived, then, to find
that his army had been surprised and routed; but he found
that the worst was over, the line reformed, and the army
not demoralized. His presence lent an inspiring effect, so
that, after making his line as compact as possible, an attack
made upon it at 1 P.M. was successfully repulsed. At 3 P.M.,
after making some charges with his cavalry, he attacked
the Confederates with great vigor, driving and routing
them, and capturing over fifty pieces of artillery, including
twenty of his own lost in the morning, about 2000 prison-
ers, and releasing many of our men captured in the morn-
ing. The cavalry drove them still farther next day, the
20th, and during that night Early retreated, and the mil-
itary operations in the Shenandoah Valley were at an end.
Cedar Creek, a township of Carroll co., Ark. Pop.
511. -
Cedar Creek, a township of Crawford co., Ark. Pop.
952. -
Cedar Creek, a township of Sevier co., Ark. P. 117.
Cedar Creek, a village and hundred of Sussex co.,
Del. The village is about 30 miles S. S. E. of Dover, and
near the Delaware R. R. Pop. 3544. -
Cedar Creek, a township of Allen co., Ind. P. 1713.
Cedar Creek, a township of Lake co., Ind. P. 1326.
Cedar Creek, a township of Cowley co., Kan. P. 79.
Cedar Creek, a township of Marion co., Kan. P. 105.
Cedar Creek, a township of Muskegon co., Mich.'
Pop. 660. *
Cedar Creek, a township of Wayne Co., Mo. P. 379.
Cedar Creek, a post-township of Cumberland co.,
N. C. Pop. 235S, -
830
CEDAR CREEK–CELEBES.
Cedar Creek, a twp. of Lancaster co., S. C. Pop. 1505.
Cedar Creek, a township of Bath co., Va. Pop. 903.
Mon. Pop. 1486.
Cedar Dale, a village of Whitby, township, Ontario
co., province of Ontario (Canada), on the Grand Trunk
Railway, 33 miles from Toronto.
Cedar Falls, a city and township of Black Hawk co.,
Ia., on the Cedar River and the Illinois Central and the
Burlington Cedar Rapids and Minnesota. R. Rs. It has
eight churches, two newspapers, and several mills, and
other manufactories. P. 3070; including township, 4381.
C. W. & E. A. SNYDER, EDs. CEDAR FALLs “ GAZETTE.”
Cedar Fork, a township of Wake co., N. C. P. 1533.
Cedar Grove, a post-twp. of Orange co., N. C. P. 2047.
Cedar Island, in the township of East Hampton,
Suffolk co., N. Y., at the entrance to Sag Harbor, Long
Island; lat. 41°02' 26" N., lon. 72° 15' 197' W., has a granite
lighthouse, with a fixed white light 34 feet above the sea.
Cedar Keys, a seaport of Levy co., Fla., on the Gulf
of Mexico, at the S. W. terminus of the Florida, R. R., on
Way Key, a small island, 154 miles from Fernandina. Its
harbor is formed by a group of keys, or small islands,
which give name to the town. It has a lighthouse on Sea-
horse Key; lat. 29° 05' 49” N., lon. 83° 04' 46” W. . It
shows a revolving light 75 feet above the sea. The lum-
ber-trade is the chief industry. Pop. 440.
Cedar Đake, a post-twp. of Scott co., Minn. P. 756.
Cedar Mills, a post-twp. of Renville co., Minn. P. 205.
Cedar Mountain, a twp. of Culpeper co., Va. P. 1708.
Cedar Mountain, Va., about 2 miles W. of Mitchell’s
Station, Culpeper co., on the Orange Alexandria and Ma-
massas R. R., was the scene of a desperate and sanguinary
conflict on the 9th of Aug., 1862, between the forces of
Gens. Pope and Jackson, in which the Federal forces un-
der the immediate command. of Gen. Banks were outnum-
bered and defeated with a loss of nearly 2000 in killed,
wounded, and missing, and a large quantity of war-mate-
rial; the Confederate loss was about 1300. -
Cedar Mountains, of South Africa, are in Cape
Colony. This range extends nearly parallel with the At-
lantic, and is near the meridian of 19° E. The highest
summits of it rise about 6590 feet above the level of the
sea. They are partly covered with forests of cedar.
Cedar Rapids, a city of Linn co., Ia., on Cedar
River, 219 miles W. of Chicago and 265 miles S. of St.
Paul, on the Chicago and North-western, the Burlington
Cedar Rapids and Minnesota (also the Milwaukee and
Pacific divisions of that road), and the Dubuque and
South-western R. Rs. It is the head-quarters of the Iowa
R. R. Land Company, of the Sioux City and Pacific R. R.,
of a coal company, and of the Burlington Cedar Rapids
and Minnesota. R. R., whose shops are here. It has a
valuable water-power, two national and one savings bank,
two weekly, one monthly, and one daily newspaper, flour-
ing-mills, steam bakery, foundries, planing-mills, manu-
factories of furniture, confectionery, paper, oil and lint,
beer, oatmeal, woollens, knit goods, agricultural tools,
wagons, carriages, door-latches, etc. Pork-packing is ex-
tensively carried on. The wholesale trade is important.
The city is lighted with gas, has excellent schools and
churches, and is increasing in population and prosperity.
Pop. 5940. IF. McCLELLAND, E.D. “TIMEs.”
Cedar (or Red Cedar) River, of Iowa, rises in the
S. part of Minnesota. It flows nearly south-eastward
through Mitchel, Floyd, Bremer, Black Hawk, Benton,
Linn, and Cedar counties of Iowa. Then turning to the
S. W., it enters the Iowa River about 15 miles above Wa-
pello. Total length, estimated at 350 miles. Devonian
and magnesian limestones are abundant along its banks.
Cedar Rock, a post-twp. of Franklin co., N. C. P. 1112.
Cedar Run, a township of Fauquier co., Va. P. 2145.
Cedar Springs, a post-village of Kent co., Mich. It
has one weekly newspaper. -
Cedar Springs, a twp. of Abbeville co., S. C. P. 1503.
Cedar Springs, a post-village in Spartanburg co., S.C.,
on the Spartanburg and Union R. R. It contains the State
institution for the deaf, dumb, and blind, founded in 1849.
Ce/dartown, a post-village, capital of Polk co., Ga.,
about 60 miles W. N. W. of Atlanta. Pop. 323.
Ce/darville, a township of Hale co., Ala. Pop. 1920.
Cedarville, a post-village of Smith co., Kan. It has
one weekly newspaper.
Cedarville, a twp. of Menominee co., Mich. P. 194.
Cedarville, a post-village of Greene co., O., in a town-
Cedar Creek Mines, a township of Missoula co., .
ship of the same name, on the Columbus and Xenia R. R.,
47 miles S. W. of Columbus. Pop. 753; of township, 2361.
Cedarville, a township of Warren co., Va. Pop. 1734.
Cedrela’ceae [from Cedrela, one of the generaj, a
natural order of exogenous trees and shrubs, very nearly
allied to Meliaceae, and chiefly distinguished by the winged
seeds, numerous in each cell of the fruit, which is a cap-
sule. The known species are few, all tropical or sub-tropi-
cal, most of them trees valuable for their timber. To this
order belong mahogany, satin-wood, toon, Barbadoes cedar,
the yellow-wood of New South Wales, etc.
Cefalù (anc. Cephaloedium), a town of Sicily, in the
province of Palermo, situated on the Mediterranean, 40
miles E. S. E. of Palermo. Here is a fine cathedral of
Norman architecture. The town is situated at the foot of
a mountain or high rock, on which are the ruins of an
ancient Phoenician structure and of a Saracenic castle. It
hºle ºries and sardine-fisheries. Pop. in 1872,
11,799. -
Ceglie, châſlyā, a town of Italy, province of Lecce, 23
miles W. of Brindisi. It has several churches, one of which
is collegiate, and two annual fairs. Pop. 11,261.
Cehegin, thā-ā-Heen', a town of Spain, in the province
of Murcia, 35 miles W. N. W. of the city of Murcia. It
has manufactures of cloth, paper, Soap, and pottery, and a
trade in wine and fruits. It is partly built of marble quar-
ried in the vicinity. Pop. 6186.
Ceil’ing [perhaps from the Fr. ciel, “heaven,” referring
to its vaulted shape, and possibly to the blue color and
stars of gold common in mediaeval ceilings], the covering
or upper surface of a room. Ceilings among the ancients
were usually flat, but crossed at right angles by beams,
forming square lacunae or panels, often ornamented with
rich designs. Similar ceilings were common in Middle-
Age structures, but the arched ceiling, barrel-vaulted, made
of “cants” or a succession of flat surfaces, plastered,
wainscoted, ribbed, plain, gilt, embossed, or otherwise or-
namented, was a much more common form than in ancient
Rome, where, however, arched ceilings were not unknown.
Cel’andine (Chelidonium), a genus of herbs of the
order Papaveraceae. The common celandine (Chelidonium
majus) is a perennial, with yellow flowers in simple umbels,
frequent in waste places in most parts of Europe and in the
U. S. The root, stem, and leaves have a disagreeable Smell,
and are full of a yellow juice which is very acrid. Celan-
dine in medicine is a drastic purgative, and in large doses
an active poison; in small doses it is said to be useful in
scrofulous diseases, disease of the glands, etc. The fresh
juice, applied to warts, sometimes removes them.
Celano Lake. See FUCINo.
Celastra/ceae, a natural order of exogenous shrubs,
having simple leaves and seeds furnished with arils. They
have acrid properties, sometimes stimulant. Two genera
of this order, Celastrus and Euonymus (spindle tree), are
natives of the U. S. (See EUoNYMUs.) The Celastrus scan-
dens, called bittersweet or waxwork, has five stamens and
alternate serrate leaves. The orange-colored pod and seeds,
enclosed in a scarlet aril, are ornamental in autumn.
Cei’ebes [native, Negree-Orang-Boogis], a large island
of the Malay Archipelago, is about 75 miles E. of Borneo,
from which it is separated by Macassar Strait. It extonds
from lat. 1950' N. to 5° 30' S., and is mostly included be-
tween lon. 119° and 125° E. It has a very irregular form,
being divided by deep bays into four peninsulas, one of
which (called Menado) is about 400 miles long and very
narrow. These peninsulas are formed by chains of moun-
tains radiating from the central part of the island. The
highest summit rises about 7000 feet above the level of the
sea. Though the area of Celebes is only 72,647 Square
miles, it has a coast-line of nearly 2500 miles. The penin-
sula of Menado is bounded on the N. by the Sea of Celebes,
and on the S. by the Bay of Tomini. The two southern
peninsulas are separated by the large bay of Boni. The
vegetation is luxuriant, and the island is partly covered
with forests of oak, teak, palm, cedar, and upas trees, and
partly by vast grassy champaigns which are used in com-
mon by the natives. The nutmeg, the clove, and the bam-
boo also flourish here. Among the minerals are gold, cop-
per, tin, and iron. Coffee, rice, sugar, indigo, and manioc
are cultivated. Chief town, Macassar. Celebes is partly
occupied by a race called Boogis, who are strong and well
built, revengeful in character, and fond of the chase. The
tribe of Wadjus are an intelligent race who pursue com-
merce; the Arafuras inhabit the central regions, and are
the aborigines of this archipelago. This island was visited
by the Portuguese in 1512. The Dutch expelled the Por-
tuguese in 1660, and planted there colonies, which they still
possess. Pop. of the residency of Celebes in 1869, 341,000;
and of the residency of Menado, 508,000.
CELERY-CELL.
831
Celſery, a plant of the order Umbelliferae. The com-
mon celery (Apium graveolens) is found wild in most parts
of Europe, in wet saline soils. The wild plant, called small-
age, has a stem about two feet high, a slender root, a pene-
trating odor, and a bitterish acrid taste. By cultivation its
taste becomes agreeably sweetish and aromatic, and either
the leaf-stalks increase in thickness or the root-stalk as-
sumes a form resembling that of the turnip. The latter
variety is called celeriac. The stalks of the former va-
riety, blanched, are used as a salad or to impart flavor to
soups, etc. They contain sugar, mucilage, starch, and a sub-
stance resembling manna-sugar, which sometimes acts as a
stimulant on the urino-genital organs. The blanching of
the stalks is accomplished by drawing up earth to the
plants, which are transplanted from the seed-bed into
richly-manured trenches, and as they grow the trenches
are filled, and the earth finally raised into ridges. Another
species (Apium australe) grows abundantly in wet places
about Cape Horn and in Staten Land. It is a large and
luxuriant plant, and is described as wholesome, and nearly
equal in its wild state to garden celery.
Céleste (MADAME), a danseuse, born in Paris Aug. 6,
1814, became in childhood a pupil at the Royal Academy
of Music. When fifteen years old she came to the U. S.,
and soon after married a Mr. Elliot. After her husband’s
death she went to England, where she met with great pro-
fessional success. She subsequently passed several years
in the U. S. (1834–37 and 1865–68), where she was received
with the greatest enthusiasm. The greater part of her life
has been passed in England, where she was successful as
an actress and a theatrical manager.
Cel’estine [from the Lat. coelum, the “sky,” in allusion
to its color], a mineral which is essentially sulphate of stron-
tia, with occasional mixture of sulphate of baryta and car-
bonate of lime in small proportions. Its color is often a
beautiful indigo-blue. It resembles heavy spar, but is not
quite equal to it in specific gravity. Fine specimens of crys-
tallized celestine are found in Sicily. It is useful as a source
of strontia. The finest crystals of celestine are found on
Strontian Island, Lake Erie.
Cel’estine (or Coelesti'nus) I., SAINT, a native of
Rome, became pope in 422 A. D. He promoted the meet-
ing of a council which deposed Nestorius. He died in 432,
and was succeeded by Sixtus III.-CELESTINE II., Pope,
originally GUIDO DI CASTELLO, was born in Tuscany. He
succeeded Innocent II. in 1143, and died in 1144.—CELES-
TINE III. (GIACINTO ORSIN1) was elected pope in 1191 as
the successor of Clement III. He promoted the first Cru-
sade, and excommunicated Leopold, duke of Austria, for
detaining Richard Coeur de Lion in prison. He died in
1198, aged about ninety-two years.-CELESTINE IV. (GoF-
FREDO CASTIGLIONE) succeeded Pope Gregory IX. in Sept.,
1241, but he died in October of the same year.—CELESTINE
W., SAINT (PIETRO DA MURRONE or MoRONE), Pop E, was
born at Apulia in 1215. He was elected in 1294 as the
successor of Nicholas IV. Before that event he had founded
an order of hermits called CELESTINEs (which see). He
abdicated the office before the end of 1294, and was suc-
ceeded by Boniface VIII. Died in 1296.
Cel’estimes, an order of hermits or monks founded in
1264 by Pietro da Murrone, who became Pope Celestine V.
This order spread rapidly in France, Italy, and Germany
between 1264 and 1400, but it is now nearly extinct. These
monks followed the rule of Saint Benedict, and preferred a
contemplative life.
Cel’ibacy [from the Lat. caelebs, an “unmarried man”],
the condition of a person never married; applied often to
the voluntary life of abstinence from marriage assumed by
religious devotees and the clergy of Some churches, such as
the Roman Catholic. Practised in ancient Rome in the
case of the vestal virgins, in Judaea by the Essenes, and in
the East by the priests of Booddhism, it is probable that
it took its origin in the belief that the material body is the
source of evil and the prison of the soul; while the passages
of Saint Paul recommending the celibate condition as desir-
able during the stormy years which preceded the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem were used among early Christians as au-
thority for advocating religious celibacy. Accordingly,
virginity was held in peculiar honor in the early Church.
But it is certain from the inscriptions found in the cata-
combs, from passages in the canon law, and from the pos-
itive testimony of history that celibacy was not enforced,
even among the higher clergy. For centuries this matter
was a subject of discussion in the councils. The Council
of Tours (566) suspended from their functions for one year
all secular priests and deacons with wives; but in 692 the
Council of Constantinople allowed priests and deacons to
marry once only; and in parts of the Greek Church their
marriage is compulsory, though bishops and patriarchs are
celibates. In the West, decretals were from time to time
issued against the marriage of the clergy, leading to many
struggles within the Church. These struggles culminated
in the eleventh century, and the point was finally settled
by the vigor and determination of Gregory VII. in 1074,
positively forbidding the marriage of the clergy. The
Council of Trent (1593) finally set at rest the controversy
by imposing the same prohibition. There is, however, an
exception made in favor of priests and deacons of the East-
ern rites, who are allowed to retain their wives if married
before ordination.
Celiſma, a post-village, capital of Mercer co., O., is on
the N. W. bank of the Great Reservoir, near the source of
the Wabash River, 115 miles W. N. W. of Columbus. It
has seven manufactories, four churches, and two news-
papers. Pop. 859.
C. BIDLACK, ED. CELINA “Journ AL AND STANDARD.”
Celina, a post-village, capital of Jackson co., Tenn., on
the Cumberland River, at the mouth of the Obey.
Cell [Lat. cella], a term applied in anatomy primarily
to lacunae in tissues of any kind, such as the air-vesicles in
the lungs, the minute sacs in which fats are contained, and
the hollows in cancellated bone. But of late the term espe-
cially designates the simplest of the histological elements
of which animals and plants are built up, some of the low-
est plants and animals (Protococcus, Gregaring) consisting
of single cells and their contents, and many others consist-
ing of a mere aggregation of cells. The animal or veget-
able character of these low forms can only be determined
by careful observation of their functions (see ANIMAL),
but it is observed that animal structures have more gener-
ally an interstitial substance lying between the constituent
cells; while plants often have their cells packed together
with no intermediate substance, or with only air between.
This intermediate substance, when fluid, plastic, and nu-
tritive, is called a blastema; when solid, it is a matriac.
Cells are propagated (1) by division of the parent cell;
(2) by free formation within the parent cell, the contents
assuming the cell-form, and ultimately escaping from the
original cell—a process observed especially in the lower
plants; and (3) by free formation in a fluid plasma,
as observed chiefly in animal life.
The primary form of the cell is spherical or nearly so,
but by mutual pressure and by other conditions (some of
them unexplained by science) their shape is often modified,
especially in the solid tissues; cells which are stellate,
spindle-shaped, flat, conical, etc. being well known to
every observer. The cell consists usually of a membranous
“ cell-wall” enclosing “cell-contents,” which are fluid,
granular, or solid. The diameter of animal cells varies
(without noticing exceptional cases) between Toºwth and
grºwth of an inch. Vegetable cells are sometimes much
smailer and often much larger than animal cells (from ºth
to gºogth of an inch). The vegetable cell-wall is of cellu-
Iose, a non-nitrogenous substance; the animal cell is of Some
nitrogenized protein compound. The vegetable cell-wall
is lined by a peculiar layer called the primordial utricle.
The “cell-contents” usually contain a “nucleus,” which
is regarded by many theorists as the essential part of the
cell. Thus, Schultze says: “The cell is only the proto-
plasm surrounding a nucleus;” but on the other hand it
has been demonstrated that the nucleus is not always
present in the cell, and it is believed by some that it is not
an essential element. Sometimes there are several nuclei
in a cell. Each nucleus is a hollow spheroid, often con-
taining one or more round “nucleoli,” but the nucleolus is
by no means a constant element. Animal cells may con-
tain water, salts, pigments, various secretion or excretion
compounds, oils, fats, and granules of various kinds, etc.
Vegetable cells may contain salts, water, oils, resin, starch,
sugar; and all these substances (except excretive matters,
water, and the salts) are produced, it is believed, in great
part, through the agency of cells. It is known that a great
part of the functional activity of organized bodies is car-
ried on by means of cells, such as excretion, Secretion, ab-
sorption, etc. The ovum, the spermatozoon, the pollen
grain, is but a cell. Many animal cells are ciliated, or
provided with a vibratile tail or cilium, which assists by
its motion in some most important functions. Cells are
also in many cases so transformed and metamorphosed
that it is difficult to recognize them at all as cells; for ex-
ample, the muscle-fibres, the tubules of dentine in the teeth;
wood-fibre, flax and other vegetable fibre, hollow tubes and
vessels, etc., are held to be transformed cells; and in some
such cases the nucleus is yet visible. It is generally be-
lieved that the cell is the ultimate structural element of all
organized tissues, though this is denied by some recent
biologists. The red blood-corpuscle is at present not
generally regarded as a true cell, but the white corpuscle
is undoubtedly so. It is regarded as identical with the
tissue-cell, the pus-cell, the mucus-cell, and the colostrum
º
832
CELLE–CELLULOSE.
corpuscle; and the whole group have been named “leuco-
cytes.” (See KöLLIKER, “ Human Histology;” LEYDIG,
“Lehrbuch der Histologie;” WIRCHow, “Cellular Patho-
logy;” Tyson, “Cell Doctrine;” BURNETT, “The Cell;”
and the works of Von MoHL, BRücKE, UNGER, REMAK, and
IHAECKEL.) CHAs. W. GREENE.
Cel/le, or Zelle, a town of Germany, in Hanover,
is on a sandy plain on the river Aller at the head of navi-
gation, and on the Hanover and Brunswick Railway, 22
miles N. E. of Hanover. Here is a noted government
breeding stud. It has an old castle, a gymnasium, and a
library of 60,000 volumes; also manufactures of wax can-
dles, printess’ ink, thread and yarn, pianofortes, tobacco,
matches, etc. Pop. in 1871, 16,147.
Celli'ni (BENVENUTO), a celebrated Italian artist, born
at Florence in 1500. He was a skilful engraver, gold-
worker, and sculptor. He was in Rome in 1527 when it
was attacked by the army of Constable Bourbon, and ac-
cording to his own statement he killed that commander on
that occasion. He was a man of passionate and quarrel-
some temper, and much inclined to egotism. Among his
patrons were Pope Clement VII., Francis I. of France, and
Cosimo de' Medici. He worked in Rome, Paris, and Flor-
ence, produced, besides other works, a bronzé of “Perseus
with the head of Medusa.” His interesting autobiography
is translated into German by Goethe and into English by
Roscoe (1822). The first complete edition was issued by
Tassi, Florence, in 1829. Died Feb. 25, 1571.
Cel/Iular Tis'sue, more properly Are’olar Tis'sue,
in animals, is the soft, elastic, filamentous substance which
underlies the skin and the serous and mucous membranes,
and which fills the spaces between muscles and between
their fibres, and indeed surrounds almost all important
organs, such as nerves, glands, blood-vessels, etc., through-
out the body. It normally contains a small quantity of
serous fluid, which in certain diseased conditions becomes
increased, constituting anasarca, a form of dropsy.—Cellu-
lar tissue in botany is simply non-vascular substance com-
posed entirely of untransformed cells. It forms the soft
substance of plants, and is called parenchyma. -
Celſiulose (C18H30015) is the term applied to the sub-
stance which forms the mass of the cell-membranes of
plants. Cellulose forms the framework or skeleton of all
plants; next to water it is the most abundant substance in
the vegetable kingdom. During the early stages of the
development of the plant the cell-walls consist entirely of
cellulose, but as the plant grows the walls become incrusted
with resins, coloring-matters, etc. Some tissues consist
almost entirely of cellulose, as the pith of the Chinese rice-
paper plant (the Æschymomene paludosa, or perhaps the
Aralia papyrifera) and the vegetable ivory. Cotton, linem,
hemp, and unsized paper consist of almost pure cellulose.
The following percentages of cellulose are found in some
of the most common vegetable matters in the air-dry state:
Per cent. - Per cent.
Potato tubers............... 1.1 |Red Clover hay................34.
Wheat kernels.............. 3.0 Timothy hay...................23.
Maize kernels............... 5.5 |Oat Straw........................ 40.
Oat kernels.................. 10.3 |Wheat Straw.................... 48.
Buckwheat kernels....... 15.0 ||Bye Stray........................ 54.
Cellulose is said to exist in the animal kingdom in the
mantle of Mollusca (Tunicata) and the integuments of in-
sects and Crustacea. It is more probable, however, that
these tissues consist of the nitrogenized body CHITIN
(which see). Virchow (Compt. Rend., xxxvi., 492, 860)
found cellulose in degenerated human spleen and in the
brain. De Luca (Compt. Rend., lii., 102, lvii., 43) found
cellulose in the skin of the silkworm and of the serpent.
Preparation.—Owing to the insolubility of cellulose in
water, alcohol, ether, dilute alkalies, and dilute acids, it is
generally prepared by subjecting vegetable tissues to the
successive action of these agents, by which all foreign sub-
stances—sugar, starch, gum, resins, oils, fats, etc.—are
removed. It may then be bleached by the action of
chlorine water. Thus prepared, it retains more or less
perfectly the structure from which it was obtained. Skele-
ton leaves, which are made up into the beautiful “phan-
tom bouquets,” consist of nearly pure cellulose. They are
prepared either (1) by boiling the leaves in a dilute solu-
tion of caustic soda till the epidermis and parenchyma.
separate readily, removing them to a vessel of cold water,
and carefully rubbing them with the fingers, and then
bleaching by immersion in a solution of hypochlorite of
lime, to which a little acid has been added; or (2) by add-
ing to a pint of nitric acid, of a specific gravity of 1.1, an
ounce of chlorate of potassa in fine powder, and suspending
the leaves in the mixture for ten to twenty days. They
are then thoroughly washed, and dried between sheets of
blotting-paper. In the conversion of rags, straw, wood,
etc. into paper the cellulose is rendered nearly pure by
bly soluble in water.
animal parchment.
treatment with caustic soda, hypochlorite of lime, and sul-
phuric acid. Swedish filter-paper is almost chemically
pure cellulose. Common paper receives an addition of a
considerable proportion of kaolin (china clay), and is
sized on the surface. (See PAPER.) In bleaching the textile
fibres cotton, flax, and hemp the process has for its object
the purification of the fibrous cellulose by the removal of
resinous and coloring matters. (See BLEACHING.)
Composition.—Cellulose usually contains about 10 per
cent. of moisture, which may be removed by drying. It
then contains, in 100 parts, carbon 44.44, hydrogen 6.17,
oxygen 49.39. Its composition is represented by the
formula C18H30015. This is also the composition of starch,
a body possessing totally different properties. Sugar and
gum are nearly allied to cellulose in composition. All
these bodies are called carbohydrates, because they consist
of carbon in combination with hydrogen and oxygen in
the proportions in which they exist in water, H20.
Properties.—When pure, cellulose is fibrous or spongy,
white, and translucent, and often silky. Under the micro-
scope the fibrous varieties appear like spun glass. It is
tough and elastic. Its specific gravity is 1.5. When pure
it is unalterable in the air, but when associated with albu-
minous and other, easily alterable bodies, it gradually de-
composes (decays) in moist air, undergoing a slow com-
bustion, and changing to a yellow or brown friable substance
called touchwood, and finally to humus. (See DECAY,
PUTREFACTION, PRESERVATION OF TIMBER.) Cellulose is
insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, and oils—both volatile
and fixed. It is not sensibly affected by boiling in water,
unless it has been derived from a very soft or imperfectly
developed portion of a plant, when it becomes pulpy; and
in the case of cellulose from Iceland moss, which is easily
disintegrated and finally converted into soluble dextrine.
Mulder observed that on boiling Swedish filter-paper with
water under pressure at 400°F. a little glucose was pro-
duced.
Solution of Cellulose.—An ammoniacal solution of oxide
of copper was discovered by Schweitzer to dissolve cellu-
lose without changing its character. The solvent is pre-
pared by dissolving hydrated oxide of copper in ammonia,
or partially immersing copper turnings in ammonia. The
cellulose is precipitated from the solution in amorphous
flakes by boiling, diluting, or the addition of acids in
excess. By dipping paper or cotton or linen fabrics in the
copper ammonia solution, and then passing them between
rolls, they are rendered waterproof. Several layers of such
sheets or cloths pressed together form an artificial wood of
great strength. A plastic mass can be prepared of this
material suitable for the manufacture of water-pipes, gas-
pipes, hats, clothing, boats, etc. -
Action of Acids, etc.—Cold dilute acids and alkalies have
little action on cellulose. Long boiling with dilute hydro-
chloric or sulphuric acid converts cellulose into glucose.
In concentrated hydrochloric and sulphuric acids it dis-
solves, exhibiting different products according to the tem-
perature and the duration of the treatment: (1) disaggre-
gated, dissolved cellulose, precipitated by dilution; (2) an
amyloid body; (3) dextrine, which differs from starch dex-
trine in having little action on polarized light. Strong
boiling hydrochloric acid converts it into a fine powder,
without change of composition. Boiled for a short time
with dilute sulphuric acid, it is converted into a pulpy mass,
still exhibiting the composition of cellulose, and not sensi-
By dipping unsized paper for a few
seconds into a mixture of 2 volumes of sulphuric acid and
1 volume of water, and then thoroughly washing with
water and dilute ammonia, it is converted into “parchment-
paper,” a substance of the appearance and properties of
Neumann proposes to make cotton
and limen fabrics stronger, more compact, and waterproof
by subjecting them to the above treatment and pressing
between rolls. Parchment-paper is an excellent material
for the septa used in dialysis. (See ENDOSMOSIs.) If cel-
lulose is ground with concentrated sulphuric acid, with-
out allowing the mixture to become heated, it forms a
pasty mass, which when largely diluted deposits an amor-
phous body which is blued by iodine, and is hence called
amyloid. Longer digestion with Sulphuric acid converts
cellulose into dextrine, and, on diluting with water and
boiling, into glucose. Strong nitric acid, or a mixture of
nitric and sulphuric acids, or of nitre and sulphuric acid,
converts cellulose into nitro-substitution products, such as
GUN CoTTON (which see). Moist chlorine gas and warm solu-
tions of hypochlorites rapidly cause the oxidation of cel-
lulose. For this reason care must be observed in bleaching
paper-stock and fabrics by chlorine. (See BLEACHING and
ANTICHLORE.) -
Cellulose in its more compact forms is not rendered blue
by iodine until it has been disintegrated by sulphuric acid
or caustic alkalies. Some lichens and algae—Iceland moss,
CELSIUS—CEMBRA PINE.
for example—give the blue color after being boiled with
water. Caustic alkalies disintegrate cellulose very slowly,
except when heated under pressure to about 400°F., when
hydrogen is evolved, and methylic alcohol (wood-naphtha),
formate, acetate, propionate, and carbonate of potassa are
formed. No carbon is set free. By heating cellulose with
a mixture of potassic and sodic hydrates, at a temperature of
400° to 500°F., for several hours, it is converted into OXALIC
AcID (which see). Cellulose is immediately blackened by
fluoride of boron, being carbonized. Heated in close ves-
sels, cellulose, in all its forms, undergoes destructive distil-
lation, yielding charcoal, which remains behind, and com-
bustible gases, tar, and a mixture of water, acetic acid, and
methylic alcohol, all of which distil over. (See ACETIC
ACID, CHARCOAL, and TAR.)
Digestibility of Cellulose.—Although wood and straw are
not easily digestible by most animals, the cellulose of young
and succulent stems, leaves, and fruits is digested to a large
extent; and therefore cellulose, which forms a large pro-
portion of the food of herbivorous animals, contributes
directly to their nutrition. Fungin from fungi, and medul-
lin from the pith of various trees, are mere modifications
of cellulose. Hordein from barley is a mixture of cellulose
with starch and a nitrogenized body.
- C. F. CHANDLER.
Cel/sius (ANDERs), a Swedish mathematician, born
Nov. 27, 1701, was the nephew of Olof Celsius, professor
of theology at Upsala and author of “Hierobotanicon.”
His father was professor of mathematics at Upsala, and at
the same university Anders became professor of astronomy
in 1730—a position which he left in 1732 in order to pursue
the study of astronomy where he could have the advantages
of an observatory and instruments. He remained some
time at Nuremberg with Doppelmayer, in which city he
published “Observationes luminis borealis.” He then
visited Rome, determining with greater exactitude the
meridian drawn by Bianchini and Maraldi. Here he made
observations upon the intensity of light, and established
the true size of the ancient Roman lineal measures. In
1734 he went to Paris, and with Maupertuis went to Lap-
land to determine the measure of a degree of latitude. He
afterwards returned to Upsala, wrote “De observationibus
pro figura telluris determinanda in Gallia” (1738), and
worked out a theory regarding Jupiter’s satellites. At his
instance the observatory at Upsala was constructed. The
centigrade division of the thermometer, called sometimes
the Celsius scale, which divides the difference of temper-
ature between freezing and boiling water into one hundred
equal parts, was first proposed by Celsius. Died April 25,
1744.
Cel'sus, a celebrated writer who lived about 150–170
A. D., and is supposed by some to have been an Epicurean
philosopher, mentioned by Lucian as his friend. He may,
however, not improbably have been another person of the
same name. He was the reputed author of a work against
Christianity and Judaism entitled Aóyos &Amóñs, a “True
Discourse,” which is not extant, but some fragments of it
have been preserved by Origen, who to confute it wrote a
book, “Contra, Celsum.” These fragments indicate inge-
nuity and a talent for sophistry. But his objections are
not generally regarded by Christian students as very for-
midable, though he has brought forward some acknow-
ledged difficulties. The effect of his argument is marred
by his sophistries, and especially by his calumnious spirit.
Celsus (AURELIUS CoRNELIUs), an eminent Latin med-
ical writer who is supposed to have lived at Rome in the
reign of Augustus. The events of his life are mostly un-
known, except that he wrote works on various subjects, in-
cluding philosophy and rhetoric. These are all lost except
his excellent work on medicine, “De Medicina,” in eight
books, the style of which is remarkably elegant and pure.
IIe adopted most of the medical doctrines of Hippocrates.
(See F. WALoRr, “Dissertatio de A. C. Celso,” 1835.)
Celt [Welsh, cellt, a “flint”], the name given by archae-
ologists of Europe to certain instruments of stone or bronze
which were used by pre-historic peoples. Similar stone
tools are found in the U. S., but are not often called “ celts.”
They are generally of a kind of chisel shape, but vary
greatly in this respect, some being extremely rude and
simple; others, especially the bronze ones, are sometimes
ornamented with some taste with cut lines. In length they
vary from two inches to two feet. They often had handles,
and seem to have served for axes and domestic utensils, as
well as for weapons of war and the chase.
Celtibe'ri, or Celtibe'rians, an ancient and power-
ful people who inhabited the northern or north-eastern part
of Spain. They were supposed to have been a mixture of
indigenous Iberians with Celtic people who came from Gaul.
Their country was called Celtiberia (Gr. Kearignpía). They
Were a war; nation, and were subdued by Hannibal with
833
great difficulty. In the second Punic war they fought for
the Carthaginians. They made a brave and long resistance
to the Romans, who conquered them about 143–133 B.C.,
and they renewed the war under Sertorius. Among their
chief towns were Segobriga, and Numantia. Celtiberia.
proper comprised the south-western part of Aragon, Cuenca,
Soria, and the greater part of Burgos, but the name was
sometimes applied by the Romans to a more extensive re-
glon.
Celts, or Keits [Lat. Celtie; Gr. KéArauj, one of the
great divisions of the Indo-European family of mankind,
itself divided into at least two groups—the Western, Erse,
or Gaelic Celts (now marked by the use of the Irish, Gaelic,
and Manx languages), and the Cymric or Kymric Celts, to
whom belong the Welsh and Armorican (extant) and the
Cornish (extinct) languages. But the Celtic blood is much
more widely diffused than those relics of their language
would seem to indicate. Certain critics hold that the Cim-
bri and Cimmerii were Cymric Celts. Almost all France
(Gallia) was inhabited by Celts. The Belgae are thought
to have been partially Cymric, as the ancient Britons un-
doubtedly were. The name Celtiberi indicates that in
Spain the Celtic was probably long ago mixed with the
Basque or Iberian blood. Northern Italy was long so
entirely Celtic as to be called Cisalpine Gaul. The Celts
under Brennus invaded Greece. In Asia Minor they set-
tled and gave name to Galatia. In Germany the Boii gave
name to Bohemia and Bavaria. In Great Britain the
Cymri long had sway in Cornwall, Cumberland, and Strath-
clyde. It is probable that the present Cymric element of
North-western France, though generally traced to a sup-
posed Welsh immigration, is largely of direct Gaulish de-
scent. Many of the Latin and Germanic races have a
strong infusion of Celtic blood. The relationship between
the two branches of the Celtic race seems never to have
been intimate, and is not very clearly determined. The
two groups of languages are distinct, having some com-
mon roots, with but little else in common. The languages
of each group are, however, possessed of strong family
likeness to the others of their own group. -
The ancient Celtic religion was a rude polytheism, the
mythology and doctrines of which are now for the most
part unknown. The priestly caste of Druids were law-
givers, poets, and prophets as well. Human sacrifices
were common. The common people were grossly super-
stitious and ignorant. Weakened by the workings of their
rude social system of clans and septs, oppressed by the ex-
actions of their priesthood, and harassed by the constant in-
roads of Rome and the Germanic tribes, the Celts, after the
dawn of history, are almost constantly seen to be the losing
race. But they yielded nothing except to force, and among
all the races of mankind none were ever more distin-
guished for valor. Among their other characteristics may
be mentioned profound religious feeling and acute sensi-
bilities.
The Celtic literature is of very ancient origin, all the
old Celts having a literary class called “bards,” sometimes
of noble and sometimes of Sacerdotal rank. The ancient
Irish wrote in a rude alphabet called the Ogham. The
people of Gaul have left comparatively few inscriptions,
and these are often much Latinized. Some have appar-
ently Gaelic roots, but Cymric roots appear in the names
of places. The chief existing Celtic literature consists of
the hymns, martyrologies, annals, and laws of Ireland (see
GAELIC LANGUAGE and IRELAND); the Welsh poems and
laws, and many historical and theological works, mostly of
a somewhat later date than the Irish; with the Mabino-
gion, a collection of tales. There are also a few extant Cor-
nish religious dramas. The Manx literature is not exten-
sive, and is quite recent. The number of people speaking
the Irish, Manx, and Gaelic languages is rapidly diminish-
ing, while the number of persons of Celtic blood seems to
be increasing. The English language is fast displacing
the others in Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man. In
Wales, however, the use of the Cymric language is prob-
ably much more extensive now than for many centuries past.
Intense national feeling and systematic, persistent, and
widely sustained effort have caused the old language to
maintain its ground and make head against the English.
Cem/bra Pine, called also Swiss Stone Pine, the
Pinw8 Cembra, a noble and stately forest tree of Asia and
Europe, cultivated to some extent in parks and arboretums
in the U. S. It is prized for its seeds, which, though hard
to extract from the cone, are very agreeable, and are used
for dessert, and with those of Pinus Pinea (the stone pine
of Southern Europe and Barbary) are sold under the name
of pine-nuts. The Cembra pine yields also a thin fragrant
turpentine, called Riga balsam, Carpathian balsam, or
balsam of Lebanon. It is caught in bottles as it flows
from the wounded twigs, and is used in medicine. -
834
CEMENTS.
Cem/ents [from the Lat. caementum, literally, a “cut-
ting” or “chip;” a name applied both to building-stone
and to the fragments of marble used in making mortar],
a term applied to fluid, semi-fluid, or plastic substances
which are capable of uniting solid bodies together when
interposed between the surfaces, and afterwards solidifying.
There are many kinds of cements, either animal, vegetable,
or mineral substances, used separately or in combination
with each other.
Glue is an animal cement in common use. It is a hard,
brittle, brownish gelatine, obtained by boiling to a soft
jelly the skins, hoofs, etc. of animals. When heated gently
with water it becomes viscid, and is employed for uniting
solid bodies, mostly wood. In drying it becomes very tough
and hard, but is easily softened again by water. Marine
glue is formed by dissolving 1 pound of india-rubber in 5
gallons of coal-naphtha, and adding to this solution an equal
weight of shellac. The mixture is then placed over a gen-
tle fire, and thoroughly incorporated by stirring. This glue
is insoluble in water, and is very tenacious and adhesive.
A cement for iron pipe, etc. is made as follows: mix to-
gether in a mortar 2 ounces of muriate of ammonia in pow-
der, 1 ounce of flowers of sulphur, and 16 ounces of cast-
iron filings, and keep the mixture dry for use.
cement is to be used, take 1 part of this mixture, 20 parts
of clear iron borings or filings, pound them together in a
mortar, mix them with water to a proper consistency, and
apply the compound between the joints. A good cement
for resisting moisture is made by mixing 8 parts of melted
glue, of the consistency used by joiners, with 4 parts of
linseed oil, boiled into varnish with litharge. This cement
hardens in forty-five to fifty hours, and renders the joints
of wooden cisterns and casks air and water tight. A good
cement for coating the outside of buildings consists of lin-
seed oil, rendered dry by boiling with litharge, and mixed
with porcelain clay or well-dried pipeclay in fine powder,
to give the consistency of stiff mortar. Oil of turpentine
added in small quantity to thin the cement aids its cohesion
to stone, brick, or wood. A cement designed to improve
the composition of artificial stone, stucco, etc. is made by
dissolving 1 pound of gum shellac in 3 to 4 ounces of con-
centrated alkali in aqueous solution. This mixture is then
diluted with water, and used for mixing up the materials—
hydraulic cement, lime, and sand—of which the artificial
stone or stucco is made. The water required to mix one
cubic foot of the materials should contain 1 to 2 ounces of
gum shellac. Shellac dissolved in a concentrated solution
of borax gives a good cement for uniting broken stone.
Singer’s cement for joints between brass and glass is made
by melting together 5 pounds of rosin, 1 pound of beeswax,
1 pound of red ochre, and 2 table-spoonfuls of gypsum.
Ure recommends for cementing voltaic plates into wooden
troughs, and for similar uses, a cement made of 6 pounds of
rosin, 1 pound of red ochre, half a pound of gypsum, and
a quarter of a pound of linseed oil; the ochre and gypsum
to be calcined beforehand, and added to the other ingre-
dients while in fusion. French plumbers employ for the
joints of glazed pottery pipes, used for distributing water,
a cold cement made of quicklime, cheese, milk, and the
white of eggs, or a hot cement made by melting rosin, bees-
wax, and lime together. There are a great variety of cements
composed of vegetable, mineral, and animal substances
mixed, which it is not deemed necessary to mention.
There is a class of cements of which plaster of Paris or
gypsum is the basis, the hardening of which is due to the
union of the plaster with water, and, not to the formation of
silicates, as in the hydraulic cements hereinafter described.
Plaster of Paris, however, never attains sufficient hardness
and tenacity to be used with water alone. It may be ad-
vantageously combined with alum. Keene's cement is
made by mixing powdered gypsum with an aqueous solu-
tion of alum, then heating the mixture until the water of
combination is driven off. It is then finely ground in a
suitable mill, and slaked with a solution of 1 part of alum
to 12 or 13 parts of water, by weight. Martin’s cement
differs from Keene's in adding to the original mixture a
portion of carbonate of soda or of potassa. It is burnt
with a higher degree of heat. In Parian cement borax is
used instead of the carbonate of soda or of potassa.
Cement—Common Lime, Hydraulic Lime, and Hydraulic
Cement.—Considered as materials for use in the builder's
art, the products derived from the calcination of pure and
impure limestones are classified into common or fat lime,
hydraulic lime, and hydraulic cement. Common lime is
sometimes called air lime, because a paste or mortar made
from it requires exposure to the air to enable it to “set”
or harden. The hydraulic limes and cements are also called
water limes and water cements, from their property of hard-
ening under water.
Common Lime.—The limestones which furnish the com-
mon lime of commerce are seldom if ever pure, but usually
alkalies.
When the
contain, besides the carbonate of lime, from 3 per cent. to
10 per cent. of impurities, such as silica, alumina, magne-
sia, oxide of iron, oxide of manganese, and traces of the
Lime, common lime, quicklime, or caustic lime
(synonymous terms) is a protoxide of calcium, and is pro-
duced when marble or any other variety of pure or nearly
pure carbonate of lime is calcined with a heat of sufficient
intensity and duration to expel the carbonic acid. It has
a specific gravity of 2.3, is amorphous, highly caustic, has
a great avidity for water, and when brought into contact
with it will rapidly absorb nearly a quarter of its weight
of that substance, accompanied and followed by a great
elevation of temperature, the evolution of hot and slightly
caustic vapor, the bursting of the lime into pieces, and
finally its reduction to a powder, of which the volume is
from two and a half to three and a half times that of the
original lime. In this condition the lime is said to be
slaked, and is ready for use in making mortar. The purer
the limestone the larger is its growth or increase of volume
in slaking. The paste of common lime is unctuous and
impalpable to the sight and touch; hence these limes are
sometimes called fat or rich limes, as distinguished from
others known as poor or meagre limes. These latter usually
contain more or less silica in the form of sand, and a greater
proportion of other impurities than the fat limes, and in
slaking exhibit a more moderate elevation of temperature,
evolve less hot vapor, are seldom reduced to an impalpable,
homogeneous powder, yield thin paste, and are character-
ized by less growth of volume. They are less valuable for
mortar than the fat limes, but have an extensive applica-
tion as a fertilizer. When used for building purposes they
should, if practicable, be reduced to powder by grinding,
in order to remove all danger of subsequent slaking.
Water dissolves, according to Sir H. Davy, about rºw
of its weight of lime, or, according to Thomson, yºg, while
Dalton states it to be, at 60°. F., ºs, and at 212°, +ºrg.
The solutions commonly called lime-water are valuable re-
agents and antacids. Lime being more soluble in cold
than in hot water, its solution becomes turbid when boiled.
A similar result is produced by breathing into a solution
through a tube, owing to the carbonate of lime formed by
respiration; which, however, is dissolved by an excess of
carbonic acid gas. A paste of the slaked lime is therefore
a mixture of the hydrate of lime and lime-water.
Lime may be distinguished by its dilute solution giving
a white precipitate of oxalate of lime when a solution of
oxalic acid is added to it, which is not redissolved by an
excess of oxalic acid, and by not yielding a precipitate with
sulphuric acid and sulphate of soda. w
The purest minerals of the calcareous class are the
rhombohedral prisms of calcareous spar, the transparent
double refracting Iceland spar, and white or statuary mar-
ble. They are entirely dissolved in dilute hydrochloric
acid, with a brisk effervescence, due to the escape of
carbonic acid, and contain, according to an analysis of a
specimen of white marble by Gen. Treussart, about 33 per
cent. of carbonic acid, 64 per cent. of lime, and 3 per cent.
of water.
Common lime, when mixed into a paste with water, or
when slaked with sufficient water to produce a paste, may
be kept for an indefinite time in that condition without
deterioration, if protected from contact with the air so
that it will not dry up. It is customary to keep the lime-
paste, in casks, or in wide, shallow boxes in which it was
slaked, or heaped up on the ground, covered over with the
sand to be subsequently incorporated with it in making
mortar. It is convenient, for some purposes, to keep the
slaked lime on hand in a state of powder, which may be
done in casks under cover, or in bulk, in a room set apart
for that purpose. Most common limes contain impurities
which prevent a thorough, uniform, and prompt slaking
of the entire mass, and hence the necessity of slaking some
days before the lime is to be used, to avoid all danger to
the masonry by subsequent enlargement of volume and
change of condition.
A paste or mortar of common lime will not harden under
water, or in continuously damp places excluded from con-
tact with the air. It will slowly harden in the air, from
the surface towards the interior, by desiccation and the
gradual absorption of carbonic acid gas, by which a sub-
carbonate with an excess of hydrated base is formed, or
CaO.CO2 + CaO.H.O.
The pastes of fat lime shrink, in hardening, to such a
degree that they cannot be employed as mortar without a
large dose of sand, and are unsuitable for masonry con-
structions under water, or in soils, that are constantly wet.
In other situations they have a very extensive application,
possessing, as they do, a great advantage in economy over
the hydraulic limes and cements, on account of the large
augmentation of their volume in slaking, their extensive
distribution over the surface of the globe, and the simplicity
CEMENTS.
attending their manufacture. For masonry constructions
of importance, and particularly upon our public works, a
mortar or a concrete containing common lime only as the
cementing medium is seldom used at the present day.
Hydraulic lime or hydraulic cement is usually added, to a
greater or less extent, in order to hasten the induration
and secure greater ultimate strength and hardness.
The Hydraulic Property.—A lime is said to possess
hydraulic properties when, after being calcined, reduced to
powder, and made into a paste with water, it will harden
or set under water, or in damp places excluded from con-
tact with the atmospheric air. If the calcined stone can
be slaked to powder in the presence of water, it is cus-
tomary to call it hydraulic lime. The cements possess the
hydraulic property to a greater degree than the hydraulic
limes, and are reduced to powder by grinding. In both
initial and ultimate strength sand hardness, the hydraulic
mixtures are greatly superior to those of common lime,
even when the latter are employed under the most advan-
tageous circumstances, but their maximum strength is not
reached undér a period of several years. The best cements,
when mixed to a paste without sand, attain during the first
month, or month and a half, fully one-half their greatest
ultimate strength and hardness. After the first two years,
the increase in strength and hardness proceeds very slowly,
and at the end of three years the monthly increment
requires the use of delicate instruments for its measure-
ment. This principle, of slow and gradually diminishing
induration, is characteristic of all hydraulic mortars,
whether derived from the cements or the hydraulic limes,
either natural or artificial. The most active hydraulic
limes or cements, or those which set the most quickly, are
not necessarily those which attain the greatest ultimate
strength and hardness. The latter are characterized as
possessing the greatest hydraulic energy.
The argillaceous hydraulic limes of commerce are gener-
ally derived from limestones containing from 10 to 20 per
cent. of clay, homogeneously mixed with carbonate of lime
as the principal ingredient. Traces of the alkalies, and a
small percentage of the oxides of iron and carbonate of
magnesia, are also present in most cases. The clay in-
gredient usually contains from 1% to 2 of silica to 1 of
alumina. During the burning, which is conducted at a
heat just sufficient to expel the carbonic acid, all the silica
and alumina is neutralized by entering into combination
with a portion of the lime, forming both the silicate of
lime and the aluminate of lime, leaving in the burnt prod-
uct an excess of quick or caustic lime, which induces
slaking, and becomes hydrate of lime when brought into
contact with water. As this lime is burnt at a low heat, the
double silicate of lime and alumina, which is formed only
at a high heat, is not produced. The silicate of lime is first
formed, and the alumina, reacting upon the quicklime as
an acid, produces aluminate of lime. When slaked by
sprinkling, the quicklime alone is hydrated.
Argillaceous hydraulic lime is therefore composed of—
• s - - - - Silica.... 23
Anhydrous silicate of lime......SiO3.3Ca(), or {i. º e - e > 43
º e Alumina I
Anhydrous aluminate of lime...Al2O3.3Ca(), or { * ;
* Lime..... 34
And hydrate of lime................ CaO.H.0, or Water... 11
When argillaceous hydraulic lime is mixed into a paste with
water or made into mortar, the anhydrous silicate and alu-
minate of lime form hydro-silicates and hydro-aluminates
of lime by combining with six equivalents of water, and
subsequently undergo a species of crystallization techni-
cally called setting. This setting will ensue under water,
and constitutes the hydraulic property.
If, in the general case, more than 20 per cent. of clay be
present in a homogeneous limestone, a larger proportion of
the lime will combine with silica or alumina during the
burning, leaving insufficient quicklime present to induce
slaking; and such stone may be expected to furnish a hy-
draulic cement. Some heterogeneous limestones, however,
containing as high as 30 to 35 per cent. of clay, will slake
more or less thoroughly after burning, for the reason that
the ingredients are not in sufficiently close contact to com-
bine in the kiln in the formation of the hydraulic elements.
In such cases the burnt product contains an excess of lime,
of silica, and of alumina, and, after slaking as much as
possible, there still remains a lumpy residue.
Limes containing 10 per cent. of clay are moderately hy-
drawlic. If made into a paste and immersed in water in
Small cakes, they will harden so as to resist crushing be-
tween the thumb and finger in from twelve to fifteen days.
The eminently hydraulic limes, derived from homogeneous
stones containing from 18 to 20 per cent. of clay, will
harden under water in from twelve to twenty hours. If
the stone contains more clay than this, and still yields hy-
draulic lime by slaking, the excess of clay does not combine
835
with lime, and therefore confers no additional hydraulic
energy. On the contrary, it impairs the strength and
value of the lime for building purposes.
In consequence of their peculiar properties, the hydraulic
limes cannot be kept on hand in a state of paste, like com-
mon lime. They are preserved in casks or sacks in the
condition of powder, and in using them for mortar or con-
crete, especially those that are eminently hydraulic, it is
not well to mix more than one day’s supply in advance.
The lime and the sand may be mixed together dry, and
kept on hand a long time in that condition if protected
from the weather, but the water should not be added until
a few hours before the material is to be used, whether for
mortar or concrete.
The method usually pursued in manufacturing hydraulic
limes is as follows: The stone, after being quarried and
broken up into pieces not exceeding generally twelve or
fifteen pounds in weight, is burnt in any suitable kiln at a
heat just sufficient to expel the carbonic acid, and then,
after being drawn from the kiln and while still warm, is
sprinkled with from 15 to 20 per cent. of its own weight of
water. The slaking soon begins, and the stone falls to
pieces, some of it in fine powder, and the rest in unslaked
Iumps of various sizes. The mass is then thrown together
in large heaps, where it remains undisturbed for six or
eight days, in order that the slaking may be completed by
the steam evolved. It is then screened through fine wire-
cloth to get rid of the unslaked lumps, packed in sacks or
barrels, and sent to market. -
With some varieties of argillaceous limestones, the lumpy,
unslaked residue, which does not pass through the screen, is
natural hydraulic cement, in which case it is reduced to
powder by grinding, and is either incorporated with the
lime in order to improve its quality, or is marketed sep-
arately as hydraulic cement. The lumpy portion either
contains too much clay, or has been burnt at too high or
too low a heat, to be susceptible of thorough slaking by
exposure to the air or sprinkling with water; and its quan-
tity will be great in proportion to the amount of clay in
the stone, or the extent to which the heat in burning has
been improperly regulated. In some localities the residue
is thrown away as dangerous or worthless, while in others
it is customary to grind it up separately and mix it with
the powder obtained by slaking.
When the burning has taken place at a heat suitable for
common lime, the residue owes its origin to the presence of
too much clay, and may be, for all useful purposes, inert,
or it may be a light, quick-setting cement like the Roman.
If the former, it should be rejected ; if the latter, its incor-
poration with the lime-powder will augment its hydraulic
activity and energy. When the residue is due to insuf-
ficient burning, it may cause damage by subsequent slaking
in the masonry, and should be rejected. When the burn-
ing has been conducted at a high heat, the residue may be
slow-setting Portland cement, or it may be clinker, par-
tially or wholly vitrified, and inert. For these reasons the
utilization of the unslaked lumps, arising, from whatever
cause, in manufacturing hydraulic limes, requires watchful
care, in order that the introduction of ingredients that are
either worthless or dangerous may be avoided.
It is not known that any deposits of argillaceous lime-
stones capable of furnishing good hydraulic lime exist in
the U. S. "It is manufactured in several localities in France,
notably at Seilley, about 70 miles from Paris. The Seilley
lime has recently been brought to the U. S. in Small quan-
tities for use in making artificial stone. When fresh it
weighs about fifty pounds to the struck U. S. bushel, loosely
measured. If made into a stiff paste, it will set in the air
in ten or twelve hours, and will resist crushing between the
thumb and finger in from twenty to twenty-four hours. It
is not active enough for laying masonry under water, but
will harden under water after the initial set has taken
place in the open air.
The silicious hydraulic limes are generally derived from
silicious limestones containing from 12 to 18 per cent. of
silica, less than 90 per cent. of carbonate of lime, with a
small proportion of alumina and oxide of iron. The pro-
cess followed in their manufacture is similar, in all essen-
tial respects, to that described for producing argillaceous
hydraulic lime. They owe their hydraulic property, when
mixed to a paste with water, to the crystallizing energy
of the anhydrous silicate of lime, formed during the cal-
cination: SiO3.3Ca(O = ſº ; The best type of sili-
3 + … •
cious hydraulic lime is derived from the quarries at Teil
on the river Rhone, department of Ardèche, France. It is
known as hydraulic lime of Teil. The raw stone contains
from 11 to 15 per cent. of silica, from 1 to 2 per cent. of
alumina, from 80 to 84 per cent. of carbonate of lime, and
a trace of oxide of iron. When newly made this lime
weighs about fifty-six pounds to the struck U. S. bushel,
836 - CEMENTS.
loosely measured, but if exposed to the air it absorbs
moisture so that its weight is considerably augmented.
In initial hydraulic energy, the Teil lime does not ma-
terially differ from the lime of Seilley, but in ultimate
strength and hardness it is believed to be superior to it.
Analyses of the Teil hydraulic lime after burning, by Pro-
fessor Rivot, gave the following composition :
Lime.................................... 29 ............ 73.
Silica.................................... 18.20) ............ 17.20
Alumina .............................. 1.80 X-21.70...... 1.70 -20.50
Quartz sand.......................... 1.70) ............ i.60
Oxide of iron........................ traces ............ traces.
Water and carbonic acid ...... * s , , , , , , , , , , , 5.00
99.60 99.10
The elements of hydraulic energy in this lime may be
stated to be 60 per cent. of the whole immediately after
calcination, as indicated below, neglecting a small quan-
tity of alumina and oxide of iron :
* * * - Silica............. 23 e
Silicate of lime... 66 { Combined lime. 43 } SiO3.3Ca().
Free lime .......... 34 34 CaO.
100 100
Artificial hydraulic lime can be manufactured by mixing
together, in suitable proportions, thoroughly slaked common
lime and unburnt clay, tempering the mixture with water,
and then burning it in the form of bricks or rounded balls
in an ordinary lime-kiln. The burnt material can be slaked
in the ordinary way. For the common lime, powdered
limestone, preferably chalk, may be substituted. It is bet-
ter, however, when it becomes necessary to resort to arti-
ficial mixtures to produce the hydraulic ingredient of
mortar, to make hydraulic cement at once, on account of
its superior hydraulic energy.
Heavy, Slow-setting, Argillaceous Cement (Portland Ce-
ment).--When a homogeneous, argillaceous limestone con-
tains so large a proportion of clay, usually exceeding 20
per cent., that it will not slake after calcination, it may be
expected to furnish some grade of hydraulic cement. The
stone from which the celebrated Portland cement is derived
contains from 20 to 22 per cent. of clay and 78 to 80° per
cent. of carbonate of lime. The clay itself is composed of
13 to 2 parts of silica to 1 of alumina. When calcined at
a high, long-continued heat, all or nearly all the silica and
alumina of the clay combines with a portion of the lime,
producing both silicate of lime, represented by the formula
SiO3.3Ca() (i. ... and double silicate of lime and alu-
5
mina, as expressed by the formula -
r Silica, 15,
SiO3(Al2O3 + CaO)3 {º. 51,
Lime, 28.
The burnt product does not contain any uncombined, and
therefore inert, silica and alumina to adulterate the cement
and impair its hydraulic properties; while the quantity of
uncombined lime is not sufficient to cause the mass to slake
to powder in the presence of water. After calcination the
cement is therefore reduced to powder by grinding between
ordinary mill-stones.
Good Portland cement, when made into paste and formed
into small cakes, will set under water in from two to four-
hours, so as to resist crushing between the thumb and
finger. When stone suitable for Portland cement is cal-
cined at a low heat, barely sufficient to expel the carbonic
acid, the silicate of lime (as above) and the aluminate of
lime (Al2O3.3Ca()) are formed, and a light, quick-setting
cement is usually the result, greatly inferior to Portland
cement in weight as well as in ultimate strength and hard-
Il eSS.
The superior quality of Portland cement appears to de-
pend in a great measure upon the presence of the double
silicate of lime and alumina, which is formed only at a
high heat. The weight of Portland cement, as well as its
hydraulic energy and its ultimate strength and hardness, is
increased by augmenting the intensity and duration of the
heat employed in burning, within the limit of vitrification.
The initial hydraulic activity, however, is diminished by
high burning, so that the best-Portland cements are slowest
in setting. A cement weighing 100 pounds to the struck
U. S. bushel may be burnt to weigh 125 pounds to the
bushel, and its strength will be nearly doubled thereby.
It is not known that any deposit of argillaceous lime-
stone suitable for making the best quality of Portland
cement exists in the U. S., and there is only one such in
Europe now worked. It is found at Seilley, in France,
intermixed with the layers from which the argillaceous
hydraulic lime is derived. Near Boulogne-sur-Mer, in
France, there is a deposit of calcareous clay, from which
very excellent Portland cement is manufactured. In its
manufacture the wet process, described below, is followed.
Artificial Portland Cement.—Fully nineteen-twentieths
of all the Portland cement used at the present day is arti-
ficial. It is made by thoroughly mixing together, in suit-
able proportions, clay and finely pulverized carbonate of
lime (either chalk, marl, or compact limestone), burning
the mixture in kilns at a high heat, and then grinding the
burnt product to fine powder between ordinary mill-stones.
There are two methods of manufacture, both well adapted
to the character of the materials employed, and known re-
spectively as the “wet process” and as the “dry process.”
Portland Cement by the Wet Process.-The works in the
vicinity of London, England, employ the wet process. The
carbonate of lime is, furnished by both the white and gray
chalks of the neighborhood. The clay procured from the
shores of the Medway and Thames, and from the adjoining
marshes and inlets, contains about 2 parts of silica to 1 of
all the other ingredients, comprising alumina, oxide of iron,
soda, carbonate of lime, etc. w
First. The clay and chalk are mixed together with a
large quantity of water, in a circular wash-mill or basin,
provided with heavy harrows attached to the horizontal
arms of a revolving vertical shaft. By this means the
chalk is thoroughly pulverized and incorporated with the
clay in a semi-fluid state. The proportions are about 1 of
clay to 3 of chalk, by weight. Second. When a thorough
mixture of the ingredients is thus effected, the liquid mass,
resembling whitewash in appearance, is conducted into
large reservoirs called backs, where it is left to settle.
When the heavier material, or raw cement, has settled to the
bottom, and the surplus water has become clear on top, the
latter is drained off. By subsequent evaporation the dry-
ing process is continued, until the raw cement has attained
the requisite stiffness. During the time the mixture re-
mains in the backs samples of it are taken from time to
time and made into cement by burning in sample kilns, in
order to test the accuracy of the proportions. If any
error in this respect is discovered, it is corrected by con-
veying from the wash-mills additional material containing
an excess of either clay or chalk, as the case may require.
Sometimes the needed correction is secured by mixing
together the contents of two or more backs. Third. When,
by evaporation, the raw cement mixture has attained the
consistency of butter, or rather of stiff clay, it is taken
out of the backs by shovelfuls, and in that form and con-
dition is removed to rooms artificially heated, or spread
out around the tops of the kilns, and further dried.
Fourth. After being dried, although it is not necessary to
expel all the moisture, the cement is burnt in suitable kilns
with nearly a white heat, just below the point of incipient
vitrification. The kilns may be intermittent or perpetual,
the latter being most economical in current expenses,
though somewhat more costly in original outlay for con-
struction. When properly burnt, the pieces of cement,
called clinker, are of a greenish-brown color, contorted and
much shrunken from the effect of the heat. Fifth. The
cement clinker is then finely ground between ordinary
mill-stones, packed in barrels, each containing 400 pounds
net, and sent to market.
Portland Cement by the Dry Process.-By the dry process
any of the compact limestones, as well as the chalks and
marls, may be used in making Portland cement. First. The
raw materials—the carbonate of lime and the clay—are
kiln-dried at 212° F., in order to expel the moisture and
prevent caking in the kiln, and otherwise facilitate grind-
ing and sifting. Second. After drying, the clay and the
carbonate of lime are mixed together in suitable propor-
tions, and reduced to a fine powder. In most localities the
proportion will vary from 20 to 23 per cent. of clay and
80 to 77 per cent. of the carbonate. One kind of machine
will not suffice for grinding the raw material economically.
In Germany, whence most of the artificial Portland cement
made by the dry process is derived, three machines are
used—viz. (1) A stone-breaking machine of the kind
usually employed in breaking stone for roadways, or for
concrete. Through this the dried and mixed materials are
passed, issuing therefrom in pieces varying from the size
of a pea to that of a hen's egg. (2) A further reduction
is effected by a vertical mill or edge-runner. (3) The
material is then finely ground between horizontal mill-
stones. Third. The powdered material is then tempered
to a rather stiff paste in a brick-making machine, and
made into bricks of a suitable size for burning. During
this mixing the material is kept warm by coils of steam-
pipe or otherwise, and the water used for tempering is ren-
dered strongly alkaline by adding 3 to 6 per cent. of cal-
cined soda, and an equal amount of newly burnt slaked
lime. Fourth. The bricks are dried by artificial means,
and are then burnt at a high heat and ground to a fine
powder, as in the wet process. The same number of mills
is necessary for grinding the cement as for pulverizing the
raw materials. The clinker is first put through a stone-
breaking machine, then into a vertical mill or edge-runners
$ CEMENTS.
837
and lastly is ground to an impalpable powder in a hori-
zontal mill. The dry process is followed in manufacturing
Portland cement in Germany.
Tests for Portland Cement.—Portland cement should be
ground so fine that at least 90 per cent. of it will pass a
No. 30 wire sieve of 36 wires to the lineal inch, both ways,
and should weigh not less than 106 pounds to the struck
bushel, loosely measured. When made into a stiff paste
without sand, it should sustain without rupture a tensile
strain of 400 pounds on a sectional area 1% inches square, or
24 square inches (equal to 178 pounds to the sectional
square inch), seven days after being moulded, the sample
having been in water six of these days. ' The composition
of 1000 parts of the natural Boulogne Portland cement,
after burning, is as follows:
Lime..................................... 651
Magnesia 6
* Silica ...................................................................... 204
Alumina, and small quantity of oxide of iron......... 139
Sulphate of lime.............. a trace
- 1000
When burnt at the high heat essential in manufacturing
Portland cement, the double silicate of lime and alumina is
first formed by 139 of alumina combining with 40 of silica,
and this compound, with 75 of lime, thus producing 254 of
the double silicate of lime and alumina. The balance of
the silica (164 parts) then takes up 304 of lime, producing
468 of silicate of lime, leaving 272 of uncombined lime.
The composition of Boulogne Portland cement, just after
calcination, with reference to its hydraulic properties, is
therefore as follows:
254 parts of double silicate of lime and alumina, SiO3(Al2
O3 + CaO )3,
468 parts silicate of lime, SiO3.3Ca(),
272 parts free hydrate of lime, CaO.HO,
A fraction of compounds of magnesia.
The artificial Portland cement of London contains—
-Lime................................................................ 681
Silica ............................................................... 206
Alumina........................................................... 104
Oxide of iron.................. 9
1000
The elements are combined as follows:
238 parts double silicate of lime and alumina,
506 “ silicate of lime,
295 “ free hydrate of lime and oxide of iron.
1039
Light, Quick-setting, Argillaceous Cements. – When an
argillaceous limestone, containing more than 23 per cent.
of clay homogeneously mixed through the mass, is burnt
with the great intensity and duration of heat necessary to
produce Portland cement, it generally fuses into a species
of shag or glass, in consequence of the large amount of
silica present, and becomes nearly destitute of hydraulic
energy. But if the calcination be kept below the point of
vitrification, it may be expected to yield a quick-setting
hydraulic cement, weighing about seventy pounds to the
struck bushel, loosely measured. In the burning, a portion,
and in some cases all, of the lime enters into combination
with a portion of the silica and alumina of the clay, pro-
ducing silicate and aluminate of lime, leaving generally an
excess of uncombined clay, but more especially of silica,
which, being inert, adulterates the cement, injuring its
hydraulic energy, and consequently impairing its strength.
Cements of this class, if mixed into a paste and immersed
in water, will set so as to lose their plastic condition in ten
or fifteen minutes, but are far inferor in ultimate strength
and hardness to Portland cement of average quality.
Some of these contain as high as 10 or 15 per cent. of the
oxides of iron, the proportion of clay in such cases being
generally below 23 per cent.
The cement of Vassy, Grenoble, Camp Rond, and Cor-
bigny, in France, and the English and French Roman
cements made from nodules of septaria, belong to this class.
No deposits of this type of argillaceous limestones have
been discovered in the U. S.
This grade of cement may also be produced artificially,
by burning at a low heat a mixture of lime and clay, and
was manufactured largely in England and France by this
method, before the superior and peculiar qualities of the
Portland cement were discovered. -
Argillo-Magnesian Cements.--All the natural hydraulic
cements of the U. S. are made from argillo-magnesian
limestones—that is, limestones of which the principal in-
gredients are carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia
(MgO.CO2), and clay. The Rosendale cements, from the
valley of Rondout Creek, in Ulster co., N. Y., and those
found at Shepherdstown, Va., Cumberland, Md., Louisville,
Ky., and at different points on the line of the Erie Canal,
and at Sandusky, O., Utica, Ill., and other localities in the
West, belong to this class. The process followed in their
manufacture is essentially the same for all. The stone is
quarried, and then broken up into pieces of irregular size,
seldom exceeding twelve or fifteen pounds in weight, and
burnt in an ordinary kiln (either intermittent or perpetual),
with either wood or coal as fuel. Where coal is used the
perpetual method of burning is usually followed, the kiln
being filled, in starting, with alternate layers of coal and
stone, and then fired with wood at the bottom. As the
burning proceeds, the charge settles down, the burnt stone
is drawn at the bottom of the kiln, and alternate layers of
coal and stone added at the top. The burnt cement is then
crushed up into small fragments by suitable machinery,
ground between ordinary mill-stones, packed in barrels of
300 pounds each, and sent to market.
In burning the argillo-magnesian cement both the lime
and the magnesia combine with the silica and alumina of
the clay. The result is the formation of the silicate and
aluminate of lime and magnesia—compounds which become
hydrates when water is added, and are capable of under-
going the species of crystallization or hardening under
water called setting. The argillo-magnesian cements can-
not be burnt with that intensity and duration of heat neces-
sary in making Portland cement without fusing into slag,
destitute of hydraulic energy. Those manufactured in the
U. S. are all quick-setting, and their weight does not ordi-
narily exceed seventy pounds to the struck bushel, loosely
measured. The Rosendale cement is regarded as the most
valuable of them all, but even this will never attain, under
the most favorable circumstances, more than one-third the
ultimate strength and hardness of the best Portland cement.
Test for Rosendale Cement. — This cement should be
ground so that 90 per cent. of it can pass a No. 30 wire
sieve of thirty-six wires to the lineal inch, should weigh not
less than sixty-eight pounds to the struck bushel, loosely
measured, and when made into a stiff paste, without sand,
should sustain, without rupture, a tensile strain of 135
pounds on a sectional area of 1% inches square, or 24 Square
inches (equal to 60 pounds to the sectional square inch),
when seven days old, the sample having been six days in
Water.
The elements of hydraulic energy in limes and cements
are composed as follows, the proportions being given by
weight:
Silicate of lime, SiO3.3Ca(O...... e e º ºs º e º e º e º ºs º is tº { i. º :
Aluminate of lime, Al2O3.3Ca(O....... tº g tº º tº º ºs º gº { *: ;
Silicate of alumina, 2SiO3.Al2O3............... {º. ;
Double silicate of lime e Silica.tº e º e º ſº tº 15
and alumina, } SiO3.(Al2O3+CaO)3 & Alumina... 51
º º ºp e º z º. º º Lime....... 28
Silica....... 23
Silicate of magnesia, SiO3.3MgO.............. { Magnesia... 30
Magnesian Cement.—Pure carbonate of magnesia, called
magnesite, when burnt at a heat of moderate intensity,
about cherry-red, ground to a fine powder, and made into
a paste with water, possesses considerable hydraulic energy.
This calcined.magnesite has been patented under the name
of Union cement. Its characteristic property, however,
upon which it depends for its peculiar value, is not de-
veloped when mixed with water alone, for in that case the
induration or setting is due to the crystallization of the
hydrated magnesia or oxide of magnesium. But if the
burnt and pulverized magnesite, or Union cement, be mixed
up with the chloride of magnesium—for which the bittern
water of seaside salt-works has been found to be a cheap
and suitable substitute—a chemical combination takes
place between the oxide and the chloride of magnesium,
and oxychloride of magnesium is formed. This is a very
remarkable hydraulic cement, being greatly superior to any
other known cement in strength and hardness, not except-
ing even Portland cement.
Dolomite, or the double carbonate of lime and magnesia,
when burnt at a low heat, reduced to powder, and made
into mortar, also exhibits hydraulic properties. But if the
‘heat be carried sufficiently high—say about 400° C.—to re-
duce the carbonate of lime also, thus forming caustic or
quicklime, the addition of water causes slaking, and the
hydraulic energy is destroyed or impaired by the presence
of the hydrate of lime.
Any magnesian limestone containing as high as 60 per
cent. of carbonate of magnesia may be presumed to be
capable of yielding hydraulic cement of greater or less
value, if properly underburnt, no matter whether clay be
present or not. If clay exists as one of the principal in-
gredients, there are formed in the kiln silicate and alu-
minate of magnesia, as well as silicate and aluminate of
838
CEMENTS.
lime. All of these compounds become hydrated when
brought in contact with water, and are them in condition
to undergo that species of crystallization called setting.
Mortar.—Mortar is a mixture of the paste of lime or ce-
ment with sand. The paste may be made before adding the
sand, or the materials may be incorporated dry, and after-
wards tempered to a plastic condition with water. In com-
mon mortar the cementing substance is common lime.
Hydraulic mortar may be made by mixing a paste of
hydraulic lime or cement with sand, or by adding hydraulic
materials to common mortar.
Common Mortar.—As a paste of common lime hardens
or sets very slowly, even in the open air, unless it be sub-
divided into small particles or thin films, it is important
that the volume of lime-paste in common mortar should be
but slightly in excess of what is sufficient to coat all the grains
of sand and fill the voids between them. If this limit
be exceeded the strength of the mortar will be impaired.
With most sands the proper proportion will be from 24%;
to 3 volumes of sand to I volume of lime-paste. Gener-
ally, if either less or more sand than is herein indicated be
used, the mortar will be injured; in the former case from
excess of lime-paste, and in the latter from porosity.
Hydraulic-Lime Mortar.—With mortars of hydraulic
lime the volume of sand should not be less that 11% times
that of the lime-paste, in order to secure the best results
regardless of cost. The usual proportions are, however,
for ordinary work, the same as in common mortars, care
being taken to incorporate sufficient paste to coat all the
grains of sand and to fill up the voids between them.
Hydraulic-Cement Mortar.—A paste of good hydraulic
cement hardens simultaneously and uniformly throughout
the mass, and its strength is impaired by any addition of
sand. For ordinary use, however, it is customary to add
as much sand as possible without making the mortar
porous: 1 barrel of cement, as packed for market, to 3
barrels of sand, is the proportion usually followed. The
usual practice is to mix the cement and sand together dry,
and afterwards temper to a plastic condition with water.
Tensile or Cohesive Strength of Mortar per square inch, in
pownds.
Composition of the Mortar. One Month Old. | TWO Years Old.
Portland cement mixed to a
paste without sand................ 300 to 400 500 to 600
gº ºn. vºl.) | 50 to so | 200 to 280
Rosendale cement mixed to a
paste Without Sand................ 80 to 100 180 to 220
gº ºntº vºl.) | 15 to 20 is to ss
Portland cement paste... + vol.
Fat lime paste.............. # “ - ............ 95 to 110
Sand ............................ 3 “
Rosendale cement paste. # vol.
Fat lime paste.............. # * } | ............ 45 to 60
Sand • - e º ºs e º ºs e - - -. . . ;------------- 3 “
gººmedy Vºl. 25 to 35 | 120 to 160
Good common mortar..............
Common lime-paste....... 1 vol. X | ............ 40 to 60
Sand ............................ 3 “
Crushing Strength of Mortars and Concretes, from Trials
wipon Cubes and Parallelopipedons of various sizes, in
pownds per 8quare inch of top surface.
Composition of the Mortar. Six Months Old. | Two Years Old.
Portland cement without sand..! 4500 to 5300 5000 to 6000
Dry Portland cement... 1 vol.
Sand ........................... 3 “ 1500 to 2200 2000 to 2600
Mixed to a stiff mortar .........
Dry Portland cement... 1 vol.
Sand ........................... 5 “ 1200 to 1600 1600 to 2000
Mixed as above ..................... -
Rosendale cement without sand 1500 to 1800 1800 to 2000
Dry Rosendale cement, 1 vol.
Sand............ ::::----------- 3 “ 450 to 600 550 to 700
Mixed to a stiff mortar.........
Good hydraulic lime,
like Tiel ................... 3 YOl. 450 to 590 550 to 600
Şand * * * * * * e º :------------------- 5 “
gºinºsº | vºl.) ............ 400 to 500
Poor common lime-mortar........] ............ 200 to 250
Composition of Concrete.
1 Portland
Mortar ºntº vol. * * * * * * * * * g e a 2000 to 2500
Broken stone............... 3 * *
M - 1 Rosendale |
ortar 3. ºntº 1 Vol. . . ............ 700 to 800
Broken stone............... {{ J
Cement and Lime Mortar.—When it is desirable, from
any cause, to lessen the cost of cement mortar, the best
way is to add a portion of common lime to the cement,
rather than to increase the quantity of sand, as this last
method produces a porous mortar. The volume of the
cementing paste, whether of pure cement or a mixture of
cement and lime, should be slightly in excess of what is
theoretically necessary to coat all the grains of sand and
completely fill the voids. A mortar of cement and sand
loses about four-tenths of its strength if one-half of the
cement paste is replaced by an equal volume of common
lime-paste, but is then quite suitable for ordinary work.
Concrete or Béton.—These terms in modern practice are
synonymous, and, apply to any mixture of mortar (gene-
rally hydraulic) with coarse materials, such as fragments
of brick or stone, gravel, pebbles, or shells. The volume
of mortar should be slightly in excess of the volume of
voids in the coarse materials. Among American engineers
it is customary, in making concrete by hand, to (1) mix the
cement and Sand, or cement, lime, and sand, together, dry;
(2) then add water, and mix to a stiff mortar; and (3) then
spread the mortar evenly over the platform; (4) the coarse
fragments are then spread out upon the mortar, and the
whole mixed together thoroughly with shovels. The coarse
materials should be kept damp, or sprinkled with water
before they are incorporated with the cement and sand.
After mixing, the concrete is conveyed away in wheel-
barrows, and compacted in position by ramming in layers
six inches to eight inches thick. Concrete should not be
mixed with too much water, but when ready for use should
be quite coherent, and capable of standing at a steep slope
without the water running from it; otherwise it will be
impossible to compact it by ramming. It should not be
plastic and jelly-like under the rammer.
In carrying on large operations it is advantageous, on
many accounts, to make the concrete in a mill, of which
there are several kinds. Any box or cylinder to receive
the ingredients, revolving slowly about either a diagonal
or concentric axis, will answer the purpose. A cubical
box, measuring four feet in length on each edge, was used
by the writer upon the fortifications on Staten Island with
entire success. The box was rigidly mounted upon an iron
axle passing through opposite diagonal corners, and was
provided with a trap-door, about two feet square, close to
one of the angles farthest from the axis, through which
the materials were introduced. Eight revolutions of the
box, made in less than one minute, were found to be quite
sufficient to secure a thorough incorporation of the mortar
with the coarse material (broken stone and pebbles). In
using a mill of this description, it is not necessary that the
mortar should be first prepared by a distinct and separate
process, but all the ingredients of the concrete—the cement,
lime (if lime be used), sand, water, and coarse materials—
may be introduced promiscúously into the box. The mill
may be charged by wheelbarrows from a platform ar-
ranged at the proper height, or preferably by a large tub
manoeuvred by a derrick. The proper charge for the
box, in order to ensure thorough mixing, should not ex-
ceed one-half to five-eighths of its total capacity. One tub-
ful (thirty-six to forty cubic feet) should charge the box.
The standard formula for making Rosendale cement con-
crete upon government works is:
Concrete No. 7.
: barrel gf ºn = 3.27 barrels of concrete mortar;
5 “ “ broken stone, or brick, gravel, oyster-shells, or
a mixture of two or more of them.
This batch will make 21.75 cubic feet of concrete rammed
in place. The mortar of this concrete, tested by itself, pos-
sesses a crushing strength of 130 pounds per square inch
when two months old, the test being applied to 5-inch or
6-inch cubes. For unimportant works, six to six and a
half barrels of broken stone, instead of five, may be incor-
porated, and the concrete may be cheapened still further
by replacing a portion of the cement by common lime, as
in No. 2.
Concrete Wo. 3.−In foundations above water the con-
crete mortar may be composed as follows:
1 barrel of Rosendale cement = 3.70 cubic feet of paste,
# “ “ common lime = 2.50 4 & {&
3% to 4 “ sand, loosely measured.
The concrete should contain I volume of this mortar to
about 2% volumes of ballast.
Concrete No. 3.-Portland cement concrete possessing a
little more strength than the No. 1 above may be made as
follows:
1 barrel of Portland cement = 10.37 barrels of con-
& 4 º
1. . {& * lime-powder crete mortar;
16 “ “ broken stone or other good ballast.
This batch will produce 69% cubic feet of concrete rammed

CEMENTATION OF STEEL–CEMETERY.
839
in position. The mortar of this concrete will sustain a
crushing weight of 154 pounds to the square inch when two
months old.
Omitting the common lime, the following formula will
give a good concrete :
Concrete No. 4.
1 barrel of Portland cement ) = 5.4 barrels of concrete
5% “ “ sand } mortar.
= 12% barrels mixed and
shaken down, contain-
ing 26% per cent. of
voids.
This batch of concrete produces 50 cubic feet rammed in
position, and is suitable for the best quality of concrete work.
It is desirable, in all cases, that the mortar for concrete
should be hydraulic, in order to secure simultaneous indu-
ration throughout the entire mass after it has been com-
pacted in position. Having established the quality of the
mortar, whether of cement and sand, or cement, lime, and
sand, the proportion of mortar to the coarse materials
should be adjusted, so that the volume of the former should
be somewhat in excess of the volume of voids in the latter.
The natural pozzuolanas comprise pozzuolanas proper,
tras or terras, the arênes, some of the ochreous earths, and
the sands of certain graywackes, granites, basalts, etc.
Their principal ingredients are silica and alumina, the
former largely preponderating, and most of them contain
small quantities of soda and potash, and the oxides of iron
and manganese. They possess the peculiar property that
when finely pulverized, even without previous roasting,
and combined with a paste of common lime, a hydraulic
mixture is produced which will compare favorably with the
mortars of hydraulic lime and sand. Pozzuolana, itself
was first discovered near the village of Pozzuola, near the
base of Mount Vesuvius, and its properties were known to
both Vitruvius and Pliny. It was extensively used by the
Romans before their day. Vitruvius gives a formula for
its use in monolithic or pisé masonry, which, with slight
variations, has been followed in Italy ever since. It is as
follows:
12 parts of pozzuolama, well pulverized,
6 “ “ quartzose sand, well washed,
9 “ “ rich lime, recently slaked.
This constitutes the mortar. To this is added 6 parts of
broken stone, porous and angular, when it is intended for
a pisé or filling in.
Tras closely resembles pozzuolama, and is employed sub-
stantially in the same,way. It is found on the Rhine be-
tween Mayence and Cologne, and in various localities in
Holland. The arênes are a species of ochreous sand, con-
taining so large a proportion of clay that they can be
mixed into a paste with water without the addition of
lime, and used in that state for pisé work, as well as for
common mortar. Mixed with rich lime, they yield hy-
draulic mortars of considerable energy. Many of the mat-
ural pozzuolanas are improved by a slight roasting, and an
artificial pozzuolama may be produced by subjecting clay to
a slight calcination. Brick-dust mixed with common lime
gives a feebly hydraulic mortar. Forge scales from the
smith's anvil, the slags from iron-foundries, and the ashes
from lime-kilns, containing cinders, coal, and lime, are arti-
ficial pozzuolanas. (For bituminous cements, mastics, etc.,
see BITUMEN.) Q. A. GILLMORE, U. S. Army.
Cementa/tion of Steel is the process followed in the
production of blistered steel or steel of cementation. The
term cementation is also applied to other cases of incorpo-
ration together of two solids, under the influence of high
heat without fusion. (See STEEL, by A. L. HoDLEY, C.E.)
Cem’etery [Lat. coemeterium ; Gr. koupºntſipuov, from
kotwdowat, to “sleep,” to “repose;” Fr. cimetière]. In all
ages the disposition of the human body after death has en-
gaged the thoughts of mankind.
The earliest records of our race indicate an interest in
the interment of the deceased. “Bury me not, I pray
thee,” said the patriarch Jacob—“bury me not in Egypt,
but I will lie with my fathers. And thou shalt carry me
out of Egypt, and bury me in their burying-place. . . .
There they buried Abraham, and Sarah his wife; there they
buried Isaac, and Rebekah his wife, and there I buried
Leah.” Such are the natural expressions of human feel-
ing; it is a matter of instinct, a spiritual impulse, which
supersedes belief and disdains question. Even the Amer-
ican Indians have been known to burden themselves with
the bones of their ancestors when removing to new reser-
vations. These feelings are common to all ages—to the
barbarian and the civilized, to the bond and free, to the
heathen, to the Christian. They are manifested by the
barrows, cairns, and mounds of olden times; and every-
&
6 (6.
9 &
* gravel and pebbles
* broken stone
&
where spots seem to have been so selected that the mag- ||
nificence of nature might administer comfort to human
sorrow and incite to human sympathy.
The aboriginal Germans interred their dead in groves
consecrated by their priests. The Egyptians soothed their
grief by embalming the dead and interring them in vast
catacombs or enclosing them in stupendous pyramids. The
Hebrews watched with religious care over their places of
burial. They usually selected for this purpose ornamental
gardens, déep forests, fertile valleys, or rocky mountains;
and they still designate them, with a sad emphasis, as the
“house of the living.” The ancient Asiatics lined the ap-
proaches to their cities with sculptured sarcophagi and
mausoleums embosomed in shrubbery. The Greeks ex-
hausted the resources of their exquisite art in adorning the
habitations of the dead. They discouraged interments
within the limits of their cities, and consigned their relics
to shaded groves in the neighborhood of streams and foun-
tains, and called them “places of repose” (koumripta).
The Romans erected the monuments of the dead in the sub-
urbs of the city, on the sides of their spacious roads, in
the midst of trees and ornamental walks. The Appian
Way was crowded with columns and obelisks in memory
of their heroes, and at every turn the short and touching
inscription met the eye—Siste, viator (“Pause, traveller”),
inviting at once to sympathy and thoughtfulness. These
suggestions must have given formerly, as they may do still,
to the language of the senseless stone a voice enforced by
the benignity of that nature with which it is in unison.
The Moslems placed their burial-grounds in rural retreats
and embellished them as a religious duty. -
The Greek term cemetery, signifying a place of rest or
repose, was applied to the usual places of interment of the
early Christians, who followed the customs of the Romans;
but the desire to lie under the religious sanction of the
Church afterwards transferred their burial-places to the
vicinity of religious buildings or within towns; and still
in some countries the Church derives revenue from inter-
ments. The practice is now happily changed, and few com-
paratively attach importance to the protection which
churches were supposed to afford; indeed, the protection
has proved fallacious, religious sects having almost ceased
to provide for the dead. When their ground becomes valu-
able or the site of the church is to be changed, disinterment
too often takes place, without a symptom of the tenderness
with which the remains were deposited. The extension of
cities has been too often attended by the painful spectacle
of burial-grounds torn up and the occupants removed. In
the rural cemetery this cannot occur, for each lot-holder
possesses a deed in fee for burial purposes, and he is as
positively the owner of his lot as he is of his dwelling-house,
and he cannot by law be dispossessed. The desire so long
cherished to be interred under the shadow of the church
has nearly passed away, and there can be no doubt as to
the advantages of the new rural mode. The refining in-
fluences of a well-kept cemetery are too obvious to need to
be dwelt upon.
Chadwick, in 1843, had demonstrated the unhealthful-
ness of church and city interments, and the world woke up
to the necessity of a change. America, led the way. Bos-
ton instituted Mount Auburn, on which occasion Judge
Story delivered a beautiful and appropriate dedicatory ad-
dress; Laurel Hill, Philadelphia, immediately followed;
Greenwood, New York, came next, and others succeeded,
till now nearly every city (as well as many villages) has its
rural burial-place. It was a fortunate thing that the first
examples were governed by cultivated men; they inaugu-
rated a taste for fine planting that culminated in a general
demand for ornamental grounds. Boston, Philadelphia,
and New York were fortunate, also, in the location of their
cemeteries, having chosen grounds capable of high embel-
lishment, and now these cities are establishing still more
desirable places of sepulture in Forest Hills, West Laurel
Hill, and Woodlawn, where the improvements suggested
by experience are introduced, such as receiving-tombs care-
fully constructed, and the selection of trees and shrubs
adapted for permanence, or such as when fully grown will
not interfere with the monuments. Much depends on the
first planting of a cemetery.
The great body of English poetry is more rich on the
subject of sepulture than the poetry of any other nation;
and abounds with references to the practice of ornament-
ing graves with flowers, shrubs, and trees. A rich vegeta-
tion exercises a powerful influence in preventing the escape
of deleterious miasmata, though this is not to be feared
where graves are single and of a depth of seven or eight
feet, as they always should be. Trees should be chiefly .
of fastigiate growth, which neither cover a large space
with their branches nor give so much shade as to prevent
the growth of grasses. Of these, are all the arborvitae
family, the junipers, the yews, hollies, and a few species of
oaks, magnolias, and in general the trees of middle size
840
CENCI—CENSUS.
suitable to each particular climate. The attempt made at
Laurel Hill to introduce as many varieties as possible has
been attended with partial success; its specimens of the
cedar of Lebanon and other historical and rare trees are
justly admired. -
How to lay out a cemetery is an important topic. It
should conform to the character of the ground and be made
as cheerful as possible. The so-called landscape plan, lately
introduced at Cincinnati, has no enclosures, the lots only
marked by a sunken post at each corner, with but one mon-
ument in the centre, and the interments surrounding this
on all sides; the advantages claimed are a park-like ap-
pearance and more open space, with more facility for neat
keeping, etc. To this it is replied that where there is no
impediment the footprints of visitors and habitués will
soon create paths in various directions; short cuts will in-
evitably follow, and paths be made over the graves. The
correct way will be found to devote a portion of each cem-
etery to the new plan, and let individual wishes be con-
sulted; this has been done at Woodlawn and West Laurel
Hill-with advantage.
The rules to be observed in cemeteries in common use in
America indicate a general desire to promote good order,
and are in the main judicious. Bricked vaults under
ground of greater or less size are not uncommon, and a
more general desire for those above the surface is observ-
able. These latter should never be allowed unless provision
is made to effectually seal the crypts in which bodies are
deposited; otherwise the vicinity is liable to be infected
with unhealthy odors which the wonderful purifying power
of sufficient earth entirely prevents. Iron railings, which
prevailed in the early period of our rural burying, are hap-
pily disappearing, and should no longer be permitted, as
indeed all perishable materials should be discarded. A
hedge, however, is allowable, provided it be of an enduring
kind, such as the slow-growing holly. Permanency should
be aimed at, and this cannot be commanded by even iron,
which perishes by rust, and all unions of iron and stone
become disfigured. Granite is much used as a curbing;
this suffices for the enclosure, and marks the possession of
each family, and is the most enduring; the best burnt bricks
for underground structures are also lasting; marble or other
veneering must soon give out by the introduction of water
in the interstices, which in freezing it opens with great force.
The best material for monuments is granite, either the
expensive Aberdeen or the American. Italian marbles are
not adapted to a cold climate; they inevitably split and
crumble, while the American will do the same if not laid
in the position of its natural bed.
JoHN JAY SMITH, Supt. Laurel Hill Cemetery.
Cen’ci (BEATRICE), a beautiful Roman lady whose fa-
ther was very depraved and treated his children with great
cruelty. Her father having been found dead under suspi-
cious circumstances, Beatrice, her brother, and her, step-
mother were accused of his murder, and for that crime were
executed at Rome Sept. 11, 1599. Her story is the subject
of one of Shelley’s tragedies and of a novel by Guerazzi.
The portrait of her by Guido Reni is well known.
Cenis, Mont. See MonT CENIs.
Cenom-ia-Bastide, a town of France, province of
Gironde, in which are carried on shipbuilding and plaster
manufacture. Pop. 6817. -
Cenozoic. See CAINozoic.
Cen'ser [Fr. encensoir, from the Lat. incendo, incensum,
“to burn ;” Lat. acerra], a vase or other vessel used for
burning perfumes and incense in temples and churches.
Censers were used by the ancient Hebrews and Greeks, and
are now employed in the Roman Catholic Church at mass,
vespers, and other services. The censer is suspended by
chains which are held in the hand, and is tossed or swung
in the air. It is frequently called the THURIBLE (which see).
Cen’sor [Fr. censeur ; from Lat. censeo, to “judge or
estimate”], the title of two magistrates of high rank in an-
cient Rome, who were appointed to take the census—i. e.
to make an enumeration of the citizens and a valuation of
their property—also to inspect and regulate their manners
and moral conduct. In the early ages of the republic these
duties were performed by the consuls, and no special mag-
istrates were elected for the purpose until 443 B. C. The
censors were originally chosen for a term of five years
(which was soon reduced to eighteen months), and only
patricians were eligible to the office. About 340 B.C. a law
was enacted that one of the censors must be a plebeian.
The censorship (in Lat. censura) was regarded as the high-
est dignity in the republic except the office of dictator.
The power of the censors was in a great measure undefined
and irresponsible, especially in the regulation of morals
(regimen morum). They had power to expel a senator from
the Senate for a misdemeanor, and to punish with marks of
ignominy those whose conduct did not accord with their .
own ideas of rectitude. They could degrade persons from
a higher to a lower rank, and fill vacancies in the senate.
Among their duties was the administration of the finances
of the state and the erection of new public buildings. As a
general rule, the only persons eligible to the office were
those who had previously been consuls. No person could
be elected censor for a second term.
Cen’sorship of Books, the term applied to inter-
ference by a government with the freedom of the press, ex-
ercised formerly over books alone, but since the rise of
journalism extended to periodicals also. The censorship
of books did not come into operation until the invention
of printing (except that heretical books were prohibited
by the Church). It soon became common to all European
countries, Great Britain included. The censorship of books
was established by act of Parliament in 1662, and renew-
ed from time to time : but its renewal was refused in 1693.
In 1766 it was abolished in Sweden; in 1770, in Denmark;
in 1791 in France, where it was restored in 1805, again
abolished in 1814, and after having again been in turn restor-
ed and abolished, was finally suppressed in 1827, but has
since been from time to time, to some extent, revived. In
Germany and Austria freedom of the press was promised
in article 18 of the Federal act (1815), but not established
until 1848. In 1872, Russia, was the only country of Eu-
rope in which it formally existed, but in several others the
police authorities have a supervision of books and period-
icals. In the republics of North and South America a cen-
sorship of books has never been known.
. The Church of Rome has long claimed the right of cen-
sorship over books. Some of the early provincial councils
prohibited the reading of suspicious or heretical works, but
the first catalogue of the kind now known was issued in
494 A. D., in the time of Pope Gelasius.
The INDEx LIBRoRUM PROHIBITORUM, a list of fully pro-
hibited books, was first authoritatively issued by Pope Pius
IV. (1557–59), though previously lists more or less com-
plete were published in various parts of Europe. The work
was vigorously pushed on by the Council of Trent, and has
been kept up by the subsequent popes. The best-known
edition of the Index is that of 1819, published at Rome.
Frequent additions to the Index are made by decree.
The INDEx ExPURGATORIUs is a list published, like the
above catalogue, by the “Congregation of the Index” at
Rome, and contains the names of books which cannot be
read until certain specified passages are expunged. Bishops
have power to give the learned the privilege of reading
prohibited books. The ecclesiastical censorship of books
does not command much respect, even in countries bound
by concordat to accept and enforce it. The Russian Greek
Church has also a catalogue of prohibited books, and the
influence of the system is greater and worse in the East-
ern than in the Roman Catholic Church.
Cen'sus [a Latin word, from censeo, censum, to “weigh,
estimate, tax, assess;” a registering and rating of Roman
citizens; the censors’ lists; the registered property of Ro-
man citizens; Fr. recensement, a “statement, return, veri-
fication;” cens, “ census,” or amount of direct tax qualify-
ing one to be an elector; Eng.: cense (obsolete), a “public
rate,” “rank,” “condition;” also cess (obsolete), to “rate,”
to “assess”], an official enumeration of the inhabitants
of a state or municipality. The various forms and signifi-
cations of the word, as given above, indicate the chief ob-
jects for which the census has been used in the different
periods of history, though in many cases other objects
have been associated with these. (For a discussion of the
origin and progress of statistical inquiry, in its more gen-
eral bearings, see STATISTICs. The census proper is a
branch of this more general subject.)
I. THE CENSUs OF ANCIENT NATIONS.—An inquiry into
the censuses of ancient nations is valuable only in so far
as it exhibits the objects had in view and the methods em-
ployed. It is alleged that China ordained a census more
than twenty centuries before Christ; also, that a census
was taken in Japan a century before the Christian era;
also, that statistical information was taken by officials in
Peru under the reign of the Incas. But these and similar
notices of ancient censuses are too vague and uncertain to
possess much value. This article will be directed chiefly
to those nations of which history speaks with definiteness
and reasonable certainty.
I. The Jewish Census.--It was ordered in the Jewish law
that the first-born of man and beast, as well as the first
fruits of agricultural produce, should be set apart for re-
ligious purposes; the first-born of man to be redeemed—
the first born of the beasts, excepting the ass, and the first
fruits of the earth, to be offered unto the Lord (Ex. xiii.
11–13; xxii. 29). According to Archbishop Ussher's chro;
nology, this enactment must pe referred to the year 1491
B. C. The law further providéd that when the sum of the
CENSUS.
841 .
children of Israel was taken they should give every man a
ransom for his soul, amounting to a half shekel of silver
(Ex. xxx. 12–16). So far as appears, this is the original
institution of the Jewish census. It is clear that it was pri-
marily for religious purposes. The Hebrew word answer-
ing to census or enumeration means a “numbering com-
bined with lustration,” from a verb signifying to “survey,
in order to purge.” The four most notable enumerations
recorded in the Old Testament were—1st. In the third or
fourth month after the exodus the males of the Hebrews,
twenty years of age and upwards, were enumerated by
Divine command, chiefly for the purpose of raising money
for the tabernacle (Ex. xxxviii. 26). The enumeration
amounted to 603,555. The number of men at the time of
leaving Egypt is stated (Ex. xii. 37), but it is hardly prob-
able that a formal enumeration was made at that time.
Probably the result, 600,000, was retrospectively inferred
from the first numbering at Sinai. 2d. A second enumer-
ation was made at Sinai in the second month of the second
year after the exodus (Num. i. 2, 3). Here a new idea ap-
pears, as this numbering was to ascertain—1, the number
of fighting men between the ages of twenty and fifty; and
2, the amount of the redemption-offering. Exclusive of the
Levites, the result was the same as the first. 3d. The next
enumeration was made just before the tribes entered Ca-
naan, thirty-eight years after the one justmentioned (Num.
xxvi. 63–65). The number of men had slightly fallen off.
4th. The most notable of the Jewish censuses was that taken
in the reign of King David. Its history can be gathered
from 2 Sam. xxiv. 1–9; 1 Chron. xxi. 1–7, 14; xxvii. 23, 24.
This enumeration was followed by a three days’ pestilence,
which destroyed 70,000 men. The pestilence is credited to
David’s presumption. It is not altogether clear in what
his offence consisted. According to Josephus (Ant. vii. 13,
3 1), the king’s transgression was in not collecting the re-
demption-offering required by the law. This account is
more generally followed by biblical scholars, but some at-
tribute the pestilence to David’s presumption and pride, of
which the enumeration is regarded as an indication. It
appears from Ex. xxx. 12, either that the customary ran-
som was to avert a plague among the people, or that such
plague was to be the penalty for neglecting to require the
offering. The pestilence made a lasting impression on the
minds of men; for to this day, in both Mohammedan and
Christian countries, especially in the former, there are su-
perstitious fears' attending enumerations of the people.
David's enumeration of the people was not recorded.
All the objects comprehended in the Jewish census are
stated above. It does. not appear that the law made, any
provision as to the time or manner of making the enumer-
ations. The censuses referred to in the New Testament were
taken under Roman authority, and were in no proper sense
Jewish. .
2. The Greek Census.—History gives us no definite
knowledge of a census in any portion of Greece except at
Athens, where the census was established by Solon, who
held the office of Archon from 558 to 549 B. C. He made
a radical change in the constitution of Attica. Before his
time the honors and duties of the citizen were based on
birth; he introduced what was called the timocracy, or
government based on wealth. He distributed all free citi-
zens, without regard to birth or rank, into four classes, ac-
cording to the amount of property they owned. The classes
were—1st. Those whose annual income was equal to or ex-
ceeded 500 medimni of corn (about 700 English bushels).
2d. Those whose income was less than 500 and more than
300 medimni. 3d. Those whose income was less than 300
and more than 200 medimni. 4th. All whose property
yielded an income less than 200 medimni. The medimnus
of corn was valued in the time of Solon at about one
drachma, or 9%d. ...” -
The first class (IIevrakoorvouéðuvov) alone were eligible to
the principal public offices. The second class (‘Intreſs) were
knights, or those having sufficient income to keep horses
and perform cavalry service. The third class (Zevyirat, so
named from their being able to keep a yoke of oxen) formed
the heavy-armed infantry. The fourth class (©ºres), which
comprised the great body of the people, were ineligible to
any office, paid but little if any tax, and in case of war
served only as light-armed infantry, with weapons fur-
nished by the state.
The census was instituted for the double purpose of mak-
ing this classification of citizens, and of laying the founda-
tion of the Athenian system of taxation. The idea of as-
sessment was as much a part of the census as that of
enumeration. The Greek word for assessment (rexeiv) has
also the general meaning of rank or class; and the phrase
Texeiv to réAos, which signifies “to comply with the requisi-
tion assessed,” signifies also to belong to a class. The
census was taken, at first, by the Naucrari, and after-
wards by the Demarchi. A record was kept, showing the
class to which each citizen belonged, and the list of his
taxable property. The census was taken sometimes once a
year, and sometimes once in four years, according as prop-
erty fluctuated in value. The classification of Solon lasted,
with some modification, to the close of the Peloponnesian war
(404 B.C.), and was in part preserved after the renovation
of the democracy in the following year. The classification
of citizens and the mode of assessment were changed dur-
ing the archonship of Nausinicus (in 378 B. C.), in order
to levy increased taxes for carrying on the war against
Sparta. -
(For the latest and fullest discussion of the Greek census
see BOECKH's “Political Economy of the Athenians” (Eng-
lish trans., Boston, 1857), book iv., chap. 5; GROTE's
“History of Greece,” vol. iii., chap. 11, and vol. x., chap.
87; PLUTARCH's “Solon,” i., p. 168; and SMITH's “Dic-
tionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,” words Censor
and Census.) g
3. The Roman Census.—The institution of the census at
Rome was intimately connected with the great reform in
the Roman constitution consummated by Servius Tullius.
Before his time all the political and military authority was
wielded by a few powerful Roman families, and clans or
groups of families, called gentes. The word populus applied
to these families alone. Around the members of this rul-
ing class were gathered, under the name of clients, a large
number of foreigners (metoeci) residing at Rome, subju-
gated people, and freedmen, who possessed no political
rights, paid no regular taxes, and were neither compelled
nor permitted to serve in the army. Most of them were
farmers, and many were wealthy. As the city grew this
plebeian class rapidly increased. In order to equalize the
burdens of the state, but particularly to strengthen the
army and make it more national, Servius Tullius so
changed the constitution as to place the burdens of taxa-
tion and the duties and honors of military service, not
upon the patricians as such, but upon freeholders between
the ages of seventeen and sixty, without regard to family
or rank. All these were distributed into five classes, ac-
cording to the amount of land owned by each. It has been
held by most writers that the classification was based upon
the amount of wealth, in any form, possessed by the citi-
zen; but Mommsen and other late authorities insist that the
basis was land. -
The first class comprised those who owned an entire hide
of land—a full Roman farm—not less than twenty jugera
(about fourteen acres). The second, third, fourth, and
fifth classes consisted of those who owned respectively
three-fourths, one-half, one-fourth, and one-eighth of a
hide of land. The non-freeholders (proletarii), counted
by some authorities as the sixth class, were called capite
censi (i.e., “counted by the head”). They could not vote,
paid no taxes, and were not liable to perform military
service. The rights and duties of all Romans were deter-
mined by the class to which they were thus assigned.
In order to effect these changes in his government, Ser-
vius Tullius instituted the census (555 B. C.). Every cit-
izen was compelled to declare his name, age, and tribe, the
name of his father, the number of his children, the value
of his estate, and the number of his slaves. The record
thus made was both a land-register and a roster or rank-
roll of the Roman people. When the enumeration and
registration were completed the people were assembled in
the Campus Martius, where the religious solemnities of the
lustration were performed. The sacrifices attending it were
called 8wovetawrilia, because a pig, a sheep, and an ox,
after being led three times around the campus, were sacri-
ficed for the purification of the people. This was called
the closing of the lustrum. As the census was taken quin-
quennially, the word lustrum came to signify a period of
five years.
At first, the census was taken by the kings in person.
After the expulsion of the kings it was taken by the con-
suls; but the duties accompanying the census became so
important that in 443 B.C. two magistrates, called censors,
were chosen from the patricians, to whom this duty was en-
trusted. The office of the censors ranked next to that of dic-
tator. Their powers and duties were threefold: 1st. They
took the census and made and kept the official record. In
performing this duty they were the sole judges of the qual-
ifications required by law for the rank or class to which a
citizen should be assigned. 2d. They were conservators
of public and private morals. This branch of their power
was called regimen morum. If in their judgment a citizen
was guilty of immoral or unworthy conduct, they placed
him in a lower class. They could even degrade a Senator
by omitting his name from the senatorial list. Ulpian says
in his “Digest” (tit. 1-6): “Roman citizens are free who
have been made free by the act of manumission, by the
census, or by a lawful will.” (See also CIGERO, Top. ii. 10.)
Any one known to absent himself from the registration was
842
CENSUS.
called incensus, and was subject to the severest punishment.
In the time of Servius Tullius this punishment might be
imprisonment or death. In the days of the republic the
incensus might be sold as a slave: “Maxima capitis dimi-
nutio est, per quam et civitas et libertas amittitur, veluticum
incensus aliquis venerit.” (Ulpian, “Digest,” tit. xi. 11.)
3d. They were charged with the administration of the
finances of the state. The tribute assessed upon a Roman
citizen depended upon the amount of his property, as reg-
istered in the census; and the regulation of taxes was
placed in their hands, though they did not receive nor dis-
burse the revenues. -
The censorship continued 421 years, when its powers were
absorbed by the emperors. Augustus extended the census
to the provinces, and ordered a general enumeration of
persons and property throughout the empire. Domitian
assumed the title of “perpetual censor.” The enumeration
continued to be made for several centuries, but the cere-
mony of lustration was not observed after the reign of Ves-
pasian ; and later, the censuses were taken but once in fif-
teen years. With the dissolution of the Roman empire, the
census seems to have disappeared from history; and in the
general decline of intellectual life that followed, even the
original meaning of the word was practically lost from the
customs of nations.
II. THE CENs Us DURING THE MIDDLE AGES.—In medi-
aeval times the word “census” was still employed, but it
was applied almost exclusively to the records of landed
estates and the assessment of taxes. Until the thirteenth
century there is no record of a distinct enumeration of the
population in the annals of any mediaeval people. In that
dreary waste of history a few attempts were made to learn
something concerning the people and their condition. In
the year 780, Charlemagne appointed officers called missi
dominici, or royal commissioners, who travelled from prov-
ince to province to examine the condition of his empire.
Their reports contained some valuable statistics concerning
the people, the soil, and the products of his vast dominions.
(See MARTIN’s “Histoire de France,” tom. ii. 277–284.)
These reports were not kept up after the death of Charle-
magne.
A more elaborate and successful effort in the same direc-
tion was made in England in 1081, by William the Con-
queror, in the institution of the famous “Doomsday Book.”
An inquisition was made throughout the kingdom concern-
ing the quantity of land contained in each county, the
name of each Saxon and Norman proprietor of land, and
the slaves and cattle belonging to each. All these were
registered in a book, each article beginning with the king's
property, and proceeding downward according to the rank
of the proprietors. By this register the king could know
the wealth, rank, and position of all his subjects. It served
as the basis of taxation, and was used in the courts as the
evidence of property. Of this book Burke says: “It was
a work in all respects useful, and worthy of a better age.”
Several early attempts at a census were made in Spain—
one by Peter the Ceremonious, king of Aragon, in the
fourteenth century, the results of which were not published
until the present century; and another in the fifteenth cen-
tury, by order of the Crown of Castile.
In different parts of Europe a few statistical works ap-
peared; but their scope was narrow and their materials were
scanty and inaccurate.
It would appear that a comprehensive census is found
only in enlightened despotisms or in free communities.
Neither of these were frequent in the Middle Ages, and
this may account for the absence of enumerations of the
people during that period.
III. THE CENsus IN MoDERN TIMEs.-The modern cen–
sus is of slow growth, and seems to have developed only as
nations came to appreciate the fact that the strength and
glory of a state depend upon the condition of its people
and their industries. While rulers were unwilling to allow
their people any share in public affairs, there was little at-
tention paid to the population and its condition. Till with-
in the last two centuries scarcely an effort was made in any
modern country to obtain any comprehensive knowledge
of the people.
Sweden has the honor of being the first modern govern-
ment to establish a systematic plan, and to record import-
ant facts concerning its population. The frequent recur-
renee of famine and pestilence in that country near the be-
ginning of the sixteenth century led the clergy to keep a
register of the marriages, baptisms, and burials within their
several parishes. The keeping of this register was made
obligatory by an ecclesiastical law of 1686, which is still in
force. That law required a register of marriages, births, and
deaths, with many accompanying particulars; a record of
all persons removing to or from each parish; a list of the
inhabitants by houses and households; and a record of all
extraordinary accidents occurring during the year. These
registers were intended to serve the requirements of religion,
and also to afford the means of correcting the register of
landed property and households kept by the tax-collectors.
As these registers were made on a uniform plan, and by a
body of intelligent and cultivated men, who were well ac-
quainted with the people of their parishes, the records were
exceedingly accurate and valuable. For a long time the
results were not collected; but in consequence of a memorial
presented to the Diet in 1746 by the Academy of Sciences
of Stockholm, Schedules of questions concerning the move-
ment and condition of the population were distributed
among the parishes, with orders to the pastors to make re-.
turns from their registers for the previous twenty-five years.
In the year 1749 a return was made, which contained a large
number of valuable details concerning the condition of the
population, but it was many years before these facts were
published. . The number of inhabitants was long regarded
as one of the most important state secrets; and it was for-
bidden under heavy penalties to reveal to the public any-
thing respecting it. It was only in 1762 that permission
was given to publish some extracts from the official reports
concerning the progress of the population. It was from
facts thus obtained that Doctor Price prepared his first
essay in the form of a letter to Doctor Franklin, which laid
the basis for the famous life-tables founded on the statis-
tics of Sweden.
From 1749 to 1751 the reports of population were made
annually; from 1754 to 1772, triennially; from 1775 to the
present time the census has been taken once in five years.
In towns the head of the household, in accordance with in-
structions, fills up the schedules, which are collected by the
agents of the police. In the country districts the census is
still taken by the pastors as a part of their parochial duties.
England was very slow in achieving a census. In 1592,
when the plague was in London, records were kept of the
number of deaths in the city; but the practice soon fell into
disuse, and was not revived until 1603, the first year of the
reign of James I., when a weekly account was ordered to be
kept of burials and christenings in London. These records
were regularly kept thereafter, but little attention was paid
to them until the year 1661, when Sir William Petty, writ-
ing under the name of Captain John Graunt, published a
tract entitled “Natural and Political Observations, men-
tioned in a following index, and made upon the Bills of
Mortality of London, with reference to the Government,
Religion, Trade, Growth, Air, Diseases, and several changes
of said City.” This work attracted much attention, and the
author followed it up by several similar works—one on the
mortality bills of Dublin; another in 1686, entitled “An
Essay concerning the Multiplication of Mankind,” together
with an “Essay on Political Arithmetick,” concerning the
growth of the city of London.
It is curious to observe what vague and erroneous opin-
ions prevailed, even among the most intelligent thinkers
of that time, concerning the number of people in any state
or city. A striking illustration of this may be seen in the
fact that when Sir William began his investigation of the
population of London, he mentions it as a matter of general
belief that the city then contained several millions of peo-
ple. The imperfections of the statistical methods employed
in his day may be seen in the following passage from Sir
William’s “Third Essay in Political Arithmetic,” 1686, pp.
21 and 22: -
“Proofs that the number of people in the 134 Parishes
of the London Bills of Mortality, without reference to other
cities, is about 696 thousand—viz.:
“I know but three ways of finding the same :
“I. By the houses, and families, and heads living in each.
“2. By the number of burials in healthful times, and by
the proportion of those that live to those that die.
“3. By the number of those who die of the plague in pes-
tilential years, in proportion to those that 'scape.”
In applying his first method he has no count of the houses,
but, as he says, “pitches upon a number” as a rough esti-.
mate, then guesses at the average number of families to a
house and persons in a family, and finally applies his arith-
metic. His second and third methods were even more vague.
During the eighteenth century several efforts were made
to guess at the population of England, but nothing of value
was accomplished till near the close of that century. Con-
sidering the fact that economic science had already attained
a high degree of development in England, that many wri-
ters had successfully investigated and ably discussed statis-
tical subjects, and that censuses had been ordered in the
American colonies by the home government since the sev-
enteenth century, it is surprising that no attempt was made
to ascertain the population of any one of the three united
kingdoms by actual inquiry until 1790; when Sir John Sin-
clair, a high authority in matters of public finance in his
time, and a man of rare intelligence, enterprise, and perse-
verance, undertook the compilation of a complete popula-
CENSUS.
tion, agricultural, commercial, and industrial census of
Scotland. For this purpose he addressed one hundred and
sixty questions, on as many different subjects, to all the
clergymen of the Established Church. He had much diffi-
culty in obtaining answers from them, but by dint of per-
sistently-repeated appeals he succeeded, after several years,
in securing returns from nearly all the parishes. The re-
turns were published by him successively in a series of
twenty-one volumes. The energy of this remarkable man
may be judged from the fact that he secured no less than
900 contributors to his census, and that the whole compila-
tion and publication was completed in just seven years.
He subsequently prepared a masterly compendium of the
series, entitled an “Analysis of the Statistics of Scotland.”
His statistics were not absolutely accurate, but they formed,
although the work of a single individual, a more complete
census than any yet undertaken by any government. Sir
John Sinclair may be said to be the founder of British pub-
lic statistics; for it was mainly at his suggestion that Par-
liament, on December 31, 1800, passed an act providing for
a general enumeration of the population of England, Wales,
and Scotland in the following spring, and every tenth year
thereafter. The bill was offered in the Commons by Charles
Abbott (afterwards Lord Tenterden), and the motion for
leave to introduce it was seconded by Mr. Wilberforce. The
first census was taken on the 10th of March, 1801, in Eng-
land and Wales; for Scotland a later day was assigned,
owing to the inclemency of the season. The law contained
but one schedule, and the following inquiries were made :
The number of houses, inhabited and uninhabited; the
number of families ; the number of inhabitants, male and
female; a classification of the population according to oc-
cupation, in three divisions: 1st, persons chiefly employed
in agriculture; 2d, persons chiefly employed in trade and
manufactures or handicrafts; 3d, all other persons not com-
prised in these two classes; the number of baptisms and
burials each tenth year from 1700 to 1800; and the num-
ber of marriages from 1754 to 1801. In the two subsequent
enumerations, in 1811 and 1821, the same schedule was fol-
lowed, except that the occupations of the heads of families
only were entered. In that of 1821 a classification of ages
was also adopted. In 1831 a uniform system of registra-
tion of births, marriages, and deaths was established by act
of Parliament for England and Wales, under the supervis-
ion of the registrar-general’s office. Under the act the ter-
ritory to which it was applied was divided into over two
thousand registration districts. The same act provided that
subsequent enumerations in England and Wales should be
taken by the local registrars under the direction of the reg-
istrar-general. The creation of a regular statistical service
greatly facilitated the census of 1841 in England and Wales.
In Scotland the less efficient method of employing the par-
ish schoolmasters as local censors was continued.
In Ireland the first attempt at a general census was made
in 1811, with very unsatisfactory results. -It was repeated
in 1821, but produced nothing but a mere enumeration of
doubtful accuracy. The next census, taken in 1831, was
subjected to a correction in 1834. In 1841 the constabu-
lary force was employed as census-takers, with better re-
sults. An attempt was made, in connection with the census
of the year last named, to obtain statistics of the rural
economy of the Irish kingdom, which proved very suc-
cessful.
Great efforts were made. to render the sixth census of
England, Wales, and Scotland, in 1851, superior in results
to the preceding enumerations. The special law enacted
for the purpose provided that the census should be taken
on one and the same day—31st of March—in the three
parts of the kingdom named. For that purpose 30,610
competent enumerators were appointed, with the author-
ity of the registrar-general, by the 2190 district registrars
then in function in England and Wales. Only as much
territory was assigned to each enumerator in the registra-
tion districts as could be conveniently canvassed by one
person. There being no uniform system of registration in
Scotland, the thirty-two sheriffs of that kingdom were
authorized to appoint 1010 temporary registrars—generally
parochial schoolmasters—and 8130 enumerators; the gov-
ernment appointed 257 enumerators for the smaller islands.
Some days before the census-day the enumerators delivered
to every occupier of a house or tenement a “householder's
schedule,” containing inquiries as to the name, the head of
family, condition, sex, age, occupation, and birthplace of
every person in Great Britain, and also as to the number
of blind, deaf, and dumb. For the use of the lower classes
of Wales schedules were printed in Welsh. The schedule
was to be filled up in the night of March 30–31. No one
present on that night was to be omitted except workingmen
and others performing night-labor away from their habita-
tions. Travellers were enumerated at the hotels and houses
at which they arrived on the following morning. Simul-
843
taneously with the household schedules the enumerators
distributed in the proper quarters forms for collecting in-
formation respecting places of worship, Scholastic establish-
ments, and miscellaneous institutions. The schedules were
taken up by the enumerators at an early hour on the 31st
of March. The collectors filled up those parts which per-
sons had either neglected or were unable to fill. They were
also required to note all the unoccupied houses and build-
ings in course of construction. The floating population—
that is, such persons as spent the night named in barges
or boats on canals or small streams, in barns, sheds, tents,
and the like—the enumerators were required to estimate
according to the best information they could obtain. Special
notice was to be taken of all extraordinary assemblages of
people anywhere at the time of the census.
The enumerators were allowed one week for the trans-
cription of their schedules and the completion of summaries
and estimates called for in their very full instructions. The
revision of the returns by the district registrars, in which
the latter were to pay particular attention to nine specially-
defined points, had to be completed in a fortnight. The
revised returns were subjected to another revision by the
superintendent registrars before they were finally trans-
mitted to the census office. -
The custom-house officers took the census of sea-going
vessels in port. Persons belonging to the navy and com-
mercial marine were also separately enumerated by the
proper authorities. The government furnished the statis-
tics of the army, half-pay officers, and pensioners, the civil
service, the civilians and Europeans in the East India
Company’s service, and of all British subjects living in
foreign parts, as far as they could be ascertained through
consular and diplomatic organs.
The British census of 1851 was the most successful sta-
tistical operation, both as regards quickness and accuracy of
execution, performed up to that time in any country where
public statistics were cultivated. The plan of the census
of 1861 did not vary in any essential respect from that of
the preceding one. Its execution was equally rapid and
fruitful of satisfactory results, in spite of the greater diffi-
culty of the task from the growth of population, etc.
In Ireland the censuses of 1851 and 1861 were again
taken by the constabulary force. The mode of enumeration
was essentially the same as in England, except that the
schedules represented a wider field of inquiry. The addi-
tional interrogatories related to insanity, idiocy, degree of
education, attendance at school, buildings other than habi-
tations, and language. Since 1804 a general registration of
births and deaths in Ireland is made by civil officers; up
to that time registers were kept only for the Protestant
population.
While both in Ireland and in Scotland an agricultural
census, which serves to determine the area devoted to the
culture of different products of the soil, and the number of
live-stock, had been required for many years, a first cattle
census was taken in England and Wales only in May,
1866; it was followed soon after by a comprehensive agri-
cultural census.
The digestion of the English and Irish census-reports
by the central statistical authorities is conducted in a
thoroughly scientific manner. The general reports and the
special compilations therefrom on a variety of subjects are
unsurpassed by the corresponding records of any other
country. Their great value to statisticians and economists
is universally acknowledged. The movement of the popu-
lation of the United Kingdom is annually determined by
the registrar-general's office through the agency of the dis-
trict registrars. -
In 1871 the eighth census of the United Kingdom was
taken. Over 32,000 enumerators were employed in taking
it. Several minor inquiries were added to the schedules,
and some important inquiries concerning education were
made to supply the demand for information by the school
board established under the Elementary Education act of
1870. In London alone the school board was supplied with
certain particulars concerning the 700,000 children between
the age of three and thirteen living within the limits of the
London school board district.
France established a census only after many ineffectual
attempts and against formidable obstacles. The first com-
prehensive suggestion of a census was made by Vauban,
the great engineer and scholar of the seventeenth century.
Seeing the distress into which France had been plunged
by the long wars of Louis XIV., and deploring the heavy
and unequal burdens of taxation which had been laid upon
the people, he entered upon a careful survey of the con-
dition of France, and in the first years of the eighteenth
century developed a plan to sweep away the great army of
fiscal officers and establish a uniform tax on all the prop-
erty of the realm. - -
This he called the “projet d'une dixme royale,” which he
844
CENSUS.
published in 1707 in a volume addressed to the king. In
order to apply his plan, it was necessary to know the num-
ber and classes of the population. His method of esti-
mating the number was peculiar. Selecting a portion of
France which he regarded as having an average density
of population, he caused it to be accurately measured and
its population estimated. From this he calculated the area
of France and its population; but near the conclusion of
his book he appealed to the king to provide by law for the
numbering of the people, and set forth in strong and elo-
quent language the advantages of such an enumeration.
“There is no battalion,” said he, “in the kingdom, how-
ever insignificant it may be, that is not subject at least to
a dozen reviews and inspections during each year. If such
pains be taken with one battalion, of how much greater
importance it is to enumerate and review the condition of
that great body of the people from which the king draws
all his glory and all his riches!” This book appeared in
January, 1707. It gave great offence to Louis XIV., be-
cause it assumed that the glory of the realm consisted of
the people and their wealth, and it further assumed that
kings and ministers needed to study the people and their
wants, in order to the proper performance of their duties.
By a royal decree of February 14, 1707, the book was or-
dered to be seized and burned in the pillory, and all the
booksellers were forbidden, under heavy penalties, to keep
or sell it. Vauban survived the shock of this disgrace but
six weeks. He died of a broken heart. The treatment he
received is a striking illustration of that arrogant igno-
rance which refuses to draw instruction from the only true
source of knowledge and statesmanship. t
Several attempts were made at different times to ascer-
tain such facts relating to the people as would aid the
French monarchs in making their military levies; but noth-
ing of value was accomplished except by individual effort.
In the latter part of the reign of Louis XV., M. D. Gour-
ney, minister of commerce, organized a bureau of informa-
tion, which gave some attention to the subject of poptila-
tion. M. Moheau, who was attached to this bureau, col-
lected some important statistics, which were published by
order of the government in 1774. In 1784 appeared the
work of M. Necker, minister of finance of Louis XVI.,
entitled “Traité de l’Administration des Finances,” in
which the number and condition of the population were
discussed. But nothing was done to establish a census
until after the Revolution of 1792. Before the close of the
eighteenth century a law was passed requiring prefects of
the departments to prepare from the civil registers exact
annual abstracts of the number of marriages, births, and
deaths. This law, with some modifications, is still in force.
In 1801 the legislature decreed that national censuses
should be taken once in five years. A census was taken in
1801, and another in 1806. No other was taken under the
first Napoleon. The next general enumeration was taken
six years after the final restoration of the Bourbons.
Since that year quinquennial censuses have been the rule.
Belgium has carried the work of census-taking to a high
degree of thoroughness and completeness since the revolu-
tion which made her an independent sovereignty. This
revolution was immediately followed by active efforts in the
direction of statistics. One of the first acts of the provis-
ional government in 1831 was the creation of a special
statistical service. In 1841 a central commission of statis-
tics was established by royal decree, with which M. Quete-
let and other distinguished statisticians have been con-
nected from its organization. . In 1843 provincial statisti-
cal commissions were instituted throughout the kingdom.
In 1856 a law was enacted newly regulating the mode of
taking the census and keeping the civil register. It pro-
vided that a general census should be taken every ten years
throughout the kingdom, and that the population-returns
should form the basis of representation. The census was
to be taken in such a manner as to give the actual as well
as the legal population. The prescribed inquiries included
surnames and Christian names, sex, age by year and
month, birthplace, civil status, occupation or condition,
habitual domicil, and town and country population.
Three schedules, printed in the French, German, and
Flemish languages, were distributed and collected through-
out the kingdom by special census-agents. Both the dis-
tribution and collection were to be made in one day. Tem-
porary census bureaus were established, one for each prov-
ince, which were to receive the returns of the agents after
they had been revised by the communal juries—bodies ap-
pointed for each community, and consisting of officials and
private citizens. . The statistics of schools and public in-
stitutions were taken by means of special schedules. The
military authorities were charged with the army census.
The refusal to give information to the census-agents was
punishable by fine and imprisonment. The law of 1856
also contained provisions regarding the keeping of civil
registers, which ensured greater accuracy in the recording
of the movement of the population.
Two general censuses have been taken under the law of
1856—one in that year and another in 1866. In the latter,
comprehensive inquiries into the agricultural, mining, and
manufacturing industries of the kingdom were made. In
1858 a special census of deaf-mutes and the blind was taken.
The central statistical commission receives the returns of
the successive censuses, yearly abstracts from the civil reg-
isters, and the results of special inquiries, and prepares the
whole for publication.
Prussia.-As in many European countries, Prussia, ob-
tains her population-reports through a central bureau of
statistics, which was established in 1805, and continues to
the present day, though with some modifications. The
labors of the bureau are directed to–1, general statistics;
2, births, marriages, and deaths; 3, Schools and churches;
4, medical statistics; and 5, statistics of mechanical trades
and manufactures. From 1805 to 1820 these inquiries were
made annually, but since the latter date, information relative
to the first, third, and fourth subjects was collected but
once in three years. When the customs union of 1834 was
established, triennial censuses of the population were au-
thorized, and have been taken regularly since that date.
At first, the inquiries concerning population were the
actual population, according to sex, age, birthplace, relig-
ion, immigration, and émigration. In 1840 the enumera-
tion was made nominative, which resulted immediately in a
large increase in the population-returns. In 1846 the num-
ber of families was determined, and in 1849 the distribu-
tion of the population by habitations. In 1858 the persons
of the two sexes between seventeen and forty-five years of
age were returned in five classes. In 1861 the unmarried
and widowed were specially classified. With the census of
the same year an inquiry was added in reference to the lan-
guage spoken and the social condition and occupations of
the population. The Prussian census is taken by civil offi-
cers, in the month of December, on one day, by means of
printed schedules. Great expedition is shown in the publi-
cation of the returns. In addition to the statistics of popu-
lation, many statistics are obtained showing the nature, ex-
tent, and distribution of real property, wages and salaries,
insurance, aid and co-operative societies, and the numer-
ical strength of the Catholic and Protestant churches.
Austria.--During the last half of the eighteenth and the
first half of the nineteenth century no censuses were taken
in Austria, except such as were connected with military
conscription and inquiries to ascertain what portion of the
population were liable to do military duty. Separate sys-
tems of enumeration prevailed in the different provinces,
and the materials for a general knowledge of the whole popu-
lation of the empire were very meagre. A uniform enumer-
ation was made throughout the empire for the first time in
1851, but its results were so imperfect that in 1855 a com-
mission of high administrative officers was appointed for
the preparation of a new census law, which received the
imperial sanction in 1857. By its provisions the military
needs of the state were no longer the main motive for a cen-
sus; but statistics of population, wealth, and industry were
to be obtained as a basis for the safe conduct of public af-
fairs. It provided that a census, based on the actual popu-
lation, should be taken once in six years, exclusively by the
civil authorities. Printed schedules were distributed by
municipal and administrative officers, to be filled up by the
heads of families, owners of tenement-houses, and those
in charge of convents, schools, and public institutions.
Detailed printed instructions accompanied the schedules.
Those that intentionally failed to furnish the desired infor-
mation were punished by fine and imprisonment. The
schedules called for information under the following heads:
Composition of families, including servants; age; sex;
names and titles; civil status; social condition; religion;
occupation; marriages, births, and deaths; the number of
cities, towns, hamlets, villages, dwellings, and renters. The
number of Austrian subjects living in foreign parts was ob-
tained through the imperial legations. The census of the
naval and military population was separately taken by the
proper authorities. In 1828 a central bureau of statistics
was created, and charged with the duty of consolidating the
census-returns and preparing them for publication.
Russia.—Partial censuses were taken by order of the
Russian government in 1700, 1704, 1705, and 1710. In
1718, Peter the Great required all landed proprietors to
make a declaration of the number of serfs belonging to each.
The same year he organized a special commission to visit the
separate provinces of his empire for the purpose of making
a general census. No enumeration of females was made in
these early censuses, which were taken solely for the pur-
poses of revenue and military conscription. A decree of
1722 directed that a census should be taken once in twenty
years; but this interval of time was not regularly observed
CENSUS. *
845.
during the remainder of the eighteenth century. In 1802
a central bureau of statistics was organized under the direc-
tion of the minister of the interior, who superintended
the returns of population, agriculture, commerce, and in-
dustry. This bureau was reorganized in 1852 under the
name of the statistical commission. The commission has
taken censuses in 1812, 1815, 1834, 1850, 1860, and 1870.
The census is taken by means of printed schedules dis-
tributed by the local authorities, who are made responsible
for the proper returns. The work of consolidating and
publishing the returns devolves upon the statistical com-
IlllSS1011.
Norway.-A decennial census was instituted in Norway
in 1815, and has continued up to the present time, compris-
ing inquiries as to age, sex, civil status, number of families
and habitations, useful domestic animals, and the territo-
rial area of each district. A bureau of statistics superin-
tends all forms of public statistics except those pertaining
to the administration of justice, public education, and finan-
cial administration. Inquiries are made once in five years
in regard to the condition of industry. Annual exhibits
are made of births, marriages, and deaths, of commerce
and navigation, of the administration of justice, and of
the population suffering from physical and mental disa-
bilities.
Spain paid but little attention to public statistics after
her census of 1798 until 1856, when a central statistical
commission was organized, under whose supervision a gen-
eral census was taken in 1857, and since then once in three
years. The census is taken in one night by government
officials charged with the collection, verification, and con-
Solidation of the returns. A final revision is made by the
Statistical commission.
Switzerland.—The original constitution of the Swiss fed-
eration required a census to be taken once in twenty years.
Most of the inquiries were conducted by the several can-
tonal governments. The returns were not uniform, and
were generally inaccurate. In 1860 a law of the Federal
assembly prescribed a decennial census for the whole federa–
tion, and instituted a federal bureau of statistics under the
direction of the interior department. The first census under
the new law was in 1860. The inquiries included sex, age,
civil condition, origin, birthplace, domicil, religion, lan-
guage, physical disabilities, immigration, the distribution of
real property, the number of families, and the number of
habitations and other buildings. The statistical bureau is
endeavoring to extend the range of the census, but finds its
efforts somewhat impeded by the difficulty of dealing with
twenty-five cantonal governments. The cantonal statistics
collected by the local governments are consolidated and
published by the central bureau. The latter is endeavor-
ing to give a more national character to the statistical ser-
vice. Until a few years ago, the different cantons followed
different methods in the collection of vital and mortuary
statistics, but at the instance of the bureau they have
now adopted a uniform plan. In 1866 the central bureau
initiated the census of live-stock, and later collected very
full statistics of railways, savings banks, and fire-insurance
companies. -
Italy.—Soon after the establishment of the modern king-
dom of Italy, in 1859 and 1860, a bureau of statistics was
created with ample powers, under the direction of Doctor
Maestri, an eminent statistician. The first general census,
which was to afford the basis of representation in the na-
tional parliament, was taken December 31, 1861, under a
law prescribing general enumerations once in ten years.
The census is taken in one day by means of previously dis-
tributed schedules. Since 1861 the central bureau has been
charged with additional inquiries relative to mutual-aid
societies, savings banks, public charities, industrial corpo-
rations, libraries, and institutions of education.
The census in modern Greece dates from her last struggle
for independence. The first general enumeration of the
people was made in 1836. From that date censuses were
taken annually until 1845; since when they have been
taken at irregular intervals—viz., 1848, 1853, 1856, 1861,
and i868.
STATISTICAL CONGRESS.—The work of taking modern
censuses has been greatly facilitated, and the value of the
results greatly increased, by the efforts of the “International
Statistical Congress,” an organization which resulted from
the great exposition held in London in 1851. The congress
is composed principally of men from all civilized nations,
Who in their own countries are members, leaders, and chiefs
of bureaus of statistics, or who have charge of the census.
Sessions of the congress were held in Brussels in 1853,
Paris in 1855, Vienna in 1857, London in 1860, Berlin in
1863, Florence in 1867, at The Hague in 1869, and the
eighth and last at St. Petersburg, August, 1872.
The census has been a leading topic of discussion by the
congress. Statements have been made of the condition of
the census movement in the various countries, and the con-
gress earnestly recommended uniformity in the census in-
quiries, in order that comparisons could be made of the vital
statistics of the different countries. Many valuable modi-
fications have been made in the censuses of nearly all the
nations, in consequence of the suggestions of the congress.
As a result of these efforts, Messrs. Quetelet and Heusch-
ling published at Brussels in 1865 a volume of interna-
tional statistics, in which the population reports of the
United States and all the leading states of Europe are col-
lected and arranged in comparative tables.
THE CENSUs of THE UNITED STATES.—Considering the
character of the present work, the census of the United
States should receive much more attention than that of any
other country. The matter will be distributed under three
heads:
I. The Colonial Period.—The American census originated
in the colonial period of our history. The British board
of trade played an important part in colonial affairs. At
times it was almost the Supreme directing power, and under
its instructions several enumerations of the population of
the colonies were attempted. The tables were prepared
under the immediate direction of the colonial governors by
the sheriffs and justices of the peace, and were exceedingly
inaccurate. Mr. Bancroft, speaking of enumerations in
the latter part of the seventeenth century, says: “The po-
sitive data in those days are half the time motoriously false.”
(History, vol. ii., p. 450, note.) Speaking of the same ma-
terials in the middle of the eighteenth century, he says:
“Nearly all are imperfect.” (Vol. iv., p. 128, note.) The
so-called enumerations should rather be called computa-
tions. No general examination, embracing all the colonies,
was ever attempted. The tables prepared for the board of
trade were in great part based on muster-rolls and returns
of taxables. “Enumeration is a slow and laborious pro-
cess,” says Sir G. C. Lewis, “and until experience has
taught us its necessity, where correctness is required there
is a disposition, especially among uncultivated people, to
rely upon computation.” Besides, the aggregates found in
the tables were no doubt generally too large. “To count,”
says Doctor Johnson, “is a modern practice; the ancient
method was to guess; and when numbers are guessed they
are always magnified.” That no accurate enumerations of
population were made in the colonial period should excite
no surprise. The census had not yet assumed scientific
form and definiteness. England took her first census in
1801, and even then the work was so imperfectly done that
the results were of no great value. On general grounds it
would be absurd to suppose that the board of trade took
accurate enumerations of the British colonists in America.
a half century or century before England counted her own
people. Besides, the directing authority was three thou-
sand miles distant from the people to be enumerated, and
the sparseness of the population, scattered over immense
areas, as well as the free and independent modes of life pre-
vailing in many localities, made thoroughness and accuracy
impossible. Superstition also opposed census-taking. In
1712, Governor Hunter undertook an enumeration of the in-
habitants of New York. In writing to the home government
he excused the imperfection of the returns in part by say-
ing that “the people were deterred by a simple superstition
and observation that the sickness followed upon the last
numbering of the people.” (Colonial History of New York,
vol. v., p. 339.) Governor Burnett of New Jersey, in a
communication to the English board in 1726, alluding to
an enumeration made in New York three years before,
said: “I would have then ordered the like accounts to be
taken in New Jersey, but I was advised that it might make
the people uneasy, they being generally of a New England
extraction, and thereby enthusiasts; and that they would
take it for a repetition of the same sin that David com-
mitted in numbering the people, and might bring on the
same judgments. This notion put me off at that time, but,
since your lordships require it, I will give the orders to
the sheriffs that it may be done as soon as may be.” (Ib.,
vol. v., p. 777.) - -
The tables prepared under the direction of the board of
trade are so inaccurate that the more careful of recent
writers have generally preferred to construct new tables
rather than rely on them. Mr. Bancroft constructs a valu-
able table, showing the population at different dates from
1750 to 1790. (History of the United States, vol. iv., pp.127,
128, note.) He uses as data the returns, computations, and
official papers of current history, and also private letters
and journals. Mr. Bancroft says: “He who will construct
retrospectively general tables from the rate of increase in
America since 1790 will err very little.” In 1688, the
period of the English Revolution, the population of the
colonies was about 200,000. The aggregates found in three
tables prepared for the board of trade are here presented
(see BANCROFT, vol. iv., p. 128, note):
CENSUS.
846
Year. Whites. Blacks. Total.
1714 375,750 58,850 434,600
1727 502,000 78,000 580,000
1754 1,192,896 292,738 1,485,634

Mr. J. D. B. DeBow, following “Holmes’s Annals” as his
chief authority, gives three other tables: -
Year. Total.
1701.............. 262,000
1749.............. 1,046,000
1775.............. 2,803,000
II. The Continental Period.—In the Continental Con-
gress the question early arose, How shall the burdens of the
war be distributed 2 During the whole struggle for inde-
pendence Congress found no more perplexing question. On
the 26th of December, 1775, that body authorized and di-
rected the emission of $3,000,000 in bills of credit. It also
resolved that the thirteen United Colonies be pledged for
the redemption of these bills; that each colony provide
ways and means to sink its proportion in such manner as
it sees fit; that the proportion of each colony be deter-
mined according to the number of its inhabitants of all
ages, including negroes, and mulattoes; and that it be re-
commended to the colonial authorities to ascertain in the
most effectual manner their respective populations, and to
send the returns to Congress properly authenticated. Most
of the colonies failed to comply with this recommendation.
Immediately after the adoption of the Declaration of Inde-
pendence, Congress began to discuss the form of a confed-
eration to be entered into by the States. After long discus-
sion the Articles of Confederation were perfected and sub-
mitted to the States in 1777, but failing of an earlier rati-
fication, they did not go into operation until 1781. The
ninth article declared: “The United States in Congress
assembled shall have authority . . . to agree upon the num-
ber of land forces, and to make requisition from each State
for its quota, in proportion to the number of white inhab-
itants in such State.” In November, 1781, a resolution was
introduced into the Congress recommending to the several
States that they cause to be taken and transmitted to Con-
gress the number of their white inhabitants, pursuant to
the ninth article of the Confederation. The resolution
failed to pass, and the article was inoperative. The finan-
cial machinery provided by the eighth article of the Con-
federation wholly broke down; rather, it was never set in
motion. In 1783, Congress sought to induce the States to
provide new machinery. An amendment to the eighth ar-
ticle was proposed, which declared that “All charges of
war and other expenses that have been or shall be incurred
for the common defence or general welfare, and allowed by
the United States in Congress assembled, except so far as
shall be otherwise provided for, shall be defrayed out of a
common treasury, which shall be supplied by the several
States in proportion to the whole number of white and
other free citizens and inhabitants, of every age, sex, and
condition, including those bound to servitude for a term of
years, and three-fifths of all other persons not compre-
hended in the foregoing description, except Indians not
paying taxes in each State ; which number shall be trien-
nially taken and transmitted to the United States in Con-
gress assembled, in such mode as they shall direct and ap-
point.” This amendment did not prevail, and the Articles
of Confederation remained unchanged until they were su-
perseded by the present national Constitution. The pro-
posed amendment, however, contains the original Sugges-
tion of the “three-fifths rule.” During the continental
period no general enumeration of population was secured.
Various estimates and computations were produced in Con-
gress from time to time, but they came no nearer accuracy
than those made in the colonial period. Thus far, no com-
plete enumeration had been effected. But it had become
clear that there never could be such enumeration until the
work was done by a central directing authority. It was
left to the Constitution to give us first an enumeration of
population, and afterwards a national census.
III. The Constitutional Period.—The framers of the Con-
stitution had few, if any, more difficult questions to deal
with than the apportionment of representatives and direct
taxes. After long deliberation the matured opinion of the
convention assumed the well-known form : “Representa-
tives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the sev-
eral States which may be included within this Union ac-
cording to their respective numbers, which shall be deter-
mined by adding to the whole number of free persons, in-
cluding those bound to service for a term of years, and ex-
cluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons.
The actual enumeration shall be made within three years
after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States,
and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such
manner as they shall by law direct.” In a subsequent
clause this enumeration is called a census, but it did not
contemplate a census in the present received sense of that
word. Enumerations of the people have almost always
originated in military or fiscal necessities, and have been
used for immediate practical ends. The varied and im-
portant uses for which statistics are now employed are alto-
gether modern. But while the framers of the national Con-
stitution never contemplated a census that should answer
the thousand questions of social and political science, they
nevertheless provided an instrument by which many of those
questions are now answered. At its second session, the first
Congress passed a law to carry the constitutional provision
into effect. It was approved March 1, 1790. As this law
was the model of subsequent legislation upon the same sub-
ject for fifty years, its leading provisions are here stated.
The marshals of the several judicial districts were author-
ized and required to cause the inhabitants within their dis-
tricts, excluding Indians not taxed, to be enumerated; the
marshals were empowered to appoint as many assistants as
the service required; the enumeration was to commence
August 1, 1790, and was to be completed within nine months
thereafter ; the marshals were to file the returns with the
clerks of their respective district courts, who were directed
to receive and carefully preserve the same; the aggregates .
were to be transmitted to the President of the United States
by September 1, 1791; each assistant marshal was required
to cause a correct schedule of the inhabitants enumerated
within his division, duly signed, to be set up for inspection
at two of the most public places within said division; and
every person above sixteen years of age was required to
give the census-taker all necessary information in his pos-
session. The law further prescribed the necessary oaths,
penalties, forms, and compensation. Although all inquiries
strictly pertained to population, the schedule incorporated
in the law covered two or three items of information not
strictly required by the Constitution. The inquiries were
six in number: 1, Names of the heads of families; 2, free
white males of sixteen years and upwards, including heads
of families; 3, free white males under sixteen years; 4, free
white females, including heads of families; 5, all other free
persons; 6, slaves. Under this law the first real enumera-
tion of population within the United States was made.
Just before the census law of 1800 was enacted, two
learned societies memorialized Congress on the subject.
The American Philosophical Society, Thomas Jefferson its
president, represented that the decennial census offered an
occasion of great value for ascertaining sundry facts highly
important to society, and not otherwise to be obtained. It
therefore prayed that the next census might be so taken as
to present a more detailed view of the inhabitants of the
United States under several different aspects; such as the
effect of soil and climate on human life; the increase of
population by birth and emigration; and the conditions
and vocations of the people. To gain the first of these
ends, the society suggested that the population should be
much more minutely analyzed with respect to age. To
gain the second, it was proposed that a table should be used
presenting in separate columns the respective numbers of
native citizens, citizens of foreign birth, and aliens. To reach
the third end, it was proposed that the number of free male
inhabitants of all ages engaged in different professions and
pursuits should be ascertained, such as merchants, agricul-
turists, handicraftsmen, mariners, etc. The other memorial
came from the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences,
Timothy Dwight president. It had in contemplation to
collect the materials for a complete view of the natural his-
tory of man and society in this country. Its suggestions
were similar to those contained in the former memorial,
but were less detailed. Both memorials were presented to
the Senate January 10, 1800, and were referred to the com-
mittee already charged with drafting a census bill. They
do not seem to have attracted any attention. In the year
1800 the national legislature was poorly prepared to ap-
preciate the value of such a census as these memorialists
prayed for; but it is interesting to note the fact that there
were then thoughtful men in the country, who appreciated
the importance of statistical investigation, and who saw
the national Constitution had provided all necessary ma-
chinery to gather its materials. The law of 1800 contained
some new features of minor importance. The schedule was
considerably extended. It registered the name of the
county, parish, town, etc. where the family resided; the
name of the head of each family; free white males under ten
years of age; free white males of ten and under sixteen ;
free white males of sixteen and under twenty-six; free
white males of twenty-six and under forty-five; free white
males of forty-five and upwards. The last five inquiries
were duplicated in reference to females. All other persons,

CENSUS.
847
except Indians not taxed, and slaves, were also enumerated,
but without distinction of age.
The general direction of the census was placed in the
state department, where it remained until the passage of
the present census law. \
In 1810 the population schedule of 1800 was used with-
out change or modification. The scope of the census was
enlarged so as to embrace other statistics than those relat-
ing to population. An act approved May 1, 1810, amenda-
tory of the census act approved March 1, 1810—thereby
showing that the enlargement was an afterthought—re-
quired the marshals and their assistants at the time for
taking the enumeration to take, under the direction of the
secretary of the treasury, and according to such instruc-
tions as he should give, an account of the several manu-
facturing establishments within their several districts and
divisions. The construction of the schedule was left to the
discretion of the secretary of the treasury. The one used
was a mere aggregation of items, and evinced no skill in
selecting and classifying the inquiries. For this reason,
as well as the further one that the manufacturers were but
poorly prepared to co-operate with the census-takers, the
results obtained were of no great value.
The census of 1820 presents no new features of marked
importance. The population schedule discriminated between
foreigners naturalized and not naturalized, while slaves“and
free colored persons were classified with respect to age. A
new manufacturers’ schedule was introduced, which was an
improvement upon that of 1810. It comprehended fewer
details, but was much more discriminating in inquiries and
more scientific in arrangement. This part of the work,
however, was so imperfectly done by the census-takers,
that the results obtained possessed but little value.
In the census of 1830 no attempt was made to obtain
industrial statistics of any sort. The schedule made a
more minute classification of population than had been
before attempted. The number of the deaf and dumb and
the blind in the three great classes of white, free colored,
and slave population was ascertained as far as practicable
in conducting a new experiment.
In 1840 still other statistics of population were collected,
the number of insane and idiotic people was recorded, the
number of persons engaged in the great industries, such as
agriculture, mining, manufactures, and commerce, was as-
certained; likewise the number of Revolutionary pension-
ers. Several columns were added to the schedule for educa-
tional statistics of universities or colleges, academies, and
grammar, primary, and common schools; the number of
scholars in these schools; together with the number of
white persons over twenty years of age who could not read
and write. The attempt to obtain statistics of industry
was renewed, and an extended though badly-arranged list
of questions was incorporated in the population schedule.
As there was no penalty for refusing to answer these ques-
tions, in some localities the people refused to answer them,
on the ground that they were illegal and inquisitorial. A
leading journal asked: “Is this Federal prying into the
domestic economy of the people a precursor to direct taxes?
Is nothing to escape its inquisitors or tax-gatherers? Is it
worthy of the dignity and high functions of the Federal
government to pursue such petty investigations?” (See
“Compendium of the United States Census,” 1850, p. 12.)
The industrial statistics obtained, however, were the most
valuable yet procured.
There have been two important events in the history
of the American census: first, the incorporation in the
national Constitution of the clause requiring a decennial
enumeration of the people; secondly, the passage of the
law under which the last three censuses have been taken.
As the time for taking the seventh census drew near, the
subject began to attract an unusual degree of attention. A
census board, consisting of the secretary of state, the at-
torney-general, and the postmaster-general, was created by
an act approved March 3, 1849. This board was empowered
to appoint a secretary, and was charged with the duty of
preparing forms, schedules, etc. for taking the next census,
but was instructed not to incorporate into the schedules
more than one hundred questions of all kinds. At the next
session of Congress the Senate raised a special committee
on the census, and imposed upon it a similar task. Several
eminent statisticians were called to Washington for consul-
tation. As the result of this preparatory work a bill was
finally matured and passed which greatly extended the
sphere of the census. This act, approved May 23, 1850, is en-
titled “A general act providing for the census of 1850, and
for every subsequent census.” It created a census office in
the newly-created department of the interior, and placed the
taking of the seventh and each succeeding census under
the charge of an officer known as the superintendent of the
census. The six schedules incorporated in the law bore the
following names by number: I, “Free inhabitants;” 2,
“Slave inhabitants;” 3, “ Persons who died during the
year ending June 1;” 4, “Productions of agriculture;” 5;
“Products of industry;” 6, “Social statistics.” Two im-
portant new features were incorporated in the first schedule:
the name, age, sex, and color of each person, together with
the place of his birth, whether State, Territory, or country,
were required.
The third or mortality schedule contained a class of in-
quiries wholly new in the American census, and which led to
valuable results. The fourth, fifth, and sixth schedules re-
lated to subjects that had received some attention in pre-
vious censuses, but they were now for the first time investi-
gated with much thoroughness. The census of 1850 was a
great improvement on all its predecessors, and went far to
place our census in the front rank of national enumera-
tions.
The census of 1860 was taken, under the superintendence
of Mr. J. C. G. Kennedy, on the same plan as that of 1850,
with but few modifications. Its statistics, however, were
more complete than those of 1850.
Before the census of 1870 was taken, an attempt was made
to procure a new law which should provide new machinery
and remodel the old schedules. An elaborate bill passed the
House of Representatives, but failed to receive the sanction
of the Senate. The census of 1870 was taken under the Iaw
of 1850, with such modifications as were required by the
amendments to the Federal Constitution. Some important
additions to the inquiries were also made by the census
office, under the superintendence of Mr. Francis A. Walker.
In consequence of the abolition of slavery the old schedule
relating to statistics of slaves was dropped. To meet the
requirements of the fourteenth amendment to the Constitu-
tion, two columns were added to the population schedule—
the first to obtain the number of male citizens of the United
States in each State of twenty-one years and upwards; the
second to obtain the number of such citizens whose right
to vote is denied or abridged on other grounds than re-
bellion or crime. Many changes were made by the census
office in the forms of the inquiries, by which they were
rendered more definite and more easily understood. Be-
sides the inquiries concerning “place of birth,” two columns
were added requiring a statement of the parentage of each
person. This has enabled us to know the number of our
people born of foreign parents. An inquiry was also added
concerning the public debt of towns, cities, counties, and
States, the results of which are very interesting. A strik-
ing feature has been added in the publication of results by
the construction of fourteen finely-engraved, graphic maps,
illustrating the various classes of statistics. They repre-
sent the density of the total population; the distribution
of the colored and foreign elements of population; the dis-
persion over the States of natives of the leading European
countries; the illiteracy and the wealth of each section in
contrast; the geographical and political divisions of the
United States at each period from the organization of the
government to 1870; the range in degree of four leading
groups of diseases; and the range in degree of five prin-
cipal agricultural products.
The ninth census was completed in a much shorter space
of time than any of its predecessors. The actual enumer-
ation of inhabitants began June 1, 1870, and was com-
pleted on the 9th of January, 1871. On the 1st of Novem-
ber, 1872, the superintendent announced the completion of
his report. It is not too much to say that the reports of the
ninth census form one of the noblest contributions which
any country has ever made to statistical science.
It clearly appears from this historical review that the
census of the United States is the result of a uniform and
steady development. Its germ is found in the national
Constitution, and its epochs of growth are the periods of
the recurring decennial enumerations. Instead of one
schedule, comprehending six inquiries, as in 1790, we now
have six schedules, comprehending about one hundred in-
quiries. Two other series of facts exhibit this growth in a
manner equally striking—viz., the official publication of
the results of successive censuses, and the total cost of each
census. These facts are shown in the following exhibit:
1790. “Return of the whole number of persons within
the several districts of the United States, etc.”—an octavo
pamphlet of 52 pages, published in 1792. Cost of this cen-
sus, $44,377.18.
1800. “Return of the whole number of persons within
the several districts of the United States, etc.”—a folio of
78 pages, published in 1801. Cost of second census,
$66,609.04.
1810. The report of this census was in two folio volumes:
I. “Aggregate amount of each description of persons with-
in the United States, etc.”—an oblong folio of 90 pages,
the date of publication not named. II. “A series of tables
showing the several branches of American manufactures,
exhibiting them in every county of the Union, so far as
,”
848
CENT—CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION.
they are returned in the reports of the marshals and the inhabitants and civilized persons of Indian descent not
secretaries of the Territories, and of their respective assist-
ants, in the autumn of 1810; together with returns of cer-
tain doubtful goods, productions of the soil, and agricul-
turál stock, so far as they have been received”—170 pp.,
4to. Cost of third census, $178,444.67.
1820. I. “Census for 1820, etc.”—a folio of 164 pp., pub-
lished in 1821. II. “Digest of accounts of manufacturing
establishments, etc.”—a folio of 100 pp., 1823. Cost of
fourth census, $208,525.99.
1830. “Fifth census of enumeration of the inhabitants
of the United States”—a folio of 163 pp., 1832. (This re-
port was so wretchedly printed that Congress required by
law a republication, which was made the same year, under
the immediate direction of the secretary of state.) Cost of
the fifth census, $378,543.13.
1840. I. “Compendium of the enumeration of the in-
habitants and statistics of the United States’’—a folio of
37.8 pp., 1841. II. “Sixth census or enumeration of the
inhabitants of the United States”—folio, 470 pp., 1841.
III. “Statistics of the United States, etc.”—folio, 410 pp.,
1841. IV. “Census of pensioners of Revolutionary and
military service, with their names, ages, and places of resi-
dence, etc.”—4to, 196 pp. Cost of sixth census, $833,370.95.
1850. I. “The seventh census of the United States’’—
quarto of 1022 pp., 1853. II. “Statistical view of the
United States”—octavo, 400 pp., 1854. III. “Mortality
statistics of the seventh census, etc.”—octavo, 304 pp.,
1855. IV. “Digest of the statistics of manufactures”—
octavo, 143 pp., 1859. Cost of seventh census, $1,329,027.53.
1860. I. “Preliminary report of the eighth census, 1860”
—octavo, 294 pp., 1862. II. “Final report:” vol. I. “Pop-
ulation,” pp. 694, 1864; II. “Agriculture,” pp. 292, 1864;
III. “Manufactures,” pp. 746, 1865; IV. “Mortality and
miscellaneous statistics,” pp. 584, 1866. Cost of eighth
census, $1,922,272.42.
1870. “Ninth census of the United States.” Vol. I. “The
statistics of the population of the United States, embracing
the tables of race, nationality, sex, selected ages, and oc-
cupations, to which are added the statistics of school at-
tendance and illiteracy, of schools, libraries, newspapers,
and periodicals, churches, pauperism and crime, and of
areas, families, and dwellings”—quarto, pp. 804, 1872; II.
“The vital statistics of the United States, embracing the
tables of deaths, births, sex, and age, to which are added
the statistics of the blind, the deaf and dumb, the insane,
and the idiotic,” 1872; III. “The statistics of the wealth
and industry of the United States, embracing the tables of
wealth, taxation, and public indebtedness, agriculture,
manufactures, mining, and the fisheries, with which are
reproduced, from the volume on population, the major
tables of occupations,” 1872; also, “A compendium of the
ninth census, compiled pursuant to a concurrent resolution
of Congress.” Cost of the ninth census, $3,336,511.41.
STATE CENSUSEs.-In most of the States of the Union a
census is required at some time within the interval between
the national censuses, for the purpose of ascertaining the
basis of representation in their legislatures. In some of
the States (for example, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and
New York) the enumerations are made with great care, and
many valuable statistics are obtained in connection with
them. But in most of the States nothing but a simple
enumeration is attempted, and this is made with but little
accuracy. In all the States, except Connecticut, Georgia,
and West Virginia, a census is authorized or required by
their constitutions. The constitution of Indiana, adopted
in 1851, required a census in 1853, and every six years
thereafter. The constitution of Pennsylvania requires a
census to be taken once in seven years, in such manner as
the legislature may direct. In Kentucky a census was re-
quired to be taken in 1857, and every eight years there-
after. In the following States censuses are required once
in ten years, beginning as follows: Tennessee, 1841; Mich-
igan, 1854; Illinois, New York, Wisconsin, and California,
1855; Massachusetts, Kansas, Minnesota, and Oregon,
1865; Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Iowa, Louisiana, Ne-
braska, Nevada, North Carolina, South Carolina, and
Texas, 1875; and Missouri, 1876. The constitutions of
Maryland, New Jersey, and Rhode Island permit the tak-
ing of a census once in ten years. The constitution of
Mississippi requires a census to be taken once in ten years,
after a day to be fixed by the legislature. The constitution
of Maine permits a census once in five years, and requires
it once in ten years. Delaware and New Hampshire have
no provisions in their constitutions requiring a census.
The constitution of Ohio permits a State census; for many
years the legislature has provided for a State statistician,
who makes annual reports on vital and other statistics. '
The classes enumerated in the several State censuses are
as follows: In Kentucky and Tennessee, qualified voters;
in Pennsylvania, taxable inhabitants; in Michigan, white
belonging to Indian tribes; in Indiana, white male inhab-
itants over twenty-one years of age; in Illinois, Oregon,
and Texas, white inhabitants; in Maine, the whole popula-
tion except foreigners not naturalized, and Indians not
taxed; in Nebraska and Wisconsin, the whole population
except Indians not taxed and soldiers and sailors in the
army and navy of the United States; in New York, the
whole population except aliens and colored persons not
taxed. In all the other States where a census is required
the whole population is taken.
Besides the works already referred to, the following may
be consulted on the general subject: SINCLAIR (Sir John),
“Analysis of the Statistical Account of Scotland,” 8vo,
Edinburgh, 1825; MACAULAY’s “History of England,”
vol. i., chap. iii.; McCLINTOCK and STRONG, “Encyclopedia
of Biblical, Ecclesiastical, and Theological Literature;”
SMITH, “Dictionary of the Bible,” 3 vols. 8vo, London,
1860–63; SMITH, “Dictionary of Greek and Roman An-
tiquities,” 8vo, London, 1842; BABBAGE, “Ninth Bridge-
water Treatise,” 8vo, London, 1837; “Journal of the Sta-
tistical Society of London,” vols. i. to xxxiv., 8vo, London,
1839; HUME, “Essay on the Populousness of Ancient Na-
tions,” Philosophical Works, vol. iii., Boston edition, 1854;
CAPTAIN JoHN GRAUNT (Sir William Pettit), “Natural and
Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality,” 5th
edition, 16mo, London, 1676; “Annuaire de l’Economie
Politique et de la Statistique,” 18–28° année, Paris, 1844–72;
“Journal des Economistes,” 18–28° année, Paris, 1841–69;
“Report of the Proceedings of the International Statistical
Congress, Fourth Session, at London, 1860," quarto, Lon-
don, 1861; “British Almanac for the year 1872,” 12mo,
London, 1873; AD. QUETELET, “Statistique Internation-
ale” (Population), 49, Bruxelles, 1865; AD. QUETELET,
“Physique Sociale, ou Essai sur le Développement des
Facultés de L’Homme,” J3ruxelles, 1869, 2 vols. 8vo; Mo-
REAU DE JoNNiès, “Etat Economique et social de la France
depuis Henri IV. jusqu' à Louis XIV.,” Paris, 1867.
GENERAL JAMES A. GARFIELD,
B. A. HINSDALE,
President of Hiram College, Ohio.
Cent [Lat. centum, a “hundred”], a coin of the U. S.
worth the one-hundredth part of a dollar, or nearly one
halfpenny sterling. It is now coined of an alloy of copper,
tin, and zinc, and is legal tender for the payment of sums
not exceeding twenty-five cents. The Dutch cent is the
one-hundredth of a guilder, and is worth about one-third
of the American cent. º
Centaure’a [Lat.], a genus of herbs of the order Com-
positae, several species of which are naturalized from Eu-
rope in the U. S. It includes the blue bottle (Centaurea
Cyanis), common in corn-fields, of which the flowers yield
a fine blue dye; the sweet sultan (Centaurea moschata), a
fragrant garden-flower; the knapweed (Centaurea Jacea),
sometimes cultivated for the fine yellow dye it affords.
Cenſtaurs [Gr. Kévravpov; Lat. Centauri), fabulous
animals which the ancient Greek poets imagined to be
half men and half horses, the head and anterior part being
human. They were supposed to be the offspring of Ixion
and a cloud, and to have lived in Thessaly. The battle
of the Centaurs with the Lapithae was celebrated in Greek
mythology, and was a favorite subject of ancient art.
Centau/rus (the “Centaur”), a constellation of the
southern hemisphere, contains two stars of the first magni-
tude, designated respectively as a Centauri and 8 Centauri.
Cenſtaury, a popular name of several Old World herbs
of the genus Erythraea and order Gentianaceae; and also
of the Sabbatia angularis, their American representative,
all valuable bitter tonics, used in dyspepsia and intermit-
tent fevers. The Erythraea Chilensis of Chili has similar
uses. The Erythraea acawlis of Barbary is extensively
used for dyeing yellow.
Centen'nial [Lat. centennis, from centum, “a hundred,”
and annus, “a year ”], occurring once in a hundred years,
or completing the period of a hundred years. The term is
used chiefly to denote the anniversary of an event which
is celebrated one hundred years after it occurred, and at
the end of each subsequent period of one hundred years.
Centennial Exhibition. The Congress of the U. S.,
by two acts, approved Mar. 3, 1871, and June 1, 1872,
provided for the celebration in the year 1876 of the one-
hundredth anniversary of the Declaration of American
Independence by an “international and universal exhibi-
tion,” designed to be of the most cosmopolitan character.
It is intended that the exhibition shall be held in Fair-
mount Park in the city of Philadelphia. The first of the
above-mentioned acts of Congress provides for the appoint-
ment (by the President) of the “U. S. Centennial Commis-
CENTER—CENTRAL PARK.
849
sion,” consisting of two commissioners from each State
and Territory. The second act incorporates the Centen-
wial Board of Finance, and provides for the issue of stock
to the amount of ten millions of dollars, in one million
shares of ten dollars each. It also has been proposed to
distribute the stock among the people of the different
States and Territories in the ratio of their population, but
subscriptions are received without regard to the amount
allotted to each State. The stockholders organized a board
of directors on April 1, 1873. -
The stimulus given to industrial pursuits by the great
exhibitions already held in London, Paris, etc. has been
very remarkable; and it is believed this undertaking, even
as a business investment, will be profitable to the country.
It is designed to make it a “comprehensive display of the
industrial, intellectual, and moral progress of the mation
during the first century of its existence.”
Center. See CENTRE.
Centering, the framework upon which an arch or
vault of stone, brick, or iron is supported during its con-
struction. The simplest form of centering is that used by
masons and bricklayers for the arches of common windows
and doors. This is merely a board of the required shape,
upon the curved edge of which the bricks or stones of the
arch are supported until they are keyed in. In building
bridges or other structures where arches of great span are
to be constructed, the centering is usually made of framed
timbers or timbers and iron combined.
Centerville. See CENTREVILLE.
Cen'tigrade [from the Lat. centum, a “hundred,” and
gradus, a “step,” “degree *| Thermometer, the name of
a thermometer having its scale between the freezing and the
boiling-point of water divided into one hundred equal parts,
or degrees, the freezing-point being taken as zero, and the
boiling-point as 100°. This scale was invented about the
year 1741 by Prof. Anders Celsius of Upsala in Sweden, and
hence it is often called Celsius's thermometer. Its use was
for many years mostly limited to Sweden and Russia, but.
it is now the scale generally used in France; and its excel-
lencies so commend it that it will probably come into almost
universal use.
Scale of Réaumur, while in England, Holland, and the U.S.,
where Fahrenheit's scale is more generally known, the cen-
tigrade is used in chemical and other scientific operations,
and thermometers are often marked with both scales, one
on each side of the mercurial column. The advantages of
the centigrade scale are that its zero and its hundredth de-
gree are natural, and not arbitrary, and, above all, that its
divisions are in harmony with the decimal system of meas-
urement. The objection to the centigrade, that its degree
is too large, is obviated by dividing the degree into deci-
mals, which are marked on the scale, thus greatly increas-
ing its precision. One degree centigrade is equal to 1.8
Fahrenheit, or, conversely, one degree Fahrenheit nearly
equals .55 of a degree centigrade; but there are some prac-
tical difficulties in reducing temperatures from one to the
other, which will be noticed under the article THERMOMETER
(which see).
Cenſtipede [Lat. centum, a “hundred,” and pedes,
“feet”], a popular name for various insects of the order
Myriapoda, but properly given to those of the sub-order
Chilopoda, and especially to the family Scolopendridae.
They have long slender bodies, and twenty-one to twenty-
three pairs of feet. Some tropical species are nearly a foot
long. The bite of many species is poisonous, and even dan-
gerous. Scolopendra heros is the largest U. S. species, and
is found in the South.
Cen’to [from the Lat. cento, “patchwork”], a name
applied to literary trivialities in the form of poems manu-
factured by putting together distinct verses or passages of
one author, or of several authors, so as to make a new
meaning. The cento was a favorite recreation in the Mid-
dle Ages.
Central, a township of Franklin co., Mo. Pop. 2271.
Central, a township of Jefferson co., Mo. Pop. 1789.
Central, a post-township of St. Louis co., Mo. P. 8923.
Central, a township of Humboldt co., Nev. Pop. 23.
Central, a township of Essex co., Va. Pop. 3449.
Central, a township of Rockingham co., Va. P. 2882.
Central, a township of Doddridge co., W. Va. P. 833.
Central America. See AMERICA, revised by PROF.
J. S. NEWBERRY., M.D., LL.D. *
Central Bridge, a post-village of Schoharie township,
Schoharie co., N. Y., at the junction of the Schoharie Valley
and the Albany and Susquehanna R. R.S., 36 miles W. of
Albany.
Central City, the capital of Gilpin co., Col., is situ-
In Germany it is rapidly superseding the
ated among the Rocky Mountains, 40 miles W. by N. from
Denver, on the Colorado Central R. R. It derives its pros-
perity from its gold-mines, which produced $1,650,000 in
1870. It has many fine stone and brick buildings, several
quartz-mills, a national bank, six churches, and a fine
school building. Two daily and weekly papers are issued
here. Pop. 2360. -
Central City, a post-township of Marion co., Ill. Pop.
833
Central Falls, a post-village of Lincoln_township,
Providence co., R. I. It is situated on the Blackstone
River, about 6 miles N. of Providence, and has one weekly
newspaper and extensive manufactures.
Central Forces, in mechanics, are those which radiate
from a point or centre. A body impelled by a constantly act-
ing force towards a fixed centre will move up to that point
with a constantly increasing velocity; but if it have an in-
itial motion in a direction towards some point other than
the centre, the constantly acting central force will deflect it
from its original path, but will not draw it to the centre of
force. The resultant path will be a curve. The straight
line from the moving body to its centre of force is called a
“radius vector,” and it is found, mathematically, that radii
vectores of a body moving in a curve under the influence
of a central force will pass over equal areas in equal times,
whatever the rate of motion. We further find that the
velocity of such a body is at all times inversely proportional
to the perpendicular from the fixed point on the tangent
to the curve at the point considered. Therefore, if the
motion be uniform, the path of motion is a circle. If the
path be an ellipse, and the centre of force be the centre of
the curve, the central force is directly proportional to the
distance; but if the centre of force be at a focus of the
ellipse (or of a hyperbolic or parabolic path), the force acts
with an energy inversely proportional to the square of the
distance.
The laws of central forces are abundantly verified by the
observed motions of the planets; and the same laws show
that unless some disturbing force interfere the planets can
never be drawn into the sum by gravitation.
Centra/lia, a city of Marion co., Ill., at the junction of
the main line and the Chicago division of the Illinois Cen-
-tral R. R., 253 miles S. of Chicago. It has a national bank,
two newspapers, machine-shops of the Illinois Central R. R.
Company, a coal-mine, an iron-foundry, and various other
manufactories. There are in Centralia, several parks, a
public library, six churches, a high school, and graded
schools. The Southern Illinois fair-grounds are situated
in the city. Pop. 3190 ; of township, 3579.
FLETCHER & WILLCox, PUBs. “SENTINEL.”
Centralia, a post-village of Nemaha co., Kan., on the
Central branch of the Union Pacific R. R., 62 miles W. of
Atchison. It is one of the most thriving towns in that re-
glon.
Centralia, a post-village of Boone co., Mo.
one weekly newspaper.
Centralia, a post-borough of Columbia co., Pa., on the
railroad which connects Mauch Chunk with Mount Carmel,
12 miles W. of Mahanoy City. Pop. 1342.
Centralia, a post-township of Wood co., Wis. P. 893.
Cenſtral In/stitute, a township of Elmore co., Ala.
Pop. 907. - -
Central Park. The Central Park, the most important
public work undertaken by New York City, next to the
Croton Aqueduct, was the first place deliberately provided
for the inhabitants of any city or town in the U. S. for ex-
clusive use as a pleasure-ground, for rest and exercise in
the open air. The well-known Boston Common, it is true,
dates back to 1634, and by a clause in the city charter it is
made public property for ever, and cannot be sold or ex-
changed. Its original purpose, however, was not as a
place for exercise and recreation, but for a “common,” such
as the earlier settlers had known in the villages of the
mother-country, and such as still exist there—places on
which the owners of cattle, horses, sheep, and geese pas-
ture them in common; and it is only since Boston and
other New England towns, such as Salem and Lynn, have
increased so greatly in size, that these tracts—all compara-
tively small; the Common in Boston is only 48 acres—have
been appropriated to their present use. -
Mew York, we believe, never had a common, but the city
remained for so many years confined to the lower part of the
long and narrow island on which it is built that there was no
need felt for any ground being set apart, eitherfor the pastur-
ing of cattle or for the recreation of the inhabitants. The
Battery supplied, for many years, a most charming prome-
made, many of the streets long retained a semi-rural or vil-
lage character, and the immediate suburbs of the city, which,
within the easy memory of men now living, began as low
It has
54 -
850.
CENTRAL PARK.
down as Canal street, were as pleasant places for strolling,
on foot or in the homely vehicles of the time, as could be
desired. The very name of the Bowery tells us what was
the look of the old country-road with its overarching trees;
it is not long since an old pear tree stood to mark where
once the old Stuyvesant farm sunned its broad acres, that
now show ranks of houses where once waved ranks of corn;
and not a few of the hugest of New York fortunes are the
result of the rise in the value of land once cultivated as
market-gardens by the fathers of its present aristocratic
OW nerS. :
It was not till more than two hundred years had elapsed
since the founding of the city that the inhabitants of New
York began to feel the need of some place specially devoted
to open-air enjoyment. The late A. J. Downing was the
first to propose the establishment of a great public park,
and the articles he wrote in 1850 on the subject in the
“Horticulturist,” a journal devoted to rural affairs he was
at that time editing, gave eloquent expression to the public
feeling, and soon bore practical fruit. In 1851, Mr. A. C.
Kingsland, then mayor of New York, in a message to the
common council, strongly recommended the establishment
of a public park within the limits of the city, and it was
at once referred to the committee on land and places. This
committee reported in favor of adopting the mayor's rec-
ommendation, but the report gave rise to an unfortunate
controversy that postponed for two years the undertaking
of the so-much needed improvement. When it was first
determined in the popular mind that New York must have
a public park, two rival schemes presented themselves for
consideration. One of these was the Jones’s Wood scheme,
the other the Central Park scheme, and the advocates of
each measure mustered such good argument and such pow-
erful influence that the legislature itself was puzzled for a
time, and after having on the 21st of July, 1853, passed an
act authorizing the city to take possession of the land now
known as the Central Park, it actually on the same day
passed another act authorizing the city to take possession
of Jones's Wood! But the opinion of the public was too
lainly in favor of the central site, and the next year
(April 11, 1854) the act relative to Jones’s Wood was re-
pealed, and no further attempt was made to revive it. The
site known as Jones’s Wood had very little to recommend
it, and it had two serious defects—its insufficient size and
its position at one side of the city. Its recommendations
were, the undulating character of its surface, the fact that
it was already covered with a good growth of forest trees,
and, above all, that it lay along the East River, always an
animated scene with its steamboats, shipping, the islands,
and the neighboring shore. Unfortunately, one of these
islands, Blackwell’s, extended along the whole water-front
of the proposed park, which was bounded on the N. and S.
by Seventy-fifth and Sixty-sixth streets, and on the W. by
the Third avenue; and an island inhabited by convicts
would not have been an edifying prospect. There is little
to be gained by thinking of what might have been, but the
Jones’s Wood scheme might have had a better chance if,
instead of limiting itself to the narrow area of 150 acres
included between the above-named streets and the East
River, it had boldly proposed to take possession of Black-
well’s Island, and even to pass over to the shore of Long
Island itself by means of (eventually) several bridges.
Engineering difficulties we do not pretend to have thought
about may have stood in the way of such a project; but,
apart from any such lions in the way, the plan itself had
many obvious advantages. It would have given us much
more variety than we have at present, together with a
water-view, always a delightful addition to a public pleas-
ure-ground, and as much land, with as irregular an outline,
as was needed. For in truth it would appear that the only
recommendations the Central Park site had to offer were
just its more central position and its greater size. And it is
not to be denied that these were very considerable advan-
tages, and that, on the whole, no better solution of the
problem than this offered could have been found within
the limits of the island. If the project for a park had
been mooted either earlier or later, we might have avoided
what we think will generally be admitted a serious draw-
back to the beauty of the park—the presence of the two
huge reservoirs, which no ingenuity could make agree with
any design in landscape gardening. Earlier, we might have
secured our park below the small reservoir at Fortieth street;
later, we might have had it upon the Harlem River. In
either case, it would not have been necessary to lose 150
acres out of a little more than 800, as we do in the Central
Park to-day.
As we have said, the popular preference for the larger
and more generally accessible site was plainly expressed,
and great gratification was manifested when the legislature
had settled the matter in such a way that a beginning
might reasonably be looked forward to in carrying out the
long-wished-for scheme. On the 17th of Nov., 1853, five-
commissioners were appointed by the supreme court,
through Judge William Mitchell, to take the land for the,
Central Park. These commissioners were William Kent,
Michael Ulshoeffer, Luther Bradish, Warren Brady, and
Jeremiah Towle. All these gentlemen were well known in
the community, and a general confidence was felt that their
difficult task would be performed with fairness and judg-
ment. Nor did this confidence prove to be ill-grounded.
The commissioners employed nearly three years in the work
of estimating and assessing, sending in their report on the
4th of Oct., 1856, and, as Judge Harris remarked in con-
firming their report, it is an evidence of the success with
which they accomplished their intricate task that but about
one in forty of the owners of the lots taken for the park
appeared before him to object to the award of the commis-
sioners. The supreme court confirmed the report of the
commissioners, and in Feb., 1856, the common council
passed an ordinance for the payment of $5,160,369.90, of
which $1,657,590 were to be paid by the owners of lands
adjacent to the park, in view of the benefit they would re-
ceive from their neighborhood to it. -
As the legislature had done nothing during its winter
session towards arranging a government for the park, the
city authorities took the matter into their own hands, and
on the 19th of May, 1856, the board of aldermen adopted
an ordinance appointing the mayor and the street commis-
sioner commissioners with full authority to govern the
park, to determine upon a plan for its improvement, and
to appoint such persons as they might see fit to carry out
their intentions. At that time Mr. Fernando Wood was
mayor and Mr. Joseph S. Taylor street commissioner, and
they sought the best advice they could obtain from gentle-
men who held public and social positions—such as, taken
with their reputation for taste and judgment, necessarily
gave their opinions weight. These gentlemen, Washing-
ton Irving, George Bancroft, James E. Cooley, Charles F.
Briggs, James Phalon, Charles A. Dana, and Stewart
Brown, were invited to attend the meetings of the commis-
sioners, and to form a board of consultation for the pur-
pose of discussing what course had best be pursued in order
to secure a suitable design for laying out the park. The
first of these meetings was held on the 29th of May, 1856.
Mr. Irving was made president of the board, and the pre-
liminaries were settled for carrying out the objects of the
commission. Many plans were presented at subsequent
meetings for the improvement of the park, but nothing
suitable, and matters dragged until a plan was presented
by Mr. Egbert L. Wiele, a gentleman who had been ap-
pointed engineer of the park. This plan was strongly rec-
ommended by Mayor Wood, and was adopted, but for-
tunately nothing further was done towards carrying it out.
No money was appropriated for the use of the commission,
and the body accomplished nothing whatever of benefit to
the public. It was soon found that unless either the legis-
lature or the city authorities took more active measures for
securing a plan for laying out the park, the enterprise must
fall through; and accordingly, on the 17th of April, 1857, the
legislature appointed a new commission, consisting of eleven
members, who were to hold office for five years, and who
were empowered to spend a sum of money the interest on .
which was not to exceed $30,000. To raise this money the
common council of the city issued stock having thirty
years to run. This stock was highly popular, and was
immediately taken up by the public.
The new commission went vigorously to work, and after
discarding Mr. Wiele's crude and insufficient plan, adver-
tised for new plans to be sent in in competition. On the
1st of April, 1858, the latest day on which plans were to
be sent in, thirty-three had been received. These were
placed upon public exhibition, and up to the 21st of April
the board held frequent meetings in the room in which the
plans were hung, in order to make easier a careful exam-
ination and full discussion of the merits of the designs.
On the 21st of April the plan No. 33, bearing the motto
“Greensward,” was declared on the first ballot, by the
votes of seven out of the eleven members, to be entitled to
the first prize of $2000.
The authors of “Greensward,” the successful plan;
proved to be Mr.Frederick Law Olmsted and Mr. Calvert
Vaux; both well known and highly esteemed by a large
and cultivated circle in this community. Mr. Olmsted,
young as he was, had already a national reputation. He
had long been a successful practical farmer, and while still
engaged in that pursuit had published a remarkable little
book, the record of a vacation ramble, called “Walks and
Talks of an American Farmer in England.” He became
more widely known by a series of letters written from the
Southern States to the New York “Times” newspaper, un-
der the signature of “Yeoman,” and afterwards repub-
lished in book-form with the title “The Seaboard Slave
CENTRAL PARK.
States.” This book contained the first trustworthy account
of the condition of society in the South, especially in the
regions remote from the great cities, that had, up to that
time, been published at the North. To write such a book
as this last required energy and courage in no small meas-
ure: to these qualities were added a love of natural scenery
and the power to trace the secret of the combinations to
which a landscape. owes its charms, a singular faculty for
observation, and, as was afterwards shown in the manage-
ment of the Central Park, an ability altogether exceptional
for administration.
Mr. Calvert Vaux is an Englishman by birth and train-
ing, who came to this country and adopted it for his per-
manent home in 1852. He was the partner in business of
the late A. J. Downing, and after Mr. Downing’s death in
1853 he succeeded to his large and profitable clientage. At
the time of the acceptance of his and Mr. Olmsted’s de-
sign for the park he was successfully established as an
architect, and had published a valuable and popular book
on domestic architecture.
º
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FIG. 1. Map of Central Park.
Here, then, were two men thoroughly fitted for the work
that was put into their hands, and that work one the im-
portance of which can hardly be estimated, not merely to
the city which owns it, but to the whole country. It was
our first great public park; it has already proved the parent
of others, tyvo of them, at least, of far greater importance
than their original, and in the end no doubt every city on
the continent of any considerable size will have a public
park. What a piece of good fortune, then, that the Cen-
tral Park, from which they all date, should have been,
from the first, the fruit of a pure and mainly taste, of sound
sense, and of practical knowledge It has been a first-rate
example, according to its opportunities, and no matter how
much it may be improved upon by other communities with
ampler space and a more varied and picturesque conforma-
tion of ground to begin upon than fell to us, the Central
Park will always be looked upon with a sort of affectionate
pride, as having been the first to point out the way and to
show us the possibility of walking in it.
The Central Park is two and a half miles long and half
a mile wide. It extends from Fifty-ninth street on the S.
to One-hundred-and-tenth street on the N., and is bounded
on the E. and W. by the Fifth and Eighth avenues. It is
thus a perfect parallelogram, but it is virtually divided
into two unequal parts, between which are the two great
reservoirs of Croton water—one a quadrangular basin of
masonry, the other much larger, with an irregular outline,
and confined in an embankment of earth lined with stone.
The two basins cover in all nearly 150 acres. The smaller
of the two is nearly a third of the short diameter of the
park in width, while the larger nearly touches the eastern
and western boundaries of the park, and extends N. and S.
from Eighty-fifth street nearly to Ninety-eighth street.
The original park enclosure contains 776 acres, to which
have been added 68 acres at one time, and, more recently,
Manhattan Square, so that it now contains 862 acres. It
follows that nearly one-sixth of the ground covered by the
Central Park is occupied by these unsightly embankments,
which obstruct the view and offer nothing in return, since
the water they contain cannot be seen except by mounting
to a level with their summits. If the park were large
enough, there could be no objection to such a division as
we now have into Upper and Lower Parks, particularly if
it were made by a sheet of water or by any picturesque
feature—a ravine, for instance. But, as it is, there is no
compensation for the loss of the ground, and moreover the
communication between the two divisions is narrowed,
especially by the larger reservoir, to such a point that all
dignity is quite lost.





852
CENTRAL PARK.
The two divisions of the park which we have called
“the Upper” and “the Lower” are not only separated
artificially from one another by the two reservoirs; they
are really quite diverse in character. The Upper Park is
distinguished by the freer sweep and greater variety of its
horizon lines, by the fine views that it commands of the
surrounding country, and by the greater play of the sur-
face, making it easy for the landscape-gardener to produce
his legitimate effects with grass and trees, rocks and water,
and not obliging him to make up for want of interest in
the natural features of the place by a resort to architec-
ture. Up to the present time the Upper Park must have
called for a much smaller expenditure of time and money
than has been found necessary in the lower portion, since
that is almost entirely artificial. The park lies along the
eastern slope of a long ridge of rock which crops out of
the ground somewhere about Thirtieth street, and extends
thence to Manhattanville. This ledge is not continuous,
but is broken by several transverse ridges with answering
depressions, which indicate, we suppose, the points where
the ends of the inclined strata would be found as they lie
overlapping one another. There are four of these irregular
ridges, the chief of them crossing the park diagonally,
and the greatest elevation will be found in the central,
westerly, and north-westerly portions. In the Lower Park
were two swampy valleys lying between three of these
ridges, and into these has been collected all the surface-
drainage, with the happy result of producing two sheets
of water—one, the smaller, a picturesque pond with steep
rocky banks intermingled with patches of grass and shrub-
bery; the other a sheet of water nearly twenty acres in
extent, the view across which from the most favorable
point is of considerable breadth, and entirely unbroken
for at least a quarter of a mile. The ridge that divides
these two valleys has been treated with great skill. One
large boggy tract has been filled in to an average depth
of two feet, all the rocks that stuck out of the ground have
been removed by blasting, and some large adjoining ledges
reduced in the same way, and the depressions filled up; so
that there have been secured thirty acres of level, or but
slightly undulating, ground. East of this fine green ex-
tends another level space eighty rods in length and twelve
in width, separated from the first by a carriage-drive.
This tract is occupied by a broad walk, with two rows of
--
FIG. 2. Mall and Ward's Shakspeare.
American elms on each side, called “The Mall,” which
leads directly to the Terrace, the chief attraction to most
persons in this portion of the park, and which we shall
presently describe.
These are the main features of the landscape of the
southern part of the Central Park—the “Lower Park,” as
it is conveniently called—but the designers have known
how to introduce great variety in the treatment, and they
have been so successful that this portion of the grounds
must long be the favorite with the general public over the
less finished and more natural upper half.
To the Lower Park there are nine entrances. Four of
these are on the southern side, answering to the four ave-
nues that touch the park there—viz. the Fifth, the Sixth,
the Seventh, and the Eighth. Of these the Sixth and
Seventh stop at the park, while the Fifth and Eighth con-
tinue along its eastern and western sides respectively. Of
the five other entrances, three are on the Fifth avenue at
Sixty-fourth, Seventy-second, and Seventy-ninth streets—
although that at Sixty-fourth street is rather an entrance
to the Museum than to the park proper—and two are on
the Eighth avenue, at Seventy-second and Seventy-ninth
streets, opposite, as will be noticed, two of the gates on the
Fifth avenue. These entrances are at present merely open-
ings in the boundary-wall, and as the erection of formal
gateways is a very unimportant feature, so far as the decora-
tion of the park is concerned, and practically is a matter
of very little importance, it is to be hoped that it may be
put off for some considerable time longer, until the growth
of public culture shall make good taste in the design more
certain than probably could be hoped for now. Whoever
is in the habit of using the park, not merely as a place of
recreation, but as an episode in his daily walk to his place
of business, or as an introduction to the long ride thither
in the cars or omnibus, or whoever, having no such in-
timate acquaintance with it, has examined a plan of it,
must have remarked with how much skill the walks are
arranged to unite the different entrances and to lead to
places of interest. There is no twisting and winding of
the paths and drives merely for the sake of irregularity.
Every path and drive has a well-defined purpose: it unites
two points or leads to some thing it is supposed will in-
terest the visitor. In general, it may be stated that, as far
als P. the walks and drives lead in, for it is plainly
to be desired that the attention of those who come to the
park should not be drawn to the boundaries any more than
can be avoided. The park is so narrow in proportion to its
length that no skill will avail to hide the defect altogether;
for though the planting-out of the walls is merely a ques-
tion of time, the houses could never be planted-out. People
who build on the Fifth and Eighth avenues are determined
that their houses shall command the park from their win-
dows, and, lest the trees should shut out their view, they
build their houses so high as to make that danger impos-
sible, and with a superfluous caution set turrets on their
roofs. It is a misfortune, but it is now too late to avoid
it, that in time the park will be shut in by a nearly solid
wall of city houses. This was easy to foresee, and it was
so manifest an objection to the site that it ought to have
been taken into serious consideration. However, the men
who designed the park were of a practical turn, and crying
after spilt milk was not in their books; they made the best
they could of what they had. They drew the walks and
drives as much as possible towards the long axis of the
park, and kept the striking points of interest mainly on
the same line. Yet they so contrived it that there should

CENTRAL PARK.
be also a circuit-drive for the pleasure of those who should
come to the park rather for exercise than for sight-seeing,
and who would naturally prefer as long a stretch as possible.
Along this central line of the Lower Park, then, are found
the Children's Shelter, an immense tent of rustic wood-
work, handsome, solid, well-contrived, with abundance of
853
seats and benches and capacious fixed tables for the ac-
commodation of children and their nurses; the Swings,
and, near both these, the Dairy, where a good plain lunch
may always be had, with excellent milk; then, passing
under the Marble Archway, we reach the Mall with the
statues of Shakspeare and “The Indian Hunter” by Ward
Fig. 3. Lake from Circle.
—statues of which any park in the world might be justly
proud; farther on, the Casino, a restaurant close by the
Carriage-concourse, where horses and carriages wait while
their owners walk about, or take refreshments as they listen
to the music in the pretty Pavilion sitting under the Wine-
trellis, which is rather affectedly called in the latest report
“the Pergola”—an Italian name for the thing. We notice
a slight tendency on the part of the commissioners to give
fine names to common things. For our part, we should
like to get rid of such names as Casino, Carrousel, Per-
gola, Concourse, Esplanade, Plaza, Belvedere, and to have
in their places plain English titles. Perhaps “Casino”
and “Esplanade” are naturalized, or at least well enough
understood to be allowed, but for the rest we are sure it
would be better to take more homely names. Finally, we
have, near the centre of the park, the Terrace, thus far, the
only instance in our country of that treatment of a bluff or
of a hillside sloping to a level ground which is so common
FIG. 4. Terrace.
in Europe, and which, as an opportunity, has been made
so much of by foreign landscape-gardeners. When well
treated it is very effective and very popular. Everybody
likes “a view” (and-many a mistake in house-building
and in house-buying has been made under the impression
that if a thing is desirable now and then, it is desirable
always); and one that is obtained, not by climbing, but by
walking to the edge of a terrace or out upon a balcony,
owes some of the pleasure that it gives to its unexpected-
ness. The Terrace at the park is small and insignificant,
of course, compared with those at St. Germain, at Meudon,
or at Perugia; but few modern public parks have so fine a



854
CENTRAL PARK.
one. It looks out upon the Lake, a handsome irregular
*. of water always alive with boats, and across it to the
amble. It consists of two flights of ample steps of light-
colored freestone, with noble ramps, elaborately sculptured
with arabesques of birds and flowers, and with rails equally
handsome terminating in stone pedestal-posts, which will
at some distant day be the support of statues. All the
railings that enclose the Terrace are similar in design to
the stair-rails, though the carving in no two of the panels is
alike; and wherever the design calls for them the pedestal-
posts are repeated, so that, if ever they are all crowned
with statues, the effect ought to be singularly imposing.
The only obstacle to one's complete enjoyment of the Ter-
race as a terrace is the fact that it is crossed by a carriage-
drive; but it is only on very crowded days that this can
make it dangerous or troublesome to pass directly from the
Mall to the platform that overlooks the Lake. The lower
level is reached either by passing underneath the carriage-
drive through a well-lighted and prettily decorated hall, or
by crossing the drive and descending the steps above al-
|º
|| || || ||
-
Hill
|
s |
a =
º
Fig. 5. Terrace Detail.
luded to. People take one or the other as convenience or
inclination prompts, but here, as everywhere in the park, it
has been made impossible for accidents to occur to pedes-
trians unless by their own fault. The carriage-drives,
horseback-drives, and walks are kept distinct through-
out, and at convenient points, wherever it has been found
necessary, the walks are carried over or under the drive.
There is no part of the park where a child or an old person
or an invalid cannot move about in safety by simply keep-
ing to the walks; and there are several points in the park
where areas of considerable extent have been arranged
with a particular view to the complete security of all per-
sons, whether young or old, who come to amuse themselves
with playing or strolling about, unconfined by formal
pathways. Such are “the Ball-ground,” “the Green,”
“the Children's Quarter” near the “Dairy,” and the
“Ramble.” The “Mall,” too, and the “Esplanade” are
capital places for children and nurses; they may spend the
whole day here without interruption, and refreshments
may be had close at hand in the Casino.
--
These are the principal points to be noted in the Lower
Park, with the exception of the Ramble, which, to many
people, is, and must always be, one of the pleasantest
features of the place. It is a rocky hill that rises from the
northern side of the Lake, and which the art of the land-
scape-gardener has transformed from barrenness into rural
beauty. Pretty walks run in every direction, with good
seats conveniently placed; and what with abundant shrub-
bery, charmingly varied in character, and allowed to grow
as freely as it will, a plenty of the commonest wild flowers,
and a running stream where ducks of the finer breeds and
a crane or two to pique curiosity have their quarters, there
are not many places near the city where so much of the
charm of wildness may be enjoyed as in these few acres.
Our wild birds of this region build and breed freely here,
and before “the Ring” entered on their brief but dis-
astrous rule quail were abundant. But these men, who
were as ignorant in all practical matters connected with
the proper management of the park grounds as they were
in matters of taste, cut away a great deal of the under-
brush, much of which had been
carefully planted, and all of it
encouraged to grow. Many
of the trees, too, that feathered
naturally to the ground, and
whose growth no one, with
any knowledge of what con-
stitutes beauty in a tree, would
think for a moment of inter-
fering with, have been depriv-
ed of their lower branches.
Trees such as the ash, the elm,
the lime, and the beech, with
almost all the Coniferae—firs,
ines, spruces, and hemlocks—
ave this beautiful habit of
feathering to the ground; and
perhaps there is no surer test
of the mere cit than the liking
he has for trimming up the
lower limbs, thus depriving
the tree not only of a chief
beauty, but of a feature essen-
tial to its well-being, for, as is
often seen, a tree, especially
if it be an evergreen called
upon to support a weight of
snow or to resist a strong wind,
will succumb if by the cutting
away of its broad base all the
weight has been thrown to the
top. And these limbs, once
removed, are never supplied
again, so that the loss is ir-
remediable. The pranks of
“the Ring” in the park were
wild and various, but in noth-
ing did they offend so seriously
as in this matter. One of the
immediate results has been that
the quail and many other birds,
who depend upon the shelter
afforded by the lower branches
of these trees and by the un-
derbrush, have either died or
left for other places where
“Rings” are unknown, or too
well known to be allowed to
meddle with public interests.
The Ramble is laid out, as
we have said, upon a hill-
side, and this hill has been tunnelled to admit the passage
of one of those traffic-roads that make so important a fea-
ture in the design of the park. The park, lying as it will
in the midst of a thickly populated region, ought not, it is
evident, to lay itself open to the charge of being an obstruc-
tion to the daily business of the neighboring region; and
this was plainly seen by the designers, who also saw, how-
ever, that it was of equal importance that the traffic of the
neighborhood ought not to be allowed to obtrude itself
upon the park. The ingenuity which has met both diffi-
culties and both wants, as they have been met by the
traffic-road, is its own best commendation. Four of these
roads cross the park, uniting, E. and W., Sixty-fifth,
Seventy-ninth, Eighty-fifth, and Ninety-seventh streets, re-
spectively. They are only so much curved as has been
found necessary to accommodate them to the surfaces of
the park, nor are they sunk any farther than is made ne-
cessary by the same conditions. Indeed, it is not correct
to say that they are ever sunk at all, the road-bed being
always on a level with the avenues that bound the park;


CENTRAL PARK,
855
they only appear in certain cases to be sunk because they
cut through rising ground. They are paved, lighted, and
provided with sidewalks like ordinary streets, and they
are in common use as traffic-roads, though not of course to
the extent that they will be when the region about the
Central Park becomes more densely populated. The object
of the designers has been to make them completely inde-
pendent of the park as a pleasure-ground, and they are so;
indeed, in only a few cases can they be entered at all from
the park, except where their terminations are coincident
with the park gateways, and in no case can they be so en-
tered by carriages. The gates that here and there com-
municate with them are to facilitate the removal of rub-
bish or the bringing in of materials. These communica-
tions are, however, not for the use of the public, and visitors
to the park are not supposed to be aware of their exist-
ence. In no instance do these roads ever cross the surface
of the park on a level with the walks and drives, but al-
ways under them or over them—generally by the former
mode—and they are well planted-out by shrubbery where,
without it, they would obtrude themselves upon the view.
The Ramble has a central point of interest to those who
do not care for the solitude and quiet that make it attract-
ive to so many, in the Belvedere, a picturesque edifice com-
posed of a balustraded platform, with a tower from which
a view of no mean extent can be had by those who like a
moderate climb. The platform itself commands a pretty
view, into which the rectangular tank of the smaller reser-
voir, on the edge of which it is built, enters as the most
important feature.
twill thus be seen that almost all the special attractions
of the Lower Park—we mean those apart from what may
properly be called the landscape—are brought near the long
axis running N. and S. This arrangement draws the main
body of the visitors away from the boundaries, and thus
prevents them from being forced upon our observation. Yet
this result is brought about quite naturally and without
effort; no one perhaps would perceive it if his attention
were not called to it. There are, however, other points of
interest in this Lower Park, and no doubt every year will
see the attractions more and more distributed, until the
resent centralization will be overcome and forgotten.
here are the collections of the Natural History Society,
temporarily exhibited in the old Arsenal building, with
the cages near it—some exposed and some under shelter—
containing the animals which have from time to time been
presented or loaned to the city. The latest report of the
commissioners informs us that the collections of the Natu-
ral History Society have been open to the public every
week-day during the year (1872), and that the attendance
on many days may be estimated at 10,000. By the joint
action of the park department and the trustees of the
Museum two days in each week, Monday and Tuesday, are
reserved for special students and for teachers and pupils of
public schools; by this means opportunities are given for
lecturing to classes with abundant illustration, and the Mu-
seum becomes an important part of the educational sys-
tem of the city. The collections are constantly increasing
in value, partly by purchase and partly by presents from
those who are interested in the success of the institution.
Manhattan Square, a piece of ground lying between Eighth
and Ninth avenues and between Seventy-seventh and
Eighty-first streets, was some time ago added to the park,
and it is now decided to carry out a plan long contem-
plated for establishing a Zoological Garden and a Museum
of Natural History upon this site. The plans for the new
building for the accommodation of the Natural History
Society have been already designed and accepted, and the
work will be begun without delay. We suspect, however,
that it will be found necessary to establish the Zoological
Garden in some other place. Either institution would need
all the room that the square affords.
The present collection of living animals belonging to the
park, with those loaned to the trustees by private owners
or by proprietors of travelling-shows, though compara-
tively small, is of great interest and gives an immense deal
of pleasure. The animals are well housed and cared for
under the direction of an intelligent keeper, whose special
report makes one of the most valuable features of the
annual report of the trustees. “The department has
already received specimens of many of the most valuable
foreign tropical animals, and now desires additions to its
collections of our native species. Of the various American
deer, only two, the common Virginia deer (Cervus Virgin-
ianus) and the American elk (Cervus Canadensis), are found
in the park. Specimens of the black-tailed deer, the mule-
deer, the reindeer, the Mexican deer, the moose, the cari-
bou, and the prong-horned antelope would be much valued.
Specimens of almost any of the smaller animals of the Far
est, the squirrels, gophers, rabbits, and hares, would be
desirable acquisitions. Thirteen species of foxes are enu-
merated as peculiar to this continent, of which but two,
the common gray and red fox of the East, have as yet
reached the park. The department usually pays the trans-
portation-expenses of animals given to it, and it is found
that when sent by express, with proper directions as to the
supply of air, water, and food, they come by rail and boat
from the more distant parts of the country with safety.”
The sheets of water which in summer add so much to the
landscape effect of the park are thronged in winter by
skaters, for whose comfort and safety every provision is
made by the park authorities. The ice is flooded, scraped,
and swept with great skill and promptness, information as
to the state of the ice is conveyed by signal to all parts of
the city, temporary structures of wood, sufficiently warmed,
are provided for putting on skates and for refreshment,
and the means of cheap and healthful exercise are supplied
to thousands of people, men and women, boys and girls.
A visitor who watches these crowds, of skaters from the
banks or from the bridge that commands so wide a view
of the lake, will surely be struck with the good behavior
of the crowd; he will see no rudeness, no coarse manners,
but a general good-nature and civility; and though the ex-
cellent park-police are always on hand, they have hardly
ever any occasion to make an arrest, or even to administer
a rebuke.
The building for the Metropolitan Museum of the Fine
Arts is to be erected in the park on the ground between

856
CENTRAL PARK.
the smaller reservoir and the Fifth avenue—a decision
greatly to be regretted, we think, both because of the effect
the building will have of still further closing up the already
scrimped communication on that side between the Upper and
Lower Parks, and from the injury to the appearance of the
building itself, placed alongside or under the shadow of
these immense water-tanks. We have to regret that land
outside the park could not have been obtained on the east-
ern side, answering to Manhattan Square on the W., and
the new Museum have been built on that. Besides giving
a better and freer site for the building, it would have given
the region N. of One Hundred and Tenth street, which
region is rapidly being built up and settled. It was felt
very early that the park was too far away from the popu-
lous part of the city, too much time was consumed merely
in getting to it, and the approaches to it were devoid of all
interest and variety. It has long ceased to be possible to
control the southern approaches to the park; the land is
all taken up, and is too valuable, but the disposition of
the upper part of the island is within our own control,
and the problem, How to provide for the future in this
direction, has been solved in a most satisfactory manner
by Messrs. Vaux and Olmsted in the Park-way System.
(See PARK-ways.) This system, if it could have been
taken in hand a little earlier, would have made the park
begin, in fact, at Madison Squaré, by the simple plan of
changing Fifth avenue or Broadway into a stately Mall,
with a plantation of trees along the middle, a double car-
riage-track, a horseback-ride, and ample sidewalks; in
short, a finer Champs Elysées. There might easily, at
small expense, have been a Circus or Round at Thirty-
fourth and Forty-second streets. The reach between Mad-
ison Square and the Central Park having been thus trans-
formed from a dull walk between nearly unbroken lines of
stone walls to an open promenade for exercise and enjoy-
ment, the work now in hand of enlarging and planting the
park-ways (called by the unmeaning name of “boulevards,”
in our New York love of French names), by which the
western side of the upper part of the island is being saved
from the monotony and meanness of the lower part, would
have been only an extension of the plan, and would have
made the Central Park merely a beautiful incident in the
long line of drives, rides, and walks, with delightful ac-
companiments of grass and trees, stretching from Madison
Square to the Westchester suburb now being laid out under
the control and management of the Park Commission. No
city in the world would have had such ample accommoda-
tion for enjoyment and exercise—convenient, too, to the
great majority of her inhabitants—as New York, if this
plan, once easy of execution, could have been carried out.
The portion of it that covers the land S. of the Central
Park has long ceased to be possible, but the connections N.
of the park, between it and the Westchester suburb, are
now being created, and when finished will make an era in
Fig. 7. Ball Ground.
greater apparent breadth to the park itself at the point
near the reservoirs, where it presents an unfortunately
cramped aspect.
Long before the Central Park was finished—and in the
main it may be said to be finished now—it was found too
small for the immediate demand upon it, especially in the
way of drives and horseback rides; and it was plain that
ampler provision must be made for the needs of the future.
What was felt to be wanted was not merely room for more
extended drives and rides than are possible within its pres-
ent limits, but a more continuous park accommodation for
the material and social history of our island. The plan
will be fully explained in the article on PARK-ways; it
has been thus cursorily alluded to here to show that a need
widely felt and often expressed, of more park accommoda-
tion, has been attentively considered, and that there is
every prospect of its being satisfactorily met, in the |P.
part of the island at least, by those who have the park in
charge.
The park has been a great civilizer, and its mission in
this respect is only just begun. When it was first estab-
lished it was the only park in the country; now there are
a dozen, and there will be more and more. Without the
Central Park we should not have had in this generation
the Brooklyn Park, the Fairmount Park in Philadelphia–
a noble undertaking—the Chicago Park; nor would those
stupendous projects of the Yosemite Valley Park and the
Park of the Great Cañon of the Yellowstone have been
conceived and carried out. Indeed, they are Gargantua's
play-grounds, and make Hyde Park and Versailles look
pinched and mean. They have been laughed at as bits of
brag, but, in truth, they are the merest good sense and wise
provision, with no trace of exaggeration. Would that the
founders of New York could have so looked ahead, even
fifty years ago! Would that we ourselves could look ahead
in season, and, forecasting the time when our city shall
cover the lower half of Westchester county, seize promptly
on at least 3000 acres (the area of the Philadelphia Park)
of that region.
We must not forget that if it was a great piece of good-
fortune to get the Central Park at all-–and who can
doubt it?—it was an inestimable happiness that it was en-
trusted to the hands that have made it what we see it.
New York can never honor the men enough who, with the
exception of a brief time of nightmare, when “the Ring”
tried to make it their stye, have cared for it with disin-
terested devotion from the beginning. They deserve our
gratitude for this, that, in a dark time, when public honor,
and even common honesty in public men, seemed thrown
overboard, they helped us to support our self-respect, and
to make a return to better things seem possible by keeping
steadily in view the sight of at least one civic department
administered with good sense, economy, and honesty, and
with a single eye to the public good. CLARENCE Cook.


CENTRAL POINT—CENTRE COLLEGE,
Cen’tral Point, a township of Goodhue co., Minn.
Pop. 160.
Cen’tral Prov'inces, The, one of the great admin-
istrative divisions of British India, are situated between
lat. 18° and 24° N., and between lon. 77° and 83° E. Area,
82,838 square miles. They were formed into a chief com-
missionership in 1861, and they are divided into four com-
missionerships and nineteen districts. The line of railway
connecting Bombay with Calcutta passes through these
provinces, and has completely altered the condition of the
country, which, up to the time when it was formed into a
chief commissionership, was almost unknown. The traffic
that passes through the capital, Jubbulpore, is larger than
that of any other city in India, except Bombay. The reve-
nue of the provinces in 1869–70 amounted to £1,043,954.
Pop. in 1871, 7,987,476.
Central Square, a post-village of Hastings township,
Oswego co., N. Y., at the crossing of the New York and
Oswego Midland and the Syracuse Northern R. Rs. Pop.
359. - -
Cen’tral Wil’lage, a post-village of Windham co.,
Conn., is on the Boston Hartford and Erie R. R., 20 miles
N. N. E. of Norwich. It is on the Moosup River, at or
near its entrance into the Quinebaug. It has water-power
and a number of cotton-mills. Pop. about 2000.
Centre, or Center [Gr, kévrpov ; Lat. centrum], orig-
inally a “point;” hence the point of a compass which re-
mains fixed while the other is moved round to describe a
circle. The centre of a circle is a point within it equally
distant from every part of the circumference. The centre
of a sphere is a point equally distant from every point of
the surface. In war, the term centre is applied to the main
body of an army located between the two wings. In French
politics the Centre is used to designate a party of moderate
royalists or conservatives who support a policy intermediate
between that of the Droit, “right,” and that of the Gauche,
<< left.”
Cen'tre, a county which is the most central part of
Pennsylvania. Area, 1000 square miles. It is partly
bounded on the N. W. by the West Branch of the Susque-
hanna, and is intersected by Bald Eagle Creek. The sur-
face is diversified by several ridges, one of which is called
Bald Eagle Mountain. The soil of the valleys is fertile.
Grain, hay, butter, wool, and potatoes are the chief crops.
Among the manufactures are those of flour, lumber, leather,
carriages, harnesses, etc. Coal, iron, and limestone abound.
This county is traversed by the railroad which connects
Lockhaven with Tyrone. Capital, Bellefonte. Pop. 34,418.
Cen'tre, a post-village, capital of Cherokee co., Ala., is
near the Coosa River, about 140 miles N. by E. from Mont-
gomery, near a steamboat landing. It has two churches, an
academy, and one newspaper-office.
W. C. STIFF, PUB. “CHEROKEE AdvKRTISER.”
Centre, a township of Polk co., Ark. Pop. 614.
Centre, a township of Prairie co., Ark. Pop. 772.
Centre, a township of Sebastian co., Ark. Pop. 1903.
Centre, a township of Sacramento co., Cal. Pop. 461.
Centre, a township of Boome co., Ind. Pop. 3885.
Centre, a township of Dearborn co., Ind. Pop. 4699.
Centre, a township of Delaware co., Ind. Pop. 4375.
Centre, a township of Grant co., Ind. Pop. 2641.
Centre, a township of Greene co., Ind. Pop. 1870.
Centre, a township of Hancock co., Ind. Pop. 3495.
Centre, a township of Hendricks co., Ind. Pop. 2795.
Centre, a post-township of Howard co., Ind. Pop.
2857. - --
Centre, a township of Jennings co., Ind. Pop. 2633.
Centre, a township of Lake co., Ind. Pop. 1932.
Centre, a township of La Porte co., Ind. Pop. 1147.
Centre, a township of Marion co., Ind. Pop. 4274.
Centre, a township of Marshall co., Ind. Pop. 4830.
Centre, a township of Martin co., Ind. Pop. 1170.
Centre, a township of Porter co., Ind. Pop. 1394.
Centre, a township of Posey co., Ind. Pop. 955.
Centre, a township of Ripley co., Ind. Pop. 1581.
Centre, a township of Rush co., Ind. Pop. I645.
Centre, a township of Starke co., Ind. Pop. 555.
Centre, a township of St. Joseph’s co., Ind. Pop. 717.
Centre, a township of Union co., Ind. Pop. 1896.
Centre, a township of Vanderburgh co., Ind. P. 1689.
Centre, a township of Wayne co., Ind. Pop. 2855.
Centre, a township of Allamakee co., Ia. Pop. 1048.
Centre, a township of Appanoose co., Ia. Pop. 1723.
857
Centre, a township of Cedar co., Ia. Pop. 2899.
Centre, a township of Clinton co., Ia. Pop. 1317.
Centre, a township of Decatur co., Ia. Pop. 1738.
Centre, a township of Dubuque co., Ia. Pop. 1039.
Centre, a township of Emmett co., Ia. Pop. 146.
Centre, a township of Fayette co., Ia. Pop. 504.
Centre, a township of Guthrie co., Ia. Pop. 924.
Centre, a township of Henry co., Ia. Pop. 6310.
Centre, a township of Monona co., Ia. Pop. 138.
Centre, a township of Pottawattamie co., Ia. P. 528.
Centre, a township of Wapello co., Ia. Pop. 1693.
Centre, a township of Winnebago co., Ia. Pop. 432.
Centre, a township of Atchison co., Kan. Pop. 1605.
Centre, a township of Doniphan co., Kan. Pop. 2248.
Centre, a township of Lyon co., Kan. Pop. 126.
Centre, a township of Marion co., Kan. Pop. 539.
Centre, a township of Wilson co., Kan. Pop. 855.
Centre, a township of Buchanan co., Mo. Pop. 1918.
Centre, a township of Dade co., Mo. Pop. 1568.
Centre, a township of Greene co., Mo. Pop. 1681.
Centre, a township of Hickory co., Mo. Pop. 1245.
Centre, a township of Knox co., Mo. Pop. 2416.
Centre, a township of Ralls co., Mo... Pop. 726.
Centre, a township of Vernon co., Mo. Pop. 2603.
Centre, a township of Camden co., N. J. Pop. IT18.
Centre, a township of Chatham co., N. C. Pop. 1255.
Centre, a township of Stanley coy, N. C. Pop. 1065.
Centre, a township of Carroll co., O. Pop. 1227.
Centre, a township of Columbiana co., O. Pop. 2895.
Centre, a township of Guernsey co., O. Pop. 1016.
, Centre, a township of Mercer co., O. Pop. 1255.
Centre, a township of Monroe co., O. Pop. 2585.
Centre, a township of Morgan co., O. Pop. 1353.
Centre, a township of Noble co., O. Pop. 1703.
Centre, a township of Williams co., O. Pop. 1628.
Centre, a township of Wood co., O. Pop. 1331.
Centre, a township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 1529.
Centre, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 843.
Centre, a township of Columbia, co., Pa. Pop. 1322.
Centre, a township of Greene co., Pa. Pop. 1777.
Centre, a township of Indiana, co., Pa. Pop. 1555.
Centre, a post-township of Perry co., Pa. Pop. 1121.
Centre, a township of Snyder co., Pa. Pop. 885.
Centre, a township of Oconee co., S. C. Pop. 1910.
Centre, a township of Richland co., S. C. Pop. 1124.
Centre, a township of Fauquier co., Va. Pop. 4356.
Centre, a township of Calhoun co., West Va. P. 520.
Centre, a township of Gilmore co., West Va. P. 1201.
Centre, a township of Wetzel co., West Va. P. 1336.
Centre, a township of Wyoming co., West Va. P. 622.
Centre, a township of Outagamie co., Wis. P. 1201.
Centre, a post-township of Rock co., Wis. Pop. 1064.
Cen/tre Col’lege, Danville, Ky., was chartered as a
State institution in 1819. An amendment to the charter
gave the control of the school to the Presbyterian synod
of Kentucky, upon condition of synod’s paying $20,000
towards the endowment. The condition was fulfilled, and
Centre College became a synodical school in 1831. The
following list gives the names of its presidents and the
dates of their election : Rev. Samuel Findlay (pro tem.),
1822; Rev. J. Chamberlain, D. D., 1822; Rev. D. C. Proc-
tor, D. D. (pro tem.), 1826; Rev. Gideon Blackburn, D.D.,
1827; Rev. J. C. Young, D. D., 1830; Rev. L. W. Green,
D. D., 1857; Rev. W. L. Breckinridge, D.D., 1863; Ormond
Beatty, LL.D., 1872. Under the long presidency of Dr.
Young the college rose to great eminence among Western
schools. It retained both its numbers and reputation until
the civil war, when the number of students was reduced
from 200 to less than 50. The close of the war did not
bring peace to the Church. The synod of Kentucky was
rent asunder, the larger body joining the Southern Presby-
terian Church—the smaller, and with it Centre College,
adhering to the General Assembly. Litigation ensued, and
all the courts, both State and Federal, decided that the
Assembly had the rightful control. Amidst this litigation
(now closed) the number of students steadily increased, the
last annual catalogue giving a roll of 91, with a training-
school of 95 pupils; total, 186. Centre College aims to
give simply a liberal education. The college course em-
858
CENTRE CREEK–CENTRIPETAL AND CENTRIFUGAL FORCES.
braces the usual curriculum, along with special advantages
for acquiring the leading languages of modern Europe.
Other features of interest are a four years’ course of lectures
on the history, structure, and literature of the English lan-
guage, and a daily lecture by the professor of ethics on
biblical themes or on subjects relating to the development
of a true Christian manhood. Students find boarding in
private families. The village is quiet and healthful, and
there is a high degree of culture among the citizens. Tui-
tion to ministers’ sons and young men of limited means is
$5, to all others $50. The faculty consists of a president,
vice-president, and seven other instructors. The libraries
of the college contain about 8000 volumes. Facilities for
instruction in the sciences are good and increasing. The
alumni at the close of 1872 numbered 754. Among them
are some of the most distinguished men of the land. The
college year begins the first Monday in September, and
closes the last Thursday in June. The endowment yield-
ing an income amounts to about $140,000; the buildings
and grounds are estimated at $75,000 additional.
- ORMOND BEATTY.
Cen'tre Creek, a post-township of Martin co., Minn.
Pop. 377. -
Centre Creek, a post-township of Jasper co., Mo.
Pop. 765.
Cem/tre Grove, a township of Dickinson co., Ia.
Pop. 283. |
Centre Grove, a township of Guilford co., N. C.
Pop. 1110.
Centre Hall, a post-village of Centre co., Pa. It has
one weekly newspaper.
Cen'tre Har’bor, a post-township of Belknap co.,
N.H., 37 miles N. of Concord, on Lake Winnipiseogee, is a
place of summer resort. It is visited by the steamboats
which ply on the lake, and is noted for its fine scenery.
Pop. 446.
Cen'tre of Grav'ity, the point in a body which is al-
ways in the line of the resultant of the weights of all the
particles composing that body, no matter in what position
the body be placed. Each particle of a body held above
the surface of the earth is acted upon by gravitation, and
we may look upon the gravitation of each particle as being
one of a system of parallel forces, and the gravitation of
the whole as a resultant of those forces. Whatever be the
direction of these forces with respect to the mass, the re-
sultant will always pass through a fixed point within the
mass, which point is the centre of gravity for the body.
Every mass which is supported above the earth must have
its centre of gravity so placed that a line drawn from it
perpendicularly downward will fall within the base; other-
wise the body will fall. The centre of gravity of many
bodies may be found by geometrical rules, but with the
supposition that the bodies are of homogeneous or uniform
'specific gravity—a condition which is not often found ex-
actly fulfilled in practice.
Centre of Mag/nitude, The, is a point so situated
that all straight lines passing through it, and terminated
by the circumference or superficies of the figure or surface,
are bisected in it. --->
Cen’tre Point, a post-village of Washington township,
Linn co., Ia. Pop. 443.
Centreport, a post-village of Huntington township,
Suffolk co., N. Y., on the Northport branch of the Long
Island R. R., 37 miles from New York.
Cen’tre Star, a post-township of Lauderdale co., Ala.
Pop. 1627.
Cen'tre Wil’iage, a post-village of Colesville township,
Broome co., N. Y., on the Susquehanna River, has an ex-
tensive tannery. Pop. 146. -
Cen’t reville, a post-village, capital of Bibb co., Ala.,
on the Cahawba River, at the Lower Falls, 38 miles S. E.
of Tuscaloosa. Pop. of Centreville township, 1285.
Centreville, a village in Hamden township, New Ha-
ven co., Conn., on the New Haven and Northampton R. R.,
about 6 miles N. of New Haven. It has manufactures of
various kinds.
Centreville, a post-village of St. Clair co., Ill., 7 miles
S. S. E. of St. Louis, on the St. Louis and Cairo and the
Illinois and St. Louis R. Rs. It has two steam flouring
mills. Coal is mined in the vicinity. Pop. 1116.
Centreville, a post-village, capital of Wayne co., Ind.,
on the Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. Louis R. R., 5 miles
W. of Richmond. It has a female college, a national bank,
and one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1077.
Centreville, a post-village, capital of Appanoose co.,
Ia., on the Chicago and South-western R. R., 125 miles W.
.S. W. of Muscatine. It has a national bank and two news-
various kinds.
paper-offices. It is the present terminus of the Missouri
Iowa and Nebraska Railway, has a fine court-house, sev-
eral churches in process of building, and manufactures of
It is underlaid with an abundant supply
of coal of very fine quality. Pop. 1037. ED. of “CITIZEN.”
Centreville, a post-township of Linn co., Kan. Pop.
1034.
Centreville, a township of Neosho co., Kan. Pop.
889.
Centreville, a post-village and seaport in Barnstable
township, Barnstable co., Mass., on the S. side of Cape
Cod.
Centreville, a township of Washington co., Me. Pop.
145.
Centreville, a post-village, the shire-town of Queen
Anne co., Md., 30 miles E. by N. from Annapolis, in a
township of the same name, situated in a large peach-
growing region. Steamboats leave twice a day for Balti-
more. It has an academy, an agricultural implement fac-
tory, a foundry, and two newspapers. It is the terminus
of the Queen Anne's and Kent R. R. Pop., of township,
5360; of village, 915. ED. “ OBSERVER.”
Centreville, a township of Delta co., Mich. Pop. 86.
Centreville, a twp. of Leelenaw co., Mich. Pop. 939.
Centreville, a post-village, capital of St. Joseph co.,
Mich., on Prairie River and on the Air-Line division of
the Central R. R., 132 miles E. of Chicago. It has one
newspaper-office, a large knitting factory, good schools, and
one national bank. Pop. 749.
ED. “ST. JosLPH REPUBLICAN.”
Centreville, a post-village of Anoka co., Minn., on
the Lake Superior and Mississippi R. R., 17 miles N. of
St. Paul, in a township of the same name, on the Rice
Lakes. It is a famous resort for sportsmen. Pop. of town-
ship, 687.
Centreville, a post-village, capital of Reynolds co.,
Mo., on the West Fork of Black River, about 40 miles S.
by W. of Potosi. Pop. 32.
Centreville, a township of Dixon co., Neb. Pop. 168.
Centreville, a station in Jersey City, N. J., on the
Central R. R. of New Jersey, 7 miles from New York. It
is a thriving place, inhabited by people doing business in
New York.
Centreville, a post-village and township of Allegany
co., N. Y. Pop. 167; of township, 1043.
Centreville, a village of Portland township, Chautau-
qua, co., N. Y. Pop. 141.
Centreville, a village of Mooers township, Clinton
co., N.Y., on Chazy River and on the Ogdensburg and Lake
Champlain R. R., 15 miles W. of Rouse's Point. It has
three churches, and an active trade and manufactures.
Centreville, a village of Clay and Cicero townships,
Onondaga, co., N. Y. Pop. 288.
Centreville, a borough of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 366.
Centreville, a post-borough of Crawford co., Pa. Pop.
322.
Centreville, a post-village of Warwick township,
Kent co., R. T., has one national bank, and manufactures
of cotton goods.
Centreville, a township of Anderson co., S. C. Pop.
880.
Centreville, a post-village, capital of Hickman co.,
Tenn., on Duck River, 50 miles S. W. of Nashville. P. 175.
Centreville, a post-village, capital of Leon co., Tex.,
130 miles N. E. of Austin City, has one newspaper. Pop.
221.
Centreville, a post-village of Fairfax co., Va., 27 miles
W. of Washington. Pop. of Centreville township, 1721.
Centreville, a township of Tyler co., West Va. Pop.
1079.
Centreville, a township of Manitowoc co., Wis. Pop.
1650. -
Centrip’etal and Centrifugal, terms used in bot-
any, and applied to two modes of inflorescence. When the
terminal flower-bud is the first to expand, the inflorescence
is said to be centrifugal. When the expansion begins with
the bud which is nearest the base of the floral axis (or
nearest the circumference in a cyme or corymb), and pro-
ceeds towards the terminal or central bud, the inflorescence
is centripetal.
Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces. If we sup-
pose a body to move in a circle with a uniform velocity,
it is shown by the laws of motion that it must be acted upon
continually by a uniform force directed towards the centre;
which force expends itself each instant in deflecting the
*
CENTROPOLIS-CEPHALIZATION.
859
moving body from the straight line in which it would nor-
mally move, this line being a tangent of the circle in which
motion takes place. The force with which the body is im-
pelled towards the centre is called centripetal; the equal
and opposite force which tends to make it fly from the cen-
tre is the centrifugal force. Both together are the central
forces. Each is equal to the weight of the body multiplied
by the square of the velocity, and divided by the accelera-
tion of gravity and the radius.
Centrop'olis, a post-township of Franklin co., IKan.
Pop. 1034.
Cen/turies of Mag/deburg, the first church history
by the Protestants, the preparation of which occupied many
eminent scholars for a long period. The plan of an extended
work, which should reveal the deviations of the Roman
Church from the practices of the early Christians, was
first conceived by Matthew Flacius of Magdeburg in 1552.
The labor begun by him was carried forward by Wigand,
Matthew Judex, Basil Faber, Andreas Corvinus, and
Thomas Holzhuter, and the means therefor were provided
by the evangelical princes and great men. The work ap-
eared at Băle in 13 vols., cach volume covering a century
(1559–74). The centuriatores, as the authors were called,
never brought it down beyond the year 1300. In refuta-
tion of the “Centuries,” Baronius wrote the “Annales Ec-
clesiastici.”
Centu'rion [Lat. centurio, from centuria, a “hundred
men’], an officer of the ancient Roman army who com-
manded one hundred men or a company called centuria.
Cen’tury [Lat. centuria, from centum, a “hundred”],
a company of one hundred men in the Roman army; also
a civil division of the Roman people formed for the pur-
pose of voting. According to this division, which was
founded on property, the people voted in the comitia cen-
turiata. (See CoMITIA.) Servius Tullius divided the citi-
zens of Rome into 193 centuries. In modern times the term
is mostly used to denote a period of 100 years.
Century Piant. See AGAVE.
Cephalas/pis [from the Gr. kebaxi, “head,” and &gifts,
a “shield”], a genus of fossil fishes armed with rhomboidal
ganoid plates of enamelled bony structure. Several spe-
cics are found in the upper Silurian and in the Devonian
rocks. They had large heterocercal tails, and appear to
have been rapidly moving, predaceous fishes. The name
is derived from the large plate which covered the head, the
sharp anterior edge of which may have served the fish as
an offensive weapon. *
Cephaliza/tion [from the Gr. ketbaxi, “head”]. As
the head is the seat of power in an animal, the part that
gives honor to the whole, it is natural that among species
rank should be marked by means of variations in the
structure of the head; and not only by variations in struc-
ture, but also in the extent to which the rest of the body
directly contributes, by its members, to the uses or pur-
poses of the head. Cephalization is, then, simply the de-
gree of head domination in the structure, as implied in the
derivation of the term. The following are some of the ways
or mothods in which it is manifested:
1. With superior cephalization—that is, as species rise in
grade or rank—more and more of the anterior part of the
body or of its members render service to the head; with
inferior, less and less. In many cases, part of the organs
that serve as feet in the lower tribes serve as jaws in the
higher, or, in other words, are transferred from the loco-
motive to the cephalic series, and thus the structure indi-
cates higher cephalization.
2. With superior cephalization the structure of the head
or of the anterior portion of the body becomes more and
more compacted, perfected, and condensed or abbreviated;
with inferior, the same portion becomes more and more lax
in its parts or loosely put together, and imperfect in the
arts or members themselves, and at the same time the
whole is more and more elongated, and spaced out or
enlarged.
3. With superior cephalization the posterior portion of
the body becomes more and more compacted, or firmly put
together and abbreviated; that is, as concentration goes on
anteriorly there is abbreviation posteriorly. I’ven the tail
shows grade; for great length or size or functional import-
ance is actually a mark of inferior grade, other things
-being equal.
4. With superior cephalization there is an upward rise
in the head-extremity of the nervous system; , and this
reaches its limit in man, in which it becomes erect and
points heavenward. With inferior, there is the reverse
condition, and the limit is seen in the horizontal fish.
5. With inferior cephalization there is not only a less
and less concentrated or compacted and perfected state of
the whole structure before and behind, but in its lower
gº;
the spirit within.
stages the degradation of the structure extends to an ab-
sence of essential parts, as teeth, members, senses; and
often also to a gross enlargement of the body beyond the
size which the system of life within can properly wield,
and in this case the body is stupid and sluggish.
The laws of cephalization act conjointly with another
principle in animal life—that of the oppositeness subsisting
between the cephalic or anterior and the posterior eactremities
of the animal structure, which is a kind of antero-posterior
or fore-and-aft polarity. This oppositeness, or polarity is
wp and down in the plant, and fore and aft in the animal.
The fore and aft becomes strictly up and down in position
in man; and this by elevating heavenward the cephalic
extremity, not by a change of the axis of symmetry to that
of the plant.
The following are examples of cephalization, and of de-
cephalization as the reverse steps are properly designated,
in some of the classes of animals:
The subdivisions of the division of brute mammals (or
quadrupeds) containing the larger species are four:
J'irst, the Quadrumanes, or monkeys.
Second, the Carnivores, or flesh-eaters, including the lion,
cat, dog, bear, and the like. k
Third, the Herbivores, or plant-eaters, including the
elephant, rhinoceros, horse, hog, ox, deer, etc.
Fourth, the Mutilates, including the whales, dolphins,
etc., in which the limbs are degraded to the structure and
uses of fins, and part are wanting, and therefore the species
are in a sense, mutilated, whence the term Mutilates. Such
forms are appropriately styled degradational forms, since
they correspond to a degradation of the mammalian struc-
ture or type. These several subdivisions have their dis-
tinctions, and also their naturalness, strongly exhibited in
characters based on this principle of cephalization. Illus-
trations of this fact may be drawn first from the fore limbs.
In the Quadrumanes or monkeys the fore limbs are so
constructed and arranged that they serve (1) for carrying
their young, (2) for supplying the mouth with food, (3) for
taking their prey, and (4) for locomotion; in the Carniv-
ores, they serve (1) for taking their prey, and (2) for loco-
motion ; in the Herbivores, only for locomotion—for cattle
use their fore legs for their simple legitimate object of
walking, nothing higher, nothing lower; in the Mutilates,
or whales (degradational species, as before styled), they are
fit only for something lower, for they are merely fins, like
those of fishes. . It thus appears that in the passage from
Carnivores to Herbivores the fore limbs lose all cephalic
use, they not even serving in the latter to get or carry food
to the mouth; and lower down, in the whales and related
species, they are degraded into swimming organs.
Passing, now, from the highest of these four subdivisions
—that of the monkeys—up to man, there is a sudden ele-
vation of structure, corresponding well with the spiritual
elevation. The fore limbs are taken out of the foot-series,
and thus rescued from the inferior service of locomotion.
As in some brutes, these members serve to carry the young
and to collect food and convey it to the mouth. But along
with such uses there are others more exalted, demanded by
Moreover, far the larger part of the
body is thus made to belong to the anterior portion, and
this anterior portion is consequently much increased, while
the posterior stands on its narrow base of two feet, and is
reduced to a minimum.
Let us now look at the above four subdivisions of mam-
mals with reference to other methods of cephalization, and
see how they exhibit, in accordance with this principle,
their differences of grade.
The Quadrumanes, or monkeys—the highest of the brute
species—have the body most raised from the horizontal;
the head in the typical species shortest and most com-
pacted; and the superior species among them—the man-
apes, as the gorilla and orang—have no tail, so that this
kind of posterior abbreviation is at its extreme limit.
The Carnivores, as the cat, lion, etc., also have a short,
well-compacted head, but one more projecting than that of
the higher monkey; the hind feet, as well as fore feet, are
provided with claws to aid in climbing; and the mouth is
prostituted from the proper or normal use of the organ to
that of carrying its young or its prey.
The Herbivores, as the ox, horse, tapir, etc., have the
head very much elongated (a strong mark of decephaliza-
tion), and in some appropriated to the inferior use of self-
defence; part of the teeth usually wanting; and the feet
fitted for locomotion, and not in any case for grasping.
Moreover, in the ox, goat, deer, and allied species, and in
the horse, the hind legs are very much the stronger, on
which account from this group come the draft-animals
used by man; and this characteristic indicates a backward
transfer of force, which is a prominent mark of decephal-
ization.
The Mutilates, or the whales, have a head sometimes
860
CEPHALIZATION.
many yards in length, made of bones imperfectly united;
the teeth often entirely wanting, and sometimes excessively
numerous—the latter a mark of feeble concentration in the
life-system, in consequence of which the parts grow or
multiply to excess (something as , a tree grows in size,
because given up to the uncontrolled power of growth);
and not only the fore legs reduced to fins and feeble in
locomotion, but the hind limbs wanting; the body behind
enormously enlarged and prolonged; and the prolonged
tail, thus made, serving as the main organ of locomotion—
a low, fish-like condition of the structure, indicating in a
striking manner its extreme decephalization. If the Car-
nivore is a prosthenic animal, or strong before, the whale,
like a fish, is eminently metasthenic, or strong behind.
The four grand divisions of mammals are thus strikingly
marked off by characters based on this principle of ceph-
alization.
Turn now to man, at the head of the system of life. He
is vastly above even the man-apes in the form of the head,
as well as in its perfection of make, for the jaws project
but slightly, when at all, beyond the forehead, and his
back, in his natural position, only a little behind the pos-
terior side of the brain. His nervous system stands verti-
cal, with the brain at the summit; and in average specimens
of the race the brain is nearly treble the size of the brain
of a gorilla. His teeth are simply for cutting soft food
and for chewing, not for tearing flesh or branches of trees,
or for carrying his young. . His fore limbs take no part in
locomotion; they are transferred completely from the loco-
motive series to the cephalic. His feet may be thought to
be inferior to a monkey's, since they cannot clasp a stick or
branch, like a hand. But this latter quality makes a good
climber, and serves well a being with the monkey's pro-
pensities and necessities, but is not befitting man’s erect
body and higher purposes, which are best served by feet
that give a firm support. -
The question as to the condition of the life-forces thus
passes from the sphere of speculation to one of direct
observation. A lion, for example, exhibits to the eye the
high degree of cephalization of its structure by its strength
anteriorly, or that of its head and fore limbs, and the cor-
relate form and structure of these and other parts of the
body; and a whale manifests its low degree by its degraded
head and senses, its feeble limbs partly obsolete, and the
immense size and strength of the tail; and this is so
obvious that the muscular or motorial force of the two
might be sufficiently well represented by the annexed
figures; Fig. 1 corresponding to that of the lion, and 2 to
that of the right whale, A being the anterior or cephalic
extremity, and P the posterior
or caudal extremity. The fig- 1.
ures give a faint idea of what
is meant by cephalization and
decephalization. If the senso-
rial forces of the lion were taken
into consideration, the con- 2.
...trast between the two would be
still greater. C is the position A P
of the prime systemic centre;
its remoteness from the front
margin in the right whale
(Fig. 2) is one of the marks of the extreme decephaliza-
tion of the structure. The 'arrangement of the muscular
force in different Herbivores might be represented by fig-
ures intermediate between 1 and 2.
For further illustration, the Articulates may be referred
to ; that is, the sub-kingdom of animals, including insects,
spiders, centipedes, crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, etc.), and
worms, the body and members of which are jointed. The
three classes are—1, Insecteans; 2, Crustaceans; 3, Worms.
The transfer of members from the locomotive to the
gephalic series, or the reverse—one of the most striking
marks of cephalization in animals having limbs—is well
shown in the two higher of these classes. The three orders
or grand divisions of Insecteans are—I, Insects; 2, Spiders;
3, Myriapods or Centipedes.
Insects, the highest, have three pairs of feet and three
pairs of mouth-organs. Spiders have four pairs of feet
and two of mouth-organs. Here one pair out of the series
of head-organs in insects is transferred in spiders to the
locomotive series. Insects and spiders are hence very dis-
tinct types of structure; and the higher is based on superior
cephalization; for in insects a larger part of the structure
is embraced in the cephalic or anterior portion than in
spiders.
Both insects and spiders are structures with fixed or
closed limits, for the number of pairs of feet is limited,
and the segments of which the body is made admit of no
increase beyond the normal or regular number. But
Myriapods are not limited in the number of segments of
the body, or in that of the pairs of feet; on the contrary,
A. P
they allow of any number of feet and of indefinite length-
ening behind. The order is distinguished by the degrada-
tional character of indefinite posterior elongation, and as
indefinite a number of legs—an evidence of low decephali-
zation.
It appears, then, that in passing from Myriapods to
typical spiders there is first posterior abbreviation—one
mark of cephalization; and in addition the body of the
spider is not worm-like in being made up of a large num-
ber of similar segments, but has an anterior part set off for
the purposes of the head and locomotion (called the cephalo-
thorax) distinct from the abdomen. Next, in passing from
spiders to insects, one pair of locomotive organs, the an-
terior, becomes a pair of jaws—that is, it is given over to
head-uses; and, moreover, the head becomes a separate seg-
ment from the thorax, which shows further concentration
of the forces anteriorly, or a higher grade of cephalization.
The orders of Crustaceans are three: .1, Decapods, or
the ten-footed; 2, Tetradecapods, or the fourteen-footed;
3, Entomostracans, or species with defective feet. In the
highest, the Decapods, there are five pairs of feet and sia:
pairs of mouth-organs; while in the next order, that of
Tetradecapods, there are seven pairs of feet and four pairs
of mouth-organs. In the latter, then, the feet have gained
two pairs, the mouth has lost two or, in other words, two
pairs have passed from the cephalic to the locomotive
series. Hence, the Decapods and Tetradecapods differ on
the same principle as insects and spiders; that is, in the
transfer of part of the mouth-organs of insects to the loco-
motive series. Like the latter, also, the feet are perfect
and faced or limited in number, the regular or normal
number never being exceeded. They are, therefore, regu-
lar or normal types. -
In descending to the third order, or the Entomostracan,
from the Tetradecapods, the mouth loses other pairs of
organs by this method of transfer—in some one pair, in
others two, in others three, in others four (or all). The
Entomostracans are defective in both their feet and seg-
ments, and are degradational forms; and hence these
several grades of transfer have not separately the import-
ance which belongs to them in the regular or normal types.
In going up from Entomostracans to Tetradecapods, the
system of structure becomes normal and the number of
mouth-organs or jaws four pairs, the locomotive number-
ing seven pairs; and then in passing from Tetradecapods
to Decapods, the two of the seven pairs of locomotive
organs become jaws, or are turned over to the head.
Again, among Decapods, or ten-footed Crustaceans, the
prime difference between the crab and the lobster or shrimp
is, that in the former the head of the latter is shortened,
and its parts abbreviated and more compacted together, and
the abdomen or tail-portion reduced from great length and
great strength (which makes an organ of locomotion) to a
very short, narrow, and feeble organ packed away under
the rest of the body. There is concentration and compact-
ing of the whole structure—a shortening in before and be-
hind—on an extraordinary scale, and thus the crab exhibits
its higher grade of cephalization.
Again, an insect. and a crab are both Articulates, and
are built on a common fundamental type of structure. At
the same time, the insect, though very much the smaller, is
greatly higher in degree of cephalization. The head and
thorax of the insect answer together to the head alone of
the crab, its three pairs of jaws and three pairs of legs cor-
responding to simply the six pairs of jaws in the Decapod.
Thus, abbreviation before and behind, and concentration
of the system, are here carried to an extreme perhaps not
exceeded in the whole animal kingdom. ... We appreciate
this when we consider the minuteness of the brain—or,
more properly, of the cephalic ganglion—of a bee or an
ant, and the wonderful instinctive intelligence, and also
mechanical power, which proceed from it.
The varieties of the human race afford other illustrations
of the principle of cephalization. The lower races of men
have projecting jaws, a retreating forehead, and generally
a head elongated behind. With upward progress in cephal-
ization, the jaws shorten in, and the head changes in pro-
portions from elongation hindward to fulness in front, with
increasing breadth and height and verticality of forehead.
There is an increase of head-power accompanying this
shortening before and behind, and the bringing of the
mouth directly under the vertical forehead; and all is an
effect of upward progress in cephalization. It has been
stated by American dentists that it is not uncommon for
the outer incisor to be crowded out, and the posterior molar
to fail of development; and this, if true, may be a direct
effect of the shortening of the jaws still going on. Whether
so or not, it is certain that the jaws of man are made short
through the rejection of twelve of the forty-four teeth that
belong to the typical mammals, man having but thirty-two,
so that the progress in cephalization of the mammalian
sº
CEPHALONIA—CERCARIA.
type has apparently forced out three from either side of
either jaw—viz. one incisor and two premolars. Another
effect of cephalization, or concentration headward, in the
highest type of mammals has been a shortening of the
arms, the arms being extra long in the apes, man-apes in-
cluded. Dr. B. A. Gould found in his measurements of
soldiers (to which work he was called by the Christian
Commission during the war) that the negroes had the arm
on an average an inch longer than the whites. We may
hence conclude that cephalization has presided over the
greater part of the changes in form which man has under-
gone in passing from the savage to the civilized state.
It follows from the facts that have been presented, that
if the animal races have made progress through the ages
as a consequence of a struggle for life and natural selection,
as claimed by Darwin, or if there has been any system of
natural causes at the basis of evolution, the progress must
have been subordinated to this law of cephalization. The
brain is the part of an animal that, in one way or another,
comes most into contact with the outer world; for all the
senses react upon it, and hence all outside influences and
the whole constitution of the being bear upon its condition.
It would be likely, therefore, to undergo modifications for
better or worse according as the gonditions favor progress
or the reverse. This may not unfrequently be the source
of new varieties of animals—that is, the means by which
an impress is made on the embryo and a new variety
initiated.
The evidences of the connection of grade, and also of
classification, with cephalization, might be traced through
all the grand divisions of the animal kingdom. But to
give full illustrations of the subject in the various depart-
ments of zoology would require a mention of details that
would here be out of place. Sufficient has been brought
forward to explain the principle, and give some idea of its
importance. J. D. DANA.
Cephalo'nia -ſanc. Cephallenia; Gr. Kepaxxnvía], the
largest of the Ionian Islands, and now constituting one of
the nomarchies of the kingdom of Greece, is in the Medi-
terranean near the W. coast of Greece. It is about lat. 38°
N. and lon. 20° 30' E. The greatest length is 32 miles, and
the area 300 square miles. The surface is mountainous,
the climate is pleasant, and the soil is mostly thin. The
highest summit rises about 5000 feet above the level of the
sea. The chief articles of export are currants and olive oil.
The principal towns are Argostoli and Lixuri. There are
many ancient ruins upon the island. This island was call-
ed Samos by Homer. Pop. in 1870, 77,382.
Cephalop'oda, or Ceph'alopods [from the Gr.
kedańſ, “head,” and troºs (gen. Troöös), the “foot,” because
the “arms ” or “feet ’’ surround the mouth], the highest
class of the Mollusca, including the cuttle-fishes, nautili,
argonauts, ammonites, etc., all marine and carnivorous, and
all laterally symmetrical, having a shell usually straight,
but sometimes coiled in a vertical plane. The nautili and
argonauts alone have external shells, though many extinct
species had them ; but the other living species have gen-
erally an internal shell, of which “cuttle-fish bone * affords
an example. The cephalopods have muscular arms or ten-
tacles, used in prehension and locomotion; many have fins,
and all have the power of locomotion by forcibly expelling
water from the gill-chamber. They generally have two
large eyes, ear cavities, each containing an otolite, two jaws,
and a fleshy, spinous tongue. The nervous system is well
developed. The brain is a peri-oesophageal ring. The
gills are either two or four in number, placed in a chamber
into which water is admitted by a slit, and from which it is
expelled through a “ siphon’’ or “funnel.” The class is
divided into two orders—Dibranchiata and Tetrabranchiata,
2-gilled and 4-gilled cephalopods.
The Dibranchiata are swimmers, having (except the ar-
gonauts) an internal shell, or rarely none at all; eight or
ten arms, with suckers and sometimes sharp hooks upon
them; and an ink-bag filled with a dark fluid for coloring
the water, concealing the animal in times of danger. The
Dibranchiata are divided into octopods, having eight arms
only (argonauts and Octopodidae), and decapods, having
ten arms, two of which are longer and used as tentacles
(squids, belemnites (fossil), cuttle-fishes, and spirulae).
The Tetrabranchiata are mostly extinct. They have
external chambered shells, are creepers instead of swim-
mers, have four gills instead of two, have very numerous
arms, eyes on a stem instead of being sessile, and have
one heart with a single chamber, while the Dibranchiates
have also two gill-hearts. The Tetrabranchiata have no
ink-bag. The Wautilus proper (not the argonaut or paper
nautilus) is the only living genus. The fossil species are
very numerous, and include Nautilidae, Orthoceratidae, and
Ammonitidae.
Cephalop/tera [from the Gr. keóaxi, the “head,” and
perate zone.
861
Trepév, a “fin” or “wing ”], a genus of cartilaginous marine
fishes belonging to the ray family, and including the
Cephaloptera vampirws, called sea-devil or vampire, some-
times weighing several tons. It is much wider than it is
long, measuring some seventeen feet by ten. Each side of
the head has a pre-cephalic fin coiled upon itself in the
shape of a horn. It is sometimes found on the southern
coast of the U. S., and is said to have been known to seize
the cables of small vessels and tow them for miles at a
great speed. -
Ce/pheus, a constellation of the northern hemisphere,
comprises about thirty-five stars, the largest of which is
Alderamin, a star of the third magnitude.
Cerac'chi (GIUSEPPE), a skilful Italian sculptor, born
about 1760, came to Philadelphia in 1791, and executed
fine busts of Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and others.
Among his works is a statue of Bonaparte. As an accom-
plice of Arena in a conspiracy against the life of Bona-
parte, he was executed in 1802. -
Ceram’, or Zeram’, an island of the Malay Archi-
pelago, is the largest of the Moluccas except one. It is
between Booroo and Papua, about 3° S. of the equator.
Its length E. and W. is nearly 200 miles, and its area about
6500 square miles. Pop. 67,000. It is partly occupied by
mountains, the highest points of which rise 8000 feet or
more above the level of the sea. The vegetation here is
luxuriant, and the highlands are mostly covered with
forests. The clove and nutmeg grow wild in Ceram, which
also produces the sago-palm in abundance. The lowlands
are peopled by Malays, who are bold sailors and pursue
trade. The mountains are inhabited by fierce Alſooroos.
The Dutch claim the sovereignty of this island.
Ceramia/ceae, a natural order of cryptogamous plants,
or a sub-order of Algae, consisting of Sea-weeds of a rose
color, with fronds formed of cells arranged in rows or in a
single row ; the sporocarps contain cells or spores, often in
fours, with a transparent perispore, and enclosed in recep-
tacles. They are found in the seas of the northern tem-
Many of them are beautiful, and some spe-
cies afford food, as dulse and CARRAGEEN (which see).
The edible birds’ nests of the Chinese market are supposed
to derive their value from a plant of this order.
Ceram/ic [from the Gr. Képapºos, “potter's clay,” an
“earthen vessel” or “pottery”], pertaining to pottery, fic-
tile. The term ceramic art is applied to the department
of plastic art, which comprises all objects made of baked
clay, as vases, urns, bassi-rilievi, etc.
Ceramiſcus [Gr. Kepapeukós; see last article], a place
near Athens and without the walls where citizens who fell
in battle were buried at the public expense; the potter's
field or quarter.
Ceras/tes [from the Gr. képas, a “horn’], or Horned
Snake, a genus of ven-
omous serpents of North-
ern Africa, having a flat-
tened head, two rows of
3 plates under the tail, and
7 keeled but not spinous.
scales. The nostril is
small and semi-lunar. Its
name is derived from the
horned scale which grows
upon the eyelids of the male. Several deadly species of
Clotho of West and South Africa, have somewhat similar
horns, and are by some included in this cognate genus.
Cerastes.
Ce/rate [Lat. ceratum, from cera, “wax”], a compound
of wax with other oily and medicinal substances in such
proportions as to have the consistence of an ointment.
Simple cerate is made by melting together equal parts of
white wax and olive oil; they are to be heated together,
and carefully stirred into a uniform consistence while
cooling. -
Cerati’tes [from the Gr. képas, a “horn,” and, Atôos, a
“stone’], a genus of fossil Ammonitidae characteristic of
the trias formation, to which it is peculiar. It is distin-
guished by having the lobes of the sutures serrated, while
the intervening curves, directed towards the aperture, are
simple.
Cer/berus [Gr. Képéepos], the triple-headed dog which,
as the ancient Greeks imagined, guarded the portal of the
infernal regions. He resisted only those who attempted
to come out of Hades. Hercules is said to have overpow-
ered him and dragged him out. The name Cerberus was
given by Hevelius to a northern constellation.
Cerca’ria, the larval form of various trematode worms
(Distoma, Bilharzia, etc.). The perfect worm deposits an
egg, which hatches into a curious little sac, formerly known
as Opalina, itself often entozoic, and once believed to be

862
CERCIS CANADENSIS-CERIGNOLA.
an infusorian. The opalina in turn gives birth by in-
ternal gemmation to one or more Cercariae, which are oval
tailed organisms which swim actively in water, and finally
enter, if possible, into the bodies of insect larvae, mollusks,
fishes, etc., and are thus often indirectly, or in many cases
directly, introduced into the stomachs of men and various
vertebrate animals. Here they become developed into
trematode worms.
Cer’cis Canaden'sis, Red Bud, or Judas Tree,
a small tree of the natural order Leguminosae, is a native
of the U. S., and is cultivated as an ornamental tree. It
has cordate, pointed leaves, and red-purple flowers in
umbel-like clusters. It flowers early in the spring, before
its leaves are opened. (See JUDAs TREE.)
Cercoce/bus [from the Gr. képkos, a “tail,” and kºgos,
fuliginosus.
a “monkey’], a genus of long-tailed African monkeys,
collectively called “mangabeys * by Buffon. They are re-
markable for their ludicrous antics, their almost constant
grotesque grinning, and théºr general good temper. The
sooty monkey (Cercocebus fuliginosus) is the best known.
Cercopithe’cus [from the Gr. képkos, a “tail,” and
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Cercopithecus cynosurus.
triðmkos, an “ape ’’], a genus of Small, long-tailed African
monkeys of the family Simiadae. The species are very nu-
merous. They have mostly long hair, and long and large
tails, which they carry over the back. They are collective-
ly called guemons by some authors. One of the best known
is the malbrouck (Cercopithecus cynogurus), or dog-tailed
monkey.
Cère, a river of Southern France, noted for the pictur-
esque beauty of its valley, flows through Cantal and Lot,
and enters the T)ordogne. It is about 55 miles long.
Cere/a, a market-town of Italy, in the province of
Verona, in Lombardy, 19 miles S. S. E. of Verona. It has
the ruins of an ancient castle. Pop. 5518.
Ce’real [Lat. cerealis, from Ceres, the goddess of agri-
culture]. Originally, cerealis signified pertaining to Ceres
or sacred to Ceres. Bread or grain was called cerealia
munera (“cereal gifts,” or “gifts of Ceres”). In modern
language, cereal means pertaining to edible grain or bread-
stuffs, as wheat, rye, maize, and barley; as a noun it de-
notes those articles of food.
Cerea’lia, or Cereal Plants, the plants which
produce edible grains, and are cultivated for their seeds,
which are used as breadstuffs. With the exception of
buckwheat, they belong to the order Graminaceae (true
grasses), but differ widely in structure and characters.
Having been cultivated from a very remote antiquity and
modified by cultivation, their original forms and native
countries cannot be ascertained. Difficulty is found in
arranging the numerous varieties in their proper species.
The most important cereal grasses are wheat (Triticum),
barley (Hordewm), maize (Zea), rye (Secale), rice (Oryza),
and oats (Avena). Rice is the chief food of a greater num-
ber of the human family than any other grain,
but wheat is generally admitted to be superior
as a material for bread to all the other cereals.
Maize will thrive in regions which are too warm
for wheat. The cereal grains are extensively.
used in the manufacture of fermented and dis-
tilled liquors.
Cerebelium. See BRAIN, by PROF. HENRY
HARTSHORNE, A. M. *
Cer’ebro-spi'nal Flu'id, a serous liquid,
of alkaline reaction, containing a small percent-
age of saline and animal matters. It fills the
subarachnoid space, between the arachnoid mem-
brane and pia-mater, both within the skull and
the vertebral canal. It prevents injury from con-
cussions and shocks, and perhaps prevents undue
pressure upon the brain by withdrawing itself
into the spinal canal at times when the brain
contains more blood than usual. In certain dis-
eases it is secreted in great excess.
Cerebro-spinal Meningitis.
INGITIS.
Cere’do, a post-village of Wayne co., West
Va., on the Ohio River, about 12 miles S. E. of Ironton
(O.). It has a manufactory of glass bottles. Pop. includ-
ing Ceredo township, 1297.
Cereop'sis, a genus of Australian geese, extremely
common on the continent and islands of its native region.
They are large and easily domesticated, but are quarrel-
some, and when tamed are so fierce and so
tyrannical in the poultry-yard that they have
not been generally bred. Unlike other geese,
they seldom seek the water. The Cereopsis
Novae Hollandiae, or Cape Barron goose, is
the best known species.
Ce’res, the Roman name of the goddess
of agriculture, whom the Greeks called DE-
METER, and to whom men were supposed to
be indebted for the gift of breadstuffs. She
was said to be the daughter of Cronos (Sat-
urn) and the mother of Proserpine. The
most remarkable part of the myth of Ceres
was the abduction of her daughter by Pluto,
and the long search which Ceres made for her.
(See PRosBRPINE.)
Ceres, the name of an asteroid discovered
by Piazzi at Palermo in Jan., 1801. It was
the first asteroid ever discovered. Its ap-
parent size is nearly equal to that of a star
of the seventh magnitude.
Ceres, a township of McKean co., Pa.
Pop. 798.
Ceres/co, a township of Blue Earth co.,
Minn. Pop. 313.
Cérésole (PAUL), a Swiss statesman, born
Nov. 16, 1832, son of a clergyman, studied law in Lau-
sanne. He held several offices in the cantonal government
of Vaud, and became a member of the Swiss Federal As-
sembly in 1870, of which he became vice-president in 1872,
and president in 1873. He was identified with a move-
ment by which the central government was greatly strength-
ened.
Ce/reus, a genus of plants of the order Cactaceae, com-
prises about 100 species, some of which have beautiful
flowers. The Cereus speciosissimus, a native of Mexico, is
cultivated in greenhouses. Its flowers are large and of a
fine scarlet color, and its fruit, when well ripened, is de-
licious. The night-blooming cereus (Cereus grandiflorus),
a native of South America, bears large, beautiful, and fra-
grant flowers, which expand and fade in the course of one
night. It has been used in medicine as an antispasmodic.
Cerigno/la, an episcopal town of Italy, in the prov-
See MEN-

























CERIGO-CERTIOR.A.R.I.
863
ince of Foggia, 24 miles S. E. of Foggia. It has a college
and several convents; also manufactures of linen. The
Spaniards gained here a decided victory over the French
in 1503, and the French commander, the duke of Nemours,
was killed in that action. Pop. 17,242.
Cer’igo [anc. Cythera ; Gr. Kö0mpa], one of the Ionian
Islands, now constituting, with the neighboring small isl–
ands, an eparchy of the nomarchy of Argolis and Corinth,
in the kingdom of Greece, is in the Mediterranean, and is
separated by a narrow strait from the Morea. Area, 107
square miles. The surface is mountainous and rocky. The
soil is not rich, but produces some wheat, olives, grapes, etc.
Here is a remarkable stalactitic cavern. The ancient Cythera
was sacred to Venus, and said to be her favorite residence.
Capital, Capsali. Pop. in 1870, 10,637.
Cerin'thus [Gr. Kipw00s], a heretic who lived in Asia
Minor and Syria, between 50 and 100 A. D. He was the
founder of a sect called Cerinthians, and appears to have
been a Gnostic. He taught that the righteous shall arise
from the dead and enjoy a millennium in this world.
The statements of the early Christian writers on the sub-
ject of his doctrines are contradictory. It is supposed
that St. John wrote his Gospel to confute the errors of
Cerinthus:
Ce/rite, or Och’roite, a name of a mineral which con-
tains a silicate of cerium, and is found in Sweden. It occurs
in granular pieces of a clove-brown, cherry-red, or gray
color, and has a splintery fracture and adamantine lustre. It
contains in 100 parts—peroxide of cerium, 26.55; oxide of
lanthanum, 33.38; silica, 16; carbonic acid, 4.62; peroxide
of iron, 3.53; alumina, 1.68 ; lime, 3.56; water, 9.1.
Ce’rium (symbol Ce; equivalent 92), a rare metal
which is obtained from cerite. It is not employed in
the arts and manufactures, but its oxalate is a valuable
anti-emetic medicine in certain cases. Combined with
oxygen, it forms two oxides. It is difficult to procure it in
a separate or metallic state.”
Cerreſto Sanniſta, a town of Italy, in the province
of Benevento, is on a slope of the Apennines, 22 miles N.
E. of Capua. It has a cathedral with fine paintings, a col-
legiate church, and manufactures of coarse woollen cloth.
Pop. 5168.
Cer/ro-de-Pasſco, or Pasco, a town of Peru, de-
partment of Jünin, is 138 miles N. E. of Lima, and 13,673
feet above the level of the sea. It is ill-built and irregular.
The population is variable, and consists of miners. Here
are rich silver-mines. Pop. 14,000. -
Cer'ro Gor’do, a county in the N. of Iowa. Area,
576 square miles. It is drained by Shell Rock River and
Lime Creek. The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile.
Corn, wheat, and wool are staple crops. It is intersected
by a branch of the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., and by
the Central R. R. of Iowa. Capital, Mason City. Pop. 4722.
Cerro Gordo, a post-village, capital of Holmes co.,
Fla., 105 miles W. N.W. of Tallahassee, on the navigable
Choctawhatchie River. Pop. 672.
Cerro Gordo, a post-township of Inyo co., Cal. P. 474.
Cerro Gordo, a township of Piatt co., III. Pop. 1650.
Cerro Gordo, a celebrated battle-field and mountain-
pass in Mexico, through which the National road from
Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico passes. Here Gen. Scott
defeated a greatly superior force of Mexicans under Santa
Anna, April 18, 1847. Following up his success at Vera
Cruz, Scott's army had arrived at Plan del Rio, a small
plain 50 miles from Vera Cruz, when intelligence reached
him that the pass of Cerro Gordo had been fortified by Santa
Anna. The level ground terminates at Plan del Rio, from
which the road ascends in a long circuit among lofty hills,
whose commanding points had been fortified by the enemy.
His right rested on a precipice overhanging an impassable
ravine, his entrenchments extending to the road, on which
was placed a battery. On the other side the lofty and diffi-
cult height of Cerro Gordo commanded the approaches in
all directions. Half a mile to the rear of this height the
Mexican army, numbering upwards of 13,000, with five
pieces of artillery, were encamped. . Resolving to attempt
to turn the enemy’s left and attack in rear while threaten-
ing his front, Scott caused daily reconnoissances to be made
in the hope of finding a route by which to reach the J alapa
road and cut off the retreat of the Mexicans. A road was
made through difficult slopes and over chasms, which was
only abandoned when a further prosecution of the work
* This metal, takes its name from the planet Ceres, following
the analogy of the names Mercury, Palladium, etc. Old writers
speak, of gold as “Sol,” the Latin for “Sun,” silver as “Luna,”
the “Moon.” Copper was called Venus; lead, Saturn; tin, Jupi-
ter; and iron, Mars. These terms were used by the alchémists,
and seem to have had some reference to astrology. •
would have brought on an action. Scott now determined
to gain the Jalapa road by assaulting and carrying the
height of Cerro Gordo, and on the night of April 17 issued
his plan of battle, which provided for the attack in front of
the enemy’s whole line of intrenchments, at the same time
turning them. At an early hour on the morning of the 18th,
Twiggs' (second) division of regulars, already far advanced
towards the enemy’s left, was to move before daylight and
take up position across the National road in the enemy’s
rear, to cut off retreat towards Jalapa ; reinforcements were
also provided for for Twiggs; Worth’s (first) division to
follow at Sunrise; Pillow’s brigade to march at 6 A. M. along
an already carefully reconnoitred road, and hold itself in
readiness as soon as the attack on our right commenced to
pierce the enemy’s line of batteries at a point to be selected
by him, and once in the rear of that line to attack the
enemy in reverse, or pursue with vigor if the enemy aban-
doned their line. The cavalry to be held in reserve, also
Wall’s battery; and, looking to the success of the move-
ment, a vigorous pursuit of the enemy was to be continued
until stopped by darkness or fortifications.
This plan of attack was successfully executed. Twiggs
was reinforced during the might by Shields’ brigade, con-
sisting of one New York and two Illinois regiments. In
selecting their ground for bivouacking and an opposing
height for a battery, a sharp combat took place, but the
height was occupied and a battery of three 24-pounders
placed thereon. During the night an 8-inch howitzer was
with great difficulty and labor placed opposite the enemy’s
right battery. -
Early on the 18th the general attack commenced. Pil-
low’s brigade twice assaulted the enemy’s line of batteries
on the left; but, though unsuccessful, they served to dis-
tract their opponents; Twiggs' division, storming the strong
and vital point of Cerro Gordo, pierced the centre, gained
command of all the intrenchments, and cut them off from
support; Riley’s brigade of infantry pushed on against the
main body of the enemy, and the guns of their own fort
being turned on them, they fled in confusion ; Shields’
brigade bravely assaulted the left, carried the rear battery
of five guns on the Jalapa road, and rendered important
aid in completing the rout of the enemy. At an early part
of the engagement Gen. Shields received a severe but not
fatal wound, being shot through the lungs. The moment
the fate of the day was decided the reserve forces were
pushed on towards Jalapa in advance of the pursuing col-
umns of Twiggs’ division and Shields’ brigade (the latter
now under Col. E. D. Baker), and Gen. Patterson was sent
to take command. The rout was complete; 3000 prison-
ers were taken, 4000 or 5000 stand of arms, and 43 pieces
of artillery. Our loss in the two days was 431, of whom 63
were killed. The immediate results of this important battle
were the occupation of Jalapa the next day, the abandon-
ment of the works and artillery at La Hoya, and the occu-
pation by Worth’s division of the castle and town of Perote,
with fifty-four guns and immense supplies of ammunition.
Cer’ro Gor’do de Potosi’, a famous mountain of
Bolivia, is immediately S. W. of Potosí. It contains rich
silver-mines. Altitude, 16,150 feet. -
Certal’do, a town of Italy, in the province of Florence,
is picturesquely situated on the Elsa, 18 miles S. W. of
Florence. It was the birthplace of Boccaccio, whose house
is still preserved. Pop. 6562.
Certificate [from the Lat. certus, “certain,” and facio,
to “make ’, in law. (1) A writing made by a court, or
signed by a judge or officer, giving notice of the existence
of certain facts. A certificate of a judge is frequently re-
sorted to for the purpose of determining the amount of
costs to be recovered in an action, as, for example, to state
whether the title to real property came in question at a
trial. (2) A writing issued by any one, though not a judge
or officer of court, having the means of knowledge, stating
certain facts, such as a “certificate of registry’ by custom-
house officers setting forth the national character of a ship.
Certificates of various kinds became of much importance
under the recent stamp acts of Congress, stamps being im-
posed upon them by law. (See the stamp laws passim.)
Certiora’ri [Lat. “to be made more certain ’’), a writis-
sued from a supreme court to an inferior court or a special
body having judicial powers, such as commissioners, magis-
trates, assessors of taxes, etc., acting in a summary manner or
in a method different from the common law. Its object is to
review the proceedings of the inferior court or tribunal, or
to remove them before trial and judgment, and it is appli-
cable either to civil or criminal cases. When used as a
means of review of an actual decision or determination
made by the inferior tribunal, its office is to correct errors
made in point of law, rather than to reconsider the subject
on matters of fact. Thus, if a board of assessors of taxes
should decide that a bank could be taxed under State au-
864
CERTOSA. DI PAVIA, LA—CESNOLA, D.I.
thority upon that portion of its property which is invested
in the bonds of the U. S. government, it would decide a
point of law which might, by means of a writ of certiorari,
be submitted to the various State courts, and finally to the
Supreme Court of the U. S. This writ may also be resorted
to for the purpose of supplying any defects in the return
of its proceedings by the inferior tribunal to the superior
court. It may be considered in this aspect as auxiliary to
the main purpose of removing the record itself.
Certo’sa di Pavi'a, La., a celebrated monastery
near Pavía, in Italy, in the province of Pavía, in the Gothic
style, was founded in 1396 by Wisconti, the first duke of
Milan. Here is a magnificent church 235 feet long, adorned
with fine paintings, sculptures; and mosaics.
Ceru/men [from the Lat. cera, “ wax *], a Latin term
denoting the yellow waxy matter secreted by certain glands
lying in the passage that leads from the external opening
of the ear to the membrane of the tympanum. It possesses
a peculiarly bitter taste, and physiologists have believed
that in consequence of this property it prevents insects from
entering the auditory canal.
Ce/ruse [Lat. cerusaj, a name of white lead, which is
a carbonate of lead, and is extensively used by house-
painters, who mix it with linseed oil. It has been employed
by ladies as a cosmetic.
Ce/rusite, or Cerussite, native carbonate of lead,
occurs in fibrous, compact, and earthy masses, and in mu-
merous crystalline forms which may be referred to a right
rhombic prism. When pure, it consists of 16.42 per cent.
of carbonic acid and 83.58 of oxide of lead, or 77 per cent.
of metallic lead. When perfectly pure, it is colorless and
transparent, with an adamantine lustre, which is resinous
on fractured surfaces. Next to galena, cerusite is the most
common ore of lead.
Cerut’ti (GIUSEPPE ANTONIO), an Italian Jesuit, born
June 13, 1738. His principal work is an “Apology for the
Order of Jesuits.” He was a friend of Mirabeau, whom
he assisted in some of his works. Died Feb. 2, 1792.
Cervan’tes Saave/dra, de (MIGUEL), a celebrated
Spanish author, born at Alcalá de Henares Oct. 9, 1547.
He was educated in the universities of Salamanca, and
Madrid. He enlisted about 1570 in the papal army, and
was wounded at the famous naval battle of Lepanto in
1571. Having been captured by the Algerines about 1575,
he was detained in slavery at Algiers and endured great
sufferings. He was ransomed in 1580, returned to Spain,
and served several campaigns in the Spanish army. In
1584 he produced “Galatea,” a pastoral romance; the same
year he married Catalina de Palacios Salazary Wozmediano.
He afterwards wrote numerous dramas, among which was
a tragedy called “Numancia.” Some of these were per-
formed with success, but they did not enrich him, and he
continued to suffer from poverty. He resided at Seville
between 1588 and 1600. His celebrity is founded on a
satirical work called “ Don Quixote de la Mancha,” which
was designed to correct the taste of his countrymen,
who delighted in the extravagant romances of chivalry.
The first part of “Don Quixote” appeared in 1605, and
obtained immediate and immense popularity. The second
part was published in 1615. Cervantes resided at Madrid
from 1605 until his death. Among his other works are
his “ Novelas Exemplares” (“Moral Tales,” 1613), and a
poem entitled “Viaje al Parnaso.” (“Journey to Parnas-
sus,” 1614), which is greatly admired. He died on the
same day as Shakspeare, April 23, 1616.
“‘Don Quixote,’” says Hallam, “is the only book in the
Spanish language which can now be said to possess much
of a European reputation. It is to Europe in general what
Ariosto is to Italy and Shakspeare to England. Numerous
translations, and countless editions of them, in every lan-
guage, bespeak its adaptation to mankind; and no critic
has been found paradoxical enough to withhold his admira-
tion. . . . Few books of moral philosophy display so deep
an insight into the mechanism of the mind as ‘Don Quix-
ote.” And when we look also at the fertility of invention,
the general probability of events, and the great simplicity
of the story, we shall think Cervantes fully deserving of
the glory that attends this monument of his genius.” (In-
troduction to the Literature of Europe.) (See T. ROSCOE,
“Life and Writings of Cervantes,” 1839; LoCKHART, “Life
of Cervantes,” 1822; PELLIGER, “Vida de Cervantes,”
1800; TICKNoR, “History of Spanish Literature,” vol. ii.;
MáRIMíE, “ Notice sur Cervantes,” 1806.)
Cer'via, a town of Italy, in the province of Ravenna,
on the Adriatic, 12 miles S. S. E. of Ravenna. It has a
cathedral and several convents; also salt-works, from which
about 50,000 tons of salt are annually obtained. Pop. 5820.
Cer/vidae [from cervus, a “deer”], a family of animals
of which the deer is the type.
Cervin, Mont [Ger. Matterhorn], a sublime peak of
the Pennine Alps, is on the frontier between Piedmont and
Switzerland, and 12 miles W. N. W. of Monte Rosa. It
has an altitude of 14,825 feet above the level of the sea.
The part which is above the height of 11,000 feet is almost
inaccessibly steep, and is described as an obelisk of naked
rock. The pass of Mont Cervin is practicable in summer
for horses and mules at an elevation of 10,938 feet.
Cesalpi'no, often Anglicized as Caesal’pin (ANDREA),
an eminent Italian physiologist and botanist, born at
Arezzo, in Tuscany, in 1519. He was professor of medicine
and botany at Pisa, and became about 1595 physician to
Pope Clement VIII. He wrote several medical treatises,
among which is “Ars Medica” (1601), and an important
work “On Plants” (“De Plantis,” 1583), in which he pro-
pounded an improved system of botany. He was the first
who proposed a natural system of classification on philo-
sophical principles. Died Feb. 23, 1603. (See FUCHs,
“Andreas Caesalpinus,” etc., 1798.)
Ce’sar Creek, a township of Dearborn co., Ind. Pop.
556.
Cesſari (GIUSEPPE), an Italian painter, sometimes called
IL CAVALIERE D’ARPINO and GIUSEPPINo (Fr. Le Joséphin),
was born at Arpino or Rome about 1565. He worked
mostly in Rome, was patronized by several popes, and was
very successful and popular. He was the chief of the con-
ventional school, opposed by the naturalists, the Caracci,
Caravaggio, and their scholars. His works display much
skill in execution, but are deficient in simplicity. Died in
1640. -
Cese/na, a town of Italy, in the province of Forlì, and
on the railway between Bologna and Ancona, 18 miles by
rail S. E. of Forli. It is situated on the slope of a hill
which is close to the river Savio. It has a cathedral; a
Capuchin church, in which is a fine painting by Guercino;
a library founded in 1452; and several convents. It has
sulphur-mines in the vicinity. Pop. 7777.
Cesenat'ico, a seaport-town of Italy, in the province
of Forli, on the Adriatic, 8 miles E. N. E. of Cesena. It
is partly enclosed by walls. Pop. 5725.
Cesnola, di (LUIGI PALMA), Count, was born near Tu-
rin July 29, 1832. He belongs to an old family; his uncle,
Count Alarino Palma, who was distinguished in the Italian
revolution of 1821, fought for Greek independence, was
president of the tribunal at Missolonghi, and a judge of
the supreme court at Athens. Di Cesmola graduated at
the Italian Royal Military Academy, after having ſought
in the war of Italian independence, and was afterwards on
the staff of General Ansaldi in the Crimea. In 1860 he
came to America, and after the battle of Bull Run in 1861
he entered the volunteer service, and was made colonel of
the Fourth New York Cavalry. “His regiment entered
the service 1200 strong, received 800 recruits, and returned
at the close of its term 190 men. Di Cesnola distinguished
himself upon many occasions, especially at Perryville,
Brandy Station, and Aldie. At the last-named battle his
gallantry so impressed Major-General Kilpatrick that he
presented him his own sword upon the field. That day he
led five charges, and at the last his horse was shot under
him; he was wounded, and fell into the hands of the enemy.
BIe was confined many months in Libby Prison, where he
acted as military instructor to his fellow-prisoners. He was
specially exchanged upon the unanimous request of the
officers of his regiment, and was thus enabled to take part
in the closing scenes of the war. The war over, he was
brevetted brigadier-general, became an American citizen,
and received the appointment of consul at Cyprus, where
he made a successful resistance to Turkish tyranny. In
1869 he took sides with Greece against Turkey, and in the
absence from Cyprus of the Greek consul he acted for him
with great tact and discretion, closing in three days the
civil and criminal affairs of 300 Hellenic subjects and
issuing passports to 500. The Greek population of the isl-
and showed the liveliest appreciation of his services, and
the president of the Greek cabinet, M. Boulgaris, tendered
him the chief command of the Greek cavalry in the event
of a war with Turkey.”
Such were the distinguished antecedents of Di Cesnola
when he began those explorations which have made his
name famous wherever the serious art and the scientific
investigation of the sources of history are held in honor.
Instead of resting in ease in his quiet consular post, his
active mind and body sought occupation, and soon found
it in the task of exploring the soil of Larnica, a seaport
of the island of Cyprus, and long reputed the site of the
ancient Citium. Upon reaching Cyprus, Di Cesnola had
heard of the great bronze tazza recently discovered at
Amathunta, and presented by Napoleon III. to the Lou-
vre. He at once began his researches among tombs that
had been opened years before, and was rewarded with
CESPEDES-CESTUI QUE TRUST.
the discovery of many terra-cottas. Besides many statu-
ettes of the crowned Venus, he found a number of little
figures bearing plain marks of Assyrian, Egyptian, and
Phoenician influences, such indeed as the varying history
of the island might have led him to expect to come across;
and he now pushed on his diggings eagerly, seeing that the
result of them must surely be to throw new light upon the
ethnography, history, religion, and art of the East. His
excavations were not confined to Larnica. He soon dis-
covered the necropolis of the ancient Idalium, and in these
tombs made discoveries of marbles, coins, bronzes, en-
graved gems, and objects in gold, with hundreds and hun-
dreds of terra-cottas. The mere catalogue of these things
would take up many pages of this book; and it does not
need to be said that the report of discoveries so important
to the historian, the archaeologist, and the artist roused an
enthusiasm among the learned and cultivated classes every-
where such as has not been known since the discovery of
Eſerculaneum or the later finding of Nineveh.
Di Cesnola kept on his plodding work with high hopes
and quiet zeal, and soon made his crowning discovery of
the necropolis and temple of ancient Golgos—a discovery
made under the very noses of the French archaeologists,
the count de Vogüé, Mas-Latrie, and others, who had spent
several hundred thousand francs in searching for the
temple of Venus, but had only succeeded in defining the
site of the ancient city, now occupied in part by the vil-
lage of Athieno. In the temple of Venus, which had been
thrown down, were found buried in the ruins a thousand
statues, and no less than thirty-four inscriptions in the
Cypriote language—a most important addition to our
means of studying this tongue, since, according to the duc
de Luynes in his “ Numismatique et Inscriptiones Cyp-
riotes,” Paris, 1852, there existed only three Cypriote in-
scriptions, and they were not deciphered. It is impossible
to state exactly the number of articles brought away from
Cyprus by Di Cesmola, and included in the now famous
collection known over the civilized world by his name. In
Aug., 1870, when the representative of the Russian Im-
perial Museum examined it, there were about 13,000 pieces,
comprising statues and small figures, 1800 lamps, 5000
vases, 2000 coins, 600 gold ornaments, 1700 pieces of glass,
300 pieces of bronze, and 100 inscriptions.
The collection was coveted by every country in Europe;
but though Di Cesnola was ready to sell it to any pur-
chaser who would keep it together and call it by his name,
the “Di Cesnola Collection of Cypriote Antiquities,” yet
he desired above all things that it should belong to
America—a country to which he was bound by the name
of citizen and by tenderest domestic ties. For a long time
it seemed most probable that the British Museum would
become the purchaser, but as the authorities refused to
comply with Di Cesnola's conditions, efforts were made to
secure it for America. Mr. Hitchcock, who had been the
companion of Di Cesmola in Cyprus, and who warmly de-
sired to see the collection lodged in some institution of
America, prepared an admirably complete and interesting
account of Di Cesnola, and his discoveries, which he first
delivered as a lecture in several places, notably in New
York before an audience invited by the trustees of the
Metropolitan Museum of Fine Art, and also before the
students of Dartmouth College. This lecture was after-
wards printed in “Harper's Monthly Magazine” for July,
1872, with many effective illustrations. To Mr. Hitchcock,
more than to any other American, is due the wide interest.
excited in our country by Di Cesmola’s discoveries. An-
other American, Mr. W. T. Blodgett, being in London
while the British Museum was debating the purchase of
the collection, wrote to a public-spirited citizen of New
York, Mr. John Taylor Johnston, the president of the
Metropolitan Museum of Fine Art, strongly advising the
purchase of the whole collection; and Mr. Johnston, who
had been already much interested in Mr. Hitchcock’s de-
scription, directed the purchase by Mr. Blodgett of the
whole collection on his own personal account. The bar-
gain was struck without delay, and Di Cesmola came at
once to New York, bringing a large part of his noble trophy
with him, the rest following not long after. During the
whole of the winter of 1872–73, and the greater part of the
following summer, he was occupied in arranging, classify-
ing, and cataloguing the articles, some of which had been
broken in the transit. After this labor was completed, and
the whole made ready for the public, Di Cesmola returned
to Cyprus in the autumn of 1873, to take possession of his
consular office again and to renew his diggings; the re-
sults of which cannot fail to be of the highest interest to
the learned and the artistic world. (This article is mainly
drawn from Mr. Hitchcock's paper in “Harper's Maga-
zine,” above alluded to. See also “L. P. di Cesmola, Ge-
nerale e Console Americano in Cipro,” Dr AGOSTINo E
GALLo, Vercelli, 1869; and “L. P. di Cesnola in Cipro,”
865
Narrazione di GIov. DI AGOSTINo WERCELLI, 1871. For a
fuller account of the discoveries in Cyprus see article Cy-
PRUs and the works cited there.) CLARENCE Cook.
Cespe/des (MANUEL CARLOs), the leader of the Cuban
insurrection, and president of the Cuban republic, born
April 18, 1819, was educated at the University of Havana,
became a lawyer at Bayamó, issued in Oct., 1868, an ad-
dress to the Cubans, in which he proclaimed the republic
and the independence of Cuba. On April 10, 1869, Ces-
pedes was elected by the Constituent Cortes president of
the republic. Killed by the Spaniards Feb. 27, 1874.
Cessart, de (LOUIS ALEXANDRE), a French engineer,
born in Paris in 1719, planned the naval works at Cher-
bourg, and published a valuable treatise on hydraulic
works. Died in 1806. º
Ces'sio Bono'rum [Lat., the “giving up of goods”].
This is a proceeding derived from the civil or Roman law,
whereby a debtor surrendered his property for the benefit
of his creditors. The effect of it in the later law was to
exempt the debtor's person from imprisonment. The same
phrase is used in modern times to denote the surrender of
his property by an insolvent for the benefit of his creditors.
It will be observed that it is much more limited in its effect
than a modern bankrupt law as adopted in England and the
U. S., which not only relieves the debtor from imprison-
ment, but discharges him, if his assets amount to a certain
percentage of his debts, from the residue which they do
not suffice to pay. -
Cess’na, a township of Hardin co., O. Pop. 732.
Cess-pool, a well for the reception of the drainage of
a locality. It is apt to be a source of very unwholesome
emanations.
Ces/tius, Pyr'amid of, an antique Roman monu-
ment standing close to the Porta San Paolo of Rome, is 125
feet high. It is built of brick and tufa, faced with Carrara.
marble. The internal walls were decorated with paintings.
This pyramid is supposed to have been erected before the
Christian era. -
Ces/toid Worms [from the Lat. cestus, a “band,” al-
luding to their ribbon- or tape-like form], a family of
entozoa, including the tapeworms (of which some ten
species are found in man) and nearly 200 smaller species,
some barely visible, some 100 feet or more in length. They
are found in all classes of vertebrate animals, living when
perfect in the intestines, but in the scolex or larva state
inhabiting the living tissues. Cestoid worms are divided
into more or less perfectly marked androgynous or bisexual
segments (proglottides), which are formed successively be-
hind the neck of the cestoid, each segment acquiring a sort
of individual life. Cestoid worms are remarkable for hav-
ing no mouth or digestive apparatus; the animal which
they inhabit performs the operation of digestion for them,
so that they have only to absorb nutriment by osmotic
action. Each segment impregnates itself, becomes in time
detached, passes out of the intestine, and finally bursts and
discharges its numerous ova; which, scattered by wind and
water over grass, etc., are devoured by various animals.
Then the ovum hatches into a free embryo or “proscolex,”
which pierces the walls of the intestinal canal, enters the
blood-vessels, finds a lodgment in an appropriate tissue,
where it encysts itself, and changes into the “scolex” or
“hydatid” state, as in “measly pork.” Now, if the living
scolex is swallowed in food, it is almost sure to develop into
the complete tapeworm. Sometimes it imperfectly devel-
ops its segments even while in the cystic state, and is then
called a strobila.
Cestra’cion, a genus of sharks including the “nurse”
or Port Jackson shark (Cestracion Philippi) and the cat
shark (Cestracion Zebra) of the China Sea, interesting to
naturalists as the sole surviving relics of the once extensive
family Cestraciontidae, the family of sharks whose remains
first appear in the lowest Devonian rocks. They differ
from the true sharks in having the mouth at the anterior
extremity, instead of under the head, and in having the
mouth paved with solid bony plates for crushing their
victims.
Cestui que Trust, in law. This is a phrase derived
from the Norman French, and means the person for whose
benefit property, either real or personal, is held in trust.
The phrase grows out of the distinction which English
jurisprudence maintains between courts of law and equity.
Property may be owned in such a manner that in a court
of law one person will be recognized as the owner, while in
the view of a court of equity his ownership will be deemed
to be formal and for the benefit of another. The formal
owner can in that court be called to an account by the
beneficial owner. The legal owner is called a trustee, while
the beneficial owner is the cestwi que trust. Sometimes this
relation is created by express words; at other times it is
55
866 CESTUI QUE
VIE–CEYLON.
implied by law from the relations of the parties. There
has been an attempt on the part of some legal writers to
substitute in the place of the somewhat barbarous term
“cestui que trust” a supposed equivalent, “beneficiary.”
This course has not met the approval of the legal profes-
sion, and its members still adhere tenaciously to the am-
cient form. The topic is of growing importance in law,
and the whole subject will be more fully considered under
the terms TRUST and TRUSTEE.
Cestui que Vie, in law, a person for whose life an es-
tate in land is granted or devised. An example is an estate
granted to A during the life of B. The latter person is
termed cestwi que vie, and the owner is termed tenant pur
autre vie (“for the life of another.”). Though such an
estate is a freehold, it is not of so high a character as an
estate for one's own life.
Ces/tus [Fr. ceste, from the Gr. Kearós, “ embroidered”],
a girdle or band which women wore round the waist in
ancient times. The cestus of Venus was supposed to have
the power of exciting love. The gauntlet used by ancient
pugilists to protect their hands was called cestus or caestus.
Ceta/cea, or Cetaceans [from the Gr., kºtos, a
“whale’], an order of mammals characterized $y a fish-
like form and adapted to strictly aquatic life. Regarded
as of a “degradational” type, they are by some associated
with the Sirenia, in a subdivision called Mutilata. Many
writers call the Sirenia. “herbivorous cetacea,” but some
assign them to the pachyderms, while others assign them
a position as an independent order. Whatever their posi-
tion, the extinct Zeuglodontia appear to furnish a connect-
ing link between them and the true Cetacea. (See SIRENIA.)
The true Cetacea, have the hind legs reduced to two small
bones concealed in the flesh, the fore legs transformed into
fins; a fish-like tail which spreads horizontally; warm
blood; respiration by lungs (though in some species it can
be suspended for a considerable time); and the young are
born alive and nourished by the mother's milk. The right
whales and fin-backs are reckoned as constituting a sub-
order called Toothless cetaceans (Mysticete), while the
other living species are placed in the sub-order of Toothed
cetaceans (Denticete). The restricted order comprises the
Balaenidae, or right whale family, the Balaenopteridae, or
fin-backs, the Physiteridae, or sperm whales, the Ziphiidae,
the Delphinidae, or true dolphins, the Iniidae and Platanis-
tidae, or fresh-water dolphins, and the extinct sub-order
Zeuglodontia; to which many authors add the sub-order
Sirenia, or “herbivorous cetacea.” Fossil cetaceans first
appear in the eocene, and are found in all the cenozoic
formations. Nearly all the families are represented by ex-
tinct species. Among the more remarkable may be men-
tioned a huge Zeuglodon, whose vertebrae abound in the
Gulf States. - -
Cetot/olites [from the Gr. kºros, a “whale,” oës, &ros,
an “ear,” and Atôos, a “stone’], fossil cetacean teeth and
ear-bones found in the red crag of Suffolk (England), be-
longing to the pleiocene period. They appear to have been
washed out of some earlier stratum. They are valuable as
a source of superphosphate manure.
Cetraria. See ICELAND Moss.
Cette, a fortified seaport of France, in the department
of Hérault, on the Mediterranean, on a strip of land be-
tween the sea and the broad inlet of Thau, the outlet of
the Canal du Midi, and on the railway to Bordeaux, 18
miles S. W. of Montpellier. It has a good harbor and a
considerable coasting and inland trade, large fisheries,
manufactures of made wines, perfumery, glass, soap, etc.,
large shipyards and salt-works, and the extensive export
trade of the Canal du Midi, of which it is the port, and
with which it is connected by the canal of Cette across the
tongue of land. The harbor is protected by two large
moles and a breakwater. The city was founded in 1666.
It forms a half circle about the cliff-like hill, on which is
the fortress. Pop. 24,177.
Cetti'gne, the capital of the principality of Monte-
negro, is situated 19 miles E. of the Austrian town of Cat-
taro, about 3000 feet above the sea. It contains a convent,
which was founded in 1458, and is the residence of the
bishop; the state prison, and the palace of the prince. In
the Peace of Cettigne of Sept., 1862, Montenegro recog-
nized the sovereignty of the Porte. Pop. 700.
Ce’tus [Gr., “the Whale”], a great constellation, one of
those called southern by Ptolemy. It contains a number
of nebulae and the variable star Mira, or o Ceti.
Ceuta (anc. Septa or Septum), a fortified seaport-town
on the N. coast of Africa and on the Mediterranean, opposite
to Gibraltar, which is 17 miles distant. It is in Morocco
or Fez, but it has belonged to Spain since 1640. The castle
occupies the summit of a mountain which is the ancient
Abyla and one of the Pillars of Hercules. Ceuta is the
chief of the Spanish presidios on the African coast. It is
the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, and has several con-
vents and a convict establishment. Pop., without the gar-
rison and convicts, 7114.
Cévennes (anc. Cebenna Mons), a mountain-range in
the S. of France, forms the watershed between the Rhone
and the Garonne. It extends from the vicinity of Carcas-
sonne in a N. N. E. direction to the Canal du Centre. The
central mass of the Cévennes is in the departments of
Ardèche, Lozère, and Upper Loire. The highest summit
is Mont Mezin or Mézen, which has an altitude of 57.64
feet. Some of the peaks are extinct volcanoes. These
mountains were a stronghold of the Protestants called
Camisards, and were the scenes of several religious wars.
Ceylon, see'lon [native Singhala; ane. Taprobane], an
island of Asia, belonging to the British, in the Indian
Ocean, about 55 miles from the S. extremity of Hindostan,
from which it is separated by Palk Strait. It lies between
lat. 5° 56' and 9° 50' N., and between lon. 80° and 82° E.
Tength from N. to S., 271 miles. Area, 24,705 square miles.
The southern and castern coasts are bold and rocky, and
present a very picturesque appearance, which is increased
by the luxuriant tropical vegetation, the verdant slopes of
its mountains, and groves of noble palms draped in per-
ennial green. The surface is finely diversified by moun-
tains, valleys, and plains. The highest summit is Pedro-
tallagalla, which rises 8280 feet above the level of the sea.
The celebrated mountain called Adam’s Peak is 7240 feet
high, and is remarkable for its conical form and the sacred
associations with which it is connected. The Singhalese
have a tradition that Booddha ascended to heaven from
this peak. The mountains of Ceylon are mostly formed of
gneiss and granite, and dolomite occurs in the more level
parts of the island. Among the minerals are iron, tin, coal,
plumbago, and salt. Many sapphires, rubies, amethysts,
and other precious. stones are found here. The climate is
humid and hot, but more pleasant and moderate than the
mainland of India. The average annual rainfall is about
eighty inches.
Ceylon is remarkable for the luxuriance and variety of
its flora. Among its indigenous trees are the cocoa-palm,
palmyra, and other species of palms, the coral tree (Eury-
thrina Indica), the bread-fruit, the cinnamon, the satin-
wood, and ebony. The bo tree or peepul (Ficus religiosa)
attains a great age, and is deemed sacred by the natives.
Coffee, cotton, rice, tobacco, and pepper are cultivated here.
The chief articles of export, are coffee, cinnamon, cocoanuts,
cocoanut oil, coir, hides, pearls, and plumbago. Among the
wild animals found here are the buffalo, bear, deer, leopard,
and elephant. The last are very numerous.
The native population is composed mostly of Singhalese,
whose historical records, extending back through many cen-
turies, are partially corroborated by existing ruins of cities
and temples, which indicate that Ceylon in a remote an-
tiquity was inhabited by a numerous and civilized people.
The most celebrated among its monuments is the cave-tem-
ple of Dambool, which was built about 100 B.C., and is
profusely adorned with images and sculpture. It was ded-
icated to Booddha. Booddhism is still the prevailing re-
ligion of the island. The Roman Catholic Church has two
vicariates apostolic, with an aggregate population of 157,000,
while the native Christians connected with the Protestant
missions number 16,000. There are also many Mohammed-
ans, ealled Moors. Among the remarkablo antiquities of
Ceylon are numerous colossal ruined tanks, constructed for
the irrigation of the soil. *
Among the peoples of the island are the singular Ved-
dahs, one of the most degraded races of mankind. Besides
the above races, there are many Kandyans in the interior,
and Hindoos, Malabarians, and maturalized descendants of
the old Dutch and Portuguese colonists on the coast.
Ceylon has two harbors—Point de Galle on the S. coast,
and Trincomaleo on the N. E. coast. The latter is one of
the finest harbors in the world, and is capable of admitting
any number of the largest ships. The Oriental mail-steam-
ers, which ply between England and Calcutta, touch at this
island, which has an extensive commerce. The value of
the exports from Ceylon to the United Kingdom in 1870
was £3,450,974; of the imports from the United Kingdom,
£941,344; public revenue in 1869, £946,494; expenditures,
£881,373; public debt, £701,000. In ancient times it was
visited for the purpose of traffic by the Egyptians, Greeks,
and Romans. The Portuguese formed a settlement at Co-
lombo in 1517, and were expelled from the island by the
Dutch and natives in 1658. The British invaded the isl–
and in 1795, and captured the Dutch forts and towns. The
island was formally annexed to the British crown in 1802.
Civil pop. in 1871,2,405,287. Ceylon is divided into six ad-
ministrative provinces, called the Western, Central, South-
ern, Northern, North-western, and Eastern provinces. Cap-
\
CEYLON.—CHAIN-SHOT.
867
ital, Colombo. (See SIR JAMEs E. TENNENT, “Ceylon,
Physical, Historical, and Topographical.”)
REVISED BY A. J. ScHEM.
Ceylon, a township of St. Croix co., Wis. Pop. 348.
Cezim/bra, a seaport-town of Portugal, in Estrema-
dura, on a bay of the Mediterranean, 19 miles S. of Lisbon.
It has valuable fisheries. Pop. 5797.
Chablais, the most northern part of Savoy, bordering
on Lake Geneva. It was the oldest possession of the House
of Savoy, and was ceded to France by King Victor Emman-
uel in 1860. Capital, Thonon. -
Cha’brias [Xagpias], an able Athenian general, who
had command of an army in 392 B. C. In 378 he com-
manded in a war against the Spartans. He gained a naval
victory over the Spartans at Naxos in 376, and was killed
at the siege of Chios, where he commanded a fleet, in 357
|B. C. He was the inventor of a famous manoeuvre, which
consisted in receiving a charge in a kneeling posture, with
shields resting on the ground and the spears pointed against
the enemy. -
Chachapoy'as, a town of Peru, capital of the depart-
ment of Amazonas, 400 miles N. E. of Lima, was founded
by Francisco Pizarro in 1536, and was formerly flourishing,
but in consequence of the continued revolutions has grad-
ually decreased. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop,
and has a theological seminary and a beautiful cathedral.
Pop. about 8000.
Chaſco, El Gran, an extensive region of South Amer-
ica, is near the middle of the continent. It is partly in
Bolivia and partly in the Argentine Republic. It is bounded
on the E. by the Paraguay River, and traversed by the Pil-
comayo. The surface is generally level, and the S. portion
is said to be an arid and desert plain, but the soil in some
parts is fertile. It has few civilized inhabitants.
Chacornac (JEAN), a French astronomer, born at
Lyons, France, June 21, 1823. During the years 1853–54
he was in charge of the observatory of Marseilles, and
in the latter year was appointed astronomer of the
Paris Observatory. He was an astronomer of reputation,
and distinguished for his discoveries of asteroids, as well as
for his writings on the planetary systems. Napoleon III.
made him chevalier of the Legion of Honor 1858. He con-
tributed the atlas to the “Annals of the Observatory of
Paris,” 1858 and 1863. Died at Paris Sept. 26, 1873.
Chad/bourne (PAUL ANSEL), born at North Berwick,
Me., Oct. 21, 1823, was professor of chemistry and natural
history in Williams College (1853–67) and in Bowdoin Col-
lege (1859–66), elected pres. of the University of Wiscon-
sin and prof. of metaphysics in same (1867–70). He publish-
ed “Natural Theology” (1867) and “Instinct in Animals
and Men” (1872); chosen pres. of Williams College in 1872.
Chadd’s Ford, a post-village of Birmingham town-
ship, Delaware co., Pa., 30 miles S. W. of Philadelphia, on
the Brandywine Creek, at the junction of the Wilmington
and Reading and the Philadelphia and Baltimore Central
T. Rs. Near here was fought the battle of Brandywine,
Sept. 11, 1777.
Chad'wick (EDWIN), an Englishman, noted as a sani-
tary reformer, was born in the environs of Manchester Jan.
24, 1801. He was appointed secretary to the poor-law board
in 1834, and published in 1842 an important “Report on
the Sanitary Condition of the Laboring Population.” As
a member of the new board of health appointed in 1848,
he distinguished himself by his efficient efforts to improve
the sanitary and social condition of the people, and to re-
form the distribution of the poor-law funds.
Chaere’mon, an Athenian tragic poet, from several of
whose dramas passages are quoted by Athenaeus, although
Suidas in his brief motice of him calls him a comic poet.
Little is known of his life, but he is referred to by Ephip-
pus, who seems to speak of him as a contemporary, and he
is criticised by Aristotle. He may be placed therefore
about 380 B.C. He fell below the dignity of the great
tragic poets of the preceding century, and wrote dramas
better fitted to be read than to be acted. Ten titles of plays
written by him are known, besides the “Centaurus,” which
is called by Athenaeus a “ drama in many metres,” and by
Aristotle a “mixed rhapsody of all metres.” There are also
three epigrams in the Anthology bearing his name. (The
fragments of his tragedies are collected in WAGNER's and
in NAUCK’s “Fragmenta Tragicorum Græcorum.”)
HENRY DRISLER.
Chaere'mon of Alexandria, a Stoic philosopher and
historian who flourished in the times of the early Roman
emperors. He is often spoken of as librarian of the Alex-
andrian Library, but this is probably an incorrect inference
from the language of Suidas, who calls him the teacher
of Dionysius, who was librarian of this library, and who
succeeded Chaeremon in his philosophical school. He went
from Alexandria to Rome to take charge, along with Alex-
ander of AEgae, of the education of Nero. He wrote a work
on hieroglyphics, and one on the history and religion of
Egypt, a fragment from which, concerning the Egyptian
priests, is preserved, and makes the loss of the rest regretted.
He wrote a treatise on comets and a grammatical work.
(The fragments of his writings are collected in MüLLER’s
“Hist. Graecorum Fragmenta,” vol. iii., pp. 495–499.)
- HENRY DRISLER.
Chaerone'a [Gr. Xavpºveta], an ancient town of Boeotia,
5 miles N. of Lebadea, was the native place of Plutarch,
Here Philip of Macedon gained an important victory over
the Athenians and Thebans in 338 B.C., and Sulla defeated
the army of Mithridates in 86 B. C. The site is occupied
by the modern village of Kapurma. A few years ago a
colossal lion was excavated from the mound which was
raised in honor of the Thebans who were killed in battle
here in 338 B. C. This lion is described by Colonel Mure
as a “noble piece of sculpture, and the most interesting
sepulchral monument in Greece.”
Chaetodon’tidae, a family of the acanthopterous marine
- fishes named Squami-
pennes (“scaly-finned”),
because of the incrus-
tation of parts of the
dorsal and amal fins with
scales. The scales are
= strongly ctenoid (comb-
# shaped). The typical
& # genus Chaetodon, and
º; those nearly allied to it,
have hair-like teeth ;
some of the family, how-
ever, have trenchant
- teeth, and some have
4 ====---- teeth both on the jaws
Chaetodon. and palate. Their colors
are often gay, and disposed in stripes or bands. Many
singularities of form occur in this family. The flesh of
most of the Chaetodontidae is of fine flavor. Chelmon ros-
tratus and Toacotes jaculator, both Asiatic fishes, are re-
markable for catching insects by shooting drops of water
at them from their mouths; but some of the latest authori-
ties exclude these fishes from the family, of which the
southern coasts of the U. S. have several species.
Chaff [Lat. palea; Fr. paille], the common name of the
dry and membranaceous scales which constitute the floral
envelopes of the graminaceous plants, and enclose the grain
or seed. These scales are the glumes and palets (paleae) of
botanical language.
Chaf"finch [from chaff and finch, because the bird
searches in chaff for grain], a common European, Asiatic,
and African song-bird, the Fringilla coelebs, which devours
not only seeds, but young plants, but is very valuable as a
destroyer of noxious insects. It is esteemed for the table
in Southern Europe, and in Germany is prized for its loud
song, in which some birds greatly excel. Good singers are
sold for extraordinary prices.
Cha’gres, a small seaport-town of Colombia, on the
Isthmus of Panama, and on the Caribbean Sea, at the
mouth of the Chagres River, about 9 miles W. S. W. of
Aspinwall. It is a miserable collection of huts, with a
shallow harbor.
Chagrin' Falls, a post-village of Cuyahoga co., O., on
the Chagrin River, 17 miles E. S. E. of Cleveland. It has
several iron-foundries and paper-mills. Pop. 1016; of the
township, 1321.
Chain, or Gunter’s Chain, in surveying, is a meas-
ure twenty-two yards long, composed of 100 iron links, each
of which is 7.92 inches long. Ten Square chains make an
acre = 4840 square yards.
Chain Cable. See CABLE.
Chain Mail, or Chain Armor, consisted of ham-
mered iron links connected together in the form of a gar-
ment. Such armor, which was much used in the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries, was more flexible and convenient
to the wearer than that which was formed of plates.
Chains, Hanging in. It was once customary for
judges in England to direct the bodies of malefactors,
after execution, to be hung in chains upon a gibbet, in
order to strike terror into other offenders, and that it might
afford “a comfortable sight to the relations and friends of
the deceased.” An act to abolish the practice was passed
July 25, 1834, by Parliament.
Chain-Shot, a name of missiles used in naval warfare,
consisting of two balls which are connected by a chain about .
eight inches long, and are discharged from a cannon.
* - -r:

868
CHALAZA-CHALMERS.
Chalaſza [Gr. x&Aaga, a “hailstone "J, in botany, a
membrane which unites the nucleus and integuments at the
base of the ovule. It often differs in color from the rest
of the integuments, and is conspicuous in the ripened seed.
The cords which attach the yolk of an egg to the lining
membrane at the ends of the shell are also called chalazae.
Chalce'don [Gr. XaAkmööv], an ancient Greek city of
Bithynia, on the Bosphorus, opposite to Byzantium, from
which it was about 13, miles distant. On all the coins of
Chalcedon the name is written Kaxxmötöv. It was founded
685 B. C., and became a large town, containing numerous
temples. The Romans obtained possession of it in 74
B. C., and under the Roman empire it was a free city.
The philosopher Xenocrates was born here about 396 B.C.
In 451 A. D. a general council of the Church was held at
Chalcedon, on the subject of the doctrinal disputes of the
Nestorians and Monophysites. This, the fourth oecumen-
ical council, condemned the heresy of Eutyches.
Chalced’ony [Gr. xaxkmöövj, a precious stone which
was so named because it was found near the ancient Chal-
cedon, is a beautiful variety of quartz. It is identical with
common quartz or silex in chemical composition. It
occurs in trap and other rocks in many parts of the world.
It is generally translucent, sometimes semi-transparent, and
exhibits various colors, among which are milk-white, red-
dish-white, blue, green, and brown. Chalcedomy is much
used in jewelry for necklaces, brooches, etc. Among col-
lections of antique gems are many beautiful engraved
specimens of chalcedony.
Chalced’ onyx, a name given to agates formed of
cacholong, or a white opaque chalcedony, alternating with
a grayish translucent chalcedony.
Chal/cis [Gr. XaAkís], an ancient maritime town of
Greece, on the island of Euboea and on the Euripus, which
is here only 40 yards wide, 18 miles N. E. of Thebes. A
bridge across the Euripus connects the town with the coast
of Boeotia. Chalcis was a city of great antiquity, and re-
tained its importance down to recent times. Its greatness
was attested by the numerous colonies which it planted on
the coasts of Macedonia, Italy, and Sicily. Its first colony
was Cumae, in Campania, which it is said to have founded
about 1050 B. C. Chalcis was successively subject to the
Athenians, Romans, and Venetians, and as an important
military point was often taken and retaken by armies. It
contained numerous temples and theatres, and was about
nine miles in circumference. Here the orator Isaeus was
born and Aristotle died. The site is occupied by the
modern Egripo or Negropont, which is the chief town of
the island, and has an old castle built on a rock in the mid-
dle of the Euripus.
Chalcis, a genus of reptiles found in warm regions in
both continents, which gives its name to the family Chal-
cidae. This family is by some made to include the glass-
snakes, the blind-worms, the amphisbaena, etc., but is gem-
erally limited so as to include a few tropical species. Many
of these reptiles are popularly considered snakes, but they |
are really saiurians, having generally no visible legs, those
members when they exist being in most cases concealed
beneath the skin. They have movable eyelids, small ears,
and a short thick tongue. In spite of these facts, some few
naturalists still class them with serpents. X
CHALCIS is also the name of a genus allied to the ich-
neumon-flies, and the type of the great family Chalcididae.
These insects are of great service in the destruction of nox-
ious insects upon which their larvae feed. *x
Chaldae'a [Gr. XaASata], the ancient name of a country
of Asia, bordering on the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf,
and bounded on the S. W. by Arabia. Deserta. Chaldaea.
proper was the southern part of Babylonia, but the name
was sometimes used to designate a more extensive region.
The term Chaldaeans (or Chaldees) was applied by the
Hebrew prophets and other ancient writers to the inhab-
itants of the city of Babylon and all the subjects of the
Babylonian empire. Thus, Isaiah, calls Babylon, “the
beauty of the Chaldees’ excellency’’ (chap. xvii. 19), and
Pliny speaks of Babylon as Chaldaicarum gentium caput.
The Chaldaeans appear to have been the great pioneers in
the cultivation of astronomy. They were also famous as
astrologers and magicians. (See BABYLONIA.)
Chaldae’an Chris’tians, a branch of the Church of
Rome, consisting of those Nestorians who acknowledge the
pope. They are of the Eastern rite, and are under the
patriarch of Babylon and twelve bishops, three of whom
reside in Persia. They number about 70,000 souls.
Chal/dee Lan/guage, or East'ern Arama'ic, a
Semitic dialect, in which parts of the books of Daniel and
Ezra, were written, as well as several verses in Genesis,
Judges, etc. It resembled the Hebrew and Syriac. It
does not appear to be certain that this was the common
language of ancient Babylon. The Targums were written
in a later Chaldee. (See WINER’s “Chaldee Grammar,”
and HUPFELD in the “Theologische Studien” for 1830.)
Chal’der, an old Scottish dry measure containing six-
teen bolls. -
Chaldron, chaul’dron or chau/dron [Lat. caldarium y
Fr. chaudron], a dry measure used for coals, and contain-
*-is bushels. Coal is now sold by weight in the
Chaleurs Bay, an inlet of the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
Canada, separates Quebec from New Brunswick. It ex-
tends E. and W. about 90 miles, and is about 22 miles wide
at the broadest part. It affords good anchorage, and can
ºted without danger. It has important mackerel
SILOT 10 S.
Chal’ice [Lat. calia, a “cup, a goblet;” Fr. calice, a
“drinking-cup,” a “bowl”]. This term was formerly used
as a name for an ordinary drinking-cup, but it is now
almost exclusively applied to a communion-cup, a vessel
used for the wine in the sacrament of the Eucharist.
Chalices are commonly made of silver or gold.
Chalk, chawk [Lat. creta ; Fr. crate], a calcareous
earth, a soft variety of limestone or carbonate of lime.
Its color is generally white. It is friable, easily pulverized,
has an earthy fracture, and is very meagre to the touch,
In geology, it is a sedimentary rock of great extent and
importance, and a member of the cretaceous formation,
which is more recent than the Jurassic and older than the
tertiary formation. Chalk is abundant in England and in
several other countries of Europe, and good commercial
chalk is reported to exist in Dakota. The strata, often con-
tain flint modules, distributed in layers through it like the
hornstone in the earlier limestone. They are more or less
rounded, and are all of concretionary origin. Chalk is a
mineral of animal origin, and is mostly composed of the
shells or carapaces of microscopic marine animals. Ac-
cording to Ehrenberg, a cubic inch of chalk often contains
more than a million of microscopic organisms, among
which far the most abundant are the rhizopods (called also
Foraminifera). Chalk is extensively used in the prepara-
tion of lime, and is commonly employed by carpenters to
mark boards. The material sold under the name of whit-
ing or Spanish white, and used to make putty, is chalk in
a purified state. Purified chalk is also employed by artists
as a pigment, and is administered in medicine as an ant-
acid. (See CRETACEOUs SYSTEM.)
Chalk, Black, also called Drawing Slate, a min-
eral used by artists for drawing and writing, is a variety
of clay which derives its color from the carbon which it
contains. It is easily cut or broken, and makes a black
mark on white paper.
Chalk Bluff, a township of Greene co., Ark. Pop. 1030.
Chalk Level, a post-township of St. Clair co., Mo.
Pop. 851.
Chalk, Red, or Reddle, is an argillaceous oxide of
iron, of a brownish-red color, containing a large portion
of clay. It is used by carpenters and painters.
Challenges. See JURY, by PROF. T. W. DwighT.
Chal/mers, a township of McDonough co., Ill. Pop.
1484.
Chalmers (ALEXANDER), a Scottish writer, born at
Aberdeen Mar. 29, 1759. He is famous as the author of a
“General Biographical Dictionary,” in 32 vols. (1812–17),
and as the editor of a well-known edition of the British
poets, with nºtes. Died Dec. 10, 1834.
Chalmers (GEORGE), a Scottish antiquary and lawyer,
born at Fochabers in 1742. He was clerk to the board of
trade from 1786 to 1825. His greatest work is entitled
“Caledonia: An Account, Historical and Topographical,
of North Britain’” (3 vols., 1807–24), which displays pro-
found research and much erudition. Among his other
works is a “Life of Mary Queen of Scots” (1818). Died
in 1825.
Chalmers (THOMAs), D.D., LL.D., D. C. L., a Scottish
divine, was born at Anstruther, Fifeshire, Mar. 17, 1780, and
was educated in the University of St. Andrew's. In 1803 he
was ordained minister of the parish of Kilmany., . His fa-
vorite studies for some years before and after this event
were mathematics and matural philosophy. He published
in 1808 an “Inquiry into the Extent and Stability of the
National Resources.” While composing an article on
“Christianity” for Brewster’s “Encyclopaedia” in 1809,
he examined the evidences of its truth, and acquired con-
victions which rendered him a more earnest and devout
preacher of the gospel. He married Miss Grace Pratt in
i812, and was elected minister of the Tron Church, Glas-
gow, in 1815. He soon gained distinction as an eloquent
and powerful pulpit orator, and delivered a series of dis.
CHALONNES-SUR-LOIRE—CHAMBERLAIN.
869
courses on astronomy in connection with religion, which
were published in 1817, and were immensely popular.
In 1819 he became minister of St. John’s parish, Glasgow,
in which he established schools and made strenuous efforts
to improve the morals of his parishioners. He was ap-
pointed professor of moral philosophy in the University of
St. Andrew’s in 1823, and obtained the chair of theology
in the University of Edinburgh in 1828. He published in
1832 a work entitled “Political Economy,” and in 1833 his
Bridgewater treatise “On the Adaptation of External Na-
ture to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man,”
which was received with great favor. Dr. Chalmers was
the leader of the Evangelical party, which was involved
with the “Moderate” party in a contest in relation to pa-
tronage. This contest resulted in the disruption of the
Church of Scotland in May, 1843. Dr. Chalmers and 470
other clergymen them seceded and organized the “Free
Church.” He expended the latter years of his life in per-
fecting his “Institutes of Theology” and in officiating as
principal of the Free Church. College. He died May 30,
1847. (See “Memoirs of his Life and Writings ’’ (4 vols.,
1850–52), published by his son-in-law, Rev. WILLIAM
HANNA ; FRANCIS WAYLAND, “Memoirs of the Christian
Labors of Thomas Chalmers.”)
Chalonnes-sur-Loire, a town of France, depart-
ment of Maine-et-Loire, on the river Loire, here crossed
by a suspension bridge, 11 miles S. W. of Angers. Pop.
6505.
Châlons-sur-Marne (anc. Catalawmi or Catalaunum),
a city of France, capital of the department of Marne, is
on the right bank of the Marne and on the railway from
Paris to Strasburg, 107 miles E. of Paris. It is situated
in a fertile plain, which is part of the former province of
Champagne, and has a stone bridge across the river. It is
a bishop’s see, and contains a fine cathedral, a botanic
garden, and a public library of about 25,000 volumes; also
manufactures of cotton, linem, and woollen fabrics. Cham-
pagne wine is produced in the vicinity. In the Catalaunian
Plain adjacent to Châlons the Roman general Aetius and
Theodoric the Visigoth gained a great victory over Attila
in 451 A. D. In the early part of the Dark Ages, Châlons
was one of the most important commercial cities of Europe,
and had about 60,000 inhabitants. In 1857 the celebrated
Camp de Châlons was established near Châlons, in which
always one or two French army corps were kept for drill-
ing; it was evacuated by the French in Aug., 1870, and em- ||
tirely abandoned in 1871. Pop. 17,692.
Châlon - sur - Saône, or Châlons - sur - Saône
(anc. Cabillonum), a town of France, department of Saône-
et-Loire, is on the right bank of the Saône and on the
railway from Dijon to Lyons, 77 miles by rail N. of Lyons.
It is at the head of steamboat navigation, and has an active
trade, being the eastern terminus of the Canal du Centre,
which connects the Saône with the Loire. The chief pub-
lic buildings are a cathedral founded in the thirteenth cen-
tury, St. Peter’s church, and the town-hall. It has a the-
atre and a large public library; also manufactures of glass,
jewelry, hosiery, linen fabrics, pottery, etc. Pop. 19,982.
Cabillonum became the capital of Burgundy under Gontran,
who died in 593 A. D. -
Chalybá’us (H. M.), D. D. See APPENDIx.
Chalyb’eate [from the Gr. x&Avil, (gen. xáAvgos), “iron”
or “steel”], containing iron in solution, applied to waters
which are impregnated with iron. There are two kinds
of chalybeate water—the carbonated, which contains car-
bonate of iron, and may be recognized by forming an
ochreous deposit of red oxide of iron on the stones near
the mouth of the spring; and the sulphated, which con-
tains sulphate of iron (copperas) in solution.
Chann [French for Ham, son of Noah], assumed name of
AMEDáE DE Noſ., a French caricaturist, born Jan. 26, 1819,
studied with Delaroche and Charlet. His first grotesque
sketches appeared in 1842, and since then has followed an
uninterrupted series in almanacs and in “Charivari.”
Chamaeleon [Gr. for “ground-lion”], a genus (Chame-
leo) of saurian réptiles constituting a family (Chamaeleon-
tidae), and according to some writers a separate tribe
(Dendrosaura) of lizards. Ten or twenty species are known,
of which one is found in Southern Europe. None are Amer-
ican. They have a compressed body, with granular scales
in circular bands; the head almost fixed, but the eyes with
a wonderful power of motion, each eye being covered by a
lid pierced with one small hole; ears concealed beneath
the skin; the tail prehensile; the movements extremely
slow; the tongue cylindrical and extensile, in appearance
resembling a common angle-worm ; the toes in two opposa-
ble sets, fitted for grasping boughs, etc. Many fables have
been related of the chamaeleon, such as that it lives upon
air, has the power of changing color at will, or assuming
the color of the object upon which it is placed. The food
of the chamaeleon is in-
sects, which it catches by
darting out its long,
sticky tongue; but its
lungs are large, and it
à- has a habit of enormous-
2 ly dilating itself with air.
§ Its changes of color are
# not altogether voluntary,
and it does not appear to
assimilate its color to the
object upon which it is
placed. But its colors
are somewhat change-
able. This has been ex-
plained (1) by the action of the nervous energy, which, as
in blushing, may perhaps affect the circulation of the blood
in the skin, and it is certain that fear or other emotions
will cause the color to change; (2) by the varied amount
of air in the animal’s lungs; (3) by the action of light; (4)
by the presence of two differently colored layers of pig-
ment-cells in the skin, so arranged as to move upon each
other and produce various effects of color. It is probable
that all these conditions may contribute to the result.
It is said that that lack of nervous co-ordination be-
tween the two sides which in most animals is only seen in
diseased or defective organizations, is either normal to the
chamaeleon or is very easily produced in it. It is even
asserted that one side of the reptile may be awake while
the other is asleep. If modern science finds this creature
so remarkable, it is not strange that the ancients made the
chamaeleon the possessor of many marvellous powers.
Chamaeleon, of Heraclea, on the Pontus, a Peripatetic
philosopher, a disciple of Aristotle or Theophrastus. He
was the author of several philosophical treatises, chiefly
on moral subjects, and of a variety of writings on the
ancient Greek poets—e.g. Æschylus, Anacreon, Thespis,
Homer, Lasus, Pindar, Sappho, Simonides, and Stesichorus.
These essays seem to have treated of the lives of the poets,
as well as to have entered into the criticism of their works.
His commentary on Homer must have been of considerable
extent, as the fifth book is referred to by Tatian. Titles
of fifteen different works, with a few fragments, are pre-
served by Athenaeus and others. (An account of his life
and writings is given by KöPKE, Berlin, 1856; CLINTON,
“Fasti Hellenici,” vol. iii., p. 493.)
HENRY DRISLE.R.
Chamae’rops, a genus of palms having fan-shaped
leaves and flowers in spathes about six to eight inches long.
The Chamaerops humilis, often called palmetto, is the only
species of palm indigenous in Europe. The fruit is a
triple, spongy drupe, which is edible. The leaves are used
for making brooms, hats, and seats of chairs. The fibre
of the leaves is a valuable material for cordage and paper,
and is imported into France to be used in the manufacture
of carpets. The blue palmetto of the Southern U. S. is
Chamaerops Hystriac. Other species of this genus are found
in tropical countries.
Cham/ber, an apartment of a house, a private apart-
ment, a lodging-room; a hollow or cavity, as the chamber
of the ear. In politics, the term is applied to a legislative
assembly, as the (former) Chamber of Deputies in France.
The room which the U. S. Senate occupies is called the Sen-
ate Chamber. Chamber of commerce is the title of an
association or body of merchants which is commonly formed
in each large commercial city for the promotion of the
mercantile interests and general prosperity of the place.
CHAMBER of a cannon or of a small firearm is a contracted
part of the bore at the breech end. The chamber contains
the charge of powder, but it is too small to admit the shot
or shell. These cavities are of various forms, spherical,
cylindrical, conical, etc. Carronades and mortars are
usually chambered. \
Chamber- Counsel, a lawyer or counsellor-at-law
who gives opinions in his private chamber, but does not
conduct causes in court. - -
Cham/berlain [Lat. camerarius ; Fr. chambellan; It.
camerlingo], an officer attached to the court of a monarch,
and, who formerly had charge of the private apartments of
the palace. He was originally the keeper of the treasure-
chamber. The office of chamberlain was one of the grand
offices of the Crown in France. The lord chamberlain of
England is an officer of high rank in the royal household,
and has the function of endorsing the king's answer on
petitions presented to him, and often communicates His
(or Her) Majesty's pleasure to Parliament and to the
council. He has control over all the officers and servants
of the royal chambers except those of the bed-chamber.
All tradesmen and artificers in the Service of the Sovereign

870
CHAMBERLAIN–CHAMBLY BASIN.
are appointed by him. He is a member of the privy
council.
The lord great chamberlain, another officer, is an official
of the British court of noble birth and holding the title by
inheritance. He has charge of the House of Lords during
sessions, walks by the right hand of the sovereign in cer-
tain processions, and performs many other duties, chiefly
of a ceremonial character.
Chamberlain (Josh UA L.), LL.D., a distinguished
American general and educator, born in Bangor, Me., Sept.
8, 1828. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1852, entered
the volunteer service of the U. S. in 1862, and became a
major-general in 1865. He received six wounds while in
the army. From 1866 to 1870, inclusive, he was governor
of Maine, and in 1871 he became president of Bowdoin
College.
Cham/berlen (HUGH), an English physician, born in
1664, practised in London. He invented the obstetric for-
ceps. Died in 1728.
Cham/bers, in law. A judge is said to act at “cham-
bers” when a legal proceeding is carried on before him out
of court, either at his office or residence or other convenient
place, including the court-room itself. Business done be-
fore a judge at chambers, as distinguished from that trans-
acted in court, is increasing in modern times. The codes
of procedure in some of the American States expressly pro-
vide that certain acts shall be done by the court, and others
by a judge, referring in the last instance to an act done at
chambers. Through the same medium a great change has
been worked in England in the practice of the court of
chancery. Formerly the details of business in that court
were transacted by an officer termed “master in chancery,”
who exercised an almost independent jurisdiction, acting
without communicating with the judge until he made his
report of his conclusions, which was then submitted to the
court as a basis for its decree. By the 16 Vict., ch. 80,
the office of master was abolished, and the business for-
merly committed to him was directed to be transacted
under the direction and control of the judge, or, in other
words, at chambers. Under this system each of the judges
has under his control chief clerks and junior clerks, who
act in his behalf in taking accounts and making inquiries,
and who are more directly responsible to him than were
the masters under the earlier practice. Under the law of
1873 for the reorganization of the English courts (36 and
37 Vict., ch. 66), the duties of chamber clerks after that act
goes into effect (Nov. 2, 1874) are to be performed by offi-
cers of the court in the permanent civil service of the
Crown. The same law also provides for official and special
referees, who may, under the direction of a court or judge,
perform acts similar to those formerly entrusted to masters
in chancery. T. W. DWIGHT.
Cham’bers, a county of Alabama, bordering on Geor-
gia. Area, 700 square miles. It is partly bounded on the
E. by the Chattahoochee River, and is traversed by the
Tallapoosa. The soil is mostly fertile. Cotton, grain, and
wool are the staples. This county is intersected by the
East Alabama and Cincinnati, the Savannah and Memphis,
and the Atlanta and West Point R. Rs. Capital, Chambers
Court-house (or La Fayette). Pop. 17,562.
Chambers, a county of Texas, bordering on the Gulf
of Mexico. Area, 900 square miles. It is bounded on the
W. by Galveston Bay, and intersected by Trinity River.
The surface is nearly level. Cotton, corn, fruit, cattle,
swine, and sugar-cane are raised. The county is well tim-
bered. Capital, Wallisville. Pop. 1503.
Chambers (EzekiEL F.), L.L.D., born in Kent co., Md.,
Feb. 28, 1788, graduated at Washington College, Md., in
1805, became a lawyer, served in the war of 1812–15, and
was made a brigadier-general of militia. He was U. S.
Senator from Maryland (1826–35), taking a prominent
position; was a judge in the State courts (1834–51), and
in 1852 declined the secretaryship of the navy. Died Jan.
30, 1867.
Chambers (GEORGE), LL.D., born in 1786 at Cham-
bersburg, Pa., graduated at Princeton in 1804, became a
very prominent lawyer, was a member of Congress (1833–
37), and became in 1851 a justice in the supreme court of
Pennsylvania. He prepared a number of valuable papers
on the early history of the State, some of which were de-
stroyed at the burning of Chambersburg in 1863. Died
Mar. 25, 1866.
Chambers (ROBERT), LL.D., a Scottish writer and
publisher, born at Peebles July 10, 1802. He became a
bookseller in Edinburgh, and wrote several works, among
which is “Traditions of Edinburgh” (1824). He entered
into partnership with his brother William in 1832, after
which they published many cheap and popular works enti-
tled “Information for the People,” “Cyclopædia of English
Literature,” “Papers for the People,” “Chambers's En-
cyclopaedia” (1859–68), etc. Died in 1871. *
Chambers (WILLIAM), a Scottish author and editor, a
brother of the preceding, was born at Peebles April 16,
1800. He founded Chambers’s “Edinburgh Journal” in
1832, and became a partner with his brother in an extensive
publishing-house of Edinburgh. They were distinguished
for their enterprise and their successful efforts to supply the
people with cheap and instructive literature. (See CHAM-
BERs, RoRERT.) He was the author of several works, among
which is “Things as they are in America..” He was chosen
lord provost of Edinburgh in 1865.
Cham/bersburg, a post-township of Pike co., Ill.
Pop. 788.
Chambersburg, a township of Iredell co., N. C. P. 949.
Chambersburg, the capital of Franklin co., Pa., on
the Conococheague and Falling Spring creeks, at the ter-
minus of the Cumberland Valley and Franklin R. R.s., 52
miles S. W. of Harrisburg. It is in the southern portion
of the fertile limestone valley between Blue and South
mountains. It has three newspapers, a national bank,
manufactories of wool, paper, and iron, an academy, a
female seminary, and well-conducted public schools. It
was settled by the Scotch-Irish. On the 30th of July, 1863,
a body of Confederate cavalry under Gen. McCausland
entered the town and laid it under tribute of $200,000 in
gold or half a million in currency; this demand not being
complied with by the inhabitants, McCausland ordered the
town to be fired. About two-thirds of the place was de-
stroyed, 2500 persons were deprived of homes, and prop-
erty to the value of $1,000,000 was destroyed. It has been .
entirely rebuilt. Pop. 6308.
JEAN Coor, ED. “ REPOSITORY.”
Chambers Court-house, or La Fayette, a post-
village, capital of Chambers co., Ala., is about 70 miles E.
N. E. of Montgomery. Pop. 1382.
Chambéry [It. Ciamberi], a city of France, capital of
the department of Savoy, is beautifully situated on the
river Leysse, in a rich vine-clad valley about 60 miles E.
S. E. of Lyons. It is on the railway which connects France
with Italy and passes through a tunnel near Mont Cenis.
It contains an old castle of the dukes of Savoy, a cathedral,
several convents, and a public library. Here are manufac-
tures of silk gauze, lace, hats, etc. It was formerly subject
to the king of the Sardinian States, but was ceded to France
in 1860. Pop. 18,279.
Cham’bliss (John R.), an American Confederate officer,
born in Virginia in 1833; graduated at West Point 1853,
and resigned from the army in 1854 to devote himself to
agricultural pursuits in Virginia. He was actively identi-
fied with the State militia, being colonel, etc. At the out-
break of the civil war he espoused the Confederate cause,
and was appointed a brigadier-general, serving with gal-
lantry. At the battle of Deep Bottom, Va., Aug. 16, 1864,
while leading a brigade of cavalry, he was killed.
G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Eng’rs.
Chambliss (WILLIAM P.), an American lawyer and
soldier, born in Virginia; served during the war with
Mexico as lieutenant, subsequently captain, Third Tennes-
see Volunteers. At the close of the war he resumed the
practice of his profession at Pulaski, Tenn.; was elected
member of the State legislature 1853–54; Mar., 1855, he
was commissioned in the army a first lieutenant Second
Cavalry, and stationed in Texas, where he was mainly en-
gaged, till 1861, against the Camanches and other hostile
Indians; promoted captain Fifth Cavalry April, 1861, and
major Fourth Cavalry 1864. He was engaged in the ac-
tions of Manassas and Peninsular campaigns of 1862 u
to June 27, when, at the battle of Gaines’s Mill, after hay-
ing been wounded six times, he was taken prisoner while
leading a cavalry charge. Resigned from the army Nov.,
1867, and became superintendent of a railway and mining
company in Canada.
G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Eng’rs.
Cham’blissburg, a township and post-village of Bed-
ford co., Va. The village is 35 miles W. S. W. of Lynch-
burg. Pop. 3428.
Cham/bly, a county of Canada, in Quebec, has an area
of 211 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Sorel
River, and on the W. by the St. Lawrence, which separates
it from Montreal. It is intersected by the Grand Trunk
R. R. Capital, Longeuil. Pop. in 1871, 10,498.
Cham/bly Ba'sin, a beautiful post-village of Cham-
bly co., province of Quebec tº... at the mouth of the
Chambly and St. John’s Canal and on Richelieu River, 16
miles E. of Montreal, has an important trade with Lake
Champlain, and is the seat of Chambly College. It has a
large hospital for the sick and poor, under the care of the
Sisters of Charity. Pop. about 800. -
CHAMBLY CANTON.—CHAMPAGNE WINE.
871
Cham/bly Can’ton, a manufacturing village of Cham-
bly co., province of Quebee (Canada), 1 mile above Cham-
bly Basin, at the rapids of the Richelieu, which furnishes
water-power for extensive lumber and woollen mills, a
foundry, etc. Pop. about 700. *
Chambon-Feugerolles, Le, a French town in the
department of Loire. Its manufactures consist chiefly of
iron and steel fabrics. Pop. 6954.
Chambord, a village and royal château of France, de-
partment of Loir-et-Cher, 8 miles E. of Blois. Here is a
magnificent château begun by Francis I. in 1526, and
finished by Louis XIV. It is in the midst of a beautiful
park 21 miles in circumference. This castle was given to
Marshal Saxe by Louis XV., and was presented to Marshal
Berthier by Napoleon I. In 1821 it was purchased by
subscription for the duke of Bordeaux, who is usually
styled Count de Chambord. It is surmounted by a great
number of turrets and minarets. Its most prominent fea-
tures are six enormous round towers, each sixty feet in
diameter. Pop. 332.
Chambord, de (HENRI CHARLEs FERDINAND MARIE
DIEUDONNí D’ARTOIs), CoMTE and DUC DE BORDEAUX, was
born in Paris Sept. 29, 1820. His father was the duke of
Berry, a son of King Charles X., who abdicated in his
favor in Aug., 1830. Since that date he has been recog-
nized by the French legitimists as the heir to the throne,
and has received the title of Henry V. He married in
1846 a daughter of the duke of Módema, but he has no
children, and remains the only surviving member of the
elder branch of the Bourbon family. He passed many
years at the castle of Frohsdorf, near Vienna. He claims
the throne by divine right, and avows his devotion to the
antiquated political ideas of which the white flag is the
symbol. After the deposition of Napoleon III. (1870) he
issued a proclamation to the French people, which was not
approved even by the royalists.
Chambre Ardente [Fr. “fiery chamber’], an extra-
ordinary court, chiefly held for the trial of heretics, was
first convened by Francis I. of France in 1535. Its name
was given on account of the unusual severity of its sen-
tences, burning alive being one of its most common pun-
ishments. Henry II.'s reign was especially distinguished
for the cruelties practised by this court against the Hugue-
nots. The last victim of the Chambre Ardente was one
Voisin, executed in 1680, in the reign of Louis XIV., on a
charge of sorcery.
Chambre Introuvable, a sarcastic name given to
the French Chamber of Deputies which was elected after
the second restoration of Louis XVIII., in July, 1815.
The majority of it were fanatical royalists, were hostile to
the ministry, and supported an extremely reactionary
policy. They showed no inclination to repress the outrages
committed in the south of France by mobs of royalists and
famatics, who massacred many Protestants and liberals.
This chamber was dissolved in 1816.
Chamis’so, von (ADEL-
BERT), a poet and naturalist,
born in Champagne, in France,
Jan. 27, 1781. He removed
with his parents to Berlin
in 1790, learned the German
language (in which all his Y
works are written), and served -
for some years in the Prus- º º # *W §
sian army. In the capacity * §
of naturalist he accompanied *:
an exploring expedition which
sailed from Russia in 1814,
and circumnavigated the globe.
IHe wrote several works on nat- | ~
ural history, but his reputa- º
tion rests chiefly on his i. W sº º-
poems and ballads, which are §§
very popular, and the highly §§
original tale of “Peter Schle- º §§
mihl” (1814), translated by : -
William Howitt (1843). Died (ſ
Aug. 28, 1838. (See J. E. HIT- (§
ZIG, “Leben und Briefe von A.
von Chamisso,” 2 vols., 1839.)
Chamois [Ger. Gemsel, a
goat-like antelope (Rupicapra
Tragus) of the mountains of -
Central and Southern Europe ss==
and Western Asia, found es- º:
pecially in the Alps. It is -
about the size of a large goat,
and is remarkable for its great.
speed, for its ability to leap enormous chasms, and for its
…ºf S------ -: * |
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=ºnsºº - . . .” ~...~"----------"
*- -
delicate power of scent. It is highly prized as food, and
chamois-hunting is a favorite though perilous amusement
in Switzerland and the Tyrol. Its summer haunts are in
the high Alps, near the snow-line. Its skin furnishes true
chamois leather, but the article generally sold under that
name is made of sheep skin.
Chamois, a post-village of Osage co., Mo. It is situ-
ated on the Missouri River and the Missouri Pacific R. R.,
100 miles W. of St. Louis. It has one weekly newspaper.
Cham’omile, a name given to several herbs of the
order Compositae, but especially to Anthem is nobilis and
Matricaria Chamomilla, both European herbs closely re-
sembling each other, and nearly identical in order and
properties, though the latter is milder, and in Germany is
more generally esteemed as a medicine. The one first men-
tioned is common in American gardens. Chamomile is
much used in domestic medicine, has tonic, stimulant, and
diaphoretic powers, and was once used as a febrifuge. Its
smell is agreeable, and depends upon the presence of a
volatile oil. The chamomile flowers imported from England
are of the first, those from Germany of the second, species.
They are largely, but illegally, used in England in flavor-
ing beer—a practice which is said to be injurious to health. .
Chamouni, Walley of, in the French department of
Haute-Savoie, a wonderful valley in the Alps, 15 miles long
and three-quarters of a mile broad, traversed by a small
stream, the Arve, 3400 feet above the sea. It is entered on
the N.E., from Martigny, by the Col de Tête Noire, and at
the other end by diligence from Geneva, 53 miles distant,
through the valley of the Arve. It is enclosed by Mont
Blanc and the Aiguilles Rouges and Mont Breven. The
glaciers Mer de Glace and Argentière are the most remark-
able in Switzerland. This beautiful vale, now visited by
innumerable travellers each summer, was scarcely known
until it was explored and described by the Englishmen
Pococke and Wyndham in 1740. Many peculiar plants
grow in the valley, and furnish a remarkably rich-flavored
honey. In 1099 a Benedictine monastery was established
at the village Chamonix or Prieuré. In early times this
region was known as Les Montagnes Maudites—a name
still retained for the roughest part between the Dome of
Mont Blanc and the Mer de Glace.
Champagne, a former province in the N. E. part of
France, was bounded on the E. by Lorraine and on the S.
by Burgundy. It was drained by the Marne, Seine, Aube,
and other rivers. It is now mostly comprised in the de-
partments of Marne, Aube, Ardennes, Haute-Marne, and
Yonne. The surface is diversified with plains and hills,
on which latter is grown the famous CHAMPAGNE WINE
(which see). In the twelfth century Champagne was inde-
pendent or governed by native princes. Thibaud, count
of Champagne and king of Navarre, who died in 1253, was
the most powerful feudatory of the French king. ... By the
marriage of Philip IV. of France with Joanna, the heir-
ess of the king of Navarre about 1285, Champagne was
annexed to France.
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Chamois.
Champagne Wine. a name applied to wines of vari-







872
CHAMPAGNOLLE–CHAMPION HILLS.
ous kinds, white or red, still or sparkling, which are pro-
duced in Champagne. Of these the sparkling and foam-
ing varieties (vin moussewa; and demi-mow88ewac) are best
known. After the vintage-season this wine stands till De-
cember, is then racked off, and fined or purged with isin-
glass; in the following March it is bottled and corked with
care, the bottles being placed with the corks downward, so
that the sediment may be drawn off. When this has been
removed, some brandy and sugar are introduced, and the
bottles are recorked. While this process is going on the
breakage of bottles is often very great, and buyers esti-
mate the value of the wines partly by the breakage—the
best wines breaking the most bottles. -
Even in France, but still more in other countries, a very
large part of the so-called champagne wine is factitious,
being made of cider, light Rhenish and other cheap wines,
and other substances. Happily, in most cases these prep-
arations are quite as harmless, and often quite as palatable,
as the genuine product of the Champagne vineyards; for
some of the imitations are nearly perfect representatives of
the appearance, taste, and bouquet of the original article.
Champagne wine is prized in medicine as a restorative
in certain low conditions, especially when the stomach is
very irritable and will hardly tolerate any other stimulant,
the carbonic acid present acting as a sedative to that organ.
Champagnolle, a township of Calhoun co., Ark.
Pop. 505.
Champaignſ, a county in the E. of Illinois. Area,
I000 square miles. It is drained by the Sangamon and
Vermilion Rivers. The surface is nearly level; the soil is
deep and very fertile. A large proportion of the county
is prairie. Live-stock, grain, wool, tobacco, and dairy
products are extensively-raised. Its manufactures are of
growing importance, those of carriages, lumber, and flour
being at present the largest. It is intersected by the Cen-
tral, the Indianapolis Bloomington and Western, and the
Toledo Wabash and Western R. Rs. Capital, Urbanna.
Pop. 32,737.
Champaign, a county in the central part of Ohio.
Area, 390 square miles. It is intersected by Mad River.
The surface is partly undulating, and in some parts nearly
level; the soil is highly productive. Cattle, grain, wool,
and dairy products are the most important staples. The
manufactures are increasing in extent, those of flour, lum-
ber, and carriages being at present the largest. It is trav-
ersed by the Atlantic and Great Western, the Pittsburg
Cincinnati and St. Louis, the Cleveland Columbus Cincin-
nati and Indianapolis, and the Cincinnati Sandusky and
Cleveland R. Rs. Capital, Urbana. Pop. 24,188.
Champaign, a city of Champaign co., Ill., on the
Chicago division of the Central R. R., 128 miles S. S. W.
of Chicago, and on the Indianapolis Bloomington and
Western R. R., 48 miles S. E. of Bloomington. The State
Industrial University is located at this point, with an at-
tendance of about 600 students. There is a finely improved
park of ten acres in the place. Street-cars connect it with
Urbamna, the county-seat, 2 miles E. The public library
contains about 1000 volumes. There are four banks,
eleven churches, three public-school buildings, a young
ladies’ seminary, and three newspapers. It has increased
rapidly in the last decade. Pop. 4625, or, including the
township, 5335. ED. CHAMPAIGN County “ GAZETTE.”
Cham’pak, or Chum ſpac (Michelia Champaea), an
East Indian tree remarkable for the beauty of its flowers
and foliage. The flowers are of a pale yellow tint, and
have a sweet, oppressive perfume, much celebrated in
Oriental poetry, and alluded to in the writings of Shelley.
This tree is venerated by the Brahmans and Booddhists.
Champ de Mars, a large oblong park or public square
in the environs of Paris, between the Seine and the Mili-
tary School. It is devoted to military exercises and public
gatherings, and was the site of the temporary buildings of
the Exposition of 1867. Its name has a double reference
to the Campus Martius of ancient Rome and other Italian
cities, and to the old Frankish field-meetings for legislative
and other purposes, held annually in March or May, and
historically known as Champs de Mars or de Mai.
Champeaux (WILLIAM of ). See GUILLAUME DE CHAM-
PEA UIX. -
Cham/perty [remotely from the Lat, campi pars, “part
of the field”], in law, is the act of aiding a person in the
prosecution of a lawsuit or other legal proceeding, with an
agreement to share in the proceeds of the litigation or to
make some profit from it. It is distinguished from “main-
tenance,” in which there is no such element of gain. The
two acts are, however, closely allied, and governed by sub-
stantially the same principles. Champerty may present
itself either in the civil or criminal law. Criminal pro-
ceedings are not frequently prosecuted against champertors,
as they scarcely accord with existing public opinion. The
topic is of most importance in the civil law. A contract
affected by champerty is usually void, though sometimes
this rule is modified by statute. It was a doctrine of the
English common law, based on this general idea of opposi-
tion to champerty, that a right of action cannot be as-
signed. This proposition has long been discarded in equity
courts, both in England and America, and the assignee
has been regarded as a beneficiary, and the assignor as a
trustee, so that an action can only be brought in a common-
law court in the name of the assignor. This mere for-
mality has been abolished in a number of the American
States under the lead of the legislation of New York, and
the assignee is now permitted to sue in his own name. The
old doctrine has been wholly swept away in England dur-
ing this year (1873), and the assignee is now declared to
have the title both in law and equity, acquiring, however,
in substance the same rights as before in equity. Ac-
cordingly, the assignee can there sue in his own name, and
in general act as legal owner (36 and 37 Vict., ch. 66, 3 25).
There has not been a disposition to extend the doctrine of
assignability to pretended titles to land. Should an owner
who has been evicted from his land by one claiming title
assume to transfer it, the act would be void. This doctrine
is recognized in a considerable number of the American
States; and even in New York, under the legislation
already referred to, the assignee in this case cannot ac-
quire a right to sue in his own name. This doctrine is in
part grounded on the opinions of an English statute passed
in the time of Henry VIII., and recognized here. The doc-
trimes of champerty would prevent an attorney from enter-
ing into an agreement with his client to receive a portion
of the subject in litigation as a compensation for his ser-
vices. This rule has been changed in a number of the
American States by legislation, though even there it might
be considered as illegal for an attorney to take an assign-
ment of a claim with a view to its prosecution. The rules
of the ancient law on this subject would seem to be giving
way, and the modern view would seem to tend to allow
freedom to deal in rights of action as well as in tangible
property. In the progress of time it is probable that
scarcely any trace of the old law will remain, except so far
as to prohibit attorneys from purchasing claims with intent
to collect them, and to prevent combinations or conspiracies
to promote litigation, which should be dealt with in the
same manner as other conspiracies are treated. (See MAIN-
TENANCE.) T. W. DWIGHT.
Champfleury, the assumed name of JULES FLEURY,
a French author, chief of the realistic school, born Sept.
10, 1821. He was a companion of Mürger, Dupont, and
De Banville, and produced in 1847 “Chien-Caillu,” imme-
diately pronounced by Victor Hugo a chef d'oeuvre. Among
his numerous works are “Les Excentriques” (1852), “Aven-
tures de Mariette” (1853), and “Les Bourgeois de Molin-
chart” (1854). -
Champigny, a village near Paris, France, on the
Marne, was on Nov. 30 and Dec. 2, 1870, the scene of pro-
tracted and bloody encounters between the French troops
under Ducrot and the Germans. On Dec. 3 the French re-
crossed the Marne.
Cham’pion [from the Lat. campus, a “field” of battle],
a person in the Middle Ages, and even in more recent
times, who appeared and took part in judicial combats (see
BATTEL) as the hired representative of women, children,
feeble persons, and other non-combatants. The practice
was of very ancient origin, but the occupation of the pro-
fessional champion came to be looked upon as very disrep-
utable. In the more romantic periods of chivalry, how-
ever, knights and gentlemen might contend, especially
with those of their own rank, in behalf of injured ladies
and children, and were called champions. The crown of
England since the time of William the Conqueror has had
a champion at coronations—a mounted yeoman, armed to
the teeth, who challenges all who deny the king to be the
true sovereign.
Champion, a post-village and township of Jefferson
co., N.Y., about 15 miles E. of Watertown, and on the
Utica and Black River R. R. Pop. of the township, 2156.
Champion, a township of Trumbull co., O. Pop. 820.
Champion Hills, Hinds co., Miss., about midway be-
tween Jackson and Vicksburg, the scene of a desperate
struggle May 16, 1863. The forces under Gen. Grant were
marching from Jackson, Miss., towards Vicksburg; when
they were met at this point by a Confederate force under
Gen. Pemberton. A desperate battle of five hours’ duration
ensued, the Confederates being forced to retire to the Big
Black River. The Confederate Joss was heavy in men and
artillery. The battle was mainly fought on the side of the
U. S. forces by Hovey's division of McClernand's, and Lo-
CHAMPLAIN–CHANCELLOR, THE LORD HIGH.
873
g-
gan’s and Crocker's division of McPherson’s corps, which
suffered heavily in killed and wounded. This battle is also
known as Baker’s Creek.
Champlain', a county of Canada, in Quebec, is bounded
on the S. E. by the St. Lawrence, and intersected by the
river St. Maurice. Among its products are oats, flax, and
maple-sugar. Cap. Ste. Geneviéve. Pop. in 1871, 22,052.
Champlain, a post-village of Champlain co., Quebec
(Canada), on the N. side of the St. Lawrence, 75 miles
above Quebec. It has a lighthouse. Pop, about 400.
Champlain, a post-village of Clinton co., New York,
on the Chazy River and on the Ogdensburg and Lake Cham-
plain R. R., about 20 miles N. of Plattsburg. It has a na-
tional bank, a newspaper, and manufactures of iron, etc.
Pop. 1850. Champlain township is on Lake Champlain,
at its N. extremity. It contains four villages—Champlain,
Perry's Mills, Cooperville, and Rouse's Point. Pop. 5080.
A. N. MERCHANT, PROP. CHAMPLAIN “Journ AL.”
Champlain (SAMUEL), a French navigator and pioneer,
the founder of Quebec, was born at Brouage, in France,
about 1570. He made a voyage to Canada in 1603, and
soon returned to France. In 1608 he ascended the river
St. Lawrence to the site of Quebec, where he planted a col-
ony. He discovered Lake Champlain in 1610, after which
he passed several years in Canada. He was appointed gov-
ernor of Canada in 1620. He wrote several narratives of
his voyages. Died at Quebec in 1635.
Champlain, Lake, forms part of the boundary be-
tween New York and Vermont, and extends from White-
hall, N. Y., northward to Canada. It is about 125 miles
long, and is narrow in proportion to its length. The
southern half averages less than two miles wide, and in
many places is less than a mile. In the northern part, where
large islands occur in it, the width is ten miles or more.
The greatest depth is about 280 feet. The water of this
lake is discharged by the Sorel or Richelieu River, which
issues from its N. extremity. The chief towns on its shores
are Burlington and Plattsburg. Occupying a basin between
the Adirondacks and the Green Mountains, this lake is re-
markable for its beautiful and picturesque scenery. Nume-
rous steamboats ply daily between Whitehall and Canada
in the summer. A naval battle was fought on Lake Cham-
plain between Gen. Arnold and the British Oct. 13, 1776,
in which the latter had the advantage. Sept. 11, 1814,
Com. McDonough gained an important victory over the
British fleet near Plattsburg. This lake is connected with
the Hudson River by the Champlain Canal.
Cham/plin, a post-township of Hennepin co., Minn.
Pop. 292. -
Champlin (JAMES TIFT), D. D., born in Colchester,
Comm., June 9, 1811, valedictorian of the class of 1834
Brown University, where he was tutor 1835–38. From
1838 to 1841 pastor of Baptist church Portland, Me. ; from
1841 to 1857 professor of ancient languages in Waterville
College (now Colby University); from 1857 to 1872 presi-
dent of that institution. During his connection with the
college (which contributed greatly to its prosperity) Dr.
Champlin published an edition of “Demosthemes on the
Crown” (1843), “Demosthenes' Select Orations” (1848),
“AEschines on the Crown’” (1850), “A Text Book on In-
tellectual Philosophy’ (1860), “First Principles of Ethics”
(1861), “A Text Book of Political Economy” (1868), be-
sides other works which are in less general use.
Champlin (Gen. STEPHEN G.) entered the U. S. service
at the outbreak of the late civil war as major of the Third
Michigan Volunteers, was severely wounded at Fair Oaks,
became a brigadier-general of volunteers in 1862, and took
part in the battles of Antietam and Fredericksburg. Died
Jan. 29, 1864. &
Champ'ney (BENJAMIN), artist, born at New Ipswich,
N. H., Nov. 20, 1817, practised lithography in Boston, and
studied art in Europe, which he visited several times. He
has painted many landscapes of the Alps and the White
Mountains. -
Champney (JAMES WELLs), a genre painter, born at
Boston, Mass., July 16, 1843, practised wood-engraving
and designing, served for a time as a volunteer in the late
civil war, taught drawing for some years, practised paint-
ing in Europe four years, and returned to the U. S. in 1870.
Champollion (JEAN FRANÇors), a celebrated French
linguist and Egyptologist, born at Figeac (Lot) Dec. 23,
1790. He studied several Oriental languages in Paris, and
became in 1809 professor of history in the academy of
Grenoble. In 1814 he published a “Geographical Descrip-
tion of Egypt under the Pharaohs.” From the inscriptions
on the Rosetta Stone he obtained a key to the mysterious
symbols and hieroglyphics of ancient Egypt. His reputa-
tion is founded chiefly on this important discovery, which
he announced to the Academy of Inscriptions in 1822. In
1824 he published a “Summary of the Hieroglyphic Sys-
tem of the Ancient Egyptians,” in, which he proves that
the phonetic alphabet is the key to the whole hieroglyphic
system. In 1828 he visited Egypt, the monuments of
which he explored in company with Rosellini. Having
spent sixteen months in Egypt, he returned home, and was
admitted into the Institute in 1830. A chair of Egyptian
antiquities was founded for him in the College of France.
He died Mar. 4, 1832. Among his chief works (published
after his death by his brother Jean Jacques) are an
“Egyptian Grammar” (1836–41) and an “Egyptian Dic-
tionary '' (1842–44). The results of the researches of
Champollion and Rosellini in Egypt appeared in a great
work entitled “Monuments of Egypt and Nubia considered
in Relation to History, Religion, etc.” (4 vols., 1835–45).
Bunsen expressed the opinion that his discovery of the art
of deciphering the hieroglyphics was the greatest discovery
of the century. (See SILVESTRE DE SACY, “ Notice sur
Champollion,” 1833; RosBLLIN1, “Tributo di Riconoscenza
alla Memoria di G. F. Champollion,” 1832.)
Champollion-Figeac (JEAN JACQUES), a French an-
tiquary, a brother of the preceding, was born at Figeae
in 1778. He published, besides other works, “ Chronicles
of the Greek Kings of Egypt” (1819), a “Treatise on
Archaeology” (1843), and “Paleographic Documents Re-
lating to the History of Fine Arts and Belles Lettres in the
Middle Ages” (1868). He became in 1849 librarian to
Louis Napoleon. He edited some posthumous works of
his brother. Died May 9, 1867.
Chanahatch’ee, a post-township of Elmore co., Ala.
Pop. 1095.
Chance [from the late Lat. cadentia, a “fall” or “throw”
of the dice], a word popularly used to denote that which
happens without special causation or evident design; a
convenient term which does not, however, correspond to the
real facts of any supposable case. To the religious mind
the idea of chance is objectionable, as not harmonizing
with the doctrine of the Divine providence; to the philos-
opher it is equally objectionable, as being inconsistent with
the uniform operation of natural laws. The word as used
in the expression “theory of chances” is simply synon-
ymous with PROBABILITY (which see).
Chanceford, a post-village and township of York co.,
Pa., about 40 miles S. E. of Harrisburg and 6 from the
Susquehanna River. Total pop. 2501.
Chan'cel [from the Lat. cancelli, “lattice-work”], the
part of a church where the altar or communion-table is
placed, or the portion of a church occupied by the clergy,
and usually separated from the nave by a screen of lattice-
work. The chancel of Gothic churches corresponds in po-
sition to the apsis of the ancient basilicas. In England
the term chancel is usually confined to parish churches'
which have no aisles or chapels around the choir.
Chancellor, a township of Spottsylvania co., Va.
Pop. 1446. -
Chan/cellor [Lat. cancellarius; Fr. chancelier; Ger.
Ranzler], the title of a civil officer of high rank in several
countries. The cancellarius was a notary or scribe under
the Roman emperors. The chancelier of France was for
several centuries one of the most powerful ministers of state
and keeper of the seal. His office was abolished about
1790, and the functions of chancellor were transferred to the
minister of justice. In the new German empire, established
in 1871, the Kanzler is one of the chief functionaries, and
Prince Bismarck now holds the office. The British cabinet
always includes two ministers of state, called respectively
chancellor of the exchequer and lord chancellor. The
former acts as minister of finance (see ExCHEQUER), and
the latter is keeper of the great seal. (See CHANCELLOR,
LoRD HIGH.)
CHANCELLOR OF A UNIVERSITY is the chief officer of a
collegiate institution, sometimes elected for a term of years,
and sometimes for life.
Chan'cellor, an American law officer in some of the
American States who has the powers of a court of equity,
and whose proceedings are based on the practice and juris-
diction of the English court of chancery. In other States
jurisdiction in law and equity is vested in the same court,
as in the State of New York, where the supreme court has
this compound jurisdiction. -
Chancellor, The Lord High, an officer in England
who presides over the high court of chancery, and who
also has various special powers of a legal nature. . He is
also prolocutor of the House of Lords. His office is con-
ferred upon him by the delivery of the great seal. There
may also be an officer termed “the lord keeper of the great
seal,” whose functions are substantially the same. The
duties of the office are sometimes discharged by commis-
sioners, instead of by a single person, when the great Seal
874
CHANCELLORSVILLE.
is said to be “in commission.” Some of the powers of the
chancellor are in that case, by statute, exercised by the
senior commissioner. The judicial powers of the chancel-
lor are considerably changed by 36 and 37 Vict., ch. 66,
which goes fully into effect on Nov. 2, 1874. After the
chancellor then in office ceases to hold it the duties at-
tached to it will be principally of an appellate character,
the chancellor becoming president of “ Her Majesty’s
court of appeal,” which tribunal will exercise the appellate
powers at present vested in the House of Lords and in the
judicial committee of the privy council. (See Foss, “Judges
of England,” CAMPBELL’s “Lives of the Lord Chancel-
lors,” and BLAcksTONE’s “Commentaries,” for further in-
formation.) The chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster
may also be referred to in this connection. He has a juris-
diction in certain matters of equity resembling that exer-
cised by the lord chancellor, though not so general in its
nature. -
Chan'cellorsville, a small village of Spottsylvania
co., Va., near the Rappahannock River, about 65 miles N.
by W. from Richmond. -
On assuming command of the Army of the Potomac, Jan.,
1863, Gen. Hooker found it in a weakened and despondent
condition; its numerical force had been greatly decreased
by sickness and desertions, which latter were still frequent.
On the contrary, the recent successes of the Confederates
had inspired them with boldness and enthusiasm. Hooker
devoted the remaining winter months to repairing the de-
moralized condition of his army, and gathering back those
away from duty; his efforts were so far successful that by
April he had not only restored confidence, but by additions
found himself in command of a well-equipped army of up-
wards of 132,000 men, composed of (about) 120,000 infan-
try and artillery, and the remainder cavalry, encamped
around Falmouth, Va. The Confederate army under Lee,
still encamped on the opposite bank of the Rappahannock,
held a line running north-east to south-west, its right wing
extending to Port Royal on the Rappahannock, its left
wing resting about two miles above Fredericksburg on the
same river; thus affording only two lines of retreat—one
to Richmond, the other to Gordonsville. Its strength was
probably upwards of 60,000 men.
Everything being in readiness, Hooker decided to move
at once upon Lee. The larger portion of the Čavalry was
placed under Gen. Stonemam, and (April 13) despatched in
advance of the main army for the purpose of destroying
the Confederate communications and harassing the retreat
which it was deemed must result from the contemplated
advance. Owing to frequent rains, which swelled the
rivers, Stoneman did not get fairly away till the 27th, and
Hooker gave orders for his general movement to commence
the next day.
Gen. Hooker's plan of attack was as follows: His army
was divided into seven corps—of these three were to be
massed about two miles below Fredericksburg, to cross
there and make a bold feint, two of the corps to imme-
diately return and join Hooker; in the mean while the
remaining four corps were to cross above Fredericks-
burg.
This plan was successfully executed. The 1st Corps
(Reynolds), 3d (Sickles), and 6th (Sedgwick), all under
command of Sedgwick, were moved on the 28th to the
position assigned them, and on the 29th one division of
the 6th crossed the river about two miles below Fredericks-
burg and drove in the pickets; a division of the 1st cross-
ing about two miles lower down; the other divisions, with
the 3d Corps, remaining on the north bank in plain view
of Lee’s army, whose columns were soon seen coming up
from Port Royal. On the 30th, Sickles silently withdrew
his corps and proceeded to join Hooker. In the mean
while the crossing of the Rappahannock above had been
going on; the 11th Corps crossed first (28th), followed by
the 12th, then the 5th (29th); this column moved along,
crossed the Rapidan at Germanna and Ely’s Ford; both
columns then advancing towards Chancellorsville, at the
junction of the Gordonsville turnpike with the Culpeper
and Orange C. H. plank road. By the evening of the 30th
the 2d Corps (two divisions) had crossed and were massed
at the same point, and Gen. Hooker had arrived and taken
up his headquarters at Chancellorsville. Lee though thus
far outgeneraled appears to have been undismayed, and
quickly realizing the movement below to be a feint, con-
centrated his army in front of Hooker, leaving but a small
force in his works on the Fredericksburg heights.
Reconnaissances having been made by Hooker on Friday
morning (May 1) towards Fredericksburg without opposi-
tion, an advance of the 5th and 12th Corps was ordered
to be made on two roads leading towards Fredericksburg,
which was soon met by the Confederates; a favorable posi-
tion had been secured, however, when orders were received
from Gen. Hooker to fall back to the inferior one of the
night before. The right of Hooker's army was held by
Howard (11th Corps), then a division of Sickles (3d Corps),
who had now arrived from below, then Slocum (12th Corps),
Couch (2d Corps), with Meade (5th Corps) on the left. The
other divisions were held in reserve.
During the night and on Saturday a movement of Con-
federates was observed along Sickles' front and in direction
of our right, which being continued Birney (in command
1st div. 3d Corps) reported to Sickles, who received orders
to make a reconnaissance in force and ascertain the nature
of the movement, which being promptly executed struck the
rear of the advancing column, capturing many prisoners,
from whom the intelligence was gained that the movement
was under command of Stonewall Jackson. Up to this
time the movement had been interpreted as a retreat, but
in anticipation of its purpose being a flank attack, Howard
had been notified of the fact, and ordered to be on the alert.
Sickles now obtained permission to move in force upon the
flank of the advancing column, and being reinforced by a
brigade from the 12th and one from the 11th Corps, together
with 1000 cavalry and a horse-battery under Pleasonton,
had completed his preparations, when informed that Jack-
son had struck his blow and was in his rear. Although not
entirely unanticipated, it was believed the attack on the
right would be resisted; but, being surprised, Devens’ di-
vision gave way, followed by that of Schurz, and though
Burbeck’s brigade gallantly resisted, it was finally com-
pelled to fall back, and the woods now swarmed with the
fugitive corps, closely pursued by the victorious Confede-
rates, and the position of Sickles was critical; but fortu-
nately, at this moment, Pleasonton, returning from the
front with about 500 cavalry, and comprehending the dis-,
aster, ordered the 8th Pennsylvania to charge into the woods,
while he hastily got his own battery and such other guns
as he could stop, twenty-two in all, into position, double
shotted them, and aiming low was just in time to receive
the enemy, who, having overcome the slender opposition
of the cavalry, now rushed furiously and repeatedly right
up to the guns, but were each time repelled with great loss;
and the further advance in this direction was finally stayed.
Meantime, Berry’s division (3d Corps), with Hays' brigade
(2d Corps), and the artillery under Captain Best, though
unable to check the flying troops of the 11th Corps, had,
after a severe contest, checked the advance in front. It
was during this attack that Stonewall Jackson was mor-
tally wounded—at the hands of his own men, it is said—
the greatest loss the South had yet been called upon to
bear.
During the day Lee kept up a vigorous attack in front
of Hooker, especially along Hancock’s line, but was always
handsomely repulsed by the troops in the advanced line of
rifle-pits. During the night Hooker contracted and re-
formed his lines. The 1st Corps (Reynolds) arrived dur-
ing the evening, and was posted on the right with Meade;
the 11th Corps, which had been reorganized, was placed in
the intrenchments on the left.
At daylight the attack was renewed, the Confederates
opening a musketry fire along the whole line; but the
great effort was in the same direction as the day before,
the possession of the plank road to Changellorsville; and
here they met the same troops which had sustained and
repelled their assaults of the day before. Berry’s and
Birney’s divisions (3d Corps), supported by Whipple's (3d)
and Williams' (12th Corps), supported the artillery of
Sickles, against which the Confederates threw themselves
again and again, only to be cut down and hurled back,
until Sickles for want of ammunition was compelled to
retire to a second line. Sickles had before retiring sent
for assistance to enable him to hold his position; but
Hooker, who had been stunned by a ball which struck a
pillar against which he was leaning, was unconscious at
the time, and his appeal was unanswered. French and
IIancock of the 2d Corps had done gallant work in charg—
ing and driving back the Confederate left; but Sickles was
not reinforced; yet though his ammunition was exhausted
he continued to maintain his position, repelling successive
charges at the point of the bayonet till he was again coin-
pelled to retire, and the whole line was now withdrawn a
mile back from Chancellorsville, which position was strongly
fortified.
Sedgwick meanwhile (May 2) had received orders to
cross the Rappahannock and advance on Chancellorsville
until he should come up with the rear of Lee's army, which
he was to attack simultaneously with Hooker's attack on
the front. This order was not received by Sedgwick till
nearly midnight, but he soon had his corps in motion, and
by noon had stormed and carried Cemetery and Marye
heights, and after reforming his command moved on the
road to Chancellorsville; but he was soon met by the force
he had driven from the heights, reinforced by a portion of
the army of Lee, who being now disengaged from Hooker
CHANCE-MEDLEY-CHANK SHELL.
875
turned to check Sedgwick’s advance ; severe fighting con-
tinued till dark Sedgwick being unable to force the confeder-
ates from the strong position they had taken; the chance
of joining Hooker was now small and the next day made it
impossible, for the army of Lee now concentrated against
him in large numbers forcing him by night time across the
river at Bank’s ford he having rescued his corps from its
critical position by desperate fighting but with fearful loss.
On the 5th Hooker recrossed his whole army over the
Rappahannock without opposition and the terrible struggle
was "ended. The losses on the Union side, 18,000; Con-
federate, 13,000.
Stoneman returned on the 8th having been nine days in
the rear of Lee's army, and had advanced to within two
miles of Richmond but his operations conferred no benefit
to the Federal army.
Chance-Medley, in law, the killing of a person in
self-defence upon a sudden and unpremeditated encounter
or a casual affray.
Chancery, Court of.
CHASE, LL.B.
Chan/da, or Chandah, a town of Hindostan, on the
Upper Godavery, 105 miles by the Peninsular Railway S.
of Nagpoor. High stone walls flanked with round towers
See CourTs, by GEORGE
enclose a space seven miles in circuit, occupied by houses,
plantations, and a citadel.
Chandāl’a, the name given in India to a member of the
lowest of all the impure classes. (See CASTE.)
Chandeleur Islands, a range of low islands in the
Gulf of Mexico, off the E. coast of St. Bernard’s parish, La.,
separating Chandeleur Sound from the Gulf. The sound
has also numerous small islands. At the N. end of the
northernmost island stands Chandeleur lighthouse, in lat.
30° 3' 8" N., lon. 88° 51' 38' W. It is built of brick, and
is 56 feet high, with a fixed white light.
Chan/deree', a decayed town of India, in Malwah,
near the river Betwa, about 110 miles S. of Gwalior. Here
is a hill-fort which was formerly deemed impregnable. The
ruins seen here indicate former splendor and importance.
Chandermiagore, a French town in India, on the riv-
er Hoogley, about 20 miles above Calcutta ; lat. 22° 50' N.,
lon. 88° 23' E. It was founded by the French in 1676,
and for some time rivalled Calcutta, but it is now decaying.
It was taken by Lord Clive in 1757, and restored to the
IFrench in 1816. Pop. 28,512.
Chand’ler, a township of Manitou co., Mich. P. 190.
Chandler (ABIEL), born at Concord, N. H., Feb. 26,
1777, graduated at Harvard in 1806, taught school eleven
years, and became a successful merchant of Boston, Mass.
He died at Walpole, N. H., Mar. 22, 1851, and left $50,000
to found the scientific school connected with Dartmouth
College, and bequeathed a considerable sum to the New
Hampshire Insane Asylum.
Chandler (Prof. CHARLEs FREDERICK), PH. D., M.D.,
LL.D., was born at Lancaster, Mass., Dec. 6, 1836, was ed-
ucated at the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard Col-
lege, at Göttingen, and Berlin, and received the degree of
doctor of philosophy in Göttingen in 1856. In 1857 he
took charge of the chemical department of Union College
at Schenectady, N. Y. In 1864 he was appointed professor
of analytical and applied chemistry in the School of Mines
of Columbia College, about to be organized in New York,
which position he still holds. In 1858 he was appointed to
the chair of chemistry in the New York College of Phar-
macy, and in 1872 a portion of the duties of the chair of
chemistry in the College of Physicians and Surgeons was
assigned to him. In 1865 he became chemist to the metro-
politan Board of Health, which position he retained till
1873, when he was appointed president of the board. In
the same year he received the degrees of M. D. from the
University of New York and LL.D. from Union College.
In 1869 he was elected a member of the Chemical Society
of Berlin, in 1871 of London, in 1872 of Paris. In 1870
he established, with his brother, Prof. W. H. Chandler of
the Lehigh University of Bethlehem, Pa., the “American
Chemist,” a monthly journal devoted to chemical science.
Though chiefly devoted to the work of instruction, he has
published a number of papers on chemical subjects, among
which are “The Inaugural Dissertation,” Göttingen, 1856,
containing miscellaneous chemical researches; “Report on
Waters for Locomotives and Boiler Incrustations,” 1865;
“Examinations of Various Rocks and Minerals,” published
in the geological reports of Iowa and Wisconsin; “Investi-
gations on Numerous Mineral Waters of Saratoga, Ballston,
Chittenango,” etc., and of various waters designed for the
supply of cities; as well as papers on the purification of
coal-gas, on petroleum, and on milk. ... Most of these
papers have appeared in the “American Chemist” and in
the annual reports of the health department of New York.
Chandler (John), born in what is now Monmouth,
Kennebec co., Me., then a part of Massachusetts, in 1760.
He was the son of parents in the most humble circum-
stances, and although apprenticed to learn the trade of a
blacksmith, he became afterwards, by his own industry and
perseverance, very wealthy. On the outbreak of war with
Great Britain in 1812, he was commissioned a brigadier-
general, being at that time a major-general of militia. He
represented his district in Congress from 1805 to 1808, and
was U. S. Senator from Maine from 1820 to 1829. Died at
Augusta, Me., Sept. 25, 1841.
Chandler (Jose,PH R.), a distinguished philanthropist
and diplomat, born in Kingston, Mass., in 1792. He was
for several years a member of Congress from Philadelphia,
where he was a lawyer and journalist, and was U. S. min-
ister at Naples at the time of the expulsion of the Bourbon
monarchy (1858–61).
Chandler (RALPH), U. S. N., born Aug. 23, 1829, in the
State of New York, entered the navy as a midshipman
Sept. 27, 1845. He served on the W. coast of Mexico during
the Mexican war, and participated in several slight engage-
ments with the enemy near Mazatlan. In the sloop-of-
war Wandalia at the battle of Port Royal, Nov. 7, 1861,
commanded the steamer Maumee in both attacks on Fort
Fisher, and was recommended for promotion by Rear-Ad-
miral Porter. Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Chandler (RICHARD), an English antiquary and travel-
ler, born in Hampshire in 1738. He explored Asia Minor
and Greece in company with the artists Revett and Pars
in 1763–66. They published in 1769 “Ionian Antiquities,
or Ruins of Famous Buildings in Ionia.” Chandler was the
author of “Travels in Asia Minor” (1775) and “Travels
in Greece.” (1776), which are highly esteemed. Died in
1810. &
Chandler (ZACHARY), born at Bedford, N. H., Dec. 10,
1813, became U. S. Senator from Michigan in 1855, and
has been twice re-elected.
Chand/Ierville, a post-twp. of Cass co., Ill. P. 1047.
Chan/dore, a fortified town of British India, in the
presidency of Bombay, is on a hill-range, and commands
an important pass about 130 miles N. E. of Bombay. It
was taken by the British in 1804. Pop. about 7000.
Chand'poor', a town of British India, in the North-
west Provinces, about 75 miles N. E. of Delhi. P. 12,000.
Chang and Eng. See ENG AND CHANG, by PROF.
ABRAHAM JACOBI, M. D.
Changarnier (NICOLAs ANNE THáODULE), a French
general, born at Autum April 26, 1793. He served with
distinction in Algeria, to which he went in 1830, became a
colonel in 1838, and a general of division in 1843. In May,
1848, he was appointed governor-general of Algeria, but
before the end of the year he obtained the command of the
national guard at Paris and of the first military division.
He became a member of the National Assembly in 1849,
but continued to command the army or garrison of Paris
until 1851. At the coup-d'état of Dec. 2, 1851, he was ar-
rested and confined for a short time. He afterwards passed
many years in exile. After the outbreak of the Franco-
German war he offered his services to the emperor, and
although he did not receive a command, he took a leading
part in the defence of Metz, and signed, with Bazaine and
other generals, the capitulation.
Chang-Chau-Foo, a city in China, in the province
of Fo-Kien, 25 miles N. W. from the port Amoy, on a
tributary of the Kian-Long-Kiang. The city is surrounded
by a wall four and a half miles in circumference. The en-
trance is over a bridge 780 feet in length, with twenty-two
water-passages. In the city is a magnificent Booddhist
temple built in the eighth century, which has two towers
of seven stories. The streets are unusually broad, and are
adorned with fine shops, ornamented arches, and trees.
The inhabitants are amiable. There is a considerable
manufacture of silk, besides sugar, mirrors, crystal, and
quicksilver. The exports consist mostly of tea, sugar,
porcelain, and paper. Pop. 1,000,000.
Chang-Choo-Foo, a large city of China, province of
Kiang-Soo, 75 miles S. E. of Nankin; lat. 31° 55' N., lon.
121° 43' E.
Chang-Sha', a city of China, capital of the province
of Honan, on the river Heng-Kiang, about 360 miles N.
of Canton.
Chanhas'sen, a township of Carver co., Minn. Pop.
1084.
Chank Shell, the popular name of the shell of several
species of Turbinella, a genus of gasteropodous mollusks,
natives chiefly of the Indian and Pacific oceans. These
shells are worn as ornaments by Hindoo Women, and some
specimens are said to be valued at £100 sterling. More
876
CHANNAHON-CHANZY.
than two million of them have been exported from Madras
in one year. Some of them are used as medicine-cups, and
are held sacred.
Chan/mahon, a township and post-village of Will co.,
Ill., 35 miles E. N. E. of Ottawa and 45 miles S. W. of Chi-
cago. Pop. 1164.
Chan/mel, a port of entry in Newfoundland, is the most
western town of any importance in that island. The cod
and halibut fishery is carried on here. It is connected by
steamers with St. John’s, 300 miles distant. It has con-
siderable trade. Pop. 584.
Chan/mel Isl/ands, a group of islands off the N. W.
coast of France, belonging to Great Britain, but governed
by their own laws.
dom of Normandy now belonging to the English crown.
King John in 1204 lost all the rest. The chief islands of
the group are Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark. The
area of the whole is 73 square miles. Pop. in 1871, 90,563.
Cham/ming (EDwARD TYRREL), LL.D., an American
scholar, born at Newport, R.I., Dec. 12, 1790. He was
one of the founders of the “North American Review,” to
which he contributed many critical and biographical arti-
cles. He became professor of rhetoric at Harvard in 1819,
and retained that position nearly thirty-two years. Died
Feb. 8, 1856.
Channing (WALTER), M.D., an American physician, a
brother of the preceding, was born at Newport, R.I., April
15, 1786. He studied medicine in Edinburgh, and began
its practice in Boston in 1812. He was professor of obstet-
rics and medical jurisprudence at Harvard from 1815 to
1854. He published several works.
Channing (WILLIAM ELLERY), D. D., eminent alike in
the Unitarian ministry and as one of the first of American
writers, was born at Newport, R. I., on the 7th of April,
1780. The surroundings of his childhood and early youth
seem to have favored the early development of that spirit-
uality and moral dignity which marked his character in
after life. He entered Harvard in 1794, where he graduated.
in 1798 with the highest honors. The oration delivered by
him on this occasion was received by the audiènce with
tumultuous acclamations. Soon after this, while living in
Richmond, Va., in the capacity of tutor, the evils of sla-
very seem to have impressed him most painfully: at this
time also he writes in a letter (showing that he already
looked forward to entering the ministry), “Religion is the
only treasure worth pursuing. I consider the man who
recommends it to society as more useful than the greatest
sage and patriot who adorns the page of history.” In the
summer of 1800 he returned by sea to Newport, and to the
hardships he endured on that voyage may be ascribed the
permanent indisposition with which he had to contend dur-
ing all his after life. In 1802 he took the position of regent
at Harvard, meantime continuing his theological studies.
In 1803 he became pastor of the Federal Street church in
Roston. As a preacher he attained at once a brilliant dis-
tinction, and he was soon recognized as standing in the
foremost rank of the Unitarian ministry, both as respects
eloquence and personal influence. In 1814 he delivered,
on the fall of Napoleon, what is perhaps the finest of all
his efforts as an orator—viz. a discourse on “The goodness
of God in delivering the Christian world from military des-
potism.” In 1820 Harvard College conferred upon him the
degree of doctor of divinity. In 1822 he visited Europe,
and while in England made the acquaintance of Words-
worth, Coleridge, and many others. The rare sweetness
and earnestness of his character caused Coleridge to Say
of him, “He has the love of wisdom and the wisdom of
love.” He was deeply interested in the peace movement,
to which he lent his support, without, however, taking the
extreme ground of entire non-resistance. His “Remarks
on the Life and Character of Napoleon Bonaparte,” which
appeared in the “Christian Examiner” in 1828, probably
contributed more than any other of his writings to carry
his fame into all civilized countries. Perhaps the greatest
of his theological discourses is that on the “Evidences of
Christianity,” delivered in 1821 at Harvard; the subject
has seldom, if ever, been more admirably treated. He gave
his earnest sympathy to the anti-slavery and temperance
movements, and his last public discourse was in commem-
oration of the abolition of slavery in the British West India.
Islands. He died Oct. 2, 1842, and was buried at Mount
Auburn.
Channing’s range both of thought and study was very
large, and he appears to have possessed in an eminent de-
gree that comprehensive sympathy which belongs only to
great and gifted natures. He was averse to controversy,
fearing to be led or to lead others away, by the excitement
of such discussions, from the simple quest of truth. . He
appears to have been, moreover, most anxious not to bias
They are the only parts of the duke-.
the convictions of others by his personal influence or by
his eloquence, but to leave every mind in the enjoyment
of absolute freedom. So deep, indeed, was his sense of the
sacredness of the human mind and conscience, that he was
unwilling to force them even with the power of irresistible
persuasion. He sought, above all, to teach the love of
truth, and desired not so much that others should accept
his opinions or convictions as that they should be perfectly
true to their own.
It has been said, by a writer in “Frazer's Magazine,”
“Channing is unquestionably the finest writer of the age.”
His style is always forcible, clear, and elegant, and it often
rises into graceful and lofty eloquence. “I do not believe,”
says Dr. Peabody, “there is a line in all his writings which
ever received a different coloring from any thought of its
influence on his own reputation. . . . He wrote not for him-
self, but as one dedicated to truth.” His works have been
collected in six 12mo volumes, published in Boston (1848),
and again in crown 8vo (London, 1855). Some of his writ-
ings have also been translated into French and German.
(See “Memoirs,” by his nephew, W. H. CHANNING, 1848.)
J. THOMAS.
Channing (WILLIAM ELLERY), a son of Dr. Walter
Channing, born June 10, 1818, has been connected with
various journals, has published several volumes of poems,
and has written much prose, including “Thoreau, the Poet-
Naturalist” (1873).
Channing (WILLIAM HENRY), a Unitarian minister, a
nephew of William E. Channing, was born in Boston May
25, 1810. He graduated at Harvard in 1829, and preached
in the cities of New York, Boston, Cincinnati, and Liver-
pool, England. He contributed to the “North American
Review,” and published, besides other works, a “Memoir
of William Ellery Channing” (3 vols., 1848).
Chant [from the Lat. cantus, a “song;” Fr. chant; It.
canto], a name originally given to plain vocal musie, espe-
cially to such as was used in Christian congregations. It
is now limited to such musical compositions as are sung to
words which are not metrical, or if metrical words are used,
the verbal cadences are not observed in the music. St.
Ambrose and Pope Gregory the Great greatly improved the
chant, which was, and still is, chiefly used in liturgical
worship, though in non-liturgical services passages of
Scripture are often chanted in simple harmonies.
The reading of the service in a half-chanting style by the
clergyman is called intonation ; and a somewhat similar
method of reading the Scripture in Jewish synagogues is
called cantillation. s -
Chantenay, a town of France, in Loire-Inférieure, on
the Loire, 1 mile S. W. of Nantes. Pop. 9066.
Chantilly, a beautiful town of France, department of
Oise, on the railway from Paris to Amiens, 23 miles N. N.
E. of Paris. It has a fine hospital, and celebrated man-
ufactures of blond lace and porcelain. Annual races are
held here. Here is a ruined castle which was the residence
of the great prince of Condé. This castle, which was one
of the finest in France, was destroyed during the Revolu-
tion in 1793. The forest contains 6500 acres. Pop. 3322.
Chantil’Iy, a post-village of Fairfax co., Va., about 20
miles W. of Washington. On the afternoon of the 1st of
Sept., 1862, the right of Gen. Pope's army was attacked by
the Confederate army under “Stonewall” Jackson. A
severe struggle ensued, which was continued in the midst
of a terrific thunder-storm till dark. Gens. I. I. Stevens
and Phil Kearney of the U. S. army were both killed in
this engagement.
Chan/trey (Sir FRANCIs), an English sculptor, born in
Derbyshire April 7, 1781, was a son of poor parents. He
learned the trade of carver in Sheffield, and removed to
London about 1804, after which he devoted himself to
sculpture. He was a pupil of Nollekens, and excelled in
portraits and monumental sculpture. In 1818 he was
chosen a member of the Royal Academy. Among his best
works are a bronze statue of William Pitt in London, a
statue of Canning at Liverpool, and a statue of Washing-
ton in the State House at Bostom, Mass. He was knighted
in 1837. Died Nov. 15, 1841. -
Chan/try [Fr. chantrerie, from chanter, to “sing ”], a
term signifying (1) an endowment or bequest to provide
masses to be sung for the soul of the testator or the souls
of others; (2) the office or position held by one who cele-
brates such masses; (3) a chapel erected especially for the
celebration of the masses thus provided for. Such chan-
tries are sometimes within, or perhaps more frequently out-
side, but attached to, some church or monastery, and are
often richly adorned with paintings and statuary.
Chanute, a village of Neosho co., Kan. It has one
weekly newspaper. -
Chanzy (AUGUSTE), a French general, born Mar. 18,
CHAPALA—CHAPMAN.
877
1823, in the department of Ardennes, distinguished him-
self in the Italian campaign of 1859, became a colonel and
commander of a subdivision of the Algerian province of
Oran in 1864, and a general of brigade in 1868. In Oct.,
1870, he was called to France with the rank of a general
of division, and in December he so distinguished himself
in the battles near Orleans that the provisional government
appointed him commander-in-chief of the Army of the
West, consisting of four corps. In Jan., 1871, his army
was almost annihilated by Prince Frederic Charles in the
battles at Le Mans. In Feb., 1871, he was elected a mem-
ber of the National Assembly, and in March he was for a
time held as a prisoner by the insurgents of Paris. He
wrote “The Second Army of the Loire” (1871).
Chapa'la, a lake in Mexico, is an expansion of the
Rio Grande de Lerma, and lies on the table-land of Ana-
huac. It is mostly included in the state of Jalisco. Area,
estimated at 1350 Square miles.
Chap-Books, the name given to a humble variety of
literature which was formerly vended by itinerant chap-
men. They were small volumes printed on coarse paper,
dealing with popular theology or history, the lives of godly
or famous personages, fortune-telling and the reading of
dreams, and giant, witch, and goblin tales in verse or in
prose. The older black-letter chap-books, without dates,
are extremely rare.
Chap/el [Lat. capella ; Ger. Kapel ; Fr. chapelle], a
building erected for the purposes of public worship, but not
possessing the full characteristics of a church. In this sense
places of worship erected by dissenters are called chapels
in England, and the term is also applied to supplementary
places of worship in the Established Church, such as paro-
chial chapels, chapels-of-ease, free chapels, and the like.
It is sometimes applied to a domestic oratory or to a place
of worship erected by a private individual. Chapels-of-
ease are structures built to accommodate parishioners who
live at a great distance from the church.
Chapel, a township of Talbot co., Md. Pop. 2791.
Chapel, a township of Clarke co., Va. Pop. 1793.
Chapel Hill, a post-village of Orange co., N. G., on
New Hope River, 28 miles W. N.W. of Raleigh. It is the
seat of the University of North Carolina, founded in 1789.
Pop. of township, 2799.
Chapel Hill, a post-village of Washington co., Tex.,
is on the Houston and Texas Central R. R., 60 miles N.
W. of Houston. Pop. 602.
Cha/pin, a post-village of Morgan co., Ill., on the
Toledo Wabash and Western R. R. where it is crossed by
the Rockford Rock Island and St. Louis R. R., 44 miles W.
of Springfield. -
Chapin, a township of Saginaw co., Mich. Pop. 258.
Chapin (ALONzo BowFN), D. D., an American Episco-
palian divine, born in Connecticut Mar. 10, 1808. He be-
came a lawyer when a young man, but was ordained in
1838, and afterwards became distinguished as an author
and editor of religious periodicals. Died July 9, 1858.
Chapin (AARON LUCIUs), D.D., an American clergyman,
born Feb. 6, 1817, in Hartford, Conn., graduated at Yale in
1837, and at the Union Theological Seminary in New York
in 1842. He was professor in the New York Institution for
the Deaf and Dumb 1838–43. He was ordained pastor of
the First Presbyterian church in Milwaukee, Wis., Jan. 24,
1844, and was inaugurated as the first president of Beloit
College, Wis., July 24, 1850, which office he still retains.
He received the degree of D. D. from Williams College in
1853, was for some years one of the editors of the “Com-
gregational Review,” and has contributed several articles
to that and other like journals, and published occasional
86 TD101S.
Chapin (CALVIN), D. D., an American Congregational
divine, born at Springfield, Mass., July 22, 1763, gradu-
ated at Yale in 1788, and was eminent for his services in
the missionary, Bible, and temperance societies. Died Mar.
17, 1851.
Chapin (EDw1N HUBBELL), D. D., born in Union Wil-
lage, Washington co., N. Y., Dec. 29, 1814, educated at the
seminary in Bennington, Vt., was made D.D. at Harvard
University in 1856, commenced preaching in 1837, first
settled over a society of Universalists and Unitarians in
Richmond, Va.; removed to Charlestown, Mass., in T830;
thence to Boston in 1846, to New York in 1848, where he is still
pastor of the Fourth Universalist church, corner Fifth ave-
nue and Forty-fifth street, one of the wealthiest societies
in the city. , Dr. Chapin is a powerful and effective pulpit
orator, has been a frequent lecturer before lyceums, etc.,
and has exercised great influence for good. His speech be-
fore the Peace Convention at Frankfort-on-the-Main, in
1850, commanded great attention. He is the author of
“Moral Aspécts of City Life” (1853), “True Manliness”
(1854), several volumes of sermons and religious lectures,
and some occasional discourses. His “Crown of Thorns”
had a large circulation.
Chap/lain [Lat. capellanus, from capella, a “chapel”],
a clergyman attached to a chapel without a parish, to the
household of any dignitary or nobleman, to a public insti-
tution, regiment, or an army post, or ship of war. Army
chaplains once carried the relics of a patron saint at the
head of the troops. The U. S. army has both post and
regimental chaplains. The U. S. Senate and House of
Representatives, as well as most State legislatures, also
have chaplains. Many prisons and large almshouses have
chaplains attached. The British army and navy have
chaplains from the churches of England and Scotland and
the Roman Catholic Church. Forty-eight Anglican and
six Scottish ministers are chaplains to the British sovereign.
Chap/let [Fr. chapelet], a garland or wreath to be worn
on the head; the circle of a crown; a string of beads used
by the Roman Catholics (see Rosa RY) by which they enu-
merate their prayers; in architecture, a little moulding
carved into round beads, pearls, olives, etc.
Chap/lin, a post-township of Windham co., Conn.
Pop. 704. -
Chaplin (DANIEL), an American officer of volunteers,
born in Bridgeton, Me., Jan. 22, 1820. During the civil
war Col. Chaplin displayed admirable qualities, and rose
to the command of the first regiment of Maine heavy artil-
lery, which became, through his strict discipline, one of the
finest artillery regiments in the defences of Washington.
On the opening of Gen. Grant's campaign in 1864, Col.
Chaplin's regiment was attached to the Army of the Poto-
mac, and participated in all the battles of that memorable .
campaign; and it was at the head of his men, in the battle
of Weldon R. R., Aug. 20, 1864, that Col. Chaplin was
mortally wounded. He was brevetted brigadier and major-
general for gallant and meritorious conduct.
G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Engr’8.
Chaplin (JEREMIAH), D.D., born at Rowley, Mass., Jan.
2, 1776, graduated at Brown University in 1799, was three
years tutor in Brown University, pastor of Baptist church
Danvers, Mass., 1802–18, and president of Waterville Col-
lege 1820–32. Died at Hamilton, N. Y., May, 1841.
Chap'line, a twp. of Jefferson co., West Va. P. 1867.
Chap’man, a township of Clinton co., Pa. Pop. 1301.
Chapman, a borough of Northampton co., Pa. P. 388.
Chapman, a post-township of Snyder co., Pa. P. 1007.
Chapman (ALVAN WENTwoRTH), M. D., born at South-
ampton, Mass., Sept. 26, 1809, graduated at Amherst Col-
lege, and removed to Appalachicola, Fla., where he attained
fame as a botanist. He was a judge of the probate and
county courts (1865–66), collector of U. S. internal revenue
(1865–66), and collector of customs at Appalachicola (1866–
69). The genus Chapmannia was named in his honor. He
has published “Flora of the Southern U. S.” (1860).
Chapman (GEORGE), an English poet afid translator,
born in 1557. He became a resident of London and a
friend of Shakspeare and Spenser. He produced numerous
comedies and tragedies, and was the first translator of
Homer into English verse. His version of the “Iliad”
was published in 1598, and that of the “Odyssey” in 1614.
Died in 1634.
Chapman (GEORGE THOMAS), D.D., an Episcopalian
minister, born in England Sept. 21, 1786, came to the U. S.
in 1795, and graduated at Dartmouth in 1804. He received
ordination in 1816, became a popular preacher, and pub-
lished several volumes of Sermons, etc.
Chapman (J. A. M.), D. D. See APPENDIX.
Chapman (John GADSBY), an American artist, was
born in Alexandria, Va., and received his training as a
painter in Italy, which was for many years his home. He
executed the painting called the “Baptism of Pocahontas,”
in the Capitol at Washington, and published a drawing-book.
Chapman (NATHANIEL), M. D., born in Alexandria.
co., Va., May 28, 1780, was educated at Philadelphia and
in Europe. In 1804 he settled in Philadelphia, where he
was professor of materia medica (1813–16) and of the prac-
tice and institutes of medicine and clinical medicine (1816–
50) in the University of Pennsylvania. He wrote several
medical works, among which was “Lectures on the Theory
and Practice of Medicine.” Died July 1, 1853. -
Chapman (REUBEN) was elected governor of Alabama
in 1847, and served his term with the sympathy of his
party and the respect of all.
Chapman (WILLIAM), an American officer, born in 1810
in Maryland, graduated at West Point in 1831, and Feb.
20, 1862, became lieutenant-colonel of Third Infantry. He
878
CHAPMAN VILLE-CHARADE.
served chiefly at frontier posts 1831–61; in Black Hawk
expedition 1832; at Military Academy as assistant in-
structor 1832–33; as adjutant Fifth Infantry 1833–38; in
military occupation of Texas 1845–46; in the war with
Mexico 1846–48; engaged at Palo Alto, Resaca de la
Palma, Monterey, Vera Cruz, San Antonio (wounded),
Churubusco (brevet major), Molino del Rey (brevet lieu-
tenant-colonel), Chapultepec, and city of Mexico; in
Florida, hostilities 1857; on Utah expedition 1857–60. In
the civil war he served in the Virginia, Peninsula, 1862; en-
gaged at Yorktown and Malvern Hill; in North Virginia
campaign 1862, engaged at Manassas (brevet colonel). Re-
tired from active service Aug. 26, 1863, and chiefly em-
ployed in command of draft rendezvous at Madison, Wis.,
1863–65, and various special duties.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Chap/manville, a post-township of Logan co., West
Va. Pop. 924. -
Chapoo, a town of China, in the province of Che-Kiang,
on the estuary of the Tshen-Tang. Although its harbor is
shallow and the tides very rapid, Chapoo has become a
place of great commercial importance, as the whole Chi-
nese trade with Japan is carried on from this town.
Chap/paqua, a post-village of New Castle township,
Westchester co., N. Y., on the Harlem R. R., 32 miles from
New York. This place is known as the country residence
of the late Hon. Horace Greeley, and also that of I. T.
Williams, for twenty years his friend and legal counsellor.
It has one shoe establishment employing some forty-five
hands, one sash and blind factory, three stores, and one
hotel. It has an excellent boarding-school, under the
patronage of the Society of Friends; there is also a saline
chalybeate spring near the place.
Chappe (CLAUDE), a French engineer, born at Brûlon
in 1763, was the inventor of a telegraph. He produced in
1792 a system of signals and a machine which he called a
telegraph, by which a despatch was transmitted from Paris
to Lille, 48 leagues, in thirteen minutes and forty seconds.
Numerous lines of his telegraph were soon extended through
other parts of France. Died Jan. 23, 1805.
Chapped Hands are sometimes a sort of chilblain on
the hands, and, like chilblain, this disease appears to pass
by insensible gradations into a form of eczema, while many
cases of chapped hands are simply eczematous, without
any recognizable connection with chilblain. Glycerine,
borax, benzoated oxide-of-zinc ointment, and various like
applications are useful.
Chaptal (JEAN ANTOINE), CoMTE DE CHANTELoup, an
eminent French chemist, born at Nogaret, Lozère, June 5,
1756. He graduated as M. D. at Montpellier in 1777, and
became professor of chemistry at that place in 1781. He
supported the popular cause in the Revolution, and intro-
duced the manufacture of certain chemicals for which
France had previously been dependent on foreigners.
About 1796 he was chosen a member of the Institute. He
was minister of the interior for five years (1801–05), and
afterwards a senator. His chief works are “Chemistry
Applied to the Arts” (1806) and “.Elements of Chemistry.”
Died in 1832. (See FLOURENs, “Eloge historique de Chap-
tal,” 1835.) t
Chapter [Fr. chapitre, from the Lat. capitulum, a
diminutive of ca'put, a “head”], a division of a book.
The division of the Bible into chapters as at present is
commonly ascribed to the cardinal Hugo de St. Cher, who
lived in the thirteenth century, but there is reason to sup-
pose that it may be much older. In many histories the
chapter is the principal division. The term is also applied
to the canons of a cathedral, who in a collective capacity
form a chapter, over which the dean presides. This chap-
ter is the bishop’s council. The place in which it meets is
called the chapter-house.
Chapter-house, a building or apartment where the
monks of an ecclesiastical establishment, or the dean,
canons, and prebendaries of a cathedral or collegiate
church are convened. Chapter-houses are often joined to
or built near a church, and sometimes are richly adorned.
In some cases they are used merely as burial-places.
Chap/tico, a post-village and township of St. Mary’s
co., Md., 40 miles S. S. E. of Washington. Pop. 3553.
Chapultepec, a strong Mexican fortress, stormed by
the American forces under Gen. Scott Sept. 13, 1847. It is
situated about 2 miles S. W. of the city of Mexico, and
consists of an isolated eminence about 150 feet high, forti-
fied by a strong citadel which crowns the hill, designed to/
protect the causeway forming the approach to the city.
Its approaches were also strongly guarded by outworks at
its base and on its acclivities. The castle contained, be-
sides a strong garrison, the military school of the republic.
In the plan for the capture of the city of Mexico the
reduction of Chapultepeq was considered indispensable to
success. The extraordinary natural strength of this place,
and the skill and money which had been expended to make
it impregnable, rendered this a hazardous undertaking.
To mask the intended attack, Twiggs, with Riley’s brigade
and Taylor's and Steptoe’s batteries, was left at the southern
gates of the city, and kept up an effectual fire during the
12th Sept., and down to the afternoon of the 13th, com-
pelling the enemy to withdraw within the walls of the city,
and thus holding a good part of the Mexican army, under
Santa Anna, on the defensive. Heavy batteries at well-
selected points were established on the night of the 11th,
and a vigorous fire was opened on the castle and outworks
on the morning of the 12th, continuing with good effect
throughout the day and on the morning of the 13th, while
preparations for the attack were being made. Pillow’s and
Quitman’s divisions were to assault the former on the W.,
and Quitman on the S. E. side, Worth’s division to support
Pillow, and Smith’s brigade of Twiggs’ division to support
Quitman. An assaulting party of 260 men, under Capt.
McKenzie, Second Artillery, was furnished Pillow, and
Twiggs' division supplied a similar one, under Capt. Casey,
Second Infantry, to Quitman. The signal for attack was
to be the momentary cessation of firing from the heavy
batteries. About 8 A. M. of the 13th notice was sent to
Pillow and Quitman that the concerted signal was about to
be given, and both columns shortly after moved forward
with great vigor, the batteries throwing shot and shell upon
the enemy over the heads of the attacking columns.
Pillow’s approach on the W. side lay through an open
grove filled with sharpshooters, who were quickly dislodged;
on emerging into an open space at the foot of a rocky hill,
Pillow was severely wounded, the immediate command
devolving upon Gen. Cadwalader. Clark's brigade of
Worth’s division was now sent to Pillow's support. A
strong redoubt, midway, was to be carried before reaching
the heights. The advance was over rocks, chasms, and
mines, and in the face of a heavy fire of cannon and mus-
ketry. Without wavering the redoubt was carried, and the
enemy driven from shelter to shelter, without time to fire a
single mine unless endangering the lives of their own
men. The ditch and main wall of the work was reached,
Scaling-ladders were brought in use, and a lodgment soon
made, followed by streams of troops.
Simultaneously with Pillow’s advance on the W., Quit-
man approached the S. E. of the same works over a cause-
way strongly fortified and defended. Smith’s brigade had
been thrown out to the right to turn the batteries near the
foot of Chapultepec and support Quitman’s storming-party.
The contest was desperate for a short time, but the valor
of the Americans overcame every obstacle, the batteries
and works were carried, and the ascent was continued ; the
enemy were driven from their stronghold, and the Stars
and Stripes floated from the heights of Chapultepec. This
victory virtually ended the war, the city of Mexico being
entered the next day, the 14th. The American loss in killed
and wounded during the 12th, 13th, and 14th was 863; the
Mexican loss was much greater.
Chara/ceae [from Chara, one of the general, a natural
order of aquatic cryptogamous plants, approaching the
Equisetaceae in their acrogenous habits and their verticil-
late tubular branches, but differing from them in having
lateral, scattered fruit of two kinds. Some of the species
have also incrustations of carbonate of lime, analogous to
the siliceous coating of some Equisetaceae. But their sim-
ple cell-structure is believed by many theorists to ally them
with the lower Algae. The phenomena of cyclosis were
first observed in the cells of characeous plants. The fossils
called gyrogonites are calcareous incrustations which once
covered the reproductive organs (nucules) of these plants.
The Characeae are abundant in fresh and salt stagnant
water, especially in temperate regions. The species are few.
Char’acter [Gr. xapakrip; Fr. caractère ; Ger. Charak-
ter], a mark or figure engraven on an object; a letter or
type used in writing or printing; the peculiar qualities
impressed on a person by nature or habit; distinctive
qualities of heart, mind, and manners. The term is often
used to denote a person or actor in an epic poem or drama.
In art, the expression of character, either of animate or in-
animate objects, is, after correct delineation, the most im-
portant part of the work. In botany, and other branches
of natural history, character is an enumeration or brief
description in scientific terms of the essential and distinc-
tive marks of a species, genus, order, etc.
Charade [Fr.], a social amusement, consisting some-
times of the division of a word into its constituent sylla-
bles or letters, and then making some statement as to each
syllable and the whole word, the company being required
to guess the word. In “acting charades” each syllable is
Á
CHARADRIADAE-CHARGE. 879
introduced prominently, but not too conspicuously, into the
successive scenes of a dialogue, the whole word being
brought into the last scene. Sometimes the name charade
is used to designate any parlor drama.
2 Charadri’adae [from Charadrius, one of the general,
a family of wading birds which includes several genera of
plovers, lapwings, turnstones, etc., mostly found in the
temperate climates of both continents. Many of its species
are prized as game-birds.
Cha’rax of Per/gamus, priest and philosopher, flou–
rished probably in the times of Antoninus Pius and M.
Aurelius. He wrote a Greek history in forty books, in
which he speaks of Augustus as having lived long ago,
and of Nero and his successors. This history must have
been very prolix, as in the ninth book he is treating of the
return of the Heraclidae. He wrote also a work entitled
xpovºká, in at least sixteen books, and philosophical treatises.
(The fragments of his writings are collected in MüLLER's
* Fragmenta. Historic. Graecorum,” vol. iii., pp. 636–645.)
HENRY DRISLER.
Char/coal [Fr. charbon ; Lat. carboj, a common name
of a variety of carbon; a carbonaceous substance obtained
by the partial combustion of wood. The term is also ap-
plied to the solid residuum which results from the destruc-
tive distillation of animal matter and peat. (See BONE
BLACK or ANIMAL CHARCOAL.) Except the diamond, charcoal
is the substance in which carbon exists nearest to purity.
It burns without flame or smoke, and produces a greater
heat than an equal weight of wood. It is used as an in-
gredient in the composition of gunpowder, as an agent in
clarifying liquors, and for other purposes, among which is
the smelting of ores. Charcoal contains, besides carbon,
oxygen and hydrogen, with a small proportion of ashes.
It has an extraordinary capacity for absorbing gases. It
is said that it will absorb ninety times its bulk of ammo-
niacal gas. It is infusible, is not soluble in acids or other
liquids, is not liable to decay, and is not altered by any de-
gree of heat if it be not exposed to the air or to oxygen.
It is a very bad conductor of heat, and hence powdered
charcoal is placed round tubes to prevent the escape of
heat. Powdered charcoal is used to preserve or sweeten
tainted flesh. Common charcoal intended for fuel is made
by burning or heating a pile of wood without free access of
air. The sticks of wood, which are not more than four feet
long, are arranged in a conical pile around a central aper-
ture, and covered with turf, sods, or other material which
prevents the free access of air. Charcoal-dust, mixed with
earth and moistened, makes a good outer covering. An
opening is left at the top for the escape of smoke and
vapor. The pile is usually ignited at the top, and con-
tinues burning with a slow smouldering fire for a week or
more. The charcoal used as an ingredient of gunpow-
der is made from wood which is free from resin. Char-
coal is often prepared by roasting wood in iron cylinders,
By this method there is a larger proportion of charcoal
saved, and the product is of better quality; there is also a
large quantity of pyrolignpous acid produced, which is of
e }
great value in the arts.
Charbon Rouac (i.e. “red charcoal”), is charcoal obtained
by subjecting wood to heated air or steam raised to the
temperature of 572°F. By this process from 36 to 42 per
cent. of charbon rouge is obtained, whereas not more than
25 per cent. of charcoal is obtained by the ordinary method.
It has a dark-red color, and contains 75 per cent. of carbon.
It is extensively used in Europe in the manufacture of gun-
powder and iron blooms. HENRY HARTSHORNE.
Charcoal Blacks are made both from animal and
vegetable substances—e.g. burnt ivory, bones, vine-twigs,
peach-stones, nut-shells, the smoke of oil or rosin con-
densed, etc. Those which are derived from vegetable sub-
stances when mixed with white are usually of a blue tint.
(See LAMPBLACK.) }
Chardin (Sir John), a French traveller, born in Paris
Nov. 26, 1643. As a dealer in jewels and gems he made a
journey to India and Persia in 1664. Having passed many
years in Persia, and studied its language, history and cus-
toms, he became a resident of London in 1681, and was
knighted by Charles II., who sent him on a mission to
Holland about 1682. He published “Travels in Persia
and the East Indies” (3 vols., 1686–1711), a work of much
merit. Died Jan. 26, 1713.
Char'don, a post-village, capital of Geauga co., O., is
situated on a ridge about 14 miles from Lake Erie and
170 miles N. E. of Columbus. It is on the Painesville and
Youngstown R. R., 12 miles S. by E. from Painesville. It
has three or more churches and two weekly newspapers.
Pop. 885; including Chardon township, 1772.
Charente, a river of France, rises in Haute-Vienne,
and flows in a very tortuous course westward through the
departments of Charente and Charente-Inférieure, and on-
ters the Atlantic opposite the Isle of Oléron. Total length,
about 157 miles. It is navigable for steamboats from its
mouth to Saintes, and by means of twenty-seven locks is
navigable for 102 miles.
Charente, a department in the W. part of France,
has an area of 2294 square miles. It is intersected by the
rivers Charente and Vienne. The surface is undulating,
and in some parts hilly; the soil is mostly calcareous and
dry. Several deep limestone caverns occur here. Exten-
sive forests of chestnut trees grow on the hills. Truffles
are found in abundance. A large part of Charente is oc-
cupied by vineyards, the product of which is mostly con-
verted into brandy. The chief article of export is Cognac
and Jarnac brandy. Here are manufactures of iron, paper,
and leather. Capital, Angoulême. Pop. 378,218.
Charente-Inférieure, a department in the W. part
of France, is bounded on the W. by the Atlantic, and on
the S. W. by the estuary of the Gironde, and is intersected
by the river Charente. Area, 2635 square miles. The
surface is nearly level; the soil is very fertile. The staple
products are grain, wine (which is mostly converted into
brandy), hemp, and flax. The salt-works on the sea-
coast are the most valuable in France. It has manufactures
of glass, earthenware, and leather. Capital, La Rochelle.
Pop. 479,559. #
Charenton, a town of France, department of Seine, on
the right bank of the Marne, 5 miles S. E. of Paris. It has
large chemical-works. A bridge across the river connects
this town with Charenton St. Maurice, where is the large
national asylum for lunatics. This bridge has been the
scene of several conflicts between armies contending for the
possession of Paris. Pop. 6190; of St. Maurice, 4931.
Cha/res [xápms], an Athenian general notorious for his
corruption and incompetence, was chosen commander-in-
chief in the Social war, which began in 358 B. C. This war
was provoked by his extortions.
Chares, a Greek statuary, born at Lindus, was a pupil
of Lysippus and the founder of the Rhodian school of
sculpture. He lived about 300 B.C. Among his works
was the Colossus at Rhodes, regarded as one of the Seven
Wonders of the World. It was a bronze statue of Apollo,
or rather of the sun-god, about 105 feet high, and was
thrown down by an earthquake in 224 B. C.
Chares of Mytilene is mentioned by Plutarch in his
Life of Alexander as holding the office of eisay yeaeijs (one
who bears messages and introduces persons to the royal
presence) to that monarch. His position gave him the op-
portunity of collecting many facts, and anecdotes about
Alexander, which he afterwards published in a work, of
which the tenth book is quoted by Athenaeus, and which is
several times referred to as authority by Plutarch. (The
fragments of his works are collected in MüILER’s “Scrip:
tores de Rebus Alexandri,” p. 114–120; “Alexandri Magni
Historiarum Script,” ed. Geier, pp. 290–308.)
HENRY DRISLER.
Charge, in heraldry. . The ordinaries and figures de-
picted on an escutcheon or shield are called charges, and
a shield with such figures is said to be charged. The
charges ought to be few and strongly marked. . The shield
belonging to the head of the house has fewer charges than
the shields of collateral or junior members.
Charge, in law, a burden imposed on a thing; a duty
or obligation imposed upon a person; sometimes merely a
formal and distinct allegation. More specifically, it is used
in the following connections: (1) A burden imposed upon
land, particularly in a court of equity. It is a common
course in a will to “charge” the devisor's estate with the
general payment of debts or legacies, or with the payment
of a particular debt or legacy. In such a case the land is
burdened with the debt, so that it is a lien or encumbrance
upon it; and this would follow it into the hands of a pur-
chaser. A charge of this kind may be created by implica-
tion. Thus, if a testator should provide as follows, “After
the payment of $1000 to A, I devise my mansion-house
to Bº' that sum would be charged upon the land as owned
by B, and would follow it in case of sale or other transfer.
(3) A charge upon the person. A will or other instrument
may be so drawn as to confer a benefit upon a person, and
at the same time impose upon him an obligation. , Should
he accept the benefit, he will by implication take upon
himself the burden or obligation, though it may putweigh
the benefit. No person is bound to accept such a 'devise or
provision, so that the charge in the case supposed is in
truth created by the grantee’s or devisee's own act, in Con-
junction with the grantor's or testator's direction. (3) Di-
rections to ajury. In a jury trial, as the decision of questions
of law appertains to a judge, and matters of fact belong to
the jury, it is a common practice for the judge to instruct
88()
CHARGE D’AFFAIRES-CHARLEMAGNE.
or “charge” the jury upon the questions of law. These
instructions the jury are legally bound to follow. The idea
lying at the root of the word “charge" in this case would
seem to be the obligation or duty of the jury to accept the
version of the law propounded by the judge. (4) In equity
practice the words “charge and discharge” are found in
connection with the taking of accounts in that court of
moneys paid and received. The charge means the statement
of debts due by the party against whom the account is ren-
dered, and discharge means the items of credit presented
by the latter. These might be so presented as to make
counter-statements necessary. This practice, in its details,
is disfigured by much technicality, and has been abandon-
ed both in England and in some of the American States,
and much simpler methods are now resorted to. (5) In
equity pleadings there is a statement made by the plain-
tiff, known as the charging part of the bill (or complaint),
in which he sets forth certain facts, anticipatory of a de-
fence which he supposes that the defendant will make. The
word charge here means a distinct and formal affirmation,
and the pleader sets forth the defendant’s claim as a mere
pretence on his part, and alleges on his own part the facts
in opposition to it. T. W. DWIGHT.
Chargé d’Affaires, a French phrase used by many
nations as the title of a diplomatic agent of Iower grade
than a minister. He is accredited, not to the sovereign,
but to the department of foreign affairs. He sometimes
acts as deputy or substitute of the ambassador in the ab-
sence of the latter.
Char’iot [Lat. currus or bigge; Fr. char or chariot], a
vehicle used by the ancients in war and in journeys of
pleasure. The ancient chariot had only two wheels, which
revolved on axles, and was generally drawn by two horses.
It was closed in front and open behind. War-chariots were
used by the ancient Greeks, Romans, Philistines, Britons,
and other nations. The four-horse chariot in which Ro-
man generals rode when they entered Rome in triumph was
called a quadriga. (See CARRIAGES, etc., by L. P. BROCK-
ETT, M. D.)
Charis’ius, an Attic orator, a contemporary of Demo-
chares, nephew of Demosthenes. He wrote, like Isocrates,
orations for others, and in this, as Cicero says in his
“Brutus,” he imitated Lysias. His orations must have
been extant in the time of Quintilian, for he speaks favor-
ably of them. Three passages are quoted by Rutilius
Lupus, in his work “De Figuris,” in a Latin translation to
illustrate certain rhetorical figures. HENRY DRISLER.
Charisius (AURELIUS ARCADIUs), a learned jurist who
lived under Constantine and his sons, and filled the office
of “magister libellorum.” He wrote several works on legal
subjects. Extracts from three of his writings are contained
in the “Digest.” HENRY DRISLER.
Charisius (FLAVIUS SosſPATER), of Campania, a
celebrated grammarian, whose date is uncertain, but who
preceded Priscian, as the latter quotes from him, and he
flourished in the latter part of the fifth century. He was a
man of some distinction, and is styled “magister urbis ‘’
in the inscription of his work, which is a Latin grammar in .
five books, “Institutionum Grammaticarum libri quinque,”
written for the use of his son. Portions of the work have
been lost; the remainder is given in the various collections
of Latin grammarians, most recently by Lindemann and
Keil. HENRY DRISLER.
Char'itable U'ses, property, either real or personal,
held by a trustee to be devoted by him to charitable pur-
poses. The word “charitable * in this connection is nearly
synonymous with public. Trusts for charitable purposes
would include funds in the hands of trustees devoted to
the repair of highways or streets in cities, the support of
paupers, the foundation of colleges, churches, and hos-
pitals, etc. etc. (The subject will be more fully treated
under TRUSTs, by PROF. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) s
Char'ites (sing. Cha’ris), [Gr. Xápts, Xápwres; Lat.
Gratiae], the Graces of classic mythology, were said to be
the daughters of Jupiter. They were patrons of poetry and
art, and presided over festivals and social enjoyrnents.
There were three Graces, whose respective names were
Aglaia, Euphrosyne, and Thalia. -
Char'iton, a river of the U.S., rises in the S. part of
Iowa. Having crossed the boundary between Iowa and
Missouri, it flows southward through Adair, Macon, and
Chariton counties of the latter State, and enters the Mis-
souri River 3 miles above Glasgow. Total length, about
250 miles.
Chariton, a county of Missouri. Area, 740 square
miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by the Missouri, on the
W. by Grand River, and intersected by the Chariton River.
The surface is undulating, and diversified by forests and
fertile prairies. Grain, wool, tobacco, and live-stock are
extensively raised. Timber, coal, and limestone abound
here. It is traversed by the St. Louis, Kansas City and
Northern R. R. Capital, Keytesville. Pop. 19,136.
Chariton, a post-village, capital of Lucas co., Ia., is
on the Chariton River and on the Burlington and Missouri
River R. R., 55 miles W. of . Ottumwa. It has a national
bank, six churches, a large public hall, and two newspaper-
offices. Pop. 1728; of Chariton township, 2601.
MAPLE & Folsomſ, PROPs. CHARITON “PATRIOT.”
Chariton, a township of Appanoose co., Ia. Pop. 888.
Chariton, a township and village of Chariton co., Mo.
Pop. 651.
Chariton, a township of Howard co., Mo.
Chariton, a township of Macon co., Mo.
Chariton, a township of Randolph co., Mo. P. 1699.
Chariton, a township of Schuyler co., Mo. Pop. 833.
Char'iton, of Aphrodisias in Caria, is the probably
assumed designation of the writer of a Greek romance.
Neither his name nor his real country is known, and the
position which he assigns himself, that of secretary to the
orator Athenagoras of Syracuse, mentioned in Thucydides,
cannot be true. His work, which treats of the loves of
Chaereas and Callirrhoë, and of the mishaps and adven-
tures thence arising, is in eight books, and has come down
to us almost entire. An outline of the incidents is given
in Dunlop’s “History of Fiction.” It has been edited
with copious notes by D’Orville, with a Latin translation
by Reiske, revised edition, Leipsic, 1783.
IHENRY DRISLER.
Char'ity, Sisters of [Fr. sours (or filles) de la charité,
or soeurs grises, i.e. “Gray Sisters,” so called from their
dress], a name applied to several orders of celibate women
in the Roman Catholic Church. The first congregation of
this name was established at Châtillon, in France, by Saint
Vincent de Paul in 1629. Confirmed by the see of Rome,
this congregation greatly multiplied, and its houses are now
found in all parts of the world. This order is devoted to
the care of the sick and the protection of foundling or des-
titute children and aged persons, and hence is popularly
regarded with more favor than almost any other order of
Ill IIl S. zº
Mrs. Eliza Ann Seton of Maryland in 1809 founded a
congregation of Sisters of Charity under a distinct rule,
which is still followed to a considerable extent in the U. S.,
though many of its houses have united with the French
order. Several congregations of Augustinian nuns and of
other Roman Catholic orders are called Sisters of Charity
and Sisters of Mercy, and have branches in the U. S. The
Sisters of Charity have many claims to the gratitude of
mankind, and, besides the direct good accomplished by
them, their example has led many who do not profess celi-
bacy, and who do not belong to their Church, to engage in
acts and lives of benevolence.
Charlemagne [Lat. Carolus Magnus], king of the
Franks and Roman emperor, born April 2, 742, probably at
Aix-la-Chapelle, was a son of Pepin le Bref. . After his
father's death, in 768, he reigned over the Franks, jointly
with his brother Carloman, until the death of the latter in
772. From that time sole ruler, during a reign of forty-
three years he carried on incessant wars on all his borders,
extending his domains, and at the same time spreading
Christianity, subduing rebellions, and building up the vast
dominion over which he was crowned as a successor of the
Roman caesars by Pope Leo III. in 800. In 772 he began
a thirty years' war against the determined Saxons, after
the successful opening of which Charlemagne was called to
the assistance of Pope Hadrian I. against Desiderius, king
of the Lombards, who had demanded the banning of Char-
lemagne and the coronation of the sons of Carloman, be-
cause the former had put away the daughter of Desiderius
on account of sterility, and taken the Swabian princess
Hildegard to his bed. Charlemagne marched two armies
over the Alps and conquered Lombardy in 774; returned
and beat the Saxons again, and hastened into Spain in
778 to help the Arabian rulers of that country against the
Osman caliph of Cordova. It was in this war that the
hero of romance, Roland or Orlando, fell in the pass of
Roncesvalles. The extensive domain of Charlemagne Was
only rendered secure by ceaseless vigilance and warfare:
In 799 the Romans revolted against Pope Leo III., and
were again brought into subjection by Charlemagne, who
in return, while he was praying on the steps of St. Peter's
church, was crowned by Leo with the iron crown of the
Western empire, unexpectedly to him, as he pretended, on
Christmas Day, 800. Charlemagne laid the foundations of
his empire securely. He was sagacious, emergetic, and
vigilant, as a ruler and commander alike. He watched
over and fostered agriculture, trade, art, and letters with
untiring zeal, clearing away forests, draining Swamps,
Pop. 4043.
Pop. 1269.
CHART,EMONT—CHARLES I. OF GREAT BRITAIN.
881
founding monasteries and schools, building up cities, con-
structing splendid palaces, as at Aix, Worms, and Ingel-
heim, and drawing to his court scholars and poets from all
nations, as Alcuin, Paulus Diaconus, and Turpin. He was
himself proficient in science as well as all hardy accom-
plishments, speaking Latin and knowing Greek. He was
tall and stately, measuring seven of his own foot-lengths,
simple in his life, “excelling all men of the time, to all
alike dread and beloved, by all alike admired,” as he was
described by the historian Nithard. His fame spread
through all lands. He was about to become united by
marriage with the Byzantine empress Irene, but after her
fall was not on friendly terms with her successor, Niceph-
orus. The caliph Haroun-al-Rashid sent an embassy to
the court of Charlemagne, with gifts in token of good-will.
He had three sons, Pepin, Charles, and Louis, among whom
he intended to divide his empire, but Pepin and Charles
died before their father. In 813 he associated his son,
Louis le Débonnaire, with himself in the empire. He died
at Aix-la-Chapelle Jan. 28, 814, and was succeeded by
his son Louis. His descendants were called Carlovingians.
(See HAURíAU, “ Charlemagne et sa Cour,” 1854; G. P. R.
JAMEs, “Life of Charlemagne,” 1832; EGINHARD, “Vita
Caroli Magni,” 1521; BREDow, “ Carl der Grosse,” 1814;
THíoDoRE NISARD, “Histoire de Charlemagne,” 1843;
ABEL, “Jahrbücher des Fränkischen Reiches unter Karl
dem Grossen,” Berlin, 1866.) \
Char’lemont, a post-township and village of Frank-
lin co., Mass. The village is on the Vermont and Mas-
sachusetts R. R., 128 miles W. N. W. from Boston. Pop.
I005.
Charlemont, a township of Bedford co., Va. Pop.
2820. -
Charleroi, a strongly fortified town of Belgium, in
Hainaut, is on the river Sambre and on the railway be-
tween Brussels and Namur, 33 miles S. of Brussels. This
place was fortified by Vauban, and was held alternately by
the French and Spaniards. It has important manufactures
of cutlery, glass, nails, etc. In this vicinity are extensive
coal-mines, and smelting furnaces which produce cast
iron. Railways extending in various directions connect it
with Paris and other towns. Pop. 13,294.
Charles, a county in the S. of Maryland. Area, 499
square miles. It is bounded on the S. and W. by the Po-
tomac River, which is here navigable. The surface is un-
even, and partly covered with forests of oak, ash, chestnut,
etc. Tobacco, grain, and wool are staple products. Cap-
ital, Port Tobacco. Pop. 15,738.
Charles H., emperor. See CHARLEMAGNE.
Charles H.H., emperor. See CHARLES THE BALD (of
France).
Charles III., surnamed THE FAT [Fr. Charles le Gros],
emperor of the Franks, born in 822 A. D., was a younger
son of Louis II., who at his death, in 876, divided the em-
pire between his three sons, Carloman, Louis, and Charles.
After the death of his brothers, which occurred before 884,
Charles inherited their dominions, and was the nominal
ruler of a large empire, but he was imbecile and had little
real power. He was deposed by his nephew Arnulph in
888, and died in the same year. -
Charles IV., emperor of Germany, born in 1316, was
a son of John de Luxembourg, king of Bohemia. He was
elected emperor in 1346 as the successor of Louis V., whom
the pope had deposed. He issued in 1356 the Golden Bull,
which for more than four centuries was the fundamental
law to regulate the election of German emperors. He died
in 1378, and was succeeded by his son Wenceslaus.
Charles W., DoN CARLos I. of Spain, afterwards em-
peror of Germany, was the eldest son of the archduke
Philip of Austria, and a grandson of the emperor Max-
imilian I. His mother was Joanna, the daughter and sole
heiress of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile.
He was born at Ghent Feb. 24, 1500, and educated in
Flanders, having as his preceptor Adrian of Utrecht. On
the death of his father in 1506, Charles inherited the Low
Countries and Franche-Comté, and in 1516 he succeeded
Ferdinand as king of Spain, to which he removed his court
in 1517. In 1519 he was elected emperor of Germany, de-
feating Francis I. of France, who was also a competitor for
that dignity. He was crowned as emperor at Aix-la-Cha-
pelle Oct. 22, 1520. Charles W. and Francis I. of France
were then the most powerful sovereigns on the continent of
Europe, and were rivals. Their ambitious designs against
Italy led to hostilities, which commenced in 1522. In this
war Henry VIII. of England was the ally of Charles W.,
whose army defeated Francis at the battle of Pavía (1525),
and took him prisoner. The war was suspended by the treaty
of Madrid in 1526. Charles married in that year Isabella,
a daughter of Immanuel, king of Portugal. The war was
renewed in 1527 by Francis I. and Pope Clement VII., who
had formed an alliance against the emperor. Under the
constable of Bourbon the army of Charles assaulted Rome
and took the pope prisoner in 1527. Peace was restored
by the treaty of Cambrai in 1529. Charles employed his
power to check the progress of the Protestant Reforma-
tion, for which purpose he assembled the Diet of Augsburg.
in 1530. This Diet ordained that severe penalties should
be inflicted on the Protestants. In 1531 the German
Protestant princes formed, for mutual defence, the League
of Schmalkalden, and extorted some concessions from
Charles, who, being then engaged in a War against the
Turks, thought it expedient to temporize. In 1535 he con-
ducted in person an expedition against Barbarossa, whom
he defeated at Tunis. In 1536 his army invaded the south
of France, but was not successful, and was soon forced to
retreat. A truce of ten years was concluded between
Charles and Francis I. in 1538, but it was broken in 1542.
The French gained a victory at Ceresole, in Italy, in 1544,
soon after which the war was ended by a treaty of peace.
Resolving to extirpate heresy among his subjects, he pub-
lished in 1546 the ban of the empire against the elector of
Saxony and the landgrave of Hesse, who were chiefs of the
Protestant party. They took arms in self-defence, but were
defeated at Mühlberg in April, 1547. Their cause, how-
ever, found an able defender in Maurice of Saxony, who,
as the head of a league, took arms against Charles early in
1552. Charles, surprised by his rapid and skilful move-
ments, was compelled to flee, and hostilities were ended by
the important treaty of Passau, Aug. 22, 1552, which se-
cured religious liberty to the German Protestants. In the
autumn of 1575 he formally resigned to his son Philip the
sovereignty of the Low Countries, Spain, and his other
hereditary dominions. He also abdicated the imperial
crown, and was succeeded as emperor by his brother
Ferdinand. His motive for abdicating appears to have
been partly ill-health. He retired to the monastery of St.
Yuste, near Plasencia, in Spain, where he died Sept. 21,
1558. (See Robº RTson, “History of the Reign of Charles
W.;” PRESCOTT, “History of Philip II. of Spain,” vol. i.;
LUIGI DolcE, “Vita di Carolo V.,” 1561; A. PICHOT,
“Charles Quint,” 1854; STIRLING, “The Cloister Life of
the Emperor Charles W.,” 1852; SANDov AL, “Historia de
la Vida de Carlos W.,” 1606; KERVYN DE LETTENHOVE,
“Commentaires de Charles W.,” Brussels, 1862.)
Charles VI., emperor of Germany, the second son of
the emperor Leopold I., was born Oct. 1, 1685. He claimed
the throne of Spain as a relative of Charles II., who died
without issue in 1700, and who appointed Philip of Anjou
as his heir. In the war of the Spanish succession, which
ensued, the cause of Charles was supported by Austria,
England, and a portion of the Spaniards. These allies were
defeated at Almanza in 1707 by the army of Philip, who
finally obtained the throne by the aid of Louis XIV. of
France. On the death of his brother, Joseph I., in 1711,
Charles was chosen emperor of Germany. Having no son,
he wished to secure for his daughter, Maria. Theresa, the
succession to his hereditary dominions, and appointed her
his heir by a Pragmatic sanction (1724). Died Oct. 20,
1740. (See SCHIRACH, “Biographie Kaiser Karl's VI.,”
1778.)
Charles VII. (CHARLEs ALBERT), emperor of Germany,
a son of Maximilian Emmanuel, elector of Bavaria, was born
at Brussels in 1697. He married a daughter of the empe-
ror Joseph I. in 1722, and became elector of Bavaria on the
death of his father in 1726. When Charles VI. died, in
1740, this elector claimed part of the Austrian dominions.
To obtain these he and his allies, France and Prussia, waged
war against Maria. Theresa. He was elected emperor in
1742, but his army was defeated by that of Maria. Theresa.
Died Jan. 20, 1745.
Charles I. (CHARLEs STUART), king of Great Britain,
born at Dunfermline, Scotland, Nov. 19, 1600, was the
third son of James I. and Anne of Denmark. He became
heir-apparent to the throne on the death of his brother
Henry in 1612. He inherited extreme notions in relation
to royal prerogatives from his father, whom he succeeded
in Mar., ió25. He married Henrietta Maria, a daughter
of Henry IV. of France, in the same year, and in disregard
of public opinion chose for his prime minister and adviser
thé unpopular duke of Buckingham, who had been his
father’s favorite. The Parliament, animated by a growing
spirit of liberty, was sparing in its grants of supplies, and
was soon involved in a contest with the court. Charles
dissolved several Parliaments in the first five years of his
reign, and had recourse to arbitrary methods of raising
money. He governed for eleven years without a Parlia-
ment, and after the death of Buckingham employed Laud
and the earl of Strafford as his chief ministers. During this
period the Puritans were severely persecuted, and the pa_
56
882
CHARLES II. OF GREAT BRITAIN–CHARLES IX OF FRANCE.
triot Hampden was prosecuted because he refused to pay the
illegal tax called ship-money. In 1638 the Scottish people,
on whom he attempted to impose the Liturgy, rose in arms
to assert their liberty, and subscribed the National Cove-
nant. Charles, who had not power to enforce his policy in
Scotland, summoned a Parliament, which met in April,
1640, but, as it was not subservient, it was dissolved in the
next month. The Scottish insurgents invaded England in
August, and defeated the royal army at Newburn-on-Tyne.
This disaster and the want of money induced the king to
call a new Parliament, which met in Nov., 1640, and was
the famous Long Parliament. Both Houses were resolute
in resistance to despotic power. They impeached the earl
of Strafford, who was executed in 1641, and they imprison-
ed Laud. . In Jan., 1642, the king made a rash and abortive
attempt to arrest Pym, Hampden, and three other members
of the House of Commons. Provoked by this outrage, the
Parliament appealed to arms. The royalists at first gained
several victories, but they were defeated at Marston Moor
in 1644, and again in June, 1645, at the battle of Naseby,
where Charles commanded in person and Cromwell led the
right wing of the Roundhead army. He was here so com-
pletely beaten that he soon gave himself up to the Scottish
army, which transferred him in 1647 to the custody of the
English Parliament. Having been tried and convicted in
a high court appointed for the occasion, he was beheaded
Jan. 30, 1649. He was distinguished for his literary cul-
ture and good taste in the fine arts. He was regarded as a
martyr by a large portion of his subjects. (See HUME,
“History of England;” WILLIAM HARRIs, “Life of Charles
I.,” 1758; DISRAELI, “Life and Character of Charles I.,”
1828.) -
Charles II., king of Great Britain, son of Charles I.,
was born May 29, 1630. He went into exile in 1645, and
joined his mother in Paris. In 1649 he assumed the title
of king, and he was proclaimed king by the Scottish Par-
liament “on condition of his good behavior.” He landed
in Scotland in June, 1650, and was crowned at Scone early
in 1651. The austere Covenanters required him to sign
“articles of repentance,” and subjected him to restraints
which were very irksome to a man who was naturally fond
of ease and pleasure. A Scottish army fighting for the
king was defeated by Cromwell at Dunbar in Sept., 1650.
Charles, having recruited his army, led it into England,
hoping that many English royalists would rally to his Sup-
port. He was pursued by Cromwell, who gained a decisive
victory over the royal army at Worcester, Sept. 3, 1651.
Charles then became a fugitive, and after several narrow
egeapes took refuge in France.
After the death of Cromwell, the royalist party, which
was always the most numerous, and was now favored by the
law of reaction, easily regained the ascendency. Charles
was restored in 1660 to almost unlimited power. He ap-
pointed, Lord Clarendon prime minister, and married in
1662 Catherine, a daughter of the king of Portugal. In
1665, without good reason, he declared war against the
Dutch—a war which was contrary alike to the feelings and
commercial interests of the English people. The Dutch
admiral De Ruyter, by entering the Medway and burning
some ships of war at Chatham, induced him to make peace
in 1667. Lord Clarendon was removed from power in
1667, and was succeeded by a corrupt ministry called the
CABAL (which see). These ministers abused their power
to promote popery and absolute monarchy, and in their
foreign policy were subservient to Louis XIV. Charles
accepted a pension, from the French court, that he might
be enabled to reign without the aid or control of parlia-
ments. He also became an ally of France in another war
against the Dutch in 1672, but this war, which was un-
popular, was ended in 1674. The king showed partiality
to the Roman Catholic Church, of which he had secretly
become a member. A rumor of a popish plot caused a
violent excitement among the people in 1678. Charles
dissolved Parliament in that year, and called another,
which in 1679 passed the Habeas Corpus act in opposition
to the will of the court. The prevalence of corruption and
profligacy in politics and morals, together with the despotic
policy of the court, rendered this reign one of the most dis-
graceful in English history. In 1683 the patriots Algernon
Sidney and Lord Russell were put to death for their com-
plicity in the Rye-House Plot. Charles died without law-
ful issue Feb. 6, 1685, and was succeeded by his brother,
James II. Charles II. was indolent, unambitious, and
depraved in morals. (See HUME, “History of England;”
MAGAULAY, “History of England,” vol. i.; WILLIAM HAR-
RIs, “Life of Charles II.,” 1765; LoRD HALIFAx, “ Charac-
ter of Charles II.,” 1750.)
Charles H. of France. See CHARLEMAGNE.
Charles, surnamed THE BALD [Fr. Le Chauvel, Or
Charles II., king of France, the fourth son of Louis le
Débonnaire, was born at Frankfort on the Main in 823 A.D.
On the death of his father (840) he inherited all of France
which is W. of the Rhone. He was unable to resist the
Normans, who invaded France, and was compelled to pay
them tribute in 845 and again in 861. Having invaded
Italy with success, he was crowned as emperor by the pope
in 875 A. D. He is styled Charles II. among the German
emperors, as well as Charles II., king of France. He died
in 877, and was succeeded by his son, Louis le Bègue.
Charles III. of France, called THE SIMPLE, a son of
Louis le Bègue, was born in 879 A. D. Eudes, count of
Paris, was elected king by the barons in 883. Charles as-
sumed the title of king in 893, and after the death of Eudes,
in 898, he reigned alone. He was a feeble prince, and
failed to defend his kingdom from the Normans. In 923
the nobles elected Raoul (or Rodolph) of Burgundy to the
throne. Charles died in 929, leaving a son, Louis Outremer.
Charles IV. of France, surnamed THE HANDSOME
[Fr. Le Bel], the third son of Philippe le Bel, was born
in 1294. He began to reign in 1322. He aided his sister
Isabella to dethrone her husband, Edward II. of England.
He died without male issue in 1328, and was succeeded by
Philip of Valois.
Charles W., called THE WISE [Fr. Le Sage], king of
France, born Jan. 21, 1337, was a son of John II. He
acted as regent during the captivity of John, who was taken
prisoner by the English in 1356. He became king on the
death of his father, in 1364, at a time when France was in-
vaded by English armies. He acted on the defensive and
avoided as general battle. The French general Du Gues-
clin expelled the English from Poitou, Saintonge, etc.
Charles founded the Royal Library of Paris. He died
Sept. 16, 1380, leaving the throne to his son, Charles VI.
(See MICHELET, “Histoire de France;” BARTHáLíMY DE
BEAURíGARD, “Histoire de Charles V.,” 1843.)
Charles VI., called THE BELovED [Fr. Le Bien-Aimé],
a son of Charles V., was born in Paris Dec. 3, 1368. He
was the first prince who received the title of dauphin. He
became insane in 1392, after which the kingdom was dis-
tracted by the rivalry between the dukes of Burgundy and
Orleans. In 1407 a civil war broke out between the Bur-
gundians and the Armagnacs. France was also invaded
by Henry V. of England, who gained a great victory at
Agincourt Oct. 21, 1415. Charles died in 1422.
Charles VII., surnamed THE VICTORIOUs, king of
France, born Feb. 22, 1403, was a son of Charles VI., whom
he succeeded in 1422. At that time Henry VI. of England.
was recognized as king of France by a faction which had
possession of Paris, and France was partially occupied by
the English, who besieged Orleans in 1428. From the ruin-
ous state to which the country was reduced by intestine
discord and foreign invasion, it was restored by the heroism
of Joan of Arc and the prudent policy of Charles, who be-
came master of Paris in 1436. He waged war with success
against the English, and recovered Normandy in 1450. He
died July 22, 1461, and was succeeded by his son, Louis
XI. (See WALLET DE VIRIvILLE, “Histoire de Charles
VII.,” 3 vols., 1862–65.)
Charles VIII., surnamed THE AFFABLE, king of
France, born at Amboise July 30, 1470, was a son of Louis
XI., whom he succeeded in 1483. He married, in 1491,
Anne, duchess of Brittany. He led an army into Italy in
1494, and conquered Naples early in 1495. Alarmed by
his victorious progress, the king of Spain, the German
emperor, and other powers formed a league against him.
As Charles was marching homeward he encountered and
repulsed the army of the allies at Fornovo, and then re-
turned to France. He died without issue April 7, 1498, and
was succeeded by Louis XII. (See PHILIPPE DE SãGUR,
“IHistoire de Charles VIII.,” 1835.)
Charles IX., king of France, the second son of Henry
II. and Catherine de Médicis, was born at St. Germain-en-
Laye June 27, 1550. He succeeded his brother, Francis
II., in 1560. During his minority, his mother had the
chief control of the government. His reign was disturbed
by civil or religious wars, which began in 1562, between
the Catholics and Huguenots. The court generally co-
operated with the Catholic party, but Catherine was jeal-
ous of the duke of Guise, the leader of the Catholics, and
sometimes opposed him by her intrigues. The civil war
was several times suspended by treaties, and renewed in
consequence of the perfidy of the court. Charles married,
in 1570, Elizabeth, a daughter of the emperor Maximilian
II. He made overtures of peace to the Huguenots, and
negotiated a marriage between his sister Margaret and
Henry of Navarre. On the occasion of this wedding he
invited Coligni and other Protestant leaders to court, and
treated them with a simulated favor which lulled their sus-
picions. It appears that he and his mother were respon:
sible for the massacre of the Protestants which commenced
CHARLES X. OF FFANCE–CHARLES OF AUSTRIA.
883
Aug. 24, 1572 (St. Bartholomew’s Day). Charles admitted
that he had consented to this crime. He died without
issue May 30, 1574. (See WARILLAs, “Histoire de Charles
IX.,” 1683; SISMOND1, “History of France.”)
Charles X., king of France, born at Versailles Oct. 9,
1757, was a younger brother of Louis XVI. He was orig-
inally styled the count of Artois. In 1773 he married
Maria. Theresa, a daughter of the king of Sardinia. He
emigrated in 1789, and instigated the French royalists to
revolt in 1795, but he declined to land and put himself at
their head, for which conduct he was accused of cowardice
by some of his own party. He remained in exile until
1814, and when he returned to Paris exclaimed, “Friends,
nothing is changed in France; there is only one French-
man the more ſ” He began to reign on the death of Louis
XVIII. in Sept., 1824, and his conduct soon confirmed
the proverbial saying, that “the Bourbons learn nothing
and forget nothing.” His policy was reactionary, and his
advisers were a conclave of fanatical priests. In Aug.,
1829, he dismissed the ministers and formed an ultra-
royalist ministry, the chief of which was the prince de
Polignac. In Mar., 1830, 221 deputies, forming a majority
of the Chamber, avowed their hostility to the ministry.
The court then dissolved the Chamber, and ordered a new
election, which resulted in the return of another Chamber
that was opposed to the ministers. The king and his
ministers then resorted to a cowp-d'état. On the 25th of
July, 1830, they issued ordinances which subverted the
freedom of the press, and dissolved the new Chamber.
The Parisians appealed to arms, barricaded the streets,
and after a contest of three days were completely victori-
ous. Charles abdicated in favor of his grandson, the duke
of Bordeaux, and escaped to England. He died Nov. 6,
1836. (See Lori EUx, “Histoire du Règne de Charles X.,”
1834; LAMARTINE, “History of the Restoration.”)
Charles I. of Anjou, king of Naples, count of Anjou
and Provence, born about 1220, was the youngest son of
Louis VIII. of France, and a brother of St. Louis. He
married Beatrice, a daughter of Raimond Berenger, count
of Provence, and became his heir. At the instigation of
the pope he attacked and defeated Manfred, king of Na-
ples, in 1266, and usurped his throne. Provoked by his
tyranny, the Sicilians revolted and massacred a multitude
of Frenchmen on the 30th of Mar., 1282. This event was
called “The Sicilian Vespers.” Died in 1285.
Charles I. of Spain. See CHARLEs V. (emperor).
Charles (or Carlos) II., king of Spain, born in Nov.,
1661, was the son of Philip IV., who died in 1665. Anne
of Austria, became regent during the minority of Charles,
who was her som. He married, in 1678, Louise, a niece of
Louis XIV. of France. In 1689 he became an ally of
England and other powers in a war against Louis XIV.
He was an incapable ruler and a man of morbid condition
of mind and body. As he was childless, he became in the
latter part of his life anxious and irresolute about the
choice of his successor. By his last will he appointed
Philip, duke of Anjou, as his heir. Died in 1700.
Charles III., king of Spain, a son of Philip V., was
born in 1716. He ascended the throne on the death of his
brother, Ferdinand VI., in 1759, and was an ally of France
in the war against England which began in 1762. He
promoted education and reform, and expelled the Jesuits
from Spain in 1767. In 1779, as an ally of France, he
declared war against England. These allies besieged
Gibraltar without success. He died in 1788, and was
succeeded by his son, Charles IV. -
Charles IV. of Spain, a son of Charles III., was born
at Naples Nov. 12, 1748. He became king in 1788, before
which he had married Maria, Louisa. Theresa of Parma.
In 1792, through the evil influence of the queen, her de-
prayed favorite Godoy was appointed prime minister. In
1793 war was declared by the French against the Spaniards,
who were defeated in many battles.
peace, and the war ended in July, 1795. As an ally of
France he declared war against England in 1796. Charles
abdicated in favor of his son Ferdinand in Mar., 1808, but
Napoleon in the same year deposed him, and placed his
own brother Joseph on the throne. Died Jan. 19, 1819.
Charles X. (or Charles Gustavus), king of Sweden,
born at Nyköping in 1622, was a son of the prince of Deux-
Ponts. His mother was a sister of King Gustavus Adol-
phus. He was the heir-apparent in the reign of Christina,
and became king when she abdicated in June, 1654. He
was an able and a warlike ruler. In 1655 he invaded Po-
land because the Polish king had not renounced his claim
to the throne of Sweden. He took Warsaw, and speedily
drove the king out of Poland. During his absence the
Danes declared war against him. He defeated them and
compelled them to cede Scania to Sweden (1658). He died
Charles sued for
in 1660, and left the throne to his son Charles. (See
LUNDBLAD, “Konung Carl X. Gustaf’s Historia,” 2 vols.,
1823–29.) -
Charles XI., king of Sweden, the son of Charles X.,
was born in 1655. By a treaty with Poland in 1660, Estho-
nia and other provinces which Charles X. had conquered
were ceded to Sweden. Charles XI. assumed the royal
functions in 1672, and formed an alliance with Louis XIV.
of France. He defeated the Dames, who invaded Sweden in
1677, but in 1679 he signed a treaty of peace and married
a sister of the king of Denmark. His reign henceforth was
pacific and prosperous. In 1682 he was invested by the
states with absolute power, of which he made a good use.
He died in 1697, and was succeeded by his son, Charles
XII.
Charles XHI. of Sweden, born at Stockholm June 27,
1682, was the eldest son of Charles XI. and Ulrica, Eleonora
of Denmark. He learned Latin, French, and German, and
formed in his youth simple and frugal habits of living.
He began to reign in April, 1697, and chose Count Piper
as his chief minister and adviser. In 1700 a league
was formed against Sweden by Peter I. of Russia, and the
kings of Denmark and Poland, who designed to aggrand-
ize their dominions at his expense. At the head of a well-
disciplined army Charles assumed the offensive in May,
1700. He marched first against Copenhagen, and com-
pelled the Danish king to sue for peace, which was con-
cluded in Aug., 1700. With prompt and rapid movement
he then led about 8000 men ägainst Peter the Great, who
was besieging Narva, with nearly 70,000 men. Charles
gained a decisive victory at Narva in Nov., 1700, soon
after which he invaded Poland. He defeated the Poles in
several battles, and deposed Augustus, king of Poland, in
1704. Provoked by recent acts of hostility on the part of
the czar Peter, he advanced towards Moscow in Sept., 1707,
with an army of 43,000 men. The Russian army was not
able to resist his impetuous progress, and he crossed the
Beresina in June, 1708. Having arrived at Smolensko, he
was induced by Mazeppa, hetman of the Cossacks, to march
southward into the Ukraine. Here many of his men per-
ished from cold and want of provisions, and his army re-
mained inactive during the severe winter of 1708–09. At
the beginning of the next campaign he had only 18,000
Swedes in his army. He besieged Pultowa, to relieve which
Peter advanced with an army of 70,000 men. The decisive
battle of Pultowa, July 8, 1709, resulted in the defeat of
Charles, who lost about 9000 men killed and 6000 prisoners.
He retreated into Turkey, and was kindly received by the
sultan, who gave him a residence at Bender. He induced the
sultan to declare war against Russia, but this war was soon
ended by a treaty. Charles remained in Turkey several
years, and at length was involved in a quarrel with the
Turkish rulers, who treated him as a prisoner. . He es-
caped in 1714, and travelling incognito through Hungary
and Germany, reached Stralsund in November of that year.
The Russians, Dames, and Prussians continued to wage
war against the king of Sweden, and they took Stralsund
in Dec., 1715, after a long siege. The energy and audacity
of Charles remained unabated, notwithstanding his re-
verses, and while the allies threatened to invade Sweden,
he invaded Norway. He was killed at the siege of Fred-
erikshall Nov. 30, 1718, and left a great reputation as a
military genius. He was never married, and his sister
Ulrica Eleonora inherited the throne. (See VoITAIRE,
“Life of Charles XII.;” NordBERG, “Karls XII. Historia,”
1740; LUNDBLAD, “Konung Carls XII. Historia,” 2 vols.,
1830; PossELT, “Geschichte Carl's XII,” 1804.)
Charies XIII., king of Sweden, born 7th Oct., 1748,
was a son of King Adolphus Frederick and a nephew of
IFrederick the Great. He was before his accession an admi-
ral of the Swedish navy, and gained a naval victory over
the Russians in 1788. In 1792 he became regent during
the minority of his nephew, Gustavus IV., and retained
that office until 1796. The States-General deposed Gus-
tavus in 1809, and elected Charles as his successor. Hav-
ing no son, Charles, with the consent of the Swedish Diet,
adopted Gen. Bernadotte as his son and heir in 1810. Died
Feb. 5, 1818.
Charles XIV. of Sweden. See BERNADoTTE.
Charles (or Carl) XV. (LoCIS EUGièNE), king of
Sweden and Norway, was born May 3, 1826. He succeeded
his father, Oscar I., in July, 1859. He married in 1850 a.
Dutch princess of Orange. Died in Sept., 1872, leaving a
daughter, Louisa, crown-princess of Denmark. The crown
descended to his brother, Oscar II., Frederick, duke of
Ostrogothia. -
Charies, archduke of Austria, an eminent general, born
at Florence 5th Sept., 1771, was a son of the German
emperor Leopold II. Having served several campaigns
against the French, he obtained in 1796 the chief command
884.
CHARLES ALBERT-CHARLESTON.
of the Austrian army of the Rhine, and defeated the French
general Jourdan at Wurtzburg in September of that year.
He also compelled Moreau to retire across the Rhine. He
retired from active service on account of ill-health in 1800.
In 1805 he commanded in Italy, and defeated Massena at
Caldiero. He became general-in-chief of the Austrian
armies in 1806. He could not prevent Napoleon from en-
tering Vienna, but he encountered him with success at the
great battle of Aspern in May, 1809. The archduke and
Napoleon commanded the armies at Wagram July, 1809,
where the French claimed the victory. He resigned the
command soon after this event. He wrote an able work
called “Principles of Strategy” (1814). He died 30th
April, 1847, leaving a son, Albert. . .
Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, was born Oct. 2,
1798. He was a son of Prince Charles Emmanuel of Savoy-
Carignan. He became king on the death of Charles Felix
in 1831, and adopted a liberal policy. Co-operating with
the movements of the popular party in the cause of the
unity and liberation of Italy, he declared war against
Austria in the spring of 1848. Having been defeated at
Novara in Mar., 1849, he abdicated in favor of his son,
Victor Emmanuel. Died July 28, 1849.
Charles (surnamed) the Bold, sometimes called
Charles the Rash [Fr. Charles le Téméraire], duke of
Burgundy, born at Dijon Nov. 10, 1435, was a son of
Philip the Good. He was styled count de Charolais until
he became duke in 1467. He married Margaret, a sister
of Edward IV. of England, in 1468, and became one of the
most powerful sovereigns of his time. His dominions in-
cluded the Netherlands. He waged war against Louis XI.
of France and other princes. In 1476 he was defeated by
the Swiss at Morat. He afterwards invaded Lorraine, and
was defeated and killed at Nancy Jan. 5, 1477. He was
succeeded by his daughter Mary, who was married to the
emperor Maximilian I. (See KIRK, “History of Charles
the Bold,” 1868; CoMINEs, “Mémoires.”)
Charlesbourg, a flourishing post-village of Quebec
co. (Canada), 4 miles from Quebec, has a heavy trade in
lumber, and is the seat of a convent of the Sisters of the
Good Shepherd. Pop. about 800.
Charles City, a county in the S. E. of Virginia. Area,
184 square miles. It is bounded on the N. and E. by the
Chickahominy, and on the S. by the James River. The
surface is undulating. Grain, wool, and tobacco are the
chief products. Two Presidents of the U. S., Harrison
and Tyler, were born in this county. Capital, Charles City
Court-house. Pop. 4975.
Charles City, a post-village, capital of Floyd co., Ia.,
is on Cedar River and the Iowa division of the Illinois
Central R. R. where it is crossed by the Milwaukee and
St. Paul R. R., 139 miles W. N. W. of Dubuque. It has a
national bank, a savings bank, a furniture factory, and
various other industries, and two newspapers. Pop. 2166.
DYKE BRos., PUBs. “INTELLIGENCER.”
Charles City Court-house, a post-village, capital
of Charles City co., Va., is about 1 mile N. of the James
River and 28 miles S. S. E. of Richmond.
Charles Edward, “the Young Pretender,” or more
fully Charles Edward Louis Philip Casimir
Stuart, son of James Stuart, the first “Pretender,” and
of the Polish princess Clementina Sobieski, was born at
Rome Dec. 31, 1720. Unlike his father and his grandfather
James II., he had much native talent and firmness of pur-
pose. He was well educated, and skilled in athletic exer-
cises, as wełl as in music and the fine arts. In early youth
he served with much honor in the Spanish army against
Austria. War having broken out between France and Eng-
land, and his father having abdicated his claim to the Brit-
ish throne, he in 1744 embarked with a powerful fleet and
army for England, Marshal Saxe being in command; but
the expedition was broken up by a great storm, which de-
stroyed a large part of the fleet. In the following year
(July 25) he landed with a few attendants at Moidart. He
soon had a large following, mostly of Highlanders. With
these he entered Edinburgh Sept. 17, destroyed Sir John
Cope’s army at Preston Pans Sept. 21, entered England,
and could easily have taken London, but for the insubordi-
nation of the Highland chiefs, who compelled him to retreat
to Scotland, repulsing the royal troops at Clifton. On Jan.
17, 1746, he defeated Hawley at Falkirk. The characters
of his forces soon compelled his retreat to the Highlands,
whither he was followed by the duke of Cumberland. He
fought the latter at Culloden Muir (April 16), and was
there utterly overthrown; but though his army was inferior
in numbers and worn out by exposure and hunger, he would
doubtless have won a complete victory but for the jealousy
of the clan MacI)onald. As it was, the battle was totally
lost, and with it the last reasonable hope of the Stuart line.
After many months of suffering he escaped from the West-
ern Islands by the aid of the famous Flora MacDonald.
He lived upon various parts of the Continent under the
title of count of Albany. His ill-fortune and the unfaith-
fulness of the countess (who was the mistress of Alfieri)
led him to grossly intemperate habits. He died at Rome
Jan. 30, 1788.
Charles (ELIZABETH RUNDLE), an English authoress,
born about 1826. She was married to Andrew P. Charles,
Esq., of London. Among her works, which are very pop-
ular, are “Chronicles of the Schönberg-Cotta Family”
(1863) and “Diary of Mrs. Kitty Trevylyan” (1864).
Charles Emmanuel I., duke of Savoy, surnamed THE
GREAT, was born in 1562. He succeeded his father, Phil-
ibert Emmanuel, in 1580, and married Catherine, a daughter
of Philip II. of Spain. He was an ambitious prince, and
waged war against Henry IV. of France and other powers.
Died in 1630. -
Charles Friederich August Wilhelm, duke of
Brunswick, born Oct. 30, 1804, son of Friedrich Wilhelm,
who perished at the battle of Quatre-Bras, had for his
guardian George IV. of England. Assuming the reins
of government in 1823, he ruled so capriciously and arbi-
trarily that he was deposed by the German Diet. He lived
afterwards in Paris and London, and died in Aug., 1873,
bequeathing his immense fortune to the city of Geneva.
Charles (JACQUES ALEXANDER CásAR), a French savant
and ačronaut, born at Beaugency Nov. 12, 1746. He was
a popular lecturer on physical science in Paris, and gained
distinction by his experiments in electricity. He also
made an improvement in the art of ballooning by substi-
tuting hydrogen gas for heated air. He and M. Robert
were the first persons who ever ascended in a balloon.
They ascended in 1783 to the height of 7000 feet. Died
April 7, 1823. -
Charles Martel, king of the Franks, born in 690
A. D., was a son of Pepin d'Héristal, duke of Austrasia.
He succeeded his father as mayor of the palace in 714, and
obtained royal power, while Chilperic was the nominal
king. He gained near Poitiers in 732 a most important
victory over a large army of Saracens who had invaded
the kingdom. This is known as the battle of Tours, and
is regarded as one of the decisive battles of the world’s
history. For this victory he was surnamed MARTEL (i. e.
the “Hammer”). He died in 741 A.D., and was succeeded
by his sons, Carloman and Pepin le Bref.
Charles Mix, a county in the S. E. of Dakota, is
bounded on the S. W. by the Missouri River. Capital,
Greenwood. Pop. 152.
Charles River, Mass., rises in Worcester co., and pur-
sues a very tortuous course through Norfolk and Middlesex
cos. It meets the tide-water at Boston, forming part of Bos-
ton harbor, and separating that city from Cambridge. To-
tal length, about 75 miles. -
Charleston, a county of South Carolina, bordering on
the Atlantic. Area, 1900 square miles. It is bounded on
the N. and N. E. by the Santee River, and drained by the
Cooper River. The surface is level; the soil is mostly
Sandy, and is partly fertile. Cotton, rice, and corn are the
chief crops. It is intersected by the North-eastern, the
South Carolina, and the Savannah and Charleston R. Rs.
Capital, Charleston. Pop. 88,863.
Charleston, a post-village, capital of Coles co., Ill.,
on the Indianapolis and St. Louis R. R., 45 miles W. of
Terre Haute. It has two national banks and two news-
paper-offices, and is the seat of a medical college and an
infirmary. Pop. 2849; of Charleston township, 4472.
Charleston, a post-township of Lee co., Ia. P. 1241.
Charleston, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me.
Pop. 1191.
Charleston, a township of Kalamazoo co., Mich. Pop.
1369.
Charleston, a post-village, capital of Tallahatchee
co., Miss. It has one weekly newspaper.
Charleston, a post-village, capital of Mississippi co.,
Mo., on the St. Louis and Iron Mountain and the Cairo
Arkansas and Texas R. R.S., 12 miles from Cairo. It has
three churches, an academy, and one newspaper. P. 635.
WM. BURNS, ED. CHARLESTON “Coup IER.”
Charleston, a post-township of Montgomery co., N. Y.
It has five churches, and manufactures of woollens, flour,
sash and blinds, etc. Pop. 1601.
Charleston, a post-village, capital of Swain co., N. C.,
is about 50 miles S. S. E. of Knoxville, Tenn.
Charleston, a township of Chester co., Pa. Pop. 907.
Charleston, a post-township of Tioga co., Pa. Pop.
2014.
CHARLESTON.
885
Charleston, the chief city of South Carolina and cap-
ital of Charleston county, is situated in lat. 32° 46' N.,
lon. 79° 57' W., about 7 miles from the Atlantic Ocean and
120 miles from Columbia, the capital of the State. The
city stands upon a tongue of land between the Ashley
and Cooper rivers. Northward stretches an extended
plain occupied by fruit, floral, and vegetable farms;
southward the two rivers unite, forming a spacious and
beautiful harbor, one of the safest and most commodious
on the Atlantic coast. The depth within the harbor is
from 40 to 50 feet, but only 18 feet at the entrance; how-
ever, the work of deepening the latter is now progressing.
The city covers 53 square miles, is triangular in form, has
53% miles of streets, and 9% miles of water-front. The
population in 1850 was 42,985; in 1860, 48,409; in 1870,
48,956. The proportion of the white to the colored popu-
lation in 1870 was 22 to 26. Between 1860 and 1865 the
population was greatly reduced by war-influences. Com-
merce by land and sea was totally destroyed. The railroads
leading into the interior were torn up, the wharves decayed,
the docks filled up, and the capital of the merchants was
destroyed or rendered unavailable. Charleston was not
made a port of entry for more than a year after the end
of the war. As soon as it was, industry revived, and
commerce has since steadily increased. The -city is the
seat of a large wholesale trade carried on with the interior,
and is the port through which the large interior cities of
the neighboring States draw their supplies of merchandise
from the great commercial centres. There is also a grow-
ing trade in flour, bacon, grain, etc., carried on overland
with St. Louis, Chicago, and the cities of the West and the
North-west. Charleston is the first rice and fourth cotton
port in the U. S. In 1873 the receipts of rice were 49,284
tierces, and of cotton 391,307 bales, being an increase over
the year previous of respectively 5607 tierces and 109,221
bales. The principal exports are in cotton, rice, naval
stores, lumber, and phosphate rock (a fertilizing substance
of great value). The exports in 1873 were—
Total. Foreign. Coastwise.
Cotton, bales.................. 385,185 160,169 225,016
Rice, tierces.................. 37,672 IlO Ole. 37,672
Naval stores, barrels...... 215,413 70,476 144,973
Lumber, feet.................. 20,769,280 2,148,110 18,621,170
Phosphate rock, tons...... 29,838 2,4 27,403
The exports of each article were larger than those of the
year before, particularly the foreign exports of cotton and
naval stores, which increased 50 per cent. A large quan-
tity of vegetables grown upon the suburban farms is an-
nually exported to New York and other Northern cities.
In the spring of 1873, 18,178 barrels of Irish potatoes and
101,956 packages of other vegetables were shipped north-
ward. The value of foreign exports for the year ending
Dec. 24, 1873, was $14,746,697, of which $2,911,770 repre-
sented the exports for Dec., 1873. The bulk of coastwise
imports cannot be ascertained, but it is very large; the
foreign imports are small, but growing; their value for
the year ending Dec. 24, 1873, was $891,083. The vessels
owned in Charleston in 1873 were 15 ocean sailing-vessels,
aggregating 1713 tons; river sailing-vessels 130, tons 2125;
ocean steamers 6, tons 1031; river steamers 9, tons 1593.
Manufactures are carried on in iron, wood, and phos-
phate rock. The census of 1870 sets down the manufac-
tories of all kinds at 224, employing $1,538,539 capital,
2579 hands, paying annually $616,962 in wages, consum-
ing $1,264,731 in materials, and producing $2,431,763 in
manufactured articles. Since them, however, considerable
increase has occurred in manufactures. In 1873 the man-
ufacture of phosphate rock alone employed $2,010,000 cap-
ital. In the same year 56,298 tons of manufactured fer-
tilizers, worth $3,000,000, nearly all produced by this in-
dustry, were shipped into the surrounding country. The
manufacture of locomotives was begun in the South Caro-
lina R. R. machine-shops in 1873. -
The U. S. census of 1870 fixes the valuation of all prop-
erty in the city at $54,730,166, while by the State assess-
ment for 1872 it was only $41,047,625, and by the city
assessment for 1873, $28,178,991. Of the last amount,
$9,204,271 represented the personal and $18,974,720 the
real property. The municipal tax in 1873 was 194 mills
on the dollar, yielding $542,445. By licensing all classes
of business $89,182 additional were collected. The State
tax in 1873 was 15 mills, 3 mills being for county purposes.
The city debt is $5,127,208, contracted before the war in
aid of railroads. The municipal expenditures of 1873
were $1,087,736.40, of which $189,829.52 were spent in re-
ducing the debt. The banking capital is $3,000,000, divided
between seven banks of discount, whose aggregate deposits
are $1,600,000. In addition there are five savings banks,
aggregate deposits $1,155,990. There is one local fire in-
surance company, capital $26,000. There are three daily,
one tri-weekly, one semi-weekly, five weekly, one semi-
monthly, two monthly, and one quarterly publication. A
city court, sitting once a year, and presided over by a judge
elected for life by the legislature, and the mayor's court,
constitute the municipal tribunals. There is a county jail,
and a house of correction which is in the suburbs. The in-
mates are made to cultivate a farm, which produces nearly
enough to pay for supporting that institution and an ad-
joining asylum for the aged and infirm. Pauperism and
crime characterized respectively one-third and one-fifth of
1 per cent. of the population. -
The principal educational institutions are—Charleston
College, founded in 1785, endowment over $200,000, income
without tuition $14,000, cost of tuition $40 per annum,
number of faculty 6, students 34, alumni since 1866, 50 ;
and the Medical College of South Carolina, no endowment,
number of faculty 12, of students 60, cost of course $60.
The former has an excellent museum of natural history,
and the latter one of the best pathological and anatomical
museums in the U. S. There is one high school for boys,
with 5 teachers and 100 pupils; cost of tuition $40, annual
donation from city $2000. Number of public schools 4,
teachers 72, pupils 3000. Teachers’ salaries aggregate
$36,000 per annum, and vary from $400 to $2000 each.
One of these schools is a normal school for girls; it has
two departments. In the higher girls are prepared to be-
come teachers. The other schools are divided into primary,
intermediate, and grammar departments, each of the two
last being the field of promotion for the one below. . Each
school has a principal, and a sub-principal for each depart-
ment. All of the schools are under the direction of a
superintendent, who is subject to the control of a board of
commissioners composed of one citizen from each ward,
chosen every two years by the people. The Charleston
Library is the principal institution of that kind. Estab-
lished in 1748, it formerly contained 24,000 volumes, but
lost about 8000 by the war. Many of its books are of
great value. The society owns a building on Broad street.
It has no endowment; its income is about $2000. The
Apprentices’ and Minors' Library Society had a building
on Meeting street and 10,000 volumes, which were destroyed
by fire in 1861. It was reorganized in 1873.
The churches number 39: Episcopal 11, Presbyterian 8,
Catholic 5, Methodist 5, Baptist 4, Lutheran 3, Unitarian 1,
Independent 1, Orphans' chapel 1; also two Jewish syna-
gogues; average sittings 500 each. St. Michael's and St.
Philip's, Episcopal, and the Central Presbyterian, are the
finest church edifices. The benevolent institutions are the
city orphan-house, endowment $190,000, annual cost $21,377,
inmates 303, city donation $20,000 à year; the Catholic
orphan asylum, inmates 109, annual city donation $6000;
almshouse, inmates 75, besides outside pensioners, cost to
the city $10,000 a year; asylum for aged and infirm, in-
mates 58, annual cost $3515; city hospital, patients treated
1223, annual expenses $20,977, cost to the city $7287.
There is an asylum for colored orphans, supported by the
State, cost $5000 a year. The Confederate Widows' Home,
St. Philip's, Church Home, Sailors' Home, Ladies' Mutual
Aid Association, and Ladies’ Fuel Society are among the
private benevolences.
The most noted public buildings are the Arsenal and the
Citadel, occupied by U. S. troops, the market, city hall,
court-house, city orphan-house, Charleston Hotel, Mills
House, Academy of Music, new custom-house, and the
post-office. The Battery, a small park on the S. front of
the city, is the chief public resort. -
The city railroads are the City Railway, for passengers
only, capital $200,000, miles of track 8, passengers carried
annually 1,000,000; Enterprise Railroad, for freight and
passengers, capital $250,000, miles of track 3, now build-
ing. Three steam railroads centre in the city, the princi-
pal of which is the South Carolina. There is a steam ferry
to Sullivan's Island, a summer resort, carrying 200,000
passengers annually. The city is lighted by a private gas
company. The paved streets are 94 miles, planked 5%,
shelled 13. The tidal sewerage is in vogue: miles of
sewers, 5}, besides inclined drains. -
Charleston was founded in 1680 by an English colony.
During the first half century its growth was slow, but it
attained commercial importance before the end of the second.
It was taken by the British in 1780, after a gallant defence,
and evacuated by them in 1782. It was the State capital
until 1790, when the seat of government was removed to
Columbia. It was the seat of the great Democratic con-
vention of 1860, and later in the same year of the conven-
tion which passed the famous Ordinance of Secession. The
reduction of Fort Sumter, its principal harbor defence, was
the first conflict of the great civil war and the first triumph
of the Confederate arms. In Dec., 1861, nearly half of the
city was destroyed by fire. During the last two years of
the war it sustained a protracted siege and bombardment,
and was finally evacuated by the Confederates Feb. 19, 1865.
W. E. SIMMONs, J.R., LATE Ed. “NEWS AND CourLER.”
886
CHARLESTON.—CHARLOTTE.
Charleston, a township of Orleans co., Vt. It has an
academy, and manufactures of lumber, leather, starch, etc.
Pop. 1278.
Charleston, or Kanawha Court-house, the cap-
ital of West Virginia and of Kanawha co., at the mouth of
the Elk River, on the Kanawha River, 65 miles from its
mouth and 150 miles S. S. W. of Wheeling. The Chesa-
peake and Ohio R. R. passes the city on the opposite side
of the Kanawha. Steamboats navigate the Kanawha
River up to this point. The city has one daily and three
weekly newspapers, two national banks, two iron-foundries,
and several large manufactories. A considerable trade in
lumber, salt, and coal is carried on. There are ten salt
furnaces, one of which makes 2000 bushels of salt per day.
The seat of the State government was removed to Charles-
ton in 1869. Pop. 3162; of township, 3857.
CHARLEs B. WEBB, ED. “KANAWHA CHRONICLE.”
Charleston, College of. In June, 1770, a meeting
of the citizens of Charleston, S. C., was held to petition the
general assembly for the establishment of a college. In
Oct., 1775, an act was passed providing for three colleges,
one of which was to be located in Charleston. In Mar.,
1789, the Rev. Dr. Robert Smith was elected president.
In Oct., 1794, the first commencement was celebrated. In
1805 Dr. George Buist was elected president, and served
three years. Upon his death Mr. Mitchell King was
elected to supply his place.
After a suspension of some years, in 1826 the Rev. Jasper
Adams of Brown University was elected president, and in
1830 the new building (subsequently enlarged by the ad-
dition of wings) was erected. From 1826 to 1838 the chair
was filled by Dr. Adams, with the exception of one or two
intervals, in which Mr. King and the Rt. Rev. Dr. Bowen
officiated temporarily. In 1838, Rev. Dr. Brantley was
elected, and was succeeded in 1844 by W. P. Finley,
LL.D., who served until 1857, when the present president,
N. Russell Middleton, LL.D., was elected.
The plan upon which the college is now conducted re-
pudiates all coercion; if the students are indolent or ill-
behaved, they are dismissed, and the discipline of the
college has decidedly improved under this method. The
institution being intended chiefly for the use of the citizens,
to keep their sons under parental influences and preserve
their acclimation, has never been largely supplied with
students, the number varying from 30 to 60.
N. R. MIDDLETON.
Charlestown, a post-village, capital of Clarke co.,
Ind., is 2} miles from the Ohio River and 12 miles N. N. E.
of Louisville, Ky. It has four or more churches and one
newspaper. Pop. 2204; of Charlestown township, 3294.
Charlestown, a post-village of North-east township,
Cecil co., Md., on the North-east River and on the Phila-
delphia Wilmington and Baltimore R. R., 7 miles E. by N.
of Havre de Grace. It was settled in 1742, and burned by
the British in 1813. Pop. 223. {}
Charlestown, a former city and seaport of Middlesex
co., Mass., is a northern suburb of Boston, lat. 42° 2' N.,
lon. 71°3' 33”. W. It is situated on a peninsula, nearly
enclosed by the Mystic and Charles rivers, and is con-
nected with Boston and Chelsea by five bridges. The
ground is uneven, and rises into two eminences, Breed's
and Bunker Hills, which afford delightful situations for
dwellings. The city is handsome and well built, with
pleasantly shaded rather irregular streets. Three avenues,
Main, Bunker Hill, and Medford streets, traverse the pen-
insula, and, converging at its neck, make the fine broad
avenue Broadway, passing through Somerville and over
Winter Hill. The city has thirteen churches, two national
banks, three newspapers, public parks, horse-railways, a
public library, and numerous charities. Here is also a
State prison, after the plan of that at Auburn, N. Y., in
which there are 600 convicts. There is an extensive U. S.
navy-yard, occupying seventy to eighty acres, extending
from the Charles to the Mystic rivers, in which are three
large ship-houses, a ropewalk, the largest in the U. S.,
and machine-shops for the manufacture of copper-work,
machinery, and ordnance, capable of employing 2000 men.
A dry-dock connected with the navy-yard is built of gran-
ite and cost $670,000. There are $10,000,000 worth of
government stores in the yard. Charlestown has manu-
factures of steam-engines, boilers, and machinery, chem-
icals, stone-ware, brass-ware, brushes, sugar, soap, leather,
mechanics’ tools, gas fixtures, whips, drain-pipes, New
England rum, tobacco, oils, etc. To commemorate, the
battle of BUNKER HILL (which see) a granite shaft 220 feet
high, 31 feet square at the base, and 15 at the top, was
commenced in 1825 and finished in 1843. It is called the
Bunker Hill Monument, and from its summit is afforded a
magnificent view of the surrounding country. The corner-
stone of this tower was laid by La Fayette, and at the cele-
bration of its completion, June 17, 1843, the anniversary
of the battle, was present a vast gathering of people, in-
cluding the President and his Cabinet. Charlestown is
supplied with water from Mystic Lake, 5 miles distant.
The water-works were finished in 1864, at a cost of
$1,461,259. In 1872 there was a balance over expenses of
$144,576—a singular instance of water-works paying a bal-
ance over maintenance. The water flows from the lake
one mile by gravitation, is then pumped by three engines
to a reservoir on Tuft's Hill, from which it flows four miles,
and supplies. Charlestown and the neighboring towns; in
all, a population of 100,000. Charlestown is memorable
from its associations with the Revolution. It was burned
by the British on the day of the battle of Bunker Hill.
The city charter dates from 1847. The city of Charlestown,
also the towns of West Roxbury and Brighton, were an-
nexed to Boston Oct. 13, 1873, to become a part of that
municipality Jan. 5, 1874. Pop. 28,323.
WM. H. DECOSTA, PUB. “ADVERTISER.”
Charlestown, a post-village of Sullivan co., N. H.,
on the Connecticut River and the Vermont Central R. R.,
50 miles W. of Concord. It has a national bank, a savings
bank, four churches, and manufactures of lumber, boots
and shoes, etc. Pop. of Charlestown township, 1741.
Charlestown, a post-township of Portageco., O. P.675.
Charlestown, a post-township and village of Wash-
ington co., R. I. The village is on the Stonington and
Providence R. R., 40 miles S. S. W. of Providence. Pop.
1119, including 115 Indians of the Narragansett tribe.
Charlestown, a post-village, capital of Jefferson co.,
West Va., on the Baltimore and Ohio and South Virginia.
R. R.S. It has four churches, a fine court-house, a jail, one
newspaper, and a national bank. In this place John
Brown was tried and executed Dec., 1859. On the 18th
Oct., 1863, a Confederate force of 1200 or 1400 men, under
Gen. Imboden, surrounded the place at daylight, and at-
tacked the Union troops stationed there. Being surprised,
they were panic-stricken, and, flying in confusion, were
nearly all captured. The place was recaptured within an
hour by a force of U. S. troops under Col. Geo. D. Wells,
and the Confederates driven from the town. Pop. 1593.
W. W. B. GALLAHER, ED. “FREE PRESS.”
Charlestown, a post-township of Calumet co., Wis.
Pop. 1250.
Charleville, a town of France, in the department of
Ardennes, on the river Meuse, which separates it from
Mézières. It is well built and handsome, and has a college
and a large public library; also manufactures of hardware,
mails, copper, leather, etc. A suspension bridge crosses the
river here. This place was formerly fortified. Pop. 11,244.
Charlevoix, a county of Canada, in the province of
Quebec, bounded on the E. by the St. Lawrence. It abounds
in limestone, and has saline and sulphur springs. Iron
and plumbago have been found in this county. Capital,
St. Paul’s Bay. Pop. in 1871, 15,611.
Charlevoix, a county of the N. part of the S. penin-
sula of Michigan, bordering on Lake Michigan. Its sur-
face is largely covered with timber, and it abounds in lakes.
Potatoes, grain, and maple-sugar are the most important
crops. Capital, Charlevoix. Pop. 1724.
Charlevoix, a post-village, capital of Charlevoix co.,
Mich. It has one newspaper. Pop. of township, 456.
Charlevoix, de (PIERRE FRANÇois XAVIER), a French
Jesuit and historian, born at Saint-Quentin Oct. 29, 1682.
He went as a missionary to Canada in 1720, and descended
the Mississippi to its mouth. He wrote, besides other works,
a “History of Canada.” (3 vols., 1744). Died Feb. 1, 1761.
Charlotte, a county in the S. W. of New Brunswick,
Canada, is bounded on the S. by the Bay of Fundy and
Passamaquoddy Bay, and on the W. by the river St. Croix,
which separates it from Maine. The soil is fertile. It is
intersected by the New Brunswick and Canada, R. R. Cap-
ital, St. Andrew's. Pop. in 1871, 25,882.
Charlotte, a county in S. S. E. Virginia. Area, 550
square miles. It is bounded on the S.W. by the Staunton
River. The surface is uneven ; the soil is productive. To-
bacco and grain are the staple crops. It is intersected by
the Richmond and Danville R. R. Capital, Marysville or
Charlotte Court-house. Pop. 14,513.
Charlotte, a township of Livingston co., III. P. 746.
Charlotte, a post-township of Washington co., Me.
Pop. 467.
Charlotte, a city, capital of Eaton co., Mich., on the
Grand River Valley branch of the Michigan Central and
the Peninsular R. Rs., 19 miles S.W. of Lansing. It has
a national bank, a fire department, two newspapers, lumber,
and other manufactories. Pop. 2353. ED. “REPUBLICAN.”
CHARLOTTE–CHART.
887
Charlotte, a township of Bates co., Mo. Pop. 1289.
Charlotte, a township of Chautauqua co., N. Y. It
has six churches, and manufactures of leather, cheese,
lumber, etc. Pop. 1682.
Charlotte, a post-village of Monroe co., N.Y., on Lake
Ontario, at the mouth of the Genesee River, 7 miles N. of
Rochester, with which it is connected by railroad. Here
is a custom-house and an iron foundry.
Charlotte, a post-village, capital of Dickson co., Tenn.,
38 miles W. of Nashville. Pop. 276.
Charlotte, a post-township and village of Chittenden
co., Vt., on the Rutland division of the Vermont Central
R. R., 12 miles S. S. W. of Burlington. Pop. 1430.
Charlotte, a city, the capital of Mecklenburg co., N. C.,
on the Atlanta, and Richmond R. R., and the terminus of
the North Carolina division of the Richmond and Danville
and the Charlotte Columbia and Augusta R. R.S. It has
one national and two other banks, one daily and four other
newspapers, three academies, and various manufactories.
Gold-mines have been opened in the vicinity. There is a
branch of the U. S. Mint in this city. Pop. 4473; of town-
ship, 2212. JoBNSTONE Jon Es, E.D. “OBSERVER.”
Charlotte Amalie, a town of the West Indies, capital
of the island of St. Thomas. It stretches a mile along the
shore, with white-walled, red-roofed houses, contrasting
with the palms on the neighboring hills. It has a good
harbor and an extensive trade, and is a station for the
mail-packets which ply between Southampton and the
West Indies and for the steamers from New York to Brazil.
Pop. 12,560. -
Charlotte Court-house, a post-village, capital of
Charlotte co., Va.
Charlotte Hall, a post-township of St. Mary’s co., Md.
Pop. 1601.
Charlotte Harbor, an inlet on the W. coast of Florida,
in Manatee county, is nearly 24 miles long, and is sheltered
from the sea by several islands. It is shallow, its greatest
depth being nearly ten feet. Good oysters and fish abound
here. Cattle are exported to Key West.
Charlot/tenburg, a town of Prussia, in the province
of Brandenburg, on the river Spree, 3 miles W. of Berlin,
at the end of the Thiergarten park. It has a palace with
a fine park and a famous palmery, and a mausoleum in
which are statues of Frederick William III. and Queen
Louisa, by Rauch. Here are manufactures of cotton and
hosiery. Pop. in 1871, 19,518. -
Char/lottesville, the capital of Albemarle co., Va., is
on the Rivanna River and on the Chesapeake and Ohio
R. R., 97 miles by railroad W. N. W. of Richmond;
it is 61 miles N. N. E. of Lynchburg by the Orange
Alexandria, and Manassas R. R. One mile W. of
this town is the University of Virginia, founded in s
1819 by Thomas Jefferson, and endowed by the *
State. Here are two national and two other banks,
a cloth, an agricultural implement, two tobacco,
and other factories. The city has an academy and
several other schools, seven churches, an insurance #
company, and two newspapers. Monticello, the éº
residence of Jefferson, is three miles distant. Pop.
2838; of township, 7145. ED. “CHRONICLE.”
Char’lottetown, the capital of Prince Ed-
ward Island and of Queen’s county, is situated
on the N. bank of East River, near the S. coast. It has
an excellent harbor and a large export trade. The town
is well laid out, and has a fine colonial building, post-office,
and athenaeum, a normal school and lunatic asylum, and
is the seat of Prince of Wales, St. Dunstan's (Roman Cath-
olic), and a Methodist college. It has excellent public
schools. It is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop, has
nine churches, and seven weekly, one semi-weekly, and
one fortnightly periodical. Pop. in 1871, 8807.
Charl’ton, a county of Georgia, bordering on Florida.
It is partly bounded on the E. by the Satilla and St. Mary's
rivers. The surface is level; the soil is sandy. Pine tim-
ber abounds. Corn, rice, wool, and sweet potatoes are the
chief products. Capital, Trader's Hill. Pop. 1897.
Charlton, a post-township and village of Worcester co.,
Mass., on the Boston and Albany R. R., 57 miles W. S.W. of
Boston. Lumber and woollens are manufactured. P. 1878.
Charlton, a post-township and village of Saratoga co.,
N. Y. Pop. 1607.
Charlton (ROBERT M.), an American lawyer and au-
thor, born at Savannah, Ga., Jan. 19, 1807. He published
a volume of poems in 1838, and became U. S. Senator in
1852. Died Jan. 18, 1854.
Char/mides [Xapºtēms], an Athenian philosopher, born
about 450 B.C., was an uncle of Plato and a pupil of Soc-
rates. He was one of the tyrants who obtained power by
the aid of Lysander the Spartan, and was killed in battle
by the army of Thrasybulus about 404 B.C.
Char/nock (Rev. STEPHEN), an English nonconformist,
born in London in 1628; died July 27, 1680. He is best
known by his able treatise on “The Being and Attributes
of God” (1682, folio). A second folio volume appeared in
1683. His whole works were published in nine volumes,
8vo, in 1815, and a new edition in 1866.
Cha/rom [Gr. Xápov], in classic mythology, the ferry-
man who transported the souls of the dead across the rivers
of the infernal regions. The poets feigned that he was the
son of Erebus and Nox.
Charon/das [xaptóvãas], an eminent Greek legislator,
born at Catana, in Sicily, flourished about 650 B.C.. He
composed laws in verse, which were adopted by the Athe-
nians and other nations.
Cha'ron of Lamp'sacus, son of Pythocles, one of
the early writers of history preceding Herodotus, who are
known under the name of “ logographi.” Little more is to
be gathered of his life than the brief summary given by
Suidas, who places him in the time of the Persian Wars,
Ol. 75 (i. e. B. C. 480). Plutarch refers to him as writing
still after the death of Xerxes, which occurred B. C. 465.
He composed a number of works on historical subjects,
particularly an account of the Persians (IIeporuká), and
another of the Greeks (EAAqvuká). Suidas gives the titles
of several other histories of separate countries, some of
which, Creuzer and Müller think, may be but different
names of the same work; some probably belong to other
writers of this name. Suidas speaks of two others—one of
Carthage, who wrote accounts of the tyrants of Europe
and Asia; the other of Naucratis, who wrote the lives of
Alexandrian and Egyptian priests, a history of kings, and
an account of Naucratis. (The fragments of the works of
Charon of Lampsacus are collected in CREUZER’s “Histor.
Graec. Antiq. Frag.,” and in MüILER’s “Histor. Graec.
Frag.,” vol. i., pp. 32–35.)
- HENRY DRISLE.R.
Charost, de (ARMAND JosFPH DE BáTHUNE), DUC, a
French philanthropist and economist, born at Versailles
July 1, 1728, was a descendant of the renowned Sully. He
founded hospitals and published treatises on agriculture.
Died Oct. 27, 1800.
Charr, the Salmo umbla, one of the most beautiful and
most delicious fishes of the salmon family, caught in the
Eritish Islands, Switzerland, and Sweden. It is not a game
fish, though it will occasionally rise at the fly or take a
The Northern Charr.
minnow. It lives in the clear water of lakes and streams,
and is so much hunted for market that it is believed to be
rapidly becoming extinct. It seldom weighs much more
than a pound, and is quite variable in color and marks.
Charrette, a township of Warren co., Mo. Pop. 2690.
Charrières, de (MADAME SAINT HYACINTHE), a French
authoress, born in Holland in 1740, married M. de Char-
rières, a Swiss gentleman, and lived in the neighborhood
of Neufchâtel. She wrote several romances of Swiss life
that were praised by Sainte-Beuve. The best known are
“Lettres Neuchateloises” (1784) and “Caliste” (1786).
She was intimate with Benjamin Constant while he was
yet young, and their interesting correspondence has been
published. Died Dec. 20, 1805.
Chart [from the Fr. carte ; Lat. charta, “paper”], a
hydrographic map for the use of navigators, is the projec-
tion of some portion of the sea or coast on a plane surface.
Charts are generally constructed on the principle of Merca-
tor’s projection. In the English and U. S. services, after
coasts have been surveyed by the government, charts, are
engraved and sold at prices below their cost, in order to
encourage their general use. The navigating charts, show-
ing the dangers of the coasts with sufficient clearness to
enable mariners to avoid them, are usually on a uniform
scale, and the U. S. charts are generally on the polyconic

888
CHARTA, EPISPASTICA–CHARTRES.
projection. The preparation of bharts is a part of the
duty of the hydrographical department at the admiralty
in England, and in the U. S. of the coast survey depart-
ment. *.
Char'ta Epispas’tica [Lat. for “drawing ” (or blis-
tering) “paper’], the pharmaceutical name for blistering
paper. It is prepared by applying to one surface of smooth
bibulous paper a mixture of oil, wax, spermaceti, resin,
Canada balsam, water, arid powdered cantharides. When
applied to the skin it adheres, and after a time raises a
blister as perfectly as the blistering cerate does, while it is
much cleaner and more easily applied.
Various chartae emplasticae, or adherent medicated papers
(papiers emplastiques), are employed by many French phy-
sicians instead of the less meat and convenient plasters of
ordinary pharmacy.
Charte [Fr.], the name applied in France (1) to the
“Grand Charter” of John II., prepared by the States-
General and agreed to by the king : this was the basis
upon which the States-General asserted their liberties at
the commencement of the Revolution; (2) that by which
Louis XVIII. in 1814 acknowledged the rights of the
people; (3) that of 1830, which was sworn to by Louis
Philippe, recognizing the popular sovereignty.
Char’ter [Fr. chartre or charte, from the Lat. charta,
“paper”], a formally written instrument given as evidence
of a grant, contract, or other transaction between man and
man; an instrument executed with form and solemnity be-
stowing rights and privileges. In public law the term is
applied to those formal deeds or instruments by which
sovereigns guarantee the rights and privileges of their sub-
jects, or by which a sovereign state guarantees those of a
colony. The founders of several of the British colonies,
now States of the Union, obtained charters from the king
of England for the same. In municipal law the word is
principally used to designate a grant obtained from the
king of franchises, privileges, or estates by letters patent
under the great seal. A leading instance is found in the
creation of corporations. In early times corporations were
created principally in this manner. It has been doubted
whether municipal corporations could at first be created in
any other way than by royal charter. The better opinion
is that there could be valid charters other than royal. It
is now quite frequent to originate them by act of Parlia-
ment. The act of incorporation in that case has the force
of a statute. . There are certain special rules appertaining
to royal charters, as distinguished from corporations created
by act of Parliament. Thus, the king cannot limit the
perpetuity of a corporation, while Parliament may. Ac-
cordingly, when the Bank of England was established by
way of experiment, the aid of Parliament was called in to
limit its duration. A general statute now confers that
power upon the king to limit the time of corporate exist-
ence. So the Crown cannot force a new charter upon an
already-existing corporation. The king cannot derogate
from his own grant. Parliament may abolish the institu-
tion or modify it at pleasure. Nor can the king remove
corporators at discretion, as each corporator is supposed
to have a freehold estate. So a charter cannot create ex-
clusive right or prohibit trade, or in any way change the
established law of the land. These propositions are of but
little practical use in the U. S., as, since the Revolution,
corporations are created by act of the legislature. There
is a number of municipal and other charters in existence
which were granted by the king prior to the Revolution, and
which remain in force, notwithstanding the change in gov-
ernment. (As to general rules of law in which the rules
concerning strict charters agree with corporations created
by the legislature, see CoRPORATION.) - -
- T. W. DWIGHT.
Char’ter-House [a corruption of Chartreuse (see CAR-
THUSIANs)], a hospital and school in London, founded in
1611 by Sir Thomas Sutton, who endowed it with the rev-
enues of more than twenty manors, lordships, and other
estates. It was originally a Carthusian monastery, founded
in 1371. It is an asylum for poor brethren, the number of
whom is limited to eighty, and they must be bachelors,
members of the Church of England, and fifty years old.
Each brother receives, besides food and lodging, an allow-
ance of £26 a year for his clothing, etc. The school is for
the benefit of “the sons of poor gentlemen to whom the
charge of education is too onerous.” The number of
scholars is limited to forty-four, but there are large num-
bers of day and boarding pupils who are not charity
scholars. Among the eminent men educated here were
Addison, John Wesley, George Grote, Bishop . Thirl-
wall, and Thackeray. The reputation of the school is
high.
Char/ter Oak, a tree famous in colonial history, once
stood in Hartford, Conn. When Sir Edmund Andros came
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Charter Öak.
to Hartford in 1687, by command of King James II., to
resume the charter of the colony, the charter was concealed
by Capt. James Wadsworth in a hollow of this oak. This
historic tree was blown down by a gale in Aug., 1856.
Charter Oak, a township of Crawford co., Ia. P. 67.
Chart'er-Par’ty [Fr. chartre-partie, so called from
such documents being at one time divided (in Fr. parti),
and one-half given to each party concerned], the title given
to a contract in which the owner or master of a ship, with
consent of the owner, lets the vessel or a portion of her to
a second party for the conveyance of goods from one port
to another port; hence the vessel is said to be “chartered.”
It must specify the voyage to be performed, and the terms
on which the cargo is to be carried. On the part of the
ship it is covenanted that she shall be seaworthy, well found
in rigging, furniture, and provisions, and that the crew be
suitable in number and competency; that she shall be ready
to receive the cargo on a given day, wait its complete de-
livery for a certain period, and sail for the stipulated port
when laden if the weather for the time permits. The
freighter's portion of the contract obliges him to load and
unload at suitable periods under specified penalties, and to
pay the freight as agreed on. The master must not take
on board any contraband goods, or otherwise render the
vessel liable to seizure. The owner is not responsible for
losses caused by war, fire, or shipwreck, unless arising from
negligence of the master or crew. A charter-party some-
times assumes another character, and is a mere lease of a
ship, which is manned by the charterer, who then has the
usual rights and incurs the liabilities growing out of pos-
Session.
Chartier (ALAIN), an eminent French poet, born in
Normandy about 1385, was secretary to Charles VI. and to
Charles VII. He wrote a prose work called “Le Curial,”
and popular poems, among which is “The Book of the
Four Ladies” (“Le Livre des Quatre Dames”). He con-
tributed to improve and refine the French language. Died
about 1455.
Char'tiers, a township and post-village of Alleghany
co., Pa. The village is 5 miles W. of Pittsburg, on the
Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. Louis R. R. Total pop. 2269.
Chartiers, a township of Washington co., Pa.
1870.
Chart'ism. [so called from “the people's charter,” noticed
below], a political movement in Great Britain between 1835
and 1850, in which attempts were made to secure universal
male suffrage, equal representation, the vote by ballot, an-
nual parliaments, the abolition of property qualification
for office-holders, and the payment of salaries to members
of Parliament. These changes were demanded in “the
people's charter” of 1838. The movement was primarily
caused by the sufferings of the working-classes; and as a
whole, the demands of the Chartists were reasonable, mod-
erate, and just ; but they excited the greatest alarm in
England, and the movement was opposed by force, some
of their meetings being fired upon by the troops, prom-
inent Chartists being imprisoned, and Parliament refusing
to entertain their petitions. But various parliamentary.
reforms and the repeal of the corn laws in 1846 having in
a measure relieved the distress of the working-classes,
Chartism gradually declined.
Pop.
Chartres (anc. Autricum), a city of France, capital of
the department of Eure-et-Loir, is on the river Eure, and on















CHARTREUSE, LA GRANDE—CHASE.
889
the railway which connects Paris with Le Mans, 49 miles
S. W. of Paris. It is built at the base and on the declivity
of a steep hill. The streets are narrow and crooked. Here
is a Gothic cathedral of the eleventh century, said to be
the most perfect in France; it is surmounted by two towers,
one of them 382 feet high, with rich ornamentation, and
the other exceedingly massive. Chartres has two other
remarkable churches, an episcopal palace, and a public
library of about 30,700 volumes; also manufactures of
hosiery, hats, leather, etc. Here is a large weekly market
for grain and flour. During the Middle Ages, Chartres
was the capital of the district of Chartrain, made by Francis
I. a duchy, and given as an appanage to the dukes of
Orleans. Hence the title, duke of Chartres was given to
the eldest son of the duke of Orleans. More recently the
same title was given to Prince Robert of Orleans, grandson
of King Louis Philippe, and second son of Duke Ferdinand
of Orleans. Pop. 19,442. -
Chartreuse, La Grande, a large and famous mon-
astery in the French Alps, 12 miles N. N. E. of Grenoble,
in the midst of wild and impressive scenery, 3281 feet above
the sea. The convent was founded by Saint Bruno in 1084,
somewhat higher up the mountain than the present build-
ings. The name of the order, Carthusians, comes from this
convent, and the English Charter-house is a corruption of
its name. The buildings are extensive, but rudely built,
and date from 1689. The monastery had been repeatedly
burned before the present structure was built. The monks
were stripped of their possessions, which were considerable,
in the French Revolution, and abandoned the convent
until 1826. They have never recovered their former wealth
and dignity. -
Char’tulary [Late Lat. chartularia] is, as its name im-
plies, a collection of charters. So soon as any body, eccle-
siastical or secular, came to be possessed of a considerable
number of charters, considerations of convenience and
safety would suggest having them classified and copied
into a book or roll. Such book or roll has received the
name of a chartulary. Mabillon traces chartularies in
France as far back as the tenth century, but it was not
until the twelfth or thirteenth century that they became
common. They were kept not only by all kinds of religious
and civil corporations, but even by private families. Many
of them have been printed, and their contents are often of
the greatest value in historical, archaeological, and genea-
logical inquiries. -
Charyb'dis [Gr. Kápw88ts], now called Galofaro, is
an incessant undulation, rather than a whirlpool, on the
Sicilian side of the Strait of Messina, opposite the rock of
Scylla. It is caused by the meeting of currents, and is
seldom dangerous. It was anciently much dreaded by
mariners. (See REAR-ADMIRAL WILLIAM HENRY SMYTH's
monograph on the Mediterranean, p. 519, 8vo, 1854.)
In Greek mythology, Charybdis was a daughter of Posei-
don, and was killed by Zeus with a thunderbolt and hurled
into the sea, where she henceforth drew the approaching
ships into the deep.
Chase [Fr. chasse], a pursuit, a hunting; the sport of
hunting or pursuing game. In nautical language, chase is
the pursuit of a hostile vessel and also the vessel pursued.
The chase of a gun is the name of the greater portion of
the length between the muzzle and the trunnions. In for-
estry, chase is a row or rank of trees or plants, especially
hedge-plants; also an extent of waste or forest-land for-
merly appropriated in England for the breeding of deer
and other game.
Chase [Fr. châssis], in printing, an iron frame in which
the pages of type are wedged up to secure the letters from
separating or dropping out in the process of printing.
Chases are of different dimensions, according to the num-
ber of pages in a sheet and the size of the paper.
Chase, a county in E. Central Kansas. Area, 757
square miles. It is intersected by the Cottonwood River,
and also drained by several creeks. The surface is undu-
lating; the soil is fertile. Tobacco, grain, live-stock, and
wool are produced. It is traversed by the Atchison Topeka
and Santa Fé R. R. Capital, Cottonwood Falls. P. 1975.
Chase, a post-township of Lake co., Mich. Pop. 520.
Chase (CARLTON), D. D., born at Hopkinton, N. H.,
Feb. 20, 1794, graduated at Dartmouth in 1817, was or-
dained deacon in 1818, and priest in 1820, and in 1844 was
consecrated Protestant Episcopal bishop of New Hamp-
shire. Died at Claremont, N. H., Jan. 18, 1870.
Chase (DUDLEY), born in Cornish, N. H., Dec. 30, 1771,
an uncle of S. P. Chase, graduated at Dartmouth in 1794,
was chief-justice of Vermont (1817–21), and U. S. Senator
from 1813 to 1817, and again from 1825 to 1831. Died
Feb. 23, 1846. - \
Chase (IRAH), D.D., born at Stratton, Vt., Oct. 5, 1793,
graduated at Middlebury College in 1814, studied at And-
over Theological Seminary, and was ordained to the Bap-
tist ministry in 1817. He labored as missionary in West
Virginia, and was in 1818 appointed professor in the theo-
logical school at Philadelphia. From 1825 to 1845 professor
at successive periods of biblical theology and ecclesiastical
history in the Theological Institution (which he was largely
instrumental in founding) at Newton Centre, Mass. He
published several works, mainly controversial. Died at
Newton Centre, Mass., Nov. 1, 1864.
Chase (PHILANDER), D. D., an American Episcopal
bishop, born in Cornish, N. H., Dec. 14, 1775, and
graduated at Dartmouth in 1796. He went in 1817 as a
missionary to Ohio, where he planted the Episcopal Church.
He became bishop of Ohio in 1819, and bishop of Illinois
in 1835. He founded Kenyon College, O., and Jubilee Col-
lege, Ill. Published “Reminiscences” (2 vols. 8vo). Died
Sept. 20, 1852. *
Chase (PLINY EARLE) was born at Worcester, Mass.,
Aug. 18, 1820, and graduated at Harvard College in 1839.
While engaged for many years as a teacher in Philadelphia,
and afterwards in .mercantile life, he employed his leisure
in metaphysical, philological, and physical studies, produ-
cing many able and learned papers, published in the “Pro-
ceedings of the American Philosophical Society,” and in
various scientific journals, several of which were copied in
the London, Dublin, and Edinburgh “Philosophical Maga-
zines” and other foreign journals. These articles have
procured him wide distinction as a man of science. . In
1871 he was appointed professor of physics in Haverford
College. The Magellanic gold medal of the American
Philosophical Society was awarded to him in 1864 for his
paper on the “Numerical Relations of Gravity and Mag-
netism.” -
Chase (SALMON PORTLAND), an American statesman
and jurist, son of Ithamar Chase, a farmer of New Hamp-
shire, and nephew of Dudley and Philander Chase, above
noticed, was born at Cornish, N. H., Jan. 13, 1808. He
was sixth in descent from Aquila Chase, who emigrated
from England to Massachusetts in 1630. His mother was
of Scotch descent. The stock to which he belonged was
prolific in eminent men. His grandfather, Samuel Chase,
had seven sons, five of whom received an education at
Dartmouth College. During the war of 1812 Ithamar
Chase engaged in the glass manufacture at Keene, N. H.,
but this business resulted unfortunately on the reintroduc-
tion of foreign manufactures. He died in 1817, leaving
his family in straitened circumstances. Salmon’s educa-
tion, however, was not neglected. He was first sent to a
school at Windsor, Vt., and when twelve years of age went
to Ohio to live with his uncle, the bishop, who resided near
Columbus. Here he divided his time between hard Work
on the bishop's farm and hard study in the bishop's acad-
emy, which was afterwards removed to Cincinnati. In
1823 he returned to New Hampshire, and the next year
entered Dartmouth College, from which he graduated in
1826. He then repaired to Washington, and supported
himself by teaching a school whilst studying law under
the direction of William Wirt. Here he obtained his license
to practise law in 1829, and in the spring of 1830 went to
Cincinnati to pursue his profession. For a few years, like
most young men without influential business connections,
he had to struggle hard to maintain a professional exist-
ence, and his first efforts in court, as often happens to men
of great talent, were failures. But all these difficulties
were finally overcome. During the weary hours of Waiting
for business he occupied himself in preparing an edition
of the “Statutes of Ohio,” with notes and an historical in-
troduction. This brought him into notice, and in 1834 he
was appointed solicitor for the U. S. Bank in Cincinnati.
From this period he never wanted employment.
He early engaged in the controversy respecting slavery
and the slave-power in the U. S., and took the then unpop-
ular anti-slavery side. He held slavery to be against
natural law and right, and was for confining it within its
narrowest limits of power and territory. In 1837 he ap-
peared as counsel for Matilda, a colored woman claimed as
a fugitive slave, and took the ground that Congress had
no right to impose on State officers the duty of assisting
to render up fugitive slaves, nor to legislate on the subject
at all—that the States were, by the Constitution, solely re-
sponsible for the performance of that duty, and had a right
to prescribe such proceedings as they saw fit to prevent
unjust arrests and detentions. These views were enforced
with great eloquence and power, though unsuccessful at
that time. In a subsequent case he took the broad ground
that slavery was a local institution, dependent upon State
laws for its existence and continuance. His great maxim
was, “Slavery is sectional, freedom is national.” In 1842
890
CHASE.
he was employed to defend Van Zandt, the original of Van
Tromp in “Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” who had been a Kentucky
farmer, but from a conviction of the wrong of slavery had
liberated his slaves and removed to Ohio, near Cincinnati.
Here he was indicted, under the Fugitive Slave law of
1793, for harboring fugitive slaves and aiding them to
escape. The cause was carried to the Supreme Court of
the U. S., where it was ably argued' by Mr. Chase and Hon.
W. H. Seward in 1846, and became one of the causes célè-
bres of the country. - -
The subject had now become fully introduced into the
politics of the country, and Mr. Chase was virtually the
founder and leader of the Liberty party, which resulted in
the formation of the Free-Soil party, and ultimately of the
great Republican party, which became the means of pros-
trating the slave power and abolishing slavery in the U. S.
A convention of this party, under the guidance of Mr.
Chase, was held at Columbus, O., in T)ec., 1841, after it
became apparent that no hope was to be expected from
President Tyler or the old Whig party in the direction of
anti-slavery. Other conventions were held at Buffalo, Cin-
cinnati, and Columbus in 1843, 1845, 1847, and 1848, re-
sulting in the latter year in the nomination of Mr. Van
Buren and Charles, Francis Adams as the candidates of the
Eree-Soil party for President and Vice-President. Mr.
Chase was the moving spirit in these conventions. He
presided over the last, and drew up the platform of prin-
ciples and policy which it adopted. Most absorbing and
prominent among these, at this time, was that of prevent-
ing the extension of slavery into the new Territories.
Mr. Chase was originally a Whig, but in the pursuit of
his great object of crushing slavery and the political forces
which supported it, he allied himself to any party that, for
the time being, would further his aims. On the 22d of
Feb., 1849, he was elected to the Senate of the U. S. by the
Democrats, including the Free-Soil section of the party.
During his senatorial term, from 1849 to Mar., 1855, oc-
curred those great debates in Congress upon the question
of extending slavery into the new Territories, California,
New Mexico, Ransas, and Nebraska, which resulted in the
Compromise acts of 1850 and the repeal of the Missouri
Compromise. These acts produced a state of feeling in
the Northern States which resulted in the formation of the
Republican party. It is needless to say that Mr. Chase
took a leading part in the debates referred to, and he was
always noted for the frankness with which he declared his
sentiments on the questions at issue. They were the same
which he had always maintained—that slavery was local
and exceptional, sustained only by local laws, and that all
new territory was free territory by the laws of nature and
the principles of American government, and could only
be made slave territory by usurpation and wrong; and that
only the original States, who had entered into the consti-
tutional compact, were bound to render up fugitive slaves,
and then only after such proceedings had as they might
deem just and reasonable for preventing illegal seizures
and detentions. He failed to carry his measures in Con-
gress, but the result in after years showed the sagacity with
which he comprehended the entire situation. He lived to
see the fulfilment of his predictions and the consumma-
tion of his most cherished hopes. -
In Oct., 1855, he was elected governor of Ohio, and re-
elected in 1857. In 1860 he was a prominent eandidate
for the presidency before the Republican convention which
nominated Mr. Lincoln. In the following session of the
Ohio legislature he was again chosen Senator of the U. S.,
but had scarcely taken his seat in Mar., 1861, when he was
nominated by President Lincoln as secretary of the treas-
ury, upon the duties of which position he immediately en-
tered.
The period of civil war that ensued rendered his duties
as financial minister of the government most important
and arduous; and it is almost universally conceded that
he discharged them with pre-eminent ability and success. ,
He found the treasury empty and the government credit
below par. But he inaugurated measures which met the
pressing demands of a gigantic war, amounting to six or
seven hundred millions per annum, and stimulated the in-
dustrial emergies of the country. These measures cannot
be examined in detail. They belong to the history of that
struggle. A cardinal principle kept in view was, to issue
a sufficient amount of such securities and notes as would
furnish a currency that would enable the people to meet
their engagements and avoid bankruptcy. This kept them
in heart, and kept every branch of industry in constant
activity. It obviated those commercial crises which are the
usual consequences of such wars. This financial policy
was largely due to the recommendations of Secretary Chase,
although able financiers in Congress and out gave him
wise and energetic co-operation.
One of the measures resorted to, which should be noticed
as exciting a difference of opinion in the constitutional
power of Congress, was the issue by the government, in
Feb., 1862, of currency notes which were made a legal ten-
der in the payment of debts. It is due to Secretary Chase
to say that whilst he recommended the issue of the notes,
the making them a tender originated in Congress, though
acquiesced in by him. Another measure of permanent im-
portance to the country was the establishment, in Feb.,
1863, of a national banking system, by which all notes is-
sued were to be based on funded bonds of the government
of equal or greater amount. This system was entirely
originated by Secretary Chase, and will probably be regard-
ed as one of his greatest achievements for the benefit of his
country. He hoped that it would effectually abolish a re-
sort to State bank issues of paper currency, which, it is
known, he latterly regarded as bills of credit within the
meaning and prohibition of the Constitution.
Mr. Chase resigned the secretaryship of the Treasury in
the last of June, 1864, and on the 6th of Dec. following he was
appointed chief-justice of the Supreme Court of the U. S.,
in place of Chief-Justice Taney. The duties of his new
office were no less important to the country than those
which he resigned. Many of the momentous questions
which arose out of the issues of the war had to be ultimate-
ly adjudicated by the high tribunal over which he was call-
ed to preside—questions affecting vast private interests and
the future stability of the government. It was the singu-
lar fortune of Chief-Justice Chase that he bore a conspicu-
ous and leading part not only in the great political move-
ment which brought on the American civil war and abolished
slavery, but in the successful conduct of that war, and in
the final settlement of the constitutional issues and changes
to which it gave rise. The status and reconstruction of the
Southern States; the rights of their citizens, personal and
political; the constitutionality of acts of Congress and of
the executive in various matters during the impulses and
excitements of the war; the construction of those import-
ant amendments to the Constitution which were necessitated
by the event of the contest,-these were among the subjects
upon which the Supreme Court was called to decide. As
presiding officer of the court and as a constitutional judge,
the chief-justice fully met the duties, responsibilities, and
the dignity of his high position. But his long service in
political life and absence from the bar induced him to lean
largely upon the experience of the other members of the
bench in matters of technical law. In every case of pub-
lic consequence depending upon constitutional or funda-
mental principles he exhibited the same largeness of mind
which characterized his entire career. His opinions on
some questions have been criticised as exhibiting a leaning
against the Federal government and its authority, in which
as an executive officer he had taken so large a part. For
example, on the question of the constitutionality of the
legal-tender notes he changed his opinion, and held them
unconstitutional. But it is fairly due to him to accept his
own explanation, that he assented to the law as a pressing
necessity when passed, but subsequent reflection convinced
him that he was mistaken. His opinions are characterized
by great clearness and chasteness of style, and may be
cited as models of juridical composition. They ever betrayed
the fine scholar and the practised writer.
In 1868 he was called upon, as chief-justice, to preside
over the Senate pending the impeachment and trial of
President Johnson—the only instanee of such a trial in the
history of the Federal government.
In June, 1870, he had a stroke of paralysis, from the
effects of which he labored more or less till his death. He
attended the regular terms of court commencing in Dec.,
1871, and Dec., 1872, and whilst his mind still remained
clear and his logical powers unimpaired, his powerful
frame was much enfeebled, and his general appearance in-
dicated that his tenure of life was by a slender thread. He
died in the city of New York May 7, 1873, in the sixty-sixth
year of his age. &
Joseph P. BRADLEY, U. S. Supreme Court.
Chase (SAMUEL), an American judge, born in Somerset
co., Md., April 17, 1741. He was a delegate in Congress
from 1774 to 1778, and signed the Declaration of Independ-
ence. In 1796 he became an associate justice of the Su-
preme Court of the U. S. He was impeached in 1804 for
misdemeanor in the conduct of several political trials, but
was acquitted by the Senate. John Randolph was one of
the instigators and managers of this impeachment. Judge
Chase died June 19, 1811.
Chase (THOMAs), a brother of Pliny Earle Chase, no-
tioed above, was born at Worcester June 16, 1827. He
graduated at Harvard with high honors in 1848. He served
as tutor and Latin professor at Harvard for three years
He visited Europe in 1853–55, and studied at the Uni-
versity of Berlin. On his return he was appointed (in
CHASE—CHATEAUBRIAND, DE.
891
1855) professor of philology and of classic literature at
Haverford College. He has published, besides other works,
excellent editions of Virgil, Horace, and Livy, and a yol-
ume entitled “Hellas,” a description of his personal ob-
servations in Greece in 1862.
Chase (WILLIAM H.). See APPENDIx.
Chas/idim [Heb. for “ saints "I, a name applied among
the ancient Jews to a sect of pietists who originally aimed
at strict ceremonial purity under the Mosaic law, warmly
espousing the cause of the Maccabees, and opposing the Hel-
lenizing tendencies of some of their fellow-Israelites. Some
writers believe that the Essenes, Pharisees, and other strict
followers of the Law all sprang from the Chasidim, but
that the name was finally taken by a moderate party,
who received the traditions as of equal authority with the
Law. In recent times the name is applied to a sect of
Jews who sprang up in Poland in the eighteenth century,
and who aim at a restoration of the ancient piety of their
nation. Their ceremonial is extremely formal. Their pecu-
liar mystical and cabalistic doctrines and customs are re-
pudiated by the orthodox Jews. They are now chiefly found
in Eastern Europe.
Cha'sing, or Encha/sing, the art of working raised
figures in metal; the art of embossing or making metallic
bas-reliefs. Much chasing is done by filling the vessel to be
chased with a composition of pitch, and then hammering
with a point and chisel on the outside. Closely connected
with chasing is the art of stamping with a punch from the
inside, a very ancient art. Phidias and other ancient Greek
artists practised the art of chasing on statues which were
formed of ivory and gold. Cellini’s chasing ranks with
the best ever made. As an art it is chiefly practised in
Europe and the East.
Chas/ka, a post-village, capital of Carver co., Minn.,
in a township of its own name, on the left bank of the
Minnesota River, 32 miles W. S. W. of St. Paul, and on
the Minneapolis and St. Louis and the Hastings and Da-
kota. R. Rs. The St. Paul and Sioux City R. R. passes on
the opposite side of the river.
paper. Total pop. 847.
Chasles (MICHEL), a French geometer, born
at Epernon Nov. 13, 1793. In a “Memoir on
Two General Principles of the Sciences, Duality
and Homography,” he established the basis of a
new theory of conic sections. He became in 1846
professor of the higher geometry in the Faculty
of Sciences, Paris. He extended and simplified
several important theories of pure geometry,
Among his works is “History of Arithmetic ’’
(1843), a “Treatise on Higher Geometry” (1852),
and “Treatise on Conic Sections” (1865 seq.).
Chasles (VICTOR EUPHíMION PHILARièTE), a
Erench journalist and author, and professor of
foreign literature at the College of France, born
Oct. 8, 1799, was apprenticed to a printer by his
father, a prominent democratic journalist of the
Revolution. He went to England, where he as-
sisted Valpy in his editions of the classics, and
afterwards studied in Germany. He has contrib-
uted to the “Journal des Débats,” the “Revue
des Deux Mondes,” and many other journals,
and made admirable translations for the “Revue
Britannique.”
Chasseloup-Haubat, a French statesman,
born May 18, 1805, at Alessandria, in Italy, was maître de
requêtes during the reign of Charles X., member of the
Chamber of Deputies, and councillor of state under Louis
Philippe. He became in 1849 member of the legislature,
in 1851 minister of the navy, in 1859 minister of the colo-
nies, in 1862 senator, and in 1869 president of the ministry
which was to carry out the liberal promises of the imperial
message of July 12, 1869. Died Mar. 29, 1873.
Chassepot, a breech-loading rifle musket, which takes
its name from its inventor, Antoine Alphonse Chassepot, a
French officer and inspector of arms, whose first model was
brought out in 1863. It has been since repeatedly im-
proved. This musket has attracted much attention in con-
sequence of its use by the French in the recent war with
Germany. The chassepot belongs to the same class with
the German needle-gun, having in its cartridge a mass of
fulminating material, which is exploded by means of a
needle thrust into it along the axis of the bore. Military
critics have objected to the chassepot that it is too light and
fragile, too expensive, too easily fouled by the powder and
the fulminate, and that it is difficult to clean it properly.
The more recent forms of it are free from some of these
objections.
Chasseur, a French word signifying a “hunter,” a
“sportsman,” the name of certain light troops in the French
It has one weekly news-
army who are distinguished as good marksmen. There are
chasseurs both among the infantry and cavalry. In the
Austrian army are similar troops called Jägers. The light
troops which fought under Garibaldi in 1859 and 1860 were
called Cacciatori dei Alpi–i. e. “hunters of the Alps.”
Chasseurs de Vincennes is one of the names given
to a famous corps in the French army. About the year
1835, when certain improvements had been made in the
Erench rifle, the duke of Orleans ordered the formation of
a company of riflemen armed with the new rifle; they were
garrisoned at Vincennes. They proved so efficient that in
1838 a whole battalion was organized, which was called in-
differently the tirailleurs (sharpshooters) or chasseurs de
Vincennes.
Chastellux, de (FRANÇors JEAN), MARQUIS, a French
general and writer, born in Paris in 1734. He wrote an
“Essay on Public Happiness” (1772), which was highly
commended by Voltaire, and became in 1775 a member of
the French Academy. As major-general under Rocham-
beau he fought for the U. S. (1780–82). He was a
friend of Washington and Jefferson. Among his works is
“Travels in North America” (2 vols., 1786). Died in 1788.
Chas/uble [Lat. casubula or casula], the uppermost
garment worn by priests in the Roman Catholic Church
when robed for the mass. It was called also “the west-
ment,” and under that name seems occasionally to have
been used in the English Church after the Reformation.
Originally it covered the priest from head to foot, like a
little house, whence some writers think it had its name of
casula, and in this shape it is still worn in the Greek
Church. It is made of velvet, is of an elliptical shape,
with a hole in the middle for the head; it has no sleeves.
It has two parts, one hanging down before; another, on
which a cross is embroidered, hanging down behind.
Chat (Saacicola), a genus of small birds of the very
numerous family Sylviadae, distinguished by a bill slightly
depressed and widened at the base. They have rather
longer legs than most of the family. They are lively birds,
flitting about with incessant and rapid motion in pursuit
of the insects on which they chiefly feed. They are found
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Whinchat.
in Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. Three species
are British—the stonechat, whinchat, and wheatear. The
yellow-breasted chat of the U. S. (Icteria polyglotta) is a
larger bird, and belongs to the family Turdidae.
Chateaubriand, de (FRANÇOIS AUGUSTE), WISCOUNT,
a celebrated French author and diplomatist, born of a noble
family at Saint-Malo Sept. 14, 1769. He studied the an-
cient languages at Dol and Rennes, and was destined for
the Church, but he preferred other pursuits. Impelled by
a love of adventure, he visited the U. S. in 1791. Having
traversed the primeval forests of the South, and studied the
nature and life of the aborigines, he found there the inspir-
ing source of a new and romantic literature. . He returned
in 1792 to France, where he married Mademoiselle de
Lavigne. The same year he joined the royalist emigrants
who had taken arms to fight against the dominant party ;
he was wounded at Thionville, and became an exile in
England. He passed nearly eight years in England in ex-
treme poverty, and during this period wrote several works.
In 1800 he returned to France, and began to Write for the
“Mercure de France.” He published in 1801 “Atala,” a ro-
mance, the scene of which is laid among the American abo-
rigines. It excited much admiration. His “Genius of Chris-
tianity” (1802) promoted the revival of a religious spirit in
French society, then recoiling from the skeptical theories












892
CHATEAUDUN–CHATHAM.
of the Revolution. In 1806 and 1807 he travelled in Greece,
Asia Minor, and Palestine. He published in 1809 a prose
epic entitled “The Martyrs, or the Triumph of the Christian
Religion,” and in 1811 his “Itinerary from Paris to Jeru-
salem.” He was admitted into the French Academy in
1811. In 1814 he expressed his implacable enmity to Na-
poleon in an eloquent pamphlet entitled “Bonaparte and
the Bourbons.” After the restoration of 1815 he acted
with the royalists, became a peer of France, and was sent
as ambassador to Berlin in 1820. In 1822 he was trans-
ferred to the court of St. James. He was appointed min-
ister of foreign affairs in 1823, but was removed by the
agency of Willèle in June, 1824. He afterwards acted with
the liberal opposition, and wrote articles against the Villèle
ministry, which were inserted in the “Journal des Débats.”
In 1828 he was sent as ambassador to Rome by Martignac,
but he resigned when Polignac became prime minister in
1829. His sympathy for the Bourbons was so strong that
he refused to swear allegiance to Louis Philippe in 1830.
In the latter part of his life he lived in retirement, and
associated intimately with the accomplished Madame Ré-
camier. Among his works is an interesting autobiogra-
phy called “Mémoires d’Outre-Tombe” (1849–50, 12 vols.).
He died July 4, 1848. He had a poetical imagination, and
a superior talent for describing natural_scenery. (See VIL-
LEMAIN, “Châteaubriand, sa, Vie, ses Ecrits et son Influ-
ence,” 1858; Count DE MARCELLUs, “ Châteaubriand et
son Temps,” 1859; ScrproN MARIN, “Histoire de la Vie et
des Ouvrages de Châteaubriand,” 1833; SAINTE-BEUVE,
“Causeries du lundi,” tome i. and ii.)
Châteaudun, a handsome town of France, depart-
ment of Eure-et-Loir, is on the river Loir, 28 miles S. S.
W. of Chartres. It has an old castle of the tenth century,
a communal college, a public library, and manufactylres of
blankets. Oct. 18, 1870, the town was stormed and almost
entirely destroyed by the Germans. Pop. 6781.
Châteaugay, a county of Quebec (Dominion of Can-
ada), bordering on New York. It is bounded on the N. W.
by the Chateaugay River. Capital, Sainte-Martine. Pop.
16,166. - -
Chateaugay, a post-village of Franklin co., N.Y., on
the Chateaugay River and on the western division of the
Vermont Central R. R., 73 miles E. by N. from Ogdens-
burg. It has a newspaper, and manufactures of lumber,
starch, butter, cheese, etc. Pop. of Chateaugay township,
2971. - A. N. MERCHANT, PROP. “STAR.”
Château-Gontier, a town of France, department of
Mayenne, on the river Mayenne, here crossed by a stone
bridge, 18 miles S. of Laval. It has manufactures of linen
and woollen fabrics. Pop. 7364. -
Château-Renard, a town of France, department of
Bouches-du-Rhône, near the Durance, 17 miles N. E. of
Arles. Pop. 5409.
Châteauroux, a town of France, capital of the de-
partment of Indre, is in an extensive plain on the river
Indre, 62 miles S. E. of Tours. It has a castle built in the
tenth century, a chamber of commerce, and a Society of
arts; also manufactures of wool, cotton, cutlery, paper,
hats, and hosiery. Nearly 2000 persons are employed here
in the manufacture of strong woollen fabrics. Good iron
is found in the vicinity. Pop. 17,161.
Château-Thierry, a town of France, department of
Aisne, on the river Marne, here crossed by a bridge, about
60-miles by railway E. N. E. of Paris. It is on the slope
of a hill crowned by the ruins of a vast castle built by
Charles Martel for Thierry IV. It was the native place
of the great poet Lafontaine, to whom a marble monument
has been here erected. Pop. 6519.
Chatel (FERDINAND FRANÇors), a French priest, was
born in 1795 at Gannat, became a priest in 1818, renounced
the communion of Rome in 1830, and founded in 1831 the
“French Unitarian Church,” the fundamental principle of
which was to recognize nothing but the law of nature.
The church of Chatel in Paris was closed by the police in
1842, revived in 1848, and again closed in 1852. Died in
1857.
Châtellerault, a town of France, department of
Vienne, on the river Vienne, 18 miles N. N. E. of Poitiers.
It is near the railway from Tours to Bordeaux. It has a
handsome stone bridge, an old castle, a theatre, an ex-
change, and hospital; also important manufactures of
cutlery, and a large trade in millstones, wines, etc. Here
is a national manufactory of Swords and bayonets. The
Scottish dukes of Hamilton derive from this place the title
of duke of Châtelherault, which was given by King Henry
II. to James Hamilton in 1549. Pop. 14,278. -
Chat'field, a post-village of Fillmore co., Minn., near
Root River, about 35 miles W. S. W. of Winona. It has
an academy and one newspaper-office. Pop. of Chatfield
township, 1661. -
Chatfield, a post-township of Crawford co., O. P. 1247.
Chatſham, a fortified town, river-port, and naval ar-
senal of England, in the county of Kent, on the right
bank of the Medway, and 30 miles E. S. E. of London.
The river here begins to expand into an estuary. Chat-
ham is defended by several forts or castles crowning the
adjacent heights, by which it is flanked on the S. and E.
It derives its importance from its naval and military es-
tablishments, which are separated from the town and the
country by a line of fortifications which are considered the
best in England, except those of Portsmouth. Here are
a military hospital, barracks for infantry, marines, artil-
lery, and engineers, and magazines, storehouses, and dépôts
on a large scale. Chatham has also one of the largest
royal shipbuilding establishments in the kingdom. The
dockyard is nearly a mile long, and contains several build-
ing slips and wet-docks, sufficiently capacious for the
largest ships. Connected with it are extensive saw-mills,
forges, and a metal-mill which produces copper sheets,
copper bolts, etc. In 1667 the Dutch admiral De Ruyter
sailed up the Medway and burned some shipping at Chat-
ham. Pop. in 1871, 44,135.
Chatham, a county of Georgia, bordering on the At-
lantic. Area, 358 square miles. It is bounded on the N.
E. by the Savannah River, and on the S. W. by the Ogee-
chee. The surface is level; the soil is sandy and partly
sterile, but that which is near the rivers is fertile. Corn
and rice are the staple crops. It is intersected by the Cen-
tral R. R., the Savannah and Charleston R. R., and the
Atlantic and Gulf R. R. Capital, Savannah. Pop. 41,279.
Chatham, a county in Central North Carolina. Area,
700 square miles. It is drained by the Haw and Deep
rivers, which in the S. E. part unite to form the Cape Fear
River. The surface is diversified; the soil is fertile. Grain,
wool, live-stock, cotton, and tobacco are raised. Iron ores
abound. Coal-mines have been opened near Deep River.
It is intersected by the Western R. R. of North Carolina
and the Raleigh and Augusta R. R. Capital, Pittsborough.
Pop. 19,723.
Chatham, a port of entry of Northumberland co., New
Brunswick, on the right bank of the Miramichi, 6 miles
below Newcastle, has a heavy trade in lumber and salmon,
several steam-mills and foundries, is lighted with gas, and
is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop. It has one weekly
paper. Pop. of census sub-district in 1871, 4203.
Chatham, a post-town of Ontario (Dominion of Can-
ada), capital of Kent co., on the river Thames, and on the
Great Western R. R., 45 miles E. of Detroit, Mich., and 11
miles N. of Lake Erie. It has a court-house, five churches,
two weekly papers, an extensive trade in lumber, wood,
potash, tobacco, soap, and pork, and has extensive manu-
factures of iron castings, machinery, and woollen goods.
Pop. in 1871, 5873.
Chatham, a post-village and township of Middlesex
co., Conn., on the E. side of the Connecticut River, about
25 miles N. E. of New Haven. Here are cobalt-mines and
manufactures of sleigh-bells, etc. Total pop. 2771.
Chatham, a township and post-village of Sangamon
co., Ill. The village is on the St. Louis Alton and Chicago
R. R., 10 miles S. of Springfield. Pop. 1460.
Chatham, a township and post-village of Barnstable
co., Mass., on the ocean, at the S. E. extremity of Cape
Cod, about 80 miles S. E. of Boston. It has a fair harbor,
and is resorted to as a summer residence. There are four
churches, good public schools, and one newspaper. It has
two lighthouses, lat. 41° 40' 15" N., lon. 69° 56' 30" W.
Pop. of township, 24.11.
B. D. GIFFORD, ED. CHATHAM “ MonTToR.”
Chatham, a post-township of Wright co., Minn. Pop.
161. . .
Chatham, a township of Carroll co., N. H. Pop. 445.
Chatham, a post-village of Morris co., N.J., near the
Passaic River and on the Morris and Essex R. R., 26 miles W.
of New York. On the Passaic River there are several mills.
The township of Chatham has an academy, and contains
the important village of Madison. Pop. of township, 3715.
Chatham, a post-township of Columbia co., N. Y.,
contains villages called CHATHAM CENTRE and CHATHAM
VILLAGE (which see). Chatham post-office and station is
on the Harlem Extension R. R., 132 miles N. of New York.
Pop. of township, 4372. -
Chatham, a township of Medina co., O. Pop. 980.
Chatham, a township of Tioga co., Pa. Pop. 1575.
Chatham, a township of Pittsylvania co., Va. Pop.
4262. - -
CHATHAM–CHATTANOOGA.
893
Chatham (WILLIAM Pitt), EARL of, one of the most
distinguished of English statesmen, born Nov. 15, 1708, and
educated at Eton and Oxford, was the son of Robert Pitt, a
country gentleman, and grandson of a colonial governor.
After travelling on the Continent he entered the army as a
cornet in the Blues, and soon after, in 1735, was returned
to Parliament from Old Sarum, a family borough. He had
shown remarkable promise in his studies, and in the House
of Commons he soon became prominent, engaging in the
fierce opposition to the Walpole government headed by the
prince of Wales, and embittered by a quarrel between the
prince and the king. Upon the fall of the Walpole admin-
istration, the king, notwithstanding a strong personal dis-
like, saw best to give Pitt an office, and in 1746 he was
made treasurer of Ireland, and then paymaster-general,
and in 1755, upon the breaking out of the Seven Years'
war, after the resignation of Fox, he became the head of
the government, with the nominal title of secretary of state.
His measures for the reorganization of the army and navy
were opposed by the king, but upon his resignation he was
recalled, and pursued his plans against the French vig-
orously, aiding Frederick the Great, capturing Canada.
through Wolfe, and improving the navy to such an extent
that the French were driven from the seas. After the acces-
sion of George III. in 1761, Pitt's energetic military mea-
sures were opposed by the growing influence of the Tories,
and a peace was negotiated unwillingly by Pitt, whose min-
istry soon afterwards went out. Pitt remained in the op-
position until 1766. His health was become feeble; he nev-
ertheless combated zealously the more obnoxious acts of
Bute's government, and upon its defeat in 1766 was de-
sired to form a cabinet, in which he chose for himself the
unimportant office of privy seal, with a seat in the House
of Lords. The new ministry was weak and inefficient, and
after it went out in 1768, Lord Chatham never again held ||
office. When the war for American independence began,
he, though sinking under the infirmities of age, called back
all his great powers of eloquence to oppose the cruel and
oppressive measures which were put in practice against the
colonies; but when, in 1778, the timid policy of the duke
of Richmond was gaining ground in the legislature, which
favored peace with France and a recognition of the Amer-
ican States, Pitt, feeble, pale, and dying, arose in the
House of . Lords and summoned his fleeting powers to
denounce this course of weakness and shame so eloquent-
Iy that the measure was defeated. He sank back in a swoon
at the close of his appeal, and four days afterwards, April
11, 1778, he died.
Lord Chatham’s character was above reproach, and
throughout his life his actions were impelled by deep pa-
triotic feelings. The effects of his extraordinary eloquence
were enhanced by his tall and stately form and dignified
bearing. His speeches, which were composed in a vigorous,
eloquent, idiomatic English style, have only been partially
preserved in the “Chatham Papers,” 4 vols., 1838–40. (See
F. THACKERAY, “Life of Chatham,” 2 vols., 1827.)
J. THOMAS.
Chatham Centre, a post-village of Columbia co.,
N. Y., on the Boston and Albany R. R., 20 miles S. S. E.
of Albany.
Chatham Four-Corners. See CHATHAM WILLAGE.
Chatham Islands, a group in the South Pacific
Ocean, discovered by Broughton in 1791, about 400 miles E.
of the Middle Island of New Zealand. They are about
lat. 44° S., and between lon. 177° and 179° W. Chatham
Island, the largest of the group, is nearly 90 miles in cir-
cumference, and contains a large lake. Area, 425 square
miles. The others are for the greater part mere rocks.
The soil and climate are good; besides the natives there
are a few British colonists. Pop. 600.
Chatham Willage, or Chatham Four-Corners,
a post-village of Columbia, co., N. Y., on the Boston and
Albany R. R. and terminus of the Hudson and Chatham,
the Harlem, and the Harlem Extension R. R.s., 22 miles
S. E. of Albany. The name of the post-office is Chatham
Village. It has one newspaper-office, a blast furnace, acad-
emy, foundry, machine-shops, cotton-mill, and two paper-
mills. Pop. 1387. C. B. CANFIELD, PROP. “Courrºr.”
Chatoyant [from the Fr. chat, a “cat”], a French word
used in mineralogy to denote the changeable or floating in-
termal light which is reflected by certain minerals, and re-
sembles the light reflected from the eye of a cat. Among
the minerals which are chatoyant are adularia and CAT’s
EYE (which see). -
Châtre, La., a fine old town of France, department of
Indre, on the river Indre, 22 miles S. E. of Châteauroux.
It has a fine church, a ruined castle, a considerable chestnut
market, and manufactures of woollen and leather. P. 5167.
Chats/worth, the mansion of the duke of Devonshire,
one of the most splendid private residences in England, is
situated in Derbyshire, on the river Derwent, 3 miles N. E.
of Bakewell. It is surrounded by a beautiful park about
ten miles in circumference. This domain was given by
William the Conqueror to his natural son, William Peveril.
It was purchased by Sir William Cavendish, who built here
in 1570 a mansion in which Mary queen of Scots was con-
fined for thirteen years. The present mansion was built in
1706 by the first duke of Devonshire. It is nearly a quad-
rangle with an interior court, and is ornamented with bal-
ustrades and Ionic pillars. The façade is 720 feet long.
Chatsworth contains rich collections of paintings, statuary,
bas-reliefs, and books. Here is a conservatory which covers
nearly an acre, is 65 feet high, and has 70,000 square feet
of glass., - -
Chatsworth, a township and post-village of Living-
ston co., Ill. The village is on the Toledo Peoria and War-
saw R. R., 70 miles E. of Peoria. It has one weekly news-
paper. Pop. 999. Pop. of township, 1622.
Chattahoo’chee, a river of Georgia, rises in the Blue
Ridge in the N. E. part of the State. It flows south-west-
ward, through the gold-region of Georgia, to West Point,
below which it flows southward and forms the boundary
between Georgia and Alabama. At the S. W. extremity
of Georgia it unites with the Flint River to form the Ap-
palachicola. Its length is estimated at 550 miles. Small
steamboats can ascend it to Columbus, which is about 325
miles from the Gulf of Mexico.
Chattahoochee, a county in the W. of Georgia.
Area, 250 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the
Chattahoochee River, and on the N. W. by Upatoy Creek.
The soil is productive. Corn and cotton are the principal
crops. Capital, Cusseta. Pop. 6059. -
Chattahoochee, a post-village of Gadsden co., Fla.,
near the junction of the Flint and Chattahoochee rivers,
and on the Jacksonville Pensacola, and Mobile R. R., 40
miles N. W. of Tallahassee. It has a State penitentiary.
Chattanoo’ga, a city of Tennessee, capital of Hamil-
ton co., pleasantly situated on the left bank of the Tennes-
see River, about 200 miles by water below Rnoxville, and
150 miles S. E. of Nashville by the Nashville and Chatta-
nooga R. R. It is a terminus of the Western and Atlantic
R. R., which connects it with Atlanta, Ga., and is the
north-eastern terminus of the Alabama and Chattanooga
R. R., which extends south-westward 295 miles to Meridian.
It is also a terminus of the East Tennessee Virginia and
Georgia, the Cincinnati Southern, and the Memphis and
Charleston R. Rs. The river is navigable for steamboats
above and below this point. This is the largest town of
East Tennessee. It has three national banks, two rolling-
mills, a furnace, machine-shops and foundries, a cotton-
factory, water-works, a street railroad, and fine academies
and schools. Two daily and two weekly papers are issued
here. Coal and iron are found in the adjacent.hills. After
the retreat of Rosecrans to Chattanooga from the battle-
field of Chickamauga, Sept., 1863, the Confederates under
Bragg at once seized the passes which covered his line of
supplies from Bridgeport, and, sending a cavalry force across
the Tennessee above Chattanooga, struck various points
on the railroad, making the supplying of the army difficult
and hazardous. Gen. Grant relieved Gen. Rosecrans in
October, and assumed general command of the departments
of the Tennessee, Cumberland, and Ohio. Gen. Thomas
was placed in immediate command of the department of
the Cumberland, and Gen. Sherman, who had been tele-
graphed to bring his corps up at once from Mississippi,
was assigned to the department of the Tennessee. The
supply of the army at Chattanooga, being of the first im-
portance, Gen. Grant ordered Hooker with the Eleventh
and Twelfth corps, which had been sent from the Army of
the Potomac, to cross at Bridgeport and menace Bragg with
a flank attack, while a force under W. F. Smith was to be
thrown across the river at Brown’s Ferry, a few miles below
Chattanooga, and secure the points of Lookout Mountain
commanding the river. These operations were successfully
carried out on the 27th, 28th, and 29th of October, and,
communication restored with the dépôt of supplies. The
loss in these operations for reopening communication on
the S. side of the Tennessee, on the side of the U. S., had
been about 450, while the Confederate loss is estimated as
high as 1500. -
Gen. Sherman’s army was now coming up, and on the
23d of November the movement against the Confederates
was commenced. Gen. Thomas's troops attacked the Con-
federate left at 2 P. M., and carried the first line of rifle-
pits, which was held during the night. The battle was
renewed on the 24th along the whole line. Sherman car-
ried the end of Missionary Ridge nearly up to the railroad
tunnel; Thomas had strengthened himself in his advanced
position, and repelled every attempt on the part of the
894
CHATTEL–CHAUCER.
Confederates to recover their lost position at the centre;
while Hooker had been fighting desperately, and had par-
tially carried Lookout Mountain, and intrenched himself
in a strong position, the Confederates abandoning the
mountain entirely during the night. Fighting was re-
sumed at early dawn of the 25th, continuing until dark.
Missionary Ridge, Lookout Mountain top, and all the rifle-
its in Chattanooga valley were now in possession of the
E. S. troops, having been carried after a most desperate
struggle. The Confederate army was routed, and pursued
by Sherman and Hooker back to Georgia. A severe fight
occurred at Taylor's Ridge, near Ringgold, Ga., Nov. 27,
resulting in dislodging the Confederates, after which
their retreat continued. Forty cannon and thousands of
small-arms were captured. The loss on the part of the
U. S. forces amounted to between 6000 and 7000 in killed,
wounded, and missing. The Confederate loss in killed and
wounded is estimated at 2500; in prisoners, 6000. The
result of this battle cut off Bragg from communication with
Longstreet, and forced the latter to abandon the siege of
Knoxville and retreat to Virginia.
This battle must be regarded as one of the most remark-
able of the war, owing to the apparently impregnable posi-
tion held by the Confederate army upon lofty mountains.
Pop. 6093. ED. CHATTANoogA “TIMES.”
Chatſtel [remotely from the Lat. capitalis, a man’s
“capital” or property], in law. This is a word of com-
prehensive meaning, and, with certain exceptions, includes
all property of a personal or movable nature. The com-
mon law distinguishes between hereditaments on the one
hand and chattels on the other. Though this distinction
is in the main founded on a difference in the nature of
things, the one being in general immovable and the other
movable, yet it is in part arbitrary, since there are some
things which are in their nature chattels, and yet in law,
in a particular case or for some special purposes, within the
rules governing interests in land. No one could deny that
pigeons are in general movables or chattels, yet they might
become so connected with the land by their abode in a
pigeon-house as to descend as land to an heir. The same
remark might be made of a key of a house, which, though
in its owner's pocket, might be regarded in law as part of
the house or land. Mr. Austin expresses the same idea in
the following words: “Things which are physically mov-
able may be immovable by institution.” So in some cases
an owner’s intention may impress upon a movable thing
the legal qualities of an immovable, as where money is
directed by a testator to be laid out in land, it is for legal
purposes deemed to be land. These same doctrines may
be regarded from an opposite point of view, and that which
is really land may become in contemplation of law a chattel,
as where land is directed by a testator to be sold and con-
verted into money. Certain temporary interests in land
are in law treated as chattels of a peculiar nature (chattels
real), such as leases for a definite number of years. There
is here no completeness of classification, and much time
must be spent by a legal practitioner in acquiring arbitrary
distinctions, and particularly in determining when chattels
attached to the land are to be deemed a part of it. The
addition of machinery, buildings, trees, and shrubs to
land, either by the owner or some stranger, has given rise
to an important class of questions usually treated under the
term “fixtures.”
Chattels personal are usually sub-divided by text-writers
into two principal classes: such as are in possession and in
action. The first term needs no special explanation. It
would include the common case of a movable thing, like a
watch or a domestic animal, in the possession or under the
control of its owner. A so-called thing in action, or chose
in action, is intangible. It is a mere right, and can only
be made available or reduced into possession by a legal
proceeding. An instance is a note or bond, or, according
to some authorities, a right to recover damages for a Wrong
committed. This classification is imperfect, as it is plain
that there are some rights which cannot be brought within
it; such as patents or copyrights, which, though derived
from the state and in the nature of monopolies, are con-
sidered as chattels. Some writers would discard this com-
mon-law distinction, and divide property of a movable
nature into corporeal and incorporeal. This is not satis-
factory, for, though such a distinction is prevalent in the
Iaw of real estate, it is well shown by Mr. Austin to be
unphilosophical. He advocates a classification which phi-
losophically seems to be correct between those rights which
can be affirmed against all persons, and those which can
only be asserted against particular persons and those who
represent them. The former case is equivalent to complete
ownership, such as that of a field or watch ; the latter is
illustrated by the rights growing out of a contract, or even
a wrong, as no one could claim these except a party to
the contract or one injured by the Wrong. While the Com-
prehension of these distinctions is of service to the student
in tending to give him clear conceptions of his subject, the
old classification cannot be disregarded by the practising
lawyer, who is so bound by precedent that he cannot ask a
court to dismiss from its view elementary propositions con-
cerning things in possession and things in action. We
would adopt the words of Mr. Maine, who says: “The
lawyers of all Systems have spared no pains in striving to
refer these classifications to some intelligible principle, but
the reasons of the severance must ever be vainly sought for
in the philosophy of law. They belong not to its philo-
sophy, but to its history.” They must be accepted as his-
torical facts. They can only be reduced to symmetry, if at
all, by legislation. (See, for further distinctions, PROPERTY,
Own ERs.HIP, and TITLE.) (Consult AUSTIN, “On Juris-
prudence,” 3d ed. ; WILLIAMs, “On Personal Property;”
SCHOULER on the same ; KENT’s “Commentaries.”)
T. W. DWIGHT.
Chatſterer, a significant popular name often given to
birds of the family Ampelidae, which belongs to the order
Insessores and tribe Dentirostres. The chatterers have de-
pressed bills like those of flycatchers, but rather shorter
and broader in proportion. They feed chiefly on insects and
their larvae. Many of them have richly-colored plumage,
and some of them have excellent powers of song.
Chatſterton (THOMAs), an English poet, born at Bris-
tol Nov. 20, 1752. He was a precocious youth, fond of an-
tiquities, and was educated at the parish school. He be-
gan to write verses at the age of twelve, and was appren-
ticed to an attorney of Bristol in 1767. Soon after this
date he exhibited to his friends manuscript copies of poems
which he said were composed by Rowley, a monk of the
fifteenth century, and produced other ingenious fabrica-
`tions. Disgusted with the drudgery of legal studies and
business, he removed to London in April, 1770, and adopted
the profession of author. He produced with great rapidity
songs, satiric poems, letters in the style of Junius, and other
works, some of which were inserted in the public journals,
but brought him little remuneration. He was reduced to
extreme destitution, and was found dead in his lodging-
room in Aug., 1770. Among his poems are “The Tragedy
of Ella,” “The Battle of Hastings,” and the “Tournament.”
(See JoHN DIx, “Life of T. Chatterton,” 1837; “Edinburgh
Review” for April, 1804 (by SIR WALTER SCOTT); T. CAMP-
BELL, “Specimens of the British Poets.”)
Chattoo/ga, a county in the N. W. of Georgia. Area,
360 square miles. It is drained by the Chattooga River
and several creeks. The surface is diversified by moun-
tains or high ridges and fertile valleys. Cotton, tobacco,
and grain are raised. Limestone, marble, iron, and lead are
found here. Capital, Summerville. Pop. 6902.
Chattooga, a township of Oconee co., S. C. Pop. 596.
Chau/cer (GEOFFREY) was born before 1346, and died
in 1400. He was a son of John Chaucer, vintner of London.
Of the year and place of his birth nothing is known, though
much has been surmised or asserted. He deposed in Oct.,
1386, that he was of the “age of forty and upwards,” and
had been armed twenty-seven years. A Geoffrey Chaucer
was in the service of Lionel, third son of Edward III., in
1357, not improbably in the condition of page. The poet
himself has told us that he was in the army which invaded
France in the autumn of 1359, and that this was his first
military service. It appears from public records that he
was a valet of the king’s chamber—a place always filled by
gentlemen—in 1367, and that in June of the same year the
king granted him a salary for life, or till he was otherwise
provided for, in consideration of services past and to be
rendered. Before this time he had married Philippa, pos-
sibly a daughter of Sir Payne Rouet and sister of the third
wife of John of Gaunt, certainly a lady in the household of
the queen. At various times from 1370 to 1380 Chaucer
was employed on royal missions in Italy, France, and Flan-
ders, and for somewhat more than ten years from 1374 he held
offices in the customs. He was elected to Parliament for
Kent in the year 1386, but towards the end of that year was
dismissed, for reasons unknown, from his place in the cus-
toms; and although he received other public appointments
in 1389, he lost them again, and remained in comparative
poverty until the accession of Henry IV., whose favor he
immediately received, but lived only a year to enjoy.
Chaucer left behind him neither property nor descendants.
His wife died in 1387, and a son, Lewis, to whom he dedi-
cated a treatise on the astrolabe in 1391, is not heard of
after that. Thomas Chaucer, a person of great wealth and
consideration, has generally been assumed to be a son of
the poet, but upon insufficient evidence.
The chief work of Chaucer, and one which has secured
him an immortal and still brightening fame, is “ The Can-
terbury Tales,” a series of about twenty stories narrated by
pilgrims to the shrine of Saint Thomas. The persons and
CHAUDET-CHAZY.
S95
characters of the pilgrims are sketched with marvellous
spirit in an introductory Prologue, and both here and in
the tales there is displayed a dramatic power of the comic
sort second only, and scarcely second, to Shakspeare's.
“Troilus and Cressida,” “The House of Fame,” and “The
Legend of Good Women’’ are also admirable poems. “The
Canterbury Tales” were excellently edited by Thomas Tyr-
whitt in 1773, and his edition has not been superseded. The
best edition of the other poems is by Robert Bell. A society
was formed in 1868 for the purpose of printing a selection
of the best texts of Chaucer's poems, and has accomplished
the larger part of its work. F. J. CHILD.
Chaudet (ANTOINE DENIS), an eminent French sculptor
and painter, born in Paris in 1763. He studied in Rome,
worked in Paris, and was chosen a member of the Institute
about 1805. Among his best works are “Paul and Vir-
ginia,” “Cincinnatus,” and a bas-relief of “Joseph Sold by
his Brethren.” Died in 1810.
Chaudière, a river of the Dominion of Canada, rises
in the S. part of the province of Quebec, flows northward,
and enters the St. Lawrence about 7 miles above Quebec.
Length, 120 miles. Two and a half miles from its mouth
is a remarkable cataract, called the Falls of the Chaudière,
which is about 100 feet high.
Chaudière, a lake of Canada, about 15 miles W. of the
city of Ottawa, is an expansion of the Ottawa River.
Chaudordy, de (EMILE), CoMTE, a French statesman,
was after 1855 employed in the French ministry of foreign
affairs. He retained his position under Jules Favre, and
went as the representative of Favre with the delegation of
the provisional government in Sept., 1870, to Tours, and in
Jan., 1871, to Bordeaux.
Chaud' war', an ancient and ruined city of Hindostan,
in Orissa, near Cuttack. The ruins extend many miles, and
include the remains of several temples and reservoirs.
Scarcely any parts of the temples are visible except the
foundations. -
Chaumonot (PIERRE MARIE Joseph), a French Jesuit
and missionary to the North American Indians. He was
born in France in 1611, went to Canada, in 1639, and after
many labors and hardships died near Quebec in 1693. He
wrote a grammar of the Huron language, which was pub-
lished in 1835.
Chaumont, a fortified town of France, capital of the
department of Haute-Marne, is on an eminence near the
river Marne, about 141 miles E. S. E. of Paris. It is con-
nected by railways with Paris, Troyes, and Vesoul. It
has a triumphal arch commenced by Napoleon, and a pub-
lic library of 35,000 volumes; also manufactures of drugget,
hosiery, cotton yarn, and gloves. On Mar. 1, 1814, the
allied powers here concluded a treaty against Napoleon.
Pop. 8285.
Chaumont, a post-village of Lyme township, Jefferson
co., N. Y., situated on Chaumont Bay, an inlet of Lake
Ontario, at the mouth of Chaumont River. It has exten-
sive fisheries and large quarries of excellent limestone.
Pop. 370.
Chauncey, a post-village of Dover township, Athens
co., O. Pop. 201.
Chaun'cey (CHARLEs), B. D., second president of Har-
vard University, was born in England in 1592, and edu-
cated at Cambridge, where he was a professor of Greek and
Hebrew. He came to New England in 1638, became presi-
dent of Harvard in 1654, and died Feb. 19, 1672.
Chauncey (CHARLEs), L.L.D., an American lawyer,
born at New Haven, Conn., Aug. 17, 1777, graduated at
Yale in 1792. He removed to Philadelphia about 1798, and
practised there with much distinction. Died Aug. 30, 1849.
—His father, CHARLEs CHAUNCEY, LL.D. (1747–1823), was
an eminent jurist of Connecticut.
Chauncey (ISAAC), a commodore in the U. S. navy,
born at Black Rock, Fairfield co., Conn., Feb. 20, 1772. At
an early age he manifested a love for the sea, and entered
the merchant service about 1785, displaying such energy
and ability that he obtained command of a ship when he
was only nineteen years old. During one of his voyages
between Charleston and New York the entire crew and all
the officers were stricken down with yellow fever, and
Chauncey, alone and unaided, brought the vessel safely to
New York. On the organization of the navy in 1798,
Chauncey was appointed a lieutenant, was promoted to be
commandant in 1802, and captain in 1806. He served with
distinction in the war with Tripoli, and for his services
there received the thanks of Congress, which body also
voted him a sword, but the resolution was never carried
into effect. He was in command of the navy-yard at
Brooklyn, N. Y., from 1808 till the outbreak of the war
with Great Britain, when he was placed in the command of
the lakes. He reached Sackett's Harbor Oct., 1812, and at
once entered upon the important and arduous duties on
shore of supervising the construction of a fleet, while at the
same time he was obliged to maintain a sharp lookout for
the enemy on the lakes, naval Superiority on those waters
being of the greatest importance to both nations. Chaun-
cey retained this important command till the close of the
war, and won for himself the highest honors for gallantry
and skill as a naval commander. He subsequently com-
manded the Mediterranean squadron (1816–18), was in com-
mand of the navy-yard at Brooklyn, and was president of
the navy commission at the time of his death, which oc-
cured in Washington Jan. 27, 1840. No officer of the
navy ever served his country more faithfully, or better ac-
quitted himself of the high trusts reposed in him.
Chauncey (JoHN S.). See APPENDIx.
Chauny, a town of France, department of Aisne, at the
commencement of the canal of St.-Quentin, and on a rail-
way, 18 miles W. of Laon. It is partly built on an island
in the Oise, here navigable. It has an active trade, and
manufactures of hosiery, chemicals, etc. Pop. 9080.
Chausses, shöss, a French word signifying “hose,”
stockings, or breeches. In the armor of the Middle Ages
it was the name of defence-pieces for the legs. Some of
them were made of chain-mail, some of riveted plates, and
others of padded and quilted cloth.
Chautau/qua, the most western county of New York.
Area, 1099 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by
Lake Erie, and is drained by Conewango Creek. Among
its features is CHAUTAUQUA LAKE (which see). The surface
is partly undulating; the soil is fertile. Grain, hay, fruit,
and dairy products are extensively raised. The manufac-
turing interests are increasing; they include carriages,
lumber, leather and leather goods, flour, cooperage, metal-
lic wares, etc. There is a spring of inflammable gas at Fre-
donia, used to illuminate the houses. This county is inter-
sected by the Erie R. R., the Atlantic and Great Western
R. R., the Buffalo Corry and Pittsburg R. R., and the Lake
Shore R. R. Capital, Mayville. Pop. 59,327.
Chautauqua, a township of Chautauqua co., N. Y. It
contains Mayville, the capital of the county. Pop. 3064.
Chautauqua Lake, in Chautauqua co., N. Y., is
a beautiful sheet of water about 18 miles long and from 1
to 3 miles wide. It is 726 feet higher than Lake Erie, and
is said to be the highest navigable water in the U. S. The
surplus water flows through an outlet into Conewango
Creek. Steamboats ply between the outlet and Mayville,
which is at the N. W. end of the lake. Near the S. E. end
is the large village of Jamestown.
Chauvenet (WILLIAM), L.L.D., a mathematician, born
in Pennsylvania in 1820, graduated at Yale in 1840. He
was professor of mathematics and astronomy at the U. S.
Naval Academy at Annapolis, Md. (1845–59), and the
author of several works on those sciences. Died in 1870.
Chauve-Souris. See BAT.
Chauvinisme, a French term derived from Chauvin,
a character in a popular comedy which was performed at
the time of the restoration of the Bourbons, 1815. Chauvin
was a bragging veteran of Napoleon’s army, who talked
much of Austerlitz and Jena, and vowed to take revenge
for the battle of Waterloo. A Chauviniste may be defined
as one who has exaggerated and ridiculous sentiments of
patriotism, and is excessively warlike or quarrelsome.
Chaux-de-Fonds, a town of Switzerland, in the canton
of Neufchâtel, is situated in a marrow gorge of the Jura
Mountains, 9 miles N. W. of Neufchâtel. It is 3070 feet
above the level of the sea. It has extensive manufactures
of clocks and watches. Above 160,000 watches are manu-
factured annually. Nearly every house of this town is
surrounded by a garden. Pop. in 1870, 19,930.
Cha’ves (anc. Aquae Flaviae), a town of Portugal, prov-
ince of Villa Real, on the river Tamega, 52 miles W. of
Braganza. It was once fortified, and has a Roman bridge of
eighteen arches over the river. Here are hot saline springs,
and baths which are well frequented. Pop. 6382.
Chay-Root, Choya, or Indian Madder (Olden-
landia wºmbellata), an herb of the order Rubiaceae, a native
both of India, and of Mexico, cultivated in India for its
roots, the bark of which affords a beautiful red dye. The
quality is improved by keeping. . The coloring-matter is
used to paint the red figures on chintz. Several plants of
this genus abound in the U. S.
Chaºzy, a post-village of Clinton Co., N. Y., in Chazy
township, about 13 miles N. of Plattsburg., Chazy town-
ship is bounded on the E. by Lake Champlain. The village
is on the Montreal and Plattsburg R. R. Pop. of town-
ship, 3206.
896
CHAZY LIMESTONE–CHECK.
Chazy Limestone, a member of the lower Silurian
formation, derives its name from Chazy in Clinton co., N. Y.
According to Dana, the Trentèn period of geology is
divided into two epochs, one of which is called the Chazy
epoch. . .
"chea. die, a neat town of England, in the county of
Stafford, in a pleasant valley, 180+ miles by rail N. W. of
London. It has a fine Gothic fifteenth-century church, and
manufactures of cotton tape; also copper- and brass-works.
Pop. 3191; of parish, 4803. -
Cheat, in law. This topic may be considered under
two principal divisions: 1, at common law; 2, by statute,
then termed “false pretences.”
1. The common law regarded a “cheat” as a crime when
one person defrauded another not by mere words, but by
some outward and visible means, such as a false token or
sign. A mere lie was not in this sense a cheat, though in
a civil sense and as a basis for a civil action it may amount
to a fraud. Thus, the act of marking false brands upon arti-
cles sold, calculated to deceive and defraud persons in gen-
eral, would come within the scope of the criminal offence.
This view led to fine-spun and artificial distinctions. For
example, if a man in purchasing goods gave his own check
on a bank in which he knew that he had no funds, it would
be a mere lie reduced to writing, and thus not a cheat;
while if he gave another man’s check under the same cir-
cumstances, the act would be cheating, as the paper was
then a token or symbol. Under these rules false persona-
tion may be a common-law cheat, particularly where the
personator by dress or tokens represents himself to be an-
other person, and thus causes injury to others. Some have
even maintained that the defrauder might himself be a
symbol or token, as where, knowing that he held a relation
(such as apprenticeship) which prevented him from enter-
ing into a public engagement (enlisting as a soldier), he
professed to be able to, and did in fact, enter into it.
The crime of forgery, though usually, from its magni-
tude as an offence, discussed separately from the various
classes of cheats, is, in reality, comprised within the same
category. The “false token or sign º’ necessary to consti-
tute cheating at common law must be of such a nature that
its tendency in general would be to deceive, though in fact
it may be used only to injure particular individuals; as,
e.g., the use of false dice in games of chance. Moreover,
it is essential that any injury sustained be properly at-
tributable to some confidence or belief which the use of
the token, etc. inspired. If other considerations than the
device influence a person’s action, there is merely an at-
tempt to cheat. This is, however, also indictable. Cheat-
ing belongs to the lower grade of criminal offences, termed
“misdemeanors.” - -
2. False Pretences constitute a very reprehensible mode
of fraudulent deception. The failure of the common law
to provide a remedy where no symbol was employed made
statutory provisions necessary for wrongs thus occasioned.
Reference, can here be made only to such regulations as
the various States have generally agreed in establishing.
False pretences, may be defined as false representations,
with intent to defraud, by words or acts concerning past
or present facts and events. Statements of a promissory
nature in regard to any future transaction, and perhaps
all representations as to the future, are insufficient to afford
a ground for prosecution. The false representation may
be made by acts without words, as if one purports by his
peculiar dress to belong to a particular institution of learn-
ing, such as Cambridge University.
also be referred to. Mere expressions of opinion, however,
or mere exaggerations of language, by which no reasonable
man would be influenced, cannot be considered false pre-
tences within the statutes. It is a further rule that the
deception practised must be the efficient operative cause
of the injury sustained. The criterion always is, Whether,
if there had been no such deceit practised, the transaction
between the parties would have been consummated 2 There
has been much discussion upon the point whether the rep-
resentation must be calculated to deceive a person of or-
dinary prudence, or whether it will be sufficient, though the
party was weak, that he was actually defrauded. The
question is still open. The false pretence may be made by
an agent in such a way as to make his principal criminally
liable.
Property acquired under false pretences is held by the
wrongful possessor under a voidable title as regards the
true owner, but if transferred to an honest purchaser, who
acts in good faith, without knowledge of the fraud, the
latter's claim is indefeasible. On the other hand, when
goods are stolen the thief can, with but few exceptions,
give no better title than he himself possesses. The reason
for the difference is, that in the one case the wrong-doer
acts with the owner's consent, even though it be procured
fraudulently, while in the other his will is in no way ex-
A false sample may,
erted. . According to general principles, this offence would
be a misdemeanor, though the statutes of some of the States
make it a felony. . . T. W. DWIGHT.
Cheatſham, a county of the N. part of Middle Ten-
nessee. Area, 375 square miles. It is intersected by the
Cumberland River and the Harpeth. The surface is un-
dulating. Tobacco, corn, wheat, and oats are the staple
crops. Lumber is an important product. It is traversed
by the Nashville and North-western R. R. Capital, Ash-
land City. Pop. 6678.
Cheatham (B. F.), a general in the Confederate army,
born in Tennessee, served during the war with Mexico as
captain of Tennessee volunteers and as colonel Third Ten-
nessee Voltigeurs to July, 1848. During the recent civil
war he espoused the Confederate cause, was appointed
major-general, and bore a conspicuous part at Chicka-
mauga, Missionary Ridge, Franklin, Nashville, etc.
Cheat River, of West Virginia, is formed by the junc-
tion of several branches which rise among the Alleghanies
in Randolph county, and unite in Tucker county. It flows
nearly northward, and enters the Monongahela in Fayette
co., Pa. Its length without the branches is about 75 miles.
It takes its name from the extremely variable volume of
its waters; for while it is sometimes a large stream, it
often becomes in a few hours quite insignificant.
Chebanse, a post-village of Iroquois and Kankakee
cos, Ill., on the Central R. R., 65 miles S. S. W. of Chicago.
It has one newspaper, and has a very extensive trade in
grain. Pop. of township, 2530. ED. “ HERALD.”
Cheboy/gan, a county of Michigan, at the N. ex-
tremity of the Lower Peninsula, is bounded on the N. by
Lake Huron and traversed by the Cheboygan River. Lum-
ber, potatoes, and maple-sugar are the chief products.
Capital, Cheboygan. Pop. 2196. -
Cheboygan, a post-village, capital of Cheboygan co.,
Mich. It has one weekly newspaper. -
Check [Fr. &chec and cheque], a hindrance or obstruc-
tion, a curb or restraint; a repulse; a mark put against
names in going over a list; a token which is given to a
passenger on a railroad or steamboat, and is a duplicate
of a token fastened on his baggage in order to identify it.
Also a term used in the game of CHESS (which see). º
CHECK is also the name of a variegated cloth, the pattern
of which consists of quadrangles or rectangular spaces like
a chessboard. It is made of cotton, linen, or wool.
Check, or Cheque, a bill of exchange drawn upon
a bank or banker, or person holding a position similar to
that of a banker. It has some peculiarities which distin-
guish it from an ordinary bill of exchange, particularly
when it is payable without any specific mention of time.
It is then, in point of law, payable on demand and with-
out days of grace. If payable a fixed number of days after
date, it varies but slightly from a bill of exchange, and
will follow the ordinary rules as to days of grace. It is
usually said in the law-books that a check is not accepted
as a bill is. Acceptance, however, as will be seen here-
after, has recently become quite common, and is perfectly
lawful. A check may be considered under the following
heads: 1, Its form and requisites; 2, The duty of the
holder as to demand of payment (a) towards the drawer,
(b) towards the endorser, and herein of crossed checks; 3,
The effect of the check upon the banker, and, under this,
of acceptance; 4, A check considered as payment of a debt
or as cash; 5, The civil and criminal liability of drawers
having no funds. -
I. A check in its ordinary form is simply an order ad-
dressed to the banker to pay a person named or his
order or bearer, or the equivalent of a bearer (such as a
mere numeral), a sum of money. A check may preserve
this form and be post-dated. This class of checks is not
used in England, owing to the provisions of the stamp acts.
It is quite common at the present time to make a check
payable to order, as the endorsement of the name of the
payee operates as a receipt. In some instances a note may
amount to a check. Thus, if a customer makes a mote
payable at his bank, he implicitly requests its payment in
the same general manner as if he had drawn his check.
In filling up a check care should be taken to so draw it
that additional words, which might increase its amount,
cannot be inserted in blank spaces. Thus, if the drawer
had written the words “fifty dollars,” and had left suffi-
cient space between the word “fifty " and that which pre:
ceded it to insert “one hundred and,” and such words had
been fraudulently inserted, and the bank had paid the
check in good faith, supposing it to be drawn for one hun-
dred and fifty dollars, the drawer would be the loser.
When, on the other hand, due caution has been exercised,
the loss from forgeries will fall on the bank, rather than
on the drawer, though the former may in some instances
recover from the holder. The drawer may simply sign his
name to a blank printed form of check, or even to a blank
sheet of paper, at the same time authorizing it to be sub-
sequently filled up by some person acting in his behalf.
If so filled he will be bound. Even should the agent act-
ing fraudulently fill it up for a larger sum than was
directed, the drawer would still be bound to a person who
took the check in good faith. This would not be strictly a
case of forgery, but that of an agent defrauding his prin-
cipal, and yet acting within his apparent authority.
2. The Duty of the Holder as to Demand and Notice: (a)
As to the Drawer.—The drawer has a right to expect that
the holder will demand payment with promptitude, as, if
the banker fails to pay, recourse may be had to him. Pre-
sentment should be made, in general, as early as the next
day, and if payment is not made, due notice given. How-
ever, a failure to present is not necessarily fatal to the holder's
claim. Whether it is or not depends on the fact whether
an injury is caused to the drawer. If, for example, he
had no funds in the bank, want of presentment is unim-
portant, as it is plain that he sustains no harm; so, if after
giving the check, he withdraws his funds. If, however, the
banker should become insolvent with sufficient funds of the
drawer in his possession, want of presentment would be a
sufficient defence. (b) Demand as to Endorsers.-Endorse-
ments upon checks are common. An endorsement is neces-
sary when the instrument is payable to order; it is admis-
sible when payable to bearer. The legal effect of endorse-
ment, as in the case of a bill of exchange, is to make the
endorser liable, provided that the steps necessary to charge
him are taken. These are substantially the same as in bills
of exchange. There are cases in which no presentment is
necessary to bind the endorser, as where he endorses and
puts in circulation a void or forged check, even though he
does this innocently. In some cases custom enlarges the
time for presentment. Thus, if there be a custom to pay
checks through the “clearing-house” (see CLEARING-
Housſº), the time required for them to pass through the
system of exchanges there adopted will be allowed. In
England a practice of crossing checks is resorted to. A
check is said to be “crossed” when it is marked by the
drawer in such a way that, instead of being presented
through an ordinary holder, it must come to the paying
bank through a banker. This practice has given rise to a
number of perplexing questions recently settled by statute
(21 and 22 Vict. ch. 79). The additional time necessary to
present the check in this manner must of course be allowed
there to the holder. It is believed that crossing checks is
not practised in this country. A practice has grown up in
some of our large cities to pay drafts drawn on bankers by
checks drawn by such bankers, in turn, upon some regu-
larly organized bank, instead of cash. This practice has
an important effect upon the subject of demand. Though
the check is not payment of the draft, yet it must be pre-
sented on the same day that it is received, or the drawers
of the draft may be discharged. The holder of the draft
might have insisted on the money instead of taking the
check, and if not paid might have protested the draft.
3. Effect of the Check on the Banker on whom it is Drawn,
and herein of Acceptance.—According to the better opinion,
a check gives no right of action to the holder against the
banker. Of course the latter should, in general, pay it, but
the holder has no means of enforcing this obligation if the
banker refuses to perform it. This rule grows out of the
nature of a deposit in a bank, in respect to which there is
much popular misconception. This fact is perhaps partly
due to the ambiguity lurking in the word “deposit.” This
is sometimes and properly used to mean the act of entrust-
ing a specific chattel to a person, who is bound to return
the identical thing delivered to him. That, however, is
not the nature of an ordinary bank account against which
checks are drawn. The banker is not bound to render the
specific money delivered, but only engages to pay an
equivalent amount. The relation of debtor and creditor is
created by the transaction. Although the banker is bound
to pay checks when he is in funds, it is a duty between him
and the depositor or creditor. It cannot be enforced by the
payee of the check, who is no party to the contract. Nor
can the check be treated as an assignment by the depositor
of so much money as it represents. These rules have led
to a very important practice of certifying checks. An offi-
cer of a bank—e.g. a teller or cashier—has by custom ac-
quired an authority to mark such checks as are presented
to him as good. This act is treated in law as an accept-
ance, and the bank becomes liable. The practice is attended
with danger, as it practically gives to a teller power to es-
tablish without limit fictitious claims against the bank, as
he may certify checks for persons who have overdrawn
their accounts, or even who have closed their accounts, or
have had no dealings with the bank, which will still be
binding upon it on general principles of law. (See AGENT,
CHECKERS–CHEESE.
897.
Estoppel, and BILL OF EXCHANGE.) A cashier or teller,
however, cannot, where he has no funds, validly certify his
own check. On the other hand, certification of a check is
attended with some hazard to the holder, as he may thereby
release the drawer should the bank fail even on the same
day and between the time of certification and of present-
ment for payment. (National Bank of Jersey &; agt.
Leach, N. Y. Court of Appeals, 1873.) In the financial crisis
of 1873 in New York certified bank-checks by general con-
sent played an important part in monetary transactions,
and became for a considerable time, through the association
of a number of national banks, a substitute for currency.
It may be added that banks sometimes pay checks for cus-
tomers who have no balance due them. These are called
“overdrafts.” The bank in such a case has a claim upon
the dealer for the sum overdrawn.
4. A Check Considered as Payment or as Cash.--The
general presumption of law is that a check is issued by a.
drawer to a payee in payment of debt, and not as a means
of making a loan. The intention, however, may be shown
by affirmative proof. Considered as payment, it is not in
general absolute. It is rather a means of obtaining pay-
ment, whether it be the debtor's own check or that of a
third person. Accordingly, if the check is not paid, the
creditor may resort to his original claim, though if there
be an agreement to receive the check as full payment, it
must be followed. In other words, a check is not money,
but a means of obtaining money, and debts cannot be paid
in anything but money, unless there be an agreement for
some substitute. The gift of one’s own check, unless it be
certified, is a mere naked promise, and may be counter-
manded at any time before payment. The death of a
drawer in such a case before payment would be a revoca-
tion of the authority. It is common for a bank to receive
on deposit not only cash, but checks drawn either on itself
or on some other bank, payable to the depositor. Such a
deposit is not to be treated as cash in case the check is
drawn on another bank. It is rather received condition-
ally, in case it turns out to be good, and the depositor will
be liable on his endorsement, which is usually required.
Where, however, the check is given by another dealer, the
receiving bank is absolutely bound by the credit which it
gives the depositor as if it had paid the check.
5. Civil and Criminal Liability of Drawers of Checks
having no Funds with the Bañk : (a) Civil Liability.—It is
a general rule that a man who draws a check with know-
ledge that he has no funds commits a fraud towards the
payee. If he should purchase goods under such circum-
stances, the seller could rescind the sale as fraudulent. It
will not be enough to sustain the sale that he has reasonable
grounds to expect funds, but they must be actually on hand
to pay the check. This view proceeds upon the theory that
a check is in the nature of a representation that the money
is immediately available; and where a drawer has notice
to the contrary he makes a representation known to be
false which avoids the contract as between him and the seller,
though it would be otherwise should the rights of innocent
purchasers intervene. (See SALES.) (Loughran agt. Barry, 6
Irish Com. Pleas, 457, A. D. 1872.) (b) Criminal Liability.—
It was not a crime at common law to give one’s own check
for goods bought with knowledge that it was worthless,
since this was only an affirmation or a base lie reduced to
writing, and there was no token or symbol of falsehood on
which the common law lays stress. It might accordingly
be a criminal cheat (see CHEAT) knowingly to pass off
the worthless check of another. Under the statutory of .
fence of false pretences it is criminal to give one's own
check on such a sale, knowing that the drawer had no
funds nor any reasonable grounds of expecting them.
There might be cases, such as that of Loughran against
Barry, above cited, where the contract would be rescinded
on account of a representation known to be false, and yet
the drawer would not be guilty of crime, by reason of the
absence of a true criminal intent. (See farther SHAw
“On the Law of Bankers’ Checks,” London, 1871; also
PARSONs “On Bills and Notes;” and other text-writers on
same subject, as CHITTY, BYLES, STORY, etc.)
T. W. DWIGHT.
Checkers. See DRAUGHTS.
Chedu/ba, an East Indian island, in the Bay of Ben-
gal, near Aracan, has an area of about 250 square miles.
It is about lat. 18° 50' N. and lon. 93° 40' E. The soil is
fertile, and produces cotton, sugar, rice, indigo, etc. This
island was captured from the Burmese by the British in 1824.
Cheek’s Creek, a township of Montgomery co., N. C.
Pop. 960. -
Cheese [Lat. casews; Ger. Käse], the coagulated, pressed,
and dried caseine of milk, containing also a large per-
centage of water, with some salt, oil (butter), etc. It is
extensively prepared for food, chiefly from the milk of .
57
898.
cows, but that of goats, sheep, asses, and other animals is
used to some extent in various countries.
caseine of peas is pressed and dried into cakes, which
resemble cheese in taste, as well as chemical composi-
tion. Cheese often contains various coloring-matters, gen-
erally anatto, which is added for its rich golden color, or
herbs, which are employed to give it a green or mottled
appearance. Coagulation is usually produced by the addi-
tion of rennet, which is usually prepared from the stomach
of young calves, and which, from the pepsin and other
active principles derived from the gastric juice, is believed
to give to cheese a stomachic or eupeptic property, so that
its use is recommended in some cases of dyspepsia. Wa-
rious plants, such as the yellow bedstraw of Europe (Galium
verum) and the Pinguicula vulgaris, or butterwort, are in .
some places employed instead of rennet. Hydrochloric
acid is used in Holland. The process of making cheese
varies in different places. Generally, the milk is heated
to a temperature of from 100° to 112°F., the rennet added,
and the whole stands from half an hour to an hour, when
the curd is chopped, salted, drained, and pressed, so as
to consolidate the curd and expel the whey or serum of
the milk. The cheese-press is of various forms, and the
pressure to which cheese is subjected is in most cases very
great. Skimmed milk makes an inferior quality of cheese,
though some fine kinds, like the celebrated. Parmesan
cheese, are made from it. In the U. S. cheese is manufac-
tured on a larger scale in factories, which are often owned
by a large number of farmers in common; the result being,
on the whole, a decided improvement in the quality of the
product, with a large diminution of the cost of manufac-
ture. Great quantities of cheese are exported from the
U. S. to Great Britain and the West Indies.
Among the remarkable varieties of cheese may be men-
tioned those made at Stilton, Huntingdonshire, Cottenham,
Cambridgeshire, and the Vale of Cheddar, Gloucestershire,
England; the Scotch Dunlop cheese; the Highland cheese,
flavored with lovage leaves; the Swiss Gruyère and the
Schabzeiger, known as “sap-sago,” which is made green
with leaves of the melilot; other varieties of green cheese,
in which sage or grass is used; the globular and conical
cheeses, of which the Westphalian are celebrated. Among
the Dutch cheeses, that of Gouda is called the best. It
excels in keeping qualities. In parts of Germany boiled
potatoes are mashed and mixed with the curd. France
and Italy produce much excellent cheese. The English
cream and slip-coat cheese, and the German Schmirkäse,
are soft curds, often from sour milk, mixed with cream,
and sometimes flavored with pepper, etc. Some of the
stronger sorts of cheese are rasped fine and used as a con-
diment. The cheese of Limburg is partly putrefied before
it is ready to be eaten. The French Roquefort cheese is
made of sheep’s and goats’ milk, and ripened with much
care in caverns. Brie (French), Vaschrein (German), and
Neufchâtel (Swiss) cheese are made of pure cream. They
are successfully imitated in the U. S., as are all the more
famous European cheeses. The better qualities of the Lap-
lander’s reindeer cheese are highly commended by travel-
lers. Cheese is made in Europe and Asia from the milk of
the buffalo. In Arabia and the East buttermilk curds are
dried into a cheese which is powdered before eating. It is
a villainous product, not much relished even by the natives.
* CHARLEs W. GREENE.
Cheese-maggot, the larva of Piophila casei, a black
dipterous fly of the family Muscidae, to
which the house-fly belongs. The perfect
insect is three-twentieths of an inch long.
It is a pest of dairies, laying its eggs in
cracks of cheese, the destined food of its
larvae. To preserve cheeses from this - §
pest it is of advantage to brush or rub Ch. i.
them frequently, and to remove all in- €6Se-Iſlite.
jured cheeses, besides keeping them dry and in a well-aired
place. The same rules are applicable to their preservation
from the other insects by which they are sometimes infested.
Among these may be mentioned the cheese-mite, Tyro-
glyphus siro, of the family Acaridae. Those cheeses of the
Netherlands which are prepared with hydrochloric acid,
instead of rennet, are reported to be uninjured by insects,
but are rather hard.
Chee/tah, or Hunting Leopard, the Guepardo ju-
bata or Cymailurus jubatus, a carnivorous mammal of the
cat family, having longer legs than any of the true cats,
and approaching the Canidae in its almost non-retractile
claws, its manner of hunting, as well as in temper and dis-
position when tamed. It is found throughout Africa, and
in Asia, nearly as far N. as Siberia. It is generally spotted
like the leopard, but, like that animal, is sometimes entirely
black. In India, and Persia, it is trained for the chase of
antelopes and deer. The cheetah is kept leashed and hooded
In China, the .
CHEESE-MAGGOT-CHEKE.
until the game is found near, when it is let loose, and
drawing stealthily near its victim, it rushes suddenly upon
it, and can with difficulty be made to let go its hold. This
animal is readily domesticated. In Ceylon, the true leop-
ard is called cheetah.
Chee’ver (Ezeki EL), an eminent school-teacher, born
in London Jan. 25, 1615, ... emigrated to America in 1637.
He was one of the founders of the colony of New Haven,
where he taught for twelve years. He removed to Charles-
town, Mass., in 1661, and he taught in the Latin School in
Boston for thirty-eight years. Died Aug. 21, 1708.
Cheever (GEORGE BARRELL), D.D., an American divine,
born at Hallowell, Me., April 17, 1807, graduated at Bow-
doin College in 1825. In 1833 he became minister of a
Congregational church in Salem, Mass. He published, in
1835, a satirical allegory called “Deacon Giles's Distil-
lery,” for which he was prosecuted by a certain distiller,
and was condemned to imprisonment for thirty days. He
was distinguished as a zealous advocate of temperance and
as an opponent of slavery. In 1839 he removed to New York
City, and from 1846 to 1867 was pastor of the Church of
the Puritans in that city. Among his works are “Studies
in Poetry '' (1830), “Lectures on Pilgrim’s Progress”
(1843), and “Wanderings of a Pilgrim in the Shadow of
Mont Blanc * (1846). &
Cheever (Rev. HENRY THEODoRE), a younger brother
of the above, author of “Island World of the Pacific ’’
(1851) and other works, was born at Hallowell, Me., in
1814, and graduated at Bowdoin in 1834.
Cheha'iis, a river of Washington Territory, rises in
Tewis co. on the E. side of the Coast Range, flows in a
W. N. W. direction through Chehalis co., and enters Gray’s
Harbor. It is navigable for steamboats. Total length,
about 125 miles.
Chehalis, a county of Washington Territory, bordering
on the Pacific Ocean. Area, 1600 square miles. It is in-
tersected by the Chehalis River, and also drained by the
Satsop, Hoquium, and other small rivers. The surface is
hilly and undulating; the soil of the valleys is fertile. It
is mostly covered with dense forests of fir, cedar, spruce,
maple, and ash. Oats, wheat, wool, and potatoes are raised.
Coal is found. Capital, Montesano. Pop. 401.
Cheirol/epis [from the Gr. xeip, a “hand,” and Aetris,
a “scale”], a genus of fossil lepido-ganoid fishes peculiar to
the Devonian measures. Eight species have been found.
They had large heads, the spine rudimentary and the body
covered with small lozenge-shaped ganoid scales. The first
ray of each fin was converted into a strong spine. The
pectorals and ventrals were largely developed, the dorsal
small and farther back than the anal fin. The generic
name was given in allusion to the scaly pectoral fins.
Cheir one c/tes [from the Gr. xeip, the “hand,” and
váxo, to “swim "l, a genus of marsupial quadrupeds, dif:
fering from the opossums in having webbed feet and
Cheironectes.
aquatic habits. The only species, Cheironectes palmatus,
or the yapock, is common in Brazil and Guiana. It has a
soft woolly fur; the color of the upper parts of the body IS
gray, with large patches of black and a dorsal black line;
the breast and belly are white; the tail is long, thick at
the base, tapering, and covered with scales. . The cheek-
pouches are very large. Fishes, insects, and crustaceans
are the chief food of this animal, which is a marsupial rep-
resentative of the otter. (See also CHIRoNECTEs.)
Cheke (Sir John), an English scholar and Hellenist,
born at Cambridge June 14, 1514. He became in 1540 first
professor of Greek in the university of that place, and dis-
tinguished himself as a reviver of classical learning. In
1544 he was appointed Latin tutor to Prince Edward. He



CHE-KIANG—CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.
899
was secretary of state in 1553, but on the accession of
Queen Mary he was deprived of his office because he was a
Protestant, and he went into exile. He was seized in Flan-
ders in 1556 by the agents of Philip II. of Spain, and
taken to England. Compelled to choose between death by
fire and a profession of the Catholic religion, he accepted
the latter. Died Sept. 13, 1557. Of his numerous writings,
“The Hurt of Sedition ” (1549) and the translation of the
Gospel of Matthew are especially noteworthy. (See STRYPE,
“Life of Cheke,” 1705.)
Che-Kiang, a maritime province of China, area,
39,150 square miles, is intersected by the Grand Canal. The
soil is very fertile. Silk is the chief article of export. It
has manufactures of silk, crape, paper, etc. The chief
towns are Hang-Chow-Foo and Ningpo. Pop. 26,256,784.
Chelidonius. See SCHWALBER.
Chelms’ford, a town of England, capital of the county
of Essex, at the confluence of the Chelmer and Cann rivers,
on the Eastern Union Railway, 29 miles N. E. of London.
Two fine bridges cross the river here. The town is well
built, has an old church, a handsome county hall, a theatre,
and assembly-rooms. Pop. 5513.
Chelmsford, a post-township of Middlesex co., Mass.,
on the S. side of the Merrimack River. It contains the vil-
lage of North Chelmsford, on the Boston Lowell and Nashua
R. R., 3 miles W. of Lowell; also South Chelmsford and
West Chelmsford. The town is traversed by the Framing-
ham and Lowell and the Stony Brook R. R.S. It has gran-
ite-quarries and important manufactures. Pop. 2374.
Chelmsford (Sir FREDERICK THESIGER), LoRD, an
English lawyer and judge, born in London in 1794. He
became solicitor-general in 1844 and attorney-general in
1845, but he resigned in 1846. He was reappointed in
1852. On the formation of a conservative ministry in
1858, he was appointed lord chancellor and received the
title of Lord Chelmsford. He resigned with his colleagues
in June, 1859, and was again lord chancellor from July,
1866, to Feb., 1868. -
Chelo/nia [from the Gr. xextóvn, a “tortoise ’’], or
Testudina'ta, one of the three great orders of true rep-
tiles, characterized by the possession of a carapace or
horny dorsal shell composed of several united pieces; a
ventral shell, plastron, or sternum; a horny, bill-like
mouth, without teeth; eyes with three lids; and external
ear-openings. The carapace represents the blended ribs
and vertebrae, the plastron the sternum of other animals,
these elements being intimately blended with the proper
dermal elements. The spinal column is entirely immov-
able, for the vertebrae are thoroughly ankylosed with the
shell and with each other. The genus Emysawra forms a
transition from this order to the saurians through the alli-
gators and crocodiles, having its carapace much contracted,
while the neck, tail, and limbs are greatly elongated. The
lung-sacs of the Chelonia have their cavities subdivided
by imperfect partitions. They are very capacious, and the
large quantity of air they contain materially aids in buoy-
ing up the heavy body as the animal swims in the water.
Since the ribs and sides are fixed, the chelonians breathe
by gulping down air through the nostrils, thus filling the
lung-cavities for a time, the air being occasionally renewed.
The order is divided into two sub-orders—the Chelonii,
true or sea-turtles, which have the fore feet, or more fre-
quently both fore and hind feet, transformed into paddles;
and the Amydae, or land-tortoises. The sea-turtles com-
prise the largest living species, one of which, the Sphargis
coriacea of the Atlantic and Mediterranean, has been found
to weigh nearly 2000 pounds; but the fossil shell of Colos-
sochelys atlas, a land-tortoise of East Indian deposits, is
sometimes twenty feet long, and it must have weighed
much more than the Sphargis. The sea-turtles are of two
families—Sphargidae and Chelonoidae, or , loggerheads.
The land-tortoises are much more numerous in genera and
species, and are divided into seven or more families. They
are peculiarly abundant in North and South America, but
are found in nearly all warm and temperate regions.
There are several edible species both of land and sea
chelonians. The flesh of some others is disagreeable or
even injurious. The best known is the green turtle (Che-
lonia midas), found throughout a large part of the Atlantic,
but having its head-quarters about the Bahamas, and nota-
bly at Ascension Island in the South Atlantic. Another
famous edible species is the great Testwdo Indica, a land-
tortoise of the coasts of the Pacific and Indian oceans, of
which the head-quarters are at the Galapagos Islands.
Some species are valuable for their oil; others for that of
their eggs; and one at least, the Eretmochelys imbricata of
tropical seas, the inedible hawksbill turtle, affords the val-
uable tortoise-shell of commerce.
Tracks ascribed to chelonians have been found in tri-
assic rocks, but their remains are first observed in the
upper oolite. In the more recent formations their remains
are abundant in both hemispheres.
CHELONIA is also the name of a genus of sea-turtles, to
which the green turtle belongs.
Chel'sea, a populous south-western suburb of London,
in Middlesex, on the left (N.) bank of the Thames, 4%
miles W. S. W. of St. Paul's. The river is here crossed by
a fine iron bridge. Many of the nobility and gentry for-
merly resided at Chelsea. The principal public edifice is
the noble hospital for superannuated soldiers. (See CHEL-
SEA HospitaL.) Chelsea has waterworks for the supply of
London, a chain pier, and manufactures of floor cloth ; also
a training college for male teachers, and one for female
teachers. Here is a place of public amusement called Cre-
morne House Gardens. Pop. in 1871, 71,086.
Chelsea, a post-village of Hull township, Ottawa co.,
Quebec, Canada, on the Gatineau River, 8 miles from Ot-
tawa. It has a postal savings' bank and a large lumber-
trade. Pop. about 400.
Chelsea, a post-township of Butler co., Kan. Pop. 277.
Chelsea, a township of Kennebec co., Me., 3 miles E.
of Augusta. It contains the Togus mineral springs and
the U. S. military asylum. Pop. 1238.
Chelsea, a city of Suffolk co., Mass., is a north-eastern
suburb of Boston, and is 3 or 4 miles N. E. of Boston Com-
mon. It is separated from Charlestown by the Mystic
River, which is here crossed by the Chelsea Bridge. It is
bounded on the S. and S. E. by an inlet of the sea called
Chelsea Creek, which separates it from East Boston. Chel-
sea has a U. S. marine hospital and a U. S. naval powder-
magazine, eleven or more churches, an academy, two news-
papers, benevolent societies, a national and a savings bank,
and a large elastic rubber factory; also manufactures of
sewing-machines, brass-ware, linseed oil, iron safes, wool-
lens, brushes, machinery, tools, etc. It is connected with
Boston by the Eastern R. R. and by a ferry 14 miles
across. Pop. 18,547. ED. “TELEGRAPH AND ProNEER.”
Chelsea, a post-village of Sylvan township, Washtenaw
co., Mich., on the Michigan Central R. R., 55 miles from
Detroit. It has one weekly paper. Pop. 1013.
Chelsea, a post-village, capital of Orange co., Vt., 22
miles S. by E. from Montpelier. It has a national bank,
an academy, and manufactures of leather, lumber, and
woollen goods. Pop. including Chelsea township, 1526.
Chelsea Hospital, at Chelsea, England, is an asy-
lum for disabled or superannuated soldiers. Founded as a
college in 1610, it was made a hospital in 1682. It has
accommodations for about 660 persons, and is governed by
a board of commissioners, comprising, eac-officio, the lord
president of the council and the first lord of the treasury.
It supports about 500 in-pensioners and nearly 70,000 out-
pensioners. The former receive, besides board, lodging,
and clothing, a small sum of money, varying from eight
pence a week for a private soldier to three shillings six
pence for a color-sergeant. The out-pensioners receive
daily a sum of money varying from four pence to two
shillings six pence for life.
Cheltenham, chélt' nam, a town and fashionable wa-
tering-place of England, in the county of Gloucester, and
on the Bristol and Birmingham Railway, 96 miles by the
road or 121 by railway W. N. W. of London. It is pleas-
antly situated in a picturesque valley on the Chelt, a small
tributary of the Severn, and is sheltered on the E. and S. E.
by a semicircle of the Cotswold Hills. It derives its pros-
perity and importance from its mineral springs, which con-
tain sulphates of soda and magnesia, with iodine, iron, and
carbonic acid. It has elegant squares, terraces, and cres-
cents, and numerous villas, interspersed with gardens and
shrubberies. The public promenades are among the finest
in England. It has ten or more churches, besides chapels
of dissenters, a general hospital, a theatre, a zoological gar-
den, and a well-endowed grammar-school founded in 1574.
Cheltenham is famous for its colleges and schools, among
which is the proprietary college for the sons of gentlemen.
This has usually about 600 pupils. Pop. in 1871, 44,519.
Cheltenham, a post-township of Montgomery co., Pa.
Pop. 2462. r
Chemical Affinity. See AFFINITY.
Chemical Analysis is the identification and sepa-
ration of the elements of chemical compounds or mixtures
of any sort. When conducted, simply with reference to
determining what elements exist in any substance it is
termed qualitative analysis. When the absolute or relative
quantities of the elements are ascertained it is quantitative
analysis. The theory of qualitative chemical analysis is tº
put the substance to be analyzed under such conditions and
associations as shall cause ail its various elements, one after
another, to present certain characteristic phenomena or to
N
900
CHEMICAL
ANALYSIS.
enter into certain recognizable combinations, and is based
on the grand truth that each chemical element has constant
and absolute peculiarities which it carries into its com-
pounds. Thus, the fact that silver and mercury are the
only elements whose compounds with chlorine are insoluble
in dilute nitric acid, is taken advantage of to separate
these two metals from all others. Any nitric solution of
metals which is not made milky or turbid on the addition
of hydrochloric acid does not, and cannot, contain silver
or sub-salts of mercury. Again, any nitric solution wherein
hydrochloric acid produces a white milkiness or a white
curdy separation, or a fine dazzling white powder, which
neither dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute nitric acid, nor hot
water will clear up, must contain either silver or mercury,
or both. In case such a white separation—or “precipitate,”
as the chemist technically terms it—is formed by hydro-
chloric acid in a solution of metals, the liquid, together with
the suspended precipitate, is poured upon a filter (a conical
cup folded from a circle of paper specially prepared for the
purpose) sustained in a glass funnel. The liquid, which
retains all the other elements in solution, passes the pores
of the paper, but the precipitate of silver chloride and mer-
curous chloride remains upon it. The filter is next re-
peatedly filled with water until the acid liquid has been
washed out from the precipitate and the pores of the paper,
and we have them all the silver and all the mercury that
existed in the form of sub-salts in the filter, and all the
other elements in the “filtrate,” as the liquid which has
passed through is designated.
The substances which are employed to bring about those
chemical changes which serve the purposes of chemical
analysis are called reagents, and the chemical processes
themselves are termed reactions, for the reason that at least
two substances must always be involved in chemical trans-
formations, and that both act and are reacted upon. Thus
the hydrochloric acid employed in our separation of silver
and mercury from all other metals is a reagent, and the
precipitation is the evidence of a reaction.
Chemical reactions have been known and employed to
identify certain bodies from the earliest times. Pliny de-
scribed the use of paper dyed in nutgalls for detecting iron
sulphate when mixed with verdigris as an adulteration.
The reaction is a blackening of the paper (formation of
ink). In many cases it is easy to recognize a substance by
simply applying in this manner a single reagent, which is
then called a test. Thus, copper in its solutions is tested
by a bit of clean iron wire, which precipitates it as a red
powder. A clean piece of copper is a test for mercury in
solution, the latter metal forming a silvery coating on the
former. Lime-water is a test for carbonic acid gas, making
with it a white precipitate of carbonate of lime. Hydro-
chloric acid is a test for ammonia, as the vapors of the two,
when brought together, produce a white cloud. But there
are circumstances under which such simple tests fail to give
unequivocal answers to the chemical inquirer, and it is need-
ful to frame a system of operations which takes account of
all possible contingencies, and which enables the analyst
not only to prove with certainty that such and such ele-
ments exist in any substance he analyzes, but also gives
him equal assurance that nothing else is present in it—a
system, in short, which can lead him to a complete know-
ledge of the composition of any body. Such systems of
procedure, more or less satisfactory, have been devised out
of the collective experience of chemists, and their details are
found in our treatises on qualitative chemical analysis. In
respect to the elements and compounds of mineral or inor-
ganic chemistry a very perfect plan has been elaborated,
which has received in all essential points the sanction of
universal usage. * *
This system of analysis applies to all the metals and their
oxides, and to all their compounds with mineral elements
or acids. It supposes that the elements, etc. are in a state
of solution either in water or an appropriate acid, and gives
directions for obtaining such solutions. The substance is
first subjected to a “preliminary examination,” which often
leads to the detection of some of its ingredients, or demon-
strates the absence of certain elements, and furnishes useful
hints as to the mode of solution and subsequent procedure.
The actual examination begins with the application of
four “general reagents,” which serve to dissect the sub-
stance into six “groups” as regards its bases or metallic
oxides. * x -
The solution being in nitric acid, the first reagent is hy-
drochloric acid, which precipitates the first group—viz.,
silver and mercury (the latter from mercurous salts). The
acid filtrate from these chlorides is submitted to a stream
of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, which precipitates the sec-
ond and third groups, consisting of twelve metals together,
as sulphides. These are collected and washed upon a filter,
and upon them is poured sulphide of ammonium. This dis-
solves and carries through the filter the sulphides of the
second group—viz., arsenic, antimony, tin, gold, platinum,
molybdenum, and tungsten, while the sulphides of mercury
(from mercuric salts), lead, bismuth, copper, and cadmium,
constituting the third group, remain undissolved.
The filtrate from the precipitate by sulphuretted hydro-
gen is next taken in hand, made alkaline by ammonia, and
sulphide of ammonium is added to it. This throws down, as
hydroxides or phosphates, aluminium, chromium, glucinum,
and the cerium metals; as phosphates, calcium, barium,
strontium, and magnesium; and as sulphides, nickel, co-
balt, manganese, zinc, iron, uranium, thallium, and indium
—making a fourth group.
To the ammoniacal liquid, separated by a filter from the
last precipitate, is added carbonate of ammonium, whereby
the fifth group—viz., barium, calcium, and strontium—are
precipitated as carbonates. •
Lastly, the liquid filtered from the above carbonates may
contain the alkalies and magnesium.
The resolution of these groups is accomplished by fur-
ther application of appropriate reagents. Each group is
treated after a certain order which experience has taught.
To illustrate: the white precipitate obtained by hydro-
chloric acid, already described, may contain silver chloride
or mercurous chloride, or both. To complete its examina-
tion we employ the deportment of these chlorides towards
ammonia-water, which easily dissolves silver chloride to a
clear liquid, but converts white mercurous chloride into a
black substance that remains undissolved. It is only need-
ful then to pour dilute ammonia, upon the white content
of the filter; and if it blacken, the presence of mercury is
demonstrated. The ammonia-water that passes the filter
is dropped into excess of dilute nitric acid; the separation
of a white curdy substance is evidence of silver. .
After thus isolating the two metals we may apply further
confirmatory tests. Thus, the black mercury compound
remaining in the filter may be mixed with carbonate of
sodium, dried, introduced into a small glass flask, and
heated to redness, when metallic mercury will distil off
and gather on the cold part of the vessel in brilliant glob-
ules. So, too, the white curds of silver chloride separated
by mitric acid from the ammoniacal solution may be gath-
ered and washed on a filter, the latter burned, the precipi-
tate and ashes mixed with moist carbonate of sodium into
a pellet, and heated strongly on charcoal by aid of a jew-
eller's blowpipe. The silver is thus reduced to the metallic
state, and may be found, even when present in extremely
minute quantity, by cutting out the charcoal to a little
depth around the spot where the pellet was placed, grind-
ing it in a smooth mortar of porcelain or agate, and care-
fully washing away the coal-powder by a gentle flow of
water. The flattened silver particles will reveal themselves
by their lustre.
The detection of acids is accomplished in another por-
tion of the substance by the use of other reagents, after
the same general plan. -
In quantitative chemical analysis it is needful to convert
each element of a substance into some form or compound
which will admit of complete separation from all the others,
and also of accurate weighing or measuring. In many
cases an element must be separated in one form, and con-
verted into another for weighing. Silver may be both sep-
arated and weighed as chloride or as metal, whilst zinc
must be separated as carbonate or sulphide, but can only
be weighed accurately as oxide. Many of the reactions
employed in qualitative analysis also serve in quantitative
estimations; the latter branch of analysis has, however, a
multitude of processes peculiar to itself.
In most cases the determination of the quantity of an
element or ingredient consists in the collection of a precip-
itate on a filter, washing, drying, burning away the paper
at a red heat, and weighing the ignited residue. This re-
quires a delicate balance, accurate weights, vessels of glass,
porcelain, and platinum, which are unalterable by acids and
by heat, and great nicety of manipulation. It also requires
a perfect knowledge of the deportment of the precipitate
towards all the reagents and solvents with which it must
have contact, and a certainty that it can be obtained of
perfectly definite and known chemical composition. Our
present stock of this kind of knowledge is the fruit of a
multitude of the most painstaking experiments, and every
day the labor of skilled investigators is adding to its variety
and extent. -
To certain branches or general modes of analysis tech-
nical names are applied. . Thus “blowpipe analysis” des-
ignates a system of operations carried on mainly by aid of
the blowpipe, which serves for identifying a large share of
the elements, and even for quantitatively estimating tho
precious metals, as well as lead, copper, nickel, and some
others. “Spectral analysis,” which furnishes the most sen-
sitive tests for the presence of the alkali metals, is based
on the fact that the light proceeding from a flame in which
CHEMICAL EQUIVALENTs—CHEMISTRY.
901
the vapor of any substance is intensely heated, manifests,
when viewed there by a prism, lines or bands of color whose
position and number are characteristic. “Volumetric anal-
ysis” is a branch of quantitative analysis, in which meas-
ured volumes of solutions of determined strength are em-
ployed in reactions whose completion is indicated by some
change of color or other marked phenomenon. “Organic
analysis” is either ultimate or proximate. The former
signifies the estimation of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and
the other elements of organic compounds. Proximate or-
ganic analysis is the separation of organic compounds from
each other, as is done, for example, in determining the pro-
portions of water, oil, starch, etc. in seeds. “Assaying’ is
the term usually applied to the estimation of the valuable
metals, or ingredients of an ore or other commercial article.
Some of the most striking discoveries of science have been
steps in the development of chemical analysis. The recog-
nition of oxygen, chlorime, baryta, and manganese were re-
sults of Scheele's analysis of the mineral “wad " or pyrolu-
site. Among the first fruits of quantitative analysis was
the discovery of the laws of definite and multiple combin-
ing proportions. Those philosophers who, like Bergmann
and Dalton, were the first to announce, and those who, like
Berzelius, Dumas, and Stas, have done most to establish,
these laws, have been eminent for their skill in analytical
chemistry. *
The utility of chemical analysis manifests itself in a mul-
titude of directions. By it the values of bullion, coinage,
and plate are established; ores of all the metals are worked
and sold on the chemist's report of their analysis. The
same is true of a host of commercial articles, such as vari-
ous alkalies, acids, salts, medicines, dyestuffs, fertilizers,
etc. Chemical analysis furnishes the consumers of these
and many other articles a protection against the dishonesty
or ignorance of producers or dealers. The physician often
gathers decisive diagnostic hints from the analysis of urine;
the advocate relies upon chemical analysis for the detection
of poisons which can be employed in the perpetration of
murder.
There are indeed limits to the application of chemical
analysis. It is not difficult to make mixtures some of whose
constituents no chemist can identify with the knowledge
now at his disposal. The composition of a large number
of drugs, such as vegetable extracts, is nearly or quite un-
known; and if a professional chemist certifies that he has
analyzed a “compound syrup’’ of Sarsaparilla, yellow dock,
and buchu, or a “bitters” containing the virtues of a dozen
of the best vegetable remedies, and has found it to be a
pure and efficacious medicine, the simple fact is, he has not
done it, and cannot do it, and there is a fraud involved i
the assertion. * -
The successful pursuit of analytical chemistry requires a
long course of the most patient and conscientious experi-
mental work; it is therefore an admirable disciplinary study,
and is recognized as such in the higher schools of Europe
and this country. -
(The best extended treatises on chemical analysis are
Rose’s “Handbuch der Analytischen Chemie;” FRESENIUS,
“Qualitative Analysis,” and the same author’s “Quantita-
tive Analysis;” BUNSEN’s “Gasometric Methods;” HoPPE-
SEYLER’s “Handbuch der Physiologisch- und Pathologisch-
Chemischen Analyse;” and GoRUP-BESANEz, “Zoochemis-
chen Analyse.” The “Zeitschrift für Analytische Chemie,”
edited by Fresenius, and now (1872) in its eleventh volume,
is a complete repertory of all that is currently published on
the subject.) - S. W. JoHNSON.
Chemical Equivalents. See CHEMISTRY.
Chemillé, a town of France, in the department of
Maine-et-Loire, in the arrondissement Cholet, on a railway,
20 miles S. S. E. of Angers, and on a small stream called the
Hyronne. It has manufactures of linem handkerchiefs,
Woollen cloths, flannels, blankets, etc. Here is also a trade
in cattle and agricultural products. The neighboring coun-
try produces considerable quantities of grain and white
wine. Pop. 4414. -
Chemistry [etymology uncertainº]. The present con-
* Perhaps the most probable etymology is that which derives
the term from Khem, Öne of the ancient names of Egypt; signi-
fying also “black” or “dark” in allusion perhaps to the dark
and mysterious character of the art of ić. or else to the
fact that Egypt was especially distinguished for its knowledge of
Secret and rare arts. . The derivation from the Greek xvués,
“juice,” seems highly improbable, principally because the origi:
nal spelling of the word as seen in alchemy (whence the modern
chemistry is derived) had not the first †. in chy, as it should
have had coming from the Greek xv; for the Greek term itself
was xmpeia (not xvuleta); though many modern writers, misled by
this supposed etymology from xvués, write alchymy (or alchymie),
as well as chymist and chymistry. And though the interchange
of one vowel or diphthong for another is very common in Greek,
as a for m, et for t, we believe no instance can be pointed out in
which v interchanges with m. There seems, moreover, no reason
to suppose that the mixture or preparation of “juices” of any
it to maintain itself for nearly two hundred years.
dition of chemical science has been reached by a gradual
process of evolution. More than at any previous time,
the individual characteristics which it exhibits represent
the results of the united labors of all the workers in its
domain from the dim ages of alchemy to the present day.
A rapid historical sketch of its development, therefore, can-
not but form an appropriate introduction to a consideration
of its present condition.
History.—The alchemists had no science in any proper
sense. Most of the valuable facts they have handed down
to us were collected in the search for the philosopher's stone,
the universal solvent, or the elixir vitae. Here and there,
it is true, there were those who speculated upon the facts
which had been observed, and who strove to evolve from
them some general principles. But so unsatisfactory were
the results that, although the word “chemistry.”—signify-
ing, however, the art of making gold and silver—came .
into use early in the fourth century, it was not until near
the close of the seventeenth century that chemistry proper
had any existence. For our present purpose it is sufficient
to extend our investigation only to the progress of the
conception of the constitution of matter. The four ele-
ments of Aristotle (B.C. 384–322), earth, air, fire, and wa-
ter, held undisputed sway until the eighth century. Then
the Arabian alchemist Geber introduced the theory that
the metals were made of mercury and sulphur, and sug-
gested, for the first time, the idea..that differences of prop-
erties were due to differences of composition. In the thir-
teenth century Albertus Magnus united these two conceptions
into one, by asserting that the physical properties of bodies
depended upon the elements of Aristotle, and their chemical
properties upon those of Geber. In the fifteenth century
Basil Valentine, the last of the alchemists, added “salt” to
Geber’s elements, and refined the idea involved in them by
asserting that by sulphur was meant the inflammable prin-
ciple, by mercury the volatile principle, and by salt the
fixed principle. Paracelsus (1493–1541) appeared mainly
as the reformer of medicine. Accepting Basil Valentine's
views of matter, he maintained that the health of the human
body depended-upon the presence in it of a just proportion
of the three principles. The first book upon chemistry was
written by Libavius in 1595; he defined it as the art of
producing remedies. The period of Iatro chemistry closes
with Lemery (1645–1715), who sought again to introduce
the ideas of Aristotle by uniting two of his elements, water
and earth, to those of Basil Valentine. A new and more
hopeful era opens with the English chemist Boyle (1627–
91). He opposed the views thus far held upon the consti-
tution of matter, and argued that the true elements were
the bodies—themselves undecomposable—which were ob-
tained by the decomposition of other substances, and which
could be used to form these substances again. The differ-
ences observed in the elements themselves he accounted for
by supposing that their smallest particles differed either in
size or form. Stahl (1660–1734) accepted the theory that
chemical properties depended upon the presence of certain
definite constituents, and sought to demonstrate it experi-
mentally. By a closely-knit argument, founded on observed
facts, he succeeded in giving to his theory of combustion
—called the “phlogistic theory,” because it assumed the
presence of phlogiston in all combustible bodies, which
phlogiston passed off in burning—a solidity which º
n the
steady progress of the science, however, the materials for
the overthrow of the phlogistic theory were being prepared.
Black (1728–99), when a medical student in Edinburgh,
wrote, on his graduation in 1754, a thesis entitled “De
Humore acido a cibis orto, et Magnesia alba.” Appended
to it was a series of chemical experiments upon the mild
and caustic alkalies, which were afterwards 'extended and
published separately in 1756. In this paper he shows that
the mild alkalies differ from the caustic in the fact that they
contain a large amount of “fixed air,” which, when a mild
alkali is treated with an acid, escapes with effervescence.
A mild alkali is therefore a caustic alkali, plus fixed air.
Now between the current theories of phlogiston and of
causticity there is a close analogy. As by the former com-
bustible bodies were compounds of phlogiston, so by the
latter caustic alkalies were compounds of the caustic prin-
ciple. And as, in burning, the combustible gave up its
phlogiston and became a calx, so a mild alkali in the fire
took up the fiery caustic principle and became itself caus-
tic. Black, however, proved that this explanation of caus-
ticity was false; he showed that in burning the mild alkali
did not gain but lost something, this loss being the “fixed
air;” and that it was this loss of fixed air which made a
caustic alkali. This research of Black made the framing
kind was the chief occupation of the alchemists, their great
problem having been the transmutation of baser metals into
gold; and, from what we know of the experiments, their chief
agent was fire. - * ... . .
902
CHEMISTRY.
of an argument against phlogiston easy. It is not sur-
prising, therefore, that not long afterwards Lavoisier (1743–
94), furnished with abundant material by the remarkable
discoveries of Priestley (1733–1804), Cavendish (1731–
1810), and Scheele (1742–86), undertook a crusade against
the Stahlian hypothesis. As Black had shown that the
loss of causticity depended upon the assumption of a gas-
eous matter—fixed air—by the alkali, so was it not clear
that the loss of combustibility depended upon the assump-
tion of another kind of gaseous matter—vital air—by the
combustible 2. As the conversion of a mild into a caustic
alkali did not consist of the taking up of “causticum,” but
in the evolution of fixed air, so the production of a metal
from its calx did not consist in the taking up of “phlogis-
ton,” but in the evolution of oxygen. His conclusive ex-
periment with mercury established the analogy, and gave
phlogiston its deathblow.
Meanwhile, numerical relations had begun to take their
place in the science. Though Homberg (1652–1715) had
attempted to fix the quantity of a base required to saturate
several different acids, yet it was not until 1777 that Wenzel
(1740–93) succeeded in establishing the true idea of definite
chemical combination. His analyses were surprisingly
accurate. He proved, for example, that 123 parts of lime,
or 222 parts of potash, neutralized 240 parts of nitric or
181.5 parts of sulphuric acid. Hence, 123 parts of lime are
the equivalent, in neutralizing power, of 222 parts of pot-
ash; and so of the quantities of the acids, as given. Richter
(1762–1807) extended these experiments, and, drew up the
first tables of equivalents. He showed that the quantity
of the bases A and B which combined with an acid C would
also combine with the acids D, E, and F, and hence, that the
composition of many salts could be calculated from the
known composition of other salts; thus laying the founda-
tion of Stoichiometry. Richter also pointed out that the
ratio between the amount of an acid required to saturate
certain bases, and the amount of oxygen contained in those
bases, was definite. Thus early was the law of definite pro-
portions established. It was soon followed by another of
not less importance. In 1804, Dalton (1766–1844), in a
research upon olefiant and marsh gases, observed that the
latter contained, to the same weight of carbon, twice as
much hydrogen as the former. Extending this observation
to other bodies, he was at once led to the law of multiple
proportions, which asserts that when one body combines
with another in more than one proportion, the quantities
uniting in the second and subsequent cases are simple mul-
tiples of the first. It was in pondering upon the cause of
so remarkable a law that Dalton devised the atomic theory.
It seemed clear to him that the definite weights with which
bodies enter into combination represent definite quantities
of matter, indivisible by chemical means. These definite
quantities of matter he proposed to call atoms; they were
of the same size, but their weights were proportional to the
combining weights in each case. These atoms combined
with each other, forming compounds; hence the quantities
combining must be definite in weight; they might be mul-
tiples in one case of the quantities in another, and the weight
of the compound must be the sum of the weights of its con-
stituents. These atomic weights being relative, Dalton
chose the smallest of them, that of hydrogen, as a standard,
calling it unity. In 1808 he published a table of atomic
weights, in which that of nitrogen is 5, of carbon 5, of
oxygen 7, of sulphur 13, of iron 38, of zinc 56, of silver 100,
of mercury 167, etc. Some of Dalton’s contemporaries
accepted his views in full, others only in part. Among the
latter was Wollaston (1766–1828), who accepted Dalton's
numbers, but preferred to call them equivalents, on the
ground that an equivalent was a fact, an atomic weight
only a hypothesis. Davy (1778–1829) also rejected the
hypothesis of atoms, but proposed “proportional numbers”
for Dalton’s atomic weights. Nevertheless, the atomic
theory stimulated investigation, and chemists set them-
selves at work to revise, and if possible to make more accu-
rate, these numbers of Dalton.
Contemporaneously with this progress in the determi-
nation of the combining weights of the elements was an
advance in ascertaining their combining volumes. Gay-
Lussac (1778–1850), in connection with Humboldt, proved
in 1805 that water was formed by the union of one volume
of oxygen with two volumes of hydrogen. Continuing his
researches, he showed in 1809 that the combination of any
two gases always took place in simple volume-ratios, and
that the volume of the product always bore a simple ratio
to that of its constituents. This discovery was not only an
important confirmation of the law of definite proportions,
but it furnished a means by which an atomic weight could
with certainty be determined. For, since, according to
Dalton, bodies combine in proportions represented by the
weight of their atoms, and, according to Gay-Lussac, the
simple gases also combine by volume in a simple ratio, it is
evident that the relative weights of these volumes ought to
represent the atomic weights. . But the relative weight of a
given volume is the density; hence the atomic weights of
simple gases are proportional to their densities. Singu-
larly enough, Dalton—who, more than any other, should
have welcomed this new confirmation of his views—refused
to accept it, and attacked the accuracy of the results. Ber-
zelius (1779–1848), however, warmly espoused the new
theory of volumes, and constructed his tables of atomic
weights in accordance with it. By the improvements in
methods of analysis which he devised, he was able, in 1815,
to give a wonderfully accurate table of this kind, in which—
following Wollaston—he took oxygen as the standard and
called it 100. Hydrogen he gave as 6.24. The influence
of Gay-Lussac’s law is here clearly apparent. For, since
by Wollaston’s equivalents the ratio of the hydrogen in
water to the oxygen is as 1 to 8, and by Gay-Lussac’s law
the volumes are as 2 to 1, it is clear that the ratio of the
weights of these volumes is as 2 to 16, or as 6.24 to 100, as
Berzelius gave it. Moreover, he substituted for the arbi-
trary notation of Dalton—which consisted of circles—a
system of symbols, in which each atom was represented by
the first letter of its Latin name. A bar drawn through a
symbol signified a double atom, and a dot over it indicated
an atom of oxygen. Water was written H2O, or, abbre-
viated, #; nitric acid, N205, or #. In order to bring his
atomic weights into accordance with the equivalents of
Wollaston and Davy, Berzelius had recourse to an unfortu-
mate hypothesis. He admitted the existence among the
elements of double atoms, inseparable in combination,
which were represented by his barred symbols. These
double atoms of Berzelius were equal in weight to the
equivalents of Wollaston.
Two parties were now in the field. On the one side was
Dalton with his atomic theory, maintaining that when but
a single combination between elements took place it always
took place atom to atom, and considering the atomic weight
to be the quantity of a substance which united with one
atom of hydrogen; and Wollaston and Davy, rejecting the
theory of atoms, and asserting that an equivalent of any
element was the quantity of it by weight which combined
with 10 parts of oxygen. On the other was Berzelius—
already more than a match for any of his contemporaries—
accepting the theory of Dalton, and contending that the
atomic weights were proportional to the gaseous volumes,
being the relative weights of these volumes when equal, but
conceding the existence of inseparable double atoms. Dal-
ton confounded the idea of atomic weight with that of
equivalent; Wollaston and Davy retained the idea of equiva-
lent, but carried it out inconsistently; Berzelius conceived
the true idea of an atom, and sharply distinguished it from
that of an equivalent. In the case of non-volatile bodies,
as the metals, however, he too considered an atomic weight
to be the quantity which combined with 100 of oxygen to
form the first degree of oxidation, though, for special rea-
sons, he varied this rule in some cases. The great weight
of his authority bore down all opposition, and for twenty
years his views were the absolute basis of chemical science.
His theory, nevertheless, had its weak points; and in 1848
Gmelin (1788–1853) in the fourth edition of his “Lehrbuch
der Chemie,” attacked the chief of these, the theory of double
atoms. “There is no compound,” he says, “ containing but
one atom of hydrogen, nitrogen, etc., as small as that
adopted by Berzelius. Hence two atoms of these bodies are
the equivalent of one atom of oxygen. If the atoms be sup-
posed twice as great, the idea of an atom will coincide with
that of an equivalent, and all confusion will be avoided.”
He therefore proposed that the formulas of water, hydro-
chloric acid, and ammonia, which Berzelius had written
H2O, H2Cl2, and HSN2, should be written HO, HCl, and H3N.
This argument of Gmelin, strengthened by the old idea of
Wollaston that atoms were purely hypothetical and equiva-
lents were actual, succeeded in leading chemists to ignore
the pósitive results obtained by Gay-Lussae, and to sink
back into the old equivalent system of notation. The view
of chemical equivalency thus adopted, however, based as it
was on negative statements mainly, was full of inconsist-
encies. Adopting, as less cumbrous, the hydrogen scale of
equivalents, and therefore assuming that an equivalent of
any substance was the quantity of it which united with one
atom of hydrogen, the chemists who advocated it gave 14
as the equivalent of nitrogen, although it was certain that
this quantity combined, not with one, but with three atoms
of hydrogen. In the case of salts, a class of bodies termed
ternary by Berzelius, and formulated on the dualistic or
electro-chemical view, the same is true. Wenzel, Richter, and
even Berzelius, had studied the neutralization of acids by
bases, and had formed tables of equivalencies between them.
It was impossible to assert that all bases were equivalent to
each other. One equivalent of alumina, for example, sat-
CHEMISTRY. - *
903
urated three times as much sulphuric acid as one equiva-
lent of potash; and phosphoric acid, equivalent for equiva-
lent, required three times as much base as nitric. In
general, polyacid bases and polybasic acids could not be
brought into accordance with the theory except by strained
hypothesis or arbitrary assumption. Consistency required
the adoption of formulas which were at variance with fact.
The need of a reform was apparent, and it was soon begun.
The reformer was Gerhardt (1816–56). He was struck with
the fact that on the existing notation, whenever any or-
ganic reaction gave rise to the formation of water or of car-
bonic gas, the quantity of these bodies evolved never corre-
sponded to a single equivalent, but always to two or a mul-
tiple of two. Moreover, he observed that if the equivalents
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen were taken at 6, 1, and 8,
, respectively, then that all organic formulas contained an
even number of carbon and of oxygen atoms. If, he rea-
soned, C204 (in which C2 = 12 and 0.4 = 32) be the smallest
quantity of carbonic gas which can be set free in any reac-
tion, is it not a complete molecule 2 and is it not better to
write the formula C02, in which C = 12 and O2 = 32? So,
if H2O2 be a molecule of water, is it not better to double the
weight of the oxygen atom and write it H2O2. Thus did
Gerhardt sharply define the ideas of molecule and atom,
and thus did he construct his tables of atomic weights,
which, while closely accordant with those of Berzelius,
avoided his hypothesis of double atoms. In accordance
with the law of Gay-Lussac, and with the law of Avogadro
and Ampère—that equal volumes of all gases contained the
same number of molecules—Gerhardt defined a molecule to
be that quantity of any substance which in the gaseous state
occupied two volumes, the standard volume being that oc-
cupied by an atom of hydrogen. As Berzelius had written
many of his formulas in accordance with his dualistic
ideas—nitric acid, for example, being N205H20 or H2N206—
which formulas corresponded to 4 volumes of vapor, Ger-
hardt at once halved them, writing nitric acid HNO3, and
so brought them to the 2-volume standard. He regarded
molecules as units, whence the name “unitary” given to
his system. He maintained that the determination of the
arrangement of the atoms within the molecule was impos-
sible, and hence opposed the use of rational formulas. He
rejected the compound radical theory of Lavoisier and Ber-
zelius, and accepted, with curious inconsistency, Laurent's
theory of “residues,” essentially similar. º
Gerhardt's early death prevented the full development of
his views. His atomic weights were never fully accepted
until after they had become modified by the influence of
two physical laws discovered some time before. In 1819
two French chemists, Dulong (1735–1838) and Petit (1791–
1820), showed that the specific heats of simple bodies were
inversely proportional to their atomic weights; or, what is
the same thing, that the atoms of all simple bodies have
the same specific heat. Although Berzelius had regarded
this law in fixing certain of his atomic weights, yet it was
not until re-investigated by Regnault in 1849 that it was
generally used. He called attention to the fact that to
make the equivalent weights then in use accord with the
law of specific heats, it was necessary only to halve the
equivalents of hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine, bromine, iodine,
phosphorus, arsenic, potassium, sodium, and silver. But
this, in all but the last three cases, was to return to the
atomie weights of Berzelius. Gerhardt, however, in doing
this, had arbitrarily assigned to the protoxides the formula
R20, while the law of specific heats allowed this formula
only in the cases of potassium, sodium, and silver. For
all other metals, therefore, the protoxides were R0, and the
atomic weights of Berzelius were more accurate than those
of Gerhardt. The second law which influenced atomic
weight was the law of isomorphism, discovered in 1819 by
Mitscherlich (1794–1863). He proved that bodies similarly
constituted crystallize similarly; and hence that bodies
really isomorphous—i.e., having crystalline forms nearly
or quite identical—ought to be represented by analogous
formulas. For example, cuprous sulphide is isomorphous
with silver sulphide; its formula should therefore be Cu2S,
analogous to Ag38, and not CuAS, as Gerhardt wrote it.
Thus, in due time, all the considerations which bear upon
the question of atomic weights appear to have been re-
garded, and these weights established to the satisfaction
of all.
Another of the most prolific of modern chemical theories
must be briefly glanced at in this place. This theory, called
the theory of types, was first proposed in 1839 by Dumas,
upon his discovery of trichloracetic acid. ' He stated it
thus: When equivalent substitution of any of the elements
of a compound takes place, the compound itself retains its
original chemical type, the replacing element playing the
same part as that which is replaced. Ten years later
Wurtz discovered the amines, and in his paper on the sub-
ject compared them either to ether, in which oxygen was
replaced by amidogen (NH2), or to ammonia, in which one
atom of hydrogen was replaced by an alcoholic radical.
The investigation of these “compound ammonias” was
continued by Hofmann, who accepted the latter view, and
has since given it a most remarkable development. In
1851, Williamson extended the idea of types by his beau-
tiful researches upon etherification, and especially by the
discovery of mixed ethers. The water-type had been sug-
gested already by Laurent (1807–53), who had formulated
caustic and anhydrous potash upon it; it had been ex-
tended by Sterry Hunt. But Williamson went farther: he
showed conclusively that if an alcohol molecule contained
the ethyl group once, that of ether contained it twice—
that if alcohol be represented by replacing half the hydro-
gen in water by ethyl, º 0, then ether ought to be
represented by replacing the whole, §: } 0. By a rapid
generalization of this view he showed that the acids, bases,
and salts, not only of mineral, but also of organic chem-
istry, were readily referable to the water-type. Two types
were now established, the water and the ammonia types.
Gerhardt increased the number by proposing the type hy-
drogen (HH), not only for free elements, like chlorine and
potassium, but for the hydrides, aldehydes, ketones, and
radicals of the carbon series; and the type hydrochloric acid
(HCl) as the type of the haloid salts and ethers. In the
same year Williamson suggested the idea of “condensed
types” for the polybasic acids and the pelyacid bases. On
the water-type twice condensed, H2 O2, he formulated sul-
p H2
phuric acid, by replacing half the hydrogen by the radical
(SO2), (*#) O2. Odling showed that phosphoric acid was
tº (PO)” loº.
derived from the water-type trebly condensed, H3 O3;
the replacing power of a radical being indicated by dashes
(PO)”. In 1854 he introduced the conception of “mixed
types,” arguing that if a poly-equivalent radical could re-
place the hydrogen atoms in several similar molecules,
either wholly or partially, it could also thus unite several
dissimilar molecules. -
Two distinct ideas are involved in the theory of types:
one is the idea of the replacing body or radical; the other
is that of the body in which the replacement takes place, or
the type itself. The first of these involves clearly the con-
ception of replacing power; those substances being first
formulated upon the theory of types whose radicals replaced
but a single atom of hydrogen. " The brilliant research of
Wurtz upon the glycols, made in 1856, proved that ethylene
replaced two atoms of hydrogen. And, starting from this,
Cannizzaro in 1858 established the analogy for several of
the metals, and thus originated the principle of classifying
the elements according to their replacing power. The same
year Kekulé gave a vigorous impulse to this idea of ele-
mental replacing power by establishing, in a paper on the
chemical nature of carbon, the fact that this element had a
replacing power of four. Gradually, the names atomicity,
quantivalence, and equivalence came into use to express
this replacing power—an atom being a monad, dyad, triad,
or tetrad, or a univalent, bivalent, trivalent, or quadrivalent
radical, according as its replacing power is equal to one,
two, three, or four atoms of hydrogen. Wurtz, however,
prefers to use the terms monatomic, diatomic, triatomic, etc.
for the same purpose. But this combining or replacing
power is not invariable. A given element, according to the
law of multiple proportions, may form a series of compounds
with another element, and in each of these its equivalence
must be different. It was early observed, however, that
this variation in equivalence always took place by twos;
so that an atom might replace 1, 3, 5, or 7, or 2, 4, 6, or 8
hydrogen atoms. The equivalence never changes from
even to odd, or the reverse. Odling therefore divided the
elements into two groups, calling the group of even equiva-
lence artiads, and the group of odd equivalence perissads.
If an atom is a perissad in one of its compounds, it is so in
all ; and so if it is an artiad. Out of this classification of
the elements according to their equivalence, involving as it
does the predetermination of their compounds, there grew,
insensibly and almost inevitably, the idea of molecular
arrangement. Though isomerism had necessitated the sup-
position that differences of arrangement must exist, yet
hitherto the precise character of this difference could not
be determined. To express the idea, three sorts of graphic
formulas were devised. The first, by Kekulé, consisted of
ovoids, longer or shorter according to the equivalence :
QG EGEEGEE); the second, by Foster, consisted simply
of lines, thus: I IT TTI ITT1; and the third, by Crum
Brown, was composed of circles with radiating lines:
Ö (? ſº -º- . The latter notation—using symbols in

904
CHEMISTRY.
place of circles—is in general use. If oxygen be a dyad,
and hydrogen a monad, the graphic formula of water must
be H–0—H: the oxygen must link the two H atoms to—
gether; there is no other arrangement possible.
The second part of the theory of types is involved in the
idea of the body in which the replacement is effected; i.e.,
the type itself. Four of these were fixed by Gerhardt—
namely, HH, HCl, H20, and H3N ; to which Odling subse-
quently added H4C. H.H and HCl were soon after united;
and indeed it was soon shown that all the others were
easily derived from the hydrogen type. Upon examina-
tion of these types, it is evident that the atoms united to
the hydrogen successively, increase in equivalence, the C1
being a monad, the O a dyad, etc. The reason, therefore,
why these substances are really typical is obvious: it is
because they represent the combinations of monads, dyads,
triads, tetrads, etc. with other elements; i. e., all possible
compounds. In this light the type theory appears as only
a special case of the broader theory of equivalence, into
which, by the labors of Kekulé, Wurtz, Hofmann, Boutle-
row, and others, it has already been completely merged.
Bibliography.—H. Kopp, “Geschichte der Chemie,”
1843; BEäz ELIUs, “Lehrbuch der Chemie,” 1843–1848;
GMELIN, “Handbook of Chemistry,” 1848; KEKULí, “Lehr-
buch der organischen Chemie,” 1861; Fost ER, article" on
“Classification” in Watts's “Dictionary,” 1863; HoFMANN,
“Introduction to Modern Chemistry,” 1865; WURTz, “In-
troduction to Chemical Philosophy,” 1867; WURTz, “His-
toire des Doctrines Chimiques,” 1868; BouTLERow, “Lehr-
buch der organischen Chemie,” 1868; CRUM BRowN,
“Development of the Idea of Chemical Composition,” 1869;
H. Kopp, “Die Entwickelung der Chemie in der neueren
Zeit,” 1871. (Reference has been made to WURTz’s “Dic-
tionnaire de Chimie,” the “Neues Handwórterbuch der
Chemie,” and to current papers in the journals.)
Theoretical Chemistry.—Modern science regards matter
as divisible into masses, molecules, and atoms. A mass of
matter is any portion recognizable by the senses. A mo-
lecule of matter is the smallest quantity of any substance
which can exist by itself, and which can enter into or leave
a chemical change. An atom is the smallest particle of
matter which can exist in combination. A molecule is
made up of atoms, and a mass is made up of molecules.
These divisions of matter are held together by attractions,
called, respectively, mass, molecular, and atomic attrac-
tion. Mass attraction is called gravitation; molecular at-
traction is called cohesion ; and atomic attraction is called
chemism.
differences in the physical properties of bodies; differences
in atomic composition produce differences in their chemical
properties. The only differences possible in atomic com-
position are: (1) a difference in the kind of atoms in the
molecule; (2) a difference in the number of these; and (3)
a difference in their arrangement. Hence, upon these
three all the chemical differences observed in matter must
depend. Water differs from salt because a molecule of the
former, made up of oxygen and hydrogen, differs from a
molecule of the latter, made up of chlorine and sodium, in
the kind of atoms which it contains. Litharge differs
from red lead because their molecules, while containing in
both cases lead and oxygen atoms, differ in the number of
these present in each; cane-sugar and milk-sugar are dif-
ferent, because the kind and number of atoms composing
their molecules being alike, the arrangement of them is
different. Chemistry, therefore, may be defined as the sci-
ence which treats of the atomic composition of bodies, and
of those changes in matter which result from an alteration
in the kind, number, or relative position of the atoms which
compose the molecule.
Chemistry, then, is the science of atoms. It takes cog-
nizance only of those facts which depend upon differences
of atomic constitution. Hence, no substance is chemically
understood until the kind, the relative and absolute num-
ber, and the arrangement of the atoms within its molecule,
are known. To determine the first of these, the kind of
atoms, is the business of qualitative analysis; it affirms
that a water-molecule contains only oxygen and hydrogen
atoms, and a Salt-molecule only atoms of chlorine and of
sodium. The relative number of atoms contained in a
molecule of any substance is ascertained by quantitative
analysis, being obtained by dividing the percentage of each
constituent by its atomic weight, and clearing the quotients
of fractions. The absolute number of atoms in any molecule'
is fixed from the molecular weight, which is obtained gen-
erally from physical data. Knowing the weight of the
molecule, it is easy to distribute this weight among the
constituent atoms in the proportions given by analysis;
then, dividing the quantity of each substance present by
its atomic weight, the absolute number of atoms is obtained.
The arrangement of the atoms within the molecule is as-
certained either directly, being deduced necessarily from
Differences in molecular composition produce .
—s
the law of equivalence, or indirectly, by experiment.
Since the strength of the atomic attraction varies in the
different parts of a molecule by reason either of distance
or position, it is possible to break up the molecule so as to
obtain certain groups existing in it in other and recogniz-
able forms. Hence, by breaking up a molecule by suitable
means, and studying its derivatives, the character of its
groupings, and consequently the arrangement of the atoms
within it, may be accurately determined.
Molecular constitution is the basis of chemical classifica-
tion. In the first place, all substances are divided into two
classes, according as their molecules are made up of like
or of unlike atoms. A substance like sulphur, carbon, or -
iron is made up of molecules containing like atoms, and is
called a simple or elementary substance; a substance like
salt, water, or sugar is made up of molecules containing
unlike atoms, and is called a compound substance. These
two kinds of molecules àre easily distinguished by the fact
that upon rearranging the atoms between two contiguous
molecules the former yields no new substance, while from
the latter some different form of matter is obtained. If,
for instance, two molecules of simple matter be represented
by AA and AA, it is evident that rearrangement would
only produce AA and AA again, exactly like the others;
but if rearrangement be effected between two compound
molecules, AB and AB, then the product would be AA and
BB, two new forms of simple matter. It should be men-
tioned that if the agent employed was not powerful enough
to produce the rearrangement, the result would be, appar-
ently, that first given, even if the substance were com-
pound; it may be, therefore, that some of the bodies now
considered elementary will be proved compound upon the
discovery of some new and more energetic rearranging
force. Thus far, however, sixty-three substances have re-
| sisted all attempts to decompose them and to evolve from
them other forms of matter. These substances, therefore,
are regarded as elementary. Since each molecule is made
up of like atoms, and these are peculiar to itself, it follows
that the number of known kinds of atoms is sixty-three
also. The number of atoms contained in a simple molecule
is called its atomicity. It is obtained by dividing the
weight of the whole molecule by the weight of a single"
atom. The molecular weight is generally obtained by
means of the law of Avogadro or Ampère, which asserts
that equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of
molecules. Whence it follows (1) that the molecules of all
bodies in the gaseous state must be of the same size ; and
(2) that the molecular weights must be as the weights of
equal volumes. Taking, for example, the weight of one
liter of hydrogen (.0896 gram) as unity, the weight of one
liter of oxygen (1.43 grams) is 16, the weight of a liter of
arsenic vapor (13.41 grams) is 150, and the weight of a
liter of mercury vapor (8.96 grams) is 100. Hence, a mo-
lecule of oxygen is 16, a molecule of arsenic is 150, and a
molecule of mercury is 100, times as heavy as a molecule
of hydrogen. But the weight of a molecule of hydrogen,
containing two atoms, is 2; hence the molecular weight
of oxygen is 32, of arsenic is 300, and of mercury 200.
Since the atomic weight of oxygen is 16, that of arsenic is
75, and that of mercury is 200, it is evident that the
molecule of oxygen is diatomic, that of arsenic tetratomic,
and that of mercury monatomic. Most of the elementary
molecules are diatomic. -
Atoms differ from each other (1) in weight, (2) in the
quality of their combining power, and (3) in the quantity
of this power. An atomic weight is the weight of an atom,
referred to that of hydrogen as unity. Since an atom is
the smallest quantity of an element which can enter into
the composition of a molecule, it is evident that by analyz-
ing the molecules of several different compounds of a given
element, and by comparing together the quantity of this
element contained in each, the atomic weight may readily
be fixed. Thus, it is found that the quantity of bromine
contained in a molecule of its hydrogen compound is 80;
of its mercury compound is 160; of its boron compound is
240; and of its silicon compound is 320. Its atomic weight
is therefore 80, because it is the smallest quantity by weight
in which bromine enters into combination. According to the
quality of their combining power, atoms are divided into
two classes, called positive or negative, according as, in
electrolysis, they go to the negative or positive pole. To
the former or positive class belong the metals in general;
to the latter or negative class, the non-metals. This dis-
tinction is a purely relative one, since an atom may be pos-
itive when associated with one atom and negative with
another. This property of atoms affects the quality of the
molecule into which they enter; the hydrates of positive
atoms, for example, being bases, and the hydrates of nega-
tive being acids. Besides the differences now noticed, atoms
differ also in their equivalence, or their power of entering
into combination with other atoms. Taking the atom of
2’ CHEMISTRY. sº
2’
hydrogen as the standard, it is found that other atoms have
combining powers two, three, four, five, and even six, times
as great. Such atoms are called, therefore, monads, dyads,
triads, tetrads, pentads, and hexads. The combining power
of a hexad atom being six times as great as that of a hy-
drogen atom, and that of a dyad atom being three times as
great, a complete molecule formed by their union must be
composed of one hexad and three dyad atoms. But atomic
equivalence is variable; a monad may act as a triad or even
as a pentad. This variation, however, always takes place
by twos; so that atoms of even equivalence (called artiads)
remain even, and atoms of odd equivalence (called peris-
sads) remain odd. .
Compound molecules are built up by the union of dis-
similar atoms. But since atoms do not exist free and
uncombined, a direct union of these is impossible. Hence
the union must take place by way of exchange. If, for
instance, the two simple molecules AA and BB be brought
together, the attraction of unlike atoms for each other being
stronger than that of like, rearrangement will take place,
and AB and AB, two compound molecules, will result. The
number of atoms which a compound molecule may contain
is apparently unlimited. Two classes of compound mole-
cules are distinguished: in one the characteristic constit-
Like atoms............................
United directly..............................
MOLECULES
Unlike atoms
905
uent atoms are united directly together; in the other they
are linked together by the intervention of a third atom.
The former are called binary compounds, because, whatever
the absolute number of atoms present, they can never be
of more than two kinds. The latter are called ternary, be-
cause there must always be present at least three atoms.
Salt, for example, is a binary compound, because made up
of molecules containing sodium and chlorine atoms; nitric
acid is a ternary compound, because made up of molecules
consisting of hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen atoms, the
two first being linked together by the last. It is evident
that only a poly-equivalent atom can link others together;
and, in fact, the dyad oxygen and the triad nitrogen per-
form by far the largest part of this work. Hence, termary
molecules may be divided into two groups, according as
oxygen or nitrogen performs in them the linking function.
Moreover, the quality of the chemism of atoms here comes
in, and each of these groups may be subdivided into three
classes, according as the dominant atom united to hydrogen
is positive or negative, or as the molecule contains both
thus united. The classification of simple and compound
molecules above given may be conveniently presented in a
tabular form, thus: -
Flement.
...............Binary.
R and H. Acid.
By a dyad | # and H. Base.
5 and # Salt.
United indirectly
The principle upon which compound substances are
named is essentially that proposed by Lavoisier. Every
molecule must contain at least two atoms, one of which is
positive to the other, which is negative. In the case of
binary molecules the rule is: Place the name of the positive
first, and then that of the negative, changing the termina-
tion of this into ide. A substance composed of potassium
and sulphur would therefore be called potassium sulphide.
If the positive atom varies its equivalence, this fact is indi-
cated by giving it, for the higher of two stages, the termi-
nation ic, and for the lower the termination ow8, as mercuric
and mercurous oxides. Should a third stage be developed
below the ous-compound, the prefix hypo is given, as
hyposulphurous oxide; or if above the ic-body; the prefix
per, as perchloric oxide. Ternary molecules are similarly
naméd, except that the negative terminations are ate and
*te, instead of ide. Sodium and iodine united directly form
sodium iodide, a binary, but if united by oxygen they form
sodium iodate, a ternary. So hydrogen and phosphorus
united by oxygen form hydrogen phosphate; potassium
and hydrogen thus united form potassium hydrate. Be-
sides these systematic names the acids have more common
ones, which are formed from the name of the characteristic
atom by adding ic or ow8 as in the case of binaries, ic cor-
responding to ate, and ous to ite. Thus, hydrogen sulphate
is sulphuric acid, and hydrogen nitrite is nitrous acid.
The system of chemical notation now in use is also old,
being essentially that devised by Berzelius. The atomic
symbols are the first letters of their Latin names, or, when
two have the same letter, the first and some other distinct-
ive letter. The symbol of sodium—Latin, matrium—being
Na, and that of chlorine being Cl, a molecule of sodium chlo-
ride, or salt, is represented by placing them together, thus:
NaCl, the positive coming first. If more than one atom of
any constituent be present, the number is indicated by a
numeral placed below and to the right of the symbol; thus,
water is written H2O. In the case of ternary molecules
especially it is necessary to express not only the kind and
the number of atoms the molecule contains, but also their
arrangement. The formula HNO3, for example, indicates
only that a molecule of nitric acid contains one atom of
hydrogen, one of nitrogen, and three of oxygen. But since
several bodies might be represented by such a formula, it
is necessary to go farther and to fix the constitution of the
molecule. This may be done by the use of graphic or of
rational formulas. The graphic formula of nitric acid is
O
|
N–0–H ; the rational formula is NO2(OH). Both ex-
O
press the fact that two of the oxygen atoms act simply to
Saturate the nitrogen, while the third links the hydrogen
to it. Moreover, this question is one of practical import-
ance, since the basicity or salt-forming power of the acid
is directly as the number of hydrogen atoms, thus linked,
R and H. Amide.
By a triad Î R and H Amine.
R and R Alkalamide.
which it contains. Nitric acid, as above, contains one such
O
||
atom, and is monobasic ; sulphuric acid, H–0—S—0—H,
|
g O
|
or SO2(OH)2, is dibasic ; phosphoric acid H-0–P–0—H,
- | -
H
or PO(OH)8, is tribasic. By exchanging its hydrogen for
a metal, an acid forms a salt; KNO3, potassium nitrate, is
formed by replacing the hydrogen in HNO3 by potassium.
When an acid and a base are brought together, a salt and
water are the products. Thus hydrogen nitrate NO2(OH)
and potassium hydrate K(OH) act to produce potassium
nitrate NO2(OK) and H(OH), or H2O. Water, acting upon
a positive oxide, yields a base; upon a negative oxide, an
acid; while a positive oxide acting upon a negative oxide
yields a salt.
Chemical changes are called reactions—the substances
producing them, reagents. Reactions are represented by
equations, in which the symbols of the factors, or substances
acting, form one member, and the symbols of the products,
or the substances which result, form the other. Reactions
are of three kinds—analytical, in which a complex molecule
is broken up into simpler ones; synthetical, where two or
more simpler molecules unite to form a more complex one ;
and metathetical, in which a simple transposition of atoms
takes place between molecules. Since every symbol repre-
sents an atom, and hence an atomic weight, the quantities
of matter entering or leaving any chemical reaction are
expressed in the equation. . Whence, knowing the factors,
it is easy to calculate the weight of the product, or to ascer-
tain what quantity of the factors is required to yield a given
weight of the product. Chemical calculations, founded on
atomic weights, constitute the department of Stoichiometry.
Bibliography.—ODLING, “Manual of Chemistry,” 1861 ;
BUFF, tº Grundlehren der theoretischen Chemie,” 1863;
GALLow Ay, “Second. Step in Chemistry,” 1864; FRANK-
LAND, “Lecture-notes for Chemical Students,” 1866; WIL-
LIAMSON, “ Chemistry for Students,” 1868; AD. WURTz,
“Legons élémentaires de Chimie moderne,” 1868; BLOM-
STRAND, “Die Chemie der Jetztzeit,” 1869 ; BARKER, “Text-
book of Elementary Chemistry,” 1870; ODLING, “Outlines
of Chemistry,” 1870; GEUTHER, “Lehrbuch der Chemie,”
1870; CookE, “First Principles of Chemical Philosophy,”
1871. -- -
General Chemistry.—This branch of chemical science is
essentially descriptive. It takes up the elements, grouped
according to their several analogies, and discusses their his-
tory, their occurrence, their methods of preparation, their
properties, and their compounds with each other. It is
obvious that such a treatment must be an extended one,
906.
< CHEMMIS-CHENIER, DE.
covering the entire sixty-three simple substances and their
innumerable compounds. We must refer those interested,
therefore, to any of the larger treatises upon chemistry for
these details, and content ourselves with giving the annexed
tabular statement of the names, equivalences, symbols, and
atomic weights of the elements at present known:
PERISSADS.
Monads: Symbol. At. wi.
Hydrogen, G - e º 'º dº e º & 6 & © tº º º BI 1.
Fluorine, ............... R I9
Chlorine, I, III, V, VII. CI 35.5
Bromine, I, III, V, VII. Br 80
Iodine, I, III, V, VII. I 127
lithium, * 6 & © e º 'º º e º 'º º tº dº © Li 7
Sodium, I, III. Na (Natrium) 23
Potassium, I, III, V. K (Kalium) 39
Rubidium, ..... tº e º ºr e º & gº gº tº Rb 85
Caesium, ............. º º Cs 133
Silver, I, III Ag (Argentum) 108
Thallium, I, III TI 204
Th’iao's r
Nitrogen, I, III, V. N 14
Phosphorus, I, III, v. P 31
Arsenic, I, III, V. As - 75
Antimony, III, V. Sb (Stibium 122
Bismuth, III, V. Bi 21.0 .
Boron, .......... tº sº e & B 11
Gold I, III Au (Aurum) 196
Pentads:
Columbium, ....... ........ Cb 94.
Tantalum, .............. tº Ta, 182
Vanadium, III, V. } 51.3
Also (V2)War and (V2)" º
ARTIADS.
Dyads:
Oxygen, .......... e' O 16
Sulphur, II, IV, VI. S 32
Selenium, II, IV, VI. Se 79
Tellurium, II, IV, VI. Te 128
Calcium, . II, IV. Ca 40
Strontium, II, IV. Sr. 87.5
Barium, II, IV. Ba 137
Magnesium, © dº e º $ tº gº º sº Mg 24
Zinc, * & © & © tº dº º º Zn 65
Cadmium, tº e º sº e e º & & Cói. 112
Glucinum, e e o 'º & s a e e G. 9.3
. Yttrium, tº tº sº a tº sº º tº Y 61.7.
Cerium, e e º e º 'º e e ge Ce 92
Lanthanum, º e º e º ºs e e g Ia. 92
Didymium, e s e º e e º 'º e D 96
Erbium, tº dº tº e º ºs º º ºs E 112.6
ºf Cºy"Cºº"- .
Mercury, (Hg2)”, II. 2^ Hg *º: } 200
Copper, (Cu2)", II. Cu (Cuprum) 63.5
Tetrade : - -
Carbon, II, IV. C 12
Silicon, ........... © Si 28
Titanium, II, IV Ti 50
Tin, - II, IV Sn (Stannum) 118
Thorium, ........... º Th 115.7
Zirconium, ............ Zr 89.5
Aluminum, (Al2)wr -Al 27.5
Platinum, II, IV. Pt 197
Palladium, II, IV. Pd 106.5
Lead, * II, IV Pb (Plumbum) 207
Indium, © tº e º e º e º 'º a º º In 74
Heacods : . - -
Molybdenum, II, IV, Ví. Mo 96
Tungsten, IV, VI. W (Wolfram) 184
Ruthenium, II, IV, VI. Ru 104.2
Rhodium, II, IV, VI. Ro 104.3
Iridium, II, IV, VI. Ir 197
, Osmium, II, IV, VI. Os 199 |
Chromium, II, IV, VI. Cr 52.5
Manganese, II, IV, VI. Mn 55
Iron, II, IV, VI. Fe (Ferrum) 56.
Cobalt, II, IV. Co 59
Nickel, II, IV. Ni 59
Uranium, II, IV. U . .” 120
the same as CHEoPs (which see).
G. F. BARKER.-->
Chem/mis [Gr. Xéunts], the name given by Diodorus
| R. R. Capital, Elmira.
Siculus to the Egyptian king who built the great pyramid;
... Chemnitz, a town of Germany; in Saxony, on the
Chemnitz River, and at the base of the mountain called
Erzberge, about 44 miles W. S. W. of Dresden. . It is on the
railway from Riesa to Zwickau. It is the principal manu-
facturing town of Saxony, and has extensive manufactures
of cotton, linen, wool, hosiery, machinery, etc. ...N. early
20,000, looms are employed in this vicinity in the produć.
tion of stockings, mitts, etc., which are partly exported to
the U. S. Chemnitz has also works for printing calico.
The factory laborers own cottages and gardens in which
they work when the looms are still, and their condition is
Superior to that of their class in most other cities. For four
centuries it was a free imperial city. It was formerly forti-
fied, but the walls have been converted into promenades.
It has a castle, a gymnasium, a school of Commerce, several
technical schools, and an exchange. Pop. in 1871, 68,229.
Chem’ mitz [Lat. Chemnitius], (MARTIN), an eminent
German Lutheran theologian, was born at Treuenbrietzen,
in Brandenburg, Nov. 9, 1522. He was educated at Wit.
tenberg, and became minister of a church at Brunswick
in 1554. In a work called “Examen Concilii Tridentini”
(1565) he ably refuted the doctrines approved by the Council
of Trent. Chemnitz and Mörlin were the authors of the
“Corpus Doctrinae Pruthenicae" (“Body of Prussian Doc-
trine,” 1566), which was a standard work among the Prot-
estants. He was appointed. Superintendent at Brunswick
in 1567. He was one of the authors of the “Formula Con-
cordiae’’ (1579). Among his works is “Loci Theologici.”
(“Theological Topics,” 1591), which excels most similar
books in learning and method. Died April 8, 1586.
Chemung, she-müng', a river of New York, formed in
Steuben county by the union of the Conhocton and Tioga
rivers. It flows in an E. S. E. direction through Chemung
county, and enters the North Branch of the Susquehanna-
about 1 mile below Athens, in Bradford co., Pa.
Chemung, a county of New York, bordering on Penn-
Sylvania. Area, 406 square miles. It is intersected by
Chemung River and Cayuta Creek. The surface is diver-
sified by hills and alluvial river-bottoms; the soil is fertile.
Tobacco, grain, lumber, wool, dairy products, and cattle
are the staples. The manufactures include lumber, leather,
flour, furniture, metallic wares, cooperage, carriages, etc.
It is traversed by the Erie R. R. and the Northern Central
Pop. 35,281.
Chemung, a post-township of McHenry co., Ill. Pop.
2222. Chemung Station is on the Chicago and North-
western R. R., 66 miles N. W. of Chicago.
Chemung, a township and post-village of Chemung
co., N. Y. The village is on the Erie R. R., 24 miles W.
S. W. of Owego. Pop. of township, 1907. -
Cheman'go, a county in S. E. Central New York.
Area, 898 square miles. It is partly bounded on the E.
by the Unadilla River, and drained by the Chenango, Sus-
quehanna, and Otselic rivers. The surface is partly hilly;
the soil is generally fertile. It is an agricultural county;
dairy products, hops, grain, and wool are the chief crops.
The manufactures include lumber, flour, cheese, carriages,
furniture, etc. It is intersected by the New York and Os-
wego Midland R. R., the Utica, Chenango and Susquehanna
R. R., and the Albany and Susquehanna R. R. Capital,
Norwich. Pop. 40,564. - -
Chenango, a township and village of Broome co.,
N.Y. The village is at the junction of the Syracuse Bing-
hamton and New York and the Utica. Chenango and Sus-
quehanna R. Rs., 73 miles S. S. E. of Syracuse. Pop. of
township, 1680. -
Chenango River rises in Oneida co., N. Y., flows S.
S. W. through Madison and Chenango counties, and enters
the Susquehanna at Binghamton. Length, 90 miles.
Cheney (CHARLEs EDWARD), D.D., was born at Canan-
daigua, Ontario co., N.Y., Feb. 12, 1836. He graduated at
Hobart College, Geneva, N. Y., in 1857, and studied at the
Theological Seminary of Virginia. Nov. 21, 1858, he was
ordained deacon, and became assistant rector of St. Luke's
church, Rochester, N. Y. Subsequently he took charge of
St. Paul’s church at Havana, N. Y., and in Mar., 1860, he
was ordained a presbyter, and took charge of Christ's
church in Chicago. He was in Dec., 1873, elected assistant
bishop of the Reformed Episcopal Church.
Cheſney’s Grove, a twp. of McLean co., Ill. Pop. 1164.
Chengwata/ma, a post-village, capital of Pine co.,
Minn., on Snake River, about 70 miles N. of St. Paul. Pop.
of township, 99. ..
Chénier, de (ANDRíº), an excellent French poet, a . .
brother of the following, was born at Constantinople in
1762. He was educated in Paris, and was sent to London
in 1787 as secretary of legation. He returned to Paris in
1790, and became a moderate supporter of the popular
cause. He produced beautiful elegies and eclogues, in
which the influence of Greek poetry was predominant, and
which gave a new direction to the poetry of France. Having
in some of his writings censured the acts of the Jacobins,
he was committed to prison. He there wrote an admir-
CHENIER, DE—CHEROKEE.
able poem entitled “The Young Captive.” He was exe-
cuted in July, 1794, and left unfinished poems called
“America” and “Hermes.” (See H. DE LATouchº, “No-
tice sur André Chénier;” SAINTE-BEUVE, “Causeries du
Lundi,” tome iv.) w
Chénier, de (MARIE Josſ PH), a French poet of the
Revolution, born Aug. 28, 1764, at Constantinople, where
his father was consul. His tragedies “Gracchus,” “Fén-
élon,” “Timoléon,” and others were inspired by an intense
love of freedom, and composed in a noble style. He wrote
likewise patriotic songs; among them “Le Chant du Dé-
part.” Died Jan. 10, 1811.
Cheno'a, a post-village of McLean co., Ill., on the
Toledo Peoria and Warsaw R. R., where it is crossed by
the Chicago and Alton R. R., 48 miles E. of Peoria. It has
one newspaper-office. Pop. of Chenoa township, 2351. -
Chenopodia'ceae [from Chenopodium, one of the
general, a natural order of exogenous plants, chiefly her-
baceous. They are destitute of stipules, have small incon-
spicuous flowers, and a persistent calyx. The stamens are
never more numerous than the segments of the calyx.
They are found in most parts of the world. The order
comprises the beet and spinach, and many species which
have a weed-like appearance and grow in waste places.
Chenopo'dium [from the Gr. xiv, a “goose,” and
toūs, tro86s, a “foot”], a genus of herbaceous plants of the
order Chenopodiaceae, natives of America, Europe, and
Asia. They are weeds, growing in gardens and waste
places, and often covered with a white mealiness. Several
species are naturalized in the U. S., and are known by the
names of goosefoot, pigweed, and lamb’s quarter. The
Chenopodium anthelminticum (wormseed) is a native of
the U. S. The seeds of this plant are administered as a
remedy for worms. Among the more important plants of
this genus is QUINOA (which see).
Cheo'ah, a township of Cherokee co., N. C. Pop. 1427.
Che'ops [Gr. Xéoll, the name given by Herodotus to
the despotic builder of the great pyramid in Egypt, now
identified with Suphis I. (or Shufu) of the monuments.
He was the second king of the fourth dynasty, which was
established at Memphis about 2500 B.C., according to the
more sober English Egyptologists. Professor C. Piazzi
Smyth (1867) tries to fix the date of the great pyramid, on
astronomical grounds, at 2170 B.C. Bunsen’s date is 3280
B. C. -
Chepach’et, a post-village of Glocester township,
Providence co., R. I. It is on the Chepachet River, and
has extensive manufactures.
Chep'stow, a town and river-port of England, in the
county of Monmouth, on the river Wye, 2% miles from its
entrance into the estuary of the Severn, and 141 miles by
rail W. of London. It is surrounded by grand and beauti-
ful scenery, a good view of which is obtained from a rock
called Windcliff, 970 feet high. At Chepstow occurs the
highest tidal bore in Europe, rising suddenly often fifty
feet, and sometimes more than sixty-five. Large vessels
can ascend the river to this port. A railway bridge built
by Brunel here crosses the Wye. Pop. 3364.
Che'quest, a township of Van Buren co., Ia. Pop.
7.
Cher, a river of Central France, rises in the depart-
ment of Creuse, flows in a general north-west direction
through the departments of Allier, Cher, and Loir-et-Cher,
and enters the river Loire immediately below Tours. Its
total length is 207 miles. Destructive floods sometimes
occur. It is navigable in the last 47 miles of its course.
Cher, a central department of France, has an area of
2853 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the river
Loire, and intersected by the Cher. The surface is nearly
level, and extensively covered with forests; the soil is
variable; the staple products wine, hemp, flax, and wool.
It has mines of coal and iron, and manufactures of woollen
fabrics. Capital, Bourges. Pop. 336,613.
Cheraw, a post-village of Chesterfield co., S. C., on
Pedee River, at the head of navigation, 140 miles N. of
Charleston, the terminus of the Cheraw and Darlington .
R. R. It has seven churches, two academies, several other
schools, a public library, and one newspaper. During the
late civil war this place was captured, Mar. 3, 1865, by the
Federal forces under Gen. Sherman. It had been a dépôt
of supplies for the Confederates, and twenty-five cannon,
thousands of small-arms, tons of gunpowder, and immense
commissary stores fell into the hands of the Federals. Pop.
960; of township, 2258. T. LITTLE, Ed. “DEMocrat.”
Cherbourg [Lat. Caroburgus], a fortified seaport-town
and important naval station of France, department of
Manche, on the English Channel, and at the N. end of
the peninsula of Cotentin, 229% miles by rail W. N. W.
907
of Paris; lat. 49° 38' N., lon. 19 37' W. Its climate is
mild. The streets are narrow. It contains a communal
college, a public library, a museum, and a theatre; also man-
ufactures of hosiery, chemicals, lace, and leather, but the
industry of the inhabitants is chiefly employed in the ar-
senal and dockyards. Vast sums of money have been ex-
pended here in fortifications and in public works for the
improvement of the harbor. The latter is sheltered by land
on three sides, but is open to heavy seas and storms on the
N. To protect it from these a breakwater, or digwe, was
commenced in the reign of Louis XIV. and completed
under Napoleon III. Cherbourg breakwater is the most
gigantic work constructed for such a purpose in ancient or
modern times, and is a noble monument of the skill and
perseverance of the French engineers. (Seo BREAKWATER.)
At the apex of the angle formed by the meeting of the two
branches of the breakwater there is a central fort or battery
measuring 509 feet on the inner line of the parapet, which
forms a flat semi-ellipse. Besides the batteries on the mole
(digwe), Cherbourg is defended by twenty-four regular forts
and redoubts. On the land side it is defended and com-
manded by La Roule and Fort d’Octeville, which occupy
two adjacent heights. The naval port consists of an outer
harbor 776 feet long by 663 wide, its minimum depth be-
ing 58 feet, and the entrance to it is 206 feet wide. The
harbor communicates by means of a lock with a wet-dock
957 feet long by 712 wide. In Aug., 1858, the govern-
ment completed an inner wet-dock, which is cut out of
the solid rock, and is about 930 yards long by 437 wide.
Cherbourg was besieged by the English in 1378, 1418, and .
1450. William the Conqueror founded a hospital here.
Pop. 37,215.
Cherbuliez (ANToINE ELYSãE), a prominent writer on
political economy, born in 1797 at Geneva, became profes-
sor of law and political economy, first at Geneva, and
subsequently at the Polytechnicum at Zurich. He wrote
against the Socialists, and especially against Proudhon.
His chief work is “Outline of the Science of Political
Economy” (2 vols., 1862). Died at Zurich Mar. 14, 1869.
Cherbuliez (VICTOR), nephew of the preceding and son
of André Cherbuliez, professor of Hebrew at Geneva, born
about 1832, has become known as a clever novelist. His
“A propos d'un Cheval,” a revery on ancient art, appeared
in 1860, and was followed by the romances “Comte Kostia. *
(1863), “Paule Meré,” “Le Roman d’une honnéte femme.”
(1866), “Le grand oeuvre” (1867), and others.
Cher’ibon, or Sher’ibon, a seaport-town of Java,
capital of a division on its northern coast, 128 miles E. S. E.
of Batavia. It is the residence of a Dutch governor, is de-
fended by a fort, and has a considerable trade in coffee, in-
digo, teakwood, etc. Pop. about 11,000.
Cherimoy'er, or Chirimoy'a (Anona Cherimolia),
a fruit of South and Central America, now common in the
East Indies and other tropical countries. It is sometimes
described as the finest of all fruits, and Sometimes as infe-
rior to the mangosteen only. Both flowers and fruit emit
a pleasant fragrance, but when the tree is covered, with
blossoms the odor is almost overpowering. The fruit varies
from the size of an orange to sixteen pounds or more in
weight. It is roundish or heart-shaped, greenish, and cov-
ered with small knobs and scales. Internally, the fruit is
snow-white and juicy, and contains a number of small
brown seeds. The eatable part is soft like a custard, and
forms almost the entire mass of fruit. The chèrimoyer
attains excellence only in particular situations, and some
varieties are much finer than others. No tropical fruit
better deserves attention in hot-houses. -
Cher’olºee, a county of Alabama, bordering on Geor-
gia. Area, 550 square miles. It is trayersed by the Coosa
|River. The surface is diversified by high ridges; the soil
is mostly fertile. Cotton, grain, wool, and tobacco are raised.
It is intersected by the Selma Rome and Dalton R. R. Capi-
tal, Centre. Pop. 11,132.
Cherokee, a county in the N.W. of Georgia. Area,
475 square miles. It is intersected by the Etowah River,
and also drained by several creeks. The surface is partly
hilly and partly undulating; the soil is generally fertile.
Cotton, tobacco, wool, and grain are raised. . It contains
mines of gold and quarries of statuary marble. Capital,
Canton. Pop. 10,399.
Cherokee, a county in the W. N. W. of Iowa. Area,
576 square miles. It is intersected by the Little Sioux
River. The surface is undulating; the soil is productive.
Wheat, corn, and cattle are raised. It is traversed by the
Dubuque and Sioux City R. R. Capital, Cherokee. Pop.
1967. -
Cherokee, a county in the S.E. corner of Kansas.
Area, 604 square miles. It is intersected by Spring River,
an affluent of the Neosho, which runs through the S. W.
908
CHEROKEE–CHERUBIN.I.
part of the county. The soil is fertile. Cattle, corn, to-
bacco, and wool are raised. . It is traversed by the Missouri
River Fort Scott and Gulf R. R. Capital, Columbus. Pop.
11,038.
Cherokee, a county which forms the W. extremity of
North Carolina. Area, 625 square miles. It is intersected
by the Hiawassee River. The surface is partly mountain-
ous, and the Unaka or Smoky Mountain extends along the
N. W. border. The soil of the valleys, is fertile. Corn,
wool, and tobacco are raised. Gold, zinc, lead, and excel-
lent white marble abound. Capital, Murphy. Pop. 8080.
Cherokee, a county of the E. of Texas. Area, 1144
square miles. The surface is somewhat hilly; the soil is
excellent, producing fine crops of corn, wheat, cotton, and
fruit. Wool-growing and stock-raising are also carried on.
Timber and the best iron ores abound. Lumber is manu-
factured, and also iron to some extent. It is intersected by
the International R. R. Capital, Rusk. Pop., 11,079.
Cherokee, a post-village in the township of same name,
capital of Cherokee co., Ia., on the Little Sioux River and
on the Iowa division of the Illinois Central R. R., 59 miles
E. N. E. of Sioux City. . It has two weekly newspapers.
Pop. including the township, 719.
Cherokee, a township of Cherokee co., Kan. P. 370.
Cherokee, a township of Spartanburg co., S. C. Pop.
1675.
Cherokee, a township of York co., S. C. Pop. 1895.
Cher’okees', a tribe of North American aborigines
who were formerly numerous and powerful. They occupied
the southern portion of the Appalachian Mountains and
large tracts in Georgia and Alabama. They have been
considered the most civilized of the Indians in the U. S.
In 1838 all the Cherokees living in Georgia were removed
to the Indian Territory beyond the Mississippi, in which a
large tract of land was appropriated to them. Many of
them cultivate the soil and are industrious in their habits.
They have a written language, written laws, and an organ-
ized government. Their alphabet, which was invented by
George Guess, a Cherokee, consists of eighty-five characters.
Their present territory embraces 9,776,000 acres, with a
population in 1872 of 18,000, besides several hundred in
North Carolina.
Cher’ry, the name of numerous trees and their fruit be-
longing to the genus Prunw8 and order Rosaceae, but placed
by some in a separate genus or sub-genus (Cerasus), distin-
guished by having the stone or pit of the fruit round, while
the plums of the genus Prunus proper have flattened pits;
but with several species the distinction does not hold good.
There is therefore no such genus or sub-genus as Cerasus.
But those cherries which have their flowers and fruit in
racemes (clusters), called bird cherries, are properly placed
in a sub-genus, Padws; and the evergreen species, called
cherry-laurels, are placed in a sub-genus, Lauro-cerasus.
Cultivated cherries are of many varieties, and belong to
two distinct species—Prunus avium and vulgaris—both Old
World species, the former comprising the “dukes,” “ox-
hearts,” “bigarreaus,” etc., and the latter the “morellos,”
“guignes,” and sour cherries. The former in Europe yields
valuable timber. They are useful as dessert fruit and for
preserving, and are employed in the manufacture of various
liqueurs (Maraschino, Kirschwasser, cherry-brandy, etc.).
There are numerous wild species of cherry in both conti-
ments. Those best known in the U. S. are the choke-cherry
and the black cherry (Prunus Virginiana and serotina); the
bark of both species is very useful in medicine; the latter is
a large tree yielding a very useful timber.
• Cherry, a township of Montgomery co., Kan. P. 802.
Cherry, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 903.
Cherry, a township of Sullivan co., Pa. Pop. 1710.
Cherry Creek, a township and village of Chautauqua
co., N. Y. The village is 18 miles S. E. of Dunkirk. It
has three churches, a State bank, and some manufactures.
Pop. of township, 1359. - *
Cher'ryfield, a township and village of Washington.
co., Me. The village is 30 miles W. of Machias. It is on
the Narraguagus River.
the manufacture of lumber, leather, doors, sash, blinds, etc.
Pop. of township, 1760.
Cher'ry Grove, a township and village of Carroll co.,
Ill. The village is about 15 miles S. W. of Freeport. Pop.
of township, 1154.
Cherry Grove, a township of Goodhue co., Minn.
Pop. 884.
Cherry Grove, a township of Warren co., Pa.
Cherry Hill, a township of Indiana co., Pa. P. 1976.
Cherry Lane, a post-township of Alleghany co., N. C.
Pop. 309.
Shipbuilding is carried on, and
P. 61.
Cher’ry Lau’rel, a name given to the evergreen cherry
trees, such as the bay laurel, Prunw8 Lawrocerasus, a native
of Asia; the Portugal laurel, Prunus Lusitanica, a native
of Southern Europe; and the “mock orange” of the South-
ern U. S., Prunus Caroliniana. They are all prized as or-
namental shrubs or trees, and all abound in poisonous hy-
drocyanic acid, especially in the kernels and leaves. They
have also an essential oil, resembling that of bitter al-
monds. The leaves of the first-mentioned species are used
in flavoring sauces, etc., and in preparing cherry-laurel
water, sometimes used in medicine as a sedative; but its
strength is variable, and it should not be used.
Cher'ry Ridge, a post-township of Wayne co., Pa.
Pop. 1101.
Cher'rytree, a borough of Indiana co., Pa. Pop. 360.
Cherrytree, a post-township of Venango co., Pa. Pop.
326.
Cher’ry Wal/ley, a township and post-village of Win-
nebago co., Ill. The village is on the Chicago and North-
western R. R., 84 miles W. N. W. of Chicago. Pop. of
township, 1421. -
Cherry Valley, a post-village of Otsego co., N. Y.,
on a branch of the Albany and Susquehanna R. R., 68
miles W. of Albany. It has an academy, a national bank,
and one weekly newspaper. Cherry Valley was the scene
of a dreadful massacre by the Tories and Indians in the
British service. Oct. 11, 1778. Thirty-two inhabitants,
nearly all women and children, were murdered, besides
sixteen soldiers of the Continental army. The rest of the
citizens were made prisoners and taken away, and all the
buildings were burned. Pop. 930; of Cherry Walley town-
ship, 2337.
Cherry Valley, a post-township of Ashtabula co., 0.
Pop. 726.
Cher’ryville, a township and post-village of Gaston
co., N. C. The village is on the Wilmington Charlotte and
Rutherford R. R., 43 miles N. W. of Charlotte. Pop. of
township, 2003.
Cher'siphron [Gr. Xepatºpov), an eminent Cretan ar-
chitect who flourished about 600 B. C. He designed the
temple of Diana at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of
the World, but he died before it was finished. It was
adorned with 127 Ionic columns of marble sixty feet high,
and was 425 Roman feet in length.
Cher’so (anc. Crepsa), an island of Illyria, in the Adri-
atic, 12 miles S. S. W. of Fiume. Area, with Osero, 95
square miles. The products are oil and wine. There are
large anchovy-fisheries. Capital, Cherso. Pop. 17,500.
Cherso, a town of Illyria, in the Austrian province of
Trieste, situated on the above island, 25 miles S. of Fiume.
It has a fair harbor, and trades in fish, wine, and lumber.
Pop. 8095. -
Chers one'sus [Gr. Xeporóvnaos], the ancient name of
several peninsulas of Europe and Asia, as Chersonesus
Aurea. (Malacca), Chersonesus Cimbrica (Jutland), Cher-
Sonesus . Thracia (Gallipoli), and Chersonesus Taurica
(Crimea).
Chert, or Hornstone, a silicious mineral, a variety
of quartz with many of the characters of flint, but differ-
ing from it in being of a tougher nature, and breaking
with a splintery instead of a conchoidal fracture. It is
always massive, and is of various colors—white, red, yel-
low, gray, and brown. It is common in the mountain lime-
stone, oolite, and greensand formations; it sometimes forms
rocks, and often contains petrifactions. The term chert is
often applied to the silicious concretions which occur as
nodules in limestone rocks. The limestone is said to be
“cherty " when it contains so much of these concretions
as to render it unfit for building and conversion into lime.
Cher/ub (plu. Cher'ubim or Cherubs), [etymology
doubtful, though, according to a somewhat popular view,
the cherubim are angels who excel in knowledge as the
seraphim are conceived to excel in love; and in this view
the name has been supposed to be related to the Hebrew
ſcárab, to “grasp,” and hence to “know ’’l, the name of a
winged being mentioned in the Scriptures. A cherub
guarded Paradise and prevented the return of fallen man.
Figures of cherubim were placed over the mercy-seat in the
PIoly of Holies, and were wrought into the hangings of the
temple. In the book of Ezekiel cherubim with four wings
and many eyes, with forms partly human and partly bestial,
are described. They appear as four-winged beings of
a generally human form in Christian art. Most writers
regard them as angels, but many crities believe that they
are symbols, rather than real existences.
Cherubi'ni (MARIA LUIGI CARLo ZENOBI SALvADOR),
an eminent Italian composer, born at Florence Sept. 8, 1760,
CHERUSCI—CHESS.
909
was a pupil of Felici and Sarti. He visited London in
1784. After 1786 he passed the most of his time in Paris,
where his opera “Lodoiska’’ was performed with success
in 1791. He composed, besides other works, operas entitled
“Iphigenia in Aulide” (1788), “Elisa” (1794), “ Medea."
(1797), and “Anacreon.” He acquired a European repu-
tation as a composer of Sacred music. Among his works
in this department is a grand requiem. He was a pro-
fessor in the Conservatory of Paris, and a membér of the
Royal Academy. Died Mar. 15, 1842. (See L. DE LO-
MáNIE, “ M. Cherubini, par un homme de rien,” 1841;
RAoul-Roch ETTE, “ Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de
Cherubini.”) f -
Cherus’ci, an ancient and celebrated German tribe
mentioned by Caesar, inhabited a country on the north side
of the Silva, Bacenis (Hartz Forest). The famous Hermann
(Arminius) was a chief of the Cherusci. Having formed
a league with other German tribes, he defeated the Roman
general Varus near the Lippe in 9 A. D. According to
Tacitus, the Cherusci were conquered by the Catti or Chatti
after the death of Arminius. -
Cher'vil [Fr. cerfeuil, from the Lat. cerefolium], an
umbelliferous plant which is cultivated in Europe as a
pot-herb and used in soups. The leaves have a peculiar,
somewhat sweetish and aromatic smell and taste. It
is a native of Europe and naturalized in the U. S. Its
systematic name is Chaerophyllum sativum. Other species
are cultivated; one or more have roots of some value,
which somewhat resemble those of the carrot.
Chesaning', a post-village of Saginaw co., Mich., on
the Shiawassee River and the Jackson Lansing and Sag-
inaw R. R., 43 miles N. E. of Lansing. It has one weekly
newspaper. Pop. 721; of Chesaming township, 1507.
Chesapeake, a township of Elizabeth City co., Va.
Pop. 2703.
Chesapeake, a township of Matthews co., Va. P. 1700.
Chesapeake Bay [from an Indian word meaning
“mother of waters”], a large inlet of the Atlantic, extends
from Capes Charles and Henry northward through Mary-
land and Virginia to the mouth of the Susquehanna River.
It is about 200 miles long, and varies in width from 4 to
40 miles. The distance from Cape Charles to Cape Henry
is nearly twelve miles. The coasts on each side are deeply
indented by numerous inlets and estuaries, which are nav-
igable. The Chesapeake is so deep that the largest ships
can ascend from the ocean nearly to the northern extrem-
ity. It contains numerous islands. The largest rivers
which flow into it are the Susquehanna, the Potomac, and
the James River.
Chesapeake City, a post-village of Cecil co., Md., at
the western terminus of the Chesapeake and Delaware
Canal, 84 miles N. E. of Annapolis. Pop. 1008; of Chesa-
peake City township, 2683.
Chesebro (CAROLINE), an American writer, born at
Canandaigua, N. Y. She contributed largely to period-
ical literature, and was the author of several novels, among
which are “Dreamland by Daylight,” “Isa, a Pilgrimage,”
“The Foe in the Household,” etc. Died Feb. 16, 1873.
Ches/elden (WILLIAM), F. R. S., an English anatomist
and surgeon, born in Leicestershire in 1688. He began to
lecture on anatomy in London about 1711, and published
in 1713 “The Anatomy of the Human Body,” which was
long used as a text-book. He was afterward chief surgeon
of St. Thomas’s and Westminster Hospitals, and acquired
a high reputation as an operator. Among his works is
“The Anatomy of the Bones” (1733). Died in 1752.
Cheshire, England. See CHESTER.
Cheshire, chésh'ir, a county which forms the S. W.
extremity of New Hampshire. Area, 770 square miles.
It is bounded on the W. by the Connecticut River, and
drained by the Ashuelot. The surface is hilly, and partly
occupied by mountains, among which is the Grand Monad-
nock. The soil of the valleys is fertile. Tobacco, grain,
wool, and dairy products are largely raised. The manufac-
tures are extensive, and comprise lumber, furniture, wood-
en-ware, leather, cotton and woollen goods, etc. It is in-
tersected by the Cheshire R. R., the Ashuelot R. R., and
the Monadnock R. R. Capital, Keene. Pop. 27,265.
Cheshire, a township and post-village of New Haven
co., Conn. The village is on the New Haven and North-
ampton R. R., 15 miles N. of New Haven. Pop. of town-
ship, 2344.
Cheshire, a township and post-village of Berkshire
co., Mass. The village is on the North Adams branch of
the Boston and Albany R. R., 9 miles N. of Pittsfield. The
town has valuable beds of glass sand, and important man-
ufactures. Pop. of township, 1758.
it cannot leap over intervening pieces.
Cheshire, a post-twp. of Allegan co., Mich. Pop. 1443.
Cheshire, a post-township of Gallia co., O. Pop. 1895.
Ches/ney (FRANCIs RAWDON), an officer noted as an ex-
plorer, was born in Ireland in 1789. Aided by the British
government, he explored a route from Europe to India by
way of the Red Séa, and in 1836 descended the Euphrates
in a steamer from Beer (Bir) to its mouth. He published
“The Expedition for the Survey of the Euphrates and
Tigris" (4 vols., 1850). In 1855 he obtained the rank of
major-general. Died Jan. 30, 1872.
Chess [Fr. Échecs ; Ger. Schach; from Persian, shah, a
“king *]. The origin of this game is undoubtedly Ori-
ental, but its date is lost in antiquity. Terms connected
with it are found in the Sanscrit, as well as in some other
Asiatic languages. It was probably introduced into Europe
by the Arabians as early as the eighth century. Some slight
modifications have been made in it in modern times, but
the game appears to have been, in its most essential cha-
racters, the same for two or three thousand years.
other game approaches it in the scope afforded, by the num-
ber and variety of powers of the pieces, for skill and fore-
sight, involving the faculties of memory and conception
especially to a large degree. Dr. Benjamin Franklin ad-
mired it greatly, and wrote upon the advantages obtainable
by it in the cultivation of the mind and character; particu-
larly in promoting the habit of circumspection. With Na-
poleon I. it was a favorite recreation, and many other men
of superior intelligence (as, for instance, J. J. Rousseau)
have greatly enjoyed it. Yet capacity for eminent skill in
it has often been possessed by men who have not otherwise
displayed remarkable ability.
The chess-board is divided into sixty-four squares, alter-
nately white and black. A white square should always be
at the corner next to the right hand of each of the two
players. The pieces used are as follows, upon each side,
of different colors, commonly white and red :
A King, placed at the beginning of the game near the
middle of the back line or row of squares. This is the most
important piece on the board. It can move but a single
square in any direction; it can take any piece belonging to
the adversary which is upon an adjoining square, except
the king—although the piece near it may be protected by
some other piece being in a position to take in return. The
king can never be taken; when so placed that if it were
any other piece it might be captured by the adversary, the
king is in check ; and it is always necessary for the king in
such a case, at the next move, to be placed where he is not
in check. If this cannot be done, it is checkmate, and the
game is ended. Stalemate occurs when, there being few
pieces on the board, none of them, including the king,
can be moved without placing the king in check.
A Queen, the most valuable active piece on the board,
placed, on commencing, next to the king in the back row,
on that square nearest the middle which has her own color
—i.e. white queen on white square, black or red queen on
black square. The queen can move and take any piece of
the adversary (except the king, as above said) at any dis-
tance in a straight line upon the board, either in the direc-
tion of the squares or diagonally; always provided that
The queen can be
taken by any other piece. -
Two Rooks or Castles—one placed in the beginning of
the game at each end of the back row of squares. The
rook can move or take only in the direction of the lines of
squares (i. e. not diagonally), but at any distance when not
obstructed by other pieces. It ranks in value next to the
U1661),
G. Two Bishops, one of which stands at the side of the king,
and the other at the side of the queen, on the back row.
One is thus upon a black square, find one upon a white one ;
and as they move or take only diagonally across the board,
each keeps upon the same color throughout the game.
Two Knights, whose station is, at the opening, one at the
side of each of the bishops, being thus next to the castles or
rooks, and completing the back row... The movement of
the knight is peculiar—one square diagonally, and then
one forward or backward; or the converse, one square for-
ward or backward, and then one diagonally. It can, more-
over, leap over any intervening pieces to occupy an empty
square or to take an adversary’s piece. The knight and
the bishop rank as about equal in value; probably in the
early part of the game the knight is worth rather the most,
and the bishop somewhat more when but few pieces are left
upon the board. .
Eight Pawns, arranged at first in the row of squares next
to the more important pieces just described. The pawn
moves only forward, but takes only diagonally. In either
case it can go but a single square, except that, when a
pawn first moves from its place in the second row, it may,
at the option of the player, move two squares. If, how-
*Checkmate is shah mat—i.e. “king confounded or overcome.”
No .
910
CHESS—CHESTER.
ever, an adversary’s pawn is at that time so placed as to
take the pawn moved if it were moved but one square, the
moving pawn may be taken, as it is called, en passant.
When a pawn can be advanced so far as to reach the adver-
sary’s back row, it becomes a queen or any other piece the
player chooses, except a king. It is possible, therefore (as
the game is conducted by many, though not all, players), to
have more than two queens upon the board at a time.
Pawns are the least valuable of all the pieces. Yet skill
in their use is important towards' winning the game; so
much so that in the famous treatise of Philidor (“L’Analyse
du Jeu des Echecs,” London, 1749) the theory was main-
tained that “the pawns are the soul of chess.”
Castling is a change of position allowed on either side,
by which the king and a castle or rook are made to pass
each other, each moving two squares if the change be made
upon the king's side, and the castle three squares and the
king two if it be upon the side of the queen. Castling can
only be effected, however, when no pieces intervene, when
neither the king nor the castle has yet been moved, and
when the king is not in check, and will not have to move,
in castling, over a square exposed to check from any piece
belonging to the antagonist. -
The squares are commonly named after the principal
pieces. Thus, that upon which the king stands is the king's
square; next to it, the queen’s square; then, on one side,
king's bishop's square, king's knight's and king's rook’s
squares; on the other side, queen’s bishop’s square, queen's
knight's and queen's rook’s squares; in front of these the
king’s pawn, queen’s pawn, king's bishop’s pawn, queen's
bishop’s pawn, king's knight's pawn, queen’s knight’s pawn,
king’s rook’s pawn, and queen’s-rook’s pawn.
A gambit is a mode of opening the game in which a
strong attack is gained by the sacrifice of a pawn. There
are several kinds of gambit in use. A curiosity of the
chess-board is the “knight's problem *—viz. to place a
knight alone upon any square, and then move it, in its
usual manner, over every square of the board successively
until it returns to the place from which it started. This
was thought worthy of resolution by a mathematical pro-
cess by the celebrated Euler, but many persons have re-
solved it experimentally. -
The rules of chess are, with slight variations among in-
dividual players, absolute. The most important are the
following: - -
1. If a piece be touched it must (if possible) be moved
somewhere. -
2. When a move has been made, and the hand has been
withdrawn from it, the move cannot be retracted.
3. If you touch, one of the adversary’s pieces which can
be taken, it must be taken, unless this be omitted with the
consent of the adversary.
4. On giving check to the adversary’s king, notice must
be given by saying “check;” otherwise he is not bound to
pay any attention to it.
5. When all the pieces on both sides have been removed in
the course of a game, except just enough for one player to
checkmate the other (as, king and rook, or two bishops, or
bishop and knight, against king), the checkmate must be ac-
complished within fifty moves or it is counted a drawn game.
Among the most famous chess-players have been Dani-
can-Philidor, Kermay de Légal, La Bourdonnais, Des-
chapelles, Lewis, McDonnell, Paulsen, and Paul Morphy.
The last named, a native of the U.S., now living, is the
most extraordinary chess-genius ever known. In 1858 he
visited Europe, and conquered in turn all the most distin-
guished living players. His most astonishing feat has been
playing, blindfold, six games at once with as many different
players, and winning them all. -
The automaton chess-player of MM. Kempelen and
Maelzel, exhibited in Europe and America many years
ago, was a very ingenious contrivance by which many
persons were induced to believe (what is impossible) that
the game was actually played by machinery wound up
for the purpose. After the death of Maelzel, this auto-
maton, having been taken to pieces, was purchased at
Philadelphia by several gentlemen, and about 1842 the late
Dr. J. K. Mitchell solved the riddle of its construction and
operation, and put it together again for the amusement of
his friends. A skilful player was, when it was exhibited,
concealed within the table at which the “automaton ’’
figure sat, the game being played upon a board on that
table, and made known to the hidden operator by the
rising and falling of magnetic “keepers” under the in-
fluence of the pieces, each of which contained a small por-
tion of iron. (See “The Chess-player's Hand-book,” by
How ARD STAUNTON, London, 1847; “ Chess and Chess-
players,” by GEORGE WALKER, London, 1850; and “Life
of Philidor,” by GEORGE ALLEN, Greek professor in the
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1863.) -
- H. HARTSHORNE.
Chess, or Cheat, a common name of Bromus seco-
linus, a plant of the order Graminaceae. It is a trouble-
some weed which often infests wheat-fields. Many farmers
believe (incorrectly) that wheat is liable to be transmuted
into chess.
Chest [Lat. pectus ; Fr. poitrine], or Tho'rax, is the
part of the body between the neck and the abdomen. The
chest is rather conical in form, the lower end of the cone
being shut in by the diaphragm, a large muscular partition
which projects upward from the lower ribs, convex towards
the chest and concave towards the abdomen. The combi-
nation of bone, cartilage, muscle, and tendon in the chest is
such as to permit of an expansive movement, and yet to
guard against over-expansion, which would be fatal to the
delicate textures within. The bones of the chest are an ef-
fectual protection against injury from without. .
The parts which constitute the chest walls are—1. The
spinal column, divided into twenty-four vertebrae, twelve
of which, called the dorsal vertebrae, form the thoracic
portion. 2. Twelve ribs, attached to the transverse pro-
cesses of the dorsal vertebrae, and ending in front in the
costal cartilages, by which most of the ribs are con-
nected with 3. The sternum or breast-bone, occupying the
middle line in front. 4. The diaphragm. The chief con-
tents of the chest are the heart, the great blood-vessels, the
lungs, the trachea or windpipe, the bronchi or branches
of the trachea, the oesophagus, and the thoracic duct, by
which most of the chyle and lymph are discharged into the
blood. The importance of these parts and their liability to
deranged action render the chest the seat of a large number
of diseases which may end in death. Of the three organs
which Bichat called the “tripod of life”—viz. the brain,
heart, and lungs—the chest contains two ; hence its condi-
tion in many diseases is an object of solicitude to the
physician.
Chest diseases depend in some cases on alterations in
form by disorders affecting the bones in early childhood,
such as rhachitis (rickets). The lungs and air-passages
are subject to many diseases, among which are consumption
orphthisis pulmonalis, pneumonia, pleurisy, and bronchitis.
The heart is subject to pericarditis, endocarditis, and chronic
organic disease of the valves, as well as to enlargement
(hypertrophy), dilatation, and degeneration of its muscu-
lar texture, besides many functional derangements. The
aorta may be affected with degeneration of its walls, and
with consequent aneurism. The great veins are liable to
over-distension, and to obstruction by tumors or by coag-
ulation of the blood. The exploration of the chest by
physicians is now conducted not only by investigation of
the symptoms of the disease, but by a minute and elab-
orate examination into the physical conditions of the con-
tained organs by means of auscultation, percussion, meas-
urement, etc. REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Chest, a post-township of Clearfield co., Pa. P. 1178.
Chest, a township. of Cambria co., Pa. Pop. 870.
Ches/ter, or Chesh’ire, a maritime county of Eng-
land, is bounded on the N. by Lancashire, on the S. and
W. by Shropshire and Wales, on the E. by Stafford and
Derby. It has a coast on the Irish Sea and the estuaries
of the Dee and Mersey. Area, 1105 Square miles. The
surface is mostly level and well wooded; the soil is a fertile
clayey or sandy loam adapted to grazing and dairy-farming.
The surface-rock is new red sandstone: The chief rivers,
besides the Mersey, are the Dee and Weaver. Coal, cop-
per, and lead are found in the county. , Here are many ex-
tensive dairies which produce good cheese; the quantity
of cheese made annually is estimated at 12,000 tons or
more. Chester has a good system of canals, and is trav-
ersed by several railways. Capital, Chester. The other
chief towns are Macclesfield, Stockport, and Birkenhead.
In 828 A. D. Egbert annexed Chester, to his kingdom.
William the Conqueror erected it into a county palatine.
Pop. in 1871, 561,131. / -
Ches/ter, an episcopal city of England, capital of the
county palatine of Chester, is on the right bank of the
Dee, 22 miles from the sea and 16 miles S. S. E. of Liver-
pool. Six important railways converge to this point, and
connect it with Liverpool, Manchester, London, Holyhead,
and other towns. It stands on a rocky eminence, is mostly
enclosed by ancient and massive walls, and is one of the
most picturesque cities of England. The two main streets
were cut out of the rock by the Romans five feet or more
below the level of the houses. These streets are lined with
shops, over which are piazzas or “rows” for foot-passen-
gers. It has an old and massive sandstone cathedral 375
feet long, with a tower 127 feet high. Among its other
edifices are a castle and St. John’s church, the latter Sup-
posed to have been founded in 698 A.D., and now partially
in ruins. Here is a stone bridge across the Dee with a
single arch 200 feet in span. Chester has a public library,
CHESTER—CHESTERFIELD.
911
a museum, and a theatre. It returns two members to Par-
liament. Cheese, coal, copper, and cast iron are exported
from this port by the river, which is nayigable for small
vessels. Chester occupies the site of an important Roman
station called Deva (or Devana) Castra. Pop. in 1871 of.
the municipal borough, 35,701. -
Chester, a county in the S.E. of Pennsylvania. Area,
738 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the
Schuyſkill River, and also drained by the Brandywine and
Octorara, creeks. The surface is pleasantly diversified.
Among its remarkable features is a long narrow valley
called Chester Valley, which extends across the county from
the Schuylkill to Octorara Creek. The soil is very fertile.
Cattle, fruit, grain, and garden and dairy products are ex-
tensively raised. Iron, paper, woollen goods, machinery,
etc. are largely manufactured. Fine white marble is quºr-
ried in the valley. Among the minerals: found in this
county are copper, lead, zinc, kaolin, zircon, titanium, Sap-
phire, corundum, amethyst, etc. . It is intersected by the
†ennsylvania. R. R., the Philadelphia and Baltimore Cen-
tral R. R., the Wilmington and Reading R. R., the Chester
Valley R. R., and the West Chester and Philadelphia R. R.
Capital, West Chester. Pop. 77,805. -
Chester, a county of South Carolina. Area, 570 square
miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Catawba River and
on the W. by Broad River. The surface is moderately
hilly; the soil is productive. Corn, cotton, and wool are
the chief products. It is intersected by the Charlotte Co-
lumbia and Augusta R. R. Capital, Chester or Chester
Court-house. Pop. 18,805.
Chester, a beautiful port of entry, post-village, and
township of Lunenburg co., Nova Scotia, 45 miles W. by
S. of Halifax, is on Chester Basin, which is studded with
numerous islands. Its manufactures and fisheries are im-
portant. The village of Chester Basin, 5 miles distant, is
also celebrated for its beauty.
Chester, a township of Dallas co., Ark. Pop. 510.
Chester, a post-township of Desha co., Ark. P. 260.
Chester, a township and post-village of Middlesex co.,
Conn. The village is on the Connecticut Valley R. R.,
32#.miles S. S. E. of Hartford. Pop. of township, 1094. ,
Chester, a township of Logan co., Ill. Pop. 1062.
Chester, a city, capital of Randolph co., Ill., on the
Mississippi River, 76 miles below St. Louis, and on the
Iron Mountain Chester and Eastern R. R. It is the ship-
ping-point for the Chester coal-fields. It has eight churches,
two newspapers, a bank, rolling-mills, foundries, flour-mills,
an elevator, and three coal-dumps. Pop. 1615.
CHARLEs L. SPENCER, PUB. “WALLEY CLARION.”.
Chester, a township of Wabash co., Ind. Pop. 3143.
Chester, a township of Wells co., Ind. Pop. 1212.
Chester, a township and post-village of Howard co.,
Ia. Pop. 324. -
Chester, a township of Poweshiek co., Ia. Pop. 568.
Chester, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. P. 350.
Chester, a township and post-village of Hampden co.,
Mass. The village is on the Boston and Albany R. R., 82
miles W. N. W. of Worcester. There are important emery-
mines in the township, and several factories. Pop. of town-
ship, 1253.
Chester, a township and post-village of Eaton co.,
Mich. The village is on the Grand River Valley R. R., 54
miles S. E. of Grand Rapids. Pop. of township, 1117.
Chester, a township of Ottawa co., Mich. Pop. 1405.
Chester, a township of Wabashaw co., Minn. P. 835.
Chester, a township and post-village of Rockingham
co., N. H.
tubs, etc. Pop. 1153.
Chester, a township of Burlington co., N. J. P. 2586.
Chester, a township and post-village of Morris co.,
N. J. The village is on the Chester R. R., a branch of the
Morris and Essex R. R., 40 miles W. of New York City.
It is a place of summer resort, and has an institute for
young ladies. Pop. of township, 1743. -
Chester, a post-village of Orange co., N. Y., on the
Erie R. R., 55 miles N. by W. from New York. It has a
national bank, an academy, and three churches. Pop. 666;
of Chester township, 2113. .
Chester, a township of Warren co., N. Y. The post-
village of Chestertown contains an academy. Pop. of
township, 2329.
Chester, a township of Clinton co., O. Pop. 1173.
Chester, a township of Geauga co., O. Pop. 727.
Chester, a township and post-village of Meigs co., 0.
Pop. 1656. The village is about 18 miles S. E. of Athens.
one daily and five weekly papers.
It has manufactures of boots, shoes, barrels,
Chester, a township of Morrow co., O. . Pop. 1073.
Chester, a township of Wayne co., O. Pop. 1921.
Chester, a city of Delaware co., Pa., on the Delaware
River and the Philadelphia Wilmington and Baltimore
R. R., 15 miles W. S. W. of Philadelphia. It was settled
by the Swedes in 1643, and is the oldest town in the State.
In Chester are large shipyards, in one of which 1300 men
are employed. There are also manufactures of woollen
and cotton goods, metals, etc. It has numerous churches
and public schools, two national and one private bank, and
There is an academy
in the city, and in the neighborhood is the Crozer Theolog-
ical Seminary (Baptist). Chester has increased rapidly in
the last decade. It was incorporated a city in 1866. Ad-
jacent are the boroughs of Upland and South Chester,
which have considerable manufactories. Pop. 9485; of
township, exclusive of city, 1452.
WM. ORR, Ed. DELAw ARE Co. “DEMocrát.”
Chester, a post-village, capital of Chester co., S. C.,
on the Charlotte Columbia and Augusta R. R., and the ter-
minus of the King's Mountain R. R., 65 miles N. N. W. of
Columbia. It has a national bank and one newspaper.
P. of township, 944. E. C. McLURE, ED. “REPORTER.”
Chester, a township and post-village of Windsor co.,
Vt., on the Vermont Central R. R., 39 miles S. E. of Rut-
land. Here are manufactures of furniture, leather, lumber,
carriages, boots and shoes, sash and blinds, etc. It is the
seat of an academy. Pop. of township, 2052.
Chester, a township and post-village of Chesterfield
co., Va. The village is on the Richmond Fredericksburg
and Potomac R. R., 13 miles S. of Richmond. Pop. of
township, 2313. i
Chester, a township and village of Dodge co., Wis.
The village is 17 miles S. W. of Fond du Lac. Pop. 1876.
Chester (CoLBy M.), U. S. N., born in 1845 in Massa-
chusetts, graduated at the Naval Academy as ensign in
1863, became a master in 1866, a lieutenant in 1867, and a
lieutenant-commander in 1868. He served in the steamer
Richmond at the battle of Mobile Bay Aug. 5, 1864, and
was commended “for coolness and courage” by the com-
manding officer of that vessel, Capt. Thornton A. Jenkins,
in his official report to Rear-Admiral Farragut of the part
taken by the Richmond in the battle.
- Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Chester (Joseph LEMUEL), a distinguished American
antiquary, born in Norwich, Conn., in 1821. He has pub-
lished “Greenwood Cemetery, and other Poems” (1843),
a treatise on “The Law of Repulsion '' (1853), “Educa-
tional Laws of Virginia,” etc. (1854), and other works. He
has since been engaged in the publication of all the mar-
riage, burial, and baptismal registers of Westminster Ab-
bey, with annotations.
Chester Court-house, S. C. See CHESTER.
Ches/terfield, a town of England, in Derbyshire, 24
miles by railway N. N. E. of Derby. It has a church built
in the thirteenth century, with a remarkable twisted spire
230 feet high. Here are manufactures of silk and cotton
stuffs, laces, hosiery, earthenware, and machinery. . Mines
of coal, lead, and iron are worked in the vicinity. Pop. in
1871, 11,426.
Chesterfield, a county in the N. E. of South Carolina.
Area, 868 square miles. It is bounded on the E., by the
Great Pedee River and on the W. by Tynche's Creek. The
surface is hilly; the soil in some parts is fertile. It pro-
duces corn, cotton, and some tobacco and rice. It is inter-
sected by the Cheraw and Darlington R. R. Capital,
Chesterfield Court-house. Pop. 10,584.
Chesterfield, a county in the S. E. of Virginia.
Area, 300 square miles. It is bounded on the N. and N. E.
by the James River, and on the S. by the Appomattox.
The southern suburbs of Richmond are in this courity.
The surface is uncven. Tobacco, corn, and wheat are the
chief crops. Coal is found here. It is intersected by the
Richmond and Danville R. R. and the Richmond Fred-
ericksburg and Potomac R. R. Capital, Chesterfield
Court-house. Pop. 18,470.
Chesterfield, a post-township of Hampshire co., Mass.
Pop. 811. º:
Chesterfield, a township of Macomb co., Mich. Pop.
2.175. 3.
Chesterfield, a township and post-village of Cheshire
co., N. H., 8 miles S. W. of Keene. It has manufactures
of leather, lumber, augers, etc. Pop. of township, 1289.
Chesterfield, a township of Burlington co., N. J.
Pop. 1748. ---
ºnesterneia, a township of Essex co., N. Y. Pop.
2795. -
912
CHESTERFIELD–CHEVREAU.
Chesterfield, a township of Nash co., N. C. Pop. 863.
Chesterfield, a township of Fulton co., O. Pop. 926.
Chesterfield Court-house, a post-village, capital
of Chesterfield co., S. C., is about 90 miles N. E. of Col-
umbia. -
Chesterfield Court-house, the capital of Chester-
field co., Va., is about 12 miles S. S. W. of Richmond.
Chesterfield Inlet, a long and narrow inlet of British
America, extends westward from the N. part of Hudson’s
Bay. It is about 250 miles long, and 25 miles wide at the
broadest part. It encloses many islands.
Chesterfield, EARLs of (1628), Barons Stanhope
(1616, England).-GEORGE PHILIP STANHOPE, eighth earl,
born Nov. 29, 1822, succeeded his kinsman Nov. 30, 1871.
Died Dec. 1, 1872.
Chesterfield (PHILIP DoRMER Stanhope), FourTH
EARL OF, an English author and courtier distinguished for
his wit and politeness, was born in London Sept. 22, 1694.
He was the eldest son of Philip the third earl and Eliza-
beth Saville, who was a daughter of the marquis of Hali-
fax. He studied at Cambridge, made a tour on the Con-
tinent in 1714, and was elected a member of Parliament in
1715. In 1726 he inherited the earldom and passed into
the House of Lords. He became an eloquent debater, and
gained distinction by his graceful manners and fine taste.
In 1733. he married Melusima Schulemburg, countess of
Walsingham. He was a strenuous opponent of Sir Robert
Walpole about 1734–40, was appointed lord lieutenant of
Ireland in 1745, and one of the principal secretaries of state
in 1746. He resigned office in 1748. He was intimate
with Pope, Swift, Voltaire, and Bolingbroke. His reputa-
tion as a writer is founded chiefly on his “Letters to his
Son" (1774), the style of which is much admired. “Take
out the immorality,” said Dr. Johnson, “and it should be
Fº into the hands of every gentleman.” Died Mar. 24,
1773.
Ches/ter Hill, a post-village of Marion township,
Morgan co., O. Pop. 354. '
Ches' terton, a post-village of Porter co., Ind.
Ches/tertown, a seaport, the capital of Kent co., Md.,
on the right (W.) bank of Chester River, about 30 miles in
a direct line E. of Baltimore. It is the seat of Washington
College, and has a national bank and three newspapers.
Pop. 1071; of township, 3639.
PLUMMER & USILTON, PUBs. “KENT NEWs.”
Ches’terville, a township and post-village of Franklin
co., Me., 22 miles N. W. of Augusta. It has manufactures
of furniture, spools, doors, etc. Pop. 1011.
Chesterville, a village of Westerlo township, Albany
co., N. Y. Pop. 247.
Chesterville, a post-village of Chester township, Mor-
row co., Q. Pop. 282.
Chest, Military [Fr. caisse militaire], is a technical
name for the money and negotiable securities carried with
an army, and intended to defray its current expenses. In
the British military system this department is managed by
the commissariat; in the U. S., by the paymaster-general.
Chest/mut [Lat. castanea ; Fr. châtaigne], a forest tree
of the matural order Cupuliferae. The genus Castamea is
distinguished by having sterile flowers interruptedly clus-
tered in long and naked cylindrical catkins, and coriaceous
and farinaceous ovoid nuts enclosed in a hard and prickly
4-valved involucre. The Castamea vesca is a large tree
growing wild in Europe and the Northern U. S. It has
oblong-lanceolate and pointed leaves, serrate with coarse
pointed teeth, and smooth and green on both sides. Each
involucre (called the bur) contains from one to three edible
nuts, often compressed and flattened on one or both sides.
The wood is light and cross-grained, but durable, is a val-
uable material for fences, and is much prized for finishing
rooms. The chestnut is an ornamental and stately tree,
and in Europe attains a great age. A chestnut tree on
Mount Etna is celebrated for its longevity, and is said to
have measured 200 feet in circumference. The fruit of the
Spanish chestnut (which some botanists call Castamea vul-
garis) is larger than that which grows in the U. S. This
tree prefers a dry, light soil, and usually grows in hilly
districts. Chestnuts form an important article of food in
France and other countries of Southern Europe, where they
are cultivated, and used either roasted or boiled. The best
variety of French chestnuts are called marrons. Among
the other species of Castamea is the silvery chestnut of Java.
(Castamea argentea), the fruit of which is edible, and the
chinquapin (Castamea pumiła), a small tree indigenous in
the Southern U. S. The nuts of the chinquapin are good
to eat, but are net so large as chestnuts. California has
another species of chinquapin. At Totworth, in England,
there is a chestnut tree which was a boundary-mark in the
reign of King John (1199–1216).
Chestnut, a township of Knox co., Ill. Pop. 1144.
Chest/mut Creek, a post-village, capital of Baker co.,
Ala., about 35 miles N. N. W. of Montgomery.
Chest/nut Hill, a township and village of Ashe co.,
N. C. The village is 5 miles N. E. of Jefferson. Pop. 1412.
Chestnut Hill, a township of Monroe co., Pa. Pop.
1419.
Chestnut Hill, a northern suburb of Philadelphia, is
on the Wissahickon Creek, about 10 miles N. N. W. of the
State-house. It is finely situated on high ground, and is
Surrounded by beautiful scenery. Here are numerous ele-
gant country-seats. *
Chest Springs, a post-borough of Cambria co., Pa.
Pop. 269. º
Chesun/cook Lake, in Piscataquis co., Me., is about
24 miles long and from 2 to 4 miles wide. It is an expan-
sion of-the–Penobscot River.
Chetimach’es Lake, or Grand Lake, is in the S.
part of Louisiana, between the parishes of St. Mary’s and
St. Martin’s. It is about 40 miles long, and is too shallow
for navigation. It is an expansion of the Atchafalaya
Bayou. *
Cheto/pa, or Cheto'pah, a city of Labette co., Kan.,
on the Indian Territory line, on the Neosho River and on
the Missouri Kansas and Texas R. R., 72 miles S. S. W.
of Fort Scott. It has one newspaper-office, planing-mills,
two banks, flour-mills, a foundry, and large stock-yards.
There are four churches, and a school building costing
$25,000. Pop. 960. CAVANESS & WAN LANDIGHAM,
PUBS. “SouTHERN KANSAS ADVANCE.”
Chetopah, a township of Neosho co., Kan. Pop. 821.
Chetopah, a township of Wilson co., Kan. Pop. 580.
Chet/wynd, Wiscounts and Barons Rathdowne (Ire-
land, 1717).-RICHARD WALTER CHETWYND, sixth viscount,
born Dec. 13, 1800, succeeded his father Feb. 27, 1821.
Chevalier (MICHEL), a French political economist,
born at Limoges Jan. 13, 1806. He was sent to the U. S.
in 1832 to examine the American railroads, and published
in 1836 “Letters on North America.” Among his import-
ant works is one entitled “On the Material Interests of
France” (1838). He became an advocate of free trade.
In 1840 he was appointed professor of political economy
in the College of France, and in 1841 chief engineer of
mines. He was deprived of these places by the republicans
in 1848, but was reinstated by Napoleon in 1852. In 1851
he was admitted into the Institute. He is the author of
“History and Description of the Ways of Communication
in the United States” (2 vols., 1840–42), “Mexico, Ancient
and Modern '' (1863), and other works.
Chevaux-de-Frise, a French military term, used also
in English, and applied to large and strong pieces of tim-
ber from which wooden or iron spikes project in various
directions. They are employed to impede the advance of
cavalry or of a storming-party in a fortified place. The
cheval-de-frise is variously constructed of wood or iron.
Sometimes it consists of an iron barrel or cylinder about six
feet long, having twelve holes to receive as many spears,
which can be packed away in the barrel when not in use.
Cheverie, a seaport of Kempt township, Hants co.,
Nova Scotia, on the Basin of Minas, exports annually some
30,000 tons of gypsum to the U. S.
Cheverus (JEAN Louis ANNE MADELEINE LEFEBVRE),
D. D., a French cardinal and philanthropist, born at May-
enne Jan. 28, 1768. He was appointed bishop of Boston,
Mass., in 1808, archbishop of Bordeaux in 1826, and a car-
dinal in 1835. Died July 19, 1836. (See HUEN-DUBOURG,
“Wie de Cheverus.”)
Cheves (LANGDON), LL.D., an American statesman and
lawyer, born in Abbeville district, S. C., Sept. 17, 1776. He
was a member of Congress from 1811 to 1816, and was
Speaker of the House of Representatives during one session
(1814–15). In this position he voted against the bill to
recharter the U. S. Bank, but he was afterwards president
of that bank (1819–22). Died June 25, 1857.
Chev’iot Hills, a mountain-range extending along the
border between England and Scotland. The range is about
35 miles long. Its direction is nearly N. E. and S. W. The
highest point is Cheviot Peak, which rises 2684 feet above
the level of the sea. The rocks of which the range is formed
are porphyry, trap, and mountain limestone. Grouse
abound on these hills, which afford good pasture, and are
grazed by sheep of a superior breed, called Cheviots. They
have been the scene of many conflicts between the English
and Scotch. -
Chevreau (HENRY), a French politician and devoted
CHEVREUL–CHIBOUQUE.
913
partisan of Louis Napoleon, born Oct. 23, 1823, at Belle-
ville, near Paris, was appointed at the age of only twenty-
six years prefect of the department of Ardèche, and, after
being employed for a short time in the ministry of the in-
terior, in succession prefect of Loire-Inférieure, of the
Rhône, and of the Seine. From Aug. 9 to Sept. 4, 1870, he
was minister of the interior in the last Bonapartist min-
istry.
Chevreul (MICHEL Eugène), a French chemist, born at
Angers Aug. 30, 1786. He published in 1823 “ Chemical
Researches on Fat Substances of Animal Origin,” and be-
came director of the dyeworks at Gobelin in 1824. He
succeeded Vauquelin as professor of applied chemistry in
the Museum of Natural History in 1829. He published in
1839 an important work “On the Law of the Simultaneous
Contrast of Colors and the Distribution of Colored Objects.”
Among his other works is “Lectures on Chemistry Applied
to the Art of Dyeing ” (1831).
Chev'ron [Fr. chevron, signifying “rafter ’’], an orna-
ment and badge of rank of gold or silver lace, or of braid,
worn on the sleeve, deriving its name from its resemblance
in form to a pair of rafters. It is of French origin, and has
been used to denote periods of service in the ranks (chev-
roms d’ancienneté) or the rank of non-commissioned officers.
The corporals and the various grades of sergeant have from
one to four chevrons, of different colors in different branches
of the service. -
CHEVRON, in heraldry, an ordinary representing the raf-
ters of a house, and generally denoting the foundation of
his own family by the bearer. The chevron is formed of
two lines, joined at the top, and descending to the extrem-
ities of the field in the form of a pair of rafters.
CHEVRON, or ZIGZAG MoULDING, in architecture, a mould-
ing in the form of a succession of chevrons. In general it
is characteristic of Norman architecture, but is also found
during the transition period from Norman to Early English.
Chev’y Chase, one of the most famous of British bal-
lads. In its present form the piece does not seem to be
older than the beginning of the seventeenth century. But
more ancient versions existed; and Bishop Percy has pub-
lished a poem of the sixteenth century which obviously
suggested passages in the more recent composition. It is
impossible to reconcile its incidents with history, but the
event commemorated appears to have been the battle at
Otterburn (1388) between the Scotch and English.
Chew (RICHARD S.), U. S. N., born Sept. 7, 1843, in the
District of Columbia, graduated at the Naval Academy in
1861, became an ensign in 1862, a lieutenant in 1864, and
a lieutenant-commander in 1866. He served in the frigate
Minnesota, when she was attacked by the iron-clad Merri-
mack, Mar. 8 and 9, 1862, and was attached to the West
Gulf blockading squadron during 1863 and 1864, and par-
ticipated in the battle of Mobile Bay.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Chew (SAMUEL), M. D. See APPENDIx.
Chewink', Ground Finch, or Tow'hee Bun'ting
, Chewink.
(Pipilo erythrophthalma), a very common passerine bird | Pop: 6995.
of the U.S. and Canada, represented in the far West by
several other species of the genus. It lives in thickets,
scratching among leaves for the insects and seeds which
are its food. It is variegated with brown, white and red,
and is seven and a half inches long. It nests on the ground,
and flies with a peculiar jerking motion.
Cheyenne, a county in the western part of Nebraska.
It contains much excellent pasturage and some timber.
It is intersected by the Union Pacific R. R. Capital, Sid-
ney. Pop. 190.
Cheyenne City, the capital of Wyoming Territory
and of Laramie county, is on the Union Pacific R. R., at the
northern terminus of the Denver Pacific R. R., 106 miles
N. of Denver and 516 miles W. of Omaha. Elevation, 5931
feet. It has an extensive round-house and shops of the
Union Pacific R. R., several churches, one national bank,
waterworks, a park, an artificial lake, a public library, and
iron and soap manufactories. The railroad was opened to
this place in 1867, since which it has increased rapidly.
One daily and two weekly newspapers are published here.
H. GLAFCKE, Ed. “LEADER.”
Cheyenne Indians, a tribe of Savages dwelling in
the U. S. Territories E. of the Rocky Mountains. Most
authorities refer them to the Algonquin stock, but others
as confidently to the Dakota group. They are associated
with the Arapahoes, but are much more roving in their
habits than the latter. They are a tall, courageous race,
and are fine horsemen, often at war with their neighbors.
They probably do not number more than 3000 persons, and
are divided into three bands.
Chiabre/ra (GABRIELLO), an eminent Italian lyric
poet, born at Savona June 8, 1552. He was an admirer
and imitator of Pindar, and the founder of a new School
of poetry. He composed canzoni and odes remarkable for
their sublimity, and in some of his verses rivalled the
graceful style and genial spirit of Anacreon. . He wrote
numerous poems in many varieties of verse. In his mature
life he resided at Florence, Genoa, and Savona. Died Oct.
14, 1637. “He borrowed from Pindar,” says Hallam, “that
grandeur of sound, that pomp of epithets, that rich swell
of imagery, that unvarying majesty of conception which
distinguish the odes of both poets.” (See “Vita di G.
Chiabrera,” written by himself, Milan, 8vo, 1821; HENRY
STEBBING, “Lives of the Italian Poets,” 1831.)
Chia/pas, a state in the S. E. part of the Mexican
confederation, has an area of 16,771 Square miles. It is
bounded on the N. by Tabasco, on the E. by Guatemala, and
on the W. by Tehuantepec. It exports cocoa and vanilla.
Extensive and remarkable ruins of an ancient city are visi-
ble at Palenque in this state. Capital, San Cristóbal. Pop.
in 1871, 193,978. -
Chiaramon/te, a town of Sicily, in the province of
Noto, situated on a hill about 30 miles W. S. W. of Syra-
cuse, commands a beautiful prospect. Wine of good quality
is produced in this vicinity. Pop. 7108.
Chia'ri, a town of Italy, in the province of Brescia, on
the railway from Milan to Brescia, 11 miles W. of the lat-
ter, was formerly fortified. It has several churches,
and manufactures of silk fabrics. Pop. 5297.
Chiaroscu'ro [It., “clear dark;” Fr. clair-ob-
scur], the distribution of light and shadow in art.
The reproduction of the effects of light and shade is
one of the greatest difficulties an artist has to deal
with. The conditions of its treatment are : (1) The
natural separation of the lights and darks, the play
of light in the shadow and of shade in the light, as
is seen in nature; the softening of the lights and
the transparency of the shadows. In connection
with chiaroscuro must be taken into consideration
the choice of colors and the preservation of the color-
effects. (2) In composition chiaroscuro consists in
the massing of lights and shades in different regions
of a painting, and the juxtaposition and balancing
of these masses, so as to duly heighten or modify
the effect of each, and to render the effect of the
whole simple and harmonious instead of patchy and
confused. The greatest masters of chiaroscuro were
Rembrandt, Titian, and Correggio.
Chiasma. See DECUSSATION.
Chia/vari, a town of Italy, in the province of
Genoa, on the Gulf of Rapallo, at the mouth of the
Sturla, 21 miles E. S. E. of Genoa. The streets are
bordered with arcades and well-built houses. The
town is enclosed by cultivated hills, and has many
handsome villas in the environs. Here are several
picturesque old towers and three churches; also
manufactures of silk, lace, and furniture. Chiavari
has a valuable anchovy-fishery and a slate-quarry.
Chibouque, a smoking-pipe used in Turkey and

58
#
914
CHICA—CHICAGO.
Egypt. It has a mouthpiece of amber or glass, a rather
long wooden stem, and a bowl of clay.
Chica, chee'ká, a resinous dyestuff, used to give an
orange-red color to cotton. It is obtained by boiling the
leaves of the Bignonia Chica, a plant which grows on the
banks of the Orinoco. This plant is a climber with bipin-
nate leaves, heart-shaped leaflets, and flowers in drooping
clusters.
Chica, or Pito, is a fermented liquor made from In-
dian corn in some parts of South America, and similar to
ordinary beer; but the Indians sometimes prepare it by
chewing the grains, and that which is so prepared is most
highly esteemed. To make this liquor particularly strong
and well flavored, they pour it into an earthen jar which
contains beef; and having made the jar airtight, they bury
it in the ground, where it is left for years. On the birth of
a child it is their custom thus to bury a jar of chica, to be
drunk at the same child’s marriage. Chica has an agree-
able flavor, and is very intoxicating.
Chica'go, a city and port of entry of Illinois, the capi-
tal of Cook co., the largest city in the State, and the
largest commercial centre in the upper Mississippi Valley,
situated on the south-western shore of Lake Michigan, its
city hall being in lat. 41° 52' 20" N., and lon. 87° 35' W.
from Greenwich. The Chicago River, a navigable stream,
traverses the city by its two principal branches from N. to
S. The city contained in 1831 about a dozen families; in
1832 there were nearly 800 inhabitants; in 1837, 4170; in
1840, 4853; in 1850, 29,963; in 1860, 109,260; in 1870,
298,977. There are no perfectly reliable data for estimat-
ing the present population of the city. Its increase during
the three years and more since the U. S. census was taken
has been very rapid, and on the basis of school censuses
and city directories its citizens claim from 400,000 to
468,000. Chicago has a large internal commerce both by
water and by rail, and a constantly increasing foreign
commerce, by way of the lakes, the Welland Canal, and
the St. Lawrence, with Canada and European ports. The
latest report of foreign imports into the city, including all
classes of conveyances, American and foreign vessels, cars,
bonded and sealed, etc., is for the year ending Oct. 1, 1872,
and gives a total value (in currency) of $9,560,791, on
which duties were paid amounting to $1,808,684.17, and
the duty accumulated on the bonded goods amounted to
$343,790.44. The domestic and foreign exports for the
year ending Jan. 1, 1873, amounted to $5,356,054. The
exports consisted of grain, flour, Indian corn and meal,
other grains and feed, broom corn, beans, beef, pork, cured
meats, lard, and grease. The imports were of various
classes, the most important being dry goods, iron and steel,
Wines, liquors, ale and porter, glass, cigars, tea, coffee, car-
pets, salt, fruits and nuts, fancy goods, lumber, rice, cutlery,
earthen and china ware, sugar, fish, and miscellaneous"
goods. The arrivals of vessels from foreign ports for the
year ending Dec. 31, 1872, were—American vessels, 50,
with a tonnage of 14,412 tons; foreign vessels, 152, with
a tonnage of 43,802 tons. The clearances for foreign ports
for the same time were—American vessels, 317, with a
tonnage of 85,856 tons, and 150 foreign vessels, with a
tonnage of 42,748 tons. There has been no material
change in the aggregate number of arrivals and clearances
during the past five years, but the vessels in the coasting
trade had slightly diminished, and those in the foreign
trade increased. But this foreign commerce, which had
made the port of Chicago tenth in the list of ports in the
U. S. in the amount of its imports and exports, although
a thousand miles inland, is a mere trifle compared with its
internal commerce. In the receipt and shipment of wheat
and flour, of corn and corn meal, oats, rye, and barley, of
live-stock, of pork, beef, and salted and smoked meats,
and of lumber, Chicago is the largest market, with pos-
sibly a single exception, in the U. S., and in several minor
articles its trade is very large. The fifteenth annual re-
port of the board of trade for the year 1872 states the
aggregate wholesale trade of the city in dry goods, gro-
ceries, iron, clothing, boots and shoes, drugs, books, and
the like, for the year, at $500,000,000, and this was prob-
ably an under-estimate. The following table shows the
receipts and shipments of grain and breadstuffs in each
year since 1860, as officially reported to the Chicago board
of trade:

reſſ * ºf reſſ * g reſ .##3 | ###
q) re: Q rº-3 reſſ re; - * - Q) 3 º; º; 5 §
..?. #, # £: g 3. g #. # , 3 # , | #. ###| | ###
#3 | #3 §§ #3 #3 .3.2; § .5: ## #3 §3 | #3 | ###| | ###
F & #5 … 3 * * £3 #3 § #3 33 | #3 º: º,3 ##3 || 3 ##
*: !-- $– + º-, c; tr; tº "tº ea tº tº 3–4 tº tº ºn go ºn 3 : - E 3 º; 3 = .
§ | 33 53 Ää Ää ää #á É #3 gå gă | #3 | #3 | ###| | #: 33
P+ ſº = E: E’ CD O O C p: £d £d £3 gº a 33 sº
1861 1,479,284|1,603,920 17,385,002 || 15,835,953 26,369,989 24,372,725 2,067,018; 1,633,237 490,989) 393,813 457,589| 226,534. 53,427,365 50,481,862
1862 1,666,391 1,739,849 13,978,116 || 13,808,898! 29,574,328| 29,452;610| 4,688,722 || 3,112,366||1,038,825. 871,796|| 872,053: 532,195 57,650,804 56,477,110
1863 |1,424,206 1,522,085| 11,408,161| 10,793,295| 26,611,653; 25,051,450|| 11,086,131 9,234,858|, 865,50 651,0941,280,342| 946,223| 57,660,722 || 54,287,345
I 1,205,698 [1,285,343| 12,184,977 || 10,250,026 13,807,745 12,235,452; 16,351,616| 16,567,650|1,060,316| 893,492||1,018,813 345,208; 49,848,908) 46,718,543
1865 |1,134,100||1,293,428 9,266,410| 7,614,887|25,952,201 25,437,241 11,659,080|| 11,142,140||1,194,834 - 999,289 1,774,139 , 607,484. 54,950,114| 52,268,181
1866 |1,847,145||1,981,525 11,978,753| 10,118,907 || 33,543,061 32,753,181| 11,040,264|| 9,961,215||1,679,541|1,444,5741,742,652; 1,300,821 68,396,423| 65,486,323
1867 |1,720,001|2,015,455 13,695,244|| 10,557,123 22,772,715| 21,267,205| 12,355,006| 10,226,026|1,291,821|1,213,389 |2,360,984|1,846,891 || 60,215,774. 55,187,909
1868 |2,192,413|2,399,619) 14,772,094| 10,374,683 25,570,494| 24,770,626|| 16,032,910 14,440,830|1,523,820]1,202,941|1,915,056| 901,183. 69,680,233| 63,688,358
1869 |2,218,822|2,339,063| 16,876,760|| 13,244,249| 23,475,800| 21,586,808 10,611,940| 8,800,646|| 955,201 798,744|1,513,110| 633,753| 63,417,510|56,759,515
1870 |1,766,037|1,705,977|17,394,409| 16,432,585| 20,189,775 17,777.377| 10,472,078 8,507,735||1,093,493|_ 913,629|3,335,653|2,584,692 60,432,574 54,145,903
1871 |1,412,177|1,287,574] 14,439,656] 12,905,449| 41,853,138|| 36,716,030 14,789,414| 12,151,247|2,011,788|1,325,867 |4,069,410|2,908,113| 83,518,202| T1,800,789
1872 |1,532,0141,361,328 12,724,141 12,160,046|| 47,366,087| 47,013;652| 15,061,715| 12,255,537|1,109,086| 776,805|5,251,750|5,032,308| 88,426,842| 83,364,224
1873% (1,556,093 |1,560,383| 16,626,923 || 15,958,897| 32,774,013| 28,330,355} 13,475,590 12,481,372| 810,561) 683,622|2,293,039||1,722,689 *
The value of grain and flour handled during the year in
the city was not less than $100,000,000.
The following table shows the movement, by lake, by
Illinois and Michigan Canal, and by the various lines of
railroad, of the other leading articles of internal commerce
of the city during the year 1872:
Commodities. Received. Shipped.
Beef, tierces and barrels................... 14,512 39,911
Pork, barrels 121,023 208,664
Provisions and cut meats, pounds..... 48,256,615 238,727,484
Lard, pounds.................................... 19,911,797 | 86,040,785
Salt, barrels..................................... 606,673 513,850
Liquors and highwines, barrels......... 163,991 169,564
Lead, pounds.................................... 20,235,635 10,842,717
Lumber, feet.................................... 1,183,659,283 || 417,980,507
Shingles, number............................. 610,824,420 436,827,375
Coal, tons......................................... 1,398,024 177,687
Tallow, pounds............... * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6,019,606 5,312,527
Potatoes, bushels.............................. 1,214,071 94,249
Cattle, number................................. 684,075 510,025
Sheep, number................................. 310,211 145,016
Hogs, live and dressed, number......... 3,488,528 1,981,295
Horses, number................................ 2,5
Wool, pounds.................................... 28,181,509 27,720,089
Hides, pounds.................................. 32,387,995 28,959,292
Seeds, pounds................................... 44,755,412 22,358,542
Butter, pounds................................. 14,574,777 11,497,537
Number of hogs packed in 1872 in Chicago, 1,225,236, of
the average net weight of 232.54 pounds. The aggregate
value of the receipts and shipments of these commodities
was about $270,000,000, and, adding the grain, flour, and
feed, about $370,000,000. The number of vessels arriving
* Nine months only.
during the year 1872 in the coasting-trade was 12,622, and
their tonnage, 3,001,538; the number of coasting-vessels
clearing the same year was 12,064, and their tonnage
2,889,186. Adding the vessels to and from foreign ports,
and the entire arrivals of the year were 12,824, tonnage
3,059,752; the clearances 12,531, tonnage 3,017,790. The
number of vessels belonging to the district of Chicago in
1872 was 654, having an aggregate tonnage of 99,403 tons.
The increase in commerce and trade in 1873 was about 20
per cent. º -
Manufactures.—The city has become a prominent man-
ufacturing centre. We have no exact statistics of the
manufacturing establishments within the city limits of
very recent date, but the census of 1870 gives those of
Cook county, which were almost entirely either in or for
Chicago, as follows: 1440, manufacturing establishments,
employing 31,105 hands, of whom 24,705 were adult
males, 4652 adult females, 1748 children, having a
capital employed estimated at $39,372,276, paying for
wages $13,045,286, using annually raw material valued at
$60,362,188, and producing annually goods of the value
of $92,518,742. In Dec., 1871, just after the great fire,
Mr. Charles Randolph, secretary of the board of trade,
stated the capital employed in manufactures in the city
of Chicago, in round numbers, at $40,000,000, the annual
product at $70,000,000; and that they furnished, directly
and indirectly, the means of subsistence to 60,000 persons.
Since the fire many new branches of industry have been
introduced, and the aggregates both of capital and pro-
duction have been increased one-third. The largest
branches of manufacture were—the packing and curing
of meats and provisions, which produced annually
$19,153,851; sawed and planed lumber, $6,955,180; iron
CHICAGO.
915
and iron-ware, about $5,000,000; clothing, $6,269,590;
distilled and malt liquors, $5,275,166; flouring-mill prod-
ucts, $3,110,686; printing and publishing, $2,152,950;
tobacco, snuff, and cigars, $2,136,146; agricultural im-
plements, $2,081,000 ; , leather, tanned and curried,
$3,333,121; machinery, $2,056,044; animal and vegetable
oils, $2,364,833; furniture, $1,825,549; boots and shoes,
$1,666,723; confectionery, $1,848,660; carriages, wagons,
sleds, children’s carriages, etc., $1,517,368; gas, $1,566,431;
marble and stone-work, $1,383,964; soap and candles,
$1,050,150; bookbinding, $888,400; sash, doors, and blinds,
$874,550; bread and other bakery products, $695,410; brick,
$583,575; coffee and spices ground, $752,851; lead pipe and
shot, $798,410; malt, $743,401; paints, $544,400; and tin,
copper, and sheet-iron ware, $803,976, were the only other
manufactures producing an aggregate of above $500,000
per annum.
Finances.—The assessed valuation of the city for the
year 1872, made up before Oct. 1, 1872, was $284,197,430;
for the year 1871 (completed before the great fire),
$289,746,470; for 1870, $275,986,550. The true valuation
of Cook county in 1870, according to the ninth census, was
$575,000,000. Of this probably about $550,000,000 be-
longed to Chicago. The city tax (a levy of fifteen mills on
the dollar) for the year 1872–73 was $4,262,961.45. The
city held a lien on the Illinois and Michigan Canal, for
moneys paid for its enlargement, of $2,955,340, and this
the State has assumed and is paying in instalments, the
whole payment being completed in 1873. The bonded debt
of the city April 1, 1873, was $13,544,000 ($559,000 of these
bonds having been cancelled the previous year); the floating
debt at the same date was $1,849,332.04, nearly all of which
was provided for and payable from the tax levy of 1872.
The amount of internal revenue (national) tax collected in
the year ending Oct. 1, 1872, was $5,685,388.85. The assets
of the city, including its buildings, lands, water-works,
street lamps and posts, accrued and accruing taxes, etc., to
meet its bonds and other liabilities, were appraised April 1,
1873, at $20,072,726.07. The receipts of the city treasurer,
during the year ending April 1, 1873, were $9,215,434.90,
and the expenditures for the same term were $8,325,875.37,
leaving a balance in the treasury of $889,559.53. The
school fund of the city is stated at $2,774,674.93, yielding
an annual revenue of $91,483.88.
Banks, Insurance Companies, etc.—In Jan., 1873, Chicago
had twenty-two national banks, with an aggregate capital
of $9,000,000, and fifteen State banks, savings banks, and
loan and trust associations, with a capital and surplus of
$3,105,000. The number of private banking-houses is very
large, and their business larger than that of the banks.
The weekly clearances at the clearing-house during the
summer and autumn of 1873 averaged $24,500,000, and
once reached $31,000,000. There were in July, 1873, four
fire insurance companies in the city, with a capital of
$1,180,500, and assets of about $1,667,000, and a great
number of agencies and branch offices of companies from
other States and countries, and six life insurance com-
panies, with $1,800,000 capital and $3,355,000 assets.
There are agencies of all the leading life insurance com-
panies of the country in the city.
Education.—Chicago has been a great educational centre
for the North-west, and with its immediate suburbs has
done much for general, and particularly higher, education.
There are within the city limits one university, the Univer-
sity of Chicago, organized in 1859, having a law school and
an astronomical and scientific school, besides its undergrad-
uate course, having 18 professors and other instructors, and
in 1873, 27 students in the law department, 8 in the scientific
school, 90 in the college proper, and 304 in the preparatory
departments; 19,600 volumes in its libraries, a fine astro-
nomical observatory, having the second refractor in size
in this country, a meridian circle of the first class, and all
the necessary appliances for astronomical instruction and
observation ; one college, St. Ignatius’ College, founded in
1870, having 18 professors and other instructors, 67 students,
of whom 44 are in the collegiate and 23 in the preparatory
department, and 5000 volumes in its libraries. There are
four medical schools or colleges, two regular, one eclectic,
and one homoeopathic, having in all 66 instructors, 480
students, and 6000 volumes in their libraries; 1 college of
pharmacy, with 3 instructors, 50 students, and 1000 volumes
in library; four theological seminaries, one Congregational,
one Baptist, one Lutheran, and one Presbyterian, with 14
professors and 127 students, and 33,000 volumes in their
libraries; there are also three business or commercial col-
leges, with 24 instructors and 788 students; four female
colleges or seminaries of high grade, with 58 instructors
and 710 students; sixty-five private schools and academies,
with 332 instructors and 14,496 pupils; three orphan and
half-orphan asylums, with 22 instructors and teachers, and
239 children; one reform school, with 14 teachers and as-
sistants and 212 inmates. There are about 200 Sunday
schools, with 4500 teachers and 50,000 scholars, and 35,000
volumes in their libraries. Prior to the great fire of Oct. 8,
1871, there were in the city nine or ten public libraries,
having an aggregate of more than 100,000 bound volumes
and about 150,000 pamphlets; one art museum, with a
very fine collection of paintings, statues, casts, etc.; three
art galleries, two scientific museums, and a number of as-
sociations for literary and scientific improvement, with
libraries and art collections of considerable value. These
were all destroyed by the flames, but most of them are re-
organizing, and some have already made a fair beginning
in their new collections. Turning to her publie schools,
we find that Chicago has a well-organized system of public
instruction, thoroughly graded, and embracing the Normal
School, an institution of high character, with 5 instructors
(1 male and 4 female) and 95 students, all females. The
principal receives a salary of $2500 per annum, and the four
lady teachers an average of $1050 each. The average age
of the pupils in the course, which occupies four years, is
eighteen and a half years. There is one high school, with
11 male and 10 female teachers, and a four years’ course of
instruction, and 612 scholars, 304 of them in the junior or
lowest class; the age of these pupils ranges from fifteen
years nine months to eighteen years seven months. The
average salaries of the male teachers are $2082, and of the
female teachers, $1000. The grammar school course com-
prises five years; there are twenty-two grammar schools,
with 21 male and 154 female teachers, and 3851 male and
3707 female pupils, whose ages range from ten years ten
months to fourteen years and ten months; the average sal-
aries of the male teachers are $2.190, and of the female
teachers $731. There are thirty-five primary schools, with
352 teachers, all females; the primary school course occu-
pies five years. There are in the primary schools 12,316 male
and 11,833 female scholars. The average salaries of the
primary teachers are $688. The whole number of schools
of all grades is 59; of male teachers, 33; of female teach-
ers, 520; of male pupils, 16,379; of female pupils, 16,027;
of both, 32,406. The average salaries of the male teachers
are $2164 per annum, of the female teachers $710. Add-
ing the number of pupils in the female seminaries, private
schools, orphan asylums, etc., 15,457, to the aggregate in
the public schools, we have 47,863 children in school out
of a total school population—i.e. between six and twenty-
one years—of 88,219. It should be noted that among the
private schools are included the parochial schools of the
Catholics and Lutherans, of which there are thirty-seven.
In the great fire fifteen school-houses, furnishing accom-
modations to more than 10,000 pupils, were burned, and
the remainder were for a time used as temporary shelter
for thousands of the homeless. The greater part of these
school-houses, as well as several new ones, have been rebuilt
since that time, and the city is now (Oct., 1873) reason-
ably well supplied with school edifices. The number of vol-
umes in all the public libraries of Chicago, including those
in the colleges, seminaries, and professional schools, is about
80,000 volumes.
The city has long been famous for its newspapers and
periodicals. The latest statistics obtainable give the whole
number of these, excepting annual publications, as 102, of
which 11 were dailies (3 of them German), having an ag-
gregate daily circulation of about 150,000 copies; 5 tri-
weeklies, circulation 40,000; 45 weeklies, aggregate week-
ly circulation 450,000 copies (of these 5 were German, 5
Scandinavian, and 1 Bohemian); 3 semi-monthlies, circu-
lation 10,000; 33 monthlies (one of them German and
another Swedish), having an aggregate monthly circulation
of 270,000; 1 bi-monthly, circulation 1000; and 4 quar-
terlies, circulation 16,000; 16 of these papers are political,
18 religious, 8 professional, 18 literary, 10 devoted to com-
merce, finance, etc., 5 juvenile, 6 advertising, 5 agricultu-
ral, and the remainder miscellaneous.
There were in July, 1873, 209 churches in the city—viz.
Baptist, 18; Baptist mission chapels, 9; Free Baptist, 1;
Christian, 1 ; Congregational, 17; Episcopalian, 18; Evan-
gelical Association, 6; Evangelical Lutheran, 10; United
Evangelical, 6; Independent, 2.; Jewish synagogues, 5;
Methodist, including the German and Scandinavian Meth-
odist, 22; African Methodist Episcopal, 2; Scandinavian
Lutheran, 4; Presbyterian, 18; Independent Presbyterian
missions, 5; Scotch Presbyterian, 1; United Presbyterian,
1; Reformed Presbyterian, 1; Presbyterian missions, 10;
Reformed (Dutch), 3; Roman Catholic, 27; Swedenborgian,
4; Swedenborgian mission, 1; Unitarian, 5; Universalist,
3; Adventists, 2 ; Disciples, 1 ; Christadelphians, 1 ; Pil-
grims, 1 ; Friends’ meeting-house (Orthodox), 1 ; Friends
(Hicksite), I; Church of God, or Winnebrennarians, 1 ;
Spiritualists, 1. Many of the church edifices before the
fire were remarkable for their architectural beauty. That
great calamity destroyed thirty-nine churches, and among
916
CHICAGO.
them many of the costliest and most elegant structures in
the city. The Catholic cathedral (St. Mary’s) and the
Church of the Holy Name, the First and Second Presby-
terian, the Westminster church, the New England Congre-
gational, the First Methodist Episcopal church, and the
Methodist Block, Trinity and St. James's (Episcopal), the
Jewish synagogue, the Church of the Unity, St. Paul’s
Universalist, and the Swedenborgian Temple, were the
most noteworthy. The First Baptist on Wabash avenue,
the Methodist church corner of Wabash avenue and Har-
rison street, Plymouth church, and Rev. Robert Laird
Collier’s, were among those spared by the fire, but most of
these have gone into other hands or have been devoted to
business purposes. Many of the churches destroyed have
been rebuilt, either on their own or new sites, and with greater
beauty than before. Among these are the First and Second
Presbyterian, the Church of the Unity, St. Paul’s, and
most of the Catholic churches. New churches are also
constantly going up, many of them fine specimens of eccle-
siastical architecture.
Benevolent and Charitable Institutions.—There are in the
city eight hospitals; one infirmary, beside cliniques con-
nected with all the medical colleges; dispensaries, 6; or-
phan asylums, 7; asylums for the aged and indigent, 2;
home for the friendless, 1 ; benevolent, mutual, and re-
ligious societies and associations, 90. There are also 49
Masonic lodges, encampments, and conclaves; 38 Odd
Fellows’ lodges; 20 of Knights of Pythias; 6 of Sons of
Temperance ; 12 of Good Templars; 5 of Benai Berith; 5
of Ancient Order of Chaldeans; 10 of German Harugari; 14
of Sons of Hermann; 4 of Independent Order of Red Men;
I of Ancient Druids; 3 of Foresters; 10 of Ancient Order
of Good Fellows; and 5 of the American Protestant Asso-
ciation. No notice of the benevolent and charitable insti-
tutions of Chicago would be complete which failed to give
some account of the Chicago Relief and Aid Society, an
organization founded in 1857, and which has had from
that time the management of the voluntary charities of
the city to the poor, infirm, and helpless. When the great
calamity of Oct. 8, 1871, fell upon Chicago, and the chari-
ties of America, and Europe were evoked for the relief of
the fire-smitten city, the greater part of these princely
charities were placed in the hands of this society for dis-
tribution to the more than 100,000 persons of all classes
who were suddenly reduced to destitution. Within the
next fifteen months they had received and disbursed to the
sufferers, with a judgment and wisdom never surpassed,
the sum of $5,687,979.66, together with supplies valued at
over half a million more. There should not be omitted,
also, from this list of benevolent and charitable associa-
tions the Young Men’s Christian Associations of the city,
which were not only very efficient in the time of its great
extremity, but before and since in organizing mission
schools and ministering both to the physical and spiritual
wants of the poor and the vicious.
Public Buildings of Note and Parks and Boulevards.-
The public buildings of the city before the fire were many
of them elegant structures, but those which have been
erected since possess both elegance and durability. The
new building for the U. S. government’s use, the custom-
house, court-house, and post-office, is a magnificent struc-
ture ; the new chamber of commerce is a finer building in
every respect than its predecessor; and the projected city
hall is to be the finest building of its class in the country.
The Crystal Palace for the inter-State exposition in Sept.,
1873, was a very imposing structure. The city has been
noted for some years past for the extent and magnificence
of its hotels. All the larger ones were destroyed by the
fire, but the Pacific, said to be the largest hotel on the con-
timent, Palmer’s, the New Sherman House, the New Tre-
mont, and the Clifton House are not surpassed in beauty
by any structures of the kind in the world. The ware-
houses of the city are remarkable for their extent and their
graceful proportions. During the year after the fire 1274
brick, stone, and iron buildings were erected, many of
them of vast size, and more than twice that number were
in course of construction. Of frame buildings the number
exceeded 5000. The aggregate value of these buildings
(those compreted and in progress) exceeded $120,000,000.
There are nine public parks in the city, connected with
each other by boulevards. These are—Lincoln Park, orig-
inally a cemetery, and containing 240% acres; Washington
Park, 23 acres; Lake Park, not completed, 42} acres;
Dearborn Park, 1} acres; Ellis Park, 3} acres; Union Park,
11% acres; Jefferson Park, 6% acres; Wicker Park, 3} acres;
and Vernon Park, 3} acres. Nearly 95 acres of Lincoln
Park are outside the present city limits. The avenues or
boulevards connecting them with each other are some of
the finest streets in the city. Chicago, to a greater ex-
tent than most cities, has elegant suburban villages, some
of them small cities, around it. Among these are South
Chicago, Hyde Park, Evanston, Morgan Park, Lake For-
est, etc.
Railroads.-Much of the prosperity of Chicago has been
due to the concentration of so many trunk-limes of rail-
roads. There are ten powerful trunk-lines which bring
freight and passengers into the city, and, including branch
lines, twenty-six railroads contribute directly to the growth
of the city. These lines have nearly 10,000 miles of com-
pleted track. The number of regular passenger trains out
each day is 94, and of in-trains 92. The number of regular
freight trains each day is 143. Besides these there are from
eight to ten extra passenger and about twenty extra freight
trains each day. The gross earnings of the roads centring
in Chicago for the year ending Sept. 30, 1873, were nearly
$83,000,000, and the net earnings over all expenses about
$20,000,000. Eighty Pullman palace sleeping cars and
about twenty sleeping cars of other manufacturers arrive
and leave daily. The ten trunk-roads which are tributary
to the commerce of Chicago are the Chicago and North-
western Railway, Illinois Central R. R., Chicago Rock
Island and Pacific, Chicago Burlington and Quincy, Chi-
cago and Alton (St. Louis), Michigan Central, Lake Shore
and Michigan Southern Railway, Pittsburg Fort Wayne
and Chicago, Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. Louis, and the
Chicago Danville and Vincennes R. Rs. There are also
city railroads, having an aggregate length of 70 miles, car-
rying 27,500,000 passengers annually, and reporting gross
receipts of $1,377,000. There is one important canal, con-
necting the Mississippi River with Lake Michigan by way
of the Illinois River and its tributary, the Des Plaines.
This canal is the medium of an immense traffic both in the
receipt and shipment of grain, provisions, lumber, and other
goods. It has recently been deepened, for twenty-six miles
of its course, eight feet, at an expense of $3,300,883.71;
and this, with the deepening of the bed of Chicago River
and its South Branch, permits the waters of Lake Michi-
gan to flow through the river and branch into the canal,
and to be carried into the Illinois and Mississippi rivers.
This obviates what was a great source of annoyance and
sickness in Chicago—viz. the offensive condition of the
waters of the Chicago River. There are no ferries, prop-
erly so called, in Chicago. Steamers ply across the lake
(Lake Michigan) to Michigan City, New Buffalo, and St.
Joseph, all railroad stations, but they are hardly to be
reckoned as ferry lines. The Chicago River and its
branches are crossed by numerous drawbridges, and there
are also two tunnels under the river, constructed at an ex-
pense of $1,083,276.48, for passengers and teams. The
water-supply of the city is derived from Lake Michigan.
An iron cylinder nine feet in diameter was driven into the
lake bed thirty-one feet below the bottom, at a distance of
two miles from the shore, and a tunnel excavated thence to
the shore and to the waterworks, where it is forced by
powerful pumps to the summit of a tower 130 feet high,
and thence distributed over the city. The supply, 19,000,000
gallons daily, is sufficient for the present needs of the
city, and by the use of additional reservoirs and pumps,
now constructing, can be increased threefold or more. The
cost of these waterworks to April 1, 1872, was $4,712,615.18,
and they yield already an income from the water-rates of
more than $500,000 annually. The city is supplied with
illuminating gas by private corporations.
Paving and Sewering.—There are 534 miles of streets in
the city. Of this number, 108 miles, or about one-fifth,
have been improved by paving, macadamizing, or other-
wise. The Nicholson wood pavement is used on all the
principal streets, covering nearly 80 miles, while the newer
avenues have been in some cases covered with the macadam
or improved Telford pavement. The sewers laid, up to
April, 1873, were about 925,000 feet, or nearly 180 miles,
and their cost about $3,150,000. -
History.—The site of Chicago was visited and occupied
for a short time by the Jesuit Marquette in 1673, and the
portage between the Chicago and Des Plaines rivers passed
over repeatedly by La Salle in 1681. In 1804 the U. S.
government established a small military post there called
Fort Dearborn, garrisoned by a single company of infantry,
most of whom were massacred by the Indians in Aug.,
1812. The fort was soon after destroyed, but was rebuilt
in 1816, and became the nucleus for a small number of set-
tlers—squatters who were not in civilization much above .
the Indian tribes which surrounded them. It was not
until the negotiations which resulted in the removal of the
Pottawattomies to a reservation twenty days’ journey W.
of the Mississippi were commenced that this marshy and
muddy prairie lying around the mouth of the Chicago
River began to be regarded as a place where a great city
would be built. After the close of the Black Hawk War in
1832, Northern Illinois and Southern Wisconsin were
thrown open to settlement. In that year there were about
800 people within the present limits of Chicago, all very
CHICAGO—CHICKAMAUGA.
917
poor, and the tax-levy of $1.50 assessed upon them was
very burdensome. The place was already named Chicago,
a corruption of the Indian name of an adjacent river,
“Chekagow.” Up to 1837 it was dependent upon Ohio
for flour. In 1839 its first shipment of wheat (1678 bushels)
was made; in 1840 it had a population of 4470 inhabitants,
and from this time onward its growth was very rapid, in-
creasing from 28,000 in 1850 to 109,000 in 1860, and to
298,977 in 1870. For a long time it struggled with inter-
mittent fever, cholera, bilious remittent fever, and other
diseases dependent upon its low marshy situation, its stag-
nant water, its foul-smelling river, and its muddy and un-
drained streets; but by the artificial elevation of its streets
and the skilfully devised system of sewerage and drainage
adopted it has become a healthful city in ordinary seasons,
and compares well in point of cleanliness with the other
large cities of the Union. -
Chicago was incorporated as a city in 1837, when it had
a mere handful of inhabitants. The use of the Nicholson
or wooden block pavement was commenced in 1856, and
the principal streets are now admirably paved and sewered.
The elevation of the streets about eight or ten feet for
sewerage purposes, and the screwing up block after block
of very heavy buildings for this purpose, including in the
number some of the largest hotels, was the most stupendous
experiment of its kind ever undertaken. The city early
became largely interested in the grain, pork, provision, and
lumber trades, and before it was twenty-five years old had
taken the lead in all these departments of trade. It was
while in the full tide of prosperity, and when perhaps its
rapid growth had made it careless, that on the 8th and 9th
of October a disaster befel it such as in some respects was
unparalleled in the history of great cities. For about
thirty-six hours the devouring flames swept over the city,
and before them the grandest and most substantial ware-
houses, public buildings, dwellings, churches, etc. vanished
like the breaking of a bubble. The fire extended over 2124
square acres, or nearly three and one-third square miles,
much of it in the very heart of the business portion of the
city. This area contained about 73 miles of streets and
17,450 buildings, the homes of 98,500 people. It destroyed
nearly all the public buildings and almost one-half the
public school buildings of the city, its largest railway
dépôts, its principal halls, theatres, opera-houses, and art
enlarging facilities for commerce and manufactures, its
importance as a great railroad centre, the irrepressible
energy and pluck of its citizens, and the influx of wealth
from all quarters, make it certain that it is to be one of the
largest and busiest cities of the continent in the not remote
future.
(For the statistical matters contained in this article we
are indebted to George W. Thacher, Esq., for the last eigh-
teen years a prominent citizen of Chicago.)
- - L. P. BROCKETT.
Chicago, a post-township of Douglas co., Neb. P. 260.
Chichen', a town of Central America, in Yucatan, 18
miles S. W. of Walladolid. Here are the remains of an
ancient town, comprising a vast ruined building 450 feet
long, a pyramid the base of which is 550 feet square, and
a remarkable domed edifice.
Chich’ester (anc. Regnum), an episcopal city of Eng-
land, capital of Sussex, on the South Coast Railway, 17
miles E. N. E. of Portsmouth. It stands on a plain be-
tween an arm of the sea and the South Downs. It is well
built, and has clean wide streets. Here is a cathedral built
in 1199, which is 410 feet long by 227 wide. The town is
connected by a canal with the sea, which is two miles dis-
tant. It sends two members to the House of Commons.
It was formerly the capital of the kingdom of Sussex. Pop.
in 1871, 7850.
Chichester, a post-township and village of Merrimack
co., N. H., 8 miles E. N. E. of Concord, on the Suncook
Valley R. R. It has manufactures of leather, lumber, etc.
Pop. 871.
Chichester, EARLs of (United Kingdom, 1801), Barons
Pelham (England, I'762), and baronets (1611).-HENRY
THOMAS PELHAM, third earl, first church estate commis-
sioner, born Aug. 25, 1804, succeeded his father in 1826.
Chick’adee [a name derived from its note], the popu-
buildings, all its larger hotels (of which many were of the Y Nº.
first class), five of its great grain elevators, with 1,642,000
bushels of grain in them, nine daily and many weekly
newspaper establishments, thirty-nine churches, nearly jº §§§
all the banks, and all the most prominent business blocks.
The money value of the losses was carefully estimated, and
was said to be, in round numbers,on buildings, $52,000,000;
on business property, goods, etc., $85,000,000; on personal
effects, $59,000,000; making a total of property burned of
$196,000,000. There was a salvage on this of about
$5,000,000, but the interruption to business and the total
derangement of trade which followed could not be esti-
mated at less than $29,000,000, making a grand total of
$220,000,000. At first it was supposed that the deprecia-
tion of real estate which had followed would amount to
from eighty millions to one hundred millions more, but it
was found that real estate actually advanced in value
within one year nearly 50 per cent. Of the ninety-six and
a half millions of insurance upon the property destroyed,
only an average of 40 per cent., or a little more than
$38,000,000, was ever paid, 68 companies, with $24,000,000
liabilities, being completely wiped out, and many others
paid but a small percentage of the claims. This great dis-
aster called forth the most extraordinary liberality from
every part of the civilized world; the contributions from
all quarters for the relief of the sufferers by the fire
amounted to $7,119,256.50, of which, as we have already
stated, $5,687,000 were disbursed through the Chicago Re-
lief and Aid Society. But if the disaster was greater than
had ever befallen a city before, the recovery from it was
equally astounding. At the end of two years from the
conflagration very few traces of it remained; the rebuilt
city is vastly more magnificent and substantial than that
which perished in the flames. Aside from the 8033 tem-
porary buildings erected at the cost and under the direc-
tion of the relief committee, there have been in the two
years which have elapsed since the fire, 9000 buildings
erected, of which 3000 were of brick, stone, or iron, many
of them of great extent and imposing architecture; and
6000 frame buildings, but many of them very substan-
tial. The business of the city has increased till her assess-
ment, taken at the usual percentage (about 60 per cent. of
actual market value), in less than a year from the occur-
rence of the fire, was but $5,000,000 less than the previous
year, and now (in Oct., 1873) largely exceeds it. Though
perhaps somewhat unduly self-appreciative, yet few cities
have a more brilliant prospect in the future. Its constantly
lar name of the black cap titmouse (Parus atricapillus) and
other American passerine birds of the same genus and of
nearly related genera. The common chickadee is frequent
all the year round throughout a great part of North Amer-
ica, and is one of the bravest and most cheerful of our
winter birds. It shares with several others the name
snowbird, and its familiar cry and sprightly manners
render it a great favorite with children. It nests in a hol-
low tree, and feeds on insects in their season, and on Seeds
in winter.
Chickahom/iny, a river in the E. part of Virginia,
rises about 20 miles N. W. of Richmond, flows south-east-
ward, and after a course of about 75 miles enters the James
River. It forms the boundary between Henrico and Charles
City counties on the right, and Hanover, New Kent, and
James City on the left. Along the margins of the Chicka-
hominy is found the theatre of operations of Gen. McClellan
operating against Richmond during May and June, 1862.
In close proximity to this river occurred the battles of
Seven Pines and Fair Oaks, May 31—June 1, 1862, Me-
chanicsville, June 26, Gaines's Mill, June 27, Savage's Sta-
tion, June 29, White Oak Swamp, June 30, 1862, and Cold
Harbor, June 3, 1864. (See CoNFEDERATE STATES, by HON.
HoRACE GREELEY, LL.D.)
Chickahominy, a township of Charles City co., Va.
Pop. 1372.
Chicka'lah, a post-township of Yell co., Ark. P. 175.
Chickamau/ga, a creek which rises in Walker co.,
Ga., flows north-eastward and northward, and enters the
Tennessee River about 6 miles above Chattanooga.
Chickamauga, a post-village of Hamilton Co., Tenn.,
on the Chickamauga Creek and the Western and Atlantic
R. R., 12 miles E. of Chattanooga. (See CHICKAMAUGA,
BATTLE OF..)

918
CHICKAMAUGA, BATTLE OF-CHICO.
Chickamauga, Battle of. The battle of Chick-
amauga, fought between the forces of the U. S., under
command of Gen. W. S. Rosecrans, and those of the Con-
federates, under Gen. Braxton Bragg, commenced on the
morning of Sept. 19, about 9 o'clock. Of Rosecrans' army,
Gen. McCook commanded the right wing, Thomas the left,
and Crittenden the centre, while Gen. Polk held chief com-
mand of the Confederate right and Hood of the left. The
Confederates first attacked the extreme left of the U. S.
army with heavy masses, the endeavor being to turn it, and
thus gain possession of the roads to Chattanooga. A des-
perate conflict was continued during the day, but Thomas
maintained his position. On the right the conflict had
been severe at times, but on the whole the day closed with
the advantage on the Union side. During the night
Thomas was reinforced from the other wings of the army,
and had strengthened his position by hastily thrown up
breastworks. The attack was renewed by the Confederates
on the morning of the 20th against the left and centre, and
the tide of battle here ebbed and flowed throughout the day,
with heavy losses on both sides, but without material ad-
vantage to either; but Bragg was unable to turn Thomas’s
flank and occupy the coveted passage to Chattanooga. The
fight along the left centre had been equally desperate,
bloody, and indecisive. But on the right a fearful disas-
ter had fallen. In answer to Thomas’ call for aid, Rose-
crans had despatched Negley’s and Van Cleve's divisions
from the right and centre. Wood was directed to close
up on Reynolds on the right centre, and Davis to close
on Wood. According to Rosecrans’ report, Wood over-
looked this direction, but supposed that he was to support
Reynolds, and attempted to do so by withdrawing from
the line and passing in the rear of Brannan, thus opening
a gap in the line of battle, which being quickly perceived
by Longstreet, a decisive charge was made, striking Davis
in flank and rear, and throwing the whole division into
confusion. Pouring in through this gap, the Confeder-
ates cut off the Federal right and centre, and attacking
Sheridan's division, which was advancing to the support
of the left, compelled it, after a gallant struggle, to give
way. It was afterwards rallied, however, and by a cir-
cuitous route joined Thomas, who was now left to breast
the tide of battle against the whole army of Bragg. The
right and part of the centre had been broken and sent
flying in disorder towards Chattanooga, with terrible loss.
Rosecrans, McCook, and numerous subordinate commanders
were carried along in the whirl. Sheridan and Davis ral-
lied and re-formed their decimated and scattered commands
on the way, and halted at Rossville. Rosecrans, being
unable to join Thomas, hastened to Chattanooga to prepare
that place for defence in case of a total rout of his army,
which now seemed imminent. But Gen. Thomas still re-
mained immovable in his position. His line had now
assumed a crescent shape, with its flanks supported by the
lower spurs of the mountain; and here he repulsed the
furious onsets of the Confederates. About 3% P. M. the Con-
federates discovered a gap in the hills in rear of his right
flank, through which Longstreet poured his massive col-
umns. At this critical moment Gen. Gordon Granger, who
had been posted with his reserves to cover the left and
rear, arrived on the field. He had heard the sound of
the cannon, and marched his force there without orders.
Gen. Thomas pointed out to him the gap through which
the Confederates were debouching, and he at once threw in
Steedman’s brigade of cavalry. The conflict was terrible,
but the gap was taken. Two divisions of Longstreet's
corps repeatedly assaulted the position, but a battery of
six guns placed in the gorge repelled them with fearful
slaughter. About sunset they made their last charge, when
they were met and driven back at the point of the bayonet,
and returned no more. In the mean time, Thomas had re-
pulsed the repeated attacks on his left and front, and at
nightfall the Confederate army retired beyond range of
his artillery, leaving Thomas in possession of his hard-
fought field. Considering the extreme labor of his troops,
the scarcity of ammunition, food, and water, Gen. Thomas
determined to retire on Rossville, where they arrived and
took post before morning of the 21st, receiving supplies
from Chattanooga, and offering battle during the day, but
the attack was not seriously renewed. On the night of the
21st he withdrew within the defences of Chattanooga.
The result of the battle was a nominal victory to the
Confederates on the field, though Chattanooga and the
possession of East Tennessee, the prize for which the battle
was fought, still remained in possession of the Union forces.
The Union loss is reported at 16,000, killed, wounded, and
missing; the Confederate loss, 18,000; they captured 36
guns, 8500 small-arms, and large quantities of accoutre-
ments.
Chick/aming, a post-township of Berrien co., Mich.
Pop. 992.
the Choctaws.
Chickasa'ba, a township of Mississippi co., Ark.
Pop. 448. -
Chick'asaw, a county in the N. E. of Iowa. Area,
540 square miles. It is intersected by the Wapsipimicon
River. The Red Cedar River passes through the S. W.
part of it. The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile.
Cattle, wool, grain, and tobacco are raised. It is traversed
by a branch of the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R. The
Cedar Falls and Minnesota branch of the Illinois Central
R. R. crosses the S. E. corner of the county. Capital,
New Hampton. Pop. 10,180.
Chick'asaw, a county in the N. E. of Mississippi.
Area, 700 square miles. It is drained by the Yallobusha
River, which rises in it, and by the Oktibbeha. The sur-
face is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Corn and tobacco
are the staple crops, but wool, cattle, and cotton are also
raised. The Mobile and Ohio R. R. crosses the N. E. corner
of the county. Capital, Houston. Pop. 19,899.
Chickasaw, a township of Chickasaw co., Ia.
1076.
Chickasaw Bluffs, Battle of, before Vicksburg,
Miss. The U. S. forces under Gen. W. T. Sherman assaulted
this strongly fortified position Dec. 29, 1862, but, though
the head of the assaulting column reached the works, the
severe fire from the rifle-pits and batteries caused them to
fall back to the point of starting, leaving many dead,
wounded, and prisoners on the field. The Confederate loss
was but light.
Chick'asaw In’dians, a warlike tribe which formerly
occupied the northern parts of Alabama and Mississippi.
They were visited by De Soto in 1540. They waged war
against the French in 1736. Having ceded their lands to
the U. S. for a large sum of money, they removed beyond
the Mississippi River to the Indian Territory in 1837–38,
and formed a political connection with their kindred tribe,
The united tribes numbered in 1872 some
22,000 souls, the Choctaws being the more numerous.
Chick'atuck, a post-township and village of Nanse-
mond co., Va., 8 miles S. E. of Smithfield. Pop. 2709.
Chick’en-pox, a contagious febrile disease, chiefly of
children, and bearing some resemblance to a very mild form
of smallpox. Chicken-pox is distinguished by an eruption
of vesicles or blebs, which rarely become pustular or yellow,
and leave only a very slight incrustation, which falls off in
a few days, without any permanent mark or pit as in small-
pox. It is a disease of little or no danger, the fever being
often hardly perceptible, and never lasting long. It usu-
ally occurs but once in any one patient.
Chick’ering (JonAs), an American philanthropist, born
in New Ipswich, N. H., April 5, 1798. . He became distin-
guished as a pianoforte-maker, having begun that business
for himself in 1823. He acquired great wealth, which he
used freely, but not ostentatiously, in various charities.
Died Dec. 8, 1853.
Chickering (THOMAS E.), a son of Jonas Chickering,
was born at Boston, Mass., Oct. 22, 1824. He succeeded
his father as the head of a large pianomaking business, and
was colonel of the Forty-first Massachusetts Infantry in
the civil war, serving chiefly in Louisiana. Died at Boston
Feb. 14, 1871. -
Chick’s Springs, apost-township andvillage of Green-
ville co., S. C., about 9 miles N. E. of Greenville. Here are
two mineral springs—one alterative and slightly sulphur-
ous, the other a tonic iron spring. Pop. 1226.
Chick-pea (Cicer), a genus of plants of the order Legu-
minosae, having pinnate leaves and 2-seeded pods, inflated
like bladders. The common chick-pea (Cicer arietinum)
grows wild in the countries around the Mediterranean. It
is an annual, of a stiff upright habit. The seeds abound
in farina, and have a slightly bitterish taste. They are
about the size of common peas, and curiously wrinkled.
They are used as food, either boiled or roasted, and are the
common pulse of the East. They are an important article
in French and Spanish cookery. They have been in gen-
eral use from the earliest times, and the plant is extensively
cultivated in Egypt, Syria, India, Europe, Mexico, etc. The
herbage affords nutritious food for cattle. Drops exude from
this plant, which, on drying, leave crystals of almost pure
oxalic acid. In France, in India, and in Mexico the free
use of the chick-pea as food is said sometimes to lead to
paralysis. {
Chicla/ma, a town of Spain, in the province of Cadiz, 12
miles S. E. of Cadiz. The houses are built of white stone.
Pop.
It has a fine hospital, and manufactures of linen, earthen-
ware, and brandy. Here are mineral springs which are
much frequented. Pop. 9097.
Chi'co, chee/co, a post-village of Butte co., Cal., in a
township of the same name, on Chico Creek and on the
CHICOA-CHIHUAHUA.
919.
Oregon division of the Central Pacific R. R., 96 miles N.
of Sacramento. It is in a rich farming district, and has a
steamboat connection with Sacramento. It has one weekly
newspaper. Pop. including township, 3714.
Chico'a, a township of Pitt co., N. C. Pop. 1683.
Chic/opee, a river of Massachusetts, rises in Worcester
county, flows nearly westward, and enters the Connecticut
4 miles above Springfield. It affords abundant water-power.
Chic/opee, a post-village of Hampden co., Mass., on
the Connecticut River, at the mouth of the Chicopee, 4
miles N. of Springfield. It was formerly called CABOT-
v1LLE. It has a national bank, a newspaper-office, and
several cotton-mills of the Dwight Company (which em-
ploys a capital of $1,500,000 or more); also manufactures
of swords, cutlery, machinery, and brass cannon. The
Ames Company have here the largest manufactory of
swords in the U. S. Pop. of Chicopee township, including
Chicopee and Chicopee Falls, 9607.
Chicopee Falls, a post-village of Chicopee township,
Hampden co., Mass., on the Chicopee River, 5 miles N. of
Springfield and 1% miles E. of Chicopee Centre, with which
it is connected by a branch railroad. It has extensive water-
power, four large cottom-mills, a bleachery, and manufactures
of knitting machines, agricultural tools, Maynard rifles,
guns, pistols, levels, planes, and plumbers’ goods. It has
four churches. Pop. about 3000. A. W. PAGE, P. M.
Chic/ory, or Suc'cory, an herb of the order Com-
positae, sub-order Liguliflorae. The common chicory or
succory (Cichorium Intybus) is a perennial plant, found
wild in most parts of Europe and naturalized in the U. S.,
growing in waysides, borders of fields, etc. It has a long,
carrot-like root of a dirty or brownish-yellow color, and
white within. The stem rises two to five feet, the leaves
resembling those of the dandelion; the flowers rather large,
beautiful, and generally blue. Chicory is extensively cul-
tivated in Europe for its roots and for feeding cattle with
its leaves. The blanched leaves are sometimes used as a
salad. To this genus belongs also the endive. Chicory is
much used with coffee. The roots are dried and roasted in
heated iron cylinders, which are kept revolving as in coffee-
roasting. During roasting the addition of two pounds of
lard or butter for every hundredweight of chicory commu-
nicates to it the general appearance of coffee. Chicory con-
tains sugar, but otherwise does not supply the animal
economy with any useful ingredient. Some dislike the
taste of chicory, and when largely used it has a tendency
to produce diarrhoea; but many people prefer to use coffee
mixed with chicory.
Chicot, sheeſko, a county which forms the S. E. ex-
tremity of Arkansas. Area, 800 square miles. It is bounded
on the E. by the Mississippi River. The surface is level,
and is drained by magnificent bayous. The soil is fertile.
Cotton, tobacco, and corn are the chief crops. Capital,
Lake Village. Pop. 7214.
Chicot, a post-village of Chicot co., Ark., on the Mis-
sissippi River, is the terminus of two railroads. It has
two churches, two schools, machine-shops, and a news-
paper. E.D. OF “ TIMES.”
Chicoutimi, a county of the Dominion of Canada, in
Quebec, is intersected by the river Saguenay, and borders
on a large lake called St. John's. Lumber is exported
from it. Capital, Chicoutimi. Pop. in 1871, 17,493.
Chicoutimi, a post-village, capital of Chicoutimi co.,
Quebec (Canada), on the S. side of the river Saguenay, 75
miles from its mouth. It has a court-house, jail, a convent
of the Good Shepherd, and an important trade in lumber,
which is shipped direct to England and other regions.
Chictawau'ga, a township of Erie co., N. Y. Pop.
2465.
Chief-Justice, the title of the highest in rank of the
judges of a court. The chief-justice of the U. S. is an
officer who presides over the Supreme Court, controlling
its docket, regulating the order of business, and assigning
to the associate justices the cases in which they are to pre-
pare opinions. He reads decisions in practice cases; ad-
ministers the oath to the President and Vice-President at
their inauguration; presides when the President is on trial
after impeachment; and nominates persons to be appointed
registers in bankruptcy by the district judges. Like his
associates, he is required to attend at least one term of the
circuit court in his circuit during each period of two years.
He ranks next to the President in official dignity. His
salary is $10,500.
Chiem See, a lake of Bavaria, 42 miles S. E. of Munich,
is at an elevation of 1726 feet above the sea. It is 12 miles
long, about 7 miles wide, and 458 feet deep. It contains
many fish. The surplus water is discharged through the
Alz into the river Inn.
Chie’ri (anc. Carrea Potentia), a town of Italy, in the
province of Turin, on the slope of a hill 8 miles S. E. of
Turin. It had manufactures of fustians, etc. in 1422.
Here is the church of St. Domenico, built in 1260,
and the church of Santa Maria della Scala, which was
founded in 1405, the largest Gothic structure in Piedmont.
Chieri has manufactures of silk, cotton, and linen fabrics.
Pop. 10,036. + -
Chie’ti, formerly Abruzzo Citeriore, a province
of Central Italy, is a mountainous region. The chief prod-
ucts are corn, oil, fruits, rice, and wine. Area, 1277 miles.
Pop. in 1871, 339,961.
Chieti (anc. Teate), a fortified episcopal city of Italy,
capital of the province of Chieti or Abruzzo Citeriore, is
situated on a hill near the Pescara, 40 miles E. of Aquila,
115 miles N. of Naples, and 6 miles from the Adriatic. It
is the see of an archbishop, and has a cathedral, a college,
and a fine theatre. Here are some manufactures of silk
and woollen goods. Chieti occupies the site of the ancient
Teate, a large and important city, the remains of which
are still visible. Among these are the ruins of a theatre
and several temples. Pop. in 1872, 23,607.
Chignec’to Bay, an inlet in British North America,
is the northern part of the Bay of Fundy, and extends be-
tween New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. It is about 30
miles long.
Chi'goe, or Jig'ger (Sarcopsylla penetrams), a species
of flea, much smaller than the common flea, found in the
West Indies and North and South America, attacking any
exposed part of the human body, effecting a lodgment be-
tween the skin and flesh, often under the nails of the toes,
and also infesting dogs and mice. At first its presence is
indicated by a slight itching, but ulceration is likely to
result, which is not only painful, but even dangerous when
the female chigoe is allowed to remain and deposit her
eggs, about sixty in number. Before these are deposited
her abdomen becomes distended to the size of a pea. The
ulcer speedily contains a great colony of chigoes. The
natives are very expert in extracting the chigoe, which is
also removed by washing with tobacco juice. Rubbing
with tobacco leaves is a preventive of its attacks, but
cleanliness and the wearing of shoes is still better. Death
has followed neglect to remove the chigoe.
Chi- (or She-) Hoang-Ti, called also Tsin-Chi-
Hoang-Ti, and sometimes Ching-Wang, one of the
greatest emperors of China, ruled that country from 246 to
210 B.C. The country now called China was then divided
into eight feudatory kingdoms or principalities. He formed
the design of subjugating them all and consolidating them
into one great empire. This he at length accomplished,
and by expelling some barbarous nations extended the
empire to nearly its present limits. He also built the
Great Wall of China, employing upon it several millions
of men for ten years, of whom it is said half a million per-
ished before the work was finished. He is also said to
have been the first Chinese sovereign who caused a statisti-
cal survey of the whole empire, with a valuation of lands,
products, etc., in order that the tributes might be justly
apportioned. But his memory is stained by his attempted
destruction of the ancient books of the country. This at-
tempt he made in order to weaken or destroy the authority
of the learned class, who were his enemies, and also to
obliterate the national reverence for antiquity, which formed
the chief support of the authority of that class. He ap-
pears to have been the first ruler of China (if we except
those of a very remote antiquity) who assumed the title of
hoang or “emperor,” his predecessors having been called
by the more modest title of wung or “king.” Chi-Hoang-
Ti has been compared to Napoleon, whom he certainly re-
sembled in the force of his will, as well as in the extent of
his power.
Chihua/hua, a state of Mexico, bordering on Texas,
has an area of 105,299 square miles. It is bounded on the
N. E. by the Rio Grande del Norte, and is drained by the
Conchos. The W. part is occupied by a long mountain-
chain called Sierra Madre. The surface E. of this chain
is mostly a high table-land; the soil is generally arid and
sterile. The state is rich in minerals, including gold, sil-
ver, copper, lead, tin, and cinnabar. The silver-mines,
which are in the Sierra Madre, were formerly very produc-
tive. The chief wealth of the inhabitants consists in herds
of cattle, horses, and mules. This state is infested by
Apaches, who greatly retard its prosperity. Capital, Chi-
huahua. Pop. of the state in 1871, 179,971.
Chihuahua, a town of Mexico, the capital of the above
state, is about 310 miles N. N. W. of Durango; lat. 28° 50'
N., lon. 105° 33' W. It has a fine stone cathedral which
cost about $800,000, a state prison, a state-house, and a
mint. It is supplied with water by a good stone aqueduct
920
CHILBLAIN–CHILI.
three miles long. Silver-mines have been opened in the
vicinity. Chihuahua has an active trade with San Antonio
in Texas. Pop. 12,000.
Chil/blain [Lat. perniol, one of the secondary effects
of cold and moisture upon the human system, principally
affecting the feet, hands, nose, ears, etc. Chilblains are
frequently chronic in their character. Mild cases are
marked by swelling and redness of the affected part, ac-
companied by intolerable itching. The more severe forms
assume an ulcerated, and sometimes even a gangrenous,
character. Those troubled with chilblains should carefully
protect the feet and hands from cold, should wash the feet
frequently and dry them very thoroughly, and avoid going
near a fire when they are very cold. Benzoated oxide-of-
zinc ointment, citrine ointment, borax and Sugar of lead
in oil or glycerine, tincture of iodine, sulphurous acid solu-
tion, and various stimulant applications are all useful,
some being suited to the condition of certain patients,
while others may require different applications. The sev-
erer forms may need surgical treatment.
Child (FRANCIs J.), PH. D., born in Boston Feb. 1, 1825,
graduated at Harvard in 1846. After taking his degree he
was for some time tutor in mathematics at Harvard, and
subsequently in rhetoric and history. In 1849 he visited
Europe, where he spent about two years. In 1851 he suc-
ceeded Prof. E. T. Channing as Boylston professor of
rhetoric and oratory. Prof. Child is especially distinguished
for his thorough acquaintance with early English literature.
As a Chaucer scholar he has perhaps no superior in Amer-
ica or Europe. He has contributed to this “Cyclopaedia.”
the admirable article on BALLAD PoETRY. *
Child (IYDIA MARIA), an American writer, born at
Medford, Mass., Feb. 11, 1802. Her maiden name was
FRANCIS. She was married in 1828 to David Lee Child, a
lawyer, and became editor of the “National Anti-Slavery
Standard” in 1841. She published, besides other works,
“Letters from New York” (2 vols., 1844), “The Oasis,”
“Fact and Fiction,” “Philothea, a Grecian Romance,” “The
Progress of Religious Ideas” (3 vols., 1855), and “Emi-
nent Women of the Age” (Hartford, 1868).
Childbirth. See OBSTETRICS.
Childe (JoBN), an American officer and engineer, born
Aug. 30, 1802, at West Boylston, Mass., graduated at West
Point in 1827. He served, while lieutenant of artillery, on
ordnance duty 1828–34; garrison and engineer duty at
Newport Harbor, R.I., 1834–35. Resigned Dec. 31, 1835,
and assumed the profession of civil engineer, in which he
became eminent, particularly in the construction of rail-
roads and bridges and improvements of rivers and harbors.
His official reports are models of logical force and accuracy,
and his inventive talent for mechanical improvements was
remarkable. Tied Feb. 2, 1858, at Springfield, Mass., aged
fifty-five. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Chil' dermas [from child and mass], or Holy Inno-
cents’ Day (Dec. 28th, or in the East the 29th), is ob-
served by the Roman, Anglican, Greek, and various East-
ern churches as a festival in honor of the children killed
by Herod. It was considered unlucky to marry or to begin
any work on this day. The learned John Gregory says:
“It hath been a custom, and yet is elsewhere, to whip up
the children upon Innocents' Day morning, that the mem-
ory of Herod’s murder might stick the closer, and in a
moderate proportion to act over the crueltie again in
kinde.” Throughout the day, however, the children might
exercise a certain authority over the rest of the household.
Chil’dersburg, a township and post-village of Talla-
dega co., Ala., on the Selma Rome and Dalton R. R., 90
miles N. E. of Selma. Pop. 1112. * -
Children (John GEORGE), F. R. S., an English elec-
trician, born at Tunbridge in 1777. He constructed a gal-
vanic battery with plates about four feet long and two wide,
by which he demonstrated that the quantity of electricity
is in proportion to the size of the plates, and its intensity
depends on their number. Died in 1852.
Childs (GEORGE W.), an American journalist and pub-
lisher, born in 1829 at Baltimore, Md. He became a resi-
dent of Philadelphia in his youth, and in 1849 became a
partner in a publishing-house. He purchased in 1864 the
“Public Ledger,” a daily newspaper of Philadelphia, which
he made very successful. He is also distinguished for
liberality.
Childs (HENRY HALs FY), M. D., a son of Timothy
Childs (see below), was born in Pittsfield, Mass., June 7,
1783, and graduated at Williams in 1802. He was for
many years president of the Berkshire Medical College,
and was lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts in 1843.
He was distinguished for his benevolence, integrity, and
professional enthusiasm. Died Mar. 22, 1868.
Childs (LINUs), born in 1803 at Southbridge, Mass.,
graduated at Yale in 1824, became a lawyer of Boston,
Mass., and was for some time agent of a manufactory at
Lowell. He was active in State politics, and was a prom-
inent member of the prudential committee of the American
board of commissioners for foreign missions, and of the
trustees of Andover Theological Seminary and Phillips
Academy. Died Aug. 26, 1870.
Childs (ORVILLE W), an able civil engineer, was chief
engineer of the New York State works (1840–47), aided in
constructing the Champlain Canal, and in the survey of
the Nicaragua ship-canal route. He contributed much
º jºional literature. Died at Philadelphia Sept. 6,
1870.
Childs (THOMAs), an American officer, born in Pittsfield,
Mass., in 1796, graduated at West Point in 1814 in the ar-
tillery. He served with distinction in the war of 1812–15
at the battle of Niagara, and at Fort Erie in 1814; he was
engaged in the Florida war against the hostile Indians from
1836 to 1842, and in the war with Mexico, at Palo Alto,
Resaca de la Palma, Monterey, Vera Cruz, and Cerro Gordo.
For his distinguished conduct in the Florida war he was
brevetted major, lieutenant-colonel, and colonel, and in the
Mexican war brevetted brigadier-general. Died Oct. 8,
1853.
• Childs (TIMOTHY), M. D., born in Deerfield, Mass., in
1748, was a distinguished patriot and an army-surgeon in
the Revolutionary war. At the end of the war he success-
fully resumed his medical practice at Pittsfield. Died Feb.
25, 1821.
Chilhow’ie, a post-township of Johnson co., Mo. Pop.
1362.
Chiſli [Sp. Chile], a republic of South America, is a
long and narrow tract bounded on the E. by the Andes and
on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. It extends from lat 24°
to 43° 20' S., and from lon. 70° to 74° W. It is about
1200 miles long, and varies in width from 90 to 130 miles.
Area, estimatad at 132,616 square miles. The dispute with
Bolivia concerning the northern frontier was settled by the
treaty of 1866, which gave to Bolivia possession of the Bay
of Mejillones, but secured to Chili an equal share of the
guano of the disputed territory.
Physical Features.—The surface is mountainous, and
belongs entirely to the western slope of the great Cordil-
Iera of the Andes, which here attains a very great height.
The mean elevation of the Chilian Andes is nearly 14,000
feet above the level of the sea. Among the peaks of the
Chilian Andes is the porphyritic Nevado of Aconcagua,
which rises 22,422 feet, and was once said to be the highest
peak in South America. The volcano of Antuco near the
eastern border of Concepcion is 8917 feet high. Other active
volcanoes occur on the border of Chili. Besides the cen-
tral chain of the Cordillera, Chili is traversed by lateral
ridges separated by deep valleys, some of which are fertile.
The richest soil and most luxuriant vegetation are found
in the southern and central parts. The country N. of Wal-
paraiso is mostly arid and sterile. The coast of Chili is
bold and rocky, with deep water close to the shore. This
region is subject to earthquakes, one of which in 1822 de-
stroyed several cities, and raised the coast four feet above
its former level. This change of level was permanent and
very extensive.
Geology and Minerals.-The predominant rocks of Chili
are granite, porphyry, basalt, quartz, clay-slate, limestone,
etc. A long and narrow belt of palaeozoic and fossiliferous
strata extends along the coast S. of Santiago. Many silver-
mines have been opened in the N. part of Chili, but the
desert nature of the country and the scarcity of water
render the mining operations difficult and expensive. Gold,
copper, lead, iron, bismuth, antimony, cobalt, and quick-
silver are also found here, the mines of copper being espe-
cially important. Extensive beds of bituminous coal have
been opened near Talcahuano.
Climate, Productions, etc.—The climate of this region is
remarkably healthy. Rain falls only between June and Sep-
tember, but the northern desert is subject to long droughts
which continue for years. In the central parts of Chili
storms of hail and terrific thunder are frequentin the winter.
The hottest months of the year are January and February,
during which the mercury sometimes rises to 95° F. in the
shade. The southern part is covered with dense forests.
The laurel, myrtle, cypress, and other evergreens attain
here a gigantic size. In the middle portions the soil is
adapted to grazing and the cultivation of grain. The
staple productions are wheat, barley, maize, hemp, and pota-
toes. Apples, pears, plums, peaches, oranges, and other
fruits are abundant. The chief articles of export are silver,
copper, wheat, hides, and wool.
Rivers, Lakes, and Harbors.-Chili has no large rivers
or large lakes. The streams are mostly mere mountain-
CHILI–CHILTERN HUNDREDS, THE STEWARDSHIP OF.
921
torrents, and are not navigable. The Biobio, which is one
of the principal streams, is nearly 200 miles long. Many
small lakes occur among the mountains. The best ports
and harbors are at Valdivia, Valparaiso, Concepcion, and
Coquimbo. •
Political Divisions, Government, etc.—Chili is divided
into fifteen provinces, named Chiloe, Llanquihue, Valdivia,
Arauco, Concepcion, Nuble, Maule, Talca, Curico, Colcha-
gua, Santiago, Valparaiso, Aconcagua, Coquimbo, and
Atacama, to which must be added the colony of Magallanes.
The chief cities are Santiago, the capital, Valparaiso, Talca,
and Concepcion. The executive power is exercised by a
president elected for a term of five years. The legislature
consists of two houses—the chamber of deputies, who are
elected for three years, and the senate, the members of
which are chosen for a term of nine years. The estab-
lished religion, is Roman Catholic. A large proportion of
the population are of Spanish descent, and the other in-
habitants are mostly Indians or aborigines. The public
revenue in the budget of 1871 was estimated at 11,550,000
pesos (1 peso = 93 cents), and the expenditure at 12,542,493
pesos. The public debt in 1870 was 39,924,833 pesos. The
value of the exports in 1869 amounted to $27,720,000, and
that of the imports to $27,230,000. In 1871, Chili had 472
miles of railroad in operation. Pop. in 1865, 2,166,000.
The number of vessels arriving in the ports of Chili in 1869
was 4009. The army embraces 5018 men of the line and
54,992 national guards. The fleet consists of 12 steamers.
History.—Chili was a part of the dominions of the inca
of Peru when the latter was conquered by Pizarro. Alma-
gro invaded Chili in 1535, soon after which the conquest
of the country, except Araucania, was completed by Wal-
divia, who founded Santiago in 1541. He was defeated
and killed in 1553 by the Araucanians, whom the Spaniards
were never able to conquer. In 1810 the Chilians revolted
against the king of Spain, and a junta, which had met at
Santiago elected the marquis de la Plate, a native of Chili,
president of the republic. On Feb. 12, 1817, the Span-
iards suffered a decisive defeat at Chacabuco ; on Jan.
1, 1818, the independence of Chili was formally proclaimed
by Bernardo O'Higgins, the commander-in-chief of the
Chilian patriots; and on May 5 of the same year it was
fully secured by the great victory of the Chilians on the
river Maypu. The last stronghold of the Spaniards, the
island of Chiloe, was captured in Jan., 1826. The first
constitution was adopted in 1824, and a second in 1828.
From May, 1837, to Mar., 1839, a war was carried on with
Peru. On April 25, 1844, a treaty was concluded with
Spain which recognized the independence of Chili. Dur-
ing the administrations of President Bulnes (1841–51)
and of President Manuel Montt (1851–61) Chili remained
free from the troubles which agitated most of the other
South American republics. Two insurrections during the
administration of the latter were easily suppressed. Agri-
culture, mining industry, and navigation steadily ad-
vanced, and a considerable immigration from Europe took
place. During the two administrative terms of President
Perez (1861–71) Chili, in union with Peru, Bolivia, and
Ecuador, was involved in a war with Spain, which began
in 1865. A Spanish fleet on Mar. 31, 1866, bombarded
Valparaiso, but had to raise the blockade on April 14, ow-
ing to the remonstrances of the European powers. Actual
hostilities soon after ceased, but a formal truce was not
concluded until July, 1869, through the mediation of the
government of the U. S. On Sept. 18, 1871, F. Errazuriz
was elected president for the term 1871 to 1876. The new
president, as well as his two immediate predecessors, sup-
ported the interests of the conservative and Church parties.
The liberal party of Chili contends in particular for the
introduction of universal suffrage and religious toleration.
From 1859 to 1873 the republic was entirely free from in-
testine commotions, but it had often to suppress the insur-
rections of the Araucanians. (See Ast A BURUAGA, “Dic-
cionario jeografico de la Republica de Chili,” 1868; VAL-
ENZUELA, “Historia jeneral de la Republica de Chili,” 4
vols., 1866–68; HUNTER, “A Sketch of Chili,” 1866.)
- A. J. SCHEM.
Chili, a township and post-village of Hancock co., Ill.,
on the Keokuk branch of the Toledo Wabash and Western
R. R., 15 miles S. S. E. of Carthage. Pop. 1601.
Chili, a post-township and village of Monroe co., N.Y.,
on the New York Central R. R., 58 miles E. N. E. of Buf-
falo. Pop. 2367.
Chil’iad [Gr. xixtás, from xíAuot, a “thousand”], an
assemblage of things grouped or ranged by thousands.
The word is chiefly used by the early computers of loga-
rithmic tables, who expressed the extent of the table by
saying it contained the logarithms of so many chiliads of
absolute numbers.
Chiliasts. See MILLENNARIANs.
Chillicoth’e, a post-village of Peoria co., Ill., on the
Illinois River and on the Peoria branch of the Chicago
Rock Island and Pacific R. R., 18 miles N. N. E. of Peoria.
It is a large grain dépôt, and possesses various manufac-
turing industries. A daily packet-boat runs to Peoria. It
has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of township, 1486.
S. Stowell, FoR ED. of “DEMOCRATIC UNION.”
Chillicothe, capital of Livingston co., Mo., on the
Hannibal and St. Joseph R. R. and on the Omaha branch
of the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. R.; also the
terminus of the Chillicothe and Des Moines City R. R., 76
miles E. of St. Joseph. It is the principal town in the
Grand River Valley. It contains ten churches, two news-
papers, two banks, three flouring-mills, two planing-mills,
one foundry and machine-shop, fifty-seven stores, one acad-
emy, and graded free schools. Plenty of timber and water.
Coal in abundance in the vicinity. Pop. 3978; of township,
2118. MARSH & DESHA, PROPs. OF “TRIBUNE.”
Chil(licoth’e, or Chilicoth’e, a beautiful city, the
capital of Ross co., O., is finely situated on the Scioto
River, and in a plain enclosed on several sides by verdant
hills nearly 500 feet high. It is on the Marietta and Cin-
cinnati R. R., and on the Ohio and Erie Canal, about 48
miles S. of Columbus and 99 miles E. by N. from Cincin-
nati. The streets are wide, straight, and lighted with gas.
It has a stone-front court-house, which cost about $100,000,
thirteen or more churches, five newspaper-offices, three
national banks, and four commodious brick union school-
houses; also manufactures of steam-engines and farming-
implements, flour-mills and other manufactories, and the
Marietta and Cincinnati R. R. shops. Chillicothe was the
capital of Ohio from 1800 to 1810. Pop. 8030.
J. R. S. Bond & SoN, PUBs. “ScroTo GAZETTE.”
Chil/lingworth (Rev. WILLIAM), an eminent English
divine and controversialist, born at Oxford in Oct., 1602.
In 1618 he became a scholar, and in 1628 a fellow of
Trinity College, Oxford. In 1630, through the influence
of John Fisher, the famous Jesuit, he became a Roman
Catholic, and entered the Jesuit College in Douay, France.
In 1631 he was persuaded by his godfather, Laud, then
bishop of London, to reconsider the question and return
to Oxford. In 1637 he put forth his great work, “The
Religion of Protestants a Safe Way to Salvation,” a work
of singular acuteness and ability. He became chancellor
of Salisbury and prebendary of Brixworth. In theology
he was a latitudinarian, and in politics a royalist. Died
at Chichester Jan. 31, 1644. His collected works appeared
in 1742. (See DES MAIZEAUx, “Life of Chillingworth,”
1725; AUGUST NEANDER, “Erinnerung an den evangelis-
chen Gottesgelehrten W. Chillingworth,” 1832.)
Chillisqua'que, a township and post-village of
Northumberland co., Pa., about 55 miles N. of Harrisburg.
Pop. 1597.
Chillon, commonly pronounced shil/lon [Fr; pron.
she'yon’), a castle and fortress of Switzerland, in the can-
ton of Vaud, 6 miles S. E. of Vevay. It is at the E. end
of the Lake of Geneva, on an isolated rock, almost sur-
rounded by deep water. It was built by Amadeus IV. of
Savoy in 1238, and was long used as a state prison. Bon-
niyard was confined here from 1530 to 1536 for his efforts
to liberate the Genevese. This place is the scene of By-
ron's poem, “The Prisoner of Chillon.”
Chil'mark, a post-township of Dukes co., Mass., on the
island of Martha's Vineyard. Pop. 476.
Chiſlo, or Chiſlon [Gr. Xixov or Xeixoyl, a Spartan
who is enumerated among the Seven Wise Men of Greece.
He became one of the ephori of Sparta in 556 B.C. Among
the maxims ascribed to him is “ Know thyself.” He is
said to have died of joy when his son gained a victory at
the Olympic games.
Chil’oe, an island of South America, in the Pacific
Ocean, forms (with many small isles) a province of the re-
public of Chili. Area, 2398 square miles. It is separated
from the mainland by a strait about a mile wide. Length
from N. to S., about 110 miles; average width, nearly 40
miles. It is mountainous and covered with magnificent
forests. The western shores are rocky, and rise abruptly
to the height of 1500 feet or more. The climate is ex-
tremely moist. The soil is fertile, and produces wheat, bar-
ley, potatoes, etc. Capital, San Carlos. Pop. in 1869, 61,607.
Chilſtern Hundreds, The Stew'ardship of, in
England, a nominal office which a member of Parliament, de-
siring to withdraw, receives and immediately resigns; since
a member cannot resign unless disqualified, and an appoint-
ment by the Crown works such disqualification. In old
times the steward’s duties were to protect from the robbers
who lurked in the forests of the Chiltern Hills. When this
office is occupied the stewardship of the manors of East
922
CHILTON.—CHINA, GREAT WALL OF.
Hendred, Northshead, and Hempholme is made to serve the
Same purpose.
Chil’ton, a post-village, capital of Calumet co., Wis.,
on the Manitowoc River, 24 miles N. E. of Fond du Lac.
It has a newspaper-office. Pop. of Chilton township, 1517.
Chimae'ra [Gr. Xiu.aupa], a monster of classic mythol-
ogy, was described by Homer as having the head of a lion,
the body of a goat, and the tail of a dragon. It was sup-
posed to exhale flames of fire. In modern languages the
the term chimera is applied to any wild or incóngruous
fancy.
Chimae'ra, a genus of cartilaginous fishes, ranked by
Chimaera, or Sea Cat.
Cuvier with the sturgeons (Sturionidae), but now generally
regarded as the type of a distinct family, of which only two
or three species are known. The gills have a single wide
opening, as in the sturgeons; but the gill-lid or operculum
is merely rudimental and concealed in the skin, while there
is an approach to sharks in the structure of the gills. The
only known species of chimaera is Chimaera monstrosa, occa-
sionally found in the British seas, and more common in
more northern latitudes. It is sometimes called the “king
of the herrings.” It pursues the shoals of herrings, and is
consequently sometimes taken in the herring-nets. It is
seldom more than three feet long. Its general color is sil-
very white, the upper parts mottled with brown. It pro-
duces very large leathery eggs.
Chima’ra, or Chimari (anc. Ceraunii Montes, i. e.
“thunder mountains”), a mountain-range of Albania, be-
tween lat. 40° and 41° N., and near lon. 19° E., termina-
ting in Cape Linguetta, called by the ancients Acroceraunia.
Chimbora’zo, a conical mountain-peak of South
America, is the culminating point of the Colombian Andes,
and is 90 miles S. by W. from Quito. Its height, according
to Humboldt, who ascended to within 1663 feet of its sum-
mit, is 21,422 feet. It rises only 12,000 feet above the ad-
jacent table-land. It was formerly supposed to be the
highest mountain in the world, but it is exceeded by Acon-
cagua, Parinacota, and Sahama of the Andes, and several
of the Himalayas. No person has ever reached the summit
of Chimborazo, which presents a magnificent spectacle from
the Pacific Ocean at a distance of 100 miles or more.
Chime [Fr. carillon ], the consonant or harmonic sounds
of several instruments; correspondence of sound; music
performed on a set of bells in a church tower. The term
is sometimes used to denote a set of bells which chime or
ring in harmony.
Chimere [Fr. chimère, from the Sp. zamarro, a “sheep
skin.”], the upper robe worn by a bishop, to which the lawn
sleeves are now generally attached. Since the time of
Queen Elizabeth it has been of black satin, but previously
it was of a scarlet color, like that now worn by bishops as-
sembled in convocation and when the Sovereign attends
Parliament.
Chim/ney [Fr. cheminée], a flue or cluster of flues for
carrying off smoke or sustaining a draft in fires maintained
in buildings for economical or other purposes. There are
no remains of chimneys in the ruins of ancient cities, and
no evidence from literature that such chimneys existed.
Fires were either of charcoal in open braziers, or the smoke
of a wood-fire was allowed to escape through a hole in the
roof. The earliest remains of chimneys in Europe are
somewhat doubtfully referred to the twelfth century. An
earthquake in Venice in 1347 destroyed many chimneys.
The year 1368 is assigned for the building of the first chim-
ney in Rome. Early in the seventeenth century many
houses of well-to-do yeomen in England had no chimneys.
Their general use in France was of even later date. The
earliest chimneys were cylindrical and very high. Many-
flued chimneys are much later. Of late the construction of
tall chimneys for manufacturing purposes is very common,
some exceeding in height the tallest spires. They are built
from the inside.
The principle of the draught of chimneys is, that a col-
umn of heated air is lighter than a column of cool air of the
same height, and the greater the height of the heated col-
umn, the greater the difference of weight between the col-
umn of air within and without the flue. This is one reason
why the chimneys of furnaces and mills are made so high,
since a powerful draft can thus be easily maintained. It
is also important to have the flue vertical, so as to prevent
the friction of the air and the loss of heat which a long
passage causes. If all the draft passes through the fire, so
that the rising air becomes well heated, there is but little
danger of downward currents causing a smoky chimney.
The throat of the chimney of an open fireplace should be
well contracted, and be directly over the fire, thus causing an
intensity of draft at the throat, which will tend to overcome
any downward currents which may exist in the chimney.
In towns especially chimneys are liable to be
overtopped by neighboring buildings, and
ºss such chimneys are liable to become Smoky
#"Tº during high winds, because the lofty walls
§ deflect the wind and cause it to blow down
% the chimney. Various revolving and other
cowls and chimney-tops have been devised to
remedy this trouble. One of the best of these
is Espy's ventilator, which does not rotate, and
which is always effective, whatever be the di-
rection of the wind. Another cause of smoky
chimneys is insufficient ventilation. If air
cannot enter a room rapidly enough to sup-
ply the draught of the chimney, it is obvious
that the draft will be diminished. The most complete in-
Vestigations in the matter of curing Smoky chimneys are
those of Count Rumford.
Chimney Rock, a post-village and township of Ruth-
erford co., N.C., about 72 miles W. N.W. of Charlotte. Pop.
1024.
Chimpan’zee, the Troglodytes niger, an anthropoid or
tailless ape of tropical Africa, noteworthy as one of the
species of mammals which most closely approach the form
and anatomical structure of man. It is about five feet high,
covered with dark hair, is gregarious, and arms itself for
defence with clubs and stones. It can be tamed and taught
to walk, sit in a chair, and eat like a human being. Its
arms are much longer than a man’s, it has thirteen dorsal
vertebrae and pairs of ribs instead of twelve, and the struc-
ture of its hand is far less delicate and complete than man’s.
China. See CHINESE EMPIRE.
China, ki'na, a name of cinchona bark often to be met
in books, and in common use on the continent of Europe.
It is especially used by homoeopathic practitioners. The
name is derived, not from the empire of China, but from
kina or quina, the Peruvian name of cinchona. -
China, or China-ware. See PorcFLAIN, by PROF.
C. F. CHANDLER, PH.D., LL.D. fº
China, a township of Lee co., Ill. Pop. 2351.
China, a post-township of Kennebec co., Me. P. 2118.
China, a post-township of St. Clair co., Mich. P. 1637.
China/bee, a township of Talladega co., Ala. P. 810.
China Clay. See RAOLIN.
China Grass, or Chinese Grass, a vegetable fibre
which the Chinese manufacture into a beautiful fabric called
“grass cloth.” It is also manufactured in Europe to some
extent. It is obtained mostly from the Boehmeria nivea, a
plant of the order Urticaceae. (See RAMIE.) Grass cloth
has a glossy appearance and a silky lustre. The plant
yielding this excellent fibre flourishes in the Southern parts
of the U. S. under proper cultivation. -
China, Great Wall of, the most remarkable forti-
fication ever erected by human hands, was constructed by
order of the celebrated emperor Chi- (or Tchi-) Hoang-Ti,
for the purpose of protecting the northern and north-west-
ern frontier of the empire from the hordes of barbarians
who were them swarming in that part of Asia. To accom-
plish this great object, several millions of men, it is said,
were occupied for the space of ten years, during which time
half a million of those employed on the work perished. It
was completed in 2II B.C., The entire length of the wall
is about 1250 miles, the height being from twenty to twenty-
five feet, with towers about 100 yards apart and forty feet
high. The wall is much thicker at the base than at the
summit, which, however, is sufficiently broad to admit of
six horsemen riding abreast. Each face of the wall was
built of hewn stone or brick, with earth filled in between.
No inconsiderable part of this great fortification is now in
a ruinous condition, and some travellers whose attention
has been directed chiefly to such portions—which, being
constructed principally of earth, do not after a lapse of
nearly twenty-one centuries present a very imposing ruin–
have been led to speak disparagingly of the whole work.
But those Europeans who have examined the work more
carefully speak of it in a very different tone, and assert

CHIN A GROVE–CHINESE EMPIRE.
923.
that the portions which are faced with stone exhibit ma-
sonry of a very superior kind, the stones being admirably
fitted together, and that the arches, in particular, are ex-
ceedingly well constructed. To give an idea of the quan-
tity of material used in the erection of this great wall, it
may be stated that a careful calculation has shown that it
would be more than sufficient to construct a wall six feet
high and two feet thick twice round the world. (See W.
H. SEWARD’s “Travels around the World,” 1873.)
China Grove, a township and post-village of Pike co.,
Ala., 32 miles S. E. of Montgomery. Pop. I080.
Chinande'ga, a town of Central America, in Nica-
ragua, is in a fertile plain about 10 miles from the Pacific
Ocean and 18 miles N. W. of Leon. The houses are built
of adobes, and are only one story high. Cotton and sugar
are produced in the vicinity. Pop. 8000.
China, Pride of (Melia Azedarach), a small and beau-
tiful tree of the order Meliaceae, a native of Southern and
Western Asia, naturalized in the Southern U. S. It is
often called “pride of India,” “China tree,” and “bead
tree.” The bark of its root is used as a vermifuge, and
constitutes the drug azedarach. It has a sweetish fruit
about the size of a cherry, often eaten by children without
harm, though considered poisonous. Its wood is hard and
beautiful. This tree is naturalized in the south of Europe.
An allied species, the Melia Azedarachta, the margosa or
neem tree of India, yields a febrifugal bark, and a sap.
(toddy) used as a beverage, while the pulp of its fruit, like
the olive, affords a useful oil.
China Root, the rhizome of Smålaac China, a climb-
ing shrubby plant allied to Sarsaparilla, a native of China,
Cochin-China, and Japan. The stem is round and prickly,
the leaves thin and roundish oblong; the rhizome tuberous
and large, sub-astringent and diaphoretic. It is occasion-
ally used in medicine in Europe, but it is also employed
in the East as an article of food, for it abounds in starch.
China Sea [Fr. Mer Orientale; Chinese, Toong Haï]
is that portion of the Pacific Ocean which extends between
China and Siam on the W., the Philippine Islands on the
E., and Borneo on the S. The chief ports on this sea are
Canton, Manila, and Singapore.
China Wax, a substance resembling beeswax, pro-
duced by an insect (coccus) which lives on the Fraacinus
Chinensis, an ash tree of China. The wax is scraped from
the branches, melted, and strained. China also exports
Japan wax, obtained from the fruit of Rhus succedanea, a
sort of sumach tree.
Chin'cha Isl’ands, three small islands in the Pacific
Ocean, about 14 miles from Peru, to which they belong;
lat. 13° 39' S., lon. 76° 28' W. Here are large deposits of
guano, and here multitudes of penguins and other oceanic
birds build nests and breed. Neither of these islands is
more than a mile in extent. They present cliffs 300 feet
high and perpendicular, with numerous caves into which
the sea dashes. The entire supply has been recently esti-
mated at 40,000,000 tons. The exportation of this manure
from Peru in the years 1871–72 was 1,187,327 tons.
Chinchil’la [Sp. pron. chin-cheel/yā], (Chinchilla), a
% = ºutº 6. §
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family are gregarious, feed on roots, and live either in
holes in rocky districts or in burrows. They are valued
for their fur, particularly the chinchilla of the Andes (Chin-
chilla lanigera), of which the fur constitutes an important
article of commerce. Their numbers are decreasing in con-
sequence of the demand for the fur. The ancient Peru-
vians were accustomed to employ this fur as wool for the
manufacture of fine fabrics. It might profitably be kept
in a domesticated state. Chinchilla wool is variable in
quality, and is perhaps the product of several species.
The chinchilla is about the size of the common rat.
Chinchi'ila (anc. Salaria), a city of Spain, in the
province of Albacete, on a hill 10 miles S. E. of the city of
Albacete. It was formerly fortified, and is still enclosed
by old walls. . It has a fine church, and manufactures of
cloth, linen, glass, earthenware, etc. Pop. 6044.
Chinese Architecture. In China, the rise of the
arts seems to have been constantly repressed by the state
of mechanical drudgery and servitude in which the people
are kept. In their painting, for example, the most exact
imitation of plants, fruits, and trees is thought indispensa-
ble. Every matter relating to building is the subject of
regulation by the police, which, rather than theory, gov-
erns its architecture. The laws of the empire detail and
enforce with the greatest precision the mode of constructing
a lou or palace for a prince of the first, second, or third
rank, of a grandee, of a mandarin, etc. According to the
ancient law of the kingdom, the number and height of the
apartments, the length and height of a building, are all
regulated with precision, from the plain citizen to the man-
darin, and from the latter up to the emperor himself. This
alone is sufficient to account for the poverty and want of
invention in Chinese art.
In speaking of the principles of Chinese architecture,
the word is not applicable in the same way as when we
speak of classical architecture, but is meant to apply to
those primitive causes which gave birth to it. Character
and taste in every species of architecture are the necessary
results of these elements. There can be no doubt that the
tent is the real model of all Chinese buildings. One of the
strongest proofs of this fact is the form of the Chinese roof.
Nothing but a tent or pavilion could have given the idea
of it. Again, there is nothing like the appearance of a
member of wood, similar to the architrave, destined to lie
on the tops of the columns, and receive and support the
remainder of the carpentry. The Chinese roofs, on the
contrary, jut out beyond the columns, whose upper extrem-
ity is hidden by the eaves; hence the omission of the use
of capitals. It is easy to perceive that extreme lightness
must result from this imitation.
Tightness, in fact, is the essential character of Chinese
architecture, but there is another characteristic quality,
both of the model and the copy, that is observable in the
edifices of China; and this is its gay appearance. In this
respect scarcely any style presents a more pleasing effect.
Its roofs, single and double, brilliantly painted, its gayly-
diapered porticoes, the gloss over the whole surface, the
harmony of this species of decoration with the light and
flowing forms of the buildings themselves, so please the
eye when it is accustomed to see them that
our cold and monotonous mode of decoration
may well appear uninviting in contrast.
REVISED BY CLARENCE COOK.
Chinese Camp, a post-township of
§ss Tuolumne co., Cal. Pop. 2220.
§§ Chinese Empire, a vast territory of
Eastern and Central Asia, occupying nearly
§ a third of that continent. It lies between
lat. 18° 20' and 56° N., and lon. 70° and
143° 30' E. It is bounded on the N. by
Russian Asia, on the W. by Independent Tar-
tary, S. by Hindostam and Farther India,
g jº and E. by the Pacific Ocean. The area is
º about 4,098,823 square miles; the population
is variously estimated at from 446,500,000 to
550,000,000. The empire, besides China
proper, contains Corea, which is nearly inde-
pendent, also Manchooria, Mongolia, Thibet,
and the Loo Choo (Lieu-Khieu) Islands.
§
z_º-ºº: 2-sºn “”xºs º ** : * ~. _wn. These regions, together, are nearly equal to a
& *zziº --> stºs * . Tº % ~~~- tenth º: of the habitable globe. -
sº-sº" 1. ss-ºxº~~~~ *a- CHINA. PROPER [called in the Chinese lan;
s= ~ x<<^* ----- - -, * * guage Choong-Kway, “gentral kingdom *]
`Tohinchillas. ºf T occupies about one-third of the area of the
South American quadruped of the order Rodentia, and of
a family, Jerboidae, allied to the rabbits. There are sev-
eral genera of Jerboidae, distinguished in part by the toes,
the true Chinehilla having four, with the rudiment of a
fifth, on the fore feet, and four on the hind feet. All the
A
* According to Pauthier, the Chinese did not, as is commonly
supposed, give the name of Central Kingdom to their, Country
because they considered it in the centre of the world, but because
in the time of Confucius the country was divided into many
petty kingdoms, the central one of which, having the chief
power, gave name to the empire.






924 CHINESE
EMPIRE.
empire. It extends in latitude from 21° to 41° N., and
in longitude from 98° to 123° E. It is separated from
the dependency of Mongolia on the N. by the Great Wall
of China, by far the most extensive fortification ever under-
taken by man. This wall is about 1250 miles in length, and
is from twenty to twenty-five feet high. (See CHINA,
GREAT WALL of.) On the W. of China lies Thibet, on the
S., Burmah, Anam, and the China Sea, and on the E., the
Pacific Ocean. The important islands of Formosa and
Hainan also belong to China proper. The capital of the
empire is Peking.
China has a coast-line of more than 2500 miles, with an
area of about 1,279,072 square miles, and a population vari-
ously estimated at from 420,000,000 to 536,909,300.
China is divided into eighteen provinces, viz.:
PROVINCEs. º‘i. Fº ºn Capitals.
Pe–Chee-Lee.......... 59,934 46,313,360 | Pao-Ting-Foo.
Shan-Tong............ 65,100 41,700,621 | Tsee-Nan-Foo.
Shan–See............... 55,278 20,166,072 Tie-Yuen-Foo.
Ho-Nan................. 65,100 33,173,526 Kai-Foong-Foo.
Kiang-Soo............. 44,500 54,494,644 | Nan-King.
Ngan-Hwi............. 48,461 49,201,992 | Ngan-King-Foo.
Riang-See............... 72,180 43,814,866 | Nang-Chang-Foo.
Che-Kiang .............. 44,470 26,256,784 || Han-Chow-Foo.
Fo-Kien ............... 39,183 14,779,158 || Foo-Chow-Foo.
Hoo-Pee................ 70,460 27,370,098 || Woo-Chang-Foo.
Hu-Nan................. 74,325 18,652,507 | Chang-Sha-Foo.
Shen-See............... 67,400 10,207,256 || Si-Ngan–Foo.
ECan-Soo 86,608 15,354,875 Lan-Choo-Foo.
Se—Chuen............... 166,832 21,435,678 Ching-Too-Foo.
Quang-Tong.......... 79,451 19,174,030 | Canton.
Quang-See ............| 78,260 7,313,895 || Kwei-Lin-Foo.
Kwei-Chu.............. 64,547 5,228,219 Kwei-Yang-Foo.
Yun-Nan............... 107,983 5,561,320 Yun-Nan-Foo.
Total. ......... ......[1,279,072 536,909,300 Peking.
Geology.—The geology of China is not well known, but
it is certain that the azoic rocks are very extensive in the
S. and W. The Devonian and cretaceous strata are also
extensive. Evidences of glacial action have also been ob-
served. Coal and petroleum are found, the former abund-
antly. The anthracite coal seems to be especially important,
but the coal of China is probably not of the carboniferous age.
Silver is mined very extensively in the S. W. Gold, cop-
per, lead, mercury, zinc, and especially iron, are abundant.
Kaolin and the fictile clays are excellent in quality, and
industrially very important. The engineering of mines is
not well understood in China. Salt is produced in very
great quantities, and yields the government a large revenue.
Physical Geography.—China is divided into three great
valleys, each with its great river. . These valleys are sepa-
rated by two principal mountain-chains. The most north-
ern of these chains (the Thsin-Ling, or Blue Mountains)
extends in an irregular manner from W. to E., separating,
to some extent, the valley of the Hoang-Ho on the N. from
that of the Yang-Tse-Kiang on the S. South of the valley of
the latter river is the great Yan-Ling chain, which extends
north-eastwardly from the Himalayas to the Pacific. This
range is said to have but few passes, and to have peaks
12,000 or more feet high. The valley of the Choo-Kiang,
or Canton River, lies S. of this range. It is much the
smallest of the three great basins, but is very populous, and
commercially important. The eastern parts of the two
former valleys constitute the Great Plain of China, a fer-
tile and populous district. In the N. E. is a fourth basin,
that of the Pei-Ho. The Yang-Tse-Kiang, the largest river
of China, is a magnificent stream, which is of great import-
ance to the internal commerce of the empire. It has a
course of 2900 miles. The Hoang-Ho is about 2000 miles
in length, but is so rapid as to be unsuited to Chinese
navigation; but at present both these mighty streams are
successfully navigated by American and European steam-
ers, built expressly for the purpose. The two rivers are
connected with each other and with Peking by the Grand
Canal, which is said to be the largest and formerly the
most important in the world. It is 650 miles long. A re-
cent alteration in the course of the Hoang-Ho has, it is
said, greatly diminished the usefulness of this famous
canal.” The waters of China, abound in fish, which furnish
immense supplies of food. -
Productions, etc.—China is the principal souree of the
commercial supply of tea for the whole world, Japan and
* In 1853 (or, according to some authorities, about 1850), the
Hoang-Ho, leaving its former channel at a distance of about
200 miles from the sea, made for itself a new course towards the
N. E., so that now its waters are discharged into the Gulf of Pe-
Chee-Lee. Besides greatly injuring the Grand Canal, this change
has made its former valley almost a desert from drought, while
the country near its present course is frequently deluged with
water. It is proposed by the Chinese government to restore the
‘stream to its old bed. (See the “Journal of the Royal Geographi-
cal Society” for 1870.)
Assam being the only other countries where its production
is at all important. It also produces great quantities of
silk, cotton, camphor, varnish, indigo, rhubarb, rice, maize,
barley, wheat, tobacco, and fruits of many kinds. The popula-
tion of China is so great that it has become necessary to carry
on agriculture with great care in order to produce sufficient
food. Every year the emperor of China, accompanied by
the great dignitaries of the state, repairs to the Sacred
Field and ploughs a furrow, by way of example to the nation.
The steepest hillsides, it is said, are terraced, to increase
the surface of the soil, rocks are covered with earth, the
lakes have numerous floating gardens, and the bottoms of
streams are planted with aquatic vegetables whose seeds or
roots are used as food. The greatest economy is practised
in the Saving of manures. The wealthy Chinese have a
strong liking for ornamental horticulture, and many of the
most beautiful of our cultivated flowers have been developed
in their gardens.
The production of food is not sufficient for the home-
supply, great quantities of rice being imported from Siam
and the Malay islands. This trade is carried on in small
vessels, called droghers, which are often commanded by
Englishmen or Americans.
The botany of the empire is very rich, from the extreme
range of its latitudes and its great variations in altitude.
In general, the flora may be said to resemble that of Amer-
ica more than that of Europe. The bamboo is one of the
characteristic plants of China, and is largely used in build-
ing and for a great variety of purposes. It is said to be
next to the rice-crop, commercially the most valuable
production of the country. Among the native trees of
China may be mentioned the curious gingko tree, well
known in our parks and private grounds.
The zoology of China has not been thoroughly explored.
The elephant, rhinoceros, antelope, and deer of several
Species are known, and bears, tigers, and other carnivor-
Ous animals are said to exist. Wild camels have been found
in the western dependencies. Among the native insects
is the silkworm. The ichthyology of this empire is very
rich, though little studied by Europeans. The domestic
animals of China are generally inferior to those of the
Western nations. In addition to the kinds kept by us, they
make use of the camel in the northern provinces. Domestic
fowls are kept in great numbers, including several beautiful
pheasants of kinds not known in Europe.
Inhabitants.-The Chinese are generally spoken of as a
Mongolian race, but their language and physiognomy con-
nect them with the races of Farther India rather than with
the Mongols proper. Their language is of the so-called
monosyllabic family, and has resemblances to the Burmese
and other similar languages. (See CHINESE LANGUAGE AND
LITERATURE.) Their coarse black hair, tawny skin, and
oblique eyes give them a highly characteristic expression.
They are generally a peaceable, industrious, and thrifty
people, but they are said to be sensual, cruel, dishonest, and
deceitful. It is probable that there are many persons of
superior character among the better classes, and that the
sweeping statements so often made against their character
as a people are gross exaggerations.
Though the Chinese are skilled in imitative workman-
ship, they seem at present to be singularly destitute of in-
. genius. Anciently, however, it must have been
otherwise, for the mariner's compass, gunpowder, printing,
and the manufacture of porcelain, paper, silk, and clocks, all
were certainly first invented in China. Though not without
taste in ornamental work, their skill in this direction must
be considered good artisanship rather than really art in the
best sense of the latter term. Their knowledge of astron-
omy is considerable, though wrong in theory.f. Of physi-
cal and natural science they are profoundly ignorant.
Their system of medicine is extremely unphilosophical and
puerile. -
Government.—The government is regarded as a patri-
archal one. The emperor, though theoretically absolute, is
really limited in his power by a carefully-digested code of
laws, which, however, he can modify by his edicts. At the
capital reside the ministers of state, six in number, three
being Chinese and three Manchoos. These, with several
assistants, constitute the privy council of the emperor.
Next below this council is the grand college, which has
important legislative and administrative functions. Be-
sides these there is a college of censors or inspectors, who
see that all officers in the country are faithful in their du-
ties. The six privy councillors are each at the head of one
of the six departments of state, viz.: (1) civil service, (2)

# They are said to have been able to calculate eclipses long
before the Christian era, and their observations of a planetary
conjunction which occurred 2375 B.C. have enabled, chronolo-
gists to fix the date of the reign of the emperor Chuen-Hiu,
whose date is given in Chinese official documents so as pretty
nearly to agree with the above.
CHINESE EMPIRE.
925
the finances, (3) religion, (4) war, (5) justice, (6) public
works. A seventh department, that of foreign relations,
has recently been established by the prince Kung, uncle to
the emperor T'oong-Chee. Each of the eighteen provinces
is under a governor, and has an internal administration
of its own. Government officers have the title of mandarin,
and are of various grades. The principle of competitive
examination for the public service has long been carried
out in China, more thoroughly and successfully than in any
other country.
Education is held in the highest esteem in China, and
learning is rewarded not only by honorary titles, but by
lucrative offices under the government. A great majority
of the men can read and write. Recently, the government
has sent quite a number of young men to America to be
instructed in the sciences.
The manners and customs of the Chinese differ much
from ours, but are certainly far removed from barbarism.
Vice, as in all populous countries, is very prevalent, but
among the better classes, at least, virtue is held in high
honor. Crime is punished with extreme severity. Not-
withstanding the rigor of the legal administration, the
personal freedom of good citizens is remarkably secure.
The position of the women, especially those of the lower.
classes, as in other Asiatic countries, is lamentably degraded.
In consequence of the density of the population of China,
vast numbers of her people have in late years emigrated
to Manchooria, Borneo, Siam, the Sandwich Islands, the
United States, Peru, Guiana, and the West Indies. They
are a remarkably industrious and thrifty class of emigrants,
but the low rates at which they are willing to work render
them objects of dislike to other laborers, and threaten seri-
ously to complicate the social problems of the time.
Religion.—The religious (or rather philosophical) system
of Confucius is the basis of the social life of China. (See
CoNFUCIUs.) It is received by most of the educated classes.
BooDDHISM (which see), modified by Confucianism, is the
popular religion. The worship of deceased ancestors is a
highly important part of the national religion. There is
also a numerous sect called Tauists, who worship certain
beings .# Sang-Ching, or the "Three Pure Ones.” (See
TAUISM and LAO-TSE.) The Taüists are believers in spirits,
and many of their performances resemble the wonders of
our modern Spiritualists. There have been a few Jews
and many Mohammedans in the empire for centuries.
Christianity was introduced by the Nestorians in the sev-
enth century, but Nestorianism seems to have been entirely
suppressed by persecution in the fourteenth century. Ro-
man Catholic missionaries first went to China, about 1240.
Huc estimates the number of Roman Catholics in the em-
pire at 700,000, but other respectable authorities place the
number at about 300,000. There are many Protestant and
several Russian-Greek missionaries in China, who have had
some success in making converts.
History.—Although the Chinese civilization is undoubt-
edly far older than that of the Greeks, only the merest hints
of the existence of China are to be found in the ancient
classic authors. All the best geographers appear to be
agreed in considering the Serica of the later Latin writers
('m ×mpukh of Ptolemy) as corresponding with the north-
western part of China. The name Serica (which is also
the Latin term for “silk”) was doubtless derived from the
silk (called, according to Klaproth, sirkek by the Mongols)
for which the country was so celebrated. The Latin word
Sinae (Gr. ©ival and Xīvat), supposed to be identical in origin
with the Chinese Tsin, or Tseen, the name of a province
which has furnished, through the Hindoos,” to the Western
nations the name for the whole country, properly denoted
the people of a city or province in the central part of
China. It was applied by Ptolemy to the people dwelling
in the south of China: it appears also to have been used
in a vague and general sense for the Chinese nation. (See
on this subject SERICA and SINAE, in SMITH's “Dictionary
of Greek and Roman Geography.”)
. The Chinese myths give the empire a duration of 7000
years, but the historical period, according to most author-
ities, begins with the year 2207 B. C., though some dates
previous to that time are given with tolerable certainty.
Bunsen, however, states that Systematic Chinese history
hardly goes farther back than 1991 B. C., the date of the
accession of the great emperor Yu, the Charlemagne of the
East, who extended the sway of the Shen-See dynasty to
Southern China, and who rendered the Great Plain habit-
able by diverting the Hoang-Ho to a new channel.
The national hero of China is the great emperor Shee-
(Chi-) Hoang-Ti, sometimes called Ching–Wang (246—210
B. C.), who restored unity to the divided empire, expelled
the Mongols, and caused a great part of the national
literature to be burned, in order to destroy the power of
* The Hindoo name for China is Cheem (or Tcheen).
the learned classes and overcome the popular reverence for
tradition. He was the builder of the Great Wall above
alluded to.
The art of printing was practised as early as 202 B.C.
Booddhism was introduced in 65 A. D. The earliest au-
thentic account of China, known to have been published in
Europe is that of Marco Polo, who lived seventeen years in
the country, and returned to Europe in 1295. The country
had been previously visited by Roman Catholic mission-
3.1°16'S,
The long course of Chinese history has been disturbed by
many civil wars and contests with the Mongols. The present
reigning dynasty, said to be the twenty-sixth in number, is
of Manchoo origin, and was established in 1649; and to
this day the Manchoos have an influence in the national
politics far exceeding their relative importance as a people.
The Chinese long excluded foreigners with the utmost
jealousy from their country. China was visited by the
Portuguese in 1517, but they were forbidden to land in the
empire in 1521. In 1537, however, they obtained a footing
at Macao, which has since been in their power. In 1862
it was definitively ceded to them. The Dutch and Spanish
early opened a trade with China by way of their Eastern
colonies. The British made several unsuccessful attempts
to establish commerce with China. The first effort was
made in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, but it was not till
1700 that Canton was opened to their trade. . The Russian
overland trade was established in 1727, and the first Amer-
ican consul was allowed to reside in Canton in 1802. Dur-
ing all this time foreign merchants were often treated with
much indignity. In 1838, in consequence of the unlawful
importation of opium by British ships, serious troubles
broke out at Canton, and in the following year actual hos-
tilities began between Great Britain and China. After the
capture of Canton, Amoy, Shang-Hai, and other important
cities the Chinese were compelled to make peace, to cede
Hong-Kong to the victors, and to open Canton, Amoy, Foo-
Chow, Shang-Hai and Ning-Po to European commerce.
The number of these “treaty-ports” has since been in-
creased to fifteen. The Russians have an overland trade
and regular mails from Kiakhta on the Siberian frontier,
and British merchants are attempting to establish a land
trade between India and China by way of the Irrawaddy
River. *
In 1850 a man of humble origin, named Tao-Kwang, who
had received some motion of Christianity from a tract issued
by missionaries, conceived the idea of founding a new re-
ligion and at the same time expelling the Manchoo dynasty.
He was joined by many of the lower orders who were suf-
fering from want, and in October of the same year the first
battle of the Tae-Ping rebellion was fought. This rebel-
lion at one time threatened the existence of the empire, and
was finally suppressed in 1864, after great bloodshed. It is
probable that but for the aid of contingents furnished by Eng-
land and France the rebellion might have been successful.
The foreign warehouses at Canton were burned in 1856,
and attempts having been made to poison the British at
Hong-Kong in 1857, hostilities were commenced against
China by Great Britain and France: and in December of
that year Canton was bombarded, and on the 5th of Jan.,
1858, it was taken. In the following June a treaty was
made by the Chinese, which was soon violated. In Oct.,
1860, the English and French forces entered Peking, and
the Chinese government granted all their demands. The
allies then turned their arms against the Tae-Ping rebellion,
which received its fatal blow by the capture of Nanking
(July 19, 1864) and the suicide of the rebel emperor. The
rebellion of the Mohammedans in the province of Yun-Nan,
called Panthays, which began about 1850, led in 1868 to the
establishment of an independent Mohammedan government
in the capital of the province. The leader assumed the
name of King Solomon (Ooensoai), and his empire in 1872
embraced about 63,000 square miles, with a population of
4,000,000. In 1873 this government was reported as sub-
jugated, its sultan killed, and Yun-Nan reduced to Chi-
nese rule. Another Mohammedan rebellion, which in 1862
broke out in the capital of the province of Shan-See, led to
the establishment of the independent empire of East Toor-
kistan, under the rule of Yakoob Ooshbegi, which in 1872
had an area of 740,000 square miles and about 1,000,000 in-
habitants. In consequence of these troubles the Chinese
government, under the advice of Prince Kung, the foreign
minister, has adopted the policy of seeking the alliance of
foreign powers. In 1867 the American minister, Mr. Bur-
lingame, was sent by the government as extraordinary am-
bassador to the U. S. and the principal European nations,
but unfortunately died before his plans had been fully car-
ried out. In 1868 the government established a university at
Peking, to which American and European professors were
appointed. On June 21, 1870, a bloody massacre of Eu-
ropeans and native Christians took place at Tien-Tsin.
926
\ -
CHINESE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
The chief articles of export are tea and raw silk. The
former was, in 1870, valued at 30,280,000 taels (1 tael =
$1.39), in 1871 at 40,120,000; the latter in 1870 at 21,270,000
taels, in 1871 at 25,960,000. The chief articles of import are
opium (25,000,000 taels) and cotton goods (22,000,000). The
total exports, exclusive of precious metals, amounted in
1870 to 61,690,000 taels, the imports to 69,290,000. The
merchant-navy numbered about 8000 vessels, with an ag-
gregate tonnage of 616,000. The number of entrances and
clearances in the Chinese ports in 1870 is stated to have been
14,136, with an aggregate tonnage of 6,907,528. The du-
ties levied in the ports open to foreigners amounted in 1870
to 9,545,848 taels. The army numbered about 600,000 men,
exclusive of 200,000 Tartar troops. The soldiers, when not
performing active service, carry on a trade at home. The
war-navy consists of 826 vessels, with 3600 guns.
CHARLEs W. GREENE.
Chinese Language and Literature. As the lead-
ing member of the group of monosyllabic languages which
occupy South-eastern Asia, and constitute, with a possible
exception or two, the whole of the monosyllabic class, the
Chinese has for the student of language a very great in-
terest. This monosyllabism is not, as a few scholars have
held, a state to which they have been reduced by a process
of phonetic decay, but manifestly a primitive condition.
It represents a stage out of which all other languages,
whether of the agglutinative or inflective type, have passed,
while these, from arrested development, have remained be-
hind. Chinese words are not only altogether destitute of
inflection, but they are hardly parts of speech in the sense
which we attach to the term, being to a great extent still
in the root state. The same word may, according to its
position in the sentence, be noun, adjective, adverb, or
verb; e. g., sin must be variously translated “fidelity,”
“faithful,” “faithfully,” “believe.” This indefiniteness,
however, attaches to the words only when taken separately,
and disappears in the sentence. Chiefly by the value given
to position, but partly also (especially in the spoken lan-
guage) by the use of certain words as signs of grammat-
ical relation, logical precision of statement is attained.
Of this class are such words as tzú and erh, both meaning
“son,” and tew, “head,” which have nearly the force of
substantive endings, and tih, of an adjective ending.
Being cut off from the resources of derivation for the
multiplication of forms, while the development of signi-
fication has gone on as in other languages, the number of
homophonous words is very great. The phonetic combina-
tions of which the language admits are comparatively few
and simple, and this poverty has been still further increased
by phonetic decay, the effects of which are traceable even
here, though of course to a much more limited extent than
in inflective languages. The number of distinct vocables
differs considerably in the various dialects, the highest
limit being not far from 1000 and the lowest 500. The
Kwan-hwa has, according to Edkins, 532 monosyllables;
according to Morrison, who, however, includes in one class
the aspirate and unaspirated mutes, only 411; the Shanghai
dialect (Edkins), 570; the Fuchau (Baldwin and Maclay),
928; the Canton (Williams), 707. By the aid of tones,
similar to those which we use for the purpose of emphasis
and expression, this number is increased two or three fold,
being raised in the Kwan-hwa to about 1600. The same
phonetic combination pronounced in different tones consti-
tutes so many different words, and so essential a part of
the pronunciation is the tone, that a wrong tone will sooner
occasion misunderstanding of a word than will the substi-
tution of a wrong consonant. In the modern dialects the
number of tones varies from four to eight, the Smaller num-
ber being found in some of the districts of Central China;
in the Rwan-hwa, there are five, in the Fuchau and Amoy
dialects, seven, in the Canton, eight. In the dictionaries of
the T'ang dynasty (A. D. 618–905), which are still the
standard rhyming dictionaries, only four tones are recog-
nized—namely, the p’ing, “ level,” shang, “rising,” ch’u,
“vanishing,” and juh, “re-entering” or “abrupt;” and
these, divided into an upper and lower series, constitute the
eight tones of the Canton dialect. The original identity
of meaning in words which differ merely in tone is in some
cases still apparent; e. g., ting (noun), “nail,” and ting
(verb), “to nail;” mai, “buy,” and mai, “sell;” but in
general the etymological connection, if it exists, cannot be
traced. The number of words which coincide both in
sound and tone being, however, still very large, other
means are necessary to remove the ambiguity, and in the
spoken language phrases composed of two or more words
are largely used in the place of simple terms. Two syn-
onyms are frequently thus joined; e. g., shu-mu, “tree.”
Shºw and mu have each various significations besides that
ôf “tree,” but there is no other in which they agree, and
the combination thus becomes definite. Other phrases are
taken in a collective sense; e. g., hiwng-ti, “older brother
younger brother,” for “brother” or “brothers;” or in a
derived sense; e. g., tung-sī, “east-west,” for “thing.”
These phrases, which often extend to four or five words,
make a near approach to proper compounds, one of the
words uniformly receiving a stronger accent, supported in
the case of the longer phrases by a secondary accent.
Another feature not peculiar to the Chinese, but worthy
of mention for the prominent part which it plays, is the
frequent use of numeratives in counting; like our head of
cattle, brace of ducks. More than a hundred such words
are in use, each limited to a certain class or classes of ob-
jects.
Spoken by a population variously estimated at from two
to four hundred millions, the Chinese not unnaturally is
divided into strongly marked dialects. Of these the Kwan-
hwa, commonly called by Europeans the mandarin or court
dialect, has the widest currency, being spoken with minor
differences over the whole north and west of the empire,
and on the east reaching as far south as the Yang-tze
Kiang. It is, further, the language of official communica-
tion throughout the empire, and the only one of the popular
dialects which has received any considerable literary culti-
vation. Phonetically, it is the poorest of the dialects. The
only consonant finals of which it admits are the nasals m
and ng, and the sonant initials b, d, g, v, z, found in some
of the other dialects, are wanting here. The south-eastern
dialects, in the provinces of Canton and Fukien, on the
other hand, are the most archaic, having preserved the
final mutes p, k, t. Differing largely in vocabulary, as well
as in the form and tone of the words common to them,
these several dialects are not generally understood (except
the Kwan-hwa) beyond the limits of a single province.
There are in addition many local dialects, less marked in
character and of a more limited currency. This diversity
does not, however, extend to the written language, which
is uniform throughout the empire, and, to a degree unap-
proached in any other literature, uniform also throughout
the whole course of its history. Its development has been
to some extent independent of the spoken language, and
forms one of the most interesting chapters in the history
of writing.
According to Chinese tradition, knotted cords, similar
perhaps to the Peruvian quippos, were used in the earliest
times for keeping records. In the mystical figures of the
Yih-king, ascribed to Fuh-hi, Chinese scholars are wont to
find a kind of graphic system. The date of the invention
of the present characters, commonly ascribed to Tsang-kié,
about 2600 B. C., cannot be fixed even approximately, but
the history of the successive stages of the development of
the system is written in the characters themselves. The
first signs were purely ideographic, being rude representa-
tions of the objects named. A circle with a point in the
centre stood for the sun, a crescent for the moon, a three-
pointed peak for a mountain. The changes of form which
they have undergone, arising in part from the different
materials used in writing, have left in the present charac-
ters little resemblance to the objects pictured. The limits
of this method of direct representation were soon reached.
A few words denoting position and number were repre-
sented by points and strokes; thus, a point above or below a
horizontal line signified “above” or “below;” a stroke
through the centre of a circle, “middle; ” one, two, or three
horizontal strokes, the numerals 1, 2, 3. The combining of
two or more signs to express a single idea, either by direct
or symbolical representation, was another easy step; thus
“water” and “eye ’’ make up the sign for “tear;” “man”
and “mountain" stand for “fairy ;” “sun” and “moon”
for “light.” &
By far the greater number of characters, however, are
formed on a new principle, the combination of an ideo-
graphic and phonetic element in one sign. The number
of homophonous words is, as we have seen, very large, and
a sign having been found for one of these, it is used pho-
netically to represent the sound of the others, being differ-
entiated in each case by an additional sign, which indicates
in a general way the meaning. In this combination one
of the parts, termed the phonetic or primitive, gives up its
meaning and retains only its sound; the other, the radical,
gives up its sound and retains only the meaning. For ex-
ample, the syllable taw has among other significations the
following: “sword,” “anxious,” “appetite,” “heart of a
tree,” “long narrow boat,” “a species of fish of a slender
form.” The first of these, “sword,” being represented
ideographically, the others are written phonetically by the
same sign, further defined by the radicals for “heart,”
“eat,” “tree,” “boat,” “fish.” The Chinese written lan-
guage aims to provide a sign not merely for every word
etymologically distinct, but to a considerable extent also
for the different significations of the word. In the ex-
ample above given the boat and fish were sword-shaped,
and hence apparently their name, and possibly the other
-*
CHINESE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
927
meanings may be traced ultimately to the same origin.
The word tau has various other significations besides those
given, and is written with at least half a dozen different
phonetics, each of which enters into combination with one
or more radicals. The number of different phonetics em-
ployed in writing a single word is in some cases twenty or
more, and the aggregate number of characters thus formed
may exceed a hundred. Some characters are used both as
phonetics and radicals. Taw, “sword,” which in the above
examples appeared as a phonetic, enters into other charac-
ters as a radical, with the meaning “cut,” “divide.” A
character composed of a radical and phonetic may itself
be employed as a phonetic in forming new characters.
The sound of a composite character is not always that of
the phonetic which it contains, but the variation is usually
not great, and more frequently in the initial than in the
final sound. The number of phonetics in common use is
about 1000. Marshman in his “Clavis” enumerates 3867,
but more than half of these are employed only once or
twice each. These phonetics represent the sound of the
word as a whole, without analyzing it into its elements.
There is, however, a kind of syllabic spelling called Fan-
ts’ieh, introduced from India by Booddhist priests, and first
gurrently used in dictionaries of the fifth and sixth cen-
turies to mark the sound of characters with more precision.
One series of characters is chosen to represent the initial
Sounds, another the final sounds, together with the tone,
the number of both varying according to the dialect. Thus,
king, “classic,” in the dictionary of K’ang-hi is spelled
with the characters k-ten l-ing, the first being simply the
sign of the initial k, the second of the final ing.
In the arrangement of the characters Chinese dictionaries
follow three different methods. By the first the characters
are distributed according to their meaning under a certain
number of categories, such as heaven, earth, body, etc.
This method is found in the “Erh-ya,” the oldest diction-
ary in the language, containing definitions of classical
terms, and itself sometimes reckoned among the classics;
also in many others, especially dictionaries of foreign lan-
guages, Mongol, Mantchoo, etc. The second principle of
arrangement is according to the radical part of the charac-
ter. This appears first in the “Shwoh-wen,” published
A. D. 100, in which 10,000 characters are arranged under
540 radicals, a number slightly increased in subsequent
dictionaries, but in the “Tzú-wui,” published during the
Ming dynasty, reduced to 214. This last number is re-
tained in the two principal dictionaries of the present
dynasty, the “ Cheng-tzú-t’ung’’ and the “K’ang-hi-tzú-
tien.” In the last-mentioned work, with a total of about
44,000 characters, the number found under the different
radicals varies from 5 to 1300, or, counting duplicate forms,
1900, the following radicals having each 1000 and upward:
mouth, heart, hand, tree, water, plant. Under each radical
the characters are arranged in the order of the number of
strokes contained in the phonetic. In most cases the radi-
cal under which a given character should be sought is
apparent at a glance; the doubtful cases, where the radical
is obscured or where the arrangement is somewhat arbi-
trary, are resolved by means of a key in which these cha-
racters are arranged according to the total number of
strokes under the radical to which they are assigned. The
third and last method of arrangement is according to the
sound of the characters. The usual order in works of this
class is the following: the characters are divided into four
great classes, according to the tone; each tone divided into
Smaller classes, according to the final sound, and these
sometimes further subdivided, according to the initials.
The earliest extant dictionary of this class, the “T'ang-
yün,” published in the eighth century, employs a series of
206 finals. Lieu-p'ing-shui, in the thirteenth century, re-
duced the number to 107, and his system has since been
generally followed. Another dictionary belonging here,
the “Pei-Wen-yun-fu,” is one of the most extensive lexico-
graphical works in any language. It was prepared under
the superintendence of the emperor K’ang-hi, and em-
ployed the labors of seventy-six scholars, most of them
members of the Imperial Academy, for eight years. It
gives by numerous citations the fullest illustration of the
usage of the language, and was published in 1711, in 130
thick volumes. A translation was announced by Callery,
but only one volume published (Paris, 1844). Of the total
number of characters in the language, extravagant state-
ments have often been made. The more complete diction-
aries contain from 40,000 to 60,000, of which obsolete and
duplicate forms and proper names make up perhaps one-
half. The number of really different characters which have
the sanction of good usage is not far from 25,000, of which
about one-tenth are ideographic, and the remaining nine-
tenths composed of an ideographic and phonetic element
united. . Even in the number last given a large proportion
of the characters are of rare occurrence, and a knowledge
of from 5000 to 10,000 is sufficient for almost all the needs
of the scholar. * -
In no language are the differences between the literary
and colloquial idioms so great as in Chinese. . The number
of characters being many times as great as the number of
distinct vocables, the former are not subject to the same
variety of meaning, and the precautions against ambiguity
required in the spoken language are to some extent un-
necessary. A sentence may be perfectly definite when writ-
ten, yet when spoken be altogether unintelligible. In the
classical style this conciseness is carried to the extremest
limit. It is in general true of the classical books that,
while to the eye they are definite, to the ear they convey
no meaning. In this ancient style, termed Ku-wen, all his-
torical, philosophical, and critical works are still written,
and no accomplishment is so highly valued among scholars
as the mastery of it. Novels and dramatic compositions,
which are regarded as quite inferior classes of literature,
are written in the Kwan-hwa, in a style but little elevated
above the colloquial, and, like it, abounding in compound
phrases. The Wen-chang, the style of the literary essays,
which is also much cultivated, is of a more artificial cha-
racter than the Ku-wen, and less esteemed. *
The relation of the Ku-wen to the ancient spoken lan-
guage, whether and how far it represents it, and how far it
is the product of a merely literary development, are points
upon which scholars are not agreed. That the Chinese
have not invented or borrowed a system of alphabetic writ-
ing, as so many peoples their inferiors in civilization have
done, is the less surprising when we consider that the de-
fects of their system are less sensible in an uninflected lan-
guage like the Chinese, and that it has undeniable advan-
tages in enabling them to distinguish the great number of
words which are identical in sound, but differ in meaning.
Still, it is attended with very serious evils, not the least of
which is this—that the labor involved in learning and hold-
ing in the memory so many arbitrary characters absorbs no
small portion of the intellectual energy of the people. At-
tempts have been made, not without success, to romanize
some of the popular idioms, the tones being marked by dia-
critic signs. Books have been published by missionaries in
this character in the Shanghai, Ningpo, Fuchau, and Amoy
dialects. To the concise classical style, however, this method
is quite inapplicable.
The Chinese characters have undergone in the course of
their history great changes of form, and six varieties are
now in use. The oldest is the Chuen, called by foreigners
the seal character, used in seals and often also in ornamental
inscriptions and title-pages. The Li-shu, introduced not
long before the Christian era, with the change from the
iron style to the brush, and the substitution of silk and
linen for wooden tablets and slips of bamboo, differs little,
except in a certain heaviness of stroke, from the more mod-
ern forms of the characters. It is found in inscriptions
and prefaces. This was succeeded by the Kiai-shu, or pat-
tern style, which followed on the invention of paper, and
is the usual character employed in careful writing, and is
occasionally found in printed books. The Sung-shu, the
common book-character, introduced about the tenth cen-
tury, differs from the preceding in a greater squareness and
angularity of form, better suited to cutting on wooden blocks.
Two forms adapted to rapid writing are in use—the Hing-
shu, or running hand, frequently found in prefaces and in-
scriptions; and another, still more abbreviated, in which
there is left little trace of resemblance to the ordinary Square
character—the Ts'au-tzii, or grass character. In no country
is the art of calligraphy so highly esteemed or so sedulously
cultivated as in China, and no written character is so well
adapted to the display of it. §
Of the Chinese language in general we may say, in eon-
clusion, that notwithstanding its poverty of forms, it has
been made, solely by the genius of those who use it, superior
as an instrument of thought to many, perhaps to most, in-
flected languages. Whether its capacity of development
will prove equal to the further demands to be made upon
it is questionable. It has thus far shown a marked indis-
position to the incorporation of foreign words, and yet does
not seem able to supply from native resources the exact
terminology which any considerable advance in scientific
knowledge will require. - *
Chinese Literature.—In the history of literature there is
hardly to be found another example of so high an antiq-
uity, and none of so great a longevity, as the Chinese—an
age which at least reaches, and perhaps exceeds, three
thousand years. Neither in language, literature, nor insti-
tutions, is the modern period in China separated from the
ancient by so wide an interval as elsewhere; an unbroken
tradition holds together all. Such is the continuity that to
the superficial observer it has the appearance of uniformity.
In few countries has the cultivation of letters been so gen-
eral. In theory, at least, all offices beneath the throne are
928.
CHINESE LANGUAGE
AND LITERATURE.
not only open to the scholar, but official promotion is made
to depend directly on scholarship. The entrance to the
various grades is guarded by public competitive examina-
tions, which at each successive step become more rigorous.
This system, introduced under the Han dynasty near the
commencement of the Christian era, has been adhered to
with more or less fidelity under the succeeding dynasties.
Under such conditions, with the long history and vast
population of China, a literature of immense extent is a
natural result. Nor is any great literature so purely na-
tional, so little affected by foreign influences, as the Chinese.
Booddhism, brought from India in the first century of the
Christian era, has created for itself a literature apart, with-
out much disturbing the general course of development.
During the past three centuries of intercourse with Western
nations their influence upon the literature, except in the de-
partment of mathematics, has been hardly felt. The exag-
gerated reverence paid to the classical models has so
strengthened the conservative tendency as to check the
growth of originality. Nor have the examinations for de-
grees, in which the chief requirement for success is famil-
iarity with the classics, been so conducted as to attain the
most happy results, either for the government or for the
national literature.
There is, however, more of variety both in the history and
the literature of China than the commonly received opin-
ion gives to them. The first period of marked activity is
that commencing with Confucius (died B. C. 478) and Lao-
Tzú, and covering a period of about three centuries. Men-
cius and many other less celebrated writers belong to this
period, which was rudely brought to a close by Shi Hwang-
Ti, the founder of the Ts’in dynasty. This ruler, famous
also as the builder of the Great Wall, having consolidated
into an empire the petty states into which China had been
divided, and fearing that the study of the literature would
lead to an attempt to restore the old order of things, or-
dered (B. C. 212) the destruction of all books except those
on medicine, divination, and husbandry, and the records
of his own dynasty. Many scholars were put to death for
the crime of hiding books or for the freedom of their utter-
ances. This edict remained in force only twenty-two years,
the Ts’in dynasty having been soon succeeded by the Han,
under which strenuous efforts were made to recover the lost
books. The catalogue of the library thus formed, which is
found in the history of the Han dynasty, enumerates more
than 13,000 volumes by 600 different authors. This collec-
tion perished in the burning of the imperial palace at the
close of the dynasty, and similar collections made under
succeeding dynasties met a like fate. Including the burn-
ing of the books by Shi Hwang-Ti, five great catastrophes
of this kind are enumerated by Chinese historians, the last
in the sixth century.
The period of the T'ang dynasty (A. D. 618–905) was the
golden age of Chinese poetry; that of the Sung (960–1279)
was the era of philosophical speculation and of criticism;
the Yuen (Mongol) dynasty (1280–1367) was the most flou-
rishing period of the drama, and produced also some of the
best novels; the Ming and the reigning Mantchoo dynas-
ties have been less distinguished for the originality of their
productions than for works of an encylopaedic character,
digests of the older literature. Printing from wooden blocks
was invented before the close of the sixth century, but did
not come into general use until the tenth. Movable types
were employed as early as A. D. 1040, four centuries before
the invention was known in Europe, without, however, dis-
placing wooden blocks, which have remained in general
use. During the present dynasty two large collections, of
several thousand volumes each, have been printed by the
government—one with copper, the other with wooden mova-
ble types. Chinese literature is abundantly supplied with
works in bibliography and literary history, which for many
centuries have been favorite subjects of study. One of the
most admirable bibliographies to be found in any language
is the catalogue of the imperial library, published in 1790 in
200 books. It contains notices of 10,500 works (a single
one of which, the encyclopaedia of the Ming, is composed
of 22,877 books), giving the author, the history, and the
contents of each, together with an estimate, almost uni-
formly just, of its merits. The plan of arrangement, which
dates from the T'ang dynasty, is in four divisions—viz.,
classics, history, philosophy, belles lettres; novels and the
drama are excluded. In the several dynastic histories an
important section is devoted to the literature of the period.
An index expurgatorius of works prohibited on account of
their moral or political tendency has been published by the
present dynasty. It contains many thousand volumes,
mostly written about the close of the Ming dynasty.
The most important contributions by European scholars
to this subject are: WYLIE, “Notes on Chinese Literature,”
Shanghai, 1867; ScHoTT, “Entwurf einer beschreibung der
chinesischen litteratur” (“Abhand. der Berlin. Akad.,”
1853); BAZIN, “Le Siècle des Youén " (“Journal Asia-
tique,” 1850–52). The last treats of the literature of the
Mongol dynasty only.
The term king or “classic * is used in a narrower and a
wider sense. It belongs par earcellence to the “Five King,”
but very commonly includes also the “Four Books,” and is not
unfrequently used in a still wider sense. Among the “Five
King” the first place is accorded to the “Yih,” partly for its
antiquity and partly for its enigmatical character. The
proper text consists of eight trigrams, made up of hori-
Zontal lines, whole and broken, afterwards increased by
combination to sixty-four hexagrams. With these are in-
corporated commentaries by Wén–Wang, the ancestor of the
Chau dynasty, by his son Chau-Kung and by Confucius,
which constitute the only intelligible part of the work.
These mystical figures, ascribed to the ancient sage Fuh-Hi,
are supposed to embody the most profound moral and polit-
ical wisdom. They are much used in divination, and on
this account the work is said to have been excepted from
the general destruction of books under Shi Hwang-Ti.
Next in rank is the “Shu King,” a collection of historical
documents relating to the Yu, Hia, Shang, and Chau dynas-
ties, and covering the period, according to the received
chronology, from the middle of the twenty-fourth century
down to B. C. 721. The compilation is ascribed to Confu-
cius, and is said to have comprised originally 100 chapters,
but after the time of Shi Hwang-Ti, who made special efforts
to destroy all copies of the “Shu,” only fifty-eight chapters
could be found. It was recovered in two portions, the genu-
ineness of one of which is much disputed. The “Shu” is
largely occupied with discourses on government put in the
mouths of the ancient sovereigns, the historical matter be-
ing quite subordinate. The third classic is the “Shi King,”
or “Book of Odes,” which contains 305 pieces (originally
311, but of six only the titles are preserved), selected by
Confucius as the most worthy of preservation out of nearly
4000. They are divided into four classes—“Rwoh-fung,” or
“Manners of the States,” gathered for presentation to the
emperor in his visits to the feudal princes; “Siao-ya” and
“Ta-ya,” “Lesser and Greater Eulogiums,” which bestow
praise or blame upon the rulers and high officers; and
“Sung,” hymns of praise sung at the funeral rites of em-
perors and kings. . The poetical merit of these pieces is
very unequal, but is in general superior to that of later
productions. They belong, with few exceptions, to the Chau
dynasty, and for the light which they throw on the history
and customs of the time are of great value. Biot has drawn
from them the materials for a valuable memoir published
in the “Journal Asiatique” for 1843. The fourth place
among the classics is occupied by the Rituals, three in
number. The “Li-ki,” which is designated by imperial
authority as one of the “Five Classics,” is a compilation
made in the first century B. C. out of the older Rituals.
Two of these are preserved. One, the “Chau-li’” (“Chow
Ritual”), is supposed, to have been written early in the
Chau dynasty, and gives a detailed account of the various
offices in the state, and the duties belonging to each. In it
are found the models of the six administrative boards of
the Chinese government. The “I-li” (“Decorum Ritual”),
which is perhaps of equal antiquity, is of a more domestic
character—a code of etiquette giving rules for the guidance
of individual conduct under all circumstances. The last of
the “Five Classics” is the “Ch'un Ts’eu” (“Spring and
Autumn Annals "), the only one of which the authorship
can be properly ascribed to Confucius, his labors upon the
others being merely those of an editor. It is a chronicle of
events from 720 to 480 B.C., written in continuation of the
“Shu King.” In it are recorded thirty-seven eclipses of
the sun (the earliest 720 B.C.), which, with few exceptions,
have been proved by calculation correct. The “Four
Books” (i.e., the “Books of the Four Philosophers”) are
next in rank. Two of them, the “Ta Hioh '' and the
“Chung Yung,” formed parts of the “Li-ki” (“Book of
Rites”), but were detached and arranged in the present
order by Chu Hi, the great critic of the twelfth century.
The “Ta Hioh '' (“Great Learning”) is a discourse on the
principles of government, in eleven chapters, the first con-
taining the words of Confucius, and the remaining ten a
commentary on them, commonly ascribed to his disciple,
Tsèng Ts'an. The “Chung Yung’” (“Invariable Mean’)
is a philosophical treatise attributed to K’ung Keih, the
grandson of Confucius, in which the observance of the right
mean is set forth as the highest wisdom and virtue. The
“Lun Yu’” (“Miscellaneous Conversations”) of Confucius
and his disciples is a collection of mostly disconnected say-
ings embodying the substance of his teaching, which was
altogether of a practical character, on ethics, government,
ceremonies, and the like. The last and most extensive of
the “Four Books” contains the works of Mencius, who now
ranks second only to Confucius in the general esteem,
though not until the twelfth century were his writings defi-
CHINESE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
929
nitely admitted to a place among the classics. One of the
fundamental doctrines of his philosophy is the inherent
goodness of human nature. The “Five King” and “Four
Books” have all, with the exception of the “Ch'un Ts’eu,”
been translated into one or more of the European languages.
Dr. Legge has undertaken an edition, now well advanced
towards completion, of the whole in the original text, with
English translation, commentary, and extensive introduc-
tion (vols. i., ii., “Four Books;” vol. iii., “Shu King;”
vol. iv., “Shi King,” Hongkong, 1861–72). An arrange-
ment of the classics made in the T'ang dynasty enumerates
thirteen—viz., besides the foregoing the two Rituals, “Chau-
li” and “I-li,” two additional recensions of the “Ch'un
Ts’eu,” and the “Hiau King,” or classic of Filial Piety.
The last purports to be a conversation between Confucius
and his disciple Tséng Ts'an, and, though highly esteemed,
entire confidence is not felt in its genuineness. Many other
works bear the title of king (“classic ’’); nor is it confined to
the orthodox school, but applied also to the canonical books
of the Tauist and Booddhist faiths, and even to works of a
more miscellaneous character, such as important technical
writings. Thus we have the “Ch’a King” (“Tea Classic”),
on the culture of the tea-plant, and the “Shan-hai King ”
(“Hill and River Classic”), an ancient geographical work
from which many poetical allusions are borrowed.
The historical works, which are very voluminous, fall
mostly into three classes. First in importance are the his-
tories of the several dynasties, the work of official histori-
ographers, and constructed mostly on a uniform plan. The
variety of subjects treated of, each in a distinct section,
gives them an encyclopaedic character. The order, vary-
ing somewhat in the separate works, is in general the fol-
lowing: first, the personal history of the successive empe-
rors of the dynasty, followed by a series of memoirs on
chronology, rites, music, jurisprudence, political economy,
state sacrifices, astronomy, influence of the five elements,
geography, and literature, closing with biographies of the
eminent men of the dynasty, and historical and geograph-
ical notices of foreign nations. The series as at present
established, consists of twenty-four histories, comprising
3264 books. They are of very unequal merit; some of them
the work of single authors, others prepared by a board of
scholars. At the head of the list stands the “Shi-ki’’ of
Szú-ma. Ts’ien of the Han dynasty, which reaches from the
earliest period down to B. C. 122, and has served as a model
for the subsequent histories. Not until the dynasty is ended,
and has given place to another, can the official history be
published. There is, however, a summary of events under
the present dynasty by a private author, entitled “Tung-
hwa-luh,” long circulated in manuscript, and at length,
after a considerable portion had been expunged, printed.
The history is brought down to 1818. The second class of
histories follows a chronological order. The oldest work
of this class, next to the “Ch'un Ts’eu ’’ of Confucius, is
the “Bamboo Record,” found, A. D. 279 in the tomb of one
of the princes of Wei. It reaches to B. C. 298. There is some
reason to think that the original has been lost, and that the
work which now passes under the title, and which is print-
ed with a translation in the prolegomena of Dr. Legge's
“Shoo King,” is a forgery. The most celebrated general
history on this plan is the “Tzú-chih-t'ung-kien’’ of Szú-
ma. Kwang, a writer of the eleventh century. It was re-
vised in the next century under the direction of Chu Hi,
and published with the title “Tung-kien-kang-muh.” Con-
tinuations were added in the following dynasties. De
Mailla translated it into French (Paris, 1777–83, 12 vols.
4to). The abridgment of the above work, entitled “Kang-
kien-i-chi-luh?” (“History Made Easy”), is one of the
most useful compendiums. Another class of works, called
“Complete Records,” follows neither the one nor the other
of the above methods, but gives with more freedom of ar-
rangement a general survey of the subject treated.
In biographies the literature is unusually rich. Besides
the space accorded to them in the dynastic histories and in
statistical works, separate biographies, many of them of a
collective character, àbound. The “T'ang-ts'ai-tzú-chuen "
is a collection of 397 literary biographies of the T'ang and
the succeeding five short dynasties, by Sin Wén-fang of
the Yuen. It was long given up for lost in China, and
was recovered from Japan. The “Kau-séng-chuen' of
the Liang dynasty, with its continuations, contains biogra-
phies of more than a thousand Booddhist priests.
The geographical works are hardly surpassed in extent
by those of any country. There are works in the geography
of the whole empire, such as the “Ta-ts'ing-yih-t’ung-chi,”
published under the present dynasty in 500 books, which
give under each province the topography, population,
taxes, etc.; under each prefecture and department, the an-
tiquities, public works, eminent and notorious characters
born there, productions of the soil, and a variety of other
details. In addition, every province, every prefecture,
every department, nearly every district, and frequently a
town or famous locality within a district, has its separate
description, amounting in all to thousands of volumes.
Some of these works are of considerable antiquity, and in
successive editions have been gradually enlarged. Of the
history and geography of Eastern Asia, beyond the limits
of the empire, Chinese literature contains many valuable
notices. The accounts of the journeys of Booddhist pil-
grims to India between the fourth and the tenth centuries
are the most important sources of information for the his-
tory of Booddhism in India during that period that we
possess. Fah-Hian (A. D. 400–415) travelled overland to
India, thence to Ceylon, returning by water to China. His
account, “Fuh-kwo-ki,” has been translated into French
by Rémusat (Paris, 1836), and into English by Beal (Lon-
don, 1869). Yuen-Chwang during sixteen years (629–645)
traversed India in every direction. His life has been trans-
lated by Julien (“Vie de Hiouen-Thsang,” Paris, 1853), as
has also the “ Si-yih-ki,” which contains his itinerary, ac-
companied by copious extracts from Sanscrit works, now
lost, concerning the kingdoms of India (“Mémoires sur les
Contrées Occidentales,” Paris, 1857, 2 vols., 8vo).
The three principal philosophical and religious sects, the
Confucianists, Tauists, and Booddhists, have each an exten-
sive literature. Of the orthodox school the most celebrated
among the near successors of Confucius and Mencius was
Sün-tzii, who held, in opposition to Mencius, to the original
depravity of human nature. In the eleventh and twelfth
centuries, under the Sung dynasty, Chau-tzii, and especially
Chu Hi, gave a new impulse, and in some particulars a new
direction, to philosophical speculation. The authority of
Chu Hi, who was equally eminent as a commentator of the
classics and in other departments of literature, has remained
paramount to the present day, though under the present
dynasty there is some disposition to rebel against it. The
“Sing-li-ta-ch'uen-shu,” published in 1415, is a collection
of the principal cosmological writings of his school. Lao-
tzú, the founder of the Tauist school, was a contemporary
of Confucius. His philosophy is contained in the “Tau-
të King ” (translated by Julien, Paris, 1842), one of the
most sententious and profound books in the language. The
most popular of the writings of this school is the “T’ai-
shang-kan-ying-pien” (translated by Julien under the title
“Le Livre des Récompenses et des Peines,” Paris, 1835),
which consists of about a hundred short maxims, accom-
panied by illustrative narratives. Tauism has long since
degenerated into superstitious practices, its followers being
devoted to magic, alchemy, and the like. Booddhism was in-
troduced from India in the first century of our era. The ear-
liest translation from the Sanscrit, the “Sutra of forty-two
sections,” was made A. D. 67, and for several centuries there
was constant activity in this work. The catalogue of Chi-
Shing, published in 730, gives a list of 2278 separate works
which had been translated up to that date. These consti-
tute the more important part of the literature of Chinese
Booddhism, though in the fifth and sixth centuries original
works began to appear, and have since greatly multiplied.
In the history of Chinese poetry there are two distinctly
marked periods. In the earlier, previous to the T'ang dy-
nasty, the structure was less artificial and the rhythm freer.
In the “Shi King” the verses are mostly of four syllables;
the rhyme is often imperfect, and sometimes altogether
wanting. In the T'ang period a more rigid consecution of
tones was introduced, and verses of five and seven syllables
became the favorites. The tones for rhythmical purposes are
divided into two classes—the p'ing or “even” tone constitut-
ing one, while the other three tones are considered “un-
even.” In every verse the first, third, and fifth syllables are
indifferent with respect to tone; the second, fourth, and sixth
must alternate, so that the order is either “even,” “un-
even,” “even;” or “uneven,” “even,” “uneven.”
The weakest side of Chinese literature is the scientific.
It has a tolerably complete-system of arithmetic, older than
the Christian era, a system of algebra, which dates from the
thirteenth century, but no theoretical astronomy worthy of
the name, except what is borrowed from the West. For the
regulation of the calendar, and for astrological purposes,
observations of a simple character were very early made,
and numerous eclipses recorded. During the Ming dynasty
mathematical knowledge had greatly declined, and the first
Jesuit missionaries recommended themselves to the impe-
rial favor chiefly by their acquirements in this science.
The mathematical works since published are mainly based
on European methods. Medical writers are numerous, and
some of them very ancient, but the science, notwithstand-
ing its long history, has made little progress. The chief
work on materia medica is the “Pun-Ts'au,” in fifty-two
books, compiled by Li Shi-chin of the Ming dynasty. He
made extracts from more than 800 earlier writers, and gives
1892 medicaments, selected and original.
ADDISON VAN NAME, Lib. of Yale Coll.
59
930
CHINESE WHITE–CHIPPEWA.
Chinese White, a name sometimes given to the white
oxide of zinc, used as a pigment as a substitute for white
lead. It is not liable to be changed much by atmospheric
action.
Ching-Hai, a fortified seaport-town of China, in the
province of Che-Kiang, at the mouth of the Takia River,
9 miles N. E. of Ning-Po. It has a strong citadel on a
high and steep rock, and is 3 miles in circumference. The
British defeated the Chinese here in Oct., 1841.
Ching-Kiang-Foo, written also Tchang-Kiang,
a fortified city of China, province of Kiang-Soo, on the
right bank of the Yang-Tse-Kiang, near its junction with
the Imperial Canal, and about 42 miles E. of Nanking.
It was a populous and important eommercial city before it
was taken by the Tae-Pings in 1859. It was captured by
the British in July, 1842. Pop. in 1868, estimated at
150,000.
Chingleput’, or The Jaghire, a maritime district
of India, in the province of Madras, has an area of 2993
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Indian Ocean,
and is adjacent to Madras. The chief river is the Palaur.
The soil is poor. Capital, Chingleput. Pop. in 1871,
940,744.
Chingle put (anc. Singalapetta), a town of India, in
the above district, 36 miles S. W. of Madras, has a large
citadel or fort. It is accessible to an enemy only on the S.,
being protected on the other side by a large tank.
Chin-In' dia, or Farther India, a name given by
the celebrated geographer, Malte-Brun, to the region be-
tween China and Hindostan, also often called the Penin-
sula, beyond the Ganges. It comprises Siam, the Burman
empire, Anam, Laos, Malacca, etc.
Chiſmo, a township of San Bernardino co., Cal. P. 308.
Chinon, or Chinnon, a town of France, department
of Indre-et-Loire, on the river Vienne, 25 miles S. W. of
Tours. It has remains of a large castle, which was the
residence of several kings of England. Here Henry II. of
England died, and here Rabelais was born. Charles VII.
of France resided here when Joan of Arc presented herself
to him. Pop. 6895.
Chinook/ Indians, a collection or race of aborigines,
consisting of several tribes or bands, formerly inhabiting
the banks of the Lower Columbia in Washington Territory
and Oregon. They were fish-eaters, and spoke a peculiar
and very difficult language; so that the traders and trap-
pers invented the “Chinook jargon,” a lingwa franca de-
signed to facilitate intercourse with them. Vocabularies of
this jargon and the Chinook language were prepared by the
late George Gibbs (1863). Relics of this race still exist.
Chim/quapin (Castamea pumila), a small tree, a native
of the Southern U. S., belongs to the same genus as the
chestnut. It bears a small nut which is edible. California.
has another species.
Chin'quepin, a twp. of Lexington co., S. C. Pop. 253.
Chintz, a highly-glazed printed muslin or calico, with
a pattern in many colors on a white or light-colored ground.
It is chiefly used for bed-hangings or curtains, for covering
furniture, and other purposes where gay or rich colors are
desirable, and where there is much exposure to dust, which
does not adhere to its surface.
Chio'ggia (anc. Fossa Clodia), a fortified seaport-town
of Italy, in the province of Udine, on an island of the
Adriatic, 14 miles S. of Venice. It is built on piles like
Venice, and is connected with the mainland by a stone
bridge of forty-three arches. It has a fine main street
lined with porticoes, a cathedral, several high schools, a
theatre, and a harbor protected by two forts. Here are
shipbuilding-yards, salt-works, and fisheries. Pop. in
1871, 26,336. -
Chion/ides, a Greek comic poet of the old comedy,
who began to exhibit, according to Suidas, in B. C. 487.
Aristotle states that he was much later than Epicharmus,
and this would place him some years after the date assigned
above. Though not the first in time, yet from the more
careful and artistic preparation of his pieces he was re-
garded as the leader of the old Attic comedy. The titles
of three plays are preserved, and the fragments are col-
lected in MEINEKE, “Fragm. Wet. Com. Graec.,” vol. ii.,
pp. 5–9. - HENRY DRISLE.R.
Chiſon of Heraclea, on the Pontus, a pupil of Plato,
sought to free his native city by slaying the tyrant Clear-
chus (B. C. 353). He, with his associates, was slain by the
friends of Clearchus, and the city fell under a worse ty-
ranny than before. There are seventeen letters extant
under the name of Chion, which are, however, the produc-
tion of a later age. They have been edited by Coberus,
Leipsic, 1765, and by Orelli in his edition of Memnon,
Leipsic, 1816. HENRY DRISLE.R.
Chipica’ni, a peak of the Bolivian Andes. Height,
19,740 feet.
Chip/man (DANIEL), LL.D., born in Salisbury, Conn.,
Nov. 15, 1765, graduated at Dartmouth in 1788, and soon
became distinguished as a lawyer and an author. He
was a member of Congress from Vermont (1815–17), and
was prominent in the politics of that State. He published
a valuable work on the “Law of Contracts * (1822), “Re-
ports of Cases in the Supreme Court of Vermont” (1824),
and other works. Died April 23, 1850.
Chipman (NATHANIEL), LL.D., an American soldier
and jurist, a brother of the preceding, was born at Salis-
bury, Conn., Nov. 15, 1752, graduated at Yale in 1777.
He was an officer of the Revolutionary army, but was ad-
mitted to the bar in 1779. He was chief justice of Wer-
mont for several years, and judge of the U. S. district court
for Vermont (1791–93). His works on the laws of Vermont
are highly commended. He published “Principles of
Government” (1793) and other works. Died in 1843.
Chipman (WARD), L.L.D., a jurist of New Brunswick,
born July 10, 1787, graduated at Harvard in 1804. He
became chief-justice of the supreme court of the province
in 1834. Died Dec. 26, 1851.
Chip/munk, a popular name for the Tamias striatus,
NS -
N
\\
Chipmunk.
or striped squirrel of the U. S., especially common in the
North. It is five or six inches long, with a tail of four and
a half inches.
Chipo'la, a township of Henry co., Ala. Pop. 732.
Chip/pewa, a post-village and port of entry of Ontario,
Dominion of Canada,” Welland co., on , the Niagara River,
about 3 miles above Niagara Falls and 48 miles S. S. E. of
Toronto, on the Erie and Niagara branch of the Great
Western Railway. It has manufactures of steam-engines,
leather, lumber, and stoves, and a large trade in grain and
lumber. Pop. 1300.
This village is memorable as the scene of an important
victory of a portion of the American army under Maj.-
Gen. Joseph Brown, over a superior British force under
Maj.-Gen. Rial, July 5, 1814. A re-invasion of Canada.
having been determined upon, Gen. Brown had, according
to instructions, assembled at Buffalo, N. Y., a division con-
sisting of two brigades of regulars, a brigade of volunteers,
and a few Indians. The regulars were commanded by
Brig.-Gens. Winfield Scott and Ripley, the volunteers and
Indians by Gen. P. B. Porter; there was also a corps of
artillery under Major Hindman; in all about 3500. In ac-
cordance with orders of Gen. Brown, issued on the 2d of
July, Scott’s brigade, with Hindman’s artillery corps,
passed the Niagara on Sunday morning, the 3d, landing
about a mile below, while Gen. Ripley, at a later hour,
landed about the same distance above Fort Erie. Gen. Scott
led, and the British commandant being completely sur-
prised, surrendered with scarcely any resistance at 6 A. M.
A garrison was placed in the fort, and Gen. Scott was or-
dered to advance on the morning of the 4th with his brig-
ade and Towson’s artillery towards Chippewa. The enemy’s
outposts were soon met and driven in ; a charge of the
Nineteenth Dragoons was also repelled by a single com-
pany. The enemy being found strongly posted behind
Chippewa Bridge, Gen. Scott took up a well-selected posi-
tion for the night, where he was joined by Gen. Brown and
the main body of his army. The British army lay behind
Chippewa Creek, across which was a bridge; the Ameri-
cans occupied a similar position at Street's Creek, a mile
and a half farther up. Between those two creeks is a
plain, which was the battle-ground, behind it a forest, and
in front the Niagara. Skirmishing commenced soon after
daybreak, but nothing serious occurred until about 4 P. M.,
when Gen. Porter was ordered to advance rapidly under,





CHIPPEWA-CHISAGO CITY.
931
cover of the adjoining wood, and throw himself between
the British skirmishers and their main body. Porter, ad-
vancing as ordered, soon fell in with a body of the light
troops of the enemy, which he routed, and was pursuing
when, coming out of the wood, he found himself in front
of the whole British army drawn up in line of battle.
Scott was now ordered to cross, with his brigade and
Towson’s artillery, the bridge in his front, and attack the
enemy’s left. The order was promptly executed by Scott,
and his command were soon closely engaged with the
enemy. Porter’s command had given way, nor could he,
though displaying great gallantry, stay their flight. Scott's
brigade becoming much exposed by this retreat, a portion of
Ripley's brigade was ordered to fall upon the enemy's right
and rear; but such was the impetuosity of the attack of Scott
and his gallant troops that before Ripley became engaged
the enemy’s line was broken, and driven in confusion to
their intrenchments behind the creek, destroying the bridge
behind them. The credit of this decisive conflict between
our inexperienced troops and a superior number of veteran
European soldiers is mainly due to Gen. Scott, who by his
skill and gallantry secured this important victory, Gen.
Brown not being present till the battle had been decided.
The number actually engaged on the American side was
1900; the British force numbered 2100. Our loss in killed
and wounded was 328; the British loss was reported at 505.
Chippewa [native, Ojibway or Ojibbewal, a river of
Wisconsin, rises in Ashland county, flows nearly south-
westward through Chippewa and other counties, and enters
the Mississippi River at the foot of Lake Pepin, 6 miles
above Wabashaw. Entire length, about 220 miles. It
traverses extensive forests of pine.
Chippewa, a county of Michigan, which forms the E.
extremity of the upper peninsula. It is bounded on the N.
by Lake Superior, and on the E. by the river St. Mary. It
is drained by the Tequamenon River. The surface is un-
even. Limestone abounds here. Oats, potatoes, butter,
and maple-sugar are produced. Capital, Sault Ste. Marie.
Pop. 1689.
Chippewa, a county in the W. of Minnesota. Area,
720 square miles. It is traversed by the Chippewa River.
The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. Wheat, oats,
butter, and hay are staple crops. Capital, Montevideo.
Pop. 1467.
Chippewa, a large county in the N. W. of Wisconsin.
It is intersected by the Chippewa River, and also drained
by the Yellow River and other streams. The surface is
uneven, and mostly covered with forests. Large quantities
of pine lumber are exported from it. Sandstone occurs
here as a surface-rock. The soil is fertile. Wheat, oats,
Chipping Bird, or Chipping Sparrow, a common
little North American bird (Spizella socialis, Bonap.). It
is between five and six inches long, whitish underneath,
crown chestnut, back and sides ashen, with streaks of white
and black. Its song consists of six or seven notes rapidly
repeated. -
Chiquichi'qui Palm, or Piassa'ba (Leopoldinia
Piassaba), one of the palms which yield the piassaba fibre,
used for making coarse brushes and brooms for sweeping
streets, for cables, etc. It grows on the banks of the rivers
of Venezuela and the north of Brazil, and has very large,
regularly pinnate leaves, much used for thatching. The
commercial fibre is obtained from the marginal processes
of the leaf-stalks, which split into fine fibres, hang down
five or six feet, and entirely conceal the stem. It has long
been used for cables on the Amazon, and has now become
an important article of commerce.
Chiquimu'la, the easternmost department of Guate-
mala, Central America, bordering on the Caribbean Sea,
between the Bay of Honduras on the N. and the state of
Sam Salvador on the S. Area, 4000 square miles. Pop.
80,000. Capital, Chiquimula de la Sierra, with 6000 in-
habitants.
Chiri/qui, the westernmost province of Panama, in
Central America. Area, 500 square miles. Pop. 17,279.
Capital, David, beautifully situated, with 4625 inhabitants.
Chiriqui, Lagu'ma die, or Bahi'a del Almiran'-
te, a bay of Panama, nearly enclosed by a jutting headland
and islands at its mouth. The W. entrance, Boca del
Dragon (“Dragon’s Mouth *), affords passage for the largest
ships, and the bay within is a secure harbor. Lat. 90° N.,
lon. 32° 30' W. From ancient tombs in this region much
gold has been of late obtained.
Chiris’ophus, a Lacedaemonian officer who joined
Cyrus the Younger in his expedition against Artaxerxes
(B. C. 401) at Issus, with 700 heavy-armed men. He first
appeared prominently after the death of Clearchus, when
he was, at the suggestion of Xenophon, appointed to lead
the van of the retreating Greeks. After reaching Trape-
zus, Chirisophus attempted to secure vessels for the Greeks,
but was unsuccessful. At Sinope, through Xenophon’s re-
fusal of the office, he was chosen commander of the Greek
forces, but six or seven days after, while at Heraclea, the
army was broken up into three parts, which set out sepa-
rately. Chirisophus died soon after at Calpe.
HENRY DRISLER.
Chiromec'tes [Gr. xeip, “hand,” and vixo, to “swim "J,
a genus comprising numerous small marine fishes of the
family Lophiidae, remarkable for grotesque forms. The
mouse-fish (Chironectes gibbus) of the U. S. Atlantic coast
corn, cattle, hay, and butter are A" -
produced. Lumber and brick %
are manufactured. Capital, Z.Aftels
Chippewa Falls. Pop. 8311.
Chippewa, a township of
Isabella co., Mich. Pop. 315.
Chippewa, a township of
Mecosta co., Mich. Pop. 140.
Chippewa, a township of
Douglas co., Minn. Pop. 164.
Chippewa, a township of
Pope co., Minn. Pop. 116.
Chippewa, a post-township
of Wayne co., O. Pop. 2510.
Chippewa, a township of
Beaver co., Pa. Pop. 817.
Chippewa Falls, a post-
village, capital of Chippewa co.,
Wis., on the Chippewa River,
about 88 miles E. of St. Paul,
Minn. It has water-power and
several mills, and a trade in lum-
ber. It has one national bank
and one newspaper. Pop. 2507.
Chippewa , Indians, or
Ojibways, a tribe of North
American aborigines who inhabit Michigan, Wisconsin,
Minnesota, and both sides of the basin of Lake Superior.
They were constant allies of the French, and waged a long
warfare against the Sioux. In 1855 they ceded their lands
to the government of the U. S. They have several widely
separated reservations in the above States and in Canada,
and are broken up into “bands.” They numbered in 1869
about 19,000. They are of the Algonkin stock, as is shown
by their language and customs. Long-continued efforts
have been made to convert them to Christianity by Roman
Catholic and Protestant missionaries, without marked suc-
GCSS.
Chironectes Histrio.
The Chironectes histrio of the Bra-
is a familiar example.
(See also CHEIRONECTEs.)
zilian coast is larger.
Chisa'go, a county of Minnesota, bordering on Wis.
consin. Area, 420 square miles. It is bounded on the E.
by the St. Croix River, and contains several small lakes.
The surface is uneven. Cattle, grain, potatoes, and butter
are largely produced. Lumber is one of the chief articles
of export. It is intersected by the Lake Superior and
Mississippi R. R. Capital, Chisago City. Pop. 4358.
Chisago City, a post-village, capital of Chisago co.,
Minn., on a small lake 35 miles N. by E. of St. Paul.

932
CHISAGO LAFCE—CHIZEROTS AND BURINS.
Chisago Huake, a post-township of Chisago co., Minn.
It contains the greater part of Chisago Lake and other
smaller lakes, which abound in fish. Pop. 775.
Chisſelhurst, a parish of England, in Kent, 11 miles
S. E. of London. Here is Camden Place, the property of
Earl Camden. The emperor Napoleon III. fixed his res-
idence at Chiselhurst early in 1871, after he was released
from captivity by the emperor of Germany, and here, Jan.
9, 1873, he died.
Chis/wick, a town of England, in the county of Mid-
dlesex, on the Thames. It contains the gardens of the Lon-
don Horticultural Society. In Chiswick House, a villa be-
longing to the duke of Devonshire, both Fox and Canning
expired. Hogarth lies buried in the churchyard. Pop. 8508.
Chiſtin [from the Gr. xvrév, a “tunic * j, in chemistry,
the name of the substance which forms the skeleton of all
insects and crustaceans, as well as of some mollusks and
other inferior animals. In insects it constitutes the ex-
ternal skeleton, the scales, and the tracheae, and pene-
trates into the most remote portions; one of the layers of
the intestinal canal consists of chitin. We can make prep-
arations of these parts by treating insects with a solution
of potash, which dissolves all but the chitin; in this way
we can microscopically examine the most delicate parts.
It is a white, amorphous body, which usually retains the
form of the tissue from which it is prepared. Its compo-
sition is represented by the formula C9H15NO6. The best
method of obtaining chitin is by successively boiling the
elytra of the cockchafer with water, alcohol, ether, acetic
acid, and alkalies. Treated with hot dilute sulphuric acid,
it is converted into glucose and lactamide.
Chiſton, a genus regarded as the type of the family
Chitonidae, gasteropodous
º
e sº Sºº º ;
mollusks, near kindred of º
the limpets. The shell is 26% º
composed of eight trans-
verse calcareous pieces,
overlapping each other, #
and strongly attached to /ć
the mantle, which is leath-
ery and fibrous. They #lº
have the power of rolling #
themselves up into a ball. #
The oval foot extends the #:
whole length. More than
200 species are known;
they occur in all climates,
most abundantly on rocks
at low water, but some of
them at great depths.
All the species found on
American coasts are small,
but some others grow to
three or four inches in length.
Chitore, a town and fortress of India, in the province
of Rajpootana, 64 miles E. N. E. from Odeypoor. The
fortress consists of a rock smoothly scarped to a height of.
from 80 to 190 feet by nature, surmounted by a rude bas-
tioned wall 12 miles in its entire circuit. The enclosure is
narrow and irregular, and contains temples and palaces.
Chit/tagong, a district of British India, on the Bay of
Bengal, in the presidency of Bengal, of which it is the
S. E. extremity. Area, about 2800 square miles. A great
part of the country is mountainous and covered with for-
ests. The soil is fertile, but little cultivated. Towns are
only found on the sea-coast. The population is more than
half Mohammedan. Pop. 790,000.
Chitteldroog' (ane. Sitala. Durga, “the spotted
castle”), a town and fortress of Hindostan, in Mysore, 128
miles N. N. W. of Seringapatam. Here is a rock-fortress
which is one of the strongest and most remarkable in India.
It is occupied by a British garrison.
Chittenan'go, a post-village of Sullivan township,
Madison co., N. Y., has a tannery, a national bank, a wool-
len mill, a weekly paper, and three churches. Pop. 968.
Chittenango Springs, or White Sulphur Springs,
in Sullivan township, Madison co., N. Y., is a saline and
sulphur spring, with accommodations for receiving visitors,
and is highly recommended for many cases of disease.
Chit’ tenden, a county in the N. W. of Vermont.
Area, 516 Square miles. It is bounded on the W. by Lake
Champlain, and is drained by the Tamoille and Winooski
rivers. The surface is partly mountainous; the soil is
generally fertile. Butter, cheese, cattle, potatoes, corn,
and oats are extensively produced. The manufacturing in-
terests are important and various; those of lumber and
furniture being the most extensive. It is intersected by
the Vermont Central R. R. Capital, Burlington.
36,480.
Chittenden, a post-township of Rutland co., Vt. It
has manufactures of lumber, etc. Pop. 802.
Chittenden (MARTIN), a son of the following, born in
Salisbury, Conn., Mar. 12, 1769, graduated at Dartmouth
in 1789. He was for several years a judge in the courts of
Vermont, a member of Congress from that State (1803–13),
and governor (1813–15). Died Sept. 5, 1841.
Chittenden (THOMAs), an American statesman, born
at East Guilford, Conn., Jan. 6, 1730. He was one of the
founders of the State of Vermont, of which he was chosen
first governor in 1778. He was several times re-elected.
Died Aug. 24, 1797.
Chit’ tenden’s Fałłs, a village of Stockport township,
Columbia co., N. Y., has manufactures of paper.
Pop.
Chit’ty (Joseph), an English writer on law, was born
in 1776, and called to the bar in 1816. He published, be-
sides other legal works, “Pleadings and Parties to Ac-
tions” (1808), a “Practical Treatise on the Criminal
Law " (1818), a “Treatise on Medical Jurisprudence”
(1834), and “General Practice of the Law in all its De-
partments” (3d ed., 1837–42), which are highly com-
mended. Died in 1841.
Chiu'sa-Sclafa’ni, a town of Sicily, in the province
of Palermo, 30 miles S. S. W. of Palermo, was founded
about 1320. Agates are found near it. Pop. 6592.
Chiv'alry [Fr. chevalrie, from cheval (Lat. caballus),
a “horse "I, a term applied to the system or dignity of
knighthood, but originally denoting a body or assembly of
knights or horsemen. The word has, in fact, the same
etymology as cavalry, and in the Italian and Spanish lan-
guages the same term is used for both. Chivalry may be
more fully defined as a peculiar institution originating in
the Middle Ages, and including with the rank and dignity
of knighthood all those customs, manners, and sentiments
which were deemed appropriate to a noble and accom-
plished knight. Its origin is to be traced to the peculiar
customs and sentiments of the Teutonic nations (in no-
thing, perhaps, more remarkable than for the respect
which they evinced for the female sex), modified to some
extent by the spirit of Christianity. It is undoubtedly
closely connected with the feudal system. It has been ob-
served that while feudality presents the political side of
society in the Middle Ages, chivalry exhibits its moral and
social side. Whatever may have been the follies and abuses
which too often accompanied it, the institution of chivalry
undoubtedly had its origin in a generous feeling, which
prompted humane and brave men to provide for the pro-
tection of the defenceless. For this purpose courage was
indispensable; and as women in that rude and semi-bar-
barous age especially needed protection, chastity and a
respect for the sex bordering on adoration came to be re-
garded as among the cardinal virtues of a true knight. To
these higher qualities were necessarily added others of a
different character, growing out of the feudal system, and
especially the relation between the vassal and his lord. If
the conduct of those educated and trained under the in-
fluence of chivalry too often presented a glaring contrast
with the ideal purity of its social and moral code, it does
not prove that chivalry had not a pure and noble origin;
it only proves how much easier it is to commend and ad-
mire virtue than to practise it. The history of mankind
shows but too clearly how seldom the precepts of a high
and noble philosophy or the principles of a pure religion
are exhibited in the lives and conduct of its votaries. Yet
in the case of chivalry, as in that of Christianity, the in-
fluence of its teachings has surely, though very slowly, it
must be confessed, effected an important change in the
sentiments and practices of Society in many respects.
J. THOMAS.
Chives, or Cives (Allium Schoenoprasum), a plant of
the same genus with the onion, a perennial, six inches to
one foot in height, with very small, flat, clustered bulbs.
The leaves are tubular and radical; the flower-stem is ter-
minated by a cluster of bluish-red flowers. This plant
grows wild in Europe, Asia, and Western North America.
Chives are sometimes cultivated in kitchen-gardens, and
are used for flavoring soups and dishes. Their properties
are very similar to those of the onion. The part used is
the young leaves. There are several varieties.
Chizerots and Burins, races in France who are des-
pised, living in the arrondissement of Bourg-en-Bresse, in
the department of Ain. They are believed to be descended
from the Saracens. Although industrious and prosperous,
they, like the Cagots, are held in the utmost detestation by
their neighbors. They are looked upon as covetous and
malicious; they marry among themselves. From time im-




CHLA DNI-CHLORITE.
933
memorial they have been field-laborers, cattle – dealers,
butchers, etc. Many of them are very good-looking. The
young women are handsome, with large black eyes. Many
of these people are well-to-do business-men. (See MICHEL,
“Histoire des Races Maudites,” 2 vols., 1847.)
Chlad/ni (ERNST FLORENS FRIEDRICH), born at Witten-
berg, Germany, Nov. 30, 1756, was the founder of the
science of acoustics. He devoted much time to the perfect-
ing of the theory of sound, and published, besides other
works, “Discoveries on the Theory of Sound ’’ (1787), a
“Treatise on Acoustics” (1802), amd a “Treatise on Fiery
Meteors” (1819). Died April 3, 1827. -
Chlamydosau’rus [from the Gr. x\agºs (gen. x\apº-
*…*
º, S.
§§ §§s -
§§§§§s
sº § sºsº SS
Chlamydosaurus.
80s), a “cloak” or “mantle,” and oraºpos, a “lizard ”], often
called the “frilled lizard,” a singular genus of reptiles,
bearing on its neck a large plaited frill, of which the best
known species is the Chlamydosaurus Kingii, a native of
Australia. The general color of the chlamydosaurus is
yellow-brown mottled with black, and it is remarkable that
the tongue and the inside of the mouth are also yellow,
The frill forming so conspicuous an ornament to this crea-
ture is covered with scales and toothed on the edge. During
the early stage of the animal’s life this appendage does not
reach even the base of the fore legs, but when the animal
has attained maturity it extends considerably beyond them.
The chlamydosaurus is very courageous, and when pro-
voked it erects the frill, and by showing its teeth presents
a formidable aspect. When at rest its frill lies back in
plaits upon the body. This lizard measures at full growth
nearly a yard in total length.
and bépo, to “carry”], a small edentate quadruped of Chili
and the Argentine Republic, nearly related to the arma-
dillo, but resembling the common mole in size and habits.
It is remarkable for being covered with a shell of square
plates on the head, neck, and back, with another similar
shell on the posterior extremity. Its internal skeleton re-
sembles in several respects that of birds. Its tail is carried
under its belly. There is but one known species, the
Chlamydophorus truncatus, called pichiciago by the natives.
Chia/mys [Gr. xxagºs], a woollen outer garment of the
Greeks, differing from the usual amictus of the men, the
twd rvov, in being finer, gayer in color, and oblong instead
of square. It was fastened round the neck by a brooch
(fibula), and hung down the back to the calf, or over the
left shoulder, covering the left arm.
Chio'ral, a name composed of the first syllable of chlo-
vine and the first syllable of alcohol, designating a liquid
composed of chlorine, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, ob-
tained by the action of chlorine on absolute alcohol. Its
formula is C2HO2Cl3. When kept for a time it becomes
Solid, but is not changed in composition, and may be re-
stored to its original form by heat. With water it forms a
solid hydrate known as chloral hydrate or hydrate of chlo-
ral. This article is now much used in medicine as a hyp-
notic. It enters the circulation, and is, by the alkalies
contained in the blood, converted into formic acid and
chloroform. The chloroform doubtless is the principal
source of the hypnotic effect of the medicine. The dose
is from twenty to forty grains to an adult. Much larger
doses have been given with no bad results, but well-
authenticated fatal cases of chloral poisoning indicate the
necessity of caution in its use. The sleep produced by
chloral is wonderfully sweet and refreshing to most pa-
tients. Chloral sometimes increases hysterical symptoms,
and unless well diluted is irritant to the stomach. It is
peculiarly valuable in tetanus. Given in large doses,
chloral powerfully diminishes reflex action, and is a phys-
iological antidote in poisoning by strychnia.
Chlorantha/ceae [from Chloranthus, one of the gen-
era.], a natural order of exogenous plants nearly allied to
pepper. They are herbaceous and half-shrubby, have
jointed stems, opposite, simple leaves, with minute stip-
ules between them. The flower has no calyx or corolla;
the fruit is a drupe or 1-seeded berry. The order com-
prises but few known species, some of which are natives
of China and Japan, and some are tropical. They are
generally aromatic, and have important stimulating prop-
erties. The Chloranthus officinalis is prized in Java as a
remedy for fever. The leaves and berries of the Chloran-
thus inconspicuus are used by the Chinese to impart a pecu-
liar flavor to tea.
Chło'rate, a compound formed by the union of chloric
acid with a salifiable base. The best known of these salts
is chlorate of potash, which, mixed with combustibles, such
as sulphur and charcoal, forms highly explosive compounds
which ignite by a blow or friction. It is also a useful med-
1C1Ele.
Chlorhydric Acid. See HYDROCHLoRIC ACID, by
PROF. C. F. CHANDLER, PH. D., LL.D.
Chlo/ric Ac'id (C105, or, in the new notation, C103), a
compound of one atom of chlorine with five (or three) atoms
of oxygen. It occursin combination with potash as the white
crystalline salt called chlorate of potash. (See CHLORATE.)
This acid has not been obtained in its anhydrous state, but
combined with water it is a syrupy liquid, setting fire to
dry organic substances with which it comes in contact.
Chlo/ride [Fr. chlorure], a binary compound of chlorine
with some other substance. Common salt is a chloride of
sodium, and calomel is a chloride of mercury. When chlo-
rine unites in two different proportions with the same base,
the terms protochloride and bichloride are applied to such
compounds.
Chlo/rine [from the Gr. xxopós, “pale green’’], a non-
metallic gaseous chemical element, discovered by Scheele
in 1774, and named by him “dephlogisticated marine air.”
Soon after, from a mistaken view of its nature, it received
the name of “oxymuriatic acid.” In 1810, Davy proved
it to be an elementary body, and gave it the name which it
now bears. It occurs very largely as the chloride of so-
dium, common salt, in the vegetable, animal, and mineral
kingdoms. In ordinary conditions it is a gas which may
be easily obtained by moistening bleaching-powder with
dilute sulphuric acid. It is a yellowish-green gas with a
suffocating odor, is not combustible, and is a feeble Sup-
#| porter of ordinary combustion. A lighted candle placed in
it burns with a smoky flame, the hydrogen of the oil alone
burning. Antimony, copper, and arsenic, in fine division
or in thin leaves, at once become red hot and burn when
introduced into chlorine. Paper soaked in turpentine like-
wise bursts into flame. Chlorine is a perissad (a monad),
having the symbol C1, and the equivalent 35.5. It is very
heavy, its specific gravity being 2470 (air-1000). Two
volumes of chlorine in one of water yield a solution resem-
bling the gas in color, odor, and other properties. Chlorine
is a bleacher of cotton and linen, and a powerful disinfect-
ant. It can be condensed by pressure and cold into a trans-
parent greenish-yellow limpid liquid, with a specific gravity
of 1330, which also possesses bleaching properties and a
powerful odor. Chlorine in very minute quantity produces
a sensation of warmth in the respiratory passages, increas-
ing the expectoration; in large quantities it causes späsm
of the glottis, violent cough, and a feeling of Suffocation.
Its inhalation is liable to be followed by dangerous disease
of the air-passages. The antidotes to the effects of chlorine
in the lungs are the inhalation of the vapor of water, alco-
hol, ether, or chloroform. Chlorine unites with many sub-
stances to form a class of compounds known as chlorides.
Chio/rite [from the Gr. XAtopós, “green "J, an abundant
green mineral composed of silica, alumina, magnesia, and
protoxide of iron in variable proportions. It is rather





934,
CHLORITE SCHIST-CHOCTAW.
soft, and is easily broken. It rarely occurs crystallized in
hexagonal crystals, and sometimes foliated like talc, from
which it is readily distinguished by yielding water in a
closed tube.
Chlorite Schist, or Chlorite Slate, a green slaty
rock in which chlorite is abundant in foliated plates, usu-
ally blended with minute grains of quartz, and sometimes
with felspar and mica. It is one of the metamorphic rocks,
and is often found graduating into mica Schist or clay-
Slate.
Chlorocarbon/ic Aſcid (COCl3), a compound formed
by exposing a mixture of chlorine and carbonous oxide to
the action of light. It is also called phosgene gas and car-
bonyl chloride.
Chlo/roform [a term derived from the first syllable
of chlorine and the first syllable of formyl], (CHCl2), was
long known to chemists before it was discovered to have
valuable properties; but the power which it possesses
of producing anaesthesia has led to the preparation of
chloroform on an extensive scale. It is also a useful chem-
ical reagent. To four parts of bleaching-powder sufficient
water is added to make a thin paste, to this is added one
part of spirits of wine; the whole is introduced into a re-
tort, which must not be more than half filled. Heat being
applied, chloroform, water, and a little alcohol distil over.
As the chloroform is heavier than water, two layers of
liquid are obtained, the upper water and alcohol, and the
lower chloroform. The upper liquid is poured off, the
chloroform agitated with fused carbonate of potash, sulph-
uric acid, and alcohol, which abstract the remaining traces
of water, and on subsequent redistillation the chloroform
is obtained pure. It may be prepared by several other
methods. - -
It is a remarkably limpid, volatile, mobile, colorless
liquid, which has a characteristic odor and an agreeable
sweetish taste. It has a specific gravity of 1.48, that of
water being 1, and boils at 142°F. It has been regarded as
a terchloride of formyl, and also as a chloride of metheryl.
It is analogous to bromoform, iodoform, and nitroform. It
is not inflammable in the ordinary sense, but when thrown
on hot coals it burns with a green flame, evolving much
smoke. It is slightly soluble in water, readily in alcohol
and ether. It dissolves camphor, amber, resins, wax, ca.out-
chouc, iodine, and bromine, as well as many alkaloids. The
employment of chloroform as an anaesthetic has already
been considered under ANAESTHESIA ; but it may be here
observed that numerous cases of death from its use have
occurred, even when administered by skilful physicians.
It is sometimes administered by the stomach as an anodyne;
and when applied to the surface of the body is a powerful
blistering agent, very useful as a derivative.
Chlo/rophane [from the Gr. xxopós, “green,” and
(baivopºat, to “appear”], a name given to those varieties of
fluor spar which when heated shine with a beautiful eme-
rald-green, phosphorescent light.
Chlo/rophyl [from the Gr. xxopós, “green,” and bºxxov,
a “leaf”], the green coloring-matter of the leaves of plants.
It is soluble in alcohol, but insoluble in water, and is some-
what similar to wax. Light is indispensable to its forma-
tion, and hence arises the phenomenon of blanching which
occurs when plants are deprived of light. It is also called
endochrome, especially in the lowest orders of plants.
Chloro’sis [from the Gr. XAtopós, “pale green "J, a
flisease almost peculiar to young women and girls, and
usually associated with other troubles peculiar to that time
of life. It takes its name from a greenish-yellow tint of
the skin which some patients exhibit. There is also great
pallor and debility, often disturbance of the heart’s action,
breathlessness, and a variously perverted and capricious
appetite. The disease is characterized by a deficiency of
the cell-elements of the blood. Most cases are readily
curable by the use of exercise, good air, proper food and
clothing, and, above all, by the administration of iron,
which is almost a specific in this disease.
Chlorosis is also the name of the “yellows,” a disease
which attacks plants and trees, especially the peach tree.
A deficiency of chlorophyl causes a blanched and yellow
appearance. Damp soil, wet weather, and insufficient cul-
ture and manuring are assigned as causes, but widespread
climatic influences of a character which is little under-
stood appear to be the principal cause of this destructive
malady. No treatment except underground drainage and
good culture promises any benefit.
Chlorox’yāom [from the Gr. xxopós, “green,” and £ºov,
“wood”], a genus of plants of the order Cedrelaceae, its
fruit having only three cells and splitting into three parts.
Chloroacylon Swietenia is the satin-wood of India, a tree
which grows about sixty feet high. The satin-wood is ex-
ported, and is used by cabinet-makers and brushmakers.
Choate (RUFUs), LL.D., one of the most eminent ad-
vocates and orators that America has produced, was born
in Essex, Mass., the 1st of Oct., 1799. Both his parents
were distinguished for quickness of intellect, as well as
weight of character. He entered Dartmouth in 1815. After
taking his degrees, he remained in the college as tutor for
one year. He commenced the study of law at Cambridge,
and subsequently studied under the distinguished orator
and lawyer, Mr. Wirt, then U. S. attorney-general at Wash-
ington. He began the practice of law in his native State
at Danvers, whence he removed to Salem and afterwards
to Boston. While at Salem he was elected to Congress
(1832), and later (1841) he was chosen Senator as successor
to Mr. Webster, who had been appointed secretary of state
under President Harrison. After Webster’s death Mr.
Choate was the acknowledged leader of the Massachusetts
bar, and was regarded by the younger members of the pro-
fession with a love equal to their reverence. His health
having failed, in 1858 he retired from business, and a sea-
voyage having been recommended by his physicians, he
embarked for Europe in 1859, but he was unable to proceed
farther than Halifax, where he died on the 13th of July.
As an orator Mr. Choate’s powers were of the rarest order.
He was not merely eloquent when he spoke on themes that
were calculated of themselves to touch the feelings or stir
the passions of his audience, but his genius enabled him to
interest and fascinate his hearers even while discussing
the driest and most unpromising subjects. Mr. Choate's
superior foresight made him dread more than many others
the dangers that threatened his country. . And it may be
that his anxiety to conciliate the South, whence the prin-
cipal danger was to be apprehended, was carried too far;
his conduct in this respect certainly gave serious offence to
many who were jealous of the rights and dignity of the
North. But there can be no reasonable doubt that had he
lived till the breaking out of the civil war he would have
been found no less true to his country than many others
who, after having long earnestly advocated in vain a pol-
icy of conciliation towards the South, proved themselves
among the most determined and most devoted supporters
of the Union. (See “Works of Rufus Choate, with a
Memoir of his Life,” by S. G. BROWN, 1862.)
Choate (RUFUs), son of the preceding, born in Salem,
Mass., in 1834, graduated at Amherst College in 1855, and
was admitted to the bar in 1861. On the outbreak of the
recent civil war he entered the service as lieutenant of Mas-
sachusetts volunteers, participating in the battles of Win-
chester, Cedar Mountain, Antietam, etc., and was promoted
to be captain for good conduct. Resigned in 1862 on ac-
count of failing health. Died Jan. 15, 1866.
Cho'card, or Cho quard (Pyrrhocoraz), a bird of the
family Corvidae, differing from the chough in having a short-
er bill, but resembling it in its habits. The only European
species is the alpine chocard, called alpine chough and al-
pine crow. It is about the size of a jackdaw, of brilliant
black, with yellowish bill and red feet.
Chocſolate [Fr. chocolat ; from the Mexican name
chocolatl (from choco, “cacao,” and latl, “water”)], a
dried paste made from the seeds of Theobroma cacao, mix-
ed with sugar and spices, as cinnamon, cloves, cardamom,
vanilla, etc. The paste is poured into moulds to cool and
harden. Chocolate, when used as a beverage, is dissolved
in hot water or milk. Sometimes the yolk of an egg is add-
ed, and sometimes it is dissolved in soup or wine. It is also
employed in making certain liqueurs, and is extensively
employed in confectionery. In a pure state it is very
nourishing. Good chocolate is smooth, firm, soluble, aro-
matic, not viscid after having been boiled and cooled, but
oily on the surface, and leaves no sediment. Chocolate is
often adulterated with rice-meal, oatmeal, flour, potato-
starch, roasted hazel-nuts, or almonds. The Mexicans, from
time immemorial, were accustomed.to prepare a beverage
from roasted cacao, mixed with maize-meal and Spices.
Choc/olay, a township of Marquette co., Mich. Pop.
260. -
Cho'conut, a post-township of Susquehanna co., Pa.
Pop. 939.
Chocowin/ity, a township of Beaufort co., N. C. Pop.
1630.
Choctaw, a county of Alabama, bordering on Missis-
sippi. Area, 800 square miles. . It is bounded on the E.
by the Tombigbee River. The surface is hilly or undulating;
the soil is fertile. Cotton, corn, wool, and some tobacco are
raised. Capital, Butler. Pop. 12,676.
Choctaw, a county in N. Central Mississippi. Area,
900 square miles. It is drained by the Big Black River,
which rises in it. The surface is undulating; the soil is
fertile. Cotton, corn, and wool are produced. Capital,
Greensborough. Pop. 16,988.
CHOCTAW-CHOLERA. INFANTUM.
935
Choctaw, a township of Arkansas co., Ark. Pop. 860.
Choctaw Corner, a post-township of Clarke co., Ala.
Pop. 891.
Choctaw Indians, a tribe which formerly inhabited
the State of Mississippi, on both sides of the Yazoo River.
They are now settled in the Indian Territory, on the S.
side of the Arkansas River. They cultivate the soil, are
partially civilized, and are governed by written laws.
They are politically connected with the Chickasaws, who
live near them, and are represented in the same general
council. Their number, exclusive of the Chickasaws, was
in 1869 estimated at 12,500 souls, and they had sixty-nine
public schools, with 1847 pupils.
Chodowie/cki, a distinguished German engraver and
painter, born Oct. 16, 1726, who lived in Berlin, and en-
graved as many as 3000 plates, most of them small, in a
manner original and graceful. Died Feb. 7, 1801. Wil-
helm Engelmann has published a catalogue of his works
(Leipsic, 1857; sup. 1860).
Choer/ilus [Gr. XotpáAos], an Athenian tragic poet who
flourished about 500 B. C. He was a competitor of Æschy-
lus in a tragic contest, and gained prizes for thirteen of his
dramas. None of his works are extant. He is supposed
to have been the first author of written tragedies.
Choer’ilus of Iasus, an inferior poet, was an attend-
ant of Alexander on his march to the East, and sought to
flatter him by his verses. To him, according to the scholi-
ast on Horace, Alexander said, “He would rather be the
Thersites of Homer than the Alexander of Choerilus.”
The scholiast adds that Alexander agreed with him to give
him a gold piece for every good verse, but a blow for every
bad one, and that Choerilus received only seven gold pieces
in all, but was killed by the blows for his numerous bad
verses. This author is treated of by Nāke in his work on
Choerilus of Samos. - HENRY DRISLER.
Choer’ilus (or Choeril/lus) of Samos, born about
B. C. 470, though Suidas places him somewhat earlier, was
the author of an epic poem the exact title of which is not
known, but which treated of the wars of the Greeks with
Darius and Xerxes. Suidas attributes his taste for liter-
ature to his intercourse with Herodotus, who had formed
an attachment to him. He afterwards found a shelter at
the court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, where he died,
not later than B. C. 399. Choerilus departed from the
usage of the earlier epic poets in taking for the subject of
his poem a contemporary historical event. Fragments are
preserved in the writings of Aristotle, Ephorus, Josephus,
etc. These have been collected into a volume with a dis-
sertation on the life and poetry of Choerilus, by Nāke,
Leipsic, 1817. HENRY DRISLER.
Choir [Lat. chorus ; Fr. choeurj, a company of singers
in a church; also that part of a church in which the chor-
isters sing. In ordinary language, and even as used by
architects, it denotes the entire space which is enclosed for
the performance of the primcipal part of the service. In
this sense is includes the choir proper and the presbytery,
and corresponds to the chancel in parish churches.
Choiseul, de (ETIENNE FRANÇors), DUC DE CHOISEUL
ET D’AMBoISE, a French statesman, born June 18, 1719. He
entered the army, gained the rank of lieutenant-general,
and was sent as ambassador to Vienna in 1756. Favored
by Madame de Pompadour, he became prime minister and
favorite of Louis XV. He was considered an able diplo-
matist, and was popular with the nation, but he was re-
moved from power by the influence of Madame du Barry
in 1770. Died May 7, 1785. (See Mémoires de M. le Duc
de Choiseul, écrites par lui-même,” 2 vols., 1790.)
Choiseul-Gouffier, de (MARIE GABRIEL FLORENT
AUGUSTE), Count, a French scholar and traveller, am-
bassador to Turkey, born Sept. 27, 1752. Having visited
Greece and Asia Minor in 1776, he published a “Pictur-
esque Journey in Greece (1782; new ed. 1841). Died June
20, 1817.
Choisy-le-Roi, a town of France, in the department
of the Seine, on the Seine and on the Paris and Orleans
Railway, 6% miles S. of Paris. It has manufactures of por-
celain, glass, chemicals, etc. Pop. 5172.
Choke-Cherry, the Prunus Virginiana and its fruit,
a species of bird-cherry, a native of North America, hav-
ing small fruit in racemes; the fruit is rather agreeable,
but astringent. The bark is used as a febrifuge and tonic,
under the name of wild-cherry bark; and by distilling
with water a volatile oil is obtained from it, associated with
hydrocyanic acid.
Choke Damp. See CARBONIC ACID.
Choſizing, the obstruction of the pharynx or oºsoph-
agus, or more rarely of the larynx or trachea, by masses of
food or other foreigh bodies. Choking by obstruction of
the pharynx or oesophagus is sometimes relieved by the
operation of an emetic, sometimes by the use of gullet-
forceps, of which there are many varieties, or by other ap-
propriate instruments. CEsophagotomy, or cutting, has
been resorted to, but this is one of the most formidable
operations of surgery, and is not often necessary. When
foreign bodies lodge in the larynx, aphonia, or loss of
speech, is one of the symptoms. If the substance is in the
windpipe or bronchi, the surgeon may often detect its pres-
ence by auscultation. The symptoms caused by foreign
bodies in the oesophagus are often surprisingly like those
which occur when similar bodies lodge in the air-passages.
These symptoms are various; there may be spasmodic
coughing, redness of the face, ineffectual attempts to swal-
low, and great discharge of Saliva, and generally there is
great difficulty of breathing. Surgical aid should always
be called.
Chol'era [Gr., probably from xoxi, “bile”], a disease
characterized by purging and vomiting, followed by great
prostration, and in many cases by fatal collapse. Compara-
tively mild cases occur with frequency even in temperate
latitudes, and are known as sporadic cholera or cholera
morbus ; and such cases, though very distressing, are sel-
dom fatal, while the more severe or epidemic form (known
as Asiatic cholera) appears to arise in India, where it is
ondemic, and to be carried by ships, caravans, religious
pilgrimages, etc., westward to Egypt, Persia, and Arabia,
and thence to Europe and around the world by the regular
channels of commerce. The disease is probably of mias-
matic origin, and local conditions may favor or check its
local development; but whether the disease ought to be
called contagious or not is one of the most warmly disputed
points in medicine. It is certain that habitual personal
contact with the sick is often not followed by the disease.
It is held by many that the disease is propagated by drink-
ing water; by others, that its germs are taken up from the air
the patient breathes. It is regarded by many as certain
that the disease is largely propagated from the stools or
alvine discharges of the sick; and all such discharges
should be treated with powerful disinfectants, and depos-
ited, if possible, in places not frequented by those who are
well; and especial care should be taken not to let them be
thrown into vaults and privies in common use. As to
whether personal quarantines and cordons do any good in
preventing the spread of cholera, the most diverse opinions
are held, some writers strongly affirming, and others as
strongly denying, their usefulness.
Without describing the various stages of the fatal dis-
ease—the premonitory painless diarrhoea, the alarming and
profuse purgation which follows, carrying off the fluids of
the body, the profound collapse, the reaction, with the dan-
gerous febrile condition which may follow—it is enough to
say that treatment should be chiefly preventive. No diar-
rhoea in a cholera season should be neglected. Opiates will
usually control the precursory diarrhoea. During the active
stage of the disease cold compresses to the bowels are some-
times useful. The administration of diffusive stimulants
in small doses during the stage of collapse should be per-
sisted in. Friction by the hand may relieve the spasm of
the muscles. Great care should be taken for a long time
lest a relapse should occur. The food of convalescents
should be of the very lightest and blandest character for
Some days. REviseD BY WILLARD PARKER.
Chol'era Infan’tum, or Acute Intes/tinal Ca-
tarrh". This intense and dangerous form of inſant diar-
rhoea is mostly found in hot climates, the hot season, and
close air; more amongst the poor than the rich. It is by
no means confined to the U. S.; on the contrary, it is very
frequent in Europe, and just as frequent in the first sum-
mer of the infant as in the second. It has no direct rela-
tion to dentition, which is illogically accused of being the
cause of so many diseases of infancy, and results but rarely
from exposure or from mental emotions of either infant or
mother (wet-nurse). The usual cause is improper feeding
in hot weather. The former is a direct injury; the latter,
by debilitating the nervous system and lowering the func-
tions of all the digestive organs, diminishes the general
strength and power of endurance. Nursing infants are
but seldom affected; many infants will recover from an at-
tack by being returned to the mother’s or nurse’s breast.
Still, an improper condition of breast-milk (an undue pro-
portion of water, or fat, or caseine, or the admixture of
medicinal agents taken by the mother or nurse, or a change
produced by mental emotions in the latter) is known to be
injurious. Weaned infants, however, and such as are
brought up on artificial food, are mostly attacked. Arti-
ficial food is seldom identical, in its nutritive value, with
mother's milk. Cow’s milk contains less sugar and more
butter and caseine than mother's milk, and requires cook-
936
CHOLESTERIN–CHOREA.
ing and skimming before being diluted with water (better
still, barley water). Vegetable food is dangerous unless
carefully selected and prepared. Thus it is that the first
passages in cholera infantum contain undigested food of
all sorts, particularly lumps of coagulated milk, which is
also brought up by vomiting. Afterwards the passages
are very thin, watery, of an acid or fetid smell, very
copious and frequent; vomiting accompanies this diarrhoea,
more or less. Moaning and crying are soon replaced by
debility, and even complete collapse; the body is rapidly
deprived of a large portion of the water contained in it, and
emaciates; the eyes lie deep in the orbits; the sutures and
fontanelles of the skull sink; the skin becomes dry, the feet
and hands cold, while the temperature of the trunk is
rising; the face looks shrunk and senile; the pulse be-
comes weak and frequent, the voice feeble, the expression
of eyes and face listless, and sopor or coma or convulsions
set in. Death is a frequent result. The principal pre-
ventive consists in supplying the well infant with proper
artificial food when no breast-milk is available, and at
regular times, and in attending to its general health.
When the disease has made its appearance the principal
means of checking it are the following: during the first
few (3–6–8) hours no food or drink ought to be given.
The irritated stomach must be kept at rest; vomiting will
cease on that condition only. After that time give a tea-
spoonful of ice-water or a small piece of ice (size of a beam),
with or without a few drops of brandy, every five or ten
minutes, as long as the tendency to vomit persists. When
feeding is to be recommenced, avoid milk (except breast-
milk) in whatever form. Barley-water, oatmeal gruel
(strained), in tea or tablespoonful doses, now and then,
with the white of eggs (1–3 in twenty-four hours), will
readily be taken and well digested. Many cases will get
well with this dietetical treatment. At the same time the
air must be kept as cool and fresh as possible, day and
night. The infant will recover faster out of than in doors.
The medicinal treatment, which is, under all circum-
stances, the domain of a physician, varies according to the
nature of the case. Mercurial remedies (calomel) can be
avoided. Submitrate of bismuth, with opium in small
doses, and preparations of chalk, nitrate of silver, astrin-
gents, such as tannic or gallic acids, catechu, are frequently
resorted to, the latter principally in cases which threaten
to become chronic. : A. JACOBI.
Choles’terin [from the Gr. XoAſ, “bile,” and a réap,
“fat ºl, one of the lipoids, or non-saponifiable fats, was
originally discovered in gall-stones, but is an ordinary
constituent (in very minute quantity) of bile, blood, the
tissue of the brain, and of pus and other morbid fluid
products. It is generally thought to be a product of dis-
assimilation, and is hence considered an excrementitious
substance. It separates from its solutions in glistening
pearly scales, which, when examined under the microscope,
appear as very thin rhombic tablets. Different formulae
have been assigned for its composition, the one generally
accepted being C26H440. It is not always easy of detec-
tion, but it may be readily distinguished from all similar
substances by its rhombic tablets. -
Cholet, a town of France, department of Maine-et-
Loire, on the river Maine, 32 miles S. S. W. of Angers.
It is well built, and has manufactures of fine woollen and
mixed fabrics. Pop. 13,360.
Cholmondeley, chum’ly, MARQUESSEs of, and Earls
Rocksavage (United Kingdom, 1815), Earls Cholmondeley
(1706), Wiscounts Malpas (1706), Barons Cholmondeley
(England, 1689), Barons Newburgh (Great Britain, 1716),
Wiscounts Cholmondeley (1661), Barons Newburgh (Ire-
land, 1714), and baronets (1611).-WILLIAM HENRY HUGH
CHOLMONDELEY, third marquess, joint hereditary lord grand
chamberlain of England, born Aug. 31, 1800, was member
of Parliament for South Hants 1852–57, and succeeded his
brother May 8, 1870.
Choluſia, a decayed town of Mexico, in the state of
Puebla, is situated on the table-land of Anahuac, about 70
miles E. S. E. of Mexico. Elevation above the sea, 6912
feet. According to Cortez, it contained 20,000 houses in
the first part of the sixteenth century, and about 400 tem-
ples. The present population is about 5000. Here is a
remarkable ancient pyramid of clay and brick, which is
I64 feet high, with a base each side of which measures
1440 feet. It is supposed that this was erected by the
aborigines or ancient Mexicans. Humboldt reported that
he found 16,000 inhabitants, but it has greatly decreased
Sl]]. Ge.
Chone/tes [from the Gr. xióvn, “cup’’ or “funnel-
shaped cavity”], a genus of fossil brachiopodous mollus-
coids nearly allied to the genus Producta. It is characterized
by a transversely oblong shell, and by having the long
margin of the ventral valve armed with a series of tubular
spines. More than twenty-eight species have been found
in the palaeozoic formations. They are found in Europe
and America.
Chopin (FRádáRIG FRANÇoſs), a Polish pianist and
composer, born near Warsaw Mar. 1, 1809, removed to
Paris about 1832. He composed concertos, waltzes, noc-
turnes, preludes, and mazurkas which display a poetic
fancy and abound in subtle ideas, with graceful harmonic
effects. His compositions are strikingly peculiar in melody,
rhythm, and harmony, and possess a delicate though pow-
erful charm. He was one of the first of pianists, and his
playing, like his music, was marked with a strange and
ravishing grace. Died in Paris Oct. 17, 1849. In 1869 a
monument was erected to him at Warsaw. (See Liszt,
“Chopin,” 1852; BARBEDETTE, “Chopin,” 1869.)
Chopine, or Chiopine, chop-een' [Sp. chapin; prob-
ably from the It. Scappino, a “sock”], a high clog or slip-
per. Chopines were probably of Eastern origin, but were
introduced into England from Venice during the reign of
Elizabeth. They were worn by ladies, and were usually
made of wood covered with leather, often of various colors,
and frequently painted and gilded. Some of them were as
much as half a yard high; and in Venice, where they were
universally worn, their height distinguished the quality of
the lady.
Chop/tank, a river which rises in Kent co., Del., and
flows south-westward into Maryland. It expands into an
estuary, forming the boundary between Talbot and Dor-
chester counties, and communicates with Chesapeake Bay.
Length, nearly 100 miles. Sloops can ascend it about fifty
miles.
Chora'gus, or Chore'gus [Attic Gr. xopmyós], a per-
son at Athens who, on behalf of his tribe, supported the
chorus, and who, in competition with the other tribes, ex-
hibited musical or theatrical performances. The choragus
who surpassed his competitors received a tripod for a prize,
but he had the expense of consecrating it and of building
the monument on which it was placed. (See CHORUs.)
Chora'le [Low Lat., from chorus, a “choir”], or Cho'-
ral, a melody to which hymns or psalms are sung in pub-
lic worship by the congregation in unison. The melody of
the chorale moves in slow and strictly-measured progres-
sion, and is of a character that disposes the mind to devo-
tion. The term chorale is now applied only to the music
of the Protestant churches, but choral melodies still in use
can be traced with certainty to the early centuries of Chris-
tianity. The pure, simple chorale has in a great degree
been cast aside.
Chord [Fr. corde, from the Gr. xop&#, a “string ”], in
geometry, is the straight line which joins the two extrem-
ities of the arc of a curve; so called because while the arc
resembles the bow (arcus), the chord may be likened to the
bow-string. The chord of a circular arc may be found by
multiplying the radius by twice the sine of half the angle
which the arc subtends. The use of chords in trigonometry
is mostly superseded by the use of sines, which are much
more convenient.
Since two circles can cut each other in only two points,
they can have only one common chord. But by the tran-
scendental “principle of continuity,” to which modern
geometry owes so much, the circle may be considered as a
curve of the second order, and as such two circles may be
said to have four points of intersection, two of which are,
however, always imaginary. These imaginary points are
called “circular points at infinity.” This view also gives
the two circles six common chords, instead of one. Four
of these chords are imaginary, and the fifth is infinitely
distant; while the sixth (and most obvious) chord may or
may not cut the two circles in real points. This last chord
is often called the RADICAL AXIS (which see), and has many
remarkable properties.
Chord, in music. See CoNSONANCE.
Chore'a [Gr. xopeta, a “ dance”], or St.Vitus’s Dance,
a disease characterized by irregular, involuntary, and often
grotesque muscular action, without appreciable organic
change in any tissue, and generally without pain or any
known derangement of mental action or of Sensation. It
is most common in children after the second dentition and
before puberty; much more common in girls than in boys;
sometimes attacks pregnant women and other adults, though
some cases once called adult chorea would now be recog-
nized as locomotor ataxy, a very different disease. Chorea
is sometimes hereditary, sometimes epidemic. Many
writers have classed the dancing mania (the original “St.
Vitus’s dance”), tarantism, and the strange excesses of cer-
tain religionists (dervishes, French prophets, “jumpers,”
and “convulsionists”) all as varieties of chorea. Stam-
mering has been called a chorea of the vocal organs. The
CHORLEY-CHRIST.
937
disease is sometimes associated with rheumatism and with
anaemia. Such complications should receive special treat-
ment. The metallic tonics are generally useful, and so are
systematic gymnastics, life in the open air, and a kind and
unobtrusive discipline, which shall teach the young patient
the power of the will over the movements of the body.
Chor/ley, a town of England, in Lancashire, on a hill
and on the river Chor, 20 miles N. W. of Manchester. It
is connected by a railway with Preston and Bolton. It has
an ancient parish church in the Norman style, and a hand-
some Gothic church. The place owes its prosperity to va-
rious manufactures of cotton yarn, muslin, jaconet, calico,
and gingham. Mines of coal and lead and quarries of
slate are worked in the vicinity. Pop. 15,013.
Choſroid Coat [from the Gr. xoptov, “skin,” and etőos,
“appearance”], the second of the tunics of the eye, cover-
ing the posterior five-sixths of the eyeball, and coming as
far forward as the edge of the cornea. In front it is continued
by the ciliary processes and the iris. It joins the sclerotic
by means of the ciliary ligament and muscle. It is highly
vascular, and is pigmentary, being of a kind of chocolate
color. It is in three layers. The outermost is connected
to the sclerotic by the membrama fusca. This coat consists
principally of the vorticose veins, with pigment-cells. The
middle layer (twmica Ruyschiana) consists of capillaries.
The inner layer consists of tesselated epithelium, charged
with pigment. This layer is lined by the retina. The
choroid coat is liable to an inflammatory disease known as
choroiditis.
Cho'rus [Gr. xopós; Lat. chorus], a Latin word by which
is understood the union of musicians for the performance
of a musical work. In modern music a combination of
voices or instruments is called a chorus. A vocal chorus
is mixed or complete where it consists of all or part
of the four principal voices. There are also choruses for
male and female voices. An instrumental chorus is the
name applied especially to a combination of wind instru-
ments. A musical passage thus unitedly rendered is termed
also a chorus. In operas and the oratorio it is of the great-
est importance. In the immense musical festivals or jubi-
lees recently held in different parts of Europe and America
the choruses have comprised many thousand voices.
Chorus in the ancient drama was a band of singers and
dancers employed on the stage. In the Attic tragedy and
comedy the chorus consisted of a group of males and fe-
males, who remained on the stage during the performance
as witnesses. When a pause took place in the drama the
chorus sang or spoke verses having reference to the subject.
At times the chorus took part with or against the persons
in the drama, by way of advice, comfort, or dissuasion. Its
leader was called the coryphaeus. The charge of organiz-
ing it was considered a great honor. At times the chorus
was divided, and spoke or sang antiphonally. How the
musical element of the ancient chorus was constituted is
not known. It was doubtless very simple, and was accom-
panied by flutes.
Chose in Action, in law, a thing in action. This is
a term used to express all rights enforceable by action in a
court of justice. Blackstone, in his “Commentaries,” con-
fines it to rights growing out of contracts. Modern usage
extends it to claims arising from torts or wrongs. (See
CoNTRACTs, Torts, Assign MENT, CHATTEL, etc.)
Cho’ tank, a township of King George co., Va. Pop,
2814.
Choteau, a county in the N. part of Montana. It is
intersected by the Missouri River and the Milk River.
The surface is partly mountainous, but it contains some
broad treeless plains and considerable arable land. Area,
14,195 square miles. The climate is quite moderate, from
the comparatively small elevation above the sea. Capital,
Fort Benton. Pop. 517.
Choſtyn, Kho’tin, or Choc'zim, a fortified town of
Southern Russia, in Bessarabia, on the Dniester, 45 miles
S. W. of Kamieniec. It is an important military post, which
formerly belonged to the Turks, from whom it was taken
by the Russians in 1739. Pop. in 1867, 20,917.
Chouans, a name of the French royalists of Brittany
who revolted against the French Convention in 1792.
Chouan, which signifies an “owl,” was the nickname of
Jean Cottereau, who was the leader of the insurgents, and
had previously been a smuggler. This insurrection was
called La Chouannerie. Cottereau gained some success in
guerilla warfare, and eventually united his troops with
the Wendeans. They were defeated at Le Mans in Dec.,
1793. Cottereau was killed in a fight in July, 1794. New
movements of the Chouans took place in 1799, and again
in 1814 and 1815, but they were easily suppressed.
Chough, chijf [etymology uncertain], (Fregilus), a bird
of the crow family, approaching the character of the star-
ling, but resembling the crow in having its nostrils covered
with bristles. The beak is long, strong, arched, and pointed.
Chough.
The tail is slightly rounded. The Cornish chough, or red-
legged crow (Fregilus graculus), inhabits many parts of
Europe and Asia and the north of Africa, dwelling on high
cliffs. Its long claws enable it to cling to a rock, but it
seems unwilling to set its feet on turf. It lives in Societies
like the rook. It feeds on insects, berries, grubs, and grain.
It is easily tamed, and exhibits in the highest degree the
disposition which characterizes others of the crow family.
Other species of chough are natives of Australia, Java, etc.
The alpine chough is a CHOCARD (which see).
Choules (John OvIRTON), D. D., born at Bristol, Eng-
land, Feb. 5, 1801, studied theology at Bristol College
(England). He arrived in America in 1824, and engaged
immediately in teaching, for which he seems to have had
unusual adaptation, and to which he devoted himself, to
some extent, throughout his life. He was pastor of Baptist
churches in New Bedford, Mass., Buffalo, N. Y., Jamaica.
Plain, Mass., and Newport, R.I., and edited several works,
the most important of which was Neal’s “History of the
Puritans,” and published “The Young Americans Abroad”
and “A History of Christian Missions.” Died in New York
Jan. 5, 1856.
Chouteau (AUGUSTE and PIERRE), two brothers noted
as the founders of the city of St. Louis, Mo. They removed
from New Orleans to the site of St. Louis in 1764. Auguste
died in 1829, and Pierre in 1849. The latter had a son
Pierre (born 1789; died Sept. 8, 1865), an eminent mer-
chant in the fur-trade.
Chowan’, a river of North Carolina, is formed by the
Meherrin and Nottoway rivers, which unite about 5 miles
above Winton. It flows south-eastward, and then South-
ward, forms the boundary between Chowan and Bertie
counties, and enters Albemarle Sound at its western end.
It is about 50 miles long, and is navigable for sloops.
Chowan, a county in the N. E. of North Carolina.
Area, 240 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by Albe-
marle Sound, and on the W. by the Chowan River. The
surface is nearly level. Corn and cotton are staple prod-
ucts. Capital, Edenton. Pop. 6450.
Chrestom'athy [Gr. xpmatop.69eta], according to the
etymology, is that which is useful to learn. The Greeks
frequently formed commonplace books by collecting the
various passages to which in the course of reading they
had affixed the mark X (xpma Tós). Hence books of extracts
chosen with a view to utility have received this name.
Chres/tus of Byzantium, one of the most distin-
guished pupils of Herodes Atticus, a contemporary of the
emperor Aurelius. He was celebrated for his eloquence,
and taught rhetoric with great success, having many dis-
tinguished men among his hearers. Of his writings nothing
is preserved. Philostratus has given notices of him in his
lives of the Sophists. HENRY DRISLER.
Chrism [Gr. xplorua, from xpio, to “anoint”], the oil
which is used in the Greek, Roman Catholic, and Oriental
churches in the administration of baptism, confirmation,
ordination, extreme unction, etc. There are two kinds of
chrism—the one, a mixture of oil and balsam, is used in
baptism, confirmation, and ordination; the other, which is
mere oil, is used in extreme unction. The chrism of the
Eastern Church contains more than forty ingredients.
Chris’ome [from the Gr. xplorua, an “anointing”], the
white vesture laid by the priest on the child in former times
at baptism, to signify its innocence. It was generally pre-
sented by the mother as an offering to the church, but if
the child died before the mother was churched after the
next child's birth, it was used as a shroud. A chrisome
child is a child in chrisome cloth.
Christ [Gr. xpatós; Lat. Christus], a word which was

*
938
CHRISTADELPHIANS-CHRISTIAN CONNECTION.
at first a title of our Saviour, now in general use as part
of his name. It is Greek, signifies anointed, and corre-
sponds exactly in meaning and use with the Hebrew word
Messiah. As kings were anointed on being called to their
offices, so the Saviour was anointed (Acts x. 38) “with the
Holy Ghost and with power.” This anointing signifies a
consecration or setting apart for a peculiar work. (For
the historical account of Christ, see JESUS; for an account
of the doctrines held with regard to Christ's nature, see
CHRISTOLOGY, by PROF. W. G. T. SHEDD, D.D.) -
Christadel/phians (“brothers of Christ”), a religious
body of recent origin who are becoming numerous in some
parts of the U. S. They attach equal importance to the
Old and New Testaments, and believe that the intention
of the Creator is to recall to immortal life all who love him
in this life, who shall people this world. All who have not
caught the immortal principle perish in death. They re-
ject the doctrine of a personal devil. Christ, they believe,
is the Son of God, deriving from the Deity moral perfec-
tion, but from his mother the common nature of Adam.
They ascribe to him the threefold character of prophet,
priest, and king. The first office he fulfilled by his life and
death on earth; as priest he now mediates before the Deity;
and as king he will return to earth and reign from the throne
of David over the glorified world.
Christ/church, a borough and seaport of England, in
Hampshire, on the English Channel, and at the head of the
estuary formed by the rivers Avon and Stour, 24 miles
S. W. of Southampton. Here is a priory church, one of
the most interesting of English ecclesiastical structures,
which was partly built on an ancient foundation in the
reign of William Rufus. Christchurch has manufactures
of springs for watches and clocks, and several breweries.
The phenomenon of a double tide occurs here every twelve
hours. Pop. 9368.
Christ Church, a town of New Zealand, capital of the
province of Canterbury, is situated on the banks of the
river Avon, 7 miles from the sea. It is connected by rail-
way with Lyttleton, which is its port, and by telegraph
with nearly all the leading towns. It is the seat of an An-
glican bishop, and has a college. Pop. in 1871, 7931; with
the suburbs, 12,466.
Christ Church, a township of Charleston co., S. C.
Pop. 4493. -
Chris'tening, a term used as a synonym for baptism.
It is disliked by some as favoring the doctrine of baptismal
regeneration, being, according to its derivation, expressive
of the notion that a person is made a Christian in baptism.
But it is usually employed without the intention of convey-
ing any such opinion.
Chris’tian, a county in S. Central Illinois. Area, 875
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Sangamon
River, and intersected by the South Fork of that river.
The surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Corn, wheat,
cattle, hay, tobacco, and butter are produced. It is trav-
ersed by the Central, the Toledo Wabash and Western, the
Springfield and Illinois South-eastern, and the Indianapo-
lis and St. Louis R. Rs. Coal is found here. Capital,
Taylorsville. Pop. 20,363.
Christian, a county of Kentucky, bordering on Ten-
nessee. Area, 700 square miles. It is drained by Little
River and several creeks. The surface of the N. part is
hilly, and that of the S. is level; the soil is fertile. To-
bacco, corn, wheat, and live-stock are largely raised. Coal
and limestone abound here. The county is intersected by
the St. Louis Evansville Henderson and Nashville R. R.
Capital, Hopkinsville. Pop. 23,227.
Christiam, a county in the S. W. of Missouri. Area,
500 square miles. It is drained by the James River and
Swan Creek. The soil of some parts is fertile. Corn and
tobacco are the staple crops. Copper, iron, and lead are
found here. Capital, Ozark. Pop. 6707.
Christian, a township of Independence co., Ark.
Pop. 1327.
Christian H.M., king of Denmark, a son of John, was
born July 2, 1481. He began to reign in 1513, and married
Isabella, a sister of the emperor Charles V., in 1515. In
1520 he invaded Sweden, which he partially conquered.
He usurped the throne of Sweden, and abused his power
by cruelty, but he was expelled by Gustavus Vasa in 1522.
His Danish subjects also revolted, deposed him, and elected
his uncle, Frederick I.; in 1523. Christian retired to Flan-
ders, and returned with an army in 1531, but was defeated
and kept in prison until his death, Jan. 25, 1559. (See
BEHRMANN, “Kong Christiern II., Historie,” 1815.)
Christian IV., king of Denmark, born April 12, 1577,
was the son and successor of Frederick II., who died in
to unite in this great undertaking.
ment.
1588. He became in 1625 the commander of the Protestant
armies in the Thirty Years' war against the emperor of
Austria. In 1626 he was defeated by the imperialist gen-
eral Tilly at Lutter. He waged war against Sweden from
1611 to 1613, and again from 1643 to 1645. He was an
able ruler, and promoted the prosperity of Denmark. He
died Feb. 28, 1648. (See RASMUs NYERUP, “ Charakter-
istik af Kong Christian IV.,” 1816.)
Christian VII.2 king of Denmark, born Jan. 29, 1749,
was a son of Frederick W. His mother was Louisa, a
daughter of George II. of England. He began to reign in
Jan., 1766, and married his cousin Caroline Matilda, a
sister of George III. of England, in the same year. His
physician, Struensee, obtained the chief power in 1770, and
was supported by the favor of the queen, but he was un-
popular with the nation. Christian VII. was so feeble and
morbid that he was incapable of reigning. He died Mar.
13, 1808, and was succeeded by his son, Frederick VI., who
had been regent since 1784.
Christian VIII., king of Denmark, born Sept. 18,
1786, was a cousin of Frederick VI. He was chosen king
of Norway in 1814, but being unable to defend it against
Bernadotte, who invaded Norway, he abdicated in Oct.,
1814. He succeeded Frederick VI. in 1839, and died Jan.
20, 1848, leaving the throne to his son, Frederick VII.
Christian IX., king of Denmark, a son of Friederich
Wilhelm, duke of Sleswick-Holstein, was born April 8, 1818.
IHe ascended the throne in Nov., 1863, and was soon in-
volved in a war against the German confederation, which
disputed the right of the king to incorporate Sleswick with
Denmark. The Danes were defeated, and Christian IX.
signed in Aug., 1864, a treaty by which he ceded the
duchies of Sleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg to Austria
and Prussia.
Christia'na, a post-hundred of Newcastle co., Del.
Pop. 5370.
Christiana, a post-village of Sadsbury township, Lan-
caster co., Pa., on the Pennsylvania, R. R., 21 miles E. by
S. of Lancaster, has manufactures of iron castings and
machinery, and a brisk trade.
Christiana, a post-township of Dane co., Wis. Pop.
1342.
Christiana, a township of Vernon co., Wis. Pop.
1133.
Chris’tian Commis'sion, or, more fully, The
United States Christian Commission, a great or-
ganization in the Northern U. S. during the late civil war.
It was organized Nov. 14, 1861, at New York. Its work
was designed to supplement that of the great Sanitary
Commission, for while the object of the latter was more es-
pecially the care of the sanitary condition of the national
armies, the relief of the wounded and sick, etc., the Chris-
tian Commission also gave especial attention to the religious
needs of the troops, co-operating with the chaplains, while
the Sanitary Commission more especially co-operated with
the medical officers of the army. At the same time the
two societies entered into a generous rivalry in the work
of supplying the material wants of the sick and wounded
soldiers. The Christian Commission was first proposed by
Mr. Vincent Collyer of New York, and originated by a call
of the Young Men’s Christian Association of New York
(Sept. 23, 1861) upon all similar associations in the North
The good work accom-
plished by the Commission can never be duly estimated.
(See Moss, “Annals of the Christian Commission.”)
Chris/tian Connection (or simply Christians?),
a religious denomination which arose in the U. S. about the
beginning of the present century. This body originated
in three distinct movements in three of the older denom-
inations of the U. S. : (1) in the “O’Kelly Secession ”
(1793) from the Methodist Episcopal Church. O’Kelly's
followers were at first called “Republican Methodists,” but
afterwards chose the name of “Christians,” and declared
the Bible alone to be their rule of faith and church govern-
(2) Dr. Abner Jones of Hartland, Vt., a Baptist,
organized in 1800 a church which disavowed all creeds and
sectarianism, and received the Bible as their only rule.
They were joined by many ministers and others, chiefly of
the Baptist and Freewill Baptist, denominations. (3) A
body of Presbyterians of Kentucky and Tennessee, who
seceded in 1801 from the parent Church, and in 1803 took
the name of Christians. The above three bodies were fin-
ally united into a “general convention,” which meets
quadrennially. The churches, however, are independent
in church government.
The “General Baptists” of England and Wales hold
*This name is often pronounced Krist/chan, in order to dis-
tinguish it from the common word, Christian.
CHRISTIAN ERA –CHRISTIANS OF ST. THOMAS.
939
doctrinal views very similar to those of the Christians, and
the two bodies are in fellowship with each other. They
invite all believers to their communion.
They are opposed to infant baptism, have no creed ex-
cept the Bible, practise immersion in baptism, and are, as
a general rule, Unitarian in their doctrines. They have in
the U. S. about 150,000 communicants, and support several
colleges and other schools. They are also found in Eng-
land and her colonies. The denomination called “Camp-
bellites” and “Disciples”, also call themselves “Chris-
tians.” (See DISCIPLES OF CHRIST.)
Christian Era [Fr. ere Chrétienne], the name of the
great era, from which all Christian nations compute their
time, once supposed to correspond to the date of the birth
of Christ. But, according to some of the best authorities,
Christ was born on the 5th of April, four years before the
commencement of our era (others say on the 25th of De-
cember, four or five years before that time). The practice
of reckoning time from the (supposed) birth of Christ ap-
pears not to have been introduced into the Christian Church
until the sixth century, when Dionysius surnamed the Lit-
tle (Exiguus), a monk of Syria, first made use of it about
527 A. D. It was soon after introduced into Italy, and into
France in the following century. The first instance re-
corded of its being employed in England was in 680. But
the practice did not become universal throughout Christen-
dom until about the middle of the fifteenth century.
Christia/nia, the capital of Norway and of the stift
of the same name, is picturesquely situated in a valley and
at the head of the navigable Christiania. Fiord, about 55
miles from the sea. ; lat. of observatory, 59° 55' N., lon. 10°
43' E. The environs of the city are beautiful, and visitors
who approach it by the fiord pass through magnificent
Scenery. It contains a cathedral, a citadel, a royal palace,
a great arsenal, a town-hall, two theatres, an exchange, an
asylum for lunatics, and a university founded in 1811,
which has a library of 150,000 volumes. The average num-
ber of students is nearly 600. Connected with the univer-
sity is an astronomical observatory. Here are manufactures
of cotton, paper, glass, soap, etc. The chief articles of ex-
port are timber, iron, and glass. The harbor and fiord are
closed by ice for three or four months in the year. It is a
bishop’s see, and was founded in 1624 by Christian IV. on
the site of the burned royal city of Opslo. Pop. in 1869,
64,935.
Christian'ity [from the Gr. Xpwartavés, a “follower of
Christ”], a system of religion which comes to us with a
claim to be accepted as of divine origin. It professes to be
no product of the human intellect, and acknowledges no au-
thor but the Being whom it sets before us as the object of
worship. It claims to be the only true religion, and is con-
sequently exclusive; that is to say, it admits of no compro-
mise with any other religious system.
As a system it cannot be viewed as distinct from the re-
ligion of the Jews and of the patriarchs; it is the same re-
ligion adapted to new circumstances; there has been a
change of dispensation alone. In studying Christianity
we are obliged constantly to revert from the New Tes-
tament to the Old, and in some measure to trace the his–
tory of this through the preparatory dispensations. Chris-
tianity may be regarded as having its foundation in the
doctrine of the existence of one God. Man is repre-
sented as involved in misery, incapacitated for the service
of God, and liable to punishment for sin in a future state.
The doctrine of the atonement claims special attention—a
doctrine taught in all the sacrifices of the patriarchal and
Jewish dispensations, as well as by the words of the Bible.
Man being utterly incapable of effecting his own deliver-
ance, God sent his Son to save sinners, to make them holy
and partakers of eternal life.
By Unitarians and others who do not accept the above
view, atonement or reconciliation with God is made to de-
pend on repentance, while the life and death of Christ are
represented as an example to us of obedience, virtue, good-
ness, and beneficence, under most trying circumstances; in
which view the doctrines of a propitiatory sacrifice and im-
puted righteousness fall to the ground. These doctrines,
however, are held by most of those who receive the doc-
trime of the Trinity and the generally received doctrine as
to the incarnation of the Son of God, which is regarded as
a glorious example of Divine condescension and a very
great exaltation of human nature, while the highest dig-
nity and bliss of which humanity is capable is believed to
be attainable only by faith in Jesus Christ. According to
this view, the connection between faith and salvation arises
from the Divine appointment, which, however, provides for
bringing into exercise, in harmony with the intellectual and
moral nature of man, most powerful and excellent motives
for all that is morally good, the partakers of salvation be-
ing thus fitted for the fellowship of God.
The doctrine of divine grace is a part of the system of
Christianity on which very important differences of opinion
subsist, especially as to the relation of grace to individual
men. Such are the differences concerning election, and con-
cerning man’s ability or inability to exercise saving faith
of himself. But by Christians generally the relation of
the believer to Christ, and his faith in Christ, are ascribed
to the Holy Ghost or Spirit of God, the third person of the
Godhead. (See CALVINISM and ARMINIANISM.)
Salvation is viewed as beginning in regeneration, and as
carried on in sanctification, and all its joys as connected
with the progress of sanctification in this life or in that
which is to come. Faith in Christ cannot be unaccom-
panied with repentance; though believers are holy in con-
trast to what they once were, yet there is none in this life
free from sin, the tempter of our first parents being still
the active enemy of men. Responsibility belongs to human
nature; and the doctrine of a judgment to come may be
considered as to a certain extent a doctrine of natural re-
ligion, as may also that of the immortality of the soul; but
the clear and distinct enunciation of these doctrines belongs
to the Christian religion.
Of the moral element of Christianity it is sufficient here
to state that it is harmonious with the doctrinal part and
inseparable from it; that it is founded upon the teachings
of the Bible with regard to the moral attributes of God,
and is exemplified in the character of Jesus Christ; and
that it is divisible into two great parts—one of the love of
God, and the other of the love of man.
Among what are termed the means of grace, which form
so important a part of the system, the doctrine contained
in the Bible first claims attention as the means of conver-
sion and of edification, the instrument by which salvation
is begun and carried on. The ordinances of worship, prayer,
and sacraments are means of grace, concerning the relative
importance of which, as compared with the other means,
considerable difference of opinion prevails. The same re-
mark applies also to the combination of Christians into an
organized body with its own system of church government
and discipline. -
The truth of Christianity is supported by many different
evidences, independent, but mutually corroborative. It ap-
peals to reason, and demands to have its claims examined.
Nor is there any faith where there is not a mental conviction
arrived at by reasoning, direct or indirect. (See EVIDENCES
of CHRISTIANITY.)
Christianity is now the dominant religion in all countries
of America, in Australia, and in Europe (except in Turkey),
and it makes steady progress in Asia and Africa. It is
divided into a large number of denominations or sects,
which may be classed in three large groups—the Roman
Catholic Church, the Oriental churches, and all the other
churches. Most or all of the denominations of the third
class are sometimes comprised under the name Protestants.
In 1872 the aggregate population connected with the vari-
ous denominations of Christians was estimated at about
380,000,000, in a total population of the globe of about
1,380,000,000. The Roman Catholic Church numbered a
population of about 197,000,000, and the Oriental churches
about 83,000,000. (See EASTERN CHURCHES, GREEK
CHURCH, RomfAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, and the names of
various denominations.) J. THOMAS.
Christian Knowledge, Society of. See SOCIETY
of CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE. -
Christians (a religious denomination). See CHRISTIAN
CoNNECTION. º
Chris’tiansand, a fortified seaport-town of Norway,
is near its southern extremity and on the Skager-Rack,
about 160 miles S. W. of Christiania. It has a good har-
bor, a citadel, a Gothic cathedral, the finest sacred build-
ing in Norway except the one at Trondhjem, a custom-
house, and a gymnasium. Shipbuilding is the principal
industry. It is a bishop’s see and the capital of a stift.
Timber, salmon, etc. are exported hence. Pop. 10,876.
Chris/tiansburg, a post-village of Shelby co., Ky.,
on the Louisville and Lexington R. R., 49 miles E. of Louis-
ville.
Christiansburg, a incorporated town, capital of Mont-
gomery co., Va., on the Atlantic Mississippi and Ohio R. R.,
86 miles W. of Lynchburg, 2200 feet above the sea-level.
It has a female college, an academy, tobacco and shoe fac-
tories, two churches, and one newspaper. Pop. 864; of
township, 3316. NELSON CONRAD,
ED. MoRTGOMERY “MESSENGER.”
Christians of St. Thomas, a very ancient Christian
sect of India, found especially along the Malabar coast.
They claim to be descendants of converts made in India.
by the apostle Thomas, but they are generally believed to
have been converted by Persian missionaries in the early
ages of the Church. In 1599 the greater part were induced
940
CHRISTIANSTAD–CHRISTOLOGY.
by the Jesuits to unite with the Church of Rome, and at
present about three-fourths of their number are Roman
Catholics. Of the latter class more than one-half have a
Syriac church-service, while the remainder are of the Latin
rite. Of those who are not united to the Church of Rome
there were in 1859 about 70,000, and ten years later they
claimed for themselves 190,000 members, which is undoubt-
edly in excess of their number. They acknowledge the su-
premacy of the Jacobite patriarch of Antioch, though they
were formerly Nestorians of the patriarchate of Mosul. Our
knowledge of the history of this interesting people will
probably be always limited, most of their literature having
been burned as heretical by order of the synod of Diamper
(1599). There was anciently, it would seem, more than one
sect among them. According to Mr. Ludlow, they are at
present both socially and morally much debased, though
they were once the dominant class in Malabar. They are
now found principally in Travancore. (See Hough’s “His-
tory of Christianity in India,” 4 vols., 1839–45.)
Christianstad', a fortified town of Sweden, capital
of a laen of its own name, is on the river Helge, about 9
miles from its entrance to the Baltic and 267 miles S. W.
of Stockholm. It has broad streets and wooden houses.
In the vicinity are the immense alum-works at Andrarum
(5000 tons annually). It has an arsenal, a barrack, and a
fine church; also manufactures of linen and woollen fab-
rics and gloves. Pop. 7710.
Chris’tiansted’, the chief town of the island of St.
Croix, in the West Indies, is on the N. E. coast. It has a
good harbor, which is defended by a fort. The governor-
general of the Danish West Indies resides here. Pop. 6560.
Chris’tiansund', a seaport-town of Norway, on three
islands, which enclose its harbor. It is in the district of
Romsdal, and 85 miles W. S. W. of Trondhjem. The trade
is good, and fishing is largely pursued. Pop. 5709.
Christiansville, a township and post-village of Meck-
lenburg co., Va., 15 miles S. of Lunenburg. Pop. 2550.
Christian Union Churches. See APPENDIx.
Christie (WILLIAM D.). See APPENDIx.
Christi'na, queen of Sweden, born Dec. 6, 1626, was
the only surviving child of Gustavus Adolphus. She re-
ceived a solid and masculine education, and learned Latin,
Greek, Hebrew, politics, etc. When her father died, in
1632, she was recognized as his successor, under the re-
gency of Oxenstiern. In 1644 she assumed royal power,
and in 1648 concluded the treaty of Westphalia, by which
Pomerania was annexed to Sweden. Her mind was strong
and her character eccentric. Her subjects wished that she
should choose a husband, but she manifested a constant
aversion to marriage. Her eccentricity was also exhibited
in the extravagant patronage of authors, pedants, artists,
and buffoons. In 1650 her cousin, Charles Gustavus, was
designated as heir to the throne by the states of Sweden,
with the assent of the queen. Impatient of the personal
restraint which the etiquette of court imposed on her, she
abdicated the throne in June, 1654, while still in the bloom
of youth. This act has been variously attributed to lovity
and magnanimity. She reserved supreme power over her
suite and household, embraced the Roman Catholic religion,
and became a resident of Rome. She patronized artists,
founded an academy at Rome, and meddled with astrology
and other chimerical pursuits. In 1657 she caused her
grand equerry, Monaldeschi, to be put to death for treason.
It is said she wished to recover the crown of Sweden when
the king died in 1660, but she did not succeed. Died April
19, 1689. (See LACOMBE, “Histoire de Christine,” 1762;
ARCHENHOLz, “Memoirs of the Life of Christina,” Stock-
holm, 4 vols., 1751, in French; H. WooDHEAD, “Memoirs of
Christina of Sweden,” 1863.)
Christi'nos, the name of a political party in Spain
during the regency of Queen Maria Christina, embracing
the adherents of the queen. They were opposed by the
CARLISTS (which see).
Christison (Sir ROBERT), a Scotch physician, professor
of materia medica in the University of Edinburgh, born
July 18, 1797, studied in Paris with Orfila. He has written,
among other works, a “Treatise on Poisons” (1829), a
standard authority. He was made a baronet in Nov.,
1871.
Christ/lieb (THEODOR), D.D., was born in Würtemberg
in 1833, studied at Tübingen, taught in France, and became
a preacher in London, where he published his famous lec-
tures on “Modern Doubt and Christian Belief.” He re-
turned to Germany in 1865, and in 1868 became university
preacher and professor of theology at Bonn. In 1873 he
visited the U. S. as a delegate of the Evangelical Alliance.
Here he delivered an address of great ability upon the
rationalism of the present day. -
date of 1521.
Christ/mas [so called because an especial mass, the
“ mass of Christ,” was celebrated on that day; Fr. Noël,
Ger. Weihnachten : It. Natale, i.e. “birthday ”I, the day
on which the birth of the Saviour is celebrated. The ob-
servance of the 25th of Dec. is ascribed to Julius, bishop
of Rome, A. D. 337–352. The Eastern Church had pre-
viously observed the 6th of Jan., in commemoration both
of the baptism and of the birth of Christ. Before the
end of the fourth century the East and the West had ex-
changed festivals, the West adopting Jan. 6, in com-
memoration of our Lord’s baptism, and the East adopting
Dec. 25, in commemoration of our Lord’s birth. The ex-
act date of Christ's birth appears not to have been known
to the early Church, and cannot now be determined. That
the date was preserved in the public archives at Rome,
though asserted by some of the ancient Fathers, is now not
generally credited. As for the year, critical opinion is
gravitating towards the year 5 or 4 B. C. And as for the
day, we may be helped to a decision by considering that
between the middle of December and the middle of Feb-
ruary there is generally in Palestine an interval of com-
paratively dry weather, preceded and followed by the
early and the latter rain. Thus, there might have been
shepherds on the plain of Bethlehem watching their flocks
by night.
Christmas is celebrated on the 25th of Dec. in nearly
every part of Christendom. Among the causes that oper-
ated in fixing this period, perhaps the most powerful was
that most heathen nations regarded the winter solstice as
the beginning of the renewed life and activity of the powers
of nature. The Romans, Celts, and Germans, from the
oldest times, celebrated the season with great feasts. At
the winter solstice the Germans held their Yule-feast, and
believed that during the twelve nights reaching from the
25th of Dec. to the 6th of Jan. they could trace the personal
movements on earth of their great deities. Some of these
usages passed over from heathenism to Christianity, and
have partly survived to the present day. But the Church
sought to banish the deep-rooted heathen element by intro-
ducing its grand liturgy, besides dramatic representations
of the birth of . Christ and the first events of his life.
Hence the so-called “manger-songs” and Christmas carols.
Hence also the Christmas trees adorned with lights and
other decorations, the custom of reciprocal presents and of
Christmas meats and dishes. Christmas became a univer-
sal festival.
In the Roman Church three Christmas masses are usu-
ally performed—one at midnight, one at daybreak, and
one in the morning. The day is also celebrated by the
Anglican churches. The Greek and Lutheran churches
likewise observe Christmas, but the Presbyterians and the
English dissenters reject it in its religious aspect, although
in England and the U. S. people of nearly all sects keep it
as a social holiday, on which there is a cessation from all
business. The festivities formerly lasted with more or less
brilliancy till Candlemas, and with great spirit till Twelfth
Day. (See CASSEL, “Weihnachten Ursprung, Bräuche
und Aberglauben,” 1862.)
REVISED BY R. D. HITCHCOCK.
Christmas Carols [Fr. carole ; It. carola, a “round
dance,” perhaps from the Lat. corolla, a “circlet;” Welsh,
coroli, to “dance,” the name being thence applied to the
music or song accompanying such a dance]. The word carol
signifies a song of joy. The practice of singing sacred
songs in celebration of the nativity of Christ as early as the
second century is considered as established. Christmas
carols are believed to have been devised as a substitute
for the songs of the old heathen festivals. The oldest
printed collection of English Christmas carols bears the
By the Puritan Parliament Christmas was
abolished altogether, and holly and ivy were made seditious
badges; and in 1630 the Psalms, arranged as carols, were
advertised. After the Restoration, the Christmas carols
again exhibited their ancient hearty, jovial character.
Those with which the dawn of Christmas is now announced
in England are generally religious, though not universally
so. The custom is by no means peculiarly English, being
found in other countries of Europe.
Christol’ogy [Gr. XpworroMoyta, “ doctrine concerning
Christ”] may include everything relating to the work as
well as to the person of Christ, but as the work of Christ
is discussed under Soteriology, it is better to confine Chris-
tology to the person, and we shall so employ it.
The incarnation of one of the persons of the Trinity
results in a peculiar kind of self-consciousness, which is
neither divine alone nor human alone, but Divine-human.
Jesus Christ is not merely God, for in this case he would
not differ as a person from the unincarnate Logos in the
bosom of the Father. (John i. 18.) Neither is he merely
man, for in this case he would not differ in respect to the
CHRISTOPHE-CHRISTOPHER.
941
species of his personality from Socrates or any other human
being. But he is God and man united—the God-man—a
unique and singular species of person.
The early Church was not forced, by false theories re-
specting the nature of Christ, to make nice distinctions
and definitions, and consequently made none. It was con-
tent with worshipping Jesus Christ; and worship is a more
direct and impressive affirmation of his divinity than even
a dogmatic assertion of it. In course of time, however,
several errors arose which compelled the Church to make a
careful and guarded statement of the peculiarity of Christ's
complex person. The first of these errors was Arianism,
which denied the existence of a truly and properly divine
nature in Jesus Christ. The Arians allowed that he had
in the composition of his wonderful personality a very ex-
alted nature, which is higher than that of any creature
whatever, but which is not literally and metaphysically
divine. This highly exalted and superhuman nature,
united with a human soul and body, constituted the Arian
Christ. The second error was Patripassianism. The Patri-
passians asserted the real and strict Deity in Christ's per-
son, but denied his humanity. According to them, the one
solitary person of God (for they also denied a real distinc-
tion of persons in the Godhead) united itself with a human
body, but not with a human soul. This single person of
God, whom they denominated the Father, thus united with
a material body, was the Patripassian Son of God, or
Christ. Anterior to this union there was no Son of God.
The third error was the Nestorian. This pertained to the
relations of the two natures to each other, and not to the
natures themselves, both of which were conceded. The
Nestorian Christ is two persons, one divine and one human,
in union. The important distinction between a nature and
a person is not recognized. Nestorianism overlooked the
fact that the second person in the Trinity did not assume
into union with himself a human individual, but a portion
of human nature not yet individualized. The Logos, in
the words of Hooker, “did not assume a man’s person into
his own person, but a man’s nature to his own person; he
took semen, the seed of Abraham (Heb. ii. 16), the very
first original element of our nature, before it was come to
have any personal subsistence.” The union is embryonic,
and thus yields only a single personality. But instead of
thus blending the divinity and the humanity into one self,
the Nestorian scheme places two distinct selves, one divine
and one human, side by side, and allows only a moral and
sympathetic union between them. There is a God and
there is a man, but there is no God-man. The fourth of
the ancient errors in Christology is the Eutychian or Mo-
nophysite. This is the opposite error to Nestorianism. It
asserts the unity of self-consciousness in the person of
Christ, but loses the duality of the matures. In and by
the incarnation the human nature is transmuted into the
divine, so that after the incarnation there remains only one
nature. For this reason the Monophysites held that it is
correct to say that “God suffered,” meaning thereby that
Jesus Christ suffered in the divine nature.
The Council of Ephesus in 431 made some beginning
towards the settlement of the questions involved, but it
was reserved for the Council of Chalcedon in 451 to make
the final statement. The Chalcedon symbol defines Christ's
person as follows: “We teach that Jesus Christ is perfect
as respects Godhood and perfect as respects manhood—that
he is truly God, and truly a man consisting of a rational soul
and body. He was begotten of the Father before creation
as to his deity, but in these last days he was born of Mary,
the mother of God, as to his humanity. He is one Christ
existing in two matures, without mixture, without change,
without division, without separation—the diversity of the
two natures not being at all destroyed by their union in the
person, but the peculiar properties of each nature being
preserved, and concurring to one person and one sub-
sistence.”
This statement asserts the continued and everlasting
existence of two natures in Christ's complex person, and
adjusts their relations to each other. In the first place,
the union of the two natures does not confuse or mix them
in such a manner as to destroy their distinctive properties
or transmute one into the other. The deity of Christ is
just as pure and simple deity after the incarnation as
before it; and the humanity of Christ is just as pure
and simple human nature as that of Mary his mother
or any other human individual, sin being excluded. In
the second place, the Chalcedon statement prohibits the
division of Christ into two selves or persons. The in-
carnating act, while it makes no changes in the properties
of the two united natures, gives as a resultant a person
that is a tertium quid—a resultant that is neither a human
person nor a divine person, but a theanthropic person. Con-
templating Jesus Christ as the result of the union of God
and man, he is not to be denominated simply God, and he
of brigade by Toussaint l’Ouverture.
is not to be denominated simply man, but he is to be de-
nominated God-man.
This union of two natures in one self-conscious ego may
be illustrated by reference to man’s personal constitution.
An individual man is one person, but this person consists
of two natures—a material nature and an immaterial na-
ture. The personality, the self-consciousness, is the result
of the wivion of the two. Neither one taken by itself would
yield the person. Both body and Soul are requisite in
order to a complete individuality. The two natures do
not make two individuals in union and alliance. The
material nature, taken by itself, is not the man, and the
mental part, taken by itself, is not the man; only the union
of both is. Yet in this intimate union of two such diverse
Substances as matter and mind, body and soul, there is not
the slightest alteration of the properties of each substance
Or nature. -
It follows from this statement of the Council of Chalce-
don that while the properties of one nature cannot be
attributed to the other nature, the properties of both na-
tures may be attributed to the person resulting from their
union. While it is not proper to say that the Divine nature
suffered, it is proper to say that the God-man suffered.
The first statement attributes to one nature the properties
and acts of the other, and is therefore not allowable. The
second statement asserts that Jesus Christ, the self-con-
scious Ego resulting from the incarnation, endured a pas-
sion the seat and medium of which was the human nature
in this Ego. Here, again, the analogies of finite exist-
ence furnish an illustration. A man suffers the sensation
of heat from a coal of fire. In this instance it would not
be correct to say that the man’s immaterial nature suffers,
in the sense of being itself burned by the fire. The imma-
terial soul is not the sensorium in this instance. It is not
the seat of the physical sensation. To say that it is would
be to attribute to an immaterial nature the properties of a
material nature. Yet, at the same time, the self-conscious
person, the Ego resulting from the union of body and soul,
feels the sensation of physical pain, but it feels it in and
through the material part, and not the immaterial. In
like manner, the entire humanity of Christ, the true body
and reasonable soul, Sustained the same relation to his
divinity that the fleshly part of a man does to his rational
part. It was the sensorium, the passible medium, by and
through which it was possible for the self-conscious Ego,
the God-man, to suffer. Hence, while it is proper to say
that Jesus Christ, the God-man, existed before Abraham,
and was born in the reign of Augustus Caesar, that he was
David’s son and David’s Lord, it would not be proper to
say that the divine nature of Jesus Christ was born in B. C.
750, or that it died upon the cross in A. D. 30.
The positions taken at Chalcedon have been reaffirmed
both in the mediaeval and the modern Church. The doc-
trine of Christ's person is in some of its aspects even more
mysterious and baffling to finite comprehension than the
doctrine of the Trinity, and Christian science has not been
inclined to go beyond the general outlines and distinctions
made in 451. The Lutheran Church, in connection with
the doctrine peculiar to them of the ubiquity of Christ's
person, have made some attempts to explain that pecu-
liarity of Christ’s self-consciousness by which it is some-
times that of finite weakness and sorrow, and at other
times that of infinite majesty and power. But the endeavor
runs too near the brink of the confusion of natures, and
their transmutation into each other, to be regarded as a
real advance upon the Chalcedon Christology. (For the
literature of Christology see DoRNER’s “Person of Christ;”
HAGENBACH's “History of Doctrine;” HookER’s “Eccle-
siastical Polity,” book v., chs. 51–55; PEARSON “On the
Creed;” SchARF’s “Church . History,” III., 747–777 ;
SHEDD’s “History of Doctrine,” I., ch. 5.)
W. G. T. SHEDD.
Christophe (HENRI), a negro king of Hayti, was born
Oct. 6, 1767. He joined in 1790 the insurgents who were
fighting against the French, and was appointed a general
He had a high com-
mand under Dessalines, and after the death of the latter in
1806 became master of the northern part of the island.
Civil war ensued between Christophe and Péthion. Early
in 1811, Christophe was made king of Hayti and crowned
in 1812 as Henri I. He instituted orders of nobility with
such titles as duke of Marmalade and count of Lemonade.
His cruelty provoked his subjects to revolt, and, unable to
quell this rebellion, he killed himself Oct. 8, 1820. Boyer
then became ruler of Hayti.
Chris/topher, Pope, deposed and succeeded Leo V. in
903, and was himself deposed and put to death in the fol-
lowing year. He was succeeded by Sergius III.
Christopher, SAINT, a native of Syria or Palestine,
supposed to have suffered martyrdom about 250 A. D. The
942 '
CHRISTOPOULOS—OHRONOLOGY.
Roman Catholic Church celebrates his festival on the 25th
of July. Many wonderful legends are told of his gigantic
size and his miraculous deeds, but modern antiquaries are
disposed to doubt whether this popular hero ever existed.
Christopou’los (ATHANASIUs), a modern Greek lyric
poet, born at Castoria in May, 1772. He lived in Constan-
tinople and Moldavia. He produced erotic and drinking
songs much admired by his countrymen. He has written
also learned works on the modern Greek tongue. Died
Jan. 29, 1847.
Christ’s Hospital, or the Blue-Coat School,
London, was founded by Edward VI. in 1553 as a hospital
for orphans and foundlings. The dress worn by the boys
at present consists of a blue woollen gown, with a red
leather girdle, yellow breeches and stockings, a clergyman’s
bands, and a blue worsted cap, but this they seldom wear,
generally going about bareheaded. The color of the dress
was formerly russet. No child is admitted before seven or
after ten years of age, and none can remain after fifteen,
except “king's boys’’ (who attend the mathematical school ||
founded by Charles II. in 1672) and “Grecians” (the high-
est class), of whom eight are sent on scholarships to the
universities. About 800 boys can be admitted. The great
...hall of the hospital is a magnificent room. Latin and
Greek are the basis of instruction, but the modern languages,
drawing, etc. are taught. In 1683 the governors built a
preparatory school at Hertford, where the children are in-
structed till they are old enough to enter the hospital,
the girls remaining permanently there. It can receive
about 400 of both sexes. Among the eminent persons ed-
ucated at Christ's Hospital were Stillingfleet, Coleridge, and
Lamb.
Chris’ty, a township of Lawrence co., Ill. Pop. 2904.
Chro’mate of Lead, a fine yellow pigment often
called chrome yellow. It is a native compound of chromic
acid and lead, and is extensively used by painters.
Chromat’ic [from the Gr. xpóp.a., “color” or “modifi-
cation ” in music], in music, is a term applied to a succes-
sion of notes at the distance of a semitone from each other.
The word xpop.atukós was used in a somewhat similar sense
by the ancient Greeks. Ascending chromatic passages are
formed by the whole tones of the diatomic scale being raised
or elevated by a sharp or a natural, according to key, and
descending passages by their being lowered by a flat or a
natural. It is usual to speak of the chromatic scale, but
the foundation of the system of music does not rest on a
chromatic basis, but on a diatonic one.
Chromatics. See Colors.
Chrome. See CHROMIUM.
Chrome Green, an oxide of chromium useful in col-
oring porcelain and enamel.
Chrome Yellow. See CHROMATE of LEAD.
Chro/mic A^cid, a compound of trioxide of chromium
(CrO3) with water (OH2). The formula is CrO4 H2. It
forms several colored compounds, which are used as pig-
ments or dyes. Among these are the chromate and bichro-
mate of potash and the chromate of lead. The ruby derives
its color from this acid. Chromic acid is used in surgery
as a caustic.
Chro/mic I'ron, or Chro’ mite, is the most abundant
ore of chromium, and is found at Unst in the Shetland Isles,
near Portsoy in Scotland, near Gassin in France, in Mary-
land, Pennsylvania, and in other regions. It is composed
chiefly of the oxides of chromium and iron. It sometimes
occurs crystallized in octahedrons, but commonly massive.
Chro’ mium, or Chrome [from the Gr. xpóga, “color”],
(symbol Cr), atomic weight, 26, or (new) 52.5, a metal
discovered by Vauquelin in 1797, and so named from the
many colored compounds it produces. It is whitish, brittle,
and very infusible. Specific gravity, 5.5. It occurs natu-
rally in the form of chromate of lead (PbO4Cr) and in
that of chromite of iron or chrome iron ore (Fe04Cr2).
Combined with oxygen and water, it forms CHROMIC ACID
(which see). Chromium is not used in a metallic or separate
state, but several of its compounds are valuable pigments
and dyestuffs. The oxide of chromium, which is green, is
useful in enamel-painting, and is employed in coloring
wall-paper. The chromate and bichromate of potash are
salts largely used by dyers and calico-printers. The latter
is an anhydrous compound which is of immense service in
the arts. * ..
Chromo. See LITHOGRAPHY.
Chron'icle [from the Gr. xpovirós, “relating to time”
(xpévos)], an historical register of facts and events arranged
in the order of time; a history in which the events are re-
lated in the order of time. The histories written in the
Middle Ages were chronicles. Among the most celebrated
writers of chronicles were Froissart, Eginhard, Monstrelet,
Holinshed, and Geoffrey of Monmouth.
Chron/icles [Lat. Chronica : Gr. rā Xpovºkál, the name
of two canonical books of the Old Testament. They were
originally one book, containing a resumé of the sacred
history from the creation until the Babylonian exile; the
last two verses are repeated as the first verses of Ezra.
The Hebrew name signifies “annals.” The Septuagint
named it IIapaxevºróueva (“Paraleipomena,” Supplements),
and the Vulgate borrowed this name. The character of
the book, however, does not justify the name. It supple-
ments the other historical books only occasionally, often it
is identical with them. Hence the usual title is more cor-
rect. The book was composed at or soon after the time of
Nehemiah by an unknown author. Its peculiar character-
istic is that it is written from the stand-point of interest in
the Levitical and ritualistic institutions, and not from the
stand-point of the theocracy. Its authority was assailed,
during the first half of this century, by the rationalists, but
the searching criticism to which it has been subjected has
convinced unprejudiced scholars that, allowance being made
for the peculiarities of view which it acquired from the
post-exilic Judaism, it contains valuable contributions to
our knowledge of the history of the Israelites.
W. G. SUMNER.
Chron’ogram [from the Gr. xpóvos, “time,” and ypáupa,
a “letter”], an inscription in which a certain date is in-
dicated by printing some of the letters in larger type than
the others, and taking them as Roman numerals. The date
1632 is thus expressed in the inscription of a medal of Gus-
tavus Adolphus: Christ Vs DVX ergo trl VMphVs. If it
is a verse, it is called chronostichon.
Chron’ograph [Gr. xpóvos, “ time,” and ypádio, to
“write ”], an instrument used (chiefly in astronomy) for
recording the exact instant of the occurrence of an event,
such as the transit of a star over the spider-lines of a tele-
scope. The record is made by electro-magnetism. One
point or pen, governed by the clock, marks uniformly the
seconds. Another is brought into action by an electric key
under the finger of the observer. The first chronograph was
simply Morse's telegraphic instrument slightly modified.
The method was originally suggested by Prof. Locke of Cin-
cinnati about 1850. The chronographs now in use usually
employ a rotating cylinder covered with paper, and turning
on a helical axis, each revolution occupying one minute.
Chronol’ogy [from the Gr. xpóvos, “time,” and Aóyos, a
“treatise”] is the science of the dates of events in history.
Mathematical chronology deals with such units of time as
begin and end with the period of complete evolution of re-
curring celestial phenomena. (See CALENDAR.) As in
geography and navigation longitude is measured from
some arbitrary line, such as the meridian through Green-
wich, so in historical chronology dates are fixed by giving
their distance from some arbitrary point of time, usually
chosen because of some remarkable occurrence which sig-
malized it. Such a point, or epoch, forms the beginning of
an era. The mathematical or astronomical units of time
have not been the only units used in historical chronology.
In early times accurate methods of mathematics were un-
known, and such vague periods as “a generation,” or the
life of leading persons in a nation, such as kings, were as-
sumed as units in chronology. The great variety of eras
in ancient times confuses the student. Thus, the era of the
Greeks began with the year of the Olympiad in which Co-
roebus was victor, being the first of those games at which
the victor’s name was recorded (776 B. C.). From this
point the Greeks reckoned time by Olympiads or periods
of four years. The Romans reckoned from the founding
of the city (753 B.C.), which is believed the first fixed
point from which time was ever computed. The Moham-
medan era commences with the flight of Mohammed (622
A. D.), called the Hejra. The Roman and Greek methods
of recording time continued in use long after the birth of
Christ. After 312 A. D., however, the authorized system
throughout the Roman empire was by indictions, periods
of fifteen years, and this mode was at one time almost
universal in the West, though the Olympiads were followed
in the East till 440 A. D. The Christian era, first proposed
in 527 A. D., is now universally used in Christendom (ex-
cept among the Oriental Christians, many of whom pro-
fess to reckon time from the creation), though its use Was
not uniform in Europe till a short time before the discovery
of America by Columbus. Chronology has to determine the
relationship of different eras, so as to express in language
appropriate to one mode of computation the date of an
event recorded in another. The Christian era is attended
by this inconvenience, that we must count backward for
the dates of occurrences prior to the birth of Christ.
Different systems of chronology, such as the Chinese,
Egyptian, Indian, and Chaldean, have been used in differ-
CHRONOMETER—CHRYSOSTOM.
943
ent countries. Of sacred chronology there have been vari-
ous schemes. In these the epochs are the Creation of the
World and the Flood, but the manuscripts of the Bible do
not agree as to the dates of these events. The chronology
of Ussher reckons 4000 years from the creation to the birth
of Christ, and to the flood 1656 years; the Samaritan makes
the former much longer, though it counts from the creation
to the flood only 1307 years; the Septuagint removes the
creation of the world to 6000 years before Christ, and 2250
years before the flood. These differences have never been
reconciled. It is now, however, universally admitted that
the first chapter of Genesis leaves the period of the creation
quite indefinite, and the most generally approved scheme
interprets the days of creation as periods of indefinite
length. (Manuals of chronology have been written by
IDELER, 1831; BRINCKMEIER, 1843; BLAIR, 1851; and
LüokE, 1862.)
Chronom’eter [from the Gr. Xpóvos, “time,” and uérpov,
a “measure”], a watch of peculiar construction and great
perfection of workmanship, used for determining geographi-
cal longitudes, or other purposes where time must be mea-
sured with extreme accuracy. The chronometer differs
from the ordinary watch in the principle of its escapement,
which is so constructed that the balance is entirely free
from the wheels during the greater part of its vibration;
and also in having the balance compensated for variations
of temperature. Marine chronometers generally beat half
Seconds, and are hung in gimbals in boxes about six or
eight inches square. The pocket chronometer does not
differ in appearance from the ordinary watch, excepting
that it is generally a little larger. Chronometers are of
immense utility in navigation, and ships going on distant
voyages are usually furnished with several, for the purpose
of checking one another, and also to guard against the
effects of accidental derangement in any single one. The
accuracy with which chronometers have been found to per-
form is truly astonishing, the departures from perfect uni-
formity of rate of running amounting only to small fractions
of a second from day to day for long periods of time.
Chron’oscope [from the Gr. xpóvos, “time,” and arroméo,
to “see”], an instrument invented in 1835 by Wheatstone
for measuring the duration of the electric spark. It con-
sisted essentially of a plane mirror revolving with a high
but known velocity; the elongation of the image of the
spark as seen if this mirror furnishing the measure of the
duration. In 1858, Feddersen substituted a concave for
the plane mirror, with better results. In 1867, Rood re-
placed the concave mirror by a set of achromatic lenses
and a plane mirror, and succeeded in measuring intervals
of time as small as 40 one-billionths of a second. A chrono-
scopic apparatus was constructed by Fizeau for measuring
the velocity of light. In this there was employed a rota-
ting circular disk with sectors alternately open and closed.
A ray from a luminous source transmitted through one of
the open sectors, and reflected back from a distant mirror,
is, with a certain velocity of rotation, intercepted by a
closed sector, and with a higher velocity is transmitted
through the next following open sector. The distance
traversed in Fizeau's experiment was 8633 mêtres (about
53 miles). With this and the known velocity of rotation
the velocity of light per second is computed. Foucault
used for the same determination a chronoscope with a con-
cave revolving mirror and a distance of only three mêtres
(about ten feet). Chronoscopes for measuring the time of
flight of projectiles have been invented by Wheatstone,
Hipp, Henry, Navez, Benton, De Brettes, Gloesener, Schultz,
and Bashforth. In these the beginning and end of the in-
terval measured are marked by the passage of the induction
spark, or mechanically by electro-magnetism, generally
upon a revolving cylinder, but in some upon a fixed arc
before which a pendulum swings. For marking equal
minute intervals steel tuning-forks have been recently used
In various ways.
Chru'dim', a town of Bohemia, on the Chrudimka, a
Small river, 62 miles S. E. of Prague. It has a noble colle-
giate church, a convent, and a gymnasium; also manufac-
tures of cloth and a large market for horses. Pop. 11,218.
Chrys'alis [Gr. XpwaraXAis, from Xpworós, “gold”], a
name originally belonging to those pupae of butterflies
which have golden-yellow spots, but extended to the pupae
of lepidopterous insects generally, and even to those of
other orders. The chrysalides of lepidopterous insects are
enclosed in a horny case, sometimes angular, sometimes
round, generally pointed at the posterior end, sometimes at
both ends. Before the caterpillar goes into this state it
often spins a silken cocoon, with which foreign substances
are sometimes mixed, im, which the chrysalis is concealed.
Chrysalides are often suspended by cords, and generally
remain nearly at rest; some bury themselves in the earth.
Most of them have at least a slight power of motion.
has a double refraction.
Chrysan'themum [from the Gr. Xpworós, “gold,” and
&v6epov, a “flower”], a genus of herbs and shrubs of the
order Compositae, tribe Senecionideae, having an involucre
with imbricated scales, a naked receptacle, the fruit desti-
tute of pappus. The species of this genus are annuals,
perennials, or shrubby, and all have leafy stems. They
are natives chiefly of the temperate parts of the Old
World. Chrysanthemum carinatum, an annual species with
white ray florets and dark-red disk, a native of Barbary,
is frequently cultivated. Chrysanthemum Indicum, the
Chinese chrysanthemum, a native of Eastern Asia, has
long been cultivated as an ornamental plant. Its colors
are various—red, lilac, rose-color, white, yellow, orange,
or variegated. It flowers in autumn and winter, is easy of
cultivation, and is easily propagated by cuttings, suckers,
or parting the roots.
Chrys’ elephan’tine [from the Gr. Xpworós, “gold,” and
éAébas, éAébavros, “ivory "I Statues, a term applied to
images of gold and ivory extensively made among the an-
cient Greeks. The works executed by Phidias at Athens
in the time of Pericles are the most famous of this class,
the greatest being the colossal Athena of the Parthenon,
twenty-six cubits high, representing the goddess in armor.
The Olympian Zeus of Phidias was also of world-wide
renown. The combination of gold and ivory was chiefly"
employed in temple statues; and though the more famous
works of this class belong to an advanced period, this kind
of art was very ancient, and probably borrowed from the
adorning of wooden images with the precious metals. The
flesh parts were oftenest of ivory, the clothing and orna-
ments of gold.
Chrysip'pus [Gr. Xpºorlirtros], an eminent Stoic philos-
opher, born at Soli, in Cilicia, in 280 B.C., was a son of
Apollonius of Tarsus. He was a pupil of Cleanthes, and
was distinguished for his skill in dialectics and his sub-
tlety as a disputant. He once said to Cleanthes, “Teach
me only your doctrines, and I will find the arguments
to defend them.” The Sorites is said to have been in-
vented by Chrysippus. He wrote a great number of works,
none of which are extant. He was considered to be the
greatest Stoic philosopher except Zeno. Died in 207 B. C.
(See RITTER, “History of Philosophy;” J. F. RICHTER,
“Dissertatio de Chrysippo Stoico,” 1738.) -
Chrysober’yl [from the Gr. xpvorós, “gold,” and
Bipwaxos, “beryl”], a gem, the finer specimens of which are
very beautiful, is an aluminate of glucina. Lapidaries
sometimes call it Oriental or opalescent chrysolite. It is
of a green color, inclining to yellow, semi-transparent, and
It occurs crystallized in six-
sided or eight-sided prisms; sometimes in macles or twin
crystals. Some specimens exhibit a beautiful opalescent
play of light.
Chrysocol/Ia [Gr. xpworókoxAa], a hydrated silicate of
copper, sometimes called copper-green, was used as a pig-
ment by the ancient Greeks. The color is verdigris or
emerald-green, passing into sky-blue, with a shining or
dull resinous lustre. It is found native in considerable
abundance in Missouri and Wisconsin.
Chrys’olite [Gr. XpworóA.00s, from Xpworós, “gold,” and
Atôos, a “stone;” Fr. chrysolithe], a mineral composed of
silica, magnesia, and protoxide of iron, of a fine green
color, with vitreous lustre, transparent, and having double
refraction, in hardness about equal to quartz, and with a
conchoidal fracture. It often crystallizes in four-sided or
six-sided prisms, variously modified. Very fine specimens
are brought from Egypt and from some parts of the East,
also from Brazil. Chrysolite is used as an ornamental
stone, but is not highly valued.
Chrys/oprase [Gr. Xpworómpaoros, from Xpwarós, “gold,”
and trpáarov, a “leek,” from its peculiar tint], a very rare
variety of chalcedony, valued far above common chalce-
dony as an ornamental gem; a stone of this kind fit for
mounting in a ring is worth from fifty to one hundred dol-
lars. It is of a fine apple-green color in choice specimens,
but inferior ones exhibit other shades. It is often set in a
circlet of diamonds or pearls. It is apt to lose its color
through time if kept in a warm place, but dampness is
favorable to its preservation, and it is therefore kept in
damp cottom. It is found in Lower Silesia, in Colorado,
and in Northern New York. The chrysoprase of the an-
cients is not certainly identified by modern authorities.
Chrys/ostom [Gr. Xpworóarropos (i. e. “golden-mouth-
ed”)], (John), the most accomplished orator of the ancient
Greek Church, was born at Antioch in Syria about 347
A. D. He was brought up by his widowed mother, An-
thusa, his father, Secundus, having died soon after his
birth. He studied rhetoric under Libanius, the famous
Sophist, and philosophy under Andragathius. Quitting the
944
CHRZANOWSKI—CHURCH.
legal profession, upon which he had entered, he was or-
dained deacon by Bishop Meletius in 381, and presbyter
by Bishop Flavian in 386. His fame as a preacher spread
throughout Christendom. On Feb. 26, 398, he was conse-
crated archbishop of Constantinople, having, by a mixture
of force and fraud, been carried thither against his will.
BHis boldness as a reformer brought him into trouble. Both
among the clergy and at the imperial court enemies rose
up against him. In 404 he was banished to Cucusus, a
mountain-village in the Tauric range, between Cilicia and
the Lesser Armenia; and in 407 he died at Comana, in
Pontus, on his way into still remotor exile on the eastern
shore of the Black Sea. He was little of stature, with a
large, bald head, hollow cheeks, and deep sunken eyes.
His eloquence was of the highly ornate Asiatic type, but
also very incisive and practical. In rebuke he was terrible,
calling things by their right names. He had great rever-
ence for the Scriptures, lived abstemiously, defied danger,
promoted missions, and died exclaiming, “ Glory be to
God for all things Amen.” The best edition of his works
is the Benedictine, 13 vols. folio, Paris, 1718–38. (See
NEANDER, “Tife of Chrysostom,” in German, 2 vols., 1821,
3d ed. 1848; G. HERMANT, “Vie de Saint J. Chrysostome,”
1664; PERTHEs, “Life of Chrysostom,” 1854; STEPHENs,
“Life of Chrysostom,” 1872.)
Chrzanow'ski (ADALBERT), a Polish general, born in
1788, served in the Polish revolution in 1830, when he was
suspected of sympathy with the Russians, and in Piedmont
in 1849, where he commanded the Sardinian army. After
the disastrous battle of Novara, he was dismissed. His last
years he passed in Louisiana, where he died Mar. 2, 1861.
Chub (Leuciscus cephalus), a European fish of the fam-
ily Cyprinidae, of the same genus with the roach, dace, etc.
The color is bluish black, passing into silvery white on the
belly; the cheeks and gill-covers a rich golden yellow.
The chub rarely attains a weight exceeding five pounds.
It is plentiful in many of the rivers of England, and occurs
in the south of Scotland. It is found in many rivers of
the continent of Europe. There are several species in the
U. S. very much like the above. They are not in great
esteem for the table. The chub rises well at a fly, and
takes freely a variety of baits.
Chuck-Will’s-Widow (Antrostomus Carolinensis), a
bird of the family Caprimulgidae, a native of the southern
parts of the U. S. It has received its singular name from
its note, which resembles these syllables articulated with
distinctness, and is repeated like that of the whippoorwill.
Chucuito, or Chuquito, a town of Peru, department
of Puno, is pleasantly situated on the western shore of
Lake Titicaca, 101 miles E. of Arequipa. Mines of gold
and silver have been opened in the vicinity. Pop. about
5000.
Chudleigh Cape, the N. E. point of Labrador.
Chumbul’, a river of India, rises in the Windhyan
Mountains, flows nearly north-eastward, and enters the
Jumna, 85 miles S. E. of Agra. Length, 500 miles.
Chumam’, the name of a fine quicklime made in India
from calcined shells or from very pure limestone, and used
for chewing with BETEL (which see); also used for cement
and plaster. When chunam is used for plaster it is mixed
with fine river sand and thoroughly beaten up with water;
coarse sugar and eggs are sometimes added. When beau-
tiful work is desired, three coats are applied to a wall, the
last being in the form of a fine paste consisting of four
parts of lime and one of fine white sand, beaten up with
whites of eggs, sour milk, and butter (ghee).
Chunar', a town of British India, in the presidency
of Agra, on the Ganges. It is fortified, and has several
military institutions. Pop. 11,058.
Chu'prah, a town of British India, presidency of Ben-
gal, on the Ganges, 35 miles W. N. W. of Patna. It is the
chief town of the district of Sarun. It contains many
mosques and pagodas. Here is a British military station.
Pop. estimated at 30,000.
Chuquibam’ba, a mountain of Peru.
feet.
Chuquisa' ca, the extreme south-eastern department
of Bolivia. Area, 72,802 square miles. The surface is
variable. The rainfall is considerable. The mountainous
western part only is inhabited, where the climate is pieas-
ant. The soil yields cinchona, grain, tobacco, Sugar, coffee,
and cocoa. The exports are cattle, horses, wine, spirits,
and sugar. Capital, Chuquisaca. Pop. 223,868, besides
50,000 wandering Indians.
Chuquisaca (golden bridge), Su'cre, or La Pla'ta,
the capital of Bolivia, is situated on a plateau near the
Andes, 9343 feet above the level of the sea; lat. 19° 23' S.,
lon. 65° 30' W. It is well built, with regular, spacious,
and clean streets. It has a magnificent cathedral with a
large dome, a president’s palace, a university, a college,
several monasteries, and a theatre. It is an archbishop's
see and the seat of the national legislature. The climate
is pleasant. Rich silver-mines are worked in the vicinity.
Pop. 23,979.
Chur [Fr. Coire], the capital of the Swiss canton of
Grisons, is in a valley and on or near the river Rhine, 60
miles S. E. of Zurich, with which it is connected by rail-
way. It has an ancient cathedral of the eighth century
and a bishop's palace; also manufactures of cutting tools
and zinc-ware. Pop. in 1870, 7552.
Church [from the Gr. kvptaków, i. e. the “Lord’s house”
(from Kºptos, the “Lord”); Anglo-Saxon, cynic or circ ;
Ger. Kirche : Scottish, kirk ; Lat. templum ; Fr. Église ; Sp.
iglesia ; It. chiesa). The primary signification of the Eng-
lish word church is the “house of the Lord ; ” it came
afterwards to denote a collective body of Christians
meeting in such a house for worship, and also the en-
tire body of Christian people, as when we speak of
, Christ as “the Head of the Church.” In this last sense
Height 21,000
gº it corresponds to the Greek ékkamaia (Lat. ecclesia,
whence the Fr. Église, Sp. iglesia, and It. chiesa), from
ékkaAéo, to “call out,” to “summon,” to “assemble.”
The earliest Christian ecclesiastical structures were
copied not from the heathem or Jewish temple, but
from that combination of a hall of justice and a market-
§ place to which the name basilica was given. The reason
§ of this is probably to be found not so much in the
opposition between Christians and heathens, as in the
different conceptions which they formed of the nature
and objects of worship. The rites of heathenism were
performed exclusively by the priest, the people remain-
ing without the often roofless temple, which was not for wor-
shippers, but was the abode of Deity. This mysterious char-
acter rendered it unsuitable for services in which the people
were to participate, and for the delivery of those public ad-
dresses which were employed as a means of Christian teach-
ing and exhortation. To such purposes the basilica was
readily adapted. Slightly changed in form, it served the
purposes of Christian worship, but there was nothing in
its form which tended to awaken sentiments of devotion.
The cross had been used by Christians from a very early
period, and gradually it had become the principal dis-
tinctive emblem of Christianity. Nothing could be more
natural than that when it became desirable to give dis- .
tinctively Christian character to the basilica, this should
be effected by such a modification as should convert it
into a representation of this emblem. Nor did this alter-
ation lead to any very extensive change in form. The
basilica frequently has side entrances, in place of, or in
addition to, that from the end. All that was requisite,
then, to convert the simple parallelogram into a cross was,
that at each side, in place of direct communication with
the exterior, should be passages or arms running out at
right angles; which arms cut the building across, and were
therefore transepts.
A central tower or spire is very frequently erected over
the point at which the arms or transepts intersect the body
of the cross. From this point the portion of the building
westward to the Galilee or great entrance is called the
nave, while the portion eastward to the high altar is the
choir. In the more complete churches the nave, and fre-
quently the choir, are divided longitudinally by two rows
of pillars, the portion at each side being generally narrower
and less lofty than that in the centre. These side portions
are the aisles. Vestries for the priests and choristers gen-
erally exist in connection with the choir. Along the sides
of the choir are seats or stalls, usually of carved oak ; and
amongst these seats, in a bishop's church, the most con-
spicuous is the cathedra, or seat for the bishop, from which
the cathedral takes its name. The larger English cathe-
dral churches have a chapter-house attached, which is

CHURCH-CHURCH GOVERNMENT.
945
commonly octagonal, and is often one of the most beauti-
ful portions of the whole. Cloisters are frequent, and the
sides of those which are farthest from the church or chap-
ter-house are enclosed by other buildings, such as a library
and places of residence for officials. It is here that, in
Roman Catholic churches, the hall, dormitories, and kit-
chens for the monks are commonly placed. Beneath the
church there is the crypt. The baptistery is another ad-
junct, frequently altogether detached. The position of the
nave, choir or chancel, aisles, and transepts is nearly in-
variable, but the other portions vary greatly.
In ordinary language, any building set apart for Chris-
tian ordinances is called a church, though when of a minor
kind it is frequently designated as a chapel. After a long
period of neglect the building of churches in a style emu-
lative of the older architecture has greatly revived.
When applied to a body of Christian people, the word
Church is very nearly the equivalent of the Greek word
ékkAmaria, as used in the New Testament. The whole body
of the Church on earth is called the “Church militant,”
as contending with evil and sin; the saints after death are
called collectively the Church triumphant. Protestants
distinguish between the visible and the invisible Church—
the invisible Church consisting of all who are spiritually
united in Christ; the visible Church consisting of all who
profess the religion of Christ. Roman Catholics do not in
the same manner acknowledge the distinction, but regard
a connection with the hierarchy and participation of ordi-
nances as establishing a connection with the true Church.
Many Protestants regard the Church as subsisting in vir-
tue of the authority of Christ and through the faith of in-
dividual believers; Roman Catholics regard the succession
of the hierarchy and the regular administration of the
sacraments as essential to the existence of that catholic or
universal Church which Christ planted. They also regard
the Church in its official action as so guided by Heaven as
to be infallible. Protestants, for the most part, regard the
Church of Rome and the Greek Church as forming part of
the visible Church, but Roman Catholics are not accustom-
ed to make a corresponding admission with respect to Prot-
estants. From the hierarchical principle of the Church of
Rome and of the Greeks results an employment of the
word Church to designate the hierarchy alone. But most
Protestants employ it to denote collectively all the fol-
lowers of Christ, or to designate some particular body of
Christians worshipping in one place, or the members of
some particular denomination.
REVISED BY J. THOMAs.
Church, a township of Wetzel co., West Va. Pop.
1607. -*
Church (ALBERT E.), LL.D., an American officer and
mathematician, born in 1807 in Salisbury, Conn., graduated
at West Point in 1828. He served, while lieutenant of ar-
tillery, at the Military Academy as assistant professor 1831
and 1833–37, and as acting professor of mathematics 1837–
38, and in garrison at Newport and Boston harbors 1832–
33. He resigned Mar. 13, 1838, and was appointed profes-
sor of mathematics in the U. S. Military Academy, and still
holds the position. He is member of several scientific as-
sociations and author of valuable mathematical works, spe-
cially prepared for the use of his cadet pupils—viz. “Ele-
ments of Differential and Integral Calculus,” 1842, and of
an “Improved Edition containing the Elements of the Cal-
culus of Variations,” 1851, of “Elements of Analytical
Geometry,” 1851, of “Elements of Analytical Trigonom-
etry,” 1857, and of “Elements of Descriptive Geometry,
with its application to Spherical Projections, Shades, and
Shadows, Perspective and Isometric Projections,” 1865.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Church (Rev. ALONzo), D. D., LL.D., an eminent Pres-
byterian divine, and president of the University of Georgia
from 1829 to 1859. He was a native of Vermont, and was
a graduate of Middlebury College in that State.
Church (BENJAMIN), a famous Indian fighter, born in
Plymouth (now in Massachusetts) in 1639. He fought in
King Philip's war, and commanded the colonists in the
battle in which Philip was slain. He also led five expedi-
tions against the French and Indians in Maine. He re-
moved in 1674 to Little Compton, R. I., where he died, in
consequence of a fall from his horse, Jan. 17, 1718. He
was distinguished for piety, valor, and integrity.
Church (FREDERICK EDWIN), an American landscape-
painter, born at Hartford, Conn., in May, 1826. He visited
South America in 1853, and derived from the scenery of the
Andes materials for several paintings. He gained a high
reputation by his “View of Niagara Falls from the Cana-
dian Shore.” Among his other works are “The Heart of
the Andes,” “Morning on the Cordilleras,” “Sunrise on
Mt. Desert Island,” “The Parthenon,” and “Jerusalem.”
church : JoHN HUBBARD), D. D., a Congregational min-
ister, born at Rutland, Mass., Mar. 17, 1772, graduated at
Harvard in 1797, became pastor of a church in Pelham,
N. H., in 1798, where he was minister for forty years. He
was prominent in the Bible and missionary societies, and
an advocate of classical learning. Died June 13, 1840.
Church (PHARCELLUs), D. D., born Sept. 11, 1801, in
Seneca, Ontario co., N. Y.; educated at Hamilton, N. Y.,
pastor of Baptist churches in Poultney, Vt., Providence,
R. I., Rochester, N. Y., Boston, Mass., was for ten years
editor of the “Chronicle” (Baptist), New York City, a fre-
quent contributor to other journals, and author of “Phil-
osophy of Benevolence,” “Religious Dissensions,” “Anti-
och,” “Pentecost,” “Memoir of Theodosia, Dean,” “Tem-
pleton,” etc.
Church (Sir RICHARD), a Greek general, was born in
Ireland in 1785, and entered the British army. In the
Greek War for independence he commanded the land forces.
Afterwards he was the chief of the anti-Russian party, and
minister under King Otho. Died Mar. 20, 1873.
Church (SAMUEL), LL.D., a distinguished American
jurist, born at Salisbury, Conn., in 1785, graduated at Yale
in 1803, was eleven years a judge of probate in his native
State, a judge of the superior court in 1833, and chief jus-
tice of Connecticut (1847–54). Died Sept. 12, 1854.
Church (SANFORD E.), LL.D., an eminent American jur-
ist, b. in Milford, Otsego co., N. Y., Apr. 18, 1815, studied
law and rose to prominence in his profession. He was chosen
lieutenant-governor of the State of New York in 1850, and
again in 1852. In 1857 he was elected comptroller, this
latter being the last elective office held by him. He was
nominated in 1859 for comptroller, but defeated, and nomi-
nated again in 1863, with the same result. In 1862 he was
Democratic nominee for Congress from the twenty-seventh
New York district. In May, 1870, he was appointed by
Gov. Hoffman chief-justice of the State of New York, which
position he accepted and still holds. In 1872 he was re-
quested to stand as candidate for the Democratic nomina-
tion for governor, but he declined the honor. In politics
he has ever been a steadfast Democrat, and, though fre-
quently approached by opposing parties, he has never sacri-
ficed his political principles to personal preferment. Under
Pierce and Buchanan the opposition made him tempting
offers, but notwithstanding he was opposed to the Nebraska.
bill, he rejected all proffers of prospective patronage. After
1864 he retired from active political life.
Church Calendar. See CALENDAR, EASTER, and
EPACT, by F. A. P. BARNARD.
Church Creek, a post-township of Dorchester co., Md.
Pop. 1144.
Church Dis’cipline, in its more limited sense, in-
cludes the means employed by the Church, besides the min-
istration of the word and sacraments, to secure on the part
of its members faithfulness to their profession and blame-
lessness of life. It rests upon the authority of Christ, and
arises out of the very constitution of the Church. Among
early Christians it assumed forms of great severity towards
offenders. At a later period discipline was chiefly exer-
cised with respect to persons accused of heresy and schism.
The penances of the Church of Rome form an important
part of its discipline, and therewith its indulgences are con-
neoted, as well as its rule of auricular confession. In the
Protestant churches public confession of sins by which
scandal has been given, and submission to public rebuke,
are sometimes required. The power of exclusion from
church membership is generally retained until repentance
and reformation of life. In a wider sense, church discipline
is used to designate the whole polity of a Church, including
its CHURCH Gover NMENT (which see). e
Church Gov'ernment. It is obvious that the Church
must have a fixed polity according to which its affairs are
administered. It is disputed among Christians how far
this has been prescribed by Divine authority, and how far
left to the discretion of men. The form of government de-
ends primarily on the idea entertained of the constitution
of the "Church. Congregationalists place church govern-
ment in the hands of the members of the congregation and
the office-bearers whom they have elected. Baptists dis-
tinguish between the church proper and the congregation,
hence they lodge this power in the church, as the primary
body. Episcopalians, Presbyterians, and the various Meth-
odist churches agree that many congregations are to be
united under a common government; but this, according
to Presbyterians, is properly carried on by ministers and
elders of these congregations meeting for this purpose ;
while, according to Episcopalians, it is more or less abso-
lutely in the hands of bishops. The government of the
Methodist Episcopal churches is chiefly in the hands of the
quarterly conference and the annual and general confer-
ences, in which the laity have more or less share.
946
CHURCH HISTORY-CHURUBUSCO.
Church. History. See EccLESIASTICAL HISTORY, by
PROF. PHILIP SchAFF, PH. D., S. T. D.
Church Hill, a post-township of Queen Anne co., Md.
Pop. 3655. \
Chur'chill, or Missinnip/pi, a river of North Amer-
ica, rises in a lake near lon. 109°W. It flows nearly north-
eastward, passes through Nelson’s Lake, and enters Hud-
son’s Bay in lat. 59° N. Length, estimated at 800 miles.
Churchill, a county in the W. of Nevada. Area, 6000
square miles. It contains Humboldt and Carson Sink, a
lake which has no outlet. The western part is traversed
by Carson River. The surface is mountainous; the soil is
mostly sterile. The streams are absorbed by the sands of
the desert. Sulphur, salt, and soda, abound. Ores of sil-
ver are found here. Capital, Stillwater. Pop. 196.
Churchill, a township of Lyon co., Nev. Pop. 40.
Churchill (Lord ALFRED), a brother of the duke of
Marlborough, was born in 1824, studied at the Sandhurst
Military College, served in the British army (1842–48), and
afterwards was long a member of Parliament. He is dis-
tinguished for his interest in the African race, and was a
delegate to the sixth meeting of the Evangelical Alliance .
at New York in 1873.
ChurchiII (CHARLEs), an English poet and satirist,
was born at Westminster in 1731. He was a fellow-student
and friend of the poet Cowper. Although he had a strong
aversion to the clerical profession, he was ordained as a
priest in 1756. In 1758 he succeeded his father as curate
at St. John’s, Westminster. His parishioners were scan-
dalized by his dissipated and licentious habits, and by his
negligence of his duties. He produced in 1761 “The Ros-
giad,” a witty satire on theatrical managers and per-
formers, which was very successful. About this time he
resigned his curacy and quitted the profession of clergy-
man. He defended himself against certain critics by an
admired poem entitled “The Apology.” He was an inti-
mate friend of John Wilkes, whom he assisted in the
“North Briton.” . In 1763 he published “The Prophecy
of Famine,” a satire on the Scots, which is much admired.
Among his other works are “The Conference,” “Gotham,”
and “The Author.” “ Churchill,” says Thackeray, “ has
those brilliant flashes of insight and spontaneous felicities
of expression by which every true critic at once distin-
guishes the man of natural power from the man of mere
cultivation.” He died at Boulogne, France, during a visit,
in 1764. (See TookE, “Life of Churchill;” and MACAU-
LAY's essay entitled “Charles Churchill,” 1845.)
Churchill (SYLVESTER), an inspector-general in the
U. S. army, born in Woodstock, Vt., Aug. 2, 1783, educated
in Vermont, published a newspaper till 1812, when he was
appointed a first lieutenant of artillery U. S. A.; promoted
to be captain Aug., 1813; assistant inspector-general, with
the rank of major, Aug. 29, 1813; retained May, 1815, in
artillery; major Third Artillery 1835; inspector-general,
with rank of colonel, June 25, 1841. Gen. Churchill served
with credit during the war of 1812–15; from 1815 to 1836
was on garrison or special duty; served during the war
with the Creek Indians, and in Florida 1836–41, when he
was appointed inspector-general; accompanied Gen. Wool
in the war with Mexico, and for distinguished services at
Buena Vista was brevetted brigadier-general U. S. A.;
retired from active service Sept. 25, 1861. Died at Wash-
ington, D. C., Dec. 7, 1862. -
Church'ing of Wom'en, a usage prevailing in certain
branches of the Church, of women on recovery after child-
bearing going to church to give thanks. It appears to
have been borrowed from the Jewish law (Lev. xii. 6). In
the Church of the early ages it was accompanied with va-
rious rites, and in the Roman Catholic and Greek churches
it is imperative. In the Anglican Church, also, a service
for the churching of women finds a place in the Liturgy.
Church'man (JoRN), an able preacher of the Society
of Friends, was born at Nottingham, Pa., June 4, 1705, en-
tered upon his ministry in 1733, and preached in many parts
of the U. S. and Europe. A narrative of his experiences
was published in 1780 in London. Died July 24, 1775.
Church Methodists. See PRIMITIVE WESLEYANs.
Church Mills, or Wegat/chie, a post-village of
Rossie township, St. Lawrence co., N. Y., on the Oswe-
gatchie River, has a woollen mill and other manufactories.
Pop. 201.
Church of England and Wales.
CHURCH of, by REv. BEVERLEY R. BETTs.
Church of God, a denomination of Christians first
organized at Harrisburg, Pa., in 1830, by the converts and
followers of John Winebrenner, formerly a minister of the
German Reformed Church. The doctrines of this Church
are a belief in the Bible as the authoritative revelation of
See ENGLAND,
God; also in the Trinity, in human depravity, the vicarious
atonement, and the freedom of the will (rejecting the Cal-
vinistic doctrine of election). This Church also practises
adult immersion as the only baptism, and administers the
Lord’s Supper to all Christians who desire it. They be-
lieve that literal washing of the feet is one of the ordinances
of the Church. In all other respects the Church of God
agrees with other evangelical Christian churches. The
congregations of this denomination are in part independent
in church government, but are united into “elderships,”
which are again joined into one “general eldership,” which
owns the church property. They have several newspapers
and colleges, and in 1873 numbered over 30,000 members,
460 churches, and 410 ministers.
Church of Scotland. See Scot1..AND, CHURCH OF,
by DAVID INGLIS, LL.D.
Church of Scotland, Free.
SCOTLAND, by DAVID INGLIS, LL.D.
Church Rates, in England, and formerly in Ireland,
a tax on the parishioners and occupiers of land for repair-
ing the church and defraying all expenses (other than
that of maintaining the minister) incident to divine ser-
vice. The chancel being regarded as belonging to the
clergy, the expense of maintaining it is frequently laid on
the rector or vicar. The origin of church rates is a matter
involved in obscurity. It is certain that the expenses paid
in this manner formerly were paid out of the tithes. Lord
Campbell is of opinion that the contributions of the parish-
ioners were at first voluntary, and that the custom at last
assumed the form of an obligation. There is no legal mode
of compelling the parishioners as a body to provide the
rate; and this has occasioned difficulty in imposing the
tax in parishes in which dissent is prevalent. In recover-
ing the rates from individuals refusing to pay, formerly
the only mode was by suit in the ecclesiastical court; at
present, in cases under ten pounds, the justices of the
peace, on complaint of the church-wardens, inquire into
the merits of the case and order payment. Against the
decision of the justices an appeal lies to the quarter ses-
sions. There are few social arrangements in England that
have been the cause of greater irritation than the church
rates. Since the first bill for the abolition of church rates
was introduced by Lord Althorp in 1834, scarcely a session
has passed in which some attempt has not been made at
legislation on this subject. Church rates in Ireland ceased
with the disestablishment of the Church of Ireland in 1871.
In Scotland the system is similar to that in England, though
the name of church rates is not used.
Church’ville, a post-village of Riga township, Monroe
co., N. Y., on the New York Central R. R., 15 miles W. by
S. of Rochester. It has five churches, a flouring and saw
mill, a machine-shop, and a foundry.
Church-Wardens in the Anglican churches are offi-
cers whose duty is to protect the church edifice, to superin-
tend the performance of public worship, and maintain order
during service. There are generally two in each parish.
In some dioceses they are appointed by the clergymen, and
in others are chosen by the parishioners. Their assistants
are sometimes called questmen.
Church’yard (THOMAs), born in 1520, was a prolific
author of prose and verse in the early part of Queen Eliza-
beth’s reign. He was at first a servant of the earl of Sur-
rey, and afterwards a soldier. Some of his works have
been from time to time reprinted, more for the pleasure of
bibliophiles than on account of any great merit. His
“Worthiness of Wales,” “Chips concerning Scotland,” and
“Legende of Jane Shore” are the best known of his works.
Died in 1604.
Churn, an apparatus for agitating cream for the separa-
tion of butter, of which many forms are in use. Trials to
test the merits of different churns have failed to settle which
is the best for actual use, for the same machine under dif-
ferent conditions does not always yield the same result.
The oldest form is the upright or plunge churn. Barrel
churns, sometimes of monster size, are used in large dairies
in Holland. For small or moderate-sized dairies perhaps
the most suitable is the box churn, having the agitators
fixed on a horizontal spindle. To all forms of churns power
can be and is applied. Horse-power is in very general use in
large dairies in Great Britain. In exceptional cases steam-
power is used. (See BUTTER, by PROF. C. F. CHANDLER.)
Chur’ton (RALPH), archdeacon of St. Andrew’s, is best
known for his Bampton Lecture on the prophecies relating
to the destruction of Jerusalem, delivered in 1785. He was
born near Bickley, Cheshire, Dec. 8, 1754, was educated at
Brazenose, Oxford, and died Mar. 23, 1831. He was a la-
borious and faithful minister, and the author of several bio-
graphical and other works of decided merit.
Churubus' co, a village or hamlet of Mexico, on the
See FREE CHURCH OF
CHUSAN–CHYME.
947
Rio de Churubusco, about 6 miles S. of the city of Mexico,
the Scene of a battle between the American forces under Gen.
Winfield Scott, marching on the city of Mexico, and the
Mexicans, defending the approaches to their capital, under
President Santa Anna. The battle of Contreras was fought
on the same day, and both can be described in connection.
Leaving a competent garrison at Puebla, Gen. Scott ad-
vanced his forces upon the capital Aug. 7–10, 1847, the
army becoming united about the head of Lake Chalco. Re-
connaissances made Aug. 12–13 upon the Peñon, a strongly
fortified, isolated mound, commanding the principal ap-
proach to the capital from the E., and upon Mexicalcingo
to the left of the Peñon, resulted in Scott's falling back
upon a previously entertained project of turning these
strong eastern defences by passing S. of Lakes Chalco and
Jochimilco, thus reaching the hard though much broken
ground to the S. and S. W. of the capital, near San Au-
gustin. By a sudden inversion, Worth’s division, followed
closely by Pillow’s and Quitman’s, marched on the 15th.
Twiggs’ division being left at Ayotla till the 16th to
threaten the Peñon and Mexicalcingo, and deceive the
enemy as long as practicable, marched on the 16th towards
Chalco, met and dispersed a force of Mexicans double his
own in numbers, under Gen. Valencia.
Worth’s division arrived at San Augustin on the 18th,
and was pushed forward to San Antonio, 3 miles distant,
on the direct road to the capital.
A reconnaissance was commenced on the 18th, and con-
tinued next day, to the left of San Augustin over difficult
fields of rocks and lava, which extend from San Antonio
towards Magdalena; Pillow’s division was advanced to
make a road for heavy artillery, and Twiggs's thrown for-
ward to cover this operation. At 3 P. M. of the 19th this
advance came to a point where the road could only be con-
tinued under the fire of twenty-two pieces of the enemy's
artillery, strongly entrenched and supported by cavalry
and infantry. Our batteries had advanced within range
of the enemy's camp, and Pillow’s and Twiggs’ divisions
moved forward to dislodge him from his position. A battle
ensued which lasted till nightfall, our troops maintaining
their position.
Observing the hamlet of Contreras on the road leading
from the capital, through the entrenched camp, to Mag-
dalena, and the streams of reinforcements advancing from
the capital by that road, Gen. Scott determined to occupy
that place and arrest reinforcements, and Col. Morgan
was ordered with his regiment (the Fifteenth) to move for-
ward for this purpose. Riley with his brigade was already
on the enemy’s left and in advance of this hamlet, and
Shields was ordered to follow and support Morgan. The
night of the 19th found these troops, with the brigades of
Gens. P. F. Smith and Cadwalader, all under Smith, in and
about Contreras, on the same road with the enemy’s en-
trenched camp, and half a mile nearer the capital. At 3
A. M. (Aug. 20th) the movement was commenced on the
rear of the enemy’s camp, Riley leading, followed by Cad-
walader and Smith. Despite the darkness, rain, and mud,
an elevation behind the enemy was reached by Riley, from
whence his intrenchments were stormed and carried in
seventeen minutes. Cadwalader successfully executed the
part assigned him of diverting the enemy, and brought up
to the general assault two of his regiments, who poured
destructive volleys into the works. Smith's brigade (tem-
porarily under Major Dimick, First Artillery), in the mean
time following, discovered a long line of Mexican cavalry
outside the works, which were attacked and routed. Shields,
remaining at Contreras, held large numbers of the enemy
in check, and by pursuit added largely to the brilliant re-
sults of the day. The American force here engaged num-
bered (including Shields) not more than 4500, while the
Mexican army numbered 20,000, all of whom, not captured
or killed, now fled. Two 6-pounders taken from the Fourth
Artillery at Buena Vista (though without dishonor) were
here recaptured, besides twenty-two pieces of ordnance,
800 prisoners, 700 mules and many horses, and immense
quantities of small-arms and ammunition.
The battle being over before the advancing brigades of
Worth’s and Quitman’s were in sight, they were ordered
back to their old position, and Worth was ordered to at-
tack San Antonio, which place he soon forced, its garrison
being shaken by the news of the victory at Contreras.
While these operations were going on on the left, a party
was sent to reconnoitre the strongly fortified church or
convent of San Pablo in the hamlet of Churubusco, and
Twiggs with a brigade and a battery ordered to follow and
attack the convent. Pierce’s brigade was at the same time
sent to attack the Mexican right and rear, in order
to favor the movement on the convent and cut off retreat;
Shields to follow Pierce closely and take command of the
left wing. The line from right to left soon became briskly
chgaged; Shields, in the rear of Churubusco, being hard
pressed, was reinforced by the rifles and Sibley’s troop
Second Dragoons.
Worth’s division, being soon reunited and in hot pursuit
from San Antonio, was joined by Gen. Pillow, who, dis-
covering that San Antonio had been carried, hastened to the
attack of Churubusco. The hamlet bearing this name, be-
sides the strongly fortified convent of San Pablo, presented
a strong field-work at the head of a bridge over which the
road passes from San Antonio to the capital, and within
and about these works the entire remaining forces of Mex-
ico were collected, some 27,000 men; the American force
being about 8000.
Twiggs hotly pressing the convent, Worth and Pillow
manoeuvred closely upon the tete-de-pont, which latter was
finally assaulted and carried at the point of the bayonet;
and twenty minutes after the convent, which had held out
for two hours and a half, yielded to Twiggs’ division, and
signals of surrender were displayed; but not, however, un-
til the Third Infantry had entered the works.
Shields in the mean time had been hotly engaged on the
right against Superior numbers with varying success, but
resulting in a final victory for him; so that on the forces
of Worth and Pillow coming up in rapid pursuit of the
enemy, they were joined by Shields, and the three pursued
the fugitives to within a mile and a half of the capital.
Thus, in a single day were two great battles fought and
victories won, by which 3000 prisoners were taken, 4000
killed or wounded, thirty-seven pieces of ordnance captured,
the entire army dispersed, and the capture of the ancient
capital and an honorable peace ensured. The American
loss was 1053, killed and wounded.
Chusan’, an island near the E. coast of China, prov-
ince of Cho-Kiang, about 45 miles N. E. of Ning-Po. It is
nearly 50 miles in circumference, and is mountainous, but
mostly fertile and well cultivated. The products of the
soil are tea, rice, cotton, tobacco, etc. The camphor tree
and bamboo flourish here. The climate is pleasant and
healthy. Ting-Hai, the capital, was taken by the British
in July, 1840, and again in Oct., 1841, but it was restored
to the Chinese at the end of the war.
Chut/ny, or Chut/ney, a stimulating condiment very
largely used in India, and to a considerable extent in Great
Britain and America. Chutny is a compound of mangoes,
capsicum, and lime-juice, with some portion of other fruits,
such as tamarinds, etc., the flavor being heightened by
garlic. It is sometimes manufactured for sale in England,
but not in large quantities. Families occasionally make,
it for their own use, and various receipts are given for its
manufacture.
Chwalynsk', a town of Russia, in the government of
Saratov, a river-port on the Volga. It has various man-
ufactures and large fruit gardens. Pop. 14,262.
Chyle [from the Gr. xvAós, “juice,” “chyle”], a fluid
produced in the small intestines, and absorbed from them
by the lacteals and the veins. The food undergoes various
changes in the alimentary canal, one of which is its con-
version in the stomach into a pulpy mass termed chyme.
The chyme, which passes into the small intestine, is acted
upon by the bile, pancreatic fluid, and intestinal juice, and
through their influence is separated into the chyle, and into
matters unfit for nutrition, which ultimately find their way
out of the system. The mode in which the nutritious chyle
is taken up by vessels distributed over the small intestines
is described in the article DIGESTION. Obtained from the
thoracic duct of an animal that has been killed while the
process of digestion is going on (especially if it has taken
fatty food), chyle is a milky-looking or yellowish fluid,
with a faint alkaline reaction. Like the blood, it coagulates
after its abstraction from the animal, and in about three
hours a small clot is separated. On examining chyle under
the microscope we find that it contains enormous numbers
of minute molecules of fat, together with nucleated cells
(chyle-corpuscles), apparently identical with the white
blood-cells. The chemical constituents of chyle are much
the same as those of blood—fibrin, albumen, fat, extractive
matters, and salts being the most important. But it may
be regarded as certain that the greater part of the saccharine
and nitrogenous elements of food enters the veins directly
from the stomach and the small intestines, through the
capillaries, and that the chyle of the thoracic duct consists
principally of the fatty parts of food mingled with lymph
from the lymphatic glands.
Chyme [from the Gr. xvués or xúua, “liquid,” for xedpa,
verbal noun from xéo, “to pour’], a name sometimes given
to the food after the process of stomach-digestion, and be-
fore the action of the intestinal juice, bile, and pancreatic
fluids has taken place upon it. The name is of late not
much used, but it is a convenient term, and as such de-
serves to be retained.
It is a recognized fact that during the process of stomach-
948
CHYTRAEUS–CIOERO,
digestion some part of the nutritive matter of the food is
taken up by the walls of the stomach, and passes directly
into the venous blood. Of the remainder, Mial he states
that the albuminoid elements are changed by the gastric
juice into a new substance called albuminose; while Leh-
mann and others, following up a hint from Mialhe, have
shown that each. albuminoid affords a peculiar kind of
albuminose (or peptone, as it is now often called). The
principal varieties now recognized are albumen-peptone,
caseine-peptone, and fibrine- (or musculine-) peptone. The
peptones are believed to be already fitted for absorption
into the circulation. Upon starch, sugar, and oils the gas-
tric juice has but little effect. Chyme, then, consists of
the peptones and the starchy, saccharine, and fatty ele-
ments of food, mingled with certain residual matters which
are not useful as food, but which, with other waste products,
are ultimately expelled directly from the alimentary canal.
Chytrapſus (DAVID Koch HAFF), a German theologian,
born in Swabia. Feb. 26, 1530, was a scholar of Camerarius
and Melanchthon, professor at Rostock, and member of the
Diet of Augsburg, of which he wrote an account (1576),
and various other religious conferences. He was one of the
framers of the “Formula Concordiae '’ and author of “Chron-
icon Saxoniae,” “De Lectione Historiarum,” etc. Among
his other writings are “Historia Confessionis Augustanae''
(1578) and “De Morte et Vita Æterna” (1590). His com-
plete works have been several times reprinted. Died June
25, 1600. He was one of the most learned and influential
Lutheran divines of his time. His life has been written by
Schutzius and several others.
Cialdi'ni (ENRICO), an able Italian general, born in
Módena, Aug. 8. 1811. He entered the Spanish army in
1835, and fought in several campaigns against the Carlists.
In 1848 he returned to Italy, and joined the Italian patriots
in the war against Austria. He served Victor Emmanuel
as a general in the Crimean war (1854–55). In June, 1859,
he commanded with success against the Austrians at Pa-
lestro. He defeated the papal general Lamoricière at Cas-
telfidardo in 1860, and besieged Gaeta, which he took in
Feb., 1861. He became a senator of Italy in 1864, com-
manded one of the armies operating against Austria in
1866, and was appointed chief of the royal staff in the
same year. In Oct., 1867, he was requested by the king
to form a cabinet after the resignation of Ratazzi, but
without success. He withdrew from the army, and opposed
the ministry of Lanzi. He accompanied Amadeo as am-
bassador extraordinary to Madrid, and after discharging
his mission remained in Spain.
Cib’ber (CoLLEY), an English dramatist and actor of
German extraction, was born in London in 1671. He be-
gan to act comedies in 1689, and married a Miss Shore in
1693. In 1695 he produced a play called “Love's Last
Shift, or the Fool in Fashion,” which was successful. He
also wrote “The Careless Husband” (1704), “The Non-
juror” (1717), and “An Apology for the Life of Colley
Cibber,” which is an using work. In 1730 he was
appointed poet-laureate. Died Jan. 30, 1766. Notwith-
standing the reputation for stupidity which Pope’s “Dun-
ciad” has conferred upon Cibber, there is no doubt that he
was in reality one of the most brilliant writers of that bril-
liant age. His morals, however, were not of the purest.—
His son THEOPHILUs (1703–58) was an actor, an author,
and a writer of repute, and husband of Susanna Maria Cib-
ber, a celebrated actress, the sister of Dr. Arne, the musi-
cal composer.
Cib'ol, a plant of the onion or garlic genus, the Allium
fistulosum, an Asiatic plant, much cultivated in parts of
Europe for its tops, which are tubular, somewhat like those
of the onion. It stands in the ground all winter, growing
from year to year without replanting, and has no bulb.
Ciboſlo, a river of Texas, rises in Kendal county, flows
south-eastward, and enters the San Antonio near Helena.
Entire length, about 110 miles. -
Cibo'rium [Gr. kugºptov, the “pod” of the lotos-bean;
hence a cup-shaped vessell, in the Roman Catholic Church,
a variety of the pyx, or vessel used to contain the conse-
crated host. The ciborium is of gold or silver, and its
cover is frequently surmounted by a cross. The name is
also given to a canopy over the altar sustained by four
columns, to which the pyx, in the form of a dove, was sus-
pended by chains.
Cibra’rio (LUIGI), an Italian historian, born at Turin
Feb. 23, 1802. He published, besides other works, “Eco-
nomia, Politica del Medio Evo '' (1839), a “History of the
Monarchy of Savoy’’ (1840), and a “History of Turin’”
(1847.) Became minister of public instruction in 1852,
and minister of foreign affairs in 1855. Died Oct. 1, 1870.
Cica'da [Gr. rérrišl, the Latin name of a well-known
European insect, called also Cica'la [It], which gives its
name to a genus of Hemiptera noted for the shrill noise
which it makes. The cicada of the ancient classic poets
was chiefly admired for its shrill song. The cicadas fre-
quent shrubs and trees, and feed on their juices, having an
apparatus for piercing the bark and sucking out the juice
or sap. Their organ of sound is situated on each side of
the under and anterior part of the abdomen. Cicadas
abound in tropical and sub-tropical regions. They mostly
have transparent and veined wing-covers. We have sev-
eral species of cicada in the U. S., of which the best known
is the “seventeen-year locust,” Cicada septemdecim. The
Cicada canicularis is a well-known species with a W-shaped
mark on the back. Its appearance was once said to be a
forerunner of wars.
Cicatriza’tion [from the Lat. cicatriæ, a “scar.”], the
healing of a broken surface in the skin or in a mucous
membrane, by which process a dense fibrous material is
substituted for the lost texture. The new tissue is called
the cicatrix, and usually resembles, to a considerable extent,
the structure which it replaces; it is, however, less elastic,
and from its shrinking in volume sometimes produces an
appearance of puckering. The glands and other special
structures of the original tissue are wanting in the cicatrix,
which, however, usually performs its office well. The cica-
trix of burns and scalds has often a remarkable tendency
to contract and distort the neighboring surface.
Cic/ely (Myrrhis), a genus of umbelliferous plants, of
which one species, sweet cicely (Myrrhis odorata), is com-
mon in Central and Southern Europe and in Asia, but in
Great Britain it appears to have been introduced. It is a
branching perennial, two feet high or upward, with large
triply. pinnate leaves and pinnatifid leaflets, somewhat
downy beneath; the fruit and the whole plant powerfully
fragrant, the smell resembling that of anise. The seeds,
roots, and young leaves are used in soups, etc. The plant
was formerly much in use as a medicinal aromatic. The
U. S. have at least four wild plants somewhat resembling
the above—the rough and the smooth Sweet cicely, Osmor-
rhiza brevistylis and longistylis, of the Atlantic States, and
Myrrhis occidentalis and Osmorrhiza nuda of the far West.
The roots are sometimes eaten, having an agreeable taste,
but several poisonous umbelliferous plants closely resemble
cicely, and caution should be observed in gathering it.
Cic/ero, a township and village of Cook co., Ill., on
the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R., 4 miles W. of
Chicago. Pop. 1545.
Cicero, a post-village of Jackson township, Hamilton
co., Ind. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 422.
Cicero, a township of Tipton.co., Ind., Pop. 3646. .
Cicero, a township and post-village of Onondaga co.,
N. Y. Pop. 2902.
Cicero (MARCUs TULLIUs), an illustrious Roman ora-
tor, author, and statesman, was born at Arpinum (now
Arpino), about 70 miles E. S. E. of Rome, on the 3d of
Jan., 106 B. C. He is often called TULLY by English
writers. He was liberally educated by his father, an opu-
lent eques of the same name, was a pupil of Archias, the
Greek poet, and learned to speak Greek fluently. He also
became deeply versed in Greek literature and philosophy.
His disposition was genial and amiable, his habits temper-
ate and exemplary. In the year 91 B.C. he assumed the
manly gown (toga virilis), and began to study law under
Mucius Scaevola, the Augur, who was a jurist of great emi-
nence. In his early youth he wrote “Pontius Glaucus'
and other poems, which were admired by his contempo-
raries, but are not extant. According to Plutarch, “he was
regarded as the best poet, as well as the greatest orator, in
Rome.” He passed through a course of discipline in rhet-
oric and elocution, studied logic under Diodotus the Stoic,
attended the lectures of the Greek philosopher Philo, and
neglected no mental exercise, however arduous. At the
age of twenty-five he began to plead in the Forum, and,
according to the custom of Roman advocates, his services
were always gratuitous. About the year 80 he defended
Roscius Amerinus with courage and success when he was
prosecuted for a capital crime by an agent or favorite of
Sulla, then dictator, the fear of whose enmity deterred the
other advocates from pleading for the defendant.
His constitution was naturally delicate, and his physical
condition was such that his friends advised him to abandon
the bar or to improve his health by travel. In 79 B.C. he
departed from Rome and went to Athens, where he passed
about six months, and studied philosophy with Antiochus
of Ascalon, Zeno the Epicuream, and Demetrius Syrus. He
there formed an intimate friendship with the celebrated
Titus Pomponius Atticus. He afterwards extended his
travels through Asia Minor, and returned to Rome with a
great improvement in his lungs, voice, and constitution.
In 75 B. C. he obtained the office of quaestor, the first
step in the gradation of public honors, and it was decided
CICERO.
949
by lot that he should perform the duties of quaestor in
Sicily. The integrity, moderation, and humanity of his
official conduct excited general admiration among the peo-
ple of Sicily. He returned to Rome in the year 74, mar-
ried (about 79 B.C.) an heiress named Terentia, and soon
rose to the foremost rank in his profession. His chief for-
ensic rival was Hortensius. Cicero excelled in sarcasm and
witticisms, with which he often seasoned and enlivened his
orations and arguments. . No advocate had greater power
over the feelings and sympathies of his auditors. It was
his habitual practice to act as counsel for the defence in
criminal trials, but he deviated from this rule in the case of
Caius Verres, who was prosecuted by the Sicilians in 70
B. C. for nefarious acts of cruelty and rapine. Only two
of his admirable orations against Verres were actually
spoken in court, for the evidence against the accused was
so convincing that his counsel declined to plead, and Verres
went into exile before the decision of the cause. Cicero
was elected aedile in 69 B. C. by a majority of the voters
of every tribe, and in that capacity had the charge of the
temples and public edifices. Having offered himself in 66
as a candidate for the office of praetor, which was the next
in the ascending scale of public honor, he was elected first
praetor wrbanus by the suffrages of all the centuries. The
duty of praetors was to preside as judges over the highest
courts. According to Plutarch, “he acted with great integ-
rity and honor as president in the courts of justice.” Dur-
ing his term of office as praetor he made an important
political oration for the Manilian Law (“Pro Lege Ma-
milia”), the object of which was to appoint Pompey com-
mander-in-chief in the war against Mithridates the Great.
After the expiration of his term of office (which was one
year) he prepared to compete for the consulship, and offered
himself as a candidate in 64 B. C. Catiline was one of the
defeated candidates in this election, which resulted in the
choice of Cicero and C. Antonius. Cicero entered upon
the office on the 1st of January, 63, at a time when the re-
public was in a critical condition in consequence of the
prevalence of corruption, sedition, and treasonable designs.
He succeeded in forming a political alliance between the
senate and the equites or knights, and by this wise policy
promoted the cause of liberty and order. “He was,” says
Middleton, “the only man in the city capable of effecting
such a coalition; being now at the head of the senate, yet
the darling of the knights.” He acquired great celebrity
by the courage and energy with which he defeated the con-
spiracy of Catiline, whom he denounced in four eloquent
orations. Catiline, who was the leader of a large number
of desperate men, had formed a plot to burn the city and
massacre many of the Senators. Cicero, who was notified
of this plot by a woman named Fulvia, pronounced before
the senate on the 8th of November his first oration against
Catiline, who was present and rose to reply, but his voice
was drowned by cries of “traitor P’ and “parricide l’’ (See
CATILINE.) The versatility and elasticity of Cicero’s mind
were signally exemplified by the fact that during the crisis
of this conspiracy, before Catiline was defeated in battle,
he defended Murena against a charge of bribery in an ora-
tion which abounds in witty and good-humored raillery.
For the defeat of this great conspiracy, Cicero received
unbounded honor and applause. Men of all ranks and all
parties hailed him as the saviour of the republic and father
of his country. In the language of Juvenal,
“Roma Patrem Patriae Ciceronem libera dixit.”
“Cicero could boast,” says William Ramsay, “ of having
accomplished an exploit for which no precedent could be
found in the history of Rome. In the garb of peace he had
gained a victory of which the greatest among his prede-
cessors would have been proud, and had received tributes
of applause of which few triumphant generals could boast.”
He incurred, however, the enmity of many persons by the
capital punishment of Lentulus, Cethegus, and other accom-
plices of Catiline. He was censured for violation of the
constitution and laws by the execution of these conspirators,
although they had been condemned to death by the senate.
At the expiration of his consulship, having refused to accept
the government of a province, he returned to the senate as
a private individual (62 B. C.), and purchased an elegant
mansion on the Palatine Hill. He also owned villas or
country-seats at Tusculum, Arpinum, Formiae, and other
places. He opposed the triumvirs Caesar, Crassus, and
Pompey, whose coalition he considered to be dangerous to
the peace and liberty of the state, and he endeavored, with-
out success, to detach from that coalition Pompey, who was
his personal friend. In 59 B. C. his malignant enemy
Clodius obtained power as tribune of the people, and pro-
posed a law “that whoever has put to death a Roman
citizen without due trial shall be interdicted from fire and
water.” Many thousands of Roman citizens now expressed
sympathy for Cicero, but as the consuls were hostile to him,
he yielded to the storm and went into exile in April, 58
D. C. A law was then speedily enacted to interdict Cicero
from earth and, water, and his house on the Palatine Hill
was burned by Clodius. The lack of fortitude which he
exhibited in his exile (which was passed in Greece) is
severely criticised by several writers. In a letter to his
wife Terentia, he wrote, “It is not my crimes, but my
virtue that has crushed me.” The excessive violence of
his enemies tended to produce a speedy and strong reac-
tion. The new consuls and tribunes elected for the year
57 were friendly to Cicero, whose recall was also advocated
by Pompey and a majority of the senate. In August,
57, a bill for his restoration was adopted by an overwhelm-
ing majority of the voters, who had come from various parts
of Italy to the comitia centuriata at Rome. “There had
never been known,” says Middleton, “so numerous and
solemn an assembly of the Roman people as this.” On his
return to Rome he was greeted with abundant demonstra-
tions of popular favor and enthusiasm. Between 57 and 52
he pleaded several causes in the courts, and found leisure
to write two important works, entitled “De Republică"
(“On the Republic, or the Principles of Government”),
and “De Legibus,” a philosophical treatise on the origin,
nature, and perfection of law.
For a term of one year (51 B. C.) he acted as proconsul
or governor of Cilicia and Pisidia, where his administra-
tion was a model of moderation, purity, and probity. He
returned to Italy in the year 50, and found that a civil war
was imminent between Caesar and the senate. He hesitated
whether he should take an active part in the coming con-
test, and wished to act as a mediator, but eventually he
joined the army of Pompey, who fought for the senate.
“He fluctuated greatly,” says Plutarch, and was in the
utmost anxiety; for he says in his letters, “Whither shall I
turn ? Pompey has the more honorable cause, but Caesar
manages his affairs with the greatest address. In short, I
know whom to avoid, but not whom to follow.” His wit,
however, did not fail even in this gloomy crisis. When
Pompey asked him, “Where is your son-in-law Ż’’ (Dolabella),
Cicero replied, “He is with your father-in-law.” After the
battle of Pharsalia (August, 48 B. C.), Cato offered the
command of the army to Cicero, but he declined it, and,
returning to Italy, submitted to the power of Caesar, who
treated him with clemency. He afterwards devoted himself
to literary labors in retirement, and found consolation in
the calm enjoyments of speculative philosophy. In the
ensuing period of three or four years (47–44) he produced
numerous works on philosophy and rhetoric, which are
admirable monuments of his profound and varied learning
as well as of his immense mental activity. As a philoso-
pher he preferred the principles of the New Academy.
In the year 45 he lost his accomplished daughter Tullia,
whom he regarded with the fondest affection. He approved
the assassination of Caesar, and denounced the conduct of
Mark Antony in a series of orations called Philippies, the
first of which was spoken in the senate in September, 44.
The second Philippic is a masterpiece of eloquent invective.
For a few months in the year 43, while Octavius co-ope-
rated with the senate against Antony, Cicero was the most
prominent statesman in Rome. Between December, 44, and
May, 43 B. C., he uttered his last twelve Philippies, which
were received with general applause, but the republican
cause was soon ruined by the coalition of Octavius with
Antony and Lepidus. Cicero was proscribed by them, and
was killed by the soldiers of Antony near his Formian
villa in December, 43 B. C. He left one son, named Marcus
Tullius. The moral character of Cicero is admitted to be
excellent even by those who censure his public conduct.
IHis worst foible was vanity, exhibited in a habit of self-
laudation. According to Niebuhr, “The predominant and
most brilliant faculty of his mind was his wit. In what
the French call esprit—light, unexpected, inexhaustible
wit—he is not excelled by any of the ancients.” As an
orator he surpassed all the ancients except Demosthenes.
Modern critics concur in unanimous admiration of the
consummate grace and beauty of diction which enchant
successive generations in the periods of Cicero. He am-
plifies everything. His words seem to gush forth without
effort in an ample stream; and the Sustained dignity of
his oration is preserved from pompous stiffness by the
lively sallies of a ready wit and a vivid imagination. His
periods are sonorous, but present a great variety of ca-
dences. His “Letters,” of which more than eight hundred
are extant, are models of exquisite Latinity, and are highly
prized for the light which they throw on the history and
antiquities of the Roman republic. Among his works
which remain entire are about fifty orations; also treatises,
entitled “De Finibus, libri v.” (an Inquiry into the Su-
preme Good); “Brutus seu de Claris Oratoribus” (à criti-
cal notice of Roman orators); “De Amicitiá’” (a dialogue
on friendship); “Tusculanae Disputationes” (disputations
950
on various questions of philosophy); “De Naturâ Deorum,
libri iii.” (“On the Nature of the Gods”); “Orator, seu
de Optimo Genere Dicendi” (“The Orator, or On the Best
Manner of Speaking”); and “De Officiis, libri iii.” (an
excellent treatise on ethics). One of his greatest works,
“De Republică,” is lost except a large fragment. He also
wrote treatises, “De Gloria” (“On Glory") and “De
Virtutibus ” (“On the Virtues"), which are not extant.
Mutilated copies have been preserved of his works entitled
“De Legibus ” and “Academicorum, libri iv.” Among
the best editions of his complete works are those of Ernesti,
Halle, 5 vols. 8vo, 1774–77; Olivet, Paris, 9 vols. 4to,
1742; and Orelli, Zurich, 9 vols. 8vo, 1826–37. (See PLU-
TARCH, “Life of Cicero;” CoNYERs MIDDLETON, “History of
the Life of Cicero,” 1741; F. FABRICIUs, “Historia Cice-
ronis,” 1563; ABEKEN, “Cicero in Seinen Briefen,” 1835,
and an English version of the same, 1854; W. Forsyth,
“Life of M. T. Cicero,” 2 vols., 1864; LAMARTINE, “ Cicé-
ron,” 1852; ORELL1, “Onomasticum Tullianum ;” J. Mo-
RABIN, “Histoire de Cicéron,” 3 vols., 1745; DRUMANN,
“Geschichte Roms.”) WILLIAM J.A.Cops.
Cicero (MARCUs TULLIUs), the only son of the preced-
ing, was born in 65 B. C. He is said to have been dissi-
pated, indolent, and intemperate. In the year 49 he joined
the army of Pompey, and received the command of a
squadron of cavalry. Soon after the battle of Pharsalia (48
B. C.) he went to Athens, and studied philosophy under
Cratippus. Having been appointed a military tribune by
Brutus in 44 B. C., he defeated C. Antonius, and did good
service in the Macedonian campaign. By the favor of Oc-
tavius (Augustus) he became consul in the year 30, and was
governor of Asia (Syria) in 29–28.
Cicero (QUINTUs TULLIUs), a brother of Cicero the
great orator, was born about 102 B. C. He was elected
praetor for the year 62, after which he officiated as gover-
nor of Asia for three years, and returned to Rome in 58 B. C.
He was appointed in the year 55 legate (legatus) to Caesar,
whom he attended in an expedition to Britain, and in 54
he commanded a legion in winter quarters inf Gaul. He
defended his camp with success against the attack of a large
army of Gauls. In the civil war he took arms for the senate
against Caesar, but he made his peace with him in 57 B. C.
He was proscribed by the triumvirs, and killed in 43 B. C.
Cicero Corners, a village of Cicero township, Onon-
daga, co., N. Y., has a large steam-mill and three churches.
Pop. 212.
Cicerone, che-châ-ro'nā [from Cicero, a derisive refer-
ence to the loquacity of guides], an Italian word signifying a
guide who shows and explains to travellers the interesting ob-
jects, antiquities, and famous places which abound in Italy.
Cicisbeo, che-chis-bā’o [Fr. cicisbée or sigisbée), a
name applied since the sixteenth century, in Italy, to the
acknowledged attendant upon a married lady. In Italian
society it was at one time unfashionable for the husband
to associate with his wife anywhere except in his own
house. In society or at places of amusement the wife was
accompanied by her cicisbeo, who attended at her toilet to
receive her commands for the day. This custom, which
was once universal, has now almost disappeared. Cicisbeo
is synonymous with cavaliere servente. The custom is highly
commended by several Italian writers.
Cicogma^ra, da (LEOPOLDo), Count, an Italian anti-
quary and writer on art, was born at Ferrara Nov. 26,
1767. He was for many years president of the Academy
of Fine Arts in Venice, and was a friend of Canova. His
chief work is a “History of Sculpture from the Renais-
sance of that Art to the present Century’” (3 vols., 1813–
18), which is highly esteemed. He wrote a “Life of Ca-
nova” (1823). Died Mar. 5, 1834.
Cicuſta, the ancient Latin name of the Conium macu-
latum (hemlock), a poisonous plant which was used at Ath-
ens as means of capital punishment. This is the plant which
is popularly called cicuta in the U. S. and Europe. (See
CoNIUM.) Cicuta is also the name of a genus of umbel-
liferous plants which are poisonous. The Cicuta macula-
to (spotted cowbane) grows in swamps in the U. S. Its
root is a very deadly poison. Other equally poisonous spe-
cies grow in the U. S. and in Europe.
Cid [Arab. Seid, a “lord”], surnamed EL CAMPEADOR
(the “champion ”), the most celebrated national hero of
Spain, was a Castilian whose proper name was RODRIGO
(or RUY) DIAz DE, BIva R. He was born at Burgos about
1040. He became commander of the army of Sancho II.
of Castile, who reigned from 1065 to 1072. About 1085 he
was banished by. Alfonso VI. He had married Doña Xi-
mena, a relative of King Alfonso. Even while in exile he
was the commander of a retinue of knights and vassals,
and he waged war with success against several princes.
He gained a victory over the Moors, and became sovereign
CICERO–CIMABUE.
of Walencia in 1094. Died in 1099. His exploits have
been embellished by many marvellous and fabulous inven-
tions. His life is the subject of an anonymous epic called
“The Poem of the Cid,” which, according to Southey, is the
“oldest and finest poem in the Spanish language,” and also
of a tragedy by Corneille (1636). (See R. SouTHEY, “Chron-
icle of the Cid,” 1808; M. J. QUINTANA, “Life of the Cid,” in
Spanish and French, 1837; “Romancero General,” 1604.)
Ciº der [Fr. cidre ; It. cidro], the fermented juice of
apples, extensively prepared in parts of England, in Ire-
land, in the northern districts of France, and in North
America. In Normandy vast quantities of apples are
grown for the preparation of cider. The apples are first
reduced to pulp in a mill, and the pulp is afterwards sub-
jected to pressure. The apple-juice is placed in casks in a
cool place, when fermentation begins, part of the sugar is
converted into alcohol, and a clear liquid is obtained, which
can easily be racked off from sedimentary matter. Cider
is largely used as a beverage. It contains from 5% to 10 per
cent. of alcohol, and is intoxicating when drunk in large
quantities. Cider quickly turns sour, becoming hard cider,
owing to the development of acid, and great difficulty is
experienced in the attempt to keep it sweet. Large quan-
tities are used in the manufacture of VINEGAR (which see,
by PROF. C. F. CHANDLER, PH.D., LL.D.)
Cienfue'gos, a town of Cuba, 111 miles S. E. of Ha-
vana, is the capital of a district of its own name. Sugar is
exported from this place. Pop. 9950.
Cie’za, a town of Spain, in the province of Murcia,
near the river Segura, and on a railway, 24 miles N. W. of
Murcia. It has manufactures of linen cloth. Pop. 95.16.
Cigar', or Segar’ [Fr. cigare ; Sp. cigarro], a small roll
of tobacco-leaves for smoking. The cigars of Havana are
the most highly prized, but those from Manila, usually called
cheroots, are also excellent. The manufacture of cigars in
the U.S. is an important industry. For the outer part or
wrapper of a cigar the tobacco raised in the Connecticut
Valley is considered the best, from its fine elastic quality.
A very small cigar wrapped with paper is called a cigarette.
Cil/ia [the plu. of cilium, the Lat. for “eyelash”], the
hairs which grow from the margin of the eyelids. The term
is also applied to microscopic filaments which project from
animal membranes, and which are often endowed with quick,
vibratile motion. In most of the very low animals the res-
piratory function is effected by means of vibratile cilia;
many animalcules and the gemmules of the acrites move by
a similar mechanism; and it has recently been ascertained
that vibratile cilia, have a share in the performance of some
important functions in the highest classes of the animal
kingdom, where they have been detected on the membrane
lining the female generative organs and in the respiratory
passages and the ventricles of the brain. Cilia in botany
are long hairs situated on the margin of a vegetable body.
Cilic/ia [Gr. Kuxtría], an ancient division of Asia Minor,
was bounded on the N. by Mount Taurus, on the E. by
Mount Amanus, on the S. by the Mediterranean, and on
the W. by Pamphylia. The surface is partly mountainous,
and partly occupied by fertile plains adjacent to the sea.
The chief river was the Cydnus. The principal towns were
Tarsus, Soli, Seleucia, Mallus, and Aphrodisias. The an-
cient Cilicians were distinguished for maritime enterprise
and also for piratical habits. In early ages Cilicia was an
independent kingdom. It was afterwards a part of the
Persian empire, and was reduced to a Roman province in
the time of Pompey. It coincides nearly with the Turkish
division of Adana. Among the eminent natives of Cilicia
were Saint Paul, Chrysippus the Stoic philosopher, and
Aratus the poet. - -
Cil/ley (JonATHAN), an able lawyer and politician, born
at Nottingham, N. H., July 2, 1802, graduated at Bowdoin
College in 1825, was admitted to the bar of Maine in 1829,
became Speaker of the Maine house of representatives, and
in 1832 a presidential elector; was elected to Congress in
1837, and Feb. 24, 1838, was killed in a duel by William J.
Graves of Kentucky. The combatants fought with rifles,
eighty yards apart, and fired three times each. The affair
caused much excitement at the time, Cilley’s friends declar-
ing the duel to have been unfairly conducted, and denoun-
cing Graves as a murderer.
Cimabuſe (GIov ANNI), an Italian painter, born in Flor-
ence in 1240, was eminent as a restorer and reformer of the
art of painting. The fine arts at that time had degenerated
into a formal conventionalism. He received lessons in art
from two Greek or Byzantine painters, and formed a more
natural style than that of his masters. He painted in dis-
temper and in fresco, and adorned the church of St. Fran:
cis at Assisi with his works. He excelled in design and
expression. Died about 1302. Among his pupils was Giotto.
(See WASAR1, “Lives of the Painters.”) REVISED BY C. C.
CIMAROSA—CINCINNATI.
951
Cimaro'sa (DOMENICO), an Italian composer, born at
Naples Dec. 17, 1755, was a pupil of Durante. He resided
at St. Petersburg and at Vienna and other German courts.
He composed a number of successful operas, among which
are “Il Matrimonio Segreto’’ (“The Secret Marriage”) and
“L’Olimpiade.” His works are remarkable for originality
and spirit. Died Jan. 11, 1801.
Cimarron', a post-village, capital of Colfax co., N. M.
It has one weekly newspaper. t
Cim’bri [Gr. Kiugpoj, a warlike people of ancient Eu-
rope whose origin is involved in obscurity. They were re-
garded as Germans by Caesar and Tacitus, whose opinion
has been adopted by most moderns. H. Müller and other
writers suppose that they were Celtic, and that Cimbri is
another form of Cymri, which is the Welsh name of their
own nation. In 113 B. C. the Cimbri and the Teutones
issued from the N. part of Germany, crossed the Eastern
Alps, and invaded the territory of the Romans, whom they
defeated in battle. They afterwards moved across the
Rhine, and pillaged part of Gaul. The Cimbri and Teu-
tones gained another victory over the Romans in the year
109. Within a period of six years they defeated four con-
suls and routed five Roman armies, so that great conster-
nation prevailed at Rome. They invaded Spain in 104
B. C. In 102 B.C., Marius defeated the Teutones at Aquae
Sextiae (Aix), in Gaul. The army of Cimbri at the same
time invadéd the north of Italy by a different route, and
gained a victory over the Roman consul Catulus near the
Adige. The infantry of the Cimbri had shields fastened
together with chains. The two Roman armies were then
united under the joint command of Catulus and Marius,
who gained a great victory over the Cimbri near Vercellae
(Vercelli) in July, 101 B. C. It is said that more than
100,000 Cimbri were killed in this battle. The Cimbri in
the time of Tacitus lived near the North Sea, and in Jut-
land, which was called the Cimbric Chersonese. (See PULL-
MANN, “Die Cimbern,” 1870.)
Cimin’na, a town of Sicily, in the province of Palermo,
19 miles S. E. of the city of Palermo. Pop. 5269.
Cimme’rians [Gr. Kuppléptot], according to the Ho-
meric legends, were a people dwelling “beyond the ocean-
stream,” where the sun never shines and perpetual dark-
mess reigns. Hence the proverbial expression, “Cimmerian
darkness.” The historical Cimmerii were a nomadic race
of great antiquity, who lived between the Borysthemes
(Dnieper) and the Tanais (Don). According to Herodotus,
they were expelled from that region by the Scythians, and
migrated to Asia Minor. They waged war against Aly-
attes, king of Lydia, about 600 B. C. The Strait of Yemi-
kale derived from them the name of Cimmerian Bosphorus.
Some antiquarians identify the Cimmerii with the CIMBRI
and the CYMRY (which see).
Cimo'lian Earth [Gr. ); Kuwoxia], a kind of earth
which the ancients used to obtain from the islands Cimolus
and Siphnus in the Cyclades. It was sometimes used in
medicine, but was especially employed instead of soap in
washing clothes. It appears to have been a variety of
steatite or soapstone.
Ci'm On, or Kiſm on [Kipcov.], an eminent Athenian
commander and statesman, born about 502 B.C., was a son
of Miltiades, who commanded at Marathon. He served
with distinction at the great battle of Salamis, 480 B. C.
Cimon and Aristides commanded the Athenians, who, co-
operating with the other Greek armies, prosecuted the war
against Persia in 476 B. C. Soon after this date he became
commander-in-chief of the allies, who preferred him to the
Spartan Pausanias. He defeated the Persians on the
Strymon, and in 466 gained a great naval victory at the
mouth of the Eurymedon. He was for some time the most
prominent statesman of Athens, and a rival of Pericles.
Cimon improved Athens by planting trees and building
walls to the Piraeus. It 461 B. C. he was banished by os-
tracism, but he was permitted to return in 456. He ob-
tained command of a fleet in 449, and besieged Citium, in
Cyprus, where he died in the same year. He was a con-
servative in politics. (See PLUTARCH, “Life of Cimon;”
CoRNELIUS NEPOs, “ Cimon ;” GROTE, “History of Greece;”
THIRLWALL, “History of Greece.”)
Cimaloſa, or Sinalo'a, a state of the Mexican con-
federation, is bounded on the S. W. by the Gulf of Cali-
fornia, and intersected by the rivers Culiacan and Cinaloa.
Area, 28,915 square miles. The surface is partly moun-
tainous. The rainy season begins about June 20, and lasts
nearly two months. Capital, Culiacan. Pop. 163,095.
Cincho’ma, commonly pronounced sin-ko’na [for ety-
mology see below], a genus of trees of the order Rubiaceae,
tribe Cinchoneae, producing the bark commonly known as
Peruvian bark, Jesuits’ bark, etc., and from which the
alkaloids quinia (quinine) and cinchonia are obtained.
The trees of this genus are sometimes of great magnitude,
but some of them in high mountain-regions are shrubs with
stems only eight or ten feet in height. They are all natives
of South America, between lat. 20° S. and lat. 10° N., and
chiefly grow on the eastern slopes of the Cordilleras. Other
tropical countries have of late been stocked with cinchona
trees, especially Java and some other Dutch colonies. The
British government has successfully introduced them into
India, and St. Helena; and the bark produced on the
Neilgherry Hills is remarkably rich in quinia. All cin-
chonas are evergreen, with laurel-like, entire opposite leaves,
and generally with beautiful fragrant flowers. Of more
than thirty species, several are comparatively worthless in
medicine.
Much difficulty has been experienced in ascertaining the
species by which the different varieties of cinchona bark
are produced. The commercial names are derived partly
from the color of the kinds, and partly from the districts in
which they are produced or the ports whence they are
shipped. The best sort, known as Calisaya or royal yellow
bark, is chiefly the product of Cºnchona Calisaya, a large
tree, growing in hot mountain-valleys of Bolivia and Peru.
The proper discrimination of the different kinds requires
experience. The taste is always bitter, but it is possible to
distinguish by the taste those varieties which contain quinia.
most largely from those in which cinchomia is the principal
alkaloid.
The collection of the bark is carried on by Indians, who
pursue their occupation during the dry season. The trees
are felled as near the root as possible, that none of the bark
may be lost, and the bark, being stripped off, is carefully
dried; the quilled form of the thinner bark is acquired in
drying. Even the roots of the best species are carefully
peeled. The bark is made up into packages averaging
150 pounds weight, called drums or seroons. A number
of spurious kinds of bark are either sent into the market
separately or are employed for adulterating the genuine
kinds. The very numerous varieties are classed as (1)
yellow, (2) red, (3) pale, and (4) Carthagena barks.
The Peruvian Indians call the trees kina, from which
the Spanish name quina, is derived, but it is not certain
that they knew the use of the bark before the arrival of
the Spaniards. It is a medicine of great value in the cure
of intermittent fevers and diseases attended with much de-
bility, also in certain diseases of the nervous system. It
seems to have been first imported into Europe in 1639 by
the wife of the viceroy of Peru, the countess of Cinchon
(from whom it was named), who had been cured of an in-
termittent fever by means of it. The Jesuits afterwards
carried it to Rome and distributed it, and thus it acquired
the name of Jesuits’ bark. It acquired great celebrity in
Spain and Italy, being sold at high prices by the Jesuits,
by whom it was lauded as an infallible remedy, while by
physicians it was coldly received, and by the Protestants
generally repudiated. It was, however, used in England
in 1658. It seems to have been employed without discrim-
imation, and to have fallen into the hands of empirics. It
was again brought into notice by Sir Robert Talbor, who
acquired great celebrity through the cure of intermittents
by means of it, and from him Louis XIV. purchased his
secret in 1679. Soon afterwards Morton and Sydenham,
the most celebrated English physicians of that age, adopted
the remedy, and its use from this period gradually extend-
ed. The discovery of the alkaloids on which its properties
chiefly depend, within the present century, constitutes a
new era in the history of this medicine.
The active principles of cinchona are the alkaloids
QUINIA (which see), cinchonia, and several other alkaloids
of less importance. When isolated, the alkaloid cinchonia
has the formula C40H24N20, and can be obtained in a
crystallized state. The alkaloid quinia is now extensively
in use in medicine in the form of disulphate of quinia, and
is given in doses of from one to twenty grains in almost all
the cases to which the bark is applicable, and for this reason
the bark itself is much less used than formerly.
REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Cincinna/ti, a township of Tazewell co., Ill. P. 758.
Cincinnati, a township of Harrison co., Ia. Pop. 447.
Cincinnati, the “Queen of the West,” the county-seat
of Hamilton co. and metropolis of the State of Ohio, one
of the largest and most important inland cities of the U. S.,
is situated in lat. 39° 6' 30' N. and lon. 84° 24" W., 764
miles from New York and 610 miles from Washington, in
the beautiful Valley of the Ohio, extending along the
northern bank of the Ohio River and over the adjacent
hills for miles. The main portion of the city is in the val-
ley, and is built on two plateaux. The territory of the
city has an area of twenty-four square miles, on which reg-
ular streets, mostly 66 feet in breadth, are laid out, and
paved with boulders or wooden blocks. Cincinnati is di-
952
CINCINNATI, ORDER OF.
vided into twenty-five wards, besides the suburbs Clifton
and Avondale, which, in connection with Mount Auburn and
East Walnut Hills, now parts of the city, contain some of the
most beautiful private residences and country villas. Quite
a number of other suburban towns surround the city; among
which may also be counted the cities of Covington, New-
port, Dayton, and Ludlow in the State of Kentucky, which
are situated right opposite Cincinnati, and connected with
the same by bridges and ferries. The government of the
city rests in the hands of the mayor, who is endowed with
the veto power, boards of councilmen, of aldermen, of
police commissioners, fire commissioners, of education,
park commissioners, of health, of sewerage, of city improve-
ments, of water-works, of revision, and a number of minor
boards. While the population of the city in 1800 amounted
only to 800, it had increased in 1860 to 161,044, and in
1870 to 216,239, of whom 136,627 were born in the U. S.,
49,448 in Germany, 18,264 in Ireland, 4033 in England
and Wales, and the rest in other foreign countries.
Cincinnati occupies a prominent position as a commer-
cial and manufacturing city, and is the native place of
many prominent men. Its favorable position, extensive
railroad connections, and numerous factories make it the
commercial emporium of the adjacent fertile and densely
settled States and the centre of Western manufacture. The
best proofs of its growing prosperity are the numerous new
buildings and the rapid extension of the business portion
of the city beyond its former boundaries. Among the pub-
lic buildings the most prominent are the Cincinnati Col-
lege, the court-house, the city hall, the Ohio and Miami
colleges, the Public Library, the Masonic Temple, Odd
Fellows' Hall, the workhouse, house of refuge, the new city
hospital, the post-office, and the house of the Jesuits, while
Pike's and Robinson’s opera-houses, the Catholic Institute,
Sinton’s and Mitchell’s blocks, the Wesleyan Female Col-
lege, and the Cincinnati Hotel may be ranked among its
finest private structures. The finest view of the city may
be had from the house of the Passionist Fathers on Mount
Adams (formerly the observatory), the Catholic seminary,
and the Lookout House. Among the churches, St. Peter’s
cathedral, with its beautiful steeple of Dayton stone and its
chimes; St. Francis Xavier’s church of the Jesuits, St. Paul’s
Methodist church, the Second Presbyterian, St. John’s Epis-
copal, and the Central Christian church are the most promi-
nent. The total number of churches is 151 (11 Baptist, 2
Christian, 4 Congregational, 4 Disciples of Christ, 2 Friends,
5 German Evangelical Unionists, 3 German Reformed, I
Independent Methodist, 4 German Lutheran, 27 Methodist
Episcopal, 2 Protestant Methodist, I Calvinistic Methodist,
3 colored Methodist, 1 Swedenborgian, 14 Presbyterian, 2
United Presbyterian, 3 Reformed Presbyterian, 8 Protest-
ant Episcopal, 42 Catholic, 3 United Brethren in Christ, 1
Universalist, 3 Unitarian, 5 Jewish synagogues). Cincin-
nati has 5 literary colleges, 2 academies of the Sisters of
Notre Dame, 6 medical colleges, 1 law school, I college of
dentistry, 5 commercial colleges, and a university. The
city has 26 district, 4 intermediate, a normal, and two high
schools, with 91 male and 420 female teachers, and 26,449
pupils. The colored population has its own schools, as well
as the Catholics and other religious associations. Among
the numerous libraries, the most prominent are the Public
Library, with 59,695 volumes, open to everybody; the
Young Men’s Mercantile Library, with 26,800 volumes;
the Historical Library, with 1738 volumes and many val-
uable MSS. Among the benevolent institutions under the
control of the city government are the house of refuge, the
poorhouse, the hospital, the lunatic asylum. Besides these
city institutions, private charity supports three orphan asy-
lums, three hospitals, a widows’ home, a children’s home,
a home for the friendless, House of the Good Shepherd for
fallen women, Union Bethel, a protectory for fallen boys,
and a vast number of benevolent aid societies. Cincinnati
has 22 lodges of Free Masons, 43 of Odd Fellows, 15 of
Good Fellows, 6 of Red Men, 12 of Knights of Pythias,
4 of the Seven Wise Men, 4 of the Grand Army of the Re-
public, 5 of the B'nai B'rith, 10 of the Druids, 12 of the
American Protestant Association, 7 divisions of the Sons
of Temperance, 4 orders of Good Templars, and 11 of the
Harugaris. It has an academy of medicine, an astronom-
ical society, an historical and philosophical society, a socie-
ty of matural history, a Zoological society, an acclimatiza-
tion society, a society for the prevention of cruelty to ani-
mals, a wine-growers’ association, a horticultural society,
and a literary club. There are also a chamber of commerce
and a board of trade. Cincinnati has 7 daily and 33 week-
ly papers, 3 semi-monthly and 27 monthly publications.
It has 6 theatres. Eighteen railroads connect Cincinnati
with all parts of the country; 354 steamboats ply between
the different points on the river. It has 11 horse railroads,
I inclined plane railroad, 4 steam ferries, and two fine
bridges (one of them, the splendid Cincinnati and Covington
suspension bridge, built by Roebling, connects Cincinnati
with Covington, Ky.). *
The commerce of Cincinnati is very large. Its chief
article of exportation, pork, has given it the name of
“Porkopolis.” It has also a large trade in tobacco, gro-
ceries, beer, and whisky. The imports in 1872 amounted
to $317,646,608, and the exports to $200,607,040. The
manufactures of Cincinnati are not less important than its
commerce. In 1871 different articles, amounting alto-
gether in value to $235,988,365, were manufactured. The
principal manufactures are iron, metal, and wooden wares,
leather, Soap, candles, clothing, whisky, beer, chemicals,
earthenware, carriages, paper, boots and shoes, books,
tobacco, cigars, etc. Cincinnati has five national banks,
with an aggregate capital of $4,000,000, and thirty private
banks. In 1872 the tax receipts of the city amounted for
ten months to $3,956,218.92; the expenses to $4,009,837.20.
The bonded debt amounted to $6,001,500, and the real
estate of the city to more than $20,000,000. The tax-
able property was estimated on the duplicate of 1873 at
$175,084,296. Cincinnati has 21 steam fire-engines and
326 fire-alarm telegraph stations.
Spring Grove Cemetery, containing 443 acres, is the
finest and largest burial-place. Among the seven parks of
the city, the Garden of Eden, containing 225 acres, is the
largest. The beautiful Tyler Davidson fountain on Fifth
street, surrounded by an esplanade and cast in Müller's
bronze foundry in Munich (Bavaria), after designs by
Albert von Kreling, by order of Henry Probasco, is one
of the grandest ornaments of the city. Cincinnati is the
seat of a police court, superior court, court of common
pleas, I district court, I probate court, and the U. S. court
for the southern district of Ohio. Since 1853 Cincinnati
is the seat of a Catholic archbishop.
Cincinnati was founded by New Jersey men in 1789,
and laid out by Col. Ludlow, who plotted it on a plan sim-
ilar to that of Philadelphia. The nucleus was formed by
IFort Washington, below which the village of Cincinnati
was mainly built. For years it did not promise to rise
much above the ordinary village, and not until 1816, when
steamboat navigation was introduced on the Western
rivers, did it push forward. From that date, however, it
made rapid strides to prominence, and occupied in a few
years the first rank among Western cities, which it main-
tained for a long while. It was incorporated as a town in
1802, and as a city in 1819. Its first mayor was Major
Ziegler. Towards the middle of the century it attracted a
vast German immigration,and several parts of the city, called
“Over the Rhine,” are almost entirely settled by Germans.
Of the local works on Cincinnati, the following are some
of the most important: -
DRAKE, DANIEL, “ Notices concerning Cincinnati,” Cin-
cinnati, 1810, 8vo; “Natural and Statistical View or Pic-
ture of Cincinnati and the Miami Country,” Cin., 1815,
12mo ; “Early Physicians, Scenery, etc. of Cincinnati,”
Cin., 1852, 12mo ; DRAKE, B., and MANSFIELD, E. D.,
“Cincinnati in 1826,” Cin., 1827, 12mo; CIST, C., “Cin-
cinnati in 1841,” Cin., 1844, 12mo; “Cincinnati in 1851,”
Cin., 1851, 12mo; “Cincinnati in 1859,” Cin., 1859, 12mo;
LEA, T. G., “Plants of Cincinnati,” Phila., 1849, 8vo;
STEVENs, G. E., “The Queen City in 1869,” Cin., 1869,
18mo: FootB, J. P., “Schools of Cincinnati,” Cin., 1855, 8vo;
“Spring Grove Cemetery Illustrated,” Cin. ; MAxwell,
S. D., “Suburbs of Cincinnati,” Cin., 1870, 4to; TAFT, A.,
“Cincinnati and her Railroads,” Cin., 1870, 8vo; “Cin-
cinnati and the Miami Country Celebration,” Cin., 1834,
8vo; CLARK, P. H., “Black Brigade of Cincinnati,” Cin.,
1870, 8vo. REVISED BY G. B.Rü HL.
Cincinna/ti, Order of ſnämed from the patriot Cin-
cinnatus], a society founded in the U.S. in 1783 by the officers
of the Revolutionary army, whose object was to cherish
and perpetuate the feelings of patriotism, friendship, and
fraternity which had been produced by the toils and dangers
they had experienced in common, and to relieve the wants
of the families of such as had fallen in the war. General
Knox was one of the authors of its constitution. The
badge of this society is a bald eagle, suspended by a dark-
blue ribbon with white borders, a symbol of the union
of the U. S. with France. The privilege of membership
was extended to a number of French officers. Considerable .
dissension and discussion was excited on the question of the
succession of regular membership, which at first was limited
to the eldest male posterity, together with their kindred
who should be worthy, etc. Popular jealousy was roused
by the privilege granted to primogeniture, which was de-
nounced as a germ of hereditary aristocracy. At a general
meeting held in Philadelphia in 1784 this subject was dis-
cussed, and some change was made in the constitution as
a concession to the popular sentiment. Gen. Washington
accepted in 1787 the office of president of the order, which
he continued to hold by successive re-elections until his
CINCINNATUS—CINQUE PORTS.
953
death. Branches of the order were organized in each of
the States. Of these some have been abolished or discon-
tinued, but others remain active and hold annual meetings.
Hamilton Fish was elected president of the order in 1872.
Cincinnatus, a township and post-village of Cortland
co., N. Y., 75 miles S. E. of Oswego. Pop. 350; of town-
ship, 1155.
Cincinna’tus (LUCIUs QUINTIUs), [so called because
he wore his hair in long curling locks, cincinni], an eminent
Roman patriot and dictator, born about 519 B.C., belonged
to the patrician order. He cultivated a small farm with
his own hands, and was regarded as a model of pristine
virtue and simplicity of habits. About 458 B. C. he be-
came consul. According to Smith’s “Dictionary,” he was
illegally appointed consul suffectus in 460 B. C. He was
appointed dictator two years later, and gained a victory
over the AEqui. In the year 450 he was an unsuccessful
candidate for the office of decemvir. He was chosen dic-
tator in 439 B. C., to oppose the machinations of Spurius
Melius, accused of treason. Much of what is related of
him by Livy is now thought to be legendary.
Cinc'ture [Lat. cinctura, a “girding,” from cingo, cinc-
tum, “to gird”], in architecture, is the ring or fillet at the
top and bottom of a column which divides the shaft from
the capital or base. It is also used, like the Latin cinctura,
for a girdle.
The GABINE CINCTURE (cinctus Gabinus), in ancient Rome,
was a peculiar mode of wearing the toga, the garment itself
being tied in a knot in front. This cincture was seldom
employed except upon the most solemn occasions. It took
its name from the town of Gabii, where its use is said to
have been once common.
Cin/eas [Gr. Kuvéas], a Thessalian orator and negoti-
ator, who, as Plutarch says, in youth had heard Demos-
themes. He became a confidential minister of Pyrrhus,
king of Epirus, who, in 280 B.C., sent Cineas to Rome to
negotiate a treaty of peace or alliance. His artful and
plausible speeches were frustrated by Appius Claudius, and
his mission was a failure. Died after 278 B. C.
Cin'erary Urn. [Lat. wrna cineraria, from cinis (gen.
cineris), “ashes”], a vessel used by the people of antiquity
to contain the ashes of the dead gathered from the funeral
pile. The embers were drenched with wine, and placed in
the urn, which was then placed in a family mausoleum.
Only the rich could afford so expensive a rite. Slaves
and inferior persons were burned, and their ashes placed
in the olla, or common clay pot, which was then stored in
a columbarium. Cinerary urns were of marble, clay, glass,
alabaster, or sometimes even of gold. The celebrated urn
known as the Portland vase in the British Museum is of this
character. (See Port LAND WASE.) Cinerary urns often had
epitaphs and beautifully wrought artistic figures upon them.
Cini'si, a town of Sicily, in the province of Palermo,
is 14 miles W. N. W. of Palermo, and near the sea. Here
is an old feudal castle which has been converted into a
convent. Pop. 6714.
Cin/na (C. HELVIUs), a Roman poet and a friend of
Catullus, was perhaps the same as the Cinna, whom Virgil
compliments in his ninth eclogue. He wrote an epic poem
called “Smyrna,” of which only a few lines are extant.
He was killed in 44 B. C. by a mob of Caesar’s adherents,
who mistook him for another Cinna, who was an accom-
plice of Brutus.
Cinna (LUCIUS CoRNELIUs), a Roman patrician who
was a partisan of Marius in the civil war between Marius
and Sulla. He became consul in 87 B. C., while Marius
was in exile and Sulla was conducting a campaign in Asia.
By an effort to reinstate Marius he provoked a violent con-
flict, and was driven out of Rome, but he and Marius soon
returned with an army and obtained the mastery in that
capital. They massacred many friends of Sulla. Cinna,
was re-elected consul as a colleague of Marius, who died in
86 B. C. He raised an army and marched to oppose Sulla,
who was returning from Asia, but was killed by his own
mutinous soldiers in 84 B. C. His daughter Cornelia was
married to Julius Caesar. -
Cin’nabar [Fr. cinabre or cinnabre ; Ger. Zinnober ;
Lat. cinnabaris ; Persian kambar], a red pigment some-
times called vermilion, is an ore of mercury, from which
nearly all the mercury of commerce is obtained. It is a
sulphide of mercury, composed, when pure, of 86.2 per
cent. of mercury and 13.8 of sulphur. It occurs massive
and crystallized in six-sided prisms; has an adamantine,
almost metallic lustre, and a carmine color. Specific gravity,
nearly 8.5. The term vermilion is usually applied to this
mineral when it is reduced to powder in order to be used
as a pigment. It is a rare mineral. The most productive
mines of cinnabar are those of China, of Almaden in
Spain, New Almaden in California, and Idria in Carniola.
The annual product of the mine of New Almaden is about
2,600,000 pounds.
Cin’naminson, a post-township of Burlington co.,
N. J. Pop. 3112.
Cin/namon [Lat. cinnamomum] is the 'aromatic bark
of certain trees of the genus Cinnamomum, which belongs
to the order Lauraceae, natives of tropical and sub-tropical
parts of the East. Cinnamon is mentioned in the Old Tes-
tament by a name almost the same as that which it still
bears. True cinnamon is chiefly produced by the Cinna-
momum Zeylanicum, which grows in the island of Ceylon;
introduced into the West Indies in 1782, it is now cultivated
there also. The tree attains the height of twenty to thirty
feet, and is eighteen inches in thickness. The leaves are .
oval, four to six inches long, with a blunt point; they have
the taste of cloves. The fruit is somewhat like an acorn
in shape; it is a small drupe, brown when ripe. The
branches of three to five years’ growth being cut down, the
epidermis is scraped away; the bark is split longitudinally
with a knife and taken off. The pieces are then exposed to
the sun, when it curls up into quills, the smaller of which
are thrust into the larger, and the whole tied up in bun-
dles. Cinnamon is arranged according to its quality by
persons who chew it, although in a short time it produces
painful effects on their mouths. It is used by cooks and
confectioners, and in medicine as a stomachic and carmin-
ative. Its virtues depend chiefly upon the essential oil
which it contains. Oil of cassia is very often substituted
for this oil, as cassia is for cinnamon. Indeed, the ordi-
nary cinnamon of commerce is cassia, that name being
given to the product of probably eighteen or twenty dif-
ferent species of Cinnamomum. The root of the cinnamon
tree contains camphor. The fruit yields a highly fra-
grant, concrete oil, called “ cinnamon suet,” and in Cey-
lon was formerly made into candles for the use of the king.
Cinnamomum Lowreirii, of Cochin-China and Japan, yields
a bark even superior to that of Cinnamomum Zeylamicum.
A species of cinnamon grows at the elevation of 8500 feet
in the Himalaya Mountains. The oil of cinnamon is gen-
erally prepared in Ceylon by grinding coarse pieces, soaking
them in sea-water for two or three days, and then distilling.
Two oils pass over—one lighter, the other heavier, than
water. Oil of cinnamon varies in color from yellow to
cherry-red; the yellow variety is the best. Oil of cinnamon
leaf is prepared in Ceylon, and is met with in commerce
under the name of clove oil, which it resembles. Cinnamon
water is obtained by adding water to cinnamon, and dis-
tilling, or by diffusing the oil of cinnamon through water
by the aid of sugar or carbonate of magnesia. Spirit of
cinnamon is procured by acting upon cinnamon with spirit
of wine and water and distilling; and tincture of cinna-
mon, by soaking cinnamon in spirit of wine. The medi-
cinal properties of cinnamon are aromatic and carminative,
and it is serviceable in nausea and vomiting, and in cases
of flatulence and of spasm of the stomach. The eocene
deposits of the U. S. and other countries abound in fossil
remnants of trees referred to the genus Cinnamomum.
Cin/namon Bear, or Yellow Bear, a bear occa-
sionally found in the U. S., is regarded as a mere variety
of the common black bear. (See BEAR.)
Cinnam on Stone is a variety of lime garnet of a
clear cinnamon-brown color, and is a silicate of alumina
and lime. The finer specimens are highly prized and used
in jewelry. Many of the stones sold as hyacinths are in
reality cinnamon stones. They are found most abundantly
in Ceylon.
Cinque Cento, chèn-kwá chén’to [an Italian word
signifying “five hundred ”I, a term used to designate the
style of art which arose in Italy about the year 1500, after
the fall of the great schools. It is sensuous in its charac-
ter, the subjects being usually borrowed from ancient
mythology or history. The same term is also applied to
the literature and architecture of that period, and is nearly
synonymous with the later RENAISSANCE (which see).
Cinquefoil, sink/foil [from the Fr. cinque, “five,”
and feuille, a “leaf”], a common name of the five-finger or
PoTENTILLA (which see); also a bearing in heraldry, which
is usually depicted with five leaves issuing from a ball as a
centre point. Cinquefoil, in architecture, is an ornamental
foliation in five compartments, used in the tracery of win-
dows, panellings, and the like. The cinquefoil is often
represented in a circular form, the spaces between the
points or cusps representing the five leaves.
Cinque Hommes, a township of Perry co., Mo.
Pop. 2910.
Cinque Ports (i.e. “five ports”), the English seaport-
towns of Dover, Sandwich, Hastings, Romney, and Hythe,
to which William the Conqueror granted important privi-
leges. Winchelsea, Rye, and Seaford were subsequently
954
CINTRA—CIRCULAR.
added to the original five ports. They are under the gov-
ernment of a lord warden. The Cinque ports in early
times were required to furnish such shipping as the Sov-
ereign required for the public service. In the time, of
Edward I. they were bound to furnish fifty-seven ships,
equipped and manned at their expense, for fifteen days.
The Cinque ports became so powerful and audacious that
they sent out piratical expeditions and waged war without
authority from the king. The Municipal Reform act has
broken up the ancient organization of the ports.
Cin/tra, or Sintra, a town of Portugal, in Estrema-
dura, on the slope of the Serra de Cintra, 14 miles N. W.
of Lisbon. It is remarkable for the picturesque beauty of
its situation and its delightful climate. It has an ancient
castle, originally occupied by Moorish kings, and after-
wards by Christian sovereigns. On two hills are the Penha
convent and a Moorish castle, and within the town is a
palace. The citizens of Lisbon are accustomed to spend
their Sundays in Cintra. r -
Cione di Andrea. See ORCAGNA.
Ciotat, La (anc. Citharista), a maritime town of
France, department of Bouches-du-Rhône, is on a bay of
the Mediterranean 14 miles S. E. of Marseilles. It is well
built, and has a good harbor, with an active trade in Wine,
fruits, and olive oil. Pop. 10,017.
Ciſpher [Fr. chiffre; Arabic, kifr, “empty”], the sym-
bol 0 in numerical notation, which is sometimes called
“naught,” and has no intrinsic value, but serves to deter-
mine the local value of the other digits or figures by which
it may be accompanied in the expression of a number.
Cipher, or Mon’ogram, an intertexture of letters, as
the initials of a name; an arrangement of the initial let-
ters of a person’s name, used as a private mark by artists
and others. The term is also applied to certain characters
or arbitrary signs used in writing despatches, etc. in cases
where secresy is desirable. (See CRYPTOGRAPHY.)
Circae'a, a genus of herbaceous plants of the order
Onagraceae, having a corolla of two petals and two stamens.
The Circaea Lutetiana (enchanter’s nightshade) is a native
of Europe and the U.S., growing in damp woods. It bears
small whitish flowers in racemes.
Circars, Northern, an extensive maritime province
of British India, in the presidency of Madras, with 470
miles of sea-coast. The surface is diverse. The principal
rivers are the Godavery and Kishna. The soil is fertile,
yielding cotton, grain, and tobacco. Area, 23,760 square
miles. Pop. estimated at 3,000,000.
Circas'sia, a region in the Western Caucasus belong-
ing to Russia, and extending from lat. 42° 30' to 45°40' N.,
and from lon. 37° to 46° E. The soil is fertile, and the cli-
mate cool and healthful. The forests are of luxuriant growth.
Coal and iron abound. Area, about 33,000 square miles.
The name Circassians is often applied to the people
of the neighboring parts of the Caucasus, but the Circas-
sians proper inhabit only the north-western part of the
Caucasus, with the exclusion of Abkasia, or the portion be-
tween the Black Sea in the W. and the lower bank of the
river Kuban in the N. . They number from 500,000 to
600,000, and are divided into fifteen tribes or clans. The
language of the Circassians, like the other tongues spoken
in the Caucasus, is difficult to learn, and its philological
relations, and the ethnological relations of these peoples,
are very difficult questions. The Circassians are a warlike
people, among whom it is held more honorable to live by
plunder than by industry. They cherish the most unre-
strained love of independence. There are five distinct
ranks—viz. chiefs, nobles, freemen, dependants, and slaves.
The class of freemen makes up the great mass; they possess
property and enjoy the same political rights as the nobles.
The fourth class, the dependants, are the vassals of the
princes and nobles. The fifth class comprises the slaves,
or those who have been made captive in war. The princes
and nobles are principally Mohammedans, while the great
mass of the people have a religion which is a mixture of
Christianity and paganism. The Circassians are ignorant.
Besides agriculture and the rearing of cattle, they possess
few other branches of industry, and are given to wild and
lawless pursuits. The Circassians are handsome, strong,
active, and temperate, and are characterized by self-depend-
ence, courage, and prudence. They are chiefly known
Sthrough their struggles to maintain their independence
against Russia, and for their custom of selling their daugh-
ters to the Turks and Persians. -
Cir’ce [Gr. Kipkm], a sorceress of classic mythology,
celebrated for her skill in magic arts, was a sister of Pas-
iphaë. According to Homer, she was a daughter of the
Sun, and lived on the island of AEaca, where she trans-
formed many men into swine and other beasts by her
drugs and incantations. Ulysses passed a year with her.
(See the “Odyssey,” book x.)
Circensian Games. See CIRCUs.
Cir'cle [from the Lat. circulus, a diminutive of circus,
a “ring ”], in geometry, is a plane figure bounded by a
curved line which is everywhere equally distant from a
point within called the centre. The curved line which
bounds the circle is called the circumference. The distance
from the centre to the circumference is called the radius,
and any two radii which together form a straight line con-
stitute the diameter. -
In the mechanic arts the ratio of the diameter to the cir-
cumference is assumed to be as 7 to 22, which is exact
enough for practical operations, though the real ratio can
never be perfectly expressed. In ordinary mathematical
work it is assumed to be as 1 to 3.1416, which is very
slightly too large. Mr. William Shanks, a British mathe-
matician, has carried out the decimal to 607 places. The
diameter and circumference are in fact incommensurable,
and it is conclusively demonstrated that the famous problem
of “squaring the circle” can never be solved.
The circle is one of the conic sections, it being exhibited
by cutting a right cone in a plane parallel to its base. It
is often referred to the second order of curves, and regarded
as an ellipse, whose foci coincide with each other. -
In astronomy, the term “great circle” is applied to those
circles which divide the celestial sphere into two equal
parts, as the equator and the MERIDIAN (which see).
SIX-POINTs CIRCLE, the circle which passes through the
middle points of the sides of a triangle. It passes also
through the feet of the three perpendiculars let fall from
the angles upon the opposite sides, and possesses many
remarkable properties. The same circle is referred to by
some European writers as the nine-points circle, since, be-
sides the six points already named, the middle points of
the three lines joining the corners of the triangle to the
intersection of the three perpendiculars also lie in its cir-
cumference. Feuerbach, Brianchon, and many others have
investigated the properties of this circle. The first of
these geometers discovered that it touched the inscribed as
well as the three exscribed circles of the triangle.
Circle, Mural. See MURAL CIRCLE.
Circle of Perpetual Apparition, a lesser circle
of the celestial sphere, is parallel to the equator, and in-
creases with the latitude of the place where the observer
is stationed. All stars included in it are always above the
horizon. These are called circumpolar stars.
Circleville, a city, the capital of Pickaway co., O., is
on the Scioto River, the Ohid Canal, and the Cincinnati
and Muskingum Valley R. R., 104 miles E. N. E. of Cincin-
nati and 25 miles S. of Columbus. It occupies the site of
highly interesting ancient works, consisting of a circle and
square, perfect in form, fully described in Howe's “History
of Ohio.” It has 14 churches, 2 national banks, 1 private
bank, 7 building-and-loan associations, 2 large pork-pack-
ing establishments, a number of mills and factories, and 3
weekly newspapers. The lands in the vicinity of Circle-
ville are largely devoted to broom-corn culture, thus making
it a leading market for that article. The celebrated speech
of Logan the Indian chief was made 4 miles S. of Circle-
ville. Camp Charlotte, where Lord Dunmore encamped
in 1774, and made a treaty of peace with Indians, is 7
. ; E. of Circleville. Pop. 5407; of Circleville town-
ship, 515.
p ALFRED WILLIAMS, ED. “HERALD AND UNION.”
Circleville, a township and village of Pendleton co.,
West Va., 130 miles S. E. of Wheeling. Pop. 1108.
Cir’cuit [Lat. circuitus, from circum, “around,” and
eo, it um, to “go”], a name given in England, Wales, and
Ireland to certain divisions of the country made for judi-
cial purposes. These circuits are visited by judges at
appointed times for holding courts. The judges were
anciently called justices in eyre (from the Lat. eo, ire, to
& & go ”). -
Circuit Court, the name of the courts of the U. S.
next inferior to the supreme judicial court. The U. S. are
divided into circuits, and in each circuit one of these courts
is held. The presiding judge is either the chief-justice of
the U. S., one of his associates, a special circuit justice, or,
in some instances, a district judge. The circuit court has
jurisdiction, direct or appellate, both in law and equity.
It also hears appeals from a court of admiralty in certain
cases. Criminal cases may also in some circumstances
come before it. Several States of the Union have circuit
courts. (See CourTs, by GEORGE CHASE, LL.B.)
Cir/cular [Lat. circularis; Fr. circulaire], round, like
a circle, circumscribed by a circle; ending in itself, as a
parologism in which the second proposition proves the
first, and is proved by it. “Circular sailing” is the
CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS-CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.
955
method of sailing by the arc of a great circle. As a noun,
circular sometimes signifies a document addressed to a
circle of persons or to a number of persons having a com-
mon interest, as a circular letter. -
Cir'cular Functions, a term which, as generally
employed, is synonymous with trigonometrical functions.
Circular Notes. See LETTERs of CREDIT.
Cir’cular Numbers are numbers whose powers end
on the same figure as they do themselves; such are num-
bers ending in 0, 1, 5, 6.
Cir'cular Parts, in spherical trigonometry, the name
given to two rules invented by Lord Napier, and demon-
strated in his “Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descrip-
tio” (see also Top HUNTER’s “Spherical Trigonometry”),
for obtaining the formulae relative to a right-angled spheri-
cal triangle.
Circular Points at Infinity, the two imaginary
points in which any circle intersects the infinitely distant
right line in its plane. -
Cir'culating (or Recur’ring) Deç’imal, a decimal
in which certain digits are continually repeated. Thus,
.15723723. ..., ad infinitum, is a circulating decimal of
which the figures 723 constitute the recurring period, called
also the repetend.
Circulating Library. See LIBRARIES, by A. R. SPOF-
Ford, Esq., Librarian of Congress.
Circula’tion of the Blood. In all animals, even
the simplest and lowest, there is a movement, more or less
regular, of blood, or of a fluid equivalent to it, furnishing
material for the formation and repair of the body. Sponges,
while living, have no closed internal circulation, but their
nutrition and aeration are sustained by the incessant flow
of the water in which they exist through their numerous
pores. Other Protozoa (as the lowest group of animals is
designated), as Rhizopoda, have, within their soft, jelly-
like substance, cavities (vesicles) which alternately contract
and dilate, serving the purpose of ačration of their bodies,
with redistribution of their material. Animals a grade
higher, as the Actinia (sea-anemone), have a free commu-
nication between the stomach and the general cavity of the
body, from which, through fine ramifications to certain
parts, the nutritious fluid is circulated, though never sep-
arated as true blood. In worms no distinct circulation of
blood has been proven to exist. Cavities (lacunae) there
are, and in some, as the leech, vessels called pseudo-haemal
vessels, ramifying through the body and containing a fluid,
generally red, but these always have a tubular communica-
tion with the exterior. In insects there is a dorsal seg-
mented vessel, with valves between the segments, which
conveys the blood forward by its rhythmical contractions.
The blood, which is often colored, and contains corpuscles
(though never colored, as in vertebrates, by the corpuscles),
then flows into lacunae, or spaces through the body, coming
in contact with the air introduced by the tracheal tubes.
Crustaceans, as the lobster, have a muscular heart, with six
arterial branches, going to the head, stomach, liver, and
pº parts. Thence the blood passes through a num-
er of lacunae, and returns by a number of veins, which
expose it, in the gills, to the air before reconveying it to
the heart. Thus the heart of the crustacean is systemic, not
respiratory, in its mode of distribution of the blood. The
oyster has a heart, not far from the muscle which closes its
shell; its vascular system, however, is incompletely closed.
In the cuttle-fish there is a strong systemic heart, with
valves; it sends blood to all the organs except the gills.
The blood returns into a contractile venous enlargement
(sinus), which conveys it to the gills through from two to
four branches or veins. Other sinuses then receive it, and
these, being contractile, send it back to the heart. All in-
vertebrates (animals without an internal skeleton) have,
if any, a systemic heart, and none of them have colored
corpuscles in their blood.
Vertebrated animals always (except the anomalous Am-
phioxus) have blood containing both red and colorless cor-
puscles, the former of which give to it its color. In fishes
the heart is branchial or respiratory. Consisting of an au-
ricle and a ventricle, it receives venous blood from the body,
and propels it, by four or five arched vessels, through the
gills, whence it circulates, to be returned by veins to the
auricle. In the eel, torpedo, and one or two other fishes,
contractile venous sinuses assist this return.
In fishes generally it is supposed that the impulse of the
heart suffices for the whole round of the circulation. More
probably, however, this is supplemented by arterial, if not
venous, propulsion, and by a power acting in the (interme-
diate) capillary region. All vertebrated animals have a
closed circulatory system, consisting of a heart, arteries,
capillaries, and veins. In all vertebrates there is, also, a
portal system, composed of veins going from the digestive,
:
*
and sometimes other, organs to the liver—in fishes to the
kidney also—whence veins again convey the blood to the
heart. -
Reptiles and amphibia have a heart with three cavities—
two auricles and one ventricle. Of the auricles, one re-
ceives blood from the lungs (except in the early stage of
life of the frog, and some other amphibia; and from the
lungs and gills both in the perennibranchiate amphibia, as
Proteus); and the other receives the blood from the body
generally. These two kinds of blood (aërated, or arterial,
and non-aērated, or venous) mingle in the single ventricle,
whence they are redistributed to the lungs and all over the
body by arteries. In the crocodile, however, a partition al-
most separates the two halves of the ventricle, thus approach-
ing the arrangement in the higher animals.
Birds have four cavities—two auricles and two ventricles
—making a completely double heart, always situated in the
middle of the thorax or chest. One auricle receives the
blood by large veins coming from the body generally. This
auricle passes the blood into its connected ventricle, which
sends it, by pulmonary arteries, to the lungs. Thence it
returns, by pulmonary veins, to the other auricle, and this
conveys it into its attached ventricle. That cavity then
propels it through the aorta, or main arterial trunk, for
general distribution over the body. In birds the portal
venous system mainly connects the liver with the digestive
organs; but a few of its veins communicate with the kid-
neys, posterior internal organs, and lower extremities.
All mammals (viviparous vertebrated animals which
suckle their young) have a double heart, consisting of two
auricles and two ventricles—a respiratory and a systemic
heart conjoined. In man, for instance, the right auricle and
ventricle constitute the respiratory or pulmonary heart—
the left, the systemic ; and after birth, although closely ad-
herent together, no direct communication exists between
them. In the dugong the two ventricles are partly sep-
arated by a deep notch. In the ox and many other rumin-
ants a bony deposit strengthens the inter-ventricular wall.
Only in man and some of the anthropoid (man-like) apes
does the heart incline to the left side; in other animals it
is usually median. This promotes the symmetry which is
so especially important in swift-running animals, as the
hound and deer, and in birds for flight.
The arrangement of the branches of the aorta differs in
the several classes of vertebrated animals. Fishes have
four or five aortic arches, going to the gills. The lower
reptiles have three aortic arches on each side; the higher
reptiles, one on each side, descending over the roots of the
two lungs to form together the abdominal aorta. Birds
have only one—the right aortic arch, passing over the root
of the right lung. In mammals, including man, there is
only a single aortic arch, over the root of the left lung;
this, giving off branches above, becomes in its descent the
abdominal aorta. The manner of origin of the ascend-
ing branches (subclavian and carotid) of the aorta differs
also, even among the Mammalia. In man it is least sym-
metrical; two arterial trunks passing upward from the
aorta on the left side (left carotid and subclavian), while
there is one (arteria innominata) only on the right, soon
subdividing into two. The horse and ruminants have but
a single aortic principal branch, which gives off all four of
the carotid and subclavian arteries. The portal circulation
in mammals is never connected with the kidneys.
A rete mirabile is a network of closely interjoining (an-
astomosing) arteries, which finally unite into a single
trunk. Whales and other Cetacea (aquatic, fish-like mam-
mals) have retia mirabilia connected with their intereostal
arteries within the chest, evidently serving the purpose of
reservoirs to retain and distribute aërated blood while the
animal is submerged for a long time. There are also in the
same animals venous plexuses or retia, for the detention,
under like circumstances, of impure, non-aērated blood.
Protective arrangements of the arteries exist in certain
special instances, as the passage through the pelvic bones
of the main artery of the hind part of the tail in the whale;
of the great artery of the anterior extremity through the
humerus or arm-bone of the lion; and of the corresponding
artery through the coffin-bone (hoof-bone) of the horse. In
all these cases vigorous action of the muscles in locomotion
or prehension might unduly obstruct, at times, the flow of
arterial blood but for such a provision, by which muscular
or tendinous pressure upon the artery is prevented by its
enclosure within bony Walls. -
The circulation of the blood in man corresponds altogether
(except in the unsymmetrical location of the heart and of
some of the arterial trunks) with the mammalian type above
described. In connection with the human circulation, how-
ever, some additional particulars may be here given.
Action of the Heart. (For anatomy, see HEART; , also
ARTERy, CAPILLARY, and WEIN.)—Being composed of spi-
rally-arranged muscular fibres, the heart, by its rhythmical
956
CIRCULATION OF SAP.
contractions and relaxations, empties itself and becomes
filled with blood alternately, in an adult man or woman,
between sixty-five and seventy-five times a minute while at
rest in health. From the right ventricle the venous blood
(poured into it from the right auricle, which receives it
from the great venæ cavae) is sent through the pulmonary
artery and its branches to the capillaries which ramify
minutely throughout the lungs. These combine to form
Small veins whose union into larger trunks finally consti-
tutes the four pulmonary veins, which empty the (now
aërated or arterialized) blood into the left auricle. This
conveys it into the left ventricle, whence it is impelled
through the aorta, by the branches of which it becomes dis-
tributed all over the body in capillary networks, to return
to the heart by means of the veins; all of which empty at
last into the ascending and descending venæ cavae.
For the maintenanče of this round of the circulation the
valves of the heart are indispensable. Membranous and
muscular valves (tricuspid and mitral) intervene between
each auricle and its corresponding ventricle. Pocket-like
(three-folded, semilunar) valves also exist at the mouths of
the two great arteries which convey blood from the heart;
namely, the pulmonary artery from the right ventricle, and
the aorta, from the left ventricle. When the auricles are
contracting, the (tricuspid and mitral) valves between them
and the ventricles are open, allowing the blood to flow
through. The auricles being emptied and the ventricles
filled, the latter then contract, and at the same time, and in
the same act, close the auriculo-ventricular valves; so that
the blood is forced onward through the two arteries above
named (pulmonary artery and aorta). While the ventricles
are contracting (this being called the systole), the heart is
spirally twisted, elongated,” and thrust slightly forward
against the space between the fifth and sixth ribs, below the
left nipple. This quite perceptible movement is the im-
pulse of the heart. No power other than that of elasticity
has been proved to exist in the dilatation (diastole) of the
cavities of the heart. The immediate cause of the systolic
contraction is most probably the contractility resident in the
heart’s muscular tissue, acting under the stimulus of ačrated
(oxygenated) blood. It is also placed under the modifying
influence of the nervous apparatus or system, having mi-
nute ganglia upon its surface, and being connected with the
brain and spinal cord by branches of the pneumogastric
nerve. Why the action of the heart should be so regularly
rhythmical is not known. But as it has been shown (by
Bowman and Marey) that all muscular action is alter-
nating or vibratory in its character, it is possible that the
spiral arrangement of the heart’s fibres may have to do with
the peculiar manner of the heart's contraction. With some
(especially cold-blooded) animals the heart has been found
to contract for some minutes, or even hours, after its removal
from the body, and sometimes when quite emptied of blood.
Of the sounds of the heart, audible when the ear is placed
over it against the chest, the first (longest and loudest) is
explained principally by the closing, with vibration, of the
auriculo-ventricular walls during the systole of the ventri-
cles. Other minor causes are the impulse of the heart, the
rush of blood into the great arteries, and the friction of
the heart’s muscular fibres amongst themselves. The second
sound has been shown experimentally to be caused by the
flapping together, after the systole, of the pocket-like (semi-
lunar) valves at the mouths of the aorta and pulmonary
artery.
Arterial Circulation.—Since the arteries contain, in their
middle coat, a portion of (smooth, pale, involuntary) mus-
cular as well as elastic tissue, this must have an important
influence upon the blood-movement. The fact that the rel-
ative amount of muscular tissue is greatest in the smallest
arteries, which are farthest from the heart, suggests their
adaptation to the purpose of supplementing the action of
the heart in propelling the blood through the capillaries.
The same idea is reasonably connected with the observa-
tion that after death the arteries are always found to have
emptied themselves, by their last contraction, into the veins.
It is also supported by the apparent need of such an arte-
rial power to complete the circulation commenced by the
merely branchial (not systemic) heart in fishes, and by the
fact that in acephalous (born without a head) children the
heart is found to be absent, so that the circulation in them
must have been arterial and capillary only ; as well as by
the proof that during early embryonic life every human
being is likewise without a heart, the blood-movement then
depending on the blood-vessels alone. Notwithstanding
these and many other obvious reasons in favor of such a
view (which was accepted by the distinguished John Hun-
ter and Sir Charles Bell), the more common opinion among
*This was proved by the late Dr. Pennock of Philadelphia,
many years ago, by many elaborate experiments, although no
yet admitted by all writers on physiology. -
physiologists has been, for many years, that the office of the
muscularity of the arteries is of a “stop-cock” or “flood-
gate ”. nature, opposing a graduated resistance to the im-
pulse given to the flow of blood by the heart. Lately, how-
ever, careful experiments by Legros and Onimus (“Journal
.de l’Anatomie et de la Physiologie,” 1868–70) have given
new confirmation to the former opinion, in favor of a truly
active part taken by the arteries in the circulation. Cer-
tainly, in some way these vessels have to do with the regu-
lation of the changing supply or determination of blood to
various parts of the body at different times. This varia-
tion we see in blushing; in the erectile tissues and organs;
in the effect of friction or mustard, etc. upon the skin; in
the increased flow of blood to the jaws during the time of
dentition in infants, to the ovaries during ovulation, the
uterus in gestation, the male reproductive organs of some
animals at certain periods, and the antlers of the deer
during their annual new growth. In all these variations
the vaso-motor nerves (belonging to the ganglionic system)
must have an important influence. *
Capillaries.—Having but a single elastic coat, without
muscularity, these very (microscopically) minute vessels
simply adapt themselves to the blood that passes through
them. Yet besides the transudation of the lymph or plasma
of the blood from them for the nutrition of the tissues, and
the absorption into them of waste materials, a force is
probably added to the forward movement of the blood in
the capillary region. Prof. Draper of New York has pointed
out that this may occur in two ways, both of which are
common to animals and plants. One is capillary attrac-
tion—i. e. the attraction of fine tubes for liquids in which
they are immersed, such as is observed in inanimate (metallic
or glass) tubes or porous bodies, as well as in living plants
and animals. The other is the “vital affinity,” or attraction
of nutrition, exercised by the tissues towards materials
present in the blood, and withdrawing them constantly
from the current, thus making room, by diminution of re-
sistance, for its onward flow. The volume of the capillary
system in man is about 300 times that of the arteries.
Venous Circulation.—On account of the distance tray-
ersed by the blood (passing as it does through the capil-
lary ramifications) before it reaches the veins, and their
greater aggregate volume (three times that of the arterial
system), as well as the obtuseness of the angles made gen-
erally by their branches with the main trunks, the flow of
the blood is much slower through the veins than through
the arteries. Weins have, as the arteries have not, valves
along their course, opening only towards the heart. By
these the propulsive power is economized, and on account of
their influence also, the effect of muscular pressure, during
exercise, upon the veins, always favors the blood-movement
towards the heart. Inspiration, by lessening the pres-
sure upon the auricles and venæ cavae during the expansion
of the chest, tends to promote the return of venous blood to
the heart. Forced expiration has an effect the reverse of
this, but by increase of pressure upon the heart it favors
the expulsion of the blood through the arteries.
The velocity of the movement of the blood through the
arteries averages from twelve to twenty feet in a second ; in
the capillaries, about two inches in a minute; in the veins,
from six to twelve feet in a second. Experiments prove
that the whole round of the circulation is accomplished
in a little less than half a minute during rest and health.
The discovery of the circulation of the blood, as now
understood, was made by Dr. William Harvey in 1619, first
published by him, however, in 1628. He was partially an-
ticipated by Servetus, Realdus Columbus, and Caesalpinus;
- almost entirely so by Paolo Sarpi, whose claim in this re-
spect has been generally overlooked. The discovery was
completed by the demonstration (with the aid of the micro-
scope) of the blood-corpuscles and the capillaries, between
1658 and 1687, by Swammerdam, Malpighi, and Leeuwen-
hoek. (See, on the circulation, CARPENTER’s, MARSHALL’s,
or DALTON’s “Treatises on Physiology;” “Essay on the
Circulation of the Blood,” by CHARLES BELL, London,
1819; “Physiologie Médicale de la Circulation du Sang,”
par E. J. MAREY, Paris, 1863; LEGROs and ONIMUs, “Ex-
perimental Observations” in the “Journal de l’Anatomie et
de la Physiologie,” 1868–70; and “Essays upon the Arterial
Circulation and Vaso-motor Physiology,” by H. HARTS-
HoRNE, in “Transactions of the American Medical Associa-
tion,” 1856 and 1872.) HENRY JHARTSHORNE.
Circulation of Sap in plants is its ascent from the
roots to the leaves and other green parts, and its partial
descent after elaboration in these organs. The sap drawn
from the ground by the roots (see ENDOSMOSE) ascends in
exogenous plants especially through the alburnum. The
descent takes place chiefly through the liber or inner bark.
It appears that on its return to the root a small portion is
excreted, and that the greater part ascends again, readapted
to the use of the plant. Much of the water which is taken
N CIRCUIM—CIRRIPEDIA.
957
up by the roots is thrown off by the bark and leaves. The
sap is also laterally diffused through the cellular tissue of
plants. Physiologists dislike the term circulation applied
to sap, as suggesting a closer analogy than really exists to
the circulation of blood in animals, since sap does not flow
freely through vessels, but exists in closed cells, passing
from cell to cell through the cell-walls, being impelled by
osmotic action. (See CYCLOSIS and LEAF.)
Cir'cum, a Latin preposition signifying “round” or
“ about,” and forming the prefix to many compound words.
Circumcis’ion [Lat. circumcisio, from circum,
“around,” and cado, caesum, to “cut”], the cutting off of the
prepuce, a religious or sanitary practice in many ancient
and modern nations. The prevalent idea has been that it
originated with Abraham, who circumcised himself and his
household, and transmitted the custom to his descendants.
But circumcision was common in Egypt as early as the
fourth dynasty of kings, and probably earlier, long before
the birth of Abraham, 1996 B.C. . At the present day it
prevails from China to the Cape of Good Hope and in parts
of Australia, and in many of the South Sea Islands, and
early Spanish travellers found it to be prevalent in the
West Indies and in Mexico. It has been long practised by
tribes in South America. Whether Abraham obtained his
knowledge of circumcision from the Egyptians we cannot
determine. The Philistines and some of the Canaanites
were not circumcised; and the institution in the family of
Abraham was sufficient to mark off that family from the
surrounding nations. In the case of Abraham’s descend-
ants the rite acquired a religious significance as the token
of the covenant between God and his people. Saint Paul
looked upon circumcision as symbolical of the spiritual
change of heart. /
The Jews are accustomed to circumcise their children on
the eighth day after birth; the Arabians, in the thirteenth
year, in remembrance of their ancestor Ishmael. The
Copts and Abyssinians are perhaps the only people pro-
ºfessing Christianity among whom circumcision is practised,
though it is probable that some Christians of the Caucasus
have adopted it from their Mohammedan neighbors. The
circumcision of females, or what is equivalent, is not un-
known among various African and Arabian tribes.
Circum’ference [from the Lat. circum, “round,” and
fero, to “carry”], a curved line which encloses a plane
figure, and is synonymous with periphery. It is applied
especially to the curved line which encloses a circle, and
bears a certain constant ratio to its diameter. (See CIRCLE.)
The term perimeter is used to designate the whole bound-
ing lines of a plane figure enclosed by several straight
lines, as a square or polygon.
Cir'cumflex [from the Lat. circum, “about,” and flecto,
fleawm, “to bend;” literally, “bent about ’’ or “over”], in
grammar, a character or accent originally denoting a rise
and fall of the voice on the same long syllable, marked in
Greek " or ", and in Latin *
Cir'cumnaviga'tion [from the Lat. circum, “around,”
and navigo, navigatum, to “ sail”] means, literally, a
Sailing round, and is usually applied to the act of sailing
round the globe. This was formerly considered, a great
achievement. The first person who circumnavigated the
earth was Magellan, in 1519. Sir Francis Drake sailed
round the globe in 1577. Among the other celebrated nav-
igators who performed this voyage was Captain James
Cook, in 1768–79.
Cir'cumpo’lar [from the Lat. circum, “around,” and
polus, the “pole”] Stars, stars which revolve within the
circle of perpetual apparition, and appear to move around
the pole, and complete their diurnal circles without setting.
The number of stars so circumstanced increases with the
Iatitude of the place, or, in other words, with the elevation
of the pole above the horizon of the observer.
Circumstantial Evidence. See Evidence, by PROF.
T. W. Dwight, LL.D.
Circumvalla’tion [from the Lat. circum, “about,”
and vallum, a “rampart”]. In fortification, an intrench-
ment or series of defensive works erected by a besieging
army, facing outward from the place invested or besieged,
is called a line of circumvallation. It is designed to defend
the besieging army against an attack from a hostile army
operating in the rear. It usually consists of a chain of re-
doubts, either isolated or connected by a parapet.
Circus (plu. Cir'ci), [originally, a “circle” or “cir-
cular space”]. The circus of ancient Rome was a large
structure without a roof, for chariot and horse races, and
for the exhibition of athletic exercises and conflicts of wild
beasts. It appears that it was originally of a circular or
oval form, whence the name. The Circensian games, ac-
cording to tradition, originated in the time of Romulus,
When they were dedicated to the deity Consus, and called
Consualia. The rape of the Sabines occurred at the Cir-
censian games. After the war in which Tarquinius Pris-
cus captured Apiolae, his victory was celebrated by games.
A space was marked out for a circus, and the senators
and knights erected scaffoldings round it for themselves.
The games thenceforth were held annually, and a perma-
ment edifice was afterwards constructed. This was dis-
tinguished as the Circus Maximus. It was enlarged at
various times. In the time of Julius Caesar it was 1875 feet
long and 625 feet wide; the depth of the buildings surround-
ing the space was about 312 feet. Its dimensions were sub-
sequently much greater. All the circi in Rome, of which
there were a considerable number, are nearly obliterated,
but a circus on the Appian Way, about two miles from
Rome, known as the Circus of Maxentius, is still in a state
of preservation. Its construction is believed to have dif-
fered very little from that of other ancient buildings for
similar purposes. Along the sides and at the end were
ranges of stone seats for the spectators. At the other end
were the carceres or stalls, covered and furnished with
gates, and in which the horses and chariots remained un-
til on a given signal the gates were thrown open. In the
centre was the spina, a long and broad wall round which the
chariots drove, terminating at both ends in metae, or goals.
The games were inaugurated by a procession from the Cap-
itol, in which persons bearing the images of the gods went
first, and were followed by the performers in the games,
the consuls, and others. The circus was particularly de-
signed for races, an amusement of which the Romans were
passionately fond. In consequence of the popular enthu-
siasm, the victor received substantial pecuniary rewards.
A pitched battle was sometimes represented. By the for-
mation of canals and the introduction of vessels a sea—
fight was occasionally exhibited, but under the empire this
was transferred to the amphitheatre. In providing for the
killing of wild beasts vast sums of money were expended.
Animals were procured from every part of the Roman em-
pire. The exhibition attained a political importance which
mone who aspired to popularity ventured to overlook. Pom-
pey is said to have given public exhibitions in the circus
for five days, during which 500 lions and twenty elephants
were destroyed. The principal Circensian games were held
annually in September, and lasted five days.
Cirencester (pron. sis/eter), (anc. Corinium), a town
of England, in Gloucestershire, on the river Churn, and on
a branch of the Great Western Railway, 89 miles by rail
W. N. W. from London. It has an agricultural college,
several hospitals, and manufactures of carpets, woollen
cloths, and cutlery. Canute held a council here in 1020.
Cirencester partly occupies the site of Corinium, an ancient
Roman town two miles in circuit. Pop. in 1871, 7681.
Ciril'Io (DoAIENIco), M.D., F. R. S., a meritorious Italian
savant and patriot, was born at Grugno in 1734. He
practised medicine in Naples, and published, besides other
works, “Fundamenta Botanica” (1771), which is an able
treatise on botanical philosophy, and a “Flora of the King-
dom of Naples” (1788–93). In 1799 he was chosen a mem-
ber of the legislature of the Parthenopean Republic. He
was put to death by the royalists in the same year.
Cirrhopoda, an incorrect form of CIRRIPEDIA (which
see). -
Cirripe/dia (plu.), or Cir'ripeds [from the Lat. cir-
rus, a “curl,” and pes (gen. pedis), a “foot”], a name ap-
plied to certain animals which were for a long time con-
sidered as an order of mollusks. More recently, however,
they have been shown to belong to the Articulata (Arthrop-
oda), either as a distinct class, a sub-class of Crustacea,
or as a group of ostracoid entomostracans. Barnacles are
familiar examples of cirripeds, but quite a number of
species are now known, all marine, and all in their mature
state attached to objects of various kinds, as rocks, sea-
weeds, shells, etc. Some are found in the skin of whales,
some in the flesh of sharks. They are distributed over the
world; the species, however, are not very numerous. They
are divided into pedunculated and sessile, those of the for-
mer family supported on a flexile stalk, which is wanting
in the latter. Barnacles (Lepa.didae) are pedunculated cirri-
pedia, and Balani (acorn-shells, sessile barnacles) are with-
out a stalk.
The likeness of these animals to mollusks is chiefly ex-
ternal. The gills, when these exist, occupy the same rela-
tive position as in crustaceans, but the aération of the
blood is also effected in the cirri, as the limbs are called,
of which there are six pairs on each side, each com-
posed of many joints and fringed with stiff hairs. The
cirri, nearest the mouth are short and form a sort of net for
the capture of minute animals, being incessantly thrown
out from a lateral opening, and drawn in again in such a
manner as to convey to the mouth any prey which they
may have caught. Almost all are hermaphrodite, but in a
958
CIRRUS—CITHARA.
&*
few genera, the sexes are distinct, the males being not only
very small in comparison with the females, and more short-
lived, but, in their mature state, parasitic on the females,
or attached to them; while in some appear complemental
males attached to hermaphrodites. The young swim freely
in the water, and are furnished with eyes, which disappear
after they have permanently fixed themselves. They have
also shells different from those of their mature state. The
shelly coverings of the cirripedia are all formed according
to a certain type, but they differ extremely in the num-
ber of pieces of which they consist, some having only five
valves, and others have more than 100 additional pieces.
They are from half an inch to several inches in length.
Cir’rus (plu. Cirri), a Latin word signifying a “ lock
of curled hair,” is used in botany to denote a tendril, a
spiral and filiform appendage of climbing plants. It twines
around such objects as occur in the vicinity, and thus ob-
tains support for the stem, which is too weak to support
itself in an erect position. The cirrus is a modified leaf,
or in some cases is an elongation of the midrib of a pin-
nate leaf.
The term cirrus is also applied to a thin fleecy cloud
floating in the sky at a great elevation, and called mare's
tail, or curl-cloud.
Cis, a Latin preposition meaning “on this side,” is often
prefixed to the names of rivers or mountains to form adjec-
tives; as Cisalpine, “on this side of the Alps;” Cispadane,
“ on this side of the Po.” These terms are used with ref-
erence to Rome.
Cisal’pine Republic, a former state in the north of
Italy, founded by the French in 1797, comprised Lombardy,
Rovigo, the duchy of Módena, the Venetian territory S.
and W. of the Adige, the Waltelline, and the legations of
Bologna, Ferrara, and the Romagna. Area, about 16,000
square miles, with a population of 3,500,000. Milan was
the capital. An intimate connection was formed in 1798
between this republic and France by a treaty of alliance
offensive and defensive. In 1802 it took the name of the
Italian Republic, and chose Napoleon as its president. It
was transformed into the kingdom of Italy in 1805, and
continued to be subject to Napoleon until 1814.
Ciscauca’sia, one of the two divisions of Caucasia.
Area, 86,030 square miles. It contains the government
of Stavropol and territories of Kuban and Ter. Pop.
1,418,698.
Cisleitha’nia, since 1867 the usual, though not official,
collective name of that part of the Austro-Hungarian mon-
archy which is situated this side (as viewed from Vienna)
of the river Leitha. It embraces all the German crown-
lands, Istria, Dalmatia, Galicia, and the Bukovina ; in gen-
eral, all the provinces not appertaining to the Hungarian
crown. (See TRANSLEITHANIA.)
Cis’ padane Repub’lic, a former state of Italy, was
organized by the French after the battle of Lodi in 1796.
It was bounded on the N. by the river Po (anc. Padws),
and comprised Módena, Reggia, Bologna, and Ferrara. In
1797 it was merged in the Cisalpine Republic.
Cis' platine Repub/lic, for some time (from Oct., 1828,
to July, 1831) the name of the republic of Uruguay. Pre-
viously this republic had been, under the name of Cispla–
tine Province, a part of Brazil.
Cis' rhenane Repub’lic, a name selected for the pro-
jected confederation of the German towns situated west of
the Rhine in 1797. The project was not carried into ex-
ecution, because the peace of Campo Formio transferred
the entire left bank of the Rhine to France.
Cissam' pelos [Gr. kvargāpureXos, the name of a kind of
vine, from kvora ös, “ivy,” and &ºmeAos, a “vine ‘’I, a genus
of plants of the order Menispermaceae, of which some pos-
sess valuable medicinal properties, particularly Cissampelos
Pareira, a native of the warm parts of America, the root
of which is known by the name of PAREIRA BRAvA (which
see). -
Cissey, de (ERNEST Louis OCTAve), a French general,
born in Paris in 1810. A general of division (1859), he
shared in the events attending the investiture and capitu-
lation of Metz, 1870. He served against the Commune in
the siege of Paris in March and April, 1871, and was ap-
pointed minister of war in June, 1871.
Cis’soid of Diſocles [Gr. kororóðns, “ivy-like,” from
ktororós, “ivy’], a curve invented by the Alexandrian mathe-
matician Diocles, with a view to the solution of the problem
of the duplication of the cube, or the insertion of two mean
proportionals between two given straight lines. It may be
regarded as the pedal of a parabola with respect to the
vertex; in other words, it is the locus of the vertex of a
parabola which rolls upon an equal parabola, so that cor-
responding points of the curves always coincide with their
point of contact; it is also the inverse of a parabola with
respect to its vertex. Its equation is (a - a.);”=ac".
Cista/ceae [from Cistus, one of the general, a natural
order of exogenous plants, herbs, or shrubs, mostly natives
of Southern Europe and Northern Africa. Several are
natives of the U. S. They have regular flowers, hypogy-
nous and mostly indefinite stamens, and an inverted embryo
in mealy albumen. Many of the species are prized for the
beauty of their flowers. The Cistus creticus and a few
others yield the resinous balsamic substance called gum
labdanum.
Cister'cians [from Cistercium, now Citeaua, their first
abbey], or Bernardines, an order of Benedictine monks
and nuns which was founded in 1098. Through the influence
chiefly of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, who became a monk
of Citeaux in 1113, the order in little more than a cen-
tury after its foundation had more than 1800 abbeys. The
Cistercians were distinguished from the order of Clugny
by their severe rule and strict poverty; by being submis-
sive to the bishops; by not meddling with the cure of
souls; by their dress and by their peculiar government.
Among the fraternities of Cistercians were the nuns of Port
Royal, the Recollets, and the Trappists. Among the Eng-
lish abbeys were Woburn, Tintern, and Rievaulx; among
the Scottish, Melrose, Glenluce, Balmerino, and New Ab-
bey. Riches and indolence brought this order into decay.
Before the Reformation many of its convents had ceased to
exist. In 1872 only a small number of convents were in
existence, chiefly in France and Austria.
Cis/tern [Lat. cisterna, from cista, a “box” or “chest”],
a tank constructed for holding water. Where the supply
of water is uncertain, or where rain-water is used, every
house requires a cistern. Cisterns are variously construct-
ed—of iron, or wood lined with lead, zinc, cement, or of
slate, in which case, the sides and bottom are grooved, and
cemented to prevent leakage; large cisterns are generally
made cylindrical, so that the pressure acts at all points
equally from the centre. Some are simply excavated in
the earth and plastered with hydraulic cement.
Cis/tus, or Rock Rose, a genus of plants, the type
of the order Cistaceae, comprises several species which are
natives of the Levant and Southern Europe, and are cul-
tivated for the beauty of their flowers. (See CISTACEAE.)
The cistus of the English poets is the rock-cist (Helianthe-
mum), a genus of which there are four British and several
American species. -
Cit/adel [It. citadella, dimin. of città, a “city,” a “little
city,” because in ancient times, though but a small portion
of the city, it was the most essential part of all, and in fact
represented the whole], a fort of four or five bastions in or
near a town, or a strong fort constructed within fortifica-
tions. It is designed partly to enable the garrison to keep
the inhabitants of the town in subjection; and in case of a
siege it serves as a place of retreat for the garrison, and
enables it to hold out after the town has been captured.
Citadel (post-office name New Memphis), a post-
village of Douglas co., Col., on the Denver and Rio Grande
R. R., 30 miles S. of Denver, near Castle Rock, a remark-
able mass of sandstone. The “Independence Colony” is
settled here.
Cita/tion, in law. 1. This term is principally used
in connection with an ecclesiastical court, to indicate the
act of summoning persons to appear before it. A citation
gives the court jurisdiction over the parties cited or sum-
moned. The surrogates’ or probate courts in the U. S. have
a jurisdiction corresponding in part with the English eccle-
siastical courts, and resort to a citation unless some other
method is supplied by statute. The citation is prospect-
ively abrogated in England by an act of Parliament taking
effect Nov. 2, 1874. After that time proceedings in all the
higher courts will be commenced by a uniform method—
the summons.
2. “Citation ” is also employed to mean a reference to
precedents or authorities in support of a law argument.
These are commonly indicated by well-known abbrevia-
tions, to be found in such works as Bouvier’s “Law Dic-
tionary,” 12th and later editions. z
Citeaux, formerly Cisteaux (anc. Cistercium), a ham-
let of France, in Côte-de’Or, about 10 miles S. S. E. of
Dijon. Here was a celebrated monastery of the Cistercian
order founded in 1098. Remains of the magnificent build-
ings of this monastery are still visible.
Cithae'ron [Gr. Kºalpóv], Mount, now Elatea, a
famous mountain-range of Greece, on the boundary between
Attica and Boeotia, was covered with forests. The highest
summit rises 4620 feet above the level of the sea. It is
often mentioned by ancient classical poets.
Cith’ara [Gr. kuéâpaj, a stringed musical instrument of
the ancient Greeks and Romans, resembled a guitar or harp.
CITIES OF REFUGE-CITIZEN.
959
Derived from this word, or cognate with it, are the English
guitar (Old Eng. gittern and cithern); Dutch cyter ; Ger.
Zither.
Cit/ies of Refuge. The Levitical law set apart six
cities of refuge for the manslayer, in which he might be
safe from the avenger of blood. These cities were Hebron,
Shechem, and Kadesh-Naphtali on the west of Jordan;
Bezer, Ramoth-Gilead, and Golan on the east. The He-
brews kept the roads to the cities clear, and signs were set
up to show the way. The manslayer was protected in the
cities of refuge until the death of the high priest, after
which the avenger of blood had no claim against him.
Thus this institution was connected with the typical em-
blems of the Jewish religion, while it restrained the averag-
ing of blood. -
Cit'izen [Lat. civis; Fr. citoyen, from cité, a “city”],
a resident in a city ; in free states one who has the elective
franchise, and may take part in legislative or judicial de-
liberations. Between a citizen and a subject this distinc-
tion is sometimes made, that while the latter is governed,
the former also governs; and thus, though a citizen may be
a subject, many subjects are not citizens. In this sense,
which is substantially that attached to the term by the
Romans, it has come down to modern times. In Greek
communities the citizenship was at first readily attained by
those who were not born to it; but at a later period, when
the organization of Greek civic life had reached a higher
degree of perfection, admission to citizenship was procured
with much greater difficulty. In Sparta, according to He-
rodotus, there were only two instances of their conferring
citizenship in full measure on strangers. The Perioeci, who
shared the Spartan territory, though not on equal terms,
were probably, as regarded political rights, much in the
same position with the Roman plebeians. In Rome there
were perfect and less perfect citizens. All the private
rights of citizenship belonged to the citizens of the lower
class, but the honors of the magistracy were denied them.
But all citizens of all classes in the comitia centuriata,
and in the tribes even the liberti or freedmen, had the right
of voting. But it would appear that in the case of the
AErarians and Caerites, though they were reckoned citizens,
the right of voting was in abeyance. Inſerior in rank to
the citizens there were two other classes—the Latini and
the Peregrini. Roman citizenship was acquired most fre-
quently by birth, but for this it was requisite that both
father and mother should be citizens. If a citizen married
a Latina or a Peregrina, the children followed the status
of the mother. In earlier times the citizenship could be
conferred only by a vote of the people assembled in the
comitia. In some of the provinces the Latinitas was given
as a step to the Civitas, the former being converted into the
latter in the case of any one who had exercised a magis-
tracy in his own state or city. The constitution of Caracalla
extended citizenship to the whole Roman world, the dis-
tinction between Cives and Latini being preserved only in
the case of freedmen and their children. Even this dis-
tinction was abolished by Justinian, the only divisions of
persons henceforth being into subjects and slaves.
REVISED BY T. D. WoOLSEY.
Citizen, in modern law, is used to indicate the class of
persons who owe an indefeasible allegiance to a state, and
are entitled to certain rights and privileges appertaining to
freemen. This view prevailed at a date as early as the time
of Bodin (A. D. 1576), who defines a citizen to be “a free
subject holding of the sovereignty of another man.” (Knol-
les’ translation, A. D. 1606.) Citizenship, in this sense, is not
to be confounded with the elective franchise or the holding
of offices of government. Children, the insane, and the non-
voting classes in general are citizens. The same writer
says: “They are to be called citizens that enjoy the rights
and privileges of the state. This is to be understood ac-
cording to the condition and quality of every one; the
nobles as nobles, the commons as commons, the women and
children in like case according unto the age, sex, and con-
dition and deserts of every one of them. . . . It may be
well said that special privileges make not a man a citizen,
but the mutual obligation of the sovereign to the subject,
to whom, for the faith and obeisance he receiveth, he oweth
justice, counsel, aid, and protection which is not due unto
strangers.”
The subject may be further considered under the follow-
ing general divisions: I. The mode of becoming a citizen;
II. The obligations, rights, and privileges of a citizen with
special reference to the Constitution of the U. S.
I.—I. The leading mode of acquiring citizenship is by
birth in the country or under a state of allegiance. Birth
in the country confers citizenship without reference to the
citizenship of the parent, who at the moment of birth owes
at least a local allegiance, and though an alien is tempo-
rarily a subject, except in the case of foreign ambassadors
and ministers. This rule would apply to the case of per-
sons, though in a foreign country, who were in our army,
as their allegiance would be due to the U. S. On this same
principle the children of American ambassadors born abroad
are citizens.
2. A more difficult question is as to the citizenship here
of children born abroad of American parentage. It should
be noted in the discussion of this question that allegiance
is twofold—perpetual and local. When an American cit-
izen goes to a foreign country, he cannot by his own act
put off his citizenship. He is still subject to our laws, and
can, according to modern views, still be governed by our
criminal legislation. “The power to tie and bind the sub-
ject cannot be tied down to places.” It would seem on
principle that as the mutual obligation from which citizen-
ship springs still exists, his child would still be a citizen,
though not born within the territory of the state to which
allegiance is due. Lord Bacon, who would naturally look
upon this subject with the eye of a philosopher, plainly took
this view. In his famous argument concerning the post nati
in the time of King James I., he said: “If a man look
narrowly into the law on this point, he shall find a conse-
quence that may seem at the first strange, but yet cannot
be well avoided; which is, that if divers families of Eng-
lish men and women plant themselves at Rouen or at Lis-
bon, and have issue, and their descendants do intermarry
among themselves, without any intermixture of foreign
blood, such descendants are naturalized to all generations,
for every generation is still of liege parents, and therefore
naturalized; so as you may have whole tribes and lineages
of English in foreign countries.” (Harg, State Trials, 81.)
If this broad proposition should be attended with any evil
consequences, they could be corrected by suitable legisla-
tion. The strictly legal authorities are, however, hopelessly
in conflict. The proposition that the foreign-born children
of citizens are aliens is argued with great force and power
by Mr. Horace Binney in his well-known article on the
“Alienigenae of the United States” (2 Am. Law Register,
193, A. D. 1854). An outline of his argument is that there
are no early legal decisions affirming the citizenship of such
persons, but that, on the other hand, the preamble to an
early statute on this subject (25 Ed. III., stat. 2) of the
year 1350, the language of text-writers, such as Lord Coke,
Jenkins, and Blackstone, the expressions of authors of di-
gests, such as Comyns and Mr. Bacon, all point to the fact
that the persons in question are aliens. The argument is
legal and based upon authorities, and does not enter into
the philosophy of the subject as depending on the doctrines
of allegiance. Opposed to this view of Mr. Binney is a
recent and carefully considered case in the New York court
of appeals (Lwólam vs. Ludlam, 26 New York R., 356).
This case maintains that the statute of 25 Ed. III., ch. 2,
above referred to, was simply an affirmation of already-
existing law, and that the common law proceeds solely upon
the doctrine of allegiance, which does not depend upon lo-
cality and place, and cannot be confined within boundaries.
It holds that the true test of the allegiance of the child is
parentage, that it is transmitted from the father to the child,
and that, accordingly, the state may claim allegiance from
the children of its citizens wherever born. These doctrines
are supported by a reference to Calvin’s Case, 7 Coke R., 1,
in the sixth year of James I., and other authorities. The
doctrine of this case appears to be based on sound princi-
ples of political philosophy, whatever view may be taken
of the result of the legal decisions. The discussions of this
subject by various writers led to the following important
enactment by Congress in Feb., 1855 : “Persons heretofore
born, or hereafter to be born, out of the limits and jurisdic-
tion of the U. S. whose fathers were or shall be at the time
of their birth citizens of the U. S., shall be deemed and con-
sidered, and are hereby declared to be, citizens of the U. S. :
Provided, however, that the rights of citizenship shall not
descend to persons whose fathers never resided in the U. S.”
If the theory of Mr. Binney be correct, this statute conferred
citizenship where it did not before exist; if that of Ludlam
vs. Lwdlam be sound, then it restricted the rights of the
foreign-born descendants of citizens, perhaps unnecessarily.
3. Citizenship by Naturalization.—An alien may be made
a citizen by the act of a state or a nation co-operating with
his own act. Sometimes this citizenship is complimentary
or honorary; usually it is attended with true, or intended,
renunciation of foreign citizenship. The question thus re-
curs, Whether a person can by his own act put off his citi-
zenship 2 The prevailing opinion of jurists, with some
dissent, is that he cannot. This proposition seems quite
clear where the sovereign distinctly refuses to permit the
renunciation of citizenship. The tie of allegiance creates
reciprocal rights and duties; the state cannot rightfully
discard the citizen without just cause of forfeiture, nor can
the citizen repudiate his obligations to the state without
its consent. Assuming that mutual agreement is necessary
960
CITIZEN.
to dissolve the relation of sovereign and citizen, the more
difficult question is, Whether the agreement of dissolution
can be inferred from the prolonged absence of the citizen,
coupled with foreign naturalization, and the failure of the
state, after notice, to reclaim him 2 The better opinion
would seem to be that there must be some affirmative act
of renunciation on the part of the state to which the alle-
giance is due, though there are weighty opinions to the
contrary. For the purpose of settling the perplexing and
irritating questions that frequently arise, the U. S. have en-
tered into treaties of naturalization with a number of foreign
powers. (For details see NATURALIZATION.) Naturalization
may take place either by a mere law of a general nature,
such as that which provides that every alien woman who
marries a citizen of the U. S. shall be deemed and taken
to be a citizen, or it may occur in special instances affirm-
ative on the part of the individual to be naturalized. In this
country the power to naturalize is exclusively vested in Con-
gress by a provision in the U. S. Constitution. There is an
important provision concerning citizenship in the four-
teenth amendment to the U. S. Constitution as follows:
“All persons born or naturalized in the U. S., and subject
to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the U. S. and
of the State wherein they reside.” The precise effect of
this provision has not yet been settled by judicial decision.
It would seem, however, that it should not be construed by
implication to deprive any person of citizenship who would
possess it by common law, such as the children of ambas-
sadors or other citizens born abroad. The ninth amend-
ment would lead to this conclusion : “The enumeration in
the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to
deny or disparage others retained by the people.” Citizen-
ship at present, as will be shown hereafter, leads to import-
ant rights and privileges of which it would be unjust to
deprive any one entitled to them. The words “subject to
the jurisdiction of the U. S.” would exclude from citizen-
ship the children of foreign public ministers and members
of the Indian tribes, though Indians born out of the tribal
organizations would seem to be citizens.
Interesting questions concerning citizenship arise in case
of the union of two separate nations, or of the division of
a single nation into two separate states. The first of these
cases was discussed with much acuteness and learning.
when Scotland and England were united under James I. ;
the second has been extensively considered by the courts,
both in England and America, in connection with Ameri-
can independence. Calvin’s case (7 Coke's Reports) is
the leading English authority upon the whole subject,
where it was declared that the post nati (persons born after
the union) of Scotland were natural-born subjects, and
could inherit lands in England. In respect to the result
of our own Revolution, opinions differ as to the time when
the separation between England and the U. S. became
complete, though they substantially agree as to the effect
of the division. The American view is, that the separa-
tion took place at the Declaration of Independence, July
4, 1776; the English, that it was consummated at the
treaty of peace in 1783. Accordingly, a person born in
England before July 4, 1776, who did not reside in the
U. S. after that date, became, as to this country, an alien,
as well as all his descendants. The effect of this rule is
not to work a forfeiture of vested rights, and the real
estate owned by a former citizen continued to be vested in
him, though he could not, after the day named, acquire an
indefeasible title to land.
II.-The provisions of the U. S. Constitution concerning
citizenship have recently assumed great importance, grow-
ing out of the controversies concerning the legal condition
or status of persons of African descent. The Constitution
as originally adopted made no provision concerning citi-
zens of the U. S., except an incidental direction that Sen-
ators, Representatives, and the Executive should be such
citizens. There were, however, distinct clauses concerning
the rights and privileges of the citizens of the several
States, such as that the judicial power of the U. S. shall
extend to controversies between a State and a citizen of
another State, and between citizens of different States, and
that the citizens of each State shall be entitled to all priv-
ileges and immunities of citizens in the several States.
This last clause has led to much judicial discussion, some
points of which will be noticed hereafter. Under the
clause which provided that the judicial power should ex-
tend to controversies between citizens of different States,
the question arose in the now famous case of Scott vs. Sand-
ford (19 Howard’s Reports, 39), whether an emancipated
negro could be considered as a “citizen of a State;” and it
was decided that he could not be so regarded, and accord-
ingly that he could not maintain an action on that basis in
the Federal courts. It would seem to follow that he could
not claim the benefit of the other constitutional provision
respecting privileges and immunities. The division of
*
public opinion occasioned by this decision, and the desire
to settle by a positive rule the condition of the slaves
emancipated by the thirteenth amendment to the Constitu-
tion, as well as that of the colored race in general, led to
the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments, the provisions of
which are now to be considered, as far as they affect citi-
Zenship. All persons born or naturalized in the U. S. are
declared to be citizens of the U. S. and of the State in
which they reside; and it is provided that “no State shall
make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges
or immunities of citizens of the U. S.;” and also that the
“right of citizens of the U. S. to vote shall not be denied
or abridged by the U. S. or by any State on account of
race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” Though
the condition of the colored race led to these amendments,
their construction is not to be confined to it. It will be
observed that the same words are here used as in the body
of the Constitution—“privileges and immunities”—except
that they are here declared to belong to “citizens of the
U. S.,” while there they appertain to “citizens of each
State” in reference to the “several States.” The meaning
of the words “privileges and immunities” in the body of
the Constitution has been, as already stated, much consid-
ered. They have been held to mean such privileges, etc.
as are of a general nature, such as security to life and
liberty, the right to acquire property, to have access to
courts of justice, and freedom to pursue and obtain happi-
ness and safety, with such restrictions as are necessary to
the public good. Whatever guarantees upon these points
a State accords to its own citizens, it must extend to citi-
zens of other States. But the Constitution before the
amendments gave no directions as to the mode in which a
State should treat its own citizens, except in a few specially
marked instances, such as the prohibition to pass bills of
attainder and eac-post facto laws. In other respects the
State was left to its own action towards its people. Under
the amendments there is provision made for the privileges
and immunities of citizens of the U. S. A momentous
question now arises: Does this provision trench on the great
power which has all along been vested in each State to
regulate the conduct of its own citizens 2 Does Congress
under it have the right to enter upon the once exclusive
field of State legislation and the domain of State constitu-
tions, and to override all its action as to privileges and
immunities of citizens? This question came up for careful
consideration before the Supreme Court of the U. S. in the
very important case of the Butchers' Benevolent Associa-
tion vs. the Crescent City Live-stock Company (A. D. 1872).
The State of Louisiana had granted an exclusive right to
the latter company to engage in the business of slaughter-
ing cattle within a certain district, including the city of
New Orleans. It was claimed by the plaintiffs, who had
been engaged in the same business, and who were by the
act prohibited from following it, that the law created a
monopoly, that its exclusiveness was contrary to the spirit
of free institutions, and that it was opposed to this pro-
vision of the U. S. Constitution. It was, however, consid—
ered by the court that there is now a clear distinction
between citizens of the U. S. and citizens of a State—that
there may be persons of the former class who are not
members of the latter, and that the constitutional amend-
ment is solely applicable to privileges and immunities
of citizens of the U. S., as such; and that accordingly the
clause does not refer to such regulations as the State may
make for its own citizens, though they may also fill the cha-
racter of citizens of the U. S. If it be asked, What scope
there is in this construction for the amendment 7 the an-
swer is, that the court does not seek to lay down any ab-
stract rule on the subject, and will decide questions as they
arise. Some instances of its application may be suggested,
such as the right to visit the seat of government to assert
a claim or to seek its protection3 to freely approach, its
seaports, sub-treasuries, land-offices, and courts of justice;
to be protected on the high seas; to assemble and petition
for the redress of grievances; to invoke the privilege of the
writ of habeas corpus; and freely to change the residence
from one State to another. These appertain to citizens of
the U. S. in general. It was decided by the same court
that a claim to practice law in a State by one of its citizens
(Mrs. Bradwell) did not come within the phrase “privi-
leges and immunities” of a citizen of the U. S. It is a
matter of congratulation to all who desire to see the equi-
librium of forces between the general government and the
States properly preserved, that the court was able to see its
way clear to a somewhat rigorous construction of the
clauses of this amendment. The effect of the fifteenth
amendment has not been settled by the courts, but its ob-
ject is well known. It of course abrogates all State law
or constitutional provisions creating distinctions among
citizens of the U. S. as to the exercise of the right of Suf-
frage based upon race and color, and for ever prevents the
* CITERIC ACID–CIVET.
961
introduction of them either through the action of the
States or the general government. T. W. D WIGHT.
Cit’ric Aſcid [from the Lat. citrus, a “citron "J, a
vegetable acid present in limes and lemons, and to a less ex-
tent in gooseberries, currants and other fruits. In prepar-
ing it the juice of lemons is allowed to ferment, and chalk
being added citrate of lime is formed. This precipitate
being treated with sulphuric acid, sulphate of lime is form-
ed, and the acid remains in Solution. It is tribasic, having
the symbol C6H307. It is readily soluble in water, and has
an intensely sour taste ; it is used in medicine as an anti-
scorbutic and refrigerant, and by the silk-dyer to heighten
the colors of safflower and cochineal, and by the calico-
printer for discharging mordants.
Cit'ron [Gr. kirpov ; Lat. citro and citrus ; It. cedro ;
Fr. citron], the fruit of the citron tree (Citrus medica),
which is cultivated in the south of Europe and other warm
countries. It is a native of India. By some botanists it
is regarded as perhaps the original type of the species
which produces the lemon, sweet lemon, lime, and lume;
but by others some of these are regarded as distinct spe-
cies. The citron tree has oblong leaves; the fruit is large,
rough, and furrowed; the rind thick and tender; the pulp
sub-acid and refrigerant. The part chiefly valued is the
rind, which has a delicious odor and flavor, and is made
into preserves. The juice is employed to make a syrup for
flavoring liquors. The cedrat is a variety of the citron, from
which chiefly the fragrant oil of cedrat, used by perfumers,
is procured. The varieties of citron are numerous. The
fruit of the largest kinds is sometimes nine inches long and
twenty pounds in weight.
Citronel’la [Fr. citronelle], a perfume prepared from
the Melissa officinalis, or common BALM (which see); also,
a liquid prepared in Barbados from the rind of the citron,
and used in France for flavoring the best brandies. The
name citromelle is also given in France to the common
southernwood (Artemisia Abrotanum). The term citronella
is, however, chiefly applied by perfumers at present to an
oil imported from Ceylon. It is the product of Andropogon
Schoemanthus, a kind of grass. Several tons of the oil are
exported annually.
Citron Melon. See MELON.
Citros'ma [from the Gr. kirpov, “ citron,” and boruń,
“smell”], a genus of trees of the order Monimiaceae, na-
tives of the tropical parts of South America. The leaves
abound in an oil similar to the oil of citron.
Ci/trus [a Latin name from the Gr. Kurpia, the “ citron
tree”], a genus of evergreen trees of the order Aurantiaceae,
natives of the warm parts of Asia. It comprises the citron
(Citrus medica), the orange (Citrus Aurantium), the lemon
(Citrus Limonum), bergamot, cedrat, lume, tangerine, shad-
dock, lime, and other trees which are extensively cultivated
for their fruit or for their leaves and flowers, which are used
in perfumery. The genus is distinguished by numerous
stamens irregularly united in bundles by their filaments,
and a pulpy fruit with a spongy rind. The leaves and the
rind abound in volatile oil. These oils are isomeric with each
other, with the oil of turpentine, and with a great variety
of other oils. The fruit (hesperidium) is in structure a sort
of large berry.
Cittadei'ia, a town of Northern
Italy, in the province of Padua, on the
Brentella, 14 miles N. E. of Vicenza. It
has manufactures of paper and woollen
fabrics. Pop. 7213.
Città-della-Pie’ve, a town of
Italy, in the province of Perugia, 23
miles W. S. W. of Perugia, was the ma-
tive place of the eminent painter Peru-
gino. Pop. 6755.
Città di Castel'Io (ane. Tiberi-
num), a town of Italy, in the province of
Perugia, on the Tiber, about 28 miles
N. W. of Perugia. It has a cathedral,
several palatial mansions, and Gothic
structures. Pop. in 1872, 24,088.
Cittano/va, a town of Italy, in the \
province of Catanzaro. Pop. 11,103.
Città Vec'chia, a fortified city of
Malta, 6 miles W. of Valetta, is on a
limestone hill in which extensive cata-
combs were excavated at a remote pe-
riod. It has a large and handsome ca-
thedral. It was called Medina by the
Saracens, who occupied it for some time.
Pop. 7000.
Cit’y [Fr. cité; Lat. urbs or civitas; Ger. Stadt], a large
town, an imºrporated town ; a term used to include both a
large collection of houses and its inhabitants. As first used
in the languages of modern Europe, the word city, like the
Latin civitas, was equivalent to state rather than to town
or borough (urbs); and while the latter signified a collec-
tion of households governed by municipal laws, but subject
to the laws of the country of which they formed a part, the
title city was given to such towns as, with their surround-
ing district, were independent of external authority. Nearly
the only cities in this sense now are the free towns of Ger-
many and such of the cantons of Switzerland as consist of
a town and its surroundings. In England the cities are
towns which either are or have been sees of bishops, though
there are several towns which were anciently episcopal, but
which are not now called cities. In America, the term is
applied to most towns which are incorporated and gov-
ermed by a mayor and aldermen.
City Point, a post-village and port of entry of Prince
George co., Va., on the James River, at the mouth of the
Appomattox, 10 miles by railroad E. N. E. of Petersburg.
This point being a good landing, was seized by the troops
under Gen. Butler in his movement up the James, May,
1864, and later, June, 1864, became the head-quarters of
Gen. Grant after his passage of this river; and during his
subsequent operations against Petersburg and Richmond
was the principal landing and dépôt of supplies for his
army.
Ciudad de las Casas, the capital of the Mexican de-
partment of Chiapa, is about 450 miles S. E. of Mexico. It
has a cathedral, a Catholic college, and several monasteries.
It was formerly called Ciudad Real. Pop. 6430.
Ciudade'la, a city and seaport of the island of Mi-
norca, on its W. coast, 25 miles N. W. of Mahon. It has a
cathedral and several convents; also manufactures of wool-
len fabrics. Pop. 5726.
Ciudad/ Real’, a province of Spain, is intersected by
the river Guadiana, and bounded on the S. by the Sierra
de Morena. Area, 7840 square miles. Capital, Ciudad Real.
Pop. 264,908.
Ciudad Real (“city of the king”), a town of Spain,
capital of the above province, is situated on a plain about
5 miles S. of the Guadiana, and 102 miles S. of Madrid. It
has several fine churches, monasteries, and hospitals. The
nave of the parish church is a magnificent Gothic structure.
PIere are manufactures of linen and coarse woollen fabrics.
This town was the head-quarters of the Hermandad, or
Holy Brotherhood, founded in 1249 for the suppression of
robbery. Pop. 10,366. The French here defeated the
Spaniards in Mar., 1809.
Ciudad’ Rodri'go, a fortified town of Spain, on the
river Agueda, here crossed by a fine bridge, about 90 miles
S.W. of Salamanca. It has a Gothic cathedral founded in
the twelfth century, and a citadel. During the Peninsular
war it was considered an important point as a key of Spain
on the west. It was invested and taken by the French gen-
eral Massena in July, 1810. The army of the duke of
Wellington assaulted, and took this place, with 150 guns, in
Jan., 1812. For this achievement the Spanish government
gave him the title of duke of Ciudad Rodrigo. Pop. 6429.
Cives. See CHIVEs.
Civ’et [Fr. civette; Arabic, zubăd], a brown substance
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Civet.
of a strong, offensive odor which is used in perfumery, be-
cause when mixed in small proportions with certain other






































962
CIVIALE –CLAGGETT.
perfumes it is considered to improve them greatly. It is
quite costly, and is consequently much adulterated. It is
produced by a carnivorous animal called the civet or civet-
cat (Viverra Civetta), an animal which ranks between the
weasels and the foxes. Other species are found—one in
India and one in Java, and the latter produces part of the
civet of commerce. The civet-cat, when wild, feeds upon
birds, small quadrupeds, and reptiles, and generally takes
its prey by surprise. It is very commonly kept in confine-
ment for the sake of its perfume, which is removed from a
glandular sac twice a week by means of a spatula, and is
obtained most abundantly from the male, and especially
after he has been irritated. A dram is a large quantity to
obtain at a time. The civets kept for this purpose are fed
on raw flesh, the young partly on farinaceous food. The
town of Enfras, in Abyssinia, is a principal seat of the
civet trade. The civet-cat of the South-western U. S. is
of a different genus from the above. (See BASSARIs.)
Civiale (JEAN), a French surgeon, was born July, 1792.
He was the inventor of lithotrity. Died in June, 1867.
Civida/İe (anc. Forum Julii), a walled town of North-
ern Italy, in the province of Udine, on the river Natisone,
here crossed by a bridge, 10 miles E. N. E. of Udine. It
has a fine Gothic church, said to be about 1000 years old;
also manufactures of silk and cotton. Pop. 6838.
Civ'il Death, in law, is the cessation of legal rights
while the physical life remains. Civil death occurs where
a man by act of Parliament or judgment of law is attainted
of treason or felony; he loses his civil rights and capaci-
ties, and becomes, as it were, dead in law. It also took
place formerly where any man abjured the realm by the
process of the common law, or went into a monastery and
became there a professed monk, in which cases he was ab-
solutely dead in law, and his next heir succeeded to the
estate. In New York the sentence of a criminal to im–
prisonment for life causes civil death.
Civil Engineer', a person whose profession is the sci-
ence or construction of bridges, railroads, aqueducts, har-
bors, canals, machinery, etc. (See ENGINEERING, by GEN.
J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.)
Civil/ian, in general or in popular use, signifies a per-
son whose pursuits and employment are civil—i.e. neither
military nor clerical. As a legal term, it denotes a man
learned in the civil or Roman law ; also a person who is
versed in the principles and rules in accordance with which
civil rights may be freely, blamelessly, and successfully
vindicated. In England the term is applied particularly
to a member of the college of doctors of law exercent in the
ecclesiastical and admiralty courts, in which the civil law
is recognized.
Civiſiis (CLAUDIUs), a heroic chief of the Batavi who
served for many years in the Roman army. When Ves-
pasian and Vitellius were contending in civil war for the
imperial throne, the adherents of the former induced Ci-
vilis to make a feigned demonstration of hostility to the
Romans, in order to detain in Gaul the Roman army, which
was inclined to fight for Vitellius. Having raised a large
army, Civilis revolted in earnest in 69 A.D., was joined by
many Germans, and defeated the Romans in several battles.
In 70 A. D. he was defeated by Cerealis, a general of Wes-
pasian. Tacitus states that negotiations ensued between
Cerealis and Civilis, but his history here ends abruptly,
leaving the subject unfinished.
Civiliza’tion [Fr. civilisation, from the Lat. civilis,
“like a citizen’’ (civis), and hence “refined,” “polite”], a
term denoting a refined and improved state of society, as
distinguished from a barbarous or Savage , condition.
Whether civilization is an artificial condition, or the orig-
inal state of mankind, from which the Savage races have
descended, is an interesting but still unsettled question.
The idea that our civilization is the result of development
from the rudest beginnings is a favorite one with many
popular scientific writers. (See LUBBoCK’s “Uncivilized
Man.”) The progress of our civilization from the barbarism
of the Dark Ages affords one of the most interesting phases
of history. (See GUIzot's “History of Civilization,” and
DRAPER “On the Intellectual Development of Europe.”)
Civil Law. See LAw, by PROF. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.
Civil List, in Great Britain, the name given to an an-
nual appropriation for the expenses of the royal household,
for certain civil offices, for pensions, etc. The appropria-
tion of money for the civil list by Parliament, and its ac-
ceptance by the Crown, has been regarded as the fulfilment
of a kind of contract between these two branches of gov-
ernment. The same name is used for a similar appropria-
tion in other countries. - -
Civ'il Ser/vice is a name for the duties rendered to
the state, other than naval and military service. The re-
form of civil service has received of late much attention in
the
Great Britain and the U. S.; and in the former country
much has already been accomplished. At the head of the
British civil service are placed the officers of the royal
household, under several departments. Then come the
officers of the House of Lords and the House of Commons,
and a vast number of departments which cannot here be
enumerated. The general designations for the civil ser-
vants of the Crown are commissioners, secretaries, and
clerks. Nearly all enter the service as clerks, and they
rise chiefly by seniority. Those officials belong to the civil
service who receive annual salaries and whose chief occupa-
tion is writing. This class does not include men to whom
weekly wages are paid; they come under a different cate-
gory. The “Civil Service List” contains the names of
about 15,000 persons. In old age they are pensioned.
Appointments to the British government offices were
formerly obtained by favor, but now merit and abilities
are conditions superadded. In 1855 a commission was
appointed to examine candidates for the service. If a can-
didate fails at the first examination, he is generally allowed
another chance, and sometimes a third. When the candi-
date has received his certificate, he enters one of the public
offices and goes through a six months’ probation; if suc-
cessfully, he them becomes a clerk at a definite salary.
In the U. S. civil service a much-needed reform has been
inaugurated. Office-seeking has become one of the most
corrupting trades in our country, and there has long been
a demand for a system of competitive examinations for
those offices which are non-elective. Such a system has
been introduced, and, though its details are not yet per-
fect, it is hoped that it may lead to greater efficiency in
performance of official duties, and prevent, to some
extent at least, the alarming evils which result from a
wrong use of government patronage.
Civil War of the United States. See CoNFEDER-
ATE STATEs, by HoN. HoRACE GREELEY, LL.D.
Ci/vita Vec'chia (anc. Centum Cellae and Trajanus
Portus), a city and fortified seaport of Italy, in the province
of Rome, 36 miles W. N. W. of Rome by railway. It is
enclosed by walls and well built, has a large church, an
arsenal, a theatre, and a lighthouse. The harbor was con-
structed by the emperor Trajan, and is formed by two
large moles, and a breakwater which protects shipping
from a heavy sea. It is a free port, and is regularly visited
by steam-packets from Genoa, Marseilles, Naples, etc. It
is connected by a railway with the city of Rome. Pop.
8533.
Clack/amas, a county in the N. W. of Oregon. Area,
1700 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Cas-
cade Range of mountains, and drained by the Willamette
and Clackamas rivers. The soil is fertile. Wool, wheat,
oats, butter, and potatoes are raised. It is heavily tim-
bered. There are manufactures of woollens and paper.
It is intersected by the Oregon and California R. R. Cap-
ital, Clackamas. Pop. 5993.
Clackamas, a post-village, capital of Clackamas co.,
Or., on the Oregon and California. R. R., 12 miles S. of
Portland.
Clackman'nan, the smallest county of Scotland, has
an area of 47 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the
river Forth, and on the N. by the Ochil Hills. It consists
chiefly of the romantic valley of the North Devon. The
soil is partly fertile. Coal, ironstone, copper, sandstone,
and greenstone are found here. The chief articles of ex-
ort are coal and iron. Capital, Clackmannan. Pop. in
1871, 23,742. - -
Clackmannan, the capital of the above county, is on
the river Devon, near its entrance into the Forth, 9 miles
E. of Stirling. This town is noted for its ale. King
David Bruce resided here in 1330. Pop. in 1871, 6425.
CIadras’tis, a genus of leguminous trees represented
in the U. S. by the Cladrastis tinctoria of the Southern
States, a small tree somewhat resembling the common
locust. It is called yellow locust, yellow wood, fustic, and
yellow ash. Its wood is yellow and its bark is cathartic.
Claf’Iin (LEE), a distinguished philanthropist of Bos-
ton, Mass., born in 1791. He acquired wealth in the man-
ufacture of shoes, and bestowed munificent gifts of money
upon the Wesleyan academy at Wilbraham, Mass., the uni-
versity at Middletown, Conn., and the Boston Theological
Seminary. Died Feb. 23, 1871.
Claflin (WILLIAM), LL.D., born at Milford, Mass.,
Mar. 6, 1818, was governor of Massachusetts from 1869 to
1871. He has been for many years a prominent leather-
merchant in Boston.
CIag'gett (John THOMAs), D. D., the first Protestant
Episcopal bishop of Maryland, was born in Maryland Oct.
2, 1742. He graduated at Princeton in 1764, became bishop
of Maryland in 1792, and died Aug. 2, 1816.
CLAIBORNE–CLAIRVOYANCE.
963
Clai/borne, a parish of Louisiana, bordering on Ar-
kansas. Area, 1050 square miles. It is drained by Bayou
d’Arbonne. The surface is undulating; the Soil is produc-
tive. Cattle, corn, and cotton are extensively raised. Cap-
ital, Homer. Pop. 20,240.
Claiborne, a county in the W. of Mississippi. Area,
740 square miles. It is bounded on the N.W. by the Big
Black River, and on the W. by the Mississippi.
is fertile, especially near the rivers. Corn and cotton are
staple crops. Capital, Port Gibson. Pop. 13,386.
Claiborne; a county of Tennessee, bordering on Vir-
ginia. Area, 350 square miles. It is bounded on the S.
by Clinch River. The surface is mountainous. Grain,
tobacco, and wool are staple products. Cumberland Gap,
a pass through the Cumberland Mountains, is on the N.
border of this county. Capital, Tazewell. Pop. 9321.
Claiborne, a post-tp. of Monroe co., Ala. Pop. 22.45.
Claiborne, a township of Union co., O. Pop. 1947.
Claiborne (John HERBERT), A.M., M.D. See APPENDIX.
Claiborne (WILLIAM CHARLEs CoID), an American
lawyer and statesman, born in Virginia in 1773, was a
member of Congress from Tennessee (1797–1801), governor
of Mississippi Territory (1802), governor of Louisiana
Territory (1804), and of the State of Louisiana (1812–16).
He was chosen U. S. Senator in the latter year, and died
Nov. 23, 1817.
Claim [from the Lat. clamo, to “call,” to “call for,”
to “demand”], a demand of a right; the act of demanding
from another person something due ; a right to claim or
demand; a title to any debt or privilege. The term is
sometimes applied to the thing claimed, as land or other
property. In law, claim is a challenge of interest in any-
thing that is in possession of another, or at least out of the
possession of the person who claims it.
Claims, Court of, a 'court of the U. S. for the re-
lief of those persons who have claims against the gov-
ernment. Before the year 1855 such claims could be set-
tled only by act of Congress. In that year this court
was created, consisting of three judges appointed by the
President with the advice and consent of the Senate.
º º further information, CourtTs, by GEORGE CHASE,
Clairaut (ALEXIS CLAUDE), a French geometer, born
in Paris May 7, 1713. He produced in 1731 “Researches
on Curves of Double Curvature,” “Theory of the Figure
of the Earth” (1743), a “Theory of the Moon, etc.” (1750),
and “Elements of Geometry.” His reputation was in-
creased by his prediction of the return of Halley's comet
in 1759. Died May 17, 1765.
. . Clair' mont, a village of West Farms township, West-
chester co., N. Y. Pop. 158.
Clairvoy/ance [Fr., from clair, “clear,” and voir, to
“see’”). Hitherto, the nature of spirit has been discussed
theologically and metaphysically. Its scientific investiga-
tion has been considered either impracticable or undesir-
able. In this border-land between the known and un-
known ignorance and charlatanism have held high carnival.
Science, purely material, is entirely occupied with matter
and its inherent force, and beyond the retort and crucible
has no place for spirit. Belief in spiritual being outside
of physical existence is superstition. The mention of a
fact bearing in that direction provokes a smile of scornful
pity.
burns; when the fuel is spent the fire goes out; when the
instrument is destroyed the music is not heard; when the
complex co-ordination of conditions called a living being
is subverted, life, intelligence, spirit are no more. Such
are the illustrations of material science. The spiritual
realm has remained unknown, or rather, its existence has
been denied.
These reflections are rendered pertinent by the consider-
ation that whatever else of pretence and folly be blown
away, the central fact of clairvoyance remains undisturbed;
and clairvoyance is a super-sensuous perception depending
on the spiritual nature of man, without which it would be
impossible. In the present state of psychological know-
ledge the facts are ill-observed, loosely recorded, and
theories out of place. The world of spirit, to which “force”
furnishes the key, perhaps may at some future time broaden
into as wide a field as the physical world now presents.
Superstition will then have no place for concealment.
Ghosts, witchcraft, visions, trance, ecstasy, and the innu-
merable phases of spiritual phenomena will be co-ordin-
ated, the chaff blown away, the vital facts preserved, and
a true Science of the soul, based on accurate observation
and discriminating research, founded.
The existence of a somnambulic or sleep-walking state,
induced by unknown causes and accompanied by peculiar
phenomena, is generally admitted. It is also admitted
The Soil
When the oil is exhausted the flame no longer
that a state similar to, if not identical with, these can be
induced by artificial means, usually by fixing the attention
in gazing intently into a “magic mirror” or “crystal,” re-
peating formulae, by incantations, fasting, drugs, or by an
operator making what are termed magnetic passes. The in-
terference of a second person is not essential, and perhaps
without exception distorts the result. This admission by
no means endorses the theories which have sprung fungus-
like therefrom, of mesmerists, biologists, magnetists in
an endless array, best known by their barbarous terminol-
Ogles.
The trance or clairvoyant state has been observed in all
ages and among all races of mankind—Chinese, Hindoos,
Turks, as well as Christians. It has in seasons of great
religious excitement become epidemic, the devotee falling
in convulsions, becoming cataleptic, and after hours, days,
or even months of apparent death, awakening with mind
overwrought with visions of the strange world in which it
had dwelt during its apparent unconsciousness. The rec-
ords of clairvoyance are as old as history. If prophecy,
the “clear-seeing ” of the future, be its fruit, the prophets
and sages of the past were all more or less endowed with
this gift. Socrates and Apollonius predicted and were
conscious of events transpiring at remote distances. Cicero
mentions that when the revelations are being given Some
one must be present to record them, as “these sleepers do
not retain any recollection of them.” Pliny, speaking of the
celebrated Hermotinus of Clazomenae, remarks that his
soul separated itself from the body and wandered in vari-
ous parts of the earth, relating events occurring in distant
places. During the periods of inspiration his body was in-
sensible. The day of the battle of Pharsalia, Cornelius, a
priest of renowned piety, described, while in Padua, as
though present, every particular of the fight. Nicephorus
says that when the unfortunate Valens, taking refuge in a
barn, was burned by the Goths, a hermit named Paul in a
fit of ecstasy cried out to those who were with him, “It is
now that Valens burns !” Tertullian describes two females
celebrated for their piety and ecstasy, that they entered
that state in the midst of the congregation, revealed celes-
tial secrets, and knew the innermost hearts of persons.
Saint Justin affirms that the Sibyls foretold events cor-
rectly, and quotes Plato as coinciding with him in that
view. Saint Athemagoras says of the faculty of prescience
that “It is proper to the soul.” Volumes might be readily
filled with quotations like the foregoing, showing that
clairvoyance has been manifested and received as a truth
by profound thinkers in every age. Swedenborg,
Zschökke, and Davis are not peculiarities of modern times,
but are repetitions of Socrates, Apollonius, and countless
other sages who deeply impressed their personality on
their times.
Perhaps for purposes of investigation the artificially in-
duced mesmeric state has advantages over the Spontaneous,
which presents itself at undeterminate times, although its
spontaneous exhibition is more reliable in its results. Its
natural manifestation requires a finely developed nervous
system. It is not always, though at times it may appear
to be, the result of disease. The more perfect the health
the more reliable the results. The visions produced by
disease, like those by drugs, bear to true clairvoyance the
same relations that the dreams of indigestion do to those
of refreshing sleep.
Clairvoyance must be regarded as a peculiar state of the
mind, in which it is in a greater or lesser degree independ-
ent of the physical body. It presents many gradations
from semi-consciousness to profound and death-like trance.
However induced, the attending phenomena are similar.
The condition of the physical body is that of deepest
sleep. A flame may be applied to it without producing a
quiver of the nerves; the most pungent substances have no
effect on the mostrils; pins or needles thrust into the most
sensitive parts give no pain; surgical operations can be
made without sensation. Hearing, tasting, Smelling, feel-
ing, as well as seeing, are seemingly independent of the
physical organs. The muscular system is either relaxed
or rigid; the circulation impeded in cases until the pulse
becomes imperceptible; and respiration leaves no stain on
a mirror held over the nostrils.
In passing into the clairvoyant state the extremities be-
come "cold, the brain congested, the vital powers sink, a
dreamy unconsciousness steals over the faculties. There
is a sensation of sinking or floating. After a time the per-
ceptions become intensified. We cannot say the senses,
for they are of the body, which for the time is insensible. ,
The mind sees without physical organs of vision, hears
without organs of hearing, and feeling becomes a refined
consciousness which brings it en rapport with the intelli-
gence of the world. The more death-like the condition of
the body the more lucid the perceptions of the spirit or
mind, which for the time owes it no fealty. If, as there is
964
CLALLAM—CLAQUE.
every reason to believe, clairvoyance depends on the un-
folding of the spirit's perceptions, then the extent of that
unfolding marks its perfection. However great or small
this may be, the state itself is the same, differing only in
degree, whether observed in the Pythia of Delphic oracles,
the vision of Saint John, the trance of Mohammed, the
epidemic catalepsy of religious revivals, or the illumination
of Swedenborg or Davis. The disclosures made have also
a general resemblance, but they are so colored with sur-
rounding circumstances that they are extremely fallible.
The tendency of the clairvoyant is to make objective the
subjective ideas he has acquired by education—if a Chris-
tian, to see visions of Christ; if a. Moslem, of Mohammed—
somewhat as dreams reflect the ideas of wakefulness. Yet
there is a profound condition which sets all these aside, and
the mind appears divested of all physical trammels, and
to come in direct contact with the thought-atmosphere of
the world. Time and space have no existence, and matter
becomes transparent.
If there is an independent spiritual existence after the
death of the physical body, the clairvoyant in this inde-
pendent stage closely approximates to that existence. It
may be an open question whether the spirit leaves the
body and actually visits the remote places it describes, or
gains such knowledge by intensity of perception that
annuls space, as it does time, in its retrospection and pre-
vision. The many authentic instances of “double-pres-
ence ’’ which have been observed lead to the former con-
clusion. -
Baron Reichenbach, in his “Dynamics,” has investigated
the sensitiveness of the clairvoyant to refined emanations
of force, and Denton, in his “Soul of Things,” has carried
the investigation still farther, though in a somewhat sim-
ilar direction. The field is broad as the spirit of man, and
its threshold has been scarcely crossed. Clairvoyance is
no miraculous power, but an inherent faculty, a foregleam
in this life of the next spiritual life. For if man exists as
a spirit after the dissolution of the physical body, his
present life is that of a spirit clad in flesh, and should
manifest some of the characteristics of the next untram-
melled condition. HUDSON TUTTLE, Berlin Heights, O.
Clal’lam, a county in the N. W. of Washington Terri-
tory. It is bounded on the N. by the Strait of Juan de Fuca,
and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. The county takes its
name from the Clallam tribe of Indians found here. The
surface is hilly. Mount Olympus rises on or near the south-
ern border to the height of 8100 feet. Capital, New Dunge-
ness. Pop. 408.
Clam, a name applied to many bivalve mollusks of
Giant Clam (Tridacna gigas).
various genera. Perhaps the most noteworthy of these is
the Tridacna gigas, which is said to possess the largest
shells known. A single pair of these has been known to
weigh over 500 pounds. The flesh is used as food. Two
of these valves are used in the church of St. Sulpice, Paris,
to contain the holy water. This species is found in the
Pacific. The common clam of the U. S. (Mya arenaria) is
much used as food, and is very important as furnishing bait
for the fisheries. It is found also in Europe and Asia, and
on the shores of Alaska. The round clam, or quahaug,
has the name of Venus mercenaria, because its shells were
made into wanpum by the North American Indians, and
used as money. The fresh-water clams are properly mus-
sels. The genus Chama comprises numerous species, which
are perhaps those to which the name is most appropriately
given.
Clamecy, a town of France, department of Nièvre, on
the river Yonne, about 24 miles S. of Auxerre, was formerly
fortified. It has several Gothic churches, a fine modern chä-
teau, and manufactures of paper and earthenware.
5616. --
Ciam Lake, a post-village of Wexford co., Mich. It
has one weekly newspaper.
Clan [Irish and Gaelic, clann; Manx, cloan, “children,”
i. e. descendants of a common ancestor], a body of men
confederated together by common ancestry. It is applied
especially to the communities of the Scottish Highlanders,
divided from each other by distinctive surnames. It has
sometimes been applied to the great Irish septs, but these
were completely broken down by the power of the English
before the word came into use in the English language.
In Scotland it was used to designate the freebooters of the
Border as well as the Celtic tribes. There were charac-
teristics common to both—such as predatory habits and
their distribution into communities, each with a common
surname. It was long the policy of Scotland to require
all the Highland clans to have some representative who
should be security at court for their behavior. Clans that
could find no such security were called “broken clans,” and
their members were outlaws. The Macgregors were a
broken clan, whom the law followed for centuries with
cruel ingenuity. The clans are never treated in the old
acts otherwise than as nests of thieves. The clans cannot
be better understood than by keeping in view some pecu-
liarities which set them in contrast with feudal institutions.
Reudality has a relation to land, from the serf bound to
the soil, through the vassal who possesses it, up to the
feudal lord. Among the Highlanders the relation was pa-
triarchal, and had no connection with land. It often hap-
pened that the head of a clan and the feudal lord of the
estates occupied by it were different persons.
Clancar’ty, EARLs of (1803), Wiscounts Dunlo (1807),
Barons Kilconnel (Ireland, 1797), Wiscounts Clancarty
(1823), Barons Trench (1815, United Kingdom), and Mar-
quesses Heusden in the Netherlands, a noble family of
England.—WILLIAM THOMAS LE PoER TRENCH, third earl,
born Sept. 21, 1803, succeeded his father Dec. 8, 1832.
Clan'ricarde, MARQUESSEs of (1825), Barons Dunkel-
lin (1543), Wiscounts Burke (1629, Ireland), Barons Somer-
hill (United Kingdom, 1826).-ULICK JoHN DE BURGH, first
marquess, K. P., P. C., lieutenant and custos rotulorum of
the county and town of Galway, born Dec. 28, 1802, was
ambassador to St. Petersburg 1835–40, postmaster-general
1846–52, lord privy seal 1857–58, succeeded his father as
earl of Clanricarde July 27, 1808.
Clanton (JAMEs H.) studied law and practised his
profession in Montgomery co., Ala., which in 1855 sent.
him to the House. From 1861 to 1865 he served as a
general in the Confederate army, but after the end of
the war he returned to his old profession. He died
Sept. 27, 1871. -
Clap (RogBR), born at Sallom, in Devonshire, Eng-
land, April 6, 1609, settled at Wareham, Mass., in 1630,
and was afterwards one of the founders of Dorchester,
Mass. He held prominent public offices, and served
(1665–86) as captain in Castle William, now Fort Inde-
pendence. He wrote for his children valuable memoirs
of the prominent men of New England. These have
been several times reprinted. He was eminent for piety.
Died Feb. 2, 1691.
Clap (THOMAs), a Congregational divine, born at
Scituate, Mass., June 26, 1703, graduated at Harvard
in 1722. He was president of Yale College from 1739 to
1766. He was an eminent natural philosopher and as-
tronomer. He published “The Nature and Foundation
of Moral Virtue’’ (1765), a “History of Yale College”
(1766), and other works. Died Jan. 7, 1767.
Clapp (THEODoRE), an eloquent Unitarian minister,
born in Easthampton, Mass., in 1792. He preached in New
Orleans for about thirty-five years. Died in 1866.
Clap/perton (HUGH), CAPTAIN, a Scottish traveller and
explorer of Africa, was born at Annan in 1788. In 1823 he
accompanied Dr. Oudney and Denham in an expedition to
Lake Tchad. Having returned to England in 1825, he soon
renewed the enterprise in company with Richard Lander
and others. His chief object was to discover the course of
the Niger. He entered Africa at the Bight of Benin and
penetrated to Saccatoo, where he was detained nearly a
year by the sultan. He died near that place in April, 1827.
(See R. LANDER, “Records of Captain Clapperton's Last
Expedition,” 1830.) §
Claqua'to, a post-village, capital of Lewis co., Wash.
Ter., on the Newaukum River, 35 miles S. by W. from
Olympia.
Claque, clák [a French word signifying the noise made
in clapping the hands], a body of persons called “cla-
queurs,” employed for securing the success of a performance
Pop.

CLARA-CLARENDON PRESS.
965
by bestowing applause upon it, and thus giving a false
notion of the impression it has made. This artifice came
first into operation in theatres and concert-rooms, and
arose from friendly or party motives. It was in Paris that
it was first turned into a trade. One Sauton, in 1820, estab-
lished an office for the insurance of dramatic success, and
was thus the organizer of the Parisian claque. The direct-
ors or managers of a theatre send an order to the office for
whatever number of “claqueurs” they think necessary. Al-
though no public offices of the kind have yet been estab-
lished in the U. S., the artifice is extensively practised.
Claſra, a post-township of Potter co., Pa. Pop. 195.
Clare, a maritime county of Ireland, in Munster, is
bounded on the N. W. by Galway Bay, on the E. and S.
by the Shannon River, and on the W. by the Atlantic
Ocean. Area, 1200 square miles. The surface is mostly
hilly; the soil of the valleys is fertile. This county con-
tains many small lakes. The principal rock is carbonifer-
ous limestone. Coal, copper, lead, and marble are found
here. The staple products of the soil are oats, potatoes,
wheat, and barley. Capital, Ennis. Pop. in 1871, 147,994.
Clare, a county in N. Central Michigan. Area, 576
square miles. It is intersected by the Muskegon River.
The surface is nearly level, and mostly covered with forests.
In this region the grayling is caught, hence it is a summer
resort for sportsmen. It is intersected by the Flint and
Pere Marquette R. R. Pop. 366.
Claremont, a township and post-village of Richland
co., Ill., on the Ohio and Mississippi R. R. Pop. 1278.
Claremont, a post-township of Dodge co., Minn.
Pop. 538. -
Claremont, a pleasant post-village of Sullivan co.,
N. H., near the Vermont Central R. R., about 48 miles W.
by N. from Concord. It has a national bank, and manu-
factures of cotton and wool. The Concord and Claremont
R. R. passes through it. Claremont township is bounded
on the W. by the Connecticut River. It has a savings
bank, three paper-mills, a furnace, a water-wheel manu-
factory, a high school, and a library of 4000 volumes.
It has three weekly, ‘one semi-weekly, and one monthly
newspaper. Pop. of township, 4053.
- ED. CLAREMONT “CoMPENDIUM.”
Clar'ence, a post-village of Cedar co., Ia., on a branch
of the Chicago and North-western R. R., 34 miles E. by S.
from Cedar Rapids. It has one weekly newspaper. P. 726.
Clarence, a post-township of Calhoun co., Mich. Pop.
1075.
Clarence, a post-village of Clay township, Shelby co.,
Mo. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 444.
Clarence, a township and post-village of Erie co.,
N. Y. The village is near the New York Central R. R.,
and 15 miles N. E. of Buffalo. The township contains sev-
eral villages, fifteen churches, and an academy. Pop. 3147.
Clarence, Duke of, a name sometimes given to the
younger princes of the royal house of England. The title
was derived from Clare or Clarence (Lat. Clarentia) in
Suffolk. Some authorities, however, say it was derived
from Clarenza in the Morea, of which an English knight
was duke during the Crusades.
Clar'enceville, a port of entry and post-village of
Missisquoi co., Quebec (Canada), near the Vermont line
and the head of Lake Champlain. It has an academy.
Clarenceux, or Clarencieux, anciently Surroy,
the first of the two provincial kings of arms in the Eng-
lish college of heralds, the second being Norroy. The
jurisdiction of Clarenceux extends to the Trent, that of
Norroy comprehending the portion N. of that river. Clar-
enceux is named after the duke of Clarence, third son of
King Edward III. It is his duty to visit his province, to
survey the coat-armor within it, to register descents and
marriages, and to marshal funerals which are not under
the direction of Garter king of arms, who is his superior,
or of Bath king of arms, who manages the heraldry of the
order of the Bath, and who has heraldic duties in Wales.
Clarenceux also grants arms with the approval of the earl-
marshal.
Clar/endon, a county in Central South Carolina. Area,
700 square miles. It is bounded on the S. and W. by the
Santee River, and is drained by the Black River. The
surface is undulating or level. Corn, rice, and cotton are
the staple crops. Capital, Manning. Pop. 14,038.
Clarendon, a post-village, capital of Monroe co., Ark.,
on White River, 60 miles E. of Little Rock, and on the
Arkansas Central R. R. at the junction of the Pine Bluff
branch.
Clarendon, a township and village of Calhoun co.,
Mich. The village is on the Michigan Central R. R., 105
miles W. S. W. of Detroit. Pop. of township, II50.
petual banishment.
1841.
Clarendon, a township and post-village of Orleans
co., N. Y. The village is 4 miles from the New York Cen-
tral R. R., and 11 miles from Lake Ontario. Pop. of town-
ship, 1668. - -
Clarendon, a township and post-village of Rutland
co., Vt. The village is on the Vermont Central R. R., 6
miles S. of Rutland. Clarendon has mineral springs,
which are visited for the cure of kidney and skin diseases
and other complaints. Pop. of township, 1173.
Clarendon, Constitutions of, a name given to
certain laws made by a general council (or parliament) of
the English barons and prelates at Clarendon, in Wiltshire,
in 1164, whereby King Henry II. checked the power of the
Church, and narrowed the exemption which the clergy had
claimed from secular jurisdiction. These ordinances, six-
teen in number, defined the limits of the patronage and
jurisdiction of the pope, and provided that the Crown
should be entitled to the election to vacant dignities in the
Church. The constitutions were unanimously adopted,
and Becket, the primate, reluctantly signed them. But
they were at once rejected by Pope Alexander III. when
sent to him for ratification, and Becket thereupon retracted
his consent, and imposed upon himself the severest pen-
ances. This, and the other measures adopted by the arch-
bishop to vindicate the independence of the clergy, led to
disputes between him and the monarch. (See BECKET.)
Notwithstanding the humiliation to which the king sub-
mitted after Becket's death, most of the provisions of the
constitutions of Clarendon continued permanent.
Clarendon, EARLs of (1776), Barons Hyde (1756,
Great Britain).-EDWARD HYDE WILLIERs, fifth earl of this
line, born Feb. 11, 1846, was M. P. for Brecon district 1869–
70. He succeeded his father June 27, 1870.
Clarendon (EDWARD HYDE), FIRST EARL of, an emi-
nent English statesman and historian, born at Dinton,
Wiltshire, Feb. 18, 1609. He was educated at Oxford, and
studied law under his uncle, Nicholas Hyde, who became
chief-justice. He was a member of the Long Parliament,
which met in 1640, and he acted at first with the popular
party, but when the civil war broke out in 1642 he attached
himself to the royalist cause. He wrote several able state
papers, which defended the policy of the king against the
Parliament. In 1643 he was appointed chancellor of the
exchequer and privy councillor. He accompanied Charles,
prince of Wales, to Jersey in 1645–46, and served him as
counsellor while he was an exile in France and Holland.
On the restoration of Charles II. in 1660, Hyde became
prime minister and lord chancellor of England, and in
1661 he was created earl of Clarendon. He opposed po-
pery, and was more moderate than many of the royalists.
In Aug., 1667, he was removed from office and impeached
by the House of Commons, which condemned him to per-
He died at Rouen in Dec., 1674. His
daughter, Anne Hyde, was married to the duke of York
(James II.). He left a “ History of the Rebellion and
Civil Wars” (1702). A complete edition with annotations
by Bishop Warburton was published at Oxford in 1826.
(See “Life of Edward, Earl of Clarendon,” by himself,
1759; T. H. LISTER, “Life of Lord Clarendon,” 3 vols.,
1838.) . - i
Clarendon (GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK WILLIERs),
FourTH EARL (of the Williers family), born Jan. 12, 1800,
was the eldest son of the Hon. George Williers, who was a
son of the earl of Clarendon. He was sent as ambassador
to Madrid in 1833, and succeeded to the earldom on the
death of his uncle in that year. In 1840 he became lord
privy seal in the Whig ministry, which he resigned in
He was president of the board of trade in the new
ministry formed by Lord John Russell in 1846, and was
appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland in 1847. He exhibited
moderation, tact, and energy in the government of that isl-
and, which was then much agitated. Having been recalled
in 1852, he entered the ministry of Lord Aberdeen in Jan.,
1853, as secretary of foreign affairs. He retained this of
fice in the cabinet of Lord Palmerston, who became pre-
mier early in 1855, and acquired a high reputation as a
diplomatist. He resigned with his colleagues in 1858, and
again became secretary of foreign affairs in Nov., 1865. The
Liberal ministers resigned in consequence of the defeat of
the Reform bill in June, 1866. Lord Clarendon was ap-
pointed secretary of foreign affairs by Mr. Gladstone in
Dec., 1868. Died June 27, 1870.
Clarendon Press, a celebrated printing and publish-
ing establishment connected with Oxford University, Eng-
land. It was founded in 1672, and took its name from the
fact that the printing-house, erected in 1711, was built from
the profits arising from the sale of Clarendon’s “History
of the Rebellion,” of which work the university has a per-
petual copyright.
~~
966
CLARET-CLARK.
Clar/et [Fr. vin de Bordeawaj, a name given in England
and the U. S. to red French wines produced near Bordeaux.
The French clairet signifies “pale wine.”
Clar'idon, a township of Geauga, co., O. Pop. 909.
Claridon, a township and village of Marion co., O., 7
miles E. of Marion. Pop. 1483.
Clarin/da, a post-village, capital of Page co., Ia, on
the Nodaway River, 62 miles S. E. of Council Bluffs. It
has two weekly newspapers, a woollen factory, and a na-
tional bank. Pop. 1022.
Claſrinet’, or Clar’ionet’ [Fr. clarinette], a wind-in-
strument invented in Nuremberg in 1690. Its tone is pro-
duced by a thin piece of reed nicely flattened and fixed on
the mouth-piece. On the body of the instrument there are
holes and keys for the fingers of the performer. In fulness
and variety of tone the clarinet is the most perfect of wind-
instruments. Its construction, however, does not admit of
every key in music being played on the same instrument.
Clar’ington, a post-village of Salem township, Monroe
co., O. Pop. 728.
Clar’ion, or Clar’in, a species of trumpet more shrill
in tone than the ordinary trumpet; also the name of an
organ-stop.
Clar’ion, a county in the N.W. of Pennsylvania. Area,
600 square miles. It is intersected by the Clarion River,
and bounded on the S. W. by the Alleghany River. The
surface is hilly; the soil is generally fertile. Cattle, grain,
and wool are raised extensively. Coal, petroleum, and iron
are found here. Capital, Clarion. Pop. 26,537.
Clarion, a township and village of Bureau co., Ill., on
the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R., about 18 miles
N. E. of Princeton. Pop. 1023.
Clarion, a post-village in a township of the same
name, capital of Wright co., Ia., about 85 miles N. of Des
Moines. It has one weekly newspaper. P. 37; of township,
153. A. M. WHITE, PUB. WRIGHT County “ MoRITOR.”
Clarion, a post-borough, capital of Clarion co., Pa., is
on the Clarion River, about 75 miles N. N. E. of Pittsburg.
It has a national bank and three weekly newspapers. Car-
rier Seminary, a large institution of learning, is located
here. The county of Clarion now produces a large amount
of oil, and the county-seat is improving rapidly. Pop. of
Clarion borough, 709; of township, 1059.
R. B. BROWN, ED. of “DEMOCRAT.”
Clarion River, of Pennsylvania, rises in McKean co.,
flows nearly south-westward through Elk and Clarion coun-
ties, and enters the Alleghany River. Entire length, about
130 miles. - -
Clark, a county in the E. of Illinois. Area, 460 square
miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the navigable Wa-
bash River. The surface is diversified by prairies and for-
ests; the soil is fertile. Grain, cattle, live-stock, butter,
tobacco, hay, and timber are largely produced. Coal is
found here. The most numerous manufactories are those
of carriages and wagons. It is intersected by the St. Louis
Vandalia Terre Haute and Indianapolis R. R. Capital,
Marshall. Pop. 18,719.
Clark, a county of Mississippi, bordering on Alabama.
Area, 650 square miles. It is intersected by the Chicka-
sawha River. The surface is undulating, the soil productive.
Corn, wool, rice, and cotton are raised. It is traversed by
the Mobile and Ohio R. R. Capital, Enterprise. P. 7505.
Clark, a county of the S.W. central part of Ohio. Area,
380 square miles. It is intersected by Mad River, and also
drained by Lagonda Creek. The surface is finely diversi-
fied; the soil is very fertile. Wheat, corn, wool, butter,
tobacco, and live-stock are largely produced. The manu-
facturing interests are varied and important; the most nu-
merous are those of flour, agricultural tools, and carriages.
It is traversed by the Atlantic and Great Western R. R. and
several other railroads. Capital, Springfield. Pop. 32,070.
Clark, a county of the N.W. central part of Wisconsin.
Area, 1584 square miles. It is intersected by Black River.
The surface is uneven or hilly; the soil is productive.
Lumber, wheat, oats, butter, and potatoes are produced.
It is intersected by the West Wisconsin R. R. Capital,
Neillsville. Pop. 3450. -
Clark, a township of Greene co., Ark. Pop. 500.
Clark, a township of Johnson co., Ark. Pop. 1399.
Clark, a township of Pope co., Ark. Pop. 966.
Clark, a township of Johnson co., Ind. Pop. 1474.
Clark, a township of Montgomery co., Ind. Pop. 2175.
Clark, a township of Perry co., Ind. Pop. 1567.
Clark, a township of Tama co., Ia. Pop. 336.
Clark, a township of Faribault co., Minn. Pop. 347.
Clark, a township of Atchison co., Mo. Pop. 1276.
Clark, a township of Cole co., Mo. Pop. 800.
Clark, a township and village of Lincoln co., Mo., on
the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. R., 135 miles
N. W. of St. Louis. Pop. 1887. -
Clark, a township of Union co., N. J. Pop. 331.
Clark, a township of Brown co., O. Pop. 1691.
Clark, a twp. of Harrison co., West Va. Pop. 2085.
Clark, a township of Randolph co., West Va. Pop. 496.
Clark (ABRAHAM), an American patriot, born at Eliza-
bethtown, N. J., Feb. 15, 1726. He was chosen a delegate
to the Continental Congress in 1776, and signed the Decla-
ration of Independence. He was re-elected to Congress.
Died Sept. 15, 1794.
Clark (ALONzo), M.D., an eminent physician of New York
City, graduated A. B. at Williams College 1828, took the de-
gree of M. D. in the College of Physicians and Surgeons of
New York in 1835, was for a time professor of pathology
and materia medica in the Vermont Medical College at
Burlington, professor of physiology and pathology in the
New York College of Physicians and Surgeons from 1848
to 1855, professor of pathology and practical medicine in
the same institution in 1855, which place he still holds.
He was appointed physician to the Bellevue Hospital,
New York, in 185—, and to St. Luke's Hospital, New York,
in 1861. In 1853 he was elected president of the New
York State Medical Society. No member of the profession
in New York State or City enjoys a more honorable reputa-
tion. Dr. Clark has published valuable professional papers.
Clark (ALVAN), born at Ashfield, Mass., Mar. 8, 1804,
was an ingenious farmer's boy who became in youth an
engraver for calico print-works at Lowell, Mass. He pos-
sessed native skill in portrait-painting, an art which he
practised with great success, but when over forty years
old he took up, with his sons, the construction of refracting
telescopes. He was the first American who successfully
made large achromatic lenses. In this department, and in
the field of astronomical observation, he won great fame at
home and abroad. He invented a valuable double eye-
piece for measuring small arcs, and received in 1863 the
La Lande prize of the French Academy of Sciences for his
discoveries. -
Clark (CHARLEs E.), U. S. N., born Aug. 10, 1843, in
Vermont, graduated at the Naval Academy, an ensign in
1863, became a master in 1866, a lieutenant in 1867, and a
lieutenant-commander in 1868. He was attached to the
steamer Ossipee from 1863 to 1865, participating in the
battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864, and was commended for
“zeal and energy'' by his commanding officer, Commander
William E. Leroy. Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Clark (DANIEL), an American jurist, born at Stratham,
N. H., Oct. 29, 1809, graduated at Dartmouth in 1834, was
U. S. Senator from New Hampshire (1857–66), and judge
of the U. S. district court in 1866.
Clark (Rev. DANIEL A.), a Congregational preacher
of uncommon pungency and power, born at Rahway, N.J.,
Mar. 1, 1779. Among other places he was settled for four
years (1820–24) in Amherst, Mass., and rendered valuable
service in starting the college there. His sermons were
published in 3 vols. 12mo, 1836–37. Died in New York
City Mar. 3, 1840.
. Clark (DAvis WASGATT), D.D., a bishop of the Method-
ist Episcopal Church, born in Maine Feb. 25, 1812, grad-
uated at Wesleyan University in 1836, became distinguished
as a preacher, editor, and author. He became president of
Lawrence University in 1852, president of Indiana Asbury
University in 1853, and a bishop in 1864. He published
an “Algebra” (1843), “Mental Discipline” (1848), “Man
Immortal” (1864), and other works. Died May 23, 1871.
Clark (GEORGE WHITEFIELD), D.D., an American cler-
gyman, born Feb. 15, 1831, at South Orange, N. J., grad-
uated at Amherst College in 1853, and at Rochester Theo-
logical Seminary in 1855. He was ordained Oct. 31, 1855,
and became pastor of the Baptist church at New Market,
N. J. In 1859 he accepted the pastorate of the First Bap-
tist church at Elizabeth, N. J. About 1868 he became
pastor at Ballston Spa, N. Y. In 1870 he published his
* New Harmony of the Four Gospels” and his “ Notes on
Matthew,” and near the close of 1872 “Notes on Mark.”
He is now engaged in preparing “Notes on the Gospels of
Luke and John.”
Clark (HoRACE F.), LL.D., born at Southbury, Conn.,
Nov. 29, 1815, was a son of the Rev. D. A. Clark. He
graduated at Williams College in 1833, was admitted to
the New York bar in 1837, and became a leading lawyer.
He married in 1848' a daughter of Cornelius Vanderbilt.
He was a Democratic member of Congress from New York
CLARK–CLARKE.
967
City (1856–61), after which he was a prominent and suc-
cessful railroad president, banker, and stock operator. He
was distinguished for energy, liberality, and agreeable
social qualities. He also took a prominent part in the re-
form movement in N.Y. City in 1871–72. Died June 19, 1873.
Clark (Sir JAMEs), BART., K. C. B., F. R. S., a physician,
born at Cullen, Scotland, Dec. 14, 1788. He studied medi-
cine at Edinburgh. About 1826 he settled in London, where
he attained eminence as a physician. In 1829 he published
an able work “On the Sanative Influence of Climate.” He
was appointed physician in ordinary to Queen Victoria in
1837. His “Treatise on Pulmonary Consumption ” (1835)
is highly esteemed. Died June 29, 1870.
Clark (Dr. JoHN), born in Bedfordshire, England, Oct.
8, 1609, emigrated to Massachusetts, but was driven to
Rhode Island in 1638, and in the same year founded the
first Baptist church at Newport. This church claims to
be older than the first church at Providence, and therefore
the first of that faith in the New World. Clark visited
England in company with Roger Williams, and together
they obtained from Charles II. the charter which secured
civil and religious liberty to Rhode Island. Callender, in
his history of that State, classes Clark with the ablest pro-
jectors and legislators of that commonwealth. While he
was pastor at Newport he preached once at Lynn, Mass.,
for which he was imprisoned and fined twenty pounds,
under the act of Nov. 15, 1644. Died April 20, 1676.
Clark (LABAN), D. D., a Methodist Episcopal minister,
born at Haverhill, N. H., July 19, 1778, began to preach in
1800. He was one of the founders of the Wesleyan Uni-
versity at Middletown, Conn., and was for many years an
able and influential preacher. Died Nov. 28, 1868.
Clark (LEWIs), U. S. N., born in 1845 in Connecticut,
graduated at the Naval Academy in 1863, became a master
in 1866, a lieutenant in 1867, and a lieutenant-commander
in 1868. While attached to the steam-sloop Richmond he
participated in the battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864, and
was commended for “coolness and courage * by his com-
manding officer. Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Clark (LEWIs GAYLORD), an American writer, born at
Otisco, N. Y., in 1810. He was for many years editor of
the “Rnickerbocker Magazine.” He was a writer of much
humor and pathos. His style was admirable and his tem-
per genial. Died Nov. 3, 1873.
Clark (LINCOLN) was born in Massachusetts, but re-
moved to Alabama, where he settled first in Pickens, then
in Tuscaloosa, which, in 1845, sent him to the House. In
1848 he removed to Dubuque, Ia., from which he, in 1851,
was elected to Congress.
Clark (MYRON), born at Hoosick, N. Y., Sept. 12, 1790,
became a tanner of Bennington and Manchester, Vt., was
(1824–29) an assistant judge of the county court, and be-
came one of the governor’s council (1829–31), judge of
probate (1831–34), and State senator (1862–64). He was
much interested in railroad affairs. Died Mar. 9, 1869.
Clark (THOMAS MARCH), D.D., LL.D. Cantab., Protest-
ant Episcopal bishop of Rhode Island, was born at New-
buryport, Mass., in 1812, graduated at Yale in 1831, re-
ceived holy orders in 1836, became bishop in 1854. He has
published several religious works, and is a popular and in-
fluential preacher.
Clark (WILLIS GAYLORD), an American poet, born at
Otisco, N. Y., in 1810, was a twin-brother of Lewis Gay-
lord, noticed above. He wrote for the “ Knickerbocker
Magazine” a series of amusing, articles called “Ollapo-
diana.” Among his poems is “The Spirit of Life” (1833).
In the latter part of his life he was the chief editor of the
“Philadelphia Gazette.” Died June 12, 1841.
Clarke, a county in the S. W. of Alabama. It is
bounded on the S. E. by the Alabama River, and on the
W., by the Tombigbee. The surface is moderately diversi-
fied ; the soil is partly fertile and partly sandy. Cotton
and corn are staple crops. Capital, Grove Hill. P. 14,663.
Clarke, a county in S. W. Central Arkansas. Area, 900
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Washita River,
and on the S. and W. by the Little Missouri. The surfacé
is undulating; the soil fertile. Wheat, corn, cattle, wool,
and cotton are produced. Timber and minerals abound,
and lime is extensively burned. The Cairo and Fulton R. R.
traverses the county. Capital, Arkadelphia. Pop. 11,953.
Clarke, a county in N. E. Central Georgia. Area, 280
Square miles. It is intersected by the Oconee River. The
surface is hilly. Gold, granite, kaolin, and pyrites are
found here. Wheat, wool, corn, and cotton aré the chief
products. Capital, Watkinsville. Pop. 12,941.
Clarke, a county of Indiana, bordering on Kentucky.
Area, 400 square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the
Ohio River. The surface is nearly level; the soil fertile.
Wool, cattle, grain, and tobacco are extensively raised.
It is intersected by the railroad which connects Indianapo-
lis with Louisville, and also by the Louisville division of
the Ohio and Mississippi R. R. and the Louisville New
Albany and Chicago R. R. The manufacture of cooperage
is important. Capital, Charlestown. Pop. 24,770.
Clarke, a county in the S. of Iowa. Area, 432 square
miles. It is drained by the Whitebreast River and several
creeks. The surface is undulating; the soil fertile. Wheat,
corn, and wool are largely produced. It is intersected by
the Burlington and Missouri River R. R. Capital, Osceola.
Pop. 8735. $
Clarke, a county in E. Central Kentucky. Area,
210 Square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Ken-
tucky and Red rivers. The surface is uneven ; the soil is
productive. Live-stock, wool, grain, and tobacco are
staple products. Capital, Winchester. Pop. 10,882.
Clarke, a county which forms the N. E. extremity of
Missouri. Area, 516 square miles. It is bounded on the
N. E. by the Des Moines River, and on the E. by the
Mississippi. It is intersected by the Fox and Wyaconda
rivers. The surface is undulating; the soil fertile. Grain,
tobacco, cattle, and wool are largely raised. It is inter-
sected by the Missouri Iowa and Nebraska R. R. Capital,
Waterloo. Pop. 13,667.
Clarke, a county in the N. of Virginia. Area, 208
square miles. It is intersected by the Shenandoah River,
and is part of the Great Valley of Virginia. The Blue
Ridge extends along the south-eastern border. The soil is
based on limestone, and is fertile. Grain, stock, and wool
are the staple products. Capital, Berryville. Pop. 6670.
Clarke, a county in the S. W. of Washington Territory.
Area, 1350 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the
Columbia River, which also forms half of the western
boundary, and it is intersected by the Cathlapootle River.
The surface is partly mountainous. Wheat, wool, and
cattle are raised. Capital, Vancouver. Pop. 3081.
Clarke, a township of Chariton co., Mo. Pop. 939.
Clarke, a township of Clinton co., O. Pop. 1877.
Clarke, a township of Coshocton co., O. Pop. 867.
Clarke (ADAM), L.L.D., a celebrated Wesleyan divine
and commentator, was born at Moybeg, Ireland, in 1760.
He was educated at Wesley's Kingswood school, sent out
by Wesley as an itinerant preacher in 1782, president of the
Wesleyan Conference in 1806, 1814, 1822, became eminent
for his Oriental and biblical learning, and published a
“Bibliographical Dictionary’’ (6 vols. 12mo, 1802); “Bib-
liographical Miscellamy” (2 vols., 1806); “Succession of
Sacred Literature” (1808); “Commentary on the Bible”
(1810–25); “Rymer’s Foedera” (1819); “Wesley Family;”
sermons and miscellaneous works, published since his death,
13 vols. 8vo. Died in 1832. \
Clarke (DoRUs), D. D., a Congregational minister, born
in Westhampton, Mass., Jan. 2, 1797, graduated at Wil-
liams College in 1817, and became an influential and able
editor and author of religious and denominational literature.
Clarke (GEORGE ROGERs), an American general, born
in Virginia Nov. 19, 1752. He took a British fort at Vin-
cennes in 1779, and served against Benedict Arnold in Vir-
ginia in 1780. He became a brigadier-general in 1781, and
after peace was concluded in 1783 settled in Kentucky.
Died Feb. 13, 1818.
Clarke (HENRY F.), an American officer, born in 1820
in Pennsylvania, graduated at West Point in 1843, and
became, June 29, 1864, assistant commissary-general of
subsistence, rank of lieutenant-colonel, and colonel A. D. C.
Sept. 28, 1861, U. S. volunteers, having been in the ar-
tillery till 1857. He served at seaboard posts 1843–45;
in military occupation of Texas 1845–46; in war with Mex-
ico 1846–48, engaged at Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma,
Monterey, Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Amazoque, San An-
tonio, Churubusco, Molino del Rey (wounded), Chapulte-
pec (brevet captain), and the city of Mexico; as assistant
instructor at the Military Academy 1848–51; in Florida
hostilities 1851–52; as adjutant Second Artillery 1852–55;
as instructor of artillery and cavalry at the Military Acad–
emy 1855–56; as chief of commissariat on Utah expedition
1857–60; and assistant in commissary department at Wash-
ington, D. C., 1860–61. In the civil war was chief com-
missary of the department of Florida 1861, engaged in de-
fence of Fort Pickens; of Army of Potomac in its various
operations 1861–64 (brevet colonel and brigadier-general);
as purchasing commissary at New York, in charge of sub-
sistence supplies for the States of Connecticut, New York,
and New Jersey 1864–67. Brevet major-general Mar. 13,
1865, for faithful and meritorious services in the subsist-
ence department. Since 1867 chief commissary division
of the Missouri. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
968
CLARKE-CLARY.
. Clarke (JAMES FREEMAN), D. D., an eminent American
Unitarian preacher, editor, and author, born at Hanover,
N. H., April 4, 1810, since 1841 settled in Boston, Mass.
Besides other works he has published “Service-Book and
Hymn-Book for the Church of the Disciples” (1844–56),
“ Christian Doctrine of Forgiveness” (1852), “Christian
Doctrine of Prayer” (1854), “Orthodoxy” (1866), “Steps
of Belief.” (1870), and “Ten Great Religions” (1871).
Clarke (John A.), D. D., an Episcopalian divine, born
at Pittsfield, Mass., May 6, 1801, graduated at Union Col-
lege in 1823, became rector of St. Andrew’s Church, Phila-
delphia, and was a popular pulpit oratºr and writer of
religious works. Died Nov. 27, 1843.
Clarke (MARY CowDEN), an English authoress, a
daughter of Vincent Novello, the composer, was born in
London June 22, 1809. She was married in 1828 to Charles
Cowden Clarke. Among her works are “The Complete
Concordance of Shakspeare” (1846), a work remarkable
for completeness and accuracy, and “World-Noted Women”
(1858).
Clarke (RICHARD H.), LL.D., born at Washington, .
D. C., in 1827, graduated at Georgetown College, D. C., in
1846. He has been a lawyer and littératewr of Washing-
ton, D. C., and of New York. As a writer he has given
much labor to the preparation of biographies of American
Roman Catholics; his principal work is “The Lives of the
Deceased Bishops” of his Church in this country (2 vols.
8vo, 1872).
Clarke (SAMUEL), D.D., an English philosopher and the-
ologian, born at Norwich Oct. 11, 1675. He was educated
at Cambridge. He published in 1704 his “Demonstration
of the Being and Attributes of God,” his chief work. He
became in 1706, chaplain to Queen Anne and rector of St.
James, London. In 1712 he published “The Scripture
Doctrine of the Trinity,” on which point his opinions were
semi-Arian. He defended the Newtonian philosophy
against Leibnitz, with whom he corresponded. The cor-
respondence was published in 1717. His edition of Homer,
with a Latin version and notes, was extensively used by
students. Died May 17, 1729. (See HoADLEY, “Life of
S. Clarke;” WILLIAM WHISTON, “Historical Memoirs of
Samuel Clarke,” 1748.)
Clarke (WILLIAM), an American general and explorer,
born in Virginia Aug. 1, 1770, was a brother of George
Rogers Clarke. Associated with Captain Lewis, he con-
ducted an exploring expedition across the continent to the
mouth of the Columbia River in 1804. He was afterwards
raised to the rank of brigadier-general, and was governor
of Missouri Territory from 1813 to 1820. Died Sept. 1,
1838.
Clarke (WILLIAM Cogswell), born at Atkinson, N. H.,
in 1810, graduated at Dartmouth in 1832, and at the Law
School in Cambridge, Mass. He practised law at Laconia
and Manchester, N. H. He held, among other offices, that
of judge of probate and attorney-general of New Hamp-
shire. Died April 25, 1872. -
Clarke River, or Flathead River, rises in the
Rocky Mountains, in the W. part of Montana. It flows
north-westward, traverses the northern part of Idaho, and
enters Washington Territory. Near the northern bound-
ary of Washington it enters the Columbia. Entire length,
about 650 miles. Gold is found near this river in Mon-
tana. -
Ciarke’s Creek, a township of Morris co., Kan.
Pop. 320. -
Clarkesville, a post-village, capital of Habersham
co., Ga., is on the Chattahoochee River near its source,
about 85 miles N. E. of Atlanta. It has four churches.
Pop. 263.
Clarkesville. See CLARKSVILLE.
Clarks/burg, a post-village of Collingwood township,
Grey co., Ontario (Canada), on Beaver River, 1 mile from
Georgian Bay. It has woollen mills and other manufac-
tures, and a postal savings bank. Pop. about 300.
Clarksburg, a post-township of Montgomery co., Md.
Pop. 3064. * *
Clarksburg, a township of Berkshire co., Mass. Lum-
ber, gunpowder, and brick are manufactured. Pop. 686.
Clarksburg, capital of Harrison co., W. Va., on the
Monongahela, at the confluence of the Fork and Elk rivers,
and on the Baltimore and Ohio R. R. It is situated in a
coal-region, and has two banks, two academies, three news-
papers, and numerous manufactories.
C. W. WALTERs, ED. CLARKSBURG “CONSERVATIVE.”
Clarks/dale, a township of Coahoma co., Miss. Pop.
1931 -
Clark’s Fac/tory, a post-village of Middletown town-
ship, Delaware co., N.Y., has extensive tanneries.
Clarks/field, a post-township of Huron co., O. P. 1062.
Clark’s Fork, a post-township of Cooper co., Mo.
Pop. 1126.
Clark’s Mills, a post-village of Kirkland and Whites-
town townships, Oneida co., N. Y., has a cotton-factory and
other manufacturing interests. Pop. 420.
Clark’son, a post-township of Monroe co., N. Y. Pop.
1884.
Clarkson (THOMAS), an English philanthropist, born
at Wisbeach, in Cambridgeshire, Mar. 28, 1760. He was
educated in the University of Cambridge, where he wrote
in 1786 a Latin prize-essay on the question, “Is Involun-
tary Servitude Justifiable?” He was so deeply interested
in that subject that he resolved to devote his life chiefly to
the abolition of the slave-trade and the relief of the op-
pressed. He became an associate of William Dillwyn,
George Harrison, and other members of the Society of
Friends, who had previously formed themselves into an
anti-slavery committee. Mr. Wilberforce co-operated, and
was the chief advocate of the cause in Parliament. Clark-
son diligently collected and diffused information about the
slave-trade. Their efforts excited violent opposition, and
were several times defeated in Parliament, but finally an
act to abolish the slave-trade was passed in Mar., 1807.
He published in 1808 “The History of the Abolition of the
Slave-Trade.” In 1823 he was chosen president of the
Anti-Slavery Society. Among his works is a “Memoir of
the Life of William Penn '' (1813). Died Sept. 26, 1846.
Clark’s Sta/tion, a township of Washoe co., Nev.
Pop. 16.
Clarks’ton, a post-village of Independence township,
Oakland co., Mich. Pop. 471.
Clarks/town, the capital of Rockland co., N. Y., is 3
miles W. of the Hudson River and 35 miles N. of New
York. It is sometimes called NEW CITY. The name of the
post-office is Clarkstown. Pop. of Clarkstown twp. 4137.
Clarks/ville, a township of Clarke co., Ala. Pop. 200.
Clarksville, a post-village, capital of Johnson co.,
Ark., about 3 miles N. of the Arkansas River and 100 miles
W. N. W. of Little Rock. Pop. 466.
Clarksville, a post-village of Butler co., Ia.
one weekly newspaper.
Clarksville, a post-village of Calumet township, Pike
co., Mo. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1152.
Clarksville, a post-township of Coos co., N. H. Pop.
269. It has manufactures of starch.
Clarksville, a post-village of New Scotland township,
Albany co., N. Y. Pop. 236.
Clarksville, a township of Allegany co., N. Y., has
manufactures of pine lumber. Pop. 784.
Clarksville, a village of Brookfield township, Madison
co., N.Y., has several large manufactories, and is the seat
of Brookfield Academy. Pop. 322.
Clarksville, a township of Davie co., N. C. Pop. 919.
Clarksville, a post-village of Vernon township, Clinton
co., O., on the Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. Louis R. R., 46
miles N. E. of Cincinnati. Pop. 389.
Clarksville, a borough of Mercer co., Pa., on the Erie
and Pittsburg R. R., and 11 miles N. W. of Mercer. P. 359.
Clarksville, a post-village, capital of Montgomery Co.;
Tenn., on the Cumberland River and the Memphis and
Louisville R. R., 199 miles N. E. of Memphis, and 50 miles
N. W. of Nashville. It has a male and female academy, a
national bank, two weekly newspapers, various manufag-
tories, three tobacco warehouses, and ships 15,000 hogsheads
of tobacco a year. There are iron-mines near. Pop. 3200.
INGRAM & DoAk, PROPs. “ToBACCO LEAF.”
Clarksville, the county-seat of Red River Co., Tex., is
the oldest town in Northern Texas. The Trans-Continental
R. R. runs through it. It has several schools and churches,
Protestant and Catholic. It is 350 miles N. of Galveston,
in the N. E. corner of the State, and is the centre of a very
rich country. It has two weekly papers. Pop. 613.
w ED. “STANDARD.”
Clarksville, a post-village of Mecklenburg Co., Va., on
the Roanoke River at the junction of the Dan and Staunton,
102 miles S. W. of Richmond. It has a State bank, a
building and loan association, six tobacco warehouses, and
one newspaper, and is the terminus of the Roanoke Valley
R. R. from Keysville on the Richmond and Danville R. R.
Pop. of township, 3700.
, WM. Town Es, JR., E.D. “ROANOKE WALLEY.”
Clar/no, a post-township of Green co., Wis. P. 1637.
Cla'ry (Salvia Sclarea), a plant of the order Labiatae,
and of the same genus with sage; it is a native of Southern
Europe, and cultivated in gardens for its aromatic proper-
It has
CLASS—CLAVERACK.
969
ties. The seed is sown in spring, and the plants flower in
the second year. Clary is stimulating and antispasmodic.
It has an odor resembling that of balsam of Tolu, and is
used for seasoning soups and for flavoring.
Class [Lat. classis], a term applied in natural history
to a large group of plants or animals formed by the reunion
or association of several orders. Classes, orders, genera, and
species are common to all methods of classification. The
term class is also used to denote a portion of Society sepa-
rated from other portions by some distinction of rank, for-
tune, or more intrinsic qualities. (For the well-defined
classes of the Hindoos, see CASTE.)
Clas'sic, or Clas'sical [Lat. classicus, from classis, a
“rank” or “class”], pure, refined; conformed to the best
and most perfect standard; also pertaining to the ancient
Greek or Latin authors, or rendered famous by association
with ancient writers, as “classic ground.” The ancient
Roman people were divided into six classes, and the per-
sons of the first or highest class were called classici. Hence
the term came to signify the highest and purest class of
writers in any language, though formerly it was applied
only to the most esteemed Greek and Latin authors. The
epithet “classical,” as applied to ancient writers, is deter-
mined less by the purity of their style than by the period
at which they wrote. The classical age of Greek literature
begins with Homer, the earliest Greek writer whose works
are extant, and extends perhaps to the time of the Roman
emperor Antonine, but signs of decadence appeared about
300 B.C. The Latin classical period is shorter; its earliest
writer is Plautus, and it ended about 200 A. D. Some
critics, however, include Claudian, who was born about 365
A. D., among the classics.
Classifica/tion [from the Lat. classis, a “class,” and
facio, to “make ’, literally, the “making of classes" or
the act of classifying, has various applications in science
and art. In natural history it is the grouping of the vari-
ous species under their proper genera, families, orders,
classes, etc. Thus, all material bodies are arranged under
the three kingdoms—viz., animal, vegetable, and mineral
(the last-named kingdom including every inorganic sub-
stance found in a state of nature, comprising not merely
what are popularly termed minerals, but also air and water).
Again, for the sake of illustration, we will consider the
classification"of the animal kingdom. This is usually di-
vided by naturalists into four great sections, termed “grand
divisions”—namely, Vertebrata (or vertebrates), Articulata
(or articulates), Mollusca (or mollusks), and Radiata (or
radiates). Each of these grand divisions is subdivided
into classes. Thus, all the vertebrates are sometimes
grouped under four great classes—namely, mammals, birds,
reptiles, and fishes, while each of these classes is further
divided into orders, families, genera, and species.
In geology, classification denotes the grouping of the va-
rious kinds of rock, either according to their composition
or according to the period in which they are supposed to
have been formed. (See GEOLOGY.)
In aesthetics, classification is an arrangement by which
works of art are distributed into certain classes; as, for
instance, in galleries of paintings the works should be ar-
ranged according to the Schools, each school being subject
to a chronological order of the masters. In numismatology
the coins should be arranged by countries, and these again
by the chronological order of the monarchs; and so with
other branches of the arts. .
Clas'sis [Lat., a “class”], in the Reformed churches
in America and in Holland a church court corresponding
to the presbytery in Presbyterian churches. It is com-
posed of the pastors and a number of elders of a certain
district. The classis hears appeals from the consistories,
and appeal from the classis is to a particular synod. The
classis also confirms and dissolves pastoral connections,
ordains and deposes ministers, sends two ministers and two
delegates to the synod, and three ministers and three dele-
gates to the general synod. -
Clat’sop, a county which forms the N. W. extremity
of Oregon. Area, 1050 square miles. It is bounded on
the N. by the Columbia River, on the S. by the Nehalem,
and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. The surface is partly
mountainous; the soil fertile. Wheat, cattle, wool, and
lumber are produced. Capital, Astoria. Pop. 1255.
Claude (JEAN), an eminent French Protestant theolo-
gian, born near Agen in 1619. He was distinguished for
eloquence and wisdom, and had several doctrinal disputes
with Bossuet. In 1666 he became pastor of the Protestant
church at Charenton, near Paris. Among his works is a
“Defence of the Reformation ” (1673). When the Edict
of Nantes was revoked (1685) he removed to the Hague,
where he died in 1687.
‘Claude Lorrain. See GELáE (CLAUDE).
Claudia'mus (CLAUDIUs), a Latin epic poet, born at
Alexandria about 365 A. D. He became a resident of Rome,
and gained the favor of Stilicho. His poems were so pop-
ular that a statue was erected to him in Rome by the Senate
and the emperor. Among his works are “The Rape of
Proserpine,” “The Battle of the Giants,” and a “Eulogy
of Stilicho" (“De Laudibus Stilichonis”). Died after 408
A. D. He had a fertile imagination, and is regarded as
the last of the classical Latin poets. (See T. MAzzo, “Vita
di Claudiano,” 1668.)
Clau/dius, or, more fully, Tiberius Claudius
Drusus Nero, the fourth emperor of Rome, was born
at Lugdunum (Lyons) in 10 B.C. He was a son of Drusus
Nero, and a nephew of the emperor Tiberius. He was
naturally infirm in body, and his education was neglected.
On the death of Caligula (who was his nephew) he was
proclaimed emperor by the army in 41 A. D., and was un-
willingly recognized by the senate, who preferred a repub-
lic. He began his reign with a show of clemency, but his
wife, the infamous Messalina, acquired great power, which
she abused by acts of cruelty. He built a great aqueduct
called Aqua Claudia, and successfully invaded Britain in
person. He was poisoned in 54 A. D. by his wife Agrip-
pina. (See SUEToNIUs, “ Claudius;” “TACITUs, “Annales.”)
Claudius (APPIUs), surnamed CRAssus, a Roman pa-
trician and decemvir, was elected consul in 451 B. C. He
rendered himself infamous by an attempt to enslave and
dishonor Virginia. For this offence he was imprisoned.
According to Livy, he committed suicide. (See ARNOLD,
“History of Rome.”)
Claudius (MARCUs AURELIUs), surnamed GoTHICUs, an
emperor of Rome, was born in Illyricum in 214 A. D. He
was proclaimed emperor by the army on the death of Gal-
lienus (268 A.D.), and their choice was ratified by the
senate. He defeated the rebel Aureolus in the same year,
and gained a victory over the Goths or Scythians in Servia
in 269. He died at Sirmium in 270 A. D., and was suc-
ceeded by Aurelian.
Clau/dius Cae/cus (APPIUs), a Roman patrician who
was censor about 310 B.C. He constructed the great road
called Via Appia from Rome to Capua. He was afterwards
consul, and became blind (hence his name Caecus). He
wrote a legal work and a poem.
Clau/dius Pul’cher (APPIUs), a Roman patrician,
was a brother of P. Clodius the demagogue, whom Milo
killed. He became consul in 53 B. C., and censor in the
year 50. During his censorship he expelled Sallust the
historian from the senate. He was an adherent of Pompey
in the civil war. Died about 48 B. C.
Claudius Pulcher (PUBLIUs), a Roman general, was
a son of Appius Claudius Caecus, noticed above. He was
noted for his pride. During the first Pumic war he was
elected consul for 249 B. C., and took the command of the
fleet. He was defeated by the Carthaginians in a naval
battle.
Clau'sen (HENRIK NICOLAI), an able Danish theologian
and liberal statesman, born in the island of Laaland
April 22, 1793. He became in 1820 professor of theology
in the University at Copenhagen, and wrote, besides other
works, “Popular Discourses on the Reformation '' (1836).
In 1840 he was chosen a deputy to the States, and near
the end of 1848 was appointed minister of Denmark with-
out a portfolio.
Clau'sewitz, von (KARL), a Prussian general and
writer on war, was born at Burg June 1, 1780. He served
on the staff of the Russian army in 1813, and wrote an
“Account of the Campaign of 1813’” (1814). He died
Nov. 16, 1831, and his posthumous works were published
in 10 vols. (1832–37; 3d ed. 1869).
Clau/sius (RUDOLF JULIUS EMANUEL), a prominent
physicist, born Jan. 2, 1822, became in 1855 professor at
the Polytechnic Institution of Zurich, in 1867 at the Uni-
versity of Würzburg, and in 1869 at that of Bonn. He
obtained distinction by mathematical calculations based
upon the dynamical theory of heat—calculations which, it is
claimed, show the necessity of a Creator and the possibility
of miracles. These calculations have received the approval
of many scholars.
Claus' thal, a town of Germany, in the province of
Hanover, is situated on a hill 1740 feet above the level of
the sea, and about 56 miles S. S. W. of Hanover. It is the
chief mining town of the Hartz, and has a mint, a mining
academy, a gymnasium, and a valuable museum ; also
manufactures of camlet and other fabrics. Silver and lead
are mined in the vicinity. Pop. in 1871, 9138.
Cla’verack, a post-village and township of Columbia
co., N. Y. The village is on the Hudson and Chatham
branch of the Boston and Albany R. R., 4 miles S. E. of
970
CLAVICLE-CLAY.
Hudson. It is the seat of Claverack Academy and the
Hudson River Collegiate Institute, a very flourishing insti- .
tution. The township contains Philmont and Smoky Hol-
low, important factory villages. Pop. of township, 3671.
Clav/icle [from the Lat. clavicula, a diminutive of
clavis, a “key” (perhaps because it “locks” or “makes fast”
the scapula, with the sternum)], or Collar-bone, a bone
which, with the scapula and the head of the humerus, forms
the shoulder. In man it is horizontal and immediately
above the first rib, and articulates internally with the ster-
mum or breast-bone, and externally with the acromion pro-
cess of the scapula. Its office is to keep the shoulders
apart, and to afford a fulcrum by which the muscles give
lateral movement to the arm. It is absent in those ani-
mals in which the movement of the fore limbs is only back-
ward and forward, as in the ox, the horse, etc.; it is pres-
ent in all Quadrumana, and in those Rodentia in which the
anterior extremities are used for prehension, as the Squir–
rel; it exists in the bat, mole, and hedgehog. In the mole
it is a cube, very short, broad, and of extreme strength. In
many Carnivora, the clavicle is a small bone suspended
(like the hyoid bone) amongst muscles, and not connected
with the sternum or the scapula. In birds, to counteract
the tendency of the pectoral muscles to approximate the
shoulders, the clavicles are large, and united at an angle
in the median line into a single bone, the “furculum,”
popularly called the “merry-thought” or “wish-bone.”
In this class of animals additional support to the anterior
extremity is afforded by the extension of the coracoid pro-
cess of the scapula into a broad thick “coracoid bone.”
This bone presents various modifications in reptiles, fishes,
and certain mammals.
In man the ossification of the clavicle takes place sooner
$han that of any other bone, commencing the thirtieth day
after conception; and at birth it is ossified in nearly its
whole extent; but the sternal end is not complete till the
eighteenth or nineteenth year. The clavicle in transcen-
dental anatomy is considered to be the haemapophysis of
the atlas.
Clay [Ang.-Sax. clasg; Fr. argille; Lat. argilla], a term
applied to those kinds of earth which when moist have
a notable degree of tenacity and plasticity. Clays are
not easily definable as minerals, but they appear to owe
their origin to the decomposition of other minerals, such
as felspar, etc., and consist largely of alumina, with silica
and water. They owe their plasticity to the alumina which
they contain. (See ALUMINA and KAOLIN.) Common clay,
when sufficiently plastic, is of great use for making bricks,
tiles, etc. Clay is used in plastic art as a means of ad-
justing the form which is to be given to any work in the
more enduring material of which it is ultimately to be com-
posed. As modelling clay is apt to crack, it must be kept
damp by sprinkling it or by covering it with a wet cloth
when the artist is not at work. Clays of the finer sorts are
much used in making pottery, porcelain, etc. These are
called fictile clays.
Argillaceous earth not unfrequently contains 40 per cent.
of alumina, but generally the proportion is much smaller.
The felspar which yields the alumina of clay soils contains
also soda and potash, substances essential to vegetation,
and which render clays fertile under cultivation. A mix-
ture of calcareous matter exercises a favorable influence on
crops. Thorough drainage has greatly increased the value
of clay soils under cultivation. Wheat, beans, and clover
are crops which they yield in great perfection. Chemical
investigations have shown that clay soils have remarkable
powers for absorbing ammonia and other substances which
constitute the food of plants. On account of these powers
dry argillaceous earth is an excellent disinfectant.
Clay, a county in the E. of Alabama. Area, 600
square miles. It is drained by several creeks, affluents of
the Tallapoosa River. The surface is undulating; the soil
fertile. Corn, tobacco, cotton, and wool are staple prod-
ucts. Capital, Ashland. Pop. 9560.
Clay, a county in the S. E. of Dakota. Area, 396 square
miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Missouri, and is in-
tersected by the Vermilion River. The soil is fertile, con-
sisting of rolling prairie (“bench-land”) and river-intervale
(“bottom-land ”). Wheat, oats, and hay are the chief crops.
There is considerable timber in the county. It is inter-
sected by the Dakota Southern R. R. Capital, Vermilion.
Pop. 2621. .
Clay, a county in the N. E. of Florida. Area, 430 square
miles. It is bounded on the E. by the St. John’s River.
The surface is nearly level, and is heavily timbered. Cot-
ton, sugar-cane, fruit, and rice are raised. Capital, Green
Cove Spring. Pop. 2098.
Clay, a county of Georgia, bordering on Alabama. It
is bounded on the W. by the Chattahoochee River. The
surface is nearly level; the soil fertile. Cotton, wool, rice,
and corn are staple products. It is intersected by the
South-western R. R. Capital, Fort Gaines. Pop. 5493.
Clay, a county in the S. E. of Illinois. Area, 450 square
miles. It is intersected by the Little Wabash River. The
surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Grain, hay, wool,
butter, tobacco, and live-stock are raised. It is traversed
by the Ohio and Mississippi and the Springfield and Illi-
nois South-eastern R. Rs. Capital, Louisville. P. 15,875.
Clay, a county in the W. of Indiana. Area, 360 square
miles. It is drained by the Eel River. The surface is
nearly level; the soil is fertile. Grain, hay, butter, and
stock are largely raised. Timber, coal, and iron are found
here. Clay county is intersected by the Indianapolis and St.
Louis and the Terre Haute and Indianapolis R. Rs. Capi-
tal, Bowling Green. Pop. 19,084.
Clay, a county in the N. W. part of Iowa. Area, 576
square miles. It is intersected by the Little Sioux River.
The soil is productive. Grain, live-stock, and hay are the
chief products. Capital, Peterson. Pop. 1523.
Clay, a county in the N. N. E. of Kansas. Area, 720
square miles. It is intersected by the Republican River.
The surface is undulating ; the soil is fertile. Wheat, corn,
and cattle are the chief products. It is intersected by a
branch of the Kansas Pacific R. R. Capital, Clay Centre.
Pop. 2942.
Clay, a county in the S. E. of Kentucky. Area, 600
square miles. It is intersected by the South Fork of the
Rentucky River. The surface is mountainous. Coal and
iron are found here, and salt is produced from salt-wells.
Wool, corn, and tobacco are staple products. Capital,
Manchester. Pop. 8297.
Clay, a county of Minnesota, bordering on Dakota.
Area, about 900 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by
the Red River of the North, and also drained by Buffalo
River. The surface is nearly level; the soil is based on
limestone, and is fertile. This county contains extensive
prairies. It is intersected by the Northern Pacific R. R.
Pop. 92.
Clay, a county in the W. N. W. of Missouri. Area, 415
square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Missouri
River. The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. Grain,
flour, wool, and tobacco are staple products. Limestone and
sandstone occur here as surface-rocks. It is intersected by
the Kansas City branch of the Hannibal and St. Joseph
R. R., also by the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern
R. R. Capital, Liberty. Pop. 15,564.
Clay, a county in the S. E. of Nebraska. Area, 576
square miles. It is drained by the Little Blue River and
the West Fork of Big Blue. The surface is undulating;
the soil fertile. Limestone abounds here. It is intersected
by the Burlington and Missouri River R. R. in Nebraska.
Capital, Sutton. Pop. 54.
Clay, a county in the W. of North Carolina. Area, 200
square miles. It is drained by the Hiawassee River. The
surface is hilly. Corn, tobacco, and wool are the chief
products. Capital, Hayesville. Pop. 2461.
Clay, a county of Tennessee, bordering on Kentucky.
It is intersected by the Cumberland River. The surface is
undulating; the soil fertile. It is a good region for graz-
ing, as well as for grain crops. It was organized since the
census of 1870. Capital, Celina.
Clay, a county in the N. of Texas. Area, 1100 square
miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Red River, and in-
tersected by the Little Wichita. It is a stock-raising region,
but is adapted to grain. The bottom-lands are well tim-
bered. The surface is rough and broken. Capital, Hen-
rietta. Returned as having no population in the U. S. Cen-
sus of 1870. -
Clay, a county of the central part of West Virginia.
Area, 400 square miles. It is intersected by the Elk River,
and contains large amounts of cannel and bituminous coal,
with iron and salt. The surface is broken, the soil good
and well timbered. Grain, cattle, and tobacco are raised.
Capital, Marshall or Clay Court-house. Pop. 2196.
Clay, a township of Bradley co., Ark. Pop. 630.
Ciay, a township of Columbia co., Ark. Pop. 357.
Clay, a township of Izard co., Ark. Pop. 275.
Clay, a township of White co., Ark. Pop. 517.
Clay, a township of Bartholomew co., Ind. Pop. 778.
Clay, a township of Carroll co., Ind. Pop. 949.
Clay, a township of Cass co., Ind. Pop. 814.
Clay, a township of Dearborn co., Ind. Pop, 1269.
Clay, a township of Decatur co., Ind. Pop. 2065.
Clay, a township of Hamilton co., Ind. Pop. 1413.
Clay, a township of Hendricks co., Ind. Pop. 1571.
CLAY.
971
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
a township of Howard co., Ind. Pop. 1350.
a township of Kosciusko co., Ind. Pop. 1973.
a township of La Grange co., Ind. Pop. 1248.
a township of Miami co., Ind. Pop. 972.
a township of Morgan co., Ind. Pop. 1234.
a township of Owen co., Ind. Pop. 1284.
a township of Pike co., Ind. Pop. 747.
a township of Spencer co., Ind. Pop. 1385.
a township of St. Joseph co., Ind. Pop. 1442.
a township of Wayne co., Ind. Pop. 1094.
a township of Clay co., Ia. Pop. 310.
a township of Grundy co., Ia. Pop. 329.
a township of Hardin co., Ia. Pop. 1394.
a township of Harrison co., Ia. Pop. 456.
a township of Jones co., Ia. Pop. 925.
a township of Marion co., Ia. Pop. 1372.
a township of Shelby co., Ia. Pop. 129.
a post-township of Washington co., Ia. P. 788.
a township of Wayne co., Ia. Pop. 473.
a township and village of St. Clair co., Mich.
The village is on the St. Clair River, 30 miles N. E. of
Detroit.
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Pop. 1475.
a township of Adair co., Mo. Pop. 1340.
a township of Atchison co., Mo. Pop. 1673.
a post-township of Clarke co., Mo. Pop. 1119.
a township of Douglas co., Mo. Pop. 333.
a township of Dunklin co., Mo. Pop. 1426.
a township of Greene co., Mo. Pop. 840.
a township of Harrison co., Mo. Pop. 911.
a township of Holt co., Mo. Pop. 887.
a township of La Fayette co., Mo. Pop. 3508.
a township of Linn co., Mo. Pop. 939.
a township of Monroe co., Mo. Pop. 1518.
a township of Ralls co., Mo. Pop. 1701.
a township of Shelby co., Mo. Pop. 1433.
a township of Sullivan co., Mo. Pop. 877.
a township and post-village of Onondaga co.,
N. Y. The village is on the Syracuse Northern R. R., 10
miles N. W. of Syracuse.
The township has five churches,
several villages, and is one of the best farming towns in
the State.
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
1972.
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Clay,
Pop. 3156.
a township of Guilford co., N. C. Pop. 835.
a township of Auglaize co., O. Pop. 1095.
a township of Gallia co., O. Pop. 1400.
a township of Highland co., O. Pop. 1345.
a township of Knox co., O. Pop. 940.
a township of Montgomery co., O. Pop. 2541.
a township of Muskingum co., O. Pop. 776.
a township of Ottawa, co., O. Pop. 2174.
a township of Scioto co., O. Pop. 927.
a township of Tuscarawas co., O. Pop. 1205.
a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 1062.
a township of Huntingdon co., Pa. Pop. 814.
a township of Lancaster co., Pa. Pop. 1440.
a township of Hanover co., Va. Pop. 3085.
a township of Braxton co., West Va. Pop. 2164.
a township of Hancock co., West Va. Pop. 1507.
a township of Harrison co., West Va. Pop. 1574.
a township of Marshall co., West Va. Pop. 1005.
a township of Monongalia, co., West Va. Pop.
a township of Randolph co., West Va. Pop. 540.
a township of Ritchie co., West Va. Pop. 2746.
a township of Taylor co., West Va. Pop. 738.
a township of Wirt co., West Va. Pop. 533.
a township of Wood co., West Va. Pop. 1108.
Clay (CASSIUS MARCELLUS), an American statesman,
born in Madison co., Ky., Oct. 19, 1810.
Yale in 1832.
IHe graduated at
He opposed the annexation of Texas to the
Union, advocated the abolition of slavery, and made
speeches
in the Northern States in 1844 in support of
Bienry Clay as a candidate for the presidency. In 1845 he
became the editor of the “True American,” an anti-slavery
paper issued at Lexington, Ky. He was attacked by mobs,
against which he defended himself bravely in several bloody
conflicts.
He served as a captain in the Mexican war
(1846–47), supported Abraham Lincoln in 1860, and be-
came a brigadier-general in 1861. He was minister to
Russia, 1862–69.
Clay (CLEMENT COMER, JR.), born in Madison co., Ala.,
in 1819, is the son of C. C. Clay (1789–1866), who was for
many years a prominent official of the U. S. and of Ala-
bama. The younger Clay became a lawyer in 1840, a judge
in 1844, was U. S. Senator from Alabama from 1854 to 1861,
in which latter year he entered the Confederate Senate.
After the war he was accused of complicity in the murder
of President Lincoln, but after a short imprisonment was
fully acquitted.
Clay (HENRY), an American lawyer, orator, legislator,
and statesman, thrice a candidate for President, and once
very nearly elected, was born near “The Slashes” in Han-
over county, not far from Richmond, Va., April 12, 1777.
His father was a poor Baptist preacher, who died in 1782;
his mother—a woman of noble character and fervid piety—
married again ten years afterwards, and migrated to Ken-
tucky, leaving this son (the fifth of seven children) a clerk
in a retail store in Richmond, which he soon left for em-
ployment as a copyist in the office of Mr. Peter Tinsley,
clerk of the high court of chancery, whom he served four
years, passing thence to the office of Mr. Robert Brooke,
then attorney-general, afterwards governor. Licensed as
, a lawyer in 1797, though not yet of age, he followed his
mother to Kentucky, opened a law-office at Lexington, and
soon achieved a lucrative practice. Kentucky, separating
from her parent, Virginia, soon called a convention to frame
a State constitution, and young Clay publicly besought her
to provide therein for a gradual abolition of slavery, but
was sternly overruled, as he was half a century later,
when, in the fulness of his fame, he renewed this counsel
on the revision of the State constitution in 1849–50.
Kentucky strongly sympathized with her-mother State
in its opposition to John Adams's administration, with its
Alien and Sedition acts, and idolized Mr. Jefferson, Vir-
ginia's oracle, for whom she cast her first presidential vote
in 1800. Young Clay was one of her favorite orators in
that excited canvass, and was first chosen to represent his
county (Fayette) in the legislature of 1803–04. Late in
1806, when scarcely eligible, he was chosen by the legisla-
ture of his State to fill a vacancy in the U. S. Senate
caused by the resignation of General John Adair. His
term expired with his first session, but he had already made
his mark as a champion of the policy of internal improve-
ment by the construction of roads, bridges, etc. He was.
again chosen to the legislature in 1807, and elected Speaker
of the House. He now proposed that each member should
clothe himself wholly in American fabrics, which was stig-
matized by Mr. Humphrey Marshall as the project of a
demagogue—language which led to a duel wherein both
parties were slightly wounded. At the session of 1809,
Mr. Clay was again chosen to fill a vacancy in the U. S.
Senate—this time for two years. In Aug., 1811, he was
elected to the House, and on the first day of his service was
chosen its Speaker—an extraordinary proof of his ability
and popularity. This Congress, in June, 1812, declared war
against Great Britain, Mr. Clay being one of its foremost
advocates, as he remained throughout the struggle, until
despatched to Europe by President Madison as one of the
negotiators of peace—a service which he rendered at Ghent
with eminent ability. Returning to his country in Sept.,
1815, he was received as a victor, and, having been re-
elected to the House in his absence, he was rechosen Speaker
without opposition. He had been conspicuous in defeating
the recharter of the first bank of the U. S. in 1811; he
was equally active and influential in promoting the charter
of the second in 1816. He was now, as he had been, a
champion of protection to home industry, and of national
internal improvements; and he was foremost in effecting
the compromise whereby Missouri was admitted as a slave
State, on condition that all Federal territory north of lati-
tude 36° 30' should be consecrated to free labor. Having
favored, in 1816, an increase of the pay of members of Con-
gress from eight dollars per day to fifteen hundred dollars
per annum, Mr. Clay was formidably opposed in his next
canvass by John Pope, afterwards Jackson’s governor of
Arkansas Territory, but saved his seat by a vigorous effort.
In 1824 five candidates were started for President—Wil—
liam H. Crawford of Georgia, who had the caucus nomina-
tion; John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, then Presi-
dent Monroe’s secretary of state; General Andrew Jackson
of Tennessee, then a U. S. Senator; John C. Calhoun of
South Carolina, then secretary of war; and Henry Clay
of Kentucky, then Speaker of the House. Mr. Calhoun
soon withdrew, and was made Vice-President by pretty
general consent, while Jackson, Adams, and Crawford (no
one having a majority) were the three highest on the elec-
toral vote, which compelled the House to choose between
them. Mr. Clay, having received the votes of Kentucky,
972
CLAY—CLAYTON.
Ohio, and Missouri only, with four of those cast from New
York, was four votes behind Mr. Crawford, and so could
not be voted for in the House. He and his friends' cast
their votes for Mr. Adams, electing him by the vote of
thirteen States, to seven for Jackson and four for Crawford.
Mr. Adams made Mr. Clay his secretary of state; where-
upon a cry of “Bargain P’ was raised, and General Jack-
son was at once proposed for next President. He was
elected over Mr. Adams, Mr. Calhoun being again chosen
Vice-President. At the next choice of President (1832)
Mr. Clay was run against General Jackson, and was badly
defeated by him. He had just been returned to the U. S.
Senate, in which he played a leading part for many years
ensuing, especially in the tariff compromise of 1833, where-
by a conflict with South Carolina was averted, and in re-
sistance to the new financial policy propounded by Mr.
Van Buren in 1837, whereby the treasury was to be divorced
from all connection with banks and their notes. Mr. Clay
was again a candidate for President, before the first Whig
national convention held at Harrisburg in Dec., 1839, but
General Harrison was nominated and triumphāntly chosen.
His death and Tyler's course brought Mr. Clay forward as
the unanimous choice of his party in 1844, when a des-
perate effort was made to elect him, but without success,
James K. Polk of Tennessee carrying both the great States
of New York and Pennsylvania by a handful of votes, when
New York alone would have elected Clay. The annexation
of Texas and the resulting war with Mexico were fruits of
this election.
Mr. Clay's name was once more, and for the last time,
presented to the Whig national convention of 1848, but
General Taylor was nominated over him and elected. Mr.
Clay had in 1842 bidden farewell to the Senate, but was
persuaded to return to it after 1844, and bore a leading part
in effecting the slavery compromise of 1850. He returned
to Washington from Kentucky for the last time near the
close of 1851, and was soon prostrated by disease, under
which he gradually sank until his death, June 29, 1852, in
the seventy-sixth year of his age.
Though not successful as an aspirant to the presidency,
he was a gallant party chief, an admirable orator, a skilful
legislator, wielding unequalled influence, not only over his
friends, but even over those of his political antagonists
who were subjected to the magic of his conversation and
Iſla, Yl ſlēTS. HoRACE GREELEY.
Clay (HENRY, JR.), son of the distinguished orator and
statesman of the same name, an American officer and law-
yer, born April 10, 1811, in Ashland, Ky., graduated at
West Point 1831; resigned Nov. 1, 1831. Counsellor-at-
law 1833–46; member of the Kentucky house of represen-
tatives 1835–37; and lieutenant-colonel Second Rentucky
Volunteers in the war with Mexico 1846–47, engaged at
Buena Vista, where, while gallantly leading a charge of
his regiment, he was mortally wounded, and in that condi-
tion lanced to death, Feb. 23, 1847, aged thirty-six.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Clay (JAMEs B.), brother of the preceding, born in Ken-
tucky in 1817, chargé d'affaires to Lisbon 1849, elected to
represent his father's district in Congress 1857; espoused
the Confederate cause, and died in Montreal, Canada, Jan.
26, 1864. G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Eng’rs.
Clay Banks, a post-township of Oceana co., Mich.
Pop. 462. -
Clay Banks, a post-township of Door co., Wis. Pop.
3.19.
Clay'burg, a post-village of Black Brook and Saranac
townships, Clinton co., N. Y., has valuable iron-mines.
Clay Cen'tre, a post-village, the capital of Clay co.,
Kan., on the Republican River, about 125 miles W. of
Leavenworth. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of the
township, 1134.
Ciay Cit’y, a post-village of Clay co., Ill., on the Little
Wabash River and on the Ohio and Mississippi R. R., 102
miles E. of St. Louis. Pop. 594; of Clay City township,
1364.
Clay Court-house, or Marshall, a post-village,
capital of Clay co., West Va., on the Elk River, 50 miles
E. N. E. of Charleston.
Clay' momt, a post-village of New Castle co., Del., on
the Philadelphia Wilmington and Baltimore R. R., 8 miles
N. E. of Wilmington.
Clay’more [from the Gaelic claidheamhmor, a “broad-
sword”], sometimes spelled Glaymore, the Gaelic name
of a kind of broadsword which is not much used at present.
It had a double-edged blade about forty-two inches long
and two inches wide. The handle was often twelve inches
long.
Clay Slate. See SLATE.
soil is partly fertile.
Clays’ ville, a post-township of Marshall co., Ala,
Pop. 827.
Claysvitle, a post-village of Donegal township, Wash-
ington co., Pa. Pop. 284.
Clay'ton, a county in N. W. Central Georgia. It is
drained by the Flint River, which rises in or near it. The
Cotton and corn are the staple crops.
It is intersected by the Macon and Western R. R. Capital,
Jonesborough. Pop. 5477.
Clayton, a county in the E. N. E. of Iowa. Area, 760
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Mississippi
River, and intersected by the Turkey River. The surface
is diversified by undulating prairies and woodlands; the
soil is fertile. Hay, grain, wool, butter, and cattle are ex-
tensively produced. Lead is found here. The manufac-
tures embrace flour, furniture, carriages, cooperage, lum-
ber, etc. A branch of the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R.
passes through this county. The Chicago Dubuque and
Minnesota. R. R. passes along the eastern border of the
county. Capital, El Kader. Pop. 27,771.
Clayton, a post-village, capital of Barbour co., Ala.,
75 miles S. E. of Montgomery, in a fruit and grain growing
district. It has one weekly newspaper.
E. QUILLIN, ED. “Coup ILR.”
Clayton, a post-village of Kenton and Duck Creek
hundreds, Kent co., Del., 11 miles N. of Dover, at the
junction of the Delaware and the Maryland and Delaware
R. R.S. and the Smyrna branch. Pop. 124.
Clayton, a post-village, capital of Rabun co., Ga.,
about 100 miles N. E. of Atlanta. Pop. 70.
Clayton, a post-village and township of Adams co.,
Ill., on the Toledo Wabash and Western R. R., 28 miles
E. N. E. of Quincy. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop.
of Clayton township, 2063.
Clayton, a township of Woodford co., III. Pop. 1022.
Clayton, a township and village of Clayton co., Ia., on
the Chicago Dubuque and Minnesota R. R., 45 miles N. W.
of Dubuque. Pop. 954.
Clayton, a township of Taylor co., Ia. Pop. 530.
Clayton, a township and village of Genesee co., Mich.,
on the Port Huron and Lake Michigan R. R. Pop. 1047.
Clayton, a post-village of Lenawee co., Mich.
Clayton, a post-village and township of Gloucester co.,
N. J., on the West Jersey R. R., 21 miles S. of Camden.
Total pop. 3674. -
Clayton, a post-village of Jefferson co., N. Y., on the
St. Lawrence River, by the Thousand Islands. It is a sum-
mer resort, and has a good harbor. Shipbuilding and raft-
ing are carried on. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop.
1020; of township, 4082.
CLARK & CLARK, PUBs. CLAYTON “INDEPENDENT.”
Clayton, a post-village and township of Johnston co.,
N. C., on the North Carolina R. R., 14 miles S. E. of Ra-
leigh. Pop. 1534.
Clayton, a township of Perry co., O. Pop. 1195.
Clayton, a township of Crawford co., Wis. Pop. 1416.
Clayton, a township of Winnebago co., Wis. Pop.
1340.
Clay'ton (JoBN), an English botanist, born in Kent
in 1686, emigrated to Virginia in 1705. He wrote on the
matural history of Virginia. Linnaeus and Gronovius pub-
lished in 1739 a “Flora of Virginia, exhibiting the Plants
which J. Clayton has collected.” Died Dec. 15, 1773.
Clayton (JoBIN MIDDLETON), L.L. D., an American states-
man, born in Sussex co., Del., July 24, 1796, graduated at
Yale in 1815, studied law, which he practised in Delaware,
and gained a high reputation. He was elected a Senator
of the U. S. in 1829, joined the Whig party, and was re-
elected to the Senate in 1835. In 1845 he was again chosen
to represent Delaware in the national Senate, and in Mar.,
1849, he became secretary of state in the cabinet of Presi-
dent Taylor. He negotiated with the British government
the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty in 1850. Having resigned on
the death of President Taylor in July, 1850, he was chosen
a U. S. Senator for six years (1851–57). Died Nov. 9, 1856.
Clayton (POWELL), an American Senator, was before
the late civil war a lawyer of Leavenworth, Kan. In 1861
he became colonel of the First Kansas Cavalry, and after-
wards a brigadier-general, serving with ability, chiefly in
Arkansas. He was governor of Arkansas 1866–71, and in
the latter year was chosen U. S. Senator for six years.
. Clayton (THOMAS), an American jurist, born in Dela-
ware in 1778, was a Whig member of Congress from his na-
tive State (1813–17), and U. S. Senator (1823–26), and
again (1837–47). He was for a time chief justice of the
CLAYTONIA—CLEARING-HOUSE.
973
court of common pleas and of the supreme court of Dela-
ware. Died Aug. 21, 1854.
Clayto/nia [named in honor of John Clayton, noticed
above], or Spring Beauty, a well-known genus of Amer-
ican and Asiatic flowers of the order Portulacaceae. These
beautiful flowers open in early spring, and are common in
most of the U. S., one species being found in Alaska. The
tubers of the Claytonia tuberosa are eaten in Siberia. Some
of the species are naturalized in Europe.
Clay'tonville, a township and post-village of Brown
co., Kan. The village is 18 miles N. W. of Atchison. Total
pop. 2048.
Clay'ville, a post-village of Paris township, Oneida co.,
N. Y., has important and thriving manufactures. P. 944.
Clazom/enae [KAagopaevail, an ancient Greek city of
Ionia, was situated on a bay of the AEgean Sea, near Smyr-
ma. It was the birthplace of the great philosopher Anaxa-
goras, who was born about 500 B. C. Its site is near the
modern Voorla, on the S. side of the Gulf of Smyrna.
Clean/thes [Gr. KAeávøms], a Greek Stoic philosopher,
born at Assos, in Asia Minor, about 300 B. C. He studied
under Zeno at Athens, where at the same time he support-
ed himself by manual labor. When Zeno died, about 260
B. C., Cleanthes succeeded him as the head of the Stoic
school. He was solid and practical rather than speculative.
His numerous works are lost except a hymn to Jupiter, which
is commended as noble and elevated in sentiment. (See
W. T. KRUG, “Dissertatio de Cleanthe,” 1819.)
Clear/ance, in mercantile language, is a certificate
from the custom-house, the emigration officers, or both,
signed before the departure of a ship, denoting that all the
formalities have been observed and all dues paid. If a
foreign vessel she must also be certified by the consul of
the nation to which she belongs. The term “cleared ” is
usually applied to vessels which depart from a port with
such a clearance. -
Clear/chus [Gr. KAéapxós], a Spartan general who en-
tered the service of Cyrus the Younger of Persia. He
commanded a body of Greeks who fought for Cyrus against
Artaxerxes, king of Persia, at Cunaxa, 401 B. C. After
the defeat of Cyrus, Clearchus was captured by treachery,
and was put to death by Artaxerxes in 400 B.C.
Clear Creek, a county in N. Central Colorado. It is
drained by Clear Creek, an affluent of the South Platte
River, and borders on the Middle Park. The surface is
mountainous. Gray’s Peak, near the border of this county,
is over 14,000 feet high. Gold and silver are found here,
the latter in great quantities. It is one of the chief silver-
regions in Colorado. The soil of the valleys is very fertile.
Capital, Georgetown. Pop. 1596.
Clear Creek, a township of Drew co., Ark. P. 776.
Clear Creek, a township of Hot Springs co., Ark.
Pop. 231. -
Clear Creek, a township of Sevier co., Ark. P. 238.
Clear Creek, a township of Washington co., Ark.
Pop. 1199. -
Clear Creek, a township and village of Alexander
co., Ill. The village is on the E. bank of the Mississippi
River, and 20 miles N. W. of Caledonia. Pop. of town-
ship, 1068.
Clear Creek, a township of Huntington co., Ind.
Pop. 1273. w
Clear Creek, a post-township of Monroe Co., Ind.
Pop. 1325. a
Clear Creek, a township of Jasper co., Ia. P. 1125.
P. 728.
Pop.
Clear Creek, a township of Johnson co., Ia.
Clear Creek, a township of Keokuk co., Ia.
1118.
Clear Creek, a post-township of Nemaha co., Kan.
Pop. 367.
Clear Creek, a township of Cooper co., Mo. Pop.
1198.
Clear Creek, a township of Vernon co., Mo. P. 445.
Clear Creek, a post-township of Mecklenburg co.,
N. C. Pop. 615.
Clear Creek, a township of Ashland co., O. P. 1198.
Clear Creek, a post-township of Fairfield co., O. Pop.
1743. {
Clear Creek, a township of Warren co., O. P. 2605.
Clear/field, a county of W. Central Pennsylvania.
Area, 1150 square miles. It is drained by the West Branch
of the Susquehanna and by Clearfield Creek. Much of the
surface is hilly, with fertile valleys. Cattle, grain, wool,
and lumber are among the chief products. The manufac-
turing interests are varied. Semi-bituminous coal is found.
The Clearfield branch of the Pennsylvania, R. R. traverses
the county. Capital, Clearfield. Pop. 25,741.
Clearfield, a post-village, capital of Clearfield co., Pa.,
on the West Branch of the Susquehanna River, which is
crossed by two bridges, and on the Tyrone and Clearfield
branch of the Pennsylvania R. R. It has two national
and one other bank, two newspapers, a public park, an
academy, a machine-shop, foundry, lumber manufactories,
and brick-works. Pop. 1361. -
G. B. GooDLANDER, PROP. CLEARFIELD “REPUBLICAN.”
Clearfield, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 847.
Clearfield, a township of Cambria co., Pa. Pop. 1531.
Clearfield, a township of Juneau co., Wis. Pop. 203.
Clear Fork, a township of Tazewell co., Va. Pop.
3415.
Clear Fork, a township of Raleigh co., West Va. Pop.
552.
Clear Fork, a township of Wyoming co., West Va.
Pop. 529. -
Clear’ing, a term used by bankers, denoting the ex-
changing of checks, drafts, and notes drawn upon each
other, and the settlement of the balances resulting from
the same.
Clearing=House, the place where the exchanges or
clearings are made. -
The New York Clearing-House.—The clearing-house sys-
tem was first established in London about the beginning
of the present century. It was introduced into this country
by the banks of the city of New York, which established
the New York Clearing-House by organizing an association
and commencing operations on the 11th of Oct., 1853. At
that time it consisted of fifty-two banks, five of which were .
soon closed by their inability to meet its requirements.
They have since been established in the cities of Boston,
Philadelphia, Chicago, and St. Louis. The cities of Hart-
ford, Providence, Baltimore, and Cincinnati also employ a
similar system, using a prominent bank as a clearing-house,
settling the balances by checks upon it.
There are now (Oct. 15, 1873) in the city of New York
seventy-five banks, with an aggregate capital of $87,501,300,
many of them situated at remote distances from others.
Each in its daily dealings receives large amounts of bills
of, and checks on, other banks, so that at the close of the
day’s business every bank has in its drawers various sums
thus due to it by other banks. It is in like manner itself
the debtor of other banks, which have during the day re-
ceived its bills and checks drawn upon it. Before the
establishment of the clearing-house it was necessary for
each bank every morning to make up its account with every
other bank, and to send its porter to present the bills and
checks so received to the debtor banks for payment. The
balances of their indebtedness were adjusted by payments
in gold, which became so laborious, dangerous, and com-
plicated that the balances were settled only weekly, on
I'riday, instead of daily—a course that induced much evil.
This was obviated by the clearing-house system, through
which the settlements are so simultaneously and almost in-
stantly effected that the transactions adjusted through it
have amounted in one day to the enormous sum of
$206,034,920.51, in adjusting which the exchanges were
settled in the space of an hour. The establishment of the
clearing-house system closed 2500 bank ledger accounts,
with numerous daily entries in each; enabled the banks to
settle every day with each other without delay or loss; and
with comparatively little trouble brought each officer into
intimate and friendly relations with the others, thus en-
abling them by united action to aid and strengthen each
other in times of excitement and financial danger, and to
exert by their combined power a salutary influence upon
the banking business of the country at large.
It is doubtful if without the aid of the banks of the city
of New York the U. S., upon the breaking out of the civil
war in 1861, could have raised the loans necessary to
carry on the war in time to have prevented the success of
the enemies of the Union. It is certain that without the
Clearing-House Association, the banks could not have fur-
nished the funds which at Once established the credit of the
government, and enabled it, by the restoration of confidence,
to negotiate its bonds to the enormous amount of over
$2,000,000,000. During those exciting times the machinery
of the Clearing-House worked with regularity and exact-
ness; the banks, united as one, daily equalized their re-
sources, and presented to the world a most important as
well as practical proof that in “union is strength.”
The panic of 1873 was only checked by similar action,
the experience of the war enabling the banks to act with
such promptness in combining their entire resources by the
use of loan certificates to the extent of over $25,000,000,
974 CLEARING-NUT-CLEAR LAKE.
as to sustain themselves against a panic, the serious results
of which was greatly modified by their action.
The transactions of the Clearing-House to the 1st of Oct.,
1873, a period of twenty years, shows the total transactions
to amount to the sum of $387,587,804,028.49, an average
of $63,000,000 per day for the entire period. The largest
average daily transactions for any one year was for the
year ending Oct. 1, 1869, amounting to $125,088,789.91.
Of this vast business so exact and complete is the system
that no difference of any kind exists in any of its books or
accounts; neither has a loss occurred from its organization
to the present time. -
During the war the government issued “certificates of
indebtedness” bearing interest, which were found to be
desirable as a reserve for the banks. Accordingly, an ar-
rangement was made for the issue of special certificates
bearing interest, and available only to banks, members of
the Clearing-House Association, and which were recog-
nized in the national banking act of 1864 as part of the
lawful reserve for a national bank. The principal of these
certificates was made payable on demand, in legal-tender
notes, at the office of the assistant treasurer of the U. S. in
New York, and the interest to the manager of the Clearing-
House and chairman of the Clearing-House committee
jointly. This interest was payable semi-annually. The
certificates were made available by a vote of the associa-
tion for the settlement of balances at the Clearing-House,
and were so used, thus changing daily the amounts held
by each bank, and frequently (by the presentation of them
by individual banks to the U. S. treasury for payment)
changing the aggregate amount issued. The interest was
collected and disbursed to the several banks by the Clear-
ing-House regularly every six months, and each bank re-
ceived the exact amount of interest due it, notwithstanding
the amounts held by it for the whole period had changed
daily.
The apparent intricacy of the calculations necessary to
arrive at such results troubled some of the banks in other
cities, who were desirous of availing themselves of the
privileges offered by the use of these certificates; and in
one or two instances committees were sent to New York to
ascertain the process of computation in use, the simplicity
of which, when explained, not only astonished them, but
confirmed them in the opinion of the usefulness of an in-
stitution capable of adjusting with so much ease calcula-
tions which, at first sight, appeared so difficult. The
largest amount of Clearing-House certificates in use in the
city of New York at any one time was $36,000,000.
The Clearing-House is located at No. 48 Wall street.
The clearing-room is provided with a continuous line of
desks, sixty in number, in the form of an oval, one for
each bank, each desk bearing the name and number of the
bank by which it is occupied; the banks being numbered
according to the date of their organization, the oldest (the
Bank of New York) being No. 1, etc. etc. Each bank is
represented every morning by two clerks—one a messen-
ger, who brings with him the checks, drafts, etc. that his
bank has received the day previous upon the other banks,
which are called the “exchanges,” and are assorted for
each bank and placed in envelopes. On the outside of
each envelope is a slip on which is listed the amounts of
the various items which it contains. These envelopes are
arranged in the same order as the desks for the several
banks. The messengers, sixty in number, take their
places in a line outside of the line of desks, each opposite
the desk assigned to his bank, while on the other or in-
side of the desk is a clerk with a sheet containing the
names of all the banks arranged-in the same order, with
the aggregate amounts his messenger has against each
bank. e
The hour for making the exchanges or general delivery
is 10 o’clock A. M. Just previous to that time the manager
takes his position at an elevated desk and calls the house
to order. At a signal from a bell struck precisely at ten
o'clock, each messenger moves forward to the desk next his
own, and delivers the envelopes containing the checks, etc.
for the bank represented by that desk to the clerk on the
inside, together with a printed list of the banks in the
same order, with the amount opposite each bank. The
clerk receiving it signs and returns it to the messenger,
who immediately passes to the next desk, delivering the
exchange for the bank represented by that desk, and so on
until he has made the circuit of the room and reached his
own desk, the starting-point, having delivered to each
bank the exchanges he had for it, and consequently deliv-
ering his entire exchanges for all the banks. Every other
messenger does the like, the whole moving on at the same
time. In other words, each messenger has visited every
bank and delivered to each, everything his bank has re-
ceived the day previous from it, taking a receipt for the
same, consequently the entire exchanges are delivered;
while each clerk upon the inside has of course received
from every other bank the amounts each had against his
bank. This operation occupies exactly ten minutes, and
accomplishes what could not otherwise be done in less than
six or eight hours. i
Besides the saving of time gained by this method, each
bank is enabled to know the exact balance for or against it
at once, as the clerks, after receiving the envelopes contain-
ing the checks, etc., immediately enter from the slips, upon
their own sheets, the aggregate amount from each bank;
the difference between the total amount they have received
and the total amount brought by them being the balance
either due to or from the Clearing-House to each bank.
The messengers then receive from their several clerks the
various envelopes containing the exchanges, and return to
their banks, reporting their condition, debtor or creditor as
the case may be. The clerks then report to the assistant
manager the amount they have received, they having re-
ported the amount each brought upon first entering the
room. These amounts are entered in separate columns on
what is termed a “proof sheet,” and if no errors have been
made the manager, finding that both columns agree, an-
nounces that the “proof is made,” and the clerks return to
their respective banks. If, however, any error has been
made by any of the sixty clerks, it is indicated on the proof
sheet, and the clerks are then required to revise and examine
their work; and not until every error has been discovered
and corrected are the clerks allowed to leave.
The clerks are allowed thirty-five minutes after the de-
livery of the exchanges to enter, report, and prove their
work. If any errors are discovered after that time, fines
are imposed for each error, which are collected monthly by
drafts on the banks fined.
Various and ingenious methods are resorted to for dis-
covering errors, and the manager, from long experience,
generally is enabled to anticipate the nature of the error,
whether in entry, footing, or transposition, and thereby
facilitate its discovery by applying at once the best method
of examination. When it is remembered that there are
sixty sheets, each containing 120 entries, in all 7200 entries,
the difficulty in discovering where the error is in the short-
est possible time is apparent.
The entire business of the morning is usually accom-
plished in one hour. The debit banks are required to pay
to the manager in legal-tender notes or coin, previous to
half-past one o’clock the same day, and the credit banks
receive immediately after that hour, the amounts due by or
to them respectively, thus by one process settling exactly
the entire transactions of all the banks of the day previous.
A record is kept of the daily transactions of each bank,
and a statement of the loans, specie, legal tenders, deposits,
and circulation made weekly to the manager of the Clear-
ing-House, so that the movement of each bank can be de-
termined and its condition pretty accurately estimated.
WILLIAM A. CAMP, Manager of N. Y. Clearing-House.
Clear'ing-nut, the seed of Strychnos potatorum, a
small tree of the same genus with that producing the nux-
vomica, abundant in India, and much used for clearing
water. These seeds being rubbed on the inside of a ves-
sel, any muddy water put into it very quickly becomes
clear, all impurities settling to the bottom. The tree has
ovate, pointed leaves, and a shining, black, edible, pulpy
fruit, with one seed. The wood is very hard.
. Clear Lake, in Lake co., Cal., is 112 miles N. of San
Francisco, and is nearly 24 miles long. The width varies
from 2 to 6 miles. It is surrounded by a picturesque re-
gion, which is frequented by tourists and hunters. Deer,
bears, panthers, and foxes abound here. Fish of various
kinds are found in this lake.
Clear Lake, a township of Mississippi co., Ark. Pop.
26.
Clear Lake, a township of Pulaski co., Ark. Pop. 378.
Clear Lake, a township of Sangamon co., Ill. Pop.
1566. * - -
Clear Lake, a township of Steuben co., Ind. Pop.
55. -
Clear Lake, a post-village of Cerro Gordo co., Ia., on
the E. shore of Clear Lake and on a branch of the Milwau-
kie and St. Paul R. R., 10 miles W. of Mason. It is a
summer resort, and has one weekly newspaper. The lake
is about 6 miles long, and has two steamboats. Pop. 775.
ED. CLEAR LAKE “OBSERVER.”
Clear Lake, a township of Cerro Gordo co., Ia. Pop.
5
Clear Lake, a township of Hamilton co., Ia. Pop.
131.
Clear Lake, a post-township and village of Sherburne
co., Minn., on a branch of the St. Paul and Pacific R. R.,
60 miles N. W. of St. Paul. Pop. 137.
CLEAR LAKE-CLEMENT.
975
Clear Lake, a township of Sibley co., Minn. Pop.
156.
Clear Spring, a township of Lagrange co., Ind. Pop.
223. *
Clear Spring, a post-township of Washington Co., Md.
Pop. 2763. y
Clear'story, or Clerestory, in churches, the upper-
most arcade, with side openings, interposed between the
roof of the centre aisle and the roof of the side aisles. The
lateral arcades constitute the triforium, or blindstory.
Clear Water, a post-township of Wright co., Minn.
Pop. 552.
Cleaveland (PARKER), LL.D., an American mineral-
ogist and chemist, born in Rowley, Mass., Jan. 15, 1780.
In 1805 he was chosen professor in Bowdoin College, and
in all the fifty-three years of his connection with the in-
stitution missed on his own account only three recitations.
His admirable work on “Mineralogy and Geology,” which
earned for him the title of “father of American mineral-
ogy,” was published in two volumes in 1816, and passed to
a second edition in 1822. Died in Brunswick, Me., Oct. 15,
1858.
Cleaveland. See CLEVELAND.
Cleav/ers, or Cli’vers (Galium. Aparine), a popular
name of a plant of the order Rubiaceae, an annual, with
whorls of eight leaves, stem and leaves rough with bristles,
the fruit hispid, and ready to adhere to one's clothing; a
common weed in the U. S. and in most parts of Europe,
which has, from time to time, been brought into notice as
possessing power over formidable diseases, including lichen,
leprosy, and cancer. The plant is certainly a powerful
diuretic. -
Cle/burne, a county of Alabama, bordering on Geor-
gia. Area, 500 square miles. It is intersected by the Talla-
poosa River. The soil is generally fertile, and produces
corn, wool, tobacco, and some wheat and cotton. Capital,
Edwardsville. Pop. 8017.
Cleburne, a post-village, capital of Johnson co., Tex.
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 686.
Cieburne (PATRICK R.), a general, born in Ireland
Mar. 17, 1828, removed to Arkansas, where he was a law-
yer before the civil war. He commanded a division of the
Confederate army at the battle of Stone River, which ended
Jan. 2, 1863, and at Chickamauga in September of that
year. He was killed at the battle of Franklin, Tenn., Nov.
30, 1864. He was a daring and popular officer.
Clef [a word originally French, from the Lat. clavis, a
“key *], a character placed on the musical staff, by which
the names of the notes are fixed. There are three clefs—
viz. the G, the C (rarely used), and the F clef. The G
*s-
clef is on the second line, thus: ; the C
clef on the third line, thus: ; and the F
clef on the fourth line, thus: ÇH. The C
clef is sometimes placed on the fourth line for instruments
and for the tenor part in vocal music.
Clem’atis [Gr. kAmparis, from KAjua, a “shoot of the
vine,” so called from its resemblance to a vine], a genus of
herbs and shrubs of the order Ranunculaceae, having four
colored sepals, no corolla, and for fruit numerous one-seeded
achemia with long, persistent feathery styles. They have
the popular name of “virgin’s bower.” The species are
numerous, generally with climbing stems, natives of very
different climates. The long styles give the plants a beau-
tiful appearance even in winter. The flowers of many spe-
cies are also beautiful. Clematis Vitalba, “traveller's joy,”
is the only native of Great Britain. The twigs are capa-
ble of being made into baskets. It rapidly covers walls
or unsightly objects. The acrid and vesicant leaves are
used as a rubefacient in rheumatism, and those of other
species are employed in the same way. In the U. S. there
are many native species. A number of species are com-
monly cultivated in our gardens.
Clem’ems (Hon. JEREMIAH), an American politician,
born at Huntsville, Ala., Dec. 28, 1814, became a lawyer in
1834, distinguished himself in State politics, and in the
affairs of Texas in 1842. He served with distinction in
the Mexican war, and was rapidly promoted in the army,
and became colonel in 1848. He was U. S. Senator from
Alabama (1849–53). He held office under the Confederacy,
though not a warm friend of that cause. He advocated
the re-election of Lincoln in 1864. Died at his native town
in 1865. Col. Clemens was an eminent lawyer and the
author of several works of fiction.
Clemens (SAMUEL LANGHORNE), better known as MARK
TwAIN, an American humorist, born in Monroe co., Mo.,
Nov. 30, 1835. He became a journalist at Virginia, Nev.,
in 1862, and subsequently followed the same profession at
San Francisco and at Buffalo, N. Y. He has published
“The Jumping Frog” (1867), “The Innocents Abroad”
(1869), “Roughing It” (1872), etc. *
Clemens Romanus. See CLEMENT I.
Clemſ ent [Lat. Titus Flavius Clemens or Clemens Alex-
andrinus] of Alexandria, an eminent Father of the
Christian Church, is supposed to have been a native of
Athens, and originally a pagan. He passed the greater
part of his life at Alexandria, where he became a disciple
of Pantaenus, a Christian philosopher. He was ordained
a presbyter, and in 202 A.D. retired to Palestine to escape
persecution. About 206 he returned to Alexandria, and
was a teacher of catechumens. He succeeded Pantaenus at
the death of the latter, and acquired a high reputation for
wisdom and virtue. Origen was one of his pupils. Clem-
ent was more addicted to speculative philosophy than most
of the Fathers of the Church. Among his extant works
(written in Greek) are “Padagogus ” and “Stromata ?”
(Gr. Srptopateis), which is a medley of religious thoughts,
anecdotes, and maxims of philosophy. Died about 220
A. D. (See KAYE, “Account of the Writings, etc. of
Clement of Alexandria,” 1835; REINKENs, “De Clemente
Presbytero Alexandrino,” 1851.)
Clem/ent I. (or CIe/mens Roma’nus), the earliest
of the Apostolic Fathers, a bishop, accounted by Roman
Catholic writers as fourth in the order of succession at
Rome. Origen (254) identifies him with the Clement of
Phil. iv. 3, $ut this may be only a conjecture. Irenaeus
(202) makes him the third after the apostles Peter and Paul,
Linus being the first and Cletus (or Anacletus) the second.
Eusebius says he died in the third year of Trajan, “ having
for nine years superintended the preaching of the Divine
word.” Accordingly, he presided over the Church from 91
or 92 to 100 or 101 A. D. His Epistle to the Corinthians,
written about 96 or 97 A. D., consists of fifty-nine short
chapters, and in bulk is about one-third larger than Saint
Paul’s First Epistle to the Corinthians. It used to be read
in many ancient churches, but was not included in any of
the ancient lists of authoritative books. Other writings
ascribed to Clement are not his. (See CLEMENTINEs.)—
CLEMENT II., a native of Saxony, was elected pope in 1046.
He crowned the emperor Henry III., and died in 1047. He
was the first of the six German popes.—CLEMENT III., a
native of Rome, was elected pope in 1187. He promoted
the third crusade against the Saracens. Died in 1191.
There was also an anti-pope of this title, who died in 1100.
—CLEMENT IV. (GUY FoulquEs) was born in France. He
succeeded Pope Urban IV. in 1265, and died in 1268.-
CLEMENT W., Pop E, was a Frenchman named BERTRAND
DE GóT. He was chosen pope in 1305, as successor to
Benedict XI. To gratify Philippe le Bel, king of France,
he resided at Avignon, which became the capital of the
popedom. This innovation gave much offence, and caused
a long schism in the Church. He suppressed, in 1311, the
order of Templars. He died in 1314, and was succeeded
by John XXII.-CLEMENT VI. (PIERRE ROGER), born at
Limousin, in France, succeeded Benedict XII. as pope in
1342. He reigned at Avignon, the sovereignty of which
he purchased from Joanna of Naples. He died in 1352,
and was succeeded by Innocent VI.-CLEMENT WII. (ROB-
ERT Count of GENEVA), ANTIPOPE, was bishop of Cambray
when in 1378 he was elected antipope in the time of Ur-
ban VI. With him began the great Western schism. Died
in 1394.—CLEMENT WII. (GIUL10 DE’ MEDICI), a cousin of
Leo X., succeeded Adrian VI. as pope in Nov., 1523. He
joined Francis I. of France and the Venetians in a league
against Charles V., whose army, commanded by Constable
Hourbon, took Rome by assault in 1527. The pope then
became a prisoner for several months. He refused to grat-
ify Henry VIII. of England by granting him a divorce
from Queen Catharine, and issued a famous bull against
him in 1534. He died in the same year, and was succeeded
by Paul III.-CLEMENT VIII. (IPPOLITO ALDOBRANDINI),
Pope, a native of Fano, in Italy, was chosen in place of
Innocent IX. in 1592. He annexed the duchy of Ferrara
to the Papal States. He died in 1605, and was succeeded
by Leo XI.—CLEMENT VIII. (EGIDIo MUNoz), ANTIPOPE,
was canon at Barcelona, and was in 1424, after the death
of Benedict XIII., elected pope by three cardinals. His
resigmation in 1429 ended the great schism of the West.—
CLEMENT IX. was born at Pistoja, in 1600, and was chosen
pope in June, 1667, as the successor of Alexander VII.
He died in Dec., 1669, and was succeeded by Clement X-

976
CLEMENTI—CLERGY.
CLEMENT X. (EMILIo ALTIERI) was a native of Italy. He
was nearly eighty years old when he became pope in 1670.
He died in 1676, and was succeeded by Innocent XI.--
CLEMENT XI. (GIov ANNI FRANCESCO ALBANI) was born at
Pesaro, in Italy, in 1649. He succeeded Innocent XII. in
1700. In 1713 he issued the famous bull Unigenitus, which
condemned 101 propositions of Quesnel’s work on Grace
and Predestination. This bull was approved by the Jesuits
and opposed by the Jansenists. Clement aided the Pre-
tender in his effort to seize the British crown in 1715. Died
in 1721. Innocent XIII. was his successor. (See LAFITAU,
“Wie de Clément XI.,” 1752.)—CLEMENT XII. (LORENzo
CoRSIN1) was born at Florence in 1652. He became pope
in 1730, as the successor of Benedict XIII. He died in
1740, and was succeeded by Benedict XIV.-CLEMENT XIII.
(CARLo REzzoNico) was born in Venice in 1693, and suc-
ceeded Benedict XIV. as pope in 1758. He offended the
French and Spanish monarchs by impolitic attempts to
assert his prerogative. He issued a bull in favor of the
Jesuits, who had been expelled in 1767 from France and
Spain. He died in 1769, and was succeeded by Clement
XIV.-CLEMENT XIV. (GIov ANNI VINCENzo ANTONIO GAN-
GANELLI), an eminent and learned pope, was born near
Rimini in 1705. He succeeded Clement XIII. in 1769. He
took measures to conciliate several Catholic powers which
Clement XIII. had offended. He was more liberal than
many of the popes, and had a good reputation for ability
and virtue. Among the important events of his pontificate
was the suppression of the order of the Jesuits, which he
formally decreed in July, 1773. He founded the Clementine
Museum in Rome. Died in Sept., 1774. (See CARACCIOLI,
“Vie de Clément XIV.,” 1775; THEINER, “Geschichte des
Pontificats Clements XIV.,” 3 vols., 1853.)
Clemen'ti (MUZIo), an excellent Italian pianist and
composer, born at Rome in 1752. He was patronized by
Mr. Beckford, who took him to England about 1765. At
the age of eighteen he composed his “Opera 2,” which is
regarded as the basis on which the whole fabric of modern
sonatas for the piano has been founded. He composed
numerous sonatas, and wrote “Gradus ad Parnassum.”
Died Mar. 10, 1832.
Clem/entines, or Pseu’do - Clem’entines, a
name given to two writings, the “Homilies” and the “Re-
cognitions,” falsely ascribed to Clement of Rome. They
originated in Rome about the middle of the second century.
They were edited by Schwegler (1847) and others.
The name Clementines is also applied to that part of the
canon law which was collected and published by Pope Clem-
ent .V. (1305–14).
Clem/monsville, a township of Davidson co., N. C.
Pop. 978. -
CIenden/min, a township of Mason co., West Va. Pop.
1657.
Cleobu'lus [Gr. KAeógovXos], one of the Seven Wise
Men of Greece, was king of Lindus, in Rhodes, in the
sixth century B. C. His favorite maxim was "Apwarov werpov,
which inculcates the advantages of moderation.
Cleom'brotus [Gr. KAeóugporos], a Spartan general,
was a brother of Leonidas, who fell at Thermopylae. He
commanded the army in 480 B.C., after the death of Le-
onidas. He was the father of Pausanias, who defeated the
Persians at Plataea.
CIeombrotus I., king of Sparta, a grandson of the
preceding, began to reign in 380 B.C. . He commanded
the Spartans at Leuctra, where he was defeated by Epami-
mond as and killed in 371 B. C. He left two sons, Agesip-
olis II. and Cleomenes II.
Cleome/des [Gr. KAeop.jöms], an ancient Greek astron-
omer whose native place and period are unknown. He
wrote a remarkable treatise on astronomy entitled “The
Circular Theory of the Heavenly Bodies,” which is extant
and has been printed. This contains several scientific
truths, as the spherical figure of the earth and the revolu-
tion of the moon about the earth. The refraction of light
was noticed by him.
Cleom/enes, an Athenian sculptor of whom little is
known. He is mentioned by Pliny as the author of a group
of Muses possessed by Pollio in Rome. His name also ap-
pears on the famous statue of Venus de’ Medici.
Cleomenes, or Kleomenes [Gr. KAeopévms], I.,
king of Sparta, succeeded his father, Anaxandrides, about
518 B. C. He liberated Athens from the domination of
the Pisistratidae in 510, but he afterwards attempted to
restore Hippias. He procured the dethronement of De-
maratus, who had reigned jointly with himself. He died in
489 B. C., and was succeeded by his half-brother, the
heroic Leonidas. -
Cleomenes III., king of Sparta, of the Agidae line,
was a son of Leonidas II. He began to reign in 236 B.C.,
and resolved to restore the ancient Spartan virtue and dis-
cipline. He declared war against the Achaean League, and
defeated Aratus at Megalopolis in 226 B. C. He put to
death all the ephori except Agesilaus (who escaped), made
a new division of land, and restored the old social system.
Antigonus, king of Macedon, who was an ally of the Achae-
ams, defeated Cleomenes at Sellasia in 222 B. C. Cleomenes
fled to Egypt, and killed himself in 220 B.C. (See PLU-
TARCH, “Cleomenes” and “Aratus.”)
Cle’on, or Kleon [Gr. KAéov], an Athenian demagogue
distinguished for his insolence and venality, was a tanner
in his youth. He is first mentioned in history about 428
B. C. He was a leader of the democracy or lower classes.
In 425 B. C., Cleon and Demosthenes conducted a success-
ful expedition against Sphacteria. He was elated with this
victory, which increased his credit so much that he obtained
the command of an army which was sent against the Spar-
tam general Brasidas in 422 B. C. Cleon and Brasidas were
both killed in the battle of Amphipolis, where the Athenians
were defeated.
Cle’on, a township of Manistee co., Mich. Pop. 85.
Cleo'na, a township of Scott co., Ia. Pop. 847.
Cleopa/tra [Gr. KAeptárpal, a daughter of Philip of
Macedon, was a sister of Alexander the Great. She was
married in 336 B. C., to Alexander, king of Epirus, who
was her mother’s brother. After the death of her brother
she was assassinated by the order of Antigonus.
Cleopatra [Gr. KAeotrárpal, a celebrated and fascinat-
ing queen of Egypt, born in 69 B. C., was a daughter of
Ptolemy Auletes. She was distinguished for her personal
charms, was richly endowed with mental gifts, and was
mistress of the Greek and other languages. Her father,
dying in the year 51, left the throne to her in partnership
with her brother Ptolemy. The latter deprived her of .
royal power, but Julius Caesar interposed in 48 B.C., and
restored her to the throne after her brother Ptolemy
had been killed in battle. She captivated the affection of
Caesar, and accompanied him to Rome in the year 46.
After he had been killed in 44 B.C., she returned to Egypt.
Soon after the battle of Philippi (42 B.C.) she was sum-
moned by Antony to appear before him in Cilicia. He was
fascinated by her charms, and became so infatuated that
he neglected his interests and public affairs, and spent
much time with her in Alexandria. Her fleet fought against
Augustus at the naval battle of Actium, at which she was
present, 31 B. C. She was the first to order a retreat on
this occasion, and was eventually taken prisoner by Au-
gustus, who intended to exhibit her in a triumphal pro-
cession in Rome. To frustrate this design, she killed her-
self by the poison of an asp in 30 B. C.
CIep’sydra, or Clepsy/dra [Gr. KAérro, to “steal,”
and jôop, “water,” because the water seems to steal away
imperceptibly], an instrument for measuring time by the
gradual flow of water through a small orifice. Two kinds
have been used—one wherein the fluid is allowed to escape
through the orifice; the other, in which uniformity of flow
is secured by maintaining the fluid at a constant level.
The clepsydra is supposed to have been used among the
Chaldaeans. The Greeks and Romans employed it exten-
sively. In modern times the invention of pendulum clocks
has superseded it, though it is still used in China. It an-
ciently had in some instances a musical attachment by
which attention was called to the hour, as by the stroke of
a bell in our clocks.
Clerc (LAURENT), a celebrated deaf-mute, born at La
Palme, near Lyons, France, Dec. 26, 1785. When one
year of age he lost his hearing in consequence of a severe
burn. At the age of twelve he became a pupil of the abbé
Sicard at Paris, and in 1805 was a teacher of deaf-mutes
under that eminent instructor. He came to the U. S. in
1816 with Gallaudet, and was one of the founders of the
IHartford asylum for the deaf and dumb, which was
opened in 1817. He was a laborious and successful teacher
of deaf-mutes. Died at Hartford, Conn., July 18, 1869.
Cler/gy [from the Gr. KAºpos, originally meaning an
“inheritance;” Lat. clerus], a collective term applied to
the ministers of the Christian religion in contradistinction
to the laity. This use of the term is ancient, and gradually
became prevalent as the ministers of religion more and
more exclusively were regarded as God’s “heritage.” In
the Church of Rome the distinction between the clergy
and the laity became more marked through the multiplica-
tion of titles among the priesthood, the ascription to them
of peculiar privileges, their assumption of peculiar offi-
cial insignia, and the doctrine of celibacy. In harmony
with this distinction is that of an indelible character de-
'rived from ordination, so that a renunciation of the clerical
office is either viewed as an impossibility or apostasy. In
the Protestant churches the distinction between clergy and
f
CLERGYMAN–CLEVELAND.
977
laity is less wide. Among the rights asserted by the clergy
in the Middle Ages, and which caused much dispute, was
exemption from lay jurisdiction, even in cases of felony.
The clergy were distinguished into the higher clergy and
the lower clergy, the latter including janitors, acolytes, ex-
orcists, etc. The term secular clergy is the designation of
priests of the Church of Rome who are not of any relig-
ious order, but have the care of parishes. Monks who are
in holy orders are designated regular clergy, because they
obey a monastic rule (regula).
Cier/gyman, an ordained minister, authorized to preach
and to administer the ordinances according to the rules of
some denomination of Christians; in England the term is
popularly restricted to ministers of the Established Church.
(See CLERGY.)
Clerk [Lat. clericus; Fr. clerc]. This word formerly
signified a clergyman, an educated man, a scholar. In
modern usage it is applied to a scribe, secretary, writer, or
accountant; a person who is employed in writing in a
public office, bank, or counting-house.
Clerk (JoBN), a Scottish naval tactician, born at Eldin
about 1730. He is said to be the inventor of the manoeuvre
in naval tactics called “breaking the line.” This plan was
'first tried by Lord Rodney in April, 1782, when he gained
a victory over the French admiral de Grasse. Clerk pub-
lished in 1782 an “Essay on Naval Tactics.” Died May
10, 1812.
Clerk to the Signet. See WRITER TO THE SIGNET.
Clermont, a city of France, capital of the department
of Puy-de-Dôme, is finely situated on an eminence 208
miles S. by E. from Paris, with which it is connected by a
railway. It is near a range of extinct volcanoes, and is
surrounded by remarkable scenery. It has some manu-
factures, and a considerable trade with Paris in the prod-
ucts of the surrounding country. It has a Gothic cathe-
dral of the thirteenth century, a college, a public library
of 1600 volumes, a theatre, a normal school, and a botanic
garden. Clermont occupies the site of the ancient capital
of the Arverni, which was originally called Nemosus, and
afterwards Augustonemetum. It became a bishop’s see
about 250 A. D. The great council in which the Crusades
originated was held here by Pope Urban II. in 1095.
Clermont was the capital of Auvergne for several centuries.
Pop. 37,690.
Clermont, a town of France, department of Oise, on
the Railway du Nord, about 50 miles N. of Paris. It has
a college and a public library. Pop. 5743.
Cler/mont, a county in the S. W. of Ohio. Area, 462
square miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by the Ohio
River and on the W. by the Little Miami. The surface is
partly hilly; the soil is fertile. Grain, wool, tobacco, and
dairy products are extensively raised. The manufacturing
interests are various and quite extensive, including lumber,
furniture, cooperage, saddlery, flour, clothing, carriages, etc.
Blue limestone abounds here. Capital, Batavia. P. 34,268.
Clermont, a township and post-village of Fayette co.,
Ia. The village is on Turkey River, 100 miles N. of Iowa
City. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1263.
Clermont, a township and post-village of Columbia
co., N. Y., on the Hudson River R. R., 12 miles S. S. W. of
Hudson. Pop. 1021.
Clermont-I*Hérault, a town of France, department
of Hérault, 25 miles W. of Montpellier. It has a com-
munal college and an old ruined castle; also manufactures
of woollen cloth. Pop. 6050.
Clethra [Gr. KXij6pa, an “alder”], a genus of trees and
shrubs of the order Ericaceae. The Clethra alnifolia occurs
from Maine to Florida, and westward. Its racemes of
fragrant white flowers are mentioned in one of Whittier’s
poems. The Clethra acuminata is a small tree of Virginia.
and North Carolina.
Cleveland, a wild mountainous district, with some
picturesque and fertile valleys, forming the E. part of the
North Riding of Yorkshire, England. It includes Gis-
borough, Stokesley, and the Moors. It is 30 miles long
from E. to W. and 15 miles wide from N. to S. It gives
the title of duke to the Vane family.
Cleveland, a county of North Carolina, bordering on
South Carolina. Area, 500 square miles. It is drained by
the First Broad River. The surface is hilly; the soil pro-
ductive. Grain and wool are the chief products. Alum
and copperas are produced. It is intersected by the Wil-
mington Charlotte and Rutherford R. R. Capital, Shelby.
Pop. 12,696.
Cleveland, a post-village, capital of White co., Ga.,
about 85 miles N. N. E. of Atlanta. Pop. 145.
cleveland, a township of Elkhart co., Ind. Pop. 549.
Cleveland, a township of Whitley co., Ind. Pop. 2041.
Cleveland, a post-township of Le Sueur co., Minn.
Pop. 1052.
Cleveland, an incorporated post-village of Oswego co.,
N. Y., on the N. shore of Omeida Lake, and on the New
York and Oswego Midland, R. R., 41 miles S. E. of Oswego,
has 2 glass-factories, 1 large tannery, 3 saw-mills, 1 grist-
mill, 2 boatyards, and 2 printing-offices. Pop. 895.
CHARLEs R. KING, PUB. “LAKE SIDE PRESS.”
Cleveland, the second city of Ohio in extent and
population, is situated upon the S. shore of Lake Erie, at
the mouth of the Cuyahoga River, in lat. 41° 30' 5" N.,
and lon. 81°42' 6" W., and constitutes the seat of gov-
ernment for Cuyahoga co. Its railroad distance from Co-
lumbus, the capital of the State, is 138 miles. Its area
exceeds 25 square miles, more than 16,000 acres of terri-
tory being included within its limits. It was founded in
1796, a survey being completed in October of that year by
Gen. Moses Cleaveland, one of the directors of the Connecti-
cut Land Company, in whose honor the city was named. No
permanent settlement was accomplished earlier than 1800,
although several attempts were made to establish a colony
upon what was at that time considered the site of a future
city. Dec. 23, 1814, an act was passed by the legislature
incorporating the village of Cleveland, the limited govern-
ment being vested in a president, recorder, and three trus-
tees. In 1836 a city charter was obtained and the first
mayor elected. In 1855 a union was effected with Ohio
City, which had sustained a separate existence upon the W.
side of Cuyahoga River, at the expense of many jealousies
and disputes, requiring the intervention of the courts.
The history of Cleveland for each decade exhibits a re-
markable increase in population, as well as in material
wealth and prosperity. The number of inhabitants in
1810 was 57; in 1820, 350; in 1830, 1000; in 1840, 6071; in
1850, 17,034; in 1860, 43,417; in 1870, 93,018; and with the
acquisition of the populous territories of what were former-
ly known as East Cleveland and Newburg, and the rapid
increase since the last U. S. census, its population at the
present time may be safely estimated at 150,000. With
railroads converging from all directions except the north;
with the chain of great lakes opening communication with
the rich iron and copper mines of Lake Superior, and af-
fording cheap transportation for merchandise and products
of all descriptions; with the Ohio Canal traversing the
interior of the State, connecting Lake Erie with the Ohio
River at Portsmouth, opening a passage to all the principal
markets of the South, and, with its tributary, the Ohio and
Pennsylvania, Canal, penetrating the extensive coal-fields
of Ohio and Pennsylvania, the commercial facilities of
Cleveland are second to no city in the West. Its harbor is
considered the most commodious and safe of any upon Lake
Erie. It consists of two piers, each extending from the
mouth of Cuyahoga River 1200 feet into the lake, between
which is a channel 200 feet wide, and of sufficient depth
for the safe entry of the largest vessels.
The number and tonnage of vessels of all kinds owned
in Cleveland and enrolled during the year 1873 was—pro-
pellers 28, tonnage 83,223; steamers 2, tonnage 259;
tugs 26, tonnage 962; barques 3, tonnage 1269; steam-
barges 2, tonnage 144; schooners 66, tonnage 25,282;
scows 23, tonnage 2302; barges 1, tonnage 86; yachts 1,
tonnage 6; canal-boats 50. Plans are prepared and Sur-
veys have been made with the view of constructing a har-
bor of refuge at this point for the protection of shipping
upon the S. shore of the lake, the estimated cost of the
work being $2,000,000. The most vital elements in the
growth and prosperity of Cleveland are to be found in her
manufactories. The number of distinct manufacturing es-
tablishments is 325, the amount of capital invested being
about $20,000,000. Of this number, 82 are largely engaged
in the manufacture of iron, with $5,000,000 invested as
capital and 9000 men engaged as laborers; the gross
amount of wages paid in 1873 being $7,475,650; the
amount of iron produced in the same year by 12 of the
principal establishments being 238,500 tons.
year 1872 the petroleum refining interests were consoli-
dated. The present number of refineries is 6, with an ag-
gregate capital of $2,600,000. During the year 1873 more
than 2,000,000 barrels of crude oil were consumed, pro-
ducing 1,500,000 barrels of refined, valued at $12,000,000,
and giving employment to 2000 men. In the same year
50,000 sewing-machines were manufactured by one firm.
The assessed valuation of the city, Jan. 1, 1873, was
$65,000,000. The total bonded and floating debt at the
commencement of 1873 was $3,209,000, the property owned
by the city being valued at $6,015,400.75, including a sink-
ing fund of $1,551,106.41. The disbursements by the city
government during 1872 were $853,942.13. ..It has six
During the
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978
CLEVELAND.
The house of correction and workhouse was first occu-
pied in Mar., 1871, being built at a cost of $171,000. Its
inmates are furnished by the police court, court of common
pleas, and probate court. The total number of prisoners
received from its opening to Sept. 10, 1873, was 2472, the
average number in confinement being 260. The other
prisons of the city are the central police station, five pre-
cinct stations, and the county jail. •
The Cleveland Medical College was established in 1843.
Its faculty is composed of 15 professors; its alumni num-
ber 1211; average attendance of students is 125; cost of
tuition, $40; graduation, $30; its library contains 2000
volumes, and its museum several hundred anatomical and
pathological preparations, models, and drawings; the
Cleveland Eye, Ear, and Throat Institute is conducted
under its sanction. The Cleveland Homoeopathic College
was founded in 1850. Its faculty numbers 17 professors;
its alumni are 650; average attendance, 100; cost of tui-
tion, $75; library, 1000 volumes; its museum is stored with
extensive collections pertaining to the science. The med-
ical department of the University of Wooster was estab-
lished in Cleveland in 1866. Its faculty is composed of
14 professors; the average number of students in attend-
ance is 80; alumni, 600; cost of tuition, $65. Its library
is well selected, and it possesses a museum of great value.
The Ohio State and Union Law College was opened in
Cleveland in 1858. The public schools of the city are 32
in number, organized in accordance with the provisions of
the State law. The number of teachers is 234; amount
of salaries paid annually, $169,000; number of pupils,
I0,300. There are also 3 high schools, with 15 teachers
and 454 scholars. The Catholic parochial schools are 15
in number; 68 teachers, 6200 pupils; convent, 10 teachers.
Three industrial schools, with an average attendance of
200 pupils, are supported by appropriations from the city
treasury and donations from citizens for the benefit of des-
titute children. The Cleveland Public Library was opened
on Feb. 18, 1869, with 6300 volumes, the present number
being 17,000. It is supported by a tax of one-tenth of a
mill on the assessed valuation of the city. Its income is
about $6500; increase, nearly $500 annually. The Cleve-
land Library Association, chartered in 1848, and subse-
quently united with the Mercantile Library, enjoys an
endowment of $23,000, and its library contains 10,500
volumes. The Cleveland Law Library was established in
1870 by a joint-stock company; capital stock, $20,000,
every person purchasing two shares at $25 each being a
member. It contains 2000 volumes, with an annual in-
crease of 300. It is supported by dues from members and
an income of $500 per year derived from fines assessed by
the police court on State cases. In addition to these are
the libraries of the Western Reserve Historical Society,
Kirtland Society, and Bethel Free Reading-rooms. There
are 4 English and 2 German daily papers, I German, 3
English tri-weeklies, and 35 miscellaneous weekly and
monthly publications. - º
The churches of Cleveland are 102 in number: Evangel-
ical Protestant, 3; Disciples, 2; Hebrew, 2; Christian, 2.;
Free-Will Baptist, 1; Society of Friends, 1; Spiritualists,
1; Swedenborgian, 1 ; Unitarian, 1 ; United Brethren, 1 ;
Universalist, 1 ; Reformed, 5; Methodist Episcopal, 18;
Protestant Episcopal, 11; Roman Catholic, 15; Presbyte-
rian, 8; Baptist, 8; Congregational, 4; Evangelical Asso-
ciation, 4; United Evangelical, 3; Evangelical, 4; Evan-
gelical Lutheran, 2; miscellaneous, 4.
Charity (St. Vincent's) Hospital was opened in the year
1866, and was built by general subscription and donations.
It has capacity for 200 patients, the average number being
60 : the total number admitted to Sept. 1, 1873, 3500. It
is supported by donations and the revenue derived from
paying patients. The City Infirmary is maintained at an
annual cost of about $14,000. The total number of in-
mates received during the nine months ending Jan. 1, 1873,
was 439; maximum weekly number, 180; minimum, 126;
average, 150. In connection with the infirmary is a farm,
the total products of which in 1872 amounted to $11,900.82;
an out-door relief is organized for the purpose of rendering
assistance to the needy outside of the infirmary. The Cleve-
land City Hospital, to which the first patient was admitted
July 23, 1866, has no endowment, but enjoys an annual
income of $7000, derived from the rental of beds to rail-
road companies and individuals, and donations from the
charitable. The average number of inmates is 175, and
the total number of names upon the register Sept. 10, 1873,
was 577. The Foundling Hospital, established in Jan.,
1873, has an average of 20 inmates. It has no endow-
ment, and is supported by donations. The Lying-in Hos-
pital was also established in Jan., 1873, and is managed in
connection with Charity Hospital. The average number
of inmates is .14, and the total number admitted to Sept.
* e +5.187%-wis 34. The Homoeopathic Hospital was founded
in 1868 by the faculty of the Cleveland Homoeopathic Col-
lege; average number of patients is 20; total admitted,
550. The U. S. Marine Hospital was opened in 1852 for
the benefit of Sailors, and is supported by appropriations
from Congress and a tax of forty cents per annum on all
sailors in the Cleveland district. It has a capacity for 50
inmates, the average number being 20, and the total num-
ber admitted since April 1, 1865, 2331.
The benevolent institutions are four in number. The
Home for the Aged Poor was founded in 1870 by the “Lit-
tle Sisters of the Poor.” It has no endowment, but is sup-
ported by donations and solicited charity. The average
number of inmates is 90, their ages ranging from sixty
to ninety-five years, and the total number received since
the opening of the Home is 125. The Home for Working-
women was opened in Nov., 1869, and enlarged in 1872.
It has no endowment, but its buildings and lot, valued at
$40,000, were presented by a benevolent gentleman of the
city to the Woman’s Charitable Association, by which it is
conducted. Its income in 1873 was about $5000, derived
from boarders, and its average number of inmates during the
same year was 35. The Retreat, supported by the Woman's
Christian Association, was founded in July, 1869. It has
no endowment; its inmates average 9, and the total number
admitted to Sept. 15, 1873, was 175. Trinity Church Home
is supported by the congregation of Trinity Episcopal
Church. The Cleveland Protestant Orphan Asylum was or-
ganized Feb. 22, 1852, and chartered Feb. 22, 1853. It enjoys
an endowment of $50,000, its income being about $5000 per
annum. The total number of children to whom its benefits
have been extended is 1900, the average number in the
asylum 60. St. Mary’s Female Orphan Asylum was
founded in 1851, with a slight endowment. Its benefits
are extended to female orphans from five to eighteen years
of age. The average number of immates is 100, the total
number admitted being 400. St. Joseph’s Female Orphan
Asylum is tributary to St. Mary’s, and is devoted to the
care of the younger class of orphans. It was founded in
1859, is without endowment, and has an average of 70
inmates. St. Vincent's Male Orphan Asylum was founded
in 1852, without endowment, and is supported by fairs
held throughout the diocese and by contributions. Its
average number of immates is 150. The Jewish Orphan
Asylum was founded in 1868, without endowment. It is
supported by the order of I. O. B. B., districts Nos. 26 and
27, private subscriptions, and donations. Its average num-
ber of inmates is 170, and the total number to whom as-
sistance had been rendered to Sept. 1, 1873, is 295. The
Bethel Home for the Destitute has for its purpose the
providing of a home, food, and temporary shelter for the
needy who are sailors, residents of the city, or strangers.
It is provided with substantial buildings, and it is impos-
sible to measure its charity by numbers. The Children’s
Aid Society was established in 1857, and its primary object
is to co-operate with the city council in promoting the in-
terests of the Cleveland industrial schools. During the
sixteen years of its existence it has secured homes for 1100
children, and extended its provident care to more than
5000.
The city is well provided with public parks. The Public
Square, containing ten acres and centrally located, is beau-
tifully laid out with fountains, lawns, walks, rustic houses,
and numerous shade trees, and its centre is ornamented
with an elegant marble monument to Commodore Perry, in
commemoration of his victory on Lake Erie in 1813.
The railroads centering in the city are—the Atlantic and
Great Western, the Cleveland Columbus Cincinnati and
Indianapolis, the Cleveland and Mahoning Valley, the
Cleveland and Pittsburgh, the Lake Shore and Michigan
Southern, the Lake Shore and Tuscarawas Valley, the
Rocky River, the Valley, and the Cleveland and Newburg.
The city railroads are five in number; the Kinsman Street,
or Woodland Avenue, length 3% miles, track double, capital
$250,000, cost (including paving, buildings, etc.) $200,000,
income $90,000 per annum, passengers carried 2,000,000;
the East Cleveland and Garden Street Branch, length of
double track 4%, and single track 2% miles, authorized cap-
ital $300,000, paid in $180,000, cost about $150,000, annual
receipts $84,000, passengers carried 1,800,000; the St. Clair
Street, length of double track 3 miles, capital, $200,000,
$113,000 paid in, total cost (including paving, running
stock, etc.) about $100,000, annual receipts exceed $50,000,
passengers carried over 1,200,000; the Detroit Street, length
3 miles, single track, capital $80,000; the Brooklyn Exten-
sion, capital $35,000, length 3 miles, single track (the two
operated by lessees), $75,000 invested in running stock,
receipts about $70,000 per annum, passengers carried
1,300,000; the Collamer and St. Clair Street, 2% miles in
length.
The gas-works are two in number, owned by private
corporations, with a united capacity of 800,000 cubic feet
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CLEVELAND–CLIFTON FACTORY.
979
per day. The city is supplied with pure water from Lake
Erie by extensive waterworks, upon which had been ex-
pended to Jan. 1, 1873, $1,340,104.20, there being in use
at that time 68 miles 1292 feet of pipes. To avoid the
impurities imparted to the water by the drainage of the
city, a tunnel, extending 14 miles into the lake, has been
constructed, at a cost of $550,000, rendering the total
amount expended upon works, pipes, etc. at the comple-
tion of the tunnel about $1,900,000. There are in use 80
miles of gas-pipe, 43 miles of sewering, 14 miles of stone
and 12 miles of wooden paving.
F. H. BRADNER, COMMERCIAL ED. “CLEvKLAND LEADER.”
Cleveland, a township of Greenville co., S. C. Pop. 814.
Cleveland, a post-village, capital of Bradley co., Tenn.,
on the East Tennessee and Virginia R. R., 29 miles E. by
N. from Chattanooga. It has three newspapers. A branch
railroad 27 miles long connects it with Dalton, Ga. It has
a national bank and a female institute. Pop. 1658; of
township, 1734. ED. CLEVELAND “BANNER.”
Cleveland (CHARLEs DEXTER), L.L.D., an American
scholar and writer, born at Salem, Mass., Dec. 3, 1802,
graduated at Dartmouth in 1827. He was appointed pro-
fessor of Latin and Greek in Dickinson College, Pa., in
1830, and of Latin in the University of New York in 1832.
He opened in 1834 a seminary for young ladies in Phila-
delphia. He published, besides other works, a “Com-
pendium of English Literature from Sir John Mandeville
to William Cowper” (1850), a “Compendium of American
Literature” (1858), and a “Compendium of Classical Lit-
erature” (1861). Died Aug. 18, 1869.
Cleveland (CHAUNCEY F.), LL.D., an American lawyer,
born at Hampton, Conn., in 1799. He was admitted to
the bar in 1819, soon became distinguished in State pol-
itics, was governor of Connecticut in 1842 and 1843, and
member of Congress (1849–53).
Cleveland (John FITCH) was born at French Creek,
Chautauqua, co., N. Y., Feb. 4, 1819. He received a com-
mon-school education, and passed his early life in agricul-
tural pursuits. Since 1843 he has been connected with the
“New York Tribune,” on which at present he holds the im-
portant position of financial editor. He has also for many
years been compiler of the “Tribune Almanac.” From 1862
to 1870 he held the office of assessor of internal revenue.
Clevenger (SHOBAL VAIL), an American sculptor,
born at Middleton, O., in 1812. He worked for some time
in Boston, and afterwards visited Italy, where he passed
Several years. Among his works are statues of Daniel
Webster and Henry Clay and a bust of Edward Everett.
He died at Sea as he was returning from Italy in 1843.
Cleves, a town of Rhenish Prussia, 3 miles S. W. of
the Rhine and 50 miles N. W. of Düsseldorf, was formerly
the capital of the duchy of Cleves. It is built in the Dutch
style, and has a fine old castle, a Protestant gymnasium,
and a collegiate church of the fourteenth century; also
manufactures of cotton, silk, and woollen fabrics, hosiery,
etc. Pop. in 1871, 9038. \
Clew, or Clue [Anglo-Saxon, cleow], originally a ball
of thread; also the thread which guides a person in a
labyrinth, and hence that which serves as a guide in any-
thing of an uncertain or intricate nature; in nautical lan- |
guage, the lower corner of a square sail. To clew up is to
haul up the clew of a sail. Clew-lines are small ropes used
to draw the sail up to the yard. Clew-garnets are the same
as clew-lines, but the term is only applied in connection
with the courses or lower sails.
Clichy, a town of France, department of Seine, is 4%
miles N. W. of Paris, of which it is a suburb. It has man-
ufactures of chemical products and white lead. P. 13,666.
Clifden, Wiscounts (1781), Barons Clifden (Ireland,
1776), Barons Mendip (Great Britain, 1794), Barons Dover
(United Kingdom, 1831).-HENRY GEORGE AGAR ELLIS,
fourth viscount, born Sept. 2, 1863, succeeded his father
Reb. 20, 1866.
Cli’ent [Lat. cliens], in ancient history, a Roman citi-
zen whose relation to his patron was in many respects
similar to that of a serf to his feudal lord. It was the duty
of a patron to watch over the interests of his clients and
protect them, and to defend them in lawsuits. He also
frequently made them grants of land ol, lease. In return,
the client was bound to defend his patron, and contribute
towards any extraordinary expenses he might be subject to.
He might not appear as accuser or witness against him in
judicial proceedings—a prohibition which was reciprocal.
The body of clients was increased by the institution by
which foreigners, who, as allies of Rome, had a share in its
franchise, might choose themselves patrons on their coming
to settle in the city. The obligations of clients were hered-
itary, and could not be shaken off unless through the de-
cay of the family of the patron. The clients have by some
been regarded as plebeians who of their own will entered
into certain relations with the patrician families. The term
client has been appropriated in modern times to one whose
cause is prosecuted or defended, and his person or inter-
ests represented, either by an attorney or by an advocate.
The custom of practising gratuitously as advocates long
prevailed among the Roman patricians; and from it the
usage was derived, which still prevails in Great Britain,
of considering the fee of a counsel as a gratuity which
cannot be legally claimed. At present the etiquette of the
bar appears to be this: that a lawyer cannot refuse with-
out reasonable excuse to plead gratuitously the cause of a
client who sues regularly in formá pauperis, or to defend a
prisoner if called on to do so by the court.
Clifford, a post-township of Susquehanna co., Pa.
Pop. 1532.
Clifford (John HENRY), LL.D., an American lawyer,
born at Providence, R. T., Jan. 16, 1809, graduated at
Brown University in 1827, was governor of Massachusetts
(1853–54), and attorney-general of that State (1849–53 and
1854–58).
Clifford (NATHAN), an American jurist, born at Rum-
ney, N. H., Aug. 18, 1803, became a citizen of Maine in
1827, member of Congress (1839–43), U. S. attorney-general
(1846–47), was subsequently U. S. minister to Mexico. He
became a justice of the U. S. Supreme Court in 1858, and is
the author of two volumes of “ U. S. Circuit Court Reports”
1869).
( Clifford (THOMAs), LoRD, an English politician, born in
1630. He entered Parliament in 1660, and was appointed
a commissioner of the treasury in 1668. In 1671 he be-
came a member of the notorious cabinet called the CABAL
(which see). He obtained the title of baron in 1672. Died
in 1673.
Clifton, a beautiful town and fashionable watering-
place of England, in Gloucestershire, is a western suburb
of Bristol. It is built on the sides and top of a steep car-
boniferous limestone hill 308 feet high, which commands
picturesque views, and is separated from a similar cliff by
a deep chasm, crossed by a fine bridge, beneath which
flows the navigable Avon. Here are tepid springs which
contain carbonic acid and salts of magnesia, and have a
temperature of 73° F. Pop. 20,701.
Clifton, a post-village of Stamford township, Welland
co., Ontario (Canada), on the Niagara River at the suspen-
sion bridge, 1 mile below the Niagara Falls. It is the E.
terminus of the Great Western Railway, and is on the Erie
and Niagara Railway. It has a very large export trade to
the U. S. and a large museum. Pop. about 3500.
Clifton, a post-village and township of Wilcox co., Ala.
Pop. 1696. The village is about 80 miles S. W. of Mont-
gomery. -
Clifton, a post-village of Columbus City township,
Louisa co., Ia. Pop. 200. s
Clifton, a post-township of Washington co., Kan.
Pop. 713. -
Clifton, a township of Wilson co., Kan. Pop. 918.
Clifton, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. P. 348.
Clifton, a township of Keweenaw co., Mich. Pop. 615.
Clifton, a post-village of Passaic co., N. J., on the Erie
R. R., 3 miles S. E. by S. of Paterson. It contains many
fine residences, and is well known for its picturesque sce-
nery.
Clifton, a post-village of Chili township, Monroe co.,
N. Y., on Mill Creek, has a number of manufacturing estab-
lishments.
Clifton, a village of Southfield township, Richmond co.,
N. Y., is the seat of a “Seamen’s Retreat,” and a “Mari-
ners' Family Asylum.” It is in the S. E. part of Staten
Island.
Clifton (Clarksboro’ post-office), a township of St. Law-
rence co., N. Y., has extensive beds of magnetic iron ores,
furnaces for iron and steel, and a railroad track to De Kalb.
Pop. 221.
Clifton, a post-village of Miami township, Greene co.,
0. Pop. 253. -
Clifton, a township of Alleghany co., Va. Pop. 1018.
Clifton, a post-village of Mason co., West Va. It has
one weekly newspaper. Pop. 693.
Clifton, a township of Grant co., Wis. Pop. 1076.
Clifton, a post-township of Monroe co., Wis. P. 501.
Clifton, a township of Pierce co., Wis. Pop. 615.
Clifton Factory, a township and village of St. Mary's
co., Md. The village is 55 miles S. E. of Washington. Pop.
3001.
980
CLIFTONIA—CLIMATE.
Clifto'nia, a genus of evergreen trees and shrubs of
the order Cyrillaceae. The Cliftonia ligustrina, a small tree
or shrub, popularly called “titi,” or buckwheat tree, grows
in the Gulf States. Its fragrant white blossoms appear in
early spring. -
Clifton Park, a post-village and township of Saratoga
co., N.Y., 15 miles N. of Albany. The township contains
six churches, several villages, and has an academy at Jones-
ville. Pop. 2657.
Clifton Springs, a post-village of Manchester and
Phelps townships, Ontario co., N.Y., on the Auburn branch
of the New York Central R. R., 10 miles E. N. E. of Caman-
daigua. It has four churches, a free union school, copious
sulphur springs, and is the seat of “Clifton Springs Sani-
tarium.” It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 746.
Clifty, a township of Bartholomew co., Ind. P. 1133.
Climac/teric Year [from the Gr. KAtpak repukós, from
KAZaaé, a “ladder”], the name given to certain years in the
life of man that were long supposed to have a peculiar sig-
nificance to him, and to constitute, as it were, critical points
in his health and fortune. The mystical number 7, multi-
plied into the odd numbers 3, 5, 7, and 9, produced the
crises of this kind. The sixty-third year, called the “grand
climacteric,” was the most important, and was supposed to
be fatal to most men, its influence being ascribed to the
fact that it is the multiple of the two mystical numbers 7
and 9. Certain recent physiologists, while rejecting the
theory of numerical influence, insist that there was a germ
of truth in this old belief.
Cliſmate [from the Gr. kxtua, “ slope,” “inclination,”
“exposure”], the condition of any place with respect to the
temperature, the moistness or dryness, and the currents of
the atmosphere, that vast ocean of air at the bottom of
which we live. Enveloping both land and water, the at-
mosphere absorbs the heat and moisture generated on both
by the rays of the sun. By the winds this most mobile of
the elements carries from the sea to the parched lands in-
visible vapors and fertilizing rains. In this wonderful
medium alone the highest forms of vegetable and animal
life, and man himself, thrive and find the amount of oxy-
gen, heat, and water which is indispensable to organic life.
The atmosphere thus performs the part of a universal me-
diator between land and water, and between inorganic na-
ture and living beings. These physical agencies, fostering
life and acting through the atmosphere, constitute climate.
Heat and water are the two elements of which every plant
and animal requires a certain share. The laws of the dis-
tribution of heat and rain are therefore the most important
topics of the science of climate. To them we must add the
course of the winds, which play a prominent part in both.
The temperature may be considered as the most funda-
mental of the phenomena of climate, for the winds are es-
sentially due to differences of temperature, and the rains
\
are regulated both by changes of temperature and the course
of the winds. The distribution of heat, the course of the
winds, and the distribution of rains, therefore, is the order
in which they have to be considered.
Distribution of Heat.—All heat available for the purposes
of organic life comes from the sun. Its distribution over
the globe, however, depends upon both astronomical and
physical causes. Though this mighty orb pours its life-
giving rays in a uniform and uninterrupted stream upon
the face of the earth, the spherical form of our planet, and
its movements of daily rotation on its axis and annual
revolution around the sun, establish permanent differences
of temperature in every latitude between the poles and the
equator, and periodical ones between day and night and
the various parts of the year. The first give the great
zones of climate, torrid, temperate, and frigid; the other,
the daily periods and the seasons. To these causes we
have to trace the groundwork of climate and its funda-
mental laws, which are summed up under the name of “as-
tronomical climate.” These laws, again, are variously and
often greatly modified by physical agencies, such as the
different absorbing power of land and water for heat, the
action of the winds and marine currents, and the elevation
above the level of the sea. The astronomical climate,
modified by these secondary causes, is the “physical cli-
mate,” which is in fact the actual climate.
Astronomical Climate.—The most general law in the dis-
tribution of heat is its gradual decrease from a maximum
at the equator to a minimum at the poles. The cause of
this inequality, so fruitful in consequences, is the spherical
form of the earth. The rays of the sum fall most thickly
and produce their full effect when perpendicular, as in the
equatorial regions; less thickly and with diminished in-
tensity when slanting, as in the intermediate latitudes;
when tangent, as at the poles, they lose their heating
power. Each day testifies to this fact. The horizontal
rays of the rising and setting sun have but little heating
power; the heat increases with the ascending sun; it is
greatest at noon, when the sun is highest. The torrid,
temperate, and frigid zones correspond to the noon, the de-
clining, and the setting sun of the day. It is, therefore,
to the geographical form of our globe that we must trace
those permanent differences of temperature which carry
with them corresponding differences in the systems of winds
and rains that characterize the great climatic zones.
The Seasons.—Again, while the Sun shines, the earth re-
ceives more heat than it emits by radiation; during the
night it loses more than it receives. When the days and
nights are of equal length, the gain and loss correspond to
each other, and the average temperature is constant. But
long days and short nights give a season of accumulated
heat higher than the annual average, or the summer; long
nights and short days a season of cold below the average
temperature, or the winter.
If the axis of the earth were perpendicular on the plane
of its orbit, the sun would always be opposite the equator,
and the line separating the lighted from the shaded hemi-
sphere pass through the poles, cutting all parallels into two
equal parts. The days and nights being them equal at all
times on all parallels, no annual seasons of heat and cold
would exist. But the axis being inclined 23%", and always
remaining parallel to itself while the earth revolves around
the sun, an ever-varying inequality of days and nights and
of temperature is the consequence. Only twice a year, on
the 20th of March and the 22d of September, is the sun op-
posite the equator. It is then the time of the equinoxes
and average temperature. On the 21st of June, the north
pole being inclined 23#9 towards the sun, the sun’s rays
fall perpendicular on the Tropic of Cancer, and the border
of the lighted hemisphere reaches the opposite side of the
Arctic Circle, 2339 beyond the pole. This is the time of
the solstice, or of the longest day and shortest night and
of the highest sun in all the northern hemisphere. It is
therefore the summer season, while the southern hemisphere
has the shortest day, the longest night, the lowest Sun, and
the winter season. On the other solstice, the 21st of De-
cember, the reverse takes place. -
The following table, giving the duration of the longest
day and shortest night on the 21st of June, with their dif-
ferences in various latitudes of the northern hemisphere,
shows the increasing inequality of days and nights from the
equator to the poles. The fractions are decimals of an hour:
Table of the Longest Days in Various Latitudes.
wº ngest Day. hortest Night. I)ifference.
Latitude. I.O #.s. y S OllºS, g Hours.
Equator 12.0............... ...------ 12.0................... 0.0
10° .................. 12.7...... ...... 11.3 1.4
20° .................. 13.3............ ...... ------ 10:7.................... 2.6
North Tropic.......... 13.5...... ......... --------- 10.5.................... 3.0
30° .................. 14.0............... --------- 10.0.................... 4.0
35° .................. 14.5...... ------------------ 9.5.................... 5.0
40° .................. 15.0...... ...... ............ 9.0.................... 6.0
45° .................. 15.6......... ...... ......... 84.................... 7.2
50° .................. 16.3............... ......... 7.7.................... 8.6
55° ......... ........ 17.3...... ...... ............ 6.7.................... 10.6
60° .................. 18.7............ ......... ... 5.3. . 13.4
Arctic Circle........... 24.0...... ------...... ...--- 0.0.................... 24.0
67.5 ............. 1 month........................ 0.0
69.5 ............. 2 . * * * * * * g. s is a e s & © tº e º & e º ºs e s & 0.0
# . . . ; } No night.
84. ............. 5 “ ........................ 0.0
North Pole......... 6 “ ---------------...------ 0.0
From this table we see that the difference in the length
of days and nights increases very slowly in the tropical re-
gions, then more and more rapidly to the Arctic Circle,
where the sun does not set on the 21st of June.
Beyond that limit to the pole the sun makes the circuit
of the horizon without disappearing for months in succes-
sion, and at the pole the year is divided into one day and
one night of six months each. The reverse again occurs in
the opposite season. -
Thus in the tropical regions the temperature is nearly
constant throughout the year, while the increasing in-
equality of days and mights towards the pole causes an in-
creasing difference between the temperature of summer and
winter. -
The length of the days, however, in the high latitudes
compensates for the diminished intensity of the sun's rays,
and so it happens that the accumulated heat of a long sum-
mer day in the temperate regions may be equal to, or greater
than, that of a day in the tropical regions. A summer day
in Labrador or St. Petersburg may be as Warm as a day
under the equator, but these northern latitudes have only
a few such days in the year.
Towards the equator the number of warm days gradually
increases. Thus the polar regions have short summers and
long winters, passing rapidly from one to the other with
great differences of temperature. In the temperate regions
summer and winter are about of equal length, with long
transition seasons of spring and autumn and variable
CLIMATE.
981
temperature. An everlasting summer with constant heat
reigns in the tropical regions. Though the intensity of
the sun’s rays is greatest at the time of the solstice, their
full effect is produced only somewhat later, and the atmos-
phere attains its highest temperature in July. It is the
same with the daily periods; the highest temperature is
felt not at noon, but about two o'clock, and the lowest a
little before sunrise.
Physical Climate.—According to the laws of astronomical
climate, we should expect the same average temperature
and the same periodic changes in all places situated on the
same parallel of latitude, but thermometric observations
prove it to be quite otherwise. On the western side of the
Atlantic Ocean, Labrador has a frozen and treeless climate,
while on the other side, in the same latitude, we are greeted
by the mild atmosphere, rich verdure, and fertile fields of
the British Isles. New York with its icy winter is in the
same latitude as Naples with its orange groves. On the
western coast of our continent, San Francisco, with its mild,
snowless winters and cool summers, is on the parallel' of
Washington, with a frozen Potomac in the cold season and
a burning summer Sun. . N.
Isothermal Lines.—To render visible to the eye the actual
distribution of heat, as given by observations of the ther-
mometer, Humboldt introduced the isothermal lines, or lines
which connect together all places having the same mean
temperature, either of the year, of a season, or of any par-
ticular month. The annual isothermal lines show the aver-
age amount of heat belonging to each place; the monthly
and season isothermals, its distribution throughout the year.
A glance at Map No. VI. will teach us many important
laws of this distribution.
To read the map aright, let us remember that when the
lines in either hemisphere bend away from the equator
towards the poles, they indicate a heating influence; when
they bend from the poles towards the equator, they indicate
a cooling influence. It is evident, again, that the greater
the difference between the isothermal lines and the paral-
lels, the greater also the deviation from the astronomical
temperature arising from physical causes. To eliminate
the local influence of the elevation, the temperatures have
been reduced to what they would be at the level of the sea.
in the same place.
The principal facts that we note in this review are the
following:
On the whole, the greater disturbances occur in the north-
ern hemisphere, which has the most land; the isothermal
lines are far more uniform in the southern hemisphere,
which has most water. *
The greatest deviations are found on the opposite coasts
of the Atlantic Ocean. The isothermal line of 50° Fahren-
heit of temperature, which passes near New York in the
fortieth degree of latitude, reaches Ireland and London, on
the other side of the Atlantic, eleven degrees of latitude
farther north. The isothermal of 40°, which passes through
Central Canada, and Nova Scotia about the forty-sixth do-
gree of latitude, touches the southern part of Iceland and
the coast of Norway in the sixty-fourth degree of latitude,
or eighteen degrees farther north. The isothermal of 30°
passes through Central Labrador, and Cape North in Eu-
rope, though their latitudes differ by twenty-one degrees.
In higher latitudes the difference is still greater.
From these remarkable deviations of the isothermal lines,
we see that not only Western Europe is a great deal warmer
than Eastern America, in the same latitude, but that the
difference increases more and more towards the pole. It is
also evident from the bending of the lines that the heating
influences bear towards the north-east.
Similar modifications of the annual isothermal lines take
place in the North Pacific. Here also the eastern (or Asi-
atic) is colder than the American coast, and the climate of
California and Oregon much milder than that of a corre-
sponding latitude in Asia; but all these differences are re-
duced to nearly one-half of what they are on the opposite
coasts of the Atlantic.
It can thus be accepted as a law that in the two great
land masses of the northern hemisphere the western coasts
are warmer than the eastern coasts. Moreover, while the
average temperature of the oceans is higher, the bending of
the lines southward in the interior of these continents
shows a lower temperature than that due to their latitude.
In the southern hemisphere the law of the temperature
of the opposite coasts seems to be reversed. In America
and in Africa, the western is colder than the eastern coast,
and in this hemisphere the average temperature of the con-
timents is rather higher than that of the ocean.
Climatic Zones.—There are four parallels, usually made
prominent in globes and maps, which are peculiar limits in
the distribution of light on the surface of the earth. Two
are traced at the distance of about 23#9 on each side of
the equator, and are called on the north the Tropic of Can-
North temperate zone. 51,110,763
cer, and on the south the Tropic of Capricorn. The other
two, 23#9 from either pole, are the North Polar and the
South Polar Circles, also called the Arctic and Antarctic Cir-
cles. The two tropics mark the extreme limits of the cen-
tral region where the sun, in its yearly course, can be seen
vertical, the sun being vertical on these parallels on the long-
est days of the year—viz. the 21st of June in the northern,
and the 21st of December in the southern hemisphere. The
polar circles are the parallels on which the longest day is
twenty-four hours, and mark the limits of the circular area
around the poles within which the summer sun does not set
every day. The globe is thus divided into six bands, or zones,
in three groups, which, from the general character of their
temperature, are termed the warm or torrid, the temperate,
and the frigid zones. The portion of the earth's surface
occupied by each of the zones is very unequal. Their com-
parative area, in English square miles, is as follows:
North tropical zone.....39,109,628
South tropical “ ..... 39,109,628 Warm regions........... 78,219,256
Temperate regions...102,221,526
South temperate “ 51,110,763
North polar “ 8,229,748 -
South polar {{ 8,229,748 Cold regions s e º s e s e º 'º e º 'º e 16,459,496
The whole globe............ 196,900,278 English square miles.
It is thus seen that, by a wise arrangement of Providence,
the temperate regions, most favorable to man’s develop-
ment, are the most extensive; next are the warm regions;
while the frigid zones, unfit for man’s progress, cover but
an inconsiderable portion of the earth’s surface.
True Zones of Climate.—It is evident that the astro-
nomical zones of climate, whose limits are determined by
the distribution of light, do not coincide with the zones
of actual temperature. Taking as the limits of the true
tropical zone the isothermal lines of 70° on both sides of
the equator, which nearly coincide with the boundaries of
climate, plants, and animals characterizing the tropical
regions, and for those of the frigid zone the isothermal line
of 30° in both hemispheres, we obtain zones of irregular
shape, which are marked on the map by different colors.
The tropical zone is broadest in Africa, the north tem-
perate in Europe, and we can judge at a glance that Africa,
is the warmest of the tropical, and of all the continents of
the globe, and Europe the warmest of the temperate con-
tinents. The highest and lowest temperatures are found
in the largest continents—the warmest in Central Africa,
the coldest in Northern Asia.
The maps of the isothermal lines of January and July,
representing the extreme winter and summer temperatures,
show how much greater are the variations in the interior
than on the coast. While in January the lines in the in-
terior indicate a lower temperature, those of July, strongly
bent northward, betoken a much higher temperature than
in the shore region.
Thus, as a rule, the coast of the continent has more
equable, the interior more excessive, season temperatures.
This wide departure of the actual from the astronomical
temperature is a most striking fact, the principal causes of
which are to be found in the different manner in which land
and water are affected by the Solar rays and in the action
of the great currents of the atmosphere and the sea.
Land and Sea Climates.—Water has a great capacity for
heat, but a feeble conducting power; it grows warm slowly
in the rays of the sun, and never rises to a high tempera-
ture. It is the same in cooling; it gives up its heat slowly,
and the surface layer growing cool falls lower by its weight,
and gives place to the warmer molecules of the inferior
strata. Thus the heating and cooling are slow, and do not
reach extremes. Land rapidly absorbs the solar rays; the
surface layer is quickly heated and soon attains a high
temperature, but loses it by radiation with equal rapidity.
It reaches, therefore, great extremes of heat and cold. The
sea or oceanic climate, therefore, is characterized by equable-
ness, without extremes of temperature; the land or-conti-
mental, by great extremes; it is excessive. This is clearly
shown by a few examples, in which the temperatures of the
coldest and the warmest months are compared in places
situated in the same latitude, but more or less under the
influence of the sea, or of land:
Differences of Temperature between the Coldest and Warmest,
Months in Similar Latitudes.
Jan July Difference.
Name of places. Lat. Fahr Fahr Tahr.
Faroe Islands................ 62o 39.0 61.7 22.7
Bergen, Norway............60° 34.9 60.3 25.4
St. #:... Russia...60° 15.6. 62.6 47.0
Yakutsk, Siberia...........62O — 43.8 62.2 106.0
Penzancé, S. W. Eng......50° 42.6 62.0 19.4
Banaul, Siberia......... ...,539 — 4.7 67.1 71.8
Eastport, Me.................450 22.5 62.4 39.9
fortsnelling, Minn......45° 13.1 73.4 60.3
JBermudas, Atlantic....... 320 62.6 84.2 21.6
Natchez, Miss............... 32O 52.2 81.3 29.1
Madeira, Africa............. 32O 63.5 73.8 10.3
Cairo, Egypt.............. ... .30° 56.3 86.6 30.3
982
CLIMAX-CLINTON.
We see by the rapid increase of the differences how the
variations augment as we advance from the sea into the in-
terior of the continents. The absolute extremes of tempera-
ture differ even more. The highest degree of heat ever ob-
served at the Faroe Islands is only 56° 3' F., and it freezes
but little there, while the meteorological annals of St.
Petersburg indicate heats of 92°, and cold of 40° below
zero F., or extremes of 132° F. apart. It is at once the
cold of the poles and the heat of the tropics. At Yakutsk
the mercury often remains frozen for weeks, implying a
continued cold of at least 40° F. below zero. Further south
and near the tropics the differences between the seasons
become naturally less, but the influence of the ocean and
of the continent is always very marked. The difference be-
tween the extreme temperatures, which at Madeira is only
from 20° to 27°, reaches in Egypt 56°F. In the Sahara ice
has been known to form by the intensity of radiation, and
heat to rise to the enormous height of 140°.
The course of the isothermal lines of January and July
is thus easily explained: while the interior, overheated by
rapid absorption during the long summer days, is warmer ||
than the coast, it is colder in winter by more rapid radia-
tion. All this shows how great is the influence of the sea
upon the distribution of temperature in the different sea-
sons of the year. It tends to bring the extremes together,
and to maintain at all times that equability of temperature
which, with the abundant moisture, is the distinctive quality
of the sea climate.
This difference in the land and sea climates tells even
upon the average temperature of the whole earth.
Owing to a great preponderance of land, the northern
hemisphere has a warm summer, while the southern hemi-
sphere, having more water, has a mild winter, giving to-
gether a high average. In the opposite season the northern
hemisphere has a cold winter, and the southern hemisphere
a moderate summer, giving a low average. Prof. Dove has
calculated that the average temperature of the whole earth
in July, during the northern summer, is 62°.4 F., while in
January, during the southern summer, it is only 54°.3, or
8°.1 lower than in July.
But if the action of the solar rays on land and water
explains some season changes of temperature, other causes
are required to account for the permanent deviations of the
annual isothermal lines.
Influence of Winds and Marine Currents.-Our daily ex-
perience in northern latitudes teaches us that most of the
changes not due to the declination of the sun are connected
with changes of the wind. Equatorial winds from the south
bring us a share of heat from the tropics; polar winds, the
chilling breath of a northern atmosphere. If, from any
cause, one of these great currents becomes prevailing
throughout the year in a particular region, a certain
amount of heat or cold is added to or subtracted from the
solar heat, considerably modifying the astronomical tem-
perature. Thé great marine currents perform the same
functions, carrying tropical and polar temperatures far into
the middle latitudes. Thus it is that the south-westerly
winds, which blow almost two-thirds of the year over West-
ern Europe, and the constant flow of the warm waters of
the Gulf Stream, greatly increase the average temperature
of that continent, and strongly deflect the course of its
isothermal lines. (See articles WINDs and CURRENTs, MA-
RINE.) ARNOLD GUYOT.
Cli’max [Gr. KAZuaš, a “staircase”], a Latin term used
in rhetoric to denote a figure by which several propositions
or several objects are presented in such an order that the
proposition or object adapted to produce the least impres-
sion shall strike the mind first, and the others rise by suc-
cessive. gradations of impressiveness.
the Order is reversed is called an anti-climaac.
Climax, a township of Kalamazoo co., Mich. P. 1389.
Climbers (in ornithology). See SCANSOREs.
Climbing Fern (Lygodium palmatum), a rare species
of fern of the sub-order Osmundineae, is remarkable for its
habit of climbing or twining upon shrubs and weeds. It
º in the U. S. from Massachusetts to Florida and west-
Wal'Cl.
Climbing Perch. See ANABASIDA.
Climbing Plants, or Climbers, the popular term
for those plants which seek support from other objects in
order to ascend from the earth, as the vine, etc. This end
is accomplished in different ways. Some climb by means
of rootlets growing from the stem, as the ivy; some by
means of tendrils which twine round branches of trees, as
the grapevine, the pea, etc.; some by adhering disks, as in
the Virginia creeper; and many by the twining of their
own stems around those to which they cling. Twining
plants turn only in one direction, either from right to left
or from left to right. The pole-bean and passion-flower are
A sentence in which
examples of the former; the hop of the latter. Certain
woody twining plants, which form one of the most remark-
able features of many tropical forests, are called lianas.
Some climbing plants, like the dodders, are parasitic, living
upon the sap of the plants on which they climb. Tendrils
are sometimes parts of leaves or stipules, and sometimes
transformed branches. They lay hold of the proper sup-
port, and then by curling, and thus shortening themselves,
draw up the plant. / -
Clinch, a county in the S. of Georgia. Area, 800 square
miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Allapaha River.
The surface is level. Rice, corn, oats, and some cotton are
raised. It is intersected by the Atlantic and Gulf R. R.
Capital, Homerville. Pop. 3945. -
Clinch (DUNCAN L.), an American general, born about
1798 in North Carolina, entered the army as first lieutenant
in 1808, and rapidly rose by promotion. He was especially
distinguished in the Florida war (1835–36), but resigned
his commission in the latter year. He was a member of
Congress from Georgia (1843–45), and died Nov. 27, 1849.
Clinch'er-Built, Clink'er-Built, or Lap-Joint-
ed, a term applied by shipwrights to vessels when the
lower edges of the side planks overlap the row beneath,
like slates or shingles on the roof of a house. If the planks
are all smooth, meeting edge to edge, the construction is
called carvel-built or jump-jointed. Carvel-building requires
that the seams should be very close and calked with oakum.
Clinch River rises in the S.W. part of Virginia, flows
south-westward, and enters East Tennessee. Pursuing the
same general direction between two ridges called Clinch
Mountain and Powell Mountain, it unites with the Holston
at Kingston to form the Tennessee River. The whole length
is estimated at 300 miles.
Clines, a township of Catawba co., N. C. Pop. 1904.
Cling/man (THOMAs L.), an American Senator, born
in Surrey co., N. C. He graduated at the University of
North Carolina in 1832, and was elected a Whig member
of Congress in 1843, after which he was re-elected. Having
become a Democrat, he was chosen a Senator of the U. S.
in 1858. He served as a colonel in the Confederate army.
He proved himself an able politician, and also became dis-
tinguished as a geologist.
Clingman’s Dome, in Jackson co., N. C., is the high-
est peak of the Great Smoky Mountains, between North Caro-
lina, and Tennessee. It rises to 6660 feet above the Sea,
and is the second in height in the Appalachians. It was
named after Thomas L. Clingman, who ascended it in 1858.
Clin'ic, or Climſical [from the Gr. KAtvn, a “bed”],
belonging to a bed; and hence performed (or pursued) at
the bedside, as CLINICAL MEDICINE. (which see). (For
CLINIC (as a noun) see CLINIQUE.)
Clin'ic, or Clinical Baptism [for etymology, see
preceding article], an ordinance in the ancient Church ad-
ministered on a sick bed or death bed.
Clin'ical Med'icine, that branch of the science of
medicine which is occupied with the investigation of dis-
eases at the bedside. (See CLINIQUE.)
Clinique, or Clin'ic [for etymology, see CLINIC], a
French term (used for école clinique, or “clinical school”)
applied to a school in which medicine is studied and in-
struction is given at the bedside, or in which the patients
are examined by the medical teacher in the presence of the
students. It is often Anglicized as CLINIC, particularly in
the U. S.
Clink'stone is a felspathic rock of a grayish-green
color, having so remarkable a tendency to lamination that
it sometimes furnishes tiles for roofing. It is a compact,
homogeneous rock, passing gradually into gray basalt. The
slab gives a metallic ring or “clink” when struck with a
hammer, whence its name. It is found in volcanic districts.
Clinom’eter [from the Gr. KAivo, to “lean,” and uérpov,
a “measure”], an instrument used by geologists to deter-
mine and measure the dip of a stratum. It consists of a
compass furnished with a small spirit-level, and on the
lid—which can be fixed at right angles to the compass-box
—there is a graduated quadrant and plumb-line.
Clin/ton, a county in S. Central Illinois. Area, 480
square miles. It is intersected by the Kaskaskia River and
by Shoal Creek. The surface is nearly level; the soil fer-
tile. Corn, wheat, wool, and tobacco are raised. Coal is
found here. The most numerous manufactories are those
of flour and of carriages. The Ohio and Mississippi R. R.
passes through it. Capital, Carlyle. Pop. 16,285.
Clinton, a county in N. W. Central Indiana. Area,
432 square miles. It is drained by the South Fork of Wild-
cat River. The surface is nearly level; the soil is produc-
tive. Corn, wheat, butter, tobacco, and wool ºre largely
CLINTON.
983
gr
produced. It contains a large prairie. Lumber, carriages,
and flour are manufactured. It is intersected by the Lo-
gansport Crawfordsville and South-western and the Indian-
apolis Cincinnati and Lafayette R. Rs. Capital, Frankfort.
Pop. 17,330. -
Clinton, a county in the E. of Iowa. Area, 696 square
miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Mississippi River and
on the S. by the Wapsipinicon. The surface is finely
diversified by undulating prairies and woodlands; the soil
is fertile. Corn, wheat, oats, wool, and butter are produced
extensively. Flour and carriages are manufactured in this
county. It is intersected by the Iowa division of the Chi-
cago and North-western and by several other railroads.
Capital, Clinton. Pop. 35,357.
Clinton, a county in the S. of Kentucky. Area, 250
square miles. The Cumberland River flows near its northern
border. The surface is hilly ; the soil is mostly fertile.
Tobacco, corn, and wool are staple products. Coal is
found here. Capital, Albany. Pop. 6497. -
Clinton, a county in Central Michigan. Area, 576
square miles. It is drained by the Maple and Looking-
glass rivers, affluents of Grand River, which touches the
south-western part of the county. The surface is level,
and partly covered with forests of sugar-maple; the soil is
fertile. Grain, timber, wool, butter, and potatoes are largely
produced. It is intersected by the Detroit and Milwaukee
and other railroads. Capital, St. John. Pop. 22,845.
Clinton, a county in N. W. Missouri. Area, 460 square
miles. It is drained by several small affluents of Platte
River. The surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile.
Corn, cattle, wool, and tobacco are largely raised. Lime-
stone is abundant here. It is intersected by the Hannibal
and St. Joseph and several other railroads. Capital, Platts-
burg. Pop. 14,063. -
Clinton, a county which forms the N. E. extremity of
New York. Area, 1092 square miles. It is bounded on the
E. by Lake Champlain, and is drained by the Au Sable,
Chazy, and Saranac rivers. The surface is partly moun-
tainous; the soil near the lake is fertile. Potatoes, oats,
hay, and wool are the chief crops. Cattle are raised ex-
tensively. Leather, lumber, starch, brick, and iron are
manufactured. Iron-ore abounds here. The county is
traversed by the Ogdensburg and Lake Champlain, the
Montreal and Plattsburg, and the Whitehall and Platts-
burg R. Rs. Capital, Plattsburg. Pop. 47,947.
Clinton, a county in S. W. Ohio. Area, 467 square
miles. It is drained by the East Fork of the Little Miami
and by Todd's Creek. The surface is undulating; the soil
is fertile. Grain, tobacco, hay, wool, and dairy products
are largely raised. It is intersected by the Cincinnati and
Muskingum Valley R. R. and the Marietta, and Cincinnati
R. R. Capital, Wilmington. Pop. 21,914.
Clinton, a county in N. Central Pennsylvania. Area,
1000 square miles. It is intersected by the West Branch
of the Susquehanna River. The surface is partly occupied
by the Alleghany Mountains; the soil of the valleys is fer-
tile. Lumber, flour, grain, tobacco, and wool are largely
produced. Coal and iron abound here. This county is
traversed by the Philadelphia and Erie R. R. and the Bald
Eagle division of the Pennsylvania. R. R. Capital, Lock-
haven. Pop. 23,211.
Clinton, a post-village of Huron co., Ontario (Canada),
on the Buffalo and Goderich branch of the Grand Trunk
Railway, 13 miles from Goderich. It has extensive trade
and manufactures and one weekly paper. Here are valu-
able salt-wells, and a vein of rock-salt twenty feet thick.
Pop. about 2000.
Clinton, a township and post-village of Greene co.,
Ala., about 75 miles N.W. of Selma. Pop. 2224.
Clinton, a post-village, capital of Van Buren co., Ark.,
on the Little Red River, about 65 miles N. by W. from
Little Rock.
Clinton, a township and post-village of Middlesex co.,
Conn. The village is on the New Haven New London and
Stonington R. R., 23 miles E. of New Haven. It has one
national bank. Pop. 1404.
Clinton, a post-village, capital of Jones co., Ga., about
15 miles N. E. of Macon. Pop. 362.
Clinton, a township of De Kalb co., Ill. Pop.1004.
Clinton, the capital of De Witt co., Ill., on the Central
, R. R., 23 miles S. of Bloomington. It has one national
bank and two weekly newspapers. Pop. 1800.
Clinton, a township of Boone co., Ind. Pop. 1220.
Clinton, a township of Cass co., Ind. Pop. 1021.
Clinton, a township of Decatur co., Ind. Pop. 828.
Clinton, a township of Elkhart co., Ind. Pop. 2099.
Clinton, a township of La Porte co., Ind. Pop. 797.
Clinton, a township of Putnam co., Ind. Pop. 1036.
Clinton, a township and post-village of Vermilion co.,
Ind., on the Wabash River, about 16 miles N. of Terre
Haute. Pop. of village, 564; of township, 2223.
Clinton, a city, capital of Clinton co., Ia., on the Mis-
sissippi River, 42 miles above Davenport, and 138 miles
by railroad W. of Chicago. The river is here crossed by
an iron bridge which is about 4000 feet long, and cost
$600,000. The cars of the Chicago and North-western
R. R. pass over this bridge. Clinton contains three banks,
the repair-shops of the railroad company, foundries, sash-
and-blind factories, a paper-mill, eight saw-mills, etc.; in all
twenty-five manufactories, paying out $65,000 monthly as
wages. Four newspapers are published here, one of them
daily. It is the eastern terminus of the Iowa, Midland,
and the southern terminus of the Chicago Clinton and
Dubuque R. Rs. Pop. 6129; of Clinton township, exclu-
sive of the town, 1841. ED. “HERALD.”
Clinton, a township of Franklin co., Ia. Pop. 475.
Clinton, a township of Linn co., Ia. Pop. 1205.
Clinton, a township of Pocahontas co., Ia. Pop. 55.
Clinton, a township of Ringgold co., Ia. Pop. 341.
Clinton, a township of Wayne co., Ia. Pop. 643.
Clinton, a post-village of Douglas co., Kan., 11 miles
W. S. W. of Lawrence. Pop. of Clinton township, 1030.
Clinton, a post-village, capital of Hickman co., Ky.,
about 300 miles W. S. W. of Frankfort, is on the Mobile
and Ohio R. R. Pop. 272.
Clinton, a post-village, capital of East Feliciana par-
ish, La., 32 miles N. of Baton Rouge. A railroad 25 miles
long connects it with Port Hudson on the Mississippi. It
has good female schools. The parish ships yearly 30,000
bales of cotton. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 930.
S. LAMBERT, ED. “PATRIOT DEMOCRAT.”
Clinton, a post-village and twp. of Kennebec co., Me., is
on the Me. Central R.R., 46 miles W. S.W. of Bangor. P. 1766.
Clinton, a manufacturing town of Worcester co.,
Mass., on the Nashua River, and on the Worcester and
Nashua R. R. where it crosses the Boston Clinton and
Ritchburg R. R., 45 miles W. by N. from Boston and 16
miles N. E. of Worcester. It has five churches, one na-
tional bank, one newspaper, and manufactures of ging-
hams, combs, Brussels and Wilton carpets, wire-cloth,
machinery, etc. The Lancaster mills of this place employ
about 1200 hands, operating on 950 looms, and producing
annually nearly 7,000,000 yards of ginghams and plaids.
P. including Clinton township, 5429. ED. “CouTANT.”
Clinton, a post-village and township of Lenawee co.,
Mich., on the Raisin River, and on the Jackson branch
of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern R. R., 42 miles
N. W. of Toledo, O. Pop. 752; of township, 1356.
Clinton, a township and village of Macomb co., Mich.,
20 miles N. E. of Detroit. Total pop. 3590. -
Clinton, a post-village of Hinds co., Miss., 10 miles W.
of Jackson, on the Vicksburg and Meridian R. R. It is
the seat of Mississippi College.
Clinton, a post-village, capital of Henry co., Mo., on
the Missouri Kansas and Texas R. R., 40 miles S. W. of
Sedalia, at the junction of the Clinton and Memphis and
Clinton and Kansas City branches. It is called the
“model town '' of Western Missouri. It has one national
bank and two weekly newspapers. Pop. 840.
Clinton, a township of Texas co., Mo. Pop. 721.
Clinton, a township of Essex co., N. J. Pop. 2240.
Clinton, a post-borough of Hunterdon co., N. J., on
the S. branch of the Raritan River, and near the New
Jersey Central and Easton and Amboy R. R.S., about 10
miles N. of Flemington. It has four churches, a national
bank, one newspaper, carriage manufactories, and a large
trade. Iron and manganese mines have been opened in
the neighborhood. Pop. 785; of township, 3134.
J. CARPENTER, JR., PUB. CLINTON “DEMOCRAT.”
Clinton, a township of Clinton co., N. Y. It contains
much white Potsdam sandstone. Pop. 2206.
Clinton, a township of Dutchess co., N. Y. Pop. 1708.
Clinton, a post-village of Kirkland township, Oneida
co., N. Y., on the Utica division of the Midland R. R., at
the junction of the Rome branch, 9 miles W. by S. of Utica,
and on the Erie Canal. It has six churches, a Weekly and
a monthly periodical, one seminary for boys, and four for
young ladies. It is also the seat of Hamilton College. In
the vicinity are large quarries of good building-stone.
There are also various manufactures. Pop. 1640.
Clinton, a post-village, capital of Sampson co., N. C.,
35 miles E. of Fayetteville. Pop. of Clinton township,
2777.
984
Clinton, a township of Franklin co., O. Pop. 1800.
Clinton, a township of Fulton co., O. Pop. 3235.
Clinton, a township of Knox co., O. Pop. 984.
Clinton, a township of Seneca co., O. Pop. 1526.
Clinton, a township of Shelby co., O. Pop. 3591.
Clinton, a township of Vinton co., O. Pop..1724.
Clinton, a township and village of Wayne co., O. The
village is on the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R.,
10 miles S. W. of Wooster. Pop. 1502.
Clinton, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 1132.
Clinton, a township of Lycoming co., Pa. Pop. 1315.
Clinton, a township of Venango co., Pa. Pop. 901.
Clinton, a township of Wayne co., Pa. Pop. 1178.
Clinton, a township of Wyoming co., Pa. Pop. 834.
Clinton, a post-village of Laurens co., S. C. It has
one monthly newspaper.
Clinton, a post-village, capital of Anderson co., Tenn.,
on Clinch River, 18 miles N. W. of Knoxville, on the
Knoxville and Ohio R. R. Pop. 325.
Clinton, a post-village, capital of De Witt co., Tex., is
on the Guadalupe River, about 95 miles S. by E. from
Austin. Pop. 217.
C}inton, a township of Monongalia, co., West Va.
Pop. 1900.
Clinton, a post-village and township of Rock co., Wis.,
on the Chicago and North-western R. R. where it crosses
the Western Union R. R., 78 miles N. W. of Chicago.
has three or more churches, and some manufactures. Pop.
of Clinton township, 1943.
Clinton, a township of Vernon co., Wis. Pop. 823.
CHinton (CHARLEs), the father of George Clinton (1739–
1812), was born in Longford co., Ireland, in 1690, of Eng-
lish stock. In 1729 he emigrated to America, but the pas-
sengers were starved and robbed by the ship’s master, who
landed them on Cape Cod, where many of them died.
Clinton settled in Ulster co., N. Y., became a judge, and a
lieutenant-colonel in the French and Indian wars, and was
the founder of the distinguished Clinton family of New
York State. Died Nov. 19, 1773.
Clinton (DE WITT), an eminent American statesman,
born at Little Britain, Orange co., N. Y., Mar. 2, 1769, was
a son of General James Clinton, and a nephew of Governor
George Clinton. His mother’s name was Mary de Witt.
Having graduated at Columbia, College, N. Y., in 1786, he
studied law, and became in 1790 private secretary to his
uncle, then governor of New York. He was a man of ar-
dent temperament, dignified manners, inclined to reserve,
and of noble personal appearance. He married about 1796
Maria. Franklin of New York City. He entered public life:
as a Republican or Anti-Federalist, and was elected a mem-
ber of the lower house of the State legislature in 1797, and
of the State senate in 1798. He took an active part in
political movements, and soon became the most influential
leader of his party in the State of New York; he also de-
voted much attention to natural sciences. In 1801 he was
elected a Senator of the U. S., in which capacity he dis-
tinguished himself as an eloquent debater. Prof. Renwick
states that “he was on all sides looked up to as the most
rising man in the Union ” when he was appointed, in 1803,
mayor of the city of New York. This officer was then ap-
pointed by the governor and council, and had more exten-
sive powers than the mayor has at the present time. Hay-
ing been reappointed, he held the office of mayor for nearly
eleven years, and rendered important services to the city.
He also served as lieutenant-governor of New York for
two years (1811–13), and was one of the commissioners
appointed in 1809 to examine and survey, a route for a
canal from the Hudson to Lake Erie. In 1812 he differed
from President Madison in relation to the war against
Great Britain, and became his competitor for the presi-
dency. Mr. Clinton was nominated by the Republican
members of the legislature of New York, and was supported
by many Federalists. He received eighty-nine electoral
votes, cast by Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire,
Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Mary-
land, but was not elected. His course and policy at this
period offended many of the Republicans (or Democrats),
and appear to have impaired his popularity for a time. He
was removed from the mayoralty about the end of 1814, and
retired to private life, from which, however, he was soon
raised by his sagacious foresight and successful efforts to
promote the prosperity of the State. In 1815 he composed
an able argument for the construction of the Erie Canal,
of which great and beneficent enterprise he was the prin-
cipal promoter. This argument was in the form of a me-
morial to the legislature of the State, which early in 1817
It
CLINTON.—CLINTONVILLE.
passed a bill authorizing the construction of that canal.
He was elected governor of New York almost unanimously
in 1817, but his former political opponents organized against
him a party who were called “Bucktails,” and who de-
nounced the projected canal as visionary and impracticable.
In 1820 he was re-elected governor, Daniel D. Tompkins
being the defeated candidate. Governor Clinton was at the
same time president of the board of canal commissioners.
He distinguished himself by his liberal patronage of science
and his efforts to promote the education of the people. In
1822 he declined to be a candidate for the office of governor.
He was removed from the position of canal commissioner
in 1824, and was again elected governor by a large majority
in the same year. The Erie Canal was completed in 1825,
and brought a great access of trade and prosperity to the
city of New York and other portions of the State. When
the opening of the canal was celebrated in Qctober of that
year, Governor Clinton was conveyed in a barge with tri-
umphal demonstrations from Lake Erie to the city of New
York. He was re-elected governor in 1826, and died at
Albany before the expiration of his term of office, Feb. 11,
1828. His first wife died in 1818, and about two years later
he married Catherine Jones. He left several sons and
daughters. (See JAMES RENwick, “Life of De Witt Clin-
ton,” 1840; WILLIAM W. CAMPBELL, “Life of De Witt
Clinton,” 1849; DAvid HosACK, “Memoir of De Witt Clin-
ton,” 1829.) {
Clinton (GEORGE), the fourth Vice-President of the U.S.,
born in Ulster co., N.Y., July 26, 1739. He was an uncle
of De Witt Clinton. He practised law in his youth, and
was elected in 1775 to the Continental Congress, in which
he voted for the Declaration of Independence, but he was
absent when it was signed, having been called to take com-
mand of a brigade of militia. He was chosen governor of
New York in 1777, and continued in that office, by Several
re-elections, until 1795. In 1788 he presided over the State
convention called to ratify the Federal Constitution, which
instrument he disapproved, because it gave too much power
to the central government. He was afterwards the princi-
pal leader of the Republican party in the State of New
York, and was chosen governor of that State in 1801. In
1804 he was elected Vice-President of the U. S. by the
Democrats, who elected Jefferson as President. He was re-
elected Vice-President in 1808, when Mr. Madison became
President. Died April 20, 1812.
Clinton (Sir HENRY), an English general, a grandson
of the earl of Lincoln, was born in 1738. He served as
major-general at the battle of Bunker Hill, June, 1775, and
was appointed commander of the British army in North
America early in 1778. He evacuated Philadelphia in June,
1778, and moved his army by land to the city of New York.
He conducted an expedition against Charleston, S.C., which
he besieged and took in May, 1779. In Oct., 1781, he sailed
from New York with about 7000 men to relieve Cornwallis,
but the latter surrendered at Yorktown before the arrival
of Clinton. He was superseded by General Carleton in 1781.
Died at Gibraltar, Dec. 24, 1795.
Clinton (JAMEs), a general, born in Ulster co., N. Y.,
Aug. 9, 1736, was a son of Col. Charles Clinton, and the
father of the statesman De Witt Clinton. He became a
colonel in 1775, and served under Gen. Montgomery in
Canada. He was raised to the rank of brigadier-general
in 1777, and took part in Sullivan's operations against the
Indians in New York in 1779. In Oct., 1781, he assisted
at the siege of Yorktown. Died Dec. 22, 1812.
Clinton Falls, a post-township of Steel Co., Minn.
Pop. 338.
Clinton Gore, a township of Kennebec co., Me. Pop.
7.
Clinto/nia, a township of De Witt co., Ill. Pop. 2638.
Clinton Lake, a township of Sherburne Co., Minn.
Pop. 152.
Clinton State Prison, at Damnemora, in Clinton Co.,
N. Y., 16 miles W. of Plattsburg, is built of dressed stone
with slate roof. The main building is T-shaped, but there
are several other buildings all enclosed in a stockade of 37
acres. There are usually about 500 convicts here, mostly
employed in the iron and mail works. The iron ore has
been in part mined upon the grounds, but is now obtained
from various mines leased or owned by the State. Char-
coal is employed in reducing the iron. It is furnished by
woodlands measuring 17,500 acres, yielding annually
900,000 bushels. The prison lot has 250 acres. Besides
mining, smelting, rolling, and nail-cutting, the convicts
saw lumber, manufacture mail-kegs, and perform other
kinds of labor. The prison was built in 1844–45.
Clin/tonville, a post-village of Au Sable township,
Clinton co., N.Y., is the seat of the extensive works of the
Peru Iron Company.
t
CLINTON VILLE-CLOACA MAXIM.A.
985
Clintonville, a village of Hartwick township, Otsego
co., N. Y., has a cotton factory. -
Cli’o [Gr. KAewó], one of the nine Muses, presided over
history, and was represented as holding in one hand a half-
opened roll or Scroll, and in the other a cithara.
Clio, a genus of pteropodous mollusks, of the section
Clio borealis.
Gymnosomata. Clio borealis is a principal part of the food
of whales, and is very abundant in the Arctic seas. It is
Scarcely an inch long; the head is furnished with six re-
tractile tentacula; the organs of locomotion are two deli-
cate fins, joined to the neck. It has no shell. Of these
creatures the water is sometimes so full that a whale cannot
open its mouth without engulfing them in great numbers.
Clio australis is extremely abundant in the Southern Seas.
Several other species are found in the Indian Ocean, etc.
Clip/per [from the verb clip, to “move fast”] is a name
given to a ship built expressly with a view to speed. The
commerce in merchandise of a perishable nature which
rendered a quick passage desirable was probably among
the first causes which directed especial attention to the
form of vessels adapted to offer least resistance to the water.
For many years fruit-clippers have been celebrated for their
rapid passages, and the opium-clippers and slavers have
attained an unenviable distinction for speed. The modi-
fications of the old form of vessel have been gradual, the
desideratum aimed at being the combination of the greatest
carrying capacity with the form best adapted for speed.
A clipper, as compared with an ordinary sailing-ship, is
longer and narrower (though of late the tendency has been
to increase the beam); very sharp at the bows, which are
generally hollowed more or less below the water-line; grace-
fully tapering towards the stern, which is usually elliptical.
The Americans have fully done their part in introducing
swift clipper ships, and have perhaps been the most suc-
cessful in the improvement of vessels of this class. It may
be observed that clippers are much less used than they
were a few years ago, quick freights being now despatched
on fast steamers, and heavy goods being sent in vessels
"of larger carrying capacity.
CHis/thenes, or Cleis’ themes [Gr. KAetor06vms], an
Athenian statesman, the grand-uncle of Pericles, lived
about 500 B. C. He increased the number of the tribes of
Attica, from four to ten, and made important changes in
the constitution, which he rendered more democratic. He
became very popular, and was the foremost Athenian
statesman of his time.
Ciith/eral, a post-township of Otter Tail co., Minn.
Pop. 220.
Clitherall (ALEXANDER B.) was a native of Alabama.
In 1857 he was elected to the Senate, and returned in 1859.
During the war he was appointed register of the Confede-
rate treasury, and resided for. Some years in Richmond.
He died in 1868.
Clith/eroe, a market-town of England, in Lancashire,
on the river Ribble, 28 miles N. of Manchester, with which
it is connected by railway. The houses are of stone. It
is situated at the base of Pendle Hill, which is 1800 feet
high, and near Pendle Forest, which is reputed to be the
Scene of the exploits of the Lancashire witches. It has
the ruins of a castle built in the twelfth century. Here
are manufactures of cotton fabrics. It returns one mem-
ber to Parliament. Pop. in 1871, 8217.
Cliftus, or Cleitus [Gr. KXetros], a Macedonian officer
who took part in Alexander’s expedition against Persia,
and saved his life at the battle of the Granicus, in 334
B. C. He enjoyed the favor of Alexander, who appointed
him satrap of Bactria in 328 B. C. In the same year a
dispute occurred at a feast between them, and Alexander,
who was excited with wine, killed Clitus with a spear.
Clitz (HENRY B.), a son of the late Capt. John Clitz,
U. S. A., born in New York, graduated at West Point in
1845, served with honor in the Mexican war as an infantry
officer, was wounded at Yorktown, Va., and Gaines’s MiiI
in 1862, and was taken prisoner in the latter engagement;
Served as commandant of cadets and instructor in tactics
sº
organ of reproduction.
it appears to have been afterwards extended.
at West Point (1862–64), became lieutenant-colonel Sixth
Infantry, and in 1869 colonel Tenth Infantry. In 1865
he was brevetted brigadier-general U. S. Army.
Clitz (John M. B.), U. S. N., born Mar. 10, 1823, in the
State of New York, entered the navy as a midshipman in
1837, became a passed midshipman in 1843, a lieutenant
in 1851, a commander in 1862, a captain in 1866, and a
commodore in 1873. He was actively employed during
the civil war in command of various vessels of the North
Atlantic squadron, frequently in action with batteries on
the James River while co-operating with the army, in
both the Fort Fisher fights, and recommended for promo-
tion by Rear-Admiral Porter in his commendatory despatch
of Jan. 28, 1865. Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Clive (RoPERT), LoRD, the founder of the British su-
premacy in India, was born at Styche, in Shropshire, Sept.
29, 1725. At school he showed little aptitude for learning
and much propensity to mischief. He went to Madras in
1744, and became a clerk in the service of the East India.
Company, then a trading corporation possessing only a few
acres of land. His work here was so uncongenial that he
attempted to kill himself, but his pistol missed fire. War
having broken out between the English and French, he en-
tered the service as an ensign in 1747. In this field he
found scope for his talents, and employment congenial to
his audacious disposition. His military genius and resolute
spirit procured his rapid promotion. In 1750 and 1751 he
defeated the French at Arcot and other places. He made
a voyage to England for his health in 1753, taking with
him his wife, a sister of Maskelyne, the astronomer. In
1755 he returned to India as governor of Fort St. David.
He waged war with success against the nabob Surajah
Dowlah, and took Calcutta, in 1757. In June of that year,
with 3000 men, he gained a decisive victory over the nabob's
army of 60,000 men at the battle of Plassey. For this ser-
vice he was rewarded with the office of governor of Bengal.
He had become immensely rich when he returned to Eng-
land in 1760, and he was raised in 1761 to the Irish peerage
as baron of Plassey. In 1764 he was again sent to India,
with authority to rectify the disorders which prevailed
after his departure from that region. He proved himself
an able administrator, and restored discipline. He returned
to England in 1767. His enemies in Parliament accused
him of having enriched himself by a tyrannical abuse of
power, and a committee was appointed in 1773 to investi-
gate his conduct. This inquest resulted in his acquittal.
He became addicted to the excessive use of opium, and
committed suicide in London Nov. 22, 1774. (See SIR John
MALCOLM, “Life of Lord Clive,” 3 vols., 1836.)
Coa'ca [a Latin word signifying a “sewer;” Fr.
cloaquel, a name applied to the anal orifice of birds, which
also serves for the escape of urine, and is the external
A similar anatomical arrangement
is found in one order of mammals, the Monotremata, in all
reptiles, and in many fishes.
Cloa/ca Maxſima [a Latin phrase meaning the
“largest Sewer”], a subterranean passage through which a
great part of the sewage of ancient Rome was conveyed to
the Tiber. Drains from the parts of the city around the
Forum were commenced by Tarquinius Priscus, but the
construction of the Cloaca Maxima is attributed to Tar-
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Mouth of Cloaca Maxima at Rome.
quinius Superbus. Niebuhr expresses the opinion that it
was at first designed to drain the valley of the Forum, but
Passing































986
CLOCKS.
from the Forum by the temple of Vesta, it terminated in
the Tiber, where the mouth of it is still to be seen. It con-
sists of three large arches, one within the other. The in-
nermost vault is more than thirteen feet in width. The
arches were built of large blocks of tufa, about five feet five
inches long and three feet high, fixed together without ce-
ment. The sewer was kept clear by a stream of water from
the aqueducts. Large portions of this and of other cloacae
remain in some places visible, but they are generally at a
considerable depth below the present level of the streets.
The surveillance of the Roman cloacae was one of the duties
performed by the censors. Notwithstanding its great age,
the Cloaca, Maxima is in admirable preservation.
Clocks. From the earliest period of human history men
have sought for means to measure time. This was not a mat-
ter of such extraordinary importance to the Savage as to the
civilized man, for upon the former there was no pressure to
accomplish any work or employment within a given space
of time. To him, therefore, the divisions of time by the
sun’s rising, setting, and nooning were sufficient, when he
could see them. But very early men began to divide the
day into several portions, and soon the night also. At first,
these divisions were of about three or four hours each.
After a time the division of the night and the day into
twelve hours each was found to be more convenient, and
then there came the necessity for means of measuring these
divisions of time. The first in use was the dial, which by
its shadow on a horizontal plate marked the passage of the
hours by the progress of the sun. But as this could only
be of service in the daytime, and when the skies were not
obscured by clouds, something else was necessary. The
hour-glass, which measured time by the flowing of sand
through a narrow passage from one spherical vessel into
another, and which was so graduated that all the sand would
run out from the upper glass in just an hour, was a very good
instrument to measure the lapse of an hour, but it could not
be depended upon to give the time of day, and required
watchfulness to turn it as soon as the sands had all run
down. King Alfred's device of twelve candles, graduated
so as to burn two hours each, was not much better, and in
some respects even more inconvenient. The clepsydra was
a step in advance of these. It was a water-jar containing
several gallons of water, which ran out from a small grad-
uated orifice in the bottom of the jar at such a rate that the
quantity of water in the jar would be lowered to a certain
marked point each hour, and the jars being filled at sunrise
every day, marked off the hours with tolerable regularity.
As glass was not then used for the jars, the only way of de-
termining the time was by looking into the jar or measur-
ing the depth of the water by a graduated stick. We do
not know just when or by whom these clepsydrae were in-
vented, though they are credited to Greece. They were
introduced at Rome about 158 B. C. by Scipio Nasica.
Eighteen years later they were improved by Ctesibius, by
the addition of a toothed wheel and index driven by the
water which flowed from the bottom of the jar. Thus im-
proved, these water-clocks have been in use in the East for
about two thousand years. In the more enlightened west
of Europe, however, there was a demand for further im-
provements.
The first of these, which possibly came from the Sara-
cens, and perhaps from their Western empire in Spain, was
the substitution of a weight for the water to turn the
toothed wheel. It may have been introduced at a still
earlier date than this, for Archimedes had discovered the
advantage of weights in the turning of small machines
some centuries earlier. But after this substitution there
still remained the difficulty that the weight was not so reg-
ulated as to cause the index to pass over equal spaces of
the dial in equal times. How this difficulty was obviated
during the Dark Ages we have no means of knowing.
There is a record of a clock of very elaborate workmanship
having been sent by Pope Paul I. to King Pepin of France
in 760, and of another being invented by Pacificus, archdea-
con of Genoa, in the ninth century. The invention of an
escapement of some kind is attributed to Gerbert about
A. D. 1000. Though rude, it probably answered the pur-
pose, for within the next 380 years tower-clocks of great
size were set up in Canterbury cathedral (1292), in the
abbey of St. Albans (1326), at Genoa (1353), and one which
struck the hours at Westminster in 1368. The clock whose
construction is best known, and which was undoubtedly
the best timekeeper of any of that period, was that made
by Henry de Vick, a German, and set up in Paris for
Charles W. in 1379. We have deemed the movement of
this clock worthy of a pictorial illustration, as showing
what were the methods of constructing a balance and es-
capement at that time.
the escapement-wheel; the pallets or levers i h having
bevelled edges, and projecting from the suspended upright
spindle or vertical axis K M, on which is fixed the regu-
The toothed or crown-wheel I is .
lator or balance L L, give it a vibratory motion, as the
motion induced by the weight A in uncoiling the cord and
causing the cylinder B to
revolve is communicated to
the various toothed or cog-
wheels, and finally to the
crown or escapement-wheel,
causes them alternately to
strike the teeth of that
wheel. There would still
be an irregularity in these
motions, and a consequent
defect in the clock as a time-
keeper, were it not for the
weights m 'm, placed on the
balance or regulator, and
which, by the distance they
are removed from the spin-
dle, increase or diminish the
resistance of the pallets to
the escapement-wheel. This
was the principle on which
all clocks were made for the
next 270 years, but the Eng-
lish do not scem to have
been successful in making
good timekeepers till 1540,
when one set up at Hamp-
ton Court by an unknown
maker became celebrated
for its accuracy. It was not until a century later (some
time between 1641 and 1658) that either an English clock.
maker named Harris, or the Dutch philosopher Huyghens,
adapted Galileo’s discovery of the substantial isochronism
of the pendulum beats to the marking of time by making
the escapement or crown-wheel horizontal, instead of verti-
cal, and attaching the pallets to the pendulum-rod. Sub-
sequent improvements were made in the escapement, es-
ecially the substituting the anchor escapement for that of
uyghens by Dr. Hooke, 1666–80, and the further im-
provement of this in the dead-beat escapement of George
Graham, invented in 1700, in which the arms of the escape-
ment are set at right angles, and the outer surface of the
pallet B and the inner surface of the pallet C are arcs of
circles, of which A, the point of attachment to the pen-
dulum-rod, is the centre. This ensured great accuracy as
timekeepers. Other escapements,
as the duplex, detached, pin-wheel,
gravity, etc., have been devised,
but have not come into very gen-
eral use, and are not, perhaps, pre-
ferable in all respects to Graham’s.
Other improvements have been at-
tempted in the pendulum itself.”
These have been mainly in the
matter of compensation for the
expansion and contraction of the
pendulum-rod by heat and cold.
Graham's mercurial compensation pendulum, invented in
1715, in which a tube or ball having mercury in it was
substituted for the bob of the pendulum, and the gridiron
pendulum of Harrison, invented in 1726, composed of five
rods of steel and four of brass, which, expanding differ-
Gntly, compensated by their action for the changes induced
by heat or cold, were the principal of these.
The American clockmakers, retaining the dead-beat es-
FIG. 2.
... capement, made the pendulum-rod of wood and covered it
with gold-leaf; and this has been found to be as effectual a
contrivance as either the mercurial or gridiron pendulum.
In the cheaper clocks, where absolute accuracy is not so
important, they have obtained substantial accuracy by
turning a screw thread upon the lower end of the pendulum-
rod, and putting upon this a nut, which, while it holds the
sliding pendulum-bob in place, can by one or two turns
regulate it in accordance with the temperature of the sea-
son. To accommodate what is known as the cycloidal
curve in the arc described by the pendulum, its attachment
to the pinion moved by the weights, or afterward by the
spring, was made by hammering its upper end into a thin
slip of steel which passed into a slit in the pinion, and
was held in place by two little cheeks or projections at the
top. While the workmanship was gradually perfected, the
principles on which clocks were made in England, France,
and Germany have not changed, except in a single partic-
ular—that of a substitution of steel springs for weights—
from the beginning of the eighteenth century to the pres-
ent time. Even now, very considerable numbers of these
brass-wheel clocks, with weights, and standing in a case
six feet high, are still made, and some of them are still ex-
ported to the U. S. The manufacture of this description
of clocks was introduced into this country before the Rev-


CLOCKS. 987
olutionary war, but comparatively few were made, though these soon lost what little temper they had, and so did
of good workmanship. their purchasers. An elliptic steel spring connected with
About 1792, Eli Terry, then residing in Norwich, Conn., a fusee was tried, but with no better success. Finally, a
but subsequently engaged in clockmaking at Plymouth, new and completely successful process of making a superior
Conn., made, it is believed, the first clock with wooden steel spring was invented in this country; and the springs
wheels ever made in this country or elsewhere. Mr. Terry thus produced have for many years been sold at a price com-
had learned his trade from Thomas Harland, an English patible with their use in cheap clocks. This, together with
clockmaker who had established himself at Norwich in the cheapening by machine-labor of the production of all
1773. In 1793 Mr. Terry commenced the manufacture of parts of the clocks, has led to their very general introduc-
both wooden and brass-wheel clocks at Plymouth, and con- tion, and to the reduction of the size of clocks, till now
tinued the business there and in Naugatuck for many twenty-four of the smallest sized pendulum clocks can be
years. The wooden-wheel clocks were good timekeepers, packed in a box of one cubic foot in dimensions. One result
and were generally preferred to the brass-wheel clocks. of this reduction in the size and price of clocks was an
They were sold in large quantities by peddlers in all parts enormous increase in the demand for them, both in this
of the country, and generally without the case, which was and foreign countries. Clocks to run thirty hours were
a separate expense, being made by the cabinetmaker. From made which sold in quantities at nine dollars the dozen,
1806 to 1815 the number of clockmakers largely increased and a fair eight-day clock at forty-eight dollars the dozen.
(Messrs. Seth Thomas, Silas Hoadley, Herman Clark, Asa In 1852 there were thirty-one clock companies in exist-
Hopkins, and others engaging in the business), and many ence, of which nine failed, four were burned out, and five
thousands were made. In 1814, Mr. Terry invented what closed their business as unprofitable within the next five
was known as the “short shelf-clock,” in which, by a | years. But these companies in 1853 and 1854 made im-
change of arrangement and smaller weights, the pendulum mense sales, the Jerome Manufacturing Company alone
being brought forward and greatly shortened, and the shipping 440,000 clocks per annum. Since the reorganiza-
Weights being carried and run on each side, the whole was tion of the business there are only fifteen or sixteen firms
reduced to a more compact form, and clock and case were engaged in it, all but two or three of them in Connecticut;
sold together for a moderate price. This modification was the number of clocks made is about 1,200,000, and their
adopted by other manufacturers, and soon became general. value not less than $3,500,000. They are exported very
These clocks were made with wooden wheels, but after the largely to all the countries of Europe, to China and Japan,
introduction of rolled brass into the market, machinery was to India, Western Asia, Egypt, South Africa, and to Mexico
invented by which the blank wheels of the clock could be and most of the South American states. But while Amer–
struck out of the rolled brass with a die, and the teeth after- ican manufacturers have thus supplied the world with
wards cut by machinery, and the brass-wheel clocks could cheap but serviceable clocks, they have not, until within a
be made cheaper than wooden ones. few years past, been able to compete successfully with
The next improvement was the substitution of coiled European manufacturers in the finer and high-priced
steel springs for the weights, thus assimilating the clock grades.
to the watch. This has been done in Europe for two hun- Tower clocks, which until within the past twenty years
dred years, but only with the most costly parlor clocks, were imported, are now made of excellent quality by A.
and the springs used were equal in quality to the best S. Hotchkiss for the Seth Thomas Clock Company, the
watch-springs. Of course, this would not answer for cheap Howard Watch and Clock Company, Charles Fasold, and
clocks for the million, and various experiments were tried by several other firms. Cut No. 3 represents the move-
with cheap springs. Coiled brass springs were used, but I ment of one of the Hotchkiss tower clocks erected in Steu-
FIG. 3.
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able timekeepers. They have the pin-wheel escapement
(very clearly delineated on the second and third Gross-
bars), the pins having an ingenious contrivance of a shoul-
benville, 0., and a similar one is on the City Hall, New
York. The clocks are remarkable for their accuracy and
the perfection of their mechanism, and have proved admir-

















































































































































































—i-
988
CLOCKVILLE-CLONTARF.
der to keep the oil upon them; and also a very remarkable
arrangement (at the right of the figure) for regulating
automatically the gas-jets which illumine the face of the
clock, so that they may burn any required number of
hours. Regulators, formerly imported in all cases, are now
made of the best quality by the Howard Watch and Clock
Company of Boston. Regulator clocks are also made by
the Seth Thomas Clock Company of Thomaston, Conn.,
the William L. Gilbert Clock Company of Winsted, the
Waterbury Clock Company, and Welch, Spring & Co. The
wooden pendulum-rod, covered with gold-leaf, which is one
of the characteristics of these regulator clocks, is, we be-
lieve, an invention of Mr. Silas B. Terry, a son of the
pioneer in American clockmaking, and himself for forty-
five years in the business. The French parlor or mantel
clock, a costly and beautiful ornament to the homes of the
wealthy, had so long been imported that it was considered
hopeless to attempt to compete with it; but since 1866
Messrs. Seth Thomas' Sons & Co. have been engaged in
the manufacture of these articles, and have produced clocks
which in the perfection of their workmanship, their accu-
racy as timekeepers, and the elegance and variety of their
patterns, as well as in their moderate price, compete so
favorably with the foreign parlor clock that they have well-
nigh driven it from the market. The illustrations show
some of the styles of these clocks in bronze; the marble
FIG. 5.
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styles are equally tasteful a
Company at Waterbury have also commenced the manufac-
ture of a neat parlor cloek. Of other special kinds of clocks
we may name the calendar clock, first successfully made for
the general market in this country, which gives the day
of the week and month, and sometimes the changes of the
moon; the marine clock, a watch on a large scale, which,
properly made, is an excellent timekeeper; the railroad
clock, which is of similar but somewhat more delicate con- .
struction, and with a compensating arrangement for the
jar to which it is exposed, etc., etc. The electric or mag-
netic clock belongs properly to the departments of astron-
omy and telegraphy. The mechanism for striking the
hours or half or quarter hours, in most clocks, is complicated
and not readily understood without careful drawings. (For
the facts relative to American clockmaking we are indebted
to Henry Terry, Esq., of the Terry Clock Company of
Waterbury, Conn., and Seth E. Thomas, Esq., of Seth
Thomas' Sons & Co. and the Seth Thomas Clock Company
of New York.) L. P. BROCKETT.
Clockſville, a post-village of Lenox township, Madi-
son co., N.Y., has a woollen mill and other manufactories.
Clo/dius (PUBLIUs), surnamed PULCHER (i.e. “hand-
some *), a profligate Roman tribune and patrician, was a
brother of Appius Claudius Pulcher. (See CLAUDIUs.) In
62 B.C. he committed sacrilege by intruding himself, dis-
guised as a woman, into the mysteries of Bona Dea. At
his trial for this offence he attempted to prove that he was
not in Rome at that time, but Cicero testified that he saw
Clodius in Rome on that day, and thus incurred his enmity.
Clodius was acquitted by means of bribery, and was elected
tribune of the people in 59 B.C. He persecuted Cicero by
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the enactment of a law that he should be interdicted from
fire and water. He was killed in an encounter with Milo,
his political enemy, in 52 B.C.
Chois’ter [from the Lat. clawstrum, an “enclosure;”
|Fr. cloitre; Ger. Kloster], a term which originally denoted
a covered ambulatory running round certain portions of
monastic and collegiate buildings, but it was subsequently
often applied to any monastic establishment. The cloisters
usually ran along three sides of a quadrangle, called the
garth. The roof, often vaulted, was supported by pillars
and arches. The portions of these arches above the mul-
lions were often glazed, and sometimes the whole arches,
so that they became windows. Cloisters were used for ex-
ercise and recreation. Often, when glazed, they had stalls
for study, and frequently a stone bench, on the inner side.
Clonmel', a parliamentary borough of Ireland, is on
both sides of the river Suir, 14 miles S. S. E. of Cashel. It
is mostly in the county of Tipperary, and partly in that
of Waterford. The Suir is here crossed by several bridges,
one of which has twenty arches. It has a church of the
twelfth century. There is a trade in grain, cattle, and
butter, also manufactures of cotton. In 1650 Cromwell
demolished the castle. Pop. in 1871, 9484.
Clonmel, EARLs of (1793), Wiscounts Clonmel (1789),
and Barons Earlsfort (Ireland, 1784).-JoAN HENRY REG-
INALD SCOTT, fourth earl, born Mar. 2, 1839, succeeded his
father in Feb., 1866.
Clontarf", a town and bathing-place of Ireland, on the
sea, 3 miles E. N. E. of Dublin. Here, in 1014, Brian Boru
gained a great victory over the Danes. Near this town is
Clontarf Castle, the residence of the Vernon family. Pop.
7814.















CLOOTZ-CLOVER.
989
Clootz (JEAN BAPTISTE), BARON, a visionary character
of the French revolution, born near Cleves, Prussia, June
24, 1755. Taking the name of Anacharsis, he traversed
Europe, proclaiming the brotherhood of the human race.
He contributed large sums to the French republican cause,
to which he looked for the fulfilment of his hopes of uni-
versal freedom. He was expelled from the Jacobin Club
at the instigation of Robespierre, and guillotined for a fic-
titious offence Mar. 23, 1794.
Clopſtin, a post-township of Dale co., Ala. Pop. 800.
Close-Hauled, in navigation, is the mode in which
the sails are arranged in order to make the ship move in a
direction the nearest possible towards that point of the
compass from which the wind blows. In the thorough at-
tainment of this result, much, of course, depends upon the
shape of the vessel.
Clos/ter, a thriving post-village of Harrington town-
ship, Bergen co., N.J., on the Northern R. R. of New "ersey,
19% miles N. of Jersey City.
Clot. See BLOOD and CoAGULATION.
Clothaire H., born in 497 A.D., was the fourth son of
Clovis, king of the Franks. He became king of Soissons
in 511, when the dominions of Clovis were divided among
his sons. By murdering two of his nephews he obtained
the sovereignty of Austrasia, and Orleans, and reigned at
Paris over all the former dominions of Clovis. He died in
561 A. D., leaving four sons—Caribert, Gontran, Sigebert,
and Chilperic I., who divided the realm between them.
Clothaire II., a son of Chilperie I., was a minor when
he inherited the kingdom of Soissons in 584 A.D. His
mother Frédégonde was regent until 597. He put to death
Brunehaut, queen of Austrasia, and usurped the throne of
that country in 613 A. D. He thus became sovereign of
all France. Died in 628 A. D. He was one of the Mero-
vingian dynasty.
Clothes-Moth. See MOTH.
Cloºtho, in classic mythology, one of the PARCAE (which
See).
Clotho, an asteroid discovered by Tempel in 1868.
Clotho (a serpent). See PUFF ADDER.
Clotil'da, SAINT, queen of France, was a daughter of
Chilperic, king of Burgundy. She was married in 493
A. D. to Clovis I., whom she induced to profess the Chris-
tian religion in 496. She opposed Arianism. Died in 545
A. D
Cloud, a county in the N. of Kansas. Area, 720 square
miles. It is intersected by the Republican River. The
surface is nearly level or undulating. Grain, tobacco, and
wool are raised. Capital, Concordia. Pop. 2323.
Clouds [Lat. nwbes] are collections of extremely minute
particles of water suspended in the atmosphere. These
particles are often, in consequence of the great elevation
at which they float, in a frozen state, even in summer. It
is now known that when masses of air fully charged with
aqueous vapor, but at different temperatures, come in con-
tact with each other and mix, the space occupied by the
resulting mass will be overcharged, and the vapor, which
was invisible so long as completely mingled with the air,
becomes precipitated, so to speak, in the form of water-dust,
and then takes the appearance of fog or cloud. Why these
minute particles remain suspended in the atmosphere, and
do not descend as similar particles of earth would do, has not
yet been satisfactorily explained. Some have conjectured
that the watery particles are hollow, like soap-bubbles. But
this—supposing it to be true, of which there is no proof–
would not account for their suspension unless they were filled
with a gas lighter than the surrounding air. It is not im-
probable that electricity, which appears to exert so great
an influence in giving the different kinds of clouds their
form and character, may be the principal agency by which
these various collections of water-dust are kept suspended at
different elevations, according to the character of the cloud.
The only difference between fog and cloud is that while
the latter remains high in the atmosphere, the former seems
to rest upon the earth; in other words, fog is simply cloud
close at hand. Hence, when a cloud high up in the air
strikes against the side of a mountain, to a person at that
point on the mountain it appears precisely like fog.
To clouds in their infinitely varied forms we are indebted
for some of the most glorious scenes that nature ever pre-
sents to the eye of man; and a landscape, however beau-
tiful, seems incomplete unless the accompaniment of clouds
is added to the picture. (For a particular account of the
different kinds of clouds, and their connection with the
changes of the weather, the reader is referred to METEOR-
oLOGY.)
Clough (ARTHUR HUGH), an English poet, born at Liv-
crpool Jan. 1, 1819, was educated at Rugby. He was one
of Dr. Arnold’s favorite pupils. His distinguished school-
fellow, Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, who has written a valu-
able notice of Clough, says that “over the career of none
of his pupils did Arnold watch with a livelier interest or a
more sanguine hope.” From Rugby he passed to Oxford,
where “he carried away the Balliol scholarship with a re-
nown beyond that of any of his predecessors.” From Bal-
liol he was elected to a fellowship at Oriel, and he remained
at Oxford until 1848, when a sense that he had done his
work there, and that he was a little too alien in speculative
and in practical thought from the tone of the university to
be of further use or to find a fit abode there—that he might
honorably seek a more unshackled career without—led
Clough to withdraw from Oriel. In 1848 appeared his first
published poem, “The Bothie of Tober-na-Wuolich : a
Long-Vacation Pastoral,” which was quickly recognized as
a work of remarkable power and beauty. But it was some-
thing besides a successful literary venture. If it has been
called Clough’s “Farewell to Oxford,” it is because it is
revolutionary; it shows that the thought of his time had
awakened strong echoes in his nature; that if he had not
broken with the ancient past—which he had not, and which
he never could—he at least was ready to go forth with
hearty confidence to meet the present, and to take an active
part in the real business of life. “A sense of fresh, healthy
mamliness; a scorn of base and selfish motives; a frank ad-
miration for common life; a love of earth, not only for its
earthly sake, but for the divine and the eternal interfused
in it—such, and other such,” says Palgrave, “are the im–
pressions left.” The poem is written in English hexameters,
which have a certain wild flavor that is very stimulating.
“Viewed critically, Clough’s work is wanting in art; the
language and the thought are often unequal and incom-
plete; the poetical fusion into a harmonious whole imper-
fect. It is poetry, however, which belongs to a very un-
common class : it should be judged by the thoughts awak-
ened, rather than by the mode of expressing them.” After
his withdrawal from Oxford in 1848, Clough spent a year
or two in travel on the Continent, going as far as the Ital-
ian lakes. On his return he published in 1849 a series of
poems of which the earliest date back to 1840, under the
title of “Ambarvalia.” This collection contains many
striking pieces, revealing the depth and earnestness of
Clough's nature, with much of that tenderness which his
friends declare to have been so notable a characteristic of
his, and also a strong tendency, by no means incompatible
with this, toward sarcasm.
His tutorship at Oxford relinquished, he passed from one
employment to another: was warden of University Hall,
Tondon; came to America, and resided here 'for a few
months in 1852; returned to England to accept an appoint-
ment in the education department of the privy council
office; went to France and Vienna in 1856 on duties con-
nected with the secretaryship to the commission of report
on military education ; and in leisure hours gradually com-
pleted the long revision of Dryden’s translation of Plutarch
begun in America, comparing that inaccurate though spir-
ited text throughout with the original, and retouching it
with a skill and taste in which his careful study of Chaucer
and our early literature gave him a special mastery.
Meanwhile, with his usual emergetic sympathy for all
that touched the welfare of the poor and the wretched, he
undertook much anxious work to assist his wife’s cousin,
Florence Nightingale, in her own arduous labors. His
health, never very robust, gave way, and by the advice of
his physicians he went on a journey to Greece and Constan-
tinople, and returned much benefited. A second journey
to Auvergne and the Pyrenees, and then to Italy in com-
pany with Mr. and Mrs. Alfred Tennyson, undertaken with
the hope of completing the good work of the former, was
not so fortunate. Near the Italian lakes he was struck by
the malaria, and pushed on with difficulty to Florence,
where fever carried him off, Nov. 13, 1861. Clough con-
tributed several papers of value to the “North American
Review,” and to the “Atlantic Monthly ” one of his best
poems, “Amours de Voyage.” While here he made one of
an intimate circle of the most cultivated Scholars and men
of letters in Boston and Cambridge. He was beloved here,
as at home, for the noble beauty of his character, as well
as respected for the range and thoroughness of his attain-
ments. He is come to be reckoned one of the chief names
of the time in poetry; his reputation has steadily risen, and
Emerson’s words in 1848 are like to be justified: “He will
make Tennyson look to his laurels.” CLARENCE COOK.
Clove Bark. See CULILAWAN BARK.
Cio/ver [from a root akin to cleave, cloven, because the
leaves are parted or cleft], or Tre/foil (i.e. “having three
leaves”), (Trifolium), a genus of plants of the order Legu-
minosae, containing many species, some of them very im-
portant in agriculture. The name is popularly extended
990
CLOVER—CLUB.
to plants not included in this genus, but belonging to the
same order, and having the leaves formed of three leaflets.
The true clovers (Trifolium) have herbaceous, not twining
stems, roundish heads or oblong spikes of small flowers,
the pod containing one or two, rarely three or four, seeds.
Twenty native or naturalized species belong to Great Brit-
aim, and more than twelve species to the U. S., most of
them natives. The most important is the common red
ëlover (Trifolium pratense), a native of Europe, growing
in meadows and pastures. Its heads of flowers are nearly
globular, very compact, about an inch in diameter, purplish-
erimson, flesh-colored, or whitish. The leaflets have often
a whitish horseshoe mark in the centre. The zigzag clover
(Trifolium medium) resembles the common red clover, but
is distinguished by the smooth tube of the calyx, and by
the broader, less membranaceous, and acuminated stipules.
The stems are more rigid than in Trifolium pratense ; the
heads of flowers larger, more nearly globose, and of a
deeper purple color; and the leaflets have no white spot.
It is common in Europe, and grows in the U. S. White
clover (Trifolium repens) is a common native of Europe
and also of North America. Alsike clover (Trifolium hy-
bridum), a perennial, regarded by some as intermediate be-
tween the common red and the white clover, has of late at-
tained a very high reputation. It was introduced from the
south of Sweden. Crimson or Italian clover (Trifolium incar-
natum), an annual, native of the south of Europe, with oblong
spikes of rich crimson flowers, is much cultivated in Europe,
producing a heavy crop. Egyptian clover (Trifolium Alez-
andrinum), an annual species, a native of Egypt, where it
is the principal fodder for cattle, is supposed to be one of
the best kinds of clover. It has oval heads of pale-yellow
or whitish flowers. Yellow clover, or hop trefoil (Trifo-
Čium procumbens), is common on dry gravelly soils in
Great Britain and the U. S., but not much esteemed. The
Trifolium refleacwm, or buffalo clover of the U. S., deserves
the attention of agriculturists.
Clover is now very frequently cultivated in alternation
with grain crops. The kinds most generally sown are the
Common red, white, and alsike. The common red clover is
the finest and most valuable. It frequently grows well on
Sandy loams, though sown every alternate year on the same
land. But in some places the land becomes “ clover-sick”
when sown too frequently with this crop. From ten to
twenty pounds of seed are usually sown upon an acre.
Red clover is much valued for hay. When it grows well,
it bears to be cut more than once in a year. White clover
is esteemed for pasture; it grows short and thick on the
ground, and throws out stems and flowers during the most
of the growing season. Alsike clover has been recently in-
troduced; it rises much higher than white clover, and prom-
ises to be a useful addition to our pasture-plants. White
and alsike clovers are valuable for bee-pasture. Clovers
perform an important part in restoring fertility to ex-
hausted land. They are often ploughed under when green,
and thus greatly benefit worn-out soils. Their leaves
gather food from the atmosphere, which they store up in
their roots and stems, and these on decomposing afford
food for crops which are more dependent on the soil itself.
The chief profit in raising clover is in the increased value
of the manures it yields, which are highly nitrogenous.
Clover, a township of Henry co., Ill. Pop. 1695.
Clover, a township of Jefferson co., Pa. Pop. 868.
Clo’verdale, a post-township of Sonoma co., Cal. Pop.
612. - - -
Cloverdale, a township and post-village of Putnam
co., Ind., on the Louisville New Albany and Chicago R. R.,
II miles S. S. E. of Greencastle. Pop. 1740.
Clover Hill, a township and village of Appomattox
co., Va., 2 miles N. E. of Appomattox. Pop. 3840.
Clover Hill, a township and village of Chesterfield co.,
Va. The village is on a $. of the Richmond Fred-
ericksburg and Potomac R. R., 8 miles W. of Chesterfield.
Pop. 3210. • *
Clo’verport, a post-village of Breckinridge co., Ky.,
110 miles below Louisville, on the Ohio. Coal is found in
the vicinity. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 849.
Clover Valley, a township of Elko co., Nev. Pop. 80.
Cloves [from the Sp. clavo, i. e. a “nail,” so called
from its resemblance to a nail], the smoked and dried
flower-buds of the clove tree (Caryophyllus aromaticus),
of the order Myrtaceae. The tree is from fifteen to
forty feet high, with a beautiful pyramidal head. The
leaves are large, ovate-oblong, and evergreen; the flowers
are produced in great profusion. Leaves, flowers, and bark
have an aromatic odor. The fruit sometimes appears in
commerce in a dried state under the name of “mother
cloves;” it has an odor and flavor similar to cloves, but
weaker. The flower-buds are gathered, and are dried by
%
the smoke of wood-fires, and afterwards by the Sun, or by
the latter alone. The clove tree is a native of the Moluc-
cas, and the Bencoolen and Amboyna cloves are the best;
but they are now cultivated in Sumatra, Zanzibar, Mau-
ritius, the West Indies, Brazil, and Guiana. The Dutch, to
secure to their colonists a monopoly of this spice, once de-
stroyed the trees in the other Molucca Islands, and con-
fined the cultivation to the isle of Ternate. Before the dis-
covery of the Spice Islands merchants brought them from
Arabia, Persia, and Egypt to the Mediterranean.
Their aromatic qualities depend on two essential oils,
which together form one-seventh of the weight of the
cloves. The oil is obtained by repeatedly distilling with
water, when two oils pass over—one of which is lighter
and the other is heavier than water. The oil has a hot,
acrid taste, is of a light yellow color when pure, and brown
when not carefully prepared. It is a mixture of eugenic
acid (H.C10H1102) and a hydrocarbon (C10H16), isomeric
with oil of turpentine. It is soluble in ether, alcohol, and
the fixed oils. It is useful in medicine to check nausea
and griping caused by the administration of purgatives,
and as a remedy for toothache.
REVISED BY C. F. CHANDLER.
Clo/vis [Lat. Clodovaeus] I., called also Chlodwig
(probably allied to the German Ludwig, “Lewis”), king
of the Franks, was born in 465 A. D. He was the son and
successor of Childeric, who reigned at Tournay and died in
481. By a victory over the Romans and Gauls in 486
A. D., Clovis obtained possession of Soissons, which then
became his capital. He married in 493 Clotilda, a Chris-
tian princess, and about three years later, through her in-
fluence, was converted to the new faith and baptized. In
507 he defeated Alaric, king of the Visigoths, in a great
battle near Poitiers. By this victory he added Aquitaine
to his dominions. He chose Paris as his capital in 507.
He died in 511 A. D., and France was then divided among
his four sons—Thierri, Clodomir, Childeric, and Clothaire.
His descendants are called Merovingians, from Merovig,
the grandfather of Clovis. (See WIALLON, “Clovis, le grand
premier Roi Chrétien,” 3 vols., 1788.)
Clowes (TIMOTHY), LL.D., an American Episcopalian
divine and scholar, graduated at Columbia College in 1808.
He was distinguished as a mathematician. In 1823 he
became president of Washington College, Md., and was for
many years a prominent educator of youth. Died at Hemp-
stead, Long Island, in 1847.
Clown [from the Lat. colonus, a “husbandman’], a
term originally applied to a rustic, now quite generally
designates a professional jester or buffoon. In dramatic
literature it is frequently the title of a prince's jester or
court-fool (Ger. Hofnarr; Fr. fou; Sp. gracioso; It. buffo),
a privileged character at European courts in former times.
Club [etymology uncertain], an association of persons
for some common purpose, as of politics, literature, etc.,
denoting especially a body meeting for social purposes, and
consisting of members belonging for the most part to some
one class. Club-life in London had its origin in the days
of Elizabeth, when the Mermaid tavern, in Fleet street, en-
livened by Shakspeare, Raleigh, Ben Jonson, Beaumont,
and Fletcher, became the home of a sort of club. Jonson
afterwards founded a club at the Devil tavern, Fleet street.
These were informal social meetings to which all were wel-
come who could bring humor or wit. In the last century
clubs named after the proprietors of the houses in which
the meetings were held were established by politicians in
England.
After the close of the great European war in 1815 many
officers, no longer needed for war, were placed upon half-
pay; and this pay was insufficient to support them without
careful economy. If they could dine at a club, it would be
cheaper than if each maintained a separate establishment.
Hence arose the United Service Club; and the success of this
speedily led to others for different classes and for persons
of different political opinions. At the present time there
are in London sixty-eight great clubs. Each club com-
prises a definite number of members; and this number
cannot be exceeded. The members pay a sum of money
on entrance and an annual subscription. The clubs usually
comprise news-rooms, libraries, dining-rooms, and draw-
ing-rooms. There are arrangements for the members to
sleep at certain establishments called club-chambers, which,
however, are not properly clubs. Some of the clubs are
furnished with bath, billiard, and smoking rooms. The
restaurant is usually very complete; everything is of the
best, and is supplied to members nearly at cost. In nearly
all hard drinking is discouraged. Some of the club-houses
rank among the most elegant buildings in London. Some-
what similar organizations exist in the larger cities of the
U. S., especially in New York, but their extent and influ-
ence are much smaller than in England. The clubs which
t
CLUE-FOOT-CLYMER.
991
sprang up in France after 1789 were not clubs in the Eng-
lish sense of the word, but meetings of the great political
arties. -
p Club-Foot (Talipes). This deformity is mostly con-
genital, and usually affects both sides. The inner margin
of the foot is elevated, the external one depressed and
touches the ground. The middle and anterior portions of
the foot are retarded in their growth, and its joints become
immovable (ankylotic). The deformity becomes more pro-
nounced when the child begins to walk, sometimes to such
an extent that the upper part of the foot takes the place of
the sole. At the same time the muscles of the leg become
emaciated, and lose their muscular texture altogether. The
cause has been sought for in diseases of the brain or spinal
cord contracted before birth, or by continued pressure in
the womb. But a more rational explanation is yielded by
the consideration of the early condition of the foetus. The
lower extremities are first formed (about the end of the first
month of pregnancy) on the anterior aspect of the abdomen
of the foetus, under the skin, in such a manner that the
knee-pit is looking towards the abdomen. In order to
assume its normal shape the whole extremity, including
the foot, has to turn round its axis. When this process, as
far as the foot is concerned, remains incomplete, club-foot
is the result. A mild degree of club-foot is perceptible in
every foetus about the fourth or fifth month of pregnancy.
Some cases are the result of an abnormal obliquity of the
small bones of the tarsus (posterior portion) of the foot,
and a primary shortness of the gastrocnemius muscle of
the leg. Club-foot, when acquired after birth, results from
paralysis of the extensors of the foot. In that case the
action of the flexors results in the same deformity. Mild
cases require but little treatment. Manual stretching of
the foot, proper bandaging, the application of a splint or
plaster of Paris, are often sufficient. More serious cases
require the cutting of one or more of the flexors (tendo
achillis, plantar aponeurosis, anterior tibial muscles), with
bandaging or the wearing of an appropriate apparatus
(Scarpa's shoe). A. JACOBI.
Club-Mosses, or Ground-Pines (Lycopodiaceae),
a natural order of cryptogamous plants (acrogens), in some
species resembling the Coniferae in general aspect, but fre-
quently having something of the habit of the mosses. They
also approach the ferns through Ophioglossum, in their re-
production. The genera are few, the living species quite
numerous. The genus Lycopodium yields the drug lyco-
podium, a fine inflammable powder consisting of the spo-
rules of the plant. This article is much used in pharmacy
and in pyrotechnics. Many of the tropical species have
active poisonous properties, and some have been used in
medicine. Many of our native species are very beautiful,
and are much used in Christmas decoration. The fossil
plants of this order were often mighty trees (Lepidoden-
dron), and seem to have furnished much material for the
oldest coal deposits. At the other extreme must be placed
the curious grass-like quill-worts (Jsoëtes), which are mostly
small aquatic plants of singular habit. C. W. GREENE.
Clu’miacs, or Congregation of Clugny, a reform-
ed Benedictine congregation, founded in 909 at Cluny in
France. It rapidly spread, and at one time had more than
2000 convents, with immense wealth. It began to decay in
the thirteenth century. It was finally suppressed in 1790
by the French Constituent Assembly.
Cluny, formerly Clugny (anc. Cluniacum), a town of
France, department of Sãone-et-Loire, on the Gröne, here
crossed by two stone bridges, 14 miles N. W. of Mâcon.
Here are the remains of a rich and famous Benedictine
abbey, founded in 910 A. D. Cluny has manufactures of
gloves, lace, linen, paper, and pottery. Pop. in 1866, 4253.
Cluny, Hôtel de. See APPENDIx. -
Clupe'idae [from Clupea (herring), perhaps the most
important of its general, a family of malacopterous fishes
allied to the Salmonidae, and distinguished from them chiefly
by the absence of an adipose fin. The scales are easily
detached. The fins are without spinous rays. The gill-
openings are very large; the teeth small and generally
numerous; the maxillary bones of three pieces easily sepa-
rated; the body generally long; the air-bladder is always
large; the roe consists of a vast number of eggs. A few
of the fishes of this family ascend rivers, the rest are exclu-
sively marine. They generally appear in shoals, and some
of them periodically visit certain coasts in great numbers.
They are found in many parts of the world, some species
especially having a wide geographic range. To this family
with its widest limits belong the herring, shad, pilchard,
anchovy, sardine, etc., but the latest authorities divide it
into several families.
Cluseret (GUSTAvH. PAUL), a French revolutionist,
born June 13, 1823, resigned in 1858 his place as captain
in the French army because he had adopted the principles
four miles wide.
of Mazzini. In 1859 he served under Garibaldi, and in
1861 entered the volunteer army of the U. S., in which he
became in 1862 a brigadier-general. In 1864 he published
in New York the “New Nation,” to urge the nomination
of Fremont for the presidency. His attempts, in 1870, to
proclaim in Lyons and Marseilles the “Red Republic”
failed. In Mar., 1871, the Communists of Paris appointed
him chief of the war department; on May 1 he was de-
posed, arrested, and impeached, but after a few days set
free, and fled to England.
Clu’sia [so called in honor of the botanist Lécluse or
Clusius], the name of a genus of small tropical trees and
shrubs of the order Clusiaceae. Some of them are called
balsam trees, from their resinous or balsamic products.
They are often epiphytes, growing on larger trees, over the
bark of which they send their roots in search of decayed
parts from which they may extract nourishment; some-
times a root is sent to the ground, and becomes a kind of
stem. According to good authorities, they are spinetimes
parasitical. Clusia rosea, a native of the West Iñdies and
tropical America, yields an abundant resin, which is used
in medicine and for covering boats instead of pitch. A
resin which exudes in large quantities from the disk of the
flowers of Clusia insignis, known as the wax-flower of De-
merara, is used to make a gently-stimulating and soothing
plaster. Clusia flava, or yellow balsam tree, grows in
Southern Florida, and the West Indies. It abounds in a
yellow resin or balsam, which has medicinal qualities, and
is largely used in the West Indies instead of pitch.
Clus/tered Col’umns, or Compound Piers, form
one of the richest features in Gothic ecclesiastical archi-
tecture. The columns or shafts are sometimes attached to
each other throughout their whole length, sometimes only
at the base and the capital. When surrounded by floriated
fillets they are compared by Sir Walter Scott to “bundles
of lances that garlands have bound.”
Cºutts’ ville, a township of Madison co., Ala. P. 1311.
Ciu’ver (PHILIP), a learned geographer, born at Dantzic
in 1580. He published an “Introduction to Universal
Geography, Ancient and Modern '' (1629; best ed. Amster-
dam, 1729), “Germania Antiqua,” and “Italia Antiqua.”
(1624). Died in 1623.
Clyde, the principal river on the W. coast of Scotland,
celebrated for the beauty of its scenery, rises in the Low-
ther and Moffat Hills. It drains the counties of Lamark,
Renfrew, and Dumbarton, and flows generally in a N. W.
direction. Near the town of Lamark occur the Falls of the
Clyde, a series of cascades and rapids. The river descends
230 feet in a course of six miles over old red sandstone
rocks, amid very picturesque scenery. The highest of
these cascades is Corra Limm, forming three distinct leaps,
in all eighty-four feet high. At Glasgow the Clyde be-
comes navigable for large vessels, and at Greenock it is
Below Greenock it flows southward, and
expands into the Frith of Clyde, which is about thirty miles
wide. Its length is 75 miles, not including the frith.
Clyde, a post-village of Cloud co., Kan. It is on the
Republican River, and has one weekly newspaper.
Clyde, a township of Whitesides co., Ill. Pop. 1093.
Clyde, a township of Allegan co., Mich. Pop. 298.
Clyde, a township of St. Clair co., Mich. Pop. 1176.
Clyde, a post-village of Wayne co., N. Y., on the Erie
Canal, and on the Clyde River where it is crossed by the
Central R. R., 44 miles E. of Rochester. It has six churches,
two banks, one newspaper, a manufactory of glass, and
several malthouses. Pop. 2735. ED. CLYDE “TIMES.”
Clyde, a post-village of Sandusky co., O., at the junc-
tion of the Lake shore and Michigan Southern and the
Cincinnati Sandusky and Cleveland R. R.S. It has a news-
paper and various manufactures.
W. W. WHITE, IED. CLYDE “INDEPENDENT.”
Clyde, a township of Iowa co., Wis. Pop. 1124.
Clyde, Lord. See CAMPBELL (COLIN).
Cly/man, a township and post-village of Dodge co.,
Wis. The village is on the Chicago and North-western
R. R., 8 miles N. of Watertown and 138 miles N. W. of
Chicago. Pop. of township, 1426. -
Cly/mer, a township and post-village of Chautauqua
co., N. Y. The village is on the Buffalo Corry and Pitts-
burg R. R., 83 miles S. W. of Buffalo. Pop. of township,
1486.
Clymer, a township of Tioga, co., Pa. Pop. 1079.
Ciymer (GEORGE), an American statesman, born in
Philadelphia in 1739. He was elected to the Continental
Congress in 1776, and signed the Declaration of Independ-
ence. He was re-elected a member of Congress in 1780,
and was a member of the convention which formed the
992
CLYTAEMNESTRA –COAL.
Federal Constitution in 1787. He was the founder of the
Pennsylvania Agricultural Society. Died July 23, 1813.
Clytaemmes/tra, or Clytemnestra [Gr. KAvratu-
via Tpa), the wife of Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, was a
sister of Castor and of Helen. She became the paramour
of AEgisthus, and murdered Agamemnon on his return
from Troy. She was killed by her son Orestes.
Cni’cin, or Centau’rin (C14H1805?), the bitter prin-
ciple of Cnicus, or Centaurea benedictus. It is in odorless,
silky needles, having a pure bitter taste. (See BLESSED
THISTLE.)
Cni’dus [Gr. Kvěos], sometimes written Gnidos, an
ancient Greek city of Caria, in Asia Minor, was on the
AEgean Sea and on the promontory of Triopion. It was
one of the six cities of the Doric league called Hearapolis,
and had an extensive commerce. Here were several fa–
mous temples of Venus, one of which contained a celebrated
marble statue of Venus by Praxiteles. Cnidus was partly
built on a small island, connected by a causeway with the
mainland. Conon the Athenian defeated the Spartan fleet
near Cnidus in 394 B. C.
Coach. See CARRIAGEs, etc., by L. P. BRocKETT, M.D.
Coadju'tor [from the Lat. co (for con), “together with,”
and adjuvo, adjutum, to “help "j, an assistant; in ecclesias-
tical law, a term technically applied to one appointed to
assist a bishop or other dignitary. Coadjutant bishops in
the Roman Catholic Church are usually bishops of sees in
partibus. In the Protestant Episcopal Church of the
U. S. they are called assistant bishops.
Coagula’tion [from the Lat. co (for con), “together,”
and ago, to “drive,” to “force”], the changing of a liquid
to a semi-solid or curd-like consistency. Thus, the white
of an egg becomes solidified on the application of heat.
The caseine of milk is coagulated (curdled) by the action
of rennet and by many acids. The fibrine in the blood,
chyle, and lymph is coagulated after the removal of these
fluids from the living animal. Great importance was for-
merly attached by physicians to the appearance of the
blood-clot or coagulum after bleeding.
Coaho/ma, a county in the W. N. W. of Mississippi.
Area, 575 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by the
Mississippi River. The surface is level, low, and partly
subject to inundation. The soil is fertile. Cotton and corn
are largely raised. Capital, Friar's Point. Pop. 7144.
Coal, a general name given to several carbonaceous
substances derived from vegetable tissue. It was formerly
limited to what is now known as charcoal, the residual car-
bon of wood, from which the volatile constituents have been
but it is at present almost universally
expelled by heat;
tially or perfectly driven off, giving us, first, semi-bitu-
The
minous coal, then anthracite, and finally graphite.
used to denote the various kinds of mineral fuel. As these
have no definite composition, the vagueness of the term has
given rise to much discussion in scientific books and courts
of law. These substances form part of an unbroken series
which begins with woody fibre and ends with graphite.
They are all derived from the decomposition of vegetable
tissue in the changes which it undergoes when buried under
water, earth, or rock. The different products of this pro-
gressive change, which is a sort of distillation, are peat,
lignite, bituminous and anthracite coal, graphite, and as-
phaltum, which are solids; petroleum and water, which are
liquids; carbonic acid, carburetted hydrogen, etc., which
are gases. Of these, all the solids, excepting asphaltum,
are residual products, while that substance and the liquids
and gases are the evolved products or distillates. The first
mineralized solid formed from vegetable tissue is called lig-
nite, if derived from wood—peat, if from herbaceous vegeta-
tion. Neither of these substances has any definite formula
of composition, as each individual specimen may represent
a distinct stage of the process of bitumenization. The na-
ture of the change which takes place in the formation of peat
and lignite from vegetable tissue will be best understood
by the comparison of typical examples of each given below:
Vegetable tissue. Loss. Peat.
Carbon..................49.1..................21.50.................. 27.6
Hydrogen ... ... 6.3... ... 3.50.................. 2.8
Oxygen.................4.4.6............ ......29.10..................15.5
Wood. Loss. Lignite.
Carbon..................49.1..................18.65.................80.45
Hydrogen...... -------- 6.3. ... 3.25... ... 3.05
Oxygen...... ...........4.4.6........ 24.40.................20.30
In this process the evolved products represented by the loss
are water, carbonic acid, carburetted hydrogen, or petro-
leum. Where peat and lignite have been longer buried in
the earth they H. suffered still further loss and change,
and are converted into what is termed bituminous coal, as
will be seen in the following example:
Lignite. Loss. Bituminous coal.
Carbon..................30.45.................12.35
Hydrogen. ... 3.05... ... 1.85.
Oxygen ................. 20.20........ 18.13
This is the condition in which we find most of the beds
of peat and lignite which accumulated in what is called the
carboniferous age millions of years ago, and which, deeply
buried, have been subjected to a slow and general distilla-
tion, resulting in the formation of the different varieties
of bituminous coal. Where exposed to peculiar influences,
as to heat from volcanic eruptions, or in the elevation of
mountain-chains where all the strata are baked and hard-
Vegetation of the Coal Marshes.
process by which anthracite and graphite are formed from
ordinary coal is indicated in the succeeding formulae:










COAL. 993
Bituminous coal. Hºss Anthºite. sissippi, where they have suffered no local metamorphosis,
; 1: . ; * ; they are all of the bituminous class. In the Alleghanies the
oxygen.............. 3.07................. 132. 6.65 same strata, having been somewhat affected by the causes
Anthracite. Loss Graphite. which resulted in the upheaval of the mountains, have lost a
#. • e a n e º e a tº * * * * * * * * * 1; * * * * * * * * e ºs e e s tº e º e & § in s a € 6 & a c e - - - - - * * * § portion of their volatile matter, and have become what are
ydrogen.............. 0.27..................0.14................. .13. i-hi inous coals. To this group belon
Oxygen ................. 0.65.................. 0.65................. 0.00 known as semi-bituminou - group g
All the varieties of coal mentioned above shade into each
other, and we have lignites which exhibit every degree of
approach to bituminous coals, semi-bituminous coals inter-
mediate, between these latter and anthracite, and graphitic
anthracites by which the anthracites are connected with
the graphites. A
The geological position of the different varieties of coal
accords with the theory of their origin given above. For
example, the oldest rocks known contain comparatively
little carbonaceous matter, as they date from a period when
the vegetation of the globe was scanty and mostly marine.
Here we have only the residual products of the distillation
of vegetable tissue, graphite and anthracite. In the car-
boniferous age the terrestrial vegetation was luxuriant
over large areas, and conditions prevailed favorable to the
formation of beds of peat. These, submerged and deeply
buried under sediments which were deposited upon them,
have, as a general rule, been changed to our beds of bitu-
minous coal—to anthracite where local causes have carried
the process of distillation further. In formations more
modern than the carboniferous we find the accumulations
of vegetable matter usually classed as lignites. These
contain more water and oxygen, and are less valuable fuels,
than the true coals, but shade into them imperceptibly. In
the present period we see the formation of coal only in its
initial stages—viz. the growth of vegetation and the accu-
mulation of bitumenized vegetable tissue in marshes, where
oxidation is prevented or retarded by water. By artificial
processes we can, however, hasten the changes in vegetable
tissue, and by properly conducted distillation produce
lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite. We find, too,
that Nature is locally accelerating her processes, and by
volcanic heat distilling lignites and bituminous coals to
anthracite. Near Santa Fé, New Mexico, and on Queen
Charlotte's Island, excellent anthracite has been produced
by volcanic heat from cretaceous lignites. At Los Bronces,
in Sonora, triassic coal is converted into anthracite by a
similar cause. In Eastern America, all the coal strata, ex-
cept those of the small triassic basins of Virginia and North
Carolina, are of carboniferous age. In the Valley of the Mis-
OHIo.
Bituminous Coal Basin.
Lower Carboniferous.
gº-º-º-º:
*
S. Shamokin
Basin.
g
N. Mahanoy
Basin.
Locust Mt.
xis.
from the industries dependent upon them. The British
coal area is estimated to be 11,859 square miles, and the
coal production in 1871 was 117,352,028 tons. The coal
area of France is about 2000 square miles, and the produc-
tion in 1868 was 12,800,000 tons. Belgium has a coal area
estimated at 500 square milés, and in 1871 produced
13,671,470 tons. In Prussia, the coal area has been con-
siderably increased by the cession of the Rhine provinces,
and she now has probably 4000 square miles of very deep
and valuable coal strata. The production of coal in Prus-
sia and the other German states in 1869 was 26,774,368
tons. The coal area of Spain is not definitely known. Her
coal-field in the province of Asturias is one of the most im-
portant on the continent of Europe, but as yet her coal
production is small. Russia and Austria are less liberally
supplied with coal than the other nations of Europe.
Coal also occurs in China, India, Australia, J apan, and
Borneo. So far as known, it is all of mesozoic age, though
in China and Japan anthracite and well-formed bituminous
coals are found, and have been worked for centuries.
When we turn to the U. S., we find a coal area which
throws all those which have been mentioned into insignif-
icance. And yet it should be said that the coal-basins of
the U. S. are shallow as compared with those of Europe,
and the vertical thickness of coal they contain considerably
less. Their importance cannot, therefore, be accurately
2T TN
Profile Section across the Alleghanies, showing relations of Coal Basins.
Bear Ridge Middle Mahanoy
Axis. Basin.
!
is:::Tºº : 3:33
*ºss :
Profile Sections of Anthracite Coal Basin, Pennsylvania.
the coals of Blossburg, Broad Top, Frostburg, and a belt
running down to Alabama. Still farther E. the carbon-
iferous strata are more metamorphosed, and the coal which
they contain is converted into anthracite. In Rhode Island
a coal-basin of limited extent, and of the same age with
those of Pennsylvania, seems to have been still nearer the
focus of metamorphic action; and here the coal is partially
converted into graphite, forming the variety known as
graphitic anthracite.
The value of coal in the economy of civilization is now
so well understood and so fully appreciated that it requires
no lengthy exposition. Coal may indeed be considered as
the mainspring of our civilization. In its combustion the
heat of the sun, absorbed in the growth of the plants from
which it is derived, is all given out again, subject to human
control; and, as heat is but another name for physical
force, coal becomes the most important source of power at
our command. The power developed in the combustion
of a pound of coal is theoretically equal to 10,800,000 foot-
pounds. But by our imperfect methods of utilization not
more than 1,500,000 foot-pounds are made available for
our purposes. This is about the amount of power exerted
by a man of ordinary strength during a day of labor.
Hence 300 pounds of coal will represent the labor of a man
for a year. The annual production of coal in the British
Islands in 1871 was 117,000,000 tons. Of this, aside from
all exported or employed for heating, lighting, smelting,
etc., it has been estimated that 20,000,000 tons are devoted
to the development of motive-power, and that this is equiv-
alent to the labor of 133,000,000 of men who are producers
and not consumers. Hence, if we may suppose that the re-
mainder of the coal product of the United Kingdom pays
the expense of the entire production, we may estimate the
contribution annually made to the wealth of the British
Islands by their coal product to be greater than that of
100,000,000 of laborers industriously employed and requir-
ing no food and no pay.
Such being the value of coal, its geographical distribu-
tion becomes of great interest and importance. Among
the nations of Europe the English occupy a pre-eminent
position, not only from the extent of their coal-fields, but
PENnsylvania.
Semi-Bituminous
Coal Basin. Anthracite Basin.
22ºrium:
21-s •e
Devonian.
Hassasock
Axis.
measured by their superficial extent. Even with this quali-
fication, however, the coal-fields of America are by far the
most extensive and richest in the world. The coal area of
the U. S. is divided into several distinct basins, of which
the most important are the following: 1st, the Alleghany
coal-field, bordering the Alleghany Mountains on the W.
side, and reaching from the N. line of Pennsylvania to the
middle of Alabama. Its area is computed at 58,737 square
miles. 2d, the Illinois coal-field, which covers a large part
of Illinois and portions of Indiana and Kentucky. Its area.
is estimated at 64,887 square miles. 3d, the Missouri coal-
field, lying W. of the Mississippi in the States of Iowa, Kan-
sas, Arkansas, Missouri, and Texas, and supposed to extend
over 47,138 square miles. To these great expanses of coal
territory must be added the anthracite basins of Pennsyl-
vania and Rhode Island, the coal-fields of Virginia, Michi-
gan, and North Carolina, and the numerous and extensive
deposits of cretaceous and tertiary coals of the far West.
Combining all these, the productive coal area of the U. S.
will be seen to exceed 200,000 square miles. The produc-
tion of coal in the U. S. was in 1870, 33,310,905 tons, of
which Pennsylvania, furnished 23,448,793 tons (15,648,437
tons anthracite, 7,800,356 tons bituminous coal). The prod-
uct of the U. S. for 1872 was estimated at 40,000,000 tons.
(See Map of North America in this work, for coal-fields.)
The different chemical and physical properties exhibited









63
994
COAL–COAL-FISH.
by the various kinds of coal fit them for a wide range of
uses in the arts. Coals are primarily divided into two
great groups—the hard and soft, or the anthracite and
bituminous coals—but each of these groups is capable of
subdivision into several varieties. For example, we have
at the base of the series—1, Graphite, which is a coal de-
prived of all its volatile matter, and consisting only of a
portion of its carbon mingled with all its ash. This is
practically incombustible, and is never used as a fuel nor
classed as a coal. 2, Graphitic anthracite, containing 1 or
2 per cent. of gaseous matter, igniting with difficulty, and
forming an inferior fuel. This is the prevailing variety of
coal in the Rhode Island coal-basin. 3, Anthracite, contain-
ing from 3 to 10 per cent. of volatile matter, sometimes 95
per cent of carbon, igniting with some difficulty, but pro-
ducing in combustion an intense local heat. When burn-
ing it gives off a little blue flame (carbonic oxide), is
valueless for purposes of illumination, but the best of all
fuels for smelting iron, and is extensively used for the gen-
eration of steam and for household purposes. 4, Semi-bi-
twminous coal, containing from 15 to 20 per cent. of gaseous
matter, but generally caking in the fire; of little value as
an illuminator, but kindling readily, with high heating
power. It is the most highly valued of all coals for the
generation of steam. The semi-bituminous coals produce
a dense and excellent coke, and in the raw state are pre-
ferred to all others for blacksmiths' use, as they form a
hollow fire and produce intense heat in combustion. 5,
Bituminous coals, which have been subjected to no local
metamorphic action, but are the natural product of the
The following sections, general and local, will serve to give an idea of the mode of occurrence of coal in the carboniferous rocks,
and of the nature of the associated strata.
IBARREN
COAL
CONGLO
LOWER CARB.
wAVERLY
GROUP
Carboniferous strata—W. Pennsylvania and Ohio.
slow and general distillation of vegetable tissue buried in
the earth since the palaeozoic ages. In bituminous coals
the volatile matter varies in quantity from 30 to 50 per
cent. of the mass. They are subdivided into coking, fur-
mace, and cannel coals. Of these the coking coals melt
and adhere in burning, and when the gaseous matter has
escaped a mass of “coke” is left which has the properties
of anthracite, but is cellular or spongy from the expansion
of the gases. Most bituminous coals belong to this variety,
of which the Pittsburg coal may be taken as a type. They
are extensively employed for the generation of steam, as
household fuels, and, when coked, for smelting the metals,
their adhesive character preventing their being used for
this purpose in the raw state. Caking coals which are
sufficiently free from sulphur, their great contaminating
ingredient, are termed “gas coals,” as they are chiefly em-
ployed for the production of illuminating gas. In the vol-
ume and illuminating power of their gas they are exceeded
by the cannel coals, but their deficiency in this respect is
more than compensated for by the greater value of the
coke which is derived from them. The furnace coals are
those bituminous coals which do not melt or adhere in the
fire, and can therefore be employed in the raw state in the
blast furnace. These are termed “open-burning,” and
sometimes “splint coals,” but the latter term is more ap-
propriately applied to a kind of cannel coal
which contains a large percentage of carbon,
comparatively little gas, and has high heating
power. The famous Brier Hill coal of Ohio
and the Brazil coal of Indiana are typical
furnace coals. The cannel coals have a more
homogeneous texture, and are less pitchy and
brilliant, than the other bituminous coals. They
represent the carbonaceous mud which accumu-
lated in the open lagoons of the coal marshes,
while the surrounding mass of Spongy vegetable
tissue formed the cubical coal. The cannels are rich in gas,
but have comparatively low heating power. They are favor-
ite household fuels, are employed for the production of oil
by distillation, but are nearly valueless for metallurgical
—e:
Shale and
Sundstone
| Linnestone
Coal. No. 4
Fire Clay
Shale and l
Sandstone ſ
Limest. & Iron Ore
Coal. No. 3
Fire Clay
Shale and
Sandstone
Coal.
Shale
Sandstone |
Shale
No. 2
|
Coal. No. 1
Fire Clay
Sandstone -— — |→
20–50 TTTTE=
and Shale
Conglomerate
Coal Measures—N. Ohio.
purposes. Nearly all coal-fields contain more or less cannel,
which is either interstratified with the cubical coal or grad-
ually passes into it in one or another direction. As a gen-
eral rule, the cannels contain more ash than the furnace or
gas coals; and as the earthy matter increases in quantity,
they shade off imperceptibly into bituminous shale. The
most esteemed household fuel in our Atlantic cities is the
English Wigan cannel, which is preferred to the American
cannels, since it generally contains much less ash. (See
ANTHRACITE, LIGNITE, and PEAT.) J. S. NEWBERRY.
Coal, a township of Northumberland co., Pa. P. 2920.
Coal, a township of Harrison co., West Va. Pop. 2058.
Coal Banks, a village of Fremont co., Col., on the
Arkansas River, 12 miles below Cañon City, has productive
mines of coal, called “cañon ’’ coal.
Coal'burg, a post-village of Kanawha Co., West Va.,
on the Kanawha and the Chesapeake and Ohio R.R., 16 miles
S. E. from Charleston. It has mines of bituminous coal.
Coal Creek, a twp. of Montgomery co., Ind. P. 1773.
Coal-fish (Merlangus carbonarius), a fish of the family
Gadidae, and of the same genus with the whiting, corre-
sponding in form and fins, but of a different color, the
upper parts being nearly black. It is much larger in size,
and is noted for its voracity. These fish are found in large
sº
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º
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Kºś
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gº tºº
Coal-fish.
shoals, and when attracted by bait will keep near a boat
till great numbers are taken. Although a coarse fish, the
coal-fish is much used for food in northern parts. It is
found in the most arctic regions, both on the European and
















COAL GAS–COAST SURVEY.
995
American sides of the Atlantic. The liver of the coal-fish
abounds in oil, which is used for various purposes. This is
one of the fishes known as pollock in the U. S.
Coal Gas. See GAs, by PROF. C. F. CHANDLER.
Coal-Mines, a post-village of Queen’s co., N. B., on
Salmon River, has rich mines of coal and large manufac-
tures of lumber. Steamers run regularly in Summer to St.
John, 77 miles distant.
Coal-Mines, a township of Russell co., Kan. P. 156.
Coal Oil. See PETROLEUM, by PROF. C. F. CHANDLER.
Coal Tar. See TAR, by PROF. C. F. CHANDLER.
Coal/port, a village of Meigs co., O., 1 mile below
Pomeroy, on the N. bank of the Ohio. It has extensive
coal-mines. *
Coalport, a village of Alleghany co., Pa., 7 miles
below Pittsburg, on the left bank of the Ohio, at the ter-
minus of a coal railroad. i
Coal/ton, a post-village of Boyd co., Ky., near Ash-
land, with which it is connected by rail. It has mines of
excellent block coal. -
Coal Val’ley, a township and post-village of Rock
Island co., Ill. The village is on the Peoria and Rock
Island R. R., 12 miles S. E. of Rock Island. Pop. 2545.
Coal' ville, a post-village, capital of Summit co., Ut.
It is the southern terminus of a branch railroad, 5 miles
long, from Echo City on the Union Pacific R. R. It has
beds of valuable cretaceous coal.
Coan’ (TITUs), D. D., an American missionary, born at
Killingworth, Conn., Feb. 1, 1801. He graduated at Au-
burn Seminary in 1833. In 1834 he sailed for the Sand-
wich Islands, where his success as a missionary was very
great. He contributed important papers on volcanoes to
the “American Journal of Sciences” (1840–70).
Coast-Guard, in Great Britain, a force posted along
the coast, and originally intended to prevent smuggling
merely, but now made to serve as a defensive force also.
The organization was formerly in the employment of the
customs department, but in 1856 the coast-guard was trans-
ferred to the admiralty. Under this arrangement the admi-
ralty may from time to time issue orders for additions to
the coast-guard, which must not, however, exceed. 10,000
men in all. The coasts are divided into eleven districts,
each of which is under a navy captain, who has a guard-
ship at one of its ports. The able seamen, named on the
ships’ books, and employed on shore in coast-guard service,
are in three classes—chief boatmen, commissioned boat-
men, and boatmen. In time of war all of these men may
be called upon to serve as regular sailors on board ship.
The coast-guard are taught naval gunnery, gunboat exer-
cise, and the serving of land-batteries. Besides the eleven
district guard-ships there is a head-quarters’ ship.
THE ROYAL NAVAL COAST VolunTEERs is a corps organ-
ized in connection with the coast-guard for the defence of
the coasts of the United Kingdom. By an act of Parlia-
ment passed in 1853, the admiralty was empowered to raise
a number, not to exceed 10,000, of coast volunteers for five
years’ service, and to be exercised twenty-eight days in
each year, either on shipboard or on shore; not to be sent
more than fifty leagues from the coast unless in cases of
emergency, when the distance may be extended to one
hundred leagues. In ordinary cases one year’s active
service entitles them to discharge. Their pay, allowance,
and rank during exercise and active service are the same
as those of able seamen.
Coasting-Trade, the trade which is carried on by
sea between the different ports of the same country. Coast-
ing vessels or vessels employed in this commerce are sub-
ject to certain rates and regulations differing from those
relating to oversea traders, and the masters are required to
keep books proving that their cargoes come strictly within
the limits of coasting-trade. Formerly in Great Britain no
goods or passengers were allowed to be carried from one
port of the United Kingdom to another except in British
vessels, but this restriction was repealed in 1854.
The coasting-trade of the U. S. is very extensive. Former-
ly, this trade was chiefly carried on by means of schooners
and sloops, but of Iate years its character has much changed.
Since the introduction of screw steamers for this service
there is a prospect that they will to a great extent super-
sede the use of schooners on our coast.
Coast-Line is the name given to the line which bounds
the coast of any country, island, or continent. Very im-
portant results follow from the degree to which a coast is
indented by inlets, gulfs, or other natural interruptions of
a straight line; and in proportion as a coast-line is longer
as compared with the simplest possible line enclosing the
same area, so is there generally facility of access, shelter
for ships, and a capacity for commerce. The coast of Eu-
rope is very remarkable in this respect as compared with
any other part of the world; for with an area of 3,816,400
square miles, one side of which is in contact with Asia,
there is a length of coast of nearly 20,000 miles; while
Africa, with an area of 11,600,000 square miles, has less
than 15,000 miles of coast; and even Asia, whose area is
17,310,000 square miles, has only 30,000 miles. Of both
North and South America, the Atlantic and Pacific coasts
are very different, for the former presents in all upwards
of 23,000 miles, and the latter only 15,500 miles of coast-
line. The most important trading countries are, with few
if any exceptions, always those with the longest coast-line.
Coast Range, or Coast Mountains, a range of
mountains in California extending nearly parallel with the
coast of the Pacific Ocean, from Oregon to the southern
boundary of the State. San Bernardino, a peak of this
range, rises 8500 feet above the level of the sea.
Coast Survey. An accurate acquaintance with the
physical features of the coast that bounds its territory is
an economical necessity to every nation largely engaged in
commerce. The ocean being the great outlet of produc-
tion, the highway over which the currents of commerce are
constantly flowing to and fro, the diminution of its haz-
ards is a matter of the greatest moment. Among the dan-
gers to which the mariner is exposed, the most formidable
are those which beset him when he approaches the land,
arising out of his unacquaintance with the sea-bottom be-
neath him, with the currents that carry him out of his
course, with the situation of reefs, shoals, or dangerous
shores, and with the courses that would take him safely to
his destination. Against these dangers no absolute secur-
ity can be provided, but they can be very much diminished
by supplying accurate charts of the coasts and their ap-
proaches, and by maintaining lighthouses , and buoys to
mark available channels or warn against hidden dangers.
To supply this want the governments of all maritime na-
tions have in modern times undertaken surveys of their
coasts by the most exact geodetic and hydrographic meth-
ods, resulting in elaborate charts for the guidance of the
navigator, and aiding in the selection of sites for light-
houses and the proper location of buoys. Such a survey
of the coast of the U. S., carried on under the authority of
the Federal government, has also for a number of years
been in progress, and it is the object of this article to re-
view the history, methods, and present condition of this
important public work.
In the early part of this century the only charts of our
coasts and harbors in existence were those made in the
latter half of the last century by Des Barres, Roman, Gauld,
and other surveyors, acting under the orders of the British
admiralty. Respectable chiefly by the great extent of
coast-line represented, their charts were the merest pre-
liminary explorations, and fell far short of the wants of
navigation. The necessity for a thorough survey was per-
ceived very early in the history of the nation, and, upon
the recommendation of President Jefferson, Congress in
1807 passed an act authorizing the President to cause a
survey to be made of the coasts of the U. S., in which
were to be designated the islands, shoals, and places of
anchorage within twenty leagues of the shores; and such
other matter as might be deemed proper for complet-
ing an accurate chart of every part of the coast; it also
authorized the survey of St. George's Bank and the sound-
ings and currents beyond the limits aforesaid to the Gulf
Stream.
The plan of survey adopted by government was sub-
mitted by Prof. F. R. Hassler, a native of Switzerland,
who had gained experience in similar works abroad, and
who was accordingly appointed to superintend its execu-
tion. It consists substantially of three operations: first
that of geodesy, or the accurate determination of the geo-
graphical position of numerous points along the coast by as-
tronomical and trigonometrical methods; second, that of to-
pography, or the delineation of the coast-line and the charac-
teristic features of the land; and third, the hydrography,
or a nautical survey of the channels, shoals, and approaches
to the shore, including observations of currents and tides,
The geodesy furnishes the framework for the map, without
which the accumulation of unavoidable inaccuracies in its
topographic survey would soon attain objectionable pro-
portions; but taking a fresh departure from each point
that has been trigonometrically determined, the errors of the
land-survey are checked and kept within bounds inappre-
ciable on its scale of representation. The nautical survey,
equally taking frequent points of reference supplied by
the two preceding operations, cannot run into any material
error of position. e
To appreciate the necessity of a geodetic survey as the
basis of a series of coast-charts, it must be borne in mind
that the figure of the earth is a spheroid, and that conse-
996 COAST SURVEY.
quently methods of plane surveying, when extended over
areas of large extent, would lead to intolerable errors of
misrepresentation. Geodesy takes account of the true
figure of the earth, determining with the greatest attain-
able accuracy the distances and bearings between the
series of points by the processes of base-measurement and
triangulation, and determining the curvature of the surface
at suitably chosen points in the series by the determina-
tion of their differences of latitude and longitude. The
geographical position of the intermediate points can then
be computed with great precision, and the whole chain
projected upon a suitable plan that enables us to preserve
as nearly as possible their principal relative positions.
The steps of the principal triangulation are made as large
as possible, in order to avoid the accumulation of error,
and the operations are checked at intervals by the lineal
measurement of some of the distances, serving as a verifi-
cation for the entire chain.
The delay naturally attending new enterprises, the ne-
cessity of procuring all the instruments from Europe, where
they had to be specially constructed, the interruption caused
by the war between England and the U. S., and the subse-
quent pressure upon the public finances, prevented active
operations from being undertaken until 1817, when a com-
mencement was made near the important harbor of New
York. But the work had been hardly begun when the last-
mentioned cause led to its abandonment by the failure of
Congress to provide funds for its continuance. From 1817
to 1832 detached portions of the coast were surveyed by
naval officers, some harbors were surveyed, and hydro-
graphic reconnaissances made of the coast of some of the
States; but no general survey was attempted, nor did these
detached surveys yield more than the most indispensable
information. On the repeated representations of Hon. S.
L. Southard, secretary of the navy, and others, Congress in
1832 again made a small appropriation for carrying out the
law of 1807, under which the operations of the Coast Sur-
vey passed anew under the charge of Hassler, who was au-
thorized to employ, in the conduct of the work, such as-
tronomers and other persons as he should judge proper, in
addition to the officers in the military and naval service.
Mr. Hassler continued to direct the work until his death,
which occurred in the year 1843.
In reviewing the history of this early period it is proper
to remember that the first years were necessarily years of
organization and instruction. The superintendent had to
systematize methods, to train up assistants, to cause the
work to grow from a small beginning until it comprehended
the various operations of a geodetic survey upon the land,
and included the hydrography of the adjacent waters.
When the results accumulated it was necessary to provide
for their computation and reduction, and also for the prepa-
ration of maps and charts upon a plan suited to our ex-
tended coast, and for the engraving of the maps themselves.
All these things were new in this country. The amount of
knowledge, skill, and labor required to overcome these and
other difficulties was hardly appreciated. The results show
how large an amount of work had been done, and how the
work was extending beneficially at the time of Mr. Hassler’s
death.
The condition of the work as Mr. Hassler left it will be
made intelligible by the following brief statement: A base-
line had been measured in the vicinity of New York, the
commercial importance of which obviously indicated it as
the proper point of beginning. The triangulation had ex-
tended eastward to Rhode Island and southward to the
head of Chesapeake Bay, the primary triangulation cross-
ing the neck of New Jersey and Delaware, while a secondary
triangulation skirted the coast of New Jersey, meeting with
another series which extended down Delaware Bay. The
topography had kept pace with the triangulation, and the
Thydrography of New York bay and harbor, of Long Island
Sound, of Delaware bay and river, and the off-shore sound-
ings from Montauk Point to the capes of the Delaware were
substantially completed. The triangulation covered an area
of 9000 square miles, furnishing determinations of nearly
1200 stations for the delineation of 1600 miles of shore-
line; 168 topographical maps had been surveyed and 142
hydrographic charts.
The progress thus sketched, although really very consid-
erable and highly creditable to the late superintendent, was
still felt to be inadequate to the pressing demands of com-
merce, and clamors arose in Congress against the adminis-
tration of the survey, ascribing the slow progress to an un-
necessary refinement in the processes employed, and claim-
ing the results to be inadequate to the expenditure. An
investigation was accordingly instituted in 1842 by a Con-
gressional committee, which, after a severe and unfriendly
scrutiny, practically resulted in a complete endorsement of
the principles on which the survey had been conducted by
Hassler, while at the same time a more efficient plan of or-
ganization was put in force. According to this plan the
personnel consists of a superintendent, under whose general
direction the work is carried on by assistants detailed from
the army for the survey on land, and from the navy for the
nautical work, so far as officers could be spared from the
respective services; and in addition to these of a number
of civil assistants, who form a more permanent nucleus, pre-
serving unity of system and method. The responsibility of
carrying into effect the provisions of the adopted plan, and
of expanding the work to a scale commensurate with the
growing demands of commerce, fell mainly upon Hassler's
successor, Prof. A. D. Bache. His appointment was made
upon the united representations of the colleges, learned
societies, and men of Science in the country, whose estimate
of his merits has been abundantly justified by the brilliancy
of his official career. Upon his recommendation Congress
provided the means for carrying on the work independently
in many places at once; each section having its own base
and geographical determinations, but all designed to form,
when completed, a continuous chain of triangulation and a
homogeneous survey of the whole coast. In 1845, besides
extending in both directions the former work, active opera-
tions were commenced on the coasts of Virginia and North
Carolina, and of Alabama and Mississippi in the Gulf of
Mexico; two years later they had been extended to the
States of South Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas;
and two years later still the important survey of the reefs
and keys of Florida was commenced. On the annexation
of California, the Pacific coast was at once included in the
operations.
While the field-work was thus pushed with great vigor
in every quarter, the publication of the charts and other
results was made to keep pace as rapidly as possible. The
annual reports of the superintendent, besides giving an ac-
count of the progress of the work, have been, since 1857,
accompanied by an appendix which contains the maps,
charts, and sketches produced during each year, and valu-
able contributions to knowledge in the form of scientific dis-
cussions of various subjects connected with the survey,
such as tides, terrestrial magnetism, harbor hydraulics, and
ocean physics, and of new methods of observation and com-
putation employed by persons engaged in the work. These
valuable volumes have been widely circulated by a wise
liberality of Congress, and are to be found in most public
libraries. The charts are, besides, printed in sheets for the
use of mariners, and can be obtained at a low price in the
principal seaports, where agencies for their sale have been
established. In addition to the charts, printed sailing di-
rections or “Coast Pilots * are issued in book-form, and
tide-tables predicting the heights and times of high and
low water for all ports of the U. S. are published annually.
Some estimate of the magnitude of the work may be
formed by considering that the general coast-line of the
Atlantic, including the large open bays, is 3030 miles, that
of the Gulf of Mexico, 2160, and that of the Pacific coast
(including Fuca Strait, but exclusive of Alaska), 1870 miles,
making a total of 7060 miles. A measurement of the shore-
line, including bays, sounds, islands, and rivers, made as
nearly as practicable where the survey is not yet made,
gives similarly for that of the Atlantic coast, 14,725 miles;
of the Gulf of Mexico, 10,400 miles; and of the Pacific
coast, 4250 miles. The proportion of this vast extent of
coast-line that had been surveyed and mapped at the out-
breaking of the civil war in 1861 may be stated at about
three-fourths of the Atlantic, fully one-third of the Gulf,
and nearly one-fourth of the Pacific coast. The war of
1861–65 seemed likely at first to put a stop to the Coast
Survey, but it was soon perceived that by preserving
its organization the information gathered in its archives
and the experience and skill of its officers could be made
more useful to the cause of the Union than the individual
efforts of its members could possibly be when merged in gen-
eral organization of the military forces. The great know-
ledge and judgment of the Superintendent was brought into
requisition for planning the details of the blockade and of
naval attacks upon the ports in possession of the Confeder-
acy. The military and naval officers engaged on the Survey
at that time of course at once rejoined their proper corps.
Some of the civil assistants were detailed to aid, by their
special knowledge of localities, in guiding the operations of
the squadrons on the Southern coasts, where all lighthouses
and buoys had been removed, and no local pilots could be
obtained; others joined various armies to aid in reconnais-
sances and surveys, while others, again, obtained leave of
absence to enter the army, and served with distinction. The
resources of the office were taxed to the utmost to produce
charts for the blockading fleets, and to compile for the use
of the armies maps of the country in which they were to
operate. By a wise foresight, Prof. Bache had caused to be
collected in the Coast Survey office all the extant geo-
graphical maps of the country, which enabled him to issue
COAST SURVEY.
997
a series of maps of the Southern States that proved of
the greatest service in the movements of troops, and
which remain to the present day the best maps of those
regions. -
The value of the services rendered by the Coast Survey
and its officers was on all occasions freely acknowledged by
the commanders of our forces and brought to the notice of
the government. Accordingly, after the close of the war
the work enjoyed the increased favor of Congress, and while
the great military and naval establishments that the war
had rendered necessary were reduced to their lowest pos-
sible limits, the regular operations of the Coast Survey
were resumed on a moderate scale of expenditure, which
has since been gradually increased. In 1866 the expend-
iture was $300,000, and in 1872, $720,000. During the lat-
ter years of the war Prof. Bache's health was impaired by
the overtasking and anxieties of those trying times, and
after a prolonged illness he died in Feb., 1867. Of his emi-
ment services to science in America, it is the province of his
biographer to speak. In reference to his conduct of the
great national work we are considering, his successor,
Prof. Benjamin Peirce, the eminent mathematician and
astronomer, says: “What the Coast Survey now is, he
made it. It is his true and lasting monument. It will
never cease to be the admiration of the scientific world.
. . . It is only necessary, conscientiously and faithfully,
to follow in his footsteps, imitate his example, and develop
his plans in the administration of the survey.”
Under the administration of Prof. Peirce the survey has
resumed the extension it had before the war, and is now
rapidly approaching completion. At the close of 1872 the
field-parties consisted of five astronomical and twelve
triangulation parties, thirteen topographical parties, and
as many hydrographical parties, including one engaged in
the exploration of the newly-acquired coasts of Alaska.
In addition to these, continuous tidal observations were
making at five stations on the Atlantic and four on the
Pacific coast. With the exception of most of the coast E.
of Penobscot Bay, and the ocean-coast of Florida between
St. Augustine and Cape Florida, the survey presented a
continuous whole from Quoddy Head to the Tortugas,
wanting only a portion of the off-shore soundings, and the
survey of some sounds and estuaries; again, from St.
Mark’s to the mouths of the Mississippi, and from Galves-
ton to Corpus Christi Bay, the land survey was completed,
and the hydrography nearly half done. On the Pacific
coast the work had likewise made considerable progress,
and an exploring party was surveying the most important
harbors on the coast of Alaska. A survey of Lake Cham-
plain, included in the work of the Coast Survey by a
special provision of law, was more than three-fourths com-
leted.
p The plan of publication is as follows: the main series of
charts gives a continuous representation of the coast on a
scale of 1:80,000, or about three-quarters of an inch to a
mile. On these charts are exhibited all matural and arti-
ficial features of the shore, such as streams, hills, houses,
and roads, together with the depth of water and configura-
tion of the sea-bottom, the channels and shoals, as also the
lighthouses, buoys, and other aids to navigation. Besides
being characterized by the greatest precision, which is the
first and essential condition of their value, they also do
honor to the country as works of art, being in point of ex-
ecution surpassed by none that are produced by other
nations. A series of 110 of these charts will comprise the
whole coast from the north-eastern boundary to the Rio
Grande, fifty-one of which have been completed, while a
large number are partially drawn and engraved. The
same range of coast is also covered by a series of sixteen
other charts on a smaller scale, that of 1:400,000, of a more
general character, known as “off-shore charts,” and ifl-
tended for use in sailing along or approaching the coast;
of which seven sheets have been issued. Another still
more general chart of the coast, on a scale of 1: 1,200,000,
and reaching farther out to sea, is published to serve the
purpose of navigating on courses between distant points.
In addition to the foregoing charts, there are published
very numerous charts of separate harbors, bays, rivers,
anchorages, passages, and dangers, on Scales varying from
1 : 5000 to 1 : 60,000, according to the character of the
subject and amount of detail to be represented. Of such
charts more than 200 have already been published of places
on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, and over 100 on the Pacific
coast. w
When once a continuous survey of the whole coast has
been obtained, there will still be a necessity of maintaining
the organization of the Coast Survey for the purpose of
watching the unceasing changes that take place in the
channels leading to our harbors, which for the most part
are barred by shifting sands. Such changes, produced by
the action of the waves and tidal currents, often also by
the encroachments on the harbor areas by wharves and
docks, render necessary changes in buoys and beacons, and
often call for works of protection or improvement, which
can only be planned after minute surveys and a careful
study of the physical causes that are at work. Most im-
portant service to commerce and navigation has already
been rendered in this direction by the advisory boards,
composed of the superintendent of the Coast Survey, the
chief of engineers of the army, and an officer of the navy,
in studying these problems for the principal harbors, and
laying down for each the principles of preservation or im-
provement. The subject of physical hydrography has been
made a special department in the Coast Survey, and the
reports to the harbor commissioners of New York and
Massachusetts contain discussions that may serve as
models for all similar inquiries.
The gradual extension of at least the trigonometrical
work of the Coast Survey over the entire area of our coun-
try to serve as a basis for better maps, and in future of
detailed topographical surveys, is a proposition favorably
viewed by many statesmen, and indeed inevitable in the
development of the country. The main series of triangles
following the Appalachian chain will already afford many
bases of departure for the trigonometrical survey of the
States through which it passes; and on the Pacific coast
the primary triangulation will equally afford such facili-
ties. The plan proposed by the present superintendent of
connecting these two coast series by two other chains, a
northern and southern one, has already received the sanc-
tion of Congress, with the additional provision that trigo-
nometrical points may be determined from these main
chains for such of the States as provide for a topographical
and geological survey of their domain. The plan of a gen-
eral geodetic survey of the whole country is thus happily
inaugurated.
An account of the Coast Survey would be incomplete
without a brief notice of the incidental contributions to
science which have been made and are constantly being
added to during the progress of the work. Its geodetic
operations furnish important data for determining the figure
of the carth. (See FIGURE OF THE EARTH and GEODESY.)
In 1869 the primary triangulation extending from Passama-
quoddy Bay in Maine to Cape Henry in Virginia, a distance
of 750 miles, was connected with five measured base-lines
distributed along the series. The length of any one of
these base-lines, computed through the triangulation from
another, did not differ more than at a rate of a quarter of
an inch in a mile. The apparatus for measuring base-lines,
constructed in the Coast Survey office, is extremely perfect,
each measuring-bar consisting of two rods of different
metal, so combined as to compensate the effect of temper-
ature and preserve the lengths between the points of con-
tact unchanged when exposed to varying temperatures.
In the measurement the contacts of the agate ends are
made by means of the lever of contact and level first used
by Bessel in comparing standards of length, but here
adapted to measurement at inclinations up to 4° with the
same precision as on level ground. The necessity for the
greatest attainable accuracy in such operations is apparent
when we remember that an error in the base-line will affect
the whole distance depending upon it by triangulation in
the same ratio; thus, if the base-line were in error by but
its ten-thousandth part, a distance of one hundred miles
depending on it would be in error, from that source alone,
by fifty-three feet. The angles of the primary triangula-
tion have been measured by means of a theodolite having
a circle of thirty inches diameter, graduated to five minutes
of arc, and reading to single seconds by means of micro-
meter microscopes; about thirty measures of each angle
are taken, the mean of which has generally no greater un-
certainty than one-eighth of a second. The same instru-
ment serves for determining the azimuths of many sides
of the triangulation, or their direction in reference to the
true north. Knowing thus the exact distance between any
two points, and the direction of the line joining them, on
the surface of the globe, we have only to ascertain their
latitudes and difference of longitude in order to deduce
the curvation of that portion of the globe which is occu-
pied by our operations.
The latitudes are chiefly determined with an instrument
called the zenith telescope or equal-altitude instrument, first
applied to that purpose by Capt. A. Talcott of the U. S.
army, and remodelled and specially adapted to the purpose
in the Coast Survey. By the aid of this instrument, and
the great accuracy which modern star-places have attained,
the latitude of a station may readily be determined in three
nights with such precision as to leave no greater uncertainty
than one-tenth of a second. The comparisons of differ-
ences of latitude so observed at many stations with their
differences deduced from the triangulation has developed
the existence of small irregularities in the direction of
998
COATBRIDGE–COBALT.
gravity, arising doubtless from local attractions, even in
places where the outward conformation of the surface
affords no such indication.
The accurate determination of the longitude of some
point in the Coast Survey from the principal observatories
in Europe has been one of the great problems of the work.
All available methods have been resorted to—the observa-
tion of lunar occultations and eclipses, and of right ascen-
sions of the moon; the transportation, of chronometers;
and finally the comparison of time by means of the electric
telegraph. The latter method has yielded the most con-
sistent results, which are also confirmed by the others within
their limits of precision. The difference of time between
the observatories of Greenwich and Cambridge has thus
been determined within a limit of uncertainty no greater
than one-twentieth of a second of time. The differences
of longitude between Cambridge and other principal sta-
tions of the Survey are determined by the aid of the electric
telegraph. A series of such determinations has been ex-
tended southward as far as Galveston and westward to San
Francisco, fixing the geographical positions of many im-
portant places on the way. The method of recording
observations of time on a chronographic register, by means
of a galvanic circuit, known in Europe as the American
method, originated in the Coast Survey with the first at-
tempts to determine longitude by means of the electric tele-
graph. The idea of comparing the local time of different
places by means of the electric telegraph is sufficiently
obvious, but the refined methods by which the intervention
of human senses and operations, and the consequent lia-
bilities to error, are in the greatest possible degree avoided,
and by which the time of transmission is measured and
eliminated from the longitude, have been the result of care-
ful study and long experience. By this perfect and ad-
mirable method we are able to measure arcs of longitude
with the same degree of accuracy with which arcs of lati-
tude have heretofore been measured, and a new element
has thus been introduced into geodesy.
The variation of the compass being an important element
in navigation, observations have been made at several
hundred places along the coast, not only of the deviation
of the magnetic needle, but also of its inclination and of
the intensity of the earth’s magnetism, these elements being
necessary for a complete study of the distribution and
changes of this subtle force. At many points these obser-
vations are from time to time repeated, and their discussion,
in connection with the more ancient observations that have
been collected, has largely added to our knowledge of the
Sécular variation. A magnetical chart has been constructed,
from which the surveyor can learn the variation of the
needle at any place with considerable accuracy.
The subject of the tides has received great attention in
the Coast Survey. Long-continued tidal registers are kept ||
up at selected points on the coast, for the purpose of ascer-
taining, upon the basis of observation, the complicated
laws governing the tides in the different seas that wash our
shores. Self-registering tide-gauges are used, by which a
continuous curve, representing the successive changes in
the height of water, is traced on paper moved by clockwork
by a pencil actuated by the rising and falling of a float in
a vertical box to which the tide has free access. The dis-
cussion of these observations, made at different times by
Prof. Bache, has already largely increased our knowledge
of the laws to which they are subject, and has rendered
possible the predictions of high and low water for all ports
in the U. S., which are published annually in advance.
But highly important results are yet to be obtained from
the discussion of the observations when continued through
a full lunar cycle of nineteen years. Such a series has
been completed for Boston harbor, which has yielded, in
addition to exact data for future predictions, an independ-
ent estimate of the moon’s mass.
A hydrographic survey of our coast would be incom-
plete if it did not embrace the investigation of that remark-
able ocean-current which sweeps along in the vicinity of
our Atlantic coast. The method of exploring the Gulf
Stream adopted by Prof. Bache was to determine the
limits of the stream by the temperature of its water at
all depths by means of deep-sea thermometers along lines
crossing the stream at right angles at various points.
Twenty-one such sections have been run, along which the
temperature of the water at various depths has been de-
termined, and also sections of the bottom wherever it has
been possible to obtain soundings; over 3500 casts hav-
ing been made for they purpose. It is necessary that the
thermometers employed should be self-registering, and able
to withstand the crushing pressure of the water without
having their indication affected thereby. Until recently
the metallic self-registering thermometers invented by Sax-
ton were exclusively employed, being found best to fulfil
the required conditions; latterly, the simpler Miller-Casella
self-registering thermometer with protected bulb has also
been employed. (See GULF STREAM for an account of the
results of these explorations.)
In conclusion, it may be said that the U. S. Coast Sur-
vey is a national work of which Americans may justly be
proud, it having been declared, by the most competent
foreign scientific authorities, to stand in the very front
rank of similar works of other nations, and to be one of
the most perfect examples of applied science.
J. E. HILGARD, U. S. Coast Survey Office.
Coat/bridge, a town of Scotland, in the county of
Lanark, on the Caledonian Railway, 8 or 9 miles E. of
Glasgow. It has seven churches, two academies, and sev-
eral banks; also eight malleable-iron works. It is the centre
of a mineral district in which are numerous smelting-fur-
naces, and derives its prosperity from the manufacture of
iron. It is a place of rapid growth. Pop. 10,501.
Coatesville, a post-borough of Chester co., Pa., on
the Brandywine Creek, and on the Central R. R. where it
crosses the Wilmington and Reading R. R., 39 miles W. of
Philadelphia. It is in the rich and beautiful Chester Wal-
ley. It has a national bank, a newspaper, a banking-house,
seven rolling-mills, woollen and paper mills, and water and
gas works. Pop. 2025. WILLIAM J. KAUFFMAN,
PROP. CHESTER WALLEY “ UNION.”
Coaſti [a word of Brazilian origin], the name of a genus .
(Nasua) of quadrupeds of the Ursidae (the bear family), by
some referred to Viverridae (the civet family), although
their plantigrade character allies them to the former. They
are very nearly allied to the raccoons, and, like them, are
exclusively American. They are remarkable for the long
snout, which is a sort of flexible proboscis, and is employed
in rooting up the earth to obtain worms and insects. They
are often domesticated in South America.
The coati-mondi (Naswa marica) or solitary coati is con-
sidered by many naturalists to be the only species of the
genus, while others reckon at least five species. The coati-
mondi is a native of Brazil, Mexico, and the intermediate
countries. It is often seen in menageries.
Coat/icook, a post-village and port of entry of Barns-
ton township, Stanstead co., Quebec (Canada), on the Grand
Trunk Railway, 26 miles N. of Island Pond, Vt. It has a
weekly paper. Pop. about 2000.
Coat-of-Arms, in the Middle Ages, was a coat worn
by princes and great barons over their armor. It was made
of cloth of gold or silver, of fur or of velvet, and bore armo-
rial insignia. The “coat-of-arms,” as understood by her-
aldry in the present day, is nothing more than a relic of
the ancient armorial insignia. (See HERALDRY, by REV.
B. R. BETTs.)
Coat-of-Mail, in the armor of the Middle Ages, was
a suit formed of metallic scales or rings linked to each other.
(See ARMOR.)
Co/balt, a hard white metal of sp. gr. 8.5 to 8.9, with a
granular fracture, quite malleable at red heat, attracted by
the magnet, and even capable of receiving weak magnetic
power when rubbed with a magnet, though arsenic de-
stroys this property. It is unalterable in air and water at
ordinary temperatures, though at red heat it decomposes
water. The metal was first obtained in an impure state by
Brandt in 1733, but the ores had already been used since
the middle of the sixteenth century for imparting a blue
color to glass. Their use was apparently known to the
Greeks and Romans, as some of their pigments have been
found to contain cobalt. The name is derived from the
German word Kobold, an “evil-minded sprite,” the miners
believing that the presence of ores which were heavy and
had a metallic lustre, but were, so far as they knew, of no
value, containing no copper or silver, was due to his influ-
ence. Before their value was discovered the ores were used
in Hesse for repairing roads.
Ores of cobalt are found in various parts of the world,
though they are never very abundant. They are almost
invariably associated with nickel compounds, and the
metal is generally united with arsenic and sulphur. The
principal supplies come from Schneeberg, Saxony, from
Westphalia, Bohemia, Hesse, and Cornwall, England,
though they occur in other localities. Mine La Motte, Mo.,
the Gap mine in Pennsylvania, Chatham, Conn., and mines
on the N. shore of Lake Superior have furnished some
cobalt.
The principal minerals in which cobalt occurs are smal-
tite, or smaltine, gray cobalt or tin-white cobalt, an ar-
senide of cobalt ; cobalt glance, or cobaltine, the sulph-
arsenide; cobalt bloom, or erythrine, the hydrated arsenate;
earthy cobalt, or asbolan, also called black oxide of cobalt,
a combination of the oxide with iron and manganese ox-
ides, found in several places in Europe, as well as in Mis-
souri; cobalt vitriol, or bieberite, an impure sulphate
COBALT-BASES, AMMONIACAL–COBBS.
999
found in the rubbish of some old mines; syepoorite, the
sulphide, occurring in North-western India, and used by
the Indian jewellers to give a rose color to gold. The first
two being the more common, are used for the manufacture
of smalt and Zaffre. Cobalt also occurs incidentally in
some nickel minerals, in selenide of lead, cerite, and in
Flemish coal. The metal is nowhere found native, except
in some meteorites, some of which have been found to con-
tain from 0.1 to 1 per cent.
The metal may be reduced from its oxide by heating in
a current of hydrogen. If the heat has been too low, the
cobalt is pyrophoric, and burns with a red flame when
brought in contact with the air. It forms several oxides,
of which the most important are the protoxide, CoO, and
the sesquioxide, C203, both of which give a series of salts.
The highest oxide, Co02, has not yet been isolated. Cobalt
combines with arsenic or antimony, giving brittle gray
products. It also alloys with gold and silver, a small
amount of cobalt rendering those metals quite brittle. In
the case of gold one sixty-fifth part is sufficient to cause
brittleness. With tin it gives a ductile alloy of a violet
color. With mercury it forms an amalgam which is mag-
netic. The alloy with iron is extremely hard.
Cobalt salts are prepared by extracting the roasted ore
with an acid, precipitating out the arsenic by means of
sulphuretted hydrogen or by an iron salt, and then precipi-
tating out the cobalt by means of chlorine water, which con-
verts it into sesquioxide, or by the use of nitrite of potassa,
filtering and dissolving. The chloride is used as a sympa-
thetic ink. The writing, which is an extremely pale pink
color, almost invisible, becomes blue when the water of
hydration is removed by heat; but it gradually absorbs
water and disappears again. The presence of nickel salts
gives a greenish cast to the lines. In the arts the com-
pounds of cobalt are applied for coloring either as pig-
ments or enamels. The principal preparation is smalt, or
azure blue, which is a double silicate of cobalt and potas-
sium, prepared by fusing the roasted ore with carbonate
of potassium and clean white quartz sand. The nickel,
arsenic, and other impurities settle to the bottom, forming
what is termed by the workmen a “speiss.” The glass is
poured off into water, then ground, and elutriated. The
coarser qualities are called “blue sand,” and contain some
arsenic. The best quality contains little or no arsenic, and
is known as “king’s blue.” The color is very intense, one
part of oxide of cobalt being sufficient to give a decided
color to 250 parts of glass. The presence of nickel seri-
ously affects the color. It is stated that the manufacture of
artificial ultramarine has nearly driven smalt from the mar-
ket. Smalt is sometimes adulterated with ultramarine; the
fraud may be detected by the addition of an acid to the
article, which causes a change in the color of the ultra-
marine, and the development of sulphuretted hydrogen.
Zaffre, Zaffer, or safflor is the roasted ore mixed with
twice its weight of quartz sand. It is used for coloring
glass, enamels, and pottery glaze. The well-known willow-
pattern plates are colored by this substance.
blue, or cobalt. ultramarine, is a pigment obtained by cal-
cining phosphate or arseniate of cobalt with alumina. Rin-
man's green, or cobalt green, consists of the mixed and
ignited oxides of zinc and cobalt; it is also used as a pig-
ment. Cobalt yellow, another pigment not very generally
used, is the yellow precipitate obtained by treating the
solution of a cobalt salt with nitrite of potassa. A com-
bination of the oxides of iron, cobalt, and manganese is
also used to give a black coloration to glass.
In the laboratory cobalt is recognized by the brilliant
blue color which it imparts to a bead of borax glass.
C. F. CHANDLER.
Cobalt-Bases, Ammoniacal, a series of bodies
which contain the elements of ammonia, NH3, united with
cobalt or oxide of cobalt, and which form salts with salt
radicals, Cl, Bi, I, and with acid radicals, SO3, SO4, CO3,
NO3, CrO3, etc. (See WATTs’ “Dictionary of Chemistry,” i.,
1057; “Journal pour Chemie,” lxxii., 209; and a paper by
GIBBs and GENTH, published in the “Smithsonian Contri-
butions to Knowledge,” 1856.)
Coban’, or We’ra Paz, a city of Central America, in
Guatemala, is the capital of the department of Vera Paz,
and on the Rio Dolce, 64 miles N. of Guatemala. It is
situated on a hill in a fertile table-land. It is a Dominican
mission, and was once the centre of their activity. On
every street corner is a chapel with a crucifix. The chief
church is very large, but falling into decay. Pop. 12,000.
Cobb, a county in the W. N. W. of Georgia. Area, 450
square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the Chatta-
hoochee River. The surface is hilly. Renesaw Mountain
in this county rises 1828 feet above the level of the sea.
Cotton, wool, corn, and wheat are raised. Gold, silver,
copper, and granite are found here. It is intersected by
Thénard's
the Western and Atlantic R. R. Cap., Marietta. P. 13,814.
Cobb (DAVID), a soldier of the Revolution, born at At-
tleborough, Mass., Sept. 14, 1748, graduated at Harvard
(1766), practised medicine for many years, was a lieuten-
ant-colonel in the Continental army, member of Congress
from Massachusetts (1793–95), was for many years a judge
of common pleas, and lieutenant-governor in 1809; he re-
sided for many years in Maine. Died April 17, 1830.
Cobb (How ELL), an American lawyer and Methodist
preacher, born in Georgia in 1795. He has written much,
including a work on legal forms (1845) and a compilation
of the penal laws of Georgia.
Cobb (HowLLL), an American Democratic politician,
born in Jefferson co., Ga., Sept. 7, 1815. He was elected a
member of Congress in 1843, 1845, and 1847. In 1849 he
was chosen Speaker of the House of Representatives. He
became governor of Georgia in 1851, and was appointed
secretary of the treasury by President Buchanan in 1857.
He resigned near the end of 1860, and was president of the
Congress of secessionists which met in Feb., 1861. In the
civil war he was a major-general of the Confederate army.
Died suddenly in New York City Oct. 9, 1868.
Cobb (Joseph BECKHAM), a son of T.W. Cobb (see below),
born in Oglethorpe co., Ga., April 11, 1819, was the author
of novels and other works, among which are “The Creole”
(1848) and “Leisure Hours” (1858). Died Sept. 15, 1858.
Cobb (SYLVANUs), D. D., a Universalist minister, born
in Norway, Me., in 1799, was the author of a “Comment-
ary on the New Testament ’’ and other works, and editor
of a denominational newspaper for twenty years. Died in
East Boston, Mass., Oct. 31, 1866.
Cobb (SYLVANUs, J.R.), a son of the preceding, born in
Waterville, Me., in 1823, has written many popular tales
for the “New York Ledger” and other papers.
Cobb (THOMAs R. R.), GENERAL, a brother of General
Howell Cobb (see above), born in Jefferson co., Ga., in
1820, had a high reputation as a lawyer and author of legal
Works. He was a member of Congress and general of the
army of the Confederate States, and was killed at the bat-
tle of Fredericksburg, Va., Dec. 13, 1862.
Cobb (THOMAs W.), a lawyer, born in Columbia, co., Ga.,
in 1784, was a member of Congress from Georgia (1817–21
and 1823–24), U. S. Senator (1824–28), and a State judge
(1828–30). Died Feb. 1, 1830.
Cobb (WILLIAMSON R. W.) was born in Ray co., Tenn.,
in 1807. He began business as a peddler of clocks, but his
political talents brought him in the House in 1844, and to
Congress in 1847. In 1863 he was elected to the Confede-
rate Congress, but did not take his seat. He died by acci-
dent Nov. 1, 1864. -
Cobbe (FRANCEs Power), a rationalistic writer, was
born in Dublin in 1822. In early youth she was much
troubled with religious doubts. “As she was one day
musing on the great problem of existence, she said to her-
self that although she knew nothing of God or of any law
beyond her own soul, she would at least be true to that, and
merit the approbation of her own conscience. This resolu-
tion, we are told, brought almost immediately a renewed
faith in God.” She afterwards read with great interest the
writings of Theodore Parker, whose views on all essential
points she appears to have cordially adopted. Among her
numerous works may be named “Intuitive Morals” (1855–
57), “Broken Lights,” and “Dawning Lights.” She has
also edited a complete edition of Parker's works. -
Cob'bett (WILLIAM) was born at Farnham, in Surrey,
Mar. 9, 1762. He enlisted in the army, served eight years
in America, and returned to England in 1791. Having
obtained a discharge from the service, he emigrated to the
U. S. in 1792, and settled in Philadelphia, where he edited
a Federalist paper called “Peter Porcupine's Gazette.” He
returned to England in 1800, and began to issue in Lon-
don, in 1802, “The Weekly Political Register,” which was
at first a Tory paper, but gradually changed and became a
strenuous opponent of Pitt and an advocate of radicalism.
He was prosecuted for libel, and sentenced in 1810 to im-
prisonment for two years. He continued to publish the
“Register” until his death. Among his popular works
are “Rural Rides,” “Cottage Economy,” and “Advice to
Young Men and Women.” In 1832 he was elected a mem-
ber of Parliament for Oldham. Died June 18, 1835. He
was a vigorous writer, and distinguished for his common
sense. (See “Life of Cobbett,” Philadelphia, 1823.)
Cob'bold.(THOMAS SPENCER), M. D., F. R. S., F. L. S.,
an English scientist, born May 26, 1828, was educated at
Edinburgh. He is distinguished for his original investi-
gations in helminthology.
Cobbs (NICHOLAs H.), D. D., Protestant Episcopal bish-
op of Alabama, born in Virginia in 1796, was ordained
1000
COBDEN–COCA.
deacon in 1824, priest in 1825, and became bishop in 1844.
Died Jan. 11, 1861.
Cob/den (RICHARD), an eminent English statesman,
born at Dunford, near Midhurst, in Sussex, June 3, 1804,
was a son of a poor farmer who owned a small estate. He
learned mercantile business in the warehouse of his uncle
in London, and became a partner of a firm of cotton manu-
facturers in Manchester. Between 1834 and 1838 he trav-
elled in Egypt, Greece, France, and the U. S. In 1837 he
offered himself as a candidate for Parliament in the borough
of Stöckport, but was not elected. He advocated free trade,
and was the most prominent member and orator of the
Anti-Corn-Law League, formed in 1839. In 1841 he was
returned to Parliament for Stockport. He spoke against
the corn laws in Parliament and in many public meetings.
As a parliamentary orator he was distinguished for his ex-
tensive information and cogency of reasoning. He was a
man of sound judgment and uncommon energy. After the
corn laws had been repealed in 1846, Sir Robert Peel ac-
knowledged that Mr. Cobden was entitled to more credit
for this reform than any other man. In 1847 he was chosen
to represent the West Riding of Yorkshire. He was one of
the leaders of the Manchester party or school, which ad-
vocated electoral reform, a pacific foreign policy, and non-
intervention in foreign quarrels. He was defeated in the
election of 1857, because he opposed Lord Palmerston’s
Chinese policy. In 1857 he revisited the U. S., and was.
elected a member of Parliament for Rochdale. Ilord Pal-
merston in that year offered him a seat in the cabinet as
president of the board of trade, but he declined it, because
he disapproved the foreign policy of Palmerston. He
negotiated in 1860 an important Gommercial treaty with
France in the interest of free trade, which increased the
commerce between the British and French dominions. He
was one of the few British statesmen who sympathized
with the Union cause in the American civil war. Died
April 2, 1865. (See J. GARNIER, “R. Cobden, les Ligueurs
et la Ligue,” 1846; J. McGILCHRIST, “Life of Richard
Cobden,” 1865.)
Cob'ham, a township and village of Surrey co., Va.
Pop. 2110.
Cobija, or Puerto de la Mar (i. e. the “seaport ’’), a
town of Bolivia, in the department of Atacama, is on the
Pacific Ocean; lat. 22° 34' S., lon. 70° 21' W. It is the
only legal seaport of Bolivia, but it is a very small place,
and has little trade, being cut off from the interior by the
desert of Atacama. Pop. 2380. *
Cob'leigh (NELSON EBENEZER), D. D., LL.D., a divine,
educator, and journalist of the Methodist Episcopal Church,
was born in Littleton, N. H., Nov. 24, 1814, graduated at
the Wesleyan University, Conn., in 1843, was elected pro-
fessor in McKendree College, Ill., 1853, professor at Law-
rence University, Wis., 1854, president of McKendree Col-
lege 1858, editor of “Zion's Herald,” Boston, Mass., 1863,
president of East Tennessee Wesleyan University, Athens,
Tenn., 1867, and editor of the “Methodist Advocate,” At-
lanta, Ga., 1872. He is author of numerous and able re-
WI6 WS.
Cob'lentz (anc. Confluentes or Confluentia), a fortified
city of Rhenish Prussia, is finely situated at the confluence
(whence its name) of the Rhine and the Moselle, 50 miles
S. S. E. of Cologne, with which it is connected by rail. The
Rhine is crossed by a bridge of boats 485 yards long, and the
Moselle is crossed by an iron railroad bridge and a stone
bridge. Here are handsome churches, a gymnasium, a
palace, and an old castle of the electors of Treves. The
church of St. Castor was commenced about 836 A. D.
Coblentz is a free port, and has an active trade in wine,
grain, etc.; also manufactures of cotton and linen fabrics
and japanned wares. On the opposite side of the Rhine is
the strong fortress of Ehrenbreitstein. Coblentz is said to
be the strongest place in the Prussian dominions. Pop. in
1871, inclusive of Ehrenbreitstein (2504) and the garrison
(6331), 33,363.
Co’bles, a township of Alamance co., N. C. Pop. 875.
Cob’leskill, a post-village of Schoharie co., N. Y., on
Cobleskill Creek and the Albany and Susquehanna R. R.,
45 miles W. of Albany. It has a national bank and one
jºy newspaper. Pop. 1030; of Cobleskill township,
2847.
Cob-Nuit, the name given to different varieties of the
cultivated hazel-nut. In the West Indies the name cob-
nut, also called hog-nut, is given to the fruit of Omphalea
triandra, a tree of the natural order Euphorbiaceae. A
white juice is obtained from the tree which turns black in
drying, and in Guiana is used instead of ink. The fruit is
a 3-celled capsule, each cell containing one nut, which, if
the embryo is retained, has cathartic properties, but after
its extraction is wholesome and palatable.
Cob'oconk, a post-village of Victoria co, Ontario
(Canada), is the present N. terminus of the Toronto and
Nipissing Railway, 87 miles N. by E. of Toronto.
Co’bourg, a port of entry and capital of Northumber-
land co., Ontario (Canada), on Lake Ontario and on the
Grand Trunk Railway, 69 miles E. by N. of Toronto, and
is the S. terminus of the Cobourg Peterborough and Mar-
mora Railway. It has a good and commodious harbor, and
has regular lines of steamers to many of the principal lake
and river ports of Canada and the U. S. The town is finely
laid out, well built, and lighted with gas. Among the finest
buildings are Victoria Hall, owned by the county, and Vic-
toria College (Wesleyan Methodist), connected with Vic-
toria University. Cobourg has manufactures of woollen
goods, railway carriages, castings, lumber, beer, etc., and
exports lumber, provisions, flour, and iron ore. It has
three weekly papers. Pop. in 1871, 4442.
Co/bra de Capel/lo [a Portuguese term signifying
“hooded snake”], the name
of a venomous serpent,
sometimes applied to other
species of the genus Waja,
of the family Viperidae,
though it is more usually
limited to the Naja tripw-
dians, a native of the In-
dies, the most venomous
of known reptiles. Other
species of Naja are found
in the warmer parts of Asia,
# Africa, and Australia, and
in the East Indian Islands.
º The term cobra de capello
Cobra de Capello. is derived from a singular
t faculty possessed by these
snakes of expanding and elevating the skin of the back of
the neck into the resemblance of a hood. This phenomenon
is shown when the creature is angry or excited, and is pro-
duced by the structure and action of the skeleton, as well
as of the skin and muscles. The back of the hood is usu-
ally ornamented with two eye-like spots joined by a curved
dark stripe, the whole resembling a pair of spectacles;
hence it is often called the “spectacle snake.” The color
of the cobra is not uniform; some are brownish olive, having
the spectacles white, edged with black. Another variety
has cross-bands of black. Specimens without spectacles
have been found in Java, Borneo, and other islands. The
cobra attains a length of from three to five or more feet. It
is sluggish in its habits, and easily destroyed. It feeds on
lizards and other small animals. Its venom is secreted by
two large glands in the head, and is extremely powerful,
often causing death in two hours or less. This poison,
though generally fatal if introduced through a wound, is
said to be harmless when taken into the stomach. The only
successful treatment is immediate excision or thorough cau-
terization of the wound, but Fayrer believes that artificial
respiration will save many cases. The cobra, together with
other serpents, is an object of worship among many of the
Hindoos. It is asserted that thousands of people perish
annually in British India from the bite of this reptile, and
the government now pays a bounty for the destruction of
this and other dangerous serpents.
Coſburg [Lat. Melocabus], a town of Central Germany,
in the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, is on the river Itz and
on the railway from Dresden to Munich, 26 miles N. of
Bamberg. It is one of the residences of the duke of Saxe-
Coburg-Gotha, and is the seat of all the high courts of the
duchy. It has a ducal palace with a library of 26,000 vol-
umes, a theatre, an observatory, an evangelical gymnasium,
and a large arsenal. On a hill 500 feet high is an old castle
in which Luther was concealed in 1530. Here are manu-
factures of cotton, linen, and woollen fabrics, etc. Pop. in
1871, 12,819.
Co'ca, the leaves of a shrub (Erythroacylon Coca) of
the order Erythroxylaceae, a narcotic and stimulant used
by the inhabitants of Peru, Brazil, and Bolivia, and espe-
cially by the Indians of Ecuador and of the Peruvian
Andes. The leaves are chewed with a little unslaked lime
or alkaline ashes. The effects resemble those of opium,
although less narcotic ; it dilates the pupil of the eye,
while opium contracts it. It lessens the desire for food,
and enables the person who uses it to endure greater and
more protracted exertion than he otherwise could, and with
less food. It possesses the remarkable property of pre-
venting the difficulty of respiration common in the as-
cent of great elevations. Used in excess, it weakens the
digestion, produces various disorders, and finally impairs
both body and mind. It is supposed that about 30,000,000
pounds of the dried leaf are consumed in a year, about
º
10,000,000 of the human race habitually using it. Its

COCAINE–COCHITUATE LAKE.
1001
powers are believed principally to depend upon an active
principle called cocaine. -
Co/caine (C16H19N 04?), an alkaloid extracted from
coca leaves. It crystallizes in colorless, odorless prisms,
having a slightly bitter taste, and resembling atropine in
its properties.
Cocceſius (NERVA), an eminent Roman jurist, was a
grandfather of the emperor Nerva. He was elected consul
in 22 A. D. His learning is highly extolled by Tacitus.
Died about 33 A. D.
Cocce’jus, Cocceius, or Cock (Joh ANN), an emi-
nent German theologian, born at Bremen Aug. 9, 1603.
He was professor of Hebrew at Franeker from 1636 to 1650,
when he became professor of theology at Leyden, where he
died Nov. 5, 1669. He wrote commentaries of great learn-
ing and ability on nearly the whole of the Old Testament,
but is best known as the founder of the so-called “Federal
School” in theology. His doctrine of the covenants of
works and grace is drawn out in the treatise “Summa Doc-
trinae de Foedere et Testamento Dei" (1648; 2d ed. 1653).
Coccejus (SAMUEL), BARON, a German statesman, son
of Heinrich Coccejus, born at Heidelberg in 1679, became
in 1727 Prussian minister of state, and in 1746 chancellor.
He was the author of a new code of laws (“Codex Frideri-
cianus,” 1747–50). Died in 1755. (See TRENDELENBURG,
“Friedrich der Grosse und sein Grosskanzler Samuel von
Coccejus,” 1863.) -
Coc'cius (ERNST ADOLF), a prominent German oculist,
born Sept. 19, 1825, at Knauthain, near Leipsic, became in
1849 lecturer at the University of Leipsic; established in
1857 a clinical institution of eye-diseases, of which he was
the director until 1867. He wrote numerous works, all of
which are regarded as important contributions to opthal-
mological literature. - º
Cocºco Root is the product of plants of the nearly-
allied genera Colocasia and Caladium, of the order Araceae,
cultivated in tropical countries for their flat corms, which
abound in starch, and are used as food after being roasted
or boiled to remove the acridity. The above names strictly
belong to Colocasia antiquorum, a stemless plant with ovate
leaves, and flowers enclosed in a cylindrical erect spathe.
Colocasia esculenta is a much-cultivated plant of tropical
America. Colocasia macrorrhiza is the taro of the South
Sea Islands. Colocasia Himalensis forms the principal food
of many of the inhabitants of the Himalaya Mountains.
Coccos^teus [from the Gr. kökkos, a “berry,” and
êa réov, a “bone,” alluding to the prominences on its bony
armor], the name of a genus of fossil ganoid fishes of the
Devonian measures. Eight species have been found in
Scotland. It was allied to the Cephalaspis, but differed in
having, in addition to the bony helmet of that genus, a
cuirass covering the dorsal and ventral aspects of the body
as far as the origin of the dorsal fin, from which to the
tail—more than one-half the length of the animal—all
seems to have been without the protection even of a scale.
Coc'culus Inſdicus, the very poisonous seed of the
Amamirta. Cocculus, a beautiful climbing plant of the order
Menispermaceae. The seed is brought from the East In-
dies, and is sometimes used for medicinal purposes, and
illegally in the preparation of malt liquors. It possesses
acrid and intoxicating qualities. It is used for stupefying
fish, that they may be taken by the hand; in some of the
U. S. this practice is forbidden by law. An ointment made
with it is very efficacious for ringworm. It contains a poi-
sonous principle, called PICROTOXINE (which see), while the
pericarp contains another called menispermin, equally poi-
sonous. It imparts to beer a bitter taste, and at the same
time an apparent richness, but renders it very deleterious
in its effects.
Cocſeus [from the Gr. kökkos, a “berry,” so called be-
cause some species of the insect were formerly supposed to
be the seed of a plant], a genus of insects of the order
Hemiptera, allied to the aphis family, although very dis-
tinct. The Coccidae are sometimes called “scale insects”
and gall insects, but they are not to be confounded with
the gall-flies (Cynipidae). They are very numerous, and
are attached to plants, on the juices of which they feed,
often producing much mischief by their punctures, and
giving great trouble to gardeners. Various washes of soap,
sulphur, tobacco, etc. are employed to destroy them, but
moist heat, or as much exposure to steam as the plant can
bear, has been found in many cases efficacious. The de-
structive coffee-bug belongs to this family. The male
Coccidae have only two wings, which shut horizontally
upon the body; the abdomen is terminated by two threads,
The females are wingless; they have a beak, which they
insert into plants to suck their juices. This interesting
family contains not only many troublesome species, but
Some which are of great value for the beautiful dyes which
they yield. Among them are CoCHINEAL (which see) and
kermes. Other species produce lac and wax.
Cocentay’na, a Spanish town, in the province of Ali-
cante, 30 miles N. of Alicante. It is ill built, but has con.
siderable manufactures of cloths, taffetas, etc. Pop. 7369.
Cochabam’ba, a department of Bolivia, S. of Chu-
quisaca, in the centre of the republic. The climate is
healthful and spring-like. The soil is exceedingly fertile
and rich in manifold products. So abundantly do cereals
grow that it has been called the granary of the republic.
Area, 26,803 square miles. Cattle and horses are plenty.
The noble metals are found, but in smaller quantities than
elsewhere. Pop. 319,892. *
Cochabamba, sometimes called Orope'sa, a city
of Bolivia, capital of the department of Cochabamba, is
about 150 miles N. N.W. of Chuquisaca, and 8440 feet above
the level of the sea. The city was founded in 1565. The
houses are mostly one story high, well built, and surrounded
by gardens. The trade is large. It has fifteen churches,
and some manufactures of cotton. Pop. 40,678.
Cochecºton, a township and post-village of Sullivan
co., N. Y. The village is on the Erie R. R., 106 miles S. E.
of Owego. Pop. of township, 1490.
Co’chin, a rajahship of India, on the Malabar coast,
is bounded on the S. W. by the ocean, and on several sides
by Travancore and Malabar. It is in the presidency of
Madras. Area, 1988 square miles. The climate is very
wet. Here are extensive forests of teak and other trees.
Rice, pepper, ginger, yams, and Sweet potatoes are among
the productions of the soil. Chief town, Cochin.
Cochin, a seaport-town of Hindostan, in the district
of Malabar, was formerly the capital of the above country.
It is situated at the entrance of an extensive backwater or
lagoon, 80 miles S. S. E. of Calicut. The lagoon, which is
nearly 120 miles long, and is navigable, affords valuable
facilities for communicating with the interior. Cochim has
great natural advantages for trade and shipbuilding. The
Jews, of whom there are many both of the white and black
castes, have a synagogue, almost the only one in India.
It is also a Roman Catholic episcopal see. Here the Por-
tuguese erected in 1503 their first fort in India. They
were expelled from Cochin by the Dutch in 1663. The
town was ceded to the British in 1814. The chief articles of
export are teak-timber, cardamoms, coir, etc. Pop. 20,000.
Cochin-China. See ANAM, by PROF. A. J. SchEM.
Coch’ineal [Sp. cochinilla, originally the name of the
coccus insect used in dyeing ; see KERMEs], a substance
used in dyeing crimson and scarlet and in the preparation
of the colors carmine and lake. It consists of the bodies
of the females of the Coccus cacti, which feeds on plants of
the cactus family, particularly on the cochineal plants
(Opuntia cochimillifera, Hermandezii, and Tuma), nearly
allied to the prickly pear. It is a native of the warm parts
of America, and is cultivated for the sake of the valuable
insect which feeds on it. This cultivation was practised
by the Mexicans long before the country was known to
Europeans. It is now carried on also in parts of the West
Indies and Peru, and \in the Canary Islands, where it
forms a very important article of commerce with Europe
and the U. S. The cochineal insect is very small, a pound
of cochineal being calculated to contain not less than
70,000 in a dried state. The male is of a deep-red color
and has white wings. The female is wingless, and of a
deep-brown color, covered with a white powder, flat be-
neath, convex above. The cultivator procures branches
laden with the insects, and keeping the branches till the
mother-insects have laid their eggs, he places their bodies,
with the eggs, in little nests formed of some cottony sub-
stance upon the cochineal plants, and the young insects,
when hatched, soon spread over them. The gathering of
the cochineal is very tedious, and is accomplished by brush-
ing the branches with some soft brush, such as the tail of
a squirrel. The insects are killed by boiling water, by
heating in ovems, or by exposure to the sun. They must
be quickly killed, to prevent them from laying their eggs,
which diminishes their value. When killed and dried,
they may be kept for almost any length of time without in-
jury. The coloring principle of cochineal is carminic acid
(C14H1408), known in an impure state as carmine, and com-
bined with alumina as carmine lake. Cochineal is used for
dyeing wool and silk scarlet and crimson. The colors are
very brilliant, but not durable. They are easily spotted by
water and alkalies. The mordants used are alum, cream of
tartar, and tin salt. REVISED BY C. F. CHANDLER.
Cochit/uate Lake, of Massachusetts, in Middlesex
co., about 18 miles W. by S. from Boston, is the prin-
cipal source of the water by which that city is supplied.
It is nearly three miles long, and has an area of 650 acres.
It is connected with Sudbury River by an artificial channel,
1002
COOHRAN–COCKATOO.
through which, at low water, the supply for the city is in-
creased. }
Coch’ran (John WEBSTER), an eminent inventor, born
at Enfield, N. H., May 16, 1814, removed in 1832 to Bos-
ton, Mass., patented in 1833 a steam heating-apparatus,
and in 1834 a revolving cannon, constructed on the prin-
ciple afterwards used in the revolving pistol. He after-
wards invented valuable machinery for the curvilinear
sawing of timber. He resided in Europe many years, and
afterwards returned to the U. S., having acquired wealth
and fame by his inventions.
Cochran (WILLIAM) was a Northern man of Irish de-
scent who settled in Tuscaloosa, Ala., about 1837. He
became a law-partner of Gen. Crabb, and acquired a great
reputation.
Coch’rane (Sir ALExANDER For ESTER INGLIS), an Eng-
lish admiral, born April 22, 1758, served with distinction
in Egypt and the West Indies, and commanded the English
fleet which assisted in taking Washington in Aug., 1814.
Died at Paris Jan. 26, 1832.
º
\\
Cochrane (JoBN), GENERAL, born at Palatine, Mont-
gomery co., N. Y., Aug. 27, 1813, graduated at Hamilton
College, Clinton, N. Y., in 1831, became a lawyer and re-
moved to New York City in 1846, was a Democratic mem-
ber of Congress (1856–62), served as a brigadier-general
of volunteers (1862–63), and in 1864 was nominated for
Vice-President on the Fremont ticket.
Cochrane (JoBIN DUNDAS), CAPTAIN, a British naval
officer, son of Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane, called the
“ pedestrian traveller,” was born about 1780. He pur-
posed a journey round the globe, and traversed Russia and
Siberia on foot. When he arrived in Kamtchatka, he mar-
ried, and abandoned his original project. He returned by
way of Russia to England in 1823, and published a narra-
tive of his travels. Died Aug. 12, 1825.
Coch’ranton, a post-borough of Crawford co., Pa.
Pop. 459.
Cocin'ic Acid, or Coco stearic Acid (HC18H2509),
the fatty acid of cocoanut oil.
Cock [Fr. coql, the male of the common domestic fowl.
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The name is also applied to the males of many other kinds
of birds. The ancients regarded the domestic cock as
sacred to Mars. The cock is said to have been the emblem
of the ancient Gauls, though the tradition does not rest
on authority, and is supposed to have been a mere play of
words between the Latin gallus, a “cock,” and Gallus, a
Gaul; the cock was placed, after the Revolution, on the
ensigns of France. It is introduced by artists amongst the
emblems of our Lord’s passion, in allusion to Saint Peter’s
sin, and for the same reason it is Saint Peter's emblem, as
the lion is the emblem of Saint Mark.
There is reason to believe that the domestic fowl is the
descendant of more than one recognized species of the genus
Gallus, all, however, of Asiatic origin. Among these are
the Gallus giganteus, or Kulm fowl, a large bird of India
and the Eastern Archipelago; Gallus Sonneratii, a spirited
fowl of Hindostan ; Gallus aeneus, furcatus, and bankiva of
the Archipelago, and others; but there is very good reason
to believe that they are all of one stock, since the domestic
fowl, like the pigeon, has a remarkable tendency to devel-
op strongly marked varieties in breeding.
Cock (THoMAs), M.D., a prominent physician of New
York, born at Glen Cove, Long Island, in 1802. He dis-
tinguished himself by his courage and ability during the
yellow-fever season in New York in 1822, and in the epi-
demic of cholera in 1832. He was a professor in the New
York College of Physicians and Surgeons, and an active
Christian philanthropist. Died June 14, 1869.
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Jungle Cock: Gallus giganteus.
Cockade [Fr. cocarde], a ribbon or badge worn on the
hat or cap by officers of the army or navy; an appendage
to the headdress, worn as a military or naval distinction
or as a badge of a party. During the revolution of 1789
the French people generally assumed the tricolored rib-
bon (red, white, and blue) as a badge of patriotism or
the symbol of the new régime. The army also wore the
tricolored cockade until the Restoration, when the legiti-
mists, adopted the white cockade. In England a white
rose was the badge of the Stuarts, and became a fav-
orite theme in Jacobite songs after the Stuarts had ceased .
to reign.
Coelaſatoo” [a word derived from the cry of these birds],
the name applied to several birds nearly allied to the par-
rots (of the family Psittacidae), from which they are distin-
guished by the greater height of the bill and by the length-
ened and rounded tail. In the genus Plyctolophus the
head is large, and surmounted by a crest of long pointed
feathers, with their tips directed forward, which can be ex-
panded like a fan or depressed by the bird. The cockatoos
are of generally whitish plumage, often finely mixed with
red, orange, and other colors. The name cockatoo is also
extended to allied genera, Cacatua, Nestor, Calyptorhynchus,
and Microglossum. The genus Microglossum, to which be-
longs the giant cockatoo of New Guinea, is remarkable for
the structure of the tongue, which is cylindrical, tubular,
capable of being greatly protruded, and which terminates
in a horny tip. The cockatoos are natives of Australasia














































COCKATRICE–COCK-FIGHTING.
1003
and the Malay Islands.
but the larvae of insects.
They not only eat fruits and seeds,
None of the cockatoos learn to
Wº,
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litº
§§
White-crested Cockatoo.
speak with fluency. The owl parrot (Strigops) and the
hairy parrot (Dasyptilus) are kindred to the cockatoos.
Cock/atrice [called in Latin basiliscus and cocatria.],
a fabulous monster or venomous serpent, which has been
sometimes identified with the basilisk. It was said to be
hatched from a cock’s egg, and its breath and look were
fatally poisonous. The word occurs in the English version
of the Old Testament as the name of a venomous serpent.
Cock/burn (Sir ALExANDER J. E.), BART., an English
judge, born in 1802. He was elected to Parliament as a
liberal in 1847, and was appoint-
ed attorney-general in 1851. In
1856 he became chief-justice of
the court of common pleas, and
in June, 1859, lord chief-justice
of the court of queen’s bench.
He was selected by the British
ministers to act as an arbitrator
of the tribunal which was or—
ganized for the settlement of
the “Alabama, claims ” at Ge-
neva, in 1871–72.
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Cockburn (Sir GEORGE), º | %|º §§ à.º
G. C. B., a British admiral, born #| ||/|V}º º
April 33, 1772, entered the navy º ſ º º
in 1781, assisted in the capture º ſº º §
of Washington (D. C.) in 1814, W. º |
and conveyed Napoleon to St. * ||N º §§
Helena in 1815. He was a lord
of the admiralty from 1818 to
1828. Died at Leamington
Aug. 19, 1853.
Cockſchafer, the common
Rnglish name of the Melolontha
vulgaris, a European coleopter-
ous insect of the family Melo-
Ionthidae, famous for the rav-
ages which it commits, the
winged beetle feeding on the
leaves of fruit and forest trees, r
the grub devouring the roots
of pasture-grasses and corn.
The cockchafer is an inch in length, of a pitch-black color,
with a whitish down, giving a powdered appearance; the
grub is an inch and a half long, whitish, with a red head
and six legs. The cockchafer does not live long in its per-
fect state, but it lives nearly four years in the larva form.
The female deposits her eggs in the earth. “The whole grass
ſ
lº, ºn
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|
of a field has been destroyed in a short time by the grubs,
and the beetles themselves strip the trees like locusts. The
river Severn is said to have been so filled with their bodies
in 1574 that the water-wheels of the mills were clogged;
and in 1688 they were so abundant in some parts of Ireland
that they hung in clusters on the trees like bees swarming,
and the noise of their jaws at work was compared to that
of the sawing of timber. This insect does not occur in the
U. S., but others of the same family and of similar habits
abound.
Cocke, a county of East Tennessee. Area, 250 square
miles. It is drained by the French Broad River, and
bounded on the S. E. by Iron or Smoky Mountain. The
surface is hilly. Tobacco, wool, and grain are produced.
It is intersected by the Cincinnati Cumberland Gap and
Charleston R. R. Capital, Gorman’s Dépôt. Pop. 12,458.
Cocke (John), GENERAL, born at Brunswick, Nottoway
co., Va., in 1772, was a member of Congress from Tennes-
see (1819–27), major-general of volunteers in the Creek war
(1813), and served as colonel at the battle of New Orleans
(1815). Died in Granger co., Tenn., Feb. 16, 1854.
Cock'er, a small spaniel, similar to the Blenheim dog.
The small size of the cocker fits it for ranging in coverts,
and it is much employed by British sportsmen in pheasant
and woodcock shooting; but it cannot easily be trained to
wait for the sportsman. It is sometimes called the “cock-
ing-dog,” taking both its names from its behavior when
game is discovered. It somewhat resembles the setter.
Cock/eriiI (John), an English engineer and well-known
promoter of modern commerce, born in Lancashire Aug. 3,
1790. In 1802 he went to Belgium, where his father had
long been employed as a machinist, and in 1816 established
at Seraing, near Liége, a large machine-shop, the king of
Holland being for a time in partnership with him. He also
established coal-mines, iron-mines, and extensive factories
in many parts of Europe. In 1839 he failed, and died in
1840.
Cock/ermouth, a town of England, in Cumberland, on
the river Derwent, at the mouth of the Cocker, 24 miles S.
W. of Carlisle. It is poorly built. Here are the ruins of a
castle founded about 1100, and razed by the army of the
Parliament in 1648. It has manufactures of cotton and
woollen goods, hats, hosiery, and paper. Pop. 5388.
Cock’eysville, a post-village of Baltimore co., Md. It
is a station on the Northern Central R. R., 15 miles N. of
Baltimore.
Cock-Fighting, a barbarous sport which is said to
have originated with the Athenians. It existed in the days
of Thomas à Becket, and until the time of the Common-
wealth it flourished, a pit at Whitehall having been erected
and patronized by royalty. It was prohibited in 1654, but,
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Grey Game Fowl.
though there have been other acts passed with the view of
putting it down, it still exists both in England and the
U. S. Toocks of the breeds known as game fowl are chosen.
These birds often exhibit the highest degree of courage.
Much art is displayed in training and in trimming and
preparing the cock for the combat; the fastening on of the































































1004
COCKLE—-COD,
steel spurs or “gaffs” is a matter requiring considerable,
experience. Young cocks are called stags; two years is the
best age. In fighting, a certain number of cocks on either
side is agreed upon, and before the match the cocks are shown,
and matched according to their weights. The cocks within
an ounce of each other in weight are said to “fall in,” and
are matched for the “main.” Those which do not fall in
are matched to fight what are called “byes.” The main is
fought for a stake upon each battle, and so much for the
main or the winner of the most battles in the main; while
the byes have nothing to do with the main, and are fought
for smaller sums. The nations of Spanish origin are espe-
cially fond of this sport, which has also been very popular
in parts of the U. S.
Cockſle [Gr. Koyxſatov (from köyxm, a “shell”) ; Lat.
* conchylium], a name
given to various aceph-
alous mollusks, chiefly
of the genus Cardium.
The Cardium edwle, or
common cockle, and
other species, consti-
tute an important Sup-
ply of food in England
\ and other European
A countries. The species
are very numerous, and
are chiefly tropical.
Cardium Junonis is one
of the finest species.
Several species occur
on the Atlantic and
Pacific coasts of the
|U. S.
Cock/le, or Corn-Cockie [Fr. coquelicot], a common
name of the Lychnis Githago, an annual plant of the order
Caryophyllaceae, a native of Europe. It often occurs as a
weed in the wheat-ſields of the U. S., and produces black
Seeds, which are injurious to the appearance and quality
of wheat flour. The lobes of the calyx are linear, and
longer than the corolla, which is purple-red.
Cock'ney. The origin of this term, applied to a native
or citizen of London, is involved in obscurity. In 1517,
Henry VIII. made an order with reference to the feast of
the King of the Cockneys, held on Childermas Day. The
term Cockney School was applied to a literary coterie
sisting of Hazlitt, Keats, Leigh Hunt, Shelley, etc.
Cock/pit, in a ship of war, is a room near the
after hatchway, under the lower gun-deck. It ad-
joins the surgeon’s cabin and the surgery, contains
the medicine-chests for all the crew, and is the
place where the wounded men receive surgical treat-
ment during an action. -
Cock/roach, or Roach, a name of several
orthopterous insects of the genus Blatta and allied
genera, which have a flattened body, the head be-
neath the plate of the prothorax, and wings folded
longitudinally. The elytra are parchment-like, and
the wings sometimes imperfectly developed, par-
ticularly in the females. The eggs are in a sort
of shell fixed to the abdomen of the mother, which at
last she deposits in a suitable situation, attaching it by
a glutinous secretion. The larvae are similar in form
to the perfect insects, and, like them, very voracious.
Cockroaches are numerous in warm countries, and the
common cockroach (Blatta orientalis) was imported from
abroad, but its native country is uncertain. It devours
both animal and vegetable Substances, and a dark-colored
fluid from its mouth gives a disgusting smell to everything
that it passes over. The common cockroach is an inch long,
but some tropical ones are much larger. The cockroaches
are remarkably infested by parasitic insects and fungi.
Borax, used freely, will generally drive them away.
Cocks/comb [named from the resemblance of its head
of flowers to the comb of a cock], a name applied to vari-
ous amaranths, but especially to the Celosia cristata, na-.
tive of the East Indies, and a familiar inmate of conserva-
tories, often also planted in borders.
comes flattened, expands, and forms a crest, bearing on its
surface many very small and brilliant flowers, so crowded
as to present a rich velvety appearance.
Cocoa. See CACAo and THEOBROMA.
Co/coa-Nut, the fruit of the Cocos nucifera, a tree of
the order Palmaceae, which is indigenous or cultivated
in nearly all tropical countries. It has pinnate leaves,
from twelve to twenty feet long. The trunk or stem is
branchless, and grows to the height of sixty to ninety
ſeet, bearing at its summit a crown of leaves. These trees
prefer a sandy soil, and are seldom found growing far from
Its upright stem be-,
the sea, unless they have been planted by man, The thick
and hard shell of the nut is well adapted to preserve the
seed when it is carried by the waves to some distant shore
or sandbank; hence the cocoanut-palm is one of the first
large plants that usually appear on a new island of coral
formation as soon as sufficient soil has been collected
there. It affords a large variety of useful products. The
nut, which is an important article of food to the people of
tropical countries, is eaten both ripe and unripe. The
young unripe fruit contains a pleasant milky fluid, which
is used as food and is prepared in various ways. The ker-
nel yields about 70 per cent. of a fixed oil called cocoanut
oil, which is an important article in the manufacture of
stearine candles and marine soap. In tropical countries it
is used as lamp oil and as an article of food. It can be
separated by compression in the cold into a more liquid
portion called oleine, and a more solid part termed coco-
stearine or cocosine. (See CocINIC ACID.)
The terminal bud (palm-cabbage) of Cocos nucifera is
edible and is considered a delicacy, but its removal causes
the death of the tree, which is sometimes cut down for its
sake. The stem abounds in a saccharine sap called “toddy,”
which is esteemed as a pleasant beverage, either in the state
in which it is drawn from the tree, or after fermentation,
which takes place in a few hours. From the fermented sap
(palm wine) a spirituous liquor called “arrack’ is obtained
by distillation. The dried leaves of the cocoanut-palm are
useful for thatching houses, for making mats and baskets,
and for other purposes. The wood of the lower part of the
stem is very hard, takes"a beautiful polish, is employed for
a variety of purposes, and is imported for ornamental
joinery under the name of porcupine-wood. The most im-
portant fibrous product of this tree is coir, the fibre of the
husk of the immature nut. (See CoIR.) The shell of the
nut is made into cups, ladles, etc., and is often finely pol-
ished and elaborately ornamented by carving. The double
cocoa-nut is the product of the Lodoicea Seychellarum, a
palm growing in the Seychelle Islands.
Co/coa Pium, the edible fruit of the Chrysobalamus
Icaco, a shrub of the order Rosaceae, growing in the south-
ern part of the U. S. and the West Indies. The fruit re-
sembles a large plum, yellow, purple, or black in color.
Cocoon. See SILKworM and CHRYSALIs. n
Cod (Gadus morrhwa), a fish of great commercial im-
portance, belonging to the family Gadidae. The genus is
distinguished by three dorsal and two anal fins and a bar-
bule beneath the chin. The cod has been known to reach
Common Cod.
a weight of 100 pounds. The roe of the female is esti-
mated to contain from four to nine millions of eggs, a re-
productive power which seems intended to provide for the
extensive fisheries which are carried on in the northern
parts of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and in the Arctic
seas. The cod is not known in the Mediterranean. It oc-
curs both on rocky coasts and on Sandbanks, where the
largest are usually caught in depths of from twenty-five to
fifty fathoms. The productiveness of the banks of New-
foundland excels that of all other known regions, but the cod-
fisheries near Holland, Norway, Iceland, and the north of
Scotland are also productive. The cod-fisheries of Alaska
promise to become very important. The Dutch and the
English engaged in the cod-fishery in the fourteenth century,
about the same period. More than 6000 European vessels
are employed in it, besides boats along the shores. . The
fishery is carried on partly by long lines and partly by
hand lines. One man has been known to catch from 400
to 550 fish on the banks of Newfoundland in ten hours, and
eight men to take 1600 in a day on the Dogger Bank, near
Holland. Small fishes, shell-fish, etc. are used for bait.
The cod is used as food, either fresh, salted, or dried.
Great quantities of dried cod are carried from Newfound-
land to the West Indies and the south of Europe. Cod
tongues and sounds (or air-bladders) are esteemed a deli-
cacy, and are often salted and sent to market. Several va-
rieties and species seem to be peculiar to the American coasts.
The cod-fisheries of the U. S. are principally carried on
from Massachusetts and Maine, though the fisheries on the
Pacific coast are assuming considerable importance.



sº
CODDINGTON.—CODEX ALEXANDRINUS.
1005
Cod/dington (WILLIAM), born in Lincolnshire, Eng-
land, in 1601, came to Salem, Mass., in 1630, was a mer-
chant of Boston, and fled to R. I. in 1638 in consequence
of his defence of Anne Hutchinson and others. He soon
became a Quaker and an advocate of liberty of conscience,
was elected a judge, and afterwards governor of R. I. (1640–
47). In 1651 he was again appointed governor of the isl-
and by the Commonwealth of England, but resigned soon.
He was again governor (1674–75). Died in Nov., 1678.
Code [Lat. codew], a collection of laws made by public
authority. In modern law, it more commonly means a
methodical arrangement of law, either customary or statu-
tory, in chapters and sections. In a number of the Amer-
ican States the general statutes (see STATUTE) are arranged
in this manner under the title of “Revised Laws,” “Re-
vised Statutes,” or “Codes.” How far it is practicable to
accomplish useful results in the codification of customary
or common law is a subject of much controversy among
jurists. On the one hand, it is claimed that as law of
this nature can be enunciated or stated, the statement can
be reduced to writing in the form of general and particular
propositions. It is added, as to the common law of Eng-
land, that it has been for ages in writing, and that all that
is now known of it is derived from written sources such as
reports and treatises of recognized authority. The rules
there found are susceptible of collation, analysis, and sys-
tematic arrangement. The materials thus obtained may
be recast by the codifier, and moulded into the form of
positive and authoritative statement in his own language.
True, the judge in deciding a cause states a principle as
applied to the particular cause before him; the codifier
may seize upon the principle that underlies the specific
case, and state it in a positive and precise form. From
this mode of collecting and arranging legal propositions it
is claimed that a number of benefits will be secured, such
as reducing the labor of lawyers, decreasing the size of
their libraries, introducing legal reforms by comprehensive
legislation, and affording to the public increased oppor-
tunities to become acquainted with general rules of law.
(See “Report of Civil Code for New York by Commis-
sioners,” Albany, A. D. 1855.) On the other hand, it is
urged that a code, being inflexible in its character, prevents
the true growth of law. Discussions in court will turn
upon the construction of words used in the code, instead of
there being an examination of legal principles. The in-
terpretation of specific words is to the last degree attended
with uncertainty. Leading inquiries concerning the great
statute of frauds passed in the reign of Charles II. are
still regarded in the courts as open to consideration. This
objection is truly formidable. Where customary law pre-
vails, little if any attention is paid in the decision of
causes to the particular language in which the court in a
former case cited as a precedent expressed its views. The
principle of the decision is seized upon and stated in per-
haps wholly different words. The arguments applied to
the construction of statute or codified law must, from the
nature of the case, be in the main textual criticism. There
must be interpretation of particular words, reconciliation
of discordant phrases, and minute consideration of mere
forms of expression. While a rule of law is in process of
formation discussions as to its true principle should be as
free and unfettered as possible until, after a long inter-
change, and perhaps collision, of opinions, the true rule is
evoked, with its various qualifications and limitations.
This process, so beneficial in its character, could not be
made available if the rule in its early stages had already
been hardened into fixed forms of statute law. Mr. Austin,
in his great work on jurisprudence, though from the bent
of his mind inclined to favor codification, sees the great
difficulties attending it in its more perfect forms, and sug-
gests that the work can only be accomplished successfully,
if at all, by lawyers of the very highest ability and most
comprehensive views, for no others can see the full scope
of the subject and draw the needful sections. It may be
added that in a country like our own, where legislation
is fluctuating and often inconsiderate, there would be
great danger, even though a well-devised code of laws
were once introduced, that its symmetry would shortly be
marred and the coherence of its provisions broken up.
No argument for a code in the modern sense can be de-
rived from the work of Justinian on the Roman law. The
“Pandects,” the great body of the Roman law, is, in the
main, a mere collection of extracts from distinguished wri-
ters in their own language, and which had already become
settled law. The “Institutes” are substantially a bare repro-
duction of a well-known work of Gaius, a distinguished
Roman jurist. Besides, the development of the Roman law
was different in some respects from our own. In that system
much was made of the opinions of text-writers, while nearly
the whole development of English jurisprudence has taken
place through the medium of adjudged cases or “case
law.” The true method of growth would seem to be that
the courts should render decisions, while text-writers
of ability should collect them, arrange the principles in a
scientific manner, criticise them when faulty, and call the
attention of the courts to needful improvement. By the
work thus done law will make a steady progress, and adapt
itself to the wants of the community. Radical changes
must be produced by legislation. It is in vain to hope
that a code will reduce libraries or make thorough study
unnecessary. Jurisprudence will take on an historical
form, for courts must apply the code to specific cases, and
a body of case law will soon grow up, the roots of which
will be sought in the past as heretofore, and its results
modify the code itself, just as great masses of case law col-
lect around an instrument so brief as the U. S. Constitu-
tion. (See also AUSTIN “On Jurisprudence,” vol. ii., p.
1129, and PoMERoy’s “Introduction to Municipal Law,”
chap. iii., and the works of Savigny.)
Some of the leading codes may be referred to.
1. Justinian’s Code of Roman Law.—The word code is
used here as describing the whole mass of codified Roman
law under the order of the emperor Justinian, including
the “Code’’ of that system, the “Institutes,” “Pandects,”
and “Novels.” These, taken together, constitute the cor-
pus juris civilis, or whole body of civil law. (These will
be more fully considered under LAW, CIVIL.) The Theodo-
sian code of Roman law may also be referred to, which is
of comparatively little interest. (See “Foreign Quarterly
Review,” vol. ix., 374.)
2. French Codes.—Of these there are five principal ones—
the civil code, of civil procedure, of commerce, of criminal
procedure, and of criminal law. There are also codes upon
special subjects. French codification is largely due to the
emperor Napoleon.
3. Code of Lowisiana, based on the Code Napoleon, and
principally prepared by Edward Livingston. It is divided
into three books, and is concerned with the civil as distin-
guished from the criminal law. Mr. Livingston also pre-
pared a draft of a penal code for the State, which was not
adopted, as well as one for the U. S. (These are to be
found, together with introductory reports explaining the
grounds of them, in a work published by the National
Prison Association, with an introduction by the late Chief-
Justice S. P. Chase, A. D. 1873.)
4. New York Code of Procedure.—The object of this is
to assimilate law and equity, and to have but one form of
action. It assumes to regulate in a general way both
pleadings and practice, and to state in a condensed form
the general rules. A large body of case law has grown up
in connection with the code regulations. The results of
these decisions are collected in “Annotated Codes * or in
works of practice. The system has been adopted in sub-
stance in a considerable number of the States. Commission-
ers in New York have also reported a political, a civil, and a
penal code, which have not been adopted by the legislature.
Mention may also be made of various collections of mari-
time rules, such as the “Consolato del Mare,” “Laws of the
Hanse Towns,” “Ordonnance de la Marine” (of the time of
Louis XIV. of France), “Laws of Oléron,” and the “Laws
of Wisby,” which will be noticed again in connection
with maritime law, as well as of the Code of Prussia, etc.
T. W. DWIGHT.
Code’ia [from the Gr. Kööm, a “poppy-head”], (C18H27
NO3 + H2O), one of the alkaloids to which opium owes its
hypnotic powers. Its salts are sometimes administered in
place of morphia salts. It is asserted that it possesses
many of the valuable properties of that drug, without its
disadvantages. The dose is much larger than that of
morphia. (See OPIUM, by PROF. C. F. CHANDLER.)
Co/dex (plu. Cod'ices), [a Latin word signifying the
“trunk” or “stem ’’ of a tree; later it was applied to
wooden tablets covered with wax, which were used for
writing onj. In modern Latin, codex is a manuscript vol-
ume, and is especially applied to a manuscript copy of the
Scriptures. Codex rescriptus is a synonym of PALIMPSEST
(which see). Among the most ancient manuscripts of the
New Testament are the Codea. Alexandrinus, the Codeac
Vaticanus, and the Codea. Sinaiticus.
Co/dex Alexandri'nus, the third in antiquity of the
great uncial extant manuscripts of the Bible in the Greek
language. (See PALEogRAPHY.) It contains the Old Tes-
tament (in the Septuagint version), with some deficiencies
in the Psalms, and all the books of the New Testament,
with a few chasms where leaves are wanting. To these it
adds the one genuine, and a fragment of the apocryphal,
Epistle of Clement of Rome to the Corinthians. The Cath-
olic Epistles follow the Acts; then come the Pauline Epis-
tles, with that to the Hebrews before the Pastoral Epistles;
the Apocalypse, which is rare in extant manuscripts, stands
at the close of the New Testament.
1006
CODEX BEZAE—CODEX EPHRAEMI.
This codex is now preserved in the British Museum,
having been presented to Charles I. in 1628 by Cyril Lucar,
patriarch of Constantinople, who had previously been
patriarch of Alexandria, from which city he brought the
manuscript. It is in quarto form, about thirteen inches
high and ten broad, each page being divided into two col-
umns of fifty lines each, having about twenty letters or
upwards in a line. It is written on thin, fine, and very
beautiful vellum, in uncial (or capital) letters of an elegant
yet simple form, and without any space between the words.
The punctuation, which is infrequent, consists merely of a
point placed at the end of a sentence, usually on a level
with the top of the preceding letter; and a vacant place
follows the point at the end of a paragraph, the space
being proportioned to the break in the sense. The black
ink, in which the body of the codex was written, has
pº
turned to a yellowish-brown; but the vermilion, freely used
in the initial lines of the different books, is still bright.
The manuscript bears an ancient Arabic inscription on its
margin, asserting that it was written by the martyr Thecla;
Tregelles, however, explains the origin of this inscription
by remarking that the New Testament in the codex as we
have it commences with Matthew xxv. 6, this lesson (Mat. .
thew xxv. 1–13) being that appointed by the Greek Church
for the festival of Saint Thecla. The Egyptian, therefore,
who wrote this Arabic note, observing the name of Thecla
on the now mutilated upper margin of the codex, where
such rubrical notes are commonly placed by later hands,
hastily concluded that she wrote the book. But though
not by Thecla, it may be that the meat chirography of #.
codex is due to a female hand, for we know that women as
well as men were employed as copyists at Alexandria.
N
\x, Cºrts exez xts, sºrorn Popº'ſ For
e cacy-O'CTO texe H &o tºxyTGo Hru
is xx extee eptaeiserson-locerº
Codex Alexandrinus (Exodus xvi. 21).
y- w y - ** { * * * / w p a
Kai ovvéAešav airò Trpot irpool, ékaaros rô Ka8%kov airó' ºvika Šē 8ve6éppevewº 6 #Atos, éti-
ſº
The general consent of palaeographers refers this manu-
Script to the beginning or middle of the fifth century of our
era. In the general style of the writing and in the shape
of the letters (especially those which furnish the best tests,
as a, 8, s, tr., a, b, and o), it holds a middle place between
copies of the fourth and sixth centuries. There are no ac-
cents or breathings, and the contractions of words (as
Kupcos, etc.) are only such as are found in other manu-
Scripts of the more ancient class. Of itacisms (as the in-
terchange of t and ev, m and t, s and au) it contains no more
than others of the same date. The references in the mar-
gin to the tables of parallel passages called the “Canons of
Eusebius” (A. D. 268–340?), and the insertion, before the
Psalms, of the epistle to Marcellinus by Athanasius, patri-
arch of Alexandria (A. D. 3002–373), prove that the man-
uscript was not written before the fourth century; while
the absence of the so-called Euthalian divisions of the Acts
and Epistles into chapters, which came into vogue very
Soon after 458, and the shortness and simplicity of the
subscriptions at the end of the books, appear tolerably de-
cisive (says Scrivener) against a later date than about 450.
The insertion of the Epistles of Clement points to a period
when the canon of Scripture was in some particulars a lit-
tle unsettled, or about the age of the Synod of Laodicea,
(363). It appears from the table of contents that the
manuscript formerly contained the apocryphal Psalms of
Solomon, but these are separated from the other books in
the list, as wholly different in kind. This separation con-
forms to the prohibition of such psalms, at the Synod (or,
as it is sometimes called, Council) of Laodicea, from being
read in churches.
This manuscript is of great importance to the critic, and
exhibits a text more nearly approaching that found in later
copies than is read in others of its high antiquity. It is
designated, in critical editions, by the letter A. It has
been published in elegant style, in quasi facsimile, uncial
type, bearing a general resemblance to the written charac-
ters, having been cast for the purpose, and (what is more
important) the edition exhibiting the manuscript page for
page, line for line, and letter for letter. The handsome
folio volume containing the New Testament appeared in
1786, edited by Charles Godfrey Woide; the four folio vol-
umes containing the Old Testament were edited by Henry
Hervey Baber, and published in 1816–28. An edition of
the New Testament, in small letter, in which Woide’s text
has been corrected from the manuscript itself, was published
in 1860, edited by B. H. Cowper. The Old Testament has
been edited by Field. THOMAS CHASE.
Co/dex Be’zae or Cantabrigien'sis (designation,
D), an uncial manuscript, probably of the sixth century,
containing the four Gospels and the book of Acts in Greek
and Latin on opposite pages. It was presented to the Univer-
sity of Cambridge in 1581 by Theodore Beza, who obtained
it during the French civil wars in 1562, when it was found
in the monastery of Saint Irenaeus at Lyons. This manu-
script has several peculiar features. The Gospels stand
Matthew, John, Luke, Mark, an order found also in some
of the manuscripts of the Old Latin version. The pecu-
* For Šue&épplauvev.
liarities in the text are striking, consisting of interpola-
tions, sentences recast, and occasional omissions. The inter-
polations had probably been introduced into some still older
copy from the margin of another manuscript, where they
had been subjoined by some who wished to add whatever
they could obtain from various sources to make the narra-
tive more full and complete. These additions would be
very serious were this manuscript our only record of the
original writings; but when they are removed the text
which remains is valuable for comparative criticism, and
is strongly corroborative of the other most ancient MSS.
The text of this codex, both Greek and Latin, was pub-
lished by Dr. Thomas Kipling at Cambridge in two hand-
some folio volumes in 1793, in type cast for the edition,
and so wonderfully exact that it possesses nearly all the
advantages of an actual facsimile. A more scholarly and
accurate edition was brought out in 1864 by F. H. Scriv-
ener. Whiston, who had an extravagant admiration of the
manuscript, published an English translation of it in 1745.
THOMAS CHASE.
Co/dex Ephrae/mi, or Co'dex Ephrae’mi Sy'ri
Rescrip/tus (designation, C), an ancient and valuable par
limpsest manuscript of portions of the Greek Bible, preserved
in the great library in Paris called by turns National, Royal,
and Imperial. It was brought from the East by Andrew
John Lascar, a learned Greek patronized by Lorenzo de'
Medici, and Catharine de' Medici carried it to Paris. The
ancient writing is read with difficulty, having been erased
about the twelfth century in order that the Vellum might
be used for transcribing some Greek works of the Syrian
Father Ephraem. The treasure which lay below was first
noticed by Peter Alix in the latter part of the seventeenth
century. Several readings from the palimpsest were pub-
lished by Küster in 1710, in his reprint of Mill's Greek
Testament. In 1716, Bentley sent Wetstein to Paris to
collate the whole manuscript. This work, for which fifty .
pounds were paid, was performed as far as was then possi-
ble. Wetstein told Bentley that it had cost him two hours
to read one page. This collation Wetstein used in his own
edition of the Greek Testament (1751–52). In 1834 a
chemical preparation (tinctura Giobertina) was applied to
the leaves in order to revivify the ancient Writing. But
although much that had been illegible was thus brought
fully to light, every part of the manuscript was stained
and discolored in the process, and some passages made
more difficult to read than before. The conquest of all the
difficulties which beset the deciphering of this codex is one
of the greatest triumphs of Tischendorf. This enthusiastic,
patient, keen-sighted, and skilful palaeographer occupied
himself from December, 1840, till September, 1841, in ex-
amining and copying the manuscript for publication, and
has given the world the first complete transcript of it; the
New Testament portion being published at Leipsic in 1843,
the Old Testament in 1845.
Codex C is an uncial manuscript, about the size of Codex
A, but written in characters a little larger (Tregelles) and
somewhat more elaborate, and with but one column on a
page. All its characteristics point to a date as early as the
fifth century. Three correctors at least have left on it
traces of their work; the earliest may have been of the
sixth century, the second (who revised such portions only
CODEX SINAITICUS,
1007.
as were used for church lessons or other ecclesiastical pur-
poses) perhaps of the ninth. By him and by the third
hand (whose changes are few) small crosses were interpo-
lated as stops, and there are marks of cantillation as guides
in intoning. In critical authority Tregelles places this MS.
next to the Sinaitic and the Vatican. T. CHASE.
Co'dex Sinait'icus (designated, N aleph), the most
recently discovered of the uncial manuscripts of the Greek
Bible, and inferior to no other in antiquity, authority, and
completeness.
In 1844, Constantine Tischendorf–who, although but
twenty-nine years old, was already famous as an editor of
the Greek Testament and as the decipherer of the Codex
Ephraemi–in a journey undertaken in search of ancient
manuscripts of Holy Writ, arrived at the ancient Greek
convent of Saint Catharine on the range of Mount Sinai.
Here he was shown a beautiful codex of the Gospels, the
pride of the convent, written upon exquisite white parch-
ment in letters of gold, and adorned with beautiful paint-
ings of the four Evangelists, our Saviour, the Virgin Mary,
and the apostle Peter, and said to have been the gift of
Theodosius III. From the character of the writing it
must date from the seventh or eighth century; but Tischen-
dorf found it very inaccurate, and of slight critical value.
Something much more precious than this costly codex had
been thrown aside as worthless by the unintelligent guard-
ians of the convent library. In a large basket filled with
remains of torn and damaged manuscripts which stood in
the middle of the room, Tischendorf found a considerable
number of vellum leaves of a Greek manuscript of" the
Septuagint version of the Old Testament, which his prac-
tised eye at once recognized as one of the oldest in exist-
ence. The contents of the basket had been destined for
the flames, two baskets full of similar materials having
been already burned in the stove. Tischendorf easily ob-
tained possession of forty-three sheets, about one-third of
the number which he rescued, but was not permitted to take
the other portions, nor even to copy more than a single
leaf. Unfortunately, he had betrayed the value of the
treasure of which the monks had before been so uncon-
scious. Of the portion he obtained he published a litho-
graphic facsimile in 1846, under the name of Codex: Fri-
derico-Augustanus, in honor of his patron, Friedrich August,
the king of Saxony. Of course, Tischendorf was hoping
all the time that he should at length obtain the rest of the
manuscript. He made proposals for it through a friend
whom he had found at the court of the viceroy of Egypt,
but only to learn that the monks, having learned its value,
would not part with it for any sum of money. In 1853 he
visited the monastery a second time, in the hope of being
permitted to copy those parts of the codex which he had
left behind, but he could gain no tidings of them whatever.
He found, however, one trace of the codex—a single shred,
in a roll of parchment, containing eleven lines from the
first book of Moses. But few years passed before Tischen-
dorf felt impelled for a third time to journey to the East,
, in the hope of prosecuting his search for ancient copies of
the sacred text over a wider field and more fully than be-
fore. To facilitate his researches, he succeeded in gaining
the powerful patronage and protection of the emperor Alex-
ander II. of Russia, the great champion of the Oriental
Orthodox Church, and of his imperial consort. Near the
beginning of the year 1859 the enthusiastic scholar pre-
sented himself for the third time at the gates of the con-
vent. After repeated calls from below, a door in the con-
vent wall was opened thirty feet above the ground, and a
rope let down to receive the letters which the traveller
brought. Ordinarily, guests are received through this same
door, seating themselves on a cross-piece of wood at the
end of the rope, and being then drawn up by the servants
of the convent. Tischendorf's credentials procured him a
more distinguished reception. In honor of his imperial
commission the steward of the convent soon appeared in
person, in the name of the prior, and conducted the guest,
through a door seldom used, “ into the still, friendly asy-
lum.” The luggage and the dragoman took the usual jour-
ney through the air.
After five days’ tarriance, during which Tischendorf had
carefully examined the treasures of the library, as well as
ascended Mount Sinai, when he was preparing to take his
departure, and had sent his Bedouins after the camels, as
he was taking a walk with the steward, the conversation
turned upon the text of the Old Testament. Returning at
twilight to the convent, the steward invited him to partake
of a luncheon in his cell, and while they were eating re-
marked that he had here a copy of the Septuagint, there-
upon bringing out of a corner of the room a large manu-
Script, Wrapped in a red cloth according to the Oriental
custom, which he had brought to his own cell from the
library of the aſkevodºxaš, or keeper of the sacred utensils.
Glancing at the pile of vellum, Tischendorf soon recognized
it as belonging to the same codex of which he had rescued
some leaves from the basket of fuel fifteen years before ;
and, eagerly turning over the different sheets, beheld, to
his astonishment, in addition to a large part of the Old Tes-
tament, the beginning and the end of the New, and the
Epistle of Barnabas. It appears that soon after the orig-
inal discovery in the waste-basket the monks had found
these sheets, and placed them with the fragments which
Tischendorf rescued from destruction. The German guest,
concealing his emotion, begged the privilege of taking the
manuscript to his own chamber; to his unspeakable joy,
he found that it contained the New Testament entire,
whereas all the other manuscripts of the first class (as re-
gards antiquity) are more or less imperfect; and he could
not withhold an offering of praise and thanksgiving to that
Divine Being who had suffered so valuable a boon for the
Church of Christ to come into his hands. The first night
he spent in transcribing the Epistle of Barnabas (now
found for the first time entire in the original Greek), in
spite of a dim lamp and the cold temperature; “indeed,
it seemed impious to sleep.” -
Understanding the aversion of the monks to part with
manuscripts in their possession, Tischendorf asked and ob-
tained, after some opposition, permission to copy the whole
codex at Cairo, where there were greater facilities for the work
than at the convent. With the assistance of two of his
own countrymen, with incessant toil he completed his tran-
script, but he was not able to give his copy that careful re-
vision and comparison with the original without which it
would be unfit for publication. At Tischendorf’s sugges-
tion the monks were at last persuaded to offer the whole
codex as a gift to that great monarch whom they recognized
as the shield and bulwark of the Eastern Church ; and in a
little less than eight months after his discovery of the
treasure they committed it to his hands to be borne to St.
Petersburg—to be held for a time, however, as a loan made
simply to facilitate the publication of an accurate edition,
until the confirmation of their new archbishop’s election
should enable him to present it formally to the emperor, as
he afterwards did.
The Codex Sinaiticus is written upon vellum sheets of
extreme fineness and beauty, the delicate skins of antelopes
or of wild asses (probably the former). It consists of three
XeTeXe NJT OTCON
AN CU) N TI APXXCD
COSrc, NJ 2\PY MPs
elcCYN eAPJAKA)
GNT2J C CYNXTCU
TAJCAS(TCON NAAJ
TCU) COYC NYMPs
}<2\le II j H TEN4 ONX
AekAl RXC1/\! CAS
>CG H C E CO2, JG NE
ke N e NA Orel CNAPP
e • . . -
Codex Sinaiticus (Matthew x. 17, 18).
-xere 83 &tº tºv &v6ptórowº trapač6aovow yap iPºds eis avvéðpta,
kai év Taſs guvayoya's airów MagTryūgouavu iſ as Kai, Štri hye-
Wóvas & kai 3aoru Misſ &x6ija'ea 6atí Švekev čuoi), eis wap-3
hundred and forty-six leaves, of which one hundred and
ninety-nine contain twenty-two books of the Old Testa-
ment and Apocrypha in the Septuagint version, beginning
* 3: ANON is a contraction for ANOPQIIQ.N.
† For Baaruxels
† For &x6ijoſeo.6s. - •
An English Bible printed in the same style would read some-
What as follows:
WAREOFMN FORTHEY
WILLDELIVERYOUUP
TOTHECOUNCILSAND
THEYWILLSCOURGE
YOUINTHEIRSYNA
GOGUES ANDYESHALL
BEBROUGHTEEFORE
GOVERNORSAN DKINGS
FORMYSAKEFORATES
1008
CODEX VATICANUS.
at the first book of Chronicles; while the remaining one
hundred and forty-seven present the whole of the New Tes-
tament, the Epistle of Barnabas, and a part of the Shep-
herd of Hermas. (To these should be added the forty-three
leaves of the Codex Friderico-Augustanus.) It is written
in. uncial letters of exceeding beauty and simplicity of
shape, approaching closely to the forms of the best papyri.
Such testing characters as alpha, delta, epsilon, pi, and
sigma are as unadorned as possible, without flourishes,
knobs, or thickened points at their extremities—a proof of
antiquity. It resembles the Vatican Codex in the absence
of initial letters larger than the rest, which seem to have
been regularly used after the beginning of the fifth century.
It has but little punctuation, and that in the oldest manner.
Its peculiarities of orthography and etymology belong to a
period as early as the fourth century of our era. It is con-
spicuous for the brevity of its titles and subscriptions—
e.g., “According to Matthew,” “Acts,” “To (the) Romans.”
Longer titles, as “The Holy Gospel according to Matthew’
(wrongly translated in our version “The Gospel according to
St. Matthew "–Horne's Introduction, 3d ed., p. 410), were
not introduced until a later date.
It has, moreover, certain other signs of antiquity pecu-
liar to itself. It has always been regarded as one of the
striking proofs of the remote age of the Vatican Codex that
it is written in three columns on each page, presenting to
the eye, when the book is open, six narrow columns at once,
thereby the more closely resembling the appearance of the
ancient volumina or papyrus-scrolls when extended for
reading. Just as in the first books printed after the inven-
tion of printing many of the peculiarities of the manuscripts
were carefully imitated, so when manuscripts began to be
written on leaves instead of scrolls, it is natural to suppose
that some of the peculiarities of the older form would be
retained. A very few other manuscripts have been found
with the same number of columns on a page as the Vatican.
Dut the Sinaitic Codex stands alone among known manu-
scripts in presenting four narrow columns on a page, sel-
dom exceeding two inches in breadth, and eight columns at
once when the book is opened; so that its claims to the
benefit of this argument for antiquity are the strongest.
This fact, with certain other indications, renders it prob-
able that this codex was copied directly from an old Egyp-
tian papyrus manuscript. The remarkably large size and
great beauty of the vellum sheets is another proof of high
antiquity. In size, indeed, they are the largest known,
“each page being even at present as large as thirteen and
one-half inches in length by fourteen and seven-eighths
inches high, although marginal notes have sometimes been
partially cut off by the ancient binder.” . A single animal
could contribute only two leaves, or one sheet, of such un-
usual size. As time went on, smaller and coarser sheets of
parchment took the place of the exquisite vellum used in
the oldest manuscripts. The peculiar order in which the
books of the Bible follow each other corresponds with what
Epiphanius, who flourished towards the end of the third
century, testifies to as existing in some manuscripts of his
day, and proves that the codex was written before our
present order had become established; while the presence
of the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas is
a strong indication that it was written before the age of
Cyril of Jerusalem and the so-called Council of Laodicea,
(about A. D. 363). Those divisions called “the larger
chapters,” with their corresponding summaries of contents,
which appear in all the copies of the Gospels written from
the fifth century downward, are wanting in the Sinaitic and
Vatican manuscripts alone. On the other hand, the Sina-
itic Codex exhibits the Ammonian sections and Eusebian
canons in red ink in the margins; which, if written by the
original copyist, prove that the manuscript cannot be
ascribed to an earlier date than some time within the first
half of the fourth century.
. There is a striking agreement between the readings of
this codex and those defended by Origen (186–253); while
the marked coincidence of its text with certain readings
known to have been approved by Eusebius, as well as the
imperial beauty of the manuscript, renders it even possible
that the Codex Sinaiticus was one of the fifty volumes of
Boly Scripture which Eusebius himself, at the order of the
emperor Constantine, caused to be prepared on beautiful
skins by skilful calligraphists in the year 331, soon after
the foundation of Constantinople. At any rate, we can as-
sign it with moral certainty to the fourth century of our
era, and with the highest probability to the first half of the
S8, IſlC.
The publication of the original text of this and other
ancient manuscripts is rendered difficult by the various
corrections they have undergone in different ages. The
Codex Sinaiticus abounds in such alterations, “brought in
by at least ten different revisers, some of them systemat-
ically spread over every page, others occasional or limited
to separate portions of the manuscript, many of them being
cóntemporaneous with the first writer, far the greater part
belonging to the sixth or seventh century, a few as recent
as the twelfth.” In many cases nothing short of the skill
of a Tischendorf can identify with certainty the original
Writing under the alterations.
The Codex Sinaiticus has been published in a style worthy
of its unique importance and value. The enlightened soy-
ereign of Russia was easily persuaded to signalize the one-
thousandth anniversary of the establishment of his empire,
in 1862, by bringing out an edition of the manuscript—now
properly characterized by the additional title of Petropolit-
anw8—in a style surpassing in splendor and in accuracy of
imitation any previous work of the kind. The text is
printed in three folio volumes (ii.-iv.), the leaves of the
shape and size of those in the manuscript itself; the first
volume contains valuable introductory matter, and twenty-
one admirable facsimile plates, representing chiefly pages
of the manuscript, and two being covered with facsimile
specimens of other important manuscripts for comparison.
The work is “printed upon paper at once thick and fine, the
ink being made to resemble that of the original in color,
and the type being greatly varied, so as to imitate the vari-
ous shapes and sizes of the letters employed by the scribe:
the very spaces, too, between the letters have been carefully
measured and represented with all faithfulness.” But three
hundred copies of this truly imperial edition were printed,
two hundred of which were distributed by the emperor him-
self as presents to various public bodies and learned men;
the rest were given to Tischendorf for sale, their price being
fixed by him at two hundred and thirty Prussian thalers.
Several of the foremost colleges and libraries in the United
States possess this valuable work, in a few instances as a
donation from its imperial patron. A cheap manual or
popular edition, containing the New Testament and its ap-
pendages in ordinary Greek type, was published in 1863;
and an octavo edition of the New Testament, together with
the variations of the Vatican manuscript and of the Elzevir
edition from the Sinaitic readings, appeared in 1865. Eng-
lish readers will be interested in examining the various
readings of the three most celebrated manuscripts of the
original Greek text as presented by Tischendorf in his edi-
tion of the authorized English version of the New Testa-
ment, which was published by Baron Tauchnitz in 1869 as
the one thousandth volume of his “Collection of British
Authors.” THOMAS CHASE.
Co/dex Vatica/nus (designation, B), a beautiful un-
cial manuscript of the Greek Bible in the Vatican Library,
dating from the fourth century. Its marks of antiquity are
similar to those of the Sinaitic codex; and indeed Tischen-
dorf not only pronounces it as of precisely the same age,
but is confident also that it was written by one of the four
copyists to whom he ascribes that manuscript: it is, how-
ever, the copy evidently of a different exemplar, and ean-
not be considered as one of the fifty copies ordered by Con-
stantine through Eusebius. It presents three narrow col-
umns on a page, except in the poetical books of the Old
Testament, which, as in the Codex Sinaiticus, are written
stichometrically (in verses clause by clause, according to
the sense) in two columns. It is written on fine, thin yel-
lum, in a square, plain, and noble style of handwriting,
being a close resemblance in shape to that of the Hercula-
“k a 2- Y - tº seri THN Kaf'
‘A >N’ASY-TCD N is €1 TNTH'uſ'
‘K-AA > N e II ... [... pre-
T. r. et é; el T K to Kx.
Codex Vaticamus (2 Corinthians iii. 15, 16).
- 2 * * * a 2 * - • -} z. 2 * 2 z *
káAvpua. Štri rºw kapātav airów Keitav Živika, 6’ &v étruatpéilm Trpès
köptov,” reptaupettau to ká-
nean papyri. The manuscript contains the greater part of
the Old Testament, and the New as far as Hebrews ix. 14.
It appears to have belonged to the Vatican Library from
the latter part of the fifteenth century. Its earlier history
is unknown, but Tischendorf regards it as the work of an
Alexandrian scribe. In critical authority it is inferior to
no other manuscript. e J
This codex has always been difficult of access. Scholars
all over the world rejoiced when it was announced that
Cardinal Mai was preparing an edition of it. After a long
delay, his edition appeared in the Christmas holidays of
1857, three years after his death; but it proved to have
been so carelessly and inaccurately executed as to be of
little value; a smaller edition, also prepared by the car-
dinal, appeared in 1859, avoiding some of the errors of the
* KN is a contraction for KYPION.
CODICIL–COEHORN.
1009
former, but introducing almost as many new ones. Mai’s
edition was reprinted in several places—in Berlin with cor-
rections by Philip Buttmann. In 1867 the New Testament
was published in Leipsic, in common cursive characters,
by Tischendorf; but he had been allowed to collate the
whole manuscript no farther than partly through the third
Gospel, and only to consult it on difficult or doubtful pas-
sages beyond that point. While falling short of the highest
character, on account of the restrictions placed upon his
use of the manuscript, this edition will generally be held
decisive on the disputed points on which its editor gives
his deliberate judgment upon personal examination of the
passage. The codex is now publishing by papal authority,
in magnificent style, edited by Carlo Vercellone and Giu-
seppe Cozza. The size and shape of the manuscript are
accurately represented, and it is copied line for line and
letter for letter, in printed characters approaching fac-
simile, Tischendorf having lent for the purpose the type
which had been cast for the imperial edition of the Sinaitic
Codex, and the writing being astonishingly alike in the
two manuscripts. The first volume to be published, but
the fifth of the entire work, containing the New Testament,
appeared in 1868. In some of the four subsequent volumes,
containing the Old Testament, Vercellone is replaced by
Caietano Sergio. THOMAS CHASE.
Cod'icil [Lat. codicillus, dimin. of codex.], an addition
or supplement to a will for the purpose of explaining, alter-
ing, or adding to its contents. Of codicils, as of wills, the
last prevails where it contains provisions contradictory to
those of a former will or codicil. (See WILLS AND TESTA-
MENTs, by PROF. T. W. DwighT, LL.D.)
Cod’lin, a name of several varieties of apples, some of
which are highly esteemed in England, and are used chiefly
for culinary purposes. The codlin ripens in summer or
autumn, and cannot be kept long.
Codlin Moth (Pyralis Pomona). This moth is one of
the Tortricidae; it is small, with short and broad wings.
It is very destructive in apple-orchards, laying its eggs in
the eyes of the newly-formed fruit, within which the larva
feeds, thus arresting the growth of the fruit, and causing it
to die prematurely.
Cod–Liver Oil (Oleum Morrhuse), an oil obtained from
the liver of the cod, also from many allied species, as pol-
lock, dorse, ling, hake, haddock, etc. In these fish, as in
the shark tribe, the tissue containing oil is almost entirely
confined to the liver. Cod-liver oil is prepared largely in
Great Britain, Norway, Newfoundland, and the U. S.
There are three varieties sold in commerce—pale, pale-
brown, and dark-brown oil. *
The oil is sometimes prepared by placing the livers in a
tub upon a wooden strainer, and subjecting them to pres-
sure, when the light-colored oil exudes, and is removed.
As the livers partially putrefy, more oil escapes, which is
darker, and constitutes the pale-brown oil; while finally
the residue, boiled with water, parts with the remaining
dark-brown oil. The pale oil thus resembles more nearly
the oil present in the livers, while the other varieties are
more or less impregnated with the products of putrefaction.
The oil is often extracted by steaming, which produces the
best oil and the largest yield. Various other methods are
employed. Even the purest oil has a peculiar disagreeable
fishy odor and taste. The darker varieties leave a very
unpleasant nauseous sensation. -
The constituents of cod-liver oil are oleic and other
acids, in combination with glycerine, and holding in solu-
tion the constituents of the bile, acetic acid, phosphoric
acid, iodine, bromine, chlorine, and a principle called
gaduine.
As a remedial agent it is used in the treatment of scrofula,
consumption, chronic rheumatism, and diseases of the bones
and joints. Its virtues have been ascribed to iodine, bro-
mine, and other specific ingredients, but its principal effi-
cacy is probably due to its nourishing and fattening prop-
erties. For emaciated old people it is sometimes of great
service in conjunction with other remedies. It is com-
monly taken in doses of from a dessert-spoonful to a table-
spoonful three times a day.
Cod/man (JoHN), D. D., an American Congregational
divine, born at Boston, Mass., Aug. 3, 1782, graduated at
Harvard in 1802, studied in Edinburgh, and became pastor
of a church at Dorchester, Mass., in 1808. He was a prom-
inent advocate of clerical education. He published many
sermons, etc. Died Dec. 23, 1847.
Codo'gno, a town of Italy, in the province of Milan,
between the Adda and the Po, by rail 24 miles S. E. of
Lodi. It is well built, and has manufactures of silks. It
is noted as a market for cheese. Pop. 8917.
Cod/rington (Sir EDw ARD), G. C. B., an English ad-
miral, born ; 1770. He served as captain at Trafalgar in
')
1805, and became a vice-admiral in 1821. He commanded
the English, French, and Russian fleets which defeated the
Turks at Navarino in 1827. Died in London April 28,
1851.
Codrington (Sir WILLIAM JoHN), G. C. B., a general,
a son of the preceding, was born in 1800. He served at
the Alma and Inkerman in 1854, and directed the attack
on the Redan of Sebastopol in Sept., 1855. In November
of the same year he became commander-in-chief of the
army in the Crimea, a member of Parliament in 1857, and
in 1859 governor of Gibraltar.
Co'drus [Gr. Kööpos], the last king of Athens, is Sup-
posed to have reigned about 1060 B.C. According to tra-
dition, he sacrificed his life for his country during a war
between the Athenians and the Dorians. An oracle having
predicted that the people whose king was slain by the
enemy should be victorious, Codrus went in disguise to the
Dorian camp, and provoked a quarrel in which he was
killed. His son Medon was then chosen archon of Athens.
Codyville Plantation, a township of Washington
co., Me. Pop. 62. -
Coe, a township of Rock Island co., Ill. Pop. 1175.
Coe, a township of Isabella co., Mich. Pop. 987.
Coeffi/cient [from the Lat. co (for con), “with,” and
efficio, to “effect”], in algebra, one of two simple or com-
pound factors whose product constitutes a term. Thus, in
the term 2ab?c, 2a02 is the coefficient of c, 2a of bºc, and
2 of ab2c. In the latter case, 2 is frequently called the
“numerical coefficient” of the term, the others being dis-
tinguished as “literal coefficients.” In an algebraical ex-
pression, and especially in quantities whose terms involve
constant as well as variable factors, it is usual to restrict
the term “coefficient * to the former, and to refer to the
latter as “facients.”
Coehorn, ko/horn, so named from Baron Coehorn, who
invented it, is a small mortar, frequently a twenty-four-
pounder. Coehorns, being easily moved and taking little
powder, are found very useful in sieges, if grouped in great
numbers. They are generally made of bronze.
Coehorn (Lieutenant-General MENNo, BARON COEHORN),
colonel-proprietor of the superb regiment bearing his name,
general of artillery, director-in-chief of the fortifications,
and engineer-general of the United States or Provinces
of Holland, styled by the distinguished Prussian engineer
Zastrow “the prince of engineers,” and by the French
“ the Dutch Vauban,” was to Vauban himself exactly, in
regard to recent fortifications, what Zwingli was to Luther,
more restricted as to his stage, in prescience, originality,
and soldiership. But even while saying this let it be con-
sidered no disparagement of Vauban. . Most honest and
generous of men, without envy he recognized Coehorn's
merit as early as 1676, and did all he could to induce Louis
XIV. to make any advances which could induce Coehorn to
enter the French service. Sprung from a distinguished, no-
ble, and military stock, originally Swedish, near Leeuwar-
den in Friesland, he was born in 1641, distinguished him-
self while yet a youth in mathematics, was appointed cap-
tain at the age of sixteen, became colonel at thirty-three,
and with that rank, with his own regiment, “Nassau-
Frise,” defended Fort William, the key-point of Namur,
against his rival Vauban, Louis XIV., and the great Lux-
emburg, until, wounded himself, he had only 150 effectives
left. He had previously distinguished himself at the siege
of Maestricht (1674) by his invention of the mortars which
immortalize his name, first employed in that operation,
and at the siege of Grave, where he won renown by de-
vising means to transport a whole battalion at once across
the wide and rapid Meuse, a daring operation, into the
trench of a bastion to which the river served as a wet ditch,
which decided the fate of the place. Cochorn already stood
very high, not only as an engineer, but as a soldier, the last
for conduct in the bloody battles of Senef, Cassel, and St.
Denis. At Fleurus, 1st July, 1690, as brigadier-general, with
eight battalions, he set at naught the efforts of the finest
French cavalry, and covered the retreat of the prince of
Waldeck’s army, whereupon, the victorious Marshal Lux-
emburg declared, “the Dutch infantry at Fleurus had out-
done the Spanish infantry at Rocroi.” In 1695, Coehorn,
having demanded full power to use his own methods, retook
Namur, trebled in strength, though defended by Megrigny,
second only to Vauban and Marshal Bouflers, unexcelled
as a tenacious soldier: witness his subsequent defence of
Lille in 1708. “Coehorn, the chief-engineer (his title was
lieutenant-general of engineers) signalized himself so emi-
nently that he was esteemed the greatest man of the age,
and outdid even Vauban, who had gone far beyond his
predecessors in the conduct of sieges.” In Mar, 1696, Coe-
horn, lieutenant-general in the field in command of troops,
by a daring, prompt, and skilful operation, made himself
10}0
COELESTINE–COFFEE.
master of Givet, and burned the immense magazines and
stores of supplies accumulated there by the French. This
stupendous blow paralyzed the French-operations for the
campaign, and until another harvest could be sown, grown,
reaped, and garnered. Coehorn continued to increase his
glory, fighting and fortifying until the last days of his life,
destroying the French lines near Sluys, defended by Bou-
flers, in 1702, and capturing Bonn in 1703; bursting up
the French lines at Hanuye, and accumulating stroke upon
stroke of genius and daring until 17th Mar., 1704, at the
age of sixty-three, a stroke of apoplexy—a disease which
had been menacing him for some time—put an end to his ex-
istence and usefulness. His encomiums have been confined
to no language; his praises have resounded from enemies
even more than friends and countrymen. Montalembert,
himself a first-class engineer, who alone suggested improve-
ments to Coehorn’s system, of which, pure and simple,
Pergen-op-Zoom is the finest example, ranks himself
among the most decided admirers of this “prince of en-
gineers,” whom he styles “a great man.” According to
the spirit of Straith's admissions, Coehorn possessed the
merit of being able to contrive, equally well, defences for
localities of any nature. Tyler (R. B. Engineers) says,
“Coehorn, greatly to his credit, alone, of all modern en-
gineers, established the one great truth in engineering—
viz. that the same fortification cannot apply to places with
wet as to those with dry ditches.” Coehorn always held
“it requires as much genius to defend a fortress well as it
does to fortify it with ability,” which Vauban corroborated
by his observation that “amongst the multitude of the gal-
lant and devoted officers of his day, he knew but few fitted
to be governors of a besieged place.” Coehorn fortified,
defended, and took equally well.
Coehorn possessed a genius that would have made him
the idol of the American people, whose making of war dis-
plays, as Rossel says, “all the exuberance of life inherent
in a people seriously active, in the full force of youth, in-
telligent, and incapable of fear.” Vauban was charac-
terized by an economy of material and life at the expense
of time; Coehorn economized neither, provided he attained
his end by crushing out resistance. In Coehorn it was
force substituted for industry, or rather industry employed
to the utmost in multiplying the means of destruction.
Coehorn’s audacity and resources overwhelmed at once the
enemy and the mind with wonder, and as an original
thinker he ranks ahead of all the engineers who preceded
him, and his works, like those of Shakspeare, are for all
time.
No finer eulogy can be found of any man than that of
Coehorn in the “Dictionnaire de la Conversation.” This
presents him as a truly disinterested patriot of ideal Roman
simplicity and probity; as an unerring strategist; in fine,
as one of those rare characters of whom we read in the
annals of the remote past, whose record will not stand the
close criticism and analysis applied in these practical days
of unbelief as to everything but the absolute and tangible.
One comparatively small matter demonstrates Coehorn's
prescience. As the bayonet was first “seriously employed.”
by the French, according to their own writers, in the battle
of Turin, 1692 (first bayonet charge in the battle of Spires
in 1703), and as Coehorn had armed the Dutch infantry
with it many years before, this is pretty good proof, in ad-
dition to the many others he has given, that he knew how
to profit by improvements in military armament as quickly,
or even more, considering the latter’s favor and influence,
than Vauban. Auguste Demmin, in his “History of Arms
and Armor” (448), admits that the fusil-musket with socket-
bayonet was the weapon “attributed to Vauban which Coe-
horn, his rival, introduced among the Dutch infantry about
1680.” J. WATTS DE PEYSTER.
Coelestine. See CELESTINE.
Coe/le-Syria [Gr. ) kotAm Supta, “the hollow Syria”],
a beautiful valley of Syria between the mountain-ranges of
Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, is about 90 miles long, and
has an average width of 7 miles, but in some parts its
It is now called El Bukala. It is
The chief
breadth is far greater.
intersected by the river Litany (anc. Leontes).
city of Coele-Syria was Baalbec (Heliopolis).
Coen’obites [from the Gr. kotvös, “ common,” and Bios,
“life”], or Synodites, the name given to those monks
who live in communities, in contradistinction to the an-
chorites or hermits, who withdraw from all society and live
in absolute solitude. (See MoMASTERY.)
Coesse, a post-village of Union township, Whitley co.,
Ind. It is on the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R.
Pop. 192.
Coeymans, quee/manz, a township and post-village
of Albany co., N. Y. The village is on the Athens branch
of the New York Central R. R., and on the Hudson River,
12 miles S. of Albany. It has a mineral spring, flagstone-
quarries, and manufactures of brooms, straw-paper, soap,
etc. It has two weekly newspapers. Pop. 3077.
ED. “HERALD.”
Coffee [from the Arabic kahwah ; Fr. café; It. caffè;
Ger. Kaffeel, the seeds of the tree Coffsea Arabica, of the
order Rubiaceae ; also an infusion of these seeds used as a
beverage. There are a number of species of Coffea, but
this one only is known to possess valuable properties. It
is a native of Western Africa, Abyssinia, and perhaps of
Arabia, but is now naturalized in many tropical countries.
The coffee tree in a wild state attains a height of from
twelve to twenty feet, and bears but few branches. In cul-
tivation the tree is topped at from six to ten feet in height,
and made to assume a pyramidal form, with branches
almost from the ground. The leaves are oblong-ovate, and
four or five inches long; they are evergreen, opposite,
shining, and leathery. The flowers are small, snow-white,
and very fragrant, and are clustered in the axils of the
leaves. It has a succulent fruit of a dark-red color when
ripe, in which are two cells lined with a cartilaginous mem-
brane, each containing a single seed. The seeds are hard,
semi-elliptical in shape, and are commonly called coffee-
beans or coffee-berries. -
Coffee-plantations are often laid out in quadrangles; the
trees are pruned to the same height, and the ground is care-
fully weeded. Where the climate is dry, abundant irrigation
is required, but the supply of water is cut off as the fruit
begins to ripen, in order to improve its quality. The tree
yields its first crop when it is three years old. The coffee
tree blooms for eight months in the year, so that its fruits
are at any time of very unequal ripeness; in the West
Indies and Brazil three gatherings of coffee are made an-
nually. The fruit is placed on mats or large floors adapted
to the purpose, where it is dried by the sun’s rays, being
meanwhile frequently turned. The dried pulp of the fruit
and the membrane which immediately encloses the seeds are
removed by passing between heavy rollers, and the coffee
is afterwards freed from impurities by winnowing. As it
is not, however, prepared with the same care in all places
where it is cultivated, there are great differences in quality
and price.
The earlier history of coffee is involved in some obscu-
rity. It was not known to the Greeks or Romans, but in
Abyssinia and Ethiopia it has been used from time im-
memorial, and in Arabia it was in general use before the
end of the fifteenth century, and over the rest of the East
in the sixteenth century. In 1690 it was carried by the
Dutch from Mocha, to Java, where it was soon extensively
raised, and young plants were afterwards sent to the bo-
tanical garden at Amsterdam, from which the Paris garden
obtained a tree. A layer of this was carried in 1720 to
Martinique, where it succeeded so well that in a few years
all the West Indies could be supplied. The Dutch planted
it in Surinam in 1718, and it was introduced into the Mas-
carene Islands in the same year.
The following are the most important varieties in com-
merce : Mocha coffee, which comes from Arabia, and is con-
sidered superior to every other; it is known by its small
gray beans inclining to greenish ; Java or East Indian
coffee has large yellow beans; Jamaica coffee has beans
somewhat smaller and greenish ; Surinam coffee has the
largest beans; Bourbon has beans yellow and whitish pale.
Coffee is also imported from Brazil, Ceylon, Central Ameri-
ca, Maracaibo, and Liberia. Leonhard Rauwolf, a German
physician, appears to have been the first to make coffee
known in Europe by the account of his travels (1573).
Soon after the first introduction of coffee, COFFEE-FIOUSES
(which see) arose almost everywhere. . In Arabia and the
East, coffee is usually drunk in the form of a thick decoc-
tion of the unroasted seeds; and for the Sultan’s coffee
the pericarp, with the dried pulp roasted, is employed.
The principal commercial supply is from Brazil, Java being
second and Ceylon third on the list.
Chicory root, dandelion root, carrot, and the seeds of
barley, buckwheat, Indian corn, and rye, are sometimes,
used as cheaper substitutes for coffee. They are prepared
by roasting, like coffee. But they are all wanting in caffeine,
the most important constituent in coffee, and are therefore
very different from coffee in their qualities. . Coffee is sub-
ject to a great adulteration, most of the articles specified as
substitutes being employed for this purpose. But the prin-
cipal material of mixture is chicory, the use of which for
this purpose was legalized in England in 1853.
The leaves of the coffee tree are used by the natives of
Sumatra instead of the seeds. They are prepared by dry-
ing, and are said to contain a larger proportion of caffeine
than the coffee-beans. Coffee owes its peculiar properties
to the presence of 1, caffeine or theine (C8H10N402), which
occurs in the roasted bean to the extent of nearly one per
cent., and which is also found in tea, the Paullinia, maté,
etc.; 2, a volatile oil which, according to some authorities,
COFFEE-COGHETTI.
1011
is not present in the raw bean, but is developed in roasting;
3, a form of tannic acid called caffeo-tannic and also caffeic
acid. The following, according to Payen and others, is the
average composition of unroasted coffee:
Free caffein....................... & sº a se s e º se e s see e s e s = e see ess e a • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 0.8
Legumin (vegetable casein) 10.0
Other nitrogenous matter.................................................. 3.0
Dextrine, Sugar, etc............. • * * * * * * * s e º e º s = e s a s e s w a s e º 'º e º 'º - e. 15.5
Caffeo-tannic and caffeic acids (with potash, caffein, etc.)..... 5.0
Fat and volatile oil... tº e º 'º e º 'º e s s e e º 'º s & e º 'º º 13.0
Cellulose --- 34.0
Earthy matter................................................................... 6.7
Water (hygroscopic) ... 12.0
100.0
with a small quantity of two aromatic principles—one oily, and
the other soluble in water.
Coffee loses 16 per cent. in weight and gains 30 per cent.
in bulk if roasted till it assumes a reddish-brown hue ; when
roasted till the beans become chestnut-brown, they lose 20
per cent. by weight and gain 50 per cent. in bulk. The per-
centage of caffeine is greatly reduced by roasting, but the
aroma is much increased. The action of the bowels is not
retarded by the use of coffee, as is sometimes the case with
strong infusions of tea, because there is less tannic acid in
coffee than in tea. Coffee is exhilarating, refreshing, and
nourishing, and, according to some physicians, tends to
lessen the normal or excessive waste of the animal frame.
When used in excess coffee is very injurious to health, and
on certain constitutions its effects seem to be always dele-
terious. CHARLES W. GREENE.
Coffee, a county in the S. of Alabama. Area, 700
square miles. It is intersected by Pea River. The surface
is nearly level; the soil is mostly sandy. Cotton, rice, corn,
tobacco, and wool are raised. Capital, Elba. Pop. 6171.
Coffee, a county in the S. of Georgia. Area, 1000
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Ocmulgee,
and on the S. W. by the Allapaha River. The surface is
nearly level; the soil is sandy. Cattle, rice, and wool are
produced. It is intersected by the Brunswick and Albany
R. R. Capital, Douglas. Pop. 3192.
Coffee, a county of Middle Tennessee. Area, 300 square
miles. It is drained by Duck River, which rises in it. The
surface is hilly; the soil fertile. Tobacco, wool, and grain
are raised. It is intersected by the McMinnville and Man-
chester R. R. Capital, Manchester. Pop. 10,237.
Coffee, a township of Wabash co., III. Pop., 1502.
Coffee (John), an American general, born in Nottoway
co., Va., in 1772, was colonel and brigadier-general of Ten-
nessee volunteers in 1812–13, served with distinction against
the Creek Indians, wounded at Emuckfau, Jan. 22, 1814,
participated in the attack on Pensacola, and was distin-
guished in the defence of New Orleans 1814–15; remained
in service till June, 1815; was appointed surveyor of pub-
lic lands Mar., 1817. Died near Florence, Ala., July, 1834.
Coffee-house [Fr. café], a house or saloon where cof-
fee and other refreshments are served out to customers.
Coffee-houses were established at Constantinople in 1554,
in London in 1652, and at Paris in 1662. For many years
the use of coffee and the frequenting of coffee-houses were
assailed by various writers. Before the general introduc-
tion of newspapers, coffee-houses were, particularly in Eng-
land, important centres or sources of information, where
people assembled to learn the news and discuss politics.
Coffee-leaves are sometimes used as a substitute for
tea. They contain 1.2 per cent. of caffeine and consider-
able caffetannic acid. When dried and treated with boil-
ing water, they yield an infusion of a deep brown color,
resembling in taste and odor a mixture of tea and coffee.
Coffee Town, a township of Jackson co., Ala. P. 640.
Coffeeville, a township and village of Clarke co., Ala.,
1 mile E. of the Tombigbee River, and about 120 miles
S.W. of Montgomery. Pop. 1200.
Coffeeville, a post-village, capital of Yalabusha co.,
Miss., on the Mississippi Central R. R., 131 miles N. by E.
from Jackson. It has one weekly newspaper. -
Coffeine. See CAFFEINE, by PROF. C. F. CHANDLER,
PH. D., LL.D.
Coffer [Fr. coffre], a casket for keeping jewels, money,
etc. In architecture this term is applied to the sunken
panels in vaults and domes, or to deep panels in ceilings.
In fortification, coffer is a particular kind of caponnière.
Cofferdam [from coffer, a “casket” or tight box, and
dam], in civil engineering, the name of a watertight en-
closure for laying the foundation of bridge-piers, dams,
wharves, etc. Cofferdams are often constructed of piles in
two rows, with clay packed between. When finished, the
water is pumped out by steam-power. Where the water is
too deep for cofferdams, various forms of the caisson are
used; in which case the pier is sometimes gradually lowered
to the bottom of the stream. (See FounDATION.)
surface is undulating; the soil fertile.
and endowed the Coffin School.
Coffeyville, a post-village of Montgomery co., Kan.
It is on the Verdigris River and the Leavenworth Law–
rence and Galveston R. R., 141 miles S. by W. of Lawrence.
Coffey, a county in the S. E. of Kansas. Area, 576
square miles. It is intersected by the Neosho River. The
Grain and wool are
staple products. Coal and limestone abound here. The
Missouri Kansas and Texas R. R. (Neosho division) passes
through it. Capital, Burlington. Pop. 6201.
Coffin [from the Gr. kóðvos, a “basket,” and allied to
coffer, a “casket;” Fr. cercweil; Ger. Sarg], a box in which
the dead are placed for burial. The customs both of burning
and burying the dead prevailed among the ancient Greeks
and Romans. (See FUNERAL.) Their coffins were com-
posed of various materials, the most common being baked
clay or earthenware. Some were narrow and triangular in
form, the undermost side being much the broadest. The
practice among the ancient Romans was to bury the dead,
though previous to the recognition of Christianity burning
became comparatively common. A kind of stone brought
from Assos, in the Troad, was used for coffins; it was said
to consume the body, except the teeth, in forty days, and
from this circumstance was called SARCOPHAGUs (which see).
Roman stone coffins have been found in England, Some en-
tirely above the ground, others so near the earth’s surface
that the lids were visible, and when within a church coffin-
lids often formed part of the pavement. The Saxons used
wooden coffins, though the common people were simply
wrapped in cloth. Coffins of lead were used in the Middle
Ages, as well as in more recent times. In our day, highly-
ornamented caskets and coffins of elm or other wood are
much used, but we have also so-called “burial cases * of
iron, often covered with velvet or rich cloth.
Coffin (GEORGE W.), U. S. N., born Oct. 12, 1845, in
Massachusetts, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1863.
He served in the Ticonderoga at both the Fort Fisher
fights, and led the seamen of that vessel in the assault
upon the fort on Jan. 15, 1865, where he was wounded in
the thigh. Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Coffin (Admiral Sir ISAAC), BART., born at Boston, Mass.,
of a Nantucket family, May 16, 1759. His father was a
Tory, and collector of the port of Boston. Young Coffin
entered the navy in 1773, serving against the U. S. in the
Revolutionary war. He had, however, throughout life a
strong regard for his native land. He was rapidly pro-
moted, and attained in 1830 the rank of admiral of the
white. In 1826 he visited Nantucket, where he founded
Died July 23, 1839.
Coffin (JAMES HENRY), LL.D., born at Northampton,
Mass., Sept. 6, 1806, graduated at Amherst in 1838. He
was professor of mathematics and astronomy in Williams
College, Mass. (1838–43), and in Lafayette College, Easton,
Pa. (1846–73). He was a distinguished scientist, and pub-
lished a treatise on the “Winds of the Northern Hemi-
sphere” (1851), “Solar and Lunar Eclipses,” and other
works. Died Feb. 7, 1873. e
Coffin (John H. C.), born at Wiscasset, Me., Sept. 15,
1815, graduated at Bowdoin College, and in 1836 was ap-
pointed professor of mathematics in the U. S. navy. He
served at sea and in nautical surveys, was detailed in 1844
for duty at the Naval Observatory, and prepared descriptions
and discussions of the work with the mural circle in the
“Washington Observations” (1846–49), and a great part
of those for 1845. He published also a discussion of the
personal equation in bisecting a star, by a micrometer
thread (“Astronomical Journal,” iii., p. 121). He was pro-
fessor of mathematics or professor of astronomy and naviga-
tion in the U.S. Naval Academy (1853–65), and from 1866
to the present time has been in charge of the preparation
of the “American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac.”
Coffin (Josh UA), an American genealogist, born at New-
bury, Mass., Oct. 12, 1792, graduated at Dartmouth in
1817, was a teacher of the poet Whittier, and published
“The History of Ancient Newbury’ (1845), and numerous
papers, etc. upon family genealogies. Died June 24, 1864.
Coffin (TIMOTHY GARDNER), a lawyer, born at Nan-
tucket, Mass., Nov. 1, 1788, was a sailor in youth, but hav-
ing been disabled by a fall, he sought an education, gradu-
ated at Brown University in 1813, and as a lawyer attained
the first rank. Died at New Bedford, Mass., Sept. 19, 1854.
Coffin’s Grove, a township and village of Delaware
co., Ia. The village is about 50 miles W. of Dubuque.
Pop. of township, 1003. -
Co'gan House, a post-twp. of Lycoming co., Pa. P. 599.
Coghet’ti (FRANCEsco), an Italian painter, born Oct. 4,
1804, has produced powerful fresco-paintings for several
Roman palaces. He made a long study of Raphael, and
founded an excellent School, marked by a serious study of
the masters.
1012
COGNAC–COIMBRA.
Cognac (anc. Condate ; modern Lat. Conacum), a town
of France, department of Charente, on the river Charente,
24 miles W. of Angoulême. It has an ord castle, in which
Francis I. was born. In 1526 an alliance of France, Eng-
land, the pope, Milan, and Venice, against Charles V., was
concluded here. Brandy of excellent quality is made here,
and is the chief article of export. About 6000 butts of
Cognac brandy (see BRANDY, by PROF. C. F. CHANDLER)
are produced annually. Pop. in 1866, 94.12.
Cogniard (HIPPolyte), French comic writer, long
director of the Varieties Theatre, born Nov. 20, 1807, was
instrumental in substituting the opéra bouffe on the French
stage for the old vaudevilles. He wrote, mostly in collab-
oration with his brother THáODORE (born April 30, 1806),
a vast number of vaudevilles.
Cogniet (LEON), a French historical painter, was born
Aug. 29, 1794. His paintings represent scenes of terror,
as the “Massacre of the Innocents,” “Tintoretto painting
his Daughter’s Corpse,” etc. He had many scholars.
- Cog’nizance [Old Fr. cognizance ; modern Fr. con-
naissajice ; It. cognoscenza : from the Lat. cognosco, to
“know ’’I, knowledge or notice; jurisdiction or right to try
and determine causes; a badge worn by a retainer or de-
pendant to indicate the party or person to which he belongs.
In law, an acknowledgment or confession ; also the power
which a court has to hear and determine a particular species
of suit. In heraldry, cognizance is a crest, coat-of-arms,
or similar badge of distinction.
Cogno’men, a Latin word signifying a surname; the
last of the three names usually borne by ancient Romans
of good family. Cicero, for example, was the cognomen of
the great orator, Marcus Tullius Cicero. It served to
designate the family (familia) to which he belonged, as
the other two names—viz. the praenomen and the nomen—
served respectively to denote the individual and the class
(gens) to which his family belonged. -
Cogno’vit Actio’mem. [Lat., “he has recognized the
action ”], in law, is a confession of a defendant subscribed
by him, and giving authority to a plaintiff to enter up
judgment against him. It is executed after an action has
been commenced, and is supposed to be given in court.
The subject in England is regulated by statutes prescribing
at what time in the progress of the case it may be given as
a means of protecting the defendant from imposition, and
the forms of law with which it should be accompanied,
such as proof of the time of its execution and a mode of
filing it or a copy of it. Statute law in some of the Ameri-
can States provides a convenient substitute for a cognovit.
Thus, in New York, and in other States following its code,
a defendant may offer in writing to the plaintiff to allow him
to take judgment for a specified sum or otherwise; and on
the acceptance in writing of the offer judgment may be en-
tered accordingly. It is also provided that should the offer
not be accepted in the prescribed manner, it shall be deemed
in law to be withdrawn and the litigation may continue.
Cogre/dients [from co (for con), “together,” and gra-
dior, to “go "J, “[things] meeting together or agreeing.”
In mathematics, two set of facients or variables, each set
containing the same number, are said to be cogredient if
on replacing the variables of the first set by certain linear
functions of themselves, those of the second set become
also replaced by the same linear functions of themselves.
Cogs’ well (Jos ATHAN), D. D., a Calvinistic divine,
born Sept. 3, 1782, graduated at Harvard in 1806, was a
tutor in Bowdoin College, professor of ecclesiastical history
in the Theological Institution at East Windsor, Conn.
(1834–44). He published “The Hebrew Theocracy” (1848),
“Calvary and Sinai.” (1852), and other works. Died at
New Brunswick, N. J., Aug. 1, 1864.
Cogswell (JosłPH GREEN), LL.D., an American littér-
ateur, born at Ipswich, Mass., Sept. 27, 1786, graduated at
Harvard in 1806, visited the East Indies, after his return
studied law, and became a tutor in Harvard in 1814. He
afterwards studied in Europe, and became a librarian and
professor of mineralogy at Harvard (1820–23). With the
historian Bancroft he founded the celebrated Round Hill
School at Northampton, Mass. He was many years super-
intendent of the Astor Library. He contributed much ex-
cellent matter to periodical literature, and enriched the
botanical and mineralogical collections at Harvard Uni-
versity with thousands of European specimens. Died at
Cambridge, Mass., Nov. 26, 1871.
Cogswell (MASON FITCH), M. D., born at Canterbury,
Conn., in 1761, graduated at Yale in 1780, became an emi-
ment surgeon of Hartford, Conn., and was one of the found-
ers of the asylums at Hartford for the deaf and dumb and
for the insane. Died in Dec., 1830.-His son, M. F. Cogs-
WELL, JR., M. D. (born Nov. 10, 1809, died Jan. 21, 1865),
was also an eminent physician.
Cogswell (WILLIAM), D. D., a Congregational divine,
born at Atkinson, N. H., June 5, 1787, graduated at Dart-
mouth in 1811, became general agent of the American Edu-
cation Society in 1829, professor of history at Dartmouth
(1841), professor of theology and president of Gilmanton
Theological Seminary in New Hampshire (1844), and was
the author of works on theology, etc. Died April 18, 1850.
Cohahui'ia, a state in the N. part of Mexico, border-
ing on Texas, is bounded on the N. and E. by the Rio
Grande del Norte. Area, estimated at 57,977 square miles.
The surface is hilly; the soil in some parts is sterile, and
other parts produce pasture. It has several silver-mines.
Capital, Saltillo. Pop. in 1871, 95,397.
Cohas'set, a township and post-village of Norfolk co.,
Mass., on the South Shore R. R., 21% miles S. E. of Boston.
Mackerel-fishing is one of the chief industries of this place.
The township is detached from the rest of the county. It
has a savings bank and two insurance companies. Minot's
Ledge Lighthouse is on its coast, in lat. 42° 16' 9" N.,
lon. 70° 45' 14" W. Pop. 2130.
Cohe’sion [from the Lat. cohaereo, cohaesum, to “hold
together”], in natural philosophy, is the force by which
the particles of homogeneous bodies are kept attached to
each other, and with which they resist separation. Ad-
hesion denotes the attractive force existing between two
different bodies brought into contact, as a drop of water on
a plate of glass; or between two bodies of the same matter,
as two lumps of lead when their smooth surfaces have been
pressed together. The three different forms which matter
assumes—solid, liquid, and gaseous—are determined by
the degree of cohesive force existing among the elementary
particles. In solids this force is greatest, and is that which
causes solidity; in liquids it is less powerful; and in aéri-
form fluids it may be regarded as negative, the particles
having a tendency to repel each other. -
Cohoctah, a township and post-village of Livingston
co., Mich., about 45 miles S. of Saginaw. Pop. 1176.
Cohoc/ton, a post-twp. of Steuben co., N. Y. P. 2710.
Cohoes, ko-hăz’, or Cahoes, a city of Albany co.,
N. Y., on the right bank of the Mohawk River, at its
junction with the Hudson River, on the Erie and Cham-
plain Canals and Rensselaer and Saratoga and Troy and
Schenectady branch of the New York Central and Hudson
River R. R., is 9 miles N. of Albany. It has 2 newspaper-
offices, 1 national and 1 State bank, 2 axe-factories, the
Harmony Manufacturing Company’s cotton-mills (five in
number, one of which is one of the largest, if not the
largest and most complete cotton-mill in the world), 20
knitting-mills, 1 pin-factory, 1 rolling-mill, and 1 horse-
railroad, connecting with the city of Troy, 3 miles S. The
city receives its supply of water for all purposes from the
Mohawk River. The Cohoes Falls are in the city limits.
Pop. 15,357. ED. “ CATARACT.”
Co/hort [Lat. cohors; Fr. cohorte], in the armies of
ancient Rome, was the tenth part of a legion, and consisted
usually of 600 men. The praetorian cohort was a body of
picked troops who attended the commander of the army,
and at a later period formed the guard of the emperor.
The term “cohort” is applied by some botanists to
groups or assemblages of natural orders.
Coif [Fr. coiffe], an ancient name for a head-dress of
any kind; at present especially applied in Great Britain
to a cap worn by serjeants-at-law. Hence the serjeantcy
is called by Blackstone the “degree of the coif.”
Coimbaſtoor' a district of British India, presidency
of Madras, S. of Mysore, has an area of 8392 square miles.
It is a flat region, producing cotton, grain, tobacco, cattle,
and sheep. The climate is mild. In the W. the ox is wor-
shipped. Capital, Coimbatoor. Pop. 1,227,208.
Coimbatoor, a city of India, capital of the above dis-
trict, is on the Noyel River, near lat. 11° N. and lon. 77°
E., and 1483 feet above the level of the sea. The climate
is healthy, but the water is brackish. Pop. 20,000.
Coim/bra, a city of Portugal, capital of the province of
Beira, on the river Mondego, here crossed by a stone bridge,
115 miles N. N. E. of Lisbon. It is on the railway from
Lisbon to Oporto. Built around a conical hill rising ab;
ruptly from the river, with many towers, and surrounded
by groves of orange and olive trees, it presents a very pio-
turesque external appearance, but the streets are narrºw
and steep. It is the seat of a Catholic bishop. , Coimbra de-
rives its importance from its university, the only one in Por-
tugal, with 1200 students and an old library of 30,000 vols.
It was founded in 1307. There are several fine churches;
also manufactures of linen and woollen fabrics. Coimbra was
founded by the Goths, and afterwards occupied by the Moors,
from whom it was taken by Ferdinand I. of Castile in 1964. .
It became the capital of Portugal in 1139. Pop. 18,147.
*
COIN–COINAGE.
1013
Coin", a town of Spain, in the province of Malaga,
about 22 miles W. of Malaga. It has an episcopal palace
and Several convents; also fine public walks and gardens
in the environs. Here are manufactures of linen and wool-
len fabrics, paper, and soap. Pop. 10,200.
Coin'age [Fr. coin, a “stamp” or “die,” remotely from
the Lat. cuneus, a “wedge”]. The precious metals were
first employed as currency in the form of unstamped bul-
lion, and values and amounts were then determined and
expressed by weight; hence the origin of the terms
“pound,” “livre,” “mark,” etc. But the commercial
character of society and the gradual advance of civiliza-
tion soon led to the invention of coins, the first step in
this direction being the employment of stamped pieces of
bullion of indefinite size and form. The finished appear-
ance of the coins issued by existing commercial nations in-
dicates artistic taste and skill of a character which pertains
to a highly advanced civilization.
A coin is money consisting of a piece of metal of known
weight and composition, possessing real exchangeable
worth, its denomination and value being stamped upon its
face and guaranteed by the government. Its value is not
—except in the case of smaller denominations, such as cop-
per and other minor coins—merely representative (like that
of a promissory note), but absolute and intrinsic. The
coin-standard of a nation is, with very rare exceptions, the
basis of its currency, whatever the character of the latter
may be. “Men in their bargains,” says Locke, “contract
not for denominations or sounds, but for the intrinsic value,
which is the quantity of silver (or gold), by public authority,
warranted to be in pieces of such denominations.”
Gold and silver are peculiarly adapted for coinage, pos-
sessing all the necessary qualities. They are capable of
exact mechanical subdivision and reunion with comparative
ease and without waste; they are durable, readily identi-
fied, of perfect sameness, and comparatively indestructible.
They possess, moreover, values in the market less fluctu-
ating (at least at the present time) than that of any other
available commodity, and a relation between their respective
weights, specific gravities, and values which ensures a con-
venient bulk and the greatest facility for transportation.
There has not always been assigned by law to given
quantities of the precious metals the same nominal value
as now. Thus, in England, a pound troy of pure gold
about the year 1363 was required by law to be coined into
fifteen pounds sterling; whilst the same weight of standard
gold (eleven-twelfths fine) at the present day is rated at
#46 148. 6d. A troy pound of silver at the former period
was coined into twenty-five shillings, but of late years the
same weight of standard silver is coined into sixty-two
shillings. The market values of gold and silver relative to
each other have also undergone great change, the relative
value of equal weights of each, now (in 1873) about as 15%
to 1, having been in the early part of the twelfth century
as 9 to 1 only.
There is reason to believe that the cost of production of
the precious metals will hereafter be less disturbed and un-
certain than prior to the comparatively recent discoveries
of extensive gold-fields in California and Australia, and,
consequently, that their market values will be less subject
to sudden fluctuations. Within the past sixty years the
value of gold has fluctuated from 15% to 15% times that of
silver (averaging about 15% times), and never falling so
low as that of 15 times such value.
Until within comparatively few years the money of ac-
count of nearly all European nations, as well as of the
U. S., was based either upon a silver standard, or upon one
of gold and silver both. Experience has shown that it is
preferable that gold be the sole standard, and that the dis-
advantages attending the application of any other standard
are great and inherent. The standard coin which is to be
legal tender in payment of unlimited amounts should be
made of the heavier and more valuable of the two metals.
Silver is about 15% times as heavy, and about 28% times as
bulky, as gold of equivalent value. Again, a double standard,
based upon the assumption that the relative value of gold
and silver is invariable, must be imperfect, resting, as it
does, upon a false basis. Whenever the relative market
value differs appreciably from the arbitrarily fixed coin
standard (assumed invariable), the relatively dearer metal
(whether gold or silver) is driven from circulation.
It is desirable where a system of specie payment obtains,
or where the precious metals enter largely into financial
transactions, that both gold and silver should be in simul-
taneous circulation. This can only be accomplished by
making gold the standard of account and legal tender of
payment in all amounts, and by so fixing the relation of
silver to gold that the silver shall be relatively overvalued,
and admitted as legal tender of payment only in limited
amounts.
An accurate knowledge of the relative market values of
gold and silver is desirable in order that it may be possible
to so fix the relative quantity of metal in the coins of like
denominations as to ensure the overvaluing of the silver.
For this purpose the weight of the silver coins of the
standard fineness should be fixed relatively to gold, at a
point somewhat lower than that demanded by their nominal
values; without, however, permitting the divergence to be
so wide as, by the inducement of a large profit, to en-
courage their fraudulent or unauthorized manufacture by
private parties. The ratio of 15 to 1 to represent the rel-
ative value of equal weights of gold and silver, respectively,
is therefore a desirable one for purposes of coinage, being
at once a simple ratio, and near, but sufficiently below,
the mean market ratio to ensure the overvaluing of the
silver. (For engravings of coins, see NUMISMATICS.)
The monetary systems of the different nations are in
general heterogeneous in their character, and their rela-
tions to each other not unfrequently exceedingly complex.
That the metallic money of the several commercial countries
should differ in any respect is an inconvenience, but the
interruption to the freedom of international exchange is
greatly augmented when this difference is such as to in-
volve troublesome fractional operations in the process of
reduction from the currency of one country to that of an-
other. This want of harmony has for many years, and
especially of late, attracted public and merited attention,
and earnest attempts are being made to establish an inter-
national coinage system on a comprehensive and simple
basis. There seems to be no difference of opinion as to the
immense advantages to be derived from the establishment
of a simple correlated system of international coinage, and
the view is rapidly gaining ground that such correlated
system should be based on a gold standard—silver to be
subsidiary—and that the standard units of the system
should possess simple numerical relations as to weight with
the metric unit of weight—the gramme—the only unit of
weight which promises to be generally accepted in facili-
tating the international exchange of commodities. It is
also important to adopt a standard fineness of a decimal
character. The generally approved standard of fineness
of coins for international uses is that of nine parts pure
metal (gold or silver, as the case may be) to one part of
copper alloy.
A memorial of the American Statistical Association, ad-
dressed to the Congress of the U. S. in the year 1868, calls
attention to certain principles which it urges should govern
in the establishment of a system of international coinage.
It recommended that our coinage should have simple rela-
tions as to weight with the unit of weight of the metric
system—the gramme; that the standard as to fineness of
our coinage—whether of gold or silver—should continue to
be nine-tenths of fine metal to one-tenth of alloy; that the
weight in grammes and the fineness of the coins hereafter
to be issued should be legibly stamped thereon; that, in
pursuance of the foregoing, the gold dollar should contain
one and a half grammes of fine gold, or its equivalent, one
and two-thirds grammes of standard gold, nine-tenths fine,
and that other gold coins should be in proportion; that the
silver half dollar and smaller silver coins should contain
of fine silver at the rate of twenty-two and a half grammes
to the dollar, or their equivalent, twenty-five grammes of
standard silver, nine-tenths fine; that the gold coinage, as
above described, should be made legal tender in payment
of sums in all amounts; and that the silver coin should be
made subsidiary, and admitted as legal tender in amounts
not exceeding ten dollars in any one payment.
The Association calls attention to the fact that to reduce
our gold and our subsidiary silver to these proposed stand-
ards, respectively, only insignificant changes—to wit, a re-
duction of three-tenths of 1 per cent. in the weight of the
gold coins, and an increase of five-tenths of 1 per cent. in
the weight of the silver coins of the then-existing standards
—were required. The proposed reduction in the weight
of the smaller gold coins is considerably less than the devia-
tion now allowed to the mint. The change above proposed
with regard to the subsidiary silver has already been ac-
complished by act of Congress approved Feb. 12, 1873, and
said silver coins are continued as legal tender in amounts
not exceeding five dollars in any one payment.
It will be observed that the weight of the silver coins is
precisely 15 times the proposed weight of the gold coins
of like denomination, but as the value of the gold relatively
to silver is sensibly in excess of this ratio, the silver is over-
valued, as, according to the experience of commercial na-
tions, it should be.
At a meeting of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, held at Burlington, Vt., in 1867, a
resolution was adopted deprecating the establishment of
an international system of coinage of which the units
should have other than simple relations to the metric unit
of weight; and at Salem, in Aug., 1869, the same Associa-
,- - * - TABLE I.—THE EXISTING COINAGE OF THE UNITED STATES.
TABLE showing the standard weights, expressed both in troy and metric units, of the several coins (gold, silver, nickel, and bronze) of the U. S., now issued under authority of law approved Feb. 12, 1878; together with the standard
proportions of fine metal and alloy of each description of coin; also, the tolerance—or rate of deviation from the standard allowed by law—in the weight, both of single pieces and of large numbers when delivered together, and the
tolerance as to fineness; also, the extent to which the several descriptions of coins are made legal tender in payment of debt. - •
#
l, | 2 | 8 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 ||10| 11, 12 || 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 || 20, 21,
Fi * - ta * e - f -
* É Standard sº of each **t of pure Tolerance of the mint, or deviation allowed— ;
ºsmºsºm- cº rºl
§ Troy. Metric, Troy. Metric. In the weight of single pieces. In the weight of a large number of coins taken together. g g
Ç
*! pſ tº t an ºn Hi iv. § 3 & .8 º
DENOMINATION § § 3 # * deliv Deviation. 3 # To what extent
- º: § # * Ited, Equivalent num- § 2 3 § 5 -
rº ? 3 * * 5 is # #
§ - º: rö ber of + ‘5 : 3 tº 3
3 : º: ‘s 3 -- * 3 g ºc q)
3 º H- +2 tº: º @ * 23
3 8 g S e § 3 ; ; 3 ſº
OF tº rº g = ta ă ă ă = ; : 8,
> * %. 3 ºn g #. § 2. 3 + § 2
º rºj gº cº º .9 - &º 's rºj © C/A 3.
tº 8 : wº Q} … 3 Q4 o, w; # 3 : ... $2 tº-: Gº
Tº: +3 & e © çı 8 .# 3 Q-4 § ..: 5 * : 5 c ºx
§ 3 * 3 3 '3 8 :: * © : 'º' ă * 5 # s 3 #
: ... 3 m 8 tº 3 ; || # g © c 5 • 3 | tº $4 º e = } § &
º an ;: : 3. ta bn qx º o .89 Q) 9 3 ºn § '3
Coins. g Ä 3 '3 ă '3 ; # & := E § . 3 E. # | * : # ă ă ă ă ; : legal tender.
# ºf #. § § § Ç5 à || # 3 # = 3 || 3 § à | É >} P- ##3 #| g :
‘s # # 3 # 4- # - 3 3 || . ;
5 3 # # = É g : 5 o tº
# H ă ă ă ă ă ă ă || # -
; ## = # * * * || 3
Gold. * - Cents. Cents. Cents.
Double Eagle............... 900 100 2.991— || 516.00 33.4363— 464.40 30.0926-1- || 1 # 32.40 96.9— || 250 $5000 |.01 || 4.8 || 311+ 18.60+ .72+ ||............... In all amounts.
Eagle ........................ 900 100 5.9S2— || 2:58.00 | 16.7181-- 232.20 15.0463-- 1. # 32.40 193.8– 500 5000 | .01 || 4.8 || 311–H 18.60+ 3.72+ ||............... 46 * *
Half Eagle.................. 900 100 || 11.963-- || 129.00 8.3591— 116.10 7.5232— 1. # 16.20 193.8— || 1000 5000 | .01 || 4.8 || 311+ 18.60+ 8.72+ ||............... Gº {{
Three-dollar piece........ 900 100 || 19.938–H 77.4() 5.0154–H 69.66 4.5139— 1. # 16.20 323.0— || 1000 3000 .01 4.8 || 311–H 18.60+ 6.20+ ||............... {{ &6
Quarter Jagle............. 900 100 || 23.926-1- 64.50 4.1795-H 58.05 3.7616– 1 # 16.20 387.6— || 2000 5000 | .01 || 4.8 || 311 + T8.60+ 3.72+ ||............... £C {{
One-dollar piece.......... 900 100 || 59.815–H 25.80 1.6718-i- 23.22 1,5046-i- I # 16.20 969,0— || 1000 || 1000 .01 || 4.8 || 311–H 18.60+ 18.60+ ||............... {{ {{
Silver. -
Trade Dollar............... 900 100 3.674+ || 420.00 27.2156— 378.00 24,4940-1- 3 || 1:# 97.20 357.1+ || 1000 || $1000 .02 9.6 || 622.1– 2.29– 2.29– 16.27+ Not exceeding $5."
Half Dollar................ 900 100 8.000 192.9() 12.5000 173.81 11.2500 3 || 1:# 97.20 777.6— || 1000 500 | .02 || 9.6 || 622.1– 2.49— 4.98– 15.00 * &6. $8
Quarter Dollar............ 900 100 || 16.000 96.45 6.2500 86.81 5.625() 3 || 13; 97.20 1555.2— || || 000 250 | .02 9.6 622.1– 2.49– 9.95+ 15.()0 {{ 66
Dime 900 100 || 40,000 3S.58 2.5000 34.72 2.2500 3 || 1; 97.20 || 3887.9-H || 1000 10 .01 || 4.8 31.1.0+ - 1.24-H. 12,44+ 15.00 66 {{
Copper-nickel. - -
Five-cent piece f..........||...... ſº is ſº I s tº e º e º 'º - 0 20,000 77.16 5.0000 |............ [.................. + || 3 194.40 l...............ll.........l............l......l......l...............l...............l.......” “ll.”“ Not exceeding 25 cents.
Three-cent piece f.......||.........|......... 51.441 30.00 1.9440- 1............ [.................. f || 2 | 129.60 |...............||.........|....... • * * * * | * * * * * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * $6 £e
Bronze. - -
One-cent pieceſ..........||.................. 32.151— 48.00 3.1103 |............ [..................!!...... 2 129.60 |...............||.........l............!...... [......l...............}............... [...“ll." ":" Not exceeding 25 cents.
* 1000 milligrammes make one gramme; 1 gramme equals 15.482849 troy grains; 1 troy grain equals 64.79895 milligrammes.
+ One-fourth nickel and three-fourths copper; the deviation not being more than one-fortieth in the weight of nickel.
£Tin and zinc, five per cent.; copper. ninety-five per cent. -
:


COINAGE.
1015
tion expressed, also by resolution, their approval of “the
proposed adaptation of the American coinage to the metric
system, by making the value of the dollar precisely that
of one and a half grammes of fine gold; seeing in this a
new step towards the promotion of fraternity among na-
tions by the unification of weights, measures, and coinage,
inasmuch as all monetary units which have simple rela-
. ſo the gramme must have simple relations to each
other.’
No action on the subject of the change of the weight of
the gold coinage has yet been taken by Congress, although
it is now (June, 1873) believed that such action in the di-
rection of these recommendations will not be long delayed.
The leading simple metrical systems of gold units pro-
posed may be classed under three heads: First. The dollar,
florin, franc, and penny units, based upon tergrammes, of
gold nine-tenths fine (the term tergramme denoting the third
part of a gramme). Second. Systems having for their basis
the decagramme of gold of nine-tenths fineness, which unit
has been advocated by Chevalier, Dr. Farr, and other Eu-
ropean political economists. (See Report of Dr. Farr to
the International Statistical Congress, held at The Hague
in 1869.) Third. Systems based upon the decagramme of
pure gold as the unit.
These three systems, by reason of each bearing a simple
relation to the metric unit of weight—the gramme—must
of necessity possess simple relations to each other, and may
be regarded, essentially, as different phases of one and the
same system.
According to certain lately published estimates and state-
ments, by a careful investigator, relative to the four prin-
cipal existing coin standards, it appears that the British
sovereign is used by 35,000,000 people; the franc, by
77,000,000; that the gold dollar unit is used in countries
having an aggregate population of 80,000,000; and that
the domain of the silver dollar has about 552,000,000 in-
habitants.
The first of the three accompanying tables shows, with ref-
erence to the existing system of coinage in the U. S., the
weight and fineness of the standard coins now authorized
to be manufactured and issued from the mint, and the
“tolerance,” or deviation from the standard, allowed in the
coining, both as to weight and fineness. (See p. 1014.) The
second table compares the existing system of U. S. coinage
with a proposed system on a simplified and strictly metric
basis. The third table compares with each other the weights
of the coin-representatives of the units of account of several
countries, as now existing, and also modifications proposed
on the basis of a simplified and strictly metric system.
TABLE II.-UNITED STATES COINAGE.--Existing and Proposed
- Systems Compared.
º Aggregate Weight. Proposed
DENOMINATION - - - Proposed weight of
Existing System. System. each piece.
#
OF .3 º ââ
:* ** 3 ă . . . § 3
5 § 3 § # = .
Corn. 3 g É. © 3. ă.
'; 'E # É gº
§ 3. > § &
Gold
(nine-tenths fine).
3 Double Eagles........... 1548. 100.31— 100 33# 100
6 Eagles..................... 1548. 100.31— 100 16# 50
(10 Decagrammes of
standard gold of the
value of six metric
dollars).................... [............ [............ 100 10 || 30
12 Half Eagles............ 1548. 100.31— 100 8# 25
20 Three-dollar pieces... 1548. 100.31— 100 5 15
24 Quarter Eagles........ 1548. 100.31— 100 4} | 12#
60 Dollars................... 1548. 100.31— 100 1} | 5
Silver
(nine-tenths fine).
8 Half dollars.............. l............ 1()0 100 12#
16 Quarter dollars........ [............ 10() 100 6#
40 Dimes..................... [............ 100 100 2#
Copper-nickel -
(# nickel, # copper).
20 Five-cent pieces...... 1543.2–H | 100 100 5
50 Three-cent pieces..... 1500 97.20– 100 2
Bronze
(5 per cent. tin and
zinc, 95 per cent. cop-
per).
30 One-cent pieces. 1540. 93.31–H 100 3#
TABLE III.-COINS OF WARIOUS COMMERCIAL NATIONS.
Mumber of pieces which may be coined from 100 grammes of gold
of the fineness of nine-tenths, and the weight of each piece ºn
grammes; also, the number of pieces which may be so coined
under the proposed metric system, and the weight of each piece
in grammes and in thirds of a gramme.
DENoMINATION Existing relations. Proposed relations.
OF Number | Weight | Number Weight of each
Corn. of of each of iece,
pieces. piece. pieces. expresscd in—
Ter-
Grammes. Grammes. grammes
Dollars (U. S.)...... 59.815+| 1.672– 60 1} 5
Double Eagles
U. S.)............... 2.991—| 33.436+ 3 33} 100
Twenty-Yen pieces
(Japan)............ 3. 33} 3 33} 100
Victorias (or ten-
Sol pieces of 300
metric pence —
proposed Eng- -
lish coin).......... es es e e g º e º a s : * * * * * * e º a • * * 10 10 30
Sovereigns (Eng-
land)................ 12.291+| 8.136
Ten-Mark pieces
(Germanic Em-
pire)................. 25.11 3.982+ 25 12
TJ ni on Crow n s
(Vereins-krone
of Germany—
Tr a de coin—
coined from 1858
to 1872)............ 9. 11; 9 11; 33}
Ten-Crown pieces
(projected coin
for the three
Sc and in avian
kingdoms)......... 22.32 4.480-F 223 4} 13#
Ten-Franc pieces -
(France)............ 31. 3.226– 30 3# 10
Half-Imperials
(Russia—5 gold
roubles or 5.15
silver roubles)... 15.003+ 6 665+ 15 6# 20
In the above it is not proposed to disturb the value of the
pound sterling of Great Britain, or of its representative the
gold sovereign, but it is contemplated to substitute the
Victoria (or decagramme of gold nine-tenths fine) of 10
sols, or 300 metric pence, as the British unit of account, in
place of the pound sterling of 240 sterling pence, or 244
(more exactly 244.09) metric pence.
TABLE IV.-Statement of Weight, Value, and Fineness of Foreign
Gold Coins, according to trials made at the Mint of the U. S.
- Value
Country. DENoMINATIONs. Weight . Value. tºº.
tion.
O2. Dec | Thows.
Austria......... Ducat....................... 0.112 || 986 |$2.28.3|$2.27
“. ......... [Souverain.................. 0.363 900 || 6.75.4| 6.72
“. ......... Four Florins.............. 0.104 900 | 1.93.5 | 1.91.5
Belgium........ Twenty-five Francs.... O.254 899 || 4.72 4.69.8
Bolivia ......... Doubloon.................. 0.867 870 | 15.59.3|15.51.5
Brazil........... Twenty Milreis......... 0.575 || 917.5|10.90.6|10.85.1
Central Amer. Two Escudos............. 0.209 || 853.5| 3.68.8 3.66.9
& “. . |Four Reals................ 0.027 875 ().48.8| 0.48.6
Chili............ Old Doubloon............ 0.867 87() |15.59.3|15.51.5
“ ............ Ten Pesos.................. 0.492 900 9.15.4| 9.10.8
Denmark....... Ten Thaler................ 0.427 895 - || 7.90 || 7.86.1
Equador........ Four Escudos............ 0.433 | 844 || 7.55.5| 7.51.7
England........ Pound or Sov., new.... [0.256.7. 916.5 4.86.3| 4.83.9
“ ........ {{ “ average. 0.256.2 916 || 4.85.1| 4.82.7
France.......... Twenty Francs, new... [0.207.5| 899 || 3.85.8 3.83.9
“. .......... {{ “ average. 0.207 | 899 || 3.84.7| 3.82.8
Germany...... Ten Thaler, Prussian... 0.427 903 7.97.1 7.93.1
“. ...... Twenty Marks........... 0.256 900 || 4.76.2| 4.73.8
Greece ......... Twenty Drachms....... 0.185 900 || 3.44.2| 3.42.5
Hindostan.....] Mohur ..................... 0.374 916 || 7.08.2| 7.04.6
Italy............. Twenty Lire.............. 0.207 | 898 || 3.84.3| 3.82.3
Japan........... Old Cobang............... 0.362 568 || 4.44 || 4.4.1.8
“. ........... 44 “ ................. 0.289 572 || 3.57.6| 3.55.8
“. ........... Twenty Yen.............. 1.072 900 |19.94.4|19.84.4
Mexico.......... Doubloon, average......|0.867.5| 866 |15.53 |15.45.2
“ .......... 6t, IlêW..... . . . . . . 867.5 870,5|15,61.1|15.53.3
“ .......... Twenty Pesos (Max.). (0.086 875 |19.64.3|19.54.5
“. .......... “ “ (Repub.)|1.081 873 |19.51.5|1941.8
Naples.......... Six Ducati, new......... [0.245 996 || 5.04.4 5.01.9
Netherlands...|Ten Guilders............. 0.215 899 || 3.99.7| 3.97.6
New Granada. Old Doubloon, Bogota. |0.868 870 | 15.61.1|15.53.3
{{ {{ 6% * Popayan. ().867 858 |15.37.8|15.30.1
{{ 6& Ten Pesos.................. 0.525 891.5 9.67.5| 9.62.7
Peru ............ Old Doubloon............ 0.867 868 15.55.7|15.47.9
“ ............ Twenty Soles............ 1.055 898 |19.21.3119.11.7
Portugal ...... Gold Crown............... 0.308 912 5.80.7| 5.77.8
Russia.......... Five Roubles............. 0.210 916 || 3.97.6] 3.95.7
Spain ........... One Hundred Reals.... |0.268 896 || 4.96.4| 4.93.9
“. ........... Eighty Reals............. 0.215 869.5| 3.86.4| 3.84.5
“. ........... Ten Escudos.............. 0.270.8| 896 || 5.01.5| 4.99
Sweden.........|Ducat.................------ 0.111 875 2.23.7| 2.22.6
“ ......... Carolin, Ten Francs...|0.104 || 900 | 1.93.5 | 1.91.5
Tunis............ Twenty-five Piastres...|0.161 900 | 2.99.5| 2.98.1
Turkey......... One Hundred Piastres.|0.231 915 4.36.9; 4.34.8
Tuscany........ Sequin...................... 0.112 || 999 || 2.31.3| 2.30.1

1016
COIR.—COKE.
TABLE V.—Statement of Weight, Fineness, and Value of Foreign
Silver Coins, according to trials made at the Mint of the U. S.
Country. DENOMINATIONs. Weight : Value.
Oz. Dec. | Thows.
Austria......... Old Rix Dollar.................. 0.902 || 833 |$1.02.3
“. ......... Old Scudo......................... 0.836 902 | 1.02.6
“ ......... Florin before 1858.............. 0.451 833 51.1
“ ......... New Florin....................... 0.397 9()0 48.6
“ ......... New Union Dollar............. 0.596 || 900 73.1
“ ......... Marie Theresa Dollar 1780..] 0.895 838 1.02.1
Belgium........ Five Francs...................... 0.803 897 98
“ ........ Two Francs....................... 0.320 835 36.4
Bolivia .........|New Dollar....................... 0.801 900 98.1
Brazil........... Double Milreis.................. 0.820 918.5 | 1.02 5
Canada .........|Twenty Cents.................... 0.150 925 18.9
“ .........|Twenty-five Cents.............. 0.187.5 || 925 23.6
Central Amer. Dollar............................... ().866 850 | 1.00.2
Chili............ Old Dollar........................ 0.864. 908 || 1 06.8
“ ............ New Dollar....................... 0.801 900.5 98.2
China............ Dollar (English), assumed... 0.866 901 | 1.06.2
“ ............ Ten Cents......................... 0.087 901 10.6
Denmark...... Two Rigsdaler.................. 0.927 | 877 | 1.10.7
England........ Shilling, new..................... 0.182.5| 924.5 || 23
" ... . . . . . &ć 3.Verage............... 0.178 925 22.4
France.......... Five Franc, average........... 0.800 . 900 98
“ .......... Two Franc........................ 0.320 835 36.4
Germany, N...Thaler before 1857............. 0.712 75() 72.7
{ % “... |New Thaler...................... 0.595 900 72.9
46 S...] Florin before 1857.............. 0.340 900 41.7
&&. “...|New Florin....................... 0.340 || 900 41.7
Greece ......... Five Drachms.................... 0.719 900 88.1
Hindostan..... Rupee.............................. 0.374 || 916.5 || 46.6
Italy............ Five Lire.......................... 0.800 900 98
“ ............ Lira................................. ()-160 835 18.2
Japan........... Itzebu.............................. 0.279 991 37.6
“ ........... New Itzebu...................... 0.279 890 33.8
“ ........... One Yen........................... 0.866.7| 900 1.00 8
“ ........... Fifty Sen.......................... 0.402 80ſ) 44.6
Mexico.......... Dollar, new....................... 0.867.5| 903 - || 1.06.6
$4. “ average................. 0.866 901 | 1.06.2
“ .......... Peso of Maximilian........... 0,861 902.5 | 1.05.5
Naples..........|Scudo............................... 0.844 || 830 95.3
Netherlands...|Two and a half Guilders.....] 0.804 944 | 1.03.3
Norway......... Specie Daler..................... 0.927 | 877 | 1.10.7
New Granada.|Dollar of 1857.................... 0.803 896 98
Glºu. . . . . . . . . . . . . Old Dollar........................ 0.866 901 1.06.2
“ ............. Tollar of 1858.................... ().766 909 94.8
“ ............. Half Dollar 1835 and 1838...} 0.433 650 38.3
“ ............. Ol----------------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.802 900 98.2
Portugal ...... Five Hundred Reis............ 0.400 912 49.6
Rome............ cudo............................... 0.864. 900 1.05.8
Russia........... Rouble ............................. ().667 875 79.4
Spain. ........... Five Pesetas (dollar).......... 0.800 | 900 98
“ ........... Peseta (pistareen).............. 0.160 835 18.2
Sweden......... Rix Dollar........................ 1.092 750 | 1.11.5
Switzerland... [Two Francs....................... 0.320 835 36.4
unis............. Five Piastres..................... 0.5II. 898.5 | 62.5
Turkey......... Twenty Piastres................ 0.770 830 87
As tending to facilitate in Great Britain the transition
from the sterling to the metric basis, it may prove interest-
ing to note the fact that the payment of a sterling half-
crown a month is almost exactly equivalent to that of a
metric penny a day, the average number of days in a
calendar month being 30%, the same as the number of
metric pence in a sterling half-crown.
Tables IV. and V., prepared by the director of the mint,
to accompany his Annual Report, in pursuance of the act
of Feb. 21, 1857, show the weight, fineness, and value of
foreign gold and silver coins. The third column expresses
the weight of a single piece in decimal fractions of the troy
ounce. The fourth column expresses the fineness in thou-
sandths. In the fifth column of Table IV. is shown the
value as compared with the standard amount of fine gold
in the gold coin of the U. S. In the sixth column of
Table IV. is shown the value as paid in the mint, after
the uniform deduction of one-half of 1 per cent. The for-
mer is the value for any other purposes than recoinage,
and especially for the purpose of comparison; the latter is
the value in exchange for coins of the U. S. at the mint.
The values in the fifth column of Table V. have been cal-
culated on the assumption that the price of silver of the
U.S. standard as to fineness (nine-tenths) is 122% cents
per ounce troy.
It is worthy of remark that Japan is, as yet, the only
country in which the coins which represent the standard
units of account are of gold of the fineness of nine-tenths,
and possessing as to Weight simple relations to the gramme,
the metric unit. - E. B. ELLIOT,
U. S. Treasury Dept., Washington, D. C.
Coir is the fibre of the cocoanut and other palms. It
is a valuable material for ropes, mats, etc. The husks
are steeped in water in pits for six months or more, and
then beaten with a stick till the fibre readily separates.
Coir is one of the best materials for cables on account of
its lightness, elasticity, and strength. Large quantities of
coir rope are made in the Laccadive Islands by the hand,
without the aid of machinery. Coir is produced from the
fibre of various trees, especially the GosſuTI PALM (which
see). . It is largely produced in the Malay Islands.
Coit (THOMAS WINTHROP), D.D., LL.D., an Episcopalian
divine, born at New London, Conn., June 28, 1803, grad-
uated at Yale in 1821, was president of Transylvania Uni-
versity, Lexington, Ky., and became a professor at Trinity
College, Hartford, Conn., in 1849. He published a “Theo-
logical Commonplace Book” (1832), “Puritanism * (1844),
and other works.
Coits’ ville, a township and post-village of Mahoning
co., O., about 21 miles S. E. of Warren. Pop. 1161.
Cojutepec.', a thriving, well-built town of Central
America, in the state of San Salvador, 15 miles S. of old
San Salvador. Pop. about 15,000.
Cokaſto, a township and village of Wright co., Minn.,
on the St. Paul and Pacific R. R., 61 miles W. N. W. of
St. Paul. Pop. 452.
Coke [probably allied to the verb “cook”], the char-
coal obtained from bituminous coal by distillation or by
heating with an almost entire exclusion of air. The for-
mer, called gas-coke, is abundantly produced in gas-works;
the latter process is conducted in heaps or in ovens. Coking
in heaps (the Meiler method) consists in placing the coal
in ridges with wooden stakes driven within, which are
afterwards removed for the introduction of lighted coal.
During the process of heating much smoke and vapor are
thrown out, consisting mostly of tar, water, and coal-gas.
When the smoke ceases to be evolved, the air is excluded
and combustion extinguished by covering the mound of
hot cinder with fine coal-dust. Where this business is
large, chimneys of firebrick are erected, around which the
coal is placed, the larger masses in the centre, the whole
being finally covered with fine coal or dross. Firebrick
ovens are also used for coking, and are more economical.
In these the coal is introduced through the top, and a little
air is admitted by openings. When the smoke has ceased
the openings are closed for from twelve to twenty-four
hours; the coal is then raked through a door, and water
thrown upon it to stop combustion. Caking coal is the
most suitable for making coke; even when small it may be
used, and a little water sprinkled over it greatly assists the
coking operation. The weight of coke usually amounts to
between 60 and 70 per cent. of the coal employed; at the
same time the coal increases in bulk about one-fourth. It
will sometimes absorb moisture from the air to the extent
of 30 per cent., and contains an amount of ash ranging
from # to 15 per cent. Coke is largely employed in the
smelting of metallic ores, etc. where great heat is required.
Coke (Sir EDw ARD), an eminent English jurist and
judge, born at Mileham, in Norfolk, Feb. 1, 1552. He
graduated at Cambridge, studied law in the Inner Temple,
and was called to the bar in 1578. IHis legal learning and
tact in conducting causes soon procured for him a large
practice. He was appointed recorder of Norwich in 1586,
recorder of London in 1592, and solicitor-general the same
year. He became Speaker of the House of Commons in
1593, and attorney-general in 1594. In 1606 he was ap-
pointed chief-justice of common pleas, in which position
he resolutely opposed illegal encroachments of the Crown
at a time when the subserviency of justice to royalty was
general. To still his unwelcome decisions the court made
him chief-justice of the king's bench, but found him no
less independent and freedom-loving than before. Among
other bold judicial acts, he decided that the king had no
right to stay proceedings in a court of law; for which he
was deprived of the justiceship in 1616. He sided with
the popular party in Parliament, and for his intrepid
course was imprisoned in the Tower in 1622. He had a
principal part in framing the Bill of Rights, and in carry-
ing it through Parliament. Sir Edward Coke's legal learn-
ing was various and profound. His “Reports” far ex-
celled any that had preceded them. “ Coke upon Lyttle-
ton, or the First Institute,” is still a standard upon matters
of municipal and constitutional law in England. He wrote,
besides a second, third, and fourth book of “Institutes,”
the “Complete Copyholder” and “Reading on Fines.”
Died Sept. 3, 1633. -
Coke (THOMAs), D. D., LL.D., the first bishop of the
Méthodist Episcopal Church, born at Brecon, Wales, Sept.
9, 1747, was educated at Oxford, and became a minister of
the Church of England, but subsequently joined Wesley,
and became a most laborious and faithful itinerant. He
was made a bishop for America by Wesley in 1784, but did
not confine his labors to this country. He traversed Great
Britain and Ireland frequently, and crossed the Atlantic
eighteen times. He founded the Wesleyan missions in the
East and West Indies, and expended nearly all his large
fortune in the undertaking. He died May 2, 1814, on a
voyage to India, and was buried at Sea. He was a volu-
COKESBURY-COLD.
1017
minous writer, and left, among numerous other works, a
“Commentary on the Holy Scriptures” (6 vols., 1803–07),
and a “History of the West Indies” (1808). (See STE-
VENS’s “History of Methodism,” and “History of the
Methodist Episcopal Church.”) b
Cokesbury, a township and post-village of Abbeville
co., S. C. The village is on the Greenville and Columbia
R. R., 48 miles S. S. E. of Greenville. Pop. 700; of town-
ship, 2179. -
Col [from the Lat. collum, a “neck”], a French word
signifying “neck,” is applied to several passes of the Alps,
as Col de Balme, Col de Tenda, etc.
Co/la, or Kola-Nut, the seed of the tree Cola acumi-
nata, of the matural order Sterculiaceae, a native of the
western tropical parts of Africa, and cultivated in other
warm countries. The natives of Guinea, believe that to
eat a portion of one of these seeds before their meals im-
proves the flavor of whatever they may eat, and that when
sucked or chewed they will render even putrid water agree-
able to the palate. They are about the size of a pigeon’s
egg, of a brownish color and bitter taste. They are said
to possess properties analogous to Peruvian bark.
Col’berg, a fortified seaport-town of Prussia, in Pom-
erania, on the river Persante near its entrance into the
Baltic, about 143 miles N. E. of Berlin, with which it is
connected by a railway. It has a handsome rathhaus, an
old cathedral, salmon and lamprey fisheries, commerce, and
salt-works. It is partly surrounded with swamps which
can be readily covered with water. It has sustained sev-
eral protracted sieges. Pop. in 1871, 13,130.
Col’bert, a county in the N. W. of Alabama. Area, 750
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Tennessee
River.
tile. Cotton, corn, and wool. are produced. It is inter-
sected by the Memphis and Charleston R. R. Capital,
Tuscumbia. Pop. 12,537.
Colbert (JEAN BAPTISTE), a French statesman and
financier, was born at Rheims Aug. 29, 1619. He entered
the service of Cardinal Mazarin in 1648, and became secre-
tary to the queen in 1654. Mazarin at his death recom-
mended Colbert to the king, who in 1661 appointed him
controller-general of the finances, which were then in a
ruinous condition. The annual revenue exacted from the
people in 1660 was about 84,000,000 livres, but only
32,000,000 were received into the treasury, the rest being
kept by the farmers of the revenue. Colbert reformed the
financial system, and established order and economy in the
government. In the course of twenty years he raised the
gross revenue to 115,000,000, while the expense of collect-
ing it was reduced to about 30,000,000. He promoted
commerce and manufactures, opened canals and roads, and
founded colonies in America. He also made reforms in
the department of marine, of which he was appointed min-
ister in 1669. No minister perhaps ever contributed so
much to the prosperity of France. He was a liberal patron
of literary and scientific men, and was the founder of the
Academy of Inscriptions and Academy of Sciences. His
influence at court was undermined by Louvois, and his
efforts to dissuade Louis XIV. from his ruinous wars and
extravagant expenses were unavailing; but he retained the
office of controller-general until his death. Died in Paris
Sept. 6, 1683. (See PIERRE CLÉMENT, “Histoire de Col-
bert,” 1846; A. DE SERVIEz, “Histoire de Colbert,” 1842;
GourDAULT, “Colbert, Ministre de Louis XIV.,” 1870.)
Col’borne, a post-village of Cramahe township, North-
umberland co., Ontario (Canada), on the Grand Trunk
Railway, 15 miles E. of Cobourg, has manufactures of
flour, leather, lumber, furniture, and iron castings, and one
weekly paper. Pop. about 1500.
Col’bourne, a township of Worcester co., Md. P. 861.
Col'burn (WARREN), a mathematician, born at Ded-
ham, Mass., Mar. 1, 1793, taught school in Boston. He
published in 1821 a “Mental Arithmetic,” which had an
extensive circulation. Died at Lowell Sept. 13, 1833.
Colburn (Rev. ZERAH), born at Cabot, Vt., Sept. 1, 1804.
In early life he had a wonderful faculty of computation,
which failed him as he came to maturity. He became a
Methodist preacher (1825), and professor of languages at
Norwich University (1835). Died at Norwich, Vt., Mar.
2, 1840. -
Col’by Univer'sity, a Baptist college, incorporated
by the legislature of Massachusetts in 1813 as “The Maine
Literary and Theological Institution,” was first established
near Bangor, but subsequently (1818) transferred to Water-
ville, Me. In 1820 it was chartered by the State of Maine
as “Waterville College,” which name it bore till 1867,
when, having been munificently endowed by Gardner
Colby, Esq., a merchant of Boston, the name was changed
The surface is hilly or undulating; the soil is fer-
to that of Colby University. Number of instructors in
1872, 7; pupils, 52. -
Colcha/gua, a province of Chili, is bounded on the N.
by the province of Santiago, on the E. by the Andes, on
the S. by the province of Curico, and on the W. by the
Pacific Ocean. Area, 3516 square miles. The province is
traversed by the rivers Rapel, Mataquito, and Tinguirica.
The climate is better than in any other province, and the
soil is very fertile. Gold and copper are found, especially
in the mountains in the interior. Pop. in 1869, 149,747.
Chief town, San Fernando.
Col’chester (anc. Camalodunum), a parliamentary
borough and river-port of England, in Essex, on the river
Colne, 12 miles from the sea, and on the Eastern Union
Railway, 51 miles N. N. E. of London. It is well built on
the sides and summit of an eminence, and has imposing
remains of a castle built soon after the Norman Conquest.
Great quantities of Roman remains have been found here,
including bushels of coins of Roman emperors, vases, urns,
lamps, etc. It has eight parish churches, some of which
are antique structures, several hospitals, a theatre, and a .
custom-house. There are manufactures of silk and a valu-
able oyster-fishery. It returns two members to Parliament.
Pop. in 1871, 26,361.
Colchester, a county in the central part of Nova,
Scotia, bordering an inlet of the sea and the Bay of Fundy.
It is intersected by the Nova Scotia Railway. Capital,
Truro. Pop. in 1871, 23,331.
Colchester, a post-village of New London co., Conn.,
28 miles S. E. of Hartford. It has manufactures of India-
rubber and paper, and is the seat of Bacon Academy. Pop.
1321; of Colchester township, 3383.
Colchester, a post-township of Delaware co., N. Y.
Pop. 2652. -
Colchester, a township and post-village of Chittenden
co., Vt. The village is on the Vermont and Canada R. R.,
4 miles N. of Burlington. The township contains the im-
portant village of WINooski (which see). Pop. 3911.
Colchig/eine (C85H42N2O11), an alkaloid prepared fro
colohicine by the action of acids. -
Col/chicine (C37 H30N3011?), a very powerful alkaloid
extracted from all parts of Colchicum autumnale (meadow
saffron). It produces, even in very small doses, violent
vomiting and purging.
Col'chicum, a drug much valued in the treatment of
neuralgic gout and rheumatism and some other diseases.
It is the seed and root of Colchicwm autumnale, or meadow
saffron, a European herb of the order Melanthaceae. It
has sedative, diuretic, cathartic, and diaphoretic properties,
and when given in an overdose is a dangerous poison.
Col’chis [Gr. Koxxts], an ancient province of Asia, was
bounded on the N. by the Caucasus, on the S. by Armenia,
and on the W. by the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea). It was
celebrated in ancient fable and poetry as the place to which
the Argonauts sailed for the golden fleece, and as the home
of Medea. It was noted for its wine and fruits, and was
the native country of the pheasant, which derived its name
from Phasis, a river of Colchis. It is now part of the Rus-
sian dominions. -
Col'cothar Vitri’oli, or Cro’cus Mar’tis, a brown-
ish-red sesquioxide of iron, obtained by the calcination of
copperas (sulphate of iron) in the manufacture of Nord-
hausen sulphuric acid. It is used as a polishing powder.
Cold [Lat. frigus ; Ger. Kälte], the absence or want of
heat. It is scarcely necessary to observe that the distinc-
tion between heat and cold is merely relative. Thus, if air
or any substance coming in contact with the human body
is of a lower temperature than the body, it absorbs heat
from the latter, producing the sensation of cold; if of a
higher temperature, it imparts a feeling of heat or warmth.
The same substance at the same time may give the Sensa-
tion of cold to one person and that of warmth to another,
in case the temperature of the one is much lower than that
of the other person. Water at a certain temperature will
often feel warm to one's hand in winter, while water of the
same temperature will in summer cause the sensation of
cold, because in the former case it is warmer, and in the
latter cooler, than the surface of the body to which it is
applied. But since gases are found to expand Tºoth of
their volume for every increase of one degree F., it has
been inferred that if this law holds good at very low tem-
peratures, the temperature of —458 F., or I-273 C., is an
absolute zero, because at that temperature there would be
no gaseous tension, and no possibility of detecting any
further decrease of heat. The lowest temperature yet re-
corded is — 220 F.
All warm-blooded animals have a power of maintaining
the proper temperature of the body in defiance of external
1018
COLD BATH-COLD WATER.
cold, believed to be mainly due to a process analogous to
combustion, in which carbon and hydrogen taken in food
unite with oxygen derived from the air by respiration. If
the combustible materials are not furnished, or if the sup-
ply of oxygen be deficient, there must be a depression of
temperature. Now, if the temperature of a bird or mammal
(except in the case of hibernating animals) be lowered
about 30° below its normal standard (which in birds ranges
from 108° to 112°, and in mammals from 98° to 102°), the
death of the animal is the result. The symptoms follow-
ing a great depression of the temperature of the body are,
retardation of the circulation of the blood, causing lividity
of the skin, followed by pallor; a peculiar torpor of the
muscular and nervous systems manifests itself in an indis-
position to make any exertion, and in extreme drowsiness.
The respiratory movements become slower, and the loss of
heat goes on with increasing rapidity till death supervenes.
In hibernating animals the power of generating heat
within their own bodies is slight, their temperature nearly
approximating that of the external air, so that it may be
brought down nearly to the freezing-point. At this tem-
perature the vital functions are scarcely perceptible, but
when the temperature is again raised vital activity returns.
The respirations in marmots fall from 500 to 14 in an hour,
and are performed without apparent movement of the
chest walls; the pulse sinks from 150 to 15 beats in a min-
ute; and the animal can with difficulty be aroused from
torpor.
Cold is a powerfully depressing agent, and in certain
conditions is a fruitful cause of disease and death. Its
most obvious effects occur in the freezing of parts of the
body. In such cases the restoration to a normal tempera-
ture must be very gradual, or the frozen part may become
affected by gangrene. It is often, beneficial to place the
frozen part in water near the freezing-point. It is said to
be usual in Russia to rub the part affected with snow. The
effects of cold upon the general system may result in bron-
chitis, pneumonia, or other serious diseases.
Cold Bath, a township of Clarke co., Ark. Pop.,645.
Cold Brook, a township of Warren co., III. P. 1256.
Cold Brook, a post-village of Russia township, Her-
kimer co., N. Y., has several manufactories. Pop. 170.
Cold Creek, or Hume, a post-village of Hume town-
ship, Allegany co., N. Y. Pop. 254.
Col. de la Seigne (sāń), an Alpine pass leading from
Savoy into the Val d'Aosta in Piedmont, is 7 miles W. S. W.
of Mont Blanc. Height, 8422 feet. (See CoI.)
Col/den, a township and post-village of Erie co., N. Y.
The village is 20 miles S. E. of Buffalo. Pop. 1472.
Colden (CADWALADER), lieutenant-governor of the
province of New York from 1761 to 1775, repeatedly act-
ing as governor in the absence of the chief executive, born
in Scotland in 1688, emigrated about 1708 to Pennsylvania,
where he practised medicine, invited to New York in 1718
by Gov. Hunter, was the first surveyor-general of the col-
onies. Died in 1776, of grief, it is said, at witnessing the
destruction caused by the great fire of that year. Among
his works are numerous essays on medical subjects, and
others on natural philosophy, natural history, and the
mathematics. He carried on a long correspondence with
Linnaeus, to whom he sent great numbers of American
plants. Among these the illustrious Swedish botanist
found more than 200 new species, which he described in
the “Acts of the Academy of Sciences” of Upsala in 1743–
44. To a new genus discovered among these plants Lin-
maeus attached.the name Coldenia.
Colden (CADwALADER DAVID), an American lawyer,
born in Queen’s co., Long Island, April 4, 1769, became
mayor of New York in 1818, and a member of Congress in
1822. He wrote a “Life of Robert Fulton.” Died Feb. 7,
1834.
Cold Harbor, a locality in Hanover co., Va., about
10 miles N. E. of Richmond. -
In May, 1864, Gen. Grant, continuing his movement
from Spottsylvania, had successfully crossed the Fifth,
Sixth, and Second corps over the North Anna River at
Jericho Ford and at Chesterfield Bridge, above and below
Lee's army. An attempt to cross direct in his front proved
unsuccessful, and it being discovered that Lee's position
was one of remarkable strength, from which he could be
dislodged only by a loss incommensurate with the advan-
tage to be thus gained, Gen. Grant determined to withdraw
to the N. bank, which was skilfully accomplished on the
might of the 26th of May, and another flank movement
was commenced. The advance was led by two divisions
of cavalry under Gen. Sheridan, and the Sixth corps, Gen.
Wright. Considerable severe fighting was done on the
28th, 29th, and 30th, resulting in the success of the national
arms; and on the 31st, Sheridan, with his two divisions,
* Anºt
occupied Cold Harbor, driving the Confederates from the
place, and maintaining his position until relieved, June 1,
by the Sixth corps and the Eighteenth corps (Gen. W. F.
Smith), which latter had just arrived (viā White House)
from Butler's army on the James River. At 5 P. M. both
Wright and Smith attacked Lee, carrying a good part of
his first line; but subsequent attempts to force him from
his second line were unsuccessful, and the effort was aban-
doned after a loss of 2000 men. The portion of the army
not engaged in the main attack received repeated assaults,
all of which were repulsed with great loss to the enemy.
Ineffectual attempts were made by the Confederates during
the night to regain the ground lost during the day. The 2d
of June was devoted to the redisposition of the army. The
Second corps (Hancock) was moved forward, and placed on
the left of the Sixth, which was resting on the left of the
Eighteenth; the Ninth corps (Burnside) was drawn in to
Bethesda Church, and the Fifth corps (Warren) extended
to the left, to connect with Smith. In executing this oper-
ation both Warren and Burnside sustained attacks, which
were repulsed, with the loss of some prisoners, however.
The morning of June 3d opened with raim, but at 4 A. M.,
the Second, Sixth, and Eighteenth corps furiously assaulted
the Confederates in their intrenchments. Barlow’s and
Gibbons' divisions of the Second corps carried a portion
of the enemy’s line, but were compelled to withdraw before
reinforcements could reach them. An equally gallant and
vigorous assault, though less sanguinary, was also made
by the Sixth and Eighteenth corps, but without success.
Warren, whose line was much extended, was engaged only
with his artillery, while Burnside failed to move at the
time arranged upon, and a later movement, which promised
success, on the left of Lee's line, was recalled, owing to
the failure of the attack on the right; and the army in-
trenched themselves in their position close to the Confed-
erates’ main line of works. The attack lasted but about
half an hour, yet in that short time Grant’s loss was not
less than 7000, while Lee’s loss did not probably exceed
3000. At a later hour in the day an order was given to
renew the attack, but the order was subsequently with-
drawn. An attack was made on Gibbons’ division about
9 P.M., which was repulsed. The total Federal loss at and
around Cold Harbor was upwards of 13,000.
The two armies, remained confronting each other till
June 12, when Grant, moving rapidly, crossed the Chick-
ahominy at the lower crossings, reaching the James River
on the 15th, which was also successfully crossed on pon-
toons and ferry-boats.
Cold Spring, a township and post-village of Shelby
co., Ill. The village is 50 miles S. E. of Springfield. Pop.
of township, 1656. -
Cold Spring, a township of Phelps co., Mo. P. 964.
Cold Spring, a township of Cattaraugus co., .N. Y.,
has manufactures of lumber, shingles, hubs, spokes, etc.
Pop. 835.
Cold Spring, a post-village of Putnam co., N. Y., on
the E. bank of the Hudson and on the Hudson River R. R.,
52 miles N. of New York. It is pleasantly situated among
the Highlands, one mile above West Point. It has five
churches, a library, three public schools, a furnace, and
manufactures of cannon, machinery, brass castings, etc. It
has one weekly newspaper. P. 3086. ED. “RECORDER.”
Cold Spring, a village of Huntingdon township, Suf-
folk co., N. Y., on the E. side of Cold Spring Harbor, has
some manufactures and shipbuilding, and formerly was
a whaling port, but that business is now pursued on only a
small scale. Pop. 750. -
Cold Spring, a township of Lebanon co., Pa. P. 80.
Cold Spring, a post-village, capital of San Jacinto
co., Tex. -
Cold Spring, a post-township of Jefferson co., Wis.
Pop. 740. 8.
Cold/stream, a border-town of Scotland, in Berwick-
shire, on the left bank of the Tweed, 15 miles S. W. of Ber-
wick. The river. is here crossed by a bridge. Near this
place is the famous ford where the English and Scottish
armies formerly crossed the Tweed. Here General Monk
raised the regiment still known as the COLDSTREAM GUARDS.
(which see). Pop. in 1861, 1834.
Coldstream Guards, a regiment in the Foot Guards
or Household Brigade, is the oldest corps in the British
army except the First Foot. It was raised at Coldstream
in ió60 by General Monk, and was first called Monk's
regiment.
Cold Water, a township of Butler co., Ia. Pop. 461.
Cold/water, a city, capital of Branch co., Mich., on
the Coldwater Creek and on the Michigan Southern and
Mansfield Coldwater and Lake Michigan R. R.S., midway
COLD WATER—COLERIDGE.
1019
between Detroit and Chicago. It has seven churches, two
national banks, two newspapers, and manufactures of iron,
wood, oil, flour, etc. There is a park, two libraries, and a
high school. The State school for orphans is in Coldwater.
Pop. 4392; of Coldwater township, 1526.
A. J. ALDRICH, ED. Coldwater “REPUBLICAN.”
Cold Water, a township of Isabella co., Mich. Pop.
151.
Cold Water, a township of Cass co., Mo. Pop. 439.
Cole, a county near the centre of Missouri. Area, 410
square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Missouri
River, and on the S. E. by the Osage. The surface is hilly;
the soil of the river-bottoms is fertile. It is intersected by
the Missouri Pacific R. R. Grain, tobacco, and wool are
raised. Coal is found, and limestone is abundant. Jef-
ferson City is the county-town and the capital of the
State. Pop. 10,292.
Cole, a township of Sebastian co., Ark. Pop. 527.
Cole, a township of Benton co., Mo. Pop. 865.
Cole (THOMAS), a landscape-painter, born in Lancashire,
England, Feb. 1, 1801, was taken to Ohio by his parents
when he was a child. He visited Italy about 1831, and re-
turned to New York in 1832 with several Italian landscapes.
He painted a number of fine views of the Catskill Moun-
tains. Among his other works are four allegorical pictures
of the “Voyage of Life,” a series called “The Course of
Empire,” a “View of Mount Etna,” and a “Dream of Ar-
cadia.” Died at Catskill, N.Y., Feb. 11, 1848. (See his
“Life” by L. L. NoBLE, 1855.)
Colebrook, a township and post-village of Litchfield
co., Conn. The village is 28 miles N. W. of Hartford.
Pop. 1141.
Colebrook, a township and post-village of Coos co.,
N. H. The village is about 50 miles N. of Mount Wash-
ington. It has three churches, school and academy, a
newspaper, five carriage manufactories, and a woollen fac-
tory, besides manufactures of starch, lumber, leather, etc.
P. 1372. ALBERT BARKER, PUB. “NoFTHERN SENTINEL.”
Colebrook, a post-township of Ashtabula co., O. Pop.
800.
Colebrook, a township of Clinton co., Pa. Pop. 332.
Colebrookdale, a township and post-village of Berks
‘co., Pa. The village is about 15 miles E. of Reading. Pop.
of township, 1660. -
Colebrooke, or Grand Falls, a post-village and
port of entry of Victoria co., N. B., near the Great Falls
of the river St. John, which are 180 feet high and very im-
posing. Steamers ply between Colebrooke and St. John
(202 miles) during high water. There is a fine suspension
bridge over the falls. Pop. about 700.
Colebrooke (HENRY THOMAs), an English Orientalist,
born June 15, 1765, went to India in 1782, and was em-
ployed in the civil service of the East India Company. He
became professor of Sanscrit in the College of Fort William.
He published a “Sanscrit Grammar” (1805), a “Dictionary
of the Sanscrit Language” (1808), “Miscellaneous Essays.”
(2 vols., 1837), “On the Sacred Books of the Hindoos” and
“Algebra of the Hindoos.” His works display sound criti-
cal judgment and great learning. Died in London Mar.
10, 1837.
Cole Hill, a township of Chesterfield co., S. C. P. 710.
Coleman, a county in W. Central Texas. Area, 1000
square miles. It is bounded on the S. by Colorado River.
The surface is broken and rocky. Wood and water are
scarce, and grazing is the chief pursuit. Capital, Camp
Colorado. Pop. 347.
Coleman (LYMAN), D.D., an eminent American scholar,
teacher, and author, born at Middlefield, Mass., June 14,
1796, has traveled and studied in Europe and the East,
has been connected with several literary institutions, and
is now (1873) professor in Lafayette College, Easton, Pa.
He has published “Antiquities of the Christian Church”
(1841), “Ancient Christianity” (1852), “Historical Text-
Book and Atlas of Biblical Geography” (1854), “Prelacy
and Ritualism” (1869), and other works.
Coleman’s, a township and village of Edgefield co.,
S. C. The village is about 22 miles N. E. of Edgefield
; 4 miles S. of the Greenville and Columbia R. R. Pop.
243. - -
Colen’so (John WILLIAM), D.D., an English theologian,
born Jan. 24, 1814, graduated at Cambridge in 1836. He
was appointed bishop of Natal in South Africa in 1854.
Among his works is “The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua
Critically Examined” (1862), which was condemned by the
Houses of Convocation. He maintains that some books of
the Old Testament are not divinely inspired. He was de-
clared deposed from his see by his metropolitan, an act
whose validity was denied by the privy council. He has
acquired some distinction as a mathematician.
Coleop/tera [from the Gr. koxe6s, a “sheath,” and
trepôv, a “wing ”], the name of an extensive order of in-
sects, including all those popularly termed beetles, having
four wings; the first pair, of a horny consistency, serve as
defensive coverings to the second pair, which are larger in
size and folded transversely beneath the elytra or wing-
covers when the beetle is at rest. In some species the
membranous wings are wanting, but the elytra are always
present. The head supports two antennae of various forms,
but nearly always consisting of eleven joints. Coleoptera.
have two compound eyes, but no ocelli. The mouth is fit-
ted for gnawing, tearing, or chewing, and exhibits in great
perfection the complicated structure which belongs to the
mouth of all the masticating or mandibulated insects.
The anterior segment of the thorax greatly surpasses in
extent the two other segments; the abdomen is united to
the trunk by a great part of its breadth. The Coleoptera
and their larvae are very voracious, feeding on both animal
and vegetable substances. This is a very numerous order,
being estimated to contain 80,000 species or more.
Colepeper. See CULPEPER.
Colerain', a post-township of Franklin co., Mass. It
has three churches, three cotton-factories, manufactures of
carriages, boxes, castings, chair-stuff, lumber, etc. It is
on the unfinished Deerfield River R. R. Pop. 1742.
Colerain, a township and post-village of Bertie co.,
N. C. The village is on the E. bank of Chowan River, and
100 miles N. of Beaufort. Pop. 1968.
Colerain, a township and post-village of Belmont co.,
0. The village is 8 miles N. of the Ohio Central R. R. and
20 miles S. W. of Steubenville. Pop. 1308.
Colerain, a township of Hamilton co., O., 42 miles S. W.
of Dayton. Pop. 3689.
Colerain, a township of Ross co., O. Pop. 1635.
Colerain, a township of Bedford co., Pa. Pop. 1204.
Colerain, a post-township of Lancaster co., Pa. Pop.
1655.
Coleraine, a seaport-town of Ireland, in the county
of Londonderry, is on the river Bann, 4 miles from its
mouth, and 47 miles N. N. W. of Belfast. Vessels of 200
tons can come up to the town, and steamers ply regularly
between it and Liyerpool and Glasgow. It has a court-
house and a custom-house; also manufactures of fine linen
fabrics called “coleraines,” and of paper, soap, etc. Pop.
in 1871, 6236.
Coleridge (HARTLEY), an English poet, son of Samuel
T. Coleridge, was born near Bristol Sept. 14, 1796. He was a
dreamy, wayward, and eccentric genius. He became a fel-
low of Oriel College in 1818, but he soon lost his fellowship
by his intemperance. He published a volume of admired
poems in 1833. Among his other works is “The Worthies
of Yorkshire and Lancashire” (1835). He had marvellous
conversational powers. Died Jan. 6, 1849.
Coleridge. (HENRY NELSON), a cousin of the above,
was born in 1800. He was, called to the bar in 1826. He
published, besides other works, an “Introduction to the
Study of the Greek Classic Poets” (1830) and “The Table-
Talk of Samuel T. Coleridge” (1835). He edited several
works of his uncle. Died Jan. 26, 1843.
Coleridge (Right Honorable Sir JoHN TAYLOR),D. C. L.,
an English jurist, a nephew of S. T. Coleridge, born at
Tiverton in 1790, educated at Oxford and the Middle Tem-
ple, was called to the bar in 1819, became a serjeant in
1832, judge of the king's bench in 1835, and privy coun-
cillor in 1858. His reputation as a lawyer and literary
critic is high.
Coleridge (SAMUEL TAYLOR), an English poet and
critic, born at Ottery St. Mary, in Devonshire, Oct. 21, 1772,
was a son of the vicar of that parish. In 1791 he entered
Jesus College, Cambridge, where he attained great pro-
ficiency in classical learning. He abruptly quitted Cam-
bridge in 1792, and enlisted in a regiment of dragoons
under the assumed name of Silas Tomken Comberbatch.
His relatives soon procured his discharge from the army.
He visited Bristol in 1794, and became an associate of
Robert Southey and other young men who, like himself,
had adopted democratic and revolutionary ideas. They
formed a project to emigrate to the banks of the Susque-
hanna and to found a “pantisocracy,” in which they pro-
posed to enjoy a community of goods. As they could not
raise money enough for the outfit, they were compelled to
abandon the enterprise. His friend and patron, Joseph
Cottle of Bristol, paid him thirty guineas in advance for a
volume of poems (published in 1796). In 1795 he married
Sarah Fricker, a sister of Southey’s wife, and became a
resident of Nether Stowey (Somersetshire), where he asso-
1020
COLERIDGE–COLLC.
ciated with the poet Wordsworth, and remained nearly
three years. During this period he composed the “Ancient
Mariner” and other poems. Coleridge and Wordsworth
wrote in parternership a collection of “Lyrical Ballads.”
He held Socinian views in this early part of his mature life,
and began to preach in the Unitarian churches, but his suc-
cess as a preacher was hindered by his instability and want
of punctuality. In 1798 he visited Germany with Words-
Worth, and studied at Göttingen. He removed to Keswick,
in the Lake country, in 1800, and resided with Southey and
Wordsworth. The unfriendly critics of the Reviews ap-
plied to these three friends the appellation of “Lake
Poets,” in reference to their local habitation. In 1808 he
lectured on poetry and the fine arts in London, and in 1809
commenced the publication of the “Friend,” a periodical.
His wife and family remained at Keswick, dependent on
Southey, while Coleridge led a wandering life, and formed
many speculative and literary projects, which he failed to
realize. His natural infirmities of character were increased
by the use of opium. He passed many of his later years
in the house of Mr. Gillman at Highgate, near London,
where he began to reside in 1816. Among his works
are “Christabel” (1816), “Biographia Literaria” (1817),
“Zapolya,” a drama (1818), “Aids to Reflection ” (1825),
and “Literary Remains” (1836). “Osorio, a Tragedy”
(first printed in 1873), was the original drama from which
his “Remorse’’ was adapted. He died at Highgate July
25, 1834. (See GILLMAN, “Life of S. T. Coleridge,” 1838;
CoTTLE, “Reminiscences of Coleridge and Southey,” 1847.)
Coleridge (SARA HENRY), the only daughter of the
preceding, was born at Keswick in 1803. She passed many
of her early years in the house of her uncle, Robert Southey,
and was married in 1829 to her cousin, Henry N. Coleridge.
She edited several works of her father, and wrote an ad-
miréd imaginative tale called “Phantasmion”. (1837).
Died May 3, 1852. Her memoirs and letters, edited by her
daughter, were published in 2 vols., 1873.
Coles, a county in S. E. Central Illinois. Area, 550
Square miles. It is intersected by the Kaskaskia and Em-
barras rivers. The surface is nearly level; the soil is fer-
tile. Cattle, graim, tobacco, and wool are raised. It has
manufactures of lumber, carriages, etc. The greater part
of the county is prairie. It is traversed by the Illinois
Central and the St. Louis Alton and Terre Haute R. Rs.
Capital, Charleston. Pop. 25,235.
Cole’s, a township of Prince William co., Va. P. 1279.
Coles (EDWARD), an American statesman, born in Al-
bemarle co., Va., Dec. 15, 1786, was private secretary to
President Madison (1810—16) and minister to Russia (1817–
18). Soon after his return he set free his slaves. He was
governor of Illinois (1823–26). Died at Philadelphia, then
his residence, July 7, 1868. He published a “History of the
Ordinance of 1787.”
Colesville, a post-village and township of Broome co.,
N. Y., on the Susquehanna River and the Albany and Sus-
quehanna R. R. The township has ten churches, numerous
villages, and some manufactures of leather, etc. Pop. 3400.
Col'fax, a county in the E. of Mississippi. Area, about
360 square miles. It is partly bounded on the E. by the
Tombigbee River, and is intersected by the Mobile and
Ohio R. R. It is in one of the finest cotton-regions of the
South. This county was organized since the census of 1870.
Capital, West Point.
Colfax, a county in the E. of Nebraska. Area, 400
square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Platte River,
and intersected by Shell Creek and other streams. The
soil is fertile, producing grain, vegetables, and fruit. Graz-
‘ing is excellent and water-power abundant. It is traversed
by the Union Pacific R.R. Capital, Schuyler. Pop. 1424.
Colfax, a county in the N. E. of New Mexico. Area,
3700 square miles. It is drained by the Canadian River,
which rises in it. The Rocky Mountains extend along the
westerm border. The valleys are fertile. Wool is raised.
Capital, Cimarron. Pop. 1992.
Colfax, a post-village of Placer co., Cal., on the Central
Pacific R. R., 54 miles- N. E. of Sacramento. It has gold-
mines in the vicinity. . : -
Colfax, a post-village of Fremont co., Col., 50 miles S.
of Cañon City. It is in Wet Mountain Park in a fine
farming region. It was settled by a colony of Germans
in 1870. Pop. of colony in 1870, 230. --
Colfax, a township of Champaign co., Ill. Pop. 633.
Colfax, a post-village of Clinton co., Ind., at the junc-
tion of the Indianapolis Bloomington and Western and Lo-
gansport Crawfordsville and South-western R. Rs. P. 187.
Colfax, a township of Dallas co., Ia. Pop. 582.
Colfax, a township of Grundy co., Ia. Pop. 278.
Colfax, a post-village, capital of Grant parish, La., on
Red River about 25 miles N. W. of Alexandria. Pop. 40.
Colfax, a township of Benzie co., Mich. Pop. 71.
Colfax, a township of Huron co., Mich. Pop. 91.
Colfax, a township of Mecosta co., Mich. Pop. 146.
Colfax, a township of Oceana co., Mich. Pop. 77.
Coifax, a township of Wexford co., Mich. Pop. 172.
Colfax, a township of Daviess co., Mo. Pop. 584.
Colfax, a township of De Kalb co., Mo. Pop. 796.
Colfax, a township of Rutherford co., N. C. Pop. 964.
Colfax, a township of Darlington co., S. C. Pop. 1418.
Coifax, a post-village, cap. of Whitman co., Wash. Ter.
Colfax, a township of Dunn co., Wis. Pop. 233.
Colfax (SCHUYLER), an American statesman, born in
the city of New York Mar. 23, 1823, was a grandson of Gen.
William Colfax, who commanded Washington’s life-guards.
In 1836 he removed with his mother, who was then a widow,
to Northern Indiana. He settled at South Bend, and studied
law, and became in 1845 editor of the “ St. Joseph Valley
Register,” a Whig paper issued at South Bend. In 1850 he
was a member of the convention which formed a new con-
stitution for Indiana, and he opposed the clause that pro-
hibited colored men from settling in that State. As a Whig
candidate for Congress he was defeated in 1851, but was
elected in 1854, was six times re-elected, and continued to
represent that district until 1869. In 1856 he made an
eloquent speech in Congress on the subject of the conflict
in Kansas. He was chosen Speaker of the House of Rep-
resentatives in Dec., 1863. During the civil war he was a
friend and confidential adviser of President Lincoln. He
performed a journey across the continent to California in
1865, and was again elected Speaker of the House about the
end of that year. He gained a high reputation as a pre-
siding officer, and was the most popular Speaker of the
|House since Henry Clay. In 1867 he was chosen Speaker
for the third time. In May, 1868, he was nominated as
candidate for the office of Vice-President of the U. S. by the
Republicans, who at the same time nominated Gen. Grant
for the presidency. They were elected in Nov., 1868, re-
ceiving 214 electoral votes out of 294, which was the whole
number. -
Colhoun’ (EDMUND R.), U. S. N., born May 6, 1821, in
Pennsylvania. Entered the navy as a midshipman April 1,
1839, became a passed midshipman in 1845, a lieutenant
in 1861, a commander in 1862, and a captain in 1869. He
served on the E. coast of Mexico during the Mexican war,
commanded the steamer Hunchback at the capture of
Roanoke Island and Newbern, N. C., in the spring of 1862,
and was in several engagements with batteries on Black
Water River, Va., during the fall of that year. In refer-
ence to the fight at Roanoke Island, Commander Murray
in his official report of Feb. 8, 1862, says: “The Hunch-
back, Acting-Lieutenant Colhoun, took a position very
near the batteries, and sustained considerable damage from
the fire of the enemy, which she is now repairing. During
the whole of the engagement, and in spite of her injuries,
she maintained her proximity to the enemy, to his great ap-
parent embarrassment and to the admiration of the other
ships.” And in his report to Rear-Admiral Lee of the
heavy fighting on the Black Water, Lieutenant-Commander
Flusser writes: “I was well supported. Colhoun and
French both did their duty.” He commanded the monitor
Weehawken during the summer and fall of 1863 in her
various engagements with the forts and batteries of Charles-
ton harbor. On the 7th of Sept., 1863, while going into
action, the Weehawken grounded, and in this perilous situ-
ation remained for twenty-four hours, exposed to the fire
of Fort Moultrie. Captain Colhoun’s conduct on this oc-
casion is thus highly commended by Rear-Admiral Dahl-
gren in his report of Sept. 8, 1863: “Captain Colhoun has,
in my opinion, more than compensated for the misfortune
of getting aground by the handsome manner in which he
has retorted upon the enemy, and defended the glorious
flag that floats above him. At 11.30 A. M. I telegraphed to
him, ‘Well done, Weehawken Don’t give up the ship.’
His vessel is now off, and the crews of the other moni-
tors cheered spontaneously as he passed. I commend
Captain Colhoun, his officers, and men to the notice of the
department.” Captain Colhoun was in both the Fort Fisher
fights, and for “his energy, bravery, and untiring zeal” "
was recommended for promotion by Rear-Admiral Porter
in his “ commendatory despatch " of Jan. 28, 1865.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Col’ic [Lat. colica : Fr. colique ; from the Gr. koxikás,
“pertaining to the colon’], a term applied to diseases at-
tended with severe pain of the abdomen; its supposed par-
ticular connection with the large intestine is not always cer-
tain. The disease, anciently called the “colic passion ”
(Latin, colica passio), is now generally believed to be spas-
w

COLIGNY-COLLEGE.
1021
modic in character, and to be caused, at least in part, by
irregular contractions of the muscular coat of the intestines.
This complaint arises from various causes and exhibits dif-
ferent symptoms. It is sometimes attended with constipa-
tion, and ceases when the regular action of the bowels is
restored. A good remedy in such cases is a dose of castor
oil (about one ounce for an adult), with thirty or thirty-
five drops of laudanum. Warm baths and fomentations
are often necessary. When colic resists mild and simple
remedies, medical assistance should be procured, for colic
is closely allied, as a symptom, to several severe and dan-
gerous diseases. Painters’ colic arises from the absorp-
tion of lead into the system, and therefore attacks per-
sons employed in lead-mines or using preparations in
which lead is used. This latter disease is often called colica
Pictonum, or “colic of the Pictones,” the latter being the
ancient name of the inhabitants of Poitou, where this dis-
ease was once common. REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Coligny, de (GASPARD), an eminent French admiral
and Huguenot, was born at Châtillon-sur-Loing Feb. 16,
1517. He served with distinction at the battle of Cérisoles
in 1544, and became admiral of France in 1552. In 1557
he was taken prisoner by the Spaniards at Saint-Quentin.
He was the second in command of the Protestant army in
the civil war which began in 1562, and when the prince of
Condé was killed at Jarnac in 1569 he succeeded him as
commander-in-chief. The war was suspended in 1570 by
a treaty of peace, in which the court acted a treacherous
part. Coligny went to Paris to attend the marriage of
Henry of Navarre in Aug., 1572, and was received with
feigned kindness by Charles IX. He was wounded in the
street by a partisan of the duke of Guise, and was killed,
two days later (Aug. 24), in the general massacre of St.
Bartholomew. (See PáRAULT, “Wie de Coligni;” BRAN-
TôME, “Discours sur l’Amiral de Châtillon;” DUFEY,
“Coligny, Histoire Française,” 4 vols., 1824.)
Coli’ma, a state of the Mexican republic, on the
western coast. Area, 2392 square miles. The interior is
mountainous, the volcano Pico de Colima, being the high-
est point (10,800 feet); the plains are fertile, and. pro-
duce sugar, rice, cacao, cotton, and tobacco. Capital, Coli-
ma. Pop. in 1871, 48,649.
Colima, a town of the Mexican republic, capital of
the state of Colima, is about 250 miles W. of Mexico. It
is situated in a fertile plain. Its port is on the Pacific
Ocean, about 30 miles S. W. of Colima. Pop. 31,000.
Colise'um, or Colosse'um [supposed to have taken
its name from a colossal statue of Nero which stood near
the Flavian Amphitheatre], a name of the Flavian Amphi-
theatre in Rome, now one of the most magnificent ruins in
the world. (See AMPHITHEATRE.)”
Col'Iamer (JACOB), LL.D., an American lawyer and
Senator, born at Troy, N. Y., in 1792. He emigrated to
Vermont in his youth, graduated in 1810 at the University
of Vermont, was admitted to the bar in 1812, and became
eminent in his profession. He was a judge of the su-
preme court of Vermont from 1833 to 1841, was elected a
member of Congress in 1843, 1844, and 1846, and was ap-
pointed postmaster-general by President Taylor in Mar.,
1849. In July, 1850, he resigned in consequence of the
death of Taylor. He was elected a U. S. Senator in 1854,
and re-elected in 1860. Died Nov. 9, 1865.
Collarino. See ASTRAGA.L.
Collat'eral Security, an additional and separate
security given for the repayment of borrowed money or for
the performance of an obligation. A person who borrows
money often gives a promissory note signed by himself, and
deposits in the hands of the lender a note or notes signed by
another party, or other property, such as stocks of corpora-
tions, or even. tangible chattels. These collateral notes or
other items of property are to be returned if the loan is repaid.
Collation [from the Lat. confero, collatum, to “bring
together”]. This is a doctrine of the civil or Roman law
whereby an heir returns property that he has already re-
ceived to the estate under which he claims to receive his
share, so as to make it a part of the fund for distribution,
or, in technical language, of the succession. It resembles
the doctrine of advancement as applied in the common
law of England in case of intestacy. An important rule
is that an heir is not bound to make collation if he does
not choose to share in the estate. The doctrine of colla-
tion is not applied to the case of purchases by an heir for a
valuable consideration, but simply to that portion of the
estate which he has received in advance of his share.
Colleaſta, a post-township of Clay co., Ala. Pop. 411.
CoI’lect [Lat. collecta], a term applied to certain
short prayers in church liturgies adapted to particular
days or occasions, perhaps because of the brevity of such
prayers, the matter of the epistle and gospel being collected
into the collect of the day. The word is thought by some
to have originated from an ancient practice of the minister
collecting the previous devotions into a brief prayer at the
end of the service; accordingly, one of the service-books
of the ancient Catholic Church was called “Collectarium.”
According to others, all Christian assemblies were once
called collecta, which term came to be limited to the pray-
ers offered up in such meetings. Some of the collects used
in the Anglican Church are taken from the old Roman Mis-
sal, and were probably, to a very considerable extent, the
composition of Saint Jerome.
Col'lege [Lat. collegium, an “association,” from collega,
a “partner;” akin to the word colligo, to “collect”]. A
college was originally any association of men for some
common purpose. In ancient Rome there were colleges of
tribunes, of quaestors, and of other officials for political
purposes; of various classes of priests for religious objects;
and of craftsmen in the several departments of industry
for their common advantage. In modern nations the term
college has been applied to organizations for a great variety
of purposes. The most familiar use of the word, aside from
its connection with educational institutions, is in the
phrases “College of Cardinals” at Rome, and “College
of Electors” for President and Vice-President of the U. S.
But for several centuries the name college has been given
almost exclusively to institutions for promoting the higher
education. A distinguished writer thus explains this use
of the name: “A college, in the modern sense of that
word, was an institution which arose within a university—
probably within that of Paris or Oxford first—being in-
tended either as a kind of boarding-school or for the Sup-
port of scholars destitute of means, who were here to live
under particular supervision. By degrees it became more
and more the custom that teachers should be attached to
these establishments. And as they grew in favor they were
resorted to by persons of means who paid for their board;
and this to such a degree that at one time the colleges in-
cluded nearly all the members of the University of Paris.
In the English universities the college may have been first
established by a master, who gathered pupils around him,
for whose board and instruction he provided. As his
scholars grew in number, he associated with himself other
teachers, who thus acquired the name of fellows. Thus it
naturally happened that the government of colleges, even
of those which were founded by the benevolence of pious
persons, was in the hands of a principal called by various
names, such as rector, president, provost, or master, and
of fellows, all of whom were resident within the walls of
the same edifices where the students lived. When chari-
table munificence went so far as to provide for the support
of a greater number of fellows than was needed, some of
them were entrusted, as tutors, with the instruction of the
undergraduates, while others performed various services
within the college or passed a life of learned leisure.”
The two great universities of England are now composed
of several colleges, each of which has an organization very
similar to that above described. Every college has its
separate government, and all are united in the common
government of the university. Nearly all the students of
the university connect themselves with some college, and
most of the instruction is provided by the colleges, but all
degrees are conferred by the university. The original idea
of the college was a community where students should live
together in common, and the provision for their instruction
was, in many cases at least, a later addition. .
When the early settlers of New England founded the
first college in the New World, they took as their mgdel the
institution with which many of them had begome familiar
during their university-life at Oxford.orgCambridge. They
fixed the period of study at four years, and prescribed a
uniform course of studies. A president, a board of fellows,
and a bursar (i.e. treasurer) were to reside at the college,
and to be charged with its government and management.
In the course of time the board of president and fellows
came to exercise government without instruction, and the
fellows ceased to be resident at the college. In this way,
probably, the term “fellow” came to have its peculiar and
inappropriate meaning in connection with the government
of a college. ... . " ' " *** .."
In the external organization of American, colleges there
is a general adherence to one controlling idea. An incor-
poration, usually organized under a special charter, is en-
trusted with the control of the -college property, and is
authorized to appoint all instructors, to make laws and
regulations for the government of the college, and to con-
fer degrees. The members of the corporation are variously
styled fellows, trustees, regents, or managers. In some
cases the board is self-perpetuating, the members being
authorized to select their own associates and successors.
In other cases particularly in the State universities, the
*r
1022
COLLEGE,
appointing power is vested in some branch of the State
government. In others, still, the graduates of the college
elect some fixed portion of the corporation. In many
instances the governor and other State officials are eac-
officio members of the corporation.
The distinction between a college and a university has
always been maintained in England and elsewhere in Eu-
rope, but in the U. S. this distinction has been generally
disregarded, and the more comprehensive name university
has frequently been given to an institution hardly worthy
to be called a college. . Most of the so-called universities
in this country are in no respect different from colleges,
while some colleges might properly claim the appellation
university.
Many of the American colleges, including most of those
founded before the present century, were designed espe-
cially to train men for the ministry. The motto of Har-
vard University clearly shows this design. The course of
study in the earlier colleges was arranged with reference to
this leading purpose. A century ago the studies pursued
were Latin (which was required to be the spoken language
among the students), the Greek Testament, and mathe-
matics of very limited range; while logic, metaphysics,
rhetoric, oratory, and divinity received special attention in
the latter part of the course. In the earlier part of the
eighteenth century this last-mentioned class of studies oc-
cupied the largest portion of the student's time. Towards
the close of that century increasing attention was given to
natural philosophy and astronomy. Modern languages
and physical and political sciences had no place in the
curriculum until several years of the present century had .
passed, and history has been quite recently introduced.
Until about the year 1840, Greek, Latin, and mathematics
formed the principal part of what was termed a liberal ed-
ucation. Chemistry, mineralogy, and geology had gained
a recognition, but were kept chiefly in the background.
About the time referred to there became manifest a grow-
ing dissatisfaction with the established routine of studies,
and many began to inquire whether some improvement
upon that routine was not both desirable and practicable.
All students, whatever might be the variety in their tastes,
their acquirements, or their abilities, were required to pur-
Sue the same unvarying course, and to advance by fixed
classes at a uniform rate of progress. The question began
to be asked whether some variation from the prescribed
routine might not profitably be introduced, and whether it
was expedient for all to pursue the same course, without
regard to their proposed future occupations. The develop-
ment of the physical sciences, and the increasing demand
for engineers and for men able to apply science to the
affairs of practical life, induced many to seek a different
kind of education from that given in the existing colleges.
The studies long pursued were represented as too abstract,
too little connected with the requirements of the present
age. -
Various methods were proposed for meeting the evident
demands of the times. Some favored the transformation
of the existing colleges by substituting new kinds of studies
for those so long pursued. Some proposed to add new stud-
ies to the old in the same institutions. Others would have
parallel courses of study, with liberty to each student to
select from these courses that which most accorded with his
tastes or his proposed occupation. Still others would have
new colleges founded expressly and exclusively, for the
“new education.” Each of these methods except the first
has been practically tried. In no case has the old curricu-
lum been cast aside. It meets the wants of a very large
class of students, and its utility has been too long and too
thoroughly tested. And yet it was no longer sufficient.
New subjects of interesting and profitable study had risen
to notice; new sciences had been created within a half cen-
tury. There was no good reason why these should not
have a recognized place in the arrangements for the higher
education. Young men were interested in them, and saw
them to be useful and profitable. The change was inevita-
ble, and it has come forward with increasing power during
the last thirty years.
The change first proposed was that of introducing elect-
ive studies. . The student was to choose among certain
studies such as he preferred. This selection was liable to
disregard system, and the studies chosen in this way could
hardly constitute a course of study. Much knowledge of
the chosen branches might be acquired, but it would hardly
constitute a thorough or liberal education. This kind of
elective system, instead of elevating a college, tended
rather to depress the standard of learning within it, and
to render it less useful to the community, and practically
it did not attract an increasing number of students, as was
anticipated. A system not unlike this was established in
the University of Virginia when it was opened to students
in 1825. This entire freedom in the choice of studies was
a favorite idea of Thomas Jefferson, and the last years of
his life were devoted to the establishment of that univer-
sity, in which his idea should be practically tested. Each
student pursues the studies of one or more of the “schools”
of the university, and continues to do so as long and as far
as he chooses. Degrees are given in each school separately
to those only who pass the prescribed examination. Com-
paratively few of the large number of students take any
degree. The amount of knowledge imparted is doubtless
large, but much of it is in studies which at some colleges
are considered preparatory.
Another method of promoting variety and comprehen-
Siveness in college studies has been that of arranging sev-
eral courses of study in the same institution, and permit-
ting each pupil, after due consideration and with the best
attainable advice, to select that course which is adapted to
his tastes and purposes. It is claimed for this method that
it allows each to study that in which he is interested, and
for which he expects soon to have some practical use, and
that this greater interest and immediate utility will ensure
earnestness and thoroughness of study. At the same time,
as the choice is to be made from among several courses of
study, and not from isolated studies, the education thus
attained is claimed to have a good degree of unity and of
completeness in the chosen department of knowledge. This
method may be regarded as an application to education of
the principle of the division of labor. One essential differ-
ence between the so-called “old” and “new” educations is
that the former lays the principal stress on mental devel-
opment, culture, and discipline, which may afterwards be
directed into such course of active life as shall be chosen,
while the latter undertakes the immediate preparation of
the student for his intended occupation, and makes the ac-
quirement of mental discipline and culture merely an inci-
dental result of the studies proposed. The old way pro-
posed first to discipline the mind, then to teach it to use
its powers; the new way proposes to do both at once—to
acquire the discipline while learning to do, and actually
beginning to do, that which is to occupy the life. This
latter way accords with the natural desire of young men to
enter éarly into the activities and excitements of life. In
the restless onward movement of this New World this way
of preparation for life-work will inevitably attract large
numbers. In the newer States, especially, the impulse is to
do, rather than to spend years in learning to do. Most of
those States have established State universities, the general
government having given to them large tracts of land for
their endowment. But few of these institutions have as
yet become prominent, though their prospective resources,
growth, and influence are full of promise. In these uni-
versities there are usually several projected courses of
study, with the design of providing for all the various edu-
cational wants of the commonwealth. As the institutions
are still young and undeveloped, they have not yet shown
how much they will be able to do. Each of them adopts
its own method of classification and instruction, but all
agree in the endeavor to include a very wide range of
studies. This kind of “university system” has slight re-
semblance to the systems pursued in the universities of
England and Germany. It has grown out of the peculiar-
ities and necessities of the American people, and has been
adopted because it is believed to be suited to their needs.
No well-adapted system can be transferred, ready made,
from one country or age to another. All American col-
leges are modifications of the first college at Cambridge,
but all of them differ from that and from each other. And
so the many young universities endeavor to suit their in-
structions to the present wants of those who resort to
them. The chief of those wants is a speedy and econom-
ical preparation for some active employment. This implies
an almost exclusive attention to what pertains to that em-
ployment. He who proposes to be an engineer studies
engineering, but wastes no time upon Latin or Greek. He
who is to be engaged in mining acquaints himself with
chemistry, geology, mineralogy, and metallurgy. This
attention to some particular department of knowledge is
one of the present peculiarities of technical and scientific
education in this country. As no man can acquire all
knowledge, each becomes a specialist in his own depart-
ment, and no one “takes all knowledge for his province.”
Not only in the newer States, but in the older ones also,
this method is pursued. The older colleges—even the old-
est of all—are swerved from their former courses by this
powerful impulse of the times. . The past four years (since
1869) have witnessed the introduction of extended elective
courses into the ancient university at Cambridge. Nearly
all the older colleges have long given their students a lim-
ited range of elective studies during the last half of their
course. But this recent innovation at Harvard extends
the elective element through three-fourths of the whole
term of study. What the effect will be upon the future
* COLLEGE,
1023
career and influence of that venerable institution it is
yet too soon to affirm. This movement for giving change
and variety to college studies has even reached that very
ancient and conservative institution, the University of
Oxford in England. For generations and centuries classic
learning—i. e. Latin and Greek—has there reigned su-
preme, but this supremacy of the long past has at length
been broken. Early in 1872 the statutes of the university
respecting examinations were amended by the proper au-
thority in such a manner as to include mathematics, natural
science, jurisprudence, modern history, and theology among
the branches in which candidates for honors and degrees
shall be examined, and to give the candidates a wide range
of both subjects and authors in which they may propose
to pass examination. The latitude of election is even
greater than in most American institutions.
Besides the introduction of elective courses of study into
many of the colleges and universities of the U. S., there
have been established other colleges for exclusively scien-
tific and practical studies. Some of these have been or-
ganized as separate departments of existing colleges;
others are wholly distinct from other institutions. Of the
first class, the Sheffield Scientific School, connected with
Yale College, is by common consent the foremost. Of the
second, the agricultural and industrial colleges endowed by
Congressional grants, and established since 1862, are the
most important.
The changes in collegiate studies within thirty years
past are due very largely to the rapid development of the
physical sciences. Material things, their qualities, prop-
erties, and relations, have been studied more thoroughly
and effectively by the present generation than by all that
had gone before. In former times science has been em-
ployed largely upon speculative or purely intellectual sub-
jects. But the science of nature, as distinct from the
Science of man or of mind, now claims the chief attention. .
And yet the older science has never been abandoned.
Vast as is the domain which invites the examination of
the physical scientist, and widely as he may extend his
investigations, there is another domain which they cannot
touch. The new education has asserted its right to recog-
nition, and that right has been conceded; but the old edu-
cation has not been abandoned, and never can be, for the
material world is but a part of that with which human
knowledge is concerned. For the time, physical sciences
are most conspicuous, and they may even appear to super-
sede all other branches of knowledge. New colleges and
universities may give them pre-eminence, and may set aside
old themes of thought and study as obsolete. Relatively,
these sciences will undoubtedly continue to be more im-
portant than in former ages; but the spirit of adaptation
to the changing wants of successive periods, which is now
evident in the oldest and most conservative universities,
will unquestionably adhere to the colleges of the future.
No man can presume to say what develópments of know-
ledge are yet to appear, but whatever' they shall be, the
educated men of coming generations will modify their
views of education in accordance with them. When the
States now young shall have become older, it is reasonable
to believe that increase of wealth and leisure will bring
increased desire for thoroughness and completeness of
knowledge, and that the colleges and universities of those
States will provide for that more perfect education. Times
and opinions will change, and colleges will change with
them. There will be hereafter distinctively American uni-
versities. They will be unlike those of any former time or
country, but will be of and for the American people.
The necessity which now compels scholars to resort to
Europe to complete their studies will not always continue.
The bèginning has already been made of post-graduate
courses of study, in which students shall be encouraged to
perfect themselves in their education, taking the requisite
time therefor, instead of hastening to put their half-
acquired education to practical use and pecuniary profit,
and contenting themselves with a superficial knowledge of
that which time and study would enable them to acquire
thoroughly. The establishment of fellowships for the sup-
port of post-graduate students through a prolonged and
thorough course of study has in it the promise of rich
results to American scholarship in future generations.
There have been very marked changes in the government
and discipline of colleges since the beginning was made at
Cambridge in 1636. At first, as was inevitable, the mode
of governing them was an exact imitation of that prevail-
ing in the English universities at the beginning of the
seventeenth century. This mode was but slightly modified
till the Revolution. When the colonies became States, the
change was felt through all their institutions. Until the
Spirit of liberty animated the colonists to shake off their
dependency the fines, the tasks, the bondage of the lower
classes to the higher, and the corporal punishments of
English colleges were retained. The students were doubt-
less younger, on the average, in those early times than now,
but the sentiment of authority was also stronger, and the
practice of severity far more common. It was not uncom-
mon for an offending student to be condemned to have his
ears boxed by the president! The change in this respect
is certainly an improvement. Regularity of attendance is
still secured generally by a system of monitorships for
marking or recording the presence or absence of students
at public exercises. In the so-called university system
attempts are now made to dispense with all such records of
attendance, and to leave each one to follow his own choice
in this matter, on the assumption that a willingness to be
present will control all who have any desire for learning.
The voluntary systems of the Old-World universities are
appealed to as proof that compulsory attendance is unne-
cessary. Whether the altered conditions involved in the
difference of age and mental discipline do not render this
appeal inappropriate, experience will determine.
The custom of recording the degree of merit in each
recitation of every student prevails generally in American
colleges. One of the youngest of the so-called universities
announces its utter rejection of this custom, and its reliance
upon the love of learning-rather than the spirit of emula-
tion, or the desire for college rank and honors, as the lead-
ing motive for scholarship. This, too, is an innovation, the
excellence or defect of which must be decided by experience.
College examinations, from that of candidates for admission
till the final trial of those about to graduate, are now con-
ducted usually in writing, the same test being applied to
an entire class at the same time. The justice of this
method is so obvious that the admissibility of any other
can hardly be considered. And yet the first examination
of this kind in an American college was held not far from
1850.
The question whether women shall not be admitted to all
the privileges of the long-established colleges has of late
excited much interest. That they should have an oppor-
tunity for as thorough and extensive education as the other
sex is now very generally conceded. That they have mental
ability fully equal no teacher of children can doubt. The
establishment of colleges expressly for them, where they
are trained in the highest studies that men pursue, is proof
that their claims to this highest education are practically
admitted. But the question is, Shall they be admitted into
the same colleges with men 2 The original theory of a
college, as a place where students should live together in
common as one family, necessarily excluded them. But
since the present idea of a college is essentially different
from the original ome, there is now a possibility of so mod-
ifying the old colleges as to admit women to their privileges.
The State universities, and some other colleges of recent
origin, provide for their admission. The same instructors,
library, and apparatus can serve for both classes of students
as well as for one. There is a claim of justice upon the
State universities not to limit their benefits to one half of
the people, where all have equal rights. When colleges
were monkish institutions they were necessarily for men
alone. But men and women are associated in all other
periods of life; why not, therefore, while they are receiving
their education ? There must be some differences, for women
cannot be expected to build railroads or to manage coal or
iron mines, but the principal part of education may be the
same for both sexes. The knowledge to be acquired is the
same; the difference is only in certain uses or applications
of it.
The number of students in American colleges, and the
number of institutions to which that name may properly
be given, it is not easy to ascertain. Below is given a
carefully prepared list of colleges. A perfectly accurate
list has been repeatedly attempted, but never secured.
The number of students in some colleges includes those in
preparatory departments, who are not properly college
students. The number who propose to receive the degree
of Bachelor of Arts, according to the usage of former
times, is relatively smaller than it was a generation or two
ago. The changes in the studies and the objects of study
within a few years—of which this article has given a brief
outline—explains this admitted fact. The students have
chosen a different course, because the times have demanded
it. They have done what was set before them to be done.
There is no less devotion to learning now than in former
times, but a different kind of learning is required of many.
Knowledge is wider and deeper and more various than in
any previous age, and is destined to grasp truths and prin-
ciples yet unthought of American colleges will hold fast
all old truths, and will welcome and appropriate and utilize
all that is new as fast and as far as it is proved to be truth.
All kinds of truth will be accepted, for all truths in their
foundation and their origin are one.
JoHN G. BAIRD Asst. Sec. Conn. Board of Education.
º

1024
COLLEGE.
TABLE T.—Colleges of the U. S. tncorporated and empowered by Charter to confer Degrees in Arts.
Organ-
{}
NAMI. Location. Denomination. ized. President.
University of Alabama....... ........, |Tuscaloosa, Ala........... . | None .................... 1831 || Carlos G. Smith, M. D., LL.D.
Howard College........................ . Marion, “ ............ Baptist ................. 1837 Col. J. T. Murfee.
Alabama Agric. & Mech. College. Auburn, “. ...... e e s tº s s I e º we s a dº tº tº º tº e s tº e º e º º * @ & & tº ſº e g º ºs J. T. Ticknor.
Southern University.................... Greensborough, Ala...... Meth. Episcopal..... . ...... Rev. A. S. Andrews, D. D.
Talladega College........................ Talladega, “. ...... Am. Miss. Ass........ 1869 A. A. Safford (Prin.).
St. John's College........................ Tittle Rock, Ark.......... • Masonic................ 1857 | O. C. Gray, A. M.
Cane Hill College........................ Boonsborough, Ark...... Cum. Presbyterian. 1868 Rev. F. R. Earle, A. M.
University of California............... Berkeley, Cal............. tº º tate .................... 1855 Daniel C. Gilman, A. M.
Pacific Methodist College............. Santa Rosa, Cal............ Meth. Epis, South. 1861 | A. L. Fitzgerald, A. M.
University College....................... San Francisco, Cal........ Presbyterian.......... 1859 Rev. Wm. Alexander, D.D.
University of the Pacific.............. San José, “........ Meth. Episcopal..... 1852 | Rev. A. S. Gibbons, A. M.
St. Augustine College.................. Benicia, “........ Prot. Episcopal...... 1868 || Rev. William P. Tucker, A. M.
San Rafael College...................... San Rafael, “........ . ............................ 1869 || Alfred Bates.
Sonoma College......... & is tº * * * 9 s tº e º 'º g tº e < e & Sonoma, “........ . ............................ 1858 Rev. W. N. Cunningham.
College of California................... Vacaville, “........ Baptist................. . 1870 || M. Baily, A. M.
Petaluma College........................ Petaluma, “........ “ .................. 1866 Mark Baily, A. M.
Hesperian College....................... Woodland, “........ Christian .............. . ...... J. N. Pendegast.
Colorado College......................... Golden City, Col. -
Yale College New Haven, Conn........ Congregational...... 1700 | Rev. Noah Porter, D. D., LL.D.
Wesleyan University.................. Middletown, “......... . | Meth. Episcopal..... 1831 || Rev. J. Cummings, D. D., LL.D.
Trinity College........................... Hartford, “........ ... | Prot. Episcopal...... 1823 Rev. T. R. Pynchon, D. D.
Brandywine College..................... Brandywine, Del.
Delaware ºft College...... | Newark, &C. 1833
Delaware College........................ * Newark, “.......... State .................... 1870 | William H. Purnell, A. M.
Emory College tº º Oxford, Ga................... Meth. Epis., South. 1838 Rev. O. L. Smith, D. D.
University of Georgia.................. Athens, “................... State .................... 1801 || Rev. A. A. Lipscomb, D. D., LL.D.
Mercer University....................... Macon, “.................. • | Baptist.................. 1838 : Rev. A. J. Battle, D. D.
Oglethorpe University.................. Atlanta, “................. ... | Presbyterian ......... 1835 | Rev. David Wills, D. D.
Marshall College......................... Griffin, “................... Baptist.................. 1854 || J. M. Bonnell.
Atlanta University (colored)......... Atlanta, “....... - 1869 | E. A. Ware, A. M.
Masonic College.......................... Covington, Ga.
Bowdon College.......................... Bowdon, “.............. None..................... 1856 Rev. F. H. M. Henderson, A. B.
Wheaton College........................ Wheaton, Ill........ tº e e º º e º & Congregational...... 1855 Rev. J. Blanchard, A. M.
Lombard University.................... Galesburg, Ill.............. Universalist........... 1857 | Rev. William Livingston, A. M.
Knox College.............................. {{ “.............. Congregational...... 1841
Abingdon College........................ | Abingdon, “.............. Christian .............. 1855 J. W. Butler, A. M.
Illinois Wesleyan University........ Bloomington, Ill.......... Meth. Episcopal..... 1857 Rev. O. S. Munsell, D. D.
Eureka College........................... Eureka, “......... • | Christian .............. 1852 A. M. Weston (acting).
Illinois Soldiers' College.............. Fulton, {{ - I867 L. H. Potter.
North-western University............ Evanston, “......... . | Meth. Episcopal..... 1854 Rev. C. H. Fowler, D.D.
Monmouth College...................... Monmouth, “......... . United Presbyterian | 1856 Rev. David A. Wallace, D.D., LL.D.
Jubilee College........................... Robin's Nest, “.......... JProt. Episcopal...... I847 | Rt. Rev. H. P. Whitehouse.
Illinois College........................... Jacksonville, “.......... Congregational...... 1830 Rev. J. M. Sturtevant, D. D.
Shurtleff College........................ Upper Alton, “.......... Baptist.................. 1835 | Rev. A. A. Kendrick, D. D.
McKendree College..................... Lebanon, “.......... Meth. Episcopal..... 1828 Rev. Robert Allyn, D. D.
Southern Illinois College.............. Carbondale, “ - 1856
Lincoln University...................... Lincoln, £6 ... Cum. Presbyterian. 1866 | Rev. J. C. Bowdon, D. D.
Chicago University..................... Chicago, “......... • | Baptist............ *s e e s a e 1859 || Rev. J. C. Burroughs, D. D., LL.D.
Illinois Industrial University....... Urbana, “...------- ............................ 1868 (J. M. Gregory, LL.D.
Quincy College........................... Quincy, “......... . . Meth. Episcopal..... 1854
Marshall College......................... Henry, {{ 1855
Augustana College...................... Paxton, “......... • | Lutheran .............. 1860 | Rev. T. N. Hasselquist, D.D.
Westfield College........................ Westfield, “......... . U. Breth. in Christ | 1867 | Rev. S. B. Allen, A. M.
Lake Forest College..................... Lake Forest, “
North-west College...................... Naperville, “.......... Evangelical Asso.... 1861 | Rev. A. A. Smith, A. M.
Howard College.
Mendota College.......................... Mendota, “......... • Lutheran............... . ...... Rev. J. W. Corbet, A. M.
Blackburn University.................. Carlinville, “......... • | Presbyterian......... . 1867 Rev. J. W. Baily, D. D.
Freeport College....................‘..... Freeport, “......... * $$. * ee e º se e s is e 1872 Rev. W. D. F. Lumnis, A. M.
Indiana University..................... Bloomington, Ind......... | None .................... 1828 Rev. Cyrus Nutt, D. D.
Indiana Asbury University....... ... Greencastle, “ ......... Meth. Episcopal..... 1835 | Rev. R. Andrews, D. D.
Moore's Hill College.................... Moore's Hill, “ ......... £6 “T ..... 1854 | Rev. F. A. Hester, D. D.
North-western Christian Univ..... Indianapolis, “ ......... Christian............... 1854 Rev. W. F. Black, A. M.
Wabash College........................... Crawfordsville,“ ......... | Presbyterian......... 1834 Rev. Joseph F. Tuttle, D.D.
Union Christian College............... Merom, “ ........ • Christian............... 1858 | Rev. Thomas Holmes, D. D.
Earlham College......................... Near Richmond, Ind..... Friends (Orthodox) 1859 || Joseph Moore, A. M.
Brookville College....................... Brookville, “ ...... Meth. Episcopal..... 1853 Rev. Johns, A. M.
Hartsville University................. . | Hartsville, “ . United Brethren..... 1851 J. W. Scribner, A. M.
Hanover College.......................... Hanover, “. ...... Presbyterian........ . 1853 Rev. G. C. Hickman, D. D.
Rockport College........................ Rockport, “ ...... Meth. Episcopal..... . ...... Rev. Cúlly, A. M.
Purdue College........................... Lafayette, “ ...... tº º 'º e º 'º e º 'º º tº e º e º us tº e º 'º º e º ſº e º 'º. . ...... Richard Owen.
Fort Wayne College..................... Fort Wayne, “ .. Meth. Episcopal..... 1846 | Rev. Levi Beers, A. B.
De Pauwe College........................ New, Albany, “ ...... &ć “ ..... 1850 Rev. E. Rowley, D.D.
Concordia College........................ Fort Wayne, “. ...... Lutheran............... 1850 Rev. W. Sihler, Ph. B.
Salem College............................. Bourbon, “...... Baptist ................ . 1870 || O. W. Miller, A. M.
Howard College.......................... Kokoma, “ ...... None .................... 1869 John O. Hopkins, A. B. (acting).
Simpson Centenary College.......... Indianola, Ia........ & 4 tº e º 'º e Meth. Ppiscopal..... 1867 | Rev. A. Burns, D. D.
Iowa State University.................. Iowa City, “.............. • | None .................... 1860 | Rev. George Thacher, D.D.
Norwegian Lutheran College........ Decorah, “............... Lutheran .............. 1861 | Prof. L. Larsen.
Central University of Iowa.......... Pella, “............... Baptist.................. 1854 Rev. L. A. Dunn.
Cornell College........................... Mount Vernon, Ta......... Meth. Episcopal..... 1857 | Rev. W. F. King, D. D.
Iowa Wesleyan University........... Mount Pleasant, “........ 6& “. ..... 1855 | Rev. John Wheeler, D. D.
Burlington University................. Burlington, “........ Baptist.................. 1853 || L. S. Wortman, A. B. (Prin.).
Griswold College........................ Davenport, “........ Prot. Episcopal...... 1859 || Rev. E. Lounsbery, A. M.
Whittier College......................... Salem, “........ Friends.................. 1867 | Henry Dorland.
Iowa College.............................. Grinnell, “........ Congregational...... 1848 Rev. G. F. Magoun, D. D.
Upper Iowa, University................ Fayette, “........ Meth. Episcopal..... 1858 || Roderick Norton, A. M.
Iowa Lutheran College................ Albion, “........ Lutheran............... 1860
Washington College.
Tabor College............................. Tabor, “........ Congregational...... 1866 Rev. W. M. Brooks, A. M.
Fairfield College.......................... Fairfield, “........ Lutheran............... | 1858 || William Brush, A. M.
Humboldt College....................... Humboldt, “........ None ............. ....... 1869 Rev. S. H. Taft.
Oskaloosa College.......... * * * e º e º e s e e s e e Oskaloosa, “........ Christian ..............
Washburn College....................... Topeka, Kan......... § tº º e º e & Congregational...... 1865 Rev. P. McVicar, D. D.
Baker University........................ Baldwin City, Kan....... Meth. Episcopal..... 1857 | Rev. R. L. Harford, D. D.
State University.......................... Iawrence, “. ....... State........ © g & sº e º 'º º º .... 1864 John Fraser, A. M. .
Irving College............................ Irving, | “....... e
State Agricultural College............ Manhattan, “....... State.............. tº gº tº e º as e 1863 Rev. Jos. Denison, D. D.
Lincoln University...................... Topeka, “ ....... Presbyterian. -
Ottawa College.............. e dº e º 'º e º e º e º º Ottawa, €6. -
| Manhattan College.
Lecompton College.
Hope College.
Highland University................... Highland, “....... Presbyterian.......... 1859 | Rev. T. H. Dinsmore, A. M.
COLLEGE.
1025
TABLE I.—Colleges of the U. S. incorporated and empowered by Charter to confer Degrees in Arts-Continued.
—
NAME. Location. Denomination. º President.
Kentucky University........... ë is tº e º 'º e Lexington, Ky............. Christian .............. 1858 John B. Bowman, A. M. (regent).
Bethel College............................ Russellville, Ky........... Baptist................ ... 1856 | Noah K. Davis, LL.D.
Berea College.............................. . Berea, “........... . ............................ 1858 Rev. E. H. Fairchild.
Georgetown College..................... Georgetown, “........... Baptist.................. 1838 || Rev. B. Manly, D. D.
Centre College............................ Danville, “........... Presbyterian....... ... 1819 O. Beatty, LL.D.
Kentucky College........................ Harrodsburg, “......... ... Christian............... 1858
Shelby College e ºf 8 Shelbyville, “
Augusta College.............. * * * * * * g º is e & Millersburg, “........... Meth. Episcopal.
Bacon College............... • * * * * * * * * * * * * Harrodsburg, “........... . .......................“ 1836
Eminence College....................... Rminence, “........... . ............. e is e e º e º ºs e e = * * * * 1856 |. Frof. W. S. Giltner.
Central University................ ..... Richmond, “........... | Presbyterian......... 1874 Robert L. Breck, D. D. (Chan.).
Centenary College....................... Jackson, La................. Meth. Epis., South. 1825 | Rev. C. G. Andrews, A. M.
Louisiana State University........... Baton Rouge, La........... None ................... . 1860 | Col. D. F. Boyd.
Mount Lebanon University.......... Mount Lebanon, La...... Baptist.................. 1853 -
Straight University..................... New Orleans, “...... Evangelical......... 1869 Rev. J. W. Healey, D. D.
Baton Rouge College................... Baton Rouge, “...... . ........ tº e º º e s e º e º e º a s a º is e º ºs 1838
Franklin College......................... Opelousas, “...... . ............................ I839
Leland University....................... New Orleans, “...... Baptist.................. ------ E. E. S. Taylor, D.D.
Bowdoin College......................... Brunswick, Me............ Congregational...... 1798 || J. L. Chamberlain, LL.D.
Colby University......................... Waterville, “............ Baptist.................. 1820 | Rev. — Robbins, D. D.
Bates College............................. . | Lewiston, “............ Free-Will Baptist... 1863 | Rev. A. B. Cheney, D. D.
State Agricultural College............ Orono, “............ . ............................ 1865 | Rev. Charles F. Allen, D. D.
St. John's College........................ Annapolis, Md.............. State..................... 1789 . James M. Garnett, A. M.
Washington College..................... Chestertown, Md.......... “ --------------....... 1782 R. C. Berkeley, A. M.
St. James's College..................... Washington co., Md..... Prot. Episcopal...... 1842
, West Maryland College............... Westminster, “..... Methodist.............. 1868 Rev. James T. Ward, D. D. ^
Maryland Agricultural College..... Hyattsville, “..... " ............................ 1856 | Rev. Samuel Regester, D. D.
Frederick College........................ Frederick, “..... State..................... 1797 || J. S. Bonsall, A. M.
Williams College........................ Williamstown, Mass..... Congregational...... 1793 P. A. Chadbourne, A. M.
Tuft's College.............................. - College Hill, “. ..... Universalist........... 1855 | Rev. A. A. Miner, D. D.
Amherst College......................... Amherst, “ ..... Congregational...... 1821 | Rev. William A. Stearns, D. D.
Harvard University..................... Cambridge, “. ..... l None .................... 1638 Charles W. Eliot, LL.D.
Agricultural College.................... Amherst, “ ..... State..................... 1870 Col. W. S. Clark.
Olivet College.........* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Olivet, Mich................. Cong. and Presb..... I859 J. H. Hewitt, A. M.
University of Michigan............... Ann Arbor, Mich......... One ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1841 || J. B. Angell, LL.D.
Kalamazoo College...................... Kalamazoo, “ ......... Baptist.................. 1855 Rev. Kendall Brooks, D. D.
Albion College............................ Albion, “ ......... Meth. Episcopal..... 1860 | George B. Jocelyn, D. D.
Hillsdale College........................ Hillsdale, “ ......... F. Baptist.............. . ...... Rev. D. M. Graham, D. D.
Adrian College w Adrian, “ ......... Meth. Episcopal..... 1858 A. H. Lowrie, A. M.
Hope College........... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Holland, &&.
Grand Traverse College............... Benzonia, 6& -
University of Minnesota............... Minneapolis, Minn....... State................... ... 1868 William W. Folwell, A. M.
Hanıline University..................... Red Wing, “ ....... Meth. Episcopal..... 1856 Jabez Brooks, A. M., D. D.
Carleton College.......................... Northfield. “ ....... Congregational...... 1866 Rev. J. W. Strong, D. D.
Mississippi College...................... Clinton, Miss............... Baptist.................. 1851 Rev. Walter Hillman, A. M.
University of Mississippi............. Oxford, “ State..................... 1848 || Gen. Alex. P. Stewart. !
Madison College.......................... Sharon, “ ............... None .................... 1851 | John S. Robinson.
Jefferson College......................... Washington, Miss........ . ............................ 1813
Alcorn University (colored).......... Jackson, “ ........ tº e º e º e º 'º tº e º ſº e º e º is e e e s tº e º a tº a s 1871 || Hon. Henry R. Revels.
Tongaloo University.................... Tongaloo, “. ........ . .........------------------- 1870 H. J. Steele (Prin.).
|University of Missouri................ Columbia, Mo............... State..................... 1840 Daniel Read, LL.D.
Washington University............... St. Louis, “............... None..................... 1857 | Rev. W. G. Eliot, D. D. -
William Jewell College............... Liberty, “............... Baptist.................. 1848 || Rev. Thomas Rambant, S. T. D., LL.D.
Westminster College............. tº e º e º 'º e Fulton, “............... Presbyterian.......... 1852 Rev. J. F. Fisher, D. D. (pro. tem.).
Jefferson City College.................. Jefferson City, Mo........ Prot. Episcopal...... 1867 W. H. D. Hatton.
Lewis College.............................. Glasgow, “........ Meth. Episcopal..... 1867 J. C. Hall, A. M.
Mount Pleasant College............... Mount Pleasant,” ........ Baptist.................. 1855
Christian College....................... . . Canton, “ -...--.. Christian.
Central College........................... Fayette, “........ Meth. Epis., South. 1871 | Rev. J. C. Wills, A. M.
Pardee College............................ Louisiana, &{
College of Missouri..................... Kidder, {{ -
Masonic College.......................... New Palmyra, “ ........ . ......................* * * * * * * 1831
St. Charles College...................... St. Charles, “........ Meth. Episcopal..... 1837
Lindenwood College..................... Near St. Charles,” ........ Presbyterian......... . . I858 French Strother.
McGee College............................ College Mound, “........ Cum. Presbyterian. 1853 Rev. J. B. Mitchell, D. D.
Grand River College.................... Edinburgh, “........ . ............................ 1858 || J. E. Vertrees.
Lincoln College........................... Greenwood, “........ United Presbyterian ...... Rev. M. M. Brown, A. M.
Hannibal College........................ Hannibal, “........ Meth. Epis., South. 1868 Rev. L. Baier, A. M. .
Johnson Male and Female College | Macon City, “........ Meth. Episcopal..... . ...... Rev. E. W. Hall, A. M.
St. Paul's College........................ Palmyra, “........ Prot. Episcopal...... 1848 J. A. Wainwright, A. M., M.D.
Bethel College............................ 46 “........ . ...... ...................... 1848 || Rev. W. B. Corbin.
Nebraska State College................ Nebraska City, Neb...... Prot. Episcopal...... 1863 | Rev. John McNamara, D. D.
Congregational College................ Fontenelle, “. ..... Congregational.
Dartmouth College...................... Hanover, N. H............. " ....... 1770 | Rev. Asa D. Smith, D.D., T.L.D.
College of New Jersey................. Princeton, N. J............ Presbyterian........... 1748 Rev. James McCosh, D.D., Lººp.
Rutgers College........................... New Brunswick, N. J... Reformed............... 1771 Rev. W. H. Campbell, D.D., LL.D.
Burlington College...................... Burlington, “. ... | Prot. Episcopal...... 1846 Rt. Rev. Wm. H. Odenheimer, D. D.
St. Lawrence University............... Canton, N. Y................ Universalist........... 1856 A. G. Gaines (acting).
Alfred University........................ Alfred, “ ................ Seventh-Day Bapt... 1836 | Rev. Jonathan Allen.
Hamilton College........................ Clinton, “ ................ Presbyterian.......... 1812 | Rev. S. Gilman Brown, D. D., LL.D.
University of Rochester............... Rochester, N. Y............ Baptist.................. 1850 | Martin B. Anderson, LL.D. -
Cornell University....................... Ithaca, “ ............ None..................... 1868 Andrew D. White, LL.D.
|Union University........................ Schenectady, N.Y......... “ ..................... 1795 Rev. E. N. Potter, D. D.
University of the City of N. York. New York City, “ ........ “. ..................... 1831 | Rev. Howard Crosby, D.D., LL.D. (Chan.).
Columbia College........................ $% “ “ ........ Prot. Episcopal...... 1754 | F. A. P. Barnard, S.T. D., LL.D.
Hobart College............................ Geneva, “. ...... . ké “ ...... 1824 || Rev. M. Van Rensselaer, D. D.
Madison University..................... Hamilton, “ ........ Baptist.................. 1832 Rev. E. Dodge, D. D., LL.D.
St. Stephen’s College...... .............. Annandale, “ ........ Prot, Episcopal...... 1858 || R. B. Fairbairn, D. D.
College of the City of New York... New York City, “ ........ None..................... 1866 || Alexander S. Webb, LL.D.
Martin Luther College................. Buffalo, “. ........ Lutheran............... | 1853
Syracuse University........ * * * * * * * * * * * * Syracuse, “ ........ Meth. Episcopal..... 1871 | Rev. E. O. IIaven, D. D., LL D. (Chan.).
Wake Forest College.................... Wake Forest, N.C........ Baptist.................. 1833 | Rev. W. W. Wingate, D. D.
Davidson College............... * = e s is e s e is Davidsonville, “ ........ Presbyterian.......... 1837 J. K. Blake (chairman).
TJniversity of North Carolina....... Chapel Hill, “ ........ . ............................ 1795 | Rev. Solomon Pool.
Trinity College........................... Trinity, “ ........ Meth. Epis., South. 1852 Rev. B. Craven, D. D.
Olin College................................ Iredell co., “ ........ . ............................ 1853 || James Southgate.
North Carolina College................ Mount Pleasant, N.C... | Trutheran .............. 1859 || L. A. Bickle, A. M.
Rutherford Male and Female Col. Excelsior, “. ... | None......... * * * * * * * * * * ... 1870 | Rev. R. L. Abernathy, A.M.
Santa Fé University.................... Santa Fé, N. Mex......... Presbyterian......... 1870 | Rev. D. F. McFarland.
Marietta College......................... Marietta, Ohio.............. None .................... 1835 | Rev. Israel W.; Andrews, D. D.
Western Reserve College............ . Hudson, “ .............. “ ................... | | 1827 | Rev. Carroll Cutter, A. M.
Denison University......... e e º e º e s = e º s . . Granville, “ .............. Baptist ............... ... | 1831
Kenyon College.......... tº e º e s is tº e º 'º & ſº tº e º e º Gambier, “ .............. Prot. Episcopal...... 1826 Eli T. Tappan, A. M.
Wittenberg College.................... . Springfield,” ........ ...... Evan. Lutheran...... 1845 | Rev. S. Sprecher, D. D.
65 :
W
1026
COLLEGE,
TABLE I.—Colleges of the U. S. incorporated and empowered by Charter to confer Degrees in Arts.-Continued.
*~.
NAME. Location. Denomination. º President.
Willoughby College........... * = • * * * * * * * Wi **** e - e
Harlem Springs #. llege............... Hººij. Meth. Episcopal..... . ...... L. T. Kirk.
Ohio Wesleyan University............ Delawar.””. | Meth. Eiji. 1867 || Robert H. Hovey, B. S.
Muskingum College..................... New Concord “ ” eth. Episcopal..... 1845 Rev. F. Merrick.
Miami University........................ Oxford ’ “ state ............ . 1837 | Rev. David Paul, A. M.
Oberlin College........................... Öberlin “ . . G ate ................... 1824 (Operations suspended.)
3. University.......................... Athens, . ... Congregational...... ; ##". #: Fairchild, D. D.
tterbein University................... - “ ” | *.!------------. e e e s e e s e e e . H. Scott (acting).
Urbana, Universi º • * * * * e s = e s e º sº e s - - - - Mºille, c. " º: Brethren..... 1847 | Rev. H. A. º, A. M.
Antioch College........................... Yellow Springs ... " i. §nborgian.....; 1851 | Rev. F. Sewall, A. M.
Wilberforce University (colored)... Near Xenia * ... “ . º; 1853
German Wallace College........-----. Rerea, 3. tº " i.e." h: Episcºpal | 1836 ºf Rev. R. A. Payne, D.D.
Xenia College............................. Xenia. . « " eth. Episcºpal..., | };} | William Nast, D.D.
Mount Union College.................. Mount Union $6 &ć . …, | #39 || William Smith, A.M.
Farmers’ College........................ College Hiii,” “... “ ... “ 1858 || O. N. Hartshorn, LL.D.
#eidelberg Cofiege...................... Tiffin 3. “ ... | Ref ©e 1846 Charles D. Curtiss.
Richmond College................ Richmond « " §. ormed............... 1850 G. W. Willard, D. D.
Baldwin University.................. Berea 5. . ... " Mºis.• * g e º e < * - - - 1835 L. W. Ong, A. M.
University of Wooster................. wooster “ . . p G . t piscopal..... 1856 | Rev. W. D. Godman, D. D.
Franklin College......................... New Athens ... " #: Yººn-g: 1870 | Willis Lord, D. D.
Capitol University..................... Columbus.” c. " ; and Un. Pres. 1825 A. F. Ross, LL.D. .
Buchtel Čollege.......................... Åkron. ' ... " #. º* * * * * * * s e º 'º - a - 185() Rev. W. F. łº,
Hiram College............................ | Hiram. “ ” §.alist........... 1873 | S. H. McCollester, A. M.
Ohio Central College................. iberia." $6 §. e e s e s = ::::::::: 1866 B. A. Hinsdale, A. M.
*one-studyº University.............. Scio 3. &&. Kºº. * * * * * * | E. F. Reid.
Pacific University....................... Forest Grove, or......... eth. Episcopal..... 1859 || A. D. Lee, A. M.
Sublimity College....................... | Sublimity," ' " ........ inited Brethren. 1859 | Rey; ; H. Marsh, D.D.
Oregon College........................... Oregon Čity ... … º #: t rethren.... 1858 J. H. Garrison.
Willamette University • * * * * * * * * * * * * - - - Šalem 3. ,, ......... ;: ɺis * * * > e º e º - - - - 1850 George C. Chandler, D. D.
º Čollege........................ Monmouth, ... -------. • eth. Episcopal..... 1851 # #9. #. M.
Haverford College..................... ºrawa B.A..." . . ;----------- 'K....... 3.3% . F. Campbell.
Lehigh §§............... Yº. d, Penn. ; : (Orthodox). 1833 | Samuel J. Gummere, A. M.
Baptist University..................... ... Lewisburg 5 . ... i. t º e e º 'º - - 1866 Henry Coppée, LL.D. -
Muhlenberg College.................... Alientown. “ ” #. ............. . 1847 | Rey. J. R. L9ómis, LL.D.
Pennsylvania College....... ........... Gettysburg “ ” utheran............... 1848 Rev. F. A. Muhlenbgrg, D. D.
Westminster College.................... winnington $s UnitedPresbyterian 1832 |Milton Valentine, D.D.
Alleghany College....................... Meadviſie.” && *...*. yterian | 1:2 . . . ſelers.
}...; University................... * - Pittsburg, &&. §. piscopal..... i; §. º D. D.
Franklin and Marshall College..... I La º « " ... .............” * eorge Woods, LL.D.
Moravian College and T.; €111. #. « " . man Reformed... 1853 Rev. J. W. Nevin, D. D.
wº | | Carisie,” * ... |}|...";... #|#º S. T. D.
ashington and Jefferson College. Washi c. " '....: 4 - e - e. eV. J. A. Micoauley,
Lincoln Universi º }. . ... Presbyterian.......... 1802 | Rev. G. P. Hays, D.D.
Waynesburg College.................... Waynesburg 3. « " C EPresb ... •:----- 1853 | Rev. J. N. Rendall, D. D.
Andalusia College...................... ... Andalusia 3. « " }. ; yterian. 1850 A. B. Miller, D. D. .
Lebanon Valley College.............. Annville, “ . #. ted É. gº º ºs - - - 1861 Rev. H. T. Wells, LL.D.
Lafayette College........................ faston." “ . | F 11 i. t rethren..... 1866 H.; Hammond, A.M.;
University of Pennsylvania....... • * Philadelphia c. " R. yterian.......... 1831 || William G. Cattell, D.D.
Agricultural College................... Ag. Coll. P Ö c. " ºne..................... 1749. C. J. Stillé, LL.D. (Provost).
Swarthmore College.................... Swarthmore te ... " Fri is YHicks * * * * - - 1859 Rev. James Calder, D. D.
Mercersburg College.................... Mercersburg c. " #.Il ClS § icksite)... 1869 | E. H. Magill, A. M. -
Palatinate College....................... Myerstown.” &&. §. orine feformed. 1865 Rev. E. G. Higbee, D. D.
tºº College..................... Philadelphia, &ć erman Reformed... . ..... . Rev. H. J. Wickes, A. M.
rsinus College........................... * G& * -
Brown university* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * #. R. I e e e . Reformed. 1870 | Rev. J. H. A. Bomberger.’
Erskine College........................... iſſue west, Š, Č....... © tº º º º * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 1765 Rev. E. G. Robinson, D. D., LL.D.
Newberry College........................ waihalia.’ “ .......... futhe ºº::…....... * | * * * * * * James Boyce. . * *
University of South Carolina........ Columbia, “ ............ S+21 fa ran..…. 1858 Rev. J. P. Smeltzer, D.D.
Furman University...........---------. Greenville. “ i. tist............. 1806 || Benjamin B. Babbitt, A. M. (Chairman).
College of Charleston.................. Charleston. “ . ............ N ptlst. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1851 | James C. Furman, D. D.
Wofford College Spartanburg S G * - - - - - - - - Kºi..' & e º 'º - - - - - 1789 | N. R. Middleton.
Claflin University (colored)....... ... Orangeburg “.…........ i. #; South. 1853 || A. M. Shipp, D.D.
Maryville College........................ Maryville *Fenn........... i. sºvt pistop al..... 1869 || Rev. A. Webster, D. D.
Cumberland University............... i.ebanon.” "......... 5. #jºi. 1819 || Rev. P. M. Bartlett, D. D.
Iºast Tennessee University............ fºnoxviiie. “ ........... N m. Presbyterian. 1842 | B. W. McDonnold, D.D., LL.D..
Šºći. sº ſº |*|†: #|###!'s º S. º, D.
reenville and Tusculum Colle - «» Gr :::: “ ” p............ :------------. 3) - lºgy IłłI 1%ll].).
Union University................... sº º Tenn • * * * * * ; * e e g º e º e º - . 1868 Rev. W. S. Doak, A. M.
East Tennessee Wesleyan Univ..... Athens ,-º'-...... ;" Episcopa i. 1848 Rev. Charles Manly, D. D. .
Central Tennessee College (colored) Nashville . .” Meth. Episcºpal..., | 1861 J.A. Pean, A.M.
Mossy Creek College.................... Mossy Greek . … Baptist ..... | 1866 | Rev. John Braden, A. M.
University of the South............ ... Sewanee , , … #."; e e s e s is is tº e s e º 'º - . 1871 º
Bethel College............................. McKenzie . … 5. • #.al:..... 1868 Gen. J. Gorgas (Vice-Chan.).
Fisk University (colored)............. Nashville 3. . . … N. resbyterian.
West Tennessee College............ ... Jackson 3. . … one..................... 1867 A. K. Spence, A. M. (acting).
ſº fronton, “ ...... iMºth. Episcopal." | " Rev. E. L. Patten, A. M.
ing College.............................. Bristol ... “ fresºvºi. o - -
Jonesborough • e º s e 3. ... “ resbyterian......... . | 1868 Rev. J. D. Tadlock.
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::... ¥º #|º
Baylor University............. º: 2 *.......... nººn..…. €W. J. J. SIl CéW €l".
W . tº. • * * * * * * ...: Hºendence, . … & º Baptist. © tº ºn tº tº v c tº gº º e º 'º - w 1846 W. Carey Crane, D. D.
Masonic College....................... • * tº Berton &&. • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 1857 | Rufus C. Burleson D. D.
Rutersville College...................... opeiousas £6
º 3. - - - - - - - - - º º tº e = e º 'º - - - - • * * Gäiveston, &ć
ranama College........................ oli $6 -
Henderson § £e... . . . . . . . tº $ tº e º e º 'º e º 'º - e. º .son. “ . . ........ ...................... 1852 || J. E. C. Doremus, D. D.
University of Deseret.................. saitiaire, Utah............ fatterijay Saints. 1871 G. H. Gould.
Middlebury College..................... Middlebury vi. Con er-Day Saints... 1850 | John R. Park, M. D.
State University....................... ... Burlington ; : "...........: gº * - - - - - 1797
Norwich University (military)...... | Northfield , , ............ Pr ºśī. 1801 || M. H. Buckham, A.M.
Richmond College........... … Fichmond va............ B º º - - - - - . 1834 Rev. M. Douglass, D. D.
Randolph-Macon College............. Ashland. .............. i.#"; tº º e º 'º e < * - - - - 1844 B. Puryear, A. M.
' | Roanoke College......................... salem.” “....... ... i. . sºpis, South. 1832 Rev. J. A. Puncan, D.D.
Emory and Henry College............ fimory ... “ #.";* * * v e º 'º e s sº º 4 tº 1852 | Rey, D.F. Bittle, D. D.
Hampden-Sidney College............. Princé'Edward co., Va. #. bvt p; South. 1838 E. W. Wiley, D.D.
washington and Lee University.... Lexington ... ." esbyterian.......... 1775 J. M. P. Atkinson, D. D.
University of Virginia......... * * * * * * * * Charlottesville “. . state............ 1871 Gen. G. W. Custis Lee.
College of William and Mary....... Williamsburg * , « . i. finiscopai. ... 1824 |Q. S. Venable, LL.D.
Virginia. Ag. and Mech. College.... Blacksburg 3. « " Ot. Episcopal...... 1693 Benjamin S. Ewell.
Alleghany College....................... Blue sulphur . ... " Baptist. e e º 'º e º 'º e & Q & , 1872 || C. L. C. Minor.
Stover College Harper's ferry “ ” #. wāīāś." I854
Rector College......................... ... Pruntytown 9 « " †† in Baptist.
W. College.................. ... wytheviſie,” . . . 1839 Rev. E. W. McDonald
€8 II" ini º * g * •- J ---va-va was... • - - - - - - - - - - º e º 'º e s is .*W* W - w e CIDOI 18. Cis
ginia University.......... ... | Morgantown, W. Wa...... I State..................... I l867 Rev. A. Martin, D. D.
COLLEGE–COLLEGE HILL.
1027
TABLE I.—Colleges of the U. S. incorporated and empowered-by Charter to confer Degrees in Arts.-Continued.
NAME. Location. Denomination. º President.
Bethany College Bethany, W. Va........... • | Christian......... © e º tº $ tº 1841 || W. K. Pendleton.
Marshall College......................... Long Lane, W. Wa.
Western Virginia College............. Flemington, “ ........ Free-Will Baptist... 1868 Rev. W. Colegrove, A. M.
Washington University............. ... Seattle, Wash. Ter........ ............................ 1868 E. K. Hill.
University of Wisconsin............... Madison, Wis - State 1848 Rev. J. W. Twombly, D. D.
Galesville University........... • * * * * * * * Galesville, “.......... ..... | Meth. Episcopal..... 1855 | Rev. Harrison Gilliland, D. D.
Wayland University......... • * * * * * * ..... Beaver Dam, Wis Baptist 1854 A. S. Hutchens.
Beloit College Beloit, “......... Congregational...... 1847 || Aaron L. Chapin, D. D.
Carroll College. Waukesha, “........ . | Presbyterian.......... 1846 W. L. Rankin, A. M.
Lawrence University................... Appleton, - “....... ... Meth. Episcopal..... 1849 || George M. Steele, D. D.
Milton College........................... ., Milton, “........ . | Seventh-Day Baptist 1867 Rev. W. C. Whitford, A. M.
North-western University............. Watertown, “......... Evan. Lutheran...... 1865 Rev. A. F. Ernst, A. M.
Prairie du Chien College.............. Prairie du Chien, Wis... ...... e e º e º e º 'º - e º 'º e º 'º e - e. .... 1865 W. S. Perry.
Racine College............................ Racine, “... Prot. Episcopal...... 1852 Rev. J. DeKoven, D. D.
Ripon College............................ . Ripon,' “... Congregational...... 1863 | Rev. W. E. Merriman, A. M.
Janesville College.................. ..... Janesville, {{ *
Columbian College...................... . Washington, D.C....... ... Baptist....... tº e º 'º e º º e o 'º e 1822 || J. C. Welling, LL.D.
Howard University (colored)........ &&. “ ......... Congregational...... 1866 Gen. O. O. Howard, LL.D.
National Deaf-Mute College......... $6 “ ......... National............... 1864 E. M. Gallaudet, Ph. D., LL.D.

4.
TABLE II.-Colleges and High Schools in the U. S. directed by the Fathers of the Roman Catholic Church.
College, a township of Knox co., Q. Pop. 926.
NAME. Location. º President.
St. Joseph’s College................ © e - - - - - - - e º & 4 + - - - e º 'º º e º 'º - . Spring Hill, Ala................ - * * * * * * 1829 Rev. J. Montillot, S. J.
St. Andrew's College........................................ Fort Smith, Ark.
St. Mary's College * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * . | San Francisco, Cal.................... 1863 || Brother Justin.
St. Vincent's College......................... * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Los Angeles, “.................... 1867 Rev. James McGill, C. M.
St. Ignatius' College......................................... San Francisco, “.................... 1855 Rev. Joseph Bayma, S. J.
Santa Clara College :- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Santa Clara, “..............* - - - - - 1851 Rev. A. Varsi. •
Franciscan College....... . | Santa Barbara, “ .................... 1868 Rev. J. J. O’Keefe, O. S. F.
College of our Lady of Guadaloupe..................... Santa Inez, “.................... 1844 || Brother Paschal Dovan, O. S. F.
St. Mary's College............................................. Wilmington, Del............... • e e s e e is 1847
Georgetown College......................................... . . Georgetown, D.C..................... 1789 Rev. John Early, S. J.
Gonzaga College............................................... Washington, “ ........ * * * * * * * * * * * * * 1858 Rev. James Clark.
St. Patrick’s College Ruma, Ill.
St. Ignatius' College Chicago, Ill 1870 Rev. F. Coosemans.
St. Viateura College Bourbonnais Grove, Ill............. 1866 | Rev. P. Beaudoin.
St. Aloysius College IEast St. Louis, “............. 1868 Rev. F. H. Zahel, D.D., D. C. L.
Dniversity of Notre Dame . . Notre Dame, Ind...................... 1842 | Rev. A. Lemonnier.
St. Meinrad's College........................................ St. Meinrad, “...................... 1860 | Rev. J. Hobie, O. S. B.
St. Benedict's College • Atchison, Kan.......................... . ...... Very Rev. G. Claristoph, O. S. B.
Topeka College................................................ Topeka, & 4
St. Joseph’s College.......................................... Bardstown, Ken................. ....... | 1819
St. Mary's College............................................ Marion Co., “ ........................ 1821 | Rev. L. Elena, C. R., LL.D.
Cecilian College Cecilian P. O., Ken............... ..... 1860 | H. A. Cecil.
Jefferson College . St. Michael, La.
St. Charles College............................................ Grand Coteau, La................. ..... 1837 Rev. J. Boduit, S. J.
College of the Immaculate Conception.............. . New Orleans, “..................... 1859 Rev. F. Gautrelet, S.J.
St. Joseph’s Day School.................................... Natchitoches, “..................... 1856 | Rev. J. Lee Bezonet.
Calvert College................. New Windsor, Md.............. • e º e º te 1852 A. H. Baker, A. M.
St. Charles College......... Ellicott City, “ .................... 1848 Rev. S. Ferte, D. D.
Mount St. Mary’s College Near Emmetsburg, Md.............. 1808 || Very Rev. J. McCaffery, D. D.
Borromeo College......................................... ... Pikesville, “...... •e a e s is a e 1860 | Rev. E. Q. S. Waldron.
Loyola College............. Baltimore, “.............. 1853 Rev. S. A. Kelly, S. J.
Mount St. Clement's College Ilchester, “.............. 1868 || M. Holans, Rector.
Rock Hill College....... tº $ 4 & © e º e º 'º e º e º e º & © º ºs º dº e º 'º º º º & º e º e º ºs e - . | Ellicott City, “.............. 1857 | Brother Bettelin.
Boston College.......... * * * Boston, Mass 1864 | Rev. Robert Fulton, S. J.
College of the Holy Cross l Worcester, “........................... 1843 Rev. J. B. O'Hagan.
St. Philip's College....... - * Detroit, Mich. -
St. John's College................... • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * St. Joseph, Minn............. tº - e º e º & e is 1867 || Rev. Alexius Edelbrock, O. S. B.
O'Fallon College. -
Pass Christian College Pass Christian, Miss.................. 1866 || Brother Isaiah.
St. Louis University.......................................... St. Louis, Mo........................... 1833 Rev. J. G. Zealand, S. J.
St. Vincent's College........................................ Cape Girardeau, Mo.................. 1844 Rev. A. Verrima.
St. Joseph’s College......................................... . St. Joseph, “.................. 1867 | Brother Agatlho.
College of the Christian Brothers................... ... St. Louis, “.................. 1859 | Brother James.
Seton Hall............................................... & e º e º 'º - South Orange, N. J................... 1856 | Very Rev. M. A. Carrigan, D. D.
San Miguel College.......................................... Santa Fé, N. Mex.
Canisius College............................................... Buffalo, N. Y........................... 1870 Rev. W. Becker, S.J.
St. Bonaventura College................................... • | Allegany, N. Y......................... 1859 Rev. M. Casini, O. S. F.
Seminary of our Lady of Angels . Suspension Bridge, N. Y.
St. Joseph's College.......................................... Buffalo, “ ............ 1862 | Brother Francis.
College of St. Francis Xavier............. . New York City, “ ............ 1847 Rev. H. Hudon, S. J.
St. John's College............................................. Fordham, “............ 1840 Rev. Joseph Shea, S. J.
Manhattan College.......................................... . New York City, “ ............ 1863 Brother Paulian.
St. Joseph’s College - Rhinecliff, “ “......... . ...... Rev. M. J. Scully.
St. John Baptist’s College................................. Brooklyn, “............ 187() Rev. T. J. Landry, C. M.
Mount St. Mary's of the West.......................... . | Near Cincinnati, Ohio............... 1851 | F. J. Pabisch, D. D., LL.D.
St. Xavier College........................................... . Cincinnati, “ ............... 1832 | Leopold Bushart.
St. Louis College............................................. . . Louisville, “ ........ • * * * * * * 1866 F. Hours.
La Salle College Philadelphia, Penn.............'...... 1862 Brother Oliver.
St. Thomas College Bryn Mawr, “ .................. 1846- | Very Rev. Thomas Galberry, O.S.A.
St. Joseph's College......................................... . | Philadelphia, “ .................. I852 Rev. P. J. Blenkinsop.
St. Vincent's College........................................ . Westmoreland co., Penn............ 1846 Rt. Rev. B. Wimmer, 0. S. B.
St. Francis College Loretto, “ ............ 1850 Rev. C. W. Neeson.
St. Mary's College San Antonio, Tex.
St. Mary’s University Galveston, “........ * * * * * * * * * * * ... 1854 || Brother Boniface, C.S.C.
St. Joseph's College A * Brownsville. “....... 9 * * * * * * * * * * * g e 1869 | Rev. P. F. Parisot.
Holy Angels' College...... tº e º 'º e e º a tº e º e º 'º is a e g º use º * @ tº e º 'o e º 'º e º e Vancouver Čity, Wash. Ter........ 1872 | Rev. P. Fr. Hylebos.
Pio Nono College ‘... St. Francis, Wis.............. © e º & & © e s e t 1871 Joseph Salzman, D. D.
St. John's College *: Prairie du Chien, Wis........ ....... 1865 Brother Benedict.
St. John's College............................................ . | Norfolk, Va.
St. Vincent's College Wheeling, W. Wa. ........... • e. e. e. e º sº º 1865 | Rev. A. Louage.
4;
- F. A. P. BARNARD.
Col'lege, a township of Linn co., Ia. Pop. 1468. Butler co., 0., on the Cincinnati and Indianapolis Junction
R.R., 19 miles N.W. of Hamilton, has one weekly newspaper.
College Corner, a post-village of Oxford township, College Hill, a post-village of Hamilton co., O., 6
1028
COLLEGE MOUND–COLLINS.
miles N. of Cincinnati. It is the seat of Farmers’ College
and the Ohio Female College. -
College Mound, a post-village of Chariton township,
Macon co., Mo. It is the seat of McGee College. Pop. 183.
College Point, a post-village of Flushing township,
Queens co., N. Y., has manufactures of India-rubber goods,
etc. It is on Long Island Sound and on the Flushing and
North Side R. R., 11 miles E. of New York. Pop. 3652.
Colle/giants, a sect of Christians in Holland, so called
from their assemblies, which they called “colleges.” They
rejected all creeds, had no regular ministry, and no form
of church government. Their communion was open to all.
The name Rhymsbergers is sometimes given them, from the
town of Rhynsberg, where they had annual meetings.
Col/leton, a county of South Carolina, bordering on
the Atlantic. Area, 1550 square miles. It is intersected by
the Edisto River, and bounded on the S. W. by the Com-
bahee. The surface is a level, alluvial plain; the soil is
mostly fertile. Cotton, rice, and corn are staple crops. It
is intersected by the South Carolina R. R. and the Charles-
ton and Savannah R. R. Cap., Walterborough. P. 25,410.
Colletom (JAMEs), governor and landgrave of South
Carolina (1686–90), called a colonial parliament in 1687,
and proposed radical alterations of the laws. He became
exceedingly unpopular with the High-Church party, and
was impeached and removed from office in 1690, and driven
from the province.
Collet’ta (PIETRO), an Italian historian and general,
born at Naples Jan. 23, 1775. He was a general in the
army of Murat (1812–14), and was minister of war at Naples
in 1820, but became an exile in 1821. He wrote a “History
of the Kingdom of Naples from 1734 to 1825” (1834). Died
at Florence Nov. 11, 1833.
Col'Hey, a post-township of Sullivan co., Pa. Pop. 336.
Col’Iidine (C8H11N), an alkaloid found with many others
in the products of the destructive distillation of bones and
other animal substances, of coal, of quinine, and of cincho-
nine. It is a colorless oily liquid, having an aromatic odor.
Col’lier (HENRY WATKINs), an American judge, born
in Lunenburg co., Va., Jan. 17, 1801, became judge of
the Alabama circuit (1827–37), chief-justice for Alabama.
(1837–49), and governor (1849–53). Died Aug. 28, 1855.
Collier (JEREMY), an English non-juring bishop, born
in Cambridgeshire Sept. 23, 1650. He graduated at Cam-
bridge in 1676, and was ordained a priest in 1677. He was
a zealous Jacobite, and wrote several works against the
government of William III. In 1696 he gave absolution
to Freind and Parkins, who were condemned to death for
treason. A sentence of outlawry was passed against him,
after he had fled to escape prosecution. His chief works
are a “Short View of the Profaneness and Immorality of
the English Stage” (1698), which caused a great commo-
tion, and “Essays on Several Moral. Subjects” (3 vols.,
1697–1705). The “Short View” provoked replies from
Congreve, Vanbrugh, and Dr. Filmer, but the playwrights
were worsted in the contest, and the bellicose tract of the
sturdy moralist shamed the English stage out of its gross-
mess. Died April 26, 1726. -
Collier (JoHN PAYNE), an English critic and antiquary,
born in London Jan. 11, iſ 89. He published in 1820 “The
Poetical Decameron,” and in 1831 a “History of English
Dramatic Poetry to the Time of Shakspeare, and Annals
of the Stage to the Restoration” (3 vols.), which is com-
mended. He also produced an edition of Shakspeare's
works (1844), and “Notes and Emendations to the Text
of Shakspeare’s Plays, from Early Manuscript Corrections
in a Copy of the Folio of 1632” (1852).
Collieries. See MINES AND MINING, by PROF. F. L.
WINTON, E. M.
Coliima/tion [from the Lat. collimo, to “aim "j, Line
of, a term used in astronomy to denote the line which joins
the optical centre of the object-glass of the telescope with
the spider-line, which is designed to mark the middle of
the field, of view in the focus of the eye-glass. The line
of collimation gives the direction of the point in the heavens
at which the telescope aims, and of which the position is
recorded by the obsorver from the readings of the circles of
the instrument. Adjustment for collimation is the process
by which the spider-line in the focus, or (if there are several)
the central line of the system, is brought truly to the optical
axis of the instrument. As there are usually two systems
of lines, collimation may be either vertical or horizontal.
CoI'limators, fixed telescopes, often employed in ob-
servatories to assist in collimating the principal or working
instrument. They are so situated that the working tele-
scope may look directly down the axis (“down the throat”)
of the collimator, the spider-lines of the latter being the
objects observed in the process of collimation.
t
lieutenant after the battle of Bunker Hill (1775).
Collin, a county in the N. of Texas. Area, 870 square
miles. The surface is two-thirds prairie, the rest timber-
land, and nearly all very fertile and well watered. Cotton,
wool, grain, and tobacco are raised. It is traversed by the
Houston and Texas Central R. R. Capital, McKinney.
Pop. 14,013.
Collin d’Harleville (John FRANÇors), a French dram-
atist and poet of much merit, whose works still survive
on the stage, was born May 30, 1755, at Mervoisen, near
Chartres. His first work was a comedy, “The Inconstant,”
performed in 1786. He afterwards produced “The Op-
timist,” “Castles in Spain,” “The Old Bachelor,” “The
Governess,” and many other plays, besides several poems—
one of them entitled “Melpomene and Thalia,” an allegory.
His collected dramatic works form four volumes in 8vo, first
published in 1805. Died at Paris Feb. 24, 1806.
Collin'ear [from the Lat. col (for eon), “with,” and lin-
ea, a “line”]. Two or more figures or systems of points
are collinear when the relation between them is such that
to any point in either system corresponds but one point in
the other or others, while to the several points of a right line
in either system correspond those of a right line in the others.
In establishing such a relation between two plane figures,
four pairs of corresponding points may be chosen arbitra-
rily ; this being done, all other pairs are defined. It is
always possible to give the planes of two collinear figures
such a position that the one, figure shall be the projection
of the other with respect to some centre of projection in
space. The term collinear appears to have originated with
Möbius, in whose “IBarycentric Calculus’’ the nature of
this relation is thoroughly examined. It includes the re-
lations of affinity and similarity, and is identical with the
“homographic * relation as defined by Chasles.
Col’lingwood, a port of Lake Huron, on the S. shore
of Georgian Bay, in Nottawasaga township, Simcoe co.,
Ontario (Canada). It has large manufactures of lumber,
leather, flour, beer, and other commodities; has good schools,
two weekly newspapers, a lighthouse, and a large trade.
Collingwood is the N. terminus of the Northern Railway, 94
miles N. by W. of Toronto, and has regular lines of steam-
ers to various lake ports. Pop. 2829.
Col’lingwood (CUTHBERT), LORD, an English ad-
miral, born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne Sept. 26, 1750, en-
tered the navy in 1761. He was an intimate friend of
Lord Nelson, and was distinguished as a naval tactician;
followed Admiral-Graves to America (1774), and was made
In 1780
he became a post-captain. He took part in the naval
victory which Lord Howe gained over the French in June,
1794, and rendered important services at the battle off
Cape St. Vincent in Feb., 1797. In 1799 he gained the
rank of rear-admiral; in 1804, that of admiral. He was
the second in command at the battle of Trafalgar, Oct.,
1805, and the chief command devolved on him before the
end of the action in consequence of the death of Nelson.
For his part in this victory he was raised to the peerage.
Died at sea, near Minorca, Mar. 7, 1810. \,
Collin'ic Ag’id (H.C6H30), an aromatic acid produced
by the action of oxidizing agents on gelatine and similar
bodies.
Col’Îins, a township of Fayette co., Ala. P. 1173.
Collins, a township of Jackson co., Ala. P. 1520.
Collins, a township of Drew co., Ark. Pop. 463.
Collins, a township of Story co., Ia. Pop. 611.
Collins, a township of McLeod co., Minn. P. 191.
Collins, a township of Erie co., N. Y. At Versailles,
a village partly in this township, is the Thomas Orphan
Asylum, founded in 1864 for Indian children. Pop. of
township, 2100. . . . . . -
Collins, a township of Edgefield co., S. C. Pop. 733.
Collins, a township of Georgetown co., S. C. P. 1440.
Collins (ANTHONY), an able and liberal English writer
on theology, was born in Middlesex June 21, 1676. He was
an intimate friend of John Locke, and was a subtle dispu-
tant. Among his works, which excited much commotion
and were censured by the clergy, are “Priestcraft in Perfec-
tion ” (1709), a “Vindication of the Divine Attributes,”
a “Discourse on Free Thinking” (1713), and a “Discourse
on the Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion”
(1724). Died Dec. 13, 1729.
Collins (ARTHUR), an English antiquarian of great in-
dustry and of high authority, was born in 1682. He was
author of the “Peerage of England” (1709), “Baronetage
of England” (1720), and other works. Died at Battersea
Mar. 16, 1760.
Collins (CHARLEs), D. D., was born in North Yarmouth,
Me., April 17, 1813, and graduated in 1837 at Middletown,
COLLINS—COLM.A.N.
.1029
Conn. He has been distinguished as an educator in the
Methodist denomination, having been president of Emory.
and Henry College, Va., Dickinson College, Pa., and of the
State Female College, Memphis, Tenn. He has been an
effective writer in the periodicals of his denomination, and
is author of a volume entitled “Methodism and Calvinism
Compared.”
Collins (John) was born in 1717, governor of Rhode
Island (1786–89), and a member of the first Congress under
the Constitution. Died in 1795.
Collins (NAPOLEON), U. S. N., born May 4, 1814, at
Madison, Ind., entered the navy as a midshipman Jan. 2,
1834, became a passed midshipman in 1840, a lieutenant
in 1846, a commander in 1862, a captain in 1866, and a
commodore in 1871. He commanded the steamer Anacos-
tia, Potomac flotilla, in the fights with the Aquia Creek
batteries during the summer of 1861, and the gunboat
Unadilla at the battle of Port Royal Nov. 7, 1861. On the
7th of Oct., 1864, in the steam-sloop Wachuset, Com-
mander Collins ran alongside of and captured the pri-
vateer Florida at anchor in the harbor of Bahia, Brazil.
- Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Collins (WILLIAM), an eminent English lyric poet,
born at Chichester Dec. 25, 1720, was educated at Oxford.
He became a resident of London in 1744, and was a friend
of Doctor Johnson. He produced in 1747 an admirable ode
on “The Passions,” and lyric poems, among which are odes
to Mercy and Evening. In 1749 he received a legacy of
#2000 from an uncle. He was subject to melancholy, and
was confined in an asylum in the latter part of his life.
Died in 1756. Among his works is “The Dirge in Cym-
beline.” (See JoHNSON, “Lives of the Poets.”)
Collins (WILLIAM), an English landscape-painter, born
in London Sept. 18, 1787, became a student in the Royal
Academy in 1807. His favorite subjects were familiar and
rural scenes and views on the sea-coast. He was elected a
Royal Academician in 1820, and visited Italy in 1836, after
which he produced several pictures of Italian scenes which
were much admired. Among his works are “Cromer
Sands,” “Prawn-Fishers,” and a “Frost Scene.” Died
Feb. 17, 1847. *
Collins (WILLIAM WILKIE), a novelist, a son of the
preceding, was born in London in 1825. He was first ar-
ticled to a tea-merchant ; then entered Lincoln’s Inn. He
produced in 1848 a “Life of William Collins’ (his father),
and is the author of numerous popular novels remarkable
for their dramatic construction, among which are “Anto-
nina, ’’ (2d ed. 1850), “Basil” (1852), “The Dead Secret”
(1857), “Woman in White” (1859–60), “Armadale’” (1866),
“Man and Wife?” (1870), and the “Lighthouse ’’ and
“Frozen Deep,” dramas.
Col’linsom (PETER), F. R. S., an English merchant and
naturalist, born in Westmoreland Jan. 14, 1693. He lived
in London, and was a member of the Society of Friends.
He promoted botanical science by importing foreign seeds
and plants, and wrote several scientific memoirs. He ren-
dered valuable gratuitous services to the Philadelphia
Library. Died Aug. 11, 1768.
Col/lin’s Store, a township of Madison co., Ala. Pop.
33.
Col'Îinsville, a post-village of Hartford co., Conn.,
on the Farmington River, on a branch of the New Haven
and Northampton R. R., and on the Connecticut Western
R. R. 25 miles W. N. W. of Hartford. It has a large axe-
factory, paper-mills, manufactures of ploughs and cutlery,
and a savings bank.
Collinsville, a post-village of Madison co., III. It is
on the St. Louis Vandalia Terre Haute and Indianapolis
R. R., 11 miles E. by N. of St. Louis. It has two weekly
newspapers. -
Collinsville, a post-village of Milford township, But-
ler co., 0.3 on the Cincinnati Richmond and Chicago R. R.,
II miles N. by W. of Hamilton. Pop. 140. *
Colliſsion [Lat. collisio, from collido, collisum, to
“strike together”], in mechanics, the impact of two bodies,
one or both of which were previously in motion. The laws
of the direct impact of two spherical bodies are deduced
from the principle that the sum of the momenta of the im-
pinging bodies, estimated in a fixed direction along the
line of motion, is not altered by the collision. The velo-
cities of the bodies after impact, however, depend upon the
hardness and elasticity of these bodies. If inelastic and
completely incompressible, they will move after impact as
one body, with a velocity and in a direction which is ascer-
tained by dividing the algebraical sum of their previous mo-
menta by that of their masses. If compressible and not
wholly without elasticity, a certain compression takes place
on collision, and is immediately followed by a more or less
perfect restitution of form, according to the degrees of
elasticity which the bodies possess. In this case the bodies
will not move as one body after collision, but the imping-
ing body will move more slowly than the other, and may
even have the direction of its motion reversed.
Collision, in maritime law. (See RoAD, LAW of THE,
by PROF. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) *
Collo’ dion [from the Gr. koxA68ms, “sticky,” from
kóAAa, “glue”], a clear, colorless, gummy liquid, insoluble
in water or alcohol, but soluble in ether, consisting of
pyroxyline or gun-cotton dissolved in a mixture of alcohol
and ether. When dried, it gives a transparent residue, be-
coming electric by friction, and exploding less readily by
heat, percussion, etc. than ordinary gun-cotton. It is used
principally in photography, though it also finds application
in surgery and medicine for covering wounds to exclude the
air, coating caustic substances, etc. Small quantities of
gun-cotton for the preparation of collodion are made by
immersing cleaned cotton in a solution formed by dissolv-
ing nitrate of potassium in concentrated sulphuric acid.
Larger quantities are made by treating cotton with a mix-
ture of concentrated commercial sulphuric and nitric acids.
Some water is added, in order to cause the formation of the
lower nitro-compounds of cellulose; but if too much water
is added, the cotton dissolves, instead of forming the desired
compound. The operation is conducted at a temperature.
of about 150° F., and great care and judgment are required
throughout the process. After treatment the cotton is
washed with cold water, the use of alkalies for neutralizing
the excess of acid having a bad effect on the quality of the
collodion if it is to be used for photography. The best gun-
cotton for this purpose shows an increase of 25 per cent. in
weight over that of the cotton originally employed. In
making the solution of the gun-cotton, if too much alcohol
is employed the sensitiveness of the film and its capacity for
adhering to glass are impaired; if too little, the film is apt
to contract after sensitizing. Photographers make use of
two kinds of collodion—the “plain ’’ and the “iodized,”
the latter being the plain collodion which has received the
addition of some iodides or bromides, generally the iodides
of cadmium and ammonium. Plain collodion is often of
two kinds—“positive” and “negative,” the pyroxyline for
these being prepared according to a slightly different form-
ula. For the “positive collodion” less water is used in the
preparation of the pyroxyline. -
Small balloons, lighter than those made from gold-beat-
ers’ skin, are sometimes made with collodion. The liquid
is poured into a flask and shaken about until the interior
is completely covered, the ether and alcohol are then evapo-
rated off by a blast directed into the flask. By drawing the
air out of the flask by means of a tube suitably adjusted,
the film is detached, the balloon collapses, and may be
drawn out. It is then distended and dried.
C. F. CHANDLER.
Collot-d’Herbois (JEAN MARIE), a French Jacobin,
born in Paris in 1750, originally a strolling player, was a
member of the Convention, and a partisan of Robespierre,
notorious for his violence and cruelty. He became a mem-
ber of the Committee of Public Safety in 1793, and was sent
to Lyons, where he caused hundreds to be put to death.
In the crisis of the 9th Thermidor, 1794, he acted with the
enemies of Robespierre. In 1795 he was transported to .
Cayenne, where he died Jan. 8, 1796.
Col’lum, a Latin word signifying “neck,” is applied
in botany to that part of the axis of a plant whence the
stem and root diverge. In the beginning it is a space easily
distinguishable, but in the process of time it is externally
obliterated. & -
Col/ly, a township of Bladen co., N. C. Pop. 1220.
Coll/yer (Rev. Rob ERT), an able and eloquent Unitarian
divine and a popular lecturer, born at Keighly, England,
Dec. 8, 1823. In 1847 he came to the U. S., and became a
Methodist preacher. Three years later he embraced Unita-
rian views. Since 1859 he has been pastor of Unity church,
(Chicago.
Col’man, a township of Elmore co., Ala. Pop. 868.
Colman (BENAMIN), D.D., a Congregational divine,
born at Boston, Mass., Oct. 19, 1673, graduated at ILarvard
in 1692. On a passage to England he was taken prisoner
by a French vessel in 1695, but finally visited England,
and returned to America in 1699. He became pastor of the
Brattle street church, Boston (at that time an independent
church), with which he was connected till his death (Aug.
29, 1747).
Colman (GEORGE), an English dramatic author, was
born at Florence, April 28, 1733. He produced in 1760
“Polly Honeycomb,” and in 1761 the “Jealous Wife,”
comedies, and a good metrical translation of . Terence
(1764). In 1777 he became the proprietor of the Hay-

1030
COLMAN–COLOMBIA, UNITED STATES OF.
market Theatre. He wrote and adapted several other
dramas. Died Aug. 14, 1794.—His son, GEORGE CoIMAN,
born Oct. 21, 1762, became director of the Haymarket
Theatre in 1785, and wrote numerous successful comedies
and farces, among which are “John Bull” (1805), “Inkle
and Yarico,” and “The Heir-at-Law.” He published auto-
biographic memoirs, entitled “Random Recollections” (2
vols., 1830). Died Oct. 26, 1836.
Colman (HENRY), an American agricultural writer,
born in Boston Sept. 12, 1785. He was minister of a Uni-
tarian church at Salem, Mass., from 1825 to 1831, and was
afterwards appointed agricultural commissioner for that
State. He visited Europe in 1842, after which he published,
besides other works, “European Agriculture and Rural
Economy.” Died in London Aug. 14, 1849.
Colman (SAMUEL), an American artist, born at Port-
land, Me., in 1832. He ranks high as a painter of Amer-
ican and European landscapes. His first picture was ex-
hibited in 1850.
Col'mar [Lat. Columbarium], a city of Elsass, is finely
situated on the river Lauch, near the base of the Vosges,
36 miles N. N. E. of Strasburg. It is well built, and con-
tains a cathedral built in 1363, a theatre, a college with a
library of 60,000 volumes. The old ramparts have been
converted into boulevards. Colmar has extensive manu-
factures of cotton fabrics, cutlery, paper, hosiery, and rib-
bons. It was an imperial city in the Middle Ages, and
was ceded to France in 1697. Pop. in 1871, 23,045.
Colne, a market-town of England, in Lancashire, is on
a high ridge at the junction of the Midland Railway with
the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, 32 miles N. E. of
Manchester. It has manufactures of woollens, cottons, cali-
coes, and mousselines-de-laine. Coal and limestone abound
in the vicinity. Colne is an ancient town, and many Roman
coins have been found here. Pop. 6315.
Co/lo, a post-village of New Albany township, Story co.,
Ia. It is on the Iowa division of the Chicago and North-
western R. R., 173 miles W. of Clinton. Pop. 226.
Col’ocynth [Gr. koxokvv8ts; Lat. colocynthis], a well-
known purgative medicine, the dried and powdered pulp
of the colocynth gourd, a fruit about the size and color of
an orange, with a smooth, thin, solid rind. Cucumis Colo-
cynthis, the plant which produces it, is nearly allied to the
cucumber.
Africa, and is grown also to some extent in the U. S., es-
pecially by the Shakers. The fruit, when it begins to turn
yellow, is gathered, peeled, and dried quickly. It is chiefly
in the form of “compound extract of colocynth '' that it is
used in medicine. In large doses it is a drastic, irritant
poison. It owes its cathartic properties to a bitter neutral
principle called colocynthin. The seeds of the plant have
no cathartic principle. The extract of colocynth is used
in pills in combination with other purgatives, and fre-
quently with extract of hyoscyamus. In small doses col-
ocynth acts as a safe and useful purgative, and when asso-
ciated with hyoscyamus the latter prevents much of the pain
which usually results from the use of colocynth by itself.
Colocynthin (C56H310282), the bitter principle of
colocynth. It is resolved by the action of acids into colo-
cynthein (C40H54018) and sugar, and is, for this reason,
supposed to be a glucoside.
Colo'gna, a town of Italy, in the province of Verona,
20 miles S. E. of Verona. It has manufactures of silk.
Pop. 6496.
Cologne [Ger. Köln; anc. Oppidum. Ubiorum, after-
wards Colonia Agrippina], a fortified city of Prussia, the
capital of the province of Rhenish Prussia, on the left bank
of the Rhine, 24 miles S. E. of Düsseldorf; lat. 50° 56' N.,
lon. 6° 58' E. It is at the intersection of several important
railways, and is connected with Deutz by a handsome iron
bridge across the river and a bridge of boats. Cologne is
a...fortress of the first rank. It is built in semicircular form
close to the river. The streets are narrow and dirty. Out-
side the walls are fine gardens and promenades. It has an
archbishop's palace, an observatory, a botanic garden, a
public library, a museum, a theatre, an arsenal, with a cu-
rious collection of armor, a seminary for the education of
Catholic clergymen, three gymnasia, and one pro-gymna-
sium, a normal school, and a fine town-house. Here are
several remarkable and ancient churches—viz. that of Saint
Peter, containing a picture of the crucifixion of Saint Peter
painted and presented by Rubens; the church of Saint
Mary, founded about 1000 A. D.; and that of Saint Ursula,
which is said to contain the bones of 11,000 virgins who
were massacred by the Huns. The greatest object of in-
terest is the cathedral, which was founded in 1248, and is
one of the noblest specimens of Gothic architecture in Eu-
rope. It is in the form of a cross, is 510 feet long and 231
feet wide. The towers, when finished, will be about 500
It is common in Southern Europe, Asia, and,
feet high. The construction of this edifice was suspended
by the Reformation. Early in the nineteenth century the
national enthusiasm of the Germans raised large sums of
money to repair and complete it, and Zwirner was appointed
architect of the work. Cologne has extensive manufactures
of silk and woollen fabrics, cotton yarn, velvet, hosiery, lace,
hats, thread, clocks, and eau de cologne. About 1,500,000
bottles of this perfume are annually exported from this
town. It derives also much prosperity from the navigation
of the Rhine, and has an active trade in grain, wine, oil,
etc. Cologne was annexed to the German empire in 870
A. D., and was afterwards one of the most populous and
wealthy cities of the Hanseatic League. The archbishops
of Cologne were princes and electors of the German empire
during several centuries. Pop. in 1871, 129,233.
Cologne, a township and post-village of Mason co.,
West Va. Pop. of township, 1023.
Cologne Water. See EAU DE ColoGNE.
Colo’ma, a post-twp. of El Dorado co., Cal. Pop. 925.
Coloma, a township of Whitesides co., Ill. Pop. 856.
Coloma, a post-township of Waushara co., Wis. Pop.
9.
Colom’bia, United States of, formerly New
Granada, a republic of South America, is bounded on
the N. by the Caribbean Sea and Venezuela, on the E. by
Venezuela, and Brazil, on the S. by Brazil and Ecuador,
and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. The Amazon forms
part of the southern boundary, and the Orinoco flows along
the eastern border of this republic. Area, 357,179 square
miles, but a considerable portion of the border territory is
claimed by Brazil and Venezuela. Pop. in 1864, 2,794,473,
exclusive of the independent Indians, whose number
amounts to about 126,000.
Physical Features.—The most prominent features of this
region are the Andes, three chains of which extend through
the western part. These are called the Cordillera of the
Coast (or Choco), the Central Cordillera or Quindiu Chain,
and the Eastern Cordillera. Between the last and the Quin-
diu Chain lies the broad valley of the Magdalena, which is
separated from the long valley of the Cauca by the same
Quindiu Chain. The highest peak in Colombia is the peak
, of Tolima, which is in lat. 4° 46' N., and rises 18,317 feet
above the level of the sea. Other summits of the central
Cordillera rise above the limits of perpetual snow. These
mountains seriously obstruct the communication between
the sea-coast and the interior. In the south-eastern part
of Colombia occur extensive plains called llanos. The chief
rivers of the interior are the Magdalena and the Cauca,
which flow nearly northward to the Caribbean Sea.
Minerals.-Colombia is rich in mineral resources, though
they have been imperfectly explored. Gold is obtained in
Antioquía and the valley of the Cauca. Platina is found
in the Choco, and silver is said to occur at Marquetones.
Coal is found in the plain of Bogotá.
Climate, Productions, etc.—The climate of the lowlands
is hot, humid, and in some parts unhealthy. The yellow
fever is endemic at Cartagena and other places on the coast.
Torrents of rain, it is said, fall incessantly in the forests of
Darien. The middle regions, called templadas, enjoy a more
temperate and salubrious climate. A large portion of the
country is covered with luxuriant forests, in which are found
the wax-palm and the Cinchona, which yields quinine.
Cottom, rice, sugar-cane, tobacco, cocoa, and tropical fruits
are among the productions of the soil near the coast. Maize
and wheat flourish on the elevated plains of the interior,
but agriculture is generally neglected. . Many cattle and
horses are reared on the llanos. Among the wild animals
are the jaguar, puma, tapir, monkey, alligator, armadillo,
and deer. -
Colombia is divided into nine states—viz. Antioquía,
Bolivar, Boyaca, Cauca, Cundinamarca, Magdalena, Pan-
amá, Santander, and Tolima. Capital, Bogotá. The pres-
ent constitution was adopted May 8, 1863. The legislative
power is vested in two chambers—a house of representatives
and a senate. The executive power is exercised by a pres-
ident elected for a term of two years. The religion of the
state is the Roman Catholic.
History.—The Spaniards planted a colony in 1510 on the
Gulf of Darien. This part of the continent was called New
Granada, and continued to be subject to Spain until 1811,
when it revolted with success. New Granada, Venezuela,
and Ecuador united to form the republic of Colombia, but
the union was dissolved in 1831, when each of these three
states became a separate republic. A civil war or revolu-
tion broke out in 1860 between the Federalists and Lib-
erals, the latter of whom were directed by General Mos-
quera. In Sept., 1861, the name of New Granada was ex-
changed for that of the “United States of Colombia.” by
the congress of the liberal party. A. J. ScHEM.,
coLOMBIC ACID–coLONY.
Colom/bic Acid (C42H46013), the acid contained in co-
lombo root.
Colom/bin, or Colombo Bitter (C21H2207), the ac-
tive principle of colombo root.
Colom/bo, a seaport-town and the capital of Ceylon,
on its W. coast, in lat. 6° 55' N., and lon. 79° 45' E., and
near a rocky headland, the Jovi's eactremum of Ptolemy. It
is fortified and defended by seven batteries, besides several
bastions, etc. The harbor is small, and is only safe during
the S. E. monsoon. The mean temperature is about 80° F.,
and the average annual rainfall is 72.4 inches. Colombo
has a lighthouse, a military hospital, a government-house,
and churches for the English, Dutch, and Portuguese. The
houses are mostly of one story, each having a verandah in
front. Many of the Europeans reside in the suburb Col-
petty. Most of the foreign trade of Ceylon is transacted
at this port. It was occupied by the Portuguese in 1517,
taken by the Dutch in 1603, and conquered in 1796 by the
British, who still possess it. Pop. in 1871, 100,238.
Colombo (REALDO), [Lat., Realdus Columbus], an
Italian anatomist, born at Cremona, succeeded Vesalius as
professor at Padua in 1544. He was the reputed discov-
erer of the pulmonary circulation. He wrote an important
work on anatomy, “De Re Anatomica’’ (1559). Died
about 1576. -
Colombo Root, the root of Cocculus palmatus, a men-
ispermaceous vine from Eastern Africa. It contains colom-
bin, berberine, and colombic acid, starch, coloring-matter,
etc. It is one of the most useful of the mild tonics.
Co/lon [Lat. colon; Gr. KöAov], in anatomy, is that part
of the large intestine which leads from the caecum to the
rectum. In the adult of the human species it is about four
and a half feet long, and consists of four portions—the
right or ascending, the transverse, and the descending colon,
and the sigmoid flexure (so called from its resemblance in
shape to the ancient form of the Greek letter sigma, c for
X). The colon, owing to the peculiar arrangement of its
muscular fibres, consists of a series of pouches, which serve
to detain the contents of the intestine on their way to the
rectum. The colon is provided with numerous glands,
which assist in removing the waste matters from the blood.
It is believed also to have the power to some extent of
digesting food; and it is certain that persons who are un-
able to swallow food have often been kept ålive for a long
time by nourishing liquids thrown into the intestinal canal
by enema.
Colon, a township and post-village of St. Joseph co.,
Mich. The village is on the Michigan Central R. R., 53
miles S. W. of Jackson. It has one weekly newspaper.
Pop. of township, 1504. ED. “ENTERPRISE.”
Colo'na, a township and village of Henry co., Ill.
The village is on the Illinois division of the Chicago Rock
Island and Pacific R. R., 170 miles.W. S. W. of Chicago.
Pop. of township, 1223.
Colomat. See SLAvKRY.
Colonel [from the Fr. colonne, a “column,” i. e. the
chief of a column], the title of the highest officer of a regi-
ment in the armies of the U. S., England, France, and
other countries. The colonel is the officer next higher
than lieutenant-colonel, and next lower than a brigadier-
general. In the British army at the present time the posi-
tion of a colonel is a sinecure, the real active commander
of the regiment being the lieutenant-colonel. Every Brit-
ish regiment has a colonel, who is a general officer, and
whose command is merely honorary, but he receives high
pay, which varies from £500 a year in the infantry of the
line to £1800 a year in the Horse Guards.
Colo/nial Corps, in the British army, are certain
regiments of native troops in the East and the West In-
dies, South and West Africa, etc., which are officered (ex-
cept in Malta) by the British. The native troops of British
India are not included in the colonial corps, being paid
from the Indian revenues, and not from the army estimates.
Col'onization Soci’ety, The Amer’ican, an as-
sociation formed in 1816 for the purpose of transporting
negroes from the U. S. to Africa. Many years earlier,
Samuel Hopkins, D. D., had advocated such an enterprise.
Among the principal founders of the society were Charles
F. Mercer of Virginia, the Rev. Doctor Finley of New
Jersey, and Bishop Meade. The constitution of the society
was adopted at a meeting held in Dec., 1816. In 1820 the
Society sent out a company of eighty-six colonists to
Liberia. Bushrod Washington was the first president of
the Society. They afterwards sent out nearly 10,000 free
colored persons to Liberia, which became in 1847 an inde-
pendent republic. Henry Clay was for many years presi-
dent of the Colonization Society.
Colon/na, the name of a celebrated noble and powerful
1031
Roman family which has produced many eminent generals,
ecclesiastics, cardinals, and authors. This family acquired
distinction as early as the twelfth century. In the suc-
ceeding centuries they were adherents of the Ghibelline
party. Otho Colonna was elected pope in 1417. (See
MARTIN V.) The Colonna palace in Rome is celebrated
for its rich treasures of art. -
Colonna (Fra FRANCESCO), a Dominican monk, born
at Venice about 1449, was professor of theology at Padua,
and author of a work “Hypnerotomachia Poliphili ’’
(1499), a singular mélange of fables, antiquities, and archi-
tecture. Died in 1527. -
Colonna (VITTORIA), a celebrated Italian poetess, a
daughter of the constable of Naples, was born in 1490.
She married in 1507 the marquis of Pescara, afterwards a
famous general killed in battle in 1525. She was eminent
for virtue and beauty, as well as poetical genius. She com-
posed poetical laments on the death of her husband, and
many religious poems (“Rime Spirituali,” 1548). In 1541
she retired into a convent at Orvieto. Died in 1547. “The
rare virtues and consummate talents of this lady,” says
Ballam, “were the theme of all Italy in that brilliant age
of her literature.” (See MRs. HENRY Roscoe, “Vittoria
Colonna : her Life and Poems,” 1868.)
Colonnade [from the It. colonna, a “pillar”], a range
of columns attached to or detached from the body of the
building they are designed to ornament and support.
When it surrounds the building on the exterior, the colon-
nade is called a peristyle; when detached from the general
line and projecting forward, it is called a portico; but when
comprised under the same cornice as the building itself, it
is styled a colonnade.
Col'omy [Lat. colonia, from colonus (from colo, to “till,”
to “cultivate ’’), a “husbandman,” a “settler”], a term de-
noting a settlement formed in a distant region or country
by emigrants who are under the protection and Supreme
government of the mother-country. The British colonies
in Australia and America are practical instances of the
colony in this sense; but there are other dependencies (like
the Indian empire) which deviate more or less from the
true characteristics of a colony. Territories have afforded
profitable residence without being colonies; the most con-
spicuous of this class is the British empire in Hindostan,
| where the British people scarcely hold land or concern them-
selves in agriculture, from which the term colonist is taken.
The Greeks established communities in Asia Minor, Africa,
Italy, and France, for Marseilles was a Greek colony,
founded by the inhabitants of Phocaea about 600 B.C.
The principle of colonial responsibility to a central gov-
ernment was brought to great perfection by the policy of
Rome, that not only every conquered territory, but every
district where citizens settled, should be an integral part
of the empire. There were various grades of colonies—
some where there was the full privilege of Roman citizen-
ship, and others where citizenship was of an inferior grade.
The Italian colonies of the Levant in the Middle Ages bore
some resemblance to those of ancient Rome. The settle-
ments of the barbarians who destroyed the Roman empire
were not colonies, for the tribes were not connected with any
parent state; and the Normans, who spread over Europe at
a later period, were unconnected in the countries where
they settled with the government of the states whence they
migrated. Hardly a trace of the genealogy of the Nor-
mans of England or France can be found anterior to their
settlement in the latter country, so little connection did
they preserve with the country of their ancestors. With
the exception of the Italians in the Levant, the Spanish
and Portuguese were the first among modern Europeans to
establish true colonies. The Spanish monarchs aimed at
the creation of a new empire in America, which was looked
on as the property of the Spanish crown. Other govern-
ments of Europe subsequently colonized America, Africa,
and Asia. The permanent settlement of British colonists
in America, dates from the reign of James I. The settlers
were privileged companies with royal letters-patent, but
practically they were almost independent (with the ex-
ception of those whose charters were resumed by the Crown).
They were largely dissenters seeking refuge from the griev-
ances of the Established Church.
The great advantage of a colony is that it widens the
field of enterprise and gives a larger choice of the means
of livelihood. It is especially an addition to the existing
stock of a very valuable and important kind of raw ma-
terial—viz. land. It is to the agriculturist, then, that it
generally holds out its first inducements. In modern times
penal colonies have been established by several European
nations. (See TRANSPORTATION.) -
Colony, a township of Adams co., Ia. Pop. 190.
Colony, a township and village of Delaware co., Ia.
1032
COLOPHON-COLORADO.
The village is 30 miles W. N. W. of Dubuque.
township, 1400. -
Col'ophon [etymology doubtful] is the name of the
last page of ancient books. The colophon formerly gave
Pop. of
the date, printer’s name, etc., with much of the information
now conveyed on the title-page.
Colophon [Gr. Koxodºv), an ancient Greek city of
Ionia, in Asia Minor, was near the sea-coast, and on the
river Ales or Halesus, about 9 miles N. of Ephesus. It was
one of the seven cities which claimed the honor of being
the native place of Homer. The celebrated philosopher
Xenophanes was born here about 600 B. C. It was also
the native place of the poet Mimmermus. The Colophonian
cavalry had a high reputation. It was anciently famous for
its resin (colophony), which was the product of the noble
pine forests which even now exist near its site. A village
of miserable cabins occupies the site of ancient Colophon.
Col'ophony [Gr. Koxodovía Amrivn—i.e. “Colophonian
resin,” from its place of export, Colophon], the chemical
name of resin of pine, or rosin. (See RESINs, by PROF. C.
F. CHANDLER, PH.D., LL.D.)
Col’or [Lat. color ; Gr. xpóp.aj. Among the various
appearances of external objects is that which depends
solely on the kind of light which those objects reflect or
transmit to the eye. Several other properties, as form,
roughness, Smoothness, etc., may be discerned by the sense
of touch, but color, properly speaking, can be perceived
by the sight alone. For though blind persons are said to
be sometimes able to distinguish certain colors in cloths by
the touch, they only perceive the roughness, harshness,
or other property which is usually imparted to the cloths
by the particular material employed in dyeing, but they
have not any perception of the color itself.
According to the classification of Newton, there are seven
primary colors—viz. red, orange, yellow, green, blue, pur-
ple, and violet, which, when combined together in their
proper proportions, produce white light; but according to
some other eminent authorities (including the celebrated
optician Brewster), the number of primary colors may be
reduced to three—red, yellow, and blue (or green); all the
other colors being in their view produced by different com-
binations of those three elements. Some bodies (certain
kinds of colored glass, for example) appear to be of one
color by reflected and of another by transmitted light. The
cause of the appearance called color may be simply stated
thus: if a body absorbs every other kind of light and re-
flects or transmits red light only, it will appear of a red
color; if it absorbs every kind except yellow light, it will
appear yellow, and so on. Again, if it absorbs nearly all
the rays, reflecting or transmitting scarcely any, it will ap-
pear dark or black; and if the greater part of the light is
absorbed except a little red and a little yellow, the object
will appear of a dark-brown color. (See OPTICS.)
Colora’do, a river of Texas, rises in the high table-
lands in the N. W. part of the State. Its general direction
is south-eastward. It passes by Austin City, Bastrop, and
Columbus, and enters Matagorda Bay near the town of
Matagorda. Total length, estimated at 850 miles. Steam-
boats can ascend it above Austin City.
Colorado, or Rio Colorado (i. e. “Red River”), a
large river of the U. S., rises among the Rocky Mountains
by two branches—namely, Green and Grand rivers—
which unite in Utah about lat. 38° N. It flows generally
south-westward, and passes through the north-western
part of Arizona to the south-eastern border of Nevada. It
afterwards runs nearly Southward, forms the boundary
between Arizona, and California, and enters the head (or
N. end) of the Gulf of California. The entire length, in-
cluding Green River, is estimated at 1200 miles. It is
navigable for small steamboats for 300 miles or more.
Among the most wonderful natural objects in North Amer-
ica is the Great Cañon of the Colorado, between lon. 112°
and 115° W. Here the river flows between walls of rock
which are nearly vertical, and are in some places 6000 feet
high. This cañon is more than 300 miles long.
Colorado, a Territory of the U. S., situated in the cen-
tral belt of States and Territories in the Rocky Mountain
region, lying between the 37th and 41st parallels of N. lat.,
and between the 102d and 109th meridians of W. lon. from
Greenwich. It is bounded on the N. by Wyoming Territory
and Nebraska, E. by Nebraska, and Ransas, S. by the In-
dian Territory and New Mexico, and W. by Utah. Its
area is 104,500 square miles, or 66,880,000 acres, or about
equal to that of the whole of New England and the State
of Kentucky. -
Face of the Country, Geology, Soil, etc.—The Territory
is traversed near its centre, from N. to S., by the main
chain of the Rocky Mountains, whose snow-capped peaks
constitute the watershed of the continent. The mountain-
valleys have an altitude of from 5000 to 8000 feet, while
the highest culminating crests rise to a height of from 11,000
to 15,000 feet above the level of the sea. The other surface
divisions of Colorado are the plains and valleys, and the
parks. The plains embrace the section E. of the Sierra
Madre, being elevated, rolling prairie, rising gradually
from the eastern boundary to the mountains westward,
being well watered by the South Platte and Arkansas rivers
and their tributaries. The soil is fertile, being covered
with rich nutritious grasses, upon which cattle pasture the
year round. Vast herds of buffalo and numerous other
graminivorous animals roam over these plains, existing
upon their grasses; and experiments show that domestic
animals thrive as well upon the indigenous herbage. The
section of the plains lying near the South Platte, in the
north-eastern part, is an iron region abounding in red
hematite ore. Magnetic and hematite ores are also found
in sections of the mountain country, as in the vicinity of
the Golden Gate in Jefferson co., and it is believed that
the mining and manufacture of this metal will soon be ex-
tensive in Colorado, furnishing machinery for mills and
mines, implements for agriculture and the lumber-trade,
and rails for iron roads. In the vicinity of the eastern
foot-hills of the mountains are the principal outcroppings
of the great coal-beds, the strata varying from five to thirty
feet thick, stated by geologists to underlie a large portion
of the plains, sometimes extending eastward nearly to the
Nebraska and Kansas line. This coal is generally of the
variety known as lignite, of excellent quality for household
economy, as well as for manufactures and for railroads:
the mines being already extensively worked in Boulder,
Jefferson, Arapahoe, and Douglas cos., but increased
facilities for transportation are required to develop this
branch of the mineral wealth. A large vein of albertite
coal, the stratum being from ten to twenty feet in thickness,
has recently been discovered on White River in Summit
co., and there are evidences of its extending sixty miles in
one direction and twenty-five in another. It resembles
cannelite, burning with great readiness and intense heat,
and is estimated to contain fifty to sixty gallons of oil to
the ton. The percentage of carbon in this coal is from
58.70 to 59.20, and though very brittlé and crumbling upon
long exposure to the air, it is nearly as hard as anthracite.
. In the southern part of the plains are numerous Mexican
settlers, principally engaged in cattle-herding and agri-
culture, being aided in the latter by irrigation, for which
there are excellent facilities; and the result of its employ-
ment is abundant and certain crops. The soil of the plains
rests upon calcareous rock, and is principally of alluvial
formation, having been washed from the vast granite
mountains rising above their western limits, and contains
elements of great fertility. Near the streams a large pro-
portion of decomposed vegetable matter enters into its
composition, united with ashes and sand; on the plateaus
there is less vegetable deposit, the soil being principally
composed of sandy loam and friable clay. This section of
country is exceedingly well adapted to agriculture; cereals,
vegetables, and fruits being cultivated with a success that
is astonishing in view of the altitude of the surface of the
earth and the scarcity of rain at certain seasons of the
year. The quality of the wheat grown in Colorado is ex-
cellent, and the average yield thirty bushels to the acre,
while fifty, sixty, and even eighty bushels have been grown
on some of the new lands under irrigation. In character
the wheat resembles that of California, more than the Eastern
wheat. The average yield of oats is fifty bushels, and of
barley forty bushels to the acre, and instances are given
of a yield of 100 bushels to the acre of each. The yield
of Indian corn, when irrigated, in the vicinity of the Den-
ver Pacific Railway, is almost beyond belief. Single fields
have yielded, according to the generalland-office report, 1869,
316 bushels to the acre, and 150 to 200 bushels are represent-
ed as an average crop. The vegetables are of great size and
of excellent flavor, and though the yield is slightly less than
in some of the Eastern States, the quality is far superior.
The average yearly precipitation of water in these plains
or valleys is twenty inches, falling principally in the rainy
season of May, June, and July, and in the Snows of winter.
For two months in the year, therefore, irrigation is an ab-
solute necessity for abundant crops, and the farmer in se-
lecting his lands does so with a view to the convenience
with which this artificial means of supplying the requisite
water can be introduced. The construction of acequias or
irrigating canals is performed chiefly with the plough and
scraper, attended with but small expense, the certain abun-
dance of the resulting crops more than repaying the extra
outlay. Acequias thirty miles long, having a fall of four
feet per mile, watering 20,000 acres, have been constructed,
each adjoining proprietor contributing his share towards
their construction and maintenance. In the vicinity of
the Denver Pacific Railway, about the head-waters of the
COLORADO.
1033
South Platte, at Greeley, Evans, and other points, irriga-
tion is practised on a still more extensive scale, and with
the highest success. The present most important resource
of the plains of Colorado is stock-raising, the rich nutri-
tious grasses which abound there furnishing an ample sup-
ply of food to keep the cattle in excellent condition during
the entire year, as the grass, when ripe, dries upon the
stalk, forming hay superior to that prepared by the most
careful curing in the Eastern States. The winters are so
mild that not once in five years is there any necessity for
shelter and the gathering of hay and fodder for the cattle
during any portion of the winter months. Since the open-
ing of the Union Pacific, Kansas Pacific, and Denver Pacific
Railways, Colorado has become very largely interested in
stock-grazing, as ready markets are furnished by means
of these railways for all the cattle the farmers can rear.
The parks of Colorado are a distinctive and remarkable
feature of the mountain-region, being apparently the basins
of former lakes upheaved and deprived of their waters by
volcanic agency, with their original shape and situation at
the foot of high mountains undisturbed, while their lowest
depths are from 6000 to 9000 feet above the level of the
sea. Many of these parks are of small size, being little
valleys at the sources of single streams or the beds of small
lakes, into which several streams from the surrounding
mountains are emptied; yet there are four of these elevated
valleys, the smallest of which extends 20 by 50 miles, and
the largest 100 by 200, equal to the size of some of the
most important of the New England States. These are
called the North Park, Middle Park, South Park, and San
Luis Park. *
The North Park reaches to the northern boundary of
the Territory, and within forty miles of the Pacific R. R.,
it being the basin in which converge the small streams
forming the head-waters of the North Platte River. Its
surface is alternately meadow and forest, supporting an
abundance of game, such as deer, antelopes, and bears;
its streams are well supplied with dainty fish; but on ac-
count of its great elevation, added to its northern latitude,
it has not the same advantages for agriculture possessed
by the other large parks, which have less altitude, besides
a more southerly location. *
Middle Park lies next below North Park, being sepa-
rated therefrom by a range of mountains extending from
S. E. to N. W., which constitutes a section of the dividing-
ridge of the continent, separating the rivers of the Atlantic
from those of the Pacific slope. The waters of this park
flow into the Colorado of the West, emptying into the Gulf
of California. Middle Park is 50 miles wide by 70 long,
and embraces within its basin several ranges of hills, be-
sides two or three distinct and extensive valleys; it is sur-
rounded by the great mountain-peaks of the Territory, in-
cluding Pike's Peak, Gray’s Peak, Long's Peak, and
Mount Lincoln, rising to an elevation of from 13,000 to
14,500 feet, snow-capped mountains circling its whole
area. It is milder in climate and possesses a vegetation su-
perior to that of the North Park, but inferior to that of
the South Park. .
South Park is 30 miles wide and 60 long, lying on the
eastern side of the divide, and furnishing the head-waters
of the Arkansas and South Platte rivers. This is the most
beautiful and the best known of all the parks, discoveries
of rich mines having opened roads and scattered settle-
ments throughout its limits. The soil is fertile and the
scenery, magnificent, offering, aside from the rich deposits
of precious ores, inducements to settlers unsurpassed upon
the continent. Water and forests are both plentiful, and
the climate is delightful.
The San Luis Park is in the southern portion of the Ter-
ritory, between the Rio Grande del Norte and the head-
waters of the Arkansas River, surrounding a beautiful lake
of the same name, which is sixty miles in length, receiving
• the waters of nineteen streams, with no apparent outlet.
This is the largest of the parks, having an area of 18,000
square miles, and containing, besides those streams empty-
ing into the San Luis Lake, sixteen others which empty
into the Rio Grande del Norte. This park is remarkable
for its natural scenery, the grandeur of its forests, the fer-
tility of the soil, the purity of its waters, and the vast de-
posits of peat in the vicinity of San Luis Lake. It con-
tains a population of 25,000, principally of Mexican de-
scent, who are chiefly occupied in herding and agriculture.
Cattle subsist the year round upon the indigenous grasses
of these elevated pastures, without other food, and with no
shelter except that afforded by the forests and undergrowth.
The grass, whether green or cured into hay upon the stalk
by the dry winds of the later summer months, appears to
possess qualities similar to that of the plains, although .
growing at a much greater altitude. In fact, it is surpris-
ing bow little the vegetation seems to be affected in this
region by elevation above the sea-level, the luxuriant pas-
tures and majestic forests of South and Middle Parks being
from 7000 to 10,000 feet above the sea. Cereals and tender
vegetables thrive abundantly at 7000 feet, while potatoes,
cabbages, and turnips, are cultivated at an elevation of
8000. Beautiful flowers and nutritious grasses grow at
11,000 feet, and evergreen trees attain considerable size at
11,500 feet, above sea-level.
The gold and silver mines of Colorado, until recently,
were supposed to be located principally in the park and
mountain country, commencing in Summit and Boulder
counties, between the 105th and the 106th meridians, near
the 40th parallel, extending thence in a south-westerly
direction through the Territory. The region embracing
the mines possesses a width of from 30 to 60 miles. These
mines are of gold, silver, and copper, the gold ore rarely
being without an intermixture of more or less silver, or the
silver ore without traces of gold, and frequently all three
metals are combined in the same ore, this being the case in
several of the most profitable mines in the Territory. In
1873 a new mining territory was discovered in the S. W.
corner of the Territory, said to be richer in silver and gold
than any mining district before known. . !
The mountains of Colorado all belong to the Rocky Moun-
tain system, and consist for the most part of elevated table-
lands (the plains and valleys already described), having an
altitude of from 4000 to 9000 feet above the sea; from these
plateaux rise numerous peaks and summits to heights vary-
ing from 11,000 to nearly 15,000 feet, the lower portions of
them covered with trees, mostly evergreens, but the upper
portions either gray bare rock or snow-covered, and some
of them with extensive glaciers. The most noted of these
summits are Gray’s Peak, Long's Peak, Pike's Peak, Mount
Lincoln, the Mountain of the Holy Cross, Mount Grant,
Mount Sherman, Rabbit Ears, Mount Yale, Tarry-all Moun-
tain, Mount Harvard, Dome Peak, Black Butte on the Wet
Mountain range, and the Spanish Peaks. The Rocky Moun-
tains in Colorado are the sources of many large rivers, some
flowing into the Mexican Gulf and some into the Pacific.
On the eastern slope are found the principal sources of
both the North and South Platte, as well as those of their
principal tributaries, the Republican and Smoky Hill Forks
of the Kansas River, and the entire upper course of the
Arkansas River, with that of its principal tributaries. In
the S. part of the Territory the Rio Grande del Norte de-
rives its head-waters from the slopes that bound San Luis
and Las Animas Parks, and from the precipitous sides of
the Sierra La Plata and the Uncompahgre ranges, which
there form the boundaries of the great Colorado plateau.
On the W. the Green River, the Grand River, and its prin-
cipal affluent, the Gunnison River, as well as the San Juan,
the streams which form the Rio Colorado of the West, all
have their sources, and the greater part of their independent
course, in Colorado. The Grand River penetrates to the
centre of the Territory, and finds its ultimate source in
Grand Lake on the E. side of the Middle Park, and but a
very short distance from the upper waters of one of the
affluents of the South Platte, and the Arkansas River at
two points almost interlocks with the sources of the Grand
and Gunnison rivers.
Geology &nd Mineralogy.—In speaking of the mineral.
wealth of Colorado we have made some necessary allusions
to its geological structure, but this deserves more particu-
lar description. The present accomplished head of the geo-
graphical bureau at Washington, Dr. F. V. Hayden, has
explored the Territory in so many different directions that
we are able to comprehend its geology much better than
that of some of the older States and Territories. Its va-
rious superficial formations are not, however, local, but
extend into other States and Territories adjacent. The
prevailing geological character of the Rocky Mountains
throughout their whole extent is eozoic, but this is much
more widely developed in Southern than in Northern Col-
orado. Between the 37th and 39th parallels it spreads out
to a breadth of nearly 300 miles. In the centre of this ex-
panse of eozoic rocks are the great parks, extending, though
in interrupted lines, from N. to S. through the entire Ter-
ritory, and into New Mexico. These are tertiary. Along
the eastern border of the eozoic or gneissoid formations,
extending from Wyoming to the centre of New Mexico,
with the exception of two breaks of moderate length, runs
a narrow bed of Devonian and carboniferous rocks. But the
coal-beds of the Territory are almost entirely tertiary, or
perhaps cretaceous. On the south-western border of the
mountains a similar narrow stratum of Silurian rocks comes
to the surface. W. of these, and following the same curves,
with about the same width, are triassic and Jurassic rocks,
and these crop out also on the E. side of the mountains be-
tween Pueblo City and the Spanish Peaks. The only posi-
tively volcanic rocks in Colorado are those in the valleys of
the upper Rio Grande del Norte and Canadian River. The
valley of the Rio Grande, Dr. Hayden believes to have been

1034
COLORADO.
at some remote period a vast volcanic crater. In the N.W.,
between the affluents of Green River, there are considerable
tracts of tertiary, forming the surface of the elevated plat-
eaus; but the remainder of Western Colorado, including the
valleys of the principal streams, is cretaceous. E. of the
Rocky Mountains, the valleys of the Arkansas and South
Platte rivers and their tributaries are cretaceous, but all the
remainder of the Territory is tertiary. The mineral wealth
of the Territory is very great. The minerals of commercial
value are auriferous iron and copper pyrites, zinc, blende,
argentiferous galena, brittle silver ore, fahlerz (a compound
of iron, copper, and zinc, with occasionally silver and mer-
cury), specular iron, hematite and magnetic. pyrites, ce-
russite (a carbonate of lead), anglesite (sulphate of lead),
native gold and silver, horn silver, embolite (a bromo-chlo-
ride of silver), titanic iron ore, micaceous iron ore, spathic
iron ore, Smithsonite (a carbonate of zinc), copper-glance,
salt, coal, and albertite coal. Of the other minerals of the
Territory, the most common are yellow ochre, a bog-iron
ore ; quartz in all its forms, especially those most in demand
as secondary precious stones—rock-crystal, agate, amethyst,
bloodstone, cornelian, chalcedony, chrysoprase, jasper,
onyx, and sardonyx; opals are abundant; all the varieties of
felspar, hornblende, diorite, garnet, mica, leucite, chlorite,
amphibole, epidote, tourmaline, calc-spar, gypsum, anhy-
drite, heavy spar, meteoric iron, beryl, brucite, and idocrase.
There are numerous mineral springs, hot and cold, soda,
sulphur, chalybeate, magnesian, and others, some of them
in the vicinity of the great parks and others in smaller
valleys in the mountains.
Vegetation.—Colorado cannot be called a treeless region,
though its vast plains have few trees except in the river-
bottoms, and these few mainly cottonwoods and box-elder,
with some scrub-oaks, and pine and spruce on the foot-
hills and spurs of the mountains which extend into the
plains. The sides of the mountains up to the snow-line
are covered with pine of various kinds, spruce, and fir, those
lowest in altitude being of much inferior quality to those
higher up the mountain. These furnish at present what
lumber and timber is needed, but, unless replaced by new
growth, the result of extensive planting of trees, will not
do so for many years. The native grass of Colorado is re-
markably rich and nutritious, furnishing the best of pasture
to its vast and constantly increasing herds of cattle and
sheep. The soil is admirably adapted to the growth of
cereals, which yield astonishing crops, both in quantity and
quality. Vegetables of all kinds and most of the fruits do
well also, though peaches and apples are liable to be win-
ter-killed. Grapes succeed well in the valleys of Southern
Colorado, where they can have a southern exposure. The
soil of the greater part of the Territory is very fertile where
it can have sufficient moisture.
Climate.—The climate of the Territory is remarkably
healthful. The air is clear, dry, and pure, and though
most of the country is elevated, it is admirably adapted
to the cure of diseases of the lungs and throat. Neither
intermittent nor remittent fevers prevail there, as in most
new countries. The annual range of the thermometer is
much less than in other sections of the country. In the
parks it does not average more than 60°, the highest tem-
perature not exceeding 80° nor the lowest falling below 20°.
Zoology.—The wild animals of Colorado are those of the
Rocky Mountains generally. The buffalo has long ranged
over its grand parks and along its extensive plains; while
the grizzly and black or brown bear, the elk, antelope, and
red deer, the coyote or prairie wolf, the fox, the gopher or
prairie dog, the sage-hare, and many smaller animals
abound. At certain seasons wild-geese and several species
of wild-duck are found in the lakes and marshes of the
Territory, and the sage-hen and other species of grouse and
the usual variety of song-birds are abundant. Of birds
of prey there are two species of eagle, several vultures,
hawks, and owls in the mountains.
Agricultural Productions.—We have no definite or author-
itative statement of the agricultural condition of the Ter-
ritory later than the census of 1870. At that time there
were 320,346 acres of land in farms, of which 95,594 acres
were under cultivation. (Stock-raising, being conducted
with herdsmen on the public lands, requires no purchased
lands or farms at present.) The average size of farms was
184 acres. The value of farms was $3,385,748, and of farm-
ing implements, etc., $272,604. The Territory contained
at that time 6446 horses, 1173 mules and asses, 25,017
milch cows, 5566 working oxen, 40,153 other cattle, 120,928
sheep, and 5509 swine. These numbers have since been
greatly increased, especially the cattle, sheep, and swine.
Within the past three years the pastoral or stock-raising
facilities of the Territory have received a very rapid de-
velopment, and there are now not less than 200,000 cattle
and 500,000 sheep in its pastures. The chief productions
of the Territory in 1869–70 were 255,939 bushels of spring
and 2535 of winter wheat; 5235 of rye; 231,903 of Indian
corn; 332,940 of oats; 35,141 of barley (this crop, as well
as the wheat, has enormously increased since that time);
178 of buckwheat; 890 pounds of tobacco; 204,925 of wool;
7500 bushels of peas and beans; 121,442 of Irish potatoes;
392,920 pounds of butter; 33,626 of cheese; 19,520 gallons
of milk sold; and 19,787 tons of hay. s
Manufactures.—The total number of manufacturing es-
tablishments in 1870 was 256, employing 49 steam-engines
of 1433 horse-power, and 31 water-wheels of 792 horse-
power. In these there were employed 876 hands. The
amount of capital invested, $2,835,000; wages paid during
the year, $528,221; amount of raw material used, $1,593,280;
of products, $2,852,820.
Railroads.-For so new a Territory, Colorado is well
supplied with railroads, while more are in course of con-
struction. The Kansas Pacific, from Kansas City, Mo., to
Denver, has 194 miles of its route in the Territory. It was
completed in 1870, and now leases also the Denver Pacific,
106 miles in length (which connects Cheyenne on the Union
Pacific with Denver), and the Boulder Valley R. R.s., 15
miles in length, from Hughes to Erie. The Denver and
Rio Grande R. R., projected to run from Denver to El
Paso on the Rio Grande, in Texas, a distance of 850 miles,
has completed its main track to Pueblo, a distance of 120
miles, and a branch to Cañon City, 65 miles in length.
This branch is intended to follow up the valley of the
Arkansas and South Arkansas rivers, and entering San
Luis Park at the N. by the Duntho Pass, traverse its
entire length, and join the main road (Denver and Rio
Grande) near Fort Garland. The Colorado Central R. R.
branches in all directions, N., S., E., and W., from Golden
City. One branch, 18 miles in length, connects it with
Denver; another with Longmont, 41 miles distant; another
with Black Hawk and Central City, 21 miles in length;
another still with Floyd Hill, 17 miles distant. Other
branches not yet completed will extend to Georgetown, to
Jefferson, to Littleton, and to Bradford. All these roads,
as well as three other roads now constructing, are E. of the
Rocky Mountains. W. of these mountains no roads have
been projected, and as there are very few settlers except
Mexican rancheros, it is hardly probable that they will be
built for some years to come. The completed railways of
the Territory up to July, 1873, amount to 597 miles; 719
miles more are in course of construction within the Ter-
ritory, and perhaps one-half of that amount will be com-
pleted before 1875.
Finances.—The assessed valuation of Colorado in 1870
was $17,338,101; the true valuation was estimated at
$20,243,303. In 1872 her assessed valuation was over
$30,000,000. The Territory has no debt, but the counties
have pledged their credit to railroads to the extent of
$678,829. At the close of 1872 there was a surplus of
$50,000 in the territorial treasury. No tax was levied for
1872, and that for 1873 was one and a half mills on the
dollar of taxable property. The railroads in operation in
the Territory in 1872 delivered in Denver alone an average
of 10,000 tons of freight per month, and the business of that
city for the year was estimated at more than $14,000,000.
The yield of the precious metals in 1872 was nearly
$30,000,000. There were in Nov., 1872, six national banks
in Colorado (five of them in Denver), having an aggregate
capital of $575,000, and carrying an average amount of
deposits of about $1,800,000. There were no savings banks
in the Territory. There were no fire or life insurance com-
panies, but most of the leading companies at the East were
represented there. & -
Population.—The first census taken of Colorado was that
of 1860, when there were 34,277 inhabitants, of whom 34,231
were whites; in 1870 the true population is stated at 47,164,
of whom 456 were colored and 7480 were Indians. A con-
siderable portion of the inhabitants of Southern Colorado
are of Mexican extraction, but this fact does not seem to
have been noticed in the census. The population in Jan.,
1873, was stated by Gov. McCook to be about 80,000, ex-
clusive of nomadic Indians. Of the population not Indian,
24,820 were males and 15,044 females. Of the colored race,
285 were males and 171 females. The population above
ten years of age was 30,349, of whom 17,583 were engaged.
in some occupation; in agriculture, 6462; in professional
and personal services, 3625; in trade and transportation,
2815; in manufacturing, mechanical, and mining indus-
tries, 4681. The Indians in the Territory are all of the
Ute tribe, and mainly of the Tabequache, Yampa, Grand
River, and Uintah bands of that tribe. They are all
friendly, and have a reservation in Western Colorado of
14,784,000 acres, or a little more than one-fifth of the Ter-
ritory. A few of them wander about, but most of them con-
fine themselves to their reservation.
Education.—Our latest full reports on education in the
Territory are to Jan. 1, 1872. The number of School dis-
COLORADO.
1035
tricts at that time was 160; the number of schools, 120;
in Jan., 1873, there were 175; the number of male teachers,
80; of female teachers, 84; total, 164—in Jan., 1873, 230.
Average monthly pay of male teachers, $69; of female
teachers, $54; average number of days in which schools
were taught was 92; number of school-houses, 80; of which
there were brick, 4; stone, 4; frame, 41; log, 25; adobe, 6.
Value of school-houses Jan. 1, 1872, $82,574.05—in Jan.,
1873, $186,645. The total population of school age (from
five to twenty-one years) in 1871 was 7742, of whom 4357
were enrolled in the schools, and the average attendance
was 2611; in Jan., 1873, there were 5640 children enrolled.
The amount of school-tax levied in 1871 was $79,901.04,
and the rate 41 cents on the assessed valuation. Of this,
at the close of the year, but $47,387.53 had been collected,
and the districts had raised by local taxation $33,886.49
more. The total expenditure for school purposes was
$67,395.48, or $3.66 per month per pupil. The amount of
the school fund was $81,274.02; in Jan., 1873, it had in-
creased to $121,372. Graded schools are in successful opera-
tion in Denver, Central, Black Hawk, Greeley, and several
other towns in the Territory. Teachers’ institutes were
held in 1871 in Arapahoe and Boulder cos. There are no
normal schools, colleges, or universities in Colorado. There
is a theological seminary (Episcopal) at Golden, with two
professors. There are two academies of high order: St.
Mary’s Academy, a Roman Catholic institution for girls,
at Denver, with 9 instructors and 120 pupils, a library of
1200 volumes, and $5800 annual income; and Jarvis Hall
Collegiate School at Golden, an Episcopal institution,
under the care of the bishop, with 9 instructors and 67
pupils (boys), and a library of 250 volumes. This school
is in connection with the territorial school of mines. There
are also an Episcopal academy, established in 1872, at
Georgetown, with 2 teachers, and a high school for girls,
Wolfe Hall, at Denver, of which Bishop Randall is rector,
with other teachers in charge. The Roman Catholics have
also St. Joseph’s Academy, for girls, at Trinidad, with 5
instructors; St. Mary’s boys’ school at Denver, and are
erecting a hospital and school at Central City, and schools
at Conejos and Costilla. There were in 1870, besides these,
16 private schools, with 20 teachers—8 males and 12
females—and 396 pupils, 203 males and 193 females. The
total income of these schools was $7090. The territorial
school of mines, which is to receive the agricultural land-
grant, was provisionally organized in 1872, and has its in-
struction at present in connection with Jarvis Hall. The
number of persons of ten years old and over in 1870 who
could not read and write (exclusive of tribal Indians) was
6823, of whom 3400 were males and 3423 females.
Libraries.—There were 30 public libraries in the Ter-
ritory in 1870, with 11,385 volumes, and 145 private libra-
ries reported, with 27,959 volumes. -
Newspapers.-There were 14 newspapers of all classes
published in the Territory in 1870, having an aggregate
circulation of 12,750, and issuing annually 1,190,600 copies.
This number has since somewhat increased, and the circu-
lation is now nearly 20,000. Of these papers, 5 are dailies,
with an aggregate circulation of somewhat more than 3000,
9 are weeklies, with a present circulation of about 15,000;
1 is a monthly, with a circulation of 1000: this is an ad-
vertising sheet. Four of the dailies and six of the weeklies
are political, and one daily and three weeklies literary and
miscellaneous.
Churches.—In 1870 there were 55 church organizations
of all kinds, with 47 church edifices, 17,495 sittings, and
church property valued at $207,230. Of these, the Baptists
had 5 churches, 4 church edifices, 855 sittings, and $11,000
worth of church property; in 1872 they had 13 churches,
12 ordained and 2 licensed ministers, and 469 members.
There were, in 1870, 2 Christian churches, but no particu-
lars are given of them. In 1870 there were 4 Congrega-
tional churches, with 4 edifices, 1050 sittings, and $28,200
of church property; in 1872 there were 6 churches, 4 min-
isters, and 173 members. In 1870 there were 9 Episcopal
churches, 8 church edifices, 2000 sittings, and $46,040 of
church property; in 1872 there were 10 clergymen, 9
parishes, and about 300 communicants. There was in
1870 one Jewish synagogue. In 1870 there were 14
Methodist churches, 13 church edifices, 3815 sittings, and
$50,800 worth of church property; in 1872 there were
26 ordained ministers, 23 churches (6 of them with par-
sonages), 1070 members, 207 probationers, and church
property valued at $121,100. In 1870 there were 6 Pres-
byterian churches, 5 church edifices, 1200 sittings, $21,800
of church property; in 1872 there were 3 presbyteries in
the Synod of Colorado (which, however, includes some of
the adjacent Territories), 22 ministers, 21 churches, 560
communicants, and 1251 children in the Sunday schools.
In 1870 there were 14 Roman Catholic churches, 13 church
edifices, 8575 sittings, and $49,300 of church property; in
1872 there were 15 clergymen in the vicariate apostolic of
Colorado, 17 churches and chapels, besides 14 chapels build-
ing, and the adherent Catholic population was stated at .
about 16,000.
Constitution, Courts, Delegates in Congress, etc.—Colorado
is still under territorial organization, and her territorial
constitution is similar in its provisions to those of the other
new Territories. It contains a provision, engrafted by
Congress upon the organic act of all the new Territories,
“ that there shall be no denial of the elective franchise or
any other rights to any person by reason of race or color,
except to Indians not taxed.” The judicial power of the
Territory is vested in a supreme court, district courts, pro-
bate courts, and justices of the peace. The supreme court
consists of a chief justice and two associates, appointed by
the President of the U. S. for the term of four years. For
district court purposes the Territory is divided into three
districts, in each of which one of the justices of the Su-
preme court holds the sessions. There is also in each dis-
trict a clerk of the court, who appoints deputies in each
county. The supreme and district courts have chancery as
well as common-law jurisdiction. The probate judges are
appointed by the legislature for each county. The Terri-
tory is represented in Congress by one delegate, who has
the right to debate, but not to vote. The present delegate
is Jerome B. Chaffee of Central City.
Counties.—Colorado has now (in 1873) twenty-one coun-
ties. As it was not organized as a Territory until 1861, it
has of course no former record of county population,
though its population as an unorganized Territory was
recorded in 1860. The following are the counties and their
population in 1870, and their county-seats at present:
Counties. Population. Capital.
Arapahoe................................... 6829 Denver.
Bent.......................................... 592 Las Animas.
Boulder 1939 Boulder.
Clear Creek 1596 Georgetown.
Conejos...................................... 2504 Conejos.
Costilla........................------------- 1779 San Luis.
Douglas..................................... 1388 Franktown.
El PaSO 987 Colorado City.
Fremont................................... . 1064 |Cañon City.
Gilpin . 5490 |Central.
Greenwood ................................ 510 Eit Carson.
Huerfano................................... 2250 Badito.
Jefferson.................................... 2390 Golden.
Lake ........... ............................. 522 Dayton.
Larimer.................................... 838 La Porte.
Las Animas............................... 4276 Trinidad.
Park......................................... 447 Fair Play.
Pueblo....................................... 2265 Pueblo.
Saguache................................... 304 Saguache.
Summit...................................... 258 |Breckenridge.
Weld ......................................... 1636 Evans.
The principal towns are Denver, the capital, which in
1870 had 4759 inhabitants, and is now (1873) estimated to
have about 14,000; Central City, Greeley, and Black Hawk
have between 2000 and 3000; Georgetown, Golden City,
St. Vrain, Pueblo, and Boulder have nearly 2000 each;
Evans, Kit Carson, and Cañon City are growing towns.
History.—Colorado has had a brief history. In 1857 a
party of civilized Cherokees made the first organized at-
tempt to explore it, but were driven back by the roving
tribes of Indians. In 1858 a company from Georgia, and
another from Lawrence, Kan., reported that they had dis-
covered gold in paying quantities in the valleys near the
base of Pike's Peak, a lofty mountain discovered by Gen.
Z. M. Pike in 1806. In May, 1859, gold was discovered in
large quantities in the vicinity of the sources of Clear
Creek, 50 miles N. of Pike's Peak. This discovery caused
great, excitement, and there was a general rush of emi-
grants to Pike's Peak, as the whole region was called, dur-
ing the next two years. Many of the emigrants, not pro-
vided with food or other necessary articles for so perilous
and tedious a journey, perished miserably by the way, or
reached there in a starving condition; but others followed,
till in 1860 the Territory, though not yet organized, had
nearly 35,000 inhabitants. It was found, after the first
placers were exhausted, that both gold and silver, but es-
pecially gold, existed there in large quantities, but in new
conditions—combined with sulphur and copper or iron in
the form of pyrites, and very difficult of extraction. This
discovery checked the fever of the gold-miners, and though
the Territory was organized in Feb., 1861, under the name
of Colorado, its growth was very slow for some years.
Meantime, two other discoveries had been made : one, that,
rich as it was in the precious metals, its greatest wealth
lay in its admirable climate and its fine pasture-lands,
which made it the finest stock-raising region on the con-
tinent; the other, that the vast elevated plains of Eastern
Colorado, which had formed a portion of the so-called
“Great American Desert,” and so late as 1863 were re-
1036
COLORADO-COLQUITT.
garded as worthless for agricultural purposes, were really,
when irrigated, the richest and most arable portion of the
continent. These two discoveries have done much to turn
the tide of emigration to Colorado within the past four
years, and the invention of new processes of extracting
gold and silver from the pyrites inexpensively has given a
fresh impetus to its mining industry. Colorado sent two
regiments of cavalry, one of infantry, and a battery of ar-
tillery into the service of the government in the war of
1861, besides organizing a force for home defence. A con-
vention was called, a State constitution prepared and
adopted, and application made for the admission of Col-
orado into the Union as a State in Dec., 1865. The bill
passed both houses of Congress in April, 1866, but Presi-
dent Johnson vetoed it. Another bill was passed for its
admission in Jan., 1867, but this was also vetoed. A bill
was subsequently passed in Congress giving permission to
the Territory to apply for admission, but its legislature
failed to avail themselves of it. In the session of 1872–73
application was made, but Congress denied it. The present
population of the Territory is nearly sufficient to entitle the
new State to a member of the House of Representatives,
and it is probable that its admission will not be long de-
layed. - e
In Sept., 1873, Hon. Felix R. Brunot and Mr. Thomas
K. Cree, chairman and secretary of the board of Indian
commissioners, negotiated with the Utes, who occupy an
immense reservation in Western Colorado, a treaty by
which the U. S. government comes in possession of a tract
of mining lands in the S. W. corner of Colorado extending
from the 107th meridian W. to the Utah line, and north-
ward from the northern boundary of New Mexico 100
miles. This tract, enclosing about 6000 square miles, is
very rich in silver ores of great purity, assaying from $1000
to $4000 per ton, and gold-bearing quartz has been found
which is said to have yielded $36,000 to the ton. It will
be known as the San Juan River Mining District, and
there is already a colony of 250 or 300 miners at work
there. The treaty, which will in all probability be ratified
by the Senate, binds the Government to pay to the Utes the
annual income from $500,000.
Governors.-The governors of the Territory have been—
John Evans................ 1861–65||Edward M. McCookº
Alexander Cummings.1865-67 tº
A. Cameron Hunt....... 1867–69
As a Territory Colorado has never had a presidential vote.
- L. P. BROCKETT.
Colorado, a county in the S. E. of Texas. Area, 905
square miles. It is intersected by the Colorado River. The
soil is generally fertile, and produces good crops of cotton
and maize. The county is well timbered, and is traversed
by the Galveston Harrisburg and San Antonio R. R. Cap-
ital, Columbus. Pop. 8326.
Colorado City, a post-village, capital of El Paso co.,
Col., at the base of Pike's Peak, on a small affluent of the
Arkansas River and near the Denver and Rio Grande R. R.,
76 miles S. of Denver. Gold is found in the vicinity.
Colorado Springs, a post-village of El Paso co., Col.,
on the Denver and Rio Grande R. R., 75 miles S. of Den-
ver. It has a delightful climate and mineral springs, and
is a place of summer resort. It was founded by a company
of educated Eastern men and called the Fountain Colony.
It has a bank, a weekly paper, four churches, four hotels,
good schools, and is surrounded by fine scenery.
Color=#Blindness, want of sensibility in the eye to
differences of color. This defect exists in different degrees,
but is not necessarily accompanied with any other imper-
fection of vision. In extreme cases the colors most strongly
contrasted seem not to differ except as to degree of bright-
ness or dulness. Very remarkable examples are given by
Brewster in his “Natural Magic.” Color-blindness is some-
times called Daltonism, because the distinguished John Dal-
ton and his brothers suffered from it.
Color= Guard, 'The, in the U. S. infantry, consists of
the color-bearer and a guard of eight corporals in each reg-
iment. They must all be good soldiers. The color-guard
is attached to the right-centre company in the line, and its
post on the field is one of honor as well as danger. (See
CoLoR-SERGEANT.)
Colorine, a township of Lowndes co., Ala. Pop. 2951.
Coloring= Matters. Nature abounds in these prin-
ciples, and art has added to the number. The colored
appearance is not an inherent property of the body itself,
but due to its effect upon ordinary light, which is composed
of rays of all colors. If a body absorbs nearly all the light,
it appears black; if it absorbs scarcely any, but throws it
off, it will appear white; but if the body contains any sub-
stance (pigment) that has the power of decomposing white
light, its color will depend upon which of the rays it absorbs
g
and which it reflects. Strictly speaking, therefore, the color
of a pigment is due to light which it cannot absorb, and
which is reflected to the eye of an observer. (See DYE-
STUFFs, DYEING, and PIGMENTs, by PROF. C. F. CHANDLER.)
Col’orist, a painter who excels in coloring or in whose
work success in color is the chief excellence. According to
some critics, Titian was the greatest colorist that ever lived.
“The sixteenth century,” says Ruskin, “produced the four
greatest painters—that is to say, managers of color—that
the world has seen; namely, Tintoret, Paul Veroriese, Titian,
and Correggio.” 4
Col/ors, a military term applied to banners or flags
carried by each regiment of infantry. The banners of the
cavalry are called standards. Each U. S. regiment has two
colors, one national and one regimental. They are made of
silk, and display the honors and distinctions of the regiment.
Colors, Complementary. See CoMPLEMENTARY
COLORs. -
Color=Sergeant, in the U. S. infantry; is called, in
strict military language, the color-bearer. He has no
higher rank than other sergeants, but is detailed by the
colonel for carrying the regimental colors. In the British
army he is a non-commissioned officer of higher rank and
better pay than the ordinary sergeants. There is one to
each company of infantry, and the office is specially given
to meritorious soldiers. He fulfils the ordinary regimental
and company duties of sergeant, but in addition to these
he attends the colors. .
Colos' sae [Koxoara at or Koxaaraaij, an ancient and ruined
city of Asia Minor, situated in Phrygia, on the river Lycus.
It was nearly destroyed by an earthquake in 65 A. D. Saint
Paul’s Epistle to the Colossians was addressed, in 62 (some
say 58–60) A. D., to the believers at Colossae. Its site is
about 3 miles N. of the modern Chomas or Khonos.
Colos'sal [from colossus], in the fine arts, a term applied
to any work remarkable for extraordinary dimensions. It
is, however, more especially applied to works in sculpture.
It seems probable that colossal statues had their origin from
the attempt to astonish by size at a period when the sciences
of proportion and of imitation were in their infancy. In
Babylon we learn from Daniel that the palaces contained
statues of great size, and in the present day the ruins of
India, present us with statues of extraordinary dimensions.
The Egyptians surpassed the Asiatics in these gigantic
monuments. The taste for colossal statues prevailed also
among the Greeks. The principal Roman colossus was the
figure of himself, as the sun, set up by Nero before the
Golden House ; it was in bronze, the work of Zenodorus;
and if, as Pliny says, it was 110 feet high, it was larger
than the Colossus of Rhodes.
Colos'sians, The Epistle of Saint Paul to the,
was written at the same time and place as those to the
Ephesians and Philemon, probably during the apostle's
first imprisonment at Rome. It seems to be directed
against certain Jewish heresies of the Alexandrian or
Gnostic type. -
Colos'sus [Gr. Koxogaſāsi) of Rhodes, a brazen statue
of Apollo, or perhaps of the sun-god, executed by Chares
of Lindus, and completed in 280 B.C., was one of the Seven
Wonders of the World. The statement that one foot rested
on each side of the harbor of Rhodes, and that ships passed
under it in full sail, does not rest on good authority. It
was 105 feet in height, and was ascended by a winding
staircase. It was overthrown by an earthquake about 224
B. C., and was never re-erected. Its fragments remained
on the spot till 672 A. D. -
Colos/trum [a Latin word of uncertain etymology], the
first milk yielded after accouchement. It contains more
sugar, more butter, and rather less caseine than true milk,
and also contains a much greater proportion of phosphates
and chlorides, which may possibly give to colostrum the
evacuant properties which it is said to possess. It also has
a great number of leucocytes, called “colustrum corpuscles.”
Colquhoun (PATRICK), a Scottish political economist,
born at Dumbarton Mar. 14, 1745. He became a merchant
in Glasgow, and promoted the manufacture of muslim in
Scotland. In 1761 he went to Virginia, and in 1789 set-
tled in London. He published, besides other works, a
“Treatise on the Police of the Metropolis” (1796) and
“On the Population, Wealth, etc. of the British Empire.”
He applied his mind to the elevation of the poor classes.
Died April 25, 1820.
Col/quitt, a county in the S. W. of Georgia. Area,
600 square miles. . It is drained by the Ocopilco, and
bounded on the E. by Little River. The surface is nearly
level. Cotton, tobacco, wool, and rice are raised. Capital,
Moultrie. Pop. 1654.
Colquitt, or Col'quit, a post-village, capital of Miller
COLQUITT–COLUMBIA.
1037
co., Ga., on Spring Creek, about 100 miles S. of Columbus.
It has one weekly newspaper.
Colquitt (WALTER T.), an American lawyer and Sena-
tor, born in Halifax co., Va., Dec. 27, 1799. Having re-
moved to Georgia, he was elected a member of Congress in
1838, and a Senator of the U. S. in 1842, by the Democrats.
Died in Macon, Ga., May 7, 1855.
Colt (SAMUEL), a celebrated American inventor, born
at Hartford, Conn., July 19, 1814. He invented a pistol
called a revolver, for which he obtained a patent in 1835.
He began about 1848 to manufacture revolvers at Hartford,
where. he erected an extensive armory. Colt's revolvers
soon attained a world-wide reputation, and were adopted
as cavalry arms by most civilized nations. (See REVOLVER.)
Died in 1862. -
Col’ton, a post-township of St. Lawrence co., N.Y.,
has extensive forests and numerous lakes, and is the seat
of important manufactures of sole-leather. Pop. of Colton
village, 633; of township, 1719.
Colton (CALVIN), LL.D., an American writer and
Episcopal clergyman, born at Longmeadow, Mass., in 1789.
He wrote, besides other works, “Four Years in Great Brit-
aim '' (1835) and a “Life of Henry Clay ” (3 vols., 1844).
Died at Savannah, Ga., Mar. 13, 1857.
Colton (CHARLEs), U. S. N., born Feb. 15, 1843, in
Wisconsin, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1861, be-
came ensign in 1862, a lieutenant in 1864, and a lieutenant-
commander in 1866. He served in the steam-sloop Oneida
at the battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864, and is thus
highly spoken of by the executive officer of that vessel,
Charles H. Huntington : “Too much praise cannot be
awarded to Lieutenant C. S. Colton, Lieutenant E. N. Kel-
logg, and Acting Ensign John Sears, commanding gun
divisions, for the admirable examples of courage they af-
forded their men, and for their skill in directing the fire of
the guns.” IFox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Colton (WALTER), an American writer, born in Rut-
land, Vt., May 9, 1797. He was a chaplain in the navy.
Among his works are “Ship and Shore in Madeira, Lisbon,
etc.” (1835), “Deck and Port” (1850), and “Three Years
in California.” (1850). Died in Philadelphia, Jan. 22, 1851.
Col’uber, the Latin name of a genus of serpents, origi-
nally including many species agreeing only in having a
double row of plates on the under side of the tail. Most
of the poisonous species, with many harmless ones, are now
excluded from the genus. A number of them are of bril-
liant colors. The serpent of Æsculapius (Coluber Æscw-
lapii) was taken by the ancients as a symbol appertaining
to the god of medicine. It is four or five feet long, and of
a brown color. It is very gentle and easily tamed. It is
a native of Southern Europe.
Colubri'na [from Coluber, one of the general, one of
the two great sub-orders of serpents, is distinguished from
the Viperina by being oviparous instead of ovo-viviparous,
and has also a different arrangement of the teeth and max-
illary bones. The sub-order probably comprises more than
half the existing species of serpents. Comparatively few
of them are venomous.
Colum/ba, SAINT, called also Saint Colm, was born
at Gartan, county Donegal, Ireland, in 521 A. D. In 563
A. D. he set out on his mission. to Scotland. He founded
in Iona, one of the Hebrides, an abbey and a college which
had a high reputation. Died in 597 A. D. *
Col’umban’, or Colomban, SAINT, an Irish monk,
born in Leinster Nov. 21, probably in 543 A. D. He
founded the monastery of Luxeuil, near Besançon, in France,
about 590 A. D., and was the author of a monastic rule.
He was a man of real learning and genius. Died in Italy
in 615 A. D., after two years’ residence there.
Columba'rium [a Latin term originally signifying a
“dove-cote ’’), among the ancient Romans a sepulchre
containing niches like pigeon-holes (whence the name), in
which were placed burial-urns for receiving the ashes of
slaves and dependants after incremation.
Colum’bia, or Or'egon, a river of the U. S., is the
largest American river that enters the Pacific Ocean. It
rises on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains in
IBritish Columbia, about lat. 50° N. and lon. 11.6° W. It
flows north-westward nearly 150 miles, and then southward
to Washington Territory, in which it unites with a large
branch called Clark's River. Below this junction it pur-
sues a very tortuous course to the northern boundary of
Oregon. From this point it flows westward in a nearly
direct line, and forms the boundary between Oregon and
Washington Territory until it enters the Pacific. It is a
rapid stream, passing through many mountain-gorges, and
its navigation is much obstructed by falls. The tide as-
cends to the Cascades, a series of rapids, where the river
passes through the Cascade Range, 140 miles from its mouth.
At its mouth is a bar covered with twenty feet of water at
low tide. Wessels of 300 tons or more can ascend the river
to the Cascades. At the Dalles, in Oregon, the river is
contracted to a channel about 100 yards wide between ba-
saltic rocks. Steamboats ply daily on the Columbia, both
below and above the DALLEs (which see). Entire length,
estimated at 1400 miles. A large affluent, called Lewis or
Snake River, enters it near lat. 46° 20' N. The scenery of
the Columbia is sublime, especially where it passes through
the Cascade Range.
Colum/bia, a county in the S.W. of Arkansas. Area,
825 square miles. It is drained by the Dorcheat River.
The surface is nearly level; the soil fertile and well tim-
bered. Cotton, corn, and wool are raised. Capital, Mag-
nolia. Pop. 11,397.
Columbia, a county of Florida, bordering on Georgia.
Area, 800 square miles. It is partly bounded on the N.W.
by the Little Suwanee River. The surface is nearly level;
the soil is fertile and well timbered. Rice, cotton, corn,
wool, and fruit are raised. It is intersected by the Jack-
sonville Pensacola and Mobile R. R. Capital, Lake City.
Pop. 7335.
Columbia, a county in the E. of Georgia. Area, 580
square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Savannah
River. The surface is uneven ; the soil is based on granite
and other rocks. Cotton, corn, and wool are raised. It is
intersected by the Georgia R. R. Capital, Appling. Pop.
13,529.
Columbia, a county of New York, bordering on Massa-
chusetts. Area, 688 square miles. It is bounded on the
W. by the Hudson River. The surface in the E. is hilly,
and in the other parts nearly level. The soil is fertile.
Cattle, grain, wool, and dairy products are raised, and iron,
cotton, and woollen goods, paper, and a great variety of
articles are extensively manufactured. Its commerce is
also extensive. Limestone, marble, iron, and, lead are
found here. It is intersected, by the Boston and Albany
R. R., the Hudson River R. R., and the Harlem Extension
R. R. Capital, Hudson. Pop. 47,044.
Columbia, a county in the N.W. of Oregon, is bounded
on the N. and E. by the Columbia River. The surface is
partly mountainous, and covered with forests of fir, cedar,
and hemlock. The soil is fertile. Capital, St. Helen.
Pop. 863. ~"
Columbia, a county of E. Central Pennsylvania.
Area, 425 square miles. It is intersected by the North
Branch of the Susquehanna River, and also drained by
Fishing and Catawissa creeks. The surface is hilly; the
soil of the valleys is derived from limestone, and is fertile.
Wool and grain are staple products, and carriages, leather,
iron, and metallic wares are extensively manufactured.
It is traversed by the Lackawanna and Bloomsburg, the
Danville Hazleton and Wilkesbarre, and Catawissa branch
of the Philadelphia and Reading R. Rs. Capital, Blooms-
burg. Pop. 28,766. -
H. L. DIEFFENBACH, Ed. “THE Columbian.”
Columbia, a county in S. Central Wisconsin. Area,
727 square miles. It is intersected by the Wisconsin and
the Fox or Neenah River. The surface is undulating; the
soil fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are raised; wagons
and carriages are manufactured. The Milwaukee and St.
Paul R. R. passes through it. Capital, Portage City. Pop.
28,802. ' -
Columbia, a township and post-village of Henry co.,
Ala. The village is 110 miles S. E. of Montgomery. Pop.
of township, 1382.
Columbia, a post-village of Tuolumne co., Cal., is near
the Stanislaus River, 4 miles N. of Sonora. It has four
churches. Gold-mines have been opened here. Pop. 1125;
of the township, 2192.
Columbia, a post-township of Tolland co, Conn.
Pop. 891.
Columbia, a post-village of Monroe co., Ill., about
100 miles S. by W. from Springfield. Pop. 1246.
Columbia, a township of Du Bois co., Ind. P. 1622.
Columbia, a post-township of Fayette co., Ind. Pop.
929
Columbia, a township of Gibson co., Ind. P. 2238.
Columbia, a township of Jennings co., Ind. P. 1272.
Columbia, a township of Martin co., Ind. Pop. 831.
Columbia, a city, capital of Whitley co., Ind., on the
Detroit and Eel River and the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and
Chicago R. Rs., 19 miles W. N. W. of Fort Wayne. Two
newspapers are issued here. Pop. 1663; of Columbia
township, 2934. •
Columbia, a township of Tama co., Ia. Pop. 718.
1038
COLUMBIA—COLUMBIAD.
Columbia, a township of Wapello co., Ia. Pop. 2101.
Columbia, a post-village, capital of Adair, co., Ky.,
100 miles S. S. W. of Frankfort. It has one weekly news-
paper. Pop. 506. -
Columbia, a post-village, capital of Caldwell parish,
La., on the Washita River, 230 miles by water N. N. W. of
Baton Rouge. Pop. 235.
Columbia, a post-township of Washington co., Me.
Pop. 668. -
Columbia, a township and post-village of Jackson co.,
Mich. The village is 10 miles S. E. of Jackson. Total
pop. 1002. -
Columbia, a township of Tuscola, co., Mich. P. 424.
Columbia, a township and village of Van Buren co.,
Mich. The village is on the Kalamazoo and South Haven
R. R., 27 miles W. of Kalamazoo. Total pop. 1269.
Columbia, a post-village, capital of Marion co., Miss.,
on Pearl River, 90 miles S. by E. from Jackson. Pop. 66.
Columbia, a post-village, capital of Boone co., Mo.,
10 miles N. of the Missouri and 24 miles E. of Boonville.
A branch road connects it with the St. Louis Kansas City
and Northern R. R. It is the seat of the State university
and the Christian and Baptist female colleges. It has two
national banks, a library, and two newspapers. Pop.
2236; of township, 5560. ED. “HERALD.”
Columbia, a post-township of Coos co., N. H. P. 752.
Columbia, a post-township of Herkimer co., N. Y.
Pop. 1637. -
Columbia, a township of New Hanover co., N. C.
Pop. 1715. *
Columbia, a township of Randolph co., N. C. Pop.
1254.
Columbia, a post-village, capital of Tyrrell co., N.C.,
on a creek or inlet of Albemarle Sound, 182 miles E. of
Raleigh... Pop. of township, 1206.
Columbia, a post-village of Hamilton co., O., on the
Ohio River, 5 miles above Cincinnati. Pop. 1105.
Columbia, a post-township of Hamilton co., O. Pop,
3184. -
Columbia, a township of Lorain co., O. Pop. 892.
Columbia, a township of Meigs co., O. Pop. 1286.
Columbia, a township and village of Bradford co.,
Pa. The village is on the Williamsport and Elmira R. R.,
58 miles N. of Williamsport. Pop. 1521.
Columbia, a post-borough of Lancaster co., Pa., on
the left bank of the Susquehanna River (here nearly one
mile and a quarter wide), 80 miles by railroad W. of Phila-
delphia. It is the south-western terminus of the Reading
and Columbia R. R., 45% miles long, and the northern ter-
minus of the Columbia, and Port Deposit R. R. A railroad
bridge across the river connects Columbia with Wrights-
ville. It contains two national and three private banks,
three newspaper-offices, waterworks, a female institute,
two rolling-mills, a mill for railroad iron, engine and .
boiler works, several iron-furnaces, a patent rake manu-
factory, and a fine library. Here is an extensive market
and dépôt for lumber, which is brought down, the river by
rafts. Pop. 6461. A. M. RAMBO, ED. “Court ANT.”
Columbia, the capital of South Carolina and seat of
justice of Richland co., is on the left (E.) bank of the
Congaree River, just below the confluence of the Saluda
and Broad, 137 miles by railroad N. N. W. of Charleston;
lat. 33° 57° N., lon. 81° 7' W. It is on the Charlotte Co-
lumbia and Augusta and the Wilmington Columbia, and
Augusta R. R.s., is the south-eastern terminus of the Green-
ville and Columbia, R. R., and is connected with Charles-
ton by a branch of the South Carolina R. R. It is the seat
of South Carolina, College, called since 1865 the South
Carolina, University, founded in 1804. Columbia has a
State-house, penitentiary, an asylum for the insane sup-
ported by the State, a Presbyterian theological seminary,
a Methodist female college, two national banks, one cotton
factory (just out of the corporate limits), three foundries,
two sash and door factories, an orphans’ home, waterworks, a
park, and large libraries connected with the theological sem-
inary (18,300 vols.) and South Carolina University (30,000
vols.). Four daily, eight weekly (four of them religious),
two tri-weekly, and one monthly newspaper are published
here; there is also one quarterly publication. It is at the
head of steamboat navigation. It was taken by Gen.
Sherman’s army Feb. 17, 1865, and was then much injured
by fire. Pop. 9298; or, including the township of Colum-
bia, 10,130. ED. of “ SouTHERN PRESBYTERIAN.”
Columbia, a post-village, capital of Maury co., Tenn.,
on Duck River and on the Nashville and Decatur R. R.,
46 miles S. S. W. of Nashville. It is the seat of Jackson
College, and has one national bank, two female seminaries,
and three weekly and one monthly newspaper. Pop. 2550.
Columbia, a post-village of Brazoria co., Tex., on the
W. bank of the Brazos River. It has an extensive trade,
carried on in steamboats and by rail. It is the W. termi-
nus of the Brazoria and Houston Tap R. R. Pop. 426.
Columbia, a township and post-village of Fluvanna
co., Va. The village is on the James River, 25 miles S. E.
of Charlottesville. Pop. of township 2331.
Columbia, British. See BRITISH Columb|A.
Columbia College, an institution of learning in New
York City, originally chartered as “King's College ’’ by
George II., Oct. 31, 1754. Moneys had been previously
raised for the endowment of the college, under acts of the
provisional assembly authorizing lotteries for the purpose,
of which the first was passed as early as 1746. It received
also a liberal grant of land from Trinity Church, and on a
portion of this its first building was erected. The Episco-
pal denomination has always had a controlling influence
in its governing board, but it is not, and has never been,
sectarian in its teaching. Its original site was near the
City Hall Park, and was approached through Park place,
which has since been extended over it. In 1857 the college
was removed to East Forty-ninth street, where it has since
occupied buildings not originally erected for it; but these
will soon be replaced by others more suitable, unless it
should be a second time removed to a point farther up the
island. The occurrence of the public troubles which led to
the war of the Revolution seriously interfered with the
business of the college, and finally arrested its operations
altogether. On the night of May 10, 1775, the president,
Dr. Cooper, being a zealous loyalist, fled, through fear of
popular violence, and no commencement was held that
year. Early in the following year the building was con-
verted into a military hospital, and all the students were
dispersed. Business was resumed in May, 1784, when the
college, on its own application, was erected into a univer-
sity, under the corporate title of “The Regents of the Uni-
versity.” The body which now bears this name in the
State of New York is of more recent creation. In 1787
the university scheme was abandoned, and the institution
received its present name of “Columbia College.” A
medical department was connected with the college from
1767 to 1813, when it was discontinued. In 1860 the “New
York College of Physicians and Surgeons” became con-
nected with Columbia College. The law department (estab-
lished in 1858) has met with great success. The number
of law-students (1873–74) was 425. The law-graduates of
1873 numbered 138. The school of mines (organized in
1864) embraces five distinct courses of scientific study: (1)
mining engineering; (2) civil engineering; (3) metallurgy;
(4) geology and natural history; (5) analytical and applied
chemistry. The college has in its four faculties more than
60 professors and instructors, and nearly 1000 students
(1873). Its principal library contains nearly 17,000 vol-
umes; the library of the law school, 4000; that of the
school of mines, 5000; and the botanical library, 1100.
This latter was the gift of the late eminent naturalist Dr.
John Torrey, who presented to this college, at the same
time, his immense herbarium, embracing over 50,000 speci-
mens. . This collection has recently been more than doubled
in magnitude by the addition to it of the extensive her-
barium of Prof. Meisner of Bâle, presented by Mr. J. J.
Crooke of New York in 1872. It is now probably the
largest and most complete in the world, except the royal
collection at Kew, England. The cabinets and apparatus
of the college, for the illustration of the various branches
of physical and chemical science, and of geology, mineral-
ogy, and natural history, are surpassed for completeness
and excellence by few. The gross income of the college
for 1873 was more than $260,000, largely derived from
ground-rents. This income is rapidly increasing, and the
financial prospect of Columbia College is excellent.
The presidents of the college have been—Samuel Johnson,
D. D. (1753–63); Myles Cooper, S. T. D., LL.D. (1763–75);
Rev. W. Moore (1784–87); Dr. W. S. Johnson (1787–1800);
C. H. Wharton, D. D., LL.D. (1800); Rt. Rev. Benjamin
Moore (1800–11); W. Harris, S. T. D. (1811–29); Hon. W.
A. Duer (1829–42); N. F. Moore, LL.D. (1842–49); Charles
Ring, LL.D. (1849–64); and Rev. F. A. P. Barnard, S. T.
D., LL.D., L. H. D. F. A. P. BARNARD.
Colum’biad, a sea-coast howitzer, of cast-iron, pro-
posed by the late Colonel George Bomford, chief of ord-
nance, and introduced (about) 1812. Some of these guns
were in service during the war with England, 1812–15.
Three calibres were recommended — 50-pounders, 100-
pounders, and 150-pounders—for coast defence, particu-
larly against shipping, as a single shell of the larger sizes
exploding in a vessel’s side, or on her decks, would, it was
thought, produce great injury, if not complete wreck.
COLUMBIA, DISTRICT OF-COLUMBIDAE.
1089
Meyer’s Technologie des Armes à few mentions under date
1815, “the explosion of an English vessel hit by an Ameri-
can shell before New York;” and again, under the same
date, “Very good results were obtained in America, from
ovoidal (spherico-cylindrical) percussion shells of the cali-
bre of 100, which are fired from a kind of carronade desig-
nated by the name of Columbiad.” This is the first notice
given by this diligent and accurate author of the exist-
ence of such a gun, or of a percussion shell, in the world.
He seems to have searched thoroughly from the commence-
ment of the Christian Era.
Halleck (“Military Art and Science,” page 280) states
(in a note), after designating large howitzers as “Paiachang
Guns,” or “Columbiads”—“the description of one of Colonel
IBomford’s Columbiads which was at Governor’s Island,
New York Harbor, was taken to France by a young
French officer, and thus fell into the hands of General
Paixhans, who immediately introduced them into the French
service.”
Whether General Paixhans received as above the descrip-
tion of the columbiad or not, there would seem to be no
doubt that this gun was the first howitzer of cast-iron of
like calibre and length that was successfully used for shell-
firing. 8-inch and 10-inch howitzers had been proposed
and made at earlier dates—that is, chambered guns shorter
than cannon and longer than mortars, and having trun-
nions in advance of their vents, and near the centre of
gravity of the gun—but these guns were of bronze, gener-
ally shorter than the columbiads, and were not designed
or used for shell-firing at low angles, but for heavy projec-
, tiles, to obtain great range.
In 1749, France adopted the 8-inch size howitzer, but
suppressed it in 1803 as useless, upon Gassendi’s recom-
mendation, retaining only a 5%-inch field howitzer. In
1804, 9-inch and 11-inch howitzers, proposed by Villan-
trois, were made at Douai of eight calibres length, and
were fired with lead-filled shells at high angles; and in
1810, at Seville in Spain a 10-inch howitzer of seven cali-
bres length was cast to obtain a long range at the siege of
Cadiz. -
From 1809 to 1819, according to Meyer, Paixhans was
interested in experiments to prove the superiority of hol-
low projectiles over hot shot for naval warfare, and the de-
structive effects of bursting shells. In 1819 he presented
his treatise Wouvelle Force Maritime, but not published
until 1822, in which he first proposes his Canon-Obusier,
an 8-inch howitzer shell gun of cast-iron. The English
claim that General Millar, who introduced a like gun in
1824, proposed it in 1820.
In the U. S. the 8-inch howitzer and 10-inch howitzer
shell guns were remodelled in 1841 and 1844, intending
these last, called Columbiads, to be fired with solid shot
and with one-sixth their weight of powder; but subse-
quently they were reserved for shell-firing only, and a new
pattern (without a chamber and heavier) was adopted in
1858; two of which (one cast solid and one hollow, and as
proposed by Gen. Rodman, cooled from the interior) were
subjected to comparative proof, both enduring the remark-
able number of 4082 rounds, with solid shot and service
charge, without destruction. .
... In 1861, the Rodman exterior form of guns was adopted
for the Columbiads, as for all others, and calibres of 13, 15,
and 20-inch smooth-bore, 10-inch and 12-inch rifled, and
13 and 15 mortars, adopted for sea-coast guns.
Col. Bomford, the inventor of the columbiad, distin-
guished himself through his long military career by many
other valuable suggestions in artillery science. Among
others, he proposed and carried out the first practical ex-
periments demonstrating the proper exterior lines of a can-
non, as shown by the pressure of the fire-charge at regular
distances from the bottom of the bore. He also proposed
the 12-inch gun of 1846, and while testing its capabilities
carried on a series of experiments proving the best and
simplest form of fuse-shells fired from heavy guns, with
the safety-caps sufficient to protect the fuse from extinc-
tion by ricochet on land or water.
P. V. HAGNER, U. S. Army.
Columbia, District of. See DISTRICT of Columbia,
by L. P. BROCKETT, M. D.
Columbia Falls, a township of Washington co., Me.
It has manufactures of lumber. , Pop. 608.
Columbian'a, a county in the E. N. E. of Ohio. Area,
490 square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the Ohio
River. The surface is partly hilly and partly undulating;
the soil is calcareous and very fertile. Cattle, grain, and
wool are raised. Building-stone, leather, pottery, brick,
etc. are here produced extensively. Coal and limestone are
found. It is intersected by the Cleveland and Pittsburg
R. R. and the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago. R. R.
Capital, New Lisbon. Pop. 38,299.
Columbiana, a post-village, capital of Shelby co. Ala.,
on the Selma Rome, and Dalton R. R., 72 miles N. N. E. of
Selma. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of Colum-
biana township, 1040.
Columbiana, a post-village of Fairfield township,
Columbiana co., O. It is on the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and
Chicago R. R., 60 miles N. W. of Pittsburg, Pa., and has
one weekly newspaper. Pop. 870.
Colum/bian Col'lege, Washington, D.C., was incor-
porated by an act of Congress in 1821. Its founders were
mainly members of the Baptist denomination. The name
of Luther Rice, so honorably connected with the cause of
foreign missions, is no less honorably connected with the
educational movement which led to the establishment of
this institution. The record of the college has been hon-
orable, if not illustrious. The college proper has sent forth
about 400 graduates, of whom 120 have entered the Chris-
tian ministry; .5 have been foreign missionaries; 18 have
been professors in colleges, and 4 have been college presi-
dents. The medical department has sent forth 382 gradu-
ates. The law department, though of comparatively recent
foundation, has already contributed 581 members to the legal
profession, some of whom have attained to distinction at
the bar and to stations of public honor. By an act of Con-
gress, approved Mar. 3, 1873, the corporation of the Colum-
bian College was changed into “The Columbian University,”
and the friends of the institution are now taking steps for
the establishment of schools of science, technology, and of
the fine arts as a part of its university system, hoping
that it may avail itself of the magnificent libraries and
collections of the capital. The presidents of the institution
have been as follows: Rev. William Staughton, D. D.,
Rev. Stephen Chapin, D. D., Rev. Joel S. Bacon, D. D.,
Rev. Joseph G. Binney, D. D., Rev. Geo. W. Samson, D. D.
The present president is James C. Welling, LL.D. The
college in 1872 had 18 instructors, 283 students, and prop-
erty to the value of $350,000.
JAMES C. WELLING.
Columbian Grove, a post-township of Lunenburg
co., Va. Pop. 1422.
Colum/bidae [from Columba, the principal genus], a
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Bock Dove.
family of birds forming the transition from the passerine
to the gallinaceous orders. They agree with the true gal-
linaceous birds in the character of the bill, and in the soft
membrane at the base of it; the sternum is deeply notched.
A dilated crop is developed from both sides, in which they
differ from all other birds. The stomach is a true gizzard,
and the lower larynx has a single pair of muscles. The
male assists his mate in rearing the young, which are at
first supported by a milky fluid secreted in the crop. The
Columbidae resemble the passerine birds in their powers
of flight, in living in a state of monogamy, in building their
nests in trees and crevices of rocks, and generally in laying
but two eggs at a time. In domestication there have arisen

























1040
COLUMBINE–COLUMBUS.
many remarkable varieties, as carrier-pigeons, fan-tails,
tumblers, etc. The domesticated varieties are descended
from the rock-dove, Columba livia, of the Old World. The
study of these varieties has been thoroughly carried out by
Mr. Darwin, and seems to have suggested his theory of the
origin of species. (See PIGEON.)
Col'umbine (Aquilegia), a genus of perennial plants
of the order Ranunculaceae. They have five petals, all
alike, with a short spreading lip, produced backward into
large hollow spurs, much longer than the calyx; pistils five.
The Aquilegia vulgaris, or common columbine, a native of
Europe and of the Rocky Mountains in the U. S., is culti-
wated in gardens for its showy flowers. The Agwilegia
Canadensis, a native of the U. S., has beautiful scarlet flow-
ers of curious structure.
Colum/bium, or Nio'bium, a rare metal originally
discovered in columbite from Massachusetts by Hatchett in
1801. Wollaston in 1809, in investigating minerals con-
taining columbium, expressed the belief that the metal was
identical with tantalum, and this view was generally ac-
cepted until 1846, when H. Rose showed that the two were
distinct, though tantalum occurs in many of the columbium
minerals. Rose, indeed, inclined to the belief that what
had been described as columbium really consisted of two
metals, which he called niobium and pelopium. Further
investigations showed him that but one metal was the basis
of the supposed two; so the name pelopium was dropped,
and the name niobium was retained, the symbol Nb being
now used for columbium. The black powder produced by
heating columbium compounds with sodium has been sup-
posed to be the metal, but Delafontaine states that this
powder is the protoxide, and that the metal is a steel-gray
powder obtained by igniting the chloride NbOls in a cur-
rent of hydrogen. With tantalum, columbium forms a
group distinct from the other elements. The principal
minerals in which columbium is found are columbite, a
columbate of iron and manganese; bragite, a columbate of
yttrium and iron ; Samarskite, a urano-columbate of yttrium
and iron; pyrochlore, a columbate of lime, cerium, etc.;
aeschynite, a titano-columbate of cerium, iron, lanthanum,
etc. Some of these minerals contain tungsten. They are
found in small quantities in a few localities in Europe and
the U. S. The combining number of columbium is 94.
Columbo. See CoDom(Bo Root.
Colum/bus, a county in the S. of North Carolina. Area,
600 square miles. It is bounded on the N.W. by the Littlé
Pedee River, and intersected by the Waccamaw. The sur-
face is level, and partly occupied by swamps, in which rice
is produced. It is intersected by the Wilmington Colum-
bia and Augusta R. R. Capital, Whitesville. Pop. 8474.
Columbus, a city of Georgia, capital of Muscogee
county, is on the E. bank of the Chattahoochee River, which
here forms the boundary between Georgia and Alabama.
It is 100 miles W. S. W. of Macon and 292 by railroad W.
of Savannah. Steamboats ply at all seasons between Co-
lumbus and Appalachicola, Fla., light drafts only being
used in summer. Columbus is the northern terminus of the
Mobile and Girard R. R., the eastern terminus of the West-
ern Alabama, the western terminus of the Central Georgia,
and the Southern terminus of the North and South R. Rs.
It has six cotton-factories, and the falls of the river at this
point afford a water-power sufficient for 100,000 spindles.
It has three saw-mills, two machine-shops, and one foundry,
besides planing and flouring mills. There are four banks,
one of them national, and four papers, one daily and three
Weekly. The public schools for white and colored are un-
surpassed by any in the State. Columbus has pleasant
suburbs, noted for the beauty of their scenery and the taste
of their private residences. The neighboring country has
some of the finest farming-land in Western Georgia. Pop.
7401. A. R. CALHOUN, PROP. “ENQUIRER-SUN.”
...goiumbus, a post-township of Adams co., III. Pop.
Columbus, a post-village, capital of Bartholomew co.,
Ind., on the East Fork of White River and on the Jefferson.
ville Madison and Indianapolis R. R., 41 miles S. S. E. of
Indianapolis. . Another railroad extends from this point
north-eastward to Cambridge. It has one national bank
and two newspaper-offices. Pop. 3359; of township, 5187.
Columbus, a post-village, capital of Cherokee co.,
Ran., on the Missouri River Fort Scott and Gulf R. R., 56
miles S. of Fort Scott. It has one weekly newspaper.
Pop. 402.
Columbus, a city of Hickman co., Ky., on the Missis-
sippi River, 196 miles by rail below St. Louis. It is the
northern terminus of the Mobile and Ohio R. R., 472 miles
long. The St. Louis and Iron Mountain R. R. terminates
at Belmont, on the other side of the river, and crosses by
means of inclined planes and a ferry. It has one weekly
newspaper. Pop. 1574. R. SUMMERs, ED. “DISPATCH.”
Columbus, a township and post-village of St. Clair
co., Mich. The village is 15 miles S. W. of Port Huron.
Total pop. 1218.
Columbus, a township of Anoka, co., Minn. Pop. 71.
Columbus, the capital of Lowndes co., Miss., is on the
navigable Tombigbee River and on a branch of the Mobile
and Ohio R. R., 235 miles by rail from Mobile. It has 3
banks, 3 wagon-factories, 10 churches, a female seminary,
a university, and 2 public academies, and a very large trade,
especially in cottom. It has 3 weekly, 1 tri-weekly, and 3
monthly newspapers. Pop. 4812.
LEwis & BLIss, EDs. “PRESS.”
Columbus, a township and post-village of Johnson
co., Mo. The village is 10 miles N. W. of Warrensburg.
Pop. of township, 1394.
Columbus, a city, capital of Platte co., Neb., on the
Platte River and the Union Pacific R. R., 92 miles W. of
Omaha. It has a bridge across the Platte, one bank, three
school-houses, a high school, five churches, various indus-
tries, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. of Columbus town-
ship, 1233. M. K. TURNER, ED. “PLATTE Journ AL.”
Columbus, a township and post-village of Chenango
co., N. Y. The village is about 40 miles S. of Rome. Pop.
of township, 1197.
Columbus, a post-village, capital of Polk co., N. C.,
about 90 miles W. of Charlotte. Pop. of Columbus town-
ship, 744. \,
Columbus, the capital of Franklin co. and of the
State of Ohio, is pleasantly situated on each side of the
Scioto River, but principally on the eastern side, and 70
miles from its mouth, 110 miles N. E. of Cincinnati, and
350 miles from Washington, D. C. It is in lat. 39°57' N.
and lon. 83° 3' W. from Greenwich. Previous to 1863 the
city occupied an area of 1100 acres; by an annexation of
territory that year its area was increased to 2700 acres. In
1871 its corporate limits were enlarged by the annexation
of territory from surrounding townships, increasing the
whole area of the city to 6752 acres. It is well surrounded
on all sides by an almost unlimited extent of level land.
At the time Columbus was laid out as a town in 1812, it
was an almost unbroken forest, with no resident within its
limits. Three years afterward, in 1815, its population was
700; in 1820, 1450; in 1830, 2437; in 1840, 6048; in 1850,
17,882; in 1860, 18,554; and in 1870, 31,274. The increase
from 1820 to 1830 was 987, making 70 per cent.; from 1830
to 1840 it was 3611, making 150 per cent.; from 1840 to
1850 it was 11,834, nearly 200 per cent. ; from 1850 to 1860
it was only 772; and from 1860 to 1870 the increase was
12,720, being over 70 per cent. Of the whole population
in 1870 (31,274), 23,663 were of native, and 7611 of foreign
birth; 29,427 were white, and 1847 colored.
Commerce.—Its shipments and receipts are by rail and
canal, principally by rail. The cash capital employed in
trade amounted in 1872 to $3,034,400, and the sales to
$13,281,450.20. The leading commodity is coal. The geo-
graphical situation of Columbus, with a vast coalless dis-
trict extending N. and N. W. of..it for hundreds of miles,
its accessibility to a coal-seam of enormous quantity and
superior quality, make it a great outlet for the article. The
shipments of coal over the Hocking Valley road for 1872
were 433,936 tons; the number of tons is expected to reach
over 1,000,000. for 1873. This is a new road to the mines;
shipments were formerly made by canal. 2
Manufactures.—The principal article manufactured here
is furniture, of which there are three large factories, em-
ploying a cash capital of $193,000 and 355 hands; products
for 1872, $900,000. Car-building is also carried on very
extensively, giving employment to 300 hands; a capital of
$400,000 is employed; the products in 1872 reached
$1,500,000. Of rolling-mills, iron-furnaces, and pipe-works
there are five large establishments, employing 1200 hands,
with a capital of $1,000,000; products for 1872, $2,600,000.
The manufacture of boots and shoes is carried on here by
two firms, employing a capital of $230,000 and 220 hands;
products for 1872, $690,000. In the manufacture of re-
galias one firm employs a cash capital of $35,000 and 80
hands; products for 1872, $120,000. In edge-tool manu-
facturing two firms employ a capital of $210,000, with 180
hands; products for 1872, $350,000.
Finances.—From April 8, 1872, to April 8, 1873:
Receipts... * $213,112.30
Disbursements ....... 212,309.29
The valuation of property on the city duplicate for the
year 1872–
Real estate $15,718,240.00
Chattel property....................................... 8,677,610.00
Total .#24,395,850.00
COLUMBUS, .
1041
The city levy by the city council for 1872 was eight and
eight-tenths mills. The following statement shows the taxes
levied for all purposes for 1873: -
State debt......... $20,223.76
General revenue............................................ 15,167.82
Asylum 27,807.67
Common schools 25,279.70
Total State taxes $88,478.95
County 25,279.70
Poor.............................................................. 20,223.76
Bridge........................................................... 40,446.52
Building......... .............................................. 10,111.88
Infirmary building * ......... 25,279.70
Agricultural college...... 10,111.88
City Schools................................................... 176,957.90
Corporation purposes 240,157.15
Total taxes levied $637,048.44
Valuation of lots $16,368,250
Valuation of chattels 8,911,450
Total valuation................. © º º º ºs e g º e º e º e º ſº º tº e º se e º e is $25,279,700
Debt.—The total funded debt of the city on April 8,
1872, was $888,000, since which time there have been added
—new city hall, $10,000; extension of waterworks, $50,000;
completion of sewers, $62,000; total funded debt April 10,
1873, $1,010,000. The floating debt of the city is $60,000.
There is due the city on tax duplicates for December and
June, $105,436.72, which will more than cover the floating
debt and current expenses.
City Courts and Prisons.—There is one city court, pre-
sided over by the mayor, two common pleas courts, and one
probate court. There is a county prison and a State pen-
itentiary. The latter contained during 1872 an average
of 10.143-5 convicts. The number remaining in the prison
Oct. 31, 1872, was—from State courts, males, 905; females,
27; from U. S. courts, males, 16; from U. S. military
courts, males, 7; total, 955.
There are also two houses of reformation. Number of
inmates in 1872, women, 65; children, 123; total, 188.
Education.—Columbus is the seat of Capitol University
(Lutheran); cost of buildings, $80,000. It has 5 professors
and 4 tutors. Its library contains 2500 volumes. The
regular course requires two and a half years. Its income
is derived from the Lutheran synod of Ohio. The Ohio
Agricultural and Mechanical College has 10 professors. It
has funds as follows: Proceeds from sale of land, $435,000;
donation of Franklin co., O., to the college in bonds,
$300,000; total, $735,000. It was opened for students in
1873. Terms, $1.4 per session of five months. The Starling
Medical College has 13 professors, 70 students (1872), and
an endowment of $35,000 by Lyne Starling. This college.
contains a well-stored museum and an unrivalled chemical
laboratory. Terms, $50 per course.
The public schools are as follows: high school, 1; gram-
mar Schools, 25; primary and ungraded, 74; total, 100.
Number of teachers in high school, 7; in grammar schools,
27; in primary and ungraded schools, 71; of music, 1;
superintendent and, assistants, 4; total number (men 14,
women 96), 110. Number of pupils in high school, 211;
in grammar Schools, 1714; in primary and ungraded schools,
4129; total, 6054.
Number of youths, in 1872, between five and twenty-
Olle Y&TS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,117
Number of School buildings owned........................... 25
&c & 4 tć TOOInS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
{{ “ recitation-rooms, offices, etc..................... 38
“ “ seats for pupils S. - - - - - - - - - 5,379
Value of School sites.................................................. $123,550
{{ “ buildings................................ ......... 269,650
{{ {{ furniture.......................................... 15,841
Total value of School property........................ $409,041
The total receipts for public schools (1872) were $162,543.50;
the disbursements for the same period were $150,016.10;
which sum includes $68,453.05 for superintendent’s and
teachers’ salaries, also $32,452.81 for buildings erected. The
funded debt of the board of education consists of $50,000 in
bonds dated Aug. 1, 1870.
Private Schools.-St. Mary’s of the Springs (Roman Cath-
olic), number of teachers, 15. In 1872 there were 120
boarding pupils. Its income is from tuition; the cost for
the same is, including board, per session of five months,
$70, $75, $80, and $90, according to the studies pursued.
There is a library of 400 volumes. St. Aloysius's Seminary
(Roman Catholic) has 4 professors; number of students for
1872, 30. It derives its chief support from the Catholics
of the diocese of Columbus. A library of 700 volumes is
connected with it. In the Roman Catholic schools the
number of teachers is 20, of pupils 1100. Their income is
derived from donations of the Roman Catholic Church.
Salaries paid the teachers, $6000; value of school property,
$30,000; number of rooms, 20; number of buildings, 4.
There are two business colleges; attendance in 1872, 391;
number of teachers, 9.
225.
Libraries.—Ohio State Library has 31,984 volumes; ad-
ditions made in 1872, 959 volumes; income from State
taxation 1842–52, $5600; from 1824–42 appropriations,
varying from $350 to $1000, were annually made for the
same. Appropriation in 1872, $5000; disbursements in
1872, $4894.43. The Public Library has 2060 volumes; in-
come derived from taxation (new). The Circulating Li-
brary has 900 volumes; income derived from membership
fee. The Young Men’s Catholic Library has 700 volumes;
income derived from membership fee. Law Library (State)
has 5418 volumes; additions in 1872, 276 volumes.
Newspapers and Periodicals.-Daily, 2, circulation, 4500;
weekly, 7, circulation, 27,000; semi-weekly, 2, circulation,
1500; periodicals, monthly, 5, circulation, 25,500.
Churches.—Number, 43; number of sittings, 25,000;
value, $1,200,000; membership, 14,100. Those of remark-
able architectural beauty are the St. Joseph’s cathedral
(Roman Catholic), which cost $250,000, built of solid sand-
stone; next come the Trinity (Episcopal) and the First
and Second Presbyterian.
JBenevolent and Charitable Institutions, etc.—Number, 48.
Hospitals 2, one city and one presided over by the Sisters
of St. Francis, inmates in 1872; 250; infirmary; 1, number
of inmates in 1872, 300; asylum for insane, 1, completed
in 1874; orphan asylum, 1, inmates 50 in 1872; home for
aged, 1, inmates in 1872, 70; for children, 1, inmates in
1872, 80; . for the friendless, 1, inmates 170 in 1872.
There is one deaf and dumb asylum. Cost of build-
ing, $625,000; value of ground, etc., $900,000; expenses
for 1872—salaries for teachers, $16,825; current expenses,
$56,216.49; total, $73,041.49; actual cost per pupil (1872),
$216.09; number of inmates in 1872, 390—231 males,
166 females; number of teachers, 26. The inmates are
classified as follows: scientific, 29; grammar, 84; primary,
Departments of trade: printing, book-binding, and
shoemaking. There is one institution for idiotic and im-
becile youth. In 1872 the number of inmates was 212—
males 72, females 140; number of teachers, 11; cost of
buildings, $275,000. There is one blind institute. Cost
of building, $318,000. Number of pupils in 1872, 112;
expenses, $29,225; total number admitted, 752; num-
ber of teachers, 14. There are 2 children’s aid societies,
attendance 140 in 1872. The relief and aid societies num-
ber 9. Of Masonic bodies the membership is 400; Odd
Fellows, number 16, members 2600; Druids, number 5,
members 600; Good Templars, number 2, members 300;
Knights of Pythias 4, members 300; Knighthood 4, mem-
bers 367; Red Men 3, members 470; Catholic benevolent
societies 4, members 700.
Public Buildings of Note.—The State-house is a grand
and attractive edifice, of great solidity and magnitude,
Doric in its style of architecture. It covers two acres of
ground, is a bold and noble structure, and is built of beau-
tiful gray limestone. The cost of the building complete
was $1,359,121. The time consumed in building it was
fifteen years. Height of building from ground to top of
blocking course, 61 feet; to pinnacle of cupola, 158 feet;
total number of rooms in the building, 53. The Blind In-
stitute, cost $318,000. The architectural character is Eng-
lish, of the later period of Elizabeth. The central arcaded
portico is of cut stone, flanked on either side by cast-iron
piazzas of the same general character. The Deaf and
Dumb Asylum is built of brick, elaborately trimmed with
lime and sandstone; cost, $625,000. The front of the build-
ing is 270 feet in length. It is surmounted by seven towers,
the central one 115 feet high. The new Insane Asylum,
which is still in progress, consists of, first, ashlar stone
three feet four inches high ; on this cut-stone belt-course
rests the brickwork proper of the superstructure. It is
one mile around the outside walls, and is estimated to cost
$1,200,000. St. Joseph’s Cathedral (Roman Catholic) is a
vast and noble structure, Gothic in the style of its archi-
tecture. The material of the walls is Sandstone, of a kind
which becomes hardened by exposure to the atmosphere.
Dimensions, 92 by 185 feet. It will cost $250,000. The
spire is to be 250 feet in height. Trinity Church (Prot-
estant Episcopal) is Gothic in style, built of sandstone, in
the shape of a cross; it is an imposing edifice; cost, $70,000.
The city hall, 1873 feet long by 80 wide, cost $210,000, and
the opera-house (building) will cost $120,000. There is an
Odd Fellows’ Temple costing $75,000. A new union dépôt
is in course of erection, to cost $300,000. There are two
well-located public parks of good size. The city railroads
are four in number; miles of route, 1.1#; capital, $227,000;
cost, $183,000. There are three national banks.
The steam railways centering in the city are the Balti-
more and Ohio (Central Ohio division), the Columbus and
Iłocking Valley R. R., the Pittsburg Cincinnati and St.
Louis, and the Cleveland Columbus Cincinnati and Indian-
apolis R. Rs. Two new roads are building—one from
here to Toledo, and one to Cleveland.
Great Britain, the first public sale of lots took place.
1042
The waterworks are public, and cost $424,299.51; length
of pipe laid, 23% miles. There are 184 fire-hydrants and
113 stop-valves; 550,000 gallons of water can be supplied
every twenty-four hours. The gasworks are private; cap-
ital $400,000. Twenty-four miles of main pipe have been
laid in the streets. The gas-consumers number 2100. There
are 661 street-lamps.
FIistory.—Columbus was selected for the capital of Ohio
in 1812, as the State wanted a capital at or very near the
COLUMBUS.
centre. Chillicothe was originally the seat of government.
In Feb., 1810, the legislature appointed five commissioners
to examine and select the most eligible site. In their re-
port to the legislature, dated Sept. 12, 1810, the commis-
Sioners recommended a site twelve miles above Franklin-
ton, now a part of Columbus (made so by annexation in
1872). At the session in 1812 a company composed of
Lyne Starling, John Kerr, Alexander McLaughlin, and
James Johnston proposed that the legislature establish
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the seat of the State government on the high bank E. of
the Scioto River, nearly opposite Franklinton. The same
company made proposals for the erection of a State-house,
penitentiary, and other public buildings, the same to be
completed by 1817. An act was passed Feb. 14, 1812, ac-
cepting the proposals and -bond of the company, and per-
manently establishing the seat of government on the lands
named therein, the legislature to commence their sessions
there on the first Monday of Dec., 1817, and there con-
tinue to May, 1840, and from thence until otherwise pro-
vided by law. The refugee lands upon which our State cap-
ital was located comprised a narrow tract of four miles
wide from N. to S., and extended forty-eight miles east-.
wardly from the Scioto River. On the 18th of June, 1812,
the same day on which the U. S. declared war against
In
1814 the “Western Intelligencer’’ was removed from
Worthington to this city, and the title changed. The first
saw-mill was built in 1813. The first tavern was opened in
1813; the first school in 1814; the first census taken in
1815; the first market-house erected in 1814; the first
bridge over the Scioto River was built in 1813. Two
churches were built in 1814—a Methodist and Presbyterian ;
both log cabins. The town was incorporated on the 10th of
Feb., 1816. A U. S. court-house was erected in 1820. The
first saengerfest of the North American Saengerbund ever
held in Columbus took place June 5 and 7, 1852. (See
STUDER: “Columbus, its History, Resources, and Prog-
ress,” 1873.) JACOB H. STUDER.
Columbus, a township and post-borough of Warren
co., Pa., on the Atlantic and Great Western and the Phila-
delphia and Erie R. Rs., 27 miles W. N. W. of Warren,
Pa. Pop. 1257.
Columbus, a city, capital of Colorado co., Tex., on
the W. bank of the Colorado River, 95 miles S. E. of Austin
City. It is the W. terminus of the Galveston Harrisburg
and San Antonio R. R. The river is crossed by a railroad
bridge. The trade of Columbus is extensive. It has one
weekly newspaper, and is the seat of Colorado College.
Columbus, a post-village of Columbia, co., Wis., on
Crawfish River and the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., 63
It has one national bank
Pop. 1888; of Columbus
miles W. N. W. of Milwaukee.
and two weekly newspapers.
township, 2840.
Columbus (Don BARTHOLOMEW) was a younger brother
of Christopher Columbus, whom he accompanied in his
second voyage to America in 1493. He was appointed gov-
ernor of Hispaniola, where he founded the town of St.
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State-house, Columbus, O.
Domingo in 1496, and showed himself an able commander.
He died in St. Domingo in 1514. -
Columbus [It. Colombo ; Sp. Colon], (CHRISTOPHER),
the discoverer of America, was born at Genoa in 1436. His
origin was humble and obscure, and accounts of his early
life are meagre. His son and biographer, Fernando Colom-
bo, wrote: “ The admiral tells us himself in a letter that
his occupation, like that of his ancestors, was to traffic on
the sea.” His father, Dominico Colombo, according to
some writers, was a wool-carder. In a will made 1594 he
calls himself “formerly a weaver” (olim teactor pammorum).
His mother's name was Susanna Fontanarossa. There
were three sons, and a daughter who married a butcher.
Of his education and early life Columbus wrote in a letter
to the king of Castile (1501): “In my young years I was
a sailor, and I have continued to follow the sea to this day;
it is the art which they should pursue who wish to know
the secrets of this world. I occupied myself much with
navigation; with astronomy, geometry, arithmetic I was
not less familiar. I had a hand sufficiently skilled and
enough of knowledge to draw the terrestrial globe, with the
position of cities, mountains, rivers, and all ports that there
were. While quite young I studied books of cosmography, .
history, philosophy, and other sciences; it is that which
has aided me in my undertaking.” He studied at the Uni-
versity of Pavia, and went to sea at fourteen. He mentions
in letters the command of a cruiser in the service of René,
count of Provence, and voyages to the Archipelago, as well
as one in 1477 to the isle of Thule, which he says the mod-
erns call Friesland (a supposed typographical error for Ice-
land). There is an account of a cruise upon four Venetian
galleys, richly laden, when Columbus jumped from his
burning ship and swam two leagues by the aid of an oar
to the Portuguese coast, and walked to Lisbon, where he
found several Genoese. Some say that he went to Lisbon
voluntarily in 1470, attracted by the fame of the Portuguese
prince, Henry. Las Casas describes him at this period as
having a long face, ruddy in places, an aquiline nose, clear
gray eyes, a quick, commanding glance, and light hair,
His dress
was simple. He expressed himself easily and eloquently.
Gentle and kind, he warmly attached those to him who
knew him intimately. His temper, naturally irascible, he
had learned to control. Always attentive to the duties of .
religion, his piety consisted above all in doing good to his
fellows. He fell in love with and married Filipa Moñis
de Palestrello, who was in the convent where he went to
pray. Her father was an able navigator, governor of Porto
Santo, but poor, and leaving little but charts and instru-



COLUMBUS—COLUMN.
1043
mentS.
tain his father and educate his brothers by making maps
and charts. He went on expeditions to West Africa. He
lived some time at Porto Santo, where his wife bore a son
named Diego. Here he heard of great reeds and a bit of
carved wood seen out at sea floating from the west. The
idea of a western ocean-way to India gradually occupied
his mind, fed by ancient tradition and contemporary specu-
lations. Toscanelli, an Italian mathematician, had written,
at the instance of King Affonso of Portugal, instructions
for a western route to Asia. With him Columbus entered
into a correspondence, which greatly strengthened his
theories. He applied for means to accomplish this voyage
to Genoa and to John II. of Portugal, who long kept him
waiting with half promises. His wife died, and he
left Portugal in indignation. He lived (1484–86) at the
Franciscan convent of St. Mary’s of Rabida in Andalusia,
whither he had wandered, impoverished, with his son. The
prior took an interest in his plans, and gave him letters to
Fernando de Talevera, confessor to Queen Isabella. He
plied the court with untiring solicitations, following the
king and queen on all their expeditions against the Moors,
until he was granted two small vessels, with the title of viceroy
or governor-general of all the lands that he might discover.
On the 3d of Aug., 1492, he sailed from Palos, with 120 men,
in the Niña, Pinta, and Santa Maria. He stopped several
weeks at the Canary Islands. After he had sailed a great dis-
tance over an unknown sea, the crew became dismayed, impa-
tient, and finally mutinous. They had begun to talk of throw-
ing him overboard when land was discovered, on the 12th
of Oct., 1492. This was Sam Salvador (Cat Island), or per-
haps Watling’s Island, one of the Bahamas. He soon dis-
covered Cuba and Hispaniola (Hayti), and returned to
Spain in Mar., 1493. He was received with abundant
demonstrations of honor and joy by the public and the
court, which gave him the title of admiral. In Sept., 1493,
he sailed with seventeen ships on a second expedition, dur-
ing which he discovered Jamaica, Porto Rico, and other
islands, founded a colony. in Hispaniola, and returned to
Spain in June, 1496. He commenced a third voyage in
May, 1498, and visited the Terra Firma at the mouth of
the Orinoco. Francisco de Bobadilla was sent to the West
Indies in 1500, with power to supersede Columbus as gov-
ernor. By his order Columbus was carried in chains to
Spain in 1501. The public expressed such indignation at
this ill-treatment that King Ferdinand disavowed the
conduct of Bobadilla, but declined to reinstate Columbus in
his office. Having sailed on his fourth voyage in May,
1502, he explored the coasts of Honduras and Costa Rica,
but was shipwrecked and escaped to Jamaica, which island
he left, after long hardships, for Spain, June 28, 1504.
Died May 20, 1506, at Walladolid.
The life of Columbus by his son, Don Diego Colom, ap-
peared in Barcia’s “Historiadores Primativos.” (vol. i.,
Madrid, 1749). The relation of the first voyage by him-
self was published (Madrid, 1825–37) in Navarrete’s “Viages
de los Españoles,” first and second volumes. This also ap-
peared with notes by Cuvier, Balbi, Rémusat, and others
in “Relations des quatre voyages, suivres par divers let-
tres et pieces inedites” (3 vols., Paris, 1828). Torre has
published a collection of his writings in Italian. (See also
his Life by IRVING, ARTHUR HELPs, LAMARTINE, and
SPOTORNO, Leipsic, 1823, and HUMBOLDT’s “Examen Cri-
tique de l’histoire de la geographie.”) The authenticity
of Columbus' discoveries has of late been sharply ques-
tioned.
Columbus, or Colon (DIEgo), the eldest son of the
preceding, was born at Lisbon about 1472. He accom-
panied his father on the second voyage, and became gov-
ernor of the West Indies soon after his death. He married
Doña Maria de Toledo, a daughter of one of the grandees
of Spain. His right to the office of viceroy of the New
World was recognized by Charles W. Died in 1526.
Columbus, or Colon (Don FERNANDo), the biogra-
pher of the discoverer, was an illegitimate child of the
same and Beatrix Henriques, a noble lady of Cordova. He
was born Aug. 15, 1488, accompanied his father on his
fourth voyage, and afterwards devoted himself to study and
contemplation, collecting around him men of science and
gathering a library of 12,000 volumes, which he willed to
the cloister of St. Paul in Seville. Died about 1541.
Columbus, or Colon (Louis), son of Admiral Diego,
withdrew his rights to the viceroyalty of India. 1540, and
received the title of duke of Veragua and marquis of
Jamaica and a pension. With Diego, the fourth ad-
miral, son of Christopher, second son of the great Colum-
bus, the male line became extinct.
Colum/bus City, a township and post-village of
Louisa Co., La., near the crossing of the Burlington Cedar
Rapids and Minnesota and the Chicago Rock Island and
Columbus supported his family, and helped sus-,
Pacific R. R.s., and 40 miles N. of Burlington. It has one
national bank and one weekly newspaper. Pop. of town-
ship, 2344.
R. H. MooRE, ED. Louis.A County “ SAFEGUARD.”
Columbus Grove, a post-village of Pleasant town-
ship, Putnam co., O., on the Dayton and Michigan R. R.,
84 miles N. of Dayton. Pop. 578.
Colum/busville, a village of Newtown township,
Queen’s co., N. Y. Pop. 1251.
Columel’la [a diminutive of the Lat. columna, a “col-
umn”], in botany, the remaining central column or axis
formed of the placentas when the carpels of certain fruits
have separated; also the axis of the capsules of mosses.
In conchology, the upright pillar around which the whorls
of univalve shells are wound is called the columella.
Columella (LUCIUs JUNIUs MoDERATUs), an ancient
Roman rural economist, born at Cadiz (Gades), in Spain.
He flourished about 20–40 A. D., and was a practical cul-
tivator of the soil. He passed the greater part of his life
near Rome. He is the author of an important Latin work
entitled “De Re Rustică,” which is a copious and systematic
treatise on agricultural and rural affairs in twelve books,
one of which is in verse. His Latinity is nearly pure. .
Col’umn [Lat. columna], in architecture, a cylinder of
stone or wood used to support a roof, an entablature, or an
arch. In countries where forests abound the earliest columns
would be made of the trunks of trees, and in India, in AS-
syria, Persia, and Asia Minor we find the stone columns of
a later age imitating in the shapes of their shafts the forms
of carpentry, and in the capitals the blocks of wood by
which the shafts were surmounted for the purpose of giving
a better bearing to the weight the column must carry. But
we may be sure that utility would be the first consideration,
and that it was late when the artist began to decorate the
parts that originally were merely constructive. The Egyp-
tians did not confine themselves to the use of cylindrical
columns, but had them of many forms—square, hexagonal,
and Pococke (quoted by Gwilt) mentions one, at least, tri-
angular in plan. Some of them are smooth on the surface,
and these are ornamented with hieroglyphics. Others look
as if they were composed of bundles of rods or stems tied
together at intervals by bands. These are less elegant in
form than the Gothic columns which they recall, and were
perhaps no more based upon an imitation of stems of trees
bound together in the one case than in the other. Cer-
tainly, the clustered columns of the Gothic architecture
were not based upon any such imitation. The porticoes
of some of the grottoes at Beni-Hassan are supported by
pillars, polygons of sixteen sides in plan, “each slightly
fluted, except the inner face, which was left flat for the
purpose of introducing a line of hieroglyphics.” These
columns have no bases, and each is crowned with an abacus
only slightly exceeding the diameter of the summit, which
in its turn is only slightly less than that of the bottom of .
the column. From their resemblance to the Doric column
of the Greeks, those of the Beni-Hassan grottoes have been
called Proto-Doric, but there is no proof whatever of any
connection between the two. -
The Greeks in early times employed the so-called Doric
and Ionic columns, of which the Ionic seems to have been
by far the earlier brought over from Asia, though all the
most ancient temples of Greece whose ruins are in exist-
ence to-day belonged to the Doric style. As the reader
will find descriptions and engravings of each of the Greek
“ orders” as they are called, “Doric,” “Ionic,” and “Co-
rinthian,” in their proper places, we shall not describe
them here. It is necessary to remark, however, that while
there can be no doubt that many features in Indian
architecture and in the architecture of Assyria, Persia,
and Asia Minor are reminiscences of wooden forms, there
is no such reminiscence to be found in the Greek Doric,
though there may be possibly in the capital of the Ionic
column. The Doric is essentially a stone construction, and
its supposed origin in the imitation of carpentry forms is
purely imaginary. The Greek columns were generally com-
posed of many cylindrical pieces, placed one upon another
until the requisite height was attained. These were cut in
the nearest quarry, and being attached in couples by means
of an axle fixed in holes drilled in the centre of each, in-
tended finally for iron clamps, they were rolled as wheels
to the site of the building they were to adorn. When they
had been placed in position, and well strengthened by iron
clamps, the outer surfaces were dressed to give the column
the look of being made of a single stone. When the ma-
terial was of fine marble, this could be perfectly done, as
the Greeks excelled in making joints, but where the stone
was coarse or defective, they covered the whole shaft with
a coating of stucco.
The Greeks ornamented all their shafts with longitudinal
incisions, which we call flutes. In the so-called Doric col-
104.4
COLUMN-COMANCHE INDIANS.
umns these incisions are about twenty in number; this is
the case with all the Athenian examples, but “at Paestum
the exterior order of the great temple,” says Gwilt, “has
twenty-four, the lower interior order twenty, and the upper
interior sixteen only.” These flutings are separated from
each other in all Greek examples by a sharp edge, but
“ their horizontal section varies in different examples. In
some the flutes are formed by segments of circles; in others
the form approaches that of an ellipse.” The sole use of
these flutes is to break up the light on the surface of the
column, and to increase the effect of perpendicularity.
The Doric column, as found in the Parthenon at Athens, was
the last result of the exquisite sense of refinement in form
possessed by the Greek architect, and every portion of it is
in symmetry with those scientific laws which in the last
analysis are one with beauty. The Romans employed the
Corinthian in preference to any of the other orders, though
the Greeks rarely used it except in small buildings, such as
the Temple of the Winds and the Monument of Lysicrates.
The Romans also made use of a capital formed by a union
of the Corinthian and the Ionic, to which the name of
“Composite ” has been given, but it has nothing to recom-
mend it.
When the Christian religion arose in the decaying days
of the Roman empire, the new sect had need of buildings
for their worship, and in erecting new ones made use of
the materials abundantly supplied at first by the ruins of the
temples and palaces. In this way the Roman columns were
worked into buildings with which they had no affinity, and
it was only with the exhaustion of the supply, and with
the necessity of new materials, that the antique forms
were developed naturally to meet the new requirements,
and the Gothic column was created—an old body with a
new soul. In the Gothic system there is no longer a fixed
order of proportions, as with the Greeks, but the architect
followed the law of his own eye, both in proportion and in
decoration, and the consequence is a great variety in both,
and great inequality in excellence. The Gothic columns
were developed from the precedent forms of both Greek
and Roman architecture, and we find in the vast variety
of their capitals and bases all three forms in embryo.
In the time of the Renaissance there was an effort to
return to the classic forms, but the result was chiefly a new
combination and a new individuality. The Gothic could
not be entirely shaken off, nor the spirit of the classic
fully entered into, and the Renaissance column therefore
has distinct traces of the influences under which it was
formed. Since the introduction of iron no new develop-
ments of the column have been introduced, as might have
been hoped, but builders have contented themselves with
imitating in the new material the forms that belong to
stone and wood alone, and which have no meaning when
employed in a material different in its nature from both.
CLARENCE Cook.
Column [from the Lat. columna, a “pillar”] signifies,
in military tactics, a mass of soldiers several ranks in
depth, as opposed to fine. There may be columns of brig-
ades, of regiments, of divisions, or of companies, present-
ing a depth depending on the number of elements in the
column. In a battalion the formation is called open column
when the distance between the elements of the column is
such as to admit of their wheeling into line; when the
distance is only a few yards it is termed close column, or
“column closed in mass;” when intermediate between these
two, it is “ column at half distance.” Battalions are drawn
up in column with either the right or left in front, or the
battalions may be doubled upon their centres. To pass
from column to line is to “deploy;” to pass from line to
column is to “ploy.” The relative advantages of column
and line in drawing up troops for action are among the
matters closely studied by the commanders of armies.
Sometimes the name column is given to a small army,
especially when engaged in active operations.
Colure [Lat. colurus ; Gr. kóAovpos, from kóAos, “clip-
ped,” and otpá, a “tail,” perhaps because a part is always
below the horizon], one of the two great circles of the celes-
tial sphere which intersect each other at right angles in the
poles of the equator. The equinoctial colure passes through
the equinoctial points, and the other is called the solstitial
colure.
Colu'sa, a county in the N. W. of California. Area,
2200 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Sacra-
mento River, and drained by Sycamore and other creeks.
The Coast Range of mountains extends along the western
border. The soil is generally fertile. Wool, wheat, bar-
ley, and cattle are raised. Capital, Colusa. Pop. 6165.
Colusa, a post-village, capital of the above county, is
on the Sacramento River, 50 miles in a direct line N. N. W.
of Sacramento. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1051;
of township, 2.193. -
Col’ver (NATHANIEL), D. D., a Baptist divine, born at
Orwell, Vt., in 1794, entered the ministry in 1836, became
eminent as a preacher and as an opponent of slavery. He
preached in Boston, Detroit, Cincinnati, and Chicago, and
founded the Colver Institute at Richmond, Va., after the
civil war. Died Sept. 25, 1870.
Colvocores'ses (GEORGE M.), an American naval of.
ficer, born in Greece, entered the navy as midshipman in
1832, served with honor in the civil war, and was placed on
the retired list as captain in 1867. He was murdered at
Bridgeport, Conn., June 3, 1872.
Col'Well (STEPHEN), an American author, born in
Brooke co., Va., Mar. 25, 1800, practised law and became
an iron-merchant of Philadelphia; wrote religious, polit-
ical, and commercial works. Died Jan. 15, 1871.
Colyar (ARTHUR ST. CLAIR). See APPENDIX.
Colym'bidae [from Colymbus, one of the general, the
name applied to web-footed birds having short wings, and
legs placed so far back that when standing they assume an
erect position, and a compressed bill, pointed at the tip.
The three principal genera are the divers, including the
loon (Colymbus), which have the front toes webbed; and
the grebes (Podiceps and Podilymbus), with the feet lobed,
each toe with a separate membrane. They are aquatic in
their habits, and possess great powers of diving and swim-
ming. Several species occur in America.
Col’za, a variety of rutabaga or Swedish turnip (Bras-
sica campestris), which is cultivated for its seeds, from
which oil similar to rapeseed oil is made in Europe. The
oil is used for lamps, lighthouses and machinery, and the
leaves and refuse seeds after the oil is expressed are fed to
cattle and sheep. The roots are not bulbous.
Co’ma [from the Gr. kówm, “ hair"), in astronomy, the
nebulous envelope of a comet's nucleus. In botany, the
name is sometimes given to the head or top of a tree, and
also to the hairy crest of certain seeds.
Coma [Gr. kóp.a, “ heavy sleep ’’], a medical term sig-
nifying a state of lethargy or unnatural profound sleep. It
occurs in apoplexy, epilepsy, and other diseases of the brain.
The patient is quite or nearly insensible to external impres-
sions. Coma is also seen in narcotic poisoning. In the fatal
forms the breathing is stertorous, the pupils of the eyes
contracted or dilated, insensible to light, and immovable.
Co’ma Bereni'ces (i.e. “Berenice's Hair”), a small
constellation of the northern hemisphere, between Boötes
and the tail of Leo. (See BERENICE.)
Comac/chio (anc. Comacula), a fortified town of Italy,
province of Ferrara, is 3 miles from the Adriatic and 29
miles E. S. E. of Ferrara. It is situated in the marshes
of Comacchio, in which great numbers of eels are caught.
These and other fish are cured in an excellent manner. It
is the seat of a bishop, and has salt-works. Pop. 6475.
Comal’, a county near the central part of Texas. Area,
575 square miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by the Cibolo,
and intersected by the Guadalupe River. The surface is
hilly, the soil fertile, producing cotton, corn, and fruit.
There is some timber and plenty of building-stone. There
are manufactures of saddlery, harness, and various other
goods. Capital, New Braunfels. Pop. 5283.
Coma/ma, an ancient city of Cappadocia, on the river
Sarus, was the site of a temple of Artemis-Tauropolis.
Comana was ruled by the chief priest, next in rank to the
king. The site is now occupied by El-Bostán. r
Coman/che, a county in the S. W. of Kansas, bounded
on the S. by Indian Territory. Area, 800 square miles. It
is bisected diagonally by Crooked or Nescutunga Creek.
Coman’che, a county in N. Central Texas. Area,
1050 square miles. It is intersected by the Leon River.
The surface is partly hilly. A range called the Comanche
Mountains extends along the south-western border. The
soil is fertile. The W. part of the county is covered with
forests. Corn, wheat, and cattle are raised. Capital, Co-
manche. Pop. 1001, according to the census of 1870, which,
however, reports the return of population as incomplete.
Comanche, a post-village, capital of Comanche co.,
Tex. -
Coman’che In/dians, or Camanches, a warlike
tribe of American savages who roam over the northern
part of Texas and of Mexico. They are nomadic, and
range over a wide extent of territory, including part of
New Mexico and the valley of the Rio Grande. They have
large numbers of horses. Their principal occupations are
robbery and war. They always fight on horseback, and
have some firearms, but more commonly use the bow and
arrow. They are by treaty placed upon a large reservation
in the S. W. part of the Indian Territory, with some Kio-
ways and Apaches. . The Comanches were estimated in
COMARCA–COMET.
1045
1872 at 3180 souls. They appear to be of the same stock
with the Shoshonees or Snakes.
Comar/ca [It..], a judicial district. Comarca di Roma,
the district of Rome and its vicinity, including in partic-
ular Tivoli and Tubiaco.
Comatula. See FEATHER STAR.
Coſma-Wigſil (i. e. “wakeful coma,”), a name some-
times applied to the semi-comatose state observable in cer-
tain cases of fever, etc.
Comaya'gua, formerly Walladolid, a city of Cen-
tral America, the capital of Honduras, on the river Hu-
muva, about 180 miles E. of Guatemala. It is the seat of
a bishop, and has a cathedral, a college, a hospital, and
several convents. It was founded in 1540 by Alonzo de
Cáceres. It was once much larger, but has been visited
repeatedly by war and pestilence. Pop. 8000.
Comb [from the Lat. como, to “comb or dress the hair,”
and more remotely from coma-(Gr. kówn), “hair;” Anglo-
Saxon, camb ; Ger. Kamm . Lat. pecten, Fr. peigne], an
implement used for cleaning the hair, as well as for adjust-
ing and keeping it in place. The ancient Greek and Roman
combs were made of box-wood, but, later, ivory combs came
into use among the Romans, as they had long before among
the Egyptians. Combs are made of tortoise-shell, ivory,
horn, wood, bone, metal, and India-rubber. The old method
of cutting the teeth is by a saw, which has two blades of
steel set parallel to each other, with a space between them
equal to the thickness of the intended tooth. The teeth
are then finished by means of thin, wedge-shaped files.
By these processes the material corresponding to the spaces
between the teeth is wasted; but combs are now made by
a method in which the otherwise wasted material is made
to form the teeth of a second comb. The plate of material
is cut through by means of a cutter, consisting of two thin
chisels inclined to each other; between these, and connect-
ing the ends, is a small cross-chisel. When this cutter
descends with sufficient force upon the plate, it will cut one
of the teeth; while the cutter is rising, the table carrying
the plate is made to advance a distance equal to the thick-
ness of one tooth, and thus the successive cuts are made.
The plate is easily parted into two combs, the teeth of which
only require filing and finishing. India-rubber combs are
made by pressing the material into the required form in
moulds, and “vulcanizing” or combining it with sulphur
afterwards.
Combaco/num, an ancient city of Hindostan, in the
Carnatic, 20 miles E. of Tanjore. It is regarded as a holy
city by the Hindoos, and has numerous pagodas and tanks,
the water of which is supposed to be capable of washing
away sin. Pop. estimated at 40,000.
Combe (ANDREW), M. D., born in Edinburgh Oct. 27,
1797, wrote “The Principles of Physiology Applied to the
Preservation of Health '' (1834), often reprinted, and the
“Physiology of Digestion ” (1836). Died Aug. 9, 1847.
Combe (GEORGE), a phrenologist, a brother of the pre-
ceding, born in Edinburgh Oct. 21, 1788, practised law in
his native city for many years. He produced in 1819 “Es-
says on Phrenology” and “The Constitution of Man Con-
sidered in Relation to External Objects” (1828; 9th ed. 1860).
He married in 1833 a daughter of Mrs. Siddons, the actress.
In 1838 he visited the U. S. and delivered lectures on phre-
nology. Died Aug. 14, 1858.
Combermere, Wiscounts (1827), Barons Combermere
(1814, United Kingdom), and baronets (1677).-WELLING-
TON HENRY STAPLETON COTTON, second viscount, born Nov.
24, 1818, was M. P. for Carrickfergus 1847–57, and suc-
ceeded his father Feb. 22, 1865.
Com/bermere (STAPLETON Cotton), WISCOUNT, an
English general, born Nov. 17, 1773. He served in India,
and in 1810 obtained command of the cavalry under the
duke of Wellington. At the battle of Salamanca, 1812, he
was severely wounded. In 1814 he was raised to the peer-
age, in 1825 he became commander-in-chief in India, and
a field-marshal in 1855. Died Feb. 21, 1865.
Combi'nant, in mathematics, is a covariant (or inva-
riant) of two or more quantities, which possesses the addi-
tional property of remaining unaltered, a factor excepted,
when the quantities are replaced by linear functions of
themselves. - -
Combination. See Co-OPERATION, by HoN. THOMAS
HUGHES, M. P., and TRADE UNIONS:
Combination, Alternation of Position.
PERMUTATION.
Combreta/ceae [from Combretum, one of the generaj, a
natural order of exogenous plants, trees, or shrubs, mostly
natives of tropical countries, and distinguished by a con-
volute embryo. They possess astringency, and some of
them are employed in dyeing. The order comprises about
See
200 known species. There are in the Southern U. S. several
unimportant shrubs of this order, and one large tree, the
Terminalia Catappa, which grows in Florida and the East
and West Indies, and produces an edible nut resembling
the almond.
Combs (LESLIE), GENERAL, a lawyer, born in Kentucky
in 1794. He served with great distinction as an officer in
the war of 1812, afterwards practised law in his native
State, and became a prominent Whig politician and gen-
eral of militia.
Combus’tion [Lat. combustio, from con, intensive, and
wro, w8twm, to “burn "J, the process of burning, which
usually consists in the union of oxygen with the combus-
tible substance. The evolving of heat and light which
attends the process of combustion announces intense chem-
ical action. Some substances burn at ordinary tempera-
tures, such as phosphorus, which glows when exposed to
the air; wood, coal, etc. require to be raised in tempera-
ture before they possess the power of combining with the
oxygen of the air. Chlorine and some other gases may be
made to support combustion in certain limited circum-
stances. Different combustible substances give off differ-
ent amounts of heat. The mode in which the heat evolved
may be measured is either—1. To observe the quantity of
ice which a given weight of the combustible will melt when
burning; 2. To notice the weight of water which the com-
bustible will convert into steam; or, 3. To estimate the
number of pounds of water which the burning body will
raise from 32° to 212° F. The amount of heat evolved ap-
pears to be proportional to the quantity of oxygen required
to burn the various combustibles. The quantity of heat
given out during the combustion of any burning body is
the same whether the burning takes place rapidly or slowly,
yet the sensible heat may vary according to the rapidity
of the process.
CoMBUSTION, SPONTANEOUS.
TION. -
Com/edy [Gr. kougöta, probably from kópros, “festiv-
ity,” and 68%, a “song;” Lat. comoedia; It commedia; Fr.
comédie], a species of drama, of which the characteristics
in modern usage are—that its incidents and language re-
semble those of ordinary life; that the termination of its
intrigue is happy; and that it is distinguished by greater
length and greater complexity of plot from the lighter the-
atrical piece entitled a farce. The original Attic comedy
was a burlesque tragedy in form, in substance a satire on
individuals, and founded on political or other matters of
public interest. The Attic comedies are usually assigned
to three schools—the “old,” the “middle,” and the “new
comedy.” The old comedy lasted till the end of the Pelo-
ponnesian war. It was characterized by personalities,
great freedom and irregularity, and was a powerful polit-
ical engine. The middle comedy was more finished, less
personal and direct in its aims, satirizing systems and
opinions rather than individual men; it ceased with the
Macedonian conquest. The new comedy was very much
like our modern comedy in scope and general character.
Come'gys (CoENELIUS G.), M.D., a native of Delaware,
and professor of the institutes of medicine in Miami Uni-
versity, Oxford, O., published in 1858 a “History of Med-
icine,” 8vo.
Come/nius (John AMOs), a Slavic educational re-
former and philologist, born in 1592, was a Moravian
minister, and taught school at Lesna, in Poland. In 1631
he published “Janua Linguarum Reserata” (“The Gate
of Languages Unlocked”). He went to Sweden in 1642,
and was employed by Oxenstiern in reorganizing the
schools. In 1648 he settled at Amsterdam. Among his
other works are “Opera Didactica” (1657), and “Orbis
Sensualium Pictus” (1658), the original child’s picture-
book. Died Nov. 15, 1671. -
Co’mes (gen. Com’itis), a Latin word signifying a
companion among the later Roman emperors, was the title
of an officer with territorial jurisdiction. It was nearly
equivalent to count or earl. (See Count.)
Com/et [Gr. koujrms (from kópºm, “hair”); Lat. cometa,
so called because its tail was supposed to resemble a lock
of hair], a celestial body revolving about the Sun, generally.
in an extremely elongated orbit, and consisting of exceed-
ingly attenuated matter. The characteristic features of a
comet are—a definite point or nucleus, a nebulous light or
coma around the nucleus, and usually a luminous train or
tail following or preceding the nucleus. Sometimes several
tails are observed on one comet. Formerly, when the train
preceded the nucleus—as is the case when a comet has
passed its perihelion—it was called the beard. Neither
the tail nor the nucleus is now considered absolutely essen-
tial to a comet, but all bodies are classed as comets which
have the peculiar motion of comets and an extremely ec-
See SPONTANEOUS COMBUS-
1046
COMET-FINDER—COMINES.
centric orbit. Among the differences between comets and
planets are the following: planets move in the same direc-
tion from west to east, which is called “ direct motion,” but
the movements of comets are sometimes from east to west,
or retrograde; the orbits of all the planets are limited to a
comparatively narrow zone on either side of the ecliptic, but
the paths of comets cut the ecliptic in nearly every direc-
tion, some being even perpendicular to it; the orbits of all
the planets are nearly circular—the orbits of comets present
every degree of eccentricity. Of 200 comets whose orbits
have been ascertained with more or less accuracy, forty
or more appear to describe ellipses, seven or eight hyper-
bolas, and the rest parabolas. In general, it is held
that comets with parabolic or hyperbolic orbits are only
occasional visitors to the solar system, whose return is not
to be looked for. The discovery that comets are extra-
neous to our atmosphere was made by Tycho Brahe, who
ascertained the fact by observations of the comet of 1557.
Newton demonstrated that they are guided in their move-
ments by the principle which controls the planets; and
Halley was the first, by determining the elements of a num-
ber of comets from recorded observations, to identify the
comet of 1682 with one observed in 1607 and in 1531, and
thus confidently to predict its return at the end of 1758 or
beginning of 1759. The comet passed the perihelion on the
12th of Mar., 1759, exactly a month before the date fixed
upon by astronomers. There are other comets whose pe-
riodicity is established and whose paths are accurately
known; for example, those of ENCKE, PETERs, and FAYE
(which see). -
In 1770, Messier discovered a comet, known as Lexell’s,
which remained visible a long time, and observations showed
the orbit to be an ellipse whose major axis was only three
times the diameter of the earth’s orbit, and indicated a
period of five and a half years. It was impossible to iden-
tify this comet with any before observed, and yet it was
very difficult to conceive that a bright comet with so short a
period should have previously escaped observation. What
was still more remarkable, it was never seen again, though
carefully looked for in the places where according to pre-
vious observations its orbit should have been. It gave
occasion to many sarcasms by the wits of the day at the
expense of astronomers. At present the explanation is
easy. The comet was never seen before 1770, because of its
nearest point to the sun having been as distant as the orbit
of Jupiter. In 1767 it was in such close proximity to
Jupiter, moving in the same direction, and nearly in the
same plane, that the attraction of this great planet entirely
changed its orbit. Its passage to the perihelion in 1776
took place by day, and in 1779, before another return, it
again encountered the vast body of Jupiter, the attraction
of the planet deflecting it into more distant regions, and
so changing the form of the orbit that if it had been again
visible it would not have been recognized. The great comet
of 1680—which gave Newton the means of proving that
comets revolve around the sun in conic sections, and that
they are retained in their orbits by the same force as that
which regulates the movements of the planets—was the
most remarkable for brilliancy among all those of which
we have any authentic account. This comet is supposed
to be the one that appeared about the time of Caesar's death
(44 B.C.), and that seen in the reign of Justinian (531
A. D.), and in 1106. There is, however, some doubt among
astronomers as to these points. This comet came nearer to
the sun than any known, except perhaps the comet of 1843.
It approached the sun within less than 600,000 miles, about
two-thirds of the sun’s diameter. The tail or train of
comets is nearly always turned away from the Sun, fre-
quently assuming a curved form. It increases in length
with its proximity to the sun, but in most cases does not
acquire its greatest length till after its perihelion. . It is
believed to consist of finely-divided matter, which is driven
off from the comet by some unknown force residing in the
Still.
The comets most remarkable for brilliancy in the present
century have been the comets of 1811, of 1843, and of 1858
(Donati's), the latter having a period of about 1950 years,
and an aphelion distance of some 15,000,000,000 miles.
It has been a question among astronomers whether comets
are self-luminous, or merely reflect the light of the sun.
The fact of their becoming invisible in receding from the
sun, though still of considerable apparent size, strongly
leads to the adoption of the latter hypothesis. Experiments
were made by Arago which showed that the light from
comets is partially polarized in the same way that the sun’s
light is reflected by our own atmosphere, which strongly
corroborates the same belief. The substance of the nebu-
losity and the tail is of almost inconceivable tenuity.
Stars seen through them suffer no diminution of bright-
ness, though the light traverses millions of miles of the
cometary atmosphere; comets have never been observed to
-**
cause any sensible disturbance of the planetary motions,
though themselves much affected by the neighborhood of a
planet. The curvature of the tail and the acceleration of
the periodic time in the case of Encke's comet indicate
their being affected by a resisting medium which has never
been observed to have the slightest influence on the planet-
ary periods. Even the nuclei of comets appear to be of
extremely small density. There are accounts of stars of a
very low order of magnitude being seen through the nuclei.
Comets were formerly regarded with dread, as presaging
pestilence, war, or some other great calamity, not merely by
the ignorant, but by a large portion of the people. Milton
alludes to this notion when he says that a comet
“from his horrid hair
Shakes pestilence and war —”
Paradise Lost, book ii., l. 710.
Halley’s comet in 1456, being observed soon after the
Turks had taken Constantinople, was regarded by all Eu-
rope with a superstitious terror, and to the Ave Maria was
added the prayer, “Lord, save us from the devil, the Turk,
and the comet !” The occurrence of a lunar eclipse at
Constantinople at the same time increased the portentous-
ness of the event. The discoveries of the magnitude of
the space filled by cometary bodies, and their prodigious
velocity, together with the confessed impossibility of always
predicting their approach, have produced fears of another
kind in the public mind. The groundlessness of such
alarms from the extreme improbability of collision with the
nucleus, and the probable harmlessness of a contact with
the extremely attenuated surrounding matter, seems suffi-
ciently evident. Already on many occasions some of the
matter in the tail of comets must have come within the
earth's atmosphere. Whether the effect is deleterious or
salubrious, or whether it has any influence at all, is a mat-
ter of question.
Observations with the spectroscope have failed to give
satisfactory evidence of the chemical constitution of comets,
though some of them seem to consist in part of vaporized
carbon or hydro-carbon gases. In Mar., 1872, Schiapa-
relli received the gold medal of the London Astronomical
Society for his discovery that comets are sometimes con-
nected with those remarkable displays of meteoric pheno-
mena known as “meteoric showers.” The importance of
this discovery has been recognized by Donati, Peters, Prof.
Newton, Oppolzer, Le Verrier, Chladni, Schellen, and other
eminent savants. (See METEORITEs.)
Comet-Finder, a telescope of low magnifying power
and large field of view, used in searching for comets.
Com/fort (GEORGE FISK), A. M., an able Methodist
educator, born Sept. 30, 1833, in Berkshire, N.Y., graduated
at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., in 1857. He
taught in Amenia Seminary, N. Y., in 1857–58, in Fort
Plain Seminary, N. Y., in 1858–59, in Van Norman’s Fe-
male College in 1860, travelled and studied in Europe and
the East (1860 till 1866), was professor of modern lan-
guages and aesthetics in Alleghany College, Meadville, Pa.,
1866–68; was chief originator and organizer of the Ameri-
can Philological Association (1869), and its secretary from
1869 to 1873; was one of the principal movers in founding
the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (1869–72);
was appointed professor of modern languages and aesthetics
and dean of the College of Fine Arts in Syracuse University,
N. Y., 1873; author of various essays upon linguistics,
aesthetics, and pedagogics; is a corresponding member of
the Archaeological Institutes of Rome, Berlin, and Paris,
and author of an excellent series of text-books for the study
of the German language (1868–72).
Comfrey, kum'fre (Symphytum), a genus of perennial
plants of the natural order Boraginaceae, distinguished by
a 5-cleft calyx and a corolla enlarged upward, its throat
closed by awl-shaped scales. The species are natives of
Europe and Asia. Symphytum officinale was formerly much
esteemed as a vulnerary. It is often seen in the U. S. in
gardens, and is also naturalized in our fields.
Comines, or Commines, a town on the S. W. fron-
tier of Belgium, is divided by the river Lys into two nearly
equal parts, one of which is in France. It is 9 miles N. of
Lille. Here are important manufactures of ribbons, threads,
etc. Pop. of the French town, 6246; of the Belgian, 3480.
Comines, de (PHILIPPE), lord of Argenton, an historian
and statesman, born near Menin, in Flanders, in 1445. The
son of an ancient race, his education was conducted with
the greatest care, notwithstanding he had early lost his
parents. He entered the service of Charles the Bold, who
employed him in important diplomatic business. About
1472 he proved untrue to the duke, forming a secret com-
pact with Louis XI. while he was held a prisoner by Charles,
who took him captive at Peronne, and became a minister of
the French king, his enemy. After the death of Louis XI.,
Comines was an adherent of the duke of Orleans, aiding that
COMISO–COMMENTRY.
1047
prince in his ambitious plans against the French govern-
ment. This cost Comines his ministerial office; whereupon
he aided the Bourbon prince the more zealously. He wrote
memoirs of historical events from 1464 to 1498 (1523),
Langley-Dufresnoy, London, 1747, more complete; and
Dupont, Paris, 1840–47. Died at Argenton, Oct. 17, 1509.
(See FELIX van HULST, “P. de Comines.”)
Comi’so, a town of Sicily, in the province of Noto,
about 41 miles W. S. W. of Syracuse. It has manufactures
of paper. Pop. 15,803.
Comitia, ko-mish'e-a [from the Lat. com (for con),
“together,” and eo, itum, to “go "j, in ancient history, were
certain political assemblies of the Roman people. The
comitia were of three kinds, distinguished by the epithets
curiata, centuriata, and tributa. The comitia curiata were
the assemblies of the patrician houses or populus, and in
these, before the plebeians attained political importance,
was vested the Supreme power of the state. The name curi-
ata was given because the people voted in curiæ, each curia
giving a single vote, representing the sentiments of the
majority of the members composing it, which was the man-
ner in which the tribes and centuries also gave their suf-
frages in their respective comitia. After the institution of
the comitia centuriata, the functions of the curiata were
nearly confined to the election of certain priests and pass-
ing a law to confirm the dignities imposed by the people.
The comitia centuriata were the assemblies of the whole
Roman people, including patricians, clients, and plebeians,
in which they voted by centuries. By the constitution of
the centuries these comitia were chiefly in the hands of the
plebeians, and so served originally as a counterpoise to the
powers of the comitia euriata, for which purpose they were
first instituted, it is said, by the king Servius Tullius. These
comitia quickly attained the chief importance, and public
matters of the greatest moment were transacted in them, as
the election of consuls, praetors, etc. The comitia tributa
were the assemblies of the plebeian tribes. According to
tradition, they were first instituted after the expulsion of
the kings, and in them were transacted matters pertaining
to the plebeians alone, as the election of their tribunes, etc.
Comity of Nations. See INTERNATIONAL LAW, PRI-
VATE, by PREs. T. D. WooDSEY, S. T. D., LL.D.
Comman/der, in the British navy, is an officer next
under a captain in rank, but independent of him. He is, in
effect, the captain of a ship of war under eighteen guns, or
of a sloop of war or a bomb-vessel. In matters of etiquette
he ranks with a major of the army. The duties of a com-
mander on shipboard are almost exactly the same as those
of a captain.
In the U. S. navy a commander is of the grade next be-
low that of captain, and next above that of lieutenant-
commander. He takes rank with a lieutenant-colonel of
the army. -
Commander-in-Chief, a title given to the officer in
whom is vested the supreme command of all the land or
naval forces of any nation. In Great Britain he is ap-
pointed by the sovereign and holds office for life. His
duties have never been clearly defined as distinguished
from those of the cabinet minister who presides over the
war office. He is responsible to the Crown for the disci-
pline and efficiency of the army. The office of the com-
mander-in-chief, technically called “Pſorse Guards,” com-
prises the departments of the military secretary, the adju-
tant-general, and quartermaster-general. Great changes
have recently been effected in the status of the commander-
in-chief, who has lost his separate official abode, and is now
more completely subordinate to the secretary of war and
responsible to Parliament. The office is usually vacant,
and its duties performed by a “field-marshal commanding
in chief.” In the U. S. the President is the commander-in-
chief.
Commandite [from the Late Lat. commenda, a “trust”],
Société en; in France, a word used to express a partner-
ship in which a person advances capital without taking
charge of the business. In this country a person thus con-
nected with a firm is termed a special partner. (See PART-
NERSHIP, by PROF. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.)
Commandments. See DECALOGUE.
Commandments of the Church are rules imposed
upon the laity of the Roman Catholic Church, which are
regarded as just as binding as the Decalogue. They are
frequently called the five commandments, and are variously
given; those most commonly taught are as follows:
“I. The Catholic Church commands her children on
Sundays and holy days of obligation to be present at the
holy sacrifice of mass, to rest from servile works on those
days, and to keep them holy.
“2. She commands them to abstain from flesh on all
days of fasting and abstinence, and on fast days to eat but
one meal. -
“3. She commands them to confess their sins to their
pastor at least once a year.
“4. She commands them to receive the blessed sacra-
ment at least once a year, and that at Easter or during the
paschal time.
“5. To contribute to the support of their pastor.
“6. Not to marry within the fourth degree of kindred,
nor privately without witnesses, nor to solemnize marriage
at certain prohibited times.”
Commen’da [Late Lat. commenda, a “trust,” from
commendo, to “entrust”] was originally the conferring of
a vacant benefice for temporary administration on a clergy-
man already provided with one; afterwards it came to be
the bestowal of such a benefice for a long period or for a
lifetime. As, however, after the eleventh century abuses
crept in, and influential ecclesiastics especially availed
themselves of the commenda to increase their incomes, it
was found necessary to oppose it. This was done by Greg-
ory VII. and Innocent X., and also at the Councils of Con-
stance and Trent. Formerly in the Church of England,
when a clergyman was promoted to a bishopric, all his other
preferments became void, but the interest in the living was
retained by its being commended to the care of a bishop
(called the commendatory) by the Crown till there should
be provided for it a proper pastor. Such a living was called
an ecclesia commendata, and it was said to be held in com-
mendam. The holding of benefices and livings in com-
mendam in England has been abolished by law. Among
the ecclesiastical orders of knights the name commenda
(commandery) was given to the domain over which the
members (commendatores) exercised jurisdiction.
Commen’sal [from the Lat. com (for con), “together,”
and mensa, a “table *H, a term recently (1870) introduced
into natural history to denote those small animals, some-
times mistaken for parasites, which accompany or attach
themselves to others, not to prey upon them, but to share
their prey. The word means a “table-companion.” Thus,
a Siluridan fish of Brazil, of the genus Platystoma, accom-
modates in the cavities of his mouth quite a family of Small
commensal fishes, of a species to which the name Stegophi-
lus insidiosus has been given, which take toll of his food as
it passes to his throat.
The term commensal was originally applied to certain
court-officers of France who were furnished with food at
the king's table.
Commen’surable [Lat. com (for con), “with,” and
mensura, “measure"), applied to magnitudes measurable
by a common unit. It is one of the inscrutable things in
geometry that there are magnitudes of which the relations
to each other are determinate, yet incapable of numerical
expression. Such magnitudes are said to be incommensu-
rable. Magnitudes, on the other hand, of which the rela-
tions to each other can be numerically expressed with ex-
actness, are called commensurable. By this is meant that,
in the case of such magnitudes, there exists some Smaller
magnitude capable of being contained in each an exact num-
ber of times, without, in either case, a fractional excess.
But no linear dimension, however small, is small enough to
be a common measure of the diagonal and the side of a
square, or of the diameter and the circumference of a circle.
These pairs of magnitudes are therefore examples of rela-
tive incommensurability. In reasoning upon cases of in-
commensurability, the method of proceeding is to Show
that what we mean to prove of a magnitude incommensu-
rable with another is very nearly true of either of two mag-
nitudes commensurable with that other, the one greater and
the other less than the incommensurable; and that the ap-
proximation to the truth is closer and closer as these com-
mensurables are taken more and more nearly to the incom-
mensurable. This approach can be carried so far that the
commensurables shall differ from each other by less than
any assignable quantity; while yet the incommensurable
will always lie between them; and as the proposition to be
proved is not true of the larger of the two commensurables,
because that is too large, nor of the Smaller, because that
is too small, we infer that it must be true of the incom-
mensurable, which is always smaller than the larger com-
mensurable, and larger than the smaller. Very many of
the quantities symbolized in mathematical investigations—
e.g. sines, cosines, logarithms, and ( generally) roots, are in-
commensurable with each other, with the quantities from
which they are derived, and with any common unit.
- F. A. P. BARNARD.
Commentry, a town of France, department of Allier,
on the CEil, 8 miles S. E. of Montluçon, in the centre of
important coal-fields. It derives its prosperity from coal-
mines and iron-works, and has increased rapidly in recent
times. Its manufactures of looking-glasses are very cele-
brated and remunerative. Pop. 9978.
1048
COMMERCE.
Com/merce [from the Lat, commercium, mera, “traffic,
merchandise”], the exchange of commodities with foreign
nations. Common usage distinguishes between trade and
commerce by assigning the former to the land and the latter
to the ocean, whence the contrast of domestic and foreign.
Trade includes every kind of exchange or sale of property,
by barter or otherwise, between individuals or communities,
while commerce refers more appropriately to trade carried
on by ships. Water-transport on the great lakes of North
America is called inland commerce. Commercial treaties
are treaties between different nations regulating their mu-
tual tariffs on merchandise exchanged, or sold by one to
the other. In this article commerce is considered as trade
and intercourse between nations by sea, ; briefly, the trade
in imports and exports, or international trade. “Com-
merce,” says Galiani, “owes its rise to the necessity of ex-
changing the surplus of our commodities for those we stand
in need of, and may be defined the interchange of the pro-
duce of general labor to provide for the wants of all.”
The desire of wealth has always been the most constant
and most influential motive and spur to human exertion;
and the possession of it, both with nations and individuals,
has proved to be the synonym of power in all achievements,
whether of peace or war. Gold and silver being the most
palpable evidences of wealth and its most convenient
forms, to possess them in abundance has been an object of
universal ambition in all ages. Hence the various methods
by which their acquisition might be assured have been sub-
jects of attentive investigation by economists and states-
men. Before the rise of commerce the only kind of inter-
course that nations held with each other was aggressive.
There were but two sources of national wealth : one was
the cultivation of the land ; the other, mutual invasion and
pillage. Military expeditions were organized on a vast
scale for no other purpose than that of despoiling opulent
states which were not prepared for self-defence, Cyrus
(B. c. 537) led the Persians to the conquest of the rich prov-
inces of Asia for the express purpose of plunder. He dis-
tributed the treasures of conquered kings among his gen-
erals, grandees, and most daring soldiers. The Romans
did likewise. “Masters of the world, they arrogated to
themselves all its treasures. Having heard of the immense
wealth of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, they passed a law by
which they constituted themselves the heirs of a living
monarch, and confiscated the dominions of an ally.”
(Montesquiew.) The Romans had no commerce and few
arts. They were constantly at war to procure citizens,
women, and lands; and every successive war enabled them
to undertake a new one. Such was the state of the world
to which commerce put an end. It converted jealous and
hostile nations into amicable communities, and displaced
the atrocities of war by the industries and the arts of
peace. It rid the ocean of pirates, established a police
of the seas, and gave birth to navigation. (See HANSEATIC
LEAGUE.) - \
The earliest authentic date assigned to the rise of com-
merce is about 1000 B. C. The Phoenicians occupied a
narrow strip of land between Lebanon and the Mediter-
ranean Sea. They were an ingenious race, remarkable for
intellectual activity and industry in the arts, whereby they
acquired great wealth. Their proximity to the sea dis-
posed them to maritime adventure, and they became skilful
sailors. Their commercial expeditions extended to India.
(Ophir), and they are said to have doubled the Cape of
Good Hope in a voyage of three years, returning home by
the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar). They carried
on commerce with the British Isles and the shores of the
Baltic. They established colonies on Crete and Cyprus,
in Sicily, Sardinia, the south of Spain, and on the coast of
Africa, of which Carthage was the most celebrated, surpass-
ing in splendor and the power of its arms even the famous
cities of Tyre and Sidon. In that age of the world there
was no safety for accumulated wealth and treasure but in
the power to defend them. Universal rapacity was the
law, and superior strength the justification of invasion
and pillage. But the Phoenicians maintained themselves
for near 800 years against the surrounding barbarians, and
ruled the sea by their merchant-fleets. When at last they
fell under the repeated attacks of their enemies, they car-
ried their wealth, their arts, and their industries to the
nations that inherited their commerce. But these nations
themselves soon became the prey of Rome, and shared a
common fate with all the colonies of Phoenician industry
and enterprise. With the fall of Carthage may be said to
have terminated the career of ancient commerce. “When
the genius of Rome,” says Ganilh, “grounded on the ruins
of Carthage the conquest of the world, the sources of wealth
were dried up in Europe, in Asia, and in Africa, because
those countries had no longer any commercial communica-
tion. The treasures which Rome had gathered by the
plunder of all nations did not prove a source of wealth to
any country; they fertilized no lands, improved no kind
of industry, and did not extend the bounds of civilization
in any one respect. They were consumed in appeasing the
sedition of the cohorts and saving the empire from the
successive depredations of its barbarian invaders. From
the destruction of Carthage to an advanced period in the
Middle Ages, an interval of more than thirteen centuries,
the sources of wealth were dead throughout the Roman
empire, which at that time embraced the known world. It
was not till the twelfth century, when Venice, Genoa, and
Pisa, were greatly enriched by the Crusades, that those
sources revived, and Europe was again indebted to foreign
commerce for prosperity and wealth. Those cities, and Flor-
ence, acquired great wealth by their commerce with the pro-
duce of the East and North. They dictated laws to the Greek
empire, commanded the respect of the greatest monarchs,
and held the fate of Europe in their hands for more than
three centuries. But they became involved in ambitious
rivalries and expensive wars, and were finally reduced to
their territorial limits and local industries. They had,
however, established numerous factories in the north of
Europe at Lübeck, Bruges, Bremen, Hamburg, and Ant-
werp, from which sprang the Hanseatic League.”
The introduction of the mariner's compass by Flavio
Gioja, an Italian, in the year 1302, gave a new and power-
ful impulse to maritime adventure. The Portuguese were
the first to avail themselves of this great aid to navigation,
and to push out from the shores on the broad and unknown
ocean. They discovered the islands of Porto Santo and
Madeira, and soon after took possession of the Azores.
Their voyages extended to the coast of Upper Guinea and
Congo, from which Bartholomew Diaz reached the “Cape
of Storms,” which King John II. renamed the Cape of
Good Hope. Eleven years later, in 1497, Vasco de Gama.
made the sea-passage to the East Indies, and established
on the coast of Malabar the first European commercial
colony; and three years later Cabral discovered and took
possession of Brazil in the name of the king of Portugal.
In the following ten years the Portuguese established col-
onies and factories on the island of Ceylon and the coast
of Coromandel, at the same time subjecting the spice-
bearing Molucca, and Sunda Islands. Lisbon then became
the chief seat of commerce in the world. But the most
important maritime enterprise that had ever yet been con-
ceived, and which was destined to exert a greater influ-
ence over the world than any other of ancient or modern
times, was that of Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa,
who set sail from the Andalusian harbor of Palos on the
3d of August, 1492, in three small vessels, to accomplish a
passage to the Indies by a due western course round the
globe. His patron, Queen Isabella of Spain, invested him
with the title of Great Admiral and Viceroy of all the
lands and islands that he might discover, and the tenth
part of the revenue that might be derived from them. The
result of this memorable expedition was the discovery of
the western continent of America. Numerous adventurers
followed in the track of Columbus; among others, Balboa,
who crossed the Isthmus of Panama and was rewarded by
a sight of the Pacific Ocean. Magelhaens, a Portuguese,
passed through the straits which bear his name at the
southern oxtremity of South America, and accomplished
the first circumnavigation of the globe by reaching the
East India Islands (1514). These discoveries were fol-
lowed by the conquest of Mexico by Cortez (1520), that
of Peru by Pizarro (1529), and of Chili by Almagro (1535).
All these expeditions were characterized by frightful atro-
cities on the part of the Spaniards, and a fearful destruc-
tion of the native populations. A cruel though well-de-
served fate befell the chief actors in these bloody scenes.
Cortez was recalled to Spain, and died neglected in 1547;
IFrancis Pizarro and his brother quarrelled with Almagro
and beheaded him ; the son of Almagro, in revenge, killed
Francis Pizarro; and his brother, the last Pizarro, was hung
by a priest who was sent out as governor of Peru by Charles
V. One of the consequences of the conquest of Mexico and
Peru was an immense addition to the amount of gold and
silver, resulting from the working of the rich mines of
those countries, whereby the values of commerce under-
went a material change. The trade of the world was led
into new currents. Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands,
and Great Britain became centres of wealth and commerce
(for particulars of which see, severally, the countries
named). Of modern commercial nations, England occupies
the first place. Her proud title of “mistress of the seas”
has been well earned by the energy with which she has
carried her arms and arts into all regions of the globe.
But her policy has not always been free from the reproach
of violence. She has not hesitated to extort commercial
treaties at the cannon’s mouth when she has failed to ob-
tain them by amicable means.
The commerce of the U. S. originated with the separa-
COMMERCE.
1049
tion of the colonies from the mother-country. While they
were subject to British domination the people were pro-
hibited by act of Parliament from engaging in any kind
of manufactures. In 1719–32 the British merchants com-
plained in memorials to the government that the people of
Massachusetts, New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and
Maryland were setting up manufactures of woollen and
linen clothing for the use of their own families, and of flax
and hemp for coarse bags and halters. Parliament pro-
hibited the exportation of hats from the colonies, and
trading in them from one colony to another by ships, carts,
or horses. Iron-mills for slitting and rolling and plating
forges were prohibited under a penalty of $2500. Among
the grievances recited in the Declaration of Independence
was that “the king had cut off our trade with all parts of
the world.” Such were the difficulties with which the in-
fant commerce of the country had to struggle. In 1789
the whole tonnage of the country did not exceed 201,562,
but the wars of the French Revolution breaking out about
this time, and England soon becoming involved as one of
the belligerents, the American came to be the only neutral
flag on the ocean, and the tonnage increased rapidly,
reaching near 1,000,000 in 1800. For a succession of years
following this date the harvest-fields of Europe were trod-
den under the feet of hostile armies, which created an ac-
tive demand for American breadstuffs. In the first decade
after 1789 the united exports and imports of the U. S. ag-
gregated near $1,000,000,000. The nation was almost with-
out manufactures, and it was regarded by a large party as
a significant indication of its true policy that it was able
in the short space of ten years to pay for near $500,000,000
of foreign manufactures exclusively with the products of
agriculture. The following statement shows the progres-
sive development of the commercial capacity of the coun-
try in tonnage by decades, coincidentally with the aggre-
gate of its foreign trade:
Tonnage. Foreign trade.
1789 201,562 $43,205,156
1800...................................... 972,492 162,224,548
1810................................... 1,424,748 152,057,970
1820....... e e º e s = * * * * * * * * e e s • * * * * * * * * * * 1,280,167 144,141,669
1830. º e - ....1,191,776 144,726,428
1840.......................... - e. e. e. e. e. e. e. w ,180,764 239,227,455
1850.......................... © e º e º ºs s a 3,535,454 330,037,038
1860................................... 5,353,868 762,288,550
1869................................... 4,107,336 1,003,066,748%
The ocean-carrying trade of the U. S. is divided between
American and foreign vessels in the proportion of about
one-third to the former and two-thirds to the latter. Dur-
ing the late civil war the commercial flag of the U. S. was
driven from the ocean by the hostile policy of the British
government in allowing its colonial ports to be used as a
base of operations by a class of armed pirates which had
no lawful home or status on any land. In consequence of
this fact, a large proportion of the tonnage of the U. S.
was transferred to foreign flags, and at the close of the war
there were found to be legal difficulties in the way of its
restoration. A singularly rapid development of the com-
merce of the U. S. began about the year 1850. Up to that
time the yearly foreign trade had scarcely exceeded an
average, except in a few instances, of $200,000,000 a year.
In 1851 it rose to $400,000,000; in 1860, to $762,000,000;
and in 1866, to over $1,000,000,000. This rapid increase,
if not developed under circumstances positively inauspi-
cious, received no encouragement whatever from any gen-
eral causes or principles connected with political or civil
administration. It is foreign commerce, and foreign com-
merce only, that maintains in any country that healthy
State of exchange with the common markets of the world
which alone is compatible with the preservation of a pros-
perous state of industry, labor, manufactures, and trade at
home. A continuous adverse balance, involving a constant
drain of the precious metals to other markets, is the
precursor of inevitable derangement and disorder in the
finances, which cannot possibly have any other effect than
to drag down the best devised system of domestic trade and
labor, and plunge it into hopeless ruin. Since the year
1846 the commerce of the U. S. has been perpetually ex-
hausted of the precious circulation which gives it vigor and
life, as the blood does the human system. The Independent
Treasury policy of finance takes from commerce, on every
return from its foreign adventure, the gold which it has
earned, and which ought to be allowed to return into its
Service to reinvigorate its strength, and locks it up a dead,
unprofitable mass, worth no more in its abstraction from
use than it was while it yet slept unknown and undreamed
of in its native bed among the mountains and sands of the
Pacific coast. There is no instance in all the records of
history, from the most ancient times, in which this policy
*Qf this sum, the imports ($437,640,935) are valued in gold,
While the exports are valued in Currency. This aggregate be-
longs to the year 1866.
of robbing commerce of its precious earnings has not re-
sulted in paralyzing its energies, destroying its hopes, and
prostrating the labor, the manufactures, the industries, the
arts, and the trade of the nation. It is a self-evident prop-
osition that the circulation of the medium, and the circu-
lation of the commodities which are their object, must be
coincident. The one cannot be obstructed or stagnated
without involving paralysis of the other.
In political economy, commerce is the coefficient of both
production and consumption. It gives life and value to
both. While treating of commerce in the restricted sense
of foreign trade, we cannot lose sight entirely of its ele-
mentary idea of distribution as the simple agent of ex-
change. But for it production would be limited to the
extent required for the mere subsistence of the people. All
beyond that would be dead and valueless. Consumption
likewise would be limited, since each country would have
nothing to consume beyond a supply for immediate wants.
It is man himself who is the primary object of develop-
ment. In proportion as his nature expands he experiences
new desires, and employs himself in new devices and arts
for their gratification. History furnishes a sad picture of
those nations and races of men which have restricted them-
selves to a single occupation, as of hunting or fishing, or .
even of agriculture. “Whatever be the kind of labor they
are employed in,” says Ganilh, “wealth cannot be acquired,
increased, and preserved among any people but when com-
merce, bringing foreign in exchange for the national pro-
duce, affords greater means of subsistence, more comforts
and enjoyments, and particularly when it directs their labor
to new objects, with the utility of which they were unac-
quainted, and in which they find new instruments of ex-
change and wealth. Such has everywhere been the progress
of labor, civilization, and wealth.”
In our own time commerce has set in motion those im-
mense tides of emigration which have transplanted the
excess of population in the older countries of Europe to
the boundless fields of production in America and Austra-
lia, brightening the destiny of millions of our race, and
essentially banishing the spectre of famine from the face
of the earth. With one hand it has joined the navigation
of European waters with that of the Indian Ocean by the
canal of Suez, while with the other it has brought the count-
less populations of Eastern Asia into contact with the in-
fluences of modern thought and the improvements of mod-
ern science. It has changed not only the physical relations,
but the social and moral destiny, of more than half the
inhabitants of our globe.f. There are, in reality, few great
achievements of modern enterprise that do not owe their
conception to the incitements of commerce. The canal of
Suez and the transport of the Isthmus of Darien are di-
rectly designed to facilitate commerce by avoiding the deso-
late and dangerous navigation of the great Southern Ocean;
and their success to this end is attested by the fact that
the sailing-distance saved by them supersedes a navigation
equal to the entire circuit of the globe. The government
of the U. S. is now pushing forward scientific surveys of
the Isthmus of Darien with a view to the construction of
a ship-canal to unite the two great oceans. No doubt is
entertained that this grand and beneficent project will be
carried to successful completion within a few years. An-
other very important measure, or series of measures, has
been originated by the Senate of the U. S. in aid of the
extension of the national commerce. A commission was
appointed in Mar., 1872, in pursuance of the recommenda-
tion of the President, to examine minutely and to take
testimony on the subject of improving the transportation-
routes from the interior of the country to the seaboard.
The result of the inquiry is given in two large volumes
published by order of Congress. The committee report,
“That after a most careful consideration of the merits of
the various proposed improvements, they have come to the
unanimous conclusion that the following are the most feasi-
ble and advantageous channels of commerce to be created
or improved by the national government in case Congress
shall act upon this subject—viz. (1) The improvement of
the Mississippi River; (2) a continuous water-line of ade-
quate capacity from the Mississippi River to the city of
New York vić, the northern lakes; (3) a route adequate to
the wants of commerce, through the central tier of States,
from the Mississippi River, vić the Ohio and Kanawha
rivers, to tide-water in Virginia; (4) a route from the
Mississippi River, vić the Ohio and Tennessee, rivers,
through Alabama or Tennessee, to the očeam.” The total
cost of these improvements is estimated by the committee
at from $120,000,000 to $155,000,000. The committee rec-
# It is computed that of the 1,000,000,000 of the existing hu-
man race on the earth, more than 600,000,000 occupy the south-
ern and eastern parts of Asia, and the islands of the Pacific
Ocean. The population of China and British India alone is
computed at 680,000,000. (Whitaker.)
1050
COMMERCE–COMMISSURE.
ommend that these “four great channels of commerce shall
be improved, created, and owned by the government, and
stand as permanent and effective competitors with each
other, and with all the railways which may be within the
range of their influence.” (For details and particulars of
these projects, see SENATOR WINDOM’s “Report,” in 2 vols.,
1874.) The commerce of the U.S. has never, like that of Eng-
land, enjoyed the subsidies of the government. It has been
developed by private enterprise alone. The official yearly
volume published by the government on “Commercial
Relations” contains statements of the foreign trade of all
nations with which intercourse is maintained by the U. S.
J. S. GIBBONs.
Commerce, a game played with cards and counters;
of the latter, each player puts an equal stake into the pool.
The dealer is called the banker, gives each player three
cards, and then inquires, Who will trade # The eldest hand
can either barter or trade for money. Barter means the
exchange of a card with the right-hand player, and can-
not be refused unless the right-hand player declines the
exchange. To trade for money is to forfeit a counter to the
pool for the privilege of exchanging a card for one in the
stock or pack. When the trading and bartering is com-
pleted, three like cards are reckoned as a tricon, and the
best tricon wins the pool. If there is no tricon, the best
sequence of three cards in the same suit will win; and
if there is no sequence, the best point takes the pool; that
is, the three cards having the smallest number of pips—
aces reckoned as 11, and court-cards as 10—but the rules
vary in different sets of players.
Commerce, a township and post-village of Oakland
co., Mich., on the railroad between Bay City and Toledo,
and 28 miles N. W. of Detroit. Pop. of township, 1392.
Commerce, a post-village, capital of Scott co., Mo.,
on the Mississippi River, 154 miles below St. Louis. It
has one weekly newspaper, and manufactures flour, leather,
pottery, shingles, etc. Pop. of township, 1267.
Commerson (PHILIBERT), a French botanist, born at
Châtillon-les-Dombes Nov. 18, 1727. He accompanied as
naturalist the expedition of Bougainville, which sailed in
1767, and he visited South America and explored Mada-
gascar, etc. He died in the Isle of France in 1773, leaving
Some works in manuscript. Commerson was a man of
profound science. An exceptional honor was conferred
on Commerson by the French Academy of Natural Sciences
in electing him a member notwithstanding he had never
sent them a memoir. Unfortunately, when this distinction.
was conferred he had been already eight days dead. For-
ster gave the name Commersonia to a genus belonging to
the order Byttneriaceae, several other botanists having pre-
viously established genera bearing this name, but Forster’s
genus alone has stood the test of critical study, and still
bears the name.
Commina/tion [from the Lat. comminor, to “threat-
en,” because in it God’s threatenings against sin are re-
peated] is the name of a penitential service in the Liturgy
of the Church of England. In that of the Protestant Epis-
copal Church of the U. S. it is nearly all omitted. The com-
mination in the English Book of Common Prayer comes
with little change from the old missals of Sarum and York.
The Greek and Latin churches retain the commination, but
only for Ash-Wednesday. The commination is in substance
a repetition of the curses found in Deut. xxvii., and at the
reading of each sentence the congregation responds Amen.
It is read in the English Church upon Ash-Wednesday,
and upon such other days as the ordinary shall direct. Its
use is traced back to about 700 A. D.
Commimes. See CoMINEs.
Comminges, Counts of, in French history, a noble
family whose descent can be traced from the sixth cen-
tury.—BERNARD, the fourth count of Comminges, was an
Albigensian, and fought on the side of Raymond of Tou-
louse, his relative, against Simon de Montfort, but after
the battle of Muret (1213) was compelled to recant at Nar-
bonne, and become a Catholic. In 1218 he took arms and
recovered a part of his ancestral domain, and in 1219 com-
manded the victorious Toulousans at Basiège. We also
find him waging a long war with the count de Foix. D.
in 1226. After his time the family never attained much
importance in French history.
Commire (JEAN), born at Amboise, in France, Mar. 25,
1625, became a Jesuit, and was for many years a teacher
of theology, remarkable for his frank and upright character
and for spirituality. Died in 1702 in Paris. He is now re-
membered only for his Latin poems (Poemata, 1678), which
are mostly upon religious and moral themes, and are re-
markable for elegance of diction rather than for power or
originality. . He produced some fine Latin fables in verse.
Commissa’riat [Fr., from commissaire, a “commis-
sioner”], a term originally meaning a “commissionership,”
has come to be applied to that department of the military
administration which has in charge the furnishing of food
for the men. The other supplies of the troops, including
forage for horses, etc. (with the exception of ordnance
stores), are furnished by the quartermaster's department.
In ancient Rome the quaestors attended to the victualling
of the troops. The first English commissary-generals were
called provant-masters. The British commissariat is now
under the charge of a commissary-general-in-chief. That
of the U. S., at present, is under an officer who has the
rank of a brigadier-general and the title of commissary-
general of subsistence. The accounts of the U. S. commis-
sary officers are referred for settlement to the third auditor
of the treasury department. (See SUBSISTENCE OF ARMIES.)
Com/missary [Fr. commissaire], a term nearly synon-
ymous with deputy, signifies one to whom the power and
authority of another is committed. It is sometimes used
in a sense nearly equivalent to that of commissioner. In
the army the officers of the commissariat department are
styled commissaries of subsistence. The officers having
charge of musters in and out are commissaries of musters.
In ecclesiastical law, a commissary is appointed by a bishop
to exercise jurisdiction in remote parts of the diocese. A
papal commissary is a bishop or other high functionary
deputed to perform duties properly belonging to the pope.
There are temporary commissaries appointed for the per-
formance of a single act or a few particular acts; and per-
petual commissaries, who regularly represent the pope or
some superior prelate in a specified place or district. Often
the duty of a commissary is performed by a board of officers,
who together constitute a commission.
In Scotland the sheriff of each county is called also com-
missary of that county. When the Reformation drove the
papal commissaries from Scotland, there was established a
supreme commissary court in 1563 for administering the
law in such cases as had been formerly decided by the
ecclesiastical courts of the papal representatives. The
commissary court gradually lost its powers, its duties being
performed by the civil courts. In 1836 it was abolished;
but there are still commissary courts for the counties, pre-
sided over by the sheriff. They transact some of the busi-
ness which in the U. S. comes before the probate courts.
Commis'sion [Lat. commissio, from committo, commis-
sum, to “commit”], the act of committing or performing;
also a writing, generally in the form of a warrant or let-
ters-patent. Instruments bearing this title are issued by
the executive to officers in the army and navy, judges, and
others. The term is sometimes applied to a number of per-
sons joined in an office or trust. All the officers of armies
above the grade of sergeant hold their authority by war-
rants called commissions, and hence they are called com-
missioned officers. The practice of buying and selling all
commissions under the rank of colonel formerly prevailed
in the British army, but it was abolished by royal warrant,
against the will of the House of Lords, in 1871.
CoMMISSION, in law. See TRUSTEEs, by PROF. T. W.
DWIGHT, LL.D. *
Commis/sion Mier'chant, Agent, or Factor, a
person who sells goods which belong to another party or
person, by whom they have been consigned to him for that
purpose. The owner of the goods is called the consignor,
and the commission merchant the consignee. The latter
receives for his services a percentage on the sum for which
the goods are sold.
Commissionnaire [Fr.], an attendant at European
hotels, employed to attend at the arrival of railway trains
and steamboats to secure customers, to take charge of bag-
gage, see it passed through the hands of the custom-house
officers, and send it on to the hotel; for which services the
commissionnaires charge a fee. They likewise procure visés
to passports, and act as valets-de-place.
Com/missure [Lat. commissura, a “joining together,”
from com, “together,” and mitto, missum, to “send”], in
anatomy, the union of any two parts or the structure which
unites any two parts. Thus, at the outer and inner angles
of the eye there are commissures between the lids; and in
fact the angles of the eye, the mouth, etc. are often spoken
of as the commissures of the lids, the lips, etc. Among
the parts named commissures are the following: the com:
missura simplex, a little lobe of the cerebellum situated
near the posterior incisure, and forming a part of the su-
perior vermiform process; the commissura brevis, a lobule
arising from the inferior vermiform process of the cerebel-
lum, within the posterior incisure; the great commissure of
the brain, called often corpus callosum, which unites the
hemispheres of the cerebrum; the anterior, middle or soft,
and posterior commissures of the brain, bands which cross
the cavity of the third ventricle; the optic commissure, or
chiasma, the point of the decussation of the optic nerves.
COMMITTEE-COMMON SCHOOLS.
1051
Committee. See INSANITY, by PROF. T. W. DwighT.
Com/modore, in the British navy, is a title given to
the senior captain of a squadron when there is no admiral
present. It is not a permanent rank, but is bestowed for a
time on a captain. A commodore usually commands more
ships than one, detached from a fleet on some special ser-
vice; and he then hoists a pennant. In the U. S. navy
the title of commodore was formerly given by courtesy to a
captain commanding a squadron. The office was recog-
nized by law in 1862, commodores taking rank next below
rear-admirals, and next above captains. Their rank cor-
responds to that of brigadier-general in the army. (See
ADMIRAL.)
Com/modus (LUCIUs AELIUS AURELIUs), a Roman
emperor, born in 161 A.D., was the son of Marcus Aurelius
and Faustina. He was carefully educated. He succeeded
his father in the year 180, and soon manifested the exces-
sive cruelty and sensuality of his disposition. His wife
Crispina and many other innocent persons were put to
death by his order. He abandoned the government to
Perennis and other favorites. Assuming the title of Her-
cules, he claimed from his subjects divine honors. His
officers Eclectus and Laetus conspired against him, and
caused him to be strangled in 192. He was succeeded by
Pertinax.
Common. See HEREDITAMENTS INCORPOREAL, by PROF.
T. W. Dwight, LL.D.
Common Carriers.
PROF. T. W. DwighT, LL.D.
Com/mon Coun'cil, a name given in some cities of
the U. S. to one of the governing bodies which control the
municipal and local affairs. The other is sometimes called
Select council.
Com/moner, one of the common people, applied in
general to all persons except the hereditary mobility ; also
a student of the second rank in the University of Oxford
(England), who pays for his board or commons and other
charges. The term “great commoner” has been applied
to the English patriot Hampden, and to the elder William
Pitt before he entered the House of Peers.
Common Law. See LAW, by PROF. T. W. DwighT.
Common Pleas, Court of. See CourTs, by GEORGE
CHASE, LL.B.
Common Prayer, Book of, a collection of all the
forms of worship used in the Church of England. The
King's Primer, published by Henry VIII. in 1546, was the
first form of this book, but it contained only the Creed,
Lord’s Prayer, Commandments, and Litany. Edward VI.
had this primer twice revised and republished (in 1549 and
1552), and his second Liturgy is very similar to that which
now exists. He caused the Sentences, Exhortation, and
the Confession and Absolution to be prefixed to the Daily
Service, and introduced the Decalogue into the Communion
Service (1548). At this time certain Romish customs were
abolished. In the reign of Elizabeth the Liturgy was again
revised (1559), but with few alterations. After the con-
ference with the Presbyterians at Hampton Court, James
I. instituted another revision, and added the explanation
of the sacraments in the Catechism (1604). It was again
revised under Charles I. (1633). After the restoration of
Charles II., when a conference had been held with the dis-
senters at the Savoy, the Common Prayer-Book was further
revised in 1662. Certain forms were added, and slight
changes were made in the services; and a very few have
been made since that time. A revision was made under
William III., and several changes proposed, but they were
rejected by convocation (1689), and have not been restored.
The Protestant Episcopal Church in the U. S. has adopted
the Anglican Prayer-Book with a few modifications.
See CARRIERs, CoMMON, by
Com/mons, the dinner provided in English colleges
and inns of court for their members. In the inns of court
it is provided only during term. Separate tables are ap-
pointed for the benchers, the barristers, and the students.
Common Schools. The aim of common schools is
to provide elementary instruction for all the children of
proper age in the community. Such schools were unknown
in ancient nations. “The wisdom of the Egyptians” was
not for the mass of the people. Babylon and Nineveh and
the Medo-Persian empire won renown by their victories in
arms, but not by educating their inhabitants. The schools
of Athens were for those who had the wealth and leisure to
profit by them. Sparta cared for the bodies of her chil-
dren, but neglected their minds. Rome trained her citizens
to be soldiers, rather than Scholars; they were masters of
the pilum rather than of the alphabet.
The origin of common schools is found in the Christian
Church. Christianity, in its ideal, and as illustrated in the
life of its Founder, is the religion of beneficence. It rec-
ognizes the value of every human being, and esteems the
man as more than the accident of his birth or rank; and it
aims to benefit him for the whole period of his existence.
With this estimate of man, and with the beneficent impulse
received from the teachings and the example of their
Master, the Christian clergy very early acknowledged and
assumed the duty of educating the people. Synods and
councils of the early Church frequently enjoined this duty,
and directed that it should be performed gratuitously,
especially for the poor. One council ordered that a gram-
mar school should be established in connection with every
cathedral, a parochial school in every town and village, and
other schools wherever opportunity could be found. These
schools were to receive as pupils the poor and the rich
without distinction. By this means large numbers were
able to gain knowledge who would otherwise have been
doomed to perpetual ignorance. But it was easier to com-
mand universal education than to secure it. The difficulty
of bringing under instruction the scattered population of
rural districts was almost insurmountable. Yet the early
servants of Christianity attempted the education of all.
Wherever they went they founded both churches and schools.
Some of their schools took the form of monasteries, which
were at once the academies, the libraries, and the univer-
sities of those early times.
The schools thus established had very slight resemblance
to the common schools of our times. The instruction was
meagre, and pertained largely to church dogma and Scho-
lastic theology. Books were few and costly, being neces-
sarily in manuscript. Education could not have the fulness
and completeness that are now easily possible. Ideas were
relatively few, and were restricted to a narrow range of
subjects. The schools resembled the parish schools of later
times, rather than the common schools of this day. As
they were under church control, they were in fact church
schools. When wars and civil commotions incident to the
unsettled state of society interrupted them, as was fre-
quently the case, their influence was diminished, and ignor-
ance extended its sway. But the fundamental idea of
educating all the people was never lost. The Church of
those early centuries never fully accomplished what it
attempted, but that grand idea was so deeply planted in
the convictions of the Christian world that it could not be
plucked up. The development of that idea has given to
the world the modern school-system. In this way the com-
mon school is the outgrowth of the Christian Church.
The invention of the art of printing greatly increased
the facilities for teaching all the people. Books ceased to
be the exclusive possession of the few, for a single volume
no longer represented the labor of months for its mere
reproduction. But the Reformation, with the intense men-
tal activity which it induced, gave to popular education its
strongest impulse. The Reformers previous to Luther had
used their influence in favor of universal instruction, but
his efforts in the same cause were most effective, as his in-
fluence was greatest. His ideas respecting schools were
far in advance of any previously maintained, and were
nearly identical with those now upheld in Germany and
the U. S. He advocated the maintaining of schools by the
civil government, rather than the Church. Through his
influence a free-school system was established in Saxony as
early as 1527, and other German states followed the exam-
ple, particularly those in which the Reformation became
predominant. In the early part of the next century the
Germans were probably the best-educated people in Europe.
The religious wars which so largely occupied the first half
of that century prevented the development of educational
plans, but very soon after these wars ceased many states
of Germany renewed their devotion to popular education,
and in some of them compulsory attendance laws were
passed. The Swiss Reformers contemporary with Luther
were zealous friends of schools, and the impulse which
they gave to education in their country is still felt. In
Scotland, John Knox advocated the founding of schools in
every parish at the cost of the Kirk. His views were
widely adopted, and more than a century later were sub-
stantially embodied in a law requiring such schools, the
expense to be divided between the parish and the parents
of pupils. The Established Kirk of Scotland has continued
these schools from that time, and other churches in that
land have established their own schools. Within a few
years some changes in the mode of management have been
introduced. For a long time the Scotch were the most
universally educated people in Europe, but the Prussians
now claim that honor. The pre-eminence of Prussia in
this respect is of recent origin. The present educational
system of Prussia was not put in force till after the con-
quest of that country by Napoleon in 1806. A similar
system had been nominally in force for nearly a hundred
years previous, but had not been carried out. Wars rather
than schools had filled the mind of the nation, particularly
1052 COMMON
SCHOOLS.
during the reign of Frederick the Great. As the military
spirit has long been dominant in Prussia, the discipline of
the schools is essentially military. The state rules its
schools as strictly as its army. The complete supremacy
over education long exercised by the Church is now exer-
cised in Prussia by the government. The Prussian system
is the general model for schools in other parts of Germany.
Within the last few years a remarkable interest in pop-
ular education has sprung up in every country in Europe.
Only the beginnings are yet seen. Each nation is striving,
in its own way, to set up a school-system adapted to its
peculiar wants. Many years must pass before the per-
fected results of these efforts can appear, but the pros-
pect is that the close of the nineteenth century will find
common schools maintained for the elementary instruction
of all the children, in Europe. Other parts of the world,
particularly the colonies and other dominions of Great
Britain, those regions where American missionaries have
extensive influence, and, most wonderful of all, the Jap-
anese empire, are moving in the same direction.
But the most complete and successful trial of the com-
mon-school system has been made in the U. S. The first
settlers of Massachusetts and Connecticut were hardly es-
tablished in their new homes before they provided for the
education of their children. In the more southern colonies
schools were not so highly valued. But the early records
of the towns and colonies now included in those two States
contain frequent mention of votes and appropriations for
maintaining schools. Each town set up its own school, and
ere long the colonial legislatures adopted codes requiring
a school in every considerable settlement. These schools
were not in all respects like the common schools of this
day, for many of them provided for instruction not only in
reading, writing, and other elementary branches, but in
Latin and other studies preparatory for college. Though
burdened by poverty, and not seldom by taxation for car-
rying on inevitable wars, those sturdy pioneers never
ceased to uphold their schools. New Hampshire early
followed the example of her southern neighbors, and
Maine, as a part of Massachusetts, participated in her
institutions. Emigrants from these Eastern States settled
in Vermont, Northern New Jersey, and the central and
western parts of New York and Pennsylvania. Wherever
they went they carried with them that New England insti-
tution, the public school, and those flourishing common-
wealths cordially adopted it. And when Ohio, Michigan,
and the States westward of them, even to the Pacific, re-
ceived their first settlers from the Eastern States, common
schools at once appeared in every hamlet. In the Southern
States little was done for popular education till after the
great civil war which ended in 1865. Before the war many
of these States possessed funds for supporting public
schools, and made some not very successful efforts to main-
tain such schools. But, except in a few localities, they had
a scattered population, of which a large portion was not
permitted to receive instruction, and another large portion
was extremely ignorant, and content to remain so. The
wealthier class among them was indeed highly cultivated,
but wealth was not so generally diffused as in the Northern
States, and those who had it could accomplish little for in-
structing the untrained multitudes around them. But since
the restoration of peace these States have made great ex-
ertions to establish public schools, and, notwithstanding
many hindrances, especially the impoverishment occasioned
by the war, and the unwillingness to admit both white and
colored children into the same schools, which in the thinly-
settled districts can hardly be avoided, many of them are
making commendable progress. Every State in the Union,
and nearly every organized Territory, has now the begin-
ning, at least, of a common-school system.
The schools in the U. S. differ from those in European
countries in that they are established and controlled under
State instead of national authority. In Great Britain or
Germany the national parliament enacts laws for all the
schools in the realm, but no act of the American Con-
gress relates to the establishing or controlling of common
schools. Each State passes such laws on this subject as it
pleases. Under these State laws a superintendent of schools
is appointed for each State (except Delaware), and in most
of the States each county has also its superintendent. In
the New England States no county superintendents are
appointed, but each town has its own school officers. In
Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas, districts composed of from
one to fourteen counties have their district superintendents,
and in New York each county constitutes from one to four
districts, with a corresponding number of superintendents.
Most of the larger cities in all the States have their own
School superintendents. . - -
The support of schools is derived from various sources.
The earliest schools of New England were maintained
partly by appropriations from the town treasuries, and
partly by rate-bills to be paid by the parents or guardians
of pupils, or, if they were unable, by the towns. The rate-
bill system was long retained, but is now abandoned in all
the States. Schools receive support (1) from the income
of permanent funds. Most of the States have such funds,
the annual interest of which is expended for education, the
principal remaining intact. In some cases counties, towns,
or other small divisions of States possess similar funds.
(2) The greater part of the cost of schools is provided by
taxation. Of this a part is levied (a) as a State tax. In
some States the avails of certain special taxes, as capita-
tion-tax, licenses, etc., are appropriated for Schools; in
others a fixed sum, or the amount raised by a certain rate
of taxation, or a certain amount for every child of “school
age,” is distributed among the several counties or towns.
(b) In some States each county has its separate school-tax.
(c) Town taxes for schools are levied in most of the States
which have organized townships. (d) District taxes are
frequently levied, both for current and special school ex-
penses. (A district, in this sense, is usually a part of a
town.) (3) Besides moneys received from funds and taxes,
small amounts are raised by voluntary contributions or
subscriptions.
The sources of permanent school-funds may be briefly
named. The earliest considerable State fund was estab-
lished by Connecticut in 1795. A tract of land containing
about 5700 square miles, now constituting the N. E. part
of Ohio, and known as the “Western Reserve,” because
Connecticut reserved it when she ceded to the general gov-
ernment all her other public domain, was sold for $1,200,000,
and the entire sum was set apart to be a perpetual fund for
supporting public schools, the interest alone to be expended.
By judicious management the principal of this fund was
afterwards increased to over $2,000,000. Massachusetts
appropriated a part of her unoccupied lands in what is
now the State of Maine for creating a similar fund. In
all the newer States one thirty-sixth part of all the land
(the sixteenth “section” or square mile in every six-mile-
square township) is set apart by national law to be con-
verted into a permanent fund in each State for supporting
common schools. In the States most recently admitted,
beginning with Minnesota in 1858, two sections, the six-
teenth and thirty-sixth, in each township, are devoted to
this purpose by the terms of the acts of Congress admit-
ting those States. West Virginia, containing no public
lands, is an exception. The States which have exercised
proper care in disposing of their school-lands have secured
magnificent endowments. In some States a large part of
this fund has been lost through mismanagement, the faith-
lessness of officials, or the absorption of it in the expendi-
tures of the late civil war. -
The common schools in those States where they are effici-
ently conducted accomplish quite fully what they attempt.
The system provides for (1) the examining and approving
of teachers by competent authority; (2) the regular visit-
ing and examining of all public schools by competent of
ficials, who are paid for their services; (3) the maintaining
of schools in as many districts or localities as the conveni-
ence of the people requires: in this way the children of
sparsely settled communities have good school privileges;
(4) the establishing of graded schools wherever the pop-
ulation is sufficiently compact to require them : in these
schools the range of studies is often so extended in the
higher departments as to include history, philosophy, alge-
bra, geometry, French, and astronomy; also drawing and
vocal music, which are now finding a place in schools of
lower grade; (5) high schools, which, as the highest depart-
ments of graded schools or under separate management, are
maintained in the larger towns of many States: in Massa-
chusetts they are required by law in all towns containing a
certain number of inhabitants; the studies in these schools,
besides the higher English branches, sometimes include a
complete preparation for entering college; (6) in New York
City the public-school system includes “The College of the
City of New York.” In several States, most notably in
Michigan, a State university, including all the departments
of scientific and professional education, crowns the system
of free public instruction. Most of the newer States re-
ceived from the U. S. government grants of land expressly
for endowing these universities. Additional endowments
have in some cases been provided by State appropriations
or individual contributions. Pupils of both sexes are ad-
mitted to many of these institutions. The tuition fees are
usually small, and in some States certain classes of pupils
can obtain instruction without charge. Where this is done,
the common school system rises by regular gradations toº
the university and the professional school. . -
As subsidiary to the common-school system—(1) Normal
schools for the training of teachers are established in each
of the States except Nevada, the least populous of all. (2)
Teachers’ associations are formed, teachers’ institutes are
COMMONS, HOUSE OF-COMMUNE OF PARIS.
1053
held, and educational publications are encouraged in most
of the States. (3) Arrangements are made for procuring
libraries, books of reference, maps, and charts; also philo-
Sophical, astronomical, and chemical apparatus, particu-
larly for the more advanced schools. (4) Uniformity of
text-books is secured in some cases for entire States by
State authority, more commonly in towns or other small
sections by local authority. (5) In several States the law
gives the power of compelling the attendance of all chil-
dren of certain ages for a specified number of weeks each
year. Where school-expenses are provided by taxes and
the income of funds, compulsory attendance is generally
advocated. . . .
The most perplexing question respecting common schools
relates to moral and religious training, and results from
diversities of religious opinions. As the schools are sup-
ported chiefly by taxes levied upon all classes indiscrim-
inately, no one sect can be favored without injustice to all
others. But the right moral training of a child is even
more important than the culture of his intellect, and com-
mon schools cannot safely omit all such training. Nor can
it be wisely remitted to other times and places, for the prin-
ciples of honesty, virtue, truthfulness, and morality are for
constant daily use. The problem is to give such instruc-
tion as shall be efficient for its purpose, but shall not violate
the rights or excite the just apprehensions of any sect. If
this can be accomplished, the amount of such training may
be too small to give general satisfaction. The idea of
universal education was developed, as has been seen, in the
Christian Church, and for centuries the Church accom-
plished nearly all that was attempted for popular instruc-
tion. In the U. S., and in Germany since the time of
Luther, the state or civil government has taken the place
of the Church in the management of public schools. But
the old traditional opinion that the right to such manage-
ment belongs exclusively to the Church has never disap-
peared. Very naturally, this opinion is held most tena-
ciously (though not exclusively) in the Roman Catholic
Church, and from that source particularly, as well as from
others, the demand has come that moneys for supporting
Schools be divided among the several religious parties, and
each be permitted to maintain its separate school. To
assent to this demand would be to annihilate the common-
School system. In populous communities the plan proposed
might educate most of the children, but in thinly-peopled
regions they must be educated together or not at all. . In
truth, neither the Church nor the State has the first right
and duty of training children. The family takes precedence
of both, and whatever either of them may do for universal
education, that earliest of all human institutions can never
be superseded, either in its duties or its rights. “The new-
born child is placed neither at the door of the church nor
on the steps of the court-house, but in the midst of the
... family.”
The difficulty that is experienced in common schools of
the lower rank becomes more urgent when higher studies
are to be pursued. Both teachers and text-books in such
studies as history and philosophy must advance positive
opinions, some of which will inevitably conflict with those
of a part of the people. There is obvious injustice in com-
pelling people to pay taxes for supporting the teachers of
doctrines which they abhor, and in thus depriving them,
wholly or in part, of the means for establishing such
schools as teach the views which they approve. This
religious question is arising in all countries where diverse
religions are found, and it is sure to claim increased atten-
tion in the future. It does not admit of a ready solution,
and perhaps no single solution will ever be discovered. It
may assume such proportions as to limit free popular edu-
cation to a lower range of studies than its most ardent
friends have hoped. Surely, the earnestly religious part
of the people, who are the firmest friends of schools for all,
cannot consent to the total banishment of moral training
from the common schools. A severe struggle upon this
point is one of the possibilities of the near future.
JoHN G. BAIRD,
Ass’t Sec. Conn. State Board of Education.
Commons, House of. See PARLIAMENT.
Common Time, in music, that in which each mea-
sure or bar contains notes equal in value to one semibreve
or whole note; such, for example, as two minims or four
crotchets. It is indicated by a large C, placed in the staff
immediately after the clef. -
Commonwealth’, a state, a body politic; properly
a free state, a republic. The official title of Massachusetts
is the “Commonwealth of Massachusetts,” and several
other States use the title commonwealth.
Commonwealth of England, in history, the form
of government established in England on the death of
Charles I. in 1649, and which existed during the protect-
orate of Oliver Cromwell and his son Richard, until the
festoration of Charles II. in 1660. The substitution of
a democratic for a monarchical form of government was
provided for and enjoined by two successive charters. The
first charter of the Commonwealth was drawn up in Dec.,
1653, by the council of officers who on the voluntary resig-
nation of the Parliament in the early part of the same
year had declared Cromwell “Protector;” it was styled the
“Instrument of Government.” The second charter, called
the “Petition and Advice,” was framed in May, 1657, by
the Parliament which the Protector had assembled in the
previous year. Under the first charter the English govern-
ment may be classed among republics, with a chief magis-
trate at its head; under the second it became substantially
a monarchy, and Oliver Cromwell from 1657 to the period
of his death was virtually king of England.
Commune, a French word signifying “ common,” is
the name of a small territorial division in France. Each
canton is subdivided into communes, each of which is
governed by a mayor and a municipal council. The law
for the organization of communes was enacted in 1791, but
communes had existed in French towns before that date.
Commune of Paris, an organized band of socialists,
outlaws, and proletaires connected with the International
Association who revolted against the new régime or Ver-
sailles government on the 18th of Mar., 1871. Paris had
a few days before this date been evacuated by the Ger-
mans, who had taken it after a long siege. The National
Guard of Paris had been permitted to retain their arms,
and a large part of that guard supported the Commune,
whose head-quarters were in the suburbs of Belleville and
Montmartre. Among the prominent leaders of the Com-
mune were Flourens, Félix Pyat, Assi, Delescluze, Pas-
chal, Grousset, General Cluseret, Dombrowski, Arnould,
Jules Vallès, Blanqui, and Rochefort. Their principles and
aims are thus defined by one who was a member of the
Commune : “Their philosophy is atheism, materialism, the
negation of all religion; their political programme is abso-
lute individual liberty by means of the suppression of gov-
ernment, and the division of nationalities into communes
more or less federated; their political economy consists es-
sentially in the dispossession, with compensation, of the
present holders of capital, and in assignment of the coin,
land, etc. to associations of workmen.” The same writer
affirms that “the central committee of the National Guard,
exclusively composed of workmen, members of the Inter-
nationale, has taken the initiative, and alone has the merit
of the movement.”
As those members of the National Guard who favored
the cause of order were irresolute and not inclined to fight,
the Communists quickly became absolute masters of Paris.
Their ranks were reinforced by many convicts, whom they
released from the prisons, and by many foreign refugees.
The leaders who had some intelligence, some definite pur-
pose, and some lingering scruples were soon discarded one
after another and imprisoned, and the control of the Com-
mune was obtained by desperadoes and outlaws, who in-
itiated a reign of terror. On the 26th of March an election
was held in Paris to choose members of the Commune, but
as the party of order declined to vote, only 180,000 votes
were cast, and the election resulted in the triumph of the
insurgents. On the 29th they issued a proclamation in these
terms: “The central committee has remitted its powers to
the Commune. Citizens: your Commune is constituted.
The vote of the 26th of March has sanctioned the victorious
revolution,” etc. The government organized at Versailles
sent an army to suppress the insurrection. On the 2d of
April a large body of insurgents marched against Versailles,
but they were repulsed at Meudon, and much injured by
the fire of Fort Mont Valérien. Gustave Flourens, one of
the commanders of the Commune, was killed in this action.
The army of the republic began to besiege Paris under the
command of Marshal MacMahon. The chief command of
the besieged forces was held successively by Dombrowski,
Cluseret, Rossel, and Delescluze. Violent dissensions dis- .
turbed the counsels and hindered the success of the Com-
mune. On the 5th of April they arrested Darboy, arch-
bishop of Paris, and other persons, whom they kept in
prison as hostages. The insurgents, who occupied several
forts in the environs, made an obstinate resistance to the
besiegers. The official journal of the Commune announced
on May 1st that a committee of public safety had been ap-
pointed. This committee was composed of five members—
viz. Antoine Arnaud, Félix Pyat, Charles Gérardin, Ran-
vier, and Léon Meillet. Rossel, who bore the title of dele-
gate of war, resigned the command on the 9th of May, and
was succeeded by Delescluze. Having captured several
of the forts, the besieging army, about 90,000 strong, en-
tered Paris on the 22d of May by several gates, enclosing
the insurgents in a great semicircle. The latter continued
1054
for five days fighting behind barricades in the streets, and
revenged their defeat by atrocious acts of cruelty and van-
dalism. They set fire to the public buildings, and endeav-
ored to destroy the ancient monuments and treasures of art.
Among the finest edifices that were burned were the Tui-
leries, the Palais de Justice, the Palais Royal, and the Hôtel
de Ville. The Louvre was partly consumed. During the
last days of the power of the Commune they shot Archbishop
Darboy, Bonjean, president of the court of cassation, and
other persons whom they held as hostages. In order to
execute their incendiary designs on a grand scale, they
ignited petroleum, gunpowder, and other explosive mate-
rials in many parts of the city. Delescluze was killed
while fighting in the street on the 26th of May. The civil
war ended on the 27th, when M. Thiers issued a bulletin
stating that 25,000 Communists had been taken prisoners.
Large numbers of these were put to death, and several
thousand were punished with deportation. The ringleaders
of the Commune who survived the battles were mostly ar-
rested and executed. “The Commune,” says the “Edin-
burgh Review'' for July, 1871, “has been supremely arbi-
trary and supremely stupid. In the name of liberty it de-
stroyed every condition of freedom ; in the name of the
common interests of the city, it reduced that city to the
depth of ruin, drove away the wealthier classes, and pauper-
ized the lower. . . . As a means of government the secret
committee of the Commune was odious and contemptible,
but as an engine of Social war it was terrific, for in the
frenzy of despair it let loose all the powers of destruction.
We shall not attempt to describe in detail the appalling
spectacle of Paris as it appeared in the month of May in
this year, an awful prelude to the most tremendous catas-
trophe in the history of man.” - -
The Commune of Paris took a prominent partin the revo-
lution of 1790. After it was constituted by the law of May
21, 1790, it was a political power in the capital which proved
itself superior to the lawful authority of the Assembly and
the nation. It was in the Commune and the Jacobin Club
that the real authors of the excesses of the revolution had
established their stronghold. From this arsenal of crime
came forth the conspiracies and seditious movements which
overturned the throne and stained the revolution with the
bloody outrage of the 10th of Aug., 1792, and the massacre
of September. (See SEMPRONIUs, “Histoire de la Commune
de Paris,” 5th ed. 1871; BEAUMONT-VAssBY, “Histoire Au-
thentioſue de la Commune de Paris,” 1871; “Guerre de
Communeaux de Paris, 18 Mars—18 Mai, 1871,” 1871;
MoRIAC, “Paris sous la Commune,” 2d ed. 1871.)
WILLIAM JACOBs.
Communicatio Idiom’atum (“conjoint possession
of attributes”), the name marking the doctrine that the
One person of Christ has conjoint possession of the at-
tributes of the two natures—that the attributes of the two .
natures are so held together in the One person as in it to
have fellowship with each other; the person which conjoins
the nature conjoins their attributes in itself. The two na-
tures are inseparable, both actively and passively. What
is proper to either nature in the abstract belongs to Christ
in the concrete; and what the divine, which is the assum-
ing nature, has in itself, the human, which is the assumed
nature, has in and through its personal conjunction with
the divine. (See KRAUTH’s “Conservative Reformation,”
476–481.) C. P. KRAUTH.
Communion Service. See EUCHARIST, by F. A. P.
BARNARD.
Commu^nipaw, a station in Jersey City, N.J., on the
Central R. R. of New Jersey. Communipaw had a famous
abattoir or slaughter-house, which supplied great quantities
of meat for the New York markets. It was closed in 1874.
Com/munism, the theory which teaches that property
should be held in common—a theory which Plato advocates
in his “Republic,” and which was probably practised before
his time by the followers of Pythagoras. In later times the
Neo-Platonist Plotinus attempted to establish community
of goods upon the plan which had been proposed by Plato.
Among the Jews the Essenes and Therapeutae practised a
sort of communism. The first Christian church at Jeru-
salem for a time made no distinction of property; and,
following their example, certain monastic and semi-mo-
mastic organizations had their possessions in common.
Booddhism and other Oriental religious systems have for
ages had followers who have practised a rude communism.
In Europe there were numerous mediaeval sects of heretics
(Catharists, Brethren of the Free Spirit, etc.) who advocated
Some practice of the kind. . Later came the Anabaptists of
Münster, the Libertines of Switzerland, the Familists of
England. Still later we find the Herrnhuters, the Shakers,
the Harmonists, the Buchanites, and numerous other re-
ligious communists—some practically successful, and others
not. Bacon, More, and other English theorists long ago
COMMUNICATIO IDIOMATUM–COMORN.
wrote treatises which looked towards the ultimate estab-
lishment of communism, but Robert Owen was the first
great advocate of the doctrine in that country. The first
French Revolution brought forward a number of com-
munistic theories, but none survived long. In later times,
Saint-Simon, Fourier, Louis Blanc, Proudhon, Cabet, and ,
Considérant have been representative French communists.
Karl Marx is the best-known German representative of
these ideas. It is remarkable that the most successful
communistic experiments of modern times have been or-
ganized and conducted by those who are inspired by strong
religious notions, like the Shakers, Oneida Communists,
and Harmonists. The teachings of the great communists
of the present century have, however, not been without
value, since the highly successful co-operative movements
of Europé have been in part guided by the best thought
and truest philanthropy of the better class of communistic
writers. (See Co-oper ATION, by THOMAS HUGHES, M. P.)
Commute [from the Lat. com (for con), “with,” and
muto, to “change,” literally to “exchange one thing for
another ”], in law, to exchange one penalty for another,
usually less severe. A sentence of death is often com-
muted into a long imprisonment. Also, to receive one thing
for another; thus officers in the army are allowed so many
rations each; these they commute for cash.
Comme/nus [Gr. Kouvnvós], the name of a Byzantine
family of Italian origin, from which descended six emperors
of the East and all the emperors of Trebizond. (See ALEXIS
I., ANDRONICUs I., Isa AC I., MANUEL I., and ANNA COM-
NENA.)
Coſmo, a province of Italy, bounded on the N. by
Switzerland and Sondrio, on the W. by Novaro, on the S.
by Milan, on the E. by Bérgamo and Sondrio. Area, 1049
square miles. It consists of the territory about Lake
Como and the eastern part of Lake Lugano, and reaches
westward to Lago Maggiore. This province contains sev-
eral magnificent regions; the finest of them is the tract
called Brianza, lying between Monza and the two southern
branches of Lake Como, which is as much as 25 miles long
and from I to 3 miles broad, and watered by the Adda.
The province produces much silk and wine. The princi-
pal industry is the rearing of silk-worms. Pop. in 1871,
480,339. -
Como (anc. Comum), a city of Italy, in Lombardy, cap-
ital of a province of the same name, is at the south-western
extremity of the Lake of Como, 24 miles N. of Milan, with
which it is connected by a railway. It is beautifully sit-
uated in a valley enclosed by verdant hills, covered with
gardens and groves of orange and olive trees. On a hill
overlooking the town are the ruins of the Castle Baradello,
which was destroyed by Frederick Barbarossa. It has a
fine cathedral founded in 1396, by the side of which is a
clock-tower built in 1463. Here are also an ancient town-
hall, a public library, a museum, theatre, and botanic garden.
IHere are manufactures of cotton yarn, silk and woollen
fabrics, and soap. It has a trade by the lake with Ticino
and Germany. "Pop. in 1872, 24,350. Comum was an im-
portant town under the Romans. Pliny the Younger and
Volta were natives of this place.
Como, Lake [It. Lago di Como; anc. Larius Lacus], a
lake of Italy, in Lombardy, is an expansion of the river
Adda, which enters it at the foot of the Lepontine and
Rhetian Alps, and issues from the south-eastern extremity
of the lake. It is divided into two branches, one of which,
extending south-westward, is called the Lake of Lecco. It
is 698 feet above the sea, and about 35 miles from Como to
the northern end, and is nearly 3 miles wide. Its greatest
depth is 1925 feet, the superficial extent 62 square miles.
It is celebrated for the beautiful scenery of its shores, cov-
ered with elegant villas. Numerous steamboats ply on this
water. *.
Comonfort' (IGNAcro), a Mexican general and presi-
dent, born at Puebla, Mar. 12, 1812. He was chosen a mem-
ber of Congress in 1842, and senator nearly six years later.
He co-operated with Alvarez against Santa Anna in 1854,
and became provisional president on the resignation of
Alvarez Dec., 1855. The clergy and conservatives raised
an unsuccessful revolt against Comonfort, who in 1856
issued a decree to confiscate the property of the Church.
He was proclaimed constitutional president Dec., 1857, but
his power was rendered only nominal by the enmity of the
clergy and the disaffection of the army. He was driven
into exile Jan., 1858. In 1863 he commanded a republican
army against the French invaders. He was killed by ban-
dits Nov. 13, 1863.
Comorn, a county of Hungary, is bounded on the N.
by the counties of Presburg and Bars, on the E. by Gran,
on the S. by Stuhlweissenburg, and on the W. by Raab.
Area, 1146 square miles. It is divided into nearly equal
COMORN-COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
1055
parts by the Danube, besides which it is also traversed by
the Waag River. In the N. it is level, but in the S. moun-
tainous. The country at the entrance of the Waag into the
Danube consists of large swamps. The soil is generally
fertile and well cultivated; sheep-raising is extensively
pursued. Chief town, Comorn. Pop. in 1869, 143,090.
Co/morm, a fortified town of Hungary, capital of the
above county, is on the left bank of the Danube, at the
mouth of the river Waag, 46 miles W. N. W. of Pesth,
on the Great Schütt Island at its eastern extremity. The
streets are narrow and irregular. The Danube is here
crossed by a bridge of boats. The fortress of Comorn,
originally built by Matthew Corvinus, is considered one of
the strongest in Europe, and requires for its defence 15,000
men. Comorn has eight churches and two theatres; also
manufactures of woollen cloth and leather, a trade in wine,
grain, wood, and fish, and coal-mines in the vicinity.
It was besieged and bombarded by the Austrians in 1848
and 1849 without success, but finally capitulated of its
own choice, Sept. 27, 1849. Pop. in 1869, 12,688.
Com’oro Isles, a group of four volcanic islands in
the Mozambique Channel, between Africa and Madagascar.
They are mountainous, and the highest peaks rise about
6000 feet above the sea. The inhabitants are upright and
well-mannered. They are of mixed Arab and negro blood.
Area, 1050 square miles. The soil is fertile. The prolific
tropical vegetation includes the cocoa and areca palms, ex-
cellent rice and maize, yams, bananas, mangos, pineapples,
oranges, lemons, cotton, Wild indigo, and Sugar-cane. Ex-
cellent wood for shipbuilding is found. The principal
exports are palm oil and tortoise-shells. The greater part
of the people are Mohammedans, but fetishism is practised
among them. They support themselves mostly by tillage;
there are among them skilful cutlers, weavers, and jewel-
lers. Three of the islands have each their own sultan. The
rule of the rest is exercised by numerous elective chiefs.
Mayotte, one of these islands, is a French colony. The
island of Johanna is celebrated for its beauty. Pop. about
49,000.
Compans (JEAN DOMINIQUE), Count, a French general,
born at Saliès, in Haute Garonne, June 26, 1759. He served
in the armies of the Alps and of Italy; and in 1799 at the
head of a division of the Army of the Alps, then commanded
by Grenier, he raised the siege of Coni, took Fossano and
Savigliano, and reopened communications between the right
and left divisions of the French army; he thus relieved a
portion which was hemmed up by the Austrians and was
suffering fearful hardships, shoeless and half naked among
the Alpine snows, and depending upon wild herbs for
nourishment. He served afterwards in Italy, which had
been reopened to the French arms by the battle of Maren-
go; and the assaults of Mincio, Montebello, and Villafranca
witnessed his bravery. After the peace of Lunéville, Com-
pans was made commandant of the province of Cuneo.
Falling at one time into the hands of brigands, who then
swarmed in the country, he thought himself lost, until one
of the band approached and addressed him: “Have no
fear, general; we have not forgotten how in war-times you
protected our wives and children and preserved our dwell-
ings.” In the Prussian campaign Compans was raised to
the rank of general of division. He was created a count
of the empire in 1808. He served with distinction through
the Russian campaign, took up arms again in the Hundred
Days, and was taken prisoner at Waterloo. Died Nov. 10,
1845. -
Company. See JoſNT-STOCK CoMPANY and PARTNER-
sHIP, by PROF. T. W. DwighT, LL.D.
Com/pany [Fr. compagnie], in an army, is a body of
men commanded by a captain, and forming an aliquot part
of a regiment or battalion of infantry. A full company con-
sists of about one hundred men. In the British service a
regiment of infantry generally comprises ten or twelve
companies. The captain of each company is assisted by
two subaltern officers, the lieutenant and ensign. A regi-
ment of cavalry is divided into troops instead of companies.
In the U. S. army each of the three arms of the service is
divided into companies. Each battalion of infantry is
divided into ten companies, and each company has a cap-
tain and two lieutenants. The eavalry companies are often
known as troops, while the artillery company is more prop-
erly a battery. The U. S. marine corps also has its com-
panies. - -
Company Shops, a thriving post-village of Alamance
co., N. C., 2 miles W. of Graham, on the North Carolina
R. R., is the site of the repair and construction shops and
the general offices of the Richmond and Danville R. R.
Comparative Anatomy, the science of the struc-
tural constitution of animals; so called because it is based
upon the comparison of the anatomy of different animals.
T. PRIMARY ELEMENTS.
Animal bodies either consist of homogeneous substance,
or of that substance disposed in tissues. Tissues, in the
vast majority of cases, are made up into organs, the sim-
plest forms of which are the sac, the tube, and the segment.
By multiplication and modification of these elements, organs
become complex. The simplest expression of tissue is, on
the other hand, the nucleated cell, and all tissues are made
of multiplied and modified cells, with the addition of un-
organized or homogeneous substance.
This substance, whether homogeneous or exhibiting
structure, is chemically identical throughout the animal
kingdom, and constitutes the living part of plants. It be-
longs to the class of protein compounds, and is called gel-
atin, albumen, fibrin, etc., or, regarded structurally, proto-
plasm. Its composition is C24H11N308, with very small
amounts of sulphur and phosphorus added under some cir-
cumstances. It is therefore a nitryl of cellulose—i.e., C24
H20020 + 3NH3.
According to the latest investigations, the cell is not
usually a hollow body, but consists of a superficial layer,
which represents the wall (but which may be of consider-
able thickness), and a central body which fills it, which is
called the nucleus. This nucleus may contain another vis-
ibly distinct body, or nucleolus. The essential difference
between the nucleus and the wall consists in the fact that
the former alone is capable of direct nutrition from the
blood, while the wall is derived from it by additions on its
inner surface. All growth originates in the nucleus; that
is, all cell-division or discharge of homogeneous protoplasm
has its origin there. Hence it has been called the germinal
matter, while the wall is termed formed matter. Formed
matter exhibits the active functions of life other than
growth. Thus it contracts, as in muscular tissue, or is ir-
ritable and conductive of force, as in nerves. It constitutes
the primary substance of secretions, by its breaking down
and mingling with special compounds brought by the blood.
It may then be concluded that the formed protoplasm or
wall converts heat, etc. into motion, chemism, etc., while
the germinal matter converts heat into growth-force.
II. TISSUES.
Tissues are naturally arranged, according to their struc-
ture, into four groups—viz., connective tissue, tissue of in-
dependent cells, nerve-tissue, and muscular tissue. The
connective tissue consists of cells, frequently presenting
narrow prolongations, which are separated by formed sub-
stance of various character, but always either gelatinous
or solid. It includes the supporting and connecting tissues
of the body, as the Osseous, cartilaginous, connective, etc.,
as well as those of less consistence, as the vitreous humor of
the eye, adipose tissue, etc. The tissues of independent
cells include those floating in fluids, as blood- and lymph-
corpuscles, with those which are stationary, but not bound
together by connective substance, as the epithelium. The
muscular tissue consists of elongate cells, which are massed
together in longitudinal bundles or fibrillae, without the
intervention of non-cellular substance. The nervous tissue
consists of isolated cells surrounded by formed matter,
which terminate in tubular prolongations or nervous fibres
which extend throughout the body. These cells are of del-
icate texture, and are separated by the equally soft altered
cell-contents.
The connective tissue (figs. 1 and 2) is composed in the lower
animals more exclu-
sively of cells than
in the higher. The
formed matter exte-
rior to the nucleus
of the cells assumes
various forms. In
the gelatinous tis-
Sues (which are most
abundant in young
animals) this sub-
stance is relatively
large in quantity
and thin in consist-
ence. In the more
numerous forms the
latter assumes a fib-
rous character, and
{r^S consists of bands of
*\\ i" fibres, with the cells
º § scattered at inter-
FIG.1. Connective tissue: 1, whitefibrous vals. In the upper
element; 2, yellow fibrous element. layer of the true
skin the cells assume a radiate form, and contain the color-
ing pigment (fig. 3) which is generally characteristic of
the animal. These cells may contract under nervous in-
fluence, so as to obliterate the color, as in many fishes. In

1056
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
many of these they are expanded only at certain seasons of
the year; in the squids (Loligo) they pulsate during life, and
produce great changes in the appearance of the skin. In
many batrachians and reptiles one color may be rapidly
substituted for another, as in the tree-frog, chamaeleon, etc.
Here there is more than one stratum of pigment-cells, each
containing a peculiar color. Under nerve influence the in-
ferior cells may expand while the superficial contract, and,
penetrating between the latter, give color to the whole sur-
face of the skin. Cartilage (fig. 4) differs from other forms
in the large quantity of formed matter which is discharged
from the germinal centres or nuclei, and which separates
the latter widely. It is but slightly fibrous in typical car-
tilage, but in fibro-cartilage highly so. In elastic tissue
certain bands of fibres agglomerate and harden, and become
elastic through the addition of toughness to the original
qualities. By hardening in extended layers, connective
º
&
3%
º Nº
ºš -
&
|
º§f
§
FIG. 2. Connective tissue, partially developed.
tissues form basement membranes, or those supporting
glandular structures. Osseous tissue (fig. 5) is developed
either in typical connective tissue, skin, or cartilage, but
usually in the latter. It consists of a deposit of phosphate
of limé in the formed intercellular substance by the minute
capillaries which traverse it. It is generally concentric to
the cells. -
The connective tissue is the medium for transmission of
the blood-vessels in most regions of the body.
The tissues of independent cells are various in situation
and function. As epithelium it covers the surfaces of the
cavities of the body, as well as its exterior. Its cells are
packed together, forming a stratum which may be de-
pressed and hardened, as the epidermis or outer skin, or
Soft and of little consistency, as inside of the mouth.
The cells are flat or cylindric, and in some situations
furnished with movable cilia. The columnar epithelium
(fig. 6) is only found in the mucous membrane; the
spheroidal exists as the lining of the urinary and per-
spiratory vessels and ducts; the ciliated (fig. 7) belongs
to the air-passages, the conjunctiva of the eye, and the
lining of the ventricles of the brain. The crystalline
lens of the eye is one of its most modified forms. The
lymph-corpuscles are white nucleated cells thrown off from
the lymphatic glands into the blood, in which they float.
They are highly important in nutrition. The red blood-
corpuscles (fig. 8) give color to the circulatory fluid; in the
invertebrates, where the blood is frequently white, it con-
tains only the white corpuscles, while the latter are much
more numerous in the lower than in the higher Vertebrata.
In this class the red corpuscles are nucleated below the
Mammalia; in the latter, their contents appear to be homo-
geneous. They are disk-like, with slightly concave surfaces,
sometimes with a median convexity. They are largest in
Batrachia, especially in the Proteus.
The muscular cell is of a peculiarly elongate or rod-like
form, and possesses a well-defined wall or sheath. It is
composed originally either of a single cell, which elongates
with growth, chiefly in its formed substance (but in some
measure with its nucleus also), or of several confluent cells.
In the fresh water Hydra the contractile cells of its body-
walls and arms preserve their original form. Muscular
cells are divided into the unstriped and the striped—the
former having homogeneous formed matter; the latter ex-
hibiting transverse divisions (figs, 9 and 10), which produce
the appearance of a series of disks. Muscles terminate in
tendoms, which present a form of connective tissue, the mu-
clei being few and the formed substance fibrous, and very
dense and hard.
The nerve-cells (fig. 11) are found in nervous centres—i.e.,
brain and spinal cord—and in ganglia. They form, with the
intervening substance, the gray nerve-matter. The white
matter and the nerves proper are composed of nervous
fibres or tubes. The nerve-cell has to various observers
presented a greater complexity of structure than other cells.
In some, fibrous layers in the wall and covering the nucleus
have been observed, the external layer being continuous
with the external walls of the nerves. Others describe tu-
bular vacuities in the nucleus. Nerves consist of more or
less granular formed protoplasm, surrounded by a sheath or
neurilemma, and containing nuclei. Many nerves exhibit
thick walls, while in others, especially the sympathetic, the
nerve-walls are extremely thin.
III. ORGANS AND SYSTEMs.
Tissues arranged and united in forms, so as to be usable
for vital processes, form organs. All organs not constructed
of cells alone are composed of elementary parts, which may
be regarded as repetitions of the sac, the tube, or the seg-
ment, no matter how complex they may be. The organs
are classified into systems by their structural connection
with one another, which of course signifies functional asso-
ciation for some common vital process. The systems are
as follows:
1. Cellular Systems—The nervous, the muscular, the muco-
dermal.
2. Sac and Tube Systems—The digestive, the circulatory,
the respiratory, the urogenital.
3. Segment System—The skeletal.
The nervous system consists of central bodies or ganglia,
and nerves which extend from them to the periphery of
the body. The structure presents much variation among
the several groups of animals. The muscular is composed
of muscles and the tendons by which they are attached to
the part of the skeleton to be moved by them. The mus-
cles are composed of innumerable fibrillae enclosed in a
common sheath. The bundles in invertebrate animals are
smaller, till in some of the lowest they are composed of but
few fibrillae. Unstriped fibres prevail in invertebrate ani-
mals, excepting the Arthropoda, where the muscles are
striped. The fibres in vertebrates are striped, excepting in
involuntary muscles, where they are unstriped, save only in
the heart. In invertebrates they may have thick sheaths,
and the contents are frequently granular. In most Arth-
ropoda, the central part of the striped fibrillae retains the
original cell-nuclei in one or more columns. The muco-
dermal system covers the body externally, and as mucous
membrane enters and lines all the cavities that communi-
cate with the open air; as serous membrane it lines the
closed cavities. In animals no system presents greater va-
rieties of exterior structure. In invertebrates it is some-
times hardened by segments produced by a deposit of lime,
which resemble bone (sea-urchin), or form a more elastic
substance, chitin (Arthropoda). In vertebrates it may
support osseous pieces of various forms (scales), or hairs, or
feathers, which are simply enlarged hairs finely branched.
Finally, as horn it appears as nails, claws, and horn-
sheaths; these are simply thickened epidermis. *
The digestive system is a tube usually open at both ex-
tremities. Portions of its course are enlarged into stomach,
large intestine, etc., while glandular bodies are distributed
along it from one end to the other, and pour their contents
into it. These glands are formed of sacs, in a few cases
simple (fig. 12) (gastric glands of stomach), in others simply
forked, but usually many times divided and subdivided,
forming masses of lobules. Some of these bodies are almost
universal in the animal kingdom. Thus, it is usual to find
one or more situated near the
cavity of the mouth (fig. 13),
which secretes a fluid to aid
# in deglutition; another, most
# frequently met with, dis-
º charges its secretion into the
šº alimentary canal just beyond
the stomach. This is the liver
and its representatives. The
walls of the canal are supplied with several layers of mus-
cular tissue in the vertebrates, and in a less complex form
in lower animals. -
The circulatory system consists of tubes for the conduct
of the results of digestion throughout the body; it origi-
mates from branches of the digestive canal in the lowest
types (Medusae), but becomes highly specialized, so that
communication with that system is had by endosmosis only.
It early acquires a specially muscular enlargement, which
pulsates. This organ becomes more specialized, isolated,
and divided, and is known as the heart. The arteries (which
take blood from it) are muscular throughout their length.
The veins are not so, but are distinguished by the presence
of valves in the higher animals. . - -





COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
The respiratory system consists of a series of tubes which
carry air through the body; in some animals (snails, spi-
ders) these are blind, forming pulmonary Sacs, on which
capillary arteries are distributed. In animals inhabiting
the water this system is little or not at all developed, it be-
ing replaced by branchiae or gills. In vertebrates it does
not exist, but large sacs, connected by tubes with the
digestive system, answer the same functional purpose, ex-
cept among fishes, where it is used as a float. Gills ačrate
the blood in this class.
The urogenital system consists of tubes, sacs, and glandu-
lar and cellular bodies, which are connected with the outer
air at the posterior end of most animals, and are usually
blind at their termini. Their exit is usually common to the
alimentary canal, and is called cloaca. These organs ex-
hibit usually bilateral symmetry, the opposite sides having
distinct exits, except among females of some of the higher
animals, where the discharge tubes unite and form a cham-
ber called the uterus. The tubes are termed oviducts (or
tubae Fallopii), and terminate in a fibrous and cellular body,
the ovary. In its circumference appear cells, which grow,
and after discharge are modified into the embryo. Origin-
ally, the embryo-cells of low animals grow into adults by a
simple vegetative process, but in higher forms a stimulus
to such growth is required from the other or male sex. In
this sex the ovaries produce, by a form of secretion, inde-
pendent cells, each of which bears a long cilia or lash (8per-
matozoºids), and being modified in structure are properly
termed testes. The efferent tube is called the was deferens.
These only unite near their point of exit. The urinary
system is present in the vertebrates only. Tubes connect
it with the reproductive canals near their termini. These
are derived from paired glandular bodies, the kidneys, and
usually unite into a common reservoir before exit—i.e., the
urinary bladder. The object is the removal of uric acid,
etc. from the blood.
The skeletal system exists only in vertebrates. It con-
stitutes the solid framework of the body, and is axial or in-
térnal. It is composed of cartilaginous and osseous tissue.
It is composed of segments, which possess a solid centre-
piece and two opposite arches attached to it—one superior,
the other inferior. It thus forms two tubes connected by a
solid axis. The upper protects the nervous—the lower, the
nutritive organs. Each segment is divisible into sub-
segments, which are originally separate. These are much
modified in form at the anterior extremity of the body—
above, to contain the brain; below, to aid the sense of hear-
ing, to prepare food for digestion, etc. Appendages to in-
ferior segments are seen in limbs, which are the supports
of the body and resistant elements in motion. They are
also composed of segments arranged in lines or radii.
IV. CLASSIFICATION of ANIMALs.
All known animals are referable to seven “branches” or
primary types. Four plans of structure cover these, with-
out expressing their intimate or essential structure. The
four are the radiated (Coelenterata and Echinodermata);
the longitudinally-jointed, with external and ring-shaped
skeleton (Vermes and Arthropoda); the bag-shaped (Mol-
lusca and some Protozoa); and the vertebrated, whose essen-
tial character is mentioned above under the skeleton of the
Vertebrata. The characters may now be given in more de-
tail.
Branch I., Protozoa.-Low animals, composed of single
or aggregated solid cells or protoplasmic masses, without
blood or nerves. When symmetrical, bilateral or radiate.
Branch II., Coelenterata.-Hollow animals, without spe-
cial digestive organs, or with a sac-like stomach opening
into the common cavity. Circulatory system wanting or
represented by branches from the digestive cavity. No
nervous system. The form is radial and bilateral, or radial
only. -
Branch III., Echinodermata.--Digestive system inde-
pendent of the body-walls, not
filling the cavity; the circu- tº º *
‘e S §§ - Šºš Š
łºś ºl
system ; nervous system an º sº
oºsophageal ring, with radii; ºf .º
skin with hard protective ºÖ º
. Form bilateral and sº § sº
T8, al. - §§§ §§§
Branch IV., Vermes.—Di- ~ \s(jūš
gestive system isolated, not º àºjº
occupying the body cavity; sºs
circulatory system incomplete º
Ot º: *::::::: . FIG. 4. Cartilage cells.
an oesophageal ring, with ganglia, or consisting of the chief
ganglia only. No jointed limbs; body elongate. In de-
velopment the alimentary canal is excavated in the embryo.
1057
lated; circulatory system incomplete at the distal extrem-
ities; nervous system with ring round oesophagus, which
bears a ganglion above and one below ; a third ganglion
inferiorly placed, connected by a ring with the former.
Form sac-like. Intestines excavated from yolk of egg, not
formed by a fold. -
Branch VI., Arthropoda.--Digestive system complete;
circulatory with complete central organ, but open ex-
...' - tremities; nervous system
with oesophageal ring and
ganglia, and generally an
axis on the inferior surface
of body, with ganglia at
j intervals. Skin hardened
into a chitinous, jointed
skeleton, which is furnish-
ed with jointed legs. Form
bilateral. Intestines form-
ed by excavation of yolk,
not by infolding of mem-
brane. • * *
FIG. 5. Osseous cells. Branch VII., Vertebrata.
—Alimentary system complete; respiratory, a branch from
it; circulatory, with complete circuit; nervous, of a longi-
tudinal ganglionic axis on the upper side (spinal cord),
with usually ganglionic bodies at one end (brain). An in-
ternal bony or cartilaginous skeleton, consisting of solid
axis; superior tube for nervous and inferior for other sys-
tems. Form bilateral. Digestive tubes formed by the in-
folding of a membrane formed on the yolk.
A few years ago the number of species of animals known
was stated to be 500,000, of which 400,000 were Arthropoda;
of the remainder, 25,000 were Vertebrata.
The classes of animals number thirty-six, distributed and
defined as follows:
PROTOZOA—Rhizopoda.-Bodies of homogeneous proto-
plasm, which throws out threads or arms of the same sub-
stance, which are elastically retractile. No internal organ-
ization; often a silicious covering, which is perforated.
(Fig. 14.) - -
Spongiae.—Unicellular animals (fig. 15), in which the cells
are frequently associated in large numbers on axes of a
horny, calcareous, or silicious nature, forming branched
masses. These are penetrated by canals.
Infusoria.-Body with wall distinguished from contents,
with mouth and often anus; often a contractile vesicle and
ovarian nucleus. Surface frequently ciliated. (Fig. 16.)
COELENTERATA—Hydrozoa.-The cavity of the body the
only digestive system; skin distinct; form radiate only.
(Fig. 17.) -
Medusae (jelly-fish).-Digestive system an open sac com-
municating with the body cavity, from which canals radi-
ate as isolated grooves. Eight series of swimming-lobes on
the surface. Form bilateral. (Fig. 18.) +
Anthozoa (corals, etc.).-Digestive system the body-cavity
and an appended open sac, the former divided round the
walls by vertical septa into grooves, which continue into
tubular tentacles. Septa and skin often filled with deposit
of carbonate of lime. (Fig. 19.)
ECHINoDERMATA—Crinoidea.—Body cup-shaped, the sur-
face covered with mineralized plates, which are solidly
united, but wanting on a part next the stomach; arms
present, formed of articulating segments. (Fig. 22.)
Asterida.-Body depressed, star-shaped, covered with cal-
careous plates, which are wanting on a part of the dorsal
surface, and which articulate with each other in clusters
(star-fishes). (Fig. 20.)
Echinida.-Body discoidal or globular, surface covered
with calcareous plates, which are immovably united to-
gether; no arms (sea-urchins). (Fig. 21.) -
Holothurida.-Body elongated, cylindric, covered with
soft skin; a calcareous ring round oesophagus ; mouth Sur-
rounded by tentacles (trepangs). (Fig. 23.)
WERMEs—Gephyrea.—Body cylindric, not jointed, ali-
mentary canal complete in the hollow body; a nervous sys-
tem, an oesophageal ring and abdominal axis.
Rotatoria.-Alimentary canal developed in the hollow
body; ciliated disks or wheel-organs for movement; a
water-circulatory system.
Cestoda.—Body jointed, nearly solid, without digestive
system; head with suckers and hooks; a water-circulatory
system (tape-worm).
Trematoda-Body not jointed, solid except in the de-
veloped digestive tubes, and water-circulatory system; head
with suckers and hooks (flukes).
Acanthocephala.-Body hollow, not jointed, cylindric,
without digestive canal; head with a hook-bearing pro-
boscis. º
Nematoda.-Body hollow, unjointed; digestive canal well
developed. -
$ts
Branch V., Mollusca.-Alimentary canal complete, iso-
Turbellaria.-Body unjointed, flat, solid, except in the





67
!
1058
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
developed digestive canals; nervous system of two supra-
oºsophageal ganglia; surface covered with cilia.
Annelida.-Body hollow, segmented, with well-developed
digestive canal and nervous system; the latter an oesopha-
geal ring and abdominal ganglion chain; a system of respi-
ratory tubes (earth-worms, etc.). (Fig. 23.)
MoLLUSGA.—Bryozoa.-Head, tongue, and foot wanting;
a shell-producing mantle enclosing the hinder portion of
the body; mouth surrounded by a crest of tentacles as re-
spiratory organs. Nervous system rudimental. (Fig. 24.)
Tunicata.-Head, tongue, and foot wanting; a large bag-
like mantle, which bears a shell of connective tissue, en-
closing saclike gills. Nervous system rudimental. (Fig. 25.)
Brachiopoda.-Head, foot, and tongue absent; mantle
large, bearing large shells, which are dorsal and ventral;
branchiae supported on two spiral arms, which are attached
to the shell. (Fig. 26.)
Acephala.-Head and tongue wanting, foot anterior;
mantle covering the body on each side, and enclosing la-
miniform branchiae; two shells, right and left (mussel,
clam). (Fig. 27.) t
Gasteropoda.-Head, tongue, and foot present, the latter
extending posteriorly; mantle small, posterior; gills comb-
like on the back. Shell, when present, single, spiral (conch,
smail). (Fig. 28.)
Pteropoda.-Head, tongue, and foot, the latter developed
into two lateral fins; mantle covering the hinder part of
body; gills comb-like on the back. (Fig. 29.)
, Cephalopoda.-Head and tongue present; foot divided
into arms, which radiate from the mouth as a centre; pos-
terior part of body enclosed in a mantle; gills on back;
cartilages behind eyes, and ganglia in head (cuttle-fish).
(Fig. 30.) ~
ARTHROPODA—Crustacea.—Two pairs of antennae; post-
abdomen developed; limbs on all segments of the body,
those of the thorax converted into mouth-organs; respi-
ratory organs, gills or wanting (shrimp, crab). (Fig. 31.)
- Arachnida.-No antennae nor anterior cephalic segments;
the last pair of cephalic limbs of the form of legs; three
\\
- §
FIG. 7. Ciliated epithelium
from the membranes of:
the human nose.
FIG. 6. Columnar epithelium
from the intestine of the
rabbit. -
additional pairs on the thorax; head and thorax united
into a cephalothorax, abdomen and developed post-abdo-
men without legs; respiration by tracheae or sacs (spider,
Scorpion). -
... Myriopoda.-One pair of antennae; a part of the thoracic
limbs used as mouth-organs; abdomen not distinguished,
many-jointed, furnished with limbs throughout; post-abdo-
men rudimentary; respiration by means of tracheae (centi-
pedes).
Insecta.-One pair of antennae; abdomen without limbs,
post-abdomen rudimentary; three pairs of limbs on the
thorax; respiration by means of tracheae; usually two pairs
of wings (insects). (Fig. 32.) -
VERTEBRATA—Leptocardii.-Cranium membranous, with-
out mandibular arch, no brain; heart with one chamber;
five aorta-roots (lancelet). . -
Lermopteri...—Cranium and skeleton cartilaginous; no
mandibular arch ; heart with two chambers; five aorta-
roots (lamprey). -
Pisces.—Cranium and skeleton osseous or cartilaginous,
or both, with under jaw composed in part of malleus, and
supported by incus and stapes, as hyo-mandibular bone, etc.
Limbs with many segments in contact with scapula without
intervening humerus; pelvis mostly wanting. Brain well
developed; optic lobes generally larger; cerebellum dis-
tinct; two chambers of the heart; five aorta-roots on each
side. A parasphenoid bone (shark, sturgeon, sucker, perch).
Batrachia.--Skeleton osseous; cranium with parasphe-
noid, no basi-occipitals; under jaw embracing malleus, and
supported by a single “quadrate” bone, “the incus;”
limbs with humerus and few radii; pelvis present; brain
with cerebral hemispheres largest, and small cerebellum.
Three chambers to the heart; four or three aorta-roots; a
coracoid bone (salamander, frog).
Jºeptilia.--Skeleton osseous, with coracoid bone and
mandible, latter with malleus, and supported by incus; no
parasphenoid, but a basi-occipital; brain with large cere-
bral hemispheres; two or one aorta-roots; two aorta-bows;
heart with three or four chambers; metatarsal bones dis-
tinct; limbs with few radii; a humerus and pelvis.
Aves.—Skeleton osseous, with coracoid bone and mandi-
ble, which includes malleus, and is supported by single in-
cus; a basi-occipital, no parasphenoid; metatarsal and tar-
sal bones united; humerus and pelvis present: optic lobes
lateral, small; four chambers to the heart; one aorta-root.
and bow, turning to the right (birds). - -
Mammalia.--Skeleton osseous, without coracoid bone;
with the stapes, incus, and malleus withdrawn into the ear,
and simple, mandible sessile on the squamosal bone;
cranial axis behind the basi-occipital; limbs ambulatory,
with distinct tarsal and usually metatarsal bones; optic
lobes inferior; cerebral hemispheres very large; one aorta-
root and bow, turning to the left; heart with four chambers.
The preceding descriptions express a few of the structural
peculiarities of the animals included in the respective di-
visions—i.e., such as are common to those of each, and by
which they may be distinguished from each other. But the
innumerable characters found in the subordinate or con-
tained divisions and species of each remain to be considered.
- V. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
1. In Invertebrates.——In Protozoa, and perhaps Coelen-
terata, where the nervous system has not been certainly
discovered, spontaneous movements in the taking of food
and moving from place to place are readily observed. It
is therefore evident that the contractibility of their proto-
plasmic walls is under the direction of stimuli which do not
require nerves for their conduction or direction. The ner-
vous system of higher animals must therefore be looked
upon as designed for the specialization or location of move-
ments—a capacity entirely necessary to the activity of
special mental powers. These demand particular move-
ments for special objects; hence the necessity of concen-
trating the directors of movements in particular parts—
i. e., nerves, muscles, etc.
In the Bryozoa, the lowest mollusks, there is not cer-
tainly known to be an oesophageal ring, but there is a
considerable ganglion above the gullet, which sends ner-
vous threads around the horse-shoe respiratory crest. One
of these extends on each side at the base of the processes,
but, though they approach, they are not known to unite on
the inside of the arc. In Tunicata in like manner a single
ganglion exists above the oesophagus, between it and the
vent, and sends out nerves in a radiating manner. These
are distributed to the orifices of the body and to the
muscles. In Brachiopoda, the system is more highly de-
veloped, there being a complete oesophageal ring, with a
broad band-shaped ganglion on the inferior side. The lat-
ter represents two united ganglia, and gives off on each side
a strong nervous trunk. These trunks turn forward and
outward, and soon divide, the weaker branch going to the
spiral respiratory arms; representing that above described
in the Bryozoa. The stronger branch goes to the muscles
that close the shells, to the mantle, etc. Each one forms a
ring in the former locality, which gives off small threads.
In Acephala (called also Lamellibranchs, or bivalves) the
ganglia are transparent, yellowish, orange, or rosy, con-
taining fat cells, as well as the nervous. There are three
well-separated pairs of ganglia, the ganglia of each pair
connected by a commissure. The anterior pair is near the
mouth; they are rarely close together (Venus, Mactra) or
united (Mesodesma, Teredo); they give off on each side a
nervous thread which extends to the foot, and is connected
with the foot-ganglion pair. These are wanting in the
oyster and other genera which want the foot. This forms
an open oesophageal ring. The nerves of the foot are de-
rived from the ganglion, but none of the intestinal nerves.
These are derived from the third pair of ganglia, which are
the most posterior, and which are connected with the front
pair by a nervous stem on each side, forming a second ring
round the digestive axis. It sends nerves to the mantle,
gills, etc., meeting those from the anterior ganglia. In
Ostrea, Pinna, Mytilus, etc. its nerves contribute to form a
circuit which extends round the edge of the mantle, con-
necting with the anterior pair. . . . .
In Gasteropoda the ganglia and commissures are homol-
ogous with those of the Acephala, but the former are con-
centrated near the mouth, forming much more contracted
rings. The two supra-oesophageal ganglia (or “brain-
ganglia”) are connected by short commissures. They send
down commissures to the foot-ganglia, which are close to
the oesophagus; the visceral ganglia or third pair are be-
hind these, and connected with the Superior ganglia by
special commissures; sometimes they are on the upper side
of the oesophagus, and connected by commissure below it.
The superior sends nerves to the lips, mouth, tentacles, and
eyes; the foot-ganglia to the under side of the oesophagus,
to the ear, and the foot; the visceral ganglia to the mantle,
gills, heart, intestines, and certain muscles. In the naked

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
1059
division (Opisthobranchia) the upper ganglia give a special
ganglion to the tentacles; the foot-ganglia in like manner
are adjoined by a pair for the gills. In Chiton all three
pairs of ganglia are found on the inferior side of the oesoph-
agus. In Turbo, Littorina, Janthima, Phasianella, and
Patella the superior pair occupies the opposite sides of the
. gullet. In Natica all three are closely massed together.
As in other higher Mollusca, a sympathetic nervous system
exists which supplies the involuntary organs of the body.
The Pteropoda exhibit the three pairs of ganglia con-
nected by commissure. In the Gymnosomata they are all
separate, but in es
the Thecosomata
they are concen- S
trated on the
lower side of the
oesophagus, so as
not to be readily
distinguished. º) 3
In Cephalop- ^.
oda this sys-
item displays the
most concentrat-
ed type known
among mollusks. -
In Nawtilus the ganglia are almost confluent, and form
thick bands, one above and two below the oesophagus. The
cerebral pair give off each an enormous optic nerve, ap-
propriate to the size of the eyes in this class. The pedal
pair supply the tentacles and organ of hearing, and the
visceral pair the other organs. The inferior arches rest on
the cephalic cartilage which characterizes the Cephalopoda.
The nervous system is in many of the Vermes very
imperfectly developed, including the oesophageal ganglia.
with a few divergent nerves. In the Annelida the most
highly developed condition is observed, where each body-
segment possesses a ganglion connected by a longitudinal
FIG. 8. Red blood-corpuscles of frog : 1, their
face; 2, edgewise; 3, lymph-globule; 4, cor-
puscles changed by acid.
double commissure, which originates from the ring. In the
Arthropoda this type is also the basis of the various ar-
rangements observed, and is constantly discoverable in the
larvae of the various forms. As a general rule, it may be
understood that where a special organ exists the ganglion of
the segment in or on which it is placed is enlarged for its
supply, as in the thoracic ganglia of insects. Here several
segments are confluent; correspondingly, nervous ganglia
unite, forming larger masses, thus supplying the legs and
wings. The transition from the simple type found in the
iarvae to the modified and concentrated types of the adults
has often been observed in tracing the history of the
growth and metamorphosis of insects. In the Crustacea
and Arachnida the concentration is carried still farther
than in insects. Thus in some lower Crustacea, there are
numerous ganglia, and the lateral commissures of the ab-
dominal axis are only united in front; in the highest divis-
ion, the Decapoda (crabs, lobsters, etc.), the axis is largely
undivided, is short, and the ganglia are massed together.
In the scorpions (Pedipalpi) there are but few distinct gan-
glia, but in the spiders (Aranea) there are no ganglia in the
abdomen, and the nervous axis is short, massed together,
and undivided. On the other hand, in the lowest Arachnida,
the Acaridae, there is no abdominal axis by defect, and the
oesophageal ring is incomplete above, reminding one of the
condition of the lowest Mollusca. - -
2. In Vertebrates.—In this branch the nervous system
reaches its highest development, though in the lowest form,
the Leptocardii, it can hardly be considered to be more
perfect functionally than in many Mollusca. Here there
is a spinal cord or medulla, but no brain, but in its place a
slight enlargement of the diameter of the medulla. .
The spinal cord of vertebrates, like the brain, is com-
posed of gray and white nerve-tissue, the gray being the
ganglionic or cellular tissue, and the white the fibrous or
conducting. Unlike the brain, the spinal medulla possesses
the white substance externally, and the gray internally. |
The cord is divided longitudinally by an anterior and a
posterior fissure of some depth, and by two less profound
lateral ones. The gray substance exhibits in section a
crescentic outline, the horns of the crescent being turned
externally and reaching the lateral grooves. Here each horn.
gives origin to a nervous stem, and the two soon unite and
pass out through a foramen between the vertebrae. The
posterior bears a ganglion, and is devoted to the function
of sensibility or feeling; hence it is termed sensory. The
anterior is the smaller, and is termed motor, as its office is
to convey the stimulus which gives, origin to muscular
movements or contractions. After leaving the spinal col-
umn the single stem divides again, each branch containing
fibres from both roots. The extremity of the cord is di-
vided into a number of radiating threads, together consti-
tuting the cauda equina. In all the Vertebrata, from the
Dermopteri to (and including) the Aves, there is an axial
tube of small diameter; in Mammalia this is wanting, ex-
cept a short anterior trace of it. Birds add the peculiarity
of a sinus rhomboidalis, which is a long rhomboidal expan-
sion of the tube in the sacral region (rump), which is open
superiorly. The spinal nerves, in many of the branches
form networks by unions and separations opposite the fore
and hind legs, which are called the brachial and sacral
plexus. The ganglia of the sensory root are in the Batra-
chia accompanied each by a deposit of white phosphate of
lime, forming a rounded mass. In some fishes with a short
spinal cord the division of the cauda equina takes place far
anteriorly, as in Diodon and most other Plectognathi, thus
leaving a very short axis. -
The anterior part of the column enlarges, and is called
the medulla oblongata; as this is within the cranium, it is
reckoned as part of the brain. The six columns are here
better defined, and there are added two well-defined oval
prominences termed the corpora olivaeformia between the
lateral columns of Mammalia. This contains a corpus den-
tatum of gray matter. The fibres of the posterior columns
cross or decussate; they are, however, only those of the an-
terior or motor root of the spinal nerves that do so, having
passed upward through the column; the fibres of the pos-
terior roots decussate in the gray matter of the cord near
their exit, and pass thence into the brain without further
exchange. The divergence of the posterior columns leaves
a rhomboidal cavity or basin in the superior face of the
medulla, which is the fourth ventricle. , The roots of the
auditory (seventh) nerve originate below its fundus. This
chamber is variously, exposed in different vertebrates. The
postero-lateral columns (corpora restiformia) diverge up-
ward and backward, and support the first great brain gan-
glion, the cerebellum. In the Elasmobranchi (sharks, etc.)
the fourth ventricle is greatly extended laterally, having a
lobate outline, with sinuous walls; in other Vertebrata this
peculiarity does not exist. In Dermopteri, one division
(Hyperotreti) exhibits prominent lateral lobes, which do
not open externally; they are wanting in the remainder of
the class (Hyperoarti). In many bony fishes there are
ganglionic enlargements of the medulla, corresponding to
the origin of the nervus vagus; hence vagal lobes. There
are numerous lobes on the medulla of the pike. The me-
dulla is straight in most vertebrates, but in Reptilia and
birds it is bent rather abruptly downward and forward after
entering the cranium. -
The cerebellum is a simple oval or flat body in the fishes,
Batrachia, and reptiles, excepting in the crocodiles. In
these it develops two small lateral lobes, while the middle
portion, now called the vermis, becomes transversely grooved,
In the birds the lateral lobes are a little larger and the
plicae deeper, and on section it yields a digitate and serrate
outline of gray matter with a white centre, called the arbor
vitae. . In Mammalia the size is increased, especially as re-
gards the lateral lobes. In Dermopteri it is small—in the
division Hyperoarti apparently composed of two lateral
ganglia. In sharks it is much enlarged longitudinally,
and on section displays a weak arbor. vitae; in Pristis
(saw-fish) it even reaches the cerebrum, covering the optic
lobes. In other fishes it is smaller, in the usual osseous
orders a flat transverse commissure bridging the fourth
FIG. 9. Striated muscle magnified.
ventricle; in Polypterus it is similar, but in Lepidosteus
and Amia it is larger and oval. In Batrachia and in Dip-
noi it is more insignificant than in any other division,
being a very small transverse commissure, not nearly cov-
ering the fourth ventricle. In Batrachia this cavity con-
tains a triangular network of blood-vessels, which fits it,
called the plexus chorioideus; this is only seen elsewhere
in the tortoises (Testudinata). In reptiles the cerebellum
is still small and transverse, but exceeds that of the Ba-
trachia; it is convex and scutiform ; the fourth ventricle
is nearly closed. . In the crocodiles it is first approximately
closed. $
Anterior to the cerebellum, the brain is best understood



1060.
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
as a double body, bilaterally symmetrical, and composed
of a series of ganglia on each half of the divided axis or
prolongation of the medulla oblongata. These ganglia are,
primarily, the optic lobe, the cerebral lobe or hemisphere,
and the olfactory lobe. The middle columns of the medulla
support the optic lobes, while the cerebral lobes are sup-
ported by the middle and anterior columns. The optic lobes
are the largest of the ganglia from the Dermopteri to the Ba-
trachia (fig. 33), with the following exceptions: the cerebral
hemispheres are larger in elasmobranchs and Polypterus,
The lobi are sub-globular, and exhibit no marked external
peculiarity till we reach the Batrachia, where they are small-
er than the hemispheres, as in all the succeeding classes.
In the tailless Batrachia (Anura) they are divided trans-
versely, forming four sub-round bodies; it is possible that
the anterior one should be considered the lobus ventriculi
tertii, or optic thalamus, of the next ganglion or cerebrum;
but as it is united with the posterior in the tailed Batrachia
(salamanders) and Proteida (Necturus) (fig. 34), they are
more probably the anterior bodies of the corpora quadri-
gemina of mammals. The posterior, and half or all of the
anterior, are covered by a fold or lamina, which rises from
the posterior part of the posterior bodies in the Anura. In
the Urodela the posterior is reduced, like the cerebellum, to
a narrow transverse commissure, while in Necturus both it
and the cerebellum are wanting.
In Reptilia the optic lobes are more simple, but they are
partially divided into superior and inferior bodies. In liz-
ards the superior is laminar, and separated by a vacuity
from the inferior; but in serpents the latter is a mere fis-
sure. In harmless snakes (fig. 36) the lateral bodies are
connected by a commissure, but in the venomous Trigono-
cephalus and Bungarus they are united behind; in Vipera
the superior and inferior bodies appear to be quite sepa-
rated from each other. In birds the optic lobes are simple,
and situated infero-laterally, since the cerebellum and hem-
ispheres are in contact. In Mammalia they are superior,
and continuous with each other, and consist of four pro-
tuberances, the corpora quadrigemina. They are much
reduced in size, and cover a narrow vacuity or tube, the
FIG. 10. Muscular fibre, greatly magnified.
aquaeductus Sylvii. In front of the anterior pair is situ-
ated a sac-like body, the pineal gland, which is the rudi-
ment of an important organ of the brain of lower orders,
the epiphysis. This is a highly vascular membranous body,
which rises to the inner surface of the cranium in Dermop-
teri, fishes, Batrachia, and Reptilia. It is very variable in
structure in fishes; in reptiles (lizards) it often communi-
cates with the outer surface by the foramen parietale of the
table of the skull. Directly opposite to it another sac de-
scends from the cavity below the optic lobes (the aquae-
ductus Sylvii), which is termed the hypophysis. It exists
in the classes which possess the epiphysis, and is repre-
sented among Mammalia by the pituitary body and infun-
dibulum. -
The cerebral hemispheres are small in the classes below
the Batrachia, except in sharks and a few fishes, as the
Dipnoi, Polypterus, and Ginglymodi (gar). In Dipnoi,
Crassopterygia, Chondrostei (sturgeons), Ginglymodi and
Halecomorphi (Amia) the hemispheres are at a distance
from the optic lobes, being supported by the elongate crura
of the medulla oblongata; in other classes and orders the
hemispheres are sessile. In the mammals alone we find the
pons varolii, a body of transverse fibres which cross and
bind together these crura cerebri on the inferior side. The
hemispheres in the mammals present many peculiarities:
their size is increased, and in. Imany the surface is thrown
into vermiform ridges or “convolutions.” In the fishes and
higher types they are hollow, enclosing the “lateral ventri-
cles.” The floor of these is occupied by various bodies in
the different types. Thus in Batrachia there is a body on
the inner side of each. In reptiles this is represented by a
marrow body, while another mass occupies the outer part
of the floor of the ventricle. In Mammalia two bodies, little
separated, occupy this position—viz., the “lobus ventriculi
tertii ’’ (or thalamus opticus) and the corpus striatum.
The cerebral hemispheres are not united till in certain birds
we find a narrow bridge connecting them, the fornix. In
the lowest Mammalia (Marsupialia, etc.) we observe an-
other connecting body in a rudimental state above the
fornix. This is the corpus callosum, which in higher mam-
mals is a massive bridge, and much larger than the fornix.
There is another bond of connection called the anterior
commissure, which is short and sub-cylindric : its size in
mammals is nearly in inverse ratio to the development of the
corpus callosum. The ventricles are separated by the sep-
tum lucidum in this class only, but is much reduced in the
monotremes (duck-bill). The characters of the brain in the
º of Mammalia may be best expressed in tabular form,
thus :
I. No calcarine sulcus nor hippocampus minor; corpus
callosum rudimental; hemispheres smooth, leaving cere-
bellum and olfactory lobe exposed: Monotremata, Marsu-
pialia. - -
II. Corpus callosum well-developed, short, without ros-
trum; no-calcarine sulcus nor hippocampus minor; hemis-
pheres smooth, short; olfactory lobes and cerebellum not
covered: Edentata, Rodentia, Insectivora, Cheiroptera.
III. Corpus callosum longer, with a recurved rostrum
in front; no calcarine sulcus nor hippocampus minor; the
hemispheres convoluted, and partially covering the olfac-
tory lobes and cerebellum : Proboscidia, Hyracoidea, Un-
gulata, Carnivora (hoofed and carnivorous animals).
IV. Corpus callosum long, with rostrum; a calcarine
sulcus and hippocampus minor; hemispheres mostly convo-
luted, partly or wholly covering the olfactory lobes and
cerebellum : Primates (monkeys, man). -
Exceptions to the definition of the Primates are seen in
some of the Lemuroidea, in which the hemispheres are
smooth. In man they have nearly twice the size seen in
the allied forms of apes (chimpanzee, etc.). The calcarine
sulcus is on the lower side of the posterior part of the hem-
isphere, and the hippocampus minor is the convex body
within the ventricle, which its presence causes; it forms the
inner wall of the posterior horn of that chamber.
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FIG. 11. Nerve-cell and filaments.
The olfactory lobes are very large in elasmobranchs, and
are connected with the hemispheres by a narrow commis-
sure. In fishes they are less developed, and in batrachians
are sub-cylindric and separated by a groove. In reptiles
they are continuous with the hemispheres, obpyriform in
shape, and often slender; they are frequently hollow. In
birds and mammals they bear a smaller proportion to the
whole brain, and are entirely concealed in Primates.
The optic nerve originates by fibres derived from the optic
lobes. Its fibres decussate or cross from the right side to
the left, and vice versá, shortly after leaving the brain in
all Vertebrata, excepting the lower Actinopteri (Halecomor-
phi, Ginglymodi, and Chondrostei), the Elasmobranchii, and
the Dermopteri. In all of these the nerves are connected
by a commissure, which is in part (Amia) composed of fibres
which leave the brain and return again, forming a short
circuit. In the Dermopteri this “chiasma.” takes place
near the roots of the nerves; in the others, at a greater dis-
tance from the brain. * . - - -
The remaining cranial nerves are in fishes only four pairs,
the vagus, glossopharyngeus, trigeminus, and facialis. The
first two and the last two are each approximated. The
vagus exhibits in the fishes above the Dermopteri two dis-
tinct roots. The first is the nervus (ramus) lateralis,
which extends posteriorly beneath the scapular arch, and
runs along the middle of the side of the body to the tail; it
is abortive in Dermopteri. The second or larger nerve sup-
plies the gills and viscera. The nervi trigeminus et facialis
have four distinct origins, which sometimes unite and form
one or two plexuses outside the cranium. The branches
are distributed to different parts of the head; but one,
which especially characterizes many bony fishes, but is
wanting in Clupeidae, Plectospondyli, Amia (gar), Chondros-
tei, and elasmobranchs, the ramus lateralis, runs upward
within the cranium, issues above, and extends along the
back to the caudal fin, supplying the dorsal fin. In Der-





COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
1061
mopteri and Dipnoi the glossopharyngeal is a branch of the
vagus; in other vertebrates it is distinct. -
In Batrachia, the rami laterales of the vagus are present;
and the glossopharyngeus unites with the vagus, forming a |
ganglion, from which nerves issue. . The origins of the
nervi trigeminus and facialis are wholly or in part com-
mon, and they support a ganglion Gasserii. The hyoid and
scapular muscles are supplied from the first pair of spinal
nerves, and the vagus supplies branches to the scapula.
These characters are in part those of reptiles, but more
prominently those of fishes. In the Reptilia there are
nervi accessorii, as well as hypoglossi. The latter supplies
the hyoid and scapular regions, and the former certain mus-
cles inserted in the scapula in front. The rami laterales of
both vagus and trigeminus are not present, and the facialis
has a distinct origin. In mammals all these nerves are
present, except laterales, but the facialis frequently is iden-
tical with the trigeminus in origin. -
VI. THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM.
Muscles are entirely wanting to the Protozoa and to the
Coelenterata, excepting the Medusae. In the latter, delicate
bundles of unstriped fibres exist, extending vertically
from both the inner and outer surfaces of the umbrella,
while between them concentrically curved bundles run be-
tween the eight circulatory canals. Among echinoderms
the innumerable segments of which they are composed give
origin and insertion to many muscles. In addition there
are muscles devoted to the masticatory apparatus. This
consists in Echinoidea of five tooth-like bodies, which form
a pyramidal mass when closed. For the opening and shut-
ting of these, twice ten paired and twice five single muscles
are arranged, as well as several others. In Holothurida,
five longitudinal muscles extend from the hard oesophageal
ring to the vent. A sphincter closes the mouth, and the
superior part of the gullet is thickened with muscular walls.
The tentacles possess muscles.
In Mollusca muscles are universally present, though
fewer in number than in the groups just described. In
Bryozoa (or Polyzoa) a system of muscles is arranged for
the withdrawal of the crown into the sheath-like body;
these are median, longitudinal, slender muscles. Those de-
signed for projecting it again are horizontal, curved, and
situated on the inner wall of the body; the successive con-
tractions of these from below upward will produce the result.
Avicularia are peculiar bird-head-like bodies, situated near
the mouth in the marine Bryozoa ; they are furnished with
a bird-like beak, with an under jaw which frequently closes
with a snap, and slowly opens. These movements are con-
ducted by muscles whose movements are automatic. The
large mantle enclosing the body of the Tunicata is com-
posed of two muscular layers—the one of transverse (hence
annular) fibres, the other of longitudinal or oblique. Mus-
cles for producing progressive movement or swimming are
found in many genera. These are annular, and at intervals
around the body. Appendicularia possesses a long and
deep rudder-like tail, which contains muscular layers. The
Brachiopoda are attached to a fixed body by a muscular
arm or anchor, which enters the shell through a foramen.
This is connected with the dorsal and ventral valves of the
shell by corresponding opposite muscles, which determine
the direction of its open borders. There are two pairs of
adductor muscles arranged longitudinally, and two pairs of
abductors (divaricatores), one of the pairs smaller, and
sometimes wanting. There are muscles also in the mantle
and branchial arms. In lamellibranchs or Acephala there
are powerful musculi adductores. There is but one in the
Ostreidae, Aviculidae, and Muelleriidae. They are of very
unequal size in the Mytilidae, but sub-equal in the remain-
ing Acephala. In Anomia there are three. ,
There are also retractor muscles of the siphons, and a
band round the edge of the mantle. . The muscles of the
foot are often large. The principal one divides next the
body, and each half is inserted near the hinge of the shell
between the adductor muscles. In Gasteropoda, the mus-
cular structures have a different arrangement. The foot is
largely muscular, and its upper and posterior region gives
insertion to the columellar muscle, which attaches the ani-
mal to the shell. It arises from the columella at the begin-
ning of the last whorl. Its size depends on the size of the
whorl and length of foot. Other muscles are devoted to
the elongation or retraction of the proboscis and the penis.
In Cephalopoda the columellar muscle is represented by a
large symmetrically divided mass, which arises from the
cephalic cartilages, and is inserted into opposite sides of the
shell. An annular muscle surrounds the neck, and another
the funnel. From the latter diverge the longitudinal mus-
cles of the tentacles, which are perforated by radial muscu-
lar fibres. The mantle is occupied by a flat muscle. The
usually muscular foot is here represented by a flat body,
Which projects forward from beneath the mantle. It is
rolled up, forming a tube. By the energetic expulsion of
water from the mantle-chamber through this tube the ani-
mal is driven through the water, the mantle end first.
The interior surface of the outer chitinous skeleton of the
Arthropoda is lined with a muscular layer. Longitudinal
and oblique muscles connect the annuli, which repeat each
other in those forms (Myriopoda and larvae) in which the
segments are similar. Where (as in all the higher types)
the segments are much specialized, the muscles are modi-
fied accordingly, either by increase of size or number.
Muscles of the dorsal and ventral regions are usually more
t”
FIG. 12. Tubular follicle of
FIG. 13. Lobule of parotid
the pig's stomach. ,---
gland, magnified.
enlarged than those of the lateral, while in the types where
the sides are soft, to allow of the movements of the back
and belly plates, the latter are connected by straight mus-
cles which pass through the viscera. All the limb-muscles
are within them, or are inserted into internal processes of
the chitinous walls. Sometimes they are inserted into
fibrous bodies which have been hardened by calcareous or
chitinous deposit, which also subserve the purpose of
levers. -
Arthropoda possess muscles which perform the functions
well known among vertebrates as rotators, elevators, de-
pressors, retractors, protrusors, etc. But the flexors and
extensors exceed the others greatly in importance and size.
Their relative size is the reverse of what is seen in verte-
brates; in the latter the extensors are the more important;
in the Arthropoda, the flexors exceed the extensors several
fold.
2. In Vertebrates.—The muscles of the animals of this type
are divided into two classes by their position and the rela-
tion they bear to the skeleton, and are termed episkeletal
and hyposkeletal. The former are situated on the upper
surface of the vertebrae—i.e., of the body and arches, in-
cluding ribs—and are developed in the foetus coincidentally
with the vertebrae. Hence they are in segments which cor-
respond to these, and are separated by intervals termed
inter-muscular septa. The hyposkeletal are developed later,
and below the vertebrae; they are in part attached to the
latter, or to the abdominal walls or the limbs.
In vertebrates below the Batrachia the hyposkeletal
muscles are developed to a very slight degree. The seg-
ments of the episkeletal series (or myocommata) cover the
sides of the body posterior to the head, and meet on the
median line below. They present an angle forward, near
their middles, having thus an open chevron shape. In Ba-
trachia, the tails and sides retain the largely developed myo-
commata, while the abdominal muscles have the character
of those of the Reptilia. In these and higher Vertebrata
the hyposkeletal muscles are well developed. . In the latter
numerous muscles (spinalis, semispinalis, longissimus dorsi,
sacrolumbalis, inter transversales, levatores costarum, com-
plexus, splenius; recti postici, and recti laterales) are “de-
rived, by subdivision, from the upper portion of the myo-
commata. In the same way the inferior half gives rise to
the recti abdominis, which extend from the pelvis to the
sternum; the sterno-hyoidei from the sternum to the hyoid
apparatus; the genio-hyoidei from the latter to the lower
jaw. On the sides the derivative muscles are obliquely
directed—viz., the external intercostales; the obliqui ex-
termi of the abdomen; the subclavius from the first rib to
the clavicle, and the scaleni from the anterior dorsal ribs
to the cervical ribs and processes; lastly, the sterno-cleido
mastoid extends from the sternum and clavicle to the skull.
The fasciculi of these muscles are all directed, as is the
lower part of the myocomma of the fish, from above, or
dorsally, downward and posteriorly. The hyposkeletal
muscles occupy the inner side of the body-walls, and in-
clude, besides many others, the diaphragm of Mammalia .

1062
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
and birds. This septary muscle is wanting or rudimental
in vertebrates below the Aves.
The muscles of the limbs are of two kinds: (1) those that
originate from the body, and (2) those that take origin on
some bone of the limb. The former move the whole limb,
the latter, its parts. They are extensors, flexors, and ro-
tators; among the most notable of the last is that which,
in the Mammalia, rotates the radius of the fore arm on the
ulna. Of flexors, the pectorales major and minor pertain
to the fore limb; they are enormously...developed in birds,
subserving the function of flight.
limb, the glutaeus maximus, is greatly developed in man,
as essential to the erect attitude. The longitudinal dorsal
muscular tendons are generally ossified in birds.
A remarkable modification of the muscular system is
seen in the electrical organs of certain fishes, the torpedo,
electric eel (Gymnotus), and catfish (Malapterurus). Here
a system of enormous cells, packed in parallel columns, dis-
charges electricity instead of developing movement or con-
traction. The contents are gelatinous, and are divided by
connective tissue into transverse disks, imitating striped
muscular fibre. The columns are vertical in the torpedo
and longitudinal in the other genera. They are richly
supplied with nerves, which are distributed on one face
only. . The rays possess rudimental organs of the same
kind at the base of the tail.
VII. THE MUCo-DERMAL SYSTEM.
1. In Coelenterata, Echinodermata, and Mollusca.-The
superficial or cellular layer of the skin, or epidermis, is
universally present in animals. The inferior layer in ver-
tebrates is fibrous, and belongs strictly to the system of
areolar or connective tissues; it is not found in the Coelen-
terata, but is represented by a non-cellular, granular, and
sometimes slightly striate “true skin.” In these animals
and in polyps (Anthozoa) there are two or three layers of
cellular skin, of which the lower contains the “nettle-cells.”
These are minute bladders .02 to .07 millimetres long, and
one-third to two-thirds as thick, which contain a hair-like
body coiled within them. These are suddenly projected
upon external irritation, and act as irritants or offensive
weapons upon the object they strike, producing sometimes
severe smarting and paralysis. These cells occur also as
an external lining of the mesenterial threads of polyps.
The true skin is the layer in which is deposited the carbon-
ate of lime, which, penetrating or not the folds of the in-
ternal cavity of the body, produces the radiating and tubu-
lar solid structures characteristic of corals. In the Gor-
goniidae the deposit of the basis of the first simple, and
therefore of the axis of the compound, animal, is horny;
this is afterwards covered with a thin calcareous layer.
. In the Echinodermata, the dermal system fulfils an im-
portant function, as the basis of deposit of mineral matter
in the form of innumerable symmetrical segments. In the
Holothurida these deposits are frequently isolated and in-
termal, . and sometimes entirely wanting; the tentacles.
always contain them. Among Mollusca, the Superficial
layer consists of ciliated epithelium (except on the eye-
peduncles). The true skin is fibrous, and contains many
cells; it is in the form of a sac, and often reaches consid-
erable thickness. An extensive fold derived from the pos-
terior part of the body in Cephalopoda and Gasteropoda,
or the superior in Acephala, envelops the body more or less
completely. In mollusks which possess a shell the latter
is produced by the margin of the mantle. This margin is
FIG. 14. Amoeba, Rhizopods.
supplied with glands which secrete or separate carbonate
of lime, which they deposit on the general border. Thus
the shell takes the form of the body, which the mantle
closely enfolds. In Gasteropoda it is sub-cylindric; the
shell has the same character, being sometimes partially or
wholly straight (Vermetus, Teredo), or generally spirally
twisted. In the bivalves the mantle has the form of two
The extensor of the hind
lateral oval laminae, thus producing the well-known form
of the shells. The periodical deposits of lime by the man-
tle are seen in the lines of growth of all shells. The form
of the mantle border is faithfully repeated in the shell;
thus the projections caused by the protrusion of the pro-
boscis in Murea, Strombus, etc., is seen in the convexities
and canals of their margin. In Acephala the mantle ex-
tends beyond, the body, enclosing a space known as the
mantle-chamber. The margins of the mantle in a large
number of families are extensively united, thus forming a
nearly closed chamber. They are entirely separated in the
oyster, the Arca, Myophoria, etc. They are sometimes only
united by a bridge; when more extensively, there usually
remains an opening through which the foot is protruded.
Of these some leave a single opening at the posterior end
of the body (Mytilidae, Unionidae), or the latter is divided
into two (Tridacna, Isocardia, Cyprina). Of these the
upper is the point of exit for excrement and water, while
the lower admits water to the gills and food to the mouth.
The lips of these openings are in many families prolonged
into tubes, sometimes very extensively. These may be
united or separate. They are either fixed or retractile;
when the latter, the space they occupy in the shell requires
that the line of attachment of the mantle to the shell
should be indented, sometimes to a great degree. The
opening for the foot also admits water. It is much reduced
in size in genera, with a rudimental foot (as Gastrochaema,
Aspergillum, etc.), and is finally closed in Pholadidea.
Besides the mineral substance, the colors of the shell are
secreted by special pigment-glands on the margins of the
mantle.
The shell is not always composed of carbonate of lime;
in Lingula, Pinna, etc., the material is phosphate of lime,
and resembles bone. The pearl layers of many shells are
aragonite. The shell may be composed of laminae or
prisms, or both. Anomia exhibits the first, Inoceramus the
second, and Strombus the third type. In Brachiopoda the
shell-valves are dorsal and ventral; in Acephala, right
and left; in Gasteropoda and Cephalopoda the shell is cen-
tral and single. In Acephala tightly-closed valves indicate
retractile siphons; posteriorly gaping shells, projected ones.
The valves are united by a marginal hinge; composed of
teeth, pits, and cartilage ligament, in most families.
In Gasteropoda, the coil may be flat (Planorbis) or much
prolonged (Mitra). The “body-whorl” is that last made; it
may be either contracted (certain snails), or greatly en-
larged, as in Cypraea, where it almost or quite conceals all
the other turns, in its fold.
In the fossil Endocardines (or Rudistes) the valves are
fastened by hinge-processes on the inner face of the free
and smaller valve. -
The shell of Cephalopoda is distinguished by its septa.
These enclose chambers, the animal only occupying the last
one constructed. This structure is not without parallel
among Gasteropoda (where the unused portion is generally
broken off), but the Cephalopoda are peculiar in that the
body is not entirely withdrawn from the first chamber, but
leaves a long tube, which passes through all the chambers,
and secretes a pearly sheath, which is known as the siphon
of the shell. In life this contains nothing but air, which is
wanting in carbonic acid. The margins of the septa are
simple in Nautilus, Orthoceras, etc., but fold in a most
complicated and symmetrical manner in Ammonites, Bacu-
lites, etc. In Goniatites, Aturia, etc., the folds are fewer
and more simple.
The Argonauta (paper nautilus) is peculiar in the char-
acter of its shell, which only belongs to the female. It pos-
sesses indeed no true shell secreted by the mantle, in com-
mon with other octopod genera, but that which bears the
name is secreted by the margin of the large expansions of
the two posterior arms. These enclose the shell, which is
thus evidently a product of their inner face.
The byssus is a fibrous rope or thread-like body which is
secreted by a gland in the foot of certain Acephala. By
means of it the animal is attached to fixed bodies. It is
well developed in Mytilus, rudimental in some Uniones.
2. In Arthropoda.-The external covering of the body
and limbs of animals of this class has been already stated
to be chitin. This substance is composed chemically of
C17H14NO11—that is, a protein body, C8H8N03, plus a
hydrated carbon, C9H808. In higher Crustacea and in
various Myriopoda (Iulus, Polydesmus, etc.) it is accom-
panied by an equal or even greater amount of carbonate
and phosphate of lime; of these the former exceeds the
latter in quantity. The chitin layer proper is a secretion
from a layer of cells, which in turn lies above a stratum of
connective tissue. The cells resemble the epithelial, and
have distinct nuclei. The chitin originates from these as a
transparent layer, but frequently becomes streaked or
fibrous.
The pattern on which each segment of the arthropod

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
1063
body is constructed is that of an annulus composed of
several pieces. These are a median dorsal, and ventral,
and a pair of lateral shields on each side. The number of
these rings in the different orders averages twenty and less,
but in some Myriopoda it rises as high as 140 (Geophilus).
They are greatly modified in forming the head, to which
five segments are reckoned by some (seven by others). In
Myriopoda those remaining are very similar to each other,
while in the other orders they are much modified, and gen-
erally arranged in groups. These are distinguished in in-
sects as head, thorax, and abdomen; in Crustacea the first
two and part of the third series are united into a cephalo-
thorax, while the numerous remaining segments are the
post-abdomen. In Arachnida only, however, we have the
true cephalothorax, including head and thorax only, the
abdomen remaining entirely distinct. The number of Seg-
ments in the Crustacea Decapoda Amphipoda and Tsopoda,
is 20; in the Copepoda and insects, 12; in Arachnida it
varies from 12 to 19.
The limbs of Arthropoda are composed of hollow, vari-
ously altered cylinders, articulated together where com-
FIG. 15. Vioa. Freyeri, Hanc. : a, entire animal on a shell of Pla-
cuna placenta; b, c, the sponge removed, the branches in differ-
ent stages of growth; d, spicules.
posed of more than one segment. In Crustacea and Myr-
iopoda they are present on all the segments of the body;
in Arachnida and Insecta on head and thorax only. In
the last-named class only those of the head are modified to
aid in seizing and devouring food; in the Crustacea, those
of the thorax are partly (Gammarus) or wholly (Astacus)
devoted to this service. As organs of progression only
those of the thorax are employed in Insecta; in Arachnida
the last head-limb is included; they thus possess four pairs
of limbs, while the Insecta, have but three. The larvae of
lepidopterous and some (tenthredenid) hymenopterous in-
sects possess false feet or pro-legs on the abdominal seg-
ments. In the former they are beset by an arched series
of minute claws, which are absent in the latter. The ab-
dominal legs of Myriopoda are, like the thoracic, simple.
In Crustacea they are in part swimming organs, and many
of them bear plates and fringes in which the blood is ex-
posed and oxygenized.
The organs of the head, or altered feet, are in jawed in-
sects as follows: 1st, wanting; 2d, antenna; 3d, mandible;
4th, maxilla; 5th, labium. In insects with a tubular mouth
it is similar, except that the third pair are bristles for punc-
turing, the fourth similar, and the fifth a tubular body or
rostrum, enclosing them. The hemipterous rostrum is of
this type. In Lepidoptera, where there is a tubular or suc-
torial tongue-like rostrum, the third segment is rudimentary,
the fourth is the rostrum, and the fifth is the labium. Of
the jawed type of the Coleoptera are the orders Orthoptera
and Neuroptera. In the Hymenoptera (bees, etc.) the man-
dibles are developed as jaws, but the maxillae are elongate,
and form the opposed halves of a tube which encloses a
projectile tongue. The suctorial orders, Hemiptera and
Lepidoptera, have been mentioned; the structure in the
Diptera (flies) is similar to that of Hemiptera.
The antennae of insects are organs of special sense, but
whether of hearing, Smell, or taste is not well known. In
the basal segment of certain Crustacea (Sergestes, etc.) a
chamber containing grains of sand has been suspected to
be an organ of hearing ; while a microscopical nervous
structure in the posterior wings of Coleoptera has been re-
garded as of similar significance. The antennae are set
with bristles, which evidently subserve the ordinary but
here highly delicate sense of touch. The Crustacea are
distinguished by the presence of two pairs of antennae;
the second pair only of these is present in other Arthrop-
oda, excepting the larvae of insects, where the first pair ex-
ists in a rudimental state, the second being absent. In
Myriopoda they are as in Insecta, but in Arachnida both
appear to be wanting; the second pair is, however, present
as jaw-antennae, taking the place of the absent mandibles.
In Insecta, the forms of the antennae are very numerous.
The typical structure is that of a succession of (nine to
twelve) sub-similar cylindric segments. . Thus they appear
in carnivorous and other Coleoptera, in phryganoid Neurop-
tera, acridiid Orthoptera, nematocerous Diptera, etc. In
most Diptera, they are excessively shortened and of few
joints; the last is enlarged, and supports at its base a large
bristle, which is frequently plumed. In Lepidoptera Diur-
na, they are club-shaped; in Sphingidae, triangular in sec-
tion, and in Lepidoptera Nocturna, fusiform and often
plumed. In many Orthoptera they are very short; in
Hymenoptera short (bees), elbowed (ants), or much pro-
longed (Ichneumonidae). The Coleoptera exhibit the
greatest varieties. In some (Elater, Dictyopterus) they are
serrated; in Silphidae, short and clubbed; in Longicornia
their length is often excessive; in Curculionidae some of
the basal segments are elongate, forming an elbow with the
remainder. In Lamellicornia, the terminal segments are ex-
panded, leaf-like, one on each side of the axis, and open and
shut like the leaves of a book.
In Myriopoda, the maxilla and labium of insects are rep-
resented by a large labium. In the Strongylia there are
a second and third labia; but in Chilopoda, the last is rep-
resented by a pair of powerful foot-jaws, which are per-
forated for the conduct of poison. The first leg corresponds
to the third of the insect. In Arachnida, the insect maxilla,
is represented by jaws, which are simple in spiders, acute,
and perforated by a poison duct, but in Phalangia, scor-
pions, etc. (Pedipalpi) are furnished with an opposable joint,
or are cheles. -
In Crustacea the second pair of maxillae are not united
into a labium, as in Insecta. The cephalothorax in some
of the higher order of Decapoda (crabs, lobsters, etc.) is
distinguished from the abdomen by a groove, as in the cray-
fish (Astacus) : in all of them the ambulatory limbs arise
from the abdomen. One or more of these are chelate (fur-
nished with nippers) in the Decapoda and other orders, but
in the Stomapoda, the first pair has instead the last joint
opposed to the whole length of the penultimate, forming a
reversed scissor-like organ. The limbs of the post-abdo-
men usually bear branchial organs, while those of the last.
segment are in the form of plates, which, when extended,
form a swimming shield (lobster), or are hook-like bodies.
for maintaining the hold in the shell (Pagurus).
The limbs in Insecta are always similar in construction,
though the hinder may be much elongated (grasshopper),
and never chelate. They consist of four regions—the coxa,
femur, tibia, and tarsus. The coxa attaches the limb to the
body by a ball-and-socket or hinge-like joint, and may be
from globular to laminar in form. . The femur is the stout-
est joint, containing the muscles which flex and extend the
rest of the leg. The tibia is slender and often long; the
tarsus usually consists of several joints. In some Hemip-
tera, it consists of but one or two ; in most Coleoptera it em-
braces at least five. In the latter order the number is an
important index of relationship. The lower groups (Phy-
tophaga, etc.) possess but three; the curculios, longicorns,
etc. possess four, and the Tenebrionidae and others five in
front and four on the hind limbs only ; lastly, the serricorn,
clavicorn, monilicorn, and other types with five joints, all
round. The last joint usually consists of a pair of chitin-
ous hooks; others may be modified by expansion, etc. for
adhesion to vertical surfaces, etc.
3. In Vertebrates.—The skin in the Vertebrata is prima-
rily smooth and soft. Its epithelial glands may secrete
mucus, as in many fishes, or glands seated in the true skin
may separate sweat. The latter are simple, convoluted, and

1064
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
with a long efferent duct. The epithelial layer produces
the horny sheaths of claws and horns, feathers and hairs.
Mammalia are generally covered with hairs, but in the
manis it is thrown into extensive folds, which are ossified,
and become the scales of those remarkable animals. In the
shell of the armadillos and on the head of various batra–
chians it is penetrated by ossification, which is confluent
with that of bony structures below them. Hairs are an epi-
thelial growth in the form of a hollow cylinder. The epi-
dermis is sunk into a pit of the true skin, and then returns
outward as the hair. It increases in length by addition of
cells and pigment from below. A modification of the same
structure is seen in feathers, where the axis is split later-
ally, and thus develops the barbs and fibrillae on each side.
Birds are covered with feathers. The first growth appears
as down, in which the fibrillae are softer and in much smaller
number, so as not to be coherent; the bases of the true or
mature feathers are furnished with the same. Those of the
body are generally soft; in aquatic birds excessively dense
on the lower surfaces. They arise from certain patches
only. There is one on each scapular region, and one along
the middle line of the neck above. Another is on the rump,
and one on each side of the breast. The abdomen presents
a large median patch. In ostriches, penguins, and a few
others the feathers are evenly distributed over the whole
body. Besides the main shaft of the feather, a second one
is developed behind it in many birds. It is generally much
Smaller than the first, but it is equal to it in the Casuariidae.
The largest feathers are developed on the caudal vertebrae
and on the fore limb. In the latter they subserve the func-
tion of flight. Those attached to the carpus and manus are
the longest and most important, their length bearing a
direct relation to the powers of flight of the bird. These
are the primary quills; they are enormously developed in
the swallows and swifts, in the humming-birds and frigate-
pelicans (Tachypetes), etc. They consist of naked shafts
only in many of the ostriches. The quills attached to the
fore arm are the secondaries; they are proportionately large
in gallinaceous birds. Those inserted into the skin of the
humerus are the tertials, and are most highly developed in
the wading families (Grallae) and certain song-birds—e.g.,
the Motacillidae. The caudal quills or rectrices are from
twelve to eighteen in average number; they are greatly
elongated in the tropic-bird (Phaeton), Milvulus, etc., and
are almost wanting in some gallinaceous birds, in some
tinamous, etc. The rump-feathers or tail-coverts are some-
times so developed as to conceal them, as in the peacock,
Pharomacrus, Egretta, etc. -
The scales of reptiles are area of true derm, bounded by
simple folds, which are covered exactly by epidermis. These
areas may be filled with an osseous deposit, as in Heloderma;
in snakes they are soft. In tortoises the intervening folds
are very shallow, and remotely correspond to the skeleton
below. The epithelial layer is horny (tortoise-shell), while
the derm is ossified and united with the osseous skeleton
below. In Crocodilia, the distinct ossifications occupy the
dermal area of the back, or on both surfaces of the body in
the caimans, etc. The areae are symmetrically distributed
on the head in serpents, most Lacertilia and some tortoises.
In the first they are fewest and most regular, numbering
usually nine on the upper surface. They correspond re-
motely with the cranial bones, and hence are called pari-
etal, frontal, superciliary, prefrontal, internasal, rostral,
etc. In venomous snakes and boas the vertex is frequently
covered with scales. .
Fishes frequently display ossifications of the epidermis
as well as of the true skin, as on the cranium of sturgeons,
their dorsal and lateral shields, etc. The scales which cover
the bodies of most fishes are developed in pouches of the
true skin by deposit of mineral matter. Their exposed sur-
faces are covered by epidermis, which enters between them,
and reaches there the true skin. In eels they are small and
separated. In fishes with closed swim-bladder (Physoclysti)
the seales develop spinous projections which produce the
effect of a comb on the margin, and are hence called ctenoid.
Most of those in fishes, with the duct of the swim-bladder
(Physostomi), have smooth surfaces and edges, and are
termed cycloid. In many fishes of early periods, and some
now living (Lepidostews, Polypterus), the scales are pave-
ment-like and glossy, with a layer of ganoin. These are
crossopterygians or Physostomi. Sharks have separated
mineralized bodies, with flat bases and produced points,
granules, etc., whence they have been termed placoids. In
Dermopteri and Leptocardii the skin is smooth. «
The internal parts of the muco-dermal system are the
mucous and serous membranes. The former are continuous
with the epidermis, and line the cavities of the digestive,
respiratory, and reproductive systems. The latter line the
closed chambers, being continuous with the mucous mem-
brane only at the fontanelles of the oviducts (tubae Fallopii).
In the thoracic cavity they form a sac, with one side thrust
in upon the other, the thoracic viscera being on the outside
of the entering portion. The abdominal viscera occupy in
the same way the outside of the membrane lining the cavity,
which is termed the peritonaeum. In the thorax it is the
pleura.
4. The Teeth.--These bodies are generally developed in
an internal or external epithelial layer, like some of the
dermal, bony, or mineral plates or pieces. In Protozoa
and Coelenterata they are wanting. In Echinodermata
they are present as five hard sub-triangular plates, which
close the mouth by their close contact, like radii from its
centre. In Mollusca, they are described under the digest-
ive system, so that it only remains to consider them in
Vermes and Vertebrata. In the former they consist exclu-
sively of hooks, mostly arranged round the mouth. In the
Trematodes they occur, weakly developed, in a few genera,
in one of which they are attached to an organ at the poste-
rior extremity of the body. In Nematoda, Chiracanthus has
hooks on the head and body, and Strongylus horny teeth
round the pharynx. In Acanthocephala all the genera
possess a retractile proboscis, which is studded with re-
curved hooks in various circles. In Cestoda, the tape-
worms have hooks as well as suckers on the head, which
are especially well developed in the cysticercus larval stage.
The Tetrarhynchidae possess four projectile proboscides,
each of which is set with several rows of recurved hooks.
The teeth of vertebrates are developed on papillae of the
mucous membrane, which is usually sunk into successive
cavities or alveolae of the jaw and palate bones. In Lep-
tocardii there are none, and in Dermopteri they are horny
processes in concentric series round the inside of the fun-
nel-shaped mouth. The two largest are situated at the
FIG. 16. Epistylis mutans.
mouth of the oesophagus. In fishes generally bony teeth
are present, but are not usually developed in alveolar cay-
ities, but on the surface of the bones. True teeth are usu-
ally composed of a very dense substance allied to bone,
called dentine. Exterior to this they have a deposit of a
still denser and harder substance, the enamel, which covers
the crown. The root is sheathed in a layer of true bone,
the cement. Dentine is distinguished from bone (osteine)
by the presence of great numbers of parallel tubuli, which
radiate from the central cavity to the circumference of the
tooth. Enamel is, on the other hand, of the nature of a
secretion, filling vertical hexagonal cells which stand upon
the dentine. Hence it is composed of prisms. It contains,
like dentine, a trace of fluoride of calcium, besides the
phosphate of lime of which both are composed.
In fishes the teeth are usually covered with dentine in-
stead of enamel, and may be composed internally of true
dentine or of its variety, vasodentine. This substance re-
tains the numerous blood-vessels which characterize the
early stage of deposit of dentine, which are easily seen in
a section of the teeth. Of such character are the teeth of
Elasmobranchii, which are moreover of very various form. .
Thus, they are pavement-like, with vertical lamellar roots,
in skates and rays, or they are rootless and with swollen
crowns of differing sizes, etc., arranged in symmetrical
band-like pavements, as in cestracionts. The crowns may
be more elevated, as in hybodonts, or finally isolated and
with sharp apices and cutting edges in the existing squa-
lodonts. In Holocephali the teeth are most rudimental,
consisting only of the calcified walls of the vessels arranged
in alveolar cavities of the jaws. In Dipnoi the teeth form
a single serrate cap for each jaw. In Actinopteri the teeth
are generally composed of a larger proportion of dentine.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
1065
In sturgeons they are only present during immature age.
In the Lepidosteidae the external or dentinal surface is in-
flected in deep folds, which are closed so as to resemble
grooves externally. Physostomi generally have large teeth
on the jaws, but in some Characinidae and all other Plecto-
spondyli, Coregonus (grayling), some Mormyri, etc., there are
none. In some of these fishes there are numerous teeth on
the lower segment of the fifth pair of hyoid arches, or the
“inferior pharyngeal bones.” In Characinidae these are
of very varied type; in Catostomidae the bones are much
prolonged, and the teeth are comb-like in one row, and
work against a projecting inferior table of the basi-occipi-
tal bone. In Cyprinidae they are stout, in one or more
short rows, and may be hooked, sharp-edged, conic, or
grinding in type, according to the food of the fish. This
structure does not exist in other fishes. In Esoa: the teeth
are raptorial and very numerous; in Clupeidae, rudimental
and wanting. Only in the order to which the latter per-
tains, the Isospondyli, do we find fishes with fangs sunk in
deep alveoli, the extinct Saurodontidae from the cretaceous
formations. In Nematog-
mathi they are more or less
bristle-like, and packed
together like a brush. In
eels they are often dagger-
like. In physoclystous (or
the higher) fishes they are 2% R º
generally brush-like, fre- W. NW ſº
quently with canines in- - \ N/
termixed; but in Pedicu-
lati they are large, in-
curved, on flexible liga-
mentous bases. In some
Plectognathi they are in-
cisor-like, and in Pharyn-
gognathi those on the hy- W
oid apparatus are greatly
developed. The latter are
sub-quadrate, oval, or nar-
row (Scarus), and arrang-
ed pavement-fashion for - - - -
the !. of hard sub- FIG. 17. Hydra viridis.
stances, as shells, etc. In Scarus the teeth of the jaws are
confluent into a shining, parrot-like beak, useful in scrap-
ing out shells and cutting off sea-weed.
In Batrachia the teeth are usually small, often wanting
(bufoniform Anura), or in the extinct Labyrinthodontia
with deep complicated inflections of the dentine and super-
ficial cementum. In reptiles we find teeth with fangs and
with crowns, generally covered with enamel. These may
be sunk in deep alveoli (Rhynchocephalia, Acrodonta,
Crocodilia, Ichthyopterygia, Sauropterygia, Ornithosauria,
Dinosauria-Goniopoda), or may be attached to the inner
side of the outer alveolar wall (Lacertilia in general, and
Dinosauria-Orthopoda); may stand immediately on the
jaw-bones, without fangs (Ophidia), or on a thick column
of ossified pulp (osteo-dentine) in an alveolus (Pythono-
morpha). The crowns are generally compressed conic; in
some (Laelaps) knife-shaped. In herbivorous lizards they
present an oblique face inward. In Crocodilia the young
teeth rise within the pulp-cavity of the old, and throw
them off; in most other orders the successional teeth ap-
pear at the side of the fang, and provoke absorption, which
cuts off the crown of the old. Tortoises and birds are
toothless; Anomodontia are so likewise, except a strong
maxillary tusk.
In Mammalia the dental armature is distinguished into
series—viz., the incisors, canines, pre-molars, and molars.
Their normal number on each side of each jaw is I. 3; C.
1; Pim. 4; M. 3; total, 44. The incisors are normally
flat and transverse-edged; the canines longer and conic;
the pre-molars compressed, with one to three cusps; and
the molars oval in section, with a double series of cusps.
In Ornithorhynchus there is but one, a horny tooth. In
marsupials the number of incisors is excessive (as 8 or 10),
or, as in kangaroos, less numerous and the median much
enlarged. In these and their gigantic extinct allies two in
the lower jaw are much enlarged as tusks. In Rodentia
there are but two incisors above and below, which have
enamel on the external face only, hence the inner wears
more rapidly, and the opposed pairs act as efficient cutters
in gnawing. The other teeth are molars only, and these of
the complicated type to be mentioned later. In Insectiv-
ora the incisors are enlarged, but in Edentata they are
always wanting. In Cheiroptera and Carnivora they are
similar to each other, and much reduced. In Quadrumana
they are well developed, broad, opposed cutters, and are
generally 4–4 in number. The proboscidians, on the other
hand, have but one (the outer) pair of incisors in each jaw,
which are developed into huge tusks above (Elephantidae)
or below (Dinotheridae). In these cases the opposing pair
-
is reduced or wanting. The Artiodactyla-Ruminantia are
remarkable for the entire absence of superior incisors, and
the close resemblance of the inferior canine to the lower
incisors, producing the appearance of eight of the latter.
The canine is largely developed in the Carnivora, hogs,
Hippopotamus, and certain extinct proboscidians, as Eoba-
sileus, etc. The pre-molars are wanting in rodents and
many proboscidians, but numerous in marsupials, insecti-
vores, etc. In Carnivora they are numerous, and the last is
peculiarly formed, being the sectorial or flesh-tooth cha-
racteristic of the order. The two outer tubercles and con-
necting ridge are developed into a longitudinal notched
blade, while the inner remains a small tubercle at the front
of the inner side. In dogs there are two tubercular molars
behind it; in weasels and cats, one; in the extinct Hyaeno-
dontidae, several, but all of the sectorial form.
Molar teeth are composed of one, two, or three rows of
tubercles. In the first case they may be one- or two-rooted.
Thus, in cetaceans generally they are simple cones, covered
with cement instead of enamel. In some extinct groups
(Zeuglodon, etc.), the crowns are compressed and the roots
two. In Edentata they are simple throughout, and cov-
ered with cement. This forms a thick layer, and encloses
a thin one of dentine, which by its superior hardness forms
the ring-like grinding surface of the crown; it is filled
within by osteo-dentine. In insectivorous animals the tu-
bercles are in two, sometimes three rows, and acute and
elevated; thus they appearin Cheiroptera, many marsupials,
Insectivora, etc. In kangaroos, sirenians, tapirs, and Di-
motherium they appear as two transverse crests or keels.
These crests are multiplied in Mastodon, reaching six or
seven. In Stegodon they are more numerous; the intervals
are a little deeper, and with some cementum in their bot-
toms. In Elephas they are deepened to the roots of the
tooth, and filled to the top with cement; are narrowed by
the approach of the much elevated transverse crests, which
have now reached a great number. Their summits readily
wear in use, and thus present bands of alternating dentine,
enamel, and cementum.
The transverse crests of Tapirus may unite at the inner
extremity, forming a V in Bathmodontidae among hoofed
animals, or be connected by an external longitudinal crest
in Rhinocerus, Palaeotherium, and Hyrax. The outer crest
may so be indented as to form two vs, and the inner por-
tions reduced to knobs, as in Limnohyus (Perissodactyl), or
curved crests (Anchitherium). The latter may be cut off
and curve lengthwise, so as to produce four Vs or crescents
on the grinding face.
From this point the succession of forms seen in approach-
ing the elephants is repeated in two series, ending in the ox
and horse. The intervals deepen, the crescents become ele-
vated, and the tops, being soon worn off in use, present a
figure formed by the edges of enamel plates, which enclose
islands of dentine. The spaces between them are filled
with cementum.
In the horse and
ox there are five
crescent-shaped
columns in the
upper molars and
two in the lower.
In other artio-
dactyls there are
four above and
two below. In
deer the crown
and roots are sub-
equal in length,
but in the Cavi-
cornia the crown
is much the longer.
The same tran-
sition is seen in
the rodents. In
Mus the molars
are only tubercu-
lar; in squirrels
there are elevated
crests. In Arvi-
cola and beavers
there are deep in-
flections of the enamel of the sides of the tooth, producing
a zigzag section when the crown is worn, while in Caviidae
the tooth is entirely divided into several columns by the
deep descent of the enamel coating from above. In porcu-
pines figures are produced by both lateral and coronal folds.
Simpler teeth are seen in men and apes, where the molars
present four obtuse tubercles (in the last sometimes five);
and in the hogs, where the tubercles are more numerous,
and sometimes irregular. In Hippopotamus each of the
four tubercles is trifoliate in section.
FIG. 18. Pelagia.


1066
+ VIII. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. . -
1. In Invertebrates.—The prominent features of the diges-
tive system in Coelenterata have been pointed out. There
is none in the Hydrae, the inner surface of the urn-shaped
body-cavity performing that function; an excretory pore
exists in the foot-like support. In polyps a small Sac is
sometimes formed at the summit of this cavity by the re-
flexion of the inner skin; it opens into the cavity, and is
entered above by the mouth. The body-cavity is ridged
on the sides by prominent folds, whose margins bear re- ||
productive organs and nettle-cells. In the Medusae the
body is turned the other side up at maturity, though its
position is that of the polyps in the larval state. , Hence
the stomach is below the body-cavity. The latter is some-
times wanting, and is ridged occasionally, as in polyps. It
is produced downward in some genera by its walls becom-
ing a peduncle for the stomach. The latter is bell-like,
and often widely open; it is generally closable by the con-
traction of its margin. The latter bears bunches of tenta-
eles, etc., which in the Rhizostomac are greatly enlarged
and prolonged into four leaf-like bodies, which bear the
four mouths at their extremities, and the tubular Oesoph-
agi throughout their length. From the body-chamber rise
the four radiating tubular canals, which extend through
the umbrella to a tube which passes round its margin.
In Crinoidea there is a central column to the body-cavity;
round this the alimentary canal winds, and, returning, issues
near the mouth. In Asterioidea the stomach is a sac, con-
nected with the mouth by a short gullet, which is closable
at the mouth. The stomach is divaricated into five pairs
of bunches of caeca, which send out radial tubes, two into
each arm of the animal. The vent is wanting in the Ophiu-
ridae, but present in most Asteriidae; in the latter case there
is an enlarged rectum, which gives rise to five horny radial
caeca (often bifurcate), which alternate with those of the
stomach. In the Holothurida, the vent is present, and the
alimentary canal elongate, and divisible into oesophagus
(closed behind by a sphincter), intestine, and rectum. The
last receives the mouths of the respiratory organs.
In the Vermes this system does not branch radially;
otherwise its character is very various. That it is a blind
sac in many orders has been already shown. In those with-
out arms it is either a simple blind tube (Turbellaria-
Rhabdocoela, Nephelis, Aspidogaster, Branchiobólella, etc.),
or is early divided into two parallel tubes, as in Trematodes.
In tape-worm and Monostomum these tubes unite at the
posterior end of the body. In the Nemertina, in which the
canal is simple, there are two constrictions at the end of the
oesophagus, to the anterior of which is attached a projectile
stylet furnished with venom-glands. In Polia, the aliment-
ary canal becomes a solid ligament, which is turned for-
ward and attached to the wall of the cavity. In Pontob-
della, the blind canal is furnished with a few branches or
caeca. In the Turbellaria-Dendrocoela, it forms a large
number of branching caeca.
In the families with vent; it is wound or knotted (Capiti-
branchiata and some Dorsibranchiata), simple (Abranchi-
ata, Gordiacea, Nematoda), or furnished with caeca on the
sides. There is but one on each side in Haemopis, but many
in the leeches. -
In Vermes in general there are no Cuvierian glands, and
there are often liver-cells on the canal walls.
FIG. 19. Paractis-alba: A, expanded; B
- of Cereus. .
In Mollusca, an anus and liver are always present, except-
ing that the former is wanting in most Brachiopoda. An
almost universal peculiarity of mollusks is that the aliment-
ary canal, after fewer or more numerous convolutions in
the body-cavity, returns and issues not far from the mouth
on the dorsal or lateral face of the body; this prevails from
the Bryozoa to the Cephalopoda. The general characters of
the canal can be expressed schematically as follows:
A. A more or less projectile oesophageal body or tongue,
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
with a movable membrane armed with reverted horny teeth,
and more or less retractile into a sheath; no crystal style
in the stomach (except two or three genera). Stomach
large, unsymmetrical; canal short, with a large pyloric
caecum ; liver very large, lobular, discharging anterior to
stomach; mouth with horny beaks: Cephalopoda.
Course of canal with two abrupt turns: 1st, at transverse
stomach; 2d, of intestine double, under oesophagus; rectum
transverse, opening
in mantle-hole; liver
% Mill & double, of many caca,
à $º * entering each end of
*ś # stomach : Gasterop-
% = § oda-Scaphopoda.
ºs. j &S *
Žiš *S Course of canal lit-
- & the enlarged at stom-
Wh y is ach, and with an in-
§§§ \\SX: # testinal one ; altoge-
S$3S tº #S y *
sº sº # ther a loop opening
#wº #jº" § forward near heart;
* $º * * “Zºº §§
liver single, lobulate:
Gasteropoda - Heter-
& opoda.
Fig. 20. Ophiura. ºtestine short
(straight), emptying on right side, never in breathing cav-
ity (rarely on back), rarely issuing from anterior part of
stomach; latter elongate (longitudinal), receiving straight
oesophagus at either end or side, often divided in two or
three, when one or more is furnished with horn-armed
ridges or teeth; horny jaws: Gasteropoda-Opisthobranchia.
1. Liver lobulate, compact.
2. “ & & subdiffuse, with connecting canals.
3. “ of blind canals.
a. Branching from large stomach-opening in body.
B. 4 & in lateral body-wings.
s {& in gills.
ac. Two posterior body-trunks of liver.
gy. One & & “ (including four families).
2. Three ** « .
Stomach (with very few exceptions) elongate into a cae-
cum ; intestine rising from middle and turning forward to
the vent; ridges armed with horny plates in stomach :
Pteropoda.
Stomach a widening of canal, rarely with one or two con-
strictions; intestine not convoluted (except Chitom), empty-
ing into breathing-cavity on right side; small flat jaws,
sometimes horny; a pharyngeal lump, with internal carti-
lage supporting tongue, on lower side of end of oesophagus:
Gasteropoda-Prosobranchia.
AA. Movable armed tongue wanting. .
a. A crystalline style in caecal appendage to stomach ;
lips at entrance of oesophagus; canal mostly uniform, much
turned; end of rectum free in cloaca ; stomach oval or
round: Acephala.
aa. No crystal style; mouth opening between more or less
-ſ
º
cartilaginous spiral appendages; canal bound by an extra
mesenteric sheath; stomach little distinct; liver double with
large (sometimes several) discharge canals: Brachiopoda.
1. Canal shorter, ending in blind enlargement.
2. “ longer, ending in lateral anus.
Mouth opening at base (or side) of a gill-sac ; Gesophagus
short ; stomach not large, simple, both with intestine,
forming a V ; latter directed forward, opening on same side
as mouth : Tunicata.
Mouth surrounded with ciliated tentaculae (in one genus
with a conic lid); oºsophagus well defined; stomach dis-
tinct, oftener double than single; intestine rising from end
of first or single stomach, swollen in part of a straight
course to anus near mouth : Bryozoa.
In Gasteropoda, there is a pair of salivary glands; in
most Cephalopoda, two pairs (in Sepia and Loligo but one
pair, and in Nautilus none):
The radulae, or tooth series, and their supporting band,
present an enormous number of separate teeth in some of
the Gasteropoda. In the Cephalopoda and Pteropoda they
are less numerous. In some of the Pulmonata they number
as many as 26,800. They are arranged in rows, longitu-
dinal as well as transverse. The latter are more or less
irregular in their course, but strictly bilateral. There is a
series of median plates or teeth, with one or more rows of
lateral ones. The following divisions are indicated by the
different tooth-structures in Gasteropoda :
a. Rhachiglossa; only median plates, which are often
toothed (0–1–0): Volutidae. *
b. Toxoglossa; no median plates; on each side a single
lateral tooth of an awl-like form;.. no basal membrane of
radula; lateral teeth moved by special muscles (1–0–1):
Conidae, Pleurotomidae. - * *
c. Hamiglossa; a middle plate and single lateral plate
(1–1–1): Muricidae, Bucciniidae, Olividae, Lamellariidae,
Fasciolariidae, Turbinellidae.


COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
1067
d. Taenioglossa; median plates, and on each side three
lateral plates; fourteen families; among them Littorinidae,
Cerithiidae, Turritellidae, Cassididae, Tritoniidae, etc. (3–1
—3). -
3) Ptenoglossa; no middle plates; lateral plates similar,
numerous (co —0—oo): Scalaria, Janthina.
f. Rhipidoglossa; middle plates; laterals 4–6 or more,
of various forms; outside of these numerous small hook-
like teeth (co —4—6–1–4—6—co): Neritidae, Trochidae,
Haliotidae, Fissurellidae. The Pulmonata (except Testa-
cella) exhibit a close similarity to this division in their den-
tition. w
The digestive canal in Arthropoda does not turn on itself
as in mollusks, but issues at the extremity of the body op-
posite to that which it enters. The oesophagus is usually
straight, and is expanded in the thoracic region into the
usually longitudinal stomach. Anterior to this point it has
sacciform dilatations (Orthoptera) or diverticula in some
types, as the bees, Lepidoptera, flies, etc. After leaving the
stomach, the canal, after few or no windings, reaches the
'anus.
In Crustacea and Insecta, there is an extensive fatty mass
on each side of the posterior part of the canal, known as
the corpus adiposum ; in Arachnida it is frequently want-
ing. The form of the stomach in this class varies; thus in
Pedipalpi (scorpions, etc.) it is simple or nearly so, but in
Aranea (spiders) and Pycnogonum (whale-louse) it branches
into radiating diverticula; in the latter these penetrate
even into the femora and tibiae. The digestive system is
supplied with various glandular organs. Those nearest
the mouth are the “salivary glands,” which are present in
all the classes except the Crustacea. They are complex
glands, and their secretion in some forms (larvae of some
Lepidoptera) hardens on exposure to the air into silk-like
threads. The so-called liver-glands or tubes are situated
either before or behind the stomach. As their function is
unknown, and their position is inconstant, the above name
is but provisional. In Insecta, they are slender and tubular,
sometimes very elongate and undivided. There are usually
but four in Coleoptera, but more in Orthoptera and Hy-
menoptera, forming a whorl. In Arachnida (Scorpio,
Mygale, etc.) and Limulus they are more complex, and
present a series of more numerous openings into the intes-
tine. In the decapod Crustacea the organ exhibits its
highest development. It is there a complex follicular
gland of large size on each side of the alimentary canal,
and opening posterior to the stomach. Other simple glands
are in the Insecta distributed over the surface of the
stomach, and are enclosed by its muscular layer.
The stomach-walls are thin or muscular, in some types
ridged within and furnished with horny teeth : Orthoptera,
some Coleoptera. *
2. In Vertebrata.--In most of this branch of animals
the stomach is present as a distinct enlargement of the
alimentary canal, and the intestine is short or long as the
food is flesh or vegetable and mixed in character. The
liver is present in all, and is of a highly complex glandular
character, except in the Leptocardii, where it is a simple
diverticulum of the alimentary canal.
In the Leptocardii the pharynx is very capacious, and is
abundantly fringed with long processes. It opens into a
sac-like stomach, which is continued as the slender straight
intestine to the vent. There are no teeth. In the Dermop-
teri the intestine is also simple and straight. In fishes it
presents a good many variations. In some, as the sharks
and siluroids, the stomach is large, and the pylorus is re-
mote from the cardiac entrance. In most Clupeidae, Hyo-
dontidae, Characinidae, Amia, and Polypterus, it is sac-like,
with the pylorus near to the cardiac entrance. In most
fishes the stomach is bent on itself, but in Chimaera, Sym-
branchus, Amphipnows, Fistularia, and Belone, it is straight.
The stomach in some sturgeons and in Heterotis and Cha-
toesw8 (clupeoids) is gizzard-like (i. e., sub-round), with
muscular walls and tendinous lamina on the sides. It is
closed at the pylorus in most fishes by an annular muscle.
In the higher fishes (Physoclysti) there are generally found
diverticula from the beginning of the intestine at the py-
lorus, which are termed pyloric caeca. They are also
abundantly found in the lower groups, or Physostomi, but
their entire absence is more common. They are wanting
in Nematognathi, eels, Fistularia, Chirocentrus, Hyodon,
the Gobiidae, and Blenniidae, and in Amia, Polypterus, and
the Elasmobranchii. They exist in vast numbers in some
Salmonidae and Lepidosteidae, and are numerous in electric
eels and sturgeons. In Plataa: there are but four, in Cho-
logaster two, and in Amblyopsis one."
The succeeding part of the canal is generally to be dis-
tinguished into small intestine and rectum. These are sep-
arated by a strong valve in Elasmobranchii (except Chi-
načra) in Lepidosiren, Polypterus, Zoarces, Acipenser, Mas-
tacembelus, and it is not strong in Orestias and Clarotes.
The rectum is distinguished in the lower forms by the pos-
session of a spiral internal valve or partition. In Elasmo-
branchii, Polypterus, and Lepidosiren, the spiral partition is
continuous by its inner margin with a median membranous
axis, which is suspended from the ileo-caecal valve; in Raja
miraletus there is no axis, and the partitions are transverse
and perforated; in Squatina, Polyodon, and Acipenser ru-
thenus, it has no axis, and revolves spirally on the wall of
the rectum. It is also present in Amia and Trachypterus.
In Acipenser rubicundus there is no spiral valve, but the
walls of the rectum are areolate, somewhat as in tripe.
The gall-bladder is always present, and discharges beyond
the pylorus.
In Reptilia the divisions of stomach, intestine, and rec-
tum are well marked; in Batrachia rather less so. In both
the canal is elongate, and held in a folded position by a
mesentery, but in batrachian larvae it is much more ex-
tended, and is horizontally coiled. The liver is large in
Batrachia, and usually in three lobes, but in the Brevici-
pitidae and Engystomidae there are but two. There is a
sphincter valve at the pylorus, and sometimes one at the
end of the small intestine. The gall-duct discharges below
the pylorus. In tortoises, whether carnivorous or not, the
alimentary canal is elongate.
In some Emydidae and Trionychidae there is a caecum or
sac on each side of the rectum, the bursa analis. In many
Lacertilia the rectum is double or divided by a muscular
valve; in Iguana and Basiliscus there is a septary valve
with small orifice. In serpents the oesophagus is greatly
elongate, and the gall-bladder peculiar in being separated
from, and sometimes far behind, the liver. The rectum
presents many peculiarities. In Coelopeltis and Homalopsis
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FIG. 21. Echinus.
the internal surface is longitudinally folded; in Hydrophis
with short interrupted folds; in Dryiophis, Dipsas, Vipera,
and Cawdisona, transversely folded; in Boodon geometricus,
Bungarus, Elaps, and Ancistrodon, the folds are developed
into partitions, which are pierced by a single hole each. A
pancreas is present in lizards and serpents.
The alimentary canal of birds is distinguished by the pe-
culiarity of the stomach, which is a gizzard—that is, with
walls composed on the convex face or borders of contractor
muscles, which have a median and common tendon extended
sheet-like on the plane side of the stomach. This is, how-
ever, not found in certain marine birds, as penguins, where
the stomach is a simple sac ; and it is little developed in
Sarcorhamphus and Vultur. It is a double sac in Apterya.
The crop is a bag-like expansion of the oesºphagus, for the
temporary stowage of food; it is found in gallinaceous
birds, vultures, etc.
Adjoining the stomach is frequently found another more
symmetrical expansion, the proventriculus, whose walls are
studded with simple glands, whose secretion softens hard
food. It occurs in Gallinae, Crypturus, Insessores, Ibis,
ducks, condor, etc. The rectum is not strikingly distin-
guished from the ilium, but it sends off at its origin two
huge caeca, which extend forward towards the stomach on
each side of the intestine. They are exeessively elongate
in Phasianus, Cryptwrus, Dicholophus, Apterya, etc., and
very short in Apemodytes, Ibis, etc. . They are apparently
absent in Sarcorhamphus.
In Mammalia the stomach, intestine, and rectum are well
distinguished. There is neither crop, proventriculus, py-
loric nor rectal caeca, nor rectal valves. The gall-bladder
is not separated from the liver, and discharges below the
pylorus, as does also the excretory duct of the pancreas.
There are glands in the intestines of many forms, known
as Peyer’s, and the salivary glands of the oesophagus or
pharynx are always present. The intestine (colon) is fre-
quently prolonged beyond the origin of the rectum, forming
a caecum; the mouth of the rectum is closed by a strong
valve. The stomach is transverse, with a portion projecting
beyond the cardium—the fundus. This is excessively elon-
gate in the bat Desmodus. The stomach is simple or undi-
vided in Primates, Carnivora, Proboscidia, Perissodactyla,



















































1068
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
Cheiroptera, and squirrels. It is lobulate and subdivided in
Monotremes, marsupials (generally), many rodents, some
cetaceans, and most of all in artiodactyles (ruminants, etc.).
In Ornithorhynchus the cardium and pylorus issue from a
division one-third the size of the remainder of the stomach;
in kangaroos the stomach is slender, sacculated, and wound
in one and two-thirds turns on itself; the fundus is large.
In the hog the fundus is profoundly sacculate. In Ar-
tiodactyla-Ruminantia, there are four chambers, of which
the first is generally the largest, being an enormous
expansion of the fundus. In the musk it is not in di-
rect communication with the oesophagus, but is so in the
ox. In the former there are five sacs, the last the best de-
fined, with reticulating ridges on the inner wall (tripe), and
entered by both cardium and pylorus. The first stomach
of the ox represents the first four of Moschus; it is fol-
lowed by the reticulate, which receives the oesophagus;
between it and the pylorus are two chambers, whose walls
are thrown into elevated folds. The first division has
strong papillae on the inner walls, which are very large in
the deer.
In many of the Rodentia (e.g., Fiber) the caecum is ex-
ceedingly large and long. In the Primates, etc., it termi-
nates in a narrow, curved extremity, the processus vermi-
formis. -
IX. THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.
1. In Invertebrata.-This system, as is well known, con-
sists of organs for the propulsion and conveyance of the
fluid results of digestion throughout the body for the main-
tenance of all its functions. It consists essentially of a
system of tubes radiating from the central muscular organ,
in which resides principally the contractile or propulsive
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FIG. 22. Platycrinus triacontadactylus, McCoy: A, side view; B,
terminus of arm; C, articular surface of a stem-segment; D,
structure of the basin or body.
activity. This centre is in the lowest forms simply a tube,
but is greatly specialized in the highest forms. We may
divide the system into the systemic, the water-vascular, and
the lymphatic systems. The second is found in the aquatic
invertebrates, and the last in vertebrates only.
The systemic circulatory tubes first appear in Coelen-
terata. In Protozoa the contents of the bódy are in motion,
and probably a small pulsating vesicle contributes to this
end. In no coelenterate class excepting the Medusae do the
tubes appear as isolated; they have been already described
as radiating from the stomach or the adjoining body-cavity,
and continuing round the margin of the disk as a single
tube. The Echinodermata possess a true circulatory sys-
tem, with a well-developed water-vascular system. The
vessels of the former are not derived from the stomach, but
form an isolated series. The peculiarities of the classes are
as follows: - -
a. Wessels arising from a basal sac, which connect by a
short tube with stomach; vessels radiating, penetrating the
pieces and arms: Crinoidea. -
aa. From an oral ring. - -
b. Superior and inferior oral and anal rings: an asym-
metrical heart, emptying into the former; no respiratory
artery; stomach-arteries (five) collected into two, which
enter superior ring at point of entrance of heart: Aste-
roidea. . .
Rings and heart connected by marginal intestinal ar-
tery : Echinoidea. -
bb. Only oral circulatory ring: no heart; distinct respi-
ratory artery (where lungs exist); intestinal arteries gradu-
ally disappearing posteriorly: Holothurida.
- *-* *
In echinoids and asterioids there is a septary column
extending from the upper to the lower surface, unsym-
metrically near the middle line. In a fold of it are placed
the shell-canal of the water-circulatory system and the
heart. . The latter has a narrow opening into the oral ring,
which from this fact is termed arterial. The opposite end
of the heart communicates by a duct with the superior
anal or venous ring. The arterial ring is the smaller and
more muscular, and lies between the more superficial ner-
vous ring and the deeper water-canal ring. In the aste-
rioids it sends an artery along the median line of each arm
below. The venous ring is larger, and sends two vessels,
one on each side of each arm. In Holothurida, the vessels
are delicate and not largely developed. In all classes the
tubes are without cilia internally, and have a wave-like
pulsation in life.
The water-circulatory system is greatly developed in the
Echinodermata, and forms the basis of their means of move-
ment from place to place. Its central organ consists, first,
of a ring canal, which surrounds the oesophagus within the
arterial ring; secondly, of a calcareous (or shell) canal
which rises from a point on the ring canal to the dorsal
(or anal) side of the body, and terminates in a peculiar
shield, the madrepore plate, which is perforated by numer-
ous pores. In the Holothurida, where the body is elongate,
this shell canal does not reach the posterior end of the body,
but terminates freely in its cavity, sometimes in one, often
in many tubes, each of which terminates in a madrepore
plate. The peripheral system consists of five vessels, which
arise from the ring canal, and run at equal distances along
the interior face of the body-walls (on the medial line of
the arms in Asterioidea), and send branches right and left.
These terminate in a large hourglass-shaped sac on each
side in Asterioidea, the “ampullae,” or in numerous smaller
ones in Holothurida. These project through pores (ambu-
lacra) between the plates, hollow processes which frequently
are enlarged as a wart at base or end, and which are used
as feet. They are regularly arranged in bands in Asteriida
and Echinida, but in some holothurians are distributed in
patches (Psolus) or all over the body, or in two kinds—one
dorsal, the other ventral (Holothuria). They are retractile
and protrusible by erection. The interior of the water-
vessel system is covered with cilia. In all the classes the
Oesophageal ring communicates with “Poli’s vesicles,”
small bladders situated round its circumference.
In Mollusca and Articulata, the arterial and venous ves-
sels are not universally continuous at their extremities by
capillaries, as in Vertebrata, but the circulating fluid is emp-
tied into cavities of the connective tissues or lacunae, whence
it is taken up by the extremities of the veins by suction.
In some of the highest forms of both (Cephalopoda, Pedi-
palpi) the capillary vessels are numerous. The prominent
peculiarities of the classes in respect to circulation may be
indicated as follows: -
A. No distinct central organ or vascular system.
a. No lacunary canals; liquid moves in continuous inner
concavity of body, without definite direction and with
doubtful external orifice: Bryozoa.
aa. Vessel-like lacunary system; five large sinuses; post-
abdominal and foot largest; anal (annular) throat and buc-
cal smaller; two mantle-edging vessels: Scaphopoda.
AA. A distinct heart.
a. Neither arteries nor veins; no chambers to heart; a
system of canal-like lacunae decussating from a dorsal and
ventral principal; one through the gill-sac, and with fine
body ramifications, continuous with each other; two (some-
times more) from heart: Tunicata. -
aa. A venous system; no branchial auricle or gill-hearts;
one ventricle, and a false heart on each mantle artery :
Brachiopoda. -
One branchial auricle; no gill-hearts; one branchial ar-
tery; ventricle embracing the intestine: Gasteropoda.
Two branchial auricles; no gill-hearts; two branchial
arteries; ventricle embracing intestine: Acephala.
Two branchial auricles, and two hearts or expansions on
the two branchial arteries; a circulus cephalicus; ventricle
not embracing intestine: Cephalopoda.
aaa. No venous system, or a rudiment rarely ; branchial
veins and arteries: Crustacea.
AAA. No distinct heart; a longitudinal dorsal sinus,
more or less subdivided.
a. No pulmonary arteries or veins; no venous system :
Insecta.
aa. A pulmonary artery and vein; no venous system :
Arachnida-Aranea. -
A venous system : Arachnida-Pedipalpi.
In Acephala and Gasteropoda the ventricle receives the
contents of certain veins direct, without ačration in the
gills; hence the blood forced into the aorta is, as in most
reptiles, of a mixed character. In Cephalopoda all the
venous blood passes through the gill-hearts and gills, and

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
1069
is oxygenized before returning through the auricles to the
ventricle. In a few Gasteropoda there are two auricles, as
Haliotis, Fissurella, Chiton. In a few Acephala (as Ostrea)
the ventricle does not embrace the intestine.
In Gasteropoda the vessels of this system form extensive
ramifications in the foot. They have moreover communi-
cation externally by pores, which enables them to absorb
large quantities of water. By means of this water-vascu-
lar system the foot is inflated, as in erectile tissue, to a size
which would forbid its withdrawal into the shell were it not
for the power of expulsion of the water.
Among Arthropoda, the decapod Crustacea and the pedi-
palp Arachnida only possess a complete circuit with veins
FIG. 23. Cladodactylus doliolum.
and capillaries. In the former the heart sends two aortas
forward and two backward; the larger (inferior) of the
former is the aorta cephalica, and supplies the head; the
two posterior are the aortae abdominales superior and in-
ferior. A large sinus in the bottom of the anterior abdo-
men gives origin to the branchial arteries. In Myriopoda
the dorsal trunk gives off a pair of lateral trunks to each
segment of the body. From the anterior section of the
dorsal trunk in Chilopoda, the lateral arteries unite beneath
the oesophagus and give rise to a longitudinal vessel which
accompanies the abdominal nervous axis. . In insects the
lacunar currents of the body are four principal ones—i.e.,
one beneath the dorsal trunk, one along the nervous chain,
and one along each side. The blood also circulates out-
ward in the tubular ribs or nervures of the anterior part
of the wings, and returns along the posterior.
2. In Vertebrata.-In the fishes generally the heart is the
right or venous heart (except in Dipnoi), but always there
are vessels passing directly from the gill-veins into the
aorta, whether the gill-veins return arterial blood to the
ventricle (making mixed. blood) or not (leaving venous
blood). The first case occurs among Dipnoi; the second
in Monopterus (apodal). In Amphioacus the usual trunk-
like divisions of the heart are blended into one chamber.
The gill-artery is rythmical, pulsating, as also the origin of
the special gill-arteries; so also is the portal vein, which
has the same peculiarity in Myaine. -
The aorta often forms no distinct isolated circulatory
trunk. Sometimes arterial blood passes through a carti-
laginous canal, which inwardly is only isolated by peri-
chondrium, as in Acipenger and Spatularia. In other
fishes it is also not isolated, but with its dorsal face (on
which an elastic longitudinal band runs) let into the ver-
tebral column (Esoac, Salmo, Silurus, Alosa, etc.). Many
arteries subdivide minutely into retia mirabilia, then con-
tinue from the reunited vessels. The arterial blood of the
Chorioidea of most fishes must pass through such structure
twice before passing into its branches.
In the venous system, not only in the veins that pass to
the liver, do the stems lose themselves in capillaries, in order
to be again collected into one or more trunks to go to the
heart, but in many fishes this structure prevails in most of
the veins of the body. The vena caudalis and the inter-
costales very often subdivide minutely and mix with (or
surround) the renal, suprarenal, and other arterial glandu-
liform bodies, before they return to the veins for the heart.
Many veins of walls of the trunk, of the swim-bladder,
and of the generative organs appear as roots of the portal
system. These structures delay and prolong the venous
circulation.
Stagnation of venous blood-currents is common, also
blind closings of veins and obliteration of connecting
trunks; and at certain periods the so-called “blood-cor-
puscle-holding ” cells and membranes are met with—e.g.,
in the kidneys. The blood-corpuscles one often finds in-
volved in transformation or degeneration. The formation
of exudations occurs not seldom ; the transformation of
blood-corpuscles into pigment-cells often follows. (These
arrangements appear not only as metamorphoses of the
blood, but also as favoring rejuvenation of the organic
substance and new construction. The great periodical
changes, repeated yearly in the increase of the contents of
the generative organs, which the animal undergoes, the ex-
traordinary circumference of body which many can reach
in high old age, as also the destruction and perforation of
the organic substance which parasites produce, and which
demand a restitution, is not yet sufficiently estimated. . .
Blind terminations of capillaries have been shown in the
skull-cartilage of Acipenger. The change of blood-cor-
puscles to pigment-cells is seen in the kidneys of Cottus,
Pleuronectes. In Leptocardii the portal heart is behind
(above), the colon; it pulsates from behind forward. It
bends sharply forward, and empties into the gill-artery
heart, taking up the venæ cavae during the curve. The
gill-artery heart is straight, equally thick, its cavity with-
out the pericardium longitudinal in the median line, be-
neath the whole length of the gill-membrane. From it
emerge regularly (alternating as beginnings of the gill-
arteries) small contractile bulblets in the intervals between
the pointed arches of the gills. From the latter the blood
through the gill-veins is transferred into a dorsal contrac-
tile aorta. Independently of what passes through the
gills, a part of the blood is led directly into the aorta by
two contractile arterial bows (one on each side of the pos-
terior end of the oral cavity), which issue from the gill-
artery heart. These aorta-bows exist also in Amphipnous,
where each gill-arch that does not bear a gill contains an
arterial bow. In Monopterus one-fourth the blood passes
the gills and traverses an arterial bow in the fourth gill-less
gill-arch. The portal-vein heart extends the whole length
of the intestine. It is straight, and continued on the colon
anteriorly between the gills, then becomes narrower and ter-
minates. It pulsates from behind forward, with pauses (as
in the gill-heart) of about a minute. The venae-cavae heart
is on the dorsal side of the intestine, from the anterior point
of the colon, increasing posteriorly to the end of the colon,
where it suddenly turns over into the gill-artery heart. Its
contraction alternates with that of the inferior or portal-
vein heart. This colon (which is green) is equivalent to the
liver, and gives blood to the venae-cavae or portal heart.
On each side of the aorta, on the upper arches of the gills,
is a vena cava descendens, which meets a posterior vein
(vena cava ascendens), and together they empty themselves
into the curve of the venae-cavae heart just before entering
the gill-artery heart. The blood is colorless.
In Dermopteri, Elasmobranchii, and Actinopteri the mus-
cles of the heart are always of striped tissue. The right or
venous heart has the following divisions: an auricle receiv-
ing the united veins through a sinus venosus; a ventricle;
and a bulbus arteriosus. There are valves between all these.
In Demopteri the auricle is more roomy than the ventricle,
and is separated from the sinus by a membranous double
valve; it has two membranous valves in the ostia venosa
and ostia arterialia, each. From the latter proceeds the
truncus communis branchialis, which is somewhat “bel-
lied ?” at its origin, but has no evidence of muscular struc-
ture.
In Elasmobranehii and Ganoidea there is a bulbus arte-
riosus, similar in possessing a ring-like layer of striped mus-
cle-tissue, which ceases abruptly at the boundaries of the
gill-arteries, and in numerous valves which are affixed by
threads. There are two cross-rows of these in Chimaera,
Carcharias, Scyllium, and Galews; three in Sphyrna, Muste-
lw8, Acanthias, Alopias, Lamna, Rhinobatus, and Torpedo;
four in Hearanchus, Heptanchus, Centrophorts, and Trygon;
four to five in Raja; five in Scymnus, Myliobatis, Pterop-
latea, and Squatina. In "Ganoidea there are two at the com-
mencement and one at the end of the bulbus; there are nine in
Polypterus, each of which contains three complete and some
abortive veins; there are fifty-four to sixty in Lepidosteus
bison. In Amia there are but three rows; the two inferior,
in the bulbus, with two large and two small valves; the
superior with only two. .
In Teleosteithere is no striped muscle-tissue on the outer
layer of the bulbus, but an elastic material of thread-bun-
dles, which is produced into pillars on the inner side. There
is one pair of valves at the ostium bulbo-ventriculare; be-
tween these are sometimes one or two smaller adjoining
valves. The only exceptions are species of Butyrinus, where
there are four valves in two rows, with no muscular bundles
round the bulbus. In Teleostei, sharks, and in Ganoidea-
Holostei there is a pair of valves at the ostium sino-
auriculare, often attached by strong threads. In Acipen-
ser there is a ring-like valve in two parts—one with four,
the other with five pockets, each one attached by a strong
thread. The large, expansible, thin-walled auricle has
usually on one or two sides an auricula. Within it are
numerous trabeculae carneae. The ventricle is on the ab-
dominal side of the auricle. The latter in passing over it is
narrowed sometimes (e.g., in Petromyzon) for some length.
There are usually two valves in the ostium arterio-ventricu-

1070
Iare, sometimes four in Orthagoriscus and Acipenser. The
ventricle is thick, with the muscle-structure in two layers.
Within are various parietal depressions, ribs, etc., between
the muscles.
The heart's position is usually between the claviculae,
which form in Goniodontidae a kind of transverse bony sep-
tum. In Apodes, and particularly in Symbranchii, the heart
is more posterior. In Plagiostomi it lies in its sac immedi-
ately under the elongation of the copulae of the gill-arches,
which pass through the cartilago-subpharyngea impar. In
Petromyzon, with the pericardium, it lies in a sort of in-
complete capsule, which is separated from the gill-cavity
by muscles forming a kind of diaphragm.
The heart-capsule (in all fishes except Leptocardii) is
fibrous, is attached to the bulbus arteriosus, and often sends
threadlike processes to the heart proper, which are often
tendinous, sometimes accompanied by blood-vessels, as in
Anguilla, or are blood-vessels only, as in Acipenser.
In Dipnoi the auricle is externally one, internally divided
by an incomplete septum. Into the left auricle enters the
vena pulmonalis, at whose entrance is placed a semilunar
valve. There is no valve at the ostium atrio-sinosum.
From both auricles the ventricle is entered by a common
ostium, which has a valve. The ostium possesses a papillar
muscle, which is bound with a thread-cartilage which closes
the ostium during systole. The bulbus arteriosus (without
valves at its origin)forms a curve. It contains two lateral,
longitudinal spiral foldings of different lengths, which fade
away at their extremities.
In Actinopteri-Chondrostei, on the upper surface of the
heart, are numerous bottle- or vesicle-shaped elevations,
which are of different sizes in different or in the same ani-
mal, sometimes large, sometimes almost wanting. A varied
number of arterial vessels from the subclaviae and mam-
mariae penetrate the heart-sac and distribute themselves to
these elevations, which have various arrangements. These
surround bladders which involve their entering arteries in
rosy, spongy tissue composed of granules and meshes of
fibre and cells containing granules. From the bases of
these, vessels enter the heart. This cellular structure is
sometimes surrounded by fluid. An elevation frequently
contains these bladders, each of which is filled with either
cells, nuclei, or liquid. They are connected to the cellular
structure by pedicels. These structures may be for the re-
newal of the muscular tissue of the heart.
In general, on the trunks, except in the Leptocardii, from
the anterior extremity of the bulbus arteriosus (which is ex-
ternal to the heart-sac), there issues an incontractile “gill-
artery trunk,” from which on each side issue directly or in-
directly, through other communicating trunks, the bran-
chial arteries.
In myxinoids the truncus communis branchialis is vari-
able, running in a membranous cavity which surrounds the
anterior end of the ventricle and projects into the mem-
branous pouch that envelops the gill-sac. Each gill-sac
contains an artery which forms a circle at the entrance of
the gill-branches, and sends off radiating arteries. In Pet-
romyzon four arterial branches on each side leave the trun-
cus communis branchialis, which divides anteriorly into two
trunks, each of which divides into three arteries, and an
anterior twig is sent to the anterior row of gill-lamellae.
The special branchial arteries pass (except the first and
last) between the two gill-pouches, and give their branches
through diaphragms to the gill-arches.
In Plagiostomi, from the truncus branchialis communis
there issue on each side one or two trunks, each of which
afterwards divides into two. In Raja and Pristis, where one
goes off, it divides into three, and the terminal portion into
two. In Pristis the first of the three runs forward to the
trunk in the cartilage, and is taken up by it. The special
branchial arteries issuing from the primordial trunks pass
between the two rows of gill-laminae, which are in separate
gill-sacs, a special artery supplying the anterior hyoid gill.
In many ganoids (Lepidosteus, Acipenser) the first gill re-
ceives the first branch from the arteria branchialis, and the
last gill the last branch. In these the branchial arteries
run towards the first gill, then bend posteriorly and give
off branches successively. In Spatularia the first gill re-
ceives the second branch, the second gill the first branch,
the others regularly. The arrangement in Amia is as in
the Teleostei.
In *...]". the gill-artery stem runs forward in a
eanal beneath the copulae of the gill-arches, which bound
it above; laterally it is bounded by processes of the same;
beneath by the culiform membrane (which latter is wanting
in Apodes). Often (e.g., in Salmo) it gives off first a com-
mon stem, which divides to the fourth and third gill-arches;
then gives one to the second arch, and one to the first, by
the forking of the trunk. But (e.g., in Murºenophis punctata)
two distinct branches of the common trunk can be given to
the two posterior gill-arches. In Dipnoi two trunks leave
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
the branchial artery on each side: (1) a common vessel for
the half gill and the two gill-less “visceral” arches, and
(2) a stem for the posterior gill. The first divides in two,
which as aorta-bows unite under the skull to form an aorta-
root. The first aorta-bow gives off a branch for the half
gill, which sends off the carotid before entering the half
gill. The aorta-bow gives off also a posterior carotid before
union with the posterior aorta-bow. From the second goes
-
FIG. 24. Plumatella: a, natural size; b, magnified; c, the vent.
an artery for the fibres of the external gill. The second
trunk divides into two gill-arteries for the fourth aorta-
bow. The extremities of both become arteries for the
outer gill-threads. The last gill-artery from its upper ex-
tremity gives off a branch for the posterior half gill.
The gill-veins unite (in the absence of an arterial heart)
for the construction of the great arterial trunk. But often
arterial trunks for the body go immediately from the gill-
veins. The carotid artories leave the gill-veins. In myx-
inoids the gill-veins, after leaving the gill-sacs, form a
median trunk, which is prolonged posteriorly as an aorta
and anteriorly as an arteria vertebralis impar. All or most
of the gill-veins are connected by a trunk running parallel
to the aorta, which is continued anteriorly as the arteria
carotis communis. Both carotids accompany the oesoph-
agus forward, giving branches to it and to the hyoid
region. Each divides behind the head into the arteria
carotis externalis (for the tongue and the muscles of the
head), and the arteriae communes internales, which unite,
forming a bow, at the origin of the vertebral column,
which receives the vertebralis impar; from the latter origi-
nates a median head-artery, which, extending anteriorly,
gives off branches for the nose, etc. In Petromyzon, with
the exception of the first and last, each gill-vein issues from
the interstitium between two adjacent gill-sacs. There is no
arteria vertebralis impar. The carotis communis rises from
the first gill-vein, which sends another branch to the forma-
tion of the aorta. Each carotid divides into an external
and internal; the two internal carotids do not unite to form
a median head-artery.
In other fishes each gill-vein originates from the two
connected “gill-leaf rows,” except those from the two half
gills. In Elasmobranchii all or most of the gill-veins come
together to form the aorta, either immediately or after the
union of some (thus forming homologues of the aorta-
roots).
The arrangement of the carotids is various. In Chimaera
the first gill-vein from the half gill forms the posterior
carotid; the second, which like the rest contributes to the
aorta, sends off the carotis anterior. In Raja the posterior
carotid originates from the aorta-root which is formed by
the union of the two first gill-veins. It runs in the canalis
spinalis. The carotis anterior originates from the vessels
of the pseudobranchiae of the spiracle. In Chimaera and
Rajidae the posterior carotids remain ununited; wherefore
no anteriorly united circulus cephalicus exists. In the
sharks they run under the base of the skull, and unite and
give origin to the cerebral artery.
In the Ganoidea there are various arrangements of the
gill-veins in the formation of the aorta. The carotids are as
in Plagiostomi. (See Raja above.) In Lepidostews there is a
third cerebralis from near the origin of the aorta. In it
the union of the anterior gill-veins is the origin of the
aorta. The second pair unite below this, and forming a
thicker trunk receive the first aorta. The third pair unite
below the union of the second pair and the aorta origin,
and forming a still thicker trunk, receive the second stem,


COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
1071
g-
all forming three steps in profile. The sections would be—
first o, second 3, third 3. The posterior carotid comes off
anteriorly to the mouth of the third pair of gill-veins. The
subclavians are vessels disproportionately large ; they come
off on each side a little behind the embouchure of the pos-
terior gill-vein tube, take the place of the coeliac and
superior mesenteric arteries, and send a branch to the
stomach, which does not give a strong branch to the Spleen,
but approaches the pylorus as a bundle of little vessels. In
Actinopteri, by the gill-veins is formed a complete arterial
circle (circulus cephalicus) without the cavity of the cra-
nium. The gill-veins of each side unite to form the com-
mencement of the aorta, and run together anteriorly as the
sphenoideum, through a cross anastomosis. This circulus
can be wider or narrower.
gill-veins of each side unite into the aorta-bow, and where
both bows are connected anteriorly by a cross trunk, and
unite posteriorly to form the aorta, as in Gadus and Lota.
It is narrower when each of the bows forming the aorta is
formed from the anterior gill-veins only, and where the
hinder gill-veins enter the aorta; e. g., Scomber, Salmo,
etc. The aorta is sometimes independent, free, entirely
surrounded by strong tissue, as in most Teleostei, some-
times in a canal of the processes of the vertebrae, without
the usual distinct trunk-envelope; sometimes it is in a canal
inferior to the vertebral column, with the superior, surface
Q,
t a-s b
FIG. 25. Doliolum Ehrenbergii, Kr.: 1, from above; 2, from side;
3, from below; a, mouth; b, vent; d, annular muscle-bands;
é, endostyle; h, Oesophagus; k, intestine; l, branchial mem-
brane; m, nervous system.
thin walled. The commencement of the aorta, in which the
gill-veins empty, is under the cranium, first enclosed supe-
riorly by the basilar cartilage. A short section is enveloped
below by a fibrous membrane, but soon it is enclosed be-
neath by the vertebral arch elements, which are arched
upward and supplied with intervertebral cartilage. Along
the whole length of the aorta-canal there runs in its cavity,
from the base of the skull, an elastic band which adheres
above to a skin-fold whose continuation as a very thin peri-
chondrium lines the inner side of the canal, to which it
closely adheres. •.
In the Squalidae and many Actinopteri the aorta is em-
bedded in a gutter of the vertebral bodies. On the side of
this there are (in Esoac) fibrous longitudinal ridges. In
these the aorta possesses an external skin on the inferior
surface only. It appears from point to point swollen with
sinuses. Each such swelling is separated from that suc-
ceeding by a contraction. There is a small cross bridge of
thread tissue within from one lateral ridge to another.
Within the canal is found (in Esox, Clupeidae, Salmonidae,
Silurus, etc.) a fibrous longitudinal elastic band, as in
Acipenser. It commences at the skull beneath, and ex-
tends along the whole vertebral column. As an immediate
continuation of the basis of this is the elastic artery-enve-
lope. Although in Eventognathi the aorta is more isolated
from the vertebral column, and the fibrous longitudinal
band is absent, it yet exhibits sinuses, in regular position.
When the aorta is free it does not always run under the
median line; in Belone it is on the left side. ,
In Reptilia and Batrachia the aorta is formed of two roots
(which do or do not result from more than one pair of aorta-
bows) from the bulbus arteriosus, and which embrace the
Oesophagus. A ramus communicans anterior exists be-
tween the carotids. Each corresponding branch of the
aorta, either becomes an intercostal artery, or enters the
intervertebral foramen for the spinal canal.
The Batrachia have a carotid from each anterior aorta-
bow, and a pulmonalis from each posterior aorta-bow. In all
Urodela aorta-bows, either united or directly or indirectly
issuing from the bulbus arteriosus, contribute to the forma-
tion of an aorta-root by the perennial rami communicantes
on each side. The Trachystomata agree with fishes in the
arrangement of the greater vessels. The bulbus arteriosus
upon issuing from the ventricle makes a bend to the right
side, and is thereafter in its longer portion straight. At
its fore end three arches on each side issue, which are func-
tionally gill-arteries. Through the union of three corre-
sponding gill-veins into one stem an aorta-root arises, two
It is the former when all the
as to appear like its proper continuation.
whole back. The second branch is the pulmonic.
of which form the aorta. The anterior gill-vein sends out
a carotid, the hinder a pulmonic artery. The Proteidae
have the system differently arranged. The bulbus is divided
into two diverging branches, each of which results in two
aorta-bows. The anterior follows the first gill-vein; the
second divides in two, of which the anterior follows the
second gill-vein; the posterior the third. Each of the two
aorta-bows proper consists of an uninterrupted continua-
tion and a respiratory portion. The third bow wants the
direct continuation. The three respiratory portions each
consists of a gill-artery, intermediate respiratory vessels,
and a gill-vein. The two anterior gill-veins of each side
empty into the continuation of the original aorta-bows.
The third gill-vein passes over into the continuation of the
second aorta-bow. The continuation of the two primitive
aorta-bows and the second and third gill-veins forms an
aorta-root. The point of confluence of the aorta-roots lies
over the heart. The anterior vessel which results from the
union of the continuation of the anterior aorta-bow and
anterior gill-vein has two branches—an arteria hyoidea
mandibularis and a carotis interna anterior. Each aorta-
root formed from the second aorta-bow possesses a postero-
cephalic elongation forward, which gives off a carotis pos-
terior, and forms the commencement of an arteria vertebralis.
The aorta-root gives off posteriorly a visceral artery, which,
after branching for the oesophagus, is destined to become a
spermatica interna. From the single aorta proceed sub-
clavian arteries, which are continued as the epigastric,
gastric, coeliac, many small mesenteric, renal, and symmet-
rical iliac vessels. Besides there are pairs of dorsal arteries,
which pierce the transverse processes on each side, and
emerge in the longitudinal vertebral artery. In Protomopsis
four vessels on each side, go directly from the bulbus arte-
riosus. They follow the gill-arches. The anterior sends
branches to the tongue, and finally becomes the carotid.
The two middle vessels form the aorta-root, and, after
giving off branchlets for the head, unite close behind the
cranium. The fourth vessel bends over the oesophagus,
gives it branches, gives a branch to the third aorta-bow,
and becomes the pulmonic artery. In Salamandra in the
neighborhood of the pharynx is placed the somewhat for-
ward-curved bulbus arteriosus. From its anterior enlarge-
ment, go on each side four aorta-bows with three mouths.
The three posterior bows on each side form aorta-roots
which are prolonged anteriorly. The union of both bows
into an aorta occurs behind the skull, beneath the first ver-
tebra and above and before the heart. The issuing point
of the arterial twigs on the anterior bow is an enlarge-
ment—the so-called carotid tumor (or gland). The branches
issuing from it are the arteria hyoideo-mandibularis and
carotis. The latter divides into the cerebral and occipital.
An obliterated continuation of the anterior aorta-bow, bind-
ing it to an aorta-root, is called ductus Botalli. The fourth
aorta-bow, whose mouth is that of the third, sends off a
visceral artery which gives branches to the pericardium
and oesophagus, and becomes the pulmonalis. From the
aorta-roots issue the arteria maxillaris interna from its
anterior prolongation, and the arteria occipitalis to the
occiput and glandula auricularis. The aorta is under the
vertebrae, and descending gives off the subclavian and
intercostal (in pairs), the gastric, coeliac, mesenteric, and
numerous renals. Between the kidneys go off the iliacs
(which give off the femoralis and epigastrica), and a cloacal
g p -
branch which is continued as a caudal artery.
In the Anura, on each side are three bows, of which the
foremost and hindmost do not contribute to form the aorta-
root, which is a continuation of the middle bow. It unites
with that of the other side far posteriorly. Two pipes issue
from the bulbus. There is one semilunar valve at the base
of each. Each of these vessels is internally divided by two
partitions into three canals, and each partition is prolonged
to the wall of each issuing vessel. At the farther end of the
anterior of these canals is an enlargement (carotid tumor),
from which issue the arteria hyoidea (lingualis) and the
carotid. The latter is divided into ophthalmic and cerebral
branches, which last enters the cranium and has anterior
and posterior branches. The latter form the basilar, which
becomes the anterior spinal artery, into which below the
supravertebral vessels empty. The middle canals form
the aorta-roots. The right is large, but the left small, after
giving off the coeliaco-mesenteric artery, which is, so large
The third canal
gives off two branches. The first, after giving branches to
the ramus mandibuli and shoulder muscles, becomes a strong
cutaneous vessel, which, with its accompanying vein, run-
ning between the levator and anterior adductor muscles of
the humerus, gives off branches to the integument of the
Each
aorta-root before their union gives off other branches to
the larynx, oesophagus, and shoulder, also a subclavian.
and a supravertebral artery, which runs longitudinally,

1072
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
crossing the diapophyses, and giving a branch to each in-
tervertebral foramen. The left root also gives off a coeliaco-
mesenteric artery. Union of the aorta-roots takes place
opposite the sixth vertebra. . The descending aorta gives
branches for the kidneys and generative organs. To the
two latter go five and six vessels. Each gives a branch
to the kidney on one side and to the genitals on the other.
Division into common iliac arteries then takes place. In
the Gymnophiona, Caecilia have a long muscular bulbus, at
whose narrow origin are valves. The cavity is divided by
a septum at its anterior extremity into dorsal and ventral.
chambers. The dorsal terminates in the arteria pulmonalis
for the lung; from the ventral proceed two aorta-roots,
each of which near the trachea reaches to the hyoid ap-
paratus, and forms a bow behind the skull, from which the
carotids proceed. The union of the aorta-roots is hy-
paxonic, above and a little before the heart. Each root
gives off intervertebral (mostly obliquely directed for-
ward) and vertebral arteries.
In Reptilia there is a completed form of heart. The di-
vision of the auricles is externally visible. The division of
the ventricles is partial or complete. In embryonic forms
FIG. 26, Spirigera concentrica: ab, insertion of adductor muscles;
ç, of divaricator muscles; e, of adjustator ventralis; g, branch-
ial arms; h, hinge-sockets; i, gill-bridge; k, hinge teeth; r,
tubular body. -
the position of the heart is near the gill-slits. This state
is characterized by the presence of several aorta-bows
which embrace the oesophagus, and form the aorta-roots by
successive obliterations of most of the aorta-bows and their
connecting anastomoses. There is a ductus Botalli, so that
each aorta-root is permanently formed, either through con-
fluence of two aorta-bows, or it is a continuation of a single
trunk. - -
In Lacertilia, Ophidia, and Testudinata, in the ventricle
are found fleshy columns of various sizes, which enclose
spaces opening into a common cavity. The septum ven-
triculorum (more or less incomplete) is connected to the
sides of the ventricle by tendinous or fleshy cords. The
left ventricle is narrower, more dorsal, thick-walled, com-
municating with the left auricle; the right is broader,
straight, ventral. That into which arterial blood enters,
and which, as regards its position, is homologous with the
left ventricle, is called the cavum arteriosum ; the right is
the cavum venosum. No trunks arise from the first. From
the cavum venosum there issue by three ostia the arteria.
pulmonalis and two trunci arteriosi, each ostium having
three semilunar valves. The space between the orifice of
the arteria pulmonalis and those of the trunci arteriosi is
the originating point of a flap or muscular valve which ex-
tends towards the right border of the ventricle. This di-
vides the cavum venosum into two incomplete cavities, an
anterior and posterior, which are completely separated by
the systole, during the latter part of which it shuts the en-
trance to the arteria pulmonalis. A simple bulbus arterio-
sus is wanting, but its place is supplied by the confluence
of the bases of the three great vessels, which are then sep-
arated by simple walls. This arterial trunk, containing a
cone, is covered by the pericardium, and wants (except in
some Testudinata) the striped muscular walls.
In Lacertilia, the heart is not far removed from the
hyoid region. It is farthest in Amphisbaena ; among La-
certilia it is farthest in the Varanidae. Among Waranidae
the septum atriorum is nearly complete, except near the
ostium venosum dextrum. Among Pachyglossa, Geccotidae,
Chalcidae, and Scincidae, the septum is very incomplete.
The walls of the great vessels are united near their origin.
A peculiarity of most Sauria is that each aorta-root takes
up the common carotid from an arterial trunk which origi-
nates afterwards, so that each aorta-root is formed by the
union of two aorta-bows as follows: The trunci arteriosi
continue, the right as an aorta-root, the left the same after
giving off, the truncus impar, which divides into the carot-
ids. Each of the latter gives off near its basis an outward
directed arterial bow, which empties into the aorta-root of
its side. It constitutes thereafter a primitive aorta-bow,
whose original branches are the carotids. This occurs in (1)
Scincus, Anguis, Pseudopus, Lacerta, Ameiva, Platydactylus,
Uromastia, Iguana, etc., and the aorta-bows from the trun-
cus impar are obliterated, while they are utterly wanting in
(2) Varanidae, Chamaeleonidae, Amphisbaena.
In the hearts of serpents the form is elongate, and is far
removed from the hyoid region. The end of the pericar-
dial sac appears confluent with the serous lining of the
thorax. The cavum venosum arteriosum is always incom-
plete. The walls of the three trunks are separate, as far
as is known. The left trunk continues as the aorta—root
without branches; the right gives off the coronaries, etc.;
then, where it turns itself posteriorly, a subvertebral ante-
rior branch; then numerous intercostals.
The truncus caroticus impar divides into two arteriae
carotidae communes, of which the right is scarcely visible
in some species; but when visible it may be smaller than,
equal to, or larger than, the left.
The Testudinata have the heart broad, abbreviated pos-
teriorly, and widely removed from the hyoid apparatus.
The outer sac of the pericardium is attached to the end of
the ventricle by a band which encloses the portal vein.
The valve, stretching to the right wall of the ventricle, is
in some furnished with an ossified cartilage. The walls of
the three trunks are slightly united near their origin, form-
ing a bulbus, which in Emys Europaea is surrounded by a
ring of striped muscle-tissue. The truncus dexter soon
after its origin gives off a short anterior arteria innomi-
nata, which gives off the carotids and subclavians. The
truncus sinister gives off (before union with the dexter) the
cardiac branch for the heart and oesophagus, also the gastro-
epiploica and mesenterica. After these branchings the
aorta-root is narrow. Each carotid gives off (1) the hy-
oidea (for the pharynx, trachea, larynx, hyoid, and lingual
regions); (2) the mylohyoideae; (3) the carotis externa;
(4) the carotis interna; and (5) the intervertebrales, which
pass through the foramina intervertebralia to the arteria
spinalis. The posterior cervical, the dorsal, and caudal
pass from epaxional trunks. . The cervical is a single yes-
sel which passes from the carotis externa to the subclavian.
From each side the neck there runs to the rump, over the
diapophyses in the canal covered by the carapace, a trunk,
which, besides the intervertebralis, gives off arteries anal-
ogous to the intercostals. The continuation of this is a
caudalis, superior to the diapophyses. The intercostals of
each side open into a lateral longitudinal trunk, which
communicates anteriorly with the subclavian, posteriorly
with the iliac vessels. From the aorta proceed symmetri-
cal spermatic, suprarenal, iliac, renal, and hypogastric ves-
sels. It is continued as the caudalis inferior.
The Crocodilia have a complete septum ventriculorum;
the right ventriclé anterior; each ventricle emitting its
respective truncus arteriosus. There is an opening con-
necting the trunci arteriosi (which corresponds to the
bulbus arteriosus), by which arterial and venous blood are
mixed. The heart is over the sternum; the left ventricle
is thick walled; the right more capacious, reaching to the
apex. The right contains a muscular fold which is stretched
from a septum behind the origin of the pulmonary artery
to the outer wall. It has two valves at each ostium veno-
sum. From the left ventricle issues the truncus arteriosus
dexter; from the right ventriole the truncus sinister and
pulmonalis. These two trunks are separated at their ori-
gin by a common septum ; at the origin of each are two
semilunar valves. The walls of all three are united be-
tween the trunci arteriosi near the semilunar valves. Be-
fore uniting, the trunei arteriosi give off the dexter trun-
cus innominatus and subclavia dextra. From the trun-
cus arteriosus sinister, near its union with the dexter,
issues the coeliac artery; it then becomes much narrower.
The common, carotid divides near the head into two
branches. Besides these there are other branches to the
larynx, neck, tongue, and other parts. -
In Aves (birds) the septum ventriculorum is complete.
The heart's position is in the middle line of the thorax, its
axis parallel with that of the body, its apex between the
lobes of the liver, the heart-sac attached to the membrane
of the lungs. The auricular appendages do not project, but
are tightly drawn down. The right auricle is stronger and
with larger appendages than the left. They have comb-
shaped muscular columns or ridges. Into the right auricle
empty the venæ cavae. At the mouths of the veins are weak
muscular flaps which are attached to the pectinate muscles,
whose contraction assists the passage of venous blood into
* * * * * *

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
1073
the right ventricle; the foetal foramen ovale is closed. The
chambers of the ventricles are not very different in size;
they do not reach the apex. The septum is very convex
into the right chamber. The orifice of the right ventricle
is closed by a very strong muscular valve as thick as the
outer wall. It is strongest in Natatores, weakest in Cur-
sores, especially in Apteryac, where it is almost membranous,
and is attached by its free borders by short chordae ten-
dineae to the wall of the ventricle. Its free border in most
is turned towards the convex septum, to which it is closely
pressed in systole, thus preventing regurgitation. It is op-
posed by a second very weak muscular valve. At the origin
of the pulmonalis are three semilunar valves.
From two low ridges at the orificium atrio-ventriculare
sinistrum proceed usually numerous tendinous threads,
which attach themselves to two or three valves which cor-
respond to the mitrals. Three semilunars are found at the
origin of the aorta. The boundaries of the left ventricle
are nearly.three times the thickness of those of the right.
The left auricle has numerous and complicated muscle-
bundles; it receives two pulmonic veins through one ostium.
There is a valve-like muscular process whose free border is
turned to the cavity, and apparently directs the blood to
the ventricle. The single aorta, giving off immediately the
coronaries, very soon, divides; the truncus arteriosus has a
branch which is either the innominata or subclavia. In
the latter case there is a common carotid. It continues as
aorta descendens on the right side of the vertebral column.
The left arterial trunk is an innominate or a subclavian.
Either each in nominate furnishes its common carotid, which
is most usual, or else the left or the right furnishes a trun-
cus caroticus impar. Examples of the first kind are fur-
nished by all Natatores (except Podiceps); of the second
by many Insessores, and some of the Cursores; of the third
the Phoenicopterus furnishes the only example. In Botaw-
rus stellaris both aortas unite on the neck. Sometimes one
of the two carotids runs laterally and superiorly on the neck
(e.g., Psittacus chrysotis). They run in the whole length
of the never entirely closed canal, beneath or in front of
the vertebral processes. From each originates a vertebral
artery, which before entering the cervical canal gives off
the oesophagea descendens, transversa colli, and transversa.
scapulae. It finally joins the occipital. It does not form
the basilar, which results from the union of branches of
the cerebral carotids; and after giving off branches finally
results in the arteria spinalis anterior. Whén one truncus
caroticus only exists the vertebralis of the imperfect side
originates from the subclavian. Sometimes (in Anas bos-
chas and Ciconia nigra) the vertebralis continues itself
downward in the canal of the rib attachments as the com-
mon stem of the intercostales. Each common carotid usu-
ally divides into the facialis and the cerebralis; more rarely
it is continued as the latter and gives off the branches of
the former. The subclavian gives off an external thoracic
and axillary; the latter, the brachial, and then the ulnar
and radial. From the - -
aorta descendens arise º i
more or less numerous
intercostales and lum-
bales, a strong coeliaca,
then a mesenterica, su-
perior (both penetra-
ting the diaphragm in
Apteryar), afterwards
remales; from which
branches for the gene-
rative parts proceed.
Next are two crurales, each giving off an epigastrica. Each
results in the ischiadica, which descends to the knee. The
sacra media usually gives off the renales posteriores, the
mesenterica inferior, two lateral pudendae internae, and the
hypogastricae. Finally, it produces the vascular network
on the breast and abdomen which is devoted to the pan-
niculus adiposus laid bare by the shedding of feathers
during incubation. - -
In Mammalia the heart is unattached by cellular tissue
to the diaphragm, except in man, the higher apes, and Ce-
tacea. It is straight (except in man, the higher apes, and
Talpa), has two ventricles, and the foramen ovale is always
closed. The ventricles are externally separated (in part)
in Sirenia. The heart is broad and flattened in all Cetacea;
a little less so in Phoca, Bradypus, Mamis, and Elephas;
rounded in Carnivora, Rodentia, and Marsupialia. It has
a valvula tricuspidalis; in Ornithorhynchus, a transverse
muscular valve of the right ventricle, as in birds; the valve
FIG. 27. Panopaea australis.
in Echidna is membranous, has a large tuberculum Loweri, #
and no Eustachian valve (in Felis, Canis, Ursus, Phoca,
Gulo, Mustela, Procyon, Talpa, Halmaturus, Equus, Sus, and
* A process separating the mouth of the vena cava descendens
from the vena cava ascendens in the right auricle.
Ruminantia). There is no tuberculum, but two semilunar
valves to the vena cava ascendens in Didelphis, Dasypus,
Hystryae, Cavia, Lepus, Sciurus (in Sciurus maacimus a trace
of the tubercle). No Eustachian valve, but a crossband
below the fossa ovalis, with filamentous muscle-processes in
Myrmecophaga and Bradypus. It has a Eustachian valve
and weak tuberculum Loweri in man, many apes, lemurs,
Jutra, etc. Both valve and tuberculum are wanting in
Ornithorhynchus and Delphinus. -
In many ruminants and perissodactyls in advanced age
there is a single or double bone in the septum atrio-ventric-
ulare, and occasionally in Solidungula in the septum oppo-
site the ostium venae cavae ascendentis. The aorta-stem at
its root is single and curved to the left; it soon gives off cor-
onales (one only in Elephas). Its branches vary; e. g. (1)
A short aorta divides into an anterior (superior) and pos-
terior. (2) The aorta superior gives off a subclavia sin-
istra, and continues as the truncus caroticus, or divides
into a truncus caroticus and both subclaviae ; in Solidun-
gula it also gives off the vertebralis dextra. From the
aorta-arch originate the innominata, giving off carotides
subclavia dextra and subclavia sinistra in most Marsu-
pialia, in Rodentia, Edentata, Carnivora, Sorea, Halicore,
Auchenia, Sus ; in which last the two carotids spring from
a truncus impar vel primus. (3) In other cases two trunci
innominati alone are given off, as in Cheiroptera, Talpa,
Phocaena. .(4) The aorta gives off a truncus anonymous
dexter, carotis sinistra, subclavia sinistra (as in Mono-
tremata, Phascolomys, and Bradypus, Dasypw8, Cyclo-
thura didactyla, all Muridae, Erinaceus, Phocidae, many
Quadrumana, man, etc.). (5) Two subclaviae arise, with a
truncus caroticus impar between (Elephas). . (6) Besides
the above subordinate arteries from the aorta, are thoracica.
interna sinistra and dextra from in nominata dextra in
Phocaena and Halicore. In some plunging animals occur
widenings of the aorta (Lutra, Phoca, the young of Del-
phinus, Monodon, etc.). The common carotids have their
length proportioned to that of the neck. In the short-
necked Delphinidae there is none, both carotids springing
... from the innomi-
nata. It is often di-
vided into two (faci-
alis and cerebralis).
The cerebrales enter
as single trunks in-
to the cranium in
Quadrumana, Chei-
roptera, Insectiv-
ora, Rodentia, Mar-
supialia, Solidun-
gula, and some Car-
nivora, as Ursus,
Lutra, Canis, Mus-
tela, or pass through
a rete mirabile
(Phocaena) formed
of branching trunk-
lets, or springs from
a rete mirabile form-
ed from its origins
(Ruminantia, Su-
idae, Felidae). When
without retes the ce-
rebrales have vari-
ous points of origin;
they are either head
branches (1) or col-
lateral branches (2)
of the carotids; or
they are branches of
the carotides inter-
nae, which give off
the cerebrales after
- some others (Chei-
roptera, Insectivora, most Rodentia, some Carnivora, as in
Lutra, where the carotis interna, a branch of the common
carotid, gives off the occipitalis first), or they appear as
branches of the maxillares internae (Hystria cristata) or as
branches of Ophthalmicae (Cavia dasyprocta). The bipolar
retia mirabilia, from which the cerebrales spring, may be
formed of branches from various sources. In Felis they come
from a larger rete, which is composed of terminal twigs from
the common carotid. In Sws they are composed of terminal
branches of the carotis interna, and give rise to the cerebral
vessels. In Ovia three branches of the internal maxillary
are the sources of each rete mirabile. In Bos they are
formed from branches of the internal maxillary, which
enter through the foramina ovale and opticum and the fis-
sura orbitalis. Here also the branches of the occipital and
vertebrals lose themselves in a network which communi-
cates with each rete mirabile. The retia mirabilia of the
FIG. 28. Voluta &ndulata.


68
1074
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
Delphinidae (with artery traversing) are principally formed
from the branches of the carotis interna, yet are closely
connected with retia, lying outside the cranium, formed of
branches of the carotis externa and cervico-occipitalis.
The rete of each side always communicates with that of
the other. The vessels bearing blood from the carotids to
the brain enter the skull as follows: through the canales
carotici (in Quadrumana, Ursus, Mustela, Meles, Lepus,
Castor), through the foramina jugularia (Equus, Sus),
through the foramen lacerum anterius (Hystriac), foramen
opticum (Cavia), foramen ovale and fissura orbitalis supe-
rioris (Ovis). In Cheiroptera and many Insectivora and
Rodentia the carotis interna passes through the “pessulus,”
which is between the limbs of the stapes. Besides the
cerebrales, the vertebrales conduct blood to the brain. In
man and many others these unite and form the basilaris,
in others (Mustela, Canis, etc.) they continue as occipitales,
and send smaller branches, which form the basilar artery.
Sometimes a communication before reaching the basilar
forms a circle. In ruminants this arises from the verte-
bralis (which is set apart for both canalis spinalis and neck
muscles), for the basilaris is very small, and still smaller in
Solipedia and Suidae, where it is constituted by the union
of the occipitales in the foramen magnum; and finally in
Delphinidae, by the shortening of the neck, the vertebralis
is wanting. It, with the cervicalis ascendens and occipitalis,
forms one stem, the cervico-occipitalis, which connects with
the spinales through numerous retia mirabilia. The always
present circulus Willisii is formed either partly in the cere-
brales and partly by division of the basilaris, or through
the cerebrales and divided basilari-occipitales, or only by
the cerebrales. There are still other modifications of the
circle of Willis. The subclavian becomes the axillary and
the brachial ; the latter in Cetacea and Phocidae is absent.
In many Edentata, and in Stenops and Tarsius, the arm-
arteries possess many retia mirabilia (Dasypus searcinctus,
etc.). In Bradypw8 and Stenops the trunk of the brachialis
passes through many embracing extended arterial vessels.
In Cyclothwra didactyla and Tar-
sius the artery empties itself into
these ; in other cases they are
confined to - the fore arm. In
Sws there is a small one con-
necting the ulnaris and radialis.
In some the brachiales give off
only subordinate branches (Tri-
checus, Mustela, Cricetw8, Sciu-
rus); in others it is forked. The
division of ulnar and radial ar-
teries is variously situated, either
high on the humerus (Phocaena,
Cebus, Callithriac, Lagothrix,
where they are often afterwards
connected, etc.), or in the middle
of the same (Didelphis, Halma-
twrws), or near the elbow (Homo, Felis). Sometimes the
brachialis, oftener the ulnaris (in very many apes, marsu-
pials, many rodents), passes through the foramen supra-
condyloideum humeri.
The aorta thoracica of most Mammalia is peculiar in not
giving off immediately the intercostales. In Mustela there
springs from it at the extremity of the chest a trunk (which
divides into two vertebrales), from which the arteriae
intercostales issue. In the Delphinidae there are two de-
scending arteriae thoracicae internae (or mammariae internae),
which arise, the left from the arcus aortae, the right from
the innominata dextra, which give off the five anterior in-
tercostales. Here also descends from the aorta thoracica, a
single trunk, which communicates by branches with the
arterial network of the thorax and of the vertebral canal.
The intercostales pass through this enormous thoracic rete
mirabile, which connects with those of the vertebral canal
and the base of the skull. The branches of the aorta, ab-
dominalis are usually the phrenicae inferiores, suprare-
males, renales, spermaticae internae, lumbales, the coeliaca,
the mesenterica Superior, and the mesenterica, inferior.
The coeliaca and mesenterica superior are one stem in
Cavia cobaya, or originate as one and soon divide (Talpa
and Vespertilio murinus), or originate separately, but connect
by strong anastomoses (Phocaena). The mesenterica inferior
often is trifling, in Marsupialia and Monotremata wanting.
Certain twigs of it, forming retia mirabilia, occur in Sus ; in
the same genus is a rete on the stomach from the coronaria,
ventralis sinestra. Branches for the transversalis and ob-
lique muscles for the psoas, etc., leave the aorta abdomi-
nalis. The arteriae iliacae communes (so called) seldom are
homologous with those of man. In Cetacea, they corre-
spond generally with the hypogastricae. They give off the
epigastricae, which otherwise come from the crurales. In
most Mammalia, they are homologous with the crurales,
since not from them, but from a continuation of the aorta,
FIG. 29. Cleodora.
are given off the hypogastricae, or at least vessels which rise
in Homo from the hypogastricae. So in Monotremata and
marsupials the ischiadicae, and in many others the sacrae
laterales, spring in pairs from the aorta beyond the iliacae
communes. In some, with strong skin-muscle or skin-
system, from the crurales arise large musculo-cutaneae, which
anastomose with similar descending branches of the ax-
illares (Erinaceus). The division of the cruralis is higher
or deeper than in Homo. In the posterior extremity of the
Phocidae, in many Edentata, and Stenops are retia mira-
bilia, which are weaker than those of the upper extremity,
RS-5 and the Sacra media
is a continuation of
the aorta.; larger in
large-tailed animals,
running in an infe-
rior vertèbral canal,
\ often forming retia
*} (Stenops, Bradypus,
Myrmecophaga). In
Phocaena it passes
through retia; some-
times weak (in Erin-
aceus, Lepus, rumi-
nants, often in Soli-
pedia). There is none in Manatus australis, where the aorta
forms two hypogastricae, which lose themselves in two huge
retia subvertebralia.
FIG. 30. Octopus vulgaris.
X. THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.
Apparatus for oxygenizing a circulating fluid is wanting
in Protozoa and Coelenterata. In the other branches its
type varies so that a number of distinct systems must be
recognized, which are adaptations of as Imany distinct re-
gions of the body for the purpose of respiration. These
may be reckoned as follows: -
1. The external pore-system of the Echinodermata.
2. The system of diverticula from the alimentary canal
of the Holothurida-Dendropneumones and of most Verte-
brata.
3. The gill-system of Mollusca and Crustacea.
4. The tracheary system of terrestrial Arthropoda.
5. The pharyngeal gill-system of Ascidia, fishes, and
Batrachia.
It will, however, be convenient to divide the subject first
between the Invertebrata, and Vertebrata.
1. In Invertebrata.-The wall of the body of the Echinida
and Asteroida is pierced with a great number of pores,
which terminate in blind sacs and are filled with water. In
all echinoderms the cavity of the body is filled with water,
by which blood is oxygenized. It enters through perforated
plates (laminae cribrosae) situated in the angles of the arms
in the Asteriida, but the orifices which admit it into the
body of the Holothurida are not certainly known. In the
latter class singular organs called the “slipper-shaped
bodies” depend freely from the viscera; their hollow stems
are said to contain a blood-vessel; the extremity is like the
open end of a short slipper.
The Holothurida-Dendropneumones possess an extensive
system of branching blind tubes, which form a mass ex-
tending throughout the body. They form two bodies, one
on each side of the rectum, and open into the latter near
the anus: from it they are filled with water. In some As-
teriida (Petraster militaris) five radiating tubes, the one for
each arm, issue from the rectum, and are filled and emptied
of water from it.
In Polyzoa (Bryozoa) and Brachiopoda, we have a some-
what similar arrangement of branchiae. In the former they
form a double crest of tentacular fringes round the mouth ;
they are hollow, and the circulatory fluid moves through
them, as elsewhere in the body-cavity, by ciliary move-
ments on its walls. In Brachiopoda, as already stated,
there are well-developed arteries. The gills are situated
as fringes on straighter and shorter or longer and spirally-
coiled arms within the shell, one on each side of the mouth.
Their position is somewhat like that in the Polyzoa, when
retracted. . In hingeless Brachiopoda the calcareous arms
are wanting, but here the gill-supports are cartilaginous.
In Lingula the inner surface of the mantle is furnished
with folds and crests, which are supposed to aid respiration.
In the Acephala the arrangement is totally different. The
gills are curtain- or sheet-like (whence the name of this
class, Lamellibranchiata), and hang two from each side of
the body within the mantle. Sometimes their margins are
free (many Monomyaria, Mytilidae, Arcidae, Lithodomus,
Cyclas, etc.); in others immediately united (Veneridae, Mac-
tra, Donaar, Unionidae, Pholadidae, etc.), or are connected by
an intervening membrane (Solenidae, Cardium, etc.). The
union of the pairs of margins encloses two chambers, one
within the other. Each gill-lamella consists of two layers,
which enclose tubes and other cavities between them.


|COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
1075
Sometimes the outer gill lacks one layer, or sometimes the
whole gill is wanting (Lucina, Corbis, etc.). In others its
outer lamina is truncated above, so as to expose the ends
of the cavities it embraces. The lamellae of the opposite
side are symmetrical, or not in accordance with the relations
of the shell-valves.
The branchial structure in Gasteropoda presents many
varieties. In the division Opisthobranchia, the branchiae
and auricles lie behind the ventricle of the heart; in Proso-
branchia the relative positions are reversed. In the former
FIG. 31. 1, Brachiella.
the branchiae are variously extended processes of the dorsal
integument of the body, each of which is supplied with an
artery. In the lowest group, the Dermatobranchia, these
branchiae are wanting, and the arteries are distributed for
blood ačration beneath the dorsal integument. In the Pla-
cobranchia, they are represented by lateral wing-like ex-
pansions of the integument, which may fold over the body.
In numerous types the processes are distributed over the
body in thread, prism, leaf, and other forms. These are the
Ceratobranchia; many of the processes contain liver-cells.
In the Polybranchia the processes are arranged along the
back, and are branched or forked, and sometimes of diverse
forms on the same animal. Other families, as Dorididae,
have a rosette of branchiae round the arms only. All the
preceding groups form the “naked-gilled ” primary divis-
ion, Nudibranchia. In the remainder of the sub-class the
gills are concealed by the edge of the mantle, forming the
Tectibranchia. The least specialized of these (Hypobranchia)
have symmetrically arranged fringes round the edge of the
body, with but few interruptions; while in the higher division,
Pleurobranchia; the fringe exists on one side only. The fringe
becomes more localized and drawn under the mantle as the
size of the shell increases in the succession of genera. Es-
pecially in Bulla, where the shell is large, the gill is drawn
beneath the mantle, and concealed by the upturned margin
of the foot.
In Prosobranchia, the gill or mantle-sac is generally well
defined. It consists of a chamber bounded within by the
body-wall and above by the mantle, which also closes it
laterally by adhesion to the body-wall. The gills and ex-
cretory orifices of the digestive, urinary, and genital sys-
tems are seen on its walls. There is generally a single gill,
shaped like a half feather, and with two dependent (in
Paludina three) laminae of transparent membrane. In
many genera there is a rudiment of a second, while in a few
the latter is well developed. The orifice of the mantle-sac
is on the left side, and can be closed by a sphincter muscle.
The mantle is originally composed of lateral halves, which
are not always completely united; their separation at the
margin produces the deep fissure in the shell of Pleurotoma,
and divisions higher up correspond to the holes in the shell
of Haliotis. In the latter genus there are two gill-sacs and
two gills, and in others two gills. In some a thickened rib
marks the halves of the mantle, and the two gills are placed
closed together on it, so as to appear as one. In Patellidae
and Chitonidae there is no distinct gill-sac, the branchiae
being marginal fringes, as in many Opisthobranchia. In
the Pulmonata, the mantle-sac does not contain any gills;
it has an opening on the right side of the body, produced
by a fissure in the mantle margin, which is closed by a
sphincter muscle. This orifice opens and shuts regularly
for the admission of air. The mantle-sac becomes a lung
by the distribution of the venous trunks and branches over
its surface. An extensive ring-like trunk (circulus pul-
monalis) surrounds its margin, from which vessels converge
towards the centre, forming a network, which gathers itself
again into a few, then a single trunk, the vena pulmonalis,
which empties into the auricle of the heart.
In Cephalopoda, the mantle is free, and encloses a cavity
2, Dichelesthium. 3, Cyclops.
on the abdominal, instead of, as heretofore, the dorsal face
of the body, agreeing in this respect with the Pteropoda.
The cavity contains two branchiae in the greater number
of genera (Dibranchiata), or two in Nawtilus and probably
its extinct allies, the Ammonitidae, etc. These constitute
the sub-class Tetrabranchiata. The gills are elongate,
triangular, feather-shaped bodies, whose axis bears on one
side the artery, on the other the vein. In Dibranchiata it
bears a row of bows on each side, in which a blood-vessel
passes from artery to vein. On each of these stand bi-
pinnate processes, so that the whole becomes tripinnate.
The arch bounds a membrane in the decapod division, but
in the Octopoda, the loop is not closed. In Tetrabranchiata
the first branches of the gill are leaf-like, with pinnate,
leaf-like subdivisions. They are free in the mantle-sac;
those of the dibranchiates are attached to the mantle.
In all Crustacea except the Decapoda, the gills consist of
fringes and expansions of the limbs. In the latter they are
regular feather-shaped bodies, arranged within an abdominal
cavity above the limbs; the bases form a curved line and
the apices are directed inward. The tracheary system pre-
vails in all other Arthropoda. It consists of a great num-
ber of tubes, which communicate with the air by means of
small orifices or stigmata. These pierce the walls of the
segments, usually one on each side, where they are present.
They subdivide to a great extent internally, and penetrate
all the organs of the body. There are marked varieties of
this structure. Instead of issuing by stigmata, the trachea.
may be produced into a leaf-shaped process which arises
from the usual position of the stigma, and may there ram-
ify extensively within the lamella, constituting a trachean
gill. This occurs in the larvae of many Neuroptera. The
walls of the tracheae are elastic, yet firmly bound by a
spiral thread, whose close volutions form an interior layer
of the tube-wall. In other localities it is wanting, and the
tube expands sac-like. In some insects these exist near
the stigmata. In the Arachnida (except the group of low
forms, the Trachearia) this sac-like structure only exists
as a large pulmonary chamber, with single stigma, situated
on the anterior part of the abdomen on each side.
In insects the stigmata rarely exceed nine or ten pairs;
in Myriopoda, they are far more numerous. In the Acarina
there are but two. In insects they usually have a valve,
which opens externally to prevent the entrance of foreign
bodies; in some forms they project in laminae, branched,
pinnate, or botryoidal. In the larvae of many Phrygan-
eidae and some Lepidoptera, the trachea-gills are arranged
in six rows along the back. In the larvae of Libellula and
AEschna they are attached to the inner wall of the rectum.
In ascidian Mollusca there are no free or pinniform
gills. There is, on the contrary, a large pharyngeal cavity,
which lies between the mouth and the digestive system
proper, the alimentary canal both issuing from and dis-
charging into its cavity in many cases. In others it dis-
charges at the side. The pharynx may occupy a small part
of the whole length of the cavity of the body; in the latter
case the other organs are pushed to one side of it (Boltenia,
e.g.). The mouth and other parts are frequently furnished
with cilia. The gills consist of a sac whose walls are
abundantly pierced by holes of different forms in the dif-
ferent groups, or it is reduced to a band of such structure
only.
2. In Vertebrata.-In the Leptocardii there is a large
pharyngeal cavity, with a large open mouth whose border
is supported by a cartilage. This gives out branches which
are the axes of abundantly ciliated tentacles which sur-
FIG. 32. Dytiscus and larva,
round the mouth. On the sides of the pharynx are nume-
rous fissures, which communicate with the outer medium.
In the Dermopteri the respiratory organs consist of a series
of sacs on each side (which number seven to ten), on whose
septary walls the arteries and veins are distributed. In
some genera, these communicate internally with the pharynx
or oesophagus; in the lamprey, on the other hand, with a
blind tube which lies beneath the oesophagus and empties
into the pharynx. Each sac opens externally by a slit. In
Elasmobranchi-Plagiostomi (sharks, rays) the arrangement


1076
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
is similar, the slits numbering five, rarely six and seven,
and communicating with the oesophagus. The septary
walls are double, and contain a cartilaginous arch with
radii, which elevate the walls into transverse ridges. A
trace of the first embryonic external fissure remains in this
order as a spiracle or tube from the pharynx to the sides
of the top of the head behind the eyes. In Holocephali
(Chimaera) the external slits are concealed by an opercular
flap, which produces the appearance of a single slit. In Ac-
tinopteri the hyoid respiratory system is fully developed.
The arches support, instead of sac-septa, radiating fringe-
like laminae, which receive the branches of the branchial
artery and vein. The fissures are only those between the
arches, which are covered externally by an osseous “oper-
culum ” or lid. The number of branchiae is usually four
and a half, but in some Pediculati there are but three, in
some eels but two. In Lepidosiren there is but one. While
the processes are usually narrow, lamellar, in Lopho-
branchii they are subcylindric and branched, each one
forming thus a tuft ; their number is also reduced.
Besides these fringes there are in some Dipnoi and some
Batrachia (Trachystomata, Proteida), and in the larvae of
many Salamanders, cartilaginous processes of the arches
which bear a double row of fringes, forming the external
gills.
The true pulmonary system consists of ducts and cham-
bers, which originate from the alimentary canal, and are
connected with it or the pharynx. It is not found in any
Vertebrata below the Actinopteri. On the other hand, the
hyoid respiratory organs do not exist above the Batrachia.
In Actinopteri the pulmonary system consists of a sac with
walls either thin and semi-transparent, or rarely thicker
and lined with muscular meshes or a few cells (Lepidosteus,
Dipnoi, etc.). In Physostomi it is connected with the
stomach or oesophagus by a tube, the ductus pneumaticus;
in Lepidosteus the latter enters the oesophagus on the upper
side; in Polypterus on the under side of the same. "In
Physoclysti this sac is entirely isolated. Its function is
that of a float, and it is hence called the swim-bladder. It
usually forms a single chamber, but in Cyprinidae, Chara-
cinidae, and Sternopygidae, it is divided by narrow constric-
tions into two, sometimes into three, chambers. In Cobit-
idae and some Siluridae (Clarias, Gasterobranchus, Ageniosus,
and Saccobranchus) the anterior part, or the whole of it, is
enclosed in an osseous case. In Gadidae the diapophyses
are expanded and adherent to it; in Campostoma it is sus-
pended in the abdominal cavity, and surrounded by the
spirally coiled intestine. It is furcate, and sometimes
branched posteriorly, in Sciaenidae. In Nematognathi and
Plectospondyli it is immediately connected with the audi-
tory organs by a chain of small bones, which are supported
on the sides of the anterior vertebrae. Besides Lepidosteus
and Amia, the genera. Platystoma (Nematognathi) and Chi-
ºrocentrus (Isospondyli) possess cellular layers on the inner
side of the swim-bladder. In Lepidosiren only among
fishes is the swim-bladder deeply divided longitudinally,
its halves being homologous with lungs. They are cellular
within, and lie above the alimentary canal next the verte-
bral column. They unite, and passing round the oesopha-
gus enter it below by a glottis with small cartilage. In
Saccobranchus a sac extends on each side above the ribs
from the pharyngeal cavity, which is designed to contain
water to supply the gills during drought.
In Batrachia we have a further development of the struc-
ture seen in Lepidosiren. Here the sacs are separate, being
connected by the branches of the tube or trachea, which
leads to the oesophagus. The sacs, now lungs, are occupied
by a central longitudinal cavity and a thick layer of cells
round the walls. The trachea from this order upward con-
sists of cartilaginous rings, partly or completely closed,
which are modified at the glottis into a vocal organ. This
consists of a number of segments, the uppermost of which
support two parallel tendinous plates "(chordàe vocales),
whose edges are separated by a slit-like opening, which is
opened or contracted by their relaxation or tension. The
trachea is longer in reptiles and other vertebrates than in
Batrachia, and its inferior branches are called bronchiae.
In all, the oesophagus passes above the lungs, and the
stomach is behind them. The interior of the lung contin-
ues as a sac in reptiles, being especially elongate and thin-
Walled posteriorly in Serpents. In these animals one of the
lung-sacs is nearly always wanting or rudimental. In birds
and Mammalia, the central cavity is only represented by the
bronchi and their branches, the cells occupying the remain-
ing space. In Aves the bronchi are each dilated into a
chamber, which is furnished with muscles for altering its
form. These are most fully developed in singing-birds, of
whose musical faculties they are the organ.
XI. THE UROGENITAL SYSTEM.
1. In Invertebrates.—The Reproductive System.—In the
lowest forms of life reproductive organs are only periodi-
cal appearances, and their sexuality can only be determined
by microscopic examination of their products. In most
Echinodermata the organs are permanent, but it is not till
we reach Mollusca with a head, that the organs of the sexes
essentially differ. A usual mode of reproduction in Pro-
tozoa and Coelenterata is by budding and by fission. The
production of ova is a higher form of the budding process,
the result being a germ of a new generation, which may or
may not require the offices of opposite sexual cells for
their further development. Examples of full development
of the female element alone (agamogenesis) are known in
animals as high in the series as insects. In the Mollusca
the two sexual elements, ova and spermatozoöids, are con-
stantly produced, even in hermaphrodites, although they
may be the products of the same glandular follicles, as in
Gasteropoda-Opisthobranchia and Pulmonata, and in Pter-
opoda. •
P. following table exhibits the relations of the classes
as far as the Vermes: -
I. No Urinary Apparatus.
ô Q organs identical.
Badiata.
* No permanent generative organs. *
Polypt. Either afidrogynous on each mesenterial fold, or
the fold monoecious, or rarely the animals dioecious; sper-
matozoa or eggs in sacs, which are in band-like mass on
sides of mesenterial folds.
PIG. 33. 1. Rana esculenta. 2. Dactylethra Capensis. 3. Bufo viridis.
a, brain from above; b, choroid plexus; c, horizontal section
of the lobes and hemispheres; d, of hemisphere; e, longitudinal
vertical section.
Hydrae. Androgynous; the eggs single in a lower sprout,’
spermatozoa in a higher sprout; no permanent organs.
Medusae. Dioecious; eggs and spermatozoa developed in
large cells or bladders, which are attached to stomach,
water-canals, mouth, feet, border, etc., etc.
Ctenophora. Androgynous and monoecious; capsules of
both kinds in combined or separate bands on radial water-
canals; sometimes on central canal or stomach, emerging
by same canals. - “s -
Crinoidea. Comatula ; sacs on swollen bases of pinnules
monoeciously containing eggs or spermatozoa without tails.
(By one observation sometimes androgynous.)
Asteriida. One or many blind sacs each side of septum
(which terminates between arms near or far off); sometimes
found to reach the end of the arm; much subdivided; ori-
fice of emission through lamina cribrosa in some Asteriadae;
into the body-cavity in others and in Ophiuridae; all an-
drogynous, with very few dioecious exceptions; in some not
known.
Echinida. Dioecious; five (ever less?) sacs or masses of
saclets, each opening by narrow duct through separate
openings (sometimes four or three) near vent, and lying
near together, reaching to middle of shell; males white col-
ored, yellow, red, etc.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
1077
Holothuriida. Bunch of few or many tubes embracing
Oesophagus, and opening on median dorsal line ; dioecious,
or in Synapta and Apneumona androgynous; the spermatozoa
in projecting masses of walls of ovary-tube.
Mollusca.
• * Generative organs not always permanent.
Bryozoa. Androgynous; 5 organs round body below
stomach on a string, with many cells, containing sperma-
tozoa ; ? with very few ripe ova behind stomach, also on a
string; spermatozoa bursting into body-cavity, and reach-
ing ovary; ova break through outer wall or a posterior
orifice. -
Tunicata. Androgynous; some doubtful, some of same
species dioecious, others androgynous; testes and ovary
separate, both emptying into cloaca separately; ovary usu-
ally with but one egg; organs slightly different in appear-
8.D C6.
* Always permanent.
Brachiopoda. Androgynous; a thick branching glandu-
lar body following pallial or generative artery filled with
ovary-cells, and surrounded and penetrated by a reddish
cell containing male element; discharging near mouth from
a large, much-plicate, trumpet-mouthed oviduct, which is
not continuous with genital mass.
II. Urinary Organs Present (Bojanus’ Glands).
A. 9 & organs identical, permanent.
Acephala. 9 and Ś organs not different, of minute cells
gathered in more or less compressed masses, which form
main mass, or more simple along central tube or duct, which
passes through Bojanus' body or unites with duct of latter,
or has opening near latter; spermatozoa in Dimyaria long-
headed and round-headed; in Monomya round only ; dioeci-
ous, except a Pecten or Cardium, etc., and hermaphrodite in-
dividuals of Anodonta. In Unionidae sexes externally dif-
ferent; gills serve as brood-sac. Androgynous; genera
Ostrea, Cyclas, Pandora, Pecten, etc.
A.A. § organs distinguished by penis or stylet.
a. Animals hermaphrodite.
Gasteropoda-Opisthobranchia. Spermatozoöida and ova.
produced by the same glandular body (with few exceptions).
Pulmonata. An oviduct with abdomen giand and sem-
inal receptacle; a vas deferens terminating in penis; a
stylet-sac with stylet, all emptying into a common cloaca.
Pteropoda. Similar to the last, but no distinct vas def-
erens, and no stylet; penis usually separate from and in
front of vagina.
aa. Sexes distinct.
Gasteropoda in general. Penis behind the right eye;
ovary and testis em-
bedded in the liver;
oviduct frequently en-
larged into a uterus,
issuing on the right
side; rarely an albu-
men gland or recep-
taculum seminis; no
stylet. * º
Cephalopoda. ? with
ovary enclosed in a per-
itoneal sac, and with
two (sometimes one)
oviducts continuous; Ś
without stylet ; with a
was deferens and so-
called seminal vesicle
and prostata near the
penis.
The preceding struc-
tures present in their
details the greatest va-
riety. The generative organs are situated on the right side
of the body, but the exits are in some groups on the oppo-
site side, and usually (the female at least) in the mantle-
sac. Their inner walls are lined with ciliated epithelium.
The stylet is a slender, acute calcareous body of various
form, which is inserted into the vagina or body of the other
individual in coitus. Its function is supposed to be that
of an irritant only.
The males of Cephalopoda are more readily distinguish-
ed from the females than in Gasteropoda, being generally
smaller. In Argonauta the female only bears the shell.
But the chief peculiarity of the male is seen in the modified
structure of one of the arms, by which it is said to be “hec-
tocotylized.” It differs from other arms in being stouter
and entirely hollow, terminating in a hollow thread which
is open at the extremity, giving exit to the contents. It is
developed in a bladder on its inner wall, and is first closely
rolled together; the thread bears a bladder which is later
lost. The primary bladder finally bursts, its remains form-
FIG. 34. Brain of Necturus maculatus.
filled with spermatozoöids.
ing a fringing membrane on the sides. At the period of
impregnation its cavity becomes, in some way unknown,
During an embrace it is torn
off, and enters the mantle-sac of the female. It swims in-
dependently as a worm, and several are sometimes found in
one female. The spermatozoöids are supposed to be dis-
charged into the vagina by the hollow thread.
Many opisthobranchs are self-impregnating. Pulmonata
impregnate each other, while in Lymnaea an individual im-
pregnates a second, and is impregnated by a third, forming
thus a chain of individuals.
In Arthropoda, the sexes are always in separate individ-
uals (dioecious), excepting in the lowest Crustacea (Cirri-
pedia) and the lowest Arachnida (Tardigrada). These
orders are either sessile or with but little power of move-
ment; hence the appropriateness of their monoecious con-
dition. The sexes of Arthropoda are generally distinguish-
able by external characters, but it is in the Insecta, and En-
tomostraca (Lernaeoida) that this difference becomes most
remarkable. Thus in Hymenoptera (bees and ants) and
Neuroptera (termites) not only are the sexes very distinct,
but there are other forms (neuters, workers, soldiers, etc.)
produced in connection with imperfect development of the
reproductive organs. In the bees and wasps the additional
forms are repressed males; in ants, repressed females. In
termites it is asserted that both sexes contribute to pro-
duce them.
The external orifices of the reproductive system are con-
fined to the abdomen, and are below and before the vent of
the alimentary canal. In most orders they are posterior,
but in Myriopoda, scorpions, and some higher Crustacea
they are in front of the abdomen. The female internal or-
gans consist of ovary and oviduct on each side, or the two
oviducts may unite into one on the middle line, or there
may be a single median ovary. On the oviduct are usually
found diverticula, the receptaculum seminis (which is want-
ing in Crustacea, except Ostracoda) and another sac of un-
certain use. The Iower part of the oviduct is enlarged and
the muscular walls are thick, forming a vagina, which often
continues past the proximal part of the oviduct as bursa
copulatrix. The ovaries consist of caeca of varying forms.
In Crustacea, Arachnida, and Myriopoda they are few in
number, but in Insecta, they are very numerous, forming a
gland-like body whose component caeca are bound together
by connective tissue. In Termes their number reaches 2000
to 3000. Other glands (glandulae sebaceae) pour their con-
tents into the oviducts, which serve many important pur-
poses—i.e., to attach the eggs to a solid base (arilus) or
to the parent's body; to construct a shell (Blatta) or co-
coon. In certain low Crustacea (Lernaeoida, Isopoda, etc.)
these glands open outwardly independently of the oviducts,
and the secretion forms a sac round the eggs, by which they
are suspended externally. The last abdominal segments in
many insects are modified into organs designed for the con-
duct of eggs to a proper nidus; thus, in Orthoptera it is
composed of sabre-shaped plates with saws within ; in Hy-
menoptera it is partly represented by an offensive weapon,
the sting. In Chrysididae, Diptera, and Phalangia and
Acari they are modified into a tube which is projected tele-
scope-fashion.
The male organs of Arthropoda consist of testes, vasa
deferentia, glands, vesiculi seminales, and penis. The testes
resemble the ovaries of the female in structure and position,
but are frequently less complex. They are more commonly
also united on the median line, as in low Crustacea (Cyclop-
idae, Cyprididae, Myriopoda), and among Insecta in Lepi-
doptera, many Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, etc. The vasa
deferentia on the other hand remain distinct in these cases,
except in Scolopendra and various Entomostraca. In
many Crustacea and chilognath Myriopoda, the vasa defer-
entia issue externally separately, but in many others unite
to form a ductus ejaculatorius, which is enlarged in diameter.
The muscles of this region are especially developed where
a penis is well developed. Glandulae mucosae discharge into
these ducts in insects and myriopods, but are wanting or
rare in Crustacea and Arachnida. They are sometimes sac-
like, sometimes filiform. They secrete a substance which
hardens round a body of seminal secretions, forming a cap-
sule which is usually taken into the female vagina, but may
be attached to the body externally, or even (Chilopoda) to
external objects. z t
The penis is present in most Arthropoda, but is wanting
in Entomośtraca, Chilopoda, and scorpions. In Crustacea,
Brachyura, and Isopoda, etc., it is double. In all cases it is
composed of a modified pair of limbs, which is especially clear
in crabs. The intromittent organ is occasionally far re-
moved from the orifice of the vasa deferentia. In spiders
(Aranea) the extremity of the palpus bears a receptaculum
seminis and penis, which the animal fills voluntarily by ap-
plication to the external orifice, and discharges in the ovi-
duct of the female. In Argulw8 a similar mode of connec-

1078
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
tion depends on the structure of one of the legs, and in
chilognath Myriopoda a pair of legs is altered for a similar
purpose. In certain tailed Decapoda there are two pairs
of such organs, those on the last segment of the post-abdo-
men serving as conductors from receptacles in the fifth pair
of legs. In dragon-flies the exceptional case occurs where
the accessory organ is a fissure in the second abdominal
segment. - -
In Vermes the type of the reproductive system presents
the varieties seen in Mollusca. Thus, they are androgy-
nous, monoecious, and dioecious. Many of them develop
by an alternation of generation, the one produced by true
reproduction, the other stages by gemmation. In Turbel-
laria (or planarians) the Dendrocoela are bi-sexual, but
the Rhabdocoela possess a common outlet for the two or-
gans, testis and ovarium. Trematodes (flukes) are monoe-
cious, each animal possessing distinct sexual organs of both
kinds. The developmental stages of the young vary from
three to six, and all but the first of these are due to gem-
mation in the cavity of preceding stages, or metamorphosis
while encysted, etc. In tape-worms (Cestodes) the animal
is made up of a head with organs of attachment, which,
posterior to a long neck, is followed by a great number of
identical segments. These contain each male and female
organs, and a water-vascular system. The ovary and testis
are at opposite ends of the segment, and between them is
the branched uterus. This terminates in a vagina, which
is approximated by a sheath containing a penis, which is
perforated by the vas deferens. There are glands attached
to the female organs. Each segment of a cestode is then
self-impregnating. In Acanthocephala and Nematoda we
have the higher condition of an entire separation of the
sexes. In the former there is a penis which is retracted in
a bursa which is prehensile in function. In this order there
are alternate generations produced by gemmation in the
body of the nurse stage. In Nematodes many genera
(Strongyliidae, Ascaridae, and Filariidae) are furnished with
a penis and bursa at its base. In the last family Tricho-
cephalus has a bristle-like penis, one-third the length of
the body, which, when projected, is accompanied by an
extended sheath. In Ascaridae the penes or “spicula” are
two in number. In Sclerostomum (gape-worm) the male is
much smaller than the female, and becomes attached to her
permanently. In Heterura he remains attached for con-
siderable periods. Cucullanidae are without bursa. In
Anguillula and other genera there are two oviducts, which
unite to form a single vagina. -
aa. The Urinary Organs.—These are present in Mollusca
from the Acephala upward. In the latter they are repre-
sented by a pair of kidneys and their discharge ducts only.
These are called “Bojanus' organs;” they are relatively of
large size, and lie one on each side above the heart, etc.,
extending from muscle to muscle. They are frequently
united together along the middle line. They are hollow
and spongy, and their fibres are lined with secreting cells.
They terminate either by a single duct near that of the
reproductive system, or unite with the latter, or the genital
duct enters that of Bojanus’ bodies. These bodies have
communication with the external water, and by a cribri-
form surface with the heart-sac.; likewise with the capillary
veins. The function of the organs is not only that of a
kidney, but as a mingler of water with the blood.
In Gasteropoda the kidney is single and contains cal-
careous nodules; its secretion is purple in Murex; it is
large and hollow, and contains water. It is surrounded by
a network of veins, which frequently open into it, so that
blood-corpuscles are found in it, as well as its products in
the blood. It usually opens directly into the mantle-sac,
but otherwise by a ureter, and always independently of the
rectum, vagina, or vas deferens.
The kidneys of Cephalopoda differ much from those of
other classes, and for a long time their nature was con-
sidered doubtful. They form a large, rather loose mass on
that part of the vena cava which approaches the gills, and
on the gill-veins as well, consisting of a great number of
minute sacs with bifurcations and internal processes. Each
principal one opens by a fissure in the walls of the vein.
They are constantly in motion.
In Arthropoda, the existence of kidneys is a matter of
question. The vasa Malpighii (described under the “Di-
gestive System’’) are diverticula of the alimentary canal,
and their function was formerly believed to be that of the
liver. Gall has, however, never been found in them, but
on the contrary uric acid. This has also been found in the
intestine and in the corpus adiposum.
2. In Vertebrata.-a. The Reproductive System.—Verte-
brates are usually dioecious, but a few fishes—viz., the eels
and certain Serrani—are hermaphrodites. The organs of
the female are primarily an ovary; an oviduct may or may
not be present. Thus, in the Leptocardii the ovaries are
collections of cells along the sides of the abdominal cavity,
which drop their ova into it, which are discharged by an
orifice anterior to the anus. In Dermopteri the structure
is similar, except that the ovarian cells are collected into
plate-like masses. In Elasmobranchii the ovaria, are in-
cluded in a peritoneal sac; occasionally, as in Squalidae
and Scylliidae, there is but one, medial and symmetrical.
The oviducts are here present, and are homologous with
the tubae Fallopii of mammals; each dilates into a uterus,
and empties into a common uro-rectal cloaca. Their proxi-
mal ends are open and expanded, presenting the so-called
fontanelles. In true fishes we have various structures: in
the Salmonidae and some Clupeidae there are no oviducts,
but the eggs fall into the abdominal cavity and are expelled
through a pore. In most other fishes and in Lepidosteus
the ovarian membrane is prolonged as an oviduct, and usu-
ally discharges externally without union with other canals;
in Lepidostews they enter the ureters. They are united in
various Physoclysti. They are, as in Elasmobranchii, open
as internal fontanelles in Amia, Chondrostei, and Polypterus;
in all they have a common external opening with the ureters.
In Batrachia, the tubae Fallopii are proximally open, and
extend in many coils far in front of the ovaries. They are
distally united with the ureters. In Reptilia, Aves, and
Mammalia, the oviducts (or tubae Fallopii) are not ordinarily
connected with the ovaries, but only at certain seasons by
their trumpet-shaped fontanelles. In birds these organs
are not developed on one side of the body. In reptiles,
birds, and monotrematous mammals, the genital, urinary,
and digestive canals have a common exit or cloaca. In
marsupials and placentals the genito-urinal excretory
ducts are separated from the digestive, being in the female
distinct or opening into a com-
mon vulva, but in the male are
united for some length. In
Mammalia, the females are vi-
viparous, and the ovum is
hatched in expansions of the
oviducts, or uteri. In marsu-
pials these are separate, and
the distal pârts of the oviducts
are not united into a vagina.
In placental mammals, on the
contrary, the oviducts unite,
forming a single undivided
vagina. In Edentata and Ro-
dentia this union does not pro-
duce an expanded uterus, as
the young are developed in the
separate oviducts; but in high-
er mammals the enlarged ovi-
ducts unite into a muscular
chamber, the uterus. A false
uterus occurs in the kangaroos
* g il by the union of the cavities of
Fº. Brain ºf Wºłº the oviducts near the middle
ticus: 1, horizontal Section heir l h: e
of optic iobºº, vertical of their length; two opposite
Section. symmetrical curvatures are in
contact, and their adjacent
walls disappear; they then turn shortly back (forward in
the animal) and make another short bend before they take
a direction to the external orifice.
In placental mammals the embryo is attached to the
wall of the uterus by a body called the placenta. It is on
the allantois, and presents to the wall great numbers of
villi, which interdigitate with corresponding processes
from the mother. Both are furnished with abundant
blood-vessels, which maintain intercommunication with
each other, thus nourishing the embryo. As we descend
the scale we only find a trace of this structure in some of
the sharks. The allantois is an embryonic structure which
characterizes exclusively vertebrates above and including
Reptilia. The amnion is another sac, formed by the folding .
of the germinal layer of the embryo over its back; the
edges of the folds then uniting, the two inner enclose the
amniotic sac ; the outer becomes the chorion. The amnion
is absent, like the allantois, in all classes below Reptilia.
The placenta exhibits several distinct typal forms in
Mammalia; it may be disciform or ring-like (zonary), or
may be scattered in tufted bodies over the chorion (cotyle-
donary), or the villi may be scattered all over the same
(diffuse). The orders of mammals may be thus arranged
in this respect: -
1. With decidua, placenta discoidal: Primates, Cheirop-
tera, Insectivora, Rodentia, Edentata (Orycteropidae, Dasyp-
idae). -
;) With decidua, zonary: Carnivora, Proboscidia, Hyra-
coidea.
3. Without decidua, cotyledonary: Perissodactyla, Artio-
dactyla, and Ruminantia, Edentata (Bradypidae).
4. Diffuse: Artiodactyla-Omnivora, Cetacea, Edentata
(Manidae).

COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY.
The male organs are, in the early stages of growth, as in
the lower animals, undistinguishable in structure. They
are generally homologous with the female in details, eyen
when most distinct. The relation may be thus expressed:
O
Testis. Ovary.
Vas deferens, Oviduct,
Uterus masculinus. } { Uterus.
Cowper's glands. Cowper's glands.
Penis. Clitoris.
Scrotum. Labia majora.
Preputium. Labia minora.
The was deferens is, however, generally a persistent
Wolffian duct, which in the embryo is the excretor of the
embryonic bodies (Wolff's) which precede the kidneys.
The Fallopian tube of higher mammals, on the other hand,
is the persistent Müllerian duct, which passes outside of
the former. In the batrachian Urodela the efferent ducts
of the testis pass through the kidney and empty into a
genito-urinary duct, while in Anura (except Discoglossidae)
they only pass through the edge of the kidney and dis-
charge into the ureter.
Among reptiles the penis is present in the tortoises and
crocodiles only, and in no lower forms; it is merely grooved
beneath. . In the ostrich it is quite similar. In the lower
groups of birds it is present, but wanting in the more spe-
cialized; in Mammalia, it is universal. It is composed of
two superior bodies, the corpora cavernosa, originating from
the pubis, and the corpus spongiosum, whose lower face
embraces the urethral tube, and whose extremity forms the
glans or head. The testes are almost universally situated
near the kidneys, in the abdominal cavity, but in the higher
mammals they descend from that position, and carrying a
fold of the serous membrane (tunica vaginalis) and muscle
&
º
... I'll
$
\ |
FIG. 36. Brain of Dipsas dendrophila; 1, vertical section of olfact
tory lobe; 2, vertical section of right hemisphere; 3, vertical
section of optic lobes; 4, transverse section of lobes.
(cremaster), they are suspended externally, generally be-
hind the penis; in Marsupialia in front of it. In some
rodents and others this descent of the testes is periodical.
aa. Urinary organs.
Kidneys are present in the higher Vertebrata, inclusive
of the Reptilia, but are supposed to be represented in Ba-
trachia and fishes by structures which are embryonic in the
former—i.e., the Wolffian bodies. The latter consist of two
bodies, one on each side of the vertebral column, and are
composed of transverse tubuli terminating in expansions
which embrace convoluted capillaries, the “Malpighian
tufts.” The Wolffian tubules empty in the Wolffian duct,
which extends along their outer side, and empties in the
embryo into the allantois. The kidneys appear later in
embryonic life, behind the Wolffian bodies, and have a
similar structure. They also discharge by a duct on each
side, which is distinct from the Wolffian, and constitutes
the ureter. This discharges at first into the allantois, but
with the approach of the lateral walls in the embryo, and
the closing of the ventral fissure, a portion of the allantois
is included, and becomes the urinary bladder.
The Leptocardii are not known to possess either Wolffian
bodies or kidneys. In the Pisces the connection of the
ureters with the oviducts is various. Thus in Polypterus
they unite and enter a single tube, the united ureters. In
Izepidosteus each ureter receives its corresponding oviduct;
in Amia the oviducts are open proximally. In Batrachia
the ureters are always connected with the oviducts. In the
tailed order the ureter becomes a genito-urinary duct, be-
cause it receives the vasa efferentia of the testis, which
pass through the kidney to reach it; it empties into the
cloaca. In the Anura the vasa efferentia enter the kidney,
1079
but do not reach the ureter, but are collected into a special
duct analogous to the deferens, which enters the ureter at
its lower part. This tube also receives the secretion of the
kidneys, so that the original ureter becomes useless, and is
atrophied in the frogs, or persists as a caecum in the toads.
In the discoglossid frogs the arrangement is as in the sala-
manders. In the allantoidal vertebrates the ureters dis-
charge into the urinary bladder, which in turn empties by
a single urethra, of greater or less length, into a genito-
urinary chamber in the higher Mammalia, or the cloaca in
the other classes. It is continued throughout the penis in
those males that possess that organ. The kidneys in most
Carnivora, in the Cetacea, and some Artiodactyla, are lob-
ulate, or like a bunch of grapes in form, as is seen in the
embryos of man and other mammals. In the cats (Felidae)
the divisions are not visible externally.
The osseous system will be discussed in an article espe-
cially devoted to that subject. EDWARD D. Cope.
Compar’ative Philol’ogy is that branch of the sci-
ence of language which examines and classifies languages as
undivided wholes—not, like etymology, tracing individual
words through the various languages in which they occur,
but comparing languages chiefly by the study of the gene-
ral character of their vocabularies. It, however, does not
confine itself to the mere collation of vocabularies and to
the study of grammatical forms. By the study and com-
parison of literatures, of the literary history of nations, of
popular traditions, mythologies and creeds, and of the dia-
lectic variations of time or place, it seeks to discover the
marks which integrate languages into groups, and which
differentiate these groups from each other. It thus renders
important services to the nearly related Science of ethnology,
since, with some limitations, kinship in language implies
kinship in blood—a doctrine the truth of which is now gen-
erally admitted, though formerly opposed by eminent phil-
ologists.
Comparative philology, though almost entirely a growth
of the present century, took its origin long since. The
missionaries of the Roman Catholic Church in America,
especially in the Spanish regions, long ago collected great
numbers of vocabularies, which are now prized not only as
collections of words, but as affording illustrations of the
relative fixity or mutability of barbaric languages—a point
in regard to which the greatest diversities exist, some lan-
guages changing greatly, it would appear, in a single gene-
ration, while others preserve a large degree of sameness
over great areas of space and through great epochs of time.
But the British occupation of India, and the consequent
study of Sanscrit literature, gave to all branches of lin-
guistic science a wonderful impulse; indeed, not till that
time did studies of this class assume a truly Scientific cha-
racter. (See BACKER, “Grammaire Comparée des Langues
de la France” (1860); BAIssac, “De l'Origine des Dénomi-
nations Ethniques” (1867); BALBI, “Atlas Ethnograph-
ique” (1826); BASTIAN, “Sprachvergleichende Studien”
(1870); BAUDRY, “Grammaire Comparée des Langues
Classiques” (1868); BEAMEs, “ Comparative Grammar of
Modern Aryan Languages in India;” KUHN and SCHLEI-
CHER, “Beiträge zur Wergleichenden Sprachforschung,”
etc. (1856–69), sqq.; BENLoBw, “Aperçu Général de la
Science Comparative des Langues” (1858); BLEEK, “Ueber
den Ursprung der Sprache” (1868), and “Comparative
Grammar of South African Languages” (1869); LOUIS
LUCIEN BONAPARTE, “Specimen Lexici Comparativi"
(1847); the writings of BoPP, especially his “Compara-
tive Grammar” (1833; 3d ed. 1869, sqq., translated by
Eastwick; 3d ed. 1862); DIEFFENBACH, “Lexicon Com-
parativum ” (1847–51); EIGHoFF, “Grammaire Générale
Indo-Européenne’” (1867); Fick, “Vergleichendes Wör-
terbuch" (1870); J. GRIMM, “Deutsche Grammatik” (2d
ed. 1869–72); KELLE, “Vergleichen de Grammatik” (1863);
LATHAM, “Comparative Philology” (1862), and his other
writings on language; F. MAX MüLLER, “Lectures on the
Science of Language” (6th ed. 1871); A. F. Pott, “Ety-
mologische Forschungen,” etc. (1833–36; new ed. 1859–71),
and his other works; RAPP, “Grundriss der Grammatik,”
etc. (1852–55); RENAN, “De l'Origine de Langage” (4th
ed. 1864); “Histoire Générale et Système comparé des
Langues Sémitiques” (4th ed. 1864); “Revue de Lingu-
istique” (Paris, 1807, sqq.); DE SACY, “Principles of
General Grammar” (translated by Fosdick, 1847); SCHELE
DE WERE, “Outlines of Comparative Philology” (1853);
SCHLEICHER, “Compendium der vergleichenden Gram-
matik” (3d ed. 1871); “Sprachvergleichende Untersuch-
ungen” (1848–50); “Zur Morphologie der Sprache”
(1859); STEINTHAL, “ Charakteristik der hauptsächlichen
Typen des Sprachbaues” (1860); WHITNEY, “Language
and the Study of Language” (1867); “Zeitschrift für ver-
gleichende Sprachforschung” (Berlin, 1851, sqq.); LAzARUs
and STEINTHAL, “Zeitschrift für Völkerpschychologie und
Sprachwissenschaft” (1859–69).


1080
Com/pass [perhaps a corruption of the Lat. circum,
“around,” and passus, a “step,” originally “that which
goes round” or “embraces,” because it embraces, so to
speak, the entire horizon with its circle; Fr. compas,
also bowssole)], the name of an instrument used to show the
magnetic meridian or the position of objects with reference
to it. Among its various forms are the mariner's compass, the
azimuth compass, and the variation compass. These sev-
eral applications each demand a special construction, but
the essential parts are invariably the same. These parts
are the needle, which consists of a magnetized bar of steel,
and, fitted to its centre, a cap, which is supported on a
pivot upright and sharp at the point to lessen the friction,
and on which the needle may move with the slightest attrac-
tion. A circular card is attached to the needle of the mari-
ner’s compass, which turns with it, and indicates the degrees,
which with the thirty-two points, divided into half and
quarter points, are all marked on its circumference. The
pivot is fastened to the bottom of a circular box, which con-
tains the needle and card, and has a glass cover to protect
the needle from the air.
and is suspended in a larger box or binnacle by two con-
centric brass circles called gimbals; the outer one is at-
tached by horizontal pivots to the inner circle and to the
outer box, the two sets of axes being at right-angles to each
other. Thus, the inner circle, carrying the compass-box,
needle and card, is sustained in a horizontal position, and
is not subject to the rolling of the ship.
“Boxing the compass” is the enumeration, by name, of
the thirty-two points which are marked upon the compass-
card. These points are—north, north by east, north-north-
east, north-east by north, north-east, north-east by east,
east-north-east, east by north, east, etc. The point “east ’’
Mariner's Compass.
is frequently marked 0 on compasses. This is from the
German Ost, “east.” The steering of ships is much more
difficult since the introduction of iron-plated ships. These
vessels, being highly magnetic, produce much disturbance
of the needle, and it requires all the skill of science to coun-
teract it. It is found best to build the ship with her head
south, but to change it to the north during the process of
plating, as the magnetism acquired during building is modi-
fied by the hammering attendant on the plating. It is, how-
ever, found requisite to often change the first adjustments.
The azimuth compass has its circle divided only into de-
grees; it is used to show the bearing of objects with re-
spect to the magnetic meridian, and is furnished with sights
for the more accurate noting of the angles.
The variation compass shows such changes as occur daily
in the deviation of the magnetic from the true meridian.
The needle is much longer than in the mariner's compass,
in order to make minute variations more apparent.
The origin of the compass is undoubtedly to be ascribed
to the Chinese, who more than a thousand years B. C. made
use of the loadstone to guide their cars or carriages with-
out the aid of the sun or stars. It is certain that they em-
ployed the magnetic needle in the navigation of vessels
soon after the Christian era, if not earlier. There is, in-
deed, every reason to believe that the mariner’s compass
was not an original European invention, but was intro-
duced from China. None of the early European writers
speak of it as invented in Europe; and it is certain that
the compasses used by the Italians in the thirteenth cen-
tury were constructed exactly like those made in China.
about the same period. The compass is mentioned by
Guyot of Provence as early as 1190, and by Raymond
Lully, 1286. --
Compass Plant, the Silphium lancingtºum, a remark-
able plant of the order Compositae, sub-order Tubuliflorae,
tribe Senecionidae. It grows on the great prairies of
the Mississippi Valley, and its radical leaves have, while
growing, the property of pointing quite nearly to the north
This is called the compass-box, .
COMPASS—COMPONENT.
and south. In gardens it does not always show this prop-
erty, but the testimony of numerous observers, scientific and
otherwise, seems to establish the fact as above stated. In
the poem of “Evangeline” Mr. Longfellow speaks of a
“delicate flower” on the prairies whose leaves point north-
Ward, but the plant in question is very large and coarse.
With its congeners it abounds in resin and has medicinal
properties. It is often called “rosin-weed.”
Compasses. See DIviDERs.
Compensa/tion of Er’rors, the neutralizing in philo-
sophical instruments for measurement (e.g. of time, pres-
sure, temperature, distance, etc.) of errors caused by cer-
tain properties of the material agents used, by the intro-
duction of other material agents which, acting alone, would
produce errors of an opposite character. Thus, the expan-
sion of the pendulum-rod by heat may be counteracted by
making its weight of a much more expansive material, as
lead or mercury, and connecting it with the rod by its lower
end. (See PENDULUM, by F. A. P. BARNARD.) .
Com/petime, a township and post-village of Wapello
co., Ia. The village is 85 miles S. of Des Moines. Pop.
of township, 1033.
Competition [Lat. competitio, from com (for com), “to-
gether,” and peto, petitum, to “seek”], the act of endeavor-
ing to gain what another endeavors to gain at the same time;
emulation; strife for superiority. The most important
practical use of the term is in the political economy of com-
merce, where competition is a great motive-power of enter-
prise and production. Competition in trade and manufac-
tures tends to reduce prices, as well as to improve the
quality of goods. Most attempts to supersede competition
by some other motive to exertion have been unsuccessful.
Compiègne, a town of France, department of Oise, on
the Oise and on the railway from Paris to Saint-Quentin,
44 miles N. N. E. of Paris. It has a communal college
and a public library of 28,000 volumes; also manufactures
of muslin, hosiery, and cordage. ‘Here is a palace built by
Louis XV., a park, and a forest of 30,000 acres. P. 12,150.
Com/plement [Lat. complementum, from com (for con),
intensive, and pleo, to “fill”], a full quantity or number;
the number required or limited; that which completes or
fills up. In mathematics, the complement of any magni-
tude is a second magnitude, which, added to the first, gives
a sum equal to a constant third magnitude, which is purely
arbitrary and conventional. Thus, the complement of an
angle is its defect from a right angle. The arithmetical
complement of a number is its defect from the next higher
power of ten. Thus, the arithmetical complement of 64 is 36.
CoMPLEMENT, in music, the quantity required to be added
to any interval to complete the octave; for example, a fourth
is the complement of a fifth.
Complemen/tary Col’ors. Each of the three primary
colors is complementary to that secondary color which is
produced by blending the other two ; thus, red is the com-
plementary color of green. Blue and orange are comple-
mentary colors, and each presents the most complete con-
trast to the other. The secondary colors have also each
their complementary colors. Colors complementary to each
other are always harmonious, and hence the subject is one
of practical importance in personal and artistic decoration.
The following is a table of some of the principal colors
which are complementary to each other:
Red is complementary to Green.
IBlue § { Orange.
Yellow {{ Purple.
Red-purple “ Yellow-green.
Blue-purple “ Yellow-orange.
Dark-purple * Citron-yellow.
Blue-green “ Red-orange.
&
Olive {{ Dark-orange.
Russet {{ Dark-green.
Complexion. See SKIN.
Com/plin, or-Com/pline [from the Lat. compleo, to
“complete,” because it finishes the day], the last of the
canonical hours in the Greek and Roman Catholic churches,
following vespers; also the prayer for that hour, anciently
ordained to be said about nine o’clock in the evening.
Compluten'sian Bi'ble, a polyglot in six volumes,
folio, so called from Complutum, the Latin name of Alcalá
in Spain, where it was printed. It was projected by Car-
dinal Ximenes, who spent about $120,000 upon it. It was
commenced in 1502, printed between 1514 and 1517, au-
thorized by Pope Leo X, in 1520, but apparently not pub-
lished before 1522.
Compo'nent [from the Lat. com (for con), “together,”
and pono, to “put;” literally, “ composing ” a part; hence,
as a noun, “that which composes” a constituent part],
something which unites with another to form a compound.
In mathematics, any one of the factors of a composite
number or of a literal product.

COMPOSER—COMPOUND ANIMALS.
1081
Compo'ser [for etymology, see preceding article]. This
term is usually applied to a person who composes óperas,
oratorios, airs, or other pieces of music ; one who invents
new combinations of musical notes.
Composſitae [from the Lat, com (for con), “together,”
and pono, positum, to “put,” referring to its compound
flowers], the largest natural order of exogenous plants, dis-
tinguished by heads of flowers which are composed of florets
crowded together upon a common receptacle, and surrounded
by an involucre, so as to resemble single flowers. Another
marked peculiarity is that the five (rarely four) anthers of
each floret unite into a tube. The order contains both herb-
aceous plants and shrubs, those which are natives of temper-
ate climates being generally herbaceous, those found in warm
regions not unfrequently shrubby, and several, especially
in St. Helena, are arborescent. They have alternate, oppo-
site, or verticillate leaves, without stipules. The florets are
bisexual, unisexual, or neutral, those of the circumference
(or ray) often differing in this respect, as well as in form
and color, from those of the centre (or disk) of the same head.
Chaff-like bracts are often interspersed among the florets.
The calyx is superior, adhering to the ovary, and after-
wards to the fruit, its limb being either wanting or divided
into a pappus of bristles, hairs, or feathers. The corolla is
of one petal, superior, strap-shaped, tubular, or more rarely
labiate, different forms often appearing in ray and disk of
the same head. It is rarely three or four-toothed, but often
five-toothed. The ovary is one-celled, with a single ovule,
the style simple, with a cleft apex; the fruit an achenium;
the seed destitute of albumen. The order contains more
than 1000 genera and about 10,000 known species. In the
Linnaean system they form with a few others the class
Syngenesia. -
The order is divided into three sub-orders—the Tubuli-
florae, the Labiatiflorae, and the Liguliflorae. The artichoke,
thistle, daisy, chamomile, sunflower, dandelion, chicory,
and lettuce are well-known plants of this order.
From the seeds of some a fixed drying oil is expressed,
the oil of the sun-flower, the Madia, and the Guizotia being
among the most important. Many are valuable for their
medicinal properties, as chamomile, armica, wormwood, tus-
silago, etc. Not a few are characterized by bitterness and
by stimulating properties; also anodyne, narcotic, diapho-
retic, and diuretic properties. Some, as arnica, are poison-
ous. A large number are ornaments of our flower-gardens,
especially in the latter part of summer and in autumn.
Amongst these are the xeranthemum, dahlia, aster, and
chrysanthemum. This order is called Asteraceae by Lind-
ley and others.
Compos'ite Or’der, in architecture, a style of build-
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-- Composite Capital Base,
ing characterized by the employment of pillars designed to
combine the lightness and grace of the Ionic order with the
ornate finish of the Corinthian. In many cases the Ionic
volute was blended with the Corinthian acanthus leaf, as in
the example given. This union is regarded by most critics
as an incongruous one, and the Composite style is consid-
ered effeminate. It was employed chiefly in the Roman
empire in its period of decadence. The accompanying cut
represents the Composite style as seen in the temple of
Vesta at Tivoli. It is comparatively free from the charac-
teristic faults of the order. Many writers consider the
Composite order a mere variety of the Corinthian.
REVISED BY C. Cook.
Composiº’tion [Lat. compositioj, in general, is the
act of composing, or that which is composed; in literature,
the act of inventing or combining ideas and expressing
them in words; also a literary production, book, or essay.
In music, it is the act or art of disposing and arranging
musical sounds into airs, tunes, songs, etc. The term is
also applied to an air or other piece of music. In print-
ing, it is the setting of types, or putting them together to
form words and sentences.
CoM Position, in the fine arts, is that combination of the
several parts by which a subject is agreeably presented,
each part being subordinate to the whole; such an arrange-
ment of the objects represented that they shall all tend to
illustrate the central thought or idea.
COMPOSITION, in bankruptcy, a percentage which creditors
agree to receive from a bankrupt instead of full payment.
(See INSoLvKNCY, by PROF. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.)
Composition of Forces or Motions, in mechanics,
signifies combining or uniting several forces or motions,
and determining the result of the whole. If a body is
impelled by two forces which act in the same direction, the
resulting force, or resultant, is equal to the sum of both ;
that is to say, the effect produced is the same as would be
produced by a single force acting in the same direction, and
equal to their sum. If the two forces act in opposite direc-
tions, the resultant is equal to their difference, and the body
will move in the direction of the greater. If the lines of
direction of the two forces make an angle with each other,
the resultant will be a mean force in an intermediate direc-
tion. Thus, if the two forces be represented in intensity
and direction by the two sides of a parallelogram, then the
resultant is represented in intensity and direction by the
diagonal of the parallelogram which passes through the
angle formed by those two sides.
Com/post [from the Lat. com (for con), “together,” and
pono, positum, to “place”], a mixture of substances adapted
to the fertilization of the soil, which substances, being al-
lowed to undergo chemical changes for a considerable time
in heaps, become more valuable then they could have been
if applied separately. Composts are made of farmyard
manures and earth, road-scrapings, peat, leaves, and clear-
ings of ditches. By allowing these to lie for six months in
heaps of from three to four feet in depth, food is prepared
for plants. The use of guano and other light manures will
no doubt supersede in a great measure the necessity of this
laborious process. The wonderful effects that have resulted
from the application of nitrates, ammonia salts, and phos-
phoric acid should impress farmers with the truth that the
valuable elements bear a small proportion in weight to the
whole mass of farmyard dung or composts, and that the
mixing of manures in heaps with earth often does not pay
for the labor expended. Still, in some circumstances, the
chemical or commercial fertilizers are best appliéd to the soil
after composting them with earth or with coarse manures.
The action of frost upon composts is highly beneficial, es-
pecially when peaty earth is used.
Compostella. See SANTIAGo DE COMPOSTELLA.
Com/pound [from the Lat.com (for con), “together,” and
pomo, “to put"), a substance formed by the union of two
or more substances joined by chemical affinity. The ad-
jective “compound,” which means composite or composed
of several parts or elements, is applied in botany and other
sciences to various objects which are not simple. A com-
pound leaf is formed of several leaflets articulated to a
common petiole, and is either pinnate or digitate. Com-
pound motion is that which is effected by two or more con-
spiring forces or powers.
Com/pound An’imals are organisms of low grade,
in which parts regarded by some theorists as individuals,
and which are certainly distinct in many vital functions,
are merged into one compound system. The living mass in
all truly compound animals appears to originate from a single
ovum, and the subsequent development of the individual
parts by gemmation resembles in some respects the growth
of vegetables. Examples of compound animal life are
found in coral-polyps, cestoid worms, certain molluscoids,





























1082
COMPOUND FEACTURE–COMTE.
etc. There is, however, much difference of opinion as to
what constitutes animal individuality. -
Compound Fracture, in surgery, is a fracture of any
bone when the skin and tissues covering the bone are so
lacerated that air may enter the fracture. The treatment
of compound fracture requires the highest surgical skill.
(See FRACTURE.) * - -
Compound Interest. See INTEREST.
Compound/ing of Fel’ony, in England and the U.S.,
is the act of taking, or agreeing to take, a reward for for-
bearing to prosecute a felony, and is punishable with fine
and imprisonment. A note or other promise taken on such
a consideration is illegal in its inception, and cannot be
enforced in a court of justice by the promisee. (See FEL-
oNY, by PROF. T. W. DwighT, LL.D.)
Compound Microscope. See MICROSCOPE, by F.
A. P. BARNARD.
Compressed Air, as a means of the transmission of
motive-power, has been thoroughly tested in the railway
tunnels of Mont Cenis and the Hoosac Mountain in Mas-
sachusetts. Compressed air, as an agent for transmitting
power, is advantageously used only in those cases where
belts or shafting could not be employed on account of the
great distance between the motive-power and its point of
application. At the Hoosac Tunnel the air was compressed
partly by water-power (as at Mont Cenis), and partly by
steam, which works by means of air-pumps. The com-
pressed air is transmitted through tubes, and gives motion
to drills by means of pistons working in cylinders some-
what as in steam-engines. The exhaust air from the
engines aids in ventilation and in keeping down the tem-
perature—important considerations in underground opera-
tions; and perfect ventilation may at any time be secured
by turning on a blast directly from the reservoirs.
Compressed Air-Bath, an apparatus in which pa-
tients with pulmonary diseases are placed and submitted to
increased atmospheric pressure. The great expectations
formerly entertained from this treatment have not been
realized, but it appears to be a useful adjunct, especially
in bronchitis and asthma. -
Compressibil’ity, the property of being compressible
into smaller space; susceptibility of being reduced by
pressure to smaller dimensions. All bodies, in consequence
of their porosity, are compressible, though liquids resist
compression with immense force. Water, if subjected to a
pressure of 15,000 pounds on a square inch, loses one-
twentieth of its volume. Solids are compressible in differ-
ent degrees. Gases are more compressible than either
liquids or solids. A number of cubic inches of air can be
compressed into the space of one cubic inch. Carbonic acid
and several other gases can be condensed by pressure into a
liquid and even a solid state.
Com/promise [from the Lat. com (for con), “together,”
and promitto, promissum, to “promise ’’), something prom-
ised or agreed upon mutually; an amicable agreement be-
tween two parties or persons who have been involved in a
controversy that they will settle the difference by mutual
concessions, or, as used in the civil law, a mutual promise
of such parties to refer their differences to the decision of
arbitrators. -
Compromise, a township of Champaign co., III. P. 707.
Comp’ton, a county in Canada, in the S. part of Que-
bec, borders on Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. The
soil is fertile. It is drained by the Chaudière and St.
Francis rivers. Capital, Cookshire. Pop. 13,665.
Compton (HENRY), an English prelate who had a large
share in the revolution of 1688. He was born in 1632, held
first a commission in the army, then entered the Church,
became bishop of Oxford in 1674, was transferred to the see
of London in 1675, was the instructor of the daughters of
the duke of York (afterwards James II.), who became con-
sequently attached to the Protestant faith. He incurred
thereupon the bitter hostility of James, who, through the
infamous Judge Jeffries, deposed him from his episcopal
functions. This was one of the grievances done to the
Protestant religion alleged by William in his proclamation
on landing. James, in alarm, re-established Compton,
who, however, openly joined himself to the party of the in-
vader, and with his own hands crowned him king. Died
July 7, 1713.
Compton Centre, a post-village of Compton county
and township, Quebec (Canada), 1 mile from Compton
Station on the Grand Trunk Railway, 182 miles from Port-
land, Me.
Comptrol’ler [for pronunciation and etymology see
CoNTRoſſºR), a name applied in the U. S. government to
three highly important officers in the treasury department.
The FIRST COMPTRo11,ER countersigns warrants drawn
at Montpellier.
by the secretary of the treasury upon the treasurer, exam-
ines the accounts of the first and fifth auditors, receives
appeals from the sixth auditor, superintends unsettled ac-
counts of the treasury, navy, war, and interior depart-
ments, prosecutes all debts and delinquencies in behalf of
the U. S., etc.
The SECOND COMPTROLLER examines the accounts of the
second, third, and fourth auditors, countersigns warrants
for the pension and Indian bureaus, and performs duties
in the navy and war departments analogous to those of the
first comptroller in the treasury department.
When a claim has been granted by the proper comptrol-
ler there is no revision or appeal allowed. When a claim
has been refused by the comptroller, appeal may be made
to the court of claims. (See CLAIMs, CourT OF.)
The CoMPTRoDLER of THE CURRENCY issues printed notes
to the national banks, exchanges new currency for that
which is worn out, superintends the national banks, reports
their condition annually to Congress, and has numerous
other important duties. He gives heavy bonds when enter-
ing upon his duties, and is allowed no share in the profits
of any banking association.
Com/stock, a township and post-village of Kalamazoo
co., Mich. The village is on the Michigan Central R. R.,
4 miles E. of Kalamazoo. Pop. 2018.
Comstock (ANDREW), M. D., an elocutionist, born in
New York in 1795, published a “System of Phonetics”
and “Elocution ” (16th ed. 1844), and other works.
Comstock (CyFUs B.), an American officer, born in
1831 in Massachusetts, graduated at West Point in 1855;
major of engineers Dec. 28, 1865. He served in construct-
ing fortifications 1855–59; as assistant professor at the Mili-
tary Academy 1859–61; in the civil war in erecting de-
fences of Washington 1861–62; in Virginia Peninsula 1862,
engaged in various engineer operations; in Maryland cam-
paign 1862, engaged at South Mountain and Antietam;
as chief engineer Army of the Potomac 1862–63; in Rap-
pahannock campaign 1862–63, engaged at Fredericksburg
and Chancellorsville; in the department of the Tennessee
1863, engaged at Vicksburg (brevet major), and as chief
engineer Army of the Tennessee; assistant inspector-gen-
eral of the military division of the Mississippi 1863–64; as
senior A. D. C. to Lieut.-Gen. Grant, rank of lieutenant-
colonel, 1864–66; in Richmond campaign 1864–65, engaged
at Wilderness (brevet lieutenant-colonel), Spottsylvania,
Cold Harbor, assaults of Petersburg and mine, and Fort
Harrison; as chief engineer of the expedition to Cape Fear
River, N. C., 1865, engaged at Fort Fisher (brevet colonel
U. S. A. and brevet colonel and brigadier-general U. S. V.);
as senior engineer in Mobile campaign 1865, engaged at
the siege of Spanish Fort, storming of Blakely, and cap-
ture of Mobile (brevet brigadier-general U. S. A. and brevet
major-general U. S. V.); and A. D. C. to the general-in-
chief, rank of colonel, 1866–70. Since 1870 he has been .
superintendent of the geodetic survey of the northern lakes.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Comstock (GRover S.), born at Ulysses, N. Y., Mar.
.24, 1809, graduated at Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., in
1827, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1830.
Powerfully moved by the preaching of Rev. C. G. Finney,
he studied theology at the institution at Hamilton, N. Y.,
and became a Baptist minister. He sailed in 1834 as a
missionary to British Burmah, and finally went to Aracan.
In 1837 he founded a church at Kyouk Phyou. Here he
remained, in spite of the deadly climate, which carried off
his wife and children, until his death, which occurred April
25, 1844. He is especially honored by his denomination as
one of its most laborious and devoted missionaries.
Comstock (John LEE), an American author, born at
East Lyme, Conn., in 1789, served as an army-surgeon in
the war of 1812–15. His work on “Natural Philosophy’”
is said to have reached a sale of about 1,000,000 copies.
Besides numerous works for schools on natural and physical
science, he published a “History of the Greek Revolution”
(1829), etc. Died at Hartford, Conn., Nov. 21, 1858.
Comte (IsIDORE AUGUSTE MARIE FRANÇois XAVIER), a
French philosopher and mathematician, founder of the
system of PositivisM (which see), was born Jan. 19, 1798,
He entered in 1814 the Polytechnic
School in Paris. He became in 1820 a disciple of Saint-
Simon, and contributed articles to his journal “L’Organi-
sateur,” in which the germ of his ideas already appeared.
He was entrusted by his master with the preparation of
a Saint-Simonian “Politique Positive,” which proved
unsatisfactory to the old philosopher. In 1832 he was
appointed a tutor of mathematics and an examiner of can-
didates at the Polytechnic School; which posts he resigned
in 1852. He lived obscurely, with straitened means, and
died Sept. 5, 1857. His writings were “Cours de Philo-

COMUS—CONCERTINA.
1083
sophie Positive” (6 vols., Paris, 1830–42), and “Système
de Politique Positive, ou Trinité de Sociologie, Instituant
la Religion de l’Humanité" (1851–54); besides “Calen-
drier Positiviste” (4th ed. 1852), and “Catechisme Posi-
tiviste” (1853). A clearer exposition of his doctrines is
contained in Littré’s “Comte et la Philosophie Positive”
(1863). His “Cours,” etc. was published in English in
a condensed form by H. Martineau (2 vols., 1853). (See
Robinet, “ Notice sur l'oeuvre et sur la vie de Comte,”
and LEwBs, “Exposition of the Principles of the Positive
Philosophy.”)
Co/mus [Gr. Kópos] was originally the Greek name of
those songs of carousal which young people would sing
when passing the houses of their friends or lovers. Thence
it became the name of the god of such revel; and Philo-
stratus gives a description of a picture in which Comus was
represented as a youth, drunken, sleeping, leaning forward
on a down-turned torch. Milton makes him a foul Sor-
cerer, the son of Bacchus and Circe.
Con, a Latin particle signifying “together,” and some-
times “with.” It is commonly changed to col before l, com
before b, m, and p, cor before r, and to co before a vowel or
h. Hence we have collect, combine, compress, and correct,
instead of conlect, combine, etc.; coagulate and cohabit, in-
stead of comagulate and combabit. Sometimes con is inten-
sive, as concutio, concussum, to “shake violently.”
Coſmant (HANNAH O’BRIEN CHAPLIN), wife of T. J.
Conant, was born in Danvers, Mass., in 1812. She was
distinguished for her great attainments and fine literary
taste. She was the author and translator of numerous
works, among which is a “History of the English Bible”
(1859). Died in Brooklyn, N. Y., Feb. 18, 1865.
Conant (ROGER), a colonist, born in Devonshire, Eng-
land, in 1593, settled in Plymouth Colony in 1623, founded
Salem, Mass., in 1626, and became a justice of the “quar-
terly court.” Died Nov. 19, 1679.
Conant (THOMAs J.), D. D., born at Brandon, Vt., Dec.
13, 1802, graduated at Middlebury College in 1823, pro-
fessor of languages in Waterville College (now Colby Uni-
versity) till 1833, and appointed in 1835 professor of bib-
lical literature in the Theological Seminary at Hamilton,
N. Y. From 1850 to 1859 he occupied a similar position
in the Theological Seminary at Rochester, N. Y. In 1839
he published a translation of Gesenius's “Hebrew Gram-
mar;” in 1857, a new version, with notes, of “the Book
of Job’—a work which has attained a European reputa-
tion. He has since published similar versions of “Genesis”
and the “Psalms ” in the interest of the American Bible
Union. By common consent he is one of the most accom-
plished Hebraists in America.
Conſcave [from the Lat., con, intensive, and cavus,
“hollow ’). A curve is said to be concave at a given point
when the lines joining the latter to adjacent points on the
curve fall between the spectator and the curve, and convex:
when the curve is interposed between the spectator and
the small chords in question. A surface is said to be con-
cave or convex at any point when the plane sections
through that point and the spectator's eye are all concave
or convex; when some of these sections present their con-
cavity and others their convexity to the spectator, the sur-
face is sometimes said to be concavo-convex. This is the
case with the hyperboloid of one sheet. When at a point
on a curve the centre of curvature and the point of view
fall on the same side of the tangent, we have concavity;
when on opposite sides, convexity. (See LENS.)
Conceal/ment, in law, the suppression of the truth
to the injury of another. A distinction is taken between
such facts as are extrinsic to the contract, such as the ex-
istence of war or peace, and those which are intrinsic.
Concealment of extrinsic facts is not, in general, fraudu-
lent. (See FRAUD, by PROF. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.)
Concepcion’, a town of the Argentine Republic,
capital of the province of Entre Rios, on the China, is
the see of a Catholic bishop and a ſiational college. Pop.
6050.
Concepcion, a province of Chili, between the ocean
and the Argentine Republic, and the provinces of Maule on
the N. and Aurico on the S. Area, 5453 Square miles. It is
traversed by the Biobio. The climate is mild and favor-
able for tillage and pasturage. The fruit of the Araucaria
imbricata (piñon) is abundantly produced. Coal, wheat,
and excellent wine abound. Pop. 148,340.
Concepcion, La., a seaport of Chili, capital of the
above province, is situated on the river Biobio, 7 miles from
its mouth; lat. 36° 49' S., lon. 73°5' W. It has broad
streets and many handsome houses. It is a bishop’s seat.
Its port, Talcahuano, is one of the best in Chili. It has an
extensive foreign trade, and exports large quantities of
hides and tallow. Concepcion was ruined by earthquakes
in 1730, in 1752, and in 1825. Pop. 13,958.
Concept’ [Lat. conceptus, from concipio, to “conceive;”
Ger. Begriff], in metaphysics, a thing which may be con-
ceived; a collection of attributes united by a sign, and rep-
resenting an object of possible intuition. Kant and his
followers use the word concept to indicate notions which
are general without being absolute. They divide these into
three different classes: “Pure concepts,” which derive
nothing from experience; “empirical concepts,” wholly de-
rived from experience; “mixed concepts,” ascribable partly
to experience and partly to the pure understanding. . A
concept is “clear” when its object can be distinguished
from any other; “distinct,” when its component parts can
be defined. *
Concep’tion [Lat. conceptio, from concipio, conceptum,
to “conceive”] is a psychological term denoting the last,
finishing process by which consciousness takes possession
of an object. It is distinguishable from sensation as active
from passive. As long as an object is allowed to impress
the mind through the senses, immediately and directly,
without any reaction or interference from the side of the
mind, consciousness is in a merely passive state; and this
passive state of consciousness is called sensation. In order
to master an object, the mind cannot stop, however, at the
mere sensation; it must make the sensation itself the sub-
ject of a scrutiny and discrimination; and this active part
of the whole psychological process by which the mind tâkes
possession of an object is called perception and conception;
the former referring to the sensation as representing the
details of the object, the latter as involving the whole of
it. As we go over an object with the finger-tips to ascer-
tain the exact position and relations of its outlines, thus
perception runs over all the outlines given in the sensa-
tion, partly verifying their truth with respect to the object,
partly lifting them into perfect clearness of consciousness.
Conception does not begin its work, until perception is
through with its task. The mode and the meaning of an ob-
ject as a whole is the task of conception, and thus the con-
ception of an object corresponds very nearly to that which
we generally call a view of the object; with this difference
only, that a view always is understood to be more or less
influenced by the individuality of the subject, while the con-
ception always is supposed to be, strictly and scientifically,
the subjective equivalent for the idea of the object. The
difference between conception and imagination is, simply,
that conception is a process and imagination a faculty; in
the process of conceiving the faculty of imagination is
very largely used.
Conception, in physiology. See EMBRYOLOGY, by
PROF. J. C. DALTON, M. D. -
Conception, Immaculate, Doctrine of the.
See IMMACULATE ConcLPTION OF THE BLESSED WIRGIN
MARY, by PROF. R. D. HITCHCOCK, D.D., LL.D.
Conception, Orders of the Immaculate. Among
the orders of the Roman Catholic Church there have been
the following: (1) The Knights of the Immaculate Concep-
tion of the Blessed Virgin, an order founded in 1618, at
Vienna, with the intention of bearing arms against heretics
and infidels. The institution was confirmed by Pope Urban
VIII. in 1623, but the brotherhood did not flourish, and
soon was extinct. (2) The Nuns of the Immaculate Con-
ception of Mary, founded at Toledo, in Spain, in 1484, by
Béatrix de Sylva, and confirmed by Pope Innocent VIII.
in 1489. They afterwards joined the Clarisses, and took
their rule, which rule was changed by Pope Julius II. in
1511. They are often called Conceptionists. (3) The Con-
gregation of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed
Virgin is the appellation of the lay sisters attached to the
nuns of Notre Dame, who were established by the blessed
Peter Fourier (1565–1640). {
Concep’tualism, a doctrine of the Schoolmen inter-
mediate between realism and nominalism. The Realist as-
serts that genera and species have an independent exist-
ence—that there exist certain “ideas,” the pattern after
which single objects are fashioned. The Nominalist as-
serts that nothing exists but things and names of things—
that universals are mere names. The Conceptualists as-
sign to universals an existence which may be called psycho-
logical—that is, independent of single objects, but depend-
ent on the mind of the thinking subject in which they exist
as conceptions. Abelard is considered the founder of this
doctrine, which was held by Reid, and probably by Aristotle.
Concerti'na [from concert], a modern musical instru-
ment invented by Prof. Wheatstone of London. Its sounds
are produced by free vibrating metallie springs, as in the
accordion. The scale of the concertina is very complete
and extensive, beginning with the lowest note of the violin,
G, and ascending chromatically for three and a half octaves
1084
CONCERTO—CONCHOLOGY.
to C. Every sound in the scale is double, and can be pro-
duced either by opening or closing the bellows.
Concer/to, an Italian term applied to a piece of music
composed for a particular instrument, as a piano or violin,
which bears the chief part in it and is usually accompanied
by the full band. It is a composition for a solo instrument
with orchestral accompaniments, adapted to give the per-
former an opportunity to display the highest artistic skill
as well as intellectual cultivation.
Concetti, kon-chet/tee [an Italian term, rendered by
English writers on rhetoric “conceits”], ingenious thoughts
or turns of expression, points, jewa: d'esprit, etc. in serious
composition. In the sixteenth century the taste for this
species of brilliancy, often false and always dangerous,
spread rapidly in the poetical composition of European
nations, especially in Spain and Italy, where the name of
concetti was applied rather in a good than a bad sense, the
critical taste being much perverted. Tasso is not free from
concetti. For a century after his time they became offen-
sively prominent in Italian poetry. Marino and Filicaia
are marked examples. In France concetti were equally
prevalent in the seventeenth century, and were peculiarly
in vogue with the fair critics of the Hôtel Rambouillet, so
well ridiculed in Molière’s “Précieuses Ridicules.” Donne
and Cowley are instances of a style full of concetti.
Conſcha, de la (Don Josí), MARQUIS DE LA HABANA,
a Spanish general, born in Buenos Ayres in 1800. He was
captain-general of Cuba from 1849 to 1852, and was again
appointed to that office in 1854. In 1862 he was sent as
minister to France. In 1863 he was Spanish war minister,
and in 1864 was appointed president of the senate.
Concha, de la (Don MANUEL GUTIñRREz), MARQUIs
DEL DUERO, brother of the preceding, a Spanish general,
born April 25, 1808, in Córdova del Tucuman, in the Ar-
gentine Republic. He distinguished himself in the war
against the Carlists, was, 1839, appointed brigadier-general
and, 1840, field-marshal, and overthrew in 1843 the regency
of Espartero. After the outbreak of the revolution in Sept.,
1868, he was appointed prime minister by Queen Isabella,
but soon resigned when his advice was not followed. Rilled
at the battle of Muró, June 28, 1874.
Conchifera [from the Lat. concha, a “shell,” and fero,
to “bear”], in Lamarck’s arrangement of mollusks a class
containing those which have bivalve shells. The term is
now used to indicate the class usually called Acephala, but
it does not include the Brachiopoda.
Conſcho, a county in W. Central Texas, is bounded on
the N. E. by the Colorado River, and is drained by the river
Concho. Area, 1025 square miles. Wood and water are
scarce. The surface is generally rough and rocky, but af-
fords good sheep-pasturage. According to the census of
1870, the pop. was 0.
Com/choid [from the Gr. köyxm, a “shell,” and eiàos,
“appearance”] of Nicomedes, a curve of the fourth
degree, invented by Nicomedes as a means of trisecting an
angle, of constructing two geometrical means between two
given straight lines, and of finding a cube double a given
cube. The curve may easily be described, and is occasion-
ally used in architecture as a bounding line of the meridian
section of columns. It is generated as follows: Let A B be
D
F. E.
_*- ,’ E.
A. “s, A. _2^ B
C `, C 2C 22°C
*~ - z .*
* z
*F 22’
~22^
P
Conchoid.
a straight line, and P any point not upon it; then if lines
PE, PE', etc. be drawn, cutting A B, which is called the
directrix, in points C C', and let C E, C F be laid off from
the points of intersection, each equal to a given line ; the
curves traced by the successive points E and F form the
conchoid. That branch which is most remote from P (the
“ pole” of the conchoid) is called the first or superior con-
, choid, and the other branch, traced by points FF', is the
second or inferior conchoid. Both branches may extend to
infinity, and they have the line A B for a common asymp-
tote. The constant distance C E of the points E and F from
the points of intersection is called the modulus of the curve.
If we take C in the line E P as origin, and the lines A B
and EP, at right angles to one another, as co-ordinate axes,
(b+y)2(a?–42)
2
the equation to the conchoid is ac” = , where
a is the modulus of the curve, and b = the perpendicular dis-
tance of P from A B. If a = b, P becomes a cusp point of
the first species.
Conchoi/dal, a term used in mineralogy to describe a
variety of fracture. When the fractured surface of a min-
eral exhibits curved concavities similar to the valve of a
bivalve mollusk, it is said to have a conchoidal fracture, as
flint, anthracite coal, etc.
Conchol’ogy [from the Gr. köyxm, a “shell,” and A6)0s,
a “ discourse,” a “treatise ’’), a treatise on shells; also the
science which treats of shells and their inhabitants. The
soft parts of the Mollusca were almost unknown to the
earlier naturalists, hence their external coverings or shells
were separately classified, without reference to the con-
tained animals. The more scientific modern method re-
quires that the species shall be thoroughly investigated,
as well as regards their soft as their hard parts. MALA-
coloGY (from the Gr. waxakós, “soft,” and Aáyos, a “ dis--
course,” a “treatise,” i.e., a “treatise on soft animals”) is a
more proper designation for this science, but the word Con-
chology has become so well known in this connection that
it has been found difficult to supersede it. Thus, the latter
name is still commonly used, but with the enlarged signifi-
cation that it is the science or classification and description
of molluscous animals, including their shells.
MoLLUSCA (from the Lat. mol/lis, “soft”) is the second
of the five great divisions or structural types of the animal
kingdom. An external shell, in nearly all cases, protects
the animal, and may be regarded as an exo-skeleton, re-
placing the bones of the Vertebrata. Occasionally, as in the
cephalopods or cuttle-fish, the shell is internal, and in some
of the gasteropods it is rudimentary or entirely wanting;
still, the absence of the internal skeleton, and consequently
of the bony envelopes protecting the great nerve-chord,
will, even in such cases, sufficiently distinguish the Mol-
lusca from the Vertebrata. Shells are composed princi-
pally of carbonate of lime, with but little other mineral or
animal material, and are therefore much harder than the
bones of the vertebrates, which contain a large proportion
of gelatin. The Mollusca also have colorless blood, while
that of the vertebrates is red.*
The Mollusca do not attain the size and strength or ex-
hibit the complex structure of the vertebrates, but they
cannot justly be said to be of inferior or lower type; their
plan of conformation is more simple, but it is just as per-
fectly adapted to the purposes of their existence. The
greater number of individuals of the more simple organisms
seem to compensate, in the economy of nature, the Supe-
rior individual force of the more complex ones.
Geology reveals to us that in the early ages of the world
shells were among its first inhabitants, flourishing in its
waters almost to the exclusion of other types of animal life,
and leaving their imperishable coverings on the geological
shores, to become in our day the great record of the suc-
cession of strata by the aid of which the geologist reads so
unerringly the history of the past. . . - . .
Classification.—The Mollusca are divided into three great
branches or types of structure called classes, corresponding
to the classes Mammalia, Aves, Pisces, etc., of the sub-
kingdom Vertebrata, and it will be convenient for our pur-
poses to diagnose these three classes somewhat hastily, be-
- fore describing in de-
tail their structural
peculiarities and hab-
its. The first two are
emcephalous—that is,
the animal is fur-
nished with a distinct
head, and the shell,
when developed (as it
usually is), is univalve
or in one piece. They
are named
1. CEPHALOPODA
[from the Gr. ketbaxi,
the “head,” and troºs,
tro86s, a “foot”]. In
§: §
CEPHALOPOD:
Octopus tuberculatus (about one-tenth its
natural size).
. . §)}} this class the head is
é fº % * - encircled by eight or
s - Ö % - *
% % more feet, or more
ić É 3
=3%3 properly arms, used
ŠE3%
&º
Nº.
º
# = in swimming and in
šºis-, seizing food.
º 2. GASTEROPODA
[from the Gr. Yaarip,
the “belly,” and mows,
Troöös, a “foot”]. The
-S-
f
2">2
GASTEROPOD :
Płeliac desertorvm.
*A few molluscous animals possess red blood, but, viewed with
a microscope, the entire fluid is found to be colored, whereas in
vertebrate blood the color is due to red corpuscles floating in a
colorless fluid.














CONCHOLOGY.. ?
1085
animal is destitute of separate limbs, but glides, creeps,
ºim, by the muscular action of the under part of its
Ody.
In an aberrant form of this class, formerly considered a
distinct class, locomotion is effected solely by means of a
pair of wing-like fins attached antero-dorsally, and used in
swimming. These
are the PTEROPODA
(from the Gr. Trepév,
a “wing,” and trows,
tro86s, a “foot”).
The third class is
acephalows, or with-
out a head, and the
shell (which always
envelops the ani-
mal) is bivalve, or
composed of two
distinct, generally
similar, pieces, unit-
ed at the back by a
horny hinge called
the cartilage. The distinctive nomenclature used for the
encephalous classes is inapplicable here, because the foot is
more or less specialized or entirely wanting in the various
bivalve families—some of them being sedentary or attached,
while others are locomotive. The best designation for the
class is *
3. ACEPHALA [from the Gr. a, privative, and keba Aſí, the
“head”]. Most con-
chologists use the term
Conchiſ’ era (shell-
bearers) for this class,
but it is an objection-
able word, inasmuch
as it is equally ap- ſº
plicable to the other tº
two classes. Others
call the bivalve mol-
lusks lamellibranchi-
ates (plate-gilled), de-
scribing their respi-
ratory organs, but
this term is also ob-
jectionable, because
(as we shall show hereafter) the differences in the organs
of respiration enable us to divide the gasteropods satisfac-
torily into orders, and a designation indicating inferior
value in one class cannot properly be used to express a
high value in another.
Until quite recently systematists have included among
the mollusks cer– -
tain aberrant forms,
such as the brachio-
pods or lamp-shells,
the tunicates, and 2.
the bryozoans. Of f*
these the first only Hº
possess a shell, but \\
the external bivalve
test differs in its re-
lation to the con-
tained animal from
the acephalous mol-
Iusks in this respect,
that its valves are
applied dorsally and
ventrally instead of bilaterally. Internally, we find in one
valve a shelly process acting as a support to the animal,
and (in this respect) simulating the vertebrate skeleton.
The tunicates are shelless animals, enclosed in elastic gela-
tinous integuments, having two openings only—an orifice
for the mouth, and one for the excretions. The organ of
respiration is a ribbon-like band crossing the interior cav-
ity. Finally, the Bryozoa, microscopic polypous animals,
attach themselves in generally symmetrical patterns upon
the surface of rocks or shells, the aggregation of their mi-
nute cells resembling corals. All these aberrant forms have
been excluded from the true Mollusca by some of the best
systematists of the age; but by way of compromise they
are generally assigned a position immediately following
them as a sub-branch, named MoLLUSCOIDEA (which see).
The brachiopods are generally represented in conchological
cabinets and described in conchological works. Scientific
opinion as to their place is by no means uniform.
While dealing with exclusions it may be well to mention
the cirripeds or barnacles, and the echinoderms or sea-
urchins. These were included in the Mollusca by Linnaeus,
whose “Systema Naturae " divided all invertebrates into
two classes—the VERMEs (mollusks, etc.) and the INSECTA.
Lamarck and Cuvier also included, the barnacles in the
PTEROPOD :
Limacina antarctica (enlarged).
Brºop:
Spirifera Walcotti (fossil).
Mollusca, and even so recently as 1855, Professor T. Rymer
Jones so arranged them.* -
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY of THE MOLLUSCA. I. REPRO-
DUCTION.—The Cephalopoda and nearly all of the marine Gas-
teropoda are dioecious—that is, the sexes are distinct; but the
pulmoniferous terrestrial and fluviatile snails, the Pteropoda,
the Nudibranchiata or naked marine mollusks, and a few
other marine genera, such as Bulla and its allies, are monoe-
cious, or with sexes united in the same individual. The
Acephala are partly dioecious and partly monoecious.
In the Cephalopoda or cuttle-fishes one of the arms of the
male becomes a specialized reproductive organ, and in
copulation becomes detached from its owner. It has been
found living within the sac of the female. In consequence
of this very curious method the male organ has been con-
sidered by some naturalists to be a parasitic worm, while
others have supposed it to represent the normal form of the
male animal.
The sexes in the cephalopods are distinguished by ex-
ternal differences of form, as well as by the pen or internal
shell. The eggs in their passage from the ovary are in-
vested with a gelatinous fluid which greatly enlarges after
deposition. The egg-mass is always clustered; in the ge-
mus Sepia, the typical cuttle-fish, it assumes the appear-
ance of a bunch of black grapes; in Octopus it is irregular
and attached to sea-weed; and in Loli'go it is pudding-
shaped, the eggs united by a ligament to a common centre.
The liquid of the eggs is at first colorless, but soon after
impregnation a central speck appears in each, which grows
so rapidly that before the yolk is consumed the embryo has
attained a recognizable form ; so that previous to hatching
the foetal cuttle-fish already presents all the organs neces-
sary to its after existence. The most remarkable physio-
logical feature of the embryo is the duct for the conveyance
of the yolk which communicates with the oesophagus through
the head, penetrating in the front of the mouth, instead of
entering the walls of the abdomen, as in the vertebrates.
Only one oviposit takes place yearly, but the number of
eggs contained in the mass is considerable, reaching forty
thousand in the Loli'go vulga^ris.
The shell of the Argonaut, the paper nautilus as it is
called, is not a mere egg-case, being developed both by the
male and female. It is therefore a true shell, although pro-
duced under abnormal conditions, being formed after the
birth of the animal.
The powerful, complexly-organized gasteropods, includ-
ing the predatory tribes respiring by the aid of branchiae,
are dioecious, and of course sexual union is with them a
necessity; but it is no less necessary with the monoecious
helices or garden snails, in which the co-operation of two
individuals is required for reciprocal impregnation. As a
preliminary to actual connection the two snails become live-
ly and crawl around one another, while from the gener-
ative orifice on the right side of the neck of either is pro-
truded a sacculus containing a sharp-pointed spiculum or
dart, with which they strike one another upon the skin ;
the dart-sack is then withdrawn, and another Sack ex-
truded containing both male and female organs. In the
eggs of the Gasteropoda much diversity is exhibited, and
three distinct types are recognizable, according with the
habits and situation of the animals. Thus, the land snails
deposit separate eggs covered by calcareous shells; the
phytophagous fluviatile and marine species, animals inhab-
iting shore-lines and shallow waters, cover their eggs with
a gelatinous substance, by means of which they are agglu-
timated into one mass; and finally, the Zoophagous mol-
lusks, inhabitants of deeper and rougher waters, where the
spawn is more exposed to the depredations of other ani-
mals, protect them by horny pouch-shaped coverings vari-
ously aggregated: these masses, small and gelatinous when
expelled from the female, rapidly enlarge and toughen until
they frequently attain a bulk exceeding that of the parent,
and the integument becomes as tough as parchment. Some-
times these egg-cases are separately extruded, and in such
instances they are individually attached to a piece of tim-
ber, shell, or rock by the animal, but ordinarily the whole
cluster is expelled together. The process of laying is thus
described by Sir E. Home: “Afriend of mine saw the female
(Turbinel/la py'rum) shed her eggs; a mass, apparently of
mucus, passed along the deep groove in the lip of the shell
in the form of a rope, several inches in length, and sunk to
the bottom; this rope of eggs, enclosed in mucus at the end
last discharged, was of so adhesive a nature that it became
attached to the rock or stone on which the animal depos-
ited it. As soon as the mucus came in contact with the Salt
water, it coagulated into a firm membranous structure, .
and this connected nidus, having one end fixed and the
other loose, was moved by the waves, and the young in the
* “Animal Kingdom and Comparative Anatomy,” 2d edit., p.
466, London, 1855. º




1086
CONCHOLOGY.
eggs had their blood ačrated through the membrane, and
when hatched they remained defended from the violence of
the sea, till their shells had acquired strength.”
The terrestrial mollusks lay few eggs, but the marine and
fluviatile species are more fecund. The Helices deposit
from twenty to fifty oval eggs, pure white in color, which
they hide in the earth or under stones, or cover with leaves.
They so rapidly increase in size and hardness that in a day
or day and a half they aggregate a greater bulk than the.
parent, and the shells have become opaque and consistent.
The arboreal helices and bulimi of the Philippine Islands
generally deposit their eggs in clusters, within two leaves
previously curled together by the animal for their protec-
tion; the Buli"mus Mindoroen's is arranges its eggs in par-
allel rows agglutinated perpendicularly to the surface of a
leaf. The eggs of the African Achatinae differ from those
of other land snails in the color being deep yellow instead
of white. An Achati'na. Numid'ica which I kept alive for
two years deposited about seventy yellow eggs, which were
loosely covered with earth; in a few days nearly every one
of them had hatched, and shortly afterwards they entered
the earth to pass the torpid season. Alas! the rigor of an
American winter proved too much for their tender consti-
tutions, although my vivarium was kept in a heated apart-
ment, for in the ensuing spring fifty-one of them were no
more. Those that survived had by that time attained a
bulk three times exceeding that of the egg.
The large South American snails lay eggs as large as
those of a pigeon, and they are eaten by the natives, but
African snails of equal size deposit eggs not more than
one-eighth of the above bulk.
The Natica, a predatory sea mollusk, constructs a nest
of agglutinated sand, in form resembling an inverted bowl
with convex sides, a small circular aperture at the top and
attached by its broad base. The eggs, encased in the usual
tough tissue, are suspended to the inner surface, so that
the sea-water has access to them through the contracted
aperture, while at the same time they are shielded from the
attacks of enemies of their race.
The Acephala were, until a few years ago, supposed to
be generally hermaphrodite, but the number of these is
being constantly reduced by the discovery of the dioecious
character of various families. In the dioecious bivalve
Mollusca, the spermatozoa are discharged into the water,
whence they are inhaled with the respiratory currents by
the opposite sex. In many cases the sex cannot be distin-
guished by the shell alone, but in others the posterior por-
tion of the shell of the female is enlarged in order to cover
and protect the charged ovary. So great is the sexual dif-
ference in the shells of some of the Unionidae or fresh-
water mussels of the United States, that they have been
frequently mistaken for distinct species.
Reproduction commences in the Acephala long before full
growth is attained. The Cy'clas or Sphae/rium reproduces
when so immature as to possess hardly any of the external
characters of the species; and oysters, although they do
not attain full growth under three or four years, spawn
when four months old. So prolific are they that the ova.
of a single oyster have been estimated as high as ten mil-
lion in number. Mr. Isaac Lea found the oviducts of the
Anodon'ta wndula'ta charged with about six hundred thou-
sand individuals. This accurate observer has described
and figured the embryonic forms of numerous species of
American Unionidae, which in all cases differ widely from
the parent; the valves are granulose on their external sur-
faces, and frequently furnished with basal hooks, which,
by interlocking, keep them together; in form these valves
are rounded or oval, and they are attached to the animal
by a single central muscle, instead of the two lateral mus-
cles of the adult. As the ovary is included in the body of
the animal, its enlargement when gravid would; in many
cases, be so great as to preclude the closing of its valves,
thus endangering its safety : in such cases the ova, are ex-
pelled from the nidus while still immature, but allowed to
complete their growth in the branchial fringes, where,
spread over a much greater surface, they enjoy the advan-
tage of respiration in the ciliary currents.
The Brachiopoda are believed to be all monoecious.
Viviparous Reproduction.—This is not uncommon in
the phytophagous gasteropods; indeed, different species of
the same genus are dissimilar in reproduction; thus, one
of the periwinkles (Littori'na ru'dis) is viviparous, while
another (Littori'na litto’rea) is oviparous—that is, in the
former the young are lodged and retained in the branchial
cavity until fitted for a separate existence. The Paludi'na
is another familiar example, exhibiting the same care for
its young, which may be found within the parent shell per-
fectly formed and numbering from fifty to a hundred indi-
viduals. The Cym’ba Neptu’ni, a zoophagous gasteropod, is
retained within the folds of the large foot of its parent until
its shell has grown to the length of one and a half inches.
Maternal instinct is shown in, the selection of favorable
situations for oviposition, as in the Ampullariae, which de-
posit their eggs in shallow water, where, anchored to a stick
or'stone, they are exposed to the sun's vivifying influence;
the fresh-water snails, which attach the mass of gelatin-
ously-enveloped ova to floating objects, in order to obtain
for them the advantages of the solar heat and protect them
from the dispersing action of the waves; the Ianthina, a
mollusk inhabiting the mid-ocean, which constructs a float
(attached to her own body), to the under surface of which
the eggs are glued ; while the Argonaut hatches them within
the protection of her beautiful shell. But perhaps the
most extraordinary instance of maternal care is that ex-
hibited by one of the limpets (Calyptraea Chinen'sis),
which actually sits upon her eggs, and continues thus to
protect the young animals when hatched until they have
acquired shells sufficiently strong to defy aggression.
The study of the larval metamorphoses of mollusks has
recently received much attention, and many curious and
important discoveries have been made in this connection.
We have already noticed the larval condition of the
Unionidae, and like differences occur in many Acephala.
The larvae of the attached species are provided with a
ciliated swimming-disk, and are extremely active; they are
also provided with eyes, which are lost when the animal,
becoming adult, attaches itself for life and has no further
use for visual organs. Similar changes occur in the brachi-
opods; and the development of the nudibranchiate sea
snails is thus described by Messrs. Aſder and Hancock :
“The spawn is deposited in the shape of a gelatinous
band, always arranged in a more or less spiral form, and
fastened to corallines and the under sides of stones by one
of its edges. The ova are minute and very numerous,
amounting in some species to several thousands. Before
the period of exclusion the young may be seen revolving
on their own axis by means of vibratile cilia, and on es-
caping from the egg they swim about freely in the water by
the same means. The larva is extremely minute, and has
more the appearance of a rotiferous animalcule than a
mollusk. It is enclosed in a transparent, nautiloid, calca-
reous shell, with an operculum. Its structure is very
simple, showing no signs of the external organs that dis-
tinguish the future adult. The principal portion visible
outside the shell is composed of two flat disks or lobes,
fringed with long cilia, by the motion of which it swims
freely through the water. These are often withdrawn into
the shell, and the operculum is closed upon them when the
animal is at rest.” In this stage of its existence the tenta-
cles are not developed, but are replaced by two ear-like
veils; afterwards the tentacles appear, the foot enlarges and
projects beyond the operculum, and the mantle becomes
detached, yet the shell remains; finally, the latter is dis-
placed, and except in the retention of the frontal veils the
appearance is that of the adult; soon the foot exercises its
locomotive function, the gills are developed, the jaws and
tongue appear, and finally the veils fall, and the animal
has attained its full development.
Thus we find that the larval gasteropods are provided with
an external shell even in those genera in which it is finally
concealed in a fold of the mantle or entirely absent in the
adult, and that they are temporarily furnished with a pair
of ciliated fins by which they can swim about freely. In
this manner nature has provided alike for the protection of
the young animal and for the dispersion of the species.
2. Nervous System.—The principal nerve-centre is a ring
of ganglia surrounding the throat in the cephalopods and
gasteropods, and situated on the posterior adductor muscle
in the Acephala. This ring is perhaps somewhat analogous
to the vertebrate brain in its functions, and from enlarge-
ments of it are distributed the nerves to every portion of
the body. From this typical plan of the molluscous nerve-
system there are, in some cases, considerable variations.
In the most complex organisms the concentration into an
oesophagal ring is the most perfect, but in those animals
which are more simply organized the centres are more or
less dispersed; so that in the Solen, for instance, the cere-
bral and abdominal nerves have their origin at opposite ex-
tremities of the long body, but are connected by a long
commissure.
The various senses are unequally developed in the different
classes of the Mollusca. The animal, when protruded from
its protecting shell, is of course measurably defenceless;
hence the most delicate and the most important of the senses
is that of •
Touch.--This sense resides in every external portion of the
animal, the moist, glutinous skin being particularly sensi-
tive. So delicate, indeed, is it that the slightest impression
alarms the mollusk and causes its immediate retreat. Spe-
cialized organs of touch exist in the tentacula of the enceph-
alous species, organs arising from the top of the head or
near the mouth, generally two (but sometimes four) in
CONCHOLOGY.
1087
number. They are very flexible, and generally retractile
at the will of the animal. In the Nau'tilus about one hun-
dred of these tentacles surround the mouth, but only four
of these are organs of sensation. There are also, in many
genera, tentacular filaments arising from the sides of the
mantle or body, and not generally retractile. The Halioſtis
or ear-shell, Cypraeſa or cowry, Tur’bo, etc., are genera
possessing these beautiful fringed appendages. In the
bivalve species these filaments also exist; in those having
the mantle open, like the oyster, they form the beard or
fringe which lines its margin, while in those having a closed
mantle they are attached to the circumference of the orifices.
It is supposed that mollusks are not very sensible to pain,
and their tenacity of life and power of reproducing lost or
mutilated parts is wonderful; the latter extends to the
growth of new tentacula, and even, in well-ascertained in-
stances, of a new head!
Taste.—The possession of this sense is rather inferred from
the habits of the animals, the selection of food, etc., than
from any specialized organs discovered by naturalists—
their use being in most cases conjectural only. We can
readily suppose that the Acephala, which swallow every-
thing small enough to enter the mouth, cannot have very
delicate gustatory organs; indeed, the only selection made
by them is in the reflex muscular action of the stomach,
which enables them to eject through the mouth indigestible
substances. The encephalous species, however, and par-
ticularly the carnivorous ones, are certainly endowed with
the faculty of taste, as their food is carefully selected.
Smell.—There is no reason to suppose that this sense is
possessed by the bivalves, but its existence in the univalves
is very evident, as snails will approach food for which they
have a preference, directed by the odor only, and cephal-
opods are known to avoid the vicinity of certain strong-
smelling plants.
Sight.—The emcephalous mollusks are provided with two
eyes, placed on the sides or front of the head; they are
either sessile or elevated on stalks or pedicels. Sometimes
these stalked eyes are on short tubercles placed in the rear
of the tentacles or branching from them, and sometimes they
are situated at the extremity of the tentacles themselves. The
eyes of cuttle-fish and of many carnivorous gasteropods are
complex in organization, and endowed with visual powers
equal to those of vertebrates, but the structure is much more
simple in the plant-feeders, and is believed to possess only
limited powers, having perhaps in most cases no faculty of
distinguishing form or color, but merely a general suscepti-
bility to light.
It can no longer be doubted that the black objects which
occupy the summits of the tentacles in helices are eyes; it
is said that the snail will avoid an object placed in its path
before ascertaining its position by actual contact, and that
it is capable of perceiving, and is attracted by, gay colors.
Nature has provided for the safety of these tentacular eyes
by giving the animal the power of withdrawing them rap-
idly through the tubes to their bases upon the approach of
danger. This action is accomplished by the disappearance
of the tentacle through its own cavity by a motion which
may be likened to the inversion of the finger of a glove.
The bivalve Mollusca enjoy visual faculties proportioned
to their locomotive powers; thus, those which, like the
Pecten, are of active habit, have a number of eyes situated
among the tentacular filaments on the margin of the mantle,
but in the fixed genera the eyes are rudimentary or absent.
The North American Unionidae appear to be sensitive to
light. In a communication addressed to the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1857, Mr. Lea says: “I be-
came satisfied that the closing of the siphonal tubes, on my
approach to the specimens I had in my vivarium, was not
altogether occasioned by the vibration caused by my ap-
proach, and I accordingly arranged numerous individuals
of several species with a view carefully to observe them.
In the course of these examinations, repeatedly made, I
found several species of Unio quite sensitive to my pass-
ing my hand between them and the light, while others
showed no signs of sensitiveness. Some individuals were
more sensitive than, others, and the females exhibited this
power much more than the males, often withdrawing not
only their siphons, but their mantle, within the valves. It
is difficult to say with certainty how far their visual organs
are developed. The fringes of the branchial and anal
siphons are, in the Uniones, formed of small, subconical
tentacula. With a good lens the terminal points of the
tentacula, may be observed to be rounded and furnished
with at least the appearance of an eye; and that it will
prove to be a true eye, however imperfect, there can be but
little doubt.”
- Hearing.—Some of the cephalopods possess external ears,
and auditory capsules, connected with auditory nerves, are
found near the bases of the tentacles in gasteropods. The
capsules contain one or more oval or rounded vibratory bodies
ently shaped from the pleural ones.
termed otolites, and the occurrence of one of these vibrators
in the vesicular cavity indicates the single auditory organ
of the Acephala and Brachiopoda. Considering that such
an exquisitely delicate sense of touch pervades the whole
exposed surface of the mollusk, thus enabling it to perceive
by vibration the approaching objects, it may be doubted if
the auditory faculty be very highly developed.
|Woice.—With but few exceptions, mollusks are dumb. The
cephalopods squeak and groan when removed from the
water, and some of the nudibranchiates, the Æolis and Tri-
tonia, emit audible sounds.
3. Muscular System.—The prehensile arms of the cuttle-
fishes, the foot of the gasteropods and of some bivalves, and
the wings of pteropods, exhibit great muscular power. It is
with its foot that the Pho'las excavates the cave in solid
rock or mud which becomes its lifelong dwelling, and with
the same organ the razor-shell (Solen) buries itself with
great rapidity beneath the wet sand of the sea-shore. In
many of the gasteropods the foot is the swimming organ, as
it is that of locomotion in all of them ; but in bivalves an-
other class of muscles become more important; they are
those which, attaching the animal to the valves of its shell,
enables it to open and to close them. These adductor mus-
cles are sometimes two in number, as in the clam (We'nus),
and to this class the term dimyaries is applied, whilst
others have but a single central muscle of attachment, like
the oyster, and these are called monomyaries. We find also
in the Acephala other muscles in the border of the mantle,
controlling its movement. Their position is indicated upon
the inner surface of the valves by an impression running-
parallel with the margin, and called the pallial line. When
the animal possesses retractile siphons, the position of the
siphonal muscle is shown in the shell by a sinus of the pal-
lial line, which otherwise is said to be entire.
Gasteropods are attached to the axis of their shells by
muscles passing into the foot and operculum, thus enabling
them, when alarmed, to retire quickly and to elose the door
against the enemy. In non-spiral shells, like the limpet,
this muscle is attached to the inner surface in a half circle,
making a horseshoe impression within the shell.
The cephalopods only, have muscles attached to internal
cartilages, representing the attachment to the bones in the
vertebrates.
4. Digestive System.—The cephalopods are furnished with
a pair of horny jaws (maarillae), of which one is much supe-
rior to the other in size. They may be likened to the mandi-
bles of the parrot, have cutting edges and sharp-pointed
ends, which are useful in dividing their food. In the hel-
ices the mouth has an upper jaw only ; it is frequently ridged
across to assist the process of comminution, which is effected
by its opposition to the siliciously armed tongue; in the
fresh-water snail (Limnea) this superior jaw is assisted by
two lateral accessory ones. None of the gasteropods are
possessed, like the cuttle-fishes, of both superior and infe-
rior maxillae, and many of them are entirely destitute of
these organs. Bivalves have a mouth supplied with a pair
of soft membranous palpi.
Encephalous Mollusca are provided with a tongue or
lingual ribbon studded with denticles, which usually are
arranged in the form of a triple band. The central portion
is the rhachis, and the similar lateral portions are called
the pleu'rae. The recurved silicious denticles are in nu-
merous transverse series, those of the centre being differ-
As they are worn
away with use, a constant growth maintains their effective-
ness, and they number in some cases as many as twenty-
five thousand in a single individual. Following the three-
fold division of the tongue or lingual ribbon, the teeth of the
central portion are called rhachidian or centrals, the others
wncinian or laterals. The tongue is elliptical in the land
snails, forked, fleshy, and placed at the end of the muscular
proboscis of the carnivora; but in most of the phytopha-
gous tribes it is very long—in the limpet, for example,
when extended, it exceeds the length of the animal, and
when retracted it lays reversed along the gullet and coiled
spirally within the stomach. In the Bulla the rhachis is
unarmed, and trituration is effected by the calcareous plates
lining its muscular gizzard.
The bivalves have no tongue; the so-called gastric dart,
a styliform cartilaginous body contained in the stomach of
some species, is the representative of a gizzard rather than
of a tongue.
Modern investigators have assiduously studied the lin-
gual dentition of mollusks, and many hundreds of specific
forms have been described and figured. Unfortunately for
conchological science, many of these students, misled by
the great significance of dentition characters in the classi-
fication of the Mammalia, have attempted classifications of
mollusks based entirely on relationships of dentition, which,
instead of according with other structural resemblances, de-
stroy the natural groups and force into juxtaposition the
1088
CONCHOLOGY.
most heterogeneous forms. It might be supposed that the
study of the dentition would at least indicate whether the
animal be carnivorous or herbivorous, but even in this re-
spect it fails, because its relationships have occasioned the
separation of carnivorous mollusks from others to which
they are closely allied, to place them among the herbivora,
with which they have no other affinities. - .
In mollusks the liver is always of large size, and the ex-
istence of a renal organ has been demonstrated in nearly all
the species observed. The intestine is sometimes straight,
terminating posteriorly, as in the Chiton, but more generally
it is convoluted, and is more so in the herbivorous than in
the carnivorous species. In the Encephala it generally
turns upon itself, the funnel opening on the under side of
the neck in the cephalopods, and on the right side, behind
the head, in the gasteropods. In bivalves the intestine is
much convoluted, passes through the ventricle of the
heart and terminates near the respiratory aperture, whence
the excrements are washed away by the water from the
ills. •
g 5. Circulation.—The heart includes an auricle, occa-
sionally double, which receives the blood from the gills,
and a ventricle for its propulsion into the arteries; from
the capillary extremities of these it is collected into the
veins, again passes through the gills, and becomes arterial
blood. It is colorless or pale gray. In the cephalopods
there are two additional branchial hearts, and the oesopha-
gus is more or less enveloped in a wide venous sinus. In
the Acephala, the visceral cavity forms part of the circula-
tory system. Mr. Alder has counted 120 pulsations per min-
ute in the Vitri'na, and half as many per minute in some
nudibranchs; but it may be fairly inferred that the differ-
ence is due partly to the condition of excitation of the
animals under observation. -
6. Respiration.—The cuttle-fishes, Acephala, and brachio-
pods are water-breathers—that is, they respire water con-
taining air, absorbing the oxygen of the latter during the
process. The gasteropods, however, are divided into water-
and air-breathers, and the latter class, besides including all
of the land snails, comprehends most of those inhabiting
fresh water, as well as a few marine species.
In the pulmoniferous species the lung is formed by a
fold of the mantle, forming a chamber having pulmonary
vessels distributed over its walls. The cavity of the lung
opens on the anterior portion of the right margin of the
mantle, and its alternate expansion and contraction in
breathing is quite visible to the eye unassisted by a lens.
The same folded mantle forms the cavity for the gills of
the aquatic species, except in the nudibranchiates; in
these the branchiae are arranged in a plumose festoon on
the animal’s back, and entirely exposed.
The bathymetrical distribution of marine mollusks is de-
termined principally by the quantity of oxygen required
by them for respiration, and a transition from sea to fresh
water, or vice versé, or even a great change of depth in the
same element, is generally destructive to their existence.
Some sea, mollusks, although water-breathers, are littoral
in station, the moist sea air and visits of the tides sufficing
for their respiration; such animals will sometimes live for
a lengthened period when removed from their native ele-
ment. For example, a species of Littori'na, or periwinkle,
of which several individuals were collected at San Do-
mingo (1871), has now survived for nearly a year in various
cabinets in Philadelphia.
The carnivorous gasteropods generally receive the water
for respiration through a tube specialized from the mantle-
margin, and called the siphon, while in the herbivora the
mantle is simply somewhat prolonged and curled up. The
bivalve Mollusca are in the same manner divided into those
having specialized siphons, and those having merely a
rudimentary fold of the mantle.
7. Food.—The bivalve species, generally sedentary or
attached, and seldom active, obtain microscopic food from
the currents of water directed into the mouth by the joint
action of the lips and branchiae, while the cephalopods, on
the other hand, dart through the water with great rapidity
after their prey, seize it with their long arms, and draw it
to their powerful jaws. Once enclosed in the eight power-
ful arms, which are covered with formidable sucker-like
disks, escape is impossible, and even large fishes and crus-
taceams become the victims of these voracious animals.
Man has been attacked by them, and there are well-attested
instances of narrow escapes from these monsters—some of
the species attaining gigantic proportions, with bodies
several feet long, and arms still longer, the whole weighing
several hundred pounds.
The food of the zoophagous gasteropods includes fishes,
crabs, zoophytes, and particularly bivalve Mollusca. With
their spiny tongues they bore through the shells of the latter,
which are incapable either of resistance or escape. Ten-
der, succulent plants, algae, etc. are eaten by the land and
fresh-water species; the snails showing a preference for
the tender shoots of cabbage, lettuce, etc. which is very
annoying to gardeners. In Europe these animals multiply
so fast and are so destructive to gardens that it is necessary
to collect and destroy them. An American gentleman on
his first visit to the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew was
surprised to see a bucketful of snails in the hand of a
gardener, who informed him that it was part of his daily
duty to collect and destroy that quantity, which he had
done for years.
8. Shell-Growth. — The majority of the mollusks are
covered with an external shell; the Acephala always are so
covered, the shell being in two pieces, united at the back or
commencement of growth by a ligament or hinge ; these
are called bivalves. The gasteropods are generally pro-
vided with a single or wmivalve shell, which is in form some
modification of the spiral principle, varying from fusiform,
in which the elongation of the axis gives it a conspicuous
spindle shape, through countless intermediate forms to
planorboid, in which the whorls revolve on the same plane
with the initial one. A few gasteropods have no shell
whatever, the nudibranchiates, for example; others have a
more or less perfect internal one secreted beneath the man-
tle, as in the naked slugs or snails. In the genus Chiton it
is composed of a number of transverse pieces called valves,
united by a ligament, and allowing some freedom of motion,
by which the convexity can be accommodated to the sur-
faces over which the animal passes or to which it attaches
itself. In the Patella and the limpets generally the spiral
nucleus is obscured or lost, so that the shell assumes a
conical form, open at the base.
Only two living genera of cephalopods, the Nautilus and
the Argonaut, have external spiral shells; all others are
possessed either of an internal calcareous plate imbedded
under the back, of porous texture, called cuttle-bone, or of
a somewhat horny narrower plate called the pen.
The nucleus of the shell covers the young animal in the
egg even before its internal organs assume definite form; it
is generally of a transparent horn-color. After birth the
enlargement of the shell is effected by additions to the lip or
circumference of its aperture; these additions are effected
by an exudation of carbonate of lime and animal matter
from the mantle or contiguous part of the animal, which
becomes calcified on exposure. Of course as the animal in-
creases in bulk, so the circumference of this growth-margin
enlarges, and the spiral shell “grows;” and the limes run-
ning parallel with the aperture which the outer surface ex-
hibits are called “growth-lines,” and indicate these suc-
cessive additions. The epidermis, or horny external skin
of animal matter which invests most shells, protecting
them from the corroding action of the elements, is exuded
from the neck or collar of the animal, and here also origi-
nates the cellular or main substance of the shell ; but the
interior lining of porcelanous or pearly matter comes from
that portion of the animal containing the viscera. Of
course in limestone regions land and aquatic mollusks
flourish, and their shells are large and ponderous, while in
places destitute of that material they are rare and small,
and their shells fragile and of horny rather than calcareous
material.
In case any portion of the shell occupied by the animal
becomes fractured, a viscid exudation takes place from the
exposed portion of the latter, which soon hardens, repair-
ing the fracture; but if the break occur in one of the ear-
lier whorls, which the growth of the animal has compelled
it to vacate, there is no means of repairing the injury, which
accordingly remains, but a partition is thrown across the
whorl immediately in the rear of the animal for its protec-
tion. Such being the method of construction of the shell,
it will be readily understood that spines, tubercles, ribs,
etc. on the external surface are the consequence of inequal-
ities of like character in the mantle of the animal, and that
colors, whether in bands or spots, are exuded by pigment-
cells similarly arranged upon its collar. The inner surface
being secreted by the transparent visceral covering which
is never exposed to the light, is of course white. Some
shells, like the cowry, olive, bulla, etc., are entirely envel-
oped in the mantle, and the colors are thus derived from its
entire surface. In consequence of this protection, the epi-
dermis is not developed in such cases. Thickening and
contraction of the lip of the shell indicate adult characters,
and further growth generally leaves these thickened por-
tions visible externally, forming varices; but the animal in
many cases possesses the power of removing both these ex-
ternal varices, spines, etc., and all internal thickenings—
even the partitions of the whorls and the very axis of the
shell—when the room is needed for its growth or when they.
impede its movements. Analysis has revealed the existence
of muriatic and sulphuric acids in the saliva of some spe-
cies, and it is believed that these are the agencies employed
in the removal of superfluous shell-material.
CONCHOLOGY.
1089
In nacreous shells the beautiful mother-of-pearl consti-
tuting the lining or inner surface is composed of alternate,
minutely-undulated layers of thin membrane and carbonate
of lime. Precious pearls are similarly composed, and are
originated by the irritation of intruding extraneous sub-
stances, causing the animal to cover them by the deposi-
tion of successive layers of pearly material. Pearls are fre-
quently found attached to the internal surface of many
species of bivalve mollusks, both marine and fluviatile, but
the most valuable ones are those which are completely de-
tached and spherical, and are only found in the soft parts
of the animal. The Chinese and others have made the
manufacture of pearls a branch of human industry by the
careful introduction of irritating substances within the
shells.
The operculum is generally a horny lid (sometimes stiff-
ened by an exterior calcareous layer, and occasionally it
is entirely calcareous) which is developed in the embryo,
and grows with the growth of the animal; its accretions are
exuded from the latter, and applied to the circumference in
the same manner as in shell-growth. Typically, the oper-
culum is closely fitted to the aperture of the shell, so that
when the animal is at rest it acts as a door, preventing the
intrusion of marauding enemies. It is a means of defence,
hence generally developed in the harmless herbivorous spe-
cies. It is occasionally found in the carnivorous Mollusca,
but then it is often so small in proportion to the size of the
mouth of the shell as to be nearly useless for defensive pur-
OSGS,
p ORDINAL CLASSIFICATION.—The following outline of the
main features of the most approved classification will give
an idea of the application of the foregoing structural details
to the systematic arrangement of the Mollusca :
Class I., CEPHALOPODA (the cuttle-fish).
Order 1, Dibranchiata.-Animal swimming, naked (shell,
when present, internal), mandibles horny; arms eight or
ten, provided with suckers; branchiae two.
Order 2, Tetrabranchiata.--Animal creeping, with an
external shell (as the Nautilus and Ammonite); mandibles
calcareous; arms very numerous; branchiae four. Only a
few living representatives of this order are known, but
several hundred fossil species have been described.
Class II., GASTERoPopA (univalve mollusca).
Order 1, Progobranchiata.--Animal creeping or swim-
ming, protected by a shell, usually large enough to cover
it ; branchiae plume-like, situated before the heart; sexes
distinct.
This large order, containing fifteen thousand species, is
divided into two sections, as follows:
A, Siphonostomata.--Carnivorous; provided with a
breathing-siphon. The shell is spiral, with imperforate
axis, the aperture terminating in a prolongation or canal.
Operculum lamellar, horny. In this section are included
the strombs, murices, whelks, cones, volutés, and cowries,
all well-known marine shells.
B, Holostomata.-Respiratory siphon wanting, or re-
placed by a lobe in the collar of the mantle; gills plume-
like, placed obliquely across the back or attached to the
right side of the neck. Shell spiral or limpet-shaped, gen-
erally somewhat globular, with the margin of the aperture
mostly rounded and continuous. Inhabiting both sea and
fresh water; a large portion of the former and all of the
latter being phytophagous. The naticas, pyramidellas, ce-
rites, turritellas, periwinkles, nerites, turbos, trochi, ear-
shells, and limpets are the familiar marine representatives
of this section; while the fresh-water genera include the
melanians, paludinas, and ampullarias.
Order 2, Pulmonifera.-Plant-eating, air-breathing snails,
inhabiting land or fresh water; some furnished with oper-
cula; monoecious. Includes the garden snails, helices,
cyclostomas, limnaeans, etc., about seven thousand species.
The terrestrial Mollusca are confined to this order; more
than half of the fresh-water univalves also are lung-
breathers.
Order 3, Opisthobranchiata.-Shell rudimentary or want-
ing; branchiae arborescent, more or less completely exposed
on the back or towards the sides of the body near its rear
end. The sexes are united in each animal. These are
marine snails, met with only on the high seas, swimming
on the surface, which they render brilliant by their gaudy
coloring. They can only be preserved in alcohol; which,
unfortunately, destroys their brilliant tints. A few of them,
the Bulla and its allies, secrete a shell within the folds of
the mantle.
Order 4, Pteropoda.-Marine animals, swimming by the
aid of a pair of wing-like fins proceeding from the sides of
the neck. Shell glassy and translucent, sexes united. A
Small group of pelagic animals almost unknown to collec-
tors. ** -
Class III., ACEPHALA (bivalves). -
Marine § fresh-water mollusks protected by a bivalve
shell. Two systems of classification have been proposed,
neither of which is entirely satisfactory. The first divides
them, in accordance with the number of adductor muscles,
into Monomyaria, Dimyaria, etc., and the second is founded
on the presence or absence of the siphon and the character
of the pallial impression, thus:
1. Without siphons. Pallial line simple.
(The oysters, arks, marine and fresh-water mussels.)
2. With siphons. (a) Pallial line simple.
(Chamas, tridacnas, lucinas, cockles, cyclades, clams,
etc.)
(b) Pallial line sinuated.
(Veneridae, mactras, tellinas, razor-shells, gapers,
pholades, or borers, etc.)
The above brief outline of classification is all that our
space will allow us to present. Recent systematists admit
no less than three hundred families of Mollusca, including
several times that number of genera, and the species de-
scribed amount to between twenty-five and thirty thousand
living species, besides nearly an equal number of fossil
forms. The latter characterize by peculiar genera and
species every geological period. They have become the
“ testimony of the rocks” and “the medals of creation,” for
without them the geologist would, in many cases, be utterly
at a loss to classify the earth’s strata. The primary classes
of the Mollusca are all represented from the earliest period
containing their fossil remains, but some of the lower di-
visions have become extinct, while others have originated
at various subsequent periods. The ammonites and the
Brachiopoda are familiar shells, which at one time swarmed
in the ancient seas; the former have become entirely ex-
tinct, while of the latter a few species still exist.
Economical Value of the Mollusca.--Small as most of
these animals are, the immense number of individuals en-
ables them to take an important position in the economy
of nature; mountain-chains are formed of their disinteg-
rated shells; ships and piers are destroyed by the insidious
attack of the Tere'do or ship-worm, and by the same little
animal the accumulations of floating timber which would
otherwise block up the mouths of bays and rivers, and the
wrecks which would impede navigation, are removed.
As articles of food, mollusks are of important value to
man and beast. Large numbers of fishes, birds, and mam-
mals prey on them habitually, and of many species they
form almost the entire sustenance. Man has, in all ages,
consumed large quantities of shell-fish—even the pre-his-
toric cave-men ate them, and at the present time the annual
consumption of them is so enormous that it would be diffi-
cult to calculate the quantities and values. In the waters
of the State of Maryland alone, according to official report,
563 vessels are licensed for the oyster-fishery, and bring to
market upwards of ten million bushels annually. . The
oyster of the waters of the Middle and South Atlantic
coast of the United States belongs to the species Ostre/a
Virginia'na, while that of the northern coast (Ostre’a bore-
a/lis) is smaller, more rounded, and rugose. To the latter
the European species is nearly related. Ostrea Virginiana
has been successfully transplanted to the waters of Europe
and California, where it flourishes, and is regarded as Su-
perior in flavor to the “natives.” Besides oysters, many
other marine bivalves and univalves are brought to market.
Among the terrestrial species the Roman snail is an es-
teemed delicacy in the Latin countries of Europe, and large
numbers are bred for sale.
Shells are extensively used for manufacturing purposes—
for the making of buttons and many other articles; for
cameo-cutting, in which advantage is taken of differently
colored layers to produce striking effects of figure and
background. Precious pearls, as previously, stated, are
secreted in the soft parts of those genera of Mollusca which
form nacreous shells. They have frequently been found in
the fresh-water Unionidae or mussels of both hemispheres,
but the principal product is from the pearl-fisheries of the
Indian Ocean, an industry employing over sixty thousand
hardy divers. Mother-of-pearl, used in manufactures, is
derived principally from the Meleagri'na margaritiſ"era,
inhabiting the Gulf of California. -
The byssus of the Pinna or fan-mussel is spun into
articles of hosiery in Italy: it is a beautiful but expen-
sive material, resembling the finest silk. (See BYSSUs.)
From remote antiquity mollusks have furnished brilliant
dyes, such as the far-famed Tyrian purple, discovered and
first used by the Phoenicians—a color yielded by mollusks
of the genera Purpura, Mu'rea, etc. Many of the natives
of Africa and Asia use the shell of the money-cowry (Cy-
praea moneta) as money, and whole cargoes of this species
are exported by civilized nations to be used in trading with
the natives. The wanpum of the North American Indians,
consisting of strings of fragments of the shell of the clam
(Venus mercenaria), was also used in lieu of coin.
The molluscous fauna of the United States is very rich
1090 a
CONCH-SHELL–CONCORD.
in species, including three hundred land shells, six hundred
fluviatile gasteropods, seven hundred Unionidae or fresh-
water mussels, six hundred species of marine Mollusca of
the Atlantic, and about the same number of the Pacific
coast; in all, nearly three thousand species.
The study of conchology is one of the most fascinating
subjects in the whole range of natural science, and has per-
haps engaged the attention of more investigators than any
other department of zoology. Collectors explore assidu-
ously every portion of the earth's surface and its waters
for specimens, and the habits of the mollusks, as well as
their geographical and bathymetrical distribution, are thus
becoming extensively known. Private collections and cab-
inets abound, and public museums containing large num-
bers of species are to be found in every large city. Perhaps
the finest conchological collection in the world is that of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, which con-
tains about twenty-one thousand species and numerous
varieties, with extensive series illustrating geographical
distribution; aggregating, probably, nearly two hundred
and fifty thousand specimens. The library of this institu-
tion contains nearly a thousand published works relating
to the science of conchology. GEORGE W. TRYoN, JR.
Conch-shell, a popular name for the shells of certain
carnivorous gasteropods of the genera Triton, Strombus,
etc. They are found chiefly in tropical seas. Many tons
of these shells are annually exported from the Bahamas
to Europe, where the finest are used in cutting shell-cameos,
and the rest are useful in the porcelain manufacture. Conch-
shells were formerly much used in the U. S. as “ dinner-
horns” by farmers, but have been largely superseded by
those made of tin.
Con’ chos, a river of Mexico, an affluent of the Rio
Grande, flows through the state of Chihuahua. Its general
direction is N. N. E. Length, about 330 miles.
Con’clave [from the Lat. con (for cwm), “with,” and
clavis, a “key,” originally, a room that may be locked up].
This term is applied either to the apartment in which the
cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church assemble to elect
a new pope, or more frequently to the assembly itself. The
usages of the Church require that the conclave must be
held in a single apartment having only one door, which is
locked after the entrance of the cardinals, in order that
they may have no intercourse with the public while the
election is going on. When a pope dies, nine days are
allowed for the funeral solemnities. The cardinals assem-
ble on the tenth day, and voting begins on the eleventh.
From their separate cells, into which they are locked every
night, the cardinals come together twice a day till some one
of their own number is made pope by a majority of two-
thirds of all the votes. Each cardinal is attended by two
or three waiters, called conclavists, sworn to secresy like the
cardinals. This method, in its main features, dates from
1274. Since Gregory XV. (1621–23), the choice has been
either by scrutiny (ballot), by inspiration, or by compro-
mise, usually the first. Since 1823 the place of meeting
has been in a long wing of the Quirinal Palace in Rome;
for nearly 400 years before that, in the Vatican. (See
CARDINAL.)
Concom'itance, Sacramen’tal, the doctrine of the
Roman Catholic Church, that the body and blood of Christ
sacramentally accompany each other, so that both are sacra-
mentally received under either species, whether of bread or
wine; hence, that the communion in one kind imparts all
that is received sacramentally in both kinds. Aquinas
substituted this term for the older one, “ Unio naturales.”
(See ASCHBACH, “ Kirch. Lex.” s. v., and TRANSUBSTANTIA-
TION.) The Lutheran Church maintains that from a ma-
tw'al concomitance we cannot argue to a sacramental one,
which is wholly supernatural and dependent on the will of
Christ; that this doctrine implies that the officiating priest
receives both body and blood twice; and that it holds
equally good for one kind in the sacrifice of the mass. (See
RRAUTH’s “Conservative Reformation,” 620, 621.)
C. P. KRAUTH.
Concom/itant [from the Lat. con, “together,” and
comitor, to “attend as a companion ”I, a term of modern
algebra, applied to a quantic which is related to a given
system of quantics in the following manner: Let u, wº, etc.
be a given system of quantics, which by linear transforma-
tion of their variables become converted into wºl, w/2, wº,
etc., and let w and w' be quantics respectively derived from
these two systems according to the same definite rule; then
if w is converted into m w/, where m denotes some power of
the modulus of transformation, by the same or by reciprocal
Systems of linear transformations of its variables or facients,
w is said to be a concomitant of the given system wi, wº, etc.
If w should contain no variables, and be therefore identi-
cally equal to m w/, it is called an invariant of the given
system of quantics; if, containing variables, it should be
converted into m w/ by the same linear transformations, it
is called a covariant; but if its conversion into m u' should
require linear transformations reciprocal to those first em-
ployed, it is called a contravariant. Lastly, if w should con-
tain two sets of variables, and still become converted into
in wº by transforming one set by the original and the other by
the reciprocal substitutions, it is called a mixed concomitant
of the given system of quantics. Concomitants, therefore,
embrace covariants and contravariants.
Con'cord [Lat. concordia, from con, “together,” and
cor, cordis, “heart”], literally, “agreement in heart or sen-
timent;” agreement between persons; unity of opinions or
sentiments; peace and harmony. In music, a combination
of two or more sounds, forming harmony agreeable to the
ear; the relation, harmony or agreement between two or
more consonant sounds, such as the union of the major or
minor third with the perfect fifth and octave. (See CoN-
SONANCE.)
Concord, a township of Coosa co., Ala. Pop. 754.
Concord, a township of Green co., Ark. Pop. 960.
Concord, a township of Adams co., Ill. Pop. 1140.
Concord, a township of Bureau co., III. Pop. 2309.
Concord, a township of Iroquois co., Ill. Pop. 878.
Concord, a township and post-village of Morgan co.,
Ill. The village is on the Rockford Rock Island and St.
Louis R. R. Pop. of township, 1280.
Concord, a township of De Kalb co., Ind. Pop. 1472.
Concord, a township of Elkhart co., Ind. Pop. 4725.
Concord, a township of Dubuque co., Ta. Pop. 1109.
Concord, a post-village, capital of Hancock co., Ia.
Pop. of township, 149.
Concord, a township of Louisa co., Ia.
Concord, a township of Ottawa co., Kan. Pop. 720.
Concord, a post-twp. of Somerset co., Me. Pop. 452.
Concord, one of the three capitals of Middlesex co.,
Mass., is on the Concord River and on the Fitchburg
R. R., 20 miles N. W. of Boston. It has a national and a
savings bank, a court-house, a jail, and a fine public li-
brary; also manufactures of cotton and of woollen flannels,
and of carriages. The provincial Congress met here in
1774 and 1775. On the 19th of April, 1775, several men
were killed here in a skirmish between the British troops
and the citizens of Concord. It is noted as being the resi-
dence of Emerson, and as having been that of Hawthorne,
Thoreau, and other literary celebrities. Pop. of Concord
township, 24.12.
Concord, a township and post-village of Jackson co.,
Mich. The village is on the Michigan Central R. R., 90
miles W. of Detroit. It has one weekly newspaper and
one banking-house. Pop. of township, 1465.
H. A. WETMORE, PUB. “NEws.”
Concord, a post-township of Dodge co., Minn. P. 792.
Concord, a township of Clinton co., Mo. Pop. 2491.
Concord, a township of Washington co., Mo. Pop.
1343.
Concord, a city, capital of Merrimack co. and of the
State of New Hampshire, is pleasantly situated on the
Pop. 892.
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State Capitol, New Hampshire.
right bank of Merrimack River, 73 miles by rail N. N. W.
from Boston, 474 N. N. E. from Washington, 130 S. from

CONCORD–CONCORD, BOOK OF.
1091
Mount Washington, White Mountains, and 30 S. from Win-
nipiseogee Lake; lat. 43° 12' 20" N., lon. 71°29' W. It is
one of the largest railroad centres in New England. At
this station trains are made up for the Boston Concord and
Montreal, the Northern, the Concord and Claremont, the Con-
toocook Valley, the Boston Nashua and Lowell, the Boston
Lawrence and Concord, and the Portsmouth R. Rs. Trains
also connect at Nashua for Worcester and New York vić
Worcester and Nashua R. R., for Wilton vià Nashua and
Wilton, for Acton, Providence, and New Bedford vià Nashua
and Acton, at Manchester for North Weare vià. Manchester
and North Weare, and at Hooksett for Pittsfield vià Sun-
cook Valley R. R. The streets are wide, have fine side-
walks, and are beautifully shaded. The principal business
is on Main street. Many of the business and public build-
ings are fine and expensive structures. The State-house is
built of Concord granite at an expense of $250,000. In
the council chamber are large oil portraits, set in gilt
frames, of all the governors of the State from 1785 to 1873.
The court-house and city hall cost $45,000. New Hamp-
shire Historical Society library contains over 6000 volumes
of valuable books and 3000 pamphlets. The city contains
the State asylum for the insane, with a fund of over
$221,000, number of patients, 272; orphans’ home, St. Paul’s
School, 160 students (Episcopal), and a jail and State
prison. There are 15 church edifices, 52 schools with 2600
scholars, 6 hotels, 200 stores and shops for trade of various
kinds, 4 weekly and 2 daily newspapers, 2 national banks
(capital of $350,000), 5 savings banks (deposits $3,380,000),
2800 dwelling-houses, and in 1870, 12,241 inhabitants. The
manufactories are varied, the most important of which are
granite quarried and dressed, annually valued at $750,060;
carriages, $550,000; furniture, $429,000; belting and leather
hose, $390,000; railroad repair-shops, $290,000; foundry
and machine work, $260,000; harnesses, $250,000; woollen
goods, $250,000; cotton goods, $235,000; leather tanned,
$175,000; sale of boots, and shoes, $150,000; organs and
melodeons, $120,000; confectionery and bakers’ bread,
$100,000; printing, $110,000; and many smaller factories
of $90,000 and less. Whole number of manufactories, 137;
capital invested, $2,276,350; males employed, 2143, fe-
males, 364; annual pay-roll, $1,329,500; value of goods
manufactured, $4,600,000. The water-power is valuable,
but not much of it is improved. The city waterworks cost
$300,000, and the sewerage $100,000. Valuation of the
city, $12,000,000.
A. J. Fogg, Ed. of “NEW HAMPSHIRE GAZETTEER.”
Concord, a township of Erie co., N.Y., contains Spring-
ville and other villages. Pop. 3171.
Concord, a post-village, capital of Cabarrus co.,
N. C., on the North Carolina R. R., 20 miles N. E. of Char-
lotte. It has a cotton-factory and two public gins, iron man-
ufactories, foundry, machine-shops, one boys’ and two girls’
academies, a national bank, and a weekly newspaper. There
are large mines in the vicinity. Pop. 878; of township,
I259. CHARLEs F. HARRIs, Ed. ConCORD “SUN.”
Concord, a township of Iredell co., N. C. Pop. 869.
Concord, a township of Randolph co., N. C. P. 1028.
Concord, a township of Champaign co., O. Pop. 1035.
Concord, a township of Delaware co., O. Pop. 1092.
Concord, a township of Fayette co., O. Pop. 981.
Concord, a township of Highland co., O. Pop. 1262.
Concord, a post-township of Lake co., O. Pop. 797.
Concord, a township of Miami co., O. Pop. 4701.
Concord, a township of Ross co., O. Pop. 2772.
Concord, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 926.
Concord, a township and village of Delaware co., Pa.
The village is on the Philadelphia and Baltimore Central
R. R., 25 miles S. W. of Philadelphia. Pop. of township,
1293.
Concord, a township and village of Erie co., Pa. The
village is on the Atlantic and Great Western R. R., about
30 miles N. E. of Meadville. Pop. of township, 1436.
Concord, a township of Clarendon co., S. C. Pop. 800.
Concord, a township of Sumter co., S. C. Pop. 1519.
Concord, a township and post-village of Essex co., Vt.,
37 miles E. N. E. of Montpelier. The township has five
churches, and manufactures of lumber, furniture, starch,
Sash, blinds, cassimeres, and other commodities. Pop. of
township, 1276.
nºncord, a post-township of Jefferson co., Wis. Pop.
Concor'dance [Lat. concordantiae, from concordo, to
“agree”], an index or dictionary in which all the import-
ant words used (verbal concordance) or subjects treated of
(real concordance) in any work are arranged alphabetically,
and references made to the places where they occur. Of
biblical concordances the number is very large. The earliest
was to the Vulgate by Antony of Padua (born in 1195;
died in 1231 A.D.). Next in, order was the Hebrew con-
cordance of Rabbi Isaac Nathan (finished in 1448, pub-
lished in 1523). The first Greek concordance to the New
Testament, by Xystus Betuleius (whose real name was
Birck), appeared in 1546. Kircher's concordance to the
Septuagint appeared in 1607. The best are—For the He-
brew, Fürst (1840); for the New Testament Greek, Bruder
(1853); for the Septuagint, Trommius (1718); for the Vul-
gate, Dutripon (1838). The first English concordance was
by John Marbeck (1550); the best by Alexander Cruden
(1737). The Englishman’s Greek concordance to the New
Testament (1839) is very valuable. Among the chief con-
cordances to the German Bible are those of Lankisch (1677),
Schott (1827), and Hanff (1828–34). The first French con-
cordance was by Mark Wilks (1840). There is a con-
cordance to Shakspeare by Mrs. Mary Cowden Clarke
(1845), and to Tennyson by Brightwell (1869). The special
lexicons, as to Homer by Crusius, and to Plato by Ast, are
essentially concordances.
Concor'dat [Lat. concordata, “things agreed upon,”
from concordo, “to agree;” Fr. concordat; It. concordato],
a treaty in relation to the ecclesiastical affairs of a Roman
Catholic state, between the pope, as head of the Roman
Catholic Church, and the government of that state. The
treaties between the pope and Protestant powers are usually
called conventions. The name concordat was first given to
the treaties made by Pope Martin W. with Germany, France,
and England in 1418. These treaties are called in history
the Concordats of Constance. The name, however, is often
given to various ecclesiastical treaties of older date than the
ones just mentioned.
The usual subjects of concordats have been the right
claimed by the popes to fill vacant sees and benefices, and
to appropriate the whole or a part of the revenues during
the vacancy, as well as to confer on the clergy certain im-
munities from taxation and civil jurisdiction, and to offer
an asylum to criminals. The “Calixtine. Concordat,” one
of the most famous of the earlier treaties of the kind, was
concluded in 1122 between Henry V. of Germany and Pope
Calixtus II., and has since been regarded as a part of the
fundamental law of the Roman Catholic Church of Ger-
many. At Frankfort, in 1446, the electors of Germany
made formal demands upon the pope for the redress of cer-
tain ecclesiastical grievances. These demands were granted
by Pope Eugene IV. in 1447 in the “Concordat of the
Princes,” or “Frankfort Concordat.” This, with the “As-
chaffenburg Concordat,” or “Vienna Concordat,” of 1448,
which granted large powers to the pope, was long of great
importance in the ecclesiastic law of Germany. Concordats
have been chiefly adverse to the popes. Among the most
celebrated concordats was that which Bonaparte as first
consul forced upon Pius VII. (July, 1801), which was rati-
fied in 1802, and has since, for the most part, regulated the
relations of the Gallican Church to the Roman see. The
clergy became subject to the civil power in all temporal
matters; and though the pope in matters of discipline had
very large powers, and was still to confer canonical insti-
tution, the appointment of all the bishoprics was retained
by the government. By the concordat which was entered
into between Rome and Austria, at Vienna on the 18th of
Aug., 1855, the emperor Francis Joseph I. promised that
the pope should have direct communication, free from sur-
veillance by the civil power, with the bishops, clergy, and
people. Bishops were to have free communication with
their clergy and their flocks, and to perform all functions
which are prescribed by the canon law. The whole system
of national education, even in private Schools, was placed
under the control of the Church. No one could teach the-
ology without episcopal permission. The government bound
itself to prevent the dissemination of books pointed out by
the bishops as dangerous to religion. All questions of mar-
riage, except in so far as they involved civil consequences,
were reserved exclusively for the ecclesiastical courts. This
concordat was abrogated without the consent of the pope
in July, 1870. Important conventions were concluded in
the nineteenth century with the Netherlands in 1827, with
Russia in 1847, and with Wurtemberg in 1857. (A com-
plete list of the important concordats is given by A. J.
SCHEM in McClintock and Strong’s “Cyclopaedia.”)
Con/cord, Book of (Concordia, Concordien-Buch), the
collection of the Confessions which are received either by
the entire Lutheran Church or by the larger part of it.
It was published in 1580, and supplanted a great number
of bulky Corpora Doctrinae. . It contains—1, the three
General Creeds, the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian;
2, the Augsburg Confession; 3, the Apology of the Con-
fession; 4, the Schmalcald Articles; 5, the Smaller and
the Larger Catechism of Luther; and 6, the Formula of
ſ
1092
CONCORD, FORMULA OF-CONDE, DE.
Concord, to which the “Book of Concord” is related as the
whole to a part, though the two are often confounded.
(See RRAUTH’s “Conservative Reformation,” art. vii.)
C. P. KRAUTH.
Com’cord, For/mula of (Concordise Formula), the last
part of the “Book of Concord,” in which it appeared, for
the first time, in 1580. It consists of two parts, of which
the first may be said to be the text, the second the commen-
tary, and has an appendix of testimonies. It was occa-
sioned by the vacillations of MELANCHTHON (which see),
real and seeming, the Crypto-Calvinistic and other contro-
versies, and the appearance of a number of Corpora Doc-
trinae objectionable in various respects. Protracted and
patient conferences and labors, in which the greatest divines
of the Lutheran Church, especially Andreae and Chemnitz,
took part, preceded and accompanied the preparation of it.
Eighty-six of the states of the empire united in it. Au-
gustus of Saxony was among its most important promoters.
Its topics are—the Rule of Faith and the Creed, Original
Sin, Free-Will, Justification, Good Works, the Law and
the Gospel, Third Use of the Law, the Lord's Supper, the
Person of Christ, the Descent into Hell, Ceremonies, the
Adiaphora, Predestination, various sects and heresies. “The
war of the Formula was fought for great principles; it was
bravely and uncompromisingly fought, but it was fought
magnanimously under the old banner of the Cross. It was
crowned with victory, and that victory brought peace.”
(See KRAUTH’s “Conservative Reformation, and its The-
ology,” art. vii.) C. P. KRAUTH.
Comcor' dia, a goddess of the Roman mythology, may
be considered a personification of domestic concord and of
harmony between several classes of the body politic. Sev-
eral temples were erected to her in ancient Rome. The
sessions of the senate were sometimes held in the Temple
of Concord (AEdes Concordiae).
Concordia, a parish in the N. E. of Louisiana. Area,
790 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Missis-
sippi River, on the W. by the Washita, and on the S. W.
by the Red River. The surface is level, low, and subject
to inundation; the soil is fertile. Cotton is the staple crop.
Capital, Vidalia. Pop. 9977.
Concordia, a post-village, capital of Cloud co., Kan.,
on the Republican River, about 60 miles N. W. of Junction
City. It has one weekly newspaper.
Concord River, of Middlesex co., Mass., is formed
by the junction of the Assabet and Sudbury Rivers, at the
village of Concord. It flows northward, and enters the
Merrimack near Lowell. The scenery of this river has
been described by Thoreau in his work entitled “A Week
on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers.”
Conſcow, a township of Butte co., Cal. Pop. 490.
Conſcrete [from the Lat. concresco, concretum, to “grow
together”], in philosophy, is a term applied to any quality
which is considered in connection with the object to which
it belongs; a quality not concrete is abstract. Thus “wis-
dom” is an abstract quality; but when we speak of a “wise
man,” the quality becomes concrete.
Conſcrete, a compound of hydraulic cement or of mor-
tar with gravel, which hardens into a stone-like mass. It
is sometimes moulded into blocks and used as an artificial
building-stone, but more often it constitutes the foundation
of buildings which would otherwise have to rest upon sand
or insecure earth. It is also used as a flooring for cellars,
and is said to effectually prevent the rising of miasmata
and vapors from the earth. The name concrete is often
applied to a mixture of coal-tar or asphaltum with gravel,
much employed for walks or pavements, and also used as a
roofing-material. (See CEMENT, by GEN. Q. A. GILLMORE,
U. S. Army.) --- *
Concreſtion [Lat. concretio, from con, “together,”
and cresco, cretum, to “grow ’’), in medicine, an extraneous
solid which accumulates within the body. Concretions
may be chemical precipitates from the secretions, and as
such occur in the bladder, the gall-cyst, or salivary ducts.
These are called calculi, and are sometimes of organic and
Sometimes of non-organic matter. Again, concretions may
be of phosphate or carbonate of lime, occurring in tuber-
cular or other degenerate masses; while in the joints they
are sometimes of urate of soda, as in “gouty concretions.”
Within the alimentary canal they are often composed of
hair which has been swallowed, or of cholesterin, and some-
times of magnesia salts. --
Concuſ binage [Lat. concubinatus, from con, “to-
gether,” and cubo, to “lie ’’), a term used to denote the re-
lation of a man and woman who habitually cohabit without
lawful marriage; or, more frequently, a kind of inferior
marriage, which does not give the woman the legal position
of a wife. Concubinage was lawful among the ancient He-
brews, as the cases of Abraham, Jacob, and many other
examples show. Concubinage in ancient Rome was often
a union between persons who could not legally intermarry
on account of difference in rank. It appears that in general
the children of a concubine were illegitimate among the
Romans, though many examples of their apparent legiti-
macy have been adduced. The Church of Rome never for-
mally forbade concubinage until the Council of Trent. The
Protestant churches have uniformly opposed it, as contrary
to the spirit of Christianity. The only relic of legalized
concubinage in enlightened countries is MORGANATIC MAR-
RIAGE (which see).
Concur/rent, acting in conjunction; agreeing in the
Same act or opinion ; contributing to the same event.
Jurisdiction is said to be concurrent or cumulative when it
may be exercised in the same cause by any one of two or
more courts. To prevent the collision which might arise
from each of the courts claiming to exercise the right, it
has been established as a rule that the judge who first exer-
cises jurisdiction in the cause acquires a right jure praeven-
tionis to judge in it, exclusive of the others. This right of
prevention appears to be peculiar to criminal jurisdiction.
Concus'sion [from the Lat. concutio, concussum, to
“shake violently” (from con, intensive, and quatio, quassum,
to “shake”)], in surgery, the disturbance caused by a fall
or blow. In all severe injuries a concussion or shock is
caused to the nervous system, which may require the as-
siduous care of a physician. (See SHOCK.)
CoNCUSSION OF THE BRAIN [Lat. commotio cerebrij some-
times causes alarming symptoms, even to suppression of
the functions of the brain, yet without any apparent organic
disease. Slight concussion of the brain (popularly called
“stunning”) causes vertigo, loss of memory, tinnitus aurium,
and stupefaction; but these are temporary. When more
severe, there is loss of sensation and volition, with vomiting,
the patient being apparently in a sound sleep, but without
stertorous breathing. The pulse is variable, being more
rapid and feeble than in compression of the brain; the ex-
tremities are cold. Little can be done until reaction occurs,
when the case can be treated according to general princi-
ples. In some cases of concussion it is necessary to use
local or general stimulants, but usually moderate heat ap-
plied to the surface, abundant supplies of air, and proper
adjustment of the injured parts are all that are required
until consciousness is partly restored, when a small portion
of wine or other stimulant may be useful. The effect of these
should be carefully noted, and the patient should be placed
in a comfortable position in bed during the process. In
all cases absolute rest is essential. If the concussion has
been severe, the patient is often not secure until a long time
after, even though apparently well, for serious nervous le-
sions may be slowly developed.
REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Concussion Fuse. See FUSE.
Condamine, La (CHARLES MARIE), a French savant,
born Jan. 28, 1701, accompanied Bouguer to Peru, 1736, in
order to determine the figure of the earth. He published
an “Account of a Journey to South America” (1745) and
“The Figure of the Earth Determined ” (1749). Died Feb.
4, 1774.
Condé, a town of France, department of Nord, at the
confluence of the Haine and Scheldt, 7 miles N. N. E. of
Valenciennes. It is well built, and has strong fortifications
constructed by Vauban. It has a town-hall, an arsenal,
and a military hospital; also manufactures of chicory,
starch, cordage, and leather. It has been several times
besieged, and was taken by the Austrians in 1793. The
princes of Condé derived their title from this town. Pop.
in 1866, 4642.
Condé, de (HENRI I. DE Bourbon), PRINCE, born Dec.
9, 1552, was a son of Louis I. (see below). He was a
cousin of Henry of Navarre, and joined the Protestant
army about 1584. He died Mar. 5, 1588, and it is supposed
he was poisoned by his servant. He left a son, Henry II.,
prince de Condé, who was educated a Catholic, and was the
father of the great Condé. Died in 1646.
Condé, de (Louis HENRI Joseph), PRINCE, styled also
DUKE of Bourbon, the last of the line of Condé, was born
in 1756. He was the father of the duc d'Enghien, who was
murdered in 1804. Condé fought against the Trench Re-
public (1792–1800), and was found dead in 1830, having
died by violence, and perhaps by his own hand.
Condé, de (Louis I. DE Bourbon), PRINCE, an eminent
French general, born at Vendôme May 7, 1530, a son of
Charles de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme, brother of Antony
of Bourbon, and uncle of Henry IV. As an adversary of
the family of Guise he took a prominent part in the con-
spiracy of Amboise in 1559. He was the general-in-chief
of the Huguenots in the civil war which began in 1562.
He was defeated and taken prisoner at Dreux in that year.
CONDE, DE—CONDITION. 1093
In 1567 he commanded at the battle of Saint-Dénis. Hav-
ing been defeated and wounded at the battle of Jarnac,
Mar. 15, 1569, he was killed after he had surrendered. (See
DESORMEAUx, “Histoire de la Maison de Condé.”)
Condé, de (LOUIs II. DE Bourbon), PRINCE, styled
THE GREAT CONDä, a celebrated French general, born in
Paris Sept. 8, 1621, was a son of Henri II., prince of
Condé, and was the first prince of the blood. In his youth
he was called the duc d'Enghien. He married, in 1641,
Clarie Clémence de Maillé-Brézé, a niece of Cardinal
Richelieu. In May, 1643, he gained a signal victory over
the Spaniards at Rocroi. He defeated the Bavarian gen-
eral Mercy at Nordlingen in 1645, and inherited his father's
title in 1646. He gained a decisive victory over the Span-
iards at Lens in 1648. In the civil war of the Fronde,
which began in 1649, he at first supported Mazarin and
the royalist party. Early in 1650 he was arrested by Maz-
arin, whom he offended by his haughty conduct. After he
had been confined nearly a year he was released, and
raised an army to fight against the court. He marched in
1652 against Paris, which was defended with success by Tu-
renne. In 1653 he was condemned to death, and entered
the service of the king of Spain, who gave him command
of an army in Flanders. He was there opposed to Turenne,
over whom he could not gain much advantage. The war
was ended by a treaty between France and Spain in 1659.
The prince of Condé was then pardoned, and returned to
the service of the French king. Having obtained the com-
mand of an army in Flanders, he fought an indecisive bat-
tle at Seneffe against William, prince of Orange, in 1674.
Died Dec. 11, 1686. “The art of war,” says Voltaire,
“seemed in him a matural instinct.” Bossuet pronounced
a funeral oration on him. (See DESORMEAUx, “Histoire de
Louis, Prince de Condé,” 4 vols., 1768; LoRD MAHON,
“Life of the Prince of Condé,” 1840; Wolt AIRE, “Siècle
de Louis XIV.”)
Condé, de (Louis Joseph DE Bourbon), PRINCE, the
only son of the duke of Bourbon, was born Aug. 9, 1736. He
served with distinction in the Seven Years' war (1755–62),
and emigrated as a royalist in 1789. He led the French
emigrants who in 1792 fought against the republic in co-
operation with the Austrian army. He disbanded his corps
of emigrants, 1801, returned to France, 1814, and died May
13, 1818. -
Condensa/tion [Lat. condensatio, from con, and densus,
“ dense, compact”], the act of rendering a body more dense
and compact by bringing its particles into closer proximity
and increasing its specific gravity. The term is often ap-
plied to the conversion of a vapor or gas into a liquid or
solid either by pressure or by the agency of cold.
Condensed Milk. See MILK, by PROF. C. F. CHAND-
LER, PH. D., LL.D.
Condensing Steam-Engine. See STEAM-ENGINE,
by PROF. W. P. TRow BRIDGE.
Condé-sur-Noireau, a town of France, department
of Calvados, on the river Noireau, 23 miles S. S. W. of
Caen. It has manufactures of muslim, linen, woollens, cut-
lery, and leather. Pop. 6643.
Conſdict (John), a surgeon in the Revolutionary war,
born in 1755, was a member of Congress from New Jersey
(1799–1803 and 1819–20), and U. S. Senator (1803–17).
Died at Orange, N. J., May 4, 1834.
Conſdie (D. FRANCIs), M. D., an American physician
and author, was born in Philadelphia May 12, 1796, and
graduated as M. D. at the University of Pennsylvania in
1818. He has published, besides other works, “Diseases
of Children’’ (4th ed., 1854), edited Churchill’s “Diseases
of Women,” and contributed much to the periodical litera-
ture of his profession.
Condillac, de (ÉTIENNE BonnoT), ABBſ. DE MUREAUx,
an eminent French philosopher, born at Grenoble in 1715,
was a brother of the abbé de Mably. He associated in
his youth with J. J. Rousseau and Diderot. In 1746 he
published an ingenious “Essay on the Origin of Human
Knowledge” (“Essai sur l'origine des connaissances hu-
maines,” 2 vols.), and in 1749 a “Treatise on Systems”
(“Traité des Systèmes,” 2 vols.). His reputation was
*widely extended by his admirable “Treatise on Sensa-
tions” (“Traité des Sensations,” 3 vols., 1754). He was
chosen a member of the French Academy in 1768. He
adopted the theory that our knowledge and ideas are de-
rived from the operations of the senses. Died Aug. 3, 1780.
Among his works is “The Art of Thinking,” forming part
of a series entitled “Cours d’Etudes.” He argues that
man owes the development of his faculties to the use of
signs. His complete works appeared in 1798 (23 vols.;
new ed. 1824, T6 vols.). (See RoBERT, “Les Théories
logiques de Condillac,” 1869.)
Con'dit, a township of Champaign co., Ill. Pop. 755.
Condi’tion [Lat. conditio, from condo, conditum, to
“build” or “found”], in logic, denotes that which must
precede the operation of a cause, that which must exist as
the ground or necessary adjunct of something else. For
instance, when an impression is made on wax by a seal, the
seal is said to be the cause of the impression, and the soft-
ness of the wax is a condition.
CoNDITION, in law, has several significations. 1. In
the Civil Law.—The principal case here is a clause in
a contract, whereby a party, anticipating that an event
may produce some change which he is desirous to guard
against, provides what shall be done in case the event
happens. For example, if it is provided that if a house
that is sold is found to be subject to a certain burden or
servitude the sale shall be void, the provision is a con-
dition. Conditions were classified in an artificial manner
(for which see Pothºr on “Obligations,” DoMAT, and other
text-writers). 2. In common law, it means the status of a
person in respect to his legal rights, capacities, and dis-
abilities. (The subject will be more fully considered under
the word STATUs.) 3. In common law it further means a
qualification or restriction annexed to an estate arising
either upon a conveyance or under a will, whereby the estate
is created or enlarged or defeated, or a like clause affecting
the existence of an instrument or the operation of a contract.
The leading instance to be considered is a qualification an-
nexed to an estate. It is important, at the outset, to dis-
tinguish between a condition and a covenant. A condition
either enlarges or defeats an estate; a covenant is a mere
engagement under seal to do an act. If a condition be
broken, the estate either does not exist at all, or, if vested,
the grantor may by appropriate means defeat it. In case
a covenant is broken, the remedy is to sue for damages, or
to compel the covenantor to perform it, or to prevent him
by injunction from breaking it. The same act may by
suitable words have imparted to it both the character of
a condition and a covenant, when a grantor will have
his choice of remedies. Conditions as to their form are
either express or implied; as to their relation to the es-
tate, they are either precedent or subsequent. A condition
is said to be precedent when it precedes the vesting or
enlarging of the estate; it is subsequent when, the estate
having vested, its regular effect is to defeat it. The dis-
tinction does not depend upon any form of words, but
upon the intent of the parties. . It will be observed that the
regular effect of a condition subsequent is to lead to a for-
feiture. As the spirit of the law is opposed to forfeiture,
it is governed by technical rules that would not be applied
in case of a mere action upon a promise or covenant.
Great care must be taken not to confound rules which
appertain to the one subject with those which prevail in
the other. It is an elementary rule that a condition sub-
sequent does not affect the mature of the estate; it only
qualifies it to this extent, that in the happening of the speci-
fied event it may be made to terminate before its natural
expiration. Thus, an estate in fee or for life or for years
remains a member of its class, though it may be defeated
by the happening of the event which is called a condition.
It should also be stated that the happening of the pre-
scribed event does not of itself defeat the estate. There
must be an affirmative act on the part of the grantor
whereby he repossesses himself of his estate. This is
technically called a “re-entry.” In well-drawn instru-
ments a power of re-entry is expressly reserved. This
rule is so rigidly adhered to that if a lease should prescribe
that an estate of a tenant should, on the happening of an
event, be null and void, a re-entry would still be necessary.
This rule leads to an important principle, that the right to
take advantage of the forfeiture may be waived expressly
or by implication, as where rent upon a lease is accepted
with knowledge of the cause of forfeiture. The technical
rules of the common law do not apply to testamentary
provisions or legacies of personal property, as that branch
of jurisprudence was developed by the ecclesiastical courts
from the Roman law. Much caution is accordingly neces-
sary in discriminating between devises of land and legacies
of personal property, for, though in the same instrument,
they will be governed by different rules. The rule that the
grantor must re-enter is to be confined to a strict case of
condition. It does not apply to a conditional limitation.
The distinction between the two should be pointed out. In
a condition the estate on the happening of the prescribed
event is to return to the grantor; in a conditional limita-
tion it is to pass over to a third person... An illustration
will show the difference between them. Thus, if a testator
should give his daughter an estate to be defeated in case
she entered a convent, there would be a condition; but if
he had added that in the event supposed it should go to
his brother, it would be a conditional limitation. The main
importance of the distinction is, that in case of the con-
ditional limitation no re-entry is necessary, and the estate
1094
CONDITIONED, PHILOSOPHY OF THE–CONE.
on the happening of the event passes at once to the person
designated. (The law of conditions will be found in the
works on real property, such as WASHBURN, CRUISE, and
HILLIARD, and to a certain extent in works on landlord
and tenant, such as TAYLOR.) T. W. DWIGHT.
Conditioned, Philosophy of the, a name given
to the system of Sir William Hamilton. It is a devel-
opment and application of the general principle of the
Antinomies of Kant. It regards the judgment of cau-
sality as derived from an impotence of the mind—the
principle of the conditioned—the law that the conceiv-
able has always two opposite extremes, and that the
extremes are equally inconceivable. We conceive of ex-
istence as conditioned in time, and thus expressing at once
and in relation the three categories of thought which afford
us in combination the principle of causality, the law of
which is that when an object is presented phenomenally as
commencing, we cannot but suppose that the complement
of existence which it now contains has previously been.
(See HAMILTON’s “Metaphysics,” lect. xxxviii., xxxix.)
C. P. KRAUTH.
Condom, a town of France, department of Gers, on the
Bayse, here crossed by two bridges, 24 miles N. N. W. of
Auch.
manufactures of cotton and mixed fabrics.
in 721 A. D. Pop. 8140.
Condona’tion [Lat. condonatioj, in the law of divorce,
means the conditional forgiveness of an offence for which,
without such forgiveness, a divorce may be obtained. In
form it may be either express or implied. It is sometimes
difficult to decide whether the acts are of such a nature as
to justify an implication of forgiveness. Cohabitation of
the parties with knowledge that the offence has been com—
mitted, and with the means of establishing its commission
in a court of justice, will lead to an implication of forgive-
ness. Condonation is conditional in this sense, that a repe-
tition of the offence revives the original charge. According
to some authorities, the original charge may be revived by
the commission of an offence of an inferior grade. The for-
giveness is said to imply that the innocent party shall in
all respects be treated kindly. The point, however, is not
fully settled. When an offence has been condoned and not
repeated, it must be treated as though it had never existed.
The original charge is blotted out conditionally. (The sub-
ject will be found fully treated in the treatises on divorce,
such as BISHOP and Poy NTER. The ecclesiastical reports
in England and those of the court of divorce may be ad-
vantageously referred to.) -
Conſdor [a Spanish word of Peruvian origin], the
It has a noble Gothic church, two hospitals, and
It was founded
Condor.
Vultur or Sarcorhamphus gryphus, or Gryphus typus, the
great vulture of the Andes, the largest known bird of prey;
it is four feet high. The average expanse of wing is not
over nine feet. It is not much larger than the lămmer-
geyer, but it has a more gigantic appearance than that of
any other bird except the ostrich.
The condor is known to soar to the height of nearly six
miles, far above ordinary clouds, and thence to survey the
vast expanse in search of prey. This rarefied space, in-
capable of long sustaining human life, is his native air, and
he only descends to capture his prey. Condors rarely attack
human beings, notwithstanding their gigantic size and
strength. They pursue the deer, the llama, and young
cattle, and devour them with great voracity. After these
meals they are almost unable to fly, and are easily caught
by the Indians. The eggs are white, and three or four
inches long; they are deposited on the bare rocks, as the
condor makes no nest. The female guards the young for
a year; they are for several months covered with down or
soft frizzled hair which causes them to appear almost as
large as the adult. The condor is found in the Cordilleras
of South and Central America and Mexico, and is said to
inhabit the southern range of the Rocky Mountains, but
it is found chiefly in the highest peaks of the Andes.
Condorget, de (MARIE JEAN ANTOINE NICOLAs CARI-
TAT), MARQUIs, an eminent French philosopher and mathe-
matician, born at Ribemont, in Picardy, Sept. 17, 1743, of
an ancient family of Dauphiné. He studied in the college
of Navarre, and became in 1762 a resident of Paris. Hav-
ing written an “Essay on the Integral Calculus,” he was
admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1769. He was
an intimate friend of D’Alembert. In 1777 he was chosen
perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences, and in
1782 was admitted into the French Academy. He had a
large share in the “Encyclopédie.” He favored the pop-
ular cause in 1789, wrote several able political treatises, and
published the influential “Feuille villageoise,” and was
elected to the National Convention in 1792. He was a
moderate republican, and voted generally with the Girond-
ists. He married in 1786 Sophie, sister of Gen. Grouchy,
noted for her beauty (born in 1764, died in 1822). Having
been proscribed by the Jacobins in May, 1793, he remained
secreted in the house of a friend in Paris for eight months.
During this period he wrote a “Historical Sketch of the
Progress of the Human Mind” (“Esquisse d’un Tableau
historique des Progrès de l’Esprit Humain,” 1795). This
is regarded as his greatest work. He believed in human
perfectibility, and had noble ideas of human destiny. He
quitted his place of refuge early in 1794 in order to enjoy
a rural excursion, was arrested, and confined in prison at
Bourg-la-Reine, where he took poison and died Mar. 28,
1794. “Thus died,” says Lamartine, “this Seneca of the
modern school. The day of recognition has not come for
him, but it will come and will exculpate his memory from
reproach.” A collection of his numerous works was pub-
lished by O’Connor and Arago (12 vols., 1847–49). (See
D. F. ARAgo, “Biographie de Condorcet,” 1849.)
Condottie’ri, an Italian word signifying “conduc-
tors,” was applied to the mercenaries who during the
Italian wars in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries took
service under any prince or government that chose to en-
gage them. They consisted principally of heavy-armed cav-
alry, and for a long period the wars of Italy were left en-
tirely to them. There came to be an understanding between
them to spare their troops as much as possible, until at
length battles were fought with little more hazard than
would be incurred in a tourney. Among the most celebrated
were Lodrisio, about 1339; Fra Moreale, 1350; Guarneri,
Lando, and Francisco di Carmagnola, about 1412; Fran-
cisco Sforza, about 1450; and the English Hawkwood.
Conduction. See HEAT, by PROF. W. P. TRoWBRIDGE,
and ELECTRICITY, by PREs. HENRY MORTON, PH. D.
Conduc’tor [from the Lat. com, intensive, and duco,
ductum, to “lead”], a leader, a guide, a director, or com-
mander. Conductor in music is the person placed at the
head of a band of musicians to lead the performance and
beat the time. The term is applied to a person who has
charge of a train of railway cars and receives the fare.
Also a metallic lightning-rod or other substance through
which electricity will pass freely. (See ELECTRICITY.) The
metals are the best conductors of electricity. Among the
numerous non-conductors are glass, wax, silk, Wool, resin,
caoutchóuc, amber, gems, sulphur, lime, and dry air.
Cone [Gr, kóvos; Lat. conus], in mathematics, the name
of a solid whose surface is generated by a straight line
moved in such a manner as to pass through a fixed point
and to touch continually a given curve or directrix. The
fixed point is called the vertea : the part of the cone on
which the directrix lies is the lower nappe, and the other
part is the upper mappe. There are many varieties of the
cone, but the term is usually applied to those having cir-
cular bases. The most common kind is the right cone,
which may be conceived as being generated by the revolu-
tion of a right-angled triangle round one of its legs. The
line from the apex of a come to the centre of the base is
called the axis, and in the right cone it is perpendicular to
the base. In the oblique come the axis is inclined to the
plane of the base at an angle other than a right angle. A
truncated cone is the lower part of a cone cut by a plane
parallel to the base. Four curves, called the conic sections,
may be formed by a plane cutting the right cone... If the
cone be cut by a plane parallel to the base, the section is a
circle; if the plane cut the come across, making any angle

CONE—CONFEDERATE STATES.
1095
other than a right angle with its axis, the section is an
ellipse. If the cutting plane be parallel to the side, the
Section will be a parabola. In every other case than those
stated the section will be a hyperbola, unless section is
made through the apex, when a point is produced. Hence
the point is one of the conic sections. If two cones were
set one above the other, point to point, the one being a
continuation of the other through the apex, or, more strictly,
if a cone be regarded as consisting of two nappes, as in the
definition given, the plane producing the hyperbolic section
would cut the second as well as the first, though none of the
other planes would. There are thus two equal branches of
the hyperbola belonging to the two mappes of a cone.
Cone [Lat. 8trobilus ; Gr. Kövos and atpóBuAos], in bot-
any, is a term applied to a collective fruit and form of in-
florescence sometimes called a Strobile, which is a spike
furnished with scales, each of which has two naked seeds
at its base. Such cones are characteristic of the trees of
the natural order Coniferae, and are so called because some
of them are conical in form. The scales of true cones are
closely compacted together, until they separate to permit
the dispersion of the seeds. In some of the Coniferae the
fruit assumes a berry-like form. The Greeks called the
cone orpó8w80s, from otpédo, to “twist,” alluding to the
beautiful spiral arrangement of the scales.
Cone (SPENCER Houghton), D. D., born in Princeton,
N. J., April 30, 1785, pursued a partial course at the Col-
lege of New Jersey, became an actor, and played with
great success for seven years, principally in Philadelphia.
From 1812 to 1815 he was an editor in Baltimore, and had
command of a company of volunteers which were called
into service during the war of 1812. He was ordained to
the Baptist ministry in 1815, was pastor at Alexandria,
Va. (1816–23), Oliver Street church, New York, 1823–41,
First Baptist church, New York (1841–55), and was noted
as a pulpit orator and presiding officer, and as an advocate
of a new version of the Bible into English. Died in New
York Aug. 23, 1855.
Cone/cuh, a county in the S. of Alabama. Area, 750
square miles. It is drained by the Sepulga River. The
surface is uneven ; the soil is sandy and mostly poor. Cot-
ton and wool are produced. Pine lumber is procured in the
forests. It is intersected by the Mobile and Montgomery
R. R. Capital, Evergreen. Pop. 95.74. *.
Coneglia'no, a town of Italy, in the province of Tre-
viso, on a railway, 30 miles N. of Venice. It has a cathe-
dral, and silk and woollen manufactures. Pop. 6834.
Conejos, a county of Colorado, bordering on New
Mexico. It is bounded on the E. by the Rio Grande del
Norte. It is generally well watered and timbered, and has
much good grazing-land. The W. part is occupied by the
Ute reservation. Cattle and wool are staple products. The
surface is partly mountainous. Gold and silver are found
abundantly. It comprises part of the beautiful and fertile
San Luis Park. Capital, Conejos. Pop. 2504.
Conejos, a post-village, capital of Conejos co., Col., on
one of the head-streams of the Rio Grande.
Conſemaugh', a post-borough of Cambria co., Pa., on
the Conemaugh River and the Central R. R., 80 miles E.
of Pittsburg and 2 miles E. of Johnstown. Pop. 2336.
Conemaugh, a township of Cambria co., Pa. P. 728.
Conemaugh, a township of Indiana co., Pa. P. 1493.
Conemaugh, a township of Somerset co., Pa. P. 1172.
Cone-Shells (Conidae), a family of prosobranchiate
gasteropodous mollusks, of the section Siphonostomata,
having a shell of inversely conical form; the spire on the
base of the cone (sometimes a sharp point, sometimes
almost flat); the aperture long, narrow, and straight, ex-
tending from the base of the cone to its apex. The animal
is carnivorous, and has a proboscis capable of much exten-
sion. The shell is covered with an epidermis. The mol-
lusks of the genus Conus inhabit shores and banks of sandy
mud, chiefly within the tropics, a few only occurring in the
Mediterranean. More than 270 living species are known,
besides many fossils. The genus Pleurostoma is of nearly
world-wide distribution, and has about 450 living species,
with 300 fossil ones. Most of the living species are marine.
These two genera constitute the family, and are for conve-
nience divided into many sub-genera. Many of these shells
are very beautiful. -
Comesto'ga, a post-township of Lancaster co., Pa.,
in the Conestoga Valley, which gives name to a once cele-
brated stock of large horses. Pop. 2079.
Cone'sus, a township and post-village of Livingston
co., N. Y. The village is on a branch of the Erie R. R., 38
miles S. of Rochester. Pop. 1362. -
Conesus Centre, a post-village of Conesus township,
Livingston co., N. Y. Pop. 237.
Conesville, a post-township of Schoharie co., N. Y.
Pop. 1314.
Cones, Wolcanic. See VoICANOEs, by PROF. ARNOLD
GUYoT, PH. D., LL.D.
Conewa/go, a township of Adams co., Pa. Pop. 1029.
Conewago, a township and village of York co., Pa.
The village is on the Northern Central R. R., 17 miles S. E.
of Harrisburg. Pop. 1382.
Conewago, a township of Dauphin co., Pa. P. 831.
Conewan/go, a post-township of Cattaraugus co., N.Y.
Pop. 1281.
Conewango, a township of Warren co., Pa. P. 1212.
Coney Island, a place of summer resort, is in the
Atlantic, 11 miles S. of the city of New York, and is near
the S. W. extremity of Long Island. It is 13 miles long.
Bere are several hotels for the accommodation of visitors.
It is the terminus of the Brooklyn Bath and Coney Island
R. R. -
Confarrea/tion [Lat., farreum or confarreatio, from
con, “together,” and far, “meal”], a mode of marriage
among the ancient Romans practised by the patricians only.
It consisted in the employment of certain words in the
presence of ten witnesses, and in the performance of a re-
ligious ceremony in which panis farreus, a peculiar kind
of bread, was eaten by bridegroom and bride. The offices
of Flamen Dialis, Flamen Mercurialis, and Flamen Quiri-
nalis were open only to those who were born of parents
thus married. The custom probably did not come down to
the time of Caesar.
Confed’eracy [Lat. confoederatio, from con, “to-
gether,” and foedus (gen. foederis), a “league’], a federal
compact; an alliance or league of independent states; sev-
eral states or nations united by a league; a coalition. In
law, a combination of two or more persons to commit an
unlawful act. The term confederacy has often been applied
to the government of the U. S.
Confederate States, or Southern Confederacy.
The earlier authentic assertions of a right (alleged therein
to have been reserved by the States in ratifying the Federal
Constitution) to resist the constituted authorities and sub-
vert the laws of the Union when one or more of those States
should adjudge any exercise of Federal authority unwar-
ranted by the said Constitution, were made by the legisla-
ture of Kentucky in 1798, and by that of Virginia in 1799;
the Kentucky resolves in which this doctrine was formulated
having been prepared by Thomas Jefferson, as those of Vir-
ginia were by James Madison. In neither case did these
resolves appear to contemplate disunion, but rather a nulli-
fication of the obnoxious Federal act by the sovereign power
of a State. The first distinct avowal of disunion sentiment
was made on the floor of the House of Representatives by
Josiah Quincy (of Boston, Massachusetts), who, in oppos-
ing the purchase of Louisiana, asserted that this measure
(which he agreed with its author, President Jefferson, in
pronouncing unconstitutional) virtually dissolved the Union,
so that the States were freed from its obligations and should
prepare for peaceable or forcible separation. This avowal
elicited little sympathy or approval. Again, during our
last war with Great Britain (1814–15) some of the more
ardent Federalists of New England, being intensely hostile
to that war, openly advocated secession, and a convention
held by them at Hartford, Connecticut, was popularly and
not unreasonably regarded as impelled by a spirit inimical
to the Union. Hence, the members of this convention were
ever after under the ban of public opinion, and the Federal
party never regained the public confidence. Again, when
the North and South came into fierce collision respecting
slavery on the question of admitting Missouri as a slave
State, menaces of disunion if she were excluded were heard
—this time from the South. When in 1828 Congress passed
a stringently protective tariff, South Carolina, under the
lead of John C. Calhoun, George McDuffie, and General
James Hamilton, Jr., threatened to nullify the operation
of that act within her own borders; and, though that tariff
was modified in 1832, she adhered to her resolve and pro-
ceeded to call a convention whereby the existing tariff was
pronounced null and void, General Jackson, then Presi-
dent, denied her right to do this with effect in a vigorous
and masterly proclamation, whereof Edward Livingston,
secretary of state, was understood to be the scribe, and, in
some degree, the author. Congress proceeded to modify still
further the tariff, and South Carolina thereupon waived the
execution of her ordinance; so a collision was averted.
African slavery, which, though the slaves were few at the
North, had been all but universal, became at length dis-
tinctively Southern, and was reprobated by an intelligent,
conscientious, growing minority at the North. They agi-
tated for the overthrow of human bondage, regardless of
years.
1096
CONFEDERATE STATES.
the fact that the Federal Constitution conferred on Con-
gress or the non-slaveholding States no power over the do-
mestic institutions of the South. Prophecies and threats
of disunion were now freely uttered in the slave States.
The question of organizing new Territories from the public
domain constantly inflamed this controversy; the South
insisting that her people had a right to migrate to any Ter-
ritory, and there hold their slaves as in their own States;
the North denying this, and demanding the conservation
of the national domain to free labor. Another compromise
in 1850 essayed to end this dispute, but with poor success,
the collisions between free and slave labor which followed
the organization (in 1854) of Kansas as a Territory widen-
ing and deepening the agitation. An attempt to array the
South under the banner of State Rights against the com-
promise of 1850 had broken down, even South Carolina re-
fusing to sustain it; but when, in 1860, Abraham Lincoln had
been chosen President, on a platform of resistance to sla-
very extension, by all the electoral votes of the free States
except three of the seven cast from New Jersey, the long-med-
itated struggle for disunion was,inaugurated by South Caro-
lina, whose legislature was then holding a called session.
A convention was summoned, which promptly met and by
ordinance (December 20) declared the State no longer in
the Union—Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, Louisi-
ana, and Texas following her example, making seven States
in all which had declared themselves out of the Union be-
fore Mr. Lincoln was inaugurated (March 4, 1861). Some
of these were barely carried for secession, and in none but
South Carolina was the step taken with an approach to
unanimity. The other eight slave States, though urged to
unite in secession, refused to do so, mainly by overwhelm-
ing majorities. In pursuance of an invitation from South
Carolina, the seceded States, forming an aggregate popula-
tion of 2,656,948 free persons and 2,312,046 slaves, sent dele-
gates to a convention which met at Montgomery, Alabama,
February 4, 1861, and promptly formed a confederacy under
a constitution modelled on that of the Union, except that it
expressly asserted the right to take slaves into any State or
Territory of said Confederacy, and there hold them as prop-
erty. Of this Confederacy, Jefferson Davis of Mississippi
was made President, and Alexander H. Stephens of Geor-
gia Vice-President—at first pro tem., but they were in due
time chosen without opposition for a regular term of six
Confederacy, and its first Congress there assembled.
Hostilities against the Union were inaugurated by Con-
federates while Mr. Buchanan (who offered no resistance)
was still President. General David E. Twiggs had will-
ingly surrendered (February 18) to them at Indianola,
Texas, the largest Federal force anywhere embodied; the
detachments guarding our Mexican and Indian frontiers
were likewise captured, and their arms and munitions treated
as spoils of war; the Federal sub-treasury at New Orleans,
containing $500,000, had been turned over to the new gov-
ernment, as had several national fortresses and vessels; so
that when Mr. Lincoln assumed the duties of President the
war had been fairly inaugurated on the side of the Confed-
eracy, but not on that of the Union. Still, he forbore to
initiate hostilities—unless the sending of food to the hun-
gry garrisons of the Southern forts still held for the Union
could be deemed such—until fire was opened (April 12),
by express, repeated orders from the Confederate war de-
partment, upon Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor, South
Carolina, on an islet which had been all but created by
Federal effort and expenditure. Batteries had been erected
without opposition so near it that this fort was reduced
within thirty-six hours; its garrison of seventy men, under
Major Robert Anderson, being allowed to march out, salute
their flag, and be transported northward, not prisoners of
War.
A tremendous excitement was produced throughout the
country by tidings of this almost bloodless cannonade. At
the South it was regarded as at once a general call to arms
and an omen of easy, speedy triumph. At the North, where
the hope of a peaceable solution had till this time been
obstinately cherished, it was received with momentary
amazement, followed by intense indignation. “It is an
impeachment of our manhood—a challenge to fight !” was
the general exclamation. Partisanship, hitherto rampant,
of the South, as wronged and outraged by Northern aboli-
tionism, was overawed and silenced; the national flag was
everywhere displayed; President Lincoln called out for
three months 75,000 militia to “repossess the forts, places,
and property which had been seized from the Union.” But
part of the regiments called out were to be furnished by
Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri,
and Arkansas, whose Democratic governors spurned the
call as a usurpation, and by Maryland and Delaware, whose
authorities were little better inclined to the suppression of
secession by force of arms. Virginia, whose convention,
Montgomery was continued as the capital of the
then in session, had previously refused by two to one to se-
cede, now passed an ordinance of secession, and North Caro-
lina soon followed the example, as Tennessee and Arkansas
did somewhat later. Governor Claiborne F. Jackson tried to
lead Missouri the same road, but the convention called at
his beck utterly refused, so that he was obliged to raise
Confederate troops and inaugurate civil war by virtue solely
of his executive authority. He was speedily arrested by
the prompt, decisive action of Captain Nathaniel Lyon
and Francis P. Blair, Jr., who raised a force which captured
his “Camp Jackson,” near St. Louis, and most of the men
he had assembled; and he was soon forced to flee the
State, which, though its people were pretty evenly divided,
adhered to the Union, as did Kentucky under kindred
auspices. These two last were for years ostensibly repre-
sented in the Confederate Congress, but not by their own
choice. When the Confederacy was full grown it embraced
the States of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina,
Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, Tennessee, Arkan-
sas, Louisiana, and Texas—eleven in all—covering nearly
half of the inhabited area of the Union, with rather less
than a third of its people. Considering, however, that
Rentucky, Missouri, and Maryland contributed largely,
persistently, to the Confederate armies, it is fair to esti-
mate the practical Confederate strength at one-half that of
the States which remained loyal to the Union.
The Confederate Congress, two days after Mr. Lincoln's
inauguration, had authorized the raising of a military force
of 100,000 men, to be under the chief command of Presi-
dent Davis. The States which had seized forts, arms, ves-
sels, money, and other public property of the Union were
requested to turn them over to the Confederacy, and gen-
erally did so. Commissioners were sent from Montgomery
to Washington to negotiate for a peaceful adjustment of
all questions arising between the Union and its new-born
competitor. They were courteously received by Hon. Wil-
liam H. Seward, Mr. Lincoln's secretary of state, but no
reconciliation of the antagonist pretensions was practicable,
and they keft, asserting that they had not been frankly,
candidly met. The Confederacy had organized its revenue
system, and commenced collecting duties on imports from
the loyal States and elsewhere, before striking the blow at
Sumter which was deemed necessary to draw Virginia and
other hesitating States out of the Union. Two days after
President Lincoln’s call for militia, President Davis, by
proclamation, accepted that as a declaration of war, and
authorized (May 17) the issue of letters of marque and re-
prisal against the commerce of the United States. A loan
of $5,000,000 was advertised at Montgomery, to which
$8,000,000 were subscribed. Before the close of April the
Confederacy had 35,000 men in arms, of whom 10,000 were
being pushed rapidly northward, and the Confederate Con-
gress, which organized at Montgomery on the 29th of April,
adjourned on the 21st of May to meet at Richmond, Vir-
ginia (the newly-chosen capital), on the 20th of July.
Treasury notes had already been authorized, and a heavy
loan, based on a pledge of cotton by the planters to the
Confederacy. All debts due from inhabitants of the Con-
federate to those of the loyal States were impounded, and
directed to be paid into the Confederate treasury. This
act was obeyed to the extent of not paying the loyal cred-
itors, but the Confederate treasury was but slightly replen-
ished from this source. At length, when war had begun in
earnest, all male citizens of the United States over fourteen
years old were required by law and proclamation (August
14) either to swear allegiance to the Confederacy or leave
its borders within forty days. The Confederate marshals
were directed to apprehend and imprison all who disobeyed
this edict. A Confederate privateer having been captured
and her crew imprisoned in New York as criminals, Presi-
dent Davis, by proclamation (July 6), declared that he
would retaliate upon Union prisoners of war any infliction
upon those Confederates, and proceeded to make good his
word. President Lincoln recoiled before this menace, and
thenceforth treated privateersmen as prisoners of war.
Regular exchanges of prisoners between the belligerents
were initiated in the winter of 1861–62, and thenceforth
accorded without objection. The Confederate authorities,
however, did not scruple to treat belligerent Unionists res-
ident within their borders, especially those of East Tennes-
see, as traitors. Jefferson Davis as President, and Alex-
ander H. Stephens as Vice-President, were unanimously
elected (November 6) for a term of six years ensuing ;
their previous election having hitherto been provisional
only.
The civil war, formally initiated by the bombardment and
reduction of Fort Sumter, was prosecuted thenceforth dur-
ing 1861 with varying fortunes, but with a preponderance
of success for the Confederacy. Its first signal triumph was
the easy capture (April 20) of the Norfolk navy-yard, with
three or four national vessels, including the frigate Merri-
CONFEDERATE STATES.
1097
mack (which months afterwards, having been transformed
into the rebel iron-clad Virginia, wrought fearful havoc
among the national vessels in Hampton Roads), with nearly
two thousand cannon, besides small arms, munitions, etc. of
immense value—all abandoned without firing a shot by the
naval officers who should have defended and saved them.
The Sixth regiment of Massachusetts militia, hastening to
the relief of menaced Washington City, had just before been
assailed (April 19) in the streets of Baltimore by a mob,
which showered hardware, paving-stones, and other missiles
upon it from housetops as it peacefully traversed their city,
killing three and wounding fifteen of the Massachusetts
men, while eleven of the mob were killed and four severely
wounded. The militia passed on, but Baltimore was held
by the mob, and communication by telegraph or otherwise
between the Federal capital and the North arrested until
General B. F. Butler reoccupied it, unresisted, by an ad-
vance from Annapolis (May 5–13). That important city
was henceforth firmly held for the Union. General Butler,
being in command at Fortress Monroe, ordered an advance
under Brigadier-General Pierce against a Confederate out-
post at Big Bethel, Virginia, but the ill-directed attack was
repulsed by General J. B. Magruder with considerable loss
to the Unionists. That portion of Virginia westward of the
Alleghany range having opposed secession and still adher-
ing to the Union, a Confederate army was sent across the
mountains to overbear this (alleged) disloyalty to the State,
but was promptly met by a greater Union force under Gen-
eral George B. McClellan, and driven from Philippi (June
2), then beaten at Rich Mountain and also at Laurel Hill,
and again at Carrick's Ford (July 12), and the remnant
driven in disorderly flight over the dividing ridge. Hos-
tilities were renewed on the Kanawha by the advance (Aug.
1) of a fresh Confederate force under General John B. Floyd,
afterwards succeeded by General Robert E. Lee, but these
were met and baffled by a stronger Union army under Gen-
eral Wm. S. Rosecrans, and indecisive actions ensued at
Carnifex Ferry, on Cheat Mountain, and at Alleghany Sum-
mit, which left West Virginia almost wholly under the flag
of the Union at the close of 1861. In Eastern (or old) Wir-
ginia hostile armies confronted each other near Harper's
Ferry and Winchester under Generals Robert Patterson
(Union) and Joseph E. Johnston (Confederate) for a month
without fighting, until a stronger Union force under General
Irwin McDowell was pushed forward by Scott from Wash-
ington and Alexandria to Centreville, menacing the Con-
federate force concentrated around Manassas Junction, and
advancing (June 21) to attack its left near Sudley Church.
The advance was gallantly made, and for a time promised
success; but Johnston’s army from Winchester arrived by
rail at the critical moment, and was hurried forward to the
support of the recoiling regiments, so that the fortunes of
the day suddenly changed, and the Union troops, exhausted
by twelve hours’ marching and fighting under a July sun,
had to give way before this unexpected effort, and retired
in a disorder not uncommon on battle-fields, even among
veteran troops. The Confederates, unaware of the complete-
ness of their victory, did not pursue it, though their President
Davis, had arrived on the field about the close of the battle.
The Union loss in this affair was not less than 4000 men,
mostly wounded and prisoners, with at least twenty can-
non and large quantities of small arms; the Confederates
lost about 2000, including two generals (Bee and Bartow.)
killed. The men who fought were not far from 25,000 on
each side, but quite as many more Union soldiers listened
to the sound of the guns at Centreville, Fairfax Court-
house, in Washington, and on the Potomac, who should
have been on the bloody field.
General McClellan was now called from West Virginia,
and soon made commander-in-chief, vice General Scott
retired; but there was no more serious fighting on this line
till October 20, when a Union force of 1900, pushed across
the Potomac opposite Harrison’s Island, was attacked near
Ball's Bluff by General Evans's brigade, mainly Mississip-
pians, and nearly destroyed; its commander, General E.
D. Baker of Oregon, being killed, with 300 of his men,
and more than 500 taken prisoners. Two months after,
General E. O. C. Ord, with the Third Pennsylvania bri-
gade, having advanced, also on General McClellan’s right,
to Dranesville, was there attacked by a rebel brigade under
General J. E. B. Stuart, who was quickly repulsed, with a
loss of 230 men. This closed the campaign on the Potomac.
Meantime, General Butler, sailing from Fortress Monroe
(August 20), had captured Forts Hatteras and Clark at the
entrance to Pamlico Sound, taking 700 prisoners under
Commodore Bowen, 25 guns, 1000 muskets, and some stores.
A more formidable expedition, 10,000 strong, under General
T. W. Sherman and Commodore S. F. Dupont, left Hampton
Roads October 29, and steered for Port Royal, South Car-
olina, where it bombarded and reduced the Confederate
forts on Hilton Head and Phillips' Island, driving out their
defenders and taking undisputed possession of the Sea.
Islands adjacent, which were thenceforth firmly held by a
Union land and naval force which menaced both Charles-
ton and Savannah, and repeatedly, though unsuccessfully,
struck at the railroad connecting them. .
In the West, Missouri was this year the arena of a vio-
lent though desultory conflict. Major-General John C.
Fremont, who had been appointed to command here, was
hastening westward to organize at St. Louis an army under
the depressing influence of the Bull Run disaster in the
East, when Governor C. F. Jackson returned from a two
months’ sojourn in the Confederacy and prepared to dis-
pute possession of the State, though a convention of her
people had declared (July 20) his office and those of his
adherents vacated by treason, and all their disloyal acts
null and void. He thereupon assumed to take Missouri
out of the Union by proclamation (July 31), negotiated a
close alliance with the Confederacy, and was raising a large
army, in good part from Arkansas, when General Nathaniel
Lyon, commanding 6000 Unionists at Springfield, took the
field against Jackson's far more numerous but not so well-
provided army, led by General Sterling Price, who sud-
denly resigned his command to General Ben McCulloch
from Arkansas. Lyon, having advanced to Wilson’s Creek,
sent General Sigel with 1200 men to flank the enemy, whom
he assailed in front, but his force was too small; Lyon
fell mortally wounded, and the Union attacks in front and
flank were repulsed; but the Unionists retired deliberately
and unpursued to Springfield, insisting that they had fought
quadruple their numbers and not been beaten. Major
Sturgis, who succeeded General Lyon, soon afterward re-
treated to Rolla, abandoning all Southern Missouri to the
Confederates. McCulloch returned to Arkansas, but Price
advanced in large force to the Missouri River at Lexington,
where he invested Colonel Mulligan and his Irish brigade,
numbering 2780 men, and pressed them so vigorously that
Mulligan was forced to surrender (September 20) before
Fremont could relieve him. Fremont took the field directly
afterwards, and pushed down to Springfield at the head of
30,000 men; but Price avoided him by retreating, and there
was no fight, except that Colonel Zagonyi, with 300 Union
cavalry, routed a far larger force which held Springfield,
capturing that city. Fremont was still looking for Price
when he was relieved (November 2), and ordered to turn
over his command to General David Hunter, who, in pur-
suance of his orders, retreated to Rolla, again abandoning
all Southern Missouri to the enemy. Brigadier-General
U. S. Grant was at this time in command of the import-
ant post of Cairo at the junction of the Ohio with the
Mississippi, watched by a Confederate force at Columbus,
Kentucky. Grant, with 2850 men on four steamboats,
dropped down the river to Columbus, landing at Belmont
in Missouri, and attacked the Confederate camp on that
side. The attack was spirited, and at first successful; but
Major-General (Bishop) Polk, commanding at Columbus,
crossed with five regiments, increasing the Confederate
force to 5000, by which Grant was beaten off and driven to
his boats with a loss of 500 men. The Confederate loss
was rather more. One month later, Colonel Jefferson C.
Davis, acting under General John Pope, commanding in
Central Missouri, surprised a Confederate camp at Milford,
and captured 1000 prisoners (including three colonels) and
as many horses and muskets. General Pope reported 2500
prisoners taken this month, with a loss on his part of barely
100. So closed the campaign of 1861.
The battles of the bloody year 1862 were initiated at
Mill Spring, near the Cumberland River, in Southern Ken-
tucky, where General George B. Crittenden, having just
supplanted General F. K. Zollicoffer in chief command of the
Confederate force in that quarter, ordered an attack on the
Unionists in their front, who, being in superior numbers
and led by General George H. Thomas, repulsed them
(January 19) after a hot struggle of two hours, and, following
them to their camp, found it deserted—Crittenden having
fled across the Cumberland, leaving ten guns, 1500 horses,
etc. General Zollicoffer was killed while leading the attack.
This blow was soon followed by one more serious, directed
from St. Louis by General Halleck, who sent from Cairo
Brigadier-General U. S. Grant with 15,000 men, and Com-
modore A. H. Foote with seven gunboats, to open a way
into Tennessee. Fort Henry, 80 miles up the Tennessee
River, was quickly reduced (February 6) by the gunboats,
the garrison mainly escaping to Fort Donelson, 12 miles
eastward, commanding the navigation of the Cumberland,
leaving their chief, General Lloyd Tilghman, a prisoner.
General Grant followed the fleeing Confederates, and nearly
invested, with his force considerably increased, their strong-
hold, two miles below Dover, held by 15,000 men under the
Virginian general John B. Floyd (late United States secre-
tary of war). Commodore Foote, ascending the Cumber-
land, first attacked (February 14) the river-batteries, but
1098
CONFEDERATE STATES.
was repulsed with considerable loss. Floyd, seeing Grant
proceeding leisurely to cut off his retreat, anticipated that
result by an advance under General Simon B. Buckner on
Grant’s right towards Dover, commanded by General John
A. McClernand of Illinois, who was overpowered and driven
back after a protracted deadly struggle, losing a six-gun
battery. The Union centre, under General Lew Wallace,
sent two brigades to McClernand's support, by which the
Confederate advance was arrested, and General Grant, ar-
riving on the field at 3 P. M. from a conference with Com-
modore Foote, ordered a general attack, which was crowned
with success. Wallace recovered by it the ground previ-
ously lost by McClermand, while General C. F. Smith led
the Union left clear over the breastworks in their front, and
the day closed with a decided Union victory. A cold night
of suffering followed, during which General Floyd, despair-
ing of cutting his way out, surrendered his command to
General Gideon J. Pillow, who passed it to General Buck-
ner, who, after some parley, surrendered next morning
(February 16) not less than 6000 men, besides 2000 sick and
wounded. General N. B. Forrest, with 800 cavalry, es-
caped up the bank of the swollen river, while Floyd, Buck-
ner, and a remnant got across by boat before daylight and
fied. One result of this success was the immediate evacua-
tion of the Confederate camp at Bowling Green, Kentucky,
as also of Nashville and all Northern Tennessee; Governor
Isham G. Harris and his legislature being among the fugi-
tives. Nashville was promptly occupied by the Unionists,
while the main army of Tennessee, under General A. Sidney
Johnston, retreated unmolested to Corinth, Mississippi,
leisurely followed by General Don Carlos Buell, who had
commanded the Union forces in Kentucky. General Grant's
army, now confided to General C. F. Smith, was embarked
and moved up the Tennessee to Savannah and Pittsburg
Landing, nearly opposite Corinth. These Union suc-
cesses compelled the evacuation of Paducah and Columbus,
while General Pope, with 40,000 Unionists, marching down
through Eastern Missouri, drove Major-General McCown,
with 9000 Confederates, from New Madrid, taking thirty-
three cannon and many thousand muskets, also tents,
wagons, etc., without a serious contest. Brigadier-General
Makall, with 6700 men, 123 cannon, and 7000 small arms,
was now caught between Pope's army and Foote's fleet
on Island No. 10 in the Mississippi, and compelled to sur-
render. Commodore Foote, dropping down the river, routed
the Confederate flotilla in a brief engagement before Mem-
phis, which thereupon surrendered without a blow. By
July 1st the Mississippi River saw none but the Union flag
floating above Vicksburg, which successfully resisted suc-
cessive attempts at its reduction by Commodore Foote from
above and Gommodore Farragut from below.
General C. F. Smith was soon disabled by sickness and
died, and the command of his army again devolved upon
General Grant, who, while awaiting the arrival of General
Buell from the North, was attacked at Pittsburg Landing
by an advance in force of the Confederates from Corinth,
50,000 strong, under General A. S. Johnston, while General
Grant was still at Savannah, eight miles below. The Union-
ists, about 40,000 strong, were completely surprised without
intrenchments or even abatis, and were driven with heavy
loss from Shiloh Church, three miles inland, to the brink of
the river, having lost heavily in guns, killed, wounded, and
prisoners. Meantime, General A. S. Johnston had been shot
dead, the Union gunboats on the Tennessee had come into
play, General Grant had joined his shattered army, while
the advance of General Buell’s force was beginning to come
to its relief. Night brought a cessation of hostilities, and
General Beauregard had succeeded to the chief command
of the Confederates. On the Union side, General W. H. L.
Wallace had been killed at the head of his division. Gen-
eral Nelson’s division of Buell’s army had crossed the Ten-
messee in boats at 5 to 6 P.M., and taken position on the
field by 7. Two more divisions were on hand by sunrise
next morning, when the battle was reopened by an advance
of the Union forces, of whom 25,000 (including General Lew
Wallace's division of General Grant’s army) were fresh,
while only 3000 of the Confederates had not yet been en-
gaged. The fighting throughout the forenoon was spirited,
but the forces were unequal, and the Confederates had lost
by 4 P. M. all the ground they had gained the day before,
and were soon afterwards in full retreat. There was but a
faint show of pursuit. The reported Union loss in the two
days’ fighting was 1735 killed, 7882 wounded, 3956 missing;
total, 13,573. Beauregard reported the Confederate loss at
1728 killed, 8012 wounded, 957 missing; total, 10,699.
General Grant was soon superseded by General Halleck,
who, taking command of the combined army, advanced by
approaches to Corinth, which was evacuated by General
Beauregard, who retreated with little loss into the heart of
Mississippi. Meantime, General O. M. Mitchell, with part
of Buell’s army, had advanced eastward up the Tennessee,
taking Huntsville and other towns on the river, but failing
to carry Chattanooga. Mitchell was now transferred to the
command on the coast of South Carolina, where he sickened
and died.
The war in the Territories was early initiated by an effort
of Colonels Loring and G. B. Crittenden to carry over the
1200 regulars stationed in New Mexico to the Confederacy;
but their intrigues were repulsed on every hand, and they
were constrained to flee to El Paso, where Major Lynde, who
had 700 men, made a pretence of resistance, advancing
twenty miles to meet a much smaller Texan force, then re-
treating, and surrendering his entire command, which was
paroled and marched northward for exchange, suffering ter-
ribly from heat and thirst. General H. F. Sibley, command-
ing a Confederate force of 2300 Texan volunteers, undertook
the conquest of New Mexico in the fall of 1861; but his
advance was retarded by lack of supplies till the opening of
1862, when he met Colonel E. R. S. Canby, commanding a
much larger Union force, at Fort Craig. The Unionists were
first drawn out of their stronghold, and then defeated by a
brilliant charge on McRae’s battery, which was taken. Can-
by’s men fled precipitately to the fort, which Sibley could
not reduce; so he turned it and pushed on to Apache Pass,
where his farther advance was opposed by 1300 men, mainly
Colorado volunteers, under Colonel John P. Slough, whom
he defeated by another Texas charge, which routed Slough’s
motley crowd and cleared the road to Santa Fé, which
Sibley soon entered in triumph. But his brilliant victories
proved barren; he could not feed and clothe his little army
from all the resources of New Mexico, while Canby was in
the way of his receiving supplies from Texas, had any been
sent. Forced to evacuate the capital of New Mexico for
Albuquerque, whence (April 12, 1863) he moved down the
Rio Grande, he encountered Canby at Peralta, but escaped
him, after some fruitless long-range fighting, by destroying
his train and dragging his guns over a desolate, waterless,
mountainous region east of the river, and thus made his
way down to Fort Bliss, Texas, having left half his force
dead or prisoners, though never defeated; and returned to
report his sage conclusion that New Mexico was not worth
a quarter of the cost of taking and holding it.
Some of the largest of the semi-civilized tribes settled in
the Indian Territory were incited by their old Democratic
agents and other influential whites to link their fortunes
with the Confederacy soon after the Union defeats at Bull
Run and Wilson’s Creek. Their aid proved, however, of
little worth, and they were glad to return to the protection
and alliance of the Union so soon as the progress of events
had made it probable that this was the stronger side.
General Sterling Price, after Pope's successes in Mis-
souri near the close of the campaign of 1861, unable to
fight a pitched battle, retreated rapidly through Spring-
field and Cassville, closely pursued, and fighting when he
must, till he had reached Arkansas and formed a junc-
tion near Boston Mountain with General Ben McCulloch,
commanding a division of Texas and Arkansas volun-
teers, which raised his force to an equality with that of his
pursuers. General Albert Pike now added to the ration-
consuming power of the Confederates a brigade of In-
dians, swelling their total to nearly 20,000 men. Earl van
Dorn, late a captain of Union regulars, now a Confederate
major-general, assumed chief command, and resolved to
fight the Unionists (now led by General Samuel R. Curtis
of Iowa) before they could be concentrated. Advancing
rapidly from his camp at Cross-Timber Hollows, Van Dorn
fell upon General Franz Sigel, holding the extreme Union
advance at Bentonville. Sigel retreated (March 3, 1862)
fighting, and falling back coolly, until reinforced at 4 P. M.,
when he encamped at Leetown on Curtis's right. Curtis
held a good position on Sugar Creek, which Van Dorn
avoided by moving far to the left and attacking in over-
whelming force the extreme Union right under Colonel
Carr, holding a swell of ground known as Pea Ridge. Carr,
fearfully overmatched, resisted stubbornly for seven hours,
during which he was repeatedly wounded, lost a fourth of
his men, and was driven back half a mile. Curtis, who had
but scantily reinforced him up to 2 P. M., now ordered Gen-
erals Asboth and Sigel to the support of Carr, himself accom-
panying Asboth, whose batteries were soon engaged with
the enemy's, and he severely wounded. Night closed the
combat as Sigel was coming into position on Asboth’s left.
Next morning, General Curtis, having completed his dis-
positions, ordered his centre to advance, and the cannonade
was reopened on both sides, but the Confederates soon de-
sisted and disappeared, fleeing through Cross-Timber Hol-
lows in their rear so rapidly as to defy pursuit. The Union
loss in this battle was 1351 out of 10,500 men. Van Dorn's
force was at least 16,000, including 5000 Indians. Among
his killed were Generals Ben McCulloch and McIntosh ;
among his wounded, Generals Price and Slack. Lack of
ammunition was the reason alleged for his hasty retreat.
CONFEDERATE STATES.
1099
General Curtis then advanced without resistance to Bates-
ville, Arkansas, and thence marched to Helena on the Mis-
sissippi, but once resisted by 1500 cavalry under General
Albert Rust, who were easily routed with a loss of 100 to 8
Unionists. -
Curtis's movement south-eastward opened Missouri once
more to Confederate incursions. Tidings of Union reverses
in Virginia filled the invading ranks with volunteers from
all quarters. Colonel Porter, commanding some 2000 of
these raw levies, was attacked near Kirksville by Colonel
John McNeil with 1000 cavalry and a battery, and after a
desperate fight was defeated and his force virtually de-
stroyed. Colonel Poindexter, with 1200 Confederates, was
attacked by Colonel Odin Guitar while crossing the Cha-
riton River, and his command likewise captured or de-
stroyed. After several more petty conflicts the Confederates
were again chased out of Missouri and compelled to take
refuge in Arkansas, where General T. C. Hindman was now
in chief command. General Blunt commanded the Union-
ists, who had again entered that State some 5000 strong;
General F. J. Herron, encamped at Wilson's Creek with
7000 men, hastened to his aid when apprised of his danger,
reaching Fayetteville, Arkansas, December 7. Hindman,
deceiving Blunt by a threat of fighting, turned his left, and
with 10,000 men fell upon Herron's 4000 infantry and ar-
tillery at Prairie Grove, his cavalry having been pushed
forward to help Blunt. A spirited fight ensued, Herron,
desperately charged, bravely holding his ground until 2 P. M.,
when the welcome sound of Blunt's batteries was heard
opening on his left. The forces engaged were now nearly
equal, and the battle raged till after dark, little ground be-
ing gained on either side. Next morning the Confederates
had left the field. Hindman's loss was 1317, including Gem-
eral Stein, killed. The Union loss was 1148, of whom 953
were from Herron’s 4000.
An expedition consisting of thirty-one steamboats and
11,500 men, led by General A. E. Burnside and Commodore
L. M. Goldsborough, sailed from Fortress Monroe January
11, 1862, for Roanoke and Albemarle Sounds, North Carolina,
landing (February 5) on Roanoke Island a force by which
Fort Bartow, its main defence, was speedily taken by as-
sault, with a Union loss of 300, while about 2500 Confed-
erates were captured. The next point of attack was New-
bern, which was likewise carried by assault (March 14).
Among the captures were two steamboats, sixty-nine can-
non, and 500 prisoners. The Union loss in the assault was
600. Fort Macon, on the coast, was next invested and
taken, with its garrison of 500 men. This was the first
of the regular Union fortresses retaken from the enemy.
Washington, Plymouth, and other North Carolina ports
fell without resistance, but General Reno was repulsed in a
fight at South Mills, and General Foster in an attempt on
the important railroad junction at Goldsboro’.
General Benjamin F. Butler, having raised in New Eng-
land six regiments of 1000 men each for the purpose, and
being aided by a fleet under Captain David G. Farragut,
left Fortress Monroe (February 25, 1862) for his rendez-
vous on Ship Island, Mississippi, whither one of his bri-
gades under General J. W. Phelps had preceded him, and
where his troops were soon augmented to 15,000. His ob-
jective point was New Orleans, a city of 170,000 inhab-
itants, defended by 3000 men under General Mansfield
Lovell, but the strong forts St. Philip and Jackson, half
way between the city and the mouths of the Mississippi,
were Lovell’s main reliance. Earnest efforts to strengthen
them by a raft or boom across the river were all but
thwarted by the high stage of the heavily-swelling current.
Captain Farragut, with his fleet of forty-seven armed
vessels and 310 guns, appeared before the forts April 17,
opened fire next morning, and destroyed or evaded three
fire-rafts sent down to annoy him. After three days’ inef-
fective bombardment, the Itasca, Captain Caldwell, steamed
up to the great boom or chain, and cut it with sledge and
chisel, when another fire-raft was sent down to no purpose,
and two more days were wasted in fruitless cannomading;
then Farragut, with his fleet in three divisions, resolved to
fight his way by the forts against the sweeping current;
which he successfully did, fighting and capturing or scat-
tering the Confederate gunboats above, with a net loss of
the Varuna steamship sunk and some 200 men. The forts,
thus rendered useless, were soon surrendered. Captain
Farragut, with nine of his vessels, steamed directly up to
the city, whence a thick black Smoke apprised him that the
Confederates were burning ships, steamboats, etc. laden
with cotton, sugar, flour, etc. Lovell drew off his men,
and the city ungraciously signified that she could make no
resistance. Passing up to Carrollton, eight miles above,
Farragut found its works abandoned and in flames. Gen-
eral Butler, having reduced the forts, soon came up and
took possession, which was not thenceforth disputed.
All the towns on the Mississippi below Wicksburg were
easily captured by Farragut, and an attempt to retake
Baton Rouge (August 5), by a force of 2500 Confederates
under Major-General John C. Breckenridge, was repulsed
by an equal Union force under General Thomas Williams,
| who was killed. The Confederates lost 300 men, including
General Clarke and six colonels. The Union loss was 250.
The lower parishes of Louisiana hereupon fell to the
Unionists without serious resistance. Butler was relieved
by General N. P. Banks December 16, having just before
been outlawed as a felon by Jefferson Davis.
General George B. McClellan had been called from West
. Virginia to the command of the Army of the Potomac soon
after the Union disaster at Bull Run, and on the retirement
of General Scott made commander-in-chief of the Union
armies. A very large force, fully 200,000 strong, was rap-
idly gathered around him and drilled into the coherence of
a regular army. The far weaker Confederate force con-
fronting him gradually recoiled to Centreville and Manassas
Junction, where they spent the winter of 1861–62. Gen-
eral McClellan remained quiet till expressly ordered (Feb-
ruary 22) by President Lincoln to advance, when he moved
out to Manassas Junction, to find it evacuated by the Con-
federates, who, under General Joseph E. Johnston, had
quietly retired behind the Rapidan. General McClellan
now transferred the bulk of his army by water to Fortress
Monroe, preparatory to an advance on Richmond up the
peninsula between the James and York Rivers. Mean-
time, General Banks was left in command in the Valley of
Virginia, and had just left for Washington, when his 7000
men, now under General James Shields, well posted near
Rernstown, were attacked by Stonewall Jackson with but
4000 men, who were defeated with a loss of at least 1000.
General Shields’s loss was about 600.
Just before McClellan reached the James, the Confeder-
ate iron-clad Virginia (late the United States steam-frigate
Merrimack) had sallied out of Norfolk (March 8), and, at-
tended by two gunboats, made directly for the Union frig-
ates Congress and Cumberland, lying near Newport News,
and disdaining to reply to their rapid cannonade, of which
the balls rebounded from her sloping roof of iron as though
they were peas, struck the Cumberland with her iron beak,
smashing in the frigate’s bow, so that she filled and sank
in half an hour, carrying down a part of her crew. The
Congress, seeing the fate of her consort, set sail and ran
aground under the batteries of Newport News, where she
was raked by the ram until her commander, Lieutenant
Joseph B. Smith, and most of her officers and men, were
either killed or wounded, when her flag was hauled down;
but her captors were prevented from burning her by a fire
from the Union batteries on shore. The Merrimack after-_
wards returned and bombarded her until she was set on fire
and blown up; half her crew of 434 men having fallen.
The steam-frigate Minnesota and frigate Lawrence, hurry-
ing to the aid of the Cumberland and Congress, had sev-
erally grounded in the harbor. The Lawrence soon got off
and returned to port, but the Minnesota, still aground, was
cannonaded for hours by the entire Confederate flotilla, the
Merrimack being unable to approach nearer than a mile,
owing to the shallowness of the water. At 7 P. M. all three
desisted and steamed towards Norfolk. At 10 the new
Union iron-clad Monitor, Lieutenant John L. Worden,
steamed into the roadstead on her trial-trip from New
York. At 6 A. M. the hostile fleet reappeared and made for
the Minnesota, but the little Monitor interposed, and the
strange combat was renewed and continued with varying
fortunes until the Confederate fleet sheered off and stood
for Norfolk. The Merrimack was badly crippled, her com-
mander, Buchanan, having been wounded in the fight with
the wooden ships. She never fought again, and was blown
up when Norfolk was evacuated by the Confederates not
long afterwards. The little Monitor (styled a “cheese-box
on a raft”) remained master of the situation, but was lost,
months afterwards, in passing Cape Hatteras.
General McClellan reached Fortress Monroe April 2d.
Of his army, 58,000 had preceded him, and as many more
soon followed. Advancing up the peninsula, he was soon
arrested by Confederate batteries on Warwick Creek (which
nearly crosses the peninsula abreast of Yorktown), manned
by General J. B. Magruder, who had some 11,000 men in
all where with to hold a line thirteen miles long. Thirty
days were spent here; when McClellan had planted his
breaching-batteries, and was nearly ready to open fire, it
was found that Magruder had retreated. On reaching
Williamsburg, McClellan’s advance was stopped by works
known as Fort Magruder, where Hooker’s division fought
nine hours and lost heavily. At length the Confederate
position was flanked by General Hancock of Sumner's di-
vision, and Magruder retreated during the night, leaving
700 of his severely wounded. The total Union loss was
2228, that of the Confederates probably less. West Point,
at the head of York River, was occupied May 6, with a
1100
CONFEDERATE STATES.
Union loss of 200. This movement up the peninsula,
coupled with Burnside's successes in North Carolina, com-
pelled the Confederates to evacuate Norfolk, with its navy-
yard, about 200 guns, and some worthless vessels. That
city they never recovered. General McClellan, no longer
resisted, advanced to the Chickahominy on the 20th.
Here he halted and fortified with over 100,000 effective
men, believing the Confederate army in his front nearly if
Inot quite equal in numbers to his own. Meantime, General
Fremont, to whom Western Virginia had been assigned as
a department, advanced into the Alleghanies and threat-
ened Staunton from the direction of Monterey. Jackson
sent General Edward Johnson to oppose Fremont's advance
under Milroy, who retreated and was joined by General
Robert C. Schenck near McDowell, where a battle was
fought, with a Union loss of 461, the Unionists retreating
after nightfall. Jackson recrossed Shenandoah Mountain,
and marched rapidly down the Valley to Front Royal,
where he surprised and routed Colonel John R. Kenly,
taking 700 prisoners. Pushing on to Strasburg, Jackson
compelled Banks to retreat rapidly to Winchester, where he
fought five hours, and then, being greatly outnumbered, re-
treated hurriedly to Martinsburg and Williamsport, where
he crossed the Potomac, having lost about 1000 men, be-
sides the sick and wounded in his hospitals. Jackson’s
cavalry pursued to Martinsburg, but most of his infantry
were halted not far beyond Winchester, and soon retreated
rapidly to confront Fremont and McDowell, who were has-
tening to bar his way. Fremont, crossing the Alleghanies
by a rugged route, reached Strasburg June 1, a few hours
after Jackson had passed that point. Jackson, still retreat-
ing, destroyed the numerous bridges behind him, and turned
to fight (June 7) at Cross Keys, where he checked Fre-
mont; then, again retreating, he crossed the South Fork at
Port Republic, falling with a superior force upon General
Tyler, who, with a part of Shields's division of McDowell’s
army, was forced back with loss. Jackson thus balked all
his foes, having lost but 1167 men since he left Winchester.
His baffled pursuers were now recalled, and he, triumphant,
was soon ordered to join General Robert E. Lee, now in
chief command at Richmond. The rebel general Heth had
attacked Colonel Crook at Lewisburg, West Virginia, and
been routed on the same day with Jackson’s demolition of
Kenly.
An unsuccessful attack (May 15) on Drewry’s Bluff, eight
miles below Richmond, by a Union fleet under Commander
John Rodgers, was followed, May 27, by a fight near Han-
over Court-house between the Union Fifth corps, General
Fitz-John Porter, and General L. O'Brien Branch’s North
Carolina division, which was driven off with a loss of 700, to
400 on the Union side.
Keyes's Fourth corps having been thrown forward across
the Chickahominy to Seven Pines on its right and Fair
Oaks on its left, was attacked (May 28) by the Confeder-
ates under General Jos. Johnston, who judged that Keyes
might be overwhelmed before he could be sufficiently sup-
ported. Four divisions, under Longstreet, D. H. Hill,
Huger, and G. W. Smith, were designated to make the at-
tack, supported by all the rest of the Confederate army.
Hill, at 1 P.M., first attacked Casey's division at Fair Oaks,
surprising it while its defences were still uncompleted, and
pushing it back on Couch’s division near Fair Oaks, with a
loss of six guns, two of its colonels killed, and many men.
Keyes barely held his ground at Fair Oaks till Sumner's
corps, rapidly thrown across the Chickahominy, came to its
aid. Heintzelman’s corps, though nearer, came into the
fight later, and our right was now attacked by Smith’s
corps, directed by Jos. Johnston as commander-in-chief, till
he was struck by a shell, and so badly wounded that he was
disabled for months. Lee succeeded him. McClellan was
at New Bridge, several miles up the Chickahominy, with
the corps of Fitz-John Porter and Franklin, which were not
brought into action. The battle raged without much ad-
Vantage to either side till dark, when the Confederates drew
off. They made a pretence of attacking next morning, to
cover their removal of arms and stores from the camp of
Keyes's corps, but the fighting amounted to little. Hooker,
by Heintzelman’s order, made a reconnoissance in force to
within four miles of Richmond, meeting no resistance, but
was recalled to Fair Oaks by McClellan. The Union loss
in this affair was 5739, including five colonels killed and
Seven generals wounded. Of Keyes's 12,000 men, 4000 fell
or were captured. General McCall's divison of McDowell’s
corps now joined McClellan, raising his total to 156,828,
and his effective force to 115,102. -
No further offensive movement was made by him until
Jackson, whose movements had been studiously concealed,
came in on Lee’s left, and was pushed forward to assail
and turn McClellan’s extreme right at Mechanicsville, be-
ing supported by Branch, D. H. Hill, Longstreet, and A.
P. Hill, with the bulk of the Confederate army.
A. P. Hill, on Jackson’s arrival, crossed the Chicka-
hominy and attacked Fitz-John Porter's corps of 27,000
strong, which, recoiling from Mechanicsville, took up a
strong position behind it across Beaver Dam Creek, but was
repulsed (June 26), Jackson having not yet got into posi-
tion. Porter now retreated by order to Gaines's Mill,
where he was at once reinforced by Slocum’s division of
Sumner's corps, raising his force to 35,000 men. But op-
posed to them were 50,000 veterans, led by their ablest.
commanders, including Longstreet and Jackson. After
fighting gallantly for several hours, he telegraphed for aid
to McClellan, who sent two brigades of Sumner's corps to
his assistance, but the field was lost before their arrival.
Porter lost nineteen guns, but halted just off the field, and
was not pursued. The Union loss that day was 8000, that
of the Confederates about 5000. But McClellan’s base of
supplies, West Point, had been captured by Stuart's cavalry,
and he decided to retreat by his left flank through White-
Oak Swamp to the James. This movement puzzled Lee,
who did not pursue with vigor, and the first attacks upon the
Union rear were easily repulsed. Finally, McCall's division,
serving as rear-guard, was assailed (June 30) in great force
at Glendale, and after hard fighting defeated and driven;
McCall himself being captured, with most of his guns.
The struggle ended at 9 P.M., Hooker's and two brigades
of Slocum’s division having arrived too late to win the
battle, but in time to check pursuit. The loss of men in
this action was about 3000 on either side.
The Union forces were now concentrated at Malvern Hill
on James River, where they were attacked by the entire
Confederate army, which was signally defeated in one of
the most desperate actions of the war. The first attack
was made at 3 P. M.; the most desperate charge was made
at 6, and repulsed with great slaughter. The Confederate
loss in this struggle must have been nearly or quite 10,000,
that of the Unionists perhaps half as many. McClellan
during the evening moved down the James to Harrison's
Landing, where Lee did not choose to assail him. He claimed
10,000 prisoners, 52 guns, and 35,000 small arms as cap-
tured during the seven days’ fighting, from Mechanicsville
to Malvern inclusive. The Union loss during those days
is reported by McClellan at 1582 killed, 7709 wounded,
and 5958 missing; total, 15,249. Jackson’s and A. P. Hill's
losses during those days were reported by them as 1585
killed, 7688 wounded; total, 9336. This is probably about
half the total Confederate loss, which included General
Griffith and three colonels, killed. General Hooker soon
afterwards reoccupied Malvern Hill without resistance, tak-
ing 100 prisoners, but the Union army was soon withdrawn
by the President’s order to the Potomac. Its retreat and
embarkation were unmolested. General McClellan and his
staff reached Aquia Creek August 23. -
Major-General John Pope had been called from the West
to Washington, and given the chief command of Fremont's,
Banks's, and McDowell’s forces, aggregating 50,000 men.
Major-General Halleck was also called, from the West to
Washington, and made general-in-chief. Pope concentrated
his forces near Culpeper Court-house, and sent Banks
forward with 8000 men to Cedar Mountain, where he was
confronted by Stonewall Jackson, from Richmond, with
25,000 men. Banks attacked (August 9) under every dis-
advantage of position, and was steadily repulsed, losing
2000 men; Jackson's loss was 1314. Pope arrived at night-
fall with Ricketts’ division and part of Sigel's (late Fre-
mont's) corps, but Jackson, seeing that Pope was about to
move against him in superior force, soon retreated across
the Rapidan. -
Pope, continuing to act on the offensive, soon found the
whole army of Virginia concentrating upon him, and re-
treated across the Rappahannock. Lee did not choose to
force a passage on his front, and sent Jackson around by a
long flank march up that river. Encamping at Salem, and
emerging through Thoroughfare Gap, he struck the Alex-
andria Railroad at Bristow Station, in Pope's rear, and
captured two trains of cars running westward from War-
renton. He now sent Stuart with two regiments to Ma-
massas Junction, seven miles farther north, which he sur-
prised, taking eight guns, 300 prisoners, and seven trains
laden with provisions, etc. Colonel Scammon, with two
Ohio regiments, now crossed Bull Run and assailed Jack-
son, but was easily beaten off, and General F. G. W. Taylor,
with four New Jersey regiments, renewed the experiment
with like result; all of Jackson’s and A. P. Hill’s divisions
being by this time at the Junction.
Pope, by this time aware that something was wrong in
his rear, began to fall back on Bristow Station, where
Booker drove Ewell, capturing part of his train. Ewell
fell back on Manassas, which Pope's gathering force com-
pelled Jackson to abandon, moving westward, leaving the
captured provisions, which he could not remove. Moving
towards Thoroughfare Gap, he encountered Rufus King's
CONFEDERATE STATES.
1101
division of McDowell's corps, which fought him stoutly,
but did not bar his way. The loss on either side was heavy,
Major-General Ewell being among the Confederate wounded.
Pope, now at Centreville, still hoped to envelop and
crush Jackson, but was baffled by the non-arrival of Fitz-
John Porter at Manassas Junction, and by the emerging of
Longstreet's corps through Thoroughfare Gap, driving off
Ricketts' division, which attempted to push it back. Be-
fore noon (August 29) Longstreet had come in near Gaines-
ville, on the right of Jackson's hotly-engaged corps at
Grovetom, and the battle raged furiously till night, when
Pope claimed advantage, and expected to crush the enemy
next day. But the reinforcements he reasonably expected
from McClellan’s army did not come up ; and Pope, unsup-
ported, was beaten and retreated on Centreville, near which
Franklin's corps, 8000 strong, had stood idle all that day
(August 30). Here Pope was reinforced by Sumner, as
well as by Franklin ; and Lee, now in command, did not
choose to attack him in front, but sent Jackson to gain his
rear again by a flank march to the northward. Gaining
Pope's rear, Jackson attacked his flank rear near Chantilly,
where Reno's two divisions and Phil Kearney’s confronted
him. General Rearney was killed, as was General Isaac
I. Stevens, commanding one of Reno’s divisions; but Jack-
son gained no victory. Pope quietly retreated to the Po-
tomac unassailed, and resigned his command, which was
given to General McClellan. The Union loss in this brief
and bloody campaign was hardly less than 25,000, includ-
ing 9000 prisoners; the Confederate loss was hardly less
than 15,000. Colonels Fletcher Webster (son of Daniel) of
Massachusetts, Roberts of Michigan, O’Conner of Wisconsin,
Koltes of Pennsylvania, Cantwell of Ohio, and Brown of
Indiana, were among the Union killed. Major-General R.
C. Schenck was wounded.
General Lee, reinforced from Richmond by D. H. Hill's
fresh division, crossed the Potomac, unopposed, opposite
Leesburg, and advanced to Frederick, whence he issued
(September 8) an address to the people of Maryland, im-
plying that he came as a liberator, but obtained few re-
cruits. Intent on capturing a Union force of 12,000 men
holding Harper's Ferry, he divided his army. McClellan
followed Lee's right wing, moving west towards Hagers-
town, overtaking it at Turner's Gap of South Mountain,
and driving it westward, after a fight (September 14) in
which he lost 1568 men and took 1500 prisoners. Frank-
lin simultaneously cleared Crampton's Gap on the left.
Harper's Ferry was surrounded by the Confederates in
great force under Stonewall Jackson, and after a brief can-
nonade was surrendered (September 15) by General D. S.
Miles, who was killed by a ball just as he had raised the
white flag. Colonel Davis had escaped with 2000 cavalry
during the night, but 11,583 men and seventy-three guns
were the trophies of this triumph. .
Lee rapidly concentrated his army around Sharpsburg,
along a ridge facing Antietam Creek. McClellan soon con-
fronted and attacked him (September 17), and a bloody,
determined battle was fought there between 87,000 Union-
ists and 70,000 Confederates, of whom but 40,000 were in
position at the outset. McClellan's loss was 2010 killed,
9416, wounded, and 1043 missing; total, 12,469; Lee's,
1842 killed (including Generals Branch of North Carolina,
Starke of Mississippi, and G. B. Anderson of Georgia),
9399 wounded, and 2292 missing; total, 13,533. That was
the bloodiest day America has known. Many regiments
lost more than half their men. It was in one sense a
drawn battle, yet when McClellan, after a day’s rest, ad-
vanced to renew it, he found that Lee had recrossed the
Potomac into Virginia. An irresolute attempt by General
Porter to follow was repulsed by Lee's artillery, with a
Union loss of 200 prisoners. Lee retreated at leisure by
Bunker Hill and Winchester, while Stuart, with 1500 cav-
alry, made a raid to Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, where
he paroled 275 sick and wounded Unionists and destroyed
valuable stores, passing around McClellan’s army and re-
crossing the Potomac below Harper’s Ferry. McClellan,
facing Lee, had moved down to Warrenton, Virginia, where
he was relieved of his command (November 7). General
Burnside succeeded him, and, still moving to the left as
Lee faced him, at length threw a bridge across the Rappa-
hamnock at Fredericksburg, and assailed (December 13)
Lee’s army, holding the heights south of that river, at-
tempting also to flank his right; but the attack in front,
60,000 strong, led by Hooker and Sumner, was repulsed
with great slaughter, while that by 40,000 men under
Franklin, in flank, was unsuccessful. The Union loss in
this disastrous affair was 1152 (including Major-General
G. D. Bayard) killed, 9101 wounded, and 3234 missing;
total, 13,771. The Confederate loss was about 5000, in-
cluding General Maxcy Gregg (just chosen governor of
South Carolina) and General T. R. R. Cobb of Georgia.
Burnside purposed to renew the attack next day, but was
dissuaded, and recrossed the Rappahannock unassailed
during the night of the 15th–16th. Burnside attempted
(January 20, 1863) to cross the Rappahannock by fords
above Fredericksburg, but was baffled by a terrible storm,
and desisted. Eight days later he was relieved from the
command.
General Halleck had taken command of Grant’s and
IBuell’s combined forces, now swelled to 100,000 men, di-
rectly after the battle of Pittsburg Landing, and by slow
and regular approaches had forced Beauregard to retreat
with little loss from his fortified position at Corinth. Beau-
regard was pursued by Pope as far as Baldwin and Gun-
town, Mississippi, but to little purpose. Meantime, Gen-
eral O. M. Mitchell, with a division of Buell's army, had
struck eastward up the Tennessee, occupying Huntsville,
Bridgeport, Tuscumbia, etc., and making considerable
captures of munitions, railroad cars, etc., with little loss.
An attempt on Chattanooga under General Negley was
repulsed by Kirby Smith. Subsequent to this the war
in that quarter languished under Buell’s command, while
daring raids were made in all directions by Confederate
guerillas and cavalry under Generals N. B. Forrest and
John Morgan. Clarksville (Tennessee), Henderson, and
Cynthiana (Kentucky) were among the towns thus pounced
upon, while at Murfreesboro’, Tennessee, Forrest captured
some 1500 Union troops. The general result of these par-
tisan conflicts was adverse to the Union cause.
General Bragg, having succeeded Beauregard in chief
command in this quarter, advanced in June with 45,000
men from the heart of Mississippi into Tennessee, crossing
the Tennessee just below Chattanooga, and striking boldly
northward through a rugged, mountainous, thinly-peopled
region. At Richmond, Kentucky, his advance, under Kir-
by Smith, fought (August 29) and routed in detail a Union
division under General M. D. Manson of Indiana, who was
taken prisoner with nearly 5000 of his men. Smith boasted
that his prisoners equaled in number his entire force.
Smith entered Lexington in triumph. Munfordsville, Ken-
tucky, was captured (September 16) by Bragg, who claimed
4000 prisoners. Thence Bragg advanced unopposed through
Bardstown to Frankfort, where he inaugurated (October 1)
Richard Haines as Confederate governor of Kentucky.
Cincinnati, in great alarm, fortified the Kentucky ap-
proaches to the Ohio, and Louisville seemed in imminent
eril.
p General Buell, leaving Nashville strongly garrisoned,
had of late been marching northward on Bragg's left with
an army finally swelled by raw levies to 100,000, or at least
twice the number of Bragg's much better disciplined force.
Still, Buell hesitated to attack, distrusting the effectiveness
of his men, but at length moved (October 1) from Louis-
ville to Bardstown and Springfield; Bragg retiring and
concentrating before him. Moving thence on Harrods-
burg, his left was struck (October 9) near Perryville by five
divisions of Bragg's army under General L. Polk, which
outnumbered and drove the inferior force directly opposed
to it, killing Major-General James S. Jackson, a Kentucky
member of Congress. The fight was maintained from 2
P. M. till dark, with advantage at last on the Union side,
but Buell’s total loss this day was 4348, and Bragg's but
2500. Buell had 58,000 men under his command, but not
half of them were engaged, as he did not know his left
wing was in action until 4 P. M. Advancing at sunrise
next morning to renew the battle, he learned that Bragg
had decamped, and he did not stop till he was behind the
Cumberland Mountains in East Tennessee.
General Grant, left in command of West Tennessee, with
Rosecrans in Northern Mississippi, the two attempted a
combined movement on General Stirling Price at Iuka,
Mississippi. Rosecrans alone attacked (September 19),
but Price held his ground firmly, abandoning it during the
ensuing night. His loss was at least 1000; Rosecrans’ was
782. Prico retreated to Ripley, Mississippi, where he was
succeeded by Van Dorn, who now, with at least 30,000
men, undertook to drive or capture Rosecrans and his
20,000, holding the former Confederate fortifications at Cor-
inth. One of the great charges of the war was made by
Price, but failed, because Van Dorn was seven minutes too
late on his side. The rebel loss in this repulse was at least
5000, including 1423 killed and 2248 prisoners. . On the
Union side 315 were killed, including General P. A. Hack-
leman of Indiana, 1812 wounded, and 232 missing; total,
2359. Van Dorn and Price retreated precipitately.
General Rosecrans was hereupon given command of the
Army of the Ohio (renamed the Army of the Cumberland),
in place of General Buell. He had 65,000 effective men,
mainly clustered around Bowling Green, Kentucky, whence
he soon transferred his head-quarters to Nashville, and pre-
pared to advance. Meantime, the brigade of Colonel A. B.
Moore of Illinois, at Hartsville, nearly 2000 strong, was
surprised and captured by John Morgan with 1500 cavalry.
r
T
1102
CONFEDERATE STATES.
Rosecrans, with 46,910 men in three divisions, led by Gen-
erals Thomas, McCook, and Crittenden, left Nashville De-
cember 26, advancing slowly, with some desultory fighting,
to Stone River, opposite Murfreesboro’, where his right
under McCook was surprised and crushed by Hardee at 7
A. M., December 31st; McCook losing twenty-eight guns
and nearly half his men. But when Rosecrans’ centre was
assailed in turn by the triumphant Confederates, his firm-
ness and soldiership, with those of General Thomas, saved
the day. Heavy fighting continued throughout the day,
with little to boast of on either side since McCook’s disas-
ter. But the Confederates had assailed him at all points
without success, losing heavily, having been so roughly
handled that they did not care to try again. Next day
(January 1, 1863) there was a little desultory fighting,
mainly at long range. On the day following (January 2)
a heavy cannonade was begun by the Confederates, and re-
plied to with spirit; and at 3 P.M. a great charge was made
on the Union left by Breckenridge's corps, aided by a heavy
enfilading fire from Polk’s artillery, but was repulsed after
a bloody struggle by the divisions of Negley and Jefferson
C. Davis, supporting the fire of Crittenden's batteries, and
charging in turn. The Confederates lost four guns and
some prisoners, and were pursued across Stone River,
where the victors intrenched and rested for the night. The
next day passed with little fighting. Bragg at 11 P. M. be-
gan to evacuate Murfreesboro’, where Rosecrans, on ad-
vancing next morning, found only the desperately wounded.
Rosecrans reported his losses in this protracted struggle at
I533 killed, 7245 wounded, and 2800 prisoners; total,
11,578 out of 43,400. Bragg reported his loss at over 10,000,
including 9000 killed and wounded, out of 35,000. Cavalry
raids by Forrest in West Tennessee, John Morgan in the
heart of Kentucky, and Wheeler on the Cumberland, were
made this winter to little purpose. Colonel A. D. Streight
of Indiana was sent by Rosecrans (April 10) with 1800 cav-
alry to operate on Bragg's rear, but was surrounded near
Rome, Georgia, by Forrest and Reddy, and compelled to
surrender. Sundry minor conflicts in this quarter inflicted
in the aggregate about equal losses on either belligerent.
Commodore Foote had triumphantly swept down the Mis-
sissippi from Cairo to Vicksburg, co-operating with Gen-
eral Pope on the Missouri and General W. T. Sherman on
the Kentucky side. Columbus, Kentucky, was abandoned
on his approach ; New Madrid, Missouri, and Island No.
10 in the Mississippi, were successively taken by Pope,
compelling General Makall to surrender 123 guns and 6700
men; then Forts Pillow and Randolph, which opened the
river to Memphis, where a Confederate fleet of steamboats
undertook to bar the way, but was soon demolished (June
4), when Memphis was quietly surrendered. An expedi-
tion thence up White River, to open communications with
General Curtis, did not find him, but lost the steamboat
Mound City, with 150 men, by a ball through her boiler in
an attack on St. Charles, which was taken. Commodore
Davis steamed down to Vicksburg, and communicated with
Farragut below it from New Orleans; but a combined naval
attack (July 1) on that stronghold was repulsed, and the
siege raised July 24. - -
General Grant, now at Jackson, Tennessee, after the bat-
tles at Iuka, and Corinth had his department enlarged so as
to include Mississippi, while 11,500 men were sent him under
McPherson. He had advanced as far as Oxford, Missis-
sippi, on the way to Vicksburg, when Van Dorn struck
(December 20) with cavalry at Holly Springs in his rear,
where Grant's stores were awaiting a further reopening of
the railroad. The place was occupied by Colonel R. C.
Murphy of Wisconsin, who surrendered nearly 2000 men,
nearly half of them in hospital. Grant at once cashiered
Murphy in a stinging order, but meantime his stores, worth
$4,000,000, had been destroyed or carried off, and he was
compelled to turn back into Tennessee.
General W. T. Sherman, with 30,000 men, left Memphis
on steamboats December 21, and fell down the Mississippi
to co-operate in the reduction of Vicksburg. Ascending the
Yazoo, he made (December 22) a resolute attack on the
rebel batteries commanding Chickasaw Bayou, but the
ground was difficult, the banks strong and well manned,
and he was repulsed with a loss of 2000, while General
Pemberton reports the Confederate loss at 267.
General John A. McClernand now superseded General
Sherman, and at once resolved on the reduction of Fort
Hindman (known as Arkansas Post), 50 miles up the Ar-
kansas River. His force was so large, and his dispositions
so well made, that his first assault compelled its surrender,
with 5000 prisoners and seventeen guns. The Union loss
in the assault was 977. General Grant arrived from Mem-
phis and assumed chief command February 2, 1863.
Attempts to cut a channel across the narrow isthmus op-
posite Wicksburg on which the Union army was encamped
proved failures, and a boat-expedition under General L. F.
Captain Blake, which sunk six minutes afterwards.
Ross from the Mississippi, through Yazoo Pass, into the
Coldwater and Tallahatchie Rivers, was stopped and
turned back by Confederate works at the head of the
Yazoo, returning to the Mississippi unmolested; and one
or more kindred attempts to circumvent the defences of
Wicksburg were likewise baffled. At length General Grant
decided to gain their rear by the south rather than the
north, and, defying high water and other impediments,
marched his army 70 miles to Hard Times, nearly opposite
Grand Gulf. Commodore Porter, commanding the Union
fleet above Wicksburg, ran the batteries of that city with
eight gunboats and eight barges, whereof but two were
destroyed by their fire, the rest appearing before Grand
Gulf in season to bombard its defences, but to no purpose.
Grant thereupon crossed (April 30) at Bruinsburg, some
miles below, and, taking them in reverse, easily took pos-
session of Port Gibson and Grand Gulf, defeating General
Powen, who had been sent from Vicksburg to resist him,
with a loss of nearly 1000 on each side. Moving up the
Big Black, General Grant’s advance easily crushed at Ray-
mond two rebel brigades under Gregg; Union loss, 443;
Confederate, 723. Advancing to Jackson, the capital of the
State, McPherson was there resisted by General W. H. T.
Walker, who was promptly defeated, with a Confederate
loss of 845 to 265 Union. Here seventeen guns were taken
and much material destroyed. *
By this time General Jos. Johnston had arrived with re-
inforcements, and assumed chief command of the Confed-
erates, directing Pemberton to join him with the defenders
of Vicksburg. Grant of course moved rapidly westward
to bar such junction, and at Champion Hills encountered
(May 16) Pemberton, who attempted too late to move
northward and join Johnston, but was compelled to fight
thrice his force, and was beaten with a loss of General
Tilghman among the killed, 2000 prisoners, and fifteen
guns. General Loring's division was cut off from Pem-
berton’s, and escaped southward to Jackson. At the cross-
ing of the Big Black, Pemberton fought again, but was
soon put to flight, with a loss of eighteen guns and 1500
prisoners. Pemberton, with whatever he still had left,
fled into Vicksburg, necessarily abandoning his strong
defences on the Yazoo, with a number of heavy guns. The
Confederate navy-yard and hospital at Yazoo City, with
1500 sick and wounded, were among the fruits of these suc-
cesses. Grant followed Pemberton closely, and tried to
carry his stronghold by assault, but was repulsed with
heavy loss. He then sat down to patient Sapping and
mining, fortifying his rear against Johnston, who was
threatening him from Clinton and Jackson, and worked
away until Pemberton was starved into a surrender (July
3), having still 1500 men fit for duty, besides 10,000 in
hospitals. Grant reports his total loss from his landing at
Bruinsburg to his triumphant entry (July 4) into Vicksburg
at 943 killed, 7095 wounded, and 537 missing ; total, 8515,
of whom 4236 fell before Vicksburg; and claims 37,000
prisoners, of whom a large part were sick or wounded,
with arms and munitions for 60,000 men. Among the
Confederates killed were Generals Tracy, Tilghman, and
Green. Grant now turned, with a force raised to 50,000,
upon Johnston, who had but 24,000, pushed him back to
Jackson, and there besieged him, with a loss of 600 on
either side, until he decided to decamp, retreating by
Brandon to Morton.
During these momentous operations Colonel B. H. Grier-
son, with 1700 cavalry, raided northward from Lagrange,
Tennessee, through Pontotoc, by Jackson and Natchez, to
the Mississippi at Baton Rouge, taking 500 prisoners and
3000 small arms, having traversed 600 miles of mainly hor-
rible roads in sixteen days, losing but twenty-seven men.
Milliken's Bend, on the Mississippi, held by General E. A.
Dennis with 1400 men, was attacked by the Confederate
general Henry McCulloch with a superior force, which was
repelled with a loss of some 500 to either side. Helena,
Arkansas, held by General B. M. Prentiss with 4000 men,
was likewise attacked (June 30) by the Confederate general
Holmes with 7646, losing 1636, whereof 1000 were cap-
tured. Helena was thereafter let alone.
General Banks, commanding at New Orleans, found Gal-
veston already surrendered (October 8, 1862), without re-
sistance, to a Union fleet of four gunboats, and thence
quietly held till he sent down a regiment, of which part
was debarked (December 28), when General Magruder,
just appointed to command in Texas, organized a fleet of
mercantile steamers, shielded by cotton-bales and manned
in good part by volunteers, with which he came down the
bayou in the might (December 31) and boldly attacked the
Union fleet in the harbor, captured the Harriet Lane, sunk
the Westfield, and compelled the troops ashore to surrender.
And the Confederate corsair Alabama, arriving off the bar
soon after, silenced and took the Union gunboat Hatteras,
Major
}
CONFEDERATE STATES.
1103.
O. M. Watkins, blockading the mouth of the Sabine with
two gunboats, was attacked by two Confederate gunboats
from up-river, and easily captured.
General Banks had 30,000 men, which sickness, desertion,
and detachments soon reduced to 14,000. Having pushed
these westward, So as to clear the country of all enemies to
the Atchafalaya by an easy fight at Carney’s Bridge, he at
once returned and laid siege to Port Hudson on the Missis-
sippi, where the Confederates had established batteries to
dispute the passage of the river. Commodore Farragut,
with four frigates and five gunboats, passed the batteries,
losing one of his best vessels in so doing. Banks, deeming
the garrison too strong to be successfully assaulted by his
force, again moved westward to Alexandria, driving Gen-
eral R. Taylor and taking 2000 prisoners, several steam-
boats, and twenty-two guns. Again Banks returned to the
Mississippi at Port Hudson, which he invested, and soon
tried to carry by assault, but was beaten off with a loss of
2000 against 300. He now besieged in due form, and at
length made (June 10) a second assault, which likewise
failed. But no relieving army appeared, supplies were
very short, and the garrison were on short allowance, with
little to eat left, when a tremendous salute from the invest-
ing Union batteries and gunboats gave notice (July 6) that
Vicksburg had fallen. Upon being convinced of this fact,
General Gardener surrendered the fort with its garrison of
6408 men, of whom many were sick or wounded. Banks's
effective force was that day about 10,000; his total captures
during the campaign, 10,584 men, seventy-three guns, and
6000 small arms. -
Brashear City, on the Atchafalaya, was surprised and cap-
tured by the Confederate general R. Taylor (June 22), with
a Union loss of 1000 men and ten guns. The Union camp of
General Dudley near Donaldsonville was in like manner sur-
prised (July 12) by 1200 Texans, and 300 prisoners taken.
Banks returned to New Orleans, and sent General Franklin
with a fleet and 4000 men to take the fort at Sabine Pass;
but the naval attack was repulsed with a loss of two gun-
boats, fifteen guns, and 250 men, which exceeded the whole
number opposed to them. -
General Banks pushed out a part of his command, under
General C. C. Washburne, to Opelousas, to make his own
movement on Texas. On his retreat to the Teche, General
Washburne's right was attacked (November 1) by General
R. Taylor, and roughly handled, the Sixty-seventh Indi-
ana being captured entire. Reinforcements being brought
up, Taylor drew off, having inflicted a loss of 716, and suf-
fered but 425.
General Banks, with 6000 men, steamed from New Or-
leans to the Rio Grande, thence capturing Brazos Santiago,
Brownsville, Aransas Pass, Fort Esperanza (commanding
Matagorda Bay) with little opposition and hardly any loss,
there being no considerable force to oppose him. He then
returned to New Orleans, leaving General N. J. T. Dana in
command, but the latter found no hostile force in that part
of Texas, and accomplished very little.
When the spring of 1864 had fairly opened, General A.
J. Smith's corps from Sherman’s army, supported by Com-
modore Porter with a powerful steam-fleet, advanced up
Red River, menacing Shreveport, while General Steele was
to co-operate by a movement from Little Rock, which had
been taken by an advance with 12,000 men from Helena six
months before. General Price, who was in command there,
was far outnumbered and easily routed. He burned six
steamboats and some stores, falling back to the vicinity of
Red River. Steele lost but 100 killed and wounded in this
advance, and took 1000 prisoners.
Banks's advance, which should have passed Alexandria
before March 1st, only reached that point on the 16th, and
he was not ready to advance farther till about April 1st, at
which time the river was rapidly falling, and barely navi-
gable for gunboats. By this time his 40,000 men had been
reduced by details and sickness to 20,000, whereof the van
had reached Sabine Cross-roads, near Mansfield, when, as it
moved carelessly through a pine-woods region, it was at-
tacked in great force, outflanked and routed, and an at-
tempt to re-form was baffled by the presence of a supply-
train which should have been elsewhere. Retreating, or
rather fleeing, three miles to Pleasant Grove, the routed van
re-formed upon General Emory’s division, and was again
charged headlong by the flushed Confederates, and brisk
fighting ensued, in which the Confederate general Mouton
was killed. Every attack was repulsed, and darkness
closed the combat. General Banks retreated during the
night fifteen miles to Pleasant Hill, where General Smith’s
corps was awaiting him, raising his entire force to 15,000.
At 11 A.M. the Confederates appeared, and skirmished con-
tinuously till 4 P. M., when they made a grand attack, and
were again beaten off, losing 400 prisoners. General M.
Parsons (Confederate) and Colonel Lewis Benedict (Union).
were among the killed. Banks’s loss in these fights was
3969, mainly taken prisoners at the first collision. Though
successful in the last struggle, he did not again advance,
but marched to the Red River at Grand Grove, thence con-
voying the fleet, which was often hard aground, back to
Alexandria. His rear and his vessels were repeatedly and
sharply assailed; in one attack, General Thomas Green of
Texas was killed. The Eastport, one of the gunboats, be-
ing hard aground, was blown up. The rest of the fleet was
saved, and taken down to the Mississippi, passing Alexan-
dria with great difficulty by the help of dams. Having now
to spare A. J. Smith’s corps, Banks continued his retreat,
forced to fight and push aside General Bee with 8000 men,
with a loss of 250 on either side. One steamboat was burned
and three captured by Confederates near Dean’s Bayou, 30
miles below Alexandria, some 500 Unionists being made
prisoners. Part of them were retaken in repulsing (May 6)
a Confederate attack on Banks's advance near Mansura, and
an attack on his rear (May 19) at Yellow Bayou on the
Atchafalaya. 4.
General Steele's advance from Little Rock to co-operate
with Banks was, by the retreat of the latter, exposed to
great peril. The Confederates under General Fagan turned
upon him in great force, drove in or captured his foraging
parties, and at length struck his advance a heavy blow
(April 25) at Marks's Mill, taking some 1500 prisoners.
Steele thereupon retreated, and was attacked (April 30) by
Kirby Smith at Jenkins's Ferry on the Sabine; but the
Unionists, though inferior in numbers, had the advantage
in position, and repulsed their assailants after a sharp
contest, in which the Union loss was 700; the Confederate,
2300, including three generals. Steele's retreat to Little
Rock was thenceforth unmolested. Several spirited con-
tests were afterwards had in different parts of Arkansas
with varying results, but the north-eastern half of its area
was generally held by the Unionists, the other half by the
Confederates nearly to the last.
In 1864, General Rosecrans being now in command in
Missouri, General Price entered it from Batesville, Arkan-
sas, first resisted at Pilot Knob by General Hugh S. Ewing,
who held his post throughout a day’s fighting, and then re-
treated. Price advanced to Jefferson City, but, finding it
too strong to attack, pushed westward to Lexington, and
thence to the Little Blue, sharply followed by General
Pleasanton with a superior force, and overtaken at the Big
Blue, where he made a stand, but was soon driven west-
ward. Sharply pursued, Price was again overtaken at the
Little Osage, where he was again routed with the loss of eight
guns and 1000 prisoners, including Major-General Marma-
duke, a brigadier, and five colonels. The residue were
chased to Fayetteville, Arkansas, but without much fighting.
General Hooker, on succeeding to the command of the
Army of the Potomac, had found it exceedingly demoralized
by its disaster at Fredericksburg, the desertions averaging
200 per day. After devoting two months to reorganizing
and reinspiring it, during which its force had been gradually
raised to 100,000 infantry, 13,000 cavalry, and 10,000 artil-
léry, he judged himself ready to assume the offensive. De-
spatching most of his cavalry under Stoneman to destroy
railroads, dépôts, etc. in Lee's rear, his van forded the Rap-
pahamnock at Kelly's Ford, above Fredericksburg, advan-
cing rapidly to Chancellorsville, where he established his
head-quarters and paused. General Anderson, who had
been watching the fords, being too weak to resist, fell back
quietly before him to within five miles of Fredericksburg,
where Lee met him with two divisions. Meanwhile, Stone-
wall Jackson with two more moved rapidly from Lee's right
below Fredericksburg, and passed silently around Hooker’s
right, several miles west of Chancellorsville. Suddenly,
just before sunset (May 2), Howard’s corps, holding the
Union right, was struck in flank and rear while ignorant
of danger, and in part at supper with arms stacked, by
Stonewall Jackson's corps, 25,000 strong, which burst from
the thick woods of that region and literally demolished it.
Ten minutes after the first shot its men were rushing in
wild consternation towards Chancellorsville and the river
beyond; thousands of them were unarmed, while very many
of them were made prisoners. Two or three regiments were
sacrificed in unsuccessful attempts to stay Jackson’s im-
petuous rush. Finally, General Pleasanton got his battery
of horse artillery into position, and arrested the advance
by murderous discharges of grape at short range. Here
fell Stonewall Jackson, mortally wounded : it was said by a
volley from some of his own men. It was dark, and they
were in the woods; all that is certain is that he died of his
wounds eight days afterwards. The flight was here stop-
ped, and some of the lost ground regained, but the Eleventh
corps was temporarily extinct; so Hooker drew back his
right towards Chancellorsville.
The Confederates next morning followed up their decided
success by charge after charge in great force on General
Sickles's corps, now holding the Union right, and caused it
1104
CONFEDERATE STATES
to give some ground during the day. The carnage of that
day was frightful, Sickles having 4000 out of 18,000 killed
or wounded. Hooker had been stunned by a cannon-ball
striking a pillar of the Chancellorsville House against which
he leaned, and hence failed to support Sickles when support
was needed.
Sedgwick, with 22,000 men, had been left in front of Fred-
ericksburg. He crossed the river early this morning, just
below that city, and was reinforced by Gibbon, who crossed
on a pontoon bridge, raising his troops to 30,000. By noon
he had stormed and carried Marye's Heights, taking some
guns and prisoners, thence pushing out four miles to Salem
Church. But this brought him full upon Lee's army, which,
having crossed to assail Hooker, now turned upon him,
fighting him till darkness interposed. Next morning (May
4) Hooker remained passive, and Sedgwick, finding him-
self overpowered, retreated across Banks’s Ford, having lost
nearly 5000 men. Lee might now have turned in full force
upon Hooker, but his men had been overworked, and he
hesitated. Hooker recrossed the Rappahannock unassailed
during the ensuing night, claiming that he brought back
one more gun than he took over, and that he had inflicted
greater loss than he suffered, though his own (including
Sedgwick’s) was no less than 17,197 men. Lee's loss must
have been heavy, but was not made public. Stoneman’s
cavalry returned May 8, having inflicted little loss and Šuf-
fered little.
Lee soon after recalled Longstreet from a fruitless demon-
stration against Suffolk, Virginia, and while Hooker was
planning to flank him by crossing the Rappahannock below
Fredericksburg, was himself executing a more extensive
and daring flank movement by Culpeper Court-house and
Sperryville into the Shenandoah Valley, and down that
across the Potomac. This movement was first fully devel-
oped to Hooker by an advance in great force under General
Early on Winchester, held by General Milroy of Indiana,
who evacuated it when too late, and lost twenty-nine guns
and 4000 men in his hurried flight across the Potomac.
Ewell pursued unresisted to Chambersburg, Pennsylvania,
which Jenkins, with his cavalry, had reached some days
before (June 17). Early’s division of Ewell's corps moved
forward to York, Pennsylvania, while Johnson’s division
pressed northward to Carlisle, and Imboden’s brigade swept
the valley of the Potomac westward to Cumberland, Mary-
land. By June 25th all of Lee's army had forded the Po-
tomac, and was advancing into Pennsylvania. Ewell’s van
reached Kingston, but 13 miles from Harrisburg. As counted
by two Unionists as it passed through Hagerstown, Lee had
91,000 infantry, 280 guns and 6000 cavalry, while 5000 cav-
alry under Stuart entered Pennsylvania without traversing
Hagerstown.
General Hooker had waited long below and around Wash-
ington, incredulous that Lee would invade the free States.
At length he too crossed the Potomac with 100,000 men, of
whom 15,000 were spared him from the defences of Wash-
ington. He wished to draw 10,000 more from Maryland
Heights, opposite Harper's Ferry, but was forbidden to do
so by General Halleck. Hooker thereupon asked (by tele-
graph) to be relieved from the command, and was promptly
directed by IIalleck to turn it over to General Meade, which
he did, and was no more seen in the Army of the Potomac.
A cavalry fight (June 28), inaugurated by Stuart and re-
pelled by Kilpatrick, was the first notice that the two great
armies were nearing each other. They casually encountered
near Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, where General Buford’s
division of Unionists met the Confederate van under Heth,
and drove it back upon its corps (Hill's), by which they
were driven in turn. The sound of guns brought up General
Wadsworth's division of Reynolds’ (First) corps, Reynolds
himself going forward to reconnoitre, and being shot dead
as he did so. General Doubleday assumed command, but
his force, being too weak, was driven back, capturing 800
prisoners as they retreated. Doubleday halted on Seminary
Ridge, just west of the village, where the residue of Rey-
nolds’ and all the Eleventh corps soon came up, Howard
assuming command. Ewell’s (Confederate) corps next came
up from York, and again gave the ascendency to their side,
driving the Unionists through Gettysburg, with the loss of
their wounded in hospital and several guns. Howard took
position on Cemetery Hill, just south of the village, and
despatched couriers to Meade and Sickles for aid. Sickles
was at Emmittsburg, ten miles away, but hastened to the
scene of conflict; Meade, who was at Taneytown, expect-
ing and preparing to fight on Pike Creek, sent Hancock at
once to take command at Gettysburg, directing his corps
under Gibbon to follow. Slocum arrived at 7 P.M., and took
command, Hancock returning to report to Meade. Before
morning (July 2) each army had been concentrated around
Gettysburg, save that Sedgwick's (Sixth) corps, which was
30 miles distant at 7 P. M., did not arrive until 2 P. M. of
that eventful day. One hour later, Sickles, who held an
advanced position on the Union left, was attacked in over-
whelming force by Longstreet just as he was about to re-
cede, and was crushed back with heavy loss, losing a leg by
a cannon-shot. Meantime, Sykes's (Fifth) corps had seized
Round Top, the highest point on that wing, and firmly held
it. Hancock rushed to Sickles's relief, and Longstreet's
advance was arrested, but he held the ground from which
Sickles had been driven. Ewell also had, assailed and
driven the weakened Union right, and the second day's
fighting closed with the advantage still on the side of the
Confederates.
The third day (July 3) opened with an advance of the
Union right under Slocum, who had now been rejoined by a
division sent over the day before to support the imperilled
left. Slocum retook the ground he had lost, and rested
upon it. Then there was a lull of an hour or more.
At 1 P. M. the roar of 115 heavy guns from Hill's and
Longstreet’s front, crossing their fire over the Union centre
at Cemetery Hill, announced the crisis of the struggle. For
two hours they ploughed the Union lines, being less effect-
ively replied to by the less numerous Union artillery. At
length the Union guns stopped firing in order to cool their
pieces, and now the grand Confederate column of assault
emerged from behind their suddenly silent batteries and
pressed swiftly towards the Union lines. Pickett's and
Heth's (now Pettigrew’s) divisions led, charging up to the
mouths of the Union guns, but were repulsed with terri-
ble carnage. Pettigrew’s brigade, having lost 2000 out of
2800 men, retreated under the command of a major. When
the remnant regained their own lines the battle of Gettys-
burg had been lost and won, though a charge was after-
wards made by Crawford’s division of Sykes's corps on the
Union left, capturing a battery with 260 men, and retak-
ing 7000 small arms, with Sickles's wounded, who had lain
for twenty-four summer hours unguarded within the Con-
federate lines.
General Meade reports his total loss in these three bloody
days at 2834 killed, 13,709 wounded, and 6643 missing
(mainly taken prisoners on the 1st). He claims as trophies
three guns, 24,978 small arms, and 13,621 prisoners, includ-
ing wounded. He estimates the Confederate loss as much
greater, which is probable, as about 7000 of them were
buried at Gettysburg, with 4000 Unionists. Among the
Confederate killed or mortally wounded were Generals
Pender, Barksdale, Garnett, Armistead, and Semmes. Had
Meade known how badly the Confederates were beaten, he
might probably have crushed them; but he doubted and
hesitated while Lee retreated to the Potomac, sorely an–
noyed by the way. Lee says his rear remained near Get-
tysburg till after daylight of the 5th. He might have been
assailed at the Potomac, as his bridge had been burned by
General French in his absence, and the river was swollen
by heavy rains; yet he rebuilt his bridge, and crossed
(July 12–13) his infantry and guns without loss; but a
cavalry charge by General Kilpatrick on his rear-guard
drove it across with a loss of 125 killed (including General
Pettigrew) and 1500 prisoners. Lee retreated the length
of the Shenandoah, and resumed his position behind the
Rappahannock, General Meade following and facing him
on the north bank.
General Keyes, with 3000 men, was ordered from Fort-
ress Monroe to capture Richmond during Lee's absence in
the North, but though few troops had been left to defend it,
he desisted without a serious effort.
A series of partisan affairs ensued on either bank of the
Rappahannock, the most important of which was the cap-
ture by storm of Rappahannock Station with 1000 men by
the Union brigades under General David A. Russell. The
Confederate rifle-pits at Kelly's Ford were in like manner
taken, with 400 prisoners.
Meade, aware that Longstreet had been detached for ser-
vice in Georgia and Tennessee, now advanced to attack
Lee's depleted army at Mine Run, but finally concluding
that its position was too strong, desisted and retreated
across the Rapidan, and thus closed the campaign of the
Army of the Potomac in 1863.
General Morgan made a fresh raid clear through Ken-
tucky, striking and crossing the Ohio (July 7) at Branden-
burg, 40 miles below Louisville, with a mounted force said
to number 4000. He then made his way through Indiana,
and Southern Ohio to Buffing Island, not far below Par-
kersburg, but found the river patrolled by armed steam-
boats, while a considerable land force was pressing in his
rear. Ultimately, less than 400 of his men escaped; all
the rest were made prisoners with little fighting. Morgan
himself was taken prisoner and confined in the State prison
at Columbus, Ohio, whence he escaped and regained the
Confederate lines, but was surprised and shot in East Ten-
nessee not long afterwards. .
General Burnside had been sent from the East to the Ohio,
taking his (Ninth) corps with him. Having despatched a

CONFEDERATE STATES.
1105.
cavalry force under Colonel H. S. Saunders across the Cum-
berland Mountains to burn railroad bridges and destroy
stores, in which it was quite successful with little loss, he
crossed those mountains with 20,000 men, and suddenly
appeared (September 3) at Knoxville, where he was hailed
by the long-suffering Unionists as a deliverer. He next
moved on Cumberland Gap, where he captured General
Frazier with fourteen guns and 2000 men. But his activity
was here arrested by the reverse encountered by Rosecrans
at Chickamauga. .
Tosecrans had stood idle at Murfreesboro’ since January
1, 1863, awaiting reinforcements and supplies, till June 24,
when he advanced, taking three guns and 500 prisoners at
Shelbyville, and soon cleared all Middle Tennessee of armed
Confederates; Bragg retreated before him with little loss.
Grossing the Tennessee at several points, Rosecrans com-
pelled him to evacuate Chattanooga without fighting, re-
treating down the railroad that led into Georgia. Rose-
erans, misled by his easy success, was pursuing in hot haste,
when Bragg, having been reinforced by Longstreet's corps
from Virginia, turned suddenly on his widely-scattered
divisions, compelling him to concentrate hastily behind
the Chickamauga Creek. He had 55,000 men; Bragg had
scarcely more, and the first day's fighting (September 19)
was indecisive. Next morning, Rosecrans’ right, while at-
tempting to close down on his centre, was struck heavily by
Longstreet and torn to fragments, the débris flying in im-
potent dismay to Chattanooga, and sweeping Rosecrans
along with it. But General Thomas, farther to the left,
stood firm, gaining ground somewhat, but maintaining a
bold front, and, resting on a wooded ridge, repulsed all at-
tacks until night closed the bloody encounter, when the
Confederates drew off, and Thomas stood still through the
following day (September 21). At might, still unassailed,
he retired to the position assigned him by Rosecrans in
front of Chattanooga.
The Union loss in this bloody, protracted struggle was
1644 killed (including General W. H. Lytle of Ohio), 9262
wounded, 4945 missing; total, 15,581. Bragg's admitted
loss was 18,000, but he claims to have taken 8000 prisoners
(including wounded) and fifty-one guns. Dut he failed to
take Chattanooga, which Rosecrans firmly held, though
suffering badly for forage, owing to the barring in of the
Tennessee River below him and the raids of Wheeler’s Con-
federate cavalry on the trains coming to supply his rear,
until he was directed to turn over his command to General
Thomas.
General Longstreet, with his corps, was now detached
from Bragg's army, and sent to drive Burnside out of East
Tennessee. Longstreet drove the Union forces west of
Knoxville, but here Burnside was found too strong, and an
assault made (November 28) on an outpost known as Fort
Sanders was repulsed with a loss of 800 Confederates, in-
cluding two colonels killed. The Union loss was but 100.
Longstreet thereupon raised the siege, and returned to the
army of Virginia.
General Grant succeeded to the command of Rosecrans’
army, while Sherman was ordered from Wicksburg still fur-
ther to reinforce it, General Hooker having already been
sent in haste with the Eleventh and Twelfth corps from
the Army of the Potomac. Meantime, Wheeler had burned
a supply-train of 1000 wagons in the Sequatchie Valley,
and another at McMinnville, fighting several cavalry com-
mands sent against him, burning many railroad bridges,
and escaping into Alabama with but little loss.
Grant found Hooker at Bridgeport, below Chattanooga,
and directed him to clear the river, so that supplies could
reach the hungry army around Chattanooga. Hooker crossed
the Tennessee unmolested, and advanced to Wauhatchie,
overlooked by Law’s division from Lookout Mountain. At
1 A. M., October 29, Geary, in Hooker's front, was attacked
with great impetuosity, but easily beat off his assailants,
with a loss of about 400 on each side.
Sherman arrived November 15, soon followed by his
army, which was diverted to Grant's left, up the Tennessee.
All being at length ready, Grant advanced against Bragg,
who was still looking down into Chattanooga from the west
of Lookout Mountain. General Grant's Fourth corps first
moved out (November 22), directly in front of Chattanooga,
seizing the Confederate outposts before they could be sup-
ported, and taking 200 prisoners; then Hooker's com-
mand, during a heavy mist, mounted (November 24) the
south and west sides of Lookout Mountain, climbing, fight-
ing, and at length entrenching themselves on the ground
they had won. Meantime, Sherman crossed the Tennessee
in his front, and having firmly intrenched himself, assaulted
the north end of Mission Ridge, Thomas's cavalry raiding
and burning stores in Bragg's rear, while his infantry felt
their way up the river till they clasped hands with Sher-
man’s left; and now Hooker crossed the Chattanooga Val-
ley from Lººkout Mountain to Mission Ridge, pushing the
{
enemy before him and taking 2000 prisoners. Meanwhile,
Sherman, stubbornly opposed, was making little progress
on the left, until Grant at 2 P. M. gave Hooker orders to ad-.
vance in the centre. His men obeyed with alacrity, charg—
ing right up the long, steep ascent, and reaching the west
on six points at once, when the Confederates were seized
with panic and fled, abandoning forty guns and losing
many prisoners. Darkness alone prevented the destruction
of the beaten army, which retreated rapidly to Dalton,
Georgia, Cleburne in their rear repulsing with ease an at-
tempt to drive his men through a narrow gap in White
Oak Ridge, inflicting a loss of 439 to 130. Pursuit was
maintained to Ringgold, Georgia. - -
General Grant states his losses in the above battles at 757
killed, 4529 wounded, and 330 missing; total, 5616; and
claims 6142 prisoners. The Confederate. loss in killed and
wounded was undoubtedly the smaller.
Charleston, South Carolina, and the railroad connecting
it with Savannah, Georgia, were often menaced, and some-
times struck at, by the Union forces at Port Royal and the
adjacent Sea Islands, but nothing decisive was effected,
save the reduction (April 11, 1862), by General Q. A. Gill-
more, of Fort Pulaski, commanding the main entrance to
Savannah, until Commodore Dupont, having easily taken
possession of the islands and most of the coast-towns of
Georgia, steamed down to Jacksonville, which, with Pensa-
cola and other Florida ports, were conceded to him without
a struggle. Attempting upon his return to Port Royal to
advance upon Charleston off Stono Inlet.and river, he was
stopped by batteries, and an attack (June 16) by General
H. G. Wright with 6000 Unionists on Secessionville was re-
pulsed with a loss of 574 men. Several kindred but feebler
attempts to reach Charleston were baffled, as was one by
Commodore Dupont to reduce Fort McAllister on the Ogee-
chee. The Confederates made a sally in the dark of rams
and gunboats (January 31, 1863) out of Charleston, dis-
abling two of the blockading gunboats and alarming the
residue, but taking refuge behind Fort Sumter when day-
light appeared. The blockade was not interrupted.
Dupont, with nine iron-clads, next (April 6) bombarded
that port at close quarters, but found his way to Charleston
impeded by all manner of piles, chains, etc., and was com-
pelled to retire with little loss on either side. The Atlanta,
a Confederate gunboat, steaming down from Savannah,
was met by the Weehawken, Captain John Rodgers, as she
emerged from Wilmington River, and torn to pieces in fif-
teen minutes. She surrendered four large guns and 165
Iſle ºl.
General Quincy A. Gillmore having succeeded General
Hunter in command, and being considerably reinforced,
commenced operations by seizing the north end of Morris
Island, south of Charleston, and thence besieging Fort Wag-
ner, near its north end, which was regularly assaulted after
bombardment July 18, but the storming-party was quickly
repulsed with a loss of 1500, including General Strong and
Colonels Shaw and Chatfield, killed. The Confederate loss
was but 100.
Gillmore, undismayed, next established a battery of great
guns on a platform in a marsh west of Morris Island,
whence he could shell Charleston, five miles distant.
Eleven batteries rained shot and shell on Forts Wagner
and Sumter and the batteries on Cummings’ Point. Push-
ing steadily his approaches to Wagner, he had ordered
General Terry to assault (September 7), when, he found
that the Confederates had evacuated both fort and island,
leaving eighteen guns in Wagner and seven in Battery
Gregg. Next night, Rear-Admiral Dahlgren, now com-
manding the besieging fleet, sent a large force in row-boats
to scale the walls of Fort Sumter, but it was repulsed with
a loss of three boats and 200 men.
General Gillmore early in 1864 despatched General
Truman Seymour with a fleet and 6000 troops to Florida,
where he easily took possession of Jacksonville and Bald-
win, capturing valuable stores, but advancing rashly west-
ward to Olustee, he was there suddenly attacked by Gen-
eral Finnegan, and beaten with a loss of 2000 to 730 Con-
federates. Seymour retreated to Jacksonville, burning
$1,000,000 worth of stores. -
In North Carolina, the Confederate general M. Hoke be-,
sieged and captured (April 20, 1863) Plymouth, held by
General Wessels with 2000 men. Among the spoils were
twenty-five guns, 7000 small arms, and 1600 effective men.
Hoke's loss was but 300.
General Grant, having been made (March 1, 1864) lieu-
tenant-general of the Union armies, repaired to Washing-
ton and assumed the more immediate direction of the Army
of the Potomac, which had been largely reinforced. Gen-
eral Kilpatrick had just led his cavalry on a raid to within
six miles of Richmond, whence, after Some indecisive fight-
ing, he made his way unharmed to Fortress Monroe. But
Colonel Ulric Dahlgren, with 400 of his men, having ad-
-4.
1106
CONFEDERATE STATES.
vanced by a separate route on Kilpatrick's right, reached
Richmond a day later, and striking thence by a more
northerly route, was stopped and killed by a regiment of
militia at Dabney’s Ferry on the Mattapony, his men dis-
persed, and most of them captured.
General Grant, with Meade's army, crossed the Rapidan
unresisted (May 4–5) at Germania and Ely’s Fords, strik-
ing due south into the Wilderness. Lee, though looking
for him at a higher crossing, at once turned to the right,
and attacked in full force. The ground, thickly covered
for the most part with small trees, and thoroughly familiar
to the Confederates, while strange to the Unionists, was es-
pecially favorable to the army which must match its supe-
rior knowledge and determination against Superior num-
bers. Two days of desperate fighting, with great slaughter
and little advantage to either side, were closed at dark on
the 6th with a dashing attack on the Union right by Gen-
eral Gordon, who took 4000 prisoners, including General
Truman Seymour.
Next morning, General Lee awaiting an attack behind
his intrenchments, General Grant put his army in motion
southward, and was unmolested save by Stuart's cavalry
during his march to Spottsylvania Court-house. He had
lost in the Wilderness no less than 20,000 men, including
General James S. Wadsworth of New York, killed, and
seven generals wounded. General Sedgwick of Connec-
ticut was killed two days afterwards. The Confederate loss
was 8000, including Generals Samuel Jones, Stafford, and
A. G. Jenkins, killed, and Longstreet was disabled for
months.
There was heavy fighting around Spottsylvania Court-
house for two or three days. On the 11th, at daybreak,
Hancock's corps carried by assault a part of the Confede-
rate works, capturing Generals Edward Johnson and George
H. Stewart, with 3000 men. General Lee narrowly es-
caped. Hancock captured thirty guns, but after holding
them for hours only brought off twenty of them. But he
was unable to advance, and days of desperate fighting,
which cost the Unionists at least 20,000 men at this point,
proved Lee's position impregnable. Acting on the defen-
sive and behind strong works, his loss was much less than
Grant’s, but it included Generals Daniels, Perrin, and J.
M. Jones, killed.
Grant again moved southward, transferring his right to
his left, while his cavalry under Sheridan made a fresh raid
towards Richmond, fighting (May 11) and killing General
J. E. B. Stuart a few miles north of that city. Crossing
the Chickahominy at Meadow Bridge, Sheridan returned
with little loss to Grant’s army. -
General Butler, with 30,000 men, embarking all but his
cavalry, moved up the James and occupied City Point, be-
low Richmond. He was to have seized Petersburg, but
missed it, General Beauregard being hastily summoned
from Charleston to aid D. H. Hill in defending it. Butler
even failed to cut the railroad between that city and Rich-
mond, and was rather worsted by Beauregard in a fight
near Procter's Creek, which cost the Unionists 4000 and
the Confederates 3000 men. Butler was further assailed
on several succeeding days, but held his ground with littl
loss. -
General Grant, moving by poorer and more circuitous
roads than the direct one held by Lee, on approaching the
North Anna (May 17) found his enemy strongly posted,
well intrenched, and ready to receive him. There was more
fighting here, generally with results favoring the Unionists,
but Lee's position could only be stormed at an immense
cost of life, and Grant, again moving by his flank, pressed
on to Cold Harbor, where he ordered a general assault on
the Confederate lines, here, as before, confronting him.
Those lines were defended by deep and strong abatis of
slashed timber, the limbs so intertwisted with each other as
to defy speedy untying. The assault was deployed at sun-
rise (June 3), and in a few minutes was repulsed with
great slaughter. The Union loss was 1705 killed, 9072
wounded, and 2406 missing. Generals P. A. Porter, L. O.
Morris, and F. F. Wood (all of New York) were among the
killed, with six colonels. . …'
General Grant, unable to interpose between Lee's army
and Richmond, now decided to pass the James below that
city, while Sheridan was sent on a fresh raid around Lee’s
left, to tear up railroads and burn stores in his rear. Dis-
appointed in his expectation of finding Hunter in possession
of Gordonsville, he was soon surrounded by enemies, with
whom he fought an indecisive battle at Trevilian's, return-
ing to Grant with 370 prisoners, having lost in all 735 men.
Grant appeared south of Richmond in time to have seized
Petersburg, but the precious moment was squandered by
uninformed or timid subordinates until Lee’s army was in
good part behind its defences. Assault after assault was
now made (June 16–18) on those defences with heavy loss,
and no result but the knowledge that they could not be
thus carried. Then abortive attempts were made (June
21–24) to turn them by the south, which A. P. Hill resisted
and baffled, taking in all at least 5000 prisoners. Then
Wilson, with 8000 cavalry, raided down the Weldon and
Danville Railroad, but was fought and beaten at Stony
Creek and Reams's Station, losing thirteen guns and 1000
prisoners. - *
Grant now moved the Second corps from his extreme left
to his extreme right, and threw it across the James, as if
about to attack Richmond from the east. And now (July
30) a mine which had been skilfully run from the centre of
the Union lines under one of the forts or bastions of Peters-
burg, was exploded, blowing 300 Confederates into the air.
and opening a gap in their lines. Hereupon the cannon thun-
dered all along the Union front; but the column of assault,
which should have rushed forward on the instant, did not
move for several minutes, and then advanced bravely into
the chasm made by the explosion, and there halted. The
Confederates of course rallied from every side, and poured
volley after volley upon the helpless crowd huddled together
in the “crater,” inflicting on the Unionists, a loss of 4400
men, mostly prisoners, while the entire Confederate loss was
but 1000.
Again (August 12) Hancock assailed Lee's extreme left
below Richmond, but with little advantage, the Union loss
in operating on this flank aggregating 5000, while the Con-
federate was much less, but included Generals Chambliss
and Gherardie, killed.
Lee having necessarily sent several divisions from his
right to his left, Grant ordered General Warren southward
to seize and hold the Weldon Railroad; but Warren’s divis-
ions were struck in flank by A. P. Hill at the critical mo-
ment, and twice rolled up on themselves, with an aggregate
loss of 4455 men, mainly prisoners. The Confederates had
lost but 1200, but Warren had seized the Weldon Railroad,
and he thenceforth held it.
Hancock was sent to seize this road also at Reams’s Sta-
tion, farther down, which he did, but was in turn attacked
and driven off by Hill, with a loss of five guns and 2400
men. Hill lost but half so many. -
Again, after a pause, Warren advanced (October 1) by
order, with four divisions, to the Squirrel Level road in his
front, fighting for two days and losing 2500 men, but hold-
ing his ground, and intrenching it so firmly that it could
not be taken from him. To cover this advance, General
Butler on the Union side had assaulted Fort Harrison with
the Tenth and Eighteenth corps, taking the fort with fif-
teen guns. He next attempted Fort Gilmer, but was re-
pulsed with a loss of 300, including General Dunnovan,
killed. General Field attempted next morning to retake
Fort Harrison, but was beaten off with heavy loss. A few
days later General Rautz, whose Union cavalry had been
pushed up the Charles City road to within five miles of
Richmond, was there surprised and driven, with a loss of
nine guns and 500 men. The Confederate general Gregg
of Texas was killed in the ensuing fight, which had no re-
sult.
Hancock was next ordered farther to the Union left to
find and turn the Confederate flank, and in a fight with
Hill's corps, which attempted to interpose between his di-
visions, took 1000 prisoners. Darkness arrested the fight-
ing, but Hancock drew off in the night, having lost 1500
men and inflicted equal loss upon the enemy. Thus closed
on this point the campaign of 1864, with Warren holding
the Weldon Railroad, and Butler threatening Richmond;
the losses of the Army of the Potomac during the year
having aggregated 88,387 men. - r
When Virginia separated from the Union her western
counties, including most of those lying beyond the Alle-
ghanies, strongly protested against the ordinance, voted
“No,” when it was submitted to the ordeal of popular suf-
frage, and refused to be bound by it. Calling a convention
at Wheeling, they decreed a separation from the old State
and the formation of a new one, first named Kanawha, but
since known as West Virginia. They had previously or-
ganized a loyal State government for Old Virginia, which
(hardly an eastern county being represented in it) readily
agreed to the organization of the new State. Meantime,
the Confederates had seized Harper's Ferry and destroyed
the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad for some distance West of
it, and they soon sent a force over the Alleghanies to Secure
obedience to the Confederate authorities at Richmond. It
was promptly confronted by General McClellan with a far
larger army, organized in Ohio, but largely composed of
West Virginians. A part of it routed (June 3, 1861) the
enemy at Philippi, another detachment at Rich Mountain
(July 12), and the main body under General Garnett, who,
in full retreat, was overtaken and routed at Carrick’s Ford
on the Cheat River; where Garnett was killed and some
prisoners were taken. The residue escaped over the Alle-
ghanies. -
CONFEDERATE STATES.
1107
General J. D. Cox, advancing up the Kanawha, drove
the Confederates under General Wise before him; Wise
burning (July 28) Gauley Bridge to arrest the pursuit.
General John B. Floyd now assumed command of the
Confederates, inspirited by their triumph at Bull Run, and
had an indecisive conflict (August 10) with General Rose-
crans at Carnifex Ferry. Floyd held his ground, but re-
treated during the ensuing night.
General R. E. Lee now assumed command in this quar-
ter, and there was much marching with little serious fight-
ing till winter closed the campaign, and little of consequence
occurred here the next year, when General J. C. Fremont
succeeded to the command of the Union forces, but was hur-
ried over the mountains to resist Stonewall Jackson’s raid
down the Valley. Thereupon the Confederate general Heth
raided across the mountains and attacked (May 23, 1862)
Colonel George Crook at Lewisburg, but was beaten off
with loss. Thenceforward the operations on either side in
this quarter were limited to inconsiderable raids and sur-
I lSeS. -
p General Franz Sigel was assigned chief command (Union)
in the Valley in the spring of 1864, when, with 10,000 men,
he advanced to New Market, where he was met by General
John C. Breckenridge with an equal force, and routed with
a loss of six guns and 700 men.
Breckenridge was unable to follow up his victory, being
obliged to send much of his force over the mountains to
oppose Crook, who, with 6000 men, had beaten McCaus-
land's far inferior but well-posted force near Dublin Sta-
tion, and had broken the Virginia and Tennessee Railroad
at that point. General Averell, with 2000 cavalry, raiding
farther west, had tried to destroy the Confederate salt-works
near Wytheville, but had been beaten off by John Morgan.
Both Crook and Averell thereupon retreated.
General David Hunter was now assigned to the command
of Sigel’s beaten army, which was strengthened, while
Breckenridge had been called off to reinforce Lee at Rich-
mond. Hunter advanced to Piedmont, near Staunton, where
he was confronted by General W. E. Jones with a hastily-
collected army, which was beaten (June 8) in a spirited
action, wherein Jones was killed and 1500 of his men cap-
tured. -
Hunter thereupon occupied Staunton, where he was
joined by Crook and Averell, and then, with 20,000 men,
pressed on to Lynchburg and fiercely assailed it, but was
met and beaten off by a superior Confederate force under
Early, hastily despatched by rail from Lee's army. Out-
numbered and short of ammunition, he retreated over the
Alleghanies into West Virginia, whence he regained the
Potomac by a long and toilsome circuit. Meanwhile, the
Valley was left without any considerable Union force, and
Early hurried down it with 20,000 triumphant veterans,
Sigel retreating and burning stores till he had crossed the
Potomac and took post on Maryland Heights, where Early
did not choose to assail him, but crossed into Maryland,
scouring the country for cattle, horses, and provisions of
all kinds, threatened Pennsylvania, and then turned upon
Baltimore. General Lew Wallace could hardly muster
5000 men to oppose him, but fought him (July 9) at the
passage of the Monocacy, near Frederick, and was of course
defeated, losing 2000 men (mainly prisoners), while the
victors lost but 600. Early now turned upon Baltimore,
and menaced Washington, skirmishing (July 12) with its
outpost defences, but made off rapidly into Virginia with
2500 captured horses and 5000 cattle.
General Wright's Sixth corps had just been sent from
Grant’s army to the relief of Washington, as had Emory’s
Nineteenth corps, just arrived by sea from New Orleans.
Wright followed Early to the Shenandoah, where his rear
was sharply turned upon and repulsed (July 19), with a
loss of 500. Wright recoiled to Leesburg, and turned over
his command to Crook, while Averell had (July 20) a cav-
alry fight near Winchester, and took four guns and 200
prisoners.
Wright's and Emory’s corps being now recalled to the
James, Crook, supposing Early gone likewise, advanced to
Winchester, and was there beaten (July 24), and driven to
Martinsburg and across the Potomac, with a loss of 1200,
including General Mulligan, killed.
Early now sent B. T. Johnson with 3000 cavalry on a
raid into Pennsylvania, where they burned without re-
sistance Chambersburg and the barracks at Carlisle. Ave-
rell, with an equal cavalry force, soon encountered the
raiders, but they escaped with little loss into Virginia.
Pursuing to Moorefield, Averell at last struck the raiders
(August 4) and worsted them, with a loss of their guns,
wagons, and 500 prisoners.
General Grant now sent Sheridan to command in this
department, where Hunter's army, just arriving from the
West, the Sixth and Nineteenth corps (whose recall to the
James had been countermanded), and Torbert's and Wil-
son’s divisions of cavalry from Grant's, had raised his effect-
ive force to 30,000 men. *
Sheridan, after taking-time to reorganize his army, ad-
vanced to Winchester, and found Early strongly posted and
fortified on Opequan Creek, whence he dislodged him (Sep-
tember 19) after an obstinate fight, in which his loss was
fully 3000 prisoners, including wounded, while among his
killed were Generals Rhodes and Godwin.
Early rallied his beaten army at Fisher's Hill, a very
strong position south of Winchester, where his flanks were
guarded by two mountains. Here Sheridan again attacked
and routed him (September 25), taking sixteen guns and
1100 prisoners. Pursuing the remnant to Port Republic,
he sent his cavalry to Staunton and to Waynesboro’, de-
stroying provisions and munitions, then retired down the
Valley to Winchester, burning all the grain and forage as
he passed, so that the enemy should find no subsistence
there. This devastation was made an excuse for the at-
tempts to burn New York and other cities by incendiaries
soon afterwards. -
Sheridan had encamped on Cedar Creek, and apprehend-
ing no danger had gone on a visit to Washington, when
Early, reinforced, having stealthily followed down the Wal-
ley, determined to surprise the unsuspecting army before
him. In this he succeeded perfectly, flanking Crook's force
on both sides in the dense darkness, and rushing into the
camps with a fearful yell just before daylight, and in fifteen
minutes Crook’s army was a fleeing, panic-stricken mob,
having lost twenty-four guns and 1200 prisoners. Sheridan
was at Winchester on his return when the disastrous tidings
met him, and, riding at full speed, reached his beaten army
at 10 A. M. He spent two hours in reviving the spirits of
his men, and after repulsing one fresh attack on his left,
ordered at 3 P.M. a general advance, which was successfully
made, followed by a second charge, which was still more
successful—though the Confederates opposed to them nearly
all the cannon of both armies—facing the foe to the rear, and
driving them through Staunton, recovering the twenty-four
guns lost in the morning, and taking twenty-three others,
with 1500 prisoners. The total loss of men this day was
about 3000 to each side, including the Confederate gen-
eral Ramseur and the Union general Bidwell of New York,
killed. This closed the campaign in that quarter.
There were various partisan conflicts in Alabama, Mis-
sissippi, and West Tennessee during 1864, but none of
consequence, save at Fort Pillow, Tennessee, which was
assailed and taken (April 13) by the Confederate general
Forrest, killing Major L. F. Booth, who commanded, with
most of his garrison of 557 men, of whom 262 were blacks,
many of them after resistance had ceased. This was in
accordance with the threats previously made by Confede-
rate officers, that colored troops should in no case receive
quarter. - -
General S. D. Sturgis with 12,000 men was sent from
Memphis in quest of Forrest, whom he found at Guntown,
Mississippi, where Sturgis was speedily routed and driven
back to Memphis, with a loss of at least 4000, mainly pris-
oners. Forrest's entire force was not much greater than
this. General A. J. Smith now assumed command, and
pressed Forrest back to Tupelo, Mississippi, where the
Confederates thrice assaulted his lines, and were repulsed
with loss, but with no decisive result. Smith retreated,
and again advanced to Holly Springs, not seriously op-
posed, while Forrest raided into Memphis with 3000 cav-
alry, and took a few prisoners, but failed to capture the
Union generals of whom he was in quest, or to liberate the
captured Confederates. r
East Tennessee was this year the scene of several par-
tisan conflicts to little purpose; and John Morgan raided
through Pound Gap into Eastern Kentucky, capturing and
paroling General Hobson with 1600 Unionists in a field at
Licking River. General Burbridge struck the raider at
Mount Sterling, and again near Cynthiana, capturing or
dispersing at least half his force, and chasing the rest
into South-western Virginia. Attempting here to destroy
the salt-works near Abingdon, Burbridge was beaten off
(October 3), with loss, by General Breckenridge.
. General Sherman, on Grant’s transfer to the East, was
left in chief command at the West. Advancing with
100,000 men from Chattanooga early in May, 1864, he was
confronted by Joseph E. Johnston, who, having but 54,000,
declined a pitched battle, but availed himself of the broken
country and fortified positions on the rugged road to At-
lanta. He was stubbornly resisted (May 10) at Resaca,
where the railroad crosses the Oostenaula River, and was
at first repulsed with loss, but soon flanked the position
and compelled its abandonment. Checking Sherman’s ad-
vance at Adairsville and Cassville, Johnston made his next
determined stand at the Allatoona Pass, and days were ex-
pended in fighting and flanking before he could again be
driven. He next made a stand at Kenesaw Mountain,
1108
CONFEDERATE STATES.
flanked by Pine and Lost Mountains, connected by strong
field-works, where he for several days resisted every effort
to move him. In one assault (June 27) Sherman lost 3000
men, including Generals Härker and Dan McCook, killed;
Confederate loss, 442. And now, by again advancing his
right, Sherman forced Johnston out of his impregnable po-
sition, compelling him again to retreat, which brought him
to Atlanta. Here he was relieved by General Hood, who con-
demned his cautious policy, which had only depleted his
army by 14,700 men in two months’ constant fighting.
Reinforcements had nearly kept its ranks full, its present
strength being 51,000. Sherman advancing his left under
McPherson to break Hood's railroad connection with the
East, Hood struck heavily (July 20) at his right under
Thomas, but was repulsed after a bloody struggle, which
cost the Confederates at least 4000 men, including Generals
W. S. Featherston of Mississippi, Armistead of Georgia,
and George M. Stevens of Maryland, killed. The Union
loss was but 1500. Supposing that Atlanta had been si-
lently evacuated, the Unionists thereupon rushed up to
within two miles of the city, but found here strong works
well manned, and were repelled with loss. Major-General
McPherson of Ohio was killed, as was General Greathouse
of Illinois, and another bloody struggle resulted, with ad-
vantage to the Unionists, though it cost them over 4000
men. The Confederate loss was nearly double, including
General W. H. T. Walker of Georgia, killed. .
. A pause in the fighting now ensued, and General Stone-
man with 5000 Union cavalry raided upon the railroads and
stores in Hood's rear, but, scattering or dividing his forces
too much, he was surrounded and captured with 1000 men,
as Colonel Harrison, with 500 more, had just been.
Sherman now moved the Army of the Tennessee, led
by Hooker, from his extreme left to his extreme right, in-
itiating a new flanking movement, when Hood assailed
Logan’s (Fifteenth) corps on the new Union right, but was
repulsed with heavy loss. Hood now sent Wheeler's cavalry
to raid on the Union rear, while Kilpatrick’s Union cavalry
pressed to the Confederate rear, breaking both the railroads
leading southwardly from Atlanta, and returning to camp
August 22. Sherman again threw forward his right till
most of his army was behind Atlanta, holding firmly the
railroad to Macon. Hood had already sent off part of his
army to Jonesboro’, whence Hardee with two corps attacked
(August 31) Howard fiercely, but was beaten off with a loss
of 2000 to Howard's 500. And now Jonesboro’ was assailed
in its turn by Jefferson C. Davis's corps, and carried, eight
guns, General Govan, and many men being captured. Hood
hereupon exploded his munitions and burned his stores in
Atlanta, and escaped eastward. Slocum took quiet posses-
sion of what was left September 1. Sherman returned to
the city, and gave his men a well-earned rest.
Wheeler's raid was prosecuted throughout Northern Geor-
gia and East Tennessee, returning through the Sequatchie
Valley, and being chased across the Tennessee near Florence.
He destroyed much property, but with little influence on the
fortunes of the war.
Hood, rejoined by Hardee, now passed Sherman’s right,
and sent French's division to capture the Union post at
Allatoona, which General J. M. Corse held with 1944 men,
but so gallantly that assault after assault by quadruple
numbers was repulsed with fearful slaughter. General Cox
at length relieved Corse, who was wounded, as were most
of the higher officers. He had lost in all 707 men, while
French left 231 dead, 411 prisoners, and 800 muskets.
Hood, still marching northward, surrounded Resaca, but
did not assault it, Sherman being too near. Sherman, at
length learning that Hood had advanced into Middle Ten-
nessee, gave up the pursuit, sending the Fourth and Twenty-
third corps to Chattanooga, with orders to report to Thomas
at Nashville, while he, facing about, returned to Atlanta,
and reorganized and equipped his remaining forces for his
march to the sea.
Hood, with 35,000 infantry and artillery, struck boldly
for Nashville, preceded by Forrest with 10,000 cavalry. Of
course there was immense destruction of stores, bridges,
and dépôts—$1,500,000 worth of boots and provisions hav-
ing been burned at Johnsonville, Tennessee, to save them
from capture.
Thomas concentrated 30,000 men at Pulaski, but was
unable to cope with Hood's army, now swelled to 55,000 in
all, which still clung to the Tennessee River till assured
that Sherman had cut loose from Atlanta, marching south-
Ward, when he set his columns in motion northward. General
Schofield, on his part, retreated from Pulaski to Columbia,
and thence to Franklin, in a bend of the Harpeth, where
he, with less than 20,000 men, but a good position, was
assailed (November 30) with desperate resolve. The Con-
federates were repulsed with a loss of at least 4500, includ-
ing Generals Cleburne, Gist, Adams, Trahl, and Granbury.
The Union loss was 2320, but no guns. Schofield continued
his retreat that night. Hood followed, and soon sat down
before Nashville.
The movement was audacious, as Thomas was at least
his equal as a commander, and could soon concentrate a
larger force than that which attempted to besiege him. But
Thomas would not strike till he was ready, while severely
cold weather impeded operations. At length Thomas struck
out (December 15), and, after two days’ skilful fighting,
drove his besiegers at all points, heading them toward Ala-
bama, and taking fifty-three guns and 4462 prisoners, in-
cluding a major-general, Hood got across the Tennessee
at Bainbridge with a few guns and barely the débris of an
army. Thomas had taken in this brief campaign seventy-
two guns and 11,857 prisoners, besides administering the
amnesty oath to 2207 deserters from the Confederate service.
The aggregate Union loss in this campaign was 10,000.
And General Stoneman, moving eastward from Knoxville,
had cleared East Tennessee of armed Confederates, cap-
tured Wytheville and the lead-mines and salt-works, driv-
ing Breckenridge's depleted force over the mountains into
North Carolina.
General Sherman, after despatching Thomas with two
corps to the defence of Tennessee, had still with him four
corps, numbering in all 65,500 men. Concentrating these
around Rome and Kingston, Georgia, he destroyed the
railroads about him, cut the telegraph which still connected
him with the North, and stood clear of all communications
as he commenced his famous march to the sea. There be-
ing no considerable army in his front, he advanced rapid-
ly through Atlanta, Macon, Milledgeville, and Millen to Sa-
vannah, slightly opposed at several river-crossings, while
Kilpatrick with his cavalry covered his flanks and screened
his movements, so that Augusta seemed to be his objective
point. Fort McAllister on the Ogeechee was assaulted
(December 13) by Hazen's division, and communication
at once opened with Dahlgren's fleet, when Savannah was
evacuated (December 20) by Hardee, after destroying his
vessels and stores. Thus far, Sherman had on this march
lost but 567 men, and had taken 167 guns with 1328 pris-
omers. He remained a month in Savannah, while Generals
Dana, Davidson, and Grierson, who had been sent out from
Wicksburg and Memphis to distract attention from his
march, swept over large portions of Mississippi and Ala-
bama, breaking up railroads, destroying stores, and taking
prisoners. These raids were uniformly successful; but Gen-
eral Foster, who had ascended Broad River from the Sea
Islands to break the railroad connection between Charleston
and Savannah near Gordonsville, was beaten off, losing 746
Ill CIle
Sherman, leaving Savannah well garrisoned, set his
column again in motion (February 1, 1864), traversing the
heart of South Carolina with little resistance, except from
its flooded swamps, and compelling Hardee to evacuate
Charleston and its harbor-defences, retreating northward
with 12,000 men. Columbia, the State capital, though un-
defended, was undesignedly burned. Kilpatrick, who, with
5000 cavalry, still covered the advance on the left, was sur-
prised and routed by Wade Hampton near the north line
of the State, but soon rallied his men and beat off his as-
sailants. Reaching Fayetteville, North Carolina, March
11, Sherman found himself confronted by Joe Johnston
with 40,000 men, collected by Hardee, Beauregard, Cheat-
-ham, and Bragg, and including Wheeler’s and Hampton's
cavalry. After halting three days, Sherman once more
advanced, when his left wing was attacked (March 15) in a
narrow pass by Hardee, who was soon driven; but Slocum
on the right was next assailed (March 18), when approach-
ing Bentonville, by Johnston with his main body. The
Confederates withdrew after a sharp action, in which Sher-
man lost 1643 men and took 1625 prisoners, including
wounded, burying 267 Confederate dead. Next day, Sher-
man advanced to Goldsboro’, and halted his troops while
he made a hasty visit to General Grant at City Point.
Wilmington, North Carolina, had long been the principal
port through which blockade-runners found access to the
Confederacy. General Butler, with Commodore Porter, led
an army and fleet to reduce it (November 16, 1864), but
returned to Fortress Monroe unsuccessful. General A. H.
Terry was next despatched with a stronger force, which,
after a heavy bombardment by Porter's fleet, carried Fort
Fisher by assault (January 16, 1865), killing Major-Gen-
eral Whiting, its commander, and taking 169 guns and
2083 prisoners, with a Union loss of 110 killed and 536
wounded; but 300 more were lost by the explosion next day
of the fort's chief magazine.
General Schofield was now sent to Terry’s aid, ranking
him, and raising his force to 20,000, with which Schofield
entered Wilmington, February 22; Hoke retreating after a
sharp fight, burning two privateers and other vessels, with
heavy stores, but leaving sixty-five guns. Schofield now
advanced inland, losing 700 men by a surprise, but beating
CONFEDERATION.—CONFEDERATION, ARTICLES OF.
1109
off (March 10) an attack on his left by Hoke, who here lost
heavily and retreated, enabling Schofield to communicate
and co-operate with Sherman on his arrival at Goldsboro’.
General Canby, commanding at New Orleans, moved east-
ward in the spring to menace Mobile, while General James
H. Wilson, with Grant’s and Thomas’s cavalry, 15,000
strong, pushed southward from Eastport, Mississippi, the
head of steamboat navigation on the Tennessee, confronted
only by Forrest with but 5000, whom Wilson easily de-
feated near Maplesville and routed (April 2) at Selma, Ala-
bama, which he took, with thirty-two guns and 2700 pris-
oners. Crossing the Alabama, Wilson entered Montgomery,
which Adams had just left, burning 125,000 bales of Con-
federate cotton. Turning eastward, Wilson soon appeared
at Columbus, Georgia, where he took fifty-two guns and
1200 prisoners, burning a gunboat, 250 cars, and 115,000
bales of cotton. Taking by assault Fort Tyler on the Chat-
tahoochee, Wilson pushed on to Macon, Georgia, where he
learned that the war was virtually at an end.
General Canby, with nearly 30,000 men, aided by Por-
ter's powerful fleet, invested Mobile, which was held by
Dick Taylor with some 15,000. Investing Spanish Fort, he
reduced it by bombardment, taking 652 prisoners, and then
assaulted Blakely, which was carried by assault, with a
|Union loss of 1000 to 500 Confederate killed and wounded,
with 3000 prisoners. Mobile was then evacuated by Gen-
eral Maury, who, with 9000 men, escaped up the river,
abandoming 150 guns.
General Grant, still before Petersburg, had bloodlessly
(December 7, 1864) extended his left twenty miles down the
Weldon Railroad to Hicksford, which he fortified and held.
He next essayed to advance his left to Dabney’s Mill, but
was resisted and driven back to Hatcher’s Run, where the
Confederates were in turn repulsed (February 6, 1865), and
the ground up to this point held and fortified. The Union
loss in this operation was 2000; the Confederate, 1000, in-
cluding General Pegram, killed.
General Sheridan moved up the Valley from Winchester
with 10,000 mounted men, drove Early (March 2, 1865) from
his intrenched camp at Waynesboro’, taking eleven guns
and 1600 prisoners, thence rode into Charlottesville, where
he destroyed immense stores and miles of the Richmond
and Lynchburg Railroad, and, passing behind Lee's army,
reported to Grant at Petersburg March 27.
Lee, assuming the offensive, sent Gordon with two divis-
ions against the centre of the Union line before Peters-
burg. Charging at daybreak (March 25), Gordon surprised
and took Fort Stedman in his front, capturing three bat-
teries and some prisoners, but not being properly supported,
he was attacked and routed in turn by the Ninth corps,
losing 2000 prisoners; besides which the loss to either side
was about 2500. Grant interpreted this rash assault as
premonitory to a Confederate evacuation of Richmond and
Petersburg, which he resolved to harass if not intercept.
Again throwing forward his left (March 29) to seize the
Boydton plank-road, while Sheridan's cavalry on its flank
advanced to Dinwiddie Court-house, he was opposed by Lee
with most of his army, who suddenly struck Warren's corps
in flank and rear, with intent to repeat the lesson of Chan-
cellorsville. Two divisions were then broken, but Griffin's,
behind them, stood firm while the fugitives were rallied, and
Warren was thus enabled to repel his assailants with heavy
loss; but an attempt to carry their works was defeated in
turn. Meantime, Sheridan had gained Dinwiddie Court-
house, but, attempting to advance thence to the Boydton
plank-road, was foiled, but advanced again next morning
(April 1) to Five Forks, where he connected with Warren,
advancing on his right, and ordered a general charge on
the Confederate works in their front, held by two divisions,
who were fearfully overpowered and routed, with a loss of
5000, mainly prisoners. The Union loss was but 1000, in-
cluding General Frederick Winthrop, killed. And now,
sending two divisions eastward to Gravelly Church, Sheri-
dan again connected with the Union lines before Peters-
burg, whence a general cannonade preluded the assault,
which was delivered at daylight next morning (April 2),
Wright's Sixth corps gaining the rear of these works by the
south, and taking many prisoners, while Ord’s corps car-
ried Forts Gregg and Alexander by storm, losing 500 men.
A. P. Hill, in attempting to retake some of the captured
works, was shot dead, and his corps utterly defeated.
Lee now, at 10% A. M., telegraphed to Davis that Rich-
mond must be evacuated at once, and it was evacuated
between that time and next morning, while its immense
warehouses, filled with provisions, munitions, and stores of
all kinds, were fired by the departing Confederates, burn-
ing out the heart of the city. Flames and explosions no-
tified the Unionists in front that the Confederate capital
was abandoned, and General Weitzel at 4 A. M. (April 3)
was assured by a negro from the city that Davis and all
his official or military adherents had departed. Picking his
way through the abatis, earthworks, rifle-pits, torpedoes,
etc. which encircled the burning city, Weitzel at 6 A. M.
led his men into the city, soon followed by President Lin-
coln, who was at City Point. Petersburg was simulta-
neously abandoned, Lee retreating up the railroad towards
Danville, while ringing of bells and immense gatherings
all over the North and West hailed the relinquishment of
Richmond as the downfall of the Confederacy. {
Davis escaped by train to Danville, while Lee halted two
days at Amelia Court-house, vainly seeking provisions for his
hopeless army, now reduced, mainly by prisoners, to 35,000
men. Grant was soon on his trail. The fleeing host was first
seen from Deatonsville, and was struck near Sailor’s Creek
by Custer's horse, supported by Crook’s and Davis's divis-
ions. Here sixteen guns, 400 wagons, and some prisoners
were taken, while Ewell’s thinned corps was cut off from
Lee’s rear, and so enveloped that it was obliged to surrender.
Ewell himself was among this day’s 6000 prisoners.
Lee crossed the Appomattox at Farmville, repelling
General Theodore Read, who tried to stop his way with
two regiments. But Humphrey’s Second corps was again
so close on his rear that he was obliged to turn and fight a
few miles beyond Farmville, repulsing his assailants with
a loss of 600. But this lost a day, which was wasted by
attempts to bar the Danville road, while Lee was really
making for Lynchburg. Undeceived on this point, pursuit
was resumed on the morning of the 8th, Grant having mean-
time sent Lee a courteous note inviting a surrender. Sher-
idan pushed his troops twenty-eight miles on the 28th,
reaching Appomattox Court-house, heading Lee's army, in-
tercepting its sorely-needed supplies from Lynchburg, and
planting himself across the road whereon it must move on
the morrow, and sending word to Grant, who ordered a
forced march of Griffin’s and Ord’s corps to Appomattox
Station during the night. Lee had meantime sent a note
to Grant inviting a meeting, with a view to peace, at 10
A. M. In the morning (April 9) Grant replied, saying he
had no authority to make peace, but urging a surrender.
Lee’s weary, famished army set forth as usual this morning,
and, seeing cavalry in their front, advanced to push it
aside, when it was withdrawn to the flanks, disclosing solid
regiments of infantry behind it. Lee, seeing that further
fighting would be a useless slaughter of his men, at once
called a parley, which resulted in a surrender, “each officer
and man to be allowed to return to his home, not to be dis-
turbed by United States authority so long as they observe
their paroles and the laws in force where they may reside.”
The number thus paroled at this point was 27,000. Johnston's
army in North Carolina surrendered on the same terms to
Sherman at Raleigh, April 26, and Dick Taylor's to Canby
at Citronelle, Alabama, May 4. E. Kirby Smith, com-
manding the Confederates west of the Mississippi, at-
tempted to make a stand after the surrender of Lee, but his
men all deserted him, and, taking whatever Confederate
property they could lay hands on, dispersed to their sev-
eral homes.
Jefferson Davis halted at Danville, anxiously awaiting
advices from Lee, until astounded (April 10) by tidings
of his surrender. He then fled southward to Greensboro’,
North Carolina, and again halted till it was evident that
Johnston would soon capitulate, when he flitted again to
Washington, Georgia, with a cavalry scout, which at first
numbered 2000, but rapidly wasted. Here he abjured the
state of a ruler, and was making his way to the coast with
his family and a few faithful followers when he was sur-
prised and captured (May 11) while encamped near Irvins-
ville by two detachments of cavalry sent out from Macon
by General Wilson to look for him. His family was libe-
rated at Savannah, but he was held a close prisoner in
Fortress Monroe for two years, then released on bail and
never brought to trial. So ended the Southern Confed-
eracy. IHORACE GREELEY.
Confedera/tion [for etymology see CoNFEDERACY], a
league, a federal compact, an alliance of princes, states,
or nations. It is nearly synonymous with confederacy.
The republic of Mexico is called the Meacican Confederation.
The numerous states of Germany were united in 1815 by
the congress of Vienna, and formed the Germanic confede-
ration (der Deutsche Bund in German). Before the adop-
tion of the Federal Constitution of the United States in
1788, the government of this country was a weak confede-
ration of thirteen independent States, which recognized no
superior or central authority.
Confederation, Articles of, a document drawn up
by the Congress of the United States, November 15, 1777,
and adopted finally July 9, 1778, by which the several
States united in a league of perpetual friendship “for the
common defence, the security of their liberties, and their
mutual and general welfare.” These articles, thirteen in
number, were soon ratified by all the States, but the con-
1110
CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE-CONFESSIONAL.
federation proved almost an utter failure, from the fact that
Congress had very limited powers. There was indeed no
executive authority of any kind. For these reasons a con-
vention called by Congress met at Philadelphia May 14,
1787, with Washington as its president, and on September
14 of that year the convention closed its labors and re-
ported the CoNSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATEs (which see).
Confedera/tion of the Rhine [Ger. Rheinbund], the
name of a league formed in July, 1806, by sixteen German
states under the protection of Napoleon. The princes of
these states signed an act of confederation, dissolving their
connection with the Germanic empire and forming an alli-
ance with the French emperor. They were the kings of
Bavaria and Würtemberg, the arch-chancellor, the elector
of Baden, Murat, duke of Berg, the landgrave of Hesse-
Darmstadt, the princes of Nassau-Usingen, Nassau-Weil-
burg, Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,
Salm-Salm, Salm-Kyrburg, the duke of Aremberg, the count
of Leyen, and the princes of Isenburg-Birstein and Liech-
tenstein. In September, 1806, the confederation was joined
by the elector of Wurzburg; in December, 1806, by the
elector (subsequently king) of Saxony, and the Saxon
dukes of Weimar, Gotha, Coburg, Meiningen, and Hild-
burghausen; in 1807, by three dukes of Anhalt, two princes
of Lippe, three princes of Reuss, the prince of Waldeck,
and the new kingdom of Westphalia; in 1808, by the
dukes of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and
Oldenburg. The confederation had an area of 126,075
square miles, and a pop. of 14,608,877. In 1810 a part of
the confederation was incorporated with France, and its
territory reduced to 114,467 square miles, with 13,475,000
inhabitants. In consequence of the downfall of Napoleon
the confederation was dissolved in 1813, and its members
united with the other German states to form the Germanic
Confederation.
Conſference [from the Lat. confero, to “confer’”
(from con, “together,” and fe'ro, to “bring ”), alluding to
the different parties bringing together or comparing their
thoughts], the act of conversing on a serious subject; an
oral discussion ; a formal discourse; a meeting for consul-
tation or instruction; a meeting of two branches of a leg-
islature by their committee when they disagree respecting
the passage of a bill. In such cases each house appoints a
committee of conference, in order to settle the difference by
a compromise. In English law, conference signifies also
the interview of an attorney or solicitor with a counsel when
consulting him.
In a political sense, conference denotes the meeting of
plenipotentiary ministers of several states for the peaceable
settlement of international complications. Of special im-
portance in modern history are the conferences of Vienna,
held in 1820 and 1834, the Paris conference of 1856, and
the London conferences of 1864, 1867, and 1871. “Inter-
national conferences” have also of late been held on many
non-political questions. Among the most important of
these are the conferences of Geneva, August, 1864, for the
organization of the sanitary commission, and of Paris,
June and July, 1867, for the examination of the monetary
question. -
CoNEERENCE is also an ecclesiastical term used in various
senses. In the Roman Catholic Church the term was for-
merly applied to certain assemblies of priests or canons
presided over by an arch-priest or dean. They originated
in the eleventh century, but are now seldom convened.
PASTORAL CONFERENCES are meetings held annually,
quarterly, or monthly by pastors of various Protestant
churches for the discussion of pastoral duties and for other
similar purposes. They are held in the French Protestant
churches, also among English dissenters, and in many
churches of the United States, etc.
The Wesleyan Church in England has an annual meet-
ing of its preachers called the “Conference,” which has ad-
ministrative and other powers, defined by Wesley’s “Deed
of Declaration * (1784). A similar conference is held in
Ireland. (See STEvKNs, “History of Methodism.”) In the
Methodist Episcopal Church and the Methodist Episcopal
Church South, a “General Conference” meets every four
years. It has full power to make “rules and regulations,”
subject to certain restrictions found in the “Discipline,”
part II., chapter 1. It is presided over by the bishops.
In the same churches the territory where preachers are
stationed is divided into “conferences,” which are again
divided into “districts.” The preachers and certain lay
delegates of each conference meet in an “annual confer-
ence,” where preachers receive their appointment for the
year from the presiding bishop. There are “quarterly con-
ferences” held in each circuit or station.
“General” (triennial) and “annual’’ conferences are also
held by the Free-will Baptists, and “yearly conferences”
by the Six-Principle Baptists, the minor Methodist bodies,
and others. - -
The “Conference of Hampton Court,” in 1604, was a
meeting of King James I., nine bishops, and nine other di-
vines of the Anglican Church, and four Puritan theologians,
held with reference to the differences between the Anglicans
and the Puritans. This meeting led to some slight changes
in the Anglican Liturgy. •
The “Savoy Conference” at the palace of the bishop of
London in the Savoy, in 1661, consisted of thirteen Angli-
can bishops and eleven non-conformist divines, with a num-
ber of other theologians on each side as counsellors. In-
stead of healing the breach, the Savoy Conference increased
the differences between the two parties.
The “Evangelical Church Conference ’” (“Evangelische
Kirchenconferenz’’) is the name given to the regular. (an-
nual or biennial) meetings of delegates of the governments
of the German states and Austria for the discussion of im-
portant church questions.
Confer’va, a genus of plants of the division Algae,
order Confervaceae. The plants consist of simple or branch-
ing jointed filaments, which are filled with green, purple,
or red endochrome, and are found, some in fresh, some in
salt water, and some on moist earth. The name Conferva
is not strictly limited to the genus or the order, but is often
extended to its near allies. Among the Confervaceae are
included many plants which have flat fronds. Many also
consist of cells immersed in a slimy matter. Reproduction
takes place by spores formed in the interior of the cells,
and which at last are discharged through the walls of the
mother-cell. Confervaceae are found plentifully in many
mineral waters. Their abundance often gives a color to the
water of tanks, marshes, etc. The etymology of this word
is doubtful, and the limits of the genus and order are un-
settled. Most British and American Conferyas are now re-
ferred to Cladophorus and other genera. (See HARVEY's
“Nereis Boreali-Americana,” part iii. (1858), in vol. x. of
the “Smithsonian Contributions;” also S. O. GRAY’s “Brit-
ish Sea-weeds,” 1867; Wood, “The Fresh-water Algae of
the U. S.,” 1872.)
Confes’sion [Lat. confessio, from confiteor, confessus,
to “confess;” Ger. Beicht], one of the seven sacraments of
the Roman Catholic Church; a disburdening of the con-
science in the hearing of an authorized priest with a view
of obtaining absolution. Most Protestants assert that
such confession is not enjoined in the New Testament, and
that auricular confession was established as an essential
part of church discipline at the fourth Lateran Council
(1215 A.D.), though the practice may have been older. By
a canon of the above council, confession must be made
orally at least once a year, but frequent confession is re-
commended by the Church, and generally practised. . The
custom of making a money-offering with confession is op-
tional, though formerly regarded as obligatory. The Greek
Catholic Church, as well as the Catholic Maronites and the
Armenians, holds that special confession is wholesome in
cases of mortal sin, but does not consider it binding. The
Greek Church regards this discipline as necessary for the
reception of the Eucharist. The Lutheran Church professes
that private confession may be retained in the Church, but
that particular statement of sins is not necessary. The
Church of England employs a general form of confession in
its services, but retains private confession in the rubric for
visitation of the sick. The Scottish and most of the other
Protestant churches do not recognize it at all.
The SIGILLUM CoNFEssionis (“seal of confession ”) both
in the Roman Catholic and the German Protestant churches
means the obligation of a confessor or priest not to divulge
the secrets of the confessional. This custom of Secresy was
made binding by the fourth Lateran Council, and its viola-
tion by a priest makes him subject to the severest ecclesias-
tical penalties.
Confession, in criminal law, an admission by a person
that he has committed or participated in a crime. It is
either judicial or extra-judicial. It is said to be judicial
when made in the course of legal proceedings. An instance
is the plea of guilty. An extra-judicial confession does
not have the same weight as one that is judicial, and is in-
sufficient for conviction unless corroborated by proof of the
actual commission of the offence (corpus delicti). A con-
fession must be voluntary—that is, not the result of hopes
or fears held out or caused to the prisoner by one having
authority, such as a public official or the party against
whom the act was committed (prosecutor). It is not neces-
sary that it should be spontaneous. The question of the
admissibility of a confession in evidence is decided by the
judge; its effect after its admission is determined by the
jury. Questions concerning the admissibility of confessions
frequently arise when taken by magistrates making an ex-
amination of a prisoner charged with crime.
Confes’sional [Ger. Beichtstuhl], the seat in which
the priest sits to hear confession in a Roman Catholic

CONFESSION OF FAITH_CONFUCIUS.
1111
church. Confessionals are closed cells, having a door in
front for the priest to enter by, and an opening on one or
both sides, like a small window, for the penitents to speak
through. By the ancient canons confessionals were re-
quired to be so built that priest and penitent could both be
seen by all present.
Confession of Faith. See CREED.
Confirmaſtion [Lat. confirmatio, from con, intensive,
and firmo, firmatum, to “make firm’’ or “strong”], literally,
corroboration or strengthening; a ceremony of the Chris-
tian Church which is not practised by most denominations
of Protestants, though retained by the Anglican and Lu-
theran churches. In the ancient Church the rite was admin-
istered immediately after baptism, if the bishop happened
to be present at the solemnity, which is still the custom in
the Greek and African churches. In the Roman Catholic
Church there is interposed a delay of not less than seven
years after infant baptism ; in the Lutheran Church the rite
is usually delayed for from thirteen to sixteen years, and in
the Anglican Church, from fourteen to eighteen years.
There is, however, no established limit to the period. The
ceremony consists in the imposition of hands by the bish-
op, accompanied by an invocation of the Holy Ghost as
the Comforter and Strengthener. But both in the Lutheran
and Anglican churches the ceremony is made the occasion
of requiring from those who have been baptized in infancy
a renewal of the baptismal vow made for them by their
godfathers and godmothers, who are thereby released from
responsibility. In the Roman Catholic Church confirm-
ation is held to be one of the seven sacraments.
received only once, as it is counted among the three sacra-
ments which impress upon the soul an ineffaceable character.
Confisca’tion [Lat. confiscatio, from fiscus, a “trea-
sury’], the forfeiture of land or other property to the public
treasury as a part of the punishment of certain crimes.
During the French Revolution a large quantity of land
owned by the Church was confiscated—i. e. was taken
from the Church in order to convert it into a source of na-
tional revenue.
Conflict of Laws. See INTERNATIONAL LAW, PRIVATE,
by PREs. T. D. Wools EY, S. T. D., LL.D.
Conform’able, a geological term applied to strata
which lie parallel to each other. In some cases a bed is
disturbed from its original position before another bed is
deposited on it. If the new bed or stratum is not parallel to
the former, it is said to be unconformable. Conformable in
general signifies agreeable, suitable, consistent, compliant.
Confu'cianism, the state religion of China; a relig-
ious, or rather philosophical, system, which has greatly
modified the destinies of China. It is professed at present
chiefly by the learned classes, though it has much influence
upon the Booddhism of the common people. (See CoN-
FUCIUs.)
Confu'cius, the Latinized form of Kong-Foo-
Tse, or Khoong-Foo-Tse, the greatest of Chinese
philosophers, was born, according to the best authorities,
in 551 B. C., in Loo, a kingdom or state which now forms
part of the modern province of Shang-Toong. He was
of illustrious descent, and his father, Shuh-Liang-Heih,
was a soldier remarkable for strength and courage. After
the death of his first wife, Shuh-Liang-Heih, then in ad-
vanced age, married a young lady of remarkable virtues,
who became the mother of an only son, the subject of this
notice. Confucius was often called Kew or K’ew, because
his mother went to a certain hill called Ne-Kew (i.e. “hill
Ne”) and offered her prayers that Heaven might bless
her with children. From this circumstance he was also
called Ne, and after his death “The venerable Ne.”
In childhood, Confucius was, we are told, remarkable for
his exemplary obedience to his mother, for his respectful
treatment of those older than himself, and for his observ-
..ance of all the ceremonies with which the Chinese honor
the dead and living. To go through the different forms of
politeness usual among persons of great culture formed his
favorite pastime. He was at school singularly obedient,
... gentle, and modest, and possessed, it is said, wonderful in-
tellectual quickness. He married when at the age of nine-
teen, and was made a mandarin of an inferior grade at about
the same period. In discharging the duties of his office he
showed great intelligence and faithfulness. He took care
that nothing should be sold in the markets that could en-
danger the health of the people, and that unreasonable
prices should not be charged for the necessaries of life.
The charge of the public lands and of the sheep and cattle
was afterwards given to him, and through his industry and
sagacity the greatest improvements were introduced into
agriculture, and abundance and affluence were made to re-
place dearth and poverty among the tillers of the earth.
At the age of about twenty-two Confucius first appeared
It can be .
as a public teacher, giving his instructions, however small
the fee offered him, to all who had the ability and a true
desire to learn. Having once shown them how to acquire
wisdom, he expected his pupils to be able to pursue their
studies alone and without further assistance from him. He
said, “When I have presented one corner of a subject to
any one, and he cannot from it learn the other three, I do
not repeat my lesson.” His mother died when he was
twenty-four, and, following the custom of his country, he
mourned for her three years, filling no public office during
that time. He is said to have studied music when twelve
years old, and to have acquired wonderful skill in that art.
In 499 B.C. we find Confucius one of the ministers of the
king of Loo. A dispute having occurred between this prince
and the neighboring king of Tsi (or Ts’e), it had been ar-
ranged that the two rulers should meet on the common
frontier and settle their differences in a friendly interview.
It was the design of the king of Tsi to seize the person of
the king of Loo during this interview, but Confucius (who
is said to have possessed in a wonderful degree the gift of
reading human character) suspected his treacherous scheme,
and by his foresight and resolute, courage baffled all his
plans, and obtained for his sovereign the secure enjoyment
of his rightful possessions. Confucius filled for a while the
position of minister of crime. At length, the king of Loo
having found the precepts of his minister too high and
difficult to be conveniently practised, Confucius perceived
that his services were no longer desired, and retired from
public life. From this date he appears to have passed most
of his time in travelling from place to place, spreading his
doctrines as he went, and always accompanied by his dis-
ciples. He spent the last five years of his life in his native
state of Loo, teaching and completing the work which he
had before begun.
Several of the disciples of Confucius gave promise of at-
taining eminence in philosophy, but the sage himself seems
to have centred all his most earnest hopes and warmest af-
fections on his favorite and most gifted pupil Yen-Hoei (or
-Hwuy). To him he looked as his successor in those labors
for the promotion of wisdom and virtue in which his own life
had been passed. But he was destined to disappointment, for
the early death of the beloved pupil crushed all these bril-
liant hopes and plunged Confucius into the deepest sorrow.
Confucius, though very observant of the outward forms of
propriety and politeness, was not wanting in spontaneous
and heartfelt affection. He appears to have looked upon
the observance of those forms as directly advantageous to
society, besides exerting an indirectly useful influence
through their effect upon the minds of those who followed
them. He died 478 B. C.
Confucius had one son, Pé-Yu (or Pih-Yu), who died be-
fore his father, leaving a son named K’ung Keih, also called
Tse-Sse (or Tsze-Sze), who was distinguished as a philoso-
pher, and who wrote a famous work called “Chung-Yung.”
Confucius has enjoyed a renown more extended than that
of any other of the human race. Through all the changes
of the Chinese dynasties, by whatever causes brought about,
his descendants have received peculiar honors. At this day
they number more than eleven thousand males, and are said
to constitute the only hereditary nobility in China. From
his own time to the present his writings have been the
principal objects of study in all the schools of that vast
empire. It has, however, been justly observed that the aim
and scope of the Confucian philosophy were limited to this
present life, and none of his sayings indicate that he had
any definite belief in a continued existence after death. His
life and teachings tended to the promotion of the useful and
practical only. “There is a total difference in kind be-
tween the philosophy of Confucius and the philosophies of
Plato, Aristotle, Bacom, and Locke. The Chinese sage did
not aim to investigate the mysteries of the universe, or
even the hidden laws of nature or of the human mind. His
great object was to lay down such rules as would best pro-
mote the happiness and virtue of the community at large.
And it must be acknowledged that in the practical wisdom
of his precepts, both to rulers and subjects, he has never
been surpassed by any philosopher of any age or nation.
That wise and beautiful thought which is the basis of
Chinese government—that the ruler or officer should be as
a father, and the people as children—dates, there is reason
to believe, from a very remote antiquity. Confucius did
not originate this idea, but he did everything in his power
to give it practical efficacy.”
In the “Analects” (in Chinese Lun-Yu, i. e. “Digested
Conversations”) of Confucius are to be found the best and
most trustworthy indications of his genius and character.
They are well worthy to be read by whoever would rightly
understand his philosophy. It is doubtful whether among
any of the pagan writers of the West anything surpassing
these sayings in practical sagacity and lofty morality can
be found. Indeed, they seem amply to justify the enco-
1112
CONG AREE-CONGLOMERATE.
miums they have called forth upon the wisdom of the Chi-
nese Sage. i
The following will serve as illustrations of the character
of his sayings: “Learning without thought is labor lost;
thought without learning (or knowledge) is perilous.”
“When we see men of worth, we should think of equalling
them ; when we see men of a contrary character, we should
turn inward and examine ourselves.” “He who exercises
government by means of his virtue may be compared to
the north polar star, which keeps its place, and all the
[other] stars turn towards it.” “Good government obtains
when those who are near are made happy, and those who
are far off are attracted.” When asked what were the ne–
cessary conditions of a government, he answered, “Suf-
ficiency of food, military equipment, and confidence of the
people in their ruler.” Being asked which could be most
easily dispensed with, he replied, “The military equip-
ment.” And when pressed to say which of those yet re-
maining might be most easily dispensed with, he said,
“Part with the food; from of old death has been the lot
of all men, but if the people have no faith in their rulers,
there is no standing for the state.” In one place he gives
us the negative form of the golden rule: “What you do
not like,” he says, “when done to yourself, do not do to
others.” Again he says, “I am not concerned that I have
no place (or office); I am concerned how I may fit myself
for one. I am not concerned that I am not known ; I
seek to be worthy to be known.” “The superior man is
affable, but not adulatory; the mean man is adulatory, but
not affable.”
One of his disciples said of Confucius, “There were four
things from which the master was entirely free : he had
no foregone conclusions, no arbitrary predeterminations,
no obstimacy, and no egotism.” (See LEGGE’s “Life and
Teachings of Confucius;” PAUTHIER’s “Chine;” PLATH's
“Confucius und seiner Schüler Leben und Lehre,” 1867;
and the “Edinburgh Review" for April, 1869.) -
J. THOMAS.
Conſgaree’, a river of South Carolina, is formed by the
Broad and Saluda rivers, which unite at Columbia. It
flows south-eastward, and joins the Wateree to form the
Santee River. Steamboats ascend this river to Columbia.
Congaree, a township of Lexington co., S. C. Pop.
1095.
Congé d’Éiire, köN'zhā’ dà/leeR, a French phrase
signifying “permission to choose,” is the name given in
England to the king’s warrant or license to the dean and
chapter in the older dioceses to elect a bishop for a vacant
see. The bishop is, however, nominated by the sovereign
(or premier), so that the dean and chapter have no real
power or liberty to choose. -
Congen/ital Diseases. These must be distinguished
from hereditary diseases, which may show themselves either
soon after birth or at some later period, and from mal-
formations of the infant, resulting from either an arrest of
development or a disease of the foetus contracted during
its intra-uterine life. Both of these classes will be dis-
cussed in future. . Congenital diseases proper are—ist,
transmitted from the diseased mother either before or dur-
ing birth; 2d, acquired during birth, without a direct ma–
ternal influence; 3d, acquired shortly before birth. To the
first class belong puerperal fever and primary syphilitic
and gonorrhoeal infection; to the second, asphyxia, atelee-
tasis (unexpanded condition) of the lungs, and cephal-
haematoma (sanguineous tumor upon the head); to the
third, acute fatty degeneration of the foetus and newly
born. Puerperal fever is transmitted from the mother; the
blood of the babe is infected. The principal symptoms are
high fever, abscesses in the subcutaneous tissue, particu-
larly around the joints, erysipelas, and a severe form of
jaundice. It terminates fatally within a limited number
of days, rarely weeks. When the vagina of the mother is
infected with syphilitic ulceration, the child is subject to
be attacked with a primary wiceration. When it is the seat
of gonorrhoeal discharge, it gives rise to the most danger-
ous forms of purulent inflammation of the eyelids, which,
unless treated at once, is apt to result in blindness. The
treatment consists in absolute cleanliness; the eyes must
be opened frequently and washed out with water. Ice is
applied constantly to the outside, and a solution of nitrate
of silver to the inside of the eyelids. Asphyxia is mostly
seen after protracted labor or abnormal presentation of the
child, the breech or the feet being born before the head.
In such cases the umbilical cord is apt to be compressed,
circulation thereby permanently or temporarily stopped,
and premature respiratory movements brought on. The
child is born almost or apparently lifeless, blue or pale,
with no respiration and no pulsation of the heart. Arti-
ficial respiration is brought on by Marshall Hall’s, Syl-
vester’s, or Howard’s method, by slapping the buttock of
the babe, by alternately placing it in warm and cold water,
by slapping its breast with a wet cloth, by swinging it
forcibly in the air, by the application of an electro-mag-
netic current to its chest. When the surface is very blue
a few drachms of blood may be allowed to flow from the
untied umbilical cord. A telectasis depends on an absence
of the normal expansion of the lungs which follows the
entrance of the air. The muscles of the chest may not be
sufficiently developed, or their innervation may not be
satisfactory from some disease of the brain, or the lungs
may be inflamed or filled with mucus or some foreign sub-
stance introduced into them during birth (blood, mucus,
amniotic liquor, etc.). Emetics will empty the lungs
(tickling of the fauces is sometimes sufficient), mustard
plasters and the electrical current excite the nerves, and
the above-mentioned methods of inducing respiration will
restore the normal action. Cephalhaematom a results from
two causes: the external layer of the cranial bones of the
new-born is but little developed ; thus the blood-vessels
located in it are but little protected. Now but little vio-
lence, sometimes none at all, is required to burst them. A
haemorrhage takes place between the bone (usually one of
the parietal) and its enveloping membrane (periosteum),
which from a small size may increase to that of a walnut
or small apple in the course of four or six days. It is not
dangerous, will always get well in from four to ten weeks
when left alone, but is apt to undergo suppuration or
putrefaction when interfered with ; for instance, by lancing.
Acute fatty degeneration of more or less of the organs is not
frequent. The covering epithelium of the lungs and bron-
chial tubes, of the uriniferous tubes of the kidneys, of the
intestines, also the cells of the liver and blood-vessels,
sometimes even the whole body, are affected. Thus, the
physical functions are not rightly performed. One of the
most fearful symptoms is uncontrollable haemorrhage from
the stomach, the bowels, and particularly from the umbili-
cal cord. It is almost always fatal. •.
ABRAHAM JACOBI.
Con’ger Eel (or Con’ger), a genus of marine fishes
of the eel family, having the tail longer and more pointed
than the fresh-water eels, the dorsal fin commencing nearer
the head, and the teeth of the upper jaw placed together,
so as to form a cutting edge. The species are not at all
numerous. The American
conger (Conger America-
º? mus) is from three to five
sº feet long, and is occasion-
# ally seen in fish-markets.
§ It has a very disagreeable
Nº taste. The Conger vulgaris
§ is a native of British seas.
ſº. In form the conger much
sº resembles the fresh-water
§ eel ; its color is brown
§ above, shading into dull
white beneath ; the fins
whitish edged with black,
and the lateral line almost white. The English conger at-
tains a large size, often five to ten feet long and eighteen
inches in circumference, weighing more than 100 pounds.
It is very strong, and is a formidable antagonist when
hauled into a boat by the fisherman’s line. Great numbers
are consumed as food by the poorer classes. The principal
conger-fishery of Great Britain is on the Cornish coast.
Conges/tion [Lat. congestio, from eon, “together,”
gero, gestum, to “carry’’ or “heap *], in pathology, a term
indicating fulness of blood, or hyperaemia, a condition to
which much importance has been attached by medical wri-
ters. Congestions are either active or passive. Active
congestions are always essential parts of a further morbid
process, such as inflammation. Passive congestions are
often determined by some mechanical cause of obstructed
or retarded circulation. Active congestions of the brain
or lungs are in themselves very alarming symptoms of dis-
ease; while the passive congestions, resulting from cir-
rhosis of the liver or from organic disease of the heart, are
fruitful causes of local or general dropsies.
REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Con'gleton, a market-town of England, in Cheshire,
is in a deep valley on the river Dane, 22 miles S. of Man-
chester. It has manufactures of silk ribbons and other silk
fabrics. Pop. in 1871, 11,344.
Congleton (HENRY BROOKE PARNELL), LoRD, a British
statesman, born July 3, 1776, was for many years a Liberal
member of Parliament. He became secretary at war in
1830, and paymaster of the forces in 1835. He was well
versed in financial affairs, and wrote several works, one of
which was “On Financial Reform '' (1830). Committed
suicide June 8, 1842. g
Conglom’erate [Lat. conglomeratus, from con, “to-
3-
-*.*-*-*
European Conger Eel.
2-mº-


CONGO—CONGREGATIONALISM.
1113
gether,” glomero, glomeratum, to “wind,” as on a ball, to
“gather”], or Pudding-Stone, the name of a rock con-
sisting of rounded, water-worm pebbles cemented and com-
pacted together. These pebbles are fragments of quartz
and other hard rocks, the rubbing and polishing of which
must have required a long period of time. They are united
by a silicious, calcareous, or ferruginous cement, sometimes
so loosely that they are easily separated by a blow with a
hammer. In other cases they are very firmly united, so
that the rock breaks as if it were a homogeneous mass.
Conglomerates occur in various formations and Several
geological ages. -
Con’go, or Zaire, a large river in the S. W. part of
Africa, forms the boundary between Loango and the king-
dom of Congo. It flows nearly westward, and enters the
Atlantic in lat. 6° S., and near lon. 13° E. Its source has
not been explored by Europeans, and its length is not
known. According to Behm, whose opinion is fully en-
dorsed by Sir Henry Rawlinson, the Lualaba discovered
by Dr. Livingstone is the upper course of the Congo, and
not of the Nile. The mouth is 10 miles wide. About 140
to 180 miles from the sea this river is confined by high
rocks in a channel from 300 to 500 yards wide, and here
occur several great cataracts. The Congo is said to be
three or four miles wide above these cataracts. According
to Petermann, its annual discharge of water is much greater
than that of the Mississippi.
Congo, a large country of Western Africa, in Lower
Guinea, is bounded on the N. by Loango, on the S. by An-
gola, and on the W. by the Atlantic Ocean. The coast-
region is level, and has a very hot climate. In the central
portion are fertile uplands, which produce the palm tree,
sugar-cane, the yam, the orange, etc. The soil yields maize,
manioc, pulse, plaintains, oranges, pineapples, tamarinds,
etc. The oil-palm yields palm wine. Among the animals
found here are lions, leopards, elephants, buffaloes, hogs, and
monkeys. The capital is Banza, which the Portuguese call
São Salvador. The inhabitants are divided into innumer-
able petty tribes, each with a chief, and all subject to the
Lindy N’Congo, who resides at Banza Congo. It was dis-
covered by the Portuguese in 1486.
Congoon', a maritime town of Persia, province of
Fars, on the Persian Gulf, 130 miles S. W. of Shiraz. It
has a good roadstead. Pop. about 6000.
Congrega’tionalism is a system of administering
church affairs which secures to each congregation the right
of regulating, without external interference, the details of
its worship and discipline according to its own understand-
ing of the principles of the New Testament, while it incul-
cates the duty of maintaining the fraternal communion of
believers, especially of such as profess the same faith and
accept the same order.
According to the fundamental principle of congregation-
alism, any association of believers, united by formal cove-
mant for mutual watchfulness and help, the maintenance of
divine worship, the observance of Christian rites, and com-
bined efforts to promote the kingdom of God, is a church
of Christ; and as such is competent to elect and ordain its
own officers, admit or reject applicants for membership,
exclude unworthy members, control its own property, and
transact its own business. The orderly prosecution of
church-work calls for the appointment of various officers,
on whom is laid the special responsibility of oversight and
direction; and long usage, based upon the instructions of
the New Testament, recognizes the office of pastor and that
of deacon as needing to be perpetuated in the Church.
The pastor holds the office of a bishop or elder. By virtue
of his ordination he becomes a minister, whose function is
not only to preach, but to officiate in the administration of
Sacraments, as well as at the marriage service and the
burial of the dead; and this rank as a minister he retains,
even though his position as a pastor of a particular church
may have been resigned. Ordinarily, each church has but
one pastor, and for his support provision.is made in the form
of a stipulated salary, voluntarily contributed by the con-
gregation. Among ministers, whether installed as pastors
or not, there is no disparity of rank. The deacons are not
salaried officers, nor technically ministers, but they are
helpers of the pastor, and have special charge of receiving
the charities of the church and making distribution for the
relief of the poor.
The congregational system holds to the Holy Scriptures
as the sufficient and exclusive rule of ecclesiastical polity,
recognizes no organized and visible Church apart from local
and particular assemblies of believers, and repudiates all
claims of superior bodies to exercise legislative or judicial
authority over the brotherhood.
Nevertheless, the relation of neighboring churches is most
intimate and friendly, and is manifested in various ways;
especially by mutual consultations and co-operation, the
occasional transfer of members, and formal or informal as-
sociations for common work. Thus congregationalism dif-
fers from independency in maintaining the fellowship of dis-
tinct churches, and from presbyterianism in denying the
right of a presbytery or synod to exercise authority over
the churches.
In its principles this system is remarkably unsectarian
and liberal, and its development during the last two hun-
dred and fifty years has been closely identified with in-
creased liberty of religious thought, and with the practical
union of men holding different tenets in common Works of
philanthropy and beneficence.
As a system of church order, congregationalism is not
necessarily connected with any school of theology or any
class of doctrine. Its methods of administering church-
affairs may be adopted alike by Calvinists, Arminians,
Socinians, and Arians. The church government of the dif-
ferent denominations of Baptists is, for the most part,
simply congregational. Some Methodists have followed
the same order. The churches in this country known as
Unitarian are built upon the same platform. This is true
also of Christians and Universalists. All these denomina-
tions are to be grouped together as occupying common
ground in opposition to the idea of a Church comprising
many congregations, and of a government administered by
a priesthood.
At the same time, the churches which are generally known
as Congregational hold firmly to positive and evangelical
views of truth, being Calvinistic rather than Arminian,
Trinitarian rather than Socinian or Arian, accepting the
doctrine of a future state of endless retribution, recognizing
the families of believers as fit subjects of baptism, and re-
garding the mode of administering baptism as of compar-
atively small importance. Each church has its own ar-
ticles of belief, which with greater or less fulness indicate
the system of doctrine taught from the pulpit and accepted
by the members. Some churches have taken as their stand-
ards the Confession and Catechisms of the divines who
met at Westminster, London, in 1648; but the creeds in
common use are much briefer, and being intended for
use as formulas for the reception of members, are for the
most part so framed as to be acceptable to Christians gen-
erally. -
The Congregationalists, when assembled in a national
council at Boston in 1865, declared in general terms their
“adherence to the faith and order of the apostolic and
primitive churches held by their fathers,” but “extended to
all believers the hand of Christian fellowship upon the basis
of those great fundamental truths in which all Christians
should agree.” So also at Oberlin in 1871 the elders and
messengers of the Congregational churches of the U. S.,
in forming a permanent national organization, thought it
sufficient to define their doctrinal position by these words:
“They agree in the belief that the Holy Scriptures are the
sufficient and only infallible rule of religious faith and
practice; their interpretation thereof being in substantial
accordance with the great doctrines of the Christian faith
commonly called evangelical, held in our churches from
early times, and sufficiently set forth by former general
councils.”
The early home of congregationalism was New England,
to which it was brought at the earliest settlement of the
colonies; but as the population has moved westward, this
form of church order has spread extensively through the
West and North-west, till more than half of the 3200
churches designated as Congregational are W. of the Hud-
son River, while in the South and South-west this denomi-
nation is but little known. Recognizing the importance
of culture and an educated ministry, the Congregational-
ists have been distinguished as the founders and liberal
supporters of schools, colleges, and theological seminaries.
Their theological schools are at Bangor, Andover, Hartford,
New Haven, Oberlin, Chicago, and Oakland (California).
The Congregationalists have earnestly co-operated with
other denominations in missionary and benevolent organi-
zations which, like the American Bible Society, have in-
vited to united effort. Among the Societies which are now
chiefly under their direction are the American Board of
Commissioners for Foreign Missions, the American Home
Missionary Society, the American Congregational Union,
the Education Society, the American Missionary Associa-
tion, the Congregational Publication Society, the Congre-
gational Library Association, and the Western College So-
ciety. These, however, are not strictly ecclesiastical or-
ganizations, but associations of individuals over which the
churches, as such, have no control. Indeed, the congrega-
tional theory of administration hardly permits such wide-
spread and far-reaching activities to be included within
the province of a particular Church.
The theory and practice of congregationalism have been
much discussed in the present generation. (A valuable re-
1114
CONGRESS—CONIFERAE. Aº
pository of essays may be found in the “Congregational
Quarterly,” established in Boston in 1859, of which four-
teen volumes have been published. Other authorities are
“Debates and Proceedings of the National Council of Com-
gregational Churches” at Boston, 1865; DExTER’s “Con-
gregationalism ;” Pond’s “Manual ;” BACON’s “Congrega-
tional Order;” UPHAM’s “Ratio Disciplinae;” PUNCHARD
on “Congregationalism;” CUMMINGs’s “Dictionary of Con-
gregational Usages and Principles;” BUCK’s “Massachu-
setts Ecclesiastical Law ;” “Contributions to the Ecclesi-
astical History of Connecticut,” and numerous local his–
tories and church manuals.) -
Statistical summaries of the Congregational churches may
be found each year in the January number of the “Congre-
gational Quarterly,” representing the numerical strength
of the denomination and its changes during the preceding
statistical year.
The returns thus published in 1872 for the U. S. showed
3202 churches, 3124 ministers, 312,054 church members,
and 368,937 in Sabbath schools; 13,271 members had been
received during the year on profession of faith, and 10,969
by letter from other churches; 4701 had died, and 9799
had taken letters of dismission. The increase in one year
had been 81 churches, 26 ministers, 5536 church members,
and 7472 in Sabbath schools. In 1862, ten years before,
the aggregate returns showed 2555 churches, 2678 minis-
ters, 255,034 members, and 246,178 in Sabbath schools.
(For Congregationalism in England, see INDEPENDENTs.)
E. W. GILMAN.
Congress, a township of Morrow co., O. Pop. 1347.
Congress, a township and post-village of Wayne co.,
O. The village is about 45 miles S. S. W. of Cleveland.
Pop. of village, 309; total pop. 2581.
Conſgress [Lat. congressus, from congredior, congressus,
to “go together,” to “meet;” Fr. congrès), in politics, a
meeting of the sovereigns of states or their representa-
tives for the purpose of arranging international matters.
The first general European congress was after the conclu-
sion of the Thirty Years' war in Germany, at Münster and
Osnabrück, 1648. Remarkable general congresses have
been—of the Pyrenees (1659); at Aix-la-Chapelle (1668);
at Nimeguen (1676); at Ryswick (1697); at Utrecht (1713);
at Aix-la-Chapelle (1748); at Teschen (1779); at Paris
(1782); at Versailles (1785); at the Hague (1790); at
Rastadt (1797); at Erfurt (1808); at Vienna (1814, con-
cluded at Paris 1815); at Aix-la-Chapelle (1818); at Trop-
pau (1820); at Laybach (1821); at Verona (1822). More
recently the word CoNFERENCE (which see) is commonly
applied to international meetings of statesmen for the set-
tlement of international complications. (See PHILLIMORE,
“On International Law,” ii., 45.)
CoNGRESS also comes into use as a name for international
meetings of scholars of a particular science, as statistical
congress, archaeological congress, etc.
CoNGREss, the title of the national legislature of the U. S.
of America. It consists of a House of Representatives and
of a Senate. The former is composed of members chosen
every second year. The qualification of electors is the
same as that required in their respective States for electors
to the lower house in the State legislature. The number
of representatives is apportioned according to the popula-
tion of each State, and a new apportionment is made every
ten years after the census is taken by authority. The
Senate is composed of two members from each State; the
Senators are chosen for six years by the legislature of
the State. The House of Representatives chooses its own
Speaker; the Vice-President of the U. S. is eac-officio presi-
dent of the Senate. Bills for revenue purposes must orig-
inate in the House of Representatives, but are subject to
the proposal of amendments by the Senate. The Senate
has the sole power of trying impeachments, but it can only
convict by a majority of two-thirds of the members present,
and its sentence extends only to removal from office and
disqualification to hold any office of honor or profit under
the U. S. The regular meeting of Congress is on the first
Monday in December, annually. Every bill which passes
the two houses is sent to the President for approval or dis-
approval; in the latter case he returns it, with his reasons,
to the house in which it originated; if on reconsideration
it is passed again by a majority of two-thirds in each
house, it becomes law. The powers of Congress are limited,
and separated from those of the State legislatures by the
-Constitution. Members of Congress cannot legally have
any interest in any contract with or claim against the
government; they are forbidden to prosecute cases before
the court of claims, or to present claims to any of the de-
partments. The Senate consists (in 1873) of 74 members,
and the other house of 292 members. No person is eligible
to the Senate under the age of thirty years, nor to the
|House of Representatives under the age of twenty-five.
(For a full statement of the origin, character, and powers
of Congress, see CoNSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.)
Congress Spring, at Saratoga, N. Y., a saline mineral
spring whose waters are highly charged with carbonic acid
gas. When fresh, Congress water contains more than its
own bulk of this gas, 100 cubic inches of water holding in
solution 116 inches of the acid. Its saline ingredients are
the carbonates, chlorides, iodides, bromides, etc. of potas-
sium, sodium, lime, iron, magnesia, strontia, and other
bases. These solid matters are found in the proportion of
nearly 33 grains to a pound of the water, which possesses
valuable tomic and deobstruent qualities.
Congress, Statistical. See STATISTICAL CONGRESS.
Con’greve (WILLIAM), a witty English dramatic poet,
born of an old Staffordshire family near Leeds Feb., 1670.
He was educated at the University of Dublin, and entered
the Middle Temple as a student of law, but he never
devoted much time to the study or practice of that profes-
sion. His first drama, “The Old Bachelor,” was performed
with great success at Drury Lane when Congreve was not
yet nineteen years of age. The “Double Dealer,” in the
following year, did not succeed. He produced in 1695 a
comedy called “Love for Love,” which added much to his
fame and fortune, and in 1697 “The Mourning Bride,” a
tragedy, which was greatly admired. He obtained several
lucrative civil offices. His comedy called “The Way of
the World” (1700) failed so completely that he renounced
the drama in disgust. He affected to depreciate his dra-
matic triumphs, and was more ambitious to pass for a man
of fashion than a poetical genius. Died Jan. 19, 1729.
(CHARLEs WILSON, “Memoirs of the Life of W. Congreve,”
1730.)
Congreve (Sir WILLIAM), BART., F. R. S., an English
officer and engineer, born in Middlesex May 20, 1772. He
invented several improvements in canal-locks, and in 1804
the Congreve rocket. (See RoCKET.) He published sev-
eral professional works. Died May 14, 1828.
Co’ni, or Cu/neo, a town of Italy, in Piedmont, cap-
ital of the province of Cuneo, is on the river Stura, 54 miles
by railway S. by W. from Turin. It has a cathedral, a
fine town-hall, a royal college, a theatre, several convents
and palaces. It was a strong fortress before 1800, and was
dismantled by the French after the battle of Marengo in
that year. Here are manufactures of linen and hemp.
Coni has an extensive trade. Pop. in 1871, 22,882.
Conſic Sections, in mathematics, the sections of a
right cone by a plane. If the cutting plane is perpendicular
to the axis, the section is a circle ; if it is parallel to one side
of the cone, the section is a parabola; if it makes a greater
angle with the base than is made by the side of the cone,
the section is a hyperbola ; if it is oblique to the axis, and
only cuts the comical surface, it is an ellipse. The circle,
the line, and the point may each be regarded as particular
cases of the ellipse; the line as a particular case of the
parabola; the triangle as a particular case of the hyper-
bola. The study of comic sections is specially interesting
and important on account of its connection with the laws
of moving bodies. The orbits of planets, the paths of
projectiles, the undulations of light and sound, are all
either circular, elliptic, parabolic, or hyperbolic.
Conif'era [from the Lat. conus, a “cone,” and fero, to
“bear”], an important natural order of exogenous plants,
comprising the pines, firs, etc. They agree with the other
exogens in the structure of the stem and in the mode of
vegetation, but differ remarkably from most of them in
fructification. Their ovules are not enclosed in an ovary,
but are fertilized by the direct application of the pollen to
the foramen, with no style or stigma; and for this reason
they, with the Cycadaceae, are called gymnosperms. The
flowers are unisexual, the male and female being some-
times on the same, sometimes on different plants. The
male flowers have either one stamen or one bundle of sta-
mens, the anthers often crested. The female flowers are
in comes or solitary. The place of ovaries is supplied by
the flat scales of the cones. The ovules are usually in pairs.
The fruit is either a come, a berry-like fruit, or a solitary
naked seed. The seed has a hard, crustaceous integument.
The embryo is surrounded by fleshy, oily albumen. The
cotyledons are either two or numerous and whorled. The
Coniferae are trees or shrubs, mostly with resinous juice,
and awl-shaped or needle-shaped leaves. Some of the
Coniferae attain a height almost unrivalled among other
forest trees. The Sequoia of California affords the most
striking example. The woody fibre is marked with cir-
cular disks, which, when highly magnified, exhibit a small
internal circle surrounded by a larger one. This pecu-
liarity of the wood of the Coniferae is important, as enabling
us to refer many fossils, particularly of the coal formation,
to this order. Most of the Coniferae have very narrow,
CONIINE–CONN AUGHT.
1115
veinless, evergreen leaves, but some few are deciduous, and
others have flat and wide leaves. By far the larger num-
ber of them belong to the northern hemisphere. They are
very long-lived; some of them are supposed to be capable
of enduring to the age of 2000 or 3000 years. Besides the
valuable timber obtained from many of the Coniferae, they
are remarkably productive of turpentines and resins. As-
tringent substances are also found in their bark, and fixed
oil in their seeds. The seeds of some species are used as
food. By some botanists this order is divided into two,
three, or more orders.
Co/niine, also called Conine, Comicine, and Ci-
cutine, a volatile alkaloid constituting the poisonous
principle of the Conium maculatum, or poison hemlock. It
was discovered in 1827 by Giesacke, but first prepared in
a pure state by Geiger in 1831. Formula, CsPH15N. It
exists in all parts of the plant, but in greatest quantities
in the seeds just before maturity. Coniine is stated by
Walz to exist in the ripe seeds of the Æthusa Cynapium, or
fool's parsley, and Wagner claims to have found it in the
root of the Imperatoria. Coniine is obtained by mixing
the bruised seeds of the plant with a strong base, as lime,
and distilling the base over with water. It is an oily liquid
of specific gravity 0.89, boiling at about 170° C. (338° F.),
with a penetrating repulsive and suffocating odor and a
sharp taste. It has a strong alkaline reaction in the pres-
ence of water, but the blue color produced by it on red-
dened litmus paper is not permanent. At a low temper-
ature it takes up considerable amounts of water, but if the
solution is warmed it becomes turbid. It is but slightly
soluble in water, but very soluble in alcohol and ether. It
is very inflammable, burning with a bright smoky flame.
When exposed to the air it slowly decomposes, ammonia
being evolved and a resinous substance being left. With
acids it forms crystallizable salts which are soluble in
water and alcohol, are odorless when dry, and are decom-
posed by heat. According to Geiger, the salts are less
poisonous than the base itself. Other authorities assert
that the reverse is the case. In any case, the action is
that of an acrid narcotic poison. One of the tests in the
laboratory for the presence of this alkaloid is the peculiar
odor developed by setting it free from its combinations by
means of caustic potash.
In 1872, Schiff obtained synthetically a substance iden-
tical in composition with coniine, and resembling it in odor,
appearance, and general reactions. This product has, how-
ever, optically no rotatory power, and differs from the matu-
ral coniine in a few other details. The name paraconiine
has therefore been proposed for the artificial product.
The alkaloid, as well as the leaves and seeds of the Co-
mium maculatum, is used in pharmacy as a narcotic.
C. F. CHANDLER.
Conſington (John), a distinguished classical scholar
and literary writer, was born Aug. 10, 1825, in Boston,
England, and educated first at Rugby under Dr. Arnold,
and then at Oxford, where he became a fellow of University
College in 1848. While still a B. A. he published an
edition of the “Agamemnon’ of Æschylus, with a poetical
version, in which he inaugurated the double career, which
he successfully followed up, of critical editor and trans-
lator. In 1852 he had begun, in conjunction with Mr.
Goldwin Smith, an edition of the works of Virgil, the first
volume of which was published in 1858. In 1854 he was
appointed to the chair of Latin in the university, and from
this time to his early death in 1869 his pen was constantly
busy. His AEschylean studies were continued in the edition
of the “Choēphoroe’’ in 1857, but after this he felt drawn
more particularly to the studies connected with his chair.
In 1863 appeared a version of the Odes of Horace, and the
second volume of his Virgil. In 1866 he published a
spirited translation of the “AEneid” in the ballad measure
of Scott, which he followed up the next year by completing
the version of the “Iliad” begun by his friend Mr. Wors-
ley. He completed his translation of Horace, and prepared
an edition of the “Satires” of Persius, with a translation,
just before his death in 1869. The last volume of his
edition of Virgil appeared after his death, under the super-
vision of his friend and fellow-worker, Mr. Nettleship, in
1871. Two volumes of miscellaneous writings, with a
memoir prafixed, were issued in 1872, the second volume
containing a prose translation of the “Eclogues,”
“Georgics,” and “AEneid” of Virgil. HENRY DRISLER.
Coniros’tres [from the Lat. conus, a “cone,” and ros-
trum, a “bill ”], a tribe of birds of the order Insessores
(perchers), characterized by a strong conical bill without
notches. It comprises numerous species, among which are
erows, finches, larks, buntings, sparrows, starlings, and
birds of paradise. Many recent systematists reject the term
altogether, and group these birds in the section Oscines
(singers), of the order Passeres and sub-class Insessores.
Coni’um [Gr, kóvetov], the leaves of the poisonous hem-
lock, Conium maculatum, an Old World umbelliferous plant
naturalized in the U. S. It is in medicine a useful sedative,
hypnotic, and anodyne. In over-doses it produces a danger-
ous paralysis. With this drug Socrates and Phocion were
poisoned. Stimulants and emetics are the best antidotes.
Conjeveram, or Cauchipoo"ra (“golden city’’), a
town of Hindostan, on the railway, 62 miles S. W. of Mad-
ras, in the presidency of Madras. It consists mostly of
mud cabins, extends over considerable ground, and con-
tains large gardens and cocoa groves. It is noted for two
ºins pagodas with remarkably fine sculptures. Pop.
3 v v v -
Conju'gate [Lat. conjugatus, part. of conjugo, to “yoke
together”], an adjective frequently used in pure and ap-
plied mathematics with reference to two quantities, points,
lines, axes, curves, etc., which present themselves simul-
taneously and have reciprocal properties.
Conjuga/tion [Lat. conjugatio, from con, “together,”
and jugo, jugatum, to “yoke ’, in grammar, a regular dis-
tribution of the several inflections of verbs into their differ-
ent voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons; a synopsis
or statement of the changes of form or inflections to which
a verb is subject. In Latin grammar there are four differ-
ent forms of regular verbs, which are called the first, second,
third, and fourth conjugations, and in some languages the
number is even greater. (See GRAMMAR.)
CoNJUGATION is also a process occurring among the
lower forms of organic life, in which the substance of two
distinct organisms, coming into contact, is passed into a
single mass. In plants it is always attended with repro-
duction, sometimes also in animals. It has been observed
in numerous algae and in some fungi.
Conjunction [Lat. conjunctio, from con, “together,”
and jungo, junctum, to “join ‘’l, one of the aspects of the
planets. Two or more heavenly bodies are in conjunction
when they have the same longitude. The sun and moon
are in conjunction at the time of new moon. In general,
a heavenly body is in conjunction with the sun when it is
on the same side of the earth and is in a line with him.
When Mercury and Venus are in a line between the earth
and the sun they are said to be in inferior conjunction.
When the sun is between the earth and one of the planets
the latter is in superior conjunction:
Conjunction, in grammar, a part of speech used to
connect words or sentences; that part of speech which ex-
presses the relation of propositions to each other. Con-
junctions are co-ordinate when they unite expressions of
equal grammatical importance; subordinate when they
unite a dependent clause to a principal one.
Conk/lin, a township and village of Broome co., N.Y.
The village is about 20 miles E. of Owego. Pop. 1440.
Conk/Hing (ALFRED), the father of Roscoe C., born at
East Hampton, N. Y., Oct. 12, 1789, graduated at Union
College in 1810, became a lawyer, was member of Congress
(1821–23), afterwards U. S. district judge for Northern
New York, and was minister to Mexico in 1852. He pub-
lished several legal works. Died Feb. 5, 1874.
Conkling (Roscoe), an American statesman, born at
Albany, N. Y., Oct. 30, 1829, studied and practised law.
In 1846 he removed to Utica, of which place he was elected
mayor in 1858, and was elected to represent his district in
the U. S. Congress four times, and in 1867 and 1873 to the
U. S. Senate.
Conk/lingville, a post-village of Hadley township,
Saratoga co., N. Y. Has a large tannery and a manufac-
tory of veneers.
Conlie, a French village, in the department of Tarthe,
is situated I4 miles W. of Le Mans. Near it the French
government established in Oct., 1870, a large fortified camp
which could receive about 50,000 troops. After the battle
of Le Mans the camp was, on Jan. 14, 1871, occupied by
the Germans. Pop. of the village in 1866, 1720.
Connara'ceae [from Connarus, one of the general, a
natural order of exogenous plants (trees or shrubs), natives
of tropical countries, and nearly allied to the Leguminosae.
They have compound leaves destitute of stipules. They
differ from the Leguminosae by having the radicle remote
from the hilum. Among the products of this order is the
beautiful zebra-wood (the wood of Omphalobium Lamberti),
a native of Guiana.
Con/naught, the most western province of Ireland, is
bounded on the N. and W. by the Atlantic Ocean, on the
E. by Ulster and Leinster, and on the S. by Munster. Area,
6863 square miles. It is divided into the counties of Gal-
way, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, and Sligo. The surface
in the western part is mountainous. The coast is deeply
indented, and affords good harbors. The river Shannon
described, 72 miles.
‘tuck River on the E. to Byram River on the S. W., is
about 100 miles.
E. to W. is 86 miles, and its average breadth from N. to S.,
“55 miles.
* lon. 71° 55' and 73° 50/.
1116
forms the eastern boundary of the province. Connaught
was formerly a kingdom of the Irish pentarchy. Pop, in
1871, 845,993.
Conneaut’, a post-borough of Ashtabula co., O., on
Conneaut Creek and on the Lake Shore R. R., 68 miles
E. N. E. of Cleveland and 2 miles from Lake Erie. It is a
shipping-point for produce. Here the first settlers of North-
ern Ohio landed in 1796. The mouth of the ereek makes
a good harbor. Conneaut has a lighthouse, a good trade,
and one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1163; of Conneaut town-
ship, 3010.
Conneaut, a township of Crawford co., Pa. P. 1729.
Conneaut, a township of Erie co., Pa. Pop. 1538.
Conneaut/ville, a post-village of Crawford co., Pa.,
on the Erie and Pittsburg R. R., 35 miles S. S. W. of Erie.
It has one national bank and one weekly newspaper. P.1000.
Connecticut, kon-net/e-küt, a river of the U. S., rises
in the extreme northern part of New Hampshire, near the
frontier of Canada.
between New Hampshire and Vermont.
Its W. bank forms the entire boundary
(See NEW HAMP-
SHIRE.) It flows in a general S. S. W. direction until it
enters Franklin co., Mass. It afterwards intersects Massa-
chusetts and Connecticut, flowing nearly southward to Mid-
dletown (Connecticut), below which its course is S. E., and
enters Long Island Sound at Saybrook. Length, about 450
miles. The valley of the Connecticut is celebrated for the
beauty of its scenery, the fertility of its soil, and the lux-
uriant growth of the tobacco-plant known as the “Con-
necticut seed-leaf,” which is used principally as “wrappers”
in making cigars. It is not an uncommon thing for the
crop to exceed 2000 pounds to the acre. Vessels drawing
eight feet can ascend to Hartford, which is about 50 miles
from its mouth. Its principal affluents are the Deerfield,
Farmington, and Chicopee rivers. -
Connecticut, one of the six New England, and one of
the thirteen original, States of the American Union, lying
Connecticut Seal.
in the eastern division of the U. S., and bounded as fol-
lows: N. by Massachusetts, E. by Rhode Island, S. by
Long Island Sound, and W. by New York. No one of its
boundaries is a continuous straight line, that on the N.
having a notch where the town of Southwick, Mass., inter-
rupts the boundary; the eastern following at its lower por-
tion the sinuosities of .Pawcatuck River; the southern
being the line of the sound shore; and the western bound-
ary, after following a course S., slightly bearing W. till
within about 15 miles of the sound, suddenly turns S. E.
for about 8 miles, then S. W. for about 13, then S. E. for 6
or 7. The northern line is about 88 miles long; the east-
ern, 45 miles; the western, by the indirect line we have
The sea, or sound coast, from Pawca-
The average length of the State from
It lies between N. lat. 41° and 42° 3', and W.
Its area is 4674 square miles.
, Face of the Country, Rivers, Mountains, Valleys, etc.—
The State is mainly drained by its three principal rivers
; and their tributaries, the Housatonic, the Connecticut, and
the Thames, though these are supplemented by numerous
. Small streams from 10 to 15 miles in length, and one
about 35 miles in length, the Quinnipiack, which, like the
larger rivers, all discharge their waters into the sound.
‘The Housatonic River rises in the N. W.
co., Mass., pursues a generally southern course till it reaches .
part of Berkshire
is very difficult.
afford good and succulent pasture, and the butter, cheese,
far beyond the limits of the State.
CONNEAUT-CONNECTICUT,
about the middle of the State of Connecticut, when it turns
S. E., and discharges its waters into the sound at Bridge-
port. The Connecticut (see CoNNECTICUT RIVER), rising
near the Canada line, separates New Hampshire and Wer-
mont, and passes through Massachusetts and Connecticut
to the sound, deflected at Middletown to the S. E., like the
Housatonic and Thames, and on about the same parallel.
The Thames, a broad and noble river, is only known by
that name from Norwich to New London Harbor. The
Yantic and Quinnebaug unite to form the Thames at Nor-
wich, and the Quinnebaug itself takes the Shetucket as its
principal tributary—a tributary formed by the union of
the Willimantic and Hop rivers. These streams drain
most of Windham and a part of New London counties.
The principal tributary of the Connecticut in the State is
the Tunxis or Farmington River, which drains a part of
Litchfield and Hartford counties. The chief affluent of the
Housatonic is the Naugatuck River, which receives the
waters of several towns of Litchfield and New Haven
counties. The State has no prairies and but little abso-
lutely level land. Its central valley begins at the sound,
and, embracing a tract of the average breadth of about 20
miles, including the towns of East Haven, New Haven, and
West Haven, passes N. E., its eastern border crossing the
Connecticut River below Middletown, while its western
border continues on the W. side of the river through Ham-
den, Cheshire, Southington, Farmington, Avon, Simsbury,
and Granby into Massachusetts; the eastern border passing
at the same time through Portland, Glastonbury, Manches-
ter, East Windsor, and Somers to the Massachusetts line.
The lower part of this valley is sandy and alluvial, but
barren except when it is highly manured. In many
places it forms extensive plains of drifting sand, and these
sometimes invade the portions which have, under the
stimulus of strong manures, grown a moderate crop. But
at the point where it approaches the Connecticut River the
character of the soil changes; the underlying rock, for the
remainder of the course of the valley through the State, is
the new red sandstone, and above it a rich, deep clayey
loam, with sand enough to make it permanently arable;
and there is hardly any section of the U. S. which yields,
year after year, such ample crops as this portion of the
Connecticut River valley. There are in the lower and
western portions of this valley some ranges and several
isolated buttes or elevated bluffs of trap-rock, which in
Some volcanic convulsion or earthquake was interjected
through rifts in the overlying rocks. On the W. side these
bluffs and ranges have a precipitous and sometimes an al-
most perpendicular descent, while on the E. side they
descend to the level of the valley by a gentle declivity.
There are also two or three cross ranges, of no great height,
of trap-rock connecting with mountains on the eastern or
western border of the valley. These trap ranges are
broken by several gaps, cutting them completely through;
one of these affords a passage for the Farmington River;
another opens a way for the railroad from Hartford to
Waterbury. The eastern part of the State, which is
drained by the Thames and its affluents, has no broad
valley, but numerous narrow ones, and the underlying
rocks being granitic and metamorphic, the hills which
bound these valleys are gently rounded slopes, cultivable
even to their summits. This portion of the State is excel-
lent grazing-land, and much of it is celebrated for its dairy
products; while the numerous waterfalls and the uniform-
ity of the streams make it a favorable region for manufac-
tures, which are largely conducted in this section. The
western part of the State, drained by the Housatonic and
its tributaries and by the Tunxis, is of broken surface, with
sharp cliffs and large boulders, while the surface is much
of it covered with rocks. Less than a moiety of the land
is susceptible of successful tillage, and the passage from
one valley to another over the rough and precipitous hills
Many of the valleys, though narrow,
and condensed milk of Litchfield county have a reputation
S. of the point (Brook-
field) where the Housatonic turns south-eastward the west-
ern part of the State is sandy and gravelly, though por-
tions of it yield fine crops by the application of highly
stimulating manures. The proximity of this portion of the
State to New York has led to extensive culture of the small
fruits and vegetables, which find a ready market in the
metropolis. The shore line for a distance of from 5 to
15 miles back from Long Island Sound is alluvial and di-
luvial, and excessively sandy, but, by the application of
large quantities of Inenhaden and the fish and other
guanos, yields good crops of potatoes, rye, oats, and Indian
corn. There are no elevations deserving the name of
mountains in the State, the highest elevation being consid-
erably below 1000 feet.
. There is a large amount of mineral wealth in the State.

CONNECTICUT.
1117
. Neither gold nor silver has been found in any consider-
able quantities, though both the copper and lead ores are
argentiferous. Copper is found in various parts of the
trap-rock range; the Simsbury copper-mines were worked
many years before the Revolutionary war, and subsequent
to that event were made the State prison and worked by
convict labor. The copper-mines in Bristol have yielded
large amounts of copper, but owing to the comparatively
small percentage of pure metal in the ore, and the heavy
expense of raising it, the mines in both places have proved
unprofitable in face of the abundant yield and purer ores
of the Lake Superior region. Argentiferous galena, yield-
ing a large percentage of silver, has been worked at various
times in Middletown, but the net result has not been profit-
able. The iron ores of the State have been worked with
advantage for about 125 years. Bog-iron ore is found in
various parts of the State, but the extensive beds of hema-
tite ore in Salisbury and Kent, as well as less extensive ones
in Sharon, Cornwall, and Canaan, have yielded the best
quality of charcoal iron in the country. . These mines were
opened about 1750, and the greater part of the iron re-
quired for cannon, for the chains across the Hudson, and
for other purposes during the Revolutionary war, came
from the Salisbury furnaces. The valley of the Housatonic
above New Milford, and the narrow valleys which branch
out from it, abound in limestone of the best quality, both
for burning and building or ornamental purposes; and the
Canaan lime, as it was called, held for many years the first
rank in the market. The New Preston marble-quarries in
the town of Washington, Litchfield co., furnish an admir-
able quality of dense white marble of pure color and fine
grain, for which there is a constant demand. But the finest
building-stone in the State, and that most in demand all
over the U. S., is the red sandstone (better known as brown-
stone or freestone) from the quarries on both sides of the
Connecticut River at Portland and Cromwell. The Port-
land quarries are the oldest, but both towns yield a stone
identical in quality and color—an excellent building-stone,
and which is in great demand for covering or veneering
the fronts of brick buildings from its excellent proper-
ties of durability, resistance to climatic action, and quiet
but effective color. Quarries at Bolton and at Haddam
yield excellent qualities of flagging stone, which splits
smoothly and wears well. There are also at the latter
place extensive quarries of granite and gneiss. Sulphate
of barytes (heavy spar) is found in large veins in the E.
part of Cheshire and Southington, and is quarried and
sent to New York, Boston, and Philadelphia to be used
with white lead for paints. Hydraulic lime in immense
quantities is found on the borders of Southington and Ber-
lin, and large quantities of hydraulic cement are manufac-
tured from it. There are quarries of a good tiling slate.
In Milford and North Milford there is a quarry of a beau-
tiful green marble of a quality nearly or quite equal to
verd antique, but the expense of working it has proved very
heavy. Fire-clay, porcelain-clay of excellent quality, and
potter's clay are found in various parts of the State, and
firebricks and firebrick furnaces and crucibles are made at
New Milford, and the felspar quarried for porcelain at
Middletown. There are mineral springs in various parts
of the State, but those most celebrated are the slightly sul-
phurous chalybeate springs at Stafford. Salt is made by
evaporation from sea-water at Stonington and other points
on the shore of Long Island Sound.
Vegetation, Zoology, and Climate.—The forest trees of
Connecticut, now much less numerous than formerly, since
large tracts have been felled for ship-timber, for furnace
and brick-kiln use, and for the production of charcoal, are
those which are most serviceable in manufactures. Neither
the pine nor the hemlock is abundant, but the white oak
(an excellent ship-timber), the yellow and red oak, the
hickory or walnut, the chestnut, butternut, tulip tree or
white wood, beech, birch, ironwood or hop-hornbeam, sugar,
rock, silver, and red maple, ash, elm, Sassafras, wild cherry,
red cedar, juniper, and among the shrubs or small trees the
alder, box-elder, shad-bush, spice-bush, etc., are the prin-
cipal trees of the forests which yet remain. Among the
wild fruits are wild grapes, beach and sloe plums, crab-
apples, whortleberries, blackberries, dewberries, raspber-
ries of several varieties, barberries, cranberries, gooseber-
ries, strawberries, partridge and wintergreen berries.
The State has been so long settled, and is so densely
populated, that there are very few wild animals left in it.
Foxes are occasionally, though rarely, found in the western
counties, and the gray rabbit, gray, red, striped, and flying
Squirrels are found, though not in large numbers, in most
parts of the State. Occasionally the wild-cat is seen in the
larger forests, while the skunk, the muskrat, the wood-
chuck, and the smaller burrowing animals, moles, field-
mice, and those pests, the Norway and water rat, appear in
considerable numbers. Among birds, the birds of prey are
represented by the eagle (two or three species), several
species of hawk, some of them large, four or five species
of gulls, as many of owls, the crow, raven, etc., while the
robin, oriole, redbird, crow blackbird, blackbird, jay, blue-
bird, hanging-bird, woodpecker, thrush, brown thresher,
several of the finches, the wren, swallow, whippoorwill,
humming-bird, etc., represent the class of song-birds; the
grouse family and its congeners, and the pigeon, quail,
partridge, pinnated grouse or heath-hen are found, snipe
and woodcock are plenty in swamps and woods along the
sea-shore, and several species of duck, wild geese, etc. are
found along the rivers, and bays. Fish, especially of the
edible kinds, abound in the waters of the State. The shad,
tautaug or blackfish, bluefish, porgy, black, rock, and striped
bass, flounder, sturgeon, pickerel, perch, roach, sheepshead,
weakfish, catfish, menhaden, etc. abound ; the salmon,
formerly so abundant in the Connecticut River, has re-
cently been restored to it, and in the sound are found the
shark (several species), the stingray, the skate, and occa-
sionally the porpoise and the blackfish, a small species of
whale. The shores of the sound abound in the best quali-
ties of shellfish, the oysters, long or soft-shelled clams of
several species, quahogs or round clams, scallops, and
mussels being of excellent flavor. Lobsters, crabs, king-
crabs, sea-urchins, sea-spiders, etc. are also very plentiful.
Reptiles are less abundant than in most States. The only
venomous snakes are the rattlesnake and two or three
species of adder, and these are not abundant. The other
snakes, of which there is a very considerable variety,
though no great number of individuals, are all harmless,
except the racer or blacksnake, our North American repre-
sentative of the boa constrictor tribe, which crushes its
prey in its folds. These are now found but rarely. Two
or three species of frogs, as many of toads, and four or
five of the lizard tribe, are the only other reptiles worthy
of note. The climate of the State does not vary materially
from that of the other States of the same latitude on the
Atlantic slope. The spring opens usually from the 10th to
the 20th of April, and except occasionally a single slight
frost in September there is no more cold weather until No-
vember. The winters are, away from the sea-board, usually
severe, and considerable snow lies on the ground sometimes
for months. The temperature in summer is often high, and
averages about 70° F. during the summer months, permit-
ting most varieties of the grape and Indian corn to come
to perfection. In the Connecticut Valley heavy ſogs pre-
vail during a part of the summer and autumn months.
There seems to be little or no marsh miasm in the State,
and intermittent and remittent fevers do not originate
there. In diseases of the lungs, though more favorable .
than most of the other New England States, it is less so
than the Southern or South-western States.
Agricultural and Manufacturing Products, Fisheries, etc.—
Connecticut is not largely an agricultural State, much of
her wealth being invested in manufacturing, commercial,
and banking enterprises; but her fertile lands are under a
high state of cultivation, while the comparatively barren
ones are, under skilful husbandry, made to produce fair
crops. The State Agricultural Society is an efficient body,
and has done much to promote good farming. The statis-
tics of the leading crops for the year 1872 were—Indian
corn, 1,705,000 bushels, raised on 54,647 acres, and esti-
mated as worth $1,568,600; wheat, 37,100 bushels, raised
on 2182 acres, and worth $61,215; rye, 311,000 bushels,
raised on 19,683 acres, and worth $342,100; oats, 1,063,000
bushels, raised on 29,692 acres, and worth $648,430; barley,
23,000 bushels, raised on 995 acres, and worth $20,700;
buckwheat, 94,900 bushels, on 4942 acres, and worth
$91,104; potatoes, 1,819,000, on 18,190 acres, and worth
$1,491,580; tobacco, 8,336,000 pounds, on 5052 acres, and
worth $2,500,800; hay, 534,000 tons, raised on 472,566
acres, and worth $13,910,700. The live-stock in the State
in Jan., 1873, was as follows: 50,300 horses, valued at
$4,974,167; 106,800 milch cows, worth $4,218,600; 111,200
oxen and other cattle, worth $4,521,392; 83,200 sheep,
worth $410,176; 63,700 hogs, worth $836,381. According
to the census of 1870, Connecticut had 1,646,752 acres of
improved land in farms, and 717,664 acres unimproved, of
which 577,333 acres were woodland. The cash value of
its farms was $124,241,382, and of farming implements,
$3,246,599. The total amount of wages paid for farm-labor
was $4,405,064, and the estimated value of all farm products
for the year 1869–70 was $26,482,150. The following addi-
tional statistics of the agriculture of the State are only
collected at each decennial period, and refer to the census
year 1869–70 : The value of animals slaughtered or sold
for slaughter was $4,881,858; the value of home manufac-
tures, $53,297; of forest products, $1,224,107; of market-
garden products, $599,718; of orchard products, $585,594;
of wool, 254,129# pounds; of hops, 1004 pounds; of maple-
* There is reason to believe this an under-estimate.
1118
CoNNECTICUT.
sugar, 14,266 pounds; of sorghum molasses, 6832 gallons,
and of maple molasses, 168 gallons; of sweet potatoes, 867
bushels; of peas and beans, 13,038 bushels; of beeswax,
1326 pounds; of honey, 32,158 pounds; of domestic wine,
27,414 gallons; of clover seed, 1725 bushels; of grass seed,
4471 bushels; of butter, 6,716,007 pounds; of cheese,
2,031,194 pounds; of milk sold, 6,253,259 gallons.
Connecticut is eminently a manufacturing State, ranking
in the capital employed, notwithstanding the smallness of
her territory, fifth, and in the value of her manufactured
products eighth, in the list of States. It is to be regretted
that the statistics of her manufactures in the census report
are confessedly so inaccurate. The superintendent of the
census estimates that the reported capital invested in man-
ufactures is not more than one-fourth of that actually em-
ployed, and that in the other particulars there are neces-
sarily great errors, mostly, it is supposed, in the way of
under-estimate. The census of 1870 reports that in the
year 1869–70 there were in Connecticut 5128 manufacturing
establishments, operated by 711 steam-engines of 25,979
horse-power and 1988 water-wheels of 54,395 horse-power;
these establishments employed 89,523 persons, of whom
61,684 were adult males, 20,810 adult females, and 7029
children. The capital invested is stated at $95,281,278,
the amount of annual wages paid at $38,987,187, the value
of materials at $86,419,579, and the annual product at
$161,065,474. Among the largest of these industries were
manufactures of cotton goods, of which there were 111
establishments, employing 12,086 hands, having a reported
capital of $12,710,700, paying $3,246,783 in annual wages,
using raw material of the value of $8,818,651, and produ-
cing goods valued at $14,026,334; woollen goods, of which
there were 103 factories, employing 7285 hands, having a
reported capital of $12,490,400, paying for annual wages
$2,860,120, using raw material costing $11,016,925, and
producing annually goods valued at $17,365,148; various
manufactures of iron, of which there were in all 120 estab-
lishments, employing 3866 persons, having a reported cap-
ital invested of $5,202,650, paying as annual wages $977,897,
using raw material of the value of $3,632,317, and produ-
cing iron and iron goods of the annual value of $7,018,711;
hardware and saddlery hardware, 155 establishments, em-
ploying 7721 persons, reporting a capital invested of
$7,138,645, paying wages to the annual amount of $3,748,822,
using raw material valued at $5,344,811, and producing
goods to the annual value of $12,672,034; India-rubber
and elastic goods, 13 establishments, employing 1946 per-
sons, a capital estimated at $2,345,000, paying as wages
annually $761,434, using raw material estimated at
$2,355,488, and producing annually goods to the amount
of $4,239,329; firearms and small-arms, 8 establishments,
employing 1607 hands, reporting $1,793,770 of capital
invested, $1,100,668 wages paid annually, $315,247 worth
of raw material used, and $2,222,873 of goods annually
produced.* In the manufacture of clothing there are 244
establishments, employing 3414 hands and a capital re-
ported at $1,250,220, expending $2,666,068 for raw material,
and producing goods to the value of $4,481,259; of hat
and cap manufactories there were 33, employing 2464
hands, a reported capital of $1,153,300, and producing
from $1,894,647 worth of raw material, goods to the value
of $3,740,871; there were 205 carriage and wagon factories,
employing 2341 hands, and producing from $1,798,299
worth of raw material goods to the value of $4,164,480;
there were 42 establishments for the manufacture of plated
ware, employing 2107 hands, a capital reported at $2,337,500,
and producing from $2,005,090 worth of raw material, goods
to the value of $4,066,806; in the manufacture of machinery
of all kinds there were 108 machine-shops, employing 2770
hands, reporting a capital of $4,342,641, and producing
from $1,617,444 worth of raw material, machinery to the
value of $5,010,379; there were 9 factories for sewing-
machines and sewing-machine fixtures, employing 2525
hands, capital reported at $2,492,000, and producing from
$1,356,015 worth of raw material, machines and fixtures to
the value of $4,507,850; there were 23 silk-factories, em-
ploying 1703 hands, reporting a capital of $1,414,130, and
producing from $2,049,834 worth of raw material, silk goods
to the value of $3,314,845; the manufacture of paper is
conducted in 66 paper-mills, employing 1397 hands, report-
ing a capital of $2,988,046, and producing from $3,327,266
worth of raw material, paper to the value of $4,874,241.
The other branches of manufacturing industry which pro-
duced goods to the reported value of over $1,000,000 were—
agricultural implements, 38 establishments, producing
goods to the value of $1,183,947; bleaching and dyeing,
18 establishments, producing goods worth $2,849,743; boots
* These returns are certainly an under-estimate, as in favor-
able years a single establishment produces goods to a larger
amount than that attributed to the Whole eight, and another
nearly reaches that amount.
and shoes, 38 establishments, producing $1,939,652 worth
of goods; brass-founding and brass-wares, 47 establish-
ments, producing goods to the amount of $2,404,990; car-
pets, 21 factories, with $1,530,000 capital, producing
$2,027,136 worth of carpets; clocks and clock-cases and
materials, 28 factories, employing 1471 hands, and making
from $941,572 worth of raw material $2,747,153 worth of
clocks and cases; cutlery, including edge-tools and axes,
125 establishments, employing 2378 hands, and producing
goods to the value of $3,059,806; drugs and chemicals, 6
manufactories, employing 261 hands, and producing goods:
to the value of $1,289,845; flouring-mill products, 150
establishments, producing flour, etc. to the value of
$2,946,010; furniture, 56 shops, producing $1,103,690 worth
of furniture; hosiery, 14 factories, making $1,251,742 worth
of goods; leather, tanned and curried, by tanneries, pro-
ducing $1,024,316 worth of leather; lumber, sawed and
planed, 145 mills, producing $1,774,014 worth of lumber;
printing and publishing, 42 offices, producing papers,
periodicals, books, etc. to the value of $1,094,440;f "sad-
dlery and harness, 106 shops, producing $1,055,350 worth
of goods; straw goods, 3 factories, employing 1010 hands,
and producing goods to the value of $1,026,000; tin, cop-
per, and sheet-iron ware, 129 shops, employing 968 hands,
and producing wares valued at $1,625,774; tobacco and
cigars, 100 shops, producing goods to the amount of
$1,133,665. There are 20 quarries and mines (mostly quar-
ries), having a reported capital of $1,496,100, and produ-
cing annually to the amount of $1,227,400. There are also
171 fishing establishments, exclusive of the whale fisheries,
having $421,775 capital, and yielding an annual product of
$769,799.
Railroads.--There are 22 railroads wholly or in part in
the State, having an aggregate length of 886 miles, aside
from sidings, etc., which, added, made about 978 miles of
completed railroad-tracks in April, 1873. The total num-
ber of miles of road in operation by all these railroads, in-
cluding the portion in other States, is 1163 miles, exclusive
of sidings, etc. The total capital of these roads was
$41,542,100. Their cost and equipment have been not far
from $50,000,000. The gross receipts for the year ending
April, 1873, were $11,368,425.26, and the net income was
$3,169,902.41. Only one of these roads can really be con-
sidered a trunk-line—viz. the New York, New Haven and
Hartford, extending from New York to Springfield, Mass.,
and connecting there with the Boston and Albany R. R. of
Massachusetts, with which it forms part of the trunk-line
to Boston, Portland, and Halifax. The capital of this road
is $15,500,000. The Hartford Providence and Fishkill
forms a part of the New York and New England, which is
intended to extend from Boston to Fishkill, and, crossing
the Hudson by a lofty bridge, connect with the Erie Railway.
The Norwich and Worcester, in connection with the Shore
line and a line of steamers, forms another route from New
York to Boston. The Shore line'skirts the sound from New
Haven to Stonington, and forms, with the New York and New
Haven and the Stonington and Providence, a very direct
route from New York to Providence, R. I. The New Ha-
ven Middletown and Willimantic R. R., not yet completed
between Middletown and Willimantic, is intended to form
a very direct route between New York and Boston, known
as the Air-Line route. The Connecticut Western has a
general N. W. course from Hartford through Litchfield co.,
connecting with the Naugatuck, Housatonic, and Harlem
R. Rs. The remaining railroads, except some short
branches, traverse the valleys from S. to N., and the State
is very thoroughly gridironed with railways. Telegraphic
wires run along all the railroad routes, and in some in-
stances connect with towns on other highways. .
Finances.—The valuation (called in this State the “grand
list”) for purposes of taxation amounted for the year Oct.,
1872–73, to $348,855,457. The true valuation of the State,
according to the census of 1870, was $774,631,524. The
taxation of the State for the year ending Mar. 30, 1874,
was estimated at $2,072,510, of which the State tax proper
(on real and personal estate) was $697,710, the remainder
being made up from the dues from savings banks, railroads,
insurance and express companies, interest, commutation
tax, etc. The State debt outstanding April, 1873, was
$5,095,900, and there were funds on hand to retire $500,000
of the State bonds. The amount of interest paid on State
bonds was $333,402. The amount of revenue received from
all sources during the year ending April 1, 1873, was
$2,054,465.24, and there was a balance in the treasury
from the previous year of $716,345.40. The expenditures
for all purposes, including the purchase and destruction of
$673,400 of the State bonds, was $2,201,073.50. Besides
the State debt, which will probably be extinguished within
ten years, there were in 1870 town, city, and borough
# Under-estimated.
CONNECTICUT,
1119
debts, for which bonds had been issued, to the amount of
$6,837,417, and debts not bonded of $2,969,486, as well as
$6103 of county indebtedness; making the entire debts of
the smaller incorporated communities $9,816,006. The State
has little or no direct foreign commerce; there are indeed
a few vessels which run to the West Indies, in connection
with a coasting-trade, and some whale-ships (though the
number is decreasing every year) from the ports of New
London, Mystic, and Stonington. The cod and mackerel
fisheries, on the coast of the British provinces, are also con-
ducted in part from the sound ports. The internal trade
and commerce of the State is very large. Being readily
accessible, and with but a few hours’ travel to New York
and its suburban cities, as well as to Boston and its su-
burbs, the agricultural, horticultural, manufacturing, fish-
ery, and quarried products of the State find a good and
quick market. Its numerous banks, savings banks, life,
fire, and accident insurance companies also promote its in-
ternal commerce, and have conspired to render it, in pro-
portion to its population and territory, one of the richest
of the States, if not the richest State in the Union.
Banks.-In proportion to its extent and population Con-
necticut has been more largely engaged in banking than
perhaps any other State in the Union. For many years
she supplied the West very largely with currency for mov-
ing its crops to market. The changes resulting from the
establishment of the national banking system, and the or-
ganization of national banks in most of the Western cities
and towns, have led to the abandonment of much of this
business, but the principal banks of the State, as well as
the private bankers, still do a large foreign business.
There were on the 1st of April, 1873, 80 national banks
in the State, having an aggregate capital of $27,000,000;
4 State banks of discount, with a capital of $1,450,000; II
trust companies with power of discounting, having an ag-
gregate capital of $2,263,890, and deposits to the amount
of $2,869,406.19. There were also 78 savings banks, with
assets amounting to $71,271,394.10, and 17 private banking
houses, some of them with large capital. Thus, the capital
on hand for banking purposes, aside from the deposits in
the national and State banks, and the capital and deposits
of the private bankers, was over $100,000,000.
Insurance.—Both life and fire insurance, and of late years
accident insurance also, have formed an important portion
of the business of the State. There were in July, 1873, 29
fire insurance companies incorporated by the State, and
agencies of 63 companies incorporated by other States, and
of 8 foreign companies. Of the 29 Connecticut fire and ma-
rine insurance companies, 13 were joint-stock companies,
including one steam-boiler inspection and insurance com-
pany, having a paid-up capital of $5,812,000, subse-
quently increased to $7,062,000. The gross assets were
$12,650,000, and the liabilities, not including capital,
were $6,761,013.57. The gross amount of risks in force
in these companies was $702,014,478, and of premiums
received thereon, $8,459,184.53. To these sums respect-
ively must be added $1,464,333 of risks on marine and in-
land business, and $46,133.83 of premiums thereon. The
mutual fire insurance companics, 16 in number, had cash
assets to the amount of $620,694.39, and had about
$63,000,000 of risks in force at the beginning of 1873.
There were in the State July 1, 1873, 8 life and 2 acci-
dent insurance companies, having a paid-up capital of
$2,069,864, and assets amounting to $80,090,576. The net
amount of outstanding insurance on Jan. 1, 1873, was
$461,019,045, of which $73,836,241 was insured in 1872.
One of these companies (the Connecticut Mutual) is, with
one exception, the largest life insurance company in the
U. S. 23 life insurance companies from other States also
did business in the State.
Population.—The growth of the State in population has not
been as rapid as that of some of the Western and Southern
States, owing to the limited extent of its territory and the
constant emigration of its citizens to other regions. Ac-
cording to the census of 1870, there were living, in that
year, 137,000 citizens of other States who were born in Con-
necticut, and the entire number who in the past eighty
years had migrated to other States exceeds the present
population of the State. In 1790 Connecticut had a popu-
lation of 237,946; in 1800, 251,002; in 1810, 261,942; in
1820, 275,148; in 1830, 297,635; in 1840, 309,978; in 1850,
370,792; in 1860, 460,147; in 1870, 537,454. The density
of the population to the square mile is 113.1. Of the en-
tire population in 1870, 265,270 were males, 272,184 fe-
males. The whole number born in the State or in the
U. S. was 423,815 (of whom 350,498 were born in the State);
of these, 207,014 were males and 216,801 females; 113,639
were of foreign birth, of whom 58,256 were males and
55,383 were females. Of the foreign-born population,
87,157 were from Great Britain and Ireland, I2,443 from
Germany, 10,861 from British America (mostly Canadian
Trench), 821 from France, 492 from Switzerland, 511 from
Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, 117 from Italy, 191 from
the West Indies, 154 from Austria, 99 from Holland, 95
from Bohemia, 83 from Poland.
Education.—The State has a high reputation for the ex-
cellence of its facilities for education. It has for its public
schools a school fund having a capital of $2,043,375.62, and
yielding an annual income of $132,943; a town deposit
fund of $763,661.83, yielding an income of $45,712.80; and
an annual income from local funds of $11,348.05. The
State treasury pays the annual sum of fifty cents per head
for the children of school age towards the support of public
schools, amounting in 1873 to $66,472; the towns raised by
School-tax in 1873, $642,194.11, and the districts, $485,525.56,
while from voluntary contributions and other sources
$60,268.49 more were added, making $1,442,669.01 re-
ceived for the public schools during the year, while
$1,528,440.07 was expended, of which $384,230.11 was for
new school-houses and repairs, and $888,871.89 for teachers’
wages. The number of children between four and sixteen
years of age in the State in Jan., 1873, was 132,943, and
the total cost of education annually per head $10.95. The
number of different scholars registered during the year
was 114,805; the number of children in other than public
schools was 9029. The average attendance in the public
schools in winter was 67,559; in summer, 58,113. The av-
erage wages per month of male teachers was $67.01; of
female teachers, $34.09. The number of school districts in
the State in 1873 was 1521; of public schools, 1638; of
departments in public schools, 2348, of school-houses, 1647;
of graded schools, 232. The average duration of the schools
in months and days was eight months and three days.
There is a State normal school at New Britain, which has
7 instructors, 185 students, and graduated 37 teachers in
the year 1872–73. Its annual expenditure is about $12,000.
Seven teachers’ institutes were held in the State in 1872–73,
with an average attendance at each of 113 teachers; usually,
nine are held; the expense is about $3000 per annum.
There are in the State, according to the census of 1870,
265 private schools and schools of secondary instruction,
including under this head boarding-schools, female semi-
naries, institutes, collegiate and rectory schools, etc. In
these there are 430 teachers and instructors, 140 males and
290 females; 7292 pupils, 3755 males and 3537 females;
and endowments and tuition sufficient to give them an an-
nual income of $164,220. There are also 6 parochial
schools, with 5 male and 28 female teachers, with 1539 pu-
pils (793 males and 746 females), the income of which is
not reported. There are three colleges in the State:1, Yale
College at New Haven, founded in 1701, which is really a
university in the German sense, having, in addition to its
classical course, faculties and schools of theology, law, and
medicine, an admirable scientific school with a large corps
of professors, a school of art, and a school of agriculture.
It had in the classical course, in 1873–74, 512 students; in
the theological seminary, 101; in the law school, 46; in the
medical school, 32; in the Sheffield Scientific School, 242;
and in the art school and as resident graduates, 70;
making a total of 955 students and 82 professors and
other instructors. 2, Trinity (formerly Washington) Col-
lege at Hartford, founded in 1823, and now entering, in its
fiftieth year, upon a career of great activity and usefulness
from its new site, its ample endowments, and facilities. In
1873 it had 89 students and about 20 professors and in-
structors. 3, Wesleyan University at Middletown, founded
in 1831, and now also liberally endowed. In 1872–73 it
had 189 students and 15 or 16 professors and instructors.
These three colleges are respectively under the care of the
Congregationalists, the Episcopalians, and the Methodists.
There are in connection with the Wesleyan University and
Trinity College the nuclei for post-graduate courses which
will probably develop into scientific schools. There is at
Hartford a theological seminary, also belonging to the
Congregationalists, called the Theological Institute of Con-
necticut, which has 5 professors and 29 students; and at
Middletown the Berkeley Divinity School, under the con-
trol of the Episcopal Church, having 4 professors and 31
students. The Baptists have a large and flourishing col-
legiate institute at Suffield, with a full corps of teachers and
pupils of both sexes. Of schools of special instruction
there are 3 in the State. The American Asylum for the
Deaf and Dumb at Hartford is the oldest institution of its
class in this country, and the mother of all the others. It
was founded in 1817 by Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet, and
has 25 instructors and other officers, and an average annual
attendance of about 230 pupils, and a total attendance
during the year of 280. Of these, 60 were from Connecticut,
the remainder from other States. The course of instruc-
tion includes a high class, with a course nearly analogous
to that of the first two years in our colleges, though with
a smaller measure of classical instruction. The whole term
1120
CONNECTICUT.
of instruction, including this class, is seven years. There
is also a home school for deaf-mutes at Paedyard, in charge
of Mr. Z. C. Whipple, where these children are taught ar-
ticulation by a process invented by Mr. Whipple; this
school is yet small in numbers. The blind persons of
school age in the State are provided for at the Perkins In-
stitution and Massachusetts Asylum for the Blind in Bos-
ton. The annual appropriation is $6000, but it is not all
called for. The usual number of pupils is about 25. There
is a school for imbeciles and idiots at Lakeville, Salisbury,
Litchfield co., which is aided by the State. It had 61
pupils in 1872–73, and has been very successful in develop-
ing the dormant intellects of these unfortunate children.
There are also two reformatory schools, established by the
State. The State Reform School at Meriden has been in
existence for many years, and is in a prosperous condition.
It had in Mar., 1873, 301 boys under instruction and train-
ing, 160 having been discharged and 147 received during
the year. The Connecticut Industrial School for Girls at
Middletown was opened in 1870. It had on April 1, 1873,
75 girls remaining in the institution; 34 had been dis-
missed during the year, and the same number received.
There are in the State two hospitals for the insane : the
General Hospital for the Insane at Middletown, which had
in the year ending Mar. 31, 1873, 336 patients, an average
residence of 265, and at the close of the year 271; and the
Insane Retreat at Hartford, an incorporated institution,
but largely aided by the State, which had nearly as many
patients.
Libraries.—The public libraries of the State are some of
them very large and of great value. In the ninth census
no report was made of private libraries in the State, though
some of them are known to be of great extent and value.
Of the 63 public libraries reported by the census marshals,
and containing in the aggregate 285,937 volumes, are the
State Library with 12,000 volumes; the library (or rather
libraries) of Yale College, containing 101,000 volumes, and
forming the most valuable collection in the State; the
library of Wesleyan University, containing nearly 30,000
volumes; that of Trinity College, about 15,000 volumes;
the Watkinson Library of Reference and the Connecticut
Historical Society’s library, containing together about
37,000 volumes; the Silas Bronson Library at Waterbury,
with 15,000 volumes; Otis Library at Norwich, with 7500
volumes; the library of the Theological Institute at Hart-
ford, about 8000 volumes; the Young Men’s Institute Li-
brary at Hartford, with 23,000 volumes; the New Haven
Young Men’s Institute Library, with 11,000 volumes; the
New Britain Institute, with 5000 volumes, etc. Of the pri-
vate libraries, the most remarkable are—the very large
library of Mr. George Brinley of Hartford, devoted exclu-
sively to American local and general history, and more com-
plete on this subject probably than any other in the U. S.;
the library of Hon. Henry Barnard, also of Hartford, mostly
devoted to educational topics, and more complete on that
subject than any other, public or private ; the library of
Hon. J. Hammond Trumbull, also of Hartford, on Indian
languages and literature; those of President Porter, of Ex-
President Woolsey, and of Prof. E. E. Salisbury, all of New
Haven, the last being very full on all Oriental languages
and science, etc.
Newspapers.-In 1870 Connecticut had 71 newspapers of
all classes, having an aggregate circulation of 203,725 copies,
and issuing annually 17,454,740 copies. Of these, 16 were
daily, having a circulation of 35,730; one was semi-weekly,
with a circulation of 800; 43 were weekly, with a circula-
tion of 107,395; 2 were semi-monthly, with 900 circulation;
7 were monthly, with 56,400 circulation ; 1 bi-monthly,
with 1150 circulation; 1 quarterly, with 1350. The daily
papers are, we believe, without exception, political; of the
weeklies, 5 are religious, 10 or 12 literary, and the re-
mainder political or miscellaneous; the monthlies are re-
ligious, scientific, and literary; the bi-monthly is theolog-
ical and literary; the quarterly scientific.
Churches.—The census of 1870 reports 826 church organi-
zations of all denominations, 902 church edifices, with
338,735 sittings, and $13,428,100 of church property. Of the
Baptists, the census reports 116 churches, 120 edifices,
45,150 sittings, and $1,378,400 worth of church property.
The Baptist “Year-Book” for 1873 gives 118 churches, 123
ordained ministers, 19,590 members, 108 Sunday schools,
with 1613 teachers, 13,835 scholars, and 16,555 volumes in
libraries. The contributions to benevolent objects, exclu-
sive of the support of the churches, pastors, and Sunday
schools, were $158,585.80; inclusive of these, about $290,000.
Of the Christians in 1870, there were 4 churches, 4 church
edifices, 750 sittings, and $6500 church property. Of the
Congregationalists, the census reported 290 organizations,
360 church edifices, 133,175 sittings, $4,728,700 worth of
church property. The “Congregational Quarterly ’’ in
Jan., 1873, reported 294 churches, 355 ministers, of whom
241 are engaged in pastoral work, 49,524 members, 49,952
scholars in Sabbath schools; benevolent contributions,
$300,622.05, besides $183,093.69 of charitable legacies.
Add expenses of home support, and the total would be
about $833,000. The Episcopal Church, according to the
census, had 139 parishes, 147 church edifices, 50,962 sit-
tings, and $3,275,534 of church property. The “Connect-
icut Register” and the “Episcopal Almanac ’’ for 1873 give
144 parishes, 174 clergymen, 11,046 families adherent,
15,969 communicants, 1595 Sunday-school teachers, 11,236
Sunday-school scholars, $326,513.84 of benevolent contri-
butions, with home expenses about $475,000. The Friends
have 2 organizations and 3 meeting-houses, with 350 sit-
tings and $1500 of church property. The Lutherans in
1870 had 4 churches, 3 church edifices, 1240 sittings, and
$23,500 of church property. The Methodist Episcopal
Church in 1870 had 184 churches, 188 church edifices,
63,975 sittings, and $1,834,025 of church property. Accord-
ing to the “Conference Minutes” for 1873, there were 204
churches, 185 travelling and 135 local preachers, 21,308
members in full connection, 2193 probationers, $1,893,050
of church property, $22,097 of benevolent contributions,
outside of church, ministerial, and Sunday-school support,
or with these about $230,000; there were 170 Sunday
schools, with 2837 teachers and 17,584 scholars. There
are also 2 Protestant Methodist and 7 African Methodist
churches in the State. The Presbyterian Church in 1870 had
7 churches, 10 church edifices, 3875 sittings, and church prop-
erty valued at $195,300. In 1873 there were 16 churches and
27 ministers of that denomination, of whom 16 were pas-
tors. In 1870 there were 1 Reformed (Dutch) and 1 Re-
formed (German) church in the State. In 1870 the census
reported the Roman Catholics as having 44 parishes, 34
church edifices, 26,418 sittings, and property valued at
$1,429,500. In 1873 Sadlier’s “Catholic Directory” reports
76 churches, besides 9 more building, 60 chapels and out-
stations. The diocese of Hartford comprises the whole
State, and is governed by a bishop, assisted by a vicar-
general. A cathedral is building at Hartford, and there
are convents and monasteries. There are also 77 priests, 1
male and 9 female academies, 18 male and 19 female free
parochial schools, with 8000 pupils, 3 orphan asylums, with
150 orphans, and an adherent population (somewhat exagge-
rated) of 140,000 persons. In 1870 there were 7 Second Ad-
vent churches and the same number of church edifices, with
1380 sittings, and church property valued at $8700. There is
1 Unitarian congregation, with a church edifice having 225
sittings, and church property worth $6000. The Univer-
salists have 18 congregations, 15 church edifices, 17 minis-
ters; the church edifices have 6850 sittings, and the church
property is valued at $309,100. The Jews have 4 synagogues
and 5 rabbis; the number of sittings must exceed 2000, and
the value of the property is hardly less than $120,000.
Constitution.—The present constitution of the State was
adopted in 1818, the State having previously been under
the charter granted by Charles II. in 1662. Repeated
efforts have been made to call a constitutional convention
for the revision of the constitution or the formation of a
new one, but these efforts have not as yet proved successful.
The constitution provides for perfect freedom of religious
worship; for the promotion of education and the various
interests of the State; for a legislature in two branches,
each town to be represented by one or two representatives
in the house of representatives, such representatives to be
chosen annually; the senate to be composed of not less
than 18 nor more than 24 members, to be chosen annually,
one from each senatorial district (the number of districts
is now 21); the election for both senators and represent-
atives, as well as for the governor, lieutenant-governor.
secretary of state, treasurer, and comptroller (all of whom
are chosen annually), is held on the first Monday in April,
and they assume office on the first Wednesday in May. The
house of representatives has nearly 250 members. The
commissioner of the school fund, the State librarian, and
the board of education are appointed by the legislature,
the last in classes, having four years to serve. The secretary
of the board of education is chosen by that board. Every
male citizen of the U. S. who shall have attained the age
of twenty-one years, who shall have resided in the State for
one year and in the town where he offers to vote six months,
and who is able to read any article of the constitution, is
entitled to the privileges of an elector upon taking the oath
prescribed by law. Convicts, idiots, and imbeciles are ex-
cluded from these privileges. The judiciary of the State
consists of the supreme court of errors, consisting of one
chief-justice and three or four associate judges, who shall
also be judges of the superior court; of a superior court,
over which the chief-justice and his associate judges pre-
side, together with six other superior court judges, who
are eligible for promotion to be judges of the supreme
court. These are all chosen for a term of eight years, and
CONNECTICUT.
1121
are eligible for re-election, but by the constitution they are
disqualified from further service when they reach the age
of seventy years. There are now also in the counties of
Hartford, New Haven, New London, and Fairfield courts
of common pleas, each presided over by a single judge.
The supreme court is the court of final appeal, and has
jurisdiction over all matters brought to it from the lower
courts on writs of error. The superior court has cogni-
zance of all causes, civil and criminal, which are brought
before it by suit, appeal, writ of error, scire facias, com-
plaint, petition, or otherwise, according to law, and may
try the same by jury, or otherwise, as the law may require,
and proceed therein to judgment and execution; but in all
criminal trials punishable by death the court must consist
of at least two judges, one of whom must be a judge of the
supreme court. The courts of common pleas havé concur-
rent jurisdiction with the superior court in regard to smaller
offences and civil actions up to a certain limit, being created
to relieve the superior court from too great a pressure of
small causes. Connected with this subject of the judiciary
are the criminal statistics of the State. The State prison
at Wethersfield has an average of 180 prisoners. The
buildings are old and somewhat incommodious, but the
general management of the prison is good, though stern.
The prison is somewhat more than self-supporting, so far
as ordinary expenses go, the excess of earnings over or-
dinary expenses being $3430 in 1872–73. There are ten jails
in the State, two each in the counties of New London and
Fairfield, and one in each of the other counties. To these
jails there were committed in the year ending Mar. 31, 1873,
2954 persons—viz. 2358 white males, 425 white females,
140 colored males and 31 colored females. Of these, 424
males and 63 females were minors; 759 were natives of this
State, 584 natives of other States, and 1611 of foreign
birth; 239 were strictly temperate, 1598 were reported as
moderate drinkers, and 1120 as habitually intemperate.
Of the whole number, 455 were committed for offences
against the person, 565 for offences against property, and
1934 for offences against society.
Representation in Congress.--The State has four repre-
sentatives in Congress, each congressional district consist-
ing of two counties—viz. first district, Hartford and Tol-
land counties; second, New Haven and Middlesex; third,
New London and Windham; fourth, Fairfield and Litch-
field. -
Counties.—There are eight counties in the State. Their
names and population in 1860 and 1870 were as follows:
Countries. Pop. in 1860. | Pop. in 1870.
Bartford 80,962 109,159
New Haven................................... 97,345 121,382
New London................................. 61,731 66,688
Fairfield........................................ 77,476 95,370
Litchfield...................................... 47,318 48,732
Windham ..................................... 34,747 38,535
Middlesex 30,859 36,117
Tolland......................................... 21,709 22,015
Principal Towns and Cities.—There are nine cities in the
State. Of these, seven have a population of more than
10,000 inhabitants—viz. New Haven, 50,886; Hartford,
37,825; Bridgeport, 19,876; Norwich, 16,653; Waterbury,
13,148; Middletown, 11,143; Meriden, 10,521; while New
London has 9580 and New Britain, 9480. The town of
Norwalk has 12,122 inhabitants. The following towns
have a population above 5000: Stamford, 91.38; Danbury,
8754; Derby, 8027; Greenwich, 7672; Enfield, 6322; Ston-
ington, 6320; Killingly, 5712; Fairfield, 5642; Vernon,
5447; Windham, 54.13; Groton, 5119.
History.—The territory now embraced in the State of
Connecticut, as well as the eastern part of Long Island, was
first explored by the Dutch from the neighboring colony
of New Netherlands, who laid claim to it, before 1620, but
The first
made no settlement within its limits till 1633.
English patent to the New England proprietors was grant-
ed Nov. 3, 1620, by James I., and included all the territory
between 40° and 48° N. lat., and extended from the Atlan-
tic Ocean to the Great South Sea. The patent of Connec-
ticut, granted in Mar., 1631, by the council of Plymouth,
embraced “all that part of New England in America extend-
ing in breadth 120 miles, as the coast lieth, from the Narra-
gansett River towards Virginia, and in longitude from the
Western Ocean to the South Sea.” This grant did not de-
fine the northern boundary of the prospective colony, but
that defect was remedied by the patent of Massachusetts,
which made their S. boundary a due W. line three miles S.
from every part of the Charles River. The same year (1631)
an Indian chief who was sachem of the region along the
Connecticut River sent messengers to Gov. Winthrop of
the Massachusetts Colony, and to Gov. Winslow of the
Plymouth Colony, inviting them to come and settle or send
emigrants to the Connecticut Valley. The invitation was
not immediately accepted, but the following year an explor-
ing-party from Plymouth ascended the Connecticut River
as far as the mouth of the Tunxis River at Windsor, and
there fixed upon a site for a settlement. The first trading-
house and fort in the State was erected by the Dutch, at
what is now known as Dutch Point in Hartford, June 8,
1633, Jacob van Curler, the agent of Wouter van Twiller,
the Dutch governor of the New Netherlands, having pur-
chased the land of Sassacus, sachem of the Pequots, and
landed on that day at the point with a small company of
Dutch soldiers. The trading-house and fort which he
erected was called the House of Hope, and was held by the
Dutch for several years, but was finally sold to the English
colonists. The same year (1633), somewhat later in the
season, a party from Plymouth, under command of Capt.
William Holmes, sailed up the Connecticut River with a
load of timber to build their trading-house at the mouth of
the Tunxis, the site selected by them the previous year.
The Dutch opposed their passage, and threatened to fire
upon them; but after a short parley they sailed on past the
House of Hope to their destination. Neither of these es-
tablishments, however, merits the name of colony, though
the trading-house at the mouth of the Tunxis was the nu-
cleus around which the Windsor colony subsequently gather-
ed. The first permanent settlement of colonists was made
at Wethersfield in the autumn of 1634, by a party of emis
grants from Watertown, Mass. These emigrants suffered
terrible hardships, and nearly perished in the cold and
severe winter of 1634–35. Some additions were made to
their number in 1635, and in 1636 colonies migrated from
Watertown, Dorchester, and Newtown (afterwards Cam-
bridge), Mass., and established themselves at Wethersfield,
Windsor, and Hartford. At the close of that year there
were about 750 inhabitants in the three towns. In 1635 a.
landing was made by a party under John Winthrop, Jr., at
Saybrook, and the next year a good fort erected and a gar-
rison stationed there. There was no permanent settlement,
however, until 1639.
ford, and Windsor, were for one year under the government
of Massachusetts, but in 1637 organized an independent
government, and immediately declared war against the Pe-
quot tribe of Indians, who had murdered without provoca-
tion about thirty of the settlers. They were promised as-
sistance from Massachusetts, but could not wait for it, and
a force of ninety men, under command of Capt. John
Mason, sailed from Hartford for Narragansett Bay on the
20th of May, 1637, and with the doubtful aid of some In-
dian allies, who were in great terror of the invincible Sas-
sacus, attacked and destroyed the Pequot fort, and, killing
400 or more of the Indian warriors, completely broke up
the tribe. In 1638 the first settlement was made at Quin-
nipiack (now New Haven) by a company of wealthy English
people, under the leadership of Rev. John Davenport and
Theophilus Eaton, afterwards governor of the colony. This
settlement, with the adjacent towns, Milford, Guilford, etc.,
remained a separate colony until 1665, when it was united
with Connecticut under the charter of 1662. The Saybrook
colony was united with Connecticut in 1644, and before
1653 there were flourishing settlements at Farmington,
New London, Middletown, Norwalk, Branford, and one or
two other points, as well as two considerable towns, East
Hampton and South Hampton, on Long Island, which be-
longed to their jurisdiction. For nearly thirty years they
lived under a constitution of their own framing, a perfect-
ly independent people. After the restoration of Charles
II. to the throne of Great Britain there came a necessity
for a royal charter, and John Winthrop, Jr., very adroitly
succeeded in persuading the monarch in one of his most
amiable moods to put his hand to the charter of 1662, which
embodied most of the privileges of their previous constitu-
tion. The charter included the New Haven colony, to which
they objected, and they were not formally united with the
Connecticut colony until 1665, when the fear of invasion by
the Dutch led them to consent to a union. In 1685–87 a.
strenuous effort was made by James II. to abrogate all the
New England charters, and place all the colonies under one
government, with a royal governor appointed by the Crown.
The demand was made for the charter of the Connecticut
colony by Sir Edmund Andros, the royal governor, in per-
son, in Oct., 1687; but after some debate in the general
court or colonial legislature at the evening session, the lights
were suddenly extinguished, and the charter conveyed away
secretly, and hidden in the hollow of an ancient oak on the
Wyllys estate, subsequently known as “the Charter Oak.”
Sir Edmund Andros took possession of the government,
and ruled very oppressively for a year and a half; but on
his deposition after the fall of James II, the old charter
was again recognized as the Supreme law of the colony,
and continued in force for 129 years thereafter. The general
court or colonial legislature, which had judicial as well as
W
The three towns, Wethersfield, Hart-

71 -
pare a statement of their grievances.
1122
CONNELLSVILLE-CONO.
legislative and executive functions, held two annual ses-
sions—one in May, the other in October. From 1665 to
1701 both sessions were held in Hartford, but in the latter
year it was ordered that the May session should be held
in Hartford and the October session in New Haven. When,
by the adoption of the constitution in 1818, it was ordered
that there should be but one session of the legislature an-
nually, it was agreed that it should meet the even years at
New Haven and the odd years at Hartford; and this ar-
rangement is still continued, though by vote of the State
in 1873, Hartford is to be the sole capital after 1874.
During the first and second French wars the colony of
Connecticut was very prompt to send her full quota of sol-
diers to the British and colonial armies, and in the Revo-
lutionary war, she furnished more men in proportion to her
population, and more aid in proportion to her wealth, than
any other colony. Twenty days before the Declaration of
Independence the general assembly of Connecticut in-
structed their delegates in the Continental Congress to pro-
pose to that body “to declare the united American colonies
free and independent States, absolved from all allegiance
to the king of Great Britain.” Governor Jonathan Trum-
bull (“Brother Jonathan ") was perhaps the most wise and
efficient of Washington’s counsellors during the war. The
State was the fifth of the States of the Union to adopt and
ratify the Constitution of the U. S., performing that act
Jan. 9, 1788. The events which preceded the war of 1812
were very destructive to the commercial interests of the
State, which was at the time very largely engaged in the
West India and the coasting trade, as well as in the fisher-
ies, and many of her wealthiest citizens were ruined by the
embargo and other acts and the Berlin and Milan Decrees
of Napoleon. The State, however, furnished its full quota
of men and means for the war, and did its whole duty. In
Dec., 1814, a convention of delegates from the several New
England States—all of which had suffered very heavily
from the war in their commerce—met at Hartford to take
into consideration the condition of public affairs and pre-
The convention was
composed of the ablest and best citizens of those States, and
entertained no disloyal purpose, but the speedy conclusion
of the war made any subsequent action on their part un-
necessary. In 1818 the State adopted its present constitu-
tion, by which all relics of slavery and of a State Church
were abolished. This constitution was at the time of its
passage one of remarkable liberality and wisdom. It now
needs modification in regard to the basis of representa-
tion, and perhaps some other minor matters. The State,
as we have seen, by its charter could claim a strip of land
nearly sixty miles in breadth to the Pacific Ocean, but as
this claim interfered with that of other States, an amicable
settlement was made, the State only retaining a tract of
land in Central and Western New York, and one in North-
eastern Ohio. The avails of these lands, which were sold
on the most liberal terms, were by the State consecrated to
the support of public schools, and form the basis of her
present school fund. Since 1818 the State has been gen-
erally prosperous and peaceful. She took an active part in
the war of 1861–65, and sent her full quota of men into
the field, as thoroughly equipped and supplied with all
that was needful to their efficiency as those of any State
in the Union. Her soldiers were distinguished on all the
battle-fields of the war, and her war-governor, Bucking-
ham, was one of the President’s most trusted counsellors. .
Politically, the State is very equally balanced between the
Democratic and Republican parties, and her legislation is
in consequence more cautious and honest than it would be
if either party were largely in the ascendency.
The arms of the State are three vines in fruit, two and
one, all proper. The motto is Qui transtulit sustinet—
“He who transplanted sustains.” .
Governors of the State.
Samuel Huntington..... 1785–96 |Isaac Toucey............ 1846–47
Oliver Wolcott............. 1796–98|Clark Bissell............. 1847–49
Jonathan Trumbull.. 1798–1809|Joseph Trumbull......
John Treadwell....---..... 1809–11|Thomas H. Seymour. 1850–53;
Röger Griswold............ 1811–13|C. H. Pond (acting)... 1853–54 *
John Cotton Smith....... 1813—18|Henry Dutton.......... 1854–55
Oliver Wolcott............. 1818–27|William T. Minor...... 1855–57
Gideon Tomlinson........ 1827–31|Alexander H. Holley 1857–58
John S. Peters.............. 1831–33|Wm. A. Buckingham. 1858–66
Henry W. Edwards...... 1833–34|Joseph R. Hawley..... 1866–67
Samuel A. Foote........... 1834–35|James E. English...... 1867–69
|Henry W. Edwards...... 1835–38|Marshall Jewell........ 1869–70
William W. Ellsworth... 1838–42|James E. English...... 1870–71
Chauncey F. Cleveland. 1842—44|Marshall Jewell........ 1871–73
Roger S. Baldwin......... 1844–46||Charles R. Ingersoll.. 1873–
The following tables show the electoral votes for Presi-
dent and Vice-President at each presidential election from
1788 to 1872, and the popular vote for President at each
election from 1824 to 1872. The record of the popular vote
previous to 1824 is not exact:
nati.
ºn Candidates for President and Vice-President. rºl
1788 Washington and Adams................................ 7 and 5
{{ Samuel Huntington of Conn. for W. P........... 2
1792 Washington and Adams............................... 9
1796 ||Adams and T. Pinckney of South Cárolina... 9 and 4
{& John Jay of New York for V. P.................... 5
1800 ||Adams and C. C. Pinckney of South Carolina 9
1804 |C. C. Pinkney and R. King of New York...... 9
1808 |C. C. Pinckney and R. King.......................... 9
1812 |D. W. Clinton and J. Ingersoll of Pa............. 9
1816 Rufus King and J. Ross of Pa...................... 9 and 5
{{ John Marshall of Virginia for V. P............... 4
1820 James Monroe and D. D. Tompkins............... 9
1824 |J. Q. Adams and Andrew Jackson................. 8
1828 |J. Q. Adams and Richard Rush of Pa............ 8
1832 |Henry Clay and John Sergeant of Pa............ 8
1836 |M. Van Buren and R. M. Johnson................. 8
1840 W. H. Harrison and John Tyler of Virginia. 8
1844 |Henry Clay and Theodore Frelinghuysen..... 6
1848 |Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore............ 6
1852 |Franklin Pierce and William R. King........... 6
1856 |J. C. Fremont and W. L. Dayton................... 6
1860 Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin...... 6
1864 |A. Tincoln and A. Johnson........................... 6
1868 U. S. Grant and S. Colfax.............................. 6
1872 |U. S. Grant and H. Wilson............................ 6
Popular vote for President from 1824 to 1872.
Rºn Candidates. Mºjº Minority.
1824 ||Adams and Crawford....................... 7,587 1,978
1828 Adams and Jackson........................ 13,829 4,448
1832 |Clay and Jackson............................ 17,755 11,269
1836 Van Buren, Harrison, etc................ 19,234 18,466
1840 || Harrison and Van Buren................ 31,601 || 25,296
Birney............................................ 174
1844 |Clay and Polk and Birney............... 32,832 || 31,784
1848 Taylor and Cass.............................. 30,314 || 27,046
Van Buren ..................................... 5,005
1852 Pierce and Scott.................. 33,249 30,357
Hale 3,160
1856 Fremont and Buchanan.................. 42,715 34,995
illmore......................................... 2,615
1860 ||Lincoln and Douglas........................ 43,692 | 15,522
Breckinridge and Bell...................... 14,641 3,291
1864 ||Lincoln and McClellan.................... 44,691 42,285
1868 |Grant and Seymour........................ 50,995 || 47,952
1872 |Grant and Greeley.......................... 50,638 45,880
L. P. BROCKETT.
Con’mellsville, a post-borough of Fayette co., Pa., on
the Youghiogheny River and on the Pittsburg Washington
and Baltimore R. R., 57 miles S. S. E. of Pittsburg. It has
a paper-mill and a woollen factory. It has also extensive
mines of bituminous coal, and manufactures immense
quantities of coke, which is called the best in the world.
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1292; of the town-
ship, exclusive of the borough, 1163.
Con’ner (DAVID), born at Harrisburg, Pa., in 1792, en-
tered the U. S. navy as midshipman in 1809, served with
great honor in the war of 1812–15, and in the Mexican war
as commodore. Died at Philadelphia Mar. 20, 1856.
Con’nersville, a post-village, capital of Fayette co.,
Ind., on the Whitewater River and on the Fort Wayne
Muncie and Cincinnati R. R., 67 miles N. W. of Cincin-
It has a fine court-house, seven churches, one na-
tional bank, and one woollen factory. It is on the Cincin-
nati and Indianapolis Junction R. R. It has two weekly
newspapers. Pop. 2496; of township, 1211.
Connoquenes'sing, a township of Butler co., Pa.
Pop. 1051. -
Con’nor, called also Gilt-head or Golden Maid,
Connor, or Gilt-head.
a small European marine fish, the Crenilabrus tinca. A
somewhat similar fish is the conner, blue perch, chogset, or
bergall of the Atlantic waters of the U. S. (Ctenolabrus
coeruleus). It is a tolerable fish for the table, for which it
is extensively caught. x
Co/no, a township of Buchanan co., Ia. Pop. 579.






CONOCOCHEAGUE–CONSCIENCE.
1123
Conococheague, a post-township of Washington co.,
Md. Pop. 1402. -
Co/no-cuſneus [a compound of the Lat. conus, a
“ come,” and cuneus, a “wedge”], a skew surface of the
fourth order, generated by a line moving on two directors,
pne of which is rectilinear and perpendicular to all gener-
ators, and the other is a circle usually perpendicular to the
plane which contains its centre and the other director. The
rectilinear director, and the line at infinity perpendicular
to the latter, are double lines on the surface. Its equation
is cºcº = y2 (a”— 22), where a is the radius of the circular
director, and c the distance of its centre on the axis of y
from the rectilinear director or axis of ac. This surface was
discovered by Wallis. -
Co/noid [Gr. kovoetóñs, “cone-like,” from kóvos, a “cone,”
and etSos, “form *], a skew surface, generated by the motion
of a line which remains parallel to a plane, and has a rec-
tilinear director. When the directing plane and line are
perpendicular to each other, the latter is a line of striction
on the surface. This line being taken as axis of 2, the equa-
tion of the surface may be reduced to the form z = f : 5.
whatever the nature of its second director. Should the
latter be also a right line, not in the same plane with
the first director, the conoid will be an equilateral parabo-
loid. The cono-cuneus of Wallis, already described, is also
a conoid; and another example is the skew helicoid, the
curvilinear director of which is a helix, having the recti-
linear director for its axis. The under surface of a spiral
staircase presents a familiar illustration of this conoid. A
conoid may be regarded as having three directors—one
curvilinear and two rectilinear; one of the latter being at
infinity. If the first of these directors be a curve of the
inth order, then the order of the conoidal surface will be
2m, and each rectilinear director will be a multiple curve on
the conoid of the mth order of multiplicity. The directing
plane being horizontal, the lines of level on the surface will
be the generators; the lines of greatest slope, since they
cut the former lines perpendicularly, will be projected into
circles on the directing plane. Formerly it was a custom
to give the name conoid to any solid generated by the ro-
tation of a conic section around one of its axes. In this
acceptation the term is obsolete, and has been replaced by
that of a quadric of revolution.
Co/non, or Ko/non [Kövov), an Athenian general of
high reputation, entered public life about 413 B. C. He
was one of the ten generals chosen in 407, and was defeated
by Lysander at Ægospotami in 405. He commanded the
combined fleets of Persia, and Athens which defeated the
Spartans at Cnidos in 394 B.C. He afterwards rebuilt the
long walls of Athens. His son Timotheus was an eminent
commander.
Co/non of Samos, a Greek geometer and astronomer,
was a friend of Archimedes, who expressed in one of his
works a high estimation of his sagacity. He lived at Alex-
andria, about 250 B. C. Conon invented the curve called
the spiral of Archimedes. His works are all lost.
Conoy, a township of Lancaster co., Pa. Pop. 1984.
Con'quest, a township and post-village of Cayuga, co.,
N. Y. The village is 12 miles N. of Auburn. Pop. 1821.
Conquest. See INTERNATIONAL LAW, by PREs. T. D.
Wools EY, S. T. D., LL.D.
Conºrad I., of Germany, was elected emperor in 911
A. D. He was previously duke of Franconia. He waged
war against Henry the Fowler and Arnulf, duke of Bavaria.
His dominions were invaded by the Magyars. Died in 918.
Conrad II., called THE SALIC, was a son of Henry,
duke of Franconia. He was elected king of Germany in
1024, and was crowned as emperor by the pope in 1027.
He is said to have been a wise ruler and the author of the
written feudal law of Germany. He died in 1039, and was
succeeded by his son Henry III.
Conrad III.2 of Germany, born in 1093, was the first
of the Hohenstaufens and a grandson of Henry IV. . He
was elected emperor in 1138, and waged war against Henry
the Proud, duke of Saxony. The party names of Guelph
and Ghibelline originated in this war. In 1147 he led a
crusade. He besieged Damascus without success, and re-
turned in 1149. He died in 1152, and was succeeded by
Frederick Barbarossa. (See GUNDLING, “Geschichte und
Thaten Kayser Conrads III.,” 1720.)
Conrad IV., son of Frederick II., emperor of Ger-
many, was born in Apulia in 1228. He was crowned king
of the Romans in 1237, and on the death of his father in
1250 assumed the title of emperor. . He was supported by
the Ghibellines, but the pope and the Guelphs recognized
his competitor, William of Holland. Conrad marched into
Italy in 1251, and took Naples. He died in 1254.
Conrad W., or Com/radin, the son and heir of Con-
rad IV., was born in 1252. The kingdom of Naples was
usurped by his uncle Manfred. Instigated by the pope,
Charles of Anjou waged war against Manfred and con-
quered Naples. Conrad was defeated and captured at Tag-
liacozzo in 1268 by Charles, by whose order he was be-
headed.
Conrad (CHARLEs M.), a native of Winchester, Va., was
taken in childhood to Mississippi, and thence to Louisiana.
In 1828 he was admitted to the bar, was U. S. Senator from
Louisiana 1842–43, member of Congress 1849–50, and sec-
retary of war 1850–53. He was a Confederate brigadier-
general and member of the Congress of the Confederacy
during the civil war.
Conrad (ROBERT T.), an American dramatist and ora-
tor, born in Philadelphia June 10, 1810. He studied law,
and became a judge of the court of general sessions in
1838. Among his works are a tragedy entitled “Aylmere,”
which was very successful, and a volume of poems (1852).
He was elected mayor of Philadelphia by the American
party in 1854, and judge of quarter sessions in 1856. Died
June 27, 1858.
Conrad (TIMOTHY ABBOTT), an American conchologist
and palaeontologist, born in New Jersey in 1803. He pub-
lished, besides other works, “ Fossil Shells of the Tertiary
Formation of North America,” (1832), and wrote “Palaeon-
tology of the State of New York,” which was published at
the expense of that State (1838–40). He was one of the
naturalists employed in the geological survey of New York.
Conrad Hill, a township of Davidson co., N. C. Pop.
1115.
Conºring (HERMANN), a learned jurist, born at Norden,
in East Friesland, in 1606. Among his works, which are
in Latin, is a “Commentary on the Origin of the German
Law” (1643). Died in 1681. *
Con'salvi (ERCOLE), CARDINAL, an Italian statesman
and reformer, born at Rome June 8, 1757. He became in
1800 chief minister of Pope Pius VII., and negotiated the
concordat with Bonaparte in 1801. He promoted art and
learning, and was an able diplomatist. Died Jan. 24, 1824.
(See CRíTINEAU-Joly, “Mémoires du Cardinal Consalvi.”)
Consanguin'ity [from the Lat. con, “with,” and san-
gwis, sangwinis, “blood”], in law, is relationship by blood, or
that subsisting between persons descending from a common
ancestor, or where one descends from the other. It is either
lineal or collateral. It is said to be lineal when one of the
persons whose relationship is to be traced is descended from
the other. It is said to be collateral when they are de-
scended from a common ancestor, and one is not descended
from the other. There are two principal modes of reckoning
collateral consanguinity. One method is to count the de-
grees intervening between the one farthest removed from
the common ancestor and such ancestor. Thus, the son of the
nephew of A on that system of computation is related to A
in the third degree, as being three removes from the com-
mon ancestor, the father of A. This is the method of the
canon and common law. The civil law reckons the degrees
from the one relative to the other, ascending, on the one
hand, from one of the parties to the common ancestor, and
then counting downward to the other. On that theory A
would be related to the son of his nephew in the fourth de-
gree. The civil law method is generally employed in this
country. In reckoning lineal consanguinity the two sys-
tems do not differ. Thus, the father and son are related in
the first degree, the grandfather and grandson in the sec-
ond. It frequently becomes necessary to resort to these
rules not only in considering the transmission of estates,
but in ascertaining persons who are disqualified to act as
judges or jurymen by reason of relationship.
Com/science [Lat. conscientia, from con, intensive, and
scio, to “know;” Ger. Gewissen], a word originally mean-
ing CoNSCIOUSNESS (which see), but now applied to the
moral sense, the power or feeling we have which enables us
to know whether an act or desire is right or wrong. (See
MoRAL PHILOSOPHY, by PREs. NoAH Port ER, D.D., LL.D.)
Conscience, Cases of. See CASUISTRY.
Conscience, Courts of, in England, called alsd
Courts of Requests, were constituted for the recovery
of small debts by special local acts of Parliament, in Lon-
don, Westminster, and other trading districts. They were
abolished with few exceptions when the county courts were
established.
Conscience (HENRI), a Flemish novelist, born at Ant-
werp Dec. 3, 1812. He passed six years as a common sol-
dier, and several more in poverty and in unsuccessful efforts
to obtain employment. His first work was “The Year of
Miracles, 1566” (1837), which was well received. In 1838
he produced “The Lion of Flanders,” “Jakob van Arte-
1124 CONSCIOUSINESS—CONSOLS.
velde” (1849), “The Poor Gentleman” (1851), and “Wal-
entyn '' (1866). .
Con’sciousness [Lat. conscientia ; Fr. conscience ;
Ger. Selbstbewusstseyn] is the state in which we are when
all or any of our mental faculties are in exercise. It is a
condition or accompaniment of every mental operation.
In metaphysical terminology it signifies the knowledge
which the mind has of its own operations. “We not only
feel,” says Cousin, “but we know that we feel; we not only
act, but we know that we act; we not only think, but we
know that we think; to think without knowing that we
think is as if we should not think; and the peculiar quality,
the fundamental attribute of thought, is to have a con-
sciousness of itself. Consciousness is this interior light,
which illuminates everything that takes place in the Soul;
consciousness is the accompaniment of all our faculties,
and is, so to speak, their echo.” That consciousness is not
a particular faculty of the mind, but the universal condi-
tion of intelligence, the fundamental form of all the modes
of our thinking activity, and not a special mode of that
activity, is strenuously maintained by Amédée Jacques, and
also by Mr. Francis Bowen and Mr. Tappan. This view
is in accordance with the opinion of Aristotle and that of
certain Schoolmen. “No man,” says Dr. Reid, “can per-
ceive an object without being conscious that he perceives
it. No man can think without, being conscious that he
thinks.” And as on the one hand we cannot think or feel
without being conscious, so on the other hand we cannot
be conscious without thinking or feeling. “Annihilate the
object of any mental operation, and you annihilate the
operation.” This view of consciousness, as the common
condition under which all our faculties are brought into
operation, or of considering these, faculties and their ope-
rations as so many modifications of consciousness, has of
late been generally adopted; so much so that psychology,
or the science of mind, has been denominated an inquiry
into the facts of consciousness. This view, however, has
many strenuous opponents, especially among recent writers
of the materialistic school.
Con’script Faſthers [Lat. Patres Conscripti, from
con, “together,” and 8cribo, scriptum, to “write ”], an ap-
pellation given to the senators of ancient Rome, because
after the expulsion of Tarquin, when Brutus added another
hundred to the number of Senators, the names of the new
members were “written together ” with those of the old,
and the whole body received the appellation of Conscript
Fathers.
Conscrip/tion [Lat. conscriptio, a “written list”], a
compulsory enrolment of men for military service. This
is the system by which the armies of France and some other
countries are recruited. The soldiers who are thus com-
pelled to enter the army are called conscripts. The con-
scription was established in France during the Revolution
of TY89. The number required for the service is drawn by
lot from the number of young, able-bodied men who are
not exempt.
Consecon, a post-village of Prince Edward co., On-
tario (Canada), on Weller's Bay, Lake Ontario, at the mouth
of Consecon Creek, has valuable water-power and extensive
fisheries. Pop. about 500. -
Consecra’tion [Lat. consecratio, from con, intensive,
and sacro, to “make sacred ”] is the act or ceremony of
giving a person or thing to the service of God. . It was a
widely-spread religious ceremony of the ancient world. In
the Old Testament we read of the consecration to the Lord
of the first-born of man and beast, and the dedication of
the Levites, etc. The custom, as regards places and things,
was not transmitted immediately from Judaism to Chris–
tianity. As soon as the persecution of the Christians
ceased, according to Eusebius, “the sight was afforded us
so eagerly desired by all—of the festivals of dedications
and consecrations of the newly-erected houses of prayer
throughout the cities.” The practice of consecrating relig-
ious edifices is continued to the present time. The forms
were at first simple, consisting of prayer, the celebration
of the Eucharist, thanksgiving, and benediction; but they
subsequently became more imposing, and the bishops, etc.
assumed the exclusive power of consecrating. The service
which sets apart bishops for their official work is especi-
ally designated as consecration.
Conservation of Force. See CoRRELATION of
Forces, by PROF. J. H. SEELYE, S. T. D. W
Conser’vative [from the Lat. con, intensive, and servo,
servatum, to “keep,” to “preserve”]. In politics, this
term is applied to persons who oppose reform, progress, or
radical changes in institutions or laws. In England the
party formerly called Tory is now termed Conservative.
Conserva’tor, an officer who is charged to preserve
the public peace or prevent and punish a breach of the
peace. In England the sovereign is the principal conser-
vator of the peace. The lord chancellor, the justices of the
queen’s bench, and the master of the rolls are conservators
of the peace throughout all parts of the kingdom, and can
commit breakers of the peace anywhere. Other judges
possess the power only within the limits of their own juris-
diction. i’
Conser’vatory [from the Lat. conservo, conservatum,
to “preserve’], in horticulture, a glazed structure in which
exotic plants are cultivated. It is distinguished from an
orangery by its having a glazed roof, whilst that of the
latter is opaque, and from a green-house by the plants being
in the free soil, thus growing from the floor, while in the
green-house the plants are grown in pots placed on shelves.
Conservatories are used for plants in a growing state during
the winter, and are therefore warmed according to the
temperature which such plants require. One of the largest
conservatories in the world is that erected at Chatsworth in
Derbyshire, England, for palms and other tropical plants;
it covers more than an acre of ground, and is above sixty
feet high.
Conser’vatory [Fr. conservatoire ; It. conservatorio;
Ger. Conservatorium], a school for the study of vocal and
instrumental music. These schools were first so called be-
cause they were designed to conserve the science and art
of music. They are of ancient origin, and were probably
founded by ecclesiastics for the purpose of improving the
character of church music. They were originally charity
schools, recruited from foundlings and orphans of both
sexes. The first conservatory was the famous one of Santa
Maria di Loreto in Naples, founded by Giovanni di Tappia
in 1537. Among the most famous conservatories of the
present day may be mentioned the Conservatoire de Mu-
sique of Paris (founded in 1784), those of Vienna (1816),
Brussels (1833), and Leipsic (1842). There are several suc-
cessful schools of music in the U. S. called conservatories.
Conshohock'en, a post-borough of Montgomery co.,
Pa., on the Schuylkill River and on the Philadelphia and
Reading R. R., 13 miles N. W. of Philadelphia. It has
several blast-furnaces, machine-shops, and rolling-mills;
also one national bank and one weekly newspaper. Gas-
pipes and water-pipes are made here. Pop. 3071.
Considérant (VICTOR), a French socialist, born at
Salins Oct. 12, 1808, was the chief disciple of Fourier. He
became the editor of the “Démocratie Pacifique * in 1845,
and a member of the National Assembly in 1848. He
wrote “Destinée Sociale” (3 vols., 1834–44). He after-
wards founded a colony called Reunion, near San Antonio,
Tex., but returned to France in 1869.
Considera/tion [Lat. consideratio , etymology doubt-
ful], mature thought, serious deliberation, meditation; also
motive of action, reason. In law, it is the material cause
of a contract, the reason which induces a contracting party
to make a contract. The leading distinction respecting
considerations is, that they are either good or valuable. A
good consideration is based upon relationship or natural
love, and is of avail only in an executed contract—e.g. a
deed of land. A valuable consideration either confers some
benefit on the promisor or causes some inconvenience or
harm to be sustained by the promisee. Under these
rules marriage is a valuable consideration. (See CoN-
TRACT, by PROF. T. W. DwighT, LL.D.)
Consignee. See BILL OF LADING and SHIPPING.
Consign/ment, in mercantile law, is the term applied
to goods which are consigned or transferred by the owner
into the possession of another, either as his own or as an
agent or factor for sale or for some other specified purpose.
The word is sometimes used to denote the act of consigning.
Consis/tory [Lat. consistorium, from con, “together,”
and sisto, to “stand ”], the place of meeting of the cabinet
of the Roman emperors; the name is also applied to the
council of cardinals, sometimes assisted by other prelates,
who attend in person or by proxy, which meets in the Vat-
ican to advise the pope in ecclesiastical and temporal affairs.
A court under this title for the regulation of discipline and
worship, composed of civil and ecclesiastical jurists, was es-
tablished by the Lutheran princes of Germany at the time
of the Reformation. The earliest was that of Wittenberg,
founded in 1537. The lower church courts of the Reformed
(“Dutch” and “German’’) churches in the U. S. are also
called consistories. r
Con’sole [etymology doubtful], in architecture, a pro-
jection like a bracket, used to support cornices or such
movable objects as busts and vases. It frequently has the
form of a letter S. -
Com’sols, a contraction of “consolidated annuities,”
is the common name given to the annuities of three per
cent. which the British government pays as interest on the
national debt. This debt was contracted by loans negoti-
CONSONANCE–CONSTANTIA.
1125
ated at different times and at various rates of interest. To
obviate the confusion which arose from the variety of
stocks thus created, they were consolidated into one fund,
kept in one account at the Bank of England. The Consol-
idated Annuities act was passed in 1757.
Com/sonance [Lat. consonantiq, from con, “together,”
and sono, to “sound”], a term in music applied to a har-
monious blending of sounds which so satisfy the ear that
no other sound is expected to follow. The effect of conso-
nance depends on the greater or less simplicity of the in-
terval formed by the combined sounds. Intervals whose
relative vibrations can be expressed by numbers from one
to six are considered consonant. Consonant intervals are
therefore the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and octave; from
which it follows that there is only one consonant funda-
mental chord in music—i.e. the common chord, being a
bass note with its third, fifth, and octave. The system of
harmony of the ancient Greeks was different from ours, as
they treated the third and sixth as dissonances. Their
name for consonance was our word “symphony,” and for
dissonance, “ diaphony.” As early as the fourteenth cen-
tury we find the important rule that two perfect consonances
following in similar progression are not allowable. . In the
sixteenth century, Zerlino ascertained the true mathemati-
cal proportions of the major and minor thirds. The exact
limit between consonance and dissonance is not definitely
fixed. -
Com/sonant, a letter which can be freely sounded only
when joined with another letter called a vowel. Conso-
nants are divided into mattes and liquids (or semi-vowels).
Mutes are those letters which may be said wholly to inter-
rupt or stop the voice when they occur at the end of a syl-
lable—in other words, when they are not immediately
followed by a vowel—as p, k, t, b, g, d. The liquids or
semi-vowels do not wholly stop the voice; they are l, m, n,
and r. The aspirates f, s, and th are sometimes classed
with the mutes, though they admit of the voice passing be-
yond them, so to speak, when they terminate a syllable, as
in if, etc. The sibilant 8 is also an aspirate.
Con’sort [Lat. consors, “allotted together,” from con,
“ together,” and sors (gen. Sortis), a “lot”], in Great
Britain, a term applied to the husband or wife of the reign-
ing sovereign viewed in a public capacity, as participating
to a limited extent in the sovereignty. Before the year
1857 the husband of Queen Victoria possessed no English
title, and no place in court ceremonials except such as was
conceded to him by courtesy. The title of prince consort
was conferred upon him in that year.
Conspir/acy [Lat. conspiratio (from con, “together,”
and spiro, to “breathe,” to “whisper”)], an agreement be-
tween several persons to commit some crime, as to kill a ruler
or deprive him of power. In law, it is an agreement of two
or more persons to carry into effect some unlawful purpose,
or to accomplish some lawful purpose by unlawful means.
It is a crime of which the true basis is the unlawful com-
bination, and may be prosecuted, though no overt act has
been performed. Statute law in some instances makes a
conspiracy a grave offence, as, e. g., to destroy a ship with
intent to injure insurers.
Con'stable [Late Lat. comes stabuli, “count of the sta-
ble,” or constabulus; Fr. connétable], the former title of a mil-
itary officer of the highest rank in France. The constable
rose gradually in importance until he became ex-officio com-
mander-in-chief of the army, the supreme military judge,
and chief arbitrator in questions of chivalry. Mathieu de
Montmorenci, who became constable in 1218, was the first
who had the supreme command. The office was abolished
in 1627. Napoleon I. appointed his brother, Louis con-
stable of the empire, and Berthier vice-constable. Under
the Restoration the dignity was again abolished. In Eng-
land the lord high constable was a personage of high rank
and authority until the office was abolished by Henry VIII.
A lord high constable is now appointed only on the occasion
of great state ceremonies, such as a coronation. In England
and the U.S. constables are inferior civil officers appointed
to preserve the peace, to arrest felons, execute civil and
criminal processes, etc. Some of the U. S. have an officer
called “constable of the commonwealth,” who is over a part
of the constabulary forces, the members of which are his
deputies. -
Constable, a township and village of Franklin co.,
N. Y. The village is about 60 miles E. of Ogdensburg.
Total pop. 1546. -
Constable (John), an English landscape-painter, born
in Suffolk in 1776, became a student in the Royal Academy
in 1799. He was elected a Royal Academician in 1829.
Among his works are the “Corn-Field” (1826) and the
“Walley Farm” (1835). Died Mar. 30, 1837. His works
are commended by Ruskin as “original, honest, free from
affectation, and manly in manner.” (See C. R. LESLIE,
“Life of John Constable,” 1843.) -
Con'stableville, a post-village of West Turin town-
ship, Lewis co., N. Y., on Sugar River, has four churches,
a good trade, and several manufacturing establishments.
Pop. 712. -
Con'stance, a fortified city of Baden, is on the Rhine
and the S. W. shore of the Lake of Constance, 35 miles
N. E. of Zurich. It is one of the oldest towns in Ger-
many, and was formerly, a free imperial city. It has a
magnificent cathedral, founded in the eleventh century;
also manufactures of silk and cotton goods and watches.
Here was held in 1414–18 an important council of the
Church. Pop. in 1871, 10,052.
Constance, Council of [Lat. Concilium Constanti-
mense], the seventeenth of the so-called oecumenical coun-
cils of the Roman Catholic Church, was convened by writ
of the German emperor Sigismund, and opened on All
Saints' Day, 1414, by John XXIII., one of the three
claimants of the papacy. There were present during
parts of the session, besides the emperor, seven patriarchs,
twenty-one cardinals, one hundred and fourteen bishops
and archbishops, besides many princes, nobles, and am-
bassadors from most of the Catholic powers and from the
emperor Michael Palaeologus. . Representatives were also
present from the principal universities of Europe. One
of the objects of this council was the ending of the schism
caused by the rival popes (John XXIII., Gregory XII.,
and Benedict XIII.). This object was accomplished by
deposing all three (1415), and choosing Martin W. in their
stead. The council also condemned the opinions of Wickliffe
and Huss, and cited the latter to appear before it (1414).
In the following year Huss was perfidiously burned at the
stake for heresy, at Constance, notwithstanding the 'im-
perial safeguard which he possessed. In 1416 his friend,
Jerome of Prague, met the same fate. The question of the
relative authority of the pope and of the Church assembled
in general council was warmly and persistently discussed
by the Council of Constance, without decisive results. The
reform of certain acknowledged abuses was also attempted,
with no great success. The forty-fifth and last session was
held April 22, 1418. -
Constance, Lake of [anc. Brigantinus Lacus; Ger.
Boden See], a lake of Central Europe, borders on Baden,
Bavaria, Switzerland, the Tyrol, and Würtemberg, 1290
feet above the ocean-level. Area, 184 Square miles. It is
about 40 miles long, and 9 miles wide at the broadest part.
The greatest depth is 912 feet. The Rhine enters this lake
near the south-eastern end, and issues from the north-west-
ern extremity. In 1770 the water rose in one hour twenty
feet above the ordinary level. This lake is said to contain
twenty-five species of fish, including salmon. Several steam-
boats ply on it.
Con'stans (FLAvrus JULIUs) I., born about 320 A.D.,
was the third son of the emperor Constantine I. On the
death of his father, in 337, he became the sovereign of
Italy, Africa, etc. His brother Constantine invaded Italy,
and was killed in battle in 340, after which Constans was
master of all the Western empire. He was defeated and
killed by Magnentius in 350 A. D.
Constant de Rebecque (BENJAMIN), an eminent
French political writer, born at Lausanne Oct. 25, 1767.
He studied at Edinburgh, where he was a fellow-student
of Erskine and Mackintosh, and afterwards in Germany.
In 1799 he became a member of the French tribunate, but,
having opposed the ambitious designs of Bonaparte, he
was banished from France with Madame de Staël in 1801.
He wrote in 1813 an able pamphlet “On the Spirit of Con-
quest and Usurpation.” He returned to Paris in 1814, and
was a member of Napoleon’s council of state during the
Hundred Days. In 1819 he was elected to the Chamber of
Deputies, in which he was a very popular leader of the
liberal party, and gained distinction as an able and witty
debater. Among his works are “Cours de Politique Con-
stitutionelle” (4 vols., 1817–20), a treatise “On Religion,
considered in its Source, its Forms, and its Developments”
(5 vols., 1823–31), and another in 2 vols. on the “Religion
of Rome, considered in its Relations to Greek Philosophy
and Christianity.” Died Dec. 10, 1830. . The style of his
writings is much admired, and he has been called a second
Voltaire. (See L. DE LOMáNIE, “B. Constant,” 1841.)
Constan’tia, a superior wine from the Cape Colony,
South Africa, produced upon the three Constantia estates,
12 miles S. of Cape Town. It is free from the earthy taste
which characterizes ordinary Cape wines. It owes its ex-
cellence to the highly alkaline soil, the choice variety of
grape employed in making it, the genial exposure of the
estates, and perhaps more than all to care and skill in its
preparation. There are white and red Constantia wines.
1126
CONSTANTIA—CONSTANTINOPLE.
Constantia, a post-village and township of Oswego
co., N. Y., on Oneida, Lake and on the New York and Os-
wego Midland R. R., 34 miles S. E. of Oswego.
is found in the township, which contains also Cleveland
and other villages. Pop. of Constantia village, 587; of
township, 3437. -
Constanti'na, a fortified city of Algeria, capital of a
province of its own name, and seat of a Catholic bishop, is
on a high hill surrounded on three sides by ravines; lat.
36° 24′ N., lon. 6° 8' E. It is over 2000 feet above the level
of the sea. It is surrounded by walls built by the Arabs,
and has a citadel, and a fine old Roman bridge across one
of the ravines. Here are manufactures of woollen cloth
and saddlery. Remains of the ancient Roman Cirta, which
was a great city of Numidia, are visible here. . This place
was besieged by the French in 1836; Oct., 1837, it was taken
by assault. Pop. in 1866, 35,417.
Con'stantime, a post-village of St. Joseph co., Mich.,
on the St. Joseph River and on a branch of the Michigan
Southern R. R., 94 miles by railroad S. W. of Lansing.
It has a national bank and a weekly newspaper. Pop. 1290;
of Constantine township, 2406.
Constantine (FLAvius VALERIUS AURELIUs), sur-
named THE GREAT, the first Christian emperor of Rome,
was born in 272 (some say 274) A. D. He was a son of
Constantius Chlorus and his wife Helena, and was originally
a pagan. In the reign of Diocletian he gained distinction
by his military talents, and became a favorite of the army.
He was at York when his father died in July, 306, and was
then proclaimed emperor by the army under his command.
Galerius, who regarded him with jealous enmity, granted
to him the title of caesar, and conferred the higher rank
of augustus on his own son, Severus. Maximian and his
son Maxentius assumed imperial power at Rome, so that
in 307 A. D. six men became competitors for the empire.
Constantine married Fausta, a daughter of Maximian.
After the death of Galerius (311), Licinius and Maximian
were masters of the eastern provinces of the empire, and
Constantine reigned in Gaul. In 312, Maxentius was de-
feated and killed by the army of Constantine, who then
entered the city of Rome and became master of all the
western part of the empire, including Italy and Africa.
On the eve of this decisive battle he is said to have seen a
sign of the cross in the sky, bearing the inscription: "Ev
roºrg vika (“By this conquer”). He afterwards treated
the Christians with increasing favor, and adopted wise
measures for the promotion of public prosperity and order.
In 314 he waged a short war against Licinius, who was
the sole emperor of the eastern provinces. This war was
followed by a peace of nine years, during which Constan-
tine devoted himself to political reforms, organized a bet-
ter form of government, and adopted a more humane code
of laws, which recognized Christianity as the religion of
the state. He renewed in 323 the war against Licinius,
whom he defeated near Adrianople. After another decisive
wictory he reigned over the Roman empire with undivided
power. He assembled at Nicaea, in 325 A. D., the first
general council of the Church, and moderately favored the
orthodox in the controversy against the Arians. He had a
son, Crispus, who was accomplished and popular. Having
been falsely accused of a crime by Fausta, his step-mother,
Crispus was put to death. Constantine selected Byzantium
as his capital, and enlarged or rebuilt that city, to which
he gave the name of New Rome or Constantinople—“city
of Constantine.” This was founded by imposing ceremo-
nies in May, 330 A. D. In the latter part of his life he
showed favor to the Arians, and was baptized by an Arian
bishop only a week before his death. The question is still
warmly debated whether the man, or only the emperor, was
converted. He died at Nicomedia May 22, 337 A.D., hav-
ing divided the empire between his three sons, Constantine,
Constantius, and Constans. He has a high reputation as
a statesman and emperor. (See EUSEBIUs, “Vita. Con-
stantini;” GIBBon, “Decline and Fall of the Roman Em-
pire . JosłPH FLETCHER, “Life of Constantine the Great,”
1852.
Constantine (or Constantinus) VII., emperor of
the East, surnamed PoEPHYRogBNITUs [Gr. IIoppvpoyévvm-
ros, i. e. “born to the purple” or “born in purple’], was
born in 905 A.-D. He was a son of the emperor Leo VI.,
who died in 911. Romanus Lecapenus usurped the im-
perial power in 919, after which Constantine passed many
years in retirement and study. He began to reign in 944.
|He wrote several works of some merit. Died in 959.
Constantine XIII., surnamed PALEOLOGUs, the last
emperor of Constantinople, was born in 1394. He succeed-
ed his brother, John VII., in 1448. The Turkish sultan,
Mahomet II., besieged Constantinople with an army of
250,000 men, and took it by storm in 1453. Constantine
was killed, fighting bravely to the last.
Iron ore ||
Constantine [Lat. Constantinus], Pope, a native of
Syria, succeeded Sisimnius in 708 A. D. Died in 715.
Constantine (NIKoDAEv1TCH), grand duke of Russia,
the second son of the emperor Nicholas, was born Sept. 21,
1827. He became grand admiral of the fleet and a favorite
leader of the old Russian party. In the Crimean war
(1854–55) he commanded the Baltic fleet and acted on the
defensive. He married the princess Alexandra of Saxe-
Altenburg in 1848. He was in 1862 governor-general of
Poland, but resigned in 1863.
Constantine (PAvLov1TCH), grand duke, the second
son of the emperor Paul of Russia, was born May 8, 1779.
He commanded a corps at the battle of Austerlitz (1805),
and displayed in several actions a courage bordering on
rashness. In 1814 he was appointed generalissimo of the
Polish troops and viceroy of Poland. When Alexander
died without issue in 1825, Constantine was the legitimate
heir, but he renounced the throne in favor of his younger
brother, Nicholas. In the reign of Nicholas he was viceroy
of Poland, and by his tyranny provoked the Poles to revolt
in 1830. Died of cholera June 27, 1831.
Constantino/ple [Turk. Stambool # or Istambool in
common language, and Constantinieh in documentary writ-
ing; modern Gr. Istampoli ; Gr. Kovaravruvétroxts; Lat.
Constantinopolis, i.e. “city of Constantine”], a celebrated
city of Turkey in Europe, capital of the Ottoman empire,
was originally called BYzANTIUM (which see). It is beauti-
fully situated on the Bosphorus where it enters the Sea of
Marmora, and in the province of Room-Elee. Lat. 41° 1'
N., lon. 28° 59' E. The site is a triangular peninsula,
bounded on the N. by an inlet of the Bosphorus called the
Golden Horn, and surrounded by water on all sides except
the W. Few cities can boast so magnificent a position;
commanding the two opposite shores of Europe and Asia,
it combines the advantages of security and great facilities
for trade with the choicest gifts of nature and exquisite
beauty of scenery. It occupies seven hills, rising one above
another as they recede from the water. This variety of
surface, with the numerous gardens, mosques, minarets,
and cypress trees, renders the external aspect of the city
very picturesque and imposing. The Golden Horn, which
is five or six miles long, and varies in width from one to
four furlongs, forms a safe and very commodious harbor,
which is sufficiently deep to admit the largest ships. As
the tide is here scarcely felt, the constant depth of the
water permits vessels to land their cargoes with conveni-
ence and ease. The Bosphorus, here nearly one mile wide,
separates Constantinople from Scutari, and the Golden
Horn separates the city from the large suburbs named Ga-
lata and Pera. Along the western border of the city proper
a lofty stone wall four miles long, and now in a ruinous
condition, extends from the Sea of Marmora to the Golden
Horn. This wall was built during the Byzantine empire,
and presents picturesque specimens of mural ruins. The
streets of the city are mostly narrow, crooked, and dirty.
It contains about 350 mosques, 180 hospitals, and numerous
Christian churches. It is the see of Greek, Latin, and Ar-
menian patriarchs. *
The Seraglio, the palace of the sultan, stands on the
shore of the Bosphorus at the N. E. point of the peninsula,
and commands a beautiful view. This palace, with its
gardens, groves, and governmental offices, includes an area
of nearly three miles in circuit, which is washed on one side
by the Golden Horn. The principal gate or entrance to
the Seraglio is called the Sublime Porte, from which is
derived the diplomatic name of the sultan’s court. Within
the precincts, of the palace is the celebrated Divan and the
Harem, with the “Garden of Delight.” The mean annual
temperature is about 56° F. -
Among the remarkable edifices are the “Castle of the
Seven Towers,” built about 1000 A.D., and now partly
ruined; the mosque of Solyman the Magnificent, a master-
piece of Saracenic architecture; the mosque of Selim II.,
and those of Mustapha III., Achmet, and Mahomet II.
The mosque of Achmet has six minarets, more than any
other in the world. Connected with the mosque of Ma-
homet II. are eight endowed academies. Near the Sera-
glio stands the celebrated and magnificent mosque of St.
Sophia, once a Christian cathedral, built by the emperor Jus-
tinian between 531 and 538 A. D. It is in the form of a
Greek cross, 269 feet long, and is surmounted by a flattened
dome, which is 180 feet above the ground, and is much ad-
mired. It is adorned by 107 columns of fine porphyry,
marble, and granite. A lofty minaret rises at each of the
four corners of this mosque. Among the antiquities now
visible here are the “Burnt Column,” erected by Constan-
* The Turkish name Istambool (contracted into Stambool) is
supposed by some a corruption of the Greek phrase eis Thu tróAtv
& the city”). More probably it is a corruption of Islambul
islam, “believers,” and bul, “multitude”).
CONSTANTIUS I.-CONSTIPATION.
1127
time the Great; the pillar of Marcian; vestiges of the
Boucoleon palace; the aqueduct of Valens; and the Theban
obelisk, on the site of the ancient Hippodrome.
The city proper is divided into separate quarters for the
Jews, Armenians, and Greeks. The Greek quarter, called
the Fanar, extends along the shore of the Golden Horn,
which is always covered with merchant vessels and numer-
ous small boats. A bridge of boats connects Fanar with
Pera and Galata; the latter is the residence of European
merchants, and contains a great number of Warehouses.
Pera is the residence of the foreign ambassadors, whose
palaces are situated on a hill. The numerous cemeteries
around Constantinople are among its greatest ornaments.
The city has an extensive foreign commerce, which is
mostly in the hands of the Greeks, Italians, British, French,
and Germans. The chief articles of export are silks, car-
pets, hides, wool, potash, linseed, madder, and valonea.
Among the imports are grain, iron, coffee, sugar, cotton
stuffs, woollen stuffs, metallic goods, drugs, gums, jewelry,
furniture, and porcelain. The arrivals at this port in 1870
were 23,483 vessels, the tonnage of which was 4,998,754;
departures, 23,151; tonnage, 5,091,871. Here are manufac-
tures of silk and cotton goods, morocco, leather, saddlery,
carpets, and meerschaum pipes.
It is stated that the city has been subjected to twenty-
four memorable sieges. It was taken by the crusaders in
1204, and by the Turks in May, 1453; but in nearly all the
other cases the siege ended in the success of the party which
defended the city. Pop., including suburbs, estimated at
1,075,000, about one-half of whom are Mohammedans,
220,000 Greeks, 250,000 Orthodox Armenians, 30,000 United
Armenians, and 55,000 Jews. (See KRAUSE, “Die Erober-
ungen Constantinopels,” 1870; CoNSTANTIUs, “Ancient and
Modern Constantinople,” 1834, translated by John P.
Brown, 1868.)
Constan’tius I., called Constantius Chlo'rus
(FLAVIUs WALERIUs), a Roman emperor, born about 250
A. D., was the father of Constantine the Great. The em-
perors Diocletian and Maximian chose Constantius and
Galerius in 292 A. D., and gave to each the title of caesar.
Constantius ruled over Gaul, Britain, and Spain, and be-
came emperor in 305, when Diocletian abdicated. Died
in 306 A. D. -
Constantius II. (FLAvius JULIUs), the second son of
Constantine I. and Fausta, was born at Sirmium in 317
A. D. He inherited, in accordance with his father's will,
the Asiatic provinces and Egypt in 337. He waged war
against the Persians, by whom he was several times de-
feated. He defeated Magmentius on the Drave in 351, and
in Gaul in 353. In 355 he gave the title of caesar to his
cousin Julian. He showed favor to the Arians. He died
in 361 A. D., and was succeeded by Julian.
Constella’tion [from the Lat. con, “together,” and
8tella, a “star”], a group of stars. From time immemo-
rial it has been the practice of observers to form the stars
into artificial groups, which have received the name of con-
stellations. They are represented by the figures of men,
animals, and other objects to which might be traced a fan-
cied resemblance. Before the invention of almanacs the
risings and settings of the constellations were looked to by
husbandmen, shepherds, and seafaring men as the great
landmarks (so to speak) of the seasons, and of the weather
which each season was expected to bring with it. Thus,
the risings and settings of Boötes, with the bright star
Arcturus, which took place near the equinoxes, portended
great tempests. The great heat in July was ascribed to
the rising of Canis the dog, with its bright star Sirius.
The appearance of Castor and Pollux was hailed as the
harbinger of fair summer weather. Many nations have
from early times arranged the stars into constellations, but
our momenclature is chiefly derived from that of the Greeks
and Romans. Eudoxus, who lived about 360 B.C., gave a
description of the heavens, with the names and characters
of all the constellations recognized in his time. This work
is lost, but a poetical paraphrase of it, written about a cen-
tury later by Aratus, is extant. It describes twelve zodia-
cal constellations, twenty in the northern hemisphere, and
thirteen in the southern. The “Almagest’” of Ptolemy
includes the preceding, with three additional constellations
—one northern and two southern. These are the ancient
stellar groups. Large additions to the nomenclature have
been made in modern times, owing to the discovery of con-
stellations in the southern hemisphere which were never
visible to the world known to the ancient authors. Some
stars of the northern heavens not included in the ancient
groups have been formed into new ones. Lacaille went in
1751 to the Cape of Good Hope, where he spent nearly four
years in making a catalogue of the southern stars and form-
ing them into constellations. (The principal groups will
be more fully noticed under their alphabetical heads.)
The following list comprises all the constellations now
generally recognized, although some of the more recent
ones are understood to be temporary. The first twenty
are known as Ptolemy’s northern constellations; next come
the twelve zodiacal, and then the fifteen southern constel-
lations of Ptolemy; the forty-eighth was added by Tycho
Brahe, though first named by Conon the Samian; the next
ten are from Hevelius. All after the fifty-fifth are S. of the
equator. Those from Indus to Apus inclusive were named
by Bayer; the next thirteen are from Lacaille, and the last
two from Royer. *
1. Ursa Minor, the Lesser Bear. [48. Coma Berenices, the Hair
2. Ursa Major, the Greater of Berenice.
Bear. 49. Canes Venatici (the Grey-
3. Draco, the Dragon. hounds, Asterion and
4. Cepheus. Chara).
5. Boötes, the Herdsman. 50. Lacerta, the Lizard.
6. Corona Borealis, the North-51. Lynx, the Lynx.
ern Crown. 52. Sextans Uraniae, Tycho's
7. Hercules. Sextant.
8. Lyra, the Lyre. 53. Cameleopardalis, the Gi-
9. Cygnus, the Swan. Taiſe.
10. Cassiopeia. 54. Vulpecula et Anser, the Fox
11. Perseus. - and Goose.
12. Auriga. 55. Leo Minor, the Lesser Lion.
13. Ophiuchus or Serpentarius, 56. Monoceros, the Unicorn.
the Serpent-bearer. 57. Indus, the Indian.
14. Serpens, the Serpent. 58. Grus, the Crane.
15. Sagitta, the Arrow. 59. Phoenix, the Phoenix.
16. Delphinus, the Dolphin. 60. Musca, the Fly.
17. Equuleus, the Little Horse. 61. Pavo, the Peacock.
18. Pegasus, the Winged Horse.[62. Toucan, the Toucan.
19. Andromeda. 63. Hydrus, the Water-snake.
20. Triangulum Boreale, the 64. Dorado, the Sword-fish.
Northern Triangle. 65. Piscis Volans, the Flying-
21. Aries, the Ram. SIl.
22. Taurus, the Bull. 66. Chamaeleon, the Chamaeleon.
23. Gemini, the Twins. 67. Triangulum Australe, the
24, Cancer, the Crab. Southern Triangle.
25. Leo, the Lion. 68. Apus, the Bird of Paradise.
26. Virgo, the Virgin. , 69. Apparatus Sculptoris, or
Sculptor, the Sculptor's
Workshop.
Fornax Chemica, the Ghem-
27. Libra, the Scales.
28. Scorpio, the Scorpion.
29. Sagittarius, the Archer. 70.
30. Capricornus, the Goat. ical Furnace.
31. Aquarius, the Water-bearer. 71. Horologium, the Clock.
32. Pisces, the Fishes. 72. Recticulum Rhomboidale,
33. Cetus, the Whale. the Rhomboidal Net,
34. Orion. 73. Coela Sculptoris, the Graving
35. Eridanus, the River Po. tools.
36. Lepus, the Hare. 74. Equus Pictorius, the Pain-
37. Canis Major, the Greater ter’s Easel.
Dog. 75. Antlia. Pneumatica, the Air-
38. Canis Minor, the Lesser Dog. pump.
39. Argo, the Ship Argo. 76. Octans, the Octant.
40. Hydra, the Water Serpent. |77. Norma, the Square-rule.
41. Crater, the Cup. 78. Circinus, the Compasses.
42. Corvus, the Crow. 79. Telescopium, the Telescope.
43. Centaurus, the Centaur. 80. Microscopium, the Micros-
44. Lupus, the Wolf. Cope. . .
45. Ara, the Altar. 81. Mons Mensae, the Table-
46. Corona, Australis, the South- Mountain.
ern Crown, 82. Crux Australis, the South-
47. Piscis Australis, the South- ern Cross.
ern Fish, 83. cº Noachi, Noah’s
OYe.
There have been many more constellations proposed, and
some others are needed, especially S. of the equator. In-
deed, were it not for the great difficulties attending a change,
and the seeming fixity of the present nomenclature, sanc-
tioned by the usage of ages, it is not unlikely that a new
arrangement of all the stars would be attempted, and many
of the present monstrous figures banished from the maps
of the celestial globe.
Constipa’tion [from the Lat. con, intensive, and stipo,
to “stow,” to “crowd,” referring to that state of the rectum
in which it is impacted with fecal matter], a condition of
the system marked by sluggish action of the bowels upon
their contents, due either to diminished secretion of the
juices of the mucous membrane or to a want of action of
the muscular coat of the intestines. Sedentary habits pre-
dispose to constipation, and so does too large a proportion
of animal food. Brown bread, ripe fruits, fresh vegetables,
and active exercise tend to avert this disorder. An abdom-
inal compress of cold water, covered with a flannel band-
age, sometimes proves beneficial. For many cases the use
of mild cathartics is necessary. They may be taken in
proper doses for many years without bad effects. The use
of nux vomica in small daily doses is often useful, and the
same is true of belladonna in some constitutions. It is
frequently advisable to employ enemata of warm or cold
water, and also kneading or careful manipulation of the
abdomen. But perhaps the most rational treatment is a
careful readjustment of the diet, and the adoption of ac-
tive habits of life. Ill-chosen and ill-cooked food, perhaps
the most frequent cause of intestinal troubles, should be
especially avoided. There is no doubt also that habitual
constipation may in some instances be overcome by the
persistent and systematic attempt to perform the impaired
function at a regular time each day.
1128
CONSTITUTION.
Constitution [from the Lat. con, “together,” and .
statuo, to “place”], in American law, a written statement
of the fundamental rules of government, either of a State
or of the United States. The word as here used has a
widely different signification from that which prevails in
England. There it simply means the leading rules of gov-
ernment, without reference to any formal statement. The
“constitution * thus consists of documents emanating from
time to time from the king or from Parliament, and of
traditions and customs. These may be collected in trea-
tises and reduced to a systematic form, but have never re-
ceived the legal sanction indispensable in America—that
of recognition by the nation as distinguished from Parlia-
ment. In this country “the people,” consisting in each
State of those who hold the elective franchise, are by pre-
scribed forms called upon at intervals either to establish
the constitution or to amend it. It thus has an authority
superior to that of the government organized under it.
One extremely important result is, that if any of the de-
partments exceed the limits marked out in the constitution,
the act is irregular and void. An illustration of the doc-
trine is found in an act of the legislature which transcends
the constitution; the judicial department will declare it
void. The courts have no such power in England. An
act of Parliament is commonly said to be “omnipotent;”
there, is no judicial power which can exercise the function
of arresting the regular operation of the act. The power
of the courts in the U. S. is, in the best sense of the word,
a “veto?”—forbidding a direction which has actually been
clothed with legislative forms from being carried into effect,
on account of its repugnance to the will of the people.
The further examination of the subject may be conducted
under the following general divisions; I. The mode of orig-
inating an American constitution; II. The relation be-
tween a State and the U. S. Constitution, and the office of
each; III. Principal provisions in American constitutions,
including “constitutional limitations.” ºr
I. The prevailing method of generating or amending
constitution is the “constitutional convention.” It is cer-
tainly not the only method, since it sometimes happens
that a constitution provides special and different modes of
amendment, as is the case with the U. S. Constitution
and some others. A distinction has been taken between a
“constitutional” and a “revolutionary” convention. These
do not differ necessarily in their internal character or in
their modes of conducting business, but in their origin. A
constitutional convention originates by orderly processes—
is the creature of law. A revolutionary convention is ir-
regular in its origin. Its ordinances may have a de facto
validity, and become law on receiving the sanction of the
people. The regular method is to have a law of the legis-
lature or a constitutional provision as a basis for the ex-
istence of the convention. When a body of delegates of
this kind is assembled by legal methods, its powers become
a subject of much importance, and are not yet definitely
ascertained. Some would hold that the convention holds
within its grasp all the powers which inhere in the “peo-
ple” that created it. In other words, it is sovereign.
This is startling doctrine, and will scarcely command gen-
eral assent. Another extreme view in the other direction
is, that it is a mere deliberative body, having power to dis-
cuss propositions, to agree upon them, and to recommend
them for adoption. Under this view the convention is
but little more than a debating society, with very limited
powers for preserving order or securing itself from the in-
trusion of strangers. The true view would seem to be that
while the convention is itself acting in subordination to
law, yet it has, as incidental to the accomplishment of its
purposes, such powers as are necessary to carry them into
effect. It may accordingly preserve order, punish con-
tempts of its authority, provide for submission to the vote
of the people of its proposed ordinances, and do such other
acts as reasonably serve to make deliberation free and com-
plete, and also to secure the full expression of the popular
will. There are cases where the constitution of the State
itself or the act of the legislature provides for the calling
of a convention in a prescribed manner and with specified
powers. While the restrictions of a constitution must be
accepted as binding, it may well be doubted whether an act
of the legislature can deprive a convention sanctioned by
the people of powers which have been already referréd to
as incidental to its complete working.
The common method of transacting business is to parcel
out among different standing committees the various topics
to be provided for, such as a committee on “the Bill
of Rights,” “the Judiciary,” “the Legislative Depart-
ment,” etc. These committees, after due consideration of
the subjects entrusted to them, report to the convention,
when the matter is taken up by the entire body, discussed,
approved, or rejected. (For detailed information see JAME-
SON, “On Constitutional Conventions.”) The debates in
.tion.
conventions are frequently published in a permanent form,
and contain much information of great value on legal and
constitutional topics. (Reference may be made to the
“Madison Papers,” containing debates on the U. S. Con-
stitution, ELLIoTT's “Debates,” and those published in New
York, Virginia, Massachusetts, Illinois, and Pennsylvania.)
II. The Relation between a State and the U. S. Constitu-
tion, and the office of each.--A State constitution is adopted
to regulate the action of the various departments of the
government and to secure the rights of the people. It is
a common statement that a State, government has all the
powers possessed by the English Parliament, except so far
as it is restrained either by the State or national constitu-
The object of a State constitution is not so much to
confer power, as it is to restrict and define that which al-
ready exists. It is to subject the will of the people to pre-
scribed forms, which cannot be overcome by an ordinary
act of legislation, but only by an amendment of the con-
stitution itself. On the other hand, the U. S. government
is called into existence by a written instrument. It has no
powers except those which are contained within it, either
in express terms or by reasonable implication. The acts
done under its legitimate powers, such as the laws of Con-
gress or treaties with foreign nations, are the supreme law
of the land, and all State laws or State constitutions are so
far subordinate. It is plain, however, that a State consti-
tution or law may be in conflict with some provision of
the U. S. Constitution or law or treaty, or an act of Con-
gress may trench upon legitimate State authority. There
must be some power entrusted with the function of decid-
ing these questions in such a way as to keep the two gov-
ernments within their proper sphere of action. This power
appertains to the Supreme Court of the U. S., and in the
exercise of its appellate jurisdiction it may review the de-
cisions of State courts for this purpose, under clauses of the
“judiciary acts” of Congress passed under the provisions
of the Constitution. It thus becomes the final interpreter
of the Constitution, and may declare a State law or consti-
tutional provision void as being repugnant to the U. S. Con-
stitution or the laws of Congress or treaties with foreign
powers. So, when an act of Congress is not warranted by
constitutional rules, it will be declared void. In this way the
complex system of government works harmoniously, sound
judgment dictating that the rights of the States should be
preserved by the court with the same jealous and scrupu-
lous care as those of the U. S. The court cannot exercise
this power by the promulgation of an edict or ordinance,
but only through the medium of a “case” or controversy
between litigating parties. In deciding the case it may
proceed upon principles which become a rule for the future,
and a body of constitutional law is thus formed which either
truly expounds the Constitution or departs from it. If an .
error be committed, it can only be rectified by a subsequent
act of the court overruling the decision or by an amend-
ment of the Constitution. Another point may be adverted
to. A State law may be opposed to a State constitution.
The duty of deciding this point regularly devolves upon
the courts of the particular State, and the U. S. court fol-
lows their lead. However, having once acceded to the
State interpretation, if that be subsequently reversed in
the State court, it will not feel bound to change its view,
but may adhere to the first construction. There is thus to
be collected from the decisions of State courts a mass of
what may be called “State constitutional law.” Much of
this is special in its nature, having but little value beyond
State limits. Other parts of it are general in their cha-
racter, while some portions of it are coincident with decis-
ions in the U. S. court, as in some instances the same re-
strictions are found in both instruments. -
III. It is not intended under this head to advert to the
general scheme of the various State and U. S. constitutions.
The text of the latter is given hereafter in full. (See CoN-
STITUTION OF THE U. S.) Reference will only be made to
such provisions in the nature of restrictions as are of a gen-
eral nature. These are restrictions upon unsound legis-
lation, such as prohibitions of bills of attainder and ex-
post facto laws, or laws impairing the obligation of con-
tracts; some of the States in the same spirit prohibit di-
vorces by the legislature. Or they may be limitations upon
legislation opposed to the spirit of American institutions.
Under this head may be ranked prohibitions against grant-
ing titles of nobility. There are also limitations for the
protection of individual rights addressed to all departments
of government. They tend to secure liberty of speech and
of the press, religious freedom, to prevent deprivation of
rights except through orderly processes in courts of justice,
including trial by jury; also to prevent renewed trials for
the same offence, to check excessive punishments, etc. A
number of such provisions are found in the earlier amend-
ments to the U. S. Constitution. It is an important re-
mark that these were only intended to bind the action of
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.
1129
Congress or other departments of the general government.
For this reason like clauses are inserted in the State con-
stitutions. The last three amendments (thirteenth, four-
teenth, and fifteenth) are operative upon the States as well
as upon Congress. Many of the provisions now considered
are taken from the English law, and in the very words of
statutes or text-writers. They thus become fundamental
law in the sense in which they were used in the country
whence they were derived. The last three amendments of
the U. S. Constitution were especially intended to secure
rights to citizens of African descent, though not confined
to them. (See CITIZEN.) Fundamental provisions of this
sort, when considered together, are frequently termed a
“Bill of Rights.” (See BILL OF RIGHTS.) There is in some
instances a tendency to insert in the State constitutions
matters which are more properly the subject of legislation.
Sometimes a political party desires to make its policy on a
question like that of internal improvements a permanent
one, and secures to that end a provision in the constitution;
or perhaps legislatures prove themselves to be unwise or
even corrupt, and it is thought well to reduce their capacity
to do mischief by shearing them of their legitimate powers.
Provisions framed to accomplish such objects do not long
prevail, and a reaction in public sentiment soon leads to
an amendment of the constitution. The better view is,
that constitutions should "only deal with fundamental law.
When legislators are ignorant or vicious, the true remedy
is at the ballot-box, where the voters may show their will
to have more suitable men. (See on the general subject
CooDEY, “On Constitutional Limitations;” Hough’s “Col-
lection of State Constitutions;” also the same author's
“Annotated New York Constitution of 1846;” STORY, “On
, the U. S. Constitution;” KENT’s “Commentaries;” and the
treatises of RAWLE, SARGENT, and PASCHAL. The most
complete view of the principles governing the whole sub-
ject may be obtained from the opinions written by the
judges of the Supreme Court of the U. S. in deciding spe-
cific cases involving the construction of the Constitution.
These are collected in the reports of DALLAs, CRANCH,
WHEATON, PETERs, HowARD, BLAck, WALLACE, etc. Ab-
stracts of the points decided may be found in BRIGHTLY's
“Digest" and ABBOTT's “National Digests.” These works
may be used for easy reference to the volumes of the reports
above named. Full expositions of questions arising under .
the various State constitutions will in like manner be found
in the published reports of the decisions of the courts of
the respective States.) T. W. DWIGHT.
Constitution of the United States, the funda-
mental or organic law of the union of the States, thereby
united. This, with all acts of the States in Congress as-
sembled, and all treaties made in pursuance of its pro-
visions, constitutes the supreme law of the land throughout
the Union. The first Constitution of the U. S. was the
Articles of Confederation, adopted by the States during the
war for their independence. (See CoNFEDERATION, ARTI-
cLEs of ; also see CURTIs, “History Constitution U. S.,” p.
139; SPARKs, “Writings of Washington,” letter to Henry
Lee, 22d Sept., 1788, to Benjamin Lincoln, 26th Oct., 1788,
and to James Monroe, 22d Feb., 1789.) The first Articles
proving inefficient for the accomplishment of the objects
of the Union, mainly upon the grounds that they conferred
no power upon the central head to regulate commerce with
foreign nations, nor to act directly upon the citizens of the
several States respectively in the collection of the quotas
levied upon the States to meet the public expenditures and
to sustain the public credit, etc., the Congress, being urged
by appeals from several quarters, took up the subject of
amendment and general revision on the 21st of Feb., 1787,
and then came to the following resolution upon it:
“Resolved, That, in the opinion of Congress, it is expe-
dient that, on the second Monday in May next, a conven-
tion of delegates, who shall have been appointed by the
several States, be held at Philadelphia, for the sole and ,
express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation,
and reporting to Congress and the several State legislatures
such alterations and provisions therein as shall, when
agreed to in Congress and confirmed by the States, render
the Federal Constitution adequate to the exigencies of
government and the preservation of the Union.” (See
ELLIOTT's “Debates on the Federal Constitution,” vol. i.,
. 120. -
p It, º under this resolution of Congress, and in response
to it by eleven of the States in choosing and sending dele-
gates, that the ever-memorable Federal Convention assem-
bled in Philadelphia the 14th of May, 1787. Each of the
old thirteen States then composing the Union was repre-
sented in it, except Rhode Island. George Washington,
almost universally styled the “Father of his Country,” was
unanimously chosen president of the convention. As a
whole, it was unquestionably the ablest body of jurists,
legislators, and statesmen that had ever assembled on the
continent of America. The convention remained in session
from the 14th of May till the 17th of September ensuing.
Their entire deliberations and proceedings were with closed
doors. The journal of these proceedings was not published
until over forty years afterwards. The actual and practi-
cal result, however, of their labors in the execution of the
high trust committed to them was immediately communi-
cated to Congress, and, being approved by that body, was
speedily communicated to the respective States. This was
their grand work in framing and proposing that matchless
system of Federal government set forth and embodied in
the new Constitution for the government of the U. S. of
America, which was adopted and ratified by eleven States
before the close of the year 1788; so that it went into opera-
tion between the States ratifying at the time appointed in
1789. The other two, North Carolina and Rhode Island,
adopted and ratified it in less than two years afterwards.
The last of the old thirteen which came into the Union, so
remodelled in its Federal structure, was Rhode Island.
Several features in this new form and constitution of gov-
ernment for separate states and communities are without a
parallel in ancient or modern times. It was in contempla–
tion of one of these peculiar features that the learned De
Tocqueville, a profound philosopher of France, and one thor-
oughly versed in the science of politics, made the following
commentary : “This Constitution, which may at first be
confounded with the federal constitutions which have pre-
ceded it, rests, in truth, upon a wholly novel theory, which
may be considered as a great discovery in modern political
science. In all the confederations which preceded the
American Constitution of 1789 the allied States, for a com-
mon object, agreed to obey the injunctions of a federal gov-
ernment, but they reserved to themselves the right of or-
daining and enforcing the laws of the union. The Amer-
ican States which combined in 1789 agreed that the Federal
government should not only dictate, but should execute, its
own enactments. In both cases the right is the same, but
the exercise of the right is different, and this difference pro-
duced the most momentous consequences.” (See DE TOCQUE-
VILLE’s “Democracy in America,” vol. i., p. 198.)
It was in view of the same peculiar, specific difference
between the Constitution of the Federal republic of the U. S.
and that of all others of a similar general type which caused
Lord Brougham, in his “Political Philosophy,” thus to
speak of the wonderful machinery of the government of the
U. S. : “It is,” says he (vol. iii., p. 336), “not at all a re-
finement that a federal union should be formed ; this is the
natural result of men's joint operations in a very rude state
of society. But the regulation of such a union upon pre-
established principles, the formation of a system of govern-
ment and legislation in which the different subjects shall
be, not individuals, but States, the application of legisla-
tive principles to such a body of States, and the devising
means for keeping its integrity as a federacy, while the
rights and powers of the individual States are maintained
entire, is the very greatest refinement in social policy to
which any state of circumstances has ever given rise, or to
which any age has ever given birth.”
The following is the text of the new Constitution pro-
posed by the Convention of 1787, and adopted by a number
of the States sufficient for it to go into operation in 1789;
beginning with the preamble, and ending with the last of
the Amendments. A. H. STEPHENs.
CoNSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. We, the peoplo
of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union,
establish justice, ensure domestic tranquillity, provide for
the common defence, promote the general welfare, and se-
cure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity,
do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United
States of America. º
ARTICLE I., Sec. 1. All legislative powers herein granted
shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which
shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.
Sec. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed
of members chosen every second year by the people of the
several States, and the electors in each State shall have the
qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous
branch of the State legislature.
No person shall be a representative who shall not have
attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven .
years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when
elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be
chosen.
Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned
among the several States which may be included within
this Union according to their respective. numbers, which
shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free
persons, including those bound to service for a term of
years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all
other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within
three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the
1130 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.
United States, and within every subsequent term of ten
years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The
number of representatives shall not exceed one for every
thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one rep-
resentative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the
State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three,
Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Planta-
tions one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four,
Pennsylvania, eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia
ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia
three. g
When vacancies happen in the representation from any
State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of
election to fill such vacancies.
The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker
and other officers; and shall have the sole power of im-
peachment.
Sec. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be com-
posed of two senators from each State, chosen by the legis-
lature thereof, for six years; and each senator shall have
One vote.
Immediately after they shall be assembled in conse-
quence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally
as may be into three classes. . The seats of the senators of
the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the
second year, of the second class at the expiration of the
fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the
sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second
year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise,
during the recess of the legislature of any State, the execu-
tive thereof may make temporary appointments until the
next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such
vacancies.
No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained
to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of
the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an
inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.
The Vice-President of the United States shall be president
of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally
divided.
The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a
president pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President,
or when he shall exercise the office of President of the
United States.
The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeach-
ments; when sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath
or affirmation. When the President of the United States is
tried, the Chief-Justice shall preside; and no person shall
be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the
members present.
Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend fur-
ther than to removal from office, and disqualification to
hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the
United States; but the party convicted shall nevertheless
be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and
punishment, according to law. -
Sec. 4. The times, places, and manner of holding elec-
tions for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in
each State by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may
at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except
as to the places of choosing senators.
The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year,
and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December,
unless they shall, by law, appoint a different day.
Sec. 5. Each house shall be the judge of the elections,
returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a ma-
jority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business;
but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and
may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent
members, in such manner and under such penalties as each
house may provide.
Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings,
punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the
concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member.
Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and
from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as
may in their judgment require secresy, and the yeas and
nays of the members of either house on any question shall,
at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the
journal.
Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall,
without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than
three days, nor to any other place than that in which the
two houses shall be sitting.
Sec. 6. The senators and representatives shall receive a
compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law,
and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They
shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the
peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at
the session of their respective houses, and in going to and
returning from the same; and for any speech or debate
in either house they shall not be questioned in any other
place.
No senator or representative shall, during the time for
which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under
the authority of the United States, which shall have been
created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased
during such time; and no person holding any office under
the United States shall be a member of either house during
his continuance in office.
Sec. 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the
House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or
concur with amendments, as on other bills.
Every bill which shall have passed the House of Repre-
sentatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be
presented to the President of the United States; if he
approve, he shall sign it; but if not, he shall return it, with
his objections, to that house in which it shall have origi-
mated, who shall enter the objections at large on their jour-
nal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsidera-
tion two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it
shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other
house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered; and if
approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a
law. But in all such cases, the votes of both houses shall
be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the per-
sons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the
journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be
returned by the President within ten days (Sunday except-
ed) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall
be a law in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the
Congress by their adjournment prevent its return; in which
case it shall not be a law.
Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence
of the Senate and the House of Representatives may be
necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be
presented to the President of the United States; and before
the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or,
being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds
of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to
the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.
Sec. 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect
taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and pro-
vide for the common defence and general welfare of the
United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be
uniform throughout the United States;
To borrow money on the credit of the United States;
To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among
the several States, and with the Indian tribes; º:
To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uni-
form laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the
United States;
To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign
coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures;
To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the secu-
rities and current coin of the United States;
To establish post-offices and post-roads;
To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by
securing for limited times, to authors and inventors, the ex-
clusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;
To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;
To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on
the high seas, and offences against the law of nations;
To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, an
make rules concerning captures on land and water; -
To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of
money to that use shall be for a longer term than two
years;
To provide and maintain a navy;
To make rules for the government and regulation of the
land and naval forces; -
To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the
laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel inva-
Slons;
To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the
militia, and for governing such part of them as may be em-
ployed in the service of the United States, reserving to the
States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the
authority of training the militia according to the discipline
prescribed by Congress;
To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever
over such district (not exceeding ten miles Square) as may,
by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Con-
gress, become the seat of the government of the United
States, and to exercise like authority over all places pur-
chased by the consent of the legislature of the State in
which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, maga-
zines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings; and
To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for
carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other
powers vested by this constitution in the government of the
United States, or in any department or officer thereof.
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.
1131
Sec. 9. The migration or importation of such persons as
any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit
shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one
thousand eight hundred and eight; but a tax or duty may be
imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for
each person.
The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be
suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the
public safety may require it.
No bill of attainder or ea: post facto law shall be passed.
No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in
proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore di-
rected to be taken. -
No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any
State.
No preference shall be given by any regulation of com-
merce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of an-
other; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be
obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another.
No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in con-
sequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular
statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of
all public money shall be published from time to time.
No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States;
and no person holding any office of profit or trust under
them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of
any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind what-
ever, from any king, prince, or foreign state.
Sec. 10. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or
confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin
money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and
silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of
attainder, eac post facto law, or law impairing the obligation
of contracts, or grant any title of nobility.
No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay
any impost or duties on imports or exports, except what
may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection
laws; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid
by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of
the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall
be subject to the revision and control of the Congress.
No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any
duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of
peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another
State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless
actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not
admit of delay.
ARTICLE II., Sec. I. The executive power shall be vested
in a President of the United States of America. He shall
hold his office during the term of four years, and, together
with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected
as follows:
Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legisla-
ture thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the
whole number of senators and representatives to which the
State may be entitled in the Congress; but no senator or .
representative, or persons holding an office of trust or profit
under the United States, shall be appointed an elector.”
The Congress may determine the time of choosing the
electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes;
which day shall be the same throughout the United States.
No person, except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of
the United States at the time of the adoption of this con-
stitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither
shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have
attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen
years resident within the United States.
In case of the removal of the President from office, or of
his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers
and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the
Vice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for the
case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the
President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall
then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly,
until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.
The President shall, at stated times, receive for his ser-
vices a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor
diminished during the period for which he shall have been
elected, and he shall not receive within that period any
other emolument from the United States, or any of them.
Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take
the following oath or affirmation: “I do solemnly swear (or
affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of
the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve,
protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States.”
Sec. 2. The President shall be Commander-in-Chief of
the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia
of the several States, when called into the actual service of
* This mode of election of President and Vice-President has
been modified by the Twelfth Amendment, post.
the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing,
of the principal officer in each of the executive departments
upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective
offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and par-
dons for offences against the United States, except in cases
of impeachment.
He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent
of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the
senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by
and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint
ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges
of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United
States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise pro-
vided for, and which shall be established by law; but the
Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior
officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the
courts of law, or in the heads of departments.
The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that
may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting com-
missions which shall expire at the end of their next session.
Sec. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress
information of the state of the Union, and recommend to
their consideration such measures as he shall judge neces-
sary and expedient; he may on extraordinary occasions
convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of dis-
agreement between them, with respect to the time of ad-
journment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall
think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other pub-
lic ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully
executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United
States.
Sec. 4. The President, Vice-President, and all civil offi-
cers of the United States, shall be removed from office on
impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or
other high crimes and misdemeanors.
ARTICLE III., Sec. 1. The judicial power of the United
States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such in-
ferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain
and establish. The judges, both 9f the supreme and infe- .
rior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and
shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensa-
tion, which shall not be diminished during their continuance
in office. -
Sec. 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in
law and equity, arising under this constitution, the laws of
the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be
made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassa-
dors, other public ministers, and consuls; to all cases of ad-
miralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which
the United States shall be a party; to controversies be-
tween two or more States; between a State and citizens of
another State; between citizens of different States; between
citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of
different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof,
and foreign states, citizens, or subjects.
In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers,
and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the
Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the
other cases before mentioned, the supreme court shall have
appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such ex-
ceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall
make. -
The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment,
shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State
where the said crimes shall have been committed; but when
not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such
place or places as the Congress may by law have directed.
Sec. 3. Treason against the United States shall consist
only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their
enemies, giving them aid and comfort.
No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the tes-
timony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confes-
sion in open court.
The Congress shall have power to declare the punish-
ment of treason; but no attainder of treason shall work
corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of
the person attainted.
ARTICLE IV., Sec. 1. Full faith and credit shall be given
in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial pro-
ceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by
general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, re-
cords, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect
thereof.
Sec. 2. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all
privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States.
A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or
other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in an-
other State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of
the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed
to the State having jurisdiction of the crime.
No person held to service or labor in one State, under
1132
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.
the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in conse-
quence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from
such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of
the party to whom such service or labor may be due.
Sec. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress
into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erect-
ed within the jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State
be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts
of States, without the consent of the legislatures of the
States concerned as well as of the Congress.
* The Congress shall haye power to dispose of and make
all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or
other property belonging to the United States; and noth-
ing in this constitution shall be so construed as to prej-
udice any claims of the United States, or of any particular
State. ‘. .
Sec. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State
in this Union a republican form of government, and shall
protect each of them against invasion, and, on application
of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature
cannot be convened), against domestic violence.
ARTICLE V. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both
houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments
to this constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures
of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention
for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be
valid to all intents and purposes as part of this constitution,
when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the
several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof,
as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed
by the Congress; provided, that no amendment which may
be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and
eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses
in the ninth section of the first article; and that no State,
without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage
in the Senate.
ARTICLE VI. All debts contracted and engagements en-
tered into before the adoption of this constitution shall be
as valid against the United States under this constitution,
as under the Confederation.
This constitution, and the laws of the United States
which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties
made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the
United States, shall be the Supreme law of the land; and
the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything
in the constitution or laws of any State to the contrary not-
withstanding.
The senators and representatives before mentioned, and
the members of the several State legislatures, and all execu-
tive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of
the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to
support this constitution; but no religious test shall ever
be required as a qualification to any office or public trust
under the United States.
ARTICLE VII. The ratification of the conventions of nine
States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this con-
stitution between the States so ratifying the same.
Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the
States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the
year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-
seven, and of the independence of the United States of
America, the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto
subscribed our names.
GEO. WASHINGTON,
Presid’t, and Deputy from Virginia.
NEW HAMPSHIRE,
PENNSYLVANIA, , VIRGINIA.
John Langdon, B: Franklin. John Blair,
Nicholas Gilman. . Thomas Mifflin, James Madison, Jr.
Robt. Morris,
Geo. Clymer,
Tho. Fitzsimons,
Jared Ingersoll,
James Wilson,
GOuv. Morris.
MASSACHUSETTS.
Nathaniel Gorham,
Rufus King.
NORTH CAROLINA.
Wm. Blount,
Rich. Dobbs Spaight,
Hu. Williamson.
CONNECTICUT.
Wnn. sº Johnson, G ** SOUTEI CAROLINA.
Roger Sherman. feo. Read, J. Rutledge
Gunning Bedford,Jr. thºsworth
NEW YORK. John Dickinson, Pinckney
Alexander Hamilton. Richard Bassett, Charles Pinckney,
Jaco: Broom. Pierce Butler.
NEW JERSEY. MARYLAND.
Wil, Livingston, James M'Henry, GEORGIA.
David Brearley, Dan. of St. Thomas William Few,
Wm. Paterson, Jenifer, Abr. Baldwin.
Jona. Dayton.
Attest:
Dan. Carroll.
WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary.
AMENDMENTS.*
ARTICLE I. Congress shall make no law respecting an
establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise
* Articles I. to X., inclusive, were proposed by the First Con-
gress in 1789-90, Article XI., in 1793, Article XII. in 1803, Article
YIII. in 1865, Article XIV. in 1868, and Article XV. in 1870.
thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press;
or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to
petition the government for redress of grievances.
ARTICLE II. A well-regulated militia being necessary to
the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep
and bear arms shall not be infringed.
ARTICLE III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quar-
tered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in
time of war but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
ARTICLE IV. The right of the people to be secure in
their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unrea-
sonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated; and
no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported
by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place
to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
ARTICLE V. No person shall be held to answer for a capi-
tal or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or
indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the
land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service,
in time of war and public danger; nor shall any person be
subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of
life or limb, nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to
be a witness against himself; nor to be deprived of life,
liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall
private property be taken for public use without just com-
pensation.
ARTICLE VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused
shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an
impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime
shall have been committed, which district shall have been
previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the
nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with
the witnesses, against him; to have compulsory process for
obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance
of counsel for his defence.
ARTICLE VII. In suits at common law, where the value
in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial
by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall
be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States
than according to the rules of the common law.
ARTICLE VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor
excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishment
inflicted. -
ARTICLE IX. The enumeration in the constitution of cer–
tain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage
others retained by the people. -
ARTICLE X. The powers not delegated to the United
States by the constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States,
are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.
ARTICLE XI. The judicial power of the United States
shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity
commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States
by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of
any foreign state. -
ARTICLE XII. The electors shall meet in their respective
States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President,
one of whom at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same
State with themselves. They shall name in their ballots
the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the
person voted for as Vice-President; and they shall make
distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all
persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of
votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and
transmit, sealed, to the seat of the government of the United
State, directed to the president of the Senate. The presi-
dent of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and
House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the
votes shall then be counted; the person having the greatest
number of votes for President shall be the President, if
such number be a majority of the whole number of electors
appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from
the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding
three, on the list of those voted for as President, the House
of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the
President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall
be taken by States, the representation from each State hav-
ing one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a
member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a
majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice.
And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a
President, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon
them, before the fourth day of March next following, then
the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of
the death or other constitutional disability of the President.
The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-
President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a
majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and
if no person have a majority, then from the two highest
numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-Presi-
dent; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds'
of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the
CONSTITUTIONS OF CLARENDON.—CONSUL.
1133
whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person
constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be
eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.
ARTICLE XIII., Sec. 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary
servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the
party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the
United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.
Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article
by appropriate legislation.
ARTICLE XIV., Sec. 1. All persons born or naturalized in
the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof,
are citizens of the United States, and of the State wherein
they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which
shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the
United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of
life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor
deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protec-
tion of the laws.
Sec. 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the
several States according to their respective numbers, count-
ing the whole number of persons in each State, excluding
Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any elec-
tion for the choice of electors for President and Vice-Presi-
dent of the United States, representatives in Congress, the
executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of
the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabit-
ants of such State being twenty-one years of age, and citi-
zens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except
for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of
representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion
which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the
whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in
such State. • \
Sec. 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in
Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or
hold any office, civil or military, under the United States,
or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath
as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States,
or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive
or judicial officer of any State, to support the constitution
of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or
rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the
enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds
of each house, remove such disability.
Sec. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United
States authorized by law, including debts incurred for pay-
ment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing
insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But
neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay
any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or re-
bellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss
or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obliga-
tions, and claims shall be held illegal and void.
Sec. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by
appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.
ARTICLE XV., Sec. 1. The right of the citizens of the
United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the
United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or
previous condition of servitude.
Sec. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this
article by appropriate legislation. (See LAW, CoNSTITU-
TIONAL, by PROF. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.)
Constitutions of Clarendon. See CLARENDON.
Construc/tion [Lat. constructio, from con, “together,”
and struo, structum, to “build”], the act of building; fab-
rication, structure; the mode of putting together the parts
of a building or system. In grammar, it signifies syntax,
or the arrangement and connection of words in a sentence;
their meaning or interpretation. In architecture and en-
gineering, construction is that branch of the science which
relates to the practical execution of the works required to
realize the artist’s design; it is immediately connected with
the distribution of the different forces, the strains of the
parts and materials of a building, and the properties of the
various materials used.
Construction. See INTERPRETATION, by PROF. T. W.
Dwight, LL.D.
Consubstantia/tion [from the Lat. con, “together,”
and substantia, “substance”], the transformation, transition,
or union of substances originally distinct into a common
substance—substantial conjunction; a term used in anti-
thesis to TRANSUBSTANTIATION (which see), which means
the transition of one substance into another, either by
transmutation or by annihilation and substitution—one
substance in place of two; while consubstantiation results
in one substance out of two. The term consubstantiation
has been used in the controversies on the REAL PRESENCE
(which see), the mode of the presence of the body and
blood of Christ in the EUCHARIST (which see). The theo-
ries of presence may be thus classified:
I. SUBJECTIVE: 1. Natural—Zwingli;
2. Supernatural–Calvin.
II. OBJECTIVE: 1. Monistic ; one substance only really
present; the body and blood: Roman Catholic transubstan-
tiation.
2. Dualistic; the two substances really present—bread
and wine, body and blood.
a. Substantial conjunction of the two—consubstantiation,
IMPANATION (which see), as held by John of Paris and
Rupert; falsely charged on the Lutheran Church.
b. Sacramental conjunction—mystical mediating relation
of the natural (bread and wine) to the supernatural (body
and blood), each unchanged in its substance, and without
substantial conjunction; the Lutheran view.
This tabular view at once accounts for the fact that the
charge of holding this doctrine has been so commonly made
against the Lutheran Church, and shows how groundless
the charge is. (See KRAUTH’s “Conservative Reformation,”
757—775.) The same charge, with an equal want of ac-
curacy, has been made against Dr. Pusey and his school.
C. P. RRAUTH.
Consue'gra, a Spanish town, in the province of Toledo,
38 miles S. E. of Toledo. It is an old place with steep,
narrow streets, and a ruined fortress of supposed Roman
origin. It manufactures coarse stuffs. Pop. 6870.
Con'sul [from the Lat. consulo, to “consult” or “ad-
vise”], the supreme magistrate of ancient Rome after the
expulsion of the kings. The number was two, and the
period of office one year, but there was no restriction as to
the number of times the same individual might be elected,
although a certain interval was at length required before
again holding the office. Consuls were the supreme ex-
ecutive officers, but had no legislative authority. They
were originally chosen only from the patricians, but after-
wards from the plebeians also. The age required by law
was forty-three years, but besides this it was requisite to
have passed through the inferior offices of quaestor, aedile,
and praetor. They were elected at the comitia centuriata
some months before their entrance into office, which took
place at different periods of the year at different times, but
finally in January. During the interval they were termed
consules designati, or “appointed consuls.” Soon after the
entrance into office they cast lots for the provinces to fall
to the share of each, the superintendence of which was
conferred on them by the senate. Under the emperors the
nominal office of the consulate was preserved, but its sub-
stantial power destroyed; the elections became mere forms,
the emperor appointing whom he pleased. Then, too, the
custom was introduced of having several sets of consuls in
one year; those admitted on the first day gave their name
to the year, and were distinguished from the others, who
were termed suffecti (“substituted ”), by the title ordinarii
(“regular”). Persons also were sometimes dignified with
the title without enjoying the office, and were then styled
honorary consuls. Under Justinian the year ceased to be
called by the name of the consul.
Consuls in French history were the persons to whom,
after the dissolution of the Directory in Nov., 1799, was
entrusted the provisional government of the country. Ac-
cording to the constitution thus framed, Bonaparte, Cam-
bacérès, and Lebrun, called first, second, and third consuls,
were elected at the same time by the conservative Senate,
each for ten years, and invested with different degrees of
authority. But the senate having passed various decrees
which curtailed the powers of the second and third con-
suls, and augmented those of the first, the government was
gradually assimilated to a monarchy, and after the lapse
of four years and a half an easy transition was made from
the consular to the imperial form ; the title of emperor was
substituted for that of consul, and the exercise of the sov-
ereign authority was delegated exclusively to Napoleon
Bonaparte.
Con'sul; [Fr. consul; It console], a public officer ap-
pointed by a government to reside in foreign seaports and
other places for the purpose of protecting the interests of
commerce and performing administrative, and sometimes
judicial, duties in regard to his countrymen who may be
in the place where he resides. Consuls also aid in authen-
ticating documents, in protecting the rights of seamen, and
in various other minor duties. There are consuls-general,
vice-consuls, deputy-consuls, consular and commercial
agents, etc. They are not in general considered as diplo-
matic officers. They are, as a rule, under obligation to
obey the laws of the place where they reside. Consuls of
the U. S. are governed by detailed provisions of statutes
* Not only the chief magistrates of ancient Rome, but those
of other Italian cities, were in a later time.galled consuls; the
Italian republics, it appears, applied the title to those magis-
trates whom they sent to the colonies in the Levant, and after-
wards to their representatives at other ports.
1134
CONSUMPTION.
passed by Congress, which are collected in Brightly’s “Di-
gest and Supplements.” These statutes regulate their ap-
pointment and compensation, their duties towards seamen
and masters of vessels, their power to take possession of the
estates of deceased persons, to administer oaths, perform
the acts of a notary, etc. In some countries, such as China,
Japan, Turkey, and Persia, they are empowered to exercise
judicial functions, both criminal and civil, and to inflict
specified punishments. The details of the laws are too
voluminous to be stated. An important provision, however,
is worthy of special reference. By the act of 22d June,
1860, all marriages in the presence of any consular officer
in a föreign country, between persons who would be author-
ized to marry if residing in the District of Columbia, shall
have the same validity as if the marriage had been solem-
nized in the U. S. The officer is directed to give to each
of the parties a certificate of marriage, stating their names,
ages, places of birth, and residence, and to forward a dupli-
cate to the department of state at Washington. The gen-
eral powers of consuls are discussed in the treatises on in-
ternational law. (See INTERNATIONAL LAW, by PREs. T. D.
Woolsey, S. T. D., LL.D.)
Consump’tion [Lat. consumo, consumptum, to “wear
away ”I, the popular name of various diseases characterized
by a wasting of the body, such, for example, as “anaemia.”
(known as “consumption of the blood”), but applied es-
pecially to phthis is pulmonalis, a very common and very
fatal disease of the lungs. It has long been taught, upon
the authority of Laennec, Louis, and Andral, that the cha-
racteristic symptoms of pulmonary consumption depend
upon the presence in the lung-tissue of a new growth, or
neoplasm, called TUBERCLE (which see); but the studies of
Virchow, Niemeyer, and other recent pathologists have
demonstrated that cases of originally tuberculous consump-
tion are quite rare, although they do occur, the presence
of the tubercles giving rise to local pneumonic inflamma-
tion in their neighborhood; while ordinary consumption is
generally characterized by (1) local consolidation, (2) cheesy
degeneration of the solidified spot, and (3) destruction of
the degenerated tissue and formation of a cavity. This is
the direct result, in most cases, of a “catarrhal” inflamma-
tion—that is, of an inflammation of an epithelial surface,
such as, lines the air-passages—the inflammation being as-
sociated with a free discharge of mucus from the surface
of the membrane. Next, the air-vesicles of the lungs be-
come filled by inhalation and by other means with the young
cells of the secretion. If, as in non-fatal cases of ordinary
pneumonia, these cells soon undergo liquefaction and ab-
Sorption, the patient recovers. But if the accumulation of
cells remains unabsorbed in the air-vesicles, it suffers a
cheesy degeneration, a sort of slow decay. It appears that
an inflammatory process is set up around this caseous de-
generate mass, and that the cheesy degeneration is soon
present in the inflamed lung-tissue itself. After a time the
degenerate mass may assume a more or less complete puru-
lent form, and may be discharged by coughing. This,
however, does not always happen. The mass may be ab-
sorbed, the pulmonary tissue become indurated and callous,
without a trace of tubercle; the bronchial tubes may be-
come dilated, and the disease, spreading slowly, may disor-
ganize but not consume the lungs. This is a very common
condition in old consumptive cases. Meanwhile, the less
changed bronchi near the seat of the disease pour forth a
profuse catarrhal secretion, causing copious expectoration.
The pleura, near the seat of the disease becomes thickened,
and adheres by organized exudations to the wall of the
chest. In the majority of cases these changes begin at the
apex of one or both lungs.
The first subjective symptoms are usually dull pains
about the collar-bones, tightness across the chest, and there
is not unfrequently a dry, hacking cough, not very severe
in the morning and late at night. Headache, weariness,
dyspepsia, and loss of appetite are often present. The
pulse increases permanently, in most cases exceeding 90 or
100 beats in a minute. The rapidity of breathing is usual-
ly increased. An early symptom is a high evening tem-
perature—103° or 104° F. In the second stage night-
sweats are often extremely severe, pus is freely expecto-
rated, hectic fever is decidedly present, the pulse is more
frequent. In the third stage, when considerable cavities
often form in the lung, the preceding symptoms are much
intensified; colliquative diarrhoea supervenes, and yet in
many cases the patient continues serene and hopeful, and
the mind is remarkably clear and active.
The causes of consumption are very numerous. Niemeyer
assigns the first place as a cause to that depraved, ill-mour-
ished state (called the scrofulous diathesis) in which there
is a tendency to the increased production of young cells.
Any depressing circumstance may tend to the establishment
of consumption. An hereditary tendency is one of the
most important of these circumstances, but any depressed
state of the parent, especially of the mother, whether con-
sumption, starvation, anaemia, scrofula, or any other dys-
crasia, appears to have a nearly equal effect on the offspring.
Bowditch and others have shown that, other things being
equal, it is most frequently observed in places where the
air and soil are charged with moisture. Cold weather in
itself appears to have little or no tendency to produce the
disease, but a very changeable temperature is one of its
most fruitful causes.
There has been considerable discussion as to whether
consumption is or is not a contagious disease; and facts
are not wanting which appear to show a danger of infec-
tion, especially to those who take care of and intimately
associate with consumptives. Another interesting ques-
tion is whether consumption is ever caused or promoted by
habitual drunkenness, either in the case of the drunkard or
of his offspring. The best opinion among physicians ap-
pears to be that while in selected cases alcoholic stimulants
may be useful adjuvants, the remedy is a dangerous one,
since there is no doubt that many more consumptives are
injured than are benefited by it. On the offspring of the
consumptive the effect of hard drinking is confessedly de-
plorable. Over-study at school appears to develop the
disease in some young people. Overwork, factory-life,
the grinding of metals, cabinetmaking, and all kinds of
dusty or sedentary work are undoubtedly prolific sources
of the disease. Mental trouble, excessive care, too fre-
quent child-bearing, and sexual excess are to be reckoned
in ‘the list of causes. Consumption frequently follows
measles, typhoid fever, and whooping cough, not improb-
ably resulting from the bronchitis which accompanies those
diseases.
It is also thought that pregnancy will check the disease
in the female ; and while there are numerous observations
which go to show that for the time the disease is sometimes
(but not always) held in abeyance, it is certain that this
abeyance is often followed by a period of greatly increased
activity; and the probability that a child born in such cir-
cumstances will be sickly and short-lived ought to prevent
the resort to any such practice as a curative measure.
The physical signs of consumption are those which are
determined by inspection, palpation, auscultation, and per-
cussion of the chest. Their relative importance can be
appreciated by none except the well-trained and experi-
eneed diagnostician.
The treatment of consumption cannot be discussed except
in the most general terms, for no disease is less amenable
to mere routine treatment. Yet there is no reasonable
question that, especially in its earlier stages, this disease is
a curable one. One of the first requisites is the establish-
ment, if possible, of normal nutrition—a process which is
usually much impaired in those liable to this disease. The
use of such tonics as quinia and strychnia in some condi-
tions, the administration of cod-liver oil, either as food or
for its assumed alterative powers, and judicious change of
climate, are among the most useful measures. Alcoholic
stimulants benefit some patients and injure others, and on
the whole do more harm than good; the hypophosphites
of soda and lime appear to cause increase of weight and
diminution of cough and expectoration in many cases; thor-
ough counter-irritation of the chest-walls is a very import-
ant adjuvant; the wearing of sufficient clothing to protect
the body from sudden changes of temperature is not less
important. Systematic, and even severe, physical labor
benefits some patients, but others appear to be injured by
any but the gentlest exercise. Special symptoms, like diar-
rhoea, and night-sweats, will require palliative treatment.
Life in the open air is advisable, except in wet and bleak
weather. The dry air of the Western plains and of the
Rocky Mountain region, the equable weather of Florida,
and the dry, sandy soil and balsamic exhalations of the
great pine forests of the South, are believed to afford favor-
able conditions for recovery in many cases. Much depends
on the peculiar history and temperament of individual
cases, and the proper appreciation of these conditions in
any case is likely to tax severely the judgment of even the
ablest practitioner. CHARLEs W. GREENE.
Consumption, in political economy, the converse of
production. Although frequently used by political econo-
mists, the word has never had a definite meaning. It may
be said that everything which is produced by human labor
is to cease in its turn to exist. There is a consumption
which may be termed annihilation, and a consumption
which is gain or an addition to the wealth of the world.
Eood is an article of production immediately consumed,
but the food of the working man sustains him while he is
producing more than he consumes. A thousand dollars
spent in building a house produces something which lasts
for many years. The same sum spent in raising a wheat-
crop will seem to be immediately consumed, but it may
have in reality been laid out more beneficially than the
CONTACT-CONTINENT.
1135
other, through the process of reproduction. If a thousand
dollars laid out on land increases its value, and makes it
worth eleven hundred, while the wheat raised by the ex-
penditure of the other thousand is sold for fifteen hundred
dollars, there is less consumption in the latter expenditure
than in the former.
Contact [Lat. contactus, from con, “together,” and
tango, to “touch "j. In geometry, two lines, one of which
at least is curved, are said to be in contact when they have
a common point, from which they recede in such a way
that the deflection of the one from the other will, if a.
sufficiently small departure be taken, become as small a
fraction as we please of that departure.
CONTACT, ANGLE OF, the angle made by a curve line with
its tangent. It is also called angle of contingency, and is
equal to the angle of curvature.
Conta'gion [from the Lat. con, “with,” “together,”
and tango, to “touch *), the transmission, direct or in-
direct, from one person to another, of disease. If of a
given number of healthy persons exposed to association
with the sick, a larger proportion becomes ill than is ob-
served among persons not exposed to this cause of disease,
it is said to be propagated by contagion. It was formerly
called “common contagion” when the disease might pos-
sibly arise from some cause other than direct or indirect
personal contact; while, if the characters of the disease
are well marked, and traceable to no cause except infec-
tious contact, it is said to be due to a specific contagion,
which may be in some cases shown to be capable of repro-
ducing the primary disease to an illimitable extent, being
conveyed either through the secretions or through exhala-
tions. . Contagious diseases are sometimes epidemic, trav-
elling from place to place, but there are epidemic diseases
which are by no means contagious. No question in the
etiology of disease is more difficult than that of the bound-
ary line between contagious and non-contagious diseases;
and, simple as the definition of the term may appear, the
nature, conditions, and limitations of contagious influence
are as yet almost unknown.
REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Contari’ni, the name of a noble family of Venice that
produced numerous doges and senators, of whom the most
famous were—AMBROGIO, a senator, who was sent as am-
bassador to the king of Persia in 1473. He returned in
1477, and published in 1487 a curious account of his mis-
sion and travels.-ANDREA, elected doge in 1367. He
gained in 1380 an important victory over the Genoese, and
saved Venice from imminent danger. Died in 1382.-
DOMENICO, elected doge in 1659, waged war against the
Turks, who took Candia in 1667 after a famous siege.
Died in 1674.—GASPARO, a cardinal and writer, was born
at Venice in 1483. He was sent as ambassador to the
court of Charles V., and was papal legate at the Diet of
Ratisbon in 1541. Died in 1542.
Contempt' [Lat. contemptus, from contemno, contemp-
twm, to “despise”], in law, is a wilful disregard or diso-
bedience of a public authority. By the Constitution of the
U. S. each house of Congress may punish its members for
disorderly behavior, and with the concurrence of two-thirds
expel a member. The power to punish for contempt is
also possessed by either house of Congress, as incidental to
the complete exercise of the authority granted by the Con-
stitution, and extends to strangers or persons who are not
members. This power of punishing for contempt must be
exercised during the session of Congress, and the punish-
ment itself cannot extend beyond the existence of the
Congress.
CoNTEMPT of CourT. Courts of justice have an inherent
power to punish all persons for contempt of their rules and
orders, for disobedience of process, and for disturbing them
in their proceedings. When a person is regularly adjudged
to be in contempt he cannot be discharged by another court
or judge on a writ of habeas corpus. In some of the States
the law of contempt is carefully regulated by statute.
Contentnea, a township of Pitt co., N. C. Pop. 2118.
Conti, de (ARMAND DE Bourbon), PRINCE, born in
Paris in 1629, was a brother of the great prince of Condé.
In the civil war of the Fronde he commanded a royalist
army against the prince of Condé. He married a niece
of Cardinal Mazarin. Died in 1666.
Conti, de (FRANÇOIs Louis DE Bourbon), PRINCE, a
French general, a son of the preceding, was born in Paris
in 1664. He had so high a reputation for valor and other
popular qualities that he was chosen king of Poland by a
large party in 1697, but Augustus of Saxony obtained the
throne. He served with distinction at Steenkerke in 1698,
and received the command of an army in Flanders in 1709,
but he died in the same year. According to Saint-Simon,
he was the “idol of the soldiers and the hero of the offi-
cers.” (See SAINT-SIMON, “Mémoires.”)
structure.
Conſtinent [from the Lat. contineo, to “continue *
(from con, “together,” and teneo, to “hold”), because it
has an unbroken extent], a large, unbroken tract of land,
greater than an island. The portion of the solid crust of
the earth rising above the surface of the ocean is divided
into six great bodies, the continents, besides innumerable
smaller ones, the islands. A continent is not simply a
larger piece of land; it has a general structure found in all,
but not in islands, and which may be called the continental
Moreover, each continent has special traits of
configuration and a diversity of climate, plants, and ani-
mals which distinguish it from every other, and stamp
upon it a real individuality. Every large body of land has
a form more or less triangular. North and South America
are triangular; Europe, together with Asia, forms another
large triangle; and the main body of Africa is also trian-
gular. In Australia alone the square form seems to pre-
dominate, though the tendency to the triangular appears
when we consider the continent as prolonged to the south-
ern point of Tasmania. This remarkable coincidence in the
fundamental form evidently points to a general law of
structure which geology may some time discover. In the
two Americas and in the southern continents of the Old
World the sharper point of the triangle is turned towards
the south, in Asia and Europe towards the W. In the
Western World, therefore, the greatest extension of land
is from N. to S., 9000 miles, passing through all zones
of climate, with great changes in plants and animals; in
Asia and Europe the land extends about 9000 miles from
E. to W. along the parallels, and the temperature and veg-
etable and animal forms are very similar.
Notwithstanding their resemblance in general form, the
outlines of the continents offer striking differences, some
being deeply indented with gulfs, bays, inland seas, and
projecting peninsulas, while others present a massive form
with simpler outlines, without indentations worthy of no-
tice. Carl Ritter has called attention to the vast import-
ance of this kind of configuration to civilization. Such in-
dentations greatly increase the length of the coast-line, and
the contact of land and water favors the formation of con-
venient harbors, opens the interior of the continents to com-
merce by the paths of the sea, and facilitates communication
with the outer world. The sea penetrating into the land
moderates the extremes of heat and cold, and gives moist-
ure and fertility. This subdivision of the continents into
peninsulas, which make as many peculiar physical regions,
secures a richer development by assisting in the formation
of distinct nationalities, such as those reared in the great
peninsulas of India and Arabia on the Asiatic, and Greece,
Italy, and Spain on the European, portion of the great
eastern land-mass. In this respect there is among the con-
tinents a significant gradation. No other part of the world
has so large a number of indentations, compared to its ex-
tent, as Europe has. The triangle which makes the body
of this continent has three peninsulas on each of its mari-
time sides—Greece, Italy, and Spain projecting into the
blue waters of the Mediterranean; the peninsulas of Bre-
tagne, Denmark, and Scandinavia on the shores of the
Atlantic; while the British Isles themselves are hardly
less than a projection of the mainland. Numerous in-
dentations are also found in the large Asiatic continent,
though not so many, in proportion to its size. Arabia,
India, Indo-China in the S., on the shores of the Indian
Ocean, and China, Manchooria, with Corea and Kamt-
chatka, in the extreme eastern point of Asia, on the
waters of the Pacific Ocean, form a necklace of rich lands
surrounding two-thirds, and containing the most valuable
portions of its domain. North America, although less
indented, still has the peninsulas of Florida and Nova
Scotia on the Atlantic ; Labrador and Melville Peninsula
on its northern Arctic shore; and California and Alaska on
the Pacific. In these three continents the gulfs, bays, and
inland seas abound correspondingly. In Europe the large
peninsular appendages are to the total area of the continent
as 1 to 4; in Asia, as 1 to 5.5; in North America as 1 to
14. In Africa, South America, and Australia the waters
of the ocean nowhere penetrate deeply into the heart of the
continents. The so-called gulfs or bays—like that of Arica
in South America, the Gulf of Guinea in Africa, and the
great South Australian Bay—are only slight bends in the
coasts; and the projection of the Atlas lands and of Cape
Guardafui in Africa, and of York Peninsula in North Aus-
tralia, are hardly to be counted among the true peninsulas.
These three continents are trunks without branches, as
Ritter expresses himself, or bodies without members; while
the northern continents are beautiful trees with trunks and
abundant branches, or bodies richly articulated with use-
ful members.
There are upon the entire globe three bands of land and
six continents—the two American continents forming one
band; Europe and Africa another; Asia and Australia a
1136
CONTINENTAL–CONTRA COSTA.
third ; the last two pairs being clustered together on one
side of the globe, the first isolated on the opposite side.
As two of the three bands of land, or four continents, are
crowded together in the eastern hemisphere, it contains
two-thirds, and the western hemisphere only one-third of
the lands. The Old World is thus double the size of the
New World. (See EARTH.) ARNOLD GUYOT.
Continenſtal [originally applied in contradistinction
to provincial ; belonging to the whole American continent,
and not to any one province or colony], a term applied to
the money and troops of the revolting colonies during the
Revolutionary war. It was introduced in the early part of
that contest by the colonists, to distinguish their own forces
from those of the British government. The latter were
called “ministerial forces,” being under the control of the
British ministry. The “Continental Congress * was the
Congress of the colonies, and after the Declaration of Inde-
pendence it was the Congress of the U. S. previous to 1788,
when the Constitution came into force. It had only one
house. -
Continenſtal System, a name given to Napoleon’s
plan for excluding British merchandise from all parts of
the continent of Europe. It commenced with the Berlin
Decree (issued by Napoleon Nov. 21, 1806), which de-
clared the British Islands in a state of blockade, and treated
as prisoners of war all Englishmen found in the territories
occupied by the French armies or by the allies of France.
The French government was not able to render this blockade
complete. The British ministérs retaliated by an “Order
in Council,” which was issued in Jan., 1807, and prohibited
all neutral vessels from entering any port belonging to
France or her allies; vessels that violated this order were
confiscated if captured. . -
Contin/gency [from the Lat. contingo, to “ happen "j,
a fortuitous event; a casualty. In law, contingency is an
event the occurrence of which, though uncertain, is suffi-
ciently probable to be provided for.
Contin/gent, fortuitous, occurring without design; in
law, depending on an uncertainty. The term is also
applied to the quota of troops furnished to the common
army by each member of a confederation ; the propor-
tion of troops or money furnished by each party to an
alliance. - e
Contin’ued Fractions, expressions which arise
from the approximate valuation of fractions whose terms
are large. For example, the ratio of the circumference
to the diameter, ######, may be represented by the con-
tinued fraction—
For convenience, the fraction may be written thus:
3 ++, +, +, +, +, +
7 + 15 + 25 + 1 + 7 -i- 4"
To convert a proper fraction into a continued fraction,
divide the denominator by the numerator, and make of
the mixed-number quotient a new denominater to the nu-
merator, 1. Proceed in like manner with the fractional
part of this new denominator, and so continue as long as
the division leaves a remainder, or as long as is necessary
for the object in view. If the given fractional number is,
as in the foregoing case, an improper fraction, it must first
be reduced to a mixed mumber, after which the above rule
applies to the fractional part.
Continu'ity, Law of, a principle of considerable use
in investigating the laws of motion and of change in gen-
eral, and which may be thus enunciated: Nothing passes
from one state to another without passing through all the in-
termediate states. Leibnitz claims the merit of having first
made known this law; but, in so far as motion at least
is concerned, it is distinctly laid down by Galileo, and
ascribed by him to Plato. But, though a perception of its
truth seems to have been felt long before, Leibnitz was cer-
tainly the first who applied the principle to test the con-
sistency of theories or supposed laws of nature. The ar-
gument on which he attempted to establish it a priori is,
that if any change were to happen without the interven-
tion of time, the thing changed must be in two different
conditions at one and the same instant, which is obviously
impossible. A remarkable application of the law of con-
tinuity was made by John Bernoulli in an “Essay on the
Laws and Communication of Motion,” which gained the
prize of the Academy of Sciences in Paris (1724), to prove
that perfectly hard bodies cannot exist, because in the col-
lision of such bodies a finite change of motion must take
place in an instant—an event which, by the law now ex-
plained, is impossible. This conclusion was objected to
by D'Alembert and Maclaurin, who, on account of it, were
disposed to reject the law of continuity altogether; but the
difficulty is got over by supposing (which on various
grounds is extremely probable) that there is no real con-
tact, and that bodies begin to act on each other when their
surfaces, or what seem to be their surfaces, are yet at a
distance. º -
Continuity, Principle of (in math.). See PROJECTION.
Conſtoocook, a post-village of Hopkinton township,
Merrimack co., N. H., at the junction of the Concord and
Claremont and the Contoocook River R. Rs., 11 miles S. W.
of Concord. It has four churches, an academy, and man-
ufactures of carriages, lumber, tubs, and woollens.
Contour', in the fine arts, the external lines which
bound and terminate a figure. The beauty of contour con-
sists in those lines being flowing, lightly drawn, and sinu-
ous. They must be scientifically drawn, and this cannot.
be done without a good knowledge of anatomy.
Conſtra, a Latin preposition signifying “against,”
“opposite to ;” also a musical term meaning opposite,
lower, and applied to the alto and tenor parts when they
form the lowest part in harmony. When a part lower than
the usual bass is employed, it is called contra-basso.
Conſtraband [It. contrabando, from the Late Lat. con-
tra bannum, “ contrary to proclamation ”], in commercial
languagp, goods exported from or imported into a country
against its laws. Contraband of war are such articles as a
belligerent has by the law of nations the right of prevent-
ing a neutral from furnishing to his enemy. Articles con-
traband of war are, in general, arms and munitions of war
and those out of which munitions of war are made. All
these are liable to be seized; but very arbitrary interpre-
tations have been affixed to the term by powerful states
when able to enforce them by arms. Thus, provisions have
been held to be contraband of war when it is the object of
a belligerent to reduce his enemy by famine. Where the
primary use of goods is military, they would seem to be
plainly contraband; where the use is of a doubtful character,
and they are suited either for a state of war or peace, their
character leaves open an inquiry as to the objects of the ship-
ment and the use to which the goods may be put. The act
of carrying contraband goods is not, in general, good ground
for confiscation of the ship; the contraband goods only are
subject to seizure. The uncertainty respecting the law con-
cerning this whole subject is due to the natural conflict be-
tween the necessities of war and the laws of trade. The
remark of Calvo appears to be justified, that international
law has not yet been able to establish a rule universally ac-
cepted and respected concerning the distinctive character
of contraband of war. The act of carrying despatches to or
for a belligerent, or the act of transporting his ambassadors
in a neutral vessel, has given rise to grave discussions in-
volving principles resembling those applied to contraband,
though requiring separate consideration. Such acts may
become serious violations of the law of nations, substanti-
ally identifying the neutral with the belligerent, and sub-
jecting his ship to confiscation by the opposing party to the
war. A question of great magnitude arose in the recent
civil war in the U. S. in connection with the seizure by an
American officer of the Trent, an English ship, then en-
gaged in carrying Messrs. Mason and Slidell, ministers of
the insurgents, to a neutral country. The result of the con-
troversy was an assumption. by both parties to it that the
law of nations does not allow a belligerent at sea to take
into his control, from a neutral vessel, such persons. The
regular course is to have the ship brought before a prize
court of the captor for condemnation. It is, however,
claimed by some writers that there is ground for maintain-
ing that a belligerent may take noxious persons, such as
military men belonging to the enemy, from a neutral ves-
sel without any prize proceedings, and after their removal
release the ship. The exercise of such a right, if it exist,
is so delicate and likely to cause irritation on the part of
the neutral, that it seems to demand regulation by treaty.
(Consult WHEATON, KENT, CALvo, and other text-writers.
See INTERNATIONAL LAW No. II., by PREs. T. D. Wool-
sEY, S. T. D., LL.D.) . REVISED BY T. W. DWIGHT.
Conſtra Costa, a county near the central part of
California. Area, 800 square miles. It is bounded on the
N. by San Pablo and Suisun bays, and on the W. by the
Bay of San Francisco. It is partly occupied by moun-
tains of the Coast Range. Here is Monte Diablo, the cen-
tral landmark of the State. The county contains valuable
lignitic coal and saline springs. Limestone, sandstone,
and gypsum are found. Grain, cattle, and wool are raised.
The soil is in general productive. Capital, Martinez.
Pop. 8461. -
CONTRACT.
1137
Conſtract [Lat. contraho, to “draw together”], an
agreement in which a party undertakes to do or not to do
a particular thing. Contracts are distinguished, according
to their form, either as contracts of record, specialties, or
simple contracts. Contracts of record are such obligations
as are evidenced by judicial records, as, for example, recog-
nizances and judgments. (See these titles severally.) Spe-
cialties are contracts under seal, such as deeds, bonds, and
covenants. Simple or parol contracts include those agree-
ments which are not comprised within the first two classes,
and may be either oral or in writing. As regards the mode
of their creation, contracts are further distinguished as ex-
press or implied. They are express when stated by the
parties thereto consenting in direct and formal terms; im-
plied, when they derive their origin and validity from con-
struction of law, as being of such a nature that reason and
justice dictate their fulfilment. Contracts are still differently
classified in reference to the time, of their performance, as
executed and executory. They are said to be executed when
the obligations, therein created have been already carried
out; executory, when their fulfilment is yet to be accom-
plished. Contracts of every variety include four essential
constituent elements: First, there must be appropriate
parties; second, there must be mutual consent to the
terms of the agreement; third, there must be a valid con-
sideration, either actual or presumed; and, fourth, there
must be a definite subject-matter to be acted upon. As
regards the first point, all persons are capable of binding
themselves by their contracts except certain important
classes of individuals who labor under some natural in-
firmity, either from want of sufficient age (as infants), or
from lack of requisite mental soundness (as idiots and
lunatics), or who are placed arbitrarily under disability in
consequence of their legal status (as married women).
Drunkards, seamen, aliens, and bankrupts are also inca-
pacitated in certain instances. Infancy at law is the con-
dition of persons under the age of twenty-one, though in
some States females are considered to arrive at majority at
eighteen. It is a general principle, though subject to ex-
ceptions, in accordance with modern judicial decisions, that
an infant’s contracts are not void, but voidable ; i. e. they
may be confirmed or disavowed by him, either, in some in-
stances, before majority, or, in all cases, within a reason-
able time afterwards. The chief important exception to
this rule is an infant’s contracts for necessaries, which are
considered binding upon him. The import of the term
“ necessaries” is not invariable, as different articles would
be comprised within the designation according to the wealth
and station of various persons. The validity of these ob-
ligations is established for the same reason that others are
considered voidable—that the infant’s welfare may be en-
sured until he arrives at years of discretion. Moreover,
the contract of marriage may be entered into by males at
the age of fourteen, and by females at the age of twelve,
unless there is some statutory provision to the contrary.
Idiots and lunatics are relieved from responsibility for
their contracts, because they are incapable of understand-
ing the nature of the promises they make, and of giving a
valid assent. But it is likewise true of them, as of infants,
that contracts for necessaries suitable to their station, if
entered into with other parties who act in good faith, are
obligatory. Insane persons may also have lucid intervals,
and would be liable for agreements made under such cir-
cumstances. Temporary mental weakness resulting from
intoxication will relieve from liability when it is sufficient
in degree to preclude reasonable action, and is not con-
tracted purposely to defraud others. Mere mental feeble-
ness, however originating, which is not so excessive as to
prevent a comprehension of the nature of a contract, will
be no ground of exemption unless a person affected by it is
led into a contract by imposition. Married women, at com-
mon law, are placed under an almost entire inability to con-
tract. Their legal existence is deemed to be merged in that
of their husbands. In some instances they have power to
bind their husbands, as when they act as agents or make
engagements for necessaries which their husbands refuse
to supply; but agreements of this kind are not their own
personal obligations. Courts of equity and recent statu-
tory provisions have considerably extended the powers of
married women to enter into engagements which will be
binding upon their property. This result in equity has
been accomplished through the medium of trusts. The
incapacity of aliens extends mainly to their ability to ac-
Quire a valid title to real estate, and in some States has
been removed. Seamen are relieved, in certain instances,
from their stipulations, to protect them from the conse-
quences of their own improvidence; while the engagements
of bankrupts are in some instances nullified to prevent in-
jury to their creditors. Persons who are forced into contracts
by duress, either through imprisonment or reasonable fear
of injury tºire or limb, are excused from their fulfilment.
As regards the nature of the obligations which they as-
sume, parties to contracts may act either severally or joint-
ly, or jointly and severally. When any joint liability ex-
ists, as in the last two instances, and one of the parties
discharges it by paying more than his share of the indebt-
edness, he may, under the notion of an implied contract,
recover from the others their just proportion. This is
termed “ contribution.” It rests on a doctrine of natural
justice, and is more completely enforced in a court of
equity. The right to enforce agreements against others
may also be either several or joint; that is, it may inhere
in a single individual or in two or more collectively. No
right of this kind, however, can be both joint and several
at the same time, and in this respect it differs from the cor-
responding liability. Parties may also act on their own
behalf, or in a representative capacity as agents or partners.
For the purpose of making a contract, a corporation, how-
ever numerous its members may be, is regarded as a single
person. The second element of contracts, assent, is neces-
sarily implied in the term “agreement”—a meeting of
minds. Assent must be mutual, and have reference to ex-
actly the same stipulations. There must not only be a pro-
posal, but an acceptance, and if any modification in the
terms of the original offer is made by the party by whom
it is received, no contract is established. The entire con-
currence of all the parties concerned is indispensable. Such
proposed change would be, in itself, a new offer, which
would need acceptance. . It is not necessary that a pro-
posal when made should be acceded to at once. An offerer
may contemplate a continuance of the offer for a certain
definite or understood period, within which assent may be
expressed by the offeree and a valid contract created; or
an offer to enter into an agreement may be sent to a person
at a distance, who must reply by mail. In cases of this
kind the contract, according to the prevailing opinion,
though with weighty dissent, is deemed to be completely
formed from the time when the letter of acceptance is
posted, without regard to the fact of its being received.
The element of consideration is that which gives con-
tracts a legal, as distinguished from a moral, validity, for,
as a rule, promises are not enforceable in law which do not
rest on such a basis. The consideration is the cause of
a contract, the return for a stipulation, the price for a
promise. It may be something actually rendered, as is
requisite in nearly all simple contracts, or its existence
may be conclusively presumed, as in negotiable paper
which has passed into circulation, and in contracts under
seal. The care and deliberation with which the latter
are usually formed are considered a sufficient substitute
for an actual consideration. In the case of negotiable
paper, a proper consideration will only be conclusively
presumed when it is necessary to protect the interests of
innocent, unsuspecting third parties into whose hands the
paper has passed before maturity. The requisites of a
valid consideration are that it shall either be some benefit
to the party promising or some disadvantage or injury to
the party to whom the promise is made. Considerations
are distinguished as good or valuable. The former term is
applied to inducements of relationship and natural affec-
tion; the latter, to some mode of making return which is
either directly pecuniary or estimable pecuniarily through
its probable consequences in occasioning profit or loss.
Marriage also is included within this latter designation.
A good consideration will only support an executed con-
tract, and then simply between the parties themselves. As
illustrations of a valuable consideration may be mentioned
the payment of money, the performance of work, the for-
bearance to sue, the delivery of property, the making of a
promise for a promise, and the like. . In such cases it is
not necessary that the consideration be an equivalent for
the agreement made. A moral obligation will constitute no
legal consideration for a promise, except in cases where there
has been a pre-existing legal obligation which is no longer
enforceable in a court of justice, as where a debt has existed,
but is barred by lapse of time under the provisions of statutes
of limitation. If a consideration be illegal or impôssible,
the contract founded upon it will, in consequence, be ren-
dered nugatory. Considerations are also distinguished, as
regards the time of their fulfilment, as executed, executory,
and concurrent. They are said to be executed when per-
formed before the promise founded upon them is made, and
are insufficient to support such promise unless they grew
out of a previous request, since the agreement cannot be
the reason of their accomplishment; executory, when they
are to be performed in the future; concurrent, when they
and the promises based upon them are simultaneous. The
last two forms of consideration are sufficient to support all
agreements otherwise unobjectionable.
The general principle in regard to the subject-matter of
contracts is, that parties may enter into agreements of any
character they may choose. Certain important exceptions
1138
CONTRACTILITY –CONTRAYERVA.
are, however, established on grounds of public policy.
Thus, the subject-matter must not contemplate any illegal
or immoral undertaking. Such agreements are necessarily
nugatory, and if attempted to be enforced their illegality
may be alleged as a valid defence. But when the terms of
the parties' stipulations are not thus contravened, it is the
object of the courts to arrive at the exact meaning of the
language employed as expressing the intentions of the
persons contracting, and to enforce all unfulfilled obliga-
tions thence resulting. For this purpose certain definite
rules of interpretation and construction have been estab-
lished, which are adapted to remove ambiguities and re-
solve uncertainties. These are principally applicable to
agreements in writing. If the application of these shows
a comprehensible agreement, and no defences alleged prove
its invalidity or that its terms have been satisfied either
wholly or in part, an adequate remedy will be given for its
violation. In courts of law this consists of pecuniary rec-
ompense or damages for the injury sustained, while courts
of equity, in proper instances, will decree a specific per-
formance of the engagements undertaken.
Certain contracts are required to be in writing, for the
better prevention of fraud and convenience in proving their
stipulations. This requirement depends upon the so-called
“statute of frauds.” The principal classes of agreements
within its provisions are contracts made upon considera-
tion of marriage, contracts to answer for the debt, default,
or wrongful act of another, contracts which are not to be
performed within one year, contracts for the sale of any
interest in land, and contracts for the sale of personal prop-
erty of a specified value—usually fifty dollars and upwards.
In all these cases the agreement, or some memorandum there-
of, when written, must also be signed, or in some States sub-
scribed, by the party charged therewith or his agent. In
the sale of goods, the delivery by the seller and the ac-
ceptance by the purchaser of a portion of the goods will
render a reduction of the contract to writing unnecessary.
The remedy upon contracts by action at law is confined
by “statutes of limitations” within certain prescribed pe-
riods after their maturity. The provisions generally made
are that no action can be brought upon a simple contract
after the lapse of six years, or upon sealed instruments
after twenty years, from the time when they become due.
(See LIMITATIONS, STATUTEs or.) Important and difficult
questions also arise as to the effect of the laws of different
States upon contracts when obligations are assumed in
one country and sought to be enforced in another (for
which see INTERNATIONAL LAW, PRIv ATE, and MARRIAGE).
The Constitution of the U. S. provides that “no State
shall pass any law impairing the obligation of contracts.”
Much discussion has arisen upon the effect of this prohi-
bition. It has been decided that it applies as well to ex-
ecuted contracts or grants as to those which are executory.
Not only agreements between individuals, but with States,
as the charters of corporations, confer privileges which are
inviolable, unless there is some prior reservation of a power
to make alterations. An exception is, however, established
in the case of municipal corporations, which are considered
mere instruments of government, and continually subject
to legislative authority. Moreover, contracts by which
States undertake to resign necessary governmental func-
tions are not generally deemed unchangeable by subse-
quent legislation, though an exception to this rule has
been established in the case of taxation. A deprivation
by a State of all remedy to enforce contracts is held to be
an impairment of their obligation, and therefore unlawful;
this is not true, however, when, on a change of remedies,
one that is substantial and sufficiently convenient remains
or is supplied. s
(Reference must be made for different forms of contracts
to such topics as AGENCY, BILLS OF ExCHANGE, PARTNER-
SHIP, SALE, GUARANTY, BAILMENT, SHIPPING, INSURANCE,
etc., and for defences to PAYMENT, PERFORMANCE, Accord,
AWARD, RELEASE, SET-oRF, Usury, etc., etc. Convenient
books of reference are the works of PARSONs, ADDIsoN,
CHITTY, HILLIARD, METGALF, SMITH, StoRY, PoTHIER, “On
Obligations,” KENT’s “Commentaries,” and Dom(AT, “On
Civil Law.”) T. W. D WIGHT.
Contractil'ity [Lat. contractilitas, from con, “to-
gether,” and traho, tractum, to “draw "j, a property by
which the particles of some bodies resume their original
position when the force applied to separate them is with-
drawn; also the vital property which gives to certain parts
(muscles, for example) the power of contracting, by means
of which animals perform their motions. Contractility, in
the latter sense, is a property confined to living organisms.
It is not peculiar to animals, but is shared by the vegetable
kingdom; being, among plants, most apparent, as a rule,
in the protophytes, which are microscopic plants of a low
grade. Among the lowest forms of animals the whole sub-
stance of the organism usually possesses contractility, but
in the higher animals this property is, by differentiation,
limited more or less completely to the organs called mus-
cles. But such motions as those of cilia are common to
both the vegetable and the animal kingdoms; and among
animals are common to man as well as to the protozoon. The
existence of this important class of motions shows that in
no organism is contractility entirely limited to the muscles.
Contractility in such cases is quite independent of any will
or self-determining power. But at a very low point—if
not at the very lowest—in the animal scale we begin to find
signs of a self-determining power, or will, residing within
the organism, and having a certain degree of control over
that contractile quality of the tissues. Upon the exercise
of this control depends the power of voluntary motion.
Contraction of a muscle, may indeed be quite independent
of volition or consciousness, as in the beating of the heart
and in all motions of non-striated muscles. But all or—
ganic motion or contractile action appears to depend upon
some stimulus, whether it be the mysterious nervous force
or the not less mysterious influences called heat and elec-
tricity. The immediate cause of muscular contraction is
quite unknown. The theory, that it depends solely upon the
oxidation of muscular tissue, is quite exploded. It is now
held by many theorists that oxidation of non-organized
blood-plasma within the capillaries of the muscles is one
of the causes of muscular contraction, and that this oxida-
tion liberates heat, which by the nervous influence is trans-
muted into kinetic energy. Electricity also appears to
have intimate relations with some forms, at least, of or-
ganic contraction.
Contraction [for etymology see CoNTRACT], the act of
contracting or reducing to a smaller volume; the reverse
of ExPANSION (which see). In grammar, the abbreviation
of a word, the reduction of two syllables into one by the
omission of a letter or letters, as can’t for cannot.
Contraction, in surgery, is the diminution or oblite-
ration of the calibre of any hollow vessel, and is more
frequently called STRICTURE (which see). But frequently
contraction denotes the permanent shrinkage in bulk (of
an organ), in area (of a surface), or in length (of a muscle,
tendon, or other elongated part). Contraction may result
(1) from acute inflammation, with the formation of neo-
plasms; the latter afterwards degenerating, or rather dry-
ing up, into ordinary connective tissue, which occupies less
than the space of the original intrusive tissue. This is
well illustrated in the case of burns which destroy much
skin : the scar contracts, and often causes shocking de-
formity. Yet it is the result of a process which is essen-
tially reparative, and which is necessary to the recovery
of a healthy condition. (2) From nervous irritation, direct
or reflex. Thus, the pain of a severe accident to the ankle
has been known to be immediately followed by permanent
strabismus. (3) From paralysis. Thus, when only one of
a pair of antagonistic muscles loses its functional contrac-
tility, the other by its normal exercise may produce a per-
manent deformity.
Contral/to, an Italian word, is a term used in vocal
music to denote the part immediately below the treble, for-
merly called also the counter-tenor. It is often popularly
called alto.
Conſtrast, opposition of things or qualities. In the
fine arts, contrast is an opposition of lines or colors to each
other, so contrived that the one gives greater effect to the
other. By means of contrast, energy and expression are
given to a subject even when employed on inanimate forms.
All art indeed may be said to be a system of contrasts;
lights should contrast with shadows, figures with figures,
and groups with groups. It is this which gives life, soul,
and motion to a composition.
Contravallaſtion [from the Lat. contra, “against,”
and vallum, a “rampart?”), in fortification, an intrench-
ment formed by the besiegers between their camp and the
place besieged, to secure themselves and check the sallies
of the garrison. The line of contravallation is thus, as the
name implies, a sort of counter-fortification.
Contrayer/va [Sp. contrayerba, a “counter-herb" or
“antidote”], a drug once in repute as a diaphoretic and
stimulant, derived from the root-stocks of four different
species of Dorstenia, of the order Urticaceae. The genus
is remarkable for the roughly quadrangular receptacle on
which the numerous small flowers appear; the staminate
flowers in shallow depressions, the pistillate flowers in
deeper ones. Dorstenia Contrayerva is a perennial Mexican
herb with irregularly-lobed leaves. Dorstenia Houstonio,
and Dorstenia Drakema also grow in Mexico. The root-
stock is about half an inch thick, sending out on all sides
many slender fibres covered with small knots. It has an
aromatic odor, and a bitter, astringent taste. Dorstenic,
Brasiliensis, a stemless species, with heart-shaped leaves
and a circular receptacle, a native of the West Indies and
CONTRERAS–CONVERGING SERIES.
1139
Brazil, furnishes much of the contrayerva of commerce,
These plants have been represented as efficacious for ser:
pent bites, and hence the name contrayerva, an “ antidote,”
iike our “snake-root,” is given to many different plants.
Contre/ras, a battle-field 14 miles S. of the city of
Mexico. The battle was fought Aug. 19 and 20, 1847, be-
tween the U.S. forces of Gen. Scott and the Mexican divis-
ion of Gen. Valencia. (See CHURUBUSCo.)
Contreras, de (JUAN SENEN), a gallant Spanish gem-
eral, born in 1760 at Madrid, entered the Spanish service
in early youth, and in 1727 visited France, England, and
Germany on public affairs. In 1788 he fought against the
Turks. In 1795 he began to serve against the French. He
fought at Talavera in 1809; as a captain-general he de-
fended Tarragona obstinately, but without success. He
was taken prisoner and sent to France in 1811, escaped in
1812, returned to Spain in 1814, and died in his native
city in 1826. He wrote several books, chiefly military.
Contribuſtion [Lat. contribuo, to “impart mutually ”],
in common law, an obligation imposed upon several per-
sons who are under a common duty, or who own estates
subject to a common burden, to share between them the
charge of performing the duty of relieving their property
of the burden. It is emphatically a rule of equity juris-
prudence, and an illustration of the familiar maxim that
“equality is equity.” The illustrations of it are numerous.
Such instances may be cited as general average in the law
of shipping; the case of co-sureties, including insurers;
that of owners of parcels of land subject to a single mort-
gage or other lien, where there are no special reasons for
casting the burden of payment on one owner more than
another; of joint debtors, etc. Contribution is sometimes
exacted in a court of law on the theory of an implied con-
tract, but the remedy is not so complete as in equity. It
is usually said that there is no contribution among wrong-
doers. This proposition must be received with some qual-
ification, for while the rule must be rigidly applied to wil-
ful wrong-doers, and perhaps to such as are guilty of meg-
ligence, it could not be properly extended to persons who,
acting in good faith, commit a technical wrong, as, e.g., to
sureties who execute a bond of indemnity to a sheriff to
secure him against the consequences of a trespass in sell-
ing property which he has reasonable grounds for suppos-
ing belongs to a debtor against whose property he has an
execution, while it turns out that the property does not
belong to the debtor. T. W. DWIGHT.
Contri’tion [Lat. con, intensive, and tero, tritum, to
“rub,” to “wear away ” by rubbing], in ordinary usage,
denotes thorough repentance for sin. In the Roman Cath-
olic Church contrition (contritio cordis) is the complete
sorrow and utter detestation which the penitent feels for
past sin, joined with the purpose to sin no more. Con-
trition, confession, and satisfaction are essential parts of
the sacrament of penance. (“Canons of Trent,” s. xiv.,
c. 4.) But some, with Dens (“Theol.,” vi., 51), hold that
attrition, or imperfect repentance, joined with confession,
satisfaction, and absolution, is sufficient. Others teach that
attrition is but a step leading towards contrition.
Control’Ier (originally written Comptroller), [Fr.
contrôleur], an officer appointed to control or supervise the
accounts of other officers, and to certify whether the matters
confided to his care have been controlled or examined. The
minister of finance in France was formerly called contrôleur-
général. In the State of New York a controller is elected by
the people. His title is written CoMPTRoLLER (which see).
Com’tumacy [Lat. contumacia, from con, intensive, and
twmeo, to “swell” (with pride)], in civil and ecclesiastical
law, a wilful disobedience to any lawful summons or judi-
cial order. In a criminal process contumacy is punished
by a sentence of fugitation; in a civil process the only con-
sequence is that the case will be proceeded with and a de-
cree pronounced against the contumacious party.
Con’vent [Lat. conventus, from con, “together,” and
vento, ventum, to “come "I, literally, a “meeting;” a re-
ligious house inhabited by a society of monks or nuns, or,
more strictly, the society itself. But in exact language
the term “convent” designates a meeting (conventus) of
all the members of a religious community, or, more prop-
erly, of those who can vote in the assembly. These voters
are called “conventuals,” though the latter term is often
used in other senses. On certain questions it is customary
in some congregations to assemble the convent either for
the counsel to be obtained from the brethren or for their
consent to some ordinance. All the abbots of a congrega-
tion may be called upon in like manner to meet in a “pro-
vincial” or “general convent.” (See MonACHISM.)
Convent, a post-village, capital of St. James parish,
La., on the left bank of the Mississippi River, about 50
miles W. of New Orleans. It has one weekly newspaper.
Com/venticle [Lat. conventiculum, a diminutive of con-
ventus, a “meeting”], a term originally applied to a cabal
among the monks of a monastery, formed to secure the elec-
tion of a favorite as abbot. It was given to the assemblies
of Wickliffe's followers as a term of reproach, and was after-
wards applied to the meetings of the English and Scottish
non-conformists. Severe laws were passed for the suppres-
sion of conventicles. The most celebrated is that of 1664,
passed by the British Parliament, which forbade persons
over five in number and over sixteen years of age, unless
of one family, to meet for domestic or social worship. For
the first offence the leader and the occupier of the premises
received three months' imprisonment or were fined five
pounds. The second offence was followed by twofold pun-
ishment. Married women found at a conventicle were im-
prisoned one year, unless their husbands paid a ransom of
forty shillings sterling. The third offence was punishable
by transportation or by a mulet of £100 sterling. No
jury was required for the trial, and a justice of the peace
might enforce the act upon the testimony of one person.
This act was modified in 1670, and repealed in 1689. An
act of Elizabeth’s reign (1593) made the frequenting of
conventicles punishable by imprisonment and death.
Conven’tion [from the Lat. con, “together,” and ve-
mio, ventum, to “come "I, a term applied in political lan-
guage to assemblies of national representatives meeting on
extraordinary occasions without being convoked by the
legal authority. (See CoNVENTION-PARLIAMENT.) In French
history the name convention is applied to that assembly
which met after the legislative assembly had pronounced
the suspension of the royal functions (Sept., 1792), and
proclaimed the republic at its first sitting. This body dis-
solved itself on the establishment of the Directory in Oct.,
1796. The Scottish assembly which met on the flight of
James II. of England was entitled the Convention of
Estates. In the U. S. meetings of representatives spe-
cially chosen by the people of separate States to revise and
amend the State constitutions are termed State conven-
tions.
CoNVENTION, in the language of diplomacy, is generally
synonymous with treaty, with the vague distinction that
a convention relates to a few or unimportant or non-polit-
ical points. Contracts between belligerents as to certain
rules to be adopted on both sides in carrying on the war
are technically termed general conventions. Treaties be-
tween the pope and Protestant powers have been often
termed conventions. -
CoNvDNTIon, in military affairs, a treaty between military
commanders concerning terms for a temporary cessation of
hostilities, generally between a victor and a defeated gen-
eral for the evacuation of a district or position by the lat-
ter. The two most celebrated conventions of modern times
were that of Closter-Seven (1757), between the dukes of
Cumberland and Richelieu, and that of Cintra (1808), be-
tween Junot and the English generals.
CoNVENTION, CoNSTITUTIONAL. See CoNSTITUTION, by
PROF. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.
Conven’tion=Parliament, in Great Britain, a par-
liament convened without the authority of the Sovereign,
when the crown is in abeyance. As parliaments have no
right to assemble without royal authority, the acts of con-
vention-parliaments must afterwards be ratified by a par-
liament summoned in accordance with the provisions of the
constitution. Two convention-parliaments have occurred
in English history—the first, that which met in April, 1660,
and restored Charles II. to the throne, the Lords assem-
bling by théir own authority, and the Commons by virtue
of writs issued in the name of the keepers of the liberties
of England, by the authority of Parliament; the second,
that which met in 1688, each house by its own authority
and on the summons of the prince of Orange, and declared
that King James II. had abdicated the crown, which was
transferred to William and Mary. (See CONVENTION.)
Conver'gent Fraction, the ordinary fraction which
is equal to any portion of a continued fraction obtained by
neglecting all that follows any particular quotient. Thus,
1 3 1
• -- - - - * * ~#-, -- O 1.
***ā-ā; **#–%; 1+}| 1 , , a
3 + · = #, etc., are
4. 0
1 1
c 1, 1 1 1 + 2.
three successive convergents of 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5-i- 6° etc.
To obtain the numerator (or denominator) of any conver-
gent corresponding to a certain quotient, multiply the nu-
merator (or denominator) of the preceding convergent by
that quotient, and to the product add the numerator (or
denominator) of the next preceding convergent; thus
43 = 10 × 4 + 3 ; 30 = 7 × 4 + 2.
Converging Series, in mathematics, a series in which
each term is less than the term next preceding. Thus, the
1140
CONVERSANO—CONVULSIONS.
geometrical series descending, #, #, #, Iº, etc., is a converg-
ent or converging series. An infinite series is said to be
convergent when, however many of its terms may be added
together, the sum never exceeds numerically some finite
quantity. On the other hand, it is said to be divergent
when by adding a sufficient number of terms a sum can
be obtained which numerically exceeds any given finite
quantity, however great. A series is not necessarily con-
vergent when its terms continually decrease in magni-
tude. If, however, besides decreasing numerically, the
terms have alternate signs, the series will be conver-
gent; thus, 1–3 + 3 – #, etc. A series will be convergent
if the quotient obtained by dividing each term by the pre-
ceding one is numerically less than some assignable proper
fraction, or if this property obtains. from and after a cer-
tain term. On the other hand, the terms being all of the
same sign, the series will be divergent if the quotient in
question is equal to or greater than unity. This test of
convergency and divergency cannot be always applied, and
recourse must be had to others. For instance, the ratio of
the nº to the (n – 1)* term of the series 1 + 3 + š, etc.
m — 1
being n is always less than 1, but no proper fraction
can be assigned than which it is always less, for it ap-
proaches unity without limit as m increases. The series is
in fact divergent; for the third and fourth terms are to-
gether greater than #; the four following terms are greafter
than four times the last, or #; the eight following terms are
together greater than #3, and so on; so that the whole
series has a greater sum than 1 + 3 + 3 +, etc., which is
manifestly divergent. (See CAUCHY, “Cours d’Analyse.”)
Conversa'no, a town of Italy, in the province of
Bari, 20 miles S. E. of Bari. It is defended by an old
Norman castle, and has a cathedral, a bishop's palace, and
several convents. Pop. 97.31.
Conver'sion [from the Lat. con, intensive, and verto,
versum, to “turn "], in metallurgy, the process by which
steel is produced from iron or from iron carbide (cast
iron). Iron is converted into steel by long heating in con-
tact with carbon. Cast iron is converted by “puddling,”
or by the well-known process of Bessemer. The theory in
both cases is the same—viz. to oxidize the excess of carbon
in the carbide, and so remove it in the form of carbonic
acid gas.
Conversion, in law. This word has two significations:
1. In equity jurisprudence it means the theoretical change
of land into money or money into land. The will of an
owner of property thus to change it, expressed in legal
forms, is in some instances equivalent to an actual change,
as where a testator directs his land to be sold and converted
into money. It is deemed to be sold from the moment of
his death, and to have the qualities of personal property.
This is termed equitable conversion. 2. In the law-courts the
word “conversion” is applied to an unauthorized exercise
of acts of ownership over the personal property of another.
It is deemed to be a wrong or “tort,” and the owner of the
property may either reclaim it or treat the wrong-doer as
having become owner and recover the value of it. Conver-
sion lies at the foundation of the common-law action of
trover, which word is derived from the French word trouver,
to find. There is a legal fiction that the defendant found
the plaintiff’s property and converted it to his own use.
The material part of the case is the conversion. To con-
stitute a case of conversion it is not necessary that there
should have been any intent to deprive the owner of his in-
terest. It is enough if there were an intent to appropriate
the goods or to exercise an act of ownership over them,
even though that were done in entire ignorance of the
owner’s right. Thus, if an auctioneer should sell stolen
goods, not knowing of the theft, he would be deemed to
have converted the goods to his own use. As the intent is
a main ingredient in the case, it has been considered that a
mere trespass, or an accidental loss of property by a carrier,
or the use of property as an act of kindness to the owner
without any intent to convert it, does not amount to a con-
version. There is an important distinction between the
case where the original taking of the goods is lawful and
where it is not. In the former case there must in general
be a demand and a refusal before the conversion takes
place. Thus, if I lend a book to another to be returned on
request, there is plainly no conversion until I demand it
and there is a refusal to return it, since until that time
there is no exercise of ownership. When the original tak-
ing is unlawful, no demand is necessary. The better opin-
ion is, when an action is brought for conversion, that the
title to the chattel does not pass to the wrong-doer by mere
force of the judgment of the court, but that there must be
actual satisfaction of the judgment on his behalf.
T. W. DWIGHT.
Conver/ter, in metallurgy, the receptacle used to hold
the iron or carbide of iron which is subjected to the pro-
cess of conversion into steel. The Bessemer converter is a
large, approximately spherical vessel, lined with fire-clay
or brick, the bottom of which is perforated with many
holes, through which a powerful blast of air is driven dur-
ing the process. The vessel is suspended on pivots, and
controlled by a hydraulic apparatus; by means of which,
when the appearance of the escaping flame shows that the
process is complete, it is turned over, and the liquid steel
is received into moulds.
Convey’ance, in law, is a deed transferring property
from one person to another. In the transference of per-
sonal property the term, though strictly applicable, is not
generally.used.
Con’vict [from the Lat. con, intensive, and vinco, vic-
tum, to “conquer” or “overcome,” in allusion to the culprit
being completely overcome or overwhelmed by the proofs
brought against him], a term applied to a person proved
guilty of a crime. The name came by custom to be applied
to persons subject to punishment for the more serious class
of offences; of late its meaning has been often restricted
in Great Britain to criminals who were transported to the
distant colonies. Criminals condemned to penal servitude
for longer or shorter periods are termed convicts under
penal discipline; offenders sentenced to short periods of
detention in the ordinary jails are called prisoners. The
system of transportation to New South Wales was sus-
pended in the year 1840. In France, however, transporta-
tion of convicts still prevails, especially in the case of po-
litical offenders. Among the penal colonies of France are
Cayenne and New Caledonia.
Con’vis, a township of Calhoun co., Mich. Pop. 1015.
Convoca/tion [from the Lat. con, “together,” and voco,
vocatum, to “call”], a meeting of the clergy of the Church
of England to discuss ecclesiastical matters in time of Par-
liament. There is one convocation for the province of Can-
terbury, and one for the province of York, but the voice
of the latter is only a feeble echo of that of the former.
Each convocation has two houses—the upper consisting of
bishops, and the lower of deans, archdeacons, and proc-
tors. Acts of convocation were formerly of great import-
ance in the canon law, but since the time of Henry VIII.
they have no force when opposed to statute law. The con-
vocations have been recently revived, but with little or none
of their ancient importance. There is also an Irish convo-
cation, with even smaller powers than those of the English
Church.
Convolvula'ceae [from Convolvulus, one of the gen-
era], a natural order of exogenous plants which mostly
have twining stems and a milky juice. It comprises nearly
700 known species, many of which are natives of tropical
countries, and have beautiful flowers with five stamens.
The corolla is monopetalous, and the fruit a capsule. The
roots of some species possess purgative qualities, as jalap
(Earogonium Purga). Among the valuable products of this
order is the sweet potato. Some of the species are culti-
vated for the sake of the flowers, as the Ipomoea purpurea,
or morning glory, a native of tropical America.
Convol’vulus [from the Lat. con, “together,” and volvo,
to “roll”], a genus of plants of the natural order Convol-
vulaceae, containing many species, herbaceous or shrubby.
The stems are usually twining, the flowers often large and
of various beautiful colors; calyx 5-parted, corolla mono-
petalous, with regular 5-lobed and plaited limb; five sta-
mens; the ovary free, with one to four cells and few ovules;
the fruit a capsule somewhat succulent. Some are culti-
vated as ornamental plants. The Convolvulus Scammonia
yields scammony. Convolvulus Scoparius, a shrubby spe-
cies, native of the Canary Isles, yields the “oil of rhodium ”
and one of the kinds of wood called rosewood, which has
an odor somewhat like that of roses. The original genus
is for convenience divided into several sub-genera. Many
botanists elevate these divisions to the rank of genera.
Conºvoy [Fr. convoi, from convoyer, to “carry” or “con-
duct”], a name given to one or more ships of war employed .
to protect a fleet of merchant-vessels against an enemy in
time of war or against pirates. If a ship part company
with the convoy or neglect to obey the signals, all claims
for insurance are forfeited. (See INTERNATIONAL LAW No.
II., by PREs. T. D. Wools EY, S. T. D., LL.D.)
Convoy, in the military service, is a train of wagons
laden with provisions or warlike stores, or a detachment
of troops appointed to guard such a train.
Convul’sions [from the Lat, convello, convulsum, to
“pull violently ”], (synonyms Eclampsia, Acute Epilepsy),
an acute nervous affection occurring in paroxysms, during
which the patient loses consciousness, the muscles of the
body are spasmodically contracted, and the limbs first stif-
CONWAY.
1141
fened and twisted, then agitated by irregular involuntary
movements. The face is distorted, the eyeballs rolled up-
ward, the teeth clenched, biting the tongue, which protrudes
at the beginning of the attack. Respiration is arrested by
the stiffening of the chest-muscles and by closure of the
glottis; the patient grows black in the face, and froth
oozes from the mouth, and sometimes from the nostrils;
the veins of the neck swell. After some time the muscles
relax again, respiration is restored, the agitation of the
limbs ceases, the patient either returns entirely to con-
sciousness or falls into a heavy sleep, which may last sev-
eral hours. The appearance and the nature of the attack
are the same in the convulsions of epilepsy and in the so-
called eclamptic convulsions of children or of women in
childbirth. They may result from any cause that first
irritates and then suddenly abolishes the functions of the
brain and spinal cord. Convulsions occur, therefore, in
diseases of the nervous centres; in diseases of other organs
of the body, that transmit irritation to these centres;
finally, in morbid conditions of the blood which interfere
with their nutrition. Under the first head may be men-
tioned congestion or anaemia (bloodlessness) of the brain,
inflammations, tumors, finally premature ossification of the
bones of the head, by which the brain becomes subject to
abnormal pressure. In other cases more obscure there
seems to exist in the brain and cord a congenital suscep-
tibility to irritation, and consequent exhaustion of func-
tions, so that the most trifling circumstance may occasion
a convulsion. It is then that are observed the convul-
sions of hysteria and of epilepsy. The latter is only dis-
tinguished by the constitutional tendency that persists
during the intervals of the attacks, and suffices to cause
their removal. The hysterical convulsion, however, offers
some peculiarities, and consciousness, though perverted, is
not abolished, the interference with respiration is less com-
plete than in typical eclampsia, and leads to involuntary
laughing and crying; there is no lividity of the face or
frothing at the mouth ; the return to consciousness is imme-
diate, without the transition stage of heavy sleep. Neither
the irregular convulsive movements of chorea (“St. Vitus’
dance,” “clonic ’’ muscular contractions) nor the rigidity
of tenanus (“tonic ’’ muscular contractions) are sufficient
to constitute a convulsion, in which the two forms of mus-
cular contraction are combined, the last occurring at the
beginning, the first at the end of the attack.
Convulsions dependent on transmitted irritations occur
principally in children. They may occur spontaneously,
owing to a congenital predisposition by which normal
physiological processes become irritating, or they may be
excited by inflammation of the gums in dentition, by in-
digestion, by worms, by the invasion of acute diseases, as
pneumonia or eruptive fevers; by some accidents, as ex-
tensive burns. Women in childbirth are liable to convul-
sions of a similar character, which may be excited by the
mere act of parturition. This dangerous complication
(puerperal eclampsia) is more frequently, however, asso-
ciated with an alteration of the blood that is liable to occur
during pregnancy, and due to transient kidney disease (ne-
phritis). The kidneys act imperfectly, and hence part of
the elements of the urine that should be secreted by them
are retained in the blood, poisoning it, while at the same
time part of the albumen of the blood passes off in the
urine. These convulsions are therefore called albuminu-
ric or uraemic, and afford most striking illustrations of the
morbid influence of altered blood upon the nerve-centres.
They occur also in genuine nephritis or Bright’s disease,
and in that which often complicates the second and third
stages of scarlet fever. Various mineral or narcotic poisons
introduced into the blood have a similar effect to uraemia
in causing convulsions. Finally, a great diminution in the
mass of blood, caused by exhausting haemorrhages or by
diarrhoea, has been shown to determine convulsions as cer-
tainly as if the blood had been poisoned.
Any convulsion may prove fatal if the arrest of respira-
tion be sufficiently prolonged. The danger varies very
much according to the cause, the uraemic convulsions of
women in childbirth (puerperal eclampsia) being far the
most frequently fatal. After them may be successively
ranked, 2, uraemic convulsions in primary nephritis, or
that complicating scarlet fever; 3, those caused by nar-
cotics (opium) or mineral poisons (lead); 4, by the anaemia
resulting from haemorrhage or diarrhoea; 5, by the irrita-
tion of morbid dentition, worms, or indigestion in young
children; 6, by diseases of the nervous centres or disorders
in their circulation (congestion, anaemia); 7, the convul-
sions of epilepsy; 8, those that mark the invasion of acute
diseases.
The treatment of convulsions may sometimes be ad-
dressed exclusively to the cause, as in the last three cases
just mentioned, where the danger of the paroxysm itself is
known to be small. In the other cases, where life is liable
to be endangered by the duration or rapid repetition of
convulsive attacks, these urgently demand relief. Means.
of relief are—1st, compression of the carotids; 2d, alco-
holic stimulants; 3d, venesection; 4th, chloral; 5th, chlor-
oform; 6th, antihysterical medicines; 7th, warm baths;
8th, cold applications to head. Each is adapted to a special
case. Compression of the carotids has been used princi-
pally in idiopathic epilepsy (where, as said, the paroxysm
itself is often left without treatment). It is intended to
relieve the congestion existing at the base of the brain,
and has sometimes proved successful. Cold applications
are used for the same purpose, and may be combined with
the other methods of treatment. Stimulants are only
used where the convulsion results from haemorrhage or
inanition. Venesection may be required in cases of in-
tense venous congestion of the brain, as indicated by ex-
treme lividity of the face and distension of the veins of
the neck. It is most often needed in puerperal convul-
sions. Large doses of chloral (15–30–60 grains) are espe-
cially useful for infantile convulsions, or for those of scarlet
fever, or during the interval of attacks to prevent their re-
newal. The sedative action of chloral is entirely analogous
to that of inhaled chloroform, but the latter is much more
powerful, and may be used in more severe cases, or where
the patient is unable to swallow. Veratrum viride is a
powerful agent to lower the pulse and increase the force
of the heart’s impulse; hence it may be used in the same
cases as venesection, to dissipate the stagnation of blood
in the veins. Finally, the warm bath, with or without
mustard, may be used in nearly all cases, except perhaps
in puerperal convulsions, where it may be contraindicated
by the difficulty, and even danger, of moving the patient.
On the other hand, the facility of its use with young chil-
dren makes it especially applicable to them.
An hysterical convulsion may be treated with the ner-
vous stimulants formerly called antispasmodics, especially
assafoetida, valerian, ether (internally). In the interval
of the attacks galvanism should be applied to the spine.
Apart from special indications, therefore, treat the average
convulsions as follows: 1st, place the patient in a warm .
bath, and keep cloths wrung out in cold water on the head;
2d, if the paroxysm begins to rapidly abate, give hydrate
of chloral, 3–5 grains to an infant, 10–15 grains to a child,
30 grains to an adult; 3d, if the paroxysm be more severe,
administer chloroform by inhalation; 4th, if Suffocation be
imminent, bleed to a few ounces. -
ABRAHAM JACOBI.
Conſway, a small seaport-town of Wales, in Carnarvon
county, is on the estuary of the river Conway, here crossed
by a suspension bridge 327 feet long, 13 miles E. N. E. of
Bangor. Here is Conway Castle, a grand feudal struc-
ture built by Edward I. in 1283 on a steep rock, with eight
vast towers. Conway is enclosed by embattled walls twelve
feet thick. It is on the Chester and Holyhead Railway.
Pop. 2523. w
Conway, a county near the centre of Arkansas. Area,
1000 square miles. It is bounded on the S.W. by the Ar-
kansas River. The surface is diversified and well timbered,
the soil productive. Tobacco, grain, cattle, cotton, and
fruit are raised. Coal is found here. It is intersected by
the Little Rock and Fort Smith R. R. Capital, Springfield.
Pop. 8112.
Conway, a township of Izard co., Ark. Pop. 768.
Conway, a post-village of Franklin co., Mass., about
100 miles W. of Boston. It has an academy, a national
bank, a fire insurance company, and important manufae-
tures. Pop. of Conway township, 1460.
Conway, a post-township of Livingston co., Mich.
Pop. 1020.
Conway, a post-village and township of Carroll co.,
N. H., on the Saco River, at the N. terminus of the Ports-
mouth Great Falls and Conway R. R., has a savings bank
and manufactures of straw-board, lumber, leather, etc.
North Conway, 5 miles distant, on the Portland and Ogdens-
burg R. R., 60 miles N. W. of Portland, is a beautiful place,
much frequented in summer. It has an academy and manu-º
factures of pottery, lumber, etc. Pop. of township, 1607.
Conway (HENRY SEYMOUR), an English general, born
in 1720. He had a high command in Germany in 1761, and
became secretary of state in the Whig cabinet in 1765. In
1782 he was appointed commander-in-chief, and made a
motion in Parliament to terminate hostilities against the
U. S. He was a field-marshal. Died July 10, 1795.
Conway (THOMAs), Count DE, a general, born in Ireland
in 1733, removed to the U. S. in 1777. He became a briga-
dier-general in the American army. He was a partisan of
Gen. Gates, and took an active part in the intrigues against
Gen. Washington. He afterwards entered the French ser-
vice, became a count, a field-marshal, and governor of the
French East Indies. Died about 1800.
1142
CONWAYBOROUGH-COOKE.
Conſwayborough, a post-village, capital of Horry
co., S. C., on the Waccamaw River, about 120 miles E. by
S. from Columbia, has a weekly newspaper. Pop. 606; of
township, 1610. -
Co’ny, an animal mentioned in the Bible, is supposed
to be the same with the HYRAx (which see).
Cony (SAMUEL), a lawyer, born at Augusta, Me., Feb.
27, 1811, graduated at Brown University in 1829, was a
judge of probate (1840–47), and governor of Maine (1864–
67). Died Sept. 5, 1870.
Con’ybeare (HENRY), son of W. D. Conybeare, noticed
below, an engineer and architect, born in Somersetshire,
England, Feb. 22, 1823, has acquired great professional dis-
tinction in England and in India.
Conybeare (John), born at Pinhay, England, Jan. 31,
1692, became bishop of Bristol in 1750. He wrote a “De-
fence of Revealed Religion’ (1732), in answer to Tindal.
Died July 13, 1755.
Conybeare (Rev. WILLIAM DANIEL), F. R. S., an Eng-
lish geologist, born near London June 7, 1787. He discov-
ered the plesiosaurus, and wrote several treatises on the coal-
fields and other strata of Great Britain. In 1845 he was
appointed dean of Llandaff. Died Aug. 12, 1857.
Conybeare (W. J.), a son of the preceding, was a fel-
low of Trinity College, Cambridge. In conjunction with
Dean Howson he published “The Life and Epistles of
Saint Paul” (1852). Died in 1857.
Con’yers, a post-village, capital of Rockdale co., Ga.,
on the Georgia R. R., 30 miles E. by S. from Atlanta. It
has two weekly newspapers.
Com’yngham, a township of Columbia co., Pa.
1943.
Conyngham, MARQUESSES of (1816), Earls Conyng-
ham (1797), earls of Mount Charles (1816), Wiscounts
Mount Charles (1797), Wiscounts Conyngham (1789), Wis-
counts Slane (1816), Barons Conyngham (Ireland, 1789),
and Barons Minster (United Kingdom, 1821).-FRANCIS
NATHANIEL CONYNGHAM, second marquess, K. P., G. C. H.,
P. C., lieut.-gen., born June 11, 1799, succeeded his father
Dec. 28, 1832.
Pop.
Coo’dle Creek, a township of Iredell co., N. C. Pop.
1629.
Cook, a county of Illinois, bordering on Indiana. Area,
1027 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by Lake Michi-
gan and the State of Indiana, and is intersected by the
Chicago and Des Plaines rivers. The surface is nearly
level; the soil is deep and very productive. Cattle, grain,
tobacco, wool, and garden products are raised. It is trav-
ersed by a number of railroads, which terminate at Chicago,
the county-seat. Cook is the most populous county in the
State. Pop. 349,966.
Cook, a township of Westmoreland co., Pa. Pop. 875.
Cook (CHARLEs), D. D., an eminent Wesleyan divine,
chief founder of Methodism in France, was born in London
in 1787, entered the Wesleyan ministry in 1817, went to
France in 1818, travelled there, founding Methodist so-
cieties and aiding in the revival of the Huguenot churches,
till his death in 1858. “He was to France, Switzerland,
and Sardinia,” wrote Merle d'Aubigné, “what Wesley was
to England in his day.” -
Cook (CLARENCE CHATHAM), an American journalist
and art-critic, born at Dorchester, Mass., Sept. 8, 1828,
was the son of Zebedee Cook, noticed below. He graduated
at Harvard in 1849, and studied architecture in the office
of A. J. Downing (his brother-in-law) and Calvert Vaux
at Newburg, and afterwards pursued for many years the
profession of teaching. In 1863, Mr. Cook contributed to
the New York “Tribune * a series of articles on American
art, based upon the exhibition of pictures at the New York
Sanitary Fair of that year. He continued the profession
of teacher until 1869, at the same time contributing the
art criticisms which appeared in the “Tribune,” besides
occasional articles to magazines. In 1869 he went as cor-
respondent of the “Tribune” to Paris, but resigned that
position upon the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian war,
passed some time in Italy, and on his return to America
resumed his former connection with the “Tribune.” Mr.
Cook has published “The Central Park,” New York, F. &
J. Huntington, 1868, and the text to accompany a repro-
duction by beliotypy of Dürer's “Life of the Virgin,”
published by J. R. Osgood & Co., Boston, 1874.
Cook (ELIZA), an English poetess, born in London in
1817, was the daughter of a respectable tradesman. She
began literary life as a contributor to various journals.
Her first volume of poems appeared in 1840, and was highly
successful. She has published, besides other works, “New
Echoes” (1864), and was long editor of the “Journal”
which bore her name.
Cook (Captain JAMEs), a celebrated English navigator,
born of very poor parents at Marton, in Yorkshire, Oct. 27,
1728. He entered the navy in 1755, and served as master
of a sloop at the capture of Quebec in 1759. He com-
manded an expedition sent to the South Pacific Ocean in
1768 to observe the transit of Venus. After he had ob-
served the transit with success on the island of Tahiti, he
visited New Zealand and explored the coast of New South
Wales. Having made important discoveries in geography,
he returned by the Cape of Good Hope, and arrived in
England in June, 1771. In 1772 he conducted another
exploring expedition in the Resolution and Adventure, in
order to discover the Terra Australis, a continent supposed
to exist in high southern latitudes. He circumnavigated
the globe, discovered the island of New Caledonia, and
penetrated southward as far as 71° S. lat., but did not find
the Terra Australis. He returned to England in July, 1775,
having lost only one man by disease during the voyage.
He published a well-written journal of his voyage (2 vols.,
1777). In July, 1776, he sailed on a third voyage, the
object of which was to discover a north-west passage by
way of Behring Strait. He discovered the Sandwich Isl-
ands in 1778, and explored Behring Strait. Having re-
turned to Hawaii to pass the winter, the natives of that
island stole one of his boats. Captain Cook with a few
men went on shore to recover it, and was killed by the
savages Feb. 14, 1779. (See A. KIPPIs, “Life of Captain
James Cook,” 1788; HARTLEY COLERIDGE, “Lives of Dis-
tinguished Northerns,” vol. iii.) -
Cook (RUSSELL STURGIs), a Congregational clergyman,
born at New Marlborough, Mass., Mar. 6, 1811. From
1839 to 1856 he was one of the secretaries of the American
Tract Society, and was the originator of its system of col-
portage. Died at Pleasant Valley, N. Y., Sept. 4, 1864.
Cook (ZEBEDEE), son of Zebedee Cook and Sarah
Knight, was born in Newburyport, Mass., Jan. 11, 1786.
FIis ancestors came from Devonshire, England. Born of
parents in humble circumstances, he had few advantages
in the way of schooling, and went early to Boston to seek
his fortune, and from about 1815 to 1838 was engaged
there in the business of insurance. He was among the
first to introduce into this country the system of mutual
insurance, and in 1838 was invited to New York to be the
president of the first company established in that city on
the system of a division of the profits between the insurers
and the insured. This company was called the Mutual
Safety Insurance Company, and was engaged entirely in
marine business. While living in Boston, Mr. Cook, al-
ways much interested in rural pursuits, gave the first
impulse to the formation of the Horticultural Society
by an article in the “New England Farmer” for Jan. 9,
1829. On Feb. 24th of the same year a meeting was held
in Mr. Cook’s office to found a horticultural society, and
as the result of this and subsequent efforts the Massachu-
setts Horticultural Society was incorporated June 12, 1829.
Gen. Dearborn was the first president and Mr. Cook first
vice-president. In 1834, on the resignation of Gen. Dear-
born, Mr. Cook was elected president in his place. He
introduced the Isabella grape into New England from cut-
tings. To Mr. Cook as much as to any one belongs the
credit of founding the cemetery of Mount Auburn, the first
of these institutions, we believe, in the country. Mr. Cook
was twice married. Caroline Tuttle, his first wife, was a
granddaughter of Col. David Mason, one of Washington’s
aides—a man distinguished for his courage and patriotism,
and for his interest in the scientific discoveries of his time.
By this lady Mr. Cook had nine children. His second
wife was Ann Somes, daughter of Hon. Israel Trask. She
brought him no children, and still survives him. Died in
Framingham, Mass., Jan. 24, 1858.
Cooke, a county in the N. of Texas. Area, 900 square
miles. It is bounded on the N. by Red River. The soil is
mostly fertile, and is extensively covered with forests.
Grain and some cotton are raised. Capital, Gainsville.
Pop. 5315.
Cooke (AMos STARR), REv., a Congregational mission-
ary, born in Danbury, Conn., in 1810, graduated at Yale
in 1834. He sailed from Boston in the service of the Amer-
ican Board of Foreign Missions in 1836, and arrived at the
Sandwich Islands in April, 1837. In that year he took
charge of the education of the royalty and nobility of the
realm. He remained in charge of the royal School for
twelve years, and exerted a controlling influence in shap-
ing the character of the rising kings and nobles; and the
last three Kamehamehas were educated by him. Died at
Honolulu Mar. 20, 1871.
Cooke (EDWARD), D. D., an American clergyman and
educator, born at Bethlehem, N. H., Jan. 19, 1812, gradu-
uated with honor at Middletown in 1838. He was teacher
of natural science in the Amenia Seminary, in Dutchess
COOKE–COOKERY.
1143
county, N. Y., and afterwards principal of the newly-
founded seminary at Pennington, N. J., 1840–47, and min-
ister in various Methodist Episcopal churches at Boston
and elsewhere until 1853. He took the direction of the
institute now known as Lawrence University in Apple-
ton, Wis., the presidency of which in its more prosperous
days was again offered him, but declined. Returning to
the East in 1861, he was two years pastor of the Harvard
street church in Cambridge, Mass., where he was one of
the board of examiners of Harvard College, which conferred
upon him the degree of D. D. in 1855. In 1864, Dr. Cooke
was elected to the principalship of the Wesleyan Academy
at Wilbraham, Mass., one of the oldest Methodist literary
institutes in America. g
Cooke (GEORGE FREDERICK), a popular English actor,
born in Westminster in 1755. He performed in Dublin
and London for many years, was successful in both tragedy
and comedy, and was a rival of John Kemble. In 1810 he
visited New York, where he died in 1812.
Cooke (JAY), an American financier, born in Sandusky,
O., Aug. 10, 1821, went to Philadelphia in 1838, and be-
came a clerk in the banking-house of E. W. Clark & Co.,
of which he became a partner at the age of twenty-one.
He established the firm of “Jay Cooke & Co.” in 1861,
and became well known as a successful government agent
for the war-loans during the civil war of 1861–65. The
firm to which he belonged subsequently became agents for
the Northern Pacific R. R., and their suspension of pay-
ments in 1873 was one of the causes of the financial panic
of that year.
Cooke (John ESTEN), a novelist and lawyer, born at
Winchester, Va., Nov. 3, 1830. He published, besides other
works, “Leather Stocking and Silk" (1854), “The Vir-
ginia Comedians’ (1854), and a “Life of General Robert
E. Lee '' (1871). He served as an officer in the Confeder-
ate army in the civil war.
Cooke (John R.), an American lawyer, a brother of
General P. St. G. Cooke (noticed below), born in Bermuda
in 1788, became a prominent and influential member of the
Virginia bar. He was greatly beloved in private life, and
was called “a model of lofty courtesy, chivalry, and gen-
erosity.” Died at Richmond, Va., Dec. 10, 1854.
Cooke (Josſ AH PARSONs, J.R.), an American chemist,
was born at Boston, Mass., Oct. 12, 1827, and graduated at
Harvard in 1848. He became in 1851 Erving professor of
chemistry and mineralogy in Harvard University. He has
published “Chemical Physics” (1860), an admirable work
entitled “Religion and Chemistry” (1864), “Principles
of Chemical Philosophy” (1870), and many valuable mon-
ographs.
Cooke (NICHOLAs), born at Providence, R. I., Feb. 3,
1717, was deputy-governor of his native State in 1775,
and governor of the State (1775–78). He was a personal
friend of General Washington. Died Sept. 14, 1782.
Cooke (PARSONs), D. D., born at Hadley, Mass., Feb.
18, 1800, graduated at Williams College in 1822. He is
best known as an able controversialist, and was for many
years (from 1840) editor-in-chief of the “New England
Puritan * and the “Boston Recorder.” Died at Lynn,
Mass., Feb. 12, 1864.
Cooke (PHILIP ST. GEORGE), an American officer, born
1809 in Berkeley co., Va., graduated at West Point in 1827,
and Nov. 12, 1861, brigadier-general U. S. A. He served
as infantry officer on the Western frontier 1827–33; in
Black Hawk war 1832, engaged in the battle of Bad Axe ;
and adjutant Sixth Infantry 1832–33. As a dragoon offi-
cer he served on frontier duty 1833–46; on expedition to
California during the war with Mexico 1846–47 (brevet
lieutenant-colonel); as superintendent of cavalry recruiting
1848–52; on frontier duty and scouting 1852–56, engaged
in skirmishes against hostile Indian tribes; quelling the
Kansas disturbances 1856–57; on Utah expedition, in com-
mand of the cavalry, 1857–58; preparing cavalry tactics
1859; and in command of Utah 1860–61. In the civil war
he was in Virginia, Peninsula, 1862, engaged at Yorktown,
Williamsburg, Gaines’ Mill, and Glendale; in command
of Baton Rouge district, La., 1863–64; superintendent of
recruiting 1864–66; in command of the department of the
Platte 1866–67, and afterwards of the department of the
Lakes. Brevet major-general Mar. 13, 1865. He studied law
and was admitted to practice, and is the author of “Scenes
and Adventures in the Army,” 1856. Retired from active
service Oct. 29, 1873. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Cook'ery [Fr. la cuisine ; Ger. Kochen or Kochkunst;
Lat. ars culinaria] is the art of preparing food for the table
by dressing and by the agency of fire. We have no record
of a time when cooking was wholly unknown, and it is high-
ly probable that the practice began soon after the discovery
of fire. So universal is the art that some writers have re-
garded it as the distinguishing trait of the human family,
and have defined man as “a cooking animal.” In its rudi-
mentary form, as seen among the lower races of men, no uten-
sils are employed, but the food is either laid directly upon
the fire or suspended above it from poles. The degree of
skill and taste manifested by a nation in the preparation
of food may be regarded as to a very considerable extent
proportioned to its culture and refinement. We read in the
Scriptures that Abraham prepared “cakes of fine meal *
and “a calf, tender and good,” which, with butter and
milk, he set before the three angels in the plains of Mamre.
We are told of the chief butler and chief baker as officers
in the household of Pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians ap-
pear to have eaten the flesh of a few animals, together
with bread made of barley, wheat, or the centre of the
lotus (see NELUMBIUM), and great quantities of vegetables.
In the Homeric age of simplicity, royal Greeks were con-
tent to cook their own meats, but before the time of Peri-
cles professional cooks of great skill were known in Greece.
These cooks stood in the market at Athens ready to be
hired for particular occasions. Magnificent banquets were
prepared at an enormous expense, and poets and philoso-
phers appear to have thought it no unworthy ambition to
be distinguished as the inventors of a new cake or a pop-
ular sauce. The names of many authors of cook-books are
preserved, that of Archestratus, a poet of Syracuse, being
the most famous. Among all classes of Greeks fish was
a principal article of food. Large quantities of salt fish
were brought from the shores of the Euxine and Helles-
pont. These, with meal, cheese, and onions, are said to
have formed the chief food of the armies and navies when
on service. The Greeks ate the flesh of sheep, pigs, lambs,
and goats, though vegetables appear to have constituted
their principal food. They had also poultry, game, and
sausages made of blood. e
In the early days of Rome a gruel made of barley was
the chief food of the people, and with vegetables was, till
later times, the usual fare of the inferior classes, meat be-
ing used but sparingly. By degrees, however, a taste for
luxury was imported. Lucullus introduced habits of epi-
curism from Asia; the gourmand Apicius earned for him-
self a deathless name by the costliness of his dishes. The
wealthy Romans paid especial attention to the elegant
serving of their table, as well as to the quality of the
viands. With them, as with the Greeks, fish was a neces-
sity as well as a luxury; they took great pains to procure
their oysters, and gave large sums for other fish. In the
later days of the republic and under the empire a taste for
extravagant and eccentric cookery was indulged at an un-
heard-of expense. Lucullus gave banquets at a cost of
50,000 denarii each.* A single dish composed of nightin-
gales' tongues, the brains of peacocks and pheasants, and
the livers of the most costly fish, is said to have cost Vitel-
lius the sum of 1000 sestercia, equal to nearly $40,000, and
probably equivalent to $300,000 at the present time. Many
similar absurdities might be mentioned. The favorite meat
at this time among the Romans was pork, and “hog in
Trojan style” was looked upon as the chef-d'oeuvre of a
good cook. . This dish was derived from the Greeks. The
animal was served whole, being roasted on one side and
boiled on the other, and its interior was filled with num-
bers of ortolans, thrushes, and beccaficoes.
The pistor (baker), who made the bread and pastry, and
the structor, who composed artificial figures of fruit or flesh,
and who also arranged the dishes, seem to have shared the
duties of the cook. The Romans made a free use of oil in
the preparation of their food. The Greeks and Romans
used honey for the purposes for which we use sugar. It
was an ancient saying that the number of persons at a re-
past should not be less than that of the Graces nor more
than that of the Muses.
With the invasions of the northern barbarians in the fifth
century the art of cookery retired into the convents, and
was only revived five hundred years later with the rising
power of the free cities of Italy—Venice, Florence, etc.
Catharine de Médicis introduced the luxuries of Italian
cookery into France during the reign of Henry II. Eng-
land is said to have been indebted to William the Norman
for her first lessons in the refinements of gastronomy. At
a later period the taste for luxurious living had become so
common in English monasteries that it was found necessary
to limit the excesses of the monks and clergy by an edict.
In modern times the French have excelled all other na-
tions in cookery, considered as an art. In the reign of
Louis XIV. sumptuous and extravagant cookery was in
vogue among the higher classes, but during the succeed-
ing reigns its character was greatly modified and refined.
* More than $7000 of our money, but, if we take into consid:
eration the relative scarcity of the precious metals, probably
equivalent to $60,000 at the present time.
1144
COOKMAN–COOPER.
American cookery may be said to be derived in about
equal measure from the English and the French. From
the former we have derived our simpler and more sub-
stantial dishes, such as roasts, steaks, and some kinds of
pastry—from the latter the more delicate and complicated
side-dishes and desserts.
Cook'man (GEORGE G.), an eminent pulpit-orator of
the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born at Hull, Eng-
land, in 1800. While engaged in business he was a local
preacher in the U. S., and afterwards in England. Having
returned to the U. S. in 1825, he entered the itinerant ranks
in 1826, and soon became distinguished as a preacher of
great ability and success. He was chaplain to the House
of Representatives (1838–39). He was lost at sea on the
steamer President while on a voyage to Europe in 1841.
Cook'shire, a post-village, capital of Compton co.,
Quebec (Canada). It is in Eaton township. Pop. about
400.
Cook’s In’let, a part of the Pacific Ocean, is in Alaska,
opposite the island of Kodiak, between lat. 58° and 61° N.,
and lon. 151° and 154° W. It is 130 miles long.
Cookstown, a post-village of Simcoe co., Ontario
(Canada), has an active trade and a postal savings bank.
Pop. about 500.
Cook'ville, a post-village, capital of Putnam co.,
Tenn., about 80 miles E. of Nashville. It has one weekly
newspaper. Pop. 156. J. BUCK, J.R., E.D. “NEws.”
Cool’baugh, a post-township of Monroe co., Pa. Pop.
1028.
Coo’ley (LEROY C.), born in Lyme, N.Y., in 1833, grad-
uated at the New York State Normal School in 1855 and
at Union College in 1858. He was a teacher in seminaries
at Lockport, Fairfield, and Cooperstown, N. Y., and in 1861
became professor of natural sciences in New York State
Normal School at Albany. He is the author of text-books
of natural philosophy, physics, and chemistry.
Cooley (THOMAS M.), a jurist, born at Attica, N. Y.,
Jan. 6, 1824, removed to Michigan in 1843, and became a
lawyer in 1846. He has published many volumes of legal
reports, digests, and compilations. He became professor
of law in Michigan University in 1850, and a justice in the
supreme court of Michigan in 1864, and chief-justice in
1867. º
Coo’Iidge (CARLos), LL.D., was born at Windsor, Vt.,
in 1792, graduated at Middlebury in 1811, became a prom-
inent lawyer and State politician, and governor of Ver-
mont (1849–51). Died Aug. 15, 1866.
Cool Spring, a township of La Porte co., Ind. Pop.
1328.
Cool Spring, a post-township of Iredell co., N. C.
Pop. 711.
Cool Spring, a township and village of Washington
co., N. C. The village is about 125 miles E. of Raleigh.
Pop. of township, 1561.
Cool Spring, a township of Mercer co., Pa. Pop. 865.
Cool Springs, a township of Rutherford co., N. C.
Pop. 1031.
Cool/ville, a post-village of Troy township, Athens co.,
0. Pop. 334.
Coo’Iy, or Coo’lie, a Hindostanee word of Arabic
origin, signifying a “slave ’’ or “common laborer,” has of
late been applied especially to emigrants from India and
China, who have superseded the negroes in large numbers
since the abolition of slavery in the West Indies. Coolies
are said to have been employed in the Mauritius as early
as 1834, and were afterwards introduced into the West In-
dian colonies, Cuba, Peru, British Guiana, and other coun-
tries. (See EMIGRATION.)
Coomas'sie, the capital of the kingdom of Ashantee,
in Western Africa, is about 120 miles N. N. W. of Cape
Coast Castle; lat. 6° 35' N., lon. 2° 12' W. It has a forti-
fied royal palace. Pop. estimated at 20,000.
Coombe (WILLIAM), an English humorous and satirical
writer, born at Bristol in 1741. Among his works are a
“Tour of Doctor Syntax in Search of the Picturesque”
(1812), and “Tour of Doctor Syntax in Search of a Wife,”
both in verse. Died Jan. 19, 1823.
Coon, a township of Buena Vista co., Ia. Pop. 385.
Coon, a township of Vernon co., Wis. Pop. 708.
Coonſtie, or Coon’ta [an Indian word], the popular
name of the Zamia integrifolia, a plant of the natural
order Cycadaceae, a native of Southern Florida. Its stem
abounds in starch, from which a part of the Florida arrow-
root is prepared. Other species of the genus are cultivated
in the Bahamas and in Asia for their starch, which, however,
is usually classed as SAGO (which see). Florida once pro-
Capital, Boonville.
in 1819, “Precaution,”
duced great quantities of this commodity, of which the
quality is often excellent.
Coop'er, a county in Central Missouri. Area, 558
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Missouri
River and intersected by the Lamine River. The surface
is undulating and hilly; the soil is very fertile. Grain,
tobacco, and wool are raised. It contains rich mines of
iron, coal, and lead, and quarries of marble and limestone.
It is traversed by a branch of the Missouri Pacific R. R.
Pop. 20,692.
Cooper, a township of Sangamon co., Ill. Pop. 785.
Cooper, a post-township of Washington co., Me. Pop.
60.
Cooper, a township and post-village of Kalamazoo co.,
Mich. Total pop. 1254. -
Cooper, a township of Gentry co., Mo. Pop. 1498.
Cooper, a township of Montour co., Pa. Pop. 414.
Cooper, a post-village, capital of Delta co., Tex., near
the geographical centre of the county.
Cooper, a township of Mason co., West Va. P. 1204.
Cooper (ANTHoNY ASHLEY). See SHAFTESBURY.
Coop'er (Sir AstDEY PASTON), F. R. S., LL.D., D. C. L.,
an eminent English surgeon, born at Brooke, in Norfolk,
Aug. 23, 1768. He began to study surgery under Mr.
Cline in London in 1784. He became professor of anat-
omy at Surgeon’s Hall in 1792, and surgeon to Guy’s Hos-
pital in 1800. In 1805 he was chosen a fellow of the Royal
Society. He gained distinction by a valuable work on
hernia (1804–07), and practised surgery with great success
in London. His annual income is said to have amounted
to £21,000. He was appointed surgeon to the king in
1828. Among his works are “The Principles and Practice
of Surgery '' (1836–37), a treatise “On Dislocations and
Fractures” (1822), and one on the “Anatomy and Diseases
of the Breast” (1829–40). Died Feb. 12, 1841. (See B.
B. CoopBR, “Life of Sir Astley P. Cooper,” 1843.)
Cooper (JAMEs), GENERAL, was born in Frederick co.,
Md., May 8, 1810, graduated at Washington College, Pa.,
in 1831, studied law with Thaddeus Stevens, was a Whig
member of Congress from Pennsylvania (1839–43), and was
a leading opponent of the repudiation movement in Penn-
sylvania in 1847. He was attorney-general of Pennsyl-
vania in 1848, U. S. Senator from 1849–55, appointed brig-
adier-general of Union volunteers in 1861, served in Vir-
ginia, and died at Columbus, O., Mar. 28, 1863. .
Cooper (JAMES FENIMORE), a popular American nov-
elist, born at Burlington, N. J., Sept. 15, 1789, was a
son of Judge William Cooper. The latter removed to
Otsego co., N. Y., about 1790, and founded Cooperstown.
Young Cooper entered Yale College in 1802, and became a
midshipman in the U. S. navy in 1806. In 1811 he quit-
ted the naval service and married Susan de Lancey, a
sister of Bishop de Lancey. He published anonymously,
° a novel, which was considered a
failure. In 1822 he produced “The Spy, a Tale of the
Neutral Ground,” which had great success, was repub-
lished in various parts of Europe, and translated into sev-
eral languages. “The Spy" opened a new and fresh field
of national and imaginative literature. His next work
was the “Pioneers” (1823), in which he gave a graphic
description of American scenery and the adventures of life
on the frontier of civilization. He published in 1823 “The
Pilot,” a tale of the sea, which was very popular. He rep-
resented with great success in this work the character of
sailors and peculiar phases of maritime life and scenery.
In the “Last of the Mohicans” (1826) he gave a vivid
picture of the life and character of American savages and
trappers. In 1827 he visited Europe, where he remained
nearly six years, during which he published “The Prairie.”
(1827), “The Red Rover,” an admired tale of the sea, and
other works. He criticised and satirized the national de-
fects and foibles of the Americans in “The Monikins’’
(1835), “Homeward Bound” (1838), and “Home as
Found” (1838). Among his other works are a “History
of the Navy of the United States” (1839), “The Path-
finder” (1840), “Wing-and-Wing” (1842), “Afloat and
Ashore” (1844), “The Chain-Bearer” (1845), and “Oak
Openings” (1848). Died at Cooperstown Sept. 14, 1851.
: “He wrote for mankind at large,” says W. C. Bryant;
“hence it is that he has earned a fame wider than any
[American] author of modern times. The creations of his
genius shall survive through centuries to come, and only
perish with our language.” “His writings,” says Pres-
cott, “are instinct with the spirit of nationality. In his
productions every American must take an honest pride;
for surely no one has succeeded like Cooper in the por-
traiture of American character, or has given such glowing
and eminently truthful pictures of American scenery.” In
COOPER,
1145
person he was well formed, dignified, and had an imposing
presence. (See “North American Review” for July, 1822,
July, 1826, April, 1831, and Oct., 1859; ALLIBONE, “Dic-
tionary of Authors.”)
Cooper (MYLEs), gLL.D., Oxon., an accomplished
scholar, second presidiºt of King's College (now called
Columbia College), New York City, born in England in
1735, and educated at Oxford, became a fellow in Queen’s
College. He came to America in 1762, as assistant to Dr.
Samuel Johnson, first president of King's College, and
was made president in May, 1763. In the revolt of the
colonies he remained loyal to the Crown, and was com-
pelled to flee the country. He became one of the ministers
of the English chapel in Edinburgh. Died at Edinburgh
May 1, 1785.
Cooper (PETER), an American manufacturer, inventor,
and philanthropist, was born in the city of New York Feb.
12, 1791. His early life was one of labor and struggle, as it
is with most of our successful men in this country. He
commenced in early boyhood to help his father as a manu-
facturer of hats. He attended school only for half of each
day for a single year, and beyond this very humble instruc-
tion his acquisitions were all his own. At the age of sev-
enteen he was placed with John Woodward to learn the
trade of coachmaking. In this trade he served his appren-
ticeship so much to the satisfaction of his master that the
latter offered to set him up in business, but this he declined,
on account of the debt and obligation it would involve.
The foundation of Mr. Cooper's fortune was laid in the
opportune invention of an improvement in machines for
shearing cloth. This was largely called into use during the
war of 1812 with England, when all importations of cloth
from that country were stopped. The machines lost their
value, however, on the declaration of peace. Mr. Cooper
then turned his shop into the manufacture of cabinet-ware.
He afterwards went into the grocery business in New York,
and finally he engaged in the manufacture of glue and isin-
glass, which he has carried on for more than fifty years. Mr.
Cooper in three particulars—as a capitalist and manufac-.
turer, as an inventor, and as a philanthropist—is connected
with some of the most important and useful accessions to
the industrial arts of this country, its progress in inven-
tion, and the promotion of educational and benevolent in-
stitutions intended for the people at large. His attention
was early called to the great resources of this country for
the manufacture of iron. In 1830 he erected works in Can-
ton, near Baltimore. Subsequently he erected a rolling and
a wire mill in the city of New York, in which he first success-
fully applied anthracite to the puddling of iron. In 1845
he removed the machinery to Trenton, N. J., where he
erected the largest rolling-mill at that time in the U. S. for
the manufacture of railroad iron. In these works he was
the first to roll wrought-iron beams for fireproof buildings.
These works have now grown to be very extensive, includ-
ing mines, blast furnaces, and water-power.
While in Baltimore, Mr. Cooper built, in 1830, after his
own designs, the first locomotive engine ever constructed
on this continent. It was successfully operated on the
Baltimore and Ohio R. R. Next we find Mr. Cooper taking
great interest and investing large capital in the extension
of the electric telegraph. He was the first and only presi-
dent of the New York Newfoundland and London Tele-
graph Company, which continued its operations for eigh-
teen years. He was honorary director of the Atlantic Tele-
graph Company, president of the American Telegraph
Company, and president of the North American Telegraph
Association, which at one time represented more than two-
thirds of all the lines in the U. S. He took part actively
in the first expedition that laid the Atlantic cable in 1854.
Mr. Cooper interested himself early in the New York
State canals. Before the water was let into the Erie Canal
it was an anxious question what was the best propelling
power for the boats to be employed on the canal. Mr.
Cooper then made an interesting experiment of propelling
a boat by means of an endless chain two miles long, sup-
ported on posts and rollers, which was driven by the force
of elevated water, and might be driven by any other power.
By means of this he propelled a boat two miles in eleven
minutes, carrying with him the governor, De Witt Clinton,
and other distinguished men at that time. Although this
method of propulsion was not adopted at that time, it has
since been successfully and very usefully applied by Mr.
Weltch in passing boats through the locks of the Delaware
and Raritan Canal.
Mr. Cooper has served in both branches of the New York
common council. He was a trustee in the Public School
Society, first formed to promote public schools in New York,
and when that was merged in the board of education he
became a school commissioner.
But the most cherished object of Mr. Cooper's life, early
conceived and faithfully carried out as soon as his means
permitted, was the establishment of an institution for the
instruction of the industrial classes. He desired to furnish
this instruction during their leisure from work or in the
evenings, when they might obtain higher attainments in
the practical arts in which they happened to be engaged,
or learn some industrial pursuit they might desire. , Hay-
ing felt the need of this sort of instruction during his own
early and laborious life, and knowing that neither the
common school nor the academy and college can supply
the technical knowledge and practical education needed by
the great mass of youth, Mr. Cooper determined to set an
example in supplying this want of practical instruction for
the working classes, that should prove not only useful in
his own city, but be contagious throughout our republican
land. He saw, with that wise forecast as well as broad
philanthropy which characterizes his mind, that the youth
must be trained to industry under an advancing and higher
order of work which machinery was introducing. Accord-
ingly, in the year 1854 he laid the corner-stone of a large
building at the junction of the Third and Fourth avenues
in New York, “to be devoted for ever to the union of art
and science in their application to the useful purposes of
life.” This institution has grown under the fostering care
of the trustees appointed by Mr. Cooper and his own
watchful and unremitting attention, until at the present
time it counts over 1500 pupils in the course of the year.
It has a school of art for women, taught in the daytime,
in which frce instruction is given in all branches of draw-
ing, in painting, wood-engraving, and photography. It
has likewise a free school of telegraphy for young women.
These various schools for the daytime accommodate about
200.
In the evening are opened the free schools of science and )
art for young men and women. Here the mathematics,
practical engineering, and practical chemistry are thor-
oughly taught, and free lectures are given in matural phil-
osophy and the elements of chemistry. In the art depart-
ment every branch of drawing and painting is taught.
Besides these free schools, there is a large free reading-
room and library at the disposal of all comers. About
1500 resort to this daily, where they have free access to
280 periodicals and papers, foreign and domestie, and
about 10,000 volumes. Besides this, there is a free course
of lectures given every Saturday evening during the winter
in the large hall of the Cooper Union, that will seat 2000.
Last year there was spent over $56,000 for the support of
the different departments.
Mr. Cooper is now in his eighty-third year, and has re-
tired from active business, but his mind is still fresh and
active, and still bent on public enterprises and the public
good. J. C. ZACHOs, Curator of Cooper Union.
Cooper (PHILIP H.), born Aug. 5, 1844, in the State
of New York, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1863,
became a master in 1865, a lieutenant in 1866, and a lieu-
tenant-commander in 1868. He served in the steam-sloop
Richmond at the battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864, and
was commended “for coolness and courage * on that occa-
sion by his commanding officer, Captain Thornton A.
Jenkins. Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Cooper (SAMUEL), D.D., an eloquent and learned Amer-
ican divine, born at Boston Mar. 28, 1725, graduated at
Harvard in 1743. He became pastor of the church in
Brattle street, Boston, in 1746, and was intimate with Doctor
Pranklin. He was an efficient promoter of the popular
cause in the Revolution. Died Dec. 29, 1783.
Cooper (SAMUEL), an American general, born in the
State of New York about 1795, graduated at West Point in
1815. He became a captain in 1836, and served in the
Mexican war (1846–47). In 1852 he was appointed adju-
tant-general with the rank of colonel. Having resigned his
commission in Mar., 1861, he soon became adjutant-general
of the Confederate army, and was promoted to the rank of
full general. He served as such until the end of the war.
Cooper (SUSAN FENIMORE), the eldest daughter of the
great novelist, was born in 1815, and has published “Rural
Hours” (1850), “Rhyme and Reason of Country Life”
(1854), “Country Rambles,” and other works characterized
by refined taste and admirable style.
Cooper (THoMAs APTHORPE), an actor, born in London
in 1776, played with much applause in London and the
U. S. His daughter married a son of President Tyler,
under whom Cooper held various government offices. Died
at Bristol, Pa., April 21, 1849. ->
Cooper (THOMAs), M. D., LL.D., a natural philosopher,
physician, and lawyer, born in London Oct. 22, 1759. He
accompanied Dr. Priestley to the U. S. in 1792, became a
Democrat, and took an active part in politics. In 1820 he
was chosen president of South Carolina, College at Co-
lumbia. He published many learned and vigorous pamph-
1146
COOPER—CO-OPERATION.
lets on politics, and several important legal works. Died
May 11, 1839.
Cooper (THOMAS SIDNEY), an English painter, born at
Canterbury Sept. 26, 1803. He has painted cattle and sheep
with great success.
Coop'erage [from cooper, a “barrel-maker;” in Old
English coop (Ger. Kufe) signified a “cask”], the art of
making various wooden vessels, such as barrels, casks, etc.,
the sides of which are formed of upright pieces called staves,
so skilfully shaped that when all are built and hooped to-
gether, their edges shall exactly coincide; the staves are
made broadest in the middle, and narrowed in a curved
line towards each end; they are made to meet at their inner
edges, and by driving the hoops are compressed until the
outside gaps are closed, and thus slight inaccuracies of
fitting are remedied. The hoops are hammered down from
the narrow to the wide part of the vessel by means of a
mallet striking a piece of wood held against the hoop. Both
wood and iron are used for hoops. The cutting of staves
is largely done by machinery. Iron hoops are sometimes
put on hot, in order that their contraction on cooling may
bind the work together.
Co-opera’tion [from the Lat. co (con), “together,”
and operor, operatus, to “work”] is the name given to the
attempts made within the last forty years, both in Europe
and the U. S., but chiefly in France and England, to in-
troduce into the relations under which ordinary and indis-
pensable operations of industry, production, and distribu-
tion are carried on, principles which may
“IRing out the feud of rich and poor
Bing in redress for all mankind,”
and thus realize gradually, without any violent shock to
existing customs, those brilliant anticipations of a “good
time coming,” and attainable by man through his own
exertions, which in the earlier part of the century the
efforts and teaching of three remarkable men—Claude
Henri Conte de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, and Robert
Owen—kindled in the imaginations of their disciples. It
would occupy far more space than we can spare to give
even an outline of the principles by which the divergent
theories of these illustrious social reformers are distin-
guished. (For a literally full, fair, and very readable ac-
count of them we may refer those who are interested in
such studies to the “Les Réformateurs Contemporains" of
LOUIS REYBEAUD, Paris, 1841.) Still less can we give here
the history of the schools of thought which arise out of
their teachings, or attempt to trace the variety of social
systems produced by the successors of these breakers of
the fallow ground—men such as J. P. Greaves in England
and Pierre Leroux, Cabeh, and Proudhon in France. One
exception only we must make in favor of M. Louis Blanc,
from the influence exercised by his work, “L’organisation
du Travail,” published in 1840, on the subsequent progress
of co-operation.
The systems of Saint-Simon, of Fourier, and of Owen
have the common character of claiming to be revelations
of a code of principles or laws by which the whole life of
man shall be transformed as by an enchanter’s wand, and
a new-created world of moral order and material prosperity
spring up in place of our present civilization. Louis Blanc
proposed to start from things as they are, and for that pur-
pose suggested a scheme of which he gives the following
outline : The government should take upon itself the su-
preme regulation of production and the task of putting an
end to competition, in which it must slay the evil genius
of society by arms borrowed from competition itself. To
effect this task the government shall raise a loan, of which
the proceeds shall be applied to the creation, in all the
more important branches of national industry, of a num-
ber of social factories, originally rigorously circumscribed
on account of the considerable outlay required for their
construction, but organized so as to have an unlimited
power of expansion. The government shall draw up the
regulations of these factories, which shall be discussed and
voted by the representatives of the nation, and thus have
the force of law. All workmen who can offer guarantees
for their character shall be admitted to work in them up
to the limits of the number for whom the original capital
can furnish the means of work. And (notwithstanding
the difficulty caused by the false education given to the
existing generation, which furnishes no motives for energy
and emulation except an increase of reward) the salaries
shall be equal, for the new education may be trusted to
change ideas and customs. During the first year after the
establishment of any factory the government shall regu-
late the hierarchy of functions. At its termination a hier-
archy shall be formed by the election of the workers, who
will then have had time enough to appreciate each other,
and will all be equally interested in the success of the as-
Sociation. For in every year the profits of the work shall
be divided into three parts : one to be equally distributed
among all the members; a second to be devoted, first, to
the support of the aged, the sick, and the infirm ; second,
to the alleviation of any crisis affecting any other industry,
since all the industries should aid each other; while the
third shall be consecrated to furniš, the means of work to
those who desire to join the assóðiation, so that it may
grow indefinitely. Workers engaged in occupations natur-
ally disposed to scatter and localize themselves shall be ad-
missible into the associations formed for industries which
can be carried on upon a large scale; so that each social
factory may be composed of different businesses grouped
round some great industry, parts of the same whole, obey-
ing the same laws, and sharing in the same advantages.
Bach member of a social factory shall be entitled to dis-
pose of his salary at his own pleasure, for the evident
economy and incontestable excellence of life in common
will ere long produce from the association of labor a volum-
tary association for necessities and pleasures. Capitalists
may be admitted into these associations, and draw the in-
terest upon the capital contributed by them, which shall be
guaranteed by the budget, but shall not be allowed to share
in profits except as workers. (Organisation du Travail,
Paris, 1848, pp. 103–105.)
Such was the scheme of which Louis Blanc anticipated
that were it tried it would lead to the suppression of com-
petition by the absorption of all industries carried on upon
any other system, and prepare the way “for the realiza-
tion of the principle of fraternity, which must be the work
of instruction.” “Thus would the day arrive when it
would be recognized that he owes more to his kind who has
received from God a large measure of strength or intelli-
gence. Then would genius assert its legitimate empire not
by the importance of the tribute levied on society, but by
the importance of the services rendered to it.” “For the
inequality of capacities has as its true object not the ine-
quality of rights, but the inequality of duties.” (Ib., p. 118.)
It will be seen that this remarkable scheme is character-
ized by that tendency too common in many French pro-
posals, of relying upon the government to do for the people
what they despair of being able to do for themselves. Never-
theless, it marks a great epoch in the history of social re-
form, by the clearness with which it pointed out three
principles ever since more or less distinctly felt to be the
life-blood of co-operative efforts: Ist, the looking to the
association of workers carrying on their accustomed work
in common as the true means of raising their social condi-
tion through the use of the profits arising from their work;
2d, the restricting the payment of capital to a fixed rate
of interest, and giving the capitalist security for his prin-
cipal in lieu of profit; 3d, the elimination of the ruinous
effects of competition, and the substitution of a healthy
emulation in its place, by the union of different estáblish-
ments carrying on the same industry by common centres,
by means of which diverse industries may also be united.
Thus, setting aside the arbitrary rule of an absolute equality
of salaries, which experience has not justified where the
attempt to act upon it has been tried, and which seems to
us to err as much by sacrificing the individual to the body
as the present inequality of payment errs in sacrificing the
body to the individual,—this organisation du travail may
still be regarded as the prolific egg out of which the ideas
of co-operation sprang in France, and which has had no
inconsiderable influence on the ideas of co-operators in
England. There the scheme of united action, which Louis
Blanc proposed to realize through the intervention of the
government, has been gradually realizing itself through the
voluntary action of individuals, who, however, have at-
tacked the problem from another side, on which practi-
cally it is more accessible. The new societies imagined by
Fourier or Owen rested upon associations where the resi-
dents, raising their own food by the cultivation of their
own lands, and to a great extent supplying their other
wants by their own labor, would have been substantially
independent of each other, and not have needed to trouble
themselves much about the mutual exchange of their sur-
plus produce. But if the workers are to sustain them-
selves by the sale of articles which they cannot eat, as M.
Louis Blanc proposed, the command of a market through
which these sales may be effected becomes an indispensable
condition of success. Hence arises the importance of the
distributive association or store in any scheme of social im-
provement founded upon the union of artisans to carry on
their accustomed work. But how are these stores to be
formed 2 The answer practically given has been, By
unions of consumers, who shall contribute the capital
necessary to obtain the articles for their own supply, and
divide among themselves the profits arising from this sale,
which the shopkeeper, if he supplies that capital, puts into
his own pocket. Stores of this nature can be formed by
the workers for themselves without any alteration in their

A
CO-OPERATION.
1147
accustomed methods of employment. They can be formed
by a very small expenditure of capital in proportion to the
business done if the rule of cash payment for all articles
supplied by them is adopted. They have in themselves a
natural tendency to expansion, since there is no class of
persons in them interested in restricting the number of
members, while the larger the store the greater is the
security for the capital invested in it, and the smaller the
proportionate cost of distribution. They are attractive not
only by the economy which they realize, but also by the pro-
tection against adulteration afforded through their means,
since they contain no body of persons benefited by adul-
teration. They are instruments by which the workers may
gradually save up the capital needed to set themselves to
work, without feeling any burden from the operation, since
the savings are made out of a fund before inaccessible to
them—viz. the profits on their own consumption. And
this fund enables them to pay interest on the accumulations
while they are in process of being made, so that the worker,
while preparing the means of becoming his own employer,
derives a safe and increasing income from the operation.
Again, by the practice of selling at ordinary prices and
dividing the accruing profit from time to time, the store
is converted into a self-acting savings bank, by which the
frittering away of the profits in small expenses is prevented.
Thus, by laying his hands upon the thing nearest to him,
within his own reach, the supply of his own consumption,
the artisan may see the prospect held out to him by Louis
Blanc continually drawing nearer, distribution construct-
ing the road leading to production. But to complete this
road a further operation is necessary—viz. that the local
centres of supply shall be collected under some common
head, by which the aggregate wants of large districts may
be ascertained, and so a market be obtained for the pro-
ductive associations, when formed, sufficiently large to ab-
sorb their productions. Now this operation is facilitated
by the system of distribution existing in society as it is—
the well-known division of retail and wholesale trade. Be-
tween the consumer and the actual producer there intervene
at present not only the retailer, but the dealer from whom
this retailer obtains the goods he supplies, and if those
goods are not produced at home, but imported, a further
set of importers and dealers from whom they buy, and
brokers through whom these purchases are made, which
we need not specify. For their own advantage, to make
the system of self-supply complete, the consumers must
therefore form for themselves wholesale centres, whence their
local stores may obtain the goods supplied by them, and these
centres, when formed, furnish natural channels through
which the articles produced by co-operative manufacturing
societies may be distributed to the consumers, with a cer-
tainty that the proportion between supply and demand
shall always be duly preserved, since the production will
be founded upon the ascertained wants of the districts sup-
plied. Upon the system thus sketched co-operation has
grown up in the United Kingdom with a rapidity of which
the following statistics will give an idea : At the close of
1844 the celebrated Rochdale Pioneers’ Society was founded
by seventeen weavers, with a total capital of £28. At the
present time its share capital has risen to £133,000, of
which £46,000 is applied to carry on the business, £20,000
being represented by business premises, machinery, and
fixtures, and the remainder is invested in the shares of or
loans to various other societies, or in land or cottage build-
ings, of which it owns 122. At Christmas, 1872, it had
6444 members; its business during the year 1872 was
#267,000; its income from all sources, £33,646; and its
average dividend to its members on their purchases 28. 3d.
in the pound. The extent to which the example set by
Rochdale has been followed is shown by a statement com-
piled from the latest official returns, published in 1872 for
the year 1871, laid before the Co-operative Congress held
in April, 1873, at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and showing also
the localities in which co-operation has spread most widely
in England:
4 ‘l Lancashire Total of
all All other England and
Yorkshire. Counties. Wales.
Property and stock ins'd £701,570 £484,991 £1,186,564
Members end of 1871...... 157,225 104,963 262,188
Share capital “ ...... £1,863,729 £442,222 £2,305,951
Capital......... “ ...... 174,862 40,691 215,553
Cash sales during 1871.... 6,082,888 3,356,583 9,439,471
Average stock............... 658,959 374,487 1,029,446
Total expenses............... 200,747 187,974 388,721
Int. On shares and loans 82,656 18,182 100,778
Liabilities ..................... 2,157,817 708,501 2,856,318
Assets ........................... 2,308,048 717,519 3,025,567
Disposable net profits.... 438,307 232,414 670,721
Dividend to members.... 388,659 194,613 583,290
“ to non-members 10,706 51,542 16,248
Applied to, education...... 4,126 671 5,097
The statement, indeed, is not perfect, since it takes no no-
tice of Scotland, where there were 255 registered societies,
but of which 70 only had made returns to the registrar;
and it relates only to about nine-tenths of the societies be-
lieved to exist in England and Wales, because no returns
had been made from the other tenth. But of these 746,
twenty-two only were formed for manufacturing purposes
other than the preparation of flour. The collective share
capital of these societies (excluding a cotton-factory at
Rochdale, within the immediate influence of the Equitable
Pioneers, which possessed £98,656) was only £22,195, giv-
ing an average of about £1050, while the share capital of
the 724 other societies gives an average of about £3050,
although the successful conduct of manufacturing opera-
tions demands a much larger capital than is needed by a
store, which deals for ready money. This fact seems to us
a striking proof of the advantage possessed by the method
of beginning by organizing distribution, and thus accumu-
lating the capital required for productive enterprise, over
that which seeks to obtain the capital at once out of the
contributions of the intended workers. A confirmation of
this view is afforded by the experience of the Continent :
1st, in the history of French co-operation; 2d, that of the
system of co-operative banks introduced by Mr. Schultze
Delitzsch into Germany. In France a number of societies
sprung up in 1848 under the influence of the ideas of which
M. Louis Blanc's organisation du travail is the most bril-
liant expression; and of these many appear still to sub-
sist ; indeed, the number is said to have increased of late,
and of those which subsisted at the outbreak of the German
war, none failed either from the pressure of the siege or the
action of the Commune. (Letters of M. Merlot, and Mon-
sieur Herbart Valleroci’s report to Bolton Congress, 1872, p.
99.) But they do not appear to have made any striking
progress. Monsieur Merlot speaks of the want of capital
to obtain the instruments of manufacture and a reserve
fund to meet embarrassments as the great obstacles to their
success. M. C. Limousin, in a monthly journal recently
established at Paris, called “Le Bulletin du Mouvement
Social,” ascribes it—1st, to a refusal to use capital supplied
by persons outside; 2d, to the not giving any share of
profits to the workers not members; and 3d, to an extreme
distrust of those elected to direct the undertakings, so that
they are constantly removed. Now, for all these evils an
appropriate remedy appears to be provided in the creation
of a central fund for the promotion of such productive
establishments through the accumulative savings of the
consumers to whom the articles manufactured may be sold;
for of this capital the workman can feel no jealousy, since
it is really supplied by himself. The consumer may counter-
act the spirit of exclusiveness proper to the factory by the
spirit of free admission natural to the store when profits
are divided upon purchases; and they may regulate, by
the governing action of the distributive stomach, the dis-
trustful impatience of the producing members.
While France has thus been slowly groping her way to
productive union, in Germany a peculiar form of combined
action has sprung up, Suited to the condition of labor in
that country. It consists in the formation of local associ-
ations for the joint purchase of raw materials, or for ob-
taining advances of capital by the poorer classes, on terms
as advantageous as those at the command of the richer,
introduced in 1859 at the suggestion of Mr. Schultze De-
litzsch. This movement so prospered that at the end of
1871 it numbered 2059 societies with 1,200,000 mem-
bers, a subscribed capital of £4,700,000, a loan capital of
#12,750,000, and a turn-over of £60,000,000; while in as-
sociation with it there existed 404 societies connected with
manufactures, and 827 stores. (Report for 1871, by Mr.
Schultze Delitzsch, published 1872.) A similar system
has recently grown up with great promise of success in
Italy.
To complete this sketch, we must add that both in Ger-
many and in England central associations adapted to bring
the separate societies into collective action are in operation,
and are beginning to exercise a powerful influence. In
Germany the function of the central body appears at pres-
ent confined to the collection and diffusion of accurate in-
formation as to the condition of the local societies, by which
they may be guided in their dealing with each other, and
to the discussion of any matters affecting generally the in-
terests of the members. In England, while this function
has been discharged for the last four years by an annual
congress of delegates from various co-operative Societies,
and by a central board appointed by them to keep alive the
sacred fire during the rest of the year, this central board, by
the resolutions of the congress held at Newcastle in 1873,
was reorganized with the view of giving it increased effi-
ciency. A great advance towards the practical combination
of the local distributive stores into a common action for the
supply of the wants of large districts has been made by the
1148
formation in 1864, at Manchester, of the North of England
Wholesale Society, now called “The Wholesale Society,”
as thé federal head of a mass of co-operative societies, by
whom its capital is subscribed, and by whose delegates at
their quarterly meetings its governing body is appointed
and its operations controlled. Commencing with a capital
of £1000 and a business in its first year of little more than
#40,000, “The Wholesale * has grown year by year, till in
April, 1873, it embraced 277 shareholding societies with
134,276 members, and had made Sales amounting during
the last quarter to £303,697, and during the year to
£1,153,132—an increase of nearly 52 per cent. on the sales
of the year preceding. (Report of Congress at Newcastle.)
The time has arrived, in the opinion of English co-opera-
tors, when the step may safely be taken through this whole-
sale organization to manufacture articles which the consu-
mers commonly require. Accordingly, “The Wholesale” has
recently commenced the manufacture of biscuits, and has
decided to begin that of boots and shoes, in which 59 so-
cieties only in connection with it had, according to their
accounts, an annual trade of £66,876. They are also ar-
ranging to enter upon the Manchester trade for the supply
of drapery, hosiery, etc., articles constituting no inconsid-
erable part of the large amount of business done by the
stores, which does not now pass through “The Wholesale.”
This step therefore will probably open the way to other
productive fields of manufacturing enterprise.
During the last year also a very promising beginning
has been made in uniting banking business to the other
modes of co-operative effort, thus making the large accu-
mulated balances of the stores available for the extension
of co-operation.
The brief sketch given above may suffice to show how
noble a prospect lies beyond the gentle unimposing pass
leading from the world where man is the slave of capital to
the world where capital shall become the servant of man. The
housewives who watched that the kettle did not boil over
during ages past little imagined the part that steam was
one day to play, and the heads of poor families who have
joined in buying a chest of tea and dividing it amongst
them, have as little foreseen that they were playing with a
power which could turn the worker into his own employer,
and rearrange the distribution of wealth among mankind.
The student of social science will find the first act legal-
izing co-operaſ”, e societies in England in the statute-book
of 1852 (15 . .ct., c. 31), and may trace the development
of the movement in the subsequent acts 17 and 18 Vict., c.
25, 19 and 20 Vict., c. 40, 25 and 26 Vict., c. 87, 30 and 31
Vict., c. 117, and 34 and 35 Vict., c. 80.
THos. HUGHES, M. P.
Coop/er Riv'er, in South Carolina, rises in Charleston
co., and flowing south-eastwardly unites with Ashley River
to form Charleston Harbor.
Coop/er’s, a township of Edgefield co., S. C. P. 1795.
Coop'er’s Creek, a stream in the interior of Australia,
formed in Queensland by the junction of the Victoria, and
Thomson creeks, flows southward, and empties itself into
the salt lake Gregory. Cooper's Creek has a tragic interest,
from the fact of the explorers Burke and Wills having per-
ished in its vicinity. -
Coop'er’s Gap, a township of Polk co., N. C. Pop.
7. -
Coop'er’s Plains, a post-village of Erwin township,
Steuben co., N. Y., on the Rochester division of the Erie
R. R., 5 miles N. W. of Corning.
Coop’erstown, a post-township of Brown co., Ill.
Pop. 1522.
Cooperstown, a post-village, capital of Otsego co.,
N. Y., is pleasantly situated at the S. end of Otsego Lake,
69 miles W. of Albany. The lake is 9 miles long, and has
two steamboats. Cooperstown has six churches, two weekly
newspapers, a union school and academy, a hospital, an or—
phan asylum, and two national banks. The Cooperstown
and Susquehanna Valley R. R., 16 miles long, connects it
with the Albany and Susquehanna R. R. Pop., of Otsego
township, 4590. J. L. HENDRIX & SON,
PROPs. “REPUBLICAN AND DEMOCRAT.”
Cooperstown, a post-village of Jackson township,
Venango co., Pa. Pop. 264.
Cooperstown, a township and post-village of Manito-
woc co., Wis. The village is 85 miles N. of Milwaukee.
Pop. of township, 1563.
Cooper Union. See CoopFR (PETER), by J. C. ZACHOs,
Curator of Cooper Union.
Coop/ersville, or Corbeau, a post-village of Cham-
plain township, Clinton co., N. Y., on Chazy River. Pop.
205.
Cooper’s Well, an artesian mineral spring, 4 miles
Pacific coast, but is inferior to the bituminous coals.
COOPER: RIVER-COOS BAY.
from Raymond, Hinds co., Miss. Its water is an active
saline chalybeate, and is much visited for the cure of
chromic diarrhoea, dyspepsia; and many other diseases.
Co-or/dinates, in mathematics, a system of lines or
surfaces by which the position of a point is determined. If,
for example, three lines, ac, y, z, be so drawn that each is
perpendicular to the plane of the other two, lines may be
drawn from any point in space perpendicular to each of the
intersecting planes, and the length of the perpendiculars
being known, the position of the point will also be known.
Two rectilinear co-ordinates are sufficient to determine any
point in a plane. If the co-ordinates are so inclined to each
other as to form any oblique angles, determining lines may
be drawn at similar angles from the point. In polar co-
ordinates an initial axis is assumed (one extremity of
which is called the pole), and an initial plane passing
through the axis. The co-ordinates of any point are the
radius vector, its angle with the polar axis, and the angle be-
tween the vectorial and initial planes. Various other sys-
tems of co-ordinates are employed in analytical geometry;
e.g., trilinear, triangular, tetrahedral, tangential, elliptic,
spherical, etc. -
Coorg, a district of India, bounded by the Mysore ter-
ritories and the presidency of Madras, is between lat. 12°
and 13° N. Area, 2116 square miles. The surface is hilly
and covered with forests. Porcelain clay is obtained in
abundance. Sandal and other valuable woods are found.
The geological formation of the country is syenite, granite,
and greenstone. The botany and zoology of the country
comprise a great variety of species. The laws of heredi-
tary rights differ in this rajahship from those of neighbor-
ing nations, inheritances passing by the male line. The
manufactures are confined to the blankets which the people
wear. In the valleys, which are very fertile, rice is grown.
The amount of land under tillage is comparatively small.
It is drained by the river Câvery. The inhabitants are a
warlike Nair tribe. The country was annexed to the Brit-
ish dominions in 1832. It is now placed, with Mysore,
under the administration of a special commissioner. Pop.
in 1869, 118,187.
Coſos [Kóos], a New Testament name of the island of
Cos (which see).
Coos, ko-6s', a county which forms the N. extremity of
New Hampshire. Area, 1950 square miles. It is bounded
on the W. by the Connecticut River, and is drained by the
Androscoggin. The surface is mostly mountainous and
rugged. Mount Washington, the highest peak of the White
Mountains, is in the southern part of this county. It is in-
tersected by the Grand Trunk R. R. Cattle, potatoes, grain,
and wool are raised. Lumber and starch are the chief
manufactures. Capital, Lancaster. Pop. 14,932.
Coos, koos, a county in the W. of Oregon. Area, about
1300 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Pacific
Ocean, and drained by the Coquille and Coos rivers. The
surface is partly mountainous; much of the soil is very
fertile. Coal and lumber are exported from this county,
which also contains gold. Capital, Empire City. P. 1644.
Coo'sa, a river of the U. S., is formed by the Etowah
and Oostenaula, which unite at Rome in Georgia. It
crosses the eastern boundary of Alabama, flows south-west-
ward, and then southward, until it unites with the Talla-
poosa on the southern border of Elmore co., Ala. The
stream thus formed is the Alabama River. The length of
the Coosa is estimated at 350 miles.
Coosa, a county of E. Central Alabama. Area, 650
square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Coosa River.
The surface is diversified; the soil fertile. Corn, tobacco,
cotton, and wool are raised. Quarries of fine marble and
statuary granite have been opened here. The granite is
of a beautiful gray tint, and is said to be the best in the
J. S. for statuary. Iron and lead ores are also found. The
county is well watered, and especially adapted to pasturage.
Water-power is abundant. Capital, Rockford. P. 11,945.
Coosawat'chie, a post-township of Beaufort co., S. C.
Pop. 2573. -
Coos Bay, the principal seaport of Southern Oregon.
Its entrance, just N. E. of Cape Arago (lat. 43° 20' 38' N.,
lon. 124° 22' 11" W.), is very good, and its bar has fourteen
feet of water at high tide. The Coos River flows into it.
Four miles from the bar, on the S. shore, is Empire City,
the capital of Coos co.; and four miles from the mouth of
the river is Marshfield, an important coal-mining centre,
The bay is important chiefly for its vast quantities of
tertiary lignitic coal, which is found on the S. side over a
large area. It is by many regarded as the best coal on the
The
bay is surrounded by an elevated and densely timbered
region. -
lºa-
COOT -COPENHAGEN.
1149
Coot, a name applied in America to several birds, chief-
ly ducks of the genus Fuligula. Among these are the
box coot, or surf duck, of the E. and W. coasts of North
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Common European Coot.
America, the broad-billed coot, the white-winged coot or
velvet duck, and other species. In the South the name is
given to the sora rail (Ortygometra Carolina). The name
coot in England is generally applied to the Fulica atra,
a wading bird allied to the rails. The Fulica Americana,
found in nearly all parts of North America, is the bird to
which the name coot should be restricted in this country.
Coote (Sir EYRE), K. B., an able general, born in Ire-
land in 1726, went to India in 1754, became governor of
Calcutta (1757), fought at Plassey in the same year, took
Pondicherry in 1761, became commander-in-chief in India,
(1769), and defeated Hyder Ali in 1781. Died April 26,
1783. His nephew, of the same name, served against the
Americans in the Revolutionary war.
Copäiſba [a word of Brazilian origin], Balsam of, a
stimulant, diuretic, oleo-resinous drug, which has decided
value in diseases of the mucous membrane, is obtained
chiefly from Pará in Brazil, though the trees which pro-
duce it grow extensively in many parts of tropical America.
These trees are of many species or varieties, belonging to
the genus Copaifera and the order Leguminosae.
Copa’is [Gr. Koirats], the ancient name of a lake of
Boeotia, now called Topolias. It receives the river Gav-
rios, the ancient Cephissus. The extent of the lake varies
at different seasons, and in summer it nearly all disappears.
It is drained by artificial and natural subterranean chan-
nels into the sea. It was once famous for its eels.
Co/pake, a township and post-village of Columbia co.,
N. Y. The village is on the New York and Harlem R. R.,
106 miles N. of New York. Iron of excellent quality is
manufactured here. Total pop. 1847.
Co/pal [a term of Mexican origin], a name applied to
several resins used in preparing varnishes. The copal of
commerce is usually a nearly colorless, translucent sub-
stance, which is imported from tropical America, India,
and Eastern and Western Africa. The American copal
comes from leguminous trees of the genus Hymenaea and
allied genera. . Zanzibar copal is the best. It is from
Thrachylobium Hornmannianum.
Copam’, a ruined city of Central America, in Hondu-
ras, on the Copan River, about 30 miles E. of Chuquimula.
The remains, which extend nearly two miles along the river,
comprise a temple 624 feet long and several pyramidal
structures, with sculptured idols resembling those of the an-
cient Egyptians. (See STEPHENs, “Central America.”)
Copartnership. See PARTNERSHIP, by PROF. T. W.
DwighT, LL.D.
Cope [Lat. capa Fr. chapel, a sacerdotal cloak reach-
ing from the neck to the ankles, and open in front. It ap-
pears to have been modelled by Pope Stephen in 286, on
the Roman lacerma, or hood. It is one of the vestments
of the English Church, but is now seldom worn.
Cope (CHARLEs WEST), R. A., an English historical
painter, born at Leeds in 1811, was the son of an artist.
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He was elected a Royal Academician in 1848. Among his
works are “Lear and Cordelia ’’ (1850), “Royal Prisoners”
(1855), “Departure of the Pilgrim Fathers ” (1856), and
frescoes in the Parliament House.
Cope (EDWARD DRINKER), an Amer-
ican naturalist, a grandson of Thomas
P. Cope, noticed below, was born in
Philadelphia July 28, 1840. Before he
reached the age of twenty he had dis-
tinguished himself in herpetology. In
1864 he was appointed professor of nat-
ural science in Haverford College, which
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contributions to the “Proceedings of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila-
delphia,” to the “Transactions, of the
American Philosophical Society,” to Sil-
liman’s “American Journal of Science,”
and other similar journals. Among his
is most important publications are the fol-
lowing: “Primary Groups of Batrachian
Anura, ’’ (1865); “Systematic Arrange-
ment of the Lacertilia and Ophidia " and
of the Class “Reptilia’’ (1854–70);
“Systematic Relations of the Fishes'’
(1871)—the two former based on a care-
ful examination of the specimens in all
the principal museums of Europe; the
last on the unequallcd collection made
by Professor Hyrtl of Vienna (now in
the possession of Professor Cope)—“On
the Origin of Genera’’ (1868); “Syn-
opsis of the Extinct Batrachian Rep-
tilia and Aves of North America ’’ (1869–70); “On the
Hypothesis of Evolution, Physical and Metaphysical ’’
(1870); “Extinct Reptilia and Fishes of the Cretaceous
Beds of Kansas” (1872); “Systematic Relations of the
Tailed Batrachia’’ (1872), based on Doctor Baird's admi-
rable preparations (the finest ever made in that department);
and a work entitled “The Extinct Vertebrata of the Eo-
cene Formations of Wyoming ” (1873), describing many of
the most remarkable types of Mammalia ever discovered,
being the oldest known from the tertiary formations.
Cope (THOMAs PYM), a distinguished merchant of Phila-
delphia, born in Lancaster co., Pa., in 1768. He com-
menced business in Philadelphia in 1790, and in 1821 es-
tablished the first line of packets between that city and
Liverpool. To his energy Philadelphia was chiefly in-
debted for the supply of water from the Schuylkill and for
the establishment of the Mercantile Library. He was a
member of the Society of Friends. Died Nov. 22, 1854.
Copec', or Copeck, a Russian coin, said to be the
first ever used in that country as currency. The copecs
were originally made of silver, but copper copecs were
afterwards coined. The value of the copec at present is
equal to one one-hundredth part of a ruble.
Copeley, a township of Knox co., Ill. Pop. 1219.
Copenha'gen [Dan. Kjöbenhavn, i. e. “merchants’
haven’], the capital of Denmark, is situated partly on the
eastern coast of the island of Seeland and partly on the
island of Amager. It is a seaport on the Sound, near its
junction with the Baltic. Lat. 55° 40' N., lon. I2° 34' 7”
E. The site is flat, and very little elevated above the level
of the sea. It was formerly a strong fortress, and the
polygonal citadel on the north-eastern side of the city was
deemed impregnable. But that was one hundred years
ago. Now the walls are cut through and partially broken
down; the ditches are filled, and where formerly stood a
fortress, stands now a spacious, elegant promenade. In
spite of its old age, Copenhagen is a thoroughly modern
city, busy, gay, rapidly progressing in every respect. And
in spite of its comparatively small size, it is a great city
on account of the life led in it. Among its buildings must
first be named Rosenberg, the “Castle of Roses,” which, on
account of the audacious but perfect harmony of its lines,
belongs to first-class architecture. The royal palace, Chris-
tiansborg, is an immense but somewhat clumsy pile of
buildings. The university and the royal theatre, not yet
finished, are very fine buildings; also the metropolitan
church called Frue Rirke; St. Peter's, or the German
church, with a spire 250 feet high ; and the church of the
Saviour, with a spire of 288 feet. The University of Co-
%.
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penhagen, founded in 1478, is well endowed, has nearly
forty professors, about 900 students, and a library of about
125,000 volumes. A museum for natural objects has just
been erected, and is one of the most elegant buildings in
Scandinavia. Connected with it are two observatories and
a botanic garden. Here is a royal library containing 400,000








































1150
COPENHAGEN-COPPER.
volumes, besides 15,000 manuscripts. This city is the great
centre of Northern literature and art, and has several mu-
seums and collections of antiquities. The Museum of
Northern Antiquities is unique, and so is Thorwaldsen's
Museum, a mausoleum consisting of four buildings, in the
middle of which Thorwaldsen is buried under a rosebush,
while all his works are exhibited in the halls around it. The
city has a deep, spacious, and secure harbor, formed by the
channel between the islands of Seeland and Amager. Here
is the great naval station of Denmark. Copenhagen has
Some manufactures of woollen and linen cloths, porcelain,
sail-cloth, watches, leather, etc. Steam-packets ply regu-
larly between this place and the ports of the Baltic. This
site was occupied by a small village when Bishop Absalon
founded a town here in 1168, and erected a fort. It be-
came the capital of Denmark in 1443. It was most hor-
ribly bombarded, during three days, by the British fleet
(1807), and suffered great damage. Pop. in 1860, 155,143;
in 1870, 181,291. *
Copenhagen, a post-village of Denmark township,
Lewis co., N. Y., on Deer River, has three churches and a
number of manufactories. Pop. 575.
Coper/nican Sys’tem, The, is that astronomical
theory which represents the sun to be in the centre, and
the earth and planets to move round it. The name is de-
rived from Copernicus, who, though not the first suggester
of the theory, contributed far more than any other astron-
omer to make it popular. The merit of having first formed
the general idea of the system is believed to be due to
Pythagoras; Copernicus, after the lapse of centuries, again
drew attention to it, and greatly increased the probability
of its truth by his calculations and arguments; the glory
of having matured the idea belongs to Kepler, Galileo, and
others, and especially to Newton, who, through the discov-
ery of the law of gravitation, completely demonstrated its
truth. Many who reverence the name of Copernicus in
connection with this system would be surprised to find, on
perusing his work “De Orbium Revolutionibus,” how much
of error, unsound reasoning, and happy conjecture com-
bined to secure for him the association of his name with
that system the complete development of which may be
considered as the most wonderful achievement of astronom-
ical science.
Coper/nicus, the Latinized form of Kopernigk
(NICOLAs), a celebrated astronomer, was born at Thorn, in
Poland, Feb. 19 (O. S.), 1473. His father, a German mer-
chant from Cracow, died early, leaving his children in the
care of Lucas Watzelrode, their maternal uncle, who be-
came bishop of Ermeland in 1489. Nicolas studied in the
high school of his town, and then in the University of
Cracow. He applied himself eagerly to mathematics under
Albert Brudzevski for four years, and then went to Italy,
visiting first Bologna, where Dominico Maria taught as-
tronomy, and afterwards Padua, where he became doctor
of medicine in 1499. He became intimate with Regiomon-
tanus. Through his uncle he was appointed canon in
Frauenburg, 1499. He remained in Italy until 1503, and
was professor of mathematics at Rome in 1501. He then
entered upon his office of canon, and is found (1517–19) en-
trusted with the conduct of the episcopal possessions in
Allenstein, and on other occasions ably conducting the
cathedral’s concerns. He never refused the poor his advice
and care as physician. His great discovery, that the plan-
ets move around the Sun, he spent many years in observa-
tions and calculations in order to verify.
it in his work “De Orbium Celestium Revolutionibus,” fin-
ished in 1530, but not published until 1543, from a fear of
persecution. He dedicated his book to the pope, and cau-
tiously propounded his system as a mere hypothesis. Ac-
cording to tradition, he received the first copy of his book
on the day that he died. It was published in Nuremberg
(1543), in Bâle (1566), and in Amsterdam (1617). His
theory was rejected not only by the clergy, but by astron-
omers. “The whole weight of Aristotle's name,” says
Hallam, “which in the sixteenth century not only biassed
the judgment, but, engaged the passions, connected as it
was with general orthodoxy and preservation of establish-
ed systems, was thrown into the scale against Copernicus.
It must be confessed that the strongest presumptions in
favor of his system were not discovered by himself. One
of the most remarkable passages in Copernicus is his con-
jecture that gravitation is not a central tendency, but an
attraction common to matter, and probably extending to the
heavenly bodies.” Died June 11, 1543. (See GAssENDI, “Vita.
Copernici,” 1654; WESTPHAL, “N. Copernicus,” 1822; D.
F. ARAGo, “Eloge de Copernic;” L. PRow E, “Zur Biog-
raphie von N. Copernicus,” 1853.)
Copi'ah, a county in the S. W. of Mississippi. Area,
700 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by Pearl River
and drained by Bayou Pierre. The soil is productive and
He expounded
adapted to cotton. Corn, rice, wool, and cattle are also
raised. Lumber is largely produced. It is intersected by the
New Orleans Jackson and Great Northern R. R. Capital,
Gallatin. Pop. 20,608.
Copia/po, or San Francisco de Sel’va, a town of
Chili, capital of the province of Atacama, is on the river
Copaipo, 30 miles from its mouth. It is connected with
Caldera by a railway. Mines of gold, silver, and other met-
als occur in the vicinity. Earthquakes are here of frequent
occurrence, and have sometimes caused great damage. Pop.
13,381. -
Copio’ma, a township of Nemaha, co., Kan.
424.
Cop/land (JAMEs), M. D., F. R. S., a Scottish physician
and writer, born at Deerness, in the Orkneys, in 1793. He
settled in London in 1821. His most important work is a
“Dictionary of Practical Medicine * (3 vols., 1833–58).
Died July 12, 1870.
Coſple, a township of Westmoreland co., Va. Pop.
3353.
Cop/ley, a post-village of North Whitehall township,
Lehigh co., Pa. Pop. 728. *
Copley, a township and post-village of Summit co.,
O. Pop. 1233.
Copley (John SINGLETON), an historical and portrait
painter, born in Boston, Mass., July 3, 1737. He visited Italy .
in 1774, settled in London in 1776, and became a member
of the Royal Academy in 1783. “The Death of Lord
Chatham” is called his masterpiece. Died Sept. 25, 1815.
His son became Lord Lyndhurst and chancellor of England.
Copley’s portraits are among the few significant art-memo-
rials of the past in this country. The possession of one of
them, it has been said, is an American’s best title of nobil-
ity. He was the only native painter of real skill which
the New World could boast prior to the Revolution. The
heads of leading families, especially in New England, sat
to him, and the prices he commanded and the fame he
reached were remarkable for the period. His chief defect
was in his coloring, but he had the hand of a master. His
knowledge was acquired under great disadvantages. Till
he was thirty years old he never saw a good picture, yet
his portraits are prized as heirlooms. They have a life which
only genius could impart. O. B. FROTHINGHAM.
Coppée (HENRY), LL.D., an American officer and au-
thor, born Oct. 15, 1821, at Savannah, Ga., graduated at
West Point 1845, was lieutenant of artillery till he resigned,
June 30, 1855. He served in the war with Mexico 1846–48,
engaged at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, La Hoya, Contreras,
and Churubusco (brevet captain), Chapultepec, and the city
of Mexico, and as assistant professor at the Military Acad-
emy 1848–49, 1850–55. Professor of English literature and
history in the University of Pennsylvania 1855–56; author
of “Elements of Logic,” 1858, and of “Rhetoric,” 1859, of
“Grant and his Campaigns,” 1866, and of several military
works, 1858–73; editor of a “Gallery of Famous Poets,”
1858, of “Distinguished Poetesses,” 1861, and of the “United
Service Magazine,” 1864–66; contributor to the principal
reviews and magazines of the U. S., 1848–73; compiler of
“Songs of Praise in the Christian Centuries,” 1866, and
president of Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa., since 1866.
GEORGE. W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Cop'per [Lat. cuprum; Ger. Kupfer; Fr. cuivre], an
elementary metallic substance, was known at a very early
period. Before iron was used it was the principal ingredi-
ent in domestic utensils and weapons of war. The Romans
obtained the best copper from the island of Cyprus, whence
its Latin name, cuprum, was derived. Copper is distin-
guished from all other metals by its peculiar reddish color.
It is very ductile and malleable, and requires a temperature
somewhat lower than gold, but higher than silver (estimated
above 2000° F.), for its fusion. Next to silver, it is the
best known conductor of electricity, being in the pure state
93.08, while silver is 100. The specific gravity of copper
is between 8.91 and 8.95 ; atomic weight, 63.5 ; its sym-
bol is Cu. It is very hard, elastic, and tough, with a tena-
city only less than that of iron. It crystallizes in the regu-
lar system, forming cubes, octahedrons, etc. The principal
ores of copper, besides the native metal, are the sulphides
of copper, either alone or combined with other metals, such
as copper glance (Cu2S), indigo copper (CuS), copper py-
rites (Cu2S,Fe2S3), variegated copper ore (3Cu2S,Fe2S3);
Fahl ores, containing admixtures of sulphides of copper,
iron, zinc, silver, mercury, etc.; enargite, containing sul-
phides of copper and arsenic ; oxidized copper ores, such as
red copper (Cu20) and black oxide of copper; and copper
salts, such as malachite (which is carbonate of copper),
silicate of copper, dioptase, chloride of copper, atacamite,
phosphate of copper, and arseniate of copper. All these
ores contain copper; it is found also in small quantities in
Pop.
COPPERAS–COPY,
1151
most soils, in seaweed, and in the animal body. Copper
forms two oxides, the protoxide (CuO) and the suboxide
(Cu20); the former is found native in dark steel-gray crys-
tals, with a specific gravity of 5.9; the latter occurs in red,
translucent crystals having a specific gravity of 5.8; pre-
pared artificially, it forms a beautiful crimson powder.
Protochloride of copper is brown in the anhydrous state,
and green when hydrated; it is very soluble in water.
There are several sulphides of copper, the principal being
the protosulphide and the disulphide, corresponding in
composition to the two oxides. They are both found native,
and are worked as copper ores. The carbonate of copper is
sold as a pigment under the name of blue verditer, and from
the subchloride of copper Brunswick green is obtained. The
blue and green verdigris of commerce are made by the ac-
tion of acetic acid upon oxide of copper. The blue vitriol
so extensively used in dyeing and calico-printing is sulphate
of copper. The smelting of copper is not a complicated pro-
cess when ores are used which do not contain sulphur, but
when the latter is present the operation is very tedious and
difficult. The alloys of copper are of great value. Brass
is copper alloyed with from 28 to 34 per cent. of zinc ; gun-
metal consists of 90 parts of copper and 10 of tin; bell and
speculum metals contain a larger proportion of tin. Bronze
is sometimes made of 91 parts of copper, 2 parts of tin, 6
parts of zinc, and 1 part of lead. Copper is found in Great
Britain, Australia, South America, and Cuba. It exists in
great quantities on the shores of Lake Superior, where a
mass of native copper was found weighing nearly 500 tons.
Metallic copper is of very great value in the arts, being
especially valuable for ships' sheathing and bolts, and is
also the material used in the manufacture of a great va-
riety of wares.
Cop/peras, the commercial name of the hydrated pro-
tosulphate of iron, sometimes called “green vitriol.” It is
composed of 28.9 per cent. of sulphuric acid, 25.7 of pro-
toxide of iron, and 45.4 of water. It is used in medicine,
in the dyeing of black, and in the manufacture of ink.
Copper Creek, a twp. of Russell co., Va. Pop. 1339.
Copper Falls Mine, a post-village of Eagle Harbor
township, Keweenaw co., Mich. Pop. 454.
Copper Harbor, a post-township of Keweenaw co.,
Mich., on Keweenaw Point, Lake Superior. It has exten-
sive mines of copper, and a good harbor, which is, how-
ever, difficult of approach. Pop. 359. -
Cop/perhead (Ancistrodon contortria:), a venomous
serpent of the rattlesnake family, furnished with loral plates
on the head, but without rattles. When full grown it is
about three feet long, of a light copper color, with darker
transverse bars. It has many local names, is nowhere
abundant, but is more common in the Southern than in the
Northern States. Its bite is much dreaded and often fatal.
Copperhead, a name which was applied to a party in
the Northern States of America supposed to favor the seces-
sionists during the civil war which divided the U. S. from
1861 to 1865. The epithet was given because this party
was regarded as an insidious and secret foe to the Union.
Copper-Mines. See MINES AND MINING, by PROF. F.
L. WINTON, E. M.
Copperop'olis, a post-village of Calaveras co., Cal., 36
miles E. by N. from Stockton. Here is the Union copper-
mine, one of the richest in the State. Gold also is found
in the vicinity. It is on the Stockton and Copperopolis R.R.
Copper-Smelting. See METALLURGY, by PROF. J.
A. CHURCH, E. M.
Copp’s Creek, a township of Barry co., Mo. P. 984.
Cop/rolite [from the Gr. Kárpos, “dung,” and Aé90s, a
“Stone”], a name given to the fossil excrement of animals.
It was originally applied by Dr. Buckland to certain de-
posits which he found in the lias, and determined to be
the foecal remains of the gigantic saurians of that period.
The term has since come into universal use, owing to the
discovery of similar large deposits in rocks of various ages.
The true coprolites of the lias are formed like kidney pota-
toes, of earthy texture, black or ash-gray color, and glassy
fracture. They are twisted, showing the mark of the intes-
time. They are generally found in heaps in particular parts
of the deposit. Besides the coprolites of the lias, phosphatic
nodules bearing the same name, but far more abundant,
have been found. The value of these minerals is derived
from the phosphate of lime of which they are partly com-
posed. It is used with great advantage as mineral manure,
after having undergone cheap chemical treatment. It is
converted into a soluble superphosphate by the action of sul-
phuric acid. The trade in Great Britain is of great import-
ance, and the production large. Some specimens yield when
washed and powdered over 85 per cent. of phosphates. The
greensand varieties yield about 60 per cent. of phosphates.
The annual yield of England is from 30,000 to 40,000 tons,
These coprolites contain from 4 to 5 per cent. of organic
matter and a little silica, but from 70 to 80 per cent. of
their whole substance is a mixed phosphate and carbonate
of lime. Coprolites are not very abundant in the U. S.
Copse, or Cop/pice [from the root of the word chop,
and the Gr. Kátto, to “cut”], a name given in Great Britain
to plantations of trees which are occasionally cut down for
firewood, charcoal, or other purposes. There is consider-
able rough and rocky land in that country which yields
more profit as copse-wood than by any other plan. Hop-
poles, hoops, tammer's bark, etc. are among the products of
copses. -
Copt [Arabic, Ghipt and Koobt; Coptic, Kibt, Fr. Copte
or Cophte; Ger. Kopt ; probably derived from the root of
the last syllable of Egypt.] The Copts are a Christian peo-
ple of Egypt, descended from the ancient inhabitants of
that country, whose blood, however, is mingled with that
of Greeks, Arabs, Nubians, etc. According to an official
estimate in 1868–69 they then numbered 500,000. They
are largely employed as clerks and government function-
aries, while others are merchants and mechanics, and some
are peasants. All Copts but the very poorest class have
the title of moallim (“instructors”).
The Coptic Church is monophysite, holds seven sacra-
ments, of which prayer and faith are two, practises trine
immersion of infants, and also circumcises male children.
The liturgy is in the Coptic language, which few even of
the priests understand. Rosaries of beads are used in
prayer. Cymbals are employed in public worship. This
Church, with that of Abyssinia, is under the Coptic patri-
arch of Alexandria, who, however, since the eleventh cen-
tury, has resided in Cairo. It has also thirteen dioceses,
one of which, Khartum (embracing all Nubia), was estab-
lished in 1834. The Copts are extremely intolerant towards
Christians of other churches, except the Syrian Jacobites
and the Abyssinians.
Besides the above are the United Copts, who are Ro-
man Catholics of the Eastern rite. They are nominally
under the patriarch of Alexandria, who resides at Rome
and is of the Latin rite. They are governed by a vicar-
apostolic, and number about 13,000.
The Greek Copts (Coptic Melchites) are under a patri-
arch of Alexandria and four nominal bishops. They are
few in numbers. Their patriarch bears the title of “Holy
and blessed patriarch of the great city of Alexandria, of
all Egypt, of Pentapolis, Libya, and Ethiopia, pope and
oecumenical judge.” That of the Coptic patriarch is “Most
holy father, archbishop of the great city of Alexandria, of
Babylon, of the Nomes of Egypt, and the Thebaid.”
The American Presbyterian mission among the Copts
has met with much success.
Cop’tic, a language supposed to be derived from the
sacred language of ancient Egypt, with a pretty large ad-
mixture of Greek, and in its later form of Arabic words.
It prevailed from the time of the Ptolemies till about the
tenth century, when it was generally displaced by the
Arabic, except in the monasteries. It had three chief dia-
lects, the Memphitic, the Sahidic, and the Bashmuric. The
Coptic literature consists to a great extent of homilies, the
lives of Saints, etc., with some Gnostic works and versions
of the Scriptures.
The Coptic letters are chiefly taken from the Greek,
though they have added to the Greek alphabet a number
of characters representing sounds not found in the classic
languages; among these may be mentioned one for kh, one
for sh, and one for j. (Those seeking further information
on this subject are referred to the Egyptian grammar of
the celebrated Champollion, and Peyron's and Benfey’s
grammars of the Coptic language; to which may be added
Quatremère’s “Critical and Historical Researches on the
Language and Literature of Egypt,” 1808.) .
Cop’ula [a Latin word signifying a “band”], in logic,
is that part of a proposition which affirms or denies the
predicate of the subject, or the word which unites the two
notions of a sentence—viz. the subject and the predicate.
In the sentence, “Art is long,” is forms the copula.
Cop’way (GEORGE), a chief of the Chippeway tribe of
Indians, published the “Acts of the Apostles” (in 1838),
an autobiography, a “History of the Ojibway Nation”
(1851), and other works. -
Cop’y [probably from the Lat. copia, “plenty,” “abun-
dance,” because by multiplying copies of it a work ceases
to be a rarity], in the fine arts, a transcript of an original
work, a reproduction of a picture or statue by another
artist. A copy made by the original artist is called a dupli-
cate, replica, or repetition; in French, a doublette. A copy
of a statue or other piece of sculpture taken from a mould
is called a cast. -
Copy, in printing, is the subject-matter to be printed,
whether it be an original work in manuscript or reprint; in
1152 \
COPYRIGHT-CORAL ISLANDS.
the first case it is termed manuscript copy or written copy;
in the second, printed copy.
Copyright. See LITERARY PROPERTY, by PROF. T. W.
Dwig HT, LL.D.
Coqua'go, the main branch of the Delaware River,
rises in the Catskill Mountains in New York. It flows
first south-westward, and then south-eastward, until it
unites with the Popacton at Hancock, on the line between
New York and Pennsylvania. Length, nearly 100 miles.
Coquerel (ATHANASE LAURENT CHARLEs), a Protest-
ant minister, born in Paris Aug. 27, 1795. He preached
in Paris, and gained distinction as a pulpit orator. In 1848
he was a moderate republican member of the Constituent
Assembly. Among his works is “ Modern Orthodoxy”
(1842) and many volumes of sermons. He was liberal in
theology. Died Jan. 12, 1868.-His son ATHANASE became
an eminent Protestant pulpit orator, and the leader of the
liberal party that seceded when a schism occurred in the
Protestant synod in June, 1872.
Coquil/la-Nuts [Sp. coquillo, a diminutive of coco,
“cocoa-nut ’j, the seeds of Attalea funifera, a South
American palm. The shells of the seeds or nuts are hard,
have a close texture, and are susceptible of a fine polish.
This shell is much used in turnery for the heads or handles
of umbrellas, for toys and ornamental articles.
Coquim (bo, a province of Chili, is bounded on the E.
by the Andes and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. Area,
19,113 square miles. It contains mines of copper and other
metals. Capital, Coquimbo. Pop. in 1870, 159,698.
Coquimbo, or La Serena, a seaport-town of Chili,
capital of the above province, is on the Coquimbo River
near its mouth. It has a good harbor, six or seven miles
distant, brick houses with gardens, and a serene climate.
Copper, gold, and silver are exported from it. Pop. 7138.
Coſra, an ancient city of Italy, in Latium, about 36
miles S. E. of Rome. Livy mentions it as being a colonia
Latina in 503 B. C. Few cities of Latium have more con-
siderable remains of antiquity than Cora. Here are relics
of ancient walls built of massive polygonal blocks. The
site is now occupied by the town of Cori.
Cor/acoid Bone [from the Gr. Kópaš, a “crow,” and
eiðos, “form,” “resemblance,” referring to some fancied
resemblance between the coracoid process and a crow’s
beak], a bone which exists in the skeleton of most birds,
of the Saurians and chelonians, and also in monotrematous
mammals. In the higher mammals it exists as the cora-
coid process of the Scapula or shoulder-blade. In transcen-
dental anatomy it has been considered as the haemapoph-
ysis of the fourth (occipital) cephalic vertebra. In birds the
coracoid bone is firmly articulated with the sternum on the
one side and the scapula on the other, and gives attach-
ment to certain muscles used in flying.
Coracoid Process. See CoRAcorn BoM.E.
Corſal [Gr. kopóAAtov, said by some to be derived from
kópm, a “maiden,” and &As, the “sea,” i. e. “daughter of
the sea;” Lat. corallum; Fr. corail; Ger. Koralle], a hard,
Stony, or calcareous substance, chiefly of marine origin,
consisting of the aggregate skeletons of various polyps
(alcyonarians, actinarians, and madrepores), and of cer-
tain tabulate acalephs, all belonging to the Cuvierian sub-
kingdom Radiata.” The number of species is very great,
and the variety of forms and
hues is almost endless. Many
of them rival in beauty the
finest flowers. Carbonate of
lime constitutes their prin-
cipal chemical ingredient.
Many kinds are found along
the American coasts of the
Atlantic and Pacific, espe-
cially about the West Indies
and Florida (which, with its
reefs, is based upon coral),
and along parts of the coast
of Brazil, where the reefs are
very dangerous to naviga-
tion ; but it is in the Pacific
and Indian oceans that the
coral formation is most important.
Among the more re-
markable kinds may be mentioned the red coral (Corallium
* Nothing could be more incorrect than the name “coral in-
§ects” often applied to these animals; and it is scarcely correct
to speak of them as “builders” of reefs and islands; for instead
of Working, like the bee in building her cells of wax, the coral is
a part of the growth of the polyp, which the latter no more builds
than the oak tree builds its own wood. It is also incorrect to
speak of the coral as the “home” of these little animals, for the
coral is wholly produced inside the polyp, somewhat as bones
grow in the higher animals. -
rubrum) of the Mediterranean and Red Sea, which is of
value in the manufacture of ornaments; the still more
valuable black coral (Antipathes); the Millepora, etc. (pro-
duced by a calephs, and not by polyps); the tree corals;
the Meandrinae, etc., called brain corals, the Astra as or
star corals, the Madrepores, and many others.
Cor’ai, a township and post-village of McHenry co.,
Ill. Pop. of township, 1345.
Coral Islands are among the most striking phenom-
ena of the tropical seas. Whitsunday Island, in the Low
Archipelago in the midst of the Pacific, may serve as an
example. Rising a few feet above the surface of the ocean,
it forms a narrow unbroken ring, nearly circular, which
surrounds a central lagoon of shallow water. When ap-
proaching it from the windward side, the voyager first per-
ceives the line of angry surf breaking on the white beach
of coral sand, in strong contrast with the deep-blue color
of the sea. Behind, a . garland of luxuriant verdure, its
tropical forms enhanced by the noble cocoa-nut palm, ex-
tends around the island, enclosing the quiet waters of the
lagoon; beyond, the broad ocean again. The island of
Natupe, in the same archipelago, is likewise unbroken, but
elongated and much larger, the longer axis, measuring some
twelve miles. Usually, however, the ring is broken by
numerous channels, affording entrances into the lagoon, and
transforming the ring into a circular line of islands en-
closing the lagoon. Such a group is called an atoll, a local
name in the East Indies, which has been adopted to de-
signate these curious structures. Soundings have proved
that the lagoon is always shallow, seldom exceeding a few
scores or hundreds of feet in depth, while outside of the
atoll the depth rapidly increases to thousands of feet at a
short distance from the shore, showing that such an atoll
is only the top of a large submarine mountain. Atolls are
often clustered together in great numbers, and form archi-
pelagoes. That of Paumotu, or Low Archipelago, counts
eighty coral islands, having nearly all central lagoons.
The Caroline (together with the Tarawan and Marshall)
Islands contain eighty-four atolls. The Laccadives and
Maldives are two long series of atolls, in a double row,
stretching 800 miles from north to south, from the south-
western extremity of India, and continued still farther
south in the Chagos Archipelago. The chief of the Mal-
dives calls himself the sultan of the Twelve Thousand Isles,
and Admiral Owen says that, counting the single islands
in the atolls, this is no exaggeration.
The low islands are associated with the high in a pecu-
liar and very interesting way. A large number of volcanic
islands in the Pacific are girdled by coral reef, forming
either a fringe near the shore or a barrier around the island
at a distance in the sea, leaving between a lagoon often
miles broad, and communicating with the outer ocean by
deep channels. Bolabola, one of the Society Islands, offers
a beautiful example of such a combination. From its high
volcanic top the eye, stretching over the quiet waters of the
surrounding lagoon to the outer garland of green islands
which separates it from the ocean beyond, beholds a spec-
tacle as strange as it is lovely. Tahiti, in the same group,
Hogoleu and Pouinipete Islands in the Carolines, and many
others, show the same arrangement, which, in fact, differs
from an atoll only in having the centre of the lagoon occu-
pied by one or more mountain-tops.
The mode of formation of the coral islands: readily ex-
plaims all these peculiarities. Coral reefs are the work of
minute marine animals called polyps which live in countless
numbers in the tropical seas. Their structure is of the
simplest kind. It is a cylindrical skin with an inside sac,
the stomach, and a central opening surrounded by thread-
like appendages on the top, which is the mouth, the lower
end being attached to the ground. When expanded the
animal resembles a flower in form and beauty of color. Be-
tween the two skins the coral substance, which is limestone,
is secreted, as are the bones in the higher animals. Polyps
multiply not only by eggs, but also by budding, like plants,
and grow into large societies, in which generation succeeds
generation, each leaving behind the Solid limestone se-
creted by the living animal. Thus masses of organized
rock are formed, which gradually expand and accumulate
upward into a solid wall or reef, reaching the level of low
tide. Soon, however, the process of disintegration begins.
The more brittle branching corals which abound near the
surface are easily broken and crushed by animals feeding
on them. Boring shells and small sponges penetrate the
solid reef and disintegrate it. Tidal currents and surging
waves do their part in the work of destruction, and taking
hold of these débris and of the coral sand, throw them on
the top of the reef, thus forming the soil of an island which
rises to eight or ten feet above the water, but rarely reaches
fifteen feet. -
Seeds of a few plants which from their hardy nature
º

COR ALLINE–CORCORAN.
1153
escape being spoiled by sea-water are transported by the soon grow into a luxuriant vegetation. Variety, however,
waves and washed on the shore, or are brought by birds,
and under the influence of the warm and moist climate
is wanting, as hardly more than a score of species compose
the whole flora. Pandanus trees, and especially the 'ma-
Bolabola, with Barrier, Reef, Lagoon, and Coral Islands.
jestic cocoa-nut palms, are the most characteristic orna-
ments as well as the most useful representatives of the
vegetable kingdom in the coral islands.
But all the conditions necessary for the formation of such
an island do not exist in every part of the reef. Some
portions remain covered by a shallow sea, which breaks in
long, white lines over the invisible barrier. In others the
reef is interrupted by deep channels, due to strong tidal
currents or to the depth of the sea, which deprives the
animals of a proper foundation for their structure, for it
has been ascertained that the reef-building polyps cannot
live in a depth greater than 100 or 120 feet. The coral
reefs, therefore, cannot start from deep water; they need
a foundation near the surface, and they find it in submarine
mountain-peaks and volcanic cones which form most of the
high islands. Growing upward, they repeat at the surface
the outlines of the mountain-slopes on which they rest.
To this cause the circular form of the atolls and barrier
reefs is to be ascribed, and not to any organic law or in-
stinct of the polyps, as was formerly believed, or to their
situation on the brim of subaqueous craters. -
The formation of the fringing reefs offers no difficulty;
but it is not easy to understand why the barrier reefs are so
far removed from the islands they surround. This fact,
however, has been satisfactorily explained by Darwin.
Having found by soundings that the base of the barrier
reefs reaches sometimes as low as a thousand or fifteen hun-
dred feet, while it is known that the polyps cannot live at-
such a depth, he justly infers that the mountains on which
they stand have gradually sunk since the structure was be-
gun. During the sinking process the reef, growing perpen-
dicularly to the water's edge, preserves its form and extent,
while the island is growing smaller and the surrounding
lagoon larger at every step. Finally, the mountain, disap-
pearing, the growing reef becomes an atoll with an empty
lagoon. Dana’s extensive observations entirely confirm
this view. w -
However full of interest and strange beauty the coral
islands may be, they offer but scanty resources for man’s
support. They are still more deficient in means for the
higher culture which is the true end of man’s existence.
With only one kind of rock and no metal for tools; a land
without mountains, valleys, or rivers, the arable portion of
which is hardly the hundredth part of its area; with a flora
reduced to a few species, a fauna wanting in all large ani-
mals, man in that isolated domain, depending for food
upon the cocoa-nut and the animals of the sea, has indeed
but a poor chance. Starvation, but too frequent, en-
genders infanticide, war, and cannibalism—evils which
intercourse with civilized nations can partially prevent, but
Christianity alone radically cure. ARNOLD GUYOT.
Cor/allime [so called from their resemblance to the
corals, to which they were formerly referred], the name
of certain plants classed with the red algae, and usually
referred to the order Corallinaceae. They constitute the
genus Corallina, and several other genera. These plants
differ from all others in being of a rigid, stony character,
and from the presence (in most species) of a large propor-
tion of carbonate of lime. They are not abundant on our
Atlantic coasts, but probably are of much more frequent
occurrence in the Pacific. Their fructification and botan-
ical characters are not well known. They occur abun-
dantly as fossils. The Coralling officinalis is common on
the northern shores of Europe, and also occurs on the At-
lantic coast of British America and the U. S. The name
Sea Level. Här
PROFILE.
Bolabola.
Lagoon. ! Lagoon.
Coral Island. l § ! Coral Island.
§
! §
VolcANIC
MoUNTAIN.
coralline is often given to various marine polyps, but
should be restricted to coral-like plants.
Cora'to, a town of Italy, in the province of Bari, 24
miles W. of Bari, is situated in a fertile plain. It has a
fine church, several convents, and an orphan asylum. Pop.
in 1871, 26,220.
Coray, or Koray (DIAMANT), [Gr. 'A&auávrios Kopańs],
a Greek philologist and patriot, born at Smyrna April 7,
1748. He studied medicine at Montpellier, in France, and
became a resident of Paris in 1788. To promote the re-
generation of Greece and the revival of the Greek nation-
ality, he published editions of ancient Greek authors and
wrote several political tracts. He was eminent as a Hel-
lenist. Died April 6, 1833.
Corbaux (FANNY), an English painter and author, born
in 1812, the daughter of a well-known statistician. She
painted portraits and historical pieces with success, and
wrote on Hebrew archaeology.
Corbeil, a town of France, department of Seine-et-Oise,
on the river Seine and on a branch of the Paris and Orleans
Railway, 18 miles S. S. E. of Paris. It has a public library,
a theatre, and a corn-hall. It sends flour to Paris. Pop.
5541.
Cor/bel [from the Fr. corbeille, a “basket;” Fr. cor-
beau], in architecture, a projecting bracket, often sculp-
tured like a modillion, sometimes in the form of a basket,
for the purpose of supporting a superincumbent object or
for receiving the springing of an arch. A corbel-table is
a projecting battlement, parapet, or cornice resting on a
series of corbels. - -
Cor/bin (THOMAs G.), U. S. N., born Aug. 13, 1820, in
Virginia, became a passed midshipman in 1844, a lieuten-
ant in 1852, a commander in 1862, and a captain in 1866.
He served as executive officer of the steam-frigate Wabash.
at the battle of Port Royal, Nov. 7, 1861, and is thus hon-
orably mentioned by Flag-Officer Dupont in his official
report of that battle: “I had also an opportunity to re-
mark the admirable coolness and diserimination of the
first lieutenant, T. G. Corbin. The good order, discipline,
and efficiency, in every respect, of this ship are, to a great
extent, the results of his labors as executive officer, and,
they were conspicuous on this occasion.” Referring to the
same action, Commander C. R. P. Rodgers writes: “It re-
mains only for me to speak of the executive officer, Lieu-
tenant Corbin, who has filled that post since the Wabash
was commissioned. The admirable training of the crew.
may, in a high degree, be attributed to his professional
merit; and his gallant bearing and conspicuous conduct
throughout the whole action were good illustrations of the
best type of a sea-officer.”
tº. Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Cor/bulo (CN. Dom(ITIUs), an able Roman general who
flourished under Claudius and Nero. He commanded the
Roman army in a war against the Parthians, whom he de-
feated. Nero, who was jealous of him, ordered him to be
put to death in 67 A. D. -
Cor'coran, a post-township of Hennepin co., Minn.
Dop. 914.
Corcoran (MICHAEL), a brigadier-general of U.S. vol-
unteers, born in Carrowkeel, Ireland, Sept. 21, 1827, died
Dec. 22, 1863. He emigrated to this country in 1849, and
settled in New York City. At the commencement of the
civil war he departed for Washingtºn with his regiment,






- 73
*
A-
1154
CORCYRA—COREOPSIS.
the Sixty-ninth New York, and participated in the first
battle of Bull Run, where he was taken prisoner and con-
fined at Richmond, Va., and Charleston, . S. C., nearly a
year. On being exchanged he organized the Corcoran Ile-
gion, and was made a brigadier-general of volunteers, to
date from the day of his capture, July 21, 1861. He was
thrown from his horse near Fairfax Court-house, Va., Dec.
22, 1863, and fatally injuréd, never again recovering con-
Sciousness. G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Eng’rs.
Corcy'ra [Gr. Köpkvpal, the ancient name of an island
in the Ionian Sea, now CoRFú (which see). It was colo-
nized by the Corinthians in 734 B. C., and soon became
one of the chief maritime powers of Greece.
Cord [so called because it was originally measured with
a cord or line] (of wood) is a quantity of wood equal to
128 cubic feet. Firewood is measured and sold by the
cord; also tanners’ bark and stable manure.
Corday, d’Armans, de (MARIE ANNE CHARLOTTE),
born in Normandy in 1768, and educated in a convent, was
pious, intellectual, and enthusiastic. Her features were
beautiful and her deportment dignified. She favored the
popular cause in the Revolution, and sympathized with the
Girondists, who were proscribed in May, 1793. Having
resolved to kill Marat for the public good, she came to
Paris, and with much difficulty obtained admission to his
house. She found him in a bath, and plunged a knife into
his heart July 13, 1793. She was guillotined a few days
after this event. “In beholding her act of assassination,”
says Lamartime, “history dares not applaud; nor yet,
while contemplating her sublime self-devotion, can it stig-
matize or condemn.” (See CHáRoN DE WILLIERs, “ M. A.
Charlotte de Corday d’Armans, sa, Vie, etc.,” 1865.)
Cordeliers’, or Cord-wearſers [from Old French
cordel, a “cord” or “rope,” so called from their girdles of
knotted cord], a minor order of Franciscan or Gray Friars,
was founded by Saint Francis of Assisi in 1223, and was
sanctioned by Pope Honorius III.'
Cordeliers’ Club, a society of republicans formed at
Paris in Dec., 1790, received this name because their meet-
ings were held in a chapel which had been built by the
Cordeliers. Danton was the first president, and among the
more celebrated members were Marat, Camille Desmoulins,
and Hébert. The Cordeliers clamored for the death of the
king in 1793, and in conjunction with the Jacobins con-
spired for the overthrow of the Girondists in the same year.
The society was dissolved in 1794. º
Cordia/ceae, a natural order of exogenous trees and
shrubs, mostly natives of tropical countries. They have a
drupaceous fruit, an inverted embryo, and plaited cotyle-
dons. They are generally referred to the Boraginaceae. The
order comprises several species of Cordia, one of which pro-
duces the sebesten plum. The Cordia bullata grows in
Florida, and is cultivated as an ornamental tree. This
genus takes its name from Cordus, a German botanist
(1515–44). * .
Cordille/ra, a Spanish word signifying a “mountain-
chain.” (See ANDEs, by PROF. A. J. ScHEM.)
Cor'don, a word of French origin signifying a string,
a line, or band, applied in fortification to the coping of the
escarpment or inner wall of the ditch. It usually projects
one foot over the masonry of the scarp. A line of troops
placed round a town or tract so as to prevent ingress and
egress is also called a cordon. -
Cor'dova, a province of Spain, is bounded on the N.
by Badajos and Ciudad Real, on the E. by Jaen, on the S.
by Malaga, and on the S. W. and W. by Seville. It is in-
tersected by the Guadalquivir. The surface in some parts
is mountainous. Area, 5189 square miles. Capital, Cór-
dova. Pop. 379,464.
Cordova [Span. Cordoba, or Cordova anc. Colonia
Patricial, a city of Spain, capital of the province of its
own name, is situated in a plain on the river Guadalquivir,
71 miles N. E. of Seville, with which it is connected by a
railway. The river is here crossed by a noble stone bridge
of sixteen arches built by the Moors in the eighth century,
and defended by a Saracenic castle.
was originally a beautiful Mohammedan mosque, founded
in 786 A.D., presents in the interior a labyrinth of columns
of many orders and materials, brought from various ancient
temples. Cordova contains a bishop’s palace, three col-
leges, a city-hall, and numerous hospitals. It was for-
merly noted for the preparation of goat leather, called
cordovan.* Here are manufactures of silk fabrics, paper,
silver-ware, hats, etc. . The ancient Corduba, sometimes
called Patricia, built 152 B. C. by the Romanſ, was second
only to Gades, among the cities of Hispania, and the birth-
*From this word are derived the old English cordwainer and
the French cordonnièr, a “shoemaker.” -
The cathedral, which
place of the two Senecas, of the poet Lucan, and of the
Arabic physician Averroes. This place was captured by
the Moors in 672 A. D., after which it was for several cen-
turies the splendid capital of the Western caliphs. In the
tenth century it contained nearly a million inhabitants and
300 mosques. In 1236 it was taken and almost destroyed
by Ferdinand III. of Castile. Pop. in 1860, 35,606.
Cordova, a township and post-village of Rock Island
co., Ill. The village is on the Western Union R. R., 22
miles N. E. of Rock Island. Total pop. 935.
Cordova, a post-township of Le Sueur co., Minn. Pop.
39.
Cór'dova, a town of Mexico, about 50 miles W. S. W.
of Vera Cruz. It is well built, and has an active trade in
Sugar, coffee, and tobacco; also manufactures of cotton and
woollen fabrics. Pop. about 7000.
Córdova, a province of the Argentine Republic, is
bounded on the N. by Santiago del Estero and Catamarca,
on the E. by Santa Fé and by the territory of the Indians,
and on the W. by Rioja and San Luis. It is traversed by
the Sierra de Córdova, from which flows the principal river
of the province, the Tercero, an affluent of the Paraná.
The province is celebrated for its superior pastures. Area,
58,999 square miles. Capital, Cordova. Pop. in 1869,
210,508.
Cordova, capital of the above province, on the river
Primero, 387 miles N. W. of Buenos Ayres. It has a fine
Gothic cathedral and a university. Córdova exports hides
and wool to Buenos Ayres. Pop. in 1869, 28,523.
Cor'dova (Josí), a South American general, born at
Antioquía, in Colombia, in 1797. He served under Bol-
ivar in 1820, and fought against the Spaniards at Aya-
cucho in 1824. Having revolted against Bolivar, he was
defeated and killed Oct. 17, 1829.
Cordova, de (FERNANDo FERNANDEz), a Spanish gen-
eral, born at Madrid in 1792. He was an opponent of Es-
partero in 1841, and became captain-general of Cuba in
1851. He was driven into exile by the revolution of July,
1854, and returned to Spain in 1856.
Core'a [native Gaolee or Gawli; Chinese Kowlee; Jap-
anese Koorail, a kingdom tributary to China, is the penin-
sula situated S. of Manchooria, between 34° and 43° N.
lat. Its area is 87,764 square miles, and population about
9,000,000. It is bounded on the N. by the rivers Ya-Loo
and Tunmen, and the mountain Pe-Ten-Shan. Principal cap-
ital, Siool. The Hang-Kiang rises in the mountains and
flows into the Yellow Sea. On the southern and western
sides are numerous small islands. The climate on the east-
ern coast and among the mountains is inclement. In the
lower parts of the western region and in the valleys of the
southern provinces the climate is mild and the soil fertile,
producing cotton, rice, fruit, wine, tobacco, etc. The sides
of the mountains are rich in vegetation and covered with
fine timber. The country abounds in gold, and iron is
found in considerable quantities. Silver and copper also
abound. The forests abound in wild-boars, tigers, sables,
etc. The inhabitants are rude and warlike, and are feared
as pirates. Polygamy is general, and a corrupt Booddhism
is the prevailing religion. The language is Mongolian in
its origin. In 1857 there were 15,200 who professed Catho-
lićism, but the missionaries of that faith have suffered much
persecution. The principal exports are cotton fabrics of
excellent quality, ginseng, tiger-skins, oxen, etc. The gov-
ernment is virtually an absolute monarchy; the army is in an
imperfect condition; the navy consists of twenty-one larger
and ninety-two smaller ships of war. Corea is divided into
eight provinces. The inner part of the country is but little
known. Foreigners are not allowed to land in the country.
In 1871 the U. S. sent an expedition against Corea to avenge
the murder of the crew of a merchantman (the General
Sherman). Fort Condé was bombarded, and taken with
little loss on the side of the Americans.
Core/Ila, a town of Spain, in Navarre, on the Alama,
13 miles W. of Tudela. It has several oil-mills and liquor-
ice-factories. Pop. 5023.
Corel’Ii (ARCANGELo), an Italian musician and com-
poser, born near Imola Feb., 1653. He produced, besides
other works, “Concerti Grossi’” (1712). Died Jan. 18,
1713. - -
Coreop/sis [from the Gr. köpts, a “bug,” and ālts,
“appearance”], a genus of herbaceous plants of the nat-
ural order Compositae, is named with reference to the form
of the fruit. It has neutral ray florets and a double invo-
lucre. Many species of this genus are natives of the U. S.,
and are popularly called tickseed. The Coreopsis tinctoria
grows wild in the plains beyond the Mississippi, and is
commonly cultivated in gardens for the beauty of its flowers,
which are yellow with a brown-purple centre.
— —
CORFU—CORINTH.
1155
Corfu, or Korkyra, one of the thirteen nomarchies
into which the kingdom of Greece was in 1872 divided. It
embraces the islands of Corfü, Paxo, Leucadia, and several
smaller islands. Area, 427 square miles. Pop. in 1871,
96,940.
Corfii [an Italian corruption of Kopvpd, the Byzantine
name for the island, from the two “peaks” (kopv bat) on
which the citadel stands; modern Gr. Koppoi; anc. Cor-
cyraj, one of the Ionian Islands, belonging since Mar. 29,
1864, to the kingdom of Greece, is separated from Albania
by a channel which varies in breadth from two to twelve
miles. It is 38 miles long, and has an area of 227 square
miles. Pop. in 1871, 75,466. The surface is hilly and
picturesque, the highest points being about 3000 feet above
the sea. The soil is very fertile. Olive oil is the chief
article of export. Capital, Corfil. The people of ancient
Corcyra waged war against Corinth. A naval battle which
occurred between these powers in 665 B.C. is mentioned by
Thucydides as the first sea-fight on record. Corcyra was in
alliance with the Athenians in the Peloponnesian war.
Corfu, a fortified seaport-town, capital of the above
island, is on the E. coast, 10 miles S. W. of Butrinto ; lat.
39° 37' N., lon. 20° 6' 2" E. It has a safe and convenient
harbor, and is defended by a citadel and two castles. It
has a university founded in 1823, a cathedral, and nume-
rous Greek and Roman Catholic churches, and a lighthouse.
An archbishop of the Greek Church resides here. Corfil
stands near the site of the ancient town of Corcyra. Pop.
in 1871, 15,452.
Cor'fu, a post-village of Pembroke township, Genesee
co., N. Y. It is a station on the New York Central R. R.,
12 miles W. by S. of Batavia. -
Coriglia'no, a town of Italy, in Cosenza, is 4 miles from
the Gulf of Taranto and about 28 miles N. E. of Cosenza.
It has a fine castle, and manufactures of woollen cloth and
soap. It is near the site of the ancient Sybaris. Pop. 10,624.
Corin’ma [Gr. Kópavva.], a celebrated Greek lyric poet-
ess, born at Tanagra, in Boeotia, flourished about 500 B.C.
She is said to have instructed Pindar in the art of poetry,
and she was a successful competitor of that poet in five
poetical contests. Only small fragments of her works are
extant. -
Corinna, a township and post-village of Penobscot
co., Me. The village is on a branch of the Maine Central
R. R., 20 miles S. of Dover. It has four churches, an acad-
emy, a library association, and manufactures of , lumber,
boots and shoes, etc. Total pop. 1513.
Corinna, a post-township of Wright co., Minn. P. 220.
Corinne, a city of Box Elder co., Ut., on the Central
Pacific R. R., and on the W. bank of the navigable Bear
River, 8 miles from its mouth and 80 miles N. of Salt Lake
City. It has a large trade with Montana and Idaho, some
manufactures, two banks, and one daily paper. The sur-
rounding region is pastoral and agricultural. Pop. 783.
Cor/inth [Lat. Corinthus; Gr. Kópavgos], an ancient and
celebrated city of Greece, on the Isthmus of Corinth and
near the Sinus Corinthiacus (Gulf of Lepanto), about 50
miles W. by S. from Athens. The isthmus is a sterile plain
enclosed on several sides by mountains. It is subject to
frequent earthquakes. Corinth commanded all the passes
between the Peloponnesus and Northern Greece. It had a
very favorable position for commerce, and seemed to be des-
tined by nature to be a great maritime power. In conse.
quence of its position it formed the most direct commu-
nication between the two principal Grecian seas—the Ionian
and the Ægean—and became the emporium of the trade be-
tween the East and the West. It was one of the most popu-
lous cities of Greece. Its early history is obscure and mixed
with fabulous legends. The family of the Bacchiadae ruled
here from 747 to 657 B. C. The Corinthians founded the
colonies of Corcyra and Syracuse in 734 B. C. Periander,
one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece, became tyrant (prince)
of Corinth about 625 B.C., and reigned forty-four years.
Soon after his death Corinth became an ally of Sparta, and
was ruled by an oligarchy. The Corinthians were defeated
by the Athenian general Myronides in 457 B. C. As the
ally of Sparta, Corinth fought against Athens throughout
the long Peloponnesian war (431–404 B.C.). In 395 B.C.
Corinth united with other Greek states in a war against
the Spartans, who defeated the allies in several battles.
This war, called the Corinthian war, was ended by the peace
of Antalcidas in 387 B.C., and Corinth then returned to the
alliance with Sparta. Timophanes attempted to make him-
self tyrant of Corinth, but he was killed by his brother
Timoleon in 344 B.C. The battle of Chaeronea (338 B.C.)
rendered Philip of Macedon master of Corinth, which was
Subject to his successors until it was annexed to the Achaean
league in 243. At this period Corinth was the richest and
most luxurious city of Greece, and abounded in statues,
paintings, and other works of art. “The patron-goddess of
Corinth was Aphrodite (Venus), who had a splendid temple
on the Acrocorinthus. The numerous fine temples which
the wealth of the Corinthians enabled them to erect gave an
impulse to architecture, and the most elaborate order of
ancient architecture derived its name from Corinth, which
was one of the principal seats of Grecian art, but produced
no eminent poets or orators.
Having been captured by the Roman consul Mummius in
146 B.C., Corinth was pillaged by his army, and nearly'
destroyed by fire. The most valuable works of art were
carried to Rome. It remained in ruins for a century, and
was rebuilt in the year 46 by Julius Caesar, who planted
there a colony of his veterans and freedmen. It soon rose
again to be a populous and prosperous city, which was
called Colonia Julia Corinthus. Saint Paul preachéd here,
and founded a Christian church, to which two of his Epistles
were addressed. Pausanias, who visited it between 150 and
200 A.D., says that it contained many things worthy of
notice, some being the relics of the ancient city, but the
greater part executed in the flourishing period after it was
rebuilt by Caesar. The principal monument of antiquity
now remaining here is the citadel, built on a hill called
Acrocorinthus, which rises 1886 feet above the leyel of the
sea, and is abrupt and isolated. The view from its summit
is singularly magnificent, and comprehends a greater num-
ber of celebrated objects than any other in Greece. The
Parthenon of . Athens is distinctly seen at a distance of
nearly fifty English miles. According to Col. Mure,
“Neither the Acropolis of Athens nor the Larissa of Argos,
nor any of the more celebrated mountain-fortresses of West-
ern Europe can enter into the remotest competition with
this gigantic citadel. It is one of those objects, more fre-
quently perhaps to be met with in Greece than in any other
country of Europe, of which no drawing can convey other
than a very faint notion.” Among the few relics of the
Greek city are seven Doric columns of a temple standing
on the western outskirts of the modern town. These are
five feet ten inches in diameter. Lechaeum, the port of
Corinth, on the Sinus Corinthiacus, was nearly one mile
and a half from the city. The site of Corinth is occupied
by a small town which the natives call Gortho. It was
severely injured by an earthquake in Feb., 1858. Pop. in
1861, 4248. -
Corinth, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. Pop.
1462. .
Corinth, a post-village, capital of Alcorn co., Miss., is
at the junction of the great lines of railroads connecting
the Atlantic with the Mississippi and Gulf of Mexico, and
the key of the system of Mississippi and Tennessee railroad
communications. It has two weekly newspapers. P. 1512.
After the battle of Shiloh, April 6–7, 1862, the Con-
federate army retreated to Corinth. The national army
being reorganized and strongly reinforced, Halleck, who
had arrived and taken command, slowly advanced on
Corinth by regular-approaches, arriving May 21 to within
3 miles of the place, expecting to meet with an obstimate
resistance; but Beauregard, deeming it impossible for him
to successfully resist, commenced (May 26) secretly evac-
uating, and by the 29th had removed or destroyed every-
thing of value, retreating with his army southward to
Tupelo. Halleck occupied Corinth May 30, and pursuit
was given to the Confederates, but without overtaking them.
After his defeat at Iuka, the Confederate general Price re-
treated to Ripley, Miss., where he was joined by Gen. Van
Dorn, raising the force to about 30,000, Van Dorn assum-
ing command, and an attempt to take Corinth by surprise
or force was determined upon. This movement began
Oct. 2.
Gen. Rosecrans was now in command at Corinth with
20,000 men; to the former extensive line of defences inner
lines had been added. Grant’s head-quarters were at
Jackson, Tenn., Ord’s division was at Bolivar.
Van Dorn moved northward to Pocahontas on the Mem- .
phis R. R., thence down to Chewalla. Rosecrans, apprised
of this advance, deemed it a feint on Corinth, and that the
real object was to attack Grant or Ord, but to meet any emer-
gency threw his forces well out to the west, in and beyond
the outer line of fortifications; Hamilton on the right,
Davies held the centre, McKean on the left. Col. Oliver,
with three regiments, held a strong position in advance.
Gen. Mansfield Lovell, with one division, held the Con-
federate right, Price, with Maury’s and Herbert's divisions,
the left, Maury’s division forming the centre.
On the morning of Oct. 3, Lovell’s division encountered
Oliver’s advance; Gen. McArthur was sent forward to
develop the Confederate strength, and being vigorously
attacked, was reinforced by four regiments from McKean's
division. A determined fight was maintained till a suc-
cessful charge between McArthur's right and Davies' left
1156
CORINTH-CORIOLANUS.
forced him from the hill, with a loss of two guns, Davies
giving ground a little also.
No doubt now existing as to the design of the Con-
federates, Rosecrans prepared to resist. He had barely
withdrawn and rearranged his line when a furious attack
on the centre forced Davies back a short distance, darkness
closing the engagement. -
On the morning of the 4th the attack was renewed. The
advance, which was made in column by division, was sub-
jected to a most severe direct and cross fire, sweeping
it through and through ; but, undismayed, the advance
steadily continued, the men marching “with their faces
averted, like men striving to protect themselves against a
driving storm of hail.” At last they reached the crest of
the hill, and, charging the right centre, Davies’ division
gave way. Fort Richardson, and even Rosecrans’ head-
quarters, were taken ; but Rosecrans rallying the troops
in person, the fort was retaken, and Hamilton’s division
advancing on the right, Price's column was shattered and
driven in confusion.
Van Dorn’s attack was intended to be simultaneous
with that of Price, but the nature of the ground over which
he had to advance delayed him, and, besides, he was con-
fronted by two batteries (Williams and Robinett). His
advance was, however, made, under fire of these two bat-
teries, in the most heroic manner, by the Texas and Mis-
sissippi troops. Advancing within fifty yards of Battery
Robinett through a murderous fire of grape and canister,
they were met by an overwhelming musketry fire from the
Ohio brigade, which drove them back to the woods. They
were re-formed, and, returning to the charge, led by Col.
Rogers, Second Texas, reached the ditch, only to be met
again by the deadly fire of the Ohio brigade, which again
broke them, and a charge was now made by the Eleventh
Missouri and the Twenty-seventh Ohio, which pursued their
scattered columns to the woods. By noon the battle was
ended. The heroic bravery here displayed called forth the
admiration of all. The remains of the gallant Col. Rogers,
who fell at the ditch, were carefully buried in a separate
grave by his late foe. -
The national loss in this sanguinary conflict was 315
killed, 1812 wounded, and 232 prisoners. The Confederate
loss was much greater.
Corinth, a post-township of Saratoga co., N. Y. It
has manufactures of lumber, leather, etc. Pop. 1500.
Corinth, a post-township of Orange co., Vt., 25 miles
S. E. of Montpelier. It has copper-mines and manufac-
tures of linen, and is the seat of an academy. Pop. 1470.
Corinth, Gulf of, or Gulf of Lepanto (anc. Cor-
inthiacus Sinus), an inlet of the Mediterranean, extends
between Hellas proper, or Northern Greece, and the Pelo-
ponnesus (Morea). This gulf resembles a large inland
lake. In beauty of scenery it equals or surpasses the most
picturesque lakes of Northern Italy. “Its coasts,” says
Leake, “broken into an infinite variety of outline by the
ever-changing mixture of bold promontory, gentle slope,
and cultivated level, are crowned on every side by lofty
mountains of the most majestic forms.” It extends E. and
W. nearly 80 miles, without including the part called the
Gulf of Patras, which is connected with the other portion
by a strait less than two miles wide.
Corinth, Isthmus of, a neck of land connecting At-
tica, with the Morea, and separating the Gulf of Corinth
from that of Ægina. Its width varies from four to eight
miles. This isthmus was the scene of the celebrated Isth-
mian games and the site of a famous temple of Neptune.
(See ISTHMIAN GAMEs.) It has been proposed to cut a
ship-canal through the isthmus. -
Corin'thian Order. This order gets its name from
Callicrates, a Corinthian architect, who was said to have in-
vented it. It is more probable that it was an importation
from Asia Minor. It was not generally used in Greece be-
fore the age of Alexander the Great, and the few examples
remaining there do not agree sufficiently with one another
to enable us to deduce rules from them for its construction.
In these examples volutes are sometimes used with the
acanthus leaf, as in the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates,
and sometimes not, as on the Tower of the Winds. In one
example found in Asia Minor the acanthus leaf is found
combined with the ancient honeysuckle ornament. In the
Choragic Monument the column rests upon a spreading
base, while that of the Tower of the Winds has no base.
The Romans greatly affected the Corinthian order, and
brought it to perfection. Yet even with them it was not
always the same thing, and there are more than fifty varie-
ties of the Corinthian capital to be found either in Rome
itself or in various parts of the Roman empire, all exe-
cuted within the three centuries during which Rome con-
tinued to be the imperial city. From these various but not
discordant examples the following general rules may be
deduced: The capital resembles a vase covered with an
abacus and surrounded by one tier of acanthus leaves above
another, from amongst which stalks spring out, terminating
in small volutes at the angles of the abacus and in the cen-
tre of each of its sides. The column is sometimes fluted,
Wººlºº
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as in the temple of Jupiter Stator in Rome, or as in the
fine example here given from the Porta Aurea of Pola in
Istria, and sometimes without flutings, as in the Pantheon.
The flutings are separated by a fillet. The column stands
upon a base. Its height varies from nine and one-third to
ten and one-quarter times the diameter, and the capital
from one to one and a halftimes. The entablature is vari-
ously decorated. The architrave is usually profiled with
three fasciae of unequal height, though sometimes there
are only two. The frieze is often sculptured with foliage
and animals, but it is sometimes left quite plain, as in the
temple of Jupiter Stator. The cornice is righly decorated
with modillions, dentils, and carving upon the mouldings.
Among the principal remaining examples of the order at
Rome are the temple of Mars Ultor and Jupiter Stator,
and the Pantheon. The celebrated little temple at Nîmes
in France, called the Maison Carrée, is a beautiful specimen
of the Corinthian, though it probably owes its excellence
to having been built by Greek hands. CLARENCE COOK.
Corinthians, THE FIRST EPISTLE OF SAINT PAUL TO
THE, one of the canonical books of the New Testament, writ-
ten from Ephesus in the spring of the year 57, to rebuke the
church at Corinth for party, spirit, disrespect to the apos-
tle's authority, licentiousness, impropriety at public meet-
ings (and especially at the Holy Communion), vanity, and
self-seeking. The apostle also settles some cases of con-
science as to eating idol-sacrifices, and a point of doctrine
as to the resurrection. -
THE SECOND EPISTLE OF SAINT PAUL TO THE CORINTHIANs.
Before writing the first Epistle the apostle had sent Tim-
othy to Corinth (1 Cor. iv. I?). Timothy probably brought
back a bad report; Titus was then sent, and he reported
discontent at the authoritative tone of the first Epistle.
The second letter is a sober and conciliatory but earnest
statement of the apostle's true and just authority. . When
he wrote he had reached Macedonia on his way to Achaia,
late in the autumn of the year 57.
Two APOCRYPHAL EPISTLEs (of THE CORINTHIANS To
SAINT PAUL, AND OF SAINT PAUL TO THE CORINTHIANS),
existing in the Armenian, are worthless productions. Eng-
lish translations are to be seen in Whiston’s “Authentic
Records.”
THE EPISTLE of CLEMENT OF ROME TO THE CORINTHIANs
has been regarded as spurious by some, but without suf-
ficient reason, and its genuineness is now conceded. The
so-called Second Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians is
doubtless a part of the pseudo-Clementine Homilies, to
which it is now generally referred.
Coriola/mus (CAIUs MARCIUs), an ancient Roman and
patrician hero, who, according to tradition, received the
surname Coriolanus because he defeated the Volsci at
Corioli about 490 B. C. During a famine he advised that
grain should not be distributed gratis among the plebeians
unless they abandoned the right or privilege of electing
tribunes of the people. For this offence he was banished.
Having obtained command of a Volscian army, he marched
against Rome, the citizens of which were unable to resist
|
i


























































CORIPPUS—CORNBURY.
1157
him. He was at length appeased by a deputation of
Roman matrons, led by his mother Veturia and his wife
Volumnia. The story of Coriolanus forms the subject of
one of Shakspeare's most celebrated dramas. (See ARNOLD,
“History of Rome.”)
Corip/pus (FLAVIUS CRESCONIUs), a literary man (gram-
maticus) who was born in Africa and flourished probably
in the sixth century, is known as the author of an extrav-
agant panegyric upon Justin the Younger, who was Byzan-
tine emperor from 565 to 578 A.D., and of a poem called
“Johannis,” celebrating the exploits of Johannes, a pro-
consul in Africa in Justinian's time. It is believed by
some, but without full evidence, that he was the same Cres-
conius who wrote large and important collections of the
canon law, and who was an African bishop of uncertain
age. Corippus was a writer of ability, and those parts of
his work which are now perfect are highly prized. Much
mystery formerly existed with regard to the authorship of
his writings, but the discovery of a fairly preserved MS.
in 1814 cleared away most of the difficulties which had
beset this vexed question. The above works have been
often reprinted.
Cork [from the Lat. cortez, “bark;” Sp. corcho], the
bark of the Quercus Suber, a species of oak growing in
Spain, Italy, and the south of France. The bark may be re-
moved annually without injuring the tree. Cork is exten-
sively used in the form of stoppers for glass bottles, and in
the construction of life-preservers and life-boats. When
rasped cork is digested in water and alcohol, it leaves about
75 per cent. of insoluble matter, called 8wberine. The cork
tree has been introduced successfully in the Southern
States, and cork might probably be grown there with profit.
Cork, the most southern county of Ireland, borders on
the Atlantic Ocean. Area, 2873 square miles. It is drained
by the rivers Blackwater, Lee, and Bandon. The surface
is diversified, and presents picturesque scenery. The coast
is deeply indented with several bays and inlets, which form
excellent harbors. Among these are Bantry Bay and the
harbors of Cork and Kinsale. The predominant rocks are
old red sandstone and mountain limestone. Here are
mines of copper and coal. Capital, Cork. Pop. in 1871,
516,046.
Cork, a city and river-port of Ireland, capital of Cork
county, is on the river Lee, 11 miles from the sea, and 136
miles S. W. of Dublin by rail. It is the third city of Ire-
land in population. It is partly built on an island of the
river, which is here crossed by nine modern bridges. Many
of the houses are built of limestone, red sandstone, and
brick, and the main streets are wide and well paved, but
the suburbs are mean. Among the principal edifices are
the court-house, mansion-house, the exchange, a custom-
house, a lunatic asylum, and an episcopal palace. It con-
tains a Protestant and a Catholic cathedral and two large
Roman Catholic churches, Queen’s College, the Cork Li-
brary, a medical school, two or three theatres, a fever hos-
pital, and several convents. Here are manufactures of
glass, paper, gingham, iron, gloves, etc. Cork has a large,
safe, and landlocked harbor, and derives much of its pros-
perity from commerce. It is connected by railway with
Dublin and other cities. Steam-packets ply between this
port and Dublin, Liverpool, Bristol, etc. Cork returns two
members to Parliament. It is supposed to have been founded
in the sixth century. It is regarded as a county by itself.
Pop. in 1871, 78,382.
Cork, EARLs of (1620), earls of Orrery (1660), Barons
Boyle of Youghal (1616), Barons Broghill, Wiscounts Kin-
almealy, and barons of Bandon Bridge (Ireland, 1628),
Barons Boyle of Marston, Somerset (Great Britain, 1711).
—RICHARD Boy LE, ninth earl, K. P., P. C., master of the
buckhounds, born April 19, 1829, succeeded his grandfather
June 29, 1856.
Cork (RICHARD Boy LE), FIRST EARL OF, a British states-
man, was born at Canterbury Oct. 3, 1566. He was made
privy councillor for Ireland in 1612, raised to the peerage
in 1616, became earl of Cork in 1620, lord justice of Ire-
land in 1629, and lord treasurer in 1631. Died Sept. 15,
1643. He is known as “the great earl of Cork,” and was
father of Robert Boyle, the philosopher.
Cork Har/bor, an excellent landlocked harbor of Ire-
land, is formed by the estuary of the river Lee. It is large
and deep enough to contain the whole British navy. The
entrance, which is one mile wide, is 11 miles from the city
of Cork. The harbor expands to eight miles in width.
Queenstown is on an island in this harbor.
Corleo'ne, a town of Sicily, province of Palermo, on a
hill 21 miles S. of Palermo. It has a royal college, a hos-
pital, and several churches and convents. Pop. 14,600.
Cor Leo'nis (i. e. “heart of the lion ”), a name of the
Star a in the constellation Leo. It is also called Regulus.
* . Corm [Gr. kópºos, a “trunk” or “stem ’’), in botany, a
short, roundish, bulb-like underground stem, solid, and not
scaly; as in the crocus, tulip, and gladiolus. Corms are
sometimes called solid bulbs.
Cormenin, de (LOUIS MARIE DE LA HAYE), VICOMTE,
a French political writer, born in Paris Jan. 6, 1788. He
became in 1828 a liberal member of the Chamber of Dep-
uties, and under the pseudonym of “Timon’’ wrote polit-
ical pamphlets which were successful. He was president
of the committee which formed a new constitution in 1848.
Among his works “Droit Administratif.” (1831; 5th ed.
1840) is the most important. After the coup d'état of Dec.,
1851, he was a member of the council of state. In 1855 he
was admitted into the Institute. Died May 6, 1868.
Cormontaigne, de (LOUIS), a French military engi-
neer, born in 1696. He made improvements in the art of
fortification, on which he wrote several treatises. He planned
the fortifications which were constructed at Metz and Thion-
ville in the reign of Louis XV. Died Oct. 20, 1752.
Cor/morant [Fr. cormorant; It. corvomarino, i.e. “ sea
crow;” Ger. Wasserabel, (Phalacrocoraac or Graculus), a
genus of aquatic web-footed birds of the family Pelican-
idae, characterized by a bare dilatable membrane beneath
the lower mandible, extending to the upper part of the
throat. The cormorant has a compressed bill, with a strong
hook at the point of the upper mandible, wings of mod-
— w erate length, and stiff tail
... " feathers, used in walking.
The species are distributed
along the coasts of various
countries of Europe, Asia,
and America, and feed on
fish almost exclusively. .
They are proverbial for
their voracity. They pur-
sue their prey by swim-
# ming and diving, and, it
is said, sometimes descend
# to the depth of 100 feet or
= more. The common cor-
sº morant (Phalacrocoraac
carbo) is found on the
eastern coast of North
America, is mostly of a black plumage, and is about thirty-
three inches long. Several other species are found in the
U. S. The cormorant is trained by the Chinese, who em-
ploy it in catching fish.
Corn [Anglo-Saxon, corn ; Ger. Korn ; Lat. far or fru-
mentum], a general name given to various seeds, especially
to cereal and farinaceous grains which grow in ears and
are used for food, as wheat, barley, rye, and maize. In
England, corn signifies “wheat,” which is the grain most
extensively used for breadstuff. In the U. S. the term is
commonly applied to maize or Indian corn.
Corn (clavus), [from cornu, a “horn’], a horny accu-
mulation of epidermic cells upon the surface of the human
foot, produced by the pressure of the boot or shoe. Corns
may be softened by hot water or poultices, and the horny
part can be carefully removed with the knife. When pain-
ful, they may be generally much relieved by the occasional
application of a solution of nitrate of silver. Various sur-
gical appliances have been devised for the relief of corns,
which when neglected may give rise to serious trouble.
Corns in horses are inflamed spots in the sole just above
the horny portion. They are often caused by bad shoeing,
and are very liable to suppuration. When this occurs the
matter should be evacuated, the part poulticed, the surface
of the corn exposed by cutting, and the foot dressed with
a solution of chloride of zinc–one grain to the ounce of
Af
Water. -
Cor/maceae [from Cornus, one of the general, a small
natural order of exogenous plants, mostly trees or shrubs.
They have four-parted flowers, the corolla valvate in the
bud, and four stamens borne on the margin of an epigynous
disk in the perfect flowers. The fruit is a one or two seed-
ed drupe. The Cornws florida (dogwood) and some other
species are indigenous in the U. S. The bark of Cornus
is recommended as a tonic.
Corºnarists, a name applied in the sixteenth century
to the followers of DIEDRIK CoRNHERT (which see.) After
the rise of the Arminian party in the Dutch Church, the
Cornarists, who nearly agreed with them, disappear from
history. - -
Corn/bury (EDWARD Hyde), LoRD, afterwards third
earl of Clarendon. He deserted the service of James II. in
1688, and became an adherent of the prince of Orange
(William III.), who appointed him governor of New York
in 1702. He was censured for rapacity and tyrannical con-
duct, and was removed in 1708. Died April 1, 1723.
. . . -----" "
: lºss
ſºiºſha.
Żºłº {A-.
Cormorant.



1158
Corn-Crake, or Land Rail, the Crea, pratensis, a
European bird, a rare visitant of the U. S. It is a wader,
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seven inches long, of a brown-gray color, haunting corn
and grass lands and osier-beds. It is a game bird, quite
hard to flush, as it runs rapidly away from a dog.
Corn-Crake, or Land Rail.
Corºnea [i. e. “horny,” from the Lat. cornu, a “horn”],
the transparent horny membrane which forms the anterior
part of the eyeball. In vertebrates it is simple; in insects
it is divided into numerous hexagonal segments. (See EYE.)
Corneille (PIERRE), a celebrated French dramatic au-
thor, born at Rouen June 6, 1606, is called the founder of
the French drama. He was educated by the Jesuits, and
studied law, which he practised for several years without
success. In 1629 he produced “Mélite,” a comedy, which
was performed with applause. Between 1629 and 1635 he
wrote several comedies, which are inferior to his later
works. His “Médea,” (1635), a tragedy, although some-
what bombastic, contains eloquent passages and reveals
the dawning of his genius. His reputation was greatly
increased by the tragedy of the “Cid’’ (1636), an imitation
of the Spanish drama of the same name. The “Cid” was
performed with great applause, and surpassed everything
that had appeared on the French stage. He produced in
1639 “Les Horaces” and “Cinna,” which are excellent in
invention and style. “Cinna” and “Polyeucte” (1640)
are considered by some critics as his masterpieces. He
was admitted into the French Academy in 1647. Among
his other works are “Le Menteur” (1642), a comedy of
character and intrigue, and an opera, “ Toison d'Or" (1661).
He died in Paris Oct. 1, 1684, and left several children. He
was an uncle of Fontenelle. The French call him the
“grand Corneille,” partly to distinguish him from his
brother Thomas. In the opinion of many critics he excelled
other French dramatists in impressive declamation, sublime
thoughts, and a condensed and noble style. (See FontF-
NELLE, “Eloge de Corneille;” GUIZOT, “Corneille et son
Temps,” 1852; TASCHEREAU, “Histoire de la Vie et des
Ouvrages de Corneille,” 1829.) -
wº
Corneille (THOMAs), a French dramatist, a brother of
the preceding, born at Rouen Aug. 20, 1625. His first
work was a comedy entitled “Engagements du Hasard ”
(1647). He produced in 1656 “Timocrate,” “Ariane,” the
“Earl of Essex,” and several encyclopaedic works. Died
Dec. 8, 1709.
Corne/lia, a Roman matron of patrician family, was a
daughter of P. Scipio Africanus, and the mother of Tiberius
and Caius Gracchus. After the death of her husband, T.
Sempromius Gracchus, she declined an offer of marriage made
by Ptolemy, king of Egypt. She was eminent for virtue
and mental endowments, and was versed in Greek litera-
ture. When a rich Campanian lady expressed a curiosity
to see her jewels, she pointed to her two sons, saying,
“These are my jewels and ornaments.” She lived in the
second century B. C. 2
Cornelian. See CARNELIAN.
Corne/Iius (ELIAs), D. D., an eloquent and influential
clergyman, was born at Somers, Westchester co., N. Y.,
*\#47E==
†† =
º
§ºwº, $
ſº Ş W
4 / / ~
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CORN-CRAKE-CORNELL COLLEGE,
—e
July 31, 1794. As secretary of the American Education
Society (from 1826 to 1832) he gave a notable impulse to
the work of training men for the Christian
ministry. Died at Hartford, Conn., Feb.
12, 1832. A few weeks before his death he
succeeded Jeremiah Evarts as one of the
Secretaries of the A. B. C. F. M. His life
was written by B. B. Edwards (1833).
Cornelius Nepos. See NEPOs.
Corne/lius, von (PETER), a celebrated
German painter, born at Düsseldorf Sept.
23, 1787. He studied and worked in Rome
; (1811–19), and formed there an intimate
friendship with the artist Overbeck. While
he was at Rome he produced his “Illustra-
tions of Faust.” He manifested his orig-
inal genius in a series of designs illustrating
} the “Niebelungen Lied.” In 1819 he was
}% made director of the Academy at Düssel-
% à º dorf, and in 1826 he went to Munich, where
ſº º he was patronized by King Louis. He de-
% º voted himself to fresco-painting, which had
º long been neglected, and adorned with
ºº:: frescoes of subjects from the “Iliad” the
Glyptothek of Munich. Among his greatest
** works is a picture of the “Last Judgment”
sºs. in the church of St. Louis in Munich. In
/ 2 the Pinakothek of Munich he painted a
series of frescoes to illustrate the “History
of Painting” (1841). Invited by the king
of Prussia, he went to Berlin in 1840, and
painted in the Campo Santo “The Four
Horsemen of the Apocalypse” (1848) and
other works. Died at Berlin Mar. 7, 1867. (See RIEGEL,
“Cornelius, der Meister der Deutschen Malerei,” 1866;
Wolzog EN, “Peter von Cornelius,” 1867; “Peter von Cor-
nelius, ein Gedenkbuch aus seinem Leben und Wirken,
von ERNST FöRSTER,” Berlin, 1874.) tº -
Cornell’, a post-village of Livingston co., Ill., on the
Chicago and Paducah R. R., 9 miles N. W. of Pontiac. It
has one weekly newspaper.
Cornell (EZEKIEL), a brigadier-general of the Revo-
lutionary war, born at Scituate, R. I., was a member of
the Continental Congress from Rhode Island (1780–83).
He founded a library in his native town.
Cornell (EzRA) was born at Westchester Landing,
N. Y., Jan. 11, 1807. Soon after the invention of the tele-
graph he devoted his attention to that enterprise, be-
came very wealthy, and in 1865 founded the CoRNELL UNI-
VFRSITY (which see). Died Dec. 9, 1874 at Ithaca, N. Y.
Cornell (WILLIAM MASON), M.D., D. D., LL.D., a Con-
gregational divine, was born at Berkley, Mass., Oct. 16,
1802, graduated at Brown University in 1827. He left the
ministry in 1839 on account of feeble health, studied medi-
cine, and commenced its practice in 1845. He has contrib-
uted largely to periodical and other literature.
Cornell College, Mount Vernon, Ta., is under the
auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church. It was es-
tablished in 1850, and first called the Iowa Conference
Seminary. In 1854 the name was changed to Cornell Col-
lege. It is built in one of the handsomest spots in beauti-
ful Iowa, on a campus of twenty acres, and consists of
three massive brick structures: one, the ladies' boarding
hall, 72 by 40 feet, and three stories high; another, the
gentlemen’s boarding hall, 56 by 40, and four stories high;
and the third, the main college building, 100 by 60, and
five stories high. They have been built at a cost of $80,000,
principally small gifts from the pioneer citizens of Iowa.
It has a permanent endowment of $86,000, which the friends
of the institution are laboring to increase to $200,000.
The faculty, headed by the Rev. William F. King, D.D.,
consists of fifteen professors and teachers. Three of its
chairs are endowed: the châir of mental and moral philos-
ophy by the late Bishop Hamline; the chair of civil en-
gineering by Hon. Judge Cooley of Dubuque, Ia. ; and
the chair of mathematics by the alumni of the institution.
The Washington government has selected this college as
the one in Iowa to which to detail a professor of military
science and civil engineering, thus bringing West Point
advantages into the heart of Iowa. Over 7000 students
have attended this college, and about 140 of the number
have graduated. Mount Vernon, the seat of the institu-
tion, is a small town of 1500 inhabitants, who have been
drawn together here principally for educational purposes.
It is on the C. and N. W. Railway, 66 miles W. of the
Mississippi, thus being in the very centre of Iowa's popula-
tion. About 360 students, from twenty-one different States,
make up the annual list in the catalogue. The college is
out of debt. J. W. CLINTON, Agent Cornell College.
º



















CORNELL UNIVERSITY-CORN LAWS.
Cornell University, a collegiate institution at Ith-
aca, Tompkins co., N. Y. In July, 1862, Congress granted
to each State 30,000 acres of public land for every Senator
and representative it was entitled to ; the income to be
applied for ever to colleges “where the leading object
shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical
studies, and including military tactics, to teach such
branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the
mechanic arts, . . . in order to promote the liberal and prac-
tical education of the industrial classes in the several pur-
suits and professions in life.” One-tenth of this may be
used for experimental farms, but no portion for buildings.
New York’s share was 990,000 acres. By charter of 1865
and 1867, she established the Cornell University with a
foundation of $500,000, given it by Hon. Ezra Cornell of
Ithaca, and secured to it the entire income of the land-grant
so long as it should use the whole effectively in aid of the
objects intended by Congress. It has since received nearly
$1,000,000 more, from the founder, from the president, Hon.
Andrew D. White, and from Trustees McGraw, Kelley, Sibley,
Sage, and others. Its valuable collections and its library
of 35,000 volumes are rapidly increasing. Opened Oct., |
1868, it had in Oct., 1872, 33 resident professors and in-
structors, 8 non-resident professors and lecturers, 494 stu-
dents, including 5 resident graduates and 16 ladies, and
109 alumni.
By the charter no officer or student can be admitted or
excluded for any political or religious opinions, but “at no
time shall a majority [of the trustees] be of one religious
sect or of no religious sect.” All departments of study shall
be open at the lowest rates consistent with efficiency. Each
of the State's 128 assembly districts may send yearly one
student for four years’ free tuition; the choice to be made
by competitive examination from the best scholars, male and
female, in the different academies and public schools, but
subject to the usual entrance-examination at the university.
Since June, 1872, both sexes are admitted on equal terms, .
except that lady students must be at least eighteen years
of age, while boys may enter at sixteen, and must, unless
excused, receive military instruction.
The university values “practical” and “scholarly” stud-
ies alike when the work in each is equally good. It aims
to afford the best facilities for each, to encourage their com-
bination, and, by giving wide liberty of choice, to secure
the student's mental discipline through studies which, while
of varied character, shall bear directly upon his chosen life-
work. Especial provision is made for instruction connected
with political, social, and industrial science, and with mod-
ern and English classics; thus in history are five profes-
sors; in rhetoric and literature, two; in chemistry, three;
in mathematics, seven teachers; in modern languages,
seven. The engineering school is very large. But instruc-
tion is offered as well in Hebrew, Persian, transcendental
anatomy, quantics, etc. To promote variety of culture,
and to guard against academic seclusion from the world’s
actual interests, the resident faculty is supplemented by
non-resident lecturers, men eminent in their special de-
partments, and often in public life.
There are three “general courses.” That in arts has the
usual classical curriculum; that in literature replaces Greek,
and that in science, Greek and Latin, by other studies. Some
“electives” are allowed, and the natural sciences are studied
at the outset. These three courses, and “special courses”
like civil engineering, architecture, veterinary medicine,
Zoology, etc., lead to bachelors’ degrees, but the masters’
degrees require further study. Or the student may select
an “optional course,” leading to no degree. But in all
courses the equivalent of fifteen hours' recitation per week
is required. A certain proficiency, as shown by the fre-
Quent examinations, is necessary to continue a student in
his class, and a certain higher proficiency to graduate him.
No “marking list” is kept at daily recitations. There is
no college police. Much is left to the student’s earnestness
and to free, and manly intercourse between teachers and
taught, but when these fail he is dismissed.
JAMEs E. OLIVER, of the University.
Cor/met [It. cornetto, diminutive for corno ; Lat. cornu,
a “horn,” because horns were anciently used as musical in-
struments], a musical instrument. usually of brass, and
originally of a curved, horn-like shape. Cornets are of
various kinds, but the best form is that known as the cor-
net-à-pistons (a French term signifying a “cornet with pis-
tons,” because modifications of sound are produced by
small pistons moved by the player's fingers). Cornet music.
is popular and brilliant, but is not considered “high art”
by musical critics. Among the most famous cornet-players
of the present time may be mentioned the celebrated Levy
and Mr. Arbuckle.
Cor'net [It cornetta, a “ small flag”], a commissioned
officer of cavalry, corresponding in rank with the ensign
1159
of infantry. The standard was formerly carried by the
cornet, hence the name. There are no cornets in the U. S.
army. -
Corn’hert, or Koornhert (DIEDRIK), an eminent
Dutch author and reformer, born at Amsterdam in 1522.
He efficiently promoted the Protestant Reformation, but
opposed Calvinism. More liberal than the most of his
contemporaries, he wrote a “Treatise against the Capital
Punishment of Heretics.” He gave valuable assistance to
the prince of Orange in his contest against Spain, and be-
came secretary of state in Holland in 1572. Among his
works is a poem “On the Use and Abuse of Fortune.”
Died Oct. 20, 1590. His followers in theology were called
CoRNARISTs. , -
Cor/nice [Fr. corniche : It. cornice], in architecture,
the upper great division of an entablature, consists of sev-
eral members, which vary in the different orders. (See EN-
TABLATURE.) - -
Cor'nie, a township of Columbia co., Ark. Pop. 413.
Cornie, a township of Union co., Ark. Pop. 752.
Corniferous Pe’riod [from the Lat. cornu, a “horn,”
and fero, to “produce,” referring to the “hornstone” or
imperfect flint found in its strata], in American geology,
the second of the five great divisions of the DEVONIAN
AGE (which see). •
Corn, Indian. See MAIZE.
Corn’ing, a half shire and post-town of Steuben co.,
N. Y., on the Chemung River and Erie R. R., at the junc-
tion of the Rochester division, 290 miles N. W. of New York
and 17% W. of Elmira. It is the terminus of the Chemung
Canal feeder and of the Corning and Blossburg R. R. It
has two newspapers, a school building costing $70,000, a
public library, several iron-foundries, flint glass-works, and
a manufactory of railroad cars. Pop. 4018; of township,
6502. ED. “Journ AL.”
Corning, a post-village of Adams co., Ia. It is on the
Burlington and Missouri River R. R., 211 miles W. of
Burlington. It has two weekly newspapers.
Corning (ERASTUs), born at Norwich, Conn., Dec. 14,
1794, became a wealthy iron-merchant and capitalist of
Albany, N. Y., and was a member of Congress from the last-
named State 1857–63 and 1865–67. He was one of the
leading railroad capitalists of the U. S., was one of the
regents of the university, and was greatly interested in the
cause of popular education. Personally, he was greatly
beloved on account of his genial and kindly disposition.
Died April 9, 1872. -
Cor'nish, a township and post-village of York co., Me.,
on the Portland and Ogdensburg R. R. and on the Saco
River, 30 miles N. W. of Portland. Carriages are manu-
factured here. Pop. 1100.
Cornish, a township and post-village of Sullivan co.,
N. H., on the left bank of the Connecticut River, opposite
Windsor, Vt., 25 miles N. of Bellows Falls. The township
has four churches and manufactures of lumber and leather.
Pop. of township, 1334.
Cor/mish Lan’guage, a language closely akin to the
Breton (Armorican) and to the Welsh. It ceased to be a
spoken language about the beginning of the present cen-
tury. Its use within historic times appears to have been
limited to Cornwall and Western Devonshire, in England.
Among the extant remains of this language are a poem on
the “Passion of our Lord” (published in 1864 by the Phil-
ological Society), and a mystery entitled the “Creation of
the World” (Berlin, 1865). (See NoFRIs, “Cornish Gram-
mar,” Clarendon Press, 1859.)
Corn Laws, in England, the name given to certain
former statutes for the regulation of the trade in grain.
The corn laws are of ancient origin, dating as far back as
1360. There appears to have been no prohibition against
importation till in 1463 an act was passed prohibiting it so
long as the price at home was below 68. 8d. a quarter. Soon
after the accession of Charles I.I. the policy of increasing
duties on importation, for protecting the agricultural and
landed interest, began to prevail. An act was passed in
I670 prohibiting importation till the price. had reached
53s. 4d. a quarter, and laying a heavy duty on it above
that point. This law was of little benefit to the landed
interest, for then and long afterwards Great Britain gen-
erally produced more grain than its population required.
The price at which importation might begin was raised in
1814. There had been a tendency to what is called a “sli-
ding scale” in the duties on importation, and this arrange-
ment, by the act of 1828, reached what was regarded as a
state of perfection. There were, however, writers and
speakers who "opposed the corn laws, while a powerful
arty maintained that they were identified with the inter-
ests of the country. They argued that protection was
1160
CORNPLANTER—COROEBUS.
necessary to keep certain poor lands in cultivation, and
that it was desirable to cultivate as much land as possible,
in order to improve the country. If improvement by that
means were to cease, the country would be dependent on
foreigners for a large portion of food. Such dependence
would be fraught with great danger; in war, supplies
might be stopped or the ports blockaded, the result being
famine and bread-riots. Protection enabled the landed pro-
prietors and their tenants to encourage manufactures and
trade. If the corn laws were abolished half the shopkeepers
would be ruined, and that would be followed by the stop-
page of many mills and factories. These arguments had
great influence over the shopkeepers, the laboring classes,
and the learned professions. Ignorance and timidity were
combined with selfishness for the support of the corn, laws.
Statesmen could introduce no change into the existing
laws other than to reduce the import duty as the price of
grain rose, in order virtually to prohibit importation when
the price was low, and encourage it when high, so that at
famine-prices grain might come in duty free. The effect of .
this fluctuation was to render the trade a gambling one; the
supplies required being so irregular, foreign countries did
not grow corn habitually for the British market. In 1843,
Sir Robert Peel tried a modification of the sliding scale,
which did not lessen the opposition to the corn laws, the
nature of which was now better understood. The people,
roused by Cobden, Bright, and other leaders of the Anti-
Corn Law League, poured in petitions to Parliament, and
at length Sir Robert Peel, now a convert to free trade, car-
ried a measure in 1846 to abolish the corn laws. Every
evil prognostication has proved false. There has been no
stoppage of imports by war; manufacturers and tradesmen
have been more prosperous than before the repeal; the rent
of land has risen, and both tenants and proprietors are sat-
isfied; the working-classes find more employment than be-
fore. The benefits arising from the repeal of these laws
consist in the stimulus given to trade, the removal of anx-
iety as to the effects of scanty harvests, and less fluctua-
tion of price. Another result was the decline of Chartism,
and other schemes for radical social changes.
Corn/planter . [Iroquois, Garianwachia, the “plant-
er”], a half-breed Seneca Indian and chief of the Six Na-
tions, born about 1732, was the son of John Abeel, a white
trader. He fought the English at Braddock's defeat, and
was a deadly foe to the colonists during the Revolutionary
war, but afterwards became the steady friend of the white.
people. He was a man of great intelligence, dignity, and
moral worth. Died in Warren co., Pa., Feb. 18, 1836. A
monument was erected in his honor by the State of Penn-
sylvania in 1867. (See SNow DEN’s “IHistorical Sketch of
Cornplanter,” 1867.)
Cornplanter, a township of Venango co., Pa.
are numerous oil-wells. Pop. 10,100.
Corn Snake, the Scotophis guttatus, a colubrine, non-
venomous serpent of the Southern States, of a brown color,
and often five feet long. It is generally not seen except
mornings and evenings. It enters houses, devours young
chickens and other small animals, but is of gentle and famil-
iar disposition.
Corn’stone, the lower member of the old red sandstone
or middle palaeozoic series of rocks, as developed in Here-
fordshire, England, and the adjoining counties. The name
cornstone is said to have been given because the soil derived
from this stratum is fertile and adapted to the production
of corn (wheat). -
Cor/mu Ammo/nis, in anatomy, a white prominence
within the brain near the middle of each lateral ventricle.
Here
Cornuco’pia [Lat. cornucopiae (i.e. “horn of plenty’),
from cornu, a “horn,” and copiae, the gen. of copia, “ plen-
ty”], in the fine arts, an ornament representing a horn, from
which issue flowers, fruits, and leaves. The fable account-
ing for the origin of this emblem of plenty is, that Amal-
thaea, when one of her goats had broken off a horn, pre-
sented it to the infant Jupiter wreathed with flowers and
filled with fruit.
Corn/ville, a post-township of Somerset co., Me. P.959.
Corn’wall, a county, forming the S. W. extremity of
England, is bounded by the ocean on all sides except the
E. It constitutes a duchy, which is the appanage of the
prince of Wales. Area of the county, 1786 square miles,
but the duchy is larger, and includes a part of Devonshire.
The surface is partly occupied by rugged hills, with some
fertile valleys. The river Tamar forms the eastern bound-
ary of Cornwall, which it separates from Devonshire. The
extreme western point of the county is a promontory called
Land's End. Cornwall is rich in metals, especially tin and
copper. The annual average product of the tin-mines is
5000 tons. The quantity of copper obtained here annu-
ally is nearly 12,000 tons. The mining of kaolin and fel-
spar is also important. Silver, lead, zinc, antimony, cobalt,
bismuth, and iron are found here. The chief towns are
Falmouth, Penzance, Bodmin, and Truro. There are in
Cornwall many dolmens and other pre-historic remains.
The ancient language of Cornwall, called the Cornish lan-
guage, ceased to be spoken about the beginning. of the
present century. (See CoRNISH LANGUAGE.) Capitals,
Bodmin and Launceston. Pop. in 1871, 362,098.
Cornwall, a port of entry, capital of Stormont co.,
Ontario (Canada), on the N. side of the St. Lawrence River,
at the foot of the Long Sault Rapids and Canal, 67 miles
above Montreal, and on the Grand Trunk Railway. It
has great water-power, and manufactures of woollen goods,
flour, etc. It has two weekly papers. Pop. about 3000.
Cornwall, a township and post-village of Litchfield
co., Conn. It has important mines of iron ore. The vil-
lage is 45 miles N. W. of New Haven. Pop. 1772. e
Cornwall, a township of Henry co., Ill. Pop. 952.
Cornwall, a post-township of Orange co., N. Y., on
the W. bank of the Hudson River, contains the village and
U. S. Military Academy of WEST Point (which see); also
Canterbury, Highland Falls, Cozzens’ Landing, and other
villages. It has seventeen churches, several excellent
boarding schools, and many manufactories. The scenery
here is very attractive. Pop. of township, 5989. *~
Cornwall, a post-township of Lebanon co., Pa. P. 2008.
Cornwall, a post-township of Addison co., Vt. P. 969.
Cornwall (BARRY). See PRocTER (BRYAN W.).
Cornwal'lis (CAROLINE FRANCEs), an English writer,
born in July, 1786. She learned Latin and Greek, and at-
tained a good proficiency in philosophy, history, and natu-
ral science. She published a series of twenty-two essays
entitled “Small Books on Great Subjects,” which are highly
esteemed. Among her works, which were all anonymous,
was “Pericles, a Tale of Athens’ (1847). Died in 1858.
A volume of her letters and remains appeared in 1864.
Cornwallis (CHARLEs), MARQUIs of, a British general,
born Dec. 31, 1738, was the eldest son of the first earl,
whose title and estate he inherited in 1762. He became a
favorite aide-de-camp of the king, but he opposed the
measures that provoked the American war. With the rank
of major-general he took part in the battles of Brandywine
and Germantown in 1777. Having obtained the command
of an army in South Carolina, he defeated Gen. Gates at
Camden Aug. 16, 1780. Mar. 15, 1781, he gained some
advantage over Gen. Greene at Guilford Court-house, and
invaded Virginia. He occupied Yorktown, which he in-
trenched, and remained on the defensive. Gen. Washing-
ton besieged Yorktown, and compelled Lord Cornwallis to
surrender his army of about 8000 men, Oct. 19, 1781. He
is regarded as the ablest of the British generals who com-
manded in this war. In 1786 he was appointed governor-
general of Bengal and commander-in-chief of the army in
India. He waged war against Tippoo Saib, whom he de-
feated at Seringapatam in 1792. Having returned to Eng-
land in 1793, he was raised to the rank of marquis. He
became in 1798 lord lieutenant of Ireland, which was then
the scene of a rebellion, and he pacified the Irish by mod-
erate measures. He negotiated the treaty of Amiens in
1802, and was appointed governor-general of India in 1805.
Pie died in India in the same year, Oct. 5. His “Corre-
spondence” was published by Ross (3 vols.; 2d ed. 1859).
Cornwall on the Hudson, a post-village of Corn-
wall township, Orange co., N. Y., has a savings bank, a
public library, some manufactures, and is a place of sum-
mer resort. Pop. 200.
Coro, a province of Venezuela, is bounded on the N.
and E. by the Caribbean Sea, on the S. by Carabobo and
Barquisimeto, and on the W. by Maracaibo. Area, 11,250
square miles. The larger part of the province is a low
plain. In the interior the Sierra de Coro rises to an eleva-
tion of 4250 feet. The form of the province is very irregu-
lar, owing to the large peninsula of Paraguaná in its north-
ern part, which is connected with the mainland by a long,
narrow isthmus. The soil is in general unfruitful, and in
parts poorly watered. The more elevated portions of the
mountains are covered with fine forests. The rivers are all
small, except the Tocuyo and the Aroa. The chief em-
ployments of the inhabitants are cattle-raising and agricul-
ture. It is the most sparsely peopled province of the re-
public. The principal products are cattle, coffee, cacao,
and cotton. Capital, Coro. Pop. 72,321.
Co'ro, a maritime town of South America, in Vene-
zuela, near the Gulf of Maracaibo, 155 miles W. N. W. of
Valencia. It is the capital of the province of the same
name. Pop. about 7000.
Coroe’bus [Kópougos], one of the half-mythical cha.
racters of early Greek history, an Elean chiefly noted for
COROLLA—CORPORATION.
1161
his victory in the foot-race at the Olympian games in 776
B. C. From this victory the Olympiads were reckoned.
He slew the monster Poene, whom Apollo sent to afflict the
Argives.—Another Coroebus was a Phrygian hero of the
Trojan war, and a suitor of Cassandra.-In Pericles' time
there was a famous architect named Coroebus.
Corol’la [a diminutive of the Lat. corona, a “crown”],
in botany, the inner floral envelope of a plant. It is usually
more richly colored than the calyx. Theoretically consid-
ered, the corolla is composed of modified leaves (called
petals). Corollas are divisible into two classes, monopeta-
lous and polypetalous, the latter of which have several
distinct petals. The monopetalous corolla has only one
petal, formed by the union of several modified leaves. The
corolla is much employed by botanists in their systematic
arrangements, and by the French school has been taken as
the means of forming fundamental characters of the sub-
classes in the grand division of exogenous plants.
Cor'ollary [Lat. corollarium, from corolla, a “little
crown" or “garland” given in addition to wages, hence
anything over and above], in mathematics, denotes some-
thing in addition to the demonstration—viz. an inference
or consequence immediately deducible from the demonstra-
tion of a proposition. All the corollaries in our editions
of Euclid have been inserted by editors; they may be said
to constitute so many new propositions, differing from the
original ones merely in the fact that the demonstrations
have been omitted. -
Coroman'del Coast, of India, extends along the E.
side of the peninsula from Point Calymere to the mouth of
the river Kistnah. It has no good harbor, and is heavily
surf-beaten. The cities of Madras, Tranquebar, and Pon-
dicherry are on this coast.
Coro’ma [a Latin word signifying a “crown”], a term
applied in astronomy to the glory of light seen around the
sun when totally eclipsed. Halley regarded the phenom-
enon as owing to the existence of a lunar atmosphere, but
this idea was rejected by Newton, and has since been
entirely disproved. Delisle's theory, that it is due to the
diffraction of the sun's light in passing tangentially by the
moon's sphere, has been asserted by Sir David Brewster to
Corona as seen at Syracuse, in Sicily, Dec., 1870, R is the bright
“inner corona,” in which may be seen a “sierra” of glowing
hydrogen. C is the “outer corona.”
be untenable, since any diffraction ring thus occasioned
would be too narrow to be visible from the earth. There
remains only the conclusion that the corona is a true solar
appendage. It appears probable, from various experiments,
that the particles forming the corona are prevented from
pressing towards the sun by their own motions. It is there-
fore supposed that they may be members of meteoric sys-
tems whose perihelia exist in the sun's neighborhood.
Corona, in architecture, the flat, square, massive
member of a cornice, often called the drift or larmier, is
situated between the cymatium and the bed-moulding. Its
use is to carry the water, drop by drop, from the building.
Corona, Coronet, or Crown, a botanical term ap-
plied to certain appendages of the corolla, which are
modifications of sterile stamens. The corona is in the in-
terior of the corolla, and in some cases has the form of a
cup, as in the narcissus. The five hooded bodies seated on
the tube of the stamens of the asclepias are called the
croton-
Coro’na Austra’lis, or Southern Crown, a con-
stellation of the southern hemisphere.
Coro'na Borea'iis, or Northern Crown, a con-
stellation of the northern hemisphere.
Cor’onach [a Gaelic word], a dirge or lament, min-
gled with the shrieks and wailings of women, which is still
often heard at wakes and funerals, especially in the more
primitive parts of Ireland and Scotland. Traces of the
same practice are found among many primitive peoples.
Corona/tion [from the Lat. corona, a “crown”], the
act of crowning a monarch; the ceremony performed on
the accession of a sovereign to the throne. In some coun-
tries of Europe it is customary for a bishop to place the
crown on the head of the sovereign. The ceremony of cor-
onation is a very ancient one, at least as old as King Solo-
mon's time. Anointing often accompanies the coronation,
and in Great Britain the sovereign also takes an oath to
support the laws, customs, and statutes, the laws of God,
the Protestant reformed religion, the Church of England,
etc.; security for the Church of Scotland being promised
in the oath of accession, which in some instances long pre-
cedes the coronation. For example, George IV.'s accession
was Jan. 29, 1820, but his coronation was deferred nearly
eighteen months—till July 19, 1821. The ceremony is per-
formed in Westminster Abbey, but anciently took place at
Kingston-on-Thames or at Winchester. The ancient cus-
toms have come down to our time with but little change.
Cor’oner, anciently Crown'er [Lat. coronarius, from
corona, the “crown"), formerly an officer of high dignity,
who served as a deputy of the Crown and as chief-justice
of the king's bench in England. At present in England
and most of the U. S. a coroner is an officer who in case of
sudden or mysterious death summons a jury, which sits in
sight of the body, to determine the cause and manner of
death. Coroners may commit persons suspected of homi-
cide after inquest, without warrant, for trial. They also
hold inquests in regard to salvage from shipwrecks. They
had anciently powers much greater than at present.
Cor’onet [from the Lat. corona, a “crown;” Ger. Kranz),
in heraldry, an inferior crown belonging to the nobility.
The monument of John of Eltham (second son of Edward
II.), who died in 1334, is said to afford the earliest Eng-
lish representation of this ornament.
Corot (JEAN BAPTISTE CAMILLE), a French landscape-
painter, born at Paris in July, 1796. Corot has produced
many works, which, after having been long little esteemed,
are now much sought after and command very high prices.
His work is strongly individual, and in his own peculiar
field Corot is unsurpassed. CLARENCE Cook.
Cor'pi Santi, formerly belonging to the suburbs of
Milan, now forms a separate city. Pop. 62,976.
Corporal [corrupted from the Fr. caporal, which is
derived from the It.capo, “head,” “chief”], a non-com-
missioned military officer, next in rank below a sergeant.
He is distinguished by two chevrons worn on the arm.
A “lance corporal” is a private soldier who is allowed to
wear one chevron as a mark of distinction. He may or
may not perform the duties of a corporal, but he has no
increase of rank or pay.
Corporal [Lat. corporale, from corpus, the “body,” i. e.
the “Host”], in the Greek and Roman Catholic churches
the altar-cloth used for covering the Host, and emblemati-
cal of the grave-clothes of our Lord. A “corporal oath’
is an oath sworn upon the corporal. The name is retained
by the ritualistic party of the Anglican Church.
Corporation [Lat. corporatio, an “embodiment,” the
assumption of a form], in law, an artificial person, consisting
of one or more individuals, having certain legal capacities,
such as succession of members, powers to sue or to be sued,
and to act, no matter how numerous its membership may
be, as a single individual. This new person is to be
thought of without reference to the members of which it
is composed. It must be carefully distinguished from a
partnership, in which there is merely a collection of per-
sons, no artificial person being constituted. A contract
made with the corporation is not made with the members,
nor do they, in a legal point of view, own its property,
though they may have an interest in its management on
the theory of a trust. Corporations may be considered
under the following divisions: I. Their various kinds; II.
Their mode of creation; III. Their powers; IV. Visita-
tion; V. Dissolution.
I. They may be variously classified, as regard is had to
the number of members, their objects, and the fulness of
their powers. When considered as to numbers, they are
either aggregate (more than one) or sole. When regarded
as to the objects to be accomplished, they are ecclesiastical
or lay, while lay corporations are either civil or eleemosy-
nary. It can scarcely be said that there are any “ecclesi-
astical” corporations in the U. S., in the proper sense of
the term. They rather belong to the English law under


1162
CORPORATION.
the rules of an established Church. Our corporations may
be said to be lay. The term “eleemosynary" is substanti-
ally equivalent to “charitable,” and embraces all that large
class of corporate institutions established to promote re-
ligion or learning, to relieve the sick or the poor, and in
general to accomplish meritorious public objects. Another
division of corporations is public and private. A public
corporation is designed for governmental purposes, as a
city or a village. Others are private. The importance of
this distinction lies in the fact that a public corporation,
being a mere instrument of government, can be created or
dissolved by the law-making power at will, while a private
corporation only comes into existence by the conjunction of
the will of the sovereign power and that of the corporators.
Its charter is in the nature of a contract, and it can only
be dissolved by an observance of the rules governing the
dissolution or impairment of the obligation of contracts.
When a corporation is regarded as to the completeness of
its powers, it may be either one of full powers or imperfect
in its character. In the last case it is termed a quasi cor-
poration. Towns in the New England. States are true
corporations; in New York they are political divisions
with certain specified powers, being quasi corporations.
II. A corporation may be created either by prescription,
royal charter (see CHARTER), or by legislative act. It is
said to be created by prescription when it has exercised
corporate powers for an indefinite period without interfer-
ence on the part of the sovereign power. By a fiction of
law it is then presumed to have had a charter. The
method of creating corporations by royal charter was
formerly in use in this country as a branch of the English
law. Of course the leading mode of creation is an act of
the legislature. It is not necessary that each institution
should receive a distinct and separate organization. There
may be a general formula provided by the legislature with
which any particular body of men desiring to become a
corporation may comply, and thus become incorporated.
In other words, corporations may be created under general
laws as well as organized under special acts. It may be
added that the legislature may act indirectly as well as
directly. It may confer upon some intermediate authority
the power to incorporate. In this way in New York an
organization known as “The Regents of the University,
etc.” has the power under certain conditions to incorporate
colleges and academies. To the existence of a private cor-
poration the consent of the members is necessary. This con-
sent may be shown either by an express act of acceptance,
or by implication from the exercise of powers under the char-
ter, technically called “user.” It should have a name where-
by to act or to contract, which may be from time to time
changed either by special legislative act or by general law.
III. A corporation, being by fiction of law a person, may
have the power to make contracts and to do most other acts
possessed by natural persons. In general, however, it has
capacity to do such acts as are necessary and convenient to
carry forward the special ends for which it was created.
At the present time it is usually formed to accomplish a
definite object, and it is reasonable that it should have the
authority necessary to achieve it. A corporation, like a
natural person, may transgress the rules prescribed by law
for its action. This fact has caused many perplexing
questions to arise as to the effect of an unauthorized act.
This subject is known as the doctrine of wiltra vires—trans-
gression of power. In such a case the better opinion
would seem to be that the corporate act, considered as a
contract, would be void, though the corporation might be
liable to an individual injured by its negligent mode of
performing an act which it had no legal authority to under-
take. The ordinary powers of a corporation are to make
such contracts as are necessary to the accomplishment of
its purposes, to hold and acquire property, both personal
and real, to have a common seal, to make by-laws for the
government of its members or of others, and to elect new
members or officers in the place of such as may resign, die,
or be removed. The act of removing a member is termed
disfranchisement; the same act exercised towards an officer
is called amotion. . From early times in England there have
been statutes termed “mortmain acts” (see MoRTMAIN) to
restrain corporations from acquiring lands without license
from the king. Such statutes do not, in general, exist in
this country. The common practice is to limit in the spe-
cific act of incorporation the value of the land which may
be acquired. If this restriction be exceeded, the title is
still valid, unless the State intervenes and institutes pro-
ceedings for a forfeiture. It is a general rule that a cor-
poration cannot acquire land by will except for charitable
purposes. It is not uncommon, even in that case, for a
State statute to limit the amount which a testator may
bestow, or to require that the will shall be made a certain
time before his death. A corporation may, like a natural
person, act through agents beyond the limits of the State.
where it is organized, unless restrained by law. It should
be added that a corporation may commit a wrong for which
it will be liable in damages, such as an act of negligence,
publication of a libel, etc. . It cannot, in general, commit
a crime, except as resulting from a failure to perform a
duty prescribed by law. In order to enforce its rights and
to subject itself to its legal duties it may sue and be sued
at home or abroad, although a proceeding against a non-
resident corporation would in general be confined to the
property within the jurisdiction. Corporations sometimes
are made trustees for estates, guardians for minors, etc.
In such a case they would be held accountable in a court
of equity in the same way as other trustees or guardians.
V. By “visitation ” is meant the power of superintend-
ing the corporation and controlling its action. The subject
is peculiarly *. to the management of charitable
corporations. he common law distinguishes between a
founder of such a corporation, who supplies the funds for
its practical working, and the sovereign power which gives
it legal existence. The founder in the first sense is allowed
to provide rules for the government and discipline of the
college or other institution which he has established, and
to designate some person or persons (visitors) who shall
see that the rules are properly observed. The exercise of
this power of visitation is summary, and in general with-
out review by the courts of justice, though in extreme cases
of manifest injustice it would be revised. This power in
the U. S. is rarely lodged in a single person, as it frequently
is in England. Boards of trustees are here entrusted with
it. This doctrine does not prevent a court of equity from
controlling the funds on the theory of a trust, so as to pre-
vent waste, mismanagement, or perversion from the pur-
poses intended by the donors. In this aspect a corporation
is to be regarded as a trustee. The attorney-general, rep-
resenting the State, may apply to the court to correct abuses
in the management of funds which are in the eye of the
law directed to public uses. When the case is sufficiently
grave the charter of the corporation may be forfeited.
V. A corporation may be dissolved either by compulsory
legislation, by surrender of its franchises, coupled with
acceptance of it by the state, and by judicial decree. In
England an act of Parliament is boundless in its operation,
and a corporation may be arbitrarily dissolved by law. In
the U.S. a distinction has been taken between private and
public corporations. As has been already seen, a charter of
a private corporation is a contract, and as, under the U. S.
Constitution, no State can pass a law impairing the obli-
gation of contracts, the power of the State legislature can-
not be exercised so as to materially change the provisions
of the charter without the consent of the corporators. This
is the result of the celebrated “Dartmouth College case.”
(Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 4 Wheaton.) The effect
of this decision is evaded in a number of the States by the
insertion of a clause, either in the charter or some general
law, or even in the State constitution, that corporate char-
ters are to be held subject to alteration or repeal. This
clause is valid as to all subsequent charters, which are of
course accepted in reference to this legislative reservation
of power. The most common mode of dissolving a cor-
poration is by judicial decree. Every franchise is accepted
on the implied condition that it shall be properly exercised.
If there be abuse or neglect to make use of corporate powers,
a proceeding may be instituted in behalf of the State to
forfeit the charter. The abuse or neglect does not of itself
destroy the charter, nor can the cause of forfeiture be pre-
sented to a court in an indirect manner. For example, it
could not be urged by a debtor as creating an incapacity
to sue, or by an heir as an incapacity to take an estate by
will. A proceeding must be resorted to for the very pur-
pose of forfeiting the charter. State law sometimes pro-
vides dissolution as a mode of enforcing the collection of
debts, the property being regarded as a trust fund for that
purpose, and a court of equity will administer it for the
benefit of creditors. The U. S. statutes of bankruptcy are
extended to business corporations. It was an old rule of
the common law that a dissolution of the corporation ex-
tinguished its debts. Its claims could be no longer col-
lected. Its personal property passed to the State, and its
land reverted to the grantor. At present there is little room
for the application of these rules. A court of equity would,
in general, fastem a trust upon the property in favor of cred-
itors, and in all business corporations for the stockholders.
Charitable funds would be administered by other trustees.
(For further information consult the treatises of GRANT,
ANGELL, and AMEs; ABBOTT's “Corporation Digest;” KYD
“On Municipal Corporations;” DILLON “On Municipal
Corporations;” KENT’s “Commentaries,” lecture 33; MERE-
wºTHER & STEPHENs, “History of Boroughs and Municipal
Corporations;” REDFIELD “On Railways.” Also the titles
MUNICIPAL CoRPORATIONS, STOCK CoRPORATIONs, RELIGIOUS
SoCIETIES, etc.) T. W. DWIGHT.
g
CORPS D’ARMEE–CORRELATION OF FORCES.
1163
Corps d’Armée [Fr.], kör dar’mā', or Army Corps,
in the modern system of warfare, is the “tactical” unit of
a large army. The Division, in the management of large
bodies of troops, has been found to be too small, and hence
army corps have been organized, each containing several
Divisions. The management of tactical units in the field
constitutes the branch of the military art known as “grand
tactics.” Each army corps has its own system of internal
administration, and usually consists of infantry and artil-
lery, the cavalry constituting one or more corps by itself.
Corps Législatif, or Legislative Body, was the
name of the lower house of the French legislature during
the Second Empire. It was established in 1857, and abol-
ished in 1870. The deputies were elected, by universal
suffrage, for a term of six years.
Corpulency. See OBESITY.
Corpus Catholico/rum and Cor'pus Evangeli-
co/rum, names given after the peace of Westphalia to the
Catholic and Protestant divisions of the German empire.
The elector of Mayence was the head of the Catholics, while
the lead of the Protestant confederacy'belongéd successively
to the rulers of Saxony, the elector palatine, and Sweden,
and was restored to Saxony by the Diet of 1653. Both
bodies were dissolved at the separation of the German em-
pire in 1806.
Corpus Chris’ti [a Latin phrase signifying the “body
of Christ;” Fr. féte Dieu], a festival of the Roman Catholic
Church. celebrated in honor of the Host (which is held by
that Church to be the veritable body of our Lord). It was
first established by a bull of Urban IV. in 1264, and is ob-
served on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. -
Corpus Christi, the county-seat of Nueces co., Tex.,
is situated on a bay of the same name, 8 miles below the
mouth of the Nueces River, about 200 miles S. W. from Gal-
veston. Its harbor is not surpassed on the coast, and in
commercial importance it ranks among the first cities in
the State. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 2140.
- BARNARD & SoN, PUBs. “ GAZETTE.”
Cor'pus Doctri'nae, the name of certain collections
of theological writings which have had especial authority
in the German Protestant churches. The chief collection
was “Corpus Philippicum” (1560, fol.), containing the
Apostolic, Nicean, and Athanasian Creeds, the Confession
of Augsburg, Melanchthon’s “Loci Communes,” etc. The
strict Lutherans reject it as leaning towards Crypto-Calvin-
ism, and the elector of Saxony pursued with rigorous meas-
ures those who refused to teach it. This, with many other
Corpora Doctrinae, was superseded by the Formula Con-
cordiae. *
Corpus/cular Ac/tion, the power or influence which
the minute particles or corpuscles of matter exercise on each
other, and which, according to some writers, is the cause of
all chemical changes.
Corpus’cular Mech'anism, that branch of mechani-
cal science which is concerned with the phenomena of cohe-
sion. These phenomena indicate some relation between the
centres of the particles cohering. The exact nature,and
cause of this relation are not known. (See COHESION.)
Corpus/cular Philoso/phy, a name sometimes given
to the atomic philosophy of DEMOCRITUs (which see).
Cor'pus Ju'ris Canon'ici [Lat., signifying “ the
body of canon law”], a comprehensive name for the orig-
inal collections of the CANON LAW (which see), including
the “Decretum Gratiani” (1151), the “Decretalia.” of
Gregory IX. (1234), the “Liber Sextus” (1298), the Clem-
entine Decretals (1313), etc. The best edition is that of
Richter, Leipsic, 1833–39. -
Corpus Ju'ris Civi'lis [a Latin term signifying the
“body of civil justice”], the name applied to the legal com-
pilations made by order of JUSTINIAN (which see), consist-
ing of the “Institutions,” the “Codex,” the “Pandects,”
and the “Novellae.” One of the best editions is that of the
Kriegel Brothers, Leipsic, 1833–40.
Corre’a de Ser’ra (Josſ. FRANCISCO), LL.D., a Portu-
guese botanist, born at Serpa in 1750. He visited the U.S.
in 1813, and became Portuguese minister at Washington in
1816. He wrote several treatises on vegetable physiology,
etc. Died Sept. 11, 1823. §
Correc’tionville, a post-township of Woodbury co.,
Ia. Pop. 600.
Correg'gio, da (ANTONIO ALLEGRI), a celebrated Italian
painter, was born at Correggio, a small town between Mo-
dena and Reggio, most probably in 1494. His father, Pel-
legrino Allegri, was a small merchant, the owner of a mod-
erate property in houses and lands. His mother, Bernar-
dina Piazzoli, was of good family, belonging to the stock
of the Ormani or Aromani. By his father's care Allegri was
well educated, and afterwards put to study the arts of draw-
}
ing and painting—first, with Antonio Bartolotti, master of
a school of painting in Correggio, and afterwards with an
uncle, Lorenzo Allegri. From these teachers he learned the
rudiments of his art, but whence came the influences that
formed his peculiar manner is a question not yet answered.
At one time he was said to have studied with Andrea Man-
tegna, but this is not now believed, though it is possible he
may have lived in Mantua in his younger days, and have
studied Mantegna's pictures there; among them, the mag-
nificent “Victory” now in the Louvre. Bigi considers it
proved by documentary evidence that Allegri was in Man-
tua in 1511, and thinks it possible that at this time he may
have worked as an assistant under Andrea Mantegna’s son,
Francesco. But the 'influence of Mantegna was widely
spread through the north of Italy, and it is not necessary
that Allegri should have lived in Mantua to have been
moved by him. Nor does he inherit as strongly from the
great Mantuan as from Leonardo, and perhaps from certain
Venetians, notably, as Signor Cavalcaselle thinks, from
Cima, Palma, Lotto, and Pordenone. The stories first
told by Vasari, and since repeated by successive biographers,
of the poverty and misery of Correggio's life, of his pain-
ful efforts to support his family, of the obscurity and ne-
glect in which he lived, and of his death, brought on by
drinking cold water when overheated in consequence of
carrying home sixty crowns in copper that had been given
him for a picture—all these stories are now believed to be
false; yet they were long credited, and it is difficult to ac-
count for the persistence of the tradition. He was well
paid for his work, which was much sought after, and he
was in great favor with the duke of Mantua, for whom he
painted several of his most famous pictures—the “Educa-
tion of Cupid.” in the British National Gallery, the “Io’”
and the “Leda. ?? in the Berlin gallery, the “Danaë " in the
Borghese gallery, Rome, and the “Antiope’’ in the Louvre.
Whether Correggio ever visited Rome is uncertain; his
work bears no evidence of his ever having been there, and
it is most likely that he never went so far from home. . The
story, too, that he visited Bologna, and there exclaimed on
seeing the picture of Saint Cecilia by Raphael, “Anch'io
son pittoreſ” (“And I too am a painter P’) cannot be traced
to any authority, and seems to have no foundation in fact.
In 1519 he married Girolama Francesca Merlini, by whom
he had a son, Pomponio Quirino Allegri, who also became
a painter, but never attained any distinction (born 1521,
died —?), and also three daughters. Correggio died in
his native town suddenly of a malignant fever, Mar. 5, 1534,
in the forty-first year of his age. The principal works of
Correggio are the frescoes on the dome of the church of San
Giovanni, and those on the dome of the cathedral at Parma,
reckoned his greatest performances. The first was exe-
cuted in 1520, and represents the ascension of Christ; the
second, begun in 1522 and finished in 1530, represented the
assumption of the Virgin. These works have given Cor-
| reggio his splendid fame, but his smaller works have per-
haps endeared him more to the world—his “Vierge au Pan-
ier;” his “Education of Cupid.” in the British National
Gallery; the “Reading Magdalen º’ of the Dresden gal-
lery; and the beautiful “Notte,” or “Night,” a picture of
the Nativity, called so because the light all streams from
the head of the infant Christ; the “Marriage of Saint
Catherine’’ in the Louvre; the “Madonna and Child” in
the Uffizi gallery in Florence; and the “Madonna’’ in the
Naples gallery, called the “Zingarella,” or the Gypsy, be-
cause of her singular head-dress. (WASAR1, “Lives of
Painters and Sculptors,” “Life of Antonio da Correggio,”
with additional notices in his life of Girolamo Carpi; PADRE
LUIGI PUNGILEON1, “Memorie istoriche di Antonio Alle-
gri,” Parma, 1818; QUIRINo BIGI, “Discorso di Ant. Alle-
gri,” Parma, 1860, and a later work on the subject by the
same author, “Notizii di Antonio Allegri e di Antonio
Bartolotti, suo maestro,” Modena, 1873. But chiefly for
an exhaustive account of Correggio’s life and works see the
article (since reprinted as a separate work) “Antonio Alle-
gri,” by Dr. Julius Meyer, in his new edition of NAGLER,
“Allgemeines Kunstler Lexicon,” Leipsic, 1870.) f
- CLARENCE Cook.
Correla’tion [from the Lat. correlatio, “mutual rela-
tion”] of Forces (otherwise called Transmutation of
Force or Energy), a phrase of recent origin employed
to express the theory that any one of the various forms of
physical force may be converted into one or more of the
other forms. The cardinal point in this theory is the doc-
trine of heat and its relation to other agents, especially to
mechanical motion—the doctrine commonly known as the
mechanical theory of heat, and which is of very recent
date. In the number for May, 1842, of a German scientific
journal (Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie) there ap-
peared a short article of only thirteen pages by Julius
Robert Mayer, a physician of Heilbronn, entitled “Obser-
vations concerning the Forces of Inanimate Nature.” In
1164
CORRELATION OF FORCEs.
this article it was affirmed, for the first time, that there ex-
ists a connection between mechanical work and heat by
which the one could be converted into the other, mechani-
cal work being obtained by the expenditure of heat, and
heat being also obtained by the expenditure of work;
there being, under all circumstances, one constant ratié
between the quantity of heat and the amount of work.
Soon afterwards, though apparently without any connec-
tion with the German statement, an English physicist
(Joule of Manchester) experimentally demonstrated what
Mayer had only asserted, and the scientific world came
into possession of a new principle, now technically known
as the principle of the equivalence of heat and work.
In the light of this principle it has been demonstrated
that heat is nothing more nor less than a certain mode of
motion. The heat manifested, e.g., when we rub two flat
surfaces briskly against each other, is only our own mus-
cular motion checked by the friction, and changed thereby
into the heat which the surfaces reveal. On the other
hand, this muscular motion is only the heat of our bodily .
frame expending itself in this way. In either case the
energy has not been annihilated, but only transferred, and
appears in a new form. It has long been known that the
actual force of a moving body may be changed into the
molecular energy of heat. Pieces of dry wood when rubbed
together will become so hot as to ignite; the boring tools
of a carpenter become hot by being used; when a piece of
metal is rubbed vigorously on a rough surface, it becomes
too hot to hold. Again, when a train in motion is brought
to a stand-still by applying a brake, the rails become hot,
and sparks are seem to fly from the wheels. Bullets shot
at a target sometimes show signs of fusion after impact.
In all these cases the energy of visible motion is trans-
muted into heat. The amount of the one form of energy
which will produce a given amount of the other has been
accurately calculated. If a weight of one pound be raised
to a height of 772 feet and be let fall, on striking the
ground it will generate as much heat as will raise 1 pound
of Water 19 F.
By a conception of Carnot, a principle which may be
termed the reversibility of force has been established. If
a certain amount (A) of one form of force produce in disap-
pearing an amount (B) of another form, then B is the quan-
tity of the latter which must disappear in order to the pro-
duction of an amount A of the former. By Carnot's princi-
ple, if an engine, by consuming a certain amount of heat,
does a given quantity of work, by the consumption of a
similar amount of work it would restore to the source the
quantity of heat taken from it. This principle of Carnot
is, however, only true in abstract theory. Its verification
in practice would exact conditions which cannot be realized;
for, though mechanical force can be wholly transformed into
heat, it is not possible, by any kind of engine, to transform
the heat received from a given source wholly into work.
Every such engine abandons by far the larger portion of
the heat which it receives, totally unchanged, to a recipient
suitable to absorb it (the condenser in the Watt engine—
the atmosphere in the case of the high-pressure steam-en-
gine); and if any such engine were “worked backward,”
to use Carnot's expression, it would not restore to the source
all the heat drawn from it during the working forward,
unless what was in the first instance an absorbent of heat
should become in its turn a source, and should give up the
large amount of heat previously abandoned, to be restored
by transfer, and not as the result of transformed work. In
the case of other forms of force, the process of reversal is
attended with equal and sometimes with greater difficulties.
The reciprocal interchange is perhaps best illustrated be-
tween electricity (dynamic) and chemical affinities.
Visible kinetic force is changed into the kinetic energy
of electricity, by a magneto-electrig machine, and into the
potential energy of electricity when a plate of glass is made
to revolve against a surface of silk. Again, the actual
energy of electricity is transformed into force (or energy)
of visible motion when a piece of iron is drawn to the poles
of an electro-magnet, when two wires conveying electric
currents attract one another, or when a current is made to
pass through a wire which is nearer a magnetic needle,
and the needle is in consequence forcibly deflected by the
current.
Suppose the strength of a current of electricity passing
along a wire to be measured by its power to deflect a mag-
netic needle. Suppose the wire to be of copper, and the
amount of deflection noted, and then let the copper be re-
placed by platinum, which offers a greater resistance to the
current. It will be found that the wire becomes hot, and
that the needle is deflected through a smaller angle.
Energy of heat is here produced at the expense of the
energy of electricity in motion. With powerful batteries
all metals are fused, even iridium and platinum, which are
the least fusible. A battery of thirty or forty Bunsen’s
cells will volatilize fine wires of lead, tin, zinc, copper,
gold, and silver. - -
When a bar of antimony and a bar of bismuth are sol-
dered together at one extremity, and the free ends united by
a copper wire, on the application of heat a current of elec-
tricity is found to circulate through the wire, and the
strength of the current is an exact and delicate measure of
the heat applied. When a crystal of tourmaline changes
temperature, its extremities assume opposite electric states,
thus affording an example of the change of heat into the
potential energy of electric separation. The voltaic arc is a
brilliant example of the conversion of electricity into the
actual energy of radiant heat and light.
The force of chemical action, or separation, and heat are
convertible. A given amount of chemical action produces a
definite amount of heat, and this quantity of heat is required
to reverse the chemical, changes which have produced it.
It is difficult to determine accurately the amount of heat
equivalent to a given amount of chemical action, chiefly
because it is very difficult to confine the transformation of
energy to these two forms only ; nevertheless, the relation
between the amount of heat evolved and the quantity of
chemical action has been determined by several eminent
physicists; for example, Rumford calculated that I gramme
of charcoal in combining with 23 grammes of oxygen to
make carbonic acid would evolve heat sufficient to raise the
temperature of 8000 grammes of water 19 C. Andrew
made the quantity 7900 grammes, and Favre and Silber-
mann 8080 grammes. Hence, the true quantity must be
near 8000 grammes. One gramme of hydrogen, in com-
bining with 8 grammes of oxygen to form water, evolves
heat sufficient to raise about 34,000 grammes of water 19.C.
(Andrews, 33,881; Favre, 34,462). Similarly, the quanti-
ties of heat evolved in the combustion of other elements
have been found with equal precision.
The chemical action in a voltaic battery produces elec-
tricity. Just as a definite amount of carbon, by its union
with oxygen, produces a determined quantity of heat, so the
consumption of a definite amount of zinc in the battery pro-
duces a definite quantity of electricity, which in its turn gives
rise to an invariable amount of heat. When the poles of the
battery are connected by a very good conductor, such as a
short thick wire, the heat produced is confined to the battery
itself; but when a less perfect conductor is used, hēat mani-
fests itself in the conductor. In this case part of the heat
is in the wire and part in the battery, but the whole amount
of heat produced in all the parts of the current by the con-
sumption of a given quantity of zinc is the same in this
case as in the other. If the electric current be used to do
other work, a corresponding amount of heat is withdrawn
from the battery. -
Suppose two tubes of glass, closed at one end, to have
pieces of platinum wire fused into the closed ends, and to
be filled with water and placed with the open ends under
water in the same vessel. Let the poles of a battery be
connected with the platinum wires. The water will be de-
composed, oxygen collecting in one tube and hydrogen in
the other. The amount of gas set free in a given time will
be proportional to the strength of the current. If the bat-
tery be taken away, and the ends of platinum be connected
by a copper wire, the gas will soon disappear; and while
it is passing into water, a current will be found to circulate
through the wire in a direction opposite to that which pro-
duced the decomposition. Here, then, electricity in mo-
tion produces energy of chemical separation, and the latter
again reproduces the former. -
Although we may estimate the exact equivalents of the
various forms of energy, we are not always able to reverse a
given transmutation. A given quantity of mechanical work
will produce an equivalent amount of heat, and if all this
heat could be changed into mechanical work the original
amount would be produced; but we are never able to re-
convert all the heat into work. Energy which cannot be
reconverted to its previous form is said to be dissipated.
Dissipation of energy is constantly going on throughout
the universe. Thus, the energy of the sun’s rays produces
streams of water, winds, and currents. By its action on
plants it separates carbon from oxygen—a process which
is reversed when wood is ignited. The moon and the sun
give rise to tidal energy. Through all these channels energy
ts being constantly dissipated. -
Actual force, of all forms, may be transformed into poten-
tial force, and may remain in this state for an indefinite
period of time. The energy of heat, which is derived from
the combustion of coal, was originally derived from radiant
heat and light received from the sun, but has been remain-
ing in store for ages. -
It is sometimes affirmed that there can be neither crea-
tion nor annihilation of energy; but the inexactness of this
statement appears from the profound mathematical demon-
strations which Clausius of Bonn has recently applied to
CORREZE–CORTEZ.
1165
the mechanical theory of heat. He has shown that while
motion may be converted into heat, and the heat, to a cer-
tain degree, may be reconverted into motion, yet in the
latter process there is always a residuum of heat which
cannot be reconverted. Now, as mechanical motion is all
the while in the process of conversion into heat, and this
at a prodigious rate through the universe, there is thus
going on continually an increase of heat and a diminution
of motion; and unless this tendency is checked by the in-
terposition of some power other than the forces now acting
in the universe, it must result in an equalization of tem-
perature everywhere, and the cessation of all mechanical
motion. But such a condition is not yet reached, there-
fore the universe cannot be eternal, and must therefore
have had its existence through some source other than
itself. The universe thus starts with a miracle, and it of
course follows that miracles are possible at any stage of its
continuance. (GRove, “On the Correlation of Forces;”
FICK, “Ueber die Naturkraefte in ihrer Wechselbezie-
hungen;” CLAUSIUs, “On the Mechanical Theory of Heat;”
SIR John HERSCHEL’s “Lectures.”)
REVISED BY J. H. SEELYE.
Corrèze, a department of France near its centre, is a
part of the former province of Limousin. Area, 2265
square miles. It is drained by the rivers Dordogne, Vezère,
and Corrèze. The surface is hilly; the soil is mostly poor.
The staple productions are grain, timber, coal, copper, lead,
iron, and chestnuts. Capital, Tulle. Pop. 310,843.
Cor'rie (FREDERICK H.), U. S. M. C., entered the marine
corps as a second lieutenant in 1861, became a first lieuten-
ant in 1861, and a captain in 1870. He led the marines of
the Powhatan in the assault on Fort Fisher of Jan. 15,
1865, and at the close of the war was brevetted a captain
“for gallant and meritorious conduct.”
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Corrien/tes, a province of the Argentine Republic, is
bounded on the N. by the river Paraná, on the S. E. by the
Uruguay, which separates it from Brazil, and on the W. by
the Paraná. Area, about 45,455 square miles. The sur-
face is occupied by extensive forests and swamps; the soil
is fertile. Capital, Corrientes. Pop. in 1869, 129,023.
Corrientes, the capital of the above province, is on
the right bank of the Rio Paraná, here 2 miles broad, a few
miles below the confluence of the Paraguay. It has a good
harbor, and exports meat, wool, etc. Pop. in 1869, 11,218.
Üorro’sive Sub/limate, a name given to mercuric
chloride (bichloride of mercury), (HgCl2), a virulent and
corrosive poison. (See SUBLIMATE.)
Corr’s, a township of Pickens co., Ala. Pop. 495.
Cor’rugated [from the Lat. con, intensive, and rugo,
rugatum, to “wrinkle" (from ruga, a “ridge” or “fold”)]
Iron, a name applied to iron in thin plates or sheets which
are passed between rollers, producing grooves and ridges
in the iron. In this manner the strength of the material is
greatly increased, while the square surface of the iron is of
course reduced. Corrugated iron is of great value in the
construction of buildings, especially for roofs, where light-
ness and strength are to be combined. It is much used
for covering the walls of frame buildings, both within and
without. It is frequently “galvanized”—i.e. covered with
a thin layer of zinc by dipping it in a bath of the fused
metal.
Corruption of Blood. See ATTAINDER.
Cor’ry, a city of Erie co., Pa., at the crossing of the
Philadelphia and Erie and the Atlantic and Great Western
R. Rs., and the terminus of the Oil Creek and Alleghany
and the Buffalo Pittsburg and Corry R. Rs., 37 miles S. E.
of Erie. It has two national and one savings bank, a daily
and three weekly newspapers, a large oil refinery, and nu-
merous large manufactories (making mowers and reapers,
boring-machines, pails, furniture, barrels, brushes, and
stationary engines), tanneries, blast furnace, etc. There
are in the city nine churches, four schools, a park, and a
library. Corry has grown up since 1860. Pop. 6809.
J. A. PAIN, ED. CoRRY “DAILY BLADE.”
Cor'rytown, or Flat Creek, a post-village of Root
township, Montgomery co., N.Y., 4 miles S. of Canajoharie.
On July 9, 1781, a party of 500 Indians and Tories, under
one Doxtader, attacked and burned Corrytown, killing
many of the inhabitants and making prisoners of many
more. Next day Col. Willet, with 150 men, surprised and
defeated them with severe loss.
Corseul (anc. Fantm Martis), a village of France, de-
partment of Côtes-du-Nord, 26 miles E. of Saint-Brieuc.
Here are many Roman remains. Pop. about 4500.
Cor'sica [anc. Cyrnos, afterwards Corsica : Fr. La
Corse], an island in the Mediterranean, situated between
lat. 41° 20' and 43° N., and lon. 8° 30' and 9° 30' E., 55
miles from Italy and 110 from France. It is separated
from Sardinia by the Strait of Bonifacio, 9 miles wide. It is
110 miles long N. and S., and is 53 miles wide at the broadest
part. Area, 3367 square miles. The W. coast is deeply in-
dented by the Gulfs of Calvi, Porto, Ajaccio, and Valinco.
The interior is traversed by a mountain-chain, the highest
peak of which, Monte Rotondo, rises near the centre of the
island, 8504 feet above the level of the sea. The mountains
are mostly covered with forests of oak, pine, cork tree,
chestnut, beech, etc. The rearing of cattle and mules is
the chief branch of industry. The orange, fig, almond,
olive, and citron flourish here. Among the minerals of
Corsica are iron, antimony, lead, granite, porphyry, marble,.
and limestone. The chief towns are Ajaccio, Bastía, and
Calvi. Corsica was first colonized by the Phoenicians, who
called it Cyrnos, was conquered by the Carthaginians, and
wrested from them by the Romans soon after 237 B. C. The
Genoese became masters of it in 1481. It was ceded by the
Genoese to France (of which it forms the eighty-sixth de-
partment) in 1768. Pop. 259,861.
Corsica, a post-borough of Jefferson co., Pa. P. 372. .
Corsica/na, a city, capital of Navarro co., Tex., on
the Houston and Texas R. R., 180 miles N. N. E. of Austin
City. Two weekly papers are issued here. It is the seat
of Corsicana Military Institute. Pop. 80.
Cor’so, an Italian word for a “race-course ’’ [from the
Lat. curbw8, a verbal noun from curro, curswºm, to “run”],
is often used in Italy as the name of the principal streets
of the larger towns. The Corso. of Rome is famous as the
scene of the diversions of the Cârnival.
Cor’son (HIRAM), an American scholar, born in Phila-
delphia in 1828, became a teacher, and was (1849–53) con-
nected with the Library of Congress and that of the Smith-
sonian Institution. He was professor of history and rhet-
oric in Girard College (1865–66), and held a similar posi-
tion in St. John’s College, Annapolis, Md., 1866–70, when
he became professor of English language and literature,
etc. in Cornell University. He has published Chaucer's
“Legende of Goode Women,” “Handbook of Anglo-Saxon
and Early English,” and other valuable works, and has
also prepared with great labor a “Thesaurus of Early
English.”
Cors'sen (WILLIAM PAUL), an eminent German phil-
ologist and antiquary, born at Bremen in 1820, was for
several years professor at the gymnasium at Stettin, and
subsequently at . the Landesschule at Pforta until 1866,
when he resigned on account of his health. He published
a highly important work, on “The Pronunciation, Vocal-
ism, and Accentuation of the Latin Language * (2 vols.,
1858–59; 2d ed. 1867–69), which received a prize from the
Berlin Academy of Science, and is regarded as the best
work thus far published on this subject. His essays on the
dialects of ancient Italy are also among the best that have
been written.
Cort (CoRNELIS), a Dutch engraver, born at Horn in
1536. He opened a school in Rome, and produced many
good engravings after Titian, Raphael, and other masters.
Among his works is “The Transfiguration,” after Raphael.
Died in 1558. -
Cor/te, a fortified town in the interior of Corsica, is
situated on the Tavignano. Pop. 6094.
Cor/tes [the plu. of the Sp. corte, a “court”], the name
of the national assembly or legislature of Spain. The
Cortes of Leon, Castile, and Aragon originated about the
twelfth century, and were composed of the nobility, digni-
fied clergy, and the representatives of the towns. In the
fourteenth century the power of the Cortes seems to have
been at its height, after which it gradually declined, and
under the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella was reduced
almost to a nullity. After the time of Philip II. the Cortes
of Spain were only convoked occasionally on the accession
of kings, and their sittings were a mere form. A Cortes
elected by universal suffrage in 1869 adopted a new and
liberal constitution. The Cortes at present consist of a
senate, elected for twelve years, and a lower house of dep-
uties, elected for three years, on the basis of one deputy
for every 40,000 inhabitants. The number of senators is
four for each province. The name is also applied to the
legislature of Portugal.
Cor/tez (HERNANDo), the conqueror of Mexico, was born
at Medellin, in Estremadura, Spain, in 1485. He studied
law at the University of Salamanca, and sailed to the New
World to seek his fortune in 1504. He served with dis-
tinction under Velasquez in the conquest of Cuba in 1511,
after which he married Catalina Juarez, and became the
owner of an estate in Cuba. In 1518 he was appointed by
Velasquez to conduct an expedition against Mexico, which
had recently been discovered. He sailed from Cuba with
eleven vessels and about 700 men in Feb., 1519, his pro-

1166
CORTILE-CORUNNA.
fessed object being the conversion of infidels. He defeated
an army of the natives at Tabasco, and landed on the site
of Vera Cruz, where he destroyed his ships, to induce his
men to fight with more desperate courage when they knew
that it was impossible to save themselves by retreat. He
learned that he had entered the extensive empire of Monte-
zuma, who reigned over Anahuac and possessed immense
treasures of gold and silver. In Aug., 1519, he left the sea-
coast and marched against Mexico or Tenochtitlan, the cap-
ital of Anahuac. Having defeated the Tlascalans in sev-
eral battles, he entered Mexico without resistance in Nov.,
1519, and was received with friendly demonstrations by
Montezuma. The audacious Spaniard seized Montezuma
in his own palace, kept him as a prisoner, and extorted
from him a large quantity of gold. The captive prince was
persuaded or forced to swear allegiance to Charles V., but
he refused to adopt the religion of the Spaniards. Velas-
quez, who was jealous of Cortez, sent Narvaez with about
1000 men to supersede Cortez, or operate against him in
case he should not submit. Leaving a part of his force at
Mexico, Cortez marched with 250 men to encounter Nar-
vaez, whom he defeated and took prisoner at Zempoalla in
1520. He persuaded the soldiers of Narvaez to enlist in
his service, and he returned to Mexico, the people of which,
during his absence, had revolted against the Spaniards.
In the fight, which continued several days, Montezuma was
killed by his own subjects, and the Spaniards were driven
out of the city. Cortez gained a victory at Otumba in July,
1520, and took Mexico in 1521. He treated the vanquished
with great cruelty. In 1522 the king of Spain appointed
him governor and captain-general of the conquered coun-
try, called New Spain. Cortez returned to Spain in 1528,
in order to vindicate himself against the accusations of his
enemics, and was received with favor at court. He returned
to Mexico in 1530 with diminished power in civil affairs,
but retained the command of the army. Having again
sailed to Spain in 1540, he accompanied Charles V. in his
expedition against Algiers in 1541. He died at Seville
Dec. 2, 1547. (See PRESCOTT, “History of the Conquest of
Mexico;” GoMARA, “Historia de F. Cortez,” Rome, 1556.)
Cor’tile [It. cortile, from corte, a “court”], an open
quadrangular or covered area in a dwelling-house, sur-
rounded by the buildings or offices of the house itself.
It means also a courtyard.
Cort/land, a county near the central part of New
York. Area, 485 square miles. It is drained by the Otse-
lic and Tioughnioga rivers. The surface is moderately
uneven ; the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, wool, and dairy
products are raised extensively. Lumber, flour, cheese,
iron and other metallic wares, and carriages are the chief
manufactures. It is intersected by the Syracuse Bing-
hamton and New York, and the Utica, Ithaca, and Elmira
R. Rs. Capital, Cortland. Pop. 25,173.
Cortland, a village, the capital of the above county,
is on the Tioughnioga River and on the Syracuse Bing-
hamton and New York, the Midland, and the Utica, Ithaca,
and Elmira R. R.s., 36 miles S. of Syracuse. It has six
churches, a national and a State bank, a State normal
school, a lecture association and reading-room, and three
newspapers. It is in Cortlandville township. Pop. 3066.
W. HookER, ED. “STANDARD AND Journ AL.”
Cortland, a tp. of Spottsylvania, co., Va. Pop. 2222.
Cort/landt, a township of Westchester co., N. Y., on
the Hudson River, about 40 miles N. of New York City.
It contains the large village of Peekskill. Pop. 11,694.
Cort/Handville, a township of Cortland co., N. Y. It
contains Cortland Village and McGrawville, and has exten-
sive manufactures of lime, etc. Pop. 6082.
Corto'na (anc. Corytwm or Corythus, afterwards Corto-
na), a town of Italy, in the province of Arezzo, is on a high
hill near the Lake of Thrasymene, 50 miles S. E. of Flor-
ence. It is the seat of a bishop, and has an old cathedral,
which contains fine works of art; a castle built by the
Medici, a theatre, a museum of Etruscan curiosities, and a
famous academy of sciences. Here was one of the twelve
chief cities of ancient Etruria. Portions of its walls, sup-
posed to have been erected 3000 years ago, remain. Etrus-
can bronzes of exquisite beauty have been found here. In
the Musaeum is a very valuable antique, the comic Graeco-
Etruscan Muse, done in encaustic on slate.
Corum’dum, Sapphire, Ruby, Oriental Ame-
thyst, Oriental Topaz, Adamantine, Spar, Sal-
amstone, or Emery, a mineral consisting, when pure, of
native oxide of aluminum, which is, however, almost inva-
riably mixed with magnetic oxide of iron. It occurs crys-
tallized, massive, granular, in impalpable powder, and in
layers. Mineralogically, corundum is divided into three
varieties: (1) Sapphire, which includes the purer kinds, as |
sapphire, ruby, oriental topaz, etc.; (2) corundum proper,
the duller kinds crystallized or semi-crystalline, including
adamantine spar; and (3) emery, the darker and coarser
kinds. . . - -
The specific gravity of corundum is about 4, while in
hardness it is next to the diamond. It becomes strongly
electrical by friction. Its crystalline form is rhombohedral.
The ruby or red sapphire is valued next to the diamond, and
beyond a certain size (three and a half carats) as equal to
it in value. Its color is supposed to be due to chromic
acid, but the amount of coloring-matter is so small that it
eludes the ordinary tests. The crystals are seldom above
half an inch in length. Two crystals an inch in diameter
and about two inches long are said to be in the possession
of the king of Burmah. The largest ruby known came from
China, and after having been in the possession of Prince
Mentzikoff, was finally made one of the jewels of the Rus-
sian crown. The largest rubies come from the Capelan
Mountains, Ava. Smaller ones are found in Saxony and
Bohemia, and occasionally in other localities in Europe and
the U. S. The blue sapphire occurs much larger, crystals
three inches in length being sometimes found. The crystals.
sometimes exhibit a radiated interior with a play of colors,
when it is known as asteria or asteriated Sapphire. Sap-
phires are brought from Ceylon, India, and China, princi-
pally from the first-named country. Fine specimens are
often found in the beds of streams, whither they have been
carried after the decomposition of the rock originally en-
closing them. The light-blue Sapphires are often exposed
to fire by lapidaries to render them more brilliant. With
those from Epailly in France heating deepens the color.
White sapphires are sometimes cut and passed for diamonds,
which they much resemble. The Brazil sapphire is a blue
tourmaline. -
The Greek arámºstpos, from which the name was derived,
was, according to Dana, not our sapphire, but the stone now
known as lapis-lazuli. Rubies and Sapphires contain about
1 per cent. of magnetic oxide of iron.
Adamantine spar occurs in brownish crystals. It was
used by the ancients as a polishing material, and continues
to be used for fine work. The chief supplies are brought
from China and the Ural Mountains. Salamstone occurs
in pale reddish or bluish transparent crystals. Corundum
is found abundantly in Chester co., Pa.
Emery, or “Armenian stone,” is mined in Naxos at Cape
Emeri, in the vicinity of Smyrna, Asia Minor, in Saxony,
the Ural Mountains, Greece, Spain, etc., and in the U. S.
at Chester, Mass., and in North Carolina. It occurs in
gneiss, gramite, mica, slates, and in some cases in limestone
rocks. Small specimens are also found in several other
localities. It is used as a polishing material. The rock
is broken up by hammers, and then reduced to powder and
sifted, after which, for the preparation of the finer kinds,
elutriation is practised. Emery stones and wheels are made
by pressing the powder, made into a paste with water, into
moulds, and then exposing them to a high heat, no cement-
ing material being required. Emery vulcanite for polish-
ing wheels is made by mixing emery with rubber and sul-
phur, and vulcanizing in moulds. (See INDIA-RUBBER.)
Emery contains from 13 to 30 per cent. of magnetic oxide
of iron. The Naxos emery contains about 24 per cent.,
and the Chester emery, averaging about the same, contains
from 9 to 50 per cent. The value of the samples is deter-
mined by the amount of glass which a given quantity will
wear away. The Ceylon Sapphire, which is taken as a stan-
dard, wears away four-fifths of its weight of glass. The
consumption of emery in the United Kingdom is put at
2000 tons per annum. (See EMERY ; also valuable papers
on emery by J. Lawrence Smith and C. T. Jackson in
Silliman’s “American Journal of Science ’’ [2d series], vii.
283; ix. 289; x. 354; xxxix. 87; xi. 112, 123.)
C. F. CHANDLER.
Corun/na, a province of North-western Spain, forming
the N. W. part of Galicia, having the ocean W. and N.,
Lugo E., and Pontavedro S. It has fine forests and pas-
tures and arable lands, besides iron-mines. Area, 3079
square miles. Capital, Corunna. Pop. 609,337.
Corunna [anc. A drobicum ; Sp. Coruña.], a fortified
city and seaport of Spain, capital of a province of its own
name, is on the Atlantic Ocean, 320 miles N.W. of Madrid;
lat. 43° 22' N., lon. 8°24' W. It has a safe harbor defended
by two forts, and a lighthouse, which is called the Tower
of Hercules, and is ninety-two feet high. It has a citadel,
court-house, custom-house, arsenal, theatre, and the palace
of the captain-general. Here are manufactures of linen
and hats, cordage, canvas, and cigars. On Jan. 16, 1809,
a battle occurred here between the French marshal Soult
and the British general Sir John Moore, who was killed.
Pop. 27,354.
Corunna, a post-village, capital of Shiawassee co.,
Mich., on the Shiawassee River and the Detroit and Mil-
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CORVALLIS-COSMOGONY.
1167
waukee R. R., 75 miles N. W. of Detroit. It has a national
bank, two iron-foundries, and one weekly newspaper. Pop.
1408.
Corval/lis, the county-seat of Benton co., Or., on Wil-
lamette River, 100 miles S. of Portland, contains the State
Agricultural College, an academy, two public schools, three
large saw and planing mills, a number of brick stores, and
two weekly newspapers. It is surrounded by a rich agri-
cultural country, which is very healthful. Steamboats visit
the town during two-thirds of the year. The principal ex-
port is wheat. R. G. HEAD, ED. “DEMocrat.”
Corvée [etymology doubtful], a French term denoting,
in feudal law, the obligation of the inhabitants of a district
to perform certain services for the sovereign or feudal lord.
Some of these services were performed gratis, others for
wages below the value of the labor.
Corvette [from the Lat. corbis, a “basket,” probably
so called from some fancied resemblance in j. a,
small vessel of war having three masts, flush decks, and
one tier of guns on the upper deck. The masts are square-
rigged. A corvette rarely carries more than twenty-six
guns.
Corvi'nus (MATTHIAs) I., king of Hungary, a son of
John Huniades, was born at Klausenburg in 1443. He was
elected king in 1458. He waged war against the emperor
Ferdinand III., the Turkish sultan, and the king of Poland.
In 1485 he captured Vienna. He had superior military
talents and was an able ruler. Died in 1490. (See WEN-
ZEL, “Matthias Corvinus,” 1810.) -
Cor'vus (M. WALERTUs), a famous Roman general, born
about 370 B.C., was elected consul in 348. He defeated
the Samnites in 343, and was chosen dictator in 342 and in
301 B. C. In the year 299 he was elected consul for the
sixth time. Died about 270 B. C.
Cor'win, a township of Ida co., Ia.
the county-seat. Pop. of township, 165.
Corwin (THOMAs), an American statesman and orator,
born in Bourbon co., Ky., July 29, 1794, removed to Ohio
in early youth, and studied law, which he practised with
distinction. He was elected a member of Congress in 1830,
joined the Whig party, and advocated the election of Gen.
Harrison in 1840 by effective public speeches. In the same
year he was chosen governor of Ohio. He was elected to
the Senate of the U. S. in 1845, and was appointed secretary
of the treasury by President Fillmore in July, 1850. In
1858 he was chosen a member of Congress. He was sent as
minister to Mexico in 1861, returned home in 1864, and
died Dec. 18, 1865.
Cor/wine, a township of Logan co., III. Pop. 1069.
Coryban/tes [Gr. Kopſgavres, the plural of Kopſgas;
etymology doubtful], the name of the frantic priests of
Cybele or Rhea. They were distinct from the Galli, who
were eunuchs and priests of the same goddess. They cele-
brated the festivals of Cybele with orgiastic dances and
loud cries, beating on timbrels, and cutting their flesh with
knives.
, Cor’ydon, a post-village, capital of Harrison co., Ind.,
is on Indian Creek, 115 miles S. of Indianapolis. It has
two weekly newspapers, a furniture factory, two flour-mills,
and an academy. It is a handsome place, has a sulphur
spring, and is quite a summer resort. It was the capital
of the State until 1824. Pop. 747.
GEO. W. SELF, E.D. “REPUBLICAN.”
Corydon, a post-village, capital of Wayne co., Ia.,
about 65 miles S. by E. from Des Moines, has two weekly
newspapers. Pop. 618; of Corydon township, 1277.
Corydon, a township of McKean co., Pa. Pop. 169.
Corydon, a post-township of Warren co., Pa. P. 411.
Coryell, a county of Central Texas. Area, 960 square
miles. It is intersected by the Leon River and Cowhouse
Creek. The surface is undulating ; the soilfertile. Stock-
raising is the chief pursuit. Corn and wool are raised. The
county has some timber, and is rather dry, but very healthy.
Capital, Gatesville. Pop. 4124.
Coryla'ceae [from Corylus, one of the generaj, a name
given to a natural order of exogenous trees and shrubs,
which some botanists call Cupuliferae. It contains the oaks,
chestnuts, beeches, hazels, etc.
Corylus. See HAzEL-NUT.
Cor'ymb. [Lat. corymbus; Gr. Köpupgos, the “top” of
anything; also a “cluster of flowers or fruit”], in botany,
a form of inflorescence consisting of a central axis and lat-
eral pedicels, of which the lower are longer than the upper,
and the lengths of the pedicels are so graduated that the
flowers are all on the same level, as in the Spiraea, Kalmia,
and Crataegus (hawthorn).
Cor'ypha [from the Gr. kopudi, “summit”], a genus of
It contains Ida,
tropical fan-leaved palms, one of which, the Corypha un-
braculifera, or tallipot palm, grows in Ceylon to the height
of sixty or seventy feet. The leaves of it are used as fans
and umbrellas. -
Coryphae/us [Gr. kopudaios], sometimes written in Eng-
lish Corypheus, the leader of the chorus in ancient
dramas, by whom the dialogue between the chorus and the
other actors of the drama was carried on, and who led in
the choric song. The name is metaphorically applied to
any great leader; thus Dr. Samuel Johnson is sometimes
called “the coryphaeus of English literature.”
Cos, or Kos [Gr. Kös], called also Stan'chio, an
island of Asiatic Turkey, in the Mediterranean, is separated
from the coast of ancient Caria by a channel about three
miles wide. It was called Lango in the time of the Knights
of Rhodes. It is nearly 22 miles long and 5 miles wide.
Area, 85 square miles. The surface is partly hilly, the soil
is fertile, and the climate delightful. Among the products
are cotton, silk, wine, and fruits. In ancient times it con-
tained a celebrated temple of AEsculapius, and was the na-
tive place of Hippocrates, Apelles the great painter, and
Ariston the philosopher. Cos is also the name of a sea-
port-town on this island. Its port is visited by many mer-
chant-vessels. Pop. about 8000, two-thirds of whom are
Greeks. -
Cosa'la, a Mexican mining-town in the state of Sinaloa,
200 miles S. E. of El Fuerte. Pop. about 7000.
Cosen’za, a province of Italy, bounded on the N. by
Basilicata, on the S. by Catanzaro, and on the E. and W.
by the sea. It is mountainous, and produces rice, Saffron,
honey, oil, and wine. Capital, Cosenza. It was formerly
named Calabria Citeriore. Area, 2840 square miles. Pop.
in 1871, 443,483.
Cosenza (anc. Consentia), a fortified city of Italy,
capital of the above province, is at the confluence of the
rivers Crati and Busento, 12 miles E. of the Mediterranean.
It is the seat of a bishop, and contains a fine court-house,
a cathedral, a royal college, a theatre, several convents, and
an old castle which has been converted into barracks. It
has manufactures of cutlery and earthenware, and an active
trade in silk, wine, manna, rice, etc. Consentia Was the
ancient capital of the Bruttii. Pop. 11,649.
Coshoc/ton, a county of N. E. Central Ohio. Area,
516 square miles. It is drained by the Tuscarawas and
Walhónding rivers, which unite here to form the Muskin-
gum. The surface is partly hilly; the soil is fertile. Cat-
tle, grain, and wool are largely raised, and manufactures
are varied and quite important. Coal and iron are abun-
dant here. It is intersected by the Pittsburg Cincinnati
and St. Louis R. R. Capital, Coshocton. Pop. 23,600.
Coshocton, a post-village, capital of the above county,
is on the Muskingum River just below the junction of the
Tuscarawas and Walhomding, on the Ohio Canal and on
the Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. Louis R. R., 69 miles E.
N. E. of Columbus. A bridge across the river connects it
with Roscoe. Coshocton has two weekly newspapers, iron
and steel works for axles, springs, and iron bridges, a
paper-mill, and one national bank. Pop. 1754.
T. W. CoILIER, JR., E.D. CosHocTON “AGE.”
Cosmog'ony [Gr. koop.oyovia, from kógicos, the “world,”
and yévo, to “originate”], the science or theory, which
treats of the origin of the universe. If we except the cos-
mogony of the East Indians, the earliest extant is that of
Hesiod, which is delivered in hexameter verse. The first
prose cosmogonies were those of the early Ionic philoso-
phers, of whom Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander, and
Anaxagoras are the most celebrated. In modern times a
“Theory of the World” has been produced by Burnet.
We do not include in this list of cosmogonies the researches
of modern geologists, or the systems to which they have
led. The different theories of the origin of the World may
be comprehended under three classes: 1st. Those which
suppose the world to have existed from eternity under its
actual form. Aristotle embraced this doctrine, and, eon-
ceiving the universe to be the eternal effect of an eternal
cause, maintained that not only the heavens and the earth,
but all animate and inanimate beings, are without begin-
ning. 2d. Those which consider the matter of the universe
eternal, but not its form. This was the system of Epicurus
and most of the ancient philosophers and poets, who im-
agined the world either to be produced by the fortuitous
concourse of atoms existing from all eternity, or to have
sprung out of the chaotic form which preceded its present
state. 3d. Those which ascribe both its matter and its
form to the direct agency of a spiritual cause.
The account given in Genesis of the creation is obviously
not a scientific cosmogony, which would not only have been
out of place in a divine revelation intended especially to
impart religious truth, but would. if given in a scientific
1168.
CoSMOs–COTEAU ST. AUGUSTIN.
form (since science is constantly progressing and therefore
changing), have been adapted to a single age or period
only. Or, supposing the highest and witimate facts of sci-
ence had been given, it would have been so far in advance
of all scientific thought yet reached, or that will be reached
perhaps for fifty thousand years to come, that it would be
wholly, unintelligible, and would in all probability appear
utterly absurd even to the most advanced intellects. There-
fore those few great facts which were necessary to be indi-
cated in order to point out the relation between the Creator
and his works have been presented in a popular rather
than a scientific form. Nor can it be said that they are
any the less true because not presented in scientific phrase-
ology.” An excellent exposition of the harmony between
the Mosaic and the geological record of creation is given
by Prof. Dana at the end of his “Manual of Geology,” to
which the reader is referred. (See also TAYLER LEWIS’s
“Six Days of Creation.”) -
Cosmos, a post-township of Renville co., Minn. P. 62.
Cosme (anc. Condate), a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Nièvre, on the Loire, 29 miles N. N. W. of Nevers.
It has manufactures of hardware, cutlery, and anchors.
Pop. 6575.
Cos'sa, a township of Perry co., Ark. Pop. 240.
Cos'sack [a term of Turkish origin, said to signify “rob-
ber”]. The Cossacks are a Slavic race intermixed with Kal-
mucks and Tartars. They are divided into two classes—
the Cossacks of the Don and the Cossacks of Little Russia,
or Malo-Russian Cossacks. The latter were not known by
the name of Cossacks until 1516. Stephen Bathori, king
of Poland, formed them into regiments, under the control
of a hetman or ataman, in 1592. They placed them-
selves under the protection of Russia in 1654, and revolted
in 1708. The Cossacks of the Don entered the service of
Russia, in the sixteenth century. Their territory now con-
stitutes a government (province) of European Russia, with
an area of 59,654 square miles, and a population in 1867
of 1,010,135. Tscherkask, their capital, destroyed by fire
in 1744, was rebuilt in 1805. They are extensively colon-
ized in Siberia.
The principal hetman (ataman) of the Cossacks is the
heir-apparent of the Russian empire. The Cossacks serve
in the army both as irregular cavalry and as light artillery.
In 1870 there were 183,007 Cossacks, including officers,
enrolled in the Russian service. This enrolment includes
all the males. More than 30,000 were in the latter year
serving in the Russian line, chiefly in Siberia. They also
serve to some extent in the Turkish army.
Costa (Sir MICHAEL), a musical composer, born in Na-
ples in Feb., 1810, manifested early a taste for music, and
studied under Tritto. He became conductor of the London
opera in 1831. He has written “Kenilworth '' and “Sir
Huon,” ballets, “ Malek Adel,” which failed in Paris, and
“Don Carlos,” operas, and “Naaman’’ and “Eli,” ora-
. torios.
Costa-Cabral, da (ANTONIO BERNARDO), count of
Thomar, a Portuguese statesman, born May 9, 1803, became
a judge of Lisbon, and entered the ministry in 1836. He
controlled the government, supported by the court, and by
oppressive unconstitutional measures brought upon him-
self the hatred of all parties. He was obliged to retire in
1846 in consequence of a popular insurrection, was recalled
in 1849, but was obliged to flee the country in 1851. His
brother Silvo led the opposition.
Cos/ta Ri'ca (i. e. “rich coast”), the most southern
state of Central America, is bounded on the N. by Nicar-
agua, on the E. by the Caribbean Sea, on the S. E. by Pan-
amá, and on the S. W. by the Pacific Ocean. It lies between
lat. 8° and 11° 30' N. and lon. 83° and 85° 40' W. Area,
21,495 square miles. The surface is mountainous, the state
being traversed by a range which is a continuation of the
Andes or Cordilleras. Among the peaks of this range are
several active and extinct volcanoes. Mount Cartago (or
Irasu) rises about 11,480 feet above the level of the sea.
This region is subject to frequent earthquakes. The rainy
season continues about six-months, between April and Oc-
tober. The name of Costa Rica is said to be derived from
the rich gold-mines which are found here. The soil of
the table-lands and valleys is fertile. The staple produc-
tions are coffee, maize, tobacco, sugar, and dyewoods. The
country is extensively covered with forests, in which the
mahogany, cedar, and other valuable trees abound. Cap-
ital, San José. The government is called a republic, and
was established in 1823. The president is elected for a term
* When we remark in popular language, “The sun rises,” who
shall say that, though the expression is not astronomically true,
we do not, for all practical purposes, utter as important a truth
as when we say, “The earth by its revolution brings us to that
point where the * becomes visible”?
of three years. Costa Rica was one of the states of the
Confederation of Central America, from which she seceded
in 1840. Pop. in 1870, 165,000.
Coste (JEAN JACQUES CYPRIEN VICTOR), a French nat-
uralist, born in Castries in 1807. He published, besides
other works, a “Voyage of Exploration along the Coasts
of France and Italy” (1855). -
Cosſtello (Louis A. STUART), an authoress, born in Ire-
land in 1815. Among her works are a “Summer amongst
the Bocages and Vines '' (1840) and “Memoirs of Eminent
Englishwomen’’ (4 vols., 1844). She produced a collection
of translations from Persian poets entitled “The Rose-
Garden of Persia” (1845); also “Jacques Coeur, the French
Argonaut, and his Times” (1 vol., 1847). Died April 24,
1870. - -
Cos/ter (LAWRENCE JANSEN), mentioned by Adrian Ju-
nius in “Batavia, ’’ (Leyden, 1588), an historical work
written 1565–69, following an account current in Haarlem,
as the original inventor of movable types. He first cut
letters out of wood and printed from them the Dutch
“Hailspiegel.” Afterwards he made his letters from lead
and tim, and called in assistants, whom he swore to secresy.
This was about 1440. One of the workmen, named Johann,
stole his master's type and forms, and afterwards printed
books in Mayence. This story has always been upheld by
the Dutch. -
Costi'lla, a county in the S. of Colorado, partly bound-
ed on the W. by the Rio Grande del Norte. The main
chain of the Rocky Mountains extends along the eastern
border of this county, which includes a large part of the
fertile valley called San Luis Park. Near the middle of
this park is San Luis Lake. The sides of the mountains
are covered with forests of pine, fir, cedar, spruce, etc. Gold
and silver are found here. Water and timber are abundant.
Cattle and wool raising are the chief pursuits. Capital,
San Luis. Pop. 1779. -
Cosſton, a township of Worcester co., Md. Pop. 2832.
Cos’tume [from the Lat. consuetudo, “custom,” “usage;”
Fr. costume] signifies, in its wider sense, the external ap-
pearance which the life of a people presents, and in its
more usual sense the modes of clothing and personal
adornment which prevail in any period or country. In
both senses it plays an important part in art and litera-
ture. Homer brings it into view in marrating the achieve-
ments of his heroes. In modern times Sir Walter Scott
has introduced the fashion of minute description of ex-
ternal costume. In the arts of the painter and actor at-
tention to costume becomes indispensable. The sculptor
has been sorely tried by the wigs and breeches of former
times, and by the hats and other monstrosities of our own.
One way of escaping from the difficulty was to discard the
modern dress altogether, and substitute the ancient toga;
another was to conceal the figure as much as possible in a
cloak. The first of these expedients violates what artists
regard as the laws of costume, by which they feel bound to
represent every object with appropriate accessories; the
second is often open in a less degree to the same objection.
The great attention to costume in the earlier stages of art,
though sometimes injurious to artistic effect, has been of
great value for historical purposes. Among the old masters
of the Italian and German schools there is a tendency to
exhibit costume with painful minuteness. The mediaeval
custom of representing historical and sacred characters in
the costume peculiar to the country and period of the artist
prevailed in the most flourishing age of Italian art. We
may learn from Paul Veronese the aspect presented by a
feast in the palace of a Venetian grandee, but we can have
little conception of the costumes at the marriage in Cana
and in other scriptural subjects treated by the Italian
painters. The effort to avoid anachronism by antiquarian
study belongs almost entirely to the modern schools of art.
In dramatic representations attention to costume becomes
imperative. When the religious mysteries were brought
upon the stage in the Middle Ages, the costume adopted
was that of the age and country in which the representa-
tion took place; and this state of things, continued during
the time of Shakspeare, Lope de Vega, and Molière.
About 1750 the French actress Clairon introduced a reform,
but Talma was the first to bring on the stage a costume
really true to history. Garrick and other eminent English
actors followed his example. -
Cosum/nes, a township of El Dorado co., Cal. Pop. ;
542. - - * {
Cosumnes, a post-township of Sacramento co., Cal.
Pop. 694.
Coteau St. Augustin, a suburb of Montreal, in
Hochelaga co., province of Quebec (Canada), has iron-
works, large tanneries, and a glass-factory. Pop. about
5000.-CoIF ST. Louis, an extra-municipal suburb of Mon-
COTE-D'OR—COTTING.
1169
treal, has extensive quarries of building-stone. Pop. about
4000.—CotRAU ST. PIERRE, COTE ST. ANTOINE, COTE ST.
CATHARINE, CoTE DES NEIGEs, CoTE ST. PAUL, COTE ST.
LUC, etc., are all suburbs within the municipality of MON-
TREAL (which see).
Côte-d'Or (i. e. “region of gold,” named in allusion
to the wealth of its vineyards), a department in the eastern
part of France, formed of a portion of the old province of
Burgundy. Area, 3383 square miles. The surface is diver-
sified by hills and valleys, and partly traversed by a chain
of low mountains called Côte-d'Or. It is drained by the
rivers Seine, Aube, and Saône. Among its minerals are
coal, iron, marble, and gypsum. A large part of this de-
artment is covered with forests. The soil is mostly fertile.
}: produces 18,500,000 gallons of wine annually. Here are
raised the Burgundy wines. Pop. 382,762.
Cotent/mea, a township of Lenoir co., N. C. P. 1470.
Co/terie [a word of French origin, supposed to be de-
rived from the Lat. quota, a “share”], a word said to have
been first applied to commercial associations in which each
member contributed to the general fund. The name is now
given to any circle of an exclusive character, whether so-
cial, literary, or political.
Cotes (ROGER), an English clergyman, born at Burbage
July 10, 1682, was a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
He became Plumian professor of astronomy in 1706, and
published the second edition of Newton’s “Principia,” with
a learned preface (1713). He wrote “Harmonia Mensu-
rarum” (1722). Died June 5, 1716. Newton had so high
an opinion of his abilities that he exclaimed, “If Cotes
had lived, we should have known something.”
Côte Sans Besoin, a post-township of Callaway co.,
Mo. Pop. 869.
Côtes-du-Nord (i. e. “northern coasts *), a maritime
department of France, formed of part of the old province
of Bretagne. It is bounded on the N. by the English Chan-
mel, on the E. by Ile-et-Vilaine, on the S. by Morbihan, and
on the W. by Finistère. Area, 2268 square miles. The
surface is partly mountainous; the soil is mostly fertile.
Many horses and cattle are reared here. Large quantities
of grain and linen goods are exported. Among the min-
erals are iron, lead, and granite. Capital, Saint-Brieuc.
Pop. 641,210.
Co-tidal Lines, a system of lines drawn upon a map,
terrestrial globe, or chart, to illustrate the course of the
tidal wave. They were devised by Dr. Whewell, and are
given in the present work in Map No. III. Each of these
lines passes through the places which have high water at
the same hour, thus tracing the crest of the wave, and en-
abling the eye to follow its course with all the modifications
that it experiences in each ocean.
A glance at the map of co-tidal lines, which gives the
position and shape of the crest of the tidal wave at inter-
vals of an hour, will show that the parent wave from the
South Pacific moves on most swiftly in the open and deep
ocean S. of the continents. There, also, its motion pre-
serves its normal direction westward, and its crest extends
from N. to S., while in the interior of the three oceans both
are considerably deflected to the N., and even turned back
to the E. (See TIDEs, by PROF. J. E. HILGARD, U. S.
Coast Survey.) ARNOLD GUYoT.
Cotopax'i, a volcano of South America, in Ecuador, in
the eastern Cordillera of the Andes, 34 miles S. S. E. of
Quito ; lat. 0° 40' S., lon. 78° 39' W. Its form is almost
perfectly conical. It rises 19,498 feet above the level of
the sea, and 9800 feet above the adjacent valley, being the
highest volcano in America that has been active in recent
times. Its first recorded eruption occurred in 1532. In
1698 an eruption destroyed the city of Tacunga, and in
1738 the flames rose 3000 feet above the brink of the crater.
A violent eruption occurred in 1768, when clouds of ashes
and smoke darkened the air for a distance of many miles.
During the eruption of 1803, Humboldt, who was at Guay-
aquil, about 135 miles distant, heard the explosions of this
volcano. A belt about 4400 feet wide is covered with per-
petual snow. It was first ascended in 1872 by Dr. W. Reiss.
Cotro/ne (anc. Crotona), a town of Italy, province
of Catanzaro, on the Mediterranean Sea, 6 miles N. W. of
Cape Nau. It is enclosed by walls and defended by a
citadel. It is the seat of a bishop, and has a small harbor,
a cathedral, and several hospitals and convents. Pop.
5807.
Cotta *JoHANN FRIEDRICH), BARON voN COTTENDORF, an
eminent publisher, born at Stuttgart April 27, 1764, found-
ed at Tübingen in 1793 the “Allgemeine Zeitung,” an able
daily journal, afterwards published at Augsburg. He was
a friend and liberal patron of Goethe and Schiller, whose
works he pºlished. He established a steam press at Augs-
Capital, Dijon.
burg in 1824. He was for many years a member of the
Würtemberg Diet, and in 1824 was elected vice-president
of the second chamber. Died Dec. 29, 1832.
Cotta (L. AuFELIUs), a Roman senator, became praetor
in 70 B. C. He was consul for the third time in the year
65, and co-operated with Cicero against Catiline in 63 B.C.
He was an adherent of Caesar in the civil War which began
in 49 B. C.
Cotta, von (BERNHARD), an eminent German geologist,
born in Thuringia Oct. 24, 1808, was appointed professor
in the School of Mines at Freiberg in 1842. Among his
important works are a geognostic map of Saxony in twelve
sections, published conjointly with Naumann; “Geognos-
tische Wanderungen” (2 vols., 1836–38); “Anleitung zum
Studium der Geognosie und Geologie” (3d ed. 1849);
“Geologische Bilder” (4th ed. 1861); “Deutschlands Bo-
den” (2d ed., 1858); “Geologie der Gegenwart”. (3d ed.
1871). He has also since 1847 been editing the “Ganen-
studien.” He favors the theory of evolution. -
Cot’tage Grove, a township of Saline co., Ill. P. 713.
Cottage Grove, a township of Allen co., Kan. P. 794.
Cottage Grove, a post-township of Washington co.,
Minn., 13 miles S. E. of St. Paul. Pop. 705.
Cottage Grove, a post-township of Dane co., Wis.
Pop. 955. - -
Cottage Hill College, for young ladies, at York,
Pa., on the Northern Central R. R., 27 miles from Harris-
burg and 58 miles from Baltimore, between which places
there are five daily trains each way. There are also three
daily trains to Wrightsville, making connection at Columbia.
for Reading and Philadelphia. The borough of York
contains 11,003 inhabitants, and is noted for the health-
fulness of its situation. The college grounds, upon which
are several excellent springs of good water, contain nine
acres, which are nicely ornamented with shade-trees and
shrubbery. With the Codorus flowing near by the build-
ings, and with the beautiful scenery around, this is one of
the most delightful and attractive locations in the State.
Cottage Hill College was founded in 1850 by Rev. J. F.
Hey, who for a number of years conducted it as a female
college with great success. Under his charge it rapidly
increased in distinction until it justly ranked among the
best female schools in the State, enjoying a large and in-
fluential patronage. In Jan., 1866, the property was pur-
chased from Prof. Hey, and the building has since been
furnished with new furniture, new carpets, and new bed-
ding; first-class musical instruments, a chemical and phi-
losophical apparatus, globes, charts, and maps, have been
procured; and many important improvements have been
made, designed to secure the general comfort of the pupils.
On the 21st of Feb., 1868, the institution was chartered by
the legislature of the State, with full collegiate powers to
confer all literary degrees and academic honors which are
usually granted and conferred by other colleges for the
education of young women. In 1863, Rev. J. F. Hey re-
signed the charge of this institution, and Prof. L. B.
Heiges conducted the school for the three succeeding years
very successfully. In 1866, Rev. D. Eberly succeeded Prof.
IIeiges, and under his direction the institution was char-
tered by the legislature of Pennsylvania, as already stated.
In 1872, Rev. D. Eberly having resigned, Prof. J. Nelson
Clark, M. D., was appointed president. Since the institu-
tion was chartered thirty young ladies have graduated.
J. NELSON CLARK.
Cott’bus, or Kottbus, a town of Prussia, in Bran-
denburg, on the river Spree, 67 miles S. S. E. of Berlin,
with which it is connected by a railway. It is enclosed
by walls, and has a royal palace and a gymnasium; also
manufactures of woollen cloths, linen goods, hosiery, to-
bacco, etc. Pop. in 1871, 18,916.
Cotting (John RUGGLEs), M.D., LL.D., born in Acton,
Mass., in 1787, educated at Amherst, Dartmouth, and Cam-
bridge. After spending fifty years of his life in New Eng-
land, he was yet spared to enjoy thirty more in the valley
of the Oconee, near Milledgeville, then the capital of Geor-
gia, where he died, Oct. 13, 1867, and was buried, thus
leaving the beautiful impress of that invisible but vital
chain binding the hearts of this great people into one
mighty nation. Dr. Cotting, having acquired reputation
by his publications in chemistry and geology, was induced
by cotton-planters of Georgia to make an agricultural
survey of two or three counties of that State, the maps
and drawings of which were magnificently executed, and
were deposited in the museum of the medical college in
Augusta; and their fame reached even Russia, whose em-
peror solicited a copy for the Royal Library of St. Peters-
burg. He was a Congregational minister, and had held
professorships in Amherst College and at Pittsfield Medi-
cal School. £AUIL F. Eve.
º
1170
COTTON.
Cotton [Fr. coton; Sp. algodon; Arab. algoton], the
fibre which surrounds the seeds of various species of cot-
ton-plant, though the numerous cultivated varieties (mostly
annual or biennial) are now referred to two or three spe-
cies, the Gossypium album, nigrum, and perhaps arboreum,
plants of the natural order Malvaceae, to which an East
#. origin is assigned by the most recent authorities,
though they have been grown from time immemorial in
Africa and America. The first mention of cotton by any
affi
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writer, is by Herodotus, about 450 B.C. It is supposed
that the cotton culture was first practised in India, but
history furnishes no means of ascertaining when, or by
what progressive stages of discovery and invention, cotton
was first utilized by man. There is no record of any cot-
ton being manufactured in Europe before the tenth cen-
tury. Cotton is a tropical plant, and nearly all that is
raised in the world is produced by the colored races. Its
most northern Iimit is reached in Mancho.oria, where it is
cultivated with success. Columbus found cotton in use
among the natives of Hispaniola, but only in its most
primitive form. In 1536 the cottom-plant was found grow-
ing in the country drained by the Mississippi and in Texas,
but it was first planted as an experiment in the U.S. in the
year 1621.
As early as the year 1736 the cotton-plant was known on
the Eastern Shore of Maryland, in the lower counties of
Delaware, and in other places in the Middle States, but it
was chiefly regarded as an ornamental plant, and confined
to gardens. It was not till after the Revolution that cot-
ton culture was prosecuted with a view to export, though
as early as 1739 it is reported that one bag of cotton was
exported from Savannah, Ga., and about this time effort
was made to bring cotton to perfection in South Carolina.
In the year 1784 an American ship, which had on board
eight bags of cottom for Liverpool, was seized, on the
ground that so much cotton could not have been produced
in the U. S. In 1785 the culture of short-staple cotton
was commenced in the U. S., and 1,000,000 pounds in 1795
were exported from Charleston, S. C. Since that time the
use of cotton, which previously had been for the most part
limited to the hot climates where it grew, has marvellously
extended, so that at present it constitutes not only the en-
tire clothing of a large majority of the human race, but it
has become a part of the material in which the people of
all lands are clothed, excepting only the most debased and
Savage of races. For this great revolution the invention
of improved machinery, and especially that of the saw
cotton-gin, is the principal cause.
The green-seed or short-staple cotton (Gossypium album)
is the kind principally used since the Revolution. The
black-seed, or sea-island cotton (Gossypium nigrum), which
is considered very much superior to the former, was intro-
duced about the year 1788, though this can only be grown
successfully in certain localities, requiring low and moist
land. The Peeler cotton-seed is in more general use at the
present day. This is an upland cotton, but will do well on
the lowlands. Several other kinds of cotton-seed have been
introduced, and fabulous prices have been paid for some of
them.
In 1791 only 2,000,000 pounds of cotton were raised in
the U. S., and 189,500 pounds exported; while in 1803 the
amount exported from the U.S. was over 41,000,000 pounds.
In 1791 a cotton-mill was erected at Providence, R.I., sup-
posed to be the first one in America, and from this time
cotton was used in this country, though for a few years to
a very limited extent. During the year 1800, 500 bales, of
300 pounds each, were consumed in the U. S. Ten years
later (1810) 10,000 bales, of 300 pounds each, were used
in our own country, and we exported nearly 94,000,000
pounds. Sixty-two mills were in operation during this
year. In 1820 the U. S. cotton crop amounted to 369,000
bales, of 300 pounds each, and we exported nearly
128,000,000 pounds. Ten years later (1830) the export of
cotton from the U. S. was 271,000,000 pounds, and the
amount grown was over 1,000,000 bales. In 1840 over
1,500,000 bales were raised in the U. S. Ten years later
(1850) the home consumption of cotton in the U. S. was
nearly 600,000 bales, while the amount raised was over
2,000,000 bales. In 1860 the total cotton crop of the U. S.
was 4,675,000 bales; consumed here, 978,000 bales.
From the year 1860 to 1870 there was a large decrease
in the amount of cotton raised, owing to the civil war,
which caused almost entire stagnation in all kinds of busi-
ness in the southern part of our country, and the conse-
quent liberation of the slaves. In 1870 the total cotton
crop of the U. S. was only 3,000,000 bales, of which
2,000,000 were exported. The last three years show a
large increase, and we may look forward with confidence
that under the new order of things the cotton-growing
States will become more fully developed, and will astonish
the world with their productions. Since the emancipation
of the slaves in the U. S. a new impetus has been given to
cotton-growing, and the business is so profitable that it is
conducted very carelessly.
The extremes of the cotton-belt, where it may be grown
with profit, may be included between the 28th and 40th de-
grees N. lat. ; but the cotton States, properly speaking, are
South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, the north-
ern part of Florida, the northern half of Louisiana, and
the eastern half of Texas.
The principal cotton crop of the U. S., as of all other
important cotton-regions, is of the short-staple variety.
The long-staple sort is used for making the best sewing-
thread, for mixing with silk, and for certain other special
uses. It is very much higher priced than common cotton,
but can be grown only in peculiar and very limited dis-
tricts, such as the islands on the coast of South Carolina
and parts of the mainland of Florida.
It is very unfortunate that better and more economical
methods of planting, cultivating, and fertilizing cotton-
lands have not been adopted in the U. S. Cotton is not
naturally a very exhausting crop, but from the short-
sighted policy of too many planters, great areas of what
was once good cotton-land are now quite unproductive. A
very serious drawback in the cultivation of cotton is the
existence of so many insect enemies. In some regions the
ravages of insects and their larvae have led to the complete
abandonment of the crop.
British India produces more cotton than any other
country except the U. S., and there the industry is one of
great importance; but the fibre is generally found to be
inferior to that grown in the U. S. Egypt produces much
cotton, its best product taking a high rank as regards qual-
ity and price. Brazil raises a considerable amount of fibre,
and most other warm and tropical countries contribute
more or less to the world’s supply of the commodity.
Besides the uses of the cottom-fibre as a material for the
manufacture of textile fabrics, and its secondary use in
paper-making, the seed of cotton now furnishes a large
supply of fixed oil obtained by expressing. The residue
is useful for fattening stock, being used after, the manner
of oil-cake. It is also extensively employed in the South
as a fertilizer. The cottom-seed oil and meal are exported
to Europe in considerable quantities. The oil is used for
soap-stock, for softening wool, lubricating machinery,
dressing morocco, and for adulterating linseed and other
more costly oils. It is considered to be a drying oil, and
a small proportion may be used in paint. In the Southern
States, when rectified, it is sometimes employed in phar-
macy. Cotton-root is used to some extent in medicine,
chiefly for its emmenagogue and abortifacient properties.
In Brazil and other countries the leaves are believed to
have highly important medicinal qualities.
A. T. LoNGLEY, U. S. Agricultural Department.






















COTTON.—COTTONWOOD TREE.
1171
Cotſton, a township of Switzerland co., Ind. Pop. 1700.
Cotton (CHARLEs), an English humorous poet, born
in Staffordshire in 1630, was an adopted son of Izaak Wal-
ton. He translated Montaigne’s “Essays” into English,
and wrote “Scarronides, or Virgil Travestied" (1687), a
“Voyage to Ireland,” and other works. He is best known
by his continuation of Walton’s “Complete Angler.” Died
in 1687. •
Cotton (John), a learned English Puritan minister,
born at Derby Dec. 4, 1585, preached over twenty years at
Boston in England, emigrated to Massachusetts in 1633,
was afterwards pastor of the First church in Boston (or-
ganized in 1630), and acquired such influence that he
was called the patriarch of New England. Died Dec. 23,
1652. -
Cotton (Sir ROBERT BRUCE), an English antiquary,
was born in Huntingdonshire Jan. 22, 1570. He gradu-
ated at Cambridge in 1585. Having a high reputation for
prudence, he was often consulted and employed by King
James I. and his ministers. He wrote several political
and historical treatises. He died May 6, 1631, and left to
his heirs a valuable library, which is now in the British
Museum.
Cottom-gin, a machine for freeing cotton from its
seeds, which adhere to the fibre with considerable tenacity.
Originally, the cotton-gin was an apparatus in which the
cotton was passed between two rollers revolving in opposite
directions. This, the “roller-gin,” is still used for ginning
sea-island or black-seeded cotton, which is quite easily
freed from its seeds. But green-seeded, upland, or short-
staple cotton, the species most generally grown, cannot
beginned by such simple means. In 1793, Mr. Eli Whit-
ney, a native of Massachusetts resident in Georgia, in-
vented the saw-gin, consisting of a hopper, one side of
which is composed of parallel wires, between which re-
volve circular saws, the teeth of which drag the fibre
through the wires, leaving the seeds behind. This inven-
tion, which brought Mr. Whitney small profit and much
litigation, has immensely increased the cotton industry of
the world.
Cotton Grove, a township of Davidson co., N. C.
Pop. 868.
Cotton, Gun. See GUN-CoTTON, by GEN. H. L. ABBOT,
U. S. A.
Cotton Hill, a post-township of Sangamon co., III.
Pop. 754.
Cotſton Manufacture. The manufacture of cotton
fibre into articles of use and ornament appears to have been
carried on in India from the remotest antiquity, but it has
not made any very great progress in the East. It was also
known in ancient Mexico, and is still carried on in a rude
manner by native African tribes. This industry, which
now affords employment and subsistence to many hun-
dreds of thousands of persons, is almost wholly the result
of discoveries and inventions made in Great Britain and
the U. S. since the middle of the last century. Previously
to that period the manufacture was everywhere confined
within the narrowest limits. Owing to the difficulty of
separating the fibre from the seed, its price, so long as this
operation had to be performed by hand, was naturally
high; while the cost of spinning and weaving by the
wheels and looms in use previously to 1760 added so much
to the price of the cloth that its use was confined to the
richer classes of society. But in this respect the most
signal and extraordinary improvements have been made.
The jemmy, invented by Hargreaves in 1767, enabled one
person to spin from 80 to 120 threads with about the same
facility that a single thread had been previously spun. The
jenny, however, was fitted only to spin the softer kinds of
yarn, or that used as weft, being unable to give the firm-
ness required in the yarn used as warp. But this deficiency
was soon supplied; the genius of Arkwright completed
(1785) what Hargreaves had begun, by inventing the spin-
ning-frame—that wonderful piece of machinery which spins
any number of threads of any degree of fineness and hard-
ness, leaving to man merely to feed the machine with cotton
and to join the threads when they break. Nearly at the
same time that the spinning department was thus improved,
Dr. Cartwright, a clergyman of Kent, invented the power-
loom, which has already gone far to supersede weaving by
hand. While these extraordinary inventions were being
made, Watt was perfecting the steam-engine, and thus not
only supplied the manufacturers with a new power applica-
ble to every purpose and easy of control, but one that might
be placed in the most convenient situations and in the midst
of a population trained to industrious habits. Still, some-
thing remained to complete this astonishing career of dis-
covery. Without a vastly-increased supply of the raw
material at a lower price than it had previously brought,
the inventions of Hargreaves, Arkwright, and Watt would
have been of comparatively little value. What they did
for the manufacturers, Mr. Eli Whitney did for the cotton-
growers. He invented a machine by which cotton fibre is
separated from the seed with the utmost facility and expe-
dition. Previously to 1790, the U. S. did not export a
single pound of raw cotton. In 1792 they exported 138,328
pounds. Whitney’s invention came into operation in 1793,
and, in 1795, 5,276,306 pounds were exported. A cottom-
mill is perhaps, all things considered, the most astonish-
ing triumph of human skill and ingenuity. All the vari-
ous operations, from the carding of the wool to its conver-
Sion into a texture as fine almost as that of the gossamer,
are performed by machinery.
China has an immense manufacture of cotton goods, but
nevertheless imports them largely from England and Rus-
sia. A large part of the Chinese cotton is grown at home,
but much also comes from India and Burmah. Except the
now comparatively unimportant production of the fabrics
in India, most of the cotton manufacture of the present
day is carried on in Europe and the U. S., Great Britain
taking the lead, and France, Germany, Austria, Russia,
Belgium, and Switzerland all having an extensive produc-
tion of cotton goods. Many of the smaller European states
have also considerable cotton manufacturing.
In the U. S. the first successful cotton-mill was that of
Mr. Samuel Slater (an Englishman by birth), established
at Pawtucket, R. I., in 1790, though at Beverly, Mass.,
there had been a cotton-manufacturing company in exist-
ence for several years, and similar attempts had been
made, with small success; at East Bridgewater, Mass., and
at Philadelphia. From these small beginnings this manu-
facture has grown to be one of the most important in the
land. The chief seats of the American cotton manufacture
are in the New England and Middle States, but the area.
of the manufacturing district is widening. Especially in
Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina, there have been at-
tempts made (and on the whole with very encouraging suc-
cess) to organize a system of cotton manufacturing. If
this attempt be fully realized, it would appear that the
South, being the finest cotton-growing region in the world,
and having abundant and constant water-power, might
successfully compete with other regions which are obliged
to transport the raw material for thousands of miles. The
mills of the U. S. in 1870 were 958 in number, employing
steam-engines with an aggregate horse-power of 47,117,
water-wheels with the horse-power estimated at 99,191 ;
running 157,310 looms, 3,694,477 frame spindles, and
3,437,938 mule spindles; and employing 135,369 persons,
considerably more than half of whom were females. The
capital employed was $140,706,291; wages paid, $39,044,132;
cotton used, 398,308,257 pounds; total value of products,
$477,489,739. Since the census of 1870 the manufacture
of cotton goods in this country has enormously increased.
Cotton Plant, a post-village of Woodruff co., Ark.,
about 60 miles E. N. E. of Little Rock. Pop. of Cotton
Plant township, 1007.
Cottom Valley, a township of Macon co., Ala. Pop.
2120.
Cot/tonwood, a county in the S. W. of Minnesota.
Area, 720 square miles. It is drained by the Des Moines
and Little Cottonwood rivers. The surface is undulating;
the soil fertile. It is intersected by the Sioux City and St.
Paul R. R. Pop. 534.
Cottonwood, a township of Siskiyou co., Cal.
421.
Cottonwood, a post-township of Tehama co., Cal.
Pop. 240.
Cottonwood, a township of Yolo co., Cal. Pop. 1319.
Cottonwood, a twp. of Cumberland co., Ill. P. 1342.
Cottonwood, a township of Chase co., Kan., has a
weekly newspaper. Pop. 315.
Cottonwood, a post-township of Brown co., Minn.
Pop. 607.
Cottonwood Falls, a post-village, capital of Chase
co., Kan., on the Cottonwood River and the Atchison Topeka.
and Santa Fé R. R., 65 miles S. W. of Topeka. Coal and
ochre are found in the vicinity. It has good water-power
and manufactures, and one weekly newspaper. S
W. A. MoRGAN, ED. CHAs E County “LEADER.”
Cottonwood Springs, a post-village of Lincoln Co.,
Neb., on the Platte River.
Cottonwood Tree, a common name of the Populus
monitifera, a species of poplar which grows on the margins
of streams of the Western U. S. to the height of eighty
feet or more. It has deltoid, taper-pointed, serrate leaves.
The timber is soft and not very valuable.
Pop.
1172
COTTRELLVII, LE–COUNT.
Cotſtrellville, a township of St. Clair co., Mich. Pop.
2372.
Cottus, a genus of acanthopterygian sea-fishes of the
Four-horned Cottus.
family Triglidae, containing the “miller's thumb,” the sea-
bullhead, the sculpin, and numerous other fishes of remark-
ably repulsive appearance, though several are considered
good eating. The four-horned cottus (Cottus quadricornia)
is a species common to both sides of the Atlantic.
Cotſuit, a post-village of Barnstable co., Mass., on
Cotuit River, in Barnstable township, and on the line of
Mashpee.—Cotuit PORT, in the same township, 2 miles
to the S. E., is a port on Cotuit Harbor.
Cotyle/don [Gr. korvånööv], in botany, the seed-lobe
or seminal leaf of a plant. This organ forms a part of the
embryo, and nourishes the plumule and radicle at the first
period of their development. Exogenous plants have gem-
erally two cotyledons, and hence are called dicotyledonous,
and endogenous plants, having a single cotyledon, are
called monocotyledonow8. Cryptogamous plants are acotyl-
edomow8—i. e. destitute of a cotyledon.
Couch (DARIUs NASH), an American officer, born July
23, 1822, in Putnam co., N. Y., graduated at West Point
in 1846; and as lieutenant of artillery he served in the
war with Mexico 1847–48, engaged at Buena Vista (brevet
first lieutenant); at various posts 1848–55; and in Florida
hostilities 1849–50; resigned April 30, 1855; merchant and
copper-manufacturer 1855–61. In the civil war he resumed
his sword as colonel of the Seventh Massachusetts Volun-
teers, and July 4, 1862, became major-general U. S. volun-
teers. He served in the defences of Washington 1861–62;
in Virginia, Peninsula, engaged at Yorktown, Williams-
burg, Fair Oaks, Oak Grove, and Malvern Hill; in the re-
treat from Manassas to Washington 1862; in Maryland
campaign 1862, engaged at Harper's Ferry, and in pursuit
from Antietam to the Potomac ; in the Rappahannock
campaign 1862–63, engaged at Fredericksburg and Chan-
cellorsville; in command of the department of the Sus-
quehanna 1863–64, engaged in defence of Chambersburg,
which was evacuated ; and in command of a division of the
Twenty-third corps 1864–65, engaged in the battle of Nash-
ville, and operations in North Carolina to effect a junction
with Gen. Schofield. Resigned May 26, 1865, from volun-
teer service. He was the Democratic candidate for gov-
ernor of Massachusetts in 1865, but was not elected; U. S.
collector for port of Boston 1866–67, and has been president
of the Virginia Mining and Manufacturing Company since
1867. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Couch/ant [from the Fr. coucher, to “lay down " or
“lie down"). In heraldry, a beast lying down, with his head
raised, is couchant. If the head is down, he is dormant.
Cou’dersport, a post-borough, capital of Potter co.,
Pa., 174 miles W. N. W. of Harrisburg, has a weekly paper,
a tannery, a foundry, several mills, a public library, and
graded schools. Pop. 471.
John S. MANN, ED. “POTTER Journ AL.”
Cougar. See PUMA.
Cough [Lat. tussis], a physiological act or operation,
which consists in the sudden expulsion of air from the
lungs, at the beginning of which act the glottis is closed.
Coughing is designed for the expulsion of foreign or se-
creted matters from the air-passages. It is largely a reflex
action, generally arising from local irritation. When the
irritation is the result of disease, coughing may be a very
important symptom. It is partly voluntary and partly
involuntary. A cough may sometimes be relieved by ex-
pectorant remedies, by mucilaginous diluent draughts, by
warm foot-baths, by stimulants, and very often by small
doses of opium or of other sedatives.
REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Cough/lan (LAWRENCE), an English Wesleyan preacher,
born about 1760, was one of the principal founders of
Methodism in Nova Scotia and the neighboring provinces.
His labors were great, and he has been called the “Apostle
of Nova Scotia.” Died in that province in 1834.
Coulin (F ), D. D., born at Geneva Nov. 17, 1828,
is a distinguished preacher and writer of the Swiss Free
Church, residing at Genthod. He was a delegate to the
meeting of the Evangelical Alliance at New York in 1873.
Council, a township of Crittenden co., Ark. Pop. 312.
Council Bluffs, the capital of Pottawattamie
co., and the metropolis of Western Iowa, is situated
135 miles W. of Des Moines and 4 miles E. of Omaha.
It is the western terminus of the Chicago Burlington
and Quincy, Chicago Rock Island and Pacific, and
* Chicago and North-western R. R.S., the eastern termi-
; nus of the Union Pacific, the southern terminus of
the Sioux City and Pacific, and the northern terminus
of the Kansas City St. Joseph and Council Bluffs
R. Rs. The city is built principally upon a plain at
the base of the high bluffs from which it derives its
name, although not a few of the finest residences are
to be found in the numerous “glens” which intersect the
bluffs in every direction. The town is connected with
Omaha by an iron bridge almost a mile in length, over
which street-cars drawn by dummy engines, and regular
passenger and freight trains, pass every fifteen minutes.
One monthly, four weekly, and two daily papers are pub-
lished here. Among the public buildings worthy of men-
tion is the institution for the deaf and dumb, a large court-
house, and an imposing high-school building. Council
Bluffs contains 9 churches, 21 hotels, 17 telegraph-offices, 1
savings, 1 private, and 2 national banks, 2 public libraries,
and a free reading-room. A horse railway 5 miles in length
connects its eastern, western, and southern extremes. Ow-
ing to its superior shipping facilities, Council Bluffs is fast
becoming an important manufacturing centre. Steam-en-
gines in large numbers, milling and mining machinery, fan-
ning-mills, agricultural implements of all kinds, cigars,
cigar-boxes, and brooms are made here to good advantage.
Pop. 10,020. S. W. MooREHEAD, Ed. “I)AILY GLOBE.”
Council Grove, a city, capital of Morris co., Kan., on
the Neosho River and the Missouri Kansas and Texas R. R.,
25 miles from Emporia. It has two churches, three schools,
a national bank, two newspapers, and a coal-mine. Pop.
712; of Council Grove township, 1080.
JoHN MALOY, ED. CouncIL GROVE “DEMOCRAT.”
Council Hill, a township and post-village of Jo Da-
viess co., Ill. The village is on the Illinois Central R. R.,
7 miles N. E. of Galena. Pop. of township, 725.
Coun'cil, OEcumen'ical [from the Gr. oikovpévn (yì),
i. e. the “habitable" (world); because the whole Christian
world is, in theory, assembled], otherwise called General
or Universal Council, a title given to certain great eccle-
siastical assemblies, so called in distinction from diocesan,
provincial, and national councils, which are more limited
meetings of the same kind. The Greek and Latin churches
acknowledge seven councils—viz.: (1) the first Council of
Nice, 325 A. D.; (2) the first of Constantinople, 381 A. D.;
(3) the first of Ephesus, 431 A. D.; (4) that of Chalcedon,
451 A. D.; (5) the second of Constantinople, 553 A. D.;
(6) the third of Constantinople, 681 A. D.; (7) the second
of Nice, 787 A. D. To these the Roman Catholics add the
following: (8) the fourth of Constantinople, 869 A. D.; (9)
the first of Lateran, 1123; (10) the second of Lateran, 1139;
(II) the third of Lateran, 1179; (12) the fourth of Lateran,
1215; (13) the first of Lyons, 1245; (14) the second of Ly-
ons, 1274; (15) that of Vienne, in France, 1311; (16) that
of Constance, 1414–18 (in part); (17) that of Bâle, 1431–
38; (18) the fifth Lateran, 1512–17; (19) that of Trent,
1545-63; and (20) that of the Vatican, 1869–70. The most
important of these are noticed under their alphabetical
heads.
Council of War, a conference of military or naval
officers, called by the commander-in-chief to advise him in
relation to some important business or movement. The
commandant of a garrison often solicits the opinion of a
council of war before surrendering to the enemy. But
in the end the military code leaves these matters to the
discretion of the commander.
Coun’over, a post-village of Calmar township, Win-
neshiek co., Ia. It is on the Iowa division of the Chicago
Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., at the junction of the Deco-
rah Branch R. R. º *
Counsellor. See ADvoCATE and BARRISTER.
Count [from the Lat. comes (gen. comitis), a “com-
panion;” Fr. comte ; It... conte ; Ger. Graf], a nobleman
of an order of nobility inferior to dukes and marquises,
but superior to viscounts and barons. Counts had an-
ciently territorial jurisdiction, but at present they are
simply noblemen having this hereditary title. The use of
the word comes in this sense dates from the reign of the
Roman emperor Augustus, who conferred it upon the sen-
ators who immediately surrounded him, and was afterwards
commonly applied to their companions by other Roman em-







COUNTER—courBET.
1173
perors. It was used in Spain about 650 A.D., and for a
long period seems to have been of equal dignity with that
of duke, no distinction being made till 1297. In the Brit-
ish empire the title of earl is always used instead of count.
Counts-PALATINE were originally “officers of the im-
perial palace” in Germany, who possessed high judicial
functions. The term was afterwards applied to feudatories
who had palatine jurisdiction (see PALATINE) over outlying
territories, where they maintained a palace and the other
machinery of a court. The term came still later to be applied
as a title of honor by several princes, but is now obsolete.
Counter [from the Lat. contra, “ against;” Fr. contre],
a word often used as a prefix to other words, and signify-
ing “against,” “corresponding to,” or “in answer to.”
(See etymology of CountERFEIT.)
Counterfeit [Fr. contre fait; literally, “made against”],
a term applied chiefly to spurious coin or bank notes, or
other factitious currency. The uttering of such coin or
notes is a felony punishable by imprisonment, or even by
death in some countries. To guard against counterfeiting,
bank notes are engraved with designs which cannot be re-
produced except at great expense. There are also secret
marks and combinations of letters and figures known only
to the proper authorities. A peculiar ink and paper are
used. Pamphlets called “detectors” are printed with lists
and descriptions of counterfeit notes and coins. (See Fort-
GERY, by PRof. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.)
Counterfort [Fr. contrefort], in architecture, a but-
tress or pier built against or at right angles to a wall, to
strengthen it and enable it to resist a particular thrust. In
fortification, a mass of stone or brickwork added to the re-
vetment of a rampart in such a way as to form a buttress.
Counter-Guard is an outwork designed to defend the
two faces of a bastion or ravelin from a direct fire, so as to
retard a breach being made. The counter-guard consists
of two lines of rampart parallel to the faces of the bastion
or ravelin, and separated from them by a narrow ditch.
Counter-Mark, in numismatics, a stamp often seen
on ancient coins or medals, is generally a figure or inscrip-
tion. Some antiquaries suppose this mark was struck on
money taken from an enemy.
Counterpart, a correspondent part, a copy, a dupli-
cate. In law, when the parts of an indenture are inter-
changeably executed by the several parties, that part which
is executed by the grantor is termed the original, and the
others are counterparts.
Counterpoint [Fr. contrepoint; It contrapunto], the
art of writing music in several distinct parts. The name
is derived from the circumstance of the notes being placed
one against or over the other on the score. (See Music, by
REv. WILLIAM STAUNToN, D. D.)
Counterpoise [Fr. contrepoids (i.e. that which “weighs
against" something else)], a weight sufficient to balance
another in the opposite scale; equal force or weight acting
in opposition to something. In mechanics, a mass of metal
connected with an instrument or machine, either for the pur-
pose of giving steadiness or diminishing the pressure on
some particular point. - -
Counter-Proof, an impression obtained from a freshly-
printed proof of an engraving, by laying it, before the ink
is dry, on paper and passing it through the press. In this
mode a reversed impression is obtained, which is useful in
enabling the engraver to judge of the success of his work.
Counterscarp, in fortification, is the side of the ditch
opposite the scarp. A revetted counterscarp is constituted
usually by a wall of masonry called a counterscarp-wall;
an unrevetted counterscarp is of earth at its natural slope.
Countersign, a watchword given daily by the com-
mander of an army, in order that friends may be distin-
guished from enemies by their knowledge of it. Sentinels
require every person who approaches their posts by night
to give the countersign.
CountERSIGN is also the signature of a public officer or
secretary to the charter of a king, or to any writing signed
by the principal or superior, as a certificate that the char-
ter or instrument is authentic.
Counter-Tenſor, in music, the highest adult male
voice and the lowest female voice.
County [Fr. comté), originally the territory of a count
or earl. In modern usage it denotes a division of a state
or kingdom. In England and Scotland the term is equiv-
alent to a shire. The term shire in England is not applied
to those counties which were originally distinct sovereign-
ties, such as Kent, Essex, Norfolk, Cumberland, and Sus-
sex. Lancaster, Chester, and Durham are called counties
palatine. (See PALATINE.) The primary divisions of the
provinces of Ireland are called counties. Each State of the
U. S., except Louisiana, is divided into counties, each of
which contains a capital or county-town, in which the
court-house is located.
County Court, in several of the U. S., is the title of
a tribunal higher in rank than the municipal or local courts,
and inferior to the supreme court of the State. In some of
the States, courts of this grade are called courts of common
pleas, and in others superior courts. (See Courts, by
GEORGE CHASE, LL.B.)
Coup, koo, a French word signifying a “stroke,” a
“blow,” is a part of many phrases which are often used by
the English and other nations; as coup d'état, a “stroke of
state,” a sudden, forcible political act, usually designed to
subvert the constitution, or to increase the power of a ruler
by encroachments on the constitution. Coup de main, in
the language of war, means a “sudden, unexpected attack,”
a surprise. Coup d'oeil, a “glance of the eye,” is used in
the fine arts to express the general effect of a picture or
group at first sight. The term sometimes signifies a view,
prospect, survey.
Coup’le of For’ces, or Pres/sures, in statics, de-
notes two equal pressures having precisely opposite diréc-
tions, but applied at different points of a body. Accord-
ing to the ordinary method of the composition of parallel
forces, the resultant of such a system would be a parallel
force having the intensity zero, and applied at an infinite
distance. In reality, two such forces have no single result-
ant, their tendency being to produce rotation about an
axis perpendicular to their plane. The theory of couples,
their composition, resolution, etc., was first given by Poin-
Sot, and now constitutes an essential branch of statics. The
distance between the parallel forces is called the arm of the
couple, and the product of either force into the arm the
moment of the couple. The statical effect of a couple is
unaltered by transportation to a parallel plane, or by any
variation in the magnitude and direction of its forces and
arm, provided the moment remains the same. On this ac-
count a couple, like a simple force, may be conveniently and
perfectly represented by a line OA drawn from any origin
0 perpendicular to its plane, having a length OA propor-
tional to its moment, and a direction such that to an ob-
server at A, looking towards 0, the rotation which it is the
tendency of the couple to produce shall appear to be direct,
like the hands of a clock. Such a line, limited in length
and definite in direction, is called the moment-axis of the
couple, to distinguish it from the rotation-axis, which is
unlimited in length, and simply indicates the direction of
the plane of the couple. This mode of representation
being adopted, the composition and resolution of couples
follow the same laws as those of concurrent simple pres-
sures. Thus, if we regard the moment of a couple as posi-
tive or negative, according as the rotation would be direct
or retrograde, we may say, The resultant of two or more
coaxal couples is another coaxal couple, whose moment is
the algebraical sum of the moments of the components.
Again: the moment-axis of the resultant of any two
couples is the diagonal of the parallelogram whose sides
are the moment-axes of the components. The above two
properties of couples being established, the general problem
of the composition of any number of pressures acting on a
body in different directions becomes greatly simplified.
Coup'le of Rota/tions, or An'gular Veloc’ities,
two equal and opposite rotations around parallel axes. The
term was introduced by Poinsot, who first fully investigated
the composition and resolution of rotations. A couple of
rotations is shown to be equivalent to a translation of the
whole body in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the
rotation-axis, with a velocity equal to that which either
axis possesses in virtue of its rotation about the other.
The common velocity of all points of the body is expressed
by the product of either of the equal angular velocities into
the distance between the axes. This distance is called the
arm of the couple, and the product its moment. A couple
of rotations therefore may be represented perfectly by a
single line, exactly as in the case of a couple of pressures,
and the composition and resolution of both kinds of couples
follow precisely the same laws. Velocities of rotation and
translation are, as it were, reciprocal—a couple of either is
equivalent to one of the other.
Coupon [from the Fr. cowper, to “cut”], a cheque or
slip of paper cut off from a bond. The term is applied
mostly to a dividend or interest certificate, which is attached
to the bottom of a bond or debenture, and is cut off when the
interest is due, and is then presented for payment.
Courbet (GUSTAVE), a French painter of landscape,
animals, and figures, born at Ormans (Doubs) June 10,
1819. His parents were people of moderate estate, who gave
him the best education in their power. His father would
have had him a lawyer, and in 1839 he went to Paris to
study for that profession, but he hesitated between the law
1174
COURBEVOIE—COURTRAY.
and painting, and finally decided for the latter. On his
first visit to the Louvre he was filled with enthusiasm for
the works of the Flemish, Dutch, and Venetian painters,
and repeated the legend of Correggio, by saying, when he
saw Delacroix’s “Massacre of Scio,” “I could do as well
as that if I wished.” Although he studied at different times
in the painting-rooms of three artists, Flageoulot, Steuben,
and Hesse, he says truly of himself that he never had a
master. He exhibited for the first time in the Salon of
1844. Characteristically enough, the picture was his own
portrait. In the Salon of 1850–51, Courbet exhibited,
among others, three pictures, “An Interment at Ormans,”
“Peasants of Flagey returning from the Fair,” and “The
Stone-Breaker,” which made an uproar in the artistic and
cultivated world of Paris, and divided it into two fiercely
hostile camps. Courbet's party was strong, but so was
that of his enemies; and, disgusted by the rejection of
some of his most important pictures from the Salon of
1855, Courbet determined to appeal to the general public,
and, erecting a building at his own expense on a piece of
ground as near as he could hire to the Salom, he opened an
exhibition of forty pictures, charging a fee for admission.
The catalogue was prefaced by his declaration of prin-
ciples. It was long before the war thus begun ceased, and
when it ended Courbet's rank as a great but very unequal
painter may be said to have been definitely fixed. Courbet
has made himself notorious all his life by his extreme
opinions in politics and religion, and of late by the part
he played in the Commune. It was by his influence that
the column of the Place Vendôme was destroyed. For this
act of vandalism Courbet was tried, but, after a long im-
prisonment, was released. One of the first acts of the
reactionary government that succeeded the rule of M.
Thiers was to confiscate all Courbet's property, to help to
pay for the new column which it was voted to set up on the
Place Vendôme. Since 1870, Courbet has not been allowed
to exhibit in the Salon, and his pictures, thus made a mark
of, have gone up greatly in price. CLARENCE Cook.
Courbevoie, a town of France, department of Seine,
on the left bank of the river Seine, 5 miles N. W. of Paris.
It has large barracks, and manufactures of white lead and
brandy. Pop. 9862.
Courcelle, a town of Belgium, on a railroad, 16 miles
E. of Mons. It has linen and nail manufactures, and ex-
ports coal. Pop. 7463.
Courier [from the Fr. courir, to “run”], literally, a
runner, a messenger or bearer of despatches, usually on
public business. According to Xenophon, couriers were first
employed by Cyrus the Great. Herodotus speaks of the
Persian cassids or foot-messengers, who travelled with great
rapidity. They were stationed, one man and one horse, for
each day’s journey; and by these messengers Xerxes sent
the news of his defeat to Persia (480 B.C.). Gibbon bears
testimony to the rapidity with which communication was
carried on in the Roman empire by the regular institution
of posts. The Mexican couriers, according to Prescott, trav-
elled with incredible swiftness. The Peruvian chasquis or
runners carried despatches at the rate of 150 miles a day.
Courier, or Courier de Méré (PAUL Louis), a French
scholar and writer, born in Paris Jan. 4, 1772. He entered
the army in 1792, and served with distinction. In 1809 he
resigned his commission. He translated several Greek
classics into French, and produced a good edition and ver-
sion of Longus (1810). He was liberal in politics, and ac-
quired a high reputation as a political writer. Among his
writings, which display wit, eloquence, masculine sense,
and genial satire, is the “Pamphlet des Pamphlets” (1824).
He was assassinated on his estate in Touraine April 10,
1825. The most complete collection of his writings is
“Mémoires, correspondance et opuscules” (1828).
Cour/land, or Kurland, a Baltic province, incor-
porated with Russia by the third partition of Poland, in
1795. It is bounded on the N. by the Gulf of Riga and
on the W. by the Baltic, and lies between lat. 56° and 58°
N. and lon. 21° and 27° E. Area, 10,556 square miles.
The chief river is the Duna, which flows along the north-
eastern border. The soil is in some parts very fertile, but
there are many forests, lakes, and swamps. The greater
part is occupied by Germans. Courland was originally an
independent duchy, but from 1561 to 1795 was in feudal
subjection to Poland. Capital, Mitau. Pop. 597,288.
Court [Fr. cowr ; It. corte, perhaps from the Gr. xàpros,
an “enclosed place;” Lat. aula or regia], originally an
enclosure or yard; the residence of a sovereign ; a royal or
princely household. In England and some other countries
the term usually denotes the family and attendants of the
sovereign, regarded in 'a public capacity. Also a judicial
tribunal, whether composed of one or more judges; some-
times the hall or room in which judges sit and try causes.
The term “court circle” in England is applied to the no-
bles, bishops, ministers of state, and other persons who are
in the habit of approaching the sovereign and of associ-
ating with the other members of the royal family. .
Courtais, a township of Crawford co., Mo. Pop. 962.
Court de Gébelin (ANToINE), a French scholar and
author, born at Nîmes in 1725, was the son of Antoine
Court, celebrated as the reviver of French Protestantism.
He devoted much attention to mythology and the affinity
of languages. Among his works is “The Primitive World
Analyzed and Compared with the Modern '' (9 vols., 1773–
84). He assisted Benjamin Franklin in editing a periodical
entitled “The Affairs of England and America” (15 vols.,
Paris, 1776 et seq.). Died May 10, 1784. -
Courtenay (EDWARD H.), LL.D., an American officer
and educator, born in 1803 in Maryland, graduated at
West Point in 1821. He served, while lieutenant of en-
gineers, as assistant professor at the Military Academy
1821–24; in construction of Fort Adams, R. I., 1824–26;
as assistant to chief engineer 1826–28; and as acting pro-
fessor of natural and experimental philosophy at the
Military Academy 1828–29 ; appointed full professor Feb.
16, 1829, on the resignation of his lieutenancy, and with
great credit to the Military Academy and profit to his pu-
pils held the chair of philosophy till Dec. 31, 1834, when
he accepted the professorship of mathematics in the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, continuing in it till 1836; civil
engineer New York and Erie R. R. 1836–37 ; at Fort Inde-
pendence, Mass., 1837–41; and construction of dry-dock,
Brooklyn navy-yard, 1841–42. He resumed his former vo-
cation, for which he was admirably fitted, as professor of
mathemátics in the University of Virginia 1842–53; trans-
lator and editor of Boucharlat’s “Mechanics” 1833, and
was author of a “Treatise on Differential and Integral Cal-
culus, and Calculus of Variations.” Died Dec. 21, 1853,
at Charlottesville, Va., aged fifty.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Court-house, a township of Montgomery co., Ala.,
includes part of the city of Montgomery. Pop. 9194.
Court-house, a township of Camden co., N. C. P. 1759.
Court-house, a township of Chesterfield co., S. C. P.
1708. -
Court-house, a twp. of Spartanburg co., S. C. P. 1229.
Court-house, a twp. of Taylor co., West Va. Pop. 753.
Court’land, a township and post-village of Lawrence
co., Ala. The village is on the Memphis and Charleston
R. R., 45 miles W. of Huntsville. It has a court-house,
male and female academies, two steam-mills, four churches,
and a weekly newspaper. Pop. 2553.
D. R. Hundley, ED. “NoRTH ALABAMA REPORTER.”
Courtland, a township and village of De Kalb co., Ill.,
about 50 miles W. of Chicago. Pop. 1293.
Courtland, a township of Jo Daviess co., Ill. P. 1786.
Courtland, a township of Kent co., Mich. Pop. 1338.
Courtland, a post-township of Nicollet co., Minn. Pop.
40
Čourtland, a township of Columbia co, Wis. P.1449.
Court-Mar’tial, in the army, navy, and marines, a
tribunal for the examination and punishment of offenders
against martial law or against good order and military or
naval discipline. The subjects of courts-martial are usu-
ally officers or men in actual service, but when martial law
prevails courts-martial sometimes punish offences com-
mitted by persons not in the service.
Courts-martial are called “general,” “garrison,” and
“regimental.” Summary and informal courts held in the
field are sometimes called “drumhead courts-martial.” The
officers of military and naval courts are a president, a
JUDGE-Advocate (which see), and a clerk, all commissioned
officers. The sentences passed by these courts are usually
subject to the approval of department commanders or other
high officers, or even to that of the President of the U. S.
(See S. V. BENáT on “United States Military Law,” 1862.)
Cour/town, EARLs of, and Viscounts Stopford (1762),
barons of Courtown (Ireland, 1796), Barons Saltersford
(Great Britain, 1796).-JAMES GEORGE HENRY STOPFORD,
fifth earl, born April 24, 1823, succeeded his father in 1858.
Courtray [anc. Cortoriacum; Flem. Kortryk], a fortified
town of Belgium, on the river Lys, 26 miles S.W. of Ghent.
It is well built and clean, has a castle, a fine old bridge, a
noble town-hall, and a beautiful Gothic church founded in
1238. Here are manufactures of damasks and other linen
fabrics, hosiery, lace, paper, cotton goods, soap, etc. This
place was taken in 880 A.D. by the Normans, who fortified
it. In July, 1302, the Flemings here defeated the French
in the famous “Battle of the Spurs,” so called from the
great number of spurs taken from the fallen knights. Pop.
in 1864, 23,497. - -
COURTS.
1175
Courts (in law), public tribunals established for the ad-
ministration of justice and the interpretation and enforce-
ment of the law. The protection of private rights, the
punishment of criminal offences, the regulation of conflict-
ing interests of individuals and states, the exposition and
application of legislative enactments, and, in some nations,
even of constitutional provisions, are the various important
functions which are generally deputed to such judicial or-
ganizations. It cannot be said, however, that all tribunals
which have been designated courts in various countries
and at different epochs have enjoyed all these prerogatives,
or have exercised them so exclusively as is understood to
be the appropriate province of courts at the present day
among civilized communities. In a primitive form of so-
ciety the powers of the judiciary are usually much re-
stricted, and subjected, to a greater or less degree, to
executive and legislative interference. This remark applies
also to despotic governments, even though a high degree
of civilization be attained, as the history of France and
Germany bears ample witness. In modern times, however,
it has been recognized as a necessity to confer upon the
courts the powers above enumerated, and to render their
independence of the other departments of government as
complete as possible. They are generally composed of dis-
tinct bodies of officials holding their positions during stated
terms, and are under no supervisory control for decisions
rendered or other legal acts performed but that of superior
or appellate organizations of a similar nature. In the
exercise of their powers courts do not attempt to ferret
out and redress every evil and form of injustice that may
exist within society, and determine the law of their own
motion by the direct establishment of legal principles, but
are confined to the decision of controverted questions pre-
sented to them by injured parties, and thus evolve the
law indirectly and mediately. Criminal cases are pre-
Sented by the government, while those of a civil nature are
brought either by states or individuals affected therein, at
their own option.
But while there is a general agreement among civilized
nations at the present day in regard to the objects to be
attained by the creation of courts, the modes by which the
same results are sought are notably and strikingly diverse.
The courts upon the continent of Europe and in Scotland
administer a system of jurisprudence derived from the
civil or Roman law, while in England and the U. S. they
apply a system which they themselves have originated,
called, by way of distinction, the “ common law.”
latter the rule of precedent holds sway, in accordance with
which principles determined in previous decisions are, in
general, to be deemed authoritative in subsequent causes
involving similar circumstances. In this system, more-
over, the mode of trial by jury was developed as a safe-
guard against oppressive action by the courts, and has
been sedulously maintained as far as its application is
reasonably practicable. The judge does not examine wit-
messes nor decide any questions but points of law, so that
every inducement may be removed which would lead him
to act as advocate instead of arbiter, and awaken his per-
Sonal interest in the cause. A broad distinction is also
drawn between actions which are termed legal and suits
which are called equitable, the latter dispensing with a
jury, administering a more adequate relief in many in-
stances, and in various ways supplementing the deficiencies
of the proceedings applicable to the former. In the Euro-
pean courts, on the other hand, which proceed upon the
doctrines of the civil law, the force of precedent is not rec-
ognized as a controlling principle. Jury trials have only
been introduced as a foreign system, are employed in a
comparatively small class of instances, and are looked upon
with so little favor that any extension of their application
is generally thought undesirable. The judges, moreover,
may engage directly in the examination of witnesses and
prisoners, and not infrequently, particularly in criminal
trials, appear to become so strongly biassed in consequence
as seriously to impair one’s belief in the impartial admin-
istration of justice. And lastly, no distinction of causes
and remedies as legal or equitable is attempted. In fact,
the English practice in this respect has even excited the
derision of continental lawyers, who charge that it pre-
sumes two different kinds of justice.
Besides, these fundamental points of difference between
the two systems, there are great diversities between the
Several countries in the number, the character, and the
functions of the various courts which have been established,
and their relations with each other, which will require an
investigation into the judicial system of each of the more
important modern nations specifically. England, Scotland,
France, and the U. S. will be selected for this purpose, and
reference made to their most important tribunals in detail.
I. THE CóURTs of ENGLAND.—By the English and
American common-law system courts are distinguished as
A
In the
those of record and those not of record. A court of the
former class is provided with a clerk and a seal, and re-
ceives its name from the fact that its proceedings are re-
quired to be preserved in accurate records ; courts of the
latter class are inferior tribunals without clerk or seal, and
their acts are not formally enrolled. Courts are said to
have original jurisdiction before which causes are brought
in the first instance; appellate jurisdiction when decisions
rendered in inferior tribunals are transferred to them for
review. Civil causes heard before a single judge, with a
jury, are said to be heard at nisi privs or at circuit; when
several judges sit to review causes on appeal they are said
to sit in banc. Courts are also distinguished as civil or
criminal, superior or inferior, as courts of law, of equity,
of admiralty, etc.—distinctions which require no explana-
tion. In the following synopsis of the English courts at
the present time (Jan., 1874) an account will be given (1)
of the superior common-law courts of record; (2) of the
superior courts of equity; (3) of the courts of probate,
divorce, and admiralty; (4) of the criminal courts; (5) of
the appellate courts.
(1) The Superior Common-Law Courts of Record.—These
are the Court of Common Pleas, the King’s or Queen’s
Bench, and the Court of Exchequer. These several tribu-
nals, which now enjoy very much the same jurisdiction,
are considered to have been derived originally from a
single organization, the Aula Regis (or King's Council),
which was the only superior court in the realm during the
early history of the Roman kings. This had both civil and
criminal jurisdiction, and was ambulatory, or attendant
upon the person of the king, holding its sessions in such
different parts of the kingdom as he entered in the course
of his journeyings. The present courts were, when “first
created, nothing more than subordinate branches or com-
mittees of the council, established for the more speedy
transaction of business. The exchequer branch enter-
tained questions relating to the royal revenue; that of the
common pleas, civil suits between individuals except for
forcible injuries; while there was left to the Aula Regis
proper, jurisdiction in criminal causes and in civil actions
for injury by violence, and a general controlling power
over inferior tribunals.
In the reign of Edward I. (1272) the three bodies were
constituted separate courts, were all fixed at Westminster,
and their powers, as distinct tribunals, determined. Each
retained, however, its previous particular jurisdiction.
But in the course of time, by a gradual process of en-
croachment, justified by ingenious legal fictions, each court
trenched upon the appropriate province of the others, as-
suming thereby similar powers, so that at the present day
they all entertain co-ordinate jurisdiction in nearly all civil
causes. The Court of Queen’s Bench, however, still retains
exclusive cognizance of criminal matters and the sole
superintendence over inferior courts and civil corporations;
the Court of Common Pleas has alone the right to enter-
tain real actions—i.e. actions for the specific recovery of
real property (actions now rarely brought); while the
Court of Exchequer still exercises entire control over strict
questions of revenue. In other cases the parties to the ac-
tion may select any one of the courts they may prefer. As
regards the organization of these common-law courts, the
Queen’s Bench and Common Pleas consist each of a chief-
justice and five puisne justices; the Exchequer, of a chief
baron and five puisne barons. These judges hold office
during good behavior, but may be retired on a pension
after fifteen years' service. An appeal lies from any one
of these courts to the Exchequer Chamber, which, when
hearing a cause sent from one of them, is composed of the
judges of the other two. A second appeal may also be
taken to the House of Lords.
To remedy the inconvenience to suitors arising from the
fixed establishment of these courts at Westminster, provision
was made at an early period for the hearing of jury trials
in every county one or more times during each year. The
tribunals for this purpose are called courts of assize and
nisi privs, are composed of two or more commissioners, of
whom a superior court judge, a sergeant-at-law, or a bar-
rister must be one, and in most counties they sit twice each
year. Appeals from them, however, can only be heard at
Westminster.
(2) The Superior Courts of Equity.—It was found at an
early period that the common-law tribunals, determining
causes as they did only through the instrumentality of
juries in the first instance, and in all cases, where no de-
mand was made for specific property, giving only pecuni-
ary damages as relief, were totally inadequate to adminis-
ter exact justice in a large variety of cases, and the separate
system of equity jurisprudence was established to repair
the deficiencies of the strict legal methods. These courts
are likewise governed by the rule of precedent, but their
modes of procedure are less technical, their forms of rem-
1176
COURTS.
edy more diverse, and they employ no juries, though a prac-
tice exists of referring special questions to courts of law to
be tried by a jury, whose verdict is reported to the equity
judge to aid his future action. The equity judges consist,
at present, of three vice-chancellors, a master of the rolls,
two lords, justices, and the lord chancellor. The vice-
chancellors and the master of the rolls hold each separate
courts at which causes are heard in the first instance ; so
that there are four equity tribunals of original jurisdiction.
Appeals may be taken from either of them to the Court of
Appeal in Chancery or to the lord chancellor.
The Court of Appeal in Chancery is composed nominally
of the two lords justices and the lord chancellor, but almost
invariably it is held by the lords justices alone. Any two
of these three judges, however, are sufficient for holding the
court, or even the lord chancellor alone. Moreover, each
of the justices may, under certain restrictions, sit alone.
The chancellor may, in addition, exercise an independent
jurisdiction, without acting as a member of the court of
appeals. This jurisdiction is ordinary when according to
common-law methods; extraordinary, when equitable in
its nature. An appeal may be taken to the House of
Lords. The term of office of these judges is the same as
that of the common-law judiciary, except in the case of
the chancellor, who may be deprived of his position at the
pleasure of the Crown.
(3) The Courts of Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty.—
The Court of Probate and that of Divorce were estab-
lished in 1857 to supersede the former ecclesiastical courts,
and received more extended powers. Their names suf-
ficiently define the nature of their jurisdiction. The judges
of either of these tribunals may try questions of fact with
a jury, or may order an issue to be tried by a court of law.
Appeals may be taken to the House of Lords. The Court
of Probate has only a single judge, who may, however, as-
sociate with himself a common-law judge or judges. The
appropriate labor of this tribunal is facilitated by the es-
tablishment of district registries throughout the realm.
These are forty in number, besides the principal registry
in London, all having power to grant probate and admin-
istration.
The Court of Divorce consists of the judge of probate,
the lord chancellor, and the judges of the superior common-
law courts. The probate judge is made judge ordinary,
and may act alone or with the other judges. The power
to grant divorce, which has been conferred upon this court,
was exercised till 1857 only by Parliament. Actions for
criminal conversation may also be maintained in this
court.
The High Court of Admiralty has cognizance of causes
of action arising from the navigation of the seas, as, e.g.,
claims for repairs of foreign vessels and for supplies fur-
nished them, actions for pilotage fees, for seamen’s wages,
for personal injuries inflicted at sea or injuries by collision,
seizure, and the like; also to determine matters of prize in
time of war, and decree the forfeiture of vessels of the
enemy or of neutrals in proper cases. This court is held
by a single judge, who is appointed by the Crown. He
may be the same person as the judge of probate.
(4) . The Criminal Cowrts.-These are divided into the
inferior and the superior, the former including the general
and quarter sessions of the peace, while the latter embrace
the assizes, the admiralty sessions, the Court of King's
Bench, and the Central Criminal Court. The assizes are
held before commissioners twice a year in nearly all the
counties. These officials act by virtue of various commis-
sions, the most important of which are those of “oyer and
terminer” and “general jail delivery.” At oyer and ter-
miner the judges can only act upon indictments found be-
fore themselves, and they have jurisdiction whether the
offender is or is not in custody. The commission of jail
delivery authorizes the delivery of the jail of a specified
town. Indictments may be tried found before other justices,
but the persons charged must always be in custody to give
the court jurisdiction. -
The King's or Queen’s Bench is the highest court of
criminal jurisdiction. This prerogative, as has been seen,
it enjoys to the exclusion of the other superior common-law
courts.
The other criminal courts require no particular mention.
(5) Appellate Courts.-(a) The Exchequer Chamber, to.
which appeals are first taken from the King's Bench, the
Common Pleas, and the Exchequer, is composed, as already
explained, of the judges of the two courts in which the
action was not heard originally. .
(b) The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council has
exclusive jurisdiction of appeals in admiralty and ecclesi-
astical cases, and in those coming from the colonies. It is
a court of record, and is composed of a lord president, all
the equity judges, the three chief judges of the common-
law courts, and certain other officials to the number of
twenty or more. Only four, however, are required to con-
stitute a quorum. Four of the whole number of members
receive a salary, are required to attend the sittings, and
retain their positions during good behavior. But the mem-
bers of the Council generally hold office during the pleasure
of the Crown. There is no appeal to the House of Lords,
and there is, consequently, danger of a conflict of authority
between these tribunals of last resort.
(c) The House of Lords. Though, in theory, this entire
body constitutes the appellate tribunal, and any of the
lords might, if so disposed, assume to act as judges, yet
the judicial functions are, in reality, entirely delegated to
a few members of the legal profession, known as the “law
lords.” The services of the others are only available when
they are needed to make up a quorum, for which three
members are required. The organization of this court has
several objectionable features, since the sittings are only
held while Parliament is in session; there is no regularity
of attendance required on the part of members; and a
judge may sometimes sit in review of his own decisions.
The decisions rendered, however, enjoy generally a great
reputation from the eminence of those who usually act as
judges. -
There is a large number of other courts in England’s
present judicial system, but they are all of minor import-
ance and need no specific mention.
The inconveniences arising from this complexity of court
organization in England are so manifold that a reform has
long been felt necessary. Accordingly, an act of Parlia-
ment has been recently passed, entitled “The Supreme
Court of Judicature Act” (36 and 37 Vict., chap. 66), to
come into effect in November of the present year (1874),
by which a reorganization is to be effected. The chief
tribunals now existing are to constitute in combination a
single court, called the “Supreme Court of Judicature.”
This is, however, to be separated into two divisions—one
to be known as “Her Majesty’s High Court of Justice,”
exercising mainly original jurisdiction, while the other will
be named “Her Majesty’s Court of Appeal,” with exclu-
sive appellate powers except in some few classes of in-
stances. There is to be no appeal to the House of Lords.
The High Court is to consist of twenty-one judges—viz.
all the present equity judges, with the exception of the
lords justices, all the common-law judges (whose number,
however, will be reduced in future to fifteen), the judge
of the Court of Probate and Divorce, and the admiralty
judge. Though the present lord chancellor will form a
member of this court, his successor will not. The Court
of Appeal will be composed of fourteen judges, of whom
five will be judges eac officio, and nine ordinary judges.
Additional members may also be appointed if desired.
The eac-officio judges will be the lord chancellor, the mas-
ter of the rolls, and the three chief justices of the com-
mon-law courts. All these, as has been seen, are also
members of the High Court. The ordinary judges will be
the two lords justices in Chancery, the four salaried judges
of the Privy Council, and three others to be hereafter ap-
pointed. These nine, and any additional judges who may
be appointed, will be known as lords justices of appeal.
All the judges of both tribunals will hold office for life,
though they may be removed by the Crown on the address
of Parliament.
For the more convenient despatch of business, the High
Court of Justice is to be divided into five divisions, cor-
responding to the present tribunals, whose jurisdiction, it
has received. Thus, one division is to consist of the equity
judges, who will be members of the High Court, and is to
be known as the Chancery Division. In like manner, there
will be the Queen’s Bench Division, the Common Pleas
Division, the Exchequer Division, and the Probate, Di-
vorce, and Admiralty Division; the first three of which
will consist of the judges of the present courts from which
they derive their names, while the last will be composed
of the two judges of the Courts of Probate and Divorce
and the Court of Admiralty. Provision is made for a re-
duction or increase in the number of these divisions, or in
the number of judges who may be attached to any partic-
ular division, by order in council of the queen. Judges
may also be transferred from one division to another by
Her Majesty when it shall be thought desirable. Each of
these divisions is to possess very much the same jurisdiction
as the present court of the same name, and will be in fact
the same tribunal, though with some important differences
of authority. For instance, the courts which now proceed
entirely upon common-law principles will then be enabled
to apply the doctrines of equity jurisprudence, for it is
provided that in every civil cause or matter entertained in
the Supreme Court of Judicature law and equity shall be
concurrently administered, and that equitable rules shall
supersede those of the law when any conflict arises. It is
still true, however, that causes of action which in them-
COURTS.
1177
selves have been hitherto considered distinctively equitable
are to be brought before the Chancery Division, which takes
the place of the four present chancery courts of original
jurisdiction.
In a large number of questions several divisions, it
is evident, will have co-ordinate jurisdiction. It is ac-
cordingly provided that any person commencing a cause
may assign it to any proper division he may think fit by
marking his documents with its name. If a wrong assign-
ment be made, a transfer may be had, on proper applica-
tion, by direction of the court or by a judge of the division
in which the matter is brought, or the cause may even be
retained if a transfer would be inexpedient. Such causes as
may at present be heard by a single judge are to be heard
in the same manner when this act goes into effect. Other
matters are referred to divisional courts of the High Court,
which are to be constituted of two or three judges. These
divisional courts are not the same as the divisions already
mentioned. Any number of them may sit at the same
time, and they may consist of any of the twenty-one judges
of the High Court. The divisional courts hear appeals
from the decisions of single judges of the High Court and
from inferior courts, decide various motions, etc. Appeals
from inferior courts, such as the petty and quarter sessions,
county courts, etc., here receive final determination. Other
appeals may go on to the Court of Appeal.
Every appeal to the Court of Appeal shall be heard
either by the whole court or by a divisional court consist-
ing of any number, not less than three, of the judges
thereof. Appeals may also be reargued before decision,
or be reheard before final judgment, before a greater num-
ber of judges, if the Court of Appeal so direct. But no
judge shall hear a case on appeal which he himself de-
cided, or helped to decide, originally.
Provision is also made for the appointment of commis-
Sioners to hold circuit courts throughout the kingdom, as
at present. Referees may also be appointed for the hear-
ing of causes or the determination of much of the inci-
dental business arising in the courts. The rules of practice
and pleading are also to be considerably altered and sim-
plified; but for all these minor details reference must be
made to the Judicature Act itself. This synopsis of the
general organization of the courts shows how fundamental
a revolution is to be effected in the judicial system as at
present constituted. -
II. THE COURTs of Scotſ,AND.—Although both England
and Scotland belong to one united kingdom and have but
a single legislative body, the Houses of Parliament, their
judicial organization is almost entirely diverse. There is
one tribunal of supreme appellate jurisdiction, the House
of Lords, which is common to both countries, but this is
the only element of correspondence in the two systems.
Scotland administers the civil law instead of the common.
The courts of chief importance are the Court of the Sheriff,
or sheriff-substitute, and the Court of Session. The Scot-
tish sheriff differs from the English in not being confined
to the performance of merely ministerial duties. He acts
also as the chief local judge of the county to which he be-
longs. The jurisdiction he exercises is both civil and
criminal, and is quite extensive in its scope. In civil
causes it extends to all actions on contract and for dam-
ages, no matter how large the amount involved. In mat-
ters, however, relating to landed property his authority
is much restricted. He has also a summary jurisdiction,
conferred by statute, in small-debt cases, where the sum
involved is not above £12. In most cases of this kind
there is no appeal from his decisions. The sheriff also
takes cognizance of bankruptcy, insolvency, and admiralty
questions. His criminal jurisdiction extends to all cases
which do not infer death or banishment. No jury is em-
ployed in the trial of civil causes, but only in those of a
criminal nature. Though, however, these various powers
are described as appertaining to the sheriff himself, yet in
practice, so far as the capacity of hearing causes originally
is concerned, they are delegated to a subordinate officer,
appointed by the sheriff, and styled a sheriff-substitute.
If it is desired to secure the review of a decision rendered
by the substitute in the first instance, then the sheriff him-
self acts in the capacity of an appellate judge. From him
also, in proper cases, an appeal may be taken to the Court
of Session, and thence to the House of Lords.
The Court of Session is the highest civil tribunal in
Scotland. It takes cognizance of all questions of a civil
nature, whether legal, equitable, admiralty, or probate, and
exercises both original and appellate jurisdiction. It was
established in 1532, and, as originally constituted, con-
sisted of fifteen judges, all of whom sat in a body to hear
appeals. This arrangement occasioned great dilatoriness
of procedure, but continued nevertheless for nearly three
centuries, despite this and other commonly recognized in-
conveniences. The present organization is much differ-
ent. The number of members has been reduced to thirteen.
Five of these are called “lords ordinary,” exercise severally
original jurisdiction, and constitute collectively what is
known as the “Outer House.”. The eight remaining
judges form the “Inner House,” and have, as a general
rule, only appellate jurisdiction. They are divided into
two divisions of four each, either of which possesses the same
authority, and may be selected by any party appealing, at
his own option. One division is presided over by the lord
justice clerk, the other by the lord president. In some
few instances the Inner House may exercise original juris-
diction, and in cases of exceptional difficulty the whole
body of thirteen judges may consider a question upon
appeal; but such cases are very rare. In the trial of
civil causes in the first instance before a lord ordinary
juries have been employed since 1815, but by no means to
So great an extent as in the English practice. The jury
system was introduced as an exotic, and does not thrive
very vigorously under the unfavorable conditions of a
common prejudice against it on the part of clients and hos-
tile criticism by able members of the bar. Juries may be
dispensed with, in general, in the discretion of the court
or by consent of parties; and, as might be supposed, a
resort to these expedients is not infrequent. The consti-
tution of the appellate branches of the Inner House in this
system is evidently faulty. There may be an equal divis-
ion of the judges in either body, so as to render the deter-
mination of any question impossible, or the decisions of
one branch may directly contradict those of the other, so as
to make the law fluctuating and uncertain. The first evil
is remedied by calling in a lord ordinary or three judges
of the other house to attend a rehearing of the cause, by
which means the whole number of judges is made uneven
and a majority rendered certain. In the second case the
opinions of the whole court may be taken, but this mode
of reference is discretionary, and therefore inadequate to
meet the difficulty. The final appeal, which may be taken
from the Court of Session to the House of Lords, has this
peculiar consequence—that it refers questions arising un-
der the civil-law procedure to jurists trained only in com-
mon-law methods as a general rule. It cannot be said,
however, that any practical evils have resulted from this
co-operation of systems. -
There are several other courts in Scotland composed of
members of the Court of Session. Only one, however,
deserves mention—viz. the High Court of Justiciary, a
tribunal exercising an important criminal jurisdiction.
The other courts are of inferior importance.
III. THE Courts of FRANCE.-The most important
courts are the Tribunals of the First Instance, the Courts
of Appeal, the Courts of Assize, and the Court of Cassation.
The Tribunals of the First Instance, as their name implies,
entertain causes originally, and they exercise both civil and
criminal jurisdiction. One of them is established in each
of the arrondissements into which the whole country is
divided. Each of these courts consists of from three to
twelve judges, the number varying with the population of
the districts. When their number is seven or more, they
are formed into two chambers—one for the hearing of civil,
and the other of criminal, causes. When there are twelve
judges, three chambers are formed, two civil and one erim-
inal. The tribunal at Paris is so large as to be divided
into ten chambers. In civil cases three judges must con-
cur in order to pronounce a decision, while in criminal ac-
tions the agreement of five is necessary. Appeals may be
taken to the Courts of Appeal. -
The Courts of Appeal are twenty-seven in number, and
each of them is named from the city or place in which it is
situated. They consist severally of at least twenty-four
judges, who are generally divided into three chambers—
one of civil jurisdiction, another of criminal, while the
third hears appeals in police matters. Seven judges must
concur in the determination of civil causes, five in criminal
accusations. The Court of Appeal in Paris has.six cham-
bers and fifty-nine judges. Each chamber in all these
courts has its own president. When momentous state
questions are to be decided or causes of exceptional com-
plexity two chambers may be united. This is called “the
solemn hearing,” and the concurrence of fourteen judges
is required in order that a decision may be given. Appeals
lie from these courts to the Court of Cassation.
The Courts of Assize are composed of judges of the
Courts of Appeal, and exercise only criminal jurisdiction.
One of these tribunals is established in each of the depart-
ments into which France is divided (about eighty in num-
ber), and their institution is peculiar, as compared with
French courts in general, in that it exhibits the employ-
ment of the English jury system. The jurors, however,
are not required to be unanimous in their verdict, a ma-
jority sufficing. The number of judges in each court is
three, and sessions are held every three months. The large
1178
COURTS.
amount of business in Paris, however, requires two sessions
a month. Appeals may be taken to the Court of Cassa-
tion. - -
The Court of Cassation is the highest permanent court
of appeal in France. It is composed of a first president,
three presidents of chambers, and forty-five other judges
called counsellors. It is divided into three chambers—one
for the hearing of appeals in civil causes, another in those
of a criminal character, while the third is termed the
Chamber of Requests, and takes cognizance of petitions,
determines whether appeals are admissible, etc. Appeals
must be brought within three months after the previous
decision was rendered. The judges, as in all the higher
courts of France, hold office for life. The constitution and
functions of the Court of Cassation differ quite essentially
from those which are conferred upon appellate tribunals in
England and generally in other countries, and even upon
the subordinate French courts of appeal; for it possesses
no power to affirm the judgment of the court below, but
only, as its name indicates, to reverse a decision, and
transfer the cause for another hearing to some tribunal
having co-ordinate jurisdiction with the one in which
judgment was first rendered. Moreover, notwithstanding
the pre-eminent position of this court, its determination of
the law is not considered authoritative upon inferior tri-
bunals, but only as presumably correct and open to con-
tradiction. Instances in which its views are disregarded,
however, are of course very rare.
Other French courts of limited jurisdiction but great
usefulness are the Tribunals of Commerce, established in
all the commercial cities and towns, and the Courts of
Prudhommes, existing in Paris and a few of the larger
cities. The former consist largely of men experienced in
mercantile pursuits, and take cognizance of questions aris-
ing in commercial transactions. The latter are mechanics’
courts, consisting of manufacturers and artisans, and take
charge of matters arising from the relations of employer
* employed. They relieve the ordinary courts of much
8, O OF".
IV. THE COURTs of THE UNITED STATES.—In accord-
ance with the provision of the Constitution establishing a
Supreme Court and conferring upon Congress the power to
create inferior tribunals, a regular system of courts has
been formed throughout the Union. The most important
are the District Courts, the Circuit Courts, and the Court
of Claims. Final appeals are taken to the Supreme Court
at Washington. All these tribunals exercise both law and
equity jurisdiction, and the judicial authority given by the
Constitution is variously apportioned among them.
The District Courts are at present (1874) sixty in number.
Each State generally constitutes a single district, though
Some of the larger ones, as New York, Pennsylvania, and
a few others, are divided into two or three. New districts
are formed by Congress as the population increases or new
States are admitted, so that the number is subject to con-
stant variation. Each court consists of a single judge,
who must reside in the district for which he is appointed.
Original jurisdiction is exercised in civil, criminal, and
admiralty causes. The classes of questions of which these
courts take cognizance are determined entirely by Congres-
sional enactment, and are variously modified at different
times. . They entertain exclusively questions of admiralty
or maritime jurisdiction in the first instance, including all
seizures, upon navigable waters under laws of imposts,
navigation, or trade of the U. S., actions for injuries com-
mitted upon the high seas, suits to recover upon maritime
contracts, actions for salvage, for injuries by collision, and
matters of prize. They also have sole original cognizance
of questions arising from seizures upon land, and of all
Suits for penalties and forfeitures under the U. S. laws,
and also of actions against consuls or vice-consuls. In ad-
dition, they have original jurisdiction in all causes under
the bankrupt laws. They exercise concurrent jurisdiction
with the Circuit Courts of all crimes and offences against the
U. S. the punishment of which is not capital, of patent and
copyright cases, and of all causes, civil or criminal, affect-
ing persons who are denied in the State courts their rights
of citizenship under the U. S. laws. They also have con-
current jurisdiction with the Circuit Courts or with the
State Courts of all causes where an alien sues for a tort in
violation of the law of nations or a treaty of the U. S.,
and of all suits at common law where the U. S. or any of.
ficer thereof Sue. The trial of issues of fact in the District
Courts, except in civil causes of a maritime character, is
by jury. No person can be arrested in one district for
trial in another. Appeals are generally taken to the Cir-
cuit Courts, though sometimes to the Supreme Court.
The Circuit Courts are nine in number, and each circuit
in which one of these courts is established consists of seve-
ral States. The nine justices of the Supreme Court are
allotted, by their own selection, each to a particular circuit,
and each is required to attend at least one term of such
court to which he is appointed in each district of his cir-
cuit during every period of two years. There is also ap-
pointed a special circuit judge in each circuit, within whose
limits he must reside. A circuit court is held by the Su-
preme Court justice thereto allotted, or by the regular
circuit judge, or by the district judge of the district sitting
alone, or by the Supreme Court justice and circuit judge
sitting together and the former presiding, or, in the absence
of either of these, by the other (who then presides) and
the district judge. Such courts may be held at the same
time in the different districts of the same circuit. Two
sessions of each court are held annually within each dis-
trict of the circuit. The circuit courts have both original
and appellate jurisdiction. Their original jurisdiction ex-
tends, concurrently with that of the State courts, to civil
suits in law or equity for more than $500 when the U. S.
are plaintiffs, or an alien is a party, or the suit is between
a citizen of the State where the suit is brought and a citi-
zen of another State. They also entertain causes arising
under the revenue laws and some questions of a particular
nature in bankruptcy procedure. Their important concur-
rent jurisdiction with the District Courts has already been
mentioned. Provision is made, moreover, for the removal
of certain causes—such as, e.g., actions against revenue
officers, suits on titles to land derived from other States,
etc.—from the State courts to the Circuit Courts, on proper
petition by the defendant and the entering of security.
The appellate jurisdiction of Circuit Courts extends to ad-
miralty and maritime causes, and to civil actions referred
from the District Courts, where the matter in dispute ex-
ceeds the value of $50; also to patent and some other
questions. Appeals from the Circuit Courts are taken to
the Supreme Court.
The Court of Claims is a tribunal established at Wash-
ington, consisting of five judges, of whom one is appointed
chief-justice. It has jurisdiction to determine all claims
founded upon any law of Congress, or upon any regulation
of an executive department, or upon any contract with the
government of the U. S., which are presented to it by pe-
tition. All petitions in regard to such claims introduced
into Congress are required, unless that body otherwise
orders, to be transmitted to this court. So the cabinet of
ficers may refer certain claims made upon their departments.
Demands which are adjudged valid are payable from the
national treasury. The Court of Claims has a single an-
nual session. Appeals are taken to the Supreme Court.
The Supreme Court is the highest tribunal of the U. S.
It consists of a chief-justice and eight associate justices,
and holds one term annually at Washington. Six justices
are required to constitute a quorum. The jurisdiction ex-
ercised is both original and appellate, but chiefly, in prac-
tice, the latter. The original jurisdiction extends to all
cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and
consuls, and those in which a State is a party, except that
in the latter case no suit can be prosecuted against any
State by the citizens of another State. In actions against
ambassadors or other public ministers, and in many con-
troversies where a State is a party, its jurisdiction is not
only original, but exclusive. Its other original authority
is shared with the inferior tribunals. In the exercise of .
its appellate powers the Supreme Court reviews the judg-
ments or decrees of the Circuit Courts, of certain District
Courts with Circuit Court powers, of the Court of Claims,
and of some tribunals established in the Territories. More-
over, the decisions of the highest State tribunals which are
repugnant to the Constitution, treaties, or laws of the U. S.
may be re-examined by the Supreme Court, and reversed
or modified as may be necessary. Questions also which
fail of determination in the Circuit Courts by reason of an
equal division among the judges may be transferred to this
court for final decision. It has power to review both the
law and the fact in any cause of which it takes cognizance
on appeal.
The Federal tribunals in this way possess exclusive juris-
diction over subjects of such manifest national importance
as patents, copyrights, admiralty causes, and questions of
revenue, and have power, to determine controversies be-
tween States, and to declare void all laws, whether of Con-
gress or of a State legislature, which are in contravention
of the provisions of the U. S. Constitution.
W. The judicial systems of the various States of the Union
are so diverse that to give any account of them would be
impracticable. They all agree in having a number of tri-
bunals, some of original and others of appellate jurisdic-
tion, and the determination of the law by the courts of
each State, subject to the review of the Supreme Court of
the U. S. in constitutional matters, is conclusive within its
own boundaries. Reference must be made to the constitu-
tions and statutes of the States severally for further details.
GEORGE CHASE, REVISED BY T. W. DWIGHT.
COUSCOUS—COVENANT.
1179
Cous/cous, called also Spotted Phalan/ger or
Sham'sham, the Phalamgista maculata, is a white marsu-
pial with black and brown spots. It is about the size of a
common cat, and has a prehensile tail and opposable thumbs
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literally, an “agreeing ” or “ agreement;” Gr. 8waëjkm; Lat.
foedus ; Ger. Bund], in theology, the promises recorded in
the Scriptures, made by God on certain conditions of obe-
dience, faith, etc. on the part of man. The old dispensa-
tion (or Old Testament) is called in
Greek traXavà. 8vo.6%rm, i. e. “the old
covenant;” and the new dispensation
(or Testament), 3) Kavvi, 8vo.6%rm, “the
new covenant.” -
The so-called “Theology of the Cov-
enants” or “Federal System ’’ began
§§ with Cocceius (1603–69), who taught :
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§º fall; (2) the covenant of grace after
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Covenant [remotely from the Lat.
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instruments or promises contained in
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gººses *"...º.º.º.º.
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§§ §§ §§§s ºs- º & &
& % sº \\ ºs. particular clause in a sealed instru-
\ :NWWNS$$$$. ment. Thus, there may be many cove-
Couscous, or Spotted Phalanger.
on the hind feet. It is found in the Spice Islands, and is
caught for its fur as well as its flesh, which is eaten. The
animal has a disagreeable odor from a secretion of its anal
glands.
Coushat’ta Chute, a post-village, capital of Red
River parish, La. It is on the Red River, and has one
weekly newspaper.
Cousin (VICTOR), a French philosopher, born Nov. 28,
1792, was the son of a watchmaker of Paris. After bril-
liant academic studies, though he had a strong inclination
to music, his mind was directed towards philosophy under
Laromiguière, Royer-Collard, and Maine de Biran. In
1815 he succeeded Royer-Collard as professor at the Sor-
bonne, and continued the teaching of the Scotch philosophy
initiated by him, and promoted the reaction against the
sensualism of Condillac and the thinkers of the eighteenth
century. In a journey to Germany he became indoctrinated
with the idealistic philosophy. In 1820 he was suspended
on political grounds. He published editions of Proclus (6
vols. 8vo, 1820–27) and Descartes (11 vols. 8vo, 1827), and
his celebrated translation of Plato (13 vols. 8vo, 1825–40).
In 1827 he was replaced in his chair at the Sorbonne, and
shared with Guizot and Villemain a popularity and power
in the community unexampled in university annals. He
was under Thiers (1840) minister of public instruction for
eight months, and delivered in the Chamber of Peers his
“Défense de l’Université et de la philosophie’’ (8vo, 1844).
The revolution of 1848 called forth, in refutation of social-
ism, “Justice et Charité.” “Du Vrai, du Beau, et du
Bien’’ appeared in 1853. He taught a philosophy called
eclectic, which he said was not a method, but a manifesta-
tion of the modern spirit of liberty and tolerance in phil-
osophy. Of his numerous works have appeared in this
country his “Course of Modern Philosophy” (1855) and
“Lectures on the True, the Beautiful, and the Good” (1857),
translated by O. B. Wight. Died Jan. 15, 1867.
Coutances (anc. Constantia), a town of France, depart-
ment of Manche, is on a conical hill 8 miles from the Eng-
lish Channel and about 44 miles S. of Cherbourg. It was
formerly fortified. It is the seat of a bishop, and has a
handsome old cathedral, a public library, a theatre, and
manufactures of druggets, worsted stuffs, hardware, etc.
Pop. in 1866, 8139.
Couture (THOMAs), a French painter, pupil of Dela-
roche, exhibited first in 1840 “Jeune Venetien après une
orgie.” His works have brilliant color-effects; among
them are “Trouvère,” “Fauconnier,” “L’Amour d'or,” and
the famous “Romains de la décadence.”
Cove, a post-township of Polk co., Ark. Pop. 456.
Cove, a township of Barbour co., West Va. Pop. 1657.
Cove Creek, a township of Washington co., Ark.
Pop. 514. -
Cove Creek, a township of Watauga co., N. C. P. 887.
Coveland, a post-village, capital of Island co., Wash.
Ter., near the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and about 112 miles
N. of Olympia.
Cov'enant [Fr. convenant (from convenir, to “agree”),
nants in a deed. The subject is fruit-
ful in distinctions, covenants being
treated in the law-books as to their form, their nature,
their relation to other covenants, their assignability, and
the like. One of the most important of these is that which
classifies covenants into those which “run with the land ”
and those which do not. To explain this subject it is
necessary to state that in ordinary conveyances of land
there are found certain clauses which affirm in substance
that the grantor is owner in possession, actual or con-
structive (or seized), and has a good right to convey;
that there are no encumbrances on the land; that the pur-
chaser shall quietly enjoy the land without being evicted
by any person having a superior title; that the grantor
will warrant and defend the title ; and that he will make
such further deeds or conveyances as he may be called on
to make to perfect the title. In brief terms and in tech-
nical language these are covenants of seisin, good right to
convey, against encumbrances, of quiet enjoyment, of war-
ranty, and of further assurance. The first three of these,
it will be observed, affirm an existing fact; the last three
concern the future, and are promissory in their nature.
The first three do not run with the land; the last three do.
The reason of the distinction is technical. The first three, if
untrue at all, are so at the very moment when the deed was
delivered, and accordingly then conferred a right of action.
This immediate right to sue is in the nature of personal
property, and closely resembles ordinary rights of action,
such as a claim on a promissory note already due. Accord-
ingly, if the grantee in the deed should convey the land, he
would not by that act alone transfer these rights of action ;
they would not, in technical language, “run with the land.”
On the other hand, as to the three covenants in the future
tense, it is clear that no action can be brought upon them until
the event against which they are designed to guard happens,
or, in other words, until the covenant is broken—that is,
until the quiet enjoyment ceases or the grantee is evicted.
Until that occurs the covenant will “run with the land,” by
which expression is meant that the mere conveyance to the
second grantee transfers these covenants, as it would the
houses, trees, and other additions to land. The distinction
thus pointed out also applies to the case of landlord and
tenant, and there are abstruse distinctions here to be noted
which cannot properly be stated within the brief compass
of this article. Some of the common covenants in a lease
which run with the land are the agreement of the tenant to
pay rent, or to make repairs, or to keep houses insured. It
should be addèd that the rule respecting the assignability
of covenants in leases applies to covenants binding either
on the tenant or the landlord. There is a growing practice
in conveyances of land in towns and cities to insert clauses
binding the purchaser to use the land in a particular man-
ner, as to build dwelling-houses upon it, and even such
as are of a particular description. Although these clauses
do not strictly fall within the technical doctrines of cove-
nants running with the land, yet they are binding in equity
law on a subsequent purchaser with notice. The record of
the deed containing them will in general be sufficient notice
to such subsequent purchaser. The covenant may be en-
forced through the medium of an injunction or other ap-
propriate equitable remedy. T. W. DWIGHT.














































































1180
COVENANT, NATIONAL–COVINGTON.
Cov'enant (National, of Scotland), an agreement
to protect the Reformed religion in the Church of Scotland
from the attempt of the English government to enforce the
episcopal form of worship, was drawn up and published by
the Four Tables in Edinburgh, Mår. 1, 1638. It professed
to be based upon a document which James VI. had signed
in 1580. The Four Tables, as they were called, consisted
of—1, nobility; 2, gentry; 3, ministers; and 4, burgesses;
and in their hands the whole authority of the kingdom was
vested. They elected a general assembly which met at
Glasgow in Nov., 1638, and abolished episcopacy; ordering
that every person should sign the Covenant on pain of
excommunication. The Covenanters prepared for war, and
though a treaty of peace was concluded in June, 1639, they
entered England in Aug., 1640. An agreement was signed
at Ripon, Oct., 1640, by which commissioners were to be
appointed, to whom the settlement of the points in dispute
was referred. This covenant, under the name of the
Solemn League and Covenant, was received by the Parlia-
ment of the Assembly of Divines, Sept., 1643. It differed
essentially from the covenant of 1638, and according to
Hallam “consisted in an oath to be subscribed by all sorts'
of persons in both kingdoms, whereby they bound them-
selves to preserve the Reformed religion in the Church of
Scotland, in doctrine, worship, discipline, and government,
according to the word of God and practice of the best
Reformed churches; and to endeavor to bring the churches
of God in the three kingdoms to the nearest conjunction
and uniformity in religion, confession of faith, form of
church government, directory for worship, and catechising;
to endeavor, without respect of persons, the extirpation of
popery, prelacy (that is, church government by archbishops
and other ecclesiastical officers), and whatsoever should be
found contrary to sound doctrine and the power of godli-
ness; to preserve the rights and privileges of the Parlia-
ments, the liberties of the kingdoms, and the king's person
and authority in the preservation and defence of the true
religion and liberties of the kingdoms; to endeavor the
discovery of incendiaries and malignants who hinder the
reformation of religion and divide the king from his people,
that they may be brought to punishment; finally, to assist
and defend all such as should enter into this covenant and
not suffer themselves to be withdrawn from it, whether to
revolt to the opposite party or to give in to a detestable
indifference or neutrality.” This document was signed by
members of both houses and by civil and military officers.
A large number of the beneficed clergy who refused to sub-
scribe were ejected. Charles II. signed it very reluctantly
at Spey in June, 1650, in the hope of recovering the Eng-
lish throne. After the Restoration a majority in the House
of Commons ordered it to be burned by the common hang-
man in May, 1661. In the same year the Scottish Parlia-
ment renounced the Covenant and declared the king su-
preme. Under the reign of Charles II. the Covenanters
were subjected to a fierce and cruel persecution, in which
neither age nor sex was spared. It is in the standards of
the Covenanters that we have to look for a true embodi-
ment of the tenets held by the great body of English and
Scottish Presbyterians of 1643. Others gave in to the
Revolution. Settlement, and afterwards found cause to se–
cede. The Covenanters never gave in, and of course never
seceded. Although in point of fact an elder sister of the
existing Church of Scotland and all its secessions, the
Cameronian body did hot assume a regular form till after
the Revolution; and it was with some difficulty that it
organized a communion with ordained ministers. The
stedfastness of members was put to a severe trial by the
defection of their ministers, and for a time the people were
as sheep without a shepherd. After sixteen years they
were joined by the Rev. John McMillan from the Estab-
lished Church, in 1706. In 1743 they constituted a pres–
bytery at Braehead, under the name of the Reformed Pres-
bytery. Holding strictly to the covenants, the political
position of the Covenanters is very peculiar, as they refuse
to recognize any laws or institutions which they conceive
to be inimical to those of the kingdom of Christ. The
Reformed Presbyterians regard themselves as the modern
representatives of the Covenanters. -
Cov/enanters, a name given to the signers of the
Covenant in Scotland. (See Coven ANT.) The Covenanters
were also called Cameronians, from Richard Cameron, the
founder of the sect. (See REFoRMED PRESBYTERIANs.)
Cov/ent Garden [a corruption of “convent garden,”
so called because it was once the garden of Westminster
Abbey] is a square in London famous for its market of
fruits and flowers. It was formerly a fashionable quarter
of the town. Frequent allusions are made to this place in
the old English comedies. The market originated about
1656. Covent Garden is one of the most interesting of
London sights; it is seen to the best advantage about three
o'clock on a summer morning, Tuesday, Thursday, and
Saturday being the principal days. The Covent Garden
Theatre was opened in 1732, and has been several times
burned. The present edifice was opened in 1858.
Cov/entry [Lat. Coventria], a city of England, in the
county of Warwick, on the Sherbourne, 10 miles N. N. E.
of Warwick, on the London and North-western Railway.
The modern part of it is well built. Among the remark-
able buildings are St. Michael’s church, founded in 1313,
which is a masterpiece of the lighter Gothic style, has a
spire 303 feet high, and is said to be the largest parish
church in England; Trinity church; Christ church, with
a handsome ancient spire, belonging to the old Grayfriars'
convent from which the town has its name; and St. Mary’s
Hall, built about 1450, an admirable specimen of orna-
mental architecture. The ancient cathedral was destroyed
by Henry VIII. Coventry returns two members to Par-
liament. It has manufactures of ribbons, fringes, and
watches, and is the greatest emporium for ribbons in Eng-
land. It was formerly famous for the manufacture of
broadcloth, caps, and blue thread. In 1044, Earl Leofric
and his wife, the celebrated Lady Godiva, founded here a
magnificent Benedictine abbey. In the fifteenth century
religious mysteries were often acted here before the king.
Pop. in 1871, 39,470.
Coventry, a township and post-village of Tolland co.,
Conn. The village is near the Hartford and Providence
R. R., 20 miles E. of Hartford. Total pop. 2057.
Coventry, a post-township of Chenango co., N. Y.
Pop. 1490.
Coventry, a township of Summit co., O. Pop. 1817.
Coventry, a township and post-village of Kent co.,
R. I. The village is on the Hartford Providence and Fish-
kill R. R., about 30 miles S. W. of Providence. The town-
ship contains several manufacturing villages, and has a
national bank at Anthony. Total pop. 4349.
Coventry, a post-township of Orleans co., Vt. It has
an academy, and manufactures of lumber, leather, and
starch. Pop. 914.
Coventry, EARLs of, Wiscounts Deershurst (England,
1689).-GEORGE WILLIAM CovKNTRY, ninth earl, born May
9, 1838, succeeded his grandfather in 1843.
Cov'erdale (MILEs), an English bishop and Reformer,
born in Yorkshire in 1487. An Augustine monk in his
youth, he was one of the first Englishmen who adopted
Protestant doctrines. In 1535 he published an English
translation of the Bible, which was reissued in 1537 with
the royal sanction. The version of the Psalms is that of
the present Prayer-Book. This was the first entire Bible
ever published in English. He edited the “Great Bible,”
or Cranmer's Bible (1540). In 1551 he was appointed
bishop of Exeter. On the accession of Mary, in 1553, he
was deprived of his office and imprisoned for two years.
He was then permitted to take refuge on the Continent,
whence he returned in 1558, and died in London in Feb.,
1568.
Cov’ert, a township and post-village of Seneca co., N.Y.
The village is 1 mile S. W. of Cayuga Lake and 12 miles
N. W. of Ithaca. The township has five churches and
some manufactures. Total pop. 2238.
Cov’ert Way, or Covered Way, is a path outside
the fosse or moat of a fortified place, between the counter-
scarp and the banquette of the glacis. It is about thirty
feet wide, and is sunk so far below the crest of the glacis
that soldiers standing upon it cannot be seen by besiegers;
hence the name. Sentinels placed in the covert way pre-
vent all access of the enemy’s spies, and musketeers
mounted on the side next the glacis can pour fire on the
enemy over the crest. The covert way is broad enough to
allow troops to form on it, either to act defensively or make
sorties; and to increase this accommodation enlarged por-
tions, called places of arms, are made. -
Covilh㺒, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira,
is situated among the mountains, 48 miles E. of Coimbra.
It has thermal springs, and manufactures of a woollen
cloth called saragoca. Pop. 9022.
Cov/ington, a county in the S. of Alabama. Area,
1000 square miles. It is intersected by the Conecuh River.
The surface is nearly level; the soil sandy. Cotton, wool,
and rice are raised. Capital, Andalusia. Pop. 4868.
Covington, a county in the S. of Mississippi. Area,
600 square miles. It is drained by Leaf River and several
of its affluents. The soil is sandy, and partly covered with
pine forests. Cotton, wool, and corn are raised. Capital,
Williamsburg. Pop. 4753.
Covington, a post-village, capital of Newton co., Ga.,
on the Georgia R. R., 41 miles E. by S. from Atlanta, is
COVINGTON.—COWPER.
1181
the seat of the Southern Masonic Female College, and has
one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1121.
Covington, a post-village, capital of Fountain co.,
Ind., on the Wabash River, the Wabash and Erie Canal,
the Indianapolis Bloomington and Western, and a branch
of the Chicago Danville and Covington R. R.S., 71 miles
W. N. W. of Indianapolis, has two newspapers, a high
school, a foundry, and four coal companies. Pop. 1888.
J. H. SPENCE, PUB. CovingTON “PEOPLE's FRIEND.”
Covington, a city of Kentucky, Kenton co., is on
the Ohio River opposite Cincinnati, and just below the
mouth of the Licking River, which separates it from New-
port. It occupies a nearly level site, and is pleasantly
situated. A noble suspension bridge across the Ohio con-
nects it with Cincinnati. It has also a suspension bridge
connecting it with Newport. Covington is the northern
terminus of the Kentucky Central R. R., which extends
to Nicholasville, Ky., and is connected with Louisville by
another railroad. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic
bishop, has twenty-six churches, six public schools, nine
Roman Catholic schools, three English and one German
weekly newspaper, three national and one State bank,
waterworks, gasworks, paid fire department, and fire-alarm
telegraph, two horse-car lines, one orphan asylum, one hos-
pital, two rolling-mills, and one railroad-iron mill; also man-
ufactures of stoves, wood-work, tobacco, etc. It has 40 miles
of paved streets. Pop. 24,505. J. W. DAVIs, “Journal.”
Covington, a post-village, capital of St. Tammany
parish, La., 45 miles N. of New Orleans. Pop. 585.
Covington, a post-township of Dakota co., Neb., has
one weekly newspaper. Pop. 225.
Covington, a township and post-village of Wyoming
co., N. Y. Pop. 1189.
Covington, a post-village of Miami co., O., on the
railroad which connects Columbus with Chicago, 79 miles
W. of Columbus, has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1010.
Covington, a township of Clearfield co., Pa. P. 701.
Covington, a township of Luzerne co., Pa. P. 1182.
Covington, a township and post-borough of Tioga co.,
Pa., on the Blossburg and Corning and Tioga R. R.S. Pop.
of township, 811.
Covington, a post-village, capital of Tipton co., Tenn.,
on Big Hatchie River, 200 miles § by S. from Nashville.
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 447.
Covington, a post-village, capital of Alleghany co.,
Va., on Jackson's River and on the Chesapeake and Ohio
R. R., 205 miles W. of Richmond. Pop. of township, 1268.
Covode (John), born in Westmoreland co., Pa., Mar.
17, 1808, was brought up as a farmer and blacksmith, but
in the early days of the Pennsylvania coal trade he went
into that business with success, and afterwards was also a
woollen manufacturer and railroad stockholder and direc-
tor. He was a member of Congress from Pennsylvania,
1854–70, and was distinguished for his energy and political
influence. His freedom and impetuosity of speech made
him many friends and enemies, and won him the title of
“Honest John Covode.” Died Jan. II, 1871.
Cow. See CATTLE.
Cow'an, a township of Wayne co., Mo. Pop. 492.
Cowanshan/nock, a township and village of Arm-
strong co., Pa. The village is on the Alleghany Valley
R. R., 48 miles N. E. of Pittsburg. Total pop. 2246.
Cow'ansville, a post-village of Dunham township,
Missisquoi co, Quebec (Canada), on the South-eastern
Counties Junction Railway, 14 miles from West Farnham
Junction. It has a weekly paper. Pop. about 600.
Cow Bay, a port and post-village of Cape Breton co.
and island, 22 miles from Sydney, has mines of bitumi-
nous coal, and a breakwater for the protection of shipping.
Pop. about 2500.
Cow-bird, or Cow-bunting, the Molothrus pecoris,
a bird of the U. S. belonging to the blackbird family. It
takes its name from the fact that it associates with cattle
in pastures, probably for the purpose of catching the in-
sects which are aroused by the cattle. Like the European
cuckoo, it lays its eggs in the nests of other birds, never
hatching its own young.
Cow Castle, a twp. of Orangeburg co., S. C. P. 720.
Cow'ee, a township of Macon co., N. C. Pop. 760.
Cowes, West, a seaport and watering-place of Eng-
land, on the Isle of Wight, at the mouth of the river Me-
dina, 10% miles S. S. E. of Southampton. It is built on a
steep slope, and presents a fine appearance from the sea.
Here are many elegant villas and good hotels. Cowes has
an active coasting-trade. Pop. 5482.
Cowe’ta, a county in the W. N. W. of Georgia. Area,
378 square miles. It is bounded on the N.W. by the Chat-
tahoochee River. The surface is uneven ; the soil is mostly
fertile. Cotton, wool, and corn are raised. It is intersected
by the Atlanta and West Point R. R. Capital, Newnan.
Pop. 15,875.
Cow/hage, Cowitch, or Muſcuna, a drug which
consists of short, slender, brittle hairs, which grow on the
pods of twining plants of the genus Mucuna or Stizolo-
bium, natives of the tropical parts of America and Asia.
This genus belongs to the order Leguminosae, and has a
knotted, 2-valved pod, divided by transverse partitions.
Most of the cowhage brought to market is from the Stizolo-
bium pruriens and Stizolobium wrens, natives of the West
Indies. Stizolobium pruritum of the East Indies yields
cowhage of similar quality. The hairs readily stick in the
skin and cause intolerable itching. Cowhage is used in
medicine, acting mechanically in killing and expelling
worms, particularly the species of Ascaris. That it does not
act on the inner surface of the intestinal canal is supposed
to be owing to the mucous secretion. It is generally ad-
ministered in syrup or honey. Before the pods of the cow- .
hage plants are ripe they are used as a vegetable, like
those of beans, and are very palatable.
Cow Island, a township of Lincoln co., Me. P. 19.
Cow Lake, a township of Jackson co., Ark. Pop. 189.
Cow/ley, a county in the S. of Kansas. Area, 804
square miles. It is intersected by the Arkansas River and
Grouse Creek. There is considerable timber, and the soil
is fertile. Coal and building-stone are found. Cattle,
grain, and wool are raised. Capital, Winfield. Pop. 1175.
Cow/ley (ABRAHAM), M.D., an English poet, the son of
a grocer, born in London in 1618, entered Trinity College,
Cambridge, in 1636. He said that he became a poet from
reading a volume of Spenser that lay in his mother's parlor.
He made verses at the age of ten, and his first volume,
“Poetic Blossoms,” he published at fifteen. He was ejected
from college as a royalist in 1643. In 1646 he went to Paris
with the queen, and remained ten years. He published in
1647 “The Mistress,” a series of poems which abound in
frigid conceits. He was imprisoned as a royalist, but
was released through interest, and obtained the usu-
fruct of one of the queen’s estates, £300 yearly. He
studied natural history, and issued “Liber Plantarum ”
(1662–78). The epic “Davideis,” commenced in college,
was never finished. His essays, as well as his anacre-
ontics, evidence sensibility and refinement of thought, a
facile imagination, a brilliant wit, and cultured mind, but
are marred with the prevailing trivial love for glittering
ingenuity of style. The most admired poet of his day, he
is called on his tombstone “Anglorum Pindarus, Flaccus et
Maro.” His works were published in 1680 by Sprat, and
by Aikin in 1802, 3 vols. Died July 28, 1667.
Cowley (HENRY RICHARD WELLESLEY), FIRST EARL, a
British diplomatist, a son of Sir Henry Wellesley and a
nephew of the duke of Wellington, was born June 17,
1804. He became minister to Switzerland in 1848, and was
ambassador to Paris from 1852 to 1867.
Cow/litz, a county in the S. W. of Washington Terri-
tory. Area, 400 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by
the Côlumbia River, and intersected by the Cowlitz. It is
finely timbered and contains coal. It is intersected by
the Northern Pacific R. R. Capital, Monticello. Pop. 730.
Cow-Pars’nip, the popular name of certain plants
of the genus Heracleum, of the order Umbelliferae, having
petals bent in at the middle, and flat fruit. The Heracleum
lanatum grows in the U. S., from North Carolina north-
ward and westward. It is a coarse weed, from three to eight
feet high, strong scented, and is said to be poisonous. One
species is a native of Europe (Heracleum Syphalodium), the
common cow-parsnip, a rank weed, with coarse, hairy leaves,
and stem about three to five feet high. It is gathered in
some parts of England for fattening pigs, and is said to
afford wholesome food for cattle. Some Siberian species
are much larger, and are valued for the abundant herbage
which they yield very early in the season, particularly
Heracleum Panacea, which sometimes attains a height of
ten feet, and the root-leaves are three to five feet long. The
species are mostly Asiatic. … -
Cow/pens, a village of Spartanburg co., S. C., about
100 miles N. N. W. of Columbia. Here the American gen-
eral Morgan defeated Colonel Tarleton Jan. 17, 1781. The
British lost about 300 killed and wounded, and 500 prisoners.
Cow/per, EARLs, Wiscounts Fordwich (Great Britain,
1718), Barons Cowper (England, 1706), Barons Butler of
Moore Park (England, 1679), Barons Dingwall (Scotland,
1607), and baronets (1642).-FRANCIS THOMAS DE GREY
Cowper, seventh earl, a prince of the Holy Roman Em-
pire, captain of the corps of gentlemen-at-arms, born June
11, 1834, succeeded his father April 15, 1856.
1182
COWPER—COX.
Cowper (WILLIAM), EARL, an eminent English judge
and orator, born in 1664. He was called to the bar in 1688,
and elected to Parliament in 1695. He became an excel-
lent debater and the leader of the Whig party in the House
of Commons. In 1705 he was appointed lord chancellor.
He resigned the great seal when the Tories obtained power
in 1710, but was reappointed in 1714. Having resigned
; in 1718, he was then created an earl. Died Oct. 10,
1723.
Cowper (WILLIAM), an English poet, born at Great
Berkhamstead, in Hertfordshire, Nov. 26, 1731, was the
son of the rector, John Cowper, chaplain of George II., and
nephew of Earl Cowper, noticed above. Deprived of his
mother at the age of six, he was a tender, shrinking child,
and a sensitive, melancholy boy at Dr. Pitman’s school,
made more so by the rough fagging at Westminster School,
where he advanced in classical studies. First articled
to an attorney, living in the Temple in 1752, and called
to the bar in 1754, he never practised. Appointed clerk of
the journals in the House of Lords, he could not bring him-
self to appear for nervousness. He determined on suicide,
but wanted courage. Morbidly dejected, he was taken in
1763 to Dr. Colton’s at St. Alban's. In 1767 he went to
Huntingdom, and came to know Mrs. Unwin, “Mary” in
his poems. The acquaintance grew into a tender friend-
ship. Residing with the Unwins amid gentle and religious
influences, where his spirit found repose and ease, he visit-
ed their friend, Rev. Mr. Newton, in 1773, whose gloomy
religious views had the effect to bring back his mental
malady. Tended by Mrs. Unwin through a long illness,
in his convalescence he translated the hymns of Madame
Guyon, and diverted himself with taming hares. Mrs.
Unwin suggested a poem on the “Progress of Error” in
Dec., 1780, and in three months he wrote “Truth,” “Ta-
ble-Talk,” “Progress of Error,” and “Expostulation,” pub-
lished in 1781. Lady Austen, whom he met in 1781, in-
spired him to write “The Task ’’ (1785), and to translate
Homer (1791), and first told him the story of John Gilpin.
“The Task * met with great success. In his later life Cow-
per became more and more the prey of dejection and remorse,
which sometimes deepened into insanity. His “Private
Correspondence” (2 vols., 1824) is gentle, thoughtful, and
pervaded with playful humor. Cowper gave to English
taste a simpler and more earnest cast. Editions of his
works are Gilfillan’s (Edinburgh, 1854, 2 vols.) and South-
ey’s (15 vols., 1837–38). (See the Lives in SouTHEY’s edi-
tion, and in that of Hailey.) Died April 25, 1800.
Cowper’s Glands, two small and rather lobulated
yellowish glands which in the male of the human species
are found between the layers of the deep perinaeal fascia,
under the anterior part of the membranous portion of the
urethra. They secrete a mucus which flows into the bulb-
ous portion of the urethra by a duct an inch long. The
vulvo-vaginal glands (glands of Bartholine) are the an-
alogues in the female.
Cow-Pox Inoculation. This species of inoculation,
as a security against the smallpox, was introduced by
Dr. Jenner, and it became general in 1799. The genuine
cow-pox appears in the form of vesicles on the teats of the
cow. It was first brought into use by Jenner, who first
vaccinated from arm to arm in 1796. He had been study-
ing and experimenting about it for a number of years be-
fore. (See INOCULATION and WACCINATION, by FRANK P.
FosTER, M. D.) -
Cow’ry [Hindostameel, the shell of Cypraea, a genus of
| -
- ač sº
º
º º º º
sº
|º
ſº º
| d
** º -
prosobranchiate gasteropodous mollusks, of the family Cy-
praeidae, to all the members of which the name cowry is
often extended. They belong to the Siphonostomata, have
spiral, convoluted shells, the spire visible in the young, but
entirely concealed in the adult, and the outer lip thickened
and bent in. The aperture extends the whole length of the
shell. The shells, often called “ porcelain shells,” are
sometimes beautifully enamelled. They are most abundant
and attain the largest size in warm seas. Many species
occur as fossils. A few very small living species are found
on the British coasts. Several species occur on the east-
ern and western shores of America. The name cowry is
chiefly applied to the shells of Cypraea moneta, which have
commercial value from their use as a substitute for coin in
many parts of Asia and Africa. They are said to have been
used by the ancient Assyrians, and specimens were found
by Layard at Nimrood. They are not of great beauty, are
yellow and white, often with a yellow ring; they are about
an inch long, and nearly as broad as long. They are found
in the Indian and Pacific oceans, and are one of the most
important exports of the Maldive Islands. In Bengal,
3200 cowries are counted equal to one rupee (fifty cents).
Yet cowries to the value of $100,000 are said to have been
at one time imported annually into Bengal. Many tons
of cowries are used in trade with the west of Africa. In
1849, 300 tons were brought to Liverpool for the African
trade.
Cow'slip (Primula veris), an herbaceous plant of the
order Primulaceae, is a native of England and other parts
of Europe. It bears a beautiful and fragrant flower, which
is a general favorite. The flowers, which are small and
grow in an umbel at the top of a scape, have sedative prop-
erties, and are sometimes used as an anodyne and antispas-
modic. American cowslip is a common name of the Dode-
catheon Meadia, a plant of the same natural order, and a
native of the U. S. It is cultivated in gardens for the
beauty of its flowers. (See also CALTHA.)
Cow Tree, a name given to several trees of different
natural orders, the bland juice (latea') of which is used in-
stead of milk. They are natives of tropical climates. Some
of them belong to the order Moraceae, and are allied to the
fig; others to the closely-related order Artocarpaceae, one
of which is the famous palo de vaca, or cow tree, of the
Cordilleras (Brosimum wtile). It grows in rocky situa-
tions, at an elevation in equatorial regions of about 3000
feet. It is a lofty tree, with leaves ten to sixteen inches long,
and very small flowers. For several months in the year its
branches appear dead, but as soon as the trunk is pierced
there flows a full-stream of sweet and mourishing milk.
This juice flows most freely at sunrise. The natives then
hastem from all directions with bowls to receive it. The
milk has a pleasant odor, and a viscidity which does not
belong to the milk of animals. It becomes yellow in a short
time, and a cream rises to the surface, which gradually
thickens into a cheesy consistency. This milk is much
used by the negroes and Indians, but differs very much
from the milk of animals, more than one-half being Wax
and a nitrogenous compound; a little sugar, a salt of
magnesia, and water chiefly making up the rest. The hya-
hya (Tabernaemontana wtilis, of the order Apocynaceae) also
yields an abundant thick juice, which is used in Guiana.
and elsewhere as a substitute for milk, and is harmless,
agreeable, and nutritious. The Gymnema lactiferum, an
asclepiadaceous plant of Ceylon, yields a milk which is
used as food.
Cox (ABRAHAM S.), M. D., born in New York in 1800,
studied medicine, and attained great eminence in the prac-
tice of his profession. Resigning his large and lucrative
practice, he accepted, at the commencement of the civil
war, the appointment of surgeon in the army, was pro-
moted to be surgeon-in-chief of a division, and at the time
of his death was attached to the Army of the Cumberland.
The labor and exposure incident to the active campaigns
of that army undermined his health, and he died July 28,
1864, at Lookout Mountain, Tenn.
G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk, Board of Engineers.
Cox (DAVID), an English aquarelle painter, born in
Birmingham in 1793. “His foliage,” says Ruskin, “is
altogether exquisite in color, in its impressions of coolness,
shade, and mass.” He published a “Treatise on Painting
in Water-Colors” (1814). Died June 7, 1859.
Cox (JACOB D.), an American general and lawyer, born
at Montreal Oct. 27, 1828. He became a major-general of
Union volunteers in the autumn of 1862, and served under
Gen. Sherman in Georgia in 1864. In December of that
year he commanded a division at the battle of Nashville.
He was elected governor of Ohio by the Republicans in
Oct., 1865, and was appointed secretary of the interior
in Mar., 1869. He resigned in Nov., 1870.
Cox (MELVILLE BEveRIDGE), the first Methodist Epis-
copal foreign missionary, born at Hallowell, Me., in 1799,
entered the ministry in 1822, and sailed as missionary to






Cox–COXE.
1183
Liberia Nov. 3, 1832. Here he labored with great zeal and
success for some months. He died of the “African fever”
July 21, 1833. (See STEvKNs, “History of the Methodist
Episcopal Church,” vol. iv., pp. 43,451.)
Cox (RICHARD), bishop of Ely, born in 1499, was the
tutor of King Edward VI. He translated for “the Bish-
ops' Bible” the four Gospels, the Acts, and the Epistle to
the Romans. Died July 22, 1581.
Cox (SAMUEL HANSON), D. D., LL.D., a Presbyterian
author and divine of Quaker parentage, born at Leesville,
N. J., Aug. 25, 1793, was ordained July 1, 1817. He was
pastor of the Spring street church, N. Y. (1820–33), pro-
fessor of sacred rhetoric at Auburn Theological Seminary
(1834–37), and pastor of the First Presbyterian church,
Brooklyn, N.Y. (1837–54). He was an early and eminent
advocate of temperance, anti-slavery, and other reforms,
and was distinguished for his brilliancy and effectiveness
as a platform speaker. He wrote “Quakerism not Chris-
tianity,” 1833, and “Interviews, Memorable and Useful,”
1853.
Cox (SAMUEL SULLIVAN), a Democratic politician, born
at Zanesville, O., graduated at Brown University in 1846,
was a member of Congress from Ohio (1857–65) and from
New York City (1869–75). He is a well-known editor and
lecturer, and has published “The Buckeye Abroad” (1852),
“Eight Years in Congress,” etc. . . .
Coxal/gia, or Coxiºtis (Morbus coacarius, “hip-joint
disease”), a chronic inflammation of the hip joint, which
may begin either in the head of the thigh-bone or the
socket of the hip-bone, or else in the membrane (synovial)
that lines its cavity, but which finally extends to all its tis-
sues, cartilages, ligaments, and surrounding soft parts. In-
flammation of the bones (osteitis), by far the most com-
mon origin of the disease in children, is chronic and insid-
ious in its development, and is favored by the incomplete
ossification and active nutrition of the bones in childhood.
Inflammation of the lining membrane (synovitis) is the most
frequent form of hip disease in adolescence, and then is often
of rheumatic origin. Chronic infantile coxitis principally
affects children between one and five years of age, and is
often awakened by a fall or blow, especially when such ac-
cident occurs to children of a lymphatic or scrofulous con-
stitution. The very first symptom is lameness, followed by
pain, first felt in the knee, afterwards excited in the joint
itself by direct pressure, by motion of the limb, or by the
weight of the body resting upon it. To lessen this weight
the patient rests on the ball of his toes, and drags the leg
in walking, stiffly extending it. At this stage it is turned
a little outward by spasmodic contraction of the muscles
on the outer side of the joint. But very soon, in order to
still further lessen the weight, the body bends over on the
thigh, and the arm and lame part of the back, with the
abdomen, are carried forward. When the patient lies down,
therefore, a space is left between the body and the bed, and
if the spinal column be forcibly straightened out and the
curve flattened, the thigh in turn is bent on the body by
dragging of the muscle that runs from the spinal column to
the head of the thigh-bone (psoas). Still, for the purpose
of lessening weight, the hips are tilted towards the painful
side, and appear oblique, while the leg is thus apparently
lengthened. Behind, the nates are flattened. It soon be-
comes impossible to glide the head of the thigh-bone in its
socket; the whole hip moves with every motion communi-
cated to the leg. This sign is most characteristic of the
confirmed disease; it is due at first to the spasmodic rigid-
ity of muscles—later to inflammatory adhesions.
In the second stage liquid is poured out into the cavity
of the joint to increase the space of this cavity, the thigh is
more strongly bent on the body (flexed), and drawn in-
ward (adducted), so that the foot crosses the opposite leg.
The affected limb is therefore apparently shortened. A
swelling appears in the groin and at the outer aspect of the
thigh ; the pain becomes intolerably severe; standing and
walking are impossible. -
In the third stage the cavity fills with matter, the liga-
ments of the joint are relaxed, abscesses form in the neigh-
borhood, and all the soft parts are swollen by inflammatory
exudations. Dislocation occasionally though rarely occurs.
More often the head of the thigh-bone separates from its
shaft, and adheres to the socket of the joint, while the
socket itself is enlarged. The patient’s strength is severely
indermined, hectic fever sets in, the emaciation is extreme,
and death may occur gradually from exhaustion, or more
rapidly from acute absorption of pus. -
. The diagnosis of morbus coacarius is only difficult in the
first stage. The lameness may simulate that of muscular
paralysis, from which it is distinguished by the freedom
with which the head of the thigh-bone may be moved; or
the pain in the knee, may fix suspicion on the wrong joint;
or the thigh may exactly imitate hysterical muscular con-
traction; but in this affection the limb relaxes completely
under chloroform. + * .
The prognosis for spontaneous cure is always very un-
favorable. After suppuration death may be caused by
pyaemia, by exhaustion, by general tuberculosis, or by amy-
loid disease. Appropriate treatment of the first and sec-
ond stages offers about 50 per cent. of recoveries; opera-
tive treatment of the third stage has so far cured about
one-third of the cases submitted to it. In a large number
of cases, although the inflammation is arrested, and hence
life is saved, the joint, becomes permanently immobilized
(ankylosis) by fibrous bands within and around its cavity,
that hold the articular surfaces firmly together (false anky-
losis). This result is to a certain extent favored by the
treatment adopted for the cure of inflammations; it is im-
portant therefore that the stiffened limb be left in the most
favorable position for use—namely, extension.
The treatment varies according to the stage of the dis-
ease. During the primary osteitis that so often precedes
inflammation of the joint, and is indicated by the one
symptom of lameness, constitutional treatment is to be
adopted—cod-liver oil, iron, cinchona, nourishing food,
'fresh air, and salt-water bathing. As soon as the move-
ments of the joint are compromised, local treatment be-
comes of primary importance. It aims—1st, to immobilize
the joint, so as to prevent friction of the inflamed parts;
2d, to extend the limb, so as to separate as much as pos-
sible the folds of the lining membrane, to reduce to a
minimum size.the cavity of the joint, and thus favor the
reabsorption of fluids; finally, to leave the limb in the
best position for use should it become permanently stiff-
ened. The limb can only be maintained in extension by a
force sufficient to overcome the spasmodic muscular con-
tractions. Many apparatuses are devised for this purpose,
in which the limb is straightened out and fastened to an
inflexible plane, and forcibly retained in this position by
means either of a weight attached to the foot or a sliding
screw at the knee. The simplest form of apparatus is
made by swathing the limb in bandages stiffened by plas-
ter of Paris or dextrine. These are only adapted to the
earliest stage, or when cure is already progressing. It
enables the patient to walk about. This facility is also
afforded by steel apparatus that supports the limb at the
waist and foot, and gradually extends it by continued trac-
tion at the knee. In other cases the patient is kept in bed,
the leg fastened to a simple long splint, with a cross-piece
under the foot, to which is attached the weight. A large
double gutter, in which were laid the entire pelvis and both
lower extremities of the patient, was formerly famous, but
is now seldom used. During the employment of such ap-
paratus, ice may be applied to the joint to subdue acute
inflammation, occasionally blisters, where fluid has been
rapidly effused, more often pressure by means of elastic
bands, a powerful means of promoting reabsorption.
Leeching is useless, as also are applications of iodine;
while cauterization, formerly much in vogue, is now gen-
erally condemned. - -
When suppuration has occurred within the joint, and
especially when pus has discharged externally by one or
more fistulae, it is necessary to amputate (resect) the head
of the thigh-bone. Very extensive destruction of the hip-
bone and certain general diseases, amyloid disease or gen-
eral tuberculosis, with incoercible diarrhoea, contra-indicate
the operation. After it, death may result from such com-
plications or from surgical fever (pyaemia, septicemia).
When successful, however, the patient is rescued from an
otherwise certain death, and the joint recovers its integrity,
ankylosis being much less frequent than after treatment by
immobilizing apparatus. - -
- MARY C. PUTNAM JACOBI.
Cox Creek, a post-township of Clayton co., Ia. Pop.
989. . .
Coxe (ARTHUR CLEVELAND), D. D., a son of Dr. S. H.
Cox, noticed above, an American Episcopalian bishop,
born at Mendham, N. J., May 10, 1818, graduated at the
University of New York in 1838, and took holy orders in
1841. He wrote, besides other works, “ Christian Ballads”
(1840) and “Impressions of England” (1856). He became
rector of Calvary church in the city of New York in 1859,
and bishop of Western New York in 1865.
Coxe (John REDMAN), M. D., born at Trenton, N. J., in
1773, received his medical education in Europe, settled in
Philadelphia in 1796, was a professor in the University of
Pennsylvania (1809–35), and was the author of several
medical, scientific, and literary works. Died Mar. 22, 1864.
Coxe (WILLIAM), an English historian, born in London
Mar. 7, 1747. He was appointed curate of Denham in
1771. He published, besides other works, “Travels in Rus-
sia, Poland, Sweden, and Denmark” (1784), a “History of
the House of Austria” (1792), “Memoirs of Sir Robert
1184
Walpole" (3 vols., 1798), and “Memoirs of the Kings of
Spain of the House of Bourbon, 1700–88” (1813). He be-
came archdeacon of Wilts in 1805. Died July 8, 1828.
Coxe’s, a township and village of Etowah co., Ala., on
the Selma Rome and Dalton R. R. Pop. 274.
Coxsackſie, a post-village of Greene co., N.Y., near the
Hudson River, 22 miles S. of Albany. It has six churches,
an academy, important manufactures of brick, a national
bank, and one weekly newspaper. Pop. of Coxsackie
township, 3829.
Coyo'te [a Spanish American name, probably derived
from the Mexican cayotl, “wolf”], a popular name for
the small barking or prairie wolf, of which several varie-
ties occur in the U. S. and Mexico. (See Wolf.)
Coyote, a township and village of Trego Co., Kan., on
the Kansas Pacific R. R., 273 miles W. of Topeka. P. 17.
Coy'pu, the South American name of the Myopotamats
Coypus, a quadruped allied to the beaver, with which it
º agrees in its teeth, limbs,
a feet, and in some of its
habits; but it differs
from the beaver in the
sº as
# muzzle and a contracted
palate; and in the tail,
which resembles that of
a rat. It is the only
known species of its genus, and inhabits South America
on both sides of the Andes, burrowing in river-banks, and
sometimes near the sea-beaches. It is nearly as large as
the beaver, has small ears, very long and stiff whiskers,
long hair mixed with dense, soft, short hair, the upper parts
beautifully pencilled with shades of yellow, the sides and
under parts lighter and more uniform in color. The fur
has become an important article of commerce under the
names of ragondin and nutria, the latter name (signify–
ing in Spanish an “otter”) being that chiefly in use in
the U. S.
Coz'zens (FREDERICK SWARTwo UT), an American
writer, born in New York Mar. 5, 1818, was a wine-
merchant. He contributed to the “ Knickerbocker :
Magazine” and “Putnam’s Magazine.” Among his
works are “Prismatics" (1853) and “Sparrowgrass
Papers” (1856). Died Dec. 23, 1869.
Cozzens’ Landing, a village of Cornwall town-
ship, Orange co., N. Y., near the West Point Military
Academy, and on the Hudson River.
Gr. Kápagos; Ger. Krabbe; Fr.
, , , crabel, a name popularly
applied to many decapod
crustaceans, arranged in
the sub-orders Anomura
(irregularly-tailed crabs)
è and Brachyura (short-
# tailed crabs). Among the
# very numerous species the
following are important:
1. Sub-order Anomura.--
The Pagurus Bernhardus, the
ſº - European hermit crab, has
SSS a hard shell, while the ab- .
Hermit Gab (with shell), ºniº Pºrtion is sºft,
forming a fleshy mass be-
hind the cephalothorax.
§
f
;
%º
* A
NS
º
\
º:
The comfort of the animal re-
quires some shelter for this appendage, and for this
purpose he selects the empty, shell of some mollusk.
• He coils himself in this
shell, and secures his
position by a sucker at
the extremity of the
tail, and by several
feet on the abdominal
sac. He adheres so
firmly to this home that
he will be destroyed
rather than loosen his
hold. By protruding
his body with his three
pairs of legs, he is able
to walk in search of
prey, but if danger ap-
Hermit Crab (without shell).
proaches he hastens into the shell, the orifice being
filled by one of his claws. He changes his residence
as often as he needs a larger one, and may be seen crawl-
ing in and out of shells cast upon the beach, in search
of a suitable home. He returns to his old home after
each trial until he finds one fitted for his comfort. There
are many species of the hermit crab, one or more of which
form of the skull, hav-ſº
ing a more elongated V
COXE'S.–CRA.B.
,
|S ź
Purse Crab: Birgus lairo.
are found on the American coasts. The purse crab (Birgus
latro) is a hermit crab of Amboyna and some other islands.
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Spinous Spider Crab : Maia spinado.
It inhabits the fissures of rocks, and seeks its food along
the beach at night. When observed, it snaps its claws
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CRAB-APPLE–CRABRO.
1185
fiercely and retreats. It is said to climb the cocoanut tree
for the fruit, but this is probably untrue.
2. Sub-order Brachyura.-This sub-order includes, among
others, the following families: the Maiadae, or spider crabs,
which live in deep water, and are seldom seen on the shore.
One species, the Libinia canaliculata, found along the
American coast north of the Chesapeake, is said to feed
upon oysters. The family Canceridae includes those of
which the common crab of Europe (Cancer pagurus) is the
type. In these the shell is narrow behind and round in
front, the claws of unequal size. These inhabit deep water,
and are caught in nets or baskets. Many edible species are
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Parthenope horrida.
known in various parts of the world. The Portunidae re-
semble the Canceridae, and are called paddling crabs. The
common edible crab of the U. S. (Lupea dicantha) is found
along the whole coast. These, like other crabs, moult once
a year, and are several days casting the shell, but a new
one is soon formed. While the new shell is tender, or before
it is formed, they are called soft-shell crabs, and are much
esteemed as food. The common small edible crab (Car-
cinw8 maenas) is a small species found in England and
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The Red Sea Crab: Luped pelagica.
France, and one similar to it frequents our coast. These
are found at low tide under stones and sand. Some crabs
of the genus Lupea live in the ocean, floating on the sea-
Weed or resting on the surface of the water. They are called
swimming crabs. The Eriphia spinifrons is found in
nearly all seas. The Parthenope horrida lives in the In-
dian and Atlantic oceans. The Lupea pelagica is from
the Red Sea. The Ocypodidae include the little pea
crab (Pinnotheres p?sum). The carapace is quadrilateral
or oval, the front transverse and knotted. They inhabit the
muscle shell. The ancients were acquainted with one spe-
cies of this crab, and believed that it found food for the
mollusk and warned him of danger. There are several
American species of this genus, one of which is a well-
known parasite upon the oyster. The land crabs of the
tropics are among the most curious members of this family.
They live upon mountains at a distance from the sea, and
have a kind of leaflet for retaining moisture in the branchial
cavities. Once a year they visit the coast to deposit their
eggs. It is said that in these journeys they have been ob-
served to form a procession one hundred and fifty feet wide
and three miles long. In Jamaica, they are much valued
as food. They live in moist regions, and make excava-
tions which they inhabit during the day, seeking their
food at night. Some species are said to live in dry
woods. The violet crab (Cardisoma carniſeac) inhabits
º %.S. §§ the West Indian Islands, chiefly in the mangrove
㺠º swamps. Its food is the fruit of a species of Anona,
*\s sº º but it is said also to frequent cemeteries and devour the
sº sº bodies. It is highly regarded as food, but only those
§§ º, are eaten which live at a distance from the cemeteries.
#| Another kind of land crab (the Gelasimus) is named the
A calling crab, from the beckoning gesture of the claw
# which it makes when alarmed. This claw is larger than
% the other, and is used in digging its burrows. A com-
mon American species, the Gelasimus vocans, is called
the fiddler, because one of its claws is thought to re-
semble a fiddle. It lives on the land, but is at home
also in the water. It remains in its hole in the winter.
The Thelphusae are land crabs, but some of them inhabit
freshwater. Many of the so-called land crabs are prop-
erly crayfish. (For the king-crab (usually regarded as
an entomostracan) see KING-CRAB.)
Crab-Appie (Pyrus Coronaria), a small tree grow-
ing wild in the U. S., bears rose-colored fragrant blos-
soms and fragrant greenish fruit, which is prized for
preserves. Another wild crab-apple, the Pyrus angusti-
jolia, also grows in the Southern States. The cultiva-
ted crab-apple is the Pyrus baccata, a native of Siberia.
(See APPLE.)
Crabb (GEORGE W.) was born in Tennessee, but re-
moved to Alabama. He distinguished himself in the In-
dian war in Florida, where he was made a major-general.
He was elected a member of Congress in 1838, but defeated
in 1841. T)ied in 1847.
Crabbe (GEORGE), an English poet, born at Aldborough,
Suffolk, Dec. 24, 1754. He learned the profession of sur-
geon, which he soon renounced. He went to London in
1780, and soon produced “The Candidate,” an unsuccessful
poem, and was reduced to extreme poverty, from which
he was relieved by the generosity of Edmund Burke,
who received him as an inmate in his own house, and
secured the publication of “The Library” by Dodsley
(1781). Having taken holy orders in 1782, he became
chaplain to the duke of Rutland at Belvoir Castle, and
married Miss Sarah Elmy. His reputation was in-
creased by the “The Village,” a poem (1783). He be-
came curate of Strathern in 1785, and obtained the
living of Trowbridge, in Wiltshire, in 1813. Among
his works are “The Parish Register” (1807), “The
% Borough '' (1810), and “Tales in the Hall” (1819). He
was distinguished for his vigor and the “Chinese ac-
§ curacy” of his observation. “Mr. Crabbe,” says Lord
* Jeffrey, “is the greatest mannerist, perhaps, of all our
living poets. The homely, quaint, prosaic style, the
eternal full-lengths of low and worthless characters,
with their accustomed garnishing of sly jokes and fa-
miliar moralizing, are all on the surface of his writings.”
Died Feb. 3, 1832. (See “Life of George Crabbe,” by
his son, 1838.)
Crabbe (THOMAs), rear-admiral U. S. N., was born in
Maryland in 1788, entered the navy when young, became
a captain in 1841, a commodore in 1862, and rear-ad-
miral in 1866. Died at Princeton, N.J., June 29, 1872.
Crab Creek, a township of Henderson co., N. C.
P. 607.
Crab Orchard, a post-village of Lincoln co., Ky.,
on the Knoxville branch of the Louisville and Nashville
R. R., 40 miles S. by E. from Lexington. Here are
important saline mineral springs, much resorted to from the
Southern States. Pop. 631. .
Crab Orchard, a township of Mecklenburg Co., N. C.
Pop. 1522.
Craſbro [Lat. for hornet], a genus of hymenopterous in-
sects belonging to the section Aculeata, or sting-bearers, and
to the sub-section Fossores (burrowers). The hornet (Cra-
bro vulgaris) is the type of this genus, which is now raised
to the rank of a family named Crabronidae. Some insects































75 -
1186
CRABTREE-CRAN ACH. .
of this family excavate their nests or retreats in wood. In
the U. S. they build in fences, trees, etc.
Crabtree, a township and post-village of Haywood
co., N. C. Pop. 1048.
3 grackins, a township of Montgomery co., Md. Pop.
477.
Craſcow, or Kraſkow, a city in Austrian Poland, on
the left bank of the Vistula, 158 miles S. S. W. of Warsaw.
It is connected by a railway with Vienna, Berlin, and
Warsaw. It is the seat of a Catholic bishop, and has a
castle founded about 700 A. D., a magnificent cathedral,
and once had seventy-six churches, but only thirty-six are
preserved, besides seven Jewish synagogues, a university
(begun in 1343, chartered in 1364, finished in 1401, and re-
organized in 1817), a library of 30,000 volumes, a botanic
garden, and many monasteries. Cracow was founded about
700 A.D., and was the capital of Poland from 1320 to 1609,
when the court was removed to Warsaw. In the six-
teenth century it contained thrice its present population.
On the third partition of Poland, in 1795, it was annexed
to the dominions of Austria. It formed a part of the duchy
of Warsaw from 1809 to 1815. By the Congress of Vienna.
(1815) Cracow, with a small territory, was organized as a
republic, under the protectorate of Russia, Austria, and
Prussia. After an insurrection in 1846 it was again an-
nexed to Austria. Pop. in 1869, 49,835, about one-fourth
of whom are Jews.
Crafts (SAMUEL CHANDLER), born at Woodstock, Conn.,
Oct. 6, 1768, graduated at Harvard in 1790, settled in Crafts-
bury, Vt., in 1790; held many important offices in Ver-
mont, and was long one of the judges of the State courts;
was a member of Congress 1817–23, governor of the State
1829–32, and became U. S. Senator in 1842. In 1802, he
explored the Lower Mississippi in company with F. A.
Michaux. Died at Craftsbury, Vt., Nov. 19, 1853.
Crafts/bury, a post-township. of Orleans co., Vt. It
has an academy, and manufactures of woollen goods, doors,
sash and blinds, etc. Pop. 1330. -
Crag, the name given to a part of the pliocene forma-
tion in the east of England, in France, Italy, etc. It con-
sists of a shelly sand and gravel used to fertilize soils |
which are deficient in calcareous matter. The “coralline
crag,” etc. of the older pliocene is extensively found in
Europe and Asia. -
Cra'gin (AARON H.), born in Weston, Vt., Feb. 3, 1821,
was a member of Congress from New Hampshire (1857–61),
U. S. Senator (1865–71), and was re-elected in 1870 for six
years.
Craig, a county in the S. W. of Virginia, is drained by
Craig's Creek. The surface is partly mountainous; the
soil is fertile. Tobacco, grain, wool, and fruit are raised.
Capital, Newcastle. Pop. 2942.
Craig, a township of Van Buren co., Ark. Pop. 282.
Craig, a post-township of Switzerland co., Ind. Pop.
1843. - -
Craig (John), a Scottish Reformer, born in 1512. He
entered the Dominican order, and had charge of the novices
at Bologna.
tried and condemned to be burned by the Inquisition, but was
saved by a mob, who, on the death of the pope, broke open
the prison. He returned to Scotland, and became a colleague
of John Knox in the church of Edinburgh. He was ap-
pointed chaplain to James VI. in 1579, and wrote the Na-
tional Covenant in 1580. Died in Dec., 1600.
Craig (LEWIs S.), an American officer, born in Virginia,
entered the U. S. army as second lieutenant of dragoons in
1837; transferred to the infantry 1838; promoted to be
first lieutenant in 1840, and captain in 1846. He served
with distinction during the war with Mexico at Monterey
(brevet major), Cerro Gordo (brevet lieutenant-colonel),
Contreras, and Churubusco, severely wounded in the latter.
He was killed by deserters, while in discharge of his duty,
June 6, 1852, near New River, Cal.
Craig (Sir THOMAS), a Scottish lawyer, born about 1540.
He was appointed a judge (justice-depute) in 1564. He
wrote, besides Latin poems, a celebrated “Treatise on
Feudal Law” (“Jus Feudale,” 1655). Died Feb. 26, 1608.
Craig'head, a county in the N. E. of Arkansas. Area,
950 square miles. It is intersected by the St. Francis
River and the Cache River. The surface is nearly level;
the soil fertile. Corn, tobacco, cotton, wool, and live-stock
are raised. Capital, Jonesborough. Pop. 4577.
Craigs’ ville, a post-village of Blooming Grove town-
ship, Orange co., N.Y., has manufactures of cotton goods.
Craik (DINAH MARIA), better known as Miss Muloch,
an English novelist, born at Stoke-upon-Trent in 1826.
Her first novel, “The Ogilvies,” was published in 1849,
Converted to the doctrines of Calvin, he was
and “John Halifax, Gentleman,” in 1857. In 1865 she
married G. L. Craik, a nephew of the literary historian.
Besides novels and other works, she has published a vol-
ume of poems.
Craik (GEORGE LILLIE), one of the most useful writers
of his time in the field of literary history and biography,
was born in Fifeshire, Scotland, in 1799. In 1830 he pub-
lished an interesting compilation of biographical anecdote,
“The Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties,” in one
volume. This was originally issued by the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, but has since been many
times reprinted. He wrote several of the books published.
by the above-named Society in their well-known series,
and he also rendered much valuable help in the prepara-
tion of Knight’s “Pictorial History of England,” and
wrote many of the historical and biographical. articles in
the “Penny Cyclopaedia.” In 1836 appeared in the Use-
ful Knowledge series “Paris and its Historical Scenes,” 2
vols.; in 1844–45, “Sketches of the History of Literature
and Learning in England,” six small volumes in three.
This excellent work of permanent value was rewritten from
chapters on the subject in the “Pictorial History of Eng-
land.” A new and enlarged edition, “Manual of English
Literature and the English Language,” was published in
1862. In 1845, Craik published “Spenser and his Poetry,”
3 vols., and in 1846–47, “Bacon, his Philosophy and Writ-
ings,” 3 vols. Each of these books was reprinted in 1859–
60 in one small volume. The “Bacon’ is a remarkable
piece of condensation, completeness, and accuracy. In
1848 appeared another book of anecdote, which has had a
wide popularity, “The Romance of the Peerage.” In
1849, Craik was made professor of history and of English
literature in Queen’s College, Belfast, and in 1851 he pub-
lished “Outlines of the History of the English Language,”
and in 1857 a well-known book, the parent of many others
of its kind, “The English of Shakspeare illustrated by a
Philological Commentary on his ‘Julius Caesar.’” Besides
much valuable information and suggestion, this edition
of Julius Caesar contains two or three original emenda-
tions, one of which is of real importance. Prof. Craik
died June 25, 1866. A nephew of the professor, of the
same name, married Miss Muloch (Dinah Maria).
CLARENCE Cook.
Craik (JAMEs), M. D., derives interest from his long
and intimate association with Washington. Their commis-
sions in the army were dated the same day, and their friend-
ship was cemented by fifty years’ intercourse. He was born
in Scotland in 1731, was surgeon to the expedition against
the Indians in 1754, was at Braddock's defeat (9th July,
1755), and subsequently served throughout the American
Revolution. Washington said of him, “He was my com-
patriot in arms, my old and intimate friend.” After the
Revolution he practised at Mount Vernon, and was the
family physician of Washington. Died Feb. 6, 1814.
PAUL F. EvK.
Cramp (John MocKETT), D. D., born July 25, 1796, at
St. Peter's, Isle of Thanet, Kent, England, educated at
Stepney College, was ordained May 7, 1818, and became
pastor of the Baptist church in Dean street, Southwark,
London. In 1827 he returned to his native place, and
was associated in the ministry there with his father. In
1842 he became pastor of the Baptist church at Hastings,
Sussex. In 1844 he became president of the Baptist col-
lege, Montreal, Canada, and president of Acadia College,
Nova Scotia, in 1851; the principal of the theological de-
partment 1853–60; was reappointed president in 1860, and
retired in 1869. In 1831 he published “A Text-Book of
Popery;” in 1833, “The Reformation in Europe” (issued
by the Religious Tract Society); in 1844, “Lectures for
these Times;” in 1868, “Baptist History;” and in 1871,
“The Lamb of God.” He has published about twenty
sermons, lectures, or essays in pamphlet form. He has
written also “Paul and Christ: a Portraiture and an Argu-
ment,” and a memoir of the late Madame Feller of the
Grande Ligne Mission, Canada.
Cramp/ton’s Gap, a pass in the South Mountains,
near Burkittsville, Frederick co., Md. The left wing of Gen.
McClellan’s army, under command of Gen. W. B. Frank-
lin, approached this pass about moon of the 14th of Sept.,
1862, to find it defended by a portion of the Confederate
general McLaw’s division of Lee’s army, under command
of Gen. Howell Cobb. After a stubborn fight of four or five
hours, the Confederates were forced out of the gap, having
suffered severe loss in killed and wounded, besides 400
prisoners and many small-arms.
Cra/mach, or Kranach (LUCAs), called THE ELDER, an
eminent German painter and engraver, born at Cranach, a
town near Bamberg, in 1472. His family name was SUNDER.
|He became court-painter to Frederick, the elector of Saxony,
in 1504, and worked for many years at Wittenberg, where
CRANACH, VON.—CRANIUM.
1187
he was much respected and was made burgomaster. He
continued to hold the office of court-painter under the two
successors of Frederick, John the Constant and John Fred-
erick the Magnanimous, and when, after the battle of
Muhlberg in 1547, John Frederick was taken prisoner,
Cranach shared his five years’ captivity. They were both
released in 1552. He was also an intimate friend of Luther
and Melanchthon, whose portraits he both painted and en-
graved. His works consist of oil paintings, engravings on
copper, and woodcuts. His most important picture is at
Weimar. It is an altar-piece. He was so rapid and pro-
lific a worker that he was called pictor celeberrimus, and it
is not surprising that his pictures are found in every con-
siderable collection in Europe. There are two good speci-
mens of his work in the Bryan Gallery, New York His-
torical Society, a “Venus and Cupid.” and a “Portrait,”
and one in the New York Metropolitan Museum, a portrait
of John Frederick the Magnanimous. He died Oct. 16,
1553. (See HELLER, “Das Leben und die Werke Lucas
Cranach's,” 2d ed., Bamberg, 1844. But the latest and
best authority is SCHUCHARDT, “Lucas Cranach des AElteren
Leben und Werke,” Leipsic, 3 vols., 1851–71.)
CLARENCE COOK.
Cranach, von (LUCAs), a painter, a son of the pre-
ceding, was born in 1515. He painted portraits with
success. He was burgomaster of Wittenberg. A good
specimen of his work is in the Metropolitan Museum, New
York—“Portrait of a German Lady.” Died in 1586.
Cran’berry (i.e. “crane-berry,” so called because its
slender stalks were fancied to resemble the legs of a crane),
the fruit of several species of a sub-genus, Oxycoccus, of
small, mostly prostrate evergreen shrubs of the natural
order Erica.geae, belonging to the genus Vaccinium, but
differing from the rest of the genus in having a wheel-
shaped corolla, with its four petals decidedly revolute. The
species are few, natives of the colder regions of the northern
hemisphere. The fruit is acid, and is in great request for
making sauces, jellies, etc. The only British species is the
Vaccinium. Oxycoccus, a native also of the northern parts
of Europe, Asia, and America. It grows in marshy grounds
in the Northern States, and is a wiry shrub with creeping
branches, and small oval leaves strongly revolute at the
margin. The blossoms are small, but beautiful, and of a
deep rose-color. Large quantities of the fruit are collected
in the north of England and in other countries, but it is
seldom gathered in the U. S. They are often kept for a
long time in water. They are an excellent antiscorbutic,
and valuable in sea-stores. A sort of wine is made from them
in Siberia, and Russia. The American cranberry (Vac-
cinium Macrocarpon) is a larger and more erect plant,
with larger leaves, less revolute at the edges. The berries
are larger and of a brighter red. It is a native of Canada,
but is found as far S. as Virginia, growing in Sandy bogs
and also elevated situations. The berries are largely cul-
tivated near the sea-coast in the Northern States, and
large quantities of them exported to Europe. Cranberries
are imported into Great Britain from Russia. The berries
of the cowberry (Vaccinium Vitis Idaea) are sold under
the name of cranberries in Scotland, and used in the same
way. They also grow in New England, but are there
scarcely edible. A third species of cranberry (Vaccinium
Erythrocarpon), a native of the Alleghanies in Virginia and
Carolina, is a shrub four feet high, and with a habit more
like that of the whortleberry than the other cranberries;
it has an insipid fruit. The “high-bush cranberry” is the
Viburnum Opulus of the U. S. and Europe. Its fruit has
little value. The name mountain cranberry is often given
to the Arctostaphylog Uva Ursi of the U. S. and Europe, a
plant whose leaves are of value as a diuretic.
Cranberry, a township of Alleghany co., N. C. Pop.
458.
Cranberry, a township of Mitchell co., N. C. P. 158.
Cranberry, a township of Crawford co., O. P. 1281.
Cranberry, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 945.
Cranberry, a township and post-village of Venango
co., Pa., 60 miles N. N. E. of Pittsburg. Pop. of township,
2337.
Cranberry Isles, a post-township of Hancock co.,
Me., consisting of small islands just outside of Mount
Desert Island. The inhabitants are engaged in the fish-
eries. Pop. 350. -
Cran/bury, a post-village and township of Middlesex
co., N. J., on the Camden and Amboy R. R.
Cranch (CHRISTOPHER PEARSE), a son of the following,
an American artist and poet, born at Alexandria, Va., Mar.
8, 1813, graduated at Columbian College, Washington, in
1831, studied divinity, but became a landscape-painter and
author. He published a volume of poems (1854), and two
stories for children, “The Last of the Huggermuggers”
(1856) and “Koboltozo” (1857); also a translation of
Virgil’s “AEneid” (1872). Many of his finest poems ap-
peared in the “Dial.” REVISED BY CLARENCE Cook.
Cranch (WILLIAM), L.L.D., an eminent American jurist,
born at Weymouth, Mass., July 17, 1769, graduated at Har-
vard in 1787. He was appointed chief-justice of the U. S.
circuit court for the District of Columbia in 1805. He held
this position for fifty years, during which, it is said, only
two of his decisions were overruled by the Supreme Court
of the U. S. As reporter of the decisions of the Supreme
Court he prepared nine volumes of reports (1801–15). His
legal learning was very profound. Judge Cranch was first
cousin to President John Quincy Adams. Died Sept. 1,
1855.
Crane [from the Anglo-Sax. cran; Ger. Kranich; Gr.
'yepavos ; Lat. grw8 (gen. 9rwis); Fr. gruel, a popular name
of various birds of the order Grallatores, and belonging to
the family Gruidae, of which the genus Grus alone occurs in
the U. S. This family differs from herons, storks, etc. in
having the short hind toe placed much higher on the leg
than the front ones. They are nearly all large birds, with
long necks, long legs, and powerful wings. Their wings
are not elongated, but rounded. One of these is the com-
mon European crane (Grus cinerea), which breeds in the
northern parts of Europe and Asia; it retires in winter to
sub-tropical regions. Flocks of cranes periodically pass
over the southern and central countries of Europe, utter-
ing harsh cries, and often alighting for food. This crane,
when standing, is about four feet high, its color ashen-
gray, with face and neck nearly black. The visits of the
crane to Great Britain are now rare; formerly they were
more frequent. It feeds on seeds and roots, insects, rep-
tiles, and small quadrupeds. It is highly valued for the
table. The whooping crane (Grus Americana) is larger
than the common crane, which it resembles, except that its
plumage is pure white, the wings tipped with black. It
frequents the southern parts of the U. S. in winter; in
summer it migrates northward. The U. S. have also the
sand-hill crane (Grus Canadensis) and the Grus frater-
culus, the little crane. To this family belongs also the
demoiselle (Anthropoides virgo) or Numidian crane, with
which, rather than with the true crane, the Balearic cranes
(Balearica) are ranked. Cranes use their bills as a weapon
of defence, attacking the eyes of an assailant. The blue
heron (Ardea. Herodias) is sometimes called the blue crane.
Crane, a machine employed to raise heavy weights and
to deposit them at some distance from their former position.
The most common crane consists of an upright revolving
shaft, with a projecting arm or transverse jib, at the upper
end of which is a fixed pulley. At the other end is a cylin-
der, which is put in motion by a wheel and pinion or cog-
wheel. The weight is fastened to a rope which passes over
the pulley and is wound round the cylinder, by means of
which the weight is raised to the required height.
Crane, a township of Paulding co., O. Pop. 1686.
Crane, a township of Wyandot co., O. Pop. 3876.
Crane (WILLIAM CAREY), D.D., born in Richmond, Va.,
Mar. 17, 1816, graduated at Columbian College and Hamil-
ton Theological Seminary, pastor of a Baptist church in
Montgomery, Ala., 1839–42. Since then he has occupied
many positions of influence and responsibility in the South,
and has been president of Baylor University (Independ-
ence, Tex.) since 1863. He has contributed largely to the
periodical literature of both sections of our country.
Crane (WILLIAM MoNTGOMERY), an American naval
officer, born at Elizabethtown, N. J., Feb. 1, 1776. He
served with distinction in the war against Great Britain
(1812–15). He became chief of the bureau of ordnance in
1842. Died by suicide Mar. 18, 1846.
Crane Creek, a township of Mason co., Ill. Pop. 1068.
Crane Creek, a township of Barry co., Mo. Pop. 527.
Craſney Island, at the mouth of Elizabeth River in
Norfolk co., Va., has a lighthouse fifty feet high, standing
in shallow water on iron screw-piles; lat. 36° 58' 28' N.,
Ion. 76° 20' W. On this island the Confederates erected
batteries during the civil War.
Cranſford, a thriving post-village of Union co., N. J.,
on the Rahway River and on the Central R. R. of New
Jersey, 16% miles from New York. It is finely laid out, and
the surrounding region is fertile and picturesque.
Cranganore, a maritime town of Southern India, is
on the Malabar coast, about 18 miles N. of Cochin. A
Christian church has existed here at least since the fifth
century. This place was taken from the Portuguese by
the Dutch in 1663, and now belongs to the British.
Craniology. See PHRENOLOGY, by S. R. WELLs.
Cranium. See SKULL.
1188.
CRANK-CRATES OF ATHENS.
Crank [allied to the Icelandic kringr, a “circle”], an
important contrivance which is a part of the machinery
of steam-engines, and is the most usual mode of converting
alternating circular or rectilinear motion into continuous
circular motion, or vice versä ; and for this purpose the
crank must be connected by a rigid rod with the prime
mover. The crank consists usually of a double winch, but
is sometimes only single. The part between the two elbow-
joints is termed the arm of the crank. The connecting rod
which transmits the alternate motion is attached to the
crank by a joint, and consequently is made to traverse the
circumference of a circle of which the arm is the radius,
and so to produce the rotation of the axis. When the con-
necting rod is in a straight line with the crank (which
occurs twice in every revolution), it has no tendency to
turn the crank. A fly-wheel is attached to the shaft to
equalize the motion, and prevent it from being much re-
tarded at the “dead points *—i. e. the positions where the
rod exerts no power.
Cram/mer (THOMAS), English reformer, born at Aslac-
ton, in Nottinghamshire, July 2, 1489, of an ancient Nor-
man family. He studied at Jesus College, Cambridge, of
which he became a fellow in 1510, and was well versed in
Greek, Hebrew, and theology. He lost his fellowship by
marriage, but it was soon after restored on the death of his
wife. In 1523 he was appointed lecturer on theology. He
gained the favor of Henry VIII. in 1529 by advising that
the question of the king's divorce should be tried by the word
of God and referred to the universities. He was appointed a
chaplain to the king, who sent him to Rome on a special mis-
sion. He married a niece of Osiander in 1532. He was ap-
pointed archbishop of Canterbury in 1533 by the king, of
whom he soon became the favorite minister and adviser. He
co-operated with Henry in the suppression of monasteries,
but in 1538 he opposed the law of the “Six Articles” or
“Bloody Statutes.” He promoted the translation and cir-
culation of the Bible. On the death of Henry VIII., Cran-
mer, in accordance with the royal will, was appointed one
of the regents of the kingdom. He was the head of a com-
mission which composed the Liturgy of the Anglican Church
in 1548, and efficiently supported the Protestant cause dur-
ing the reign of Edward VI. On the accession of Queen
Mary, in 1553, he was placed in the Tower on a charge of
treason. He was also accused of heresy, and was induced
by the hope of saving his life to recant six times, and to
subscribe to the doctrines of the papal supremacy and the
real presence; but his enemies were determined not to spare
his life. He was burned at the stake Mar. 21, 1556, and
met his death with great fortitude, thrusting his right hand
into the flames before his body began to burn. According
to Hume, “He was a man of merit, possessed of learning
and capacity, and adorned with candor and sincerity, and
all those virtues which were fitted to render him useful and
amiable in society.” Macaulay and some other writers con-
sider him an unscrupulous time-server. (See ARCHDEACON
ToDD, “Life of Cranmer,” 1831.)
Crannoge, a term applied to a fortified island, such as
are found in the lakes of Ireland and Scotland, and which
were used as dwellings and places of refuge by the ancient
Celtic inhabitants. The area of a small isle in some cases
was enlarged by wooden piles or heaps of stones. Cran-
noges are mentioned in Irish annals as early as the ninth
century. (See LAKE DWELLINGs.)
Crans’ton, a township and village of Providence co.,
R. I. The village is on the Hartford Providence and Fish-
kill R. R., 4 miles S. of Providence. It has extensive
manufactures of prints, cotton goods, thread, and ma-
chinery. Total pop. 4822.
Cranston (HENRY Y.), born at Newport, R. I., in
1790, was a prominent official of his native State and city,
and was in Congress 1843–47. Died Feb. 12, 1864.
Cran’tor [Kpávrop], a Greek Academic philosopher,
born at Soli, in Cilicia, lived about 300 B. C. He was a
pupil of Xemocrates at Athens, and wrote, besides other
works, a “Treatise on Affliction,” which was highly es-
teemed. He is mentioned by Horace as an eminent
moralist.
Cranſworth (Robert MoxSEY Rolfe), BARON, an Eng-
lish judge, born at Cranworth, in Norfolk, Dec. 18, 1790.
He was elected to Parliament as a liberal in 1832, became
solicitor-general in 1834, and a baron of the exchequer in
1839. In 1852 he was appointed lord chancellor by Lord
Aberdeen. Having resigned in 1858, he was again lord
chancellor from July, 1865, to June, 1866. Died July 26,
1868.
Crape [Fr. crêpe, from the Lat. crispus, “crisped” or
“curled ”], a light, transparent fabric, made of raw silk
deprived of its gloss. Crapes are crisped or smooth, ac-
cording to the degree of twist in weaving. They are
manufactured in Italy, England, and France, and are ex-
tensively used for mourning-dresses. s
Crapo (HENRY H.). See APPENDIX. -
Cra'shaw (RICHARD), an English poet, was the son o
a clergyman. He was educated at the Charter-house and at
Cambridge. In 1644 he was ejected from his fellowship for
refusing to sign the Covenant. Going to France, he became
a Catholic, and, through the influence of Queen Henrietta
Maria, obtained a secretaryship to a cardinal, and afterwards
became a canon at Loretto, where he died in 1640. His
works, marked with fertility of imagination and devout
fervor, are “Steps to the Temple,” “Delights of the Muses,”
and “Carmen Deo Nostro” (1646).
Crassula’ceae [from Crasswla, one of the general, also
called Sempervi’vae, a natural order of exogenous plants
(herbaceous or shrubby), all remarkable for the succulence
of their stems and leaves. It comprises about 300 species,
widely distributed over the world, and abounding in South:
Africa. They grow in dry situations, and derive nourish-
ment from the air rather than from the soil. Many of them
are cultivated in green-houses on account of their grotesque
forms. The Sedum (stone-crop), houseleek, and other plants
of the U. S. belong to this order.
Cras'sus (MARCUs LICINIUs), a Roman triumvir, born
about 108 B. C., was in his youth a partisan of Sulla. He
was elected praetor in 71 B.C., and defeated Spartacus, the
leader of a servile revolt. In the year 70 he was chosen
consul as the colleague of Pompey. He amassed an im-
mense fortune by speculation, mining, dealing in slaves,
and other methods. Avarice is said to have been his ruling
passion, but for the sake of political success he gave large
gifts to the people. About 60 B. C. he united with Caesar
and Pompey in a coalition called the first triumvirate.
Crassus and Pompey having been chosen consuls in 56
B. C., the former obtained command of Syria for five years.
He invaded Parthia in the year 54, in order to enrich him-
self by plunder. In 53 B.C. he was defeated with great
loss by the Parthian general Surena, near Carrhae (the
Haran of the Bible). He was treacherously killed at a
conference with Surena soon after that battle (53 B.C.).
(See PLUTARCH, “Life of Crassus.”)
Cratae'gus [Gr. Kparatyás, a “thorn-bush’], a genus
of thorny shrubs of the natural order Rosaceae, sub-order
Pomeae, which contains the pear, apple, etc., but distin-
guished from the rest of the sub-order by its bony carpels.
The species are numerous, natives of the temperate parts of
the northern hemisphere, and often have flowers in beauti-
ful corymbs. They are nearly all more or less spiny, hence
the name thorn or thorn-bush is popularly applied to
them. The only native of Great Britain is the hawthorn
(Crataegus Oxyacantha), which is now naturalized in the
Atlantic States of the Union. A number of other species
are now found in plantations and hedges in Great Britain,
of which the most common is the cockspur thorn (Crataegus
Crus Galli), a native of North America from Canada to Caro-
lina. Its leaves are not lobed; its fruit rather larger than
that of the hawthorn. The azarole (Crataegus Azarolus), a
native of the south of Europe, and the aronia (Crataegus
Aronia), a native of the Levant, are occasionally cultivated
for their fruit, which is about as large as the Siberian crab,
and is used for dessert or pies, as are the fruits of some
American species in Canada. Crataegus orientalis and
Crataegus tanacetifolia have also fruit of considerable size.
The latter is much used in Armenia. Crataegus Pyracantha
differs in appearance from most of the genus. It is an ever-
green shrub, with lanceolate, crenate leaves and clusters of
rich red berries. It is a native of the south of Europe and
the Caucasus. In Great Britain it is cultivated as an orna-
ment, and known as the pyracantha. The American species
are at least eleven in number. Apples, pears, and quinces
are sometimes grafted upon thorn stocks. The thorn-bushes
are used as hedge plants, but are apt to be infested by borers.
Cra/ter [from the Gr. ºparſip, a “bowl" or “cup “l, the
mouth or cup-shaped cavity at the summit of a volcanic
mountain. Through this aperture the lava, scoriae, etc. are
usually ejected, but these materials sometimes issue by im-
mense rents in the sides of the mountain. (See WOLCANO,
by PROF. ARNOLD GUYoT, PH.D., LL.D.)
Crater (the “Cup'), one of Ptolemy's northern con-
stellations, situated near Cervus, the “Deer.”
Crater, a township of Calhoun co., III. Pop. 564.
Crat/erus [Gr. Kpatepés], an eminent Macedonian gen-
eral, and one of the successors of Alexander the Great.
He served under that prince in Asia, and was one of his
favorite generals. After the death of Alexander (323 B.C.)
he was associated with Antipater in the government of
Macedonia. He was defeated by Eumenes, and killed in
battle in Cappadocia in 321 B. C.
Cra/tes [Kpérms] of Athens, a Greek comic poet who
CRATES OF THEBES-CRAWFORD,
1189
flourished about 450 B. C. He was also an actor, and per-
formed parts in the plays of Cratinus. His works were
greatly admired, and were praised by Aristotle. Only
small fragments of them are extant.
Crates of Thebes, a famous Cynic philosopher, lived
about 320 B.C., and was a disciple of Diogenes at Athens.
He had a high reputation for probity, wisdom, and self-
control. He was rich in his youth, but set an example of
voluntary poverty. He wrote poems and other works
which are all lost.
Cratiſmus [Kparºvos], an eminent Athenian comic poet
of the old comedy, was born in 519 B. C. He was a con-
temporary and rival of Aristophanes. He was the first
comic poet who introduced personal satire into the drama,
and undertook to castigate the vices of his prominent con-
temporaries. Pericles was among the objects of his satire
and invective. Cratinus gained a prize for his “Wine-
Flask” in 423 B.C., when Aristophanes was his competitor.
Died in 422 B. C.
Cratip/pus [Gr. Kpartmros], a Greek Peripatetic phil-
osopher, a native of Mitylene. He was the most eminent
philosopher of that age in the estimation of Cicero, who
was his pupil and friend. Pompey, after his defeat at
Pharsalia, had an interview with Cratippus, who conversed
with him on Providence. Brutus attended his lectures at
Athens in 44 B. C. Cratippus wrote a work “On Divina-
tion by Dreams.”
Cra’ven, a county in the E. S. E. of North Carolina,
bordering on Pamlico Sound. Area, 1000 square miles.
It is intersected by the Neuse River. The surface is nearly
level, and partly occupied by swamps. Cotton, rice, and
corn are raised. It is traversed by the Atlantic and North
Carolina R. R. Capital, Newbern. Pop. 20,516.
Craven, EARLs of, Wiscounts Uffington, Barons Craven
(England, 1665).-GEORGE GRIMSTON CRAVEN, third earl,
born Mar. 16, 1841, succeeded his father in 1866.
Craven (CHARLEs H.), U. S. N., born Nov. 30, 1843, in
Maine, graduated at the Naval Academy as ensign in
1863, became a lieutenant in 1866, and a lieutenant-com-
mander in 1868. He served in the steam-sloop Housatonic
off Charleston from early in 1863 to Feb. 14, 1864, when
that vessel was blown up by a torpedo-boat. He was in
the combined army and navy expedition which resulted
in the capture of the greater part of Morris Island July 10,
1863, and commanded a division of boats in the night as-
sault upon Fort Sumter of Sept. 11, 1863.
ſº Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Craven (PEYTON), M.D. See APPENDIx.
Craven (THOMAs T.), U. S. N., born Dec. 30, 1808, in
Portsmouth, N. H., entered the navy as a midshipman
May 1, 1822, became a passed midshipman in 1828, a lieu-
tenant in 1830, a commander in 1852, a captain in 1861, a
commodore in 1862, and a rear-admiral in 1866. During
the summer of 1861 he commanded the Potomac flotilla.
During the year 1862, while in command of the steam-
sloop Brooklyn, he took part in the engagement with Forts
St. Philip and Jackson and capture of New Orleans, and
“excited the admiration of his officers and crew by his
coolness and the masterly handling of his vessel.” He was
engaged on the 28th of June, 1862, for two hours and forty
minutes with the batteries at Wicksburg. In his report of
the passage of the forts on his way to New Orleans, Ad-
miral Farragut writes: “It was not long before we were
enabled to bear away and give the forts a broadside of
shells, shrapnell, and grape, the Pensacola, at the same
time, passing up and giving a tremendous broadside of the
same kind to the starboard fort; and by the time we could
reload, the Brooklyn, Captain Craven, passed handsomely
between us and the battery, and delivered her broadside,
and shut us out.” Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Craven (TUNIs AUGUSTUs), U. S. N., born Jan. 11, 1813,
in the State of New York, entered the navy as a midship-
man Feb. 2, 1829, became a passed midshipman in 1835, a
lieutenant in 1840, and a commander in 1861. He com-
manded the iron-clad Tecumseh in the engagement with
Howlett's battery, James River, June 21, 1864, and on the
morning of Aug. 5, 1864, was blown up by a torpedo while
gallantly leading the iron-clads into the bay of Mobile.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Craw/fish, or Cray'fish [etymologically related to the
word crab], a name given to several long-tailed decapodous
crustaceans, those of Europe and the Pacific States of our
country belonging to the genus A8tacus, while those of the
Eastern States and the Mississippi Valley belong to the
genus Cambarus. They inhabit fresh water, and dig long
burrows in the earth. They feed upon insects, mollusks,
dead animals, etc. By some they are esteemed for the table.
Crawfishes do immense damage by opening passages for
water through the levees of the Mississippi, which in some
cases have caused extensive crevasses. In New England
they are quite rare, but are occasionally seen. Certain
salt-water crustaceans are popularly called crawfishes, es-
pecially the spiny lobsters, of the genus Palinurus.
Craw'ford, a county in the W. of Arkansas. Area, 585
square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Arkansas River.
The surface is partly mountainous. The soil is fertile. Tim-
ber, lead, coal, and iron abound. Corn, tobacco, cotton, and
wool are raised. Boston Mountain in this county is nearly
2000 feet high. Capital, Van Buren. Pop. 8957.
Crawford, a county in W. Central Georgia. Area, 289
square miles. It is bounded on the S.W. by the Flint,
River. The surface is uneven ; the soil of the southern
part is sterile. Cotton, corn, and wool are raised. Capital,
Knoxville. Pop. 7557.
Crawford, a county in the E. S. E. of Illinois. Area,
420 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Wabash
River, and drained by the Embarras River. It contains a
large portion of prairie; the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain,
tobacco, and wool are raised. Capital, Robinson. P. 13,889.
Crawford, a county in the S. of Indiana. Area, 280
square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Ohio River,
and also drained by Blue River. The surface is uneven.
The Soil is fertile. Coal and iron abound here. Cattle,
grain, tobacco, wool, and lumber are produced. Capital,
Leavenworth. Pop. 9851.
Crawford, a county in the W. of Iowa. Area, 700
square miles. It is intersected by Boyer River and by the
Chicago and North-western R. R. The soil is productive.
Grain and wool are staple products. Cap. Denison. P. 2530.
Crawford, a county in the S. E. of Kansas. Area, 504
Square miles. It is drained by small affluents of the Neo-
sho River. It is a part of what was once known as the
Cherokee Neutral Lands. The Missouri River Fort Scott
and Gulf R. R. runs through the centre, and the Missouri
Kansas and Texas R. R. through the N. W. portion of the
county. The eastern portion is underlaid with fine beds
of bituminous coal. The soil is fertile. Stock-raising and
farming are the principal pursuits. The products are corn,
wheat, root-crops, flax, castor beans, wool, tobacco, cotton,
etc. Capital, Girard. Pop. 8160.
WAssBR & RIDDLE, EDs. “GIRARD PRESS.”
Crawford, a county in the N. of the southern penin-
sula of Michigan. Area, 576 square miles. It is drained
by the Au Sable River.
Crawford, a county in S. E. Central Missouri. Area,
600 square miles. It is intersected by the Maramec River.
The surface is partly hilly. Productive mines of copper,
iron, and lead have been opened here. Coal is also found
in this county, which is traversed by the Atlantic and Pa-
cific R. R. The soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are
raised. Capital, Steelville. Pop. 7982.
Crawford, a county in N. Central Ohio. Area, 412
square miles. It is drained by the head-streams of the
Sandusky and Olentangy rivers. The surface is nearly
level; the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are largely
raised. Lumber, furniture, brick, clothing, metallic wares,
etc. are manufactured. It is intersected by the Pittsburg
Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R. Capital, Bucyrus. Pop.
25,556. -
Crawford, a county in the N. W. of Pennsylvania.
Area, 975 square miles. It is intersected by French Creek,
and also drained by Oil and Shenango creeks. The surface
is undulating; the soil is generally fertile. Cattle, grain,
and wool are raised. Furniture, leather, lumber, barrels,
carriages, etc. are manufactured. Large quantities of
petroleum are procured in this county, which is traversed
by the Atlantic and Great Western, the Pittsburg and Erie,
and other railroads. Capital, Meadville. Pop. 63,832.
Crawford, a county of Wisconsin, bordering on Iowa.
Area, 612 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the
Mississippi and on the S. E. by the Wisconsin River, and
intersected by the Kickapoo. The surface is hilly; the soil
fertile. Grain and wool are staple products. The Milwau-
kee and St. Paul R. R. connects Milwaukee with Prairie
du Chien, the capital of the county. Pop. 13,075.
Crawford, a township of Yell co., Ark. Pop. 211.
Crawford, a township of Madison co., Ia. Pop. 739.
Crawford, a twp. of Washington co., Ia. Pop. 1317.
Crawford, a township of Cherokee co., Kan. Pop. 593.
Crawford, a twp. of Crawford co., Kan. Pop. 1535.
Crawford, a post-twp of Washington co., Me. P. 209.
Crawford, a township of Buchanan co., Mo. P. 1516.
Crawford, a township of Osage co., Mo. Pop. 2438.
Crawford, a township of Orange co., N. Y., on the
Middletown and Crawford R. R. It has five churches, and
1190
CRAWFORD–CREAM RIDGE.
a. scythe-factory and other manufacturing interests. Pop.
2024. --
Crawford, a township of Currituck co., N. C. P. 1867.
Crawford, a township of Coshocton co., O. Pop. 1245.
Crawford, a township of Wyandot co., O. Pop. 1860.
Crawford, a township of Clinton co., Pa. Pop. 400.
Crawford, EARLs of (1398), earls of Balcarres (1650),
Barons Lindsay (previous to 1443), Barons Lindsay of
Balcarres (1633), Lords Lindsay and Barneil (Scotland,
1650), Barons Wigan (United Kingdom, 1826).-ALEXAN-
DER WILLIAM CRAWFORD LINDSAY, twenty-fifth earl, M.A.,
author of “Letters on Christian Art,” “Lives of the Lind-
says,” “Progression by Antagonism,” etc., born Nov. 16,
1812, succeeded his father in 1869.
Crawford (GEORGE W.), born in Columbia co., Ga., Dec.
22, 1798, graduated at Princeton in 1820, was admitted to
practise law in Georgia in 1822, was a member of Congress
in 1843, governor of Georgia (1843–47), and secretary of
war under President Taylor (1849–50).
Crawford (MARTIN J.), an eminent citizen of Georgia,
born Mar. 17, 1820, educated at Mercer University, rose to
distinction at the bar, was elected to the State legislature
in 1845, and elevated to the bench in 1853. In 1856 he was
returned to Congress, and continued in the House of Rep-
resentatives till Jan., 1861, when he withdrew on the se-
cession of Georgia, and became a member of the Congress
of the Southern States which met at Montgomery Feb. 4,
1861. He was one of the three commissioners appointed
by that body to treat with the authorities at Washington
for a peaceful separation of the States. Since the war he
has been actively engaged in the practice of his profession.
Crawford (NATHANIEL MACON), D. D., an American
Baptist minister and eminent pulpit-orator, a son of Wil-
liam H. Crawford, was born near Lexington, Ga., Mar. 22,
1811. He became in 1854 president of Mercer University
in Georgia. He was a prominent advocate of liberal edu-
cation. Died Oct. 27, 1871.
Crawford (S. WYLIE), an American officer, born in
Franklin co., Pa., Nov. 8, 1829, graduated at the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania in 1847, appointed assistant sur-
geon U. S.A. in 1851. He served principally in Texas and
New Mexico. In 1861 he was appointed major Thirteenth
Infantry U. S. A., promoted to be lieutenant-colonel Feb.
17, 1864, and colonel Sixteenth Infantry Feb. 22, 1869;
transferred to Second Infantry Mar. 15, 1869. On the out-
break of the civil war, April, 1861, Gen. Crawford was among
the garrison of Fort Sumter. He was commissioned brig-
adier-general of volunteers April, 1862, and served in the
Shenandoah campaign and with the Army of the Potomac
up to the closing scenes at Appomattox Court-house, 1865.
At Antietam, in 1862, he took command of Mansfield’s
division after the latter’s death, and was severely wounded.
Brevet-colonel, brigadier-general, and major-general U.S. A.
Retired from active service, on account of wounds re-
ceived, Feb. 19, 1873.
Crawford (THOMAs), an American sculptor, born in
New York Mar. 22, 1814. He was a pupil of Thorwald-
sen at Rome, where he worked for many years. He was
employed in 1849 by the State of Virginia to execute a
colossal equestrian statue of Washington, which is at
Richmond. Among his works are a statue of “Orpheus,”
and a colossal statue of the Genius of America, which is on
the dome of the Capitol at Washington. Died in London
Oct. 10, 1857. t
Crawford (WILLIAM HARRIs), an American statesman,
born in Amherst co., Va., Feb. 24, 1772, removed to Georgia.
in his early youth. Having studied law, he was admitted
to the bar in 1798, and settled at Lexington, Ga. He was
elected a Senator of the U. S. in 1807 by the Democrats,
and was sent as minister to France in 1813. He became
secretary of war in 1815, and was secretary of the treasury
from 1816 to Mar., 1825. In 1824 he was nominated for
the presidency of the U. S. by a Congressional caucus. In
the election of that year he had three competitors—Gen.
Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and Henry Clay. Crawford
received only forty-one electoral votes. Died Sept. 15,
1834.
Crawford County System.
HORACE GREELEY, LL.D.
Craw/fordsville, a post-village of Crawford township,
Washington co., Ia. Pop. 249.
Crawfordsville, a post-village, capital of Montgomery
co., Ind., on the Indianapolis Bloomington and Western
R. R. where it crosses the Louisville New Albany and
Chicago R. R., 44 miles W. N. W. of Indianapolis. It is
the seat of Wabash College, founded in 1835, and has a
national bank and three weekly papers. Pop. 3701.
Craw'fordville, a post-village, capital of Wakulla
§
See CAUCUs, by HoN.
co., Fla., 20 miles from Tallahassee. It has good soil and
climate, and there are several mills and valuable mineral
springs in the vicinity.
Crawfordville, a post-village, capital of Taliaferro
co., Ga., on the Georgia R. R., 65 miles W. of Augusta.
Crayfish. See CRAWFISH.
Craſyon [from the Fr. craie, “chalk”], a word of
French origin, signifying something to mark with, hence a
pencil; a cylinder of charcoal, pipeclay, or chalk colored
with various pigments and used for drawing on paper.
Cohesiveness is given to the paste of which the cylinder is
formed by gum, wax, or soap. Crayons containing plum-
bago are styled lead pencils.
Crea’gerstown, a township and post-village of Fred-
erick co., Md., 2 miles from the Western Maryland R. R.,
and about 40 miles N. W. of Baltimore. Pop. 2006.
Cream [Lat. cremor; Fr. crème : Ger. Rham], the oily
or butyraceous part of milk, which being lighter rises to
the surface. The term cream is applied in different ways
to various preparations, indicative of superior quality or
of cream-like consistence, as cold cream, shaving cream,
etc. The French expression “La crème de la crème.”
(“The cream of the cream”) signifies the most fashionable
or aristocratic class of Society.
Cream of Tartar, Acid Tartrate of Potassa,
Bitartrate of Potassa, Supertartrate of Potassa,
or Potassae Bitartras [pharm.]; chemical constitution,
KHC4H406; old system, KO, HO,(C8H4010), a compound
existing already formed in the juice of the grape and in
other vegetable juices. In the juice of the grape it is held
in solution by the saccharine matters present, but as it is
less soluble in solutions containing alcohol and less Sugar,
as the sugar is transformed into alcohol in the process of
fermentation, it is deposited in the casks, forming the crude
tartar or argol of commerce. The amount varies with the
variety of the grape, its ripeness, and with the process pur-
sued in making the wine. The well-known “crust” of
port wine is simply a deposit of this crude tartar or argol.
Cream of tartar was known to the ancients, the Greek
name for it being Tpſº, while the Latin term was faca, vini.
Up to 1764 it was considered to be an acid, and even in
1781 it was denominated in the Prussian Pharmacopoeia as
acidum tartari. Marggraf, however, showed in 1764 that
the alkali existed in it already, and was not formed by in-
cinerating it, as had been previously supposed. Argol is
an article of export from wine-producing countries, the
best qualities coming from Italy and the south of France.
It is used as the source of tartaric acid and the various tar-
trates employed in medicine and the arts.
Argol, as met with in commerce, is of two kinds—red
and white, according as it has been deposited in the manu-
facture of red or white wines, some of the coloring-mat-
ter of the wine always existing in it. It contains from 5
to 45 per cent. of tartrate of lime, besides other impurities
derived from the wine. It is refined by treatment with
boiling water, in which the cream of tartar is quite solu-
ble. The water being then cooled or evaporated, the Salt
crystallizes out; it is then redissolved in water, 4 or 5 per
cent. of pipeclay added to the solution to precipitate theim-
purities, the liquid drawn off and evaporated. Thus pre-
pared, it consists of colorless rhombic crystals, which usu-
ally contain 2 to 5 per cent. of tartrate of lime, besides, in
some cases, traces of iron and copper. In damp situa-
tions the tartrate of lime is apt to change to the carbonate,
and hence is objectionable, both in the crude and the re-
fined article.
Cream of tartar has a pleasant acid taste, and is soluble
in about 15 parts of boiling and 240 parts of cold water.
It is much more soluble in water containing borax in Solu-
tion. It is frequently adulterated with sawdust, clay, gyp-
sum, flour, chalk, alum, and sulphate of potash. Samples pur-
chased from several grocers in New York in 1872 were found
to contain considerable proportions of gypsum or sulphate
of lime, in one case 70 per cent. Cream of tartar is ex-
tensively used, in connection with bicarbonate of Soda, as
a substitute for yeast and leaven for raising bread. (See
BREAD.) Cream of tartar is often used as a mordant in
dyeing wool. In medicine it is used for its cathartic, diu-
retic, and refrigerant properties. It is frequently prescribed
in combination with senna, sulphur, or jalap. It is also
used for the preparation of soluble tartar (neutral tartrate
of potash), Rochelle or Seignette salts (tartrate of potash
and soda), tartar emetic (tartrate of potash and antimony),
tartarized iron (tartrate of potash and iron), white and
black flux, etc. Salt of tartar is the carbonate of potassa,
prepared by the incineration of cream of tartar.
C. F. CHANDLER.
Cream Ridge, a post-township of Livingston co., Mo.
Pop. 956.
CREASY-CREED.
Crea’sy (Sir EDw ARD SHEPHERD), an English historian
and lawyer, born at Bixley, in Kent, in 1812. He became
professor of history in University College, London, in 1850,
and was appointed chief-justice of Ceylon in 1860. Among
his works are “Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World”
(1851) and a “History of England” (5 vols., 1869–70).
Cre/atine [from the Gr. kpéas, “flesh”], a neutral prin-
ciple discovered in 1835 by Chevreul in raw muscular flesh,
and afterwards carefully studied by Liebig and others.
Anhydrous creatine has the formula C4H9N3O2. Creatine is
found in the flesh of many if not all vertebrate animals,
but is now generally considered to be one of the products
of the normal destruction of the tissues. It occurs in the
urine. Combined with two equivalents of water, it readily
forms brilliant, colorless, transparent crystals, soluble in
Water.
Creat’inine, a powerful organic base or alkaloid
(C4H1N30) which exists in small quantities in the juice
of animal flesh and in urine, as one of the products of the
physiological destruction of tissues. When creatine is sub-
jected to the action of strong acids, it is changed to crea-
tinine, which is crystallized in colorless rhombic prisms.
Crea/tionism, as distinguished from TRADUCIANISM
and the doctrine of PRE-EXISTENCE (which see), is the be-
lief that the human soul is directly created by God, and
that it joins the embryo soon after conception. Many pas-
sages of Scripture, of the Fathers, and of Aristotle were
quoted to sustain this view.
Crébillon, de (PROSPER JolyoT), a French dramatic
poet, was born at Dijon Jan. 13, 1674. He produced in
1705 “Idomenée,” in 1707 “Atrée,” “Rhadamiste” in 1711,
and “Pyrrhus ” in 1726, after which he wrote nothing for
twenty years. He was admitted into the French Academy
in 1731. His genius was hampered by poverty. Among
his later works is “Catilina’’ (1749). Died June 17, 1762.
He is ranked among French dramatists of the first order.
(See D’ALEMBERT, “Eloge de Crébillon.”)—His son, CLAUDE
PROSPER JOLYOT DE CRíBILLON, fils, romancist, is known as
one of the most libertine writers of a most dissolute age.
Crécy, a small town of France, department of Somme,
about 12 miles N. of Abbeville. It was the scene of a
signal victory gained by Edward III. with 40,000 English
soldiers over a French army of 100,000 on the 26th of Aug.,
1346. It is stated that nearly 30,000 of the French were
killed in this action.
Creden’tials [from the Late Lat. credentia, “evidence,”
“trust” (from credo, to “believe”); Fr. lettres de créance],
papers or letters given to an ambassador or other diplo-
matic agent, in order to enable him to claim the confidence
of the court to which he is sent. There are two sorts of
credentials—the one sealed, drawn up and countersigned by
the minister of foreign affairs; the other open, and signed
only by the king.
Cre'di, di (LORENzo ScLARPELLONI), an Italian painter,
born at Florence in 1452. He was a fellow-pupil of Leo-
nardo da Vinci. Grace and depth of feeling mark his pic-
tures. Died Jan. 12, 1537.
Cred/it [Lat. creditum, a “trust,” from credo, creditum,
to “trust,” to “believe,” to “lend;” Fr. crédit], belief, re-
liance, reputation for solvency and probity; honor or es-
teem; influence of a good character. In bookkeeping,
credit, abbreviated as Cr., is the reverse of debit, and de-
notes in personal accounts those items or values received
from the party named at the head of the account. The term
credit or creditor is also applied to the side of an account-
book on which are entered all moneys, goods, etc. received
by the party that keeps the book. In political economy,
credit is used to express the lending of money or other prop-
erty. The party who lends money or sells goods to be paid
for at some future time is said to give credit, which is
sometimes defined to be the acquisition by one party of the
Wealth of another in loan. In a majority of cases loans are
made by persons who wish to retire from business, or who
have more capital than they can advantageously employ,
to parties entering into business or who wish to increase their
business. “Public credit” is a phrase used to express the
general confidence placed in the Solvency of a state, and in
its fidelity as well as its ability to pay its debts, or at least
the interest on the same. (See PoliticAL ECONOMY.)
Crédit Foncier [i. e. “landed credit,” from fond,
“bottom * or “ground "j, in France, a plan of borrowing
money by mortgaging land (for a sum not exceeding half
its value), and repaying the borrowed money and interest
in small and regular instalments. The Crédit Foncier was
established Feb. 28, 1852.
Credit, Letters of. See LETTERs of CREDIT.
Crédit Mobilier (i.e. “credit on movable or personal
1.191
property”), a name given to a gigantic scheme or joint-
stock company which originated in France in 1852, and
was sanctioned by the government, with a capital of
60,000,000 francs. The objects of it are—1. To initiate
trading enterprises of all kinds on the principle of limited
liability; 2. To supersede or buy up trading companies—
e.g. railway companies—and to substitute scrip and shares
of its own for the shares and bonds of the company; and
3. To carry on the business of a bank or bankers on the
principle of limited liability. (See AYCARD, “Histoire de
Crédit Mobilier,” 1867.) -
“THE CREDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA’’ is the title of an
organization chartered in Pennsylvania in 1859 as a cor-
poration for a general loan and contract business, and re-
organized in 1864 with the intention, it would appear, of
enabling the shareholders of the Union Pacific R. R. to
construct their road without incurring any pecuniary lia-
bility in case of the failure of the enterprise. To this end
the Credit Mobilier was to contract for the construction of
the road at the risk of its own stockholders. The honesty
of its management having been impeached, the affairs of
the Credit Mobilier received (1872–73) an investigation
from Congress, certain members of which were charged
with having unlawfully profited by the enterprise.
Credit River, a township of Scott co., Minn. P. 448.
Creed [from the Lat. credo, to “believe;” Fr. croyance;
Ger. Glaube], a term originally signifying “belief,” but
commonly applied to a statement or profession of funda-
mental points of belief [Lat. 84/mbolum ; Fr. 83/mbole or
profession de foi; Ger. Glaubensbekentniss], especially ap-
plied to summaries of Christian doctrine. The Protestant
churches agree in considering creeds mere standards of
belief, the Bible alone affording authoritative rules of faith
and practice, but they differ in their estimate of the im-
portance of symbols. Among the more important creeds
are the following:
The Apostles' Creed, a summary of the Christian faith
which most Christian churches accept. Many ancient
writers assert that this was composed by the apostles them-
selves, before they separated after our Lord’s ascension;
but this tradition is now almost universally rejected. The
substance of it is no doubt very ancient, but in its present
form it dates from the fourth century. ... *
The Athanasian Creed, once supposed to be the work of
Athanasius, was certainly composed by some other hand.
It probably originated in Gaul, not far from the middle of
the fifth century, but its author is not known. It is now
omitted from the services of the Protestant Episcopal Church
in America, but it is still read in the Church of England.
The Niceno-Constantinopolitan (or Nicene) Creed was
first adopted at the Council of Nice, 325 A.D. This creed
sets forth the faith of the Church in respect to the errors
of Arianism. It is admitted by many Protestant churches,
and is held as authority in the Roman and Greek churches.
The form in which the Nicene Creed now appears in the
Anglican prayer-books is essentially identical with the
modified form of this creed adopted by the second oecu-
menical council of Constantinople, 381 A. D., with the ad-
dition of “and of the Son,” made at Toledo in 589. The
above formulas are known as the three catholic or general
creeds, because they are received by the Greek and Roman
churches, as well as by several Protestant bodies. •
The Creed of Chalcedon was an exposition of faith de-
clared by the fourth oecumenical council, held A. D. 451
at Chalcedon. It embraced the Niceno-Constantinopolitan
Creed, followed by a statement of the doctrine of Christ's
Person. -
The so-called Creed of Pope Pius IV. is a statement of
the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, as established
by the Council of Trent. It was issued in 1564 by Pius
IV. as a bull. It is slightly altered from the Nicene Creed
in the first part, but is much more complicated, and especi-
ally enforces the doctrine of transubstantiation. It is some-
times called the “Tridentine Profession.”
The Greek Church has no symbolical books, strictly
speaking, but approves the “Answers of the Patriarch
Jeremiah to the Lutherans” (1574–81), the “Orthodox
Confession of Peter Mogila’’ (1643), and the “Eighteen
Articles of the Synod of Bethlehem’’ (1672).
The Russian Church, in addition to its use of the above-
mentioned documents, has of its own : (1) the “Primer for
Children” (1720); (2, 3) the “Shorter” and “Longer Cate-
chisms” (1839); (4) the “Treatise on the Duty of Parish
Priests” (1776).
The Lutheran Church has had many creeds and confes-
sions. Besides the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian
Creeds, may be mentioned the Augsburg Confession (1530),
the Articles of Schmalcald (1537), the Catéchisms of Luther
*The term “mobilier” is especially applied to stocks, govern-
ment securities, and the like.
1.192
CREEDMOOR-CREOSOTE.
(1529), the Confession of Lower Saxony (1571), the Sua-
bian-Saxon Formula (1575), the Torgau Formula (1576),
and the Formula Concordiae (1580).
The Calvinistic Confessions of Bàle (1530), the Tetrapol-
itan Confession (1531), that of the Helvetic churches (1536),
the Palatine Catechism (1563), the “Expositio Simplex”
(1566), the “Formula Consensus” (1675), the Gallican Con-
fession (1559), the Belgic Confession (1559–61), the Scot-
tish Confession of 1560, and the great Westminster Con-
fession (1646), and Catechisms (Shorter, 1647; Larger,
1648), are among the most important Protestant symbols.
The articles held by the Congregationalists and Baptists
are based upon the Westminster Confession.
The Church of England receives the three catholic creeds
and the “Thirty-nine Articles.” The Anglican Creed at
first (1552) consisted of forty-two Articles; in 1562 it was
reduced to thirty-eight; and finally in 1571 it was put
forth in its present form. A modification of these articles
is received by the Protestant Episcopal Church in the U. S.
The “Articles" of the Methodist Episcopal Church are also
based upon the “Thirty-nine Articles.”
Creed/moor, a station on the Central R. R. of Long Isl-
and, 11 miles E. of New York City, in Queens co., N. Y.,
has the largest and most complete rifle-range in the U. S.,
and is much frequented for target-practice. The range is
under the control of an incorporated association, and was
established in 1871, chiefly at the expense of the State and
the cities of New York and Brooklyn.
Creek, a township of Dewitt co., III. Pop. 1022.
Creek Indians, a tribe of American savages formerly
living in Alabama, and Georgia, were sometimes called Mus-
cogees. They were numerous and warlike. . In 1814 they
waged war against the U. S., and were subdued by Gen.
Jackson. In 1832 they ceded their lands to the U. S., and
subsequently removed to the Indian Territory beyond the
Mississippi. They are now in a condition of advancing
civilization, and numbered in 1872, 12,295.
Creep'er [named from the movements of the bird], a
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Creeper.
popular name for several passerine birds of the genus Cer-
thia and other allied genera. The best-known North Amer-
ican species are the brown creeper (Certhia Americana)
and the Certhia albifrons of the South-western States. They
belong to the family Certhiadae.
Creery (WILLIAM R.), born in Baltimore, Md., in 1824,
graduated at Dickinson College in 1842, taught in the Bal-
timore schools (1842–48 and 1862–68), was professor of belles-
lettres in Baltimore City College (1854–59), president of
Lutherville Female Seminary (1859–62), and in 1868 be-
came superintendent of public instruction in Baltimore.
In conjunction with Prof. M. A. Newell, he has prepared
the Maryland series of school-books.
Cre/feld, a manufacturing town of Rhenish Prussia, is
13 miles N. W. of Düsseldorf, on the railway to Cologne.
It is well built, and has more extensive manufactures of
silk than any other town in Prussia. Here are also manu-
factures of cotton, linen, and woollen fabrics, lace, earthen-
ware, etc. Pop. in 1871, 57,128.
Creigh/ton (J. BLAKELEY), U. S. N., born Nov. 12,
1822, in Rhode Island, entered the navy as a midshipman
Feb. 10, 1838, became a passed midshipman in 1844, a lieu-
tenant in 1853, a commander in 1862, and a captain in 1868.
In 1862 he commanded the steamer Ottawa, South Atlantic
blockading squadron. In 1863, while commanding the
steamer Mahaska, he participated in several engagements
with the forts and batteries of Charleston harbor.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Cre/ma, a town of Italy, province of Cremona, on the
river Serio, 24 miles E. of Milan. It was founded by the
Longobards in the sixth century. It is well built, is enclosed
by a wall, and has an old castle and a cathedral; also man-
ufactures of silk and lace. Pop. 8075.
Cremation. See FUNERAL RITEs.
Cre/mer (JACOB John), a Dutch novelist, born Sept. 1,
1827, studied painting, but devoted himself to literature.
His “Betuwsche Novellen '' (sketches of Dutch life) have
been followed by “Anna Roose,” “Dr. Helmond,” and others.
Crémieux (ISAAC ADoDPHE), a French advocate and
republican, born of Jewish parents at Nîmes April 30,
1796. He practised as an advocate in the court of cassa-
tion in Paris. In 1842 he was elected a member of the
Chamber of Deputies, in which he acted with the radical
party. He was minister of justice in the provisional gov-
ernment (1848), and retired from office in June. He was a
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§ several hospitals. Here are manufactures of silk and cotton
member of the National Assembly in 1849–50. In Sept.,
1870, he became minister of justice after the deposition of
Napoleon III. As president of the Universal Israelite
Alliance of Paris he has displayed a remarkable activity in
behalf of the Jews all over the world.
Cremºnitz, a Hungarian town, in Bars, in a gold and
silver mining region. It has a mint and paper and vitriol
works. Pop. 8442.
Cremo'na, a province of Italy, bounded on the N. by
the provinces of Bérgamo and Brescia, W. by Milan, S. by
Area,
670 square miles. The soil is fruitful, producing grain,
maize, rice, flax, wine, olives, etc. Capital, Cremona. Pop.
in 1871, 300,595. 4:
Cremona, a city of Italy, capital of the above prov-
ince, in Lombardy, on the Po, here crossed by a bridge, 47
miles S. E. of Milan. It is surrounded by walls, is well
built, with wide streets, and has handsome palaces and a
cathedral. Connected with the cathedral is a belfry called
// Torazzo, 372 feet high, completed in 1284, and one of the
most beautiful towers in Italy. Cremona is a bishop’s see, and
§ has a city hall, two theatres, a lyceum, a public library, and
§ fabrics, porcelain, and chemical products. It was formerly
celebrated for the violins of Amati (1590–1620), of Guarneri,
and of Stradivari (1670–1728). Cremona was a populous
town during the ancient Roman empire. Pop. 30,919.
Crenelle, or Cremel, a term used sometimes to denote
a battlement, but more frequently an embrasure in a battle-
ment. The word crenellated is employed to signify that a
building is supplied with crenelles.
Cren’shaw, a county in the S. of Alabama. Area,
550 square miles. It is intersected by the Patsaliga River.
The surface is nearly level. Corn, cotton, rice, and wool
are raised. Capital, Rutledge. Pop. 11,156. *
Crenshaw (ANDERSON) was born in South Carolina, but
removed early to Alabama, where he held positions respect-
- ively as a judge of the circuit court, as a judge of the su-
}. court, and as chancellor of the southern division.
e died in 1847.-WALTER H. CRENSHAw, son of Anderson
Crenshaw, came to the House in 1838, and served from
that time to 1867 in one or the other branch of the legis-
lature of Alabama, and was never defeated.
Creſole [Sp. criollo, from eriar, to “create,” to “be.
get;” also to “nurse;” originally, a “child’’ or “nursling.”
a “descendant”], a native of the West Indies or South
America who is descended from Europeans. The term is
sometimes incorrectly applied to those whose ancestors
were partly white, and have in their veins some blood of
the Indians or negroes.
Cre/osote [Lat. creasotum, from the Gr. ºpéas, “flesh.”


































CRERTON.—CRETE.
1193
and a digo, to “save,” referring to its antiseptic qualities], a
colorless, syrupy liquid obtained for commercial purposes
chiefly from the tar of beech-wood. It has a great refrac.
tive power, and a density of 1.037. It boils at 397°F. Its
taste is peculiar, and almost insupportable when placed
even in a minute quantity upon the tongue. It has an odor
resembling that of smoked meats, which doubtless owe
their preservation to its presence in the smoke they absorb.
Creosote is sparingly soluble in water, but readily so in
ether and alcohol. It is generally adulterated in commerce
with a large percentage of phenol (see CARBOLIC ACID),
which can with difficulty be detected. The medical prop-
erties of true wood-creosote are doubtless important, but
have not been sufficiently studied. It is employed in tooth-
ache, in obstinate vomiting,and as an outward application in
cancer. In an over-dose it is an irritant poison, for which
no antidote is known. Distilled with dilute sulphuric acid
it yields creosol, C8H10O2. -
Crer/ton, a township of Sumpter co., Ala. Pop. 1562.
Crescenſdo [from the It. cresco, to “grow,” to “in-
crease "I, in music, signifies a gradual increasing of Sound,
or changing from piano to forte and fortissimo. It is
marked thus – , or with the abbreviation cresc. The
swell of a good organ produces a most perfect crescendo.
Cres/cent [from the Lat. cresco, to “grow ’’ or “in-
crease ’’l, the figure of the new moon. The term is often
used as an emblem of progress. It is generally supposed
to be the “arms” of the Turkish empire, but it is more
properly the “emblem” of that empire. It was used by
the Greeks, and was the symbol of the Byzantine people
before it was adopted by the Turks.
Crescent, a township of Del Norte co., Cal. Pop. 977.
Crescent, a township of Pottawattamie co., Ia. Pop.
1117.
Crescent, a township of Alleghany co., Pa. Pop. 364.
Crescent City, the capital of Del Norte co., Cal., is on
the Pacific Ocean, about 260 miles N. N. W. of Sacramento.
It has a small but safe harbor, and a lighthouse in lat. 41°
44' 34" N., lon. 124° 11' 22" W., with a flashing white light.
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 458.
Crescenºzi, de” (PIETRo), an Italian senator, born at
Bologna in 1230. He wrotein Latin a treatise on rural econ-
omy (“Opus Ruralium Commodorum ”), the fruit of long
travel and observation and the origin of agricultural science.
Died in 1307. -
Cres’co, a post-village, capital of Howard co., Ia., on
the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., 19 miles N. W. of Cal-
mar. It has five churches, a union school, two newspapers,
two foundries, and other manufactories, and shipped in
1872, 378,000 bushels of wheat. Pop. 912.
W. R. MEAD, ED. “Iow A PLAIN DEALER.”
Cresco, a township and village of Kossuth co., Ia. The
village is on the Des Moines Valley R. R., 20 miles N. of
Dakota. Pop. 309.
Cres'kill, a post-village of Bergen co., N.J., on the
Northern R. R. of New Jersey, 17 miles N. of Jersey City
and 2% miles W. of the Palisades of the Hudson. It is finely
situated, and has two parks and a fine railroad station.
Cre’sol [a term which appears to be derived from the
first syllable of “creosote” and the first syllable of the Lat.
oleum, “oil”], called also Cresyi'ic Ac/id and Cres’yl
A1/cohol, a compound (C7H80) derived from coal-tar or
from wood-tar by fractional distillation. Most of the CAR-
BoLIC ACID (which see) of commerce contains a large per-
centage of cresol. It combines with alkalies, like its ana-
logue phenol, and hence is by some called an acid: it is
isomeric with benzyl alcohol, and is itself properly one of
the alcohols. It refracts light strongly, and boils at 397°
E. It is sold in large quantities as “carbolic acid,” and
used as a disinfectant.
Cress, a name popularly applied to many cruciferous
plants having a pungent taste and used in salads. The
garden cress (Lepidium sativum) is an annual, a native
of Asia. It is easily raised by a little artificial heat in
winter. It is antiscorbutic. The bitter cress or cuckoo
flower (Cardamine pratensis) is common in moist meadows
in Great Britain. The flowers are white or light purple,
and have stimulant and diaphoretic properties. They had
once a reputation for the cure of epilepsy, particularly in
children. This plant is also a native of America, like many
of the other cresses. The young leaves of this species, as
well as of Cardamine amara and Cardamine hirsuta, both
British, and the latter American, are used as salads in Eu-
rope. The juice of Cardamine pratensis is much used as
an antiscorbutic in the north of Europe. Water-cress
(Nasturtium officinale) is a perennial, aquatic, cruciferous
plant, used as a spring Salad, and is a native of almost all
parts of the world. It grows best in shallow running water,
with a bottom of sand. Mud is injurious to its growth and
flavor. It is often cultivated and brought to market in
America and Europe.
Cres’son, a post-village of Cambria co., Pa., on the
Pennsylvania. R. R., 252 miles W. by N. from Philadelphia,
and 102 miles E. of Pittsburg, at the junction of the Ebens-
burg branch. It is beautifully situated on the top of the
Alleghany Mountain, about 3000 feet above the level of the
sea. It is a fashionable place of summer resort, and is com-
mended for the purity of its air.
Cresso/ma, a post-borough of Schuylkill co., Pa., on
the Mine Hill and Schuylkill Haven R. R., about 5 miles
S. of Pottsville. Pop. 1507.
Cressy, in France. See CRáCY.
Crest, in heraldry, the ornament affixed to the helmet,
being a personal or hereditary device. Warriors bore in-
signia peculiar to themselves in this manner among the
ancients. The earliest instance of the heraldic crest in
England is said to have been that of Edmund Crouchback,
earl of Lancaster, about 1280. The crest is in modern
blazonry a figure placed upon a wreath, coronet, or cap of
maintenance, which surmounts the coat-of-arms.
Crest, a town of France, department of Drôme, on the
river Drôme, 14 miles S. S. E. of Valence. It has manu-
factures of silk fabrics and cotton prints. Pop. 5351.
Crest/line, a post-village of Crawford co., 0., on the
Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R. where it crosses
the Cleveland Columbus and Cincinnati R. R., 63 miles N.
by E. from Columbus. It is the terminus of the B. and I.
R. R. Here are extensive shops of the railroads; also
lock-works and other manufactories, a fine park, a splendid
public-school building, six churches, waterworks, and two
weekly newspapers. Pop. 2279.
A. BILLow, PROP. “CRESTLINE ADvoCATE.”
Creston, a post-village of Ogle co., Ill. It is a station
on the Chicago and North-western R. R., 70 miles W. of
Chicago, and has one weekly newspaper.
Cres/ton, a post-village of Union co., Ia., on the Bur-
lington and Missouri River R. R., 190 miles W. of Burling-
ton. Here are the engine-houses and repair-shops of the
railroad company. It has three weekly newspapers. P. 411.
Cresſwell, a township of Cowley co., Kan. Pop. 214.
Creswell (John A. J.), an American lawyer, born at
Port Deposit, Md., Nov. 18, 1828. He was chosen a Re-
publican member of Congress in 1862, and a Senator of the
U. S. for a short term in 1865. In Mar., 1869, he was ap-
pointed postmaster-general of the U. S. He resigned in
Mar., 1873, and was then reappointed.
Cres’ wick (THOMAs), an English landscape-painter,
born at Sheffield in 1811. He became an associate of the
Royal Academy in 1842. He painted British scenery with
success. Among his works are “The Weald of Kent,” a
“Shady Glen,” and “Wind on Shore.” Died Dec. 28, 1869.
Cresylic Alcohol, or Cresylic Acid. See CRESOL.
Creſta [the Latin for “chalk,” originally signifying
“Cretan earth’], a pharmaceutical name for chalk (native
carbonate of lime) and for the precipitated carbonate of
lime. The former is more generally used. The chalk is
powdered, washed, and dried, and is then known as creta
praeparata (“prepared chalk”), an excellent antacid rem-
edy. Creta præcipitata (the chemically-prepared chalk) is
more finely divided. (See CHALK.)
Creta/ceous [from the Lat. creta, “chalk”] Sys'-
tem, in geology, a name applied to the last-formed or up-
permost rocks of the secondary or mesozoic period. It
takes its name from the chalk, which in Europe is one of
the characteristic rocks of the lower strata of this system.
Next below the cretaceous lie the Jurassic rocks, and next
above come those of the eocene period, which are the oldest
of tertiary rocks. Cretaceous beds abound in the U. S.;
and on the great plains and on both sides of the Rocky
Mountains they are immensely developed, and contain
great beds of valuable lignitic coal, which, however, is by
some referred to the tertiary, or to a transition group be-
tween the cretaceous and the eocene.
Crete, or Can'dia [Gr. Kpºrm; Turk. Kiridi), a large
and famous island of the Mediterranean, is between lat.
34°57' and 35° 41' N., and lon. 23° 29' and 26° 20' E. It
is 150 miles long, and from 6 to 35 miles wide. The sur-
face is mountainous. Mount Ida rises near the middle of
the island to the height of 7674 feet. Numerous caverns
occur here, and an extensive one near Mount Ida is fabled
to have been that which was anciently the retreat of the
Minotaur. Among the minerals are limestone and slate.
The chief productions of Crete are cotton, tobacco, olive
oil, grapes, oranges, lemons, wine, silk, and wool. The
population in ancient times is believed to have amounted
1194
CRETE–CRICHTON.
to 1,200,000, and at the time when it was acquired by the
Venetians, to 500,000; it is now estimated at 210,000, of
whom about 50,000 are Mohammedans, nearly all the others
being Christians belonging to the Greek Church, which has
eight bishops in the island.
History.—Crete is by some historians considered the
cradle of the civilization brought to Europe by the Phoe-
nicians and Egyptians. According to tradition, Minos, a
celebrated legislator, reigned over this island before the
beginning of the historical period. In the time of Homer,
Crete had a dense population of the Hellenic race, and
contained a great number of flourishing cities.
visited by the apostle Paul, who planted a church in it.
The Venetians became masters of this island in 1204. The
Turks conquered it from the Venetians in 1669. In 1866
the Christian inhabitants revolted against the Turks, and
demanded annexation to the kingdom of Greece. This war
excited much sympathy among Christian nations, but the
Cretains were subdued in 1869.
Crete, a township and post-village of Will co., Ill.,
about 34 miles S. of Chicago. Pop. 1468.
Crete, a city, capital of Saline co., Neb., on the Bur-
lington and Missouri R. R., at the junction of the Beatrice
branch, 20 miles from Lincoln. It has four churches, seve-
ral manufactories, and one weekly paper, and is the seat
of Doane College.
Creſtin [Fr. crétin], a person affected with CRETINISM
(which see).
Crétineau-Joly (JACQUES), a French author, born
Sept. 23, 1803, at Fontenay, studied theology in Paris, and
wrote a number of works in defence of the interests of
royalty and the Catholic Church. He is best known by his
“History of the Jesuits” (6 vols., 1844–46), an elaborate
work in defence of that order. Among his other works are
“Histoire de la Vendée Militaire’’ (4 vols., 5th ed. 1864),
“Histoire de Louis Philippe” (2 vols., 1861–63), “Le Pape
Clément XIV.” (1853), “Le Cardinal Consalvi" (1864).
Cret/inism. [Fr. crétinisme ; etymology uncertain], a
name applied to epidemic idiocy or defective mentality,
usually associated with physical deformity and moral de-
basement. It is frequently hereditary, and is almost al-
ways found in connection with goitre. It prevails espe-
cially in deep alpine valleys, not only in Switzerland and
Italy, but in the Pyrenees and Himalayas. It is also
found in China, and in Bengal is frequent on calcareous
plains. In Europe it is seldom found at a higher elevation
than 3000 feet. Cretins are often very repulsive, dirty, and
shameless, their appetite voracious, the mouth large and
open, the eyes Small and usually crossed, the nose flat and
broad, the skull wide at the top, with a narrow base, and
the forehead retreating. The complexion is cadaverous,
the limbs rachitic, the whole body dwarfish except the
hands and feet, which are large. Cretinism is a physical
degeneration, caused by defective nutrition, bad ventila-
tion, lack of sunlight, and especially by calcareous matter
taken into the system in drinking-water. Like goitre, it
is said to prevail especially where magnesian limestone
abounds. Cretinism is often incomplete. The institution
founded by Guggenbühl on the Abendberg in Switzerland
has been the model for many others for the improvement
of cretins and other idiots. (See IDIOCY, by HERVEY B.
WILBUR, M.D.)
Creſtius (KONSTANTIN), a German artist, born Jan. 6,
1814, studied with König. He has treated South European
peasant-life and later history, especially the Cromwellian
period. A seriousness of composition in his works and
excellent coloring are to be remarked.
Creuse, a department near the centre of France, has
an area of 2151 square miles. The surface is mostly moun-
tainous; the soil in some parts is thin and poor. The
principal mineral productions are coal and salt. The rear-
ing of cattle is one of the chief branches of industry. This
is one of the poorest departments of France. Capital,
Guéret. Pop. 274,057.
Creu'zer (GEORGE FRIEDRICH), a learned German phi-
lologist and antiquary, born at Marburg Mar. 10, 1771.
. He became professor of philology and ancient history at
Heidelberg in 1804, and retained that position for forty-
four years. His principal work is his “Symbolism and
Mythology of Ancient Peoples, especially the Greeks” (4
vols. 8vo, 1810–12). He ascribed to the pagan myths a
mystical significance and a supernatural origin. The old
poet Voss, in “Antisymbolik,” contested the theory, and a
lively controversy ensued. He edited the Oxford Plotinus
(3 vols., 1835). Died Feb. 16, 1858. (See CREUZER's
autobiography, “Aus dem Leben eines alten Professors,”
1847.)
Creuzot, Le, a town of France, department of Sãone-
Crete was
et-Loire, 12 miles S. S. E. of Autun. It is situated in the
midst of rich mines of coal and iron, and has extensive
blast-furnaces, iron-foundries, machine-shops, and glass-
works. Cannon, anchors, steam-engines, etc. are made
here. This town has increased rapidly in recent times. P.
23,872.
Crevasse [a French word signifying a “crevice ’’ or
“crack,” from crever, to “burst,” to “break,” to “split”],
a breach in the dike or embankment of a river, as in the
levees of the Mississippi. Crevasses are sometimes caused
by the burrowing of crawfishes and other animals, and are
frequently very destructive. The name is also given to the
fissures in glaciers. (See LEVEEs.)
Crew, in nautical language, is the company of persons
employed in a ship, but the name is mostly limited to sea-
men and non-commissioned officers. There are upwards
of eighty different grades or offices among the crew of the
largest war-steamers. Besides the regular crew there are
minor groups of workmen, such as the cooper's, carpenter’s,
Sailmaker’s crew, etc. In England the master of a mer-
chant-ship, before starting on a voyage, is obliged to send
a list of his crew to the customs comptroller at the port
of departure, and a similar list within forty-eight hours
after his return. This, however, is required of the masters
of coasting vessels only twice a year. The number of
hands in large sea-going steamers is relatively great, owing
to the duties relating to the machinery, a steamer of a
thousand tons sometimes requiring sixty or seventy hands.
American ships carry smaller crews for their tonnage than
those of other nations. This is regarded as a cause of
many shipwrecks. - *
Crewe, a town of England, in Cheshire, 34 miles S. E.
of Liverpool. It is a central station of five important rail-
ways, and has shops for the manufacture and repair of rail-
way-carriages. Pop. 8159.
Crib'bage [from crib, as used in the game], a popular
game at cards, usually played by two persons. The game
is sixty-one points, which are scored with pegs on a board
called a cribbage-board having sixty-one holes on each
side. In the U. S. the game, when two or four play, is
decided by the winning of two out of three legs. Where
three play, the first out in a double circuit of the board is
the winner. When cribbage is played by three persons
a three-cornered board is used. In this case each player
receives five cards, and an extra card is dealt, which is
added to the crib. When four persons play each has a part-
ner, and each receives five cards, of which he discards one to
form the crib. When only two persons play, six cards are
dealt to each player, and each discards two, to form what
is called the crib, which belongs to the dealer. The pack is
then cut, and the dealer turns up a card, called the turn-up,
which is reckoned in scoring as belonging to all the hands
and the crib. The cards held in the hands are then played
alternately, counting the pips (for every court card ten) up
to thirty-one, for which two is scored to the person playing
the card that makes it, and scoring in the same way for
every combination made according to any of the following
rules: Any combination of cards the united pips of which
make up fifteen scores two points. A sequence in rank
(without regard to suit) of three or more cards scores one
for each card. Two similar cards of different suits (as two
fives or two knaves) form a pair, and score two ; three
form a pair-royal, and four a double pair-royal, scoring re-
spectively six and twelve. When the cards are all played
each hand is counted by itself, according to the same rules.
For example, a hand containing two sevens, an eight, and
a nine, with an eight turned up, would score twenty-four:
four fifteens (produced by the different combinations of
eight and seven) = 8; four sequences of three each = 12;
two pairs = 4. If the cards in either hand, or the cards in
the crib and turn-up, are all of the same suit, it is called a
flush, and one is scored for each card. If a knave of the
same suit as the turn-up be in either hand or in the crib,
the holder scores one; when the turn-up is a knave the
dealer scores two. During the play, when it is found im-
possible to count to thirty-one without passing that limit,
it is called a go, and the last player scores one.
Crichſton (JAMEs), called THE ADMIRABLE CRICHTON,
born in Perthshire in 1551 or 1560, was a son of Robert
Crichton, lord advocate of Scotland. Educated at St.
Andrew’s, before he was twenty he had run through the
entire circle of the sciences. He could speak in ten lan-
guages, and was adroit in all mainly accomplishments. He
journeyed through Europe about 1580, challenging all
scholars to a learned disputation in any of twelve tongues.
He vanquished all the doctors of all the universities; more-
over, he disarmed the most famous swordsman of the time
in fencing, and by his grace and manly beauty his amorous
triumphs were not less distinguished. He found his death in
1583, at the hands of his pupil Vincentio, son of Gonzago, the
CRICKET--CRIME.
1195
duke of Mantua, a dissolute youth whom he had roughly
jostled in a carnival encounter. Unmasking on discover-
ing his young opponent, he presented his sword and bared
his breast, and the brutal stripling stabbed him. “He was,”
says Scaliger, “a man of very wonderful genius, more
worthy of admiration than esteem.” The stories of his ac-
complishments are no doubt exaggerated. (See P. F. TYT-
LER, “Life of the Admirable Crichton,” 1823.)
Crick’et [probably so called from the sound they pro-
duce], the popular name of certain orthopterous insects,
nearly allied to locusts and grasshoppers, the type of the
family Achetidae. The wings, being horizontially folded,
form a slender point beyond the wing-covers. In virtue of
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Field Cricket.
a peculiar formation of the wing-covers, and by their fric-
tion, the males produce that stridulous sound by which
these insects are so well known. Of the typical genus
Acheta the U. S. have several species, including the com-
mon black cricket (Acheta abbreviata). The common Amer-
ican mole-cricket (Gryllotalpa brevipennis) has wings shorter
than the mole-crickets of Europe. The mole-crickets con-
struct chambers for their eggs beneath the surface of the
earth, and the passages leading to these cells are long and
tortuous, like those of the mole. The climbing crickets
(OEcanthus) are represented in the U. S. by several species.
They are often found upon weeds and shrubs.
Cricket [etymologically related to the word crook, it
having been formerly played with a crooked stick for a bat],
a sport well known as one of the national games of Eng-
land, is of unknown though ancient date. It has become
popular in England within the present century. It is
played upon a tract of level, grassy ground, and requires
players sufficient to form two sides of eleven, or twenty-
two each. The variety of the game known as “double
wicket” is that which is generally played, requiring two
sets of wickets and bails, two bats and a ball. “Single
wicket” may be played by a less number of persons. When
a match is to be played, they first “pitch” the wickets,
which are wooden frames of three uprightsticks or “stumps”
twenty-seven inches high. Two horizontal pieces of wood
called “bails” are placed on the top of each wicket. The
wickets are twenty-two yards apart. The players first toss
for first innings, and the director of one side places a batter
at each wicket; a wicket-keeper, a bowler, a “long-stop,”
and fielders are placed in position by the director of the
other side. The object of the bowler is so to direct his ball
towards the opposite wickets as to knock off the bails or
strike down the stumps or upright rods, while the batter's
object is to protect his wicket by stopping the ball or driv-
ing it out of the field. At a given signal the bowler de-
livers the first ball. If the batsman misses the ball and it
passes the wicket, the wicket-keeper stops it and returns it
to the bowler, who delivers another. When the batsman
strikes the ball away, he runs to the opposite wicket, his
companion crosses to his, and so on till the ball is returned
by a fielder to the bowler or wicket-keeper. The batter
may possibly have time to make two or three “runs” be-
fore the ball is returned. The scorers credit him with these
runs. If the wicket-keeper or bowler touches the wicket
with the ball before the batsman touches it with his bat or
has reached his ground, the striker is out and another takes
his place. If one of the opposite party catch a ball before
it reaches the ground, or if the striker knocks down his own
wicket, or if he prevent a ball from being caught, or strikes
it twice, or if a ball which would have hit his wicket is
stopped by any part of his person, the striker is out. The
duty of the wicket-keeper is to stop with his hands the
balls which the batsman misses. The long-stop stands be-
hind him, and stops balls that escape the wicket-keeper.
The fielders are posted in different parts of the ground.
They must possess quickness of eye and foot, and much de-
pends on their judgment of distance. Fielders throw the
ball to the wicket-keeper, who returns it to the bowler. All
change places at the end of every four bowls; every four
balls are thus delivered from alternate wickets. Four balls
are called an “over,” and credited to the side which is in.
The laws of the Marylebone Club of England are generally
taken as the standard rules for this game.
Crick'lade, a town of England, in
Wiltshire, on the river Isis, 7 miles S. E.
of Cirencester. It consists mainly of a
single street of poorly built houses. It
has two antique churches. It was former-
ly a borough-town, but was disfranchised
in 1782. Pop. in 1871, 43,552.
Crillon, de (Louis DES BALBES DE
BERTON), a famous French warrior, born in
Provence in 1541. He served at the siege
of Calais in 1558, and fought against the
Huguenots in the civil wars. He distin-
guished himself at Jarmac and Moncontour,
and at the naval battle of Lepanto (1571).
During the reign of Henry III. he fought
for that king against the Catholic League.
In 1589 he entered the service of Henry
IV., who styled him “the bravest of the
brave.” He contributed to the victory at
Ivry (1590). Died 1615. (See SERVIEz,
“Histoire du brave Crillon,” 1844; ABBá
DE CRILLON, “Vie de L. des Balbes de
Derton de Crillon,” 3 vols., 1826.)—A de-
scendant of “the brave” Crillon, Louis
(1718–96), was a distinguished general of
the Thirty Years’ war, and in the service
of Spain became duke of Mahon, and commanded at the
futile investment of Gibraltar in 1782.-His grandson, Duc
de Mahon (1775–1832), a Spanish general, was viceregent
of Navarre under Joseph Bonaparte.
Crime, any act done in violation of those duties which
an individual owes to the community, and for a breach of
which the law has provided that the offender shall make
satisfaction to the public. The ascertainment of these
duties, which society imposes upon its members for the
general welfare, is derived either from the common concur-
rence of the moral sentiments of any community or from
the enactment of specific laws defining and enforcing par-
ticular obligations. Offences against the one variety of
duties are said to be mala in 8e (wrongful in themselves),
while those against the other are designated mala prohibito.
(wrongful because prohibited by statute). As a general
practice, however, legislative prohibition is also extended
to the case of crimes which are strictly mala in se, both to
provide against uncertainty and fluctuation of opinion and
to create additional sanctions; so that the precise original
distinction between the two classes is no longer preserved.
The laws of England recognize a larger variety of crimes
not depending upon statute than is generally the case in
the American States. But even here, as a rule, there are
still some offences for which the common law alone makes
provision.
By the common law crimes are divided into two great
classes—felonies and misdemeanors. The distinction is
based upon the relative enormity of various offences.
Thus, the term “felony” includes those which are of great-
est magnitude, while “misdemeanor” is reserved for the
residue. But nevertheless an understanding of the exact
extent of meaning of these two designations can only be
attained by an indirect mode of definition—viz. by show-
ing the diversity of punishment in the respective cases. A
felony was originally any crime for which the penalty might
be a forfeiture of lands or goods; a misdemeanor was one
which entailed a milder punishment. In some of the
American States the punishments distinguishing felonies
have been changed, and are now either death or imprison-
ment in a State prison. In others, while the common-law
distinction has been discarded, no different one has been
adopted to supply its place, so that the two terms are used
without precision or definiteness of meaning.
In order that a person may be guilty of a crime there
must be a concurrence of capacity, intent, and wrongful
act. The questions of capacity and intent are, in fact,
closely related, since the law adjudges a person incapable
of a criminal offence only because it presumes him incom-
petent to form a criminal purpose. The principal causes

1196
CRIME.
of incapacity are infancy and the want of mental sound-
ness. Infancy exempts from responsibility only when chil-
dren are so young as to have no acquaintance with the
nature of a criminal offence. At the common law a child
under seven years of age is conclusively presumed to be
unable to commit a crime; between seven and fourteen, his
liability depends upon his actual discretion, which must
be determined in each particular instance by special
proof; after fourteen, he is considered presumptively cap-
able. The want of proper mental capacity to form a crim-
inal intention exists in the case of idiots, lunatics, and all
persons who are either permanently of unsound mind, or
so deranged at the time of the commission of any wrongful
act as not to be aware of its guilty character. Exactly
what degree of mental alienation should be sufficient to ex-
empt from responsibility is a matter difficult to determine.
The only criterion that can generally be adopted is the
wrong-doer’s power of appreciation of the wrongful nature
of the particular act which he committed. (See INSANITY.)
Voluntary drunkenness, however, though it may confuse and
disorder the moral perceptions, and produce a kind of tem-
porary insanity as pernicious in its effects as natural aber-
ration, affords, in general, no defence for the criminal of.
fender. Only where a specific intent is an essential element
to constitute a crime can a person intoxicated be excused for
that particular offence. As a rule, the intent to drink is
sufficiently culpable to make the resulting act punishable.
If, however, true insanity or delirium tremens should be
produced as a consequence of intoxication, and the victim
of it should commit an act which if he were same would be
a crime, he will be excused. The law in that case only re-
gards the fact of insanity, without reference to the means
by which it has been occasioned. Besides these natural in-
capacities, which exempt from penalty, there exist certain
other causes for exoneration, such as duress and coverture.
Whenever an offence is not perpetrated voluntarily, but
under the compulsion of force or fear, there is wanting that
willing pursuit of crime which is alone a just reason for
condemnation. In like manner, the stress of overwhelming
necessity relieves from guilt the involuntary wrong-doer.
Coverture also, or the condition of a married woman, ex-
empts from liability in some instances, because her action
is considered to have been occasioned by constraint ex-
erted by her husband. Thus, all crimes committed by a
wife in the presence of her husband, except some of a graver
class, as treason, murder, robbery, and the like, are presumed
to be done by coercion. This presumption is not a conclu-
sive one, but relieves a married woman from any conse-
quence of her action until rebutted by direct evidence that
the crime was exclusively of her own commission. This
mode of justification by alleging constraint only applies to
married women. Servants and children are not excused,
though acting under the command of masters or parents.
The necessity for the existence of a criminal intent in
order to make a person responsible for his wrongful acts
forms an important distinction between criminal and civil
liability, for in civil cases intent need not generally be
proved. It has always been a well-recognized maxim in
criminal jurisprudence that “the act does not make a man
guilty unless his purpose also be guilty.” But the inten-
tion need not necessarily contemplate the commission of
the particular consequence which results. In most in-
stances, of course, the act done will be the specific act in-
tended. But yet, if there be a purpose to perpetrate one
crime, and the means used for its accomplishment unex-
pectedly result in a different offence or affect a person
against whom they were not directed, there is still a suffi-
cient connection of intent and act to warrant a holding to
accountability. Thus, if a man intends to shoot A and
his act results in the death of B, whom he did not intend
to injure, he is nevertheless responsible, as though he had
actually intended to kill B. This principle, however, is
not in all its rigor applicable when the crime committed is
strictly in the class of mala prohibita, for the original
purpose is not then deemed sufficiently reprehensible. A
still different case arises where the preconceived intention
had reference to the specific act performed, but did not
include knowledge of its criminality, as where a person
shoots game at a certain season when it is prohibited,
without being aware that he is violating the law. In this
class of instances it is likewise true that all the necessary
elements of a crime are sufficiently present to justify pun-
ishment. The principle is, that ignorance of the law must
afford no excuse. If such were not the rule, all laws would
be ineffective, for would-be offenders would be likely to
abstain from examining their provisions, and thereby se-
cure impunity. The accompaniment of intent and act,
therefore, which will constitute criminal transgression, may
occur. in three different forms: First, the intent may be
wrongful, and contemplate the very offence committed;
second, the intent may be wrongful, but contemplate an-
other offence than the one committed; third, the intent
may be really innocent, but contemplate an offence which
happens to be prohibited by law, and so criminal.
There are some cases in which, though no actual criminal
intent is conceived, yet the law presumes its existence.
When acts are characterized by such a degree of negligence
or carelessness as to evince a culpable indifference whether
wrong is done or not, the wanton disregard of commonly
recognized duties is essentially criminal of itself. But if
an unlawful act is committed, through mere accident or
misfortune, in the prosecution of some legitimate under-
taking, the unwitting offender is excused. In like manner,
though ignorance of law affords no justification, ignorance
of fact, where no reasonable opportunity is granted for
acquiring correct information, is a valid excuse. The law
may always be known when the facts cannot be ascertained.
“The guilt of the accused,” it has been said as to these
matters of fact, “must depend on the circumstances as
they appear to him.”
The necessity that an act must concur with the intent
depends upon the principle that no mere mental conception
or fancy, no matter how reprehensible morally, can ever be
taken cognizance of at law without some overt expression
of it in an objective result.
The parties engaged in the commission of crimes are dis-
tinguished either as principals or accessories. A principal
in the first degree is one who is the actual, direct perpetra-
tor of the offence. A principal in the second degree is one
who is present, aiding and abetting the act to be done. An
accessory is a participant in the wrong-doing in some more
remote manner, either by procuration or assistance before
the act, or after its occurrence by sharing in the profits ac-
quired or shielding the immediate offenders from justice.
In the one case he is called an accessory before the fact;
in the other, an accessory after the fact. This distinction
between principals and accessories is maintained only with
reference to felonies, and even among these an exception is
made of the crime of treason. There is no accessory before
the fact in the common-law crime of manslaughter, for in
it there is no preconceived intent to kill. In treason and
in misdemeanors all the participants are deemed princi-
pals; in the one case, from the enormity, and in the other
from the comparative triviality, of the offence. Where the
distinction is preserved there is no reason for diversity of
punishment as between principals and accessories before
the fact. Accessories after the fact are not so severely
punished, as their offence consists in an attack on the ad-
ministration of justice. A wife is excused for thus shield-
ing her husband. It was formerly the rule that the acces-
sory could not be brought to trial before the principal, but
this doctrine has been quite generally changed by statute.
The various crimes which may be committed are classi-
fied by legal writers in different ways. Blackstone in his
Commentaries treats them as either offences against morals
and religion or the law of nations, or as against the exist-
ence of the government or state, such as treason, or against
public order under the respective titles of public justice,
public peace, public trade, public health or economy, and
finally, against individuals. These last are subdivided
into those which are committed against the person, against
habitations, and against property. This classification is
incomplete, and no place can be found in it for certain well-
established crimes, particularly those which have been
created by statute. The most satisfactory treatment of
the subject is that adopted by Mr. Bishop, who discusses
the general principles of law governing crimes, and then
considers specifically each crime known to the law under an
alphabetical arrangement. It should be noticed that the
criminal law of the Federal government is wholly created
by statute, Congress having enacted so-called “Crime
Acts.” Under the State governments the common law of
crimes exists unless changed by statute. It will be impos-
sible in this brief notice to do more than to refer to some
of the leading crimes, which are considered under their re-
spective titles: ARSON, BRIBERY, BURGLARY, CHAMPERTY,
CHEATING, EMBEzz LEMENT, FALSE PRETENCEs, FoRGERY,
GAMING, LARCENY, LIBEL, MAYHEM, PERJURY, PIRACY,
PolyGAMY, RAPE, RIOT, ROBBERY, TREASON, USURY. For
punishment of crimes, see PUNISHMENT.
In this brief account only the common-law doctrine of
crimes could be considered. Upon this may be further con-
sulted BLACKSTONE’s “Commentaries,” book iv.; BISHOP
“On Criminal Law ;” Bishop “On Criminal Procedure;”
WHARTON’s “American Criminal Law;” RUSSELL “On
Crimes;” HALE, “Pleas of the Crown;” HAWKINS, “Pleas
of the Crown;” EAST, “Pleas of the Crown;” and FostER's
“Crown Law.” The statutes of the States severally should
also be referred to. Upon the general subject of criminal
offences may be consulted ORToDAN’s “Droit Penal;” BEC-
CARIA “On Crimes;” MITTERMAIER “On Capital Punish-
ment,” etc. T. W. DWIGHT.
CRIMEA, THE-CRITIC.
Crime'a, The [Russ. Krim ; anc. Taurica Cherbome-
sus], a peninsula of Southern Russia, forms part of the
government of Taurida, and is nearly surrounded by the
Black Sea and the Sea of Azof. It is connected with the
main land by the isthmus of Perekop, 5 miles broad. Its
length E. and W. is nearly 200 miles, and its area 7654
square miles. Pop. about 200,000. The north-western
part of the Crimea is a treeless plain, the soil of which is
impregnated with salt and fit only for pasturage. The
south-eastern part is occupied by wooded mountains and
fertile valleys, but they are ill cultivated. The highest
peak of these mountains is 5180 feet above the level of the
sea. Among the productions are grain, grapes, olives, silk,
honey, and wine. Many horses and cattle are reared here,
and salt is exported. The chief towns are Simferopol, Se-
vastopol, and Baktshi-Serai. The majority of the popula-
tion are Tartars. It was conquered in the thirteenth cen-
tury by the Tartars, who converted it into the khanat of
Krim Tartary. It was annexed to Russia in 1783.
Crimean War, so called because it was chiefly waged in
the Russian peninsula of the Crimea. It was carried on by
France, Great Britain, Turkey, and Sardinia, against Russia.
The motive of the allies was partly to check the growing
power and encroachments of Russia, and to prop up the tot-
tering throne of the Turkish sultan. One cause of the war was
the claim of Russia to be the protector of the Greek Church
in Turkey. After ineffectual negotiations between Russia
and the Ottoman Porte, the Russian army entered the prin-
cipalities in July, 1853, and war was declared by the sultan
... in October of that year. Early in Jan., 1854, the French and
English fleets entered the Black Sea, and these allied powers
announced to the czar Nicholas that their combined fleets
must have command of that sea. A treaty of alliance be-
tween France, England, and the Porte having been signed
Mar. 12, the former two powers declared war Mar. 27 and
28. The French and English fleets bombarded Odessa
April 22. Lord Raglan took command of the British army,
and Marshal Saint-Arnaud of the French. The allied
armies landed at Varna May 29, and there suffered severely
from cholera. The allies moved their armies to the Crimea,
early in September, and defeated the Russians at the river
Alma on the 20th of that month. Prince Mentohikof com-
manded the Russian army. The allies commenced the
bombardment of Sevastopol Oct. 17, fought a battle at
Balaklava, Oct. 25, and gained a victory at Inkerman Nov.
5. The British troops, being ill supplied with food and
clothing, suffered great privations and hardships in the
ensuing winter, and large numbers of them perished. The
king of Sardinia, joined the allies in Jan., 1855. In May,
General Pélissier became commander-in-chief of the French
army. On June 18 the allies attacked the important fort-
resses known as the Malakoff and the Redan, but were
repulsed. The French took the Malakoff by storm Sept.
8, and the Russians evacuated Sevastopol about the 9th
of that month. An armistice was concluded Feb. 26, 1856,
and after the belligerents had met in conference at Paris,
a treaty of peace was signed in that city Mar. 30, 1856.
Criminal Law. See LAW, by PROF. T. W. Dwight.
Crim’mitschau, a town of Saxony, on the Pleisse and
on the railway from Altenburg to Zwickau, 10 miles N. W.
of the latter. It has manufactures of woollens and a num-
ber of machine-works and breweries. Pop. 15,280.
Crinoid'ea, or Crinoideae [from the Gr. kpivov, a
SS #3; %
§§ tº ſºft ſº ºf | 3}
§§§
f
wº § º
§:
* .#
\;
Apiocrinites trigintidactylus (a fossil encrinite).
1197
“lily,” and etSos, “appearance”], an order or family of
radiated animals of the class Echinodermata. As fossils
they are sometimes called stone-lilies, having a radiated,
lily-shaped disk supported on a jointed stem. When this
stem is cylindrical, the species are termed encrinites; when
it is pentagonal, they are called pentacrinites. The recent
species of Crinoidea are few, but the extinct species are so
numerous that their fossils constitute the greater part of
extensive strata of limestone. The Burlington limestone
contains a great variety of beautiful crinoids.
Crin’oline [from the Lat. crinis, “ hair”], a name first
given by the French to a fabric of horse-hair used in ladies’
dress. It is now applied generally to structures of steer
wire called “hoops,” and used for the same purpose—that
of distending the skirts. This was called fardingale in the
time of Elizabeth. In 1744 hoops were so large that a
woman occupied the space of six men. In 1796 they had
been discarded in private life, but were worn at court until
the time of George IV., who abolished them. Hoops have
reappeared since 1850; they are made of steel wires covered
with cotton thread, and form a skirt which varies in size
and shape according to the changes of fashion.
Cri'osphinx [from the Gr. kptós, a “ram ”], a term ap-
plied to images, found in Egypt, of sphinxes having a ram’s
head instead of a human head. The latter are termed and-
rosphinaces.
Cris' field, a post-village of Somerset co., Md., on the
Little Annemessex River, and at the southern terminus of
the Eastern Shore R. R., 19 miles S. by W. of Princess Anne.
It has a tri-weekly steamboat connection with Norfolk, Va.
It has two weekly newspapers.
Cri'sis [Gr. kptorts, a “ determination,” from kptvo, a
“judge,” to “decide”], a term which is used by physicians
to denote the sudden determination of disease towards re-
covery or towards death. The doctrine of crises is con-
nected with that of a materies morbi, or material of disease,
in the blood. A doctrine associated with that of crises is
the belief in certain days as showing characteristic symp-
toms, sometimes prognostic of recovery or death. This old
belief seems to have had a certain foundation in the facts
observable in clinical medicine. The doctrine of crises and
of a materies morbi is still sometimes taught. A sudden
discharge of any suppressed secretion is called a critical
discharge when occurring about the turning-point of the
disease.
Cris’pi (FRANCESCO), an Italian statesman, born Oct. 4,
1819, at Ribera, became a lawyer in Naples, was in 1848
one of the heads of the insurrection in Palermo, and for
two years one of the leaders of the Sicilians in their re-
sistance to Ferdinand I. In 1859 and 1860 he was again
at the head of the new revolution of Sicily, and co-operated
with Garibaldi in the expulsion of the Bourbons, which
caused the annexation of Naples and Sicily to the kingdom
of Italy. He led in 1861 the constitutional opposition.
Cris' pin, SAINT, a native of Rome, is supposed to have
worked at the trade of a shoemaker in Gaul. According
to the legend, he was so benevolent that he stole leather to
make shoes for the poor. In 287 A.D. he and his brother
Crispinian suffered martyrdom. He is the patron saint of
shoemakers. St. Crispin's Day is October 25.
Crispin, Knights of Saint, a secret society among
shoemakers, founded in 1866 in Milwaukee, Wis., numbered
in 1870 about 100,000 members in 300 lodges. They have
an organization similar to that of the Free Masons and
other secret orders. All the lodges of one State are under
the jurisdiction of a State grand lodge, while the latter is
Subordinate to the U. S. grand lodge. The object of the
order is to protect the interests of the workingmen against
employers, to regulate the wages, and to establish special
funds in support of the members of the order and their
families in case of sickness and death. There is also an
order of the “Daughters of Saint Crispin,” embracing wo–
men employed in the manufacture of shoes and boots.
Crit/ias [Kpurias], an Athenian orator and one of the
Thirty Tyrants, was a pupil of Socrates. He was ban-
ished from Athens about 406 B. C., but he returned with
Lysander the Spartan in 404, and then became one of the
ruling body called Thirty Tyrants. He caused the death
of Theramenes. He was killed in a battle by the army of
Thrasybulus in 404 B. C.
Critic [Gr. kputukós (from kpivo, to “judge''); Lat. crit-
£cus ; Fr. critique ; Ger. Kritiker], literally and strictly,
“[one] fit or competent to judge;” but the term is applied
in common parlance to any one who takes upon himself to
judge of works of literature, art, etc.—in short, of any-
thing which requires the exercise of the judging, and par-
ticularly of the aesthetic, faculty. To judge and condemn
appear to be considered by many as the principal part of
the office of a critic. But he who is really “fit to judge”







1198
CRITICISM-CROCKETT.
will be no less able nor less willing to discover beauties, if
they exist, than point out defects. It may indeed be the
more frequent duty of a true critic to blame than to praise,
because works of genuine merit are exceptions to the gen-
eral rule; nevertheless, it is unquestionably a rarer, as it is
a higher and nobler, office to appreciate and do justice to
the various kinds and shades of excellence, than simply to
condemn what merits condemnation.
Of all the critics of antiquity, the greatest beyond com-
parison was undoubtedly Aristotle, Aristarchus, who is
often styled “the prince of critics,” was more properly a
grammarian and commentator than a critic, in the wider
modern acceptation of this term. Among the Romans,
Quintilian was especially distinguished as a critic, but
the poet Horace was a critic of a higher and rarer order.
In modern times the greatest names in general criticism
among the English are those of Dryden, Pope, Doctor
Johnson, S. T. Coleridge, Hazlitt, Mackintosh, and Hallam ;
to which may be added those of Lords Jeffrey, Brougham,
and Macaulay; and lastly that of Carlyle, who, if too often
extravagant and wayward, is perhaps, when not biassed by
pique or prejudice, not surpassed by any in breadth of
comprehension or truth of insight. Among the French the
most celebrated names are those of Boileau, Voltaire, Ville-
main, Sainte-Beuve, and Taine. The literature of Germany
is rich in illustrious critics; among the greatest of these,
in the department of general criticism, are Lessing, Goethe,
and the two Schlegels. It is proper to observe that the Ger-
mans have studied the great principles which lie at the base
of all sound criticism (i. e. the art or science of judging)
more philosophically and more thoroughly than the critics
of other nations. But it is perhaps in particular criticism
that the Germans are most distinguished. Among the
most remarkable examples of this kind we may cite Kant
in the department of philosophy, Winckelmann in art, and
Niebuhr in history, besides a host of other less distin-
guished names.
Crit/icism [for etymology, see CRITIC] signifies both the
act and the art of criticising. In its latter signification it
has been defined as “the art of judging with propriety con-
cerning any object or combination of objects.” In a more
limited meaning its province is confined to literature, phi-
lology, and the fine arts, and to subjects of antiquarian,
scientific, and historical investigation. The elements of
criticism depend on the two principles of beauty and truth,
one of which is the final end or object of study in every
one of its pursuits—beauty in letters and the arts, truth
in history and the sciences. Thus, historical criticism
teaches us to distinguish the true from the false or the
probable from the improbable in historical works; scientific
criticism has the same object with respect to the different
branches of science; while literary criticism, in a general
sense, has for its principal employment the investigation
of the merits and demerits of design, style, or diction, ac-
cording to the general principles of composition and to
the received standard of excellence in every language. In
poetry and the arts, criticism develops the principles of
that more refined and exquisite sense of beauty which
forms the ideal model of perfection in each.
Criſto, or Criſton [Kptrov], a Greek philosopher, was
a citizen of Athens, and a friend and disciple of Socrates,
whom he attended in his last hours. He wrote seventeen
dialogues on philosophy, which are not extant. Plato gave
the name of “Crito * to one of his books.
Critola’us [Kptróagos], a Greek philosopher, born at
Phaselis, in Lycia. He was the head of the Peripatetic
school in Athens, and was eminent as an orator as well as
a philosopher. He was sent to Rome on an important em-
bassy with Carneades about 155 B. C.
Crit/tenden, a county in the E. of Arkansas. Area,
750 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Missis-
sippi River, and on the S. W. by the St. Francis. The sur-
face is mostly level; the soil is alluvial and fertile, except
the swamps. Cotton, grain, and hay are raised extensively.
It is intersected by the Memphis and Little Rock R. R.
Capital, Marion. Pop. 3831.
Crittenden, a county in the W. of Kentucky. Area,
420 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by the Ohio
River, and on the N. E. by the Tradewater. The surface
is undulating or nearly level; the soil is fertile. Cattle,
wool, grain, and tobacco are produced. Here are mines of
coal, iron, and lead. Capital, Marion. Pop. 9381.
Crittenden, a township of Champaign co., III. Pop.
870.
Crittenden, a post-village of Grant co., Ky. P. 295.
Crittendem (GEORGE B.), GENERAL, a son of the fol-
lowing, was educated at West Point, began to practise law
in Kentucky in 1835, served with distinction in the Mex-
ican war, resigned his commission of lieutenant-colonel in
the U. S. army in 1861, and joined the Southern Confeder-
acy. He became a major-general, was defeated at Mill
Spring, Ky., Jan. 19, 1862, was kept in arrest by the Con-
federates till Nov., 1863, and soon after resigned.
Crittendem (JoHN' JorDON), an American statesman,
born in Woodford co., Ky., Sept. 10, 1786. He studied
law, which he practised with distinction, and was elected
to the Senate of the U. S. for a short term in 1817. Hay-
ing passed about sixteen years in private life, he was re-
elected to the national Senate by the Whigs in 1835 for a
term of six years. He was a personal and political friend
of Henry Clay. In Mar., 1841, he was appointed attorney-
general of the U. S., but he resigned in September of that
year. He was again elected a Senator of the U. S. in 1843,
and was chosen governor of Kentucky in 1848. He was
attorney-general in the cabinet of President Fillmore from
July, 1850, to Mar., 1853, soon after which he joined the
Native American party. In 1855 he again became a U. S.
Senator. He opposed the secession movement in 1860–61,
and, performing the part of a mediator, offered in the
Senate a series of resolutions called the “Crittenden Com-
promise,” which were not adopted. Died July 26, 1863.
Crittenden (THOMAS LEONIDAs), an American general,
a son of the preceding, was born at Russellville, Ky., in
1819. He served with honor in the Mexican war. He
commanded a division of the Union army at Shiloh, April,
1862, and obtained the rank of major-general of volunteers
in the summer of that year. He commanded a corps at
the battle of Stone River, which ended Jam. 2, 1863.
Croatan’, a township and post-village of Craven co.,
N. C. Pop. 656.
Croatia, a province of the Austro-Hungarian mon-
archy, is bounded on the N. W. by Carniola and Styria, on
the W. by the Adriatic Sea, on the N. E. by Hungary, and
on the S. by Turkey and Slavonia. On the seaboard the
olive grows, but in the mountainous regions the snow lies
eight months. The Julian Alps, which occupy the entire
midland, are of limestone formation, are mostly covered
with forests, and contain many caverns. The principal
rivers are the Save, the Drave, and the Kulpa. Among
the chief articles of export are grain, wine, and chestnuts.
Capital, Agram. Of the inhabitants, 94.55 per cent. are
Croats and Servians, 2.76 per cent. Germans, 1.38 per cent.
Magyars; the remainder are Israelites, Italians, and Alba-
nians. Croats and Servians are two Slavic tribes which
speak the same language, though the former use the Latin
and the latter the Cyrillic alphabet. About 60 per cent. of
the population are Roman Catholics, 33 per cent. belong to
the Oriental Greek Church ; the remainder are Protestants
and Jews. This region was anciently inhabited by the
Pannonians, who were conquered by the Romans in the
reign of Augustus. In 640 A. D. the Croatians or Horvats
migrated from the Carpathian Mountains to this country,
and gave it the name of Croatia. For several centuries
Croatia was an independent kingdom, until in 1097 it was
conquered by the king of Hungary. This province, with
Slavonia, now forms a division of the Hungarian king-
dom (Transleithania). Their united area is 8873 square
miles. Pop. in 1869, 1,168,037, inclusive of the city of
Fiume, which is placed under the immediate control of the
Hungarian ministry.
Crochet, kro'shā [a diminutive of the Fr. croche, a
“hook”], a kind of thread or worsted work consisting of a
system of loops made with a small hook designed for the
purpose. Various light and elegant patterns of crochet-
work are made. Open work is made by omitting one or
more loops. Wool and cotton of a great variety of shades
and colors are used for crochet.
Crock’er, a county of Iowa, bordering on Minnesota.
Area, 432 square miles. It was organized since the U. S.
census of 1870. The soil is fertile. Capital, Greenwood
Centre.
Crock'ery [from the Anglo-Saxon croc; Old English,
crock, an “earthen vessel,” a “pot or jar”], a collective
term including all kinds of earthenware used for household
purposes. The principal kinds are common or coarse
earthenware, stoneware, queensware, and porcelain.
Crockery, a township of Ottawa co., Mich. P. 1125.
Crock/et [allied to the word crook], in Gothic archi-
tecture, an ornament resembling curved and bent foliage
running up on the edge of a gable, pinnacle, or spire. The
varieties of crockets are numerous, many kinds of leaf
and flower being imitated for the purpose. Crockets only
appear in pyramidal or curved lines, never in horizontal
lines.
Crock/ett, a county of the W. of Tennessee, formed
since the census of 1870. It is in a good cotton region,
and is intersected by the Memphis and Ohio R. R. Capi-
tal, Alamo. -
CROCKETT–CROMARTY FRITH.
1199
Crockett, a township of Arkansas co., Ark. Pop. 637,
Crockett, a city, capital of Houston co., Tex., on the
line of the International and Great Northern R. R., at the
centre of the county. It has an active trade and is very
thriving. Here are four churches, a male and female sem-
inary, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. 538.
RAINEY & FRYMIER, PRoPs. “FAST TEXAS HERALD.”
Crockett (DAVID), a famous American hunter and hu-
morist, born in Tennessee Aug. 17, 1786. He was elected a
member of Congress in 1827, 1829, and 1831, and was a
political friend of General Jackson. His habits were ec-
centric. He enlisted in the Texan army in revolt against
Mexico, was taken prisoner at Fort Alamo, and massacred
Mar. 6, 1836.
Croc'odile [Gr. Kpokó8sixos, a “lizard ” or “crocodile;”
Lat. crocodilw8], a genus (Crocodilus) of Saurian or rather
Nilotic Crocodile.
loricate reptiles, which gives its name to the family Croco-
dilidae, other genera of which are also called crocodiles.
Like most reptiles, the crocodiles are carnivorous, and ow-
ing to their great size, strength, and voracious habits, they
are the dread of the countries which they inhabit. They
have bony plates embedded in the skin, which form a strong
armor. They are called Emydosauri, or tortoise-lizards.
Some authors term them Loricata, or mailed reptiles (from
the Latin lorica, a “coat of mail”). They are capable of walk-
ing on land, but are much better fitted for the water. They
are furnished with elevated nostrils at the extremity of the
skull, so that they can almost wholly conceal themselves in
water while breathing the air. The water does not enter
the throat, which closes like the valves of the heart. The
ears are also guarded by tightly-closing valves. The young
crocodiles are hatched from eggs strangely small in pro-
portion to the size of the adult animal, being less in size
than the eggs of the goose.
These great reptiles are divided into two families—the
true crocodiles and the alligators. They are easily distin-
guished by the shape of the head, the muzzle of the croc-
odiles being narrow behind the nostrils, while that of the
alligator forms a straight line; and there are other anatom-
ical distinctions. The gavial, or Gangetic crocodile (Ga-
vialis Gangeticus), is one of the largest of its order, some-
times being thirty feet long. It has an extraordinary
length of muzzle, which gives it a grotesque aspect. It
has one hundred and twenty teeth, of similar appearance
and equal length. Its color is a dark olive-brown, with
black spots. The crocodile of the Nile (Crocodilus vul-
garis), now seldom seen below the first cataract, is a most
formidable animal. Living exclusively on animal food,
and preferring tainted meat, it is useful in purifying the
waters. It also feeds on fish, and is a dangerous foe to
cattle and other animals. It is nearly as large as the
former species. The Indian crocodile (Crocodilus porosus)
is an Asiatic species; it is sometimes called the double-
crested crocodile, because the head has two long ridges ex-
tending from the front of the eye over the upper jaw.
This is never found except in low lands with still water.
It is very common in Ceylon. The marsh crocodile (Croc-
odilw8 palustris), frequently called mugger or goal, has a
large range of locality, and sometimes grows to a great
length; in the British Museum is a skull twenty-six inches
long, denoting a total length of thirty-three feet. It is
found in Asia, and is said to occur in Australia. Another
species is the American crocodile (Crocodilus acutus), often
confounded with the alligator. This is found in the hotter
portions of America, and occurs in the U. S. It makes a
hideous noise at night, so that one unaccustomed to it has
no chance of sleep. The margined crocodile (Crocodilus
marginatus) inhabits the rivers of Southern Africa. It is
distinguished from the Egyptian crocodile by the great
concavity of the forehead and stronger dorsal plates. Sev-
eral other living species are known. Many fossil species
have been found, especially in the U. S. (See ALLIGATOR,
CAYMAN, GAVIAL.)
Cro'cus [Gr. kpókös, “saffron”], a large genus of irida-
ceous plants (herbs) native of Asia and Europe. The
Crocus vernus and other species are well known as afford-
ing many varieties of very early spring flowers which are
common in cultivation. Crocus sativus and other species
blossom in autumn. The autumn crocuses are rarely culti-
vated in the U. S. Their orange-red stigmas, when dried,
constitute the drug known as “true” SAFFRON (which see).
Crocus of Mars, a name given to the finely-divided
red oxide of iron, used in medicine and in the arts. The
“crocus of antimony” of the old chemists was a mixture
of the tersulphide and teroxide of antimony. The “cro-
cuses” received their name from their saffron color.
Croe'sus [Gr. Kpotoos], a king of Lydia proverbial for
his riches, was born about 590 B. C. He succeeded his
father Alyattes in 560, and soon extended his dominions
by the conquest of the AEolians, Ionians, and other peoples
of Asia Minor. Sardis was the capital of his kingdom.
IHe is said to have enriched himself by the golden sand of
Pactolus. In 546 B. C. he was defeated in battle and
taken prisoner by Cyrus of Persia, who treated him with
generosity.
Croetan’, a township of Dare co., N. C. Pop. 255.
Croft (WILLIAM), an English composer of cathedral
music, was born in Warwickshire in 1677. He was ap-
pointed composer to the chapel-royal and organist of West-
minster Abbey in 1708. He composed “Divine Harmony”
(1712) and “Musica Sacra’’ (1724). Died Aug. 14, 1727.
Cro'ghan, a township and post-village of Lewis co.,
N. Y. The village is about 50 miles S. of Ogdensburg.
The township has manufactures of lumber, leather, etc.
Total pop. 2433.
Croghan (GEORGE), an inspector-general of the U. S.
army, born in Kentucky Nov. 15, 1791. He served as vol-
unteer aide in the battle of Tippecanoe 1811; was ap-
pointed captain in the Nineteenth Infantry 1812, major
1813, lieutenant-colonel 1814, and inspector-general, with
the rank of colonel, 1825. He distinguished himself at the
defence of Fort Meigs and sortie May 15, 1813, and for
his gallant conduct in the defence of Fort Stephenson,
against a greatly superior force of British and Indians, he
was presented by Congress with a gold medal with suitable
emblems and devices. Died Jan. 8, 1849, at New Orleans.
Cro/ker (John WILSON), a writer and politician, born
at Galway, in Ireland, Dec. 20, 1780. He was elected a
Tory member of Parliament in 1807. He co-operated with
Scott and others in founding the “Quarterly Review,” to
which he contributed many roughly satirical reviews. In
Parliament he obstimately opposed the Reform Bill. Among
his works are “Songs of Trafalgar” and an edition of
Boswell’s “Life of Johnson’’ (5 vols., 1831). Died Aug.
10, 1857. -
Croker (THOMAs CROFTON), a popular Irish writer, born
at Cork Jan. 15, 1798. He obtained a clerkship in the
admiralty at the age of twenty-one, and retained that posi-
tion until 1850. He published, besides other works, “Re-
searches in the South of Ireland” (1824), “Fairy Legends
and Traditions” (1825), “Legends of the Lakes '' (1828),
and “My Village” (1832). Died Aug. 8, 1854.
Cro/ly (GEORGE), LL.D., a poet, prose-writer, and pulpit-
orator, born in Dublin, Ireland, in Aug., 1780. He took
orders in the Anglican Church, and became in 1835 rector
of St. Stephen’s, Wallbrook, London. Among his works
are “Salathiel, a Story of the Past, Present, and Future”
(1827); “History of George IV.” (1830); “Poetical Works”
(2 vols., 1830); “Catiline, a Tragedy,” which was praised
in “Blackwood’s Magazine;” a “Life of Edmund Burke”
(1840); and “Marston,” a novel (1846). Died Nov. 24,
1860.
Crom/arty, a county of Scotland politically connected
with Ross (which see), and comprising nine detached dis-
tricts inside that county. Area, 344 Square miles.
Crom/arty, a town and seaport of Scotland, in the
united counties of Ross and Cromarty, is finely situated at
the entrance of Cromarty Frith, 18 miles N. N. E. of In-
verness. It has a good harbor, which will admit vessels
of 400 tons; also manufactures of ropes, sailcloth, and
sacking. Hugh Miller was born here. Pop. in 1871, 1476.
Cromarty Frith, a landlocked inlet of the North Sea,
in the N. E. part of Scotland. It communicates with Mo-
ray Frith, and is adjacent to the counties of Ross and Crom-
arty. It is 18 miles long, varies in width from 3 to 5 miles,
and forms a noble harbor, in which the largest fleet could ride
safely. The entrance to this frith is a strait 1% miles wide.


1200
Cro’mer, a small seaport and watering-place of Eng-
land, in Norfolk, and on the North Sea, 21 miles N. of
Norwich. It stands on the top of a high cliff. It has a
fine church in the Tudor style and a public library. All
attempts to form a harbor here have been baffled by the
heavy sea, which is continually encroaching on the land.
Cromer Bay is dangerous to navigators, and is called by
Sailors “The Devil’s Throat.”
Cro’mers, a township of Newberry co., S. C. P. 2224.
Crom"Iech [a Welsh term signifying a “bent or con-
cave stone”], or Dolmen, a rude structure of two or
more unhewn stones fixed vertically in the ground, and
supporting a large flat stone placed in a horizontal po-
sition. Cromlechs are found in England, Wales, Ireland,
France, Germany, Denmark, Hindostan, and other coun-
tries. The theory of the older antiquaries was that the
cromlech was a Druidical altar, but the skeletons and other
remains which have been found in many of them tend to
confirm the opinion that cromlechs were originally the se-
pulchral monuments of some now forgotten race. In many
instances cromlechs have been discovered in the interior
of earthen mounds or barrows. Among the remarkable
cromlechs in England are Kit's Coty House in Kent and
Chun Quoit in Cornwall. The weight of the flat stone in
the latter is estimated at twenty tons.
Cromp"ton (SAMUEL), inventor of the spinning-mule,
was born near Bolton, in Lancashire, England, Dec. 3,
1753. Farming and weaving were the employments of his
boyhood. For his invention, which was perfected in 1779,
he received, in subscriptions from the manufacturers, only
#67 6s. 6d. Parliament in 1812 voted him £5000. He
was a shy, sensitive, studious man, fond of mathematics
and of music. Died at Bolton June 26, 1827. (See
FRENCH, “Life of Crompton,” 1859.)
Crom/well, a township and post-village of Middlesex
co., Conn. The village is on the Connecticut Valley R. R.,
12% miles S. of Hartford. The town has quarries of brown-
stone. Total pop. 1856.
Cromwell, a post-village of Douglas township, Union
co., Ia. Pop. 166.
Cromwell, a township of Huntingdon co., Pa.
80.
Cromwell (HENRY), a younger son of Oliver, was born
at Huntingdon Jan., 1628. He served as colonel under
his father in Ireland in 1649, became a member of Parlia-
ment in 1653, and lord deputy of Ireland in 1657. His
administration was moderate and popular. After 1659 he
lived as a private citizen. Died in 1674.
Cromwell (OLIVER), lord protector of England, was
born at Huntingdon April 25, 1599. He was a son of
Robert Cromwell and a grandson of Sir Henry Cromwell.
In 1616 he entered Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge,
which he quitted on the death of his father, in June, 1617.
He married Elizabeth Bourchier in 1620, and settled on his
estate at Huntingdon. In the short Parliament of 1628
he made but one speech, and during the eleven years proro-
gation he devoted his time to the cultivation of his farms.
He represented Cambridge in the Short Parliament, which
met in April, 1640, and in the Long Parliament, which met
the same year. He was then a zealous member of the
Country party, and took an active part in the business of
the House, but was not a fluent speaker. Once, when he
rose to address the house, Lord Digby inquired of Hamp-
den (who was Cromwell's first cousin), “Who is that
sloven 2° Hampden replied that it was Oliver Cromwell,
and added, “That sloven whom you see before you has no
ornament in his speech; but if we should ever come to a
breach with the king, that sloven, I say, will be the greatest
man in England.” Having raised two companies of vol-
unteers, he entered the army of the Parliament in 1642 as
a captain of cavalry, and distinguished himself by his
strict discipline. He soon became a colonel, and formed a
body of famatical soldiers, the redoubted “Ironsides.” On
the 2d of July, 1644, he commanded the victorious left
wing at Marston Moor. The Parliamentarians were divided
into two parties, Presbyterian and Independent, of which
latter Cromwell was the master-spirit. He was excepted
from the “Self-Denying Ordinance,” which excluded from
military command members of Parliament. When the
army was reorganized, and Fairfax appointed general-in-
chief, Cromwell was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-
general. In command of the right wing at Naseby, June,
1645, he greatly contributed to that decisive victory. In
May, 1646, the king surrendered himself to the Scottish
army, which transferred him to the custody of the English
Parliament, in which the Presbyterians had a majority.
In June, 1647, the king was seized by one of Cromwell’s
officers, and removed from the custody of Parliament into
that of the army, which the Independents controlled.
Pop.
CROMER—CHONOS.
Charles hoped to profit by the dissensions between the
Presbyterians and the Independents, and intrigued with
both. Cromwell defeated the duke of Hamilton, who com—
manded an army of Scottish royalists, at the battle of
Preston Aug., 1648. In December of that year forty-one
Presbyterian royalists were ejected from Parliament by
Colonel Pride, acting under the orders of Cromwell. This
was called “Pride’s Purge.” Cromwell was a member of
the court which tried the king and condemned him to death
in Jan., 1649. Cromwell was now the most powerful man
in the country, and became a member of the new council
of state. In 1649 he went to Ireland as lord lieutenant
with an army, and subdued the rebellious Irish royalists
with extreme severity. The Scotch proclaimed Charles II.
as their king, and raised an army for the invasion of Eng-
land and the promotion of the royal cause, Cromwell, who
had returned to England in May, 1650, was then appointed
commander-in-chief. He signally defeated the Scottish
army at Dunbar on the 3d of Sept., 1650, and took about
10,000 prisoners. Charles II., having been reinforced,
marched into England, and was pursued by Cromwell, who
gained a decisive victory at Worcester Sept. 3, 1651. In this
great crisis he displayed eminent vigor and Sagacity. Clar-
endon observes that “his parts seemed to be raised, as if he
had concealed his faculties until he had occasion to use
them.” In April, 1653, he dissolved the remnant of the
Ilong Parliament, which was called the Rump, and he soon
summoned a new Parliament. He assumed the title of Lord
Protector of the Commonwealth in 1653. His domestic
policy was favorable to religious liberty and conducive to
the prosperity of the country. His foreign policy was dig-
mified and enlightened, and secured for England a more
commanding position than she had previously occupied.
The title of king was offered to him by Parliament, but he
declined it. He was stigmatized as an usurper by the royal-
ists, and also by the republicans. He died on the 3d of
Sept., 1658, and was succeeded by his son Richard.
It was long the fashion for historians to represent Crom-
well as a famatic, a hypocrite, and a man of cruel temper
and mediocre talents. His character has been vindicated
from these calumnies by Carlyle and other recent writers,
and it is now generally admitted that as a statesman and
commander he displayed abilities of the highest order.
“Never,” says Macaulay, “was any ruler so conspicuously
born for sovereignty. The cup which has intoxicated
almost all others sobered him. His spirit, restless from its
buoyancy in a lower sphere, reposed in majestic placidity
as soon as it had reached the level congenial to it. Rap-
idly as his fortunes grew, his mind expanded more rapidly
still. Insignificant as a private citizen, he was a great
general; he was a still greater prince.” (See CARLYLE,
“Letters and Speeches of Cromwell;” JoHN FoRSTER, “Life
of Cromwell” in his “Statesmen of the Commonwealth of
England,” 7 vols., 1840; R. SouTHEY, “Life of O. Crom-
well,” 1844; VILLEMAIN, “Histoire de Cromwell,” 1819.)
Cromwell (RICHARD), a son of the preceding, was born
at Huntingdon Oct. 4, 1626. He entered Lincoln’s Inn as
a student of law in 1647, and married Dorothy Major in
1649. He was a man of moderate capacity, virtuous and
unambitious. After Oliver became Protector, Richard was
elected to Parliament, and was a member of the privy
council. He succeeded his father as Protector in Sept.,
1658, but the army was disaffected, and he was not earn-
estly supported by the people. He resigned his power
in April, 1659, and passed the rest of his life in obscurity
and peace. Died in 1712.
Cromwell (THOMAs), earl of Essex, an English cour-
tier and minister of state, was born at Putney about 1490.
He became an agent of Cardinal Wolsey, who employed
him in important business. Soon after the fall of Wolsey
he entered the civil service of Henry VIII., whose favor
he gained. He promoted the Reformation by his strenuous
efforts to destroy the supremacy of the pope, and co-ope-
rated with his friend Cranmer in establishing a new eccle-
siastical polity. In 1534 he was appointed principal sec-
retary of state, and about a year later vicar-general with
power to suppress monasteries. He was for several years
the most powerful subject in England, and was created earl
of Essex in 1539. He was a man of superior talents, but
is said to have been unscrupulous and rapacious. Froude,
however, defends him against these imputations, and gives
him a high character. He promoted the marriage of Henry
VIII. with Anne of Cleves, because she favored the Lu-
theran doctrines. His agency in this affair was conducive
to his own ruin, for the capricious king regarded her with
disgust. Cromwell was tried for treason, and was be-
headed July 28, 1540. (See MICHAEI, DRAYTON, “Historie
of the Life and Death of Lord Cromwell,” 1609; FROUDE,
“History of England,” chaps. vi.-xvii.)
Cro'nos [Kpóvos], a god of the Greek mythology, was
CRONSTADT –CROSMAN.
1201
said to be a son of Uranus, and the father of Jupiter, Nep-
tune, Juno, and Ceres. He is commonly identified with the
Roman Saturn.
Cron'stadt [Ger. “crown city”], a fortified seaport-
town of Russia, is on the flat and arid island, of Kotlin,
in the Gulf of Finland, about 20 miles. W. of St. Peters-
burg, and opposite the mouth of the river Neva; lat.
59° 59' 42” N., lon. 29° 46' 30" E. It is an important
commercial town, and the greatest naval station of Russia.
It is stated that two-thirds of the foreign commerce of
Russia passes through Cronstadt, which has three harbors.
The outer harbor, which is intended for ships of war, is
capable of containing thirty-five ships of the line. The
inner harbor is used for merchant-vessels, and has a ca-
pacity for 1000 vessels.
fied. Pop. in 1867, 45,155. Ice renders this port inacces-
sible for nearly five months in the year.
Cronstadt, in Transylvania. See KRONSTADT.
Crook, a post-township of Boone co., West Va. P. 702.
Crook (GEORGE), an American officer, born Sept. 8,
1828, near Dayton, O., graduated at West Point in 1852,
and July 28, 1866, lieutenant-colonel Twenty-third In-
fantry. He served on frontier duty 1852–61, in Rogue
River expedition 1856, and in command of Pitt Riverexpedi-
tion 1857; engaged in several actions, in one of which was
wounded with an arrow. In the civil war he became col-
onel Thirty-sixth Ohio Volunteers, and was promoted Oct.
21, 1864, to be major-general U. S. volunteers, serving in
West Virginia operations 1861–62, engaged at Lewisburg
(wounded and brevet major); in Northern Virginia cam-
paign 1862; in Maryland campaign 1862, engaged at South
Mountain and Antietam (brevet lieutenant-colonel); in
operations in West Virginia 1862–63; in Tennessee campaign
1863, engaged at Tullahoma, Hoover's Gap, Chickamauga,
and pursuit of Wheeler, with constant skirmishes (brevet
colonel); in Northern Virginia, 1864, making constant raids
and in numerous actions (brevet brigadier-general U. S. A.
and brevet major-general U. S. volunteers); in Sheridan's
Shenandoah campaign 1864, engaged at Berryville, Fisher's
Hill (brevet major-general U. S. A.), Strasburg, Opequan,
and Cedar Creek; in command of cavalry of Army of
the Potomac 1865, engaged at Dinwiddie Court-house, Jet-
tersville, Sailor's Creek, Farmville, and Appomattox Court-
house; and in command of the district of Wilmington,
N. C., 1865–66. Since the war he has been on rifle tactics
board 1866, in command of the district of Idaho 1866–72,
and actively engaged against hostile Indians; and is
(1873) in command of the district of Arizona, having
quelled all Indian disturbances and compelled them to sue
for peace. Promoted to be brigadier-general U. S. A. Oct.
29, 1873. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Crook’ed Creek, a township of Boone co., Ark. P. 646.
Crooked Creek, a twp. of Cumberland co., Ill. P. 981.
Crooked Creek, a township of Jasper co., Ill. P. 1568.
Crooked Creek, a township of Houston co., Minn.
Pop. 465.
Crooked Creek, a township of McDowell co., N. C.
Pop. 389.
Crooked Island, one of the Bahama Islands, has an
area of 160 square miles. Salt is exported from it.
Crooked Lake, in the western part of New York,
extends from Penn Yan south-westward into Steuben co.,
and is about 18 miles long. The greatest width is one and
a half miles. The surface is 718 feet above the level of the
ocean. It is now generally called Keuka Lake, and is
celebrated for the fine vineyards in the vicinity. It lies in
a deep valley.
Crooked River, a township of Ray co., Mo. P. 1622.
Crooks (GEORGE R.), D. D., a Methodist divine and
journalist, was born in Philadelphia Feb. 3, 1822, grad-
uated in 1840 at Dickinson College, joined the Methodist
ministry in 1841, travelled and preached extensively in
Illinois, was appointed classical and mathematical tutor
in Dickinson College in 1842, principal of the Collegiate
Grammar School in 1843, and adjunct professor of ancient
languages in 1846. In 1848 he resumed the ministry, oc-
cupying important pulpits in Philadelphia, Wilmington,
New York, and Brooklyn. In conjunction with Professor
McClintock, he prepared “A First Book in Latin,” and “A
First Book in Greek,” which have been successful text-
books. He has also published Butler's “Analogy,” with
an elaborate analysis of the work, notes, index, and life of
Butler. His most important production is a “Latin-Eng-
lish Lexicon ’’ for schools and colleges, the preparation of
which was shared by Professor Schem. His eminent jour-
malistic career began in 1860, when he was elected first
editor of the “Methodist,” a weekly newspaper established
in New York City by a company of Methodist laymen who
The place is very strongly forti- |
were favorable to independent or unofficial journalism in
their Church. Under his control the “Methodist " has
been an effective power in the denomination, Yisibly ele-
vating the character of its journalism, successfully advo-
cating lay representation in its councils, and freely dis-
cussing all questions relating to its welfare.
Crop, the first stomach of a fowl; also applied to grain
and other plants or fruits cultivated on a farm. In geology,
crop or outcrop signifies the edge of a stratum, where it
comes to the surface of the earth. Strata which are not
horizontal, and which expose one edge at the surface, are
said to crop out.
Crop'sey, a township of McLean co., Ill. Pop. 859.
Cropsey (JASPER FRANK), an American landscape-
painter, born at Westfield, Richmond Co., N. Y., Feb. 18,
1823. He became a resident of England in 1856. Among
his works are “The Sibyl's Temple” and “Niagara Falls.”
Crop'well, a post-tp. of St. Clair co., Ala. Pop. 1080.
Croquet, kroſkáſ [etymology uncertain], the French
name of a game recently revived from obscurity, and in-
troduced into this country. It is played with wooden balls
and mallets, the object of the game being to propel a ball
through a number of hoops or arches fastened into the
ground to a fixed goal (turning-post), and thence back to
the starting-point (winning-post). The laws of the game
have been explained in various treatises. The game is a
modification of the ancient sport called “pell-mell.” The
best place to play croquet on is a level grass-plot or lawn.
It can be played by from two to eight persons.
Crosſby, a township of Hamilton co., O. Pop. 2514.
Crosby (ALPHEUs), an American educator, born at
Sandwich, N. H., Oct. 13, 1810, graduated at Dartmouth in
1827, was tutor and professor of ancient languages in his
alma mater (1829–57), and principal of the normal school
at Salem, Mass. (1857–65). He edited Xenophon’s “Ana-
basis,” and published a Greek grammar and other works,
which have been extensively used.
Crosby (Rev. HowARD), D.D., LL.D., was born in New
York City Feb. 27, 1826, graduated at the New York Uni-
versity in 1844, became professor of Greek in the same
in 1851, professor of Greek in Rutgers College, N.J., in
1859, pastor of First Presbyterian church in New Bruns-
wick in 1861, resigned his pastorate in 1862, and his pro-
fessorship in 1863, when he became pastor of the Fourth
Avenue Presbyterian church in New York City. In 1870
he was elected chancellor of the University of New York.
Of bold, ardent, and energetic temper, his scholarship has
always been put to popular use. Besides other works, he
has published “Lands of the Moslem . (1850), “GEdipus
Tyrannus” (1851), “Notes on the New Testament” (1861),
“Bible Manual” (1870), “Life of Jesus” (1871).
Crosby (PIERCE), U. S. N., born Jan. 16, 1824, in Penn-
sylvania, entered the navy as a midshipman in 1838, be-
came a passed midshipman in 1844, a lieutenant in 1853, a
commander in 1862, and a captain in 1868. He served
on the E. coast of Mexico during the Mexican War, and in
1861 was employed with the army, and rendered most im-
portant service in Chesapeake Bay and in the sounds of
North Carolina, particularly at the capture of Forts Hat-
teras and Clarke, where he was highly complimented for
“ his efficient services” by Major-General Butler, who com-
manded the land forces in the attack. He commanded the
Pinola at the passage of Forts St. Philip and Jackson
and capture of New Orleans, April 24, 1862, and at the
passages up and down the Mississippi past the Vicksburg
batteries, June 30 and July 15, 1862. He did good service
during the years 1863–64 in command of the Florida and
Keystone State, North Atlantic blockading Squadron, and
in 1865 commanded the steamer Metacomet during the
operations which led to the fall of Mobile. , His services
are thus highly spoken of by Rear-Admiral Thatcher in
his official despatch to the navy department of April 12,
1865: “I am also much indebted to Commander Crosby,
who has been untiring in freeing the Blakely River of tor-
pedoes, having succeeded in removing over 150—a service
demanding coolness, judgment, and perseverance.”
- Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Croſsier, or Crozier [Late Lat. cruciarium, from crata:
(gen. crucis), a “cross;” Fr. crosse], a staff surmounted by
a cross, which is carried before an archbishop on Solemn
occasions. It is about five feet long and is hollow. The
term is also somewhat incorrectly applied to the pastoral
staff of Roman Catholic bishops, which is curved at the top
in imitation of a shepherd's crook. -
Crosſland’s, a township of Tuscarora co., Ala. P. 316.
Crosſman (ALExANDER F.), U.S. N., born June 11, 1838,
at St. Louis, Mo., graduated at the Naval Academy in 1855,
became a master in 1858, a lieutenant in 1861, a lieutenant-
76 -
1202
CROSS—CROSS-EXAMINATION.
commander in 1862, and a commander in 1870. He was at-
tached to the steam-frigate Wabash during 1863 and 1864,
during which period he was constantly in action on shore in
co-operation with the army. He was with the naval brigade
at the severe engagements of Boyd’s Neck and Tulifinny
Cross-Roads Nov. 30 and Dec. 6, 1864,
and honorably mentioned in the of
ficial report of Commander George H.
Preble of Jan. 10, 1865. Drowned at
Greytown, Nicaragua, April 12, 1872.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Cross [Gr. a ravpós; Lat. crata:
(gen. crucis); Fr. croiae; Sp. cruz;
Ger. Kreuz; It. croce], an instru-
ment anciently used for inflicting the
punishment of death, for ever memo-
rable as the means of our Saviour’s
passion. As its Greek name indi-
cates, it was often a simple stake,
upon which the victim was either im-
paled or tied. There were also other
forms, as the cruac decussato, or Saint
Andrew’s cross (X); the cruac com-
missa, or Saint Anthony’s cross (T);
and the cruac immissa (t ), upon
which, according to uniform tradi-
tion, our Lord suffered. (See CRUCI-
FIXION.)
Cross, in heraldry, an ordinary
formed by lines drawn palewise and
fesswise, enclosing (if bounded by
the escutcheon) one-fifth of the shield,
or one-third if charged. It is one of the honorable ordi-
naries, and occurs with many varieties of forms.
Cross, a county in the N. E. of Arkansas. Area, 600
square miles. The soil is very fertile, partly level and
partly hilly; cotton, grain, and fruit are raised. Timber is
abundant. It is intersected by the St. Francis River. Cap-
ital, Wiltsburg. Pop. 3915.
Cross, a township of Howard co., Md. Pop. 1734.
Cross, a township of Buffalo co., Wis. Pop. 564.
Cross (CHARLEs E.), an American officer, born in Mas-
sachusetts in 1837, graduated at West Point in the engineer
corps in 1861, and at the time of his death was a captain
of engineers, U. S. A. He served in constructing the de-
fences of Washington, and on engineer duty in Manassas
campaign of 1861; in Peninsula campaign of 1862 (bre-
vet major July 1, 1862); and at the battle of Antietam,
Sept. 17, 1862 (brevet lieutenant-colonel); at the battle of
Fredericksburg Dec., 1862, at the battle of Chancellors-
ville May, 1863; and while in charge of bridge details at
the third crossing of the Rappahannock this gallant and
accomplished officer was shot through the brain, and in-
stantly killed, June 5, 1863. Brevet-colonel June 5, 1863.
G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Eng’rs.
Cross (GEORGE D.), born at Westerly, R.I., Jan. 24,
1799, was for many years a prominent and public-spirited
citizen of his native town and State, and was for a long
time chief-justice of the common pleas court of Wash-
ington co. Died Oct. 1, 1872. t
Cross (Jose PH), D. D., a clergyman, first of the Metho-
dist Episcopal Church, afterwards of the Protestant Episco-
pal Church, born in Somersetshire, England, in 1813. He
removed to the U. S. about 1825, and published various
works, among which are “Life and Sermons of Christmas
Evans,” “Headlands of Faith,” and contributions to peri-
Odical literature.
Cross (TRUEMAN), an American officer, born in Mary-
land, appointed an ensign in the Forty-second Infantry,
U. S. A., April 27, 1814, second lieutenant Oct., 1814, first
lieutenant Jam. 18, captain and assistant deputy quarter-
master-general June 18, assistant inspector-general (rank
of major) Oct., 1820. He served in the infantry 1821–26,
when he was transferred to quartermaster department;
colonel and assistant quartermaster-general July, 1838.
Killed April 21, 1846, by Mexican banditti near the camp
opposite Matamoras, Tex., while serving as chief quarter-
master Army of Occupation.
Cross Anchor, a township and post-village of Spar-
tamburg co., S. C. Pop. 1833.
Cross-Bill, the name of several birds of the genus
Loacia. The Loacia curvirostra inhabits the north of Eu-
rope, and feeds on pine-cones, seeds, and nuts, its strong
bill enabling it to break the shells with ease. The mandi-
bles of the bill cross each other, and are crescent-shaped,
The bird is about seven inches long, and subject to great
changes of color. The older birds are of a greenish-yellow,
spotted with white, and have a gray tinge. The males of
a year old are red. The cross-bills migrate southward in
winter, and are sometimes seen in England. The American
cross-bill (Loacia Americana) is distinct from the European,
but much resembles it. It is a northern bird, but is some-
times found in Pennsylvania. It feeds on seeds and buds
Rºžº
* * * * *-* *-* T-- • -
Parrot, CrOSS-Bill.
of trees. The male is red, but of a whitish color beneath. The
parrot cross-bill (Loacia pityopsittacus) is seven inches and a
half long, of a tile-red color, with dark streaks below. It is
similar to the common cross-bill in its habits. It is some-
times seen in England and France. The European white-
winged cross-bill (Loacia bifasciata) is six and a quarter
inches long. It is of a brick-red orange or grayish-brown
above, reddish-orange beneath; it is a rare species. The
American white-winged cross-bill (Loacia leucoptera) is of
a crimson color, with black wings and tail; the wings have
two white bands. It is about six inches in length. This
bird is rarely seen farther S. than New York.
Cross-Bow. See ARBALEST.
Cross Creek, a township of Cumberland co., N. C.
Pop. 147.
Cross Creek, a township of Jefferson co., O. P. 1800.
Cross Creek, a post-township of Washington co., Pa.
Pop. 1034.
Cross Creek, a township of Brook co., W. Va.
1907.
Crosse (ANDREW), an English gentleman who gained
distinction by his experiments in electricity, was born in
Somersetshire June 17, 1784, and was educated at Oxford.
He commenced in 1807 experiments with a view to form
artificial crystals by a voltaic battery, in which he was suc-
cessful. In the course of many years spent in this pursuit
he obtained not less than twenty-four mineral crystals simi-
lar in form to those produced by nature. These discoveries
were not published until he explained them before the
British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1836.
Some excitement was produced in the same year by the ap-
parent generation of insects of the genus Acarus during his
experiments with a voltaic battery. (See SPONTANEous
GENERATION.) "Died July 6, 1855.
Cros'sen, a town of Prussia, in the province of Bran-
denburg, at the confluence of the Bober with the Oder, 32
miles S. E. of Frankfort. It has manufactures of woollen
cloth and hosiery. Pop. in 1871, 6977.
Cross=|Examination, in the law of evidence, is the
examination of a witness by a party against whom he is
called to testify, and is thus distinguished from a direct
examination, which is had by the party calling the witness.
The range of a cross-examination is much wider than that
of a direct examination, the party examining being allowed
to impeach the credit of the witness, and to show the in-
consistency of his statements, his bias, his want of memory,
and other matters tending to reduce the value of his testi-
mony. The course of the examination, depending on the
circumstances of the case, must be largely left to the dis-
cretion of the presiding judge. For these reasons leading
questions are regularly allowed, though they are in general
excluded on the direct examination, as tending to make
the answers of the witness mere echoes of the questions
asked. It is, however, a rule that if a merely collateral
question be asked and answered, the cross-examining
counsel will not be allowed to call witnesses to disprove the
Pop.

CROSS HILL–CROUP.
1203
truth of the answer. This rule would not extend to a
question as to the point whether the witness had not pre-
viously given a different version of the facts from that to
which he testifies. If such a question is properly put to
him as to time, place, and circumstances, and he answers
in the negative, he can be contradicted by other witnesses.
The same remark may be made as to a question put to him
as to expressions used by him showing hostility towards
the party against whom he is called. A witness on cross-
examination cannot be required to answer whether he has
committed a crime the commission of which would subject
him to punishment, or has done any act which would sub-
ject him to a forfeiture of his estate; though this rule does
not extend to an answer which would merely expose him to
a civil liability. So he may, to a certain extent, be com-
pºd to answer questions tending to discredit and degrade
im. Thus, according to the better opinion, he may be
asked whether he has not been confined in the State prison,
as the object of the question is not to exclude him from tes-
tifying, but to affect the credit due to his statements. He
could be shown to be incompetent to testify only by the pro-
duction of the record of his conviction. The true theory
of a cross-examination is to qualify the direct testimony,
and accordingly the witness should not at this stage of the
case be called on by the cross-examining counsel to give
independent testimony sustaining his part of the issue,
though this rule is not always adhered to in practice. (See
Evid ENCE.) º T. W. D WIGHT.
Cross Hill, a township and village of Laurens co.,
S. C. The village is 45 miles S. of Spartanburg. Total
pop. 2393.
Cross Keys, a township of Macon co., Ala. Pop. 2560.
Cross Keys, a township and post-village of Union co.,
S. C. Total pop. 1349.
Cross Keys, a post-office of Rockingham co., Va. An
indecisive action took place here on June 8, 1862, between
the armies under command of Gens. Fremont and Jackson.
Gen. Fremont's forces attacked “Stonewall’s ” army at 9
A. M. The battle continued with great violence till 4 P. M.,
and skirmishing and artillery fire till dark. During the
night Jackson’s army retreated.
Cross Plains, a township and post-village of Dane
co., Wis., on the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R. Total
pop. 1506.
Cross River, a post-village of Lewisboro’ township,
Westchester co., N.Y., contains a number of manufactories.
Cross Roads, a township of Blount co., Ala. P. 770.
Cross Roads, a township of Etowah co., Ala. P. 345.
Cross Roads, a township of Madison co.; Ala. P. 336.
Cross Roads, a township of Pike co., Ala. P. 1120.
Cross Roads, a township of Wilson co., N. C. P. 694.
Cross, The Order of the, originally a spiritual
order of knighthood, which was founded in Palestine in
the time of the Crusades, and was then called the “Beth-
lehemite Order.” In 1211 the knights of this order adopted
the monastic life, and settled in Austria, Bohemia, and
other parts of Europe. They still have two establishments
in Austria, and one in the Netherlands. They are called
“Canons Regular of the Holy Cross.” The “Regular
Clerks of the Holy Cross” were founded in 1834, in
France, by Abbé Moreau. They had in the U. S. in 1868
about 170 members. A congregation of “Daughters of
the Holy Cross” was founded in the seventeenth century
in France, and numbered in 1870 about 500 members. A
second congregation of the same name was founded in
1835 in Belgium.
Cross, The Southern, the most conspicuous constel-
lation of the southern hemisphere, is not visible in the
northern hemisphere, except in regions near the equator.
It consists of four bright stars arranged in the form of a
cross. The two stars which mark the summit and foot of
the cross have nearly the same right ascension, and serve
as pointers to the South Pole.
Cross/ville, a post-village, capital of Cumberland co.,
Tenn., about 110 miles E. of Nashville. Pop. 95.
Crosſwell (EDw1N), an American politician and jour-
malist, born at Catskill, N. Y., in May, 1797, was a member
of the Albany Regency. He became about 1824 editor of
the “Albany Argus,” a Democratic journal of great in-
fluence, which he continued to direct until 1854. Died
June 13, 1871.
Crotaia’ria [from the Gr. kpóraxov, a “rattle”], a genus
of plants of the natural order Leguminosae, sub-order Pap-
ilionaceae, deriving its name from the inflated pods in which
the ripe seeds rattle. It comprises numerous species, partly
annual herbaceous plants and partly shrubs. The most im-
portant of them is the Crotalaria juncea, the sunn hemp of
India, an annual plant extensively cultivated for its fibre,
which is considered equal to Russian hemp. The Crotataria
sagittalis, or “rattle-box,” is a small annual growing in
most of the U. S. Several other species grow in the South-
ern States and the West.
Crotalus. See RATTLESNAKE.
Crotch (WILLIAM), an English composer of music, born
at Norwich July 5, 1775. He became professor of music
at Oxford University in 1797. He published “Styles of
Music of All Ages.” Died Dec. 29, 1847.
Crotch/et [Fr. crochet, diminutive of croche, a “hook”],
in music, one of the notes or characters of time, equal to
half a minim.
Croſton [Gr. kpótov], a genus of trees, shrubs, and herbs
of the order Euphorbiaceae; the species are numerous and
mostly tropical. Some of them possess the acrid proper-
ties of their order in excess. One of the most important is
the Croton Tiglium, which yields croton oil. It is a native
of the tropical parts of Asia. The seeds were formerly used
as a purgative, but their use is disapproved on account of
their uncertain and violent action; they are now chiefly
valuable for the oil which they yield. Some species of
croton are fragrant and aromatic, and are employed in
medicine. One of these is the CASCARILLA (which see).
Eight species are native to the Southern States.
Croton, a post-township of Newaygo co., Mich. P. 923.
Croton, a village of Cortlandt township, Westchester
co., N. Y., on the E. bank of the Hudson River and on the
Hudson River R. R., 35 miles from New York and 4 miles
above Sing Sing. It has four churchés, five brickyards, a
foundry, and a fine brick railroad station. There are many
fine country residences. Croton is justly celebrated for the
beauty of its scenery. Croton Point, in the vicinity, is a
peninsula, which contains numerous thriving vineyards.
Croto/na, or Croſton, an ancient Greek city of Italy,
was in the peninsula of the Bruttii, and on the Mediterra-
mean Sea. It was founded 710 B. C., and became a popu-
lous and important city. The people of Crotona waged
war with success against the Sybarites in 510 B. C. This
city was the residence of Pythagoras, and the native place
of Milo, a famous athlete. The site is now occupied by
the town of CoTRONE (which see).
Croton Aqueduct. See AQUEDUCT, by GEN. M. C.
MEIGs, U. S. Army.
Croton Falls, a post-village of Westchester co., N.Y.,
in North Salem and Somers townships, on the Harlem
R. R., 48 miles, from New York. It has good water-power.
Croton Oil (Oleum Tiglii) is the expressed oil of the
seeds of Croton Tiglium, a small tree which grows in Him-
dostan, Ceylon, and other parts of India. In taste it is
hot and acrid, varies from a pale yellow to a reddish-brown
color, has a faint, peculiar smell, and is miscible with alco-
hol, ether, and oil of turpentine. It is a powerful purga-
tive, valuable because it can be employed with good effect
in very minute portions. Great care must be used in its
administration. It is applied externally as a counter-irri-
tant in neuralgia, epilepsy, and pulmonary diseases. The
pale oil comes directly from India; that of a darker color
is expressed after importation.
Croton River rises in Dutchess co., N. Y., flows south
and south-westward through Putnam and Westchester coun-
ties. It enters the Hudson River about 35 miles above New
York City, which derives from this river its supply of water.
Its length is estimated at 50 miles.
Croup. All the forms of croup have one thing in com-
mon—viz. an obstruction (catarrhal or inflammatory) in
the interior of the larynx, particularly on the vocal chords.
The milder form is called “false croup’’ or “pseudo-croup.”
The larynx is reddened, its mucous membrane swelled, and
its secretion of mucus usually increased. Thereby the pas-
sage of air through the larynx is impeded, and spasmodic
action of its muscular apparatus effected. It is frequently
found in children who have before suffered from “colds,”
especially from catarrh of the throat and enlarged tonsils,
and who have been too carefully kept from the contact
with cold air and cold water. The attack of “pseudo-
croup” is sudden or preceded by nasal or bronchial catarrh.
It takes place after the child has been asleep for some
hours. It wakes up about midnight with a barking cough,
loud and laborious respiration, small and frequent pulse,
and more or less fever. In bad cases the veins of the neck
and face swell, the face is bloated and bluish, and Suffoca-
tion appears imminent. This attack may last from half an
hour to six hours. It terminates in perspiration, the cough
becoming moister, the voice being hoarse, but may return in
the next night. Some children are apt to have many attacks
in the course of many years. There are no membranes in
the throat, no glands swollen round the neck. A very severe
1204
CROW–CROWN.
attack requires an emetic (powdered ipecac, sulphate of
zinc, sulphate of copper, turpeth mineral); milder attacks
require very little or no treatment. Let the child drink a
little hot milk at short intervals. It must not sleep longer
than an hour at a time, and should take a drink on waking
up. Put a mustard-plaster round the neck, or apply cold
water at short intervals. Where the throat is sore, ice-pills
every five or ten minutes; where inhalation is very spas-
modic, half a teaspoonful of paregoric (one dose) or one
grain of Dover's powder. Treat the consecutive general
catarrh for four or five days with uniform warm (not hot)
temperature of the room, warm water inhalations (kettle on
the stove), small doses (hourly) of ipecac, or an antimonial
preparation or muriate of ammonia. Where there is a
chronic catarrh of the throat (dryness, redness, swelled
tonsils, hacking cough, Snoring), a teaspoonful of glycerine
as a preventive at bed-time.
While this “pseudo-croup,” commonly called “croup,”
is a very mild disease—we have never seen a case termi-
nating fatally—the other form, or “true croup,” “mem-
branous croup,” is very dangerous. Under ordinary cir-
cumstances, and with a treatment exclusively medicinal,
ninety out of a hundred die. It consists sometimes in
simple inflammatory swelling (“laryngitis”), but usually
in the obstruction of the larynx by a deposit of a whitish,
grayish, or (through admixture with a little blood) darker
“croupous” or “ diphtheritic * membrane. The deposit may
take place upon or into the normal tissue of the organ. It
seldom originates in the larynx; sometimes ascends from
the trachea ; mostly descends from the throat, where it is
discovered in one or more small spots or over a larger sur-
face. In exceptional cases it extends over the interior sur-
face of the nose and the mouth. Such deposits may be
known to exist for days; they will then descend, result
in hoarseness, increasing to complete absence of voice
(aphonia), and in great difficulty of respiration, with final
suffocation. When the deposits cover the whole interior of
the larynx, both inspiration and expiration are impeded,
and aphonia is complete. When they result in serous
(watery) swelling of the larynx (especially the posterior
insertion of the vocal chords) only, expiration is easier
and the voice not entirely suppressed. . The first stage is
either that of throat diphtheria or of a simple catarrh only,
which is attended with but little fever, and therefore little
thought of. It may last a few days. In the second stage
(twelve hours to fourteen days) the symptoms of obstruc-
tion show themselves; the voice is hoarse, and at last ab-
sent; respiration is slow, labored, and loud; the muscles
of the neck and chest exerted to their utmost ; the insertion
of the diaphragm drawn in with every inspiration, deep
grooves forming with every inspiration above and below
the clavicle, the child tossing about, supporting itself on
its knees, and throwing the head backward. The lips be-
gin to exhibit a bluish hue. This symptom (cyanosis) in-
creases in the third stage, where the influence of the
insufficient oxygenization of the blood is more visible in
general paleness, bluishness, in sleepiness, in the frequent
and irregular pulse, in the cool surface, convulsive twitch-
ings, and loss of consciousness. Unfortunately, the latter
symptom is not constant, many children dying with undis-
turbed intellect. Death is the result of direct suffocation,
or the result of a complication of the disease with bronchitis
or pneumonia. Medicinal treatment is very unsatisfactory.
We seldom succeed in dissolving and removing the mem-
branes. Nitrate-of-silver applications to the larynx have
justly been discarded. Inhalation of diluted lime-water
through an atomizer or of lactic acid in glycerine and water
(1: 8–10) has proved successful in a few instances. Emetics
are of use in such cases only where the membranes are known
to be partially loosened (peculiar flapping sound in respi-
ration), or when the presence of mucus, in addition to a
membrane, proves dangerous. Ice-pills frequently, ice ap-
plications to the throat, moist air, 1–2 grains of chlorate
of potassa in a teaspoonful of water every 3–1 hour; in-
halations of carbolic acid, either through an atomizer or
sprinkled through the room; muriate of ammonia evapo-
rated on a stove or hot coal,—all such means may be tried,
but not to such an extent as to interfere with a copious
supply of pure air, the effect of which may still be improved
by inhalation of oxygen gas. Where the disease runs its
course with fever, quinia, seldom aconite or veratrum.
Most cases will resist treatment. Twenty or twenty-five
per cent. will be saved by tracheotomy, an operation con-
sisting in the artificial opening of the windpipe below the
obstructed larynx. This opening in the trachea is kept
patent by means of a silver or hard-rubber tube inserted
in it until the disease has disappeared from the larynx. The
relief given by this operation is surprising, and although
the mortality after its performance is still very great, death
is almost always easier, resulting more from exhaustion
than from suffocation. ABRAHAM JACOBI.
Crow [Ang-Sax. crawe, so called from the sound pro-
duced by the bird], a name popularly applied to several
birds of the genus Corvus, which includes also the ravens,
the rooks, the daws, and some other birds. The carrion
crow of Europe is called in England by various names—
flesh crow, black crow, etc. Its feathers are very black and
glossy, with reflections of green and purple. It is a cau-
tious and intelligent bird, and feeds on flesh.
The common American crow (Corvus Americanus) is not
so large as the preceding. Its voice is less harsh, and it is
somewhat gregarious in its habits. Its color is a glossy
blue-black. It inhabits the civilized parts of North Amer-
ica. It is hated and persecuted by farmers for its destruc-
tion of Indian corn and the eggs and young of other birds,
but has great cunning and tenacity of life. These crows
are found more especially in the Northern than the South-
ern States, as they are unable to contend with the vultures
which abound in the latter. Many devices have been em-
ployed to exterminate them, without much success. They
accomplish some good by devouring the grubs of injurious
insects. -
The fish crow of the U. S. (Corvus ossifragus) is sixteen
inches long, black, and resembles the common crow, but is
Somewhat smaller, and may be distinguished by the naked
chin. Other American species are the white-necked crow
of Arizona (Corvus cryptoleucus) and the fish crow of Puget
Sound (Corvus caurinus).
The hooded crow of Europe (Corvus cornia) resembles the
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others in habits, but is more mischievous. It is of a shiny
black, but its neck, back, and under parts are of a smoky.
gray. It is extremely sagacious; it is found in all parts of
Europe.
Crow’der’s Mountain, a post-township of Gaston
co., N. C. Pop. 1931.
Crown [Lat. corona ; Fr. couronne : Ger. Krone], orig-
inally a fillet of leaves, and used by the ancients in the
observance of religious rites and festive occasions. The
Greeks used the crown as a symbol of office and a token
of victory. It was not only bestowed on victors in the
games, but also on citizens who had rendered great services
to the country. The Romans used it as the reward of
courage. The corona obsidionalis was most highly prized;
this was bestowed by a besieged army or town on the gen-
eral who came to their rescue. The civic crown, made of
oak leaves and acorns, was given to any soldier who had
saved the life of a citizen. This gave him a place next
the senators on public occasions, and he, his father, and
grandfather were released from all public burdens. The
person whose life he had saved owed to him filial duty ever
after. The corona muralis was bestowed on the first who
entered a beleaguered city. It was a circlet of gold sur-
mounted by turrets. The corona triumphalis was of three
kinds, and the reward of a victorious general. *







|
CROWN AND HALF CROWN-CRUIKSHANK.
1205
The modern crown was introduced by Constantine I.
(“the Great”), whose reign began in 306. Crowns were
first used by Spanish kings about 580, by the kings of
Lombardy about 590, and in France in 768. The papal
triple crown was at first a plain pointed cap. Pope Hor-
misdas added the first crown (523), Boniface VIII. the
second (1294–1303), and John XXII. the third (1316–34).
Crown and Half Crown were originally English
gold coins issued by Henry VIII. in 1527. The first com-
mission for coining them of silver was signed by Edward
VI. Oct. 1, 1551. The crown at present is a silver coin
worth five shillings sterling—about $1.25 U.S. in silver.
Crown Creek, a township of Stearns co., Minn. Pop.
Crown Glass, the glass usually employed for win-
dows. It is made of a mixture of 100 parts of sand, 35 of
soda-ash or potash, and 35 of chalk. It is essentially a
silicate of soda (or potash) and lime.
Crown Imperial. See FRITILLARY.
Crownſingshield (A. S.), U. S. N., born Mar. 14, 1843,
in the State of New York, graduated as ensign at the
Naval Academy in 1863, became a lieutenant in 1866, and
a lieutenant-commander in 1868. He served in the steam-
sloop Ticonderoga in both the Fort Fisher fights, and was
commended for efficiency by his commanding officer, Capt.
Charles Steedman. Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Crown Point, a post-village, capital of Lake co., Ind.,
on the Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. Louis R. R., 41 miles
S. S. E. of Chicago. It has six churches, four graded
schools, two banks, and a public library. Two weekly
newspapers are published here.
FRANK S. BEDELL, ED. CRowN Point “REGISTER.”
Crown Point, a post-village and township of Essex
co., N. Y. The township was first settled by the French,
who in 1731 built Fort St. Frederick (the “Crown Point”
of history) on a long cape projecting into Lake Champlain,
which became the seat of thriving settlements, which were
destroyed in 1759, and again in 1777, by the British troops.
In 1775 it was surprised and taken by the provincial
forces. The British fort at Crown Point, which cost
$10,000,000, is now in a ruinous condition. Crown Point
has extensive beds of rich iron oré and mineral phosphate
of lime. Iron, lumber, and wooden wares are manufac-
tured on an extensive scale. It has a lighthouse. Pop.
of township, 2449.
Crown Prince [Ger. Kron Prinz], in Prussia, Sweden,
and some other European countries, is the title of the heir-
apparent to the throne.
Crown, Treaty of the, a treaty made at Vienna.
Nov. 16, 1700, in which the emperor Leopold recognized.
the elector Frederick III. as king of Prussia. Frederick
engaged to furnish 10,000 men to support Austria in the
Diet, and to vote as elector for the descendants of the em-
peror's son, Joseph, king of the Romans. ^
Crows, or Absoro’kas, a tribe of American Indians
inhabiting the northern part of Wyoming Territory and
the southern part of Montana. They are divided into
“Mountain ’’ and “River Crows,” and belong to the great
Dakota family.
Crow Wing, a county in N. Central Minnesota. Area,
540 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. and W. by
the Mississippi River, and partly on the E. by Lake Mille
Lacs. Capital, Crow Wing. It is intersected by the
Northern Pacific R. R. Pop. 200.
Crow Wing, a post-village, capital of the above
county, is on the Mississippi River opposite the mouth of
a small stream called the Crow Wing, and 120 miles N. W.
of St. Paul.
Croy'dom, a market-town of England, in the county
of Surrey, on the London and Brighton Railway, 10% miles
S. of London Bridge. It has a fine Gothic church. The
archbishops of Canterbury had a palace here until 1750.
About a mile from Croydon is Addiscombe House, which
became a military academy, and is now called the Royal
India Military College. Pop. 20,325.
Croy'don, a post-township of Sullivan co., N. H.
Pop. 652.
Croyle, a township of Cambria co., Pa. Pop. 886.
Cro'zer Theological Sem’inary (Baptist) is lo-
cated at Upland, Pa., 14 miles from Philadelphia, on the
Philadelphia Wilmington and Baltimore R. R. It was
founded and endowed through the liberality of the mem-
bers of the Crozer family, residents of Upland and Phila-
delphia, in 1868. It has (1873) 4 professors, 50 students,
an endowment of $230,000, and a seminary building,
library building, gymnasium, and three professors’ houses,
delightfully situated on grounds twenty acres in extent.
Crozet (CLAUDE), an eminent educator, born in France,
educated at the Polytechnic School of Paris, became an
officer of artillery under Napoleon I. He emigrated to
this country in 1816, and was appointed professor of en-
gineering at the U. S. Military Academy at West Point;
resigned in 1823, and became a civil engineer. Died in
1863.
Cru’cible [Late Lat. crucibulum ; see below], a vessel
employed by chemists in heating and fusing metallic ores,
glass, and other substances. Crucibles are generally made
of materials capable of resisting high temperatures, sueh
as fireclay, plumbago, porcelain, platinum, and silver.
Crucibles are said to have been so called because they were
formerly marked with a cross (Lat. cruac, gen, crucis),
which was thought by the alchemists to protect them from
evil spirits.
Cruciferae [Lat. from crwc (gen. crucis), a “cross,”
and fero, to “bear,” alluding to the cross-shaped flowers],
a large and well-marked order of exogenous herbs, charac-
terized by flowers with four petals arranged in the form of
a cross, and by two long and two short stamens. The
seed-vessels are siliques, silicles, loments, or nut-like fruits.
The juice is usually acrid, but none of the order are poison-
ous. Among the cultivated Cruciferae are the cabbage,
turnip, rape, and mustard. The wallflower, stock-gilli-
flower, etc. are valued in ornamental horticulture. The
number of genera is about 175, and the known species are
over 1600.
Cru’cifix, a cross with an image of Christ upon it, either
carved or painted. At first only the naked cross was used;
then (in the time of Paulinus of Nola, 353–431 A. D.) the
cross with a lamb at its foot to represent Christ. Justin II.
(565–578) gave the bishop of Rome a cross with a bust of
Christ at the top and bottom, and a lamb in the middle.
From about 692 to the twelfth century, Christ was repre-
sented as alive and clothed, with his hands extended in
prayer. In the twelfth century four nails were used, the
feet side by side. From the thirteenth century only three
nails were used, and Christ was represented as dead or
dying, with only a girdle about his loins.
Crucifix’ion [Lat. crucificio, from crucifigo, crucifia:-
wm, to “crucify,” from crwac, crucis, a “cross,” and figo,
fiacum, to “fix” or “fasten’], literally, “fastening on the
cross,” a form of capital punishment common among almost
all ancient nations, except the Jews, who in their later his-
tory probably borrowed it from the Romans. The hang-
ing on a tree spoken of in Deuteronomy xxi. 22 apparently
has reference to crucifixion after death. Tradition ascribes
its invention to Semiramis. It consisted in nailing or
binding the criminal to a CRoss (which see), where he was
left until dead from hunger or exhaustion. The legs were
frequently broken to hasten death; sometimes, however, a
fire was lighted under the cross for the same purpose, or
wild beasts were let loose upon those crucified. The body
was usually left on the cross till destroyed by the action of
the elements. Crucifixion was abolished by Constantine
the Great, probably in the year 315.
This inhuman form of punishment was visited upon
Christ by the Jews, in accordance with the unwilling sen-
tence of Pontius Pilate. In addition to the scourging,
which seems to have been a legal part of the punishment,
he was forced to wear the crown of thorns, and subjected
to other indignities by the brutality of the soldiers and
populace. (See the accounts given in the four Gospels.)
Cru’den (ALExANDER), author of the “Concordance,”
was born at Aberdeen, in Scotland, May 31, 1700. He was
educated for the ministry of the Kirk, but never preached,
having had his reason unsettled by disappointment in
love. In 1722 he removed to London, and taught the
classics, and shortly after to the Isle of Man. In 1732 he
returned to London and opened a bookstore. In 1735 he
became librarian to Queen Caroline, wife of George II.
In 1737 he published his “Complete Concordance of the
Old and New Testaments,” which is still the best in our
language. He was several times an inmate of lunatic asy-
lums, and during all the latter part of his life was flighty
and extravagant. He set up as a reformer, calling him-
self. “Alexander the Corrector.” He died suddenly at
Islington, Nov. 1, 1770.
Cru’ger (Boscobel Post-office), a village of Cort-
land township, Westchester co., N. Y., on the Hudson
River and on the Hudson River R. R., 4 miles S. of Peeks-
kill. It has extensive manufactories of brick.
Cruik'shank (GEORGE), an English caricaturist, son
of an engraver originally from Scotland, was born in Lon-
don Sept. 28, 1792. He illustrated William Hone's satiri-
cal works. His comic humor and fertile imagination were
displayed in illustrations for “The Comic Almanac,”
“Peter Schlemihl,” “Oliver Twist,” and “My Sketch-
1206
CRUIKSHANK–CRUSTACEA.
Book.” With his brother RoPIRT (1790–1856) he pro-
duced “Life in London.” In 1848 appeared “The Bot-
tle,” eight plates depicting the drunkard's career. He
subsequently devoted himself to oil painting.
Cruikshank (WILLIAM), F. R. S. L., a Scottish anato-
mist, born in Edinburgh in 1746. He became a resident
of London, and a partner of Dr. William Hunter. He
published, besides other works, “Anatomy of the Absorb-
ent Vessels” (1786). Died June 27, 1800.
Crusade [from the Sp. cruzada (from cruz, a “cross”);
Catalan, crusada ; Fr. croisade : It. crociata ; Ger. Kreuz-
zug|, i. e. a war waged for the defence or advancement of
the cross, but applied especially to the religious wars car-
ried on by the Christians of the Middle Ages for the re-
covery of Palestine from the Mohammedans. From a very
early period the Christians were in the habit of making
pilgrimages to Jerusalem and other parts of Palestine
rendered sacred by events connected with the Saviour's life
and death. These pilgrimages continued with but little
opposition till the year 1065, when Palestine, then gov-
erned by the Egyptian caliphs, was overrun and conquered
by hordes of Seljook Turks. The accounts (doubtless often
exaggerated) of the indignities inflicted on the Christian
residents and pilgrims by these barbarians produced a deep
and powerful impression in all parts of Christendom. At
length, Peter the Hermit, a monk and native of Amiens in
France, having visited Palestine and witnessed the cruelty
of the Turks, reported what he had seen to Urban II., by
whom encouraged, he travelled through Italy and France,
and by his zeal and eloquence excited an extraordinary re-
ligious enthusiasm among all classes. In 1095, at a council
held at Clermont, a crusade was resolved on. On this occa-
sion the pope himself addressed the multitude. Previous
to the setting out of the true crusade, four armies, consist-
ing of disorderly multitudes of the very dregs of Christen-
dom, had departed for Palestine. The first consisted of
20,000 foot, commanded by Walter the Penniless. It marched
through Hungary, but was almost entirely destroyed by the
natives of Bulgaria, a few only escaping to Constantinople.
It was followed by a second, consisting of 40,000 men,
women, and children, under Peter the Hermit. The two
united at Constantinople, crossed the Bosphorus, and en-
countered the Turks at Nice. They were utterly routed.
Another unorganized band of 15,000 Germans was cut to
pieces in Hungary, and its fate was shortly shared by an
immense mob of 200,000 persons from England, France,
Flanders, and Lorraine. It was only now that the true
crusaders entered upon the scene. Six armies, embracing
all the chivalry of Europe, and led respectively by Godfrey
of Bouillon, Hugh the Great (count of Vermandois), Robert
Curthose, Count Robert of Flanders, Prince Bohemond of
Tarentum (under whom was Tancred), and Count Raymond
of Toulouse, set forth for Constantinople. Having united
their forces and spent some time at this place, they crossed
into Asia Minor . Here their first step was the capture of
Nice in June, 1097. They also defeated the sultan Soliman
at Dorylaeum, and took the principality of Edessa. They
then marched into Syria, and laid siege to Antioch. After
a seven months’ siege, during which the crusaders suffered
terribly from famine and disease, the city surrendered. The
inhabitants were massacred by their captors, who were be-
sieged in their turn by an army of 200,000 Mussulmans.
On the 28th of June, 1098, the Mohammedans were put to
rout, and the way opened to Jerusalem. In the summer of
1099, 40,000 crusaders, the remnant of a vast host which
had comprised not less than 600,000 warriors, laid siege to
Jerusalem. The city was taken on the 15th of July, after
a siege of somewhat more than five weeks. Eight days
later Godfrey of Bouillon was elected king of Jerusalem.
The three Latin principalities of the East (Edessa, Anti-
och, and Jerusalem) maintained themselves against the at-
tacks of the Mohammedans till the year 1144, when the
emir of Mosul conquered Edessa and massacredits Christian
inhabitants. His son, Noor-ed-Deen, marched upon Syria.
and Palestine. A second crusade was preached by Saint
Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, and in 1147 two armies, num-
bering together 1,200,000 men, set out for Jerusalem. They
were commanded by Louis VII., king of France, and Con-
rad III., emperor of Germany. This expedition utterly
failed through the treachery of the Greek emperor, Manuel
Comnenus, and neither army ever saw the Holy Land.
In 1187, Salah-ed-Deen (or Saladin), sultan of Egypt,
invaded Palestine, and in October of that year took Jeru-
salem. This event gave rise to a third crusade, under the
leadership of Frederick Barbarossa, emperor of Germany,
Philippe Auguste, king of France, and Richard Coeur-de-
Lion, king of England. Barbarossa was drowned on the
way. The crusaders gained some important victories, but
they were not united among themselves, and the crusade
was closed by a treaty in which Saladin agreed to impose
no taxes on Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem. . In 1195,
Henry VI. of Germany undertook a crusade (sometimes
called the fourth), but the death of the emperor caused the
project to be abandoned. A fourth crusade, instituted by
Pope Innocent III. in 1203, turned from its course to take
possession of the Byzantine empire, and never reached Pal-
estine at all.
The Children's Crusade in 1212 (of which an excellent
account has been written by the Rev. George Zabriskie
Gray, New York, 1870) is one of the strangest episodes in
history. An army of unarmed French children, 30,000
strong, headed by a boy named Stephen, set out for the
Holy Land by way of Marseilles. A similar army of Ger-
man children, 20,000 strong, led by a boy named Nicholas,
crossed the Alps at Mont Cenis. A second army of German
children, numbering nearly 20,000, the name of whose leader
is not known, crossed the Alps by a more westerly route,
touching the sea at Brindisi. Their idea was, that the
Mediterranean would open a path for them to Palestine,
and that the Holy Land would be recovered and the Mos-
lems converted by miracles. Some of the children got dis-
couraged and returned to their homes; many stopped by
the way; but most of them either perished on the march,
were lost at sea, or were sold into slavery.
In 1228, Frederick II. of Germany commanded a fifth
crusade, by which he became master of Palestine and was
crowned king of Jerusalem. -
In 1239, the Turks having again seized upon Jerusalem
a sixth crusade was undertaken, under Thibaud, count of
Champagne. A nominal surrender of the Holy Land was
the result. “
In 1244, Jerusalem was burned and pillaged by a new
race of Turks. A seventh crusade, headed by Louis IX.
(Saint Louis) of France, set out in 1249. It was badly de-
feated by the sultan of Egypt, who also made a prisoner of
the king. Louis obtained his freedom by the payment of
a large ransom. -
The eighth and last crusade was also undertaken by
Saint Louis in 1270. The king died at Carthage of the
plague, and Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I. of Eng-
land, assumed the command of the army. The expedition
accomplished nothing of importance, and in July, 1272, .
Edward returned to England with the last of the crusaders.
The chief result of the Crusades was a better acquaintance
of the people of Western Europe with two civilizations
more advanced than their own—the Greek and the Sara-
cenic. Thus a powerful impulse was given both to the
literature and the commerce of Europe. (See MICHAUD's
“Histoire des Croisades;” HALLAM’s “Middle Ages;”
MILMAN’s “Latin Christianity,” and WILKEN’s “Geschichte
der Kreuzzüge.”) REVISED BY R. D. HITCHCOCK.
Cru'senstolpe (MAGNUs JAKOB), a Swedish author,
born Mar. 11, 1795. He wrote, besides historical novels,
satirical political tracts. His “Positions and Relations”
brought upon him a three years' imprisonment. Many of
his works are translated into German. Died Jan. 18, 1865.
Crushing Machinery. See GRINDING and CRUSH-
ING MACHINERY, by PROF. R. H. THURSTON, C. E.
Crusta/cea [neut. plu. of crustaceus, a Latin adjective
signifying “shelly,” or “having shells” like those of a lob-
ster, from crusta, the “shell of a lobster”], a class of ar-
ticulate animals considered by Linnaeus as insects, but now
universally regarded as distinct, though having interesting
resemblances to that class. They are usually divided into
DECAPODS, TETRADECAPODS, ENTOMOSTRACANs (including
CIRRIPEDs), and ROTIFERs (which see).
The decapods (crabs, lobsters, etc.) are at the head of this
class, but many of the others are of very different forms and
habits. In the most important members of this class the
body is somewhat spindle-shaped, and composed of a num-
ber of articulated rings, allowing of considerable move-
ment. These divisions are sometimes of almost equal size,
having similar appendages. In some cases a few of the
segments attain a higher development than the others, and
the organs of motion are confined to them, while the ap-
pendages of the other segments approach a rudimentary
condition; and in the higher forms the anterior segments
coalesee into a single mass, called the cephalothoraz, which
bears the mouth and organs of motion. By means of a
calcareous secretion the skin is hardened into a skeleton;
this protects the soft parts of the body; a thin membrane
joins the segments. The animal casts off its shell at cer-
tain periods, and a new calcareous secretion is made. The
form of the articulated appendages (legs and feet) is vari-
ous. The nervous system of the Crustacea is formed by a
series of ganglia running along the surface of the body,
united to each other and to a cephalic ganglion or brain by
a pair of nervous filaments, from which nerves proceed to
the different organs of the senses, and is situated above
the oesophagus. The digestive organs show a high degree
CRUVEILHIER—CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
1207
of development. The respiration takes place through bran-
chiae of different forms. The species are mostly unisexual,
and reproduction takes place by ova.
Cruveilhier (JEAN), a French anatomist, born at Li-
moges Feb. 9, 1791. He obtained in 1835 the chair of
pathological anatomy created in Paris by Dupuytren. He
published an important work on “The Pathological An-
atomy of the Human Body” (2 vols., gr. fol., with 233
plates, 1829–40), and other works. Died Mar. 11, 1874.
Cry’olite [from the Gr. kpºos, “ice,” and Aióos, a
“stone * is so named because it melts in the flame of a
candle. It is a double fluoride of aluminium and sodium,
and is important as a source of the metal aluminium. It
is a rather rare mineral, found in Greenland, from which
large quantities are imported into Europe and the U.S. for
the manufacture of soda. When fused it may be made into
table-ware much resembling porcelain, and known as “hot-
cast porcelain.”
Cryoph/orus [from the Gr. kpóos, “ice,” and bépo, to
“bear”], an instrument invented by Wollaston to freeze
water by its own evaporation. It consists of a glass tube
with a bulb at each end. One bulb contains water. A com-
plete vacuum is produced in the tube and opposite bulb,
and the empty bulb being placed in a freezing mixture, the
vapor arising from the water is condensed, so that the water
soon congeals in the other bulb, though the intervening
tube be two or three feet long.
Crypt [from the Gr. kpurrós, “hidden "J, the under or
hidden part of a building; a vault under a church, either
entirely or partly under ground. Crypts generally do not
exténd beyond the limits of the choir or chancel, and some
are of smaller dimensions. They were sometimes used as
places of sepulture, and seem indeed to have been designed
at first for the reception of the bodies of saints, martyrs,
and the higher dignitaries of the Church. The later
Romanesque and the more recent styles of church archi-
tecture generally have no crypt. One of the largest crypts
in England is that under Canterbury Cathedral.
-Crypto-Calvinists, a name applied in the last half
of the sixteenth century to the followers of Melanchthon
(called also Philippists), who earnestly desired the union
of the Lutherans and Calvinists, and were charged with
leaning too strongly towards the Calvinistic doctrine of
the Lord's Supper.
Cryptog'amous Plants, or Cryp’togams [from
the Gr. kpurrós, “hidden,” and yános, “marriage "j, a term
applied to flowerless plants, the lower series of plants in
the natural system, which have no true flowers, but have,
instead of seeds, spores that consist of a single cell and
contain no embryo. They have no obvious stamens or
pistils. The name “cryptogamous ” was first used by
Linnaeus, and implied that in his opinion they had organs
analogous in functions to stamens and pistils, but concealed
from view ; and the correctness of his surmise is now con-
firmed. He gave the name Cryptogamia to a distinct class
in his artificial system. Many cryptogamous plants have
no leaves, some have no root, and those which are lowest
in organization consist only of a single cell. Many of
them are parasitic. Cryptogamous plants are divided into
two principal groups—namely, thallogens, in which the
stem and leaf are not distinguishable; and acrogens, in
which the stem and leaf are distinguishable. The former
group comprises the Fungi, Lichens, Algae (sea-weeds), and
Characeae, etc.; the latter, Filices (ferns), Musci (mosses),
Equisetaceae, Hepaticae, club-mosses, etc. The Proto-
phytes, etc. are all cryptogamous, though hardly belong-
ing to either of the above divisions.
Cryptog/raphy [from the Gr. kpurrós, “hidden,” and
'ypádio, to “write ”], the art of writing or telegraphing in
cipher, or in such a way that the matter written cannot be
read by any one not in possession of the necessary key.
Many plans have been devised for this purpose, but almost
any person who has taste for the solution of puzzles or
enigmas can readily understand most writing of this kind;
and it is probable that no kind of cipher could be invented
which would be proof against systematic and ingenious
decipherers. Military and naval signals resemble cryp:
tographic writing in this respect. Among the learned
authors who have discussed this comparatively unimport-
ant subject may be mentioned/Lord Bacon, Doctor William
Blair, Bishop Wilkins, the marquis of Worcester, and many
others.
Crys’tal. See CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, by PROF. THOMAS
EGLESTON, A. M., E. M.
Crystal, a township of Hancock co., Ia.
Crystal, a post-township of Tama co., Ia. Pop. 542.
Crystal, a township of Aroostook co., Me. Pop. 250.
Crystal, a post-twp. of Montcalm co., Mich. P. 746.
Pop. 58.
Crystal, a township of Oceana co., Mich. Pop. 181.
Crystal Lake, a township of Benzie Co., Mich. Pop.
585. * 's
Crystal Falls, a series of cascades of the Cascade
Creek, in Montana. The creek flows into the Yellowstone
River from the W. side, between its upper and its lower
falls. One mile from its mouth occur the principal falls,
consisting of three leaps, which together measure 129 feet,
perpendicularly. They are remarkably beautiful.
Crystal Lake, a twp. of Hennepin co., Minn. P. 718
Crystal Lake, a twp. of Marquette co., Wis. P. 550.
Crystalline Lens. See EYE.
Crys/talline Rocks, a term applied in geology to
such rocks as granite, quartz, and marble, which show by
their crystalline structure that they have been brought into
their present state by the action of chemical forces. In
the early history of geology such rocks were called prim-
itive, but they are not limited to any geological age, and it
is not improbable that crystalline rocks may be in course
of formation at the present time. The greater number of
intruded igneous rocks (such as basalt) possess the crystal-
line structure.
Crystallog/raphy is the science of crystals. It is
derived from the Gr. ºpuſa taxAos, a “crystal,” and ypgºo, to
“ describe.” A crystal is a natural inorganic solid, bounded
by plane surfaces, which are symmetrically arranged around
certain imaginary lines called aaces. Kpija tax\os originally
meant “ice;” it was afterwards applied to the transparent
variety of quartz, because it was thought that rock-crystal
was water turned into stone; it was subsequently applied
indifferently to any solid which assumed a geometrical
shape by natural laws.
All crystals may be referred to seven systems, six of
which are referred to three axes, and one of them to four.
These systems are divided into two classes, according as the
axes are or not at right angles. Those which are at right
angles are called the orthometric, and those which are not
are called clinometric systems. In each one of them there
are three varieties. When all the axes are equal and at right
angles, the system is called isometric. When only two are
equal, but all at right angles, it is called the tetragonal.
When none of the axes are equal, but all are at right angles,
it is called the orthorhombie. The clinometric systems are
called, respectively, the monoclinic, the diclinic, and the
triclinic, according as the axes have different inclinations.
The single system of four axes is called the heavagonal.
In all of these systems one axis is placed upright, and
is called the vertical axis. In the isometric, tetragonal,
and hexagonal systems the other axes are simply called the
basal axes, while in each of the other systems each axis
has its own name. The axes always terminate in homol-
ogous parts, whether these parts are edges or angles.
The axes form a system of co-ordinates by which the
position of any face may be determined. Taking the most
general case of three unequal axes, the vertical axis is usu-
ally designated by a ; the one from left to right, b, and the
one from front to behind, c. Starting from the origin, the
half-axes are determined as + or – (Figs. 43,44). The
distances on these half-axes, cut off by any crystal face,
are called parameters. One of them can always be made
equal to unity, so that ma : nb : c, with their signs, will
always give the position of any crystal face with reference
to a given variety of axes. When a face is parallel to an
axis, it is said to cut it at a distance equal to infinity, and
its coefficient for that axis will be so written, as ooo : cob: c.
Every face of a crystal which does not cut all the axes
must either cut two or be parallel to two of them. Accord-
ing to Weiss, the symbol of any face will be ma : nb : c.
Naumann simplifies it by using two letters, or their numer-
ical values, and writing between them the capital letter
which represents the type of the system—0 for octahedron,
P for pyramid, and R for rhombohedron. The two letters
are always written in the same order: m is always equal
to, greater or less than unity, and always greater than
m,m=1, m > n. The coefficient 1 is never written.
Dana’s symbols are simply a contraction of Naumann’s,
in which the letters for the primitive form of the system
are left out, and oo is written i. Thus, mOn becomes mn,
and oo Oco becomes ii.
In every crystalline system a single form is taken as the
base of the system. Any form belonging to the system
may be taken for this base, but it is generally conceded to
adopt pyramids. From this form all the others are derived
by three very simple laws: (1) All the similar parts of a
crystal may be similarly and simultaneously modified.
This gives rise to holohedral forms. (2) Half the similar
parts may be similarly and simultaneously modified. This
gives rise to hemihedral forms, which in some of the sys-
tems are known as inclined, parallel, or gyroidal forms.
1208
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
(3) One quarter of the similar parts may be similarly and
simultaneously modified, giving rise to tetartohedral forms.
In the isometric system the modifications may be com-
posed of one, two, three or six planes; in the tetragonal
and hexagonal, of one and two; in the orthorhombic, mon-
oclinic, diclinic, and triclinic, of only one plane at a time.
ORTHOMETRIC SYSTEMS.
'Isom ETRIC SYSTEM.—1. Holohedral Forms.
Three axes, a, a, a (Fig. 1), all equal and at right angles.
The base of the system is the octahedron.
Octahedron, O.—When the axes a cut in the relation
a : a a, the solid is made up of eight faces, which are
equilateral triangles (Fig. 2). There can be but one
octahedron.
Hearahedron, oo Ooo.—When the solid angles of the octa-
hedron are modified by planes which are parallel to two of
the axes, and cut, one at a distance equal to unity, the re-
sulting solid will be a cube, and will have the formula
a : coa : ooa (Fig. 3). -
Rhombic Dodecahedron, oo ().--When the edges of the
octahedron are modified in such a way that two of the axes
ISOM ETR
§:/*
º
§§ #
U-
be ma; a ma. The faces of the octahedron will be replaced
by three tetragonal planes. As there is nothing to limit
the inclination, there may be an infinite number of tetrag-
onal trisoctahedra (Figs. 11, 12, 13). Their limit will be
0 on the one hand when m = 1, and oo Ooo on the other when
7), R Oo. -
Hea:octahedron, mOn.—When the angles of the octahe-
dron are modified so that each axis is cut at a different dis-
tance, the formula will be ma: na : a. Each plane of the
octahedron will be replaced by six triangular planes. As
there is nothing to limit the inclination of the planes, there
may be an infinite number of hexoctahedra (Figs. 14, 15,
16). This solid is the most interesting of all the solids of
the system, for by successively changing the values of m
and n all the other forms of the system may be derived
from it. ' They can all be seen upon it in outline.
2. Hemihedral Forms.'
In the isometric system there are three kinds of hemihe-
dry : (1) inclined, (2) parallel, and (3) gyroidal. (1) The
forms are said to be tetrahedral or inclined when the faces
D
\
\
are cut at a distance equal to unity, while the plane is
parallel to the third, the formula will be a a ; oa (Fig. 4).
There can be but one rhombic dodecahedron.
Tetraheasahedron, coOn.—When the edges of the octahe-
dron are modified, so that one of the axes is cut at unity,
one at infinity, and one at n, the formula will be coa : a na
(Fig. 5). As there is nothing to limit the inclination of
the planes, there may be an infinite variety of tetrahex-
ahedra (Figs. 5, 6, 7), the limit being co0 on the one hand
when n = 1, and oo Ooo on the other when n = co.
Trigonal Trisoctahedron, mO.—When the edges of the
octahedron are replaced, so that two of the axes are cut at
unity and the third at m, the formula is ma: a . a. Each
plane of the octahedron becomes replaced by three tri-
angular planes; hence the name trisoctahedron. As there
is nothing to limit the inclination of the planes, there may
be an infinite variety of trigonal trisoctahedra (Figs. 8, 9,
10). Their limit will be 0 on the one hand when m = 1,
and oo 0 on the other when m = Co.
Tetragonal Trisoctahedron, mOm.—When the solid angles
of the octahedron are modified so that two of the axes are
cut at a distance m and the third at unity, the formula will
C SYSTEM.
M §
W#7
39
º
are not parallel. This is produced when all of the modi-
fications are carried out on alternate homologous parts. (2)
They are dodecahedral or parallel when alternate modifi-
cations are carried out in the same order on all the homol-
ogous parts. (3) Gyroidal forms are produced when alter-
nate modifications are carried out alternately on all the
homologous parts. The hexoctahedron is the only solid
which allows of hemihedral forms according to the three
laws. -
(1) Inclined or Tetrahedral Forms.
Tetrahedron, + }-when alternate faces of the octahe-
dron are produced to the exclusion of the others (Fig. 17),
a tetrahedron (Fig. 18) is formed. There can be but two
tetrahedra, which are distinguished as + and —.
Hemi-Trigonal Trisoctahedron, + *—when m0 is mod-
ified by this law, a tetrahedron is produced, each of whose
faces is replaced by three tetragonal planes (Figs. 19, 20,
21, 22).









CRYSTALLOGBAPHY.
1209
- Hemi- Tetragonal Trigoctahedron, + *—when m0m is
modified by the same law, a tetrahedron is produced, each
one of whose planes is replaced by three triangular planes
(Figs. 23, 24, 25, 26).
m0n
Hemi-Hea:octahedron Inclined, *** -When m0n is
modified by the same law, a tetrahedron is produced, each
one of whose faces is replaced by six triangular planes
(Figs. 27, 28). The other forms, ooooo, coQ, and oo On, do
not admit of inclined hemihedry.
(2) Parallel or Dodecahedral Forms.
Hemi-Tetraheasahedron, ooon.—When ooon (Fig. 29) is
modified, so that every alternate face is produced, a solid
is formed (Figs. 30, 31, 32), which is often called the pen-
tagonal dodecahedron.
g mOn
Flemi-Hea:octahedron Parallel, 4: H.-
.—When m()n
is modified so that every other plane is taken in the same
order on each face (Fig. 33), a solid (Fig. 34) is produced,
which is often called the diploid.
3. Gyroidal Form.
m0n & * gº
( 2 .—When mon is modified in such a way
that the faces are taken alternately above and below (Fig.
35), a Solid having twenty-four pentagonal faces is pro-
Gyroid, +
duced (Figs. 36, 37). This solid has not been found in
nature.
(3) Tetartohedral Form.
m On
4.
of the carrying out of this law. When the hexoctahedron,
the diploid, or the hemi-hexoctahedron inclined, is modified
as shown in (Figs. 38, 39, and 40, Figs. 41 and 42) are pro-
duced, and as there are two pairs of these, which are right
and left forms, they are distinguished as + and - r and l.
Tetartoid, 4- ri .—m0n is the only form which allows
TETRAGONAL SYSTEM.
The axes of this system (Fig. 43) are of two kinds: a,
the vertical, being longer or shorter than b, b, which are
both equal.
Holohedral Forms.-Closed Forms.
Tetragonal Pyramid of the First Order, P. When the
axes are cut in the relation a b:b, the pyramid of the first
order or protopyramid (Figs. 44, 45) is produced. The
plane which includes the axes b is a square, and is called
the basal plane, and its angles and edges are called basal
angles and edges. The planes which include the axes a, b
are rhombs, and are called the terminal planes, and their
angles and edges terminal angles and planes. The gene-
ral formula for these pyramids is ma : b : b, for which the
symbol is mP, in which m: 1; but in that protopyramid
P which is selected for the base of the system the value of
m is taken for unity. As m may have any value, there may
TETRAGONAL SYSTEM.
be any number of pyramids. They are called acute or ob-
tuse according as the terminal angle is acute or obtuse.
Pyramid of the Second Order, mPoo.—When the terminal
edges of the protopyramid are modified by one plane in the
relation ma : cob: b, a solid exactly similar in all respects
to the protopyramid is produced, but turned 90°, so that
the basal axes terminate in the centre of the basal edges
(Figs. 46, 47). As m may be s 1, there may be an infinite
number of deuteropyramids. The two forms, Poo and 2Poo,
occur where m = 1 in the first case, and m = 2 in the second.
Ditetragonal Pyramid, mPn.—When the terminal edges
of the protopyramid are modified in the relation ma : nb : b,
a solid is produced in which each plane of the protopyra-
mid is replaced by two planes (Figs. 48, 49). This solid
m = 1, n>1 < co; hence there may be any number of dite-
tragonal pyramids. This solid bears the same relation to
this system that the hexoctahedron does to the isometric
system.
Open Forms.
Tetragonal Prism of the First Order, oop.—When the
basal edges of P are modified by one plane, the axes will
be cut in the relation oa : b : b, which produces simply four
vertical planes (Fig. 50), which, as they are not closed,
produce an open form and is the protoprism.
Tetragonal Prism of the Second Order, oopoo.—When the
basal angles of the protopyramid are modified by one plane
in the relation oa: oob : b, a prism (Fig. 51) is produced
similar to the protoprism, but turned 90°.
Ditetragonal Prism, oopn.—When the basal angles of the
71
protopyramid are modified by two planes in the relation
co a nb : b, a prism (Fig. 52), made up of eight faces, which
are parallelograms, is produced.
Basal Pinacoid, op.–When the axes are cut by planes in
the relation a oob : oob, we have simply a pair of planes
parallel to the basal axes. &
Pyramidal Hemihedral Forms.
The pyramidal hemihedral forms of the tetragonal system
are called (1) scalenohedral or sphenoidal, (2) trapezoidal,
(3) pyramidal.
(1) Scalenohedral.
P
Sphenoid of the First Order, 42–When alternate planes
of P are produced, a solid resembling a tetrahedron is
formed, in which the faces are isosceles triangles (Figs.
53, 54). There will be two of these sphenoids. This solid
is named after the mineral spheme, in which it frequently
OCCUIrS.
Sphenoid of the Second Order, .* .—When mPoo is
treated by this law, another sphenoid is produced, similar
in every respect to the sphenoid of the first order, but
turned 90° (Figs. 55 and 56).
Tetragonal Scalenohedron, ***—when two faces to-
gether, taken alternately above and below, of m?n are
taken (Fig. 57), the solid resulting is a sphenoid, each of
whose faces is replaced by two planes (Fig. 58).


1210
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
(2) Trapezoidal.
*—when m Pm is mod-
Tetragonal Trapezohedron, r or l
ified by taking one plane alternately above and below
(Fig. 59), a solid (Fig. 60) is produced; to distinguish them
from the other hemihedral forms of m.pn, they are called
right, r, and left, l.
(3) Pyramidal.
Z ml?n
Tetragonal Pyramid of the Third Order, # and ºr 2
When m Pm is modified, by taking one alternate plane, but
the same plane above and below (Fig. 61), a pyramid is
formed which resembles the other pyramids of this system
(Fig. 62). It is, however, turned to one side more or less,
depending on the angle of m.p.m. The relations of the pyr-
amids and prisms of the three orders is illustrated by (Fig.
63). Another pyramid which is purely theoretipal is formed
as shown in (Figs. 64 and 65).
Prismatic Hemihedral Forms.
* & 7" ! ool”.
Tetragonal Prism of the Third Order, 7 or ;-a--
When coPn is modified so that only every other plane is
nal. In each species a value of a is selected for unity, and
this value is represented in P, the base of the system.
The general formula will, however, be ma : b : c, or mp, in
which mis1. -
Macropyramid, miſºn.—This solid (Fig. 74) resembles
the protopyramid, but the symbol is ma : nb : c, in which
m = 1. The macro axis has for its coefficient n > 1. The
planes, therefore, cut the macro axis extended. The long
mark T through the P symbolizes this fact. -
Brachypyramid, m.pn.—In this form (Fig. 75) the sym-
bol is ma : b : ne, in which m: 1 and n > 1. The planes,
therefore, cut the brachy axis extended, which is expressed
by the curve S-7 drawn through the P.
Open Forms.
Rhombic or Protoprism, cop.–When the basal edges of
P are modified by one plane, which is parallel to the verti-
cal axis a, according to the law oa : b : c, the resulting
form is composed of vertical parallelograms (Fig. 76).
Macroprism, copm.—When the basal edges of m4Prº are
modified by planes passed according to the law coa : nb : c,
in which m > 1, the macro axis extended will be cut. The
form consists of four vertical parallelograms (Fig. 77).
Brachyprism, oopn.—When the basal of my’n edges are
modified according to the law oa : b : ne, in which n >1
(Fig. 78), the resulting form is a prism, in which the brachy
axis extended is cut.
Basal Pinacoid, oP.—When the axes are cut in the re-
lation a cob : ooc, we have simply two pairs of planes.
Macrodome, myºco –When the terminal edges of P are
taken (Fig. 66), a prism is produced resembling the prism
of the second order, except that the basal axes terminate to
one side of the centre of the faces of the prism (Fig. 67).
Tetartohedral Forms.--Sphenoidal.
Tetarto-Sphenoid, +; ºf:
shown in Fig. 68, it produces a sphenoid (Fig. 69), called
the sphenoid of the third order.
Plagio-Sphenoid.—When m Pm is modified as in (Fig. 70),
it produces a sphenoid (Fig. 71), called the sphenoid of the
fourth order. It has not been found in nature.
.—When m Pin is modified as
ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM.
The axes of this system (Fig. 72), a, b, c, all unequal,
but all at right angles.
Bolohedral Forms.-Closed Forms.
Rhombic or Protopyramid, P.--When the axes are cut in
the relation a b : c, the solid produced is a pyramid, whose
faces are scalene triangles (Fig. 73). The planes ab, ac,
and be are rhombs of different values. As the basal axes
form the diagonals of the rhombs bc, they are called, b the
macro or longer, and c the brachy or shorter axis or diago-
ORT HOR HOM BIC SYSTEM.
l-
t.”|
_*
|
81
modified according to the law ma : cob : c, in which m = 1,
the form is roof-shaped, and is called a dome, from domus,
a “house.” The dome is always over the axis from which
it takes its name.
Brachydome, my’co.—When the terminal edges are mod-
ified according to the law ma : b : coc, in which miº 1, a
dome over the brachy axis is formed.
Basal Pinacoid, op.–When the axes are cut in the re-
lation a cob: ooc, planes parallel to the basal axes are pro-
duced.
Macro Pinacoid, copoo.—When the axes are cut accord-
ing to the law oa : cob : c, planes parallel to the axis b
are produced. -
Brachy Pinacoid, coPoo.—When the axes are cut accord-
ing to the law coa : b : coc, planes parallel to the axis c are
produced. -
Pſemihedral Forms.
The hemihedral forms of this system consist of one solid,
the rhombic sphenoid, and pairs of planes or single planes.
Rhombic-Sphenoid, + *—when alternate planes of the
protopyramid are taken, a sphenoid is formed whose faces
are scalene triangles (Fig. 81).
Hemimorphic Forms.
According to the law of symmetry, when a crystal is
terminated by modifications at one extremity of an axis,
the same planes should be repeated at the other. In this
and the hexagonal system there occur crystals where this
MO NOCL |N| C SYSTEM.
law does not hold good, and these exceptions are called
hemimorphic forms. ,”
Limit Forms.
When the protoprism is accompanied by the macro and
brachy pinacoids, the prism has a hexagonal section.
When the angle of the prism is near 120°, forms are pro-
duced which are so similar to hexagonal combinations that
it is frequently difficult, without careful measurement or a
determination of the optical properties of the mineral, to
make the distinction.





CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
1211
CLINOMETRIC SYSTEMS.
MonocIINIC SYSTEM.
The axes of this system (Fig. 82) are of three kinds, and
have only a single inclination. The angle y of the plane
ac = 90°, the angle a of the plane bc = 90°, the angle 8 of
the plane abi- 90°. a is called the vertical, b the clino,
and c the ortho axis or diagonal. The plane of the basal
axes is thus inclined to the vertical axis, while the Ortho
and clino axes are at right angles to each other.
Holohedral Forms.-Open Forms.
Monoclinic Pyramid, + P.-As the axes b and c are of
unequal length, and the plane which contains them makes
two angles with the vertical axis, the one in front being
an obtuse and the one behind making an acute, angle, thé
relation a b : c will produce only a hemipyramid or a
pair of planes, above in front or behind below. The pyr-
amid will be formed by these and the other pair of planes
behind above and in front below. The pyramid itself will
be + P (Fig. 83). The two planes, above in front and below
behind, are by convention called – P, and the others + P.
When m is not equal to 1, the symbol becomes + m P.
Orthopyramid, + m2n.—When the axes are cut in the re-
lation ma : b : ne, the two forms produce the orthopyra-
mid (Fig. 84). -
Clinopyramid, + m32n.—When the axes are cut in the re-
lation ma : nb : c, the two forms produce the clinopyramid
(Fig. 85).
Protoprism, oop.–When the basal edges of the proto-
pyramid are modified, the axes are cut in the relation
oo a b : c. A monoclinic prism (Fig. 86) results.
Orthoprism, co-Prº.—When the basal edges of the proto-
pyramid are modified by one plane in such a way that the
Ortho axis extended is cut at a distance n, the relation is
co a b : ne (Fig. 87).
Clinoprism, op.m.—When the orthopyramid is modified
so that the clino axis extended is cut at a distance n, the re-
lation is coa : nb : c (Fig. 88).
TR C L |N| C
Triclinic Pyramid, P.--When the axes (Fig. 92) are cut
in the relation a b : c, a pair of planes are produced. The
pyramid is made up of four teta.rto-pyramids, which are
distinguished by accents. P signifies the planes right
above, 'P the planes left above, P, the planes right below,
and P the planes left below, with their diagonally opposite
planes. The pyramid is P. The protopyramid (Fig. 93)
will always be mP., except when m equals one, the macro-
pyramid (Fig. 94) is m?n, and the brachy pyramid (Fig.
95) miſºn. -
Triclinic Prism, oo'P. —When the relation oa : b : c is
carried out, it produces a single pair of planes, whose
symbol is cop' or coP, according as the planes are to the
right or the left. Each prism is made up of two hemi-
prisms. The whole form (Fig. 96) is oo'P. The brachy
prism (Fig. 97) is op', and the macro prism oo'Pn.
Triclinic Domes.—The domes are single pairs of planes,
and each dome is made up of two hemidomes. The ma-
crodomes are made up of m?'co and mPoo (Fig. 98), and the
brachydomes of mpoo and mpoo (Fig. 99).
The only other planes are the basal pinacoid, op, the
macro pinacoid, opoo, and the brachy pinacoid, oopoo.
SYSTEM WITH FOUR AXES.
HEXAGONAL SYSTEM.
The hexagonal system is referred to four axes. One of
these a (Fig. 100) is vertical. It is at right angles to the
plane of the basal axes b, which are inclined to each other
at an angle of 60°. The vertical is the optical axis, and
is consequently the line of greatest physical as well as
mathematical importance.
Holohedral Forms.-Closed Forms.
Hezagonal Pyramid, P.--When the axes (Fig. 100) are
cut in the relation a ob: b : c, the pyramid of the first
order (Fig. 101), or protopyramid, is produced. In the
form chosen for the base of the system the vertical axis
is cut at a distance equal to unity, but it may be cut at
other distances, mit: 1, so that the general symbol is mP.
The pyramids are said to be acute or obtuse according
as the terminal angle is acute or obtuse.
Beacagonal Pyramid of the Second Order, mP2.—When
Orthodome, E miſ’co.—As the edges which join the axes
a, b are of two kinds, only parallel planes will be produced
by a single modification, ma : b : Coc. The orthodome (Fig.
89) will therefore be made up of two hemi-orthodomes.
The same convention for the signs + and – is made as for
the pyramid. -
Clinodome, myºco.—As the edges which join the axes a, c
are alike, a dome results from the relation ma : oob : c (Fig.
90).
DICLINIC SYSTEM.
The axes (Fig. 91) of this system are of three kinds, and
D | CL | N | C
SYSTEM,
have two inclinations. The angle y of the
planes ab:90°, the angle a of the planes
be = 90°, the angle 8 of the planes ac:90°.
The basal axes are thus at right angles to
each other, but the plane which contains
them has two inclinations to the vertical
a, XIS.
Diclinic Pyramid, P.-As the faces of
the pyramid are equal only in pairs, the
pyramid is made up of four tetarto pyra-
- mids. This system admits of only hemi
forms and tetarto forms. & is called the vertical, b the
macro, and c the brachy axis. It admits of tetarto, macro,
and brachy pyramids and prisms, and tetarto, macro, and
brachy domes and the pinacoids. Mitscherlich announced
that he had discovered this system in a crystal of hyposul-
phite of lime, but subsequent crystallographic and optical
researches proved that this salt was triclinic; in conse-
quence of which the system was abandoned by most crystal-
lographers. It has, however, the same theoretical basis as
any of the other systems, and there does not seem to be
any good reason why it should not be preserved.
TRIelDNIC SYSTEM.
The axes of this system (Fig. 92) are of three kinds and
have three inclinations, the angles a, y, 8, are = 90°.
The axis a is called the vertical, b the macro, and c the
brachy axis.
SYSTEM.
99
the terminal edges of the protoprism are replaced by one
plane, so that the axes are cut in the relation ma: 25: b : 2b,
another pyramid called the deuteropyramid (Fig. 102),
which is similar in all respects to the protopyramid, except
that it is turned 30° from it, is produced.
Dihewagonal Pyramid, mPm.—When the terminal edges
of the protopyramid are replaced by two planes, all three
of the axes b will be cut at unequal distances. If the
shortest parameter is called unity or b, and the longest ab,
the third parameter will have a value of *†, and its
length will be between I and 2. The axes will be in the
b * -
M. I or ma : p.b : b : nib, in which m
p.–
relation ma : ºb: b :
£1. -
= 1, p = 2, and n *II (Fig. 103).
Open Forms.
Hearagonal Prism, coP.—When the basal, edges of the
protopyramid are modified by one plane which is parallel
to the vertical axes, they are cut in the relation coa: cob:
b ; b, and the protoprism (Fig. 104) is produced.
Hexagonal Prism of the Second Order, coP2.—When the
basal edges of the deuteropyramid are modified by one
plane parallel to the vertical axis, a deuteroprism is pro-
duced (Fig. 105). The axes are cut in the relation og :
2b : b : 2b. This prism is in every respect similar to the
protoprism, but it is turned 30°.
Diñezagonal Prism, opm.—When the basal edges of the
dihexagonal pyramid are modified by one plane, so that
the axes are cut in the relation oa : pub : b : nºi b, a di-
hexagonal prism (Fig. 106) is produced. -
Basal Pinacoid, op.—When the axes are cut in the re-
lation a oob : oob : cob, the basal pinacoid is produced.
Pyramidal Hemihedral Forms.
This system admits of four different kinds of hemihedral
forms, derived from its pyramids, which are called (1) SCCº-
lenohedral, (2) trapezoidal, (3) pyramidal, and (4) trigonal
hemihedry.


1212
(1) Scalenohedral.
Rhombohedron of the First Order, H: *—when m P is
modified by producing every alternate plane (Fig. 107),
the rhombohedron (Fig. 108) is produced. As there are two
of them, they are designated by the signs + and —.
Rhombohedron of the Second Order, H: *—when
co P2 is modified by the same law (Fig. 109), other rhom-
bohedra (Fig. 110) are produced, similar to those of the
first order, but turned 30°. As there is no limit to the angles
of the pyramids from which they are produced, there are
an infinite variety of rhombohedra. They are called acute
or obtuse according as the terminal angle is acute or obtuse.
Heatagonal Scalenohedron, + *—when the dihex-
agonal pyramid is modified, so that every two alternate
faces above and below are taken (Fig. 111), the scalenohe-
dron (Fig. 112) is produced. There are four of these
scalenohedra. In order to get a clear idea of them, we
have only to suppose that the terminal or basal edges of
the rhombohedra, were modified by two or the terminal
angles by six planes.
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
(2) Trapezoidal Hemihedry.
**—when the dihex-
agonal pyramid is modified by the extension of every al- .
ternate plane above and below (Fig. 113), the hexagonal
trapezohedron (Fig. 114) is produced. They are distin-
guished as right and left.
(3) Pyramidal Hemihedry.
. º ºr l ºn Pi,
Hexagonal Pyramid of the Third Order, 7 or -, --
When m.pn is modified as in Fig. 115, a hexagonal pyra-
mid, in which the basal axes terminate to one side of the
centre of the basal edges, is produced (Fig. 116), which,
to distinguish it, is called the pyramid of the third order.
. (4) Trigonal Hemihedry.
m]Pm.
-
2 .—When m.pn is
modified so that every alternate pair of planes, but the
same planes above and below, are taken (Fig.117), a di-
trigonal pyramid (Fig. 118) is produced; to distinguish the
symbol it is written in brackets.
Hezagonal Trapezohedron, r or l
Ditrigonal Pyramid, r or l
HEXAGONAL SYSTEM.
Trigonal Pyramid of the First Order, r or *—when
in P (Fig. 119) is modified by extending every other plane,
but the same plane above and below, a trigonal pyramid of
the first order (Fig. 120) is produced.
Trigonal Pyramid of the Second Order, r or l *
When mP2 (Fig. 121) is modified by the same law, a tri-
gonal pyramid is produced.
Prismatic Hemihedral Forms.
Heatagonal Prism of the Third order, { Or l *
7"
When Gopn is modified by the extension of every alternate
plane (Fig. 123), a hexagonal prism of the third order is
produced. -
Litrigonal Prism, r or l (*) .—When oopm is modified
by extending pairs of alternate planes (Fig. 125), a ditrig-
onal prism (Fig. 126) is produced.
Trigonal Prism of the First Order, 4- *—when oop is
modified by the extension of every other plane (Fig. 127),
a trigonal prism of the first order (Fig. 128) is produced.
Trigonal Prism of the Second Order, 4. *—when
co P2 (Fig. 129) is modified by the same law, an obtuse
trigonal prism is produced (Fig. 130).
The relation of all these forms to each other is made
plain by Figs. I31 and 132. Fig. 131 shows the relative
positions of the hexagonal pyramids and prisms of the
first, second, and third orders, and the dihexagonal pyra-
mid and prism (Fig. 132) shows the relations of the first,
second, and third orders, the scalenohedron, the trigonal
and ditrigonal pyramids and prisms.
Pyramidal Tetartohedral Forms.
There are two kinds of pyramidal tetartohedry in the
hexagonal system, rhombohedral and trapezoidal.
Rhombohedral Hemihedry.
Rhombohedron of the Third Order, +; or *—when
7°
the dihexagonal pyramid or the hexagonal pyramid of the
third order is modified as shown in Figs. 133 and 134, a
rhombohedron of the third order (Fig. 135) is produced.


CRYSTAL PALACE—CUBA.
1213
Trapezoidal Hemihedry.
m Pm
4 .—When m.pn is
modified as shown in Figs. 136 and 138, the solids (Figs.
137 and 139) are produced. These solids were formerly
called plagihedra. They vary in form according as the
terminal angle is acute or obtuse.
Trigonal Trapezohedron, + r or l
P
Trigonal Pyramid of the Third Order, 4- r or l 7??. 4 * | –
When mRn is modified as shown in Fig. 140, a trigonal
pyramid (Fig. 141) is produced.
Prismatic Tetartohedral Form.
ool’n
Trigonal Prism of the Third Order, + r or l .—When
co Pn is modified as shown in (Fig. 142), a trigonal prism is
produced (Fig. 143). The position of these tetartohedral
forms is illustrated in the diagram Fig. 144, which shows
the relative position of the hexagonal pyramids of the first
and second orders, the dihexagonal pyramid and prism, and
the trigonal pyramids and prisms of the third order.
THOMAS EGLESTON.
Crys/tal Pal/ace, a building erected in London in
1851, in which the great World’s Fair of that year was
held. It was designed by Sir Joseph Paxton, and was
composed of glass and iron, excepting the floors, which
were of wood. It was 1851 feet in length, and covered an
area of twenty-one acres.
visited by over 6,000,000 persons. The whole structure
was removed soon afterwards. A permanent crystal palace
was erected in 1854 at Sydenham, eight miles from London.
It cost £1,450,000, and contains an extensive museum, in
which almost every department of art and science is repre-
sented. In 1853 a crystal palace for another universal ex-
hibition was erected in New York, after a design by Messrs.
Carstenson and Gildemeister. It was burned in 1858.
Others have since been erected for similar purposes in dif-
ferent cities of Europe.
Crystal Peak, a township of Washoe co., Nev. Pop.
120.
Crystal Springs, a post-village of Copiah co., Miss.,
on the New Orleans Jackson and Great Northern R. R., 25
miles S. W. of Jackson. Pop. 864.
Csa"ba, a market-town of Hungary, 7 miles S. S. W. of
Bekes, is well built. It has an extensive trade in grain,
wine, and cattle. Previous to 1840 it was but a village.
Pop. in 1870, 30,022.
Csa'nād, a county of Hungary, is bounded on the N.
by Bekes, on the E. by Arad, on the S. by Torontal, and on
the W. by Csongrad. Area, 640 square miles. It consists
of a plain, which is very fertile, but the climate and water
are unhealthy. The chief products are wheat, wine, tobacco,
and fruit. Chief town, Mako. Pop. in 1869, 95,847.
Csanád, a decayed market-town of Hungary, in the
county of Csanád, on the Máros, 44 miles N. of Temesvár.
Pop. in 1870, 5250.
Cserven'ka, a town of Hungary, in the county of Up-
per Bács, on the Franzens Canal, 130 miles S. of Pesth.
Pop. in 1870, 6877.
Cson'grad, a county of Hungary, is bounded on the N.
by Szolnok, on the E. by Bekes and Csanad, on the S. by
Torontal, and on the W. by Pesth. Area, 1280 square
miles. The soil and products are similar to those of Csanad.
It is traversed by the Theiss. Chief town, Szegedin. Pop.
in 1869, 207,585.
Csongrad, a market-town of Hungary, in a county of
its own name, is at the confluence of the Theiss with the
Körös, 70 miles S. E. of Pesth. Pop. in 1870, 17,356.
Cte/noid Fishes [from the Gr. kreis (gen. Krevös), a
“comb,” from the comb-like teeth of the scales], an order
of fishes (in Agassiz's former classification) characterized
by having the skin covered with scales whose margins have
notches or spines resembling the teeth of a comb. There
are sometimes many rows of teeth or little spines, some-
times but one, the rows wearing off successively as new
ones are formed. Tiving fishes of this order are numerous;
among them are the turbot, perch, and flounder. Fossil
fishes of this class are comparatively few. The word cte-
moid is retained, as expressing an important character, but
no such order as the above is now recognized.
Cte/sias [Krmorias], a Greek historian, a native of Cni-
dos, in Caria, lived about 400 B.C. He passed many years
in Persia as physician to King Artaxerxes Mnemon, and
afterwards returned to his native place. He wrote a “His-
tory of Persia.” (IIepauká) and a “Description of India.”
His reputation for veracity is not high.
Ctesibºius [KirmartBios], a famous Greek mechanician
During the exhibition it was.
who flourished at Alexandria, about 130 B C, He invented
the clepsydra, a pump, and other machines. He is said to
have been the first who applied the elastic force of air as a
motive-power.
Ctes’iphon, an ancient city of Assyria, on the E. bank
of the Tigris, 20 miles S. E. of Bagdad, was the capital of
the kings of Parthia. Its ruins still attest its former mag-
nificence. The site is now occupied by a village called
Modain. -
Ctesiphon [Krmatſbóv], an Athenian who proposed that
a crown of gold should be given to Demosthenes for his pub-
lic services. For this act he was prosecuted by Æschines,
and defended with success by Demosthenes in his famous
oration “On the Crown,” 330 B.C.
Cu/ba, the largest of the Antilles or West Indian Islands,
and the most important of all the Spanish colonial posses-
sions, is in the Caribbean Sea, about 130 miles S. of Florida,
from which it is separated by the Bahama Channel. It is
about 45 miles W. of Hayti, and extends from lon. 74° to
84° 58' W. It is about 800 miles long E. and W., has a
width varying from 130 to 25 miles, and an area of 45,883
square miles. Good harbors occur on the coasts at Havana,
Matanzas, and other places. Cuba is traversed length-
wise by a mountain-chain. The highest peak, the Pico
Turquinos, rises about 7750 feet above the level of the sea.
From the base of the range the country expands into savan-
nas or meadows, sprinkled with lagoons and swampy flats.
The rivers are all small, and not navigable except for small
boats. Granite, gneiss, and limestone are abundant here.
Among the mineral resources of Cuba are copper, coal, sil-
ver, iron, and marble. Several productive mines of copper
have been opened in the mountains.
The climate is hot and dry nearly all the year, the mean
temperature near the sea-coast being about 78°F. In sum-
mer the mercury seldom rises above 88°. Earthquakes fre-
quently occur. The vegetation is very luxuriant, and the
highlands are covered with forests of mahogany, ebony,
cedar, and fustic. The pineapple, orange, banana, lemon,
and melon flourish here. The cultivated lands produce
abundantly sugar, cottom, coffee, rice, maize, tobacco, and
indigo. Sugar is the chief article of export. In 1871 the
sugar exported amounted to 1,126,141 boxes (551,896 to the
U. S.) of 400 pounds each, and 416,153 casks (376,628 to the
U. S.). The export of tobacco from Havana amounted in
1869 to 22,000,000 pounds, exclusive of 179,000,000 cigars.
The commerce of Havana embraces about 50 per cent. of
the aggregate exports, and 75 per cent. of the imports
of the island. The aggregate production is valued at
$126,000,000. Of manufactures, the most important are the
making of sugar, molasses, and rum, the preparation of
coffee, the making of cigars, the bleaching of wax, and the
manipulation of the minor staples of the island. Cattle-
breeding is increasing, the number being estimated at about
1,300,000 head. The number of vessels entering the port of
Havana, amounted in 1869 to 1669, of which 721 were from
the U. S. The aggregate length of railroads in operation
amounted in 1871 to 397 miles. The supreme political and
military command is in the hands of a governor captain-
general. The island is divided into two departamentos—the
western and the eastern. The former is subdivided into two
gobiernos (Havana and Matanzas) and twenty tenencias
de gobierno; the latter into two gobiernos (Santiago de
Cuba and Puerto Principe) and eight tenencias de gobierno.
There is a university at Havana, with about 400 students.
The entire population (except foreign residents) belongs to
the Roman Catholic Church, which has an archbishop at
Santiago de Cuba and a bishop at Havana. Pop. in 1867,
1,414,508, of whom 370,553 were slaves, 760,612 were
white, and 283,343 free colored. Capital, Havana.
History.—This island was discovered in Oct., 1492, by
Columbus, who named it Juana; Cuba is the aboriginal
name. He found it occupied by a mild and indolent race
of aborigines. In 1511 this island was colonized by the
Spaniards, who with a few short intervals have retained
possession of it ever since that date. The cruel treatment
of the Indians under the administration of Hernando
greatly injured the prosperity of the island, as in 1553 the
entire Indian population had become extinct. In 1534,
and again in 1554, Havana was destroyed by the French,
but each time it was speedily rebuilt, and in 1584 it was
strongly fortified. In 1624 it was taken by the Dutch, but
Soon restored. In the second half of the seventeenth cen-
tury the island greatly suffered from the invasion of filibus-
ters, who in 1688 plundered and destroyed the city of
Puerto Principe. After the suppression of these bands of
robbers the prosperity of the island rapidly increased, and
in 1717 the Spanish government monopolized the tobacco
trade. In 1762, Havana was taken by the English, who in
1763 restored it in exchange for Florida. The Spanish
government now found it necessary to allow the free com-
1214
CUBA—CUCKOO.
mercial intercourse of Cuba, with Spain. The commercial
importance of the island rapidly increased, but it became
at the same time the centre of the slave-trade for all Span-
ish South America. From 1789, in which year the slave-
trade was freed from all former restrictions, to 1820, the
average number of slaves imported was 7500; from 1820
to 1841, about 13,000. In 1845 the importation of slaves
was forbidden, and from 1845 to 1847 the vigilance of Cap-
tain-General Concha suppressed the slave-trade almost en-
tirely; after that date it was again revived through the
indulgence of the Spanish authorities. The commercial
prosperity of the island had, in the mean while, been con-
siderably increased by the decay of Hayti, the abolition of
the tobacco monopoly (1816), and the establishment of
general freedom of trade (1818). Several insurrections of
the negroes, the most important of which were those of
1844 and 1848, were suppressed; in the latter more than
10,000 negroes perished. Since the annexation of Florida
to the U. S. the government of Washington has shown a
considerable interest in the destiny of Cuba. In 1848,
President Polk authorized the American ambassador in
Madrid to offer the Spanish government $100,000,000 for
the sale of Cuba, but the proposition was promptly rejected.
In 1849, Colonel Narciso Lopez and other Cubans unsuc-
cessfully attempted to revolutionize Cuba. In May, 1850,
Lopez, who had fled to the U. S., sailed with 600 filibusters
from the U. S., and landed at Cardenas, but had imme-
diately to return. In Aug., 1851, another expedition of
500 armed men under Lopez and the American colonel
Crittenden landed at Playtas, but did not meet with the ex-
pected support on the part of Cubans. Both Lopez and
Crittenden were taken prisoners and executed. In 1859,
President Fillmore refused to join a treaty proposed by
England and France, which was to guarantee the posses-
sion of the island to Spain. Hostilities committed by a
Spanish man-of-war against the American steamer Black
Warrior brought on a serious complication between the
U. S. and Spain. In Oct., 1854, three ambassadors of the
U. S. at European courts, Buchanan, Soulé, and Mahon
signed the Ostend manifesto, which claimed for the U. S.,
in case of a refusal on the part of Spain to sell the island,
the right to take and annex it. The fear which the elec-
tion of Buchanan as President of the U. S. caused to Spain
was, however, not realized. The Spanish revolution of
Sept., 1868, led soon to a rising of the friends of Cuban in-
dependence. On Oct. 10, Manuel Carlos Cespedes, a law-
yer of Bayamo, issued an address to the Cubans, in which
he proclaimed the republic and separation from Spain. On
Oct. 20 the Cuban insurgents had the first encounter with
the Spaniards at Las Tunas. A provisional government, ap-
pointed in Bayamo, promised the speedy abolition of sla-
very. In April, 1869, a constituent assembly proclaimed
the republic of Cuba, and elected Cespedes president. The
total abolition of slavery and the introduction of freedom
of religion were among the measures decreed by the as-
sembly. The war was carried on on both sides, but in par-
ticular on that of the Spaniards, with great severity. The
Spanish volunteers even went so far as to defy the authority
of Captain-General Dulce, who had to return to Spain.
His successor, Caballero de Rodas, was equally unsuccess-
ful in suppressing the insurrection, and was, in Dec., 1870,
succeeded by Count de Walmaseda. In April, 1874, the insur-
rection was not yet suppressed. (See RAMON DE LA SAGRA,
“Historia fisica, economica, etc. de la isla de Cuba,” 1842–
45, 11 vols.; SIEveRs, “ Cuba,” 1861; LA PEzułI.A., “His–
toria de la isla de Cuba,” 1868–69, 2 vols.)
A. J. SCHEM.
Cuba, a township and village of Sumter co., Ala., on
the Alabama and Chattanooga R. R. Pop. 480.
Cuba, a post-village of Putnam township, Fulton co.,
Ill., on the Toledo Peoria and Warsaw R. R. Pop. 568.
Cuba, a township and village of Lake co., III. P. 970.
Cuba, a post-village and township of Aſlegany co.,
N. Y., on the Erie R. R. and Genesee Valley Canal, 12
miles N. E. of Olean. It has manufactures of leather and
other goods, a national and a private bank, and a large
trade. It has also six churches and a weekly paper. Pop.
of township, 2397. f -
Cu/bature, the measurement of the volume of a solid
body. If the equation to the surface enclosing the body be
given in rectangular co-ordinates, its volume is expressed
by the triple integralſ/ſ da dy dz, where the integration is
to be extended to all points of the solid, according to the
methods explained in all text-books. When the equation
to the surface is given in polar co-ordinates, its volume is
expressed by the integralſ// r? sin 6 dr d 9 d p.
Cubb Creek, a post-township of Jefferson co., Neb.
Pop. 261.
Cube [Gr, kºgos, a “die”], in geometry, a solid body
contained by six equal squares. It is also called a regular
hexahedron, and is one of the five regular solids. It is a
form which often occurs in nature, especially among crys-
tals. In arithmetic the cube of a number is its third power,
or the product obtained by multiplying that number by its
square. The duplication of the cube—that is to say, the
finding of a cube having double the volume of a given
cube—is one of those problems which admit of no solution
by common geometry, on which, as on the quadrature of
the circle and the trisection of an angle, a vast amount of
ingenuity has been vainly expended in every age since the
dawn of mathematical science. The solid contents of a
cube may be expressed by the third power of the number
which expresses the length of one of its sides.
Cu’beb [Lat. cubeba : Fr. cubébe ; Ger. Kubebe, Ara-
bic, kabábeh], the dried, unripe fruit of the Cubeba offici-
malis (and probably of other species), climbing woody
plants belonging to the order Piperaceae. The cubeb vine
resembles that which produces the ordinary black pepper.
Cubebs are brought chiefly from Java, Penang, etc., and
are used as an aromatic and stimulant diuretic. Their ac-
tive properties depend on the volatile oil which they con-
tain. They also have a crystallizable principle called
“cubebin,” and a balsamic resin. The oil, tincture, and
extract are used in medicine.
Cube Root. See RADICAL and Root.
Cu/bic Equation, an equation which involves the
cube of the unknown quantity. A pure cubic equation
contains only two terms; as, e. g., acº = 27; all others are
said to be adfected; as, e.g., a 9–52% + 42 + 7 = 1.
Cu’bic Niſtre, a commercial name applied to the ni-
trate of soda, which is largely obtained from the desert of
Atacama in Peru. It is used in the arts and as a manure.
Cu/bit [Lat. cubitus, i. e. the “elbow;” Gr. Irºxvs, the
“fore arm *], a linear measure of the ancients, equal.to the
length of a man’s arm from the elbow to the tip of the
middle finger. It is generally stated to be eighteen Eng-
lish inches. The ancient Egyptian cubit, or “cubit of
Memphis,” was about 20.7 British inches. The mean of
Sir Isaac Newton’s determinations, from the careful meas-
urements of the great pyramid by Professor John Greaves
(published in 1737), made it 20.672. The mean of still
more careful measurement by Professor C. Piazzi Smyth
in 1865 made it 20.73. . According to Newton, the cubit of
Babylon was very nearly 24 British inches; the royal cubit
of Persia, 21.195 inches; the cubit of the Romans, 17.406
inches; the cubit of the Greeks, 18.1308 inches; the Egyp-
tian cubit in use in 1737, 21.888 inches; the sacred cubit
of Moses he calculates not to have been greater than
24.9389 inches, nor less than 24.7262, and its probable
value to have been 24.7552 inches. Prof. Piazzi Smyth
thinks that he has proved that the unit of measure em-
ployed by the builders of the Great Pyramid in laying
out the ground-plan of their work was identical with the
sacred cubit of Moses, and that its value was 25.025 Brit-
ish inches; which is, according to the most recent determi-
nations, almost exactly the 10,000,000th part-of the earth's
polar radius. He supposes, therefore, that this unit of
measure, which was divinely given, was made by divine
intention to be in this exact decimal relation to the invari-
able line around which the earth revolves. If the British
inch be increased by one-1000th part, its becomes what Pro-
fessor Smyth calls a “pyramid-inch ;” and a pyramid-cubit,
or sacred cubit, is 25 pyramid-inches, or one-10,000,000th
part of the earth's polar radius. Professor Smyth main-
tains his hypothesis with much ingenuity, but it has not
been generally received with favor.
The value of the biblical “cubit of a man” is extremely
uncertain. Dr. William Smith, in his “Dictionary of the
Bible,” has discussed the question pretty fully, and inclines
to regard it as having had a value, deduced by Thenius
(“Theologische Studien und Kritiken º’ for 1846) from the
Egyptian cubit measure preserved in the Turin Museum,
of 23 digits, each digit being 0.7938 British inch = 18.257
British inches. F. A. P. BARNARD.
Cuck’oo [Lat. cuculus; Fr. cowcow; It. cucco, so named
from its peculiar note], a name given to many birds of the
order Scansores, of the genus Cuculus and its allied genera.
The common cuckoo of Europe is fourteen inches long, gray,
the breast barred with black. It is migratory, and arrives
in Europe in the spring. It feeds on worms and insects,
builds no nest, but deposits its egg in the nest of another
bird, and the proprietor hatches it with her own. The
young cuckoo crowds under the other birds, and throws
them over the edge to the ground. The great spotted
cuckoo (Cuculus glandarius) is a native of Northern Af-
rica; it also uses the nests of other birds. It is said that
even the hooded crow, a very sagacious bird, is thus de-
ceived by it, and fosters the young cuckoo with care. It
CUCKOO–CUICHUNCHULLI.
. 1215
migrates in summer to Southern Europe. The common
American cuckoo (Coccygw8 Americanw8), sometimes called
the yellow-billed cuckoo, is very slender, of a gray-brown
color above, a lighter color beneath, and has a greenish
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Great Spotted Cuckoo.
lustre. It feeds upon insects and the eggs of small birds.
It is a timid bird, and conceals itself in the foliage of trees.
Its eggs, from two to four in number, are of a pale blue-
green. It does not lay its eggs in the nests of other birds.
The black-billed cuckoo (Coccygus erythrophalmus) inhabits
the same regions as the common American cuckoo. It has
a different note, and is less shy; the eggs are of the same
color. Other species occur in the U. S.
Cuckoo, a township and post-village of Louisa co., Va.
Total pop. 2199.
Cu/cumber [Lat. cucumis; Fr. concombrel, a genus of
plants of the order Cucurbitaceae. The common cucumber
(Cucumis sativus), a native of Middle and Southern Asia,
has heart-shaped leaves, rough with hairs, and oblong fruit.
It has been cultivated from the earliest times, and forms
an important article of food in Europe and the U. S. Many
varieties are cultivated, with fruit from four inches to two
feet long. Pickles called gherkins are made from young
cucumbers. A sunny exposure and a light, rich soil are
best adapted to its culture. Many other species with edible
fruit belong to this genus.
Cucumber Tree, the Magnolia acuminata, a noble
forest tree of the U. S., found from Niagara Falls south-
ward to Georgia, chiefly along the Alleghanies. It is large,
tall, and has rich foliage and large, beautiful flowers. . Its
wood is light, and is prized for making pumps and canoes,
and is used in house-joinery. Its cucumber-like fruit is
soaked in spirits, and makes a very bitter drink, popularly
used as a tonic and anti-rheumatic remedy.
Cucurbita’ceae [from Cucurbita (a “gourd”), one of
the most important of its general, a natural order of ex-
ogenous plants, mostly inhabiting the hot countries of both
hemispheres, having succulent stems and climbing by lat-
eral tendrils. The fruit (pepo) has a thick, fleshy rind, is
more or less succulent, and in some species attains a great
size. The seeds are flat and ovate, embedded in a pulp, in
some kinds dry, and in others juicy. The order contains
about 300 species, including the melon, cucumber, gourd,
squash, and pumpkin. The roots of some of them, such as
the Momordica dioica and Bryonia wnbellata of the East
Indies, abound in a bland and edible fecula. The elate-
rium and the common bryony, however, are remarkable for
their acridity, and are sometimes used as drastic purgative
medicine. The colocynth, which is valued for its medicinal
properties, belongs to this order.
Cud’bear [supposed to be a corruption of Cuthbert, from
Dr. Cuthbert Gordon, who introduced the manufacture at
Leith], a powder obtained from certain lichens by the ac-
tion of ammoniacal liquids, and used for dyeing various
colors. The name of cudbear lichen is often given to one
particular species (Lecanora tartarea), which abounds on
rocks in the Highlands of Scotland, among the Alps, and
in the northern parts of Europe. The dyestuff is obtained
by macerating this for ten or twelve days in urine
with chalk and water. Cudbear does not afford a
very permanent color.
Cud/dalore, a maritime town of Hindostan, in
Arcot, and on the Coromandel coast, 86 miles S.
of Madras. It is one of the most populous towns
in the south of India. It has a custom-house, and
a port from which cotton goods are exported. It
was taken from the English by the French in 1782,
but restored to the British in 1795. Pop.
Cud/weed, the name given to many species of
the Gnaphalium, Antennaria, and Filago, belonging
to the order Compositae and sub-order Tubuliflora.
The flowers, which are commonly called “life-ever-
lasting,” consist mostly of dry involucral scales,
and the stems and leaves are more or less covered
with white down. The cudweeds are common in
Europe and North America, and some of them are
used as diaphoretics in domestic medicine.
Cud/worth (Rev. RALPH), D. D., an English
philosopher and divine, born at Aller, in Somerset-
# shire, in 1617. His father (also named Ralph Cud-
; worth), a man of genius and learning, was chaplain
# to James I. He graduated at Emmanuel College,
# Cambridge; and became master of Clare Hall in
1644, and professor of Hebrew in 1645. In 1654
he was chosen master of Christ's College, and in
is 1678 was appointed prebendary of Gloucester. He
was one of those who were called “Latitudinari-
ans” in theology. His great work, “The True In-
tellectual System of the Universe” (1678), displays
great learning, liberality, and independence of
mind. He favored the Platonic philosophy, al-
though in physics he adopted the corpuscular
theory. He died July 26, 1688, leaving a “Treatise
concerning Eternal and Immutable Morality,” pub-
lished in 1731. A number of his unpublished manuscripts
are in the British Museum. His sons appear to have died
early. His daughter became Lady Masham and a friend
of John Locke. (See JANNET, “De Cudworthii Doctrina,”
1849; MACKINTosh, “View of the Progress of Ethical
hilosophy;” TULLoch, “Free Thought in England,” vol.
ii.)
Cuen’ca, a province of Spain, in New Castile, is drained
by the rivers Tagus and Jucar. Area, 6726 square miles.
The surface is partly mountainous; coal, copper, iron, and
silver are found here. Capital, Cuenca. Pop. 242,231.
Cuenca, a city of Spain, capital of the above province,
is picturesquely situated on a rocky eminence on the river
Jucar, about 90 miles E. S. E. of Madrid. It has a richly-
adorned cathedral, is the seat of a Catholic bishop, and has
several convents and hospitals. Here is a fine bridge, erected
over the Jucar in 1523. Cuenca was formerly celebrated for
its arts, literature, and manufactures. Pop. 7284.
Cuerica, formerly sometimes written Cuenza, a city
of South America, in Ecuador, the capital of the province
of Cuenca, is on table-land 8640 feet above the level of the
sea, 189 miles S. of Quito, after which it is the most pop-
ulous city of Ecuador. It is the seat of a Catholic bishop,
and has a cathedral and a university; also several Sugar-
refineries and potteries. Pop. about 20,000.
Cuesmes, a Belgian town in the province of Hainaut.
It has breweries and coal-mines. Pop. 5721.
Cue/vas de We'ra, a town of Spain, in Granada, is
on the river Almanzor at its entrance into the Mediter-
ranean, 42 miles N. E. of Almería. It owes its thriving
condition to recently-opened silver-mines. Pop. 7401.
Cuf'fee (PAUL), a negro philanthropist, born in Gos-
mold, Mass., in 1759. He became a sea-captain, the owner
of a vessel, the crew of which was composed of negroes,
and acquired a competent fortune. . He was deeply inter-
ested in the subject of African colonization. Died Sept. 7,
1818. *
Cu/fic Writing [so named from the town of Cufa or
Koofa, where the transcribing of ancient manuscripts was
extensively carried on] was one of the most ancient forms
of Arabic writing, and is supposed to have been introduced
into Arabia, a short time before the period of Mohammed.
It was in common use till the tenth century, and afterwards
was confined to coins and inscriptions.
Cuichunchuili (Ionidium parviflorum), a half-shrub-
by Peruvian plant of the order Violaceæ, having active"
emetic and cathartic properties. It is reputed a certain
remedy for elephantiasis tuberculata, and the same medical










1216
CUIRASS—CULROSS.
properties are attributed to other species of Ionidium. The
root of one kind is called white ipecacuanha.
Cuirass’ [Fr. cuirasse, from cuir, “leather”], originally
a garment of leather for soldiers, so thick and strong as to
be proof against a pistol ball. The term was afterwards
applied to a breastplate, or a portion of armor made of
metal, consisting of a backplate and breastplate hooked or
buckled together. The cuirass is still worn by the British
Horse Guards and other bodies of heavy cavalry, called
Cºtº,2°G.88?,62?"S-
Cuivre, a township of Audrain co., Mo. Pop. 1480.
Cuivre, a township of Pike co., Mo. Pop. 3271.
Cuja’cius, properly JACQUES CUJAS, a celebrated
French jurist, born at Toulouse in 1522. He learned
Greek and Latin without a teacher, studied law at Tou-
louse, and became in 1555 professor of law at Bourges.
His lectures on the “Institutes” attracted students from
all the countries of Europe. He developed a reform in
modern law inaugurated by Alciat. The Roman law re-
ceived a thorough interpretation from him, and according
to its principles, which had until then been adopted par-
tially as expediency suggested, the doctrine of the law was
fundamentally renovated. He had in his library 500 man-
uscripts of the Justinian laws. His works (1st ed. 1577;
complete ed. Fabrot, 1658, 10 vols.) have been often re-
printed, lately by Prato (1859). Died Oct. 4, 1590. (See
PAPIRE MAsson, “Wie de Cujas,” 1590; BERNARD1, “Eloge
de Cujas,” 1775; SPANGENBERG, “J. Cujas und seine Zeit-
genossen,” 1822.) -
Culawhee, a township of Jackson co., N. C. Pop. 520.
Culdees', or Kildees' [supposed by some writers to
have been derived from the Celtic cwildlich, a “secluded
corner,” by others from the Celtic kelede, “man of God,”
and by others from the Lat. cultores Dei, “worshippers of
God”], were a religious order established in Scotland, Eng-
land, and Ireland in the latter part of the sixth century.
When the monk Augustine had been sent by Gregory,
bishop of Rome, as a missionary to the Saxons, he found
the northern part of Britain already converted in a great
measure to Christianity by the Culdees. Their origin is
attributed to Saint Columba, the apostle of Western Scot-
land, who in 563 founded an institution at Iona, where the
order existed as late as 1203. Being invited by Oswald,
king of Northumberland, to preach the gospel in England,
they sent thither Aidan, whose labors were eminently suc-
cessful. The Culdee institution at Iona differed essentially
from a monastery, though sometimes called by that name.
It was rather a place of retirement, where the Culdee fitted
himself by study and prayer for missionary labor. Celi-
bacy was not enjoined upon the recluses, they did not
acknowledge the papal supremacy, and they were allowed
to change their calling for another. “The Culdees,” says
|Bbrard, “read and understood the Scriptures in their orig-
inal texts. But the Scriptures were more to them than a
codex of authoritative doctrines of faith. They were the
living word of Christ.”
Cul-de-sac [Fr., the “bottom of a bag”], the name
given to a street or alley open at one end only, sometimes
called a blind alley. Also, in matural history, in buildings,
in topography, and in military language, the term is used
in an analogous sense for a passage with only one outlet.
Cui'enborg, a Dutch town in the province of Gelder-
land, 6 miles N. N. W. of Tiel, on the Leck. It is sur-
rounded with a will. There are manufactures of furni-
ture, stoves, etc., and a trade in corn. Pop. 6192.
Culiacan’, a town of Mexico, capital of Sinaloa, on the
river Culiacan, 105 miles S. E. of the city of Sinaloa. It has
a bishop, a seminary, and a mint. Pop. 10,925.
Culil'awan Bark, called also Clove Bark, a valu-
able aromatic bark, the product of the Cinnamomum Culil-
awan, a tree which grows in the Molucca Islands. It has
a pungent taste and an odor resembling that of nutmeg
and cloves.
Cul’Ien, a township of Pulaski co., Mo. Pop. 849.
Cullen (PAUL), D. D., CARDINAL, born in Dublin
April 27, 1803, was educated at Rome, became archbishop
of Armagh (1850), archbishop of Dublin (1852), and car-
dinal-priest in 1866. In his “Pastoral Letters” he opposed
the mixed system of education, and he has been the main
supporter of the Catholic University of Dublin.
Cullen (WILLIAM), M. D., a celebrated British physi-
cian, born of poor parents in Lanarkshire, Scotland, Dec.
15, 1712. He acquired his profession amid great embar-
rassments. In 1756 he obtained the chair of chemistry in
Edinburgh, where he practised medicine with success. He
bublished “First Lines of the Practice of Physic” (1775),
his chief work, in which novel pathological theories are
propounded, and which was translated into all European
languages; a “Synopsis of Methodical Nosology” (in
Latin, 1780), a “Treatise of the Materia Medica,” in which
numberless errors were dispelled (1789), and other works.
Died Feb. 5, 1790. (See DR. JoHN THOMSON, “Life and
Writings of William Cullen,” 1832. This biography was
completed by DR. CRAIGIE in a second volume, 1859.)
Culle’ra, a fortified seaport-town of Spain, in the prov-
ince of Valencia, is on the Mediterranean at the mouth of
the Jucar, 24 miles S. S. E. of Walencia. Grain, wine, and
fruits are exported. Pop. 9814.
Cullo'den, also called Drum mossie Moor, a battle-
field of Scotland, is a desolate table-land, now partly culti-
vated, in Inverness-shire, 6 miles E. N. E. of Inverness.
Here the royal army, commanded by the duke of Cumber-
land, totally defeated the Young Pretender, April 16, 1746.
Cul/Ium (GEORGE W.), an American officer, born Feb.
25, 1809, in New York City, graduated at West Point in
1833; colonel of engineers May 7, 1867, and brigadier-
general of volunteers Nov. 1, 1861. He served in the con-
struction of Fort Adams, R. I., 1833–34, 1836–38, and
1858–64; as assistant to chief engineer 1834–36; in build-
ing pier, dyke, and lighthouse at Goat Island, R. T.,
1836–38; in erecting defences of New London, harbor,
Conn., 1838–55; in constructing sea-walls and fortifications
at Boston harbor, Mass., 1846–47; in organizing engineer
troops and preparing engineer and ponton equipage for the
war with Mexico 1846–47; as instructor of practical mil-
itary engineering, etc. at the Military Academy 1848–55,
except while travelling abroad for recovery of his health;
in building New York assay-office 1853–54; in charge of
public works in North and South Carolina, particularly
the construction of the defences (including Fort Sumter),
lighthouses, and channel improvements of Charleston har-
bor 1855–58; as member of special boards 1858–60; and in
charge of sea-board defences from New Bedford, Mass., to
Sound entrance to New York harbor, 1858–64. In the
civil war he was A. D. C. (rank of colonel) to Lieutenant-
General Scott, general-in-chief, 1861; chief of staff and of
engineers to Major-General Halleck while commanding the
departments of Missouri and Mississippi and general-in-
chief of the armies of the U. S. 1861–64; engaged in estab-
lishing defensive works, directing at Cairo , operations
auxiliary to the Western armies in the field, making armed
reconnaissances of Columbus, Ky. ; as chief of engineers in
campaign and siege of Corinth, and fortifying its approach
after its evacuation; as member of special and engineer
boards, and in organizing the defences of Nashville, Tenn.,
the great dépôt of supplies for Western armies; and as
superintendent of U. S. Military Academy 1864–66; brevet
colonel, brigadier-general, and major-general Mar. 13,
1865, for faithful, meritorious, and distinguished services;
member of the board of engineers for fortifications since
1866. He is author of a work on “Military Bridges with
India-rubber Pontons,” 1849; of “Register of the Officers
and Graduates of the U. S. Military Academy,” 1850; of
“Systems of Military Bridges,” 1863; of a “Biographical
Register of the Officers and Graduates of the U. S. Mili-
tary Academy,” 1868; of various military memoirs, re-
views, reports, etc., 1833–73; and translator and editor of
Duparcq’s “Elements of Military Art and History,” 1863.
Retired from active service Jan. 13, 1874.
Cuim [Lat. culmus, “straw "1, the botanical name of
the peculiar cylindrical hollow and jointed stem of the
grasses. Culm is also a popular name given in some parts
of England to anthracite coal.
Culm, a town of Prussia, regularly built on an eminence
on the Vistula, 23 miles N. N. W. of Thorn. It pursues
weaving, corn trade, and shipping. It was a Hanse town.
Pop. 8455.
Culmina’tion [from the Lat. culmen (gen, culminis),
a “top”], an astronomical term signifying the passage of
a celestial body over the meridian at the upper transit.
The sun culminates at noon or midday, and the full moon
culminates at midnight, 12 P. M.
Cui'peper, a county in the N. E. of Virginia. Area,
673 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Rap-
pahannock, and on the S. by the Rapidan River. The sur:
face is pleasantly diversified by hills and dales; the soil
is fertile. Wool and grain are staple products. It is in-
tersected by the Orange Alexandria and Manassas R. R.
Capital, Fairfax or Culpeper Court-house. Pop. 12,227.
Cul/peper (THOMAs), SECOND LORD, was one of the per-
sons to whom Charles II. granted the territory of Virginia
in 1673. He was the governor of Virginia from 1680 to
1683. Died in 1719. This name in the baromage of Eng-
land is written Colepeper.
Culpeper Court-House. See FAIRFAX.
Culross', a seaport-town of Scotland, in Perthshire, on
CULTIVATOR-CUMBERLAND.
1217
the N. shore of the Frith of Forth, 22 miles N. N. W. of
Edinburgh. It is a place of great antiquity. The mon-
astery of St. Serf was founded here about the sixth century.
It has remains of Culross Abbey, successively the seat of
the Bruce and Dundonald families. Pop. 500.
Cul'tivator, an agricultural implement used in Eng-
land and the U. S. before planting crops, and in the latter
country for loosening the earth between rows of plants.
American cultivators are either triangular or rectangular
frames, with handles like those of a plough, a greater or
less number of plough-like teeth, and with their centre-
beams projecting in front for the attachment of wheels and
draught clevises. Cultivators are very extensively used
and manufactured in the U. S. They are of late frequently
called horse-hoes.
Cul’verin [Fr. couleuvrine ; etymology uncertain], a
long cannon used from the fourteenth to the sixteenth cen-
tury, generally carried a shot of eighteen pounds, and
weighed about fifty hundredweight. A demi-culverin was a
nine-pounder.
Cul’vert [perhaps from the Fr. couvert, “ covered ”], an
arched channel of masonry for the purpose of conveying
water under ground. It is often built under canals, and in
such cases it may be either a siphon or a surface-drain.
Cu'mae, an ancient and famous Greek city of Campania,
situated on the Mediterranean, 11 miles W. of Naples. It
was founded conjointly by colonists from Chalcis and Cyme
in Asia Minor. According to Strabo, it was the most
ancient of the Greek colonies in Italy. It became an opu-
lent commercial city, built several harbors or port-towns,
and for a period of 200 years (700–500 B.C.) was the most
important city of Southern Italy. The people of Cumae
waged war against the Etruscans, who disputed their su-
premacy as a maritime power. Cumae was conquered by
the Samnites in 420 B.C., and became a Roman municipium
in 338. In the second Punic war Hannibal tried to capture
it, but failed. Cumae was famous as the residence of the
SIBYL (which see). It was the last stronghold of Italy
that held out against the Byzantine army, which captured
it from the Goths in 552 A. D. But few remains of Cumae
are now in existence.
Cumaná, a department of Venezuela, is bounded on
the N. by the Caribbean Sea and on the S. by the Orinoco.
Capital, Cumaná. Pop. 75,828.
Cumaná, a seaport-town of South America, in Vene-
zuela, 1 mile from the Gulf of Cariaco, 180 miles E. of Carac-
cas; lat. 10°28' N., lon. 64° 16' W. It is the oldest Euro-
pean city in America, having been founded in 1521 by
Castellon. It has a good roadstead, and an export trade
in cattle, cocoa, smoked meat, etc. It has been nearly de-
stroyed by earthquakes several times. Pop. 6000.
Cum/berland [from CYMRY (which see)], the most
north-western county of England, is bounded on the N. by
Scotland and the Solway Frith, E. by Northumberland and
Durham, S. by Westmoreland and Lancashire, and W. by
the Irish Sea. Area, 1565 square miles. The surface is
mountainous and picturesque. The highest points are Sca
Fell, 3100 feet, and Skiddaw, 3022 feet above the sea. The
chief rivers are the Esk, Eden, and Derwent. The scenery
is adorned by numerous beautiful lakes, including Derwent-
water and Ulleswater, the latter of which is 9 miles long.
The land is divided into small freeholds. The main crops
are wheat, oats, and turnips. Coal, copper, iron, lead, plum-
bago, limestone, marble, and Silurian slate are found here.
The chief town is Carlisle. This county formed part of the
ancient CUMBRIA (which see). Pop. in 1871, 220,245.
Cumberland, a county in the N. W. of Nova Scotia,
extends from Northumberland Strait to the Bay of Fundy,
and is bounded on the W. by Chignecto Bay. Here are
rich coal-mines, and quarries from which good grindstones
are exported to the U. S. It is intersected by the Intereo-
lonial R. R. Capital, Amherst. Pop. in 1871, 23,518.
Cumberland, a county in the E. S. E. of Illinois.
Area, 310 Square miles. It is intersected by the Embarras
River. The surface is diversified by prairies and groves;
the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, tobacco, wool, and lum-
ber are important products. The Chicago branch of the
Central and the St. Louis Vandalia and Terre Haute R. Rs.
pass through this county. Capital, Prairie City or Major-
ity Point. Pop. 12,223.
Cumberland, a county in the S. of Kentucky. Area,
375 square miles. Tobacco, grain, and wool are staple prod-
ucts. It is intersected by the Cumberland River. The
surface is partly hilly. Capital, Burkesville. Pop. 7690.
Cumberland, a county in the S. W. of Maine. Area,
990 square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the At-
lantic Ocean, and on the S. W. partly by the Saco River.
It' containº Lake and other smaller ponds. It is
Cumberland Court-house.
traversed by several railroads, which meet at Portland, the
capital. The soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are
raised. Manufactures and commerce are extensive, the
former embracing carriages, lumber, leather, metallic wares,
clothing, saddlery, cooperage, etc. Casco Bay here affords
facilities for navigation. Pop. 82,021.
Cumberland, a county in the S. S. W. of New Jersey.
Area, 480 square miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by
Delaware Bay, and intersected by Maurice River. . The
surface is nearly level. Grain and wool are staple products.
It has manufactures of lumber, iron, copper-Wares, etc.
It is intersected by the West Jersey and New Jersey South-
ern R. Rs. Capital, Bridgeton. Pop. 34,665.
Cumberland, a county in S. Central North Carolina.
Area, 850 square miles. It is intersected by Cape Fear
River. The soil is mostly fertile. Wool and corn are
raised. The western part is based on granite. Pine lum-
‘ber, tar, rosin, and turpentine are exported from this
county. Capital, Fayetteville. Pop. 17,035.
Cumberland, a county in the S. of Pennsylvania.
Area, 545 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the
Susquehanna River, and on the N. by the Blue Mountain.
Between this ridge and the South Mountain lies the fertile
Cumberland Valley, of limestone formation. Cattle, grain,
and wool are raised. There are manufactures of flour,
leather, furniture, carriages, saddlery, clothing, etc. etc.
It is intersected by the Cumberland Valley R. R. Capital,
Carlisle. Pop. 43,912. -
Cumberland, a county in E. Central Tennessee. Area,
550 square miles. It is drained by Daddy's Creek. The
surface is hilly or mountainous. Tobacco and wool are
staple products. Capital, Crossville. Pop. 3461.
Cumberland, a county in Central Virginia. Area,
310 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by James River,
and on the S. E. by the Appomattox. The surface is undu-
lating. Tobacco and grain are staple products. Capital,
Pop. 8142.
Cumberland, a township and village of Clark co.,
Ill. Total pop. 1469.
Cumberland, a township and post-village of Cumber-
land co., Me. The village is on the Maine Central R. R.,
12 miles N. of Portland. Total pop. 1626.
Cumberland, the county-seat of Allegany co., Md.,
is romantically situated on the Potomac. In population
and commerce it is the second city in the State. It is the
head of navigation of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal
(leading to Georgetown, D. C.) and the shipping-point for
the semi-bituminous coal produced in the vicinity, and
which constitutes the principal traffic of that canal. It is
178 miles W. by N. from Baltimore, and is the point of
intersection of the Baltimore and Ohio and Pittsburg and
Connellsville R. Rs. The Cumberland and Pennsylvania,
R. R., with its Eckhart branch, also centres here, and af-
fords an additional outlet to the East and North, viá the
Pennsylvania system of railways. Its manufacturing in-
dustries comprise extensive rolling-mills for rails and bars
and factories for other railroad iron, a factory for the man-
ufacture of steel, foundries, machine-shops, flour and ce-
ment mills, and numerous minor enterprises. It has one
State and two national banks, and two daily and three
weekly newspapers. Its mercantile interests employ a
large capital. Its hotels are numerous, the “Queen City
Hotel,” built by the Baltimore and Ohio R. R., being very
large and well furnished. Its churches are also numerous;
some of them are fine specimens of architectural beauty.
An admirable system of waterworks (on the Holly plan)
furnishes an abundance of water and good fire protection.
The steadily developing coal-trade and its growing iron
industries form the chief sources of its prosperity. Pop.
8056; of Cumberland township (No. 13), 1324; (No. 6),
1272. W. E. WEBER, ED. AND PUB. “ALLEGANIAN.”
Cumberland, a post-village of Spencer township,
Guernsey co., O. Pop. 319.
Cumberland, a township of Adams co., Pa. P. 1455.
Cumberland, a township of Greene co., Pa. P. 1768.
Cumberland, a township and village of Providence
co., R. I. The village is on the Providence and Worcester
R. R., 10 miles N. of Providence. It has one national
bank. Total pop. 3882.
Cumberland, a township and village of New Kent
co., Va., 20 miles E. of Richmond. Pop. 1249.
Cumberland (WILLIAM AUGUSTUs), DUKE OF, the third
son of George II., king of England, was born April 26,
1721. He commanded the allied army which was defeated
by the French at Fontenoy in 1745. He defeated the army
of the Pretender at Culloden in April, 1746, and was cen-
sured for his cruelty in that battle. During the Seven
1218 CUMBERLAND AND TEVIOTDALE-CUMBERLAND PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, THE.
Years’ war he commanded an English army, which was
defeated at Hastembeck in 1757. Died Oct. 31, 1765.
Cumberland and Teviotdale, DukE of (Great
Britain, 1799), and earl of Armagh (Ireland, 1799), are
titles borne by the ex-king of Hanover, who is a prince of
the blood in Great Britain, being first cousin to Queen Vic-
toria. His full name is GEORGE FREDERICK ALExANDER
CHARLEs ERNEST AUGUSTUs. He was born at Berlin May
27, 1819, and was married Feb. 18, 1843, to the princess
Alexandrina Marie of Saxe-Altenburg. He succeeded to
the throne of Hanover Nov. 18, 1851, as George W., on the
death of his father, Ernest Augustus. He took sides with
Austria against Prussia in 1866, and in consequence was
deprived of his kingdom, which was annexed to Prussia by
decree Sept. 20, 1866. The ex-king is blind, but is a good
musician.—His eldest son and the heir to the dukedom is
PRINCE ERNEST AUGUSTUs, born Sept. 21, 1845.
Cumberland Court-house, a post-village, capital
of Cumberland co., Va.
Cumberland Gap, a narrow pass through the Cum-
berland Mountains, on the line between Kentucky and
Tennessee and at the western extremity of Virginia. It
was an important strategic point in the late civil war, and
was strongly fortified by the Confederates. It was aban-
doned by them Jan. 18, 1862, and on the same day was oc-
cupied by the national troops under Gen. G. W. Morgan.
In Aug., 1862, Gen. E. Kirby Smith outflanked this posi-
tion by a march through Big Creek Gap, and Gen. G. W.
Morgan in consequence was compelled to destroy and
evacuate the works. He was hotly pursued northward by
a force of Confederates under John H. Morgan. On Sept.
9, 1863, Gen. Frazer, who held the gap with a brigade of
Buckner's troops, surrendered after a siege of only four
days to Gen. Burnside's troops. The gap itself is a cleft
500 feet deep, and in some places is only wide enough for
a road. If well provisioned, it might have been held by a
Small force against any opposing army.
Cumberland Island, of North America, forms a
portion of that coast of Davis Strait which lies between
Hudson’s Strait and Lancaster Sound.
Cumberland Mountains, a range of the Appala-
chian system, forming part of the boundary between Vir-
ginia, and Kentucky. The range extends in a generally
S. W. direction across Tennessee, dividing East from Middle
Tennessee.
teau, seldom over 2000 feet high, but at some points nearly
50 miles across. North-eastern Alabama, and North-west-
ern Georgia are broken by the southernmost extremity of
the range. The Cumberland Mountains abound in caves,
and in Tennessee they are very rich in coal and iron, con-
taining nearly all the coal this State affords. The range
in Tennessee has been described as capable of furnishing
“a highway from Rentucky to the Alabama line along its
flat top, along which a traveller may pass without once de-
scending, or even without discovering at any time his ele-
vation.” On both sides the plateau breaks off in steep
sandstone cliffs, the western side much notched, the eastern
quite regular. Its immediate sides are from 800 to 1000
feet high on either side. There are places where its upper
surface is much broken by ridges and valleys. The iron
deposits of this region are very remarkable, and there is
every prospect that from the vast mineral wealth, delight-
ful and healthful climate, good soil, and other great natural
advantages, the Cumberland Mountain region of Tennessee
will become one of the most wealthy and populous regions
of the U. S. -
Cumberland Presbyterian Church, The, is a
growth of the present century. In 1797 a very remarkable
revival of religion began to develop itself in South-western
Kentucky. The principal minister connected with its
early developments was Rev. James McGready. Mr. Mc-
Gready was a Presbyterian, and was educated in Western
Pennsylvania, at what became afterwards Jefferson Col-
lege, but he commenced his ministry in North Carolina.
He was a man of unusual earnestness and power in the
pulpit. His earnestness and zeal brought him into col-
lision with the community in which he was laboring. The
result was a removal from North Carolina, to Kentucky in
1796. He was settled in charge of three congregations—
two in Logan co., Ky., Gaspar River and Little Muddy
River; and one in Tennessee, Red River, near the dividing-
line between the two States.
Mr. McGready’s great zeal soon began to show itself in
his new field of labor, and in order to bring his people
into sympathy and co-operation with him, he proposed to
them a written covenant, which they were to subscribe as
a pledge of their earnest intention to fulfil its conditions.
The measure was an incipient effort towards what was felt
to be so necessary—a great revival of religion. A copy of
** -
These mountains here form an elevated pla-
this covenant is embodied here, as an illustration of the
views and feelings, at the time, of a country pastor and a
Christian people, surrounded as they were by a literal and
a spiritual wilderness. “When we consider,” say the
covenanters, “the work and promises of a compassionate
God to the poor lost family of Adam, we find the strongest
encouragement for Christians to pray in faith—to ask in
the name of Jesus for the conversion of their fellow-men.
None ever went to Christ, when on earth, with the case of
their friends that were denied, and although the days of
his humiliation are ended, yet for the encouragement of
his people he has left it on record “that where two or three
agree upon earth to ask anything in prayer, believing, it
shall be done.” Again, ‘Whatsoever ye shall ask the
Father in my name, that will I do, that the Father may be
glorified in the Son.” With these promises before us we
feel encouraged to unite our supplications to a prayer-
hearing God for the outpouring of his Spirit, that his
people may be quickened and comforted, and that our
children, and sinners generally, may be converted. There-
fore, we bind ourselves to observe the third. Saturday in
each month for one year as a day of fasting and prayer
for the conversion of sinners in Logan county and through-
out the world. We also engage to spend one half hour
every Saturday evening, beginning at the setting of the
Sun, and one half hour every Sabbath morning, beginning
at the rising of the sun, in pleading with God to revive
his work.”
This covenant was evidently not a mere formality. The
hearts of the preacher and people were in it. In May of
1797 occurred the first developments of the desired work.
It is remarkable, too, that its first appearance was in the
case of a female member of the church. She was in full
communion, but was led to a re-examination of the ground
of her hopes, and the result was a conviction that she “was
still in the gall of bitterness and in the bond of iniquity.”
She sought and found peace and joy in believing. This
was a beginning. This occurrence, and a great many like
it, made the impression upon the mind of Mr. McGready
that a large proportion of the membership of the church
were strangers to true religion. This impression gave a
coloring to his preaching which it retained as long as he
lived. He was terribly severe upon what he regarded as
mere formalism. To have a name to live, and still to be
dead, was to him the worst of conditions.
The work advanced slowly until 1799. In this year, at
the customary sacramental meeting at Red River in July,
there was a great movement. Says Mr. McGready: “Great
solemnity pervaded the congregation from first to last, and
particularly on Monday the presence of God had an over-
whelming influence upon the assembled crowd. The boldest
and most daring sinners in the country hid their faces and
wept bitterly; and such were the deep impressions made
upon their minds that when the congregation was dismissed
many remained around the doors of the church, unwilling
to retire.” They were called back into the house; the
preachers encouraged and prayed for them, and many were
converted. In the following month, at Gaspar River church,
the work went forward in still greater power. The following
are specimens: A woman in the assembly in deep distress
sent for Mr. McGready, and addressed him thus: “Sir, I
was a member of your congregation in North Carolina, and
in full communion, but I was deceived; I have no religion,
and am going to hell.” “An aged man in great distress ad-
dressed his wife and children thus: “We are all going to
hell together; we have lived prayerless and ungodly lives;
the work for the salvation of our souls is yet to be begun;
we must all have religion or we will be damned.’”
In July of 1800 occurred the first camp-meeting that ever
was held in Christendom. The plan of the meeting was
suggested by the circumstances of the country, and the fact
that vast crowds were in the habit of assembling at the
sacramental meetings from distances varying from ten to
a hundred miles. Great numbers professed religion at the
camp-meetings and upon other occasions, and the work
spread with wonderful rapidity and power over South-
western Kentucky and what was called the Cumberland
Country—now Middle Tennessee—lying adjacent. -
A large element of the population of these countries was
either Scotch-Irish or of Scotch-Irish descent, and the
Scotch-Irish are generally Presbyterian in their religious
proclivities. It was so in this case. The ministers who
co-operated with Mr. McGready were Messrs. William Mc-
Gee, Samuel McAdoo, William Hodge, John Rankin, Pres-
byterians, and Mr. John McGee, Methodist. These men
were all of Scotch-Irish origin, and had emigrated from
North Carolina. It may be mentioned here that when the
Cumberland Presbyterian Church came to be fully organ-
ized nine-tenths of its ministry, and at least four-fifths.
of its membership, were of Scotch-Irish descent. This fact
is mentioned that the reader may know something of the
CUMBERLAND PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, THE.
1219
material of which this communion was originally composed.
Some characteristics are charged upon Cumberland Pres-
byterians which are in direct conflict with what would be
inferred from their paternity. Everybody knows that a
Scotch-Irishman is neither a patron of ignorance nor a
famatic in religion. Yet Cumberland Presbyterians have
been charged with being fanatical in religion and the
patrons of ignorance. Facts, as we shall see, as well as
philosophy, vindicate them from the charge. It is utterly
without foundation.
The rapid progress and widespread influence of the re-
vival produced the necessity of organizing a great many
new congregations; and this, of course, created a necessity
for more ministerial laborers. The Presbyterian Church
could not supply them in the ordinary way. There were
no schools, and if schools had been abundant the congre-
gations could not wait until young men would be able to go
through such a course of literary and theological training
as is customarily required in the Presbyterian Church pre-
paratory to licensure and ordination. No one complained
of the requisition, but its fulfilment seemed impracticable
under the circumstances. The patriarch # of Presbyter-
ianism in Kentucky visited the region of the revival, and
seeing the necessities of the congregations, advised the
ministers and leading laymen of the Church to select such
young men as they thought promised usefulness, and direct
their attention to the work of the ministry, although they
might not be able to obtain what was considered a full
ministerial education. The counsel seemed practical, and
three young men at first were encouraged to prepare them-
selves for the work as well as they could. These young
men presented themselves to the Transylvania. Presbytery
in Oct., 1801. The presbytery hesitated, but at length, in
Oct., 1802, they were all licensed as probationers for the
holy ministry. At the same presbytery two others were
received as candidates for the ministry. Opposition, how-
ever, at once developed itself. In Oct., 1802, the Transyl-
vania. Presbytery was divided, and the Cumberland Pres-
bytery was formed, embracing the more immediate region
of the revival. The Cumberland Presbytery from time to
time licensed a few others and ordained two or three. These
were all what were called uneducated men; they were all,
however, men of promise, and some of them became dis-
tinguished in subsequent years. The opposition was con-
tinued in the new presbytery.
There was difficulty from another source. The revival
ministers were warm-hearted, and controlled less by theo-
logical and technical than by practical, and what they re-
garded as spiritual, considerations. The young men, too,
had not learned to split all the metaphysical hairs of the-
ology, and there were some expressions in the Confession
of Faith which seemed to them to teach the doctrine of
fatality. This they could not receive, and were allowed to
except to it in their licensure and ordination.
There were thus two subjects of dissension between the
parties: one was educational, the other theological. The
revival ministers did not object to education for the minis-
try, but to the rigid application of the rule in the circum-
stances surrounding them. The young men did not object
to the Confession of Faith, but to those expressions in it
which seemed to them to imply the doctrine of fatality.
Their warm-hearted and liberal fathers thought proper to
indulge them in their skepticism on this subject. They
adopted the Confession of Faith with the single exception.
The difficulties became serious, and were finally brought
before the synod of Kentucky. The synod of 1804 ap-
pointed a committee to attend a meeting of the Cumber-
land Presbytery and inquire into the condition of things.
None of the committee fulfilled the appointment except
one, and he was notoriously a persecutor of the presbytery,
and was regarded as a spy. Nothing good, of course, re-
sulted. The synod at its next meeting, in 1805, appointed
a commission consisting of fifteen members to visit the
region in which the difficulties existed, to confer with the
Cumberland Presbytery, and to endeavor to restore quiet and
harmony. The commission met on Dec. 3, 1805, at Gaspar
River meeting-house, in Logan co., Ky. The first measure
of the commission was to require of the presbytery a sur-
render of all the young men who had been licensed and
ordained in what they regarded a questionable manner, for
a re-examination by the commission, with a view to a con-
firmation or an annulling of the proceedings of the pres-
bytery in each particular case. It is to be borne in mind
that several of the men thus required to be surrendered to
the commission were themselves members of the presby-
tery. The presbytery declined compliance, upon the ground
that the constitution of the Presbyterian Church gives to
the presbytery alone the power “to examine and license
candidates for the holy ministry; to ordain, install, remove,
* Rev. David Rice.
and judge ministers;” that it gives no such power to a
synod, much less to a commission of synod, nor to any
other judicature of the Church. The commission then
called upon the young men to submit themselves for re-
examination; they also declined, whereupon the commis-
sion passed the following resolution: “Resolved, That as
the above-named persons never had regular authority from
the presbytery of Cumberland to preach the gospel, etc.,
the commission of synod prohibit, and they do solemnly
prohibit, the said persons from exhorting, preaching, and
administering the ordinances, in consequence of any au-
thority which they have received from the Cumberland
Presbytery, until they submit to our jurisdiction and
undergo the requisite examination.”
The names of the persons thus proscribed are omitted as
a convenience. Four of them were ordained ministers and
members of the presbytery; the others, eight in number,
were either licentiates, candidates for the ministry, or ex-
horters. The presbytery took the ground in the contro-
versy that the proceedings of the commission were uncon-
stitutional, and of course that the proscribing act was
unconstitutional and void. Nevertheless, from a general
respect to authority, and from an obvious desire to procure
a reconciliation, and enjoy peace and quietude as far as
possible, both the proscribed members, and those who had
promoted their induction into the ministry and sympa-
thized with them, constituting a majority of the presby-
tery, organized themselves into what they called a council,
determining in this manner to endeavor to carry forward
the work of the revival, to keep the congregations together,
but to abstain from all proper presbyterial proceedings,
and await what they thought would be a redress of their
grievances. The synod of Kentucky at its sessions in 1806
dissolved the Cumberland Presbytery, and annexed the
members who had not been placed under the ban of the
commission to the Transylvania, Presbytery. *
The council continued their organization from Dec., 1805,
to Feb., 1810. By that time they became satisfied that they
had nothing to hope either from the synod or the General
Assembly. As a last resort, and in order to save what they
represent to the General Assembly as “every respectable
congregation in Cumberland and the Barrens of Kentucky,”
two of the proscribed ministers, Finis Ewing and Samuel
King, assisted by Samuel McAdam, one of those who had
been placed under an interdict by the commission for his
participation in what they denominated the irregularities
of the presbytery, reorganized the Cumberland Presbytery
at the house of Mr. McAdam, in Dickson co., Tenn., on the
4th of Feb., 1810. It was organized as an independent
presbytery. It will be observed that it was a reorganiza-
tion of a presbytery which had been dissolved, and which
had received its name from its locality. The Church which
grew up from these beginnings naturally took the name of
its first presbytery as a prefix. Hence this Church is called,
from the circumstances of its origin, “The Cumberland
Presbyterian Church.” It extends now from Pennsylvania
to the shore of the Pacific, but it originated in what was
called, at the time, the “Cumberland Country’ and from
the Cumberland Presbytery. It is hoped that these details
will not be considered useless. They are intended to en-
able the reader to understand what most readers remote
from the scene of the transactions do not understand—that
a Church of some extent should be so local in its name.
The name suggests nothing connected with the denomina-
tion except the locality of its origin, and this was acci-
dental, or rather providential. *
The new presbytery immediately set forth a synopsis of
its theology and the principles of action by which it pro-
posed to be governed. Its theology was Calvinistic, with
the exception of the offensive doctrine of predestination,
so expressed as to seem to embody the old pagan dogma.
of necessity or fatality. Its rules of action were to be
presbyterial. r
There is no probability that these good and earnest men
had any adequate conception of what became the mag-
nitude of the work upon which they were entering. They
hardly thought of anything beyond an organization which
would enable them, and perhaps their immediate successors,
to labor with greater vigor and efficiency in promoting the
work to which they thought God in his providence and
by his Spirit had called them. ... We judge now that they
did not think of originating a Church, but simply a pres-
bytery. But God rules, and we have a thousand evidences
that he ruled in this case. &
The new presbytery held its first adjourned meeting in
March, the month following its organization. There were
present four ordained ministers, six licentiates, and seven
candidates for the ministry. These men constituted really
the fathers and founders of the Cumberland Presbyterian
Church. At the fourth session of the presbytery, held in
Oct., 1811, a committee was appointed to meet committees
1220
CUMBERLAND RIVER—CUMMINGS.
from two of the neighboring presbyteries of the Presby-
terian Church, with a view to “conferring on the subject
of a reunion, and other matters relative to that harmony
which should exist between the members and people of
Jesus Christ.” This well-meant measure, however, failed
of any good effect. Early in the year 1813 the presbytery
had become so large that it divided itself into three pres-
byteries, and constituted the Cumberland Synod. This
synod, at its sessions in 1816, adopted a Confession of
Faith, catechism, and system of church order in conformity
with the principles avowed upon the organization of the
presbytery. The Confession of Faith is really a modifica-
tion of the Confession of Faith of the Presbyterian Church.
It was intended by the framers to exclude only the offensive
doctrine which had been a principal cause of all the diffi-
culties. The government is Presbyterian.
In 1826 its first college was organized under the super-
vision of the Church. It was located at Princeton, Ky.
It was a manual-labor school. In 1830 its first paper was
published under the patronage of the Church. It was a
weekly religious and literary journal, also published at
Princeton. In 1828 the Cumberland Synod was divided
into three synods, and a General Assembly succeeded. The
first meeting of the Assembly was held in May, 1829.
At the last meeting of the General Assembly, which was
held in May, 1873, there were reported 24 synods, 100 pres-
byteries, 1223 ministers, 2212 congregations, 98,408 com-
municants, 59,932 persons engaged in Sabbath school work,
and $475,267 in contributions to church purposes. All
these estimates are made from defective reports. The
stated clerk of the General Assembly says that they would
be increased by full reports. Probably a full estimate
would place the membership at 120,000.
The Church has under its patronage three weekly news-
papers, one quarterly, and two monthlies—one devoted to
the interest of females. It has also under its patronage
three chartered universities and several colleges, both male
and female and mixed. Two of its universities give in-
struction to both males and females; the other has regular
collegiate, theological, law, and medical departments. Cum-
berland Presbyterians make no great parade of their cha-
racter, numbers, or work, but they are willing that the world
should know both what they are and what they do.
RICHARD BEARD.
Prof. of Theology Cumberland University, Lebanon, Tenn.
Cumberland River, an affluent of the Ohio, rises
among the Cumberland Mountains in Kentucky, near the
S. E. boundary of that State. It flows nearly westward,
crosses the southern boundary of Kentucky, describes an
extensive circuit in Middle Tennessee, passes by Nashville,
and returns into Kentucky. It afterwards flows north-
westward, and enters the Ohio at Smithland. The Cum-
berland and Tennessee rivers are only about 3 miles apart
at a point nearly 20 miles from Smithland. Length, esti-
mated at 650 miles. Steamboats can ascend it to Nash-
ville, about 200 miles from its mouth, and it is navigable
above Nashville, at certain seasons, 400 miles.
Cumberland University, at Lebanon, Tenn., belong-
ing to the Cumberland Presbyterians, was founded in 1842.
Its presidents have been as follows: F. R. Cossitt, D. D.,
1842—44; T. C. Anderson, D. D., 1844–66; B. W. McDon-
mold, D. D., LL.D., 1867. Its departments are—arts, the-
ology, medicine, natural science, commercial and poly-
technic, preparatory. Whole number of graduates, 1260.
Amount of “Ball endowment” subscribed, $250,000. Wol-
umes in libraries, 8000. Price of tuition in college, per
session, $35. Boarding in clubs, the prevailing method,
costs $10 per month. B. W. McDONNOLD.
Cumberland Valley, a post-township of Bedford co.,
Pa. Pop. 1357.
Cum/bre, La (the summit), a principal pass across the
Andes, between Santiago in Chili and Mendoza in the
Argentine Republic. Elevation, 12,454 feet above the level
of the sea. Men travelling on foot can pass over the
Cumbre from May to the end of October. .
Cum/bria [named from the CYMRY (which see), its an-
cient inhabitants], an ancient British principality, com-
prising Cumberland in England and that part of Scotland
which now forms the counties of Ayr, Dumbarton, Dum-
fries, Lanark, Peebles, Renfrew, and Selkirk. It was ruled
by its own kings until about 950 A. D. Scottish Cumbria
then became the kingdom of STRATHCLYDE (which see).
Cum/brian Mountains, a range or group of moun-
tains in the N. of England, occupying parts of Cumber-
land, Westmoreland, and Lancashire. This region, called
the “English Lake District,” is remarkable for its pictu-
resque scenery, and is much frequented by tourists. Here
are numerous lakes, the largest of which are Windermere
and Ulleswater. These mountains are mostly formed of
granite and Silurian rocks. The highest point, Sca Fell
Pike, rises 3166 feet above the sea.
. Cum'ing, a county in the N. E. of Nebraska. Area,
400 square miles. It is intersected by the Elkhorn River.
The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. Grain and
wool are raised. Extensive prairies occur here. It is in-
tersected by the Sioux City and Pacific R. R. Capital, West
Point. Pop. 2964.
Cuming City, a post-township of Washington co.,
Neb. Pop. 543.
Cum/min-(or Cumin-) Seed [Lat. cuminum], the fruit
of the Cuminum Cyminum, a plant belonging to the order
Umbelliferae. It is the only known species, and is found
in Egypt and the adjacent countries. It is an annual with
branched stem, thread-like leaves, with umbels of small
white or pink flowers. It has been cultivated from remote
times for the sake of its seeds, which have an aromatic
taste somewhat resembling caraway. In Germany and
Holland it is used in cookery. As a medicine it is mostly ,
limited to veterinary practice. It is cultivated in Northern
Africa, India, and Southern Europe; but the seed are mostly
imported from Sicily and Malta. Oil of cummin is abun-
dantly obtained from the seed. The oil of cummin consists
of a mixture of two distinct oils, one called cymene (C20H14);
the other regarded as a hydride of cumyl (C20H1102.H.).
This oil is of a strong bitter, disagreeable taste, with the
general properties of the other essential oils. -
Cum’ming, a post-village, capital of Forsyth co., Ga.,
about 40 miles N. N. E. of Atlanta. Gold is found in the
vicinity. Pop. 267.
Cumming (ALEXANDER), a Congregational minister,
born in Freehold, N.J., in 1729, was ordained to the Pres-
byterian ministry in New York in 1747, and preached in
New York 1750–53, when he was relieved at his own re-
quest of his colleague pastorate. In 1761 he was ordained
colleague pastor of the Old South church, Boston, Mass.,
where he thenceforth remained. He died Aug. 25, 1763.
Cumming (ALFRED), a Confederate brigadier-general,
was born in Georgia in 1829, graduated at West Point in
1849, became captain in the Tenth U. S. Infantry in 1856,
resigned in 1861, entered the Confederate service, and fell at
the battle of Jonesboro’, Ga., Sept. 1, 1864. -
Cumming (JoHN), D. D., F. R. S. E., a popular Scotch
preacher, born in Aberdeenshire Nov. 10, 1810. He be-
came in 1833 minister to the Scottish church in Crown
court, Covent Garden, London. He has published inter-
pretations of the apocalyptic prophecies, “The Great Trib-
ulation,” “The Destiny of Nations,” etc. He also is a
zealous opponent of the Roman Catholic Church and a
defender of the National Church of Scotland.
Cumming (Rou ALEYN GORDON), known as the “lion-
hunter,” was born at Altyre, Scotland, Mar. 15, 1820. He
was the son of a baronet, was educated at Addiscombe, and
entered a cavalry regiment in the East India service, and
afterwards took a commission in the Cape Mounted Rifles
in South Africa. While there he distinguished himself by
his exploits in killing lions, elephants, and other wild
beasts. Of his surprising adventures he wrote an account
in book-form, which was highly popular, but after a time
fell into a discredit which it hardly deserved. He after-
wards became a popular lecturer in Great Britain upon
sporting subjects. Died Mar. 24, 1866.
Cumming (WILLIAM), U. S. A., was born in Georgia
in 1788, became in 1813 major of the Eighth U. S. Infantry,
was wounded at Chrystler’s Fields, Nov. 11, 1813, became
colonel and adjutant-general in 1814, was wounded a second
time at Lundy’s Lane, and in 1847 declined a major-gene-
ralship. A lawyer by profession, he never practised, being
the possessor of a large fortune. In a political contest
with George McDuffie of Georgia he was involved in a
duel, in which McDuffie was wounded in the shoulder.
Died at Augusta, Ga., in Feb., 1863.
Cum/mings, a township of Lycoming co., Pa. P. 277.
Cummings (A. B.), U. S. N., born June 22, 1830, in
Pennsylvania, entered the navy as a midshipman April 7,
1847, became a passed midshipman in 1853, a lieutenant
in 1855, and a lieutenant-commander in 1862. He served
in the steamer Richmond at the passage of Forts Jackson
and St. Philip and capture of New Orleans, April 24, 1862,
at the passage of Vicksburg, June 28, 1862, and in the en-
gagement with the batteries at Port Hudson, Mar. 14, 1863,
where he fell mortally wounded “while he was cheering the
men at the guns.” The loss which the country and the
navy sustained in the death of this gallant officer may be
gathered from the following extract from the address of
Captain Alden to the officers and crew of the Richmond on
Mar. 22, 1863: “With deep sorrow I call you together to
announce the death of our late executive officer, Lieutenant-
CUMMINGS-CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS.
1221
Commander A. B. Cummings, at New Orleans. It has pleased
God to take from among us our gallant friend in the ful-
ness of his emergies and usefulness. You all well know the
importance of his services in this ship; his conscientious de-
votion to duty; his justice and even temper in maintaining
discipline; his ability in preparing for emergencies, and
his coolness in meeting them. All these qualities he brought
to his country in the hour of need, and he has sealed, his
devotion with his life. The fatal cannon-shot struck him
when he stood on the bridge, cheering the men at their guns
and directing their fire. He was thrown down upon the
deck, but his presence of mind still remained. He said,
* Quick, boys | pick me up ; put a tourniquet on my leg;
send my letters to my wife; tell her I fell in doing my
duty.’ When below he said to the surgeon, “If there are
others worse hurt, attend to them first. Nolan, are you
here, too?” He inquired about Howard, and his thoughts
were directly of others and of success in the fight. When
told that the noise he heard was from the escape of steam,
and that the ship could no longer stem the current, he ex-
claimed, ‘I would rather lose the other leg than go back;
can nothing be dome 2 There is a S. wind; where are the
Sails 7’” Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Cummings (Joseph), D. D., LL.D., a Methodist Epis-
copal theologian, was born at Falmouth, Me., Mar. 3, 1817,
and graduated at Wesleyan University in 1840, entered the
ministry in 1841, became in 1853 professor of theology in
the biblical institute at Concord, N. H., was president of
Geneva College (1854–57), and in the latter year became
president of Wesleyan University, at Middletown, Conn.
Cum/mington, a post-township of Hampshire co.,
Mass., the birthplace of the poet Bryant, of Hon. H. L.
Dawes, of Luther Bradish, and of Dr. Thomas Snell, the
historian and divine. It has manufactures of importance.
Fine water-power is furnished by the Westfield River. The
town has three churches, and an excellent public library,
presented to the town by Mr. Bryant. Pop. 1037.
Cum/mins (FRANCIs), D. D., born near Shippensburg,
Pa., in 1752, was one of the framers of the Mecklenburg
Declaration of Independence (May, 1775), and in 1780 was
licensed by the presbytery of Orange, N. C., to preach.
For many years he was the honored pastor of Presbyterian
churches in the Carolinas and Georgia. Died Feb. 22, 1832,
at Greensboro’, Ga.
Cummins (GEORGE DAVID), D.D., an American clergy-
man, was born near Smyrna, Del., Dec. 11, 1822. He was
graduated from Dickinson College in 1841, and was a
licentiate in the Methodist Episcopal Church for two years.
In 1845 he studied for orders in the Protestant Episco-
pal Church, in October of the same year was ordained a
deacon, and in 1847 a presbyter. For six years he was
rector of Christ church at Norfolk, Va., and then succes-
sively rector of St. James's church, Richmond, Trinity.
church, Washington, St. Peter's church, Baltimore, and
Trinity church, Chicago. In 1866 he was elected assistant
bishop of Kentucky. In Nov., 1873, he resigned his posi-
tion, withdrew from the Protestant Episcopal Church, and
founded the Reformed Episcopal Church, of which he was
made presiding bishop Dec. 2, 1873.
J. B. BISHOP, N. Y. “Tribune” Ed. Staff.
Cummins (MARIA S.), a popular novelist, was born at
Salem, Mass., April 10, 1827. Her most successful novels
were “The Lamplighter” (1853), “Mabel Vaughan’” (1857),
and “El Fureidis” (1860). The first mentioned had a sale
of 70,000 copies in a single year. Died Oct. 1, 1866.
Cum'ru, a post-township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 2573.
Cunard' (Sir SAMUEL), BART., was born in Nov., 1787.
He was the eldest son of a gentleman in Halifax, Nova
Scotia. He became the head of the extensive firm of steam-
ship owners, Cunard & Co. He married a lady of Halifax,
and in 1859 was made a baronet. Died April 28, 1865,
leaving eight children.—He was succeeded in the baronetcy
by his son, SIR EDWARD, who married Miss Mary McEvers
of New York. Sir Edward Cunard died April 6, 1869.-
SIR BACHE CUNARD, the present baronet, was born May 15,
1851. He resides chiefly in the U. S. Became M.P. in 1874.
Cunax'a, the ancient name of a place in Babylonia, on
the E. bank of the Euphrates, about 45 miles N. of Baby-
lon. In 401 B. C. a battle occurred here between Artax-
erxes Mnemon, king of Persia, and his brother Cyrus (the
Younger), who was defeated and killed.
Cundinamar'ca, one of the United States of Colombia,
separated by the Central Cordilleras from Antioquía and
Căuca on the W., by the Orinoco from Cáuca and Venezuela
on the E., and bordering S. on Cáuca, and N. on Boyaca
and Antioquía. The climate varies from the tierra caliente
of the valleys to the tierra fria of the high plateaux, and
the products are very abundant. The chief exports are to-
bacco and cinchona. Chief city, Bogotá. P. in 1870, 409,602.
Cunduran'go, or Condurango, a twining plant of
the order Asclepiadaceae, apparently belonging to the genus
Nantonia, though its botanical relations are not well known.
It grows in Ecuador, and has been sold in the U. S. and
Europe at fabulous prices as a cure for cancer. It has, how-
ever, no favorable effect upon that disease, though it prob-
ably has active properties. Its name signifies “condor
root,” and it is believed by the Indians that the condor
uses it as a medicine.
Cu’neiform [Lat. cuneiformis, from cuneus, a “wedge,”
and forma, “form *], having the form of a wedge; applied
to one of the bones of the wrist and to three of the tarsus;
also to certain wedge-shaped characters found on ancient
monuments. (See next article.)
Cu/neiform (or Arrow-headed.) Inscrip/tions.
The cuneiform characters used in the Euphrates valley had
their origin in a hieroglyphic or picture system of writing.
A few inscriptions, in a more primitive style than usual, re-
tain considerable resemblance to the original hieroglyphics,
though most of the Assyrian inscriptions preserve very little
resemblance to their original pictures. The ordinary cha-
racters are made up entirely of wedges, differently arranged,
and ranging from a single one to a combination of twenty.
Each character is either a syllable or a word, the analysis
into consonant and vowel sounds being quite beyond the
capacity of the Chaldean scribes. The choice of the wedge
as the basis of all the characters is not arbitrary, but results
from the employment of soft clay (instead of parchment),
which was inscribed with a pointed stylus.
From the earliest historical period, as now, the Euphra-
tes valley has contained races existing side by side, but
speaking diverse languages. At present the Persian, the
Arabic, and the Turkish represent the three great families
of languages, the Indo-Germanic, the Shemitic, and the
Turanian ; and the same three families are represented by
the languages which we find in the early trilingual cunei-
form inscriptions—one being in the Turanian Accad lan-
guage, another in the Shemitic Assyrian, and the third in
the Indo-Germanic Persian, or Achaemenian. -
The earliest civilization of the Euphrates was Turanian.
It is indicated by the genealogy of Genesis x., which repre-
sents Asshur as having descended from Cush. This Turanian
people, called Accad, invented the form of writing which,
with the modifications produced by ages of use, was adopted
by all the other languages about them. But not being
originally an alphabet of simple sounds, but characters
representing words, it maturally became encumbered in the
transfer with a multiplicity of sounds, which has been a
great stumbling-block to those who have not made the
language a study.
Thus, for example, in Turanian the word par means “the
sun,” and had its appropriate hieroglyphic, afterwards
abbreviated into a conventional character, consisting of
one upright wedge with two very short parallel wedges set
obliquely by its left side. The meanings “light” and “day”
were naturally enough attached to the same character, just
as we say that the 8wn is very bright when we mean that
its light is brilliant, and as an Indian speaks of three sung
when he means three days. Any other word besides par,
signifying in Turanian “sun,” “light,” or “ day,” was
attached to this hieroglyphic as its variant significations
and pronunciations. When the character was transferred
into the Assyrian language, it kept its significations, but
utterly altered its pronunciations. In its sense of “the
sum,” from par it became samas : in its sense of “day,” it
became imma, and so with other significations. The same
was true in its transfer to the Persian. But another stage
of change remains, the syllabic.
It was a very simple step to abbreviate the sound allowed
to a character. Thus, in Accad the word Annap means
God, and is represented by two successive short horizontal
wedges followed by a longer upright one. This character
was not only employed to represent the idea of God, pro-
nounced Annap in an Accad and Ilu in an Assyrian inscrip-
tion, but also to represent the first syllable an of Annap. In
a similar way the character pronounced pil, “ear,” in Ac-
cad, came to represent the simpler syllable pi. There were
thus as many simple syllables formed as could be made by
the combination of twenty consonants with three vowels;
it being remembered, however, that when the consonant
followed the vowel no distinction was made between the
different consonants of a class, whether sibilant, labial,
dental, or guttural. Thus ab and ap are represented by the
same character, and so is w8, wº, and w followed by either
one of two other sibilants. When these simple syllables
were combined to form words, it became necessary to dupli-
cate the vowel sound of a closed syllable, as in the word
habba, “ sea,” which is written with the characters pro-
nounced ha-ab-ba.
These different stages of writing will be more or less com-
1222
CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS. -
bined in any Assyrian inscription, so that we may have in
the same line simple syllables, like those in ha-ab-ba, “sea,”
complex syllables, like those in gul-lul-two, “curse,” and
ideographic signs, like that for rabu, “great.” And a
single sign may have several different values; and cases
occur in which, by a perversity of the scribes, the same
character is used in two successive syllables of the same
word with different values, the practice which allows us to
pronounce viz one way in “vizier,” and another in the con-
traction for “namely,” being carried to an extreme extent,
so that there are cases of polyphony in which a single cha-
racter has as many as five or six distinct values.
The complexity of the Assyrian system of writing is so
great that there was for a long time much skepticism
about the trustworthiness of the decipherment, although
there is scarce a feature of the system that is not paralleled
in the existing Japanese writing. But the proofs of its
correctness are beyond cavil. They are found in trilingual
inscriptions of considerable length, where it is easy to com-
pare the Assyrian with the Persian; in some long inscrip-
tions of which we have a large number of copies, and in
which the scribes have written the same word in several
different ways, more or less contracted; and finally in the
extensive syllabaries are grammatical texts of the monu-
ments, which were prepared, as we prepare dictionaries
and spelling-books, for the instruction of learners, and
which explain the values of the characters. The proof of
the correctness of these readings was first given, so as to
make it beyond reasonable question, in 1857, when Sir
Henry Rawlinson, William H. Fox Talbot, Esq., Rev. E.
Hincks, D. D., and Doctor Jules Oppert prepared indepen-
dent translations from copies of a long inscription of Tig-
lath-Pileser. These translations were transmitted in sealed
packets to a committee of the Royal Asiatic Society, and
opened and compared by them. It was found that they-
were so nearly identical that it was preposterous to sup-
pose that the true foundation had not been laid for the de-
cipherment of the inscriptions. The amount of these in-
scriptions collected by Botta and Layard is very great, and
includes the complete historical annals of several kings,
embracing the details of their various campaigns, a very
large number of grammatical and lexicographical tablets,
legal and commercial documents, such as bills of sale, des-
patches to the king from the generals in the field, chrono-
logical tables, accounts of eclipses and lunar conjunctions,
and indeed almost everything that a people greatly given
to writing would care to record. The fortunate discovery
of libraries or record-chambers of Sennacherib and Assur-
banipal has been of incalculable service. * -
Language.—Its entire vocabulary and its grammar clearly
prove that the Assyrian language belongs to the Shemitic
family, and to the same branch of it as the Hebrew and
Phoenician, rather than to the Aramaean or to the Arabic
branch. And yet it preserves many forms which are nearly
or quite obsolete in Hebrew, such as the three case-endings
of the noun, and the conjugations of the verb formed with 8
and t. The Assyrian is peculiar in its exceedingly rare use
of the perfect (preterite) tense. So rarely is it used that the
French scholars deny its existence entirely. A large ma-
jority of the roots are the same as in Hebrew ; the sibilants
are preserved, and not changed into dentals, as in Aramaic,
which is considerably more remote from the Assyrian than
is the Arabic.
Mythology.—The chief Assyrian deity was Asshur, called
“chief of the gods,” and replaced in Babylon by a deity
called Il or Ra. It is remarkable that no temples were
built to this tutelary god of Assyria, although the oldest
capital of the country, built before Nineveh, and the country
itself, bear his name. His emblem was a winged circle en-
closing or surmounted by a human bust.
Subordinate to Asshur is the triad of Anu, Bel, and
Hea, or Ao, also called Sin. Anu was a very old deity, and
in later mythology seems to have presided over the lower
regions, and perhaps to have ruled Chaos. Bel, the or-
ganizer of the world, judging from his Shemitic name,
meaning “lord,” corresponds to the Roman Jupiter. Hea,
or Ao, is the god of wisdom, the Oannes of Berosus. To
this trinity succeeds another, consisting of Iva (Bin),
the “aether;” Shamas, the sun; and Sin, the moon. The
five planets were identified with the gods Ninip (Adar?),
Saturn; Merodach, Jupiter; Nergal, Mars; the goddess
Ishtar, Venus; and Nebo, Mercury. With most of the
gods were connected corresponding female divinities, of
whom the best known is Beltis, wife of Bel, who is the My-
litta of Greek writers, in whose temple every Babylonian
woman was obliged to prostitute herself once in her life.
The ancient Babylonians were familiar with the story of
the Deluge, as is proved by some very curious mythological
tablets lately deciphered by Mr. George. Smith, and proba-
bly reaching back to the extreme antiquity of over 2000
B. C. In this story Sisit (the Xisuthrus of Berosus) takes
the place of Noah, and is warned by Hea to build a ship,
that he and his family and individuals of all the animals
may escape a flood sent to punish the wickedness of men.
The vessel is calked with bitumen and roofed with reeds.
Its dimensions are missing, but its breadth and height,
unlike those of the biblical ark, are equal. Unlike the ark,
it has a pilot. The rain lasts but seven days, and the birds
sent out are a dove, a swallow, and a raven. The ark rests
on the mountains east of Babylon, when the god lets Sisit
and the animals out, and he offers a sacrifice. As a re-
ward for his services he receives the gift of immortality.
This story of the Deluge is on the eleventh of twelve tablets,
of which one was for each month, this being for the “rainy
month.” `--
History.—The most important result of the decipherment
of the cuneiform inscriptions is the addition of an almost
entirely new chapter to the history of the ancient world.
The Babylonians and Assyrians, unlike the early Hindoos,
were exceedingly careful to preserve their historical records
for posterity. Hundreds of copies exist of a single inscrip-
tion giving an abstract of the victories of Assurnazirbal;
and the very bricks of which a palace was built were
stamped with the name of the ruling monarch. The frag-
mentary and contradictory accounts of Berosus, Ctesias, etc.
have been supplemented by an immense mass of contem-
porary records, quite complete in some reigns, from which
we can gain a very clear view of the rise and fall of the
Assyrian and Babylonian powers.
The earliest dynasty was an indigenous one, called by
various authors Accad, Chaldaean, or Cushite. It began
about 2200 B.C., and the names of a few kings are pre-
served, among whom are Ur-hammu (perhaps the Orcha-
mus whom Ovid reports to have been the seventh after Bel),
his son Tigi, Ismidagon, and Hammurabi, extending to the
middle of the sixteenth century B. C., when Thothmes III.
overran Mesopotamia, and established a line of Egyptian
rulers whom Berosus calls Arabian. After two or three
centuries, during which the Egyptians were paramount,
we meet the name of Assur-bel-nisis as the founder of the
first Assyrian dynasty. He was an insignificant ruler, like
his immediate successors, and not till Tiglath-ninip I.,
about 1300 B.C., was Babylon conquered by the king of
Nineveh. Of his successors the most powerful was Tiglath-
Pileser I., whose history is quite fully given, and who con-
quered the Moschi of the Black Sea, Armenia, Western
Media, the Syrian Hittites, and a portion of the Phoeni-
ciam coast. He records it as an extraordinary exploit that
he entered a vessel of Aradus and killed a dolphin with his
own hand. After some reverses in attempting to subdue
the revolted city of Babylon, he succeeded in recovering
for Nineveh the political supremacy. His third successor,
Assur-rabu-amar, was conquered about 1070 B. C. by the
Bittites, and lost all his Syrian conquests, thus allowing
the development of the Jewish kingdom under David and
Solomon.
The earlier kings of a second Assyrian dynasty, begin-
ning with the usurper Beletaras, are obscure, but with one
of them, Vul-nirari II., chronology becomes certain, as we
have a nearly complete list of the eponyms for each year
for some centuries after his reign, with the names of the
corresponding kings, the Assyrians having the habit of
naming each year after some public functionary, who cor-
responded in this respect to the Greek archons and the
Roman consuls. The first king of note is the great con-
queror Assurnazirpal, who carried his arms to the Medi-
terranean Sea, on the west, and into Media and Persia on
the east. His son, Shalmaneser II., extended his conquests
—or rather his campaigns, which often issued in only a tem-
porary subjection—into regions beyond those visited by
his father, but the most interesting are those in which he
conquered Benhadad and Hazael, the successive kings of
Damascus, the former of whom was aided by 10,000 troops
from Ahab, king of Israel, though his successor, Jehu, gave
tribute to Shalmaneser, and thus incurred the enmity of
Hazael. Of the successors of Shalmaneser, the second,
Wul-nirari III., was a great conqueror, and his wife, Sam-
muramat, is the Semiramis of Herodotus.
The Assyrian annals give no account of the fall of Nine-
veh under Sardanapalus, and the identification of his name
with that of Assur-nirari by the French Assyriologists de-
pends on a very doubtful conjecture that the character read
nirari by George Smith, and which appears sometimes to
be equivalent to gabal, may, in a rare inflectional form of
that "root, have been tamagbal. The resulting name,
Assur-tanagbal, would readily become Sardanapalus in
Greek. Equally obscure is the biblical Pul, king of As-
syria, who about this time received tribute from Menahem,
king of Israel. Some scholars assume at this time, which
closes the first Assyrian empire, a break in the table of epo-
nyms of forty years, which reconciles these annals with the
Jewish history. If this break does not occur, the dates
CUNEO—CUPAR-FIFE.
1223
given for the previous kings must be brought down forty
€3,IS. w
y In 744 B.C., Tiglath-Pileser II. commenced a new line of
Assyrian monarchs, founding the second Assyrian empire.
The reconquest of Babylonia occupied the earlier portion
of his reign, while the latter portion was taken up with ex-
peditions against Syria, Phoenicia, and Israel. Pekah,
king of Israel, was dethroned by him, and Menahem occu-
pied the throne for eight years, until, taking advantage of
Tiglath-Pileser’s campaign against Armenia, Pekah again
recovered his position. This fact, given by the monuments,
explains a discrepancy of eight years between the biblical
dates of the Jewish and Israelite kings. Ahazis mentioned,
in the Assyrian as in the biblical records, as an ally of As-
syria against Israel, and as doing homage with other kings
to Tiglath-Pileser at Damascus. His son, Shalmaneser IV.,
succeeded him, and after a reign of five years was succeeded
by his tartan (or general) Sargon in 721 B. C. Sargon was
a great conqueror. It was he who carried Samaria captive,
though the biblical record has been thought to imply that
it was Shalmaneser. He extended his conquests over Syria,
Phoenicia, and Palestine, and conquered the army of Egypt
that was assisting the Philistine cities. The king of Egypt
and the queen of Arabia, gave him tribute. He then rav-
aged Armenia, portions of Media, Parthia, Albania, Cili-
cia, and Pisidia. When Babylon revolted he subdued it,
placing a satrap of his own in command. He even received
the submission of Cyprus, as a granite column discovered
in Citium contains the cuneiform record and the represen-
tation of Sargon. He was assassinated in 704 B.C., and
succeeded by his son Sennacherib, also a famous conqueror.
We possess long records of his reign, including full accounts
of his campaign against all the countries ravaged by his
father, among which was Judah, then ruled by Hezekiah.
His son Esarhaddon (681–667) was also a warlike king. He
had been viceroy of Babylon before his father's assassination,
and made that city his place of residence. He increased
the Assyrian domain by an expedition into the Arabian
peninsula and by the conquest of Egypt. His son Assur-
banipal, the Greek Sardanapalus, was equally successful in
war, and reconquered the rebellious Egyptians in three suc-
cessive campaigns. Tyre was forced to yield after a stout
siege, and the daughter of King Bahlu and other princesses
were taken into the harem of the conqueror, who here first
shows his sensuality. Then followed his treaty with Gyges,
king of Lydia (of whose relations with the wife of Can-
daules, Herodotus tells so curious a story), and his war with
Elam, concluded about 655 B.C. by the complete submis-
sion of Elam. The Assyrian empire had now reached its
greatest extent, including all the known world. From this
time till his death, in 726 B.C., his task was to retain his
unwieldy conquests, and especially to crush the rebellion
of his brother, Saul-Mugina, at Babylon, aided by Tam-
maritu of Elam. Assurbanipal was a munificent patron of
learning, and founded large libraries, a large portion of
which is now in the British Museum. He also built many
temples and palaces. But his reign, which marks the grand-
est era in Assyrian history, was the immediate precursor
of the overthrow of the empire under his successor by the
combined armies of Babylon and Media.
In the cuneiform inscriptions we also have full records
of the Babylonian monarchy which succeeded the Assyrian.
This empire lasted for less than a century, and of the six
kings only three have any note—Nabopolassar, its founder,
his son Nebuchadnezzar, who raised it to its highest pitch
of power, and Nabonidus, under whom it was overthrown.
None of these monarchs were remarkable as warriors, al-
though Nebuchadnezzar in the early part of his reign drove
an Egyptian army as far as Pelusium, and destroyed Jeru-
salem and Tyre. His annals are mainly filled with descrip-
tions of the magnificent public buildings which he erected.
Of his lycanthropy the inscriptions give no record. About
the time of his death (561 B.C.) the Persian power arose,
and gradually assumed more threatening dimensions until
Nabonidus, as related by the Greek historians, was con-
quered, and his son Belshazzar—whom the inscriptions
mention as regent under him in Babylon—was killed as
described by Daniel. The subsequent history of Babylon
belongs to Persian and Greek history.
The inscriptions have greatly increased our respect for
the historical authority of Herodotus, and especially of Be-
rosus, whose accounts are always confirmed. The same may
be said of the biblical records, which receive great light
from these historical monuments in confirmation of their
general historical accuracy, although such facts as the over-
throw of Sennacherib's army and the insanity of Nebuchad-
mezzar are omitted.
(Of the works which have appeared on this subject since
the decipherment of the inscriptions, the most important
are the following: Of Assyrian texts, E. BOTTA and E.
FLANDIN, “ Monuments de Ninevé,” 5 vols., Paris, 1849–50
(the vols. i., ii., and v. are filled with representations of
Assyrian art); A. H. LAYARD, “Inscriptions in the Cunei-
form Character from Assyrian Monuments,” British Mu-
seum, 1851 (untrustworthy copies); RAWLINSON, Fox TAL-
BOT, HINCKs, and OPPERT, “Inscription of Tiglath-Pileser
Translated” (translated in 1857, but published in the
“Journal of the Royal Assyrian Society,” 1860); RAWLIN-
SON and NoFRIs, “The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western
Asia,” vols. i., ii., iii., London, 1861–66–70 (the most im-
portant body of inscriptions, but without translations);
MENANT, “Inscr. Ass. de Hammourabi,” Caen, 1863; OP-
PERT and MENANT, “Les Fastes de Sargon ’’ (with trans-
lation), Paris, 1863; also “Grande Inscription de Khors-
abad’ (with translation), 2 vols., Paris, 1865; GEORGE
SMITH, “History of Assurbanipal” (with translation), Lon-
don, 1871. Of special grammatical and lexicographical value
are the following: RAwLINSON, “Commentary on the Cunei-
form Inscriptions of Babylon and Assyria,” London, 1850;
“Babylonian Translation of the great Persian Inscription
of Behistun,” London, 1851; HINCKs, “On Assyrian Verbs”
(the first successful attempt at Assyrian grammar), in the
“Journal of Sacred Literature,” 1855–56; also “The Po-
lyphony of the Assyrio-Babylonian Cuneiform Writing ”
(from the “Atlantis’’), 1863, and “Specimen Chapters of
an Assyrian Grammar ” (of great value), in “Journal R.
A. S.,” 1866; OPPERT, “Eléments de la Grammaire Assyri-
enne,” Paris, 1860 (first attempt at a complete grammar;
uses Hebrew type for Assyrian words—an excellent work,
and considerably improved in the second edition of 1868);
MENANT, “Exposé des Eléments de la Grammaire Assyri-
enne,” Paris, 1868 (nearly the same as Oppert's first
edition, only using Assyrian type); NoFRIs, “Assyrian
Dictionary,” vols. i., ii., iii., London, 1868–70–72 (very
valuable from the abundance of quotations in Assyrian
type); A. H. SAYCE, “Assyrian Grammar,” London, 1872
(the most comprehensive manual yet published; uses Eng-
lish letters.for Assyrian words). Other important works on
Assyrian history, mythology, art, etc. are LAYARD’s “Monu-
ments of Nineveh,” vols. i., ii., London, 1851–53 (very fine
plates); G. RAWILINSON, “Herodotus,” vol. i., London, 1858
(contains valuable essays by Sir Henry Rawlinson); OP-
PERT, “Expédition Scientifique en Mésopotamie,” vols i.,
ii., Paris, 1863; LENORMANT and CHEVALLIER, “Manual
of the Ancient History of the East,” vol. ii., Philadelphia,
1869 (contains full abstracts, mainly trustworthy, of As-
syrian and Babylonian discoveries); E. ScHRADER, “Die
Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament,” Giessen, 1872
(goes through the Old Testament, giving whatever illustra-
tions are suggested from cuneiform discoveries); also “Die
Assyrisch-Babylonischen ICeilinschriftem,” Leipzig, 1872 (an
exhaustive defence of the readings of the inscriptions).)
WILLIAM H. WARD.
Cu/neo, a province of Northern Italy, forming part of
Piedmont. Area, 2755 square miles. One-half of the
province is level, the other half hilly. The chief river is
the Tamaro. It produces wheat, maize, hemp, rice, and
silk. Pop. in 1871, 597,279.
Cun/mingham, a township of Chariton co., Mo. Pop.
Cunningham, a township of Fluvanna co., Va. Pop.
Cunningham (ALLAN), a Scottish author, born-at
Blackwood, Dumfries-shire, Dec. 7, 1785, Worked as a
stone-mason in his youth. He removed to London in 1810,
and began to write for the newspapers. He was employed
as foreman in Chantrey’s studio from 1814 to 1841. His
“Traditional Tales of the English and Scottish Peasantry,”
“Songs of Scotland,” “Life of Wilkie,” and “Lives of
British Sculptors, Painters, and Architects” are his best
known productions, besides some favorite songs. Died
Oct. 29, 1842.—His son, CAPT. J. D. CUNNINGHAM, has
written a “History of the Sikhs.”—A second son, ALEX-
ANDER CUNNINGHAM, born Jan. 23, 1814, major-general in
the Bengal Engineers, has published numerous papers on
Indian archaeology.—Another son, PETER CUNNINGHAM,
born April 17, 1816, an industrious writer, is known as the
editor of Goldsmith and author of lives of Drummond of
Hawthornden, Inigo Jones, and Turner (1852).
Cummingham (SAMUEL B.), M.D., a medical prac-
titioner of East Tennessee, was born there Oct. 9, 1797.
He received his degree at Transylvania University, Ky.
He served his generation most faithfully at Jonesboro’,
Tenn., for nearly fifty years, and his loss was mourned as
a public calamity, for to the profession he was one of its
purest and brightest ornaments. Died Sept. 4, 1867.
PAUL F. EVE.
Cun'ningham’s, a township of Person co., N. C. Pop.
19.
Cupar-Fife, a royal burgh of Scotland, the capital of
Fifeshire, is in a beautiful vale on the river Eden, 32 miles
1224 \
CUPEL–CURFEW BELL.
N. of Edinburgh. It has a public library, several news- in the poultry-yards of South America. Among the best-
paper-offices, and manufactures of coarse linens, earthen-
ware, etc. A castle or fortress of the
Macduffs, thanes of Fife, formerly
stood here. Pop. in 1871, 5105.
Cu/pel [Fr. coupelle, a “little
cup "I, a shallow and porous vessel,
somewhat cup-shaped, generally made
of bone-earth. It is used in the pro-
cess of assaying gold and silver, which
are fused with lead upon a cupel.
The lead is oxidized in the process
and sinks into the substance of the
cupel, leaving the metal pure.
Cupella’tion [for etymology see
preceding article] is the process of
refining precious metals on a cupel,
or the separation of one metal from
another by the use of a cupel heated
in a muffle furnace. (See Ass AY.)
Cu/pid [Lat. Cupido], the Roman
name of the god of love, correspond-
ing to the Eros ["Epos] of the Greek
mythology. He was usually repre-
sented as the son of Venus, but an-
cient authorities differ respecting his
paternity. He is represented as a
beautiful winged boy, bearing a bow
and arrows.
Cu/pids, a post-village of Brigus
district, on the N. side of Conception Bay, Newfoundland,
2 miles from Brigus. Farming and cod and salmon fish-
ing are carried on. Pop. 1200.
Cu/pola [Fr. coupole], a spherical vault or concave
ceiling raised over a building. Cupolas are sometimes
hemispherical, and are constructed in various other forms.
(See DOM.E.) Cupola is also the name of one form of blast-
furnace for the reduction of metallic ores.
Cup/ping [Lat. cucurbitatio (from cucurbita, a “gourd”
or “cup ''); Fr. la ventouse ; Ger. Schropfen], in surgery,
the application to the skin of small cups from which the
air is partly expelled. If it be designed to withdraw blood
from the patient, the skin is first scarified, a partial vacuum
is produced in the cup by direct suction or by the flame
of alcohol or of burning paper, and the mouth of the cup
is applied to the scarified surface. “Dry cupping ” is the
same process without scarification. In this case no blood
is drawn, the object being to stimulate a diseased surface
or to produce derivative action.
Curaçoa, or Curaçao, ku-ra-să', one of the West
India Islands, of a like-named group, belonging to the
Dutch, is off the N. coast of Venezuela. Area, 164 square
miles. Its N. point is in lat. 12° 24′ N. and lon. 69° 17' W.
The chief article of export is salt, and more recently also
cochineal. It is governed by a stadtholder and council.
Capital, Willemstadt. Pop. in 1870, 21,089.
Curaçoa, a liqueur which is made of Curaçoa oranges
or orange peel, by digesting in Sweetened spirits along with
a little cinnamon, and often a little mace or cloves. The
spirits used contain nearly three and a half pounds of
sugar to the gallon. It is imported from Holland.
Cura'ri, Woora'li, or Woora'ra, a celebrated arrow-
poison used by the South American Indians. Its nature
and origin are still unknown, but the principal ingredient
is believed by some to be the juice of the Strychnos toacifera,
a woody vine covered with long reddish hairs, having ovate
leaves, rough and pointed, and large round fruit. This is
not its probable origin. It is, however, a vegetable extract,
and not a snake-poison, as many have conjectured. There
is more than one variety of the drug. The poison, when it
enters the blood through a wound, causes paralysis, with
convulsive motions, followed by death. It may be swal-
lowed in considerable doses with impunity. It is regarded
as the most powerful of all sedatives, and the employment
of it in cases of tetanus and hydrophobia has been sug-
gested. The best means of preventing its deadly effect is
found in artificial respiration.
Curas’sow, the name of several species of birds be-
longing to the Order Gallinae, having a strong bill, sur-
rounded at the base with a skin sometimes of brilliant color,
and on the head a crest of feathers which can be raised or
lowered at pleasure. The species are found in the warmer
parts of South America, Mexico, and Central America,
where they congregate in flocks. They are about the size
of turkeys, and their flesh is highly esteemed. They are
also very easily domesticated and reared, and are common
known species are the crested curassow (Craw alector), the
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red curassow (Craac rubra), and the Owraa paua'i, or gal-
eated curassow.
Cu’rate [Lat. cwratus (from cura, “ care”); Fr. curé],
one who has the cure of souls. The term has been vari-
ously appropriated to different officers of the Church, but
since the close of the sixteenth century in England has
been restricted to assistant clergy, deputies, or substitutes.
The bishop, or some officer having episcopal authority, ap-
points the curate’s salary and grants his license. There are
“temporary’’ and “perpetual’’ curates. The temporáry
or stipendiary ean be removed at the will of the bishop or
vicar. Perpetual curates cannot be thus removed. Their
salary is paid from tithes established at the foundation of
the chapel, and it becomes the duty of the impropriators to
support them. The salaries of curates are too often dis-
proportionate to their services, and they are almost desti-
tute of legal rights, being entirely subject to episcopal
authority.
Curator.
Curcu'lio [the Latin for “weevil”], a name given to
many weevils or coleopterous insects of the family Curcu-
lionidae, but perhaps most frequently applied to the Cono-
trachelus men uphar, a small dark-brown insect, speckled
with yellowish-white and black. In spring and early
Summer it attacks the young fruit, such as apples, pears,
apricots, etc., but its object of special attack is the plum.
The female makes a crescent-shaped puncture in which she
deposits her egg. The egg Soon hatches, and the maggot
feeds upon the young plum, which generally falls to the
ground in a short time, and the larva burrows in the earth,
becoming a perfect insect in about three weeks. Several
generations are said to appear in one season. The destruc-
tion caused by this insect upon all kinds of smooth-skinned
fruits is a very serious loss. Another destructive curculio
is the plum-gouger (Anthomomºus prunicida), which occurs
very abundantly in the Western States. It makes a round
puncture. It undergoes transformation inside the kernel
of the plum. Another insect of this genus makes numerous
holes in the apple; still another lays her eggs in the cran-
berry, and then cuts off the stem. The grape curculio
(Coeliodes inaequalis) and other species are very destructive
to grapes. Fruit trees and grapevines should be frequently
shaken in summer, when the falling curculios may be caught
upon a sheet and burned. Swine and sheep render great
service by devouring the fallen fruit with the larvae con-
tained in it. Nearly 10,000 species of this family have been
described. They are arranged in more than 630 genera.
Curcuma. See TURMERIC.
Curds/ville, a post-township of Buckingham co., Va.
Pop. 2101.
Cu’res, an ancient and famous city of Italy, the capi-
tal of the Sabines, was near the Tiber, about 25 miles N. N.
E. of Rome. The site is occupied by the modern village
of Correse. Cures was colonized by Sulla about 100 B. C.
Cur'few Bełł, or simply Curfew [Fr. couvre-feu,
i. e. “cover the fire * (from couvrin', to “cover,” and feu,
“fire")], was a bell rung at eight in the evening as a
See LAW, CIVIL, by PROF. T. W. DWIGHT.





















CURIA—CURRANT.
1225
signal for extinguishing lights and fires—a practice said
to have been introduced into England by William I. in
1068. As the custom existed in France, Spain, and other
countries at the same time, it is probable that it was not
originated by William I., but the strictness with which he
compelled its observance caused it to be attributed to him.
The stringency of this law was relaxed by Henry I. in
1103. In the reigns of Edward I. and Edward III. per-
sons were not permitted to be abroad in the city, armed,
after curfew. In many parts of England and the U. S.
the practice of ringing the bell at eight or nine o’clock
still prevails.
Cu’ria (plu. Curiae), the name of the building in which
the Senate held its sessions in the cities of ancient Italy.
Also a subdivision of the Roman patrician tribes, each of
which was divided into ten curiæ. These tribes were three
in number, the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, so that there
were thirty curiae. These curiae contained only the patri-
cians or populus proper, but clients were regarded as pas-
sive members of the curia of their superior. In early
times the curiae were of the greatest importance. Each
curia had its own name, but only a few of these names
have come down to us. In later times the curiæ lost their
political importance, but long retained their ancient and
mysterious religious rites, which were maintained by the
priests called curio and flamen curialis. In still later times
even these old offices were sometimes conferred upon ple-
beians. The curiae voting together constituted the comitia
curiata, once a highly important public body with legisla-
tive powers; but before the fall of the republic this body
had fallen almost into disuse and oblivion, though it still
had a formal existence. In it each of the curiae had one
vote, and in each curia, each member had one vote. In the
language of modern Europe, curia is the Latin word for
court or place of justice. -
Curico', a province of Chili, is bounded on the N. by
the province of Colchagua, on the E. by the Andes, on the
S. by the province of Talca, and on the W. by the Pacific
Ocean. Area, 2948 square miles. The country is moun-
tainous and the soil fertile. Chief town, Curico. Pop. in
1869, 98,859.
Curico, a town of Chili, founded in 1742, is a pro-
gressive place, with a college, on the Mataquito. Pop.
5953. -
Curſlew (Numenius), a name of a genus of birds of the
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Curlew.
order Grallatores, natives of Europe and North America.
Curlews have long, slender, and curved bills, long legs, and
short tails. They frequent the sea-shore and open moor-
lands, feeding on worms, mollusks, insects, etc. The com-
mon curlew of England (Numenius arquata) is pursued by
sportsmen partly for its flesh, which is delicate and well
flavored, and partly because its wild and shy habits render
the pursuit exciting. Among the curlews of North America
may be mentioned the long-billed curlew (Numenius long-
Sº KUTVºsºº"
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Psºrºs-ºs-
irostris) of all the temperate parts of North America. It
is twenty-five inches long, the wing measuring about eleven
inches. The bill is often eight inches long. It is of a pale-
reddish color, with ashy tints and brown-black marks, and
longitudinal lines of black. The short-billed curlew (Nu-
menius hudsonicus) of the Eastern and Western coasts is
two-thirds the size of the foregoing, with a bill about four
inches long. The Esquimaux curlew (Numenius borealis)
is still smaller.
Curi’ing, the name of a Scottish game which has been
introduced into Canada, and other countries where ice can
be found of sufficient thickness. It is played with stones
weighing from thirty to forty-five pounds, having handles
by which they are hurled over the ice. Sides are made up,
generally four against four ; a length of ice is chosen,
from thirty to forty yards long, and eight or nine feet
across. At each end of this rink, as it is called, marks
are made consisting of several concentric rings called
broughs, and a centre called the tee. The object of the player
is to hurl his stone towards the tee with strength and pre-
cision, and the interest of the game depends on the skill
displayed by the players in placing their stones in good
positions, and in driving those of their rivals out of such
places. At a certain distance from the tees a score is drawn
across the ice, and a stone not passing beyond this counts
for nothing.
Curling (THOMAS BLIZARD), M. R. C. S., F. R. S., an
eminent English surgeon, born in Jan., 1811, became an
assistant surgeon in the London Hospital in 1834, lecturer
on surgery in 1846, surgeon to the hospital in 1849, exam-
iner in the University of London in 1859, and fellow of the
Royal Society in 1850. He wrote a prize treatise on tetanus
(1835), “Diseases of the Testis” (1843), and “Diseases of
Rectum ” (1851.)
Curlis/ville, a post-village of Monroe township, Clarion
co., Pa. Pop. 208.
Cur/ran, a township and post-village of Sangamon co.,
III. The village is on the Toledo Wabash and Western
R. R., 7 miles S. W. of Springfield. Pop. 1000.
Curran (John PHILPOT), an Irish orator, born at New-
market, near Cork, July 24, 1750, was educated at Trinity
College, Dublin, studied law in the Middle Temple, London,
and was called to the Irish bar in 1775. As a barrister he
was very successful, and was distinguished for his humor
and sarcastic speech. He became in 1783 a member of
- Parliament, in which he acted with the op-
position party, of which Grattan was the
leader. In 1806 he was appointed master of
the rolls in Ireland. Died Oct. 14, 1817.
(See CHARLEs PHILLIPs, “ Curran and his
Contemporaries,” 1850; T. DAVIs, “Life of
:= Curran,” 1846.)
Cur’rant [from Corinth, in Greece, from
which port this fruit was formerly exported],
a common name of a kind of small raisin
(Uva passula minor), the dried berry of a
seedless variety of grape which is cultivated
... in the Levant. Currants are exported from
# Zante and some of the other Ionian Islands,
; and are used in cookery as an ingredient in
cakes and puddings. Attempts to introduce
the currant grape into other regions have
thus far been unsuccessful.
Currant [so called from its resemblance
to the above fruit], the popular name of the
# berries of certain species of Ribes, low shrubs
# of the order Grossulaceae, distinguished from
the gooseberries by the flowers, which grow
in racemes, and by the fact that the currant
bush is never thorny. The red currant (Ribes
rubrum) is a native of Europe, Asia, and North
* America, is cultivated in gardens for its pleas-
- - ant acid fruit, and is much used for the table
and for jellies, conserves, etc. “Currant
wine” is a domestic drink, made of currant
juice, sugar, and water, which is allowed to
undergo alcoholic fermentation. The black
currant (Ribes nigrum) is also cultivated, and
in France large quantities of liqueur de cas-
sis, a very agreeable and popular variety of
currant wine, are prepared from it. More
than sixty species of currant are described, about two-
thirds of which are American. Several are highly orna-
mental in cultivation. The varieties of fruit-bearing cur-
rants in cultivation are very numerous. They are very
readily propagated by cuttings, and in ordinary years will,
with a little care, yield a large supply of agreeable and
useful fruit. If the ground between the rows is ploughed,
hoed, and kept clear of weeds, the productiveness and profit,
as well as quality of the fruit, will be much increased.











































1226
CURRENCY,
Cur’rency [from the Lat. curro; It. corrente, to “run”]
is the circulating money of a country. Some writers in-
clude bank deposits, bills of exchange, promissory notes,
and generally whatever serves as a substitute for money or
whatever has “purchasing power.” But the great weight
of authority and practice confines the meaning of currency
to money. If ever finance is to acquire that degree of
order and certainty in its relations by which it will be en-
titled to rank as a science, all the terms of its vocabulary
must have a definite and invariable signification. Wor-
cester defines currency to be “the circulating medium;
that which passes for money in a country; the aggregate |
of coin, bills, notes, etc. in circulation ;” as “a metallic
currency; a mixed currency.” The identity of money and
currency is established in the U. S. by the co-ordinate use
of the two terms; and the character and office of money
as a measure and expression of value are so clearly recog-
nized in the Constitution and laws, and in the official acts
and documents of the government, as to bar all dispute on
the subject. We are not aware of any different use of the
term in the official records of any government.
The first care of every society at its origin has been to
establish a current money. It is difficult to conceive how
the multiplied transactions of modern trade could be car-
ried on without such a medium. Before the precious met-
als were produced in sufficient quantity to answer the pur-
pose some special commodity was selected, as salt, tobacco,
leather, etc. The ruder metals were next adopted. Iron
was commonly used by the old Spartans, and copper by
the Romans. The revenues of the ancient Saxon kings
were paid in kind. William the Conqueror originated the
custom of paying them in money. In the time of Servius
Tullius (B. C. 578), who was the first to coin money at
Rome, the as or pondo contained a Roman pound of good
copper. It was divided into twelve ounces, like the Troyes
pound. The English pound sterling in the time of Edward
I. contained a pound of silver, Tower weight of a known
fineness. The Tower (Tour or Saxon) pound was some-
thing more than the Roman, and something less than the
Troyes, which was not introduced into the mint of Eng-
land till the 18th of Henry VIII. The French livre con-
tained a pound Troyes weight in the time of Charlemagne,
who took for his monetary unit the pound weight of silver.
A gold currency was adopted in France under Saint Louis,
and since that time gold and silver have circulated side by
side. It was not till Edward III., in the early part of the
fourteenth century, that a gold currency was established
in England. The Scots money pound contained from
the time of Alexander I. to that of Robert Bruce a
pound of silver of the same weight and fineness as the
English pound sterling. English, French, and Scots pen-
nies contained originally a real pennyweight of silver, the
20th part of an ounce and the 240th part of a pound. The
shilling, too, seems to have been originally a denomination
of weight. An ancient statute of Henry III. says: “When
wheat is at twelve shillings the quarter, then wastel bread
of a farthing shall weigh eleven shillings and fourpence.”
The proportion, however, between the shilling and either
the penny or the pound was not constant or uniform. “In
every country of the world, I believe,” says Adam Smith,
who is the authority for most of these details, “the avarice
and injustice of princes and sovereign states, abusing the
confidence of their subjects, have by degrees diminished
the real quantity of metal which had been originally con-
tained in their coins. The Roman as in the latter ages of
the republic was reduced to the 24th part of its original
value.” In the latter part of the eighteenth century the
English pound and penny contained one-third only, the
Scots 1-36th part, and the French 1–66th part of its origi-
mal value.
disgrace of a real bankruptcy, it has recourse to a juggling
trick of this kind. Almost all states, however, ancient as
well as modern, when reduced to this necessity, have, upon
Some occasions, played this very juggling trick. The Ro-
mans at the end of the first Punic war . . . raised two
ounces of copper to a denomination which had always be-
fore expressed the value of twelve ounces. The republic
was in this manner enabled to pay the great debts which it
had contracted with the sixth part of what it really owed.”
The currency of modern times in all active industrial
countries has consisted of gold and silver, and paper
money redeemable in coin of those metals. Gold is the
common international standard. The greater bulk of sil-
ver renders it unsuitable as a medium in the heavy ex-
changes of commerce, and the more stable value of gold
adapts it in all respects to the required service. The more
limited production of silver, together with its greater pro-
portionate use in the arts, made it more liable to fluctuation
relatively with gold. The fact of its being legal tender on
the same footing with gold, made it possible to perpetrate
“The honor of a state,” says Adam Smith, “is
surely very poorly provided for when, in order to cover the
indefinite frauds under cover of the law. “It was only
necessary to compare alternately the value of gold with
that of silver, and the value of silver with that of gold, to
diminish successively the burden of the national debt.
Thus, when gold shall have risen in value in comparison
with silver, the state would only pay in the latter metal,
and private debtors would not fail to follow the example.”
(Chevalier.) England escapes all embarrassment from the
double standard by making silver a legal tender to the
amount of forty shillings only, and rating the silver coin
slightly above its intrinsic value.
The constitution of gold as the medium of international
payment has made it indispensable for each nation to adopt a
supplemental home medium as a defence against the possibil-
ity of being left without any currency whatever for the trans-
action of its business. It is a normal condition of com-
merce that the balance of accounts between nations shall
alternate from one to another. The most important conse-
quences attend this simple operation. The debtor market,
if not provided with a local medium, is at once prostrated
and disabled from the prosecution of those productive
labors by which alone it can restore itself to rotation as a
creditor. The necessity of a supplemental currency as a
protection against such ill consequences must have promptly
commended the bank-note to the favorable consideration
of economists and statesmen. Every argument in its favor
has been strengthened by the beneficent influence it has
exerted over industrial employments. The next step to
that of supplying a local currency was the adoption of a
test or standard to which it should be kept equal; other-,
wise, the inevitable result must follow of its depreciation,
whereby the superior currency of gold, the international
medium, would be expelled from the country; and so long
as that medium could not flow in by commercial law, the
nation must remain prostrate and subject to all the disad-
vantages of an adverse exchange. Such a condition his-
tory proves to be a condition of poverty and weakness.
There could be no other standard than the international
medium itself, gold, and hence its adoption. The primary
and fundamental law of a standard is permanency, invaria-
bility. But at the very threshold of this proposition we
encounter a grave obstacle to the attainment of scientific
organization in the theory advanced by eminent economists
—that the redeeming medium itself is deficient in the es-
sential quality that constitutes a test or measure. “To the
qualities which originally recommended gold and silver as
currency,” says John Stuart Mill, “another came to be add-
ed, the importance of which only unfolded itself by de-
grees. Of all commodities they are among the least influ-
enced by any of the causes which produce fluctuations of
value. They have sustained since the beginning of history
one great permanent alteration of value, from the discov-
ery of the American mines. . . . In the present age the
opening of new sources of supply so abundant as the Ural
Mountains, California, and Australia may be the commence-
ment of another period of decline.” To this proposition, which
is a logical result of the theory that money is nothing more
than a selected commodity, it may be answered that the
constitution of money is a social agreement to take a cer-
tain substance out of the category of commodities, and to
put in complete abeyance those properties which make it a
subject of trade. To speak of money after this as a com-
modity of variable price is to break the social agreement,
and to restore the subject to its former relations—in fact,
to undo what has just been done. But does not Mr. Mill
leave out half the case when he assumes that gold has un-
dergone “a great permanent alteration of value” 2. The
only evidence adduced of that alteration is “ the increase
of prices throughout the commercial world.” And are there
not other known causes which have contributed to that re-
sult 2 The half of the case overlooked by Mr. Mill is that
the human family quadrupled itself or much more in the
period named—that it extended its labors, developed count-
less resources, and opened new markets of consumption in
all quarters of the globe. If the world had stood still
while the quantity of gold increased, there can be no ques-
tion that the relation of gold as the standard of the circu-
lating medium would have undergone a change. But the
reverse is the fact. A proposition involving consequences
so fatal to the construction of a scientific system of currency
and finance as that of variability in the standard of value,
challenges our scrutiny the more rigorously because of the
eminence of the authority by which it is advanced. It is
therefore with satisfaction that we quote dissenting opin-
ions from sources equally-eminent, and not less deserving
of respect. “If any other commodity,” says Mr. Ricardo,
“less variable could be found, it might very properly be
adopted as the future standard of our money; but while
gold and silver are the standard, the currency should con-
form in value to them; and whenever it does not, and the
market-price of bullion is above the mint-price, the cur-
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CURRENCY.
rency is depreciated. This proposition is unanswered, and
is unanswerable.” Likewise, Sir Henry Thornton, who
says: “The precious metals when uncoined (or in the state
of bullion) are themselves commodities, but when converted
into money they are to be considered as a measure of the value
of other articles. They may indeed be converted back into
commodities; and it is one recommendation of their use as
coin that they are capable of this conversion.” The theory
of invariability was maintained by John Locke also, who
believed that “a pound of gold or silver must always be
worth a pound of gold or silver, and therefore the apparent
variation in the price of gold was only a variation in the
price of bank-notes.”. (For an able exposition of the oppo-
site theory see Colwell, p. 404 et seq.)
The paper part of a currency is local to the country where
it is issued, passing its boundaries, if at all, only into con-
tiguous districts, where the profits of trade outweigh the
cost of its conversion into gold. A solitary exception is
that of the notes of the Bank of England, which carry a
premium above specie in most commercial countries. It
was said that the notes of the second Bank of the U. S.
were at one time current in China. Even the coins of one
country do not circulate as money in another, but are
mostly bought up at a discount by the bullion-dealers and
sold to shippers. An attempt made some years since to in-
troduce into China, a Victoria, silver dollar coined at the
British mint for the purpose of establishing a convenient
medium of remittance, and otherwise encouraging a pres-
tige in favor of British commerce, failed through the jeal-
ousy of the Chinese, provoked by the traditional aggress-
iveness of British commercial policy. The American trade
dollar has recently met with a better reception, being
largely coined at the San Francisco mint on the order of
merchants trading with the Asiatic coast, and having been
declared “legal money” in China by a voluntary imperial
edict. Telegrams to the U. S. mint in San Francisco
quickly followed from London to ascertain the extent to
which it could be obtained for remittance to China, on
British account. It is stated also that it mixes indiscrim-
inately with the current coins in India. It seems hence
not improbable that the fortunes of the long-famous “pil-
lars” of Spain may be continued in the career of the Amer-
ican trade dollar. May we not indulge a feeling of excus-
able pride that it owes its favorable reception in the most
populous countries of the globe to the absence of all asso-
ciation with schemes of military conquest? “
It has already been said that that part of the currency
of every country which is composed of gold, being also the
international medium of payment, is liable to be drawn off
by the creditor markets, whence arises the apprehension
that the banks of the debtor markets may be forced into
suspension on their bills. For this reason an extraordinary
export of specie creates alarm among the banks of the ex-
porting country, and obliges them to turn upon their cus-
tomers to pay up their borrowings. The advocates of an
exclusively metallic currency build their most plausible
argument on this ground. “If there are no bank-bills to
protect,” they say, “the export of specie pays a debt and
strengthens the home market. But with bank-bills to de-
fend, though it likewise pays a debt, it weakens the mar-
ket as against the bills, and creates pressure and panic.”
This argument connects the subject of the currency with the
tariff, since low duties encourage large importations and
drain the country of its specie. The advocates of an exclu-
sively paper currency construct their most specious argument
on the same facts. “If the whole body of the currency be
of a material that cannot be exported, the instrument will
always remain to us intact; and whatever inconveniences
we may suffer in consequence of the loss of the precious
metals, we shall never suffer paralysis of our productive
labors through want of money.” Or, as the famous Scotch
financier, Law, wrote, “If we establish a money which has
no intrinsic value, or whose intrinsic value is such that it
will never be exported, and the quantity of which shall
never exceed the demand in the country, we shall have
reached wealth and power.” In reply to this the most em-
inent of the French contemporary economists declared it
to be an aactom that “a purely conventional money is an
impossibility.” (TURGOT, Reflexions sur la formation et la
distribution des richesses.) For one of the most fruitful
Sources of information and argument on the subject at
large we cannot do the reader a greater service than refer
him to the brilliant publications on economy that issued
from the French press in the period of Louis XIV. and
following, in which the ideas of Colbert, Richelieu, Say,
Montesquieu, Law, Turgot, Quesnay, Necker, Forbonnais,
Gournay, and the elder Mirabeau (the author of the doc-
trine laisser-faire) were in fierce conflict. The economical
*The director of the mint at San Francisco has written that
the demand for the trade dollar is likely to be $18,000,000 within
the next year. In 1873 the coinage of it was over $2,000,000,
1227
controversies of this period are full of vivacity, and pos-
sess an interest bordering on the romantic.
The principles of currency are derived mostly from cir-
cumstances exterior to itself. In a country like England,
of narrow boundaries, intersected in every direction with
railways and telegraphs, the bank-note repeats its service
rapidly, and hence the amount required to effect the ex-
changes in a given time is much smaller, other things being
equal, than in a country like the U. S. The term quantity
is thus compounded with time, distance, geographical ex-
tent, etc. The average time of the circuit of currency is
the governing term of quantity. If, for example, bank-
bills to the amount of $1,000,000,000 be required to make
the whole of the payments of England for one day, and if
it were ascertained that the bills complete an average of
five circuits per day, the amount of bills to be kept in issue
would be $200,000,000, and no more. But in the U. S. the
volume of paper money does not repeat its service more
than once a day, in consequence of the greater distances
to be overcome and the less perfect system of communica-
tion; in which case the amount to be maintained in issue
would be $500,000,000. Therefore, not only does the average
time of the circulation govern the amount to be kept in
issue, but it necessarily governs also the amount of reserve,
or “dead weight,” as it is sometimes called, to be kept
against demands of redemption. The fundamental prin-
ciple of all currency being stability, permanence, invari-
ability, the paper part of it can be invested with that
quality only by convertibility with the standard, gold. It
must be thus convertible, not by force of law, not by an ar-
bitrary rule, but by virtue of the harmonious and co-oper-
ative action of all the parts of the commercial system, so
that no other result could logically follow. This is a vital
proposition of supreme consequence. Let us observe the
movements of the great volume of our domestic currency.
For the sake of conciseness and simplicity, we may regard
the commerce of the world as divided between two markets,
New York and London. By the excellence of her financial
organization, England has come to be the banker of all
other countries in the settlement of their commercial ac-
counts with the U. S. It is therefore not a fiction nor an
exaggeration that assigns to these two great capitals the
factorship of the globe. The New York Clearing-House is
the counter of all our foreign settlements through the agency
of London. With respect to our domestic exchanges it is
not a law of Congress that constitutes New York the place.
of our bank-currency redemption, but it is that higher law
of the growth and development of nations which has made
it so, the law of Congress being no more than the official
publication of the fact. In obedience to this fact, the
bank-note currency of the U. S., following the course of
trade, flows in a thousand streams to New York, where it
is converted into specie or its equivalent (bills of exchange
on London based on exports), to keep alive in perpetuity
the processes of mutual credit and liquidation. While each
bank in the country sends as part of its remittance the
bills of all other banks, it sends also, in the shape of
checks and bills of exchange founded on produce and com-
modities, the means of redemption. Each bank thus re-
deems its own issues through its agent or corresponding
bank in New York, which terminates that particular circuit
of the bank-notes, which are then returned in bulk to the
issuing banks, and by them sent out again to repeat the
service. The process is the same as that which takes place
daily in the Clearing-House at New York, with the same
result of redemption, return, and reissue; but the trans-
actions being far apart in their origin, and widely scat-
tered, the demonstration is less apparent to the observer.
He has only to remember that every transaction in com-
merce has two equal sides, a debit and a credit; that these
two sides in their sum balance each other; that the repre-
sentative documents of exchange are collateral with the
transit of commodities; and that all these movements of
commodities, exchange, redemption, and reissue are in
continuous repetition. (See CLEARING-House.)
The foregoing exposition is based on the theory of a
natural state of commerce, when the domestic and the
foreign exchanges are in harmonious rapport, and when
specie payments are uninterrupted. Seeing the close con-
nection with the general volume of affairs maintained by
the New York Clearing-House, f it is not difficult to under-
stand what an important influence may be exerted from
this central point over the field of our domestic exchanges.
When our financial system is in a normal condition the
banks are the exclusive depositories of the specie of the
country, except that part of it which is in circulation. The
Clearing-House is therefore fully informed of the amount
# This does not refer, literally, to the particular association of
the New York banks, but it means the place of clearance and
settlement, the commercial focus. The designation is used in a
purely commercial sense.
1228
CURRENT—CURRENTS, MARINE.
available for shipment, and of its depletion by export. If
that depletion goes on so rapidly and continuously as to
threaten the banking system with a reduction dangerous to
its ability of redemption, the house lays its hand on the
telegraph-wires and admonishes the banks to the farthest
extremities of the country, in a single hour, that their
safety consists in the arrest of credit expansion. They
must cease to make advances in anticipation of the general
returns of our export business. Wise bank-managers are
never indifferent to this warning. They conform to it im-
mediately, and the result is a co-operative husbandry of
resources, which, if general, can seldom fail to restore con-
fidence and re-establish the equilibrium of our commercial
accounts. The difficulty has heretofore been in bringing
about the necessary degree of co-operation in a system
composed of over 2000 different banks, each grasping after
its own and caring little for the common good. When the
government forced the New York City banks into suspen-
sion at the beginning of the war, it took from the Clearing-
House all power of restraint over the country banks; and
the adoption of the national system, with the “demonetiza-
tion ” of specie, and the failure of the legal tender as a
redeeming medium in its stead, has completely broken the
rod of correction formerly held by the Clearing-House, and
reduced that association to a mere agency of exchange and
settlement between the city banks. The present currency
of the U. S. consists of $352,000,000 of bills issued by 2200
banks. These are of the following denominations and
amounts: denomination of $1, $5,632,583; $2, $4,148,776;
$5, $128,762,465; $10, $99,873,200; $20, $59,102,960; $50,
$19,537,300; $100, $27,253,300; $500, $3,419,000; $1000,
$618,000—total, $348,347,674. Existing laws provide for
an increase of bank issues up to $400,000,000; the legal-
tender issue is $382,000,000; the fractional issues are about
$50,000,000; the total of paper money is $798,347,674. The
proportion of reserve required by law for the banks to hold
reduces the active circulation to about $598,347,674. The
bank-note currency of the U. S. before the war was
$238,671,210. If we add Secretary Chase's estimate of
the specie in circulation and held by the banks at the same
date, the total was in 1862, $613,671,210. Although the
legal-tender issues were intended to supply a redemption
medium for the national bank-bills in lieu of specie, they
are little used for that purpose. There is practically no
regular redemption of those bills, as contemplated by the
law. It does not appear by the foregoing statements,
which are all official, that the amount of the currency in
actual circulation in the U. S. at the present date is quite
equal to that reported for 1862. But the estimate of specie
adopted by Mr. Chase was probably higher than the
amount in actual use. Not less than $100,000,000 was on
permanent deposit in the banks. -
The present suspended condition of the currency of the
U. S. has given rise to many theories for its redemption,
and to legislation on the part of Congress, but so far with-
out any sensible improvement. The fact that the bank-
bills are secured by a pledge of government stocks, while
the legal-tender bills are without such security, having
only the public faith to stand upon—while, probably, it
gives no better security to the former than is constituted
by the latter—may exert an influence against voluntary
redemption. It is certainly true that the effective element
of attraction—viz. the power to command specie or its
equivalent at the point of redemption—is wanting in the
legal-tender currency as well as in the bank-bills; and
therefore, as nothing is to be gained by pushing forward
the bank-bills for redemption, they will not be pushed for-
ward, but will remain in circulation. The most interesting
questions connected with currency relate to the source of
issue and the limitation of its amount. There is a large
party in the country favorable to an exclusive government
issue of paper money as the basis of our currency system,
whereby it is proposed to save the yearly interest now paid
to the banks on the bonds pledged as security for their
bills. The amount of issue is to be regulated by absorption
of any excess in a bond carrying a low rate of interest, and
by reconversion of the bond into currency when there is
a deficiency. It is worthy of observation that there is
scarcely one of these plans that has the merit of originality.
Many of them are from one to two centuries old. Many
of them have been tried, and their worthlessness proved by
signal failure. It is to be observed also that they are with-
out exception put forth as experimental. No attempt is
made to develop a principle or law appropriate to the case.
Among other propositions is one to regulate the circulation
by the number of heads, called the per capita theory. Since,
as has been shown (ante), quantity in currency is governed
by time in conjunction with other terms, and since, also,
the use of machinery mostly nullifies the effect of number
as to the hands employed, the want of pertinency in the
per capita theory to the subject is obvious. The present
attitude of our treasury managers and of the congressional
committees on finance, with respect to the reduction of the
currency, is not apparently the result of any specific in-
vestigation, nor has it any other source than a mere general
preconception that the volume must be in excess, because
it is larger than at any former period. The question is one
of too great magnitude to be settled on such loose premises.
Mr. Ricardo, after a close analysis of the subject, arrives
at the conclusion that “the issuers of paper money should
never regulate its quantity by the amount already in circu-
lation;” and he adds, “the quantity can never be too great
nor too little while it preserves the same value as the
standard”—meaning gold and silver. There are other
important propositions connected with the action of Con-
gress on the currency which fall more appropriately under
the head of NATIONAL BANKING SYSTEM (which see). (For
tables of currency in circulation at various periods from the
foundation of the government to the present time, see Fin.
Reg., RAGUET, 2 vols.; ELLIOT’s Funding System ; Treasury
Reports and Reports of the Comptroller of the Currency
from 1866 to 1873.) J. S. GIBBONs.
Cur/rent, a township of Dent co., Mo. Pop. 467.
Current River, a township of Randolph co., Ark.
Pop. 1378.
Current River, a township of Ripley co., Mo. P. 960.
Current River, a post-township of Shannon co., Mo.
Pop. 325.
Current River, of Missouri and Arkansas, rises in
Texas co., Mo., flows south-eastward into Arkansas, and
enters the Black River in Randolph co. Length, estimated
at 250 miles. It is a remarkably clear stream, abounding
in fish of good quality. It is navigated by flatboats and
steamers to some extent. Jack’s Fork enters the main
stream from the W. in Shannon co., Mo., and steamboats
can ascend nearly to the union of the forks in good stages.
The river flows through a hilly mineral region, whose re-
sources are not much developed.
Currents, Electric, etc. See ELECTRICITY, by PREs.
HENRY MORTON, PH. D., and MAGNETISM, by PROF. A. M.
MAYER, PH. D. -
Currents, Marine. The ocean-currents are the great
rivers of the sea. They move on steadily through waters
comparatively tranquil, often distinguished by a different
color and temperature; but unlike the inland streams,
which are but threads on the surface of the continents, they
are scores, may hundreds, of miles broad, and their course,
as in the American Gulf Stream, extends over a large por-
tion of the globe. The ocean streams are not only found
at the surface, but also in deep waters, where they are often
moving in different directions.
The main cause of these vast movements of the ocean is
found in the difference of temperature between the polar
and tropical régions, which acts directly on the waters, and
indirectly on them by the winds.
The cold and heavier waters of the polar regions tend
incessantly to flow into, and so to displace, the warm and
lighter waters of the tropical zone; when both meet, the
cold waters sink and disappear below the warm waters,
which return as surface-currents towards the polar regions.
Hence two series of currents, the cold from the polar, the
warm from the tropical, regions. Both, however, are de-
flected from their straight course by the steady action of
the earth's rotation—the polar currents more and more to
the W., the tropical currents more and more to the E. The
polar currents unite in the tropical zone, and, aided by the
powerful influence of the trade-winds, form the so-called
Great Equatorial Current, which flows westward around the
whole globe. These general currents are further modified
by the form of the basins of the three great oceans in which
they move, in the following manner.
Currents in the Pacific Ocean.—The vast expanse of the
Pacific Ocean gives full sway and great regularity to the
course of the main currents. º
The Great Egwatorial Current begins to be felt at a dis-
tance from the American continent, and, Soon embracing
the whole width of the tropical zone, flows majestically, at
the rate of two or three miles an hour, across that immense
basin, being separated into two branches by a central
counter-current flowing eastward. Arrested by the coasts
of Asia and Australia, it divides.
The S. branch sends an arm Southward along the coast
of Australia, the Australian Current, while the remainder is
broken into numerous irregular currents among the islands
of the Eastern Archipelago.
The N. branch, reaching the Philippine Islands and For-
imosa, bends to the N. and N. E., and becomes the Japanese
Current (or Kuro-Sivo), the Asiatic Gulf Stream. This noble
stream, with its vast body of deep blue and warm waters,
flows swiftly along the eastern coasts of Japan, and, con-
CURRER BELL–CURSORES.
1229
tinuing its slanting course across the North Pacific, reaches
the peninsula of Alaska. Turning thence southward, it
glides along the coast of Oregon and California, as a cool
current, and leaves again the continent of America to re-
enter the Great Equatorial Current. Thus the North Equa-
torial, the Japanese, and the North Pacific Currents form
one immense whirlpool in the North Pacific Ocean.
The polar currents are almost absent in the North Pacific
Ocean, owing to the shallowness and narrowness of Behring
Straits, which are the only passage open to them; but they
are all the more mighty in the South Pacific. Here the
broad Antarctic Drift Current, obeying the impulse of the
prevailing winds of that region, carries the polar waters
north-eastward to the W. coast of South America. Strik-
ing the continent in the southern part of Chili, it divides.
The main branch, called the Peruvian or Humboldt Current,
flows to the N. along the coast of Peru, which it bathes
with its cool waters, and leaving the continent at its ex-
treme western projection, Punta Parina, flows thence west-
ward, becoming the main feeder of the South Equatorial
Current. The smaller branch, turning S. along the coast
of Patagonia, bends around Cape Horn, and enters the At-
lantic Ocean. , .
Currents in the Atlantic Ocean.—Owing to the narrowness
and irregularity of the basin of the Atlantic Ocean, the
Equatorial Current in it has neither the size nor the sym-
metry it shows in the Pacific Ocean. The northern branch
is less marked, and the equatorial counter-current is well
defined only near the coast of Africa. The course of the
S. branch, however, is very apparent. Proceeding west-
ward from the coast of Africa, it crosses the basin of the
Atlantic to the opposite shore of South America, where, at
Cape St. Roque, it divides, one branch flowing southward,
forming the Brazil Current ; another to the N. W., the
Gwiana Current. The Brazil Current proceeds along the
coast of South America, but a part of its waters, sweeping
back towards the S. and E., forms the South Connecting
Current, which merges itself in the South Atlantic Current,
and returns with it along the W. coast of Africa into the
Equatorial Current. The Guiana. Current runs from Cape
St. Roque northward across the mouth of the Amazon,
along the coast of Guiana, and, uniting with the waters of
the North Equatorial in the Caribbean Sea, enters the Gulf
of Mexico.
The Gulf Stream originates in the Gulf of Mexico. It
is the outlet of the accumulation of the waters of the Equa-
torial Current in the Gulf of Mexico. It becomes fully
apparent at the N.W. of the island of Cuba, where it pro-
ceeds with feeble force to the E. Its course is then changed,
by striking against the Bahama Banks, to the N.; and it
flows with great rapidity along the coast of the U. S.,
gradually expanding in volume and diminishing in velocity
as it proceeds northward. Reaching the latitude of New
York, it gradually turns to the E., and crosses the Atlantic
basin to the islands of the Azores. Here it divides; the
main branch, bending its course southward, enters the
tropical regions on the coast of Africa, and is swept back
by the force of the North Equatorial Current to the Gulf
of Mexico. Thus a great whirlpool is formed also in the
North Atlantic Ocean, in the midst of which is accumulated
the vast amount of sea-weed which bears the name of Mar
de Sargasso. The northern branch continues its slanting
course to the British Isles and Norway, and often carries to
their shores the tropical seeds and driftwood coming from
the West Indies.
The high temperature of the Gulf Stream, as well as its
blue coior and motion, distinguishes it from all other por-
tions of the ocean. It carries warmth from the tropics to
the W. coast of Europe, and gives to the British Isles the
genial climate they enjoy even in the high northern latitude
in which they are situated.
The Atlantic Ocean is almost the only outlet of the N.
polar waters towards the equatorial regions, as the Pacific
is that of the Antarctic waters. Under the influence of the
earth's rotation the polar currents all crowd to the W. on
the American coast. Two main currents, on each side of
Greenland, carry the waters and masses of ice from the
Frozen Ocean towards the warmer latitudes; the Greenland
Current along the eastern coast and the Labrador Current
on the W. form Baffin’s Bay. Joining their waters and
their icebergs, they flow to Newfoundland, where they meet
the outskirts of the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, and,
condensing the moisture of that mild atmosphere, produce
the everlasting fogs peculiar to that region. Thence fol-
lowing the coast between it and the Gulf Stream, the Polar
Current makes itself felt as far as the latitude of New
York, where it sinks under the warm waters of the Gulf
Stream.
Currents in the Indian Ocean.—In this ocean, surrounded
on three sides by continents, the North Equatorial Current
is destroyed by the influence of the season winds, called
monsoons, which blow alternately from the S. W. and the
N. W., and the waters mostly obey the direction of the
winds. But the South Equatorial is quite regular, and ex-
tends from Australia to Madagascar, where it divides,
one branch passing N. of the island, the other along its
eastern coast. The N. branch, uniting with the Waters
from the N., forms the strong current of Mozambique, with
which the eastern branch soon joins, and the united current
moves on to the Cape of Good Hope. Here the current,
slackened by the earth’s rotation and the meeting of the
Antarctic waters, turns back and returns with them to the
E., and reaching the coast of Australia re-enters north-
ward the Great Equatorial. Thus in the three great oceans
is kept up a constant circulation of the marine waters on
a scale of magnitude which far transcends all similar
movements on the surface of the continents.
ARNOLD GUYOT.
Currer Bell. See BRONTÉ (CHARLOTTE).
Currey (RICHARD O.), M.D., born in Nashville, Tenn.,
Aug. 28, 1816. He graduated in the University of Nash-
ville, and acquired from the celebrated Dr. Troost a taste
for geology, mineralogy, and chemistry. He took the de-
gree of M. D. in the University of Pennsylvania. He was
elected professor of chemistry in the University of East
Tennessee at Knoxville in 1846; he assisted in founding
the Shelby Medical College in Nashville, in which he oc-
cupied the chair of chemistry. For six or seven years he
was editor of the “Southern Journal of Medicine and
. Physical Sciences,” and in 1859 was ordained a minister
in the Presbyterian Church. Dr. Currey was a man wholly
devoted to duty, and while in charge of 2000 Federal pris–
oners, as surgeon in the Confederate army, at Salisbury,
N. C., he contracted the disease of which he died (1865),
by his devotion to them. The U. S. government ordered
all of Dr. Currey’s property restored to his family when
the war ended. PAUL F. EvK.
Cur'rituck, a county which forms the N. E. extremity
of North Carolina. Area, 200 square miles. It is bounded
on the E. by the Atlantic Ocean. The surface is level; the
soil sandy. Corn and some wool are produced. Capital,
Currituck Court-house. Pop. 5181.
Currituck, a township of Hyde co., N. C. Pop. 1582.
Currituck Court-house, the capital of Currituck
co., N. C., is about 200 miles E. N. E. of Raleigh.
Cur’ry, a county which forms the S. W. extremity of
Oregon. Area, estimated at 1500 square miles. It is
bounded on the W. by the Pacific Ocean, and intersected by
Rogue River. The surface is mountainous, but very fertile.
Wool is one of the staple products. The mineral wealth
of this county is great. Capital, Ellensberg. Pop. 504.
Curry, a township of Sullivan co., Ind. Pop. 2171.
Curry, a township of Putnam co., West Va. Pop. 1162.
Curry (DANIEL), D. D., a Methodist divine and jour-
nalist, was born near Peekskill, N. Y., Nov. 26, 1809, grad-
uated at the Wesleyan University, Conn., in 1827, was the
same year principal of the Troy Conference Academy, en-
tered the ministry in Georgia in 1841, and occupied pulpits
in Athens, Savannah, and Columbus, S. C. He returned to
the North after the division of his denomination through the
slavery controversy, and joined the New York Conference,
had pastoral charge of important churches in New York
and other cities, was three years president of the Indiana
Wesleyan University, resumed his labors in the East, con-
tributed largely and ably to the periodical literature of his
Church, and in 1864 was appointed editor of its chief offi-
cial journal, “The Christian Advocate,” New York City.
He is author of a “Life of Wycliff’’ and “Metropolitan
City of America.” He has edited Southey’s “Life of
Wesley.” As a journalist he is able and independent.
Curry (JABEZ LAMAR Monroe), D. D., LL.D., born in
Lincoln co., Ga., June 5, 1825, graduated at the University
of Georgia in 1843 and at Dane Law School (Harvard
College) 1845. He served in 1846 as a Texam ranger dur-
ing the Mexican war. In 1847, 1853, and 1855 he was a
member of the legislature of Alabama; in 1856 presiden-
tial elector; from 1857 to 1861 member of Congress; in
1861 elected to the Congress of the Confederate States; in
1864 entered the Confederate army, and at the close of the
war was in command of a regiment of cavalry. In 1865
he was elected president of Howard College, Ala.; in 1866
ordained to the Baptist ministry; since 1868 professor of
the English language and literature in Richmond College,
Va. For twenty-five years past Dr. Curry has deservedly
held an influential position in the Southern States.
Curso/res [Lat., the “runners”], an order of birds
comprising comparatively few species, but these mostly
large, with large, strong, and often long legs, and wings not
usually enough developed for flight. The bones are nearly
1230
CURTAIN–CUSANU.S.
destitute of air-cells, and the breast-bone has little or no
trace of a keel. The hinder toe is generally wanting. The
running powers of these birds are remarkable. Among
these birds are the ostrich, the rhea, the emeu, the casso-
wary, the apteryx, and the bustards, though these last are
by some placed among the waders and by others among
the rasores. Unlike the others, the bustards can fly. The
fossil cursores include the Notornis, the Æpyornis, the
Dimornis, etc., huge birds, which were undoubtedly much
larger than the ostrich, which is the largest of living birds.
Curtain [Fr. courtine], in fortification, that part of the
rampart of the body of the place which lies between two
bastions and connects their adjacent flanks.
Curtin, a township and village of Centre co., Pa., on
the Pennsylvania, Central R. R., 21 miles S. W. of Lock
Haven. Pop. of township, 459.
Curtin (ANDREW GREGG), governor of Pennsylvania,
born April 22, 1817, was the son of Roland Curtin, one of
the earliest iron-manufacturers in Centre co., who came
to this country from Ireland in 1793. He studied law in
Dickinson College, canvassed the State in 1844 for Henry
Clay, was appointed secretary of the commonwealth in
1854, and was elected governor in 1860, in which post he
displayed great energy and promptitude when the first call
for troops came at the opening of the civil war. In 1863
he was re-elected by a large majority, and in 1869 was ap-
pointed minister to St. Petersburg. -
Cur’tis, a township of Roane co., West Va. Pop. 580.
Curtis (BENJAMIN ROBBINs), LL.D., an American law-
yer, born in Watertown, Mass., Nov. 4, 1809, graduated at
Harvard in 1829, and was admitted to the bar in 1832,
after which he practised law in Boston. He was appointed
a judge of the Supreme Court of the U. S. in 1851, but he
resigned that office in 1857. He was one of the counsel
who defended President Johnson in his trial before the Sen-
ate in April, 1868. He is the author of several volumes of
legal reports. Died at Newport, R.I., Sept. 15, 1874.
Curtis (GEORGE TICKNOR), an eminent legal writer, a
brother of the preceding, was born in Watertown, Mass.,
Nov. 28, 1812, graduated at Harvard in 1832, was admitted
to the bar in 1836, and practised law in Boston. He has
published, besides other works, a “Treatise on the Rights
and Duties of Merchant Seamen” (1841), a “Treatise on
the Law of Copyright ° (1847), and a “History of the Ori-
gin, Formation, and Adoption of the Constitution of the
U. S. * (2 vols., 1855–58); also “Life of Daniel Webster”
(2 vols. 8vo).
Curtis (GEORGE WILLIAM), LL.D., a popular American
author and orator, born at Providence, R. I., Feb. 24, 1824.
He visited Europe, studied in the University of Berlin,
and made an extensive tour in the Levant, from which he
returned home in 1850. He published, besides other works,
“Nile Notes of a Howadji” (1851), “The Howadji in Syria.”
(1852), “Lotus-Eating” (1852), and “The Potiphar Pa-
pers.” (1854). He has also distinguished himself as a pop-
ular lecturer on various subjects, and as an orator of the Re-
publican party. , President Grant appointed him chairman
of the advisory board of the civil service. He has been
editor of “Harper's Weekly’’ and of the “Easy Chair" in
“Harper's Magazine.” He is one of the clearest and
tersest writers of the day.
Curtis (Jose PH BRIDGHAM), second son of George, and
Julia Bridgham, Curtis, was born in Providence, R.I., Oct.
25, 1836. He graduated at the Lawrence Scientific School,
Cambridge, Mass., in July, 1856. In 1857 he was employed
as a civil engineer on the New York Central Park, and on
the breaking out of the civil war he was appointed engi-
neer, with the rank of captain, in the Ninth regiment
N. Y. S. M., April, 1861. On Sept. 16, 1861, he became
Second lieutenant of the Fourth regiment Rhode Island
Volunteers, and was made first lieutenant of the regiment
Oct. 2 of the same year. He served with Burnside in North
Carolina, and was made assistant adjutant-general with
General Rodman, June 9, 1862. In Aug., 1862, he became
lieutenant-colonel of the Fourth regiment Rhode Island
Volunteers. He fought at South Mountain and at Antietam,
and while in command of his regiment was killed at Fred-
ericksburg Dec. 13, 1862. (For a fuller account see a
memoir by his half-brother, GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIs, in
“Rhode Island in the Rebellion,” by J. R. BARTLETT.)
CLARENCE Cook.
Curtis (SAMUEL RYAN), an American officer, born Feb.
3, 1805, near Champlain, N. Y., graduated at West Point
in 1831, serving at Fort Gibson in Seventh Infantry till he
resigned June 30, 1832, civil engineer 1836–41; counsellor-
at-law 1841–46; adjutant-general of Ohio 1846; and colo-
nel Second Ohio Volunteers in the war with Mexico 1846–
48, serving as governor of Camargo, and by his operations
against Gen. Urrea opening Gen. Taylor's communications,
and after his regiment was disbanded on Brig.-Gen. Wool’s
staff and governor of Saltillo. Chief-engineer of several
important works 1847-55, counsellor-at-law at Keokuk,
Ia., 1855–61; and member of Congress 1857–61, being
prominent on the committee on military affairs and Pacific
R. R., of which he was a warm advocate. In the civil
war he promptly resumed his sword to go to the relief of
the capital; was subsequently elected colonel Second Iowa
Volunteers, and obtained the rank, Mar. 21, 1862, of major-
general U. S. volunteers, serving in various capacities in
Missouri 1861–62; in command of Army of the South-
west 1862, engaged in driving the enemy from Missouri,
battle of Pea Ridge, and numerous actions on his difficult
march of over 1000 miles to Helena, Ark. ; on leave of ab-
sence to attend the Chicago Convention, (its president),
which inaugurated the Pacific R. R.; in Čommand of the
department of Missouri 1862–63; organizing and directing
the forces in the field; in command of the department of
Kansas 1864–65, engaged against hostile Indians and
forcing Gen. Price to the Arkansas; in command of the
department of the North-west 1865, and as U. S. commis-
sioner to negotiate Indian treaties 1865, and to examine
the Union Pacific R. R. 1865–66, with which, from its first
initiation, he had been closely identified, continuing on the
same duty, though mustered out of volunteer service April
30, 1866, till he died, Dec. 26, 1866, at Council Bluffs, Ia.,
aged sixty. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Curſtius (ERNST), a German Hellenist, born at Lübeck
Sept. 2, 1814. In 1837 he visited Athens, where he passed
several years. He became, in 1856, professor in Göttingen,
and in 1865 in Berlin. He published “The Acropolis of
Athens” (1844), “The Peloponnesus” (1852), “Attic
Studies,” a “History of Greece” (3 vols., 1857–66), trans-
lated into English by A. W. Ward (London, 1868–70, 3
vols.), “Seven Maps, illustrating the Topography of
Athens’ (1868), “Die Gastfreundschaft” (1870), and other
works.
Curtius (GEORG), a German classical scholar, a brother
of the preceding, was born at Lübeck April 16, 1820. He
became professor of classical philology at Leipsic in 1862.
Among his works are a “Greek Grammar” (1855; 9th ed.
1870), “Grundzüge der Griech. Etymologie” (1862), and
“Studies in Greek and Latin Grammar” (3 vols., 1868–71).
Curtius (MARCUs), a patriotic Roman youth, who is
said to have sacrificed his life for his country about 362
B. C. According to tradition, a chasm opened in the Fo-
rum of Rome, which the soothsayers declared could not be
filled except by the sacrifice of the chief wealth or strength
of the Roman people. Curtius, completely armed, plunged
on horseback into the chasm, which immediately closed up.
Curtius (QUINTUs). See QUINTUs CURTIUs.
Cu'rule Chair [Lat. Sella curulis ; the latter word is
supposed to be of Etruscan origin], among the ancient
Romans, a throne or chair of state, one of the emblems of
ancient kingly power, which was retained by the magis-
trates of the republic. Its use was limited to the consuls,
praetors, curule aediles, censors, the flamen dialis, and to the
dictator or his deputies. In later times the emperors, as
well as many inferior officers, sat upon it. Curule chairs
were at first ornamented with ivory, and later sometimes.
made of ivory and inlaid with gold.
Curule Magistracies were those of the greatest dig-
nity in ancient Rome, and were so called because the per-
sons who held them enjoyed the privilege of sitting on
curule chairs (sellae curules) when engaged in their public
duties. (See preceding article.)
Curupaity, a fort on the left bank of the Paraguay
River, in the republic of Paraguay, was in the late war
between Paraguay and Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine
Republic an important position. It was an advanced work
of Fort Humaita, and was only taken by the allies in Mar.,
1868, after it had been abandoned by its garrison, and
Fort Humaita had been cut off from the interior.
Curve [from the Lat. curvus, “bent ’’), in geometry, a
line which continually changes its direction in accordance
with some uniform law, which is expressed by the equation
of the curve. In a plane curve all the points lie in the
same plane. Other curves are called twisted or curves of
double curvature.
Cur'wensville, a post-borough of Pike township,
Clearfield co., Pa. It has a national bank, a graded school,
several factories, and one weekly newspaper. Iron ore and
coal are abundant. Pop. 556.
R. H. BRAINARD, ED. CLEARFIELD Co. “TIMES.”
Curzon, de (PAUL ALFRED), a French landscape-
painter, born Sept. 7, 1820, was a pupil of Cabat. He
made tours through Southern France, Italy, and Greece,
and painted from the sketches collected.
Cusa/nus (NICHOLAs), CARDINAL, an eminent German
CUSH-CUSTINE, DE.
Scholar, born in 1401, was the son of a boatman of Kues
on the Moselle, by name Khrypffs. Doctor of laws from
Padua, and early famous for eloquence and erudition, op-
ponent of papal supremacy at the Council of Bâle, then
won over to the pope, he was at the head of every progres-
sive movement of the Church. His works appeared at Bâle
in 1665; his life by Deux in 1847. Died Aug. 11, 1464.
Cush, the name of a son of Ham; also applied in the
Hebrew Scriptures to a country, supposed to be Ethiopia,
which is called Keesh in the Egyptian inscriptions.
Cush'ing, a post-township of Knox co., Me. Pop. 704.
Cushing (CALEB), LL.D., an able American jurist and
scholar, born at Salisbury, Mass., Jan. 17, 1800. He grad-
uated at Harvard College, visited Europe in 1829, and pub-
lished “Reminiscences of Spain.” In 1835 he became a
Whig member of Congress, in which he served four con-
secutive terms. As a political friend of President Tyler he
separated from the majority of the Whigs in 1841, and
joined the Democratic party. He gained distinction as an
eloquent debater. In 1843 he was nominated as secretary
of the treasury, but was rejected by the Senate. He was
appointed commissioner to China in the same year, and
negotiated the first treaty between the U. S. and that em-
pire. Having equipped a regiment at his own expense, he
served as colonel in the Mexican war in 1847. He was ap-
pointed a justice of the supreme court of Massachusetts in
i852, and was attorney-general of the U. S. in the cabinet
of Mr. Pierce from Mar., 1853, to Mar., 1857. He was one
of the three lawyers appointed by President Grant to ad-
vocate the interests and rights of the Americans before the
tribunal of arbitrators who met in Geneva in 1871 for the
settlement of the “Alabama claims.” Appointed minister
to Spain in Dec., 1873, in place of Gen. Daniel E. Sickles,
resigned.
Cushing (LUTHER STEARNs), an American jurist, born
in Lunenburg, Mass., June 22, 1803. He was reporter to
the supreme court of that State, and published eight vol-
umes of reports. He also published a “Manual of Parlia-
mentary Practice” (1845), well known as “Cushing's Man-
ual,” and “The Law and Practice of Legislative Assemblies
in the U. S.” (1855), etc. Died June 22, 1856.
Cushing (THOMAs), L.L.D., born at Boston, Mass.,
Mar. 24, 1725, graduated at Harvard in 1744. His father,
Thomas, was a prominent and public-spirited citizen.
The younger Cushing was Speaker of the Massachusetts
house of representatives 1762–74, and a member in 1774 of
the provincial and the Philadelphia Congresses. He was
regarded in Great Britain as the principal leader of sedi-
tion. “One object of the Americans,” says Dr. Johnson
in “Taxation no Tyranny,” “is said to be to adorn the
brows of Mr. Cushing with a diadem.” He was occupied
throughout the Revolution with the affairs of Massachu-
setts, where he was a judge, and afterwards lieutenant-
governor. Died Feb. 28, 1788.
Cushing (WILLIAM), LL.D., a jurist, born at Scituate,
Mass., Mar. 1, 1733. He became chief-justice of the Su-
perior court of Massachusetts in 1777, and associate justice
of the Supreme Court of the U. S. in 1789. Died Sept. 13,
1810.
Cushing (WIf IIAM B.), U. S. N., born Nov. 4, 1843, in
Wisconsin, was appointed to the Naval Academy in 1857,
and, being found “deficient in his studies,” resigned in
1858. He entered the service as a volunteer officer in 1861,
and received a commission as lieutenant in the navy July
16, 1862. He became a lieutenant-commander in 1864, and
a commander in 1872. In 1861, Cushing distinguished
himself on the Blackwater, in the Sounds of North Caro-
lina, and at New River Inlet; in 1863 he added to his fame
by his expedition up the Cape Fear and Little rivers and
his brilliant operations on the Nansemond; and in 1864 he
covered himself with immortal glory by blowing up the
ram Albemarle at Plymouth, N. C. His adventures dur-
ing the late civil war at Smithfield and Wilmington would
alone have sufficed to establish his character for bravery,
ability, and sound judgment, while his leading the men
of the Monticello in the assault upon Fort Fisher—an
act of which any other officer might well be proud—
sinks into insignificance compared with his greater and
more perilous exploits. Always complimented by his
superior officers for his “courage and conduct,” several
times thanked by the navy department and once by Con-
gress for “distinguished services,” Commander Cushing
may surely be regarded as the most adventurous of our
naval heroes since Decatur died.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Cushing’s Island, in the harbor of Portland, Me., 3
miles from the city, has an area of 250 acres. It is a place
of summer resort, and has fine sea-bathing.
Cush'man (CHARLEs H.), U. S. N., born Dec. 6, 1831,
1231
in Maine, entered the navy as a midshipman Mar. 24, 1849,
became a passed midshipman in 1853, a lieutenant in 1856,
and a commander in 1866. He served in the Pembina at
the battle of Port Royal, Nov. 7, 1861, and in the iron-clad
Montauk at the first attack on Fort Sumter April 7, 1863,
and in the many fights of that vessel with the defences of
Charleston harbor during the summer and fall of 1863. He
was at both the Fort Fisher fights, and led one of the storm-
ing-parties in the assault on the fort of Jan. 15, 1865, where
he was severely wounded. He was recommended for pro-
motion by Rear-Admiral Porter.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Cushman (CHARLoTTE SAUNDERs), a distinguished
American actress, born in Boston July 23, 1816. She made
her début in 1835, and performed with success in tragedy
and comedy. She visited England in 1845, and performed :
there for several years. Her public readings from Shak-
speare and other writers, in the large cities of the U. S. in
1872, were highly successful. In the opinion of many
critics she is not surpassed in genius and power by any
tragedienne of the present day, and she is generally ad-
mitted to be the greatest of American actresses.
Cushman (HENRY WYLEs), born at Bernardston, Mass.,
Aug. 9, 1805, was educated at Norwich University, Vt., be-
came lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts, 1851, and a
member of the constitutional convention, 1853. Died Nov.
21, 1863.
Cushman (Robert), one of the founders of the Ply-
mouth Colony, was born in England about 1580. He emi-
grated to Plymouth in 1621, and preached in December of
that year the first sermon that was ever printed in America.
I)ied in 1625.
Cusk, Tusk, or Torsk, popular names of a marine
fish of the cod family, and of the genus Brosmius. Various
species or varieties occur along the European and American
coasts.
Cusp [from the Lat. cwspis, a “point”], in architecture,
is the point formed by the meeting of two small arches or
foils, one of the projecting points of the featherings or foli-
ations in Gothic panels, arches, or tracery.
Cusp, in astronomy, is a point or horn of the moon or
of one of the inferior planets. -
Cusp, in geometry, a point at which two tangents to a
curve coincide. The two branches of the curve may either .
lie on the same side of the tangent, in which case the cusp
is called ramphoid, or on opposite sides, when the cusp is
ceratoid. The cissoid of Diocles furnishes an example of a
cuspidate curve with a ceratoid cusp; the cusps of the new
moon are ramphoid.
Cusset, a town of France, in the department of Allier.
It has manufactures of cotton and wool, vineyards, and
mineral springs. Pop. 6575.
Cusse/ta, a township and post-village of Chambers co.,
Ala. Pop. 1205. -
Cusseta, a post-village, capital of Chattahoochee co.,
Ga., about 18 miles S. E. of Columbus. Pop. 216.
Cussewa'go, a township of Crawford co., Pa.
1674.
Custard Apple. See ANONA.
Cus/ter (GEORGE A.), an American officer, born in 1840
in Ohio, graduated at West Point in 1861; lieutenant-
colonel Seventh Cavalry July 28, 1866, and brigadier-
general U. S. volunteers April 15, 1865. He served in the
civil war in the Manassas campaign 1861, engaged at Bull
Run; in the Virginia Peninsula 1862, engaged at Yorktown,
and aide-de-camp to Maj.-Gen. McClellan, in the subse-
quent operations of the campaign; in the Maryland eam-
paign 1862, engaged at South Mountain and Antietam; in
the Rappahannock campaign 1863, engaged on “Stone-
man’s raid” and at Brandy Station; in Pennsylvania cam-
paign 1863, engaged at Gettysburg (brevet major) and
various minor actions; in operations in Central Virginia.
1863–64, engaged in numerous skirmishes, etc.; in the
Richmond campaign 1864, engaged at Wilderness, Todd's
Tavern, Yellow Tavern (brevet lieutenant-colonel), Meadow
Bridge, Haw's Shop, Cold Harbor, Trevillian Station, etc.;
in the Shenandoah campaign 1864-65, engaged at Opequan
(brevet colonel), Cedar Creek (brevet brigadier-general
iſ. S. volunteers), and numerous smaller engagements; in
command of the cavalry division in the pursuit of Lee's
army 1865, engaged at Dinwiddie Court-house, Five Forks
(brevet brigadier-general), Sailor's Creek, and Appomattox
(brevet major-general); in command of the cavalry division
Pop.
in the military division of the South-west and Gulf 1865;
as chief of cavalry in the department of Texas 1865–66.
Since the war he has been on Western frontier duty.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Custine, de (ADAM PHILIPPE), Count, a French gen-
1232
CUSTINE, DE—CUTTINGS.
eral, born at Metz Feb. 4, 1740. He served as colonel at
Yorktown, Va., in 1781. He commanded brilliantly an
army on the Rhine in 1792. His popularity and talents
excited the jealousy of the Jacobins, and he was guillo-
tined Aug. 28, 1793. (See his memoirs by D’HILLIERs, 1795.)
Custine, de (ASTOLPH), MARQUIs, a grandson of the
preceding, born in 1793, travelled through England, Scot-
land, Switzerland, Italy, Spain (1835), and Russia, and died
in 1857. His work “La Russie en 1839° (4 vols., 1843)
created at the time of its publication a profound sensation,
and the Russian government deemed it necessary to have
an answer to it published.
Cus’tis (GEORGE WASHINGTON PARKE), an adopted son
of Gen. Washington, was born in Maryland April 30, 1781.
He was a grandson of Mrs. Martha Washington. He pro-
duced several plays and orations, and wrote a volume of
“Recollections of Washington,” which was published in
1860. Died Oct. 10, 1857.
Custom-house [Fr. douane], the office at a port of
entry where merchants and others are required to pay duties
on imported goods, and where vessels are entered and cleared.
They are also established at frontier inland towns. The
chief officer connected with the custom-house is called a
collector of customs.
Cus/tos Rotulo/rum, a Latin term signifying “keeper
of the rolls,” is the title given in England to the chief civil
officer of a county, who is appointed to keep the county
records. 4.
Cüstrin', a fortified town in Prussia, in the province
of Brandenburg, at the confluence of the Oder and Warthe,
52 miles E. of Berlin. It is surrounded by marshes. The
Oder is crossed by a bridge 900 feet in length. Pop. 10,122.
Cutch, or Kutch, a portion of Western Hindostan, on
the Indian Ocean, lies between Sind and Guzerat, and is
separated from the desert by the Runn of Cutch, 7000
square miles of arid land encrusted with salt. Cutch is
under the protection of the British. The natives are hardy
sailors. The exports are cotton, glue, and oil. The polit-
ical system is like feudalism, with a sovereign called a rao
over about 200 chieftains. Capital, Bhooj.
Cutch, a variety of CATECHU (which see).
in tanning and in dyeing.
Cutch Gunda’va, the most important province of
Beloochistan, between lat. 27° and 29° 50' N., and lon. 67°
20' and 69° 15' E., E. of the Brahooick Mountains. Area,
about 10,000 square miles. Surrounded by deserts, it is
exceedingly fertile, exporting grain, cotton, and indigo.
The inhabitants are Juts, with some Hindoos trading in
the towns. . -
Cutchogue, a post-village of Southold township, Suf-
folk co., N. Y., is situated on the Long Island R. R., 85
miles E. of New York. It has one weekly newspaper.
Cuthae/ans, a name given by the Jews to the SAMARI-
TANs (which see).
Cuth'bert, a post-village, capital of Randolph co., Ga.,
on the South-western R. R., 118 miles S. W. of Macon. It
has two female colleges and a high school. One weekly
newspaper is issued here. Pop. 2210.
J. P. SAwTELL, ED. CUTHBERT “APPEAL.” .
Cuthbert (illustrious for skill), or Guthbert (worthy
of God), one of the early English saints, born near Melrose-
on-the-Tweed, entered the abbey there in 651, and in 664
became its prior, and afterwards prior of Lindisfarne. He
took also the bishopric of Lindisfarne in exchange for that
of Hexham, to which he was chosen in 684. He had the
credit of working miracles. His life was written by Bede.
Died Mar. 20, 687.-CUTHBERT, abbot of Jarrow, wrote a
moving description of the death of the Venerable Bede,
735. (In Twysden’s “Decem Scriptores,” 1652.)—CUTH-
BERT, twelfth archbishop of Canterbury (741–758), was a
friend of Boniface, and sympathized with Pope Zacharias
in his efforts to build up the papacy. His letter to Saint
Boniface describing ecclesiastical abuses is in HUSSEY’s
Bede’s “Historia Ecclesiastica.”
Cut/ler, a post-township of Washington co., Me. It
has manufactures of lumber and boxes. Pop. 925.
Cutler (LYsANDER), a native of Maine, became colonel
of the Sixth Wisconsin Volunteers in 1861, served with the
greatest honor in the Army of the Potomac, where he be-
came a major-general, and was twice wounded. Died at
Milwaukee, Wis., July 30, 1866.
Cutler (MANASSEH), L.L.D., an American botanist and
Congregational minister, born at Killingly, Conn., May 3,
1742, graduated at Yale in 1765. He described 350 species
of plants indigenous in New England. He was a leader
of a party that settled at Marietta, O., in 1788. He was
also a lawyer and physician, and was a member of Con-
gress (1800–04). Died July 28, 1823.
It is used
Cutler (TIMOTHY), D. D. Oxon., an American clergy-
man, born in Massachusetts in 1685. He became president
of Yale College in 1719, a member of the Episcopal Church
in 1722, and rector of a church in Boston in 1723. Died
Aug. 17, 1765.
Cut’lery [from the Lat. cultellus, diminutive of culter,
a “knife”], a term used to designate sharp and cutting in-
struments made of iron or steel. The most primitive cut-
ting instruments were flints, shells, etc., which were suc-
ceeded by bronze implements and weapons. These were
probably used to some extent by the Romans until about
the commencement of the Christian era, as bronze surgical
instruments have been found at Pompeii. During the Mid-
dle Ages several cities of Spain and Northern Italy were
renowned for the manufacture of cutting instruments, es-
pecially swords. The cutlery of Sheffield in England has
been generally regarded as superior to any other, but other
European countries and the U. S. now rival England in the
quality of their cutlery. Good table-knives are made of
steel and iron welded together; the tang (which goes into
the handle) and the shoulder are of iron, and the blade is
steel. The blades of knives, razors, etc. are usually forged
into shape while attached to the bar; they are smithed—
that is, beaten upon an anvil—to condense the metal, and
slightly ground on a rough stone to finish the shaping and
remove the black oxidized surface, which would interfere
with the color of the tempering. Cheap table-knives are
made of iron entirely, and the difference of price is owing
to the greater facility of working, as well as the cost of the
material. In many articles made of steel and iron the
saving of steel is not the only advantage, for as steel is
more brittle than wrought iron, it is desirable that every
part except the cutting edge should be of iron. The great
value of steel for all cutting implements or those exposed
to wearing friction depends on its property of acquiring a
great degree of hardness when heated and suddenly cooled,
and of softening again by moderately reheating. The dry-
grinding of forks, etc. is very injurious to the health of
those engaged in it, owing to the particles of steel causing
irritation of the lungs and a disease called “grinders’
asthma.” Pocket-knives are the work of many hands.
There are, besides the blades, the separate pieces of the
spring, handle, rivets, etc.; the making of each is a dis-
tinct trade. The pieces are all finally fitted and put to-
gether by the finisher; a two-bladed knife sometimes passes
through his hands from seventy to a hundred times.
Cutt (John), one of the founders of the CUTTs families
of Maine and New Hampshire, is said to have been a
Welshman. He came to America before 1646 with Robert
and Richard, his brothers, and became a wealthy merchant
of Portsmouth, N. H. His brothers became prominent
citizens of Portsmouth and Kittery. John was for a time
president of New Hampshire. Died Mar. 27, 1681.
Cutſtack, a city, the capital of a district of like name,
is on the Mahanuddee River, 250 miles S. W. of Calcutta.
It is healthy, and has a temple and mosques, chapels, and
manufactures of shoes, brass, and salt. Pop. about 40,000;
of district, 1,984,600.
Cut/ter, a small vessel with one mast and a bowsprit,
built with especial reference to speed. The distinction be-
tween a cutter and a sloop is that in a cutter the jib has no
stay to support it. The term “revenue cutters” is applied
to those which are employed in the pursuit of smugglers.
The cutters belonging to ships of war are clincher-built
boats, about twenty-five feet long.
Cut/ting (FRANCIS BROCKHOLST), born in New York
City in 1805, graduated at Columbia College in 1825. He
was a distinguished lawyer and a prominent Democratic
member of Congress in 1853–55. Died June 26, 1870.
Cutting (SEWALL SYLVESTER), D. D., born Jan. 19,
1813, at Windsor, Vt., graduated at the University of Ver-
mont in 1835, ordained pastor of a Baptist church in West
Boylston, Mass., 1836, pastor of a Baptist church in South-
bridge, Mass., 1837–45, editor of the “New York Recorder”
1845–50 and 1853–55, editor of the “Christian Review "
1850–53, professor of rhetoric and history in the University
of Rochester 1855–68, secretary of the American Baptist
Educational Commission from 1868 to the present time
(1873). He is author of “Historical Windications of the
Baptists,” Boston, 1858.
Cut/tings, portions of branches of trees or shrubs em-
ployed to produce new plants by the insertion of the lower
end into the earth. The willow, currant, and gooseberry
are easily propagated in this mode, and many other trees
or shrubs will grow from cuttings under favorable cir-
cumstances, such as warmth, moisture, and shade. The
branches which are young, but not less than a year old,
are most adapted for this purpose.
CUTTLE-FISH-CUZCO.
1233
Cutſtle-fish [Ger. Kuttelftsch , Fr. séchel, a name ap-
plied to many dibranchiate *A -
cephalopodous mollusks, es- º
pecially to those of the fam- *
ily Sepiadae, the species of & W.
which are numerous and Nº.W.
almost world-wide in distri-
bution. The term popular-
ly includes nearly all the
dibranchiate cephalopods.
They are characterized by
the presence of an ink-bag
*
ºilº
|*
|.
§§
º
jº º
|
filled with black or brown . º
“sepia,” a substance which -
the animal ejects when pur- }: ji
ſº
sued, so as to conceal itself
from view by coloring the
waters around it. This sub-
stance was formerly much
employed in making sepia ||
or India ink (now made of |
lampblack, etc.). This col-
oring-matter is so perma-
nent that it has occasionally \\
been prepared from fossil \ ii.
specimens. “Cuttle-fish- || \
ū,
- &
{
º
|||||||||||||
% | i
d' ...: |
11|
|| || ||
º
|
ill Miſſilſ;
A W \||
§ W . º |
i |*||
lº ſ -
i yº
y\\
|W §
Cuttle-fish: Sepia officinalis.
|
W
W
§\
\
|
s
bone” is in reality the calca- ſº |
reous internal shell of these \
animals, especially that of
the Sepia officinalis of Eu-
rope. When powdered it is
sold under the name of “pounce,” and is used for polishing,
for tooth-powder, and in making moulds for delicate cast-
ings. It was formerly much used in medicine, but is only
valuable for its feebly antacid properties. Cuttle-fish have
been found of two tons weight in the tropical seas. They
are all marine. Many fossil species occur. Several species
are found on the Atlantic coast of the U. S. (See SQUID.)
Cut’ty-Stool [Scottish, cutty or kittie, a woman of
light or worthless character], or Creep'ie Chair, for-
merly a seat in Scottish churches where offenders against
chastity were obliged to sit for three Sundays, and receive
a reprimand from the minister.
Cut-Worm, a name given by agriculturists to many
larvae, mostly belonging to lepidopterous insects of the
family Noctualitae, and especially to those of the genus
Agrotis. They cut off corn, cabbage, and other plants just
below the surface of the ground; and one species at least
(Agrotis Cochrani) climbs apple and pear trees and destroys
the young buds. No effective remedy for their ravages is
known. -
Cuvier, a township of St. Charles co., Mo. Pop. 3174.
Cuvier (GEORGE CHRíTIEN LíoPold FRíDáRIC DAGo-
BERT), BARON, a celebrated French naturalist, was born at
Montbéliard, then in Wurtemberg, whither the family had
removed from Jura in the sixteenth century upon embra-
cing Protestantism, Aug. 23, 1769. His father was an officer
in a French regiment of Swiss mercenaries. He studied
political science at the Carolinian academy in Stuttgart,
through the interest of the duke. He was an enthusiastic
student from boyhood, and his passion for natural history
showed itself in his thirteenth year. He became in 1788
tutor to the son of Count d'Héricy, who lived in Normandy,
and remained in this situation nearly six years, at the same
time pursuing his studies. Early in 1795 he removed to
Paris, where he associated with Jussieu and Geoffroy
Saint-Hilaire. He became in July, 1795, professor of com-
parative anatomy in the Museum of Natural History, and
began to form his great cabinet of comparative anatomy.
In 1796 he was admitted into the Institute, then just
founded. He displayed his genius for classification in a
work called “Tableau Elémentaire des Animaux’’ (1798),
and succeeded Daubenton as professor of natural history
in the College of France in 1800. In 1801 he commenced
the publication of the important “Leçons d’anatomie com-
parée’” (1801–05, 5 vols.; new ed. 1840). He married
Madame Duvaucel, the widow of a farmer-general, and was
chosen perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences in
1802. In 1808 he was appointed councillor to the Imperial
University. He displayed a rare faculty of expressing
scientific truths in popular and elegant language in his
“Discourse on the Revolutions of the Surface of the Globe,”
in which he propounds the theory of the correlation of forms
in organized beings. He was appointed master of requests
by Napoleon in 1813, and councillor of state in 1814. He
published in 1817 his celebrated “Animal Kingdom’
(“Régne Animal distribué d'après son Organisation,” in
four volumes; new edition by his pupils, 11 vols., with 993
plates, 1836–49), in which he proposed the arrangement of
animals in four divisions—the Vertebrata, Mollusca, Ar-
i
ticulata, and Radiata. Soon after the restoration of the
Bourbons he was appointed chancellor of the University
of Paris by Louis XVIII. He was elected a member of
the French Academy in 1818, and received the title of
baron in 1820. He wrote many able notices of scientific
men for the “Biographie Universelle.” Among his other
works is an excellent “Natural History of Fishes” (1818–
30, with the continuation by Valenciennes, 22 vols.), of
which eight volumes were finished during his life. As a
professor he was distinguished for facility of elocution,
clearness of ideas, and the art of fixing the attention in
philosophical or historical digressions. He first applied
to zoology the natural method, and founded a system on
the basis of the invariable characters of anatomical struc-
ture. He is regarded as the founder of the science of
comparative anatomy, and his knowledge of that science
was such that a bone or small fragment of a fossil animal
enabled him to determine the order, and even genus, to
which it belonged. During the last twelve years of his
life he rendered important services as president of the
committee of the interior. He was created a peer of France
in 1831. Died May 13, 1832. He had several children, but
none of them survived him. His disposition was amiable,
and his moral character unimpeachable. (See A. DE CAN-
DoDLE, “Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de G. Cuvier;”
R. LEE, “Memoir of Baron Cuvier,” 1833; L. DE LOMāNIE,
“G. Cuvier, par un homme de rien,” 1841; FLOURENs,
“Cuvier, Histoire de ses Travaux,” 1845.)—The brother
of the naturalist, FRíDáRIC CUVIER, born June 28, 1773,
published, with Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, “Histoire naturelle
des mammiferes,” interesting accounts of the habits of
animals.
Cuvillier-Fleury (ALFRED AUGUSTE), one of the edi-
tors of the “Journal des Débats,” born in 1802, has pub-
lished “Portraits politiques et revolutionnaires” (1851),
“Etudes historiques et littéraires’’ (1854), “Etudes et
portraits” (1865–68), etc.
Cuxha’ven, a town of Germany, is on the left bank of
the Elbe, at its entrance into the German Ocean, about 60
miles W. N. W. of Hamburg, to which it belongs. It has a
good harbor, and is important as the port whence the
Hamburg steamers depart when the Elbe is frozen. Pop.
1698.
Cuya'ba, or Cuiaba, a town of Brazil, the capital of
the province of Matto Grosso, is on a river of its own name.
It is a bishop's seat, and has three churches and an im-
perial hospital. Gold is found in this district. Pop. 7000.
Cuyahoga, ki-a-ho'ga, a county of Ohio, bordering on
Lake Erie. Area, 426 square miles. It is intersected by the
Cuyahoga River. The surface is nearly level; the soil is
fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are staple products. The
manufactures are very extensive and varied, including iron,
machinery, paper, lumber, leather, furniture, and many
other articles. It is traversed by several important rail-
roads, which connect it with Cincinnati, Pittsburg, Chi-
cago, etc. Capital, Cleveland. Pop. 132,010.
Cuyahoga Falls, a post-village and township of
Summit co., O., on the Cuyahoga River and the Cleveland
Mount Vernon and Delaware R. R., 34 miles S. S. E. of
Cleveland. The river is here enclosed between rocky walls
nearly 200 feet high, and affords abundant water-power,
which is employed in several paper-mills, wire-works, roll-
ing-mills, foundry, soap and glue factory, etc. It has one.
national bank and one weekly newspaper. Pop. of the
village, which is coextensive with the township, 1861.
- E. D. KNox, ED. CUYAHOGA FALLs “REPORTER.”
Cuyler, ki’ler, a township and post-village of Cortland
co., N. Y. Pop. 1357.
Cuyler (THEODoRE LEDYARD), D. D., born at Aurora,
Cayuga, co., N. Y., Jan. 10, 1822, graduated at Princeton
College in 1841, at Princeton Seminary in 1846, preached
three years at Burlington, N. J., was first pastor of the
Third Presbyterian church at Trenton, N. J., then pastor
of the Market Street Reformed church in New York City,
and is now pastor of Lafayette Avenue Presbyterian
church, Brooklyn, N. Y., enrolling more members than any
other Presbyterian church in the U. S. He is the author
of several little works, such as “Cedar Christian,” “Empty
Crib,” “Heart-Life,” and “Thought-Hives,” all of which
have been republished in England. Has also published
more than 1500 letters and articles in newspapers and
magazines, many of which have been reprinted in Europe.
Cuyp (ALBERT), a Dutch landscape-painter, pupil of his
father, Jacob Gerrits Cuyp (1575–1650), was born at Dort
in 1606. His works, remarked for atmospheric effects, are
many of them in England. Died after 1683.
REVISED BY CLARENCE Cook.
Cuz'co, the most populous department of Peru, is mostly
between lat. 13° and 15° S. and lon. 70° and 73° W. Area,




























1234
CUZCO—CYCLE.
about 45,000 square miles. The surface is mountainous,
With extensive table-lands; it is rich in metals, and favor-
able to grazing and agriculture. Capital, Cuzco. Pop.
about 464,000. -
Cuzco, a handsome city of Peru, the capital of the
above department, is 200 miles N. of Arequipa, and 11,380
feet above the level of the sea; lat. 13° 31' S., lon. 72° 4/
W. It was formerly the capital of the Incas. It contains
a fine cathedral, a university, several convents, and a mint,
and is the seat of a bishop. Here are manufactures of
cotton and woollen stuffs and jewelry. Massive specimens
of ancient Peruvian architecture are visible. Pop. 25,000.
Cyanae'a [probably named from the nymph Cyane], a
genus of radiate ani- ºffl
mals of the class Dis- #
cophora (jelly - fishes),
allied to the Medusae. H
The Cyanaea capillata #8
is one of the species tº
E.
which are known as º
sea-nettles. Its severe #
sting is one of the ter- #ſº
rors of sea-bathers at `º
some of the European
Watering-places.
Cyſane [Gr. Kvavij], the name of a water-nymph of
classic mythology, who tried to rescue her playmate Pros-
erpine, and was changed by Pluto into a fountain in Sicily.
She is also called the wife of AEolus, god of the winds. The
fountain Cyane, near Syracuse, still flows, and gives rise
to a considerable river. Here grows the papyrus plant.
Cy/anide, or Cyan’uret, a compound of cyanogen
with a positive radical. Prussian blue is a cyanide (or
rather a ferrocyanide) of iron. The cyanide of potassium
is very useful in chemistry and the arts, and is also em-
ployed in medicine as a sedative. It is a very active poison.
Cyan'iline (C14H14N2), a direct compound of cyanogen
and aniline. It is very unstable, but crystallizes and forms
Salts with acids. -
Cy/anite, or Kyanite [from the Gr. kºſavos, “blue,”
and Aiéos, a “stone *], a beautiful mineral, sometimes
called Disthene, is a silicate of alumina. It often oc-
curs crystallized, and generally in broad prisms. It is
transparent or translucent, sometimes opalescent, and ex-
hibits various shades of blue. Its formula is Al2O3SiO2.
Cy/anogen [from the Gr. kºſavos, “blue,” and yevváo, to
“produce,” referring to “prussian blue,” one of its com-
pounds], a compound negative radical composed of two
equivalents of carbon with two of nitrogen, represented by
the symbol C2N2, or, in its capacity of a quasi-element, by
Cy. It is a colorless, inflammable, permanent gas, with a
specific gravity of 1.806. At the temperature of 45° F., if
submitted to the pressure of 3.6 atmospheres, it becomes a
transparent, colorless liquid. It has the odor of peach-
kernels. Combined with hydrogen, it produces prussic or
HYDROCYANIC ACID (which see), remarkable for its deadly
action upon the animal economy. Cyanogen combines
with metals and other positive radicals, and produces a
class of compounds known as cyanides, which are analo-
gous in character to the chlorides, iodides, etc. Some of
these are of great importance in the arts, as in gilding,
electro-plating, photographing, and as tests in the chemical
laboratory. Sóme are used in medicine as sedatives, but
they are in general extremely poisonous. PRUSSIAN BLUE
(which see) is one of the most important of the cyanides.
Cyanom’eter [from the Gr. kºjavos, “blue,” and wérpov,
a “measure *), an instrument for measuring the blueness
of the sky. It consists, essentially, of a disk divided into
sectors, the several sectors being colored with tints of blue
gradually increasing in intensity. Held between the eye
and the sky, some sectors will appear deeper, and some
lighter in tint than the heavens. That one where the dif-
ference is insensible is the measure of the blueness for the
time being. -
Cyano'sis [from the Gr. kiſavos, “blue;” Fr. cyanose],
also called Cyanopathi'a [from kūavos, “blue,” and
Trá90s, “affection ”], a condition in which the skin of a
newly-born infant is of a blue color. It is the result of
various congenital malformations and conditions of imper-
feet development. Frequently the pulmonary circulation
is defective. In some cases the foramen ovale remains
open as in the foetal state. The venous and arterial blood
are mingled, as is normal before birth. Cyanosis may prove
fatal in a few days after birth, but normal development may
take place and recovery follow, or the patient may live for
years with this undeveloped condition of the blood-vessels.
Cya/thea [from the Gr. kūa60s, a “cup,” alluding to
the shape of its indusia], a genus of beautiful tree-ferns of
the sub-order Polypodiaceae, found in the tropical regiong
of the Old and New World. The species are numerous.
Cyathea arborea, a native of the West Indies, Mexico, and
South America, has bipinnate fronds. Cyathea medullaris,
a New Zealand species, has edible starchy roots.
Cyathophyl/ium [from the Gr. Kºjagos, a “cup,” and
diſaxov, a “leaf,” referring to the shape of the polypidoms],
a genus of fossil stony corals having a simple or branched
polyparium, internally lamellated, the lamellae having a
quadripartite arrangement. This genus is found in abun-
dance in the Devonian measures, and thirty-six species
have been described from them. It disappeared at the
close of the carboniferous period.
Cyax'ares [Gr. Kvašápms; Old Persian, Uvakshafara,
i. e. “beautiful-eyed ”] H., a king of the Medes, began to
reign in 633 B. C. He waged war against the Scythians,
who invaded his dominions, and against Alyattes, king of
Lydia. A total eclipse of the sun which occurred about
610 B.C. induced Cyaxares and Alyattes to make peace.
Cyaxares and the king of Babylon took Nineveh in 625.
He died in 593 B.C., and was succeeded by his son Astya-
ges, who reigned from 593 to 569 B. C.
Cyaxares II., a son of Astyages, grandson of Cyaxares
I., and uncle of Cyrus the Great. Though not mentioned
by Herodotus or Ctesias, he is named by Xenophon as the
successor of Astyages in the Median kingdom, and is prob-
ably the same as “Darius the Median * spoken of by the
prophet Daniel (v. 31). He is supposed to have reigned in
Babylon for two years after its conquest by Cyrus in 538
B. C. He came to the throne of Media in 569 B. C.
Cyb’ele [Gr. Kv3éAn or Kv3.j\m), called also Cybe’be
[Gr. Kv3:3m] and Rhe'a [Gr. “Peta, ‘Péa or ‘Peim], a goddess
of classic mythology, received the appellation of “Mother
of the Gods” or “Great Mother.” She was supposed to
be a daughter of Uranus and Terra, the wife of Saturn
(Cronos), and the mother of Jupiter. Her priests were
called CoRYBANTEs (which see). She was sometimes styled
the “Berecynthian mother,” from the hill Berecynthus,
where she had a temple. She is generally represented
riding in a chariot drawn by lions, with a diadem of towers
upon her head.
Cycada/ceae, or Cycaſ deae [from Cycas (gen. cyc-
adis), one of the general, a small natural order of exogenous
plants, indigenous in the tropical parts of Asia and Amer-
ica. They are gymnosperms, and nearly related to the
Coniferae, and are distinguished by their simple stems,
large pinnate leaves, and antheriferous cones. The stems
consist of a mass of pith, traversed by woody bundles.
Thus they approach closely to the endogens, and seem to
be a link between the latter and the exogens. This curious
order comprises about fifty known species, none of which
are natives of Europe. Many of them afford starch, which
is wholesome and extensively used as food. Sago is ob-
tained in Japan from the interior of the stem of the Cycas
revoluta, and a similar substance is produced in the Moluc-
cas by the Cycas circinalis. The large seeds of Dion edule,
which grows in Mexico, afford a starchy food. The caffer-
bread trees belong to this order. The CoONTIE (which see)
is the only plant of this order in the U. S.
Cy/chla, a genus of fishes of the family Chromidae,
many species of which are found in the tropical parts of
America. They have small and crowded teeth, and are
remarkable for the beauty of their colors. Some of them
are greatly esteemed for the table.
Cyc/lades [from the Gr. kūkaos, a “circle "1, a name
given to a group of islands in the Ægean, numbering
twelve in all, according to Strabo, so called because
they surrounded the sacred island of Delos. These islands
are Syra, Delos, Andros, Tenos, Mykonos, Naxos, Paros,
Antiparos, Siphnos, Seriphos, Kythnos, and Keos. The
present nome of the Cyclades (the tenth of fourteen in
the kingdom of Greece) includes, in addition to the above,
the following eight islands: Melos, Thera, Kimolos, Phol-
egandros, Sicynos, Ios, Amorgos, and Anaphe. The sur-
face is mountainous, the soil productive. Pop. of the
nome in 1871, 123,299. Area, 926 square miles. Syra or
Hermopolis is the most important city.
Cyc/lamen [Gr. kvkAáuvvos, from kūkaos, “circle,” be-
cause it was used for garlands], the name of a genus of
plants of the natural order Primulaceae, having a wheel-
shaped corolla, with a long reflexed limb, and flower-stalks
twisted spirally after flowering. The species are herbaceous
perennials, mostly natives of the south of Europe. Some
of them are cultivated in gardens for the sake of the
flowers, which are beautiful and fragrant. The root or
subterranean stem is acrid and drastic. These properties
depend on a peculiar principle called cyclamin.
Cy/cle [Gr. kºkxos, a “circle "I, a period of time which
finishes and recommences perpetually. The term has been


CYCLIC PLANES OF A CONE–CYCLOPS.
1235
employed for marking the intervals in which two or more
periods of unequal length are each completed in a certain
number of times, so that both begin again exactly in the
same relations as at first. The cycles used in chronology
are three: the cycle of the sun, the cycle of the moon (or
Metonic cycle), and the cycle of indiction. The cycle of
the sun, or solar cycle, is a period of time after which the
same days of the week recur on the same days of the year.
If the number of days in the year were always the same,
this cycle could only contain seven years; but the order is
interrupted by the intercalations. In the Julian calendar,
the intercalary day returns every fourth year, and the cycle
consequently contains twenty-eight years. This cycle is
supposed to have been invented about the time of the first
Council of Nice (325 A.D.), but the first year of the first
cycle is placed nine years before the commencement of the
Christian era. Hence the year of the cycle corresponding to
any given year in the Julian calendar is found by the follow-
ing rule: add nine to the date and divide the sum by twenty-
eight; the quotient is the number of cycles elapsed, and the
remainder is the year of the cycle. Should there be no
remainder, the proposed year is the twenty-eighth, or last
of the cycle. In the reformed calendar this rule can only
apply from century to century, for the order is interrupted
by the omission of the intercalary day every hundredth
year. (See DOMINICAL LETTER.) The cycle of the moon
is a period of nineteen solar years, after which the new and
full moons fall on the same days of the year as they did
nineteen years before. This cycle was invented by Meton,
an Athenian astronomer, and is known as the “Metonic
cycle.” It contains 8940 days, which exceeds the true
length of the nineteen solar years by nine and a half hours,
nearly. On the other hand, it exceeds the length of 235
lunations by seven hours and a half only. The framers of
the ecclesiastical calendar, in adopting this period, altered
the distribution of the lunar months, in order to accom-
modate them to the Julian intercalation ; and the effect of
the alteration was that every three periods of 6940 days
was followed by one of 6939. The mean length of the cycle
was therefore 69393 days, which agrees exactly with nine-
teen Julian years. The number of the year in the cycle is
called the GoLDEN NUMBER (which see). The cycle begins
with the year in which the new moon falls on the first of
January. To find the number of any year in the lunar
cycle, or the golden number of that year, we have this
rule: add one to the date and divide by nineteen ; the
quotient is the number of cycles elapsed, and the remainder
is the year of the cycle. Should there be no remainder,
the proposed year is the last or nineteenth of the cycle.
The cycle of indictions, or Roman indiction, is a period
of fifteen years, not astronomical, but entirely arbitrary.
Its origin and purpose are alike uncertain, but it is con-
jectured that it was introduced by Constantine the Great
about 312 of the common era, and had reference to certain
judicial acts that took place at stated intervals of fifteen
years. It is considered as having commenced on the first
of Jan., 313. By extending it backward to the begin-
ning of the era, it will be found that the first year of the
era corresponded with the fourth of the cycle. In order,
therefore, to find the number of any year in the cycle of in-
diction, we have this rule: add three to the date, divide
the sum by fifteen, and the remainder is the year of in-
diction. F. A. P. BARNARD.
Cyc'lic Planes of a Cone, the two planes through
one of the axes which are parallel to the planes of circu-
lar section of the cone. The perpendiculars to the cyclic
planes through the vertex are the focal lines of the recip-
rocal cone. A sphere around the vertex of the cone is cut
by the latter, its cyclic planes, and its focal lines respect-
ively, in a sphero-conic, its cyclic arcs, and its foci, and
thus the reciprocal properties of cyclic planes and focal
lines give rise to properties of sphero-comics, which are in
many respects precisely similar to those of plane conics.
Cyc/lic Poſets [Gr. of troºntai kvºxtrot, the “poets of
the cycle “ or “routine” of mythology], a name originally
given to Homer and certain epic poets who followed him,
whose works treated of the mythological and heroic ages
of Greece. In the second century B. C. these poems were
arranged at Alexandria according to the order of the events
they narrated. The whole collection was called the “Epic
Cycle.” The Homeric poems, though originally comprised
in this cycle, are always treated as distinct from it, and the
name “cyclic poet” became rather one of reproach, signi-
fying a follower of an established “routine.” The princi-
pal cyclic poets were Arctinus, Lesches, Agias, Eumelus,
Stasinus, and Eugamon. Their extant writings are mere
fragments.
Cyc/lifying Line, Plane, and Surface. The de-
velopable surface which contains a given non-plane curve,
and which on being unfolded transforms that curve into a
circular arc of a given radius, is called the cyclifying sur-
face, corresponding to that radius. Its tangent planes are
the cyclifying planes of the curve, and its generators the
cyclifying lines. The theory of cyclifying surfaces is a
generalization of that of the rectifying surface; which lat-
ter, in fact, is a cyclifying surface corresponding to the
radius infinity. The developable osculatrix of a common
helix, or of any curve with constant radius of curvature,
is a cyclifying surface.
Cy’cloid [from the Gr. KiſkAos, a “circle,” and si60s,
“form *], a name given to several important plane curves
generated by a point in the plane of a circle when the lat-
ter is rolled along a straight line. If the generating point
is in the circumference of the rolling circle, a “common
cycloid” is generated; if the generating point be outside
the circle, it marks a “curtate” cycloid; while if it be a
point within the circumference, a “prolate” or “inflected”
cycloid is the result. That part of the cycloid which is
generated in one revolution of the generating circle is
called one “branch * of the cycloid. The branches may be
infinite in number. That part of the straight line which
is traversed in one revolution of the generating circle is
the “base ’’ of one branch. A line bisecting the branch of
a cycloid and its base is the “ axis.” The common cycloid
is the “line of quickest descent;” that is, if one point be
placed above another, but not in the same vertical line, a
falling body will move from the higher point to the lower
more quickly along the arc of an inverted common cycloid
than by any other course, even if that course be a straight
line. If a pendulum be made to vibrate in the are of a
common cycloid, no matter what the length of the are may
be, the time will always be the same. In practice, how-
ever, this result has never been attained. Experiments
show that cog-wheels with teeth bounded by this curve
have their friction reduced to the minimum. (See EPICY-
CLOID and HYPOCYCLOID.)
Cy/cloid, Companion to the, a name given by
Roberval to a curve intimately connected with the cycloid,
by means of whose properties he succeeded in 1634 in solv-
ing the problem of the quadrature of the cycloid. The curve
in question may be conceived to be generated by a point
which always remains vertically over the point of contact
of the rolling circle and its base, and in the same horizontal
line as the describing point. Its area is equal to twice that
of the rolling circle. The area of the space between the
cycloid and its companion is precisely equal to that of the
rolling circle, so that the area of the cycloid itself is three
times that of the circle.
Cy/clone [from Gr.-kökAos, a “circle;” one is an aug-
mentative suffix], a rotatory storm or whirlwind occurring
in the tropical seas, but never on the equator. The diam-
eter is generally about 200 or 300 miles, and sometimes ex-
ceeds 500. The centre of the vortex (which is always calm)
travels at a rate varying from eleven to thirty miles an
hour. Cyclones are perhaps the most destructive of all
storms. They rotate from right to left in the northern
hemisphere, and from left to right in the southern. Ac-
cording to Humboldt, the velocity of the wind is some-
times from 200 to 300 miles an hour. (See WINDs.)
Cyclopae/dia [from the Gr. kūkaos, a “circle,” and
travčeta, “ instruction,” “knowledge "I properly signifies a
work which takes in the whole circle of learning. The
term is often, though incorrectly, applied to a work treat-
ing very fully of some one or two important subjects, as
Chambers’s “Cyclopaedia of English Literature,” the “Cy-
clopædia of Anatomy and Physiology,” etc. (See ENCY-
CLOPEDIA.)
Cyclo/pean Walls, a term applied to certain huge
structures or walls of uncemented stones, the remains of
which are found in Greece, Italy, and Asia Minor. These
structures were so called because they were supposed to
have been built by the Cyclopes of mythology. The archi-
tecture is very different from that of the historic period.
Some persons believe that they were erected by the Pelasgi,
more than 1000 years before the Christian era. The Cyclo-
pean walls at Tiryns in the Peloponnesus are formed of
unhewn stones from six to nine feet long, and nearly three
feet thick. At Mycenae are found massive walls of stones,
which are more accurately fitted and are specimens of an
architecture less rude than that of Tiryns. A more ad-
vanced style of architecture appears in some remains of
Etruria. In the Etruscan masonry called Cyclopean the
stones are hewn or squared and laid in horizontal courses,
but are not cemented.
Cyclopism, that form of monstrosity or malformation
of the foetus in which only one eye is present, usually on
the median line of the head. (See TERATOLOGY.)
Cy’clops [Gr. Kökxop (i.e. “round-eyed”), from riſkAos,
<< a.3 35 º tº & & 3 y I C I f e l tº
a “circle,” and &p, an “eye ‘’J, plu. Cyclo/pes, in classic
- - \
1236
CYCLOPS–CYNTHIANA.
mythology, a race of giants or monsters having each one loud, harsh sound of no fixed pitch. The best are those
eye in the middle of the forehead. According to Hesiod,
they were the sons of Uranus, and were named Brontes,
Arges, and Steropes. Homer represents them as gigantic
and lawless shepherds and cannibals who lived in Sicily.
The most famous among them was Polyphemus.
Cyclops, a genus of minute entomostracous crusta-
ceans, so named from s
the supposition that * Nº.
the animal had but
one eye. It has since
been discovered to
have two eyes, form-
ing a single spot in
the centre of the fore-
head. The species of
Cyclops are numer-
Cyclops.
ous, and inhabit both salt and fresh waters.
cies occur in the U. S.
the marine species.
Cyclo/sis [Gr. kºkAoats, a “going around,” from kiſkAos,
a “circle”], a movement of elaborated sap, latea', or granu-
lated protoplasm within the cells or vessels of plants. It
Several spe-
Whales devour large numbers of
was first observed and described by C. H. Schultz. In the
milky or colored latex of some species of the genera Ficus
and Euphorbia, and in the celandine (Chelidonium majus),
it is easily seen under the microscope, but is nowhere more
beautiful than in the elongated cells of Chara and some
other aquatic plants, especially with a magnifying power
of about 1200 diameters. It has been observed in the needle-
like hairs of the common nettle. There is usually a regu-
lar rotation (whence the name) of the granules in each cell,
up one side and down the other, with also smaller partial
currents in different directions. Huxley considers the cause
of the currents to exist in contractions of the protoplasm,
too minute to be discerned except through their effects.
(See SCHULTz, “Die Cyklose, etc. in den Pflanzen,” Breslau,
1841.)
Cyd’nus [Gr. Köövos], a river of Cilicia, flowing through
the city of Tarsus into the Mediterranean. It was cele-
brated for the clearness and coldness of its water. It was
anciently navigable up to Tarsus (12 miles), but its mouth
is now obstructed by bars. This river was the scene of
Cleopatra's celebrated voyage to meet Antony in 41 B. C.
Cydo'nia, an ancient city of Crete, was on the north-
western coast of the island. It was noted for the produc-
tion of the quince (Cydonia).
Cyg/nus (the “Swan"), a constellation of the northern
hemisphere between Lyra and Cassiopeia, comprises sev-
eral bright stars. The parallax of the binary star 61 Cygni
was measured by Bessel, who published in 1839 “Measure
of the Distance of the Star 61 in the Constellation of Cyg-
nus.” By two distinct methods of observation the distance
of this star has been shown to exceed 50,000,000,000,000
miles.
Cyl'inder [Gr. KöAw8pos, from kvXtvöo, to “roll”], the
name of a genus of geometrical solid figures of which
there may be endless species. The most common kind of
cylinder is that which is generated by the revolution of a
rectangular parallelogram about one of its sides, which
line is called the axis of the cylinder. But in order to em-
brace all varieties of cylinders we must generalize the
mode of generation. A cylinder, then, is a solid generated
by a line which moves parallel to itself while one end traces
on a plane any curve whatever. When the position of the
generating line is at right angles to the plane, the cylinder
is right, when not, it is oblique. If the curve traced is a
circle, and the line is perpendicular to the plane, the cyl-
inder is a right circular cylinder. In all cases the content
of the cylinder is found by multiplying the number of
square units in the base by the number of linear units in
the altitude. A sphere and a cylinder circumscribed to it
have a remarkably simple relation to each other, first dis-
covered by Archimedes, their volumes being as 2: 3.
Cylle'me [KvXAffvil, a mountain of Greece, in the north-
western part of Arcadia, was supposed to be the birthplace
of Mercury (Hermes), who was called Cyllenius, and had
a temple on its summit. Height above the sea, 7788 feet.
It is now called Zyria.
Cy’ma [Gr. Kūpa, a “wave”], in architecture, a term
applied to a moulding, so called because its contour resem-
bles that of a wave, being, for example, hollow in its upper
part and swelling below. Of this moulding there are two
sorts—the cyma recta, just described, and the cyma reversa,
of which the lower part is hollow.
Cym’bal [Gr. kºugaxov, from kiſu gos, “hollow ’’), a brass
musical instrument of percussion, circular in form and
about eight inches in diameter. Cymbals are played in
pairs by striking one against the other, and produce a
made in China and Turkey. Cymbals are of great antiq-
uity, having been employed by the Greeks in the festivals
of. Bacchus and Cybele.
Cyme [from the Gr. kūpa, a “swelling ” or a “sprout”],
in botany, a form of centrifugal inflorescence consisting of
convex or flat-topped clusters of flowers seated on the axils
of dichotomous ramifications, as in the elder (Sambucus)
and several species of Viburnum. It differs from the corymb
in its centrifugal flowering, and in the fact that its blos-
soms are from terminal buds, and not from a central axis
or flower-stalk.
Cym'ry, the name given by the Welsh to their nation.
It is frequently extended to the entire branch of the Celtic
race to which the Welsh belong. To this branch also belong
the people of Bretagne in France and the ancient races of
Cornwall, Cumberland, and Strathclyde. Attempts have
been made to prove that the Cimmerii and the Cimbri were
of this race, but the evidence fails to establish these points.
There is reason to believe that a great part of the ancient
British race was Cymric, and many Cymric roots appear to
have been found in Gaulish and Belgic names. (See CELTs
and WALEs.)
Cynan'chum [from the Gr. kūtov, a “ dog,” and &yxo,
to “choke” (i. e. “dog-bane *)], a genus of plants of the
order Asclepiadaceae. Cymanchwm Monspeliacum, found on
the shores of the Mediterranean, produces the Montpellier
scammony. Caoutchouc is obtained to some extent from
the Cymanchum ovalifolium, a native of Penang. Other
species have been used in medicine.
Cyn'ics [Gr. kuvukot, “ dog-like,” from kºjov, a “dog”],
a sect of philosophers among the Greeks, so called from
their dog-like temper and their disregard of the conven-
tional usages of society. It is difficult to give any satis-
factory account of the tenets of this sect, as during all the
period of its existence it was in a state of constant fluctua-
tion. Its professed aim was to inculcate the love of rigid
virtue and a contempt of pleasure. On this point the tes-
timony of Horace—himself a zealous adherent of the school
of Aristippus, the very opposite of the cynical sect—even
were there no other, must be held conclusive ; and accord-
ing to his opinion the aim of the cynical philosophy was
to induce every man to become “the guardian of real virtue.”
Diogenes belonged to this sect. It was founded in the fifth
century B. C. by Antisthenes, a disciple of Socrates, who
sought to imitate his master in disregard of outward
splendor and contempt of riches, but his indifference to
these things soon degenerated into an ostentatious display
of singularity.
Cynoceph’alus [from the Gr. Kºſov, a “dog,” and
kedaaij, “head’], in Egyptian mythology, a dog-faced
baboon. The Egyptians held these animals in great ven-
eration, and professed to discover by their aid the periods
of the sun and moon. The name is now applied to a genus
of African monkeys. (See BABOON.)
Cynosceph'alae [from the Gr. kijov, gen. Kvvös, “dog,”
and ketbaxi, a “head”], a locality in Thessaly, was the
scene of two important battles. In the first the Thebans
defeated the tyrant of Pherae, in 364 B. C. In the second
the Roman general Flamininus defeated Philip of Macedon
in 196 B. C. *
Cynosu'ra [Gr. kuvooroupá, from kiſov, kvvós, “dog,” and
oëpá, “tail,” probably because four stars of Ursa Minor,
including the North Star, were fancied to resemble a dog's
tail; Fr. and Eng. cynosure], a nymph of Ida, said to
have been one of the nurses of Jupiter, who translated her
into the constellation of Ursa Minor, which includes the
North Star. In the language of poetry it signifies a
“ point of attraction.”
“Where perhaps some beauty lies,
The cynosure of neighboring eyes.”—Milton.
Cynthian'a, a city, capital of Harrison co., IKy., on the
South Fork of the Licking River and on the Kentucky Cen-
tral R. R., 66 miles S. of Cincinnati. It was first settled in
1780, and was named from Cynthia and Anna Harrison,
daughters of one of the early settlers. It has two weekly pa-
pers and one national bank. It is noted for the manufacture
of “Bourbon ’’ whisky. There are eight churches, a graded
free school, a female college, two flouring-mills, and two
carriage-factories. It is in a very fertile agricultural dis-
trict, and is the site of a famous race-course. A Confede-
rate force numbering 2200 men, with artillery, under Gen.
J. H. Morgan, attacked the place July 17, 1862, garrisoned
by 350 Federal soldiers. The place was surrendered, but
not till the ammunition was exhausted. On June 11, 1864,
Morgan with a large force attacked the place again, and
after two days’ fighting captured Gen. Hobson with some
1700 men. On the 14th, Gen. Burbridge, with 7000 men,
fell upon Morgan (whose men were out of ammunition and

CYNTHIANA-CYPRUS.
exhausted), and drove him out of Cynthiana with consider-
able loss. P. 1771. A. J. MoREY, ED. AND PROP. “NEws.”
Cynthiana, a township of Shelby co., O. Pop. 1597.
Cypera/ceae [from Cyperus, one of the general, popu-
larly called sedges, an order of endogenous plants nearly
related to the grasses, and natives of all parts of the World.
They are distinguished from the Graminaceae by having
stems which are solid and mostly triangular, not round and
fistular, and nearly destitute of joints. They have closed
sheaths and spiked, chiefly tri-androus flowers, one in the
axil of each of the glume-like imbricated braćts, destitute
of any perianth, or with hypogynous bristles or scales in
its place. The ovary is 1-celled, and contains a single ovule,
which becomes an achenium. This order comprises about
2000 species, which mostly grow in marshy or moist places.
Among them are the sedges (see CAREX) and papyrus.
Cype'rus [Gr. kºreipos, the name of a water-plant], a
genus of plants of the order Cyperaceae, distinguished by
hermaphrodite flowers and compound spikes of numerous
2-rowed glumes, without bristles. It contains numerous
species, many of which are natives of the tropics, and others
of the U. S. Some of them have tubers or corms which are
mucilaginous and nutritious. The Cyperus esculentus (rush-
nut), a native of Southern Europe, is cultivated in Italy,
Spain, and France, and bears farinaceous tubers which are
as large as a hazel-nut, and are called amande de terre
(“ground almond”) by the French. They are eaten as
dessert, and are used in making orgeat. The papyrus
plant is often referred to this genus, though separated from
it by some botanists.
Cypher. See CIPHER.
Cy pres, in law, a rule of construction. (See INTERPRE-
TATION and CoNSTRUCTION, by PROF. T. W. DwighT, LL.D.)
Cy/press [Gr. Kvirápagos, perhaps the Hebrew gopher],
(Cupressus), a genus of evergreen trees and shrubs of the
natural order Coniferae, having globular cones, and very
small and scale-like or awl-shaped leaves, which are ap-
pressed and imbricated. The wood is valuable and ex-
ceedingly durable. The common cypress (Cupressus 8em-
pervirens), a native of the Levant and Northern Africa, is
a tree of a conical form, sometimes growing to the height of
a hundred feet or more. On account of its dark green leaves
and sombre aspect it has from very early times been adopted
as an emblem of mourning. The ancient Greeks and Ro-
mans planted it in burial-grounds, and the same custom
now prevails in Turkey. The wood has a pleasant smell,
is not liable to be injured by insects, and is therefore valu-
able to cabinet-makers. . It is compact and durable. Speci-
mens of this wood preserved in museums are said to be
several thousand years old. Some critics believe that the
kinds of timber called cedar and gopher-wood in Scripture
were the wood of the Cupressus. Among the other species
of this genus are the Cupressw8 thwrifera of Mexico, the
resin of which is burned for incense, and the Cupressus
thyoides, which is a native of the U. S., and is commonly
called white cedar. (See CEDAR.) The popular name
American cypress is given to the Taxodium distichum, a
large and valuable deciduous tree which grows in Swamps
in the Southern U. S. It sometimes attains a height of
120 feet, and is about ten feet in diameter at the base. This
is valuable for timber, and is planted as an ornamental tree.
The cypress of the North Pacific coast is Thuja gigantea.
Cypress, a post-township of Monroe co., Ark. P. 655.
Cypress, a township of Pulaski co., Ark. Pop. 369.
Cypress, a township of Harrison co., Mo. Pop. 1230.
Cypress, a township of Nansemond co., Va. Pop. 2550.
Cypress Bayou, a township of Arkansas co., Ark.
Pop. 318. º
Cypress Creek, a twp. of Duplin co., N. C. P. 1024.
Cypress Creek, a township of Franklin co., N. C.
Pop. 1087. *
Cypress Creek, a township of Jones co., N. C. P. 541.
Cyprian, SAINT. [Lat. Cyprianus], or, more fully,
Thascius Caecil’ius Cypria'nus, a bishop of Car.
thage and Latin Father of the Church, was born in 200
A. D. at Carthage. He was a teacher of rhetoric before his
conversion, which occurred about the year 246, and he was
chosen bishop of Carthage in 248 A. D. In 250 he retired
into the desert to escape from the persecution which was
ordered by the emperor Decius. He returned to Carthage
in 251, and then assembled a council on the subject of apos-
tates who had lapsed in consequence of persecution. He
judged that these should be treated with moderation and
lenity. He emphasized the idea of the Church, insisted
upon the three orders of the ministry, and stoutly main-
tained the parity of bishops against the assumptions of the
bishop of Rome. He suffered martyrdom under Valerian
1237
in 258 A. D. He was eminent for his learning, eloquence,
and zeal, wisely tempered with moderation. His works
consist of thirteen treatises, the most important of which is
his “De Unitate Ecclesiae,” written in 252, besides eighty-
one epistles, including a few addressed to him, all of which
have reference to ecclesiastical affairs (See GERVAISE,
“Vie de Saint-Cyprien,” 1717; PoolE, “Life and Times of
Saint Cyprian,” 1840.)
Cyprin’idae [from Cyprinus, one of the general, the
name of a family of malacopterous fishes, having only the
pharynx or hinder part of the mouth furnished with teeth,
the gill-rays few, and no adipose fin. They are fresh-water
fishes, and are found in lakes and rivers. This order in-
cludes the carp, roach, dace, tench, bream, minnow, gold-
fish, barbel, etc.
Cyprinodon’tidae [from cyprinus, a “carp,” and 38oſs,
böövros, a “tooth”], a family of malacopterous fishes allied
to the Cyprinidae, but having the jaws more protractile and
toothed. They are found in Asia and America, and in both
fresh and salt water. The Amableps belongs to this order.
(See ANABLEPs.) . .
Cypripe/dium, a genus of plants of the order Orchi-
daceae, comprises several species natives of the U. S., and
known by the popular names of lady’s slipper and mocca-
son flower. They have beautiful flowers of curious struc-
ture, in which the lip is a large inflated sac. They possess
sedative properties, and are used to some extent in nervous
diseases.
Cy/pris, the name of a genus of minute entomostracous
crustaceans of the order Branchiopoda, with the body en-
closed in a bivalve shell. The antennae and feet are fur-
nished with fringed bristles, by means of which they swim
with ease. Their horny fossil shells are found in the
wealden of England, and several species occur in the tri-
assic rocks of the U. S.
Cy/prus [Turk. Kibris ; Gr. Körpos], an island of Asia, in
the N. E. corner of the Mediterranean, is 44 miles S. of Cape
Anamoor in Anatolia, and about the same distance W. of
the coast of Syria. It is about 140 miles long, and 50 miles
broad at the widest part. Area, 3678 square miles. Pop.
estimated at 200,000. The interior is occupied by a range
of mountains, the highest points of which rise nearly 7000
feet above the sea. These mountains are of limestone for-
mation, and are covered with vast forests of walnut, oak,
and other good timber. The soil is generally very fertile,
but the island is not liberally supplied with water. The
staple products are cottom, wheat, tobacco, madder, silk; also
grapes and other fruits. Wine of good quality is also made.
A large portion of the population are Greeks. Capital,
Nicosia. The foreign consuls reside at Larnica. In an-
cient times Cyprus was devoted to the worship of Aphro-
dite or Venus, who was fabled to have here risen from the
sea. Her temple was at “Old Paphos,” now called Kuklia.
The original occupants of the island were probably the
Japhetic Kittim (Gen. x. 4), who left their name in the old
capital, Citium. Cyprus, scarcely ever for any great length
of time independent, was held by the Phoenicians from
about 1100 to 725 B. C.; by the Assyrians from about 700
to 650 B.C.; by the Egyptians from about 550 to 525 B.C.;
by the Persians from 525 to 333 B.C.; and then, after 323
B. C., by the Ptolemies till 58 B. C., when it became a
Roman province. In 44 A.D. it was visited by Paul in
his first missionary tour. The Saracens (from 649 A. D.)
took and retook it several times. Wrested from the Sara-
cens by Richard Coeur de Lion in 1191, it was governed by
kings of its own from 1192 to 1489, and belonged to Venice
from that time till 1573, when it was conquered by the
Turks, who still hold it. Perhaps no country on the face
of the globe has changed masters so many times, or holds
within its bosom the relics of so many civilizations. Dis-
coveries of the greatest interest and importance have re-
cently been made by Gen. di Cesnola, American consul in
Cyprus. (See CEsNoLA; UNGER and Kotchy, “Die Insel
Cypern,” is85; “Storia dell'Isola di Cipro,” narrata da
Romualdo Cannonero, Imola, 1870.)
For many years Cyprus has been a hunting-ground for
archaeologists. The Codex Cyprius, containing the unmu-
tilated Gospels, was found here in the ninth century, and
was carried to Paris in 1673. Pococke saw ruins and
tombs; the abbé Mariti, who visited the island in the latter
part of the last century, describes marbles, coins, medals,
idols, and lamps, but the Turks would not permit diggings.
Later, a number of silver bowls were found, one of which,
now in the collection of the duc de Luynes, closely resem-
bles those found by Layard at Nimroud. In 1845 a bas-
relief in black basalt was found at Larnica, upon which is
sculptured the figure of Sargon, king of Assyria, father of
Sennacherib. This bore the inscription in cuneiform letters,
“From the great king Sargon to his vassal friend, the
king of Citium.” There had, however, been no systematic
1238
CYR-CYRIL.
researches undertaken in the island until Di Cesnola began
those which have resulted in the magnificent find which
will for ever be associated with his name. In the article
CESNOLA we have given a summary of the contents of the
collection now deposited in the Metropolitan Museum of
Art in New York. No complete catalogue has as yet been
made out, and therefore it is not easy to give more than
a general account of the contents of the collection.
Among the coins are some of the best Greek period, good
examples of the Roman imperial times, with others belong-
ing to the Alexanders, the Seleucidae, and the kings of
Cyprus. In bronze, the articles are very curious and valu-
able, though they have all suffered greatly from decompo-
There are several statuettes of Osiris, of Mineſſva,
sition.
of Pomona, and one of a mounted warrior, with Greek
initials on the pedestal. Besides these artistic objects there
are a multitude of implements—bracelets, anklets, rings,
amulets, hair-pins, mirrors and mirror-cases; brooches and
buckles, strigils, tweezers, pincers, lamps, modelling tools,
vases, cups, tripods, an inkstand with the incrusted ink,
shields, spears, battle-axes, javelins, arrow-heads, hooks,
and nails, and the small-toothed sickles, such as are in use
to-day in the island. There are many articles in gold and
silver, and gems and stones engraved in intaglio and in
relief—carnelian, carbuncle, jasper, garnet, onyx and agate,
Sapphire and amethyst, with some cameos of paste, one a
head of a Caesar, white on a dark-blue ground. The case
containing jewelry is of great artistic and archaeological
value, and the student will do well to compare its contents
with those of the precious case belonging to the Abbot Col-
lection of Egyptian Antiquities in the New York Historical
Society. The Di Cesnola jewelry consists of rings, ear-
rings, necklaces, amulets, bracelets, beads, buttons, spoons,
and two or three collars of uncommon size and importance.
Many of these ornaments are of gold alone, wrought with
the pincers and the hammer, twisted, granulated, and em-
bossed, showing great skill in execution and resource and
freedom in design. The relationship between all this
metal-work and that found in the Castellani and Campana
collections (the first lately in Rome, but now in the British
Museum; the second in the Louvre) is an extremely inter-
esting subject of study. The objects in marble, alabaster,
and stone are very numerous. The most interesting and
important are the statues, but besides there are heads of
animals, plates, tripods, ointment-boxes, tear-bottles, vases,
seals, lamps, small altars, and pedestals.
But the objects in glass and terra-cotta are the most
numerous of all, and almost exhaust wonder and curiosity.
There are 1700 pieces of glass, and between no two pieces
is there more than a general resemblance. The cases sur-
rounding one entire room are filled with this glass, the
greater part of it probably of Phoenician make, though
found in Greek tombs at Idalium (the modern Dali), and
supposed to range from 400 B.C. to 100 B.C. It would be
impossible within any reasonable limits to give any satis-
factory account of this astonishing collection. The objects
consist of plates, cups, bottles—these last of all sizes and
shapes—vases, buttons, necklaces, and seals, and one spoon
—a unique specimen. Much of this glass has been oxi-
dized by the action of time and burial in the earth, and
the result is a splendid iridescence, differing greatly in
amount in different specimens, and differing too in the
chord of color. In general, the surface of these glass
objects is little ornamented, but there are notable excep-
tions, a few being either fluted, ribbed, or decorated with
pressed ornaments or crinkled handles, or with twisted
patterns in the glass itself, as in some specimens of Vene-
tian glass.
Nor are the objects in terra-cotta less numerous or less
interesting. They are of all periods and races, and the
visitor will find his interest divided between the Phoenician
pottery and the Greek statuettes, lamps, and vases. The
examples of Phoenician pottery are in incredible number;
they are of every grotesque shape into which man can
pinch, turn, or twist clay, but beautiful or graceful forms
are rare, and the ornamentation is made up of circles, sin-
gle or concentric, lines, zigzags, dots, and animals, princi-
pally birds, drawn without other skill than that which
knows how to keep a sort of symmetry and proportion.
The series of lamps begins with the Phoenician, mere clay
scoops, modeled from bivalve shells perhaps, as their oldest
vases and bowls are from gourds; then come the Egyptian,
and them the Greek, these last generally ornamented on the
upper surface with figures in relief so spirited in design
that one takes the same pleasure in examining them as in
looking at Greek coins or gems of the best period.
The statuettes in terra-cotta are of the highest interest.
They are in great variety, and many of them are so odd
that it is difficult not to believe them caricatures; but prob-
ably we are studying the slow development of the art of
sculpture in the island. In one of the cases there are
ranged in chronological order statuettes of Venus from the
earliest time, some of them most amusing in their de-
formity, but the series culminates in several little figures
of the purest Greek type and of the finest execution. Mr.
Hitchcock, from whose account of the collection in “Pfar-
per's Monthly ” for July, 1872—the best that has been
written thus far—ours is mainly condensed, says of these
statues that “no museum possesses a single statue of a
period so remote 'as many of these, and some of them are
by far the oldest known to exist.” (Besides the article in
“Harpef" above mentioned, see “Die Sammlung Cesnola,
beschrieben von Johannes Doell,” published in the “Me-
moirs of the St. Petersburg Imperial Academy of Sciences,”
1873, with seventeen pages of beautifully executed litho-
graph illustrations; also, “The Antiquities of Cyprus,
photographed by Stephen Thompson, from a selection
made by C. T. Newton, M.A., Keeper of Greek and Roman
Antiquities at the British Museum, with an Introduction
by Sidney Colvin, M. A.,” London, 1873.)
REVISED BY CLARENCE Cook.
Cyr, a township of Aroostook co., Me. Pop. 376.
Cyrena'ica [Gr. Kvpmvaía], the ancient name of a re-
gion of Northern Africa, now known as BARCA (which see).
It is also called Pentapolis, from its five cities, Cyrene,
Apollonia, Teuchira, Hesperides, Barca; afterwards Cy-
rene, Apollonia, Ptolemais, Arsinoë, Berenice. The prin-
cipal city was Cyrene, from which the name was derived.
Cyrenaica was bounded on the W. by Africa Propria, on
the E. by Marmarica, and extended southward as far as
Libya Inferior. The original inhabitants, now represented
by the Berbers, were probably descendants of Phut, the
third son of Ham (Gen. x. 6). The Greeks began to colo-
nize this part of Africa about 631 B. C. Till 430 B.C.,
Cyrenaica was governed by a dynasty of eight kings, four
of whom bore the name of Battus, and four the name of
Arcesilaus. A democratic republic was then established.
In 332 B.C. the people submitted to Alexander. Under
the Ptolemies many Jews settled there. In 75 B.C., Cyre-
maica became a Roman province, and afterwards a part of
the Byzantine empire. In A. D. 616 it was conquered by
the Persian Chosroes (Khosroo), in 647 was overrun by the
Arabs, and now is under the rule of the Turks, whose au-
thority, however, is hardly more than nominal. Its climate
is delightful, and much of its soil very fertile.
Cyre/ne [Gr. Kvpivn], the capital of Cyrenaica, was situ-
ated about 10 miles from the Mediterranean, and 1800 feet
above the level of the sea. It was founded about 631 B. C.
by a colony of Greeks. Cyrene carried on an extensive
commerce with Egypt and Greece through its port called
Apollonia. It was the native place of Aristippus, Eratos-
thenes, the poet Callimachus, and Carneades. Remains of
its former magnificence are still visible. The site is now
occupied by a poor town called Grenne or Kooreen.
Cyre’ mius, or Quiri'nus (PUBLIUS SULPICIUs), a Ro-
man governor (proconsul) of Syria. Recent investigations
have rendered it highly probable that he held that office
twice—first, from 4 to 1 B. C., when Christ was born (Luke
ii. 2), and again from 6 to 11 A. D. (See ZUMPT, “De Syria
Romanorum Provincia,” 1854.)
Cyr'il, or Cyril'lus [Gr. Kºplaxos], SAINT, bishop of
Jerusalem, was born, probably at Jerusalem, in 315 A. D.
He was ordained a deacon in 334 or 335, a presbyter in
345, and became bishop of Jerusalem in 350 or 351. Aca-
cius, bishop of Caesarea, who was an Arian and an enemy
of Cyril, caused the latter to be deposed by a council in the
year 358. He was restored in 359, again deposed in 360, again
restored in 362, deposed the third time in 367, and the third
time restored in 368. He is said to have predicted the fail-
ure of Julian’s attempt to rebuild the Jewish temple in
363. He died in 386. The best editions of his works are
by Milles, Oxford, 1703, and by Touttée (Benedictine),
Paris, 1720. They consist of eighteen catecheses, address-
ed, in 347 or 348, to gatechumens, five addressed to the
newly baptized, a homily on the paralytic man, and a let-
ter to the emperor Constantius, describing a luminous cross
which he saw in the sky over Jerusalem in 351. His style
is diffuse and inflated. His writings have no great doctrinal
weight, but are of great archaeological and liturgical value.
Cyril, or Cyrilius, SAINT, an intolerant and arrogant
prelate, born at Alexandria in Egypt. He became bishop
of Alexandria in 412 A. D., persecuted the Jews, and was
notorious for his fanatical zeal and turbulence. The cruel
murder of the accomplished female philosopher Hypatia in
415 has been laid to his charge, but without proof. He had
a long controversy with Nestorius on the subject of the In-
carnation, and presided over the Council of Ephesus in 431.
Cyril died in 444 A. D. The best edition of his works is by
Aubert, Paris, 1638, in seven volumes. His commentaries
are worthless. His ablest work is the treatise against
Julian, in ten books, written in 433.
CYRIL–CZERN.Y.
1239
Cyril, whose name originally was Constantine, son
of Leon of Thessalonica, and elder brother of Methodius,
was born between 810 and 830 A. D. About 850, Cyril
went as a missionary among the Chazars in the Crimea;
in 861 Methodius went to Bulgaria; and in 863 the two
brothers went together to Moravia. They were the apos-
tles of the Slavic race. Cyril invented the alphabet, and
translated into the Slavic language the Psalter and all of
the New Testament, except the Apocalypse. In 868 he
obeyed the pope's summons to Rome, where he died Feb.
14, 869. -*
Cyril/ia [named in honor of Domenico Cirillo], a genus
of evergreen trees and shrubs of the natural order Cyril-
laceae. Several varieties of Cyrilla racemiflora, a small tree
..or shrub, occur in the Southern U. S. The clusters of
small white flowers appear in June. In cultivation this is
one of our finest native evergreens.
Cyrilla’ceae, a small natural order of evergreen shrubs
and trees, mostly North American, several of which occur
in the Southern U. S. This order, which includes the gen-
era. Cyrilla, Cliftonia, Elliottia, etc., is kindred to the
Ericaceae, and contains no plants of industrial value.
Cyrillic Alphabet, an alphabet invented about 863
A. D. by Saint Cyril, the apostle of the southern Slavi. It
was based upon the older Glagolitic alphabet. Some
writers, however, make the Glagolitic to be the invention
of Cyril, while the so-called Cyrillic they consider to be
the invention of Clement, bishop of Welitza, who died in
916 A. D. The Cyrillic, with a number of modifications, is
the alphabet used in Russia and some other Slavic countries.
Cy/rus [Gr. Köpos (or Köpos 6 traXavós, i.e. “Cyrus the
Elder”); Persian, Kai-Khosroo; old (cuneiform) Persian,
Kooroosh], surnamed THE GREAT, the founder of the Per-
sian empire, and the greatest of the Persian heroes, was
the son of Cambyses, a Persian nobleman. His mother
was Mandane, a daughter of Astyages, king of Media. Ac-
cording to a tradition which Herodotus adopted, Astyages
was alarmed by a dream which portended that the offspring
of Mandame would become king or conquer Media, and he
commanded an officer named Harpagus to kill Cyrus. Har-
pagus promised to obey the order, but privily committed
the infant to the care of a herdsman, who brought him up
with his own children. Cyrus, having discovered the secret
of his birth, and having inured himself to the hardy habits
of the warlike Persians, incited the latter to revolt against
the king of Media. He defeated Astyages in battle, and
ascended the throne in 558 B. C. He conquered Croesus,
king of Lydia, in 554, and extended his dominions by the
conquest of other states. Among his exploits was the cap-
ture of Babylon, by diverting the river Euphrates from its
channel, in the year 538, while Belshazzar was feasting.
This event was foretold by the prophet Isaiah, who declared:
“Thus saith the Lord to his anointed, to Cyrus, whose right
hand I have holden to subdue nations before him.” (Chap.
xlv. 1.) Cyrus issued an edict that the Jewish captives
who had been deported to Babylon should return to Jeru-
salem and rebuild their temple. Herodotus states that he
afterwards invaded the country of the Scythian Massagetae,
who were ruled by Queen Tomyris, and that he gained sev-
eral victories over her, but was drawn into an ambush and
killed in 529 B. C. According to Xenophon, Cyrus died a
natural death at Pasargada. He was succeeded by his son
Cambyses. (See XENOPHON, “Cyropaedia;” DIoDoRUs SICU-
LUs, books ii., ix., x., xvii., and xxxi.; SCHUBART, “Pro-
gramma de Cyro,” 1743; WETZKE, “Cyrus der Gründer des
Persischem Reiches,” 1849; RAwl INSON, “Five Great Mon-
archies,” 2d ed. 1871.)
REVISED BY R. D. HITCHCOCK.
Cyrus the Younger was the second son of Darius
Nothus, king of Persia, by whom he was appointed satrap
of Lydia and Phrygia in 407 B. C. Having formed a de-
sign to dethrone his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, he hired
a large army of Greek mercenaries, of whom Clearchus, a
Spartan, was the leader. In the year 401 B. C. he moved
his army from Sardis, but kept his soldiers in ignorance of
their destination. Xenophon the historian took part in this
expedition. Cyrus met the army of Artaxerxes at Cunaxa,
where, rashly exposing himself in the front, he was killed
about Sept., 401 B. C. His character is praised by Xeno-
phon. (See GROTE, “History of Greece;” XENOPHON, “Ana-
basis” and “Hellenica.”)
Cyst [from the Gr. kõatts, a “bladder”], a word com-
monly used to designate hollow tumors or pathological
structures in the form of a bladder. The name is also ap-
plied to hollow organs with thin walls, as the gall and uri-
nary bladders. -Pathological cysts are frequently transpa-
rent and of great tenuity. They are mostly lined by an
epithelium, and are either simple or compound, unilocular
or multilocular; sometimes they are small and separate,
known as hydatids.
sometimes very large and complex. They are usually filled
with a fluid. Some of them are parasitic and of independent
animal nature, as the hydatids.
Cysticer/cus [from the Gr. kūatts, a “cyst,” and képkos,
a “tail” (i. e. a “tailed cyst.”]], a name applied to the
scolices or larvae of certain CESTOID Wor:Ms (which see).
They are often found in the flesh of pigs and other animals,
and sometimes in the human body, causing the tumors
(See HYDATID.)
Cystic Worms. See CEston Worms.
Cyt'isus [Gr. kõrva os], a genus of plants of the order
Leguminosae, sub-order Papilionaceae, of which some spe-
cies are popularly called broom. The common broom of
Europe is the Cytisus Scoparius. (See BROOM.) The genus
comprises many species, some of which have beautiful
flowers and are cultivated in gardens.
Cyz'icus, a peninsula of Asia Minor, in Anatolia, ex-
tending into the Sea of Marmora, is about 70 miles S. W.
of Constantinople. It is connected by a narrow neck with
the mainland, and is noted for its picturesque scenery. The
ancient Greek city of Cyzicus was on this peninsula and
on the Propontis. The site of this splendid city is marked
by the ruins of an amphitheatre.
Czar [from the Russian tsar, a “king ”], the title of
the emperors of Russia. As early as the twelfth century
this title was given by the Russian annalists to the grand
duke Vladimir and his successors, but it was not officially
used till the sixteenth century. In the year 1505, Basil
Ivanovitch assumed the name of samodershez (autocrat),
and his son, Ivan the Terrible, caused himself to be crowned
czar in 1547. In 1724, Peter the Great added the title
&mperator to that of czar, an assumption of dignity which
some of the European powers refused to acknowledge. The
wife of the czar was called czarina ; she is now styled im-
peratritza. Among the Russians the czar is popularly
termed hossoodar.
Czartorys/ki (ADAM GEORGE), PRINCE, a Polish patriot,
a son of Prince Adam Casimir, president of the Polish Diet,
was born at Warsaw Jan. 14, 1770. He fought against
Russia in 1792, was taken to St. Petersburg as a hostage, .
and gained the favor of the grand duke Alexander, who
appointed him assistant minister of foreign affairs in 1802,
which position he resigned in 1808. In the revolution of
1830 he supported the Poles against Russia, and was
elected president of the new government Jan., 1831, but
after the defeat of the Poles in August of that year went
into exile. Died in Paris July 16, 1861. -
Czas/lau, a town of Bohemia, 45 miles E. S. E. of
Prague. . Its church, in which the Hussite leader Ziska
was buried, is surmounted by a spire said to be the highest
in Bohemia. Here Frederick the Great defeated the Aus-
trians May 17, 1742. Pop. in 1871, 5998. ,
Czeg'led, a market-town of Hungary, is on the railway
from Pesth to Temesvār, about 50 miles S. E. of Pesth. It
has some handsome buildings and large breweries; also a
trade in red wine. Pop. in 1870, 22,206.
Czemsto/chow, a town of Poland, on the river Warthe.
Here is a convent which has a dark-colored picture of the
Virgin, visited by multitudes of pilgrims, and reputed to
have miraculous power. Pop. 14,167. \,
Czerkaſsy, a town of Russia, in the government of
Kiev, on the Dnieper, 156 miles E. S. E. from Berditchef,
is the seat of the hetman of the Saporoj Cossacks. Pop.
13,311.
Czer/mak (Joh ANN NEPOMUK), born at Prague June 17,
1828, became in 1865 professor of physiology at Jena. He
published, among other works, “The Laryngoscope, and
its Practical Value for Physiology and Medicine” (1860),
and “Information from a Physiological Study’ (1864).
Died Sept. 16, 1873, while professor at Leipsic.
Czer'nowitz, capital of the Austrian duchy of Buko-
vina, is on a hill near the river Pruth, about 160 miles
S. S. E. of Lemberg. It is the seat of a bishop of the
Oriental Greek Church, has a Greek theological Seminary,
a gymnasium, a Realschule, a School of midwifery, a pro-
vincial library, a chamber of commerce, and manufactures
of clocks, hardware, silver-ware, etc. Pop. in 1870, 33,884.
Czer’ny (GEORGE), or Kara George (Black George),
a Servian chief, born Dec. 21, 1766, was originally a peas-
ant. He became in 1806 the leader of the Servians, who
had revolted against Turkey. He defeated the Turks, cap-
tured Belgrade in Dec., 1806, and liberated Servia, secretly
aided by Russia. When Russia, invaded by Napoleon,
could no longer support him, Czerny was driven out by the
Turks in 1813. Having returned to Servia, he was mur-
dered in July, 1817, at the instance of Milosch Obreno-
vitch.-His second son, ALEXANDER KARAGEORGEVITCH,
was prince of Servia from 1842 to 1858.
1240
D–DACIER, zº
D.
D, the fourth letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew, as
well as of the Greek and Roman alphabets. The name in
Hebrew (dāleth) signifies “door,” and the picture of a door
was probably its original hieroglyphic form. Some have
conjectured that the Greek delta (A) derived its form from
the triangular door of a tent. The sound of the English d
is formed by placing the tongue against the gums at the
roots of the teeth. But in pronouncing the letter in several
other languages (as the Spanish, Arabic, and Persian) the
tongue is placed against the teeth themselves, and from
this circumstance it is termed a dental. In the Sanscrit
there are two letters which are represented, though not
quite accurately, by the English d. The one is truly a den-
tal, being similar to the Spanish d, the other is formed by
turning the tip of the tongue back against the roof of the
mouth, whence it is termed a palatal, and sometimes a
cerebral, letter. D is often interchanged with other let-
ters (as t and th (9)) of the same class. Hence burned be-
comes burnt, passed becomes past, and so on; and
we have such variations as burden and burthen,
murder and murther, though the latter is now ob-
solete.
The sound of dental d often approaches, or is
actually changed into, that of th in this. Thus, in
Spanish, d when between two vowels or at the end
of a word, has almost, if not exactly, the Sound of
th in the English word smother; the same is sub-
stantially true of the Danish; hence the Danish
words for “brother” (broder) and “mother” (moder)
have nearly the same sound as their English equiv-
alents. The delta (8) of the modern Greeks has
exactly the samé sound as our th in this.
D, in music, is the second note in the scale, and
is one tone above C. In chemistry D stands for didymium.
Among the ancient Romans, D (capital) stood for 500, or
as an abbreviation it stood for divus (a title signifying the
“godlike ’’), and Decimus, a name. Among the ancient
Greeks delta with a mark on it (8) stood for the number 4.
Dab (Platessa limanda), a small, flat fish belonging to the
same genus as the flounder. It is common on the more
sandy coasts of Great Britain, is found in deeper water
than the flounder, and does not enter the mouths of streams.
The lemon or smooth dab (Platessa microcephala) is a larger
species of the same genus, with a smooth body, very small
head and mouth, and in color a mixture of brown and yel-
Iow shades. The rusty dab (Platessa ferruginea) is a rare
fish of the New England coast.
Daboliſ (NATHAN), born about 1750, was the author of
“Daboll's Arithmetic * (formerly very famous), and also a
treatise on navigation. He was a teacher of Connecticut.
Died at Groton, Conn., Mar. 9, 1818.-C. L. DABOLL, his
son, was the inventor of the fog-trumpet. He died Oct.
13, 1866. .
Da Caſpo [It., da, “from,” and capo, “head,” “begin-
ning”], a musical term, abbreviated thus, D. C., is an in-
struction to the performer in such airs as end with the first
strain to return to the beginning and repeat the first part.
Dac/ca, one of the divisions into which the province
of Bengal in British India is divided. Area, 21,418 square
miles. Pop. in 1872, 9,317,777. It is divided into five dis-
tricts, one of which is called Dacca. The district of Dacca
forms part of the delta of the Ganges, and Brahmapootra,
It extends from lat. 23°12' to 24° 17' N., and from lon. 90°
º sº of New South Wales. It #
II' to 90° 58' E. Area, 2897 square miles. The surface
is low and level; the soil is well adapted to the produc-
tion of rice. Capital, Dacca. Pop. in 1872, 1,853,416.
Dacca, a city, the capital of the above district, is in
Bengal, on the Burha Gunga, a navigable stream con-
nected with the Ganges, 127 miles N. E. of Calcutta. It
was once a populous city, but its prosperity has declined.
It contains several ruined palaces, 180 mosques, 119 pago-
das or Hindoo temples, a government college, and several
hospitals. Dacca was formerly celebrated for the manu-
facture of fine muslins, poetically termed “evening dew"
and “flowing water.” This manufacture is now extinct.
Magnificent ruins of palaces, bridges, caravanserais, etc.
Pop. about 70,000.
Dace, a fish of the family Cyprinidae, of the same genus
(Leuciscus) with the roach, and not unlike it in form ; the
mouth is larger and the scales Smaller.
are visible here.
The upper parts
(º § § º ºf º º § º, §
ź º;
%
&#######
are dusky blue, shading into white on the belly; the cheek
and gill-covers are silvery white. Its flesh is not greatly
esteemed. Bace are gregarious, swimming in shoals, and
spawning in June. There are several species which inhabit
clear, quiet streams, and are found in various parts of Eu-
rope and the U. S. Some of the American species are as-
signed to other allied genera.
Dace/Io [an anagram of alcedo, a “kingfisher”],
a genus of Australian
kingfishers, of which
several species have
been observed. Of these,
the best known is the
Dacelo gigas, or “laugh-
ing jackass,” a rather #
large and handsome bird É
takes its popular name .
from its harsh, dissonant
cry, which greatly re-
sembles the so-called É
laugh of the hyaena, sº
and is not altogether
unlike the bray of the
ass. This cry is uttered
at early dawn.
Dacelo giggs, or
“Laughing jackass.”
The bird inhabits hollow trees, and feeds
upon fish, reptiles, insects, etc.
Da/ci, also called Ge’tae, an ancient barbarous people
who inhabited Dacia. They are supposed to have emi-
grated from Thrace to Dacia before the time of Alexander
the Great. Their name, “Getae,” is thought by critics to
be identical with “Gothi” or Goths. If this opinion is
correct, the Daci were a Germanic people. -
Daſcia, a former country of Europe, was occupied by
the Daci, a warlike people. It was bounded on the N. by
the Carpathian Mountains, and on the S. by the Danube.
The Dacians waged against the Romans a long defensive
war which began in 10 B.C., when Augustus sent an army
to conquer them. In the reign of Domitian they compelled
the Romans to pay tribute. Trajan conquered Dacia, and
reduced it to a Roman province in 106 A. D. It was form-
ally relinquished by Hadrian (117–138) on his accession
to power, and yet remained under Roman masters till the
time of Aurelian (270–275), when the Romans finally with-
drew within the Danube, leaving the country to the Goths.
This province comprised the eastern part of Hungary,
Transylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachia.
Dacier (ANNE LEFièvre), a learned French lady, the
wife of André Dacier, was born at Saumur in Mar, 1654.

















T)A COSTA—DAGUERRE.
She was instructed in Greek and Latin by her father, the
learned Tannegui Lefèvre, became a resident of Paris in
1672, and was employed by the duke of Montausier to edit
several Latin authors for the use of the dauphin. She was
married to André Dacier (1651–1722), librarian of the
king, the translator of Plutarch, and editor of the Delphine
Horace, etc., in 1683. She produced French translations
of Anacreon (1681), of Terence, of Homer’s “Iliad” (1699),
and of the “Odyssey” (1708). As an enthusiastic admirer
of Homer and other ancient poets, she was engaged in a
famous controversy with La Mothe, and wrote her “Traité
de cause de la corruption du goût.” (See BURETTE, “Eloge
de Mume. Dacier.”) Died Aug. 17, 1720.
Da Cos’ta (J. M.), M. D., an eminent American phy-
sician, was born in the island of St. Thomas, in the West
Indies, Feb. 7, 1833, and received his medical education at
Philadelphia and in Europe. He became professor of the
practice of medicine at the Jefferson College in Philadel-
phia in 1872. He has published, besides, other works, an
excellent treatise on “Medical Diagnosis” (3d ed. 1872).
Dacota. See DAKOTA, by L. P. BROCKETT, M. D.
Dac’tyl [from the Gr. 84&rvXos, a “finger,” because, like
the dactyl, a finger has one longer and two shorter parts],
the name of a metrical foot in Greek and Latin poetry,
consisting of a long and two short syllables, as cârmână.
The term is also applied in the English and other lan-
guages to a foot or measure consisting of one accented and
two unaccented syllables, as destiny. In Latin hexameters
the next to the last foot is almost always a dactyl.
Dactylology. See DEAF AND DUMB.
Dactylop’terus [from the Gr. 8&rvaos, a “finger,” and
Trrepôv, a “wing”], a genus
of acanthopterygian fishes
of the family Triglidae, re-
markable for the great de-
velopment of the pectoral s
fins. The beautifully-col-
ored species Dactylopte-
"w8 orientalis (commonly
known as the Indian fly-
ing gurnard) is found
throughout the Indian
Ocean and Archipelago.
It is very striking in form, *
having large pectoral fins and two curved spines (or fila-
ments) between the head and dorsal fin, the foremost of
which is much elongated. Shoals of this fish are often
seen flying above the surface of the water, and occasionally
touching the summits of the highest waves.
Dactylos [Gr. 6&rvAos, a “finger”], a finger's breadth,
an ancient Greek measure, equal to 0.7586 inches.
Daſcusville, a post-township of Pickens co., S. C.
Pop. 1356.
Dadd (GEORGE H.), M. D., a veterinary surgeon, born
in England in 1813, removed to the U. S. in 1839, and be-
came well known as a writer upon veterinary science and
kindred topics.
Dade, a county which forms the S. extremity of the
mainland of Florida, comprising also a part of the “keys”
or islands. Area, 4400 square miles. The surface is low
and level, and mostly occupied by the Everglades, in which
multitudes of small islands are interspersed in an expanse
of shallow water. Capital, Biscayne. Pop. 85.
Dade, a county which forms the N. W. extremity of
Georgia. Area, 160 square miles. The surface is finely
diversified by valleys, and by mountains called Lookout
Mountain and Missionary Ridge. Grain and wool are the
chief products. It is intersected by the Alabama and
Chattanooga R. R. Capital, Trenton. Pop. 3033.
Dade, a county in the S. W. of Missouri. Area, 498
Square miles. It is intersected by Sac River, an affluent
of the Osage. The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile.
Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are produced. Capital,
Greenfield. Pop. 8683.
Dadeville, a post-village, capital of Tallapoosa co.,
Ala., 50 miles N. E. of Montgomery, on the Savannah and
Memphis R. R., 30 miles N. W. of Opelika. It has a min-
eral spring, two weekly newspapers, a female institute, and
other schools. Pop. of township, 1266.
J. M. OLIVER, ED. AND PROP. “TALLAPOOSA NEWs.”
Da’do, an Italian word signifying a “ die,” is applied
in architecture to the cubic block which forms the body of
a pedestal, and is between the base and the cornice. The
term is also applied to the wainscoting of a room.
Baed/alus [Gr. Aat&axos], a personage of Greek my-
thology, was celebrated as an inventor and mechanical
genius. He was the reputed inventor of the auger, saw,
Dactylopterus.
1241
and other tools. According to tradition, he built the Laby-
rinth of Crete, the temple of Apollo at Cumae, and fabri-
cated wings with which he flew from Crete to Sicily. He
was the father of ICARUs (which See).
Daedalus of Sicyon, son and pupil of Patrocles,
himself a distinguished artist, flourished about 400 B. C.
He made for the Eleans, after their victory over the Lace-
daemonians, the trophy which they erected in the grove
Altis. Besides this he fashioned statues of several athletes,
a Victory, and others enumerated by Pausanias.
HENRY DRISLER.
Daet, a town of Luzon, one of the Philippine Islands,
capital of the province of North Camarines, is about 140
miles S. E. of Manila. Pop. about 7500.
Daf'fodil [Gr. &a bóðexos; Lat. asphodelus], the English
name of those species of Wareissus which have a large
bell-shaped corona. The common daffodil (Narcissus
Pseudo-narcissus) is a native of England, having showy
yellow flowers. Another species, called Narcissus minor,
is cultivated in gardens for the sake of the flowers, which
open early in spring.
Dagg (JoBN LEADLEY), D. D., LL.D., born in Middle-
burg, Va., Feb. 13, 1794, pastor of the Fifth Baptist church,
Philadelphia (1825–34), principal of Alabama Female
Athenaeum (1836–44), president of Mercer University
(1844–54), and professor of systematic theology to 1856.
He is author of “A Manual of Theology,” “Church Order,”
“Moral Science,” used as a text-book in several colleges,
“Evidences of Christianity,” etc.—all valuable and popular
works.
Dag'gett (DAVID), LL.D., an able American lawyer
and jurist, born at Attleborough, Mass., Dec. 31, 1764. He
was a Senator of the U. S. from 1813 to 1819, and was ap-
pointed in 1826 Kent professor of law at Yale College, of
which he was a graduate. He became chief justice of
Connecticut in 1832. Died April 12, 1851. -
Daggett (OLIVER ELLsworth), D. D., an American
scholar and divine, son of David, noticed above, born Jan.
14, 1810, at New Haven, Conn., graduated at Yale College
(1828), ordained pastor of the South church, Hartford,
Conn. (April 12, 1837), pastor of the First Congregational
church, Canandaigua, N. Y., nearly twenty-three years,
afterwards was professor of divinity in Yale College about
three years, and is now pastor of the Second Congregational
church, New London, Conn.; author of several printed
sermons, of many articles in the “New Englander,” and
also one of the compilers of the “Connecticut Hymn-Book,”
issued in 1845.
Daghestan' [from the Persian dagh, “mountain,” and
stan, “country’], a province of Russia, extends along the
western coast of the Caspian Sea, from lat. 41° to 43° N.,
and is mostly between lon. 46° and 50° E. It is bounded on
the S. W. by the Caucasus Mountains, and the surface is
generally mountainous. Area, 11,039 square miles. Chief
town, Derbend. The country belonged to Persia until
1812, when it was ceded to Russia, but the Russian rule
was not fully established until the submission of Schamyl
in 1859. Pop. 449,096.
Dag’obert [Lat. Dagobertw8] I., king of the Franks,
born about 602 A. D., succeeded his father, Clotaire II., in
628. He died in 638, leaving two sons, Sigebert, king of
Austrasia, and Clovis II. of Neustria.
Da’göe, or Daſgo, an island of Russia, in the Baltic
Sea, is a part of Esthonia, and is separated from the island
of Oesel by the narrow Sele-Sund. It is nearly 34 miles
long and 15 miles wide. Area, 234 square miles. Its soil
is not fertile. The inhabitants (partly Swedish and partly
Esthonian) number about 10,000. There are forests upon
the island. The exports are fish, and cattle of a small and
peculiar breed.
Da’gon [a diminutive of endearment, and apparently
masculine, from the Hebrew dag, “a fish ’’), a Philistine
god, human down to the waist, with the tail of a fish; em-
bodying the idea of fertility. The Phoenicians also had a
fish-god, Dagon. The identity of the Assyrian Dagan with
the Phoenician Dagon, affirmed by some, is denied by
others.
Dags/borough, a hundred and post-village of Sussex
co., Del. The village is about 12 miles S. E. of George-
town. Total pop. 2599.
Daguerre (Louis JACQUES MANDá), the inventor of the
daguerreotype, was born at Cormeilles in 1789. He became
a skilful scene-painter, and was one of the inventors of the
diorama. Daguerre and Niepce (1765–1833) began to make
experiments in photography conjointly in 1826. After the
death of Niepce, Daguerre succeeded in forming indelible
images on metallic plates by the chemical action of light.
He continued to make improvements in photography.
Died July 12, 1851.

1242
DAGUERREOTYPE—DATS.
Daguer’reotype [named from Daguerre, its inventor],
the first successful (now obsolete) form of the photograph.
A polished plate of silvered metal was exposed in dark-
ness to the vapor of iodine mixed with bromine, or of
iodine alone, until it took a reddish-yellow tint. It was
then exposed to the luminous image of the camera, and
quickly transferred to a dark room. Here the plate (on
which no image was visible) was exposed to vapor of mer-
cury, which brought out the figure by blending with that
part of the surface which had been affected by the light in
the camera. Next the plate was washed in a solution of
hyposulphite of soda, which removed the unaltered iodo-
bromide of silver, and left the picture untouched. The
principles involved are discussed under PHOTOGRAPHY, by
PROF. C. F. CHANDLER, PH.D., LL.D. (which see).
Dagus cahon'da; a post-village of Elk co., Pa., is at
the junction of the Daguscahonda R. R. with the Philadel-
phia and Erie R. R., 5 miles W. of St. Mary’s. There are
coal-mines in the vicinity.
Dahl'en, a town of Germany in the Prussian Rhine
province, in the circle of Geldern, has extensive manufac-
tures. Pop. in 1871, 6162.
Dahl'green, a township of Carver co., Minn.
1303.
Dahl'gren (John A.), U. S. N., born Nov. 13, 1809, in
Philadelphia, entered the navy as a midshipman Feb. 1,
1826, became a passed midshipman in 1832, a lieutenant
in 1837, a commander in 1855, a captain in 1862, and a
rear-admiral in 1863. On the 22d of April, 1861, through
the abandonment of his trust by Capt. Franklin Buchanan,
Dahlgren, then on Ordnance duty, became commandant of
the U. S. navy-yard, Washington, and to his firmness and
sound judgment at that crisis the government was indebted
for the preservation of the yard from falling into the hands
of the Confederates. In the fall of 1862 Dahlgren was de-
tached from the navy-yard, and appointed chief of the
bureau of ordnance, and in June, 1863, became commander-
in-chief of the South Atlantic blockading squadron, re-
lieving Rear-Admiral S. F. Dupont of that command in the
harbor of Port Royal, S. C., July 6, 1863. He at once
commenced active operations in conjunction with Gen.
Gillmore, U. S. A., which speedily resulted in the posses-
sion of the greater part of Morris Island and the silencing
of Fort Sumter, and secured a safe anchorage for the mon-
itors inside the bar of Charleston, thus effectually putting
a stop to the blockade-running which had been before so
successfully practised, and reducing Charleston to a place
of no importance for the rest of the war. After the fall
of Charleston in 1865, Dahlgren resigned his command,
and in 1866 was appointed commander-in-chief of the South
Pacific squadron, in the discharge of which duty he remained
for two years. In 1868 he was a second time appointed
chief of the bureau of ordnance, from which station he was
relieved at his own request in 1870, and ordered to the com-
mand of the navy-yard at Washington, where he died July
12, 1870.
Rear-Admiral Dahlgren was a man of most exemplary
character, of great personal bravery, and of rare ability.
He is the author of the following works, viz.: “Exercise
and Manoeuvre for the Boat Howitzer U. S. N.” (1852),
“System of Boat Armament U. S. N.” (1852), “Ordnance
Memoranda,” (1853), “Shells and Shell-guns’ (1856); and
it is mainly to his labors that the navy is indebted for the
great improvement in its ordnance which has taken place
since 1840. The 9-inch and 11-inch Dahlgren “smooth-
bores '' are still the favorites of American seamen, and for
lightness, range, and accuracy combined the Dahlgren
howitzer is unsurpassed by any boat-gun in the world.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Dahlgren (ULRIC), an American officer, born in 1842,
was a son of Rear-Admiral Dahlgren. He was aide-de-
camp to Gens. Burnside and Hooker, distinguished him-
self by several acts of gallantry, and lost a leg at Hagers-
town in July, 1863. He commanded a body of cavalry in
a raid against Richmond, the outer works of which he as-
saulted. During the retreat from that city he was killed
Mar. 4, 1864. -
Dahl’gren Gun [named from Admiral Dahlgren, its
inventor], an improved form of ordnance used for howit-
zers, heavy artillery, and especially in naval gunnery. It
having been demonstrated that in ordinary cast guns the
weight of the metal forward is greater than is needed, and
that by far the greatest strain in firing is at the breech,
Dahlgren greatly increased the relative size and weight of
the breech, with the best results. These guns are chiefly
used by the U. S. forces.
Dah’iia [named in honor of Andrew Dahl, a Swedish
botanist], a genus of plants of the order Compositae and
sub-order Tubuliflorae. They are natives of Mexico, and
Pop.
is a compound of Indian and English.
the numerous varieties cultivated are chiefly derived from
two species—Dahlia coccinea and Dahlia variabilis. New
varieties are easily obtained by the artificial fecundation
of one with the pollen of another. Dahlias have recently
become very popular, being conspicuous for their varied
and exquisite colors and regularity of form. The tuberous
roots of these plants, although not agreeable in taste, are
used as food in Mexico. A light and moderately rich soil,
with plentiful moisture, appears to be best adapted to the
cultivation of dahlias.
Dahl’mann (FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH), a German histo-
rian, born at Wismar May 13, 1785. He became in 1822
professor of history at Kiel, in 1829 professor of political
economy in Göttingen, and was in 1837, on account of his
protest against the abolition of the fundamental law by
King Ernest Augustus, deprived of his chair. In 1842 he
was appointed professor of history at Bonn. In 1848 he
was one of the leaders of the constitutional party. IIis
chief works are a “History of Denmark” (3 vols., 1840–43),
a “History of the English Revolution ” (6th ed. 1864), and
a “History of the French Revolution ” (3d ed. 1864). A
biography of Dahlmann has been published by Springer
(1870). Died Dec. 5, 1860.
Dahlone'ga, a post-village, capital of Lumpkin co.,
Ga., is on a hill about 66 miles N. N. E. of Atlanta. Gold-
mines have been opened in the vicinity. Here was before
the war a branch mint of the U. S.; the building has re-
cently been converted into the North Georgia, Agricultural
College, attended by 125 students. The village has one
weekly newspaper. Pop. 471. The name of Dahlonega
When gold was
first discovered here the Indians flocked in from the sur-
rounding country. The Cherokees then inhabited this
part of Georgia. Wega was the Indian word for yellow,
and they called gold dalla-mega, yellow dollar, putting the
adjective after the substantive. The village that soon
grew up here in the -midst of the gold-region took the
Indian name of Dalla-mega; the spelling, however, was
afterwards changed by the introduction of the h and o, as
it now stands. Pop. 471. E.D. “ MoUNTAIN SIGNAL.”
Dahlonega, a post-township of Wapello co., Ia. Pop.
623.
Daho/mey, a kingdom of Western Africa, in Guinea,
is bounded on the S. by the Gulf of Guinea, and partly on
the W. by the river Volta, which separates it from Ashan-
tee. Its limits are not exactly defined. Area, estimated
at about 4000 square miles. The surface is generally level,
but the northern part is diversified by hills, which are
covered with luxuriant forests. The soil is fertile. Maize,
cotton, sugar, yams, tobacco, beans, pease, and manioc are
cultivated here. The cocoa-nut tree and other species of
palm flourish. Among the wild animals are lions, tigers,
and elephants. The people are pagans. The tiger is the
principal fetish. The Dahomans are bloodthirsty and
abject, but hospitable and courageous. They can only
approach their despot by crawling with their faces in the
dust. The monarch once a year sprinkles his ancestors’
graves with human blood. No one can take a wife except
by gift or purchase from the sovereign. At the death of a
king the multitude of wives in his seraglio set to butcher-
ing one another till checked by the successor. The king
has a standing army of about 6000 female warriors. Capi-
tal, Abomey. Pop. about 180,000. (See For BEs, “Mis-
sions to Dahomey,” 1851; BURTON, “A Mission to Daho-
mey,” 1864.)
Daimiel, a town of Spain, in the province of Ciudad
Real, 20 miles E. N. E. of the city of Ciudad Real. It has
a Gothic church, a town-hall, and a hospital; also manu-
factures of linen and woollen fabrics and blond lace. Pop.
12,500.
Daimio, di'me-o, the title of the feudal lords of Japan.
They are 264 in number, and have exercised in their own
districts the powers of petty sovereigns. Eighteen of
these daimios were virtually independent within their own
dominions, and hence arose many impediments to the in-
tercourse of the Japanese with Europeans. The recent
revolution in Japan brings this old feudalism to an end.
(See JAPAN.) e
Daingerfield, a post-village of Titus co., Tex., 17
miles S. E. of Mount Pleasant. It has one weekly and
one monthly newspaper. Pop. 272.
|Dai'ry [supposed to be derived from an old English
word, dey or day, “milk”], the department of farming
which includes the production of milk; also the house or
apartment where milk is kept, and where butter, cheese,
etc. are manufactured. (See BUTTER, by PROF. C. F.
CHANDLER, PH. D., LL.D., and CHEESE.)
Da'is [Fr. dais, a “canopy;” It. desco, probably akin
to the Ger. Tisch, a “table”], in architecture, the platform
DAISY-DAPCOTA.
1243
at the upper end of a dining-hall where stood the table
for distinguished guests; also the canopied seat for those
who sat there. Mediaeval writers used this word with con-
siderable latitude, one of its significations being a canopy
over a shrine or statue.
Dai’sy [from the Anglo-Saxon deges-age, i.e. “day's
eye”], a genus (Bellis) of small perennial plants of the
order Compositae. The daisy is a native of Europe, and
very common in Great Britain, where its delicate crimson-
tipped flower has been immortalized by Burns and other
poets. The variety called “hen and chickens’ has the
main flower-heads surrounded by smaller ones, with short
stems growing from the summit of the scape. New and
very beautiful varieties have lately been introduced by the
florists. In Scotland this flower is called gowan. A few
species of Bellis have been discovered in the S. W. portion
of the U. S.
Dalko'ta, a Territory of the U. S., in the N. central
portion of the Union, lying W. of the Red River of the
North, and bisected diagonally by the Missouri River. It
lies between the parallels of 41° 40' and 49° N. lat., and be-
tween the meridians of 96° 25' and 104° W. lon. from
Greenwich. The greater part of its southern boundary lies
along the parallel of 42° 30', but at its S. E. extremity it
extends southward to the mouth of the Big Sioux River.
The Territory is bounded on the N. by British America,
and in part by the new province of Manitoba; on the E.
by the States of Minnesota and Iowa; on the S. by Ne-
braska; and on the W. by the Territories of Wyoming and
Montana. Its greatest length is 414 miles, and its greatest
width 360 miles. Its area is 150,932 square miles, or
96,595,840 acres, including a detached portion, 2000 square
miles in area, lying W. of Wyoming Territory.
Face of the Country.—The Missouri River traverses the
whole Territory nearly from N. W. to S. E., and with its
many tributaries—of which the Big Sioux, Vermilion, and
Dakota on the E. side, and the Niobrara, which forms part
of the Southern boundary, the White (or, as it is sometimes
called, the White Earth) River, the Wakpashicha or Bad
River, the Big Cheyenne or Good River, the Moreau River,
the Ree or Grand River, Heart River, and Little Missouri
on the W. side—drains the greater part of the Territory,
and furnishes more than 1000 miles of steamboat naviga-
tion. The Red River of the North forms the eastern
boundary of the Territory for 200 miles, and discharges its
waters through Lake Winnipeg into Nelson's River and
Hudson’s Bay. It has numerous small tributaries in Da-
kota, but except the Pembina, which drains the north-
eastern portion of the Territory, they are mostly small.
The only other considerable streams not connected with the
Missouri or its affluents are the Little Souris or Mouse
River, an inlet or tributary of Souris Lake, and the stream
which connects the Turtle Lakes with Minnewakan or
Devil’s Lake. The whole region E. and N. of the Missouri
River is studded with great numbers of small lakes. The
largest of these is Minnewakan or the Devil’s Lake, the
waters of which are brackish, though liked by the buffaloes.
It has an area of about 400 square miles. Tchanchikahah,
Long Lake, Big Stone Lake, Lake Traverse, Wood Lake,
the Turtle Lakes, Lake Kampeshka, and several others
are considerable bodies of water. The surface of the Ter-
ritory is greatly varied. In the south-eastern portion is a
plateau or range of highlands which attains at its highest
point an elevation of 2046 feet above the sea. This is
called the Coteau des Prairies. W. of this, but with a con-
siderable depression between (the valley of the Dakota
River), is another range of highlands, known as the Coteau
de Missouri. This extends to the banks of the Missouri,
which in Central Dakota is 1300 feet or more above the
Sea. Northward of the Coteau des Prairies extends for 200
miles the valley of the Red River of the North, about
forty or fifty miles in width, and sloping northward, from
an elevation of about 1000 or 1100 feet at Breckenridge to
700 or 800 feet at Pembina. W. of this, another plateau,
somewhat higher and not quite so fertile, extends to the
western line of the Territory, and indeed to the foot-hills
of the Rocky Mountains in Montana. W. of the Missouri
the country rises gradually, and in the S. W. culminates in
the Black Hills, an outlying range of the Rocky Moun-
tains, in which, however, there are no considerable sum-
mits in the Territory. In the extreme southern and south-
western portion lying between the Big Cheyenne and the
White River is a large tract extending into N. W. Ne-
braska, known as Les Mauvaises Terres or the Bad Lands,
perfectly sterile, and furrowed and ridged, by the action of
water-currents upon the blue clay, into the most fantastic
forms.
It will be seen then that nearly the entire surface of the
country is composed of plateaus of greater or less eleva-
tion, but none of them so high as those of Wyoming and
Colorado. Scattered over these plateaus are numerous iso-
lated buttes (peaks or summits), usually not rising more
than from 500 to 1500 feet above the plains; these buttes
have received the most fanciful names, such as Dog's
Bars, Deer's Ears, Eagle's Nest, Bull Butte, Maison du
Chien (House of the Dog), Slim Butte, White Clay Butte,
etc. etc.
Although a large portion of the surface of this Territory
consists of prairie, there is a supply of timber sufficient for
the use of settlers in nearly every locality, and the margins
of most of the rivers are fringed with a fine growth of dif-
ferent varieties of forest trees. In the neighborhood of
the Black Hills extensive forests of excellent pine and
other timber are found.
The basin of the Red River of the North consists mostly
of open grassy plains, affording an abundant and nutritious
pasturage through a great portion of the year, and with
little labor and expense an ample supply of food may be
secured for the keeping of live-stock during the severe
winters of this high northern latitude. This region has
long been noted for its extensive fur-trade, and although
its agricultural capacities are of the highest order, the
aversion of the fur-traders and trappers to the extension
of the settlements has hitherto prevented the immigration
which would otherwise doubtless have tended towards this
favored portion of the Territory.
The climate of Southern Dakota is comparatively mild,
but in the northern portions the winters are long and se-
vere. The annual precipitation of moisture is twenty
inches, and so distributed throughout the year as to be
amply sufficient for the perfect maturity of the crops.
The climate and soil of Dakota are exceedingly favor-
able to the growth of wheat, corn, and other cercals, while
all of the fruits and vegetables raised in the Northern
States are here produced in the greatest perfection.
Geology and Mineralogy.—The geology of Dakota is very
simple. The greater part of its surface-rocks belong to the
Cretaceous System and to formations still more recent. The
only considerable exceptions are the valley of the Red River
of the North, in which salt-springs and streams have been
found, indicating that there the Silurian rocks had been
reached, as all known salt-springs in the U. S. issue from
that formation; and the region of the Black Hills, in which
are found gold, silver, copper, coal, iron, salt, and petro-
leum, showing that it belongs to the earlier systems. Prof.
F. W. Hayden in 1867 made a careful survey of these hills,
and found that coming from the cretaceous rocks there was,
first, a belt of three or four miles in width, surrounding the
whole mass of Jurassic rocks; within this a similar belt of
carboniferous rocks; then a somewhat narrower belt of
granitic and metamorphic rocks; and that the interior
mass, a tract forty by sixty-five miles in extent, was wholly,
On its surface, of the Potsdam sandstone formation. Some
of the summits in this tract attain a height of 6500 feet.
The upheaval of the region of which Dakota forms a part
began in the N. E., in the valley of the Red River, and con-
tinued towards the S. W., though probably the Black Hills
emerged from the flood before some of the intervening lands.
From the Red River of the North we pass S. W. over a
broad cretaceous belt, and enter a newer formation when
we cross the Missouri. This is the tertiary, and nearly
one-half of Dakota is found to be no older than the tertiary
belt along the Atlantic and Gulf, and not so old as most of
the Pacific slope. The part known as the Bad Lands, W.
of the Missouri and extending into Wyoming, belongs to
the tertiary group of the cenozoic system. There is a deso-
late geological sepulchre. The fossils are most interesting
and remarkable. The surface has been cut by aqueous
agencies into columns and buttresses, monumental domes,
and massive walls with cathedral majesty. These are filled
with fossil skulls, jaws, teeth, and thigh-bones of various
races of mammals of which scarce a single specimen is
familiar to the anatomist of the present day. The region
in its other characteristics is forbidding. The water is
brackish and very bad. The earth is burned by the sun in
Summer, arid, ashy, and almost of chalky whiteness. It is
a treeless waste, in winter the abode of snow and tireless
storms—a domain of death and desolation. About the Yel-
lowstone River was the last of the inland seas to be drained,
and the most recent geological formations and fossils are
there found. Eastern Dakota belongs mainly to the creta-
ceous age. At Sioux Falls, however, there is an upheaval
of azoic rocks, over which the Sioux River passes, descend-
ing 100 feet in about half a mile. This rock is now known
under the name of Sioux quartzite. It is very hard, being
one of the most perfectly metamorphosed rocks known to
science. It is from a rosy to a flesh-red color. At Sioux
Falls it is nearly horizontal, dipping at a very slight angle
to the S, or S. W. The river at this point flows nearly due
N. by a long S-shaped curve. Neither the upper nor lower
limit or surface of the rock has been accurately determined,
1244
DAKOTA.
but the facts known show it to be 400 feet in thickness, and
it may be much more. It is also found at the N. W. point
of Iowa, and at places E. and N. E. of Sioux Falls. It also
appears, at intervals W. of these for fifty miles, and is
largely exposed on the Dakota River, in township 101, of
range 58 W. It was metamorphosed from a pure sand by
powerful igneous agency. The red pipestone of the Indi-
ans was changed at the same time from small pockets or
drifts of fine pure clay, lying between the larger masses of
sand, and both received their color from iron. A reddish-
colored sandstone is found in large amount along the Da-
kota River for many miles, but does not appear until about
twenty-five miles above Yankton. It is abundant, easily
quarried and wrought, and very useful for all building pur-
poses. The Sioux quartzite is strictly an unstratified rock,
but is divided often quite regularly by transverse lateral
and vertical rifts. It breaks by reason of these into rough
blocks and slabs, rendering it available for most substantial
and enduring building. It cannot be finely dressed, but is
proof against time and elemental erosion. In the absence
of hard limestones and other stratified economical rocks it
must become valuable for foundations, exposed walls, and
heavy substructures. Along the Missouri, and particularly
at Yankton and above, is the chalk-rock, as it is commonly
called. It is a soft, white, or blue-tinted impure carbonate
of lime. It has some other alkalies in its composition. It
appears in considerable amount in the hills along Clay and
Turkey creeks, in the north-eastern parts of Yankton county.
When exposed to water and freezing on the surface of the
ground it decomposes slowly, and is slaked to a fine impal-
pable powder, and when wet has a soft and soapy feel. It
does not produce good lime. It has, however, been em-
ployed considerably in building, and is durable when placed
above the ground upon good foundations. Fossil fishes
and shells, with sharks’ teeth in great numbers, are found
in the chalk-rock and the dark-red sandstone on the Dakota,
River, while the Sioux quartzite is clearly without fossils
of any kind. From Sioux Falls to the edge of the chalk-
rock, in Yankton county, is not more than fifty miles, while
the cretaceous formation extends eastward into Iowa for
some distance. Between these is included—in theory at
least—the Silurian, Devonian, and carboniferous systems.
We are, therefore, not denied the hope of discovering coal.
But over the whole area is spread the deep drift formation,
with a gently undulating prairie surface, which has no pre-
cipitous bluffs or deep ravines to expose the actual succes-
sion of rocks. Only in the places mentioned do the rocks
named appear at the surface, though search for coal is soon
to be made by an organized company at Vermilion. They
are preparing for deep boring at different points. It is
feared, however, that the coal-bearing rocks are pinched
out, as in North-western Iowa, and that coal may be found,
if at all, only in detached and isolated outlying pockets.
The valley of the Red River of the North is a very rich
level or gently undulating region of the highest character
for agriculture, and, more than any other part of the Ter-
ritory, favored with timber and water. With many wind-
ings the general course of the river is N., and it receives
numerous tributaries from Dakota, several of which are
streams of good size. These have pure water, and along
all of them are heavy belts of timber of hard varieties.
The mineralogy of Dakota has not been minutely studied.
The cretaceous rocks yield most of the forms of hydraulic
cement, and when burned make a lime of indifferent quality.
The lignite-beds yield a fair quality of coal, though it has not
yet been sufficiently tested to determine its relative value.
The salt-springs of the Red River region produce a good
and very pure salt. The Black Hills region forms a part
of the Dakota, Indian reservation, and there has been very
little opportunity of studying the minerals in situ. It is
known, however, that the various mineral forms of silver,
copper, iron, quartz, and silica are plentiful in that region.
Climate.—The isothermal line of 70° average summer
temperature—which is that of Philadelphia, Pittsburg,
Chicago, and Southern Minnesota—passes through Central
Dakota, crossing in the Territory the parallel of 47° N. lat.
The isothermal for the winter temperature of those cities
would pass very near the southern line of the Territory.
The cold is sometimes severe in winter, but it is dry cold,
and is more easily borne than a much higher temperature
when damp and chilling. The climate is considerably
milder on the same parallels than that of Minnesota, not
being affected by the damp atmosphere from the great
lakes. In Northern Dakota, the winters are long, and there
is considerable snowfall, but the spring opens about the 20th
of March, and the vegetation comes forward rapidly, and
all crops mature except the later and larger varieties of In-
dian corn. The heats of summer are much moderated by the
elevation of the plateaus. Northern Dakota is an excellent
resort for invalids, not too far reduced. The rainfall does
not usually exceed, throughout the Territory, twenty inches
per annum, and from sixteen to eighteen inches of this
fall during the summer months. Southern Dakota has a
fine climate, and on its fruitful soil the cereals, potatoes,
and other root crops are as successfully cultivated as any-
where on the continent. Small fruits, as strawberries,
raspberries, whortleberries, cranberries, plums, grapes, etc.,
grow wild in great profusion, and when cultivated yield
astonishing crops. The soil of the Red River region is
rich and fertile, as is that of Southern Dakota. The Bad
Lands are sterile, and, unless they possess mineral wealth,
will hardly prove very profitable. There is good land
around the Black Hills, as well as in North-western and
Central Dakota, but there is a large admixture of gravel
with some of it; yet the proportion of land which would
yield good crops without irrigation is much larger than in
most of the Western Territories.
Zoology, etc.—The wild animals are those of the eastern
slope and plateaus E. of the Rocky Mountains generally,
but they are found in much greater abundance than in most
of the Territories. Dakota is the paradise of the trapper
and hunter of furs, and most of the Indian tribes whose
home is in the Territory are largely engaged in collect-
ing furs. Pembina, in the extreme N. E. of the Territory,
was for many years one of the most important settlements
and trading-posts of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and vast
quantities of furs were shipped from it. The buffalo is
now more abundant in Northern Dakota than anywhere
else. The musk-ox sometimes, though rarely, appears
there. The moose, elk, and one or two species of deer are
found there. Of beasts of prey, the bears (both the black
and cinnamon species) are plenty ; the panther, wild-cat,
lynx, wolf, badger, wolverene, pine and stone marten, the
skunk, the mink, and several varieties of foxes, are the
principal. Among smaller animals, there are the gopher, the
prairie-dog, the rabbit, several species, squirrels of several
species, and quite an army of the smaller rodents. The
birds are essentially those of the Mississippi and Missouri
valleys, and include a wide range, from the great eagles and
vultures to the tiny humming-birds or the sad-voiced
pewit. The rivers and lakes abound with fish, and reptiles
are not wanting, though venomous ones are not abundant.
The vegetation of Dakota Territory is not remarkable,
though it is far from being a treeless region. The valley
of the Red River of the North has its forests of hard wood
trees—the oak, hickory, beech, birch, maple, etc.; the
other rivers have strips of timber along their banks,
though generally of cottonwood or other inferior woods.
Around the Black Hills there is a heavy growth of timber,
mostly pine, spruce, and fir. In the Bad Lands there is
no timber. In S. E. Dakota, the settlers are planting many
trees, which do well, and will eventually supply that region
with abundant and valuable timber.
Agricultural Products—According to the census of 1870,
there were in the Territory that year 302,376 acres of land
taken up as farms, of which 42,645 were under cultivation
and 259,731 used as pasturage or wood lands. The value
of these farms was $2,085,265, and of farming implements,
$142,612. The value of all farm products that year was
$495,657; of animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter,
$22,066. Home manufactures are put down at $1677;
forest products at $700, market-garden products at $500,
and wages paid to farm laborers at $71,156. The amount
of wheat grown was 170,662 bushels, all but 202 bushels
spring wheat; Indian corn, 133,140 bushels; oats, 114,327
bushels; barley, 4118 bushels; buckwheat, 179 bushels.
The number of horses reported was 3243; of neat cattle,
56,724; of sheep, 1901 (evidently an error, as the wool pro-
duced the same year was stated at 8810 pounds); of swine,
2033; and the total value of live-stock was stated at
$779,952. The amount of hay cured was 13,347 tons; of
tobacco, not given; of sorghum syrup, 1230 gallons; of pota-
toes marketed, 50,177 bushels; peas and beans, 456 bushels;
honey, 110 pounds; clover, grass, and flaxseed not reported.
The dairy products were butter, 209,735 pounds; cheese,
1850 pounds. These statistics represent very inadequately
the present agricultural condition of Dakota. The exten-
sion of several railroad lines into the Territory has brought
in a large influx of immigrants of the agricultural class,
and it is safe to say that the agricultural products of 1873
were more than fourfold those of 1870.
Manufacturing Industry.—The report of manufactures in
Dakota Territory is obviously very defective. Of fifteen
counties, ten are returned as having no manufactures, prob-
ably from the negligence of the assistant marshals. The
entire number of manufacturing establishments is 17, of
which 15 reported an aggregate of 324 horse-power; they
employed 91 hands—89 men and 2 boys; the amount of
capital was $79,200; of wages paid, $21,106; of raw mate-
rial used, $105,997; and of annual products, $178,570. Of
these manufactories, 10 were saw-mills, employing 68 hands
and $37,400 capital, paying $14,256 wages, using $32,772
DAKOTA.
1245
worth of raw material, and producing $72,280 worth of
lumber; 2 were flour or grist mills, employing 5 hands and
$13,000 capital, paying $2450 wages, using $60,600 of raw
material, and producing flour and meal to the value of
$80,990; 2 were breweries, employing 7 hands and $12,000
capital, paying $1700 wages, using $5075 worth of raw
material, and producing malt liquors valued at $9500; 2
were tin or sheet-iron ware factories, employing 4 hands
and $14,000 capital, paying $900 wages, using $4050 of
raw material, and producing goods worth $10,000; and 1
was a wheelwright-shop, employing 7 hands and $2800
capital, paying $1800 wages, using $3500 of raw material,
and producing $5800 worth of work. The true report of
manufactures in the Territory in 1873 would give nearly
ten times these amounts.
Railroads.--It is only within the last two years and a
half that any of the numerous projected railroad lines of
this region have entered the Territory. There are now
(Oct., 1873) three railroads which have penetrated Eastern
Dakota—viz. the Northern Pacific, completed as far as Bis-
marck on the Missouri River, and graded a considerable
distance farther. From Fargo, where it enters the Territory,
to Bismarck, on the Missouri, is 196 miles nearly due W., and
about on the parallel of 46° 52' N. lat. From the Missouri
westward its course will trend slightly to the N., crossing
the 47th parallel on the meridian of 102° 30', and continu-
ing N. of that parallel till it approaches the Yellowstone
River. The Dakota division of the Winona and St. Peter's
Railway enters the Territory in about lat. 44°42', and run-
ning about 30 miles N. W., turns suddenly to the W. for
20 miles more to Lake Kampeshka on the Big Sioux River.
The region through which it passes in Dakota has very
few inhabitants, but it is a fine agricultural section. The
Dakota Southern Railway extends from Sioux City, at the
mouth of the Big Sioux River, the western terminus of sev-
eral railways, to Yankton, the capital of Dakota, a distance
of 61 miles. There are, then, about 308 miles of completed
railway in the Territory. Aside from the farther prosecu-
tion of the Northern Pacific, which may be delayed for a
time, the St. Paul and Pacific, whose road is now com-
pleted to Breckenridge on the Red River of the North, has
two branches under way—one continuing up the valley of
the Red River to Moorhead; the other in Minnesota, to St.
Vincent, nearly opposite Pembina. From Yankton rail-
roads are projected in all directions—one to Sioux Falls,
and thence into Minnesota; another along the valley of
the Dakota River to connect with the Northern Pacific;
another along the Missouri Valley to Fort Sully; another
due E. into Iowa, and two S. into Nebraska. The sparse
population of Dakota will prevent these and some other
projected railways from being completed for some years,
but eventually this Territory must be gridironed with rail-
ways in order to its development.
Finances.—In 1870 the total assessed value of real and
personal estate in Dakota Territory was $2,924,489; the
actual value, according to the estimates of the U. S. mar-
shal and his deputies, was $5,599,752. That this valuation
has greatly increased during the past three and a half years
is unquestionable, but there are no existing data to show,
accurately, the amount of the increase. The tax of 1870
was $13,867, the greater part a county tax. The debt of
the counties was $5761. Since that time Yankton co. alone
has bonded itself for $200,000 for the completion of the
Southern Dakota Railway. -
The commerce of Dakota is small, and mostly confined to
the shipment of grain and stock by way of the Missouri
River and its tributaries and the Southern Dakota Rail-
way. From the Red River region there are shipments of
furs to a considerable extent. The opening of the new
railroads, and the demands for food, lumber, railroad ties,
etc. along their route and by their employés, will develop
this commerce healthily.
Banks,—There was in Jan., 1873, one national bank (at
Yankton), with a capital of $50,000, and three private
banking-houses. There are no savings banks, and no fire
or life insurance companies. -
Population.—The true population of Dakota, of all races,
according to the census of 1870, was 40,501, of whom 12,887
were white, 94 colored, 27,520 Indians, of whom 1200 were
out of tribal relations, and 26,320 were nomadic or belonged
to various tribes not located. The greater part of these In-
dians were members of the different bands of the Dakotas
or Sioux, the most formidable and warlike of all the north-
ern tribes, though there are a few Mandans, Rees, Gros
Ventres, and Assiniboines. The Territory was not organ-
ized till 1861, and a considerable portion was cut off in 1868
to aid in forming the Territory of Wyoming. The popula-
tion of what now constitutes the Territory (except nomadic
Indians) in 1860 was 4837. Of the 14,181 inhabitants, not
Indians, in 1870, 9366 were natives of the U. S., and 4815
of foreign birth. Of those of foreign birth, 1218 were born
in Great Britain and Ireland, 1179 in Norway, 906 in Brit-
ish America, 563 in Germany, 324 in Austria and Bohemia,
380 in Sweden, 115 in Denmark, and the remainder in the
various smaller states of Europe and Spanish America.
Of the entire population, 8878 were males and 5303 females;
of the native population, 5562 were males and 3804 fe-
males; of the foreign, 3316 were males and 1499 females.
Of the white population, 8255 were males and 4632 females.
Of the whole population, 10,640 were over the age of ten
years; of these, 7047 were males and 3593 females. Of
these, 5887 were engaged in all classes of occupations, of
whom 2522 (all males) were engaged in agriculture, 2704
(2562 males and 142 females) in professional and personal
services, 204 (all males) in trade and transportation, 457
(439 males and 18 females) in manufacturing, mining, and
mechanical industries. The density of the population, in-
cluding Indians, for the whole Territory, was in 1870 about
one person to 3.78 square miles. South-eastern Dakota is,
however, settled much more thickly than this.
Education. — Notwithstanding its small and Scattered
population, Dakota has given much attention to education.
In 1871 she had 31 school-houses, 36 schools, 53 teachers,
and 1785 pupils, the entire number reported in the census
as of school age; and of those of school age (5 to 21), 1767
were enrolled, and 1700 was the average attendance. In
1870 there were 35 educational institutions (34 of them
public schools), with 52 teachers (48 of them in the public
schools), and 1255 pupils, of whom 1223 were in the pub-
lic schools. The total income of all the educational insti-
tutions was $9284, of which $8684 belonged to the public
schools. Of the inhabitants ten years old and over, 1563
could not write, of whom 914 were whites, 31 colored, and
618 Indians. Of the whites, 709 were over twenty-one
years of age, 91 from fifteen to twenty-one years, and 114
from ten to fifteen years; 411 of the whole number were
females. There is an organized school system under the
Territorial school law, with a superintendent and deputy-
superintendent of public instruction, and county superim-
tendents in 1872 in seven counties. There was reported in
1870 but one private or parochial school in the Territory,
Dakota Hall at Yankton, under the direction of the Epis-
copal Church. There are no collegos, universities, profes-
sional or scientific schools.
Libraries.—In 1870 there were 5 public libraries reported,
with 2788 volumes; 14 private libraries, with 6938 volumes;
in all, 19 libraries, with 9726 volumes.
Newspapers.--There were in 1870 three weekly news-
papers—two political and one miscellaneous—having an
aggregate weekly circulation of 1652 copies, and an annual
issue of 85,904 copies.
Churches.—In 1870 there were 17 churches of all denomi-
nations reported, 10 church edifices, with 2800 sittings, and
church property valued at $16,300. The number has ma-
terially increased in the three and a half years since the
census was taken. In 1870 there were 2 Baptist churches
—no particulars reported; at the close of 1872 there was 1
association, 10 churches, 8 ministers, and 170 members. In
1870, 1 Congregational church was reported, 1 church
edifice, 200 sittings, $5000 of property; in 1872 there were
9 churches, 5 ministers, 161 members, 380 children in Sab-
bath schools. In 1870 there were 2 Episcopal churches, 2
church edifices, with 350 sittings, and $4000 worth of church
property; in 1872 there were four churches, 6 clergymen,
168 communicants, 99 children in Sabbath schools, 1 paro-
chial school; contributions, $2750. In 1870 there were 3
Lutheran churches, 3 church edifices, 900 sittings, $2100
church property; in 1872 there were 11 churches, 6 minis-
ters, and about 450 communicants. In 1870 there were 5
Methodist churches, 1 church edifice, 500 sittings, and $1200
of church property; in 1872 there were 19 churches, 15
ministers in full connection, 860 members, and church
property valued at $7000. In 1870 there were 4 Roman
Catholic congregations, 3 church edifices, 850 sittings, $4000
worth of church property; in 1872 there were 4 churches,
5 or 6 stations, 4 charch edifices, 6 priests, and about 1500
adherent population. -
Constitution, Courts, etc.—The Territorial constitutions
are very similar to each other, and are generally intended
to be temporary in their character, a convention forming a
new constitution when the Territory is ready to become a
State. In all cases the Territorial governor and secretary
of state are appointed by the President of the U.S., as well
as the chief-justice and assistant justices. The auditor,
treasurer, and superintendent of public instruction are chosen
by the qualified electors. In Dakota every male inhabit-
ant, except Indians not taxed, idiots, and convicts, having
attained the age of twenty-one years, and being a resident
of the Territory, is entitled to vote and is eligible for office.
There is a very good school law, and a militia law passed
in 1867, under which a militia force of eight companies has
been organized. The judicial power is vested in a supreme
1246
T)AECOTA—DALE,
court, district courts, and probate courts. There are three
districts. The Territory is entitled to one delegate in Con-
gress, who is elected by the people, and has the right to
speak, but not to vote. ---->
Cownties.—It is difficult to ascertain how many organ-
ized counties there are in the Territory. The latest maps
have forty-eight counties or more laid down, with their
boundaries defined, but the census of 1870 gives but four-
teen, and only thirteen of these voted in 1872. There are
some white inhabitants in portions of the Territory not yet
organized as counties. The Indian reservations in the
Territory, including one which stretches into Montana,
occupy 36,203,200 acres, or about three-eighths of the Ter-
ritory—viz. the Yankton reservation, on the Missouri
River, in the S. part of the Territory, 400,000 acres, for the
Yankton Sioux; the Sisseton and Wahpeton reservation,
of 1,241,600 acres, a triangular tract lying partly on Lake
Traverse; another tract, of 345,600 acres, belonging to the
same bands of Sioux at Minnewakan or Devil’s Lake; a
reservation of 25,000,000 for ten bands of Sioux, about
22,000 in all, lying in the S. W. part of the Territory, W.
of the Missouri; the Ponca reservation, of 576,000 acres,
near the mouth of the Niobrara ; and the reservation of the
Arickarees, Gros Ventres, and Mandans in the N. W., ex-
tending into Montana, and including 8,640,000 acres. The
counties named in the census, all of them organized since
1861, were—Bonhomme, 608 inhabitants; Brookings, 163;
Buffalo, 246; Charles Mix, 152; Clay, 2621; Deuel, 37;
PHutchinson, 37; Jayne, 5; Lincoln, 712; Minnehaha, 355;
Pembina, 1213; Todd, 337; Union, 3507; Yankton, 2097.
The unorganized portion of the Territory in 1870 contained
2091 inhabitants. Of these counties, Jayne has either been
relinquished or its name changed, while Turner, Arm-
strong, Moody, Richland, and perhaps one or two more,
have been organized. The principal towns are Yankton,
which has about 1500 inhabitants; Vermilion, Elk Point,
Sioux Falls, Canton, Bonhomme, and in the N. Fargo and
Pembina. In the unorganized part, Fort Sully and its
vicinity, Fort Rice, and Fort Buford, all on the Missouri
River, have a considerable population around them.
History.—Dakota is a portion of the old Missouri, or,
earlier, the Louisiana, Territory, ceded to the U. S. in 1803.
It was first organized as a Territory Mar. 2, 1861, and then
included the entire territory from the northern boundary
of Nebraska, and W. thereof, from the forty-third parallel,
to the line of British America, and from the western
boundary of Minnesota, to the Rocky Mountains. Subse-
quently (in 1863) the Territory of Idaho (now including
both Idaho and Montana) was set off from it, and in 1868,
by several exchanges, the present Territory of Wyoming
was set off from Dakota. By these exchanges a tract of
2000 square miles, lying W. of Wyoming Territory, and
between 44° and 44° 30' N. lat., came into the possession
of Dakota, and still remains a part of her territory, though
separated from the remainder by the whole breadth of
Wyoming. It is adjacent to the Yellowstone Park region.
In 1862 the members of Little Crow’s band of Sioux, hav-
ing undertaken a marauding expedition into Minnesota,
attacked Breckenridge in that State, a town at the junc-
tion of the Bois de Sioux and the Red River of the North,
directly across the river from Fort Abercrombie in Dakota
Territory, and having massacred the settlers at Brecken-
ridge, crossed the river and laid siege to Fort Abercrombie,
about Aug. 26. Early in September they made two as-
saults on the fort, but were repulsed, with heavy loss, and
were finally brought to bay at Wood’s Lake, where they
were utterly defeated, and many of the worst Indians taken
prisoners, of whom thirty-eight were afterwards hung. In
1863 the Indians were again troublesome, and murdered
about thirty Minnesota settlers; and it was resolved to
punish them so thoroughly that they would not venture
again upon such outrages. Accordingly, two expeditions
were sent out — one under Gen. Sibley, with between
2000 and 3000 men, by way of Breckenridge and Fort
Abercrombie, to Minnewakan or Devil’s Lake, where the
great body of hostile Indians were said to be gathered; the
other, under command of Gen. Sully, to ascend the Missouri
River from Sioux City, to cut off the retreat of the Indians
whom Gen. Sibley should attack, and finally form a junc-
tion with him. Though this result was not accomplished,
both expeditions were successful. Gen. Sibley had several
engagements with the Indians in the latter part of July,
1863, and defeated and drove them to and across the Mis-
souri. Gen. Sully was detained until the beginning of
September from ascending the Missouri, but on the 3d of
that month he encountered a large force of Indians at
White Stone Hill, 130 miles above the Little Cheyenne
River, a part of whom had been at the engagement with
Sibley. He defeated them completely with heavy loss, and
took 156 prisoners. Since that time the Sioux have been
content to remain upon their reservations.
Governors of the Territory.
William Jayne............1861-63|Andrew J. Faulk........1866-69 .
Newton Edmonds....... 1863–66|John A. Burbank........ 1869–73
As a Territory, Dakota has no electoral vote.
L. P. BROCKETT.
Dakota, a county in the S. E. of Minnesota. Area,
570 square miles. It is bounded on the N. and N. E. by
the Mississippi River, and on the N. W. by the Minnesota.
The surface is undulating or nearly level; the soil is very
fertile, and based on limestone. Extensive prairies occur
here. Grain, wool, hay, butter, etc. are staple products.
It is intersected by the Milwaukee and St. Paul and the
Hastings and Dakota. R. R.S. Capital, Hastings. Pop.
16,312. -
Dakota, a county in the extreme N. E. of Nebraska.
Area, 350 square miles. It is bounded on the N. and E.
by the Missouri River. The surface is diversified by un-
dulating prairies, and by numerous groves of hard timber.
The soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, and hay are raised. Cap-
ital, Dakota. Pop. 2040.
HPakota, a post-village and township of Stephenson co.,
Ill. The village is on the Western Union R. R., 7 miles
N. E. of Freeport. Pop. of township, 952.
HDakota, a post-village, capital of Humboldt co., Ia.,
on the Des Moines River, 15 miles N. of Fort Dodge. It
has one weekly newspaper, two churches, a court-house,
and flour and carriage manufactures. Humboldt College
is 1 mile N. of the town. Pop. of village, 162; of Da-
kota township, 676.
J. WAN METER, ED. “INDEPENDENT.”
Dakota, a post-twp. of Waushara co., Wis. Pop. 477.
Dakota City, the capital of Dakota co., Neb., is on
the W. bank of the Missouri, 5 miles S. of Sioux City, Ia.
It is the initial point of the Sioux City and Columbus R. R.,
and at the crossing of the Omaha and North-western and
St. Paul and Northern Nebraska, R. Rs. It contains a
large brick court-house, the district land-office, two schools,
one weekly newspaper, and two churches. Pop., 300; of
township, 595. C. F. BAYHA, PUB. “MAIL.”
Dako/ta In’dians, a race or collection of tribes or
“bands” of American savages, often called Sioux, who
inhabit Nebraska, Wyoming, Dakota, etc. Among these
tribes are the Santees, Yanktons, Sissetons, Brulés, Mini-
kanyes, Unkpapas, Ogalallahs, and Tetons. They formerly
occupied the country as far E. as the Mississippi, which
they ceded to the U. S. in 1851. The language of the
Dakotas shows them to be of a different stock from most
of the Indian tribes. The languages of the Assiniboines, the
Pawnees, the Osages, the Comanches, the Crows, and others
belong to the same class with the Dakota tongue. The
name “Dakota. * signifies the “allied.” (See RIGGs, “Da-
kota, Grammar” and “Dictionary.”)
Dakota River, Rivière à Jacques, or James
River, rises in the N. E. part of Dakota. It flows nearly
southward, and enters the Missouri River about 8 miles be-
low Yankton. Its whole length is estimated at 600 miles.
Dal'amow, a city of India, in Oude, on the Ganges, 68
miles above Allahābād. It has two antique temples of Siva,
and is reputéd a holy place. Pop. about 10,000.
Dalara dia. See DALRIADA.
Dal'berg, von (KARL THEODOR ANTON MARIA), LL.D.,
a German prelate and author, born of a noble family at
Herrnsheim Feb. 8, 1744. He became in 1802 archbishop
of Mentz and arch-chancellor of the empire. Napoleon
gave him in 1806 the title of prince-primate of the Confed-
eration of the Rhine. He wrote, besides other works,
“Contemplations on the Universe;” but in German litera-
ture his name is best known from the liberality he showed
towards the young Schiller. Died Feb. 10, 1817.
Dalber'gia [named in honor of Nicholas Dalberg, a
Swedish botanist], a genus of trees and shrubs of the order
Leguminosae, having pinnate leaves. The fruit is a flat
membramous pod containing one to three seeds. All the
species are natives of tropical climates, and several of them
afford valuable timber. The wood of the sissoo of Bengal,
the Dalbergia Sissoo, is extensively used and highly prized
in India. The East Indian rosewood is the timber of Dal-
bergia latifolia.
Dale, a county in the S. E. of Alabama. Area, 740
square miles. It is intersected by the Choctawhatchee
River. The soil is generally sandy, and covered by forests
of pine. Cattle, corn, oats, rice, cotton, tobacco, and wool
are produced. Capital, Newton. Pop. 11,325.
Dale, a township of McLean co., Ill. Pop. 1188.
Dale, a township of Chesterfield co., Va. Pop. 1803.
Dale, a township of Outagamie co., Wis. Pop. 991.
Dale (RICHARD), an American commodore, born near
DALE–DALLAS.
1247
Norfolk, Va., Nov. 6, 1756, entered the merchant service
when only twelve years of age, serving until the commence-
ment of the Revolution, when he was made a lieutenant in
the marine service of Virginia. He was shortly after cap-
tured by an English vessel, and while confined on prison-
ship his old companions, who surrounded him, influenced
him to take sides with England, and he actually engaged
on board a cruiser against his native State; he was
wounded at an early day, and during his convalescence
realized the error he had committed, and firmly resolved to
stand by his own country in the future. He entered the
U. S. navy in 1776 as midshipman, was captured in 1777,
and confined in prison in London nearly two years, when
he made his escape in disguise. He hastened to France,
and embarked with Paul Jones, who soon made him a lieu-
tenant of his own ship, and became much attached to him.
In the action with the Serapis he greatly distinguished him-
self, and was wounded. Returning to this country in 1781,
he was appointed a lieutenant in the U. S. navy, and while
serving on the Trumbull he received his third wound, and
was captured for the fourth time. In 1794 he was made a
eaptain, and a commodore in 1801. He served in com-
mand of a squadron during the Tripolitan war, and on his
return to the U. S. resigned in 1802. Died Feb. 24, 1826.
HDale (SAMUEL). See APPENDIX.
Dale car/lia (i.e. “ the land of the men of the dales”),
or Dalarne, a former province of Sweden, now forming
the lăn or county of Kopparberg. It is famous for its
beautiful mountain-scenery, its forests of pine, and its
mines of iron and copper. The Dalecarliams are a brave
and patriotic people, and as a reward for their fidelity they
all have the privilege of taking the hand of the king of
Sweden when they meet him. Area, 12,127 Square miles.
Pop. in 1869, 175,927.
TDale City, called also Meyer’s Miłłs, a post-village
of Summit township, Somerset co., Pa., 100 miles S. E. of
Pittsburg, on the Pittsburg Washington and Baltimore
B. R., is on the Casselman River, and contains one iron-
foundry, two planing-mills, one flouring-mill, one stone-
ware manufactory, two newspapers, two banks, six churches,
two hotels, furniture-works, etc. -
SUHRIE & SMITH, PUBs. OF “INDEPENDENT.”
Daleites, a body of Scotch Independents who were
Calvinists and followers of David Dale (1739–1806), a
benevolent manufacturer, the father-in-law of Robert Owen.
The Daleites became affiliated with the Sandemanians for a
time, but later were Independents. They never had more
than one or two congregations.
Daleville, a post-township of Dale co., Ala. Pop. 997.
Dalf'sen, a town in Holland, on the Wecht, 4 miles E.
of Zwolle. Pop. 5549.
Dalhou'sie, a seaport, capital of Restigouche co., New
Brunswick, at the mouth of the Restigouche River. It
ships large quantities of salmon, lumber, and lobsters.
Pop. about 600. -
Dalhousie, EARLs of (1633), Barons Ramsay of Dal-
housie (1619) and of Kerington (Scotland, 1633), Barons
Panmure (United Kingdom, 1831).-Fox MAULE, eleventh
earl, was born April 22, 1801. He became a Whig mem-
ber of Parliament in 1835, and was secretary at war from
July, 1846, to Feb., 1852. In April, 1852, he succeeded his
father as Lord Panmure. He was minister of war in the
cabinet of Lord Palmerston from 1855 to Feb., 1858. In
1860 he became earl of Dalhousie. Died July 1, 1874.
Dalhousie (JAMES ANDREW Ramsay), EARL and
MARQUIs of, a British statesman, born near Edinburgh
April 22, 1812, was a son of the ninth earl of Dalhousie.
He was returned to Parliament for Haddington by the
Conservatives in 1837, and succeeded to the earldom on
the death of his father in 1838. In 1845 he was appointed
president of the board of trade by Sir Robert Peel. He was
retained in that office by the Whig prime minister who
came into power in 1846, and he became governor-gene-
ral of India in 1847. His administration was successful,
though his somewhat aggressive policy contributed to pro-
duce the mutiny of 1857. He annexed Pegu, Oude, the
Punjāb, and Berar to the British dominions, and developed
the resources of India by canals and other public works.
In 1849 he was created marquis of Dalhousie. He re-
turned to England in 1856, and died, without male issue,
Dec. 19, 1860. (See ARNOLD, “History of the Marquis of
* Administration of British India,” 1863–64, 2
vols.
Da’lias, a town of Spain, province of Almería, is about
4 miles from the sea, and 20 miles W. S. W. of the city of
Almería. It has mines of lead and antimony. Pop. 9414.
Dal/Hals, a county in W. Central Alabama. Area, 890
square miles. It is intersected by the navigable Alabama
River, which is joined by the Cahawba in this county.
The surface is uneven ; the soil is fertile. Cotton, corn,
rice, and oats are produced. It is traversed by the Ala-
bama Central and the Selma Rome and Dalton R. R.S.
Capital, Selma. Pop. 40,705.
Dallas, a county in S. W. Central Arkansas. ... Area, 850
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Saline and
on the W. by the Washita River. Salt and other minerals
are found. The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile.
Cattle, maize, and cotton are produced. Capital, Princeton.
Pop. 5707.
Dallas, a county in S. W. Central Iowa. Area, 576
square miles. It is traversed by the Des Moines and Rac-
coon rivers. The soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, wool, hay,
butter, etc. are produced. It is intersected by the Des
Moines Valley and the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific
R. Rs. Capital, Adel. Pop. 12,019.
Dallas, a county in S. W. Central Missouri. Area, 576
square miles. It is intersected by the Niangua River. The
surface is diversified by prairies and forests; the soil is fer-
tile. Grain, tobacco, and wool are staple products. Lime-
stone is found here. Capital, Buffalo. Pop. 8383.
Dallas, a county in the N. of Texas. Area, 900 Square
miles. It is intersected by the Trinity River, and also
drained by the West Fork of that river. The soil is fertile.
Cattle, grain, cotton, wool, and fruit are raised. It is in-
tersected by the Houston and Texas Central R. R. Capital,
Dallas. Pop. 13,314.
Dallas, a township of Calhoun co., Ark. Pop. 383.
Dallas, a post-village, capital of Polk co., Ark., is
about 170 miles W. S. W. of Little Rock.
Dallas, a post-village, capital of Paulding co., Ga., is
about 32 miles W. N. W. of Atlanta. Here occurred a
º between Gen. Sherman and Gen. Johnston in May,
1864.
HDallas, a township of Huntington co., Ind. Pop. 1483.
Dallas, a township of Dallas co., Ia. Pop. 338.
Dallas, a post-township of Marion co., Ia. Pop. 1066.
Dallas, a township of Taylor co., Ia. Pop. 604.
Dallas, a township and post-village of Clinton co.,
Mich., on the Detroit and Milwaukee R. R., 10 miles W.
of St. John. Total pop. 1360.
Dallas, a township of De Kalb co., Mo. Pop. 807.
Dallas, a township of Harrison co., Mo. Pop. 551.
Dallas, a township of Holt co., Mo. Pop. 1285.
Dallas, a township and post-village of Webster co.,
Mo. Pop. 1255.
Dallas, a post-village, capital of Gaston co., N. C.,
about 170 miles W. by S. from Raleigh. Pop. 299; of town-
ship, 4006. *
Dallas, a township of Crawford co., O. Pop. 370.
Dallas, a post-village, capital of Polk co., Or., on the
Rickreal River, 15 miles W. of Salem. It has a weekly
newspaper.
Dallas, a post-township of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 985.
Dallas, a city, capital of Dallas co., Tex., on the Trin-
ity River, 3 miles below the mouth of Elm Fork. It is the
point of crossing of the Houston and Texas Central and the
Texas and Pacific R. R.S., 265 miles N. N. W. of Houston and
186 miles W. of Shreveport, La. It has three weekly and one
daily newspaper. A street railway runs from the court-
house square to the railroad dépôt. This town was settled
in 1841. JoHN W. Sw1NDELLs, PUB. “ HERALD.”
Dallas (ALEXANDER JAMEs), an American statesman,
born in the island of Jamaica June 21, 1759. He emigrated
in 1783 to Philadelphia, where he practised law, and pub-
lished in 1790. “Reports of Cases in the Courts of the
United States and Pennsylvania.” (4 vols.). In 1801 he
was appointed a district attorney of the U. S. He became
secretary of the treasury in the cabinet of Madison in Oct.,
1814, when the national revenue was insufficient and the
public credit was impaired. He wrote an able report to
Congress recommending the establishment of a national
bank, raised money by a loan, and restored the public
credit. He resigned office in Nov., 1816. Died Jan. 16,
1817.
Dallas (GEORGE MIFFLIN), LL.D., an American states-
man, a son of the preceding, was born in Philadelphia July
10, 1792. He studied law, and was admitted to the bar in
1813. In 1824 he supported Gen. Jackson as a candidate
for the office of President. He was elected in 1831 to the
Senate of the U. S. for a short term, which expired in Mar.,
1833. He was sent as minister to St. Petersburg in 1837,
returned in 1839, and was elected Vice-President of the
U. S. in 1844, when Mr. Polk was chosen President. In
1248.
DALLAS CENTRE–DAMAGES.
1846 he gave his casting vote in the Senate for a revenue
tariff bill, which was opposed by the protectionist party.
In Feb., 1856, he was appointed minister to England, where
he remained until 1861. Died Dec. 31, 1864.
Dallas Centre, a post-village of Adel township, Dal-
las co., Ia. Pop. 133.
Dallas City, a city of Hancock and Henderson cos.,
Ill., on the Mississippi, 240 miles above St. Louis and 18
miles N. of Carthage. It has several manufactories and
one weekly newspaper.
Dallas Plantation, a township of Franklin co., Me.
Pop. 159.
Dalles City, or The Dalles, a post-village, capital
of Wasco co., Or., is on the S. bank of the Columbia River,
about 120 miles by water E. of Portland. It has one weekly
newspaper and a large woollen factory. The navigation
of the river is here obstructed by rapids. Pop. 942.
W. M. HAND, ED. “MoUNTAINEER.”
Dalles of the Columbia, a narrow portion of the
Columbia River, 45 miles above the Cascades. The river
here rushes violently through a chasm only fifty-eight
yards wide, enclosed between steep walls of basaltic rock.
Dalle is a French word signifying “flag-stone,” and also a
“spout” for water.
Dalles of the St. Louis, The, a beautiful series
of rapids in the St. Louis River, near Duluth, Minn. The
river falls 400 feet in four miles over a bed of slate.
Dalling, LoRD. See BULWER (HENRY LYTTON).
Dall” O'ngaro (FRANCEsco), an Italian revolutionist
and author, born at Odezzo (near Venice) in 1808, became
a priest, but was suspended for his independent preaching.
He then renounced the Church, and became a revolutionary
journalist in Triest, whence he was expelled in 1847. In
1848 he established a journal at Venice called “Fatti, e non
Parole.” He took an active part in the revolutionary
movements of that year, and was compelled to leave Italy.
He became a contributor to several journals in Paris. In
1859 he returned to Italy, and became professor of litera-
ture at Florence. He has published tales, dramas, and lyric
poems.
Dalma'nia, a genus of trilobites which has many spe-
cies in the Silurian and Devonian rocks of the U. S. Of
those the best known is Dalmania limulurus of the Niagara
limestone.
Dalma/tia, a portion of the ancient Illyricum, now
the southernmost province of Cisleithan Austria, is a long,
narrow tract bounded on the N. by Croatia, on the N. E. by
Herzegovina, and on the S. W. by the Adriatic Sea. It in-
cludes a number of islands. Area, 4940 square miles. Pop.
in 1869, 456,961. With the exception of about 80,000
Greeks and a few Protestants and Jews, the population be-
longs to the Roman Catholic Church. About 89 per cent.
of the population are Slavic and 10% per cent. Italian ; 28
per cent. of the children attend school. The coast is bold
and indented with bays which form good harbors. The
surface is diversified with mountains (the Dinaric Alps)
of limestone formation, the highest of which, Mount Orien,
rises 6332 feet above the level of the sea. The soil in some
parts is fertile, and produces wheat, oats, potatoes, maize,
wine, and olives. Good timber for shipbuilding is procured
on the islands. The chief towns are Zara, Spalato, Ragusa,
and Cattaro. Dalmatia was conquered by the Romans in
the time of Augustus. In the seventh century it was taken
by the Slavonians, who founded in it a kingdom which
lasted until 1050. In the Middle Ages it belonged to Hun-
gary. In the fifteenth century it fell under the power of
the Venetians, who ceded it to Austria in 1797. In 1805,
Napoleon annexed it to the kingdom of Italy, and in 1810
to the kingdom of Illyria. It reverted to Austria in 1814.
The district of Cattaro in 1869–70 revolted against Austria,
in consequence of changes in their old system of military
service. After some concessions to the national pride of
the Dalmatians, the revolt was suppressed in the latter
year. (See Noß, “Dalmatien,” 1870.)
Dalmatia, a township of Halifax co., N. C. P. 2796.
IDalmat/ica, or Dalmat/ic, a mantle with long
sleeves formerly used in Dalmatia. It was worn by the
nations who were called barbarians by the Greeks and
Romans. It was afterwards adopted by deacons when
assisting the priest at the altar. It is still worn by deacons
in the Greek and Roman Catholic churches, though in a
different form.
Dalri'ada [a word which appears to have signified the
“country of the race of Riada,” an Irish chieftain], the
ancient name of a region in Ireland now known as the
“Route,” the northern half of the county of Antrim. Some
of the race of Riada are said to have settled in Argyleshire,
Scotland, where they founded a petty kingdom called also
Dalriada. More than twenty kings of this line in Scot-
land are mentioned before the Dalriads (or Scots) and the
Picts became united under Kenneth MacAlpine, who be-
came the first king of Albany. . The region S. of the
Irish Dalriada was called DALARADIA, probably from an-
other chieftain who governed it. -
Dalrymple. See HAILEs, LoRD, and STAIR, EARLs of.
Dalrym (ple (ALEXANDER), a Scotch traveller, a younger
brother of Lord Hailes, born July 24, 1737, entered the
East India Company’s service and explored many islands
in the Eastern Archipelago. He was appointed hydrog-
rapher to the East India Company in 1779, and to the
admiralty in 1795. He wrote several geographical works.
Died June 19, 1808. - -
Dal/ton, a post-village, capital of Whitfield co., Ga.,
on the Western and Atlantic R. R., 99 miles N. N. W. of
Atlanta. It is the S. terminus of the East Tennessee Vir-
ginia and Georgia, S. E. terminus of the Nashville and
Chattanooga, E. terminus of the Memphis and Charleston,
and N. E. terminus of the Selma Rome and Dalton R. Rs.
It has one weekly newspaper and a heavy trade in grain.
Pop. 1809.
Dalton (Dolten's Station post-office), in Thornton town-
ship, Cook co., Ill., is the junction of the Pittsburg Cin-
cinnati and St. Louis and the Chicago Danville and Vin-
cennes R. R.S., 20 miles S. of Chicago. .
Dalton, a post-township of Wayne co., Ind. P. 766.
Dalton, a township of Aroostook co., Me. Pop. 445.
Dalton, a township and post-village of Berkshire co.,
Mass., on the Boston and Albany R. R., 146 miles W. of
Boston. Here are important manufactures of paper, ma-
chinery, woollens, and cotton goods. Pop. 1252.
Dalton, a township of Muskegon co., Mich. Pop.
401.
Dalton, a township and post-village of Coos co., N. H.,
on the Boston Concord and Montreal R. R., 112 miles N.
of Concord. It has manufactures of starch and lumber.
Pop. 773.
Dalton, a post-village of Sugar Creek township, Wayne
co., O. Pop. 412.
Dalton (John), F. R. S., an English chemist, the
author of the atomic theory, was born at Eaglesfield, in
Cumberland, Sept. 5, 1766. He taught and gave lectures
on physical science, and resided in Manchester. In 1802
he announced his important theory of the constitution of
mixed gases. The development of the laws of combining
proportions and the atomic theory he explained in the first
volume of his “New System of Chemical Philosophy’” (3
vols., 1808–27). (See CHEMISTRY.) He wrote a number
of scientific treatises, which were inserted in the “Philo-
Sophical Transactions,” etc. Died July 27, 1844.
Dalton (John C.), M.D., an eminent physiologist, born
at Chelmsford, Mass., Feb. 2, 1825, graduated at Harvard
in 1844. He took the degree of M. D. there in 1847. In
1859 he published an excellent “Treatise on Human Physi-
ology,” of which the fourth edition, enlarged, appeared in
1867. Among his other works is a “Treatise on Physiology
and Hygiene for Schools, Families, and Colleges” (1868).
He is professor of physiology and hygiene in the New
York College of Physicians and Surgeons. His original
observations in embryology and other departments of
physiology have given him a wide reputation. He is
the author of the article on EMBRYology in this work.
Dalton City, a post-village of Moultrie co., Ill., on
the Paris and Decatur R. R., 29 miles N. W. of Mattoon.
Dalton-in-Fur'ness, a town of England, in Fur-
ness, Lancashire, 18 miles W. N. W. of Lancaster, and 3
miles from the sea. Here are iron-works and iron-mines.
Near Dalton are the ruins of the splendid Furness Abbey,
founded in 1127 by Stephen, who was afterwards king.
Dal/tonism, an inability to distinguish colors, was so
called because the celebrated John Dalton and his brothers
had a defect in vision in consequence of which red, blue,
and green appeared alike. (See CoIOR-BLINDNESS.)
Da/Iy (CHARLEs P.), LL.D., was born of Irish parentage
in New York City, Oct. 31, 1816, was admitted to the bar
in 1839, became judge of common pleas in that city in 1845,
and chief judge in 1857. He was author of articles in the
“New American Cyclopædia,” lecturer at the Columbia.
College Law School, published a history of the courts of
New York (1855), a memoir of Chancellor Kent, and many
papers on banking, law, science, etc. He has been pres-
ident of the American Geographical and Statistical So-
ciety, and a prominent member of the Ethnological So-
ciety.
Damages. See MEASURE OF DAMAGES, by PROF. T.
W. DwighT, LL.D.
DAMAN–DAMIANISTS.
1249
Damān’, or Damaun, a seaport-town of Hindostan,
in Guzerat, is on the Indian Ocean, about 100 miles N. of
Bombay. It belongs to the Portuguese. The harbor affords
a good shelter from the S. W. monsoon. Shipbuilding is
carried on here. Damān is at the mouth of the Damân
Gunga or Damán River. Pop. about 7000.
Daman (an animal). See HYRAX.
Damanhoor’ (anc. Hermopolis Parva), a town of Lower
Egypt, capital of the province of Bahreh, is about 40 miles
E. S. E. of Alexandria. It has manufactures of cotton
and wool. Pop. 10,000.
Damar', or Demar, a town of Arabia, in Yemen, 60
miles S. S. E. of Sana. It has a citadel, a college, and
about 5000 houses.
Damariscotſta, a township and village of Lincoln co.,
Me. The village is on the Knox and Lincoln R. R., 20
miles N. E. of Bath, and on the Damariscotta River. It
has a national bank, somé shipbuilding and other manu-
factures, and a coasting-trade. Total pop. 1232.
Damasce/nus (JoANNEs), a learned theologian, born
in Damascus about 700 A. D. About the age of thirty he
retired to the monastery of St. Saba, near Jerusalem, where
he devoted his time to the study of philosophy and theology
and to the composition of religious works. His chief work
is “An Accurate Exposition of the Orthodox Faith,” which
is not so much a well-wrought system of divinity as a digest
of the teachings of his predecessors, such as Athanasius,
Basil, the Gregories, Chrysostom, and others. He first ap-
plied to scholasticism the philosophy of Aristotle. Died
between 754 and 787 A. D. He was canonized by the Latin
and the Greek churches.
Damascenus (NICOLAUs), a Greek historian and phil-
osopher, born in Damascus in 74 B. C., was a friend of
Herod, king of Judaea, at whose court he lived. He wrote,
besides other works, a “Universal History,” of which frag-
ments are extant.
Damas/cius [Gr. Aapadaktos], a pagan philosopher, born
in Damascus about 480 A. D. He taught the Neo-Platonic
philosophy at Athens, and when Justinian in 529 prohib-
ited the pagans from teaching, he retired to the court of
Chosroes, king of Persia. He wrote a work entitled “Doubts
and Solutions of the First Principles,” which is still ex-
tant.
Damas/coville, or Damascus, a post-village of
Butler township, Columbiana co., O. Pop. 94.
Damas' cus [Arab. Sham el Kebeer or es Shereef (“the
great” or “the holy”)], a celebrated city of Asiatic Turkey,
in Syria, is situated on a triangular plain at the eastern
base of the Anti-Libanus, 58 miles E. S. E. of Beyroot;
lat. 33° 27' N., lon. 36° 25' E. The plain of Damascus,
regarded by the Arabs as the fairest of the four earthly
paradises, is about 70 miles in circumference, and ex-
tremely fertile, irrigated by the river Barada and other
streams, and adorned with gardens and orchards. The
magnificent appearance of this city from afar has been
celebrated by ancient and modern travellers. Numberless
cupolas and minarets are seen clustered about the towering
mass of the great mosque. Within, the streets are narrow,
and many of them have a gloomy and decayed appearance.
The houses are mean in external aspect, and present a dead
wall to the street, but the interiors are often elegant and
richly furnished. Fine marble-paved courts ornamented
with fountains and shrubs, rooms with arabesqued roofs
and walls, are the common features of the houses of the
rich Damascenes. Damascus continues to be Oriental in
all its features and characteristics. The city is oval in
form, surrounded by a picturesque wall with stately towers
and gates, and intersected by the broad street which the
Romans called Via Recta. The great mosque, 650 feet in
length and 150 in breadth, was built by the Christians in
the form of a cross, but has been occupied by the Mussul-
mans since 705 A. D. Damascus has 248 mosques, many
of them with splendid minarets. The huge quadrangular
citadel, with massive towers, forms part of the city wall.
No wheeled carriages or vehicles are used in the streets.
There are important manufactures of cotton, silk, and
woollen fabrics, jewelry, saddlery, glass, and arms. The
Damascus blades, for which this city was once famous, have
lost their high reputation. The bazaars, said to be finer
than those of Cairo or Constantinople, are well supplied
with European manufactures, in which Damascus has an
extensive trade, carried on by means of camels and cara-
vans, with Bagdad, Bassorah, Persia, etc. Here is as-
sembled annually a large caravan of pilgrims, merchants,
and other travellers, sometimes as many as 50,000, destined
for Mecca. The date of the foundation of Damascus is not
known, but it was a city in the time of the patriarch Abra-
ham. (See Gen. xiv.) During the Hebrew monarchy it
was the capital of Syria. It passed afterwards successively
under the dominion of the Assyrians (740 B.C.), Baby-
lonians (604 B.C.), Persians (540 B.C.), Macedonians (333
B. C.), Romans (65 B.C.), Saracens (634 A.D.), and was
finally captured by the Turks in 1516. Here the apostle
Paul was converted and preached the gospel. Damascus
is one of the sacred cities of the Mohammedans, and has
long been known for the fanaticism of its inhabitants. In
1860 the Druses entered the city and massacred a large
number of the Christians. The present population is
variously estimated at from 150,000 to 300,000, among
whom there are about 15,000 Christians and 6000 Jews.
(See PortER, “Five Years in Damascus.”)
REVISED BY A. J. ScHEM.
Damascus, a township and village of Henry co., O.
Pop. 1179. -
Damascus, a township and post-village of Wayne co.,
Pa., near the New York and Erie R. R. Pop. 2823.
Damascus Blades, a name given to sword-blades
of the highest excellence, formerly made at Damascus in
Syria. Since the time of the Crusades they have been
famous for their beautifully watered and lined appearance,
as well as for their exquisite temper, which enabled them,
when skilfully handled, to cut, not only bars of iron, but
to divide films of gauze floating in the air. It is said that
good blades of this kind can be bent into a hoop, and will
fly back to their original shape without injury. The secret
of their manufacture is unknown, but it is said that the
Russians have recently produced swords which equal the
best Damascus blades in beauty and temper.
Dam'ask, the name given to certain rich stuffs of silk
and linen because they were first manufactured at Damas–
cus, whence the trade was carried to Venice, Lyons, and
Genoa. The cloth is woven with flowers and regular figures,
and in modern times is often made of worsted or worsted
and cotton mixed. The fashion of wearing it was adopted
in England by Henry W. and Edward IV. Damask table-
cloths are said to have been first imported from France
into England in 1575.
Damaskeen’ing [from Damascus, where the art was
practised with great success], the ornamenting of steel or
iron by inlaying with other metals, such as gold or silver.
There are several methods of performing it.
Damas/tes, son of Dioxippus, a Greek historian, was
a native of Sigeum. He is called by Suidas a pupil of
Hellanicus, and flourished about 440 B. C. Several works
are ascribed to him, as “An Account of Events in Greece,”
“On the Ancestors of those who Warred against Troy '' in
two books, “A Catalogue of Nations and Cities,” and a
treatise “Of Poets and Sophists.” Besides these, he com-
posed a “Periplus,” which is referred to by later geograph-
ical writers. Very few fragments remain, collected in
MüLLER’s “Fragm. Histor. Graec.,” vol. ii., pp. 64–67.
IHENRY DRISLER.
Dam'asus I. [Fr. Damase], SAINT, born, some say in
Rome, others in Spain, in 306 A. D., was elected bishop
of Rome in 366. A rival named Ursinus was at the same
time elected by a party, but Damasus was recognized by
the emperor Valentinian. Although elected by the Arian
faction, he strenuously opposed Arianism. He employed
violent methods, but was a man of learning and taste. We
are indebted to him for Jerome's new version of the Latin
Bible. He improved the church service by introducing the
Psalter. He also wrote hymns, two of which are given by
Daniel in his “Thesaurus Hymnologicus.” He is said to
have been the first to employ rhyme. Died Dec. 10, 384
A. D.—DAMASUs II., a German, and probably a Bavarian,
was consecrated pope July 17, 1048, and died Aug. 9 of
the same year. (See JAFFá, “Regesta Pontificum Roman-
orum.”
Dam (bool', a village of Ceylon, 45 miles N. W. of
Randy. Here is a mass of rock about 550 feet high, in
which are cave-temples devoted to the worship of Booddha,
and profusely adorned with sculpture and images. Among
these is a colossal image of Booddha, hewn out of the rock.
These temples, which are partly artificial, were constructed
about 100 B. C. -
Dame’s Quarter, a post-township of Somerset co.,
Md. Pop. 1565.
Damia'ni (PIETRO), known as SAINT PETER DAMIAN,
an influential Italian prelate, born at Ravenna about 998
A. D. He was appointed cardinal-bishop of Ostia in 1057.
IIe opposed simony and other corrupt practices of the
clergy, and was a friend of Pope Gregory VII. He was a
voluminous writer, and morally and intellectually one of
the first men of his time. He is honored as one of the
doctors of the Church. Died Feb. 22, 1072.
Da/mianists, a sect originating in the sixth century,
were the followers of Damianus, a Monophysite patriarch
79
1250
DAMIAN US—DAN.
of Alexandria, who taught a novel theory with regard to
the Divine essence and the three Persons of the Godhead.
They nearly agreed with the Sabellians. They are some-
times called Angelists. -
Damia/nus, a distinguished Sophist and rhetorician of
Ephesus, of whom an account is given by his friend Phil-
ostratus in his lives of the Sophists. In his youth Dami-
anus had attended the lectures of Adrianus and Ælius
Aristides, and he formed himself after the model of these.
He taught rhetoric in his native place with great success.
He was a man of wealth and of great liberality, and erected
for his fellow-citizens a beautiful portico. He appears to
have left no writings. HENRY DRISLER.
Damiet/ta, a town and river-port of Lower Egypt, is
on the right bank of the E. mouth of the Nile, about 8
miles from the Mediterranean and 110 miles N. by E. from
Cairo; lat. 31° 25' N., lon. 31° 47' E. It is meanly built,
but has some good mosques and marble baths. The har-
bor is not good, and a bar at the mouth of the river pre-
vents the entrance of large vessels. The modern town was
founded in 1251 a few miles S. of the ancient Tamiathis,
which in the time of the Crusades was a strong fortress of
the Saracens. The cloth known as dimity was first manu-
factured in this town, and received from it its name. Pop.
in 1871, 28,913.
Damiron (JEAN PHILIBERT), a French philosopher,
born at Belleville (Rhône) May 10, 1794, was a pupil of
Cousin. Among his works is an “Essay on the History of
Philosophy in France in the Seventeenth Century” (2 vols.,
1846). Died in 1862.
Damm (CHRISTIAN ToBIAs), a learned Greek scholar
and theologian, was born in 1699 at Geithain, near Leip-
sic. He was appointed pro-rector in 1742, and afterwards
rector of the Kölnisches Real-Gymnasium in Berlin, but
was displaced in 1764 on a charge of Socinianism, founded
on his translation of the New Testament. He died in 1778.
Besides the New Testament, he translated the works of
several Greek authors, and published editions of both
Greek and Latin writers. His principal work, and that
by which he is now known among scholars, was his Homeric
and Pindaric Lexicon, Berlin, 1765, 4to, edited by J. M.
Duncan, Glasgow, 1824, 4to, and still further improved by
Rost, Leipsic, 1836, 4to. HENRY DRISLER.
Dam’mar, or Dâmar [from the Hindostanee and
Malay démar, “resin ''], the name of a valuable varnish
produced by the dammar pine (Dammara orientalis), of the
natural order Coniferae. This tree is a native of the Molucca,
Islands, and is distinguishable from most of the other trees
of its order by the broad, Ianceolate, leathery leaves. It
grows to an immense height, and on its trunk, which is .
often nine feet in diameter, are many huge knots. The
tree is not valuable as timber. The resin is used in var-
mishes, but not being permanent, it cannot take the place
of copal and amber. It is sometimes used in photography.
The kauri pine (Dammara australis) produces kauri resin
or kauri gum. It is a native of New Zealand. Black
dammar is obtained from the Molucca Islands; it has a
strong resinous odor, and is black when dried; it is used
as pitch, and by distillation a kind of turpentine is obtained
from it. It is the product of a tree of the natural order
Amyridaceae. Canarium microcarpum is of the same
order, and is also a native of the East. It yields a sub-
stance called dammar, which is used as oakum in shipbuild-
ing. When mixed with chalk and the bark of reeds it
becomes hard as stone. Various other trees yield resins
called dammar.
Daſmo, daughter of Pythagoras, to whom he left his
memoirs (itropºvijuara), with strict injunctions not to allow
them to pass out of his family. This injunction she obey-
ed, though in great poverty and tempted with offers of
considerable sums of money. She transmitted them to the
care of her daughter Bitale. HENRY DRISLER.
Dam’ocles [Gr. Aguokafis], a Syracusan parasite and
courtier who lived at the court of Dionysius the Elder, and
was the subject of an experiment recorded by Cicero. As
an antidote to his fond admiration of regal luxury and
happiness, the tyrant invited him to a sumptuous banquet
over which a sword was suspended by a single hair.
Daſmon, a distinguished musician of Athens, celebrated
also as a Sophist. Plutarch ascribes to him the invention
of one form of the Lydian melody. He taught Pericles
music, and was his adviser also in many of his political
Iſºlea,SUIreS.
mon. Late in life he was banished from Athens, no doubt
from the objectionable character of his political opinions.
HENRY DRISLER.
Da/mon and Pyth’ias (or Phin’tias), two Syra-
cusans and disciples of Pythagoras, celebrated for the
fidelity of their friendship. Pythias was condemned to
Plato has spoken highly of the abilities of Da-
death by Dionysius, who kept Damon as a hostage while.
the former went home to settle his affairs. Pythias re-
turned punctually, to the surprise of the tyrant, who par-
doned him, and desired to be a partner in their friendship.
Damoph'ilus of Bithynia, called by Suidas a phil-
osopher and Sophist, was reared by Salvius Julianus, who
was consul under Marcus Antoninus. He wrote a number of
works, of which Suidas says he found the following in the
libraries: “Philobiblus, concerning Books worth Possess-
ing,” and “Concerning the Life of the Ancients.” (The
notices of Damophilus are collected by MüILER, “Fragm.
Hist. Graec.,” vol. iii., p. 656.) HENRY DRISLER.
Dam’ophon, or Demophon, a statuary of Messene,
flourished about 370 B. C. He adorned AEgium, Messene,
and Megalopolis with his works, which were chiefly statues
of Parian marble and of wood. Pausanias mentions among
the most important of his works a statue of Lucina, one of
AEsculapius, of the Mother of the Gods, of Mercury, and of
Venus. He was also employed to repair the Olympian
Jupiter of Phidias, the ivory of which had become loosen-
ed in many places. HENRY DRISLER.
Damoph’yle, one of the large group of Greek lyric
female poets who were pupils, companions, and followers
of Sappho. She flourished about 610 B.C., and was a Pam-
phylian by birth, but Pamphylia was largely Greek. Like
her mistress Sappho, she instructed other young women.
She wrote love-poems, and composed those hymns to Arte-
mis which were sung at Perga. None of her works are now
extant, and very few facts with regard to her are known.
Damox'enus, a comic poet of the new Attic comedy,
probably reaching back also into the middle. He is refer-
red to by Athenaeus, who with Suidas has preserved the
titles of two of his comedies, and has given considerable
extracts from one of them. All that remains of his writings
has been collected by MEINEKE, “ Fragm. Comic. Graec.,”
vol. iv., pp. 529–36. HENRY DRISLER.
Damp/er [from damp, to “check,” originally to
“Smother,” akin to the Ger. Dampf, “vapor,” and dàmp-
fen, to “suffocate,” “smother,” or “quench *], a valve
used to lessen the aperture of a chimney or air-flue for the
purpose of checking combustion by diminishing the quan-
tity of air. In the construction of the pianoforte a damper
is used. This consists of a drop cushioned with flannel,
which, falling on the string, checks the vibration, and gives
distinctness to the passages and clearness to the sound.
Dam/pier (WILLIAM), an English navigator, born in
Somersetshire in 1652. He joined in 1679 a party of buc-
caneers who crossed the Isthmus of Darien, captured
several Spanish vessels, and molested the settlements. In
1684 he made a voyage to the East Indies, from which he
returned to England in 1691, and published an interesting
narrative, entitled “A Voyage Round the World.” In the
service of the government he conducted in 1699 an expe-
dition to the South Sea, and explored the western coast of
Australia, the coast of Papua and other islands. He re-
turned home in 1701, and published a narrative of this
Voyage.
Dam’pier Archipel/ago is near the N. W. coast of
Australia, about lat. 21° S. and lon. 117° E. It comprises
Enderby, Depuch, Lewis, and other islands. Dampier
Strait, between Papua and Waigeeo, is 35 miles wide.
Dampremy, a town of Belgium, near Chatelet. It has
coal-mines and glass-factories. Pop. 5235.
JDamps [Ger. Dampf, “vapor;” see etymology of
DAMPERJ, the noxious exhalations of mines and excava-
tions. The carburetted hydrogen of coal-mines is called
fire-damp, and carbonic acid gas mixed with carbonic
oxide is termed choke-damp.
Dam’son [a contraction of Damascene, from Damas-
cus], a variety of the common plum. It is a small, oval
fruit, made use of in preserving. In England it is much
used as a confection called damson cheese. It is cultivated
in the U. S. -
Dam, Tinker’s, is the wall of dough or chewed
bread which a tinker puts around the hole which he is
stopping, so as to confine the melted solder to that point.
After it is once used it of course loses its value, so that its
name is often employed in popular slang as a symbol of
utter worthlessness.
Damug'go, a populous and dirty town of Africa, in
Upper Guinea, on the Niger, in lat. 7° N., lon. 7° 50' E.
The houses are mostly built of mud.
Dan [Heb, fºll, a son of the Hebrew patriarch Jacob.
Also a part of 'Palestine occupied by the tribe of Dan, and
bounded on the W. by the Mediterranean. Joppa was its
principal town. Dan (or Laish) was an ancient city in the
extreme northern part of the Promised Land. • *
Dan, a river of Virginia and North Carolina, rises in
DANA—DANATD.
1251
the southern part of Virginia, flows in a generally eastward
direction, and crosses the boundary between those States
five or six times. After a course of about 200 miles, it
unites with Staunton River at Clarksville, Va. Below this
junction the stream is called the Roanoke.
Da'na, a post-township of Worcester co., Mass., on the
Athol and Enfield R. R. Pop. 758.
Dana, a village of Carbon co., Wy., on the Union Pa-
cific R. R., 100 miles N. W. of Laramie. º
Dana (CHARLEs ANDERSON), a journalist, born at Hins-
dale, N. H., Aug. 8, 1819, studied two years at Harvard
University, did not graduate owing to a disease of the
eyes, but received the degree of A. M. He edited the “Har-
binger,” was a contributor to the Boston “Chronotype,”
was connected with the New York “Tribune” from 1847–
58, and is now editor of the “Sun.” He edited “The
Household Book of Poetry” (8vo, 1858), and in connection.
with George Ripley edited “The New American Cyclo-
paedia.” He was assistant secretary of war (1863–64).
Dana (EDMUND TRowBRIDGE), J. U. D., political econo-
mist and publicist, a brother of R. H. Dana, Jr., born at
Cambridge, Mass., Aug. 29, 1818, was educated at the Uni-
versity of Vermont, the Cambridge Law School, and the
German universities, and published translations of works
on public law, etc. Died May 18, 1869.
Dana (FRANCIS), LL.D., an American statesman and
jurist, born at Charlestown, Mass., June 13, 1743, was a son
of Judge Richard Dana. He was admitted to the bar in
1767, and joined the “Sons of Liberty.” In 1776 he was
chosen a member of council of Massachusetts, at that time
the Supreme executive power in the State. He was a dele-
gate to the Congress of 1777, which formed the Confed-
eration, and to the Congress of 1778. In Nov., 1779, he
sailed to Europe as secretary to John Adams, who was sent
to negotiate a treaty of peace and commerce with Great
Britain. In Dec., 1780, Mr. Dana was appointed minister
to Russia, in the capital of which he remained nearly two
years. Having returned to Boston in 1783, he was ap-
pointed a judge of the supreme court of Massachusetts in
1785. He was chosen in 1787 a delegate to the convention
which formed the Constitution of the U. S., but his judicial
duties and ill-health prevented his attendance. He voted
for that Constitution as a member of the State convention
convened to ratify it in 1788. He was chief-justice of
Massachusetts from 1791 to 1806. In politics he was a
Federalist. Died April 25, 1811. He was the father of the
poet Richard H. Dana.
Dana (JAMES), D. D., a Congregational theologian, born
at Cambridge, Mass., May 11, 1735, graduated at Harvard
in 1753, and was pastor of the First church at New Haven,
Conn. (1789–1805). He published (1770–73) an “Exami-
nation of Edwards on the Will,” in which he strongly op-
posed the doctrine of utilitarian morality, and ably de-
fended the freedom of the will. Died Aug. 18, 1812.
Dana (JAMES DwighT), LL.D., an eminent American
maturalist and geologist, born at Utica, N. Y., Feb. 12, 1813,
graduated at Yale in 1833. He published a “System of
Mineralogy” (1837), of which a new edition, greatly im-
proved, appeared in 1868. He sailed with Capt. Wilkes as
geologist of the exploring expedition sent out by the gov-
ernment in 1838. Some results of this exploration ap-
peared in his “Report on Zoophytes” (1846), a “Report
on the Geology of the Pacific * (1849), a “Report on the
Crustacea, '' (1852–54), etc. He married a daughter of
Prof. Benjamin Silliman, settled at New Haven in 1846,
and became one of the editors of the “American Journal
of Science.” In 1855 he was elected professor of natural
history and geology at Yale College. Among his works
are an excellent “Manual of Geology” (1862) and “Corals
and Coral Islands” (1872). He rejects the Darwinian
theory. Prof. Dana combines with the habit-of close and
accurate observation powers of mind which place him in
the very foremost rank of philosophic naturalists.
Dana (JAMES FREEMAN), M.D., a brother of Dr. S. L.
Dana, was born at Amherst, N. H., Sept. 23, 1793, gradu-
ated at Harvard in 1813, studied medicine in Boston, and
chemistry in London. He subsequently took the degree of
M. D. (1817), became professor and lecturer on chemistry,
etc. at Harvard, Dartmouth, and the New York College of
Physicians and Surgeons. He was the author of “ Chem-
ical Philosophy.” (1825), and of many scientific papers and
other works. Died April 14, 1827.
Dana (NAPOLEON JACKSON TECUMSEH), an American
officer, born April 15, 1822, in Maine, graduated at West
Point in 1842, and May 29, 1862, major-general U. S. vol-
unteers. He served as an infantry officer till 1848, and
them as an assistant quartermaster till he resigned, Mar. 1,
1855. He served chiefly at frontier posts 1842–45; in the
military occupation of Texas 1845, in the war with Mexico
1846–47, engaged at Fort Brown, Monterey, Vera Cruz,
and Cerro Gordo (severely wounded and brevet captain), and
on quartermaster duty 1848–55. He was a banker at St.
Paul, Minn., till the beginning of the civil war, when he
became colonel First Minnesota volunteers, and served in
guarding the upper ferries of the Potomac 1861, in Shen-
andoah Valley 1861–62, in Virginia, Peninsula 1862, en-
gaged at Yorktown, West Point, Fair Oaks, Peach Orchard,
Savage Station, White Oak Swamp, Glendale, and Malvern
Hill; in Maryland campaign 1862, engaged at South Moun-
tain and Antietam (severely wounded); in command of the
defences of Philadelphia 1863; in operations in the depart-
ment of the Gulf 1863–64, engaged at Fordoche Bayou, ex-
pedition to the Rio Grande, and the occupation of Mata-
gorda Bay; and in command of the district of Wicksburg
and of West Tennessee 1864, and of the department of Mis-
sissippi 1864–65. Resigned May 25, 1865, and is now en-
gaged in mining operations in California.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Dana (RICHARD), an able American lawyer, born at
Cambridge, Mass., July 7, 1699, was the father of Francis
Dana, noticed above. He graduated at Harvard in 1718,
practised law at Boston with success, and was an active
promoter of the popular cause in the period which preceded
the war of Independence. Died May 17, 1772.
Dana (RICHARD HENRY), a poet, born at Cambridge,
Mass., Nov. 15, 1787, a son of Chief-Justice Francis Dana,
was educated at Harvard College, studied law, and was
admitted to the bar of Boston in 1811. He was one of the
editors of the “North American Review º' in 1818 and
1819. In 1821 he published “The Dying Raven,” a poem.
His poem entitled “The Buccaneer” (1827) was praised
by Prof. Wilson of “Blackwood’s Magazine” in these
terms: “We pronounce it by far the most powerful and
original of American poetical compositions.” He published
in 1833 a collection of his poems and prose works, includ-
ing some essays which originally appeared under the title
of “The Idle Man,” in 1821–22.
Dana (RICHARD HENRY, JR.), an eminent American law-
yer and author, a son of the preceding, was born at Cam-
bridge Aug. 1, 1815. He entered Harvard College in 1832,
but suspended his studies on account of the weakness of
his eyes in 1834. He then performed as a common sailor a
voyage to California, of which he wrote an interesting and
opular marrative entitled “Two Years Before the Mast”
(1840). Having graduated at Harvard in 1837, he studied
law under Judge Story, and was admitted to the bar in
1840. He published in 1841 “The Seaman's Friend, con-
.taining a Treatise on Practical Seamanship,” and also an
edition of Wheaton’s “International Law '' in 1865. He
was one of the founders of the Free-Soil party in 1848,
and an orator of the Republican party in 1856.
Dana (SAMUEL LUTHER), M. D., LL.D., an American
chemist and writer on agriculture, was born at Groton,
Mass., July 11, 1795. He was employed as chemist of the
Merrimack Print-Works at Lowell, and invented a method
of bleaching cotton goods which was extensively adopted.
Among his works are the “Muck Manual '' (1842) and an
essay on manures (1843). Died Mar. 11, 1868.
Dana (SAMUEL WHITTLESEY), son of Dr. James Dana,
noticed above, was born at New Haven, Conn., July, 1757,
raduated at Yale in 1775, was a member of Congress
(1796–1810), and U. S. Senator (1810–21). He was a lead-
ing Federalist. Died July 21, 1830.
Dana (WILLIAM H.), U. S. N., born May 27, 1833, in
Athens, 0., entered the navy as a midshipman May 1, 1850,
became a passed midshipman in 1856, a lieutenant in 1858,
a lieutenant-commander in 1862, and a commander in 1869.
He served in the North Atlantic blockading Squadron and
the Western Gulf blockading squadron in 1863 and 1864,
participating in the attack on Port Hudson, Mar. 6, 1863,
and commanded the gunboat Winona, South Atlantic block-
ading squadron, from the latter part of 1864 to the close
of the civil war. Died at the naval hospital, Chelsea,
Mass., Mar. 5, 1872.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Dan'aé [Gr. Aaván], in classical mythology, was a
daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos, who confined her in a
brazen tower because an oracle had predicted that her son
would kill her father. She became the mother of Perseus,
whose father, Jupiter, is said to have obtained access to her
in the form of a golden shower. -
Dan'aid [for etymology see below], an ingenious hy-
draulic machine, consisting essentially of two hollow cylin-
ders, placed one within the other, with a (comparatively)
narrow space between ; the inner cylinder closed at bot-
tom, the outer having an aperture at the bottom in the
centre. Between the two bottoms are partitions radia-
ting from the centre to the circumference, but the annular
1252
cylindrical space is without partitions. The whole is sus-
tained by a vertical axis, about which it turns easily. A
jet or stream of water being now admitted into the annular
space, as nearly tangential horizontally to the cylindrical
surface as possible, sets the machine in motion, at first by
mere friction, but presently the living force imparted to
the water by revolution, acting on the radial partitions
of the base, accelerates the velocity and increases the force.
Experiments show that this machine utilizes from 70 to 75
per cent. of the power due to the hydraulic head. The
name seems to have been suggested by the fable of the
Danaides pouring water for ever into a vessel, from which
it continually escapes. -
Dana’ides [Gr. Aavatóes], the fifty daughters of Danaus,
a mythical king of Egypt, were married to fifty sons of
AEgyptus, their uncle. By order of their father, each of
the Danaides, except one, killed her bridegroom on the
wedding-night. They were doomed in Tartarus to pour
water for ever into a vessel perforated with holes.
Dan'bury, a post-borough and semi-capital of Fairfield
co., Conn., is at the northern terminus of the Danbury and
Norwalk R. R., which is 23 miles long, and connects with
the New York and New Haven R. R. It is 69 miles N.
N. E. of New York. It has two national banks, a weekly
newspaper, two savings banks, several hat-factories, one
sewing-machine factory, one boot-and-shoe factory, two
shirt-factories, and one foundry. It has extensive water-
works, a town farm for the indigent, and a cemetery of re-
markable beauty. It was settled in 1684, and burned by
the British in April, 1777. Pop. 6542; of township, 8753.
J. M. BAILEY, ED. “DANBURY NEws.”
Danbury, a post-township of Grafton co., N. H., on the
Northern R. R., 30 miles N. W. of Concord. It has three
churches, and manufactures of shoes and leather. P. 796.
Danbury, a post-village, capital of Stokes co., N. C.,
about 112 miles W. N. W. of Raleigh. It has one weekly
newspaper.
Danbury, a township of Ottawa co., O. Pop. 1252.
Danſby, a township and post-village of Ionia, co., Mich.,
on the Detroit Lansing and Lake Michigan R. R., 16 miles
S. E. of Ionia. Pop. 1176.
Danby, a township and post-village of Tompkins co.,
N. Y., 8 miles S. of Ithaca. Pop. 2126.
Danby, a township and post-village of Rutland co.,
Vt., on Otter Creek and the Harlem Extension R. R., 18
miles S. of Rutland. It has a number of stores, one weekly
newspaper, and manufactures of lumber, leather, boxes,
cheese, and marble. Pop. 1319.
J. C. WILLIAMS, ED. “OTTER CREEK VALLEY NEws.”
Danby (FRANCIs), A. R. A., a landscape-painter, born
near Wexford, Ireland, Nov. 16, 1793. His works are
marked by fine light-effects. Among his works are a “Sun-
set at Sea after a Storm’ (1824), “ Christ Walking on the
Sea. * (1827), “The Embarkation of Cleopatra on the Cyd-
nus” (1827), and “Caius Marius among the Ruins of
Carthage” (1848). Died Feb. 17, 1861.
Danby (THOMAs Osborne), EARL of, marquis of
Caermarthen and duke of Leeds, an English Tory states-
man, born in 1631. He gained the favor of Charles II.,
and became in 1673 lord treasurer, and the most powerful
of the king's ministers. In 1674 he was created earl of
Danby. He was committed to the Tower by the Commons
on a charge of treason in 1678, and was confined five
years. In 1689 he was appointed president of the council
by William III., and in 1694 was created duke of Leeds.
Died July 26, 1712.
Dan’by’s, a township of Pike co., Ala. Pop. 1743.
Dance of Death [Mediaeval Lat. chorea Machabaeorum ;
Fr. la damse Macabre or la damse des morts : Ger. Todtem-
tanz], an allegorical representation of the power of Death
over all classes and conditions of men. The name “Dance
of Death '' is derived from the mocking activity usually
displayed by the skeleton figure of Death as he leads away
his victims. As for the name “Macabre * sometimes given
to this subject, it has much puzzled scholars, and has pro-
duced many absurd etymologies. The only one of these
that needs to be noticed is that which connects the word
with the Maccabees of the apocryphal Old Testament.
These seven martyrs for the Law were never popular nor
much known in the Western Church, and their legend has
nothing in it that connects them with this subject. The
most reasonable explanation of the origin of the word is
that it is derived from the Egyptian anchorite Macarius,
one of the most famous of the hermit-saints. His legend
connects him directly with warnings of death to the living.
Though, as he was a Greek saint, his pictures are rare in
the West, yet he is twice represented in the cemetery of
Pisa,—the Campo Santo—once by Pietro Laurati, and again
DANAIDES-DANCE OF DEATH.
in the fresco attributed to Orcagna and mentioned below.
Vasari expressly tells us that the aged saint who is show-
ing the three dead bodies to the hunting-party was meant
for Saint Macarius; and it is possible that his name may
in time have come to be applied to the subject of which
this fresco is a famous illustration.
Traces of the idea which was the foundation of the
mediaeval acted dramas and pictured or sculptured repre-
sentations of this subject are to be found in Italo-Greek
and Roman antiquity. Douce says that on a sarcophagus
found near Cumae are sculptured three dancing skeletons,
and that the same subject is on a Roman lamp and in a
Pompeian fresco. On an antique gem in the Royal Gallery
at Florence there is engraved an old man piping to a dancing
skeleton; and though the introduction of the skeleton is
rare, yet it is common enough to find on the Roman sar-
cophagi such representations of life interrupted by death as
will abundantly connect the moralizing of those times with
that of the Middle Ages. Probably the earliest of the
modern treatments of this subject were in the form of
dramatic representations—moralities—acted in churches.
As early as 1453 a Dance of Death is recorded to have been
acted in the cathedral of Besançon after mass, and we may
suppose that this was not the only instance. Originally,
it would seem that the “Dance of Death,” which, in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, was made to include a
considerable number of people, was restricted to a few. As
early as the thirteenth century there appeared a French
poem called “Li Trois Mors et li Trois Vis;” that is, “Les
Trois Morts et les Trois Wifs.” “This poem relates that
three noble youths when hunting in a forest were inter-
cepted by the like number of hideous spectres or images
of Death, from whom they received a terrific lecture on the
vanity of human grandeur.” (Douce.) In 1335, Oreagna
painted in the Campo Santo at Pisa his Triumph of Death,
one of the earliest pictures of this subject, where three
kings, with their ladies, companions, and servants, return-
ing from hunting, come suddenly upon three open coffins
containing the bodies of three persons, one of them a king,
in various stages of decay. In his “Pardoner’s Tale’”
Chaucer has also introduced a most powerfully imagined
variation of the same theme. Death (for so we understand
it), under the disguise of an old man, appears to three
riotous young men who in their bravado are in search of
Death, to destroy him in punishment of his many murders,
and directs them to a certain tree in the forest where he
says he had left him sitting. They find him there in an
unlooked-for fashion.
The “Dance of Death,” whether as a series of pictures
showing the skeleton conqueror carrying away popes, kings,
cardinals, bishops, priests, abbots and abbesses, nuns,
queens, ladies, and lords, the bride and the bridegroom,
judges and scholars, merchants, warriors, ploughmen,
market-women, and little children, or only a selection of a
few of these, was painted “not only on the walls, but in
the windows of many churches, in the cloisters of monas-
teries, and even on bridges, especially in Germany and
Switzerland. It was sometimes painted on church-screens,
and occasionally sculptured on them, as well as on the
fronts of domestic dwellings. It occurs in many of the
manuscripts and illuminated service-books of the Middle
Ages.” (Douce.) It is also found carved in wood, and
made the subject of tapestries; and in one of Holbein’s
finest drawings in the museum at Băle it is used to decorate
a dagger-sheath. The subject had a wide popularity, and
examples abound in England, Germany, and France, but
fewer in Italy, and, so far as we know, none in Spain,
though mention is made by some writers of an example
in the palace of St. Ildefonso. (Qu. bishop’s palace at
Alcala 2) Mr. George Street, however, a most careful and
accurate observer, in his “Gothic Architecture in Spain "
does not mention a single picture or sculpture of this sub-
ject. Douce gives a list of places where Dances of Death
were painted, and among them we find Paris, Dijon, Bâle,
Lübeck, Anneburg, Erfurth, Lucerne, Amiens, Rouen, Fé-
camp, Strasbourg, London, and Salisbury, with others less
important. Most of these have disappeared; the one still
to be seen on the old bridge at Lucerne has been very much
repainted. Douce considers the oldest mentioned example
to be that executed for the church of the Innocents at
Paris in 1434. Among the most famous ones was that at
Băle (long erroneously attributed to Holbein, who was not
born till near a half century after it was painted) in the
cloister of the Dominican monastery. Tradition says that
this was made between 1431 and 1443, at the instance of
the prelates who assisted at the great Council of Bâle, and
in allusion to a plague that raged at one time during its
sitting. The monastery, having fallen into decay, was de-
stroyed in 1806 to make room for certain municipal im-
provements, and the frescoes went with it. But, perhaps,
what keeps the name of the Dance of Death most securely
DANCING—DANIEL, BOOK OF.
1253
in men’s minds is the series of wood-cuts indissolubly con-
nected, whether rightly or wrongly, with the name of Hol-
bein. . These cuts originally appeared in a book of which
the following is the title: “Les simulachres et historiées
faces de la mort autant ele gammèt pourtraictes que
artifi ciellement imaginées. A Lyon Soubz lescu de
Coloigne | M.D.XXXVIII. 4to;” and at the end, “Excu-
debant Lugdu ni Melchior et | Gaspar Trechsel | fratres
1538.” In the first edition above cited there were only
forty-one cuts; in later editions, which followed one an-
other with great rapidity, they were increased, until in that
of 1547, also published at Lyons, there were forty-nine.
Holbein’s relation to these cuts is still, after much labori-
ous and learned investigation, very obscure : it may be
that we owe nothing to him but a more artistic draught-
manship, by which new life was given to the old compo-
sitions, and it is at least possible that he had no hand in
them whatever. (See PEIGNOT, “Recherches sur les Danses
des Morts,” Dijon and Paris, 1826; “The Dance of Death,”
with a Dissertation, etc. etc., by FRANCIS DOUCE, London,
1833; LANGLors, “Essai historique, philosophique, et pit-
toresque sur les Danses des Morts,” 2 vols., 50 plates,
Rouen, 1852; MASSMANN, “Literatur der Todtentānze,”
Leipsic, 1841. “La Danse Macabre : Histoire fantastique
du XV. Siècle,” by PAUL LACROIx, 1832–38, sometimes
cited as an authority, is only a romance after the manner
of Hugo’s “ Notre Dame.”) CLARENCE COOK.
Dan'cing, a succession of rhythmical movements of
the body, often accompanied by music. Dancing is of
very early origin. The ancients constituted it a part of
their religious observances, and danced before their altars
and the images of their gods. The ancient Egyptians
ascribed its invention to their god Thoth. All the different
passions were expressed in dancing by the Greeks, and the
dance of the Eumenides or Furies was so expressive of
vengeance that it inspired the beholders with terror. The
attitudes of the public dancers were studied by the Greek
sculptors in order to delineate the passions. Aristotle ranks
dancing with poetry. The Spartans were required to train
-their children in this art from the age of five. This was
publicly done, to train them for the armed dance, and was
accompanied by songs or hymns. In ancient times, dan-
cing in private entertainments was performed by profes-
sionals. The Romans counted it disgraceful for a free citi-
zen to dance except as a religious rite.
In Egypt there are dancing and singing-girls, who im-
provise verses and are called almeh. In India, there are
nautch- (nàtch-) girls, who dance on public occasions.
Among Savages dancing is still used as a religious rite or
as a sort of state ceremony on important occasions. Among
civilized nations it is a frequent mode of recreation. By
many it is believed to have immoral tendencies, and is
doubtless liable to serious abuse.
Dancing Ma’mia, an epidemic disorder of the four-
teenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, similar to chorea.
It is supposed that much imposture prevailed in many
forms of this epidemic, but there were also many cases in
which the subject entirely lost control of the will. This
disorder is even now known in Abyssinia. Something
similar to it in Italy was ascribed to the bite of a spider
called the tarantula, but its greatest prevalence was in the
cities of Germany during the Middle Ages. At Aix-la-
Chapelle, in 1374, there appeared on the streets crowds of
dancing men and women, apparently excited thereto by the
frantic demonstrations at the festival of St. John. The
dancers were said to be unobservant of outward things, but
sensible of visions. They appeared to lose all self-control,
and would dance till they fell as if dead, and would some-
times beat out their brains upon the ground. The mania
extended to the Low Countries, as well as Cologne, Metz,
and Strasburg, and caused much demoralization. Exor-
cism was at first found remedial, and cold water, as applied
by Paracelsus in the sixteenth century, was very efficacious.
At the beginning of the seventeenth century the St. Vitus’s
Dance, as the disorder was then called, was abating, and is
now almost unknown. The “ St. Vitus's Dance” of our
day is CHOREA (which see). The excesses of the French
“prophets” of the last century and the convulsive disorders
sometimes seen in the camp-meetings of our own country
are probably of similar character with the dancing mania.
(See J. F. C. HECKER, “Tanzwuth,” 1833, translated into
English by B. G. Babington, M. D.)
Dan/delion [from the Fr. dent de lion, “lion’s tooth,”
probably from the shape of its leaves; Ger. Loewenzahn],
the Taraxacum dens-leonis, an herbaceous plant of the
natural order Compositae, with a perennial fusiform root.
The leaves spring immediately from the root, are long,
feather-shaped, with the divisions toothed, smooth, and of
a fine green color. The plant grows spontaneously in most
parts of the globe. The leaves when very young are tender,
and are often used as a potherb, and it is cultivated and
brought to market in considerable quantities for this use.
It is a popular remedy with many medical practitioners in
this country and Europe, having gentle tonic powers. The
root is sometimes prepared and ground with coffee, the
taste of which covers that of the dandelion.
Dan'dolo (ENRICO), a celebrated Venetian statesman
and general, born in 1108. He was eminent for learning
and eloquence. In 1192 he was elected doge of Venice, the
maritime power of which he greatly increased. He also
extended the bounds of the republic in Dalmatia and
Istria.
fourth crusade, he furnished vessels to transport their army
to the Levant in 1201, and took command of the combined
forces.
storm in 1204. The throne was offered by the crusaders to
Dandolo, but he declined it. He was blind in his old age.
Died June 1, 1205.
Dan'dridge, a post-village, capital of Jefferson co.,
Tenn., on the French Broad River, 30 miles E. of Knoxville.
Dame, a county in S. Central Wisconsin. Area, 1235
square miles. It is bounded on the N.W. by the Wisconsin
River, and drained by the Catfish, which is the outlet of the
Four Lakes. These lakes, the largest of which is 6 miles
long, lie near the middle of the county. The surface is
finely diversified by hills and prairies; the soil is fertile.
Cattle, grain, potatoes, wool, tobacco, hay, butter, etc., are
produced. The manufactures include wagons, harnesses,
and flour. It is intersected by the Milwaukee and St. Paul
and the Chicago and North-western R. R.S. Capital, Madi-
son. Pop. 53,096.
Dane, a township and post-village of Dane co., Wis.
Pop. 1043.
Dane (NATHAN), LL.D., an American jurist, born in
Ipswich, Mass., Dec. 27, 1752, graduated at Harvard in
1778. He was one of the most able lawyers of New Eng-
land, and a member of the Continental Congress in 1785–
88. In 1787 he framed the ordinance for the government
and organization of the North-west Territory, in which he
inserted a clause prohibiting slavery. He served in the
State senate for several years (1794–98). He published
“An Abridgment and Digest of American Law” (9 vols.,
1823–29). In 1829 he gave $15,000 to Harvard College, to
found the Dane professorship of law. Died Feb. 15, 1835.
Da/negelt, or Danegold (i. e. “Dame-money” or
“Dane-tax *), a tribute of one shilling levied on every
hide of land by the Anglo-Saxon kings for the purpose of
defending the country against the Danes. It was subse-
quently increased to two shillings, and was continued to
the reign of Stephen.
Da/nelag [an Anglo-Saxon term signifying “Danish
law”]. Under the later Saxon and earlier Norman kings
of England this name was applied to fifteen or more coun-
ties of the north and east of England, where the Danish
language and customs prevailed in consequence of the in-
vasions and conquests of that race.
Dan'forth, a township of Washington co., Me. P. 313.
Dan'iel (“God is Judge,” or “God will judge’”), one
of the four greater Hebrew prophets, was a youth when he
was carried with many other Jewish captives to Babylon in
605 A. D. Whether he was of royal, or only of noble
descent, cannot be determined. He was educated at the
court of Nebuchadnezzar, and was eminent for learning
and wisdom. His skill in the interpretation of dreams
procured for him the favor of the king, who appointed him
governor of the province of Babylon and chief of the Magi.
He explained the handwriting on the wall at Belshazzar's
feast about 538 B.C. After the capture of Babylon by the
Medes and Persians, Daniel gained the favor of Darius the
Mede, and was the first of three presidents who had au–
thority over the 120 satraps of the empire. He also “pros-
pered in the reign of Cyrus the Persian,” and appears to
have remained in Babylon when the other Jews returned to
Jerusalem. He probably lived to the advanced age of at
least ninety years. - * .
Daniel, Book of, an important canonical book of the
Old Testament, assigned by some to the prophetic books,
and by others to the Hagiographa or Chetubim. (See BIBLE.)
The book has commonly been divided into two parts, of
six chapters each—the first six historical, the last six
prophetical. Some recent critics maintain that the first
.seven chapters treat of the world-power in relation to the
kingdom of God; the last five chapters treat of the king-
dom of God, and its development in relation to the world-
power. The book is remarkable both for its miracles and
its prophecies. The close general correspondence of these
prophecies with the recorded facts of history has led some
writers to the belief that the book is not the work of Daniel,
Having formed an alliance with the leaders of the
They attacked Constantinople, and took it by .
1254.
as it purports to be, but that it was written by some unknown
person at a much later period. This view, which is as old
as the time of Porphyry, has been revived and maintained
by Collins, Semler, De Wette, Ewald, and others. ... On the
other side, the evidence for the genuineness of the book
is satisfactory to the representatives of orthodox theology.
Among the points in its favor are the following: 1. The
New Testament decidedly affirms its authority in many
places. 2. The Maccabean literature and the Septuagint
translation show that the book was in existence before the
date assigned to it by rationalists (175 B.C.); 3. The book
was written partly in Hebrew and partly in the older Chal-
dee, as might naturally occur at the period when it purports
to have been written. This point º decisive in favor
of the genuineness of the work. 4. So far is the book from
being a copy of history, that even now the historical appli-
cation of some of its parts is a matter of controversy: 5.
It is remarkably free from the characteristic beliefs of the
later Judaism. The exegetic and controversial literature
upon the book of Daniel is very extensive.
Daniel (HERMANN ADALBERT), an eminent German di-
vine and geographer, born in 1812, was until 1870 professor
in the pedagogium in Halle. His chief theological works
are “Thesaurus Hymnologicus” (5 vols., 1841–56) and
“Codex Liturgicus Ecclesiæ Universae,” etc. (4 vols., 1847–
54); his best geographical works are “Leitfaden für den
Unterricht in der Geographie” (68th ed. 1872) and “Hand-
buch der Geographie” (3d ed., 4 vols., 1870–71): . Died
Sept. 13, 1871. (See “H. A. Daniel, ein Lebensbild,” 1872.)
Daniel (PETER VyvyAN), a lawyer, born in Stafford
co., Va., in 1785, graduated at Princeton in 1805. He be-
came a member of the privy council in 1812, and was seve-
ral times re-elected. He became an associate justice of the
Supreme Court of the U. S. in 1841. Died May 31, 1860.
Daniel (SAMUEL), an English poet, born at Taunton in
1562, was educated at Oxford. He lived in London, where
he associated with Shakspeare and Marlowe, and was em-
ployed as tutor to Anne Clifford, who became countess of
Pembroke. In 1603 he was appointed master of the queen’s
revels. He wrote, besides other poems, “The Tragedy of
Cleopatra" (1594), an historical poem “On the Civil Wars
of York and Lancaster” (1595), “ Musophilus ” (1599), and
a History of England” (1613–34). His English is pure,
free from affectation and pedantry. Died Oct. 14, 1619.
Daniel (WILLIAM CoFFEE), M. D. See APPENDIX.
I) an’iell (John FREDERICK), F. R. S., D. C. L., an
English natural philosopher, born in London Mar. 12, 1790.
He published “Meteorological Essays” (1823). In 1831
he became professor of chemistry in King's College, Lon-
don. He was the inventor of the first form of galvanic
battery by which it was made possible to maintain a cur-
rent sensibly constant for a long period of time, and for this
most valuable improvement he received the Copley medal
in 1837. In 1839 he published an “Introduction to Chem-
ical Philosophy.” His is one of the great names of elec-
trical science. Died Mar. 13, 1845.
Dan'ielsonville (West Killingly Post-office), a bor-
ough of Killingly and Brooklyn townships, Windham co.,
Conn., on the Quinebaug River and on the Norwich and
Worcester R. R., 26 miles N. N. E. of Norwich. It has
two large cotton-mills, several shoe-manufactories, two
weekly papers, one bank, five churches, and excellent
schools. J. Q. A. STONE,
ED. AND PROP. OF “WINDHAM Co. TRANSCRIPT.”
Danſielsville, a post-village, capital of Madison co.,
Ga., about 85 miles E. N. E. of Atlanta.
Da/nish Language and Literature. The Danish
language in its present shape is the result of a long, generally
slow, but at certain periods sudden and almost violent, de-
velopment of the old tongue, which as late as 800 years after
Christ was spoken with very slight modifications throughout
the whole of Scandinavia, and which still exists as a living
language in Iceland. The two most remarkable periods
of its development fall in the latter part of the sixteenth
and the latter part of the eighteenth century. In the first
epoch the Reformation, in the latter the French Revolution,
brought the whole mental life of the Danish people in such
a commotion that ampler means of expression became ne-
cessary. New words burst forth with new ideas; new
forms followed the new logic; new phrases blossomed with
the new passions. In both cases the German language
served as a pattern, but its influence was in both cases
legitimate and highly beneficial.
stands to-day as an original and, self-consistent growth, as
an independent and well-defined organism. It has a great
part of its vocabulary in common with the German lan-
guage, but the forms of the words are so differently cast
that only the scholar can recognize the kindred material.
Its grammar and phrases are singularly like those of the
The Danish language,
DANIEL-DANISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
English language; a Danish book translated word by word
would give readable English, while the same process would
produce only nonsense in the German language. Its style
is more precise, but less pathetic, than that of the German
language; more truthful, but less brilliant, than that of the
French ; more fanciful, but less sympathetic, than that of
the English. It is not a beautiful language, but it is a
highly developed one. Its speech has a monotonous sound,
its main vowel being a mixture of a and e, and its most
characteristic consonant a weak d > but its rhythm is capa-
ble of a most delicate and infinitely varied modulation. A
foreigner can never learn to speak it with elegance, and
even the native who resides for a long time among foreign-
ers loses the most impressive graces of its accent.
The Danish literature began immediately after the Ref-
ormation, and began on such a scale as to make the student
expect an Elizabethan era. The Bible was translated; the
history of the country was written; the old popular songs,
which had been composed two or three centuries earlier,
and handed down by tradition from generation to genera-
tion, and which at this very day constitute an important
element of Danish civilization, were collected and printed
in a remarkably elever edition. Great scientists whom the
world has heard of appeared; Tycho Brahe made his ob-
servations, and the tables he left furnished the material
from which his disciple Kepler abstracted the famous laws
which bear his name; Niels Hemmingsen was a sharp and
subtle theologian of a singularly pure and powerful mind.
Comedies and tragedies were written both in Latin and
Danish, and performed with great splendor in the streets of
the great towns by the students of the colleges, to the in-
struction and amusement of the population. In every field
of literature and art there were activity and energy. But
this splendid beginning ended in a sudden and utter fail-
ure. Niels Hemmingsen was condemned to silence, Tycho
Brahe was exiled, the stage grew dumb, and the songs which
were gathered from the lips of the people mouldered on the
shelves of the library. For two centuries there was no
Danish literature, except the king's orders for new taxes
and the queen's bill of fare for sumptuous court-dinners;
and both were written in German. Now and then a great
scientist appeared, as Thomas Bartholinus, the celebrated
anatomist, and Ole Rómer, who figured out the velocity
of light. Now and then a little song flew out, or an awk-
ward endeavor was made of imitating some classical pat-
term. But these feeble tokens of life make only the general
misery more conspicuous. It was two centuries before
literature in Denmark took a new start, but then it did it
with success, and Ludwig Holberg (1684–1754) became the
founder of a great and noble literature, which has proved a
highly beneficial instrument in educating and elevating the
Danish people.
Holberg was a Norwegian by birth ; his ideas were Eng-
lish and his patterns French, but the materials he used
were exclusively Danish, and he handled them with such
a penetrating power of understanding, with such a happy
talent for interpretation, and with such a superiority of
judgment, that it has been said of him, with truth, that if .
the whole of Denmark were swallowed by the ocean, and
nothing left but Holberg’s comedies, the world would have
a perfectly clear and exhaustive idea of Danish society at
that time. It is evident, however, that an author must be
possessed of original ideas which take hold of the minds
of the people, and original patterns which express the
people's taste, if he really shall create a literature, form a
literary school, and awaken the slumbering genius of the
nation. But with Holberg both ideas and patterns were
borrowed, and died out among the Danes with him ; and
when he, nevertheless, is called the father of the Danish
literature, it needs a little explanation. Holberg did not
create a literature, but he created a public. He aroused
the attention of the people for literary affairs. He taught
them how to use a book as a means of education and en-
joyment. He wrote exactly what they needed and liked,
and whenever the interest slackened a little he whipped
them with his satire until their attention was fully awake.
There were ten readers in Denmark when he began ; there
were ten thousand when he finished. Next, he did not
call forth new authors, but he made authorship possible.
Before his time an author in Denmark was a beggar who
tried to win a patron for his book by a high-flown dedica-
tion, and who was paid for his work by a miserable alms
from the patron. Holberg brought his books to the
market through a bookseller, without any patron or dedi-
cation, and the immense success with which his courage
was rewarded made authorship a profession and book-
selling a trade in Denmark. Finally, in his comedies, he
gave the Danish literature one of its finest treasures.
They are an inexhaustible source of refreshing and invigor-
ating enjoyment. His characters are not deep; they lack
psychology; but they are well defined and sharply drawn,
DANITES–DANTE ALIGHIERI.
1255
and they carry along with them an historical significance
which makes them highly interesting. His expressions are
not elegant, but they are exceedingly witty, and they have
a fluency and abundance which in the mouth of a well-
trained actor make them sound like a merry Song. His
plots are without interest, considered as pictures of life,
but they are eminently well fitted for showing off the cha-
racter by help of the situation, and peals of laughter al-
ways accompany the performance of these plays.
The period following immediately after Holberg’s death
was very curious—talents which ran wild and passions
which fought against their own ideas; great exertions end-
ing with bagatelles, and great energies producing nothing
but noise; passionate debates about trifles, and sentimental
wailings about nonsense; and all this done in the greatest
good earnest, and with the fullest confidence that it was
great. But the period is very interesting when viewed as
a time of preparation; for so it was. Just with the new
century he appeared who in the full sense of the word is
the father of the Danish literature—he who truly is the
representative of the genius of the Danish people—Adam
Oehlensläger (1779–1850). Every one of Oehlensiąger's
earlier works—when he grew older he repeated himself—be-
came a new influence in the Danish civilization; it opened a
new mine, and Scientists, poets, and artists gathered to work
it. In his great epos, “The Gods of the North,” and in
several tragedies, “Hakon Jarl,” “Palmatoke,” “Hagbart
and Signe,” etc., he gave a sublime and, in an artistic re-
spect, perfect representation of the old pagan Scandinavian
civilization, and by these works the study of Scandinavian
antiquities became a popular interest, and pictures and
ideas from the olden times, when Scandinavia was one, be-
came an essential part of every man’s education in Den-
mark, Norway, and Sweden; nay, they became a pas-
sion in every man’s heart; and the political world has
already heard something about this passion. In his com-
edy, “The Play of St. Hans' Night,” he gave a most lovely
and charming picture of life as it is led by the Danish
middle class, and Heiberg, Hertz, Overskou, and Hostrup
followed the track with such a power and variety of talent
that the theatre of Copenhagen during a whole generation
exercised an influence on Danish culture hardly surpassed
by that of the university. Most deeply, however, Oehlen-
släger influenced the Danish people by his “Aladdin ;” by
this work he touched the moral character of the people.
“Aladdin '' is a kind of drama, which in a series of most
brilliant pictures shows the contrast between the born
genius who enters the world as he would his own house,
and the ambitious, restless energy which toils and conquers
only to fail at last. It is true that this book extricated
Danish character from much narrow pedantry, in which an
antiquated education kept it entangled; but it is also true
that it allured the youth into a dream of being born
geniuses from which it was hard to awaken.
It must be remembered that contemporary with Oehlen-
släger lived Thorwaldsen, the greatest modern sculptor;
Orsted, the discoverer of electro-magnetism; Rask, the
founder of comparative philology; Martensen, the leader
of the speculative school of theology; Gade, one of the fin-
est and mightiest composers of our time; and that each of
these men had a number of pupils, and each of these pupils
an audience. Furthermore, it must be remembered that
these exertions in science, art, and literature were made by
a people comprising only two millions of souls, two-thirds
of which—namely, the whole peasantry—lived in utter
dulness, and the remaining third was not possessed of any
extraordinary wealth. It will then easily be understood
that the literary glory of this period was also a danger.
Life became a refinement, instead of a development; illu-
sion took the place of reality. But, fortunately, there
came a warning. In a long series of very elaborate writ-
ings, Sören Kierkegaard (1813–54) gave a sublime but
austere exposition of the fundamental ideas of Christianity,
and from this standpoint he criticised the life around him
with the most biting sarcasm and an awe-inspiring severity.
The effect was a painful silence. A feeling of guilt visited
many a heart. But help there was none. Sören Kierke-
gaard’s criticism was crushing, and his ideals were too
strong. He would, no doubt, have left the whole Danish
civilization prostrate and lame for a long time if it had
not contained an undercurrent which he did not see, and
which lay outside of his criticism.
But there was from the very beginning of the period a
spirit at work—awakened by Oehlensläger, yet deeper than
he, nursed by all the fruits which science and art presented,
but blended with a passionate craving for reality, and sup-
ported by an eminently practical talent. Bishop Grundt-
vig (1784–1871), a great poet, a great scholar, a great
preacher, but greatest as a character, was the representa-
tive of this spirit. For nearly half a century he and his
disciples kept aloof from the general current of events, and
lived as an obscure party. But when the day of collapse
came, he stood in the gap with the means of reconstruc-
tion. He found two powerful allies, kindred natures, though,
not disciples, in Carl Ploug, Denmark's greatest lyrical
poet, and a most eloquent newspaper writer, and Rasmus
Nielsen, a thinker of rare acuteness and a most brilliant
lecturer. Both these men, like Grundtvig himself, were
men not only of literary talents, but of great literary
merits; but literature was to them not an aim, but an in-
strument. The idea was to throw away all finery, all that
had not vigor and breadth enough to become public prop-
erty; to make religion and patriotism the basis of civiliza-
tion, and living influence and practical consequence the
test of all its elements; and then by an extensive scheme of
education to lift the whole mass of the people up into this
reconstructed civilization. And this idea was accepted with
such an enthusiasm, and its realization inaugurated with
such success, that the small tablet on which the Danish
people records its life, is, in this moment, one of the most
interesting parts of the great picture of modern civiliza-
tion. CLEMENS PETERSEN.
Dan'ites, among the Mormons of Utah, a secret or-
ganization of men who are believed to have taken an oath
to support the authority and execute the commands of the
leaders of their sect at all hazards. Many massacres, rob-
beries, and murders, committed during the earlier history
of Utah, are ascribed to the Danites.
Danka'ii, an independent state of Abyssinia, is bound-
ed on the N. E. by the Red Sea, and on the S. W. by a
range of mountains. It is about 250 miles long. The cli-
mate is very hot; the soil is arid and poor. The inhabit-
ants are ferocious, treacherous, and fanatical Mohammed-
ans. They number about 70,000.
Dan/nebrog [etymology uncertain], the ancient battle-
standard of Denmark, bearing the figures of a cross and
crown. It was fabled to have fallen from heaven at the
battle of Wolmar in Esthonia (1219) during a crusade
against the heathens. It was twice taken in battle and
twice recaptured. In 1500 a mere fragment remained.—
The ORDER OF THE DANNEBROG is the second of the Danish
orders of knighthood. It is said to have been founded in
1219, but fell into decay, and was restored in 1671.
Dan'necker, von (JoBANN HEINRICH), a German
sculptor, pupil of Pajou in Paris and of Canova (1785–90)
in Italy, born near Stuttgart Oct. 15, 1758. Having res.
turned to Stuttgart in 1790, he was appointed professor of
sculpture. He produced admirable busts of Schiller, Lav-
ater, and other men of his time. He excelled in the ex-
pression of individual character. Among the best pro-
ductions of the Canova classicism are his Ariadne and Sap-
pho, and a colossal statue of Christ. Died Dec. 8, 1841.
Dannelly (JAMEs), a minister of the Methodist Epis-
copal, Church South, born in Georgia. Feb. 4, 1786. He
joined the South Carolina Conference in 1818. He was of
the Boanerges type, and labored extensively and success-
fully in North and South Carolina and Georgia. He died
in South Carolina April 28, 1855. T. O. SUMMERs.
Damnemo/ra, a post-township of Clinton co., N. Y.
It contains the Clinton State prison, and has mines of iron
ore. Pop. 1512.
Dan'nevirſke (the “Danish Work”), a boundary-wall
in Sleswick, built by the Danes against the Franks about
808, from the Baltic to the North Sea. The original line
can be traced from the town of Sleswick to Hollingstedt.
The line of the Dannevirke was restored in 1848 by a sys-
tem of strong fortifications known as the “Great ' and the
“Little Dannevirke.” They were evacuated by the Danes
Feb. 5, 1864, and destroyed by the allies.
Dan River, a township of Caswell co., N. C. Pop. 1910.
Dan River, a township of Patrick co., Va. Pop. 2778.
Dan River, a township of Pittsylvania co., Va. It
contains the city of Danville. Pop. 10,306.
Dans/ville, a post-village of Ingham township, Ing-
ham co., Mich. Pop. 443.
Dansville, the largest town in Livingston co., N. Y.,
situated at the head of the Genesee Valley, and the present
terminus of the Dansville and Avon branch of the Erie R.W.
It contains a hygienic institute, eight churches, one seminary,
three banks (one national), two weekly newspapers, two pa-
per-mills, mower and reaper works, a woollen mill, a foun-
dry, a pail-factory, and tanneries. P. 3887; of North Dans-
ville township, 4015. F. J. RoBBINs, ED. “ExPRESS.”
Dansville, a township of Steuben co., N. Y. P. 1981.
Dan'te Alighie'ri, one of the greatest of poets, was the
son of a lawyer in Florence, in which city he was born May
14, 1265. Boccaccio, whose life of Dante, first published
in 1477, is the best authority we have on the subject, says
that Dante was of Roman origin, of the stock of the Frangi-
1256
DANTE ALIGHIERI.
pani, one of whom, by the name of Eliseo, came to Flor-
ence and settled there, founding the family of the Elisei.
A descendant of this founder, named Cacciaguida, married
a lady of the Aldighieri family of Ferrara, and giving the
name of his wife’s family to one of his children, it came
about that they substituted it for their own family name.
After a time the d was dropped, and the name became
Alighieri; and Boccaccio says it was spelled so down to
his own day. But it has been variously spelled in later
times; among the changes that have been rung on the
original, that of Allighieri is the most common. The arms
of the family—a golden wing (ala) on an azure field—would
seem to be, as is so often the case, a pun upon the name, and
to fortify the old spelling. The name of Dante, by which
the poet was baptized, is commonly said to be an abbre-
viation of Durante, but Boccaccio says nothing of this, and
at the end of an eloquent enumeration of the gifts Italy had
received from Dante, he somewhat obscurely plays upon
the name, intimating that no other than that of the “giver”
(dante) would become him.
Little is known of either the father or mother of Dante.
His mother’s name is said to have been Bella, and she was
his father’s second wife. His father died while Dante was
yet a child, but he seems to have been carefully instructed,
and he had such a leaning to books, and such an aptitude
for study, that in the end he became master of all the learn-
ing of his time. Among his teachers was Brunetto Latini,
a distinguished grammarian and the author of two poems,
“Il Tesoro’’ and “Il Tesoretto,” and he is believed to have
studied at the universities of Padua and Bologna. He de-
lighted in music and in painting; among his friends were
the musician Casella and the painter Giotto, both of whom
he celebrates in his great poem; and in the “Vita Nuova."
he speaks of himself as on one occasion drawing an angel
on a tablet while thinking of Beatrice.
When he was nine years old he first saw Beatrice, the
daughter of a wealthy Florentine, Folco Portinari, a child
of eight years. Dante has described his mystic love for
Beatrice in that most exquisite poem the “Vita Nuova,”
and she appears again in his “ Divine Comedy” as his
guide through Paradise. This love never found its earthly
close ; and there have not been wanting those who declare
that it was a purely imaginary worship of an imaginary
being, the Beatrice of the “Vita Nuova," and of the “Par-
adiso º not having been Beatrice Portinari at all. How-
ever this may be, Beatrice Portinari married Simone de'
Bardi, and died in her twenty-fourth year. Dante him-
self married, in his twenty-sixth year, Gemma, a lady of
the powerful family of the Donati.
Our knowledge of his life is at best but fragmentary.
He fought in the battle of Campaldino, in which the Floren-
times defeated the men of Arezzo, and he was with his
countrymen again when they took Caprona from the Pi—
sans. . There are traditions that he studied medicine and
that he entered the Franciscan order, but there is no cer-
tain foundation for these stories, any more than for the
many others that have been devised to fill up the gaps in
the obscure story of his life. In the great contest between
the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, Dante at first sided with
the former: he was a Guelph by birth and education, and
he had fought on the two occasions we have mentioned
with the Guelphic party in Florence against the Ghibellines
of other cities.
In 1300, when he was in his thirty-fifth year, he became
chief of the Priori—public officers who held office only for
two months. While he was in office a local dispute split
the Guelph into two subdivisions, calling themselves the
Bianchi (whites) and the Neri (blacks). In the rage of
party the Neri proposed to appeal to Charles of Valois,
then fighting for the pope against the emperor, but the Bi-
anchi, to which faction Dante belonged, opposed the mea-
sure, and he induced the Priors to settle the question by
banishing the heads of both parties. Of course this made
both factions his enemies; the Bianchi charged him with
favoring, the Ghibellines, and the Neri with favoring the
Bianchi, and it had an ill look for Dante that the Bianchi
were allowed to return to Florence before their time of
exile had expired. The excuse was, that the place they
had been banished to was unwholesome, and, indeed,
Dante’s friend, Guido Cavalcante, died there; besides,
Dante declared that he was no longer in office at the time
of the recall.
The demand for the mediation of Charles still being loud,
Dante was sent as ambassador to Pope Boniface VIII. to
urge him to discountenance the project. But the pope
deluded Dante with vague promises, and secretly gave his
voice for Charles, so that the Bianchi lost ground. The
Neri, gaining power and influence, became masters of the
city, and at once proceeded with all the cruelty of party
against the absent Dante, denouncing him as a peculator,
fining him in a large amount, and banishing him for two
movements were grave and full of mansuetude.
years. Later he was condemned to perpetual banishment,
and threatened with burning at the stake if he should dare
to return to Florence.
After wandering far and wide, destined never again to
see his wife, living upon the hard charity of some and the
cold hospitality of others, he sought the roof of one who
seems to have been a true friend, Guido Novello da Polenta
of Ravenna, and, after fifteen years of exile, died there in
1321, on the 14th of September, in his fifty-seventh year.
Of his children by Gemma, Donati, three sons died young, a
daughter entered a convent, and two sons, Jacopo and
Piero, followed their father into exile, and gained some
reputation as scholars in Ravenna, where the race, accord-
ing to Leigh Hunt (“Stories from the Italian Poets”),
though extinct in the male line, was still surviving in
1846, through a daughter, in the noble house of Serego
Alighiari.
In his long and weary exile Dante's steps have been rev-
erently traced through many cities of Italy, and even be-
yond her boundaries as far as Paris, and even to Oxford.
That he ever saw England there is no good reason to be-
lieve, and the visit to Paris rests upon the slenderest evi-
dence, though there seems some likelihood that he visited
France. He describes the tombs at Arles as if he had seen
them, and the dikes of Flanders; and if he really went so
far north, he would hardly have failed of Paris, where were
those miniature-painters, speaking of whom he says “they
call their art “illuminating’ in Paris.” In Italy they point
out his haunts at Siena, at Arezzo, in Bologna, and doubt-
fully in other places, and unhappily too truly in Verona,
with Can Grande della Scala, and at last in Ravenna, where
his bones still repose, though repentant Florence has asked
for them again and again in vain. Once in his lifetime
she gave him leave to return, on condition of paying a
certain sum of money and asking forgiveness—conditions
which he justly refused and nobly resented.
From Boccaccio's life of Dante we give a few particulars
of the poet's appearance and habits; if we had space we
should like to translate also the remarkable story Boccaccio
tells illustrative of his power of mental concentration—a
match for Alcibiades’ famous story of Socrates (Plato,
“The Banquet”). Unhappily, no portraits of Dante exist
from which we can get an accurate notion of how he looked.
The portrait painted by Giotto in the Palazzo dell' Podestà
at Florence, in which Dante was represented between Bru-
netto Latini and Corso Donati, is so defaced that it is vir-
tually lost, nor do any good copies of it exist. In the
church of Santa Croce at Florence there is an altar-piece
by Giotto, in which is a portrait of Dante, but it is small
and so difficult to be seen that its existence is hardly
known. The well-known mask of Dante, said to have
been taken after death from the poet's face, though it has
been the foundation of all the later pictures of Dante, and
may well serve as a likeness, since it is every way charac-
teristic, is of doubtful authenticity. Its origin cannot be
certainly traced, and it is doubted if the art of casting
in plaster was known so early. Perhaps the best portrait
of Dante is preserved in the following description by
Boccaccio; “Our poet was of middle stature, and after
he reached mature age went somewhat stooping. His
He went
always clad in plain garments of such a fashion as became
his years. His face was long, with an aquiline nose, and
eyes rather large than small; his jaw was large, and the
under lip protruded beyond the upper. His complexion
was dark, and both his hair and his beard were thick, black,
and crisp, and in his aspect he was always melancholy and
brooding. By which it came to pass that one day in Verona
(the fame of his works, and especially of that part of his
Comedy which is called Hell, having gone abroad and be-
come known to many men and women) he was passing
before a door where several women were sitting, when one
of them in a low voice, yet not so low but that he and those
who were with him heard it, said to the other women, “Look
at that man, who goes down to hell, and comes back again
when he pleases, and brings news of those who are down
there !’ To which speech one of the others,answered in good
faith, “I believe that what you say is true; don’t you see
how his hair is crisped and his complexion browned by the
heat and the smoke below 2° In his eating and drinking
he was most temperate, taking food only at the ordinary
hours, and then never passing the bounds of necessity, nor
showing any excess of liking for one kind more than for
another.”
Besides the “Vita Nuova, ’’ and the “Commedia,” to
which the epithet of “ Divine” was given later by some
editor, the title given by Dante being “The Comedy of
Dante Alighieri, a Florentine by birth, but not by man-
ners,” Dante wrote a treatise on the vernacular tongue,
“De Vulgari Eloquio,” a commentary on some of his own
minor poems, “Il Convito” (“The Banquet”), and a trea-
DANTON.—DANUBE, REGULATION OF.
1257
tise “De Monarchia,” in which he eloquently advocates
the cause of the empire as against the pope.
Books on Dante and his poem are in such number that
the mere mention of their titles would fill pages. At the end
of our article on the “ Divine Comedy ?" the reader will
find the names of the principal editions and translations.
Works more especially relating to Dante himself are Boc-
CACCIO's “Vita di Dante,” 1544; the notes and appendices
to LONGFELLow's translation of the “ Divine Comedy;”
AMPièRE’s “Grèce, Rome, et Dante;” LEIGH HUNT's “Stories
from the Italian Poets;” the introduction to W. M. Ros-
SETTI’s translation of the “Inferno;” and the introduction
to J. A. CARLYLE's noble translation of the same ; T. CAR-
LYLE's “The Hero as Poet” in “Heroes and Hero Worship;”
and in French, besides Ampère's interesting essay above
mentioned, the sections on Dante in the “Histoire Lit-
teraire de la France au quatorzième siècle, par Victor le
Clerc,” Paris, 1865, short but full of meat; and, in an en-
tirely different sort, BALZAC’s “Les Proscrits,” of which
Dante at Paris disputing with the Churchmen is the hero.
But a complete account of Dante's life, or what is known
of it, is much wanted in English, nor does it exist in any
language.
As we close this article the great work on which Prof.
Ferrazzi has been so long engaged is completed, and in it
will be found all that is known of Dante and his works,
down to the minutest detail—a work in which an Italian
worshipper of Dante has labored with a more than German
thoroughness and patience. The title is “Enciclopedia
Dantesca, di Gius. Jacopo, Prof. Ferrazzi,” 4 vols., Bas-
sano, 1871. (See also “Dante secondo la tradizioni e i
novellatori,” E. Papanti, Livorno, 1873.)
CLARENCE Cook.
Danton (GEORGES JACQUES), a famous French dema-
gogue, born at Arcis-sur-Aube Oct. 28, 1759. He prac-
tised law in Paris before the Revolution. Having a tall
stature, a muscular frame, an ardent temperament, and the
voice of a Stentor, he was well qualified for a revolutionist
and agitator. “Nature has given me,” said he, “the ath-
letic form and harsh expression of Liberty.” Danton and
Marat founded the club of Cordeliers, which equalled or
surpassed that of the Jacobins in violence and in hostility
to the royalists. In 1791, Danton was appointed procu-
neur-substitut for the city of Paris. As a favorite orator
of the populace he instigated the bloody insurrection of
Aug. 10, 1792, which initiated the Reign of Terror. Dan-
ton them became minister of justice, and shared the supreme
power with Robespierre and Marat. When the French
people were alarmed by the approach of the Prussian in-
waders, their confidence was restored and their martial ar-
dor excited by a powerful speech which Danton made Sept.
2, 1792, which closed with this phrase: “De l'audace, en-
core de l'audace, et toujours de l'audace l’’ Having been
elected to the Convention, he resigned the office of minis-
ter, and became the leader of the Mountain. He voted for
the death of the king, and established in Mar., 1793, the
revolutionary tribunal. He co-operated with Robespierre
in the destruction of the Girondists, and was a member of
the Committee of Public Safety. Robespierre regarded
him with jealousy, and resolved to sacrifice him. Danton
was aware of, but seemed reckless to his danger. In Mar.,
1794, he was arrested and taken before the revolutionary
tribunal. When asked his name and residence, he an-
swered, “My name is Danton; my dwelling will soon be
in annihilation, but my name will live in the Pantheon of
history.” He exhibited after his condemnation his usual
intrepid demeanor, and was guillotined April 5, 1794.
“Nothing,” says Lamartine, “was wanting to make Dan-
ton a great man except virtue.” (See LAMARTINE, “History
of the Girondists;” THIERs, “History of the French Revo-
lution;” DEs JARDINs, “Wie de Danton,” 1851.)
Dant’zic [Ger. Danzig), a fortified city and seaport of
West Prussia, is on the left bank of the Vistula, 3% miles
from its entrance into the Baltic Sea; lat. 54° 21' N., lon.
18°40' E. It is traversed by the rivers Motlau and Ra-
danne, which here enter the Vistula, and is the terminus
of a railway from Berlin, 250 miles to the W. S. W. The
mouth of the Vistula is obstructed by sand-bars, which
prevent the access of vessels drawing more than nine feet
of water. Dantzic is surrounded by walls, and defended
by a citadel and outworks. It contains a fine cathedral,
commenced in 1343 and finished in 1503; numerous Lu-
theran and Roman Catholic churches; an exchange; a
town-hall; a gymnasium; two grammar-schools; Schools
of navigation, midwifery, and commerce; a school of art;
and trade; an observatory, a public library, a museum,
and an arsenal. Excellent timber is exported from this
place, and great quantities of wheat out of Poland. The
granaries on the Speicher Island, on which fire is pro-
hibited, are capable of storing two to three millions of
bushels. Much of this grain comes down the Vistula and
Bug on rude floats. The exports amount to $9,500,000 an-
nually. Dantzic was founded in the tenth century or
earlier. It was occupied by the Teutonic Knights from
1310 till 1454, when it became a free state under the pro-
tection of Poland. It also was for a long time one of the
cities of the Hanseatic League. On the partition of Poland
in 1793 it was annexed to Prussia. Dantzic has been
twice besieged. The first and most famous siege was
made by the French in the winter and spring of 1807.
after the conquest of Prussia by Napoleon. The rem-
nants of the Prussian army endeavored to defend the
strong places of Pomerania. Dantzic was held by 15,000
Prussians and 6000 Russians, provided with 800 pieces
of artillery and immense supplies, and commanded by
Gen. Kalkreut. The besieging party, commanded by the
veteran Marshal Lefebvre, consisted of the tenth army
corps and Saxon and Baden troops. The famous engineer
Gen. Chasseloup de Laubat directed the siege operations.
The investment was completed Mar. 14, 1807. Gen. Kal-
kreut, after a vigorous defence, during which the allies
vainly made attempts to raise the siege, capitulated on the
21st of May to avoid an impending assault. The utmost
skill of the French engineer and the science of the French
artillerist were illustrated in this siege (carried on over
frozen ground, and with the trenches sometimes filled with
snow), which sustained and enhanced the reputation they
had already acquired throughout Europe. Marshal Lefebvre
was created duke of Dantzic ; “the French annals had not
before furnished an instance of so brilliant a recompense.
Napoleon in this followed the example of the ancients, who
bestowed upon their generals the names of the places or
the nations of which she had made conquest.”
The second siege was more properly a blockade made by
the allies (Prussians and Russians) in the winter and spring
of 1813 after Napoleon's disastrous Russian campaign.
Gen. Rapp, commanding the tenth corps, held the place,
and brilliantly maintained himself until the cessation of
hostilities (June 10) under the armistice concluded between
Napoleon, Alexander, and the Prussian king. Pop. in Dec.,
1871, 89,121. REviseD BY J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Dan’ube [anc. Ister and Danubius; Ger. Donau; Hun.
Duna], a river of Europe, inferior in size only to the Volga,
is formed from the union of two streams, called the Bri-
gach and Brege, which rise in the eastern part of the Black
Forest, in lat. 48°6' N. and lon. 8° 9’ E., 2650 feet above
the level of the sea. The Danube is from 1750 to 1850
miles long, and drains an area estimated at 300,000 square
miles. The average fall of the river is eighteen inches per
mile. It is joined in its course by over fifty navigable
rivers. Flowing in a north-easterly direction from its
source, through Würtemberg and Bavaria, it passes Ulm,
where it becomes navigable for vessels of 100 tons. From
the S. it receives the Iser and the Lech, flows past Ingol-
stadt to Ratisbon, then proceeding in a south-easterly direc-
tion, enters Austria. In its course eastward to Presburg,
the Danube receives from the S. the Inn and the Ens, and
from the N. the March. In the neighborhood of Vienna
and Linz its waters often divide and form islands, among
which are the Great and Little Schütt, sometimes called
the Golden Gardens. After leaving Presburg its course
changes to the S. E., and passing Pesth it flows directly
S., and enters the Hungarian plain, where it is constantly.
forming new channels. Leaving Orsova, the Danube
passes the Iron Gate, a rocky pass 1400 yards wide. This
rapid prevented the upward progress of vessels drawing
more than two and a half feet of water. The obstruction
having been to some extent removed, vessels of eight or
nine feet draught can now pass at certain times of the year.
The river farther on forms the boundary between Bulgaria
and Roumania. Having received the Sereth and Pruth
from the N., and after forming several deltoid islands, it
flows eastward into the Black Sea. The mouth by which
the greater number of ships enter is called the Sulina.
Jetees have recently been constructed here for the protec-
tion of shipping. In 1871 the number of clearances at
the Sulina mouth was 2224, of an 'aggregate tonnage of
546,510. The Danube is an important commercial high-
way, and flows through a grand and picturesque country.
Danube, Regulation of, consists essentially in
changing the course of the Danube opposite Vienna, by
confining its current to a straight, deep channel along a
well-constructed quay, thus diverting it from a broad and
intricate system of shallow channels, none of which were
conveniently available for navigation to the city. A large
area of land will be reclaimed for agricultural purposes,
and a fine water-front will be secured. The work was
commenced in 1869, under a commission appointed by the
government, and is expected to cost not less than 30,000,000
florins, equal to about $15,000,000. W. P. BLAKE.
1258
Dan’ube, a post-township of Herkimer co., N. Y. Pop.
1324.
Dan’vers, a township and post-village of McLean co.,
Ill. The village is on the Indianapolis Bloomington and
Western R. R., 36 miles E. S. E. of Peoria. Total pop.
1760.
section of the Newburyport branch of the Boston and Maine
and the Lawrence branch of the Eastern R. R.S., 18 miles
N. by E. from Boston. It has one national bank, one Sav-
ings bank, two weekly newspapers, extensive manufactures
of shoes, brickyards, lumber and coal wharves on Porter’s
River at Danvers Port, eight churches, an iron-foundry, a
carpet-factory, a new State insane asylum, etc. There are
four post-offices and eight railroad stations in the township.
Pop. 5600. ED. “ MIRROR.”
Dan'ville, a post-village of Shipton township, Rich-
mond co., Quebec (Canada), on the Grand Trunk Railway,
87 miles E. by N. of Montreal. It has a weekly newspaper.
Pop. about 600. -
Danville, a post-township of Morgan co., Ala.
1159.
Danville, a post-village, the capital of Yell co., Ark.,
is on the Petit Jean River, about 40 miles from its mouth.
It has a church, a school, one flour-mill, and one news-
paper. J. B. BEzzo, ED. “ARGUs.”
Danville, a city, the capital of Vermilion co., Ill., is
situated on the Vermilion River, at the convergence of the
Toledo Wabash and Western, the Indianapolis Blooming-
ton and Western, the Chicago Danville and Vincennes, the
Paris and Danville, the Evansville Terre Haute and Chi-
cago, and the Danville and Tuscola R. Rs. It has 3 news-
papers and 1 magazine, 2 car-shops, 8 hotels, 23 factories,
6 coal-mines, 10 churches, 3 banks (one national), a public
park, a free library, and 1 high and 5 graded schools.
Pop. 4737; of outside township, 2434. ED. “ TIMES.”
Danville, a post-village, capital of Hendricks co., Ind.,
on the Indianapolis and St. Louis R. R., 19 miles W. of
Indianapolis. It has one national bank, one private bank,
two weekly newspapers, good public buildings, a fine loca-
tion, and good schools. Pop. 1040. -
John N. ScEARCE, ED. “ UNION.”
Damville, a township and post-village of Des Moines
co., La., on the Burlington and Missouri River R. R., 13
miles W. N. W. of Burlington. Pop. 1604.
Danville, a post-village, capital of Boyle co., Ky., is
on a branch of the Louisville and Nashville R. R., 96 miles
S. E. of Louisville. It is the seat of Centre College, the
Danville Theological Seminary (Presbyterian), the Southern
Collegiate Institute, the Caldwell Female Institute, and a
State asylum for the deaf and dumb. It has two national
banks and one weekly newspaper. Pop. 2542.
ED. “KENTUCKY ADVOCATE.”
Danville, a township of Blue Earth co., Minn. Pop.
557.
Danville, a post-village, capital of Montgomery co.,
Mo., 80 miles W. of St. Louis. It has one weekly news-
paper. Pop. of township, 2254.
L. A. THOMPson, ED. “THE RAY.”
Danville, a pºst-township of Rockingham co., N. H.
It has manufactures of lumber. Pop. 548.
Danville, a post-borough, capital of Montour co., Pa.,
is on the North Branch of the Susquehanna and on the
Lackawanna and Bloomsburg, the Philadelphia and Read-
ing, and the Danville Hazleton and Wilkesbarre R. Rs., 50
miles S. W. of Wilkesbarre and 67 miles N. by E. from
Harrisburg. It contains two national banks, one semi-
weekly and two weekly newspapers, a large steam printing-
office, seven blast-furnaces, six rolling-mills, and numerous
other manufactories. Good iron ore, limestone, and an-
thracite coal are found in the vicinity. Pop. 8436.
BRADLEY & GoRDON, PUBs. “MonTour. AMERICAN.”
Danville, a post-village of Caledonia, co., Vt., 20 miles
E. N. E. of Montpelier, on the Portland and Ogdensburg
R. R. It has one national bank, an academy, and a graded
School, one weekly newspaper, and manufactures of lumber,
woollen goods, and threshing-machines. Owing to its
mountain scenery, it is a summer resort. Pop. of Danville
township, 2216. N. H. EATON, ED. “North STAR.”
Danville, a post-village of Dan River township, Pitt-
Sylvania, co., Va., on the falls of Dan River, at the terminus
of the Lynchburg and Danville R. R., and on the Richmond
Danville and Piedmont R. R., 141 miles W. S. W. of Rich-
mond. Leaf tobacco is largely exported. It has one
national and two private ‘banks, two weekly newspapers,
an iron-foundry, fifteen tobacco-factories, machine-shops,
and mills. It is the seat of Roanoke Female College and
Pop.
Danvers, a post-town of Essex co., Mass., at the inter-
DANUBE–DARBY.
-
another female institute. The principal trade is in leaf
tobacco. Pop. 3463.
ABNER ANDERSON, ED. “REGISTER.”
Daph’ne, a genus of trees and shrubs of the order
Thymelaceae, having a 4-cleft, funnel-shaped perianth,
eight stamens, and a 1-seeded succulent fruit. The leaves
are sometimes deciduous and sometimes evergreen, and
are more or less acrid. The berries are poisonous, but the
flowers of some species are beautiful and of exquisite fra-
grance. The garou bush (Daphne Gnidium) of Southern
Europe, and the mezereon, both used in medicine, belong
to this genus. The Spurge laurel (Daphne Lawreola) is a
native of Great Britain. Paper is made in India from the
bark of the Daphne cannabima , it is called Nepaul paper,
and is distinguished for smoothness and durability.
Daphne, a celebrated grove and sanctuary of Apollo, 5
miles S. W. of Antioch in Syria, was frequented by heathen
pilgrims and voluptuaries. Here was a temple of Apollo,
surrounded by beautiful groves of laurel and cypress trees,
gardens, and baths. This place was appropriated to the
indulgence of licentious pleasures, and was the scene of an
almost perpetual festival of vice.
Daphne [Gr. Aáóvn], in Greek mythology, a nymph
beloved by Apollo. To escape from him she besought the
aid of the earth, which opened to receive her, and she was
transformed into a laurel tree.
Daph/mis [Aáðvis], in Greek mythology, a beautiful
youth of Sicily, was the son of Mercury and a nymph of
the country. He was reared amid beautiful groves of laurel
(84bvm), whence his name, and was taught by Pan to play
on the pipe. He became a herdsman, and tended his herds
on Mount AEtna, where he won the love of a naiad, who
for his supposed unfaithfulness punished him with blind-
ness. Having prayed his father for relief, Mercury trans-
ferred him to heaven. The invention of bucolic poetry was
ascribed to him. The story of Daphnis forms the subject
of the first idyll of Theocritus, and the name frequently oc-
curs as a character in descriptions of pastoral life.
HENRY DRISLER.
Da Pon’te (LorLNzo), an Italian poet, born at Cemeda
Mar. 10, 1749. He became Latin secretary to the em-
peror Joseph II. in Vienna, where he composed several
After he had resided for some years in London,
he emigrated to New York in 1805. About 1828 he was
appointed professor of Italian in Columbia College. He
wrote the libretto for Mozart’s “ Don Giovanni” and other
works. Died Aug. 17, 1838.
Dar'abgherd', a town of Persia, in the province of
Farsistan, 155 miles S. E. of Sheeraz. It is in an extensive
plain, amidst groves of oranges and lemons. It was for-
merly a large and important city, and now has a popula-
tion of 10,000 to 15,000.
D’Arblay, MADAME (originally FRANCEs Burney), an
English novelist, born at Lynn-Regis June 13, 1752, was a
daughter of Charles Burney, the musician. , Burke, Dr.
Johnson, Garrick, and other literati frequented her father's
house and listened to his musical concerts, and in these
assemblies she was a silent and diffident spectator. Her
first novel, “Evelina,” published anonymously in 1778,
had a great success. In 1782 she produced “Cecilia.”
She was second keeper of the robes to Queen Charlotte
(1786–91), and wrote an interesting relation of court ex-
perience in her “Diary and Letters” (7 vols., 1842–46).
Irí 1793 she was married to Count d’Arblay, a French
exile. She died at Bath Jan. 6, 1840.
Darboy (GEORGEs), a French ecclesiastic, born Jan. 16,
1813, became in 1839 teacher of philosophy and theology
at the seminary of Langres, in 1859 bishop of Nancy,
and in 1863 archbishop of Paris. At the Vatican Council
he was a decided opponent of papal infallibility, but he
recognized it when it was promulgated. On April 5, 1871,
he was arrested by the Communists, and when the govern-
ment troops took the city he was with five others shot at
St.-Roquette. Among his prominent works are “Les
saintes femmes’’ (1850), “Les femmes de la Bible” (2
vols., 5th ed. 1859), “La vie de St. Thomas à Becket” (2
vols., 2d ed. 1860).
Dar/by, a township of Madison co., O. Pop. 988.
Darby, a township of Pickaway co., O. Pop. 1548.
Darby, a township of Union co., O. Pop. 1142.
Darby, a post-borough of Delaware co., Pa., on Darby
Creek, 7 miles S. W. of Philadelphia, with which it is
connected by a horse-railroad. Pop. 1205, or, including
Darby township, 2200.
Darby (WILLIAM), an American geographer and statis-
tician, was born in Pennsylvania in 1775. He was an
officer under Jackson, serving in Louisiana, and assisted
operas.
DARBYITES.–DARIUS II.
1259
in the survey of the boundary between the U. S. and Can-
ada. He died at Washington, D. C., Oct. 9, 1854. He
was the author of numerous works, among which are a
“Geographical Description of Louisiana” (1816), “Geog-
raphy and History of Florida” (1821), a “Geographical
Dictionary,” and a number of gazetteers and other Works.
I)arbyites. See PLYMoUTH BRETHREN.
Darcet (JEAN PIERRE JosłPH), a French chemist, born
Aug. 31, 1777, was the son of Jean Darcet.(1727–1801),
director of the porcelain manufactory at Sèvres, who estab-
lished the combustibility of the diamond. He added several
useful discoveries to practical chemistry, important im-
provements in the manufacture of powder and in the com-
position of bronze and steel, the production of soda from
common salt, etc. Died Aug. 2, 1844.
Dardanelle, a post-village of Yell co., Ark., on the
Arkansas River, about 80 miles above Little Rock. It has
two weekly newspapers, two steam flour-mills, a planing-
mill, a steam cotton-gin, four churches, and two public
schools. Pop. 926; of township, 1838.
J. B. BEzzo, ED. DANVILLE “ARGUs.”
Dar/danelles (anc. Hellespontus), called also the
Strait of Gallip'oli, a narrow channel connecting the
Sea of Mármora with the AEgean Sea, and forming a part
of the boundary between Europe and Asia. It extends
from lat. 40° to 40° 30' N.; is bounded on the N. W. by
Turkey and on the S. E. by Asia Minor, and is about 40
miles long. The width varies from 1 to 4 miles. A rapid
current runs from the Sea of Mármora south-westward.
. The Dardanelles is strongly fortified on both sides by forts
and batteries. Two castles on the opposite shores occupy
the sites of the ancient Sestos and Abydos. The Helles-
pont is historically famous for the floating bridges thrown
across it by Xerxes the Great. It is scarcely less renowned
as the scene of the loves of Leander and Hero, the sub-
ject of a famous epic poem by Musæus.
Darſden (MILEs), a person remarkable for his great
size, was born in North Carolina in 1798. He was a man
of active habits until he was fifty-five years old, when cor-
pulency compelled him to lead a quiet life. He was seven
and a half feet high, and weighed at his death over 1000
pounds. Died in Henderson co., Tenn., Jan. 23, 1857.
Dardenne, a township and village of St. Charles co.,
Mo., on the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. R., 30
miles W. N. W. of St. Louis. Pop. 3092.
Dare, a county in the N. E. of North Carolina, border-
ing on the Atlantic Ocean and Albemarle Sound. It was
formed from Currituck, Hyde, and Tyrrel cos. since 1860.
Capital, Manteo. Pop. 2778. -
Dare (VIRGINIA), the first child born among the Eng-
lish colonists in America, was born at Roanoke (now in
North Carolina) in Aug., 1587. She was a granddaughter
of the governor, John White. Her fate, like that of all the
colony, is unknown. -
Da’res, a Trojan, companion of Æneas, distinguished
for his skill in boxing. At the games in honor of Anchises
in Sicily, Dares challenged all competitors, but was defeat-
ed and nearly slain by the aged Entellus.
HENRY DRISLER.
Dares, a priest of Vulcan in Troy, to whom was as-
cribed an Iliad, written before that of Homer on palm
leaves. AElian states that he knew the work as existing in
his own day (150 A.D.), but that work, whatever its cha-
racter, must have been the production of some post-Ho-
meric writer. There is still extant, under the name of
Dares Phrygius, a narrative in prose of the destruction of
Troy (“De Excidio Trojae Historia”) in forty-four chap-
ters. A letter prefixed, addressed to the historian Sallust,
states that this narrative was translated from the Greek by
Cornelius Nepos, who met with the original in Athens. The
Latinity shows the production to be of a later age than that
of Nepos. It is probably, according to Dederich, a collection
of extracts from different sources made in the sixth or seventh
century. It was edited, along with “Dictys Cretensis,”
by Madame Dacier, as one of the volumes of the Delphin
classics, Paris, 1680; most recently by Dederich, Bonn,
1835. HENRY DRISLER.
Dar'foor', a country of Central Africa, in the E. part
of Soodān, is mostly included between lat. 10° and 16° N.
and lon. 26° and 29° E. Its limits are not accurately de-
fined. Area, about 106,000 square miles. The northern
part is level, sandy, and nearly destitute of water. A ridge
of mountains called Marrah extends through the central
part. The soil produces maize, rice, millet, sesame, tobacco,
and beans. The rainy season begins in June and continues
till September. The people are Mohammedans, a mixture
of Arabs and negroes. Darfoor carries on a trade with
Egypt by means of caravans, and exports slaves, ivory,
copper, hides, and ostrich feathers. Pop, about 4,000,000.
It is ruled by a sultan who has despotic power and re-
sides at Tindelly. The chief commercial town is Kobbe.
Dar'gan (EDwARD S.), a distinguished lawyer and jurist
in Alabama, a native of North Carolina, first taught school,
then studied law, and upon being admitted to the bar set-
tled in Mobile. In 1844 he was elected mayor of the city;
from 1845 to 1847 he was representative in Congress. He
was the first proposer of the line of adjustment finally
adopted on the settlement of the Oregon question with the
British government. On his return from Congress he was
elected judge of the supreme court of Alabama.
Dar’ic [Gr. 8apeukós, said to be derived from Darius],
an ancient Persian gold coin, having on the obverse an
archer crowned and kneeling, and on the reverse a quad-
rata incusa or royal palla. Several of these coins are pre-
served in European collections. The daric is essentially
the same coin as the Greek chrysus (xpwoods) and stater
(orrarip) of gold, and also the Roman awrew8 (which, like
xpvoroús, signifies “golden’’), though the last-named coin
appears to have varied more in weight than the Greek
stater, averaging about 121 grains. The Daric weighed
two Attic drachmae = 133 grains Troy, or in later times
considerably less. It was used in Greece, as well as in
Asia. Its value in American gold would be nearly seven
dollars, but, owing to the difference of purchasing power
in gold at different periods, its true value cannot be accu-
rately stated. -
Da’rien, a township and post-village of Fairfield co.,
Conn., on the New York and New Haven R. R., 35 miles
S. W. of New Haven. Total pop. 1808.
Darien, a port of entry and capital of McIntosh co.,
Ga., is on the Altamaha River, 12 miles from the sea and
60 miles S. S. W. of Savannahºe Pine lumber is exported
from it. Pop. 547.
Darien, a township and post-village of Genesee co.,
N. Y., on the Erie R. R., 25 miles E. of Buffalo. Total
pop. 2054.
Darien, a township and post-village of Walworth co.,
Wis., on the Western Union R. R., 50 miles W. of Racine.
Pop. 1583.
Darienſ, Gulf of, a portion of the Caribbean Sea, in
the United States of Colombia, is bounded on the W. by the
Isthmus of Darien (or Panamá). It receives the river
Atrato.
Darien, Isthmus of. See PANAMA.
Darius, eldest son of Artaxerxes Mnemon, was desig-
nated by that monarch as his successor to the Persian
throne. When Darius was fifty years old, his father, ac-
cording to 'custom, asked the king-elect to choose any gift
which it was in the father's power to confer. By an estab-
lished rule such a choice must be complied with at whatever
cost. Darius chose Aspasia (or Milto), the beautiful and
favorite Greek mistress of his father and of his late uncle,
Cyrus the Younger. Though much enraged at this request,
the old king promised to leave the matter to the decision
of Aspasia, who preferred Darius. The king, however,
broke his promise, and devoted the concubine to the service
of the gods and to a celibate life. The anger of Darius at
this act prompted him to enter into a conspiracy against
his father, but the design was discovered and the prince put
to death.
Dari/us [Gr. Aapeios; old Egyptian, Ntreioush ; mod-
ern Persian, Dara or Darab : Heb. Daryavesh ; old Per-
sian (cuneiform), Daryuhwsh] I., or Darius Hystaspis,
king of Persia, was the son of Hystaspes, a member of the
noble family of Achaemenidae. He was called Gushtāsp in
the legends of Persia. He was one of seven noble Persians
who conspired against and killed the usurper Smerdis,
whom he succeeded in 521 B. C. He married two daugh-
ters of Cyrus the Great, and organized the extensive em-
pire which Cyrus and Cambyses had enlarged by conquest.
Babylon revolted against him, but was after a long siege
reduced to subjection in 516. Soon after this date he con-
ducted a large army against the nomadic Scythians of
Europe, whom he was not able to conquer or defeat. He
sent a great army to conquer and chastise the Greeks, some
of whom had offended him by aiding the Ionians in their
revolt against Darius. His army was routed at the great
battle of Marathon, 490 B.C. He was preparing to renew
the invasion of Greece, when he died in 486 or 485 B. C.,
and was succeeded by his son Xerxes, who reigned from
486 or 485 to 465 B.C. (See GROTE, “History of Greece.”)
There is little doubt that at first the name Darius was a
title rather than a proper name. -
Darius II., called Darius Ochus, or Nothus, king
of Persia, was a natural son of Artaxerxes Longimanus.
He married Parysatis, his aunt, a daughter of Xerxes I.
1260
DARIUS III.-DARMSTADT.
In 424 B. C. he deposed and succeeded the usurper Sogdi-
anus, who had killed Xerxes II., the lawful heir. His
reign was ignoble, and disturbed by the rebellions of sev-
eral satraps. He had sixteen brothers and half-brothers,
who were illegitimate sons of Artaxerxes. His character
was weak, and he was the slave of the eunuchs of his court.
He died in 405 B.C., and was succeeded by his son Artax-
erxes Mnemon. -
Darius III., surnamed CopoMANNUs, the last king of
the ancient Persian monarchy, was a descendant of the
preceding. He ascended the throne in 336 B. C., on the
death of Arses. In the year 334 his empire was invaded
by Alexander the Great of Macedon, who gained a victory
at the river Granicus. Darius, commanding in person,
was defeated at Issus in 333, and again at Gaugamela,
near Arbela, in 331 B. C. He retreated towards Bactriana,
pursued by the victorious army, which had nearly over-
taken him when he was murdered by Bessus, one of his
satraps, in the year 330. The wife and daughters of Darius
were captured at the battle of Issus. Alexander married
his daughter Statira. *
Darius Hystaspis. See DARIUs I.
Darius Ochus. See DARIUs II. (For a good suc-
cinct account of these Persian kings, see RAWLINSON,
“Manual of Ancient History,” 1869.) -
HDarius the Median. See CYAxARES II.
HDarjeel’ing, a sanitary station of British India, in the
Sikkim Himalaya, is situated at an elevation of 7400 feet
above the level of the sea, on the side of a large basin or
hollow in which the river Runjeet flows. It is 308 miles N.
of Calcutta, and commands a magnificent view of the snowy
ranges of the Himalaya to the N. and W. The climate is
Salubrious, although the annual rainfall is great—i. e.
about 120 inches. sº
Dark Ages, a term somewhat vaguely applied to the
period between the fall of the Roman empire and the re-
vival of letters about the thirteenth century. As this re-
vival occurred earlier in Italy than in Northern Europe,
the Dark Ages may justly be said to have been of longer
duration in the North than in the South. (See MIDDLE
AGES.)
Park Cor’ner, a township of Anderson co., S. C.
Pop. 1178.
Darke, a county of Ohio, bordering on Indiana. Area,
609 square miles. It is drained by Greenville and Still-
water creeks. The surface is nearly level; the soil is fer-
tile. Cattle, grain, tobacco, wool, hay, butter, and lumber
are produced. Carriages, clothing, saddlery, etc. are manu-
factured. It is intersected by the Dayton and Union R. R.
and the railroad which connects Columbus with Chicago.
Capital, Greenville. Pop. 32,278. e
Darke (WILLIAM) was born near Philadelphia, Pa., in
1736; removed with his parents to Virginia in 1740; served
under Braddock at his defeat in 1755; and served through-
out the Revolutionary war in the American army, in the
latter part of which he held a colonel’s commission. He
became an influential citizen and a major-general of Vir-
ginia militia, served in Ohio and at St. Clair's defeat (Nov.
4, 1791), acting as lieutenant-colonel of the levies, and fight-
ing with desperate valor against the Miamis. He was
dangerously wounded, and his youngest son was killed.
Died in Jefferson co., Va., Nov. 26, 1801.
Darkhan’, Mount, a lofty granite mountain in Mon-
golia, in lat. 47° 36' N., lon. 110° 10' E., is 140 miles S. E.
of Oorga. Here is a monument erected to the memory of
Genghis Khan, to honor whom the Mongolians assemble
here annually.
Darſley (FELIX 0.C.), an eminent American designer,
born in Philadelphia June 23, 1822. He became a resident
of New York City in 1848. He has illustrated the novels
of J. Fenimore Cooper, Irving’s “Sketch-Book,” “Rip
Van Winkle,” some of the works of Dickens, etc. His out-
line illustrations of Judd’s “Margaret” are among his most
remarkable productions.
Dar/ling, a river of Australia, in New South Wales, is
formed by numerous branches which rise on the western
declivity of the Australian Alps. They converge into a
central basin of clay, where their channels unite and sepa-
rate again into branches in a singular manner. Below the
union of these branches the Darling flows south-westward
through arid plains, and enters the Murray near lat. 34° S.
The main stream is about 600 miles long.
Darling (GRACE), an heroic Englishwoman, born at
Bamborough Nov. 24, 1815, was a daughter of the keeper
of the Longstone lighthouse, on one of the Farne Islands.
She rescued nine persons from the wreck of the steamer
Forfarshire, Sept. 7, 1838. A public subscription of about
£700 was raised for her. Died Oct. 20, 1842.
Dar/lington, or Darnton, a market-town of Eng-
land, in the county of Durham, on the Skerne, near its junc-
tion with the Tees, 18 miles S. of Durham. It has a fine
church built in the twelfth century, with a tower 180 feet
high. The town is well built, and is connected by railway
with Stockton and other places. It has manufactures of
Brussels carpets, optical glasses, worsted yarn, and brass-
ware. Pop. in 1871, 27,730. -
Darlington, a county in the N. E. of South Carolina.
Area, 800 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by
the Great Pedee River, and intersected by Black Creek.
The surface is undulating; the soil is partly sandy, and is
fertile near the streams. Cotton, corn, rice, and cattle are
raised. It is intersected by the Wilmington Columbia and ,
Augusta R. R. and the Cheraw and Darlington R. R. Cap-
ital, Darlington. Pop. 26,243.
Darlington, a post-village of Dublin township, Har-
ford co., Md. Pop. 168.
Darlington, a township and post-village of Beaver co.,
Pa., 15 miles S. W. of New Castle. Pop. 1811.
Darlington, a post-village, capital of Darlington co.,
S. C., is on the Cheraw and Darlington R. R., 75 miles
E. N. E. of Columbia, and 30 miles S. of Cheraw. One
weekly newspaper is published here. It has five churches,
a Masonic hall, and two steam-mills.
J. M. BROWN, ED. “SouTHERNER.”
Darlington, a post-village, capital of La Fayette co.,
Wis., is on the Pecatonica River and on the Mineral Point
R. R., about 50 miles S. W. of Madison. It has two weekly
newspapers and four churches, good water-power, a large
flour-mill, and other manufactures, and is an extensive
market for grain and live-stock. Pop. of Darlington town-
ship, 2773. J. G. KNIGHT, PUB. “DEMOCRAT.”
Darlington (WILLIAM), M. D., LL.D., an American
botanist, born in Chester co., Pa., April 28, 1782, practised
medicine at West Chester. He was a Democratic member
of Congress in 1815–17 and 1819–23. He published a valu-
able work on the plants of Chester county, entitled “Flora
Cestrica” (1837), “Agricultural Botany ” (1847), “Memo-
rials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall” (1849),
and several other works. He organized societies for the
study of natural history and botany in West Chester, where
he was a bank president. He imparted his own enthusiasm
for science to others, and did much to develop the literary
and social culture of the community. The Darlingtonia
Californica, a curious Sarracemiaceous plant of the Pacific
States, was named in his honor. As a botanist his fame
was deservedly high, but he was better known in Europe
than in his own country. Died April 23, 1863.
Darlingto/mia [named by the late Dr. John Torrey in
honor of Dr. William Darlington, noticed above], a genus
of herbs of the natural order Sarracemiaceae, comprising
but one known species, the Darlingtonia Californica, a
perennial plant of California. Its leaves are all radical,
and resemble somewhat closely those of the Sarracennias
of the Atlantic States, but the size of the leaves of the
Darlingtonia is much the larger, the length in some in-
stances exceeding two feet. The leaves are hollow and
twisted, the upper part being turned over into a hood-like
dome or vault, beneath which is the orifice which opens
into the cavity or pitcher of the leaf. On either side of the
opening two lobes depend, which may be taken to repre-
sent the true leaf, in which case the ascidium or pitcher
must be considered as representing the petiole or leaf-stalk.
Inside the pitcher the remains of insects are often found,
their exit being impeded by long slender hairs within the
leaf. The flower-stalk is sometimes four feet high, single,
and furnished with bracts; the flower regular, nodding,
and single, and about two inches across; the calyx straw-
colored, of five sepals, all pointed; the five petals are pale
purple, the stamens, twelve to fifteen, nearly hidden by the
top-shaped ovary, upon which there is a style with a five-
parted stigma. The capsule is five-celled, many-seeded,
and one inch long. This plant is the representative of the
Sarracennias of the Atlantic States, and with them and the
Heliamphora of South America constitutes the whole natural
order as far as it is known at present.
The name Darlingtonia was given by De Candolle to a
proposed genus of herbs of the order Leguminosae, but it
having been shown that the plants assigned to that genus
belonged rather to the genus Desmanthus, the name was
dropped. The same result followed the attempts of several
other botanists thus to honor Dr. Darlington, until at last,
by a happy choice, this remarkable plant was selected to
bear his name. The genus is well marked, and the name
Darlingtonia can hardly fail to be a permanent one.
Darm'stadt, a town of Germany, capital of the grand
duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, is on the river Darm and on
the Frankfort and Mannheim Railway, 15 miles S. of
DARNEL–IDARTMOUTH COLLEGE.
1261
Frankfort-on-the-Main. It is at the north-western ex-
tremity of the Odenwald. It consists of an old and a new
town, both surrounded by walls.
but the new town has wide and handsome streets. It has
five public squares, and two ducal palaces, one of which
contains a library of 200,000 volumes and a valuable col-
lection of 700 paintings. One of the Madonnas, supposed
to be a copy of a Dresden Holbein, was a few years ago,
by competent critics, pronounced a true Holbein, and even
a better picture than the Dresden Madonna. Pop. in 1871,
39,584, including the suburb Bessungen.
Darſnel (Lolium temulentum), a grass well known in
Europe, and maturalized in the U. S. The glumes are as
long as the spikelets, or longer, and the spikelets have five
to seven florets which are awned. The seeds of darnel are
reputed poisonous, but recent researches are said to have
established their harmlessness. It is often infested by
ergot, and this may account for its poisonous qualities.
Darnetal, a town of France, department of Seine-In-
férieure, on the Aubette, 2% miles E. of Rouen. It has two
Gothic churches, and manufactures of flannels and other
woollen goods. Pop. 5909.
Darnſley, EARLs of (1725), Wiscounts Darnley (1723)
and Barons Clifton (Ireland, 1721), Lords Clifton (England,
1608).-John STUART BLIGH, sixth earl, B. A., born April
16, 1827, succeeded his father Feb. 11, 1835.
Darnley (HENRY Stuart), Lorn, born in England in
1541, was a son of the Scottish earl of Lennox. His mother
was a niece of Henry VIII. of England. He had a hand-
Some person, but was profligate and deficient in intellect.
In 1565 he married Mary queen of Scots, whom he soon
offended by his insolence and other faults. He also pro-
cured the assassination of Rizzio, which aroused her deep-
est indignation. The isolated house in which he lodged
was blown up with gunpowder at the instance, it was sus-
pected, of his wife, and he was killed Feb. 9, 1567.
Darrtown, a post-village of Milford township, Butler
co., O. Pop. 258.
Darſter [so called from their manner of seizing their
prey], (Plotus), a genus of birds, natives of warm climates,
w
§§
º: § |
#
º: º
§§ §§§
§º sº SW
A. * . - \ | º
º º
Şillº §
º º N
§§
j
f
3.z
Darter.
Sometimes called snake-birds from the length of the neck.
They are nearly allied to the cormorants, but they have a
long, slender, straight, and sharp-pointed bill. They devour
great numbers of fish. The common darter (Plotus An-
hinga) is found along the coast of the Southern States.
Dart/ford [Saxon, Darentford], a town of England, in
Kent, on the river Darent, and on the London and Graves-
The former is ill-built,
end Railway, 17 miles by rail E. S. E. of London. It lies
in a narrow valley between two steep hills. It has cotton
and silk printing-works, large powder-mills, and manufac-
tures of machinery, iron, and paper. Watling Street, an
ancient Roman road, crosses the river here. Edward III.
held a tournament at Dartford in 1331, and Wat Tyler's
insurrection broke out here in 1381. Pop. 5314.
Dartford, a post-village, capital of Green Lake co.,
Wis., on the outlet of Green Lake, 65 miles N. N. E. of
Madison.
Dart/moor, an elevated moor or table-land and royal
forest in the south-western part of Devonshire, England,
noted for its rugged scenery and its cyclopean relics of pre-
historic races. The royal forest and its adjuncts extend about
20 miles from E. to W. and 22 from N. to S., being one-fifth
of the whole area of Devonshire, and measuring more than
130,000 acres. Elevated considerably above the surround-
ing country, it culminates in Yes Tor, 2050 feet above the
level of the sea. The geological formation of Dartmoor is
chiefly granitic, but large masses of trap occur. Copper,
tin, and manganese are found. The soil is mostly peat,
which in some places is twenty-five feet deep. The moor
affords pasturage. Many of the dells are fertile, and the
region abounds with mosses and lichens. Among the an-
tiquities of Dartmoor we may mention the Gray Wethers,
a ruin of an ancient circular temple, and the remains of a
large pre-historic village at Grimspound. The forest of
Dartmoor was granted by Henry III. to his brother Richard,
earl of Cornwall, and since 1337 a part of Dartmoor has
been annexed to the duchy, but not to the county, of Corn-
wall. Dartmoor is famous as the seat of a prison, near
Prince Town, in which, during the war of 1812–15, a large
number of American sailors were confined. Their suffer-
ings were at times very great.
Dartſmouth, a seaport-town of England, in Devon-
shire, 32 miles S. by W. from Exeter, picturesquely situ-
ated on the terraced side of the right bank of the estuary
of the Dart, near the ocean. The entrance to the river is
defended by a castle and batteries. The chief exports are
woollen goods, cider, and barley. Six steamers and about
240 sailing vessels belong to this port, which is a bonded
one, its jurisdiction extending about 40 miles along
the coast. Here Richard Lion-heart assembled the
crusading fleet in the spring of 1190. Dartmouth was
incorporated by charter of Edward III. in 1342, was
attacked by the French in 1404, was taken by Prince
Maurice in 1643, and recaptured in Jan., 1645–46, by
Fairfax. Pop. in 1871, 4978.
Dartmouth, a post-village, seaport, and township
of Nova Scotia, in Halifax co., is on Halifax harbor,
half a mile N. of the city of Halifax. It has a lunatic
asylum, a gold-mine, a marine railway, boiler and en-
gine works, foundries, tanneries, etc. P. about 2500.
Dartmouth, a township and post-village of Bris-
tol co., Mass. The village is 6 miles S. W. of New Bed-
ford. The town has fifteen churches, lumber and salt
works, and other manufactures, but is chiefly agricul-
tural. It has several good harbors. Total pop. 3367.
Dartmouth College, the fourth of the New Eng-
land colleges in chronological order—preceded only by
Harvard, Yale, and Brown—was an offshoot of Moore's
charity school, an institution for the education of In-
dian youth, established in Lebanon, Conn., in the year
1754, by the Rev. Eleazar Wheelock, D. D. The school
was subsequently removed to Hanover, N. H., a charter
for a college, to be connected with it, and yet a distinct
institution, having been obtained. This charter was
issued Dec. 13, 1769, by John Wentworth, the last of
the royal governors of New Hampshire. Dr. Wheelock
was its first president, and in view of the interest taken
in the schooſby Lord Dartmouth, an English nobleman,
and of his benefactions to it, his name was given to the
college. One of the most signal events in the history
of the institution is the controversy out of which arose
the famous Dartmouth College case. The legislature
of New Hampshire passed an act in 1616, changing the
name of the institution to “Dartmouth University,”
and embracing other important and undesirable modi-
fications. To this act the trustees were opposed, and
with the design of testing its constitutionality, they
brought an action before the supreme court of the State:
By this tribunal the legislature was sustained, and appeal
was taken to the Supreme Court of the U. S., John Marshall
being then chief justice. The cause of the college was there
argued by Daniei Webster and other able counsel, and fully
sustained by the court. The university organization was
dissolved, and the old college board of trustees sustained.
This great battle was fought by them not for themselyes
only ; the principles concerned were vital to many other

1262
DARTMOUTH-DARWINISM.
institutions. Dartmouth, in comparative poverty, was
thus instrumental in vindicating and establishing the
sacredness of private trusts.
The college has had seven presidents: Eleazar Wheelock,
D. D., inaugurated in 1769; John Wheelock, LL.D., in
1779; Francis Brown, D. D., in 1815; Daniel Dana, D.D.,
in 1820; Bennet Tyler, D. D., in 1822; Nathan Lord, D. D.,
in 1828; the present incumbent, Asa Dodge Smith, D. D.,
LL.D., in 1863. The whole number of its alumni, as given
in the “Triennial” for 1870, is 3676. Of these, more than
900 have entered the ministry. Perhaps the two professions
that have drawn most largely upon the institution have
been those of teaching and the law. A single.class might
be named, one-fourth of whose members have been either
college presidents or professors; and it has been stated
that at one time there were residing in Boston, Mass., no
less than seven sons of the college, including Daniel Web-
ster and Rufus Choate, “who were justly regarded as rank-
ing among the brightest luminaries of the law.” z
While the institution has aimed from the beginning at a
high religious tone, it is not sectarian. Most of the trus-
tees and teachers are of the orthodox Congregational con-
nection. As to methods of teaching, while the college has
ever been conservative, it welcomes all real improvements.
It holds to a carefully devised curriculum, but has divers
options, both as to courses and particular studies. It re-
tains and honors the ancient classics, but it favors science
also. Of late much more has been expended on the scien-
tific appointments of the institution than on the classical.
The various departments are as follows: 1, the old academic
department, with its four years’ curriculum; 2, the Chand-
ler scientific department, with a regular course, chronolog-
ically parallel to that of the academic ; 3, the agricultural
department, so called, or “the New Hampshire College of
Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts,” based on the Congres-
sional land-grant, and having a regular three years’ course;
4, the engineering department, or the “Thayer School of
Civil Engineering;” 5, the medical department, or the old
New Hampshire Medical College. The last catalogue em-
braces a faculty of instruction thirty-one in number, and
in all the courses of study 408 students. Within the last
seven years more than $500,000 have been secured for the
various departments. Two new college buildings have also
been erected, making the whole number eight; the ground
has been broken for another, and arrangements are in pro-
gress for the erection of a fire-proof library building. The
number of volumes in the different libraries has risen to
46,000; large additions have been made to the philosophical
and chemical apparatus and the various museums, and the
astronomical observatory has been furnished with one of
the best telescopes in the country.
A. D. SMITH.
HDartmouth, EARLS OF, and Viscounts Lewisham
(Great Britain, 1711), Barons Dartmouth (England, 1682).
—WILLIAM WALTER LEGGE, fifth earl, born in 1823, was
M. P. for South Staffordshire 1849–53, and succeeded his
father Nov. 22, 1853.
Dar/trey, EARLs of (United Kingdom, 1866), Barons
Cremorne (Ireland, 1797), Barons Dartrey (United King-
dom, 1847).-RICHARD DAWSON, first earl, K. P., born Sept.
7, 1817, succeeded his father as Baron Cremorne Mar. 21,
1827. - -
Daru (NAPOL'ÉON), Count, a son of the following, was
born at Paris June 11, 1807, served in the army in his
youth, and in 1832 entered the Chamber of Peers. After
the accession of Napoleon III. he became a prominent
Orleanist. For a short time in 1870 he was minister of for-
eign affairs under Ollivier, when by his interference in the
affairs of the Vatican Council he became very unpopular.
HDaru (PIERRE ANTOINE NoßL BRUNo), Count, a French
statesman and author, born at Montpellier Jan. 12, 1767.
In the Reign of Terror he was confined in prison, where he
translated the odes and epistles of Horace in verse. He
became a member of the Tribunate in 1802, a councillor of
state in 1805, and intendant-general of the imperial house-
hold. In the campaigns against Prussia and Austria (1806–
09) he accompanied Napoleon, whom he served with ability
as a diplomatist and financier. In 1815 he was elected
president of the French Academy. Among his works is a
“History of Venice” (1819). Died Sept. 5, 1829. (See
LAMARTINE, “Eloge du Comte Daru.”) -
D’Arus mont (Madame FRANCEs), a distinguished re-
former, better known by her maiden name as FANNY
WRIGHT, was born at Dundee, in Scotland, Sept. 6, 1795.
At her father's house she came in childhood to be acquainted
with Adam Smith, Dr. Cullen, and other distinguished men
of that age, so full of new theories for the improvement of
the conditions of human life. Hence she drew inspiration
and courage for her future career, which, with all its faults,
was characterized by benevolence, unselfishness, perfect
honesty, and complete fearlessness. In her youth she pub-
lished a defence of the doctrines of Epicurus, entitled “A
Few Days in Athens.” She was in the U. S. from 1818 to
1821, and then visited France, but, returned in 1825, and
purchased land where Memphis, Tenn., now stands for her
famous experiment for the instruction and enlightenment
of the colored race. After a number of years of expensive
and unsuccessful effort, her people were freed and sent to
Hayti. She lectured in many parts of the Union on social,
religious, and political questions with such freedom as to
incur much opposition. She was for a time associated with
Robert Owen at New Harmony, Ind., and his son, Robert
Dale Owen, went with her to Tennessee to assist in that
philanthropic if misdirected effort for the benefit of the
slaves to which we have referred. She visited France, and
in 1838 married M. d’Arusmont, but the union was unfor-
tunate, and with her daughter she returned to the U. S.
She died at Cincinnati, O., Dec. 14, 1852. Besides other
works, she published “Views on Society and Manners in
America,” a tragedy called “Altorf” (1819), and “Lectures
on Free Inquiry” (1836). (Her life has been published
by J. WINDT, 1844, and by A. GILBERT, 1855.)
Dar/villes, a township and village of Dinwiddie co.,
Va. The village is 25 miles S. W. of Petersburg. Total
pop. 3082.
Dar'win, a post-township of Clark co., Ill. Pop. 1012.
Darwin (CHARLEs Rob ERT), F. R. S., an eminent natu-
ralist, a son of Dr. R. W. Darwin, F. R. S., and grandson of
Dr. Erasmus Darwin, noticed below, was born at Shrews-
bury, in England, Feb. 12, 1809. He was educated in the
grammar-school of his native town, at the University of Ed-
inburgh, and at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he took
his degree of M.A. in 1831. The same year he sailed with
Capt. Fitzroy, of H. M. ship Beagle, as volunteer naturalist
in the survey of the coast of South America, etc. After his
return, in 1836, from this voyage, in which he sailed round
the globe, Mr. Darwin published a “Journal of Researches
into the Geology and Natural History,” etc. (1839; 2d ed.
1854; New York ed. 1846), which has been pronounced the
“most entertaining book of genuine travels ever written.”
In 1839 he married his cousin, Emma Wedgwood, grand-
daughter of Josiah Wedgwood. Mr. Darwin published
(1840–42) the “Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle,” a
treatise on “Coral Reefs” (1842), on “Volcanic Islands”
(1844), and “Geological Observations” (1846). His mono-
graph on the Cirripedia (1851–53) would have given him a
lasting reputation as a philosophic observer had he never
written anything else. In 1859 he published his “Origin
of Species by Means of Natural Selection,” a work which
has gone through many editions at home and abroad, has
attracted much attention, and given rise to warm contro-
versy in all civilized countries. It is universally conceded
that this treatise displays profound knowledge of the facts
of natural science and great powers of generalization. His
style is clear and even elegant, his temper is moderate and
always courteous, and his statements of fact may be said to
be always accurate. He published a work on the “Fertil-
ization of the Orchids” (1862), the “Habits and Movements
of Climbing Plants” (1865), “Domesticated Animals and
Cultivated Plants” (1867), the “Descent of Man” (1871),
which has attracted scarcely less attention than the treatise
on the “Origin of Species,” and which is indeed a con-
tinuaticn of that work. He has also published “The Ex-
pression of the Emotions in Man and Animals” (1872).
Mr. Darwin is a member of many learned societies, and
has been the recipient of numerous medals and other dis-
tinctions. He is perhaps equally eminent in geology, zoo-
logy, and botany. (See DARWINISM, by PROFs. E. L. YoU-
MANs and J. H. SEELYE ; and Evolution, by PROF. H.
HARTSHORNE.) CHARLEs W. GREENE.
Darwin (ERASMUs), M.D., F. R. S., an English poet and
philosopher, born at Elton Dec. 12, 1731. He studied at
Cambridge and practised at Lichfield, from which he re-
moved in 1781 to Derby. He gained distinction as a phys-
iologist, and also as a poet. His “Botanic Garden" (1791),
formerly very popular, is a poetical treatise on botany, full-
of extravagant imagery. Among his works are “Zoonomia,
or the Laws of Organic Life” (1793), “Phytologia’’ (1800),
and the “Temple of Nature” (1803). Many of his ideas
on physiology contained the germs of important truths.
Died April 18, 1802.
Dar’winism, a term applied to a particular theory of
development originated by Mr. Darwin. Darwinism, while
based on the doctrine of evolution, is not identical with it.
Darwinism is an attempt to explain the law or manner
of evolution. (See EvoluTION.) It is well known that
man can, by pursuing a certain method of breeding or
cultivation, improve, and in various ways modify, the cha-
racter of the different domestic animals and plants. By
always selecting the best specimens from which to propa-
A
DARWINISM.
1263
gate the race, those features which it is desired to perpet-
uate become more and more strongly developed, so that
what are admitted to be mere varieties sometimes acquire,
in the course of successive generations, a character as strik-
ingly distinct, to all appearance, from those of other varie-
ties, as one species is from another species of the same
genus. Hence it is inferred that what we call species were
originally only varieties. Mr. Darwin maintains that a
system of influences, not wholly unlike to those which man
brings to bear in the breeding of animals, is found in the
circumstances with which they are often surrounded in a
state of nature. -
Plants and animals in a state of nature are subject to
certain external conditions, which influence and limit them
in various ways. Among these are climate, station, cha-
racter of soil, food-supply, and the number and kind of
living beings with which a given organism is surrounded.
The workings of these conditions of existence are, for the
most part, complex and obscure, but enough has been made
out to show that where a variety has once appeared, the
influence they exert upon it is quite analogous to that
exercised by man in selective breeding.
Organized beings, as a rule, are gifted with enormous
powers of increase. Wild plants yield their crop of seed annu-
ally, and most wild animals bring forth their young yearly,
or oftener. Should this process go on unchecked, in a short
time the earth would be completely overrun with living
beings. It has been calculated that if a plant produces
fifty seeds the first year, each of these seeds growing up
into a plant which produces fifty seeds, or altogether 2500
seeds, the next year, and so on, it would, under favorable
conditions of growth, give rise in nine years to more plants
by five hundred trillions than there are square feet of dry
land upon the whole surface of the earth. But fifty seeds a
year is far below the reproductive capacity of many plants.
The clephant is reckoned the slowest breeder of all known
animals, yet Darwin says “that it will be under the mark to
assume that it begins breeding when thirty years old, and
goes on till ninety, bringing forth three pairs of young in
the interval.” If this be so, at the end of the fifth century,
there would be alive fifteen million elephants, descended
from the first pair. Slow-breeding man has been known to
double his numbers in twenty-five years, and, according to
Euler, this might occur in a little over twelve years. But,
assuming the former rate of increase, and taking the popu-
lation of the United States at thirty millions, in six hun-
dred and eighty-five years their living progeny would have
each but a square foot to stand upon were they spread over
the entire globe, land and water included. Cases could be
given of introduced plants which have become common
throughout whole islands in a period of less than ten years;
and Dr. Falconer states that there are plants which now range
in India from Cape Comorin to the Himalayas that were im-
ported into that country from America since its discovery.
It is thus obvious that the rates of reproduction of liv-
ing beings are by no means adjusted either to the supply of
nutriment, or even to the space to be occupied. The room
is fixed and the food is limited, while the ratio of increase
is so enormous that each species, if unchecked, would ulti-
mately usurp the whole area and monopolize the earth.
But millions of species are doing the same thing, so that
the inevitable result is conflict, the war of races, destruc-
tion of life everywhere, and, as a result, what Mr. Darwin
calls the struggle for eacistence. All over the globe, on the
land and in the sea, animals and plants, high and low, are
driven into this struggle by their ever-increasing numbers
and the limited means of subsistence. The warfare is one
of life and death; and its result, the perishing of multi-
tudes and the survival of comparatively few—the numbers
remaining being in equilibrium with the supply of the
means of subsistence.
Now, the result of this strife cannot be a matter of
chance. Which shall be destroyed, and which preserved,
must depend upon determinate conditions. Obviously, those
individuals or varieties having some advantage over their
competitors will stand the best chance to live, while those
destitute of such advantage will be liable to destruction.
Some by Superior vigor may be able to withstand a degree
of heat or cold, moisture or dryness, which would be fatal
to others. Of those that are pursued, the most fleet will
escape, while the slower will be captured. Those which
from greater strength or agility are best able to supply
themselves with food in time of scarcity, or which have
Superior adaptation to the nature of the food which the
locality affords, will be able to displace those lacking these
advantages. Briefly, the animals best adapted to the re-
quirements of the situation in which they are placed are the
ones that will live and have descendants, while those less
in agreement with these surrounding conditions will as cer-
tainly disappear. This process of sorting is continually
going on. Nature may metaphorically be said to choose
which shall be preserved and which destroyed; and this is
what Mr. Darwin terms “Natural Selection,” and what Mr.
EHerbert Spencer calls the “Survival of the Fittest.”
How races continually encroach on each other's areas,
the stronger outrunning and extirpating the weaker in the
competition of existence, is well shown by the spread of
European plants and animals in New Zealand. Doctor
Hooker states that the cow-grass has taken possession of
the roadsides; dock and water-cress choke the rivers; the
sow-thistle is spread all over the country, growing luxuri-
antly up to 6000 feet; white clover in the mountain-dis-
tricts displaces the native grasses; and the native (Maori)
saying is: “As the white man’s rat has driven away the
native rat, as the European fly drives away our own, and
the clover kills our fern, so will the Maories disappear be-
fore the white man himself.”
That this kind of struggle among living creatures has
always been going on, and must always continue to do so,
is obvious; and any one can see that it must be a winnow-
ing and improving process, those least adapted to the sit-
uation giving way before those better adapted, while the
struggle may be so close and sharp that a very trifling ad-
vantage will turn the scale. But Mr. Darwin saw farther
into the case than this. It was his merit to discover that
natural selection is capable of producing fitness between
organisms and their circumstances, and of discerning the
importance of the consequences that follow.
We have seen that universal variability, Small in amount,
but in every direction, and fluctuating about a mean con-
dition in normal circumstances, is characteristic of living
organisms; let us now see how this tendency may be made
to advance in one direction, by natural selection, so as
to produce divergence of characters by indefinite modi-
fications of the forms of life. “A soil possessing some in-
gredients in unusual quantity may supply to a plant an
excess of the matter required for a certain class of its tis-
sues, and may cause all the parts formed of such tissues to
be abnormally developed. Suppose that among these are
the hairs clothing its surfaces, including those which grow
on its seeds. Thus furnished with somewhat longer fibres,
its seeds, when shed, are carried a little farther by the wind
before they fall to the ground. The young plants growing
up from them, being rather more widely dispersed than
those produced by other individuals of the same species,
will be less liable to smother one another, and a greater
number may therefore reach maturity and fructify. Sup-
posing the next generation subject to the same peculiarity
of nutrition, some of the seeds borne by its members will
not simply inherit this increased development of hairs, but
will carry it farther; and these, still more advantaged in
the same way as before, will, on the average, have still more
numerous chances of continuing the race. Thus by the
survival, generation after generation, of those possessing
these longer hairs, and the inheritance of successive incre-
ments of growth in the hairs, there may result a seed devi-
ating greatly from the original. Other individuals of the
same species, subject to the different physical conditions of
other localities, may develop somewhat thicker or harder
coatings to their seeds, so rendering them less digestible
by the birds that devour them. Such thick-coated seeds,
by escaping undigested more frequently than thinner-
coated ones, will have additional chances of growing up and
leaving offspring; and this process, acting in a correlative
manner through successive years, will produce a sced di-
verging in another direction from the ancestral type. Again,
elsewhere some modification in the physiologic actions of
the plant may lead to an unusual secretion of an essential
oil in the seeds, which, rendering them unpalatable to
creatures that would otherwise feed on them, may diminish
the destruction of the seeds, so giving an advantage to the
variety in its rate of multiplication; and this incidental pe-
culiarity proving a preservative,” will, as before, be gradu-
ally increased by natural selection, until it constitutes an-
other divergence. Now, in these and countless analogous
cases we see that plants may become better adapted, or re-
adapted, to the aggregate of surrounding agencies, not
through any direct action of such agencies upon them, but
through their indirect action—through the destruction by
them of the individuals which are least congruous with
them, and the survival of those that are most congruous
with them. All these slight variations of function and
structure, arising among the members of a species, serve as
so many experiments; the great majority of which fail, but
a few of which succeed. Just as we see that each plant
bears a multitude of seeds, out of which some two or three
happen to fulfil all the conditions required for reaching
maturity and continuing the race, so we see that each spe:
cies is perpetually producing numerous slightly-modified
forms deviating in all directions from the average, out of
which most fit the surrounding conditions no better than
their parents, or not so well, but some few of which fit the
variable.
1264
DARWINISM.
conditions better; and doing so, are enabled the better to
preserve themselves, and to produce offspring similarly
capable of preserving themselves. -
Most naturalists now admit that the principle of adap-
tive modification or natural selection is potent in the pro-
duction of varieties; yet it seems a tenable position to re-
gard varieties as incipient species. That there is no dis-
tinct line of separation between varieties and sub-species,
f/0
and between sub-species and species, is shown by the in-
ability of naturalists in many cases to distinguish between
them. Hundreds of instances might be given where what
one naturalist regards as a species, another of equal au-
thority ranks as a variety. Mr. Darwin, therefore, holds
that in the past periods of time this principle has played the
leading part in producing the diversities of life, and he has
constructed a diagram to show how these divergences have

Aſ) Mſ)
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Scheme Representing the Results of variation with Descent.
arisen. It attempts to represent “the probable action of
natural selection through divergence of character, and ex-
tinction, on the descendants of a common ancestor.”
The letters A to E are intended to represent the species
of a genus widely distributed, and as in large genera, the
species often resemble each other in unequal degrees, this
is shown by the letters standing at unequal distances. The
species A is supposed to be extensively diffused, so as to
embrace a wider diversity of conditions, and to be highly
The branching and diverging dotted lines pro-
ceeding from A are intended to represent its varying off-
spring. The variations may be slight, unequal, diverse,
appear at different times, and endure for unlike periods.
The short intermediate lines represent varieties which be-
come extinct, while the most divergent lines represent those
which survive and give rise to new species. That the in-
termediates should die out and the extremes stand the best
chance of living, results from the theory. The more they
resemble each other and the parent form, the more restricted
will they be to the same set of conditions, and the fiercer
will be that struggle for existence which is a cause of the
destruction of closely-competing races. On the other hand,
the more divergent the descendants of any particular species
in structure and habits, the more diverse will be the condi-
tions that they can make available, the less the competition,
and the greater the chance of survival.
The intervals between the horizontal lines are each in-
tended to represent a thousand generations. When a dotted
line reaches across one of these intervals to a horizontal
line, and is there marked by a small numbered letter, it is
supposed that a sufficient amount of variation has been
accumulated to form a fairly well-marked variety. Now,
after a thousand generations, according to the diagram, the
species A has produced two such varieties, marked al and
m". These remaining exposed to the same conditions which
made their parents variable, and with a tendency to varia-
bility which is itself hereditary, tend to vary in nearly the
Same manner as their parents varied; also, being but slightly
modified, and inheriting those general advantages which
made the genus and the parent species large, they in turn
are favorably situated for the production of new varieties.
Their most divergent variations will generally be preserved
during the next thousand generations, and thus is pro-
duced variety a”, which, on the principle of divergence, will
differ more from the species A than did variety al. From
ml two varieties, m” and 8%, have sprung, which differ from
each other, and more considerably from their common
parent A. The line of succession is seen to be broken at
regular intervals. This is intended to designate when each
successive form has become sufficiently distinct to be re-
corded as a variety; but these breaks are imaginary, and
might have been inserted anywhere after intervals long
enough to have allowed the accumulation of a considerable
amount of divergent variation. At the end often thousand
generations the species A is supposed to have produced
three forms, a 19, fº, and mio, which from wide divergence
will have come to differ largely from each other, and from
their common parent. If the amount of change has been
small in the time represented by the space between each
horizontal line, these three forms may be only well-marked
varieties; if, however, we suppose that each space repre-
sents time enough for considerable change to have taken
place, they may have reached the position of sub-species,
or even, with a still greater amount of change, to that of
well-defined species.
The broken lines at the bottom of the diagram are sup-
posed to lead up from an unknown species which was the
common ancestor of the several species represented by the
capitals. From this unknown ancestor, through variation
and the action of natural selection, there descended five
species, constituting a separate genus. One of these species
is supposed to have been highly variable, and, standing at
the extreme of the genus, to have gone on varying and im-
proving without coming in conflict, until it became the parent
of several new species. E represents a species which has gone
on without change. (See Evolution ; also the able article
on the “Development Hypothesis,” by Prof. Youmans, in
the first volume of JoHNSON’s “Natüral History.”)
E. L. YoUMANs.
A CRITICISM ON DARWINISM.
Transmutation of Species never yet Observed.—Professor
Huxley, after having elaborately advocated the Darwinian
hypothesis, nevertheless declares it as his “clear conviction
that, as the evidence now stands, it is not absolutely proven
r-
DARWINISM.
1265
that a group of animals, having all the characteristics ex-
hibited by species in nature, has ever been originated by
selection, whether artificial or natural.”
It is well to keep this fact in mind. The Darwinian hy-
pothesis, however plausible in its statement or ingenious in
its application, is, at the best, only a possible, and wholly
wants the evidence which can translate it into the actual,
explanation of the facts to which it applies. That species
vary, and some of them to a greatºextent, is admitted by
all, but in no recorded observation do they cease to be the
same species still. The cable which holds a ship to its
moorings may be swayed by the waves and still not snap
asunder. The moon varies in the time of her revolution
around the earth, in her celestial longitude and latitude, in
the motion of her nodes and perigee ; and these variations
were seriously thought, for a time, to require some new
statement for the law of gravitation, until Clairaut demon-
strated that these variations furnished a surprising exem-
plification of the law. Cuvier has shown, f from Egyptian
monuments and mummies, that the animals which lived in
that country in the earliest records of its civilization are
identical in species with those which live there to-day; and
Agassiz has shown,t from the coral-reefs in Florida, that
the animals of the Gulf of Mexico were of the same species
30,000, and probably 200,000, years ago, as in the present
time.
often surprising variations within a given species, he has
never succeeded in obliterating the original lines of specific
distinction, or in bringing out anything more prominent
in their place. An Ancon sheep is no less a sheep, however
much its legs may be like an otter's. House-pigeons are
house-pigeons still, whether carriers, or pouters, or fantails,
or tumblers. The racer, the dray-horse, the barb has not
changed its one specific characteristic, however different
these varieties may be. The dog has been associated in
close companionship with man from the earliest history,
and, more than any other animal, has been subjected to
decisive experiments continued through many generations,
in order that every possible variation from the original
stock might be secured. The result is apparent. The dif-
ferences of dogs strike the dullest eye. And yet an au-
thority inferior to none declares that “under the extremest
mark of variety so superinduced, the naturalist detects the
unmistakable generic and specific characters of the Canis
familiaris.” Moreover, the dog himself sees this like-
ness, notwithstanding the difference. Two dogs of very
different varieties treat each other, on meeting, very differ-
ently from what either of them would treat or be treated
by a wolf or a fox.
The same is the case with all the plants upon which man
has made such copious and careful experiment. Not a
single instance of one species changing into another has
yet been found. The differences have been sufficient to in-
duce some careful naturalists to suppose their possible pro-
longation into difference of species, and some have thus
been led to regard this possibility as though it were already
translated into an actual fact. But the fact is still want-
ing, and however plausible as a conjecture, or however ac-
cordant with favorite theories of the universe, the Darwin-
ian hypothesis may be, we must not forget that as long as
we lack the first fact in its proof, it is a conjecture alone.
Moreover, these variations, which man has secured by
“artificial selection,” if we look at them closely are not
favorable to the conjecture. These deviations from the
typical form and state, instead of being improvements out
of which superior species may be gained, are monstrosities
only kept up by man’s care. The species left to itself sloughs
them off. As soon as the introduction of merino sheep ren-
dered it no longer an object to raise Ancons, the latter va-
riety disappeared, and for years no remnant of it has been
seen.| Dogs show a continual tendency to revert to the
common type." Prichard has also shown,” in reference to
other domestic animals—the hog, the horse, the ass, the
sheep, the goat, the cow, the cat, and gallinaceous fowls—
originally transported by the Spaniards and others from
Europe to this continent, that in instances where they have
got out of man’s hands and run wild in the woods, they
have lost all the most obvious appearances of domestication,
and have approximated to the type which may be supposed
to have belonged to the species in its original state. Dar-
win himself declares that in his pigeons, even with breeds
of hundreds of years' standing, he was often met by sudden
* “Lay Sermons,” p. 295.
“Récherches surles Ossemens Fossiles,” vol. i., p. 141.
i º ºutions to the Natural History of the United States,”
Vol. i., p. 53.
f Owen, “Classification of Mammalia,” p. 100.
Huxley, “Lay Sermons,” p. 269; “Philosophical Transac-
tions,” 1813, pp. 92,93.
1 Prichard, “Natural History of Man,” p. 57.
* Ibid., pp. 28–59.
Though man has been able to secure numerous and .
returns in color and other striking appearances to the orig-
inal type.ff The same is true with our cultivated plants.
The extended varieties which man has brought out in some
of these—e.g., the cabbage, the turnip, the beet, the po-
tato—and from which he derives such benefit, are only
kept up by constant cultivation. The plant left to itself
reverts to its wild and, to man, its comparatively useless,
state. -
Now, while all these things show that the transmutation'
of species has not a fact which can prove it, and is at the
best but a conjecture, they also render most unlikely the
conjecture itself. For in the numberless species which
have been minutely observed, over a great space and for a
long time, if there were such a tendency to transmutation,
how is it possible that no actual case of it has ever been
found 2 Why are not cases occurring all the time and be-
fore our eyes? Mr. Darwin admits the force of this in-
quiry, but we cannot yield to the fitness of his reply. He
argues that in the struggle for life the improved offspring
would exterminate the inferior progenitor, and that thus
the old form disappears by the very process of the forma-
tion of the new.fi. But if this be true, and if the process
of formation be going on before our eyes, why not that of
disappearance also 2 In many animals the duration of the
individual life is so short, and the succession of generations
so rapid, that if this process of transmutation were actually
at work, how could it fail to have furnished, thus far, a
single instance of its accomplished fruits? Mr. Darwin
often speaks of the frequent uncertainty of specific and
even of generic distinctions, and these are sometimes so
obscure that even the great Cuvier ranked the barnacle as
a mollusk, while it is now classed as an articulate and a
crustacean. But this uncertainty and liability to error cer–
tainly admits a far other interpretation than what Mr. Dar-
win adduces. If the species be sometimes separated by
such narrow and almost indeterminate bounds, how does it
happen that we never see these limits passed over, provided
the transition be as easy as is claimed 2 It is hard to say
whether certain living things are representatives of vegeta-
ble or animal life. Different naturalists make very differ-
ent divisions of the innumerable protozoa, some calling
animals what others name plants; but if the distinction
between the two be of such little account, why has no mem-
ber of the one class ever been seen passing over into the
other? How is it that such a phenomenon—e.g., as the
growth of the highest alga into the lowest zoophite—a phe-
momenon for which sharp eyes have sought, and which is
not only natural but inevitable on the Darwinian hypothe-
sis, and whose discovery would make the fame of any ob-
server—has never yet been seen 2
Geological Evidence.—If one species springs from another
by a long-continued process of slow variation and natural
selection, the steps through which a parent has become lost
in his descendants are very many—indeed, are practically
innumerable. “If my theory be true,” says Mr. Darwin, 3%
“ numberless intermediate varieties, linking most closely all
the species of the same group together, must assuredly have
existed.” Therefore, also, if the theory be true, some evi-
dence of these intermediate varieties must assuredly exist
in the geological record. But no such evidence appears.
Looking through all the vast cycles of time which geologi-
cal changes are supposed to imply, we find the same clear
distinctions of species as we observe in the historic period.
Upon this there is no dispute. Mr. Darwin admits it," and
so do his disciples."[1] This fact is sufficient to startle, if not
to stagger, the boldest advocate of the theory. Mr. Dar-
win acknowledges it to have the gravest force, but its weight
is not essentially lessened by his very ingenious attempt to
remove it. His explanation rests, in the main, upon the
extreme imperfection of the geological record. This record
gives us only a few disconnected leaves—and these often
wellnigh effaced, and written in a changing dialect—of a
great history, in which, if we could only decipher the faded
lines and recover the missing parts, we should find the con-
nections which, it must be acknowledged, we now lack. Sir
Charles Lyell adds the weight of his high authority to the
same scale. “It is scarcely possible,” says this eminent ge-
ologist,“ to exaggerate the defectiveness of our archives.”
“In the solid framework of the globe, a great part of what
remains is inaccessible to man, and even of that fraction
which is accessible, nine-tenths are to this day unex-
plored.”fff But the facts which the palaeontologist offers
are neither few nor inconsiderable. There are over 30,000
species of animals already discovered in the different for-
mations. How is it, then, that these 30,000 species have
++ “Origin of Species,” p. 144; “Variation of Animals and
Plants under Domestication,” vol. i., pp. 240–249.
; “Origin of Species,” p. 155. t &
Ibid., p. 161. | Ibid., p. 246.
Eyell, “Principles of Geology,” tenth edition, vol. ii., p. 462.
*Ibid., p. 463. # Ibid., vol. i., p. 306.
80
1266
DARWINISM.
been preserved, and are found clearly defined, while not a
single individual in a transition state appears? Many of
these species are represented in the rocks by thousands of
individuals, and if the Darwinian hypothesis be true, and
these individuals are only instances of species growing into
and out of one another, why are the terminal links of the
chain alone preserved? The intermediate links do not differ
from these except as would be required by the minutest
series of gradations; how, then, if they ever existed, have
they now so completely disappeared 2 The general imper-
fection of the record is no answer here, for we take the
record as it is, and however imperfect, there ought Surely
to be seen, in the vast number of fossil species actually dis-
covered, some of the missing links, if they ever existed.
To Mr. Darwin's explanation of this staggering fact a
German professor has applied the calculus of probabilities,
with noticeable results.” If we suppose that of each species
a hundred individuals have been found, and that between
any two species there were only ten intermediate varieties—
a number much smaller than Mr. Darwin claims—then the
probability against the exclusive appearance of distinct
species would be inconceivable millions to one. In exact
terms, the probability that out of the millions of fossils
which are found, no one should appear from which the pro-
cess of transmutation could be positively affirmed, is as 1:
10100; i. e., the exact probability of the Darwinian hypoth-
esis, when judged by the actual facts of palaeontology, is
no more than 1: 1 with a hundred ciphers annexed
but this is not the only bar which geology sets in the
way of this hypothesis. Some of the lowest and simplest
orders of organized beings—e. g. the corals—are found
among the first forms of life, and also among the latest.
But how should this be 2 In the struggle for existence they
should either tend to develop into something higher or
they should not. But in the latter case the very ground of
the hypothesis slips from under it, while in the former these
lower forms ought long since to have disappeared. -
But on the same ground it would seem as if we should
find everywhere a law either of deterioration or develop-
ment, but the facts are otherwise. Take the class of fishes.
It is impossible to affirm that the present offers any fuller
or more varied development of the entire class than has
before been manifested, nor on the other hand that it has
degenerated in regard to numbers, powers, bulk, or range
of modification.f. One consideration, however, seems clear
—viz., that those species best adapted to afford mankind
wholesome food, such as the cod, the herring, the Salmon,
the turbot, have greatly predominated at the period imme-
diately preceding and accompanying the advent of man.
It is certainly difficult to see what advantages, in the strug-
gle for existence, these possessed above the bony garpikes
which they have superseded.
“In the vast physical changes to which the earth has
been subjected since the neozoic epoch, no revolutions seem
more sudden or more pronounced than that connected with
the glacial period. Yet the dicyclotherian mammoth lived
before it, and passed through the ordeal of all the hard ex-
tremes which it involved, bearing his organs of locomotion
and digestion all but unchanged.”f But how was this pos-
sible if species are so unstable and susceptible of such trans-
mutation as the Darwinian hypothesis claims?
Still further: if one species has arisen out of another, all
the geological facts indicate that this must have been Sud-
denly and not gradually. For the fact proclaimed by palae-
ontology is that species appear suddenly, and disappear
suddenly in successive strata.? They are as common in the
* Pfaff, “Die Neuesten Forschungen und. Theorieen auf dem
Gebiete der Schöpfungsgeschichte,” p. 99.
Owen, “Palaeontology,” p. 150.
Falconer, “Palaeontological Memoirs,” vol. ii., p. 253.
Prof. Youmans' explanation of this point (given in Johnson’s
“Natural History,” pp. 33, 34) should be presented here:
“It is alleged that the great geological †. in the course of
past life, and the abrupt appearance of multitudes of new species,
disprove their origin by gradual development. But the apparent
suddenness of their appearance is, without doubt, illusory. It
has been proved that the same effect might be produced by the
migration of races from inhabited regions to a continent slowly
rising from the sea. The following example will show how such
breaks might arise in the regular course of geological change:
“Between England and the United States the ocean-bottom is
being covered with a deposit of chalk—a deposit that has been
forming, probably, ever since there occurred that great depres–
sion of the earth’s crust from which the Atlantic resulted in re-
mote geologic times. This chalk consists of minute shells of For-
aminifera, sprinkled with remains of small Entomostraca, and
probably a few pteropod shells, though the Sounding-lines have
not yet brought up any of these last. Thus, in so far as all high
forms of life are concerned, this new chalk-formation must be a
blank. At rare intervals, perhaps, a polar bear, drifted on an
iceberg, may have its bones scattered over the bed, or a dead
decaying whale may similarly leave traces. But such remains
must be so rare that,this new chalk-formation, if visible, might
be examined for a century before any of them were disclosed. If
now, some millions of years hence, the Atlantic bed should be
uppermost bed in which they occur as in the lowest or any
intermediate bed. They neither increase successively in
numbers, nor do they gradually dwindle down; none of the
fossil remains, thus far discoveréd, show signs of a gradual
improvement or of a slow decay. . Moreover, the origina-
tion of varieties, so far as we can observe it, is sudden, and
not slow. The first Ancon sheep appears to have been as
perfect as any of his descendants. Persons have been born
with six fingers on each hand and six toes on each foot,
and have propagated this peculiarity to their children and
their children’s children, but no cause could be seen in any
apparent previous preparation for such a phenomenon. A
few years ago there were exhibited two dwarf and idiotic
children as specimens of the race of the ancient “Aztecs,”
but these children were found to have been born at San
Salvador, dwarfed and of defective brains, of parents who
neither in themselves nor in their other children revealed
any such deviation from the normal type.
In the oldest fossiliferous rocks we find suddenly appear-
ing, and at the same time, low and also highly organized
structures, representing the four great types into which
Cuvier has so successfully classified the animal kingdom.
Radiates, mollusks, articulates, and vertebrates spring to
life simultaneously and suddenly. Below these, absolutely
no traces of life appear. If it be said that the lower rocks
have been subjected to igneous agency, by which organic
existences have totally disappeared, which might otherwise
have been found, Agassiz has shown'ſ that in the great con-
tinent of North America, the palaeozoic rocks have under-
gone so little alteration that the remains of the earliest
representatives of the animal and vegetable kingdoms are
as well preserved as in later formations. If it be said
that any one of these types has been developed out of the
other, Von Baer has shown” the impossibility of this from
the facts of their embryonic growth and structure.
Natural Selection cannot Account for the Changes which
it is asswºmed to Produce.—It is very difficult to see how
that gradual development of organs which this hypothesis
assumes could have taken place in any such way as Mr.
Darwin affirms. If we were presented with a single fact of
such development, we should be obliged to assent to it,
whether we could explain it or not; but we must remember
that not one such fact is furnished, and we must therefore
test the doctrine on its intrinsic probabilities. How, then,
shall an organ be gradually developed by “natural selec-
tion ” and in a “struggle for life”? How can the organ
give any aid in the struggle for life while it is in a process
of formation, and thus how should natural selection have
anything to do with its formation ? What sort of an agency,
e.g., could natural selection have in the formation of mam-
mary glands and their secretions? How do these help the in-
dividual in the struggle for life? According to the hypoth-
esis, every new organ must have been in a process of slow
growth through many generations, and therefore with num-
berless individuals which did not need it, and could not use
it at all. But the doctrine of natural selection affirms that
only those peculiarities which are favorable for the strug-
gle for life would have the advantage to perpetuate them-
selves; how, then, could organs unformed grow into their
perfect form through long-continued generations? . The
force of this is not weakened by the existence of animals
with so-called rudimentary organs. Some insects in deep
caves are without eyes; others near the mouth of the cave
can see, though indistinctly; while others still, nearly re-
lated to these, but living outside the cave, have perfect
eyes;ff but instead of inferring that there is a progress here
by which no eyes have grown into eyes, it is certainly pos-
sible, and it is much more credible, that there is a retrogres-
sion, where insects with perfect eyes have lost them because
placed where they could not see. The continued disuse of
an organ is often followed by its loss, and we can easily see
the reason for this; but this does not help us at all in con-
ceiving how an organ which does not exist at all could ever
come into existence by any process of natural selection.
Upon this notion of natural selection the facts of repro-
duction seem absolutely without meaning. It is no ad-
vantage to the individual to reproduce its kind. Indeed,
with some insects the individual dies in the act of repro-
duction. The reproductive, which is one of the most pow-
raised, and estuary or shore deposits laid upon it, these deposits
would contain remains of a flora or fauna so distinct from any-
thing below them as to appear like a new creation. Thus, along
with continuity of life on the earth's surface, there not only may
be, but there must be, great gaps in the series of fossils; and
hence the gaps are no evidence against the doctrine of evolu-
tion.’”
| Agassiz, “Contributions to the Natural History of the Uni-
ted States,” vol. iii., p. 91.
TIbid., vol. i., p. 25. - g
# “Ueber die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thieren,” vol. i.,
pp. 160 and 224.
++Pfaff, “Die Neuesten Forschungen u. S. f.,” p. 113.

DARWINISM.
1267
erful of all impulses, is not for the sake of the individual,
but for the species. How, then, can “natural selection”
have anything to do with it? “If it profit a plant,” says
Mr. Darwin, “to have its seeds more and more widely dis-
seminated by the wind, I can see no great difficulty in this
being effected through natural selection.”* But pray what
profit is it to the individual plant to have its seeds thus
disseminated, and how, therefore, should natural selection,
which “can act only through and for the good of each be-
ing,” f effect this? It is the species only that can thus be
profited, and hence, if natural selection have any effect, it
is for the profit and permanence, and not for the origin-
ation, of species. -
“It is conceivable,” says Mr. Darwin, “that flying-fish,
which now glide far through the air, slightly rising and
turning by the aid of their fluttering fins, might have been
modified into perfectly winged animals.” . Such phrases
as “it is conceivable,” “I see no difficulty in supposing,”
“I can see no insuperable difficulty in believing,” “it seems
to me unlikely,” etc., are often used by this author to in-
troduce suppositions which he soon employs as though they
were actual facts by which his deductions could be proved.
But let us look at this supposition of the flying-fish with
the sharp eyes of a naturalist not apt to be led away by his
fancy. “Some naturalists,” says the great Cuvier, “seeing
that more or less use of an organ sometimes increases or
diminishes its strength and size, have fancied that habits
and outward influences, for a long time continued, might
gradually change the form of animals to a degree which
would ultimately bring out a difference of species. These
writers consider the organized body as a plastic material to
be moulded as with the fingers. But the moment they carry
out their notion into details, they render themselves a
laughing-stock. Whoever should venture seriously to sug-
gest that a fish, by means of a dry habitat, might see its
scales disparting into feathers and itself becoming a bird,
would only prove thereby his most profound ignorance of
anatomy. What relation is there between the complicated
and admirable organization of the feather, so perfectly
adapted to the nature of the bird, and a scale that might
be conceived as disparting itself? Moreover, a scale is of
such a nature that it would not be disparted by drying; and
yet this is but a sample of what these boasted writers pro-
ose !” 3 - *
p The Law of Hybridity.—Mr. Darwin gives much atten-
tion to this law, and adduces many and curious instances
to show that interbreeding tends to deterioration, that
strength comes from crossing, and that varieties of new
vigor, which might develop into new species, may come
from individuals of different species. But that interbreed-
ing tends, in certain instances, to deterioration and sterility,
may, for aught we know, be a natural consequence of the
inheritance of disease, which close interbreeding may per-
petuate, and which crossing might tend to remove. Now,
no well-authenticated cases of perfectly hybrid animals are
known. Mr. Darwin himself admits this, but argues that
such cases are intrinsically possible, because we do know
of numberless instances where varieties, when crossed, are
not only fertile, but their progeny often surpass in fertility
their parents. But the true inference from this is not the
one he has drawn. These facts teach us rather the real and
ineradicable difference between species and varieties. More-
over, the instances which Mr. Darwin adduces furnish
themselves the gravest difficulties to his hypothesis. For
if close interbreeding tends to 'sterility, and if somewhat
remoter unions diminish this tendency, and if when these
unions are of two varieties the cross-breeds are more fertile
than either pure stock, and if the difference between varie-
ties and species be only one of degree and not of kind, how
does it happen that when the divergence has passed over
just that degree which separates the variety from the spe-
cies, the whole tendency is instantly reversed, and the mon-
grel, if produced, is sterile? ||
Gradation not to be Confounded with Progress.-In the
organic world an individual passes through stages of
growth, each of which, compared with the preceding,
marks a grade of progress. This is the individual’s de-
velopment, in which case, however, it is not, strictly speak-
ing, true to say that the higher has been developed out of
or by the lower, for the lower and the higher spring alike
from a deeper source. They are both the unfolding of
what lay mysteriously folded up in the germ before any
manifestation of the individual life had appeared. So the
facts teach us, and so a sound philosophy would declare.
But though we might look upon gradation here as equivalent
to progress, this by no means proves that it is such elsewhere.
* “Origin of Species,” p. 82. -
Ibid., p. 80. £Ibid., p. 163.
# Leçons d’Anatomie Comparée,” i., p. 100.
| “Origin of Species,” p. 224.
‘ſ “American Journal of Science and Arts,” vol. xxxix., p. 178.
There is a gradation in the colors of the prism, but it would
be absurd to call this a progress in any such sense as though
one color had grown out of another. In like manner a
gradation of species does not involve a progress of species,
and we only confuse ourselves if we confound the two.
Because a system of nature can be represented, in the con-
templation of which we pass, by regular and successive
steps, from the lowest and simplest structure to the highest
and most complex, it by no means follows that the higher
has proceeded from the lower, or that either has been
evolved out of the other. Now, we need to remember that
in natural history no such gradation can yet be repre-
sented. There are broad gaps which require prodigious
leaps of the imagination to span. Mr. Darwin urges that
these gaps are apparent, but not real. They seem such
only to our defective knowledge. If we had the whole
field instead of detached portions before us, we should find,
he claims, the gaps filled up and the gradation perfect.
This we may admit. It seems possible, though as yet far
from being proved. The discovery of the intermediate
forms between the Palaeotheriwm and the hoofed quad-
rupeds of to-day, which Cuvier desiderated, may no longer
progenitor of our present existing hoofed quadrupeds is
not advanced one jot by this discovery. Palaeotherium and
Egww8 remain just exactly as distantly related as before,
notwithstanding all the help toward consanguinity which
Paloplotheriwm, Anchitherium, and Hipparion can furnish.
Indeed, the case with which gradation becomes translated
into progress, and the readiness with which this mistake is
made to prove the transmutation of species, is somewhat
surprising to one who thinks closely. The imagination,
not to say the fancy, would seem to have a more prominent.
part to play in these processes than a faculty of rigorous
logic.
In the assignment of the links which are fancied to con-
nect man, through the anthropoid apes, with the orang-
outang and gibbon, it is argued that a perfect gradation is
a sufficient warrant for the inference that the aman has, in
process of time, been evolved from the monkey. Now, we
should not forget that the postulate here is only a fancy.
The gradation is so far from perfect—indeed, is so grossly
imperfect except in certain superficial characteristics—that
the most accomplished naturalists declare that “man is the
sole species of his genus and the sole representative of his
order and sub-class.”ff While the studies of Duvernoy upon
the gorilla, and of Gratiolet and Alix upon the chimpanzee,
have shown that a monkey of the highest grade is none the
less a monkey and none the more a man than one of the
lowest, if Pruner-Bey has also shown that in the most salient
characteristics of the two there is an inverse order of devel-
opment, which not only destroys the gradation, but makes
it impossible that the higher should ever have descended
from the lower.3% And if we pass from anatomical and
physiological qualities to the higher psychological distinc-
tions, we find a difference which cannot be bridged by de-
grees, though extended to infinity.
But even if there are men so sunk in a savage state that
the difference between them and the people of the highest
civilization seems greater than that which divides some
monkeys from others, we have at least just as good reason
for saying that the lowest has degenerated from the high-
est, as that the highest has been developed from the lowest.
The history of men is full of instances of deterioration.
If we weigh it simply by number, whether of years or of
nations or of individuals, degeneration and decay vastly
preponderate. Where is the civilization now of Tyre, and
Carthage, and Babylon, and Nineveh 2 and where are the
arts which built the Great Pyramid and Baalbec 2 All over
the world we have evidence of a tendency among nations
and men to sink away from civilization into barbarism, but
history does not show an instance of a nation rising by its
own efforts from barbarism to civilization. “To believe,”
says Mr. Darwin in his latest book, “that man was aborig-
inally civilized, and then suffered utter degradation in so
many regions, is to take a pitiably low view of human na-
ture.” || But, alas ! this is exactly the view which the sad
facts of history oblige us to take, and we must square our
views of human nature to the actual facts of the case,
whether or not it would better Suit our desires and our the-
ories to have them otherwise. The incontestable fact is,
that human nature reveals no inherent impulse to improve
or perfect itself. History gives unnumbered cases of a
downward tendency, but not a single instance of a self-
evolved progress. The lamp which lights one nation in its
** Owen, “Anatomy of Vertebrates,” vol. iii., pp. 791, 792.
# Owen, “Classification of Mammalia,” p. 103. •
f: Quatrefages, “Rapport sur les Progrès de l’Anthropologie,”
Paris, 1867, p.245.
33 Ibid., p. 247.
| “Descent of Man,” vol. i., p. 176.
1268
DASHIELL–DATHOLITE.
advancement has been always lighted by a lamp behind it.
Civilization is never indigenous; it is an exotic plant
wherever found. This is the simple truth of history, which
makes all such discussions as Mr. Darwin’s respecting the
descent of man as false to fact as they are abhorrent to
philosophy.
“By the constant working of his brain,” says Carl Vogt,
“man gradually emerges from his primitive barbarism.” #
|But, aside from the crude materialism of which this writer
is so fond, and which this sentence might illustrate, it is
fair, again we say, to ask for some little evidence that this
“constant working of the brain * starts from its own ac-
cord. We have not a particle of such evidence, and such a
supposition is not only unsupported by a single fact, but
is contradicted by all the facts of history. (See Prof.
SEELYE’s argument against Darwinism in Johnson’s “Nat-
ural History,” vol. ii.) J. H. SEELYE.
Dash'ieli (RobºFT LAwRENSON), D. D., was born in
Salisbury, Md., 1826, graduated with honor at Dickin-
son College 1846, joined the Methodist Baltimore Con-
ference 1848, and occupied prominent pulpits in the Middle
States down to 1868, when he was elected president of
Dickinson College, Pa. He was appointed corresponding
secretary of the Missionary Society of the Methodist Epis-
copal Church in 1872.
HDashſkof (EKATERINA Roy ANovn A), PRINCEss, a Rus-
sian lady eminent for her talents and learning, was born
of a noble family Mar. 28, 1743. She became the wife of
Prince Dashkof and a friend of the empress Catharine II.
She was one of the chiefs of the conspiracy which de-
throned Peter II. Soon after this event she lost the favor
of Catharine, and passed several years in a tour through
|France, Germany, and Italy. Having returned home in
1782, she was appointed president of the Academy of
Sciences at St. Petersburg. She was the first president of
the Russian Academy, founded in 1784, and she superin-
tended the compilation of a great dictionary of the Rus-
sian language. Died Jan. 16, 1810. (See “Autobiograph-
ical Memoirs of her Life,” published in English in 1840.) .
Da’sya [from the Gr. 8aa'ſs, “hairy,” a term very ap-
plicable to some of the species], a genus of red Algae, of the
order Rhodomelaceae, nine or ten species of which are found
in the U.S., and seven species in the British Islands. They
have pear-shaped spores, borne in ovate conceptacles upon
the smaller branches. The genus includes some of our finest
sea-weeds.
Da’syure [from the Gr. 8aaijs, “hairy,” and otpá, the
“tail”], (Dasyurus), a genus of carnivorous marsupial
quadrupeds, allied to the opossums, but having only eight
incisors in the upper and six in the lower jaw, and only
twelve molars in each jaw. They also differ from the opos-
sums in the absence of a hinder thumb, a prehensile tail,
and in the want of a caecum. They are all Australasian.
The ursine dasyure (Dasyurus or Diabolw8 wrsinus), or Tas-
manian devil, abounded in Van Diemen’s Land when it was
first colonized. It is as large as the badger. The tail is
half as long as the body, and like it is covered with coarse
black hair with white bands. It is very wild, and makes
its home in the ground. The spotted dasyure (Dasyurus
macrurus) is the size of a cat, has a tail as long as the body,
and is of a deep brown color, spotted with white. This
and a smaller species (Dasyurus Mangir), called the wild-
cat, are natives of Van Diemen’s Land, and both are very
destructive to poultry. All the dasyures are fierce nocturnal
quadrupeds, and cannot be tamed.
Daſta (plu.), [from the Lat. do, datum, to “give”], sig-
nifies “things given " or admitted; quantities and facts
given, known, or admitted, by which to find things or re-
sults unknown; in geometry, the quantities or conditions
which are assumed to be known in any problem. Thus, in
the problem, Given the base, altitude, and area, to construct
the triangle, the data are: 1, that the figure is a triangle;
2, that it has a certain straight line for its base ; 3, that its
vertex is at a known distance from its base; and 4, that its
area has a known magnitude.
Dat’ames, fourth century B. C., a Persian general and
satrap, born of a Carian father and Scythian mother; his
principal fields of action were Asia Minor and Syria. He
experienced the fate accorded to many distinguished com-
manders of antiquity, such as Sertorius, master of Spain
eight years in the first century B. C., and Viriathus, sec-
ond century B. C., and in modern times, Wallenstein and
Guise, when they sought to maintain their independ-
ence against despotism, or when they became dangerous
to royalty. Too strong to be crushed out by force of arms,
they were taken off by treachery and assassination, as was
Datames about 362 B. C. He is known to modern times
only by short notices of Diodorus of Sicily, about 50 B.C., and
*“Lectures on Man,” p. 468.
of Polyen the Macedonian, second century A. D., author
of “Strategemata,” and through a very interesting account
of him by Cornelius Nepos (first century B. C.), who con-
siders him the most valiant and capable of barbarian—
that is, foreign—generals, with the exception of the two
Carthaginians, Hamilcar and Hannibal; as one who owed
his success not to the command of great armies, but to an
individual ability almost unequalled. From what is to be
gathered from the scanty details furnished, he must, in one
respect resembling the greatest of all generals of all times,
Hannibal, have been more remarkable for stratagem than
strategy, although not deficient either in tactics or strategy.
Frontinus, a military writer of consular dignity and Roman
commander-in-chief in Britain towards the end of the first
century A. D., in his “Strategematica, and Strategicon’
(Scott's translation, 1811, 185), cites an evidence of his con-
summate judgment, under fire, so to speak, similar to, but
far better than, that which in 1646 distinguished Turenne in
respect to the Wenmarians when transferring their services
to the Swedes. At first very successful in putting down an
extensive confederated revolt, and thereupon invested with
the command of the army destined to subject insurgent
Egypt, Datames fell into disfavor with the Persian mon-
arch Artaxerxes. Finding himself mistrusted and imper-
illed, he set up for himself, and was victorious over the
powerful forces sent against him. Found too great to be
conquered, he was betrayed by a friend, and in a confer-
ence murdered (exactly like the great Sertorius) about 362
B. C. To few men of whom so little is known has a greater
reputation been accorded, demonstrating that Datames made
himself felt and obtained a name whose grandeur like a set
sun is apparent from the continuing glow beyond the moun-
tains which conceal the orb which irradiates the sky.
J. WATTS DE PEYSTER.
Da/tary [Lat. datarius, from datum, “given º’ (usually
the first word in the date of papal documents; for example,
“Datum Romae apud Sanctum Petrum,” etc., “Given at
Rome January 1st,” etc.)], the chancellor of the pope; a
high dignitary of the Roman Catholic Church, who has the
power in some cases of granting requests, instead of the
pope himself. This arrangement was introduced to relieve
the pope from the pressure of unimportant business. The
datary is assisted by a pro-datary and a sup-datary.
Date [Fr. datte; from the Gr. SákrvXos (i. e. a “finger,”
and also a “ date,” so called from its shape); Lat. dactylus;
Sp. datil], the fruit of the date-palm (Phoemia, dactylifera),
a native of the north of Africa, and the south-west of Asia.
It also grows in Southern Europe, and to some extent in
the Southern U. S. The stem grows to the height of thirty
to sixty feet, is straight, and crowned with from forty to
eighty smooth pinnate leaves or fronds eight to ten feet
long, with lanceolate acuminate leaflets. The tree bears
many spadices, each of which on the female tree bears from
180 to 200 dates, weighing in the mass from twenty to
twenty-five pounds. This tree is one of the most highly
prized of all the palms, furnishing food to millions of the
human race. On the N. coast of Africa, in Persia, and
in Arabia, dates form a chief article of food. They contain
58 per cent. of sugar, combined with gum, pectin, etc. They
are used both fresh and dried, and are prepared for market
by pounding and pressing them into a solid mass. Both
wine and vinegar are made from them by fermentation, and
in Persia an ardent spirit is distilled from them. At the top
of the stem is a soft pith, which, with the young leaves sur-
rounding it, is called “palm cabbage,” and is much esteemed
as food. The undeveloped panicles of flowers are also eaten,
and “palm wine” is made by fermentation of the sap, of
which each tree yields from three to four quarts daily for
ten days or a fortnight. The roasted seeds are used in
North Africa, as coffee. These seeds are also ground and
an oil expressed from them, the paste which remains being
used as food for cattle. Baskets are made from the leaf-
stalks, and mats and bags from the leaves. The fibrous
parts at the base of the stalks are made into cordage, and,
the wood is used in the construction of buildings. The
toddy-palm (Phoenix sylvestris) of India is perhaps a va-
riety of this species. Like several other palms, it yields
“jaggery’ or palm-sugar. -
Date [from the Lat. datum, “given,” from do, datum, to
“give,” occurring in such phrases as the following: “Given
under my hand, this seventh day of April,” etc.; see DA-
TARY], a word used to denote the exact time when anything
was done. The careful observance of dates is of the utmost
importance in the proper writing of history. One of the
best works on this subject is “L’Art de vérifier les Dates,”
written by the Benedictines of St. Maur. (See CHRONOLOGY.)
Date Plum. See DIOSPYROs.
Dath’olite [from the Gr. 8á90s, “turbid,” and Atôos, a
“stone”], a mineral composed of boracic acid, silica, and
lime, with a little water. It occurs massive, and also crys-
DATISCACEAE-DAUPHINE.
1269
tallized in rhombic prisms, the edges and angles of which
are cut off by planes. It becomes opaque when heated,
hence the name.
Datisca/ceae [from Datisca, one of the general, a
small natural order of plants related to the Begoniaceae,
consisting of trees and herbs, principally native of the
milder regions of Europe and Asia. Datisca cannabina,
which is very similar to hemp in its general features, is a
native of Crete, and is valuable as a tonic. An amylace-
ous substance called datiscin is obtained from it. It also
yields a yellow dye.
Bative Case. See DECLENsion, by J. THOMAS, LL.D.
Datu'ra [Arab. tdºt{\rah], a genus of exogenous herbs
of the order Solanaceae, natives chiefly of warm climates
in both hemispheres. The Datura Stramonium (thorn-
apple, Jamestown or “Jimson ’’ weed of the U. S.) is nat-
uralized in this country, and furnishes the drug STRA-
MoRIUM (which see). Many other species are cultivated in
greenhouses for the beauty of their flowers. They all pos-
sess narcotic properties similar to those of belladonna.
HDaub (KARL). See APPENDIx.
Daubenton (Louis JEAN MARIE), M. D., an eminent
French naturalist, born at Montbar May 29, 1716. He
studied medicine in Paris, and began in 1742 to assist Buf-
fon in the preparation of his great work on natural history.
He was well qualified for this task by his sound judgment,
scrupulous accuracy, and patient industry, which enabled
him to rectify some of Buffon's errors and hasty theories,
and to enrich the work with many new and important facts
in the amatomy of animals. In 1745 he was appointed
curator and demonstrator of the cabinet of natural history
in Paris, of which he had charge for nearly fifty years.
He became professor of natural history in the College of
France in 1778. He contributed many scientific articles to
the first “Encyclopédie,” edited by Diderot. Died Jan. 1,
1800. (See CUVIER, “ Notice sur la Vie de Daubenton.”)
Daubeny (CHARLEs GILES BRIDLE), M. D., F. R. S., an
English chemist and naturalist, born at Stratton in 1795.
He was for many years professor of chemistry, botany, and
rural economy in the University of Oxford. He visited the
U. S. in 1837. Among his works are a “Description of Ac-
tive and Extinct Volcanoes, with Remarks on their Origin”
(1826), a “Sketch of the Geology of North America,” and
“Lectures on Agriculture * (1841). Died Dec. 12, 1867.
HD au’ber, a name applied to various mud-wasps, hy-
menopterous insects of the family Sphigidae and the genus
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Dauber.
Pelopæus, natives of various parts of America, some of the
species being quite common in the U. S. This name is
given on account of the remarkable nest which the mother-
insect constructs, bringing lumps of mud in her mouth,
which she arranges into cells, inwardly very smooth and
regular, but outwardly looking like masses of clay. In
these cells she lays her eggs, one in each cell, and with it
she seals up a large number of spiders, alive, but paralyzed
by her sting. The eggs hatch, the grub feeds on the spiders,
goes into the pupa state, and finally, having burst its co-
coon, gnaws through the wall of earth and escapes a per-
fect insect.
P’Aubigné (JEAN HENRI Merle), D. D., an eminent
Swiss divine and historian, born at Geneva Aug. 16, 1794.
His father’s name was Louis Merle. Having been ordained
as a Protestant minister, he preached about five years at
Hamburg, and removed to Brussels in 1823. He became
in 1831 professor of church history in a college at Geneva.
His principal work is a “History of the Reformation in
the Sixteenth Century” (1835), translations of which have
obtained extensive circulation in Great Britain and the
U. S. In 1863 he began to publish a “History of the
Reformation in Europe in the Time of Calvin.” He also
published the “Protector (Cromwell), a Vindication ”
(1848). He is most praised for the vivacity of his style,
the fervor of his piety, and the pronounced orthodoxy of
his opinions. He died at Geneva. Oct. 21, 1872.
D’Aubigné (THáopoRE AGRIPPA). See AUBIGNí, D’.
Daubigny (CHARLES FRANÇors), a French painter and
engraver, born Feb. 15, 1817, studied with his father and
Paul de la Roche, and spent three years in Italy. Among
his numerous works are “The Harvest,” “The Banks of
the Eure,” etc. His pictures show a careful study of na-
ture. He also made many drawings for books and illus-
trated newspapers.
Daufus’kie Island, one of the Sea Islands of Beau-
fort co., S. C., lying S. W. of Hilton Head Island. Its
northern point is in lat. 32° 8/42" N., lon. 80° 49' 58' W.
IDau’His, an ancient city of Greece, in Phocis, at the
foot of Mount Parnassus. Its position rendered it an im-
portant military station. Its site is occupied by the mod-
ern village of Davlia, 9 miles N. W. of Livadia.
Dau/mer (GEORG FRIEDRICH), a German pantheist,
born at Nuremberg Mar. 5, 1800. He published, besides
other works, a “System of Speculative Philosophy’ (1831)
and “Philosophy, Religion, and Antiquity” (1833). Sev-
eral of his works were noted for his violent attacks upon
the Christian religion. In 1858 he joined the Roman Cath-
olic Church, since which time he has published a number
of works from a Catholic point of view.
Daun, von (LEoPolp José PH MARIA), Count, an Aus-
trian general, born at Vienna Sept. 25, 1705. He served
with distinction against the Turks, and became a field-
marshal in 1754. He was commander-in-chief of the im–
perial army in the Seven Years' war. On June 18, 1757,
he defeated Frederick the Great at Rolin, where the loss
of the Prussians was very severe. On Oct. 14, 1758, he
gained a victory over Frederick at Hochkirchen. On Aug.
15, 1760, he was defeated at Liegnitz, and on Nov. 3, 1761,
at Torgau. He was appointed president of the Aulic coun-
cil in 1762. Died Feb. 5, 1766.
HDaunou (PIERRE CLAUDE FRANÇ0Is), a French states-
man and author, born at Boulogne Aug. 18, 1761. He was
elected in 1793 a member of the National Convention, in
which he acted with moderation and opposed the proscrip-
tion of the Girondists. He was the first president of the
Council of Five Hundred, and a member of the committee
which formed the constitution of the year VIII. (1800).
|He was editor of the “Journal dés Savants” from 1816 to
1838, and became professor of history in the College of
France in 1819. He published an “Essay on the Temporal
Power of the Pope” (1810) and a “Course of Historical
Studies” (20 vols., 1842 et seq.). Died June 20, 1840.
(See WALCKENAER, “ Notice sur la Vie de Daunou,” 1841.)
Dau/phin [Lat. delphinus], the former title of the eld-
est son and heir-apparent to the king of France. It was
originally the title of the sovereign lords of the province
of Dauphiné. In 1349, Humbert, lord of Vienne, dying
without issue, bequeathed his possessions to Charles of
Valois, on condition that the heir-apparent to the throne
of France should bear the title of dauphin of Vienne. This
title was abolished at the revolution of 1830.
Dauphin, a county in S. E. Central Pennsylvania. Area,
|\ 530 square miles. It is bounded on the W. and S.W. by the
} Susquehanna River, and intersected by the Swatara.
The
surface is diversified by parallel mountain-ridges and val-
leys, among the former of which is the Kittatinny or Blue
Mountain. Mines of anthracite coal are worked in the
county. Cattle, grain, wool, tobacco, hay, butter, and tim-
ber are produced. There are manufactures of iron, leather,
furniture, carriages, brick, lime, metallic wares, machinery,
and a great variety of other goods. It is intersected by
the Northern Central and the Schuylkill and Susquehanna
R. Rs. Capital, Harrisburg. Pop. 60,740.
Dauphin, a post-borough of Dauphin co., Pa., on the
Northern Central R. R., 8 miles N. W. of Harrisburg, at the
S. W. terminus of the Schuylkill and Susquehanna R. R.
Pop. 739.
Dauphiné, a former province in the S. E. of France,
is now comprised in the departments of Drôme, Hautes-
Alpes, and Isère. The chief towns were Grenoble, Vienne,
Gap, and Valence. After it had been long governed by
counts called dauphins, it was ceded to the crown of


















1270
DAUW–DAVID.
France in 1349.
Rhone.
Dauw, or Burchell’s Zebra (Asinus Burchelli), a
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Dau W.
wild ass of Southern Africa, resembling the true zebra,
but not so beautiful, its stripes being far less brilliant, and
not distributed over the whole body. It feeds in troops
on the plains, while the zebra lives in the mountains. It
has been domesticated, and in the Jardin des Plantes at
Paris has long been acclimatized.
Dav’enant (Sir WILLIAM), an English dramatic poet,
born at Oxford in 1605. He succeeded Ben Jonson as poet-
laureate in 1637. He was a royalist in the civil war, and
was confined for two years in the Tower. His principal
work is “Gondibert,” an epic poem. Died April 17, 1668.
Dav’enport, a city and river-port of Iowa, the capital
of Scott co., is pleasantly situated on the Mississippi at the
foot of the Upper Rapids, 330 miles above St. Louis and
184 miles W. by S. from Chicago. It is now the most pop-
ulous city in the State. It occupies the base and higher
parts of a bluff which rises gradually and extends along the
river three miles. The bluff commands extensive and beau-
tiful views of the river and of the town of Rock Island on
the opposite side of the Mississippi. The Chicago Rock
Island and Pacific R. R. here crosses the river on a new
iron bridge, which cost over $1,200,000. This city is the
southern terminus of the Davenport and St. Paul R. R.,
and is also the terminus of the Chicago and South-western
R. R. It contains twenty-five churches, Griswold College,
a business college, a city training-school, the largest and
most successful system of common schools in Iowa, the Ro-
man Catholic academy of the Immaculate Conception, an
opera-house, three national and two savings banks. Three
daily (English), four weekly and three monthly, and one
daily German paper are issued here. It has manufactures
of machinery, woollen goods, farming implements, glue,
corn-sugar, furniture, five lumber and fine flouring-mills.
Davenport has fine waterworks, which cost $600,000, com-
prising 20 miles of pipe, and 260 hydrants, horse-railroads,
five public parks, a fire department, and gasworks costing
$400,000, and is the market of a large farming region.
Coal abounds in the vicinity. Large quantities of grain
are shipped here. Pop. in 1860, 11,267; in 1870, 20,038;
of Davenport township, 3414. CHARLEs H. PLAYTER,
CITY ED. OF THE “DAILY DEMOCRAT.”
Davenport, a township and post-village of Delaware
co., N. Y., 18 miles S. of Cooperstown. It has important
manufactures. Pop. 2187.
Davenport (EDWARD L.), an excellent actor, was born
in Boston, Mass., in 1816. His début was at the Lion
Theatre, Providence, R. I., as Passion Will to Booth’s Sir
Giles Overreach, which last is one of his own best charac-
ters. He first appeared in Philadelphia (his present resi-
dence, 1873) at the Walnut Street Theatre in 1838. He
has played with success in Europe and in the principal
American theatres.
It was bounded on the W. by the river
Davenport (F.O.), U. S. N., born Oct. 3, 1842, in Mich-
igan, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1860, became a
lieutenant in 1862, and a lieutenant-commander in 1866.
He served at the naval battery near Alexandria,
Va., in the summer of 1861, and on board the
gunboat Scioto during the bombardment and
passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip and
at the capture of New Orleans, April 24, 1862.
FOXHALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Davenport (HENRY K.), U. S. N., born
Dec. 10, 1820, in Georgia, entered the navy as
a midshipman Feb. 19, 1838, became a passed
midshipman in 1844, a lieutenant in 1852, a
commander in 1862, and a captain in 1868. He
was present at the capture of the “Barrier
Forts,” China, in 1856, and at the bombard-
ment and capture of Forts Hatteras and Clark,
N. C., in 1861. He was in command of the
steamer Hetzel, North Atlantic blockading
§ squadron, from the latter part of 1861 to the
§ end of 1864, was in action with gunboats on
W. James River in 1861, and commanded a column
W of gunboats at the capture of Roanoke Island
and Elizabeth City, N. C., in 1862. He was
§ for more than a year senior officer in the sounds
of North Carolina, during which period he par-
ticipated in many battles and skirmishes while
co-operating with the army, at one time receiv-
ing the thanks of the officer commanding Fort
Anderson for saving his troops from capture by
a superior force. In 1865–66 he commanded
the Lancaster and Powhatan in the Pacific
Ocean, and in 1871 was appointed to the com-
mand of the frigate Congress, in which service
he died Aug. 18, 1872. Captain Davenport was
a thorough seaman, and when he died had seen
twenty-two years of actual service at sea.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Davenport (John), B. D., an eminent Puritan divine
and colonist, was born at Coventry, England, in 1597, was
educated at Oxford, and entered the Anglican priesthood.
In consequence of his Puritanical principles and practice
he was obliged to leave the Established Church in 1635. In
1637 he came to Boston, Massachusetts Bay, and in 1638
became one of the founders of the New Haven colony. In
1639 he became one of the “seven pillars” of the govern-
ment. He protected Goffe and Whalley, the regicides, and
in 1668 became minister of the First church, Boston, where
he died Mar. 15, 1670. /
David, a town of Colombia, in Veragua, is on the Isth-
mus of Panama, and near the Pacific Ocean. It has a trade
in coffee, hides, rice, etc.
Da/vid [Heb. "Y", “beloved;” Gr. Aagið or Aaví8; Arab.
Dáood], one of the most remarkable characters in history,
a son of Jesse, was born at Bethlehem in Judaea about
1080 B.C. In his youth he followed the occupation of a
shepherd, and he appears to have acquired great skill as a
musician. When about twenty-two years of age he was
received into the household of Saul, king of Israel, who,
we are told, was troubled with an “evil spirit.” David,
by playing upon the harp, soothed and “refreshed” Saul,
and “the evil spirit departed from him.” Not long after-
wards, David slew in single combat a Philistine giant named
Goliath, and, according to the promise of the king, received
Michal, Saul’s daughter, in marriage. But Saul was offended
by the praises which David received for his prowess, and
not only regarded his son-in-law with bitter jealousy, but
made repeated attempts upon his life. David was obliged
to fly for safety to Achish, king of Gath. In 1055 B.C.,
Saul was slain in a battle with the Philistines, after which
David was made king of the tribe of Judah, reigning at
Hebron for seven years, while Ishbosheth, Saul’s son, was
in power on the E. side of the Jordan, and for two years
was obeyed by all the tribes except Judah. After the
murder of Ishbosheth, in 1048 B. C., David became king
of the whole nation. He was victorious in all his wars,
and under his sway the kingdom of Israel acquired great
prosperity and power. One of his sorest trials was the
rebellion and death of his favorite son, Absalom. David
died in 1015, and Solomon, his son, succeeded to the throne.
In David all the feelings and passions appear to have been
singularly intense and powerful, and by them he was again
and again betrayed into great faults, and even crimes. Yet
his character, on the whole, exhibits a rare magnanimity,
as shown in his sparing Saul, his bitterest enemy, when
that king was completely in his power. (See 1 Sam xxiv.)
It should be borne in mind that David was not subjected to
the powerful restraints which public opinion exercises in
some directions on modern European monarchs. His fear
of God and his generous feelings were the only checks to

DAVID [..—DAVIDSON. -
1271
his mighty passions and that license which long-continued
success and a power all but unlimited in his own dominions
tended to foster. If we consider these things, we shall
probably find few sovereigns, even in the most civilized
times, possessing despotic power, whose characters will
bear a favorable comparison with that of David. As a
writer of religious poetry, and especially of that kind which
comes home to the feelings of all sorely-tried hearts, David
has no equal among the poets of the human race. He wrote
73 of the 150 lyrics which compose the book of Psalms.
Of the many commentaries on the Psalter, Some of the
ablest and most important are those of Calvin (1578–1610),
Hengstenberg (1849–52), Hupfeld (1855), Delitzsch (1860–
67), and Perrowne (1864–68; 2d ed. 1870). Of recent Eng-
lish versions, the most noteworthy are those of Noyes
(1831; 2d ed. 1846) and Conant (1871). (See REv. SAMUEL
CHANDLER’s “Critical History of the Life of David,” 2
vols. 8vo, 1766, reprinted in one volume in 1853.)
REVISED BY R. D. HITCHCOCK.
David H.2 king of Scotland, the sixth son of Malcolm
III., was born about 1080. He married, in 1110, Maud, a
great-niece of William the Conqueror. He succeeded his
brother, Alexander I., in 1124, and swore to maintain the
right of his niece Matilda to the throne of England in case
her father, Henry I., left no male issue. Henry died in 1135,
and David afterwards waged war against Stephen, who dis-
puted her claim to the throne. David invaded England,
and was defeated at Northallerton in 1138. He promoted
manufactures, education, and civilization. He died in
1153, and left the throne to his grandson, Malcolm IV.
David II., or David Bruce, king of Scotland, born
in 1323, was a son of Robert Bruce, whom he succeeded in
1329. His kingdom was invaded in 1332 by Edward Ba-
liol, who defeated the army of David. The latter was ex-
pelled, and retired to France, but his subjects continued to
fight for him, and he recovered the throne in 1342. Hav-
ing invaded England in 1346, he was defeated, captured,
and detained until 1357. He died in 1370.
HDavid (FáLICIEN-CásAR), a French musician and com-
poser, born at Cadenet (Vaucluse) Mar. 8, 1810. He be-
came about 1832 a disciple of Saint-Simon, and visited the
Levant with eleven fellow-disciples, from which he returned
to Paris in 1835. He published in that year “Oriental
Melodies” for the piano, which were not successful. In
1844 he produced “The Desert,” an ode-symphonie, which
had a great success. Among his other works are “ Chris–
topher Columbus,” an ode-symphonie (1847), “La Perle du
Brésil,” an opera (1851), and “Herculaneum” (1859).
David (JACQUES LOUIs), a celebrated French historical
painter, founder of the French classical school of painting,
was born in Paris Aug. 31, 1748. He was a pupil of Vien,
with whom he visited Rome in 1775. Having passed sev-
eral years in Rome and painted the “Triumph of Paulus
AEmilius” and other works, he returned to Paris in 1780.
He was admitted into the Royal Academy in 1783, revisited
Rome in 1784, and painted a picture of the “Horatii,”
which was greatly admired. He produced the “Death of
Socrates” in 1787, and “ Brutus Condemning his Sons” in
1789. . In the Revolution he was a violent Jacobin. Hav-
ing been elected to the Convention in 1792, he voted for
the death of the king, and was an accomplice or partisan
of Robespierre. He was the manager of the national fes-
tivals and spectacles during the republic. He painted at this
time several pictures relating to the events of the Terror—
“The Death of Marat,” “The Murder of Pelletier,” “The
Jeu des Paumes.” He was appointed first painter to Na-
poleon about 1804, and was banished as a regicide in 1815.
He afterwards resided at Brussels, where he died Dec. 29,
1825. His body was refused burial in France. “The Rape
of the Sabines” is regarded as his masterpiece. (See MIEL,
“ Notice sur J. L. David,” 1834; DEL'Écluze, “David et
son Ecole,” 1855.) REVISED BY CLARENCE Cook.
David (JáRôME FRáDáRIC PAUL), BARON, a French
politician, born in 1823, a grandson of Jacques Louis David,
has since 1859 been a member of the Corps Législatif and
a leader of the ultra-Bonapartist party; in 1867, and again
in 1869, vice-president of the Corps Législatif. After the
resignation of the Ollivier ministry (Aug., 1870), he was
minister of public works in the short-lived cabinet of Count
Palikao. . He wrote “Réflexions et discours sur la propriété
chez les Arabs” (1862).
David (PIERRE JEAN), a French sculptor known as
Pavid d’Angers, born at Angers Mar. I2, 1789. He
gained at Paris the first prize (with a pension) in 1811, and
then went to Rome to pursue his studies. He formed a
friendship with Canova, returned to France in 1816, and
produced a statue of the great prince of Condé, by which
he acquired a high reputation. In 1826 he became a mem-
ber of the Institute. Soon after the revolution of 1830 he
was employed by the government to adorn the Pantheon
with sculptures. Among his works are busts of Washing-
ton, La Fayette, Arago, Goethe, and Lamartine, and statues
of Cuvier, Racine, and Jefferson. He was a republican
member of the National Assembly in 1848. Died Jan. 5,
1856. REVISED BY CLARENCE Cook.
Da/vidists, Da/vid-Geor’gians, or Jo'rists, a
sect founded by David George or Joris, otherwise called
John of Bruges, an Anabaptist leader, who was born at
Delft in Holland in 1501 or 1502, and died at Băle in 1556.
He pretended to be the Messiah, denied the resurrection,
and held various heretical opinions. The sect existed in
Holland nearly a century after his death.
Davids Island [named from a former owner], an isl-
and of 100 acres in Long Island Sound, within the town-
ship limits of New Rochelle, Westchester co., N. Y. It was
purchased in 1867 by the U. S. government for $38,500, to
be used for military purposes.
Da/vidson, a county in the S. E. of Dakota Territory.
Area, 432 square miles. It is traversed by the Dakota,
River or Rivière-au-Jacques. This county has been form-
ed since the census of 1870. There are fine intervale or
bottom lands along the streams.
Da/vidson, a county in W. Central North Carolina.
Area, 620 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the
Yadkin River. The surface is hilly; the soil is mostly fer-
tile. Cattle, grain, tobacco, wool, and hay are raised. It
is traversed by the North Carolina R. R. Gold, iron, cop-
per, silver, and lead have been found here. Capital, Lex-
ington. Pop. 17,414.
HDavidson, a county of Middle Tennessee. Area, 500
square miles. It is intersected by the Cumberland River,
navigable for steamboats. The surface is undulating; the
soil is fertile. Grain, tobacco, cotton, wool, hay, etc. are
produced, and the manufactures are varied, and embrace
machinery, carriages, saddlery, harnesses, metallic wares,
etc. Good limestone is abundant here. The Nashville and
Chattanooga R. R. connects in this county with the Louis-
ville and Nashville and other railroads. Capital, Nash-
ville. Pop. 62,897.
Davidson, a post-township of Sullivan co., Pa. P. 634.
Davidson (JAMES WooD) was born in 1829 in Newber-
ry district, S. C., and graduated with honors at the South
Carolina College in 1852; was professor of Greek in Mount
Zion College, Winnsboro’, S. C., 1854–59, and has since
been an instructor, except while serving in Virginia as an
officer of Lee's army. He has published a “School His-
tory of South Carolina’’ and “The Living Writers of the
South,” besides other valuable works.
Davidson (LUCRETIA MARIA), an American poetess,
born at Plattsburg, N.Y., Sept. 27, 1808. She wrote verses
in early childhood, and is said to have composed 278 poems.
Died Aug. 27, 1825. A collection of her poems was pub-
lished, with a memoir, by S. F. B. Morse in 1829.
HDavidson (MARGARET MILLER), a poetess, a sister of
the preceding, was born Mar. 26, 1823. She was distin-
guished for her precocity and sensibility. Died Nov. 25,
1838. Her poems were praised by Washington Irving, who
wrote a memoir of her life.
Davidson (ROBERT), D. D., was born at Carlisle, Pa.,
in 1808. His father was president of Dickinson College.
The younger Davidson studied theology at Princeton, be-
came president of Transylvania University, and was for
some time superintendent of public instruction in Kentucky.
Among his numerous writings are “History of the Presby-
terian Church in Kentucky,” “The Christ of God,” and
“Elijah, a Sacred Drama.” - -
Davidson (THOMAs), F. R. S., F. G. S., an English
palaeontologist, born May 17, 1817, at Edinburgh. He has
written “British Fossil Brachiopoda,” and “Illustrations
and History of Silurian Life.”
Davidson (Gen. WILLIAM) was born in Lancaster co.,
Pa., in 1746. The family was of Irish extraction. In 1750
they removed to Rowan co., N. C. William, the youngest
son, was educated at Queen’s Museum, afterwards styled
Liberty Hall, in Charlotte, the county-seat of Mecklenburg,
adjoining Rowan. Old Mecklenburg had blazed out in the
sacred cause of freedom long before the sparks were dis-
cerned in some other parts of the land. Even her patri-
otic women formed a solemn league against laggards, the
universal sentiment being, “ None but the brave deserve
the fair.” He married a daughter of Mr. John Brevard
of Centre, who had seven sons in the American army.
Among these was Ephraim Brevard, the distinguished
author of the Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence.
Our young hero was made major in one of the first regi-
ments organized in North Carolina. He fought at Mon-
mouth, Brandywine, and Germantown, and is said to have
1272
DAVIDSON COLLEGE-DAVIES.
commended himself to the approval of the great and good
commander-in-chief himself. For his efficiency and fidelity
he was promoted to be lieutenant-colonel, with the command
of a regiment. With three years of such campaigning he
brought back with him to his loved Carolina much military
prestige. In a skirmish at Calson’s Mill a ball passed
through his body. Upon his recovery he was made briga-
dier-general. His energy and popularity were made avail-
able in his rallying and organizing the militia throughout
this region. Days of darkness were now upon us. Lord
Cornwallis had broken up camp at Winnsboro’, and had
resolved to crush Morgan and Greene in succession. He
had put himself upon the war-path. The haughty and
bloodthirsty Tarleton was detached, and sent forward to
take Morgan. He found him at Cowpens, and was sig-
nally defeated. Tarleton returned to his master a sadder
and a wiser man. There was now an interesting trial of
speed for the Catawba. Morgan had a little the start, but
his 500 British prisoners were a great clog to him. The
Americans’ rear crossed at Sherrill’s Ford only two hours
before the British van came in sight. Morgan’s main body
moved on towards Salisbury. The prisoners were for-
warded to Virginia. It was now sunset, and Cornwallis
rested his jaded army that night on the W. bank. He slept
secure of his victim, but Providence smiled on the patriot
army. That night it rained heavily, and the next day
and the next the river was booming. Cornwallis followed
the stream in quest of a better crossing. Greene, full of
good cheer and of mischief-making, had taken two or three
trusty troopers and dashed across the country to Beattie’s
Ford. There Morgan, Davidson, and Col. Washington
met him by previous concert. Going out of camp a little
distance, the four held a brief conference, and then each
betook himself to his own post. Gen. Davidson, with 250
militia and Capt. Graham’s cavalry, was soon en route for
Cowan’s Ford, 4 miles below. This young cavalier was
afterwards Gen. Graham, worthy father of a worthy son,
ex-Gov. William A. Graham. As they rode along together,
Gen. Davidson remarked to Graham that though Greene
saw the Catawba for the first time that day, he seemed to
be more familiar with it than those who had been reared
on its banks. The little band reached their destination
'about dusk. . They could scarcely be expected to do more
than mask the retreat of our little army, or at best hold
Cornwallis in temporary check. It was of course uncertain
where his lordship would choose to cross. He made a feint
of so doing at Beattie’s Ford, whilst the main body of his
army had, after midnight, been marched down to Cowan’s.
This being a more private and dangerous crossing, he had
hoped it might escape the attention of his adversary. The
camp-fires on shore convinced him of his miscalculation.
Though the swollen waters had only partially subsided,
his destiny seemed to urge him onward. In the bold
Britons plunged, and on they pressed. Owing to the dense
fog which hung over the river, Lieut. Thomas Davidson’s
picket stationed at the “wagon ford ” did not discover
them at once, but soon opened fire on them. The cavalry
came to their aid. The general had encamped opposite
the island, a quarter of a mile below, where the “horse
ford” comes out. This ford begins where the other does,
but then takes down stream and across the island, very
much as at present. The wagon ford is very jagged and
rough, bearing obliquely up. It is said that the reason
they did not take the horse ford was that their guide
abandoned them in mid-stream, and that they, not know-
ing the ford, bore right across. By the time the general
reached the spot with the main force and took position,
some of the British sections had gained the shore and
commenced firing. It is not surprising that a few well-
directed volleys from the British made his lordship master
of the situation. The casualties on their side were thirty-
one killed, among whom was a brave officer of the Guards,
Col. Hall, and thirty-five wounded.
all privates, except the gallant Gen. Davidson, who, pierced
through the breast with a rifle-ball, fell from his horse and
expired without a struggle. He thus sealed with his life-
blood his devotion to the cause so dear to his heart. By
referring to the date, Feb. 1, 1781, we see that he was
taken away in the full flush of manhood and of his useful-
ness. He sleeps in the quiet cemetery of Hopewell church.
His sword hangs in Chambers Hall at Davidson College.
This flourishing institution received from him its name,
and we fondly trust it will help to perpetuate his memory
as effectually as the sculptured marble voted, but never
erected over him, by a not the less grateful and apprecia-
tive Congress. W. G. RICHARDSON.
Davidson College, Mecklenburg co., N. C., was
founded in 1837. The name was given in honor of Gen.
William Davidson, a Revolutionary officer who fell at
Cowan’s Ford on the Catawba River, not far from where
the college is situated. It had its origin in an hereditary
We lost four killed, .
thirst for sound learning and pure religion which charac-
terized the people of Western North Carolina from a very
early period. As early as 1770 they obtained a charter
from the colonial legislature to incorporate “Queen’s Mu-
seum ” at Charlotte in Mecklenburg county, which was the
first college ever attempted in the State. This charter was
repealed by royal proclamation, but the institution was not
abandoned. In 1777 it was rechartered, as “Liberty
Hall,” and continued its operations until 1780, when it was
closed by the progress of the Revolution. Again, in 1820,
earnest efforts were made in Western North Carolina to es-
tablish an institution of high grade, to be called “Western
College.” This also failed. . The next movement began in
1835 in Concord Presbytery. This led to the establish-
ment of Davidson College in 1837, for which a charter was
obtained in 1838. Thus it appears that Queen’s Museum,
Liberty Hall, Western College, and finally Davidson Col-
lege, have been so many successive efforts to embody in a
practical, working form the intellectual and religious life
of Western North Carolina. In all these efforts the Scotöh-
Irish Presbyterian element was predominant; and David-
son College, while its charter distinctly announces that its
object is “to educate youth of all classes, without any re-
gard to the distinction of religious denominations,” is
under the government and control of Presbyterians ex-
clusively. All the presbyteries of North Carolina and
Bethel Presbytery in South Carolina are now represented
in its board of trustees.
The institution at the beginning received a valuable
landed estate from William Lee Davidson, Esq., the son
of Gen. Davidson. Upon this land the college buildings
were erected. A small endowment was obtained by con-
tributions from friends and patrons and by the sale of
scholarships, but the college did not attain to its present
efficient equipment until after the munificent bequest of
$258,000 by Mr. Maxwell Chambers of Salisbury, N. C. It
lost much of its endowment by the late war; but its build-
ings, Hibraries, cabinets, apparatus, etc. are ample. It has
seven professors and two organized courses of instruction
—the one literary, and the other scientific. It has gradu-
ated 352 students, and of those who have gone out from its
halls, about 100 have entered the gospel ministry.
The Rev. R. H. Morrison, D. D., to whose enlightened
Christian zeal' and well-directed energy Davidson College
owes its existence and much of its prosperity, was its first
president. He was succeeded by the Rev. Samuel William-
son, D.D., in 1841; the Rev. Drury Lacy, D.D., became pres-
ident in 1854, the Rev. J. L. Kirkpatrick, D. D., in 1860,
and the Rev. G. Wilson McPhail, D. D., LL.D., in 1866.
In 1871, when the presidency again became vacant by the
death of Dr. McPhail, the trustees determined to substitute
the office of chairman for the presidency of the college, and
Prof. J. R. Blake was elected to the new office.
J. R. BLAKE.
Davidson’s, a township of Iredell co., N. C. Pop.
1540.
HDa/vie, a county in W. Central North Carolina. Area,
300 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Yadkin
River. The surface is uneven. Tobacco, grain, and Wool
are staple products. Iron ores and limestone are found.
Capital, Mocksville. Pop. 9620.
Da/vie (WILLIAM RICHARDSON), GENERAL, was born in
England June 20, 1756, and emigrated to America in early
youth. He graduated at Princeton in 1776, served as col-
onel in the Revolutionary war, and was a delegate from
North Carolina, to the convention which formed the Federal
Constitution in 1787. In 1799 he was chosen governor of
North Carolina. Died Nov. 8, 1820.
Da/vies (CHARLEs), LL.D., an American officer and
mathematician, born Jan. 22, 1798, in Washington, Conn.,
graduated at West Point in 1815. After a year in garrison
at New England posts, he resigned Dec. 1, 1816, and was
attached to the Military Academy as assistant professor
till May 1, 1823, when he was appointed professor of
mathematics, holding this position till May 31, 1837, when
he again resigned for a like position in Trinity College,
Hartford, Conn. He was appointed paymaster U. S. A.
Nov. 17, 1841, holding office till Sept. 30, 1845, and was
subsequently professor of mathematics and philosophy in
the University of New York 1848–49, and of higher mathe-
matics in Columbia College, New York City, 1857–65.
After leaving West Point in 1837 he devoted most of his
time and talents to the preparation of a complete series of
mathematical text-books, adopted largely in public Schools.
He is a member of several scientific and educational asso-
ciations. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Davies (HENRY E., J.R.), an American lawyer and
general, born in New York July 2, 1836, educated at Har:
yard, Williams, and Columbia Colleges, studied law, and
was admitted to the bar in 1857. In April, 1861, he en-
º DAVIES-DAVIS.
1273
tered the army as captain Fifth New York Volunteers—
was transferred July, 1861, as major to the Second New
York Cavalry, of which regiment he subsequently became
colonel, remaining in command till Sept., 1863, when he
was commissioned a brigadier-general of volunteers, and
assigned to a command in the cavalry corps of the Army
of the Potomac, serving with distinction till the close of
the war (brevet major-general of volunteers Oct., 1864).
In June, 1865, he was made a major-general, and as-
signed to the command of the middle district of Alabama,
which he held till Jan. 1, 1866, when he resigned. He was
public administrator of the city of New York from Jan.,
1866, to Jan., 1869, and assistant district attorney of the
southern district of New York from July 20, 1870, to Dec.
31, 1872. G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Eng’rs.
Davies (Sir JoHN), an English poet and judge, born in
Wiltshire in 1570, was educated at Oxford. He was ap-
pointed solicitor-general of Ireland in 1603, and published
in 1612 an able work on the political state of Ireland. In
1620 he was elected a member of the English Parliament.
His chief poem is entitled “Nosce Teipsum” (1599). He
became lord chief-justice in 1626, and died Dec. 7, in the
Same year. - *
Davies (SAMUEL), D. D., a Presbyterian divine and
eminent pulpit-orator of Welsh descent, was born near
Summit Ridge, Newcastle co., Del., Nov. 3, 1723. He
spent some years as a sort of missionary in Hanover co.,
Va. He was one of the founders of the College of New
Jersey, and succeeded Jonathan Edwards as president of it
in 1759, and died Feb. 4, 1761. A collection of his sermons
was published in London soon after his death. The last
American edition, in three volumes (1849), which claims
to be complete, contains an essay on the life and times of
the author by Rev. Albert Barnes. President Davies takes
rank among the greatest of pulpit orators.
Davies (THOMAs), famous as the author of the “Life
of David Garrick” (1780), was born probably in 1712,
studied at Edinburgh, and became an unsuccessful actor
in London, where he was also a bookseller and publisher.
He was a friend of Dr. Samuel Johnson, who was warmly
attached to him. Attacked by Churchill in the “Rosciad,”
he was compelled by ridicule to leave the stage. Besides
the work above mentioned, which brought him fame and
profit, he published several other works, chiefly biograph-
ical. Died in 1785. (See Boswell’s “Life of Johnson.”)
Davies (THOMAS A.), an American officer and mer-
chant, born in 1809 in St. Lawrence co., N. Y., graduated
at West Point in 1829. He served as lieutenant of infantry
on garrison duty till he resigned Oct. 31, 1831; civil en-
gineer on the Croton Aqueduct, New York, 1831–33 and
1840–41; and merchant in New York City 1833–39 and
1841—61. At the beginning of the civil war he resumed the
military profession as colonel of Sixteenth New York vol-
unteers, was appointed brigadier-general U. S. volunteers
May 7, 1862, and served in Manassas campaign 1861, en-
gaged at Bull Run; in Mississippi campaign 1862, en-
gaged in the siege of Corinth; in Northern Mississippi
1862, engaged in the battle of Corinth, and command of
various districts 1862–65. Brevet major-general U. S.
volunteers July 11, 1865, for gallant and meritorious ser-.
vices, and mustered out of service Aug. 24, 1865.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Da’viess, a county in the S. W. of Indiana. Area,
423 square miles. It is bounded on the S. and W. by the
East Fork and West Fork of White River, which unite at
the South-western extremity of the county. The soil is
mostly fertile. Coal is found. Cattle, grain, tobacco, wool,
and lumber are produced; carriages, wagons, etc. are
manufactured. It is intersected by the Ohio and Missis-
sippi R. R. Capital, Washington. Pop. 16,747.
Daviess, a county in the N. W. of Kentucky. Area,
550 Square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Ohio
River, and on the S. and W. by Green River. The surface
is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Coal is found here. To-
bacco, cattle, grain, and lumber are produced. It is inter-
sected by the Owensboro’ and Russellville R. R. Capital,
Owensboro’. Pop. 20,714.
... Daviess, a county in the N. W. of Missouri. Area,
576 square miles. It is intersected by Grand River. The
surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain,
tobacco, and wool are staple products. It is traversed by
a branch of the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. R.,
and by the South-western branch of the Chicago Rock
Island and Pacific R. R. Capital, Gallatin. Pop. 14,410.
Daviess (Joseph H.), an American lawyer and patriot,
born in Bedford co., Va., Mar. 4, 1774, studied law and
attained a high position in his profession, was U. S. at-
torney for the district of Kentucky, and vigorously opposed
Aaron Burr in 1806. He was mortally wounded at the
most important pulpits of his denomination.
battle of Tippecanoe Nov. 7, and died Nov. 8, 1811. Seve-
ral counties in the U. S. were named in his honor.
Da’wila (ENRICO CATERINA), an Italian historian, born
at Sacco, near Padua, Oct. 30, 1576. He was educated at
Paris, and entered the service of Henry IV. of France, and
about 1606 the service of the Venetian republic, and com-
manded with success in several actions. He published in
1630 a. “History of the Civil Wars of France from 1559 to
1598?” (“Historia della Guerre Civili,” etc.). Died in July,
1631.
Da’vis, a county in the S. S. E. of Iowa. Area, 480
square miles. It is intersected by Fox River. The sur-
face is undulating; the soil is fertile and well watered.
Cattle, grain, wool, hay, butter, and timber are staple
products. It is traversed by a branch of the St. Louis
Kansas City and Northern, by the Burlington and South-
western, and by the South-western branch of the Chicago
Rock Island and Pacific R. Rs. Capital, Bloomfield. Pop.
I5,565.
Davis, a county in N. E. Central Kansas. Area, 386
square miles. It is intersected by the Kansas River, and
also drained by the Republican River. The surface is un-
dulating; the soil is fertile. Grain, hay, butter, etc. are
staple products. It is traversed by the Kansas Pacific and
the Missouri Kansas and Texas R. Rs. The greater part
of the county is prairie. Capital, Junction City. P. 5226.
Davis, a county in the N. E. of Texas. Area, 927
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by Sulphur Fork
of Red River. The soil is fertile, and heavily timbered.
Cotton, wool, corn, rice, and fruit are raised. Iron ore
abounds. Lumber, flour, pig iron, and copperas are manu-
factured. Capital, Linden. Pop. 8875. This county was
originally called CAss, but it was changed to Davis, and is
so called in the U. S. census of 1870. In 1871 the name
was again changed to CASS.
Davis, a county in the N. of Utah, is bounded on the
W. by the Great Salt Lake. It is intersected by the Utah
Central R. R. Grain and wool are raised. Capital, Farm-
ington. Pop. 4459. -
Davis, a township of Grant co., Ark. Pop. 578.
Davis, a township of Van Buren co., Ark. Pop. 488.
Davis, or Davisville, a post-village of Yolo co., Cal.,
at the junction of the Marysville branch with the Central
Pacific R. R., 13 miles W. by S. of Sacramento.
Davis, a post-village of Rock Run township, Stephen-
son co., Ill., on the Western Union R. R., 13 miles N. W.
of Freeport. It has one weekly newspaper.
Davis, a township of Fountain co., Ind. Pop. 663.
Davis, a township and village of Starke co., Ind. P.244.
Davis, a township of Davis co., Kan. Pop. 2748.
Davis, a township of Caldwell co., Mo. Pop. 573.
Davis, a township of Lafayette co., Mo. Pop. 1723.
Davis, a township of Shenandoah co., Va. Pop. 2293.
Davis (ANDREW JACKSON), a clairvoyant and prominent
Spiritualist, was born Aug. 11, 1826, at Blooming Grove,
Orange co., N. Y. His first work, “The Principles of
Nature, her Divine Revelations,” etc. (1845), professes to
have been dictated by him under spiritual influence, at a
time when he had received almost no education. He has
since published a number of other works, of which the
rincipal is “The Great Harmonia. * (5 vols., 1850–59).
See “The Magic Staff, an Autobiography of A. J. Davis,”
1857.)
Davis (BENJAMIN F.), an American officer, born in Ala-
bama in 1832, graduated at West Point in 1854, and served
with distinction in the infantry and dragoons in New
Mexico. In 1862 he became colonel of the Eighth New
York Cavalry, and while leading a brigade to the charge
was instantly killed, June 9, 1863, at the combat of
Beverly Ford, Va.
Davis (CHARLEs A.), an able Methodist Episcopal
preacher, born Oct. 7, 1802, was admitted to preach in the
Baltimore Conference in 1824. He occupied several of the
After the
division of his Church into two bodies he joined the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church South. Becoming a post-chaplain
of the U. S. navy, he advocated the national cause during
the civil war, and united again with the Methodist Epis-
copal Church. He died at the Naval Hospital, Norfolk,
Va., Feb. 20, 1867.
Davis (CHARLEs HENRY), LL.D., U. S. N., born Jan.
16, 1807, in Boston, Mass., entered the navy as midshipman
Aug. 12, 1823, became passed midshipman in 1829, lieuten-
ant in 1834, commander in 1854, captain in 1861, commo-
dore in 1862, and rear-admiral in 1863. In 1859, Davis
was appointed Superintendent of the American “Nautical
1274
DAVIS.
Almanac.” In 1861 we find him a member of a board of
officers assembled at Washington to inquire into and report
upon the condition of the Southern coast, its harbors and
inlets, with a view to offensive operations on the part of
the government. This led to the organization of the ex-
pedition against Port Royal, in which Davis bore a con-
spicuous part as chief of staff. His services prior to and
at the capture of Port Royal may be best gathered from
Flag-Officer Dupont's official report of Nov. 11, 1861, in
which, referring to Charles H. Davis, he says: “I have
yet to speak of the chief of my staff and fleet-captain,
Commander Davis. In the organization of our large fleet
before sailing, and in the preparation and systematic ar-
rangement of the details of our contemplated work—in
short, in all the duties pertaining to the flag-officer—I re-
ceived his most valuable assistance. He possesses the rare
quality of being a man of science and a practical officer,
keeping the love of science subordinate to the regular
duties of his profession. During the action he watched
over the movements of the fleet, kept the official minutes,
and evinced that calmness in danger which, to my know-
ledge for thirty years, has been a conspicuous trait in
his character.” On the 9th of May, 1862, Davis relieved
Flag-Officer Foote of the command of the Western flo-
tilla off Fort Pillow, and on the following day beat off
a squadron of eight iron-clads, which had steamed up the
Mississippi and attacked him. The vessels with Davis
at the time were seven in number. The action was a
spirited one, and lasted nearly an hour; three of the hos-
tile gunboats were disabled, but, taking refuge under the
guns of Fort Pillow, could not be captured. On the 5th of
June Fort Pillow was abandoned by the Confederates, and
on the 8th Davis fell in with their iron-clads and rams op-
posite the city of Memphis. A running fight ensued, re-
sulting in the capture of all the Confederate vessels but
one, and the surrender of Memphis. For his services dur-
ing the civil war Davis received the thanks of Congress
and was made a rear-admiral. On his return from the
Mississippi he was appointed chief of the bureau of navi-
gation, and in 1865 superintendent of the Naval Observa-
tory, in which capacity he served for two years, when he
was detailed as commander-in-chief of our squadron on the
coast of Brazil, where he remained until 1869. On his re-
turn to the U. S. he was ordered to Washington on special
duty, and in 1870 was appointed to the command of the
U. S. navy-yard at Norfolk, Va., where he now is (1873).
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Davis (DANIEL), an American lawyer, the father of
Admiral C. H. Davis, was born at Barnstable, Mass., May
8, 1762, settled at Portland, Me. (then called Falmouth), in
1782, and held many prominent offices in Massachusetts, of
which Maine was then a part. In 1804 he removed to
Boston, and in 1832 to Cambridge, Mass., where he died
Oct. 27, 1835. He was the author of several legal works.
Davis (DAVID), LL.D., an American jurist, born in
Cecil co., Md., Mar. 9, 1815, educated at Kenyon College,
O., studied law with Judge Bishop in Lenox, Mass., and
in the Law School at New Haven, Conn. In 1836 he
settled in Bloomington, Ill., where he continues to reside;
he was elected to the lower house of the Illinois legis-
lature 1844–45, to the constitutional convention which
framed a new constitution for the State 1847; elected
judge of the eighth judicial circuit of Illinois in 1848, re-
elected in 1855, and again in 1861. While serving this last
term he was appointed by President Lincoln an associate
justice of the Supreme Court of the U. S. Oct., 1862, which
position he still holds. He was nominated by the Labor
Reform party in 1872 as a candidate for the presidency.
Davis (EDw1N HAMILTON), M. D., an American archae-
ologist, born in Ross co., O., Jan. 22, 1811, graduated at
Kenyon College in 1833. He became professor of materia
medica, and therapeutics in the New York Medical College
in 1850. He wrote “Monuments of the Mississippi Valley”
(in vol. i. of the “Smithsonian Contributions”) and other
works.
Davis (EMERSON), D. D., a Congregational divine and
author, born at Ware, Mass., July 15, 1798, and gradu-
ated at Williams College in 1821, was for some time tutor
in that college and preceptor in the academy at Westfield,
Mass. He became in 1836 pastor of the First Congrega-
tional church in the latter town, where he remained for life,
greatly honored and beloved, and exerting a wide and very
useful influence, especially in educational affairs. In 1847
he received the degree of D. D. from Harvard College. He
was vice-president of Williams College from 1861 to 1868.
He published “The Teacher Taught" (1839), “History of
Westfield” (1826), “The Half Century” (1852), and vari-
ous minor essays, sermons, etc., besides five manuscript
volumes of biographical writings, as yet unpublished. Died
at Westfield, Mass., June 8, 1866.
Davis (GARRET), born in Mount Sterling, Ky., Sept. 10,
1801, was admitted to the bar in 1823, became a Whig
member of Congress (1839–47), and a Democratic U. S.
Senator from Kentucky (1861–72). He was very active in
preventing the secession of his native State in 1861. Died
in Sept., 1872.
Davis (GEORGE LEONARD), U. S. N., born Aug. 10, 1833,
in Massachusetts, entered the navy as a paymaster April
16, 1861, and commanded the powder division of the steam-
sloop Pensacola at the passage of Forts St. Philip and
Jackson and capture of New Orleans in 1862. His services
on that occasion are thus honorably mentioned in the offi-
cial report of the executive officer of the Pensacola to Capt.
Henry W. Morris of April 30, 1862: “The powder division
was perfectly served under the command of Paymaster
George L. Davis. Its good order and efficiency are worthy
of special notice.” Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Davis (GEORGE T.), U. S. N., born May 20, 1844, in
Massachusetts, graduated at the Naval Academy as ensign
in 1863, became a master in 1866, a lieutenant in 1867, and
a lieutenant-commander in 1868. He was attached to the
iron-clad steamer New Ironsides in 1863–64, during her
various engagements with the forts and batteries in Charles-
ton harbor, and was in both attacks on Fort Fisher in 1865.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Davis (GEORGE T.) was born in Sandwich, Mass., Jan.
12, 1810, graduated at Harvard College in 1829, was ad-
mitted to the bar in 1832, was a State senator in Massa-
chusetts several terms, and a representative in Congress
(1851–53).
Davis (HENRY), D. D., an American Presbyterian
divine, was born at East Hampton, N. Y., Sept. 15, 1771,
and graduated at Yale in 1796. He was for seven years a
tutor in Williams and Yale Colleges; professor of Greek at
Union College, Schenectady, N. Y., 1806–09; president of
Middlebury College, Vt., 1809–17; president of Hamilton
College, Clinton, N. Y., 1817–33. He was a preacher of
very eminent ability, one of the founders of Auburn Theo-
logical Seminary, and an active friend of foreign missions.
Died at Clinton, N. Y., Mar. 8, 1852.
Davis (HENRY WINTER), LL.D., an American statesman,
born at Annapolis, Md., Aug. 16, 1817. He was elected a
member of Congress by the voters of Baltimore in 1854 and
1856. He was an eloquent speaker, and acted with the
“American * party. In 1858 he was re-elected. Soon
after the civil war began he became a radical Republican.
IHe was chairman of the committee of foreign affairs in the
Thirty-eighth Congress (1863–65). Died Dec. 30, 1865.
Davis (ISAAC), LL.D., born in Northboro’, Worcester
co., Mass., June 2, 1799, and graduated at Brown Uni-
versity (of which he is now one of the fellows) in 1822. He
had an extensive and lucrative legal practice in Worcester,
Mass., where he still resides. He was president of the
Massachusetts Baptist State Convention 1833–40, president
of board of trustees of Worcester Academy 1833–73, Demo-
cratic candidate for governor of Massachusetts in 1845, 1846,
and 1861, mayor of Worcester in 1856, 1858, 1861, member
of the State senate in 1843–54, member of governor’s coun-
cil 1851, member of the house of representatives (State)
and chairman of committee on judiciary in 1852, member
of the Massachusetts constitutional convention in 1853, and
member of the Massachusetts board of education in 1852–
60. Mr. Davis has been a liberal and judicious patron of
education, and is one of the most respected and influential
citizens of Massachusetts. His “Addresses, Speeches, and
Historical Discourses” have been published.
Davis (Rev. JAMEs), an English dissenter, born in Kent
June 1, 1812, graduated at Cheshunt College, became a
preacher of London, and has been for many years secretary
of the British branch of the Evangelical Alliance. He was
a delegate of the Alliance at its meeting in New York in
1873.
Davis (JEFFERSON), LL.D., an officer and statesman,
born June 3, 1808, in Christian co., Ry., graduated at West
Point 1828, served as lieutenant of infantry at Western
posts 1828–33, of First Dragoons as adjutant 1833–34, and
on frontier service 1834. After resigning June 30, 1835, he
became a cotton planter in Warren co., Miss., 1835–46, presi-
dential elector from Mississippi 1844, member U. S. House
of Representatives 1845–46, colonel First Mississippi Rifle
Volunteers in the war with Mexico 1846–47, engaged at
Monterey and Buena Vista (severely wounded), member of
the U. S. Senate 1847-51, and chairman of the committee
on military affairs 1849–51, secretary of war in President
Pierce’s cabinet 1853–57, member of the U. S. Senate and
chairman committee on military affairs 1857–61, President
of the Southern Confederacy Feb. 4, till captured May 10,
1865, at Irwinville, Ga., prisoner of war 1865–67 at Fort
DAVIS-DAVIS'S STRAIT.
1275
Monroe, Va., and now president of Carolina Life Insurance
Company. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Davis (JEFFERSON C.), an American general, born in
Clarke co., Ind., Mar. 2, 1828. He was one of the garrison
of Fort Sumter when it was bombarded by the insurgents
in April, 1861. He commanded a division at the battle of
Stone River, which ended Jan. 2, 1863, and a corps of the
army of Gen. Sherman in the march from Atlanta to the
sea, in Nov. and Dec., 1864.
Davis (John), a prominent minister of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, was born in Northumberland co., Va.,
Oct. 30, 1787, and became an itinerant preacher in 1810.
For over forty years he was one of the leaders of his Church,
an admirable presiding elder, and a very powerful and in-
fluential preacher. He died in Hillsborough, Va., Aug.
13, 1853.
Davis (John), LL.D., born in Plymouth, Mass., Jan.
25, 1761, graduated at Harvard in 1781, became a lawyer
of Plymouth in 1786. After holding other important
offices, he became in 1795 comptroller of the U. S. treasury,
in 1796 Massachusetts district attorney, and in 1801 U. S.
district judge for Massachusetts. He was an eminent anti-
quary and a learned scientist. Died at Boston, Mass., Jan.
14, 1847. He was a prominent member of many learned
societies, and published several addresses and papers,
chiefly upon scientific and historical subjects.
Davis (John), L.L.D., an American Senator, was born
in Northborough, Mass., Jan. 13, 1787, and graduated at
Yale in 1812. He was elected a member of Congress in
1824, and governor of Massachusetts 1833–35 and 1840–41.
In 1835 he was chosen a Senator of the U. S. for six
years by the Whigs, and again elected in 1845. He advo-
cated a protective tariff. He was often called “Honest
John Davis.” Died April 19, 1854.
Davis (John A. G.), an able jurist of Albemarle co., Va.,
was born in 1801 in Middlesex co., Va., and graduated at
William and Mary College, where he was a law professor
1830–40; he was also a practising lawyer, and for some
time a journalist at Charlottesville. He wrote a number of
valuable legal works. Died Nov. 14, 1840, from the effects
of a shot fired at him by a student.
Davis (JOHN CHANDLER BANCROFT), an American law-
yer, born at Worcester, Mass., Dec. 29, 1822, educated at
Harvard College, studied law and followed the practice of
his profession. In 1849 he was appointed secretary of lega-
tion at London, but returned to the U. S. in 1852, and re-
Sumed his profession. He was assistant secretary of state
1869–71, agent of the U. S. at Geneva during the meeting
of the tribunal of arbitration for the settlement of all
points of difference between the U. S. and Great Britain
1871–72, and since 1873 has been assistant secretary of
State.
HDavis (Sir JoHN FRANCIs), BART., K. C. B., an English
officer and Orientalist, was born in London in 1795. He
first went to China in 1816. He was chief superintendent
at Canton, and in 1841–48 governor of Hong Kong. Among
his works is “The Chinese, a General Description of China
and its Inhabitants” (2 vols., 1836), which is highly es-
teemed. He has written several works upon Chinese liter-
ature, with which his acquaintance is remarkable.
Davis (John LEE), U. S. N., born Sept. 3, 1825, at Car-"
lisle, Sullivan co., Ind., entered the navy as a midshipman
Jan. 9, 1841, became a passed midshipman in 1847, a lieu-
tenant in 1855, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a com-
mander in 1866, and a captain in 1873. In Nov., 1849,
Davis, with one of the boats of the Preble, carrying two
officers and twelve men, boarded and captured a piratical
Chinese junk off Macao, killing three of her crew and
taking the rest prisoners. He was the executive officer of
the Waterwitch in her engagement (Oct. 12, 1861) with the
Confederate ram Manassas, and afterwards with a squad-
ron off Pilot Town, at the mouth of the Mississippi. He
commanded the gun-boat"Wissahickon in the fights with
Fort McAllister of Nov. 19, 1862, and of Jan. 27, Feb. 1,
and Feb. 28, 1863. On Mar. 9, 1863, off Charleston he
sunk the blockade-runner Georgiana, and on June 5, 1863,
chased the Isaac Smith ashore off Fort Moultrie, where she
was destroyed. In command of the iron-clad Montauk he
participated in all the battles of the summer and fall of
1863 in Charleston harbor with Forts Sumter, Gregg, Moul-
trie, and Wagner and Batteries Bee and Cumming's Point.
In command of the Sassacus he took part in the Fort Fish-
er fights, and was recommended for promotion by Admiral,
Porter. Since the war he has been constantly employed,
either afloat or ashore, and was one of the members of the
board of 1866–67 appointed to examine volunteer officers
for admission into the navy.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Davis (John W.), M. D., a politician, was born in 1799.
in Lancaster, Pa., completed his medical studies at Balti-
more, and in 1823 became a resident of Indiana, where he
was soon chosen to fill responsible public offices. He was
elected a surrogate, was twice Speaker of the Indiana
house of representatives, a commissioner to treat with the
Indians, was a Democratic member of Congress, elected in
1835, in 1839, and in 1843, when he was chosen Speaker
of the House of Representatives at Washington. In 1848
he became U. S. commissioner to China, was governor of
Oregon Territory (1853–54), and in 1852 was president of
the convention at Baltimore which nominated Franklin
Pierce for President. Died at Carlisle, Ind., Aug. 22, 1859.
Davis (MATTHEW L.), an American writer, born in New
York in 1766, was an intimate friend of Aaron Burr. His
chief work is “Memoirs of the Life of Aaron Burr’‘ (2 vols.,
1836–37). Died June 21, 1850.
HDavis (NATHAN SMITH), M. D., was born at Greene,
Chenango co., N. Y., Jan. 9, 1817, and received his medi-
cal education at Geneva, N. Y. He was in 1848 editor of
the “Annalist” in New York City. Since 1849 he has been
a resident of Chicago. He was editor of the “Chicago
Medical Journal '' (1849–59), and in 1860 became editor of
the “Chicago Medical Examiner.” He has published a
volume on “Agriculture,” a “History of Medical Educa-
tion,” “Clinical Lectures” (1873), and other works. He is
professor of the principles and practice of medicine in
Chicago Medical College.
Davis (NATHANIEL), of Limestone, Ala., served in the
house and senate of that State from 1840 to 1852. He was
uneducated, but not without considerable natural gifts. He
died in 1853.
HDavis (NICHOLAs), a Virginian who settled in Lime-
stone, Ala., was a representative in the first legislature
held in Alabama, and served subsequently in the Senate
from 1820 to 1828.
Davis (NoAH), a Baptist divine, born near Salisbury,
Mass., July 28, 1802, entered the ministry in Norfolk, Va.
He was one of the founders of the Baptist General Tract
Society (established in 1824, afterwards the American Bap-
tist Publication Society), of which he became the man-
ager. He removed to Philadelphia, where he fulfilled his
duties in the Tract Society with great energy and success.
Died July 30, 1830.
Davis (NoAH), an American jurist, born at Haverhill,
N. H., Sept. 10, 1818, attended the district school at
Albion, N. Y., whither his parents had removed in 1825,
then the seminary at Lima, and was admitted to the bar
in 1841. In 1844 he entered into partnership with Sanford
E. Church, afterwards judge of the court of appeals, with
whom he practised law in Albion for about fourteen years.
He was appointed a justice of the supreme court of New
York upon the resignation of Hon. James Mullet, in which
dignity he continued through the two terms succeeding,
until in 1864 he resigned in order to take a seat in Con-
gress. He commenced the practice of law in New York
City in 1869, and the same year again took a seat in Con-
gress, resigning in 1870 in order to assume the duties of
U. S. attorney for the southern district of New York, and
was elected judge of the Supreme court of the same district
in 1873. Soon after taking his seat on the bench there
devolved upon him the conduct of the important trials of
Edward Stokes for the murder of Fisk and of William M.
Tweed for malfeasance in office.
Davis (REUBEN), a native of Tennessee, was born Jan.
18, 1813. He was a physician, and afterwards a lawyer
and judge in Mississippi, serving on the bench of the high
court of errors and appeals, was for a time colonel of
Mississippi Rifles in the Mexican war, and was twice
elected to Congress from Mississippi before the late civil
war, during which he favored the Confederate cause.
Davis (THOMAs T.) was born at Middlebury, Vt., Aug.
22, 1810, graduated at Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., in
1831, and was admitted to the bar in 1833. In 1862 and
1864 he was elected a representative to Congress from New
York. He is well known as a manufacturer, and is con-
nected with coal-mining and railroad interests.
Davis (TIMOTHY) was born in Gloucester, Mass., April
12, 1821, learned the printer's trade, and was afterwards a
merchant of Boston, Mass. He was elected in 1854 and
1856 to Congress from the Gloucester district of Massa-
chusetts, and in 1861 was appointed to a position in the
Boston custom-house by President Lincoln.
Davis’s Strait [named in honor of Capt. John Davis,
noticed above] connects Baffin's Bay with the Atlantic
Ocean, and lies between Greenland and British North Amer-
ica. It is about 160 miles wide at the narrowest part. A
constant current runs southward through this strait from
the circumpolar regions. Davis's Strait is frequented by
many whaling ships.
/
1276
DAVISON.—DAWES.
IDā'vison, a township of Genesee co., Mich. Pop. 1124.
RDa/viston, a township of Tallapoosa co., Ala. P. 1578.
HDa’wits (plu.), [etymology uncertain], the wooden or
iron frame used for hoisting and lowering boats on ship-
board. . The “fish-davit ’’ is a gaff used in fishing the an-
chor. Boat-davits have been to some extent superseded
by ingenious BOAT-LOWERING APPARATUS (which see).
Da’vors (Jo.), author of a work, now rare and valuable,
called “The Secrets of Angling” (London, 1613). This
work is quoted by Walton, and the writer’s name is doubt-
less a fictitious one. The authorship has been ascribed to
John Donne, John Davisson, John Davies, and other writers
of that day. -
Davoud Pasha, a Turkish minister, born in Mar.,
1816, is a Catholic Armenian. He studied at Berlin, and
became professor at the military college at Constantinople.
|He afterwards was secretary of the embassy at Berlin, be-
came director of the construction of telegraphs, and in 1861
was appointed governor of Lebanon during the strife be-
tween the Druses and the Maronites, which post he resign-
ed in 1868, becoming minister of public works.
Davout, or Davoust (Louis NICOLAs), duke of Auer-
stadt and prince of Eckmühl, an able French marshal, born
near Noyers (Yonne) May 10, 1770. He was a fellow-stu-
dent of Bonaparte at Brienne, and entered the army in early
youth. In 1793 he gained the rank of general of brigade,
and in 1798 went with Bonaparte to Egypt. He became a
general of division in 1800, and commanded the cavalry of
the army of Italy in that year. Having received a mar-
shal's baton in 1804, he led the right wing at Austerlitz in
Dec., 1805, and defeated the Prussians at the battle of Auer-
stadt, Oct. 14, 1806. For his services at Eckmühl he was
created prince of Eckmühl in 1809. He took part in the
Russian campaign of 1812, and was wounded at Borodino.
He was afterwards governor of the Hanse Towns, and de-
fended Hamburg for several months against the allies.
During the Hundred Days (1815) he was Napoleon’s min-
ister of war. He was commander-in-chief of the French
armies in 1815, after the battle of Waterloo. Died June 4,
1823. (See CHäNIER, “Wie du Maréchal Davout,” 1866.)
Da/vy (Sir HUMPHRY), BART., F. R. S., a celebrated
English chemist, was born Dec. 17, 1778, at Penzance,
Cornwall. At an early age he displayed a taste for fiction
and poetry, and when eleven years old is said to have
composed part of an epic of which the hero was Diomede,
Son of Tydeus. Even in this work he manifested great
powers of imagination and invention. He has left some
respectable fugitive poems of a later date. His father died
when he was sixteen, and shortly after this event Gregory
Watt, son of the inventor James Watt, took lodgings at his
mother’s house. The young men were congenial in tastes,
and a warm intimacy grew up between them, which seems to
have played an important part in determining the studies
and directing the genius of young Davy. But to Mr. Da-
vies Gilbert the cause of science is still more indebted for
the encouragement which he early gave to Davy, and finally
for presenting him to the notice of the Royal Institution in
London. He was associated in 1798 with Doctor Beddoes
at Bristol in the Preumatic Institution founded by that
gentleman. The next year appeared his first contribution
to science, under the name of “Essays on Heat and Light,
with a New Theory of Respiration,” which formed part of
a volume published by Doctor Beddoes. In 1800 his “Re-
searches, Chemical and Philosophical, chiefly concerning
Nitrous Oxide and its Respiration,” attracted much atten-
tion among scientists. These “Researches" made known
his discovery of the peculiar intoxicating or exhilarating
properties of nitrous oxide gas, and contain, besides, the
results of interesting and dangerous experiments on the
respiration of nitrogen, hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen,
carbonic acid, and nitrous gases. In 1801 he lectured for
the first time before the Royal Institution, in which he was
made a professor in 1802. He was pre-eminently success-
ful as a lecturer. In 1807 he delivered before the Royal
Society his second Bakerian lecture, in which he gave an
account of the decomposition by galvanism of the fixed al-
kalies, his great achievement, by which he proved that these
alkalies are merely metallic oxides. It has been justly said
that since the time of Sir Isaac Newton no contribution
has been made to the “Philosophical Transactions” equal
in importance to Davy’s account of this great discovery.
It is lamentable that one whose intellectual gifts were of
so high an order should not have been above the intoxica-
tion of fame. Yet it is true that after Davy’s rapid rise
to fame he was sometimes guilty of an overbearing spirit,
especially in his relation to younger seekers for distinction,
a circumstance the less justifiable when we consider how
much he himself owed to the kindness and generosity of
scientific men. He was knighted in 1812, and not long
afterwards he married a widow (Mrs. Apreece) of accom-
plishments and fortune. He was made a baronet in 1818.
One of the most important of his inventions is the safety-
lamp (1815–17). He became president of the Royal So-
ciety in 1820, and was elected to that office for seven suc-
ceeding years. In 1827 his failing health compelled him
to resign. He died May 28, 1829, at Geneva.
The following are a few of his many important works:
“Elements of Chemical Philosophy” (1812); “Elements
of Agricultural Chemistry” (1813); papers concerning
“Fire-Damp,” etc. and accounts of his researches relating
to “Oxymuriatic Acid" and “Fluoric Compounds.” After
his death were published his “Consolations in Travel,”
consisting principally of reflections and speculations of a
religious nature. Davy appears to have been endowed to
the fullest extent with all those gifts necessary to a pro-
found student of the laws of nature. His intellect was at
once comprehensive and penetrating, and he possessed, in
addition, an inexhaustible invention and fertility in re-
Sources, joined to an enthusiasm which no difficulties could
discourage. (See “Life of Sir Humphry Davy,” by DR.
J. A. PARIs, 1831; “Memoirs of the Life of Sir Humphry
Davy,” by his brother, DR. JoHN DAvy, 1836.)
REVISED BY J. T.IIoMAS.
Davy (John), M. D., a brother of Sir Humphry Davy,
was born at Penzance, Cornwall, May 24, 1791, received
his medical education at Edinburgh, graduating in 1814;
entered the British army service, and was on duty chiefly
in foreign parts. . He published various professional and
other works, of which the best known is a “Life” of his
illustrious brother. He was himself an able scientific ob-
server. Died April 24, 1868.
Davy’s Safety-Hamp, invented by Sir Humphry
Davy (1815–17), consists of a common oil lamp surrounded
by wire gauze of 400 meshes to the square inch. It is used
in coal-mines where fire-damp abounds. The explosion of
fire-damp was formerly a very frequent cause of the de-
struction of life and property. This loss has been mate-
rially diminished by the safety-lamp. The principle is as
follows: When fire-damp (light carburetted Thydrogen gas
mixed with air) is touched by a flame it explodes with great
violence, but its flame cannot pass through fine wire net-
ting, because the wire conducts away the heat, leaving the
gas on the outside too cold to take fire, for it happily re-
quires an intense heat to inflame the fire-damp. The space
within the wire netting sometimes becomes filled with the
flame. It is customary in well-regulated mines for the
workmen to withdraw at such times until after good venti-
lation has been restored. The safety-lamp is unfortunately
no protection against the very explosive “white-damp,”
which is charged with sulphuretted hydrogen. This gas is
readily detected by its smell, which resembles that of rot-
ten eggs. It is fatally poisonous to miners even when
much diluted with air. Latterly, various other safety-
lamps have been invented, but thus far there is no absolute
protection against the explosion of gases in coal-mines.
Vigilance in observing the signs of the presence of dan-
gerous gases, and in Securing good ventilation, is indiš-
pensable to safety. Recent observations appear to show
that terrestrial magnetism has a certain influence, as yet
unexplained, upon the generation of these gases.
Daw, or Jackdaw, the Corvus momedula, a bird of
the crow family, found in Europe, Asia, and Africa, four-
teen inches long, black, with a Smoky-gray neck. Daws
are very cunning, social, and active birds, often nesting in
church-towers and old castles. They build a nest of sticks,
of which they sometimes collect a large quantity. They
frequent large towns.
Dawes (HENRY LAURENs), an American lawyer and
statesman, born at Cummington, Mass., Oct. 30, 1816,
graduated at Yale in 1839, was newspaper editor, and
studied and practised law. He was a member of both

DAWISON.—DAY.
1277
houses of the legislature of Massachusetts, district attor-
mey, and has been a member of Congress since 1857, and
occupied a prominent position as chairman of the commit-
tee on appropriations and that of ways and means.
Dawison (BoGUMIL), a German actor, born at Warsaw
May 18, 1818, of Jewish stock. From 1852 to 1866 he was
engaged at the royal theatre in Dresden, where his render-
ings of Shakspeare's, Goethe's, and Schiller's characters
were much admired. From 1866 to 1868 he was in Amer-
ica. Died Feb. 2, 1872.
H}aw’son, a county in the N. of Georgia. Area, 200
square miles. It is drained by the Etowah River. The
surface is hilly; the soil is partly fertile. Corn, cotton,
wool, and tobacco are raised. Capital, Dawsonville. Pop.
4369. - -
HDawson, a county in the N. E. of Montana Territory.
Area, 30,390 square miles. It is drained by the Missouri
and Milk Rivers. Pop. 177.
Dawson, a county in Central Nebraska. Area, 1008
square miles. It is intersected by the Union Pacific R. R.
and the Platte River. The surface is nearly level. Capi-
tal, Plum Creek. Pop. 103.
Dawson, a post-village, capital of Terrell co., Ga., on
the South-western R. R., 98 miles S. S. W. of Macon. It
has one weekly newspaper and a car-factory. It con-
tains the South Georgia Male Institute. Pop. 1099.
WESTON & CoMBs, PROPs. “Journ AL.”
Dawson (HENRY BARTON), an historian, was born at
Gosberton, Lincolnshire, England, June 8, 1821, and with his
parents came to the U. S. in 1834. In 1845 he became a
temperance journalist in New York. He has published
several historical and antiquarian works, chiefly relating to
the Revolutionary period in the U. S. He has been a Dem-
ocratic editor in Yonkers, N. Y. (1855–66), and in the lat-
ter year became editor of the “Historical Magazine.”
HDawson (JoBN WILLIAM), LL.D., F. R. S., an eminent
geologist, born at Pictou, Nova Scotia, Oct., 1820. He was
educated at the University of Edinburgh. Under the di-
rection of Sir Charles Lyell he made explorations in the
province of Nova Scotia in 1841, and gave an account of
its geology in the “Proceedings of the Geological Society
of London.” He was appointed superintendent of educa-
tion in Nova Scotia in 1850, and principal of McGill Col-
lege at Montreal 1855, which position he still holds (1873).
In 1848 he published a “Handbook of the Geography and
Natural History of Nova Scotia,” “Hints to the Farmers
of Nova Scotia,” (1853), “Acadian Geology” (1855; en-
larged ed. 1868), “Archaia, or Studies of the Cosmogony
and Natural History of the Hebrew Scriptures” (1859);
also an excellent popular treatise on geology, published
serially in the “Leisure Hour” (1871–72), republished
(1873) under the title “The Story of the Earth and Man.”
He has contributed numerous geological memoirs and art-
icles to the “Proceedings of the Geological Society of Lon-
don,” “The Canadian Naturalist,” “Silliman’s Journal,”
and other periodicals. He is author of the admirable
article on GEOLOGY published in this work.
Dawson (LUCIEN L.), U. S. M. C., born Feb. 5, 1837,
in Kentucky, entered the marine corps as second lieuten-
ant Jan. 13, 1859, became a first lieutenant early in 1861,
and a captain Nov. 23 of the same year. He was brevetted
major for gallant and meritorious services at the assault
on Fort Fisher on Jan. 15, 1865, where he led the marines
of the fleet. Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Dawson (WILLIAM. C.), a distinguished lawyer, jurist,
and statesman of Georgia, born Jan. 4, 1798, was educated
at the university of the State, graduated in 1816, studied
law at Litchfield, Conn., and settled at Greensboro’, Ga., in
his native county. For twelve years he was clerk of the
house of representatives of the general assembly of the
State. He was several times a member of the house and
Senate of the State legislature. He was a member of the
House in the Federal Congress from 1837 to 1842; after-
wards he was judge of the superior courts in his State, and
from 1849 to 1855 he was a Senator in Congress. He died
May 5, 1856.
Daw’sonville, a post-village, capital of Dawson co.,
Ga., about 50 miles N. N. E. of Atlanta. -
Dax (anc. Aquae Augustae), a town of France, department
of Landes, is pleasantly situated on the Adour, 25 miles
N. E. of Bayonne. It has a cathedral, a bishop’s palace,
and some manufactures of earthenware, brandy, leather,
etc. Here are hot saline springs, which were used for
bathing by the ancient Romans, and are still frequented
by invalids. Pop. 9469.
Day [Lat. dies ; Fr. jour; Ger. Tag), a word signifying
either the interval of time during which the sun is above
the horizon, or the time occupied by a complete revolution
of the earth with reference to other celestial bodies. In the
latter sense it denotes intervals of different duration, ac-
cording as the body with which the revolution is compared
is fixed or movable.
The astronomical or solar day, also designated the appa-
rent day, is the time which elapses between two consecu-
tive returns of the same terrestrial meridian to the centre
of the sun. Astronomical days are of unequal length, for
two reasons: 1, the unequal velocity of the earth in its
orbit, which results in a greater apparent daily motion of
the sun in winter than in summer; 2, the obliquity of the
ecliptic, which causes the sun’s apparent daily motion in
right ascension (or in the plane of the earth’s equator) to
be less at the equinoxes than at the solstices. The astro-
nomical day is computed from noon to noon. *
The civil day, or mean solar day, is the time occupied
by the earth in one revolution on its axis as compared with
the Sun. It is supposed to move at a mean rate in its orbit,
and to make 365.2425 revolutions in a mean Gregorian
year. This mode of measuring time makes the days all of
equal length, and any special hour of the civil day some-
times precedes, and sometimes succeeds, the corresponding
hour of the astronomical day. Most nations agree in fixing
the beginning and end of the civil day at midnight.
The sidereal day is that portion of time which elapses
between two successive culminations of the same star.
Owing to the great distance of the stars, and their appa-
rent fixedness in space, it is not perceptibly affected by the
earth’s orbital revolution, as is proved by all known astro-
nomical observations. A sidereal day contains twenty-four
hours fifty-six minutes four seconds of mean solar time.
It is divided into twenty-four sidereal hours, which are
subdivided into sidereal minutes and seconds. This is the
universal mode of computing time among astronomers.
In most languages the word equivalent to our “day” is
also used in a much more extended sense to denote an in-
definite period of time. We speak of events which have
transpired “in our own day.” This figure of speech is es-
pecially common in Oriental languages, and is frequently
found in the Bible.
Day, a township of Montcalm.co., Mich. Pop. 510.
Day, a post-township of Saratoga co., N. Y. Pop. 1127.
Day (BENJAMIN F.), U. S. N., born Jan. 16, 1841, in
Ohio, graduated at the Naval Academy as ensign in 1861,
became a lieutenant in 1862, and a lieutenant-commander
in 1866. He was attached to the steamer New London,
West Gulf blockading squadron, in 1862–63, and was
wounded in a night engagement on the Mississippi July 9,
1863. His services on this occasion are thus highly spoken ..
of by his commanding officer, Lieut.-Com. George H. Per-
kins, in his report to Rear-Admiral Farragut of July 13,
1863 : “The conduct of Lieutenant Day, my executive
officer, deserves particular attention, who, after being
wounded in the head, remained at his post and rendered
valuable service, encouraging the men by his bravery and
coolness.” He was in the engagement with Howlett House
batteries on James River in 1864, and in both attacks on
Fort Fisher in 1865.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Day (GEORGE EDWARD), D. D., was born at Pittsfield,
Mass., Mar. 19, 1815, graduated at Yale (1833) and at the
Yale Theological Seminary (1838), was assistant instruc-
tor in sacred literature there from 1838 to 1840, was twice
settled in the ministry, from 1840–47 in Marlboro’, Mass.,
and from 1848 to 1851 in Northampton, Mass., from 1851
to 1866 was professor of biblical literature in Lane Theo-
logical Seminary, and since 1866 has been professor of the
Hebrew language and literature and biblical theology in
the theological department of Yale College. He has taken
great interest in the instruction of the deaf and dumb, and
has published (1845–61) two reports on the subject. From
1863 he edited the “Theological Eclectic” till 1871, when
it was united with the “Bibliotheca Sacra.” He trans-
lated and edited Van Oostersee’s “Titus” in Lange’s
“Commentary,” and has also translated (1871) Wan Oos-
tersee’s “Biblical Theology of the New Testament.” He
was one of the contributors to Smith’s “Bible Diction-
ary,” and has published numerous articles in several lead-
ing reviews. -
Day (Rev. HENRY NOBLE), an author and educator, was
born at New Preston, Conn., Aug. 4, 1808, graduated at
Yale in 1828, was ordained to the Congregational ministry
at Waterbury, Conn., in 1836, became professor of sacred
rhetoric at the Western Reserve College, O., in 1840. He
was a railroad president for many years, and president of
the Ohio Female College (1858–64). Among his numerous
educational works are “The Art of Elocution,” “Ele-
ments of Logic,” and “The Science of Æsthetics.” He is
now a resident of New Haven, Conn. -
1278
DAY-DEACQNESS,
Day (JEREMIAH), D. D., LL.D., an American mathe-
matician, born in New Preston, Conn., Aug. 3, 1773, grad-
uated at Yale College in 1795, became in 1801 professor of
mathematics and natural philosophy in that college, and
was president of the same (1822–1846). Among his works
are an “Introduction to Algebra” (1814) and “Navigation
and Surveying ” (1817). Died Aug. 22, 1867.
TDay (THOMAs), an English author, born in London,
June 22, 1748, became heir to an ample fortune. He sym-
pathized with the American patriots, and wrote two poems,
entitled “The Devoted Legions” (1776) and “The Desola-
tion of America, ’’ (1777). He selected from a foundling
hospital two girls, whom he educated according to the sys-
tem of Rousseau, with an intention to marry one of them,
but he was disappointed by the ill-success of his experi-
ment, and married Esther Milnes in 1778. His chief work
is “Sandford and Merton’’ (1783–89), a popular juvenile
tale of great merit. He was killed by the kick of a horse
Sept. 28, 1789.
Day'ansville, a manufacturing village of New Bremen
township, Lewis co., N. Y. -
Day-Lil’y (Hemerocallis), a genus of liliaceous plants
having a perianth with bell-shaped limb and sub-cylindri-
cal tube, and globose seeds. Several varieties are culti-
wated in gardens; among these is the fragrant yellow
day-lily (Hemerocallis flava). It is a native of Northern
China, Siberia, and Hungary; it has been accounted good
food for cattle, but another species, the Hemerocallis fulva,
has more profuse foliage and is equally acceptable to cattle.
Days' man, a name used in England in former times,
and sometimes now used in the northern counties, to signify
an umpire or elected judge. Its use dates from the Middle
Ages, when the word “day” was specially employed in
judicial proceedings to denote the day/assigned for the
hearing of a cause. This word is also used in Scripture:
“Neither is there any daysman betwixt us, that might lay
his hand upon us both.” (Job ix. 33.)
Bayſton, a township and post-village of Marengo co.,
Ala. The village is 38 miles W. of Selma. Total pop.
6731.
HDayton, a post-township of La Salle co., III. Pop. 653.
Bayton, a post-village of Sheffield township, Tippe-
canoe co., Ind. Pop. 385. -
Payton, a township of Adair co., Ia.
Payton, a township of Bremer co., Ia.
Dayton, a township of Butler co., Ia. Pop. 383.
Dayton, a township of Cedar co., Ia. Pop. 1546.
Dayton, a township of Chickasaw co., Ia. Pop. 543.
IDayton, a township of Iowa co., Ia. Pop. 939.
TDayton, a township of Webster co., Ia. Pop. 975.
Dayton, a post-township of York co., Me. Pop. 611.
Dayton, a township of Newaygo co., Mich. Pop. 771.
Dayton, a township of Tuscola co., Mich. Pop. 660.
Dayton, a post-township of Hennepin co., Minn. Pop.
1.
Pop. I39.
Pop. 419.
95
Dayton, a post-village, capital of Lyon co., Nev., is on
Carson River, 12 miles E. S. E. of Virginia City. Silver-
mines have been opened in the vicinity. Here are several
quartz-mills. Pop. of township, 918.
HPayton, a township and post-village of Cattaraugus
co., N. Y., on the Erie R. R., 22 miles E. S. E. of Dunkirk.
It has three cheese-factories and several lumber-mills. Total
pop. 1267. -
HPaytoń, a handsome city, capital of Montgomery co.,
0., on the left (E.) bank of the Great Miami, at the mouth
of the Mad River, 60 miles N. N. E. of Cincinnati, and
67 miles W. by S. of Columbus; lat. 39° 44' N., lon. 849
11' W. It is the terminus of the Atlantic and Great
Western, the Cincinnati Hamilton and Dayton, the Day-
ton and Michigan, and the Dayton and Union R. Rs.,
all connecting. The Pittsburg St. Louis and Cincinnati
and the Short Line from. Cincinnati pass through it, and
also the Miami Canal, connecting the Ohio with Lake
Erie. The granite court-house, designed after the Par-
thenon, is 167 feet long and 62 wide. There are forty-
five churches, among which the First Presbyterian and
Grace (M.E.), built of Dayton granite, are fine specimens
of architecture. The city has eight public schooſs, a high
school, the Cooper Seminary for girls, and St. Mary’s
(Catholic) Institute for boys. It has a public library of
3500 volumes, 3 national and 4 private banks, 8 local insur-
ance companies, 2 daily, 2 weekly, 1 tri-weekly and 2
weekly (German), and 2 weekly religious papers; also 3
semi-monthly and 5 monthly publications. There is a large
Water-power. A very extensive manufactory of railroad
cars, a number of large agricultural implement works, em-
ploying as many as 5000 hands, six large breweries, two dis-
tilleries, factories of stoves, paper, cotton, and woollens, and
extensive limestone quarries, which have furnished the ma-
terials for many buildings in Cincinnati, are among the in-
dustries of Dayton. Here is the National Soldiers’ Home
for disabled soldiers and sailors, on whose roll are the names
of 2000 veterans. It has an admirable hospital, a library
of 4000 volumes, and extensive grounds—600 acres. The
resident manager is Hon. Lewis B. Gunckel, M. C. for the
Dayton district. The tax-duplicate of Dayton is $25,000,000.
The streets of Dayton, some of them 133 feet wide, cross
each other at right angles, and twenty-six macadamized
pikes radiate from the city. It is the heart of the Miami
Valley, a beautiful and productive region. Pop. in 1860,
20,081; in 1870, 30,473.
W. D. BICKHAM, ED. DAYTON “Journ AL.”
Dayton, a township of Richland co., Wis. Pop. 968.
Dayton, a township of Waupacca co., Wis. Pop. 871.
Dayton (ELIAs), an American general, born in New
Jersey in 1735. He became a colonel about 1777, and
served at the battles of Brandywine, Germantown, and
Monmouth. He was a member of Congress (1787–88).
Died July, 1807.
Dayton (Jon ATHAN), LL.D., an American statesman,
son of the preceding, born at Elizabethtown, N.J., Oct. 16,
1760. He served with distinction in the Revolutionary
war, and was a delegate from New Jersey to the convention
which framed the Federal Constitution in 1787. In 1791
he was elected a member of Congress, in which he acted
with the Federal party. He was Speaker of the House of
Representatives for two terms (1793–97), and was chosen
a Senator of the U. S. in 1799. Died Oct. 9, 1824.
Dayton (WILLIAM LEWIs), LL.D., an American states-
man, nephew of the preceding, born in Somerset co., N.J.,
Feb. 17, 1807. He studied law, was admitted to the bar in
1830, and practised at Trenton. In 1842 he was appointed
a Senator of the U. S. to fill a vacancy, and in 1845 he
was elected to the national Senate by the legislature of
New Jersey for a term of six years. He voted with the
Whigs, and opposed the extension of slavery. In 1856 he
was nominated as the Republican candidate for Vice-Presi-
dent. Fremont and Dayton received 114 electoral votes,
but they were not elected. Mr. Dayton was appointed
minister to France early in 1861. Died in Paris Dec. 1,
1864.
De, a Latin particle, commonly signifying “down” or
“from ;” it is often intensive, and sometimes privative or
negative, having occasionally nearly the force of the Eng-
lish particle un , e. g. descendo (from de, and 8cando, to
“climb "), literally, to “climb down;” decoquo, to “boil
down,” to “boil thoroughly ;” deform (from forma, “form,”
“beauty,” “grace’”), to “deprive of grace or beauty;” de-
compose, to “wn-compound.” De is also a preposition,
signifying “concerning,” also “from * or “down from.”
Dea’con [from the Gr. 8vákovos, a “servant;” Ger. and
Lat. diaconus], in early times an officer of a church, whose
duty it was to collect and dispense alms. According to an
opinion generally prevailing among Protestants, the office
was at first secular, although it is evident that deacons fre-
quently exercised spiritual functions. The church at
Jerusalem first chose seven deacons, who taught and bap-
tized, as is shown by the example of Philip the deacon.
In the second and third centuries the duties of deacons
were increased, and it subsequently became expedient to
divide their functions among the archdeacons, deacons, and
sub-deacons. The offices of archdeacon and deacon were
counted among the higher clerical orders (ordines majores);
and after the twelfth century that of sub-deacon was so
reckoned. In the Greek, Roman Catholic, Anglican, and
Methodist Episcopal churches deacons are clergymen in-
ferior in rank to ministers or priests, and are usually pro-
bationers for the latter office. In the Roman Catholic
Church the peculiar robes of a deacon are the dalmatica
and the stole. At Rome there are eighteen cardinal deacons,
of whom the celebrated Antonelli is one. In Protestant
churches the position of deacons is various. The Baptists
and Congregationalists have deacons as superintendents of
the temporal affairs of the church, and also as assistants in
the administration of the sacraments. Among Presbyte-
rians their place is often supplied by the ruling elders, but
in the Free Church of Scotland and in some other Presby-
terian bodies there are regularly ordained deacons.
Dea’coness [Gr. ) Sudºkovos; Lat. ancilla, ministra, dia-
comissa], the title of a rank of female officers in the apos-
tolic and early Christian Church. They assisted in the
care of the poor, especially of their own sex, gave instruc-
tion to the younger catechumens, arranged the agapae or
love-feasts, and took care of the sick. Until the fourth
century, the deaconess was required to be a maiden, or .
DEAD COLOR.—DEAF AND DUMB.
1279
widow but once married, and sixty years of age, but the
age was fixed at forty by the Council of Chalcedon (451
A. D.). She was assisted by the sub-deaconess. The office
gradually died out, but sooner in the Latin than in the
Greek Church. Several Western councils in the fifth and
sixth centuries forbade the consecration of deaconesses,
although the office appears not to have been wholly extinct
till the tenth or eleventh century. At Constantinople there
were deaconesses as late as the beginning of the thirteenth
century, with no trace of them anywhere else in the East.
In monasteries, nuns who take charge of the altar are called
deaconesses. The Sisters of Charity and other like organ-
izations perform a work analogous to that of ancient deacon-
esses. There is a movement for the resumption of the
office in the Anglican and some other Protestant, churches.
Among the German Protestants the experiment has been
successfully tried. A large and excellent Protestant school
for deaconesses was established in 1835 at Kaiserswerth,
Prussia, and many similar institutions have since sprung
up in Europe.
Dead Color. In painting, a color is said to be dead
when it has no gloss upon it. This is effected by the use
of less oil and more turpentime than in ordinary paints.
Deaderick (WILLIAM H.), M. D. See APPENDIX.
Dead/head, the extra length of metal given to a cast
gun. It serves to receive the dross (Lat. caput mortuum,
literally, “dead-head’’) which rises to the top of the lique-
fied metal, and which, were it not for the deadhead, would
form the muzzle of the gun. When cooled and solid the
deadhead is cut off. In popular language “dead-head" is
used to denote a person who travels on a railroad or enters
a place of amusement, etc. without paying.
Dead-Haetter Office, in the U. S. postal department,
is the place where unclaimed letters are sent. After re-
maining one month at the post-office to which they are di-
rected, “dead" or unclaimed letters are sent to Washing-
ton, and are opened in the dead-letter office. When the
writer’s name and address can be ascertained the letter is
returned to him ; otherwise the letter is destroyed. In
1872 nearly 3,000,000 letters went to the dead-letter office.
They are partly classified as follows: 58,000 letters had no
county or State direction; more than 400,000 lacked stamps,
and 3000 were posted without any address at all. The sum
of $92,000 in cash, and more than $3,000,000 in drafts,
checks, etc., were found in these letters. It appears that
on an average every letter that is misdirected, or that goes
to the dead-letter office from any cause, contains one dollar.
Deadly Nightshade. See BELLADONNA.
Dead Net’tle (Lamium), a genus of plants of the or-
der Labiatae, with a 5-toothed calyx and 2-lipped corolla,
the upper lip arched, the lower trifid. The genera Galeop-
sis and Galeobdolon, resembling the Lamium, are often
called by this name. Lamium purpureum and other species
are common weeds in Great Britain, and are naturalized
in the U. S. There is an old belief that the touch of the
dead nettle causes an irritation which may end in death ;
hence the name. It appears, however, to be quite harmless.
Dead Reckſoning, a term used in navigation, signi-
fies the calculation of a ship’s place at sea without taking
observation of the heavenly bodies. The chief elements
from which the reckoning is made are the point of depart-
ure (i.e. the latitude and longitude of the place from which
she sailed), the course or direction of her movement (ascer-
tained by the compass), the rate of sailing, measured from
time to time by the log, and the time that has elapsed. The
data are liable to errors and uncertainties, in consequence
of currents, changes of the wind, etc. (See NAVIGATION,
by LIEUT.-CoMMANDER ALEX. H. McCoRMICK, U. S. N.)
Dead River Pian/tation, a township of Somerset
co., Me. Pop. 100.
Dead Sea, or Sea of Sodom [Arab. Bahr Loot,
“Sea of Lot;” anc. Lacus Asphaltites], called in Scripture
the Salt Sea, a celebrated lake in the southern part of
Palestine. Its northern end is about 20 miles E. of Jeru-
Salem. Its length, as determined by Lieut. Lynch in 1848,
is 40 geographical miles, and its breadth from 9 to 9% geo-
graphical miles. The greatest depth, according to Lieut.
Dale (1848), is 1308 feet; according to Lieut. Symonds
(1841), 1350 feet. Its depression below the Mediterranean,
as measured by Lieut. Dale, is 1316.7 feet, and its bed is
accordingly by far the deepest known fissure on the surface
of the earth. The Dead Sea is fed by the Jordan and other
streams, but has no apparent outlet, and the surplus water
is carried off by evaporation. It is enclosed between naked
... cliffs of limestone, which on the eastern side rise 2000 feet
or more above the water. The shores present a scene of
desolation and solitude encompassed with deserts and dreary
salt-hills. On the southern shore is a remarkable mass of
rock-salt.called Usdum (Sodom), which is supposed to in-
dicate the site of the ancient city of Sodom. Large quan-
tities of asphaltum were thrown up to the surface of the
lake by the earthquakes of 1834 and 1837. The water of
this lake is remarkable for its great specific gravity (which
is 1.25, or one-fourth greater than pure water) and its in-
tense saltness, nearly seven times that of the Sea, but vary-
ing considerably at different seasons. About 25 per cent.
is the average proportion of saline matter by weight. The
chlorides of sodium, magnesium, and calcium are the most
abundant salts dissolved in it. Ducks have been seen
swimming on its surface. The bed occupied by this lake
is part of a long and narrow depression or fissure which ex-
tends from the Lake of Galilee southward, and is nearly 200
miles in length. The adjacent table-land is more than 3000
feet above the Mediterranean, so that the fissure is nearly
6000 feet deep. It is supposed that all of this depression
was formerly covered with sea-water. (See LIEUTENANT
LYNCH, “Narrative of the U. S. Expedition to the River
Jordan and the Dead Sea,” 1849.)
REVISED BY R. D. HITCH.Cock.
Deaf and Dumb, or Deaf-Mutes [Fr. Sowrds-
muets]. Those born deaf are dumb, because they cannot
learn to speak without the guidance of the sense of hear-
ing, which enables them to imitate sounds. The same is
true of those made deaf by disease or accident in early
infancy. After learning to speak, the occurrence of deaf-
ness does not greatly impair the speech, although persons
becoming deaf during childhood sometimes retain through-
out life the childish tone which they have learned. The
average number of deaf-mutes in Europe in 1830 was about
1 in 1500 of the total population ; in 1850, according to
the investigations of Dr. Peet, 1 in 1360. In the U. S. the
census of 1870 gives the whole number of deaf-mutes as
16,205, or over 1 to every 2379 inhabitants. Very possibly
these returns are only approximative, parents being often
reluctant to acknowledge this defect in their children, and
census marshals negligent.
Congenital deafness is reasonably believed to be caused
by imperfection of development under influences which
lower the grade of nutrition in the embryo during gesta-
tion, or which affect, through the constitution of one or
both of the parents, the immediate result of conception.
Among these influences the most marked appear to be in-
temperance, marriages between those nearly related, syph-
ilis, and scrofula. Boudin asserts that in France nearly
25 per cent. of deaf-mutes are the offspring of marriages
of consanguinity; and somewhat similar estimates have
been obtained by Drs. Howe and Bemiss in their statistical
inquiries upon the effects of such marriages in the U. S.
On account of the comparative helplessness of deaf-mutes
they were placed, in the code of Justinian, among persons .
incapable of the legal management of their affairs. Dur-
ing the Middle Ages they were deprived of the right of
feudal succession. Yet in all times they have occasionally
shown considerable capacity for culture. Pliny mentions
Quintus Pedius, a deaf-mute, related to the emperor Au-
gustus, as a successful painter at Rome; and in later times
the uncle of one of the kings of Sardinia, notwithstanding
the same defect, acquired a good education. The earliest
account of a deaf-mute being taught to speak is ascribed
to Bede, about 700 A. D. Rodolph Agricola of Groningen,
who died in 1485, first mentioned an instructed deaf-mute.
Jerome Cardan, half a century later, wrote philosophically
on the principles involved in such instruction. Ponce de
Leon, a Spanish monk, who died in 1584, and Pasch, a
clergyman of Brandenburg, were the first teachers of whom
we have any account. Juan Pablo Bonet published, at
Madrid, the earliest known treatise on deaf-mute instruction.
He gave a manual alphabet quite different from those which
Bede has preserved as used by the ancients. About 1660
to 1700 Dr. John Wallis of Oxford and John Conrad Am-
man of Holland published remarkable treatises on this art.
In England the first manual alphabet was published by
George Dalgarno, by birth a Scotchman, but residing for a
long time at Oxford. He died in 1687. The first school
for deaf-mutes in Great Britain was established in Edin-
burgh in 1760 by Thomas Brăidwood. Some years after-
wards it was removed to the neighborhood of London, and
thus no doubt suggested the origination of an asylum in
London in 1792, of which Dr. Joseph Watson was the first
principal. The first public establishment in the world for
the instruction of deaf-mutes was founded at Leipsic in
1778 by the elector of Saxony, under the directorship of
Samuel Heinecke.
The credit of systematizing the instruction of the deaf
and dumb in France is ascribed “to the abbé Charles
Michel de l'Épée of Paris,” but greater success was in some
individual cases attained by a Spaniard, Jacob Rodriguez
Pereira, whose school was conducted at Bordeaux. These
men undoubtedly both contributed to the Work; as did
also Sicard, the successor of the abbé de l’Epée, and Itard.
In the U. S. the system matured by the experience of
1280 DEAF AND DUMB.
the French was brought over in 1816 by the late Doctor laudet (Thomas and E. M.), and Doctor S. G. Howe of
Thomas H. Gallaudet, with the personal aid of Laurent | Boston. *:
- The most remarkable instance on record, perhaps, is
that of the instruction, under the care of Toctor Howe,
of Laura Bridgman, who was born blind as well as deaf-
mute. By attracting her attention through the sense of
touch, it was found possible to develop to a considerable
degree her intelligence and capacity for communication with
others. A similar example occurred earlier in Julia Brace
in the Hartford Asylum, while under the charge of the Rev.
Thomas H. Gallaudet.
The two principal modes of conveying instruction to the
deaf and dumb are by the manual sign-language, and by
the pupils watching the lips of the teacher during articula-
tion. Real objects and models, pictures, etc. can of course
also be used. The sign-language is much the most easily and
rapidly acquired, and is more generally employed in Europe,
as well as in this country. It is largely in use among the
American Indians, and by means of it natives of the most
distant portions of the continent can understand each other.
It is said that a party of Indians present in London at an
exhibition of performances by deaf-mutes were delighted to
find themselves able to converse with the latter by signs.
The method of teaching by articulation, the pupil learn-
ing to recognize words (and, in time, to utter them) by
closely watching the motions of the lips and tongue in
speech, is not favored by all experienced instructors. Ex-
cept in very few cases it has not been adopted in the Hart-
ford Asylum. The argument urged against it is, that the
great length of time required for its acquisition can be bet-
ter employed in obtaining knowledge according to the sign-
method. Yet it has sometimes proved very successful, as
in the private school of Miss Rogers at Chelmsford, Massa-
chusetts. In Christiania, Norway, in 1872; a deaf-mute was,
by instruction in this way, prepared creditably to enter the
university as a student. Some have supposed that by means
of lip-teaching intelligent deaf-mutes might become pupils
in the common schools. Itard, and his successor Blanchet,
in France, and the Abbé Carton, founder of an institution
for the deaf and dumb in Bruges, Belgium, are amongst
those who have especially labored on behalf of the method
of teaching by articulation. This method was at first em-
One-handed Alphabet. e
- & ployed at the Clarke Institution at Northampton, Massa-
Clere, an educated deaf-mute., Qther names especially as- | Shusetts, but has now given place to the Bell system. *
Sociated with useful labors on behalf of the same class are A new method of teaching articulation has recently been
those of Dr. F. A. P. Barnard, Lewis Weld, and William brought int tice in this try. It is called visibl
W. Turner, of the Hartford Institution; H. #. Peet, LL.D., rought into notice in LnIS country IS C3, iſ €Ci Q)? Sº () (6.
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sºy & speech, and was invented by A. Melville Bell, a professor
Two-handed Alphabet. Of vocal physiology in England, about 1843.” It consists
of New York; Abraham B. Walton of Philadelphia, J. A. of a species of phonetic writing, based not upon sounds,
Jacobs of Kentucky, and the two sons of Thomas H. Gal- but on the action of the vocal organs in producing them.
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DEAFNESS—DEAL FISH.
1281
The characters of this universal alphabet, as matured in
1864, reveal to the eye the position of those organs in the
formation of any sound which the human mouth can utter.
In 1869 the first attempt was made in England to apply
this alphabet in the instruction of deaf-mutes; and in 1872
it was introduced by Mr. Abraham Bell, the son of the in-
ventor, into the Clarke Institution at Northampton, where
it has superseded the old method of imitation, and is the
only method of teaching articulation used. It is now
(1873) used in the American asylum, with a limited num-
ber of both congenital and semi-mute pupils, with success.
Its practical value as a means of instruction with all classes
of deaf-mutes has not been as yet sufficiently tested. Mr.
Abraham Bell has opened a school for instructing teachers
in this system in Boston.
Of institutions for the education of deaf-mutes there were
in 1870 about 80 in Germany, 45 in France, 22 in Great
Britain, and 36 in the United States. The largest in Eu-
rope is that in London, with 300 pupils. The largest in
America, and probably in the world, is in New York—588
pupils. This was founded in 1818, that at Hartford in
1817, and the asylum in Philadelphia in 1820.
Institutions for the Deaf and Dumb in the United States,
18
REVISED BY HENRY BARNARD.
Deaf'ness [Lat. surditas; Fr. sourdité; Ger.
Taubheit], loss or imperfection of hearing, may be
congenital or acquired, permanent or temporary,
complete or incomplete. It may be (1), “nerv-
ous”—that is, caused by organic or functional
disease of the auditory nerve or of the brain itself.
Deafness of this kind is sometimes curable, but
frequently it is permanent. It may be (2), the re-
sult of local disease or accident. Disease of the
structures of the ear frequently follows scarlet
fever, and is often of a scrofulous character. When
such disease leads to organic changes, even if they
N
- Pupils. Teachers.
NAME AND LOCATION. º # • # -
à | 3 | # | 3 || 3 | # | 3
24 & Q) o cº Q) o
S_ _* | * | F__3_|_* | *
American Asylum, Hartford,
Conn ............................... 1817 179| 111 || 290|| 10 7 17
New York Institution, City. [1818] 349| 239| 588; 19 11 30
Pennsylvania “ Philada ... 1820, 137| 125, 262| 11 3| 14
Kentucky “ Danville...[1823| 54|| 43| 97| 4 || 1 || 5
Ohio * Columbus 1829| 225] 163| 388 8|| 14| 22
Virginia “ Staunton...|1830| 47| 42| 89| 7 | ... 7
Indiana “Indianap. 1834, 167| 137| 304 8 6|| 14
Tennessee “ Knoxville 1845; 59| 44 103| 8! ... 8
North Carolina “ Raleigh ... [1845; 67 52| 119| 7 || 2 | 9
Illinois Institution, Jackson-
Ville ................................ 846; 165] 144|| 309|| 16 || 9 || 25
Georgia Institution, Cave
Spring.............................. 846| 27} 34|| 61 4 1. 5
South Carolina Institution,
Cedar Spring.................... 1849| 11 11| 22: 2 1 3
Missouri institution, Fulton||1851 90 96 186| 4 4| 8
Louisiana, & Baton
ligē . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1852. 34| 20 54} 4} .. 4
Wisconsin Institution, Dela-
V3, Il 1852, 92; 72 164| 8 || 2 || 10
Michigan Institution, Flint. 1854, 87| 72| 159| 9| 2 | 11
Iowa Institution, Council
Bluffs ............................... 1855| 72| 59| 131 || 5 || 2 || 7
Mississippi Institution, -
Jackson ........................... 1856; 25] 17| 42 3] ... 3
Texas Institution, Austin.... 1857| 20, 10| 30|| 2 || 1 || 3
Columbia. “ ashing-
ton, D.C...... * c e º e s e s e e e º e s a tº e º 'º e 1857| 34|| 16| 50 2 1 3
National College, Washing-
Il, D. U. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ------------- 1864| 67 | . 67| 8 || .. 8
Alabama Institution, Talla- - ,, . "
633. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1858; 19 40|| 59 || 3 || 1 || 4
California Institution, Oak-
2, IT 1860|| 35| 25| 60] 4: ... 4
Kansas Institution, Olathe...|1862. 43| 26|| 69 4 1 5
"Minnesota, “ Faribault 1863| 36|| 24| 60|| 3 2 5
|Massachusetts (Clarke) In-
stitution, Northampton....|1867| 32| 28 60} . 5 5
Arkansas Institution, Little
|Rock 1867| 87| 31|| 68| 2 || 3 || 5
Maryland Institution, Fred-
erick City........................ 868|| 65|| 37| 102| 5 || 4 || 9
Nebraska Institution,0maha |1869| 12| 14, 26 1 2 3
West Virginia “ Romney|1870| 35| 21| 56|| 2 || 2 || 4
Oregon Salem... [1870| 13| 11| 24|| 1 1 2
St. Bridget “ (Catholic),
St. Louis, Mo.................... 1860 11| 11 | . 2| 2
St. Mary Institution (Cath- -
olic), Buffalo, N.Y............ 862| 27| 31|| 58|| 1 || 5 || 6
Institution for Improved In-
struction, N. Y. City. ....... [1867| 38|| 42| 80|| 1 6 7
Day School, Pittsburg, Pa.... 1869; 23| 20 43| 1 1 2
Day School, Boston, Mass..... 1869 22| 33| 55; ... 4| 4
Whipple's Home School,
Mystic, Conn.................... [1869| 2 || 2 || 4
Total in 36 Institutions, 1872 2447|1903|4350 || 171 | 105 || 276
\
*ś
§ | * > Nº.
§§§§§
Kºs
NºSNS
be slight, permanent and perhaps complete deafness may
result. (3), Cerumen (ear-wax) frequently fills the passage
of the ear. In such cases oil should be dropped into the
ear, and a gentle flow of warm water from a syringe will
generally remove the obstruction. (4), When the membrana
tympani (ear-drum) is accidentally perforated, much good
is often done by the use of Toynbee's artificial ear-drum.
(5), The Eustachian tube may be the seat of mucous in-
flammation, and may require surgical treatment. Counter- .
irritation behind the ears, the use of general tonics, etc.
may be beneficial; and this is more especially true of the
deafness of aged people. (See ToyNBEE on “Diseases of the
Ear,” 1860; Roos A, “On Diseases of the Ear,” new ed. 1874.)
Since the year 1844, when the attention of physicians
was first called to the subject, the growth of minute fungi
(Aspergillus, etc.) in the ear has been reported to be a com-
mon cause of disease of that part. The meatus and tym-
panum are sometimes covered with the growth, in the form
of white or yellow mould on their surfaces. Tinnitus, in-
flammation, and the accumulation of wax are attendant
symptoms, and the treatment consists in the application.
of a solution of carbolic acid, five grains to the ounce of
water. The fungi are perhaps the effects of disease rather
than the cause. REv1SED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Deák (FRANCIs), an eminent Hungarian statesman and
orator, born at Kehida in the county of Zala (Szalad) Oct.
17, 1803. He studied law, which he practised in his youth,
was elected to the National Diet in 1832, and became the
leader of the liberal party. Soon after the revolution of
Mar., 1848, he became minister of justice, and projected
important reforms in that department. He resigned office
when Kossuth obtained power in Sept., 1848. On the de-
feat of the Hungarian patriots in battle in 1849, he quitted
public life and retired to his estate. Having been elected
to the Diet in 1861, he became the leader of the moderate
party and the most popular man in Hungary. He was the
author of the address sent by the Diet to the emperor, and
of the protest against the imperial rescript in 1861. Deák
is regarded as the master-spirit of the movement by which
the constitutional autonomy of Hungary was restored in
1867, and large concessions to civil and religious liberty .
were extorted from the emperor. He has ever since re-
mained the recognized leader of the liberal party, which is
commonly called, after him, the “Deákist,” and which has
had without interruption a majority of the Hungarian
Diet. He has refused all offers of a place in the ministry,
but no change in the ministry has been made without his
consent.
Deal [from the Ang.-Sax. dael, a “portion,” akin to the
Ger. Theil, “part” or “piece,” originally a piece of any
kind of timber, afterwards applied particularly to fir or
pine], the commercial name used especially in Great Brit-
ain for boards exceeding six feet in length and seven inches
wide. Smaller boards are called battens. Deals are gen-
erally three inches in thickness; when thinner, they are
usually called planks, but thin boards are often called deals.
They are imported into Great Britain chiefly from Sweden,
Norway, and British America, and are sawed into thinner
pieces for use.
Deal, a maritime town and bathing-place of England,
in Kent, is on an open beach of the North Sea, near the S.
extremity of the Downs, 8 miles N. N. E. of Dover. It
has been one of the Cinque Ports since the early part of
the-thirteenth century. A good anchorage extends between
Deal and Goodwin Sands, 8 miles distant. The place is
defended by Deal Castle, Sandown Castle, and Walmar
Castle, in the last of which the duke of Wellington died in
1852. Caesar landed near Deal in 55 B. C. The castle was
built by Henry VIII. in 1539. Its roadstead is famous as
a resort for shipping. Here passengers and mails are
landed, though less frequently than in former years. Its
trade is small, and its manufactures are not important.
Pop. in 1871, 8004.
Deal, a post-village of Ocean township, Monmouth co.,
N. J., 5 miles S. of Long Branch. It is a place of summer
resort, being more retired and quiet than Long Branch.
Deal Fish [so called because its thin and wide body
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The Deal Fish.















- 81

1282
DEAN–DEARBORN
somewhat resembles a deal or plank], the Gynetrus arcticus,
a fish of the family Cepolidae, is from four to six feet long,
eight inches broad, and one inch thick, and is found in high
northern latitudes.
Dean [Lat. decanus, from decem, “ten,” because the
dean anciently presided over ten canons], an ecclesiastical
title applied to officers of several different kinds. In some
of the Anglican churches deans are dignitaries next in
rank to the bishops. They preside over the chapters of
canons and prebendaries, and in the old dioceses nominally
elect the bishops. In England they are attached to each
diocese. Rural deans are inspectors of parishes, who make
report of their visitations to the bishop. Deans of college
faculties are the presiding or executive officers. Various
chapels in England and the chapel-royal of Scotland have
deans attached to them. The three Scottish deans are Pres-
byterians of the national Church.
Dean (AMos), LL.D., was born at Barnard, Vt., Jan.
16, 1803, graduated at Union College in 1822, became an
eminent lawyer, and was a professor of medical jurispru-
dence in the medical school and of law in the law school
at Albany, N. Y. Died Jan. 26, 1868. He was the author of
many valuable law treatises, and also published “Philosophy
of Human Life” (1839), “Medical Jurisprudence” (1854),
and other works. Since his death his “History of Civili-
zation ” (7 vols. 8vo) has been published (1868–69).
Dean (JAMEs), LL.D., was born at Windsor, Vt., Nov.
26, 1776, graduated at Dartmouth in 1800, was tutor in the
University of Vermont (1807–09), and professor of mathe-
matics there (1809–14, 1821–24). He published a “Gazet-
teer of Vermont” (1808). Died Jan. 20, 1849.
Dean (John WARD), an antiquary, was born at Wiscas-
set, Me., Mar. 13, 1815. He published a “Memoir of Rev.
Nathaniel Ward” (1868), “Memoir of Rev. Michael Wig-
glesworth '' (1871), and a great number of accurate and
valuable papers upon history, biography, and genealogy.
Dean (JULIA), a beautiful and talented actress, was born
at Pleasant Valley, N. Y., July 22, 1830. Her grandfather
and father (Samuel and Edwin Dean) were actors of repute.
Iſer mother was the actress Julia Drake. She married a Mr.
Hayne in 1855, was divorced in 1866, and married a Mr.
Cooper soon after. She had great popularity in the West
and South. Died Mar. 6, 1868.
Dean (Rev. PAUL), a distinguished minister of the
Universalist and Unitarian denominations, was born in
Barnard, Vt., in 1789. He held the doctrine of the so-
called Restorationists, and was pastor of churches in Bos-
ton and in Easton, Mass. He published numerous ser-
mons, etc. Died at Framingham, Mass., Oct. 1, 1860.
Dean (WILLIAM), D. D., a Baptist missionary, born at
Morrisville, N.Y., June 21, 1807, and in 1834 became a mis-
sionary of the society now known as the American Baptist
Missionary Union. His labors have been devoted to the
Chinese in their native country, and also in Siam, where
they are very numerous. He is the author of several re-
ligious works in the Chinese language, into which he has
translated parts of the Bible.—MRS. THEODOSIA A. B.
DEAN, his second wife, died in 1843. A memoir of her
life has been published.
Deane (CHARLEs), L.L.D., was born at Biddeford, Me.,
Nov. 10, 1813, and became a merchant in Boston. He, is
the author of numerous historical papers of value, among
which are “Notices of Samuel Gorton’’ (1850), “Memoir
of George Livermore” (1869), and “The Forms of Issuing
Letters-Patent by the Crown of England” (1870).
Deane (JAMEs), a judge and missionary to the Indians
of New York State, was born at Groton, Conn., Aug. 20,
1748, and graduated at Dartmouth College in 1773. At
the age of twelve he became associated with the Rev. Mr.
Mosely, a missionary to the Six Nations. After graduat-
ing from college he went as missionary to the Canadian
Indians, and was employed by Congress to pacificate the
northern Indians. He was commissioned as a major, and
served in the Revolutionary war as an interpreter at Fort
Stanwix. He was taken prisoner by the savages, but his
life was saved by the efforts of some of their women. He
was afterwards, for a long time, a judge in Oneida co.,
N. Y., and held other offices of trust. From him the vil-
lage of Deanesville was named. He wrote upon Indian
mythology a paper which is believed to be lost. Died at
Westmoreland, Oneida co., N. Y., Sept. 10, 1823.
Deane (JAMEs), M. D., a geologist, born at Coleraine,
Mass., Feb. 24, 1801, studied first law, and then medicine,
of which he commenced the practice in 1831. He was an
excellent operative surgeon. In 1835 he made known his
discovery of remarkable fossil footprints in the new red
sandstone near Greenfield. After his death his work upon
these footprints was published by the Smithsonian Institu-
tion. He was the author of a valuable report “On the
Hygienic Condition of the Survivors of Ovariotomy,” an
other papers. Died June 8, 1858. -
Deane (JoBN), an English seaman, born about 1679, who
while in command of the Nottingham galley was wrecked
in 1710 on Boon Island, off the coast of Maine. Here
the crew remained twenty-one days, and having eaten the
body of one of their number who had died, they were finally
rescued. Deane published an account of this affair (Bos-
ton, 1711; 5th ed. 1762), appended to a sermon on the
event by Cotton Mather, but his mate and others of the
crew published a different statement (London, 1711). Deane
was (1714–20) a naval officer under Peter the Great, but was
banished to Kasan. He was afterwards a long time British
consul at Ostend. His name is appended to a “Letter’’
(1699) from Moscow to the marquis of Caermarthen regard-
ing the state of the Russian navy. Died at Wilford, Notts,
Aug. 19, 1761.
Deane (SAMUEL), D. D., a poet, born at Dedham, Mass.,
July 30, 1733, graduated at Harvard College in 1760, and
was librarian and tutor there for several years. He was
pastor of the Congregational church at Falmouth, after-
wards called Portland, Me. (1764–1814), author of “Pitch-
wood Hill” and other poems, a “Georgical Dictionary”
(1790), and other works. Died Nov. 12, 1814.
Deane (SAMUEL), a divine, poet, and historian, was
born Mar. 30, 1784, at Mansfield, Mass., and graduated at
Brown University, Providence, R.I., in 1805. In 1810 he
became pastor of the Second Congregational church in
Scituate, Mass., where he remained for life. He published
an excellent history of that town in 1831, besides several
poems, sermons, etc. Died Aug. 9, 1834.
Deane (SILAs), an American diplomatist, born at Gro-
ton, Conn., Dec. 24, 1737. He graduated at Yale College
in 1758. He was a member of the Continental Congress
in 1774, and was sent to France in 1776 as a political and
financial agent. He was recalled in 1777, charged with hav-
ing deviated from his instructions by making extravagant
contracts, and by profuse promises to many French officers
whom he persuaded to enter the service of the U. S.
There is, however, very little doubt that Deane was a
thoroughly able and honest man, as well as a zealous.
patriot. He was the victim of the unhappy jealousy of
unworthy men, who wrought his social and financial ruin.
Died in England Aug. 23, 1789. In 1842 too tardy justice
was done his memory by Congress, which after careful ex-
amination of his accounts found that a large sum was due
to his heirs, which sum was paid fifty-three years after his
death as a poor man in a land of strangers and enemies.
Deane (WILLIAM REED), a genealogist, was born at
Mansfield, Mass., Aug. 21, 1809. He was a nephew of
Samuel Deane, the historian of Scituate. He was a large.
and able contributor to periodical literature, writing chiefly
upon antiquarian subjects, genealogy, and the early New
England history. Died June 16, 1871.
Dean, Forest of, in Gloucestershire, England, is a
picturesque hilly tract, having an area of 22,000 acres, be-
tween the Severn and the Wye. It is mostly the property
of the Crown, and nearly half of it is enclosed for the
growth of timber for the navy. Here are forests of oak,
beech, and other trees, coal and iron mines, and stone-
quarries. This forest was formerly notorious for the de-
based moral and social condition of its inhabitants, who
have been largely reclaimed by the influence of religious
instruction.
Dean’s, a township of Edgefield co., S. C. Pop. 1320.
Deans/ville, a post-village of Marshall and Kirkland
townships, Oneida, co., N. Y., on the Utica division of the
New York and Oswego Midland R. R., 4 miles S. W. by S.
of Clinton. It has an academy and two churches. P. 195.
Dear"born, a county in the S. E. of Indiana, border-
ing on the Ohio River. Area, 291 square miles. It is
drained by the Whitewater River. The surface is partly
hilly; the soil is fertile, and is based on limestone. Dairy
products, grain, wool, and hay are the staples. It is in-
tersected by the Ohio and Mississippi R. R. and the In-
dianapolis and Cincinnati R. R. Capital, Lawrenceburg.
Pop. 24,116.
Dearborn, a township and village of Wayne co., Mich.,
on the Michigan Central R. R., 10 miles W. of Detroit. It
has a U.S. arsenal. Pop. of village, 530; of township, 2302.
Dearborn (HENRY), an American general, born in
Hampton, N. H., Feb. 23, 1751. He served as captain
at the battle of Bunker Hill, 1775, and as major in the
campaign against Burgoyne in 1777. In 1778 he fought
with distinction at Monmouth. He was a member of Con-
gress from Massachusetts (1793–97), and secretary of war
under Jefferson (1801–09). Having obtained the rank of
DEARBORN-DEBRECZIN.
1283
major-general, he captured York (now Toronto) in Canada
April 27, 1813. He was U. S. minister to Portugal (1822–
24). Died June 6, 1829.
Dearborn (HENRY ALEXANDER SCAMMELL), a son of
the preceding, was born at Exeter, N. H., Mar. 3, 1783,
graduated at William and Mary College in 1803, became a
lawyer in Massachusetts, was a brigadier-general of militia
for the defence of Boston in 1812, was a member of Con-
gress (1831–33), and as adjutant-general of Massachusetts
Ioaned arms to Rhode Island during “Dorr’s rebellion *
(1843), for which act he was removed. He was the author
of several biographical and commercial treatises. Died
July 29, 1851. t
Deas (CHARLEs), an American painter, born in Phila-
delphia, Pa., in 1818. He was a grandson of Ralph Izard,
the patriot of South Carolina, and was a pupil of John
Sanderson. The best known of his pictures were Indian
and prairie scénes from the far West. He became insane
and died in e
Deasy (RICKARD), LL.D., an Irish Roman Catholic
statesman and jurist, born in 1812 and educated at the
University of Dublin (Trinity College), was called to the
bar in 1835, became queen’s counsel in 1849, a serjeant-at-
law in 1858, solicitor-general for Ireland in 1859, attorney-
general in 1860, and a baron of the Irish exchequer in
1861. From 1855 to 1861 he was in Parliament, belonging
to the “moderate Catholic ’’ party, and representing the
county of Cork.
Death [Gr. 9ávaros; Lat. mors, mortis ; Fr. mort; Ger.
Tod], the cessation of vital functions in animals and plants.
The active phenomena observed after death, such as ma-
terial decay and lóss of heat, are merely continuations of
processes which have been going on through life. The cor-
responding operations of repair having ceased, the destruc-
tive processes become manifest. In a short time, however,
in ordinary conditions, new and much more rapid destruc-
tive changes are induced. (See DECAY.)
Local or partial death of an animal is called mortifica-
tion, gangrene, or sphacelus; if in a bone, it is necrosis.
Molecular death of animal tissue is called ulceration, except
in bony tissues, when it has the name of caries. Systemic
death is said by Bichat to be either—1, by “syncope,” or
fainting, when the heart’s action fails from lack of its usual
stimulus; 2, by “asphyxia,” when suffocation occurs or the
lungs cease to act; or, 3, by “coma,” when death begins
at the brain. Other authorities add to these forms death
by (4) “anaemia,” or deficiency of the blood, by (5) “as-
thenia,” or weakness, and (6) by starvation; but these
may be regarded as varieties of the first form, or syncope.
Still others reckon as distinct forms of death (7) that by
paralysis—which is indeed one of the causes of the second
form—that produced by asphyxia, or apnoea. An eighth
form, “necraemia,” or death by the blood, when the latter
element is poisoned or changed in character by disease, is
mentioned by writers. It would be difficult to assign some
instances (such as instantaneous death from an injury)
to any one of these categories. It is asserted by many
careful observers that death is usually painless, and that
the apparent agony or struggle so often observed is au-
tomatic. Cases are on record of burial after apparent
death. Such terrible mistakes may be prevented by observ-
ing the rule of preserving bodies until unequivocal signs
of decay are observed.
- REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Death. Adder. See ACANTHOPHIs.
Death, Brothers of, a name sometimes given to the
monks of the order of St. Paul the Hermit, which was sup-
pressed by Pope Urban VIII. about 1630. They always
carried with them a death’s head to remind them contin-
ually of death.
Death, Punishment of. See CAPITAL PUNISHMENT,
by REv. ABEL STEVENS, A. M., LL.D.
Death-Watch, the name of certain small beetles in-
Death-Watch. -
habiting human dwellings, and producing a sound like the
*This use of the word “asphyxia” (which literally means
“lack of pulse’’) is most unfortunate, though sanctioned by
usage. A better word is “apnoea’’—i.e. “failure of breath.”
ticking of a watch. This sound being more readily heard
in the stillness attending sickness, it has given rise to the
superstitious belief that it prognosticates death; hence
the name, “death-watch.” The noise is produced by the
insect beating its head against the wood in which it is con-
cealed. It is supposed to be the call of the male to its
mate. The common death-watch (Anobium) is a species
of borer. It is about a quarter of an inch in length, and
of a dusky-brown color. A number of species are found
both in Europe and the U. S. The Artropos pulsatorius, a
very different insect, is called in England by the same
popular name, and for the same reason.
De Augmentis, or, more fully, De Augmentis
Scientiarum (i. e. “On the Advancement of the Sci-
ences,” or, as Bacon himself renders it, [“On the Ad-
vancement of Learning,” employing this word in a some-
what wider signification than is usual at the present time),
a celebrated treatise written by Lord Bacon, and forming
the opening chapter of his great work, the “Instauratio
Magma.” It is next to the “Novum Organum ” Bacon's
most important philosophical treatise.
Débâcle, a French word signifying “the breaking up
of ice” in a river or harbor. The term is used by geologists
to denote a sudden rush or flood of water, which breaks
down all opposing barriers, and leaves its path covered
with scattered fragments of rock and other débris.
De Bas/trop, a township of Ashley co., Ark. P. 1386.
Debaſtable Land, a tract of country on the western
border of Scotland and England, lying between the Esk
and Sark. It was for a long time a cause of contention
between the two countries, and even after its division by
royal commissioners in 1542, continued to be a refuge for
outlaws. It was divided by a line drawn from E. to W.
between the rivers, the eastern part being adjudged to Eng-
land, and the western half to Scotland.
Deben/ture [from the Lat. debentur, “they (i. e. debts)
are owing” (from debeo, to “owe”)], a term applied to dif-
ferent documents or writings acknowledging a debt, as the
acknowledgments given by railroad companies for special
Ioans; also an instrument or writing by which government
is charged to pay to a creditor or his assigns sums found
due. The term is particularly applied to custom-house
certificates, entitling the exporter of goods to a drawback,
or bounty.
De/bir (i.e. a “sanctuary”), a city of the tribe of
Judah several times mentioned in the Bible, was situated
W. of Hebron in the hill-country, and in a dry and arid
place. It was captured by Joshua, or rather by Othniel,
was inhabited by the Anakim, and had a Canaanitish king.
It was afterwards given to the priests of the Hebrews. It
was also called Kirjath-sepher and Kirjath-Sannah. Its
site is not at present accurately known. There was also a
place of this name near Jericho, and probably another
belonging to the tribe of Gad, E. of the river Jordan.
Déblai [supposed to be derived from the Low Latin
debłado, to “take away grain,” or perhaps anything of a
granular or crumbling nature], in fortification, is any hol-
low place or excavation in the ground made during the
construction of a parapet or siege-work. The earth taken
from the cavity is the remblai.
De Blaquiere, BARONs, a noble family of Ireland,
received the baronetcy in 1784 and entered the baronage
in 1800.-SIR WILLIAM BERNARD DE BLAQUIERE, fifth Lord
de Blaquiere, was born in 1814, and succeeded his brother
in 1871. He is an officer of the royal navy, though now
on the retired list.
Debiois, a post-township of Washington co., Me. P. 139.
Deb/orah, a Hebrew prophetess and judge, the wife
of Lapidoth, gained celebrity by her successful efforts to
liberate the Israelites from Jabin, king of Canaan. (See
Judges iv.) She is supposed to have composed the spirited
and beautiful lyric which forms the fifth chapter of Judges.
Débouch [from the Fr. déboucher, to “pass out,” to
“empty itself,” as a river], a military term, signifying to
march out from a wood, defile, or other confined place into
open ground; also an outlet or available issue by which an
army can march out.
De Bow (JAMEs DUNwoody BROWNSON), an American
writer on commerce and statistics, was born at Charleston,
S. C., July 10, 1820. He studied law, and was admitted to
the bar in 1844. In 1845 he removed to New Orleans and
founded “De Bow's Commercial Review,” which he edited
for many years. He became in 1847 professor of political
economy in the University of Louisiana. Died at Eliza-
beth, N. J., Feb. 27, 1867.
. Debrecºzin, a royal free town of Hungary, capital of
the county of Bihar, is on an extensive Sandy plain 116
miles E. of Pesth. The houses are mostly but one story

1284
DEBT—DEBT, NATIONAL.
high; the streets are unpaved and dirty. It contains a
handsome town-hall, several hospitals, and a Calvinistic
college with twenty-four professors and a library of 20,000
volumes. It has manufactures of earthenware, combs,
soap, and tobacco-pipes. Here are extensive markets for
cattle and swine. A large majority of the inhabitants are
Protestants and Magyars. It is connected with Pesth by
a railway. Pop. in 1869, 46,111.
Debt, in law, means a sum of money due which is cer-
tain in amount or capable of being reduced to certainty.
Such an indebtedness may arise either as the result of a
judgment of a court of justice, or on a sealed instrument
(specialty), or on an unsealed instrument, or on a mere
oral contract. Debts are thus distinguished into such as
are of record, or of special contract or simple contract.
They may arise either on an express or implied promise.
Debts may be collected by an action of debt, or in some
instances by an action of covenant. The last action is
resorted to when the duty to pay is derived from a contract
under seal. The form of action called indebitatus assumpsit
(“being indebted, he promised”) may also be used where
the indebtedness is incurred by reason of a simple con-
tract. A debt may be discharged in various ways, as by
ACCORD AND SATISFACTION, RELEASE, PAYMENT, Nov ATION,
etc. The statute of limitations will be a bar to an action.
The time within which the action must be brought under
such a statute varies in the different States. (See LIMITA-
TIONs, STATUTE of, by PROF. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.)
ACTION OF DEBT is a common-law action brought to col-
lect a debt. It is also used to collect a penalty given by
statute. When an action of debt is brought on a written
instrument, the defendant may deny its existence. If he
asserts that there is no such record as the plaintiff alleges,
his plea is called nul tiel record; if he claims that a sealed
instrument which is set up as the foundation of an indebt-
edness was never executed, his plea is non est factum.
These pleas merely deny the eacistence of the judgment or
specialty. If he has any other defence, he should disclose
it by specially setting it forth. So he may deny the exist-
ence of a simple contract debt, or may set up in his plead-
ings any special facts which, while they admit the existence
of the debt, show that the plaintiff has no right to recover.
A judgment in the action for the recovery of a debt itself
constitutes a new debt, on which another action may be
brought, and so on, unless there be some statutory restric-
tion of the right to bring an action upon a judgment, as
there is in some of the American States. Under the codes
of procedure of some of the States the technical action of
debt no longer exists, as there is but one civil action. The
same remedy may be had in substance under a complaint
setting forth the facts constituting the cause of action.
T. W. DWIGHT.
Debt, National, of the U. S. The national debt of
the U. S., as it existed at the commencement of the year
1873, consisted almost entirely of obligations incurred or
accruing since the beginning of 1861, and, as usually stated
in official reports, it was, on Jan. 1, 1873, $2,162,252,338.
But this sum embraces all known liabilities of the govern-
ment, including the entire amount of currency outstanding
issued by the treasury directly, with various items of old
debts long unclaimed, and probably obsolete, though still
necessarily carried on the books of the treasury. The fol-
lowing is the official summary statement for Jan. 1, 1873:
Debt bearing interest in coin:
Bonds at 6 per cent............... $
1,342,084,150
Bonds at 5 per cent...............
414,567,300
$1,756,651,450 Interest, $40,040,292
Debt bearing interest in lawful
money:
Certificates of indebtedness at
4 per cent........................... 678,000
Certificates at 3 per cent........ 2,780,000
Navy pension fund, at 3 per
cent.................................. 14,000,000
$17,458,000 Interest, 264,273
Debt on which interest has
ceased since maturity........ 4,084,220 Interest, 345,991
Debt bearing no interest:
Legal-tender notes............... 357,500,000
Old demand notes................. 1,142,294
Fractional currency............. 45,722,062
Certificates of deposit........... 25,370,000
Coin certificates...................., 23,263,000
* & $452,997,356
Unclaimed interest • e º 16,605
$2,231,191,026 $40,667,161
º Total debt * * * $2,271,858,187
Cash in treasury, coin............ $74,359,276
&&. * & 4 currency..... 9,876,574
Deposit held to redeem certif- - -
icates................................... 25,370,000 109,605,849
Total debt, less cash in the treasury.....{2,162,252,338
Bonds issued to Pacific Railway companies......... $64,623,512
This repetition of the official statement is required to
show that the debt proper is substantially little more than
the first two items, of five and six per cent. gold-bearing
bonds named above; the remaining items being nominal
or contingent, at least as regards demands for interest or
for repayment. The certificates of indebtedness are all
to be retired; and the navy pension fund is a sum nomi-
nally reserved, by act of July 1, 1864, to secure the annual
interest of $420,000 required to pay pensions in the navy.
The certificates of deposit and coin certificates represent or
are exchangeable for cash in the treasury; and the currency,
amounting to $403,232,062—exclusive of demand notes
probably in greater part lost—is not likely to be retired or
put in interest-bearing bonds.
The six per cent. bonds, which constitute the bulk of the
debt, are in rapid progress of cancellation by purchase in
extinguishment of the debt, and also by substitution of
new bonds at 5 per cent. interest. The total amount of
such bonds purchased and cancelled from May, 1869, to
Jan. 1, 1873, is $299,901,100; and the amount exchanged
for 5 per cent. bonds under authority of the act of July 11,
1870, is $200,000,000. The act of Jan. 20, 1871, authorizes
a further issue of $300,000,000 of such 5 per cent. bonds,
to be applied exclusively to the cancellation of other bonds
bearing 6 per cent. interest; and a contract for the ex-
change of this entire sum has been completed, $100,000,000
of the 6 per cents. being already notified as called in for
redemption, and subscriptions having been received for
a like sum of 5 per cent. bonds to replace them. On the
completion of these exchanges the debt bearing 5 per cent.
interest will be about $715,000,000, and that at 6 per cent.
$1,042,000,000, should no other reductions take place. The
reduction of the debt began in April, 1869; in the last nine
months of that year it was reduced $71,903,524; in 1870 it
was reduced $119,251,240; in 1871, $88,229,382; and in
1872, $82,075,152. By various acts in 1870–72 large re-
ductions were made in the leading sources of revenue, the
customs and internal revenue, and it is probable that the
monthly reductions will be less in 1873 than in either of
the three previous years, and possibly not more than is re-
quired by the sinking fund act, or about $32,000,000.
Of the entire outstanding obligations of the U. S. gov-
ernment there are the following items long remaining un-
paid, and of which most of the youchers are probably lost;
but some portion may possibly be claimed: -
• * - e s a e e s a • e e s e e s = e < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * $57,665
Treasury notes, 1837–46, balance outstanding............... 82,575
Treasury notes of 1846...... 6,000
Mexican indemnity stock..............................-------------- 1,105
Treasury notes of 1847.......... ... e. e. e. e. e. e s a te e º e º ſº tº e s e º e º 'º - e º ºs º ºs e e º e s e s is a tº 950
Loan of 1847......................----------------------------------------- 1,650
Bounty land-scrip, Feb. 11, 1847 A mºr 3,900
Loan of Mar. 31, 1848..............................--------------------- ,500
Texas indemnity stock, Sept. 19, 1850........................... 174,000
Treasury notes of 1857.................... 2,000
- $335,345
On the bonded items of this debt there is also an account
of $75,596 accrued interest, constituting a nominal rather
than a real charge, but entering into the aggregate of debt,
as before stated. Of all the large creations of debt at the
formation of the government, and again in 1813–15, 1837–
45, and 1846–50, the small items above named alone remain.
In 1858 a loan of $20,000,000 at 5 per cent. was issued,
which is part of the existing debt, but the loan of
$21,000,000 in 1860 is practically extinguished. With
1861 the issue of the great existing loans began, and the
following is a condensed account of the acts of authority,
the issues, and the outstanding amounts of all the present
debt.
By the act of June 14, 1858, a loan of $20,000,000 at 5
per cent. was authorized, to run fifteen years, all of which
was issued, and is still outstanding, redeemable after Jan.
1, 1874. By act of June 22, 1860, a loan of $21,000,000 at
6 per cent., for twenty years, was authorized, $7,022,000
only being issued, of which $10,000 only is outstanding.
The series of loans called for by the war began with that
authorized by the act of Feb. 8, 1861, of $25,000,000 at 6
per cent. for twenty years, of which $18,415,000 were issued,
nominally at par, but really costing about 14 per cent...in
negotiation. All this loan is outstanding, and is known as
part of the 6 per cents, of 1881. . Next, on Mar. 2, 1861,
treasury notes bearing 6 per cent. interest were authorized,
of which $35,364,450 were issued; all being now redeemed
but $3150. This was a most important act for the relief of
the government, the notes being received for customs, and
being redeemable within two years. Also on Mar. 2, 1861;
bonds at 6 per cent, running twenty years, were authorized
for the Oregon war debt; $1,095,850 being issued, of which
$945,000 remain out, falling due in 1881. On July 17, 1861,
$250,000,000 of 7 per cent. bonds, to run twenty years, were
authorized, with authority to issue any part of this amount
\
DEBT, NATIONAL.
1285
in the form of treasury notes, running three years, at 74%,
per cent. interest, or notes not bearing interest payable on
demand, or treasury notes for one year at 31% per cent. in-
terest, exchangeable for 7.30 notes; but the whole amount of
demand notes not at interest shall not exceed $50,000,000.
An act of Aug. 5, 1861, authorized the issue of bonds at 6
per cent. interest, running twenty years, to exchange for
the one-year and three-year notes before authorized, with
accumulated interest, at any time before or at their matu-
rity; and the demand notes were declared receivable for
all public dues. These acts were most wisely designed and
signally successful; the demand notes, though at first re-
jected by the banks, before the close of the year were at a
premium; and the interest-bearing notes became very ac-
ceptable, and were readily converted, with their accumu-
lated interest, into the permanent 6 per cent. bonds. The
current of public preference was then changed in favor of the
government issues, which at first were received with aver-
sion, particularly by the banks. A very large issue of these
notes took place, the 7.30 motes reaching $140,094,750, and
the 3.65 one-year notes a large sum, with the full $50,000,000
of demand notes. Of the 6 per cent. twenty-year bonds
issued in redemption of the one- and three-year notes, there
were $189,321,200, all being now outstanding, and due in
1881. On Feb. 12, 1862, $10,000,000 more of demand notes
were issued, of which $88,296 remain outstanding; also
$20,000 of the 7.30 notes are still out, both being probably
lost.
The preceding very successful issues laid the basis for
the first great popular loan, authorized Feb. 25, 1862, of
$500,000,000 of 6 per cent. bonds, redeemable after five and
payable after twenty years—the standard 5.20s of the stock
list. A large subscription was at once made, and the full
$500,000,000 were issued. The acts of Mar. 3, 1864, and
Jan. 28, 1865, added $15,000,000 more to the authorization.
Being redeemable after five years, a large amount of these
have been called in, only $267,289,400 remaining out Jan.
1, 1873. By this act of Feb. 25, 1862, $150,000,000 of cir-
culating notes were authorized and made a legal tender;
$50,000,000 to be in place of the demand notes of July 17,
1861. On July 11, 1862, $150,000,000 more were authorized,
and on Mar. 3, 1863, $150,000,000 more—$450,000,000 in
all. The whole amount was issued, and formed the great
volume of currency known as greenbacks. Of this issue
$400,000,000 was made permanent, but contractions in 1868
and 1869 reduced the amount, and $358,557,907 only re-
mained out Jan. 1, 1873. The act of Feb. 25, 1862, also
authorized the acceptance of $25,000,000 of deposits at 5 per
cent. interest; this authorization was increased to $50,000,000
Mar. 17, 1862, and to $100,000,000 July 11, 1862. On June
30, 1864, a further sum of $50,000,000 was added, this to
pay 6 per cent. interest; all this, described as temporary
loan, was to be repaid on ten days’ notice, and was so re-
paid in 1865 and 1866, except $78,560 unclaimed. This
temporary loan was very advantageous to both citizens and
the government; the full amount authorized in each case
was promptly offered, and the repayment reluctantly ac-
cepted when the necessities of the government no longer
required the money.
The act of Mar. 1, 1862, authorized the issue of certifi-
cates of indebtedness to public creditors in adjustment of
any claims, such certificates to bear 6 per cent. interest,
and to run one year. The sum of $561,753,241 of such cer-
tificates was issued, all of which were redeemed in 1863,
1864, and 1865, except $5000. A most important service
was rendered by these certificates, particularly in obtaining
war-supplies. They were readily taken, and facilitated the
funding of general indebtedness as they matured. The act
of July 17, 1862, authorized the issue of postage stamps as
currency, and made them receivable in payments to the
U. S. in sums less than five dollars. An act of Mar. 3, 1863,
authorized the use of fractional notes (parts of a dollar) in
place of postal currency, limiting the amount to $50,000,000;
which authorization was confirmed by the act of June 30,
1864. This issue was promptly called for to the extent of
$30,000,000, and it has varied from that sum to the present
amount of $45,722,061, outstanding Jan. 1, 1873. So much
time has elapsed since the issue of the legal-tender notes
and the Smaller notes here described that it is safe to assume
that without important changes in the general financial
policy they are likely to remain as they are—nominal rather
than real debt. No substitute for either can at present be
found or appears to be desired.
|By act of Mar. 3, 1863, a loan of $900,000,000 was au-
thorized at 6 per cent. for ten or forty years, principal and
interest payable in coin; of which $75,000,000 only was
issued, and taken at a premium of 3% to 4 per cent. ; prefer-
ence being given because of a possible distinction existing
adverse to the payment of the principal of the 5.20s in coin.
This act was repealed June 30, 1864, but the $75,000,000
remain outstanding. The same act, Mar. 3, 1863, also au-
thorized $400,000,000 of one-, two-, and three-year treasury
notes, at not over 6 per cent. interest, to be a legal tender
for their face-value, principal and interest payable in lawful
money. Of these there were—
One-year notes, issued.........#44,520,000, at 5 per cent. $93,795 out.
Two-year notes, “ ........166,480,000, at 5 {{ 62,350 “
Three-year notes (comp'd)...266,595,440, at 6 {{ 532,920 “
This act authorized the exchange of new treasury notes for
any of these issues outstanding at any time; and provided
for $150,000,000 more of currency, not at interest, to facili-
tate such exchange. In all, $477,595,440 of these treasury
notes of 1863 were issued; all of which, with the exception
above stated, were cancelled or exchanged before May 15,
1868. It will be seen that but a small amount of permanent
loan was created in 1863, treasury notes being largely used.
The loans of 1864 began with an issue of $200,000,000, au-
thorized Mar. 2, 1864, at 5 or 6 per cent., principal and in-
terest payable in coin; $196,117,300 was issued at 5 per
cent, to run forty years—10.40s of 1864—and $3,882,500
at 6 per cent. Most of the 5 per cents, brought a premium
of from 1 to 7 per cent., and $194,567,300 remain out, with
$2,298,000 of the 6 per cents. On June 30, 1864, another
lºan of $400,000,000 was authorized, at 6 per cent—5.20s
of 1864—$125,561,300 being issued, and jºbso Te-
maining out Jan. 1, 1873. But the demand was enormous
at this time; and the loans not being fully taken, the act
of June 30, 1864, authorized the issue of $200,000,000 of
7.30 treasury notes, to run three years; which authority was
extended by act of Mar. 3, 1865, to embrace $600,000,000
more. Under this authority $829,992,500 of 7.30 interest-
bearing notes were issued, all of which were duly redeemed
or exchanged before the 15th of July, 1868, except the sum
of $303,900, not presented, and in part probably lost. On
July 1, 1864, the secretary of the treasury was directed to
invest a part of the sum accruing from naval captures as a
navy pension fund, in registered securities bearing 3 per
cent. interest in currency; which was done to the extent
of $14,000,000; but this is a nominal or contingent liability
only, so far as the capital is concerned. -
The loans of 1865 began with the authorization of
$600,000,000 of 6 per cent. 5.20 bonds by act of Mar. 3, to
be applied only to the reimbursement of treasury notes or
other outstanding obligations of the government. Two
issues were made—on July 1, 1865, $322,998,950, and on
Nov. 1, 1865, $203,327,250; of which issues $365,328,350
were out on Jan. 1, 1873. By authority of the same act,
as construed by act of April 12, 1866, a further issue was
made in July, 1867, of $379,616,050, and of $42,539,350 on
July 1, 1868; these sums being employed to retire treasury
notes and other obligations, but not to increase the public
debt. Most of these last issues remain out—viz. $315,874,000
of 1867, and $38,638,400 of 1868. They are described as
consols of 1865, 1867, and 1868. By act of Mar. 3, 1867,
$50,000,000 of temporary loan certificates of deposit were
authorized, bearing 3 per cent. interest, to be used to redeem
compound-interest notes; and the act of July 25, 1868, au-
thorized $25,000,000 more. Under both acts $85,150,000 of
such certificates were issued, of which $2,780,000 were out-
standing Jan. 1, 1873.
On July 8, 1870, certain war-claims of Maine and Mas-
sachusetts were adjusted by the issue of $678,362 of cer-
tificates bearing 4 per cent. interest in currency; $678,000
of which yet remain out. By act of July 14, 1870, $200,000,000
at 5 per cent., $300,000,000 at 4% per cent.,and $1,000,000,000
at 4 per cent. of new thirty-year bonds, principal and in-
terest payable in coin, were authorized, to be used solely to
retire 6 per cent. or other bonds of earlier issues. No action
was taken until after the act of Jan. 20, 1871, which in-
creased the 5 per cents. to $500,000,000, with interest pay-
able quarterly. On May 1, 1871, $200,000,000 were issued,
and exchanged for 6 per cents. at par; and on Feb. 1, 1873,
$300,000,000 more were contracted to be so exchanged, on
the same terms as in 1871. No increase of the debt was
authorized, but a sum of advance interest was granted on
the new issues for three months, to cover all the costs of
negotiation and exchange. The full sum of $100,000,000
first offered to subscribers under the last negotiation was
taken promptly, on being offered, before Feb. 20, 1873.
By acts of July 1, 1862, and July 2, 1864, bonds guaran-
teed by the U. S., and bearing 6 per cent. interest, to run
thirty years, were authorized to be issued to the several
Pacific Railway companies, on the completion and accept-
ance of finished portions of the several roads. During
1868 and 1869, chiefly, sums of $25,885,120 to the Central
Pacific, of $27,236,512 to the Union Pacific, of $6,303,000
to the Kansas Pacific, with $5,198,880 to certain branch
roads, were duly issued. For the present, the interest on
these bonds has been paid by the U. S., but they are se–
cured by mortgage on the entire lines of the roads, of which
they represent but one-half the capital stock.
The mere numerical statement of the vast transactions
/
1286
DEBT, NATIONAL.
through which the present debt was created almost pre-
cludes explanation of the not less remarkable circumstances
transpiring in connection with these movements. The
magnitude of these transactions is without a parallel in
history, and the wholly unexpected power developed in
1862 to conclude great loans without resort to European
markets produced a profound effect on both the govern-
ment and the people. The popular loan of $515,000,000
in 1862 was the most remarkable of these events in its
magnitude and its entire success; but subsequently a long
period elapsed in 1863 and 1864 during which a permanent
funded loan could with difficulty be placed. Very heavy
issues of treasury notes and currency became necessary,
with all the aid derivable from temporary loans, certificates
of indebtedness, and compound-interest notes. At this
time the severest trial of the credit and resources of the
government took place. Gold rose in Sept., 1864, to 250
or more, and although many favorable results in practical
business ensued from this high price of gold, investers in
permanent securities were alarmed, and many looked for-
ward to a necessity that might compel the scaling of the
existing debt and a funding at gold values, for the purpose
of creating a stock certain to be reimbursed, principal and
interest, in gold. Heavy holders relieved themselves as
far as practicable, and no opening appeared to place new
loans advantageously. But at the close of 1864 a favor-
able reaction took place: great profits had been realized
on produce-shipments outward during the year; gold de-
clined rapidly, and the basis of its highest advance was
shown to have been in part fraudulent as well as simply
speculative; confidence was restored, and the coming close
of the war reassured the country as to future increase of
the debt. So large a share of treasury notes and certificates
bore interest as also to render claimants and holders easy
until a proper opportunity should be afforded to consolidate
this floating debt, and the apprehended decline of securities
was, for these reasons, almost wholly averted.
At this time the first material attempts at placing securi-
ties abroad began, the German market being first opened,
though leading bankers still refused to quote them at all.”
In England an attempt to place the small sum of $10,000,000
in Mar., 1863, on government account, wholly failed, and
the bonds, which were 5.20s of 1862, were returned to the
treasury. Great as was the profit of purchasing 6 per cent.
gold-bearing securities at the low price they bore in gold in
London, there was absolutely no investment in them, and
only long afterward were any considerable numbers taken.
This adverse opinion in Europe was not, on the whole,
unfavorable to American interests, since the appreciation
of values occurring at and after the close of the war was
felt almost wholly by our own people. So strong had the
people become through the self-reliance imposed by these
trials that the productive force of the country was at its
highest point, and profits were realized so largely as to
render all alike indifferent to the standing our credit might
have in any foreign market. Subsequent to the close of the
war the securities of undoubted position as regards pay-
ment of the principal in gold began to go abroad quite as
freely as the public interests demanded. While discussions
were pending in 1868 and 1869 as to the legal position of
the principal of the 5.20s of 1862 and other like issues, the
market for these continued to be confined to the U. S., but
no necessity at any time existed for enlarging it, and no
public interest has been prejudiced by the general restric-
tion of sales abroad. Active as the discussion was in 1868
and 1869 as to the ultimate redemption of the issues re-
ferred to, it had immediate good effects in favoring the ac-
ceptance of the consols of 1867 and 1868, which were specif-
ically pledged to be reimbursed in coin; and it ended in
a general acquiescence in the view that sound policy re-
quired that no distinction should be recognized in the basis
of these great loans, and that they all could be and would
be reimbursed in coin. The practical point was fully turned
by the Funding act of July, 1870, under which $500,000,000
of stocks fully pledged as payable in coin are taking the
place of a like capital sum of 6 per cents. of the earlier
issues, covering nearly all upon which doubt was at any
time raised.
The conspicuous measures of wise legislation through
which such vast sums have been raised and expended
within the brief period of ten or twelve years have in part
been indicated in the course of the above citation of events.
They were, briefly, the demand and interest-bearing notes
of July, 1861, the popular loan of May, 1862, and the legal-
* Among the efforts made to avert the danger and discourage-
ments that appeared imminent in the latter part of 1864 was
the preparation and publication of a statement of the national
resources, issued under the auspices of the treasury department,
and very largely distributed by that department, by the Secre-
tary of state to representatives of the government abroad, and
by loyal associations in various States. z
| 1849 large loans were made, realizing $82,967,200.
tender issues of Feb. and July, 1862, and Mar., 1863. The
National bank system was also important, together with the
large issues of treasury notes, temporary loans, etc. in 1864.
After the close of the war it became easy to fund all these
temporary securities without loss to the government or its
creditors. The full effect of these beneficial measures was
seen in the unexampled prosperity of the country, not only
while the debt was accumulating and prices were high—
even inordinately so—but also through the entire period
of gradual return to normal prices in 1869. At this time a
great and steady reduction of the debt began, sustained by
full or increasing revenues and reduced expenditures, for
nearly four years to the close of 1872; the total cancellation
of 6 per cent. bonds being $299,891,100, and the total re-
duction of debt $363,697,000. The monthly interest charge
is reduced one-fifth, being $8,516,808, as compared with
$10,532,462 on Mar. 1, 1869. With the retirement of
$300,000,000 of 6 per cents., and the substitution of a like
sum of 5 per cents., as now provided, a further reduction
of $250,000 will take place in the monthly interest charge,
or over $3,000,000 yearly.
The several issues of bonds constituting the body of the
funded debt have always borne a premium in lawful money,
and have steadily appreciated in value as measured in gold.
At the time of the first purchases in extinguishment of the
principal, in May, 1869, the net cost of the bonds in gold
was 83 per cent. of the par value; rising to 93.5 per cent.
Jan. 5, 1870; to 97 per cent. Jan. 4, 1871, and to 99.99 per
cent., or par, Jan. 4, 1872, and so remaining. The value
of these securities is thus at par in gold for those liable to
recall and cancellation, while all not so liable have always
borne a large premium in currency, and usually a small
premium in gold, being quoted in currency at 16 to 18 and
sometimes 20 per cent. premium when gold was 12 to 14
per cent., or 2 to 5 per cent. above par. The steady main-
tenance, for the entire period since their issue, of a premium
on all the permanent securities constituting the debt, is a
remarkable proof of the stability of the public credit.
By act of Feb. 25, 1862, an amount of the gold receipts
from customs sufficient to pay, in each fiscal year, 1 per
cent. of the entire debt of the U. S. was set apart as a sink-
ing fund for its redemption; but the pressure of current
demands on the treasury prevented any action under this
law until May, 1869; since which date, up to June 30, 1872,
there have been purchased $99,397,600 of bonds of the vari-
ous issues known as 5.20s, at a net cost in currency of
$110,997,186. The interest of the bonds or debt so pur-
chased being also set apart for the same purpose, the sink-
ing fund became, by act of July 14, 1870, a cumulative ap-
propriation in extinguishment of the debt, though not dis-
tinguished in operation from the regular mode of monthly
purchase then begun with surplus funds of the treasury.
Thus, though the general debt was less in 1872 than in 1870,
the 1 per cent of the sinking fund, with its accumulated in-
terest, gave the sum of $32,679,553 to be applied to such
purpose in the latter year, as compared with $27,660,879
in 1870. The maintenance of the sinking fund as a prac-
tical agency for paying the debt of course depends on the
continuance of surplus revenues. If so continued, the debt
will be rapidly paid; but the reduction of leading items of
customs and internal revenue charges made in 1870 and
1872 renders it doubtful whether more than the stipulated
sums of the sinking fund will, at least for 1873, be available
for the purpose. By direction of the act of July 14, 1870,
the bonds purchased for the sinking fund, with all others
purchased in extinguishment of the debt, were cancelled
and destroyed, and the sinking fund was made a perma-
ment annual appropriation from the customs revenues.
The history of former loans of the U. S. government, as
well as those of the last decade, shows that only small re-
ductions of their nominal or face-value have been suffered
in negotiation, and that all obligations have been paid in
full. TBy various small loans and issues of treasury notes
$21,820,000 was borrowed from 1791 to 1800; the principal
of debt remaining under the consolidation in 1791 being
$75,463,476. Before the year 1810 this was reduced to
$45,209,737, nothing having been borrowed from 1800 to
1810. In 1810, $2,750,000 was borrowed; and in 1812–17,
$107,511,234 was realized from various loans, an aggregate
discount of $6,169,681 being submitted to in their nego-
tiation—nearly 6 per cent. In 1820 and 1821 the sum of
$8,000,000 more was borrowed, without discount; and in
1824 and 1825, $10,000,000 more, also at par. But the debt
was rapidly reduced, and wholly paid before the end of the
year 1835; a large surplus revenue accumulating in 1836,
which was distributed to the several States in 1837. In the
same year loans again began, and the sum of $67,981,573
was realized from such loans from 1837 to 1844, much loss
being incurred. The debt was reduced in the two following
years, standing at $15,550,000 in 1846; in 1847, 1848, and
Large
DECAGON.—DECAPOLIS.
1287
receipts of revenue served to reduce this debt to less than
$30,000,000 in 1857, to which $20,000,000 of bonds was
added in 1858, with some treasury notes, giving $60,000,000
of debt at the commencement of the late war. At one
period only (in 1835) was the debt wholly paid off.
Comparatively little has been written in permanent form
on the subject of the national debt of the United States,
other than the official reports of the secretaries of the
treasury, entitled the “Finance Reports,” 1861 to 1872.
In these the principles and policy of the government are
clearly elucidated, and the history of the several issues,
withdrawals, and cancellations is fully given. The princi-
pal publications referring to the subject are J. G. GIBBONs,
“On the Public Debt of the United States” (1867); “How
the National Debt can be Paid,” by William Elder (1867);
“Is our Prosperity a Delusion?” (1868); “The Science of
Wealth,” by Amasa Walker (1867–72); BAxTER, “On the
National Debt of England and the United States” (1872),
with various pamphlets, speeches, reports, etc. by other
authors. During the war many pamphlets were published
by individuals, proposing plans for the liquidation or ex-
tinguishment of the public debt, or in opposition to speci-
fied measures of the government, but few were of great
importance or of permanent value. The measures actually
adopted were, on the whole, wisely framed and singularly
successful in their operation. The difficulties temporarily
existing, or feared by some, disappeared with the lapse of
time, and the public acquiescence became universal. It is
not easy now to see what one of the great measures actually
inaugurated could have been spared from the list of enact-
ments necessary to sustain the country in the peculiar ex-
igencies arising during the last twelve years.
LoRIN BLODGET.
Dec'agon [from the Gr. 8éka, “ten,” and yovía, an
“angle ‘’l, a plane geometrical figure having ten sides and
ten angles. If the sides and angles are all equal, the figure
is a regular decagon, and inscribable in a circle. A regular
decagon may be formed from a regular pentagon by de-
scribing a circle round the latter, bisecting the arcs between
its angular points, and drawing lines joining the angular
points to the points of the intermediate section.
Decalitre [Fr.], a measure equivalent to ten litres.
(See LITRE.)
Dec'alogue [Heb. D">T Inhºy; Gr. 8skáAoyos, or
oi 6éka Aóyou, “the ten words”], called also the Ten Com-
mandments, and often spoken of as the “moral law,”
in distinction from the ceremonial law of the Jews, is that
part of the law of Moses contained in Exodus xx. 3–17
and repeated in a hortatory form in Deuteronomy v. 7–21.
It was originally written upon two tablets of stone (Ex.
xxx..., etc.), which were placed within the ark of the cove-
nant. The text of Scripture (Ex. xxxiv. 28) appears to
fix the number of these commandments at ten, but various
opinions exist as to the manner of dividing them. The
arrangement recognized by the Greek Church and most
Protestants, called the Origenian division, is that which
was approved, though not originated, by Origen. It had
been approved by Philo and Josephus, and was generally
adopted by the Christian Church. But in the West it
faded out, and was revived by Leo Judae (1482–1542) in
his catechism, 1534, and by Calvin, 1536. The Roman
Catholics, at least in their catechisms, unite into one what
most Protestants consider the first and second command-
ments, and divide the tenth Origenian commandment into
two. This was Luther's arrangement, and is generally,
though not universally, followed by the Lutheran Church.
It is called the first Masoretic arrangement. The modern
Jews adopt what is called the Talmudical arrangement,
which gives as the first commandment the words contained
in Ex. xx. 2, and has for its second commandment the first
and second of the Origenian arrangement. The second
Masoretic, adopted by English Roman Catholics, differs
from the first Masoretic only in inverting the order of the
ninth and tenth commandments. The ten commandments,
with the exception of the two regarding the Sabbath and
reverence to parents, are negative ones, forbidding certain
actions, and leaving positive procepts to other laws or to
the individual conscience. The Decalogue is generally
regarded as a moral code, binding from its owh nature. It
is, however, admitted that the fourth (or Sabbath) com-
mandment has a positive as well as a moral element in it.
Christ reduced the ten commandments to two.
REVISED BY R. D. HITCHCOCK.
Decam/eron [It. Decamerone, from the Gr. 8éka, “ten,”
and wépa, a “ day ”I, the name given by Boccaccio to his
celebrated collection of tales, which are supposed to be nar-
rated in turn during ten days by a party of guests assem-
bled at a villa to escape from the plague, which raged at
Florence in 1348.
De Camp (John C.), U. S. N., born Oct. 5, 1812, in
New Jersey, entered the navy as a midshipman Oct. 1, 1827,
became a passed midshipman in 1833, a lieutenant in 1838, a
commander in 1855, a captain in 1862, a commodore in 1866,
and a rear-admiral (retired list) in 1870. He commanded
the Iroquois at the passage of Forts St. Philip and Jackson
and capture of New Orleans, and, in short, in every action
on the Mississippi under Farragut, to and including Wicks-
burg, in all of which he was conspicuous for gallant bear-
ing. FOXHALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Decamps (ALEXANDRE GABRIEL), a celebrated French
painter of history and landscapes, was born in Paris Mar. 3,
1803. He visited the Levant about 1827, and painted mostly
Oriental scenes with striking light-effects. He painted his-
tory, landscapes, genre, and animals, all with success.
‘Among his works are the “Defeat of the Cimbri” (1834), a
“Souvenir of Turkey in Asia,” and “Les Singes Experts.”
His historical works are commended for grandeur of concep-
tion and a bold and free style of treatment. At the Expo-
sition of 1855 his pictures divided the public attention with
those of Ingres, Delacroix, and Wernet. Died at Fontaine-
bleau Aug. 22, 1860. (THáopHILE SILVESTRE, “Histoire
des Artistes Vivants,” Paris, 1856.)
De Candolle (AUGUSTIN PYRAME), M. D., an eminent
botanist of French extraction, born at Geneva Feb. 4, 1778.
He studied at Geneva, and in 1796 he removed to Paris,
where he studied chemistry and medicine, and became a
pupil of the botanist Desfontaines and enjoyed the friend-
ship of Cuvier and Humboldt. He published a “History
of Succulent Plants” (1799–1803). In 1804 he graduated
with an “Essay on the Medicinal Properties of Plants.”
Lamarck’s “Flora of France,” the first volume of which ap-
peared in 1804, was prepared by him. He became in 1808
professor of botany at Montpellier, and published in 1813
his “Elementary Theory of Botany,” a profound work, in
which he developed his new system of classification accord-
ing to the natural method. In 1816 he removed to Geneva.
He projected a great work which should give a description
of all known plants, and published two volumes (1818–21),
with the title “Regni Vegetabilis Systema Naturale.”
Perceiving that the life of one man was not adequate to
complete the work on so vast a scale, he modified his plan,
and undertook to present a methodical arrangement of all
known plants by orders, genera, and species in his “Pro-
dromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis” (10 vols.,
1824–46), which he did not live to finish. This is a very
important book of reference for working botanists. Among
his other works is “Organographie Végétale” (1827).
Died at Geneva Sept. 9, 1841–His son, ALPHONSE LOUIS
|PIERRE DE CANDOLLE, born Oct. 28, 1806, has written sev-
eral botanical works, published his father’s “Mémoires et
Souvenirs” (1862), and continued the “Prodromus.” (See
FIou RENs, “Eloge historique de P. de Candolle,” 1842;
DELARIVE, “A. P. Decandolle, sa Wie et ses Travaux,”
1851.)
Decanta’tion [from the Fr. décanter (It. decantare),
to “pour’], the act of decanting; the pouring off a clear
liquid from its sediment or subsidence. Chemists often re-
sort to this process instead of filtration to separate the
clear supernatant liquid from precipitates, and they some-
times perform the decantation by means of a siphon.
Decapita/tion [Late Latin decapitatio, from Lat. de,
“from,” “off,” and caput (gen. capitis), a “head”], a form
of CAPITAL PUNISHMENT (which see) in which the head is
severed from the body by an executioner. Under the Eng-
lish government hanging has taken the place of decapita-
tion, the last instance of the latter having occurred in 1745.
This mode of punishment is still used in some of the Ger-
man states and in France. In France the GUILLOTINE
(which see) is still used. Decapitation is of very ancient
origin. It is a frequent punishment among Oriental nations.
Dec’apod [from the Gr. 8éka, “ten,” and trojs (gen.
Troöös), a “foot”], a name applied by Cuvier to an order of
crustaceans, comprehending those which have ten thoracic
feet. The same name is also applied to a tribe of cephal-
opods, including those which have ten locomotive and
prehensile appendages proceeding from the head, two of
which are longer than the rest, and called tentacles. Decapod
crustaceans are usually divided into three sub-orders—the
long-tailed, the irregularly-tailed, and the short-tailed deca-
pods. Shrimps, prawns, lobsters, and crawfish are ex-
amples of the first sub-order; the other two sub-orders con-
tain the numerous species of crab.
Decap'olis [from the Gr. 8éka, “ten,” and tróAts, a
“city”], a district containing ten cities of Palestine and
Syria, founded principally by veterans from the army of
Alexander, but recolonized and endowed with special privi-
leges after the Roman conquest of Syria (65. B. C.). An-
cient writers are not agreed in regard to the names of these
cities. According to Pliny, they were Damascus, Phila-
1288
DECATUR-DECENNIAL.
delphia, Raphana, Scythopolis, Canatha, Dion, Gadara,
Gerasa, Pella, and Hippos. All, except Scythopolis, were
on the E. side of the Jordan.
Deca’tur, a county which forms the S. W. extremity
of Georgia. Area, 1062 square miles. It is bounded on
the W. by the Chattahoochee, and intersected by the Flint
River. The soil is generally fertile. Rice, maize, oats,
tobacco, cotton, and wool are the chief products. It is
partly traversed by the Atlantic and Gulf R. R. Capital,
Bainbridge. Pop. 15,183.
Decatur, a county in the S. E. of Indiana. Area, 372
square miles. It is drained by Clifty and Sand creeks.
The surface is undulating; the soil is based on limestone,
and is fertile. Cattle, grain, wool, hay, and dairy products
are raised. The most numerous manufactories are those of
saddlery and harness. It is intersected by the Indian-
apolis and Cincinnati R. R. Capital, Greensburg. Pop.
19,053. -
Decatur, a county in the S. of Iowa. Area, 528 square
miles. It is intersected by the Crooked Fork of Grand
River. The surface is mostly undulating prairie; the soil
is fertile. Cattle, grain, wool, hay, butter, and lumber are
produced. Capital, Leon. Pop. 12,018.
Decatur, a county in W. Central Tennessee. Area,
325 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Tennes-
see River. The soil is mostly fertile. Cattle, grain, to-
bacco, cotton, and wool are raised. Capital, Decaturville.
Pop. 7772.
Decatur, a post-village of Morgan co., Ala., on the Ten-
nessee River and the Memphis and Charleston R. R., which
here connects with the Nashville and Decatur R. R., 122
miles S. of Nashville (Tenn.). It has two weekly news-
papers. Pop. of Decatur township, 2821.
Decatur, the capital of De Kalb co., Ga., is finely
situated on the Georgia R. R., 6 miles E. N. E. of Atlanta.
Pop. 401.
Decatur, a city, capital of Macon co., Ill., is about 1
mile N. of the Sangamon River, and on the Central R. R.
where it crosses the Toledo Wabash and Western R. R., 39
miles E. of Springfield, the terminus of the Paris and De-
catur, Mattoon Sullivan and Decatur, Decatur and East St.
Louis, Pekin Lincoln and Decatur, Decatur and State Line,
Indiana, and Illinois Central, running to Indianapolis,
Champaign Monticello and Decatur, and Peoria Atlanta
and Decatur R. R.S., making nine railroads centering at
this point. It has about four miles of street railway. It
has twelve churches, one national bank, one rolling-mill,
and several factories. One daily and five weekly news-
papers are issued here. Decatur has increased rapidly in
the last decade. Pop. 7161; of township, 1337.
MILLER & ADDIS, PUBs. “MAGNET.”
Decatur, a post-village, capital of Adams co., Ind., on
the St. Mary’s River and on the Cincinnati Richmond and
Fort Wayne R. R., 21 miles S. S. E. of Fort Wayne. It
manufactures wagon material and stoves. It has one
weekly newspaper. Pop. 858. ED. “ EAGLE.”
Decatur, a township of Marion co., Ind. Pop. 1559.
Decatur, a post-township of Decatur co., Ia. P. 1046.
Decatur, a post-village of Van Buren co., Mich., on the
Michigan Central R. R., 116 miles E. by N. of Chicago. It
has a national bank and one weekly newspaper. Pop.
1420; of Decatur township, 2512.
Decatur, a post-township of Burt co., Neb. Pop. 614.
Decatur, a post-township of Otsego co., N. Y. P. 802.
Decatur, a post-village of Byrd township, Brown co.,
O. Pop. 204.
Decatur, a township of Lawrence co., O. Pop. 1761.
Decatur, a township of Washington co., O. P. 1437.
Decatur, a township of Clearfield co., Pa.
Decatur, a post-township of Mifflin co., Pa. Pop. 1171.
Decatur, a post-village, capital of Meigs co., Tenn., on
the Tennessee River, 140 miles E. S. E. of Nashville. P. 99.
Decatur, a post-village, capital of Wise co, Tex., is
200 miles N. of Austin City, on a beautiful eminence. It
has one weekly newspaper. -
Decatur, a township of Green co., Wis. Pop. 2459.
Decatur (STEPHEN), a famous American commodore,
was born at Sinnepuxent, Md., Jan. 5, 1779, and entered
the navy in 1798. In Feb., 1804, he led a small party
which burned in the harbor of Tripoli the American frig-
ate Philadelphia, after she had been captured. . For this
gallant exploit he was raised to the rank of captain.
Having taken command of the frigate United States, he
captured the British frigate Macedonian Oct. 25, 1812. A
gold medal was voted to him by Congress for this victory.
jäe was blockaded by a superior force in the harbor of New
Pop. 1461.
London in 1813–14. In May, 1815, he was appointed
commander of a squadron of three frigates and seven
smaller vessels, which was sent to chastise the Algerines.
He captured two Algerine vessels of war June 17 of that
year, and compelled the dey of Algiers to sue for peace.
He was killed in a duel by Commodore James Barron Mar.
22, 1820. He was noted for his resolute spirit and cool
intrepidity. (See his life, in SPARKs's “Am. Biography.”)
Decaturville, a post-village, capital of Decatur co.,
Tenn., 6 miles from the W. bank of the Tennessee River,
100 miles W. S. W. of Nashville. Pop. 188.
Decay’ [remotely from the Lat. decado, to “fall”] is
the comparatively slow oxidation or burning which moist
organic matter undergoes when exposed to air. It is not
usually accompanied by perceptible increase of heat, unless
putrefaction or fermentation is associated with it. Sub-
stances rich in nitrogen are especially liable to decay; con-
sequently, most animal substances decay more rapidly than
any vegetable matters except the softest and most nitrogen-
ous. The decay of animal substances after death is, accord-
ing to the observations of Duvernoy, probably but the
continuation of the normal disassimilation which goes on
throughout life; but as the corresponding processes of repair
have ceased, the decay becomes apparent for the first time
after death. The decay of nitrogenous matters in the proper
circumstances is accompanied by certain processes known
as putrefaction and fermentation—processes which are ac-
companied by the growth of fungi, often microscopical, and
by complex chemical changes which materially hasten the
process of destruction.
Decazes (ELIE), DUC, a French minister, born Sept.
28, 1780. He was appointed minister of police in place of
Fouché by Louis XVIII. in 1815, then minister of the in-
terior, and prime minister in 1819. He resigned in Feb.,
1820, when accused of connivance with the assassination
of the duke of Berry. Decazes still retained the favor of
the king, who sent him ambassador to London, and gave
him the title of duke. Died Oct. 25, 1860.
Decazeville, a town of France, department of Avey-
ron, about 20 miles N. E. of Villefranche. It has exten-
sive blast-furnaces and iron-forges. Coal-mines are worked
in the vicinity. Pop. 7106.
Dec'can [Sanscrit, Dacshina, “the south''), a term
formerly applied to the whole of Hindostan S. of the Ner-
budda River or Vindhya Mountains, but now usually
limited to the country between the Nerbudda and the Kist-
mah. It comprises Aurungābād, Beeder, Berar, Bejapoor,
Candeish, Gundwana, Northern Circars, and Orissa.
Decem/ber [Fr. Décembre, from the Lat. decem,
“ten "], the twelfth and last month of the year, is so
called because in the ancient Roman calendar it was the
tenth month of the year.
Decem'viri (sing. Decemvir), [Lat., from decem,
“ten,” and vir (plu. viri), a “man”], a name applicable
to ten persons appointed for particular purposes, but more
especially applied to the ten magistrates elected from the
Roman patricians to draw up a code of laws founded on
the more approved institutions of Greece; they were also
invested with supreme authority to govern the state. The
experiment proved entirely successful; their laws were ap-
proved by the senate and engraven on ten metal tablets;
and their official duties were discharged with so much sat-
isfaction that, at the expiration of their year of office, it
was resolved, as their work was not completed, to continue
the same form of government. A new commission, in-
vested with the same power, was appointed for the next
year, to which the plebeians were admitted, the result of
which was two additional tablets, thus completing the fa-
mous Twelve Tables which in subsequent times became the
foundation of all Roman law. The new decemviri, how-
ever, proceeded to the most violent acts of despotism, per-
petrating various outrages on the persons and families of
the plebeians, which so exasperated the people that an in-
surrection broke forth ; the decemviri were driven from
office, and the ordinary magistrates were re-established.
The decemviri litibus judicandis (“ten men for settling
lawsuits”) formed a kind of court for trying civil cases,
and, later, for matters involving life and death. The decem-
viri sacris faciundis (the “ten men for performing sacred
duties”), first instituted about 367 B. C., were five patri-
cians and five plebeians who had charge of the Sibylline
books until the time of Cicero, when they were made fifteen
in number. They were considered sacred to Apollo. There
were also decemviri for dividing the public lands.
Decen’nial [from the Lat. decennium, a “period of
ten years” (from decem, “ten,” and annus, a “year”)],
occurring every ten years. For example, the U. S. census
is decennial. The decennial games (decennia or decenna-
lia) among the later Romans were celebrated in consequence
DECHANT—DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.
1289
of the fact that the emperor Augustus pretended to refuse
the empire for life, choosing to be elected to it for a period
of ten years, at the end of which time he accepted it for
ten years more, and so on till the end of his life. The fiction
was kept up till the last days of the empire by the obser-
vance of the decennial games.
Dechant (Rev. JACOB WILLIAM) was born at Kreuz-
nach, in the Palatinate, Feb. 18, 1784, and emigrated to
America in 1805. He was ordained to the ministry of the
German Reformed Church in 1808. He labored with suc-
cess as a missionary among the Germans of Ohio and Penn-
sylvania, and instructed numbers of theological students.
Died of cholera Oct. 5, 1832.
De Charms (RICHARD), an American Swedenborgian
minister and writer, born in Philadelphia Oct. 17, 1796,
graduated at Yale College in 1826. He published “The
New Churchman Extra,” and several volumes of sermons.
Died Mar. 20, 1864.
Decherd', a post-village of Franklin co., Tenn., is the
E. terminus of the Winchester and Alabama, R. R., and is
also a station of the Nashville and Chattanooga R. R., 82
miles from Nashville.
Decid’uous [Lat. deciduus, from de, “down,” and
cado, to “fall”] Trees are trees whose leaves fall off in
autumn and are annually renewed in the spring. The
greater part of the trees and shrubs of temperate climates
are deciduous, but in tropical countries the forest trees
maintain generally a perennial verdure, except where the
diversities caused by the wet and dry seasons are extreme.
Trees that are not deciduous are called evergreen.
DECIDUOUs TEETH, called also, in mammals, TEMPORARY
or MILK TEETH, are the teeth which appear in infancy, and
which after a time fall out, and are succeeded by the per-
manent teeth. In children there are twenty such teeth,
ten in each jaw—four molar, two canine, and four incisor
teeth. In reptiles and fishes all teeth are deciduous, being
continually cast out and renewed.
Deç/imal [from the Lat. decimus, “tenth” (from decem,
“ten ")], a number written in the scale of tens. The name
is especially applied to a DECIMAL FRACTION (which see).
Decimal Fraction is a fraction whose denominator
is a decimal number or power of ten. Thus, * is a de-
cimal fraction. It may be decomposed into the sum hº
+ #}} + +º, + rāg = 10 + 2 ++, ++$g. By an obvious
extension of the method of local values, where each digit
has ten times the value of the like digit which immediately
follows it, the above decimal fraction may be, and usually
is, written thus: 12.34, where the decimal point after the
2 merely serves to indicate which digit represents units. In
this form a decimal fraction is termed a decimal.
For the purpose of indicating the units’ place the method
of Sir Isaac Newton, of using a point placed for distinction
near the top of the figures, is frequently used. The opera-
tions of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division
may be applied to decimals in exactly the same manner
as to integers. The only additional rules in decimals refer
to the position of the decimal point.
In their abbreviated form, decimal fractions are now ex-
tensively employed in arithmetical calculations. A sub-
division of weights and measures on the principle of deci-
mal division was introduced into France at the time of the
Revolution, and has since been adopted by a large portion
of the civilized world.
Decima/tion [Lat. decimatio, from decem, “ten’], in
Roman history, the selection by lot of one man out of every
ten, who was put to death in cases of mutiny or other grave
offence committed by a body of troops. Decimation has
seldom been practised in modern times. Blücher decimated
a body of mutinous troops before the battle of Waterloo.
Decimi, dà'che-mee [from the Lat. decimus, “tenth *),
an Italian term used in music, signifying an interval of
ten diatonic degrees, as from C to E, or third above the
octave, as which it is always treated in harmony. In double
counterpoint, where a necessary difference has to be made,
it is treated differently from the third, although the same
harmonic rules obtain; also in thorough-bass, where the
figure 9 rises a degree to 10, instead of falling a degree to 8.
De/cius (CAIUS MESSIUs QUINTUs TRAJANUs), a Roman
emperor, born in Pannonia about 200 A. D. He became a
general in the service of the emperor Philip, and had com-
mand of an army which revolted against Philip and pro-
claimed Decius. In the battle that ensued Philip was de-
feated and killed in 249 A. D. A severe persecution of
the Christians occurred in the reign of Decius, who was
killed in battle by the Goths in Nov., 251 A. D.
Decius Mus (PUBLIUs), a Roman consul and patriot
who obtained celebrity by devoting himself to the Dii Manes
as a sacrifice. In a battle against the Latins (337 B.C.) he
Horn-Book.”
rushed into the midst of the enemy and was killed. His
son, P. Decius Mus, imitated his example in 296 B.C.,
when he commanded against the Gauls.
Deck [from the Ang.-Sax. decan, to “cover,” and allied
to the Lat. tectum, a “covering ” or “roof” (from tego,
tectum, to “cover”); Fr. pont or tillac), a planked flooring,
forming also a covering or division to a ship. In large
vessels there are several decks, as the upper, main, lower,
and orlop decks. Smaller ships have two whole and one
half deck, and still smaller only one of each.
Deck'er, a township of Richland co., III. Pop. 971.
Decker, a township of Knox co., Ind. Pop. 837.
Decker (THoMAs), an English dramatist, born before
1600. He wrote several plays in partnership with Ford
and Rowley. His principal works are “Fortunatus, or the
Wishing-Cap,” “The Honest Whore,” and the “Gull's
Died about 1638.
Deck’ertown, a post-village of Wantage township,
Sussex co., N. J., on the New York and Oswego Midland
R. R., 66 miles N. W. of Jersey City. It has one national
bank and one weekly newspaper.
Declara’tion [Lat. declaratio, from declaro, to “make
clear”], an affirmation; the act of declaring; a public an-
nouncement; a public expression of facts or opinions; a
proclamation. Among the most memorable of all political
documents is the American DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
(which see). The first Colonial Congress passed an import-
ant “Declaration of Rights” at Philadelphia on the 14th
of Oct., 1774. Though less famous than the Declaration
of Independence, it is of scarcely less importance in the
history of our country. (See GILLET’s “Federal Govern-
ment,” 1871, pp. 17–27.) A “Declaration of the Rights
of Man” was adopted by the National Assembly at Paris
Aug. 18, 1789. The “Declaration of Thorn ?’ (Lat. declar-
atio Thorunensis) was a confession of faith drawn up at
Thorn, in Poland, in 1645, for the use of the Reformed
churches, the design being to settle controverted points.
DECLARATION, in law, is a specification of a cause of ac-
tion by a plaintiff against a defendant; the pleading in
which a plaintiff sets forth his case against the defendant.
It contains certain formal or substantial parts, such as the
title, venue, the cause of action, and the conclusion. If the
plaintiff fails to declare within a certain time, the defend-
ant may obtain judgment of non pros. The term is used
in other significations in other branches of the law—e.g.
declaration of trust, declaration of uses, declaration in evi-
dence, etc.
DECLARATION OF WAR, the formal announcement by a
government of its intention to wage war against another, is
a proceeding which is observed among all civilized nations,
though instances have frequently occurred where de facto
wars have been carried on without such notification, as be-
tween the English and Spanish at sea at various times
during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. of England.
Powerful nations have also sometimes, without any such
declaration, attacked the weak, designing a breach of in-
ternational law. In the U. S. the declaration of war is a
power exercised by Congress alone. During the age of chiv-
alry, a herald made declaration of war at the enemy’s court,
his tabard on his arm. No offence was taken at his defi-
ance, which was frequently rewarded by gifts of money
from the party defied. (See INTERNATIONAL LAW No. II., by
PREs. T. D. Wool,SEY, S.T. D., LL.D.
Declaration of Independence.* The first Con-
gress of the thirteen British colonies, which led to their
ultimate union in resistance to the British crown, and their
jointly throwing off their allegiance to the same, as well as
their ultimate union as the United States of America, met
in Philadelphia on the 5th of Sept., 1774. The immediate
cause of this assemblage was what was called “the Boston
Port Bill;” that is, an act of Parliament by which the port
of Boston was closed and the custom-house removed to
Salem, because of the destruction of the tea at the former
place. This was looked upon by the friends of constitu-
tional liberty in all the colonies as a direct attack by usurpa-
tion upon the chartered rights of Massachusetts. If they
should silently permit this gross outrage to be perpetrated
upon a sister colony, they saw no security against similar
outrages being perpetrated in turn upon their own char-
tered or constitutional rights. It was now that the cry of
“The cause of Boston is the cause of us all” was raised
in Virginia, and extended from the Penobscot to the Alta-
maha. The result was the call of a general Congress of
all the colonies, to meet, by deputies, at the time and place
stated, for joint consultation and joint action in mainte-
nance of principles essential to the preservation of the
rights and liberties of all. The idea of independence. or
*By Hon. Alex. H. Stephens.
1290 INDEPENDENCE.
separation was at this time entertained by no one. Upon
the assembling of this Congress, Peyton Randolph of Vir-
ginia was chosen the president of it, and Charles Thomp-
son secretary. In all the deliberations of this body each
colony stood upon an equal footing with the others, without
* DECLARATION OF
regard to population, wealth, or the number of delegates
sent. All questions were decided by the colonies present,
each having one vote only. They urged several measures
upon the consideration of their constituents as proper
means for obtaining a general redress of grievances, and
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old Pennsylvania State-house, or “Independence Hall” (where the Declaration was signed), as it appeared in 1776.
also prepared and published a declaration of what they
considered the indefeasible rights of all the colonies under
the British constitution. They adjourned on the 26th of
Oct., 1774, with a recommendation to the colonies to meet
in Congress again, by deputies, on the 10th of May, 1775.
In speaking of the papers issued by this assemblage,
Lord Chatham said in the British Parliament that, though
he had studied and admired the free states of antiquity,
the master-spirits of the world, yet for solidity of reason-
ing, force of sagacity, and wisdom of conclusion no body
of men could stand in preference to this Congress. All
this, however, incensed rather than appeased the ministry.
On the 1st of April, 1775, they had 3000 troops in Boston
for the purpose of enforcing their iniquitous measures at the
point of the bayonet. Hostilities soon ensued. The battles
of Concord and Lexington were fought. Engagements
also took place at Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and Skenes-
borough in New York.
It was in this state of things that the second Congress of
the colonies assembled at Philadelphia on the 10th of May,
1775, according to the recommendation of its predecessor.
Peyton Randolph of Virginia was again chosen president,
but soon being called home on urgent business, John Han-
cock of Massachusetts was, on the 24th of May, chosen
president of the Congress in his stead. The crisis was now
becoming not only serious, but alarming. The purpose of
Great Britain to reduce the colonies to absolute subjection
without any redress of grievances seemed to be evident.
The Congress, with firmness and without hesitation, deter-
mined to resist force by force. Troops were raised for the
purpose. In setting forth the reasons for their action in
thus defending themselves and their constituents, they de-
clared that they had “no wish to separate from the mother-
country, but only to maintain their chartered rights.” “In
our native land,” said they, “ and in defence of the free-
dom which is our birthright, and which we have ever en-
joyed till the late violation of it, for the protection of our
property, acquired solely by the honest industry of our
forefathers and ourselves, against violence actually offered,
we have taken up arms. We shall lay them down when
hostilities shall cease on the part of the aggressors, and all
danger of their being renewed shall be removed, and not
before.” t
On the 14th of June, 1775, at the instance of Massachu-
setts, George Washington, one of the delegates of Virginia,
was unanimously appointed commander-in-chief of all the
colonial forces. He was commissioned in the name of the
united colonies, the name of each colony present by its
deputies being set forth in the commission. This office he
accepted on the condition that he should receive no salary
except the payment of his actual expenses.
Three days afterwards the battle of Bunker Hill was
fought. Washington did not reach the vicinity of Boston
until the 12th of July, 1775, when he assumed the command
of the colonial army assembled there. It was not until the
early part of the year 1776 that the public mind through-
out the colonies began generally and seriously to consider
the question of independence, though a portion of the peo-
ple of North Carolina had taken this view of the subject
almost from the beginning of the recent troubles. As early
as the 20th of May, 1775, their celebrated Mecklenburg
convention assembled and announced their famous decla-
ration, severing for ever themselves from all their alle-
giance to the crown of Great Britain.
In Jan., 1776, Massachusetts instructed her delegates in
the Congress of the colonies at Philadelphia to vote for in-
dependence. South Carolina gave similar instructions to
her delegates in March. Georgia and North Carolina did
the same in April. In May, Gen. Washington wrote from
the head of the army, then at New York, “A reconciliation
with Great Britain is impossible. . . . When I took com-
mand of the army I abhorred the idea of independence;
but I am now fully satisfied that nothing else will save us.”
In the same month Virginia instructed her delegates in
Congress to vote for independence. New Hampshire, New
Jersey, and Maryland followed in giving similar instruc-
tions to their delegates early in June. Pennsylvania and
New York delayed action, still indulging hopes of an ad-
justment of the controversy. The general instructions of
the colonies to their delegates were to renounce all alle-
giance to the British crown, and to form a confederation
among themselves as independent States. On the 7th of
June, Richard Henry Lee, a delegate from Virginia, moved
a resolution in Congress that “these united colonies are, and
of right ought to be, free and independent States, . . . .
and that a plan of confederation be prepared and trans-
mitted to the respective colonies for their consideration
and approbation.” This resolution was adopted on the
11th of June. Two committees were appointed under it—
one to prepare a Declaration of Independence, and the
other to prepare Articles of Union or Confederation. The
committee to prepare the Declaration of Independence con-
sisted of Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, John Adams of
Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Roger
Sherman of Connecticut, and Robert R. Livingston of New
York. They reported on the 28th of June, but action on
the report was deferred for some days for the delegates from
Pennsylvania and New York to receive their instructions










































DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.”
1291
and powers to vote for the Declaration. This celebrated
paper was drawn up by Mr. Jefferson, the chairman of the
committee, being only slightly modified in Some parts, as
º;
# - -
The “Liberty Bell” was first imported from England in 1753. It
was cracked at the first ringing after its arrival, and recast in
Philadelphia in the same year. Upon the fillets around it Were
cast (twenty-three years before the Declaration of Independ:
ence) the prophetic words, “Proclaim liberty throughout all
the land, unto all the inhabitants thereof.” After the first
reading of the Declaration it was rung for more than two
hours, with the firing of cannon and the beating.of drums.
The bell has been broken for many years. It now stands i
the hall of the old State-House, Philadelphia. -
it now stands, at the suggestion of other members. It
came up for final action on the 4th day of July, when it
received the unanimous vote, not only of all the colonies,
but of all their delegates in Congress. It was voted upon
by colonies as separate and distinct political bodies, and
as it stands on the journal is in these words:
IN CONGRESS, July 4, 1776.
THE UNANIMOUS DECLARATION OF THE THIRTEEN UNITED
STATES OF AMERICA.
When, in the course of human events, it becomes neces-
sary for one people to dissolve the political bands which
have connected them with another, and to assume, among
the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to
which the laws of nature and of nature’s God entitle them,
a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that
they should declare the causes which impel them to the
separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are
created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with
certain unalienable rights; that among these are Hife, lib-
erty, and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these
rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving
their just powers from the consent of the governed; that
whenever any form of government becomes destructive of
these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abol-
ish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foun-
dation on such principles, and organizing its powers in
such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their
safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that
governments long established, should not be changed for
light and transient causes; and accordingly, all experience
hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer,
while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abol-
ishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when
a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invaria-
bly the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under
absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to
throw off such government, and to provide new guards for
their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance
of these Colonies, and such is now the necessity which con-
strains them to alter their former systems of government.
The history of the present king of Great Britain is a his-
tory of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having, in
direct object, the establishment of an absolute tyranny over
these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a
candid world :
He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome
and necessary for the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass laws of imme-
diate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their
operation till his assent should be obtained; and, when so
suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation
of large districts of people, unless those people would re-
linquish the right of representation in the Legislature; a
right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places un-
usual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of
their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them
into compliance with his measures. g
He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for
opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights
of the people.
He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to
cause others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers,
incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at
large for their exercise; the State remaining, in the mean
time, exposed to all the danger of invasion from without,
and convulsions within.
He has endeavored to prevent the population of these
States; for that purpose, obstructing the laws for the nat-
uralization of foreigners; refusing to pass others to en-
courage their migration hither, and raising the conditions
of new appropriations of lands.
He has obstructed the administration of justice, by re-
fusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers.
He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the
tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of
their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither
swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their
substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing ar-
mies, without the consent of our legislature.
He has affected to render the military independent of,
and superior to, the civil power. .
He has combined, with others, to subject us to a jurisdic-
tion foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by
our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended leg-
islation.
For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment,
for any murders which they should commit on the inhab-
itants of these States: -
For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world:
For imposing taxes on us without our consent:
For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial
by jury:
For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended
offences:
For abolishing the free system of English laws, in a
neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary
government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render
it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing
the same absolute rule into these Colonies:
For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valu-
able laws, and altering, fundamentally, the powers of our
governments:
For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring them-
selves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases
whatsoever.
He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out
of his protection, and waging war against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our
towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign
mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and
tyranny, already begun, with circumstances of cruelty and
perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and
totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation.
He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on
the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become
the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall
themselves by their hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections among us, and has
endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the
merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is
an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and con-
ditions.
In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned
for redress in the most humble terms; our repeated peti-
tions have been answered only by repeated injury. A
prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which
may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.
Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British
brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of
attempts made by their legislature to extend an unwarrant-
able jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the
circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We
have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity,
and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common
kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevit-
ably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They,
too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and consan-

1292
DECLARATION OF
INDEPENDENCE.
guinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity
which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold
the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends.
We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States
of America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to
the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our
intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the
good people of these Colonies, solemnly publish and de-
clare, That these United Colonies are, and, of right, ought
to be, free and independent States; that they are absolved
from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all polit-
ical connection between them and the State of Great
Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and that, as
free and independent States, they have full power to levy
war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce,
and to do all other acts and things which independent States
may of right do. And, for the support of this Declaration,
with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence,
we mutually pledge to each other, our lives, our fortunes,
and our sacred honor.
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DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, THE MECKLENBURG.
1293
e/
Declaration of Independence, The Meck-
lenburg. More than thirteen months before the adop-
tion of the Declaration, above given, by the Continental
Congress, a series of resolutions embodying a similar de-
claration had been adopted by the citizens of Mecklenburg
co., N. C., at a public meeting holden at Charlotte, the seat
of justice of the county. Of this important historical in-
cident different accounts are given. According to the state-
ment generally received in North Carolina, the meeting
above referred to was held on the 20th day of May, 1775,
and the document itself was in the words following :
“Resolved, 1. That whoever directly or indirectly abet-
ted, or in any way, form, or manner, countenanced the un-
chartered and dangerous invasion of our rights, as claimed
by Great Britain, is an enemy to this country—to America
—and to the inherent and inalienable rights of man.
“Resolved, 2. That we, the citizens of Mecklenburg coun-
ty, do hereby dissolve the political bands which have con-
nected us to the mother-country, and hereby absolve our-
selves from all allegiance to the British crown, and abjure
all political connection, contract, or association with that
nation, who have wantonly trampled on our rights and
liberties, and inhumanly shed the blood of American pa-
triots at Lexington. -
“Resolved, 3. That we do hereby declare ourselves a free
and independent people; are, and of right ought to be, a
sovereign and self-governing association, under the control
of no power other than that of our God and the general
government of the Congress; to the maintenance of which
independence we solemnly pledge to each other our mutual
co-operation, our lives, our fortunes, and our most sacred
honor.
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“Resolved, 4. That as we acknowledge the existence and
control of no law or legal officer, civil or military, within this
county, we do hereby ordain and adopt as a rule of life,
all, each, and every of our former laws; wherein, neverthe-
less, the crown of Great Britain can never be considered as
holding rights, privileges, immunities, or authority therein.
“Resolved, 5. That it is also further decreed that all,
each, and every military officer in this county is hereby re-
tained in his former command and authority, he acting con-
formably to these regulations. And that every member
present of this delegation shall henceforth be a civil officer
—viz, a justice of the peace in the character of a ‘commit-
tee-man,’ to issue process, hear and determine all matters
of controversy, according to said adopted laws, and to pre-
serve peace and union and harmony in said county; and to
use every exertion to spread the love of country and fire of
freedom throughout America until a more general organized
government be established in this province.”
Other accounts give May 31, 1775, as the date of the
meeting; and make the declaration to consist of a pream-
ble and twenty resolutions, of which twelve (the fourth to
the fifteenth inclusive) make provision for the military or-
ganization of the male population and for the administra-
tion of justice, and the rest, with the preamble, are as
follows:
“Whereas, By an address presented to His Majesty by
both houses of Parliament in February last, the American
colonies are declared in a state of actual rebellion, we con-
ceive that all laws and commissions confirmed or derived
from the authority of the king and Parliament are annulled
and vacated, and the former civil constitutions of these
colonies for the present wholly suspended. To provide in






1294 DECLARATION OF RIGHTS.–DECLINATION OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE.
some degree for the exigencies of this county in the present
alarming period, we deem it proper and necessary to pass
the following resolves—viz.: *
“I. That all commissions, civil and military, heretofore
granted by the crown to be exercised in these colonies, are
null and void, and the constitution of each particular col-
ony wholly suspended. j
“II. That the Provincial Congress of each province,
under the direction of the great Continental Congress, is
invested with all legislative and executive powers within
their respective provinces, and that no other legislative or
executive power does or can exist at this time in any of
these colonies.
“III. As all former laws are now suspended in this prov-
ince, and the Congress has not yet provided others, we
judge it necessary, for the better preservation of good
order, to form certain rules and regulations for the inter-
nal government of this county until laws shall be provided
for us by the Congress. . . .
“XVI. That whatever person shall hereafter receive a
commission from the crown, or attempt to eacercise any such
commission heretofore received, shall be deemed an enemy to
his country; and upon confirmation being made to the cap-
tain of the company in which he resides, the said company
shall cause him to be apprehended and conveyed before two
selectmen, who, upon proof of the fact, shall commit said
offender to safe custody until the next sitting of the com-
mittee, who shall deal with him as prudence may direct.
“XVII. That any person refusing to yield obedience to
the above rules shall be considered equally criminal and
liable to the same punishments as the offenders last men-
tioned.
“XVIII. That these resolves be in full force and virtue
until instructions from the Provincial Congress regulating
the jurisprudence of the province shall provide otherwise,
or the legislative body of Great Britain resign its unjust
and arbitrary pretensions with respect to America.
“ XIX. That the eight militia companies of this county
provide themselves with proper arms and accoutrements,
and hold themselves in readiness to execute the commands
and direction of the general Congress of the province and
this committee.
“XX. That the committee appoint Col. Thomas Polk
and Dr. Joseph Kennedy to purchase three hundred pounds
of powder, six hundred pounds of lead, and one thousand
flints for the use of the militia of this county, and deposit
the same in such place as the committee may hereafter
direct.
“Signed by order of the committee,
“Joseph BREvARD, Clerk of the Committee.”
There seems to be no difficulty in believing that both
accounts are true, and both documents genuine. The ac-
tion of the 20th of May must have necessitated some more
full provision for the public safety and for securing the
order of society than had been made at that time; and such
a meeting as that of the 31st must doubtless have been held,
whether the previously adopted declaration had then been
reiterated or not. (The historical questions connected with
this matter, will, however, be found fully discussed by the
Hon. William A. Graham of North Carolina, under the
title MECKLENBURG, which see.)
F. A. P. BARNARD.
Declaration of Rights, a state paper presented to
the prince and princess of Orange (afterwards William III.
and Mary II.) at the time the crown was tendered to them
(Feb. 13, 1689). The declaration had been drawn up by
the Convention-Parliament, and complained of the follow-
ing grievances which England had endured during the
reign of James II. : The exercise of the dispensing power,
the establishment of illegal ecclesiastic tribunals, unlawful
taxation, the unlawful maintenance of the army, interfe-
rence with the courts and the elections, the levying of ex-
cessive bail, the infliction of barbarous punishments, and the
refusal to hear petitions. The declaration then asserted
the rights which had been thus violated, and claimed vari-
ous privileges for the nation. The substance of this decla-
ration became the “Bill of Rights,” passed in the second
session of the first Parliament under William and Mary.
Declen'sion [Fr. déclimaison ; Lat. declinatio, from
declino, declinatum, to “bend aside,” to “inflect ’’), a term
applied in grammar to the inflection of nouns, adjectives,
and pronouns according to their different cases. Such
inflections in English are limited to three cases—the nomi-
native, the genitive or possessive, and the accusative or
objective. Thus, the personal pronoun he is declined as
follows: nom. he, gen. his, acc. him, etc. But this regular
inflection is limited in our language to pronouns. Our
substantives have ordinarily but one change of case inflec-
tion, which occurs in the genitive, and is formed by the
addition of 8, with an apostrophe, to the nominative. In
—s
Latin there are six cases, in Greek five, in German four,
in Russian seven, in Sanscrit eight, and in some languages
even more. Of the cases, the first is the nominative or
name-case (from the Lat. nomino, nominatum. to “name,”
and more remotely from momen, a “name *). It is that form
which is usually found in a list of nouns or names, in which
case the subject-noun is always found. The genitive case
(Lat. casus genitivus, from gigmo, genitum, to “beget,” im-
plying the origin or source), also called the possessive case,
indicates either the source or the possessor. Thus, when
we say the “sun’s light,” the sun is not the possessor of
the light which it has emitted, but its source. In some
cases the genitive implies a relation which is neither origin
nor possession. Thus we speak of “Caesar’s enemies,” in
which case the possession is formal, and not logical. The
dative case (Lat. casus dativus, from do, datum, to “give ’’)
frequently denotes attribution or giving. Thus, in Latin
we say “ Dedit mihi librug,” “He gave (to) me the
book;” in which example the pronoun is dative. The
dative, however, frequently does not imply any giving or
attribution; as in the Lat. “ Diis invisus,” “hateful to the
gods,” where a certain relationship is implied. The dative
in Greek and Latin seldom signifies motion to any place.
The accusative (from the Lat. accuso, accusatum, to “ac-
cuse”), called also the objective case, is frequently the
object of an active verb or of a preposition, and in general
is regarded as indicating the object towards which motion
is directed or the place at which it ends. The vocative
(from the Lat. voco, vocatwm, to “call”) is the form of a
noun in which a person is addressed or apostrophized. In
English this case is identical in form with the nominative.
The ablative (from the Lat. ab, “away,” and fero, latum,
to “carry ") is properly the case of a noun from which
something is taken or carried away. The Latin ablative
also represents the instrumental and locative cases. The
instrumental case properly designates the means by which
anything is done, and is found in the Sanscrit and Russian.
In most languages some other case, or a preposition with
its object, takes its place. The locative case (from the Lat.
loco, locatwm, to “place”) is that form of a noun which in-
dicates that it stands for the place where anything is, or is
done. It is used in Sanscrit and Russian. In the latter
language it is called predlozhnii, or “prepositional,” be-
cause it is always accompanied by a preposition.
The Latin ablative includes, as we have seen, also the
locative and the instrumental. In the Sanscrit, to which
the Latin has a very near affinity, the instrumental, dative,
and ablative plural are, in many words, almost identical
with each other. For example, in the Sanscrit bhū8 (sig-
nifying “ the producer,” hence the “earth,” and also a
“cow ’’)—akin to the Lat. bos—has bhābhyás in the dative
and ablative plural, and bhābhā8 in the instrumental. The
likeness between these forms and the Lat. bābw8 (dative and
ablative of bos) is very remarkable, especially when we con-
sider that bog in all its cases has a short penultima, except
in the dative and ablative plural; while bhū8 has also a
short penultima except in the dative, locative, instrumental,
and ablative plural cases, fully represented in Latin by the
dative and ablative. -
Certain particular methods of inflecting words are also
called declensions. Thus, declinable words are in some
languages classified in groups according to the various
methods in which their cases are formed. These groups are
called the “first declension,” “second declension,” etc.
J. THOMAs.
Declina/tion [Lat. declinatio, from declino, to “bend
downward or deviate ’’], in astronomy, the angular distance
of a celestial body from the celestial equator, measured
along a great circle passing through the centre of the body
and the poles of the heavens; or it may be defined to be
the arc of a circle of declination passing through the place
of the heavenly body, intercepted between that place and
the celestial equator. The place of a star in the heavens
is determined by means of its right ascension and declina-
tion, which correspond to longitude and latitude on the sur-
face of the earth. -
Declination of the Magnet/ic Nee’dle is the de-
viation of the axis of a magnetic needle (that is, the straight
line which joins its poles) from the astronomical meridian.
This declimation is sometimes towards the W. and some-
times towards the E. From a table of observations made
at Paris, it appears that since 1580 the declination has
varied more than 31 degrees. In 1663 it vanished. From
the date of the first observations till 1820 it advanced pro-
gressively westward, but since that time it has assumed a
retrograde movement towards the E. The declination of
the magnetic needle at London in 1865 was 20° 30' At
present it is scarcely perceptible at Cape Hatteras. To the
W. of that point it is easterly, and to the E. the variation is
westerly. (See MAGNETISM, by PROF. A. M. MAYER, PH.D.)
DECLINOMETER—DEED.
1295
Declinom’eter [ä word improperly formed from the
Lat. declinatio, “declination,” and the Gr. ºrpov, a “meas-
ure *], an apparatus for measuring the declination of the
magnetic needle, or the force of terrestrial magnetism in
the plane of the horizon.
Decomposition [from the Lat. de, “from,” “un,”
and compono, compositum, to “put together”], a term used
in chemistry to signify the separation of compound sub-
stances into their elementary parts. When compounds are
resolved into their elements, or when the chemical consti-
tution of substances is altered, they are said to be decom-
posed; and when in this operation new products are formed,
such products are called the results of decomposition. Thus,
ammonia is the result of the decomposition of certain animal
substances; carburetted hydrogen gas is the result of the
decomposition of pit-coal, etc. Chemists use the terms
simple and compound, or single and double decomposition,
to distinguish between the less and more complicated cases.
When a compound of two substances is decomposed by the
intervention of a third, which is itself simple or which
acts as such, the case is one of simple decomposition;
water, for instance, is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen.
When the metal potassium, which is a simple body, is
thrown into it, it is decomposed; the hydrogen is liberated
in the form of gas, and the oxygen combines with the potas-
sium to form potassa.
Deco/rah, a city of the second class, capital of Win-
neshiek co., Ia., situated on the Upper Iowa River, is the
terminus of the Decorah branch of the Milwaukee and St.
Paul R. R. It contains the Norwegian Lutheran College,
an excellent graded public school, three banks, two weekly
newspapers, two semi-monthlies (printed in Norwegian),
two woollen-mills, one paper-mill, two foundries, four flour-
mills, three wagon manufactories, and other industries.
Pop. 21.10; according to State census 1873, 2232; of town-
ship, 3723. A. K. BAILEY & BRO., EDs. “REPUBLICAN.”
Dec'orate [from the Lat. decoro, decoratum, to “adorn”],
to adorn, embellish; to cover with external ornaments. To
decorate graves is to garnish them with flowers. The am-
niversary on which flowers are placed on soldiers’ graves
in the U. S. is called Decoration Day, and is observed on
May 30th.
Deco/ria, a post-township of Blue Earth co, Minn.
Pop. 262.
Decorated Style, in architecture, is also known as the
“Middle Pointed ” or pure Gothic style. It succeeded
the First Pointed or Early English (1189–1272) by a tran-
sition so gradual that its origin in England is variously
assigned to dates between 1272 and 1307, although in Ger-
many and France it was considerably earlier. It finally
passed by an equally gradual transition into the Perpen-
dicular Gothic of the fifteenth century. The Decorated
Style is regarded as the perfect flower of Gothic architec-
ture. It is marked by geometrical window-tracery, richly
ornamented doorways, delicate mouldings, and elaborately
carved imitations of leaves, as of the vine and oak, often
conventionalized, but not unfrequently copied from nature.
Decoy’ [from de, “away,” and the old English verb
coy, to “entice ’’I, to entice; to lead by artifice into a snare
or into danger; to entrap by insidious means. As a sub-
stantive it signifies any object or thing by which persons
or animals are enticed and lured into danger, etc.; a device
by which aquatic birds, chiefly ducks, are enticed from a
lake or river into a narrow winding canal or ditch, which,
gradually becoming marrower, at last terminates under a
cover of network several yards long. To draw the birds
into this snare a tame duck called a decoy-duck is some-
times employed.
Decrescen’do, in music, is a gradual diminishing of
sound, the reverse of CRESCENDo (which see). It is marked
thus T--. -
Decretal [from the Lat. decretum, a “decree”], a decree
of the pope, having the same authority in canon law as the
decrees in civil. The body of the canon law consists—1st, of
the Decretalium, a collection made by Gratian, a Benedict-
ine monk, after 1150, and drawn from the opinions of the
fathers, popes, and councils; 2d, of the Decretalia, collected
by Pope Gregory IX. (1227–41) from the decretal rescripts
or epistles of the popes. A liber sea-tus was added by Boni-
face VIII. (1294–1803), and other additions were made by
succeeding popes.
Decretals, False, otherwise called the Pseu/do-
Isido’rian Can’ons, the name of one of the most re-
markable literary forgeries of which we have any record.
It designates a collection of papal letters, canons, etc.,
partly genuine, but mostly spurious. The name of the
author is unknown, but they are ascribed in the preface to
one Isidorus Mercator (or, according to some MSS., Pecca-
tor), and hence they were long believed to be the work of St.
Isidore of Seville. They date from the first half of the ninth
century. Their spuriousness was first established by German
Protestant critics in the sixteenth century, and is now admit-
ted by all Roman Catholic writers. It appears to have been
the object of the author of this great fraud to assist in freeing
the Church from secular domination. It is maintained by
some Protestant historians that the primacy of the popes is
mainly based upon the false decretals; but while it cannot
be denied that certain popes used them freely for their own
advantage, there is no evidence of intentional fraud on the
part of the popes, for the decretals were generally received
as genuine; and it is maintained by Roman Catholic wri-
ters that the influence of the false decretals was small.
Decu'rion [Lat. decurio], the leader of a decuria, or
body of ten men, in the Roman cavalry. Three decuriæ con-
stituted a turma, or body of thirty men, and the name
decurio was afterwards given to the commander of the
larger body. In Roman law it was the name given to sen-
ators in the colonial governments.
Decussa/tion [from the Lat. decussis, a Roman coin
valued at ten asses (see As), and represented by the letter
X], in anatomy, a crossing of nervous filaments, so called
from a fancied resemblance to the letter X. The innermost
fibres of the anterior pyramids and lateral columns of the
medulla oblongata decussate freely from side to side; so that
disease in one side of the brain frequently leads to paral-
ysis of the opposite side of the body. Another decussation
occurs between the optic nerves; this is often called the
chiasma, also from its resemblance to the letter x (the
Greek chi). The crossing of rays of light, etc. is also
called decussation.
Ded/ham, a post-township of Hancock co., Me. P. 448.
Dedham, the shire-town of Norfolk co., Mass., is situ-
ated on Charles River and on two branches of the Boston
and Providence R. R., and is 10 miles S. W. of the State-
house in Boston. It has a granite court-house, jail, house
of correction, and town-hall, two insurance companies, a
national bank, a savings bank, one weekly newspaper,
eight churches—two Unitarian, two Baptist, one Orthodox
Congregational, one Methodist Episcopal, one Protestant
Episcopal, and one Roman Catholic. Dedham has two
large woollen-mills, one extensive brush manufactory, one
pianoforte manufactory, and one foundry. The New York
and New England R. R. passes through a section of the
town, and it has also a branch connecting the town with
Norwood. The town has a large Roman Catholic institu-
tion under the care of the Sisters of Charity, and a home
for fallen women, which receives the assistance of the State
and of many philanthropic people. Pop. of township,
7342. S. H. Cox, ED. of “DEDHAM TRANSCRIPT.”
Dedica/tion [Lat. dedicatio, from dedico, dedicatum,
to “dedicate”], a complimentary address to a particular
person, prefixed by an author to his work. This custom
was in use at a very early period. Horace, Virgil, Cicero,
and Lucretius were among the number of those who prac-
tised it. At the period of the revival of letters in Europe
few works were published without dedications. Many of
these are remarkable for their elegance and purity of style,
and, from the matter which they contain, are of more value
than the treatises to which they are prefixed. But the
practice became perverted, and many authors of the sue-
ceeding generations employ them chiefly with the view of
securing the patronage of the great. Dedications were
most abused in France under Louis XIV., and in England
from 1670 to the accession of George III. Dryden was a
great dedicator, and Johnson wrote dedications for money.
Corneille got 1000 louisd’ors for the dedication of “Cinna.”
Some of the most beautiful dedications are those prefixed
to the different volumes of the “Spectator” by Addison,
and in more recent times those with which each canto
of Sir Walter Scott’s “Marmion ” is prefaced. A complete
history of dedications would be of great value, as throw-
ing light upon the history and character of many distin-
guished persons, which are now involved in obscurity.
DEDICATION, in law. See HEREDITAMENTS INCORPOREAL,
by PROF. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.
Deduc/tion [from the Lat. de, “from,” and duco, due-
tum, to “draw "] is the mental operation which consists
in drawing a particular truth from a general principle
already known. It is opposed to induction, which consists
in rising from particular truths to the determination of a
general principle. The syllogism is the form of deduction.
(See Syilogisiſ.) Before we can deduce a particular truth
we must be in possession of the general truth. The
mathematical and metaphysical sciences are founded on
deduction; the physical sciences rest on INDUCTION (which
see).
Deed [from the Ang-Sax. daºd, “ done;” hence, as a
noun, “something done?’ or “executed”], a writing on
1296
DEEMS-DEEP-SEA DREDGING.
paper or parchment, sealed and delivered. This is its
most general signification. In a restricted sense it means
an instrument for the conveyance of real estate. Ac-
cording to Lord Coke, it should possess the following
requisites: writing, parchment or paper, a person able to
contract, a sufficient name, a person able to be contracted
with, a sufficient name, a thing to be contracted for, apt
words required by law, sealing, and delivery. Deeds pur-
sue a regular form—containing the premises, habendum,
tenendum, redden dwm, conditions, warranty, covenants,
and conclusion. The premises express the names of the
parties, the consideration to be paid for the conveyance,
and a description of the property conveyed. This should
be minute and accurate. The “habendum ” expresses the
interest which the grantee is to have, whether it be an estate
in fee, for life, or an inferior estate. The “tenendum”
refers to the tenure upon which the land is to be held, and
is at present of no practical performance. The “condition,”
“warranty,” and “covenants” are not found in all deeds.
They may be inserted whenever required to carry out the in-
tention of the parties. When a condition is resorted to, it
may be either precedent or subsequent. (See CoNDITIONs.)
The covenants vary with the nature of the conveyance.
In a conveyance in fee six covenants may be inserted (see
CovKNANTs); and in such case the instrument is called a
deed with full covenants. In some instances the single
covenant of warranty is introduced, when it is ordinarily
termed a warranty deed. In many cases there are no cove-
nants at all, the object of the transaction being only to
convey whatever interest the grantor may have. It is a
rule of the common law that some words in a conveyance
used by a grantor will imply a covenant. This doctrine
tends to mislead grantors who are not familiar with the
rules of law, and it has been abrogated in some of the
States—e.g. New York. There is, however, an important
rule that a promise may be implied on the part of the
grantee from his acceptance of an instrument containing
words purporting to create a personal liability. Thus, if
there are words to the effect that the grantee assumes the
payment of a certain specified mortgage, he becomes liable
by his acceptance, though he does not execute the instru-
ment. Whether he is liable upon an implied covenant, or
only upon a promise, is not clear upon the authorities.
A deed may be either an indenture or a deed poll. The
leading distinction between these terms is, that an indenture
purports to be the act of both parties, a deed poll of only
one. An indenture commences with the third person, a.
deed poll with the first. In an indenture the date is found
at the beginning of the instrument, in a deed poll at the end.
An instrument in the form of a deed poll may be in sub-
stance an indenture if there be acts to be done by both parties.
Between a strict deed poll and an indenture there is claimed
to be an important difference in the construction of doubt-
ful or ambiguous words. In the former these are inter-
preted against the grantor; the grantee may take the con-
struction most favorable to himself if the words will
reasonably bear it. To an indenture the rule has no appli-
cation, and it is not regarded in any case with as much
favor in modern law as formerly. In a country like our
own, where many men not lawyers undertake to draw their
own deeds, questions frequently arise as to the effect of
omissions or insertions by mistake, or of alterations or
erasions. These occur in many instances through mere
inexperience, and without any evil intent. In the case of
an omission or insertion of a clause by mutual mistake, an
application may be made to a court of equity (see EQUITY)
to rectify the conveyance and make it what the parties in-
tended it should be. The case of an alteration by one of
the parties creates more difficulty. One of the most per-
plexing questions presented is, whether the fact of an
erasure or other alteration raises any presumption that it
was made after execution, or whether the opposite view
should be taken, that there can be no presumption which
would lead to the conclusion that the grantee has committed
a wrong. The better view would seem to be that the atten-
dant circumstances should go to a jury, without any pre-
sumption either way, and should be passed upon as a
matter of fact. A fraudulent alteration would in general
vitiate the instrument, though it would not divest a title to
land which had already become the property of the grantee.
As to all instruments which did not confer an estate, but
only created an easement or conferred a right of action,
the alteration would be fatal. Conveyances in the U. S.
are in general registered or recorded, their execution for
that purpose being attended with prescribed formalities.
(See REGISTRATION and RECORDING...) The instrument is in
general valid between the parties without registration, its
object being to protect subsequent purchasers or incum-
brances. The requisites and validity of a deed of land
in any particular State depend upon the law of the place
where the land is situated, though the question concerning
them be raised in the courts of another State. (See also
WARRANTY, QUIT CLAIM, CovKNANT, BARGAIN AND SALE.)
T. W. DWIGHT.
Deems (CHARLEs F.), D. D., was born in Baltimore,
Md., in 1820, graduated at Dickinson College, served in the
Methodist ministry of the South during several years,
and has been professor in the University of North Caro-
lina and in Randolph-Macon College, and president of
Greensboro’ and Centenary Colleges. He is now (1873)
the successful pastor of the Church of the Strangers, New
York City. He has been an abundant and able contributor
to the “Southern Methodist Quarterly Review,” and is the
author of a volume of sermons, a “Life of Dr. Clark,”
“Devotional Melodies,” “Home Atlas,” a volume of poems
entitled “Triumphs of Peace,” and a “Life of Christ.”
Deem'ster, or Doom ster, formerly an officer in
Scotland who read the sentence of condemned persons in
open court. Deemsters in the Isle of Man and Jersey are
judges who give decisions without writings or process. In
the former island the two deemsters are the chief magis-
trates. -
Deep Bottom, a point on the N. side of James River,
in Henrico co., Va., about 12 miles by land and 20 miles by
water below Richmond, opposite the peninsula of Jones’
Neck, and between Three- and Four-Mile creeks, and near the
battle-ground of Malvern Hill. It was occupied by part of
the troops of Gen. B. F. Butler, June 20, 1864, and a pontoon
bridge was thrown across the river. Near this point several
important actions were fought during Aug. and Sept., 1864,
the general result being favorable to the Union forces. Deep
Bottom remained an important strategic point until after the
fall of Richmond.
Deep Creek, a township of Clinton co., Ia. P. 1081.
Deep Creek, a township of Edgecombe co., N. C. Pop.
1706.
Deep Creek, a township of Jackson co., N. C. P. 553.
Deep Creek, a township of Yadkin co., N. C. P. 1236.
Deep Creek, a post-township of Norfolk co., Va. Pop.
2202.
Deep River [Indian, Sapponah], a river of North
Carolina, flows south-eastward through Randolph co., and
nearly eastward through Chatham co., until it enters the
Cape Fear River at Haywood. Coal abounds on its banks.
Length, estimated at 120 miles.
Deep River, a post-village of Saybrook township, in
Middlesex co., Conn., on the Connecticut River and Con-
necticut Valley R. R., 34 miles S. S. E. of Hartford. It has
a national and a savings bank.
Deep River, a post-township of Poweshiek co., Ia.
Pop. 799.
Deep River, a post-township of Guilford co., N. C.
Pop. 1071.
Deep River Coal-Beds, a tract of coal-bearing
lands in Chatham and Moore cos., N. C., in the valley of
the Deep River, above noticed. They are probably of
triassic, and certainly not of the true carboniferous, age.
The area of the productive basin is over forty square miles,
though the beds can be traced through Granville and Wake
counties, in a southward and westward direction, almost
across the State, and extending a few miles into South
Carolina. Indeed, the Dan River coal-beds of Rocking-
ham and Stokes counties are believed to be the same beds,
though detached from the larger area. The quality of the
coal is always good, though variable, some being an ex-
cellent and highly bituminous gas-coal, some good semi-
bituminous coal, and some anthracite; while some is meta-
morphosed into graphite. The total amount of available
coal in the Deep River field proper has been estimated at
240,000,000 tons. These coals have hardly been disturbed
as yet, though they have been known for over 100 years.
They have additional value from the fact that good iron
and copper ores exist near them, the iron being often found
in the same mines with the coal. By a system of slack-
water navigation on the Deep and Cape Fear rivers the
coal could be cheaply transported to Fayetteville, the pres-
ent head of steamboat navigation on the latter river. With
this point Wilmington, N. C., is connected by steamers; so
that the Deep River beds might easily supply that city and
her steam marine with excellent coal at a very low. price.
The bituminous coal of this field is clean and does not
soil the fingers. It is a caking coal, makes an excellent
coke for manufacturing purposes, is free from sulphur,
yields an abundant illuminating gas of good quality, and
is useful for the blacksmith’s forge, for the generation of
steam, and for domestic uses. $
Deep-Sea Dredging. The use of iron dredges for pro-
curing oysters, etc. in shallow or moderately deep water has
long been known to the fishermen of all civilized countries.
}
DEEP-SEA DREDGING.
1297
The instrument used for this purpose is large and heavy,
usually consisting of a stout iron frame, several feet across,
with one scraping edge, which acts something like a hoe;
the arms to which the drag-rope is fastened are usually
rigid, and behind the frame there is a net with large
meshes of twine or wirework. This instrument is very
efficient for dredging large objects, like oysters, etc., for
which alone it is intended; but for scientific purposes it
would be of little use, for all the small kinds of animals,
which constitute the greater part of the animal life of the
ocean, would pass through the coarse meshes and be lost.
Moreover, in sinking such a dredge in very deep water the
chances are that it would frequently fall wrong side up,
and thus the time and labor would be lost. Consequently,
various modifications of this primitive form of the dredge
have been devised by naturalists, in order to obtain a com-
plete knowledge of the life of the bottom of the ocean at
all depths, and several forms have been used with wonder-
ful success. The two main points to be observed are: 1st,
to have a met or bag of a texture open enough to let the
water pass through freely, but fine enough to retain even
the smallest animals sought for; and 2d, to have the dredge
provided with two scraping edges, so that it will work
equally well either side up.
The naturalist’s dredge was first systematically used, if
not invented, by Otho Frederick Müller, previous to 1780,
on the coasts of Norway and Denmark. This dredge ap-
pears to have been square, with four scraping edges, but
otherwise similar to those still in use. Some naturalists
have used a triangular form with three scraping edges, but,
like those with a square frame, this form gives too wide a
mouth, so that the contents are liable to wash out, though
it is still advantageously used for some purposes.
The dredge now generally used by naturalists, even for
the deepest work, consists of a narrow rectangular frame,
with two somewhat flaring scraping edges, the ends of the
frame being of round iron, and each supporting a forked
iron arm, each fork being bent around the end-piece of
the frame at the corners, so as to turn freely upon it. The
other end of each arm is furnished with a ring or eye, to
which the drag-rope is attached. To the back of the rect-
angular frame a bag-like net of stout twine, with small
meshes, or else a bag of some kind of stout open cloth, is
securely attached, either directly by means of holes drilled
through the back part of the scrapers near the edge, or
to small iron rings inserted into such holes. For dredging
in shallow water or on rocky bottoms it is usual to pro-
tect the inner net or bag with an outside bottomless bag of
stout canvas or some similar material, otherwise the rocks
will quickly destroy the net. To prevent the net from
twisting or turning over the mouth of the dredge during
its descent, a transverse bar of wood or iron, a little longer
than the dredge-frame, is sometimes attached across the
bottom of the outer bag; others use a U-shaped loop of
stout wire, with an eye at each end by which to tie it to
the middle of each end of the dredge-frame, the loop pass-
ing down into the net. The drag-rope is usually attached
securely to one of the arms of the dredge, while the other
arm is tied to it by a smaller rope or by spun-yarn, so
that in case the dredge becomes wedged between or under
rocks the strain upon it may break away the weaker fast-
ening, allowing the frame to straighten out and thus free
itself. One or more weights are usually attached to the
rope at a short distance in front of the dredge, partly to
help sink the rope, partly to keep the edge of the dredge
down upon the bottom in its proper position; the amount
of weight must be varied according to the depth of water,
velocity of currents, character of bottom, size of boat or
vessel, weight of dredge, and size of the rope. In very
deep water several hundred pounds are sometimes used, at-
tached several hundred feet from the dredge. The size and
weight of the dredges vary greatly, according to the depth
of water, size of the vessel employed, and means of hoisting.
A dredge suitable for use on board an ordinary sailboat
or Small steamer, when the hoisting is done by hand, which
has done good service at all depths down to 430 fathoms,
has the following dimensions: length of frame, 20 inches;
width across back, 8 inches; across front or outer edge of
the scrapers, 9 inches; length of arms, 14 inches; width of
sides or scrapers, 2.5 inches; thickness of scrapers at back,
.5 of an inch; holes for attachment of net, 1 inch apart;
the ends of the dredge-frame are of five-eighth-inch round
iron; the arms, half-inch round iron. All parts should be
of the strongest bar iron. The met for the dredge just
described is of stout twine, thrée feet deep, and just large
enough at the mouth to go around the outside of the dredge-
frame without stretching. Its meshes are a quarter of an
inch on the sides of the net, but smaller towards the end.
The outer bag is of stout canvas, and a little longer than the
inner one. The drag-rope is of the best hemp, 1.75 inches
in circumference. For shallow water a smaller rope would
do, especially if used with a sailboat; and manila rope can
also be used, though it is not so suitable for deep water, on
account of its buoyancy and greater liability to kink.
For the deep-sea dredging, and also for shallow water
when large vessels are employed and steam-power used
for hoisting, much larger and heavier dredges can be used.
The English expedition on the Porcupine used a dredge
with a frame 4 feet 6 inches long, and 6 inches wide at the
back, weighing 225 pounds. Weights amounting to two
hundredweight were attached to the drag-rope at 500 fath-
oms from the dredge. But Dr. Wyville Thomson, who had
charge of the dredging in the deepest water (2435 fathoms),
thinks that this dredge was too heavy.
In all cases the dredge must be drawn very slowly over
the bottom, either by the “drifting” of the boat or vessel
by the force of the tide, or by the wind without sails, or by
an occasional turn of the wheels of a steamer. With a small
boat or vessel, when there is but little wind or tide, a small
amount of sail is often necessary.
The writer in 1871 introduced a new form of dredge,
known as the “rake-dredge,” for use on muddy and sandy
bottoms to procure burrowing animals. This has two stout
iron bars, each provided with several thin, sharp teeth, 6
or 8 inches long, arranged like those of a rake; these bars
are bolted, back to back, to the lower ends of the side-pieces
of a stout A-shaped iron frame; the drag-rope is attached
to a ring at the apex of the A-shaped frame; following the
rake, at the distance of two or three feet, is a large but light
rectangular frame of half-inch round iron, a little larger
than the rake; to this frame a net is attached, as to the
frame of the ordinary dredge. This has been used very
successfully for the special purposes for which it was de-
signed. -
The English deep-sea dredging expeditions introduced
the use of “tangles” in connection with the dredge, and
these proved to be very valuable adjuncts. The “tangles”
consist of pieces of frayed-out hemp rope, a few feet long,
tied together at one end, so as to form large brushes. They
generally fastened these to the iron rod attached across the
end of the dredge-bag, so that they dragged over the bot-
tom behind the dredge, and caught up all objects having
rough or spiny surfaces; but many of the objects thus
caught had been already broken or injured by the dredge.
The writer has devised some improved forms of the tangles,
and used them successfully during the Summer of 1871 and
'72 in connection with the U. S. Fish Commission. In these
the tangles were used independently of the dredge, and in
the best form the frayed-out ropes were attached along sev-
eral small iron chains, which were fastened by one end to an
iron bar; and the latter was raised from the bottom by be-
ing bolted to the legs of the A-shaped frame already men-
tioned, at about a foot from the lower end of the side-pieces.
This form of apparatus can be used on very rough and
rocky bottoms, where the ordinary dredge cannot be safely
employed. It is very useful for procuring star-fishes, echini,
corals, sponges, etc., but cannot be depended upon for shells.
During the past twenty-five years dredging has been ex-
tensively carried on along nearly all parts of the European
and North American coasts, and in many other parts of the
world, in waters of moderate depth, or from the shore to 50
or 100 fathoms, and in some few regions down to 200 or
300 fathoms, or even somewhat more. But within the past
five or six years these investigations of the life of the bot-
tom have been carried on successfully at far greater depths,
both on the American and European sides of the Atlantic
Ocean. On the coast of Norway and at the Lofoden Islands
extensive collections were made at depths between 250 and
450 fathoms by Dr. G. O. Sars, and in 1868 his father, Prof.
M. Sars, published a list of 427 species of animals living at
those depths. In the year 1867 extensive deep-sea dredg-
ings were commenced by Mr. L. F. de Pourtales of the U. S.
Coast Survey in the Gulf Stream between Florida and Cuba.
The important results of this expedition were published in
December, 1867. In 1868 and 1869 these investigations were
continued in that region by Mr. de Pourtales with great
success and very important results. In these explorations
dredgings were made on several lines across the Straits of
Florida, from the shores to the deepest waters, but seldom
in more than 600 fathoms. Large collections, including
many novelties, were made at all depths, and have been in
part described in the publications of the Museum of Com:
parative Zoology. In 1868 the English government fitted
out the steamer Lightning, under the scientific direction of
Dr. William B. Carpenter and Dr. Wyville Thomson, for
the purpose of deep-sea dredging. They dredged between
Scotland and the Faröe Islands, and to the south-west of
those islands, at various depths down to 650 fathoms, with
very interesting results, for life was found to be abundant
at the greatest depths, and many new and remarkable forms
were discovered. In 1869 the Porcupine was fitted out for
the same service, and made three cruises—first, off the W.
82

1298
DEEP-SEA SOUNDINGS.
coast of Ireland, under the scientific direction of Mr. Gwyn
Jeffreys, during which dredgings were made down to 1470
fathoms; second, under Dr. Thomson, off the S. W. of Ire-
land to a point off the Bay of Biscay, where dredgings were
made in 2090 and 2435 fathoms; third, under Dr. Carpen-
ter, between the Faröe Islands and the Shetland Islands,
and N. of Scotland, where numerous dredgings were made
at various depths to 767 fathoms. Large numbers of ani-
mals were obtained in all these dredgings, many of them
new and remarkable. In 1870 the same vessel made a cruise
to the Straits of Gibraltar under the scientific direction of
Mr. Jeffreys, which was afterwards continued in the Med-
iterranean under Dr. Carpenter. On the first part of this
cruise dredgings were carried down to 1095 fathoms off the
coast of Portugal, and in the Mediterranean to 1412 fath-
oms. In 1870, Mr. Marshall Hall dredged in deep water off
the coasts of Spain and Portugal in his yacht Norna, with
valuable results. In 1869, Dr. F. A. Smitt and Dr. A.
Ljungman, naturalist of the Swedish frigate Josephine,
dredged at many localities on both sides of the Atlantic,
and especially off the Azores, and made important discov-
eries. In 1871–72 the late Dr. William Stimson dredged
in the Gulf of Mexico on board the U. S. Coast Survey
steamer Bache, and in 1872, Mr. S. I. Smith and O. Har-
ger, on board the same steamer, made the deepest dredgings
yet accomplished off the northern coast of the U. S. This
was in 430 fathoms, off St. George's Bank. In 1871–72,
Mr. J. F. Whiteaves dredged in the deepest parts of the
Gulf of St. Lawrence down to 310 fathoms, and made some
interesting discoveries. Other dredgings have also been
made in deep water within two or three years past, of which
the results have not yet been published. In fresh-water lakes
comparatively little dredging has been done. The most im-
portant are the dredgings in Lake Michigan by Dr. William
Stimson and others in 1870, and those in Lake Superior ac-
complished by Mr. S. I. Smith in 1871, in connection with the
U. S. Lake Survey, on the steamer Search. Mr. Smith made
numerous dredgings from shallow water down to 169 fath-
oms, which is the deepest water in the lake. Numerous inter-
esting animals, mostly of small size, were found at all depths.
Much more work of this kind should be done in our great
lakes, as well as on our coasts. (See DREDGING, by GEN. Q.
A. GILLMORE, U. S. Army.) A. E. VERRILL.
Deep-Sea Soundings. . It is difficult to define pre-
cisely what is to be understood by the expression “deep-sea.
soundings.” There are places in the ocean very near to the
most frequented shores, like the Gulf Stream off Cape Hat-
teras, where it has been found difficult, if not impracticable,
to determine the depth of the water with certainty, owing
to the rapidity of the current, combined with the great
depth; or the same stream within a few miles of the N.
shore of Cuba, where the depth of less than 1000 fathoms,
combined with the strength of the current, for a long time
baffled the skill of the best officers of the American navy in
their efforts to obtain a section across the straits between
Cuba and Key West. And on the other hand, there are
areas extending hundreds of miles seaward from the coasts
of continents, like the plateau off the coast of Ireland, where
the depth hardly exceeds 500 fathoms, and soundings are
so easily made that they would be classed in hydrographic
work as “off-shore soundings.” Other portions of the sea-
bed, again, deepen gradually from the shores outward, and
it would be difficult to say where off-shore soundings end
and deep-sea soundings begin.
The precise definition is of little importance, however, at
the present time; but it may be said that in the early at-
tempts to determine depths of the ocean out of sight of land
a depth of 1000 fathoms (or 6000 feet) was considered a
deep-sea sounding. It is believed that there is no record
of any successful effort having been made to determine
depths greater than 1000 fathoms previous to that of Capt.
James Ross in the year 1840. Up to that time navigators
had been engrossed in geographical explorations, and had
contented themselves with regarding the ocean as practi-
cally unfathomable beyond a very narrow belt along the
shores of continents. Capt. James Ross of the English
navy was the first explorer who dispelled this idea by a
successful effort to sound in what was evidently very deep
water. In the year 1840, while off the western coast of
Africa, he prepared several miles of sounding-line upon a
reel, and having attached a weight of 540 pounds to the
end of the line, this weight was allowed to descend to the
bottom of the sea. A sudden cessation of the descending
motion indicated that the bottom was reached, and it was
found that the length of line run out was 2677 fathoms.
In a subsequent attempt during the same voyage 4000
fathoms of line were run out without finding bottom, and
the line finally broke. The first sounding was doubtless
as nearly correct as most of the soundings since made at
the same depth by other explorers. -
Another attempt made in 1843 by officers of the English
-*g
navy, in the Southern Ocean, proved a failure, no bottom
having been reached with 4000 fathoms of line out. In
1847 another sounding was made by Capt. Stanley, midway
between the coasts of Africa and South America, bottom
having been reported at 2600 fathoms, but the result was
doubtful. -
These are the only recorded soundings made by the Eng-
lish navy before the problem was taken up by the American
navy. In 1843, Lieut.-Commander (now Admiral) Davis,
who was then attached to the U. S. Coast Survey, made
several successful soundings off Block Island, in water a
little less than 2000 fathoms’ depth. A cup for bringing
up specimens of the bottom was attached to the lead, and
for the first time a portion of the deep-sea mud, was brought
to light from these depths. Deep-sea explorations became
from that time invested with a special interest, from the
discovery of the existence of animal life or the remains of
minute animals in every specimen of the bottom brought
to the surface. -
During a period of ten years subsequent to the explora-
tions of Commander Davis, deep-sea soundings were con-
tinued off the Atlantic coast by officers of the U. S. navy
under the direction of Prof. Bache, superintendent of the
U. S. Coast Survey, in a series of sections run perpendicu-
lar to the coast, made with a view of tracing the form of
the bottom along the course of the Gulf Stream. The
temperature of the waters of the Gulf Stream, taken be-
neath the surface at various depths, indicated, by successive
bands of cool and warm water, the probable existence of
submarine ranges of mountains having courses coincident
with these bands, and the sections determined confirmed
this idea wherever the depths could be determined. During
the progress of these explorations the U. S. navy depart-
ment, through the efforts of Lieut. Maury, undertook an
extensive series of deep-sea soundings in various parts of
the Atlantic, but as the observations were scattered and
not confined to systematic lines, and were, moreover, made
by a method which had in it great elements of uncertainty,
the results, so far as the extension of exact knowledge in
regard to the form of the ocean-bed was concerned, were
very meagre. The explorations, however, served to pre-
pare for this kind of service officers who subsequently did
important work. Among these was Lieut. Berryman, who
afterwards ran the first line of soundings across the North-
ern Atlantic Ocean. The invention of the apparatus for
detaching the heavy lead at the bottom, thus enabling a
small line to be used for bringing up specimens of the
bottom, was also one of the fruits of these explorations.
Brooke's lead, or detaching apparatus, became, both in the
American and in foreign explorations, the most important
feature of sounding-instruments.
The first lines of sounding which were carried across the
Atlantic were run by Lieut. Berryman of the U. S. navy,
for the purpose of ascertaining the practicability of lay-
ing a submarine cable. Upon the favorable report of his
soundings it was determined definitely to undertake this
work. Lieut. Berryman was followed in this field of ex-
ploration by Lieut. Dayman of the royal navy, whose re-
sults were confirmatory of those of Lieut. Berryman.
The depths obtained by both these officers appeared,
however, to have large probable errors, and the small
number of observations made for so long a line rendered it
impossible to construct a profile of the bottom of positive
accuracy. The actual laying of the telegraph cables fur-
nished the only convincing and satisfactory evidence of the
existence of the conditions favorable to such an enterprise.
After the laying of the Atlantic cable the English admi-
ralty took up the question of deep-sea explorations in a
thorough manner, and the field seems to have been aban-
doned by the American navy altogether.
Under the English admiralty the Mediterranean Sea has
been explored; several new lines have been run across the
North Atlantic ; the banks off the coast of Ireland have
been mapped out; lines have been run and submarine
telegraphs established eastward from the Red Sea to
China; and more recently a line of soundings has been
carried from the Cape of Good Hope through the midst of
the Southern Atlantic northward to the English Channel.
All these results, however, constitute only a beginning of
the work of deep-sea explorations. The deepest parts of
the ocean have probably not been sounded, and there are
not yet sufficient results to determine with any degree of
certainty the features of any considerable portion of the
bottom of the sea. The general features, as thus far de-
termined, seem to be as follows: The North Atlantic is a
comparatively shallow basin, having, however, a deep val-
ley or depression on the W. from Baffin’s Bay southward.
Near Cape Sable, and within thirty miles of it, the depth
is nearly 3000 fathoms. How far this deep valley continues
towards the tropics is not known. On the E. side a deep
valley is also found extending from the latitude of the
DEEP WATER—DEER.
1299
British Channel to the tropics. Between these two great
depressions the North Atlantic presents depths consider-
ably less, and irregularities have been detected which indi-
cate that the configuration of the bottom presents features
corresponding to those of the surfaces of continents. The
South Atlantic basin has not been explored.
In the Indian Ocean, along the lines of the telegraph
across the Persian Gulf and Bay of Bengal, the depths in-
crease gradually from the shores to a little over 2000 fathoms
along both lines—one from the Malay Peninsula to Hin-
dostan, and the other from Hindostan to the Red Sea.
In the vicinity of the equator, in the South Atlantic
Ocean, Capt. Shortland found a plateau extending about
3000 miles in a N. and S. direction, on which are found the
islands of St. Paul, Ascension, and the other well-known
islands of this region. The depth on this plateau is about
1500 fathoms. Its extent in an E. and W. direction is not
known. The Southern and Pacific oceans have not been
explored. - -
In no instance yet recorded has a depth been reached ex-
ceeding 3000 fathoms, but this is to be considered as owing
to the failure of attempts made in greater depths, and is
not to be taken as evidence that no greater depths exist.
It is presumed, on the contrary, by those who have given
attention to the subject, that vastly greater depths are of
frequent occurrence in many parts of the sea.
Methods of Sounding.—In ordinary depths the process of
sounding is to attach a “ lead” to the end of a small line,
drop the lead into the sea, and allow it to sink to the bot-
tom, the line being drawn down after the lead. . If there is
no current in the water nor drifting of the vessel or boat,
and if the instant when the lead strikes the bottom can be
distinctly noted, the length of line paid out will indicate the
depth. As the depth increases, however, the friction of
the line in the water becomes a strong resistance, requiring
a very heavy lead to impart any considerable velocity to
the descending plummet and line. This circumstance doubt-
less prevented the earlier attempts to sound from being
successful. - - -
Capt. Ross, in his first deep-sea sounding, employed a
quarter of a ton weight as a sinker. A new difficulty, how-
ever, presented itself—namely, the difficulty of noting the
instant when the weight struck bottom. In water nearly
3000 fathoms deep, whatever be the amount of the sinking
weight, the downward motion became very slow, and it was
only by noting the rate of descent by a watch that the in-
stant the weight struck bottom was noted. It became cus-
tomary afterwards, in all deep soundings, to note the time
of running out of each successive 100 fathoms of line, and
when the rate of descent became irregular or indeterminate
it was taken for granted that the bottom was reached.
This practice introduced a delusive test of reaching bot-
tom, which rendered useless many subsequent laborious and
earnest efforts. It was not until Davis introduced the prac-
tice of bringing up specimens of the bottom, and Brooke
invented his detaching apparatus, that any element of cer-
tainty attended deep-sea explorations.
There still remained two great difficulties to contend
with—the drifting of the vessel from which soundings
were taken, and the currents of the sea. Both of these
occurrences rendered the measurements inaccurate, and in
extreme cases, such as the rapid flow of the Gulf Stream
along the coast of America, this method proved a failure.
Many attempts have been made to sound the Gulf Stream
N. of Cape Hatteras, but thus far without success.
Lieut. Walsh and Commander Wainwright used small
wires for sounding-lines, but without advantage. At a
certain depth the wire ran out of its own weight, and it
was difficult to determine when the weight struck bottom.
In the Gulf Stream the current carried away the line so
rapidly that it was found impracticable to reach bottom.
The uncertainties and errors of these methods led to the
invention of a recording apparatus, which was attached to
the plummet in such a manner that the register, with the
cup or tube for bringing up specimens of the bottom, was
recovered, while the weight was detached and left at the
bottom. The registers employed were generally revolving
helices, which turned during the descent, the revolutions
being recorded on wheel-work. Pressure-gauges were also
tried, but owing to various causes of failure these devices
have been generally abandoned. The revolving helices
were found to require a constant velocity for perfect re-
sults, and the slowness of the motion at great depths caused
an error in the recording. Pressure-gauges failed, mainly
on account of the change of temperature and the very great
pressure to which they were subjected.
The method still most commonly employed is that insti-
tuted by Capt. Ross, with the addition of Brooke's detach-
ing apparatus. This method, however, has not thus far
proved available for the deepest parts of the ocean. Among
the devices which have been suggested for this difficult
problem may be mentioned that of the late Mr. Sidney E.
Morse, in which no line was to be employed. A pressure-
gauge was to be carried to the bottom by weights; the
weights becoming detached, the gauge and part of the ap-
paratus with which it was connected were brought back to
the surface by the buoyancy of hollow spheres of glass.
Another process, suggested by the writer of this article,
may be termed the electric method. It consists in coiling
a fine insulated wire within a hollow tube attached to the
weight, the wire being paid out from the tube as the weight
descends. There being no motion of the line in the water,
friction is thus avoided, and the plummet will descend with
a sensibly uniform velocity (or at least with a velocity which
will vary according to a known law). By connecting the
wire with a battery on board the vessel, and making the
shock of the weight on the bottom “make ’’ the galvanic
circuit, the time of descent can be exactly determined.
Knowing the rate of descent and the time, the depth can
easily be ascertained. This device seems to be better cal-
culated for reaching the depths which have not heretofore
been reached than any other. It would not be necessary
or advisable to attempt to recover the wire, but it would
probably be less expensive to take a new wire at each east.
The time of making a deep sounding would thus be greatly
shortened.
For further researches in determining depths of the ocean
there is needed an apparatus which can be more frequently
applied, so as to multiply soundings, and one which will
attain the greatest depths with certainty of results.
WILLIAM P. TROWBRIDGE.
P. 2055.
Deer [etymologically related to the Gr. 6;ip ; Ger. Thier,
a “beast”], the name given to ruminating quadrupeds with
deciduous horns or antlers, which form the essential cha-
racter of the Linnaean genus Cervus, to which all these ani-
mals belong. Deer are distinguished from other ruminants
by the absence of a gall-bladder. The species of deer may
be divided into two groups, of which one includes those
with antlers more or less flattened ; the other those with
rounded antlers. ‘’The elk or moose (Cervus alces) is the
most characteristic species of the first group, and forms the
type of the genus Alees of modern systems. . It sometimes
exceeds the horse in bulk; has a short body, with a still
shorter neck. In the lower jaw it has eight cutting teeth,
none in the upper. The muzzle is long, broad, and over-
hangs the mouth like a square lapel; it is very muscular,
and of service to the animal in gathering its food. The
antlers of the elk appear first in the form of pointed stems;
these are followed by a stem bearing a few short branches.
At five years he puts up antlers in the form of a triangular
plate, supported on a stem and notched along the outer
margin. Subsequently this plate becomes more expanded,
and the points between the notches are developed into long
branches or snags, of which a single antler sometimes has
as many as fourteen ; and the pair will then weigh about
fifty pounds.
The European fallow-deer (Damg vulgaris), called by the
ancients Platyceros, is a species of deer belonging to the
flat-horned group. The male is known as a buck, the
female as a doe, and the young as a fawn.
The red-deer (Cervus elaphus) and the roebuck (Capreo-
lus capraea) are European species, of which the stem of the
antler shows a rounded form in section. The hart and hind
are the male and female of the red-deer. The antlers are
shed soon after pairing, and at this period the hart retires
to the most unfrequented part of the grove. New antlers
begin to grow very soon after the old ones are shed, and
are completed in August. The skin which protects the
vascular periosteum during the growth of the antlers now
dries, and is rubbed off against any resisting object.
The roebuck (Capreolus capraea) is the smallest species
of European deer; the male is monogamous, and the fe-
male brings forth two fawns. This deer is found in Asia.
and wild parts of Europe, such as the Scottish mountains.
The common American deer (Cariacus Virginianw8), called
by the name of roebuck, jumping deer, etc., is about the
size of the European fallow-deer, and resembles it in temper
and character. Color, brown in Summer, and gray-brown
in winter; the fawns are spotted with white. Its food
varies with the season; in winter, buds of shrubs; in Spring
and summer, grass, grain, berries, and the like. This
species is now rare in New England. In the Alleghany
Mountains, from Northern New York to Georgia, it is still
common. In Texas, Florida, and Mexico it is abundant.
The mule-deer (Cervus macrotis) is between the common
deer and the American elk in size. Its horns are round
and twice forked; its ears long, giving its name from their
resemblance to those of the mule. It is confined mostly to
the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, from lat. 54° to
30°. The black-tailed deer (Cervus Richardsonii), some-
Deep Water, a township of Henry co., Mo.
1300
DEER CREEK–DEER LODGE CITY.
what larger than the common deer, but smaller than the
mule-deer, is found in the Pacific States and Rocky Moun-
zº
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%ºft
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%3%.jº-...-2,
2?'. f :2 . . . .” Z/
2*2. 9% fi
Mule Deer.
tain region. The long-tailed deer ( Cervus leucurus), so
called on account of its long tail, which sometimes measures
seventeen inches, is common on the Columbia River. The
American elk or wapiti (Cervus Canadensis) is a large
species resembling the European red-deer. It has tall
branching horns, sometimes six feet high, which are shed
in February or March. The animal is common in the
North-western States. Its flesh is coarse, though the skins
are much prized. Many other species of deer exist in South
America, Africa, and especially in Asia, and its islands.
(See REINDEER, CARIBoo, ELK, and Moose.)
REVISED BY C. W. GREENE.
Deer Creek, a post-township of Tazewell co., Ill. Pop.
Deer Creek, a post-township of Carroll co., Ind. P.
3458.
Deer Creek, a township of Cass co., Ind. Pop. 1271.
Deer Creek, a township of Miami co., Ind. P. 1173.
Deer Creek, a township of Webster co., Ia. P. 266.
Deer Creek, a township of Allen co., Kan. P. 614.
Deer Creek, a township of Bates co., Mo. P. 1057.
Deer Creek, a township of Madison co., O. P. 823.
Deer Creek, a post-township of Pickaway co., O.
Pop. 1458. -
Deer Creek, a township of Mercer co., Pa. P. 579.
Deer Creek, a township of Outagamie co., Wis. Pop.
134. - º
Deer'field, a township of Fulton co., III. Pop. 907.
Deerfield, a post-township of Lake co., Ill. P. 1525.
Deerfield, a post-township of Chickasaw co., Ia. P.
599. .
Deerfield, a township and post-village of Franklin
co., Mass., on the Connecticut River R. R., 33 miles N. of
Springfield. The township contains the important manu-
facturing village of South Deerfield. This township was
the scene of several contests with the Indians in colonial
times. Among these may be mentioned the “Bloody Brook
massacre” (1675), and the burning of the village by the
French and Indians under De Rouville (1703). Deerfield
has many points of interest to the tourist: the North and
South Sugar Loaf Mountains, the latter rising 500 feet
from the plain, and affording from its summit a most
beautiful view of Mounts Holyoke, Tom, and Mettawampe,
with the fertile Connecticut Valley; Arthur's Seat in the
N. W.; the village of Old Deerfield, with its wide streets
finely shaded with elms; and Deer-
field Meadows, celebrated for its fine
crops of tobacco. Old Deerfield has a
beautiful soldiers’ monument, and there
is at South Deerfield a marble monu-
ment commemorative of the Bloody
Brook disaster. Deerfield has a very
fertile soil, an academy, two high
schools, six churches, and is the birth-
place of many distinguished men. It
was the favorite summer residence of
the late Prof. Agassiz. Pop. 3632.
Deerfield, a township of Lapeer
§§ -
§ #. co., Mich. Pop. 419.
Deerfield, a township and post-
village of Lenawee co., Mich., on the
Lake Shore and Michigan Southern
R. R., 60 miles S. W. of Detroit. Pop.
1234.
Deerfield, a township of Living-
ston co., Mich. Pop. 1128.
Deerfield, a township and village
\ of Mecosta co, Mich., on the Chicago
and Michigan R. R., about 15 miles S.
# of Big Rapids. Pop. 564.
Deerfield, a township of Van Bu-
§ ren co., Mich. Pop. 677.
Deerfield, a township and post-
: village of Steele co., Minn. Pop. 438.
Deerfield, a township and post-
village of Vernon co., Mo., on the Mis-
souri Kansas and Texas R. R., 288
miles W. S. W. of St. Louis. Pop. 506.
Deerfield, a post-township of
Rockingham co., N. H. It has manu-
factures of lumber, tubs, pails, doors,
sash and blinds, boots and shoes, etc.
Pop. 1768.
Deerfield, a township of Cumber-
land co., N. J. Pop. 1518.
Deerfield, a post-township of Oneida co., N. Y.
2045. -
Deerfield, a township of Morgan co., O. Pop. 981.
Deerfield, a post-township of Portage co., O. Pop.
1025.
Deerfield, a township of Ross co., O. Pop. 1223.
Deerfield, a township of Warren co., O. Pop. 1965.
Deerfield, a post-village of Warren co., O. Pop. 274.
Deerfield, a township of Tioga co., Pa. Pop. 665.
Deerfield, a township of Warren co., Pa. Pop. 2324.
Deerfield, a post-township of Dane co., Wis. P. 1040.
Deerfield, a township of Waushara co., Wis. P. 234.
Deer Grass (Rhearia), a genus of plants of the order
Melastomaceae. Eight species are natives of the U. S.
They have brilliant rosy-purple flowers.
Deer’ing, a post-township of Hillsborough co., N. H.
It has an academy and manufactures of boots, shoes, and
lumber. Pop. 722. t
Deer Island, an island of Charlotte co., New Bruns-
wick, at the entrance to the Bay of Fundy, inhabited by
fishermen and farmers. Pop. about 1000.
Deer Island, in the harbor of Boston, Mass., contain-
ing the city almshouse, a house of industry, and other
charitable institutions. Pop. 1001.
Deer Isle, a post-township of Hancock co., Me. It
includes Great and Little Deer Isles and Ile au Haut, be-
sides smaller islands, and has important fisheries. Lob-
sters are here canned for market. By steamer it is 130
miles from Portland. There are four churches. P. 3414.
Deer Lodge, a county in the W. of Montana. Area,
11,732 square miles. Is drained by the sources of Clarke's
River. The surface is mountainous. Gold is found here.
There is considerable timber upon the mountains, and
many of the valleys are exceedingly fertile, though gene-
rally requiring irrigation. Grain, hay, and dairy products
are raised. Capital, Deer Lodge City. Pop. 4367.
Deer Lodge City, capital of the above county, situ-
ated on Deer Lodge River, in Deer Lodge Valley, is 45
miles N. of the Deer Lodge Pass. It has two weekly news-
papers, a graded school, a national bank, a hospital in
charge of the Sisters of Mercy, a Catholic and a Presby-
terian church, and contains the Territorial penitentiary.
KERLEY SMITH, McQUAID & Co., PROPs. “INDEPENDENT.”
Pop.



DEERMOUSE-DEFTER-DAR.
1301
Deer/mouse, or Jump'ing Mouse (Meriones), a
genus of rodents allied to the mouse and jerboa families,
are natives of America. One species, the Labrador jump-
ing mouse, is found far N. The Canada jumping mouse
(Meriones Canadensis) is an active and beautiful animal,
having long, slender hind legs and a very long tail. It can
leap to the distance of four yards. It remains dormant
during the winter.
Deer Park, a post-township of La Salle co., Ill. P. 894.
Deer Park, a township of Orange co., N. Y., 36 miles
W. of Newburg. It is traversed by the Erie R. R., and
contains the village of Port Jervis. Pop. 9387.
De Fac/to, a Latin legal phrase, signifies “in fact,”
“in reality,” and is used to denote actual possession, how-
ever acquired. A person who usurps a throne to which he
has no title is king de facto, but the legitimate claimant is
king de jure, “ of right.” An officer de facto is one who
performs the duties of an office with apparent rights and
under claim and color of appointment to such office, but
without being actually qualified by law to act as an officer.
Defamation. See LIBEL, by PROF. T. W. Dwight.
Default’ [Fr. défaut, from de, intensive, and faillir, to
“fail;” It. diffalta], in law, is, in a general sense, the
omission of any act which a party ought to perform in
order to entitle himself to a legal remedy. Such is, for ex-
ample, non-appearance in court on a day assigned. If a
plaintiff in an action make default, he is non-suited; if a
defendant, judgment by default is passed against him.
Judgment by default is not necessarily final.
Default'er, a person who fails to perform a public
duty; an officeholder who embezzles public money, or fails
to account for money entrusted to his keeping. His offence
is called defalcation.
Defeas'ance [Norman Fr. défesance, from de, mega-
tive, and faire, to “do or perform *], in law, a collateral
deed made at the same time with a deed of conveyance,
containing conditions on the performance of which the es-
tate thus created may be defeated; also a defeasance as to
a bond or recognizance is a condition contained in or en-
dorsed on the instrument, which when performed defeats it.
Defen'dant [Fr. défendeur], in law, the party against
whom a claim is made in an action or suit. The rule is
now held to be that in personal actions ex contractu the
action is to be brought against the person who either ex-
pressly or implicitly made the contract; in personal actions
eac delicto, against the person who either actually commit-
ted the injury or aided in committing it.
Defender of the Faith [Lat. Fidei Defensor], a
title given Oct. 11, 1521, by Pope Leo X. to Henry VIII.
of England, on the publication of his writings against
Luther. When the king suppressed the monasteries and
convents the pope recalled the title. It was, however, con-
firmed by Parliament in the thirty-fifth year of his reign,
and has since been assumed by the sovereigns of England.
Def’erent [from the Lat. defero, to “carry away”
(from de, “from,” and fero, to “carry ‘’)], a term used in
the Ptolemaic system of astronomy, according to which the
planets move in small circular orbits, the centres of which
are carried round in the circumference of other larger cir-
cles having the sun for their common centre. These prim-
cipal circles are called the deferents, as carrying the orbits,
those in which the planets move being called epicycles.
“Deferent nerves” are those which convey impressions
from the brain to the periphery or to the muscles. They
are otherwise called motor nerves. In point of fact, most
nerves contain both deferent and afferent (or sensitive) fil-
aments.
Deffand, du (MARIE DE VICHY-CHAMRoud), MAR-
QUISE, a French literary lady, born in 1697. She was
beautiful, witty, and accomplished, but was a skeptic and
egotist. Her house in Paris was frequented by many emi-
nent authors and statesmen. She corresponded with Vol-
taire, Horace Walpole, and D’Alembert, and wrote letters
which are commended for style. Died Sept. 23, 1780.
Defiance, a county of Ohio, bordering on Indiana.
Area, 414 square miles. It is intersected by the Maumee
River, and partly drained by the Auglaize. The surface
is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Lumber, dairy products,
cattle, grain, tobacco, wool, and hay are staple produc-
tions. It is traversed by the Toledo Wabash and Western
R. R. and the Wabash and Erie Canal. Capital,. Defiance.
Pop. 15,719.
Defiance, a post-village, capital of the above county,
is on the Maumee River at the mouth of the Auglaize, and
on the Toledo Wabash and Western R. R., 50 miles W. S. W.
of Toledo. It has six churches, two weekly newspapers,
and a national bank. Pop. 27.50; of Defiance township,
3615.
Defi’cient Num’ber, in arithmetic, is one which ex-
ceeds the sum of its aliquot parts. Thus 8 is a deficient
number, since the sum of its aliquot parts, 1, 2, 4, only
amounts to 7.
Defilade [Fr. défilade, from the Lat. de, “away,” and
filum, a “line,” referring to fortified lines]. Defilading, in
fortification, is—1, so arranging the height of a work that
the enemy cannot see into it; or, 2, so directing its faces
that the enemy can neither enfilade them nor take them in
reverSG.
Defile [Fr. défile, etymologically related to DEFILADE
(which see), in military language, a narrow place or paş-
Sage through which troops can pass only in file or in a col-
umn with a narrow front. Wherever free lateral movement
is obstructed is a defile. If the defile cannot be avoided
without making a long circuit, it is called a “pass.” To
defile is to march off by file.
Definite Proportionals, in chemistry. See CHEM-
ISTRY, by PROF. G. F. BARKER, M.D
Defini’tion [Låt. definitio, from de, intensive, and
finio, finitwm, to “mark limits’’ (from finis, an “end,” a
“limit”)] is a proposition explanatory of the meaning of
a word; a setting forth of a thing by its properties. In
logic, definition signifies “an expression which explains
any term so as to separate it from everything else, as a
boundary separates fields.” (See LoGIC.) A good defini-
tion must be—1st. Adequate—that is, neither so narrow as
to explain a part instead of the whole, nor so extensive as
to explain the whole instead of a part. 2d. It should be
clearer (i.e. be composed of ideas less complex) than the
thing defined. 3d. It should be expressed in just a suffi-
cient number of proper words. Metaphorical words are
indefinite, and should not be used. (See FLEMING, “Vo-
cabulary of Philosophy.”) - *
Deflection [Lat. deflecio, from de, “from * or “down,”
and flecto, flexum, to “bend”], in architecture, the change
of form produced in a beam when its upper surface be-
comes depressed below its original level line, whether
caused by an extraneous weight or merely by that of the
unsupported portion of the beam itself. The laws which
regulate the deflection of beams have been thus stated by
Coulomb: 1. The deflection below the natural level is pro-
portional to the weight; 2. The weight required to produce
depression is proportional to the width of the bar, but in
the ratio of the cube of the depth; 3. It is in the inverse
ratio of the cube of the length.
DEFLECTION of a projectile is its perpendicular distance
at any point of its flight, measured horizontally at that
point, from a vertical plane passing through the prolonga-
tion of the axis of the piece from which it is fired.
DEFLECTION, in optics. See DIFFRACTION.
De Foe (DANIEL), an English writer, born in London in
1661, was a son of James Foe, a butcher and non-conform-
ist. In 1685 he joined the rebellion of the duke of Monmouth,
after whose defeat he became a tradesman. He produced in
1701 “The True-born Englishman,” a satirical poem de-
signed to vindicate King William III., and was very suc-
cessful. In 1702 he wrote an ironical pamphlet entitled
“The Shortest Way with Dissenters,” for which the House
of Commons punished him with the pillory, a fine, and im-
prisonment for two years. He advocated the principles of
the Whigs and dissenters in several political works. In
1706 the ministers employed him as one of the staff of com-
missioners sent to Scotland to promote the union of the two
countries. He published a “History of the Union ” (1709).
In 1713 he was again fined and imprisoned for one of his
political writings. His most popular work is “The Ad-
ventures of Robinson Crusoe’’ (1719). He wrote, besides
numerous other works, a “Journal of the Plague’’ (1722),
“The Adventures of Roxana’’ (1724), and “Memoirs of a
Cavalier,” all of which produce a vivid impression of
reality. He died April 24, 1731. He was a pithy and vig-
orous writer, distinguished for his versatility of mind and
fertility of invention. (See W. HAZLITT, “Memoirs of De
Foe,” 1843; Sir WALTER Scott, “Life of De Foe,” prefixed
to De Foe's works; WILLIAM LEE, “Life of Daniel Defoe,”
3 vols., 1869.)
De Forest (John WILLIAM), an American author, born
in Seymour, then part of Derby, Conn., Mar. 31, 1826. In
his early life he spent two years in travelling in the Levant
and four years in Europe. He is the author of “Oriental
Sketches” and “European Acquaintances,” light sketches
of travels, and “Seacliff,” “Miss Ravenel,” “Overland,”
“Kate Beaumont,” and “The Wetherel Affair,” all novels.
In the civil war he was three years in active service as
captain of volunteers, was brevetted major, and commanded
a Freedman’s Bureau district three years more, and after-
wards resided in New Haven.
Def'ter-Dar (literally, “bookkeeper”), the title given:
&
1302.
DEGER—DEISTS.
by the Turks to the minister of finance, who sits in the
divan and disposes of all the public money. The title is of
Persian origin, and is conferred upon certain officials in
that country. -
HDe’ger (ERNST), a German historical painter of the
Düsseldorf school, was born near Hildesheim in 1809. He
became a professor of fine arts at Munich.
Deg'gendorf, a town of Lower Bavaria, on the Dan-
ube, 28 miles N. W. of Passau. The town has a consider-
able trade in wood, etc. Pop. in 1871, 5452.
Dego'nia, a township of Jackson co., Ill. Pop. 470.
De Graff, a post-village of Miami township, Logan
co., O. It is on the Cleveland Columbus Cincinnati and
Indianapolis R. R., 9 miles S. W. of Bellefontaine. It has
one weekly newspaper. Pop. 624.
Degree' [from the Lat. de, “intensive,” and gradus, a
“step ’’ or “degree”], the 360th part of the circumference
of a circle. (See below, DEGREE IN TRIGONOMETRY.)
DEGREE IN ALGEBRA, the magnitude of the greatest sum
that can be formed by adding together the exponents of the
facients or variables which occur in any single term of an
equation or expression. The terms degree and order are
frequently used synonymously in algebra, but have distinct
meanings when applied to differential equations.
DEGREE IN TRIGONoMETRY is the angle subtended at the
centre of any circle by an are equal to the 360th part of
its circumference; it is the 90th part of a right angle. A
degree is subdivided into sixty minutes, and each minute
into sixty seconds. The notation employed for an angle of
six degrees fifty-two minutes and sixteen seconds is 6° 52'
16”. The above division of the circle is of very remote
origin. It is not certainly known what gave occasion to
the adoption of the arbitrary number 360, but it probably
had reference to the space described by the sun in one day
in performing his annual revolution in the ecliptic, the
number 360 being taken instead of 365, as being more con-
venient for arithmetical operations on account of its con-
taining a great number of divisors. The Chinese divide the
circle into 365% equal parts, so that the sun describes daily
an arc of one Chinese degree. An attempt was made by
the French philosophers, at the period of the Revolution,
to introduce into works of science a division of the circle
better adapted to our decimal arithmetic (the quadrant or
right angle being divided into 100 degrees, the degrees into
100 minutes, etc.); but though the system was adopted by
some writers of the first order of merit (as by Laplace in
the “Mécanique Céleste”), and extensive tables were com-
puted for the purposes of astronomical calculations, it never
came into general use. A division of this sort was recom-
mended long ago by some of the most eminent mathema-
ticians. (See F. A. P. BARNARD, “Metric System,” 1872,
pp. 84–86.)
- DEGREE, As A ScHoDASTIC DISTINCTION, is the grade or
rank to which scholars are admitted, in recognition of their
attainments, by a college or university. Collegiate degrees,
in cowrse, are given, or should be given, only upon examin-
ation. Honorary degrees are sometimes conferred without
examination. The pope and the archbishop of Canterbury
also confer scholastic degrees, especially the doctorate. (See
ARTs, DEGREES IN.)
DEGREE IN MUSIC, one of the small intervals of which the
concords or harmonical intervals are composed; the differ-
ence of position or elevation of the notes on the lines and
spaces. When notes are on the same line or space, they
are on the same degree, even though one of the notes should
be raised by a sharp or lowered by a flat.
Degrees of Latitude and Longitude. The dis-
tance from the equator to the poles, along a meridian, is
called latitude, or width; the distance from an assumed
prime meridian, along a parallel, in the direction of the
earth’s rotation, is called longitude, or length. These ex-
pressions have been handed down to us by the ancients,
who used them because the world known to them was really
more extensive, or long, from east to west, than wide, from
north to south. The degrees of latitude are counted from
the equator as zero, both north and south, making ninety
degrees each way to the poles. It would be most desirable
that all civilized nations should also agree on a prime me-
ridian from which the degrees of longitude should be uni-
formly counted; but it is not so. The English count 180
degrees east and 180 degrees west from the meridian pass-
ing through their national observatory at Greenwich, near
London; the French start from the meridian of their ob-
servatory at Paris; the Germans often take the meridian
of Ferro, the most western of the Canary Islands, because
it leaves all the lands of the Old World to the east, and
those of the New World to the west; the Americans often
use the meridian of the National Observatory at Washing-
ton. Therefore, when the longitude of a place is men-
g
tioned, the prime meridian from which it is reckoned must
be indicated. The seafaring nations mostly use Greenwich
longitude; the nations on the continent of Europe, Paris
and Ferro. -
The relative position of these prime meridians is such
that, Paris being zero, Greenwich is 2° 20' 22" W., and
Ferro is assumed to be 20° W. from the Paris meridian.
Washington is 79° 23' 28' W. from Paris, and 77° 3' 6"
from Greenwich. The latitude and longitude of a point
being known, it is evident that its true position on the sur-
face of the globe is fully determined.
The meridians being all great circles, the length of their
degrees, or of the degrees of latitude, is about uniform;
they only show slight elongation towards the poles, due to
the polar compression. But the degrees of the parallels
which mark the longitudes are rapidly decreasing with the
circumference of the circles from the equator to the poles,
as shown in the following table :
Length of Degrees of Longitudº#. Different Latitudes, in English
206S.
Degrees of Ilength of Circumf. Degrees of Length of Circumf.
latitude, degrees. of parallel. latitude. degrees. of parallel.
Equator........69.16......... 24,899 50°.........48.55......... 16,037
5° ........68.90......... 24,805 55 ......... 39.76......... 14,314
10 ........ 68.12......... ,523 60 ......... 34.67......... 12,482
5 66.82 24,056 65 ......... 29.31......... 10,553
20 ........ 65.02......... 23,407 70 .........28.73......... 8,542
25 ........ 62.72......... 22,580 75 ......... 17.96......... 6,466
80 ........59.95......... 21,581 80 ......... 12.05......... 4,339
85 ........56.72......... 20,419 85 ......... 6.84......... 2,464
40 ........ 53.06......... 19,101 0 ......... 0.00......... Pole
45 ........ .99......... 17,636
The length of a minute of a degree of the equator is
called a geographical mile, of which, therefore, there are
sixty in one degree. This is the same as the nautical
mile, used by all mariners in computing distances at sea.
One degree of the equator contains 69.16 English statute
miles.
Finding the Difference of Longitude between Two Places.—
As the earth revolves on its axis, each meridian is carried
over 360 degrees in twenty-four hours, or 1440 minutes,
and over one degree in four minutes, whatever be the
length of the degree. The difference in longitude of two
places can therefore be expressed by the difference in time
of their meridians. That difference of four minutes for
each degree is uniformly the same in all latitudes. A trav-
eller going westward one degree of longitude with a good
watch, will find it four minutes ahead of the time of the
place; when travelling eastward, four minutes behind.
When leaving New York, for example, and arriving at
London, if we find the watch to be four hours and fifty-six
minutes, or 296 minutes, behind the London—or, rather, the
Greenwich—time, we conclude that the difference of longi-
tude between the two places is ###, or 74 degrees. Leav-
ing New York for the Pacific coast, if we find that the time-
keeper, which brings the true time of that place, marks
3h. 14m. P. M. when it is noon at San Francisco, we again
conclude that the difference of longitude between the two
places is 194 minutes of time, which, divided by 4, makes
48° 30' W. of New York, and 122° 30' W. from Greenwich.
ARNOLD GUYOT.
De Grey, EARL. See RIPON, MARQUIs of.
De Haas (MAURICE F. H.), born at Rotterdam, in the
Netherlands, about 1830, was a pupil of Louis Meyer and
other eminent artists. He gave much attention to marine
painting, in which he early acquired distinction. In 1857
he was appointed artist to the Dutch navy. In 1859 he
came to New York, where he has since occupied a high
position as a painter. Most of his earlier pictures are from
the British Channel and French coast, and are marked by
vigorous and effective drawing and by fidelity to nature.
His “Farragut passing the Forts” is his best-known Amer-
ican work. º
De Ha’ven (EDw1N J.), an American naval officer,
born in Philadelphia in 1819. He conducted an expedition
sent from New York in search of Sir John Franklin in 1850.
Died in Philadelphia May 9, 1865. •
Deſi Gratſia, a Latin formula, signifying “by the
grace (or favor) of God,” originally used by the clergy,
but afterwards inserted in the ceremonial description of the
title of a sovereign.
Deſists [from the Lat. Deus, “God”], a name assumed
in France and Italy about the middle of the sixteenth cen-
tury by those who acknowledged the existence of a God,
but rejected the Bible. Among the earliest advocates of .
these opinions in England was Lord Herbert of Cherbury,
whose work, “De Veritate,” was published at Paris in
1624. Hobbes, Blount, Bolingbroke, Shaftesbury, Hume,
Toland, and Anthony Collins are among the principal Eng-
lish deistical writers. As several of the early deists (in-
cluding Bolingbroke) were men of more than doubtful
DEJANIRA–DE LANCEY.
1303
moral character, the word came to be used in an unfavor-
able sense, not implied in the etymology of the word (sig-
nifying simply a “believer in God”), and a sense which
does not attach to the term theist, which originally meant
the same. (See LECHLER, “Geschichte des Englischen
Deismus,” 1841.) In France deistical views were advo-
cated by many of the prominent free-thinkers, and in Ger-
many by a large number of rationalists. The term theist,
which etymologically means the same, has now an entirely
different meaning. (See FREE-THINKERs, by REV. O. B.
FROTHINGHAM.)
Dejani'ra, or Deianeira [Gr. Amtévetpa or Améveupal,
in Greek mythology, a daughter of CEneus, king of Ætolia,
was the wife of Hercules. She preserved some blood of
the centaur Nessus as a love-charm, and Saturated with it
a tunic of Hercules, who was poisoned by it.
De Jure, “ of right.” See DE FACTO.
De Kalb, a county in the N. E. of Alabama. Area, 750
square miles. It is drained by Wills Creek and Town
Creek. It is partly occupied by Lookout Mountain and
Sand Mountain, between which is a long and fertile valley.
Grain, tobacco, cotton, and wool are raised. It is inter-
sected by the Alabama and Chattanooga R. R. Bitumi-
nous coal is mined. Capital, Lebanon. Pop. 7126.
De Kalb, a county in N. W. Central Georgia. Area,
350 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by Chattahoo-
chee River. The surface is undulating. A granite rock
rises in this county about 2200 feet above the sea. Corn,
cotton, wool, and tobacco are raised. It is intersected by
the Georgia R. R. Capital, Decatur. Pop. 10,014.
De Kalb, a county in the N. of Illinois. Area, 648
square miles. It is drained by Sycamore and Indian
creeks. The surface is undulating; the soil fertile. The
greater part of it is prairie. Butter, cheese, cattle, grain,
wool, and hay are largely raised. There are manufactures
of carriages, wagons, etc. It is intersected by the Chicago
and North-western and Chicago and Iowa. R. Rs. Capital,
Sycamore. Pop. 23,265.
De Kalb, a county of Indiana, bordering on Ohio.
Area, 346 square miles. It is drained by the St. Joseph's
River, a branch of the Maumee. The soil is fertile. Cat-
tle, dairy products, lumber, wool, hay, and grain are the
chief staples. It is intersected by the Fort Wayne Jack-
son and Saginaw R. R., and the Lake Shore and Michigan
Southern R. R. Capital, Auburn. Pop. 17,167.
De Kalb, a county in the N. W. of Missouri. Area,
440 square miles. It is drained by several small affluents
of the Platte, and by Blue Creek, an affluent of Grand
River. The surface is diversified by prairies and forests;
the soil is productive. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are
raised. Capital, Maysville. Pop. 9858.
De Kalb, a county of Middle Tennessee. Area, 300
square miles. It is intersected by Caney Fork, an affluent
of the Cumberland River. The soil is fertile. Cattle,
grain, tobacco, and wool are raised. Capital, Smithville.
Pop. 11,425.
De Kalb, a township of Grant co., Ark. Pop. 529.
De Kalb, a township and village of De Kalb co., Ill.,
on the Chicago and North-western R. R., 58 miles W. of
Chicago. It has a graded school, one weekly newspaper,
and an artesian well. P. 2164. L. H. Post, ED. “NEws.”
De Kalb, a post-village, capital of Kemper co., Miss.
De Kalb, a post-village and township of St. Lawrence
co., N. Y., on the Rome Watertown and Ogdensburg R. R.,
at the junction of branches from Potsdam and Ogdens-
burg. The town has five churches, extensive dairies, and
manufactures of lime. Pop. 3116.
De Kalb, a township of Kershaw co., S. C. Pop. 2578.
De Kalb, a township of Scott &o., Va. Pop. 1975.
De Kalb, a township of Gilmer co., West Va. Pop. 848.
De Kalb (JoHN), BARON, a German general, born in
Bavaria June 29, 1721, served first in the French army.
He came to the U. S. with La Fayette in 1777, and was
appointed a major-general by Congress in the same year.
He served under Washington in Pennsylvania and New
Jersey until the spring of 1780, and then became the sec-
ond in command in the army of Gen. Gates. He was mor-
tally wounded at the battle of Camden, S. C., and died Aug.
19, 1780. (See KAPP, “Leben des Amerikan. Generals, Joh.
Kalb,” 1862.)
De Kay (JAMEs E.), M. D., an eminent zoologist, born
in New York in 1792, published, besides other works,
“Sketches of Turkey,” and 5 vols. 4to on the existing
fauna in the “Report of the New York State Survey’”
(1842). Died Nov. 21, 1851.
Dekor/ra, a post-township of Columbia co., Wis. Pop.
I397.
Del (Artocarpus pubescens), a tree of the same genus as
the bread-fruit, is indigenous in the forests of Ceylon, and
is valuable for its timber, which is used as a material for
houses and for ships.
De la Beche (Sir HENRY THOMAs), F. R. S., an Eng-
lish geologist, born near London in 1796. Among his works
are a “Geological Manual * (1832) and the “Geological
Observer” (1851). Died April 13, 1855. -
Delacroix (FERDINAND VICTOR EUGièNE), an eminent
French historical painter, born at Charenton, near Paris,
April 26, 1799. He was a pupil of P. Guérin, but did not
adopt his classical style. In 1822 he produced a picture
of “Dante and Virgil,” which attracted much attention.
His “Massacre of Scio '' (1824) was generally admired.
He soon became recognized as the chief of the romantic
school, and displayed remarkable versatility of talent on
a great variety of subjects. Among his best works are
“Mephistopheles appearing to Faust” (1827), “The Death
of Sardanapalus” (1827), “The Women of Algiers” (1834),
“The Prisoner of Chillon’” (1835), “Medea,” (1838), “The
Death of Marcus Aurelius” (1845), and “The Farewell of
Romeo and Juliet" (1846). He was admitted into the In-
stitute in 1857. He has a high reputation as a colorist, but
he does not excel in correctness of drawing. Died at Paris
Aug. 13, 1863. (THáo. SILVESTRE, “Histoire des Artistes
Vivants,” Paris, 1856; “Catalogue raisonné de l'oeuvre
d'Eugène Delacroix,” par M. A. MoREAU, Paris, 1873.)
Del/afield, a post-twp. of Waukesha co., Wis. P. 1364.
Delafield (RICHARD), an American officer, born Sept.
1, 1798, in New York City, graduated at West Point in
1818, chief of engineers April 22, 1864, with the rank of
brigadier-general. He served on the northern boundary
survey of the U. S. under the treaty of Ghent 1818; in
building fortifications, improvement of rivers and harbors,
constructing roads and canals, 1819–38 and 1846–64; as
superintendent of the Military Academy 1838–45 and 1856–
61; as member of boards of engineers 1845–64; as presi-
dent of military commission to the Crimea, and theatre of
war in Europe 1854–56 (report thereon published by Con-
gress 1860); on the staff of Gov. Morgan of New York to
reorganize and equip State forces for service in the civil
war 1861–63; in command of corps of engineers and in
charge of engineer bureau, Washington, D. C., 1864–66;
as inspector of Military Academy 1864–66; as member of
lighthouse board and of commission for the improvement
of Boston harbor 1864–70; and as regent of Smithsonian
Institution 1865–70. Brevet major-general U. S. A. Mar.
I3, 1865, for faithful, meritorious, and distinguished ser-
vice in the engineer department; and retired from active
service Aug. 8, 1866. #. Nov. 5, 1873.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Dela/goa Bay (i. e. “water bay ”), an inlet of the In-
dian Ocean, in South-eastern Africa, is 55 miles long and
about 20 miles wide. It is about lat. 26° S. and lon. 33°
E. The shores are flat, marshy, and unhealthy, but the
bay is commodious and safe. It is visited by many wha-
ling-ships. Several rivers, one of which is the Delagoa,
enter this bay.
Delambre (JEAN BAPTIST Joseph), a Frer:ch astrono-
mer, born at Amiens Sept. 29, 1749, studied under Lalande.
He produced “Tables of the Orbit of Uranus” in 1790, and
in 1792 “Tables of Jupiter's Satellites.” In the service
of the government, Delambre and Méchain spent about
seven years (1792–99) in the measurement of the arc of the
meridian from Dunkirk to Barcelona. Delambre published
the result of this operation in his “Base du Système
Métrique Decimal” (1806–10). He was admitted into the
Institute in 1795, became perpetual secretary of the Academy
of Sciences in 1803, and professor of astronomy in the Col-
lege of France in 1807. Among his numerous and able
works are “Theoretical and Practical Astronomy'' (1814),
a “History of Ancient Astronomy” (1817), a “History of
Mediaeval Astronomy” (1819), and a “History of Modern
Astronomy” (1821). Died Aug. 19, 1822. (See FourTER,
“Eloge de Delambre.”) . -
De Lan/cey (JAMEs), an American jurist, born in New
York in 1703, was the son of a Huguenot from Normandy.
He was educated at Cambridge, England, returned to New
York in 1729, became a justice in the supreme court of the
province, and in 1733 its chief-justice. He was one of the
founders of King's (now Columbia) College, and was lieu-
tenant-governor for several years. Died Aug. 2, 1760. He
was a man of great talents, wealth, and learning, but is said
to have been unprincipled and intriguing. Several members
of the De Lancey family were prominent and bitter Tories
during the Revolutionary war, but they were generally
men of remarkable talents.
De Lancey (WILLIAM HEATHCOTE), D. D., LL.D., D.
C. L. Oxox., a Protestant Episcopalian bishcp, born at
1304
DELANEY – DELAWARE.
Mamaroneck, N. Y., Oct. 8, 1797, graduated at Yale in
1817, was ordained deacon in 1819, priest in 1822, was pro-
vost of the University of Pennsylvania (1825–30), and was
consecrated bishop of Western New York in 1839. Died
at Geneva, N. Y., April 5, 1865.
Dela’ney (PATRICK), an Anglican theologian, born in
Ireland in 1686, was educated at Dublin University. He
published (1732–36) a work entitled “Revelation Examined
with Candor,” a treatise which is still highly valued. Some
of his other works, among which is a “Life of David "
(1740), exhibit learning and ingenuity, without great excel-
lence in other respects. Died in 1768. §
Delangle (CLAUDE ALPHONSE), a French statesman,
born at Varzy April 6, 1797, was advocate-general at the
court of cassation from 1840 to 1846. In Dec., 1852, he
became first president of the imperial court of justice, later
was made a senator, was minister of the interior in 1858,
minister of justice (1859 to 1863), and became in 1863 vice-
president of the senate. Died in Paris Dec. 26, 1869.
Del/ano, a township of Humboldt co., Ia. Pop. 145.
Delano, a post-village of Wright co., Minn., on the St.
Paul and Pacific R. R., 40 miles W. by N. of St. Paul. It
has one weekly newspaper.
Delano (CoLUMBUs), an American lawyer, born in
Shoreham, Vt., in 1809, removed in his early youth to
Ohio. He practised law with distinction, and was chosen
a member of Congress in 1844. Having joined the Repub-
lican party, he was again elected to Congress in 1864. He
became commissioner of internal revenue in Mar., 1869,
and secretary of the interior in the cabinet of General Grant
in Oct., 1870.
Delan’ti, a village of Stockton township, Chautauqua
co., N. Y., has three churches and some manufactures.
Pop. 245.
Delaroche (PAUL), a French historical painter, the
chief of the modern eclectic school, was born in Paris July
17, 1797. He was a pupil of Baron Gros, and adopted a
style by which he endeavored to unite the dignity of the
classic with the picturesqueness of the romantic school. In
1824 he exhibited “Joan of Arc Interrogated in Prison.”
His reputation was increased by the “Death of Queen
Elizabeth’’ (1827) and “The Children of Edward IV. in
the Tower of London’’ (1831). He was admitted into the
Institute in 1832, and married a daughter of Horace Vernet.
Among his masterpieces are “Cromwell Gazing on the
Corpse of Charles I.” (1832), “Napoleon at Saint-Ber-
mard ” (1850), and “The Girondists in Prison’’ (1855). He
adorned the semicircular saloon of the Palais des Beaux-
Arts with an admirable composition, which represents the
artists of all ages, and contains about seventy figures.
Died Nov. 4, 1856.
De la Rue (WARREN), PH. D., F. R. S., an English
physicist and inventor, born about 1815, was educated in
Paris, and afterwards followed his father's employment as
wholesale stationer and manufacturer of card-paper. He
has invented processes for photographing the heavenly
bodies, improvements in color-printing, in envelope-folding
machines, in oil-refining, etc., and has published important
reports of original observations in chemistry, astronomy,
and physics.
Dela’tor (plu. Delato’res), [from the Lat. defero,
delatum, to “carry off”], a Latin word, literally meaning
“carrier,” came to be applied to the carriers of evil re-
ports, informers, or public spies. Under the Roman em-
perors the delatores were a class of men who gained their
living by informing against their fellow-citizens. They
constantly brought false charges forward to gratify the
jealousy or avarice of the different emperors, and were
generally paid according to the apparent consequence of
the information they gave, although in some cases the law
specified the sums which were to be given to informers.
Thus, if a murder had been committed in a family, and any
slaves ran away before inquest (quaestio) had been made,
whoever apprehended such slaves received for each one so
apprehended five pieces of gold from the estate of the de-
ceased, or, if the estate could not pay it, the government
gave the reward. At various times attempts were made to
regulate the pay of public spies and informers, who at last
became so numerous, and gave rise to so much trouble in
society, that the emperors were obliged to expel and va-
riously punish great numbers of them.
Delaunay (CHARLEs EugièNE), F. R. S. L., a French
mathematician and astronomer, born April 9, 1816, was
educated at the Polytechnic School, where he graduated in
1836 with the highest honors. He was subsequently ap-
pointed principal engineer of mines of the first class, and
professor of mechanics in the Polytechnic School and in
the Faculty of Sciences. He was also an officer of the Le-
gion of Honor, a member of the Institute, and was the re-
cipient of numerous native and foreign honors and distinc-
tions. He became a member of the Academy in 1855, of the
bureau of longitude in 1862, and director of the Parisian
Observatory in 1870. He has written, among other works,
“Traité de Mécanique Rationelle” (3d ed. 1862), “Théorie
de la Lune” (1866), “Rapport sur le Progrès de l’Astrono-
mie ’’ (1867). He was drowned at Cherbourg Aug. 5, 1872.
Del’avan, a post-village of Tazewell co., Ill., on the
Chicago and Alton R. R. and the Pekin branch of the To-
ledo Wabash and Western R. R., 157 miles S. W. of Chicago.
It has two weekly newspapers, a library, two banks, two
manufactories, a park, and a high school. Pop. of Dela-
van township, 1957. ED. “INDEPENDENT.”
Delavam, a post-village of Faribault co., Minn., on the
Southern Minnesota. R. R., 162 miles W. of La Crosse. It
has one weekly newspaper.
Delavan, a post-village of Walworth co., Wis., on Turtle
Creek and the Western Union R. R., 58 miles S. W. of Mil-
waukee. It has a national bank, the State institution for
the deaf and dumb, five churches, a foundry, a cheese-fac-
tory, one graded school, and one weekly newspaper. Pop.
1688; of Delavan township, 2509. ED. “REPUBLICAN.”
Delavan (EDWARD C.), an American temperance re-
former, born in Schenectady co., N. Y., in 1793, accumu-
lated by industry and economy a large amount of property
at Albany, N. Y. Here he erected the “Delavan House,”
which was for a long time a famous temperance hotel. He
became a distinguished editor and speaker upon temper-
ance, and expended a large amount of money in the cause.
Died Jan. 15, 1871, after losing a large part of his property.
Delavigne (JEAN FRANÇors CASIMIR), a French dram-
atist, was born April 4, 1793, at Havre. After the Res-
toration he wrote a series of patriotic lyrics called “Mes-
séniennes,” which were received with favor. The dramas
“The Sicilian Vespers” (1819), “The Comedians” (1820),
and “The Pariah '' (1821) increased his fame. In 1830 he
wrote “La Parisienne’’ and other revolutionary songs.
Delavigne occupies an intermediate position between the
classical and romantic school. There are more piquancy
and realistic sentences in his delineations of characters
than in those of Voltaire, but less passion and fire of im-
agination than in those of Victor Hugo. He died Dec. 11,
1843.−His brother, GERMAIN DELAVIGNE (born 1790),
wrote with Casimir the words to Halévy's opera of “Charles
VI.,” and in collaboration with Scribe “Le Vieux Garçon.”
and other vaudevilles. Died in 1868.
Del’aware [named in honor of Lord Delaware, second
governor of Virginia], a river of the U. S., rises in New
York, and is formed by the Coquago and the Popacton,
which unite at Hancock on the boundary between New
York and Pennsylvania. It flows south-eastward to Port
Jervis on the Erie R. R., and reaches the northern extremity
of New Jersey. Below this point it forms the boundary
between Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and runs south-
westward to the Delaware Water Gap, where the river
passes through a picturesque gorge in the Kittatinny Moun-
tain. Thence it flows southward to the northern extremity
of Bucks county, and south-eastward to Trenton, where it
meets tide-water. Below Bordentown it flows south-west-
ward until it enters Delaware Bay, about 40 miles below
Philadelphia. Its whole length is about 300 miles. It is
navigable for steamboats to Trenton, and ships of the larg—
est size can ascend to Philadelphia, where it is nearly one
mile wide. It is connected with the Hudson River by the
Morris Canal and the Delaware and Hudson Canal. Large
numbers of shad are caught in the Delaware.
Delaware, one of the Middle States of the Atlantic
coast, and one of the original thirteen which united in the
war of Independence. It is situated between the parallels
of 38°28' and 39° 50' N. Iat., and between the meridians
of 75° and 75° 46' W. lon. from Greenwich. It has a
length of 96 miles from N. to S., and a breadth ranging
from 9 to 12 miles in the N. to 36 or 37 miles on or near its
S. line; and is bounded on the N. and N. N. W. by Penn-
sylvania, on the E. by Delaware River and bay and the
Atlantic Ocean, on the S. and W. by Maryland. Its area.
is 2120 square miles, or 1,356,800 acres, being, with the ex-
ception of Rhode Island, the smallest State in the Union
in territory. -
Face of the Country.—The peninsula lying between the
Chesapeake and Delaware bays and the Atlantic Ocean, of
which Delaware forms the N. E. portion, is for the most.
part nearly level, and, except on the shores of the Delaware.
River and bay, very generally sandy. There are no moun-
tains, though in the northern portion of the State, which is
somewhat assimilated to the character of the Pennsylvania.
lands, there is some fine rolling country, with pleasant hills
and dales; but below New Castle the only variation from
an absolute level is a sandy and somewhat marshy ridge,
Y T)|ELAWARE.
1305
nowhere exceeding 60 or 70 feet in height, running south-
ward near the western boundary of the State, and forming
the backbone of the peninsula. From the marshes of this
ridge most of the streams which drain the State take their
rise. Of these the affluents of the Pocomoke, the Nanti-
Delaware Seal.
coke, the Choptank, the Chester, and the Elk rivers flow
into Chesapeake Bay, while the Brandywine, White Clay
Creek, Christiana Creek, Appoquinimink, Duck Creek,
Murderkill, Mispillion River, Broadkill, Indian, and other
rivers and creeks are tributaries of the Delaware River and
bay, or discharge their waters into the Atlantic. There
are no considerable indentations of the coast except below
Cape Henlopen, where the surf has thrown up long spits of
sand enclosing the shallow but landlocked sounds known as
Rehoboth Bay, Indian River Bay, and the northern portion
of St. Martin’s Bay. Most of the larger streams are navi-
gable for coasters and fishing-vessels of light draught for
a short distance, but Christiana Creek is the only one nav-
igable for merchant-ships. Rehoboth Bay admits vessels
drawing six feet of water. Delaware Bay, which for more
than half of its course along the eastern shore of the State
is rather an estuary than a bay, is a fine body of water,
with a deep though tortuous channel, having from 35 to 75
feet of water ; but along the Delaware shore it is at most
points much silted up and its banks are marshy and low.
The only good harbors in the State are those of Wilming-
ton on Christiana, Creek, New Castle, and Lewes, just in-
side of the Breakwater.
Geology.—The northern portion of the State, including
nearly one-half of New Castle county, belongs to the same
group of cretaceous rocks with the West Jersey marls and
greensand; from this point down to the banks of Murder-
kill the tertiary formations predominate; the southern por-
tion is wholly alluvial. In the extreme southern part of the
State is the Cypress Swamp, a morass 12 miles long and 6
miles wide, containing a dense growth of cypress and other
evergreens and shrubs, and abounding in noxious reptiles.
The soil for eight or ten miles inward from Delaware Bay
is for the most part a rich clayey loam, but W. of this it is
sandy, and unless constantly enriched yields but light crops.
Of minerals, the most important are bog-iron ore, found in
all the swamps, shell marl in the greensand region, and
kaolin or porcelain clay, also found abundantly and of good
quality in the northern part of the State. The climate is
mild and favorable to agricultural pursuits. In the N. the
air is pure and healthy; in the S. the presence of swamps
causes the prevalence of intermittent and remittent fevers
to some extent. The natural vegetation does not differ
from that of the more level portions of the Middle States
generally. Except in the swampy districts, there are no
extensive forests, the land being generally under cultiva-
tion. In the swamps the trees are largely of a sub-tropical
character. There are few wild animals in the State, though
in the Cypress Swamp, as well as in other swamps, there is
no lack of formidable reptiles. The shores of Delaware
Bay are frequented in their season by immense flocks of
ducks and teal, and at times by wild-geese. The other
birds of the State are those common to the Middle States
lying on or near the Atlantic.
Agricultural Products.-Delaware is eminently a fruit-
growing State. Her peaches and apples and her small
fruits are in demand in the markets of Philadelphia and
New York, and, in connection with New Jersey and Mary-
land, almost completely supply the ever-increasing demand
for these products. According to the census of 1870,
1,052,322 acres, or ten-thirteenths of her entire area, was
in farms, and of this amount 698,115 acres were under cul-
tivation, while 354,207 acres were either woodland or other-
wise unimproved. The average size of her farms was 138
acres; the value of her farms was set down at $46,712,870,
or an average of $45 per acre; the value of farming im-
plements, $1,201,644; the value of all farm products,
$8,171,667; of animals slaughtered, etc., $997,403; of home
manufactures, $33,070; of forest products, $111,810; of mar-
ket-garden products, $198,075 (evidently an under-estimate);
of orchard products, $1,226,893 (this is also understated);
of wages paid to farm hands, $1,696,571; wheat har-
vested, 895,477 bushels; rye, 10,222 bushels; Indian
corn, 3,010,390 bushels; oats, 554,388; barley, 1799;
buckwheat, 1349; flax, 878 pounds; wool, 58,316 pounds;
hay, 41,890 tons; hops, 800 pounds; tobacco, 250 pounds;
sorghum molasses, 65,908 gallons; common potatoes (So-
lanum tuberosum), 362,724 bushels; sweet potatoes (Batatus
edulis), 85,309; peas and beans, 3123 bushels; beeswax,
800 pounds; honey, 33,151 pounds; domestic wine, 1552
gallons; cloverseed, 2228 bushels; flaxseed, 356 bushels;
grass-seed, 60 bushels. Of some of these items we have
later statistics in the careful estimates of the agricultural
department; these gave for the crop of 1871 (two years
later than that of the census), Indian corn, 3,575,000, an
average of 22 bushels to the acre, and worth $2,145,000;
wheat, 688,000 bushels, 11.5 bushels to the acre, and valued
at $1,045,760; rye, 10,100 bushels, an average of but 5
bushels to the acre, worth $7575; oats, 398,000 bushels, an
average yield of 20 bushels to the acre, worth $163,180 ;
barley, 1700 bushels, 17 bushels to the acre, worth $1360;
buckwheat, 1100 bushels, 12.5 bushels to the acre, worth
$847; potatoes (common), 238,000 bushels, 120 bushels to
the acre, worth $119,000; hay, 33,000 tons, 1.25 tons to the
acre, worth $577,500. The estimated amount of live-stock
in the State in Feb., 1872, was—horses, 20,000, valued at
$1,516,400; mules, 4000, valued at $455,960; oxen and
other cattle, 33,400, valued at $606,544; milch cows, 26,000,
valued at $832,000; sheep, 25,300, valued at $101,200;
hogs, 46,000, valued at $230,000. The peach crop of Dela-
ware ranges from 3,300,000 to 3,800,000 baskets, or even
more in favorable years, representing a value of $1,300,000
to $3,000,000; while the apples, pears, and small fruits are
worth more than as much more. In 1872, 3,472,000 quarts
of strawberries were shipped in twenty-five days, yielding
nearly $250,000.
Manufacturing and Mining Industry.—According to the
census of 1870, there were in the State 800 manufacturing
establishments, having for motive-power 164 steam-engines
of 4313 horse-power, and 234 water-wheels of 4220 horse-
power, employing 9710 hands—viz. 7705 adult males, 1199
adult females, and 806 children; having a capital of
$10,839,093; paying wages to the amount of $3,692,195;
using raw materials valued at $10,206,397 ; and producing
goods and wares annually worth $16,791,382. That the
manufacturing industry of the State is greatly understated
in this report (doubtless from the carelessness or incom-
petency of the census marshals) appears from the fact that
a very careful census of the manufacturing establishments
of the city of Wilmington alone, taken in Oct., 1872, gives
capital invested in that city in manufactures, $12,275,000,
and value of manufactured products for the year preced-
ing, $20,125,000, or $3,334,000 more than the product of the
whole State in 1870. Wilmington is unquestionably the
largest manufacturing town or city in the State, but it does
not monopolize more than three-fourths of the manufactur-
ing of the State. The most important manufactures of the
State are—the various departments of iron manufacture,
which produce annually about $3,000,000; flour and
flouring-mill products, about $2,500,000; morocco and
other leather, tanned, curried, and enamelled, $2,500,000
($2,000,000 worth of morocco alone is made in Wilming-
ton); shipbuilding, iron and wood, $1,600,000; machinery,
car-wheels, etc., $2,600,000; railroad and horse-railroad
cars, $1,900,000; cotton goods, $1,600,000; paper, $1,400,000;
powder and chemicals, $1,450,000; carriages and wagons,
$1,500,000; tobacco, cigars, and snuff, $1,000,000; woollen
goods, $800,000; boots, shoes, and findings, $650,000.
Railroads.-There are now completed in Delaware about
383 miles of railroad, belonging to thirteen different lines,
the greater part of them leased to the Philadelphia Wil-
mington and Baltimore Railway, which by these leases con-
trols most of the travel between New England, New York,
and Philadelphia, and Norfolk and other Southern cities.
A ship-canal is in progress between Bombay Hook and the
Sassafras River, connecting the Chesapeake and Delaware
bays. -
Finances.—The State debt of Delaware Dec. 15, 1872, was
$1,325,000. She had investments in dividend-paying stocks
to the amount of $471,800, besides her school fund, which
amounted to $452,410. The receipts of the State treasurer
for the year ending Dec. 15, 1872, were $204,708.17, and
the expenditures for the same time, $186,311.61. In Jan.,
1873, the State had to her credit $171,286.88. In 1870
the assessed valuation of real and personal estate was
*

1306
DELAWARE.
$64,787,223; the estimated true value was $97,180,833. In
1872 the valuation of the city of Wilmington alone was
$43,000,000. The total taxation, State, county, and city,
in 1870 was $418,092. -
Commerce.—Until within the past two or three years the
commerce of the State has been conducted almost entirely
through Philadelphia and Baltimore, but recently Wil-
mington has begun to develop a commercial spirit, and now
has a line of steamers plying to New York and numerous
coasting-vessels running to various ports. The extensive
interest in shipbuilding, especially of iron ships, of that
city, has tended to increase her commercial activity. The
commerce of the State consists mainly in the shipping to
other States and cities of its agricultural and manufactur-
ing products, and bringing in, in return, the raw materials
and goods necessary for its own consumption. Its amount
cannot be definitely ascertained.
Banks.--The State had in June, 1873, 11 national banks,
with an aggregate capital of $1,528,185; 5 State banks, with
an aggregate capital of $780,000; no savings banks, and
two private banking-houses.
Inswrance Companies.—There were on the 1st of July,
1873, 4 fire insurance companies, 3 of them at Wilmington
and I at Dover, 1 a joint-stock company, with $100,000
capital, and 3 mutual companies, the whole reporting assets
of $1,696,000. There is one mutual life insurance company
at Wilmington, organized in 1867, with a capital of $100,000,
and assets in April, 1873, of $153,431.
Population.—At the time of the Revolutionary war Dela-
ware had probably not much more than 30,000 inhabitants.
Her progress since the first decennial census is seen in the
following table:
Census. | Whites. |Free Col'd] Slaves. Males. |Females. Total. |Density
1790 46,310 3,899 || 8,887 30,314 || 28,772 59,094 27.87
1800 49,852 8,268 6,153 32,243 32,070 64,273 30.31
1810 55,361 13,136 4,177 36,662 || 36,012 | 72,674 34.23
1820 | 55,282 | 12,958 || 4,509 || 36,939 35,810 | 72,749 34.31
1830 57,601 || 15,855 3,292 || 38,533 38,215 76,748 || 36.20
1840 58,561 | 16,919 2,605 || 39,256 38,829 78,085 36.83
1850 | 71,169 | 18,073 ſ 2,290 45,955 ; 45,577 91,532 || 43.18
1860 90,589 | 19,829 | 1,798 || 56,689 55,527 112,216 52.93
1870 102,221 22,794 | ...... 62,628 62,387 | 125,015 58.97
According to the census of 1870, 115,879 of the inhabitants
of Delaware were natives of the U. S., and 9136 were for-
eign born. Of the latter, 5907 were born in Ireland, 1421
in England, 1142 in Germany, 229 in Scotland, 112 in Brit-
ish America, 127 in France, and 208 in other countries. Of
foreigners over ten years of age, 2469 could not read or
write, and 20,631 natives above ten years of age were
equally illiterate. Of these, 11,280 were whites and 9351
colored. Of the whites, 1878 (1035 males and 833 females)
were between ten and fifteen years of age, 1370 (718 males
and 652 females) were between fifteen and twenty-one years,
and 8032 (3466 males and 4566 females) were twenty-one
years of age and over. Of the colored illiterates, 1785
(925 males and 860 females) were from ten to fifteen years
of age, 2065 (1054 males and 1011 females) were between
fifteen and twenty-one years, and 7970 (3765 males and
4205 females) were over twenty-one years old.
Edweation.—Public school education in Delaware, except
in the city of Wilmington, is not in so prosperous a condi-
tion as it should be. In 1871 there were 383 school dis-
tricts and 421 public schools in the State, 19,018 scholars
in attendance, and $144,509.08 was received and expended
for public school purposes, $94,781.93 of it in New Castle
co. All the schools for colored children are supported by
voluntary contributions, except that an appropriation of
$1000 was made by the Wilmington board of education to
the Howard School of that city. In 1870, according to the
ninth census, there were 326 public schools, with 388
teachers (107 male and 281 female) and 16,385 pupils
(76.94 male and 9141 female), and an income of $127,729
for their support, of which $120,429 was derived from tax-
ation and $7300 from tuition and other sources. There
were 9 academies, with 48 teachers (25 male and 23 female)
and 722 pupils (463 male and 259 female), having a total
income of $35,200, derived from tuition and other sources;
there were also 14 private (day and boarding) schools, with
24 teachers (4 male and 20 female) and 482 scholars (223
male and 259 female), with a total income of $11,572, de-
rived from tuition and other sources. There are in the
State two colleges—Delaware College, at Newark, founded
in 1867, a State institution, having 10 instructors and pro-
fessors and 105 students, 93 of them (45 males and 48 fe-
males) in the preparatory department, and 12 (all male) in
the collegiate department, and 6000 volumes in its libraries;
and the Wesleyan Female College, at Wilmington, founded
in 1839 and chartered in 1851, an institution under the di-
rection of the Methodist Episcopal Church, having 12 pro-
fessors and instructors (5 male and 7 female), 132 students
(all female), and 3500 volumes in its libraries.
Libraries.—There were 252 public libraries in the State
in 1870, containing 92,275 volumes, and 221 private libra-
ries, containing 91,148 volumes. The State Library at
Dover has, it is said, 30,000 volumes; the Wilmington In-
stitute Library, 11,000 volumes, and the library of the New-
castle Library Company, 6254.
Newspapers and Periodicals.--There were, according to
the census of 1870, 17 periodicals and newspapers issued
in the State, having an aggregate circulation of 20,860, and
issuing annually 1,607,840 copies. Of these, I was a daily
paper, having a circulation of 1600 copies; 3 semi-weekly,
with a circulation of 3660; 12 were weekly, having an
aggregate circulation of 13,600; I was a monthly, with
2000 circulation. Of these, 2 were literary and miscel-
laneous, with 1500 circulation; 14 were political, with
17,360 circulation; 1 (monthly) réligious, with 2000 circula-
tion. - -
Churches.—In 1870 there were in the State, according to
the census, 267 churches of all denominations, with 252
church edifices, 87,899 sittings, and church property valued
at $1,823,950. Of these, there were Baptist churches, 8;
church edifices, 7 ; sittings, 2950; church property, $131,000
(according to the “Baptist Year-Book” for 1873, there
were in the State in 1872, 9 Baptist churches, 6 ordained
ministers, 770 members, 104 Sunday School teachers, and
1206 Sunday school scholars). In 1870 there were 29
Protestant Episcopal parishes, 27 church edifices, 8975 sit-
tings, and $246,850 of church property. (The “Episcopal
Almanac * for 1873 gives the number of clergymen as 22,
with 1 bishop and 1 episcopal diocese, 1641 communicants,
280 Sunday school teachers, 24.12 Sunday school scholars,
and $38,186 of benevolent contributions.) In 1870 there
were 8 societies of Friends, with 8 meeting-houses, 3425
sittings, and $64,600 of meeting-house property; J, Lu-
theran church, 1 church edifice, 300 sittings, and $5000 of
church property; 173 Methodist churches, 166 church edi-
fices, 51,924 sittings, and $781,000 of church property; in
1872 there were 53 travelling and 163 local preachers, 157
churches, 11,269 members, 954 probationers, and $141,013
of church property. In 1870 there was 1 New Jerusalem
(Swedenborgian) church, 1 church edifice, 300 sittings, and
$20,000 of church property. The same year there were
32 Presbyterian churches, 32 church edifices, 13,375 sit-
tings, and $384,500 of church property. There were in
1870, 13 Roman Catholic churches, 8 church edifices, 6000
sittings, and $170,000 of church property; in 1873 the
Roman Catholic diocese of Wilmington, comprising the
State of Delaware and the Eastern Shores of Maryland and
Virginia, had I bishop and 1 vicar-general, and in Dela-
ware 11 churches, 10 clergymen, 4 parochial schools, with
1210 pupils, and 3 institutions. The adherent Catholic
population is estimated (rather loosely) at about 15,000.
There was 1 Unitarian church, 1 church edifice, 300 sit-
tings, and $17,000 of church property; one Universalist
society, with 1 church edifice, 350 sittings, and $4000 of
church property.
Constitution, Courts, etc.—The constitution of Delaware
has not been materially changed since 1833. It gives the
elective franchise to every free white male citizen of the
age of twenty-two years who has resided for one year in
the State and the last month thereof in the county, and
who has within two years paid a county tax assessed at
least six months before the election; but every free white
male citizen over twenty-one and under twenty-two years
may vote without paying any tax. Idiots, insane persons,
paupers, and felons are excluded from voting, and the
legislature may impose forfeiture of the right of suffrage
as punishment for crime. Under the operation of the fif-
teenth amendment of the Constitution of the U. S., colored
men are allowed to vote, subject to the above restrictions.
The governor is elected by the people for a term of four
years; he must be thirty years of age and have resided in
the State for six years next before the election. The
secretary of state is appointed by the governor, and serves
for four years. The State treasurer and auditor are elected
by the legislature for two years. The attorney-general is
appointed by the governor, and holds office for five years.
The legislature consists of a senate of nine members (three
from each county), chosen for four years, and a house of
representatives of twenty-one members (seven from each
county), chosen for two years. The sessions of the legis-
lature are biennial. As New Castle county now contains
double the population of the other counties, this mode of
representation is manifestly unjust, and its influence is felt
on many of the topics of legislation. The judicial power
of the State is vested in a court of errors and appeals, su-
perior court, court of chancery, orphans' court, court of
oyer and terminer, court of general sessions of the peace
and jail delivery, register's court, and justices of the peace.

DELAWARE.
1307
These courts are presided over by five judges—viz, the
chancellor of the State, who is president of the orphans’
court of the respective counties, and who sits in that court
with the associate judge of the county; the chief-justice
and three associate judges, one for each county, who, sit-
ting together, form the court of errors and appeals; and
the chief-justice and two of his associates constitute the
superior court and court of general sessions. The court of
oyer and terminer, like the court of errors, comprises the
whole bench, except the chancellor. Judges are appointed
by the governor, and hold office during good behavior.
Probate courts are held by registers of wills, with appeal
to the superior court. The chancellor holds a court of
chancery in each county of the State. The sheriff of each
county is elected by the people every two years. The
clerks of the courts and registers of wills are appointed by
the governor for the term of five years. In some of her
penal enactments Delaware is rather antiquated. She has
maintained public whipping at the whipping-post as a
punishment for larceny and other minor offences up to the
present time (Oct., 1873). These offenders receive from
twenty-five to sixty lashes on the bare back, and are also
exposed in the pillory for an hour or more. The State is en-
titled to two Senators and one Representative in Congress.
Counties.—There are three counties in the State. Their
population at each census was as follows:

CountriFs. 1790. | 1800, | 1810. 1820. 1830. 1840. 1850. 1860. 1870. Remarks.
| |
ent ................... 18,920 | 19,554 || 20,495 20,793 | 19,913 | 19,872 22,816 27,804 || 29,804 Central county.
New Castle........... 19,686 25,361 24,429 27,899 || 29,720 | 33,120 || 42,780 54,797 || 63,515 ||Northern county.
Sussex................. 20,488 19,358 27,750 | 24,057 27,115 25,093 l 25,936 29,615 31,696 |Southern county.
Principal Towns.—Wilmington, situated on Christiana ment, a large minority sympathized with the Southern
and Brandywine creeks, is the most populous and import-
ant city in the State. It is largely engaged in manufac-
turing. Its population in 1870 was 30,841, and is now
(Oct., 1873) estimated at 37,000. Dover, the capital of the
State and of Kent co., has a population of 1906 in the
town, and of 6394 in the hundred or township in which it
is situated. The other towns of 2000 inhabitants or more
are New Castle and Smyrna. North Milford, Seaford, Lewes,
Laurel, Delaware City, South Milford, and Georgetown are
also thriving towns. The divisions of the counties, which
in most of the States are called townships, are in this State
denominated hundreds. -
History.—Delaware takes its name from the bay and
river, which were so called from the lord de la Warr, gov-
ernor of Virginia, who entered the bay in 1610, though
both bay and river had been explored by Hendrick Hud-
son in 1609. The first attempt at settlement was made by
the Dutch, under De Vries, with thirty colonists, in 1630,
in the vicinity of Lewes, Sussex co., but this colony was
destroyed by the Indians in 1633. In 1637 a colony of
Swedes and Finns, sent out by the Swedish West India,
Company, purchased the land from Cape Henlopen to
Trenton Falls, erected a fort at the mouth of Christiana,
Creek, and called the country New Sweden. Soon after,
they erected another fort on Tinicum Island, a few miles
below Philadelphia. The Dutch colony at New Amster-
dam (now New York) protested against this invasion of
their territory, and built Fort Cassimir, now New Castle,
5 miles S. of Fort Christiana. In 1654 the Swedes cap-
tured this fort, but in 1655 the Dutch attacked and cap-
tured all the Swedish forts, and sent back to Europe those
colonists who would not swear allegiance to Holland. In
1664, when New Netherlands was conquered by the Eng-
lish, the duke of York claimed these settlements on the
Delaware as belonging to him. Lord Baltimore also
claimed them as being within his grant, but without avail.
In 1682, William Penn bought from the duke of York his
claims, and, after some litigation with Lord Baltimore, es-
tablished his right to the territory in 1685. The present
State was called in the colonial records of Pennsylvania,
“ the territories, or the three lower counties on the Dela-
ware.” For twenty years they were considered a part of
the colony of Pennsylvania, and sent eighteen delegates,
six from each county, to the colonial assembly. In 1703
they obtained liberty to secede and establish a distinct
legislature for themselves, but until the Revolution they
were under the same governor as Pennsylvania, and the
proprietary, on the ground of purchase, claimed all his
rights. The colony suffered less from wars with Indians
or foreign powers than most of the other colonies. . In the
French war, which terminated in 1763, she furnished her
full quota of troops, who distinguished themselves for
bravery and zeal; and in the Revolutionary war “ the
Blue Hen’s chickens,” as the Delaware soldiers were called
from their flag, were second to none in efficiency. In 1776
the people of Delaware proclaimed themselves free and in-
dependent, and formed a constitution, Sept. 20, 1776. They
came heartily into the old Confederation, and ratified the
Constitution of the U. S. Dec. 7, 1787. In 1792 a second
State constitution was adopted, which, with some amend-
ments, is still the organic law of the State. The subse-
quent career of the State has been for the most part quiet,
but prosperous. It has lacked in enterprise, in the ad-
vancement of education, and in the development of its
resources, but up to the commencement of the late civil
war the State had had no debt and had levied no general
tax on its landed property. At the beginning of the civil
war, though a majority of its citizens were in favor of
maintaining the Union and sustaining the U. S. govern-
Confederacy, as was to be expected, the State having been
in all its past history a slaveholding State. Still, it con-
tributed seven regiments of infantry, a battalion of cavalry,
and two or three batteries of artillery, in all about 10,000
men, to the war. Yet its general position was for years
one of steady but passive hostility to the general goyern-
ment and to the amendments to the Constitution of the
U. S., which drew upon it in two or three instances the
interference of the government, but never led to any active
resistance. The governor and legislature protested against
negro suffrage, and obstructed it as far as possible, but
finally submitted to it as inevitable. Of late, wiser coun-
sels seem to prevail, and there is reason to believe that the
gallant little State will become distinguished, as of old, for
her patriotism, loyalty, and fidelity to truth and right, and
place herself in the front rank in education, enterprise, and
social and moral progress. -
Governors of the State.—In the period between the Dec-
laration of Independence in 1776 and the adoption of the
Constitution of the U. S. at the close of 1787, Delaware had
for its chief magistrates, under the title of president, at least
two distinguished citizens of Pennsylvania, who were chief
magistrates also of that colony—viz. John Dickinson and
Thomas McKean—thus maintaining, in effect, the previous
custom of having the two colonies ruled by the same gov-
ernor; but in 1789 the first of the governors of the State
of Delaware was inaugurated, and the succession from that
time has been as follows: -
Joshua Clayton.............. 1789–96 || George Poindexter.........1827–30
Gunning Bedford...........1796–97 || David Hazzard.............. 1830–33
Daniel Rogers............... 1797–98 || Caleb P. Bennett............ 1833–37
IRichard Bassett.......... 1798–1801 || Cornelius P. Comegys....1837–40
James Sykes (acting).....1801–02 || William B. Cooper......... 1840–44
David Hall ...1802–05 | Thomas Stockton........... 1844–46
Nathaniel Mitchell........ 1805–08 || Joseph Maul (acting).....1846–46
George Truett............... 1808–11 ||William Temple............ 1846–46
Joseph Haslett............... 1811–14 || William Thorp............... 1846–51
Daniel Rodney.............. 1814–17 | William H. Ross............ 1851-55
John Clarke..................1817–20 | Peter F. Cansey............. 1855–59
Jacob Stout (acting)... .. 1820–21 | William Burton............. 1859–63
John Collins.................. 1821–22 || William Cannon............ 1863–65
Caleb Rodney (acting)...1822–23|Gove Saulsbury ............. 1865–69
Joseph Haslett...............1823–24 | James Ponder............... 1869–71
Samuel Paynter............ 1824–27 | James Ponder............... 1871–
Electoral and Popular Vote at Presidential Elections: 1.
Electoral Vote for President and Vice-President.
- --
#. Year. Candidates Woted for. *:::f
1st.....| 1788 |George Washington, Scattering............... 3
2d...... 1792 George Washington and John Adams...... 3
3d...... 1796 ||John Adams and Thomas Pinckney........ 3
4th.... 1800 ||John Adams and Charles C. Pinckney.....| 8
5th.... 1804 |Charles C. Pinckney and Rufus King...... 3
6th.... 1808 |Charles C. Pinckney and Rufus King...... 3
7th....| 1812 |De Witt Clinton and Jared Ingersoll....... 4
8th.... 1816 |Rufus King and Robert G. Harper....... ... 3
9th.... 1820 |James Monroe and Daniel Rodney.......... 4
10th.| 1824 || Jºhn Q. Adº, and,"ohn C. Calhoun... | 1
& s *f W. H. Crawford and Henry Clay......... 2
11th...] 1828 ||John Q. Adams and Richard Rush.......... 3
12th... 1832 |Henry Clay and John Sergeant............... 3
13th... 1836 |Wrm. H. Harrison and Francis Granger... 3
14th...] 1840 iWm. H. Harrison and John Tyler........... 3
15th... 1844 Henry Clay and Theo. Frelinghuysen..... 3
16th... 1848 |Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore...... 3
17th...] 1852 |Franklin Pierce and William R. King.....| 3
18th...] 1856 |Jas. Buchanan and John C. Breckenridge. 3
19th... 1860 ||John C. Breckenridge and Joseph Lane... 3
20th ... 1864 Geo. B. McClellan and Geo. H. Pendleton | 8
21st...| 1868 |Horatio Seymour and F. P. Blair, Jr........ 3
22d.... 1872 ||U. S. Grant and Henry Wilson................ 3
1308
DELAWARE-DELAWARE WATER GAP.
2. Popular Vote for President.—Until the election of 1828 the vote for electors in Delaware was cast by the legislature;
since that time it has been as follows:

Election. || Year. Candidate. *%.” candidate. *.* Candidate. *.* Candidate. *.*
11th...... 1828 ||Adams.............. 4,769 ||Jackson............ 4,349
12th...... 1832 ||Clay.................. 4,276 ||Jackson............ 4,110 \
13th...... 1836 || Harrison........... 4,738 || Van Buren........ 4,155
14th...... 1840 || Harrison........... 5,967 Van Buren........ 4,884
15th...... 1844 ||Clay.................. 6,278 ||Polk................. 5,996
16th. 1848 ||Taylor.............. 6,421 ||Cass.................. 5,898 ||Van Buren........ 80
17th...... 1852 ||Scott................. 6,293 ||Pierce............... 6,318 ale................. 62
18th...... 1856 ||Buchanan.........| 8,004 ||Fillmore........... 6,175 ||Fremont........... 308
19th...... 1860 ||Breckenridge.... 7,347 ||Bell................... 3,864 ||Lincoln ............ 3815 ||Douglas............. 1023
20th...... 1864 ||McClellan......... 8,767 ||Lincoln............ 8,155
21st...... 1868 ||Seymour........... 10,980 ||Grant................ 7,623
22d....... 1872 ligrant............... 11,115 ||Greeley ............ 10,206
- L. P. BROCKETT.
Delaware, a county in the E. of Indiana. Area, 400 nati R. R., 24 miles N. of Columbus. It is the seat of Ohio
Square miles.
Sinewa rivers.
It is intersected by the White and Missis-
The surface is nearly level; the soil is
mostly fertile. Cattle, dairy products, wool, and grain are
raised. Flour is the chief article of manufacture. It is
traversed by the Fort Wayne Muncie and Cincinnati R. R.
and another railroad called the Bee Line. Capital, Muncie.
Pop. 19,030.
Delaware, a county in the E. N. E. of Iowa. Area,
576 square miles. It is intersected by the Makoqueta.
River. The surface is uneven ; the soil productive. Cattle,
dairy products, grain, hay, and wool are staples. The most
numerous manufactories are of wagons, etc. The railroad
which connects Dubuque with Sioux City passes through
it. Capital, Delhi. Pop. 17,432. º
Delaware, a county in the S. S. E. of New York. Area,
1580 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by the
East Branch of the Susquehanna, and on the S. W. by the
Delaware. It is drained by the Coquago and Popacton.
The surface is hilly; the soil of the valleys is fertile. Cat-
tle, grain, wool, hay, and potatoes are largely raised, but
dairying is the principal industry. There are manufactures
of lumber, leather, furniture, cooperage, harness, metallic
wares, etc., but, though the water-power is very great,
manufactures are not yet extensive. It is intersected by
the New York and Oswego Midland R. R., and the Erie
R. R. passes along the south-western border. Capital,
Delhi. Pop. 42,972.
Delaware, a county in Central Ohio. Area, 478 square
miles. It is intersected by the Scioto and Olentangy rivers.
The surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain,
wool, hay, potatoes, and dairy products are the staples.
Among the manufactures are carriages, brick, and saddlery.
It is traversed by the Cleveland Columbus and Cincinnati
R. R. Capital, Delaware. Pop. 25,175.
Delaware, a county which forms the S. E. extremity
of Pennsylvania. Area, 180 square miles. It is bounded
on the S. E. by the Delaware River and on the W. by
Brandywine Creek. The surface is mostly undulating or
hilly ; the soil is fertile, and is adapted to pasture. Many
dairies are kept here, and grain, potatoes, and hay are
raised. There are manufactures of flour, lumber, carriages,
cotton and woollen goods, and many other articles. It is
intersected by the Pennsylvania R. R., and by several rail-
roads connecting Philadelphia with Baltimore and West
Chester. Capital, Media. Pop. 39,403.
Delaware, a post-township of Yell co., Ark. P. 550.
Delaware, a township of Delaware co., Ind. P. 1210.
Delaware, a township of Hamilton co., Ind. P. 1434.
Delaware, a township and post-village of Ripley co.,
Ind., on the Ohio and Mississippi R. R., 47 miles W. of
Cincinnati. Pop. 1559. :
Delaware, a township and post-village of Delaware
co., Ia., on the Davenport and St. Paul and the Dubuque
and Sioux City R. Rs., 41 miles W. of Dubuque. P. 2727.
Delaware, a township of Polk co., Ia. Pop. 865, ex-
clusive of the city of Des Moines.
Delaware, a twp. of Leavenworth co., Kan. Pop. 1641.
Delaware, a township of Wyandotte co., Kan. P. 926.
Delaware, a township of Sanilac co., Mich. P. 741.
Delaware, a township of Shannon co., Mo. P. 198.
Delaware, a township of Otoe co., Neb. Pop. 597.
Delaware, a township of Camden co., N. J. P. 1625.
Delaware, a township of Hunterdon co., N. J. P. 2959.
Delaware, a township of Sullivan co., N. Y. P. 1998.
Delaware, a township of Defiance co., O. Pop. 1160.
Delaware, a city, capital of Delaware co., O., on the
Olentangy River and the Cleveland Columbus and Cincin-
Wesleyan University and Ohio Wesleyan Female College.
It has thirteen churches, good schools, three banks, a semi-
monthly and three weekly newspapers, large railroad repair-
shops, two foundries, two flouring and one oil mill, a wool-
len-factory, and manufactures of bagging, chairs, iron
fences, carriages, lumber, beer, and other goods. It is hand-
somely situated and well built. There are valuable medi-
cinal springs in Delaware and vicinity. Pop. 5641; of
Delaware township, 6861. A. THOMson, ED. “GAzETTE.”
Delaware, a township of Hancock co., O. Pop. 1280.
Delaware, a township of Juniata co., Pa. Pop. 1079.
Delaware, a township of Mercer co., Pa. Pop. 1703.
Delaware, a twp. of Northumberland co., Pa. P. 1879.
Delaware, a post-township of Pike co., Pa. P. 758.
Delaware, or more correctly, Delawarr (THOMAs.
West), LorD, the twelfth baron of that title, the second
governor and first captain-general of Virginia, was a de-
scendant by the female line of an old and noble family,
which derived its name, according to some authorities, from
an estate called La Warre (or Warwick) in Gloucestershire,
England. He took his title in 1602. He was named cap-
tain-general of Virginia (which comprehended nearly all
the present eastern coast of the U. S.) in a charter dated
May 23, 1609. He visited the colony in 1610, and returned
in the following year to England. He expended large
sums of money in establishing the colony of Virginia. He
died at sea, “not without suspicion of poison,” June 7,
1618, while on his second voyage to America. He appears
to have been a noble and philanthropic man.
Delaware Bay, a wide estuary between the mouth
of the Delaware River and the Atlantic Ocean, separates
the State of Delaware from the southern part of New Jer-
sey. The entrance between Capes May and Henlopen is
13 miles wide; the greatest breadth of the bay is about 25
miles. A safe and capacious harbor has been formed in
this bay by the construction of a BREAKw ATER (which
see, by GEN. J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army) near Lewes.
This structure is in lat. 38° 59' 07' N., lon. 75° 6' 9" W.
The western part of the bay is generally shallow, but it
has a deep though not very direct channel for shipping.
Delaware City, a post-borough of New Castle co.,
Del., on the Delaware River, about 40 miles below Phila-
delphia. It is the eastern terminus of the Chesapeake and
Delaware Canal. It has five churches and one national
bank. Pop. 1059.
Del/aware In/dians, a tribe belonging to the Algon-
quin family, called in their own language LENNI-LENAPE,
lived originally on the banks of the Delaware and Schuyl-
kill, but are now mostly found in the Indian Territory, in
the valley of the Verdigris. They were, according to tra-
dition, a bold and powerful race, but were overcome by the
Iroquois, who compelled them in 1744 to leave their orig-
inal settlement. Some of them removed to Ohio about 1780.
They were friendly towards the U. S., and formed several
treaties with them. They next crossed the Mississippi and
settled in Kansas, where their number in 1869 was 1005.
They were in 1870 for the most part removed to their new
lands in the Indian Territory, and in part incorporated
with the Cherokees. They have a few schools, and carry
on farming and cattle-raising to some extent, but their
chief occupation is hunting and fishing. They are gene-
rally good trappers, brave, and comparatively intelligent.
I) elaware Water Gap, a summer resort of Monroe
co., Pa., on the Delaware River where it passes through the
Kittatinny Mountain, and on the Delaware Lackawanna
and Western R. R., 108 miles N. of Philadelphia and 92
miles W. of New York. The river here flows through a
narrow gorge between steep rocky banks, which rise nearly
1200 feet above the water.
º
DE LA WARR-DELILLE,
1309
De la Warr, EARLs, and Wiscounts Cantalupe (Great
Britain, 1761), Barons de la Warr (1209), Barons West
(1343), Barons de la Warr (England, 1579, by patent).--
CHARLEs RICHARD SACKv11.LE WEST, sixth earl, major-
general, born Nov. 13, 1815, succeeded his father Feb. 23,
1869.
Del Cred/ere [from the It. credere, to “trust” or
“credit”] Commis'sion, in mercantile law, signifies an
additional premium charged by a factor or commission-
merchant on the price of goods consigned to him when he
guarantees the solvency of the purchaser who buys them on
credit. Thus, if the percentage for effecting the sale is 2%,
he might charge 2% per cent. more for the guarantee.
De’le [imperative sing. of the Lat. deleo, to “blot out,”
to “destroy’], in printing, a direction inscribed on the
margin of an article to remove something which has been
put in type; it is usually thus expressed; 6.
Dele'gate [from the Lat. de, “away,” and lego, lega-
tum, to “send as an ambassador”], a person appointed and
sont with powers to transact business for the party who
sends him ; a representative, a deputy. This term is ap-
plied in the U. S. to the members of political and consti-
tutional conventions chosen by the people. The represent-
atives sent to the first Continental Congress in 1774 were
called delegates. Members of Congress from the Terri-
tories are still called delegates.
Delegates, Court of, formerly the highest ecclesias-
tical court of appeal in England. Its members were ap-
pointed by the king's commission to represent his royal
person and to hear all appeals to him, by virtue of the
statute 25 Henry VIII., c. 9. Appointments to this com-
mission were made from the lords spiritual and temporal,
and from the judges and doctors of civil law. This court
was abolished by 2 and 3 Will. IV., c. 92, and its juris-
diction was transferred to the privy council.
Delega’tion [Lat. delegatio], the appointment of a
delegate; also a number of delegates or persons deputed to
act for a party or represent a constituency. In civil law,
delegation is the act by which the debtor, with the assent
of the creditor, substitutes another debtor in his place,
and becomes himself discharged from the debt. There is
necessary to the validity of such an act the concurrence of
three parties—that of the original debtor, that of the sub-
stituted debtor, as well as that of the creditor who consents
to the discharge and substitution. The substitute may
himself owe the original debtor, but this is not an essential
element in the case. The case sometimes assumes a more
complicated form, and the substituted debtor is made liable
to pay a fourth person pointed out by the creditor, instead
of himself. (For a more full discussion of the whole sub-
ject, see Nov ATION ; also consult DOMAT on “Civil Law,”
title Delegation.)
Delegation [It. delegazione], the name of former prov-
inces or divisions of Lombardy, Venetia, and the Papal
States. An officer called a delegate presided over the gov-
ernment of each delegation. In the Papal States the dele-
gate was always a prelate. If he was a cardinal, he was
called a legate, and his province was a legation.
DELEGATION, in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, the
name of the deputies who are chosen by the Cisleithan and
Transleithan parliaments for taking action on those ques-
tions which are counted among the common affairs of the
empire. (See AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MonARCHY, by PROF.
A. J. SCHEM.)
Delescluze (Louis CHARLEs), a French politician, born
Oct. 2, 1809, took part in 1830 in the republican move-
ment, was, after the revolution of 1848, for a short time
commissioner-general in the departments Du Nord and Pas
de Calais, published then several ultra-radical papers in
Paris, was in 1857 deported to Cayenne. During the reign
of the Commune, of which he was the leading spirit, he was
at the head of the war commission with almost unlimited
powers, and issued the motorious incendiary orders. His
fall, on the 28th of May, 1871, on the barricade in the Rue
de Angoulême, ended the resistance of the Commune to the
troops of the government.
Delfiſco (MELCHIOR), an Italian political economist,
born in the Abruzzo Aug. 1, 1744. He became councillor
of state at Naples in 1806. Among his works are an
“Essay in Favor of Free Trade” and “Thoughts on the
Uncertainty and Inutility of History” (1806). Died at
Teramo June 21, 1835.
Delft, a town of the Netherlands, province of South
Holland, is on the railway from Rotterdam to The Hague,
4 miles S. E. of the latter. It is well built of brick, and
clean, and is intersected by a number of canals. It has a
richly-adorned town-hall, and a Gothic church containing
a magnificent monument to William prince of Orange, who
was assassinated here in 1584. Delft was formerly noted
for glazed earthenware, which throughout Holland came to
have the name of delft-ware. The same kind of pottery,
now mostly made in England, is still called delf. Here
are manufactures of carpets, woollen cloths, Soap, etc. Pop.
in 1870, 22,909. -*
Delfts/haven, the port of the above place, is on the
river Meuse, 2 miles S. W. of Rotterdam. It has a hand-
some church. The inhabitants are partly employed in
ºuilding iron-foundries, and distilleries. Pop. in 1868,
288.
Delf’ziji, a fortified seaport in the Netherlands, in the
province of Groningen, on the Dollart, is the key of Gron-
ingen and Friesland. Pop. 5476.
Delga'da, or Ponta Delgada, a city of the Azores,
is on the S. side of the island of St. Michael, and is the
capital of that island and of St. Mary; lat. 37° 45' N.,
lon. 25° 40' W. It has considerable trade in fruit, grain,
and orchil. The government is here constructing a break-
water and docks for shipping. Pop. 15,885.
Del/hi, a district of India, includes a small portion of
the former province of Delhi. Area, 4057 square miles.
The southern part is rocky and barren ; the northern and
north-western parts are watered by the Jumna, and are
more fertile. Delhi is one of the administrative divisions
of the North-west Provinces. Capital, Delhi. Pop.
1,328,650.
Delhi [Sanscrit, Indraprasthal, a celebrated city of
Hindostan, called by the Mohammedans Shahjehan-
âbâd, is situated on the Jumna, about 790 miles N. W. of
Calcutta; lat. 28° 40' N., lon. 77° 18' E. It was formerly
the capital of the Mogul empire, and was the largest city
of Hindostan, having a population of 2,000,000. An ex-
tensive tract, covered with the ruins of palaces, pavilions,
baths, and mausoleums, marks the dimensions of the ancient
metropolis of the Mogul empire. The modern city, which
was founded by Shah Jehan in 1631, has a circumference
of seven miles, and is surrounded by walls of red sand-
stone thirty feet high. It has seven colossal arched gates,
defended by round bulwarks. The streets are mostly nar-
row, but one of the main avenues is 120 feet wide. The
palace of the Great Mogul, built by Shah Jehan, is the
most magnificent in India. Its stupendous towers, sur-
mounted by elegant pavilions, its marble domes and gilded
minarets, present a very imposing appearance. Among
the other remarkable edifices is the Jamma mosque, a
splendid structure in the Byzantine style, built of white
marble and red sandstone. Delhi has about forty mosques,
many of which have lofty minarets and gilded domes. Here
is Delhi College, which was founded in 1792, and has a
separate department for each of these languages—Arabic,
English, Persian, and Sanscrit. The goldsmiths of Delhi are
famous for the beauty of their work. Many Cashmere shawls
are here embroidered with silk and gold. The city, which
has been frequently captured by hostile armies, was taken
by the British general Lord Lake in 1803, and it has con-
tinued under British domination ever since that time. In
May, 1857, Delhi was occupied by the mutinous Sepoys,
who here murdered a number of English people. A British
army commenced the siege of this place in June, and took
it by assault, after a severe fight of seven days, in Sept.,
1857. Pop. in 1870, 154,417.
Delhi, a township and post-village, capital of Delaware
co., Ia., near the Maquoketa River, about 40 miles W. of
Dubuque. It is on the Davenport and St. Paul R. R., and
has several fine stone-quarries, two flouring-mills, a fine
school building, several nurseries, etc. It has one weekly
newspaper. Total pop. 1174; of village, 413.
/ J. B. Sw1NBURNE, ED. “MonitoR.”
Delhi, a post-village of Richland co., La., on the North
Louisiana and Texas R. R., 35 miles W. by N. of Wicksburg.
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 186.
Delhi, a township and village of Ingham co., Mich., on
the Michigan Central R. R., 33 miles N. of Jackson. Pop.
1259. -
Delhi, a post-village, capital of Delaware co., N. Y.,
on the N. bank of the Delaware River (W. branch) and on
a branch of the Midland R. R. It has a court-house, jail,
county poor-house, an academy, four churches, a woollen
mill, two national banks, and three weekly papers. Pop.
1223; of Delhi township, 2920.
Delhi, a post-township of Hamilton co., O. Pop. 2620.
Delille (JACQUES), L’ABBá, a French didactic poet, born
at Aigueperse, in Auvergne, June 22, 1738. He was edu-
cated at a college in Paris, and became professor of hu-
manities at Amiens. His reputation was established by a
translation of Virgil’s “Georgies” (1769). In 1780 he
published “Les Jardins.” He translated into French verse
Virgil’s “AEneid” (1804) and Milton’s “Paradise Lost.”
1310
(1805). His version of the “ABneid” is considered the
best in the language. Among his works is a poem en-
titled “Imagination ” (1806), which is highly commended.
Died May 1, 1813. (See CAMPENON, “Eloge de Delille.”)
Delir’ium [Lat. from deliro, to “be insane,” which is
said by some to be from de, “from,” and lira, a “ridge,”
or “furrow;” thus an insane person was likened to one
ploughing out of the proper line], a condition in which the
ideas of a sick person are in a confused, wild, or wandering
state. It differs from insanity in being a symptom of acute
disease, like fever, while insanity is an evidence of chronic
disease.
Delirſium Tre/mens (i.e. “trembling delirium ”), a
morbid affection caused by the action of alcoholic drinks,
and often afflicting hard drinkers after severe accidents or
attacks of acute disease. Delirium, trembling and subsul-
tus of the muscles and tendons, wakefulness, and rapid
pulse, are characteristic symptoms. The patient sometimes
suffers extremely from the most frightful apprehensions,
and frequently thinks he sees grotesque and horrible ob-
jects. The tongue has a thick furry coat, the skin is gen-
erally cool and covered with sweat, and the patient gives
forth a characteristic saccharine odor. The blood and
fluids of the brain are loaded with alcohol, and often (es-
pecially in old patients) there are abundant degenerative
changes in the brain, lungs, liver, etc. Death occurs in
about one-sixth of the cases. The mortality appears to
have been formerly much greater than at present. The
treatment is various. Sleep may be induced by the use of
chloral or bromide of potassium, and in long-continued
cases opiates may be cautiously administered with the hap-
piest results. Patients nearly always call for alcohol in
some form, but this desire should not, as a general rule, be
gratified. The strength should be kept up by beef-tea,
milk, raw eggs, etc.
- REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Delisle (GUILLAUME), an eminent French geographer,
born in Paris Feb. 28, 1675. He reformed the system of
geography, and published in 1700 a map of the world and
celestial and terrestrial globes. He wrote several memoirs
on geography, and produced maps of ancient and modern
countries. Died Jam. 25, 1726.—His brother, JosłPH NICHO-
LAs DELISLE (born April 4, 1688), founded a school of as-
tronomy at St. Petersburg, and wrote an account of the
Russian search for a passage from the South Sea to the
north of America. In Delisle's thermometer, used in Rus-
sia, the boiling-point of water is zero, and the freezing-
point is 150°. Died Sept. 11, 1768.
De/litzsch, a town of Prussian Saxony, the capital of
a circle, is on the river Lober, and on a railway, 15 miles
N. of Leipsic. It has three churches, a castle, and manu-
factures of woollen hosiery and gloves. Pop. 8112.
Delitzsch (FRANZ), a German theologian, was born at
Leipsic Feb. 23, 1813, of Jewish parents, and was educated
at Leipsic. In 1846 he became professor of theology at
Rostock, in 1850 at Erlangen, and in 1867 at Leipsic. He
is a master of biblical exegesis and of the immense Jewish
literature. He has published numerous devotional and
theological works, among which are “The House of God”
(1848), “History of Jewish Poetry” (1836), “Biblico-Pro-
phetic Theology” (1845), “Biblical Psychology” (1855),
“Christian Apologetics” (1869), “A Day in Capernaum ”
(1871), and many valuable commentaries.
De/lius (NIKOLAUs), a German scholar, well known as
a writer on Shakspeare, was born at Bremen in 1813, and
became in 1855 professor of Sanscrit and of the Romance
and English literature at Bonn. He has published a criti-
cal edition of the works of Shakspeare (2d ed. 1863–64;
supplement 1865), the “Mythus of William Shakspeare”
(1851), “Shakspeare Lexicon" (1852), “The English Thea-
tre in Shakspeare's Time” (1852), and works on Provençal
and Pracrit literature.
Del’la Crus/ca (i.e. “ of the bran,” so called because
its chief aim or principal office was the boulting or puri-
fying of the national language), the name of a celebrated
academy founded at Florence in 1582 for the purpose of
establishing a standard of the Italian tongue. This academy
published a dictionary, which became a great authority in
relation to classical purity of language. The Della Cruscan
Academy was afterwards incorporated with the FLORENTINE
ACADEMY (which see).
Del’Ia Cruscan School, a name derived from the
celebrated academy Della Crusca of Florence (see preceding
article), and applied to certain affected English writers re-
siding at Florence in 1785. Gifford satirized their ab-
* Hallam calls attention to the fact that the Italian academies
of that period were remarkable for “names humorously quaint.”
One (that of Viterbo) was called the academy of “the Obstinates,”
another (that of Sienna), of “the Blockheads.” -
on the Big Sioux River.
DELIRIUM.–DELPHI.
surdities with scathing severity in his “Baviad” and
“Maeviad,” and “completely killed this school.” Among
the Della Cruscans were Bertie Greathead, Robert Merry,
| Mrs. Thrale Piozzi, and William Parsons.
Dellet (JAMEs) was born in South Carolina, but settled
at Claiborne, Ala. He was returned to the first legislature
under the State government in 1819, and to Congress in
1837. He died in 1849.
Dell Prairie, a post-twp. of Adams co., Wis. P. 534.
Dell Rapids, a post-village of Minnehaha co., Dak.,
It has one weekly newspaper.
Del’mar, a post-village of Sussex co., Del., on the
Maryland line, is the S. terminus of the Delaware R. R.
and the N. terminus of the Eastern Shore. R. R. .
Delmar, a post-village of Bloomfield township, Clinton
co., Ia., at the junction of the Davenport and St. Paul, the
Iowa Midland, and the Sabula Ackley and Dakota R. R.S.
It has one weekly newspaper. -
Delmar, a township of Tioga co., Pa. Pop. 18.
Delmar (ALEXANDER), a political economist of Spanish
extraction, was born in New York City Aug. 9, 1836. He
was editor of the “Social Science Review º' (1864–66), or—
ganized the U. S. bureau of statistics (1866), and was its
director (1867–68). He has published, besides other works,
“Gold Money and Paper Money” (1862), “Essays on Po-
litical Economy” (1865), the “International Almanac"
(1866), “What is Free Trade?” (1868), “Letter on the
Finances” (1868), and “The Suppressed Report” (1869).
Del Nor/te, a county which forms the N. W. extremity
of California, is bounded on the W. by the Pacific Ocean.
Area, 1500 square miles. It is partly drained by the Kla-
math River. The surface is mountainous, and is diversified
by prairies and forests of redwood and spruce. Gold and
copper are found here. Cattle, wheat, barley, and wool are
raised. Capital, Crescent City. Pop. 2022.
Del Norte, a post-village of Saguache co., Col., on the
Rio Grande, 144 miles S. of Pueblo. -
De Lolme (John Louis), a Swiss lawyer, born at Geneva
in 1740. He emigrated in his youth to England, where he
was reduced to indigence. In 1771 he published “The
Constitution of England” (in French), which he translated
into English (4th ed. 1784; new ed., with life, 1853). He
returned to Switzerland in 1775. Died July 16, 1806.
Delo'na, a post-township of Sauk co., Wis. Pop. 536.
Delorme (PHILIBERT), a French architect, born at Ly-
ons in 1515, studied at Rome. He planned the Tuileries,
begun in 1564 for Catharine de Medici, and built the Châ-
teau de Meudon. He wrote “Nouvelles Inventions pour
bien bātir” and a treatise on architecture. Died in 1577.
De/los [Gr. AºAos], also called Orty'gia, a small island
in the AEgean Sea, belonging to the group of Cyclades, was
celebrated in ancient times as the birthplace of Apollo and
Diana. According to tradition, it was originally a floating
island, and was rendered immovable by Jupiter, in order
that it might be a place of refuge for Latona. It was the
site of a famous temple and oracle of Apollo, and was the
centre of a great periodical festival in honor of him. In
426 B.C., Delos was purified by the Athenians, who removed
all the tombs, and enacted a law to prevent it from being
polluted by births or deaths. It was reputed one of the
holiest places in Hellas. On the formation of the confed-
eracy in 477 B. C. for the purpose of resisting the Persian
invaders, Delos was chosen as the common treasury of the
Greek allies. After the fall of Corinth (146 B. C.), Delos,
which had a good harbor, was the centre of an extensive
commerce. Here was a town of the same name, which is
now a mass of ruins. Shiploads of columns and other re-
mains have been carried away to Venice and Constanti-
nople. The island has an area of 32 square miles, and is
at present not inhabited. -
Del’phi [Gr. AéAdot], an ancient town of Phocis, and
one of the most celebrated places in the Hellenic world, on
account of its oracle of Apollo. It was situated at the
southern base of Mount Parnassus, in the narrow vale of
the Pleistus, amidst sublime and beautiful scenery. It oc-
cupied the central area of a great natural theatre or semi-
circular recess, partly enclosed by stupendous rocky bar-
riers. The original or proper name of the oracle was
Pytho. The name Delphi does not occur in the poems of
Homer, who mentions that Agamemnon consulted the ora-
cle at Pytho. The Pythian games were celebrated here
every four years, the first celebration occurring in 586 B.C.
Delphi became an opulent city and independent state, de-
riving its riches and importance from its oracle, which was
the most famous of all the Oracles. In the eighth century
B. C. its reputation extended not only throughout Hellas,
but also among foreign nations. Croesus, king of Lydia,
DELPHI-DEMAVEND.
1311
gave rich presents to the Pythian Apollo. The oracles were
uttered by a female called Pythia, who sat on a tripod
placed over the mouth of a cavern. She is said to have
breathed an intoxicating exhalation of vapor which issued
from this cavern or chasm, and was supposed to inspire her
with the gift of prophecy. The fountain of Castalia, issu-
ing near the base of Parnassus, supplied holy water for the
temple of Apollo, which was one of the largest and most
beautiful in Greece, and had a front of Parian marble.
In 480 B. C., Xerxes sent a detachment of his army to
plunder this temple, which contained a large amount of
treasure. As the Persians were climbing up the rugged
path to the shrine, on a sudden thunder was heard to
roll, the war-shout sounded from the temple of Athena,
and two huge crags rolled down the mountain, crushing
many to death. The surviving Persians were seized with a
panic, and retreated without having effected their object.
In 357 B. C. the Phocians seized the temple, and thus
provoked the Sacred war, during which a portion of the
treasures was expended in paying the troops of Phocis.
Delphi was attacked in 279 B.C. by Brennus and an army
of Gauls, who, it is said, were repulsed by the same Super-
natural agency as the Persians. The Delphic oracle was
finally silenced by the emperor Theodosius. The site of
Delphi is occupied by the modern town of Castri or Kastri.
Pop. about 600.
Delphi, the capital of Carroll co., Ind., on the Wabash
River and the Toledo Wabash and Western R. R. and the
Indianapolis Delphi and Chicago R. R. It has six
churches, a fine court-house, two weekly newspapers, two
paper-mills, two planing - mills, excellent water-power,
and one national bank. The Wabash and Erie Canal
passes through it. Pop. 1614.
IH. C. CRAFT, ED. “Journ AL.”
Del/phin Classics, an edition of the principal Ro-
man classics prepared by thirty-nine of the best schol-
ars of the time for the use of the dauphin of France (in
wsum delphini). Their work was superintended by Bossuet
and Huet, preceptors to the dauphin, who was a son of
Louis XIV.
Delphin'ium [so called from the resemblance of the
nectary to the form of the dolphin], the name of a genus
of poisonous herbs of the natural order Ranunculaceae,
commonly called larkspurs. The seeds of Delphinium
Staphisagria and Delphinium consolida have powerful ca-
thartic properties, and the alkaloid (delphinia) is recom-
mended for paralysis and rheumatism. Both the annual
and perennial kinds are favorite garden flowers; the double
rocket larkspurs are especially rich and varied in color,
and resemble hyacinths in their regular clusters. The
genus Delphinium is closely allied to the aconites. Several
species are natives of Europe, the U. S., and Mexico.
Delphi/nus [the Lat. term for dolphin], the name of
one of the constellations of the northern hemisphere.
Delphi^nus, in zoology, a term limited to the species
of Cetacea, having teeth simple and almost all conical in
both jaws. They live in communities, and are the most
carnivorous of the whole order. The Linnaean genus Del-
phinus is subdivided into Delphinus proper, Phocaena, the
common porpoise, Delphinopterus, represented by the Be-
Iuga, and Hyperoodon, of which the bottle-nosed dolphin
is the type. (See DOLPHIN.)
Del’phos, a post-village of Allen and Van Wert cos., O.,
on the Miami Extension Canal and on the Pittsburg Fort
Wayne and Chicago R. R., 45 miles E. of Fort Wayne. It
has a national and a savings bank, one newspaper, two
building and loan associations, and good water-power,
while fifteen smokestacks attest its industrial importance.
Pop. 1667. D. H. ToDAN, ED. “ HERALD.”
Del'ta [so named from their resemblance in form to the
fourth letter (A) of the Greek alphabet], the triangular ex-
panses of alluvial deposit formed at the mouths of certain
rivers. They commence at the point where waters laden
with mud first meet the sea, and from the constant mud-
deposits gradually widen, until some, like the deltas of the
Mississippi and the Nile, advance many miles beyond the
coast-line. Delta's occur not only in the sea where fresh
water meets the Salt and is checked by the tides, but also
in lakes, the accumulation projecting in the form of a
tongue beyond the point at which the river enters the lake.
The delta of the Ganges is the largest in the world. It is
estimated that its head commences 220 miles from the sea,
and its base-line measures about 200 miles.
Del'ta, a county of Michigan, in the S. part of the
Upper Peninsula, is bounded on the S. by Lake Michigan.
Area, 1100 square miles. The largest crop is of oats. It
is intersected by the Escanawba and other small rivers, also
by the Peninsular R. R. Capital, Escanawba. Pop. 2542.
Delta, a county in the N. E. of Texas, organized since
the census of 1870. Area, about 350 Square miles. It is
very fertile and well timbered, and is a good region for
grain, cotton, and stock-raising. Capital; Cooper.
Delta, a township of Clay co., Ala. Pop. 924.
Delta, a post-village, capital of Madison parish, La.,
on the Mississippi opposite Wicksburg, Miss., with which
it is connected by ferry. It is the E. terminus of the North
Louisiana and Texas R. R. It has one weekly newspaper.
ED. “ MADISON JOURNAL.”
Delta, a township and post-village of Eaton co., Mich.
Pop. 1154. •
Delta, a post-village of Lee and Western townships,
Oneida co., N. Y., has a tannery and a foundry. P. 270.
Belta, a post-village of Fulton co., O., on the Lake
Shore and Michigan Southern R. R., 25 miles W. by S.
from Toledo. It has one newspaper-office. Pop. 753.
Del/ton, a township of Delta co., Mich. Pop. 833.
Deluc (JEAN ANDRá), F. R. S., a Swiss geologist and
natural philosopher, born at Geneva. Feb. 8, 1727. He in-
vented a portable barometer, and published in 1772 “Re-
searches on the Modifications of the Atmosphere.” Soon
after that date he removed to England, was chosen a fellow
of the Royal Society, and became reader to the queen. He
published in 1778 “Letters, Physical and Moral, on the
History of the Earth and Man,” in which he defended the
cosmogony of the Bible, and ascribed the formation of the
present continents to a great and violent revolution which
occurred about 4500 years ago. He wrote several other
works in French. He became a professor in Göttingen in
1798, but subsequently returned to England, and died at
Windsor Nov. 8, 1817.
Del/uge [Lat. diluvium, from di (for dis), “apart,” and
luo, to “wash ’’], an inundation or overflow of land by water,
a term especially applied to the flood in the time of Noah,
an account of which is given in Genesis vi., vii., and viii.
It is often estimated to have occurred B. C. 2516, but its
date may have been much earlier. Traditions of the Flood
occur in many countries. Among the more important of
these is the Chaldaean account preserved in a fragment of
Berosus, and somewhat resembling that given in the Bible.
Mr. George Smith has published (1872), from the cuneiform
inscriptions, a very remarkable account of the Flood, cor-
responding in many particulars with those of Moses and
I3erosus. Bunsen states that no trace of Noah’s deluge is
found in the Chinese traditions, but missionaries, both
Protestant and Roman Catholic, assert that the Chinese
have a story remarkably like that contained in the Bible.
The Mahābhārata of the Hindoos contains still another
tradition of the same event. The ancient Mexicans and
many other tribes of American Indians have similar ac-
counts. The same is true of the ancient Phoenicians,
Greeks, and many other nations, ancient and modern.
The Egyptian monuments appear to have no account of a
general flood.
It is now generally held by Christian scholars that the
flood recorded in the Bible was local, and not universal.
The language of the original account does not necessarily
imply more than this.
Delusion. See INSANITY, by W. A. HAMMOND, M. D.
Del/vino, a fortified town of European Turkey, in
Albania, is situated on a hillside covered with olive and
orange groves, 47 miles W. N. W. of Yánina. It has a trade
in olive oil. Pop. about 10,000.
Dema/des [Gr. Amuáöms], an Athenian orator and dema-
gogue, who was a violent opponent of Demosthenes. He
was witty, eloquent, and profligate, and acquired great po-
litical influence. He fought against Philip of Macedon at
Chaeronea, 338 B.C., but afterwards took a bribe from that
king, and favored the interest of Philip and his son Alex-
ander. He was put to death by order of Antipater (or Cas- ...
sander) in 318 B. C. ..
Demand and Supply. See POLITICAL ECONOMY.
Demarcaſtion, or Demarkation, a line or bound-
ary by which one object is separated or marked off from
another; a limit ascertained and marked, or the act of as-
certaining and marking a limit; the “dead lime ’’ between
two armies. The “ line of demarcation ” is a name given
especially to an imaginary N. and S. line drawn by Pope
Alexander VI., 360 miles W. of the Azores, all newly-dis-
covered lands to the eastward being granted by him to
Portugal, and all westward to Spain (1494).
Demavend’, a volcanic mountain of Persia, about 45
miles N. E. of Teherān, is the highest peak of the Elburz
chain, which separates the low shores of the Caspian Sea.
from the high table-land of Persia. It has a conical form
and a crater-shaped summit, which is covered with a large
1312
DEMBEA-DEMI-GOD, - -
deposit of sulphur. Its height is about 21,000 feet, as re-
cently determined by the Russian survey. An Englishman
(William T. Thompson) ascended to the top of Demavend
in 1837. As it is a conspicuous object from the great trade-
route between India and Western Asia, it is connected with
the early Persian legends as Etna, with those of the Greeks.
It is classed among extinct volcanoes.
Dem"bea, or Tzana, a lake of Abyssinia, in lat. 12°
N. and lon. 37° 15' E., is 40 miles long, and has an average
width of 25 miles. It occupies part of a fertile plain, and
is 6108 feet above the level of the sea. A branch of the
Plue Niles issues from this lake.
Dembin/ski (HENRY), a Polish general, born in the
palatinate of Cracow, Jan., 16, 1791. He fought against
Russia in the revolution of 1830, and made a masterly re-
treat from Lithuania in July, 1831. He afterwards passed
many years in exile, and was appointed commander-in-
chief of the Hungarian army by Kossuth in Feb., 1849.
His success was hindered by the enmity of Görgei, who re-
fused to serve under him. Dembinski soon resigned the
command, and fled to Turkey. Died June 13, 1864.
Dement, a township of Ogle co., Ill. Pop. 1120.
Demen’tia [from the Lat. de, priv., and mens, “mind”],
a form of insanity characterized by gradual extinction of
all the mental powers. It is one of the most hopeless forms
of mental disease. -
Demeraſra, a small river of South America, in British
Guiana, flows northward, and enters the Atlantic Ocean
near lat. 6° 50' N. and lon. 58° 20' W.
Demerara is also the name of a county in British
Guiana, intersected by the above river. Its inhabitants
are Europeans, Indians, coolies, and negroes. Capital,
Georgetown. Pop. about 80,000.
Demesne, de-mén', or Demain, in law, originally
that portion of the lands belonging to a lord which was
held in his own occupation or reserved for his immediate
use. Hence it is sometimes used to denote those parts of
a manor which the lord has in his own hands. In the
present day it may be defined as the right which the owner
in possession of lands in fee simple has in his estate.
Demeter. See CEREs.
HDemeſtrias [Gr. Amuntpºs], a city of Thessaly, at the
head of the Pagasaean Gulf, founded about 290 B. C. by
Demetrius Poliorcetes, became a favorite residence of the
Macedonian kings. Its remains are still visible.
Demetrius, an architect who is said to have completed,
in conjunction with Paeonius the Ephesian, the temple of
Diana at Ephesus. His period and country are not certainly
known. - - PIENRY DRISLER.
Demetrius, probably of Alopece in Attica, a statuary
who flourished, according to Sillig in his “Dictionary of
Artists,” about B. C. 440. He imitated nature so closely
in his works that he reproduced imperfections as well as
beauties, for which he is censured by Quintilian. Among
his productions are a statue of Lysimache, priestess of
Minerva, one of Minerva Musica, so called from the serpents
of the Gorgon on it emitting a musical sound when struck,
and an equestrian statue of Simon, the first writer on horse-
manship. HENRY DRISLER.
Demetrius, a silversmith of Ephesus, who made silver
shrines for Diana. When Saint Paul was in Ephesus, gain-
ing many, both Jews and Greeks, to the true faith, this
maſſ excited a tumult against him among his fellow-crafts-
Iºl CIOl. HENRY DRISLER.
Demetrius [Russian, Dmitrij, czar of Russia, usually
called the FALSE DEMETRIUs. He pretended to be a son
of Ivan IV., who at his death in 1584 left two sons, Feodor
and, Demetrius. The latter probably died in 1591. The
subject of this article raised an army of Poles in 1603, in-
vaded Russia, and defeated Boris in battle. He began to
reign in Moscow in 1605, but his partiality to the Poles
offended the Russians, who revolted and killed him May
28, 1606. He was succeeded by Basil III., or Shuisky.
Deme/trius Phale/reus, an eminent Grecian orator
and philosopher, born at Phalerum in Attica about 345
B. C. He was a disciple of Theophrastus the philosopher.
He was appointed governor of Athens by Cassander in
317 B. C., and held that office ten years. His administra-
tion was so prosperous and popular that the Athenians
erected to him, it is said, 360 statues. He escaped to Egypt
when Athens was taken by Demetrius Poliorcetes in the
year 306. He was the author of many historical and phil-
osophical works, which, with the exception of fragments,
are not extant. Died in Egypt about 284 B. C.
Demetrius Poliorce/tes [Gr. Anuirpios IIoxtopknºffs
(i. e. “Demetrius the besieger of cities”)], a king of Ma-
cedon, born about 335 B. C., was a son of Antigonus, king
of Asia. He was surnamed Poliorcetes, “besieger of cities,”
on account of his success as a general. He fought for his
father against Ptolemy of Egypt in Syria. In 306 B. C.
he captured Athens from Cassander, and defeated Ptolemy
in a naval battle near Cyprus. He gave proof of superior
military skill in a long siege of Rhodes, but he failed to
take that city. After the death of Antigonus (299 B. C.)
he formed an alliance with Seleucus. He usurped the
throne of Macedon in 294, but was driven out by Pyrrhus
and Lysimachus. Died about 283 B. C. (See PLUTARCH,
“Life of Demetrius.”)
Demetrius of Byzan'tium, a Peripatetic philoso-
pher—probably the same, Westermann thinks, with the
Demetrius who sought to dissuade Cato from suicide at
Utica. Athenaeus quotes a work of his by the title “trepi
trovnTöv,” and sometimes by that of “trepi Trotmuštov,” but
they are no doubt the same work. Some fragments of this
writer have been found in manuscripts discovered at Her-
culaneum. HENRY DRISLER.
Demetrius of Su’nium, a distinguished Cynic phil-
osopher, enjoyed a high reputation for correctness of life
and firmness of principle. Iſe lived at Rome under the
emperors, from Caligula to Domitian, and was the friend of
Thraseas Paetus and of Seneca. Living with the greatest
strictness himself, he did not hesitate to censure even those
in high position, for which freedom of speech he was ban-
ished. He is probably the same philosopher as the Deme-
trius of Corinth mentioned by Philostratus, according to
Ritter, who gives a summary of his doctrines in his “His-
tory of Philosophy,” vol. iv., p. 168, English translation.
He left no writings. HENRY DRISLE.R.
Demetrius of Scep’sis, a Greek grammarian, flou–
rished about 210 B.C. From Strabo and Athenaeus we learn
that he composed an extensive work in at least twenty-six
books, full of historical and geographical information
about the places mentioned in the catalogue of ships in the
second book of the “Iliad” (“Tootkös Suákoguos"). The
fragments are indicated in Mü1,LER’s “Fragm. Hist. Graec.,”
vol. iv., p. 382. HENRY DRISLER.
Deme/trius So’ter [Gr. Amujirpuos Sorſip (i. e. “Deme-
trius the Preserver”), so called by the Babylonians because
he freed them from their tyrants], a king of Syria, born
about 185 B.C., was a son of Seleucus Philopator. He
was a hostage at Rome when his father died in 175 B. C.,
and his uncle, Antiochus Epiphanes, obtained the throne.
Having escaped from Rome in 161, he was proclaimed
king by the Syrians. He waged war against the Macca-
bees. Syria, was invaded by Alexander Balas, by whose
army Demetrius was defeated and killed in 150 B. C. "His
son, Demetrius Nicator, eventually became king of Syria.
Demetrius the [SECOND] False, another pretender
to the throne of Russia, began to urge his claim in 1607.
He affirmed that he was Demetrius, the son of Ivan IV.,
and was supported by many partisans. He was killed by
a Tartar chief in 1610.
Deme/trius Triclin’ius, a Greek scholiast who flou–
rished in the fifteenth century. He is known for a recen-
sion of the text of Sophocles, which long served as a basis
of subsequent revisions. He also composed scholia on
Sophocles, first published by Turnebus in his edition, and
two other works on the same poet, the one on the metres
(trepi uérpov), the other on the figures (trepio Xmuátov), which,
however, are of no great value. He compiled scholia also
on Hesiod, Pindar, and Aristophanes.
HENRY DRISLER.
Deme/trius Ze’nus, of Zacynthus, about 1530 A. D. .
translated the “Batrachomyomachia, ’’ into modern Greek
in the so-called a rixot troAvrukoi (popular verses). This is
printed in Ilgen’s edition of the “Homeric Hymns,” pp.
123–139, with a Latin translation by M. Crusius. The best
edition is that of Müllach, Berlin, 1837. He composed a
poem in the same measure on Alexander the Great, printed
at Venice, 1829. HENRY DRISLER.
Demetz (FRăpăRIG AUGUSTE), a French philanthropist
and judge, born May 12, 1796. He visited the U. S. in
1836, for the purpose of examining the prisons. About
1840 he founded at Mettray, near Tours, an institution for
the reformation of juvenile offenders, which was successful.
His system has been adopted in England. Died Nov., 1873.
Dem'i, a prefix derived through the French from the
Lat. dimidium, “half” (from di, “through,” and medium,
the “middle”), denoting a division into two parts; thus a
demi-lune is a half moon; a demi-god is a half-divine
being, etc.
Dem’i-Bastſion, in fortification, a half bastion, which
frequently terminates the branches of a crown-work or
horn-work, and is occasionally used in other places.
Demi-god [Gr. huíðeos; Lat. gemidew8 ; Fr. demi-dieu ;
DEMI-LUNE–DEMOCRACY.
1313
Ger. Halbgott], literally, “half-god,” the name given to
certain fabulous heroes of the Greek and Roman mythol-
ogies. They were sometimes deified heroes, and sometimes
the offspring of a divinity and a mortal.
Demi-Lune [a Fr. term signifying “half-moon,” so
called because it is somewhat crescent-shaped], in fortifica-
tion, is a work constructed to cover or defend the curtain
or wall of a place and the shoulders of the adjoining bas-
tions. It is composed of two faces, forming a salient angle
towards the outside.
Demi-Monde [Fr.], the “half-world,” a name applied
originally to those classes in large cities who, with neither
wealth, rank, nor culture, adopt a fashionable mode of liv-
ing. Of late it designates that class of Parisian women
who, while they are leaders of fashion, are excluded from
the best society on account of their doubtful reputation.
Dem'ing (HENRY C.), born at Middle Haddam, Conn.,
in 1815, graduated at Yale in 1836 and at Harvard Law
School in 1838. He translated some of Eugene Sue's
novels, but was better known as an able lawyer and Demo-
cratic politician of Hartford, Conn. He held many prom-
inent State offices. In 1861 he became colonel of the
Twelfth Connecticut Volunteers, serving in Louisiana, and
was mayor of New Orleans (1862–63). He was a Repub-
lican member of Congress from Connecticut (1864–68).
Died at Hartford, Conn., Oct. 9, 1872.
Demir-Hissar (“iron castle”), a town of European
Turkey, province of Room-Elee, on the river Struma, 13
miles N. N. W. of Seres. It is defended by an old castle.
Pop. about 8000.
Demiur'gus, or Dem’iurge [from the Gr. 8mutovpyós,
“working for the people,” from 8%uos, the “people,” and
épyov, “work”], a word originally applied to an artisan or
workman, afterwards used by Plato, and especially by the
Neo-Platonists and the Gnostics, to designate the Creator
of the world, who was conceived by the Gnostics to be a
being inferior to the Supreme Deity. The name was also
given to the highest magistrate in some of the Grecian cities.
Demmin', a town of Prussia, in Pomerania, on the
river Peene, about 75 miles W. N. W. of Stettin. It is very
old, and was formerly fortified. It has manufactures of
hats, woollen and linen fabrics, hosiery, etc. Pop. 9050.
JD em’mit, a county in the S. of Texas. Area, 1050
square miles. It is intersected by the Nueces. Wood and
water are scarce, but the pasturage is fine. Pop. 109.
Democe/des [Gr. Amuokååms], an eminent Greek phy-
sician of Crotona, was born about 550 B. C. He was taken
prisoner by the Persians, and carried to the court of Darius
I., to whom he gave medical advice. The queen Atossa,
whose favor Democedes had gained, persuaded Darius to
send him to Greece with a small party of Persians on a
secret mission. Democedes escaped from them and returned
to Crotona. -
Democh'ares [Gr. Amuoxápms], an Athenian orator, a
nephew of Demosthenes, was a leader of the anti-Mace-
donian party. He was banished about 295 B. C., but re-
turned in 287 or 286, after which he rendered important
service as minister of finance. Died after 280 B. C.
Deſmocles (AmuokAns), an Attic orator trained in the
school of Theophrastus, was a contemporary and opponent
of DEMOCHAREs (which see). He is believed to have left
written orations, since Dionysius of Halicarnassus attrib-
utes to him an oration previously ascribed to Dinarchus.
Dionysius and Suidas call him Democlides.
Democ/racy [Gr. 8muokpatia, from 8%uos, “the people,”
and kparéo, to “rule"). A state in which the people at
large possess the whole sovereignty is rightly denominated
a democracy. At most, there are but three clearly distin-
guishable methods of government—the monarchical, the
aristocratic, and the democratic ; that is to say, the rule of
one, of a number, or of the whole. The first two are of
like nature, and might properly be treated as one; the last
is altogether antagonistic to both of the others. The pre-
fixes despotic, hereditary, and elective merely describe
varieties of the first; an oligarchy is only a particular kind
of the second; and such terms as republic and common-
wealth import little that is distinctive as to political struc-
ture. Statesmen and philosophical writers apply them
indiscriminately to states which differ greatly in the prin-
ciples of their respective governments.
Of sovereignty in other forms there has been ample ex-
perienee, but governments based exclusively upon the
democratic principle, without any admixture of other ele-
ments, have not been known until a recent period on any
considerable scale. Consequently, the true nature and
tendency of that principle form an interesting theme.
A pure or simple democracy may conveniently regulate
a prescribed portion of the civil authority within a subor-
dinate district; and perhaps it is competent to the exercise
of supreme power in an independent state of slight extent;
opinions concur in denouncing it as impracticable in a
large one. Deciding questions of policy by direct vote is
a practice of this nature, but when performed by ballot it
is subject to serious objections. If the entire elective body
could meet at the same time and place, and in such a way
as to admit of deliberate conference and consultation, the
judgment of a majority might be esteelmed valid. This,
however, is not possible; nor can its place be supplied by
discussion in partial assemblies, much less by the essays
of a various press, each addressing its own narrow circle,
and mainly unread beyond.
The representative form may therefore be regarded as the
only practicable method of administering government on
the democratic principle. Consistently with it political
power may be denied to some members of the state, who
are nevertheless entitled to protection and such privileges
as are suitable to their condition. Age, sex, or ascertained
unfitness may form grounds of exclusion; so in respect to
a distinct race very inferior in numbers, as, for instance,
the whites of Hayti. The right to exclude criminals after
their guilt has been ascertained is indispensable to the
preservation of social order—and, practically, it may be
aimed against a class, as in the known instance of certain
polygamists—but it should never operate otherwise than
upon the offending individual as a consequence of his per-
sonal delinquency. Even in this case, permicious opinions
cannot properly be held to impair the citizen-right, though
foreigners known to entertain them may be denied natu-
ralization or hospitality in any form. With this qualifica-
tion, it may be broadly asserted that democracy, as a prin-
ciple, entitles each citizen, in common with every other, to
an equal interest in the state. A government based upon
it can acknowledge no conflicting interests among the peo-
ple to be favored or opposed. All its legitimate ends are
accomplished when public safety and individual liberty are
maintained. Restraining the turbulent and disorderly by
a just administration of general laws, and providing food,
raiment, and asylum for the impotent, it should leave all
others in the quiet enjoyment of such social conditions as
they may have created for themselves or derived from the
ordinary incidents of life. In the main, it should be un-
felt and unseen, or at least unperceived; the citizen should
have no more vivid consciousness of the power which guards
his civil rights than of the agencies whence flow his phys-
ical health or content of mind. Where the voice of the
people is actually sovereign this must ever be the fact, for
it is an irresistible deduction of reason that the supreme
will never can intentionally enact a law which is not re-
quired, or, in other words, lay upon its own freedom any
needless restraint. Hence the axiom, that in a democracy
every positive regulation, not actually indispensable to the
public and general welfare, which restrains, or even indi-
rectly tends to restrain, individual liberty in any degree,
however slight, so far violates the spirit of the constitution.
It is an infraction of popular rights, and may justly be de-
nounced as the offspring of unlawful force or of fraud.
These agencies cannot be wholly expelled from any sphere;
but it is the office of democracy to restrain their influence
on official action within the narrowest limits. A contrast
with its rivals will afford the best means of illustrating its
tendency and usefulness.
The investiture of individuals with permanent political
power by a title derived from personal descent is the pri-
mary element in monarchical and aristocratic states, as the
absence of any such practice is the distinguishing feature
of a democracy. An inequality of civil or political rights
among those who were alike in all other respects could
never have been deduced from the ancestry of individuals
but for the assumed sacredness of office. At the outset the
monarch could have been no more than the first officer of
the state; the incipient aristocracy must have been com-
posed of his subordinates; and it was not until offices be-
came hereditary that the state was divided into two per-
manent classes, the rulers and the ruled. The existence of
these two classes is the very essence of monarchy. Their
interests are necessarily adverse—a circumstance enforcing
upon the former a general activity in support of their pre-
eminence. In states actually or approximately despotic
standing armies and frequent wars are the forces for this
purpose; where a nominal place is assigned to the demo-
cratic principle, permanent political parties might serve in
lieu of the soldier to uphold the political machinery, but,
in general, they only supplement him. The measure of
governmental activity in monarchical states has varied from
the grinding tyranny prefigured by Nimrod the man-hunter
down to that modern crown which is a mere bauble, abso-
lutely inert, save so far as it involves expense and a consequent
burden upon labor. From the earliest times wars have been
found necessary, not only to give employment to the state
83
1314
DEMOCRACY.
officers—i.e. the king and his nobles—but also to color the
pretence of their usefulness, and through military discip-
line to organize in their hands a power adequate to support
their authority. Thus, in great monarchies the so-styled
common people have always been oppressed by enormous
establishments, military or naval, or both. These are easily
justified to unreflecting observers on the score of necessity,
for aggressive wars by monarchs in furtherance of ambi-
tious designs being of constant recurrence, armed organi-
zation for defence seems a requisite. War, with its inherent
rapine and cruelty, is not, indeed, due to the crimes of any
one monarch; but the fact remains patent that it is an evil
founded in the principle of monarchy, and inseparable from
it. The active and enterprising spirits of every clime and
age have found seductive occupation in these war-estab-
lishments, and through their agency large portions of soci-
ety have always been withdrawn from useful employments
to feed upon the labor of the rest. The desolation pro-
duced by foreign wars, and the internal oppression result-
ing in time of peace from war-establishments and their ad-
juncts, are both due to the vices of the ruling classes. In
this self-evident proposition effectual reforms must long
since have taken root but for the natural tendency to ac-
cuse our neighbors instead of correcting our own faults, and
the difficulty of the latter task in any one of many neigh-
boring independent states.
The annals of government are consequently little else
than a recital of the devices by which from the beginning
every civil society has been preyed upon by its own offi-
cial corps. This is easily effected wherever monarchy or
aristocracy prevails. Democracy, being based upon abso-
lute equality, admits of no governing class, nor of any in-
terest adverse to the people in those who conduct the public
business. Butz by artifice and irregular methods the latter
may become a class, may grasp powers incompatible with
the nature of the government, and may involve their
country in all the evils incident to hereditary rule. Per-
secution for moral non-conformity, so grateful to the ill-
regulated mind, may be from time to time practised until
resistance is provoked and a color afforded for war. To this
condition the grandly patriotic spirit engendered by free
institutions gives great force and breadth; the entire people
at once rush to arms, and public debt is incurred at a pace
twenty-fold more rapid than would be tolerated under the
cautiously regulated corruption of monarchies. These are
abuses, and are deviations from the democratic principle.
Their prevention is the duty of every good citizen.
Unmixed democracy is the principle of government rec-
ognized in Switzerland and in various portions of the Amer-
ican continent. In the U. S. of America, it nominally ex-
ists, and upon the grandest scale. They therefore present
the best practical illustration of what it is in its present
stage of development. Any shortcomings in practice there
discernible may serve to indicate the advisable line of prog-
ress in endeavoring to perfect its machinery; and what many
other nations seem inclined to imitate ought to be freed, if
possible, from existing defects.
The founders of the American Union recognized not only
the ineptitude of monarchy and aristocracy, but the neces-
sity of repressing in the newly conceived system their
most conspicuous abuses. Standing armies were denounced
as dangerous to liberty; wars for the extension of territory
were regarded as unjust, foreign alliances as inexpedient,
and public debt as mischievous; but, strangely enough, no
barriers whatever were instituted against any of these
practices. On the contrary, powers to introduce and foster
the most dangerous of them were expressly delegated, in
the name of the people, to their public agents. The nat-
ural ill-effects were foreseen; but they were deemed sus-
ceptible of being kept within endurable bounds. Monarchy
and aristocracy were indeed effectually repudiated for the
time. Neither could long exist without hereditary distinc-
tions, nor could these be upheld where commerce in land
was free, and inheritances were equally partible by com-
pulsion or from social habit; so primogeniture and the ac-
customed contrivances for rendering estates permanently
inalienable were extirpated. This was effected by laws
harmonizing so perfectly with the common instincts of
humanity as to seem proof against repeal. In view of
these things, and of the advances attained in civilization
and power of thought, the most despondent do not antici-
pate that distinct ranks in society can ever be re-established.
Americans therefore regard monarchy and aristocracy as
utterly and irrevocably banished from their country, and
consequently suppose that in the U. S., and for those coun-
tries which may reconstruct their political fabrics upon the
American model, democracy has fulfilled its mission. Yet
perhaps this great- and just principle has not yet accom-
plished more than a modification of the social evils initi-
ated, nurtured, and brought to maturity in the Old World
by its opposites, monarchy and aristocracy.
In framing every government hitherto instituted amongst
men, one of the aims was to enable the rulers—by which is
meant the office-holders—to gratify their ambition or their
avarice, or both, at the expense of the ruled—that is to
say, the mass of the people. The former, as military or
political leaders, have always laid the foundations, and
have anticipated, at the least, employment in superintend-
ing the structure. Purity of motive may be admitted in
many cases, so far as individual consciousness is concerned;
but self-love is both inherent and blind. The founder,
while conscious of no object but the public good, has
always had an eye to his own gratification, and his work
has invariably been in some respects accommodated to that
end. This infirmity tainted the most ancient political
structures, and has in some degree affected all their suc-
cessors. Organizing places and public employments has
ever received an attention not measured by necessity,
or, in other words, by the interests of the people. We
have seen, accordingly, that whilst ostracising monarchy
the founders of the American Union invested it with most
of the powers by which the few had oppressed the many in
all previous times.
The State governments were framed in the same way.
The powers of government in common use, originally de-
signed by the office-holding aristocracy to create or uphold
their own interests against the governed mass, were all
sanctioned. Under the vicious and unjust systems pre-
viously existing they were no doubt indispensable; they
were therefore assumed to be necessary, even in a repre-
sentative democracy. Conceding all these functions to be
thus inseparable from regular government in any of its
forms was the error of that day. Assuming this, the mani-
fest and undeniable tendency to abuse furnished no sup-
port to any useful argument. It only led to further error.
It was thought to prove the necessity of devising various
new artificial checks. And in compliance with this reason-
ing there was generated, in the councils of a simple and
frugal people, a government which, though based upon a
single principle, and that of the simplest nature, was with-
out a parallel in the multitude of its offices, in the multi-
fariousness of its forms, and in its general complexity.
As the checks and balances of the mixed system existing
in England had developed the best administration then
known, it was thought that, monarchy and all hereditary
distinctions being excluded, complexity would afford ade-
quate preventives of official malversation. The same ex-
ample induced a reliance upon the free action of political
parties as a motive-power to keep the official counter-
checks in healthy action. Obvious distinctions between
the old and the new governments seem to have been over-
looked. In the former permanently antagonistical interests
were legalized, and so commingled in the political consti-
tution as to induce and necessitate continual conflict as a
duty. Each of the three estates was there obliged to main-
tain a constant contention with the others, in order to pro-
tect its own peculiar and rightful privileges; whilst in the
U. S. there were to be no classes, no separate estates, and
no peculiar privileges. Everything was reduced to the
dead level of absolute equality; there was nothing funda-
mental that needed a check or requiring to be balanced;
peace and tranquillity were the spirit and nature of the
government adopted. The practicability of a government
amongst frail mortals with objects and leading to results
so grandly beneficent was, however, an untried experiment.
Those who inaugurated it did well; their achievements
were creditable, even though perfection may not have been
attained. Progress in modes of enforcing the principle
instituted was, doubtless, the patriotic expectation of those
who, while dreading the powers created, found themselves
unable, from want of apposite precedents or experience, to
construct at that time a more perfect system. Oppression
by a permanently privileged class had theretofore been the
grievance of nations. Such a contradiction in terms, and
apparently in fact, as oppression of the people by them-
selves was not anticipated; to their virtue and intelligence
it was therefore committed to carry the experiment to its
full fruition, with an admonitory warning that perpetual
vigilance was the price of liberty. The extent to which
popular vigilance could be kept in beneficial action was
then a problem; in some respects it is still so.
In a great and prosperous state the private interests of
business or pleasure afford engrossing employments. Minds
fully occupied with such subjects cannot be at the same
time employed on large conceptions of governmental
policy and in devising plans for their execution. This is
more especially true in respect to that portion of the citi-
zens who are most favored by fortune or have enjoyed the
highest advantages of education and culture. It is emi-
nently true of those in affluence. An active attention to
great political interests by the latter is a rare phenomenon.
The wealthy who are unsatisfied and still thirsting for
DEMOCRACY.
1315
more are equally regardless of governmental action, unless
led to seek aid for their private enterprises through official
favoritism. The necessary, and of course quite excusable,
pre-occupation of the citizens in their private affairs, not
lack of judgment or intelligence, will be found, on a careful
scrutiny, to be the great impediment to wise and just ad-
ministration in representative democracies. There is much
injustice on both sides in the mutual criminations which
disfigured the early debates of parties in America on this
topic. It was never a fact that one party distrusted the
popular judgment, or that the other relied upon it. All the
leaders well knew that, as the political system was ar-
ranged, the people could never act directly on public
affairs, and those leaders failed to devise an effectual
method of securing in permanence the choice of desirable
legislators. It is a delusion to suppose that in a repre-
sentative democracy popular attention can be kept riveted
on public affairs by the contentions of party. In mixed
governments this may be possible. There antagonistical
parties are supposed to be founded on conflicting ideas or
principles expressed in intelligible maxims, and the orig-
inal faith of each party, together with the social and po-
litical condition in which it originated, is consequently
perpetuated in the same lines from generation to genera-
tion. It may thus acquire a fixed place in the mind and
heart, and may become an active moral sentiment. In a
representative democracy there is no legitimate basis for
just and honorable antagonisms of this permanent cha-
racter. During the brief period of unsettled opinion whilst
the constitution is being constructed and put into operation
there may be aliment for such parties, but fundamental
differences of political sentiment must soon disappear.
The citizens then find themselves blended together as one
class, and occupying without distinction the same unalter-
able plane of absolute equality. Honest and intelligent
political contention in the true sense of the expression
must then cease. Thenceforth democrats are the only
legitimate party; if any other can be supposed to exist, its
members are foes to the constitution. It was only prior
to and during the first decade of their constitutional union,
if ever, that a monarchical party existed in the American
States. During that brief period pure and honorable minds
might have hoped for the re-establishment of ancient prin-
ciples. When that hope perished a great change com-
menced. As in the nature of things was inevitable, the
so-called political parties have ever since been gradually
losing their hold upon distinctive opinions, and tending to
a unity of views and purposes in which principles have
little part. With such a unity parties can be nothing more
than bands of rival leaders, keeping on foot, and employed
as their respective forces, bodies of traders in the business
or occupation of manipulating the masses, the ballots, or
the returns. A government carried on by such agencies
must at last attain a worse perfection than any which could
exist under monarchical forms. According to these, the
king and his nobles, as ruling officers, have a permanent
interest in the state descendible to their heirs. For the
protection of that inheritance and for the benefit of their
posterity they will take some care of the state. In a rep-
resentative democracy the office-holders of the hour are
the rulers of the hour; their term is brief, and if corrupt
they will, like the similarly situated pashas of Turkey,
make haste to grow rich, for their positions are soon to be
surrendered to others.
It is not through parties contending for control of the
government that the benefits of democracy can be realized.
The principle itself must be placed beyond the power of
such parties. Permanent barriers, like those devised
against monarchy, must be introduced, which shall abso-
lutely restrain governmental agents—that is to say, the
office-holders—from any action not indispensably neces-
sary to the common weal. Public offices and employments
must be thus rendered undesirable to the indolent and the
avaricious. If this can be effected under any form, it is
possible in a representative democracy. The other prin-
ciples are directly opposed to it, and wholly incompatible
with it. Its practicability in the former depends upon the
question whether a persistently active and capable super-
vision of the ruling office-holder can be established among
those who neither hold nor expect office—that is to say,
among the burden-bearing multitude who support the offi-
cial corps. The last requisite is thus pointedly defined for
the purpose of excluding from reliance in their assumed
office as “sentinels on the watch-tower of liberty” the
organized class of office-seekers, constituting, in partisan
phraseology, the opposition. In effect, and quite consci-
ously too during advanced stages of political degradation,
these will actually become allies of the party in power.
Their function is to perpetuate among the people a delu-
sive reliance upon that pretended but unreal conflict con-
cerning principles which traders in politics always affect.
Through the ordinary revolutions of the political lottery
such contestants divide between themselves, and alter-
nately enjoy, all that through the forms of law can be
wrung from the multitude. They have been known to
concert in perfect harmony before elections the means of
accomplishing a prearranged result.
Democracy, regarded as a principle, plainly indicates
the means of instituting this needful supervision. On
public emergencies the heroic virtues do indeed exhibit
themselves in acts of great disinterestedness, but there is
very little of this spirit displayed whilst nations are in
their normal condition. In an exceedingly small or greatly
impoverished country the vices natural to rulers may, in-
deed, be without opportunities; but in a great and prosper-
ous state there is no possible safeguard against robbery by
those who control the machinery of government, if the
machinery be, in itself, adequate to effect that object when
pushed to its utmost capacity. Those who enact the laws
and administer them will always promote their private in-
terests at the public cost if vested with sufficient power.
Such is human nature, no matter what form or name the
government may adopt. Democracy accepts this as an
indisputable truth, and, distrusting all rulers, it gives to
none of them any power that can safely be withheld. The
policy of instituting checks upon power unavoidably
granted, though not to be absolutely repudiated, is of little
value. Appointing one set of official persons to watch
another is a bootless contrivance. The remedy really ag-
gravates the disease; it fosters the primary evil of govern-
ment—a multiplication of public agents. The watcher
and the watched soon learn to co-operate for joint benefit
in the work of deluding the mass, whom it is the interest
of both to circumvent. The judiciary may form an ex-
ception. The ancient practice of assigning reasons for
the judgment pronounced still exists, and the duty is re-
garded as unavoidable. This, with the institution of re-
view on appeal, does afford a protection of some strength.
Besides, for the honor of our common nature let it be said,
as it is true, that the habitual study of justice tends to
create a sincere love of it. -
The inherent vice of all governments is a tendency
amongst the official rulers to devour the people's substance,
and the only remedy is in a strict application of the demo-
cratic principle. All powers which can be dispensed with
should be withheld from the government, and numerous
vicious methods now in the highest favor should be sup-
pressed. Permitting revenue or the means of defraying
public expenditures to be drawn from duties, imposts, ex-
cises, loams, or any source whatever other than immediate
taxation, enables those who control the administration to
conceal their waste of the people's wealth, and protects
them from any effective supervision. Compelling them to
procure all revenue from the last-named source would ob-
viate both of these evils.
This assertion may require proof. It has been shown
that the whole electoral body cannot directly govern. Even
were the electors composed only of the most learned and
enlightened of the non-office-holders, they could afford
neither the time nor leisure to govern directly by their own
act, or to watch the machinery of government in its varied
details, and by that sort of guardianship prevent abuse.
They could not even study, in this extended sphere, the
character and capacity of their representatives. To hope
for any of these things were idle and visionary. There is
just one thing tending to secure good government, and one
only that the mass can do. Each citizen can for himself—
and if suitably spurred to the duty he will—give attention
to preventing exactions from his own private purse, made
directly before his eyes by government officials. From this
tendency of the human mind a supervisory spirit among
the tax-paying electors may be evoked. . In great emer-
gencies patriotic zeal may be relied upon, but the needs of
every-day life can be supplied in no other way than by thus
appealing to the common and constantly active impulses
of mere individual self-interest. The difficulty of inducing
the citizen to pay taxes directly must be ädmitted. The
very quality of mind which is relied upon for thus utilizing
public expenditure, and consequent taxation, creates an
aversion to this duty. The evil art of the politician who
calls himself a statesman consists in perceiving and acting
upon the absurd preference for being robbed extensively
through the secret and unfelt instrumentality of duties,
excises, and the like, rather than paying directly moderate
exactions in the form of taxes. This weakness of the
citizen forms the strength of those evil counsellors who
misgovern the state. It must be corrected, or intolerable
evils will ensue. In the action of Congress, of the State
legislatures, and of the municipalities official extravagance
has been fostered to a shocking extent by allowing these
unfelt methods of raising revenue, borrowing money for
long terms on the public credit being the most promi-
1316
DEMOCRACY.
ment. Unless the numerous governments intertwined in the
American system can be checked in this career, the system
itself must ere long perish. This cannot be accomplished
otherwise than by absolutely forbidding all methods of ob-
taining revenue or funds for outlay other than immediate
taxation.
every avoidable governmental abuse that exists in the U. S.,
or that, in the nature of things, can exist in any country
blessed with a democratic constitution. If taxes form the
only allowed sources of expenditure, frugality will ensue,
and under the shadow of frugality serious mischiefs can
scarcely prevail. Though labor may ultimately sustain it,
simple taxation must always be paid, in the first instance,
by those who possess property. A policy which would
draw directly at the moment of need, and from the pockets
of this class, through the immediate agency of the tax-
gatherer, the whole supply for public expenditure, would
keep its members, from a regard to their own private in-
terests, under the pressure of a constant and potent stim-
ulus to restrain injudicious enterprises in war or peace.
Such a policy would induce effective attention to the elec-
tion of inexpensive legislators. It would form a double
goad, prompting the constituent to vigilance on this one
point in the choice of his representative, and coercing the
latter to frugality. A more extensive sphere than this will
never be acted on by any beneficial vigilance of the elector:
the unalterable constitution of human nature forbids it.
Perhaps the class referred to will never consent to place
themselves under this incitement to diligence. If so, the
great North American republic should not be adopted as a
model by revolutionists, for ere long, in closing its career
as a democracy, it may extinguish the last hope of good
government, and confirm views expressed by a philosophi-
cal historian two thousand years ago. “From the despo-
tism,” says he, “in which it naturally begins, every human
Society passes through a succession of governments, each
more liberal than its immediate predecessor, but each in
its turn decaying from internal abuses, until at last, having
reached the loosest or most liberal form attainable, a refuge
from intolerable evils is found by completing the circuit
and returning to that arbitrary rule under which it com-
menced. Thus it has ever been and ever will be with
human governments.” This prediction may not be verified
if the Americans will expunge from their fundamental law
the powers which are foreign to its nature and fatal to its
usefulness. The changes needed are not organic except
in form; they involve no departure from any principles
adopted or sanctioned by the fathers; they only remove
the seeds of decay inadvertently sown by copying adminis-
trative rules from monarchical precedents. The most im-
portant of these changes has been stated; some further
illustration may be proper.
The creation of public debt diminishes present drafts upon
the people, as duties, excises, and the like expedients gon-
ceal them. Both, consequently, facilitate wars and need-
less public works. War delights inconsiderate youth by
its excitements and grasping age by its tender of the most
desirable investments. Thus, the greatest of evils is hailed
as a blessing, and profligate expenditure for purposes civil
and military made easy. If, on the contrary, every govern-
mental outlay were immediately defrayed by the tax-
payers, very different results would ensue. The most
wary and influential of the citizens, instead of being
tempted to foster expense, would find in the shadow of
the approaching tax-gatherer a potent stimulus to labor
for its prevention. The consequent diminution of govern-
ment jobs would relieve from public employ the multitudes
whom corrupt officials now drive to the polls as cattle to
the shambles. Free trade would follow as an inevitable
consequence, and the enormous patronage of the custom-
house would cease, together with a multitude of connected
abuses and oppressions. The rapine and favoritism dis-
played in taxing all others for the means to confer a bounty
upon manufacturers would likewise disappear. The pre-
valent weakness before adverted to is exhibited in advocat-
ing a tariff reduced to the revenue standard. Obtaining
revenue in this secret or unfelt method, independently of
its keeping up a costly and vicious establishment, is in
itself a positive evil. A sensibly felt pressure, in the form
of taxation, is an indispensable provocative to that vigi-
lance among the tax-paying electors which cannot be dis-
pensed with. Indeed the only political evil to be appre-
hended from the extensive reforms suggested in this article
is that the expenses of government might become so reduced
that taxation to defray them would cease to be felt, and
consequently cease to spur the elector to care in the choice
of his representatives. *
There should be no governmental authority over the
coinage, over any currency of commerce, or to issue paper
for circulation as money. No revenue or income should be
derived from the public domain, nor should any gifts be
The use of those other methods is the root of .
made therefrom, unless in limited portions and for the
encouragement of actual settlers.
By means of general laws admitting of no favoritism or
partiality all requisite facilities, through corporate forms
or otherwise, should be afforded to individuals for conduct-
ing every description of lawful business. This should
include banking, insurance, establishing roads, canals,
docks, fairs, or markets, and furnishing supplies of every
description, and like objects. Under this head there is the
greatest room for progress in effectively applying the de-
mocratic principle, so as to prevent any needless action by
the government, or the employment of its officers in any
affairs that experience might show could be safely com-
mitted to individuals as a business. Regulation by general
laws being sufficient for all useful ends in that connection,
no power should exist to create, repeal, or alter any private
corporation. Monopolies and fraudulent or extortionate
rivalries in trade should be alike prohibited, as well as all
power of enacting private laws. A general structural law
for each kind of civil division, say counties, towns, cities,
and villages, should be adopted, subject to alteration only
by amendments likewise general in their application. This
would at once reduce the volume of statute law, simplify
its form, conduce to its intelligibility, diminish litigation,
and restrain corrupt practices. Under a system of which
this affords a specimen, laws might become few, simple,
and easily understood. We should not behold in one
single State of the Union a legislative body sitting for
four months of each year, surrounded by a hired lobby,
and engaged in confounding the courts and the people with
two thousand pages of additional legislation, most of it
hurriedly passed during the last week of the session in
such confusion and disorder that the clerks, if disposed,
can make alterations in bills after their passage and before
their formal engrossment or authentication as laws.
The power to declare and wage war cannot be withheld,
but it should be as much restricted as possible. Perhaps
withholding power to borrow money is alone sufficient for
this purpose. Some ingenuity might be required in fram-
ing inhibitions of other devices for the creation of public
debt, but absolute prevention is not impossible, and is im-
peratively necessary. The power to borrow money, if it
exist at all, cannot be limited or duly guarded. In a great
and populous state, separated by a wide ocean from any
powerful rival or enemy, armies, navies, forts, arsenals,
military Schools, and standing armies or navies of any de-
scription, however slight, might safely be dispensed with.
Until a period quite recent, agriculture, manufactures, and
commerce wére degrading employments; no occupation
was honorable except that of a soldier. This distinction
might ere long be precisely reversed, and military service,
as the adopted pursuit of a lifetime, be entirely unknown.
Even before the telegraphic current had traversed the ocean
the diplomatic corps was useless; it should be abolished.
These alterations, besides reducing the cost of government,
would leave unemployed a large amount of public property
which might be judiciously applied to the reduction of ex-
isting debts. Dispensing with all preparation for public
defence, and trusting for the safety of the state in every
emergency to the means which might then be brought to-
gether, would not be hazardous. The history of our race
affords abundant proof that in populous countries the spirit
which rejoices in any opportunity to make war has always
exceeded the necessity for its employment. Loyalty might
imagine a danger to government from lack of power to sup-
press rebellion, but the policy suggested would render for-
midable rebellions impossible. Besides, wars are becoming
disfavored even in monarchical states. The light of sound
morality is penetrating even the dark jungle of hereditary
domination, and creating a general repugnance to this mis-
chief.
Little progress has been made in practically applying
the democratic principle since its adoption. Few of the
steps hitherto taken or as yet proposed by parties with that
professed object are of a beneficial tendency. It might ex-
cusably have been imagined, though quite false in fact,
that in the great exemplar of Americans, the aristocratic
quasi republic of Great Britain, election by ballot would be
a boon to the miserable mine-laborer or cottier. In free,
fertile, and prosperous America it was wholly needless;
its acceptance was a reproach to the poorer citizen and a
scandalous acknowledgment of timidity in the rich. It
opened the door to frauds innumerable. Its inutility to
the dependent poor has been demonstrated. The govern-
ing faction of a city that employs in public works one-
tenth of its electoral body has sent its workman to the poll
in charge of a whipper-in, who, when near the ballot-box,
furnished him with the favored ticket, and thence until its
delivery to the official receiver watched the hand in which it
had been placed. After the ballot there came, by degrees,
direct election to a very great multitude of offices. This
**.*
DEMOCRAT—DEMOCRATES.
1317
folly has reached its climax. In New York, the greatest
of the States, not one of the best-informed, most active-
minded, and experienced citizens has within a quarter of a
century exercised an intelligent choice in selecting the
numerous ballots required at an annual election. The
thing is absolutely impossible, unless submitting to the dic-
tation of a caucus composed of politicians by trade can be
deemed an intelligent act of the will and judgment. Know-
ledge as to the capacity or fitness of the nominees for the
various stations to be filled could not exist in any instance,
and consequently there could not be an enlightened choice.
No people can ever sustain the burden of directly choosing
numerous administrative officers. The popular voice should
not be called into action except in selecting a very moderate
number of officers, say the chief executive and the legisla-
ture. The fallacy of presidential electors should of course
be abolished. The existing embarrassments under this head
are about to be carried to the last measure of complication
which perverse ingenuity is supposed to be capable of de-
vising. The conception called cumulative voting is sus-
ceptible of being embodied in forms of innumerable va-
riety. It demands a measure of skill, intelligence, care, and
attention in the ordinary citizen which Newton or La Place
could scarcely have commanded and brought into efficient
action under the pressure of such disturbing influences as
are necessarily attendant upon a popular election of the
horde annually chosen. Indeed, the pursuits of the gam-
bler would afford the best apprenticeship for the elector
under such a system. In respect to all three of these de-
vices, the ballot, the direct choice of administrative officers,
and cumulative voting, candid and thoughtful minds can
hardly differ. The tendency of each and all of them is un-
deniably to establish on a permanent basis the trade of
politics.
The unsound conceptions which gave rise to the ballot
are precisely paralleled in the recent laws limiting the hours
of labor on public works. That law indicates among Amer-
icans a preparedness for servile dependence. A freeman
should submit to no law on such a subject; his own volun-
tary contract should alone control.
Ancestral memories amongst Americans have consecrated
religious liberty, and it has hitherto been maintained; but
reformatory progress threatens to extinguish it by a polit-
ical recognition of dogmas in Christian theology. The
citizens who are not Christians, and at least one-fifth of
those who are, would thus be rendered non-conformists,
and might be made liable to disabilities, if not to pains and
penalties, for their disloyalty to the orthodox constitution.
The advocates of this measure may not be very powerful as
yet, but among them are persons of high position and wide
influence. This same permicious conception may ultimately
prevail in another form. The revolting sons of the early
colonists were without adequate means of educating the
young. Many of the race born in the city of New York
during the present century attained full age without learn-
ing to read. A State school system was deemed judicious,
and doubtless was so. Medicine is properly applied by
charity or bounty to remove disease. This system, where-
ever applied, had, in its early stages, a beneficial effect. It
dispelled that low grade of ignorance which was the only
evil under this head demanding strong measures. But in
process of time the trading politician seized upon State
education, and rendered it, to a considerable extent, another
foster-parent of the jobbery and electioneering abuses inci-
dent to a loose administration. It is in some places enor-
mously expensive, a means of official patronage, and a foot-
ball to be tossed to and fro in factious contentions. It
seems a favorite design of many to render the education of
children under State regulations compulsory upon their
parents, notwithstanding that those regulations should re-
quire the use of particular religious books, and the conse-
quent inculcation of theological opinions which may be dis-
believed by the latter and not sought by the former. This
would be a plain infraction of religious liberty. Religion
can exist only as a conviction deeply seated in the indi-
vidual mind, and it is believed to be essential in forming
good citizens; yet from the variety of its forms non-inter-
ference with it by government is a fixed democratic dogma.
Theoretically, there seems an inconsistency in these propo-
sitions, but practically they are found to harmonize. Re-
ligious convictions bring into full action the voluntary
principle, and divine worship is nowhere more amply pro-
vided for than in the U. S. The differences of opinion con-
stituting what is called sectarianism, apart from which re-
ligion is unknown, form the precise objection to govern-
mental interference with religious worship hitherto relied
upon. The education of youth in a method which should
studiously exclude religious, or what, as has been seen, is
the same thing, sectarian ideas, would be pernicious, as tend-
ing necessarily to form bad citizens. This would seem to
show conclusively that in the present advanced state of
American social life education of the young, like religious
worship for the mature, should be left to the voluntary
E. To perfect the policy which from the first for.
ade governments to interfere with the latter, they should
now be commanded to withdraw from control of the former.
There is room for the introduction of many real reforms.
Short terms and frequent elections are no doubt necessary
as to the chief executive and the lègislative bodies. Due
responsibility to the real sovereignty—i.e. the people—
cannot otherwise be maintained; but as to all other officers
removals should be for cause only—that is to say, fault or
incapacity. Rotation in respect to public agents of any
kind is a mistake in doctrine. Faithful service and proved.
capacity are singular grounds of disqualification. It must
be admitted, however, that no absolute right of the citizen
is invaded by introducing certain limits to eligibility; and
expediency may require it in respect to one office. Indeed,
it can hardly be doubted that a long quarantine should be
required between exercising military command and aspir-
ing to the chief magistracy.
To guard against fraud, registry laws are expedient in
densely-peopled districts. A considerable period should
elapse between the registry and the vote, without allowing
exceptions on account of intermediate changes in residence.
The more fixed and permanent the elector's habits, the bet-
ter his duties will be performed. No public interest is sub-
served by a multitudinous or floating constituency; it is
enough if the electoral body be sufficiently large to secure
efficient supervision in the choice of representatives. It
would be expedient to exclude from the elective franchise
all officers and employés receiving pay from the public.
Vast benefits would result from this measure, and also from
denouncing severe penalties against compelling this class to
contribute towards the expense of elections.
The Federal government was designed as an organ of
limited powers, yet it has exhibited ample capacity to
crush or modify at will not only State institutions, but the
States themselves. Practically considered, the latter exist
merely by sufferance, holding, as it respects the essentials
of political power, no higher relation to the central author-
ity than towns or counties do to the States in which they
are situated. As bulwarks of liberty or constitutional
rights they are nearly if not entirely powerless. But while
thus superannuated and rendered ineffectual for the high
purposes of the founders, they exercise a power which
tends to serious mischiefs. Through their conflicting legis-
lation, enforced by independent judiciaries, they may ulti-
mately derange the laws concerning trade, contracts, and
some other subjects of general concern. By the identity
of their language, moral ideas, and social habits, and by
their essential proximity effected through railroads and
telegraphs, Americans have become commercially and so-
cially one nation. Conflicting laws and a jarring juris-
prudence amongst them should be prevented, if prevention
be practicable. A court of ultimate appeal, as well from
the State as from the Federal tribunals, composed of judges
selected by the States, and neither subject to official inter-
ference nor possessing coercive machinery of its own, might
preserve this desirable unity of jurisprudence throughout
the whole country. The want of such an institution has
been keenly felt by the confederate cantons of Switzerland.
A precedent may be found in that modern tribunal at Lü-
beck which reviewed the judicial action of four perfectly
independent republics. Probably the Amphictyonic Coun-
cil of ancient times had its origin in similar objects. Such
a court might defend the political autonomy of the States
against encroachments; and the Federal government could
neither forbid appeals, nor force a judicial sanction of its
own unauthorized acts by increasing the number of judges
or otherwise. Indeed, the existing Supreme Court; which
is enfeebled by its liability to such coercive measures, might
then be dispensed with.
The course of reform suggested would eventually mature
the democratic system by securing to all citizens the ut-
most measure of freedom, affording material progress every
aid to its most perfect development which an equal and
impartial government can bestow, and terminating official
misrule. Its aim is to break the sceptre of the trading
politician, and thus, at last, to establish liberty on the only
reliable basis—a popular censorship on democratic prin-
ciples, perpetually stimulated to its duty by the simple ope-
ration of intelligent self-interest.
CHARLES O'ConoR.
Dem'ocrat, a township of Carroll co., Ind. Pop. 1122.
Democ/rātes (Amwokpárms), a supposed Pythagorean
philosopher, under whose name a collection of moral say-
ings called the “Golden Maxims” (yväuat xpvgaſ) has come
down to our time. These are written in the Ionic dialect,
and are remarkable for their simple and correct character.
The author is otherwise unknown, and the age of the col-
(“Apol. Socr.”).
1318
DEMOCRATES-DEMOPOLIS.
lection is not determined. They are printed along with
the collection of DEMoPHILUs (which see).
HENRY DRISLER.
Democrátes, an Attic orator of the time of Demos-
thenes, was an opponent of the Macedonian party. He is
mentioned in the Decrees in the oration of T)emosthenes,
“De Corona,” as serving with Demosthenes on two em-
bassies—the one to Philip to receive the oaths, the other to
the Thebans to enlist them on the side of Athens against
Philip. HENRY DRISLER.
Democ/ritus [Gr. Amudkpwros], a celebrated and pro-
found Greek philosopher, born at Abdera, in Thrace, about
460, or, some say, 469 B. C. He is supposed to have been
a disciple of Leucippus, and to have received lessons from
some Chaldaean magi. He inherited, it is said, from his
father, a fortune of one hundred talents. In early life he
travelled in pursuit of knowledge in Egypt, Greece, Persia,
and India, and continued his travels until he had spent
nearly all his patrimony. Having returned to Abdera, he
declined political honors and employment, preferring to
pass his life in study and retirement. He had a high repu-
tation for virtue as well as learning. He appears to have
been versed in geometry, physics, natural history, and ethics,
on which subjects he wrote numerous works, but none of
them are now extant. According to the later biographers
he was called the “laughing philosopher,” from his habit
of laughing at the follies of mankind. He was a man of noble,
pure, and diligent life. It appears that he admitted the
existence of law in nature, but not that of design. He died
357 B. C. His system of philosophy is known as the atomic
system. He taught that matter is eternal, and that the
universe is composed of empty space and indivisible atoms
which are infinite in number. To these atoms he attributes
a primary motion, which brings them into contact and forms
innumerable combinations, the result of which is seen in
the multifarious productions and phenomena of nature.
He imagined that the soul or thought is produced by the
motion of round fiery atoms. Many of his ideas and the-
ories were adopted by Epicurus, and explained by Lucre-
tius in his poem “De Rerum Naturâ.” Of his works only
the smallest fragments have been preserved. (See G. H.
LEw Es, “Biographical History of Philosophy;” RITTER,
“History of Philosophy.”)
TDemocritus (Amuákpºros), a statuary of Sicyon (whence
his name appears also in the Doric form Damocritus),
flourished B. C. 380. Pliny says that he made statues of
several philosophers, and Pausanias assigns to him statues
of victors in the games. HENRY DRISLE.R.
Demo d'ocus (AmuáSokos), the celebrated bard of the
Phaeacians, who is represented in the “Odyssey” as sing-
ing at the banquet of Alcinous the battles and the fate of
the Greeks who went to Troy, with the conquest and
destruction of that city, and also the loves of Mars and
Venus. Later writers, who regarded him as an historical
personage, represent him as an old and blind musician and
poet of Corcyra, who composed a poem on the destruction
of Troy ('IAtov &Awaris), and another on the loves of Mars
and Venus. HENRY DRISLER.
Demogor'gon [from the Gr. 8atuov, a “ divinity,” and
yopyds, “terrible”], a dreadful and mysterious being al-
luded to by some of the later classical writers, and by Boc-
caccio, Ariosto, Spenser, Milton, Shelley, and others. In
Shelley’s “Prometheus Unbound”, he is the conqueror
of Jupiter. The ancients dreaded the very mention of his
Iłż, Dºle.
Demoiselle [a French word signifying “young lady”],
the name of a genus of birds (Anthropoidea) belonging to
the family Gruidae, remarkable for their grace and sym-
metry of form. (See CRANE.) None of them occur in
North America.
De'mon, or Dae/mon [Gr. Satutov or Satuávtov; Lat.
daemon], a term of Greek origin, used in classical writers
primarily for the Supreme Divinity, sometimes as a syno-
nym for 9eós, a “god;” and later more especially as a tute-
lary or guardian divinity which was supposed to attend
upon men. Thus, Socrates is commonly said to have been
attended by a beneficent daemon. It may well be doubted,
however, whether such an idea is justified by the language
of Xenophon (see “Memorabilia,” I., 2 et seq.) or Plato
Socrates appears to have meant simply
that a divine influence or intimation of some kind within
him, a sign or voice (a muetov, bovň, in Plato), controlled his
actions. (See SoCRATES.) According to Plato, “Every dae-
mon is a middle being between God and man.” “Intercourse
between gods and men is carried on by daemons.” He
further says, “The poets speak exeellently when they say
that when good men die . . . they become daemons.” These
ideas were greatly amplified by the Neo-Platonists, who
divided the daemons into good and bad. The dread of evil
daemons became so great that in time the word came to be
almost always used in a bad sense. In the Greek New
Testament evil spirits are often called daemons (Satuávia,
commonly translated “devils”), and Beelzebub is spoken
of as the prince of daemons (6 &pxov rôv Šauptovíav).
Demon (Ajinov), an Attic orator, was a nephew of
Demosthenes, and belonged to the party opposed to the
Macedonians. After the death of Alexander, Demon pro-
posed a decree, which was passed, for recalling Demosthenes
from exile. HENRY DRISLER.
Demon (Ajuov), a Greek writer, author of an “Atthis,”
or “History of Attica,” flourished about 280 B. C. His
writings were regarded as of no great authority. He is
also the author, according to Schneidewin and Müller, of
a work on proverbs (trepi rapoutów). Of both these works
some fragments still exist. Those of the proverbs have been
inserted in the “Paroemiographi Graeci.” of Schneidewin
and Leutsch, and all the extant remains have been collected
by Siebelis, “Phanodemi, Demonis, etc. 'At 0tôov Fragm.,”
Leipsic, 1802, and by Müller, “Hist. Graec. Fragm.,” vol. i.,
pp. 378-383. - HENRY DRISLE.R.
Demo/max [Amuſºvač, a celebrated Cynic philosopher
who lived and taught at Athens in the second century A. D.
His claim to distinction, however, is not so much that of
a teacher of philosophy as of a model Cynic, and in this
character he is depicted in Lucian’s treatise called after
his name. Though a native of Cyprus, he passed most
of his life in Athens, where he was greatly honored while
living, and when dead he was buried by the public with
great magnificence. An outline of his doctrines will be
found in RITTER’s “History of Philosophy” (English trans-
lation), vol. iv., p. 169, and several of his apothegms are
given in ORELLI’s “Opuscula Graec. vet. Sententiosa,”
vol. ii., pp. 144 seq. HENRY DRISLER.
TXemo/niac [Gr. 8atuovučáuevos ; Lat. daemoniacus], a
person possessed of or controlled by evil spirits. The New
Testament abounds in narratives of demoniacal possession,
and various opinions are entertained in regard to the cha-
racter of this affliction. -
HDemonol’ogy [from the Gr. Satuov, a “ daemon,” and
Aóyos, a “treatise ’’), a treatise upon evil spirits; also the
doctrine or science treating of the nature or character of
evil spirits. Many works have been written on this sub-
ject. One of the most popular is Sir Walter Scott’s “Let-
ters on Demonology and Witchcraft.”
Demonstra’tion [Lat. demonstratio, from de, inten-
sive, and monstro, monstratum, to “show ’’), in mathemat-
ics, is an indubitable proof of a proposition. The term was
used by old writers to signify any manner of showing either
the connection of a conclusion with its premisses or that of
a phenomenon with its asserted cause; but it now signifies
in philosophical language only that process by which a re-
sult is shown to be a necessary consequence of the premisses
from which it is asserted to follow. In common language
it signifies an exhibition or display.
DEMONSTRATION, in military operations, is a movement or
manoeuvre, the chief object of which is to deceive the enemy,
and to induce him to divide his force or divert his atten-
tion from the real point of attack.
Demoph’ilus [Amudóvãos], a philosopher of the new
Pythagorean school, whose age is not certainly known.
He was the author of a work entitled Bíov 9epaireia, from
which there is still extant a collection of moral precepts
entitled yuwuukå Öuovºuara, which are edited, along with
the “Golden Maxims” of Democrates, by SCHIER, Leipsic,
1754, and which are printed also in ORELLI’s “Opuscula
Graec. vet. Sententiosa,” vol. i., p. 1 seq. +
HENRY DRISLER.
Demoph’oën, or Dem'ophon [Amuodóov, or Amuodºvl,
in Grecian mythology, a king of Athens, son of Theseus
and Phaedra, who is said to have accompanied the Greeks
on their expedition against Troy, whence he rescued his
grandmother Æthra. When Diomed, on his return from
Troy with his Argives, ran in by night to the coast of
Attica, and began to plunder it, Demophon attacked him
and carried off the Palladium. Demophon is said also to
have assisted the Heraclidae against Eurystheus, who was
slain in the battle that took place, and to have received
Orestes when, after his mother's murder, he sought refuge
at Athens. HENRY DRISLER.
Demop'olis, a township and post-village, capital of
Marengo co., Ala., on the Tombigbee River just below
the mouth of the Black Warrior, and on the Alabama Cen-
tral R. R., 50 miles W. of Selma. It has four white and
two colored churches and one weekly newspaper, a cotton
and woollen factory and a private bank; also an active
trade in cotton, which is shipped here. Pop. including the
township, 4245; of village, 1539.
M. C. BURKE, Ed. “BIGBEE NEws.”
A
DE MORGAN–DEMURRER.
1319
De Mor'gan (AUGUSTUs), an English mathematician,
born in the isle of Madura, near Java, in June, 1806, was
educated at Cambridge. He was for many years professor
of mathematics in University College, London. He wrote
numerous works, among which are “Elements of Algebra”
(1835), an “Essay on Probabilities” (1838), and “Formal
Logic, or the Calculus of Inference, Necessary and Proba-
ble” (1847), and contributed largely to the “Penny Cyclo-
paedia.” Died Mar. 18, 1871.
Deſmos [Gr. 8%uos, the “people”], the name given to
the smaller divisions of the Attic tribes, somewhat similar
to the townships into which counties are divided. When
Clisthenes broke up the four old Attic tribes into ten new
ones, Herodotus states that he subdivided these into 100
demes, but as there is no other authority for such statement,
and the number of demes was actually 173 or 174, different
explanations have been attempted of the passage in Herod-
otus. The demes were local divisions, in the registers of
which the citizens had to enrol their names for political
and other purposes. These demes were named sometimes
after places, sometimes after persons, and those of the
same tribe were not always adjacent, but might be in quite
different parts of Attica. They had each its own presiding
officer (6%uapxos), treasurer, and other officers, and its own
assembly, in which the business of the deme was transacted.
Lists of the names of the demes under their proper tribes
are given by K. F. HERMANN, “Griech. Alterth.,” anhang
iv., by LEAKE, in his “Demes of Attica,” and by Müller,
“Hist. Graec. Fragm.,” vol. ii., pp. 357–359.
BEvised BY HENRY DRISLER.
Demos' themes [Gr. Amuoa:0évns], the most eminent
orator of antiquity, and probably the greatest of whom his-
tory gives any account, was born in Attica, in the demos of
Paeania, near Athens, about 382, or, according to some au-
thorities, in 385 B. C. His father (also named Demosthenes)
was a cutler and maker of furniture. He died when his son
was seven years of age, leaving fifteen talents (more than
$15,000) to be divided between the young Demosthenes and
his sister. The guardians converted a large part of this money
to their own use. Demosthenes studied rhetoric with Isaeus,
and philosophy, according to some authorities, with Plato.
Cicero states that he was instructed in oratory by Isocrates,
but the fact is not established. Demosthenes, when about
eighteen years old, prosecuted his guardians, pleading his
own cause, but though the case was decided in his favor,
he received only a part of his dues. Before this time it is
said that he had resolved to devote his whole attention to
oratory, from witnessing the forensic triumphs of Callistra-
tus. But his health was feeble, his manners ungraceful,
his breath short, and voice stammering and indistinct. In
order to remedy these defects we are told that he adopted
the practice of speaking with pebbles in his mouth; that
he was wont to declaim upon the sea-shore, so as to be able
to be heard in the tumult of popular assemblies; and that
he often practised before a mirror, so as to observe and
rectify any awkwardness of gesture. Nevertheless, his first
appearance before a popular assembly was, according to
Plutarch, a failure, exciting only the laughter of the mul-
titude. But encouraged by Satyrus, an actor, who gave him
useful instruction, he devoted himself with the utmost dili-
gence to his task. We are told that he shaved one side of
his head, that it might be absolutely impossible for him to
go into society. He made the writings of Thucydides his
model for style, and it is said that he transcribed the writ-
ings of that historian no less than eight times. In 355
B. C. he delivered his oration against Leptines, with com-
plete success. Soon after this he entered upon his great
though unsuccessful life-work, the defence of Grecian lib-
erty against the designs of Philip of Macedon. Between
the years 352 and 340 B.C. he pronounced eleven or per-
haps twelve orations against Philip. Four of these are
especially denominated “Philippics.” He took part in
338 B.C. in the disastrous battle of Chaeronea. It having
been proposed by Ctesiphon that the Athenian state should
bestow upon Demosthenes a golden crown as reward for
his services, there followed a contest of several years with
his rival AEschines, which was triumphantly closed in 330
B. C. by the delivery of Demosthenes’ celebrated oration
“On the Crown,” which is generally regarded as his finest
effort. Demosthenes was afterwards accused of having
received a bribe from the Macedonians, and though, in the
opinion of the best historians, the accusation was entirely
unjust, he was sentenced to pay a heavy fine, and left the
country. He returned after the death of Alexander, but
having been condemned to death by Antipater, he took
poison and died in 322 B. C. Sixty extant orations and
many fragments are ascribed to Demosthenes, but several
of these are regarded as spurious.
Demosthenes appears to have been extremely averse to
extemporaneous speaking, although we are told that his
unpremeditated speeches were superior to his more elaborate
efforts. The success of his oratory was due in a very great
degree to the steadfastness with which he kept the atten-
tion of his hearers riveted on the one great object in view.
Nothing superfluous, nothing which did not contribute to
that object, was admitted into his discourse. “He uses
language,” says Fénelon, “as a modest man uses his dress
—simply to cover him. We think not of his words; we
think only of the things which he says. He lightens, he
thunders, he is a torrent which sweeps everything before it.
We can neither criticise nor admire, because we have not
the command of our own faculties.” “His style,” observes
Hume, “is rapid harmony exactly adjusted to the sense; it
is vehement reasoning without any appearance of art; it is
disdain, anger, boldness, freedom, involved in a continued
stream of argument; and of all human productions his
orations present the models which approach the nearest to
perfection.” “Such was the first of orators,” says Lord
Brougham: “at the head of all the mighty masters of speech,
the adoration of ages has consecrated his place, and the loss
of the noble instrument [the Greek language] with which
he forged and launched his thunders is sure to maintain it
unapproachable for ever.” (See GROTE, “History of Greece,”
vol. xi., ch. lxxxvii.; THIRLWALL, “History of Greece;”
BROUGHAM, “Dissertation on the Eloquence of the An-
cients;” SchAFER, “Demosthenes und seine Zeit,” 3 vols.,
1856–58.) One of the best editions of his works is that of
W. Dindorf, with copious notes and the Greek scholia, Ox-
ford, 1846–51, 9 vols. 8vo.
REVISED BY J. THOMAs.
Demos’thenes, an Athenian general who acted a
prominent part in the Peloponnesian war. He and Eurym-
edon jointly commanded an army sent in 413 B. C. to re-
inforce Nicias at Syracuse. After the Athenians had been
defeated he surrendered, and was put to death by the vic-
tors in 413 B. C. -
Demot'ica (ane. Didymotichos), a town of European
Turkey, in Room-Elee, on the river Maritza, 25 miles S. of
Adrianople. It is defended by a citadel or castle, and has
several Greek churches; also manufactures of silk and wool--
len goods and pottery. Here Charles XII. of Sweden lived
as a prisoner about 1712. Pop. about 8000.
Demotic Characters. See ENCHORIAL WRITING.
Demp'ster (John), D. D., an eminent Methodist
preacher, born at Florida, N. Y., Jan. 2, 1794, was the son
of the Rev. James Dempster, a Scottish Presbyterian, who
had been a Wesleyan preacher. The younger Dempster
entered the itinerant ministry in 1816, and became a mas-
ter of pulpit oratory. From 1836 to 1841 he was a mission-
ary in Buenos Ayres. From 1845 to 1863 he was a profes-
sor in the biblical institutes at Newbury, Vt., Concord,
N. H., and Evanston, Ill. The success of these schools was
largely owing to his energetic labors. Died at Chicago
Nov. 28, 1863. (See STEvKNs, “History of the Methodist
Episcopal Church,” vol. iii.)
Dempster (THOMAs), a learned Scottish writer, born
at Muiresk Aug. 23, 1579. He studied at Cambridge, went
to France to finish his education, and became regent of a
college in Paris. He had a quarrelsome temper, which in-
volved him in violent brawls. He was afterwards profes-
sor at Pisa and Bologna. He wrote “Historia Gentis
Scotorum,” reprinted in 1829. Died at Bologna Sept. 6,
1625.
Demul’cent [Lat. demulcens, present participle of
demulceo, to “soothe,” to “soften’], a name applied to med-
icines of a mucilaginous or oily consistency, such as starch,
gum, etc., which are given for the purpose of soothing irri-
tation of the mucous membrane and promoting the increase
of the secretions. They are also used as poultices, etc.
Demur' rage, in mercantile law, is an allowance made
to the master or owners of a ship by the merchant or
freighter when he detains the ship in port beyond the time
specified in the charter-party. It is usually stipulated in
the charter-party or agreement that if delay occurs in load-
ing or unloading the vessel, the merchant who charters and
freights her shall pay a certain sum per diem for the extra
time. The rule is, that during the loading and unloading
the merchant runs all the risk of interruptions, even from
necessary and accidental causes. But no demurrage can
be claimed for the delay caused by the detention of a ship
by a public enemy, or for delay caused by the fault of the
master, owners, or crew. The word demurrage is also em-
ployed to mean the delay itself.
Temur’rer, in law, is a suspension of action in a cause
until the determination of some point by the court. In a
pleading in equity, as well as at law, it raises a question as
to the sufficiency in law of the case as stated by the oppo-
site party. There may also be a demurrer to evidence, on
1320
DENAIN–DENISON UNIVERSITY.
the ground that the testimony offered by a party in a cause
is insufficient to maintain or overthrow the issue.
Demain, a town of France, department of Nord, on the
Scheldt, and on a railway, 5 miles W. of Valenciennes. It
is in an extensive coal-field, and has iron-works and manu-
factures of beet-root sugar. Pop. 11,022.
Dena'rius [a Lat. term, from deni, “ten “l, a Roman
silver coin, originally equal to ten asses, was first coined
269 B. C. Its weight varied at different periods, and its
value was afterwards equivalent to sixteen asses, or about
8d. of English money.
Den/bigh, a county of North Wales, bounded on the N.
by the Irish Sea and on the W. by the river Conway. Area,
603 square miles. The surface is mostly rugged and moun-
tainous, but fertile and beautiful valleys occur. Coal, cop-
per, iron, lead, limestone, and slate are found in this county.
The chief towns are Denbigh, Wrexham, Abergele, Llan-
gollen, and Ruthin. Pop. in 1871, 104,266.
Denbigh, a town of Wales, the capital of the above
county, is in the Vale of Clwyd, 22 miles W. of Chester. It
stands on the sides and at the base of a steep limestone hill,
crowned by the imposing ruins of a castle built in 1284, and
has many handsome antique houses. Pop. in 1871, 6322.
Denbigh, a township of Warwick co., Va. Pop. 391.
Dembigh, EARLs of (1622), Wiscounts and Barons
Fielding (1620), Barons St. Liz (England, 1664), earls of
Desmond (1622), Wiscounts Callan and Barons Fielding
(Ireland, 1619).-RUDOLPH WILLIAM BASIL FIELDING,
eighth earl, M.A., born April 9, 1823, succeeded his father
June 25, 1865.
Demºderah (anc. Tentyra, probably taken from Tei n
Athor, “abode of Athor”), a town of Upper Egypt, near
the left bank of the Nile, in lat. 26° 13' N., lon. 32° 40' E.,
and opposite Keneh. Here are the ruins of a celebrated
temple, one of the most imposing and best-preserved of the
ancient monuments of Egypt. It is 220 feet long, and has
a portico supported by twenty-four columns. The columns
and walls are covered with carved figures and hieroglyphics.
On the ceiling of the portico of this temple is one of the
famous zodiacs discovered by the French in 1799. On the
exterior wall are figures of Cleopatra and her son, proba-
bly meant for portraits.
Dendermon/de, or Termon/de, a fortified town of
Belgium, in East Flanders, is at the confluence of the Den-
der and the Scheldt, and on the railway from Mechlin to
Ostend, 16 miles E. of Ghent. It has a town-house, and a
very old church called Notre Dame; also manufactures of
lace, cotton yarn, and woollen goods. Pop. 8300.
Den/drite [perhaps a corruption of dendrolite, from the
Gr. 8évôpov, a “tree,” and Atºos, a “stone "I, the name of a
peculiar mineral, containing internally, or having its sur-
face covered with, filamentary forms resembling moss, ferns,
trees, etc. Moss agate and Mocha stone are examples.
Dendro/bium [from 8évôpov, a “tree,” and 8.60, to
“live,” so called because they live on trees], a genus of
epiphytic orchids, mostly natives of the tropical parts of
Asia, and Australia. They have flowers of great beauty
and fragrance, sometimes also remarkable for grotesqueness
of form.
Den'drolites [from the Gr. 8évôpov, a “tree,” and Atôos,
a “stone”], the name given to petrifactions found in sec-
ondary and coal formations. They consist of plants and
fragments of trees, having, generally, nothing in common
with those now growing in the same regions. They are
mostly cycads, tree-ferns, conifers, etc.
Den/drophis [from the Gr. 8évôpov, a “tree,” and 5%ts,
a “serpent”], a genus of serpents belonging to the Colu-
bridae. They are distinguished for their brilliant colors and
very slender forms, live among branches of trees, feed upon
insects, and have large and prominent eyes. They are na-
tives of the warm parts of Asia, America, etc., none being
found in Europe.
Dengue,” déng'gå, a disease known by the names of
dunga, dandy, breakbone fever, etc., an epidemic, seldom
fatal, which has prevailed at different times in the southern
parts of the U. S. and in the East and West Indies. Its
symptoms are headache, fever, pain and swelling of the
smaller joints, an eruption of the skin, and gouty pains
which often cause lameness for a considerable time. It
appears to be of a rheumatic character.
.* REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Den/ham (Col. DIxoN), an English traveller, born in
London Jan. 1, 1786. He accompanied Clapperton and
Oudney on an expedition to Timbuctoo in 1821. They pro-
* Dengue is the Spanish for “dandy” or “fop,” and is applied
to this disease on account of the remarkable stiffness of the pa-
tient’s motions.
ceeded to Rooka on Lake Tchad in 1823, and there Den-
ham parted from his companions. He afterwards visited
Mandara, and returned to England in June, 1825. He
published a narrative of his journey. Having been ap-
pointed vice-governor of Sierra Leone, he died there May
9, 1828.
Denham (Sir JoHN), an English poet, born in Dublin
in 1615. He graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, in
1634, and studied law. He wrote “Sophy’ (1641), a tra-
gedy, and a poem entitled “Cooper's Hill” (1643). He
was a royalist in the civil war, and fled to France in 1648,
but returned in 1652. Died in Mar., 1668. “Denham,” says
Dr. Johnson, “is deservedly considered as one of the fathers
of English poetry.”
Deni'na (GIACOMMARIA CARLo), an Italian historian,
born at Revello, in Piedmont, Feb. 28, 1731. He published
“The Wicissitudes of Literature” (“Vicende della Lettera-
tura,” 1760). His principal work is a “History of the
Revolutions of Italy” (“Istoria delle Rivoluzioni d'Italia,” .
3 vols., 1769–70). Having been invited by Frederick the
Great, he removed to Berlin in 1782. In 1804 he was ap-
pointed by Napoleon imperial librarian at Paris. Among
his works is a “History of Western Italy” (1809). Died
in Paris Dec. 5, 1813. (See CARLo G. REINA, “Vita di C.
Denina,” 1820.)
Deniſo (HIRAM), an American jurist, born in Rome,
N. Y., May 21, 1799, began the practice of law in 1821,
was circuit judge (1834–38), judge of the court of appeals
(1853–66), and author of several important legal works.
Died at Utica, N. Y., Nov. 5, 1871.
Denis (JAMES FERDINAND), a French trazeller, born
Aug. 13, 1798, has published multitudinous books, the
fruits of journeys in South America, Spain, and the East.
Denis, SAINT [Lat. Dionysius], the patron saint of
France and first bishop of Paris. According to Gregory
of Tours (540–594 A.D.), he was one of seven missionaries
sent from Rome about 250 A.D. to preach the gospel to
the Gauls, and after he had converted great multitudes
suffered martyrdom in 272, or, as some say, 290 A. D. His
festival is on Oct. 9.
Den'ison, a township of Lawrence co., Ill. Pop. 1668.
Denison, a post-village, capital of Crawford co., Ia.,
on Boyer River and on a branch of the Chicago and North-
western R. R., 64 miles N. N. E. of Council Bluffs. It has
one weekly newspaper. Pop. of Denison township, 633; of
village, 326.
Denison (Rev. CHARLEs WHEELER), born in New Lon-
don co., Conn., in 1809, has been a large contributor to
periodical literature, and has published a volume of poems,
several works of fiction, etc. He was an early abolitionist
and a temperance writer, and was editorially connected with
the “Emancipator * and the “Olive Branch,” both in their
time widely-known journals. He has resided in England,
and was for a time an editor in London. He has been a
U. S. consul in British Guiana, and wrote a popular life of
Gen. U. S. Grant.
Denison (John EvelyN), LoRD OssingToN, an English
statesman, born in 1800, was elected a member of Parlia-
ment in 1823, and acted with the Liberal party. He was
chosen Speaker of the House of Commons in 1857, in 1859,
in 1866, and in 1868, and became Viscount Ossington in
1872. Died Mar. 8, 1873. -
Denison (MARY ANDREWs), wife of Rev. C. W. Deni-
son, was born in 1826 in Cambridge, Mass. She is the
author of numerous works, chiefly tales of a domestic
character and designed for the young. These books have
been quite successful.
Denison City, a post-village of Grayson co., Tex., at
the junction of the Missouri Kansas and Texas and the
Houston and Texas Central R. R.s., 150 miles S. of Parsons
City, Kan. It has a national bank, one daily and two
weekly newspapers. 4.
Denison University, formerly GRAN VILLE CoILEGE,
at Granville, Licking co., O., was established and located
at Granville by a vote of the Ohio Baptist Education So-
ciety May, 1831. It was at first intended for a manual-
labor school, and hence located on a 200-acre farm, a mile
and a half W. of the town. As a manual-labor school it
was, like most others of the time, a failure—as a school of
instruction, a success. It was incorporated by the Ohio
legislature Feb. 3, 1832, under the name of the “Gran-
ville Literary and Theological Institution.” The name
was changed in 1845 to “Granville College,” and this again
under the general law of Ohio was changed, June, 1856,
to the name it now bears. Instruction was commenced in
Dec., 1831, the principal and sole teacher being Prof. John
Pratt, who bróught to the position the reputation of an en-
thusiastic and accomplished teacher, and fully sustained it.
DENIZEN–DENMARK.
1321
The number of students the first quarter was thirty-seven.
It was the day of small things, the beginning of greater.
In thoroughness of instruction, from the beginning till
now, no institution W. of the Alleghanies has been its su-
perior. It had alternations of prosperity and decline. The
great want was a living endowment. It was removed from
the farm, and in Sept., 1856, instruction was commenced
on the new site. Since that date it has been advancing in
every element of prosperity, and now stands in the fore-
most rank of Western colleges.
The buildings are situated on a hill N. of the town, less
than half a mile from the public square. The site contains
twenty-four acres, nearly half of it, in the rear, being cov-
ered with a grove of old forest trees. The buildings are
three, containing dormitories and study-rooms for 178
students, besides a fine chapel, natural history room, two
society halls and libraries, college library (with over 11,000
volumes), lecture-rooms, recitation-rooms, etc.
The university is a proper college, furnishing the regular
four years' course in classical, scientific, and philosophical
studies, similar to the best American colleges; embracing
also, under the same government, a preparatory depart-
ment, classical, with a two years' course as a feeder to the
regular course, and English, to fit for business, school-
teaching, or the scientific course. The scientific embraces
most of the studies of the regular college course, except the
Latin and Greek languages, but in the mathematics and
the natural sciences it is more extensive. Those who com-
plete this course are entitled to a diploma and the degree
of bachelor of sciences. For the last four years the whole
number of full-course college students has been 49, 56, 58,
and 67, and the entire number, including preparatory, etc.,
175, 202, 191, and 190. -
The board of instruction, as now constituted, consists of
six professors (including the president), one principal of
the preparatory department, and two tutors—nine in all;
and all the nine fully employed in the business of instruc-
tion. There have been five presidents. The name and
time of entering upon office of each are as follows: Rev.
John Pratt, A. M., 1831; Rev. Jonathan Going, D. D.,
1837; Rev. Silas Bailey, D. D., 1847; Rev. Jeremiah Hall,
D. D., 1853; Rev. Samson Talbot, D. D., 1863. Dr. Going
died in Nov., 1844, after which there was a vacancy of
over two years. Dr. Talbot died June 29th of this year
(1873); his successor is not yet appointed. The fixed
property of the university, in ground, buildings, etc., is
estimated at $80,000, and the productive endowment is
$190,000, making a total of $270,000.
Denison, though one among some forty universities and
colleges in Ohio, anticipates a prosperous future.
J. STEVENS.
Den'izen [etymology doubtful], in English law, an
alien who has received from the sovereign letters patent to
make him an English subject. He may take lands by pur-
chase and devise, but cannot inherit nor enjoy offices of
trust or receive a grant of land from the Crown.
Deniz'Hi, or Degnizli, a town of Asia Minor, in Ana-
tolia, 53 miles S. E. of Alashehr. It is surrounded by
mountains or hills, and has a castle and several mosques.
Leather is made here. It is stated that 12,000 of its in-
habitants were killed by an earthquake in 1715. Pop.
about 20,000.
Denſman (THOMAs), FIRST LORD DENMAN, an English
judge, born in London Feb. 23, 1779. He was called to
the bar in 1806, and elected to Parliament in 1818. In
politics he was a liberal. He became attorney-general in
1830, and chief-justice of the king's bench in 1832. In
1834 he was raised to the peerage. Died Sept. 22, 1854.
Den/mark, a kingdom of Northern Europe, consists
of the peninsula of Jutland and several adjacent islands
of the Baltic Sea—viz. Seeland, Fünen, Falster, Laaland,
Samsöe, Bornholm, Langeland, and Möen. Area, 14,753
square miles. Pop. in 1870, 1,784,741. Besides Denmark
proper, the Danish monarchy possesses Greenland, Iceland,
the Färöe Islands, and the West India islands of Santa
Cruz, St. Thomas, and St. John. Area of the colonies,
87,258 square miles. Pop. in 1870, 127,401. Jutland is
bounded on the N. by the Skager-Rack, on the E. by the
Cattegat, and on the W. by the North Sea. Its surface is
low and level, and was formerly covered by forests of beech,
birch, oak, etc. The coasts are indented with numerous
bays or fiords, and extensive marshes occur in various
parts of the peninsula and the islands. Denmark has no
considerable river. Seeland is separated from Sweden by
the Sound, and from the island of Fünen by a channel
called the Great Belt.
Climate, Soil, etc.—The climate is humid, and is modi-
fied by the proximity of the sea, so that the winter is
milder than that of Northern Germany. The mean an-
nual temperature is about 46°F. The weather is change-
able, and the transition from winter to summer is more
sudden than in some other countries. In spring and sum-
mer the W. wind prevails. The soil is generally produc-
tive, and alluvial or sandy. The marshy districts produce
good pasture. Denmark is said to be pre-eminently an
agricultural country. The staple productions are barley,
oats, wheat, rye, buckwheat, potatoes, beans, peas, and
flax. The Danish farmers derive a large part of their
revenue from cattle, horses, and the products of the dairy.
The chief articles of export are cereal grains, butter,
horses, hides, and fish. The fiords abound in Salmon, cod,
herring, and other fish. Denmark is very deficient in
mines and mineral resources, and, in consequence of the
lack of coal, metals, and water-power, has comparatively
few important manufactures. . The peasants and people of
the rural districts weave at their homes linen and woollen
stuffs for the use of their families. There are in the king-
dom numerous iron-foundries, sugar-refineries, paper-mills,
and distilleries.
Commerce, Revenue, etc.—The commerce of Denmark is
carried on mainly with Great Britain, Germany, and Swe-
den. The Danish official returns do not give the value of
exports or imports, but only the weight of the same. The
exports from Denmark to Great Britain in 1870 were val-
ued at £3,053,425. The total exports for the year 1870–71
weighed 10,360,000 quintals, and the imports for the same
year amounted to 19,770,000 quintals. (A quintal = about
112 pounds.) The revenue for 1870–71, was 23,419,623
rigsdalers, and the expenditure was 21,904,003 rigsdalers.
In Mar., 1871, the public debt was 117,058,367 rigsdalers.
The movement of shipping for the year 1870–71 was as
follows: inland passages, 46,061 vessels, of 615,892 tons;
outward passages, 36,755 vessels, of 1,092,742 tons. The
merchant navy on Mar. 31, 1871 (exclusive of vessels of
less than four tons), consisted of 2735 vessels, of 181,494
tons; this number includes 87 steamers, of 11,979 tons.
The aggregate length of railroads which were in operation
on Jan. 1, 1871, was 763.5 kilometers; the aggregate length
of telegraph-lines was 1962.30 kilometers; the length of
jelegraph-wires 5096.67 kilometers. (See later statistics
in “Almanach de'Gotha " for 1873.)
Religion and Education.—The established religion is
Lutheran, to which 99 per cent. of the population belong,
and the king must be a member of the Lutheran Church.
Other sects are tolerated. This kingdom has a good system
of education, which is generally diffused among the people.
All children between the ages of seven and fourteen are
compelled to attend school. All the educational institutions
are managed by a royal college or board, consisting of three
assessors and a president. Education is given gratuitously
in the public schools to children whose parents are too poor
to pay for it. Of higher schools, Denmark has a good
university at Copenhagen, several academies, twenty-two
gymnasia, and seven seminaries.
Government.—The government is a hereditary constitu-
tional monarchy. The present constitution is embodied in
the charter of June 5, 1849, according to which the execu-
tive power belongs to the king, and the legislative power
is vested in the king and diet (Rigsdag) jointly. The
Rigsdag is composed of two houses, called the Landsthing
and the Folkething. The latter, which is the lower house,
consists of about one hundred members, elected by uni-
versal suffrage for a term of three years. Capital, Copen-
hagen. Military service begins with the age of twenty-
two, and lasts for the line and the reserve (“first call ”)
eight years; the “second call” is liable to military service
to the age of thirty-eight. The first call comprises 37,000
men; the second call, 15,600; total strength of the army
on the war-footing, 52,600 men. The war navy consists of
twenty-nine steamers (among which are seven iron-clads),
bearing 287 guns.
History.—Denmark is one of the three Scandinavian
kingdoms. (See SCANDINAVIA.) On the decline of the Ro-
man empire the Scandinavians, under the name of North-
men or Normans, became a formidable and aggressive race,
much addicted to piracy and maritime enterprises. The
Danes invaded England with success in the ninth century,
and completed the conquest of it about 1016, in the reign
of Canute or Knud, who was perhaps the most powerful
monarch of his time. He reigned over Denmark as well
as England, and is said to have introduced Christianity
into his dominions. Margaret, queen of Denmark and
Norway, conquered Sweden in 1388, and procured the adop-
tion of the “Union of Calmar” (1397), by which the three
Scandinavian kingdoms were united, and her nephew Eric
was appointed her heir. At her death (1411) each kingdom
chose its separate ruler. In 1448 the Danes elected Chris-
tian I., count of Oldenburg, who was the founder of the
royal family that has continued to reign to the present
time. The monarchy was elective until 1660, when the
clergy and people, impelled by enmity to the mobility, or-
1322
dained that the power of the king should be hereditary and
absolute. As an ally of Napoleon, Denmark was involved
in a war against England and Russia, and suffered great
disasters. The British fleet bombarded Copenhagen in
Sept., 1807. Denmark was compelled to cede Norway to
Sweden in 1814. Christian VIII., by the “Open Letter”
of 1846, declared his intention to extend the law of succes-
sion of Denmark proper to the duchies of Sleswick-Hol-
stein, the inhabitants of which are mostly Germans, in
order to secure in this way the indivisibility of the Danish
monarchy. When Frederic VII, in 1848 proclaimed the
incorporation of Sleswick with Denmark, a three years'
war ensued, which was ended by the intervention of Aus-
tria, and Prussia (Jan., 1851). In the mean while the non-
German great powers and Sweden had agreed (June, 1850)
to declare the indivisibility of Denmark, and Austria soon
after (Aug., 1850) acceded to this declaration. On June
5, 1851, Prince Christian of Sleswick-Holstein was desig-
nated in the “protocol of Warsaw’’ as heir to the throne,
and on May 8, 1852, he was recognized as such by the great
powers and Sweden. In 1849, Denmark had obtained an
extremely liberal constitution, which secured the most en-
tire civil liberty and universal right of suffrage. The
duchies, however, had no part in this constitution. A
second constitution (1855), which divided the council of
the kingdom into two chambers (Landsthing and Folke-
thing), subjected the duchies to a Danish majority. In
Nov., 1858, the king abolished the joint constitution of the
Danish state for Holstein and Lauenburg, and restored
absolute monarchy in these countries. By a proclamation
of Mar., 1863, Denmark treated the duchies of Holstein
and Lauenburg as tributary appendages, while, on the
other hand, a new fundamental law was prepared for Den-
mark and Sleswick. War with Germany broke out soon
after, and was terminated by the peace of Vienna (Oct.,
1864), and Denmark was compelled to renounce all claim
on Sleswick-Holstein. (See SLEswick-HolsTEIN.) On
Nov. 2, 1867, Denmark sold the West India islands of St.
Thomas and St. John to the U. S., but the treaty did not
receive the sanction of the U. S., and was therefore not
carried into effect. (See ALLEN, “Haandbogi Faedrelandets'
Historie,” 6th ed. 1863; DAHLMANN, “Geschichte von
Dänemark,” 3 vols., 1840–43.) A. J. SCHEM.
Denſmark, a post-township of Lee co., Ia. Pop. 1011.
Denmark, a post-township of Oxford co., Me. It has
four churches, and manufactures of furniture, etc. Pop.
1069.
Denmark, a post-township of Tuscola co., Mich. Pop.
816.
Denmark, a township of Washington co., Minn. Pop.
824.
Denmark, a post-township of Lewis co., N. Y., on
the Utica, and Black River R. R. It has seven cheese-
factories, and manufactures of various kinds. Pop. 2109.
Denmark, a post-township of Ashtabula co., O. Pop.
544. -
Denºmer (BALTHASAR), a German portrait-painter, born
at Hamburg in 1685. His works aré remarkable for mi-
nuteness of finish. Died in 1747.
Dennery (ADoDPHE PHILIPPE), a French dramatist,
born in Paris June 17, 1811, of Jewish parents. He first
essayed art, then journalism, and then produced numerous
dramas, comic operas, and vaudevilles, among them “The
Market of London’’ and “The Bohemians of Paris.”
Den’newitz, a village of Prussia, province of Bran-
denburg, 42 miles S. S. W. of Berlin. Here the Prussians
defeated a large French army commanded by Marshal Ney
on Sept. 6, 1813, after a very obstinate fight. The French
lost about 15,000, killed, wounded, and prisoners.
Den’nie (Joseph), an American author and critic, born
at Boston Aug. 30, 1768. He studied law, which, however,
he did not practise. Having removed to Philadelphia in
1799, he founded the “Portfolio,” a literary magazine,
which he edited with ability from 1801 till 1812. Among
his writings is “The Lay Preacher,” which first appeared
in the “Farmer’s Museum.” Died Jan. 7, 1812.
Den/ning, a post-township of Ulster co., N. Y. It has
manufactures of lumber. Pop. 1044.
Den/nis, a township of Somerset co., Me. Pop. 37.
Dennis, a township of Wicomico co., Md. Pop. 683.
Dennis, a post-township of Barnstable co., Mass., on
the Cape Cod R. R. The township extends across Cape
Cod, has extensive fisheries, produces large crops of cran-
berries, and has manufactures of salt. There are four
churches, five post-offices, fifteen schools, a free library,
and many small but beautiful lakes. Pop. 3269.
Dennis, a township of Cape May eo., N. J. Pop. 1640.
DENMARK–DENSITY OF THE EARTH.
Dennis (John), an English dramatist and writer of
satires and pamphlets, was born in London in 1657. He
produced dramas called “Liberty Asserted” and “A Plot
and No Plot.” His temper was quarrelsome, and he pro-
voked the enmity of many persons by his libels. He was
lampooned by Swift, and satirized by Pope in the “Dun-
ciad.” Died Jan. 6, 1733.
Den’nison, a post-village of Tuscarawas co., 0. Pop.
828.
Dennison, a township of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 972.
Dennison (WILLIAM), a statesman, born in Cincinnati,
O., Nov. 23, 1815, graduated at Miami University in 1835,
became a lawyer, a railroad and bank president, and a
leading Republican politician, was governor of Ohio (1860–
62), and was postmaster-general (1864–66).
Den’nysville, a post-township of Washington co., Me.
It has manufactures of lumber, etc. Pop. 488.
Demomi'nator [a Lat. term, from denomino, denomi-
natum, to “name’’ or “designate”], literally, “that which
designates,” in arithmetic, is the number placed below the
line in fractions, giving its name to the fraction, and show-
ing the number of parts into which the integer is divided.
Denon (Dom INIQUE WIV ANT), BARON, a skilful French
artist and author, born at Châlons-sur-Sãone Jan. 4, 1747.
He became chargé d'affaires at Naples in 1782, and a mem-
ber of the Royal Academy in 1787, after which he devoted
himself to art, and gained distinction as an art-critic. He
accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt in 1798, and in 1802 he
published an admirably illustrated work entitled “Travels
in Upper and Lower Egypt.” He died April 27, 1825, leav-
ing an unfinished “History of Art.”
Dens (PETER), a Flemish Roman Catholic theologian,
born near Antwerp in 1690. He published a systematic
exposition and defence of the Roman Catholic doctrines in
his “Theologia Moralis et Dogmatica,” which has been
extensively used as a text-book. Died Feb. 15, 1775.
Den’sity [Lat. densitas, from densus, “thick”], a term
used in physics to denote the quantity of matter which a
body contains in a given or determinate space; for ex-
ample, a cubic foot. The quantity of matter in any body
is called its mass, and is measured by the weight of the
body, to which it is always proportional. Hence, the den-
sity of any body is great in proportion as its weight is
great and its volume small; or the density of bodies is
directly as their mass and inversely as their volume. It
follows that if two bodies have the same volume, their den-
sities are directly as their masses or weights; and if two
bodies have the same mass or weight, their densities are
respectively in the inverse ratio of their volumes. The
term is often used as synonymous with specific gravity.
Density of the Earth is the ratio of the mass of
the earth to that of the same bulk of water. The data of
astronomy, in conjunction with the laws of gravitation,
give the proportion of the mass of the earth to the masses
of the sun and the principal planets; and thus the deter-
mination of the absolute mass of the earth will determine
the absolute masses of the sun and planets; and then their
density can be found. Experiments have been devised
for determining the earth’s density by observations upon
the attraction of a mountain, and have been tried in the
Schehallion experiment by Maskelyne, James, and others.
The direction of gravity changes very nearly one second
of angle for every 100 feet of horizontal distance. Suppose
that two stations were taken on a mountain—one on the
N. and the other on the S. side—and that their distance
apart was 4000 feet. If the direction of gravity had not
been influenced by the mountain, the inclination of the
plumb-line at these two places would have been about forty
seconds. Suppose, on applying the zenith sector, the in-
clination was found to be fifty-two seconds. The dif-
ference, or twelve seconds, could only be explained by the
attraction of the mountain, which, combined with the na-
tural direction of gravity, produced directions inclined to
these natural directions. In the Schehallien experiment a
calculation was made of what would have been the dis-
turbing effect of the mountain if it had been as dense as
the interior of the earth, showing that it would have been
about twenty-seven seconds. The disturbance proved to
be only twelve seconds, and therefore the density of the
mountain to that of the earth was as 12 to 27. It follows
from this that the mean specific gravity of the earth would
be nearly five times that of water. The effect produced by
the attraction of a mountain on the direction of a plumb-
line was observed by Bouguer at Chimborazo in 1738. Col.
James, by observations on Arthur's Seat near Edinburgh,
has deduced a mean density of 5.316.
In 1826, Prof. Airy suggested the solving of the problem
by pendulum experiments at the top and bottom of a deep
mine. Suppose a spheroid concentric with the external
DENT—DENTISTRY.
º
spheroid of the earth to pass through the lower station in
the mine. The attraction of the shell included between
these has the same effect at the upper station as if all its
matter were collected at the earth’s centre. At the lower
station there is the attraction of the interior mass only; at
the upper station that of the interior mass and the shell.
By making the proportion of these theoretical attractions
equal to the proportion observed by means of the pendu-
lum, we have the elements for finding the proportion of the
shell’s attraction to the mass's attraction. The mean den-
sity is found from these data. The astronomer-royal hav-
ing twice tried the experiment and failed, the attempt was
renewed in 1854 at a colliery near South Shields, England,
where the depth was reputed to be 1260 feet. . A place was
chosen for two stations in the same vertical. An invariable
pendulum was mounted in each station, vibrating by means
of a knife-edge upon plates of agate. Behind it was a clock,
and before it a telescope so mounted that coincidences of
the pendulum of the clock might be observed through a
slit. The acceleration of the pendulum at the depth of
1260 feet was two and a quarter seconds a day. Taking
into account the configuration and nature of the surround-
ing mass, Airy estimated the earth’s density at 6.565.
Two leaden globes, 174 pounds in weight each, are sup-
ported six feet apart, by a horizontal frame capable of ro-
tation. Above the centre is suspended horizontally, within
a narrow glazed box, by a delicate wire forty inches long,
a slender deal rod, carrying at its extremities two equal
leaden balls one one-hundredth part as heavy as the globes.
The rod being at rest, the globes are brought as near to the
balls as the dimensions of the protecting box will allow,
their separate attractions tending to turn the rod in the
same direction. The amount of torsion produced is ob-
served from a distance with a telescope. By rotation the
disturbing force of the globes is then brought to act in the
opposite direction, and the torsion is once more observed.
Cavendish concluded that the force of mutual attraction
between the globes and balls, the distance between their
centres being 8.85 inches, was rºbo of a grain; whence he
deduced the total mass of the earth, and (its bulk being
known) its mean specific gravity also, which he put at
5.480. The experiments of Reich give 5.438, and those of
Baily, 5.660. The mean of all the results obtained is 5.639.
It may, then, be assumed that the earth’s mean density is
not very far from 5.6 times that of water. Combining this
result with what is known with respect to the dimensions
of the earth, we find that its weight in tons is roughly ex-
pressed by 6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.
Dent, a county in the S. E. of Missouri. Area, 700
square miles. It is partly drained by the Maramec River,
which rises in it, and partly by the head-streams of the
Current River. The surface is diversified by hills and val-
leys; the soil of the latter is fertile. Grain, tobacco, and
wool are raised. Capital, Salem, or Dent Ǻ
Court-house. Pop. 6357. º
Dent, a township of San Joaquin co., S.
Cal. Pop. 1115.
*ent, a township of Iron co., Mo. Pop. 2:
Dent (DENNIs) was born in Maryland.
He served in the Indian war in Florida, as a
major-general, and removed to Tuscaloosa,
Ala., in whose legislature he served from
1838 to 1850. He died in 1860.
Dent (John HERBERT), an American
naval officer, born in Maryland in 1782.
He commanded a vessel in the war against
Tripoli in 1804, and gained the rank of cap-
tain in 1811. Died July 31, 1823.
Denta’lium [from the Lat. dens, a
“tooth,” alluding to the shape of the shell],
a genus of gasteropodous marine carniv-
orous mollusks, called tooth - shells, from
their curved, tubular shape. The shells are
open at each end. There are many living
and fossil species, of which the Dentalium
elephantinum, or elephant's tooth, is the best
known. -
Denta’tus (MANIUs CURIUs), a Roman
plebeian consul noted for his martial ex-
Fº frugality, and integrity, is said to
ave been born with teeth; hence the sur-
name. He defeated the Samnites in 290 .
B. C., and gained a decisive victory over &
Pyrrhus near Beneventum in 275. He was Dentalium ele-
consul for the third time in 274, and censor phantinum.
in 272 B. C. During his censorship he con-
structed an aqueduct which conveyed water from the Anio
to Rome. Died in 265 B. C.
1323
Den/tex [perhaps derived from the Lat. dens, on account
of their numerous teeth], a genus of acanthopterous fishes
belonging to the Sparidae, resembling the perch in form,
with a deep compressed body, Sealy cheeks, a single dorsal
fin, and numerous small teeth, with four large canine teeth
curved inward in each jaw. The Demteac vulgaris, some-
times called the four-toothed sparus, is found in great num-
bers in the Mediterranean, and sometimes on the Southern
coasts of Great Britain. It is of large size, often three feet
long, and is an important article of commerce.
Den/tifrice [Lat. dentifricium, from dens, a “tooth,”
and frico, to “rub "I, the name given to powders and
washes of various kinds used for cleaning the teeth. Among
the substances employed are charcoal, chalk, common salt,
myrrh, catechu, cinchona, phosphate of soda, and cream of
tartar.
Den’tils [from the Lat. dens (gen. dentis), a “tooth "],
in architecture, square blocks or projections in the bed-
mouldings of the cornices of the Corinthian, Ionic, and
composite orders. The term is also applied to ornaments
in cornices of rooms which are founded on the same style
of decoration.
Dentim, or Dentine. See TEETH.
Dentiros’tres [from the Lat. dens (gen. dentis), a
“tooth,” and rostrum, a “beak”], a tribe of birds of the
order Insessores, characterized by a notch or toothlike pro-
cess on each side of the margin of the upper mandible.
These birds have rapacious habits, and prey on smaller
birds as well as insects. The butcher-bird is an example
of this tribe. -
Dent'istry [from dentist (from the Lat. dens, dentis, a
“tooth”), and ry, a suffix denoting “art,” “profession,”
etc.]. In every age and country, even among the rudest
and most barbarous nations, the teeth as useful and beau-
tiful organs have attracted attention, and been regarded as
of great importance in giving beauty and symmetry to the
face. Lord Chesterfield says that “fine and clean teeth are
among the first recommendations to be met with in the com-
mon intercourse of society.” Lavater, the learned physi-
ognomist, remarks that “the countenance is the theatre on
which the soul exhibits itself,” and adds, “as are the teeth
of man, so is his taste.” “White, clean, and well-arranged
teeth, visible as soon as the mouth opens, but not project-
ing nor always entirely seen, I have never met with,” says
he, “except in good, acute, honest, candid, and faithful
men;” that “short, broad teeth, standing close to each
other, show tranquil, firm strength; and that melancholy
persons seldom have well-arranged, clean, and white teeth.”
By the ancients, white and well-formed teeth were con-
sidered as characteristics of beauty. Jacob, in blessing
Judah, says, “His teeth shall be white with milk.” Joseph
Murphy, in his “Natural History of the Human Teeth,”
states that the Brahmans are extremely delicate in every
point relating to their teeth. Every morning when they
rise they rub them for upwards of an hour with a twig
from a racemiferous fig tree, at the same time addressing
their prayers to the sun, and calling down the blessings of
Heaven on themselves and their families. As this practice
is prescribed in their most ancient books of law and di.
vinity, we imagine it coeval with the date of their religion
and government. These people also separated their teeth
with a file as soon as the second set was perfectly formed,
which was doubtless done for the purpose of ensuring
cleanliness and preventing decay.
The inhabitants of many Oriental countries stain their
teeth. Many women in Sumatra have their teeth filed to
points, removing the enamel from the surface that they
may be more easily dyed black. The Abyssinians and
other African nations file their teeth to points, and thus
increase the savageness of their aspect. Whether this cus-
tom was followed as a matter of ornament or fashion, it
doubtless had its origin in the fact that teeth with sufficient
space between their edges to prevent the accumulation of
food were much less liable to be affected by caries.
In the time of Herodotus the art of dentistry appears to
have been practised in Egypt, as was also the treatment of
diseases of the eye and the ear. In the ancient tombs of
this people artificial teeth of ivory or wood were found by
Belzoni and others, some of which were fastened on gold
plates; it is stated that the teeth of mummies have been
found filled with gold, and others with a white cement.
To what extent the Greeks or Egyptians practised dental
surgery as a specialty before the Christian era, there is but
little upon record that gives us any definite knowledge.
The essays or books upon the subject, if there were any,
are lost. The only writings of ancient times extant, where
dentistry is spoken of as an art, are those of Galen, who
wrote in the second century after Christ; and from then
until Ambrose Paré wrote his celebrated work on surgery
there was but little to improve the practice or satisfy the



1324
student in dental surgery. During the sixteenth century,
from 1550 to 1580, there were published six essays or dis-
Sertations upon the anatomy, treatment, and preservation
of the teeth. The seventeenth century was more favored;
from 1614 to 1690 there were forty dissertations on tooth-
ache, teething, diseases of the teeth, etc. During the eigh-
teenth century, from 1702 to 1799, there were one hundred
and thirty such volumes and essays, many of them works
of merit, and the result of the labors of such as Hunter,
Jourdain, Lécluze, Blake, etc.
In the present century, from 1800 to 1830, sixty-eight
volumes were added to the literature of dental surgery.
Among the more prominent authors of these were Bell,
Baumé, Duval, Rousseau, Delabarre, Laforgue, Fox, Maury,
Murphy, Parmly, Fitch, and Gardette. The last three were
American practitioners as well as writers. From 1830 to
1873 there have been contributed near forty volumes.
Among the more prominent authors of these are Robinson
and Tomes of London; Goddard, Harris, Taft, Arthur,
Garretson, Richardson, and J. W. White of the U. S.
During the eighteenth century dental surgery became a
subject of more critical inquiry and thorough investiga-
tion. Men of education and talent devoted themselves to
it exclusively, and from that period it has progressed rapidly
in importance. . But not until within the last few years has
it been enabled to claim a recognition from its sister pro-
fessions of medicine and surgery. Until the latter part of
the eighteenth century any advance in dentistry was eon-
fined to Europe. Dr. Harris, in his work on the “Princi-
ples and Practice of Dental Surgery,” gives the following
account of its introduction into the U. S. He says: “It
was during our Revolutionary struggle for independence
that the first knowledge of dental surgery was introduced
into this country, and the first dentist in the U. S. of whom
we have any account was a man by the name of Le Mair,
who accompanied the French army which came over to our
aid during that period. Soon after the arrival of Le Mair
a dentist by the name of Whitlock came over from England,
and from him and Le Mair dental surgery may be said to
have had its origin in the U. S. With regard to the pro-
fessional ability of these gentlemen little is known, but it
is probable that it was limited, and that their practice con-
sisted chiefly in the carving of artificial teeth from blocks
of ivory and extracting and cleaning natural teeth.
“Mr. John Greenwood, however, I believe, was the first
native American dentist, and he commenced practice in
New York about the year 1788, and is said to have been
the only dentist in that city in the year 1790. It was in this
year he constructed an entire denture for General Washing-
ton, and in 1795 another, which for neatness of execution
was unsurpassed by any of the European artificial teeth at
that period. They were carved from ivory, and secured in
the mouth with spiral springs.”
About the year 1792, Dr. Spence, who had received some
instructions from Le Mair, commenced practice in Phila-
delphia; soon afterwards he was joined by Dr. Gardette,
who came from France, where he had previously received
instruction. He soon acquired a reputation which he en-
joyed through life. Dr. Hudson of Dublin soon followed
Gardette to Philadelphia, and from his previous education
and skill became the most prominent dentist in this country.
In the year 1800, Dr. H. H. Hayden commenced the prac-
tice of dental surgery in Baltimore; in 1807 he was joined
by Dr. Koecker of London, who, after practising a few
years in Baltimore, removed to Philadelphia. From this
time until 1820 the ranks received accessions from Europe,
with many in this country—some few with previous educa-
tion, but others entirely deficient in theoretical or practical
knowledge—so that the number of dental practitioners in
the U. S. was now little more than one hundred. The
next decade had increased them to three hundred, and
in ten years more they had been quadrupled; while the
next twenty years gave us at least five thousand in 1860,
and in 1873 the dentists in the U. S. numbered ten thousand,
while those in other countries combined do not exceed five
thousand.
With this great increase in the number of dental practi-
tioners the progress of dentistry as a science has been very
marked. From the more simple and comparatively not diffi-
cult operations of cleansing, extracting, and filling small and
superficial cavities, it has extended to a thorough and scien-
tific treatment of the mouth, with the view not only of
saving teeth but slightly decayed, but all teeth, and also of
anticipating decay by such operations as shall make it pos-
sible for the patient to keep the mouth thoroughly cleansed,
and the teeth free from the deleterious effects of the ferment-
ation of portions of food or other'substances in the mouth.
Cleanliness is indispensable to sound teeth, and the most
fruitful source of decay is admitted to be the presence of
decomposing portions of food lodged between them and in
the interstices of the crown. In view of these facts all den-
DENTISTRY.
tists urge the importance of children acquiring the habit
of brushing their teeth daily.
In the successful treatment of teeth where the nerve or
pulp is exposed, much credit is due to Dr. Spooner of Mons
treal, who in 1838 first recommended the use of arsenic for
the purpose of destroying the vitality of the nerve. This
substance has been used since in combination with sulphate
of morphine and tannin, with creosote sufficient to form a
thick paste; and though many teeth were saved for years
by the use of this escharotic, yet for some time the course
was unscientific and far from satisfactory; for when the
vitality of the pulp was destroyed and the tooth filled with-
out removing the devitalized tissue, it invariably resulted
in a fistulous opening being established in the gum oppo-
site the apex of the root or fang, through which was a con-
stant discharge of pus. The difficulty is invariably re-
moved by opening into the tooth, cleansing out the fang,
and injecting creasote until its presence is recognized at
the fistulous opening in the gum.
The last ten years have been replete with various expe-
dients by capping to preserve the vitality of the pulp, even
though exposed; and the efforts have been crowned with
such a degree of success that there is reason to hope the
day is not distant when such teeth will be saved, and their
vitality and lifelike appearance also preserved. The prep-
arations which have been used for capping are lead, tin,
asbestos, gutta-percha, Hill’s stopping (made of gutta-
percha and felspar pulverized), clarified quill, and oxychlor-
ide; the latter, made of oxide of zinc and dilute deliquescent
chloride of zinc, is the most in favor for the purpose, and
offers much the larger proportion of successful results.
The various materials used for filling or stopping teeth
are gold, tin, amalgam, chloride of zinc (or oxychloride, as
it is more frequently called), Hill's stopping, and gutta-
percha. The requirements for a filling are ability to with-
stand the mechanical influences of mastication; resistance
to chemical agents; non-susceptibility to thermal changes;
qualities to admit of ease of introduction into a cavity and
consolidation; harmony in color; and the absence of prop-
erties injurious to the structure of the tooth or to the sys-
tem at large. Of such materials, the very best as a perma-
nent filling is gold; after this amalgam and tin, the other
agents being employed chiefly for temporary purposes.
Of the instruments used in filling teeth, the variety is
numberless, so far as excavators and ordinary pluggers are
concerned; the last few years have given us a number for
condensing the gold, representing the mallet in modified
forms. The small mallet was used some forty years since
for a time to a limited extent; the last decade has again
brought it generally into favor. It is made either of steel,
ivory, vulcanized rubber, lead, or hard wood. In addi-
tion to these, there are much in use two automatic mallets,
besides Bonwill’s electric mallet. The last year has also
given to the profession several drills for the preparation of
cavities and the finishing of fillings; three of them have the
motive-power of a foot-lathe, while one has that of a gal-
vanic battery. All are arranged with a mandrel, into which
fit burr and chisel drills of various sizes.
The “rubber dam ” given to the profession by Dr. Bar-
num, as also the steel clamps for holding it in place around
the neck of the tooth intended to be protected, is one of the
most valuable acquisitions given to the dental practitioner.
The want of matrices in the construction of a temporary
wall for the conversion of approximal cavities into simple
holes had long been felt. A matrix invented by Dr. Louis
Jack, and given to the profession, has attained a most de-
served popularity. In addition to these, the small corundum
wheel invented by Dr. Arthur (rapidly taking the place of
the file in both separating teeth and finishing fillings) is
considered a not less important acquisition in dentistry.
The great progress made in the dental profession has been
contributed to and stimulated not a little by the organiza-
tion of colleges, formation of societies, and publication of
journals. An important event in the history of dental sur-
gery in this country was the establishment of the “Ameri-
can Journal and Library of Dental Science ’’ in Baltimore
in 1839. The scattered members of the profession, who
had long toiled in comparative obscurity, almost unknown
to each other and the world, found through this journal an
appropriate medium through which to communicate with
each other. Several other important journals devoted to the
interests of dentistry have since been established in the
U. S. and Canada. •
The formation of the “Amorican Society of Dental Sur-
geons” soon followed the establishment of the above jour-
nal; and at its second annual meeting an arrangement was
made with the publishers by which it became both the
property and organ of the association. Two years after-
wards another Society of dentists like that of Baltimore was
, organized at Richmond, Va., and in Aug., 1844, a third
was formed at Cincinnati, O., styled the “Mississippi Val-
DENTISTRY.
1825
ley Association of Dental Surgeons.” In Aug., 1850, the
National Convention of Dentists was formed, and its first
annual meeting was held in Philadelphia. Just previous
to this the Pennsylvania Association of Dental Surgeons
was organized, and some years subsequent, in 1863, the
Odontographic Society of Philadelphia. In addition to
these, there are throughout the country fifty-five other State
and county societies, the latter holding meetings generally
monthly. In 1839 the legislature of Maryland chartered
the “Baltimore College of Dental Surgery.” It was the first
dental college in the country. It held its thirty-third an-
nual commencement this year (1873), and in the graduating
class receiving the honors of the institution was one lady,
she being its first female graduate. Its alumni number
Over 700.
The “Ohio College of Dental Surgery” was chartered in
1845. It is located in Cincinnati. Its alumni number about
250. It has for the last fifteen years admitted ladies equally
with gentlemen, and several have taken their degree. The
“Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery '' was chartered
in 1856; it is located in Philadelphia. It held its seven-
teenth annual commencement in 1873. Its alumni numbered
488, of which 443 were regular graduates, 10 honorary, and
35 received the degree after a satisfactory examination,
they having been in practice some years previous to the
establishment of dental colleges. Among the graduates was
one lady, now practising in Berlin; she received the degree
in 1869. The “Philadelphia Dental College” was chartered
in 1863; its alumni number 260. The “New York College
of Dentistry '' was chartered in 1865, and established in
New York City. Its alumni number 68. The “Missouri
Dental College,” chartered in 1866, is in St. Louis, Mo.;
its alumni number about 50. The “New Orleans Dental
College,” in New Orleans, La., was chartered in 1867; its
alumni number about 30. The “Boston Dental College”
and the “Dental School of Harvard University” were both
chartered in 1868. They held their fifth annual commence-
ment in 1873. The alumni of the latter number about 35.
A growing desire on the part of the liberal and educated
men in the profession that their specialty should be raised
above a mere mechanical trade has created an interest in
the education of dental students, and a corresponding de-
sire for a more extended and liberal curriculum in the col-
leges, many of the best men in the profession believing that
a thorough medical education, preparatory to studying
the specialty of dentistry, would make more efficient and
useful practitioners; so that a patient with an oral disease
of any complexity, trusting himself to the average dentist,
Would not meet with disaster because of the absence of sur-
gical knowledge and skill; in fact, that dentistry should
be practised as a specialty of medicine; that the practi-
tioner should understand that the welfare of the teeth is
intimately connected with that of the general system; and
that a knowledge of the diseases whose effects may reach
these organs is essential to the scientific dentist. His know-
ledge of anatomy should not be confined to the structure
of the tooth, to the pulp which fills its internal cavity, to
the position of the nerves which communicate its com-
plaints to the brain, nor to the manner in which it is held
fast in its socket; but his education should embrace a
thorough acquaintance with the anatomical and sympa-
thetic relations of the organs of the mouth with all parts
of the system. -
From what was originally called dentistry there have
very naturally and almost without an effort been evolved
two widely different occupations. They may properly be
termed operative dentistry, or dental surgery, and mechan-
ical dentistry; and as competition necessitates and stimu-
lates proficiency, more distinctly marked must this division
become. The artisan who works in his laboratory making
casts, Swedging plates, grinding and filing down teeth,
and finally soldering them to the plate, and finishing the
whole as neatly as a piece of jewelry-work, cannot keep
his hands in a condition to successfully perform the delicate
manipulative operations required in treating the natural
teeth. Delicacy of touch is indispensable in a skilled ope-
rator, and one who does not possess it proportionally fails
: where it is most essential his operations should be
perfect.
Mechanical dentistry has again been relieved of a por-
tion of the labors originally performed by the dentist—
that of carving or moulding the teeth used. The early
dentists carved from ivory the teeth and plate in one piece,
and if a partial set was inserted, the teeth were fastened to
the adjoining natural ones by means of ligatures; if a full
Set was required, springs were used. Ivory and natural
teeth were objectionable from their liability to be acted
upon by the fluids of the mouth. Absorbing as they do
these secretions, they soon become offensive, and often
rapidly decay. Porcelain teeth, well named incorruptible,
perfectly resist the destructive action of these fluids; and
as they are made nearly perfect in color and shape, they are
not easily detected. Though of French origin, they owe the
perfection to which they have been brought to the energy
and ingenuity of the American manufacturer.
Mr. Charles W. Peale of Philadelphia has the reputation
of making in 1807 the first manufactured in the U. S. He
made a set for his son, Rembrandt Peale, in 1808, and gave
instruction in his methods to Mr. Barabino, a dentist then
practising in Philadelphia. The first regular manufac-
turers were Greenwood, Woffendale, and Parkhurst, who
were engaged in the business in 1825. The manufacture
of mineral teeth for the supply of dentists was first under-
taken by Samuel W. Stockton in Philadelphia about the
year 1835, and to him, together with Neal and Acock, is due
the credit of establishing this branch of business in the
U. S. The present perfection in moulding and enamelling
the teeth was not attained for some years afterwards, nor
was the color so life-like or the shades so varied. For
many years the coloring was put on in the shape of paint.
The teeth were moulded and partially burned, when they
were subjected to the process of painting, and again placed
in the furnace. Much of the improvement made between
1840 and 1849 in the transparency of the tooth, the gran-
ulated appearance of the gum enamel, and the almost un-
limited variety of shades, was due to the persistent and
untiring experiments of Dr. Elias Wildman of Philadel-
phia. The use of the purple of Cassius, or oxide of gold,
now so generally used in gum-color, was brought to its
present state of perfection through his untiring efforts.
An artificial tooth must possess certain qualities apart
from size, shape, and color—a front surface which must
closely resemble the enamel or external covering of the
natural tooth, and a body having the toughness which
allows the vigorous use of the hammer in riveting without
fracture, and the use of the blowpipe in soldering without
liability to crack. If the tooth were one homogeneous mass,
the requisite amount of vitrifaction necessary to imitate the
enamel would render it brittle; but a proper amount of
translucency must be preserved, or there will be the opaque,
clay-colored tooth, which proclaims its artificial character
to the most casual glance; so that a nice calculation is ne-
cessary not to sacrifice beauty to strength. There must also
be the distinctly-marked clear cutting edge of enamel pro-
jecting beyond the body of the tooth, and contrasting, as
in Nature's work, with the yellow or brown base, and yet
this depth of color in the body and translucency of the
point must be so nicely blended that the line of union can-
not be determined. These and many other valuable results
have been secured by patience of research and skill in ap-
plication. sº * * *
The principal materials entering into the composition of
mineral teeth are felspar, silex (flint), and kaolin (clay),
with various fluxes, so known in chemistry, more familiarly
characterized as glasses, used to determine the point of fu-
sion desired, of different parts of the tooth. The general
tone or tint of these materials is white or dusky yellow, so
that coloring forms a prime adjunct in the process.
The chief coloring substances are titanium for yeſtow,
platina sponge for gray, oxide of cobalt for bright blue,
and oxide of gold for red. These, with others in varying
combinations, are used to color the body, point, and out-
side enamels. There are more than forty shades of color
in the bodies used, and an equal number in the point and
outside enamels. Thus, starting with the lightest shade of
body known as “A,” forty different grades may be pro-
duced by using a different point-enamel, and on each of
these a different effect by the use of various outside enamels,
so that with a single body of any one color one may produce
64,000 varieties or gradations of color; and as there are
thirty-nine other bodies, a smart calculator can determine
the many changes of which they are capable. ... Some idea
may be formed of the need of variety by the fact that out
of innumerable trials in the way of combinations, 130 stand-
ard shades are made, duly, arranged, and glassified by
numbers, forming a gradual but quite perceptible progres-
sion from the most delicate blue-white to the dark tobacco-
stain. For the production of these colors one is not to
think of a dyer's vat, but to remember that their bath is a
glowing muffle at incandescent heat. • * ~ *
Many teeth, good in themselves, have an artificial ap-
pearance in the mouth, simply because the dentist, though
an excellent mechanic, has lacked the perception to dis-
cover the shade made necessary by the complexion, hair,
and eyes of the wearer.
One establishment in Philadelphia turns out 400,000
teeth per month, about half what are made in Europe and
America. In Europe a substance resembling Wedgwood
ware is of late much used for artificial teeth, and its tough-
ness and durability are admirable.
In fitting artificial teeth it is very important to take, a
good impression of the shape of the mouth. Various sub-
1326
DENTITION.—DE PERE.
stances have been used for the purpose, such as wax (either
pure or mixed with paraffin, gutta-percha, or other mate-
rials); gutta-percha alone or combined; plaster of Paris
alone. These substances have each their merits, and the
choice for any particular case is to be determined by ex-
perience. The two materials principally employed in mak-
ing the plate upon which the teeth are fastened are gold
and vulcanized rubber. The principal advantage of the
latter material is its cheapness, which is more than counter-
balanced by its clumsiness, fragility, and its irritating effect
on the mouth. C. NEWLIN PIERCE.
Dentition. See TEETH.
Denſton, a county in the N. of Texas. Area, 900 square
miles. It is intersected by several branches of Trinity
River, one of which is called Denton Fork. The surface is
diversified by prairies and extensive forests; the soil is fer-
tile. Wheat, corn, cotton, cattle, swine, tobacco, and wool
are raised. Capital, Denton. Pop. 7251.
Denton, a township and post-village, capital of Caro-
line co., Md., on the E. bank of the Choptank River, 65
miles E. of Annapolis. It has two weekly newspapers, one
iron-foundry, one academy, five churches, and two churches
for the colored people. The river on which it is situated is
famous for shad and herring. Total pop. 475.
WM. HENRY LEGG, E.D. “Journ AL.”
Denton, a post-village, capital of Denton co., Tex., on
the Texas Pacific R. R., 45 miles S. W. of Sherman. It
has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 361.
C. W. GEERs, ED. “MonTTOR.”
Denuda’tion [from the Lat. denudo, denudatum, to
“lay bare ‘’J, in geology, is defined by Lyell as “ the re-
moval of solid matter by water in motion, whether of rivers
or of the waves and currents of the sea, and the consequent
laying bare of some inferior rock. This operation has ex-
erted an influence on the structure of the earth’s crust as
universal and important as sedimentary deposition itself;
for denudation is the necessary antecedent of the produc-
tion of all new strata of mechanical origin. The formation
of every new deposit by the transport of sediment and
pebbles necessarily implies that there has been somewhere
else a grinding down of rock into rounded fragments, sand,
or mud equal in quantity to the new strata.” Denudation
may be divided into swbaërial, which is effected by the ac-
tion of wind, rain, and rivers, and submarine, which is
caused by tides and currents of the sea. In many instances
deep and wide channels or valleys have been excavated in
rocky strata by the long-continued action of rivers; and
these are called valleys of denudation. As the strata ex-
posed on the sides of these valleys correspond to each other,
both in composition and order of position, it is evident that
they were originally continuous. “The larger part of the
valleys of the world,” says Dana, “are formed entirely by
running water. . . . Many examples are on record of gorges
hundreds of feet deep cut out of the solid rock by two or
three centuries only of work.”
Den’ver, a handsome city of Colorado, the capital of
the Territory and of Arapahoe co., is beautifully situated
on the South Platte River, 15 miles E. of the base of
the Rocky Mountains and 5375 feet above the level of
the sea; ; lat. 39° 47' N., lon. 105° W. It is the western
terminus of the Kansas Pacific R. R., and the northern ter–
minus of the Denver and Rio Grande R. R. The Denver
Pacific R. R., 106 miles long, extends from Denver north-
ward to Cheyenne. Denver is the commercial centre and
most populous city of Colorado. It commands a magnif-
icent view of mountain-scenery and of several peaks cov-
ered with eternal snow. The climate is peculiarly serene,
healthy, and delightful. The city occupies a series of pla-
teaus rising as they recede from the river by gentle ascents.
It contains a U. S. branch mint, three seminaries, and three
national and four private banks. Exchange drawn in 1872,
$21,000,000. Eight weekly, one semi-weekly, two monthly,
and three daily newspapers are published here. The Col-
orado Central R. R. connects this place with Golden City,
17 miles distant. The Denver and Boulder Valley Railway,
44 miles long, was completed in Sept., 1873, to Boulder
City. The Denver South Park and Pacific is a new narrow-
gauge railway; making altogether six railroads diverging
from Denver. The value of the goods sold here in 1872
was estimated at $18,000,000. Denver was first settled in
1858. There are eighteen churches, numerous manufac-
tories, water and gas-works, and street railways. P. 4759.
WILLIAM N. BYERs, ED. “ROCKY MoUNTAIN NEWS.”
Denver, a township of Richland co., III. Pop. 952.
rºenver, a post-township of Newaygo co., Mich. Pop.
Denver (JAMES W.), an American general, born at
Winchester, Va., in 1818. He removed to California, was
elected a member of Congress in 1854, and was governor
of Kansas from Dec., 1857, to the autumn of 1858. He be-
came a brigadier-general of Union volunteers in 1861.
Den’verton, a post-township of Solano co., Cal. P. 470.
De'odand [Lat. deodandum, from Deo (dative of Deus,
“God”), and dandum, future passive participle from do, to
“give;” literally, that which is “to be given or dedicated
to God”], in English law, a mame applied to any personal
chattel which had caused the death of a human being, and
for that reason was applied to pious uses, or, as the term
implies, given to God. It was, in fact, forfeited to the king,
and distributed in alms by his high almoner. The law of
deodand is now abolished in England, and is unknown in
American law.
Deodar. See CEDAR.
Deo/datus, or Deus' dedit, SAINT, pope, succeeded
Boniface IV. in 615, died Nov. 9, 618, and was succeeded
by Boniface V. He is regarded as a worker of miracles.
Deodorizers. See DISINFECTION, by PROF. HENRY
HARTSHORNE, M. D.
Deoxida’tion [Lat. deoacidatio, from de, priv., and
oacygen.], the chemical process by which oxygen is ab-
stracted from a compound. This term when applied to
metals is synonymous with reduction. A compound of a
metal with oxygen may in many cases be reduced or de-
oxidized by heating it with carbon or in a stream of hy-
drogen gas.
Depart/ment [Fr. département, from departir, to “ di-
vide”], literally, a “ division;” a portion; a distinct prov-
ince; a territorial division; a principal division of execu-
tive government. In the U. S. each of the secretaries and
other functionaries who form the cabinet is the head of a
department. These are called the departments of agricul-
ture, education, interior, justice, navy, post-office, state,
treasury, and war. A department is not defined by the
Constitution, but is recognized and mentioned several times
in that instrument. It is a division of government busi-
ness over which the head, by law, exercises exclusive con-
trol, subject only to the supervision and direction of the
President. The attorney-general is the head of the de-
partment of justice, established in 1870. Portions of the
duties of several departments are allotted to bureaus, but
there are no separate bureaus in the department of state or
that of the post-office. The term department is also ap-
plied to the three principal branches or co-ordinate powers
of the republic. “Under the Federal Constitution,” says
Gillet, “the national government is composed of three dis-
tinct and independent departments—the legislative, the
judicial, and the eacecutive.” The whole territory of the
U. S. is divided into military departments, each under a
general officer.
DEPARTMENT, in geography, a primary division of France.
In 1790 the old divisions called provinces were abolished,
and the country was divided into eighty-three departments,
most of which were designated by the names of French
rivers or mountains. During the first empire the number
increased to 130, including Belgium, portions of Italy, etc.
At the beginning of the German war in 1870 the number
of departments was eighty-nine. In 1871, France ceded to
the German empire the whole of Bas-Rhin, a large part of
Haut-Rhin, nearly all of Moselle, a small part of the de-
partment of Vosges, and a part of Meurthe. Each depart-
ment is divided into arrondissements, and is governed by a
prefect (préfet). The principal divisions of Bolivia, Peru,
and some other South American republics are also called
departments.
Departure, in navigation. See NAVIGATION, by LIEUT.-
COM. A. H. McCorm ICK, U. S. N.
Depau'ville, a post-village of Clayton township, Jef-
ferson co., N. Y., at the head of navigation of Chaumont
River. Pop. 235.
De Pere, a township of Brown co., Wis., containing
the villages of De Pere and West De Pere, situated on op-
posite sides of the Fox River. They are connected by a
bridge 1500 feet in length, and contain, together, eight
churches, three public and one private school, four smelting-
furnaces, one large railroad car-shop and iron-works, a
foundry, machine-shop, and hub- and spoke-factory, three
flouring, two wooden-ware, three shingle, and four saw
mills, five wagon-shops, besides various other industries.
The Milwaukee and Northern Railway runs on the river
bank through De Pere, and the Chicago and North-western
dépôt is in West De Pere. The Goodrich line of steamers
makes regular trips to Chicago, and the Buffalo line takes
freight from the wharves to Buffalo and intermediate ports.
It has one weekly newspaper. The water-power is made
by the first dam on the Fox River of the Green Bay and
Mississippi Canal Company. Pop. of township, 2800; of
De Pere, 1372; of West De Pere, 875.
- P. R. PROCTOR, ED. “NEws.”
DE PEYSTER—IDEPOSITION.
1327
De Peys/ter, a post-village and fertile township of
St. Lawrence co., N. Y., named after Frederic (I.) de Pey-
ster, bounded on the W. by Black Lake, and intersected by
the Oswegatchie River. Pop. 1138. -
De Peyster (J. WATTs), born Mar. 9, 1821, is of the
seventh generation residing or born in the first ward of the
city of New York. The first of the name in America, Jo-
hannes, of Huguenot extraction, a person of property, came
from Holland, was schepen in 1656, etc., alderman in 1666,
etc., burgomaster in 1673, and then deputy-mayor in 1677,
of New York, refusing the mayoralty because he could not
speak English. He had an opportunity for displaying his
patriotism and firmness (1673) in one of the most trying
crises of the Dutch colony. His eldest son, Abraham (I.),
was a man of very great ability and most genial nature.
He was acting governor and president of the council in
1700; chief-justice, 1700–01; colonel commanding the colo-
nial militia of the city and county of New York, and treas-
urer for many years of the colonies of New York and New
Jersey. His eldest son, Abraham (II.), succeeded him as
treasurer in 1721, and continued in office during his life-
time (1767). James (I.), his eldest son, was a merchant of
great note and of much benevolence. In this generation,
Arent Schuyler de Peyster, the grandson of Abraham (I.),
ultimately colonel B. A., and commanding the Eighth or
King’s regiment of foot, exercised a vast command and
influence in the N. W. with his head-quarters at Michili-
macinac, but will be better known by his literary connec-
tion with the poet Burns—a private in the Dumfries Vol-
unteers, of which de Peyster was colonel—who dedicated
to his military superior his “Poem on Life.” The nephew
of the preceding, bearing the same name, was a fear-
less navigator, and has left a memorial in the de Peyster
Islands, a group of seventeen in the South Pacific (Mul-
grave Archipelago), discovered by him in 1819. The three
sons of James (I.), Abraham (III.), Frederic (I.), James
(II.), were officers in the British service. Abraham (III.)
was second in command in the battle of King's Mountain
(1780), and after displaying great valor, severely wounded
at the conclusion of this contest, the most desperate and
sanguinary at the South. In this battle British troops
(and perhaps any troops in the field) were first armed with
breech-loading rifles, the invention of Patrick Ferguson,
major B. A., and colonel and acting brigadier in America,
chief in command of the royal forces in this decisive
collision. Frederic (I.) was also severely wounded in
the Carolinas, and James (II.), captain-lieutenant in
America, and subsequently lieutenant in the Royal Artil-
lery, one of the handsomest men in the British army,
was killed under the most extraordinary circumstances
at the assault of the French lines of Menin, in Flanders
(1793), having been previously buried alive by the ex-
plosion of a mine at the siege of Valenciennes, and
brought back to light and life almost by a miracle. (See
“Gentleman’s Magazine,” 1793.) Frederic (II.), third son
of Frederic (I.), president of the New York Historical So-
ciety and prominent member of a number of literary and
charitable institutions, is the author of a number of able
pamphlets, denoting great knowledge, research, ability,
and influence.—J. WATTs DE PEYSTER has published a
number of military, historical, and ethnological, etc. works,
of which the most prominent are biographies of the Swe-
dish field-marshal Torstenson (seventeenth century); of
Major-General Philip Kearny; of Coehorn, “prince of
engineers;” of Carausius; of the History of the Third
Corps of the Army of the Potomac ; of the decisive conflicts
of the great American civil war, and of the Last Campaign
of the Army of the Potomac, etc. etc. etc. For the first
work he was the recipient of three splendid medals, etc.
from Oscar I., king of Sweden, and, for valuable services,
of the only brevet major-generalship ever conferred, after
debate, by a special law or concurrent resolution of his
native, or of any other, State. His writings have won
for him the endorsement of a number of our most distin-
guished generals as “the foremost military writer of the
country.” He was the first to urge in a series of reports,
made in 1852–53, the advantages of a paid fire department
for this city, in conjunction with steam as applied to the
means of combating fire. His three sons, J. Watts de Pey-
ster, Jr., Frederic, Jr., and Johnston L., were respectively
brevetted colonel, major, and lieutenant-colonel U. S. vol-
unteers, and all three colonels N. Y. volunteers, for gal-
lant and meritorious services during the great American
conflict. CHARLEs W. GREENE.
De Peyster (J. WATTs, J.R.), born Dec. 2, 1841, dis-
played in early age great decision of character, power of
command, laborious research, and practical power of appli-
cation. In Mar., 1862, he left the Law School of Colum-
bia College, N. Y., joined his cousin, Maj.-Gen. Philip
Kearny, as volunteer aid, and was greatly distinguished
for gallantry and good conduct in the battle of Williams-
burg. Promoted to a lieutenancy, and while commanding
a company of New York volunteer cavalry, he won the re-
spect and esteem of his colonel, a man of great culture and
observation, who testified “ that with experience (which he
was rapidly acquiring) he would have been one of the best
of cavalry officers.” Again promoted major of the First
New York Volunteer Artillery, he returned to the Penin-
sula, and, attached to the staff of Maj.-Gen. Peck, acquired
the respect, the regard, and good-will, not only of his im-
mediate commander, but of every general with whom he
was brought in contact or with whom he served in the
course of most varied duties. Prostrated by James River
fever, after many months’ struggle between life and death
he hastened back to the field in the winter of 1863, and,
although pronounced by medical examiners as unfit for
active duty, he displayed a zeal, capacity, and energy in
the campaign of Chancellorsville which elicited the most
remarkable commendations from the commander-in-chief,
the magnificent hero of the “battle above the clouds,”
Joseph Hooker, who recommended Maj. de Peyster for
brevet as eminently deserving, having been no less re-
marked for his coolness and courage at Fredericksburg
than at Williamsburg; likewise from his immediate su-
perior, Gen. Albion P. Howe.
Maj., Brevet Col. de Peyster, continued to command, a
brigade of artillery until midsummer, 1863, when the con-
sequences of his faithful service in such a deteriorated san-
itary condition developed diseases which neither science
nor time could alleviate; and although he survived until
13th April, 1873, this whole period was one long, hopeless
struggle of unyielding constancy against the unrelaxing
siege of death. CHARLEs W. GREENE.
Depil’atory [Lat. depilatorius, from de, priv., and
pilus, the “hair ºl, a name given to applications used to
remove hair from any part of the body. A thin paste
of powdered quicklime and water applied to any part until
a burning sensation is produced, and then wiped off with a
wet sponge, will generally remove hair.
Deploy’ [Fr. déployer, to “unfold,” to “spread”], a
military term, signifies to open or extend troops from col-
umn into line; to spread out a body of troops so as to pre-
sent a wider front. To reverse this movement is to ploy.
Deporta/tion [from the Lat. de, “from,” and porto,
portatum, to “carry’], a compulsory removal from one
country to another; a banishment. The kings of ancient
Assyria attempted to secure their conquests by the deport-
ation of a large part of the native population, as in the case
of the Jews, who were carried as captives to Babylon. In
French law, deportation is a punishment equivalent to
transportation in English. It is ranked as third in degree
after capital punishment, the second being condemnation
to the galleys or hard labor for life. Deportation has often
been inflicted in France as a punishment for political of
fences since the revolution of 1789. -
Depos/it [Fr. dépôt : from the Lat. depono, depositum,
to “lay down "J, any matter laid down ; that which is
thrown down from a liquid in which it has been suspended.
In geology, a bed or stratum of rock formed of matter that
has settled from suspension in water. Deposits are cha-
racterized, according to the conditions under which they
were formed, as marine, lacustrine, or fluviatile.
Depos'it, a post-village situated partly in Broome and
partly in Delaware co., N. Y., on the Erie R. R. where it
crosses the Delaware River, 177 miles N. W. of New York.
It has a national bank, a newspaper, an academy, stock-
yards, a planing-mill, a flouring mill, etc. Pop. 1286, of
which 496 are in Delaware county. ED. “COURIER.”
Deposition [Lat. depositio, from de, “down,” and
pomo, positum, to “put "], in law, the testimony of a wit-
ness set down in writing in answer to interrogatories legally
exhibited. Depositions are taken either by a judge or a
commissioner specially appointed for that purpose. The
questions to which the depositions are answers are usually
put by the parties to the suit or their legal representatives,
under the control of the court by whose authority the
commission to take the testimony issues. Such depositions
form an established medium of proof in the English court
of chancery. It is a rule in the law of evidence that a de-
position cannot be read where the witness himself might
be produced, because his oral testimony is the most satis-
factory medium of proof.
DEPoSITION, in geology, the process by which sediment-
ary deposits or strata are formed. The greater portions
of the strata of sandstone, limestone, and slate are the re-
sult of deposition. During the process of deposition each
separate layer was once the uppermost, and was in contact
with water, as is proved by the numerous fossils of marine
animals found in it. “By attending,” says Lyell, “to the
1328
DEPOT-DERBY.
nature of these remains, we are often enabled to determine
whether the deposition was slow or rapid, and whether it
took place in a deep or shallow sea.”
Depot [Fr. dépôt, dà'po’, from the Lat. de, “down,”
and pomo, positum, to “put ’’ or “place”], a storehouse or
place for the reception of goods for safe keeping;% a mili-
tary station, where supplies are kept, recruits received and
trained, and the needs of soldiers provided for. The term
is also applied to that portion of a battalion remaining
when the rest are ordered upon foreign service. The com-
bining of several battalions of depots forms a depot battal-
ion. In America, the name depot is popularly and some-
what incorrectly given to railroad stations.
Dep/ping (GEORGE BERNARD), a littérateur, born at
Münster May 11, 1784, removed in early life to Paris. He
wrote “The Maritime Expeditions of the Normans in the
Tenth Century” (1826), “History of Normandy” (1835),
and other works. Died Sept. 5, 1853.
Pepres/sion of Equa’tions, in algebra, the deri-
vation from a given equation of another lower in degree,
whose roots are related in a known way to those of the first.
This reduction can always be effected by simple division
when one or more of the roots are known; but without
knowing the roots beforehand the equation may be de-
pressed—1st, when some particular relation subsists be-
tween two (or more) of the roots; for example, if an equa-
tion contain equal roots, these may be found and the
equation reduced by as many dimensions as there are equal
roots; 2d, if two roots of an equation be equal in magni-
tude, but opposite in sign; and 3d, if the equation be a
reciprocal one—that is to say, such that its form is not
changed by changing ac into; (See EQUATION, by F. A.
P. BARNARD.
Dept/ford, a town and naval port of England, is on the
Thames, 4 miles below London Bridge, and is separated
from Greenwich by the Ravensbourne, which here enters
the Thames. It is partly in Kent and partly in Surrey.
It contains a large naval arsenal and dockyard. Here are
extensive market-gardens. Pop. 45,973.
Deptford, a township of Gloucester co., N. J. Pop.
4663.
Dep’uty [Fr. député, from the Lat. deputo, to “judge,”
to “destine,” to “appoint”], a person appointed to act for
another as representative, lieutenant, viceroy, or agent; a
delegate; a legislator chosen to represent his constituents.
One of the legislative bodies of France under the monarchy
(1814–48) was called the Chambre des Députés, and the term
député is now applied to the members of the French Na-
tional Assembly. In the kingdom of Italy the lower house
is called Camera de' Deputati, “ Chamber of Deputies.” It
consists of about 508 deputies, elected by the people who
pay taxes.
De Quin’cey (THOMAs), an English author, born in
Manchester Aug. 15, 1785. He was a younger son of a
wealthy merchant. He once ran away from school and
went to London, where he passed nearly two months in ex-
treme want and strange adventures. He entered the Uni-
versity of Oxford in 1803, and there contracted a habit of
using opium. In 1808 he quitted the university, became a
friend and associate of Coleridge, Southey, and Wordsworth,
and began to reside at Grasmere in the Lake district. He
married in 1816, devoted his time chiefly to literature,
made good translations from Lessing and Jean Paul Rich-
ter, and contributed articles on biography, philosophy, and
other subjects to “Blackwood’s Magazine.” When in the
prime of life he reformed the habit of the excessive use of
opium, and in 1821 he published “Confessions of an Eng-
lish Opium-Eater.” He removed to Scotland in 1843, and
passed the later years of his life near Edinburgh. He was
one of the most brilliant magazine-writers of his time, and
wrote on a great variety of subjects, but his works are
mostly fragmentary. The first edition of his collected
works was published by Ticknor & Fields, Boston (18 vols.,
1851–58). He died in Edinburgh Dec. 8, 1859.
Der'a Ghazee' Khan, a town of Afghanistan, hard
by the river Indus and 65 miles N. W. of Bhawlpoor. It
is advantageously situated for trade, and has manufactures
of silk and cotton goods and cutlery. Pop. estimated at
25,000. - -
Derah [Arab. deraa], the unit measure of length in
Egypt. The subdivisions are the kadam = one-half of a
derah, the abdat= one-sixth of a derah, and the kerat-
one-twenty-fourth of a derah. Several derahs are in use—
viz. the common derah of Egypt = 22.37 British inches;
* The original idea of depot is that of a place where something
is “put down" for a short time, to be taken up again. Reposi-
tory (from re, “back,” and pono, to “put”) is a place where
something is put back (out of the Way), to be kept a long time.
the derah Hendazeh, by which dry goods are sold = 25.5
British inches; the derah Istambouli (Constantinopolitan
derah), used for European dry goods = 66.34 British inches;
and the ancient derah of the Nile or of Memphis = 20.699
British inches. The first three values above are given on
the authority of the “Report of the International Confer-
ence on Moneys, Weights, and Measures,” Paris, 1867; and
the last on that of Prof. Piazzi Smyth. This measure has
some interest, in consequence of its connection with recent
discussions concerning the Great Pyramid of Egypt, and
the purpose of its construction.
TXer'a Isma’eel' Khan, a town of Afghanistan, in
Derajat, on the Indus, 17 miles N. N. W. of Bukkur. It
has an active trade and manufactures of cotton cloth. Pop.
about 8000.
Derayeh, E1, a town of Arabia, in Nedjed, about 430
miles N. E. of Mecca, was formerly the capital of the
Wahabees. . It has a beautiful situation, with gardens and
fertile fields in the environs. It was once a populous town,
and contained about thirty mosques, but it was taken and
partly destroyed by Ibrāhim Pasha in 1819. Pop. about
15,000.
Der/bend’, a fortified maritime town of Russia, cap-
ital of Daghestan, is on the W. shore of the Caspian Sea;
lat. 42° N., lon. 48° 15' E. It is situated at the foot of a
mountain, and at the entrance of a defile called by the an-
cients Albanise Pylae, and now the Pass of Derbend. It is
enclosed by walls which are supposed to be 1000 years old
or more, and are eight feet thick and twenty-six feet high.
The harbor is poor, and accessible only to small boats. Der-
bend was taken from Persia by the Russians in 1795. Pop.
in 1869, 15,739.
Der/by, an inland county of England, bounded on the
N. by Yorkshire, has an area of 1030 square miles. It is
drained by the rivers Trent and Derwent. This county is
remarkable for the variety of its scenery, and is partly oc-
cupied by the Penine chain, formed of carboniferous lime-
stone, which abounds in precipices, caverns, and rocking-
stones. The Peak, the highest hill in Derbyshire, has an
altitude of 2000 feet. This county is rich in minerals—
viz. coal, copper, iron, lead, zinc, marble, fluor-spar, etc.
Here are important manufactures of cotton, silk, and worsted
goods, metallic wares, and porcelain. It is traversed by
several canals and railways. Capital, Derby. Pop. in
1871, 380,538.
Derby, a manufacturing town of England, capital of
the above county, is on the river Derwent, at the junction
of the main branches of the Midland Railway, 119 miles
N. N. W. of London and 35 miles N. N. E. of Birmingham.
The private houses are mostly built of brick. Here is a free
grammar school founded in 1162. Derby has manufactures
of silk, cotton, lace, hosiery, porcelain of great beauty,
jewelry, and ornaments of fluor-spar; also iron-foundries,
rolling-mills, and tanneries. The staple manufacture is
throwing silk, introduced early in the eighteenth century.
Pop. in 1871, 49,793.
Derby, or Derby Narrows, a post-village of New
Haven co., Conn., is at the confluence of the Naugatuck
with the Housatomic River, and on the Naugatuck and
the New Haven and Derby R. Rs., 10 miles W. of New
Haven. A bridge over the river connects it with Birming-
ham. It has extensive and varied manufactures, and a
savings bank. Pop. 3168; of township, including Derby
Willage, Ansonia, and Birmingham, 8020.
Derby, a post-township of Orleans co., Vt. It is the
seat of an academy. It has five churches, manufactures
of lumber, starch, and woollen goods, and a national bank,
the latter at Derby Line, on the Canada frontier. North
Derby is the junction of the Connecticut and Passumpsic
Rivers R. R. with the Massawippi Valley R. R. and the
Stanstead branch. The town lies on the E. side of Lake
Memphremagog. Pop. 2039.
Derby (EDwARD GEOFFREY Smith-Stanley), Four-
TEENTH EARL of, an English statesman, was born in Lan-
cashire Mar, 29, 1799. He was educated at Oxford, was
elected to Parliament in 1820, and represented successively
Preston, Windsor, and North Lancashire. In 1825 he mar-
ried a daughter of Lord Skelmersdale. He supported the
Reform bill, and became chief secretary for Ireland in 1830.
In 1833 he entered the Whig ministry as secretary for the
colonies, but he resigned office in 1834, and joined the con-
servative party. He was secretary for the colonies in the
cabinet of Sir Robert Peel from 1841 to 1845. Having
been created Baron Stanley, in 1844, he then passed into
the House of Lords. He resigned office in 1845, because
he was opposed to the repeal of the Corn laws, and soon
after this date began to be regarded as the leader of the
conservatives and protectionist party. He stood in the fore-
most rank as a parliamentary debater. On the death of his
DERBY—DERRY.
1829
father, in 1851, he succeeded him as earl of Derby. He was
prime minister from Feb. to Dec., 1852, and was then suc-
ceeded by Lord Aberdeen. He was the leader of the oppo-
sition during the administration of Lord Palmerston, who
resigned in Feb., 1858. Lord Derby then formed a new
ministry, in which he was first lord of the treasury (pre-
mier). He introduced a bill for electoral reform, but the
House adopted an amendment offered by Lord John Rus-
sell. Lord Derby therefore dissolved Parliament and ap-
pealed to the country, but the liberals obtained a majority
in the new House of Commons which met in June, 1859,
and Lord Derby then resigned office. He produced a trans-
lation of Homer’s “Iliad” into blank verse (1865), which
is highly commended. Russell and Gladstone, whose Re-
form bill had been rejected by the House of Commons, re-
tired from power in June, 1866, and Lord Derby was then
requested by the queen to form a new ministry. He failed
in his effort to draw several Whig or liberal leaders into a
coalition. His principal colleague was Disraeli, who pre-
pared a new Reform bill, passed in 1867, extending the
right of suffrage to great numbers of the middle class. He
resigned in Feb., 1868, and was succeeded by Disraeli.
Died Oct. 23, 1869.
Derby, EARLs of (England, 1485), Barons Stanley
(United Kingdom, 1832), and baronets (1627). The kings
of Man were of this line from 1406 till 1505, when they
took the title of lords of that island. The lordship of
Man passed from the Derby family in 1735. — EDw ARD
HENRY SMITH-STANLEY, fifteenth earl, P. C., D. C. L., was
born at Knowsley Park July 21, 1826. He was formerly
styled Lord Stanley. He was educated at Trinity College,
Cambridge, where he graduated as first class in classics in
1848, and was elected to Parliament in the same year. He
was one of the most liberal members of the conservative
party. In Feb., 1858, he entered the cabinet as secretary
for the colonies, and in the ensuing May he became com-
missioner for the affairs of India. He retired from office
when the liberals came into power, in June, 1859. On the
formation of a conservative ministry by his father in June,
1866, he was appointed secretary for foreign affairs. He
presided over the conference of the European powers which
was held in London in May, 1867. He resigned with his
colleagues in Dec., 1868, and inherited the title of earl of
Derby in Oct., 1869.
HDerby (ELIAs HASKET), a merchant, born at Salem,
Mass., Aug. 16, 1739, was a distinguished ship-owner, and
in the Revolutionary war engaged extensively and success-
fully in privateering upon British commerce. He after-
wards established the American China and East India.
trade. Died at Salem, Mass., Sept. 8, 1799.-GENERAL
ELIAS HASKET DERBY, born at Salem Jan. 10, 1766, was
also one of the founders of the India trade. He also began
the manufacture of American broadcloth, and is believed
to have been the first importer of merino sheep. Died
Sept. 16, 1826.-ELIAS HASKET DERBY, a son of the pre-
ceding, born Sept. 24, 1803, graduated at Harvard in 1824,
became an eminent lawyer and railroad president, and is
well known for his contributions to the “Atlantic Monthly,”
“Edinburgh Review,” etc. He labored with zeal in the
construction of iron-clad vessels during the civil war.
Derby (GEORGE H.), an American officer and humorist,
born in 1823 in Norfolk co., Mass., graduated at West
Point in 1846, and July 1, 1860, captain of topographical
engineers. He served in the war with Mexico 1846–47,
engaged at Vera Cruz and Cerro Gordo (severely wounded
and brevet first lieutenant); on various surveys and ex-
plorations 1846–52; on improvement of San Diego harbor,
Cal., 1853–54; on staff of commanding general and in
charge of military roads department of the Pacific 1854–56;
on coast survey 1856; and lighthouse engineer 1857–59.
Under the nom-de-plume of “John Phoenix” he was author
of “Phoenixiana, or Sketches and Burlesques,” 1860, of
“Squibob Papers,” 1860, and of numerous humorous effu-
sions. Died May 15, 1861, at New York City, aged thirty-
eight. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Derbyshire Spar, a name given to the fluoride of
calcium or FLUOR-SPAR (which see).
Dercy!'lidas [AspxvAAtôas], a Spartan commander sent
to aid the Asiatic Greeks in their resistance to the Persian
forces under Pharnabazus and Tissaphernes, B. C. 399.
He captured a number of cities in Asia Minor, and built a
wall to protect the Greeks of the Chersonesus against the
Thracians. He was superseded by Agesilaus, B. C. 396.
HENRY DRISLER.
Derecske, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bihar,
12 miles S. of Debreczin. Near it are several small lakes,
in one of which pearls are found. Pop. about 6000.
Derg, Lough (“Red Lake”), a small lake of Ireland
between Donegal county and Tyrone. It encloses an isle
steam-engines in the pontoon.
called St. Patrick’s Purgatory, which is visited annually
by nearly 12,000 devotees, and is the most celebrated place
of pilgrimage in Ireland.
Derin/da, a post-township of Jo Daviess co., Ill. P. 804.
Derived Function, or Derivative, a term first
used by Lagrange in his “Calcul des Fonctions” to indi-
cate the coefficient of h in the development of a function
F(a + h) according to powers of h. It is itself a function of
ac, and is usually represented by the symbol F.'(ac). In a
similar manner the derived function of F'(ac) is termed the
second derived function of F(ac), and is denoted by the
symbol F.'(ac). By allowing h to diminish indefinitely, the
identity of the derived function and the differential coeffi-
dF(ac)
d ac
CIENT, by F. A. P. BARNARD.
Der/matophytes [from the Gr. 8éppa (gen. 8épparos),
the “skin,” and bºrov, a “plant”], a term applied to cryp-
togamic vegetable growths which inhabit the cuticle or
epidermis, and give rise to certain skin-diseases, such as
favus, ringworm, etc. It is held that the various forms of
these plants are in many cases transmutable into each other.
For example, the favus plant, the barber's-itch plant (Acho-
rion), and the chloasma plant (Microsporon) are only forms
of the yeast plant (Torula or Cryptococcus cerevisiae).
Dermop/tera [from the Gr. 8éppa, “skin,” and irrepôv,
a “wing ” or “fin ’’I, an order of cartilaginous fishes cha-
racterized by the absence of pectoral and ventral fins. The
rays of the vertical fins are soft and delicate, or impercepti-
ble. The lancelet and lampreys are of this order.
Der/moslºel’eton [from the Gr. 8éppa, “skin,” and
a kexerów, a “skeleton’], a term applied to the crustaceous,
testaceous, or osseous integument which covers many in-
vertebrate animals, as the beetle and lobster; also some
vertebrate animals, as the tortoise. It serves to protect the
soft parts of the body, and affords points of attachment for
the organs of locomotion.
Der/ne, Der/na, or Bel’ed-al-Soor (anc. Darmis),
a seaport-town of Northern Africa, in Barca, is 1 mile from
the Mediterranean; lat. 32° 46' N., lon. 22° 41' E. Its
harbor is insecure. During the hostilities between the
U. S. and Tripoli this town was taken in 1805 by the
American forces under Gen. Eaton. Pop. about 6000,
Der/num, a township of Randolph co., Ark. Pop. 1764.
De Rosset (John ARMAND), M. D., of Wilmington,
N. C., was one of the most remarkable men of the medical
profession of the U. S. Born in 1767 in North Carolina,
of Huguenot descent, he graduated in Princeton College,
studied under Dr. Rush (receiving the highest mark of
distinction), practised his profession sixty-nine years, and
died in the ninety-second year of his age. When eighty
years old he said, “I have prescribed for six generations
in one family.” His grandfather, father, himself and two
sons have all practised medicine in Wilmington, N. C. Of
him it has been said, “In every respect he was a model of
the Christian and gentleman.” PAUL F. Eve.
Der/rick [said to be the name of a celebrated hangman
at Tyburn in the seventeenth century; hence, literally, a
“hanger”], a mechanical invention used for lifting ma-
chinery, raising wrecks and other great weights, and
transporting them from one place to another. A floating
derrick or crane consists of an iron pontoon, divided into
several watertight compartments, from the centre of which
rises a tripod mast. Across the mast turns a boom of
great strength: one arm of the boom is furnished with
fourfold blocks, through which pass the chains intended
to hoist the weight; the chains pass over the top of the
mast to the opposite end of the boom, and thence descend
to the side of the vessel, where they are connected with
Water is admitted into the
compartments of the pontoon as a counterpoise to the
weight suspended.
Der’ry, a township of Pike co., Ill. Pop. 1327.
Derry, a township and post-village of Rockingham co.,
N. H. The village is on the Manchester and Lawrence R. R.,
11 miles S. E. of Manchester. It is the seat of Pinkerton
Academy and of Adams Female Seminary (East Derry).
It has a national bank, and manufactures of lumber, boots
and shoes, edge-tools, ete. Pop. of township, 1809.
Derry, a township and borough of Dauphin co., Pa., on
the Philadelphia and Reading R. R., 13% miles E. of Har-
risburg. Pop. of township, 1824; of borough, 216.
Derry, a township of Mifflin co., Pa. Pop. 1901.
Derry, a township of Montour co., Pa. Pop. 888.
Derry, a township and village of Westmoreland co.,
Pa., on the Pennsylvania. R. R., 46 miles E. S. E. of Pitts-
burg. Pop. 5170.
cient is at once seen. (See DIFFERENTIAL COEFFI-
84. *
1330
DERRY NANE–DESCARTES' RULE OF SIGNS.
Derrynane, a township of Le Sueur co., Minn. P. 759.
De Russy (RENá EDWARD), an American officer, born
in 1791 in New York City, graduated at West Point in 1812,
colonel of engineers Mar. 3, 1863. In the war of 1812–15
with Great Britain he was engaged on the Canadian fron-
tier in the repulse of the British flotilla at French Creek
1813, battle of Chrystler's Field 1813, attack on La Cote
Mill 1814, battle of Plattsburg 1814, and after Gov. Pro-
vost’s defeat was chief engineer of Gen. Macomb’s division.
He served in the construction of fortifications 1816–33; as
superintendent of the Military Academy 1833–38; in building
coast defences and improving harbors and rivers 1838—65;
as member of various boards of engineers 1848–64; and
in command of corps of engineers 1858–61. Brevet brig-
adier-general, Mar. 13, 1865, for long and faithful service.
Died Nov. 23, 1865, at San Francisco, Cal., aged seventy-
five. - GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
De Ruyter, a post-village of Madison co., N.Y., on
the Auburn branch of the New York and Oswego Midland
R. R., about 25 miles S. S. E. of Syracuse. It has one
newspaper, is the seat of the De Ruyter Institute, and is
in a good hop and dairy section. Pop. 605; of De Ruyter
township, 2009. John R. BEDEN, PUB. “ NEW ERA.”
Der/vish [from doºrvésh or darwésh, a Persian word
signifying “poor;” also a “mendicant”], a name applied
to the orders of Mohammedan monks in Persia, India, and
Turkey. Some belong to communities, and reside partly in
monasteries and partly outside; others warider solitarily
through the land, living on alms and professing abstinence
and holiness, but belonging to no particular sect. Their
worship consists in prayers, mortifications, and religious
dances. Dervishism is supposed to have taken its rise in
Persian Soofeeism.
..Der'wentwater, also called Keswick Lake, a
beautiful lake of England, in Cumberland, is an expansion
of the river Derwent. It extends southward from Keswick,
is 3 or 4 miles long and 1% miles wide. Its banks are rocky,
abrupt, and picturesque. On this lake is a remarkable
floating island, covered with vegetation and full of air-
bubbles, which render it buoyant.
Derwentwater (JAMEs Ratcliffe), EARL of, an Eng-
lish Catholic and Jacobite, born in Northumberland June
28, 1689. He inherited the earldom from his father in 1705.
In 1715 he raised a small body of his retainers to fight for
the Pretender. He was one of the leaders of the army that
was defeated at Preston (Nov. 13), and was taken prisoner.
He was convicted of treason, and beheaded Feb. 24, 1716.
His estates were given to Greenwich Hospital. -
Derzha'vin, written also Derzavin or Derjavine
(GABRIEL ROMANov1TCH), a celebrated Russian lyric poet,
born at Kazan July 3, 1743. He entered the army in 1760,
and was raised to the rank of colonel. Having gained the
favor of the empress Catharine, he was appointed secretary
of state in 1791. He became a senator in 1793, imperial
treasurer in 1800, and minister of justice in 1802. In 1810
he published four volumes of poems, remarkable for origi-
mality, sublimity, and for purity of sentiment. His most
popular poem is an “Ode to the Deity” (“Oda Bogu ’’),
which has been translated into English, Chinese, and other
languages. Died July 6, 1816.
Desaguade’ro (i. e. the “outlet”), a river of Bolivia,
issues from Lake Titicaca, of which it is the only outlet. It
flows southward about 190 miles and enters Lake Aullagas.
It is the highest considerable river in America, for the ele-
vation of its source is 12,846 feet, and that of its mouth is
not much less.
Desaguadero, a vast table-land in Bolivia and Peru,
between two ranges of the Andes. It extends from Potosí
to the peak of Vilcañota, and is about 400 miles long.
Area, estimated at 150,000 square miles. It contains the
great lake Titicaca, 12,846 feet above the level of the sea,
and Lake Aullagas, which has no outlet.
Desaix de Weygoux (Louis CHARLEs ANTOINE), an
able French general, born near Riom, in Auvergne, Aug.
17, 1768. He served with distinction in several campaigns
of the army of the Rhine, and was rapidly promoted to the
rank of general. In 1798 he took part in the expedition
to Egypt. He gained a victory at Sidiman in October of
that year, and completed the conquest of Upper Egypt in
1769. He afterwards governed that province with such
moderation and justice that the natives called him “The
Just Sultan.” In May, 1800, he returned to France, and
hastened to join the army in Italy. The French were
about to retreat at Marengo, when Desaix arrived with a
reserve, and converted defeat into a decisive victory, but he
was killed in this action, June 14, 1800. (See J. LAVALLíE,
“Eloge historique du Général Desaix;” THIERs, “History
of the Consulate.” -
De Sanctis (LUIGI), a leader of the Protestant move-
ment in Italy, born Dec. 31, 1808, was for some years a
priest and professor of theology in Rome, became a Prot-
estant in 1847, established the Protestant periodical “Eco
della Verità,” and was in 1868 appointed professor of the-
ology at the Waldensian Seminary in Florence. He wrote
a number of treatises against the Roman Catholic Church.
which have been translated into several languages. Died
Dec. 31, 1869.
Des Arc, a township of White co., Ark. Des Arc
post-office is in Prairie co., and has one weekly newspaper.
Pop. of township, 861.
Desaugiers (MARC ANTOINE MADELEINE), a French
song-writer, born at Frejus Nov. 17, 1772. He produced
many popular Songs and comedies or vaudevilles. He
taught pianoforte-playing for some years in the U. S.
Died Aug. 9, 1827.
Desault (PIERRE Joseph), an eminent French surgeon,
born Feb. 6, 1744, was a pupil of Antoine Petit. He was
considered the most skilful French surgeon of his time, and
had a very large practice. Died June 1, 1795. His doc-
trines were published in the “...Surgical Works" of his
scholar, Bichat. (See PETIT, “Eloge de Desault,” 1795.)
Descartes (RENá), [Lat. Renatus Cartesius], an illus-
trious French philosopher and mathematician, born at La
Haye, in Touraine, Mar. 31, 1596. He was educated at the
college of La Flèche, where he acquired great proficiency
in mathematics and astronomy, and formed an intimate
friendship with Mersenne. He left college in 1612, dis-
satisfied with the method and doctrines which were then in
vogue. He resolved to efface from his mind all scholastic
dogmas and the prejudices of his education, to reject the
authority of books, and to admit only that which was con-
firmed by reason and experiment. He entered the Dutch
army in 1616, and that of the duke of Bavaria in 1619, but
he renounced the military profession in 1621. In pursuit
of knowledge he travelled for several years in Italy, France,
and other countries. He settled in Holland in 1629, in order
to devote himself to the study of mathematics, astronomy,
metaphysics, etc. He made important discoveries in alge-
bra and geometry, which he announced in his “Discourse
on the Method of Reasoning Well and of Investigating
Scientific Truth,” 1637 (“Discours sur la Méthode pour
bien conduire sa Raison,” etc.). This work comprises trea-
tises on metaphysics, dioptrics, and geometry. He was the
first who introduced exponents or applied the notation of
indices to algebraic powers, and he gave a new and inge-
mious solution of equations of the fourth degree.
He published in 1641 “Meditationes de Prima Philo-
sophia,” which gave a wonderful impulse to philosophical
inquiry. He founded the superstructure of all positive
knowledge on the basis of self-consciousness, or the rela-
tion between consciousness and existence, which he ex-
pressed in this phrase: “Cogito, ergo sum ”—“I think,
therefore I exist.” He worked a greater change in meta-
physical thought than any modern philosopher. The in-
novations and paradoxes of the Cartesian philosophy ex-
cited much hostility among the theologians and the disciples
of Aristotle. His book was condemned by the college of
cardinals at Rome. Among his other works is “Principles
of Philosophy’” (“Principia Philosophiae,” 1644), in which
he propounds his theory of the world—that the sun is the
centre of a vortea of an ethereal fluid, whose whirling mo-
tion produces the revolution of the planets and other phe-
nomena. The French court granted him a pension of 3000
livres in 1647. Having been invited to her court by Chris-
tina, queen of Sweden, he went to Stockholm in 1649,
where he died next year from a cold he caught by stand-
ing in shoes and silk stockings on the cold marble floor, to
teach philosophy early in the morning to the queen, still
in bed. Complete editions of his works were published
in 1690 and 1824. The “Meditations” have been translated
into English by W. Molyneux (London, 1680) and by W.
R. Walker (“Jour. Spec. Phil.,” St. Louis, 1870). (See
G. H. LEwBs, “Biographical History of Philosophy;”
MILLET, “Descartes, sa Wie, etc.,” 1869.)
Descartes’ Rule of Signs, a theorem by means of
which the maximum number of positive or negative roots
of an equation can be ascertained by inspection. The
theory reduces itself essentially to this: The number of
positive roots of an equation cannot exceed the number
of variations in the signs of its coefficients, considered in
their proper order. As an illustration, take the cubic equa-
tion F(z)= 32.8–722 + 11a. -- 4 = 0. Inasmuch as there are
but two variations of signs on passing from one extreme
term to the other, through the intermediate ones, we con-
clude that the cubic cannot have more than two positive
roots. To ascertain the maximum number of negative
roots, it is merely necessary to apply the same theorem to
the equation which is obtained from the original by chang-
DESCENT—DESERT.
ing ac into — ac. Thus the positive roots F(–a.)=–328
— 7ac?–11ac 4-4 = 0 are negative roots of the original cubic,
and by Descartes' rule their number cannot exceed one.
This rule is a particular case of Fourier’s theorem.
Descent’, in law, is the succession to landed estate
after the owner's death, in cases where he has not made
previous disposition of the estate. The rule of descent
among the ancient Greeks was that the sons shared alike,
and the daughters were dependent upon the bounty of their
brothers. Among the Hebrews the eldest son had a double
portion. With the ancient Romans sons and daughters
shared alike. The former English law was very compli-
cated, but has of late received important modifications.
The law of primogeniture prevails as to males, while sev-
eral females of equal degree claim as one heir.
The subject of descent is regulated by positive rules in
the U. S., and but few of general application can be stated.
The following may be referred to as either of common
recognition or having some peculiarity worthy of notice :
1. Title by descent depends upon a rule of law. The
person from whom the land descends is termed an ancestor;
the one to whom it passes is called an heir, who has no
volition in the matter. The estate is cast upon him, at the
death of the ancestor, even against his consent.
2. The persons to whom land descends are specifically
designated by positive rule, and may be grouped as follows:
(1) Lineal descendants. These, if of equal degree, take
equally undivided shares or are “tenants in common.” If
of unequal degree, those who are more remote take the
share that would have belonged to their parent if living.
Thus, if the ancestor had left a son A, and C, D, E, children
of a deceased son B, the grandchildren taken together
would have the share of B. Those who inherit on equal
terms are said to take per capita; those who take the shares
of deceased persons, as above illustrated, are said to take
per stirpes. (2) Where there are no descendants, the next
claimants would regularly be the parents (the father being
frequently preferred to the mother), as they are removed
but one degree from the intestate, while the nearest collat-
eral relatives (brothers and sisters), reckoning according
to the methods of the civil law (see Cox's ANGUINITY), are two
degrees. Still, if the estate descended to the intestate from
maternal relatives, there are cogent reasons for preferring
the brothers and sisters to the father, and the same reasons
for preferring them to the mother where the land came from
paternal relatives. Under these circumstances the law of
some of the States gives the land to the father or mother
for life only, as the case may be, and the estate itself to the
brothers and sisters. (3) If there be no father or mother
or descendants, the land will descend to the brothers and
sisters equally, with the same distinctions as to taking per
capita and per stirpes as noticed under subdivision (1).
(4) The next claimants are either grandparents, or, if these
be passed over, as may be the case, uncles and aunts and
their descendants. In the instance of uncles, etc. the law
of some of the States distinguishes between the case where
the intestate acquired the estate by his own act and where
he obtained it by inheritance. In the former instance the
descent would take place to maternal and paternal uncles
and aunts and their descendants, without discrimination;
in the latter, the uncles, etc. belonging to that branch of
the family from which the estate was derived would have
the preference. More remote claimants need not here be
noticed. (5) Distinctions sometimes are recognized between
relatives of the whole blood and those of the half blood, so
that the latter are excluded from inheriting. An illustra-
tion is found in the law of New York, under which, for ex-
ample, a brother of the half blood on the maternal side
(frater wterinus) cannot inherit land from a brother having
a different father, which land such brother had inherited
from his father, as the claimant is not in that case of the
blood of the immediate ancestor from whom the estate was
derived by the brother from whom inheritance is claimed.
(Wheeler vs. Clutterbuch, 52 New York Reports 67, 1873.)
(6) Posthumous children inherit as if they had been born
during the life of the ancestor. They must be born alive,
and of such a state of development that by the laws of
physiology they are capable of living. (7) The English
common law will prevail unless abrogated by statute.
Thus, in New York, where the special cases referred to in
the statute of descents do not occur, primogeniture still is
recognized. -
3. Illegitimate relatives cannot in general inherit, though
in a number of the States they may under certain qualifica-
tions, particularly from the mother and maternal relatives.
4. The law of the State where the land is situate governs
descent, without reference to the law prevailing where the
owner resides.
5. In general, all interests in and rights to land are gov-
erned by the rules of descent. Thus, should the intestate
have only a right of action, or be the owner of a future
estate, or have simply a beneficial ownership, such as an
estate held in trust, his rights and qualified estates of this
nature will be transmitted under the same general rules as
if he were legal owner in possession. This proposition is
in some respects in marked contrast with the doctrines of
the common law. This system required the ancestor to have
been at Some time seized or to have an estate of which
seizin could be affirmed. (See SEIZIN.) Accordingly, if
he had acquired only a right of action, this could not de-
scend from him, nor could in general an estate of which he
had acquired the ownership, subject to a life estate in an-
other. Still, if he had once been seized, the unlawful de-
privation of his seizin would not prevent the operation of
the law of descent.
.6. In a number of the States aliens cannot inherit. This
is a rule of the English common law. In other States it
has been abrogated.
(Accurate knowledge of the law of descents in any State
can only be acquired by an examination of its statutes.
See also WASHBURN “On Real Property,” and BLACKSTONE's
and KENT’s “Commentaries.”) T. W. DWIGHT.
Deschambault, a post-village of Portneuf co., Que-
bec (Canada), on the N. side of the St. Lawrence River,
45 miles above Quebec. It has a convent of Sisters of
Charity. Pop. about 500.
Deschamps (EMILE), a French poet and dramatist,
born at Bourges Feb. 20, 1791. He produced in 1818 two
successful comedies, entitled “Selmours et Florian * and
“Le Tour de Faveur.” In 1828 he published a volume of
poems called “French and Foreign Studies.” He con-
tributed to the journals some prose tales. Died April,
1871. -
Deschanel (MARTIN), a French author, born at Paris
Nov. 14, 1819, published in 1850 “Catholicisme et Social-
isme,” and articles for the republican press which caused
his banishment. Returning in 1859, he became an editor
of the “Journal des Débats.” He printed “Les Courte-
sames de la Grèce ’’ (1854), “Histoire de la Conversation ”
(1858), “Physiologie des écrivains et des artistes” (1864),
and “Etudes sur Aristophane’’ (1867).
Descrip/tive Geom'etry is a branch of practical
mathematics, the object of which is to obtain representa-
tions on plane surfaces of accurately-defined bodies in
space, for the investigation of their metrical as well as de-
scriptive properties. It differs from ordinary perspective,
inasmuch as by the latter method the actual dimensions
of a body cannot be ascertained from its representation.
In descriptive geometry points in space are represented by
their orthographical projections on two planes at right
angles to each other, called the planes of projection. It is
usual to suppose one of the planes of projection to be hor-
izontal, in which case the other is vertical; and the projec-
tions are called horizontal or vertical according as they are
on the one or the other of these planes. Any curve in space
will be represented by two curves in the horizontal and ver-
tical planes, and a curved surface by the corresponding
representations of certain points and curves on that sur-
face. Thus, a plane would be completely defined by its
intersections with the planes of projection. The intersec-
tions of a line or surface with the planes of projection are
called its traces. Again, a sphere may be represented by
the projections of its horizontal (or vertical) great circle; a
cylindrical surface by its trace on one of the planes of pro-
jection, and the projection of any generator on the other;
a come by the projections of its vertex, and by one of its
traces, etc. Although applicable to sculpture and all me-
chanical arts, it is especially useful to civil and military
engineering. Among the best works on the subject are
those of Monge, Hachette, Lacroix, and Leroy.
Des’eret, a name given by the Mormons to the Terri-
tory of UTAH (which see). The Mormons claim that in
the language of their sacred books this word means
“honey-bee.”
Des’ert [from the Lat. deserta, neut. plu. of desertus,
passive part. from desero, desertum, to “forsake,” “for-
saken "places], a term generally used to designate a bar-
ren or uninhabited place, but applied more particularly to
the vast sandy and stony plains of Africa and Asia. In
every region of the globe plains are to be found which,
though resembling each other in their grand outlines, ex-
hibit, with the different latitudes in which they are placed,
a corresponding variety of character. There are consider-
able tracts of desert land in Nevada, Arizona, and other
parts of the U. S. Such are the “Bad Lands” E. of the
Rocky Mountains; these are not plains, but are gene-
rally peculiarly broken and rocky surfaces. The principal
desert of South America is the nearly rainless Atacama
region. The most striking feature of North Africa is its
immense deserts; of these the chief is the Sahara, or The
Desert, so called by way of eminence.
1332
DESERTER—DES MOINES.
The great deserts of Africa are separated from those of
Asia, only by the valley of the Nile and the Red Sea, the
sandy zone extending throughout the breadth of the old
continent from Western Africa to 120° E. longitude.
In many parts the dreary waste of loose and hardened
sand is broken by low hills of naked sandstone or by tracts
of arid clay, and occasionally it is enlivened by verdant isles
or oases, which serve as resting-places for caravans. It
has been computed to cover an area of 6,500,000 square
miles, but the Asiatic portion of this tract includes many
chains of mountains and fertile valleys. It is character-
ized by arid wastes of sand or clay, sometimes with Saline
incrustations on the surface. Except the Nile, the Eu-
phrates, the Indus, and the Oxus, there are no large rivers
in a region which embraces almost a fourth part of both
Africa and Asia. This portion of Central Asia forms a
series of elevated plains 6000 miles in length from E. to W.
“Some of these plaims,” says Humboldt, “are covered with
herbage; others produce only evergreen saliferous plants;
but a great number glitter from afar with a saline efflores-
cence that crystallizes in the semblance of lichens, and
covers the clayey soil with patches like new-fallen snow.”
In the Old Testament four words are employed, all of
which are sometimes, not uniformly, rendered in our Eng-
lish version “desert,” but no one of them denotes a Sandy
waste. Desert, in the Hebrew sense, is simply untilled
pasture-land, which may be covered with a luxuriant vege-
tation. In the New Testament, Špijuos has the same sense,
which of course is quite at variance with classic usage.
REVISED BY R. D. HITCHCOCK.
Deser’ter [for etymology see preceding article], a sol-
dier or seaman who abandons the public service without
permission. In England this crime was formerly punish-
ed., by death, but is now left to the discretion of a court-
martial. In time of war in the U. S. deserters from the
army and navy may be sentenced to death, or otherwise
punished as a court-martial may decide. For desertion in
times of peace the punishment is much less severe.
Desfontaines (RENí Louich E), a French botanist,
born in Feb., 1752. In 1798 he published “Flora, Atlantica”
(2 vols. 4to), which treats of the plants of Africa. He dis-
covered the difference in the growth and structure of en-
dogenous and exogenous plants. Died Nov. 16, 1833. (See
A. P. DE CANDoll E, “ Notice Historique sur la Vie de M.
Desfontaines,” 1834.)
Desgenettes (NICOLAs RENſ. DUFRICHE), M.D., BARON,
a French physician, born at Alençon May 23, 1762. He
was chief physician of the army of Italy in 1795–96, and
was physician to the grand army during the empire. He
wrote several medical works. Died Feb. 3, 1837.
. Deshā’, a county in the S. E. of Arkansas. Area, 750
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Mississippi
River, and intersected by the Arkansas and White rivers.
The surface is an alluvial plain, partly liable to inunda-
tion; the soil is fertile. Cotton is the chief crop. Capital,
Napoleon. Pop. 6125.
Deshoulières (ANTOINETTE DU LIGIER DE LA GARDE),
a French poetess, was born in Paris about 1634. She was
distinguished for wit and beauty, and was married in 1651
to an officer named Deshoulières. Among her works are
“Les Moutons,” an idyl, eclogues, odes, “ Moral Reflec-
tions,” and a tragedy called “Genseric.” Died Feb. 17,
1694. -
Des’iccant [Lat. desiccans, from de, intensive, and
siccans, pres. part. of sicco, siccatum, to “dry”], in medi-
cine, an application used to check the secretion of a mem-
brane or ulcer.
Desicca’tion [Lat. desiccatio, from de, intensive, and
sicco, siccatum, to “dry”] is a process of extracting
moisture by chemical agency or by the use of air and heat.
Chloride of calcium, quicklime, fused carbonate of potash,
and oil of vitriol are used for this purpose.
Design’ [Fr. dessin, from the Lat. designo, to “mark
out”], a plan or scheme formed in the mind; an intention,
purpose, or project. In the fine arts, the idea formed in
the mind of an artist on any particular subject; a prelimi-
nary work, either in outline or color, in which the concep-
tion of the artist is indicated and partly expressed. The
design ought to exhibit the whole composition and draw-
ing of the work, though the last only in a general way.
The design ought thus to be a correct, though not a com-
plete, representation of the future work. A sketch differs
from a design in that the former is usually applied to a first
drawing of an object placed before an artist; the latter to
a first drawing of an object or subject which he has im-
agined or modified by his faculty of invention. Unity of
design, combined with variety of form and embellishment,
is essential to a perfect work of art. In architecture, the
term design is applied to a drawing mathematically cor-
rect, but in which the effects which will ultimately be pro-
duced by distance and by light and shade are altogether
ignored. Design is also an important term in philosophy,
and is used as synonymous with final cause.
Design, Schools of, are institutions where ornamental
artistic or mechanical drawing is taught. The most perfect
institutions of the kind are in Europe, but most of our large
cities have similar Schools. Massachusetts gives free in-
struction in these branches. One of the largest schools of
design is in the Cooper Union building in New York.
The “National Academy of Design" is a beautiful build-
ing in the Venetian style, at the corner of Fourth Avenue
and Twenty-third street, New York. This academy was
founded in 1828, and the present building (which cost
$150,000) was completed in 1864. There is in it an annual
exhibition (from April to July) of paintings by artists con-
nected with the institution.
Desima, a Japanese island in the Bay of Nangasaki,
contains the factories of the Dutch.
Desmidia’ceae [from Desmidium, one of the generaj,
an order of the green Algae, closely approaching the Dia-
tomaceae, but differing by the absence of siliceous frustules
and also by their green endochrome. These plants consist
of connected joints, and they are increased by the addition
of two half-joints in the centre. It is said fecundation
sometimes takes place by the conjugation of two plants by
means of simple contact. The spores take a variety of
forms, and from them the new plant is produced by the
formation of a vertical partition in the centre, and the sub-
sequent growth of two new half-joints. The Desmidiaceae
are abundantly found in limpid fresh water, causing a
green scum, which under the microscope presents an aston-
ishing variety of beautiful forms. The late Prof. J. W.
Bailey of West Point made them a subject of special obser-
vation. The number of species is very great.
Des Moines, de-moin', a river of the U. S., and the
largest that traverses the State of Iowa, rises in the S. W.
part of Minnesota. It flows in a S. S. E. direction to the
capital city of Des Moines, below which it runs nearly
south-eastward until it cnters the Mississippi River at the
S. E. extremity of Iowa, about 4 miles below Keokuk.
Length, estimated at 500 miles. It flows through fertile
undulating prairies, and through a large field of bituminous
coal.
Des Moines, a county in the S. E. of Iowa. Area,
408 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Missis-
sippi River, and on the S. W. by the Skunk River. The
surface is diversified by woodlands and fertile undulating
prairies. Cattle, grain, wool, hay, and dairy products are
extensively raised. Of manufactories those of wagons are
most numerous. Coal and limestone are abundant here. It
is intersected by the Burlington and Missouri River R. R.
and the Burlington Cedar Rapids and Minnesota. R. R.
Capital, Burlington. Pop. 27,256.
Des Moines, a township of Boone co., Ia. Pop. 5241.
Des Moines, a township of Dallas co., Ia. Pop. 802.
Des Moines, a township of Jasper co., Ia. Pop. 2105.
Des Moines, a township of Jefferson co., Ia. Pop. 1280.
Des Moines, a township of Lee co., Ia. Pop. 1104.
Des Moines, a township of Mahaska co., Ia. Pop.
1101.
Des Moines, a township of Pocahontas co., Ia. Pop.
256.
Des Moines, the capital of Iowa and seat of justice for
Polk co., is situated on the Des Moines River at the mouth
of the Raccoon, on the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific R. R.,
357 miles W. of Chicago, 174 miles W. of Davenport, and
138 miles E. of Omaha, on the Des Moines Valley R. R.,
connecting it with Keokuk and Fort Dodge, on the Des
Moines and Indianola R. R., on the Des Moines and Win-
terset R. R., and on the Des Moines and Minnesota Nar-
row-gauge Railway. The State capital was removed in
1855 to this place, at that time called Fort Des Moines.
A new State-house is now in the process of erection, the es:
timated cost of which is $3,000,000. The State library con
tains some 20,000 volumes. The State arsenal, a large
building, contains, besides military equipments for the
State, the tattered flags of all Iowa regiments engaged in
the war of 1861–65, and numberless other trophies and
valuables of interest. The city has twenty or more churches;
three national and three private banks; a U. S. court-house
and post-office, built of marble and costing $250,000; and
a large county court-house; and it has complete gasworks,
a street railroad, the Holly system of waterworks, numer-
ous handsome residences, and other public improvements
necessary in first-class modern cities. . Three daily, seven
weekly, and three monthly papers are published here.
Mines of excellent coal are extensively worked. There is
IXES MOINES-DETERMINANT,
1333
§. of water, plenty of timber, and plenty of coal.
umbers of manufactories of various kinds are in opera-
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Des Moines, a township of Van Buren co., Ia. P. 1078.
Des Moines, a township of Jackson co., Minn. P. 548.
Des Moines, a township of Clarke co., Mo. Pop. 1235.
De Soto, a township and post-village of Jackson co., Ill.,
on the Illinois Central R. R., 63 miles N. of Cairo. P. 1433.
De Soto, a post-village of Dallas co., Ia., on the Chi-
cago Rock Island and Pacific R. R., 22 miles W. by S. of
Des Moines.
De So/to, a parish in the N. W. of Louisiana. Area,
910 square miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by the Sa-
bine River. The soil is fertile. Cotton and corn are raised.
Capital, Mansfield. Pop. 14,962.
De Soto, a county in the N. W. of Mississippi. Area,
900 square miles. It is drained by the Coldwater Creek.
The surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Cotton is
the staple product, but corn, cattle, wool, and tobacco are
raised. It is intersected by the Mississippi and Tennessee
R. R. Capital, Hernando. Pop. 32,021. *} -
De Soto, a post-village of Jefferson co., Mo., on the St.
Louis and Iron Mountain R. R., 43 miles S. W. of St. Louis.
It has one weekly newspaper.
Be Soto, a post-village of Washington co., Neb., is on
the Missouri River and the Omaha, and North-western R. R.,
26 miles N. N. W. of Omaha. It is on the site of a former
Mormon settlement. Pop. of township, 288.
De Soto, a post-village of Vernon co., Wis., on the
Mississippi River halfway between La Crosse and Prairie
du Chien. It has one weekly newspaper.
De Soſto (HERNANDo), a Spanish explorer, born in
Estremadura in 1500. He explored in early youth the
coasts of Guatemala, and Yucatan. Having a high com-
mand under Pizarro, he contributed largely to the conquest
of Peru. He conducted an expedition from Spain to Flor-
ida in 1539, and discovered the Mississippi River. He
died in Louisiana June 5, 1542.
Des/sau, a town of Germany, capital of the duchy of
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New State Capitol (Des Moines, Iowa).
decade, and is the largest city in the interior of the State.
Pop. in 1860, 3965; in 1870, 12,035.
R. P. CLARKSON, ED. “IowA STATE REGISTER.”
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Anhalt, is on the Mulde near its entrance into the Elbe, 80
miles by railway S. W. of Berlin. It is well built, and con-
tains a fine ducal palace, a town-hall, a theatre, a college,
and a normal school. Here are many paintings of the
early German masters. It has manufactures of woollen
cloth, hosiery, hats, tobacco, etc. Pop. in 1871, 17,464.
De Staël-Holstein (ANNE LOUISE GERMAINE). See
STAišL, DE.
Dester’ro, or Nos'sa Senho'ra do Dester’ro (i. e.
“Our Lady of Desterro”), a seaport of Brazil, capital of
the province of Santa Catharina, is on the island of Santa
Catharina, 460 miles S.W. of Rio Janeiro. It has a trade
in feathers and artificial flowers; is defended by Several
forts, and has a good harbor; lat. 27° 36' S., lon. 48° 40'
W. Pop. 8000.
Deter/minant. This term is used to express a certain
symmetrical algebraic function of m” quantities of very
frequent recurrence in the theory of equations, and still
more in the higher geometry. A definition of the term,
with a statement of a few of the elementary properties of
determinants, and of some of their most simple applica-
tions, is all that can be attempted here.
If we take the product alb2C3...mn of n factors, and per-
mute the subscript indices in every possible way, we shall
have 1.2.3....n products. If now we give to each one of
these several products a plus sign whenever the number of
interchanges of indices necessary to produce it from the
above product is even, and a minus sign when the number
of interchanges is odd, and add the results, we have the
determinant of the nº quantities ai, b1, c1, ...m.1, a2, 02, c2,
...m2, a3, b2, etc. etc.
The determinant is usually written thus:
Cºl b1 C1 ... ??I
Cl2 b2 C2 . . . 722
a8 b3 c5 ... n.8
an Önen... in
but it is also sometimes written 3+ (a1b2C3...nn), where the





1334
DETERMINATE PROBLEM–DE TRO BRIAND.
product written in the parenthesis is that of the letters
along the diagonal of the matrix, beginning at the upper
left corner.
The following equations and propositions will serve to
illustrate the definition. Most of them may be verified by
inspection, or by actual expansion according to the rule:
1. |al bij = >+(a1b2) = a1b2—azö1.
Q2 Ö2
2. lai bi cil = >+(a1b2C3).
a2 ö2 c2
a8 Ö3 c5! = a1 b2 col – a 2 |b1 cil + as b1 cl
ba C3 b8 C3 b2 C2
= a1b2C3 – alb3c2 + a 26361- azb1c3 + agble2 – a 3b2c1.
3. |al b1 cl di
C/2 Ö2 C2 d2
a 3 bgco da =>+(a1b2C3d4).
a 4 bacA. d4 -
= a1 |öz cz dz - a” |bi cl di! -- as b1 cl dil – a 4 bi c1 di
b3 C3 da b3 C3 ds b2 C2 d2 b2 C2 d2
Ö4 cq dº b4 cA d4 b4 cA d4 b3 cz da
=al b2C3d4–a1b264d3+a1b364d2–a1b3c2a4+a1b.4c.2ds–a1b4c3dz
—azb1c3d4+azbicada-a2bgc4di-Ha2b&c.1d4-a2b4c1d3+azbac3di
+agö162d 4-a8ö1c4d2+agb2C4di-a8b2c104-Ha3b1c1d2–agbac2d,
–a4b1c.2d2+a1b1c3d 2–a4b2C3d 1+a 4b2C123-a 4ö3c.1d2+a+b3c2di
4. The determinant is a linear function of each element.
5. A single interchange of two adjacent rows, or two ad-
jacent columns, changes the sign of the determinant. Two
such interchanges leave the determinant unaltered.
6. The value of a determinant is not affected by chang-
ing the rows into columns and the columns into rows.
7. The determinant is zero when two columns are equal,
or when two rows are equal. -
8. The product of two determinants is a determinant.
9. The differential co-efficient of a determinant with
respect to any element is a determinant.
An idea of the use of determinants in the theory of
equations and in geometry may be formed from the state-
ment of a few propositions:
I. If a1ac-Fbly-Hciz=di, a2ac-i-b2y+c22=dz, and a8a;+b8:/-ī-
da, th **(*) , ==(alºes), and
c32 = a 3, €It *T:E(a,b,cs) "Tx3 (alºgs)' 8.D. (1 2 =
>+(a1b2ds)
x=(albºes)
2. Similar values are obtained for n unknown quantities
from n linear equations.
3. Three straight lines whose equations are of the form
G. O. G.
a" b/ o' | = 0.
cºſt bºro’ſ
4. The area of a triangle, the rectangular co-ordinates of
ari 3/1 I
22 $/2 I
ars 3,31
5. These three points of No. 4 are in a straight line
when the determinant is zero. Hence, the equation of a
-- a: y 1
line passing through two given points is a y' 1| = 0.
ac' 'y"1
6. The volume of a pyramid in terms of the rectangular
co-ordinates of its four summits is one-sixth of the deter-
larl y1 21 1
22.3/2 22 I
ar3 3/3 23 I
a 43/4 24 I
7. The equation of a plane passing through three given
ac 3/ 2
& . |acſ ºf 2' I
points is .,, ºr, ºr i
acrºſ'"'gºt'1
There is in all parts of the mathematics, but especially
in higher geometry, a frequent recurrence of symmetrical
forms which may be written as determinants. Hence,
great importance attaches to all propositions respecting
them. There is an elementary explanation of determinants
in the last three chapters of Todhunter’s “Theory of Equa-
tions.” Their properties and use in plane geometry are
developed in full in Whitworth’s “Trilinear Co-ordinates.”
In Salmon’s “Higher Algebra, ’’ there is an introduction
to the theory of linear transformations, a large department
of mathematical science which has been created within the
past few years. FI. A. NEWTON.
Deter/minate Prob'lem, a problem in geometry
which admits of a limited number of solutions, an indeter-
minate problem being one which admits of an indefinite
number of solutions. Thus, the problem, “Given the base,
perimeter, and area, to construct the triangle,” is determi-
nate, there being in general but four solutions. By omitting
aac + by + c = 0 intersect in one point if
whose angles are acI 3/1, acz W2, acg3/3, is one-half of
minant
= 0.
action.
one of the three data, however, the problem becomes inde-
terminate. For instance, an infinite number of triangles
having the same perimeter can be constructed on a given
base. The problem, however, is not perfectly indeterminate,
for the vertices of all such triangles are restricted to a cer-
tain locus—i. e. the ellipse whose foci are the extremities
of the given base. In general, the omission of one of the
conditions or data which render a problem determinate leads
to a local problem.
Det/inue [an Old Fr. word, from detenir, to “detain,”
literally, that which is “ detained ’’], in law, an action for
the recovery of a personal chattel wrongfully detained, or
its value, with damages and costs. The action is for the
recovery of a specified article; the chattel therefore must
be of such a character that it can be distinguished from
others, as a horse. The plaintiff must have an absolute or
special property in the article at the time he brings the
The defendant must have had possession at some
time, which should have been acquired in some lawful
manner, as by contract or finding. The nature of the pos-
session must also continue. As if a finder should sell the
thing found before action, the proper remedy would be an
action for conversion, though if he had not sold there
might be a case of detinue.
Det/mold, a town of Germany, capital of the princi-
pality of Lippe-Detmold, on the Werra, 42 miles S. W. of
Hanover. It has a fine eastellated palace, a theatre, a pub-
lic library, and a celebrated teachers’ seminary ; also manu-
factures of linen and woollen goods. Its people are remark-
able for culture and taste. Near this town is the battlefield
where Hermann destroyed the Roman army of Varus in 9
A. D. Pop. in 1871, 6469.
De Tocqueville (ALExIs CHARLEs HENRI CLEREL), a
renowned French statesman and political economist, was
born in Paris July 29, 1805. He studied law, and in 1827
became judge-auditor at the tribunal of Versailles. In 1831
he was commissioned to investigate the penitentiary sys-
tems of the U. S., which he visited in company with Gus-
tave de Beaumont. In 1832, having returned from the
U. S., he resigned his office, and in 1835 he gave to the
public the first volume of his work “De la Démocratie en
Amérique” (“On Democracy in America,” 4 vols., 1835–
40), which met with a brilliant success. About this time he
married Mary Mottly, an English lady. De Tocqueville,
though himself opposed to democracy, foretold its rapid
growth in the world. In 1838 he was made a member of
the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, and in 1839
he was elected to the Chamber of JDeputies. He became a
member of the French Academy in 1841. In 1848, having
been elected to the Constituent Assembly, he lent his sup-
port to the cause of order. In 1849 he was minister of for-
eign affairs from June 2 to Oct. 31. The coup-d'état of
Dec. 2, 1851, drove him from the public service. He pub-
lished in 1856 his “L’ancien Régime et la Révolution ”
(“The Old Régime and the Revolution ”), a very excellent
work. Died at Cannes April 15, 1859.
Detona’tion [from the Lat. detomo, detonatum, to
“thunder’], combustion with explosive rapidity, accom-
panied with sound and light, as in the case of gunpowder,
percussion-caps, and fulminating-powder. When a mix-
ture of oxygen and hydrogen is inflamed by the electric
spark, it is said to detonate. Detonation is due either to
the sudden liberation and expansion of large volumes of
gases, or to the sudden contraction of gaseous matter and
its reduction to a liquid or solid state.
Detriſtus [from the Lat. de, “down " or “off” and
tero, tritum, to “rub ''], literally, that which is rubbed or
worm off, a geological term applied to material composed
of small portions of a rock or a deposit which have been
detached and removed to a distance by the action of any
abrading power. -
De Trobriand (PHILIP REGIS), an officer of the U. S.
army, born in Tours, France, June 4, 1816, and a French bar-
on by inheritance; “Bachelier-es-lettres’’ (University of
Orleans), “Licencié-en-droit’’ (legal faculty of Poitiers).
During the recent civil war he entered the service as colonel
of the Fifty-fifth New York Volunteers, July, 1861; com-
manding brigade (Third corps) 1862–63; appointed brig-
adier-general volunteers Jan., 1864; commanded defences
of New York May, 1864; commanded brigade (Second
corps) July, 1864; brevet major-general volunteers com-
manding division (Second corps), April, 1865; appointed
colonel Thirty-first Infantry U. S. A., July, 1866; brevet
brigadier-general U. S. A., Mar., 1867; commanding the
district of Dakota, Aug., 1867; colonel Thirteenth In-
fantry U. S. A., and commanding the district of Montana,
Mar., 1869; Camp Douglass 1870; Fort Steele 1871; now
in command of the district of Green River. Author of
“Les Gentilshommes de l'Ouest,” Paris, 1841; “Quatre
DETROIT-IDEUTERONOMY.
ans de Campagnes à l'armée du Potomac,” Paris et Brux-
elles, 1867; editor and publisher of the “Revue du nouveau-
monde,” New York, 1849–50; editor of the “Courrier des
Etats-Unis,” New York, 1854–61.
Detroit', a post-township of Pike co., Ill. Pop. 1056.
Detroit, a post-village of Dickinson co., Kan., on the
Kansas Pacific R. R., 19 miles S. W. of Junction City.
Detroit, a township and post-village of Somerset co.,
Me., on the Maine Central R. R., 30 miles W. of Bangor. It
has three churches and manufactures of leather and lumber.
Pop. 690. -
Detroit [Fr. Détroit, “the strait”], the metropolis of
Michigan, and capital of Wayne co., is situated on the W.
bank of the Detroit River, 18 miles from Lake Erie and 7
miles from Lake St. Clair, in lat. 42° 19' 53° N., lon. 82°
58' W. The Detroit River, forming the boundary-line be-
tween the U. S. and Canada, is of varying width, being
half a mile broad opposite the city, and of great depth,
forming the most perfect harbor on the whole chain of lakes.
Detroit is the centre of the Michigan system of railroads,
being the terminus of the Michigan Central and its branches,
also of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, the Detroit
Eel River and Illinois, the Detroit Lansing and Lake
Michigan, the Detroit and Milwaukee, the Detroit and
Bay City, the Grand Trunk of Canada, the Great Western
of Canada, and the Canada, Southern, which crosses the
river at Trenton, a few miles below, and has a branch run-
ning to the city. The site upon which the city is built rises
from the edge of the river, the inclination being gradual,
at the rate of about 58 feet per mile, affording the most per-
fect drainage, which has been taken advantage of by the
building of a system of sewers over eighty miles in length,
costing $1,264,890, and permeating every quarter of the
city.
The city is abundantly supplied with water, there being
151 miles of pipe laid up to the close of 1872, at which
period the aggregate cost of construction of the water-
works amounted to $1,338,047. It was found that the in-
crease of population was so rapid as to give promise of
presently exceeding the capacity of the works, and the
legislature of 1873 authorized the loan of $1,000,000 for
the purpose of extending them. Plans for this have been
completed, and the work is in progress. The city has a
perfectly disciplined paid fire department, with steam ap-
paratus, etc., costing $243,479, and also a fire-alarm tele-
graph. The annual expense of the department is a little
over $72,000. The city has a uniformed metropolitan po-
lice force, with a central and two sub-stations in communi-
cation with all quarters of the town by means of a police
telegraph. The expenses of the force for 1872 were $92,000.
There are 25 public school buildings, valued at $547,410,
with 138 separate schools of all grades, 177 teachers, and
an enrolment of 11,764 pupils. The annual expenses of
the schools are $170,228. There are, besides, 3 seminaries,
27 Roman Catholic parish schools, 9 German Lutheran
schools, and a large number of private institutions, in-
cluding 3 commercial colleges. The assessed valuation
of the real and personal property of the city in 1872
was $23,615,674; the cash valuation for the same year
$78,718,913. Since then an additional ward has been
added, and the valuation has risen to $86,743,947. There
are two gas companies which supply the city, and the num-
ber of street lamps at the close of 1872 was 1137. There are
eight handsome public drinking-fountains, but the principal
work of art adorning the city is the Michigan Soldiers’ and
Sailors' Monument, designed by Randolph Rogers, and built
of bronze and granite at a cost of $58,000. The struc-
ture is fifty-five feet high, surmounted with a colossal
bronze allegorical statue of “Michigan.” The chief public
building is the city hall, situated on the Campus Martius
and facing upon four streets, being in length 200 feet, in
width 90. The style is Italian, with mansard roof, and a
central tower 180 feet high. The walls are built of Am-
herst sandstone. The whole cost;of the building, regarded
as one of the finest in the West, was $600,000. The house
of correction is also a very fine building, and has attained
a national and European reputation. The value of it is
fixed at upwards of $300,000, and it has a capacity for 450
prisoners. The county jail is a substantial structure. There
are eight lines of street railway in operation, and two lines
of transit railway and one of street railway in process of
construction. The public library contains 22,136 volumes,
the bar library 3280 volumes, the mechanics’ library 4000,
and the Young Men's library 12,000. There are 2 medical
colleges, 4 public hospitals, 4 orphan asylums, 2 foundling
and women’s hospitals, 1 insane asylum, a house of shelter
for magdalens, 1 industrial school, and 1 old ladies’ home.
There are 59 churches and 4 chapels. Some of these church
edifices are noble specimens of architecture. The city con-
tains 3 national, 5 savings, and 16 other banks. It is the
1335
seat of the U. S. circuit court for the sixth circuit, and the
U. S. district court for the eastern district of Michigan,
the Wayne county circuit court, the superior court, the
recorder's and the probate court of Wayne county. The
U. S. custom-house for the port of Detroit and the internal
revenue office are located here, as are also the principal
office of the U. S. lake survey, the department in charge
of the lake lighthouses, and the head-quarters of the mili-
tary department of the lakes. Fort Wayne, designed to
be the most extensive American fortification on the north-
ern frontier, is located just below the city, commanding
both it and the river. Though in an incomplete state, it
includes a series of batteries protected by earthworks, and
is garrisoned by a force of infantry and artillery. There
are eight cemeteries—two, Woodmere and Elmwood, being
upon locations of great natural beauty, are also embel-
lished by skilful landscape gardening and monuments of
taste.
The manufacturing advantages of the city are great, and
these have been taken advantage of by the establishment
of many foundries, blast-furnaces, copper-smelting works,
locomotive and car works, shipyards, drydocks, iron-bridge
works, safe manufactories, furniture and other establish-
ments using wood as the chief material, and the most ex-
tensive tobacco and cigar factories in America, producing
each year goods worth many millions of dollars. There
are a number of pork-packing establishments, and the
shipping trade of the city in produce and manufactures is
very large. There are 8 daily papers published in the city,
3 being in the German language, 3 tri-weeklies, 11 week-
Iies, and 4 monthlies.
The present site of the city was occupied by Indian vil-
lages at the period of the discovery of the country. In
1610 it was first visited by the French, and remained under
their dominion until 1762. The first legitimate settlement
was made in 1701, at which time a fort was erected called
Ponchartrain, the first governor being the Sieur de la Motte
Cadillac ; and from time to time emigrants were sent here
by the French government. In 1763 the British assumed
possession, erecting fifteen years later a fort. In 1787 its
government was assumed by the U. S., Gen. Arthur St. Clair
being the first governor. In 1812 it was surrendered to the
British, and was retaken in 1813. The history of Detroit
is intimately connected with the history of the whole North-
west. Three different sovereigns have claimed its allegiance,
and since the U. S. have held it thrice has its government
been transferred. It has twice been besieged by Indians,
once captured in war, and once totally consumed by fire.
It has been the scene of one surrender, fifty pitched battles,
and twelve bloody massacres. For the rest, the streets are
broad and well paved, handsomely embellished with shade
trees, and ornamented with beautiful private residences,
while the business quarters are well built up with lofty,
substantial, and beautiful structures. Pop. 79,577.
W. E. QUIMBY, MANAGING ED. “FREE PREss.”
Detroit, a post-village of Becker co., Minn., on Detroit
Lake and the Northern Pacific R. R., 206 miles W. of Du-
luth. It has one weekly newspaper.
Detroit River issues from Lake St. Clair, flows nearly
southward, forms part of the boundary between Michigan
and Canada, and enters Lake Erie. It is about 24 miles
long, and from half a mile to one mile wide. It is navi-
gable for vessels of the largest size.
Dett’va, a town of Hungary, in the county of Sohl, 20
miles E. of Altsohl. Pop. in 1869, 10,035.
Deuca/Iion [Gr. Aevkaxtov], a personage of the Greek
mythology, was a son of Prometheus and the husband of
Pyrrha, and was the father of Amphictyon and Hellen.
According to tradition, he saved himself and his wife from
a deluge by building a ship or ark, which, when the water
subsided, rested on Mount Parnassus. They threw stones
behind them, which were transformed into men and women.
Deu’el, a county in the E. of Dakota, is partly bounded
on the E. by Big Stone Lake. The surface is elevated; part
of the soil is fertile. This county contains a part of the
Coteau des Prairies. Pop. 37.
De’us ex Mach’ină [a Latin phrase, signifying a
“god from a machime,” alluding to the machinery of the
theatrical stage], an expression borrowed from the classic
stage. The poets of Greece often had recourse to the in-
tervention of a god, who desöended by stage machinery,
and brought about a speedy dénouement of the plot. The
proverb has also been applied to savants or philosophers
who, unable to explain facts by known laws, have had re-
course to the aid of a Supernatural power.
Deuteron/omy [Lat. Deuteronomium; Septuagint Gr.
Asvrepovápºtov, the “duplicate law,” from Seiſrepos, “Second,”
and vôuos, “law "], the last book of the Pentateuch, con-
sisting, in part, of a restatement of the law, as given in
1336
IDEUTZ–DEVIL.
Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, and containing also, be-
sides special commands and admonitions not previously
given, an account of the death of Moses. The authorship
of this book has been traditionally assigned to Moses, but
of course the part relating to his death is not supposed to
have been written by himself, and indeed the last four chap-
ters may have been added by another hand. Of late years
much critical labor has been bestowed upon the book, and
its Mosaic authorship has been both assailed and defended
with great learning and ability. See PENTATEUCH.
Deutz (anc. Tuitium), a fortified town of Prussia, on
the right bank of the Rhine, opposite ColoGNE (which see).
It is the terminus of a railway extending to Minden. Pop.
in 1871, 11,881. *-
#7.
Deut/zia [named in honor of feutz, a botanist], a
genus of shrubs belonging to the order Saxifragaceae, and
indigenous in Northern India, China, and Japan. Deutzia
scabro has leaves very rough, with siliceous hairs, which
are used in Japan for polishing wood, and which are most
beautiful objects under the microscope. Deutza gracilis,
a hardy shrub with elegant white flowers, is much culti-
vated in American gardens.
Deux Ponts. See ZWEIBRijcKEN.
Dev, or Dew, a Persian word, akin to the Sanscrit déva
(a “god"), but applied in the system of Zoroaster to a class
of demons supposed to be servants of Ahriman. (See Zo-
ROASTER, RELIGION OF.) .
Déva, dà’va, a Sanscrit word signifying “god,” and
forming a part of many names in Hindoo mythology, as
Kamadéva (“the god of love”), Mahadéva (the “great
god.”), a name of SIVA (which see).
Devail’s Bluff, a post-village, capital of Prairie co.,
Ark., on White River and the Memphis and Little Rock
R. R., 48 miles E. of Little Rock. It has one weekly news-
paper and two schools, and is situated in a cotton and corn-
growing region.
JAMES H. BALDING, E.D. WHITE RIVER “Journ AL.”
Devanagari. See SANSCRIT, by PROF. W. D. WHITNEY,
PH.D., LL.D.
Devapraya/ga, a town of Northern Hindostan, in
Gurwhal, in lat. 30° 8' N., lon. 78° 39' E., is at the junc-
tion of the Alakananda and Bhagirathi, which unite to
form the Ganges. As the origin of that sacred river, it is
considered a holy place by the Hindoos, and is visited by
multitudes of pilgrims. Here are two ancient temples. The
permanent population consists of about 1000 Brahmans.
Dev'asaw, a township of Grant co., Ark. Pop. 357.
Devel’op [Fr. développer], in algebra, to expand an
expression by writing out in full the operations previously
indicated by symbols. In geometry to develop a curve or
a curved surface is to find an equivalent straight line or
plane surface, by rolling the former on the latter. The
equivalent straight line or plane surface thus formed is
called the development of the curve or curved surface rolled.
Development. See Evolution, by PROF. H. HARTS-
HoRNE ; also DARWINISM, by PROFs. YoUMANs and SEELYE.
Development of the Embryo. See EMBRYology,
by PROF. J. C. DALTON, M. D
Dev'ens (CHARLEs, J.R.), an American jurist, born in
Charlestown, Mass., April 4, 1820, graduated at Harvard in
1838, and was admitted to the bar in 1841; member of the
Massachusetts State senate 1848–49; U.S. marshal for the
district of Massachusetts 1849–53. On the outbreak of the
recent civil war he entered the service as major of the third
battalion of Rifles Massachusetts volunteers, was appointed
colonel Fifteenth Massachusetts Aug., 1861, and was pro-
moted brigadier-general April 15, 1862; brevet major-gen-
eral U. S. volunteers for gallant and meritorious conduct at
the capture of Richmond, April 3, 1865; military governor
East district of South Carolina Sept., 1865, to June, 1866,
when he was mustered out of the service; wounded at
Ball's Bluff, Fair Oaks, Chancellorsville, and Cold Harbor.
Throughout the war Gen. Devens was conspicuous for gal-
lantry and ability, from the early engagement at Ball’s
Bluff till the closing scenes at Appomattox Court-house.
He was appointed associate justice of the superior court of
Massachusetts in 1867, which position he retained until
Oct., 1873, when he was appointed associate justice of the
supreme court of Massachusetts, which office he now holds.
Dev'enter [Lat. Daventria], a fortified city of Hol-
land, in the province of Overyssel, is on the river Yssel,
about 60 miles E. by S. from Amsterdam. It is surrounded
by walls or ramparts, and has a good harbor. It contains
a large town-house, a court-house, five or more churches,
and several hospitals. It is the seat of an old Catholic
(Jansenist) bishopric. About 600,000 pounds of butter
are annually exported from this place. It has manufac-
tures of carpets, hosiery, etc., and iron-foundries.
18,218.
De Were (MAxIMILIAN SCHELE), LL.D., a writer, born
in Sweden Nov. 1, 1820, emigrated to the U. S., and became
in 1844 professor of modern languages and belles-lettres in
the University of Virginia. Among his works are “Out-
lines of Comparative Philology” (1853) and “Stray Leaves
from the Book of Nature” (1856).
Devereaux, a township of Washington co., Me. P. 8.
De Vesci, Viscounts (1776), Barons Knapton (1750,
Ireland), and baronets (1698).--THOMAS VESEY, third vis-
count, born Sept. 21, 1803, elected a representative peer
for Ireland in 1857, was M. P. for Queen’s county 1835–37
and 1841–52, and succeeded his father Oct. 19, 1855.
Dévi (Sanscrit, “goddess”). See PARVATI.
Deviation of Projectiles. See GUNNERY ; GYR0-
scope, by GEN. J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Deviation of the Compass is the variation of a
ship's compass from the true magnetic meridian, caused by
the proximity of iron. In iron ships it depends upon the
direction, with regard to the magnetic meridian, in which
the ship was built. It is least when the ship has been built
with her head to the south. Armor-plated ships should be
plated with the head in the opposite direction to that in
which they are built. Two methods are employed by which
this variation is attempted to be neutralized: the first is by
ascertaining the actual variation in every position of the
ship with regard to the magnetic meridian, and working by
a table of errors; the other is by introducing on board-ship
masses of iron and magnets to neutralize exactly the action
of the ship's magnetism. The latter method is now very
generally employed. It is important that the ship should
not be hurried out immediately for a voyage, and that her
compasses should be readjusted before sailing.
Deviation of the Plumb-Line has been especially
observed near mountains, in which case it is evident that
the attraction of the mountain has drawn the line out of
the perpendicular. Maskelyne took advantage of this fact
in his experiments to determine the density of the earth.
(See DENSITY of THE EARTH.) The same phenomenon has
been observed on plains, and is probably caused either by
great caves under ground, or by large masses of matter
near the surface greatly surpassing in density the average
of the earth near the point of observation. -
De View, a post-township of Woodruff co., Ark. Pop.
1204.
De Vigny (ALFRED WICTOR), COMTE, a distinguished
French author, was born at the castle Loches Mar. 27, 1799.
In 1828 he published a collection of poems called “Poèmes
antiques et modernes.” He also produced (1826) “Cinq-
Mars, or a Conspiracy under Louis XIII.,” which was very
favorably received; “Stella, or the Blue Devils,” a narra-
tive; and the tragedy of “Chatterton’’ (1835). Died Sept.
18, 1863.
Dev'il [Persian dev or dew, a “demon;” Ger. Teufel;
Gr. 8tá80Aos (i.e. “accuser” or “slanderer”); Lat. diab-
olus ; Fr. diable], the name among Christians of any evil
spirit, but especially of the chief of evil spirits, nearly cor-
responding in the latter sense to the Hebrew Satan and
the Mohammedan Iblis or Shytän. It is proposed in this
article to limit ourselves chiefly to a notice of the popular
and prevailing notions entertained of the devil in Europe
during the Middle Ages and later; referring the reader to the
article SATAN for a consideration of those graver questions
respecting the character of the great Enemy of mankind
which may be said to belong more properly to theology.
The Greek for devil appears to be derived from the charac-
ter of Satan as presented in the book of Job—that of a fault-
finder or slanderer. In the Middle Ages, and even later,
the devil was supposed to possess in the highest perfection
every kind of skill and knowledge—a skill and knowledge
resembling that of man, indeed, but immeasurably surpass-
ing it in degree. The devil was believed to possess tran-
scendent skill in all the magic arts, and when a man of
genius had accomplished some wonderful feat which seemed
clearly above the unassisted powers of the human mind, it
was commonly supposed (especially if he was not pre-
eminently a religious man) that he had been either assisted
by the devil, or that the latter had performed for him the
entire work; in which case, of course, some promise (such
as the final surrender of the soul of the assisted party) or
reward had to be given as an equivalent for his services.
This idea, once almost universal in Europe, furnished the
basis of the legend respecting Dr. Faustus. -
It would seem probable that the prevailing superstitions
of the Middle Ages respecting the devil might have been
considerably influenced by the notions entertained of the
character of Loki, the god of evil in the Norse mythology.
Pop.
| As Loki is said to have taken various forms—sometimes
\ DEVIL’S DUST-DEW.
1337
of a woman and sometimes of one of the lower animals—
in order more successfully to deceive, so the devil was
supposed to assume at one time the appearance of a most
beautiful woman to mislead and ruin the souls of men, at
another time to take the form of a hunted animal to draw
the too eager pursuer into danger and death; but all his
wiles were of course lost upon those who looked to Heaven
for help, and called upon the protecting Saints.
J. THOMAS.
Devil’s Dust. See SHODDY.
Devil-worshippers, or Yezidees, a sect of relig-
ionists, founded by one Yezeed, and living in Armenia,
Koordistan, etc. They number more than 200,000. They
treat the devil with great respect, because they believe he
will be restored to heaven, where they wish him to be their .
friend. There are various other sects of devil-worshippers.
One in Southern India pays especial reverence to a malig-
namt being called Sattan.
Devi(zes, a parliamentary borough of England, in Wilt-
shire, on the Avon and Rennet Canal, 22 miles N. N. W.
of Salisbury. It stands on an eminence near the northern
limit of Salisbury Plain. It has two old churches, a large
corn exchange, silk-throwing mills, and manufactures of
snuff and malt. Here are ruins of a castle of the time of
Henry I. Pop. in 1871, 6840.
Dev’on [Lat. Devonia], a county of England, is bounded
on the N. by the Bristol Channel, and on the S. by the Eng-
lish Channel. Area, 2590 square miles. The surface is
mostly hilly, and in some parts rocky. The highest point,
called Yes Tor, has an altitude of 2050 feet. Granite,
magnesian limestone, Devonian and Silurian rocks occur
here; also copper and tin. It is drained by the rivers
Exe, Dart, Tamar, and Torridge, the estuaries of which
form good harbors. The climate of the S. coast is mild;
the soil is generally fertile. This county produces good
apples, and is famous for cider. The Red Devon breed of
cattle is highly esteemed. The chief exports are butter,
cheese, cattle, and sheep. The largest towns are Exeter
(the capital), Plymouth, Devonport, Tiverton, Tavistock,
and Dartmouth. Pop. in 1871, 600,814.
Devo'nian Age [named by Murchison from Devon-
shire, England, where rocks of this age abound], in geol-
ogy, the time succeeding the Silurian and preceding the
carboniferous age. The American Devonian rocks are as-
signed to five divisions or periods of time, known as the
Oriskamy (the oldest), the Corniferous, the Hamilton, the
Chemung, and the Catskill periods. The Devonian strata
of Europe are variously divided in different countries. The
old red sandstone of Scotland and Herefordshire was for
some time described by English geologists as the only group
of rocks separating the Silurian system from the carbonif-
erous. The discovery made by Murchison and Sedgwick,
that the calcareous slates and limestones of Devonshire
were contemporaneous with the old red sandstone and with
the Eifel series, was a great step in advance, and tended to
fix important positions in geological classification. Nor-
mandy presents Devonian rocks in a characteristic state.
The system is also largely developed in Russia, as well as
in Western New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, In-
diana, etc. The Devonian rocks of the U. S. are rich in
fossil shells of mollusks and in fishes. “In the Devonian
age,” says Dana, “the fishes are the dominant type.” (See
GEOLOGY, by PROF. J. W. D.AwsON, LL.D., F. R.S.)
Dev’onport (before 1824 called PLYMoUTH Dock), a
maritime and fortified town of England, is in Devonshire,
on the E. shore of the estuary of the Tamar (called the
Hamoaze), 2 miles W. N. W. of Plymouth. It occupies
high ground, and has ramparts defended by batteries. It
derives its importance from the dockyard and naval arsenal,
which is perhaps the largest in Great Britain. The national
works occupy about 350 acres, and the dockyard comprises
six building-slips for vessels of various rates. Here are
also five docks, and manufactures of sails, ropes, anchors,
soap, etc. Devonport has a residence for the port-admiral,
a military hospital, and a large barrack. It returns two
members to Parliament. Pop. of municipal borough in
1871, 50,094; of parliamentary borough, 64,684.
Dew [Sax. deaw; Ger. Thaw], moisture deposited during
the night on the surfaces of bodies exposed in the open
air. Dew is produced by the condensation of watery
vapor from the atmosphere. Its deposition is, however,
unaccompanied by the appearance of any visible mist.
Such mist appears when the condensation takes place
within the body of the air itself, and is then called “fog."
in the lower regions of the atmosphere, and “cloud” in the
higher. Dew occurs only at the surfaces of contact with
solids, the air above remaining clear. The deposit of dew
is caused by the cooling of the bodies bedeved, and this
takes place in consequence of the radiation of heat into
open space, without any equivalent return. Experiments
on vaporization have shown that when a liquid is exposed
in a confined space to a constant temperature, vapor will
be formed from it until the density reaches a certain deter-
minate limit, invariable for the temperature, but greater as
the temperature is higher, after which evaporation will
cease. This maximum density is called the density of
saturation, or the density due to the temperature. Air is
said to be saturated with vapor when the density of the
vapor in it is the density due to its temperature. Should
the temperature of a body of air in this condition be in the
slightest degree depressed, the air will be supersaturated,
and some of the vapor will be condensed, forming a visible
cloud. But if, the temperature remaining the same, a body
colder than the air be immersed in it, condensation will
occur on the surface of that body only, and the air itself
will remain clear. If, as is usual in the atmosphere, the
air contain vapor without being saturated, it may be
brought by cooling to a temperature at which it will be sat-
urated, and then any further cooling will produce precipi-
tation, as in the case before supposed. Or if the tempera-
ture of air in this condition remain unchanged, a body
colder than the air immersed in it may produce condensa-
tion, provided its temperature be as low as the point of
saturation, or lower, but not otherwise. This point is
called the dew-point. (See DEW-PoſNT.
During the day the loss of heat by bodies on the earth,
in consequence of radiation, is more than compensated by
the amount received directly or indirectly from the Sun.
After sunset all such bodies begin to cool, but they cool
with unequal rapidity, because of their different relations
to heat. The atmosphere cools very slowly. Badly con-
ducting solids cool rapidly. Good conductors, if in contact
with the earth, cool much less rapidly, because the heat they
lose by radiation is, to an extent proportioned to their con-
ducting power, restored by conduction from the earth be-
neath. If of small mass, however, and insulated by bad
conductors, their temperature falls much more rapidly. So
soon as the cooling process has depressed the temperature
of any object down to the point of saturation for the vapor
present in the air, dew will begin to form upon it. Some
bodies are bedeved very soon, others more tardily, and
some occasionally escape altogether. Grass, which radi-
ates well and conducts ill, is in the first class; wool and
woollen stuffs, cotton, linen, silk, Wood, earth, gravel, stone,
and metals contract dew with less and less facility, nearly
in this order. Polished metallic surfaces often remain
untarnished by moisture throughout the night. In clear
nights the difference of temperature shown by two ther-
mometers, one lying on the grass and the other suspended
in the open air a few feet above, is often 8° or 10°. F., and
is sometimes much greater. In one instance, Mr. Glaisher
(Phil. Trans., 1847) observed a difference as great as 283.9
F., the lower thermometer lying on raw wool.
Clouds check the formation of dew by obstructing radi-
ation, or restoring by counter-radiation some of the heat
lost. When the sky is wholly overcast no dew is formed.
Neither is any dew formed beneath an open shed or shelter,
though the earth around may be so distinctly wet as to
leave the form of the roof distinctly marked on the ground.
Facts of this kind were long supposed to prove that the
dew descends like rain—a belief of which the trace is still
preserved in the expression “the falling of the dew.”
Even a very slight screen, as a sheet of paper or a cambric
handkerchief, spread out above an object exposed in the
open air, will protect it perfectly against moisture from
dew. Wind also prevents the formation of dew, by con-
tinually changing the strata of air in contact with the
colder solids. The nights most favorable to the deposit of
dew are those in which the sky is quite clear and the air
quite motionless. The profuseness of the deposit will de-
. however, upon the hygrometric state of the atmo-
SO 116 re.
rº, various and very absurd notions prevailed among
the ancients in regard to the dew. By some it was sup-
posed to descend from the stars, and to be possessed of
wonderful virtues. The Roman ladies were accustomed to
use it as a cosmetic, supposing it superior to all other ap-
plications for the improvement of the complexion. If
the cosmetics of those days were no better than those in
use at present, their opinion was doubtless correct, though
the grounds of it were mistaken. The true theory of dew
was first clearly set forth by William Charles Wells, a phy-
sician of London, in his famous “Essay on Dew,” first
published in 1814. This has been many times reprinted,
and still continues to be the standard authority on the sub-
ject. F. A. P. BARNARD.
Dew (THOMAS R.), an American writer, born in Vir-
ginia Dec. 5, 1802. He became professor of political econ-
omy and history in William and Mary College in 1827, and
president of that institution in 1836. He published, besides
1338
DEWEES-DEWSBURY.
other works, an “Essay in Favor of Slavery” (1832), and
a “Digest of the Laws, Customs, etc. of Ancient and Mod-
ern Nations” (1853). Died in Paris, France, Aug. 6, 1846.
Dewees’-(WILLIAM Potts), M.D., an American physi-
cian, born at Pottsgrove, Pa., May 5, 1768. He practised
in Philadelphia, and became in 1834 professor of obstetrics
in the University of Pennsylvania. He published, besides
other works, an excellent “System of Midwifery” (1825).
Died May 20, 1841.
Deweese, a twp. of Mecklenburg co., N. C. P. 1606.
De Wet/te (Dr. WILHELM MARTIN LEBERECHT), an
eminent German biblical critic, born at Ulla, near Weimar,
Jan. 14, 1780. In 1810 he became professor of divinity at
Berlin, and as a preacher and writer he soon won a wide
fame. He was a moderate rationalist in his opinions. In
1821 he was called to the chair of divinity at Bâle, where
he died June 16, 1849. Among his works are a “Commen-
tary on the Psalms” (1811), “Jewish Archaeology” (1814),
“Christian Dogmatics” (1813–16), “Introduction to the
Old and New Testaments” (1817–26), translated by Theo-
dore Parker and Frederick Frothingham (1843–58), “Les-
sons on Morality” (1824). (See accounts of De Wette by
ScHENKEL (1849), HAGENBACH (1849), and Lücke (1850).)
Dew’ey, a township of La Porte co., Ind. Pop. 202.
Dewey (CHARLEs AUGUSTUs), LL.D., was born at Wil-
liamstown, Mass., Mar. 13, 1793, and graduated at Wil-
liams College in 1811. He began the practice of law in his
native town in 1814, and removed to Northampton about
1826. He became judge of the Massachusetts supreme
court in 1837, and retained the office till he died, Aug. 22, .
I866. -
Dewey (CHESTER), D. D., LL.D., an American botanist
and teacher, born at Sheffield, Mass., Oct. 25, 1781. He
was for many years professor of natural philosophy at
Williams College, became principal of the Collegiate Insti-
tute at Rochester, N. Y., in 1836, and in 1850 professor of
chemistry in the University of Rochester. He wrote many
excellent monographs on the Carices of North America, etc.
for the “American Journal of Science” and other publica-
tions. Died Dec. 15, 1867.
Dewey (GEORGE), U. S. N., born Dec. 26, 1837, in Ver-
mont, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1858, became a
lieutenant in 1861, a lieutenant-commander in 1865, and a .
commander in 1872. He served on board the steamer
Mississippi at the passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip
and capture of New Orleans, April 24, 1862, and is thus
handsomely spoken of in the official report of his com-
manding officer, Commander Melanchthon Smith: “I have
much pleasure in mentioning the efficient service rendered
by Executive Officer George Dewey, who kept the vessel
in her station during the engagement, a task exceedingly
difficult from the darkness and the thick smoke that envel-
oped us from the fire of our vessel and the burning gun-
boats.” He was on board the Mississippi when she was
lost in attempting to pass the batteries at Port Hudson,
Mar. 14, 1863, and gained the commendation of his com-
mander a second time by his “coolness” on this trying
occasion. Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Dewey (ORVILLE), D. D., LL.D., an eminent Unitarian
minister, born in Sheffield, Mass., Mar. 28, 1794. He gradu-
ated at Williams College in 1814, and preached in the pul-
it of Dr. Channing as his assistant for nearly two years.
}. was pastor at New Bedford from 1823 to 1833, after
which he preached about fourteen years in the city of New
York. In 1858 he became minister of the New South
church in Boston. He is an original thinker and an im-
pressive pulpit-orator. He has produced, besides other
works, “The Unitarian Belief” and “The Education of
the Human Race.” His lectures before the Lowell Insti-
tute, on “The Problem of Human Destiny,” embrace a
very able discussion of profoundly interesting questions.
De Wint (PETER), an English painter in water-color,
born in 1783. He was the son of Harry De Wint, an
American who went to England and married. He was a
distinguished member of the Old Water-color Society, and
was formed by the influences that produced Turner, D. Cox,
Stanfield, and Prout. His subjects were usually of a very
simple character, but treated in a large and masterly style.
He died in 1849. CLARENCE COOK.
De Witt, a county in Central Illinois. Area, 450 square
miles. It is drained by Salt Creek. The surface is nearly
level, and is diversified by prairies and forests; the soil is
fertile. Grain, cattle, wool, and dairy products are raised.
The most numerous manufactories are those of wagons and
carriages. Coal is found here. The county is intersected by
the Illinois Central and the Gilman Clinton and Spring-
field R. Rs. Capital, Clinton. Pop. 14,768.
De Witt, a county in S. Central Texas. Area, 898
square miles. It is intersected by the Guadalupe River.
The surface is one half prairie; the soil is generally fertile.
Cattle, corn, cotton, wool, pork, and tobacco are raised.
Capital, Clinton. Pop. 6443.
De Witt, a post-village, capital of Arkansas co., Ark.,
on the left bank of the Arkansas River, about 70 miles S.
E. of Little Rock. It has one weekly newspaper.
De Witt, a township and post-village of De Witt co.,
Ill., on the Gilman Clinton and Springfield R. R., 53 miles
N. E. of Springfield. Pop. 1061.
De Witt, a post-village in Clinton co., Ia., on the Day-
emport and St. Paul R. R. where it crosses the Chicago and
North-western R. R., 25 miles N. of Davenport. It has
one weekly newspaper, two banks, and some manufactures.
Pop. 1749; of De Witt twp., 3186. ED. “OBSERVER.”
De Witt, a post-township of Clinton co., Mich. P. 1306.
De Witt, a post-village of Grand River township, Car-
roll co., Mo. Pop. 317.
De Witt, a post-township of Onondaga co., N. Y.
It contains several mineral springs and caves, and has a
* of manufacturing villages and five churches. Pop.
3105.
De Witt (CoRNELIUs), a Dutch naval officer and states-
man, born at Dort June 23, 1623, was an elder brother of
John, noticed below. He had a high command under De
Ruyter in 1666, when he burned the English shipping in
the Thames. He distinguished himself in the naval battle
of Solebay in 1672. In the same year he was falsely ac-
cused of complicity in a plot to poison the prince of Orange.
He was imprisoned, tried, and acquitted, but was murdered
by a mob (Aug. 20, 1672) as he was coming out of prison.
De Witt (John), an eminent Dutch statesman and re-
publican, born at Dort Sept. 25, 1625. He was a leader of
the party which was hostile to the House of Orange, or
wished to reduce the power of the prince of Orange, who
was supported by the populace and clergy. De Witt, who
opposed the war against England, was elected grand pen-
sionary of Holland in 1653. He had the chief control of
the government during the minority of William, prince of
Orange (who was afterwards king of England). In 1654
he negotiated with Cromwell a treaty of peace, in which a
secret article stipulated that no member of the Orange fam-
ily should ever be stadtholder. He was re-elected grand
pensionary for a term of five years in 1658, and again in
1663. In 1665, Charles II. of England declared war against
the Dutch, whose fleet entered the Thames and burned
some shipping at Chatham. De Witt conducted this war
with ability, and it was terminated by a treaty of peace in
July, 1667. He joined England and Sweden in a triple
alliance against Louis XIV. of France, but the latter soon
seduced Charles II. to become his ally, and he invaded
Holland with a large army. De Witt being unable to repel
the enemy, who captured several towns, was blamed for
these misfortunes, and lost his popularity. William of
Orange was chosen general-in-chief and stadtholder. De
Witt went to a prison to visit his brother Cornelius, who
had been tried and acquitted. They were both murdered
by the populace at the prison Aug. 20, 1672. (See P.
SIMON, “J. de Witt en Zijn Tijd,” 3 vols., 1832–35.)
De Witt (THOMAs), D. D. See APPENDIx.
De Witt/ville, a post-village of Chautauqua township,
Chautauqua, co., N. Y. Pop. 262.
Dew-point, the temperature at which watery vapor
in the air begins to be condensed. Its determination is of
great importance to the meteorologist, as by comparing it
with the actual temperature he can tell the relative hu-
midity of the air. He knows that at the actual tempera-
ture the air would be saturated if it contained a certain
quantity of moisture; and also that the actual quantity
present is only such as would suffice to saturate air at the
observed dew-point; the ratio of this last quantity to the
former expresses the relation between the actual humidity
of the air and the humidity of saturation at the observed
temperature. The dew-point in the evening further shows
the temperature near which the minimum during the night
is likely to be. When the temperature has fallen to the
dew-point, the vapor in the air will be condensed, and an
amount of heat will be set free which will raise the tempera-
ture of the air. The temperature will again sink by radia-
tion somewhat below the dew-point; dew will be formed,
and the temperature again be raised.
Dews/bury, a manufacturing town of England, in the
West Riding of Yorkshire, on the river Calder, 8 miles
S. S. W. of Leeds. It is on the Lancashire and Yorkshire
Railway, and is connected with London by another rail-
way. It has manufactures of blankets, carpets, and coarse
woollen goods made from shoddy (i.e. refuse rags worked
over). There are collieries and iron-works in the vicinity.
Pop. in 1871, 24,773. It is 1 mile S. of Batley, which has
extensive manufactures of woollens. P. of Batley, 20,868.
T) EXIPPUS—DHOLEA.
1339
Dexippus. See APPENDIx.
Dexter, a post-village of Dallas co., Ia., on the Chicago
Rock Island and Pacific R. R., 35 miles W. by S. of Des
Moines. It has one weekly newspaper.
Dexter, a post-village of Penobscot co., Me., on a
branch of the Maine Central R. R., 70 miles N. E. by N.
from Augusta. It has manufactures of woollen goods,
and also several mills.
Pop. of Dexter township, 2875.
R. O. Robbins, PROP. “GAzETTE.”
Dexter, a township of Washtenaw go., Mich. Pop. 889.
Dexter, a post-village of Scio township, Washtenaw
co., Mich., on the Huron River and the Michigan Central
R. R., 47 miles W. of Detroit. It has one weekly news-
paper, two flouring-mills, a woollen-mill, planing-mill, and
car-works. Pop. 1161. A. McMILLAN, ED. “LEADER.”
Dexter, a township of Mower co., Minn. Pop. 120.
Dexter (FRANKLIN), LL.D., a son of Samuel Dexter,
noticed below, was born at Charlestown, Mass., Nov. 5,
1793, and graduated at Harvard in 1812. He practised
law in Boston with marked success. He was a member of
the State legislature and senate, and in 1849 was ap-
pointed U. S. district attorney for Massachusetts. In
1830 he was opposed to Daniel Webster in the famous mur-
der trial, of the Knapps. Died Aug. 14, 1857.
Dexter (HENRY), a successful sculptor, born in New
York, was originally a blacksmith in Connecticut. Among
his productions are “The Young Naturalist,” “The First
Lesson,” and others, besides many excellent portrait-busts,
Mr. Dexter resides at Cambridge, Mass.
Dexter (HENRY MARTYN), D. D., an eminent Congre-
gational minister, was born at Plympton, Mass., Aug. 13,
1821, graduated at Yale in 1840, and at Andover in 1844,
was pastor in Manchester, N. H. (1844–49), and of the
present Berkeley street church, Boston (1849–67). From
1859 to 1865 he was one of the editors of the “Congre-
gational Quarterly,” and in 1867 became editor-in-chief of
the “Congregationalist.” He is the author of “Street
Thoughts” (1859), “Twelve Discourses” (1860), and of
several other works, the most important of which is his
“Congregationalism,” a work of high authority, which
reached a second edition in 1871. He has made the Mas-
sachusetts “Pilgrims” his special study, and is now (1873)
preparing an elaborate “History of the Plymouth Colony.”
Dexter (SAMUEL), LL.D., an American jurist and states-
man, born in Boston May 14, 1761. He was admitted to
the bar in 1784, attached himself to the Federal party, and
was elected a Senator of the U. S. in 1798. He was ap-
pointed secretary of war in 1800 by John Adams, and be-
came secretary of the treasury early in 1801. When the
executive power was transferred to Jefferson in 1801, Dexter
retired from the public service and resumed the practice of
law in Boston. He had no superior and few equals as an
advocate before the Supreme Court in Washington. As a
supporter of the war against England, he separated from
the Federalist party in 1812. Died May 4, 1816.
Dexter (TIMOTHY), an eccentric American merchant,
born at Malden, Mass., Jan. 22, 1747. He rose from pov-
erty to affluence, and assumed the title of “Lord Timothy
Dexter,” by which name he is generally known. Many
traditions with regard to his life are current in New Eng-
land. Died at Newburyport Oct. 22, 1806. (See his Life
by S. L. KNAPP, 1823.)
. Dex'trine [from the Lat. deacter, the “right hand”],
(C6H1005), British Gum, Alsace Gum, Gom/me-
line, or Leiſo come, a gum-like substance produced from
starch by the action of heat, dilute acids or alkalies, dias-
tase, saliva, bile, blood serum, pancreatic juice, etc., and
by the action of sunlight on starch paste. It is soluble in
water, and its solution turns the plane of polarization of a
luminous ray to the right; hence the name deactrine. It
is prepared from starch (potato starch is preferred on ac-
count of its cheapness and purity) by several processes:
(1) By heating it in sheet-iron trays to a temperature of
300° F., by which it is changed into semi-transparent, yel-
lowish-brown lumps, which are converted into a pale yellow
powder by grinding between millstones. It is sometimes
roasted in iron or copper cylinders or coffee-drums. (2)
By the action of nitric acid (Payen's process): 1000 parts
of starch are mixed with 2 parts of nitric acid (specific
gravity, 1.4), diluted with 300 parts of water, and the
mixture is carefully dried, the temperature being finally
raised to between 230° and 250° F. The transformation
is completed in about an hour and a half. (3) By care-
fully boiling starch with dilute acids: the operation must
be discontinued as soon as the starch has all disappeared,
which is shown by the failure to obtain the blue coloration
characteristic of starch on adding iodine solution to a por-
It has one weekly newspaper.
tion of the liquid. For 100 parts of starch, 25 of sulphuric
acid and 280 of water may be used; the mixture to be
heated to about 194° F. When the reaction is complete,
the acid is neutralized with chalk, the insoluble gypsum
separated by filtration, and the solution concentrated to a
syrup or to a semi-solid mass, which can be transferred to
a hot-air chamber and completely dried. Thus prepared,
it contains a little gypsum. This impurity is avoided by
using 300 parts of starch, 1500 of water, and 8 of oxalic acid,
heating over a water-bath till all the starch has disappeared,
neutralizing with carbonate of lime, filtering after two days'
standing, and evaporating. (4) By the action of the dias-
tase of malt : 80 parts of water are heated with 1 part of
ground malt to 167° F., and 125 parts of starch are added
in small portions. As soon as the starch has all passed
into dextrine the solution is boiled to arrest the action of
the diastase, which would otherwise change the dextrine
to glucose. The solution is filtered and concentrated.
Cellulose is changed by the action of strong sulphuric
acid into a substance resembling dextrine, but which ro-
tates the plane of polarization to the left. Commercial
dextrine always contains some glucose (grape-Sugar), and
generally some unchanged starch. It may be purified from
the latter by solution in cold water and filtration; from the
former, by repeated precipitation from its solution by alco-
hol or by dialysis.
Dextrine occurs in old potatoes and in young wheat
plants in very small quantity. In the sprouting of seeds
and buds it is produced from starch; hence it occurs in
malt and malt liquors. In the baking of bread it is formed
from the starch of the flour, and often constitutes 10 per
cent. of the loaf. The glazing on the crust is chiefly a coat-
ing of dextrine. Limpricht found four-tenths of 1 per
cent. of dextrine in the flesh of a horse.
Dextrine is an uncrystallizable, translucent solid, re-
sembling gum-arabic. It is soluble in water and in dilute
alcohol, but insoluble in absolute alcohol. Its aqueous
solution is clear and limpid when dilute, but adhesive,
viscid, and gummy when concentrated; it rotates the plane
of polarization to the right, while the matural gums rotate to
the left. It is not colored blue by iodine. By boiling with
dilute acids or caustic alkalies it is converted into glucose.
It is precipitated from its solution by an excess of strong
alcohol. It has the same percentage composition as starch
and cellulose. Dextrine is extensively used as a substitute
for gum-arabic and other gums in stiffening, sizing, and
glazing calicoes, nets, crapes, laces, silks, papers, cards, etc.,
as mucilage on every office-table, and for the adhesive layer
on the back of postage stamps and on self-sealing enve-
lopes. (Interesting observations on the transformation of
starch into dextrine are recorded in the annual volumes of
WAGNER's “Jahresbericht der Chemischen Technologie.”)
C. F. CHANDLER.
Dextrog’yrate [from the Lat. deacter, the “right hand,”
and gyro, to “turn "J, a term applied in optics to crystals
which have the power to rotate a plane of polarization of a
plane polarized ray towards the right. It is opposed to
laevogyrate, which expresses the power to rotate the plane
in like manner towards the left.
Dey, dà [etymology doubtful], a Turkish title of dig-
nity given formerly to the governors of Algiers (before the
French conquest), and still given to the chief ruler of Tri-
poli. Tunis was governed by a dey at one period, but this
title in the latter country has long been supplanted by that
of bey.
Dezfool’, a town of Persia, in the province of Khoozis-
tan, on the Dezfool River, here crossed by a fine bridge of
twenty-two arches, 28 miles W. N. W. of Shooster. It is
the chief mart of Khoozistan. Ancient ruins and mounds,
evidently of Sassanian origin, are found in the vicinity.
Pop. estimated at 15,000.
Dhar, a decayed town of Central Hindostan, in Malwa,
the capital of a protected state of the same name, 32 miles
W. S. W. of Indore. It has two large mosques of red stone,
and other traces of former magnificence.
Dhawalaghi'ri, a lofty peak of the Himalaya Moun-
tains, in Northern Hindostan, was formerly supposed to be
the highest mountain of the earth. It is in Nepaul, in lat.
28° 42° N., lon. 82° 32' E. Its altitude is 26,826 feet.
Dhole, döl (Canis Scylax), a wild dog found in the
Western Ghauts and other mountainous parts of India.
It is of a light-bay color, with a sharp muzzle, large and
pointed ears, and in size is somewhat less than a wolf.
This species is remarkable for fierceness and courage, and
for hostility to tigers and other feline races.
Dhol/ka, a town of British India, in the presidency of
Bombay, 22 miles S. W. of Ahmedabád. It is in the midst
of ruined palaces, mosques, mausoleums, and spacious tanks
lined with masonry. It is enclosed by a mud wall. Pop.
about 25,000.
134)
DHOLPOOR.—DIALOGUE.
Dhölſpoor, a town of Hindostan, on the Chumbul, 34
miles S. of Agra, is the capital of a protected state. Here
are some old freestone mosques and mausoleums.
Dhubboree', a decayed town of Hindostan, in Guzerat,
78 miles N. E. of Surat. It has a ruined rampart two miles
in circuit, and numerous Brahmanical temples built of hewn
stone and adorned with sculptures. - :
Dhun'chee, or Dhamchi, a plant of the natural order
Leguminosae, of the genus Sesbania, having an extended
loment with many seeds. It is an annual plant, cultivated
extensively in some parts of India for its fibre, which is
used in the manufacture of paper, cordage, canvas, and
cloth. The plant has a slender stem about eight feet high.
Dia [3,4], a Greek preposition and particle signifying
“ through,” “apart,” implying “separation ” and “dis-
tinction;” “across,” “between,” implying mutuality. (For
examples or illustrations, see DIAGONAL, DIAMAGNETISM,
and DIALOGUE.) - f
Diabe’tes [Gr. 8tagirms, from 8tá, “through,” and Baivo,
to “go ºl, the name of two diseases characterized by the
excessive excretion of urine; whence the name. Diabetes
insipidus (now called POLYURIA, which see) is distinguished
from the other much more dangerous disease by the fact
that the urine consists chiefly of water. It is neither fre-
quent nor formidable. But Diabetes mellitus, “sweet” or
“honeyed diabetes” (Mellituria), is one of the most in-
curable and serious of diseases. The urine has its specific
gravity greatly increased by the presence of diabetic sugar,
a substance believed to be identical (in most cases) with
liver-sugar, and very closely approaching grape-sugar in
its composition and reactions. In some cases it appears to
be muscle-sugar (inosite). The disease is further character-
ized by indigestion, intense thirst, wasting, prostration of
mind and body, and in many cases by degenerative changes
in the tissues. Its causes are obscure and its treatment not
well understood. Some cases are greatly benefited by opium
and the use of strictly nitrogenous food, like gluten bread
and skim-milk. Temporary diabetes has been observed
after the administration of woorari poison and other drugs.
REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Diadel/phia [from 8ts, “twice,” and &8éAſbos, a “broth-
er”], in botany, the seventeenth class of the Linnaean arti-
ficial system. It comprises plants of which the filaments
are united in two sets or brotherhoods. These are called
diadelphows. Many plants of the natural order Legumi-
nosae and a few other plants belong to this class.
Di’adem [Gr. 8táðhua; Lat, diadema], the symbol of
royalty among several Oriental nations, was originally a
fillet wound round the forehead and temples. The diadem
of the Egyptian goddesses and kings bore the symbol of
the serpent. Among the Persians the diadem was bound
round the tiara, or turban, and was of a blue color. Dio-
cletian was the first Roman emperor who wore a diadem.
After his time it was adorned with a single or double row
of pearls or precious stones. Diadem is sometimes used
as synonymous with crown.
Diagno'sis [Gr. 8v8 yvoorts, from Stá, “apart,” and
'ytyväorko, to “know ’’I, the discovery of the nature and
seat of disease, one of the most difficult and important
branches of medicine and surgery. Diagnosis is based
upon “physical signs and rational symptoms;” “signs”
being appreciable by the senses, and “symptoms” arrived
at by the educated judgment. Both, however, are popu-
larly known as symptoms. Diagnosis is best learned at
the bedside, under the guidance of good instructors. The
stethoscope, thermometer, laryngoscope, etc. furnish im-
portant aid in this branch of medical practice. The term
is often used by naturalists for the discrimination of spe-
cies of animals, plants, or minerals. -
Diagom’eter [from the Gr. 8táyo, to “conduct,” and
pºérpov, a “measure *], an electric instrument for determin-
ing the conducting power of fixed oils, invented by M.
Rousseau. It consists of a dry pile, by means of which a
current is passed through the oil, and the strength of the
current determined by a magnetized needle. It is used
especially for the detection of the adulteration of olive oil,
which is said to have the lowest conducting power of
such oils.
Diag'onal [Lat. diagonalis ; Gr. 8tayëvvos, from 8tá,
“through,” and yovía, an “angle "I, a straight line drawn
through a figure, joining two opposite angles. The term is
chiefly used in geometry in speaking of four-sided figures,
but it is also properly applied with reference to all poly-
gons of which the number of sides is not less than four.
Euclid uses the term diameter in the same sense, but mod-
ern geometers use diameter only when speaking of curved
lines, and diagonal when speaking of angular figures.
Diag’oras [Awayópas], a Greek poet and philosopher,
born in the island of Melos, lived about 425 B. C., and is
said to have been a disciple of Democritus of Abdera. He
was a citizen or resident of Athens. As he rejected or
doubted the popular religion and polytheism, he was stig-
matized as an atheist. He fled from Athens in 411 B. C.,
or, as some say, was banished for impiety. He appears
to have been a witty and fearless man of good moral cha-
racter. His works are not extant. (See REUTHEN, “De
Atheismo Diagorae,” 1812.)
Di'al [from the Lat. dialis, belonging to the day; Lat.
solarium], an instrument which shows the hour of the day
by the shadow of a gnomon or style cast by the Sun on a
graduated arc; it is also called Sun-Dial. The invention
is of great antiquity, the Greeks having, it is said, learned
its use from the Chaldaeans. In the construction of a dial
the object is to find the sun’s distance from the meridian
by means of the shadow. When this is known, the hour
also is known, provided we suppose the sun’s apparent mo-
tion to be uniform, and that it moves in a circle parallel to
the equator during the whole day. In point of fact, neither
of these conditions is fulfilled, but the error arising from
this is of small amount. Although dials have many differ-
ent constructions, the general principles are the same. The
style, gnomon, or axis of the dial is either a cylindrical rod
or the edge of a thin plate of metal. It must be parallel to
the earth’s axis, and thus, it may be considered, on account
of the smallness of the earth’s diameter compared with the
distance of the sun, as coinciding with the axis of the diur-
mal rotation; consequently the plane which passes through
the centre of the sun, and the style will coincide with the
shadow, and will turn with the Sun, as the Sun turns round
the style, by the effect of the diurnal motion. Dials are
horizontal, vertical, or inclined, according to the position
of the plane of the dial with respect to the horizon of the
place. The essential principle of the dial is, that the rod
shall point to the pole of the heavens.
Dial, a township of Laurens co., S. C. Pop. 2529.
Di’al, The, a literary journal, the organ of the so-
called “New England Transcendentalists,” was founded in
1840 under the editorship of Margaret Fuller, assisted by
George Ripley and R. W. Emerson. After a time, Mr.
Emerson became its sole editor. It was published only
four years, but was noted for the unusual number of per-
sons of genius who contributed to it.
Di’alect [Gr. 8táAckros, from Štá, “apart,” implying
“difference,” and Aéyo, to “speak;” Lat. dialectus], a pro-
vincial form or manner of speaking or writing a language.
The four Greek dialects, Attic, Doric, Ionic, and Æolic,
were the four written varieties of the language, each hav-
ing a literature of its own. No cultivated modern tongue
resembles the Greek in this respect, as in all one dialect
has been adopted as the standard of literature and polite
society. In almost all languages there are still dialectic
variations, in so far as colloquial discourse is concerned.
English is a notorious example.
Dialectic [Gr. 8taAekrukň, from 8taXèyopat, “I con-
verse”] is a technical expression much used both in the
Greek and German philosophy, but of a somewhat vague
signification. In the Greek philosophy it may be best ex-
plained by considering it in its relation to logie. Logic
was the science of the forms of thinking, the science of
conclusion and evidence; it taught the manner by which
to arrive at truth. Dialectic treated of the truths arrived
at ; it was the science of expressing and setting forth ideas,
the science of definition. With an idealistic thinker like
Plato, with whom truth is an intuition and the idea an in-,
spiration, dialectic, the science of definition, the art of der
fining, means the highest function of science—science
itself. With a realistic thinker like Aristotle, with whom
truth is the result of induction and deduction, and the idea
an evidence, dialectic means only a part, and even an in-
ferior one, of logic. Hence the multitude of contradic-
tions which invests this word all around. In the German
philosophy it may be best explained by considering it in
its relation to the expression “dogmatical.” Dogmatical
is applied to a definition when it excludes absolutely the
opposite; “ dialectical,” when it combines the opposites as
correlatives. According to the dogmatical definition, every-
thing is either good or bad; and if it is good, it is not bad;
if it is bad, it is not good. According to the dialectical
definition, anything which is essentially good may have
some bad in it, and anything which is essentially bad may
have some good in it. According as the object passes under
different views, the different constituents of the idea shift
place and importance in the definition; relativity is the
character of the actual world, relativity must be the cha-
racter of the world of thought. Both in the Greek and
German philosophy the word dialectic is sometimes used
to signify a mere word-fenge. CLEMENS PETERSEN.
Di'alogue [Gr. 8táAoyos, from Šlá, “between,” or
DIALYSIS-DIAMAGNETISM.
1341
“among,” and A6)0s, a “ discourse”], originally a discourse
between two or more persons. In literature, a composition
in the form of a conversation between two or more indi-
viduals. The dialogue was the form most generally adopted
by the ancients for the conveyance of instruction, and was
considered applicable to the gravest and most philosophical
subjects. It was adopted by Plato, Cicero, and Lucian with
great success. The philosophical dialogue has also been
employed by several eminent modern writers, as Fénelon,
Fontenelle, Macchiavelli, Berkeley, Lessing, and Herder.
In the drama, dialogue is combined with action, and those
dramas which are not written for the stage differ from the
dialogue chiefly in having a plot and a dénouement, while
the dialogue is more strictly didactic.
Dial’ysis [Gr. 848vorts, a “separation;” from 8tá,
“apart,” and Aſo, to “loose "I, the separation of certain
substances by means of liquid diffusion. The dialyzer
is usually a hoop of wood, gutta-percha, or metal on a low
broad glass bell-jar, open above as well as below. A piece
of wet parchment paper is stretched over the hoop and
securely tied in place. The fluid to be dialyzed is poured
into the hoop to the depth of half an inch, and the whole
is floated on distilled water. Crystallizable bodies, as com-
mon salt, nitrate of potassa, etc., and bodies closely allied
to them, such as hydrochloric acid and alcohol, pass
rapidly through the membrane into the water; while bodies
which do” not crystallize, but are inclined to assume the
gelatinous form, such as silicic acid, hydrated alumina,
starch, gum, caramel, tannin, albumen, gelatine, and ex-
tractive matters, diffuse with extreme slowness. Such
bodies are called colloid, from kóAAm, “glue.” When a
mixture of sugar and gum was placed in the dialyzer,
three-quarters of the sugar passed through in twenty-four
hours, without a trace of the gum. On treating silicate of
soda (soluble glass), acidulated with hydrochloric acid, in
the same way, seven-eighths of the silicic acid was left in
the dialyzer at the end of five days, without a trace of
hydrochloric acid or chloride of sodium. Urine dialyzed
for twenty-four hours gave a liquid so free from mucous
and gelatinous matter that on evaporating to dryness and
extracting with alcohol a solution was obtained which
gave pure urea in crystalline tufts.
The purification of soluble colloids is best effected by
dialysis; they are thus completely freed from crystalloids.
. A solution of pure hydrated alumina is obtained by dialyz-
ing its solution in the chloride or acetate. In a similar
manner may be obtained, in solution, hydrated sesquioxide
of iron and of chromium ; Prussian blue from its solution
in oxalatic acid; an aqueous solution of silicic acid from
silicate of soda and hydrochloric acid; pure albumen from
albumen and acetic acid; pure gummic acid from gum-
arabic (gummate of calcium) and hydrochloric acid. Mr.
Whitelaw was granted a patent for the application of
dialysis to brine from salted and corned meats. The salt
and nitre pass rapidly through the parchment paper, while
the nutritious extractive matters dissolved out of the meats
are retained, and may be used for soup. (For the applica-
tion of dialysis to the purification of beet-molasses, see
ENDOSMOSE.)
Dialysis is specially useful in examining animal fluids
for poisons where the presence of the colloids interferes
with the ordinary tests. Arsenious acid may be readily
separated in twenty-four hours from the contents of a
stomach in sufficient purity to be immediately recognized
by the usual tests. Tartar emetic, morphine, Strychnine,
and, in fact, almost all soluble poisons, may be thus
separated. -
Decompositions are also effected by dialysis. Bisulphate
of potassa is partially separated into neutral sulphate and
hydrated sulphuric acid; alum is partially separated into
sulphate of alumina and sulphate of potassa ; sulphate of
potassa, and lime-water yield considerable hydrate of po-
tassa and sulphate of lime. Separations and decomposi-
tions of this kind undoubtedly occur in plants and animals,
and in the soil; and dialysis is probably one of the most
common processes in nature. (See WATTs’s “Dictionary
of Chemistry,” under “Liquids, Tiffusion of;” also the
original papers of PROF. GRAHAM, who minutely investi-
gated this subject, in the “Philosophical Transactions”
for 1850 and 1862, and in the “Journal Chem. Soc.,” iii. 60,
257; iv. 83; xv. 216.) C. F. CHANDLER.
Diamagnetic. See DIAMAGNETISM, by PROF. ALFRED
M. MAYER, PH.D.
Diamagnetic Polarity. It is well known (see ELEC-
TR0-MAGNETISM) that if a bar of iron be placed in a helix
or spool of copper wire, through which circulates a current
of electricity, the bar will be magnetized; and if we look
at the end of the bar round which the current passes in the
same direction as the motion of the hands of a watch, this
end will be a south magnetic pole. When a bar of bismuth
replaces the bar of iron, we find that the end above spoken
of is a north magnetic pole in the bismuth ; that is, bis-
muth has its poles the reverse of iron when it is placed in
the same conditions of magnetization. Weber held to the
opinion of the reversed polarity of bismuth, but Faraday
denied any such condition. Tyndall settled the question
by a series of experiments of great delicacy made with an
apparatus designed for that purpose by Weber, and proved
conclusively the existence of reversed polarity, not only in
bismuth, but also in other diamagnetic solids and liquids.
(By the author of the following article.)
Diamag/netism [for etymology see below]. The line
joining the two opposite poles of a horseshoe magnet is
called the aacial line, while a line bisecting at right angles
this axial line is called the equatorial line of the magnet.
The space included between the opposite polar surfaces of
the magnet is called the magnetic field.
When small bars of iron, nickel, cobalt, manganese, etc.
are suspended between the poles of a magnet, they place
their lengths in the axial line. Substances taking the above
position are called magnetic substances, or, as Faraday
termed them, paramagnetic substances. The majority of
bodies, however (e. g. bismuth, antimony, phosphorus,
heavy glass, wood, water, blood, bread, hydrogen, and am-
monia), when delicately suspended in the magnetic field,
place their lengths equatorially, and to distinguish them
from magnetic substances they were called diamagnetic
(Stá, “across,” and uffyvns, the “magnet”) by Faraday, who
in Dec., 1845, gave the discovery of diamagnetism to the
world in a paper read before the Royal Society of London.
The difference in the behavior of magnetic and diamag-
netic substances in the magnetic field was thus concisely
stated by Faraday : Magnetic substances tend to go from
weaker to stronger places of magnetic action, while diamag-
netic bodies tend to go from stronger to weaker places in
the magnetic field.
Faraday found that not only solids, but also liquids and
gases, possessed magnetic and diamagnetic properties. . In
experimenting with these bodies he enclosed them in glass
tubes, whose magnetic behavior was determined before they
were filled with the liquids or gases to be examined, and the
previously determined action of the magnet on the empty
tube was deducted from the resultant magnetic effect on both
the tube and its contained liquid or gas. Or two tubes of
exagtly the same size and material were hung opposite each
other from the ends of a short piece of light wood, which
was then placed across the end of a longer wooden rod, and
the latter was suspended by silk fibres or by a fine silver
wire. The two tubes hung on opposite sides of the axial
line of the magnet, and with their centres equidistant from
it. By this ingenious arrangement it is evident that the ac-
tions exerted by the magnet on the glass tubes neutralized
each other, and whatever motion he observed was due to the
difference in the action of the magnet on the two substances
they contained. By filling one of the tubes with water or
air, and the other successively with different liquids and
gases, he determined the specific magnetism of these sub-
stances relatively to water or air taken as unity. Further
experiments on the action of the magnetic field on water
and air enclosed in a vacuum gave the data for reducing
all of his measures to what he would have found had all the
substances been suspended in vacuo between the poles of
the magnet. Plücker in Germany and E. Becquerel in
France also made very refined measures of these actions.
In the following table are contained the results of Fara-
day’s measures of the actions of attraction or repulsion of
magnetism on various substances, determined by means of a
delicate torsion balance. In the comparisons equal volumes
of the substance were used, and the action on Water taken
as the unity of intensity. The sign + indicates that the
substance is magnetic, while — shows that it is diamagnetic:
Table of Specific Magnetism.

Substances. PowcrS. Substances. Powers.
Iron........................ + 2,500,000 ||Absolute alcohol...... — 0.815
Protochloride Of Essence of citron....] — 0.828
iron (saturated so- Camph9r................. — 0.855
lution).................. + 62. Camphine............... — 0.859
Protoammoniuret, of Linseed oil.............. — 0.886
COppel'...... . . . . . . . . . . . + 1.390 Olive oil.................. — 0.886
Perammoniuret of Wax........ .............. — 0.887
COpper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + 1.240 Nitric acid..............] –0.911
Oxygen................... + 0.181 Liquid ammonia. ..... — 1.010
ir......................... | 0.035 Bisulphide of carbon — 1.031
Olefiant gas............. + 0.006 Nitrate of potassa.
Nitrogen................. + 0.003 (saturated Solu-
Carbonic acid ........ 0.000 tion).........…......"... — 1.036
Hydrogen............... — 0.001 Sulphuric acid......... — 1.08.1
Ammonia (gas)....... — 0.005 Sulphur.............. :... — 1.221
Cyanogen............... — 0.009 Chloride of arsenic. — 1.260
Glass............ — 0.188 Borate of lead.......... — 1.413
Zinc........................ — 0.772 Bismuth................. — 20.369
Ether...................... — 0.797 &
1342
DIAMAGNETISM.
The general law of these actions was discovered by Far-
aday, and Becquerel has formally stated them as follows:
If we place in the neighborhood of a magnetic pole a fixed
vessel filled with a fluid, the latter will experience no mo-
tion. Imagine any portion of the interior of the fluid mass
isolated; it is solicited, according as it is magnetic or dia-
magnetic, by a force f, positive or negative; and as it is not
displaced, the medium which surrounds it must necessarily
exert on it an equal and contrary pressure equal to —f;
this is to say, that the principle of Archimedes applies as
well to these forces as to gravity. Replace now the mass
of the fluid we supposed isolated from the same fluid sur-
rounding it by another which is bounded by the same sur-
face as the former, but of a different magnetic nature; it
will receive from the magnet a different action fi, positive
or negative, and from the surrounding fluid the same action
as above, f; the resultant action on the new substance will
be fl-f. Consequently, the action which the pole of a
magnet exerts on any body whatever, plunged in a fluid
medium, is equal to the difference of the actions which it
exerts separately on this body and on the fluid in which it
is suspended.
From these considerations the following consequences
result: When the medium is magnetic, f is positive, and
f*—f is negative; consequently, any body whatsoever tends
to become diamagnetic in a magnetic fluid or medium.
Conversely, in a diamagnetic medium f is negative, and
—f is positive; and the substance may act as though it
were magnetic, even when it really is not when tested in a
vacuum, and will become more diamagnetic when it really
is diamagnetic when suspended in a vacuum between the
poles of the magnet.
Faraday beautifully illustrated the above principle by
the following ingenious experiments: He filled glass tubes
with solutions of sulphate of iron (a magnetic substance)
of different degrees of strength, and suspended them be-
tween the poles of his magnet in similar solutions, also of
different degrees of strength. When the solution in the
tube was stronger, or contained more iron, than that in the
solution in which it was suspended, it pointed aacially;
when it was weaker, or contained less iron, than that in the
surrounding liquid, it pointed equatorially; and when the
solution in the tube and outside of the tube were of the
'same degree of strength, the tube was indifferent.
In Sept., 1847, Bancalari of Italy discovered that when
the flame of a candle was placed between the poles of an elec-
tro-magnet, it was deflected into the equatorial line the
moment the iron of the magnet was magnetized, and the
flame returned to its first position when the magnet was
demagnetized. Faraday repeated these experiments with
the powerful magnet of the Royal Institution, and greatly
extended these observations by his discovery of the mag-
netic character of oxygen, olefiant gas, and nitrogen, when
these gases were contained in tubes and placed in a vacuum
in the magnetic field; and observed that hydrogen, cyan-
ogen, and ammonia were diamagnetic when placed in sim-
ilar conditions. Faraday made many important experi-
ments on the effects of the change of temperature and pres-
sure in modifying the magnetic conditions of gases, and found
that the action in the magnetic field on these bodies dimin-
ished with an elevation of their temperature and a dimi-
nution of their density. Thus, hot air is shown to be dia-
magnetic when allowed to ascend through cold air between
the poles of the magnet. This and other similar facts he
showed by causing the currents of gas in their progress
towards the magnetic field to pass over pieces of paper
saturated with chlorhydric acid, while between, around,
and above the poles were placed little tubes moistened
with ammonia. When the gases entered one of these tubes
the fact was known by the formation in it of white fumes
of chloride of ammonium. He thus found that the heated
air on reaching the magnetic field was repelled from the
poles, while a descending current of cold air was attracted
towards the poles.
The writer of this article has recently devised a superior
method of observing these phenomena, by passing through
the gases, as they ascend or descend or pass between the
poles, a strong diverging beam from an electric or calcium
light. The difference in refracting power of the hot or cold
gas currents and the surrounding air causes shadows of the
currents to be projected on a screen placed on the side of
the magnet opposite the light; and thus can be seen at once
all the parts of the phenomena; and he has thus been able to
draw and even to photograph them. In these experiments
the writer used the powerful electro-magnet of the Stevens
Institute of Technology. With this magnet the experi-
ments of Bancalari are very remarkable. On bringing the
flame of a candle slowly upward between the poles of the
magnet, the top of the flame is first depressed and spread
out equatorially in the magnetic field; as we elevate the
flame it spreads out yet more, and often takes the form of
an oval-shaped vase flattened equatorially, with an interior
depression extending down nearly to the base of the wick.
A larger flame becomes compressed into a flattened ellipti-
cal dish, with two curved arms or handles projećted up-
ward. r
After Faraday had discovered the magnetic properties of
oxygen, he experimentally determined that one cubic metre
of this gas equalled in magnetic effect fifty-four centi-
grammes of iron, and hence that the whole atmosphere
acted as would a layer of iron which enveloped the earth
and had a thickness of one-tenth of a millimetre. Parts
of this gaseous magnetic shell are successively heated—and
therefore weakened in magnetic intensity—by the sun in
his apparent daily and yearly changes of position; and
hence Faraday reasoned that here was certainly a true, and
probably a sufficient, cause of the diurnal variation of the
needle. (Phil. Thrams. R. S., Nov., 1850.)
Faraday, in the course of his experiments on bars of
bismuth, met with the following anomalous actions. He
found that some cast bars of bismuth pointed axially,
others equatorially, while yet other bars took intermediate
positions of rest. These extraordinary phenomena, both
he and Plücker of Germany endeavored to explain, and
they both observed that there was some relation between
the positions of crystals in the magnetic field and their
crystalline forms. The phenomena received their full ex-
planation at the hands of Tyndall, whose subtile examina-
tion and lucid explanation of these phenomena—though
not popularly known—we think form his greatest claim to
illustrious distinction as a man of science.
We can best make clear Tyndall’s discoveries by quoting
from his paper “On Diamagnetism and Magne-crystallic
Action” (L., E., and D. Phil. Mag., July, 1850) the follow-
ing experiments, and then give in his own words the law
which embraces their characteristic phenomena: “If we
take a slice of apple about the same size as a penny, but
somewhat thicker, and pierce it through with short bits of
iron wire in a direction perpendicular to its flat surface,
such a disk, suspended in the magnetic field, will, on the
evolution of the magnetic force, recede from the poles and
set its horizontal diameter strongly equatorial; not by re-
pulsion, but by the attraction of the iron wires passing
through it. If, instead of iron, we use bismuth wire, the
disk, on exciting the magnet, will turn into the axial posi-
tion; not by attraction, but by the repulsion of the bismuth
wires passing through it.
“If we suppose the slice of apple to be replaced by a
little cake made of a mixture of flour and iron filings, the
bits of wire running through this will assert their pre-
dominance as before; for, though the whole is strongly
magnetic, the superior energy of action along the wire will
determine the position of the mass. If the bismuth wire,
instead of piercing the apple, pierce a little cake made of
flour and bismuth filings, the cake will stand between the
poles as the apple stood; for though the whole is diamag-
netic, the stronger action along the wire will be the ruling
energy as regards position.
“Is it not possible to conceive an arrangement among
the particles of a magnetic or diamagnetic crystal capable
of producing a visible result similar to that here described 2
If, in a magnetic or diamagnetic mass, two directions exist,
in one of which the contact of the particles is closer than in
the other, may we not fairly conclude that the strongest
exhibition of force will be in the former line, which there-
fore will signalize itself between the poles in a manner
similar to the bismuth or iron wire 7 . . .
“If analogic proof be of any value, we have it here of
the very strongest description. For example: bismuth is
a brittle metal, and can readily be reduced to a fine powder
in a mortar. Let a teaspoonful of the powdered metal be
wetted with gum-water, kneaded into a paste, and made
into a little roll, say an inch long and a quarter of an inch
across. Hung between the excited poles, it will set itself
like a little bar of bismuth—equatorial. Place the roll, pro-
tected by bits of pasteboard, within the jaws of a vice,
squeeze it flat, and suspend the plate thus formed between
the poles. On exciting the magnet the plate will turn, with
the energy of a magnetic substance, into the axial position,
though its length may be ten times its breadth.
“Pound a piece of carbonate of iron into fine powder,
and form it into a roll in the manner described. Hung be-
tween the excited poles, it will stand as an ordinary mag:
netic substance—axial. Squeeze it in the vice and suspend
it edgeways, its position will be immediately reversed. On
the development of the magnetic force the plate thus formed
will recoil from the poles as if violently repelled, and take
up the equatorial position.
“We have here * approach” and “recession,’ but the cause
is evident. The line of closest contact is perpendicular in
each case to the surface of the plate—a consequence of the
pressure which the particles have undergone in this direc-
DIAMANTINA-DIAMOND SPRING.
1343
tion; and this perpendicular stands axial or equatorial
according as the plate is magnetic or diamagnetic.”
Prof. Tyndall thus sums up the law which rules all of
these actions: “If the arrangement of the component par-
ticles of any body be such as to present different degrees
of proximity in different directions, then the line of closest
proximity, other circumstances being equal, will be that
chosen by the respective forces for the exhibition of their
greatest energy. If the mass be magnetic, this line will
stand axial; if diamagnetic, equatorial.”
The above law explains clearly the anomalous actions
Faraday observed in his bars of bismuth. Bismuth is a
crystallized body, and the lines of greatest proximity of its
particles are in the direction of its cleavage planes. There-
fore, this line of greatest condensation will always place
itself equatorially in the magnetic field. In other words,
the planes of cleavage will take an equatorial direction.
But in casting bars of bismuth, these planes may, on the
solidification of the bismuth, take various positions in ref-
erence to the length of the bars; hence the anomalous ac-
tions which are sometimes observed in these bars.
When the crystal cleaves equally easy in two planes, the
lines of greatest compression will be parallel to both of
these planes, and therefore the intersections of these planes
will determine the position the crystal takes in the magnetic
field. This is confirmed by experiment.
If there are three cleavage planes, perpendicular to each
other, as in rock-salt, or if there are none, as in quartz,
there will be no line of elective polarity, and the body will
act as though it were not crystallized.
Finally, when three planes of cleavage are not perpen-
dicular, there is generally one direction of greatest com-
pression, which is found—for example, in calc-spar—par-
allel to the axis of crystallization; this line will place itself
axially if the crystal is magnetic, and equatorially if it is
diamagnetic. This deduction is confirmed by experiment.
ALFRED M. MAYER.
Diamanti'na (formerly Tejuco), a city of Brazil, in
the province of Minas Geraes, is the chief town in a diamond
and gold mining district, and is situated in a valley be-
tween high mountains, 220 miles N. N. E. of Ouro Preto.
It is 5700 feet above the level of the sea. It is the seat of
a bishop, and is a handsome and wealthy place. Diaman-
tina, became a city in 1831. Pop. about 12,000.
Diam’eter [from the Gr. Štá, “through,” and perpov, a
“ measure;” Fr. diamétrel, a right line drawn through the
centre of a circle, and terminated on both sides by the cir-
cumference. Diameter in architecture is the measure across
the lower part of the shaft of a column, which is usually
divided into sixty minutes, and forms a scale for the meas-
urement of all the parts. In astronomy the apparent diam-
eter of a celestial body is the angle which the latter sub-
tends at the eye, and is measured by the micrometer. The
distance of the body in question from the earth, when mul-
tiplied by the sine of this angle, gives the real diameter of
the body. In elementary geometry, diameter is any right
line through the centre of a figure. In conics a diameter
always bisects a system of parallel chords. Newton showed
that the centres of mean distances upon a system of parallel
lines, of the n intersections of each with a curve of any
order, always lie on a right line, which may be called a
diameter. A diameter of any curve is simply the polar
line with respect to the curve of an infinitely distant point.
The rth diameter is the rth polar of an infinitely distant
point, and consequently a curve of the (n—r)* order. The
(n—2)* diameter is called the diametral conic, the (n—3)th
the diametral cubic, etc. The same extension is applicable
to surfaces. When the primitive surface is of the second
order, there is but one diametral surface, and that is the
diametral plane which bisects a system of parallel chords.
Three diametral planes so situated with respect to each
other that each bisects all chords parallel to the intersec-
tion of the other two, constitute a system of conjugate
diametral planes, and intersect each other in conjugate
diameters.
Di’amond [Fr. diamant; Ger. Diamant or Demant, a
corruption of ADAMANT (which see)], the most valuable
of precious stones and the hardest of known substances,
consists of pure carbon. The primary fºrm of the diamond
is a regular octahedron, but it often oëcurs in cubes and
rhomboidal dodecahedrons, and sometimes in twin crystals;
the faces are frequently convex. The finest diamonds are
transparent and colorless, but those which are of decided
tints of pink, green, or blue are prized, while those which
are slightly colored are held in least estimation. They are
found in alluvial deposits, from which they are extracted
by washing. The most celebrated mines are those of India.
In 1728 diamonds were found in Brazil, and since that
time the mines of Minas Geraes have produced most of the
diamonds of commerce until quite recently. At present
there is a considerable importation from Southern Africa,
where they were first discovered in 1870. They have also
been brought from Siberia, Borneo, and other countries.
The largest known diamond is probably that mentioned by
Tavernier as belonging to the Great Mogul. It was found
in Golconda in 1550, and it is said to have weighed in its
original state 900 carats. Among the crown-jewels of Rus-
sia is a diamond weighing 194 carats; it is of the size of a
pigeon’s egg, and was stolen from a Brahmanical idol by a
Erench soldier. It was ultimately bought by Catharine of
Russia for about $450,000 and an annuity of $20,000. One
of the most perfect diamonds was brought from India by
a gentleman named Pitt, who sold it to the regent-duke
of Orleans for about $625,000. The celebrated Koh-i-noor
(the “mountain of light °) became the property of Queen
Victoria, on the annexation of the Punjāb by the East India.
Company in 1850. It is mentioned by Tavernier in 1665
as the property of the Mogul emperor, and, together with
the Düriya-i-moor (“sea of light”), formed part of the
plunder seized by Nadir Shah at the taking of Delhi in
1739. It weighed originally 1864's carats, but it has been
recut and reduced to 103; carats, and it is greatly improved
in appearance. The diamond was first proved to be com-
bustible in 1694 by the Florentine academicians, who found
that when exposed to the heat of the sun in the focus of a
large lens it burnt away with a blue lambent flame. The
products of its combustion were first examined by Lavoisier
in 1772, who showed that when burnt in air or oxygen it
produced carbonic acid. Subsequent experiments have de-
monstrated that nothing but carbonic acid is thus formed.
Diamonds of inferior quality have extensive employment
in the diamond-drill (see BLASTING, by GEN. J. G. FostER),
and in machines for sawing stone, dressing mill-stones, etc.
(See also GEMs, by PROF. H. B. CoRNWALL, E. M.) At-
tempts have been made to produce true diamonds by the
crystallization of carbon, but thus far without success.
REVISED BY C. W. GREENE.
Diamond, in printing, a very small type, less than
pearl, and next larger than brilliant.
Diamond Beetle (Curculio), a coleopterous insect
belonging to the weevil tribe, remarkable for the splendor
of its colors. It is golden-green, with two black bands on
the thorax; on the wing-covers are rows of depressed spots
of a sparkling green color, with intervals of black.
Diamond Bluff, a post-township of Pierce co., Wis.
Pop. 475.
Diamond City, a post-village, capital of Meagher
co., Mon., about 32 miles E. by N. from Helena. Gold is
found in the vicinity.
Diamond Creek, a township of Chase co., Kan. P. 469.
Diamond Harbor, in British India, the port of Cal-
cutta for large ships, is in the river Hoogly, 34 miles below
that city, with which it is connected by an excellent road.
The adjacent country is so swampy and unhealthy that few
Europeans reside here.
Diamond Hill, a township of Abbeville co., S. C.
Pop. 1760.
Diamond Necklace, a celebrated necklace contain-
ing 500 diamonds, and valued at 1,800,000 livres (about
$400,000), made in 1773–75 by order of Louis XV. for
Madame du Barry, his mistress; but before it was finished
the king died, and Du Barry was excluded from court. In
the years 1783–84 the prince-cardinal de Rohan was per-
suaded by the so-called countess Jeanne de Lamotte-Wa-
lois, an unscrupulous adventurer, that the queen Marie
Antoinette regarded him with interest, which would be in-
creased if he would assist her in buying the diamond neck-
lace by becoming her surety for the payment of its price to
the makers of the ornament, M.M. Boehmer and Bassanges.
The next steps in the affair are involved in some mystery.
The count Cagliostro was probably one of the participants
in the plot. The queen was believed (unjustly, as it is
thought) to have been also involved in it. Certain it is that
the cardinal agreed to stand Surety for the payment—that
the necklace was delivered to him, was stolen from him, was
broken up, and sold in pieces. The jewellers, not having
received their pay, went to court and made complaint.
Cagliostro, the cardinal, and others were thrown into the
Bastile. The trial in 1785–86 proved the guilt, of no one
but the countess Lamotte, who, with her husband, was
branded on each shoulder and sentenced to a life imprison-
ment, from which she shortly afterwards escaped to Lon-
don, where she died Aug. 23, 1791, having fallen from a
window as she was trying to hide from her creditors. There
is little doubt that the pretended signatures of the queen.
upon the papers and agreements made respecting this affair
were clever forgeries.
Diamond Spring, a post-township of El Dorado co.,
Cal. Pop. 1055.
*
1344
DIAN A–DIASTASE,
Dian'a, an ancient Italian divinity worshipped by the
Romans as the goddess of light. She was identified by the
later Romans with the Artemis of the Greeks, who was
often called Delia, from her native.island, Delos. She was
supposed to be the daughter of Jupiter and Latona, and
the sister of Apollo, with whom she shared his attributes
of destruction and healing. She was represented as a
virgin armed with bow and arrows, and was regarded as
the patroness of chastity. As the goddess of the moon she
was often called Selene and Phoebe.
Diana, a post-township of Lewis co., N. Y. It has
iron mines and furnaces and many rare minerals. Joseph
Bonaparte once had a summer residence here. The town-
ship contains several manufacturing villages and four
churches. Pop. 1778.
Diana, Temple of, at Ephesus, one of the Seven
Wonders of the World, built at the common charge of all
the Asiatic states. The chief architect was Chersiphron;
and Pliny says that 220 years were employed in completing
this temple, whose riches were immense. It was 425 feet
long, 225 broad, and was supported by 127 columns of
Parian marble (60 feet high, each weighing 150 tons), fur-
nished by so many kings. It was set on fire on the night
of Alexander's nativity by an obscure individual named
Erostratus, who confessed on the rack that the sole motive
which had prompted him to destroy so magnificent an
edifice was the desire of transmitting his name to future
ages (356 B.C.). The temple was rebuilt, and again burned
by the Goths in their naval invasion (A. D. 256).
Diane de Poitiers, a beautiful French lady, born
Sept. 3, 1499, was married at the age of thirteen to Louis
de Brézé. After his death (1531) she became a favorite of
the king's son, who in 1547 ascended the throne as Henry
II., and created her duchess of Valentinois in 1548. She
had great influence over the king, who permitted her to ex-
ercise royal power and control his foreign policy. She
maintained her ascendency until the death of Henry in
1559. Died April 22, 1566.
Dianthus. See PINK.
Diapa’son [Gr. 8tá, “through,” and traorèv (genitive
plural feminine of träs, “all”)], in music, a term by which
the ancient Greeks designated the octave. In modern
music, diapason is used to denote the range or compass of
the voice or of an instrument. The French use the term
as equivalent to pitch, and apply it also to the steel instru-
ment commonly called “tuning-fork” in English, which is
employed to give a certain pitch. Diapason is also the
name given by organ-builders to certain stops of pipes in
the organ of eight feet pitch. (See ORGAN.)
Di’aper [Fr. diapre, a corruption of d’Ypres, a town of
Flanders, where it was first manufactured], a linen fabric
woven in flowers or regular patterns, chiefly used for map-
kins, table-cloths, etc. Diaper is also made in Scotland,
Ireland, and Germany.
HDiaph'amous [Gr. 8tadavis, “transparent,” from Stá,
“through,” and baivas, “to shine”], a term nearly synon-
ymous with translucent, is applied to bodies which like por-
celain, permit light to pass through their substance. The
term transparent is applied when the distinct forms of ob-
jects can be seen through the body.
HDiaphore's is [Gr. 8tabópmorts, from Stá, “through,” and
$épo, to “carry ‘’J, the excretion of sweat from the skin
without perceptible moisture; insensible perspiration. Med-
icines promoting this excretion are called “ diaphoretics,”
while those producing perceptible wetness of the skin are
called “sudorifics.” Of late, however, the terms “ diapho-
retic ’’ and “ diaphoresis” are frequently applied to both the
sensible and insensible perspiration. -
Diaphragm [Gr. Öpiv or 8táðpayga, from Stá, “ apart,”
and Öpáyvvut (ppáoraro), to “fence,” to “enclose ’’], or
Mid/riff [from the Ang.-Sax. mid, “middle,” and hrif,
the “abdomen”], a thin musculo-aponeurotic septum which
in mammals separates the abdominal cavity from the thorax.
Its centre in man is occupied by the cordiform tendon or
trifolium (trefoil), so called from its shape, which roughly
resembles a clover-leaf (Lat. trifolium). The diaphragm
is attached to the vertebral column by two muscular but-
tresses or pillars called, in the plural, erura. These crura
bear the names “right” and “left crus” (Lat. crus, crwris,
a “leg,” so called from their shape and position). The dia-
phragm is traversed by the phrenic (internal respiratory)
nerves, and is, like the other respiratory muscles, partly in-
voluntary. In forcible inspiration it is drawn down like
the piston of an air-pump. It is one of the principal agents
in the various expulsive acts, and also in sneezing, coughing,
and laughing. Hiccough (Lat. Singultus) is a clonic spasm
of the diaphragm.
The term diaphragm is frequently applied by mechanics
and others to a thin layer of leather, metal, or other mate-
rial stretched across a cavity, after the manner of the above
muscle.
Diarbekir’ [Turkish, Kara-Amid], a town of Asiatic
Turkey, capital of a pashalic of its own name, is situated
on the right bank of the Tigris, near its source, and about
200 miles N. E. of Aleppo; lat. 37° 55' N., lon. 39° 52' E.
It is enclosed by a high, strong stone wall flanked with
towers. It is the seat of a Nestorian and a Jacobite
patriarch, and of a Catholic and an Armenian bishop. It
has numerous handsome mosques, bazaars, and khans. It
was formerly a more populous city, and had extensive
manufactures of silk and cotton, but these have declined.
The manufacture of silk is still carried on here. Pop.
45,000.
Diarrhoe'a [Gr. 8váññowa, from 8tá, “through,” and fiéo,
to “flow ’’), a disease characterized by frequent soft alvine
discharges; acute or chronic intestinal catarrh. Many
writers have drawn nice distinctions between the various
assumed varieties of this disease, which indeed is very
frequently a symptom rather than a distinct disease; but
nearly every case is in reality due to inflammation or irri-
tation of some part of the intestinal canal. Diarrhoea as
a symptom of cholera, dysentery, typhoid fever, pulmonary
consumption, and some forms of peritonitis, is treated of
under these respective heads. When resulting from local
or general disease of the alimentary canal, its symptoms
and treatment vary greatly according to the age of the
patient. In infants both its acute and chronic forms are
very frequent and fatal. These cases often depend on im-
proper food and clothing—less frequently upon disturbances
caused by dentition than is generally supposed. These cases
require, first, a careful attention to hygienic conditions.
Flannels should be worn next to the skin. If a milk diet
should disagree, as it often does, finely-cut raw beef or
strong broth may be given to the child. Medication should
generally be cautious, but active. Many children suffer or
die from over-medication, and still more probably from
lack of active treatment. If scybalous masses of faecal
matter exist in the bowels, they should be cleared out by
cathartics, such as rhubarb, etc., with aromatics, or castor
oil. The proper use of astringents, tonics, and opiates in
infantile diarrhoea is a matter requiring much discrimina-
tion. Chronic diarrhoea, in the adult is an obstinate and
rather common disease. A certain proportion of the cases
are improved by iron, quinia, salicine, and other tonics.
Change of climate, visits to mild saline chalybeate springs,
sea-bathing, etc. are useful in many instances. Balsam of
copaiba relieves some patients with surprising readiness.
Astringent remedies and opiates have much value as pal-
liative, and sometimes as curative, agents. In the simple
acute diarrhoea of temperate climates, adults previously
well are in general promptly cured by these agents, ju-
diciously administered. -
- REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Diſastase [Gr, 8.4araorts, “division,” “separation,” from
8tá, “apart,” and iaTmut, to “stand”], a name given to the
constituent of malt (germinated barley) which changes
starch to dextrine and glucose (grape-sugar). Diastase
may be extracted from ground malt by treating it with
tepid water (80° F.), heating the solution to 160°F. to co-
agulate the albumen, filtering, and precipitating the dias- .
tase by absolute alcohol. It is purified by redissolving in
water and reprecipitating by alcohol. Malt does not yield
more than 0.002 to 0.003 per cent. of diastase. Thus ob-
tained, diastase is a white amorphous substance, soluble in
water and in dilute alcohol. It has not been obtained suf-
ficiently pure for analysis. It is supposed to be a nitrogen-
ous body. Mulder believes it to be a group of bodies, not
a single, well-defined compound. . Its most characteristic
property is its action upon starch. At a temperature of
158° F. it rapidly changes this substance to a mixture of
dextrine and glucose. Payen and Persoz say 1 part of
diastase will change 2000 parts of starch. It was at first
supposed that the starch was first changed to dextrine, and
the dextrine then changed to glucose. Musculus claimed
to have proved that the two products resulted simulta-
neously from the starch, in the ratio of 1 equivalent of
glucose to 2 of dextrine, and that diastase would not
change dextrine to glucose. Payen proved that diastase
does change dextrine to sugar, but that the process is in-
terrupted by the presence of a certain percentage of glu-
cose, to be resumed when this glucose has been destroyed
by fermentation. Schultz and Märker confirm to a certain
extent the observations of Musculus; they claim to have
proved the simultaneous formation of both products, and
propose the following expression for the reaction:
Starch. Water. Dextrine. Glucose.
2C6H1005 + H2O = C6H1005 + C6H12O6.
Before Payen and Persoz discovered diastase, Saussure
obtained a substance from malt which changed starch to
DIATHESIS-DICAST.
1345
dextrine and glucose, for which he proposed the name mu-
cin. This name having been previously applied to a sub-
stance obtained from animal mucus, Ritthausen changed it
to mucidin. Mucidin is probably identical with diastase.
Dubrunfaut has obtained a body from malt which he calls
maltin. It is precipitated from malt extract by tannin. He
describes it as “a diastase of a true platonic character.”
The action of diastase on starch is prevented by nitric,
sulphuric, hydrochloric, phosphoric, oxalic, tartaric, or
citric acids; also by caustic potassa, soda, or lime, sulphate
or acetate of copper, corrosive sublimate, nitrate of silver,
alum, copperas, and borax. It is retarded by formic acid,
arsenious acid, magnesia, ammonia, and alkaline carbon-
ates; slightly by acetic acid, hydrocyanic acid, strychnine,
quinine, morphine, and their salts. Essential oils, creosote,
alcohol, and ether do not interfere with its action. Starch
is also changed to dextrine and glucose by dilute acids,
putrid flesh, yeast, gastric juice, by animal membranes,
and in fact by all albuminoids in a certain stage of de-
composition. (See STARCH, DEXTRINE, GLUCOSE, FERMEN-
TATION.) -
It is probable therefore that diastase is not a definite
compound, but a certain condition of albuminous matter.
Diastase plays a very important part in the germination of
seeds and the sprouting of buds in tubers and stems con-
taining starch. It serves to render the starch and albumen
soluble, and thus facilitates their circulation and assimila-
tion. (See GERMINATION.) In the manufacture of beer
and spirits the diastase changes the starch into dextrine
and glucose, and thus makes fermentation possible. (See
BEER, ALCOHOL, WHISKY.) (The investigations with regard
to the nature and action of diastase are recorded in LIEBIG
and Kopp’s “Jahresbericht,” and WAGNER's “Jahres-
bericht.”) C. F. CHANDLER.
Diath'esis [Gr. 8tá0sorts, from 8tá, “apart,” and riðmut,
to “place;” Lat. dispositioj, in medicine, a predisposition;
a constitution of body tending towards some particular dis-
ease. Writers mention the strumous, cancerous, scorbutic,
rheumatic, gouty, haemorrhagic, and other diatheses. These
tendencies exercise a most powerful influence upon life and
health, and, their detection and treatment are matters of
great practical importance. -
Diatoma/ceae [named from Diatoma, one of the gen-
era], an order of microscopic plants which are usually
referred to the class Algae. Owing chiefly to the curious
movements which the Diatomaceae exhibit, they have been
by some few naturalists considered as animals, and by others
as belonging to a class of organisms intermediate between
the animal and vegetable kingdoms; but movements like
those of the Diatomaceae are by no means absent from the
higher vegetable world, and are especially frequent among
the Protophytes; while it is certain that the organisms we
are considering are closely akin to the Desmidiaceae, which
are confessedly of vegetable nature. They also contain
endochrome (chlorophyll), which, however, is, during life,
of a brown color, owing to the presence of iron.
Each diatom consists essentially of a single cell, and the
wall of each cell is a layer (frustule) of silex, interpene-
trated: by organic matter chemically identical with the
cellulose of higher plants. Each frustule is curiously
marked with lines or dots, often of the most beautiful
characters when seen under a powerful microscope. The
interior contains endochrome and often oil-globules. Many
diatoms have a protoplasmic layer outside the frustule, and
it is upon contractions of this layer that the motions above
alluded to are supposed to depend. Many of the most in-
teresting diatoms are strung together in filaments; others
are agglutinated in masses. Their reproduction is not well
understood, but it is certain that they increase by the conju-
gation of cells, and also by fission. -
The Diatomaceae are found fossil in vast deposits. Berg-
mehl, tripoli, flint, and rotten-stone consist principally of
these fossils. Bog-iron ore consists chiefly of these plants,
which in some of the species incorporate large propor-
tions of iron into their frustules. Diatoms ºre found in
guano and in fresh and salt water, in some cases attached
by stalks to fixed objects, and in other cases floating in the
water in such numbers as to color it with their character-
istic brown tint. They are eaten by the minute animals
which form so large a part of the food of the whale. They
abound especially in polar regions, some species ranging
from Spitzbergen in the N. to Mount Erebus in the farthest
S. A stratum eighteen feet thick of their fossil frustules
underlies, the city of Richmond, Va. On the Columbia
River there is a mass of these fossils 500 feet thick. Liv-
ing specimens are extensively found in soils and in the
mud of many salt-water inlets and harbors. The ice in
both polar regions is often colored with them; they also
occur alive in springs whose water is near the boiling-point.
(See CARPENTER on “The Microscope,” and the articles
of Prof. BAILEY and others upon this subject in the “Ameri-
can Naturalist,” vol. i. et seq.) CHAs. W. GREENE.
Diaton/ic Scale of Col’ors, the spaces occupied by
the seven primary colors in the solar spectrum, and sup-
posed by Newton to be exactly proportional to the length
of strings that sound the seven notes in the diatonic scale
of music. It is now known, however, that this theory is
not well founded, although there is an analogy between the
pitch of sounds and the color of bodies.
Diaz (BARTOLOMEU), a Portuguese navigator, eminent
for his learning, talents, and enterprise. He commanded
an expedition sent in 1486 to explore the western coast of
Africa. He sailed or was driven by the wind around the
southern extremity of Africa, to the mouth of the Great
Fish River. Returning homeward, he discovered the cape
which he had previously doubled unawares, and called it
Tormentoso, which was soon exchanged for the name of
Cape of Good Hope (Cabo de Buena Esperanza). He was
captain of one of the ships in the fleet of Cabral, which
sailed for India in 1500, and he perished by shipwreck May
29 of that year.
Diaz de la Peña (NARCISSE-VIRGILE), a French
painter, born at Bordeaux Aug. 20, 1809. He began as a
landscape-painter, but later he occupied himself with sub-
jects of pure fancy, filling a crowd of small canvases with
nymphs and cupids, and with boys and girls dressed in
costumes that might pass for Eastern, but in which no
attempt at faithfulness to details is allowed to interfere
with the effects of color, which is all the artist aims at, and
which he is often successful in obtaining. At one time the
pictures of Diaz fetched high prices, and when he first
made a name it was by work that showed an original vein ;
but he has greatly deteriorated, and by flooding the mar-
ket with pictures merely made to sell, he has nearly lost
all reputation. He obtained a third-class medal in 1844, a
second-class in 1846, and the first-class in 1848.-He has a
son, M. EUGäNE DIAZ, who has some local repute as a musi-
cal composer. CLARENCE Cook.
Dib’din (CHARLEs), an English musician and writer of
songs, was born at Southampton in 1745. He composed
over 1000 sea-songs, among them “Tom Bowling ” and
other favorites of the English tars. Died July 24, 1814.—
IHis son, THOMAS DIBDIN, born in 1771, was an actor and
author of innumerable melodramas, farces, etc., of which
the best known is “The Cabinet.” Died Sept. 16, 1842.
Dibdin (THOMAS FROGNALL), D. D., an English bibliog-
rapher, born in Calcutta in 1776, was a nephew of Charles,
noticed above. He took orders as a priest in 1804. He
published, besides other works, “Bibliomania” (1809); a
new edition of Ames’s “Typographical Antiquities of Great
Britain * (4 vols., 1810–19); “Bibliographical Decameron,
or Ten Days' Pleasant Discourse over Illuminated MSS.”
(1817); and “Reminiscences of a Literary Life” (2 vols.,
1836). Died Nov. 18, 1847.
Dibrell (ANTHoNY), a minister of the Methodist Epis-
copal Church South, born in Virginia, Aug. 19, 1805. He
was educated at the University of North Carolina, studied
law, entered on the practice of his profession at Lynchburg,
abandoned it for the ministry, and in 1830 joined the Vir-
ginia Conference, in which he became eminent for piety,
talents, and zeal. Died in Norfolk, Va., of yellow fever,
Sept. 1, 1855. T. O. SUMMERS.
Dicae/um [from the Gr. 8tratos, “decent,” “well-or-
dered,” alluding to the habits
of these birds], a genus of ten-
uirostral birds remarkable for
their beauty, their rapid flight,
and the sweetness of their long-
continued though very soft
notes. They are of small size,
and inhabit the highest trees.
They weave a purse-shaped nest
from the down found about the
seeds of many plants. The best
known species are the Austra-
liam dicaeum (Dicaeum hirundi-
maceum) and the Dicaeum crwen-
tatum of India.
Di’cast [Gr. 8traorrás, from
8tkm, “justice ’’], a name for a
body of Athenian citizens, con-
sisting of 6000, who were chosen
yearly by lot from the body of
freemen for the purpose of as-
sisting in the administration of
justice. They were divided
- into ten sections, generally
about 500 each, before which causes were tried. The lead-
ing points of law and evidence were previously ascertained
Australian Dicaeum.

85
1346
DICE—DICKINSON.
before a magistrate, and the conflicting issues were reduced
to a formal statement called the anakrisis. This was car-
ried for decision before a section of the dicasts, who were
supreme judges of the law and the fact. They were kept
in ignorance of the cause which was to come before them,
and each dicast was sworn to vote according to the law and
justice. The analogies of the system to jury trial are ob-
vious, as are also the differences between the two systems.
The word dicasterion was used to denote the whole body
of the dicasts and the place where their session was held.
Dice (plu. of Die), [Lat. alea and tessera; Gr. 80xis; Fr.
dé; It., Sp., and Port. dado; Ger. Würfel], small cubes used
in playing certain games of chance. They are made of bone,
ivory, or close-grained wood, having their six sides marked
with dots or pips from one up to six. These dots are so ar-
ranged that the numbers on two opposite sides taken together
always count seven. The dice are shaken in a box called
a dice-box, and then thrown on a board or table, and the
number of dots on the upper faces decides the game. The
invention of dice is very ancient, and is variously ascribed
to the Greeks and Egyptians, and by Herodotus to the
Lydians.
in Thebes. The Greeks gave the names of their gods and
heroes to the different throws. The game of dice was pop-
ular among the Romans, and it is said that during the
decline of the empire wealthy Romans not unfrequently
staked their whole fortunes on a single throw. Gamblers
resort to the practice of loading dice by adding lead to
them on one side, so that the higher numbers are almost
sure to turn up. When this trick is suspected, the thrower
should turn down the mouth of the box abruptly, and this
will prevent the dice from arranging themselves unjustly.
Two cubes, supposed to be ſtruscan dice, but marked with
words instead of pips, have given ground for Taylor's the-
ory that the Etruscan was a Turanian language, the words
being assumed as numerals. •
Dicenſtra [from the Gr. 8ts, “twice,” or “two,” and
kévrpov, a “spur,” a term descriptive of the blossom of
these plants], a genus of herbaceous perennials belonging
to the order Fumariaceae. They are found in moist, rich
woodlands, and flower in spring. Among the species native
in the U. S. are Dicentra Cucullaria (commonly called
Dutchman’s breeches), Dicentra Canadensis (squirrel corn),
and Dicentra eacimia. Dicentra chrysantha, found in Cali-
fornia, has large golden-yellow flowers. Dicentra specta-
bilis, introduced from Japan about 1846, grows sometimes
to the height of three feet, and produces long racemes of
rosy blossoms of great beauty.
Dichlamyd’eous [from the Gr. 8ts, “twice” or “two,”
and xXauſs, a “short cloak”], a botanical term applied to
flowers or plants having both calyx and corolla. In the
system of Decandolle exogenous plants are divided into
dichlamydeous and monochlamydeous.
Dichot’omous [from the Gr. 8tya, “double,” and répºvo,
“to cut”], two-forked, a term in botany, is applied to
branches or stems which bifurcate, and are repeatedly di-
vided into pairs. The stems of some ferns, the fronds of
some algae, and the stems of several phaenerogamous plants
are dichotomously branched.
Dichot’omy [for etymology see DICHOTOMoUs], an arti-
ficial system for the arrangement of matural objects, based
upon principles of binary distinction. In logic, the division
of a class into two sub-classes, which are opposed to each
other by contradiction. In anthropology, the recognition
of two factors, and only two, in man—the physical and the
spiritual—contrasted with trichotomy, which recognizes in
man three factors—viz. body, soul, and spirit.
Diſchroism [from the Gr. 8ts, “twice,” and xpºs,
“color”], the property possessed by some crystallized bodies
of showing two different colors, according to the direction
in which rays of light pass through them. The crystals of
the double chloride of palladium and potassium appear
deep red along the axis, and vivid green in a transverse
direction.
Diſchroite [etymology same as for DICHROISM], also
called Iſolite, a mineral so called from the different colors
it exhibits, is a silicate of magnesia, iron, and alumina. It
is found in prisms belonging to the trimetric system, and is
sometimes used as a gem.
Dick (JAMES T.), an artist born in New York City in
1834, was a son of A. L. Dick, an engraver of good reputa-
tion. The younger Dick gained several prizes at the age
of fourteen, and was one of the founders of the Brooklyn
Art School and of the Academy of Design. Died Jan. 19,
I868. t
Dick (THOMAs), LL.D., a Scottish author, born near
Dundee Nov. 24, 1774, was educated for the ministry in
connection with the Secession Church. He taught school
for many years at Perth, and wrote numerous popular sci-
Dice similar to those of our day have been found.
entific and religious works, among which are “The Chris-
tian Philosopher ” (1823), “The Philosophy of Religion”
(1825), “The Philosophy of a Future State’” (1828), “Ce-
lestial Scenery '' (1838), and the “Sidereal Heavens’’
(1840). Died July 29, 1857.
Dick'ens (CHARLEs), one of the greatest novelists that
England has produced, was born at Landport, Portsmouth,
on Feb. 7, 1812. His father was John Dickens, who held a
position in the navy pay department, and who afterwards
became parliamentary reporter for one of the London daily
papers. After studying in a college near Rochester, young
Dickens was placed in an attorney’s office to learn the pro-
fession of the law. This pursuit proving uncongenial to
his taste, he left it and obtained a position as reporter on
the staff of the “Morning Chronicle.” In this paper ap-
peared the first efforts of his genius, his “Sketches of Life
and Character,” which in 1836 were collected and published
in two volumes under the title “Sketches by Boz.” The
public gave these a favorable reception, and in 1837 they
were followed by “The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick
Club,” which first appeared as a serial in monthly parts.
The work had an immediate and almost unparalleled suc-
cess, and raised its author at once to the first rank among
the popular writers of the day. In its peculiar vein of
humor it has never been equalled in English literature.
He was married in 1838 to the daughter of George Hogarth,
a musical critic, and in the same year appeared “Oliver
Twist,” a novel in three volumes. This was followed by
“The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby’’ (3 vols.,
1839), “Master Humphrey's Clock” (1840—41), and “Bar-
naby Rudge” (1841). In 1841 he visited the U. S., and in
the following year appeared his “American Notes for Gen-
eral Circulation,” in which American life and character
were somewhat severely satirized. The “Notes” were fol-
lowed in 1843–44 by the “Life and Adventures of Martin
Chuzzlewit” (3 vols.), a work which reflected still more on
the faults and foibles of our countrymen.
In 1844, Mr. Dickens went to Italy, whence he returned
in 1845, and towards the end of that year he assumed the
chief editorship of the “Daily News,” a Liberal journal
then just established. He soon, however, resigned this
position. In 1847–48 appeared his “Dombey & Son,” which,
in some of its passages at least, is not surpassed by any of
his works either in power or pathos. It was followed in
1850 by “The Personal History of David Copperfield,”
which is regarded by many as the best of all his novels.
Certainly in none other is the interest more intense or better
sustained from the beginning to the end. It is commonly
understood that in the story of “David Copperfield” the
novelist has introduced many of the incidents or circum-
stances of his own life, without, however, following so
closely the real history as in any way to compromise the
characters of those with whom he associated. Among his
other works may be mentioned “Bleak House” (1852),
“Hard Times” (1854), “Little Dorrit” (1857), “A Tale of
Two Cities” (1860), “Great Expectations” (1862), “Our
Mutual Friend” (1864–65), and “The Mystery of Edwin
Drood,” left unfinished at his death. “Household Words,”
a weekly periodical originated by him in 1850, had a very
extensive circulation. He afterwards in 1859 started an-
other weekly journal entitled “All the Year Round.” In
1867 he made a second visit to the U. S., and met every-
where with a cordial and even enthusiastic reception. He
gave in the principal cities public readings from his own
works, which were attended by crowded audiences. He re-
turned to his native country in the spring of 1868, and died
at Gad's Hill June 9, 1870. J. THOMAs.
Dickſeyville, a post-township of Aroostook co., Me.
It has a high school and some manufactures. Pop. 1851.
Dick'ins (John), a Methodist Episcopal preacher, born
in London in 1746, studied at Eton, and came to America.
before the Revolutionary war. In 1774 he became a
Methodist, and soon began to preach. He was one of the
ablest preachers of his day, and contributed much to the
foundation of Cokesbury College and the Methodist Book
Concern. Died of yellow fever in 1798.
Dick'inson, a county in the N. W. of Iowa. Area,
430 square miles. It is drained by the Okoboji River, and
contains several lakes, one of which is called Spirit Lake.
The soil is mostly fertile, and grain is produced. Capital,
Spirit Lake. Pop. 1389.
Dickinson, a county in E. Central Kansas. Area,
846 square miles. It is intersected by the Kansas River.
The surface is partly occupied by extensive prairies; the
soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, hay, butter, etc. are produced.
It is traversed by the Kansas Pacific R. R. Capital, Abilene.
Pop. 3043.
Dickinson, a post-township of Franklin co., N. Y.
Pop. 1990.
DICKINSON.—DICTATOER.
1847
Dickinson, a post-township of Cumberland co., Pa.
Pop. 1617. -
Dickinson (ANNA ELIZABETH), an American reformer
and popular public speaker, was born of Quaker parents at
Philadelphia. Oct. 28, 1842. Her father died when she was
but two years old, and her early years were spent in poverty.
She was educated in the Friends’ free schools. Her first
public speech was delivered in Jan., 1860, at a meeting for
the discussion of women’s rights, and at once established
her reputation. During the civil war she delivered many
patriotic and political addresses, and since that time she
has spoken much upon labor reform, woman’s suffrage, etc.
She published in 1868 “What Answer 7” a novel.
Dickinson (DANIEL STEvKNS), LL.D., an American
Senator and lawyer, born in Goshen, Conn., Sept. 11, 1800.
He was elected as a Democrat to the Senate of New York
in 1836, and became lieutenant-governor of that State in
1842. In 1844 he was chosen a Senator of the U. S. for
six years. He was distinguished as a debater, and was the
leader of the conservative (“Hunker”) Democrats of New
York. After he retired from the Senate he practised law at
Binghamton, with a high reputation. In 1861 he was
elected attorney-general of New York. During the civil
war he zealously supported the cause of the Union by pub-
lic speeches. He was appointed district attorney for the
southern district of New York in the spring of 1865. Died
April 12, 1866. (See his “Life,” by his brother, 1867.)
Dickinson (EDWARD), LL.D., an American lawyer,
was born at Amherst, Mass., Jan. 1, 1803, graduated at
Yale with the highest honors in 1823, studied at the Law
School of Northampton, Mass., and in 1826 became a
lawyer of his native town, where he has since resided.
He became treasurer of Amherst College in 1835, holding
that position nearly forty years, greatly to the advantage
of the college. In 1838, 1839, and 1873 he was chosen
representative to the general court of Massachusetts, was
State senator 1842–43, State councillor 1845–46, and a
Whig member of Congress 1854–55, having declined other
important public trusts. He was a prominent supporter
of the railroad interests of his town and State, and was
distinguished for integrity, public spirit, and professional
success. Died June 16, 1874.
Dickinson (John), LL.D., an American statesman and
lawyer, born in Maryland Nov. 13, 1732. He received his
legal education in London, practised law with success in
Philadelphia, and was a deputy to the first Colonial Con-
gress in 1765. He was a member of the Continental Con-
gress in 1774, and wrote for that body several important
state papers, among which was a “Declaration to the
Armies.” He was an eloquent and ready debater. In 1776
he spoke against the Declaration of Independence, which he
regarded as premature, and he was one of the few members
of Congress who did not sign that declaration. He con-
sequently became unpopular, and was defeated in the next
election, but he served as a private soldier in the war of
Independence. In 1779 he represented Delaware in Con-
gress. He was president of Pennsylvania in 1782–85. He
wrote numerous political essays, and had a high reputation
for learning. In 1783 he founded and endowed Dickinson
College at Carlisle, Pa. Died Feb. 14, 1808.
Dickinson (Rev. JonATHAN), a Presbyterian theolo-
gian, born at Hatfield, Mass., April 22, 1688, graduated at
Yale College in 1706. He preached at Elizabethtown, N.J.,
for more than thirty years, and was elected president of
the College of New Jersey in 1746. He wrote several works
on theology. Died Oct. 7, 1747. g
Dickinson College, next to the University of Penn-
sylvania, is the oldest college in the State; the former was
founded in 1753, the latter in 1783. As to its establish-
ment and its location in Carlisle, the board of trustees in
1784 set forth the following: “The fitness of the situation,
not only central to the State, but to the several States of
the Union, the healthfulness and beauty of the country
around, recommend the fitness of the situation. The great
embarrassments learning lay under during the war pointed
it out as a virtue peculiarly commendable to use our en-
deavors to revive the drooping sciences. Gratitude to God
for the prosperous conclusion of the war laid us under obli-
gation, our new relations to the other nations of the world,
and especially the important interests of religion and virtue
in this growing empire.” In consequence of the valuable
gifts to, and personal interest in, the college of Hon. John
Dickinson, “president of Pennsylvania,” the institution
received his name. The first president was Charles Nisbet,
D. D., a native of Scotland, and minister at Montrose.
During the Revolutionary war his voice was in favor of the
colonies. The college has had eleven presidents: Charles
Nisbet, D. D., elected 1784; Robert Davidson, D. D., in
1804; Jeremiah Atwater, D. D., in 1809; John M. Mason,
D. D., in 1821; William Neill, D. D., in 1824; Samuel B.
How, in 1830; John P. Durbin, D. D., in 1833; Robert
Emory, D. D., in 1845; Jesse T. Peck, D. D., in 1848;
Charles Collins, D. D., in 1852; Herman M. Johnson,
D. D., in 1860; Robert L. Dashiell, D. D., in 1868; James
A. McAuley, D. D., in 1872.
The institution is denominational. Until 1833 it was
under Presbyterian control, but the division of that Church
into the old and new branches brought the college under
grave embarrassments. The Old School kept the educa-
tional funds; the New School had a majority of the board
of trustees, but, being without funds, transferred the college
| to the Methodist denomination, under whose care it now
remains. At the breaking out of the late civil war it had
many students from the Southern States; these left, others
were called to the battle-field, and the college suffered in its
finances until the year of the centenary of Methodism, when
its endowment fund was increased $100,000.
The course of study retains the old classical course, but
allows a divergence in the junior and senior years from the
ancient languages in two directions—one in favor of the
Biebrew language and literature, to accommodate those
studying for the ministry; and the other in favor of na-
tural science. The old prominence of the ancient classics
has yielded much in favor of modern languages, literature,
and the natural sciences.
The buildings are three in number. The libraries con-
tain 26,000 volumes; the scientific apparatus is very exten-
sive and valuable. S. D. HILLMAN.
Dickinson’s Landing, a port of entry of Osna-
bruck township, Stormont co., Ontario (Canada), on the
N. side of the St. Lawrence River, at the head of the Corn-
wall Canal, 96 miles from Kingston. It has a lighthouse.
Pop. about 300.
Dick Johnson, a township of Clay co., Ind. P. 868.
Dick’son, a county in the N. of Tennessee. Area, 600
square miles. It is partly bounded on the N. E. by the Cum-
berland River, and drained by the Harpeth. The surface is
undulating; the soil is productive. Tobacco, wool, cattle,
and grain are staple products. It is intersected by the Nash-
ville and North-western R. R. Capital, Charlotte. P. 9340.
Dicksoni, a township of Edwards co., Ill. Pop. 526.
Dickson, a township of Lewis co., Mo. Pop. 204.
Dickson, a borough of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 391.
Dickson (SAMUEL HENRY), M. D., LL.D., was born of
Scottish parentage at Charleston, S. C., Sept. 20, 1798,
graduated at Yale in 1814, and received the degree of M. D.
at the University of Pennsylvania in 1819. In 1824 he be-
came professor of the institutes and practice of medicine at
Charleston medical school (S. C.), was professor of practice
in the University of New York (1847–50), and again in
Charleston. In 1858 he was called to the chair of practice
at Jefferson College, Philadelphia, which he filled with
great ability. He was the author of several valuable works
and numerous brochures upon medicine and other subjects.
Died Mar. 31, 1872.
Dicotyle d'onous [from the Gr. 8t (for 8ts), “twice ’’
or “double,” and korvamóðv, a “cotyledon "I Plants, the
name given to plants which have the embryo furnished
with two, or more than two, CoTYLEDONs (which see). More
than two are of rare occurrence, but are found in the fir,
larch, spruce, etc. of the Coniferae. As a general rule, exo-
gens are dicotyledonous, while endogens are almost always
monocotyledonous. (See ExoGENOUs PLANTs.)
Dicta/tor [Fr. dictateur, from the Lat. dicto, dictatum,
to “say often,” to “ dictate ’j, the title of an extraordinary
magistrate in the republic of ancient Rome, who was in-
vested with nearly absolute power for a period of six
months, and was irresponsible. Dictators were appointed
when the republic was in danger, or when an important
crisis demanded the prompt decision and vigorous action
of a single executive chief. The first dictator, according
to some authorities, was Titus Lartius, who was appointed
501 B. C.; the last, Marcus Junius Pera (216 B.C.). In
general, no one could be made dictator who had not pre-
viously been consul. It is doubtful whether election by
the curiae was necessary to his appointment, but the nom-
imation by the consul was indispensable. The dictator ap-
pointed a magister equitum (“master of the horsemen”),
who in his absence acted as his deputy or lieutenant. The
office of dictator was at first confined to patricians, and the
first plebeian dictator was C. Marcius Rutilus, appointed
in 356 B. C. The power of the dictators was subject to
these limitations: they could not touch the treasury, they
were not permitted to leave Italy, nor to ride through Rome
on horseback without the consent of the people. The dic-
tatorships of Sulla and Caesar, both of whom transcended
their limitations, were irregular and illegal, entirely differ-
ent from the former dictatorships. -
1348
DICTIONARY-DIDYMUS.
Dic/tionary [Modern Latin, dictionarium, from dictio,
a “word,” and -arium, a suffix, denoting a “place where
things are kept ;” Fr. dictionnaire; It. dizionario; Sp. dic-
cionario], a book giving the words of a language in alpha-
betical order, and explaining their meaning. It is also a
general term for works on science, literature, and art, giv-
ing information under separate classified heads, and in mod-
ern times under heads alphabetically arranged. The multi-
plication of books upon history, science, and literature has
made it necessary to reduce the body of knowledge in spe-
cific branches of inquiry to the form of dictionaries, with
the topics alphabetically arranged for convenience of refer-
ence. The earliest work of the kind is in the Chinese
language, compiled about 1100 B. C. One of the first
lexicographers among classic writers was M. T. Varro
(128–116 B. C.), but the most celebrated dictionary of
antiquity is the “Onomasticon’ of Julius Pollux, com-
pleted early in the third century. In modern times the
first Latin dictionary was published by Balbi of Genoa
(1460). Sebastian Münster’s “Chaldee Dictionary’ ap-
peared in 1527; Pagninus’s “Lexicon of the Hebrew Lan-
guage’” (1529); Stephens’s “Thesaurus” (1535); Erpe-
nius’s “Arabic Dictionary" (1613); Schindler’s “Lexicon
Pentaglottum ” (1612); Castell's “Lexicon Heptaglotton”
(1669); Moreri's “Dictionnaire” (1673); Bayle’s “Histori-
cal and Critical Dictionary" and the “Dictionary of the
French Academy” (1694); Dr. Johnson’s “English Diction-
ary’ (1755); Grose’s “Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue”
(1785); Walker’s “Dictionary" (1791); Webster’s (1806);
Webster's “American Dictionary” (1828); revised edition,
unabridged (1864); Richardson’s “Dictionary of the Eng-
lish Language” (1835–37; reissued with a supplement in
1856); Worcester's (1830–60); J. L. Grimm’s “German
Dictionary” (“Deutches Wörterbuch,” begun in 1852; still
unfinished). Among works of the kind may also be men-
tioned Wm. Smith’s “Dictionary of Antiquities” (1842),
“Dictionary of Biography” (1849), and his “Dictionary
of Ancient Geography” (1857). His “Bible Dictionary”
(1860–63) and his Latin Dictionaries (1855 and 1870) are
valuable. Littré’s “Dictionnaire de la Langue Fran-
çaise ’’ (1863–73); the Greek-German Lexicon of Passow,
translated into Greek-English by Liddell and Scott, and
enlarged by Drisler; Yonge's English-Greek Lexicon,
greatly enlarged by Drisler; Barretti's Italian Dictionary;
Adler's German and English Dictionary (1848), and So-
phocles' Dictionary of Byzantine Greek (1860), are among
the best works of the kind. E. A. Andrews’s Latin Dic-
tionary, based upon that of Freund, and the lexicographic
works of the late Prof. Anthon, are of much value. Quite
recently much attention has been given in the U.S. to the
compilation of dictionaries of the aboriginal languages of
the country—a task upon which much valuable labor has
been bestowed.
Dic’tyogens [from the Gr. 8tºrvov, a “net” or “net-
work”], a name proposed by Lindley for a sub-class of
plants included by other botanists among endogenous
plants. While they agree with endogens in the structure
of the embryo, they are distinguished by having net-
veined instead of parallel-veined leaves, and the growth
of their stems appears to be partly exogenous and partly
endogenous. The most important natural orders referred
to this class are Dioscoreaceae and Smilaceae, and among
the plants are the different species of yam and sarsapa-
rilla.
Dicyn’odon [from the Gr. 8t (for 8ts), “twice” or
“two,” kijov, a “dog,” and 38oſs (gen. Ö86vros), a “tooth’],
literally, having two tusks or canine teeth, the name ap-
plied to a genus of fossil reptiles whose remains have been
found in South Africa. Animals of this genus united in
their structure the characteristics of different reptiles. The
closed orbits and sharp, compressed jaws covered with a
horny plate ally it closely to the tortoise, but it also has
affinities with the lizard and crocodile. It takes its name
from a pair of sharp-pointed tusks growing downward,
one from each side of the upper jaw. The articulating sur-
faces of the vertebrae being hollow, it may be supposed
these reptiles were good swimmers; and if they were in-
habitants of the water, the construction of the bony pas-
sages of the nostrils proves that they must have come to
the surface to breathe air.
TDidactic [Gr. 88aktukós, from 8:8áako, to “teach *], a
word signifying skilled in teaching, imparting instruction.
DIDACTIC PoETRY, a term applied to that poetry the
chief object of which is to teach some art, science, or sys-
tem of philosophy. Among the most remarkable examples
of ancient didactic poems are the following: Lucretius's
“De Rerum Natură " (designed to explain and defend the
philosophy of Epicurus), which Macaulay pronounces “the
finest didactic poem in any language;” Virgil’s “Georgies”
(a treatise on agriculture); and Horace’s “De Arte Poetică.”
(“On the Poetic Art”). Many fine didactic poems have
also been written in modern times. Among the principal
of these are Vida’s “Art of Poetry" (“De Arte Poetică");
Boileau’s “Art of Poetry” (“L’Art poétique”); Pope's
“Essay on Criticism" and “Essay on Man;” Darwin's
“Botanic Garden;” and most of Cowper's longer poems.
Didelphys. See OPOSSUM.
Diderot (DENIs), a French philosopher, born at Lan-
gres Oct. 5, 1713, and educated by the Jesuits, was des-
tined for the Church, and later for the law, but eagerly
embraced the study of literature. His father, a prosperous
cutler of stern character, withdrew from him all support
upon his refusal to pursue his professional studies. Among
his first writings were “Essai sur le Mérite et sur la Vertu ’’
and “Lettre sur les Aveugles” (1749), which last estab-
lished his reputation, but cost him a year's imprisonment.
His earlier works were all written under the duress of pov-
erty. His reputation is founded chiefly on the “Encyclo-
paedia” (“Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonnée des
Sciences, des Arts et Métiers”), of which he and D’Alem-
bert were joint editors. He wrote the articles on ancient
philosophy, history, and on the arts and trades, and super-
vised other parts of the work. He expended many years
on this arduous labor, for which he was qualified by great
quickness of intellect and extent of information. Grimm
expressed the opinion that he had perhaps the most ency-
clopedic head that ever existed. The first volume of this
work was published in 1751. The government suspended
the publication, because it advocated infidel doctrines, but
it was finished in 1765. Catharine II. of Russia granted
him a pension in 1765, and invited him to St. Petersburg,
whither he went in 1773, but he soon returned to France.
Among his works are novels entitled “The Nun’ and
“Jacques the Fatalist.” He is considered as the chief of
the skeptical philosophers called Encyclopedists. Died in
Paris July 30, 1784. His complete works were published
by Naigron (15 vols., 1798; new ed., 22 vols., 1821). (See
DAMIRoN, “Mémoire sur Diderot,” 1852; CARLYLE, “Es-
say on Diderot;” ROSENKRANz, “Leben und Werke Dide-
rots,” 2 vols., 1866.)
Did’ius (SALVIUs JULIANUs), a Roman emperor, born
at Milan in 133 A. D. He had a high command in the
army, and was chosen consul with Pertinax, after whose
death (193 A. D.) the praetorians offered the empire at
public auction to the highest bidder. Didius, who was
very rich, gave 6250 drachmas to each soldier, and was
proclaimed emperor. After he had reigned nearly two
months he was killed (June 1, 193) in his palace by his
soldiers. He was succeeded by Severus.
Di’do (“the fugitive ’’), [Gr. Atô6], whose real name
was Elissa or Elisa, a daughter of the Tyrian king
Matgen, after whose death she and her younger brother
Pygmalion (Piimelium) were to reign conjointly. But
Pygmalion, aided by democratic partisans, usurped the
whole authority, and procured the assassination of her
husband, Zicharbaal (the Sichaeus of Virgil). She then
fled with many Tyrians by sea, and founded Carthage
about 870–860 B. C. Virgil has been charged with com-
mitting an anachronism in representing her as contem-
porary with Æneas. (See VIRGIL, “Aneid,” i., ii., and iv.)
Didot (FRANÇors), born at Paris in 1689, was the foun-
der of a famous house of printers and type-founders in
Paris. Died Nov. 1, 1757. The business was carried on
by his sons, FRANÇois AMBROISE (born in 1730, died July
10, 1804), who made improvements in the printing-press
and paper manufacture, and PIERRE FRANÇors. Of the
sons of the former, PIERRE (born 1760, died Dec. 31, 1853,
leaving as his successor his son Jul. Es) took charge of the
printing-house in 1789, and published magnificent folio
editions of Virgil, Horace, Racine, and other classic authors;
and FIRMIN (born 1764, died April 24, 1836) took charge
of the type-foundry, improved the art of stereotyping,
and became known also as an author and translator. His
business was inherited by his sons, AMBROISE FIRMIN (born
Dec. 20, 1790) and HYACINTHE FIRMIN (born Mar. 11,
1794). .
Didron (ADoIPHE NAPOLáON), a French archaeologist,
born at Hautvillers (Marne) Mar. 13, 1806. He began in
1844 to publish “Annales Archéologiques,” devoted to me-
diaeval art and antiquities. His chief work is “Christian
Iconography” (1843). Died Nov. 13, 1867. -
Didym’ium [from the Gr. 8t&vuos, a “twin”], a rare
metal, so named from its resemblance to lanthanum, and
the difficulty of separating the two. It is a dyad, its sym-
bol D ; atomic weight, 96. It forms a protoxide (D2O),
which is a powerful base, and forms with acids rose- or
violet-colored salts. It was discovered in 1841 by Mosander.
Did’ymus [Gr. Atôvuosl, a grammarian of Alexandria
in Egypt, was born about 62 B. C., and was surnamed

*
DIDY MUS—DIESIS.
1349
g-
CHALCENTERUs. He was noted for his fecundity as a writer,
and is said to have written nearly 4000 treatises, mostly
frivolous, on various subjects. All of his works have per-
ished. -
Didymus (THE BLIND), one of the most learned men
of his age, was born at Alexandria A. D. 308, became blind
in his fifth year, and was at the head of the theological
school in Alexandria from 390 to 395, the year in which he
died. His most important extant works are a treatise upon
the “Spirit” and a treatise upon the “Trinity.”
Die (anc. Dea Vocontiorum), a walled town of France,
department of Drôme, on the river Drôme, 26 miles E. S. E.
of Valence. It has manufactures of silk and paper, and is
the seat of a Catholic bishop. Pop. in 1866, 3762. '
Die (plu. Dies), in coinage, the instrument by which
impressions are stamped upon coins. The intended device
is first engraved upon a plug of forged steel, which, when
complete, is hardened, and is called a matriæ. From this,
by means of a powerful fly-press, an impression in relief is
taken upon another piece of soft steel, which, when duly
shaped and hardened, is called the punch. From this again
indented impressions upon pieces of steel are taken, which,
being shaped in the lathe and tempered, are the dies. A
good pair of dies will sometimes yield from two to three
hundred thousand impressions before they become too much
worn for use. -
Die-sinking has acquired increased importance on ac-
count of the great extension of the process of stamping
metal. Many kinds of work formerly made by the ham-
mer and punch are now shaped by a few blows between
suitable dies. As examples of these we may mention the
ornamental work of gas-fittings, buttons, common jewelry,
ornamental trays, dishes, boxes, small parts of firearms, etc.
For such purposes a pair of dies is required—one in relief,
the other in intaglio—and the metal is pressed between
them. The astonishing cheapness of many of the metallic
wares is mainly due to the use of dies for doing by a single
blow the work that formerly required long and tedious
manipulation. -
DIE, in architecture, is that part of a pedestal which lies
between its base and its cornice.
DIE (plu. DICE). See DICE.
Dieſbitsch, surnamed SABALKANSKI (HANs KARL
FRIEDRICH ANTON), Count, a Russian general, born in
Silesia, May 13, 1785. He served at the battle of Auster-
litz, 1805, and became a major-general in 1812. Having
distinguished himself at the battles of Lützen, Dresden,
and Leipsic, he was raised to the rank of lieutenant-general
in 1813. He was appointed chief of the imperial staff about
1820. Having obtained command of an army in the war
against the Turks, he took Varna in 1828, and became
general-in-chief in 1829. He defeated the Turks and
crossed the Balkan, hence his title SABALKANSKI (“Trans-
Balkanian ’). . He was raised to the rank of field-marshal,
and in Jan., 1831, took command of an army sent to sub-
due the Polish insurgents. After the indecisive battles of
Praga and Ostrolenka, he died of cholera June 10, 1831.
(See BELMoNT, “Graf Diebitsch,” 1830.) -
Die/denhofen, a fortified town in Elsass-Lothringen,
on the left bank of the Moselle, 14 miles below Metz. Pop.
7155.
Dief'fenbach (Joh ANN FRIEDRICH), a skilful Prussian
surgeon, born in Königsberg Feb. 1, 1794. He graduated
in 1822, and began to practise in Berlin, where he gained
a high reputation. He was a professor in the University
of Berlin, and wrote, besides other works, “Die Operative
Chirurgie” (12 vols., 1844–48). He made improvements
in plastic surgery. Died Nov. 11, 1847.
Dielectric [from the Gr. 8tá, “between,” and elec-
tricity], a non-conducting body which permits the force of
electricity to act through it. For example, the interposi-
tion of thin glass plates does not prevent electric inductio
from taking place; hence glass is dielectric. -
Dieſmen, van (ANTHONY), a Dutch naval officer, born
at Kuilenburg in 1593. He served for many years in the
East Indies, and became an admiral. He was appointed
governor-general of the Dutch East Indies in 1636, and
sent out in 1642 an exploring expedition under Abel Tas-
man, who discovered Van Diemen’s Land. Died at Bata-
via April 19, 1645.
Die/penbeck, van, written also Diepenbeke
(ABRAHAM), an eminent Dutch historical painter, born at
Bois-le-Duc in 1607, was a pupil of Rubens. In 1641 he
was chosen director of the Academy of Antwerp. He
painted with facility on glass and tapestry, imitated Ru-
bens with great freedom, and gained a high reputation by
his skill in composition and coloring. Among his works
is a series of fifty-eight designs called “The Temple of the
Muses.” Died in 1675.
Dieppe, a seaport-town of France, in the department
of Seine-Inférieure, is on the English Channel at the mouth
of the river Arques, and at the northern terminus of the
Rouen and Dieppe Railway, 33 miles N. of Rouen, and 143
miles by rail N.W. of Paris; lat. 49° 55' N., lon. 19 5' E.
It stands between two high ranges of chalk-cliffs, and is
defended by a wall and a castle built on a high cliff. Ves-
sels of 500 tons can enter the harbor at high water, but at
low tide the harbor is nearly dry. Dieppe has a town-hall,
theatre, and public library; also manufactures of watches,
lace, fine linen, paper, and ivory wares. It was formerly
the principal port of France, and is now one of the most
fashionable watering-places of that country. Dieppe is a
favorite landing-place of English tourists visiting France.
Pop. 19,946.
Diſes Iſrae, a Latin hymn written about the year 1250
by a Franciscan friar, Thomas da Celano, commencing—
“Dies Irae, dies illa,
Solvet sa=clum in favilla,
Teste David cum Sibylla.”
Day of Wrath ! On that dread day
In ashes earth shall pass away,
Attest the King's, the Sibyl's, lay.
The Western Church soon gave it a place in its offices as the
“Sequence for the Dead,” so called because in the Roman
mass it is sung between the Epistle and the Gospel, following
immediately after the Gradual Hymn, when that is sung.
In an English form it has also been adopted into the hymn-
books of the Church of England, and into the new Hymnal
of the Protestant Episcopal Church of our country. It is
chief among the “Seven great Hymns of the Mediaeval
Church,” among which are “Jerusalem the Golden,” “Come,
Holy Ghost” (Veni Sancte Spiritus), etc. Of all these
sacred lyrics none can compare in point of sublimity or
touching pathos with the “Dies Irae.” For centuries it has
been the favorite alike of Roman and Protestant Christen-
dom. The most renowned of modern poets, composers, and
divines have bent in admiration at its shrine, and multi-
tudes have essayed in vain to transfer its force and beauty
to their own language. (Am. Ch. Rev.)
The composition is evidently suggested by the words
of Zephaniah, in the Vulgate: “That Day, a Day of Wrath,
a day of trouble and distress, a day of wasteness and de-
solation, a day of darkness and gloominess, a day of clouds
and thick darkness, a day of the trumpet and alarm against
the fenced cities and against the high towers P’ which the
opening stanza, already quoted, coupled with the third
Stanza—
“Tuba mirum spargens Sonum,
Per sepulcra regionum,
\ Coget omnes ante thronum”—
forcibly renders, though, with poetical license, the last
trumpet “scattering a wondrous sound” through “earth's
sepulchres,” and “compelling all before the throne” for
judgment, is substituted for the battle-trumpet which
& alarms” the “fenced cities.” The translations and ver-
sions of this hymn in modern languages are numbered by
scores, perhaps by hundreds; but the Latin verse of the
Franciscan monk, simple and easy as it appears at the first
glance, has in it a secret force which baffles the ingenuity
and skill of translators. “After a close scrutiny, we must
confess (says the “Amer. Church Review”) that the version
of Dr. Irons (the one adopted in ‘Hymns Ancient and
Modern,’ ‘The People's Hymnal,” and our new Hymnal)
expresses most clearly the language and force of the origi-
nai. The second best (which many rank as the best) has
an historic interest attached to it; for it was the Work of
our own Christian soldier and statesman, Major-General
John A. Dix, now governor of the State of New York,
while in command of Fortress Monroe during the war with
the South. As when, in the early days of the Christian
Church, the Vandal legions encompassed his beloved city
and diocese of Hippo, the holy Augustine found time and
opportunity to compose his immortal ‘City of God,” so, in
the darkest days of a cruel war, the rhythms of Thomas da
Celano found a fitting exponent in the person of one who
was alike true to his country and faithful to his God.”
(Amer. Church Review, April, 1873.) The third best Eng-
lish translation is, according to the same authority, one by
Dr. Abraham Coles, an American who has made thirteen .
excellent versions. The words of the “Dies Irae" consti-
tute the principal subject of the music of the famous “Re-
quiem” of Mozart, to which, from the circumstances under
which it was composed, a mysterious interest is attached.
º, J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Di'esis [Gr. 8teats, a “gradation,” from Suá, “through,”
and inut, to “send”], in music, an interval less than a com-
ma. The harmonical diesis is the difference between the
small and the great semitone, as from C to C sharp, and
from C to D flat.
DIESKAU, VON.—DIFFERENTIAL THERMOMETER.
1350
Dies/kau, von (LUDwig AUGUST), a German officer,
born in 1701, entered the French service. . He commanded
a force which marched from Canada in 1755, and attacked
Fort Edward in New York. Here he was wounded and
taken prisoner by the British. Died near Paris Sept. 8,
1767.
Diest, a town of Belgium, in the province of South
Brabant, on the river Demer, 17 miles N. E. of Louvain,
is strongly fortified. It has manufactures of hosiery and
Woollen goods, and exports much good beer. It was taken
by Marlborough in 1705. Pop. 7561.
Dies/terweg (FR1EDRICH ADolph WILHELM), an emi-
nent German teacher and writer, born at Siegen Oct. 29,
1790. He taught in Berlin, and published numerous edu-
cational works. Died July 7, 1866.
Di’et [from the Gr. 8tavra, “manner of living,” “main-
tenance;” Lat. diaeta], a term signifying in its popular
sense the food and drink which are taken to maintain life.
Originally, however, the term included all the conditions
of living, such as clothing, shelter, and exercise. (See
FooD, by EDWARD SMITH, M. D., LL.B., F. R. S., London.).
TXi’et [Lat. diaeta; from the Gr. 8tavráo, to “govern "I,
the name of the assembly of the German states, which,
originating at a very remote period, was reconstituted by
the emperor Charles IV. in 1356. The sessions were made
permanent at Ratisbon in 1663, and were removed to
Frankfort by the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806.
Dietary, Military. See Subsistence of ARMIES.
Diet/erichs (JoACHIM FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN), a Ger-
man veterinary surgeon and writer, born at Stendal in
1792. He published, besides several professional works,
a treatise “On the Education of Horses” (1825) and a
“Manual of the Practical Knowledge of Horses” (1834).
Dieteri’ci (KARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM), a Prussian
political economist, born in Berlin Aug. 23, 1790. He
became professor of political economy at Berlin in 1834,
director of the national bureau of statistics in 1844, and
member of the Berlin Academy. He published, besides
other works, “Public Welfare in the Prussian States”
(1846) and “Manual of the Statistics of the Prussian
State,” continued by his son (1858–61). Died July 29,
1859.-His son, FRIEDRICH DRETERICI, has published an
Arabic grammar and edited Arabic writings. He was born
July 6, 1821, and became professor at Berlin in 1850.
Dietet/ics [from the Gr. 8tavra, “ manner of living ”],
that branch of medicine which treats of food and drink.
In a wider sense it may treat of the recovery or mainten-
ance of health by means of correct habits with regard to
eating, drinking, exercise, the wearing of proper clothes,
etc. (See HYGIENE, by PROF. HENRY HARTSHORNE.)
Die’trich, or Dietricy (CHRISTIAN WILHELM ERNST),
a German painter and engraver, born at Weimar Oct. 30,
1712. Among his works is an “Adoration of the Magi.”
Died April 24, 1774. (See monograph on his works, in Ger-
man, by J. F. LINCK, Berlin, 8vo, 1846.)
Dieu et mon Droit [Fr.], (“God and my right”),
the motto of the royal arms of England. It was the parole
given by Richard I. at the battle of Gisors in 1198, and
was assumed by him and his successors, but it did not
appear on the broad seal until the time of Henry VIII.
Queen Anne substituted “Semper eadem” for the old motto,
but the latter was restored by George I.
Diez (FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN), PH. D., a German philol-
ogist, was born at Giessen Mar. 15, 1794. He was appointed
professor of modern literature at Bonn in 1830. He pub-
lished “The Life and Works of the Troubadours” (1829),
a “Grammar of the Romance Languages” (1842; entirely
new ed., 3 vols., 1850–60), and an “Etymological Diction-
ary of the Romance Languages” (1853; 3d ed. 1869).
Dif”ference [Lat. differentia, from diſ (for dis),
“apart,” and fero, to “bear”], in arithmetic and algebra,
is the excess of one quantity over another, or the result
of the operation of subtraction. -
DIFFERENCE, in logic, is that quality which distinguishes
the species from its genus, and is said logically to be part
of the essence of the object; e.g. to the genus “animal”
add the difference “having the power of articulate speech,”
and we obtain the species “man”—a species distinguished
from all other animals by that peculiarity.
Diff’erence Engine, the name given to calculating-
machines which operate by the method of differences. Such
are the calculating-machines of Babbage and Scheutz." (See
CALCULATING-MACHINEs.)
Differences, Method of, in algebra, a method of
finding any distant term of a series, or the sum of a definite
number of terms, by means of the differences between the
initial terms, the differences of their differences, and so on.
A first order of differences is found by taking each term
of the series from the next term following. Thus, if the
series be a, b, c, d, etc., the first order of differences is
b - a, c – b, d – c, etc.; and the first of these (b-a) may be
indicated by di. The second order of differences will be
found by taking each first difference from the next follow-
ing first difference, and the first of the second differences
may be indicated by d2. In like manner are found da, d4,
etc. If the law of the series be expressed by a formula in
which the indices of the powers of the variable are integral,
or which is capable of being transformed into such an one,
the differences of the order denoted by the highest power
of the variable will be equal, and those of higher orders
will be zero. Thus, if this highest power be the mº, there
will be m orders of differences. Then, putting T for the
n” term after the first, or the (n + 1)* of the series,
- —1)(n—2
T-a+nd,+* Gºa, tº l ; *…+
n(n—1)...... (n—m + 1),...,
1.2.3......... 772. UMyſzt,
To find the sum of n terms of the given series, a, b, c,
d, etc., prefix zero to this series, and form a new series, of
which each succeeding term shall be the sum of all the
terms of the given series up to the term of the same name;
as 0, a, a + b, a + b + c, etc. It is evident that the terms
a, b, c, d, etc. of the given series form the first order of
differences of the new ; the first order of differences of the
given series, the second order of the new, and so on. The
(n + 1)* term of this new series will therefore be the sum
of n terms of the given series; and representing this sum
by S, we shall have,
--- n(n—1), n(n-1)(n–2),
S = n a + 1.2 di + 1.2.3 (*2 e s - e s - e s - +
*(n+1)….(n-m),
1.2.3........ (n+1)*
F. A. P. BARNARD.
Differen'tial, a term belonging to mathematical anal-
ysis. When a variable quantity, as ac, is taken in two
states indefinitely near to each other, as ac and a + h, the
infinitely small difference, h, is called the differential of the
variable, and is written in analysis, da;. If the given
quantity is not ac itself, but a function of ac, say F(ac), then,
when a becomes a + h, F(ac) becomes F(a + h), and the
differential is F(a + h) — F(ac), which may be written
F'(ac, hy. The analytic method which is founded on differ-
entials is called the differential calculus. (See CALCULUs.)
Differential Calculus. See CALCULUs, by GEN. J.
G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Differen'tial Coeffic’ient, in the calculus, is the value
of F′(a, h) as defined in the last article, divided by h = dac,
the differential of the variable. Putting w for F(ac), and w'
for F(a + h), then the differential of F(ac), which is F(a + h)
f
— F(a) = w — u, and is written du. Hence; #–º
is the only quite general expression for the differential co-
efficient of a function. But if the function is purely alge-
braic, more explicit forms may be found. Thus, let F(a)
= a&m. And in the expression for the differential of F(ac),
viz. du = F(a + h) – F(a) = (x + h)”—aº, develop the first
expression, and we shall have, du = 2* + ma" -", h-i- m .
***-*. h” +....... ...hºm — acºm.
Substituting da; for h, and then dividing by the same,
i. e. dac, there results,
- ºn – I . m - 2
dw
acm—20 ac + m. acºm — 3
da: e * 2 2 3
;
in which all the terms multiplied by the infinitely small
factor da; and its powers are of no appreciable value com-
d
pared with macm−1, the first term. Consequently, #–
macº — 1, or the differential coefficient of any power of a
single variable, is found by multiplying the given expres-
sion by the exponent of the power, and then diminishing
this exponent by unity. The differential coefficient of an
algebraic function consisting of more terms than one is the
sum of the differential coefficients of the several terms.
The differential coefficient of any algebraic function is
identical with the derivative of that function. (See DE-
RIvKD FUNCTION.) F. A. P. BARNARD.
Differen’tial Resol’vent, a certain linear differen-
tial equation of the (n-1)* order which is satisfied by
each of the roots of an equation of the nº degree, whose
coefficients are functions of a single parameter.
Differen’tial Thermom’eter is a thermometer for
indicating very slight variations of temperature. The in-
strument as here described was invented by Sir John Les-
DIFFERENTIATION.—DIGGES.
lie. It consists of two glass bulbs connected by a narrow
tube, which is usually bent in the form of a U. The bulbs
are uppermost, and are filled with air, while the tube con-
tains a column of mercury or sulphuric acid. The measure-
ment is effected by the expansion of the air in one of the
bulbs. This instrument is far more sensitive than mercu-
rial and most other thermometers, owing to the greater
expansive power of gases. It is estimated that a change
not greater than the 6000th part of a degree Fahrenheit can
be indicated by it. The differential thermometer has of late
in a great measure been superseded for delicate measure-
ments of temperature by the THERMOPILE (which see).
Differentia/tion is the operation in mathematics by
which the differential of a function is determined. The
allied operation, which leads to the determination of the de-
rived function (or differential coefficient), is usually termed
derivation. The partial differentiation of a function of
two or more independent variables is the differentiation of
that function, on the hypothesis that one only of these
variables suffers change. “Finite differentiation ” is the
operation by which the difference of a function correspond-
ing to a finite difference of the variable is determined. The
term is also used to denote the process of development in
plants and animals from simple to complex organizations.
Diffraction [from the Lat. dif (for dis), “apart,” and
frango, fractum, to “break”], in optics, a deviation or de-
flection which the rays of light undergo in passing very near
any opaque body. It had been observed by Grimaldi, but
Newton first explained its cause. Let a beam of solar light,
reflected horizontally, be admitted into a dark chamber
through a small round hole, and received on a white screen.
If the hole have a sensible diameter, the image of the sun
on the screen will suffer no sensible alteration of color; but
if we place in the axis of the beam, and at a distance of
five or six feet from the hole through which it is admitted,
a metallic plate having a very fine puncture, and inter-
cepting all other light than that which passes through the
puncture, the appearance on the wall will be surrounded
with several concentric colored rings, covering a space far
exceeding in extent that which the solar beam would have
occupied if its rays had followed their rectilinear direction.
By substituting a very narrow slit for the puncture in the
plate, or several punctures or slits close to each other, very
beautiful phenomena are produced. (See OPTICS.)
Diffusion of Gases. See GAs.
Digam’ma [Gr. 8tyappa, “ double gamma,” from 8t,
for 8ts, “double,” and yéupa, “ gamma 2 (the third letter
(T) in the Greek alphabet), so called from its shape (F)], an
ancient aspirate or consonantal Greek letter, chiefly found
in the AEolic dialect. It does not occur in extant literature,
various substitutes having been employed for it, but its
form and name have been preserved by the scholiasts. In
many instances it disappeared altogether from the words
where it was anciently employed; in others it became 8, b,
v, or o, or took the form of a simple rough breathing. In
Latin and in the Teutonic languages we find abundant
traces of the Greek digamma. Thus, the old AEolic pro-
noun Foº (the Attic oi) is the Latin qui; the Latin name
for the city Velia is given in the Greek as ‘YéAm, BéAga, and
"EAsa ; the Greek oikos is the Latin vicus; oivos is vinwm,
and the digamma lost from the Greek vaís reappears in the
Latin navis. The digamma is not found in the Homeric
writings, but its influence is perceptible in the metre, as
was first shown by Bentley. The AEolians called the di-
gamma Fau (the Hebrew Vau), and it was used in Boeo-
tian monumental inscriptions as late as 200 B.C. (See
HEYNE, “Homer’s Iliad” (1802), HERMANN’s “Review of
Heyne” (1803), BoECKH, “On the Versification of Pindar.”
(1809), and the Greek grammars of BUTTMANN, Kü HNER,
and VALPY.) Digamma is the name of one of the most
important definite integrals, now of extensive use in math-
ematics.
Dig'by, a county in the W. of Nova Scotia, bordering
on the Atlantic. The surface is hilly. Copper is found
here. Capital, Digby. Pop. in 1871, 17,037.
Digby, a seaport-town, capital of the above county, is
on the Bay of Fundy and on Digby Neck, about 110 miles
W. of Halifax. It is the seat of an academy. Mackerel
and herrings of good quality are exported from this place.
Shipbuilding and the lumber-trade are largely carried on.
Pop. about 1300.
Digby (GEORGE), earl of Bristol, an English royalist
noted for his instability and inconsistency in politics, was
born in Madrid in 1612. Having been exiled during the
civil war, he went to France and became a Catholic. He
returned home in 1660, and rashly impeached Lord Claren-
don in 1663. He was the author of “Elvira,” a comedy.
Died Mar. 20, 1677.
Digby (Sir KENELM), F. R. S., a learned English author,
1351
a son of SIR. EveRARD (born in 1581, and executed Jan. 30,
1606, for abetting the Gunpowder Plot), was born June 11,
1603. He was a gentleman of the bedchamber at the court
of Charles I., and was a royalist in the civil war. In 1636
he was converted to the Catholic Church. He passed much
time in France, and was an associate of Descartes. His
wife was Venetia Anastasia Stanley, a well-known beauty.
IHe wrote, besides other works, a “Treatise on the Nature
of Bodies’’ (1644), “The Body and Soul of Man,” “ Chemi-
cal Secrets,” a famous treatise on sympathetic cures, and
“Private Memoirs of Sir Kenelm Digby’’ (1827). Died
in London June 11, 1665.
Digby (KENEL.M HENRY), M. P., was born in Ireland
in 1800, was educated at Cambridge, and, having become a
Roman Catholic, devoted himself to scholastic theology and
mediaeval antiquities. He published “The Broad Stone of
Honor” (1829), “Mores Catholici” (1840), “Compitum ”
(1851), and other works, which have many warm admirers,
and are imbued by the nobler characteristics of Middle Age
thought. *
Digest, in legal terminology, is a condensation or sys-
tematic arrangement of laws, statutes, or decisions. The
name is sometimes applied to the Pandects of Justinian.
Digester, Papin’s [named from Denis Papin, a
French savant, who invented it in 1681], an invention by
which bodies may be subjected to the action of high-pres-
sure steam or water raised above its ordinary boiling tem-
perature to 400°F., and sometimes higher. The digester
is a strong boiler made of copper or iron, with a tightly-
adjusted cover furnished with a safety-valve. It has the
power of dissolving even bones, and has been empioyed in
France to a considerable extent in preparing soup from
bones.
Diges/tion [Lat. digestio, from di (for dis), “apart,”
and gero, gestum, to “carry’ (digero, the compound verb,
often means to “distribute,” to “dissolve ’’); Ger. Ver-
dawung], a physiological process observable in all animals
(with the exception of certain entozoa, which appear to
have this work performed by proxy), and which constitutes
one of the distinguishing marks of the animal kingdom.
It is believed that vegetables absorb their nourishment
without any process analogous to digestion; while it is re-
garded as certain that every animal requires to have its
food undergo digestion—that is, a mechanical and chemical
change, effected by the agency of the animal economy,
preparatory to absorption and conversion into nutritive ma-
terial. This process, in man and the higher animals, seems
to commence before the food is swallowed. During masti-
cation the saliva becomes mixed with the food, and imme-
diately begins to convert the starchy parts into grape-Sugar,
a step preliminary to its absorption into the blood. This
process is further carried on by the other secretions of the
alimentary canal; and the sugar thus produced, together
with that eaten in the form of sugar, is absorbed by the
mucous membranes, and passes directly into the blood with-
out change, except that cane-sugar and milk-sugar are
changed (probably for the most part in the intestines) into
grape-sugar before absorption.
The action of the stomach upon food is partly mechan-
ical, partly solvent, and partly chemical. The chemical
action is to some extent catalytic—i.e. not explicable by
ordinary theories of chemical reaction. The gastric juice,
the principal secretion of the stomach, contains two active
elements—free acid (chiefly lactic acid) and pepsin. The
most important part of their action is the solution of the
nitrogenous parts of the food, and their conversion into
albuminose (peptone). The albuminose is absorbed by the
coats of the stomach, and passes directly into the portal
circulation, while the sugar, much of the starch, and prob-
ably all of the fat, pass on to be subjected to the action
of the pancreatic juice, the bile, and the intestinal fluids.
The pancreatic juice has the power of digesting fats by
converting them into a fine emulsion, which is absorbed to
some extent by the veins, but principally by the lacteals.
It also converts cane-sugar and starch into grape-sugar,
which is rapidly absorbed by the intestimal veins. The
pancreatic juice probably completes the digestion of such
albuminous matters as have escaped digestion in the stom-
ach, being assisted in this work by the intestinal secretion.
The bile is believed to be auxiliary to the other secretions
in the intestinal digestion, but its part in the process is by
no means well ascertained. C. W. GREENE.
Digges, an English family, several members of which at-
tained note as scholars and writers.—LEONARD, born at Bar-
ham, was educated at Oxford, and died about 1573. He wrote
“Tectonicon: Measuring of Land,” etc. (1556), an arith-
metic, and a military treatise entitled “Stratonicos,” which
was enlarged by his son THOMAs (died 1596), who edited
his father's works and published “Celestial Orbs,” “Pan-
tometria,” a geometrical work, etc.—SIR DUDLEY, son of
1352
DIGHTON.—DILKE.
the last named (1583–1639), was the author of “Right and
Privileges of the Subject” (1642) and the “Compleat Am-
bassador” (1655).-His son DUDLEY published “ Unlaw-
fulness of Subjects Taking up Arms against their Sov-
ereign º’ (1643). Died in 1642.
Dighſton, a township and post-village of Bristol co.,
Mass., on the Old Colony and Newport R. R., 6 miles S. of
Taunton. It gives its name to the Dighton Rock, a stone
bearing a rude inscription, which has been by some at-
tributed to the Northmen. This rock is in the adjoining
town of Berkley. Dighton has important fisheries, and
manufactures of cotton, shoddy, paper, white lead, and
iron. It has seven churches, and is extensively engaged
in the raising of strawberries. Pop. 1817.
Dig"it [Fr. doigt, from the Lat. digitus, a “finger”], in
arithmetic, one of the ten symbols, 0, 1, 2, 3, etc., by which
all numbers are expressed. In astronomy the term is used
in speaking of eclipses to denote the twelfth part of the
diameter of the sun or moon. Thus the eclipse is said to
be of ten digits if ten parts of twelve of the disk are con-
cealed. It is also a measure of dimension equal to the
breadth of a finger, and estimated at about three-fourths
of an inch. r
Digita/lis [from the Lat. digitale, the “finger of a
glove;” Fr. digitale ; Ger. Fingerhutj, a genus of plants
belonging to the order Serophulariaceae. With the excep-
tion of the common foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), which is
a native of Great Britain, the species are mostly found in
Southern Europe and different parts of Asia. Digitalis
purpurea has narcotic and poisonous leaves and seeds,
which are valued for their medicinal properties. The fresh
Igaves are cathartic and emetic, and when dried are admin-
istered in diseases of the heart, brain, and nervous system,
in which they act as a powerful sedative. They contain a
crystalline principle called digitalin. Several of the species
are cultivated in gardens.
Dig’itate [Lat. digitatus, from digitus, a “finger”], a
botanical term applied to compound leaves, the leaflets of
which are all borne on the apex or tip of the petiole, as
the clover and horse-chestnut. Such leaves are also called
palmate.
Digitigra’da, or Dig’itigrades [from the Lat. dig-
itws, a “finger,” and gradior, to “walk”], a term applied
to those carnivorous quadrupeds that walk on their toes.
A group of Carnivora is so called in the system of Cuvier.
Among the Digitigrada are included the cat, the dog, the
hyaena, weasel, etc.
Digna'no, a town in Austria, province of Triest, in a
fertile region. Pop. 6405.
Digne (anc. Dinia), a town of France, capital of the
department of Basses-Alpes, on the river Bléone, 60 miles
N. E. of Marseilles. It has a cathedral, a public library,
and several tanneries; also a trade in almonds, prunes,
grain, honey, wax, and hemp. It has given title to a bishop
since 340 A. D. Pop. 7002.
Dig’nitary [from the Lat. dignitas, “ dignity’’ or
“worth *]. In the canon law, this term signified origin-
ally an ecclesiastic of higher rank than an ordinary priest.
To this class exclusively belonged all bishops, deans, and
archdeacons, but it now includes also prebendaries and
canons. Any officer of high rank may be called a dignitary.
Digres'sion [Lat. digressio, a “stepping aside,” from
di, “apart,” and gradior, gressus, to “go,” to “step ’’], the
act of deviating or wandering from the main subject or
argument in writing or oral discourse; in astronomy, the
apparent distance of the inferior planets, Mercury and
Venus, from the sun. Mercury is never seen at a greater
distance than about 28° from the sun; this is called its
greatest digression. -
Dihong', also called Sampoo', a large river of Asia,
rises on the N. side of the Himalayas, traverses part of
Thibet, and bursts through that mountain-chain near lat.
28° 15' N. It unites with another river to form the Brahma-
pootra. - -
Dijon (anc. Dibio), a handsome town of France, capital
of the department of Côte-d'Or, is delightfully situated in
a plain on the river Ouche, about 175 miles S. E. of Paris
and 120 miles N. of Lyons, with both of which it is con-
nected by a railway. Its environs are remarkably beau-
tiful. Dijon was formerly the capital of Burgundy. It is
well built, has spacious and clean streets, and is enclosed
by ramparts. Among the principal public edifices are the
palace of the princes of Condé; the cathedral, a Gothic
structure founded in the thirteenth century; the noble
Gothic church of Notre Dame; a theatre and town-hall.
Dijon has a large public library, a botanic garden, and an
académie wºniversitaire ; also manufactures of woollen cloth,
blankets, hosiery, chemical products, and cotton fabrics.
post-office.
Its prosperity is largely derived from the trade in Bur.
gundy wines. Pop. 39,193
Dike [Dutch, dyk ; Ger. Deich; Fr. digue or levée], an
embankment or mound erected on the shore of the sea, or
of a river in order to prevent inundation. Such embank-
ments raised along the Mississippi River are called levées.
The coasts of Holland are protected against the encroach-
ments of the sea by dikes constructed on a grand scale and
in a systematic manner. A large part of that country is
so low that it would be overflowed by the sea during high
tides if it were not protected, partly by natural sandhills
or dunes and partly by artificial dikes. The latter are also
raised on the banks of the Rhine, Waal, and other rivers
near their mouths. The dikes are broad at the base, and
are usually of such magnitude that there is room on the
top for a public road. The fabric is strengthened by wil-
lows, either growing or interwoven as wicker-work on the
sides of the dike, which should present a very gradual
slope towards the sea or river. The Ammophila and other
creeping grasses are carefully cultivated on some of the
dykes, and contribute much to their security. The base is
often faced with masonry, and protected by vast heaps of
stones (usually brought from Norway), and by rows of
piles projecting six or seven feet above ground, connected
by timber, and filled in with fascines weighted with stones.
The most stupendous of these embankments are the dykes
of the Helder and of West Kappel, at the W. extremity
of the island of Walcheren. The term dike, as the equiva-
lent of the Fr. digue, is also applicable to BREAKw ATERs,
JETTIES (which see), and also the stupendous dams of Hol-
land constructed for engineering purposes, the most re-
markable of which is the recent work by which the Y is
isolated from the Zuyder Zee (see CANAL), and also that
by which one of the outlets of the Maas has been obstruct-
ed. (See “Prof. Papers Corps of Engineers,” No. 22.)
REVISED BY J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Dilapida’tion [Lat. dilapidatio, from di (for dis),
“apart,” and lapis (gen. lapidis), a “stone”], originally
the falling apart of the stones in a building, is used in
ecclesiastical law where an incumbent of a benefice suffers
the parsonage-house or outhouses to fall down or decay for
the want of necessary repairs, or commits any wilful waste
of the inheritance of the Church.
Dilem’ma LGr. 8txmupa, from 6t (for 8ts), “twice,”
“double,” and the verbal noun Añupia, an “assumption,”
from Aap Bávo, to “take ;” Lat. dilemma) is a syllogism with
a conditional premiss, used to prove the absurdity or false-
hood of some assertion. A conditional proposition is as-
sumed, of which the antecedent is the assertion to be dis-
proved, and the consequent is a disjunctive proposition
setting forth the supposition on which the assertion can
be true. If the supposition be denied, the assertion must
also be denied. Thus, if A is B, either C is D or E is F;
but C is not D, and E is not F; therefore A is not B. The
dilemma was called the syllogismus cornutus (“horned syl-
logism”), the two members of the consequent being the .
“horns of the dilemma,” on which the adversary is caught.
Since there may be more than two horns to the dilemma
(giving us a trilemma, tetralemma, or polylemma), Hamil-
ton proposes the term hypothetica-disjunctive.
Dilettan’te [from the Lat. diligo, dilectum, to “love”],
an Italian term naturalized in England, France, and Ger–
many, was originally synonymous with an amateur or
lover of the fine arts. It is sometimes applied to a person
who pursues an art without serious purpose or for mere
amusement, and is often used as a term of reproach for
one whose knowledge is superficial and affected.
Dilettan’ti Soci’ety, The, was established in Great
Britain in 1760 to encourage a taste for the fine arts. They
sent an expedition to the East in 1764, and published in
1769 the first part of the “Ionian Antiquities,” the third
part of which appeared in 1840. Chandler’s “Travels in
Asia Minor’’ came out in 1775, and his “Travels in Greece ’’
in 1776. The “Unedited Antiquities of Attica” appeared
in 1817, and “Antique Sculpture” in 1835. The society
consists of fifty members.
Diligence [a Fr. word signifying “diligence,” “speed,”
“promptness”], a four-wheeled public vehicle used in Eu-
rope. The French diligence is very strongly built, and
drawn by four or six horses at the rate of six miles an
hour. The front, called the coupé, holds three persons, the
second compartment (the intérieur) six, and the rotonde,
entered from behind, also holds six. Diligences are also
used in Germany, Italy, Spain, and Russia; the German
diligence (Eilwagen and Postwagen) is attached to the
Diligences are much less used than formerly,
owing to the facilities of railway travel.
Dilke (CHARLEs WENTwoRTH), an English editor, born
Dec. 8, 1789. He purchased in 1830 “The Athenaeum,”
DILKE—DIMINUTIVE.
which he edited with ability and success until 1846. He
was afterwards editor of the “Daily News,” a liberal jour-
nal. Died in 1864. y
Dilke (Sir CHARLEs WENTwoRTH), BART., an English
republican politician, is the grandson of the preceding, and
son of Sir Charles Wentworth Dilke, M. P., editor of the
“Athenaeum,” who was actively connected with the exhibi-
tions of 1851 and 1862. He was born Sept. 4, 1843, edu-
cated at Cambridge, and called to the bar in 1866. He
travelled through the U. S., and on his return published
“Greater Britain, a Record of Travel in English-Speaking
Countries during 1866–67 '' (1868), which speedily passed
through several editions, and procured the author’s election
to Parliament for Chelsea. He is a recognized leader of
the republicans in England. He is the proprietor and
editor of the “Athenaeum.”
Dill, a plant of the order Umbelliferae, having com-
pound umbels, yellow involute petals, dorsally compressed
lenticular fruit, and the border of the calyx minute and
five-toothed. The common dill (Anethum graveolens), an
annual or biennial plant, is a native of Southern Europe
and Asia, and has long been cultivated for its stimulant
and carminative seeds. It is also highly aromatic, and the
leaves are used to flavor sauces, etc. Dill-seed is adminis-
tered in the form of dill-water, obtained from oil of dill, a
pale-yellow essential oil. The fruit of the Amethwm Sowa,
which grows in the East Indies, is used for flavoring and
medicine.) * -,
Dil’lard’s, a township of Etowah co., Ala. Pop. 962.
Dil’len [Lat. Dillenius], (JoBANN JAKOB), M.D., a
German botanist, born at Darmstadt in 1687. In 1721 he
removed to London, where he edited Ray’s “Synopsis of
Plants” (1724). He obtained in 1728 the chair of botany
founded by Sherard at Oxford. He published “Hortus
Elthamensis” (1732) and a good “ History of . Mosses”
(1741). Died April 2, 1747. -
Dillenia’ceae [from Dillenia, one of its genera, named
after the above], a natural order of plants containing about
200 species, allied to the Ranunculaceae and Magnoliaceae.
They are mostly trees or shrubs, and natives of tropical
countries. . They have thick, leathery leaves, without sti-
pules, and generally alternate; flowers sometimes in ra-
cemes, sometimes solitary, with five persistent sepals and
five deciduous petals; numerous stamens; fruit consisting
of two to five carpels, and the seeds have an aril. They
are generally astringent, and several species are valued as
medicine, while others are excellent as timber. Many of
the Dillenias are conspicuous for the beauty of their flower
and foliage.
Dil/lingen, a town of Bavaria, in the circle of Suabia,
on the Danube, 24 miles N. W. of Augsburg. It is enclosed
by old walls, has a palace, three Catholic churches, a gym-
nasium, and a Catholic institution for deaf and dumb girls,
with which is also connected, since 1869, an institution for
cretins. The university, which was established in 1554,
and was a chief seat of the Jesuits, was suppressed in 1809.
The town has also manufactures of cutlery. Pop. 5220.
Dil/lingham (PAUL) was born in Shutesbury, Mass.,
in 1800, removed with his father to Waterbury, Vt., in 1805,
was admitted to the bar in 1824, was a member of Con-
gress (1843–47), and was governor of Vermont (1865–67).
Dill’mann (CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH AUGUST), a German
theologian and Orientalist, born in 1823, became professor
of exegetical theology at Tübingen in 1853, of Oriental lan-
guages at Kiel in 1854, of exegetical theology at Giessen in
1861, and at Berlin in 1869. He chiefly distinguished him-
self by his works on the Ethiopic language, among the most
important of which are “Grammatik der Æthiopischen
Sprache” (1857), “ Chrestomathia Athiopica,” (1866),
“Lexicon linguæ AEthiopicae" (3 parts, 1862–65), an edi-
tion of the old Ethiopic version of the Bible (1855–73) and
of the apocryphal book of Enoch (1851), and author of
the able article on the ETHIOPIC LANGUAGE in the present
work. *
Dil’Ion, a post-village of Bolton township, Brome co.,
Quebec (Canada), has important copper-mines. Pop.
about 400.
Pillon, a township of Klamath co., Cal. Pop. exclu-
sive of Indians, 79.
Dillon, a post-township of Tazewell co., Ill. P. 1126.
Dillon (John B.), an American author, born in Brooke
co., Va., about 1807. His parents removed to Ohio in his
infancy. He became a printer in his youth, and contributed
poetical articles to various journals. In 1834 he removed
to Indiana, where he became well known as a lawyer, a
writer, and a friend of education. He published “Historical
Notes” (1842) and a “History of Indiana” (1859).
Dillon, WISCOUNTs (Ireland,1622).--THEOBALD DOMINICK
1353
GEOFFREY DILLON LEE, fifteenth viscount, born April 5,
1811, succeeded his brother in 1865.
Dills/burg, a post-borough of York co., Pa. Pop. 281.
Dilman’, a town of Persia, in the province of Azer-
bijan, 50 miles N. N. W. of Ooroomeeyah. It is about 4
miles E. of an old ruined town of the same name. It is
surrounded by gardens and orchards. Pop. about 15,000.
‘I)iſu’vial [from the Lat. diluvium, a “deluge”], a geo-
logical term applied to deposits that are the result of a
flood, or accumulations of gravel and angular stones which
have been produced by a sudden and extraordinary rush of
Water.
Dilu'vium, a Latin word signifying DELUGE (which
see). This term was applied by the older geologists to cer-
tain gravels and comparatively recent deposits which ap-
pear to be the result of a deluge, in order to distinguish
them from the fine sand and mud which is washed down
by rivers, and is called alluvium. The term diluvium is
now chiefly used to designate the gravels of one geological
period—namely, that of the boulder clay.
Diſma, a large town of Abyssinia, in Amhara, 150
miles S. E. of Gondar. It has a large church and many
stone houses. -
Diſman (Rev. JEREMIAH LEwis), D. D., was born at
Bristol, R.I., May 1, 1831, graduated at Brown University,
1851, and at Andover Theological Seminary, 1856, spend-
ing in the mean time two years in study abroad. He was
settled over the First Congregational church in Fall River,
Mass., in 1856, and over the Harvard church in Brook-
line, Mass., in 1860. In 1864 he was elected professor of
history and political economy in Brown University. He
has published numerous addresses and articles in the lead-
ing reviews, and takes high rank as an accomplished Scholar
and Orator.
Dime [from the Fr. disme, the “tenth part,” a “tithe ”
(from the Lat. decimus, “tenth *)], a silver coin of the
U. S. equivalent to ten cents or one-tenth of a dollar. It
was formerly written disme.
Dimen’sion [Lat. dimensio, from di, “apart,” and
metior, mensus, to “measure *], measure in a single line,
extension. Dimensions, in the plural, signifies length,
breadth, and thickness. In geometry, a lime, whether
straight or curved, has only one dimension—namely,
length; a surface has two—length and breadth ; and a
solid has three dimensions—length, breadth, and thickness.
In algebra, the term dimension is applied in nearly the
same sense as degree, to express the number of literal fac-
tors that enter into a term. -
Dimſick (JUSTIN), an American officer, born Aug. 5,
1800, in Connecticut, graduated at West Point in 1819;
colonel First Artillery Oct. 26, 1861. He served chiefly at
seaboard posts 1819–59; at the Military Academy 1822;
on ordnance duty 1834–35; in Florida war 1836 (brevet
major), where he killed two Seminole savages in personal
encounter; in suppressing Canada border disturbances
1838–39; in military occupation of Texas 1845–46; in the
war with Mexico 1846–48, engaged at Palo Alto, Resaea de
la Palma, La Hoya, Contreras, and Churubusco (brevet
lieutenant-colonel), Chapultepec (brevet colonel), and the
city of Mexico; in the Florida hostilities 1849–50 and
1856–57; on the Western frontier 1859; in command of
the artillery school for practice 1859–61; in charge of Fort
Warren dépôt of prisoners 1861–64; and governor of
“Soldiers’ Home,” near Washington, 1864–68. Brevet
'brigadier-general U. S. A. Mar. 13, 1865, for long, gallant.
and faithful services to his country, and retired from active
service Aug. 1, 1863. Died Oct. 13, 1871, at Philadelphia,
Pa., aged 71. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Dimid/iate [from the Lat. dimidius, “half,” from
di, “through,” and medium, the “middle”], divided into
halves. “In botany, a leaf which has only one side devel-
oped, and a stamen which has only one lobe, are called
dimidiate.
Diminuen’do [the It. gerund of diminatire, to “di-
minish *), the same as DECRESCENDO (which see).
Diminuſtion [Lat. diminutio, from minuo, minutum,
to “lessen”], the act of making or becoming less; decrease;
in architecture, the gradual decrease in the diameter of a
column from the base to the upper end. In heraldry, the
word diminutions is sometimes used for differences, marks
of cadency, and brisures indifferently. - -
Dimin’utive [Lat. diminutivus, from di, intensive, and
minuo, to “lessen;” Fr. diminutif; It. diminutivoj, a term
applied to a derivative word, formed by the addition of one
or more syllables in such a way as to soften its meaning or
diminish its original force. All languages are susceptible
of diminutives, but the Italian surpasses all others, both
ancient and modern, in this respect.
W
1354
DIMITY-DINORNIS,
Dim’ity [from Damietta in Egypt, where it was for-
merly manufactured], a cotton fabric of thick texture, and
generally figured or striped. It was formerly much used
for bed-hangings and window-curtains. The figure or stripe
is raised on one side and depressed on the other, so that
the two faces present reversed patterns.
Dim’mick, a township of La Salle co., III. Pop. 1222.
Dim ſock, a post-township of Susquehanna co., Pa.
Pop. 1124.
Dimor'phism [from the Gr. 8ts,
* twice” or “two,” and popóñ, a “form *],
the property of assuming two distinct crys-
talline forms. (See DIMORPHous.)
Dimor'phous, a term applied to a body
which has the property of crystallizing in
two distinct forms, as, for example, sulphur
and some other solids. Sulphur, as found
crystallized, naturally presents itself in
crystals of the form of octahedra, with a
rhombic base, and thus belongs to the pris–
matic system; but when sulphur is heated
to fusion, and then slowly cooled, prismatic
crystals are obtained which belong to the
oblique system. The latter form of sulphur
is not permanent. Carbon affords another sº
t & * s - & §º
example of dimorphism. Éj sº
Diſnaburg, a strongly fortified town of āş
Russia, is in the government of Vitebsk, on
the river Düna, where it is crossed by the
railway from Warsaw to St. Petersburg,
about 120 miles S. E. of Riga. Another. "
railway connects Dinaburg with Riga. It
is an important military position, and has
an active trade. Pop. in 1869, 29,613.
Dinagepoor', a district of British
India, province of Bengal, has an area of
3820 square miles. The surface is nearly
level. Rice is the staple product of the
soil. Pop. in 1872, 1,501,924.
Dinagepoor, a city of India, the capital of the above
district, 250 miles N. of Calcutta. It is meanly built. Pop.
about 30,000. -
Dinam, an old town of France, department of Côtes-
du-Nord, on the river Rance, 30 miles N. W. of Rennes.
It stands on a hill of granite about 250 feet above the
river, is enclosed by walls and defended by a castle. It
has a handsome cathedral, a public library, a college, and
a town-hall. Here are manufactures of linen and cotton
fabrics, sailcloth, hats, beet-root sugar, etc. The Rance is
navigable from its mouth to Dinam. Pop. 8510.
Dinant’ [Lat. Dinantium], a town of Belgium, prov-
ince of Namur, is on the river Meuse, 15 miles S. of Na-
mur. It is on the declivity of a rocky hill, and is sur-
rounded by picturesque scenery. It has a Gothic cathedral,
a town-house, and two hospitals; also manufactures of
cutlery, paper, Woollen goods, hats, and leather. Dinant
was founded in the sixth century, was strongly fortified as
early as the twelfth century, and has suffered much from
sieges. Pop. 7208. -
Dimapoor', a town and important military station of
British India, province of Bengal, on the right bank of the
Ganges, about 12 miles above Patna. Here are spacious
barracks, and about 3200 houses, mostly of mud.
Dinar’ic Alps [Lat. Alpes Dinarica], the portion of .
the Alpine system which connects the Julian Alps with the
western ranges of the Balkan, and occupies part of Croatia,
Dalmatia, and Herzegovina. The highest summits aré
Mount Dinara and Mount Prolok, the former of which
rises about 6000 feet above the sea. The rocks of this
range are mostly limestone. -
Dindigul’, a town of India, in the British diffrict of
Madura and presidency of Madras, 259 miles S. W. of the
city of . Madras. Here is a fort on a naked steep rock
which rises 280 feet. Pop. 9000.
Din'dorf (WILHELM), a German philologist, born at
Leipsie Jan. 21, 1802. He became professor of history and
literature in Leipsic in 1828, but resigned in 1833 in order
to devote himself to the publication of a new edition of the
“Thesaurus” of Stephanus, which his brother Ludwig Din-
dorf and Hase had begun' in Paris. He also wrote com-
mentaries on AEschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and pre-
pared an edition of Demosthenes for the University of 'Ox-
ford (1849).
Dingºeistedt, von (FRANZ), a German poet, born at
Halsdorf, in Hesse, Jan, 30, 1814. He wrote popular po-
litical poems entitled “Songs of a Cosmopolitan Night-
Watch” (1840). He was appointed librarian to the king
at Stuttgart in 1843, intendant of the royal theatre of
& %
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§ Nº - [.
Ş.
º - § §
º § S.
\{\º º
º
ºğ%
. IſlO3.
Munich in 1850, director of the court opera at Vienna
in 1867, and director of the burg theatre of Vienna in
1871. Among his works are “The House of Barneveldt,”
a tragedy (1850), and a poem called “Night and Morning”
(1851). -
Ding’man, a township of Pike co., Pa. Pop. 519.
TXin'go, an Australian dog, supposed to be a distinct
species by some naturalists. It is sometimes found domes-
ticated.
The wild dingo is somewhat larger than a shep-
l,
§§
| sº & sº
º
§
;
§
º
--i
-º
\
§§
3.
Dingo.
herd's dog, of a tawny color, with a large head, ears short
and erect, and tail bushy. In its wild state it does not bark.
Dinich'thys [Gr. Setvös, “terrible,” and tx00s, “fish”],
a remarkable placoderm fish found in the upper Devonian
rocks of Ohio, and described by Prof. Newberry. It was
allied to Coccostews, but was very much larger; the head
was three feet in length, the lower jaws two feet long and
very massive, the central dorsal shield two feet in diameter,
etc. One species was without proper teeth, but the jaws
played on each other like huge shears.
Dink'elsbühl, a walled town of Bavaria, district of
Middle Franconia, on the river Wernitz, 44 miles S. W.
of Nuremberg, was formerly a free city of the empire. It
has a Latin school, and manufactures of hosiery, coarse
linen, paper, gloves, etc. Pop. in 1871, 52.13.
Dinor/mis [from the Gr. 8evvös, “terrible,” and Öpwis, a
“bird”], an extinct genus of gigantic birds of the tribe
ſº
| º
º:
hº
§§
|
Dinornis (restored).
Brevipennes, of which the bones have been found in the
most recent deposits of New Zealand. In the traditions
of that country these birds are known by the name of
They are said to have been much esteemed, both
































































DINOSAURIA—DIOGENES OF APOLLONIA.
1355
for their flesh and gaudy plumage, and are described as fat
and stupid birds, incapable of flying, but feeding on vege-
table food, and living in forests. Their bones, which ap-
pear to confirm this description, are not properly fossil or
mineralized, but retain a great part of their animal mat-
ter. It is perhaps not impossible that some of the smaller
species of dinornis may still exist, but the larger ones are
undoubtedly extinct. Some of the bones of these birds are
at least twice the size of those of the ostrich. The frame-
work of the leg is the most massive of any in the class of
birds, and the bones are remarkable for their solidity, the
toe-bones of Dinornis elephantopes almost rivalling those
of the elephant. The bones of several species of dinornis
have been described. *
Dinosau’ria [Gr. 8etvös, “terrible” or “wonderful,” and
oraúpos, a “lizard”], the name of an order of extinct sau-
rians found in the oolite, lias, and wealden. Their struc-
ture resembled the mammalian type more than others of
their kind. They had four strong limbs, and the sacrum
was composed of five amalgamated vertebrae. The Mega-
losaurus, Iguanodon, and Hylaeosaurus are the principal
genera of this order.
Dinotheºrium [Gr. 8sivös, “terrible,” and 9eptov, a
“beast ’’), an extinct animal, the remains of which have
been found in the miocene formations of France and Ger-
many. It had long tusks like the elephant and walrus;
these projected from the end of the lower jaw, which was
bent downward at a right angle to the body of the jaw. .
Besides the two tusks, it had five double-ridged grinders
on each side of both jaws, and the nasal cavity was large.
As no bones of the body or limbs have been found cor-
responding with those of the skull, the position of the
dinotherium has not been determined. , De Blainville sup-
posed it to be a herbivorous cetacean, while Cuvier regarded
it as allied to the tapir, and others to the dugong.
Dins' moor (Gen. SAMUEL) was born at Londonderry,
N. H., July 1, 1766, and graduated at Dartmouth in 1789.
He was for many. years general of militia and judge of
probate, was a member of Congress (1811–13), and gov-
ernor of New Hampshire (1831–34). Died at Keene Mar.
15, 1835.
Dinsmoor (SAMUEL), LL.D., a son of the foregoing,
was born at Keene, N. H., May 8, 1799, graduated at Dart-
mouth in 1814, and became a lawyer. He was governor
of New Hampshire (1849–53). Died Feb. 24, 1869.
lºns'more, a post-township of Shelby co., O. Pop.
Dinwid’die, a county in the S. E. of Virginia. Area,
540 square miles. . It is bounded on the N. by the Appo-
mattox River, and on the S. W. by the Nottoway. The
surface is undulating. Wool, grain, and tobacco are raised,
and tobacco is manufactured here. The Southside R. R.
and the railroad which connects Petersburg with Weldon
pass through this county. Capital, Dinwiddie Court-house.
Pop. 30,702.
Dinwiddie (ROBERT) was born in Scotland about
1690. He was appointed governor of Virginia in 1752,
and filled that office until 1758, when he returned to Eng- ſ
land. Died in Clifton, England, Aug. 1, 1770.
Dinwiddie Court-house, a post-village, capital of
Dinwiddie co., Va., is on Stony Creek, 35 miles S. by W.
from Richmond.
Di’ocese [from the Gr. 8t (for 8.4), “through,” and
oikéo, to “manage a household”), the name given to the
district under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of a bishop,
was formerly used to designate the collection of churches
under the care of an archbishop. Under Constantine the
Great the Roman empire was divided into thirteen civil
territories called dioceses, which were again subdivided
into 120 provinces. These dioceses were governed either
by prefects, proconsuls, or vicars, and the provinces by rec-
tors. Before 400 B. C. the Church had a similar division,
the dioceses being what are now termed patriarchates.
Diocle/tian [Lat. Diocletianus], or, more fully, Caius
Valerius Aurelius Diocletianus, a Roman emperor,
born of humble parentage in Dalmatia in 245 A. D. He
served with distinction in the army under Aurelian and
Probus. On the death of Numerianus, in 284, he was pro-
claimed emperor by the army at Chalcedon. In the year
286 he adopted Maximian as his colleague in the empire,
which was disturbed by incursions of barbarians and men-
aced by the Persians. They suppressed revolts in Gaul,
and in order to divide the labor of ruling so vast an em-
pire chose Galerius and Constantius Chlorus as their as-
sistants in 292 A. D., and gave them the title of caesar.
This was the beginning of the division of the empire into
Eastern and Western. Diocletian reserved to himself
Asia and Egypt; Maximian received power over Italy and
Africa; Thrace and Illyricum were assigned to Galerius;
and Gaul and Spain to Constantius Chlorus. The Suprem-
acy of Diocletian (whose court was at Nicomedia) was
acknowledged by the other three. After this distribution
of power the Roman armies gained successes in Egypt,
Persia, and Britain. Diocletian protected or omitted to
persecute the Christians until 303 A. D., when a persecu-
tion was commenced at the instigation of Galerius. Dio-
cletian abdicated the throne in 305 A. D. in favor of Gale-
rius, and retired to Salona, in Dalmatia, where he devoted
his time to horticulture. Died in 313 A. D. He was a ruler
of superior talents. (See GIBBON, “Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire;” TILLEMONT, “Histoire des Empereurs;”
VogFL, “Der Kaiser Diocletian,” 1857.)
Diocletian Era (called also the Era of Martyrs,
on account of the persecution in Diocletian’s reign) was
used by Christian writers until the introduction of the
Christian era in the sixth century, and is still employed by
the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day on
which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon,
Aug. 29, 284 A. D. -
Dioda’ti (John), a Calvinistic theologian, born of an
Italian family at Geneva June 6, 1576. He was appointed
professor of Hebrew at his native place in 1597, and became
professor of theology there in 1609. In 1618 he repre-
sented the church of Geneva in the Synod of Dort, where
his reputation was so high that he was one of the persons
appointed to write the articles of faith. He produced Ital-
ian and French translations of the Bible, and wrote several
treatises against the doctrines of the Roman Catholic
Church. Died Oct. 3, 1649.
Di’odon [from the Gr. 8, (for 8ts), “double,” and 38o0s
(gen. 886Vros), “tooth,” because all the teeth of each jaw are
united into one], the name of a genus of marine fishes of the
order Plectogmathes, without distinct teeth, but having the
jaws covered with an ivory-like substance, which is formed
by the blending of the teeth into one. Some of them have
the power of filling their stomachs with air and assuming a
globular form, whence they are called globe-fish; others
are designated porcupine-fish from their numerous spines,
which stand out like those of a hedge-hog. Most of the
diodons of our Atlantic waters are called balloon-fish.
They are of several species.
Diodo/rus Sic’ulus, a Greek historian, born at Agy-
rium in Sicily, flourished about 50–20 B.C. He travelled
in Europe and Asia in order to collect materials for a uni-
versal history, and afterwards became a resident of Rome.
He expended many years in the composition of his history,
which is entitled “Historical Library” (“BigAio9ákm
to ropuriff’’), in forty books. It is a history of the world from
the earliest times to 60 B. C. As an historian he is defi-
cient in critical judgment and other qualifications, but he
has preserved important facts. Fifteen entire books of
his work, and some fragments of the others, are extant.
Among the best editions of his works are those by Bekker
(4 vols., 1853–54) and by L. Dindorf (5 vols., 1867–68).
Diog'enes [Gr. Atoyévms], a famous Cynic philosopher,
born at Sinope in Asia Minor, flourished about 400–330
B. C. He was a pupil of Antisthenes at Athens. His
habits were austere, eccentric, and frugal. He inured him-
self to extreme privations, and manifested or affected a
contempt for the comforts of life, as well as for the customs
of the world. According to tradition, he usually lodged in
a cask or tub. He was a severe and caustic censor of the
follies and vices of the Athenians, who allowed him a great
latitude of comment and reproof. He was renowned for
his witty and sarcastic sayings. He once received a visit
from Alexander the Great, who inquired, “What can I do
for you?” Diogenes replied, “Cease to stand between me.
and the sun.” Having been captured by pirates, who
offered him for sale in a slavé-market of Crete, he was
asked what he could do, and replied, “I can govern men;
therefore sell me to some man who needs a master.” He
was purchased by Xeniades, a citizen of Corinth, who was
a kind master, and soon liberated him and employed him
as tutor of his children. Diogenes died about 323 B. C.
(See RITTER, “History of Philosophy;” GRIMALDI, “Vita
di Diogene Cynico,” 1777.)
Diogenes Laerſtius [Gr. Avoyévis à Acéptuos], a Greek
compiler, born at Laertes in Cilicia. The period in which
he lived is not known, nor is anything known of his per-
sonal history, except that he compiled “The Lives and
Doctrines of the Ancient Philosophers.” It contains in-
teresting information and anecdotes, with extracts from
lost works, but is destitute of critical merit, and is not
well planned nor well digested. Among the best editions
of it is that published by Hübner (Leipsic, 4 vols., 1828–33).
Diogenes of Apollonia, an ancient Greek philoso-
pher, born in Crete, was a disciple of Anaximenes. He
lived about 470 B.C., and taught philosophy at Athens.
1856 DIOMEDEA–DIONYSIUS THE ELDER.
He regarded air as the first principle of all things, and
wrote a work on nature or cosmology, which is not extant.
Diomedea. See ALBATRoss.
Diſomede Islands, a group of three small islands in
the middle of Behring's Strait, midway between Asia and
America.
Diome/des, often anglicised Di’omede or Diſomed
[Gr. Atopičms], a brave Greek warrior and king of Argos,
celebrated in the ancient legends as a son of Tydeus (hence
he was called TYDIDEs), and a favorite of Minerva. He
fought with distinction at the siege of Troy, and, accord-
ing to Homer, ventured to attack Mars, who defended the
Trojans. Diomedes and Ulysses are said to have carried
away the Palladium of Troy. Some writers relate that
after the capture of Troy he settled in Italy.
Diomedes, a king of the Bistones in Thrace, is fabled
to have fed his horses on human flesh. He was slain by
Hercules.
Diſon [Gr. Atov], an eminent statesman of Syracuse,
born about 410 B.C., inherited an ample fortune from his
father. He acquired great influence at the court of Dion-
ysius the Elder, who had married Aristomache, a sister of
Dion. He was a pupil and intimate friend of Plato, who
taught at Syracuse. After the accession of Dionysius the
Younger, Dion persuaded him to invite Plato to return to
Syracuse. The virtue and austere morals of Dion rendered
him obnoxious to the dissolute tyrant and his courtiers.
He was banished, and took refuge at Athens, leaving at
Syracuse his wife Arete, who was compelled to marry an-
other man. In order to revenge himself and liberate his
country, he raised a small body of troops in 357 B. C., and
attacked Syracuse, which he occupied without much resist-
ance. He expelled Dionysius, but was soon deprived of
power by the intrigues of Heraclides. Dion was recalled
by the people, but he was assassinated by Calippus about
354 B. C. (See “Life of Dion,” by PLUTARCH, who com-
pares him to Marcus Brutus; CoRNELIUS NEPOs, “Dion.”)
Dion, or Dio, surnamed CHRYSOSTOM (“golden-
mouthed”), a Greek sophist or rhetorician, born at Prusa.
in Bithynia, about 50 A. D. He received a liberal educa-
tion, which was perfected by travel. He became a resident
of Rome in 96 A.D., and gained the favor of Nerva and
Trajan. The latter esteemed him so highly that he per-
mitted him to ride in the imperial chariot. Dion died about
117 A.D., and left numerous orations, of which eighty are
extant. They are remarkable for beauty of style and Attic
purity of language. Best edition by Emperius, Bruns., 1844.
Dionae'a [a name of Venus], a genus of plants of the
matural order Drosera- tº ºilA ºff
ceae, having five petals, gº iºn
calyx 5-partite, from ten gº:
to twenty stamens, and º
one style, with five unit- Nºt º
ed stigmas. One species Nº
only is known, Diomaea, # g
mwscipula, commonly
called Venus's flytrap.
It grows in marshy
ground in the southern
parts of North America
as far N. as the Caro- |
linas. The plant is pe- |
rennial, with a rosette :
of root-leaves, from the v
midst of which a scape
about six inches high &
arises, terminating in a
corymb of white flowers.
It derives its popular
name from the singular
irritability of its leaves.
The elongated leaf-stalk
is winged, and bears an -
orbicular leaf at its ex- ºft #####
tremity, having the mar- JDiomasa ; Venus's Flytrap.
gin set round with long
bristly hairs. On its upper surface are many small glands,
and three slender irritable hairs on each side, so that an
insect can hardly cross the leaf without touching one of
them, when the two sides of the leaf instantly close together,
the marginal bristles crossing each other, and thus prevent-
ing any possibility of escape. The leaf remains closed
until the insect is dead. Insects appear to be attracted by
the juice from the glands. That the plant derives nourish-
ment from the bodies of the insects has been conjectured,
and is now regarded as certain.
Di’on Cas/sius, Dio Cassius, or, more fully, Cas-
sius Dion Cocceia/mus, an eminent historian, born at
Nicaea, in Bithynia about 155 A. D., was descended from
§
\\
§§
%.ſº
āş
Dion Chrysostom. He became a Roman senator in the
reign of Commodus, and was chosen consul in the year
229, through the influence of the emperor Alexander Sev-
erus. He wrote in Greek a “History of Rome * in eighty
books, from the arrival of Æneas to 229 A. D. Only eigh-
teen books (from 36 to 54) have been preserved entire. As
a historian he is commended for accuracy in dates, dil-
igence in research, and elegance of style. Among the best
editions of Dion Cassius are those of Bekker (2 vols., 1849)
and L. Dindorf (5 vols., 1863–65).
Dionys’ia [Gr. Avoviſorvo.] were great annual festivals in
honor of Dionysus (Bacchus), and are said to have been
introduced into Greece from Egypt in 1415 B.C. They
were of four kinds—the rural or lesser, the Lenaean, the
Anthesterian, and the great Dionysia. They were chiefly
celebrated at Athens. (See BoECKH, “Abhandlung Berliner
Akademie,” 1816–17, pp. 47–124.)
Dionys’ius Exig'uus, a learned monk, born in
Scythia, was a friend of Cassiodorus. He lived at Rome,
and wrote several works, among which is a collection of
apostolical canons and decisions of councils. He fixed the
year of the Incarnation as coincident with the year 753
of Rome. He was the first who computed the Christian
era, from the birth of Christ, instead of his death. His
name Exiguus, “the little,” refers to his small stature.
Died about 556.
Dionys’ius of Halicarnas'sus [Gr. Atoviſorvos & ‘AAt-
kapwagore'ſs], an eminent Greek historian and critic, born at
IHalicarnassus in Caria about 70 B.C. From his own writ-
ings we learn that he removed to Rome in 30 B.C., and
passed more than twenty years in that capital in the study.
of Latin and in the composition of a history (in Greek)
entitled “Roman Antiquities” (“‘Papaikī, ‘Apxavox.oyia ''),
in twenty books. Nine entire books, and fragments of the
others, are extant. This work includes the period from the
origin of Rome to 265 B. C. He is not considered a high
authority as an historian, but he has a good reputation as a
critic. Among his critical works are a “Treatise on Rhet-
oric" and “De Compositione Verborum.” Died about 6 B.C.
The best edition of his works is that of Reiske, 6 vols., Leips.,
1774–77; text of Rom. Antiq. by Kiessling (4 vols., 1860–70.)
TXionysius, SAINT, a native of Alexandria, was a dis-
ciple of Origen. He became patriarch of Alexandria in
248 A. D., and was driven out of that city by severe perse-
cution in 250. In 257 A. D. the persecution was renewed,
and Dionysius was banished to Libya, but he was restored
in the year 260. He wrote many letters and religious trea-
tises, which are not extant. Died in 265 A. D.
Dionysius the Areop'agite is mentioned in the
Acts of the Apostles (chap. xvii. 34) as one of the persons
converted at Athens by the apostle Paul. He is supposed
to have been a member of the court of the Areopagus when
Paul appeared before that tribunal. According to an early
tradition, he was the first bishop of Athens, and, according
to a later tradition, suffered martyrdom there. In France
he has been confounded with the Dionysius who went as
missionary bishop to Paris about the middle of the third
century. The spurious mystical writings which bear his
name appear to have had their origin in Egypt during the
fifth century. In the ninth century they were brought
into Western Europe, and translated into Latin by Scotus
Erigena.
Dionysius [Gr. Atoviſorios] the Elder, a celebrated
tyrant of Syracuse, born about 430 B.C. He was in his
youth an obscure private citizen, and became a general in
the service of the republic of Syracuse when Sicily was in-
vaded by the Carthaginians. In the year 405 he usurped
the supreme power in Syracuse, which then ceased to be a
republic. He suppressed several insurrections of his sub-
jects, and in 397 B. C. commenced or renewed hostilities
against the Carthaginians, who then held some towns in
Sicily. His fleet was defeated by the Carthaginians, who
besieged Syracuse, but their success was hindered by a pes-
tilence, and Dionysius gained a decisive victory over them
after they had lost great numbers by disease. He also
captured several towns in Sicily, and made conquests on
the Italian peninsula. He was an able ruler, displayed
superior political talents, and was one of the most powerful
princes of his time. At the request of Dion he invited
Plato to his court, but the lectures of that philosopher
offended the tyrant, who ordered the captain of a ship to
take Plato away and sell him as a slave. He was ambi-
tious of literary fame, and wrote poems and tragedies, some
of which he sent to the Olympic games, but he failed to
obtain a prize. It is stated that in the latter part of his
life he was very suspicious, and took many precautions
against the traitors and conspirators who (he imägined) in-
tended to kill him. He died in 367 B. C., and was suc-
ceeded by his son Dionysius. (See GROTE, “History of


DIONYSIUS THE YOUNGER—DIPHTHERIA.
1857
Gréece,” part ii., chaps. lxxxi.-lxxxiii.; THORKIL BADEN
3 5 5 5
“Res Gestæ Dionysii Syracusii recognitae,” 1795.)
Dionysius the Younger, tyrant of Syracuse, was a
son of the preceding, whom he succeeded in 367 B. C.
He was indolent, dissolute, and inferior to his father in
political talents. He was persuaded by Dion to invite
Plato to his court, but the eloquence and wisdom of that
philosopher were unavailing to reform him. Dionysius
banished Dion, who in 357 B. C. returned with a small
army and expelled the tyrant. The latter fled to Locri,
and became the despotić ruler of that city. He recovered
power in Syracuse about the year 346, soon after which
the oppressed Syracusans applied for aid to the Corinth-
ians, who sent Timoleon with an army in 344 B. C.
Dionysius was then deposed, and went as an exile to Cor-
inth, where he is said to have taught school. (See GROTE,
“History of Greece,” part ii., chaps. lxxxiv., lxxxv.)
Diony'sus [Gr. Atóvvaros or Avdāvvoros], the original Greek
name of the god of wine. (See BACCHUs.)
Diophantine [from DroPHANTUs (which see)] Anal’-
ysis, a branch of algebra not reducible to systematic rule,
which treats of indeterminate problems, principally such as
involve square or cube numbers, or the relations of the parts
of right-angled triangles; and in which integral or com-
mensurable values are found for the indeterminates by
means of artifices suggested by the nature or conditions
of the problems themselves. Success in this rather fasci-
nating but not particularly useful branch of investigation
depends very much upon the ingenuity of the investigator.
An example of a Diophantine problem is the following:
To find three numbers such that the sum of their squares
shall be a square. The numbers are 2, 3, and 6, or any
equimultiples of these.
Diophan’tus [Gr. Atóðavros], a Greek mathematician
who lived at Alexandria, probably between 200 and 400
A. D. He is the author of the most ancient extant treatise
on algebra, and is the reputed inventor of algebra, accord-
ing to Lagrange and others. . He wrote an important work
called “Arithmetica,” in thirteen books, of which only six
are extant.
Diop'sis [from the Gr. 8:4, “through " or “aeross,”
also “apart,” and Šipts, “vision ”], the name of a genus
of dipterous insects remarkable for having the eyes and
antennae at the end of long, horny stalks growing from the
sides of the head. In some instances the distance of the
eyes from the head is almost as great as the length of the
wings. -
Diop'trics [from the Gr. 8torrpov, “anything which
one looks through,” a “transparent substance” (from Stá,
“ through,” and the obsolete verb étr+o, to “see”)], that
branch of geometrical optics which treats of the refraction
of light, or of the changes which take place in the direction
of rays transmitted from one medium to another (as from
air to water, etc.), or through media of varying density.
It is applied chiefly in the construction of telescopes, micro-
scopes, and other instruments requiring the use of refract-
ing lenses. (See OPTICs and LENs.) (See LITTRow, “Di-
optrik,” 1830; PRECHTE, “Practische Dioptrik,” 1828.)
Dioptric System, an arrangement of lenses for con-
densing light in lighthouses, devised by Fresnel about
1819, based on the discoveries of Buffon, Condorcet, Brew-
ster, and others. (See LIGHTHOUSEs, by PROF. Joseph
HENRY, LL.D.)
Diora'ma [from the Gr. 8t (for Stă), “through,” and
5papa, “ that which is seen” (from épáto, to “see '')], a mode
of Scenic display invented by Daguerre and Bouton, and
first exhibited in Paris in 1822. The painting is viewed
through a large aperture or proscenium, beyond which it
is placed at such a distance that the light is thrown upon
it at a proper angle from the roof, which is glazed with
ground glass, and cannot be seen by the spectator, who is
in comparative darkness, receiving no other light than
what is reflected from the painting itself. By means of
shutters or curtains the light may be diminished or in-
creased at pleasure; and some parts of the picture being
transparent, light may be admitted through it—an artifice
which secures the advantages of painting in transparency
without its defects. -
Dioscorea/ceae [from Dioscorea, one of the general,
a natural order of plants, ranked by Lindley among the
DICTYoGENs (which see), mostly natives of tropical coun-
tries. They are classed among endogenous plants by most
botanists. They are twining shrubs with large tubers
either above or under ground. The most important plants
of the order are the species of Dioscorea or YAM (which
see). The order comprises one British plant, the black
bryony, and the Dioscorea villosa, which grows in many
parts of the U. S. -
Dioscor’ides Peda’nius [Avogroupiðms IIešávios], a
Greek botanist, born at Anazarba in Cilicia, lived between
50 and 200 A. D. He travelled in Asia Minor, Greece, and
Italy to procure information about plants, and wrote a cele-
brated work on materia medica (in Greek), in which he
describes or names more than 500 plants. This work was
regarded as the highest authority for fifteen centuries or
more, and was universally used by medical and botanical
students. Best edition by Sprengel, 2 vols., Leips., 1829–30.
Dioscu'ri [Gr. Atórkovpot], (i. e. “sons of Jupiter”), a
name given to CASTOR AND POLLUX (which see).
Dios/ma [from the Gr. 8toogos, “transmitting smell,”
or perhaps “having a strong smell” (from Štá, “through,”
and bagſ, “smell”)], a genus of plants of the natural order
Rutaceae and Linnaean class Pentandria. The buchu leaves
are obtained from the Diosma cremata and other species.
Diospy/ros [probably the 8tórirupov of Theophrastus, a
name signifying in Greek the “wheat” or “bread of Zeus”],
a large genus of trees of the ebony family, comprising about
one hundred species, mostly natives of the tropical parts
of the Old World. They generally have hard wood, and
many of them yield edible fruits. - •
The persimmon tree of the Atlantic States and Mississippi
Valley (Diospyros Virginiana) is well known for its fruit,
which becomes edible late in autumn, and for its wood,
which is used by makers of lasts for shoes. It is represented
in Texas, California, etc. by the Diospyros Teacana (per-
simmon, ebony, or japote).
The pishamin or date-plum (Diospyros Lotus) grows in
Europe as far N. as London, and its fruit is made into pre-
serves or eaten without cooking. Other species are prized
for their fruit in China, Africa, and Japan. The CALAMAN-
DER-wooD (which see) and several other Diospyri of Asia
are greatly valued for their timber. Among these is the
true ebony (Diospyros Ebenum), which grows principally
in Ceylon. (See EBONY.) Remains of many fossil species
are found in the eocene of the U. S.
Dioszeg, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bihar,
on the Er. It exports wine and tobacco. Pop. 5774.
Dip and Strike. In geology, the angle of inclimation
of a stratum to the horizon is called its dip or pitch. Strata
presenting this inclination must cut the surface in a line,
and this line; called the outcrop of the rocks, has a definite
direction, which in geological language is called the strike
(from the German streichen, to “reach,” to “extend ’’).
The strike of rocks is therefore the compass direction of
the intersection of their plane of stratification with the
plane of the horizon. When strata are moderately regular,
the line of strike is a very useful fact to determine, as it
enables the geologist to follow the same bed, and when
concealed, suggests the place where he should seek for it.
The dip must be at right angles to the strike, for that is the
direction in which the plane of the bed dips down towards
the interior of the earth. Beds dipping at a high angle are
soon lost sight of, being covered up with other deposits of
newer date. In the direction opposite to that of the dip
beds of older date come up from below, or “crop out.” The
amount of inclination as required for practical purposes can
be measured by a simple instrument, the clinometer.
Diphtheºria [from the Gr. 8169épa, the “skin’ of an
animal, in allusion to the false membrane described below],
an acute disease, characterized by inflammation of the mu-
cous membrane of the pharynx, attended by an exudation
of lymph, often assuming the character of a false mem-
brane, which may extend into the larynx and air-passages,
into the oesophagus, and into the mouth, occasionally also
appearing upon raw or mucous surfaces of other parts of
the body; it is also attended by prostration and albumi-
nuria, which may or may not be persistent. Diphtheria is
not a new disease, but its nature having been investigated
by Bretonneau (who gave it the name diphtheritis), it has
of late received much attention, more especially from its
present frequency and the terrible fatality which distin-
guishes it. Its duration and symptoms are variable, and
the distinctive exudation is by no means of uniform appear-
ance. In general, the mucous membrane is dark and con-
gested, and the exudation growing from one or more cen-
tres if torn away leaves a bleeding and sensitive surface.
The membrane itself frequently is the seat of a microscopic
vegetable growth (oidium), believed by some to be, an es-
sential part of the disease itself. The prognosis is always
grave, no case being free from danger. The mildest attack
may be followed by paralysis or by fatal prostration. No
routine treatment can be laid down for this disease. In
mild cases it is permissible to use detergent chlorinated
washes for the mouth, and the general treatment may be
mainly expectant, provided the pulse is firm. Sulphate of
quinia has the happiest effects upon many cases. The in-
halation of vaporized water is an excellent measure. The
1358
DIPHTHONG—DIPSOMANIA.
treatment of the various sequelae of diphtheria requires
the careful use of tonics, such as strychnia, and iron, with
the best hygienic conditions.
REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Diphthong [Gr. 8:590) yos, from 6: (for 8ts), “double,”
and $66, yos, “voice,” “sound;” Lat. diphthongw8] is the
union of two vowels pronounced together in one syllable.
A proper diphthong is one in which both vowels are sound-
ed, as in boil, out. An improper diphthong is one in which
only one vowel is sounded, as in Caesar, beat.
Diplacan'thus [from the Gr. 8wirAós, “double,” and
&kav00, a “thorn’’ or “spine”], the name of a genus of
ganoid fishes found only in the old red sandstone. They
have small scales on the body, a large head, wide mouth,
and two dorsal fins with a strong spine in front.
Diplograp'sus [from the Gr. 8virAós, “double,” and
ypgºº, to “mark” or “write ”], a genus of zoophytes exist-
ing in great numbers in the anthracite shales of the Silu-
rian formation. They are marked with a double series of
cells.
Diplo’ma DGr. 8ttàopa, from 8am A60, to “double,” or
“fold ;” Lat. diploma], a term formerly applied to every
sort of royal charter or letter-patent. These were so called
because under the Roman emperors charters were inscribed
on two tablets of copper, joined together so as to fold in
the form of a book. The charter by which a physician or
surgeon is declared qualified to practise his profession is
called a diploma. The term is also applied to the certificate
of graduation given to every one who has taken a degree
in a college or university. -
Diplo’macy [from diploma, originally signifying
“credentials” or “letters-patent” (see DIPLoMA)] is the
art of conducting the official intercourse between foreign
states, and is generally managed by ambassadors instructed
in the policy to be pursued. The negotiation of treaties
forms an important part of the duties of these envoys, but
frequently they exercise a delicate and yet profound in-
fluence over the nation with which they are sent to deal.
In receiving his instructions, much must sometimes be left
to the discretion of the diplomatist.
heralds and ambassadors are found bearing messages from
one power to another. Generally these messages were
special. It is only in modern times that diplomatists are
established permanently in foreign courts to watch the in-
terests of their own governments. From the very neces-
sities of the case, ambassadors have been held personally
sacred, since, were it not so, it would be impossible for
them to venture into unfriendly states. Even among bar-
barians their privileges were respected; and in our own
times they are not subject to the municipal laws of the
states in which they reside, but can be sent home for
punishment if they offend those laws. When resident am-
bassadors first came to be employed they were looked on
as spies, but as the usage became general its advantages
were made manifest. It tends to bring nations nearer to-
gether, and to make them respect one another, when there
are representatives of foreign states in each country; the
community of nations is more vividly felt. Ambassadors
become acquainted with the laws, institutions, and history
of the land where they reside; they protect their country-
men who are there as travellers or residents; they foresee
difficulties and are able to prevent them; they put their
countries on their guard against the preparations for war of
other states; and when they withdraw on account of war
their absence causes the separation of the two countries to
make more impression. Even the exchange of compliments,
the opportunity of representing their country in expressions
of friendship at public and festive gatherings, as well as by
condolence and forms of sympathy, these minor uses of
resident ministers will not be despised by those who rightly
estimate the effect of such things on national feeling.
The highest diplomatic office is that of ambassador. In
the Roman Catholic states of Europe the legates and nun-
cios of the pope take rank with the highest class. The
second grade includes ministers plenipotentiary, the inter-
nuncios of the pope, envoys ordinary and extraordinary,
and all agents accredited directly to sovereigns. The third
order are chargés-d'affaires, who are generally accredited
to the department of foreign affairs. The appointment of
diplomatic agents in the U. S. belongs to the President,
but his choice must be confirmed by the Senate. The sec-
retary of state superintends our diplomatic relations.
REVISED BY T. D. WoOLSEY.
Diplomatics [from the Gr. 8traoga, “ something
folded;” see DIPLOMA], originally the science of decipher.
ing ancient writings. Previous to the fifth century writing
was done extensively on papyrus. In that century parch-
ment appears to have been generally used, and the oldest
documents in our possession bearing the character of diplo-
Very early in history.
mas have no higher antiquity. The science of diplomatics
teaches the different styles and forms adopted in ancient
public documents, the titles, rank, etc. of public officers
whose names are subscribed to them, etc. . Its origin is
attributed to a Jesuit of Antwerp named Papebroeck, who
about 1675 applied himself to the exposition of old diplo-
mas. Mabillon, however, whose work “De Re Diploma-
tică ‘’ came out in 1681, was the first who established it on
a sure foundation. The principles laid down in this work
were more fully developed in the “Nouveau Traité de Di-
plomatique,” by Toussaint and Tassin (1765). Among
other valuable works on this subject may be named De
Vainer's “Dictionnaire Raisonnée de Diplomatique” (Paris,
!. 74) and Gatterer’s “Abriss der Diplomatik” (Göttingen,
1798).
Diplop’terus [from the Gr. 8trads, “double,” and
Trepév, a “wing ” or fin”], a genus of ganoid fishes of
the palaeozoic age, having double dorsal and anal fins,
heterocercal tails, scales perforated with small foramina,
and a large and flattened head.
Dip of the Horizon, in navigation, is the differ-
ence between the altitude of a heavenly body, as observed
from the deck of a ship, and the altitude of the same body
observed from the level of the sea. If the height of the
spectator above the surface of the sea be a feet, then the
correction for dip = 1.063 va. Experiments, however,
seem to show that refraction diminishes the amount of dip
by about three-fortieths of itself; hence the common table of
dip used in navigation may be computed from the formula
= dip #x 1.063x wa-984 Wa.
Dip'per (Cinclus), a genus of birds of the ouzel
family (Cinclidae), found in Europe, Asia, and America.
They feed chiefly on mollusks and on aquatic insects and
their larvae, which they seek in clear lakes and streams,
frequently diving with great facility, and moving about
under water by means of their wings. They resemble the
wren in their manner of dipping the head, accompanied
with an upward jerking of the tail. The dippers build
very curious nests of interwoven moss, having the en-
trance in one side.
Dipping Needle. When a magnetic needle is hung
within a stirrup so as to move freely in a vertical direction,
and the whole system is suspended by a thread, it will ad-
just itself in the magnetic meridian, and its pole will dip
towards the north pole of the earth. Such a needle is
called a dipping needle, and its deviation from the horizon-
tal line is its inclination. When the needle is carried nearer
the magnetic pole, the inclination increases. Sir James
Ross in 1832 saw the dipping needle stand within one
minute of a degree of the vertical position near Baffin's Bay.
Approaching the equator, it becomes less and less inclined,
until a point is reached at which it is quite horizontal.
This point will be in the magnetic equator, or line of no
dip, which is near, but not coincident with, the equator of
the earth. When tracing the lines of equal dip on a Mer-
cator's map, we find that they coincide in a remarkable
manner with the isothermals or lines of equal mean tem-
perature, indicating a close connection of the distribution
of heat with that of magnetism, and seemingly a common
cause for both.
The inclination, like the declination, is subject to periodic
and secular variations. The last is shown in the following
table:
Inclinations observed in Paris.
Year Inclination. Year. Inclination.
1671.......... tº e g º a c e º e tº dº e e s s a 750 007 1820.......................... 68o 20/
1780.......................... 71 48 1825..........................68 00
1798.......................... 69 51 1831.......................... 67 40
1814 68 36 1853.......................... 66 28
It appears from the table that since the year 1671 the
inclination has steadily diminished at the rate of about
three to five minutes a year. ARNOLD GUYOT.
Dipsa'ceae [from Dipsacus, one of the general, a nat-
ural order of herbaceous exogenous plants, mostly natives
of the south of Europe. They are nearly allied to Com-
positae, from which they differ by having the stamens dis-
tinct. Among the plants of this order is the Dipsacus ful-
lonum (fullers’ teazel). (See TEAZEL.)
Dip'sas [Gr. 8vºds, the name of a venomous snake
whose bite caused intense thirst, from 8tha, “thirst"], a
genus of non-venomous serpents belonging to the Colubri-
dae. They are tree-snakes, greatly elongated in form, and
having a broad, thick head. They are natives of the
warmer parts of America and Asia. Some of them are
of large size. Like many other modern scientific names,
the designation of this genus is etymologically inappro-
priate. A -
Dipsoma'nia [from the Gr. 8tha, “ thirst,” and gavía,
“frenzy”] is a term sometimes applied to DELIRIUM TRE-
DIPTERA – DISCIPLES OF CHRIST.
MENS (which see), but of late more especially used to des-
ignate a morbid craving for alcoholic drinks, sometimes
called methomania. Of late, this craving is looked upon
as a disease, and it has been very successfully treated in
“inebriate asylums” in various countries.
Dip/tera [Gr. 8t (for 8ts), “twice” or “two,” and irrepôv,
a “wing ”], an order of insects having for their distinguish-
ing characteristic two wings only, corresponding to the an-
terior pair, instead of four. In addition they have two
short clubbed appendages, called “halters” or balancers,
probably rudiments of the posterior pair in four-winged
insects. They are marked also by having the mouth in
the form of a sucker, constructed of from two to six lancet-
shaped, elongated scales, enveloping a canal upon the upper
surface of a fleshy proboscis. The larvae or maggots of dip-
terans generally have a membranous head, and always have
the stigmata, or breathing-pores, placed in the second and
terminal segments of the body. In some species of these
insects the eggs are hatched within the body of the parent—
for instance, the blow-fly; in others, as the forest-fly, the
larvae are metamorphosed in the parent's body, and the
young are excluded as pupae.
Dipterocarpa/ceae, or Diptera’ceae [from Diptero-
carpus, one of the general, a natural order of exogenous
trees, indigenous only in the East Indies. It comprises
about fifty known species, mostly beautiful and majestic
trees, some of which are valuable for timber. They have
simple, alternate leaves, with large stipules, and 1-celled,
1-seeded fruits. They abound in balsamic resin and resin-
ous products, among which are camphor, copal, and dam-
mar. The sal, one of the best timber trees in India, be-
longs to this order. (See DIPTER0CARPUs.)
Dipterocar'pus [from the Gr. 8tºrrepos, “two-winged,”
and kapirós, “fruit”], a genus of plants of the order Dip-
teraceae, comprises several species of the noblest trees of
India. They bear clusters of large fragrant flowers, and
abound in a resinous juice which is used medicinally and
for burning in torches. The fruit is furnished with two
membranes like wings. The Dipterocarpus twrbinatus, or
goorjun tree, often attains a height of 200 feet, and has no
branches except near the summit. The wood is hard, close-
grained, and durable. From the trunk exudes a fragrant
oil which is valuable for varnish, for an ingredient of paint,
and for medicine. - -
Dip/terus [from the Gr. 8trrepos, “having two wings”
or “fins”], a genus of ganoid fishes, two species of which
are found in the old red sandstone. They have a large and
flattened head, and double anal and dorsal fins, opposite to
each other.
Dip’tych [Lat. diptychum, from the Gr. 8ts, “twice,” and
Trúš (gen. Trvxós), “fold * or “tablet”], a register used by
the ancients at an early period. It consisted of two tablets
of ivory or wood, covered with wax. Diptychs were of
two kinds, sacred and profane, the latter being the more
ancient form. The profane diptychs contained the name
and titles of the consul, and were distributed by him among
his friends on entering his office. On one side of the sacred
diptych were inscribed the names of living, and on the
other those of deceased, ecclesiastics and benefactors of the
clergy, which were read during service by the deacon.
They were often decorated with scenes from biblical his-
tory. Diptychs are still used in the Eastern churches.
Dirae. See EUMENIDEs.
, Direct/or [from the Lat. dirigo, directum, to “arrange”
or “direct;” Fr. directeur], literally, “one who directs or
manages,” usually applied to one of a number of individ-
uals whose duty it is to conduct the affairs of certain en-
terprises, such as banks, railways, insurance companies,
etc. Directors are usually elected by the stockholders from
their own number; they have the right of supplying casual
vacancies, and may delegate their powers to committees of
such number as they may judge expedient. The title is
also usually given to the chief officer or superintendent of
an astronomical or physical observatory. -
Directory [Fr. Directoire], in French history, the
name given by the constitution of 1795 to the executive
body of the French republic. It consisted of five persons
called Directors (Directeurs), who were selected by the
Council of Elders from a list of candidates presented by the
Council of Five Hundred. Their names were Barras, Car-
not, Laréveillère-Lépaux, Letourneur, and Rewbell. One
of them retired every year, and was succeeded by another
chosen in the same way. They came into power at a time
when France was involved in war against nearly all Eu-
rope, and was distracted by domestic factions. The French
armies gained many victories under this régime, but the
home policy of the Directory was unpopular. The Direc-
tory was divided into two parties, and the majority, con-
sisting of Barras, Laréveillère-Lépaux, and Rewbell, re-
1859
moved their adversaries by the coup-d'état of the 18th Frue-
tidor (Sept. 4, 1797). In 1797 the directors were Barras,
Ducos, Gohier, Moulins, and Sieyes. The Directory was
abolished by the coup-d'état of the 18th Brumaire (Nov. 9,
1799), in which Bonaparte, and Sieyès were the prominent
actors. (See BARANTE, “Histoire du Directoire,” 1855.)
Directory, a book containing the names of the in-
habitants of a city arranged in alphabetical order, together
with the numbers of the houses in which they reside. The
first London directory, “A Collection of the Names of Mer-
chants, etc.,” came out in 1677. In the U. S. every town
of importance has its own directory. In several States
there are also published “State directories.” In New York
City the earliest published was in 1786—a small volume of
82 pages, printed by Shepherd Kollock, Wall street. The
names of the individuals and firms include about 900, and
occupy 33 pages, the remainder being filled with general
statistics of the city, U. S. government, post-office regula-
tions, etc. In his address the editor states that it was the
“first directory ever attempted in this country.” The New
York Historical Society possesses a complete set from its
first publication.
Direc'trix, plu. Directrices [the feminine of the
Lat. director, a “guide *l, a term in geometry applied to
a line which serves for the description of a curve or surface.
The directrix of a conic is a right line perpendicular to the
axis, whose distance from any point on the curve bears a
constant ratio to the distance of the same point from the
focus. Quadric surfaces have also directrices possessing
analogous properties. When a surface is conceived to be
generated by the motion of a line, right or curved, which
always rests on 6ther fixed lines, the latter are sometimes
called directrices, but more frequently directing lines or
directors, the former being distinguished as the generator.
Dirge [a contraction of the first word of an ancient Latin
funeral hymn, “Dirige gressus meos"—“Direct my steps;”
the word dirge is written “dirige” in old books], a hymn
of a mournful character sung at funerals, much used in the
services of the Roman Catholic Church. “I)irge” is used
also by poets to characterize sad verses on the dead.
Dir'schau, a town of Prussia, in the province of Prus-
sia, on the river Vistula, and on the railway from Berlin to
Dantzic, 20 miles S. S. E. of Dantzic. It has machine-
works, tanneries, etc., an enormous railroad bridge 2843
; in length, and a transit trade by the river. Pop. in 1871,
761.
Dirt-Bed, a name given to deposits of dark-brown or
black earthy lignite situated in the lower Purbeck series in
Europe, near the top of the middle secondary or mesozoic
rocks. Through the beds, which are from twelve to eigh-
teen inches thick, are distributed stones from three to nine
inches in diameter, also the silicified trunks of cycadaceous
trees like Zamia. For many miles this black earth may be
traced, containing fragments of fossil wood. The name
“dirt-bed” is also given by geologists to the strata in the
carboniferous rocks, etc. in which fossil roots of trees are
found in sitw.
Dis [contracted from the Lat. dives, “rich "J, a name
of Pluto, sometimes applied to the infernal regions. (See
PLUTO.)
Dis, or Di, a Latin particle signifying “apart” or
“off,” usually implying separation, as in “dismiss,” “dis-
join.” It is sometimes equivalent to “un,” being negative
or privative, as in “displease,” “disorder.” The Greek
particle 8ts or 8t usually means “twice” or “double.”
Disabil/ity, in law, signifies a state which renders a
person incapable of enjoying certain legal benefits or dis-
ables him from doing a legal act. The disability is either
absolute, as in the case of outlawry or attainder, or it is par-
tial, as in the case of infancy and coverture. It may ariše
from the act of God, of the law, of the person himself, or
of his ancestor. (See CAPACITY, by PROF. T. W. DwighT.)
Disband’ing is the breaking up of a military organi-
zation and the discharge of soldiers from military duty.
Disbar', a term applied in England to barristers, who,
in accordance with authority reposed in the benchers of the
four inns of court, subject to an appeal to the common-law
judges, may be expelled from the bar.
Disc. See DISK.
Discharge, from military service, is sometimes hon-
orably obtained by non-commissioned officers and privates
with the consent of the commanding officer; sometimes on
a surgeon’s certificate of disability. Soldiers are also dis-
charged with ignominy for great offences, being in some
cases stripped of their decorations and drummed out of the
regiment.
Disciples of Christ, or, as they generally call them-
selves, Christians or Church of Christ, a body of
1360
DISCIPLINE–DISFRANCHISEMENT.
Christians frequently called Campbellites, taking the
latter name from Alexander Campbell (see CAMPBELL, ALEx-
ANDER), one of their most distinguished elders, and from his
father, Rev. Thomas Campbell, a Scotch-Irish “Seceder,”
who came to the U. S. in 1807, and with his son began to
labor in Western Pennsylvania for the restoration of Chris-
tianity to apostolic practice. In 1811 they organized the
Brush Run church in Washington co., Pa. In 1812 this
church adopted Baptist views, and in 1815 they, with other
sister congregations, joined a Baptist association. But as
the principles and practice of the Campbells and their fol-
lowers were distasteful to many Baptists, much agitation
followed, and in 1827 the Baptist churches generally with-
drew from fellowship with the reformers, who consequently
organized themselves anew, professing to reject all creeds,
and to receive the Bible alone as their authority in faith and
practice. They, however, though rejecting the Trinitarian
terminology, are, in fact, in essential agreement with other
evangelical Christians in their opinions with regard to the
person and work of Christ and the future resurrection and
judgment. They celebrate the Lord's Supper weekly, hold
that repentance and faith should precede baptism, though,
from the importance they attach to the latter ordinance,
they are often charged with holding to baptismal regene-
ration. On all other points they allow and encourage
independence of individual opinion. Their church organi-
zation is congregational. Their officers are of three classes:
(1) elders, called also bishops, pastors, and presbyters; (2)
deacons; and (3) evangelists, who are itinerants supported
by the free offerings of the congregations. This denomi-
nation is distinguished for its efforts in behalf of education.
They hold that the laborer is worthy of his hire, and teach
the duty of the Church to provide amply for its ministers'
support. They sustain several religious quarterly and
monthly reviews and many weekly periodicals in the U.S.,
and several in Great Britain and her colonies. Among
their numerous institutions of learning are Bethany Col-
lege, in West Va., Hiram College, Hiram, O., the North-
western Christian University, Indianapolis, Ind., Eureka.
College, Ill., Kentucky University, Lexington, Ky., and
Oskaloosa, College, Oskaloosa, Ia., besides a large number
of seminaries and schools of a high grade.
REVISED BY B. A. HINSDALE.
Dis’cipline [Lat. disciplina, from discipulus, a “schol-
ar”], education, training; the treatment suited to a learner
or disciple; subjection to rules and regulations. It some-
times signifies punishment or chastisement. The term is
applied figuratively to a peculiar mode of life in accordance
with the rules of some profession or society.
DISCIPLINE, in military and naval affairs, is a general
name for the rules and regulations prescribed and enforced
for the proper conduct and subordination of the soldiers, etc.
DISCIPLINE, ECCLESIASTICAL, is a term used to designate
the means employed by churches to maintain correctness
of life among their members, orderly government in church
affairs, and to prevent the spread of heresy in their ranks.
In the Middle Ages discipline was either penitential (that
is, inflicted on those who confessed their sin; see PENANCE)
or punitive, which was, in theory at least, frequently admin-
istered by the civil power.
Discipline, First Book of, an important document
in the ecclesiastical history of Scotland. It was drawn up
in 1560 by John Knox and four others. It lays down rules
for the election of ministers and other officers, but deals
more especially with ecclesiastical discipline. Though sub-
scribed to by many of the nobles, it was never acknowledged
by an act of Parliament. The “Second Book of Discipline”
was drawn up by a committee of the General Assembly
in 1578. Andrew Melville took a leading part in prepar-
ing it.
The “Discipline” of the Methodist Episcopal Church is
a volume containing all the doctrines, administrations, and
ritual forms of that denomination, and is revised every four
years, so as to include changes made by the quadrennial or
General Conference.
Disclaim'er, in law, a plea containing an express de-
nial or renunciation of some claim alleged to have been
made by the party pleading. This term is also applied to
the act of one who renounces or refuses to accept a gift or
devise made to him of land or other property, and generally
to the waiver of any claim. In the law of landlord and
tenant it means a denial by the tenant of the landlord’s
title, in such a way as to cause a forfeiture of the tenant’s
estate.
Discob'oli (plu. of Discob'olus), [Gr. 8takóBoxos,
from Storkos, a “ disk” or “quoit,” and BáAAo, to “throw,”
also to “put" or “place,” so called in allusion to the habit
of the fish of placing its disk on some firm body], the name
of a family of malacopterous fishes, having the ventral
fins united to form a sucking disk on the under surface of
the body, by which the animal is enabled to firmly attach
itself to a rock or other fixed body in order to obtain food.
To this family belongs the lumpsucker (Cyclopterus lumpus).
Discontin’uous Function, in mathematics, is a
function which does not continuously increase or diminish
When the independent variable increases uniformly. The
function tan. 2 is discontinuous; for though the are a in-
creases uniformly from 0° to 360°, tan, a changes abruptly
from + co to — oo at ac = 90° and ac = 270°.
Discord [Lat. discordia], want of concord; dissension,
strife; a combination of sounds which have no harmonical
relation. In music, a combination of notes more or less
disagreeable to the ear. Discords are largely employed in
musical compositions, being introduced by way of transi-
tion between successive concords, of which they serve, by
contrast, to heighten the pleasing effect. They are, there-
fore, indispensable to the highest order of musical expres-
sion. The concord preceding a purposely introduced dis-
cord is called the preparation, and that which follows, the
Tesolution.
Discount [from dis, “un” or “off,” and count], an
allowance or deduction made for cash or advanced pay-
ments. Thus, in mercantile transactions a bill purchased
may amount to $250. The seller allows the purchaser a
discount of 15 per cent. for prompt or advanced payment,
making the amount paid $212.50; in other words, $250–15
per cent. = $212.50. Discount is a form of interest. To
borrow $100 at 6 per cent. for four months, and paying
$102 at the expiration of the time stated, is interest, but
does not differ materially from taking $98 at once, under
promise to pay $100 at the end of four months; this latter
method is called discounting. The rate of discount is usu-
ally agreed upon by the parties directly interested.
Discourse [Lat. discursus], conversation, talk; the
expression of ideas; a formal treatise or dissertation; in
rhetoric, a series of sentences and arguments arranged
according to the rules of art. In logic, this term is applied
to the operation of the mind commonly called reasoning.
Discovery, in equity jurisprudence (see EQUITY), the
act of disclosure by a defendant of facts to which he is re-
quired to answer by reason of a “bill of discovery” which
has been filed against him. The court entertains such a
bill to secure the due administration of justice. There must
be an interest on the part of the plaintiff in the subject to
which the discovery refers, and the information sought
must appear to be material either to the prosecution of the
suit or of some other suit or action then pending or which
may be commenced. The defendant will not be compelled
to make the discovery when disclosure would subject him
to criminal proceedings or to a forfeiture. (The works on
equity jurisprudence should be consulted for more full in-
formation: StoRY, “On Equity;” ADAMs, on the same;
SPENCE, “Equitable Jurisdiction,” etc.) In a number of
the American States, following the lead of the New York
code of procedure, the bill for discovery is abolished. Either
party to an action under that system may obtain an order
from a judge to examine a party to an action before trial.
The mode of examination is regulated by rule of court.
This proceeding is a substitute for the former bill of dis-
covery. T. W. DWIGHT.
Discovery, of countries. See INTERNATIONAL LAW
No. I., by PREs. T. D. WooDSEY, S.T. D., LL.D.)
Discussion of a problem or formula in mathematics,
is the process of assigning to the arbitrary quantities which
enter into it every reasonable value, and especially limiting
values and interpreting the results.
Disease [from the Fr. dés, negative, and aise, “ease;”
Lat. morbus ; Fr. maladie ; Ger. Krankheit], a deviation
from a state of health, consisting in most cases (if not in
all) in some change, palpable or impalpable, of some one
or more of the tissues, rendering such tissue (or the organ
containing it) incapable of performing its proper part in
the economy of the organism to which it belongs. In a
less general sense, a particular form of ill-health is called a
disease. Diseases are either diathetic (arising from the dia-
thesis or predisposition of the patient) or enthetic (arising
from without the patient). It is at present a favorite theory
with many that enthetic diseases arise from minute organ-
isms or disease-germs. (See GERM-THEORY.)
Diseases, Distribution of. See GEOGRAPHICAL
DISTRIBUTION OF DISEASEs.
Disfran/chisement, the act of depriving a person of
any privilege, liberty, franchise, or immunity—such as de-
riving a member of a corporation of his corporate rights.
º: is distinguished in this case from “amotion,” which re-
fers to the removal of an officer of the corporation from
office, without affecting his membership. Another instance
is the act of depriving a person of the rights and privileges
of citizenship. This term is often applied to the act of de-
DISHONOR-DISLOCATION.
1361
any locality or material.
priving a person of the right to vote, and in England to
the act which deprives a borough of the right of returning
a member to Parliament.
Dishon/or [from the Lat. dis, “un,” and honor,
“honor”], in mercantile language, signifies to refuse or
neglect to pay (or to accept) a draft or a bill of exchange.
The act of drawing or indorsing such a bill or draft in-
volves the drawer and indorser in an obligation to pay it
in case the drawee dishonors the same. In order that the
person in whose favor it is drawn may have recourse
against the drawer and indorser, it is necessary that notice
of the dishonor shall be given to these parties without un-
reasonable delay.
Disinfec/tion [from the Lat. dis, “um,” and inficio,
infectum, to “stain,” to “taint,” to “poison "1 is the de-
struction or removal of the causes of disease present in
It may be applied therefore to
the atmosphere, to sewage or other liquid or solid filth, to
ships, houses, clothing, merchandise, etc. Cologne-water
and other merely odorous substances, while they may dis-
guise foulness of the air, do not really disinfect. The
power of the substances commonly used for this purpose
has been overrated; they seldom destroy the contagious or
infectious materials which produce diseases, yet they often
do good by removing the conditions which favor their in-
crease and dissemination. Cheapest among disinfectants
are dry earth, lime, charcoal, and tar; and they are all
positively useful. Earth immediately destroys the odor of
excrement covered by it, and prevents unwholesome emana-
tions. The same is true also of lime. Charcoal is a very
powerful absorbent of gases and purifier of liquid and semi-
liquid substances. Common wood-tar has similar properties
to a less degree, but its partial volatility enables it to act
more favorably upon an impure atmosphere. Chlorine is
probably equal to any other substance in destroying in the
air morbific materials of organic origin. It is usually em-
ployed as it is given off from chloride of lime (bleaching-
powder) or chloride of soda solution (Labarraque’s liquid).
Chloride of zinc, dissolved in water (Burnett's liquid), and
proto- or sesquichloride of iron are serviceable for the dis-
infection of privies, sewers, etc. Solution of nitrate of lead
(Ledoyen's liquid), by the affinity of lead for sulphur, de-
composes sulphuretted hydrogen, the most common noxious
ingredient in foul atmospheres. Protosulphate of iron is
much used for the disinfection of sewage and of privies.
Permanganate of potassa (Condy’s liquid) as an oxidizing
agent has analogous utility, but is more expensive. The
crude permanganate will answer very well for this purpose.
Sulphurous acid and nitrous or hyponitric acid, both gaseous,
are available for the fumigation of unoccupied rooms; they
are irrespirable. Iodine (solid) and bromine (liquid) have
both been found practically similar, and perhaps equal, to
chlorine for the disinfection of wards of hospitals. Car-
bolic acid (phenic acid or carbol) has of late years been
the most popular of all disinfectants. It is obtained,
along with cresylic acid, in the distillation of coal-tar.
More than any other of the substances named, it is believed
to have the power of destroying minute living vegetable
and animal organisms in the air or elsewhere. Ozone is
asserted by some experimenters to be a valuable disin-
fectant, but it has not yet been much employed for that
purpose. Chloralum (chloride of aluminum) and bromo-
chloralum have been recently introduced, and are under
trial, with somewhat conflicting reports concerning their
value. -
The modes of action of the above-named disinfectant
substances may be classified as follows: 1. By absorbing
gases and preventing their emanation—dry earth, lime,
charcoal. 2. Neutralizing sulphuretted hydrogen gas—
nitrate of lead. 3. Decomposing sulphuretted hydrogen
and dead organic matter—chlorine (by its affinity for hy-
drogen, setting oxygen free), iodine, bromine, permanga-
nate of potassa. 4. Arresting decay and putrefaction (i. e.
by antiseptic action) in vegetable and animal materials—
sulphurous and hyponitric acid gases, chloride of zinc,
protosulphate, protochloride, and sesquichloride of iron,
wood-tar, coal-tar, carbolic acid (by its affinity for water,
and by combining with and fixing albumen and similar
principles). 5. Destroying minute organisms, vegetable or
animal (disease-germs), in the atmosphere—carbolic acid;
perhaps chlorine, iodine, and bromine.
Quantities of disinfectants for use may be thus stated.
For privies or sewers, a pound of sulphate or chloride of
iron or chloride of lime, diffused in a gallon of water, will
answer for a very large amount of foul material. Burnett's
liquid contains twenty-five grains of chloride of zinc in
each fluiddrachm of water. A pint of this in a gallon of
water will be strong enough for use. For water-closets or
bed-pans, Labarraque’s solution of chloride of soda, a fluid-
ounce in a quart of water; or permanganate of potassa,
ten grains to a quart of water; or carbolic acid, twenty
grains to a pint. A 70-per-cent. Solution of this last sub-
stance is often used also. Drinking-water is best purified
by filtration through charcoal, but it may be improved,
When containing an excess of organic matter, by a small
amount of permanganate of potassa, enough to make it
very slightly pink in color in a strong light. Articles of
clothing may be disinfected by boiling them in a solution
of the permanganate, an ounce to three gallons of water.
Greatly contaminated garments or bedding, as from small-
pox patients, should be burned. Occupied rooms may be
disinfected by fresh chloride of lime, placed about in saucers
in convenient places to give off chlorine.
Ledoyen's liquid is made by dissolving a pound of lith-
arge in seven ounces of nitric acid and two gallons of
water. Ridgewood’s disinfectant consists principally of
carbolic acid, lime, and fuller’s earth. McDougall’s (much
used in England and India) contains the sulphites of mag-
nesia and lime and carbolate of lime. -
But the most effective, indeed the only certain, disinfect-
ant £gencies are cold and heat. Malaria (the local cause
of ague and remittent fever) is disarmed, of its noxious
power by a single hard frost; and the same is true of the
infection of yellow fever. Cholera disappears almost always
in temperate climates with the approach of winter. The
continuance, and even increase, of Smallpox, typhus, and
some other contagious diseases during cold weather is due
to the closing up of houses to keep them warm, thus
diminishing ventilation and concentrating the morbid
poison. Yet no considerable use can be practically made
of the disinfectant action of low temperature, on account
of the difficulty of producing it at will on a sufficiently
large scale.
Heat was known by the ancients to exert an influence
antagonistic to infection. Fires were in early times burned
in the streets of cities to dissipate the plague. Pliny wrote,
“Est in ipsis ignibus medica vis”—“There is in fire itself
a medicating power.” Yet only latterly has this been clearly
verified by science. Dr. Henry of Manchester, England,
in 1824, performed a series of experiments, by which he
proved that the contagious property of smallpox and of
vaccine virus, and that of typhus and Scarlet fever, are de-
stroyed by a temperature of from 140° to 200°F., and that
such a heat does not injure such fabrics as are commonly
used for clothing. In 1851, Dr. von Busch of Berlin made
a trial of this agent in a large lying-in hospital, in the
wards of which puerperal fever had been very destructive.
After all ordinary methods of fumigation and disinfection
had failed to eradicate the disease, he had all the patients
removed and the wards heated by stoves, for two days, up
to the temperature of 150°F. The same class of patients
being then reintroduced, not a single case of the fever fol-
lowed. Dr. W. Ferguson, inspector-general of the British
navy, and Dr. A. N. Bell of Brooklyn, N.Y., have reported
equally satisfactory success in extirpating yellow fever from
large vessels at sea or in port. Dr. Bell and Dr. E. Harris
of New York also made use of superheated steam as a dis-
infectant, with good effect, in New York City during the
cholera season of 1866. It is probably one of the most
efficacious of all the means yet employed for this purpose.
HENRY HARTSHORNE.
Disintegration [from the Lat. dis, negative, and
integer, “entire *], the separation of the integrant parti-
cles of a body; the destruction of cohesion; in geology,
the gradual wearing away of a rock by ordinary atmo-
spheric action, etc.; the process by which a solid rock is
reduced and comminuted to sand, gravel, or soil. Soil or
arable land is formed and prepared by the disintegration
of rocks. The action of the weather is helped by frequent
alternations of temperature above and below the point at
which water attains its greatest density—i.e. 39°F.
Disk, or Disc [from the Lat. discus’ (Gr. 8takos), a
“disk” or “quoit”], in astronomy, the face of the sun,
moon, or a planet, such as it appears to us projected on the
sky. The forms of the celestial bodies being nearly spheri-
cal, their projections are circular planes. . The fixed stars,
when viewed through a telescope, present spurious disks,
in consequence of the diffraction of light.
Disk, or Disc, in botany, is a fleshy expansion of the
receptacle of the flower; a part of the receptacle, or a
growth from it enlarged under and around the pistil; also
the central part of a head of flowers of the order Compos-
itae, as the Coreopsis.
Dislocation [from the Lat. dis, “apart,” and loco,
locatum, to “place”], otherwise called Luxation [from
the Lat. Zwaco, luxatum, to “loosen”], in surgery, is the,
displacement of a bone from its proper relation to another
bone with which it is articulated. A “complicated" dis-
location is the displacement of a bone, accompanied by a
severe local lesion of the soft parts, or fracture of a bone.
86 :
1362
IDISMAL–DISSENTERS.
“Congenital” dislocations are those which occur before
birth. The restitution of a dislocated bone is called its
“reduction.” Reduction of recent luxations is usually a
comparatively easy task to those who have the requisite
knowledge and experience, but in old and long-neglected
cases it is frequently a most formidable operation, and is
liable to be followed by bad consequences to the patient.
TEVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Dis/mal, a post-township of Sampson co., N. C. Pop.
746.
Dismal Swamp, a great morass in the counties of
Nansemond and Norfolk in Virginia, and in Gates, Cam-
den, and Pasquotank counties in North Carolina, is about
30 miles long and 10 miles wide. A large portion of it is
covered with dense forests of juniper, cypress, white cedar,
and gum trees, from which lumber is exported. Near the
middle of the swamp is Lake Drummond, which has an
area of about 6 square miles, and abounds with fish. A
canal through the Dismal Swamp opens steam communica-
tion between Chesapeake Bay and Albemarle Sound. ...The
Dismal Swamp is remarkable for its considerable elevåtion
above the surrounding country. The water of this swamp,
known as “juniper water,” is of a dark reddish color, and
is carried in large quantities to Norfolk and Hampton
Roads for shipping purposes. It is highly prized for its
excellent quality, and is not liable to become corrupt by
keeping. *
Dis/part [etymology uncertain], in gunnery, half the
difference between the diameter of the base-ring at the
breech of a gun and that of the swell of the muzzle.
Dispen/sary [from the Lat. dispendo, dispensum, to
“distribute” (from dis, “apart,” and pendo, to “weigh")],
a charitable institution in which medical and surgical aid
is gratuitously furnished to the poor. During the Middle
Ages dispensaries were set up in the houses of the wealthy
and in monasteries, and towards the end of the eighteenth
century were established in their present form. They now
are established in most or all large cities. The oldest in
the U. S. was founded in 1795 in New York. The poor re-
ceive treatment and medicine in them free of charge.
Dispensa/tion [Lat. dispensatio, perhaps from dia,
“apart,” and penso, to “judge,” frequentative of pendo, to
“weigh’’), in the Roman Catholic Church, is an exemption
from some canon or other law. Bishops and priests grant
dispensations in some cases, but the pope alone has the
power of giving them in the more important ones. Papal
dispensations were first granted in 1200 by Innocent III.
After the English Reformation the dispensing power was
assumed by the kings, but it was abolished by the Bill of
Rights (1689). (See PARDON.)
Dispen/satory [for etymology see DISPENSARY], a
book containing an account of the physical qualities and
medicinal powers of different drugs, with their natural and
commercial history, and their preparation and combina-
tions. One of the most complete works of the kind is the
“ United States Dispensatory,” by Wood and Bache (1833;
13th ed. 1870).
Disper'sion [Lat. dispersio, from dis, “apart,” and
spargo, sparsum, to “scatter”], in optics, is the angular
separation of the constituent rays of light when decomposed
by the prism. Owing to the unequal refrangibility of the
rays of different colors, a beam of light admitted through a
small aperture in the shutter of a darkened room, and re-
fracted by passing through a prism, forms an elongated
image or spectrum ; the red rays, which are the least re-
fracted, occupying one end of the spectrum, and the violet
rays, which have the greatest refraction, the other end.
The rays after refraction are no longer parallel, so that the
index of refraction (the ratio of the sine of incidence to the
sine of refraction) is different for each ray; and the differ-
ence of the indices for the extreme rays is called the disper-
sion of the light. It had been supposed by Sir Isaac New-
ton that the dispersion was proportioned to the refraction,
but it was soon found that although the colors in spectra
formed by prisms of different substances are always ar-
ranged in the same order, they do not occupy the same rela-
tive amount of space; a prism of flint-glass giving, in pro-
portion, less red and more violet than a prism of crown-
glass, and that substances for which the index of refraction
of the middle ray of the spectrum is nearly the same, pro-
duce spectra of different lengths.
Disposiº’tion [Lat. dispositio, from dispono, dispos-
itum, to “dispose,” to “put in order,” to “arrange ’’), in
architecture, one of the six essentials of the art. It is the
arrangement of the whole design by means of the ichnog-
raphy (plan), orthography (section and elevation), and
scenography (perspective view), and differs from distribu-
tion, which signifies the particular arrangement of the in-
ternal parts of a building.
DISPOSITION, a musical term employed in organ-building,
and referring to the combination and arrangement of the
stops on the rows of keys and pedals, with the pitch of each
stop or length of the lowest CC pipe. .
I)isra'eli (Rt. Hon. BENJAMIN), D. C. L., an eminent
English statesman and novelist of Jewish extraction, was
born in London Dec. 21, 1805. He published novels en-
titled “Vivian Grey” (1826), “The Young Duke” (1830),
“Contarini Fleming” (1832), and “Henrietta Temple,”
some of which were successful. He began his political career
as a radical, and offered himself as a candidate for Parlia-
ment in 1831, but was defeated. Having become a Tory,
he was again repulsed by the electors of Taunton in 1835,
but was elected a member of Parliament for Maidstone in
1837. His maiden speech was so pretentious, and uttered
with gestures so extravagant, that he excited the laughter
of the House, and closed abruptly, saying, “I shall sit down
now, but the time will come when you will hear me.” He
married in 1839 the widow of Wyndham Lewis. Having
gradually acquired skill as a debater, he became about 1842
the leader of the “Young England party’ and an oppo-
ment of Sir Robert Peel, whom he denounced with unspar-
ing invective because Peel advocated the repeal of the
Corn laws. In 1844 he produced “Coningsby,” a political
novel, which was much admired. In 1846 he was returned
to Parliament for Buckinghamshire, which he represented
for many years. He succeeded Lord Bentinck, who died in
1848, as leader of the protectionist party in the House of
Commons. He was chancellor of the exchequer in the con-
servative ministry of Lord Derby for nearly nine months in
1852. About the end of that year he resumed the post of
leader of the opposition in the House of Commons. Early
in 1858 he was again appointed chancellor of the exchequer
in the new conservative Derby-Disraeli ministry. In 1859
he introduced a bill for parliamentary reform, which was
rejected by a majority of the House of Commons. He there-
fore resigned with his colleagues in June of that year. He
opposed the electoral Reform bill of Russell and Gladstone,
which was defeated in June, 1866. The liberal ministers
then resigned, and the conservatives formed a new cabi-
net, in which Disraeli was chancellor of the exchequer. He
also became the leader of the House of Commons, and the
most prominent minister except the premier, Lord Derby.
He was the principal author and manager of the Reform bill
which became a law in Aug., 1867, and extended the right
of suffrage to every householder in a borough. This bill
enfranchised nearly a million of men, mostly workingmen,
and was considered a dangerous innovation by the conser-
vatives. Disraeli succeeded Lord Derby, who resigned the
place of prime minister in Feb., 1868. He opposed the
resolutions or bill which Mr. Gladstone introduced to dis-
establish the Irish (Episcopal) Church. After a long debate,
Mr. Gladstone's resolutions were adopted by the House of
Commons on the 1st of May, 1868, by a majority of 64.
Disraeli, though defeated on this important question, re-
solved not to resign office, but to wait for the result of the
general election which occurred in the next November.
The liberal party having secured a large majority in the
new Parliament, he and his colleagues resigned Dec. 2,
1868, and Mr. Gladstone then became prime minister.
An early poetical work, entitled “A Revolutionary Epic,”
was republished in 1864. As Mr. Disraeli declined a seat
in the House of Lords which was offered to him, his wife,
in acknowledgment of her husband’s official services, was
raised to the peerage of the United Kingdom as Viscountess
Beaconsfield, Nov. 28, 1868. Among the works published
by Mr. Disraeli since his entrance on political life are
(besides “Coningsby’’) “Sybil,” “Tancred,” “A Vindica-
tion of the English Constitution,” “A Biography of Lord
J. Bentinck,” and “Lothair,” a novel published in 1870.
He was chosen regent of the University of Glasgow, 1873,
and became prime minister again in 1874.
REVISED BY A. J. SchEM.
Disraeli (Is AAc), D. C. L., an English littérateur, the
father of the preceding, was born at Enfield in May, 1766.
He studied in Amsterdam and Leyden, and spent some
years in France. Inheriting a fortune from his father, a
Hebrew merchant originally from Venice, and belonging
to one of the Jewish families who escaped to Venice from
the Inquisition in Spain in the fifteenth century, he de-
voted himself to the study of literary history. His prin-
cipal works are “Curiosities of Literature” (1790), “Ca-
lamities of Authors” (1812), and “Amenities of Literature”
(1841). Died Jan. 19, 1848.
Disrup’tion [from the Lat. dis, “apart,” and rumpo,
ruptum, to “break”], a term generally applied to the schism
in the Church of Scotland which occurred in 1843. (See
FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND, by DAVID INGLIS, LL.D.)
Dissen/ters [from the Lat. dis, “apart” (or “differ-
DISSEIZIN–DISSOCIATION.
1863
ently ”), and sentio, to “think”], or Non-Conformists,
the name given to English Protestants who differ in their
views from the Church of England. After the act of Uni-
formity was passed (1662), about two thousand clergymen
seceded, and were called Dissenters. All who refused to
take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and the Eucha-
rist according to the rites of the Established Church, were
excluded by the Test act (1673) from government employ-
ment. By the Toleration act (1689), Dissenters obtained
legal security in celebrating their worship, and the Corpo-
ration and Test Repeal act (1828) enabled them to accept
public employment without taking the Eucharist. In 1836
they were first authorized to solemnize marriages in their
own places of worship or at a registrar's office. The “Gen-
eral Body of Protestant Dissenting Ministers of the Three
Denominations” is the official name of the union of the
three boards of Presbyterian, Independent, and Baptist
ministers resident in and about the cities of London and
Westminster. This union was organized July 11, 1727,
and has always taken a leading part in the struggle for the
disestablishment of the Church of England. In some Euro-
pean countries Dissenters are called Dissidents. (See also
NoN-CoNFORMISTs, by REv. BEVERLY R. BETTS.)
Dissei'zin [from dis, “un,” and seizin], in law, a
term signifying an unlawful ejection of one who is seized
of a freehold in lands, so as to deprive him of the seizin
and place it in another. The modern equivalent for this
word is “adverse possession.” There is also “disseizin by
election,” where a person chooses to consider himself dis-
seized, though he is not so in fact, in order to avail himself
of legal remedies applicable to a true disseizin. (See SEIZIN,
by PROF. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) \
Dissepſiment [Lat. dissepimentum, from dis, “apart,”
and sepio, to “ hedge,” to “enclose ’’], a botanical term ap-
plied to the partitions that are formed in the ovary by the
united sides of the cohering carpels. Sometimes dissepi-
ments meet in the centre, and divide the ovary or fruit into
cells; in other cases they are partial, and leave the ovary
one-celled. -
Dissidents. See DISSENTERs. -
Dissocia’tion, or Disassocia’tion [dis, “apart,”
and socius, “a companion’], in chemistry, is applied to
the investigation of the influence of heat and pressure on
chemical action. The word was first introduced into chem-
ical nomenclature by Henry St. Claire Deville, who pre-
sented a paper to the French Institute Nov. 23, 1857, “On
the Dissociation or Spontaneous Decomposition of Bodies
under the Influence of Heat.” Deville says in this paper:
“When heat acts upon any body it produces an expansion
which we attribute to a force called the repulsive force of
heat. By selecting a proper compound and heating it
sufficiently, the distance between the molecules can be in-
creased to such an extent that they will separate into their
elementary condition.
tion, not determined by any chemical action.
to call it the dissociation of compound bodies.” -
The decomposition of water by fused platinum in the
celebrated experiment of Grove, performed in 1846, was
attributed by Berzelius to the catalytic action of the metal;
this phenomenon is now explained on the principle of dis-
sociation. Deville repeated Graham’s experiment on a
large scale by pouring melted platinum into water, and
obtained an explosive mixture of hydrogen and oxygen
disproportionate to the theoretical quantity; from which
he concluded that the molecules recombined on cooling in
the water. He believes that at the temperature of melted
silver, water is dissociated into its constituent elements.
The next step in the literature of the subject was the
publication, Mar. 18, 1861, of a series of researches upon
the influence exerted by certain porous vessels upon the
composition of the gases that pass through them. Al-
though outside of the line of his studies, yet under the
advice of M. Jamin, Deville concluded to publish these
researches. A porous porcelain tube was placed in the in-
terior of a large glass tube, and each was provided with
separate escape-tubes. On causing hydrogen to pass
through the interior tube, and carbonic acid gas through
the outer space, the two gases were found to exchange
places, and an inflammable gas was given off at the end
of the carbonic acid tube. It thus appeared that the hy-
drogen passed through the pores of the porcelain tube and
was replaced by the carbonic acid. There was nothing
new in this experiment, as the principle is described in
Gmelin’s “Chemistry '' under the head of adhesion, and
the subject was familiar to Priestley. Gmelin says if gas
be evolved in an earthen retort or conducted through an
earthen tube, a portion of it escapes through the tube, and
is replaced by the external air or by nitrogen, or carbonic
acid if the vessels be in a fire. He further describes an
experiment made by Priestley when an earthen retort is
I propose
This is a spontaneous decomposi-
placed under a bell-jar over mercury and heated by a
burning glass. If the outer bell-jar contains hydrogen,
and the retort atmospheric air and water, the hydrogen
will be found to pass through the pores into the retort,
and air and water will collect over the mercury under the
bell-jar. This was the celebrated experiment of Dr.
Priestley, made in the days of phlogiston, and is essen-
tially the same as that described by Deville. Similar ex-
periments were made by Pfaff in 1816, which are reported
in Schweigger's “Journal,” vol. xviii., page 80. But in
the next paper published by Deville, Feb. 2, 1863, he car-
ries the research further than it was done by any other
philosopher, and brings it within the domain of dissocia-
tion.
The previous experiment of hydrogen and carbonic acid
was repeated with steam. In a furnace fed with very
compact coal, capable of producing a heat of 1100° to
1300° C., he placed two tubes; through the interior tube,
made of porous clay, he forced a gentle current of steam,
and through the annular space of the outer tube a stream
of carbonic acid gas. A part of the vapor of water is de-
composed spontaneously or dissociated in the tube of por-
ous clay; the hydrogen is filtered through to the annular
space (as in the previous experiment with carbonic acid
and pure hydrogen), and the oxygen remains in the in-
ner tube mixed with a considerable quantity of carbonic
acid. Deville obtained in this way one centimétre cube
of gas to one gramme of water. The separation of the
oxygen is thus accomplished by physical agency. The
free hydrogen at this high temperature reduces some of
the carbonic acid to carbonic oxide, producing water.
There is thus a loss of hydrogen in this experiment, so
that the oxygen is always in excess of the quantity de-
manded by the formula of water. The carbonic acid also
brings with it a small quantity of nitrogen of the air. The
explosive gas obtained had the following composition:
I. II.
Oxygen............................................. 55.7 48.6
Hydrogen ......................................... , 24.3 13.1
Carbonic oxide............. . 0.0 25.3
Nitrogen........................................... 20.0 13.0
100.0 100.0
It will thus be seen that Deville was able to dissociate the
oxygen and hydrogen of water, and to obtain these gases
in a separate condition. His experiment indicates a
method for the accomplishment of this desirable result in
an economical manner. By employing the carbonic acid
resulting from the fire used to generate the steam, we can
conceive of a simple system of tubes that would enable us
to dissociate water in a way that would yield hydrogen
and oxygen for light and heat.
Deville published an account of another series of experi-
ments Feb. 13, 1865. He conducted these upon a some-
what different plan. He had early observed that..although
compounds were dissociated at high temperatures, yet on
cooling the elements recombined before they could be col-
lected; it therefore became necessary for him to devise
some plan to obviate this difficulty. He hit upon the fol-
lowing expedient: Through the centre of the system of
tubes he arranged a tube for conducting a constant stream
of cold water. While the outer vessel was raised to the
highest temperature of the furnace, the inside was cold,
and thus two surfaces were exposed to the gas—one for
dissociating it, the other for condensing one of the con-
stituents before it could recombine. In this way he suc-
ceeded in dissociating sulphurous acid at 1200° C. into
sulphur and anhydrous sulphuric acid; hydrochloric acid
into hydrogen and chlorine; carbonic oxide into carbon
and carbonic acid; and carbonic acid into carbonic oxide.
In discussing these experiments, Deville uses the phrase
tension of dissociation, just as we have long employed the
expression “tension of vapors,” and he says this tension
for hydrochloric acid at 1500° C. is very feeble.
In a subsequent article, Jan. 14, 1867, Deville gives a
more full development of his theory of dissociation, and
furnishes extended tables of the tension of dissociation for
a large number of substances. He endeavors to show that
it will be possible to accurately ascertain the exact point
of dissociation for many bodies now only obscurely under-
stood; and when this point is settled we shall have a new
method for the decomposition of compound substances.
A Dutch physicist, Van der Kolk, published a long arti-
cle in 1866, in which he tried to refute the arguments ad-
vanced by Deville in support of his theory, and also criticised
many points in Deville's mathematical calculations; but
as he repeated none of the experiments, and the errors in
the tables were accidental, and corrected by Deville him-
self before the appearance of the criticism, the value of
Van der Kolk’s article is chiefly confined to the analysis
he gives of the researches of Deville and the meaning to
1364
be attached to the word dissociation. According to Van
der Kolk, the new theory can be summed up as follows:
“ 1. From the heat of combustion of two gases and the
specific heat of the compound the temperature of the flame
can be calculated. The calculated temperature of the oxy-
hydrogen flame is 6880° C. Deville believes, however,
that the decomposition of water vapor takes place at 2500°
C., and that the temperature of decomposition of all gases
is below the calculated temperature of its flame.
“2. The temperature of decomposition changes accord-
ing to pressure, and is in this particular analogous to the
temperature of condensation of vapors.
“3. The temperature under one atmosphere for water
vapor being taken v = t, the temperature of condensation
in this case is equal to 100° C. Deville assumes that at tº
the vapor of water is partially decomposed into explosive
gas; it is then in the condition of dissociation or state of
partial decomposition.
“4. The degree of dissociation is expressed in numbers
which, in analogy with the expansion of vapors, is called
the tension of dissociation. There is a perfect analogy
between condensation and chemical union.” -
Several recent writers have had recourse to Deville’s
theory of dissociation in explanation of the origin of rocks
and the action of forces in primeval chemistry. Among
these may be mentioned Fournet and the distinguished
American geologist, Sterry Hunt.
Debray, in some researches on dissociation, shows that
the law holds good with reference to solids formed by the
direct union of a fixed and volatile body. His experiments
were made upon Iceland spar heated in mercury vapor
350° C., sulphur 440°C., cadmium 860° C., zinc 1040° C.
Lamy has applied these results to the construction of a
pyrometer for the measurement of high temperatures. The
instrument consists of a porcelain tube glazed within and
without, filled with pure carbonate of lime, closed at one end,
and connected at the other with a manometer. By read-
ing the volume of the gas in the pressure-gauge, and con-
Sulting the tables of tension, the temperature is determined.
A very full discussion of the subject of dissociation by
Mène may be found in the “Revue Hebdomadaire de
Chimie,” vol. iii., 1871. See also the researches of Gra-
ham, Debray, Grove, Regnault, Lamy, Isambert, Frank-
land, and Clausius. CHARLEs A. Joy.
Dissolution [from the Lat. dis, “apart,” and solvo,
solutum, to “loosen "J, literally, the act or process of dis-
Solving ; the separation of any substance into its compo-
ment parts; the liquefaction of a solid body in a men-
struum. The term is also applied to the breaking up of a
partnership or of a political or legislative assembly. Thus
we speak of the dissolution of Parliament when the mem-
bers are dispersed without the Parliament being regularly
adjourned. -
Dissol’ving Views are the enlarged images of trans-
parent pictures thrown upon a screen by means of two
magic lanterns placed side by side, with their lens tubes a
little convergent, so that the projected images may be su-
perposed. By means of mechanical contrivances, which
differ in different forms of the apparatus, one of the images
is gradually extinguished while the other is similarly de-
veloped. At the middle point the two are confusedly in-
termingled, and afterwards one seems to swallow up the
other. (See MAGIC LANTERN.) -
Dis’sonance [from the Lat. dis, negative, and sono,
to “sound”] is the opposite of consonance, and is applied
to those intervals in music whose relative proportions are
unsatisfactory to the ear. In a special sense, the term is
applied to a dissonant interval purposely introduced by the
addition of a dissonant note to a concord, or by the Substi-
tution of a dissonant for a concordant note. The founda–
tion of dissonance is generally allowed to be more aesthet-
ical than intellectual. Dissonance is not a necessity of
musical composition, and persistent dissonance would be
a blemish; but its introduction transitionally, in passing
from concord to concord, is a source of richer and more
pleasing effects than could be produced by any succession
of perfect harmonies. (See DISCORD.)
Disſtaff [Ang-Sax. distief], an implement formerly
used in spinning flax or wool, which was fastened on a
staff from which the thread was drawn by the fingers. The
Fates are represented as spinning the thread of life from
the distaff. The distaff is at present not much used except
in rude and barbarous countries; but no spinning-wheel,
much less any machinery driven by water or steam, has
ever produced work which can compare in delicacy with
the finest products of the distaff.
Distance, in music, is the interval between two notes.
In astronomy, “real distance” is an interval between two
heavenly bodies expressed in terrestrial measures, as miles,
métres, etc.; “mean distance” is a mean between the peri-
DISSOLUTION--DISTILLATION.
helion and the aphelion; “curtate distance” of a planet is
the distance from the sun or earth to that point where a
perpendicular let fall from the planet meets with the ecliptie.
“Line of distance ’’ in perspective is a straight line from
the eye to the principal point of the plane. The “point
of distance ’’ is that point in the horizontal line which is
at the same distance from the principal point as the eye is
from the same. “Distance’ in navigation is the number
of miles from point to point in a ship's course. The are
of a rhumb line between two places is the “nautical dis-
tance.” “I)istance” in horse-racing is the last 250 yards
of the course. Any horse not reaching the distance-post
before the winning horse has reached the end of the course
is said to be distanced.
Distem/per [Fr. détrempe; It. tempera], a method of
painting in which the pigments are ground up with size
and water, with gum-water, or similar vehicles. It is em-
ployed in scene-painting and in the preparation of wall-
paper. Distemper was the ordinary method of painting in
the higher departments of art before the invention of paint-
ing in oil. The rapidity with which the vehicle dries ren-
ders it difficult to blend the tints in distemper.
DISTEMPER, the name of certain diseases of animals.
(See DoG DISTEMPER and HoRSE DISTEMPER.)
Distich [Gr. 8tartxos, from 8t (for 8ts), “twice ’’ or
“two,” and arrixos, a “row,” a “verse”], a couplet of
verses. In the Greek and Latin languages this term is ap-
plied to a poetical sentence consisting of two lines in hex-
ameter and pentameter verse. The distich was much used
by the Greeks and Romans in the expression of single
thoughts and sentiments, and in the composition of epi-
grams.
Distilla/tion [from dis, “apart,” “one by one,” and
stillo, stillatum, to “drop "], in chemistry and the arts,
a process by which substances which are vaporized at dif-
ferent temperatures are separated from each other, or sub-
stances which can be vaporized are separated from those
which cannot. When the vaporized substance assumes a
solid form after distillation, the process is called “sublima-
tion.” Distillation is usually performed by means of a
boiler for raising the vapor, and a condenser for reducing
the vapor to a liquid or solid form. The condenser is often
a spiral tube or “worm,” which is kept cool by water while
in use. Various instruments for distilling are used in the
laboratory of the chemist. “Dry” or “destructive ’ dis-
tillation is the production of new compounds by submitting
substances of organic origin to a high but carefully regu-
lated heat. These products are often complex, but some-
times perfectly definite. “Fractional” distillation is the
separation of one volatile substance from another, by keep-
ing the mixture at that temperature at which the most
volatile will pass over into the condenser.
To produce spirits two distinct operations are required:
one to convert vegetable principles into alcohol; the other
the separating of the alcohol from the several substances
with which it is united while being produced. Sugar is the
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Distillation Process.
principle which is necessary to the formation of alcohol,
and is used directly when molasses and similar saccharine
products are submitted to quick fermentation; and indi-
rectly when sugar is produced from the starch which certain
grains contain, and afterwards converted into alcohol. The
latter method is commonly employed in distilleries, and
grains of various kinds, generally with some malt, are
mashed. To accomplish this, a mixture is made of the
ground grain and crushed malt, and infusion made in hot






























IDISTILLED WATER—DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
1365
water, constantly shaken, in the mash-tun, after which the
wort is run off and water added until the soluble matter of
the grain is extracted. While in process of mashing, sugar
is formed from the starch, and changes into alcohol while
fermenting; the mash gradually becomes thinner in conse-
quence, and as soon as the proper state is reached, which
the hydrometer determines, in order to prevent acetic fer-
mentation it should be distilled.
Much skill and care in mashing, fermentation, and dis-
tilling is necessary to the successful production of the
greatest possible amount of alcohol from a given quantity
of grain, fruit, or other raw material. According to Herm-
stadt, about 51 pounds of alcohol and 49 of carbonic acid
may be obtained from 100 pounds of sugar: 100 pounds of
starch yield 35 pounds of alcohol, and the same quantity of
the following grains yields a spirit containing 45 per cent.
of alcohol—namely, wheat, 40 to 45 pounds; rye, 36 to 42;
barley, 40; oats, 36; buckwheat, 40; maize, 40.
REv1SFD BY CHARLEs W. GREENE.
Distilled Water (aqua destillata) is the condensed
product obtained by the distillation of water, which sepa-
rates from it all saline matter and impurities, and also most
of the air which it had previously contained. On this ac-
count it is flat and vapid to the taste. It is much used in
chemical and pharmaceutical operations. In some points
on the Gulf Coast of the U. S., as at Brazos Santiago,
Tex., where streams are unknown and springs scarcely ex-
ist, water is procured for drinking and other economical
purposes by distillation from the sea. On some sea-going
steamers the product of the condensers of the low-pres-
Sure engines is utilized for cooking, Washing, etc., and is
used for drinking to some extent.
Distillery, an establishment fitted up with the neces-
Sary apparatus for the distillation of spirits. (See DISTIL-
LATION.)
Distress’, or Distrain', in English law, is the taking
of a personal chattel without process of law out of the pos-
session of a wrong-doer, by way of pledge for redress of an
injury or for the performance of a duty, as for non-pay-
ment of rent or taxes, etc.
Distribution of Species.
TRIBUTION OF SPECIES.
District, a township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 724.
Dis/trict [from the Lat. distringo, districtum, to
“bind;” also to “divide ’’), a territorial division; a defined
portion of a state or city, which is divided into districts for
judicial, fiscal, or elective purposes. In the U. S. each
State is divided into Congressional districts, which are
nearly equal in Bºgº; and elect each one member of
Congress. Every State is also divided into senatorial dis-
tricts, each of which sends a member to the senate of that
State. Townships in many parts of the U. S. are divided
into School districts, each of which maintains and man-
ages one or more public schools. There are also military
and other districts.
District Attorneys of the United States. The
name of these officers does not indicate their duties or the
extent of their official jurisdiction. Formerly, in England,
and now in some of the American States, a district of country
embracing several counties was assigned to a judge, in which
he held criminal courts called Oyer and Terminer—to “hear
and determine.” An attorney to represent the Crown or
State was necessary to enter upon trials. As he was selected
to proceed through the whole district, he received the appel-
lation of “ district attorney.” In the Federal courts, and
in many of the States, the duties of this officer have become
local, confined to a particular county or place of holding a
single court. But the name of the officer continues the
same as formerly, when there was reason for its application
to him. District attorneys represent the U. S. in all their
business in the circuit and district courts, both civil and
criminal. In civil suits they stand in the same relation to
the government that other attorneys do to their clients.
They also represent the U. S. in the prosecution of all
crimes and misdemeanors. This office is one largely sought
for by lawyers. The position is considered highly respect-
able, and is often exceedingly profitable. The district
attorneys receive a nominal salary of two hundred dollars,
and the residue of their compensation is mainly derived
from fees prescribed by an act of Congress. When they
defend officers and others at the instance of the govern-
ment, their remuneration is not regulated by law, but de-
pends upon agreement. The district attorneys are required
by law to report to the attorney-general an account of their
official proceedings, and the state and condition of their
offices, at such time and in such manner as he may direct.
(See “Federal Government,” by R. H. GILLET.)
District Courts of the United States.
Courts, by GEORGE CHASE, LL.B.
See GEOGRAPHICAL DIS-
See
District of Columbia, a tract of territory lying on
the Potomac River, about 300 miles from the ocean by that
river and the Chesapeake Bay, between the parallels of
38° 51' and 39° N. lat., and the meridians of 76° 58' and
77° 06' of W. lon. from Greenwich. The exact latitude
and longitude of the “Observatory,” which is our national
rime meridian, is lat. 38°53' 39' 25" N., and lon. 77°
2' 48" W. from Greenwich. It is bounded N., N. W., E.,
and S. E. by Maryland, and W. and S. W. by the Potomac
River. Its present area is 64 square miles. Originally its
area was 100 miles, consisting of a square tract lying on
both sides of the Potomac, and measuring ten miles on
each side. The portion E. of the Potomac, containing 64
square miles, was ceded to the general government by the
State of Maryland, and that W. of the river, containing
36 square miles, by the State of Virginia in 1788–89,
was accepted in 1790, and since 1800 has been used as
the seat of government of the U. S. In 1846 a desire
having been expressed, both by the inhabitants of the
portion of the District W. of the Potomac and the State
of Virginia, that that portion (which included the city of
Alexandria) should be retroceded to Virginia, a resolution
was passed in Congress July 9, 1846, consenting to the
retrocession, upon condition of the approval of the citizens
residing in that part of the District. On the 1st and 2d of
September of the same year a vote was taken, and the retro-
cession was desired by a vote of 763 in its favor, and 222
against it. The Presidentissued his proclamation ratifying
the transfer Sept. 7, 1846. The present District therefore
includes only the territory originally ceded by Maryland.
This territory is about 10 miles long from N. W. to S. E.,
and forms the county of Washington, containing the two
cities of Washington and Georgetown, and a tract of about
37 or 38 square miles outside of the cities. The surface is
rolling and diversified, some of the hills being 200 or 300
feet in height. The sites of Columbian University and the
|University of Georgetown are both considerably elevated,
and the Capitol and the President's Mansion are on high
land overlooking the other portions of the city of Wash-
ington. The soil is a light, rather sandy, but tolerably fer-
tile loam, easily tilled. The District is well watered. The
Potomac, which washes its western and south-western
borders, is navigable for the largest class of vessels as far
as Greenleaf's Point, the southern extremity of the city of
Washington, and for smaller vessels to Georgetown. Tide-
water ceases at Little Falls, 3 miles above Georgetown.
The Eastern Branch of the Potomac, called also Anacostia
Creek or River, is a large and navigable stream for vessels
of large draught as far as the navy-yard, and for coasting-
vessels nearly to Bladensburg, and forms the S. E. boundary
of the city of Washington. It has the U. S. navy-yard on
its banks. There are nine or ten small creeks falling into
the Potomac within the limits of the District, one of them,
Rock Creek, though not navigable, being a considerable
stream. The whole of the present territory of the District
belongs, so far as superficial rocks are concerned, to that
extensive cretaceous formation which extends in a belt from
five to fifteen miles in width from Staten Island to Fort
Washington opposite Alexandria, Va. Through West New
Jersey, Northern Delaware, and Central Maryland, as well as
in the District, it is characterized by large deposits of marl,
and forms the basis of a soil which furnishes the means of
its own renewal. It is underlaid by gneiss, the trend of
which is nearly E. and W., and which comes to the surface,
across the Potomac, in that part of Virginia, which origin-
ally appertained to it. A considerable portion of the Dis-
trict is covered, above the cretaceous rocks, by drift, con-
sisting of sandstone, limestone, jasper rocks, quartz in
boulders, pebbles, gravel, sand, clay, and loam. The mix-
ture of clay and loam abounds in a peculiar state of aggre-
gation, as if it had been at first separate, and then con-
glomerated in masses of considerable size. Some of this
conglomerate, having, however, a large mixture of pebbles
and jasper rock, has been taken from the bed of the Potomac
and cut and polished for use in pillars for the interior of
the Capitol, for which purpose it is regarded as superior to
breccia. The simpler forms of the conglomerate are well
adapted to brickmaking. The minerals are those usually
occurring in cretaceous deposits, and possess little special
interest. Gold has been discovered in small quantities at
the Great Falls of the Potomac.
Zoology.—In so limited and, for the most part, densely
populated a tract as the District of Columbia, it is not to
be expected that there should be any great number of wild
animals. The fauna of the district is generally identical
with that of Maryland and Eastern Virginia. There are
a few deer, and foxes of two species, the red and gray; rab-
bits, field-mice, muskrats, and squirrels are abundant. The
otter, though now rare, is occasionally met with along the
Potomac. The skunk, secure in his powers of offence and
defence, is sufficiently plentiful, while the raccoon and opos-
1366 - DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
sum, the mink, a species of weasel said to be identical with
the English stoat or ermine, though not assuming the white
coat, five species of squirrel, the wood-chuck, four species
of wild rat, three of shrew-mice, the jumping mouse, two
species of long-tailed wild mice, six species of bats, the
common and star-nosed mole, make up the quadrupeds of
the District. Of birds there have been 236 species collected
within the District. There are included in these the numer-
ous swimmers and waders which frequent Chesapeake Bay
and the adjacent rivers, as well as the great variety of
song-birds which abounds throughout the Middle States.
Of the reptiles, 52 species, have been collected, though
some of them are very rare." Among these there are nine
species of turtles and terrapin, three species of true lizards,
twenty-one species of serpents, of which only the copper-
head (Amcistrodon contortria) is venomous, nine species of
frogs and toads, and ten species of salamanders or water-
lizards. The following fish are brought into market from
the Potomac within the bounds of the District: Shad and
herring (the Potomac herring is regarded as greatly supe-
rior to all others, and is taken in immense quantities), cat-
fish, chub, eel, gar-fish, white and yellow perch, pike, rock-
fish, Sturgeon (of enormous size), sun-fish, suckers, and
black and other bass.
Vegetation.—There are fifteen species of oak, of which
the scrub or bear oak, the laurel oak, and Bartram’s oak
are the most common. The other forest trees are the
chestnut, two or three species of hickory, black walnut,
butternut, yellow pine, and, less abundant, the American
elm, linden, and rarely the tulip tree and red maple. On
the old fields the dwarf pine, Virginia cedar, and sassafras
grow where other vegetation fails. Most of the forest
trees are of the second or third growth.
Climate.—The temperature of the District has a wide
annual range—from 105° F. (in the shade) to — 12°F. But
these are extremes rarely reached. The mean temperature
of January, the coldest month, is about 32°, and of July,
the warmest, about 77°. The mean temperature of the
year is about 56°. The worst feature of the climate is one
common to a large section of the Middle States—the sud-
den falling of the temperature to the extent of thirty de-
grees or more in the course of a few hours. These sudden
changes come oftenest in winter, and are usually accom-
panied with a N. W. wind. The low grounds in the river-
bottom are decidedly miasmatic, and bilious and remittent
fevers and bilious pneumonia are very prevalent at that
season. Of late years the winters have been much more
moderate than they were in the early history of the Dis-
trict. The river is usually closed by ice in the early part
of January, but of late years there has been no crossing of
heavy teams on the ice, as was the case forty to sixty years
ago. The prevailing wind in winter is from the W. or
N. W., and in summer from the S. The average annual
fall of rain is forty inches, the larger portion falling in the
summer months. The range of the barometer is nearly or
Quite two inches. Storms seldom last so long as twenty-
four hours, and foul weather usually commences about
4 A. M. or 3 P. M.
Agricultural Products.-The area of the District com-
prises 40,960 acres, but of this a considerable portion is
water, and the cities of Washington and Georgetown oc-
cupy nearly 8000 acres. There were in 1870 only 11,677
acres reported as farms in the District (the market-gardens
do not seem to have been reported); of these, 3411 were
either woodland or other unimproved lands. The whole
number of farms was 209, ranging from 3 acres to 100 or
more. The value of the farms was stated at $3,800,230,
an average of about $325 to the acre. The value of farm-
ing implements, etc. was $39,450; wages paid, $124,338;
value of farming products for the year, $319,517; produce
of market-gardens, $112,034; of orchard products, $6781.
The staple products were—40 bushels of peas and beans;
27,367 bushels of Irish potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) and
5790 bushels of sweet potatoes (Batatus edulis); 900 gal-
lons of wine; 4495 pounds of butter; 126,077 gallons of
milk sold; 2019 tons of hay.
Manufactures.—According to the census of 1870 there
were in the District 952 manufacturing establishments, the
motive-power of which was 54 steam-engines of 789 horse-
power and 15 water-wheels of 1100 horse-power. These
establishments employed 4685 hands—viz. 4333 men, 216
women, and 136 children. The capital invested was esti-
mated at $5,021,925; the wages annually paid at $2,007,600;
the raw material used at $4,754,883; the annual product
at $9,292,173. The manufacture of largest aggregate
amount was of flour and grist-mill products (the flouring-
mills of Georgetown having a national reputation); there
are nine of these mills, and their annual product is reported
at $1,543,576. Next to this is carpentering and building,
in which 68 establishments, employing 506 men, report an
annual product of $1,195,728; printing and publishing
produced $688,605; bread, crackers, etc., $550,943; the man-
ufacture of gas (two establishments), $550,760; men's
clothing, $442,020; boots and shoes, $291,136; tin, copper,
and sheet-iron ware (44 establishments), $246,157; plumb-
ing and gas-fitting, $177,155; painting and paper-hanging,
$245,305; brick, $257,800; lumber, $207,000; liquors,
$168,950; marble and stone-work, including monuments,
$241,050; carriages and wagons, $248,897; leather, tanning
and dressing, $146,475; iron and iron castings, $146,695;
blacksmithing, $151,258; masonry, brick and stone,
$128,730; confectionery, $112,664; butchering and meat
products, $124,372; sash, doors, and blinds, $109,000.
JRailroads.--The territory of the District is so small that
there is little room for railroad extension. It has, how-
ever, two lines of railway connecting it with Baltimore; a
metropolitan branch railway, extending to Rockville; a
line extending across the Potomac, and there connecting
with the Washington and Ohio, the Orange and Alexan-
dria, and other Southern R. Rs. ; and several street rail-
ways. The entire length of railway track in the District
is probably not far from 42 miles, of which all except the
metropolitan and street railways is controlled by companies
outside of the District.
Finances.—The valuation of real estate (except that of
the U. S.) in the District for the year 1873 is $95,500,000.
The real estate belonging to the government in the District
is estimated at $104,500,000. There is no valuation of per-
sonal property by the District authorities. The “true”
valuation reported by the U. S. marshal in 1870, of real
and personal estate, was $126,873,618. The bonded debt
of the District Nov. 1, 1873, was $9,902,251.18. How
much floating debt there was aside from this at that date
does not appear. The income from taxes (2 per cent.) for
the year ending June 30, 1874, was estimated at $1,910,000;
from other sources, $300,000; total, $2,210,000; the esti-
mated expenditure, $2,224,907.46. To meet this excess
there were arrears of taxes from previous years amounting
in all to several hundred thousand dollars. Large sums
had been expended by the board of city works in grading,
paving, sewering, and improving the broad streets of the
city of Washington, as well as in building drives and
boulevards into the adjacent country, and the debt created
for these purposes was large for the amount of property
subject to taxation. The U. S. government has, however,
made very liberal grants in aid of the District, as indeed
it was in duty bound to do, from the large amount of gov-
ernment property in the District. The internal revenue
receipts from the District for the year ending June 30,
1873, were $133,424.58.
Commerce.—Georgetown has a considerable coasting:
trade, which has been steadily maintained for nearly
eighty years. The city is a port of entry, and includes in
its territory the whole District of Columbia. The imports
at the port for the year ending June 30, 1873, were $18,867,
and the exports $10,688. The amount of coastwise tonnage
entered at the port in the year ending June 30, 1871, was
280 vessels (184 steam and 27 sailing). Their aggregate
tonnage was 104,858 tons, and the crews numbered 3662
men and boys. The clearances for the same year were 158
(84 steam and 74 sailing) vessels, having an aggregate ton-
mage of 66,359 tons, and crews numbering 2219 men and
boys. The monthly returns for 1873 indicate about the
same number of vessels, etc.
Banks.—There were in 1871 six national banks in the
District, but of that number two have since failed, and one
has gone into liquidation. The capital of the remaining
national banks is $650,000. There are two other banks of
discount and deposit—the Farmers’ and Mechanics' Bank
of Georgetown, capital $300,000, and the Washington
Bank, with $279,000 capital. There are also two savings
banks—the Washington City Savings Bank and the Freed-
men’s Savings and Trust Company. There are also six or
eight large private banking-houses.
Insurance.—There were July 1, 1873, seven fire insurance
companies in the District, having an aggregate capital of
$900,000, and assets reported at $2,265,000. There was one
life insurance company—the National Life Insurance Com-
pany of the United States, capital $1,000,000, reported
assets $2,563,912. -
Population.—The population of the District in 1800 was
14,093; in 1810, 15,471; in 1820, 23,841; in 1830, 30,261;
in 1840, 33,745; in 1850, 51,687; in 1860, 75,080; in 1867,
the census of the educational department, 126,990; in 1870,
131,700; estimated population in Nov., 1873, 169,000. Of
the population in 1870, 115,446 were natives of the country,
16,254 foreign born, 34,106 had one or both parents for-
eigners, 29,183 had both parents foreigners. Of the native
population 72,107 were whites and 43,325 colored; of the
entire population, 62,192 were males, 69,508 females; of
the native population, 54,159 were males and 61,287 fe-
males; of the white population, 42,980 were males and
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
1367
45,298 females; of the colored population, 19,197 were
males and 24,207 females. There were 3 Chinese and 15
Indians among the inhabitants. Of the total male popu-
lation, 26,824 were of military age—i.e. between eighteen
and forty-five years; 33,329 were twenty-one years and
upwards, of whom 31,622 were citizens. Of the entire
population, 16,954 males and 18,615 females were of school
age, or between five and eighteen years. The District in
1870 had 78 blind persons (43 males and 35 females), 134
deaf-mutes (92 males and 42 females), 479 insane persons
(341 males and 138 females), and 50 idiotic persons (38
males and 12 females). It should be remarked in relation
to the deaf-mutes and the insane, that there is a national
institute and college for the former, and a national asylum
for the latter, and to both large numbers are admitted who
do not belong in the District. The area of the District is
so small, and so much of it is covered by cities, that the
density of the population is eleven times greater than that
of any of the States or Territories. In the census of 1870
it is stated at 2057.81 per square mile.
Education.—Of the 35,569 children of school age in the
District in 1870, only 19,941 were reported as attending
school. Of these, 5122 were colored and 14,819 whites;
22,845 persons of ten years old and over could not read,
and 28,719 could not write. The report of the commis-
sioner of education for 1872 gives the following statistics
of education for the year ending Aug. 31, 1872 : school
population (by the laws of the District between six and
seventeen years), 31,671; pupils enrolled in 1872, 15,555;
pupils in private schools, 5882; making in all 21,437 under
instruction; 14,063 seats provided in the public schools;
263 teachers; amount of school-tax and other income for
public schools in 1872, $355,640.07; total payments for
public school purposes in 1872, $479,995.94; value of public
school property, $951,700. The colored public schools of
Washington and Georgetown are remarkably well con-
ducted. There are mine school-houses, several of them
very elegant and commodious buildings; 4661 children are
enrolled, full one half of the school population; the average
attendance is 3261; there are 4259 sittings in the school-
houses, and in all 75 schools for the colored children; 84
teachers, all females, and the average salaries of the teach-
ers $756 per year. The number of private schools in Wash-
ington and Georgetown in 1872 was 122, with an attendance
of 6217. The colleges, etc. are—the Georgetown College
or University, situated on the heights of Georgetown,
founded in 1789, under the control of the Jesuits, having
classical, law, and medical departments. The classical de-
partment has 21 professors and 179 students; the medical
department has 10 instructors and 62 students; and the law
department, 4 professors and 46 students. The library
contains 22,000 volumes. It is liberally endowed. Co-
lumbian University, formerly Columbian College, on the
heights overlooking Washington, established in 1814 and
opened for students in 1822, has three departments, aca-
demic, medical, and law, and through the liberality of W. W.
Corcoran, Esq., and other friends of the university, is now
organizing scientific and art departments, for which the
capital affords extraordinary advantages. It has 8 profes-
sors and 120 students in the academic department, 3 pro-
fessors and 150 students in the law school, and 8 or 10
professors and 53 students in the medical school. Its
library contains about 8000 volumes, and the students have
access to the Library of Congress, the largest in the U. S.,
as well as to other local libraries. Howard University, in-
corporated in 1867, and intended to have preparatory,
normal, academic, theological, medical, law, and agricul-
tural. departments, was founded mainly for colored men,
though there is no restriction of race or sex in its act of
incorporation. It has now in operation a normal school with
180 students, a preparatory with 60, and another with 30
pupils; a collegiate department with 32 students, a law de-
partment with 71, a commercial with 30, a medical with 37,
and a theological with 26 students. There are 22 professors.
The university is insufficiently endowed. It has a library of
about 7000 volumes. The National Deaf-Mute College, in
connection with the Columbia. Institution for the Deaf and
Dumb, is the only college for deaf-mutes in the world. It
has 8 professors and 66 students. The course does not differ
materially from that in other colleges. Gonzaga College is
an institution in Washington under the direction of the
Jesuit Fathers, and, though possessing a college charter, is
rather a collegiate School than a college. It has 7 instruc-
tors and about 150 students. Wayland Seminary, a col-
legiate, theological, and normal institute for the training of
freedmen as teachers and preachers, is under the control of
the Baptists, and has 3 instructors and 85 students. There
are besides, these a business college with 160 students, the
law college of the (projected) National University, with 3
professors and about 70 students, and a National College of
Pharmacy, recently organized. There are also the Smith-
sonian Institution, with its magnificent collections from
the government expeditions; the museums of the several
departments, agricultural, naval, medical and surgical, etc.;
the Library of Congress and numerous other public libra-
ries; the Naval Observatory, etc. etc. There are in the
District 5 hospitals (including one for the insane), 8 homes
and asylums for different classes, 5 orphan asylums, and 4
industrial and reform schools. There were in 1870, 127
public libraries in the District, having an aggregate of
409,936 bound volumes, and 569 private libraries, with an
aggregate of 383,766 volumes. The Library of Congress
alone had 266,000 volumes in 1873, besides 45,000 pamph-
lets. The District in 1870 had 22 newspapers, with an an-
nual issue of 10,092,800, and a circulation of 81,400 copies.
Of these, 3, with a circulation of 24,000, were dailies; 1
tri-weekly, with 2000 circulation; 12 weekly, with 41,900
circulation; 6 monthly, with 13,500 circulation; 1 quar-
terly, with 3000.
Churches.—In 1873 there were 84 churches in Washing-
ton, and about 120 in the District. Of these, 21 were
Baptist, with 18 ordained ministers and 74.10 members, 22
Sunday schools, 387 teachers, and 2954 scholars; 1 Chris-
tian, with 400 sittings and $5000 church property; 2 Con-
gregational, with 1800 sittings and $115,000 church prop-
erty (in 1873 there was but I Congregational church, with
1000 sittings, an average congregation of 800, church prop-
erty valued at $125,000; the membership was 338; there
were 16 ordained ministers, besides the pastor (one since
dead), and 2 licentiates; 1187 children in Sunday schools,
and annual contributions $9873). In 1870 there were 16
Episcopal parishes, with 16 church edifices, having 6680
sittings, and church property valued at $563,500 (in 1873
there were 16 parishes, 24 clergymen, and an assistant
bishop, residing at Bladensburg). The district is in the
Protestant Episcopal diocese of Maryland, and its statis-
tics cannot be separated from those of the diocese. The
Iºvangelical Association is reported in 1870 as having 1
congregation, 1 church edifice, 800 sittings, and $20,000
worth of church property. The Friends had in 1870 and
in 1873, 1 Orthodox and 1 Hicksite meeting, 2 meeting-
houses, about 250 sittings, and not far from $30,000 worth
of meeting-house property. There were 2 Jewish syna-
gogues in 1873, 1 claiming to be Orthodox, with about 800
sittings and $30,000 of synagogue property. There were
10 Lutheran congregations in 1870, with 10 church edifices
(7 of them in Washington), 3700 sittings, and $223,000
worth of church property. In 1870 there were reported 33
Methodist churches, 36 church edifices, 20,860 sittings, and
the value of the church property $815,600. This included
at that time the Methodist Episcopal Church, the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church South, and the Protestant Meth-
odists (in 1873 there were 21 of these churches in Wash-
ington and Georgetown). The number has somewhat
increased in the District, but owing to the Methodist
Episcopal division of their churches into several dis-
tricts, and to the different denominations which claim
the name, it is impossible to say just how much. There is
1 New Jerusalem (Swedenborgian) society and 1 church
edifice, with 480 sittings and $15,000 property. In 1870
there were 13 Presbyterian churches and 15 church edifices,
with 9250 sittings and $405,500 of church property. The
number has since increased, and there are now 11 Presby-
terian churches in Washington alone, and certainly 7 or 8
in the remainder of the District. There was I German
Reformed church in 1873, with 1 church edifice, 300 sit-
tings, and about $10,000 of church property. In 1870
there were 11 Roman Catholic congregations and the same
number of church edifices, with 9250 sittings, with $886,000
worth of church property (in 1873 there were 14 congrega-
tions and the same number of churches and chapels, 22
clergymen, besides a number of professors in Georgetown
and Gonzaga Colleges). The church property has also in-
creased in value. There is also a Second Advent church,
of which there are no published statistics, and 1 Unitarian
society, with 1 church edifice, having 400 sittings and
$30,000 worth of church property; one Universalist so-
ciety, with 1 church edifice (hired); and one Christadel-
phian synagogue, particulars unknown.
Constitution, Cowrts, etc.—The District, as such, was an
unorganized territory under the sole government of Con-
gress from its first purchase by the U. S. government to
Feb., 1871. It had indeed a county organization, and the
cities of Washington and Georgetown had charters for
their local government; but there was no territorial gov-
ernment; the citizens had no vote, either in District or
national affairs, and were not represented in Congress by
a delegate, as even the newest and least populous Terri-
tories were. Of all the inhabitants of the U. S., the in-
habitants of the Federal District, as it was called, alone
had no national citizenship. A committee of Congress at
each session recommended such legislation and appropria-
1368
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
tions as were deemed needful for them, but this committee
were not, of course, citizens of the District, nor specially
interested in its growth and prosperity. As the District
increased in population, and came to have more inhabit-
ants than most of the Territories, this condition of affairs
naturally induced great discontent, and in the first session
of the Forty-second Congress an act was passed organizing
a Territorial government for the District of Columbia. This
act was approved Feb. 21, 1871. Of course, a Territorial
government was the only one possible for it, as it was se-
lected as the site of the capital of the U. S. on the distinctly
avowed principle that all interference with the national
government by the influence of any State should be avoided.
This organic act directed that the government thus created
should be known by the name of “The District of Colum-
bia;” that it should be constituted a body corporate with
the usual privileges, have a seal, and exercise all other
powers of a municipal corporation not inconsistent with
the Constitution and laws of the U. S. and the provisions
of the organic act. The act provided that the executive
power and authority in and over the District should be
vested in a governor, appointed by the President of the
U. S. with the advice and consent of the Senate, to serve
for four years and until his successor was appointed and
qualified. The governor must be a citizen of the District,
and have resided there for twelve months prior to his ap-
pointment. The governor was to have power to grant
pardons and respites, commission officers, take care that
the laws were faithfully executed, and possess a veto power
on all, bills passed by the District legislature, which could
only be overcome by a two-third vote of both houses, taken
by years and mays. The secretary of the District was also
to be appointed by the President, to serve for four years,
and to act as governor in case of death, resignation, dis-
ability, or absence of the governor. The legislature was
to consist of a council and a house of delegates; the coun-
cil to consist of eleven members, of whom two should be
residents of Georgetown, two of the county outside of
Washington and Georgetown, and seven from the city of
Washington, all to be appointed by the President by and
with the advice and consent of the Senate. They were to
hold office for two years, but so classified that five were
appointed one year and six the next. The District was
apportioned into eleven districts for the appointment of the
council. The house of delegates was to consist of twenty-
two members, elected by the people by districts, each dele-
gate to be an inhabitant of the district from which he was
elected. Twenty-two districts were apportioned for this
purpose. The delegates hold office for one year. The ses-
sions” of the legislature were annual, and were limited to
sixty days, except the first, which might be one hundred
days. The portions of the county outside of the cities
might be laid out in townships not exceeding three in
number, and township officers, to be elected by the people,
be prescribed. Suffrage was declared to be universal to
all male citizens of the U. S. of twenty-one years or over,
except those who were non compos mentis, or convicted of
infamous crimes. Defaulters, bribe-takers, perjurers, or
persons convicted of infamous crimes were not to be eligible
to the legislature nor to any office of profit or trust. Mem-
bers of the legislature were required to take a very strin-
É. oath both as to allegiance and to their not taking any
ribes or presents to influence their action. The powers of
the legislature were restricted in certain directions in ac-
cordance with the Constitution of the U. S. and the pecu-
liar situation and circumstances of the District. A system
of free schools was ordered to be established.
The courts of the District remain as established by Con-
gress before the Territorial organization. They are—a
Supreme court of the District of Columbia, consisting of a
chief-justice and four associate justices, having general
jurisdiction in law and equity, and possessing also the
powers formerly exercised by the judges of the orphans’
courts; and a police court, presided over by a single judge.
The justices of the peace are deprived of police jurisdiction,
but have authority in all civil causes where less than $100
is involved, and to bind over persons arrested for crime to
the supreme court. A board of health and a board of pub-
lic works were to be constituted, the members of both to be
appointed by the President of the U. S. and confirmed by
the Senate. Of the latter board the governor was to be eac
officio a member. The salary of the governor to be $3000
per annum; of the secretary of the District, $2000; of the
members of the legislative assembly $4 a day, and of the
presiding officer of each house $8 a day; the other officers
of each house to receive the same pay as members. A dele-
gate in Congress was to be elected by the people in the
same way as in the Territories, and for the same time. The
members of the board of public works receive a salary of
$2500 each, and of the board of health a salary of $2000
each, paid by Congress, except that the governor receives
no additional salary as a member of the board of public
works, and that any army officer who may be a member of
said board cannot receive any increase of pay for his Ser-
W1C eS. -
Cownties and Principal Towns.—Since the retrocession of
Alexandria county and the trans-Potomac portion of the
District to Virginia in 1846, there has been but one county
in the District, that of Washington. Its population in 1850
was 51,687; in 1860, 75,080; in 1870, 131,700. The only
towns or cities in the county of considerable size are Wash-
ington and Georgetown. The population of Washington in
1870 was 109,199; of Georgetown, 11,384; and that of the
remainder of the District, 11,117.
History.—That portion of the District comprised in the
present site of the city of Washington was originally a
favorite camping-ground and place of council for the In-
dian tribes inhabiting the shores of the Potomac (or “River
of Swans,” as they called it) and its vicinity. Here were
held also their war-dances when they were preparing for a
hostile expedition against any of the adjacent, tribes. Not
far from T660 an English gentleman by the name of Pope,
who was somewhat eccentric, purchased a considerable tract
of land here, gave to a creek which flowed through his
lands the name of Tiber, which it still bears; to the adja-
cent hill, on which now stands the Capitol, that of Capito-
line Hill, and to the whole tract the name of Rome; and
amused himself by drawing a plot of a city to be built on
his lands, to which he affixed the names of the streets and
public places of ancient Rome. He gravely signed his let-
ters and documents “Pope of Rome.” In 1718, George
Boone, an English gentleman, grandfather of the celebrated
pioneer, Daniel Boone, purchased several tracts of land in
Berks co., Pa., Maryland, and Virginia, and among them
that part of what was afterwards the District of Columbia
which Georgetown and its vicinity now occupies. Here he
laid out a town, which he named after himself, Georgetown,
and which had in the next eighty years attained a consid-
erable growth. The first idea of selecting a portion of ter-
ritory for the seat of government seems to have been Sug-
gested by an insult offered to Congress in 1783, while in
session in Philadelphia, by a mob of mutineers which the
city authorities could not break up, and which compelled
Congress to adjourn to Princeton, N. J. Elbridge Gerry,
afterwards Vice-President, offered a resolution that a dis-
trict should be selected on the banks of the Delaware, and
also at the Falls of the Potomac, near Georgetown, for the
seat of government. This resolution was adopted, but
afterwards repealed. It contemplated two capitals, which
was thought objectionable. An attempt was subsequently
made to fix upon a site at the Falls of the Delaware near
Lamberton, N.J., and commissioners were appointed for
the purpose, but failed, and the matter rested till Sept.,
1787, when a provision was inserted in the Constitution of
the U. S., drawn by the Federal Convention, authorizing
the legislature of the U. S. “to provide for the establish-
ment of a seat of government not exceeding — miles Square,
in which they shall have exclusive jurisdiction.” This was
ratified by the requisite number of States, and at the first
session of Congress under the new Constitution, in 1789, the
subject was earnestly debated, offers of cession of territory
not exceeding ten miles square being made by Pennsyl-
vania, Virginia, and Maryland. The “act for establishing
the temporary and permanent seat of the government of the
U. S.,” was finally approved July 16, 1790, and provided that
the seat of government should be and remain in Philadel-
phia from Dec., 1790, to Dec., 1800, when it should be re-
moved to “a district of territory not exceeding ten miles
square located on the river Potomac between the mouths of
the Eastern Branch and Conogocheague,” and three com-
missioners were appointed to perfect the purchase and
transfer of the territory and the cession of jurisdiction, and
to “provide suitable buildings for the accommodation of
Congress and the President, and for the public offices of the
government of the U. S.” President Washington, after a
careful examination of the region, issued his proclamation
Jan. 24, 1791, directing the commissioners to locate a part
of the district within certain described lines, and submitted
to Congress certain questions in regard to the location of
the remainder. By another proclamation, Mar. 30, 1791,
President Washington declared the entire district located.
The commissioners appointed by him subsequently (July
22, 1791) to secure the title to the soil and its proper trans-
fer, as well as a cession of jurisdiction, were Thomas John-
son, Daniel Carroll of Maryland, and David Stewart of
Virginia. The land was mostly held by eighteen or nine-
teen proprietors, who sold it to the government at an agreed
price, reserving to themselves rights to their buildings,
graveyards, timber, and wood, except where they interfered
with the plan for the Federal city. The small remainder of
lands, whether owned by small proprietors or minor heirs,
etc., were by an act of the Maryland legislature condemned
DISTRICT SCHOOLS-DIVERTIMENTO.
1369
and appraised, and sold to the government on a fair valu-
ation. The Federal city, afterwards called Washington,
was laid out from a plan furnished by Major L'Enfant, and
the buildings necessary for the accommodation of Congress
and the government were erected and completed before
Dec., 1800. Presidents Jefferson and Madison did much to
ornament and beautify it. In the summer of 1814 it was
occupied by the British naval and land forces, who wan-
tonly set fire to the Capitol, the President's House, the pub-
lic offices, navy-yard, and printing-offices, destroying prop-
erty to the amount of nearly $2,000,000. These were all
rebuilt on a larger scale, and some of them have been since
that time again reconstructed, in accordance with the de-
mand for greater room and accommodations. In 1846 the
Virginia portion of the District was retroceded to Virginia.
During the late war the city and District were for a few
days in April, 1861, isolated from the North by the destruc-
tion of the railroads between Baltimore and Washington.
It was more than once in some danger of capture, and
was protected by strong forts and earthworks manned by
large bodies of troops. There were more than twenty of
these fortifications within the boundaries of the District
in 1863. There were also during the war many large hos-
pitals for the sick and wounded soldiers in the vicinity of
Washington and Georgetown. Since the war, the District
has made rapid progress in population and wealth, and
every year adds largely to its resources for intellectual and
aesthetic culture. - -
Governors. —Since its organization in Feb., 1871, the
District of Columbia has had two governors—viz. Henry
D. Cooke, from 1871 to 1873, and Alexander R. Shepherd,
from 1873 to 1874. Its citizens have no vote for President.
(For many interesting facts and statistics of this article,
as well as for the complete account of its Territorial organ-
ization, finances, etc., we are indebted to His Excellency
Gov. Shepherd, and his very thoughtful and courteous
private secretary, William Tindall, Esq.) w
L. P. BROCKETT.
District Schools. See CoMMON SCHOOLs, by REv.
JoHN G. BAIRD, Asst. Sec. Conn. State Board of Education.
Ditch, or Fosse [Lat. fossa], in fortification, a deep
trench or excavation around a fort, serving as an obstacle
to the enemy and supplying earth for the parapet or ram-
part. It is generally dry, but is sometimes filled with water.
In permanent works, such as the regular fortifications of a
town, the rampart and ditch are the most important; the
former being inside the latter, and formed of earth exca-
vated from it. The ditch is often 100 feet wide, and twelve
feet deep below the natural level of the ground.
Dith’yramb [Lat. dithyrambus ; Gr. 8:00papgos; ety-
mology doubtful], a kind of lyric poem sung in honor of
Bacchus. It was of a lofty but often inflated style; hence
the term dithyramb is frequently applied to any lyric of a
wild and boisterous character, such as might be supposed
to be composed in a state of intoxication.
Dit/marsch, North and South [Ger. Norder and
Süder Ditmarschem], a portion of the duchy, of Holstein
between the Elbe and the Eider. Area, about 500 square
miles. The people of this district have preserved in a re-
markable degree the peculiarities of the ancient Germans
and the distinctive features of the old Teutonic character.
Ditmarsch has its own code or collection of laws, adopted
in 1321. Pop. in 1871, 75,193.
HDit’tany [from the Gr. Sikrapºvos; Lat. dictamnus, so
named from Mount Dicte in Crete, where it grew in abun-
dance], a genus of plants belonging to the order Rutaceae,
with the calyx 5-partite, five petals, unequal, ten stamens,
and five one to three-seeded follicular capsules. The Dic-
tamnus Fraacinella (ruber or albus) is a perennial indigenous
in Southern Europe, and is often cultivated in gardens. It
has red or white flowers, of a powerful spicy fragrance. In
the U. S. the name of dittany is given to the Cwmila Mari-
ana, of the order Labiatae. It is probable that the dictam-
nus of the ancients was the Origanum Dictamnus, a labiate
plant to which the old authors ascribe the most marvellous
powers. - w
Dittee’ah, or Duttee'ah, a town of Hindostan, in
Bundelcund, 125 miles S. E. of Agra. It is enclosed by a
stone wall thirty feet high. It is the capital of a rajah-
ship of its own name. Pop. about 50,000.
Dit/ton (HUMPHREY), an English mathematician, born
at Salisbury May 29, 1675, was minister of a dissenting
church at Tunbridge. He was befriended by Sir Isaac New-
ton, who procured his appointment as mathematical master
of Christ's Hospital. He wrote able works entitled “Laws
of Nature and Motion ” (1705), a “Treatise on Fluxions”
(1706), and “Synopsis Algebraica,” (1709). Died Oct. 15,
1715.
Di'u, a fortified seaport of Hindostan, on the Arabian
Sea, and on an island of its own name near the coast of
Guzerat. It has a tolerably safe harbor, and the remains
of a famous Hindoo temple. It has been possessed by the
Portuguese since 1515. Area of the island, 64 Square miles.
Pop, in 1864, 12,303.
Diur'nal [from the Lat. diurnus, “ daily,” from dies,
a “day”], as an adjective, is employed either to designate
that which pertains to the day as opposed to the night
(thus, “ diurnal insects” are those which are abroad in the
day, while “nocturnal” ones fly by might), or more fre-
quently it is applied to events which occur every day of
twenty-four hours. “Diurnal” is also a name sometimes
given to the Roman Catholic breviary. -
Divan, de-van' [Persian diván or diván; Fr. divan;
Ger. Divan; It. divano; Sp. divan], a word common to
several Oriental languages. It is employed by the Per-
sians to denote a collection of poems by one author, as the
divām of Saadi and the divān of Hafiz. The term is also
applied to a muster-roll or military day-book. The Turk-
ish divan is the great council of the empire or supreme
judicial tribunal. The word divām is also among the Turks
a common appellation for a saloon or hall which serves for
the reception of company. Along the sides of this saloon
are arranged low cushioned seats or sofas; hence the name
has been given in Western Europe to a kind of sofa.
Di’ver (Colymbus), a genus of birds belonging to the
family Colymbidae. The bill is straight, strong, and point-
ed, tail and wings short, and the toes webbed. . They dive
with great facility, and pursue the fish on which they live
under the water. The principal species are the loon or great
northern diver (Colymbus glacialis), the black-throated diver
(Colymbus arcticus), and the red-throated diver (Colymbus
septentrionalis).
Divergent (or Diverging) Series, in mathematics, a
series in which each succeeding term is greater than the
term before it. Thus, a series constructed on the formula
ac2 + 22, by substituting for a each of the natural numbers
in their order, increasing successively, which would give 3,
8, 15, 24, 35, etc., is a diverging series. -
Di’vers (in the pearl-fishery) descend through the water
to the bank round which the oysters are clustered, placing
their feet, to secure greater rapidity, on a stone attached to
the end of a rope, the other end of which is made fast to
the boat. They carry with them another rope, the ex-
tremity of which is held by two men in the boat, while to
the lower part, that descends with the diver, there is
fastened a net or basket. Besides these, every diver is
furnished with a strong knife to detach the oysters or
serve as a defensive weapon in case he should be attacked
by a shark. As soon as the diver touches bottom, he gathers
the oysters with all possible speed, and having filled his net
or basket, he quits his hold of the rope with the stone, pulls
the rope which is held by the sailors in the boat, and rapidly
ascends to the surface of the sea. Sponges are obtained
by a similar process. (Johnson's Natural History, vol. ii.,
p. 525.)
Divertimen’to [an Italian word signifying a “diver-
sion ”], or Divertissement [Fr. for the same], a kind of
musical composition arranged for one or more instruments.
It has generally no fixed character, and may be classed
between the étude and the capriccioso. The term is also

1370
DIVIDEND–DIVINA COMMEDIA.
applied to a ballet, or songs introduced between the acts of
an opera.
Div^idend [Fr. dividende, from the Lat. divido, to
“divide ’’), in arithmetic, the number or quantity given to
be divided; also the sum apportioned to creditors from
the realized assets of a bankrupt's estate. The term divi-
dend is also applied to the annual or half-yearly interest
on the public funds or national debt, and to the distributed
profits of joint-stock companies, which are paid annually
or half-yearly to each stockholder.
Divi’ders are instruments for “dividing” or marking
off distances, or for drawing circles, ellipses, and other
curves. They sometimes consist of two or even three bars
or legs, joined at one end by a hinge. Sometimes two
movable points are arranged to slide along a “beam” or
straight bar. “Proportional dividers” are made of bars
crossing each other and pointed at both ends. By means
of a sliding joint at the point of union, dimensions in-
cluded between one of the pairs of points may be made
greater or less than those included between the other at
the same time in any proportion.
Dividing Engine, a machine for marking the divis-
ions of scales of measurement in scientific, mathematical,
and astronomical instruments. Scales for mechanics’ work
were formerly divided by hand, but it is impossible to at-
tain accurate results by such methods, while by a carefully
made engine a most surprising degree of precision is reach-
ed. The engines are of various kinds. Their success de-
pends upon the skill, patience, and mathematical know-
ledge of the constructor. Test-plates for the microscope
have been ruled by Mr. F. Nobert of Barth, Pomerania,
with divisions only grºotſ of a French inch asunder.
Diſvi-diſvi (Caesalpinia Coriaria), a leguminous shrub
of tropical America, is valued for its pods, which contain
tannin and gallic acid. It grows to the height of twenty
feet, and the pod is three inches long. It is used princi-
pally for tanning leather and dyeing cloth, and large quan-
tities are exported from Savanilla, Rio Hache, and Mara-
caibo. -
Diviſna Comme/dia [It..], or Divine Comedy,
the name of one of the most remarkable productions of
the human mind, a poem composed by Dante Alighieri.
(See DANTE.) It is not known when or where it was
composed, but from the poet’s having given “the middle
of the journey of his life” (i. e. about 1300) as the date
of the opening of his story, there can be no doubt that
it was written after that time, and in all probability after
his banishment, which occurred in 1302.
Comedy * describes a vision in which Dante visits in suc-
cession. Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. The structure of
the poem consists of three great divisions—“L’Inferno,”
Hell; “Il Purgatorio,” Purgatory; “Il Paradiso,” Para-
dise. The Inferno is related in thirty-four cantos, but each
of the other divisions in thirty-three, so that the whole
poem contains one hundred cantos in all. The poet's con-
ception of Hell makes it a vast, irregular, funnel-shaped
abyss opening directly under Mount Sion, on which stands
Jerusalem, and having its apex at the centre of the earth.
The sides of this pit are not smooth, but broken by terraces
or platforms, each of which extends round the whole circle,
and is separated from those above it and from those below
it, so that entrance and exit are impossible except to those
who, like the poet, are divinely guided. Owing to the
funnel-like shape of the pit, these circles necessarily grow
smaller and smaller as they descend. Commentators have
exercised their ingenuity in calculating the width and depth
of the pit, the widths of the different platforms, and the
distances that separate one from the other, but no common
reckoning has been arrived at. We must imagine the plat-
forms, or “circles,” as they are usually called, to be not
narrow ledges or steps, but regions of vast extent, and
varying greatly in character. In one the ground, or at
least a part of it, is covered with fresh, green grass; in an-
other there is no footing, but Dante and his guide look out
from the edge of the abyss to where the spirits are whirled
about in air dark as pitch, like troops of starlings before the
wind : another circle welters in darkness and cold, with
hail and mud and Snow, and the earth gives out a stench ;
another is a marsh, in which the sinners are immersed, and
through it runs a river on whose opposite bank rises the
city of Dis. In other circles are rivers of blood; here is a
vast plain filled with tombs like those of the cemeteries at
Arles and Pola; in another is a lake of pitch, and in an-
other a vast forest where the trees contain the souls of sin-
ners. In one place the ground is covered with hot sand,
while a continual rain of fire falls upon those who tramp
wearily along; in another the plain is honeycombed with
pits, into which the sinners are plunged head-foremost ;
and in another still they are frozen in a lake of ice.
It seems obvious that we must argue from the implied
The “Divine.
vastness of the circles to the dimensions of the whole fun-
nel-pit of the Hell, and not, by limiting ourselves to certain
measurements of the breadth and depth of the pit, run the
risk of belittling the platforms themselves. Yet this is
what naturally results from the measurements given by the
commentators, for we are told that “the latest calculation
gives 245 miles as the diameter of the abyss at its opening,
which reduces the different platforms to a size compara-
tively small.” But no one can read the poem and think
of the platforms as anything but vast, and any reasoning
that ends by making them small must be wrong reasoning.
Dante, is conducted through the Hell and through the
Purgatory by the poet Virgil (representing human wisdom),
who has been sent to his aid by Beatrice (representing
heavenly wisdom), she herself having been despatched to
Virgil with this commission by Lucia (enlightening grace),
who had been sent by a gentle lady (Divine Mercy) to the
aid of Dante, lost in a dark wood in the middle of his life’s
journey, and terrified by the aspect of threatening wild
beasts. Under Virgil’s guidance he begins his memorable
journey. The events we have thus hinted at occupy the
first and second cantos, which are merely introductory. In
the third, after passing through the gate of Hell, Dante
and his guide find themselves in a region where are the
souls of those who, when on the earth, lived for themselves
alone. They were mixed with the angels who in the war
with Satan stood for neither side—hateful to God and to
his enemies. “Do not let us talk about them,” said Virgil,
“but look at them, and pass on.” They then come to the
river Acheron, over which we are to infer that Charon fer-
ries them, since Dante says that he fell asleep after a dis-
cussion with the grim ferryman as to his right to pass over
with the condemned souls, and that when he awoke he was
with Virgil in the First Circle. In this First Circle, how-
ever, it is not sinners who are punished, but the whole
world of the unbaptized and of those who lived before the
birth of Christ. This is the Limbo into which the legends
make Christ to have descended, and from which he released
certain souls. The doom of these is sorrow without tor-
ment; Dante hears no lamentations, but only sighs, with
which the air trembles. With the Second Circle and the
fifth canto begin the true punishments of sinners, the sins
deepening in guiltiness as the pit descends, and the punish-
ment growing more intense, painful, and horrible as the
circles decrease in size. All the circles, beginning with the
second, are included in three great divisions, each set of
circles separated from the others by wide spaces. These
divisions, to name them after the sins punished in them,
are I. Incontinence; II. Malice; III. Bestiality. The
sinners whose punishments are included in the first of these
great divisions, that of INCONTINENCE, are—1. The carnal;
2. The gluttonous; 3. The avaricious and prodigal; 4. The
angry and the sullen. In the circle of the sullen are in-
cluded the heretics. The second division, that of MALICE,
includes—1. The violent against their neighbors; 2. The
violent against themselves; 3. The violent against God, or
against Nature, the daughter of God, or against Art, the
daughter of Nature. The third division, of BESTIALITY,
has two subdivisions. In the first are seducers, flatterers,
demoniacs, soothsayers, barrators, hypocrites, thieves, evil-
counsellors, schismatics, falsifiers. In the second are
traitors to their kindred, traitors to their country, traitors
to their friends, traitors to their lords and benefactors.
(Longfellow, “ The Divine Comedy,” vol. i., p. 170.) On
reaching the bottom of the pit Satan is found, a monster
with three heads and champing a sinner in each bloody
mouth. These sinners are the three arch-traitors, Judas
Iscariot, who betrayed his God, and Brutus and Cassius,
who betrayed Rome. Satan is plunged up to his middle
in the vortex of the pit, and the two poets, Virgil leading,
climb down his shaggy body, holding by his fell of hair,
until they reach the monster’s haunches, when they turn
and climb up the legs, until at length they find themselves
at the foot of a gloomy cavern up whose sides they mount
with difficulty, and emerge at the foot of the Mount of
Purgatory, a lofty come that rises in the exact antipodes of
Mount Sion on an island in the Southern Ocean. Around
it are seven terraces, on which are punished those who have
committed the seven mortal sins. . These are pride, envy,
anger, sloth, avarice and prodigality, gluttony, and lust.
From the first canto to the ninth the action is outside
the entrance to Purgatory. From the ninth canto to the
twenty-eighth the seven circles are described, and from
the twenty-ninth to the end the Terrestrial Paradise at
the summit of the Mount of Purgatory. When the poets
have reached the summit of the mountain they are met by
Beatrice, who has descended from Heaven for the purpose,
and returning draws Dante after her. The Paradise or
Heaven is founded upon the Ptolemaic system, which was
the one accepted in Dante's time. Beatrice leads Dante in
succession to the seven planets—namely, the Moon, Mer-
DIVINATION.—DIVING BELL.
cury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. From
thence they mount to the sphere of the fixed stars, then to
the primum mobile, and finally to the empyrean, where,
after a vision of Christ and the Virgin, the poet has a
glimpse of the Creator, and the poem closes.
This is the bare skeleton of a work which holds an eter-
nal place in the heart, the intellect, and the conscience of
the world, and which numbers now more students and ad-
mirers than in any preceding time. It must be closely
read and studied to be in any degree understood, and no
abstract, or even analysis, of it would be of much service
to a person who had not read with deliberate care the whole
poem from beginning to end.
The name “Comedy” was given to the poem by Dante
himself. In a letter which he wrote to Can Grande, and
of which an abstract and partial translation is given by
Dr. J. A. Carlyle in the introduction to his admirable prose
translation of the Inferno, we find that he says: The title
of this work is, “Begins the Comedy of Dante Alighieri, a
Florentine by birth, but not by manners” (Incipit Comoedia
Dantis Allagherii, Florentini natione, non moribus). He
then gives the definition of the words Comedy and Tragedy
from their supposed etymologies, and says that Tragedy
“speaks in a style elate and sublime, and at the beginning
is admirable and quiet—at the end or exit fetid and horri-
ble; while Comedy begins with the asperity of a subject,
and ends prosperously, and speaks in a remiss and humble
style;” from which he concludes it will be easy to see why
the present work is called a comedy. For if we consider
the subject thereof, at the beginning it is horrible and fetid,
being Hell; at the end prosperous, desirable, and grateful,
being Paradise. And if we consider the style of speech,
that style is remiss and humble, being the vulgar speech,
in which even the women talk with one another. Where-
fore it is evident why the work is called a Comedy. As
for the word “Divine” prefixed to the title, it is not known
just when it began to be used. The first printed edition
with the title “DIVINA Commedia” is said to be the one
printed at Venice in 1516 by Bernardino Stagnino de Mon-
ferra. Dr. Carlyle says that this edition being very scarce
he has not been able to verify this assertion, but he finds
the title “ Divina Commedia” in the edition printed by
Gabriel Giolito di Ferrarii in Venice in 1555. Whoever
may be responsible for the word, it is so appropriate, both
from the argument of the poem and from its beautiful
style, that it can never be separated from the title.
The “ Divine Comedy” exists in a great number of
manuscripts. Of these the most are in Italy, but there are
several in England, and others in France and Germany.
There have been over 300 editions printed, and it has been
translated into every European language. The earliest
printed edition is that of Johanni Numeister, Fuligno,
1472. Dr. Carlyle, in speaking of the edition of Vendelin
da, Spira, printed at Venice in 1477, says that if some
verses at the end is found the epithet “Divine” applied to
Dante (divo dante alleghieri Fiorentina poeta), and that
“later editions speak of the eaccelso, glorioso, divino, or
venerabile poeta Fiorentino long before they begin to apply
the title of Divine to the poem itself.” The earliest Flor-
entine edition is that of 1481, to which was added the com-
mentary of Christoforo Landino. Leaving these earliest
editions, we find others following in an irregular way, of
which Dr. Carlyle gives this brief summary: “Fifteen
authentic editions, besides five of doubtful authenticity,
were printed within the last thirty years of the fifteenth
century; forty-two in the sixteenth ; four in the seven-
teenth, or poorest century of Italian literature; forty in the
eighteenth ; and in the present century more than one hun-
dred and fifty.” The earliest of all the many commentaries
upon the poem is that of Jacopo, Dante's son, written in
the year 1328. Later came the comment called generally
the Ottimo or Best, but also the Anonimo, Buono, Antico;
then the comment attributed to Pietro, another of Dante’s
sons. This was first published by Lord Vernon in sump-
tuous style, at his own expense, at Florence in 1845. It
was written in 1340. In Aug., 1373, the republic of Flor-
ence established a professorship of Dante, and Boccaccio
was the first lecturer. The salary was 100 gold florins.
He began his lectures in the church of San Stefano in Oct.,
1373, and continued them till his death in 1375. Other
valuable comments are those of Benvenuto da Imola, Boc-
caccio's pupil and friend; of Landino, one of the successors
of Boccaccio, who lectured on Dante from the year 1457;
Bernardino Daniello of Lucca, printed at Venice in 1568–
this last especially well spoken of by Dr. Carlyle. Merely
to name the translations of the “ Divine Comedy * would
overrun the limits of our article. The best are in England,
Germany, and America. In England, Cary’s translation
of the whole poem is reckoned the standard one; Wright's
is also a valuable translation. W. M. Rossetti has pub-
lished a good translation of the Hell, but by far the best
1871
translation is that of Dr. J. A. Carlyle, which unfortunately
is only of the Hell, though it has been reported that the
other parts are to be translated by the same hand. This
version is in prose, but prose so strong, so idiomatic, and
so choice that it seems to give back the original almost in
its own noble music. The introduction and notes, too, are
almost models of what such illustrations should be.
In speaking of the comments upon Dante, we should have
mentioned the “Commento Analitico " of the late Gabriele
Rossetti, professor of the Italian language and literature
in King's College, London. In this comment, and in his
book “The Antipapal Spirit of Dante,” the author en-
deavors to prove that Dante's poem was purely allegorical,
and intended as a masked attack upon the Romish Church.
Professor Rossetti was the father of the W. M. Rossetti men-
tioned above; and a daughter has recently published a
useful guide to the study of the “Divine Comedy,” called
“A Shadow of Dante.”
In Germany there are excellent translations and several
editions of value. Kaunegiesser's translation is praised
(3 vols., Leipsic, 1814–21); so is that of A. Kopisch (1
vol., Berlin, 1842). The first is a remarkable piece of work
in the measure and rhyme of the original; the second is in
blank verse, following the Italian line for line. But by
far the best German translation is that by the late King
John of Saxony, just dead in 1873. He translated the
Inferno in 1839; the Paradise did not appear until ten
years later (1849). His translation appeared with the nom-
de-plume “Philalethes.” The best German edition is that
of Karl Witte; it was published in Berlin in 1862.
In America, the “ Divina Commedia, ’’ has been translated
by H. W. Longfellow, and the Hell by Dr. T. W. Parsons,
who is intending, however, to translate the whole, and has
in fact nearly completed it. •
It may not be amiss to mention the fact that illustrations
of Dante's poem have been published by John Flaxman,
William Blake, and in our own day by Gustave Doré. (See
BATINI’s “Bibliografia Dantesca,” Prato, 2 vols., 1845–48;
also “Bibliographia Dantea ab anno 1865, inchoata. Edidit
Julius Petzholdt, Dresdae,” 1872; LEIGH HUNT, “Stories
from the Italian Poets,” a useful sketch, but injured by
much childish animadversion.) CLARENCE COOK.
Divina’tion [Lat. divinatio, from divino, divinatum, to
“foretell,” to “divine”], the art of foretelling future events
by superstitious experiments, etc., by observing the flight
of birds, the planets, clouds, and also by the alleged in-
fluence of spirits. Among the ancient Romans divination
was practised in various forms, and is supposed to have
originated among the Etruscans. The Israelites were for-
bidden by the law of Moses from performing divination of
any kind. Among the ancient Greeks divination was ex-
tensively practised, but it flourished especially in Chaldae
and Egypt. -
Divine Right (of Kings), a term used to express the
doctrine, probably of very ancient origin, that a monarch
was the immediate representative of Deity, by whom alone
he could be held responsible for his actions. It would ap-
pear that the idea was never clearly developed and system-
atically advocated till the early part of the seventeenth
century, when the great controversies arose in England
between the royalists and the parliamentary or common-
wealth parties. The doctrine was maintained by Hobbes,
Sir Robert Filmer, and others; it was opposed by Milton
and Algernon Sydney.
Diving Bell, a hollow, bell-shaped chamber, open at
the bottom, used by divers to descend into deep water for
the purpose of conducting various subaqueous works or
explorations. A kind of kettle is said to have been used
by divers. in the time of Aristotle. John Taisnier (born
I509) makes in his works the earliest mention of the prac-
tical use of the diving bell in Europe. In 1665 it was used
to raise portions of the Spanish Armada. Though of
clumsy dimensions and imperfect in the manner of supply-
ing air, it was similar in construction to those of the present
day. Dr. Halley’s plan for supplying fresh air was intro-
duced about 1715. His diving bell consisted of a wooden
chamber open at the bottom, where it was loaded with lead
to keep it perpendicular in its descent. Light was ad-
mitted through glass set in the upper part. Air was sup-
plied by means of a hose attached to casks filled with air
and weighted with lead, which were let down lower than
the bell. In the year 1779, Smeaton first applied the
diving bell to engineering purposes, and in 1788 he con-
trived to supply it with air by the use of the force-pump.
He constructed a diving bell of cast iron, its greatest thick-
ness being at the lower part, that it might not overturn.
It sinks by its own weight. In shape it resembles a square
chest, and it affords room for two men, being four and a
half feet long, the same in height, and three feet wide.
This construction of the diving bell gives those within it
—-
1372
DIVING DRESS—DIX.
no power to raise or sink it. The blows of a hammer on
the inside of the bell can be heard by those above the water,
and in this manner the divers communicate with the assist-
ants by a series of concerted signals. On account of the
cumbrousness of this apparatus, it is little used except for
heavy works of subaqueous engineering. For most opera-
tions carried on beneath the water a “submarine armor”
or diving dress is employed, described in the following
article. -
Diving Dress, the name applied to a waterproof dress
worn by divers, enabling them to walk and work under
water. An aquatic armor, consisting of a leather dress
and a helmet, is described in Schott’s “Technica Curiosa,”
published in 1664. An India-rubber cloth diving dress has
been more recently used, with a metal helmet having in
front pieces of plate glass. . Attached to the helmet are
two tubes—one to admit fresh air in the same manner as
for the diving bell, the other to carry off the waste air.
Leaden weights are attached to the diver, enabling him to
descend and walk about. Communication can be carried
on with those above by means of a cord running between
the diver and the attendants. The diving dresses in use
at present make the diver independent of any connection
with persons above the water. They are elastic and her-
metically closed. The diver carries upon his back a res-
ervoir containing air compressed to thirty or forty atmo-
spheres, which is supplied to him for breathing, by a self-
regulating apparatus at a pressure corresponding to his
depth. When he wishes to ascend, he simply inflates his
dress from this reservoir. . Still other forms of diving dress
are in use. (For full information on the subject of this arti-
cle and the preceding, see PREs. BARNARD’s “Report on the
Paris Exposition of 1867.”)
Diviſming Rod [Lat. virgula divina], a forked branch
of wood used for discovering mines, treasures, or water
under ground. This use of the divining rod is a supersti-
tion of very great antiquity. In Europe it is usually a
forked branch of the rowan tree. The favorite in the U. S.
appears to be the witch-hazel.
Divinity. See THEOLOGY, by PRES. E. G. ROBINSON,
D. D., LL.D.
Divisibil’ity [from the Lat. divido, divisum, toy “di-
vide’) is that quality of bodies through which they may be
separated into parts. The question whether matter can be
infinitely divided or not has often been discussed by phil-
osophers. The subdivision of matter in nature is beyond
calculation, nor can it be appreciated by our senses. A
tube of glass has been drawn out by the blowpipe to the
fineness of a silk fibre, still preserving the form of a tube.
In the gilding of buttons five grains of gold, applied as an
amalgam with mercury, are allowed to each gross, so that
the coating left must amount to the 110,000th part of an
inch in thickness. A single grain of blue vitriol will tinge
five gallons of water. The divisibility of matter is best
illustrated in the case of odors. The particles which im-
press the sense of smell must fill the whole atmosphere for
hundreds of cubic feet, and yet a grain of musk may per-
fume a large apartment for years with scarcely a sensible
loss of weight. - -
Divis’ion [Lat. divisio, from divido, divisum, to “di-
vide ’’I, one of the four fundamental rules of arithmetic, its
object being to find out how often one number is contained
in another. The dividend is the number to be divided; the
divisor, the number of parts into which it is to be divided;
and the value of one of these parts is the quotient; or the
divisor may be one of these parts, and the quotient the num- |
ber of them in the dividend. Division is an inverse pro-
cess, whose effect is annulled by the direct operation of
multiplication. It is necessary in dividing a number to
have recourse to tentative processes, suggested by previous
knowledge, and the accuracy of the procedure may be tested
by multiplication. -
DIVISION in logic is the enumeration of the species which
make up a given genus; thus tree is divided into oak, elm,
etc.
DIVISION in military language signifies—1, two or more
brigades under a general officer; 2, two guns of a battery
of artillery, with their equipment, etc.; 3, two companies of
a battalion arranged in column of two companies.
Division in music is the separation of the interval of an
octave into a number of lesser intervals.
Division of Labor, in political economy, designates
the plan by which a mechanic or laborer, instead of finish-
ing the whole of any piece of work, is kept employed upon
one special department of that work. Many persons are
in some trades employed in turning out a piece of work
which would formerly have been finished by one man. The
first result of the division of labor is the great increase of
production, for ten men, each employed upon a special
branch of work, will turn out more and much better work
than the same ten men would do if each began and finished
an entire piece of mechanism. It is objected, on the other
hand, to the division of labor that it tends to diminish the
versatility and excellence of individual workmen; and this
objection is not without force. Division of labor is extend-
ing with the advance of civilization. Even the learned pro-
fessions are influenced by it. Lawyers more and more de-
vote themselves to particular departments of their profes-
sional work. Medicine is becoming divided into specialties.
No one man is equally expert in every branch of a great
science like chemistry, some giving their attention, for ex-
ample, to organic chemistry, some to toxicology, others to
analysis, etc. The general result will undoubtedly be bene-
ficial to society.
T}ivorce ſlat. divortium, from di, “apart,” “away,”
y y part, way,
and vorto, an old form of verto, to “turn 'l is the dissolu-
tion of a marriage by a court of law, or, in some cases, by
a legislative or parliamentary act. In heathen nations
divorces have generally taken place at the will of the parties
concerned, and even the ancient Romans, during the later
period of the republic and under the emperors, allowed the
greatest license in this respect. Divorce existed to some
extent among the Greeks, more especially at Athens. Easy
divorce, which had prevailed among the Hebrews, was re-
strained and discouraged, though not done away with, by
the laws of Moses. Among Christian nations marriage is
for the most part looked upon as possessing at once a re-
ligious and a civil importance. The Roman Catholic Church
denies the possibility of divorce, although there are cases
in which, according to the canon law, the union is declared
to have been illegal from the first, and in reality never to
have existed at all. In English law, the word divorce has
been applied to two distinct classes of cases—one where the
marriage is by competent authority declared to be void from
the beginning; the other, where it is conceded to have been
valid in its origin, but for some cause subsequently arising
it is dissolved or suspended. The first instance is some-
times termed a case of mullity—the second, a case of disso-
lution or of judicial separation. Sentences of nullity and
of judicial separation, not amounting to dissolution, might
take place in the ecclesiastical courts. A marriage could
only be dissolved by act of Parliament. In the year 1857
an act was passed establishing the “Court for Divorce and
Matrimonial Causes,” in which was vested the power pre-
viously exercised by the ecclesiastical courts as well as by
Parliament. In the U. S., as there are no ecclesiastical
courts in the English sense, matrimonial jurisdiction is
established by statutes in the different States, enumerating
the causes of divorce, which are by no means uniform.
These, as a rule, are more numerous in the Western States
than in the Eastern. The power to grant divorces is in
general exercised by courts having equity jurisdiction,
though it exists in the legislature, unless taken away by
the State constitution. This is the case in a number of the
States, and among them New York.
REVISED BY T. W. DWIGHT.
Tix, a township of Ford co., Ill. Pop. 782.
Dix, a township of Schuyler co., N. Y. It contains the
greater part of Watkins, the county-seat, as well as other
villages. “Watkins Glen,” in this township, is a favorite
place of summer resort. Pop. 4282.
Dix (DoROTHEA. LYNDE), an American philanthropist,
born at Worcester, Mass., about 1794, was a school-teacher
in her youth. She devoted much time to the work of ame-
liorating the condition and treatment of prisoners, lunatics,
and paupers, for which purpose she visited nearly every
State of the Union. She efficiently promoted the establish-
ment of lunatic asylums in New York, Pennsylvania, North
Carolina, Illinois, Indiana, and other States. She published
several books for children and tracts for prisoners. By
petitions to Congress she induced that body in 1854 to ap-
propriate 10,000,000 acres of public land in order to endow
hospitals for the insane, but President Pierce vetoed the
bill. !
Bix (John ADAMs), LL.D., an American statesman and
general, born at Boscawen, N. H., July 24, 1798. He en-
tered the army in 1812, and became a captain in 1825, but
soon resigned and studied law. He removed to Coopers-
town, N. Y., joined the Democratic party, and was elected
secretary of state in 1833. After he had passed several
years in private life, he was elected to the Senate of the
U. S. in 1845, to fill a vacancy. He advocated in the Sen-
ate the principles of the Free-Soil Democrats, whose candi-
date for governor he was in 1848. He was chairman of the
Senate committee on commerce. His term expired in Mar.,
1849, and he was then succeeded by Mr. Seward. Having
visited various countries of Europe, he published a “Sum-
mer in Spain and Florence” (1855). He was secretary of
the treasury of the U. S. for two or three months from Jan.
T)IX—DOBBS FERRY.
1373
to Mar., 1861, and as such issued this famous order: “If
any man attempts to haul down the American flag, shoot
him on the spot l” In May, 1861, he became a major-gen-
eral of volunteers, and in July, 1862, he took command of
Fortress Monroe. He was appointed commander of an army
corps in Sept., 1862, and ascending York River in June,
1863, cut Gen. Lee’s communications. He was minister to
Rrance in 1867–68, and was chosen president of the Union
Pacific R. R. In 1872 he was elected governor of New
York by the Republicans. {Y.
Dix (MoRGAN), S. T. D., a son of General J. A. Dix,
noticed above, an Episcopalian divine, was born in New
York City Nov. 1, 1827, and educated at Columbia College.
He became in 1862 rector of Trinity church, New York;
he is also president of the standing committee of the dio-
cese of New York, vice-president of the New York Prot-
estant Episcopal public school, and holds various other
offices. Among his works are “Commentaries on Romans,
Galatians, and Colossians,” “Lectures on Pantheism,”
“Lectures on the Two Estates,” a brochure on “Christian
Art,” and numerous sermons, pamphlets, etc.
Dix'field, a post-township of Oxford co., Me.
manufactures of lumber and carriages. Pop. 1049.
Dixſie, a name popularly applied to the Southern States
of the Union. The name originated from a well-known
song in praise of the charms of “Dixie's Land,” a Utopian
region so named, it is said, by slaves in honor of a gentle-
man named Dixie, who was celebrated for his kindness to
his servants. *
Dix Island, 10 miles S. by E. from Rockland, Me.,
contains about 55 acres, not of land but of rock, the very
best of granite. The Treasury building at Washington was
built of this stone. The U. S. post-office and court-house
building now in process of erection in the City Hall Park,
~ New York, at a cost of over $5,000,000, is built of granite
obtained on this island; the stones are all fitted and marked
for their place, and are made ready before they are sent.
Each stone, large or small, has its own history; e.g. “first
story, ornamented column, 15 feet 7 inches long. Time ex-
pended on it, 1274 days. Total cost, $745.11.” The exact
cost for one blacksmith, one cutter, one carpenter, and
teaming is stated. It is the same with every stone in that
immense structure. There are about 1200 men on the
island, besides about 100 women and children. There are
three large boarding-houses, besides some sixteen other
houses; one school of thirty children; forty workshops, in
which some 800 men are employed finishing the stone, and
sixty forges for sharpening tools.-Manuf. and Builder.
Dix'mont, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. It
has manufactures of lumber, carriages, etc. Pop. 1309.
Dix'on, a county in the N. E. of Nebraska. Area, 550
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Missouri
River. The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile.
Grain is the chief product. Capital, Ponca. Pop. 1345.
Dixon, a post-village of Silveyville township, Solano
co., Cal., on the California, Pacific R. R., 21 miles W. by S.
of Sacramento. Pop. 317.
Dixon, a city, capital of Lee co., Ill., on Rock River,
and on the Illinois Central R. R. where it crosses the Chi-
cago and North-western R. R., 98 miles W. of Chicago and
40 miles E. of Clinton, Ia. It has a seminary, Seven
churches, two national banks, and two weekly and one
monthly newspaper, and has good water-power with flour-
ing-mills, four plough and other factories. Pop. 4055; of
Dixon township, 4687. ED. “TELEGRAPH.”
Dixon, a post-village, capital of Webster co., Ky.,
about 62 miles E. N. E. of Paducah. It has one weekly
newspaper. Pop. 330.
Dixon, a township of Preble co., O. Pop. 1123.
Dixon (JAMEs), D. D., an English Methodist minister
distinguished as a preacher and thinker. He occupied im-
portant pulpits in his denomination, was the president of
its conference in 1841, and its delegate to the American
Methodist General Conference in 1848. He wrote, besides
other works, “ Methodism, its Origin, Economy, and Pres-
ent Position,” and a “ Tour in America..” Died in 1872.
Dixon (JAMEs), an American statesman, born at Enfield,
Conn., Aug. 5, 1814, graduated at Williams College in 1834,
became a lawyer, was a member of Congress from Connec-
ticut (1845–49), and U. S. Senator (1857–69). Died at Hart-
ford, Conn., Mar. 27, 1873.
Dixon (Joseph), an eminent inventor, born about 1798,
was a printer in his youth, and afterwards a wood-engraver.
He made important improvements in photography, lith-
ography, banknote-printing, lens-grinding, steel-refining,
etc. Died at Jersey City, N. J., June 14, 1869.
Dixon (WILLIAM HEPWORTH), an English author and
critic, born in Yorkshire June 30, 1821, of dissenting pa-
It has
rents, commenced life in a counting-house. He settled in
London in 1846, and contributed to the “Daily News.”
FIis articles on “London Prisons,” which subsequently ap-
peared, revised and enlarged, in book form, in 1850, were
the precursors of Mayhew’s inquiries into the condition of
the London poor. In 1849 he published a “Life of John
Howard,” which was successful. His reputation was estab-
lished by “William Penn, an Historical Biography” (1851),
in which he set right the mistaken animadversions of Ma-
caulay on the character of the philanthropical Quaker.
IHe became the chief editor of the “Athenaeum ” in 1853,
and vacated the editorial chair in 1869. Among his other
works are a “Personal History of Lord Bacon’ (1861),
“The Holy Land” (1865), “New America” (1867), “Spir-
itual Wives” (1868), “Her Majesty's Tower,” “Free Rus-
sia” (2 vols., 1870), and “The Switzers” (1872).
Dixon Mills, a post-township of Marengo co., Ala.
Pop. 1000.
Dixon’s, a township of Pike co., Ala. Pop. 2240.
Dixon’s Entrance, a strait on the W. coast of North
America, is 100 miles long. It separates Queen Charlotte
Island from the Prince of Wales Archipelago.
Dixon’s Tavern, a township of Queen Anne co., Md.
Pop. 3626.
Dix'well (John), one of the famous English regicides,
was a wealthy gentleman of Folkestone, Kent, born about
1608. He was an active Parliamentarian, and a colonel
under Cromwell. Having been a member of the high court
which condemned Charles I., he fled, after the Restoration,
to Germany, but finally became a resident of New Haven
colony in New England, where he died Mar. 18, 1689.
Djemil Pasha, or Jem eel Pasha, a Turkish states-
man, born at Constantinople in 1827, was the eldest son of
the late Resheed Pasha. He was educated at Paris and
London, and has for many years been a public officer, es-
pecially in diplomatic affairs. In 1866 he was appointed
ambassador to Paris.
Dmit/rof, a town of Russia, in the government of
Moscow, 40 miles N. of Moscow. It has seven churches,
one college, and manufactures of cotton and silk goods.
Pop. 8042.
Dmitrovsk', a town in Russia, in the government of
Orel, 28 miles S. W. of Orel. It has various manufactures.
Pop. 7603. &
Dniep'er (anc. Borysthenes), a river of Russia, rises in
the government of Smolensk. It flows nearly southward
to Kief, below which its 'direction is south-eastward to
Ekaterinoslaf. It afterwards runs south-westward, and
enters the Black Sea on the N. side. Its length, including
windings, is about 1170 miles. The greater part of it is
navigable, but numerous rocky rapids occur below Ekater-
inoslaf. These obstructions have been partly removed by
blasting. The Borysthenes was known to the ancient
Greeks, who regarded it as the greatest river of the globe,
next to the Nile.
Dnies/ter (anc. Tyras, afterwards Damaster), a river of
Europe, rises in the Carpathian Mountains in Galicia, and
flows south-eastward into Russia. It forms the boundary
between Bessarabia on the right and Podolia and Kherson
on the left, and enters the Black Sea near Akerman, about
30 miles S. of Odessa. Its total length is about 760 miles.
The chief towns on its banks are Mohilef, Bender, and
Akerman. The navigation of it is difficult.
Doāb’ (i. e. “two waters”), a name applied in Hin-
dostan to a tract between two rivers, and especially to that
between the Ganges and the Jumna. This doàb extends
from Allahābād to the base of the Himalayas, a distance
of 500 miles or more.
Doane (GEORGE WASHINGTON), D. D., LL.D., an Amer-
ican bishop and poet, born at Trenton, N.J., May 27, 1799.
He graduated at Union College in 1818, was ordained as an
Episcopalian clergyman in 1821, preached in New York
City, and was chosen bishop of New Jersey in 1832. He
published a volume of poems (1824) and several works on
theology. Died April 27, 1859.-One of his sons, WILLIAM
CRES wºul, DoANE, was on Feb. 2, 1869, consecrated bishop
of Albany.—A second son, GEORGE H. DoANE, is a Roman
Catholic priest, and was in 1873 appointed vicar-general
of the diocese of Newark.
Dob’bin (JAMES CoCHRANE), an American politician,
born at Fayetteville, N. C., in 1814. He became a member
of Congress in 1845, and was appointed secretary of the
navy by President Pierce in 1853. Died Aug. 4, 1857.
Dobbs Ferry, a post-village of Greenburg township,
Westchester co., N. Y., on the Hudson River and on the
Hudson River R. R., 20 miles N. of New York. It is a
place of summer residence, and has four churches and re-
1374
DOBELL–DOCKS.
mains of the military works erected during the Revolu-
tionary war.
Dobell' (SYDNEY), an English poet, born at Peckham
Rye in 1824, was a son of a wine-merchant. He began his
literary career by “The Roman,” a poem (1850).
his other works are “Balder” (1854), “England in Time
of War” (1856), and “England’s Day” (1871). His poems
exhibit a mixture of the philosophical and poetical spirit.
Died Aug., 1874.
Dö’beln, a town of Saxony, on the Mulde, a railway
station, 36 miles S. E. of Leipsic. It has a hospital, a
realschule, and manufactures. Pop. in 1871, 10,078.
Do’brizhoffer (MARTIN), a Jesuit, born at Gratz, in
Styria, in 1717. He went as a missionary to Paraguay in
1749, and published at Vienna in Latin a “History of the
Abipomes” (3 vols., 1784), which was translated into Eng-
lish by Sara Coleridge. Died July 17, 1791.
Dobrow’ski (Joseph), a Bohemian author and philolo-
gist, born near Raab Aug. 17, 1753. He was liberally edu-
cated, joined the Jesuits, and distinguished himself by his
researches into the language and literature of the Slavonic
nations. His most important works are a “Grammar of
the Bohemian Language,” a “History of the Bohemian
Language and Literature” (1792), and a “German and Bo-
hemian Dictionary” (2 vols., 1802–21). Died Jan. 6, 1829.
Bobrud’s chal, or Dobrujda, a name given to the
N. E. portion of Bulgaria, which is separated from Mol-
davia, and Wallachia by the Danube. It is bounded on the
E. by the Black Sea.
Dob’son, a post-village, capital of Surrey co., N. C.,
about 55 miles W. N. W. of Greensborough. Pop. of Dob-
son township, 1255.
Dobson (WILLIAM), an English painter of portraits
and history, was born in London in 1610. He succeeded
Van Dyck as court-painter to Charles I. He was reputed
the best English portrait-painter of his time. Died in 1646.
Do’ce, Rio (i.e. “sweet river”), a river of Brazil, rises
in Minas Geraes, flows north-eastward, and enters the At-
lantic 60 miles N. of Victoria. Length, including windings,
about 500 miles. Its navigation is obstructed by rapids.
Doce/tae [from the Gr. 8okeo, “to appear,” to “seem ’’),
an heretical sect which arose in the first century, denying
the incarnation of God in Christ. Some of the Docetae
affirmed the body of Christ to be a mere deceptive ap-
pearance; others only denied its fleshly character. Doce-
tism was a form of GNOSTICISM (which see).
Dog/imacy [Fr. docimasie; Gr. 8okugagia, from Sokºuégo,
to “test,” to “examine * or “prove *), or Docimastic
Art, the art of assaying minerals or ores with a view of
determining the quantity of metal they contain.
Dock, a perennial herbaceous plant of the order Poly-
gonaceae and genus Rumex, found chiefly in temperate cli-
Among:
mates. They have large ovate or lanceolate leaves, and
greenish flowers in panicles. They increase rapidly from
the seed, and having long tap-roots become very trouble-
some as weeds. The roots of several species are valued in
medicine for their astringent properties; they are also used
in dyeing. The yellow dock (Rumex crispus) is esteemed in
the U. S. as an alterative.
Dockery (Gen. ALFRED), born in North Carolina Dec.
11, 1791, was many years a prominent Whig politician and
office-holder in his native State, from which he was elected
to Congress in 1845 and 1851. He opposed the Demo-
cratic party after the close of the civil war. Died in Rich-
mond co., N. C., Dec. 4, 1873.
Dock’et [from dock, to “cut off”], a summary, an
abridged entry of a proceeding on a piece of paper or
parchment. Exemplifications of decrees in chancery, fiats
in bankruptcy, and other instruments are thus docketed
for purposes of reference. The word docket is frequently
employed to designate an abridged entry in a book, as in
the case of judgments of courts, in order to make them a
lien upon land. Docket also denotes a list or calendar of
causes ready for hearing or trial, prepared for the use of
courts.
Docks are artificial basins for the reception of ships,
and are of two kinds, wet and dry. A wet dock is a large
basin in which the water is kept at a certain level by means
of walls, so as to be unaffected by tidal changes, in order
to facilitate the loading and unloading of cargoes. A dry
dock is intended for the repairing and examination of
ships, the water, after the entrance of the vessel, being re-
moved by pumps or other means.
In ports where vessels would be naturally much exposed
during rough weather, or where the changes in the tide are
very great, the necessity of secure and well-sheltered docks
or artificial basins, in which ships may be safely moored
and kept at one level, is especially manifest. In the north-
ern parts of Europe the rise and fall of the tides are so
great that every port which has any pretensions to a first-
class mercantile harbor is necessarily supplied with one or
more wet docks; at most of the ports of England, and es-
pecially at those of Liverpool and London, docks have
been constructed on a truly magnificent Scale.
Notwithstanding the obvious importance of wet docks to
the vast trade of London, it was not until, a few years
previous to the beginning of the nineteenth century that
plans for docks on anything like an adequate scale were, at
the request of a parliamentary committee, submitted by
Messrs. Telford and Douglas, among other plans for the
improvement of the port of London. The act authorizing
the construction of the West India Docks was passed in
1799; work was begun in Feb., 1800, and in 1802 they
were so far completed that a homeward-bound vessel en-
tered them.
These, the first docks of London, with their entrances
FIG. 1.
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;
and basins, extend across the isthmus (at low water) of the
island formed by the Thames on the Middlesex side of the
river, and called the “Isle of Dogs.” They originally
consisted of an Import Dock containing an area of 30 acres,
BASIN 5% acres
%
Ščázzzzcº/Zºz ge
(ſ)
vº
*:
4.
3.
Y-
ſ
and an Export Dock with an area of 24 acres; connecting
at both ends by basins and locks with the Thames. They
were constructed of brickwork and timber. There was a
canal on the S. side of the docks which has recently been









































DOCKS,
1375
converted into a new dock called the South Dock. The re-
taining walls of this new dock, which is one of the finest
basins of the West India Docks, are 34 feet 10% inches in
height from the bottom of the dock to the top of the cop-
ing, where the width is 11% feet, spreading downward with
a batter of 1 in 24; the face and back of the wall are of
brick, the former 3 feet 4% inches, the latter 18 inches thick,
connected by vertical transverse walls 2 feet 3 inches in
thickness, and placed 10 feet apart, the pockets thus form-
ed being filled with concrete; upon a foundation of which,
3% feet in thickness, the wall stands. The bottom of the
dock is covered throughout with a layer of puddle 18 inches
in thickness. On the N. side are sixteen jetties, projecting
into the dock, of timber, 130 feet in length, furnishing ac-
commodations for thirty-two vessels, and opposite each jetty
is a buoy for mooring vessels. The area of the South Dock
is 27# acres.
The general plan of these docks, with their entrances and
connections, entrance-basins, locks, warehouses, railway
connections, etc., is shown in the figure. The cost of the
South Dock, with the machinery, railway extension, dock-
basins, warehouses, etc., was $2,850,000. It will be seen
from the plan that an incoming vessel can pass directly
into the Import Dock, unload her cargo, and then, without
being locked out into the Thames, when the tide permits
may pass into the Export Dock to receive her outward-
bound cargo.
The West India Docks proved a very successful under-
taking; all West India vessels frequenting the Thames
were, for twenty years after their completion, obliged to
use them. After declaring annually a dividend of 10 per
cent. they had in 1819 an accumulated fund of $2,500,000.
Since then their monopoly has expired, and their dock-
rates have been reduced from time to time, so that their
profit has been greatly diminished.
The East India Docks, which are a short distance to the
eastward of the above, were at first intended exclusively
for ships in the East India trade, but are now open to ves-
sels from all parts. Their area is 27 acres, exclusive of
entrance-basins, and their depth of water is never less than
23 feet. They belong now to the same company as the
West India Docks, and have attached to them magnificent
warehouses for tea, indigo, drugs, spices, etc.
The London, the St. Katherine, and the Victoria Lon-
don Docks, also on the N. side of the Thames, are under
the control of one company. The London Docks have a
water-area of 34 acres, the St. Ratherine Docks a water-
area of 11 acres, and the Victoria, London Docks, situated
immediately below the East India Docks, have an area of
74 acres in the inner dock alone, exclusive of 16 acres in
the tidal basin. The depth of water in the inner dock
varies from 24% feet to 26% feet. The entrance to this dock
from the Thames is by means of a lock 320 feet in length,
80 feet in width, and with a depth of water on the sill of 28
feet. The jetties, with the sides of the dock and of the basin,
provide a length available for quay-room of nearly 3 miles.
On the Isle of Dogs, S. of the West India Docks, are the
Millwall Docks, recently constructed, and comprising two
basins, one having a water-area of 25 acres, the other of
10% acres. The Surrey Commercial Docks, intended for
ships with bulky commodities, are upon the S. side of the
Thames, and have a water-area of 176 acres.
The warehouses belonging to the different dock establish-
ments are of immense size; that of the London Docks, in-
tended for the storage of tobacco, is one of the largest,
best-arranged, and finest buildings of its kind in the world.
It will contain 24,000 hogsheads of tobacco, and covers
nearly 5 acres; the vaults under this and the other ware-
houses of these docks have an area of 18+ acres of storage
space. On five of the jetties of the Victoria Dock are ex-
tensive warehouses, and on the N. side of the dock are
several large ones, one of which has an area of 4 acres of
flooring. In some cases the warehouses are built close to
the water’s edge, so that goods may be hoisted into them
direct from the hold of the vessel; while generally railway
connections are made with the dock, so that goods may be
taken to any part of the kingdom without change of car-
riage. The docks are also provided with cranes and other
appliances, worked by steam or hydraulic power, for the
rapid transfer of cargoes.
The dock establishments of Liverpool are not excelled
in extent and arrangement by those of any port through-
out the world. Though the number of vessels belonging
to this port is less than that of London, yet the fact that
they cannot lie with safety or ease in the Mersey on ac-
count of its rapid current and exposed situation, and the
great rise and fall of the tides (21 feet at neap and 31 feet
at spring tides), require the dock accommodations to be of
sufficient extent for the entire trade of the port; while at
London the Thames affords a secure and convenient berth
for a great number of vessels.
The Liverpool docks have, on the side next the river, a
sea-wall of 5 miles in extent, which, when considered in
connection with the obstacles to be overcome, is one of the
greatest works of modern times. In most cases docks are
formed by excavations made on the bank of the river, but
at Liverpool they have been formed in the river itself by
enclosing, within the wall referred to, a portion of the beach
of the Mersey, and afterwards excavating the part thus re-
claimed to a proper depth. The wall is 11 feet in thickness
and 40 feet in height from the foundation, the more modern
parts being faced with granite. There are between thirty
and forty docks, having a water-area of 239 acres, exclu-
sive of 19 acres of entrance-basins. The quay-space is
over 18 miles. Most of the docks have a separate entrance
from the Mersey, and communicate with each other, so that
ships may pass from one to another without the necessity
of being locked out into the river and back again into the
docks. They are also connected with the different railways
entering the town, and by a series of locks with the Leeds
and Liverpool Canal.
The whole of this immense dock estate is vested in the
Mersey Docks and Harbor Board, who enforce strict rules
for the maintenance of good order and prevention of fire
and depredation. Every precaution is taken to prevent
the injury of the docks from the accumulation of mud, by
the use of steam dredging-machines. The income of the
Mersey Docks and Harbor Board for 1867 was $4,430,000.
The revenue of this board, after paying expenses and in-
terest on money borrowed, is applied to the reduction of
the dock rates.
The present importance of the port of Liverpool may be
said to be chiefly owing to these magnificent docks; for,
though it is the emporium of a district rapidly increasing
in manufactures and population, the advantages given to
commerce and navigation by them have brought to it the
greater part of its business and wealth.
Birkenhead, on the Mersey, directly opposite to Liver-
pool, has a water-area of 165 acres of docks and subsidiary
basins; among them are two large docks, one of 52, the
other of 59 acres. The quay-space is between 10 and 11
miles in length. Here are also warehouses with their ap-
purtenances, planned on the most approved principles, for
loading and unloading ships, safe storage of cargoes, etc.
At Bristol about three miles of the old channel of the river
was converted into a dock, about 55 acres of which are
available for large vessels. Hull has five docks with a water-
area of 49+ acres. Grimsby, Lincoln county, has, in ad-
dition to the old works, a new dock of 25 acres, with a
tidal basin of 15 acres; the new dock is entered from the
basin by two locks of massive masonry, furnished with
double sets of gates for ebb and flood tides, the largest of
which is constructed to admit the largest class of war-
steamers. At Southampton there are docks surrounded by
quays, and bonded warehouses, and provided with power-
ful shears for shifting boilers, heavy machinery, masts, etc.
Among other ports of the British Islands which possess
large docks may be named Glasgow, Leith, Newcastle-on-
Tyne, Tyne, Cardiff, Belfast, and many more.
At Havre, where the rise of the tides is from 20 to 27
feet, there are capacious docks. At Antwerp, where in
1803 Napoleon I., who intended to make it a great naval
establishment, undertook the construction of docks on a
grand scale, new and convenient ones with warehouses
have been opened. At Bremen and Amsterdam docks
have been constructed and recently improved.
To give an idea of the importance attached in England
to dock accommodations may be mentioned the Barrow
Docks at Barrow-in-Furness, a town of 20,000 inhabitants,
on the sea-coast opposite the Isle of Man. These docks,
opened in 1867, comprise 1% miles in length of stone quays
and 100 acres of wharf-area. The entrance-basin is closed
by gates in the usual manner, while the dock is closed by a
caisson placed across the entrance and held by a groove in
the masonry on both sides. The caisson, when filled with
water to the higher water-level, remains standing upon the
dock-sill and closes the passage, but when water is allowed
to escape from the caisson, so as to fall to the lower level,
it floats, and can be drawn to one side, so as to leave the
entrance clear. The water maintained in the dock is 22
feet above the dock-sill, the tide outside varying from 25%
feet at spring tides to 18 feet at neap tides.
The new Hendon Dock at Sunderland has been con-
structed on land wholly reclaimed from the sea; and from
the exposed character of the coast, great depth below the
surrounding works, the great head of water constantly
standing in the old docks in close proximity to the new
works, and the exceedingly porous nature of the strata, the
difficulties presented to the engineer were of unusual mag-
nitude. The work was enclosed in sections, with barriers
formed of timber planking and piling filled with well-
puddled clay, and protected with heavy limestone blocks.
1876.
DOCKS.
The rock was porous and crumbling, and the greatest care
was necessary to prevent the water from penetrating and
impoverishing the masonry before it set. In the case of
the entrances the whole surface of the rock was covered
with a watertight platform of brickwork set in the best
Roman cement, filling up every crevice in the rock; and
upon this the masonry of the walls and sills was laid.
. This new dock is 11 acres in extent; the entrance is
provided with two pairs of gates, and is crossed by a
wrought-iron railway bridge, balanced and turned upon a
water-centre, the usual rollers and turntable being entirely
dispensed with. The gates and sluices are worked by hy-
draulic machinery, and there are hydraulic pumps to re-
move the water between the two pairs of gates, so as to
maintain a head of water upon the outer or sea gates
during stormy weather, and thus prevent their movement.
The entrance is further protected at such periods by booms
reaching from side to side, which, by means of a crane
fixed on the pier-heads, are dropped into grooves in the
masonry fitted for their reception. The walls of the en-
trance are faced with large blocks of freestone, ashlar
masonry, none of the courses of which are less than 2 feet
in thickness, backed up by rubble masonry composed of
large flat-bedded stones built in the best blue lias pozzuo-
lana. The width of the entrance is 60 feet, and the depth
of water above the sills at high water of spring tides is
26% feet. - -
In many ports throughout the world—such, for example, -
as that of New York, where the harbor is naturally pro-
tected, and as also in the Mediterranean, where the rise
and fall of the tides is so small as not to obstruct the load-
ing and unloading of ships—wet docks are not an absolute
necessity to commerce, though there is no doubt that the
excellent appendages which are attached to them, such as
the wharf-room, the magnificent quays and warehouses,
the railway connections, cranes, etc. of the docks of Liver-
pool and London, and, by no means least of all, the excel-
lent police arrangements for effecting order and safety from
fire and depredation, would most certainly greatly promote
the commercial prosperity of any port.
But, though in many cases wet docks may be dispensed
with, all first-class ports need dry docks for the examina-
tion and repair of those parts of a ship which are usually
immersed in water. Dry docks may be separated into two
classes—the stationary dry dock, to which the name grav-
ing dock is generally applied; and the floating dock, of
which there are several varieties, to be described hereafter.
In ancient times, where there was no rise and fall of the
tides, vessels were hauled up on the beach and “careened;”
where the tides permitted they were grounded at high
water, so as to be exposed at low. Sometimes the heaving-
down plan was adopted; this was to attach ropes to the
heads of the masts of the vessel and to the mooring rings
of a quay, or to the deck of another vessel, so as to haul
the ship over into a nearly horizontal position on the water,
the ballast or weights being remoyed or shifted. It was
while undergoing this very dangerous operation that the
Royal George foundered at Spithead in 1782, with 600 per-
sons on board.
This method was supplanted by the graving dock, gene-
rally constructed of stone, though sometimes of timber, and
usually of such dimensions as to contain only one vessel at
a time. The sides are formed in steps or altars, so that the
form of the dock is somewhat similar to that of the vessel
which it is to contain, but sufficient space is left around it
to enable the workmen to get at every part of the bottom of
the vessel, and to afford sufficient light for their work. The
entrance is closed by gates, which open sideways, like a
lock or fall, upon the bed of the entrance, or by caissons;
the latter, since the introduction of iron for shipbuilding
purposes admits of their being made of that material, are
almost universally adopted for large docks, and have the
advantage of affording the means of retaining the water
inside the dock, as well as of keeping it out; which is of
importance, where the tide is ebbing rapidly, in allowing
time to adjust the vessel before it settles down on the keel-
blocks. The vessel is floated into the dock at high water,
the gates closed, the sluices opened, and the water allowed
to run out with the ebb of the tide, or, where the fall of the
tide will not permit, is pumped out, leaving the dock per-
fectly dry; the vessel being supported on timber struts and
shores resting upon the steps already mentioned as form-
ing the sides of the dock.
The U. S. naval graving dock at the Brooklyn navy-
yard is, in its dimensions and workmanship, one of the
finest in the world. It also possesses many features and
improvements that at the time of its construction were un-
equalled by any other graving dock. Owing to the nature
of the soil selected for its site, the excavation for the foun-
dation was attended with many obstacles, and afforded op-
portunity for the display of great engineering skill. This
lower soil was an almost impalpable quicksand, becoming
semi-fluid when saturated with water; and before the re-
quired level for the foundation had been reached springs
coming from a great depth burst up through it, rendering
necessary measures to overcome it. This was finally done
by driving piles into the cavities formed by the springs, on
which a flooring of plank was laid; upon this bricks were
laid in hydraulic cement, and upon the brick floor concrete
masonry; the whole being done with the greatest despatch;
vent-holes for the water were left until the permanent foun-
dations were completed, but in this manner the flow of sand
was checked.
The floor, from 4 feet to 6 feet in depth, is an inverted
stone arch, to strengthen it against the pressure of water
from below. The masonry foundations are 400 feet in
length and 120 feet in breadth. The facing of the masonry
is of granite, the side walls being laid up with English
bond—that is, alternate courses of headers and stretchers;
the courses are generally 2 feet thick, a few near the bot-
tom being 27 inches. The facing stones, averaging 6000
pounds in weight, were backed up with a course of scabbled
stone, the interior and rear of the walls being laid up with
coursed rubble. The mitre-sills and the keystone are mass-
ive granite blocks. The whole was laid in mortar made
of the best hydraulic cement and sand. The gates, of iron,
are supported on friction rollers, and, with the machinery
for turning them, weigh near 200 tons. The caisson is an
iron vessel, with keel and stems made to fit the grooves in
the masonry at the entrance of the dock. It is 50 feet in
length at the keel, and 68 feet 8 inches in length at the
rail; its breadth at the centre of the top is 16 feet, at the
keel 7 feet. The grooves in the masonry, in which the
stems and keel of the caisson fit, are 26 inches in width
and 12 inches in depth, from the top to the bottom of the
side walls and in the floor. By admitting water into the
chambers of the caisson it settles into these grooves and
closes the entrance; it is removed by pumping out sufficient
water to float it clear of the grooves. Its weight is nearly
218 tons, exclusive of ballast. It is used when greater
length of dock may be required, when the turning-gates
need repair, or to partially relieve the strain upon them.
The engine and pumps are of very large capacity, and will
relieve the dock of water in about two hours. In order that
the bottom may be dry and free from water, there is a slight
inclination in the bottom of the dock, and a gutter is car-
FIG. 2.
Plan of Dry Dock at Brooklyn Navy-yard.
ried across at the lower end, leading into a culvert which
passes entirely around the dock, from which the water is
constantly pumped. Several flights of steps are provided
in the different parts of the dock for the use of the work-
men, by which they are enabled to reach any part of the
vessel with great facility. The main chamber of the dock
is 286 feet in length and 30 feet in breadth at the bottom;
307 feet in length and 98 feet in breadth at the top ; by
using the caisson an additional length of 52 feet may be
FIG. 3.
Section of Dry Dock at Brooklyn Navy-yard.
obtained, giving a total length of 359 feet. The height of
the walls is 36 feet, and the sills are 26 feet below high
water. The total cost, including all machinery and appur-
tenances, was about $2,000,000; the work was completed
in 1851. --
The naval graving dock at Boston, built of granite and
completed in 1833, is 253 feet in length and 86 feet in width
inside the chamber; the turning-gates and the caisson are


DOCKS.
1377
of timber and composition fastened with copper bolts; the
caisson being 60 feet in length, 30 feet in height, and 16
feet in width amidships. The total cost of this dock was
about $700,000. The naval graving dock at Norfolk is
almost precisely similar in style and dimensions to that at
Boston, and cost about $950,000. . .
The cost of the construction of graving docks depends
greatly upon the situation selected. In some places they
are simple to construct and maintain, as at Birkenhead,
where they are hewn out of the solid rock, a red sandstone,
which is sufficiently hard and homogeneous to support the
heavy weights, and at the same time soft enough to be
worked. At this place (Birkenhead) five graving docks,
having an aggregate length of 1690 feet, were hewn out
of the rock at a cost of $430,000. The materials of which
the docks are constructed also affect the cost; most of those
belonging to the governments of different countries being
made of finely-dressed ashlar masonry in a manner involv-
ing a considerable expense, while many of the most suc-
cessful docks on the Thames have been built of timber and
brick at a cost which is trifling by comparison. A heavy
item of expense in those places where the fall of the tide
is not sufficient to empty the dock is the cost of the large
engines and pumps needed to remove the water.
In addition to her magnificent wet docks, Liverpool pos-
sesses a large number of graving docks, there being on the
side of the Mersey on which that city is situated no less
than sixteen, having an aggregate length of over 1% miles;
of these, the Sandon Graving Docks, six in number, are
each 540 feet in length at the bottom, with entrances of
from 45 feet to 70 feet in width. On the Birkenhead side
are six docks, of which four belong to Laird Brothers.
Among the largest graving docks are the double dock at
Brest, 721 feet in length, 92 feet in width, with a depth of,
55 feet of water over the sill; and the double dock at
Portsmouth, England, 644 feet in length by 80 feet in
breadth. Portsmouth has besides nine single graving
docks, the largest of which is 406 feet in length at the
bottom. Devonport has five, Cherbourg eight, Sheerness
five, Toulon six, Brest four. There are several on the
Thames, and many other ports have one or more. South-
ampton has three; one of which, the Eastern Dock, is 425
feet in length, with a width of entrance of 80 feet, made in
1854 of brickwork with Portland copings, and is stated to
have cost $260,000.
At the Southampton Docks, 693 vessels were docked
during the seven years ending in 1867, average tonnage
being 1400 tons per ship. The cost of docking, including
pumping, labor, and repairs to the docks, was, on an aver-
age, $65 per ship, while the average sum paid for each
vessel, for docking and for the use of the dock during the
time it remained in it, was $275. Total amount earned
during the seven years, about $192,000; expenses, $39,000.
The capital of the Graving Dock Establishment at South-
ampton has been taken at $750,000, but this sum is consid-
erably over the cost of the docks. As regards speed of
working at Southampton, on one occasion three large ships
of more than 2000 tons required to be docked in a hurry;
two were docked and undocked, and the third docked and
placed on the blocks, between daylight and dark.
One of the largest and deepest single graving docks is
the Somerset Dock, eonstructed by the British government
at Malta. The length on the floor is 428 feet, at the coping
line 468 feet; the width of the floor is 42% feet, and be-
tween the copings the width is 104 feet; the width of the
entrance is 80 feet; the length of the entrance from the
caisson in the centre is 256 feet; the depth of the entrance
and floor is 333 feet below the average sea-level. The cais-
son is 83 feet in length on the deck, 41 feet in height, and
12+ feet in width. The upper deck forms a roadway be-
tween the two sides of the dock-entrance, and the caisson
is arranged to go into a camber when the entrance is to
be opened. The caisson differs from those previously con-
structed in the fact that it is worked by steam, and not by
hand. In excavating for this dock it was found necessary
to cut a tunnel through the solid rock 230 feet in length,
for the purpose of removing the excavated material. Dur-
ing the work fissures were met with discharging into the
excavation large quantities of water charged with black,
mud, which gave great trouble. The inner or exposed lin-
ing was formed of ashlar masonry of the hard crystalline
limestone of the Maltese Islands; the backing was from
an inferior quality of the same rock, some of which came
from the excavation. There being but little change in the
tides, the dock is emptied by large pumps worked by two
powerful engines. The engines and pumps are placed in a
cast-iron tank sunk in the rock. -
Of the floating dock there are several distinct varieties:
the sectional dock, such as is in use in the Philadelphia,
and San Francisco navy-yards; the Gilbert balance dock,
in use in the Portsmouth and Pensacola navy-yards; the
iron floating dock of the Bermuda dock pattern; G. B.
Rennie's patent iron floating dock, of which the Cartagena
dock is an example; and Edwin Clark’s hydraulic lift dock,
in use in the Victoria London Docks.
The sectional floating dock in the Philadelphia navy-
FIG. 4,
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SHED FOR MACHIN ERY
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Sectional Floating Dock.
yard is made in nine separate and independent sections,
differing only in their widths. Each section consists of a
pontoon or tank, watertight, 105 feet in length, 30 or 32
feet in width, and 11 feet in depth; two end-frames, and
two end-floats. Together, the sections form a floor of over
300 feet in length and 105 feet in width. At each end of
each section is an open frame in which is a float, connected
with the four posts of the framework, which is raised and
lowered by machinery—raised to assist in sinking the main
tank to the depth required, or lowered into the water to
give it greater buoyancy.
When the dock is to be used a sufficient number of these
sections are joined together to give the length required,
and firmly connected by beams so arranged that they may
be placed from 6 inches to 6 feet apart, though they are not
generally farther apart than 3 feet. They are then con-
nected by means of shafting with the engines, of which
there are four. At each end of each section are three
pumps. When the vessel is ready to be docked the main
tanks or pontoons are filled with water, the end-floats
raised by machinery upon the end-frames until the dock is
sunk to the proper depth. The ship is then hauled over
the dock, and the end-floats depressed into the water until
its keel has a bearing upon the keel-blocks; the shores or
supports for the vessel are then adjusted, and the water is
pumped from the tanks, the end-floats being used, if ne-
cessary, to preserve the proper equilibrium.
This dock, as well as Gilbert's balance dock, is used in
connection with a basin and railways. The basin in the .
Philadelphia navy-yard is 350 feet in length by 226 feet in
width. The floor, of granite 10 inches in thickness, is laid
upon a pile and concrete foundation, and is perfectly level;
on three sides of this floor are granite walls 14% feet in
height. The “bed-ways” are two, and each consists of
three “ways”—one to support the keel, and two to sup-
port the bilges; each is 350 feet in length and 26 feet in

87
1378
DOCKS.
width. The basin and “ways” are used thus: the dock,
with the ship upon it, drawing from 8 feet to 10 feet of
water, is hauled into the basin by means of capstans; the
line of the ship's keel is brought into the line of the “bed-
ways,” water is admitted to the tanks, and the dock settled
firmly upon the stone platform of the basin. The vessel,
by means of hydraulic power and a cradle, is slid upon the
bed-ways, and the dock may be immediately used for an-
other vessel. The dock without the basin may be used for
repairing a vessel. This dock was completed in 1851 at a
total cost of about $814,000. Its lifting power is near 6000
tons. -
The California sectional dock is composed of ten sec-
tions, 100 feet in length, 32 feet in breadth, and 11 feet 9
inches in depth.
The balance floating dock was invented by Mr. John S.
Gilbert of New York City. Like the sectional dock, it is
constructed of timber, and consists of a pontoon bottom
with two side walls, possessing sufficient displacement to
carry the whole weight of the dock and the vessel to be
raised. The side walls are hollow and of considerable
width, serving, like the floats in the sectional dock, to pre-
serve its stability in rising and sinking. The outside of
these walls is vertical, while the inside is sloping, so as to
conform to a certain extent to the shape of the ship. Port-
holes are made in the walls for ventilation. The walls also
afford the means of shoring up the ship, as in a stone dock;
on the top are the engine-house, pumps, and working plat-
form. There are sometimes gates at the ends for enclosing
the dock, which are used only when vessels of great weight
are to be lifted. Of this description is the Portsmouth
navy-yard dock, which is 350 feet in length, 38 feet in
depth, and 90 feet in inside width. This dock, with the
basin and railways, cost $733,000. The Pensacola dock,
which is similar, cost $923,000. There are also balance
docks at New York, Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, and
New Orleans. Mr. Gilbert constructed a balance dock for
the Austrian government at Pola, a naval station on the
Adriatic, with a width inside of 21.1% feet, and a length
of 31.1% feet. There are also a basin and two railways for
hauling vessels upon, each of 700 feet in length.
The iron Bermuda dock (or iron camel, as it is some-
times, called) is made of wrought iron; the transverse sec-
tion is U-shaped; the bottom and sides are hollow, and 20
feet through; the ends are closed by caissons 25% feet
through; the length of the dock over all is 381 feet, be-
tween the caissons, 330 feet; breadth over all, 124 feet,
inside of the dock, 84 feet; depth over all, 72 feet. It is
divided into six longitudinal compartments or chambers,
watertight and distinct from each other, these compart-
ments having transverse divisions. The weight of the
dock without the caissons is about 8200 tons. This huge
vessel, if it may be so called, was completed in the latter
part of the year 1868, and in the summer of 1869, with two
vessels on either side and two ahead, was towed down Sheer-
ness harbor to the Nore. It was then taken under the stern
of the Northumberland, and made fast to one of the im-
mense hemp hawsers, 30 inches in circumference, made for
the purpose; a second hawser was passed from the North-
umberland to the Agincourt’s stern and secured, the Ter-
rible taking her position at the stern of the dock to assist
in steering. These vessels took the dock to Madeira, where
the Warrior and the Black Prince took the places of the
Northumberland and the Agincourt, and proceeded directly
to Bermuda. The voyage, a distance of 4000 miles, was
successfully accomplished in thirty-six days. The caissons
were sent out in sections. This dock is lowered by filling
some of the chambers by means of pumps on the top of
the dock, and by opening some of the valves; water is also
allowed to run into the dock itself, and when the proper
depth is reached, the caissons are taken out, the ship
brought in over the blocks and shored, and the caissons
put in place; the water in the dock is then allowed to run
into some of the chambers, which have been kept empty;
in which state the dock remains until the vessel is ready
for undocking. By means of the admission or exclusion
of water into or from the different chambers, the dock can
be balanced in any position, and even be heeled over on
one side, so as to expose the bottom for examination and
repair. This dock is capable, without the caissons, of tak-
ing in the largest vessel afloat except the Great Eastern,
and can lift and lay completely dry a vessel weighing 8000
tons. -
An iron floating dock, after the patent of Mr. G. B.
Rennie, an English naval architect, has been constructed
for the Spanish naval yard at Cartagena; it is 320 feet in
length; 105 feet in breadth outside; breadth inside, 79
feet; height outside, 48 feet; height inside, 36% feet;
weight, 4400 tons. This dock, possessing many points of
resemblance to Gilbert's balance dock, may be described
as an oblong rectangular box or trough, without top or
f
t
low dock prepared for its reception.
ends; walls and bottom hollow, and divided into several,
independent chambers; the side walls act as floats to pre-
vent the dock from sinking too rapidly, and eventually
from being entirely submerged. The operation of docking
is performed thus: Water is admitted to the base compart-
FIG. 5.
End Elevation of Rennie's Dock.
when ready to receive a ship.
with ship docked.
when light.
A. Level of Water
IB. {{ {{
C. £6 $$.
ments by sluices and pipes; the dock gradually sinks to a
depth sufficient to admit the vessel, which is then hauled
in and shored in the usual manner; the engines and pumps
then discharge the water from the base compartments until
the floor of the dock is out of water.
Among the largest vessels which this dock has lifted is
the Spanish iron-clad Numancia, of 213 feet draught and
weighing 5600 tons. This vessel remained supported
eighty days without damaging or straining the dock. The
draught of water of the dock, with the Numancia in, and
with 800 tons of water in the chambers, was 11+ feet;
without a load the draught of the dock is 4 feet 7 inches.
Mr. Rennie has also constructed at Cartagena, a basin and
railways similar to those used with the American floating
docks.
Clark’s Hydraulic Lift Dock.-This style of dock was
first constructed by Mr. Edwin Clark at the Victoria Docks.
The vessel to be docked is raised by hydraulic power, the
dock (or rather the “lift”) being formed of two rows of
cast-iron columns placed at a sufficient distance apart to
admit a vessel between them. Each column encloses a hy-
draulic press, the ram of which is connected by chains with
a transverse beam extending to the opposite column. These
transverse beams form a platform, upon which is floated a
shallow pontoon of sufficient size to accommodate the ves-
sel to be docked; the platform and pontoon are then sunk,
and the vessel floated into its proper position over the lat-
ter. The pumps of the hydraulic presses are then set to
work, the platform is raised, and with it the pontoon and
the vessel, the latter being supported upon the keel-blocks
FIG. (5.
Clark's Hydraulic Lift Dock.
and the sliding bilge-blocks, which are hauled into their
places by chains. When the pontoon is lifted clear of the
water, the latter flows out through the valves in the bot-
tom, these being closed when the pontoon is emptied; the
platform is then lowered until the pontoon, with the vessel
upon it, is afloat. Thus in about thirty minutes a vessel
drawing 20 feet of water is left afloat on a shallow pontoon
drawing only 4 or 6 feet, and may be taken into the shal-
These docks are Sur-
rounded by workshops and tools, with shelter for the men
close up to the bulwarks of the ship. The vessel is, in
fact, brought bodily into the centre of a convenient work-
shop. It is taken to the smiths', the carpenters', or the
machine shops, according to the nature of the repairs re-
quired, and is moved easily from one to the other. In the


DOCK-YARDS—DODD.
1379
victoria Docks the shallow berths to which the pontoons
are floated are only 6 feet in depth; there are in all eight
berths, each 60 feet in width, and from 300 to 400 feet in
length. /
The pontoons are very shallow, and, being open-topped,
do not possess any great amount of rigidity, but Mr. Clark
considers this flexibility an advantage; and from the results
of the practice at the Victoria Docks it certainly seems that
it is not so excessive in amount as to do any harm. One
great advantage of Mr. Clark’s plan is, that by a single
lift, in connection with a great number of pontoons, an
equal number of vessels can be floated in shallow water at
a comparatively slight expense. It seems particularly ap-
plicable to situations which are sheltered, where the tidal
changes are not great, and where a foundation can be read-
ily obtained for the columns. A dock on this plan has been
recently constructed by Mr. Clark at Malta.
A plan has been proposed by a Mr. Zanicki before the
French Society of Engineers for a floating dock composed
of a number of pontoons from which the water is driven by
compressed air; stability being given to the pontoons by
lateral moving floats. - SAMUEL H. SHREVE.
Dock-yards in Great Britain are government estab-
lishments corresponding to the U. S. navy-yards. There
are dock-yards at Portsmouth, Devonport, Sheerness, Chat-
ham, Woolwich, Deptford, Plymouth, Pembroke, Haulbow-
line, Gosport, etc. -
Doc'tor [Lat. doctor, a “teacher,” from doceo, doctum,
to “teach *), a title of honor which was applied in early.
times to teachers of doctrine in the churches, and in more
recent times conferred by universities; at first as the equiva-
lent of “master” (magister), and afterwards as a still higher
degree. Four of the Greek Fathers (Athanasius, Basil, Nazi-
anzen, and Chrysostom), and three Latin Fathers (Jerome,
Augustine, and Gregory the Great), were distinguished as
“doctors of the Church.” Thomas Aquinas, Bernard of
Clairvaux, Bonaventura, and others bore the same title in
later days. The distinction is usually conferred after death.
The title “ doctor” was given later in the Western Church to
prominent teachers of scholastic theology. Many of these
titles were conferred by their followers, and had an ad-
ditional epithet, designed to be expressive of some spe-
cial excellence. Thus, William Hales was called “ Doctor
Irrefragabilis”—the “irrefutable doctor;” William Ock-
ham was called by his admirers “Doctor Singularis”—
the “pre-eminent doctor,” a title given to several others.
Doctor of laws, LL.D., or J. U. D. (doctor wtriusque juris,
“teacher of both laws,” i. e. the civil and the canon law),
was the first title of the kind conferred by the univer-
sities. Bologna appears to have been the place where this
title was first conferred, but the University of Paris soon
followed, first giving this degree in 1145. Doctors of laws
(except when bearing a merely honorary title) long had a
certain jurisdiction in the courts, which is even now scarcely
extinct in England. (See article Doctors’ CoMMONs, and also
Shakspeare’s “Merchant of Venice,” act iv., scene i.) In
the English universities the doctorate in law is given in
course at Oxford under the form D. C. L., and at Cam-
bridge and London under the form LL.D. At the two
former universities it is occasionally conferred as honorary.
The degree of S. T. D. (Sacrosanctæ Theologiae Doctor, i. e.
“Teacher of Sacred Theology”), or D. D. (Doctor of Di-
vinity), otherwise written T. D. (Doctor of Theology), is
still given at all the European universities after examina-
tion in the regular university course. It is also conferred
in many cases as an honorary title. The popes and arch-
bishops of Canterbury have long claimed and exercised the
right of conferring the doctorate both in law and divinity.
The degree of doctor in medicine has been traced back to
1384, and that of doctor of music is nearly or quite as old.
Ph. D. (Doctor of Philosophy) is the title conferred at
German and other European universities after examination
by the faculty of philosophy, chiefly on students of phil-
ology. It is also conferred at several American colleges.
The doctorate of literature, or of letters (literarum human-
iorum doctor), written L. H. D., is conferred by the regents
of the University of the State of New York, at Albany, as
their highest honor. Besides the above there are several
other doctorates, mostly of recent origin. (See ARTs, DE-
GREES IN.)
The word “doctor” as used in the New Testament is
taken in its primitive Latin meaning, “teacher,” and cor-
responds to the Hebrew word mori (“teacher”) or to the
title rabbi (“master”), which was conferred during the
centuries immediately preceding and following the birth
of Christ by the “nasi,” the chief of the Sanhedrim, ac-
companied by the ceremony of the laying on of hands. At
present, the Jewish doctorate is conferred by the universities. .
Doc'tors’ Com/mons, the popular name for the
courts and offices once occupied by the body incorporated in
1768 under the title of “The College of. Doctors of Law
exercent in the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Courts.”
These courts were on the S. side of St. Paul’s churchyard.
The college consists of a president (the dean of the arches
for the time being) and of those doctors of law who, having
regularly taken that degree in either of the Universities
of Oxford or Cambridge, and having been admitted advo-
cates in pursuance of the rescript of the archbishop of Can-
terbury, have been elected fellows of the college in the man-
ner prescribed by the charter. But the practical functions.
of this body of lawyers have been materially diminished,
and the college has been empowered to sell its property and
surrender its charter.
Doctors of the Church (see DoCTOR), in the Roman
Catholic Church, are certain saints who after death receive
this title on account of their superior wisdom and excel-
lence. They are at present seventeen in number, viz.: Sts.,
Hilary of Poitiers (died 367 A.D.), Athanasius (373), Basil'
(379), Gregory Nazianzen (389), John Chrysostom (407),
Jerome (420), Augustine (430), Peter Chrysologus (450),
Leo (460), Gregory (604), Isidore (636), Peter Damian
(1072), Anselm (1109), Bernard of Citeaux (1153), Thomas
Aquinas (1274), Bonaventura (1274), and Alphonsus of
Tiguori (1787). The last-mentioned saint first received
this honor Mar. 23, 1871, by decree of Pius IX. Outside
the Roman Catholic Church the seven Christian Fathers
mentioned in the article “Doctor” are more especially
designated by the title “ Doctors of the Church.”
Doctrinaire, a French term, originally applied to a
party of politicians who just after the restoration of 1815
occupied in the Chamber of Deputies a place between the
Centre and the extreme Left. The chief men of this party
were systematic writers and speakers on government, who
wished to establish a form of constitution somewhat re-
sembling that of England, and supported scientific doc-
trines of constitutional liberty against the arbitrary will
of the king. The word doctrinaire was used by their oppo-
nents to stigmatize them as pedantic and unpractical theo-
rists. The leaders of the Doctrinaires were Royer-Collard,
Guizot, the duc de Broglie, and Decazes.
Doctrine. See THEOLOGY, by PREs. E. G. Robinson,
D. D., LL.D.
Doc'ument [Lat. documentum, from doceo, to “teach,”
to “furnish information ”], an original or official paper or
writing relied on as the basis or proof of something; in
law, a written instrument adduced for the purpose of evi-
dence.
Dod (ALBERT BALDw1N), D. D., an American scholar
and teacher, born in Mendham, N. J., Mar. 24, 1805, grad-
uated at the College of New Jersey in 1822. Though li-
censed to preach, he was never a pastor. In 1830 he was
chosen professor of mathematics in the College of New
Jersey, discharging the duties of the office with signal
... ability till his death, Nov. 20, 1845. He contributed largely
to the “Princeton Review.” The family to which he be-
longed has for several generations been remarkable both
for mathematical taste and talent. -
Dod (DANIEL), an American machinist, born in Vir-
ginia in 1788, was the father of the preceding. He con-
structed the engine of the Savannah, the first steamboat
that crossed the Atlantic. He was killed by the explosion
of a boiler near New York in 1823. - -
Dodd (CHARLEs), the assumed name of HUGH or RICH-
ARD Tootle, a Roman Catholic priest of England who died
about 1745. He was the author of Dodd’s “Church His-
tory of England” (3 vols. folio, 1737–42), and of several
other works, chiefly polemical. His history was a reply to
that of Burnet, and has been in part republished (1839–43).
Its value is regarded as considerable, though it is character-
ized by severity and unfairness. -
Dodd (JAMEs B.), an American mathematician, was
born in Virginia in 1807. In 1841 he was chosen professor
of mathematics, astronomy, etc. in Centenary College, Miss.,
and in 1846 became a professor in Transylvania University,
of which institution he was acting president (1849–55). He
has published several mathematical text-books, besides re-
views, etc.
Dodd (MARY ANN HANMER), born at Hartford, Conn.,
Mar. 5, 1813, is the author of many poetical productions of
unusual merit, printed chiefly in periodicals. A volume of
her poems appeared in 1843.
Dodd (RALPH), an English engineer, born in North-
umberland about 1756. He was the first projector of the
Thames Tunnel, and he planned the Surrey Canal. He
wrote, besides other works, an “Account of the Principal
Canals of the World” (1795). Died April 11, 1822.
Dodd (WILLIAM), LL.D., an English clergyman, born
at Bourne, in Lincolnshire, in 1729. He was ordained in
1753, and became a popular preacher in London. He was
1380
DODDER—DODO.
also chaplain to the king, and preceptor to Philip Stan-
hope, earl of Chesterfield. Among his works are “Reflec-
tions on Death,” “The Visitor,” and “Sermons.” In 1777
he was convicted of forging the signature of the earl of
Chesterfield to a bond for £4000, and was put to death
June 22 of the same year. -
Dod’der [Ger. Dotter, signifying the “ yolk of an egg,”
So called from the color], (Cuscuta, Engelmannia, etc.),
leafless parasitical plants, generally placed by botanists in
the order Convolvulaceae, but sometimes made a distinct
order called Cuscutaceae. They have twining thread-like
stems of an orange-yellow, and flowers in thick clusters.
They are found native in the Old and New Worlds, and are
Sometimes injurious to crops by smothering the plants.
The dodders are remarkable for having seeds without cotyl-
edons. The vine grows up from the ground, and having
attached itself as a climbing parasite to herbs and shrubs,
the proper root dies, leaving the vine to subsist upon the
juices of the plant which supports it.
méans of papillae, which penetrate the bark of the plant
on which it lives. Huge dodders in Afghanistan grow
upon the trees, and even prey upon themselves. The
dodders of the U. S. are quite numerous, and have been
especially studied by the botanist Engelmann of St. Louis.
Dodder-laurels (Cassythaceae), an order of parasitic
plants having the habit and appearance of dodders, but in
other respects resembling the laurels, to which they are
generally referred. They replace the dodders in hot regions,
where alone they grow. The U. S. have but one known
species, the Cassytha filiformis of Florida. -
Dod/dridge, a county of the N. part of West Virginia.
Area, 300 square miles. It is drained by the Hughes River
and Middle Island Creek. The surface is hilly; the soil is
good for pasture. Grain, tobacco, and wool are raised.
Coal and iron are produced. It is intersected by the Balti-
more and Ohio R. R. Capital, West Union. Pop. 7076.
Dod/dridge (PHILIP), D. D., an eminent English
preacher and author, was born in London June 26, 1702.
He became pastor of a dissenting congregation at Kibworth
in 1723, and removed in 1729 to Northampton, where he
was principal of a theological seminary, and at the same
time pastor of a large congregation. In 1730 he married
Mrs. Mercy Maris. He was an earnest and devout preacher,
and acquired a high reputation as a writer. His most im-
portant works are “The Rise and Progress of Religion in
the Soul” (1745) and “The Family Expositor” (2 vols.
4to, 1739–40). He wrote 374 hymns, some of which are
admirable. He died at Lisbon (whither he had gone for
his health) Oct. 26, 1751. (See Job ORTON, “Life of Dod-
dridge,” 1766.)
Dodec/agon [from the Gr. 866eka, “twelve,” and yovía,
“angle ‘’l, a regular polygon of twelve equal sides and
twelve equal angles.
Dodecahe'dron [from the Gr. 868eka, “twelve,” and ,
éðpa, a “base "I, one of the five Platonic bodies or regular
solids, is bounded by twelve equal and regular pentagons,
has thirty equal edges and twenty equal solid angles, each
formed by the meeting of three equal plane angles. Its
volume is nearly 7.66312 times that of the cube of one of
its sides. - r
Dodecan’dria [from the Gr. 868eka, “twelve,” and
&váp (gen. &vöpós), a “man or male ‘’I, the eleventh class of
plants in the artificial system of Linnaeus, characterized
by the presence of twelve stamens; but as the number of
plants so characterized is small, it was made to include all
plants with more than ten and less than twenty stamens.
Dodeca'theon [from the Gr. 866eka, “twelve,” and
6éov, “gods,” probably an allusion to its curious nodding
flowers, about twelve in number], a genus of plants of the
order Primulaceae. The Dodecatheon Meadio of the U. S.
is an elegant plant called American cowslip, pride of Ohio,
or shooting star. In cultivation it is very fine.
Dö(derlein (LUDwig), a German philologist, born at
Jena Dec. 19, 1791. He was appointed professor of phil-
ology at Erlangen in 1827. Among his works are “Latin
Synonyms and Etymologies” (6 vols., 1826–38) and “Ho-
merisches Glossarium,” 3 pts. (1850–58). Died Nov. 9, 1863.
Dodge, a county in S. Central Georgia, formed since
the census of 1870. It is in the fertile valley of the river
Altamaha, which bounds it on the S. W. The county is
traversed by the Macon and Brunswick R. R. Capital,
Eastman. . - -
Dodge, a county in the S. E. of Minnesota. Area, 432
square miles. It is partly drained by the S. branch of the
Zumbro River. The surface is undulating or nearly level;
the soil is calcareous and fertile. Grain, wool, hay, and
dairy products are raised. This county contains extensive
prairies. It is intersected by the Winona and St. Peter
R. R. Capital, Mantorville. Pop. 8598.
This it does by
—;
Dodge, a county in the E. of Nebraska. Area, 600
square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Platte River
and intersected by the Elkhorn. The surface is undulating;
the soil is based on limestone and is fertile. Grain is the
chief product. The Union Pacific R. R. passes through
the southern part of this county, and it is intersected by
the Sioux City and Pacific R. R. Capital, Fremont.
4212. -
Dodge, a county in S. E. Central Wisconsin. Area, \
930 square miles. It is intersected by Rock River and by
Crawfish and Beaver Daru creeks. The surface is diversi-
fied by prairies, forests, and oak-openings; the soil is very
fertile. Grain, cattle, wool, hay, and dairy products are
raised. The manufactures include furniture, wagons, coop-
erage, saddlery, brick, flour, etc. Limestone and iron ore
are found here. It is intersected by the Chicago and North-
western R. R. and by the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R.
Capital, Juneau. Pop. 47,035. - . . .
Dodge, a township of Boone co., Ia. Pop. 1297.
Dodge, a township of Dubuque co., Ia. Pop. 979.
Dodge, a post-township of Guthrie co., Ia. Pop. 293.
Dodge, a township of Union co., Ia. Pop. 229.
Pop.
Dodge (EBENEZER), D.D., LL.D., an American Baptist .
divine and scholar, was born at Salem, Mass., April 22,
1819, graduated at Brown University in 1840, and at New-
ton Theological Institution in 1845; was instructor in
Hebrew at Covington Theological School (1845–46), pro-
fessor in the theological department of Madison University,
Hamilton, N. Y. (1853–68), and president of the university
from 1868 till the present time (1874). He has published
“Evidences of Christianity,” several able reviews, etc.
Dodge (GRENVILLE M.), an American general, born at
Danvers, Mass., April 12, 1831. He commanded a brigade
at Pea Ridge in Mar., 1862, and became a major-general
of Union volunteers in June, 1864. He directed a corps of
Gen. Sherman’s army in the campaign against Atlanta
(May to Sept., 1864), and succeeded Rosecrans as com-
mander of the department of Missouri in December of that
year. He represented a district of Iowa as a member of
Congress in 1867–69.
Dodge (HENRY), GENERAL, was born at Vincennes,
Ind., Oct. 12, 1782. He served with distinction in the war
of 1812 and in various Indian wars, was governor of
Wisconsin Territory (1836–41 and 1845–48), a delegate to
Congress (1841–45), and U. S. Senator from Wisconsin
(1849–57). Died at Burlington, Ia., June 19, 1867.
Dodge (MARY ABIGAIL), a popular American writer,
whose assumed name is GAIL HAMILTON, was born in Ham-
ilton, Mass., about 1830. She was a school-teacher in her
youth. Among her works are “Country Living and Country
Thinking” (1862), “Gala Days” (1863), “Woman’s Wrongs,
a Counter-Irritant” (1868), “Skirmishes and Sketches,”
and “The Battle of the Books” (1870). She has con-
tributed to the “Atlantic Monthly.”
Dodge (WILLIAM E.), an American philanthropist, born
in Hartford, Conn., Sept. 4, 1805, removed to New York in
his thirteenth year. At the age of twenty-one he went
into business on his own account, and became an extensive
importer and manufacturer. He is an active member of
many benevolent and religious societies, was a member of
the peace convention of 1861, and a Republican member
of Congress 1866–67. -
Dodgeville, a post-village, capital of Iowa co., Wis.,
45 miles W. by S. from Madison. It has six churches.
Mines of lead and copper have been opened in the vicinity.
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1407; of Dodgeville
township, 3708. -
Dod'ington (GEORGE BUBB), Lord MELCOMBE, an Eng-
lish politician, born in 1691. He was elected to Parliament
in 1715, and became a lord of the treasury in 1724. He was
long a partisan of Walpole, but he turned against him in
1740. He was notorious for his venality and intrigues. He
died July 28, 1762, and left a “Diary,” which was published
in 1784.
Do’do (Didus), an extinct genus of birds, usually classed
among the Brevipennes or struthious birds, but by many
authorities referred to the Columbidae (pigeons), and pecu-
liarly interesting from the fact that its extinction has but
recently taken place—the Didus ineptus having been in
existence less than three hundred years ago. The dodo was
an inhabitant of the islands of Bourbon and Mauritius, and
possibly of Madagascar. When Mauritius was first visited
by voyagers, the dodo was very abundant, and running
slowly and being wholly unable to fly, was easily killed. It
is described as larger than a Swan; of a clumsy form, with
a large head and enormous bill, the upper mandible being
the longer and hooked at the point; short, thick legs, cov-
ered with scales; four rather short toes, three before and
sº
DODONA-DOG DISTEMPER.
1381
one behind; and a plumage of grayish down. The flesh,
though tough, was eatable. In several works of the seven-
teenth century are rude representations of the dodo, the
best being one in Bontius, edited by Piso, who calls the
bird doronte or dodaers. There is also a painting perfectly
corresponding with this in the British Museum, and in Sa-
very’s picture of “Orpheus and the Beasts” at The Hague,
Prof. Owen discovered what he considers a study of the bird
from nature. A foot of the dodo is preserved in the British
Museum, and a head and foot in the Ashmolean Museum at
Oxford.
Dodo'na [Gr. Aw8óvn], an ancient city of Epirus, the
seat of a celebrated oracle and temple of Jupiter. This
was the most famous oracle of Greece except those of De-
los and Delphi. Its origin was attributed to Deucalion.
This oracle was consulted by the Athenians, Spartans, and
other nations, and its responses were delivered from an
oak tree. The tgmple of Dodona was destroyed by the
AEtolians in 219 TB. C. Its site has not been accurately
identified.
Dods' ley (RoRERT), an English bookseller and author,
born near Mansfield in 1703. He opened a bookstore in Lon-
don, and became a friend of Pope, and prospered in busi-
ness. He produced in 1737 a farce called “The King and
the Miller of Mansfield,” which was successful. His trag-
edy of “Cleone” (1758) was performed with great applause.
He purchased Dr. Johnson’s “London’’ for ten guineas,
and his “Vanity of Human Wishes” for fifteen guineas.
He published a “Select Collection of Old Plays” (12 vols.
8vo, 1780) and other works. Died Sept. 25, 1764.
Dod’son, a township of Highland co., O. Pop. 1710.
Dod’son’s, a township of Tuscaloosa co., Ala. Pop.
924. -
Dodſwell (Col. EDwARD), an English antiquary and
artist who left college in 1800. He afterwards passed many
years on the continent of Europe, and published a valuable
illustrated work called “Classical and Topographical Tour
through Greece’’ (1818), also “Thirty Views in Greece.”
(1821), and other works. Died at Rome May 14, 1832.
Dodwell (HENRY), a chronologist, born in Dublin, Ire-
land, in 1641. He became professor of history at Oxford
in 1688, but was soon deprived of that chair because he
refused to take the oath of allegiance to William III. Died
June 7, 1711.-His oldest son, of the same name, who died
in 1763, wrote a book covertly attacking Christianity.
Doe (John), the fictitious plaintiff in ejectment.
EJECTMENT, by PROF. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) -
Doffer, that part of a carding-machine which takes
the cotton from the cylinder when it is carded.
JDog, the Canis familiaris of the naturalists, a carniv-
orous mammal of the family Canidae, nearly related to the
wolf and the fox, is one of the most remarkable of all
brutes, being possessed of sagacity, acute senses, and in-
stincts often exceeding reason. He seeks the Society of
man, and makes himself a trusty servant, putting at man’s
disposal all the faculties which nature has given him. It
is the opinion of some naturalists that the various kinds of
dog are specifically identical with the wolf and the jackal.
The more important varieties of dog have been arranged
in three classes, as follows: - -
I. Those having the parietal bones of the skull widest at
the base and gradually approaching each other as they as-
(See
cend, the condyles of the lower jaw being on the same line
with the upper molar teeth. The Danish dog, the dingo,
and the greyhound belong to this class. f -
II. Those having the head moderately elongated, and
the parietals diverging from each other as they rise upon
the side of the head, enlarging the cerebral cavity and the
frontal sinus. The most valuable dogs, such as the spaniel,
setter, pointer, Newfoundland dog, Esquimaux, etc., belong
to this class.
III. Those having the muzzle more or less shortened, the
frontal sinus enlarged, the cranium elevated and diminished
in capacity. To this class belong the bulldog, the mastiff,
some of the terriers, etc. The greyhound (Camis familiaris
leporarius) is a variety of which there are many kinds, all
characterized by a small head, slender limbs, and a gaunt
form. In hunting they usually follow by sight, not by scent.
They are not intelligent, nor are they distinguished by at-
tachment to their masters. Some are favorites because of
their swiftness, others for the extreme elegance of their
shape. The Mount St. Bernard dog, often called the Al-
pine spaniel (Canis familiaris montanus), is one of the most
celebrated of the shaggy or woolly breeds. It is peculiar to
the Alps, and is noted for its sagacity, strength, and fidelity
in saving the lives of travellers. The Newfoundland dog
(Canis familiaris Terræ Novae) originated in the island
which gives it its name, and is probably derived from a
cross of a dog carried thither by English settlers and a
native breed. It is of large size, and is valuable and use-
ful, remarkably docile, and obedient and very serviceable.
The shepherd's dog is one of the most interesting and use-
ful of the species. The hunting-dogs, hounds, and spaniels
are generally of medium size, the ears are long and pend-
ent, the scent acute, and intelligence great. In general the
covering is smooth, though instances of rough hair occur.
The spaniel is probably of Spanish origin, hence his
name. The ears are large and pendent, the tail elevated,
the fur of a different length in different parts of the body,
but longest about the ears, under the neck, behind the
thighs, and on the tail, varying in color, but most com-
monly white with brown or black patches.
The dingo of Australia has an elongated head, flat fore-
head, and short and erect ears. Two kinds of hair thickly
cover the body—one woolly and gray, the other silky and
yellow. In form and proportions the dingo resembles the
shepherd's dog. He very seldom barks, but whines and
growls, like most wild dogs. These animals were formerly
numerous in Australia, but are now rare. .
REVISED BY C. W. GREENE.
Doga’na (i. e. the house (casa) of the doge, who as
head of the republic had charge of the customs; according
to others, from the Arabic al-diván; Sp. aduana), the com-
mon name in Italian of a custom-house. It perhaps orig-
inated with the Venetians. From the same root comes the
French dowane. f
Dog/bane (Apocynum), a genus of plants of the natural
order Apocynaceae, having bell-shaped flowers, no style, and
the fruit a long linear follicle. Some of the species are her-
baceous, others shrubby, and some are found in colder cli-
mates than is usual for plants of this order. The dogbane
of North America (Apogynum androsaemifolium) is a peren-
nial herbaceous plant about four feet high, with smooth
stem, milky juice, smooth ovate leaves, and light pink
flowers. It grows in open, barren places from Canada to
Georgia, and is valued for the medicinal properties of the
bark of the root, which is emetic, diaphoretic, and in Small
doses tonic. The Apocynum cannabinum of the U. S. is
also useful in medicine.
Dog Bluff, a township of Horry co., S. C. Pop. 789.
Dog Days, or Canic/ular Days, the name given to
the forty days between July 3 and Aug. 11. Canicular is
derived from Canicula, the Latin name of Sirius, the dog-
star, which rose heliacally near the 1st of July. The an-
cients ascribed the great heat of summer to the influence of
this star, but it was by accident only that its rising co-
incided with the warmest season. The time of its rising
depends on the latitude of the country, and, owing to
precession, is later every year.
Dog Distem’per, a disorder common among young
dogs, is considered to be of a catarrhal character. A gen-
eral running from the nose and eyes is a leading symp-
tom, together with a short dry cough, succeeded by loss of
strength and wasting of the body. The flow from the nose,
at first watery, in a little time becomes mucous and puru-
lent, filling the eyes and choking up the nostrils, attended
by coughing and vomiting, with an increased wasting of
flesh and loss of appetite. A convulsive twitching, paral-
ysis of the extremities, attended by fits, with symptoms
of an affection of the brain, appear when the disease be-
comes malignant. At such a time the sight of another dog

1882
DOGE—DOLABELLA.
often brings on a fit, which may be somewhat checked by
fondling. The fits usually prove fatal if they continue to
increase in violence and frequency. A frequent conse-
quence of the distemper is inflammation of the lungs and a
dysenteric discharge, indicating ulceration of the intestines.
The leading remedies, which must be applied in the early
stage of the disease, are laxatives, emetics, occasional bleed-
ing, etc. Astringents should be used to check the diar-
rhoea, and the violence of the fits may be quelled by warm
baths and anodynes.
Doge, döj [It. pron. do'jā, a modification of duce (from
the Lat. dwar), “duke”], the title of the chief magistrate in
the republics of Venice, Amalfi, and Genoa. The origin
of the office in Venice dates as far back as 697. Previously
Venice had been governed by seven tribunes, but the in-
trigues consequent on their election, and the rising power
of the republic, made it expedient to concentrate the power
of the government. The first doge was Paoluccio Anapeste.
The doges were elected by the people, and were invested
with almost absolute power till 1177, when the legislative
power was placed in the hands of a great council of 470
members. This council elected twenty-four of their mem-
bers, who in turn elected twelve of their own number, upon
whom the choice of the doge devolved. The first doge
elected in this manner was Sebastiano Ziani, who, on the
occasion of his installation in office, scattered money among
the people to compensate them for the loss of their rights
—a custom which was followed by his successors. This
doge also introduced the custom of wedding the Adriatic
Sea. This was a marriage ceremony which took place on
Ascension Day, and which typified the absolute dominion
which the Venetians claimed over that sea. On these oc-
casions a ring was thrown into the sea from the ship Bu-
centaur. From this time the council gradually narrowed
the powers of the doge, till in 1628 the offices of command-
er-in-chief of the army and high-admiral. of the navy
ceased to belong to the dogate (ör dogado, as the dignity
was called), unless by a special decree of the Council of
Forty, a high court of justice composed of forty members.
In the fourteenth century the Council of Ten was estab-
lished, and vested with the highest power in the state, which
entitled it to pass judgment even upon the doge himself.
About this time the powers of the doge became so restricted
as to be little more than nominal, and the constant espion-
age to which he was subjected made the office no longer
an object of ambition. In 1339 it was found necessary to
pass a law prohibiting a doge who had been elected from
resigning his place. The office disappeared with the fall
of the Venetian republic in 1797. Lodovico Manin, elected
in 1788, was the seventy-third and last doge of Venice.
The first doge of Genoa was Simon Boccanera, elected by
the people in 1339. Like that of the doge of Venice, his
office was originally for life. His powers were shared,
though not restricted, by twelve aldermen. In 1528 the
Genoese framed a new constitution, by which the doge was
to be re-elected every two years, and the powers of the
office were restricted by two councils, of which one com-
prised 300 and the other 100 members.
French occupied Genoa, the office of doge ceased to exist.
In 1802 it was restored with the restoration of the republic,
but it finally disappeared in 1804. The republic of Amalfi
in 897 A. D. exchanged its government by annually chosen
consuls for the dogate, which was held for life; but its re-
publican government ceased in 1350.
REVISED BY C. W. GREENE.
Dog-Fish, the name of several small species of shark
belonging to the genera Scyllium, Spinaae, Mustelus, etc.,
so named probably from their pursuing their prey like dogs
hunting. They have five gill-openings on each side, the
tail fin is longer than it is broad, and they have spout-
holes. The spotted dog-fishes (Scyllium canicula and
Scyllium catulus) are common on the British coast. The
Acanthias vulgaris, or common dog-fish, is found in great
quantities on the coasts of the Hebrides and Orkneys,
where it is used as food. This fierce and greedy fish is
abundant along the New England coasts, and is caught for
its excellent oil. Other species occur on the American coast.
Their bite is much dreaded by sailors. A sort of shagreen
is made of their skins. The dog-fish of the Western States
is the AMIA CALVA (which see).
Dog-Fox, the name of a small animal found in Asia
and Africa, belonging to the family Canidae, and of the
genus Cymalopez. They have erect pointed ears, a sharp
muzzle, somewhat resembling that of a greyhound, and a
bushy tail. - -
Dog’ger [Dutch dogger, “cod-fish”], a two-masted
fishing-boat of the ketch build, with bluff bows. It is used
by the Dutch for the Doggerbank fishery.
Dog/gerbank, an extensive sandbank in the middle
of the German Ocean, between England and Denmark. It
In 1797, when the
extends from lat. 54° 10' to 57° 24' N., and from lon. 19 to
6° 7' E. Length, about 320 miles; average width, 40 miles.
In some parts it is covered with only nine fathoms of water.
Here are important cod-fisheries. An indecisive battle was
fought here between the Dutch and English fleets in Aug.,
1781. - -
Dog'gett (DAvHD SETH), D. D., a bishop of the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church South, was born in Virginia in
1810. He was educated at the University of Virginia, and
* * * *.
| entered the itineiant ministry in the Virginia Conference
of the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1829. He was pro-
fessor in Råndolph-Magon College, Va., for several years,
and was consecrated bishop in 1866, since which time his
residence has been in Richmond, Va. ... He is a learned and
tº
• '• * * . . ºf & ~~~~~ * ,’ ‘, e. * ‘. } • * . * * - g
eloquent divine, and is very efficient in the exercise of his
episcopal functions. . . . . . . . . -
Dog Island:Lights on the S. coast of Florida, is a re-
volving light 45 feet above the water; lat. 29° 46' 51".N.,
lon. 84° 38' 37". W. The island is 30 miles E. of Appāla-
chicola, and the light is 1 mile E. of its W. end. . ."
Dog'ma [Gr. 86).p.a, from Soków, to “seem,” “that which
seems true;” Fr. dogme : It. domma; Sp. dogmal, originally
an opinion, afterwards an article of belief derived from
authority.” “The term is sometimes applied to what are
regarded as the essential doctrines of Christianity, as con-
tained in the Scriptures or the writings of the Fathers of
the Church. The study or science of dogmas (Dogmatik)
has a separate professorship in the Protestant universities
of Germany. The term “doctrine” is a preferable one, as
“dogma” is coming more and more to be used in an un-
favorable sense.
Dog’s-Tail Grass (Eleusine), a genus of grasses, the
species of which are found native in Europe and Asia. The
crested dog's-tail grass (Eleusine crist&ta) is much prized
in England for lawns and sheep-pastures. The Eleusine
Indica is extensively naturalized in the U. S.
Dog Star, a popular name of Sirius, a star of the first
magnitude in the constellation Canis Major, and the bright-
est fixed star in the firmament. -
Dog'tooth, a township of Alexander co., III. P. 301.
Dogtooth Spar, a name given to certain pointed
crystals of calcareous spar, from their fancied resemblance
to the tooth of a dog.
Dog Watch, on shipboard, a short watch of two hours.
There are two dog watches—the first usually from 4 to 6
o'clock P. M., and the second from 6 to 8 P. M.
Dog/wood, a township of White co., Ark. Pop. 513.
Dogwood, a name given in the U. S. to several small
trees, especially to the Cornwg florida and others of its
genus, which contains also the cornel trees or dogwoods
of Europe. The larger species are characterized by their
hard wood, which is useful in turnery, and by their bitter
tonic bark. The Cornw8 florida is well known for its white,
showy involucral blossoms, appearing in May and June.
In the West Indies, etc. various other trees are known as
“ dogwoods.” One of these, the Piscidia, Erythrina, or
Jamaica dogwood, a small leguminous tree, found also in
Florida, has a valuable and very hard timber. Its bark is
a powerful narcotic and anodyne poison. • . .
The “poisonous dogwood” or “poison sumach’’ (Rhus
venenata) of the U. S. is probably much the most poison-
ous to the touch of all our native plants. It closely resem-
bles the Rhus Vernia: or varnish tree of Japan, and may be
distinguished from the harmless sumachs by its panicles;
which are loose (not thyrsoid or closely clustered in a spike,
like the harmless ones), and which are axillary, while those
of the harmless species are terminal. (See RHUs.) -
Dogwood Neck, a township of Horry co., S. C.
Pop. 573.
Dohud, a town of Upper India, on the boundary between
Malwah and Guzerat; lat. 22° 55' N., lon. 74° 20' E. It
is on the road to the Gulf of Cambay, and is much visited
by merchants. r t -
Doit [said to be derived from the Fr. d’huit, “ of eight,”
it being the eighth part of a penny or stiver], the name of
a small Dutch coin used in Scotland during the reign of
the Stuarts, supposed to be worth about half a farthing.
Do’kos, a dwarfish race of negroes, inhabiting a re-
gion of Africa. S. of Abyssinia, and living in a perfectly
wild state. They are captured in large numbers by the
slave-dealers. - -
Dolabel/la (PUBLIUS CoRNELIUs), a profligate Roman
patrician, born about 70 B.C., married Cicero's daughter
Tullia. . He fought for Caesar at Pharsalia in 48 B. C., and
became consul about the year 44. He was afterwards a
partisan of Antony, was defeated by Cassius in Syria, and
killed himself in 43 B. C. . . * ...
- ?
DOLAN–DöLLINGER.
1383
'. Do'lan, a township of Cass co., Mo. Pop. 1475.
Dolan’s Ranche, a township of Eſlis co., Kan. P. 17.
Dol’ci (CARLO), an Italian painter, born at Florence
May 25, 1616, was a pupil of Jacopo Vignali. His works,
which are numerous and scattered over all Europe, are very
finely finished. Died Jan. 17, 1686.
Dol/cinites, or Dul’cinists, a sect founded by Dol-
cino, an Italian born at Novara in the thirteenth century.
They opposed the popes, and, according to Milman, held
kingred tenets with the Fraticelli or Spiritual Franciscans,
with some leaven of the old doctrines of the Patarines
(Puritans) of Lombardy. Dolcino and some of his fol-
lowers were burned alive in 1307.
Dole [Ang.-Sax. dalam : Dutch deelen Ger. theilen, to
“distribute,” “deal out in small quantities”], a gift of food
or money to the poor at funerals. The custom was formerly
very prevalent in Great Britain and Ireland.
Dôle [Lat. Dola or Tollium], a town of France, de-
partment of Jura, is at the base of a vineclad hill on the
river Doubs, about 30 miles S. E. of Dijon. It is connected
by railway with Dijon and Lyons. It has a large cathe-
dral, a court-house, a theatre, and a public library; also
manufactures of hardware, pottery, straw hats, and chem-
ical products. Dôle was formerly the capital of Franche-
Comté. It is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient
Roman Dola Sequamorum. Pop. 11,093.
Dolet (ETIENNE), a learned French writer, born at Or-
leans in 1509. He lived at Lyons, where he established a
printing-press and published able works on theology and
other subjects. His writings were burned by order of Par-
liament as heretical in 1543. He translated some works of
Plato and Cicero, and wrote a “Commentary on the Latin
Language” (1536). He was burned at the stake in Paris
on a false charge of atheism Aug. 3, 1546.
Dolgelly, a market-town of Wales, capital of the county
of Merioneth, on the Mynach, here crossed by a bridge,
46 miles W. of Shrewsbury. It is in a rich valley at the
foot of Cader Idris, and is surrounded by beautiful scenery.
It has manufactures of coarse woollens called webs.
Dolichocephal’ic [from the Gr. 80Aixás, “long,” and
ked axi, the “head”], a term applied to human skulls which
have the occipito-frontal diameter (that from the back to
the front) much in excess of the transverse diameter. The
native Australians and West African races afford extreme
examples of this form of skull. Those skulls which have
a relatively short occipito-frontal diameter are called bra-
chycephalic—i. e. “short-headed.” Examples of both
forms here noted are found among the remains of the pre-
historic races of Europe. Which of the two types belong
to the earliest period is an unsettled question. Among the
historic peoples of Europe the dolichocephalic form prevails
among the Indo-European varieties, and the brachycephalic
among the Finnic. (See WILSON, “Pre-historic Annals of
Scotland,” and LUBBock, “Pre-historic Races,” pp. 90–116.)
Dol’icho's [Gr. 60xxós, “long,” so called from the length
of its pods], a genus of leguminous plants, allied to Phase-
olus. They are natives of the East and West Indies, where
the pods and seeds are used as food. The Chinese sauce
called soy is made from the Dolichog Soya, or soybean, and
the tuberous roots of some species are eaten in China.
Other species are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers.
Doli'na, a town of Austrian Galicia, about 75 miles S.
of Lemberg. It has extensive salt-mines. Pop. 6200.
Do/lium [Gr. a “cask,” from the hooped appearance
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Dolium Galea.
of the shell], a genus of gasteropod mollusks of the whelk
family, having spirally furrowed shells. Some fourteen
living species are found in the warm seas of the Eastern
hemisphere, and seven fossil ones, mostly from the tertiary.
Doll [Fr. poupée , Ger. Puppe; perhaps a contraction
of Dorothy, but supposed by some to be an abbreviation of
idol, i.e. an “image "I, a toy of wax, Wood, or plaster, made
like the image of, a child, and used as a plaything. Dolls
were in use in the earliest times, and those of the Greek
and Roman children were buried with them when they died.
Great Britain was formerly supplied with these toys prin-
cipally from the Netherlands, but there are now many ex-
tensive manufactories of them in London and other Eng-
lish towns. Many of those which come to the U. S. are
manufactured in Nuremberg, Germany.
Dol’lar [Ger. Thaler; Dan. Daler ; see below], a gold
or silver coin of different values current in the U. S. and
several countries of Europe. Its name is derived from
Joachimsthal (Joachim’s Valley) in Bohemia, where dol-
lars were first coined (1518). The dollar is the unit of ac-
count in the monetary system of the U. S. It was coined
in silver only until 1849, when a coinage was authorized
of dollars in gold. Its value was originally the same as
that of the Spanish piastre of eight reals, but is now some-
what below. The weight of the silver dollar was fixed by
law in 1837 at 412; Troy grains. The U. S. dollar is not
now represented by any silver coin. The silver half-dollar
weighs 12% grammes, or two silver half-dollars 25 grammes.
(Act of Congress, approved Feb. 12, 1873.) The act re-
ferred to created also a silver “trade dollar,” weighing
420 grains, for use in commercial transactions in the East.
The gold dollar weighs 25.8 grains = 1.672 grammes, ex-
ceeding 13 grammes, or 5 ter-grammes, by only six one-
thousandths of a gramme. The standard fineness of
both silver and gold for coinage is nine-tenths (i.e. one-
tenth of it is alloy). The British standard of fineness is
eleven-twelfths for gold, and thirty-seven-fortieths for sil-
ver. Half-dollars, quarter-dollars, and dimes are coined
in silver. A silver half-dime was also coined before 1873.
The half-dollar (since 1873) weighs twelve and a half metric
grammes—the smaller coins proportionately less. The
actual value of the U. S. gold dollar, in British currency,
is 4s. 1; d. The gold coins of the U. S. are legal tenders
for all sums; the silver coins are legal tenders only for
sums not exceeding five dollars. Accounts in dollars and
cents are written thus: $13.78 - thirteen dollars and sev-
enty-eight cents. The coins are double-eagles, eagles, half-
eagles and quarter-eagles, valued at twenty, ten, five, and
two and a half dollars; also, three-dollar and one-dollar
pieces. The German thaler has different values. The
most current, that of Prussia, is worth seventy-one cents.
(See RIxDOLLAR ; also CoINAGE, by E. B. ELLIOTT.)
F. A. P. BARNARD.
Dol’Iart, The, a gulf of the German Ocean, is at the
mouth of the river Ems, between Hanover and Holland.
It is 10 miles long and 7 miles wide. It was formed by an
inundation in 1276. -
DöI'linger (Johann Josſ PH. IGNAZ), D. C. L., an emi-
ment German divine and leader of the “Old Catholic”
movement, was born at Bamberg, in Bavaria, Feb. 28, 1799.
He received priestly orders in 1822, and almost immedi-
ately after became chaplain to the diocese of Bamberg.
“The Doctrine of the Eucharist during the First Three
Centuries” was published by him in 1826, and he was in-
vited the same year to lecture on the history of the Church
before the University of Munich. The substance of these
lectures appeared in 1828 in his “Manual of the History
of the Church,” and again, more extended, in his “Treatise
on the History of the Church” (1838). He turned his at-
tention to polities in 1845, and represented the University
of Munich in the Bavarian Parliament. In 1849, when a
delegate to the Diet of Frankfort, he voted for the absolute
separation of the Church from the State. He delivered in
1861 lectures advocating the abandonment of the temporal
power by the Holy See. He published “Origins of Chris-
tianity” (1833–35), “The Religion of Mohammed” (1838),
“The Reformation, its Interior Development and its Ef-
fects” (3 vols., 1846–48), “A Sketch of Luther” (1851),
“Hippolytus and Callistus, or the Roman Church in the
First Half of the Third Century” (1854), “Paganism and
Judaism” (1857), “Christianity and the Church” (1860;
2d ed. 1868), “The Church and the Churches, or the Pa-
pacy and the Temporal Power” (1861), a translation of
which appeared in 1862, “Papal Legends of the Middle
Ages” (1863), and a “History of the Religious Sects of
the Middle Ages” (3 vols., 1870). Dr. Döllinger has in
particular obtained wide fame by his opposition to the de-
crees of the Vatican Council, and particularly to that one
declaring the infallibility of the pope when addressing the
Church eac cathedrá on questions of faith and morals. He
published on this subject the pamphlets “A Few Words on
the Infallibility Address” and “The New By-Laws of the




















































1884
DOLLOND–DOMENICHINO.
Council’’ (1870), and he was commonly believed to be one
of the authors of the “Janus,” one of the most important
works published against Papal infallibility. As he em-
phatically declined to submit to the decrees of the Vatican
Council, he was, on April 17, 1871, formally excommuni-
cated by the archbishop of Munich. On July 29, 1871, he
was elected rector of the University of Munich, receiving
54 out of 63 votes cast. He took a leading part in the Old
Catholic congresses of Munich (1871) and Cologne (1872).
In the former he showed himself opposed to the measures
adopted by the majority for effecting a permanent ecclesi-
astical organization of the Old Catholics; in the latter he
was elected chairman of a special committee on the re-
union of the Christian churches, a subject to which he has
for years devoted a special attention. He has been for
years a member of the first chamber of the Bavarian Diet.
Dol/lond (JoHN), F. R. S., an English optician well
versed in mathematics, was born in London June 10, 1706.
He was a silk-weaver in his youth, and employed his leisure
hours in the study of sciences and languages. In 1752 he
became a partner of his son PETER (born 1730, died July
2, 1820) in the business of optician. They fabricated tele-
scopes of superior quality. John Dollond invented the
achromatic telescope, for which he received the Copley
medal of the Royal Society in 1758. Died Sept. 30, 1761.
iDol/men, a word of Cymric origin, nearly synonymous
with CROMLECH (which see). The proper dolmen consists
of one large unhewn stone, resting on two or more unhewn
stones placed erect in the ground. The term is sometimes
applied to structures where several blocks are raised on
pillars so as to form a sort of gallery. Near Saumur in
France is a dolmen called Pierre Couvert, which is sixty-
four feet long and fifteen feet wide. Such structures are
now generally referred to pre-historic races.
Do’lo, a town of Italy, in Venetia, on the river Brenta,
12 miles W. of Venice, on the railway to Padua. Here are
many fine villas of the Venetian nobility. Pop. 5523.
Dolomieu, de (Džod AT GUI Sylvar N TANCRièDE DE
GRATET), a French geologist and mineralogist, born at
Dolomieu, in Dauphiny, June 24, 1750. He joined the
order of the Knights of Malta in his youth, and having
returned to France in 1791, he explored the geology of that
country, and wrote several geological treatises, which were
inserted in the “Journal de Physique.” He was one of
the savants who accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt in 1798.
He was thrown into a prison by the Neapolitans in 1799,
and released the following year; he was appointed profes-
sor of mineralogy in the Museum of Natural History. He
died Nov. 26, 1801. (See LA.cfiPRDE, “ Notice historique
sur la Vie de Dolomieu,” 1802.)
Dol’omite [named in honor of the savant Dolomieu],
or Magnesian MLimestone, a mineral consisting of car-
bonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia in variable pro-
portions, which are sometimes nearly equal. Its crystals
are usually rhomboidal: Dolomite is extensively used as a
building-stone, and is converted into good lime by burning.
The new British houses of Parliament are built of this
stone. In England, fossiliferous dolomites form the greater
part of the Permian limestones from Durham to Notting-
hamshire. Large mountain-masses of crystalline dolomite
occur in the Tyrol. It is also abundant in the eastern parts
of New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and other States.
Dol’phin [Gr. 8expiv; Lat. delphinus ; Fr. dauphin] is
properly the name of a cetaceous mammal of the Mediter-
ranean (Delphinus delphis), the dolphin of the classic poets.
It is six or eight feet in length, and very active in its
habits. There are many similar species known as dolphins
in various parts of the ocean. The dolphin of modern
sailors, the beauty of whose colors when dying is so cele-
brated, is a true fish, the Coryphaena hippwris, abounding
in the warmer parts of the Atlantic, where it wages inces-
sant warfare against the flying-fish and other inhabitants
of the sea. It is often eaten, and is very palatable, but
its flesh is said to be sometimes poisonous. The colors of
the dying dolphin appear to be owing to the gradual evap-
oration of the water retained between the scales of the fish
(which are translucent, while the body is white), causing
the irised appearance seen in soap-bubbles, and known as
the “colors of thin plates.” . The beauty, which is very
real, has been much exaggerated by poets who have never
personally observed it.
Dol’son, a township and post-village of Clark co., Ill.
Pop. 1221.
Dom, or Don [from the Lat. dominus, a “lord”], a
title originally assumed in the Middle Ages by the popes.
It was afterwards borne by bishops, and sometimes given
to monks, as Dom Calmet and Dom Mabillon. In Portugal
the title dom is confined to the king and his family. The
Spanish don was formerly a title confined to noblemen, but
is given by courtesy as indiscriminately as the English Mr.
In the U. S., Roman Catholic dignitaries of German origin
have the title dom. -
T}omain’ [Fr. domaine ; Lat. dominium, from dominus,
a “lord”], empire, authority; the territory over which aur
thority is exercised ; landed estate; an estate which a per-
son has in his own right; that portion of the territorial
possessions of a lord which he retains in his own occupa.
tion, sometimes called DEMESNE (which see). The term
domaine is applied in France to public property in general.
The public land belonging to the government or people of
the U. S. is often called the public or national domain.
Domain, Eminent. See EMINENT DOMAIN, by PROF.
T. W. Dwig HT, LL.D. - *
Domat (JEAN), a French jurist, born at Clermont, in
Auvergne, Nov. 30, 1625. He was a friend of Pascal and
other recluses of Port Royal. He officiated for many years
as king's advocate at Clermont, and published an import-
ant systematic work entitled “The Civil Laws in their Nat-
ural Order” (1689). Died in Paris Mar. 14, 1696. (See
E. CAUCHY, “Etudes sur Domat,” 1852.) * *
Dom-boc, or Doom Book (Liber Judicialis), the
name of a code of laws compiled by King Alfred, partly from
the Kentish collection of Ethelbert and the Mercian laws of
Offa, but chiefly from the laws made by his own ancestor,
Ina. Alfred made few original laws, but restored and reno-
vated those already existing. The laws of England, up to
the time of the Norman Conquest, were administered in the
vernacular speech of the people. Alfred's Christian cha-
racter is clearly indicated in his code, which commences
thus: “The Lord spake all these words, saying, “I am the
Lord, thy God.’”. Then followed the ten commandments, a
part of the Mosaic law, and passages from the New Testa-
ment, including the Golden Rule. The code was ratified
by the Witan, as Alfred informs us. &
Dombrow’ski (JoHN HENRY), a Polish general, born
in the palatinate of Cracow Aug. 29, 1755. He fought
against Russia in the war of 1792–94, during which he ob-
tained the rank of general. In 1795 he entered the French
service, and in 1797 passed into that of the Cisalpine repub-
lic as commander of a Polish legion. In 1806 he raised
an army of 30,000 Poles to fight for Napoleon. He gained
a victory at Dirschau in 1809, and took part in the Russian
campaign of 1812. Died June 6, 1818.
Dombrowsky (JAROSLAv), a Polish revolutionist,
born at Cracow in 1826, served first in the Russian army,
and was in 1862 compelled to flee in consequence of hav-
ing participated in the Polish insurrection. He is also
accused of having been a counterfeiter and a traitor to
the Poles. He formed in the beginning of the French-Ger–
man war a Polish legion, was on April 8, 1871, appointed
to the command of the insurgent troops at Asniers, and on
May 9 succeeded Rossel as commander-in-chief of all the
forces of the Paris Commune. On May 22 he was mortally
wounded, and died on May 23. -
Dome [It. duomo, originally the “house (domus) of
God,” afterwards applied in Italian to a cathedral, of which
a dome in the common English sense of this word is one of
the most remarkable features]. This word, though used
often to signify a cupola, means, strictly, the outer part of
a spherical roof, of which the cupola is the inner part. In
Italy, however, it has a wider significance, being used to
designate the chief church of a town. As all the chief
churches were roofed in this way, the name of the church
was applied to the kind or species of roof. The origin of
the dome is often traced to the Eastern empire, because it
was in the Byzantine provinces that it was first applied to
ecclesiastical building. But the Romans really invented
the dome, and originated all applications of the semicircular
arch. The dome of the Pantheon is one of the most mag-
nificent in the world, and domes of Smaller size are in the
temples of Bacchus, Vesta, Hercules, Romulus, etc. The
three most renowned modern domes are those of St. Peter's
at Rome, St. Paul’s in London, and the Pantheon at Paris.
The dome of the Capitol at Washington is the finest in
America. It is made of cast iron, and is surmounted by a
bronze statue of Liberty twenty feet high, designed by Craw-
ford. The dome is considered the finest iron structure in
the world. r - -
Domenichi'no, an Italian painter, whose proper
name was Dom ENICO ZAMPIERI, was born at Bologna, Oct.
21, 1581. He was a pupil of Annibal Caracci at Rome,
where he worked for several years. He was employed as
painter and architect by Pope Gregory XV. Among his
masterpieces are “The Communion of St. Jerome * (in the
Vatican), “The Martyrdom of St. Agnes,” and the “Cure
of the Demoniac Boy.” In the latter part of his life he
worked in Naples, where he died April 15, 1641. (See
LECARPENTIER, “Notice sur D. Zampieri,” 1812.)
DOMESDAY BOOK–DOMINGO, SANTO, PROJECTS OF ANNEXATION To THE U. S. 1385
Domesday Book. See Dooys DAY Book.
Domestic Animals are such as are reared by man
for his own use, and at the same time tamed or familiarized
to some extent to man’s presence; for bees, silkworms, and
a few other insects reared by man are never really tamed,
though modified in many cases in form by the influence of
man. A great many animals may be tamed, and yet not
truly domesticated, for true domestication implies a course
of breeding for many generations.
The more important domestic animals are the ox, buffalo,
yak, sheep, goat, reindeer, camel, llama, alpaca (ruminants),
the horse, ass, elephant, swine (pachyderms), rabbit, guinea-
pig (rodents), dog, cat, ferret (carnivores), and of birds, the
hen, turkey, peacock, guinea-fowl, pheasant (gallinaceous
birds), goose, duck, etc. (natatores), besides the pigeons and
various song-birds. The breeding of fishes for food is not
true domestication.
The wonderful changes of form, habit, and temper ob-
served in various breeds of the dog, and the still more
remarkable variations in the form of pigeons, have sug-
gested to many naturalists the idea of the mutability of
species. (For a discussion of the question in this aspect,
see DARWIN “On Domestic Animals and Cultivated Plants,”
1867, and the articles Evor,UTION, by PROE. HENRY HARTS-
HoRNE, and DARWINISM, by PROFs. YoUMANs and SEELYE.)
Dom/icile [Lat. domicilium, from domus, a “house;”
Fr. domicile], a mansion; a place of permanent residence;
in law, the place where a person has his home or his legal
place of abode.
. . A distinction must be taken between residence and domi-
cile. A person may have two or more residences, but can
have only one dormicile. A domicile may be said to be the
place where a person has his true fixed and permanent
home and principal establishment, and to which, whenever
he is absent, he has the intention of returning. A domicile
may be acquired in three ways—by birth, by choice, or by
operation of law. Domicile acquired in the first mode is
frequently called “domicile of origin.” When of choice, it
must consist both of an act and an intent. A mere intent
to acquire a domicile will have no effect. Nor will a pro-
longed residence in a particular place constitute a domicile,
unless accompanied by an intent to acquire it. Domicile is
acquired by operation of law when it is a consequence of
certain legal relations, as in the instance of a wife. The
rules affecting domicile have much importance in inter-
national law, whether public or private, and for this pur-
pose it may be distinguished into domestic and national.
Questions concerning the validity of marriages and di-
vorces, the execution and construction of wills, and suc-
cession to estates, frequently depend on the law of domicile.
The leading rules governing domicile are these : I. The
domicile of origin continues until a new one is acquired.
The same rule of continuance applies to successive domi-
ciles. 2. A person having legal capacity may, in general,
change his domicile at will. Persons under legal disability,
such as minors and lunatics, have no such power. The
domicile of a minor is in general that of his parent or
guardian. 3. The law in some cases fixes the domicile of
a person at the place where the person is under a duty to
reside. Under this rule the holder of an office may be
domiciled at a place where official duty requires him to re-
side. On the same principle the wife's domicile follows that
of the husband, though this rule is modified in matters of
divorce. 4. To change one’s domicile there must be both
an intent and an act. The intent may be inferred from a
variety of circumstances, and in some instances the inquiry
ranges over a period of many years. Under this rule an
enforced sojourn in a place will not in general constitute a
domicile. (See INTERNATIONAL LAW, PRIVATE, by PREs.
T. D. Wools EY, S. T. D., LL.D.) T. W. DWIGHT.
Dom/inant [Lat. dominans, present part. from dominor,
to “rule,” to “prevail”], in music, the fifth tone of the
scale, agreeing with the note G. The dominant is the ruling
tone of the key, and next in importance to the first tone of
the gamut. -
Domingo, Santo. See SANTo Dom(INGo.
I) omingo, Santo, Projects of Annexation to
the U. S. Investigations and negotiations looking to-
wards the annexation of the republic of Santo Domingo,
or the cession of valuable parts of it, to the U. S. extend
over a period of nearly thirty years. The series of Demo-
cratic administrations between 1844 and 1860 had con-
stantly in view the policy of the acquisition of territory in
the West Indies, and made several investigations within
the territory of the Dominican republic. That this did not
end in annexation was evidently due not so much to the
opposition of the Dominicans as to the half-heartedness of
influential American politicians, arising from the peculiar
condition of parties in the U. The statesmen of the
slave-holding States and their allies from the free States
were then in power at Washington. They felt the need of
additional slave States in the West Indies to balance the
inevitable increase of free States in the North, but they
evidently dreaded to add a republic in which the blacks
were free and their equality recognized by law and custom.
The first negotiation seems to have been made in 1845,
when President Polk sent Mr. Hogan as commissioner
to the island. His reports were favorable, and during
the next year Lieut. D. D. Porter, now (1874) admiral of
the navy, was sent to make an additional investigation of
the resources and condition of the country. His exami-
nation was thorough and his report favorable. But the
difficulty arising from negro freedom and equality in the
island was revealed as fully as its material wealth, and
nothing was done.
The Taylor-Fillmore administration paid little if any at-
tention to this subject, but one of the first acts of the suc-
ceeding administration, that of Pierce, was to send Capt.
(since Maj.-Gen.) G. B. McClellan to make a more thorough
survey than had been made, especially of the Bay of Sa-
mana. Capt. McClellan visited the island in 1854. His sur-
vey was made with great care, and he reported strongly in
favor of the acquisition of at least a portion of the Sa-
mana peninsula as a naval station for the U. S. His only
error seems to be in overrating the mineral wealth of Sa-
mana; the want of thorough geological knowledge caused
him to mistake beds of lignite for beds of coal. But into
this mistake even so eminent an authority as Sir Robert
Schomburgk had fallen before him, and this error was per-
sisted in until geologists connected with the commission of
1871 made thorough examination; it detracts, however, very
little from the general value of McClellan’s conclusions.
Another negotiation looking towards the acquisition of
territory followed, but with no result. The struggle during
the great civil war in the U. S. seems to have diverted
thought in Washington from any efforts in the West In-
dies likely to arouse the ill-feeling of European powers.
But hardly was that contest ended when the subject came
up again. The necessity of an American naval station in
the West Indies had been brought home to the administra-
tion by difficulties in dealing with blockade-runners during
the civil war, and in 1867, Mr. Seward, the secretary of
state, with a considerable retinue of officials, visited the
Dominican capital, and had an interview with the author-
ities. But other projects of annexation were preferred by
the Johnson administration, and this was postponed.
Shortly after the accession of Gen. Grant to the presidency
the subject was again brought up by overtures from the
Baez government, then in control of the Dominican re-
public. For some time nothing was done. A reaction
against the extension of territory had set in. There was
a general feeling that the recently acquired territory
of Alaska had cost more than its value, and this feeling
was strengthened by the news of the St. Thomas earth-
quakes, which contributed so much to the failure of the
attempt to acquire that island.
The early communications by President Baez were re-
ceived with distrust at Washington, but at last a commu-
nication was received from him to the effect that the diffi-
culties of the Dominican republic had become so great that
if it could not make terms with the U. S., self-preservation
would force it to do so with some other nation. In view
of this, President Grant sent Gen. O. E. Babcock on a con-
fidential mission to the Baez government. Gen. Babcock
made two visits to the island, and the result was the project
of a treaty signed by the Dominican government on the
one hand, and afterwards ratified by the Dominican people;
and on the other hand signed by the Washington adminis-
tration, awaiting ratification by the Senate. The main
points in the treaty were that the Dominican republic was
to come under the government of the U. S. as a Territory,
receiving $1,500,000 in order to extinguish her debt;
and as security for such application of funds the U. S.
was to have a lien on all the lands of the republic. It
was also stipulated that no further grant or concession
should be made by the Dominican government, and no
further debts contracted, after the execution of the treaty.
In addition to the annexation treaty, having reference to
the entire territory of the republic, there was prepared a
convention for the lease of Samana Bay to the U. S. for
fifty years, the annual rental to be $150,000, and the first
instalment to be paid at once. If the treaty for the ac-
quisition of the island should be ratified, this first annual
payment was to be deducted from the million and a half
to be paid under that treaty. A clause in the treaty re-
quired it to be ratified by a popular vote of the Dominican
people. This took place in Feb., 1870, the official returns
showing for the measure over 15,000 votes, and against i
less than 400. ... "
The treaty having been sent to the Senate, a very stron
opposition was developed, and in consequence it lingered
1386
DOMINIC-DOMINICAL LETTER.
until it expired by its own limitation on May 29. On May
31 the treaty was renewed, and the debate upon it was one
of the most earnest and brilliant in American annals. The
leaders against the treaty were Senators Sumner and
Schurz, and the leaders in its support Senators Morton and
Conkling. -
While the measure was pending, circumstances occurred
which greatly embittered the whole question. A petition
was received from one Davis Hatch, a citizen of Connec-
ticut, claiming that he had been arrested and condemned to
death by the Dominican government, and that, although the
penalty in his case had been changed to banishment, he
had been detained in prison longer than he would other-
wise have been, by the machinations of the American
negotiator of the treaty, Gen. Babcock. The cause alleged
for this was fear lest Mr. Hatch should return to the U. S.
and denounce the treaty before its publication. A special
committee of the Senate, appointed to investigate this case,
presented a majority report, very voluminous, declaring
the charges against Gen. Babcock “totally unfounded,”
and that “his whole conduct had been marked by honor,
truth, and fidelity, and the evidence leaves him without a
stain.”
An additional difficulty was caused by the dealings with
the republic of Hayti, adjoining the Dominican republic.
A war had been going on for nearly thirty years between
the two republics, and a bitterly hostile feeling was the re-
sult. The efforts of the Haytians to overthrow the Baez
government, and so prevent the treaty with the U. S., led
to the sending of some American armed vessels upon the
Haytian coast while the treaty was pending, and into the
Haytian harbors; and it was charged that some of the
American officers assumed too dictatorial a tone with the
officials of the Haytian republic. The result was that the
treaty was finally rejected.
In his message at the beginning of the next Congress, in
view of the many charges which had been preferred, the
President recommended the appointment of a commission
to proceed to the island and make a thorough investiga-
tion of the important points that had been raised in the
debates. A second struggle followed, more bitter than the
first. The opponents of the administration were not less
vigorous in opposing the investigation than they had been
in opposing the treaty. But the measure was finally car-
ried by an overwhelming vote in both Houses. The com-
missioners appointed were Benjamin F. Wade of Ohio,
Andrew D. White of New York, and Samuel G. Howe of
Massachusetts. To them were attached Judge Burton,
formerly minister to Bogota, as secretary, and Frederick
Douglass and Gen. Franz Sigel as assistant secretaries. In
view of the fact that several of the questions to which
answers were required by Congress demanded scientific in-
vestigation, a number of scientific gentlemen of eminence
were attached. The commission sailed from New York
Jan. 17, 1871, and reached Samana Bay the following week.
The work before them was carried out with great care.
Expeditions were sent, through various parts of the island.
Full testimony was taken regarding the purchases or leases
of land by Americans, the mineral wealth and agricultural
capabilities, the fisheries, and the condition of the country
as regards health. Botanists were also employed to ex-
amine into the production of choice woods, and agricultu-
rists of experience to examine as to the capabilities of the
soil. Besides this, a very careful investigation was made
as to the general condition of the people, and their feelings
regarding the annexation and the ratification of the treaty
with the U. S., and especially to find whether the popular
vote was fairly taken. In accomplishing this the commis-
sion took testimony at all important points in the republic.
Dr. Howe made an extended journey from E. to W., and
Mr. White crossed the island, passing from Santo Domingo
City through the great valleys and over the mountains of
the Cibao to the leading commercial city of Puerto Plata
on the N. side of the island, making examinations at the
intervening towns. Besides this, fourteen expeditions, pro-
vided with careful instructions and full schedules of ques-
tions to ensure careful investigation, were sent into the
various parts of the republic; so that, with the exception
of the extreme western part, overrun by Haytian troops,
every part of the country was very thoroughly examined.
The report of the commission, with the accompanying
testimony, has since been published by Congress. As to
the condition of the country, the commission finds “ that
there is no opponent of the present administration of that
republic who has now, or who ever has had, any claim to
the chief magistracy by a title superior to that of the
present incumbent.” It condemns the factions seeking to
overthrow the existing government, and submits proofs
that they are inspired by the government of Hayti. It
calls attention to the fact that, in spite of the sad condition
of the republic, some local liberties have been preserved
of imports, £60,278.
which show capacity for self-government. It also shows
the reason why the Spanish government, after being called
to the island, was necessarily expelled. Very thorough
statements are made regarding the desire for annexation
by the people. The commission found that everywhere
this desire was most earnestly manifested. They attribute
this feeling in part to ideas which have come from Amer-
ican colored colonists, but far more to the absolute neces-
sity of Some refuge from the constant war with Hayti, and
the anarchy resulting from the cabals of military leaders.
The commission found a remarkable absence of prejudice
regarding class, race, and color. Also that there is no in-
tolerance towards the small number of Protestants—that
there is very little education, but considerable desire to
obtain it. As to population, they set it down at about.
150,000. As to race, they say: “White blood preponderates.
largely in Santo Domingo, but pure whites, in the popular
sense of the word, are not numerous. The majority are of
a mixed race, nearer white than . black.” As to mineral
products, the geologists report the existence of iron, cop-
per, gold, lignite, rock-salt, and petroleum. Iron ore is
especially abundant. . As to the soil, they find the eastern
districts of the republic rich and fertile, but some of the
western part arid; and sum up by saying that this is
naturally the richest of the West Indian islands. The por-
tion of the report devoted to agricultural products and
forest products, and that regarding the fisheries, are very
carefully given. As regards climate and health, the com-
missioners come to the conclusion that with care life is as
safe in Santo Domingo as in the Northern States of the
U. S., and that no more die of malignant fevers in Santo
Domingo than of pulmonary complaints in New England.
Much stress is laid upon the value of the Bay of Samana
as a naval port. The public debt is shown to be about
$1,500,000; the income of the government about $800,000.
They find that the Dominicans do not at all expect to enter
into the Union as a State. Much stress is laid upon the
influence which the acquisition of Santo Domingo would
have in breaking down slavery in the adjoining islands of
Cuba and Porto Rico, as all duties on products would be a
discrimination against slave-labor.
The commission also visited the capital city of Hayti,
and made investigations there which confirm them in the
opinion that the Haytian government, instead of being
injured by the Dominican republic, is constantly provok-
ing civil war within the boundaries of Santo Domingo.
The commission arrived in Washington early in April.
On receiving their report, the President sent it with a mes-
sage to Congress, stating that although it confirmed him in
his opinions as to the desirableness of the island and the
advantage to result from a treaty, he left it now entirely to
the American people without any recommendation. No
action resulted, and the matter was indefinitely postponed.
As it became evident that governmental action, even if it
ever came, was to be long delayed, there was formed in New
York “The Samana Bay Company,” which leased from the
Baez government the peninsula and adjacent waters of Sa-
mana, and obtained large privileges for trade at an annual
rental of $150,000. This company, up to this day (1874),
seems not to have met its own anticipations, and recent
communications from the Dominican government are given
urging upon the U. S. to take some final step in the mat-
ter, but so far nothing appears to be done in regard to it.
- A. D. WHITE.
Dom'inic [Sp. Domingo de Guzman], SAINT, the founder
of the order of Dominicans, was born at Calahorra, in Old
Castile, in 1170. He gained distinction as a preacher and
as a persecutor. He was one of the instigators of the eru-
sade against the Albigenses in 1208. In 1215 he founded
the order of Preaching Friars or Dominican monks, which
was approved by the pope in 1216. (See DOMINICANs.)
Dominic was the first general of the order. He died Aug.
6, 1221, and was canonized by Pope Gregory IX. in 1234.
He was a canon, a priest, and an archdeacon successively.
Domin'ica (“Sunday Island”), discovered by Colum-
bus on Sunday, Nov. 3, 1493, a British West India island,
is 22 miles N. of Martinique; lat. 15° 18' N., lon. 61° 24′
W. It is 29 miles long, and has an area of 291 square
miles. It is of volcanic origin, and is the highest of the
Lesser Antilles, the summit having an altitude of 5314 feet.
The soil of the valleys is fertile. The staple productions
are coffee, sugar, cotton, tobacco, cocoa, copper ore, rum,
and timber. The abolition of slavery increased the pros-
perity of this island. Dominica was ceded to Great Britain
by France in 1763. The public revenue in 1870 amounted
to £15,721; the expenditure to £15,248; the public debt to
#7230. The total tonnage of vessels entered and cleared
(exclusive of coasting-trade) was 19,160; the total value
Pop. in 1870, 28,517.
Domin'ical [from the Lat. dominica, the “Lord's day "]
DOMINICANS-DONALDSON.
1887
Letter. The Romans used the first eight letters of the
alphabet (A to H) to mark the consecutive days of their
recurring mundinal period. The early Christians adopted
the same plan for marking the days of the week, dropping
the last one (H) as unnecessary. In the Church calendar
A has always stood for the first day of January, B for the
second, and so on. G therefore marks the seventh day, and
the cycle begins again with A on the eighth. A returns in
like manner on the 15th, the 22d, and so on. Each day in
the year has thus its calendar letter; and the letter which
falls on Sunday is called the dominical letter of the year.
The 28th of February has always the letter C, and the 1st
of March has always the letter D. The 29th day of Feb-
ruary in leap-year has therefore no letter provided for it;
and this makes a change in the Sunday letter after Febru-
ary; so that in leap-year there are two dominical letters.
As the common year contains fifty-two weeks and one day,
the dominical letter changes from year to year, going back-
ward one place for every common year, and two places
every leap-year. This mode of representing the days of
the week has been uninterruptedly employed in the calen-
dar of the Church throughout the world from, the earliest
ages of Christianity. F. A. P. BARNARD. . .
Domin'icans, an order of mendicant friars founded
by Saint Dominic at Toulouse, was confirmed by Pope In-
nocent III. in 1216. They were called Black. Friars in
England, and Jacobins in France, from the Rue St. Jacques
(Jacobus), where they first established themselves. In 1216,
Honorius III. constituted the order under the rules of Saint
Augustine, which enjoined almost continual fasts, perpetual
silence, and other mortifications. In 1221 the order was in-
troduced into England, and their first establishment made
at Oxford. In 1276 the corporation of London granted the
order two lanes near the Thames, where a monastery was
erected, the neighborhood of which is still called Blackfriars.
The order of Dominican nuns was founded in 1206.
Among the men of genius and eminent Scholars belong-
ing to this order were Thomas Aquinas and Albertus Mag-
nus. The reputation of the Dominicans in history, however,
is stained by their cruel persecution of the Albigenses and
the prominent part they took in the establishment and ad-
ministration of the Inquisition. Their principal rivals were
the Franciscans, and the two orders for a long time divided
between them the control of the Church, and frequently of
the Catholic states of Christendom. The Jesuits in the six-
teenth century gradually took possession of the power for-
merly exercised by the Dominicans. Dominican monks and
nuns are, however, still found in most countries. In the
U. S. their numbers are increasing.
Dominion of Canada. See CANADA, DOMINION OF,
by PROF. A. J. ScHEM. * -
Dom’inis, de (MARCANTONIO), an Italian theologian,
born in the isle of Arba, near Dalmatia, in 1566. He be-
came professor of philosophy at Padua, and wrote a curious
treatise on light entitled “De Radiis Visus et Lucis in Wi-
tris Perspectivis et Iride” (1611), in which the phenomena
of the rainbow were explained for the first time. After he
had been appointed archbishop of Spalatro he went to Eng-
land in 1616, and became a Protestant. He wrote “De Re-
publica Ecclesiastică" (“On the Ecclesiastical Republic,”
1617). In 1622 he returned to Italy, and relapsed into the
Roman Catholic Church. Died Sept., 1624.
Domin/ium [from dominus, a “master,” a “lord”], a
legal term of the Romans, signifying a full legal right in
and to an object, but which could not be conferred by actual
possession alone unless such possession had endured for the
period of legal prescription.
Dom/ino, an Italian word, is the name of a long loose
cloak of black silk, furnished with a hood, worn at masque-
rades by persons of both sexes.
Dom’inoes, a game played by two or more persons
with twenty-eight pieces of ivory or bone variously dotted.
It is said to have been first introduced into France from
Italy, and soon became popular throughout Europe. Wa-
rious games are played with dominoes.
Domi”tian [Lat. Domitianus], or, more fully, Titus
Flavius Domitianus, a Roman emperor, born in
51 A. D., was the second son of Vespasian. He succeeded
his brother Titus in the year 81, and began his reign with
moderation and apparent respect for justice. In the year
87 he was defeated by the Dacians, who compelled him to
pay tribute. He afterwards became extremely cruel and
suspicious, and caused many innocent persons to be put to
death. He banished a number of eminent men and phil-
osophers, including Epictetus. He was assassinated by
conspirators in his palace in 96 A. D., and was succeeded
by Nerva. (See SUETONIUs, “Domitianus.”)
Don. See Domſ.
Dom (anc. Tanais), a river of Russia, rises in the gov-
ernment of Tula, and flows in a general S. E. direction to
Katschalinsk. Below the town it runs nearly south-west-
ward, and enters the N. E. part of the Sea of Azof near
the town of Azof. Its total length is about 950 miles. The
navigation of it is difficult during low water, but when the
water is high (i. e. in April and May) vessels can ascend .
about 600 miles from its mouth. The Don is connected by .
a canal with the Wolga.
Don, a river of Scotland, in Aberdeenshire, rises in Ben
Aven, and enters the North Sea 1 mile from Old Aberdeen.
Its general direction is eastward, and its length, including
windings, 78 miles. Nearly a mile from its mouth it is
crossed by the “Brig o' Balgownie.”
Doña Aña, or Don’na An’na, a county in the S. E.
of New Mexico, is bounded on the W. by the Rio Grande
del Norte. The surface is partly mountainous. The soil
in some places is fertile. Wheat, corn, and wool are raised.
Silver is found. Salt lakes occur in some parts. Capital,
Mesilla. Pop. 5864.
Doña Aña, a post-village of the above county, is on
the Rio Grande, about 50 miles N. W. of El Paso (Texas).
Donaghadee', a seaport of Ireland, in the county of
Down, and on the Irish Channel, 18 miles E. N. E. of Bel-
fast. It has a good harbor, and trade in cattle, grain, etc.
The embroidery of muslin is carried on here. Pop. in
1871, 2664. -
Don'ahue, a village of Sonoma co., Cal., on San Pablo
Ray, 35 miles N. of San Francisco. . It is the southern ter-
minus of the San Francisco and North Pacific R. R., and
is connected with San Francisco by steamboats.
Don’aldson (EDwARD), U. S. N., born Nov. 17, 1816,
in Maryland, entered the navy as a midshipman July 21,
1835, became a passed midshipman in 1841, a lieutenant
in 1847, a commander in 1862, a captain in 1866, and a
commodore in 1871. He commanded the steam-gunboat
Scioto at the passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip and
capture of New Orleans April 24, 1862, and at the passage
of the Vicksburg batteries June 28, 1862. Referring to the
former battles, Commodore Henry H. Bell, Farragut's
fleet-captain, writes: “Throughout the trying scenes of
this dashing expedition, which is second to none on record,
Captain Donaldson, his officers, and crew were conspicuous
for their coolness, intrepidity, and good conduct.” And in
his report of the Vicksburg fight Rear-Admiral Farragut
says: “It gives me great pleasure to mention that the
officers and men of the ships which accompanied me up
the river behaved with the same ability and steadiness on
this occasion as in passing Forts Jackson and St. Philip.”
He commanded the steamer Seminole at the battle of Mo-
bile Bay, and for his services on this occasion is thus highly
complimented by Captain John B. Marchand in his official
despatch of Aug. 7, T864: “Commander Edward Donald-
son, commanding the Seminole, which was lashed along-
side of this ship, rendered most efficient service by his
coolness and judgment in piloting both vessels until pass-
ing Fort Morgan, the regular pilot being sick. My addi-
tional thanks are due him and all his officers and men for
volunteering to aid in manning the guns of the Lacka-
wanna, and the continuous fire which they kept up whilst
their guns could bear upon the enemy.”
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Donaldson (JAMEs LowRY), an American officer, born
Mar. 17, 1814, at Baltimore, Md., graduated at West Point
1836, and July 28, 1866, assistant quartermaster-general
U. S. A. (rank of colonel). He served in the artillery till
Mar. 3, 1847, and subsequently in the quartermaster’s de-
partment; on topographical duty 1836; in Florida war
i836–38; in emigrating Cherokees to the West 1838; on
Maine frontier pending boundary controversy 1840–42;
on the north-eastern boundary survey 1844–45; in the
military occupation of Texas 1846; in the war with Mex-
ico 1846–48, engaged at Monterey (brevet captain) and
Buena Vista (brevet major); on quartermaster duty at
various posts 1848–58; and chief of quartermaster's de-
partment of New Mexico 1858–62. He served in the civil
war in command of the district of Santa Fé, N. M.,
1861–62, engaged at Valverde; as quartermaster at Pitts-
burg, Pa., 1862–63; as chief quartermaster of the middle
department 1863; as supervising quartermaster of the de-
partment of the Cumberland 1864–65, being in command of
Guartermaster's forces at the battle of Nashville; and as
chief quartermaster of the middle division of the Tennes-
see 1865–66; of the department of the Tennessee 1866;
of the military division of the Missouri 1866–69. Breyet
colonel and brigadier-general Sept. 17, 1864, for distin-
guished services in the Atlanta campaign, and major-
general U. S. A. Mar. 13, 1865, and major-general U. S.
volunteers June 20, 1865, for faithful and meritorious Ser-
vices; and retired from active service Mar. 15, 1869. He
1888
DONALDSON.—DONEGAL.
is author of “Sergeant Atkins,” a tale of adventures in the
Florida war, 1871. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Donaldson (John WILLIAM), D. D., an English phil-
ologist, born in London in 1811. He published, besides
other works, “The New Cratylus ” (1839, enlarged in 1859),
a Greek grammar and a Latin grammar. He was a fellow
of Trinity College, Cambridge. Died Feb. 10, 1861.
Donaldson (THOMAS LEVERTON), P.H. D., an English
architect, born in 1795, studied architecture in Italy and in
Greece. He was long the professor of architecture in Uni-
versity College, London, from which he retired in 1864. He
has published works upon ancient and modern art, and de-
signed many fine buildings in London and its vicinity.
Don’aldsonville, a post-village, capital of Ascen-
sion parish, La., is on the Mississippi River at the origin
of the Bayou Lafourche, 82 miles above New Orleans.
It was formerly the capital of the State. Pop. 1573.
Dona’ti’s Com’et was first discovered in June, 1858,
became distinctly visible in September, reached its perihe-
lion about Oct. 1, and arrived at its nearest point to the
earth Oct. 10, when its apparent length was 51,000,000
miles. It afforded a most magnificent spectacle. Its re-
turn to the solar system is expected after about 1950 years.
Its aphelion distance is computed at 15,000,000,000 miles.
The discoverer lived at Bologna, and died of cholera, which
attacked him while visiting the Vienna Exposition in 1873.
Do’matists, in ecclesiastical history, a party in the
North African Church which effected a schism that lasted
from 311 A. D. till the sixth century. They took their name
from Donatus the Great, who was their bishop after Majori-
nus, from 315 to 348. The early history of this deeply in-
teresting movement is obscure and complicated. A power-
ful exciting cause of the schism was the question as to the
mild or severe discipline of Christians who left the faith
in times of persecution, the Donatists advocating rigorous
measures; but there were numerous other questions in-
volved in the controversy, the most important being that
of the union of the whole people within the Church (as
maintained by the Catholic party), while Donatus de-
manded the separation of the Church from the world.
Early in , his reign Constantine the Great excluded the
Donatists from the privileges conferred upon the Church,
and in 316 A.D. he issued penal edicts against them. A
fierce persecution ensued, lasting till 321, when the emperor
granted them liberty of conscience. After his death the
penal laws against them were revived, but they defended
themselves with much spirit until, in 361 A. D., Julian
(the so-called Apostate) restored to them their full freedom.
Prosperity followed, and they boasted at one time of having
400 bishops in Africa; but controversies sprang up with each
other and with the Catholic party, and in 415 their assem-
blies were forbidden on pain of death, Augustine himself
joining in the persecution. Donatism, as well as the Afri-
can Church in gº; was overwhelmed by the Vandal
conquest (428 A.D.), yet it survived in a feeble condition
for many years. - -
The Donatists are held by many historians to have erred
by excessive fanaticism and a schismatical spirit, while it
is generally conceded that the treatment they received from
the state Church was severe and injudicious. In doctrine
they were essentially orthodox, and the charges of immo-
rality brought against them appear to have been the inven-
tions of their enemies. There were doubtless errors on both
sides, but the general position of the Donatist party ap-
pears to have been in accord with that now taken by those
Protestant churches which demand a personal experience
of regeneration, as separating their membership from the
world at large. (See SchAFF, “History of the Christian
Church;” NEANDER, “ Church History.”)
REVISED BY R. D. HITCHCOCK.
Dona/to, or Donatello, called Donato di Niccolò
di Betto Bardi, a distinguished sculptor. (DONATELLO
is simply a diminutive.) He was born in Florence, prob-
ably in 1386, and died in that city, according to Vasari, on
the 13th Dec., 1466, but according to Palmieri in 1468.
His first work of importance was a beautiful bas-relief of
the Annunciation in the church of Sta. Croce. On the
campanile of the cathedral of Florence are statues of Saint
Matthew and Saint Mark (on the western face). That of
Saint Matthew has a bald head, and from the resemblance of
this to a gourd the Florentines nicknamed it Il Zuccène, or
the “great gourd.” This, of all his works, was Donatello's
favorite, and he was so pleased with the life he had been
able to impart to his statue, that, as the story goes, while
he was working at it he would strike it impatiently, cry-
ing, “Why don’t you speak, then 2° He also used, says
Vasari, to express the confidence he had in anything by
the expression, “By the faith I have in my Zuccène.”
Donatello was a prolific worker, and much of his work re-
majns in good condition to attest his vividness of concep-
tion, his noble strong ideal, and his beautiful execution.
His most famous work is the statue of Saint George, the
patron saint of the sword-makers and armorers, which he
made for that guild, and which was placed in a niche de-
signed for it on the outer wall of the church of San Mi-
chele, under which was a bas-relief representing the fight
of the saint with the dragon. To protect it from the action
of the weather, the statue has been removed to another
niche on the opposite side of the building. e
Vasari makes Donatello one of the three successful com-
petitors for the gates of the Baptistery—he and Brunel-
leschi withdrawing in favor of Ghiberti. Another famous
work of this master is the bronze sequestrian statue of Gat-
tamelata (Erasmo da Narni, called Gattamelata, a condot-
tiere (leader) of the Venetian troops), made at the command
of the Signoria of Venice for the city of Padua. It stands
on the platform of the church of Saint Antony. "Donatello
made a bronze statue of David, which is now in the Museo
Nazionale (Bargello); a statue in wood of Mary Magdalen
for the Baptistery, where it is still to be seen; and a statue
of Judith, in a niche over one of the arches of the Poggia
dei Lanzi, with a crowd of other works, no one of which is
without interest. .
Donatello’s life has been very entertainingly written by
Wasari. (See also PERKINs’s “Italian Sculptors,” and
LUBKE, “History of Sculpture,” a superficial book, but
useful. DR. HANS SEMPER began in A. Von Zahn’s now
discontinued “Jahrbücher für Kunstwissenschaft,” 3d year,
1870, Part I, a valuable series of articles: “Donatello,
seine Zeit und Schule.” Of this only the first part, “Erster
Abschnitt : Die Worlaiifer. Donatello's,” has appeared.)
CLARENCE Cook.
Dona’tus, bishop of Casae Nigrae in Numidia, an early
leader in the Donatistic schism, but not to be confounded
with Donatus the Great, a much abler man, who was the
second schismatic bishop, as noticed above.
Donatus (AELIUs), an eminent Latin grammarian,
born about 333 A. D., taught rhetoric at Rome. He was
the teacher of Saint Jerome, who expressed a high opinion
of his talents. He wrote a work on grammar, which was
commonly used in the schools of the Middle Ages. The
word Donat became synonymous with grammar.
Do'nauwörth, a walled town of Bavaria, on the Dan-
ube, at the mouth of the Wernitz, 25 miles N. N. W. of
Augsburg. It was formerly a free town of the empire, but
has declined in importance. It has several churches and
hospitals. Here Marlborough defeated the Bavarians in
1704, and here the French general Soult gained a victory
over the Austrian general Mack Oct. 6, 1805. Pop. 3559.
Do'nax [from the Gr. 86vaš, a kind of fish], a genus of
bivalve mollusks of triangular form, belonging to the Tel-
linidae. There are forty-five living European and tropical
species, and thirty fossil ones from the eocene of Europe and
the U. S. Donax is also the specific name of a reed or
grass (Arundo Donaa:) found in the south of Europe, used
for fishing-rods and other purposes.
Don Beni'to, a town of Spain, in the province of
Badajoz, near the river Guadiana, 55 miles E. of Badajoz.
It has manufactures of woollen goods, wine, and oil. Pop.
about 14,800. -
Don’caster (ane. Danum), a market-town of England,
in the West Riding of Yorkshire, and on the river Don, 35.
miles S. of York. It is pleasantly situated and well built.
The Don is here crossed by two stone bridges. Doncaster
has a fine parish church, a public library, and a theatre.
It was burned by lightning in 759 A. D. It is famous for
its annual horse-races. Colonel St. Leger founded in 1776
the stakes, for which the best horses of England annually
contend. Pop. in 1871, 18,758. -
Don'dra Head, the most southern extremity of Cey-
lon, is in lat. 5° 55' N., lon. 80° 38' E.
Donegal’, a county in the extreme N. W. part of Ire-
land, province of Ulster, is bounded on the N. and W. by
the Atlantic Ocean. Area, 1859 Square miles.
line is 395 miles long, and is deeply indented by many bays
and loughs. The surface is mountainous, moory, and
boggy. About one-third of it is arable. Granite, De-
vonian rocks, and carboniferous limestone are found here.
This county has some manufactures of linen and worsted
hose. Capital, Lifford. Pop. in 1871, 217,992.
Bonegal, a seaport of Ireland, in the above county, on
Donegal Bay, at the mouth of the Eske, 11 miles N. N. E.
It has a harbor for vessels which draw
twelve feet of water. Lat. 54° 39' N., lon. 8° 6' W.
Donegal, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 852.
Donegal, a township of Washington co., Pa. Pop.
2 * 3.
of Ballyshannon.
The coast-
DONEGAL-DON QUIXOTE DE LA MANCHA.
1889
Donegal, a post-township of Westmoreland co., Pa.
Pop. 1304.
Donegal, MARQUESSEs of (1791), earls of Donegal
(1647), earls of Belfast (1791), Wiscounts Chichester and
Barons Belfast (Ireland, 1625), Barons Fisherwick (Great
Britain, 1798), Barons Ennishowen and Carrickfergus
(United Kingdom, 1841).-GEORGE HAMILTON CHICHESTER,
third marquess, K. P., G. C. H., F. R. S., aide-de-camp of
the queen, born Feb. 10, 1798, succeeded his father in 1844.
Don’elson (ANDREw JACKSON), LL.D., an American
officer and diplomatist, born Aug. 25, 1800, near Nashville,
Tenn., graduated at West Point in 1820. He served (1821–
22) as lieutenant of engineers and as aide-de-camp to his
uncle, Maj.-Gen. Jackson, when governor of Florida, just
acquired from Spain. He resigned from the army Feb. 1,
1822, studied law, and became a cotton-planter near Nash-
ville, Tenn. During President Jackson’s administration
(1829–33) he was his efficient private secretary; chargé
d'affaires to Texas 1844–45, negotiating its annexation to
the U. S.; and U. S. minister plenipotentiary to Prussia
1846–49; and to the federal government of Germany 1848–
49. Soon after his return from Europe he became enlisted
in efforts to secure the settlement of the slavery agitation
growing out of the acquisition of territory from Mexico.
With strong national views he became editor of the “Wash-
ington Union ” 1851–52, and in 1856 the American candi-
date for Vice-President of the U. S. After his defeat he
retired altogether from public life, and devoted his time to
planting interests in Mississippi, till he died June 26, 1871,
at Memphis, Tenn., aged seventy-one.
• GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Donelson, Fort, a strong position on the W. bank of
the Cumberland River, in Stewart co., Tenn., 2 miles below
Dover, and 12 miles E. of Fort Henry. In the early part
of the late civil war it was strongly fortified by the Con-
federates. On Feb. 14, 1862, this position, being held by
Gen." J. B. Floyd with 15,000 men, was attacked by a fleet
of gunboats under Commodore Foote, who was repulsed
with considerable loss. Meanwhile, the army of Gen. Grant,
advancing from the capture of Fort Henry, successfully
fought the Confederates outside their works. Floyd and a
large part of his force escaped by means of rafts. On the
morning of the 16th, Gen. Buckner, in command of the re-
maining Confederates, proposed terms. Grant replied,
“No terms except immediate and unconditional surrender
will be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon
your works.” On the same day the fort was surrendered,
with 8000 prisoners. t
Domeraile, WISCOUNTs (1785), and Barons Doneraile
(Ireland, 1786).-HAYES ST. LEGER, fourth viscount, born
Oct. 1, 1818, and elected a representative peer for Ireland in
1855, succeeded his father in 1854.
Do'nets, a river of Southern Russia, the chief affluent
of the Don, rises in the government of Koorsk. It flows
nearly south-eastward, and enters the Don 40 miles N. E.
of Novo-Tcherkask. Length, about 400 miles.
Dong-nai, a river of Anam, enters the China Sea about
40 miles below the city of Saigon. It is navigable for large
ships to Saigon. -
Dong-nai, a town on an affluent of the above river, is
about 25 miles N. E. of Saigon.
Don’gola, a province of Upper Nubia, is mostly in-
cluded between lat. 18° and 19° 30' N., and is about 150
miles long. It is a narrow plain intersected by the river
Nile.
Dongola, New, also called Maraſka, a town of Nu-
bia, the capital of the above province, is on the left bank
of the Nile, in lat. 19° 10' N., lon. 30° 22' E. It is im-
portant as a military dépôt and as a place of trade. Here
is an indigo-factory. Pop. estimated at 20,000.
Dongola, Old, a ruined town of Nubia, on the Nile,
75 miles S. S. E. of New Dongola.
Dongo'la, a township and post-village of Union co.,
Ill., on the Illinois Central R. R., 26 miles N. of Cairo.
Pop. 3095. -
Don’iphan, a county which forms the N. E. extremity
of Kansas. Area, 391 square miles. It is bounded on the
N. E. and E. by the Missouri River. The surface is diver-
sified by river “bottoms” and undulating prairies; the soil
is fertile. Cattle, grain, and lumber are produced. It is
intersected by the St. Joseph and Denver City and the
Atchison and Nebraska R. Rs. Coal abounds here. Capi-
tal, Troy. Pop. 13,969.
Doniphan, a post-village of Wayne township in Doni-
phan co., Kan., on the Atchison and Nebraska R. R. and
the Missouri River, 6 miles N. E. of Atchison. Pop. 528.
Doniphan, a post-village, capital of Ripley co., Mo.,
on the Current River, about 150 miles S. by W. of St.
Louis. Pop. 146.
Donizet'ti (GAETANO), a famous Italian composer, born
at Bérgamo Sept. 25, 1798. He served for several years in
the Austrian army, which he left about 1822. He composed
numerous operas which had little success. His opera
“Anna Bolena,” (1830) was received with more favor. He
afterwards produced numerous popular operas, among
which are “Lucrezia Borgia.” (1833), “Marino Faliero,”
“Lucia dilammermoor” (1835), and “Linda di Chamouni”
(1842). He became chapel-master and composer to the
court at Vienna. Died April 8, 1848.
Don'jon, or . Dun/geon [from the Celtic dun, a
“height” or “hill”], the central building, tower, or keep
of an ancient castle or fortress of the Middle Ages. It was
often erected on a natural or artificial elevation. The lower
story of the donjon was used as a prison.
Don Juan, a mythical personage, was, according to
Spanish 'tradition, a profligate nobleman who killed in a
duel the father of a lady he had attempted to seduce. Hav-
ing afterwards invited to a feast the statue erected to his
victim, he challenges the spirit, whose existence he denies,
to manifest itself to him. The spirit thereupon proves its
power, and condemns him to perdition. This story was
dramatized by Tirso de Molina; it also forms the subject
of one of Molière's comedies and Mozart's celebrated opera,
and gives name to one of Byron's most famous poems.
Donkey. See Ass.
Donkey-Engine, a small auxiliary engine used on
shipboard, in factories, etc. for hoisting and lowering goods,
for working the ship’s rigging, raising anchors, etc.
Don’naldsville, a post-township of Abbeville co., S.C.
Pop. 1155.
Donne (John), D. D., an English poet, born in London
in 1573. He married a niece of Lord Chancellor Egerton,
and became a priest of the Anglican Church, although of
Roman Catholic parentage. Having gained distinction as .
an eloquent preacher, he was appointed dean of St. Paul’s,
London, in 1621. He wrote elegies, satires, and other poems,
and belonged to the school called “Metaphysical Poets,”
whose works abound in forced conceits. Some of his early
poems are very licentious, but many have great poetic
merits. His sermons are justly admired. The first com-
plete edition of his poems was issued in 2 vols., London,
1872. Died Mar. 31, 1631. (See IzAAK WALTON, “Life
of J. Donne,” 1640; H. ALFord, “Life of Donne,” 1839.)
Don'ner Lake, a small lake in Nevada, co., Cal., near
the Central Pacific R. R., 154 miles from Sacramento. It
is a place of summer resort.
tragical fate of a party of overland emigrants, led by a
man named Donner, who in the winter of 1846 were snow-
bound at this point, and nearly all starved to death, the
survivors having eaten the flesh of their dead comrades.
Don’nybrook, a parish and village of Ireland, in the
county of Dublin. The village is about 2 miles S. E. of
Dublin. It has a magdalen asylum, a dispensary, a hos-
pital for incurables, and a lunatic asylum, called the Bloom-
field Retreat, established by the Society of Friends. Here
is a famous annual fair, held during the week commencing
Aug. 26. Pop. in 1861, 1892.
Dono’so Cortés (JUAN), MARQUIs DE WALDEGAMAs, a
Spanish writer and diplomatist, born in Estremadura May
6, 1809. He opposed Don Carlos, and became secretary to
Queen Isabella in 1844. In 1848 he was sent as ambassador
to Berlin. He was conservative in politics, and defended
the Roman Catholic religion in his “Essay on Catholicism,
Liberalism, and Socialism * (1851). He died May 3, 1853,
in Paris, whither he had been sent as minister.
Donoughmore, EARLs of, and Wiscounts Suirdale
(1800), Barons Donoughmore (Ireland, 1783), Wiscounts
Hutchinson (United Kingdom, 1821).--John LUKE GEORGE
HELY HUTCHINSON, fifth earl, born Mar. 2, 1848, succeeded
his father Feb. 22, 1866.
Don Quixoſte de la Man'cha is the title of a well-
known work by the celebrated Cervantes (first published
1605–15). “Don Quixote,” says Hallam, “is the only book
in the Spanish language which can now be said to possess
much of a European reputation. . . . It is to Europe in gen-
eral what Ariosto is to Italy, and Shakspeare to England—
the one book to which the slightest allusions may be made
without affectation, but not missed without discredit.
Numerous translations and countless editions of them, in
every language, bespeak its adaptation to mankind; and no
critic has been found paradoxical enough to withhold his
admiration. . . . Few books of moral philosophy display
as deep an insight into the mechanism of the mind as
‘Don Quixote.” And when we look also at the fertility of
invention, the general probability of the events, and the
It takes its name from the
1390
DOO–DORAMA.
great simplicity of the story, we shall think Cervantes fully
deserving of the glory that attends this monument of his
genius.” - *
Doo (GEORGE THOMAs), F. R. S., a skillful English his-
torical engraver, born in Surrey Jan. 6, 1800. He became
historical engraver to Queen Victoria in 1842, and was
elected a Royal Academician in 1856. Among his works
are “Ecce Homo,” after Correggio; “ Knox Preaching,”
after Wilkie; and “Pilgrims Coming in Sight of Rome,”
after Eastlake. He exhibited at the Great Exposition of
Paris in 1867 his engraving of “Saint Augustine and Saint
Monica,” after Scheffer. $
Doobov'ka, a town of European Russia, government
of Saratof, on the river Volga, 180 miles S. S. W. of Saratof.
It has an active trade by the river. Pop. in 1867, 13,676.
Doo'little (JAMEs Roop), LL.D., born Jan. 3, 1815, at
Hampton, Washington co., N. Y., graduated at Hobart
College in 1834, was elected U. S. Senator from Wis-
consin in 1857, and re-elected in 1863. Mr. Doolittle re-
sides at Racine, Wis., though in legal partnership with his
son in Chicago.
Doo'ly, a county in S. W. Central Georgia. Area, 800
square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Flint River.
The surface is level; the soil is mostly fertile. Cotton,
corn, and wool are raised. Capital, Vienna. Pop. 9790.
Dooly (John M.), a lawyer and judge of Georgia,
greatly distinguished in his day, and the most famous wit
ever produced in the State. His sayings and repartees
have formed the staple of the raciest bar anecdotes through-
out the commonwealth for the last half century, and are
likely to be transmitted in legendary tradition, within the
same sphere, to many generations hereafter. Born in 1772,
and died in 1827.
Doom [probably allied to the verb “deem,” to “think,”
to “judge”], the name formerly given to the Last Judg-
ment, and to representations of it in churches by painting
or otherwise. Most of these were obliterated in the time of
Edward VI., but a fine one still exists in the church of the
Holy Trinity at Coventry.
Doom (or Dum) Palm (Hyphaene Thebaica), a native
of Upper Egypt and Central Africa, where it sometimes
forms forests, growing even in the deserts. The lower part
of the stem is single, and invariably divides at a certain
height into two branches, each of these again being bifur-
cated, always in two sets. The wood is tougher than that
of most other palm trees. It has fan-shaped leaves,
elongated fruit about the size of an orange, with the outer
skin red, enclosing a thick, spongy substance which re-
sembles gingerbread. From this substance, which forms
an article of food, it has been called the gingerbread tree.
Ornaments are made from the hard, semi-transparent kernel
of the fruit. This tree produces the gum resin called
Egyptian bdellium, and its fibre is made into ropes which
are dyed black. -
Dooms/day Book, or Domesday Book, often
called simply Domesday, the name of an ancient record
of England containing a statistical account of the state of
that country, made by William the Conqueror in the year
1086. Several of the northern counties were not included
in this account. The origin of the name is not precisely
known, but it seems to indicate the absolute authority of
the book in doom or decision on matters of which it treats.
The original record, in two parts, the “Great” and “Lit-
tle Domesday,” is still preserved at Westminster. It was
also known as the Liber Regis, or the “King's Book;” the
Scriptura. Thesauri Regis, or “Record of the King's Treas-
ury;” the Liber Censualis Angliae, or “Rate Book of Eng-
land,” etc. This work is very comprehensive and minute,
and forms the basis of all historical accounts of those times.
It was the first great English record published at the cost
of the nation, and appeared in two folios, printed with
types cast for the purpose. It was ten years in passing
through the press, being completed in 1783; and later sup-
plementary records have been since published. . Several
other ancient English records are known as Domesdays. |
For example, the registers of the visitations and inquisi-
tions made by the dean and chapter of St. Paul’s, London
(1181—1222), were published in 1857 by the Camden Society
as the “Domesday of St. Paul’s.” -
Doom, a river of Scotland, rises in Ayrshire, flows
nearly north-westward, and enters the Frith of Clyde 2
miles S. of Ayr. It is 30 miles long, and passes through
picturesque scenery. The Doon has been immortalized by
the poet Burns. Loch Doon, an expansion of this river, is
5 miles long, and is enclosed by mountains. .
Doon, a post-village of Lyon co., Ia. It has one weekly
newspaper.
Door [a word etymologically related to the Dutch door,
“through,” the prominent idea being that of a “place to .
go through.”], the panel of wood or other material by which
the entrance of a house, etc. is opened or closed. Doors
are of different kinds, the most common being made to
move on hinges. Others, called sliding doors, are moved
on rollers. A trap-door opens vertically over a hole in a
roof or floor, while a jib-door is made even with the wall,
and concealed as nearly as possible. Doors are also made
of bronze, iron, and stone. -
In architecture, great attention has been paid to the or—
namentation of doors. Perhaps the finest example in the
U. S. of ornate doors is afforded in the bronze doors of the
old Representatives' Hall in the Capitol at Washington,
which were cast in Munich, and are covered with beautiful
historical and emblematic figures. -
Door, a county in the N. E. of Wisconsin, is a narrow
peninsula between Lake Michigan and Green Bay, and is
surrounded by water on all sides except the S. Area, 400
square miles. Grain and wool are the chief products.
Capital, Sturgeon Bay. Pop. 4919. -
Doo/ra, or Dhurra, called also Indian Millet (Sor-
ghwm vulgare), a kind of grain much cultivated in Asia,
Africa, and Southern Europe. The genus differs from
Andropogon in having hermaphrodite spikelets and glumes,
with three small teeth at the end. The species are mostly
tall, broad-leaved annual grasses, with large panicles, and
strong culms containing a sweet and juicy pith. The doora
(sometimes called jowaree in India) has grain somewhat
larger than mustard-seed; it yields abundant crops, and
the stalks and leaves are food for cattle and horses.
sugar-grass or Chinese sugar-cane (Sorghum saccharatum),
a sugar-producing plant, has been introduced into the U. S.
and cultivated with success. The Caffer corn (Sorghum.
Caffroyum) is chiefly valued as food for horses. The doora
grows well in the U. S., but has not been found profitable
for culture. -
Doorak’, a town of Persia, in Khoozistan, at the con-
fluence of the Doorak and Jerahi rivers, is about 200 miles
S. W. of Ispahan. It has manufactures of silk handker-
chiefs. Pop. about 8000. - •
Doorkeeper of the House of Representatives
of the U. S. At the commencement of each Congress a
doorkeeper is elected vivá voce, and he continues in office
until a successor is qualified. He takes the usual oath of
office, with the addition that he will keep the secrets of the
House. His general duties are those described as apper-
taining to the same officer in the Senate. He keeps hung
up at each entrance-door of the Representatives’ chamber
printed lists of those entitled to enter, so that visitors may
understand his duties and their privileges. The galleries
of both houses are open to all orderly people; the diplomatic
corps, the reporters, the ladies, and gentlemen without
them, having separate entrances and divisions assigned
them. His salary is $2592. (See GILLET, “Federal Gov-
ernment,” 1872.)
Doorkeeper of the Senate of the U. S. The
sergeant-at-arms of the Senate is, ea officio, doorkeeper to
that body, having an assistant doorkeeper to aid him in
performing his duties, and who, in fact, acts as doorkeeper.
He keeps the doors of the Senate, and announces from them
messages from the President and House of Representatives.
As doorkeeper he appoints superintendents of the folding-
room and document-room, messengers, pages, folders, and
laborers, and discharges various duties not enumerated in
the rules. He folds and distributes extra documents, fur-
nishes members with printed bills, reports, and other docu-
ments, conveys messages for members, and keeps the hall,
galleries, and committee-rooms in order. The assistant
doorkeeper's salary is $2592. (See GILLET, “Federal
Government,” 1872.) -
Doorn/boom (“thorn tree,” Acacia horrida), a tree
growing abundantly in South Africa, so named by the
Dutch on account of its sharp and numerous spines.
usual height is about thirty feet, and the wood is value
for building. - - - r . . . .
Doos/tee, a river of Beloochistan, enters the Arabian
Sea in lat. 25° 15' N., lon. 61° 50' E. It is nearly 900+miles
long, but is shallow in all parts of its course.
Dore, Mont, a group of high mountains in Auvergne,
France, in the department of Puy de Dôme. They are of
volcanic formation. The highest summit is the Pic de
Sancy, which has an altitude of 6190 feet.
Do/ra, a township of Moultrie co., Ill. Pop. 924.
Do/ra Balte'a (anc. Duria Major), a river of Italy, in
Piedmont, rises at the foot of the Little St. Bernard, and
enters the Po near Crescentino. Length, about 90 miles.
Dora/ma, a town of Arabia, in Nedjed, 30 miles N. E.
of Derayeh. The caravans moving between Persia and
The
Its
DORCAS SOCIETY—DORIC ORDER.
1391
Mecca halt here to obtain supplies. It was taken in 1818
by Ibrahim Pasha, who killed nearly all the inhabitants.
Pop. about 8000.
Dor/cas Soci’ety, a benevolent association of ladies,
usually of the same congregation, for the purpose of pro-
viding the poor with clothing. It is so called from Acts
ix. 39: “And all the widows stood by him weeping, and
showing the coats and garments which Dorcas made while
she was with them.”
Dor/chester (anc. Durnovaria and Durinum), a town
and parliamentary borough of England, the capital of Dor-
setshire, is on the river Frome and on the South Downs,
115 miles W. S. W. of London and 7 miles from the Eng-
lish Channel. It sends two members to Parliament. The
South-western Railway connects it with London on the
one hand and Weymouth on the other. Here are the re-
mains of the most perfect Roman amphitheatre in England,
218 feet long and 163 feet wide. Pop. in 1871, 6915.
Dorchester, a county of Canada, in the E. part of
Quebec, bordering on the State of Maine. It is partly
drained by the Chaudière River. Pop: in 1871, 17,779.
Dorchester, a river-port and capital of Westmoreland
co., New Brunswick, is on the Memracook River, near its
mouth, and on the Intercolonial Railway, 115 miles E. N. E.
of St. John. Large ships can ascend from the Bay of
Fundy to this place, which has an active trade. Gas-coal
and building-stone are largely exported. It has a court-
house, jail, and many fine buildings. Pop. including
Dorchester township, 5617.
Dorchester, a county in the S. E. of Maryland. Area,
about 770 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the
Chesapeake Bay, on the N. by the Choptank River, and on
the S. E. by the Nanticoke. Both of these rivers are
navigable. The surface is level; the soil productive.
Wheat, corn, fruit, timber, fish, and oysters are exported.
Capital, Cambridge. Pop. 19,458.
Dorchester, a former town of Norfolk co., Mass., on
Massachusetts Bay, 4 miles S. of Boston. It was annexed
in 1869 to the city of Boston, of which it forms the sixteenth
ward. It contains a national bank, and several paper-
mills, iron-foundries, and other manufactories.
Dorchester, a post-township of Grafton co., N. H.
It has manufactures of lumber and furniture. Pop. 689.
Dordogne, a department in the S. W. part of France,
has an area of 3545 square miles. It is drained by the
river Dordogne. The surface is diversified by hills, marshes,
and fertile valleys. The soil is generally sandy. Chest-
nuts and wine are among the staple productions. Here
are mines of coal, copper, and iron, and quarries of marble
and alabaster. It has manufactures of paper, brandy,
hosiery, and iron. Capital, Périgueux. Pop. in 1872,
480,141.
Dordogne, a river rising in the S. central part of
France, flows nearly westward through the departments of .
Corrèze, Lot, and Dordogne, and enters the Garonne 13
miles N. of Bordeaux. It is about 220 miles long, and is
navigable for 150 miles.
Dordrecht. See DoRT.
Doré (PAUL GUSTAve), a French painter and designer,
born at Strasburg Jan. 6, 1833. He was educated at Paris,
and in 1848 made his first public appearance as an artist
with some pen-and-ink drawings sent to the Salon. His
first successes were obtained by his paintings, chiefly of
landscape subjects, but in 1854 he illustrated an edition of
“Rabelais,” and in 1856 published a series of designs illus-
trating the story of the Wandering Jew, by which per-
formances the public attention was strongly directed to-
wards him. In the same year (1856) he illustrated an
edition of Balzac's “Contes Drolatiques,” which is the
work that shows all his powers in their fullest and freest
exercise. One would say that the stories were written for
the designs, so perfectly do these follow and reflect the au-
dacious indecencies of that most libertine of books. Mean-
while, Doré was making himself, known in a wider and
happier circle with his designs for Perrault’s “Fairy Tales”
(1861), “Don Quixote” (1863), the “Travels in the Py-
renees” of Taine (1859), which has just been translated
and published with Doré's designs in New York (1873),
and the “Fables” of La Fontaine (1867). These works
were suited to the artist's talent, but he overleaped the
saddle when his ambition led him to try to illustrate Dante
and the Bible. Though his designs for these works cre-
ated a wide interest, and it was felt that he showed a great
deal of facility and felicity in his inventions, yet it was
also felt that they were wholly inadequate, and they have
failed of any lasting success. Indeed, they were mere
publishers’ ventures, and of late years Doré has come to
be a mere hack worker. His “Rabelais,” however, pub-
lished in 1873, an enlarged issue of his early work, shows
him more at home in his proper field. In 1866–68 he was
laid hold of by English publishers, who persuaded him to
illustrate Tennyson’s “Idyls,” a work of whose very ex-
istence, and naturally, the Frenchman was ignorant, and
into the spirit of which he was powerless to enter. The
work was an unhappy failure. Doré is one of the most
prolific designers that ever lived, but it would be unfair to
conceal the fact that he owes much of his success to the
admirable wood-engravers who have translated him to the
public. In these successive publications Pisan and Du-
mont and Gauchard have created a new era in the art of
engraving on Wood. CLARENCE COOK.
Dorée [Fr. dorée, “gilded”], the name of several species
of fish of the genus Zeus. The one most common on the
British coasts is Zeus faber, commonly called john dory, a
corruption of the French jaume dorée (golden-yellow). Its
color is dusky-green, tinged with gold; the head is large,
and on each side of its body is a dark oval spot. It is
highly prized by epicures. -
Do/ria, the name of one of the four most noble and
powerful families of Genoa. It was attached to the Ghibel-
line party. In 1339 the families of Doria, Spinola, Gri-
maldi, and Fieschi, which had by their rivalry long troubled
the republic, were exiled.—PAGANINo DoRIA, a famous Gen-
oese admiral, gained a naval victory over the Venetian ad-
miral Pisani in 1352.
Doria (ANDREA), a celebrated Genoese admiral and
patriot, born at Oneglia Nov. 30, 1468, is called the restorer
of Genoese liberty. He entered the French navy about
1490, gained the rank of admiral, and commanded with
success the fleet of Francis I. in the war against Charles V.
In 1524 he defeated the imperial fleet near Marseilles. He
also captured Genoa, from which he expelled the Adorni.
In 1528 he abandoned the service of Francis I., and be-
came an ally and adherent of Charles W., on the condition
that Genoa should be a free and independent state. He
entered Genoa, in 1529, was welcomed by the citizens, and
gave them a free constitution, which remained in vigor
until the republic ceased to exist. He afterwards acted as
admiral in the service of the emperor, and gained a victory
over the Turks near Patras in 1532. In 1535 he contributed
greatly to the conquest of Tunis. Charles V. gave him
the title of prince of Melfi. Doria died without issue at
Genoa, Nov. 15, 1560. (See CARLo SIGONIo, “De Vita et
Gestis A. Doriae,” 1586; RICHER, “Wie d’André Doria,”
1789.) J
Do/rians [Gr. Aoptets], one of the four principal branches
or tribes of the ancient Hellenic people, claimed that they
were descended from Dorus, a son of Hellen. They are
supposed to have originally lived in Doris, from which they
migrated to the Peloponnesus, where they founded Sparta,
Argos, and Messenia. The migration of the Dorians to
the Peloponnesus, which is called the return of the Heraeli-
dae, and forms a celebrated epoch in ancient chronology, is
said to have occurred soon after the siege of Troy, in 1104
B. C. Dorian colonies were planted in Crete, Sicily, and
Asia Minor. The Dorians were the most powerful and
warlike of the Hellenic tribes. They used a peculiar dia-
lect, called the Doric. They surpassed the Ionians in
solidity and earnestness of character, but were less refined
and ingenious. (See K. O. MüLLER, “Die Dorier,” 2 vols.,
1824; 3d ed. 3 vols., 1844; CURTIUs, “History of Greece.”)
Dor’ic Di’alect, one of the principal dialects of the
ancient Greek language, took its name from the Dorians,
among whom it was the principal dialect-used. It was dis-
tinguished by its strength and the broadness of its sounds,
and was much less finished than the Attic and Ionic.
Doric Order, one of the orders of classic architecture,
takes its name from the Dorians, its possible inventors. It
is popularly considered the oldest of the Greek orders, but
. Fergusson, Viollet-le-Duc, and other scholars think the
Ionic or Ionian style was brought earlier from Asia into
Greece. However it may have been—whether the earlier
buildings were built of wood and, so perished, or whether
the style was simply abandoned for the severer Doric—it
is certain that the Greeks showed a marked preference for
the Doric, and used it in all the buildings of which we
have any knowledge from their remains, until the time
of the Roman conquest. The order is characterized by an
air of dignity and strength. The true Doric column rests
upon a stylobate of three courses, together equal to one in-
ferior diameter of the shaft, which is itself from four to six
diameters in height. Its superior diameter is three-fourths
of the inferior, the latter being the unit of measure. This
diminution is reached by an entasis or slight curve. Doric
columns generally have twenty shallow flutes, separated
by a sharp edge. The capital is about half a diameter in
height, composed of an abacus, resting upon an echinus
1892
DORIS-D'ORSAY.
of variable proportions. The columns incline slightly in-
wards towards, the main building. The architrave, frieze,
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and cornice were ornamented with simple yet beautiful
mouldings of various forms.
REVISED BY CLARENCE Cook.
Doºris [from the Gr. Aopts, the name of a daughter of
Nereus], a genus of marine gasteropodous mollusks belong-
ing to the section Nudibranchiata. They are found mostly
in southern seas, but several species are native on northern
coasts. They have an oval body; the mouth is a proboscis
with two tentacula, and the vent is encircled by branched
gills. They are sometimes called sea-lemons.
Do'ris [Aopts], a small district of ancient Greece, was
bounded on the N. by Thessaly, and on the other sides by
Locris, Phocis, and AEtolia. The surface is mountainous.
The people were called DoRIANs (which see).
an eparchy in the government of Phocis.--The name DoRIS
is also given by some ancient writers to that part of Caria
which was occupied by Dorian colonists and their de-
scendants. - -
:
|
i
|
*
Dor/mant [present part. of the Fr. dormir, to “sleep”],
in heraldry, a sleeping animal, with its head resting on its
fore paws, as a lion dormant.
Dormant Animals. See HYBERNATION.
Dor’mer [probably from the Fr. dormir (Lat. dormio,
dormire), to “sleep,” because it lighted sleeping apart-
ments], or Dormer Window, also written Dorment or
Dormar, a window inserted on the inclined pkane of the
roof of a house, the frame being placed nearly vertically
with the rafters. It is often used for the purpose of light-
ing the attic or garret of modern dwelling-houses.
Dorſmouse [a, contraction of dormant mouse, because
the animal is dormant in winter], a small rodent animal of
the genus Myoacis, regarded as a connecting link between
the Sciuridae (squirrels) and the Muridae (mice, etc.). Each
jaw contains four molar teeth on each side; there are no
cheek-pouches; each of the fore paws has four toes and a
rudimentary thumb; and they have five toes on the hind
feet. They have ears like mice; their fur is soft and fine,
and, the tail long. They are mostly natives of Southern
Europe. The muscardine or red dormouse (Myoacis avel-
lanarius) is the only British species. The fat dormouse
(Myoacis glis) is about the size of a rat, of a brown-gray
color, with a bushy tail. It is prized as food by the Italians.
The garden dormouse (Myoacis nitela) is found in the cen-
tral parts of Europe. It is often injurious to fruit trees.
They all remain dormant the greater part of the winter.
Dorn (JoHANN ALBRECHT BERNHARD), a German Orient-
Doris is now-
alist, born in Saxe-Coburg Mar. 11, 1805. He became in
1843 the chief librarian of the imperial library at St. Peters-
burg.
Dorn’birn, a town of Austria, in Tyrol, about 7 miles
S. of Bregenz, which is on Lake Constance. The men are
mostly carpenters, employed in the construction of wooden
houses, which are exported. It has manufactures of cotton
fabrics. Pop. in 1869, 8486.
Dor/mer (ISAAC AUGUST), D. D., an eminent Protestant
theologian, born in Würtemberg June 20, 1809. He was
educated at Tübingen, and became professor of theology at
Tübingen (1838), Kiel (1839), Königsberg (1840), Bonn in
1847, and at Berlin in 1857. He wrote, besides other works,
a “History of the Development of the Doctrine of the Per-
son of Christ” (1839), and an able work entitled “History
of Protestant Theology, especially in Germany” (1867).
He visited the U. S. in 1873 as a delegate to the meeting
of the Evangelical Alliance.
Dor/nic, Dornick, or Dor/mock [from Doornik,
I'lemish for Tournay], the name of a kind of figured linen
of coarse qualiiy, originally made at Tournay.
Dor’noch, a royal burgh of Scotland, capital of the
county of Sutherland, is on an inlet of the sea called
Dornoch Frith, 14 miles N. of Cromarty. It has an old
cathedral, which was restored by the duchess of Sutherland
in 1837. Pop. in 1871, 625. - y
Doºrogoboozh’, a town of Russia, in the government
of Smolensk, on the river Dnieper, about 55 miles E. N. E.
of Smolensk. The Russians here defeated the French in
Oct., 1812. Pop. 7865.
Dorosma, a town of Central Hungary, in Little Cu-
mania, 6 miles W. N. W. of Szeged. Pop. in 1870, 9688.
Dorp, a town of Prussia, in the Rhine province, on the
Wupper, has iron, steel, and paper factories. Pop. in 1871,
10,690.
Dor/pat, or Derpt [Russ. Yoorief], a town of Russia,
in the government of Livonia, is on the river Embach, 138
miles N. E. of Riga. It is well. built, and has a stone
bridge across the river. The old ramparts have been con-
verted into gardens and public promenades. Here Gus-
tavus Adolphus founded in 1632 a university which became
a large and celebrated institution. Nearly all the lectures
at the university are given in the German language, but .
the Russian government is making great efforts to substi-
tute the Russian for the German. Struve and Mädler have
successively directed the astronomical observatory of Dor-
pat, which their labors have made famous. The town has
a gymnasium. Dorpat was founded in 1030, became an im-
portant town, sank into decay, but revived at the beginning
of the last century. It was captured by the Swedes in 1625,
and by the Russians in 1704. Pop. 20,780. -
Dorr, a township of McHenry co., Ill. Pop. 2681.
Dorr, a township and post-village of Allegan co., Mich.,
on the Kalamazoo Allegan and Grand Rapids R. R., 18
miles S. of Grand Rapids. Total pop. 1518.
Dorr (BENJAMIN), D. D., was born at Salisbury, Mass.,
Mar. 22, 1796, graduated at Dartmouth in 1817, studied law
and then theology, was ordained to the Protestant Episcopal
ministry in 1820, was a rector in Länsingburg, Waterford,
and Utica, N.Y., general agent for the domestic committee
of the Board of Missions (1835–37), and afterwards rector
of Christ Church, Philadelphia. He published, besides
other works, “The Churchman’s Manual,” “Recognition
of Friends in Another World,” “Travels in Egypt, the
Holy Land,” etc. Died Sept. 18, 1869. r
Dorr (Thom(As WILLIAM), born at Providence, R.I., Nov.
5, 1805, graduated at Harvard in 1823, was a Democrat and
a leader of the suffrage party. Under the old charter the
right to vote was limited to men who possessed a certain
amount of real estate, and to their eldest sons. In 1841 the
suffrage party formed a new constitution, and chose Mr.
Dorr governor of the State. His official action was resisted
in May, 1842, by the government chosen according to the
old charter. Dorr was arrested, convicted of treason, and
sentenced to imprisonment for life, but he was pardoned in
1847. Died Dec. 27, 1854.
Dor/rance, a post-township of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop.
646.
Dor/relites, the followers of a man named Dorrel, who
lived in Leyden, Mass., and who claimed to be equal to
Christ and invulnerable; but having been soundly beaten
by one of his hearers, his congregation was at once dis-
persed. -
D’Orsay (ALFRED GUILLAUME GABRIEL), Count, a
French artist and leader of fashion, was born at Paris in
1798. He married a daughter of Lord Blessington in
1827, but subsequently separated from her, and became
—r-




















































I)ORSE—DOUBLE-ACTING PUMP.
1393
the intimate friend of Lady Blessington. His wit, man-
ners, amiability, and brilliant talents made him very pop-
ular in the society of London. Died at Paris Aug. 4, 1852.
Dorse (Morrhwa callarias), a fish sometimes called
—=—=
- *,
*Nº.4%/4
§
Dorse.
Baltic Cod, from the great numbers found in the north-
ern seas. It is less in size than the cod, and differs from it
also in having a longer upper jaw.
Dor'set, a county in the S. part of England, is bounded
on the N. by Somerset and Wiltshire, on the E. by Hamp-
shire, on the S. by the English Channel, and on the W. by
Devonshire. Area, 988 square miles. The surface is partly
hilly and occupied by chalk-downs. The chief rivers are
the Frome and the Stour. Among the mineral resources
are chalk, china clay, and the celebrated Portland building-
stone. The chalk-downs or hills produce fine pasture, on
which vast numbers of Southdown sheep feed. Dorset is
mainly a pastoral county, and exports cattle, sheep, butter,
and cheese. The chief towns are Dorchester (the capital),
Poole, Bridport, Weymouth, and Shaftesbury. Pop. in
1871, 195,544.
Dorset, a post-township of Ashtabula co., O. Pop. 372.
Dorset, a post-township of Bennington co., Vt., on the
Harlem Extension R. R., 22 miles S. of Rutland. It has
manufactures of lumber, marble, leather, boxes, tubs, etc.
Pop. 2195.
Dorset (CHARLEs Sackville), K. G., SIXTH EARL of,
an English courtier and wit, born in 1637, was a son of
Richard, the fifth earl of Dorset. He was brave, witty,
and generous, and had superior talents, but was indolent
and unambitious. His popular qualities rendered him
a general favorite. He was distinguished as a patron of
literary men, and bestowed his bounty with equal judgment
and liberality. Dryden was one of the authors who enjoyed
his bounty. Lord Dorset was appointed lord chamberlain
by William III. in 1689. He wrote several admired satires
and songs. Died Jan. 16, 1706.
Dorset (THOMAS Sackville), K. G., FIRST EARL OF, an
English statesman and poet, born in 1536. He wrote a
tragedy entitled “Gorboduc, or Ferrex and Porrex” (1561),
which was praised by Sir Philip Sidney, and also the “In-
duction to the Mirror for Magistrates.” He received the
title of Lord Buckhurst in 1566, and was sent as minister
to France in 1570. In 1599 he succeeded Lord Burleigh
as lord treasurer of England. He was afterwards created
earl of Dorset by James I. He died April 19, 1608, and
was succeeded by his son Robert.
Dor'sey (John SYNG), M. D., an American physician,
born in Philadelphia Dec. 23, 1783, was a nephew of Dr.
Physick. He studied in London and Paris, and became in
1813 professor of materia medica in the University of
Pennsylvania. He published “Elements of Surgery"
(1813), which was highly esteemed. Died Nov. 12, 1818.
Dort, also called Dor/drecht [Lat. Dordracum], a
fortified town of the Netherlands, in South Holland, is on
an island in the Meuse, 10 miles S. E. of Rotterdam. It
is traversed by canals, is accessible to large ships, and
has an active trade in grain, flax, timber, and salt fish.
Here are shipbuilding docks, sugar-refineries, saw-mills,
and manufactures of tobacco, white lead, etc. In 1421 a
terrible inundation destroyed seventy villages, and con-
verted the ground where Dort stands into an island. The
Synod of Dort met here in 1618, and condemned the doc-
trines of Arminius. Pop. in 1870, 25,359.
Dort/mund, a walled town of Prussia, in Westphalia,
on the Embscher and on the Cologne and Minden Rail-
way, 47 miles N. N. E. of Cologne. It has several fine
churches, three hospitals, a Protestant gymnasium, and
a realschule; also manufactures of cotton, linen and wool-
len fabrics, cutlery, and nails. It was a city of the Han-
seatic League, and was the chief seat of the Wehmic Court.
Its trade was nearly ruined by the Thirty Years’ war.
Dortmund was ceded to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna
in 1815. Pop. in 1871, 44,454.
Dort, Synod of [Lat. Synodus Dordracena], a great
2:#:=
- º:3:
* - EºP:E
- ###E
wº-F
synod of the Dutch national Church, convened at Dort
from Nov. 13, 1618, to May 9, 1619, consisting of 39 min-
isters, 18 ruling elders, and 5 professors, deputies from the
several states of the Netherlands, besides 24 foreign depu-
ties representing the Anglican and most of the
Calvinistic churches. The synod was convoked
by the States-General on account of the contro-
versies between the Gomarists (Calvinists) and
Remonstrants (Arminians). The synod was con-
zº vened in the Calvinistic interest, and there has
been much difference of opinion as to the fair-
:= mess of its proceedings. The principal work of
# the synod was the preparation of canons setting
" forth the Calvinistic doctrines, and the publica-
tion of an Ecclesiastical Censure against the Re-
monstrants, calling upon the civil power to en-
force the decrees of the synod by banishment, im-
prisonment, or fines imposed upon the refractory.
The canons are ably drawn up, and were officially received
by the Reformed churches of the Low Countries, France,
Switzerland, and the Palatinate, but were some years later
rejected by the Church of England. (See the official “Acta
Synodi,” 4to, 1620.)
Dosith/eams, the name of a Samaritan sect founded
by Dositheus in the first century after Christ. In the fourth
century there still remained a few Dositheans, who believed
their master to have been the true Messiah.
Dotis, or Totis, a market-town of Western Hungary,
in the county of Comorm, 37 miles W. N. W. of Pesth. It
has several Roman Catholic churches, a Synagogue, and a
gymnasium. Here is a splendid château of the Esterhazy
family, with extensive wine-vaults. Pop. in 1869, 9855.
Douai [Lat. Duacum], a fortified town of France, de-
partment of the Nord, on the river Scarpe and on the Rail-
way du Nord, about 21 miles S. of Lille. It is well built, has
several fine churches and hospitals, a theatre, an arsenal, a
botanic garden, a national college, and a Roman Catholic
college for the education of British Roman Catholics. Here
are manufactures of cotton stuffs, lace, gauze, paper, glass,
pottery, and soap. Douai existed in the time of Caesar. It
has often been besieged and taken by the French and Flem-
ings. Pop. 24,195.
Douai Bible, The, was translated by English Roman
Catholic divines connected first with the college at Rheims,
and afterwards with the college at Douai. According to
Dodd, the translators were Gregory, Martin, William Allen,
Richard Bristow, John Reynolds, and others. The New
Testament was published at Rheims in 1582. The Old
Testament, then already translated, was published at Douai
in 1609–10. Both Testaments were translated from the Vul-
gate. The annotations were quite copious, and intensely
Roman Catholic. Numerous editions have appeared, which
greatly vary both in the text and in the notes. An exact
reprint of the original Rheims New Testament was pub-
lished in New York in 1833. Of the original Douai Old
Testament there has been no exact modern reprint. (See
CoTTON, “Rhemes and Doway,” Oxford, 1855.)
Douarnenez, a town of France, in the department of
Finistère, 14 miles W. N. W. of Quimper. It has large
fisheries and a considerable coasting-trade. Pop. 5434.
Douay (CHARLEs ABEL), a French general, born in
1809, served in Algeria, in the Crimean war, and in 1859 in
Italy, where he distinguished himself at Solferino, became
in 1866 general of division, and 1869 inspector of the mili-
tary academy at St. Cyr. In the French-German war he
commanded the second division under MacMahon, and was
killed on Aug. 4, 1870, in the battle of Weissenburg.
Douay (FELIX), a French general, a brother of the pre-
ceding, born in 1816, served in Algeria, the Crimea, in the
Italian war, and as general of division in 1862 in Mexico.
In the war against Germany he commanded the seventh
army corps, was taken prisoner at Sedan, and having re-
turned to France in 1871, organized an army against the
insurgents in Paris. He was the first one to enter Paris
on the 22d of May. After the restoration of order he was
appointed to the command of the fourth army corps.
Doub (PETER), D. D., an eminent minister of the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church South, born in North Carolina Mar.
12, 1796. He joined the Virginia Conference in 1818. He
performed an immense amount of service in Virginia and
North Carolina. Many thousands were brought into the
Church by his ministry. He was a polemic of great power.
He was for three years before his death professor of biblical
literature in Trinity College, N. C. He died in Greensboro’,
N. C., Aug. 24, 1869. T. O. SUMMERs.
Double-acting Pump, a pump that lifts and forces
water alternately on each side of the course by means of
a solid piston or plunger, and an entrance and exit valve










88
1394
DOUBLE CONSCIOUSNESS—DOUGLAS.
communicating with each side.
BARNARD.
Double Consciousness, sometimes called Double
Personality, is a form of mental disease involving con-
fusion in the idea of personal identity. Persons with this
disorder are variously affected; some conceive that parts of
their frame belong to another person; others that they are
inhabited by another entity in addition to their own, and
which opposes itself to their will and interests; others ap-
pear to be possessed at one time of one personality, at
another of another, according to the mental or physical
conditions under which they are placed. In the last-named
form of the phenomenon neither consciousness has any
knowledge of the other, nor can the person affected remem-
ber in one state the events which happened during the other.
The phenomena of double consciousness have never received
a satisfactory explanation. (For some striking examples of
the last-named variety, see WAYLAND, “Intellectual Phil-
osophy.”) - -
Doub’le Dag'ger, in printing, a character marked
thus, i, used as a reference to marginal notes.
Doub’leday (ABNER), an American general, born in
Saratoga, co., N. Y., June 26, 1819, graduated at West
Point in 1842. He became a captain in 1855, and was one
of the garrison of Fort Sumter in April, 1861. It is stated
that he fired the first gun for the Union (April 12). He
commanded a division at Antietam, Sept. 17, 1862, and
obtained the rank of major-general of volunteers in No-
vember of that year. He served at Gettysburg, July 2 and
3, 1863.
Double-Eagle, a gold coin of the U. S. bearing the
figure of an eagle, and equivalent to twenty dollars in
value.
Double Refrac'tion, a phenomenon exhibited by
Iceland spar and several other crystals. A ray of common
light passing through them is divided into two polarized
rays, which take different directions and are refracted ac-
cording to different laws. (See REFRACTION and PoE ARIZA-
TION.)
Double Shoal, a post-township of Cleveland co., N. C.
Pop. 1410.
Double Stars, or Binary Stars. It was announced
in 1803 by Sir William Herschel that there exist sidereal
systems composed of two stars, one revolving around the
other, or both about a common centre. Subsequent observ-
ations have confirmed this discovery, and in some instances
the periods of revolution have been determined. Some of
these binary systems have periods of great length. The
period of 61 Cygni is supposed to be about 500 years, but
others have much shorter periods, and have been observed
through their entire orbits. The remarkable double star
called Castor, or a Geminorum, is easily separated by a mod-
erately good telescope. Sir J. Herschel computed its period
at 252 years. The star n Coronae completes a revolution in
about forty-three years. Some of the binary systems afford
curious instances of contrasted colors, the color of the smaller
star being complementary to that of the larger. In such
instances the larger star is usually red or orange, and the
smaller star blue or green. “It may be easier suggested in
words,” says Sir J. Herschel, “than conceived in imagi-
nation, what variety of illumination two sums—a red and a
green, or a yellow and a blue one—must afford a planet
circulating round either.” Catalogues containing several
thousand binary stars have been published by Struve and
others. -
Doub/ling Gap Springs, in Cumberland co., Pa., 30
miles W. of Harrisburg, are 8 miles from Newville, on the
Cumberland Valley R. R. A part of the springs have car-
bonated saline chalybeate waters, and others are saline sul-
phur springs. They are useful in a wide range of chronic
disease.
Doub’Iing the Cube, a geometrical problem of great
antiquity, the object of which was to find the side of a cube
containing twice as much as another given cube. Many
ancient geometers attempted its solution without success.
The problem was shown in its true light by the analytical
method introduced by Descartes. It is only a special
case of the solution of a cubic equation—a solution impos-
sible by the use of the circle and straight line, though it
may be represented by the intersection of two conic sec-
tions, one of which may be a circle. Descartes made use
of the parabola with the circle, which is the simplest method.
With numbers, the problem is only one of the extraction
of the cube root. If the side of a cube is one foot, its solid
content = 1 cubic foot. . The side of a cube containing
two cubic feet is 9/2 = 1.259921. -
Doubloom’ [Fr. doublon ; Sp. doblon, from doblar, to
“double”], a Spanish gold coin nearly equivalent to six-
teen dollars. It is the double of a pistole.
(See PUMP, by F. A. P.
Doubs (anc. Dubis), a river of France, rises in the Jura
Mountains, flows nearly south-westward through the de-
partments of Doubs and Jura, and enters the Saône at
Verdun-sur-Saône. Total length, about 250 miles. The
chief towns on its banks are Besançon and Dôle. It is
navigable to Dôle.
Doubs, a department in the E. part of France, border-
ing on Switzerland. Area, 2018 square miles. It is inter-
sected by the river Doubs. The surface is traversed by
several. ridges of the Jura. Mountains, which are covered
with forests of pine, walnut, and other trees. The soil of
the valleys is fertile, and produces good pasture. Here are
mines of coal and iron and quarries of marble. Among
the exports are cattle, horses, iron, and butter. Capital,
Besançon. Pop. in 1872, 291,251.
Dough/erty,’ a county in the S. W. of Georgia. Area,
300 square. miles. It is intersected by the Flint River.
The surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Cotton, corn,
and wool are the chief products. It is traversed by a branch
º º: Atlantic and Gulf R. R. Capital, Albany. Pop.
,517.
Doug’las, a seaport and the principal town of the Isle
of Man, is on the E. coast, 80 miles N. W. of Liverpool.
It stands on a picturesque bay, and has a harbor which
will admit vessels drawing ten or twelve feet of water. It
contains a custom-house, handsome villas, good hotels, and
baths. The excellence of its sea-bathing renders this an
important watering-place. Pop. 98.94.
Douglas, a county in the E. of Colorado. Area, 5500
square miles. It is partly drained by the South Fork of
the Platte and by Beaver Creek. The surface in the western
part is mountainous. Copper, iron, lead, and coal are
found here. It is intersected by the Kansas Pacific and
the Denver and Rio Grande R. Rs. It has great quantities
of pine timber. Grain, cattle, butter, and timber. are pro-
duced extensively. Capital, Franktown. . Pop. 1388.
Douglas, a county in the E. of Illinois. Area, 375
square miles. It is intersected by the Embarras and
Kaskaskia rivers. The surface is nearly level; the soil is
fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are raised. It is traversed
by the Chicago branch of the Illinois Central R. R. Cap-
ital, Tuscola. Pop. 13,484.
Douglas, a county in the E. part of Kansas, has an
area of 470 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the
Kansas River and intersected by the Wakarusa. The sur-
face is undulating; the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, tobacco,
wool, dairy products, hay, and potatoes are raised. Lime-
stone abounds here. This county contains large prairies.
It is traversed by the Leavenworth Lawrence and Galves-
ton, and other railroads. Capital, Lawrence. Pop. 20,592.
Douglas, a county in the W. of Minnesota. Area,
720 square miles. It contains numerous small lakes, the
outlet of which is Long Prairie River. The surface is
pleasantly diversified by prairies and groves. Grain, hay,
and dairy products are raised. Capital, Alexandria. Pop.
4239.
Douglas, a county in the S. of Missouri. Area, 648
square miles. It is drained by Bryant’s Fork and the
North Fork of White River. The surface is partly hilly.
Lead is found here. Grain, tobacco, and wool are the
chief products. Capital, Arno. Pop. 3915.
Douglas, a county in the E. of Nebraska. Area, 350
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Missouri
River, on the W. by the Platte, and intersected by the
Elkhorn River. The surface is undulating; the soil is
very fertile. Wheat, corn, and hay are important crops.
The manufacturing interests are important and varied.
Manufactories of clothing, jewelry, and bread were the
most numerous, according to the census of 1870. Lime-
stone abounds in it, and the scenery is very beautiful. It
is traversed by the Union Pacific R. R. Capital, Omaha.
Pop. 19,982. dº
Dougias, a county in the W. of Nevada, is bounded
on the W. by Lake Tahoe, which separates it from Califor-
nia. The surface is mountainous, and a granite mountain
called Job’s Peak rises here about 6000 feet. Gold and
silver are found. The county contains much good land.
Grain, hay, and stock are raised, and timber is sawed.
Capital, Genoa. Pop. 1215.
Douglas, a county in the S. W. of Oregon, is partly
bounded on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. It is intersected
by the Umpqua River and its forks. The Cascade Range
extends along the eastern border of this county, the surface
of which is mostly mountainous. The long valley of the
Umpqua is fertile, and is enclosed by ranges of grassy hills
which produce good pasture. Cattle, grain, fruit, hay,
wool, and dairy products are raised. It is intersected by
the Oregon and California R. R. Capital, Roseburg. Pop.
6066. -
DOUGLAS.
1395
Douglas, a county which forms the N. W. extremity
of Wisconsin. Area, 1350 square miles. It is bounded
on the N. by Lake Superior, and drained by the St. Croix,
which rises in it. The surface is hilly, and extensively
covered with forests of pine, oak, etc. Copper is found
here. Capital, Superior City. Pop. 1122.
Douglas, a township of Arkansas co., Ark. Pop. 760.
Douglas, a township of San Joaquin co., Cal. P. 1751.
Douglas, a post-village, eapital of Coffee co., Ga.,
about 120 miles W. S. W. of Savannah. -
Douglas, a township of Clark co., Ill. Pop. 555.
Douglas, a township of Effingham co., Ill. Pop. 3222.
Douglas, a township of Iroquois co., Ill. Pop. 2399.
Douglas, a township of Saline co., Ill. Pop. 1437.
Douglas, a township of Adams co., Ia. Pop. 333.
Douglas, a township of Appanoose co., Ia. Pop. 590.
Douglas, a township of Boone co., Ta. Pop. 879.
Douglas, a township of Bremer co., Ia. Pop. 587.
Douglas, a township of Clay co., Ia. Pop. 320.
Douglas, a township of Harrison co., Ia. Pop. 185.
Douglas, a township of Ida co., Ia. Pop. 61.
Douglas, a township of Madison co., Ia. Pop. 938.
Douglas, a township of Mitchell co., Ia. Pop. 282.
Douglas, a township of Montgomery co., Ia. P. 467.
Douglas, a township of Page co., Ia. Pop. 503.
Douglas, a township of Polk co., Ia. Pop. 613.
Douglas, a township of Sac co., Ia. Pop. 358.
Douglas, a township of Union co., Ia. Pop. 824.
Douglas, a township of Webster co., Ia. Pop. 513.
Douglas, a township of Jackson co., Kan. Pop. 1760.
Douglas, a township and post-village of Worcester
co., Mass., on the Boston Hartford and Erie R. R., 48 miles
S. W. of Boston. It has stone-quarries, a public library,
a weekly newspaper, five churches, and good water-power.
At East Douglas axes and edge-tools are extensively manu-
factured. Total pop. 2182.
Douglas, a township of Montcalm co., Mich. P. 215.
Douglas, a township of Dakota co., Minn. Pop. 707.
Douglas, a township of Douglas co., Neb. Pop. 174.
Douglas, a township of Nemaha co., Neb. Pop. 393.
Douglas, a township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 1072.
Douglas, a post-township of Montgomery co., Pa.
Pop. 1604. -
Douglas, a township of Clarendon co., S. C. Pop. 310.
Douglas, a township of Marquette co., Wis. Pop. 616.
Douglas, the name of an ancient noble family of Scot-
land which has produced many eminent men. The first
member of the family who appears on record was William
of Douglas, who lived about 1175–1200, and was succeeded
by his son Sir Archibald. Sir William, a grandson of Sir
Archibald, was a turbulent subject and the possessor of
extensive estates. He fought under Sir William Wallace
against the English in 1297. He was succeeded by his more
famous son, Sir James the Good, who is called the hero of
seventy fights, and was Robert Bruce's greatest captain.
He commanded a wing at Bannockburn in 1314. During
a journey to Palestine, to which he was carrying the heart
of Robert Bruce, he was killed by the Saracens in Spain in
1331. His estate was inherited by his brothers, Hugh and
Archibald, the latter of whom was slain at the battle of
FIalidon Hill in 1333. He left a son, Sir William, who,
having fought with distinction at Poitiers and other places,
was created earl of Douglas in 1357. He was a competitor
for the crown, but he agreed to recognize his rival, Robert
II., on the condition that his son James should marry a
daughter of that king. He had a second son, George, earl
of Angus. The earl of Douglas died in 1384, and was suc-
ceeded by his son James, earl of Douglas and Mar, who had
married Margaret, a daughter of Robert II. He was a re-
nowned warrior, and was killed at the battle of Otterburn
in 1388. As he left no lawful issue, Archibald the Grim,
a natural son of Sir James the Good, became the third earl
of Douglas. He died in 1400, leaving a son, Archibald, the
fourth earl, who married a daughter of King Robert III.
Douglas fought at Shrewsbury (1403), where he is said to
have unhorsed King Henry IV., and was killed at Verneuil
in France in 1424. He was succeeded by his son Archibald,
the fifth earl, who was also duke of Touraine (France).
Died in 1439. His son and heir, William, the sixth earl,
was born about 1422. His power and foreign possessions
rendered him an object of fear and suspicion to the court.
He was beheaded after a hasty trial, Nov. 24, 1440, and left
the third son of Archibald, fifth earl of Angus.
no issue. The earldom was then given to his grand-uncle
James, who died in 1443, and was succeeded by his son
William, the eighth earl, a powerful and turbulent person.
He was appointed lieutenant-general of the kingdom by
James II., but soon lost the royal favor. He was killed by
that king Feb. 22, 1452, and was succeeded by his brother
James, ninth earl of Douglas, who waged open war against
King James II. in 1454. He was defeated and taken pris-
oner in 1484, and died in 1488, when that branch of the
Douglas family became extinct. The earls of Angus and
earls of Morton, besides other noble lines, belonged to the
family of Douglas, which is now represented in the peer-
age by the earls of Selkirk. WILLIAM JACOBs.
Douglas (ARCHIBALD), fifth earl of Angus, surnamed
BELL THE CAT, was a son of George, the fourth earl, who
died in 1462. He (the son) was a powerful and ambitious
subject, and held the highest offices in the state. He was
the father of Gawin Douglas, the poet, and of other sons.
Died in 1514. His grandson Archibald became the sixth
earl of Angus, and married in 1514 Margaret, who was a
sister of Henry VIII. of England and widow of James IV.
of Scotland. He had a daughter, who became the wife of
the earl of Lennox and the mother of Lord Darnley. The
sixth earl died about 1660, and his title was inherited by
his nephew George, who was a brother of Regent Morton.
The eleventh earl of Angus was created marquis of Douglas.
in 1633. (See DAVID HUME, “History of the Houses of
Douglas and Angus,” 1644.) -
Douglas (DAVID), a Scottish botanist, born at Scone,
in Perthshire, in 1798. As an agent of the London Horti-
cultural Society he visited the U. S. in 1823 to collect bo-
tanical specimens. He returned to England in 1827, and
afterwards went on a scientific excursion to the Sandwich
Islands, where he was killed by a wild bull July 12, 1834.
Douglas (GAwIN), a Scottish poet, born in 1474, was
He was
educated for the Church, and became bishop of Dunkeld in
1515. His most remarkable production is a translation of
Virgil’s “AEneid” into Scottish verse (1513), which is high-
ly commended. His chief original poem is “The Palace
of Honor.” Died in 1522. p
Douglas (Sir HowARD), BART., D. C. L., G. C. B., a Brit-
ish general, born at Gosport, in Hampshire, July 1, 1776,
was a son of an admiral. He served in the Peninsular war
(1808–12), was governor of New Brunswick (1823–29), and
a member of Parliament for Liverpool (1842–47). In 1851
he was raised to the rank of general. He wrote, besides
other works, a “Treatise on Naval Gunnery” (1819), which
is regarded as a standard authority in foreign countries as
well as in England. Died Nov. 8, 1861.
Douglas (STEPHEN ARNOLD), one of the most eminent
of American statesmen in his day, was born at Brandon,
Rutland co., Vt., April 23, 1813. He was of poor but re-
spectable parentage. His father was a practising physician,
with prospects of success, but died suddenly of apoplexy
soon after the birth of the subject of this notice. His
mother, with another infant, a daughter, not yet two years
old, was thus left a widow, with means, in addition to her
own exertions, barely sufficient to support herself and her
two orphan children, without being able to give them more
than the rudiments of a good English education. At the
age of fifteen the son, with the consent of his mother, en-
gaged himself to work in the cabinetmaking business for
the purpose of raising means to carry him through college.
After a few years of labor in this trade he was able to enter
upon an academical course, first at Brandon, Vt., and then
at Canandaigua, N. Y. At the latter place he remained
until 1833, and took up the study of the law at the office
of the Messrs. Hubbel, and prosecuted this in connection
with his academic course. Early in 1833, before he was
twenty, his funds running low, he determined to abandon
further attempts at education, and to enter at once into
the conflicts of life with such acquisitions of knowledge as
he had then obtained and might be enabled afterwards to
obtain. After some wanderings in the Western States in
quest of a new home where his fortunes were to be tried,
he took up his abode at Jacksonville, Ill., where, after
teaching school for three months, he was admitted to the
bar, and opened an office in 1834. He rapidly rose in his
profession. Within a year from the time that he received
his license to practise he was elected attorney-general of
the State. Having been reared in the Jeffersonian School
Of polities, Mr. Douglas zealously espoused the Democratic
side on all public questions then agitated, and soon became
one of the most popular orators of his party in Illinois.
He was, at an early day in his political life, styled “The
Little Giant,” in allusion to his diminutive stature in
contrast with the extent and comprehensiveness of his
intellectual powers. In 1835 he resigned his position as
attorney-general upon his being elected a member of the
I)OUGLAS.
State legislature. In 1841 he was chosen one of the judges
of the supreme court of the State. This position he re-
signed in 1843 to take a seat in the House of Represent-
atives of the Congress of the U. S. His début on this
elevated arena was upon the bill to refund to Gen. Jackson
the fine of $1000 imposed by Judge Hall in New Orleans
during the war of 1812. His first speech placed him high
in the ranks of the most promising young men of mark of
that period. On all questions of constitutional law he at
once took position among the ablest members of the House,
in which then figured, as they had for years before, such
men as Daniel D. Barnard, Alexander Dromgoole, Joseph
R. and Charles J. Ingersoll, Garrett Davis, Robert C.
Winthrop, R. Barnwell Rhett, Henry A. Wise, and John
Quincy Adams, to say nothing of many others of the illus-
trious compeers of these acknowledged leaders, who were
then making such a deep impress upon the history of the
country. Mr. Douglas was among the most zealous, as
well as the most efficient, advocates of the admission of
Texas as a State into the Union by joint resolution of both
houses of Congress. He sustained the constitutionality of
the measure in a speech of great power and effect. He
defended that feature of the resolutions known as the ex-
tension of the line of the “Missouri Compromise,” simply
as a pledge of his adherence to the principle of a division
of the public domain between the two great sections of the
country, North and South, as it had been tendered by the
North and accepted by the South in 1820. As an original
question Mr. Douglas did not believe that Congress had
any rightful power to impose an anti-slavery restriction
upon any of the Territories or States of the Union; but
being willing to abide by the principle of division as es-
tablished in 1820 as to the Louisiana acquisition, he was
for its reaffirmance in 1845 as to the new acquisition then
to be made on the acceptance by Texas of the terms pro-
posed for her admission into the Union. He was also one
of the ablest supporters of the administration of President
Polk during the war which ensued with Mexico.
When Mr. David Wilmot of Pennsylvania, in Aug., 1846,
moved his celebrated “Proviso " for slavery restriction to
any new territory that might be acquired from Mexico in
a treaty of peace, Mr. Douglas was one of five only in the
House, from the entire North, who took decided position
against that measure. He did it for the same reason and
upon the same principles that Mr. Jefferson acted on when,
though then in private life, he spoke and wrote against a like
restriction upon the Louisiana Territory, when it was pro-
posed in Congress in 1818–19. Mr. Douglas, like Mr. Jeffer-
son, was opposed to African slavery, but, like him, he main-
tained that the Congress had no constitutional power to
impose the restriction. The internal polity and domestic
institutions of the several States composing the Union
were subjects, in his judgment, over which the Federal
legislative authority did not extend under the limitations
of the Constitution.
further extension of the “Missouri Compromise” line, so
called, and in many speeches, with most patriotic fervor,
urged the adoption of this policy.
In all the subsequent agitation. of this question the
speeches of Mr. Douglas, while he remained in the House,
were clear, earnest, and masterly. In 1847 he was elected
to the Senate for a full term of six years. In that body he
was no less distinguished than he had been in the House.
No man in the Senate, not excepting Mr. Clay or Mr.
Webster, acted a more conspicuous part than he did in
what is known as the “Compromise ’’ or adjustment of the
sectional questions of 1850. While the success of this com-
promise is generally attributed to the lead and auspices
of Mr. Clay, yet it is due to Mr. Douglas to state that Mr.
Clay’s celebrated “Omnibus Bill,” so called, which pro-
vided for the settlement of the five great questions of dis-
content, as stated by him, was made up of several distinct
bills on the same subject previously introduced by Mr.
Douglas. The full and minute history or nature of that
compromise it is not proposed to give in this connection;
suffice it to say that no one acted a more important and
efficient part in effecting it than did Mr. Douglas, and that
it was based throughout upon what he had ever main-
tained to be the true constitutional principles of the gov-
ernment. In 1852 he was again elected to the Senate
for another full term. In 1854, when, as chairman of the
committee on territories, he introduced bills for the organi-
zation of governments in the Territories of Kansas and
Nebraska, the whole subject of slavery agitation in the
Territories was again renewed, and with increased fierce-
ness. The policy and provisions of these bills, he main-
tained by argument and eloquence seldom surpassed, were
in strict accordance with the principles established by the
territorial policy adopted in 1850. Under his lead the
Kansas-Nebraska bill was triumphantly carried in the
Senate, on the grounds that the principle of a division of
more which are.
He was still willing to abide by a
the public domain between the sections by the Missouri or
any other line had been totally abandoned by the adjust-
ment of 1850, and the principle of non-intervention by
Congress anywhere in the Territories substituted in its
stead. On the like ground it was triumphantly carried in
the House, and constitutes what is known as the “Terri-
torial legislation of 1854.” Mr. Douglas's views of the
rights of the people of a Territory under the Constitution
of the U. S. gave rise to what is styled the doctrine of
“squatter sovereignty,” for which he was assailed quite as
bitterly at the South as at the North. It is not the pur-
pose of this notice to go into any elaboration on this point.
His doctrine, briefly stated, was, that the inestimable right
of local self-government was the seminal principle from
which all American free institutions sprung; it was on this
that each of the original thirteen colonies had been planted;
and that it was for the maintenance of this sovereign right
on the part of the peoples of the several States of the Union
that their independence had been declared and their first
confederation entered into. With Mr. Jefferson and all
strict constructionists, Mr. Douglas held that the Federal
government possessed no inherent powers, and could exer-
cise none except those delegated by the States; that the
delegated powers are specific and enumerated in the Con-
stitution; and that Congress cannot rightfully exercise any
power which is not thus enumerated or incident to some or
The power conferred upon Congress in
the Constitution, “to dispose of and make all needful rules
and regulations respecting the territory or other property
belonging to the U. S.,” he, with the Jeffersonian school
generally, maintained referred to the territory as land or
public domain only, and carried with it no power whatever
for the government of the inhabitants thereof. The Terri-
tories, with their inhabitants, politically considered, he
regarded as inchoate States, and bearing towards the gov-
ernment of the Union a relation not unlike, in many re-
spects, that which the colonies bore towards the mother-
country. The great right of local self-government belonged
equally to both. This is a brief outline of what he styled
popular sovereignty in the Territories. His views at large
upon it are to be found, not only in numerous speeches in
the House and Senate during a period of many years, but
in a very compact and condensed form in “Harper's Maga-
zine” of Sept., 1859. This article was republished in
pamphlet form, and extensively circulated. It consisted
of forty pages, and, however it may have been regarded by
extreme partisans of either side at the period of its publi-
cation, it unquestionably presents an argument which
every student of American history may read with both in-
terest and profit. Among American state papers it is en-
titled to rank with Madison's celebrated report on the
Virginia resolutions of 1799. In 1858, Mr. Douglas was
again re-elected to the Senate for another full term, after
one of the fiercest and bitterest contests ever before waged
in the U. S. for a similar position. At this time he suc-
cessfully breasted all the combined powers of the opposing
party, then styled Republican, under the lead of Mr. Lin-
coln, his competitor, and that of the Democratic adminis-
tration at Washington, under the patronage of Mr. Buch-
anan, the President. -
As early as 1852 the name of Mr. Douglas had been
brought prominently before the Democratic nominating
convention at Baltimore as a candidate for the presidency,
but, at his own instance, was not pressed by his friends. In
1856, it was again, in like manner, presented to the Cincinnati
Convention, but as soon as he discovered that Mr. Buchanan
had a majority in that body he gave positive instructions to
his friends in that convention, by telegram from Washington,
to withdraw his name, and not to allow it to be used in any
contest for the nomination under the two-thirds rule. The
platform of political principles which had been adopted
there before the subject of nominating candidates had been
taken up was just such as had governed the whole of his
public life, and he gave Mr. Buchanan a cordial support
upon his endorsement of them. In 1860, after his triumph-
ant return to the Senate at his last election, he was the most
prominent candidate of the Democracy of the U. S. for the
presidential nomination at the convention held that year
in Charleston, S. C., and very probably would have re-
ceived it by a two-thirds vote but for the withdrawal of
the delegates of the States of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida,
Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and a majority of
those from Georgia. On the withdrawal of these delega-
tions the friends of Mr. Douglas moved and carried an ad-
journment of the convention, to reassemble at Baltimore
on a subsequent day. This was done with a view that the
Democratic party, in the mean time, in the several States,
might fill the seats made vacant in the convention by the
withdrawing delegates. The object failed of accomplish-
ment. On the reassembling of the convention another
withdrawal of delegations took place. These now met in
DOUGLASS—DOUGLASTOWN.
another part of the city and put in nomination for the
presidency John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky. The Demo-
cratic party of the Union was thus irreconcilably torn asun-
der. Those who adhered to the regularly called conven-
tion, which had first met at Charleston, and had adjourned
to Baltimore, constituted the larger portion. This body
now unanimously put the name of Mr. Douglas in nomina-
tion for the presidency, though against what was known to
be his wishes. The presidential canvass this year was per-
haps the most exciting that had ever occurred since that
between Mr. Jefferson and the elder Adams in 1800. Four
tickets for President and Vice-President were in the field
—Lincoln and Hamlin, supported by the Republicans; Bell
and Everett, supported by those styling themselves the
American party; Douglas and Johnson, supported by one
wing of the Democracy, and Breckenridge and Lane, sup-
ported by the other. The chief objection to Mr. Douglas
on the part of his former Democratic associates, who re-
fused to support him, was what was called his squatter-
sovereignty doctrine. The result of the election, by the
popular vote, was, for Lincoln and Hamlin, 1,857,610; for
Douglas and Johnson, 1,365,976; for Breckenridge and
Lane, 847,953; and for Bell and Everett, 590,631. The
result by the college of electors, however, was very different.
By this Messrs. Lincoln and Hamlin received 180 votes;
Messrs. Breckenridge and Lane, 72; Messrs. Bell and
Everett, 39; Messrs. Douglas and Johnson received 12
only.
The great events of 1861 followed in rapid succession.
Mr. Douglas was spared their full development. He died
after a short illness, at his residence in Chicago, on the 3d
of June, 1861, soon after reaching the 48th year of his
age. On the 15th of March, a little over two months before
his death, and after seven of the Southern States had passed
their ordinances of secession, in view of the then threaten-
ing prospect of affairs, he spoke, in the Senate, at great
length on the general state of the country, and in the
course of his remarks used these words in addressing the
Republican side: “In my opinion, we must choose, and
that promptly, between one of three lines of policy: 1.
The restoration and preservation of the Union by such
amendments of the Constitution as will ensure the domestic
tranquillity, safety, and equality of all the States, and thus
restore peace, unity, and fratermity to the whole country.
2. A peaceful dissolution of the Union by recognizing the
independence of such States as refuse to remain in the
Union without such constitutional amendments, and the
establishment of a liberal system of commercial and social
intercourse with them by treaties of commerce and amity.
3. War, with a view to the subjugation and military occu-
Fº of those States which have seceded or may secede
rom the Union. I repeat, that in my opinion you must
adopt and pursue one of these three lines of policy. The
sooner you choose between them, and proclaim your choice
to the country, the better for you, the better for us, the
better for every friend of liberty and constitutional govern-
ment throughout the world. In my opinion, the first prop-
osition is the best, and the last the worst.”
Soon after the fleet sailed from New York to provision
the garrison in Fort Sumter, “peaceably if possible, but
forcibly if necessary.” After the fall of that garrison, Mr.
Douglas, in Springfield, Ill., and at other places, made
speeches in which he sustained Mr. Lincoln's call for 75,000
troops to defend the Federal Capital. The last intelligible
words uttered by him were a message to his sons, Robert
and Stephen, then at college, “to obey the laws and sup-
port the Constitution of the U. S.”
Mr. Douglas was twice married. His first wife was Miss
Martin of North Carolina. She was the mother of his two
sons referred to, who were his only surviving children. His
second wife was Miss Cutts, a most beautiful and accom-
plished lady of Washington City. By her he left no child.
As a debater Mr. Douglas was never overmatched, either
in the House or Senate. His death at the time was regarded
in all sections as a great public calamity. However widely
many differed with him on some questions, all acknowledged
his very great ability, while very few, if any, seriously ques-
tioned either his integrity or patriotism.
- ALEXANDER. H. STEPHENs.
Doug’lass, a county in the N. W. of Georgia, consti-
tuted since the census of 1870. It contains about 450
square miles, and is bounded on the S. E. by the Chatta-
hoochee River. Capital, Douglassville.
Douglass (DAVID BATEs), an eminent American civil
and military engineer, born at Pompton, N. J., Mar. 21,
1790, graduated at Yale College Sept. 18, 1813, and Oct. 1,
1813, was appointed a second lieutenant in the corps of en-
gineers U. S. A. He entered upon duty at West Point as
commander of sappers and miners, and was later commander
of the post. In the war with Great Britain he commanded
1397.
in 1814 his company of sappers and miners on the northern
frontier; participated in the battle of Niagara and siege of
Fort Erie, followed by the memorable sortie from that work
Sept. 17, 1814, breaking the enemy's lines and compelling
him to retire. For “distinguished and meritorious ser-
vices in superintending the construction of defensive
works, in command of battery, etc.,” on this occasion, he
was promoted first lieutenant and brevet captain. Qn the
close of the war he returned to West Point, 1815, and dur-
ing the subsequent fifteen years was variously engaged as
professor of natural and experimental philosophy, of
mathematics, and of engineering, till 1831, when he re-
signed to enter upon the profession of civil engineering.
During these years he was engaged upon important in-
spections, surveys, and estimates for important canals and
other works of internal improvement. He was also astro-
nomical surveyor of the commission for determining the
U.S. boundary from Niagara to Detroit in 1819; was con:
sulting engineer of the board of commissioners of internal
improvements of Pennsylvania. , Having become greatly.
interested in the introduction of inclined planes into ope-
ration in place of locks for canal navigation, and having
accepted from the Morris Canal Company the appointment
of chief engineer of the same, which duty he found required
all his time, his sense of duty led him to resign his position
in the army Mar. 1, 1831; he was at once appointed chief
engineer of the Morris Canal Co., and devoted himself en-
tirely to the improvement with which he had become iden-
tified. The inclined plane proved a success. In Oct., 1880,
a trial of the plane at Montville was made, and in six
minutes and a half a boat containing 200 persons passed
a plane 1040 feet long, with a descent of 70 feet, and ad-
vancing 770 feet. The canal was carried forward to a
successful completion in 1832. During this year he was
appointed professor of natural philosophy, and civil en-
gineering in the University of the City of New York, but
relinquished this position in 1833, though his name was
continued on the rolls of the college as professor of civil
engineering and architecture till 1840. In 1833 he sur-
veyed the Brooklyn and Jamaica. R. R., Long Island; was
one of the engineers of the Croton Aqueduct from 1833 to
1835, during which time he made the surveys, plans, and
estimates for supplying the city of New York with water
from the Croton River, the entire duty falling upon him
in consequence of other professional engagements which
occupied the entire time of the engineer named in connee-
tion with Major Douglass. His report showed so clearly the
practicability of the project that the necessary legislation
to procure its execution was obtained in May, 1834, and
Major Douglass as chief engineer completed his plans and
laid out the line of the aqueduct until Oct., 1836, at which
date, owing to difference of views which existed between
himself and the board of commissioners, he was removed;
but his reports and surveys were adopted and followed in
the construction of that important work. . From 1837 to
1840, in addition to other duties, he was chief engineer of
Greenwood Cemetery, which he planned and the location
of which he selected; his engineering ability as well as his
artistic taste and skill are shown in the present develop-
ment of that beautiful city of the dead. In 1840 he re-
signed his superintendence of Greenwood to accept the
presidency of Kenyon College, 0., with which institution
he remained till 1844, when he returned to New York, and
was engaged until 1848 as chief engineer to plan and lay
out the Albany and Quebec cemeteries; in important en-
gineering work at Brooklyn, such as providing for a sup-
porting wall for Brooklyn Heights, the supplying of that
city with water, etc., and in developing the landscape fea-
tures of Staten Island. In 1848 he accepted a call from
Geneva College, N. Y., as professor of mathematics, which
position he retained during the remainder of his life.
Died at Genevå, N. Y., Oct. 9, 1849. At the request of the
cemetery board his remains were removed to Greenwood
Cemetery. G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Engineers.
Douglass (FREDERICK), an American orator, originally
a slave, was born in Talbot co., Md., about 1817. He
learned to read and write by stealth, ran away from his
master in 1838, and became a resident of New Bedford,
Mass. In 1841 he began to give public lectures against
slavery. He gained distinction as a public speaker, pub-
lished his “Autobiography ’’ in 1845, and visited England,
where he made eloquent anti-slavery speeches. He after:
wards became the editor of the “North Star,” a journal
published at Rochester, N. Y. In 1870 he began to edit
the “National Era.” In 1872 he was the first in the list
of presidential electors chosen by the Republican party of
the State of New York.
Doug’lassville, a post-village, capital of Douglass co.,
Ga., about 30 miles W. of Atlanta.
Doug/lastown, a port and post-village of Northumber-
w
1398
DOUR—DOVER, STRAIT OF.
land co., New Brunswick, on the N. bank of the Miramichi,
3 miles above Chatham and 3 miles below Newcastle. It
saws and ships large amounts of lumber. Pop. about 400.
Dour, a town of Belgium, department of Hainaut, 9
miles W. S. W. of Mons. It derives its prosperity from
mines of coal and iron, iron-works, weaving, and bleach-
ing. Pop. 8501.
Dou’ro [Sp. Duero ; anc. Durius], a large river of
Spain and Portugal, rises in Old Castile, in the province
of Soria. It flows generally westward through the prov-
inces of Walladolid and Zamora until it touches the N. E.
extremity of Portugal. It next runs south-westward, and
forms part of the boundary between Spain and Portugal.
Resuming a westward direction, it traverses the northern
part of Portugal, and enters the Atlantic 3 miles below
Oporto. Its total length is nearly 500 miles. Rocks, sand-
banks, and the rapid current render its navigation difficult.
Dove (in natural history). See PIGEON.
Dove [supposed to be derived from a root akin to “dive;”.
Lat. columba, Ger. Taube]. The dove in Christian art is
used as a symbol of purity and an emblem of the Holy
Spirit. Issuing from the lips of dying Saints and martyrs,
it represents the soul purified by suffering. Holding in its
mouth an olive branch, it is the emblem of peace. In
Catholic churches the pyx or ciborium containing the Host
is sometimes in the form of a dove.
Do’ve (HEINRICH WILHELM), an eminent German phys-
icist, born at Liegnitz, in Silesia, Oct. 6, 1803, graduated
at the University of Berlin in 1826. He became professor
of physics in that university in 1829, after which he made
researches into the laws of climate and atmospheric phe-
momena. He published, besides other works on meteorology,
electricity, etc., “Meteorological Researches” (1837), “On
Electricity’ (1848), and a “Treatise on the Distribution
of Heat on the Surface of the Globe,” which was published
in 1853 by the British Association.
Dove (RICHARD WILHELM), an eminent German jurist,
son of the preceding, born in Berlin in 1833, became in
1859 privatdocent at the University of Berlin, in 1862
professor at the University of Tübingen, in 1865 at Kiel,
and at 1868 at Göttingen. In 1871 he was elected to the
German Reichsrath, where he votes with the national lib-
eral party. He began in 1860 the publication of the
“Zeitschrift für Kirchemrecht,” the leading periodical in
Europe on all questions relating to church law, of which
he has ever since remained the chief editor.
Do’ver (anc. Dubris), a city and seaport of England,
in the county of Kent, on Dover Strait, 66 miles E. S. E.
of London and 27 miles from Calais, in France. It is
the point in England that is nearest to the Continent,
and is the terminus of the South-eastern Railway. It
stands at the entrance of a deep depression in an amphi-
theatre of chalk-hills and cliffs. This city is defended by
Dover Castle, which is built on chalk-cliffs 320 feet high,
and is a fortress of great strength and extent. This castle
is said to have been founded by the ancient Romans. Dover
contains a custom-house, a town-hall, a theatre, and a mili-
tary hospital. The harbor is protected by a stone pier built.
of solid masonry, 60 feet wide, and extending about 1800
feet into the sea. Dover is the chief port of communication
between England and France, and is only 21 miles distant
from the nearest part of the Continent. Steamers ply daily
between this port and Boulogne and Calais. Dover returns
two members to Parliament, and is one of the Cinque Ports.
A submarine cable was laid from Dover to Calais in 1850.
Pop. in 1871, 28,270. (See BREAKWATER, by GEN. J. G.
BARNARD, U. S. Army.) -
Dover, a post-township and village, capital of Pope
co., Ark, about 90 miles N. W. of Little Rock. Pop. of
township, 1063. -
Dover, the capital of the State of Delaware and seat
of justice of Kent co., is on the Délaware R. R., 48 miles
S. of Wilmington and about 5 miles W. of Delaware Bay.
It has a State-house, with a State library containing 30,000
volumes, 6 churches, 1 national bank, 1 State bank, 1 weekly
newspaper, 2 fruit-packing houses, 2 steam saw-mills, 1
large water, and steam flouring-mill, sash and fruit—crate
factory, gasworks, 1 foundry, 1 carriage manufactory, 2
public schools, 3 select schools, and 1 Methodist Episcopal
academy for boys. It is the centre of a great fruit-grow-
ing section. Pop. 1906; of Dover hundred, 6394.
ED. “DELAWAREAN.”
Dover, a post-township of Bureau co., III. Pop. 1402.
Dover, a township of Fayette co., Ia. Pop. 1150.
Dover, a post-township of Shawnee co., Kan. Pop. 611.
Dover, a post-village of Mason co., Ky., 12 miles below
Maysville. A large quantity of tobacco and hemp is ex-
ported from this place. Pop. 532.
Dover, a post-village, capital of Piscataquis co., Me.,
on the Piscataquis River and the Bangor and Piscataquis
R. R., 53 miles N. W. of Bangor. It has one weekly news-
paper, a heavy trade, and manufactures of woollens. Pop.
of Dover township, 1983.
Dover, a township and post-village of Norfolk co.,
Mass. Here are three churches and a paper-mill. Pop.
of township, 645.
JDover, a township and village of Lenawee co., Mich.,
on the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern R. R., 5 miles
W. of Adrian. Pop. 1494.
Dover, a township of Monongalia co., Minn. Pop. 266.
Dover, a township and village of Olmsted co., Minn.
Pop. 822. -
Dover, a post-township of Lafayette co., Mo. Pop. 2251.
Dover, a handsome town, capital of Strafford co., N. H.,
is on Cocheco River and on the Boston and Maine R. R., 68
miles N. of Boston and 12 miles N. W. of Portsmouth. The
Dover and Winnipiseogee R. R. connects it with Alton Bay,
and the Dover and Portsmouth R. R. connects it with the .
last-named place. It is at the head of sloop-navigation
and at the lower falls of the river, which has here a fall of
thirty-two feet and affords abundant water-power. It con-
tains a city-hall, ten or more churches, three national
banks, one daily and four weekly newspapers, and one
monthly publication. The printing establishment of the
Free Baptist denomination is also located here, which
issues two semi-monthly juvenile papers, denominational
and Sunday-school books, etc. It has an efficient public
high school, a flourishing private academy, and a city
library of considerable value. Here are four large cotton-.
mills and an extensive printery belonging to the Cocheco
Manufacturing Company. Dover has also manufactures
of shoes, woollen cloths, flannels, oil-cloths, glue, etc. It
was founded in 1623, and is the oldest town in the State.
Pop. 9294. GEORGE T. DAY, ED. “MoRNING STAR.”
Dover, a post-village of Morris co., N.J., on the Mor-
ris Canal, the Rockaway River, and the Morris and Essex
R. R., 33 miles W. N. W. of Newark. It has several iron-
forges, iron-foundries, steel-works, spike-factories, and roll-
ing-mills; also one weekly newspaper, and one national
bank.
Dover, a township of Ocean co., N. J. It contains
Tom’s River, the capital of the county. Pop. 3044.
Dover, or Dover Plaims, a post-village of Dutchess
co., N. Y., on the New York and Harlem R. R., 78 miles
N. N. E. of New York. It has a national bank and one
weekly newspaper. The township has five churches, mar-
ble-quarries, iron-mines, and much fine scenery. Pop. of
Dover township, 2279.
T} over, a township and post-village of Craven co., N. C.,
on the Atlantic and North Carolina R. R., 24 miles W. of
Newbern. Pop. 2206.
Dover, a township of Athens co., O. Pop. 1697.
Dover, a township and post-village of Cuyahoga co., 0.
Pop. 1445. - f
Dover, a township of Fulton co., O. Pop. 930.
Dover, a township of Tuscarawas co., O., contains the
village of CANAL Dov ER (which see). Pop. of township,
3515. - -
Dover, a township of Union co., O. Pop. 929.
Dover, a township and post-borough of York co., Pa.
Pop. of township, 2281; of borough, 418.
Dover, a post-village, capital of Stewart co., Tenn., on
the Cumberland River, 75 miles W. by N. from Nashville,
and 1 mile E. of Fort Donelson. It has one weekly news-
paper, and a national cemetery a quarter of a mile W. of
Dover. Pop. 430. JAMES P. FLOOD, ED. “WEEKLY RECORD.”
Dover, a post-township of Windham co., Vt. It has
manufactures of lumber, tubs, kegs, etc. Pop. 635.
Dover, a township of Goochland co., Va. Pop. 3667.
Dover, a township and village of Racine co., Wis., on
the Western Union R. R., 21 miles W. of Racine. P. 1047.
Dover Hill, a post-village, capital of Martin co., Ind.,
92 miles S. S. W. of Indianapolis.
Do’ver’s Pow’der [named from Dr. Dover, its in-
ventor, an English physician], (Pulvis Ipecacuanhae et Opii),
consists of ipecacuanha and opium in fine powder, sixty
grains each ; sulphate of potassa, a troy ounce: rubbed to-
gether to a very fine powder. Dover's powder acts as a
sudorific, and where the brain is unaffected and the tongue
and skin moist, is of great service. Its composition now
differs considerably from that given in Dover’s formula.
Dover, Strait of [Fr. Pas de Calais; Lat. Fretum Gal-
licum], the strait which separates England from France,
and connects the English Channel with the North Sea. It
* - DOVEEFIELD–DOWNE.
1399
is about twenty miles wide at the narrowest part. The
depth varies from six to twenty-nine fathoms. The Eng-
lish side of the strait is bordered by chalk-cliffs, some of
which are about 600 feet high. Chalk-cliffs also occur on
the French shore.
Dov/refield, a mountainous plateau in Norway, form-
ing the northern end of the central mass of the Scandina-
vian system. It extends along the N. side of the Rauma
Valley, which separates it from the Langfjeld plateau, to the
sources of the Lougen, and thence N. E. to those of the Glom-
men. Its highest peak is the Sneehaettan, 7613 English
feet, formerly considered the highest in Scandinavia.
Dow, or Douw (GERARD), a celebrated Dutch painter,
born at Leyden April 17, 1613, was a pupil of Rembrandt.
He excelled in chiaroscuro and in technical skill, and fin-
ished his works with excessive delicacy. Among his works,
which are small in dimensions, are “The Charlatan,” “The
Dropsical Woman,” “The Dentist,” and “The Village
Grocer.” He died in Feb., 1675.
Bow (LoRENzo), an eccentric Methodist preacher, born
in Coventry, Conn., Oct. 16, 1777. He labored in many
States of the Union, and also in England and Ireland. He
as distinguished for his courage and zeal, and for some
singularities in his habits. Died Feb. 2, 1834.
Dow (NEAL), a reformer, born at Portland, Me., in
1803. As a member of the legislature of that State he pro-
cured in 1851 the passage of a law to prohibit the sale of
ardent spirits, which is called the “Maine law.” He be-
came a brigadier-general of Union volunteers early in 1862,
and was taken prisoner near Port Hudson in July, 1863.
Dow’ager [Fr. douairière, from douaire, a “dower”],
a widow endowed; that is, who either enjoys a dower from
her deceased husband, or has property of her own brought
by her to her husband on marriage, and settled on herself
after his decease. This is called her dowry. In England
the queen-dowager, as the widow of the king, enjoys most
of the privileges which belonged to her as queen-consort,
but no man can marry a queen-dowager without special
license from the king. A queen-dowager does not lose her
regal title when she marries a subject.
Dowa'giac, a post-village of Cass co., Mich., on the
Dowagiac River and the Michigan Central R. R., 105 miles
E. of Chicago. It has one national bank and one weekly
newspaper. Pop. 1932.
Dow'el, a name given to a pin used horizontally for
joining two pieces of material in a building, the dowel
being inserted in its socket in the one piece before the
other substance with its socket is forced into its place.
Dow'er [from the Fr. douer, to “endow ’’), in the com-
mon law of England, is an estate for life which a widow
has in one-third part of all the lands and tenements of
which her husband was seized beneficially, or of an estate
of inheritance at any time during the marriage. z
1. The Nature of the Estate.—Dower passes through three
stages. While the husband lives it is but an inchoate right
and incapable of enforcement. Should the husband sell to
a stranger and leave her destitute, she would have no claim
to the land while the husband lived. On her husband's
death, and before dower is assigned, she has a right of ac-
tion. After dower is assigned she has an estate in the land.
The rights of dower depend upon a rule of law which is
founded on public policy. The law of the place where the
land is situated governs it. -
2. The Requisites of Dower.—These are threefold—mar-
riage, seizin of the husband, and his death. The leading
questions on this subject concern seizin. By this is meant
beneficial ownership of a present estate of freehold, which
may descend to the husband's heirs. There can be no
dower in an estate for years, however long it may last.
Nor can there be in a reversionary estate which is preceded
by a prior estate of freehold or for life owned by another
person, though there may be where the prior estate is for
years. The widow of a trustee cannot be endowed, as he is
not a beneficial owner. This proposition would be applied
to the widow of a deceased partner, who could only be en-
dowed subject to the adjustment of the affairs of the part-
nership. Formerly, the trust estate itself was not the sub-
ject of dower. This rule does not prevail in the U. S., and
dower may sometimes be had in money, which by a legal
fiction is a substitute for land. Whenever the husband’s
estate is defeated by a superior title, dower falls with it.
3. Assignment of Dower.—As dower is one-third part of
the husband’s estate, it must be assigned either by the par-
ties or by act of the law. Certain legal rules must regu-
larly be followed, when dower is said to be assigned of com-
mon right. These may be relaxed by agreement under
seal, when the assignment is said to be against common
right. -
4. Barring of Dower.—The right cannot be destroyed
by the mere act of the husband. Creditors also take sub-
ject to this claim. It can in general be barred only by the
wife's own act, as by joining in a conveyance with the hus-
band, or by a jointure settled before marriage. The hus-
band often in his will, either expressly or by implication,
gives his wife property in lieu of dower. In this case she
may, after his death, elect to take such property or her
dower, but cannot take both. -
This right occasioned much inconvenience in England by
impeding the conveyance of property. For this reason,
by the Dower act of Aug. 29, 1833, the right of dower
was virtually placed entirely in the hands of the husband
in the case of all marriages contracted after Jan. 1, 1834.
The husband may now dispose of his lands by will or
otherwise, free from any claim of dower on the part of his
wife. If, however, he dies intestate, his widow, under the
statute of distribution, receives not merely for life, but ab-
solutely, one-third of his personal estate. In the U.S. the
general rules of the English common law still prevail. As
a general rule, also at least one-third of the husband’s
personal estate is given to the wife, as by the English
statute of distribution. - T. W. DWIGHT.
Dow/las [supposed to be derived from Doullens in
France, which was noted for its manufacture], a strong,
coarse linen fabric much used by the working class, is man-
ufactured in the north of England and in Scotland.
Dow/latābād; a fortified and decayed town of Hindos-
tan, in the Nizam's dominions, 10 miles N. W. of Aurung-
âbâd. It is defended by a rock-fortress which occupies the
summit of an isolated rock about 500 feet high. The low-
est third of this rock is perpendicular, so that the summit
is accessible only by a passage excavated in the interior.
Near this town are the cave-temples of Elora.
Dow/ler (BENNET), M. D., born at Elizabethtown (now
Moundsville), Ohio co., Va., April 16, 1797, was educated
at the University of Maryland, and has long been a lead-
ing physician of New Orleans. He has published many
valuable contributions to the periodical literature of the
profession, and is the author of a “Tableau of the Yellow
|Fever of 1853,” etc. (1854). He is editor of the “New Or-
leans Medical and Surgical Journal,” and a member of
many American and European scientific associations. He
founded the New Orleans Academy of Sciences.
Dow/ling (John), D. D., was born in the county of
Sussex, England, May 12, 1807, and became a resident of
the U. S. in 1832, and an eminently successful writer and
Baptist preacher of New York City. He has published a
“Vindication of the Baptists,” “Defence of the Protestant
Scriptures” (1843), “History of Romanism" (1845), and
other works.
Down, or Dune [Fr. dune, from the Celtic dun, a
“hill”], a name of the sandbanks or sandhills which the
sea gathers and forms along its shores. The term down is
also applied in England to large tracts of poor hilly land
which is covered with short grass and appropriated to pas-
turage. It is specially applied to two broad ridges of un-
dulating chalk-hills S. of the Thames. From the mid-
dle of Hampshire these extend eastward—the one (the
North Downs), through Surrey and Kent, to Dover, and
the other (the South Downs), through the south-eastern part
of Hampshire, to Beachy Head. Between the two ridges,
the ſormer of which is nearly 120 miles long, lies the valley
of the Weald, from which the chalk strata are supposed to
have been removed by denudation. The highest point of
the down is 880 feet above the level of the sea. These up-
lands produce fine aromatic grass, on which the famous
South Down sheep are pastured. -
Down, a county in the N. E. part of Ireland, in Ulster,
is partly bounded on the N. by Belfast Lough and on the
E. and S. E. by the Irish Sea. Area, 954 Square miles.
The chief rivers are the Bann and the Lagan. The sur-
face is mostly hilly or undulating, and the southern part is
occupied by the Mourne Mountains, the highest peak of
which is 2796 feet high. The soil of many parts is fertile.
The chief articles of cxport are linen fabrics, hosiery, grain,
butter, pork, and hides. Capital, Downpatrick. Pop. in
I871, 277,775. -
Down/cast is a name which is sometimes given in
mines to the shaft through which air for ventilation de-
scends. A fire is kept up at the bottom of a flue or “up-
cast,” and the impure air ascends through this flue, while a
fresh supply of air descends through the “downcast.” In
other mines various forms of the blowing-machine are used
to secure ventilation. e -
Downe, a township of Cumberland co., N. J., on Dela-
ware Bay. Pop. 3385.
Downe, Viscounts (Ireland, 1680).-HUGH RICHARD
DAWNAy, eighth viscount, born July 20, 1804, succeeded
his father in 1857.
\
1400
DOWNER'S GROVE–DRACO,
Down'er’s Grove, a township and post-village of
Du Page co., Ill., on the Chicago Burlington and Quincy
R. R., 22 miles W. by S. of Chicago. Pop. 2518.
Downes (John), an American naval officer, born at
Canton, Mass., in 1784, entered the navy in 1802. He
served as lieutenant of the Essex, under Capt. Porter,
against the British (1812–14). He captured an Algerine
frigate in 1815, and became a captain in 1817. Having
taken command of a squadron in the Pacific in 1832, he
chastised the people of Quallah Batoo in Sumatra for out-
rages on American seamen. Died Aug. 11, 1854.
Downes (John), U. S. N., born Aug. 25, 1822, in Mas-
sachusetts, entered the navy as a midshipman Sept. 4, 1837,
became a passed midshipman in 1843, a lieutenant in 1851,
and a commander, in 1862. He commanded the iron-clad
Nahant at the bombardment of Fort McAlister, Mar. 3,
1863, and in the first attack upon Fort Sumter of April 7,
1863, and is mentioned in Rear-Admiral Dupont’s “de-
tailed report” of the latter fight as one of those “who did
everything that the utmost gallantry and skill could accom-
plish in the management of their untried vessels.” He par-
ticipated in the capture of the Confederate iron-clad At-
lanta, and is thus spoken of in Rear-Admiral Dupont's
report of that affair, dated June 19, 1863: “Commander
Downes, with his usual gallantry, moved as rapidly as pos-
sible towards the enemy, reserving his fire until he could
get into close action, but lost the opportunity, from the
brief nature of the engagement, of using his / battery.”
Died Sept. 21, 1865. Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Dow’nieville, a post-village, capital of Sierra co., Cal.,
is on the North Yuba River, 62 miles N. E. of Marysville.
It is surrounded by high mountains, and has deep gravel, hy-
draulic, placer, and quartz mines in its immediate vicinity.
It contains a court-house, foundry, a graded school, water-
works, and one weekly newspaper. Altitude, 3000 feet. P.
704. J. A. WAUGHAN, ED. “MoUNTAIN MESSENGER.”
Downieville Butte, a mountain-peak in Sierra, co.,
Cal., about 12 miles E. N. E. of Downieville. Altitude,
about 8800 feet above the sea. -
Downſing (ANDREW JACKSON), an American landscape-
gardener and pomologist, born at Newburg, N. Y., Oct. 31,
1815. He was almost entirely self-taught. In 1841 he
published an excellent “Treatise on the Theory and Prac-
tice of Landscape Gardening.” His “Fruit and Fruit
Trees of America,” (1845) is highly esteemed, and has
passed through many editions. He began in 1846 to edit
the “Horticulturist,” published monthly at Albany. Among
his other works is “Cottage Residences” (1842). He was a
man of fine taste, and had a high reputation as a landscape-
gardener.
1852, when the steamboat Henry Clay, on which he was a
passenger, was burned. (See GEORGE W. CURTIs, “Memoir
of A. J. Downing,” prefixed to a volume of “Rural Es-
says,” edited by Mr. Curtis after Downing's death.)
Down'ingtown, a town of Chester co., Pa., in Chester
Walley, on the Pennsylvania Central R. R., at the junction
of the Waynesburg branch railroad, 32 miles W. of Phila-
delphia. It is the western terminus of the Chester Valley
R. R. It has one national bank and one weekly newspaper,
waterworks, a carriage and a shoe factory, a limestone quar-
ry, a young ladies’ academy, and the Chester Valley Academy
for young men and boys. Pop. 1077.
J. S. CoRDERY, ED. “INDEPENDENT.”
Downpat/rick, or Down, a seaport of Ireland, the
capital of the county of Down, is near the mouth of the
Quoyle (which enters Lough Strangford), 21 miles S. S. E.
of Belfast. It has a cathedral, a court-house, and a hos-
pital; also manufactures of linen, soap, and leather. It is
said to be the oldest city in Ireland, and was burned by
Edward Bruce in 1315. The see of Down was united with
that of Connor in 1442, and with that of Dromore in 1842.
Pop. 3685. *
Downs, a township and village of McLean co., Ill.
Pop. 1196. *
Downs, The, a portion of the North Sea off the S. E.
coast of Kent, England, between the North and South Fore-
lands, is important as a shelter for shipping, which is pro-
tected by Goodwin Sands, a natural breakwater. This large
natural harbor of refuge is 8 miles long and 6 miles wide,
having an anchorage which varies from four to twelve fath-
oms in depth. It is safe except during a S. wind. In time
of war it is a place of rendezvous for the royal navy.
Down/shire, MARQUESSEs or (1789), earls of Hills-
borough (1751), Viscounts Hillsborough (1717), Wiscounts
Kilwarlin (1751), Barons Hill (Ireland, 1717), earls of
Hillsborough and Viscounts Fairford (1772), and Barons
Harwich (Great Britain, 1756).--ARTHUR WILLS BLUNDELL
TRUMBULL SANDYs Rode:N HILL, fifth marquess, born Dec.
24, 1844, succeeded his father Aug. 6, 1868.
He was drowned in the Hudson River July 28,
Dow'ry [from the Fr. dower, to “endow;” Lat. dos ;
Fr. dot], the marriage portion brought by a wife to her
husband. This term is often confounded with dower, but
it has a different signification. s -
Doxol’ogy [Gr. Sočoñoyia, from 86;a, “praise,” and A6)0s,
a “word,” “expression ”], a form of praise said or sung in
divine service, commonly at the close of a prayer. The
Great Doxology, as it is called, is an expansion of the an-
gelic hymn, and is sung in the Roman Catholic Church at
the celebration of the Eucharist. It begins with the words
“Gloria in excelsis Deo.” The Lesser Doxology is the .
“Gloria, Patri,” the substance of which appears in the
metrical doxologies in use amongst Protestants generally.
Doyle, a township of Clarke co., Ia. Pop. 965.
Doyle, a post-township of Marion co., Kan. Pop. 124.
Doyle (RICHARD), an English artist and caricaturist,
born in London in 1826, was a son of John Doyle, a pop-
ular artist, whose political sketches were signed “H. B.”
He contributed satirical designs to the London “Punch.”
Since 1850 he has been employed in the illustration of books.
Doylesport, a post-township of Barton co., Mo. P. 385.
Doylestown, a post-borough, the capital of Bucks co.,
Pa., on a branch of the North Pennsylvania. R. R., 25
miles N. of Philadelphia, has waterworks built in 1869,
gasworks, a public library founded in 1856, two private
academies, and five weekly newspapers. It is much fre-
quented by summer visitors from Philadelphia, and its
situation is elevated and healthy. It has one national
bank. Pop. of borough, 1601; of township, 1954.
H. T. DARLINGTON, ED. “BUCKs Co. INTELLIGENCER.”
Do'zy (REINHART), a Dutch Orientalist, born at Ley-
den Feb. 21, 1820, graduated in the university of that city
in 1844. In 1850 he became professor of history at Leyden.
Among his works is “Researches into the Political and Lit-
erary History of Spain during the Middle Ages” (1849;
2d ed. 1860). -
Dracae’ma Dra’co, or Dragon Tree, a tree belong-
ing to the order Liliaceae, some examples of which grow to
prodigious size in the Canaries and India. The height is
not proportioned to the thickness of the stem, and the
head is crowned with short branches having tufts of sword-
shaped leaves. It produces a part of the resin called
DRAGON's BLOOD (which see). A specimen in the island of
Teneriffe is described by Humboldt as having a stem about
forty-five feet in circumference in 1799. It had the same
measurement in 1402. It was worshipped by the Guanches,
and its hollow trunk was converted by their conquerors
into a chapel. This extremely old tree has been lately re-
ported to have fallen. -
Drach'enfels (i.e. “dragon’s rock”), a mountain-peak
in Rhenish Prussia, on the Rhine, about 8 miles S. E. of
Bonn, has an altitude of 1056 feet. It rises abruptly from
the river, and is renowned in Byron’s verses commencing—
“The castled crag of Drachenfels
Frowns o'er the wide and winding Rhine.”
Its summit, crowned by a ruined castle, commands a beau-
tiful prospect.
Drachm, or Dram [Gr. 8paxwú; Fr. drachme : Lat.
drachma, see below]. There are two drachms in our sys-
tem of weights—namely, the avoirdupois drachm, which
is one-sixteenth part of an avoirdupois ounce; and the
apothecaries’ drachm, which is the eighth part of a troy
ounce. The orthography dram is commonly employed in
avoirdupois weight, and drachm in apothecaries' weight.
In apothecaries’ measure a fluiddrachm is one-eighth of a
fluidounce. Drachma was also the name of a silver coin,
the unit of the monetary system of ancient Greece. The
Athenian drachma was equivalent to six oboli, or nearly
twenty cents, and weighed from sixty-three to sixty-six
grains. Other Greek states had drachmas of different
values.
Dra’co [Apákov], a Greek physician, son of the cele-
brated physician Hippocrates, to whom some of the writ-
ings. that pass under the name of the latter are ascribed.
HENRY DRISLER.
Dra/co, or Dra/con [Gr. Apákov], an Athenian legis-
lator who was archon in 624 B.C., and was the author or
compiler of the first written laws among the Athenians.
This code was extremely severe and sanguinary, and made
even petty larceny a capital crime. It remained in force
until the time of Solom, who substituted milder penalties.
The term draconic is sometimes applied to laws which are
excessively severe.
Draco, or The Dragon, a constellation of the north-
ern hemisphere. It was from observations upon the star y
Draconis that Bradley was led to his brilliant discovery of
the aberration of light. It is a star nearly in the solstitial
colure, and consequently the minor axis of the small ellipse
DRACO OF STRATONICEA-DRAGONNADE.
1401
which its apparent place describes in the heavens lies in
the meridian at its transit.
Draco [Apákov], of Stratonicea, in Caria, a Greek
grammarian, of whose life few traces are found, but who
flourished probably about 125 A. D. Suidas and Eudocia
assign to Draco a great number of works on grammar, on
metre, and on the poems of Pindar and Alcaeus, which have
all, with one exception, perished. There is extant a trea-
tise on Greek metres (trepi perpov troumruków), which Hermann
considers an epitome of Draco's work, with numerous in-
terpolations from other quarters by a later hand. This was
edited by Hermann, Leipsic, 1812.
HENRY DRISLER.
Dracon’tium [Gr. 8pakóvrvov, a “little dragon,” prob-
ably from the burning taste of some species], a genus of
plants of the natural order Araceae. The Dracontium poly-
70 hyllum, a native of Guiana, India, and Japan, has a pow-
erful action on the nervous system, and is
used as a remedy for asthma. The flower
emits an intolerable stench when it first
opens. The Dracontium of the U. S. Phar-
macopoeia is the skunk-cabbage (Symplo-
carpus foetidus), which has similar medi-
cal properties. It is kindred to the true
JDracontium, and like it has a strong offen-
sive odor.
ºš
*
who lived under Theodosius II., about 431
A. D. Isidorus ascribes to him a poem in
hexameter verse entitled “Hexaëmeron,”
which is a poetical narration of the six
days of Creation. This poem was some-
what changed and enlarged by an account
of the seventh day by Eugenius, bishop
of Toledo, in the seventh century. A supplement to his
work was written by the author in elegiac verse, addressed
to the younger Theodosius. Both works are contained in
the edition of Carpzov, Helmstädt, 1794. (For further in-
formation consult BAHR’s “History of the Christian Poets
of Rome,” vol. i., p. 59.) PIENRY DRISLER.
Dra' cut, a post-village of Middlesex co., Mass., on the
Merrimack River opposite Lowell. It has large woollen
and paper mills, and is in a good agricultural township.
Pop. of Dracut township, 2078.
Draft [originally drawght : Ang.-Sax. dróht, past part.
of dragan, to “draw ;” literally, “ something drawn,” hence
a “drawing ”], a bill of exchange; an order for the pay-
ment of money drawn by one person upon another.
Drag [Ang.-Sax. dreage, from dragam, to “drag,”
allied to the Ger. träge, “slothful,” “slow "I, the name
given to inventions used for the purpose of slackening the
speed of vehicles. It consists of a mechanical combina-
tion of rods and levers, which may be operated upon by
the driver without leaving his seat. By means of a handle
a species of shoe is pressed against one of the wheels with
sufficient force to retard the motion.
called a brake.
Drag'oman [Fr. drogman ; It. dragomano, a corrup-
tion of the Arabic tarjumān, “interpreter”], a name given
in the Levant to an interpreter or guide for foreigners. The
ordinary dragoman corresponds to the Italian cicerone. The
dragoman of the Sublime Porte is an important Turkish
officer, who forms the medium of communication between
his own government and foreign ambassadors. The term
is also applied to the interpreters attached to European
embassies and consulates in the Levant. They are usually
natives of Italian extraction. They and their families are
not subject to the Turkish laws, but are under the protec-
tion of the embassies which they serve.
Dragºon [from the Gr. 8pákov, a “serpent,” a “ dragon;”
Tat. draco, Fr. dragon ; •
Ger. Drachen], small, in-
offensive East Indian liz- #= (ſ
ards of the genus Draco, +--
called winged dragon, or
flying dragon (Draco fim-
briatus and volans), remark-
able for an expansion of the
skin on each side, forming
a kind of wing, which sus-
tains the animal like a par-
achute. Other species, the EH
dragon lizards (Ada), be- #:
longing to the Tegidae, are
natives of America, only. - -
They have the tongue fork- Flying Dragon: Draco volans.
ed like a serpent, back and
tail crested, and are sometimes six feet long. They have
no parachute; they are bold and resolute in self-defence.
-->
==E===<
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Dracon'tius, a Christian poet of Spain *=ºs
º
It is more frequently
The name DRAGON has also been given to a fabulous
monster, represented in the mythology of many nations as
a huge winged serpent. In the New Testament the word
is used for the personification of sin, and in Christian art
it is the type of sin and idolatry. Hercules, Perseus, and
Apollo in Greek mythology, and Thor in the Scandinavian,
were renowned as dragon-slayers, as was Saint George in
the early Christian legends. The dragon is still an heraldic
bearing in Europe.
Among the Chinese the dragon was believed to be a being
of superhuman power, a sort of deity; and hence became
a symbol of divinity. According to Chinese tradition, Some
of the earliest emperors of that country are represented as
having the form of flying dragons, and representations of
such dragons belong to the heraldry of the imperial coat-
of-arms.
Drag’onet (Callionymus), a genus of fishes belonging
Gemmeous Dragonet.
to the Gobiadae, or goby family. They have no air-bladder,
the ventral fins are larger than the pectorals and placed
under the throat, and the gill-openings are reduced to a
small hole on each side of the nape. One of the finest
species is the gemmeous dragonet (Callionymus lyra), of
a golden color, variegated with Sapphire-blue. They are
found on the European coasts.
Dragon-Fly [Fr. démoiselle ; Ger. Stechfliege], the
N
arºº
§º
§
| d &W.
º
§
*ś
Sºiſſºli;
§
ºt:
Dragon-Fly : Agrion.
popular name of a family (the Libellulidae) which includes
an immense number of species of neuropterous insects.
They have large globular heads, strong mandibles, eyes
lateral, large, and projecting, antennae short, four narrow,
gauze-like wings, strongly reticulated, and the abdomen
often remarkably slender. They are found in northern
countries, but they are most common in the warmer cli-
mates, and frequent marshes, lakes, and rivers. Their food
is insects, which they devour with great voracity. They
are sometimes known as “devil's darning-needles,” and are
often regarded by the ignorant with groundless dread.
Dragonnade, a name of the persecutions which the
French Protestants suffered in the reign of Louis XIV.,
which were so called because dragoons (Fr. dragons) were
employed as instruments of the persecution. A body of


























1402
DRAGON'S BLOOD-DRAMA,
dragoons led by a bishop and intendant marched through
the provinces, requiring the Protestants to abjure their re-
ligion, and persecuting those who refused.
Dragon’s Blood, or Gum Dragom [Lat. Sangwis
draconis], a resin obtained from various trees growing in
warm climates. Among these are the DRACENA DRACO
(which see), the red sandal-wood (Pterocarpus Santalinus)
of the East Indies, the Pterocarpuš Draco, a leguminous
tree of South America, and the Calamus Draco, an East
Indian rattan palm. The dragon’s blood of commerce is of
a dark reddish-brown color, smooth, and brittle, and dis-
solves in oil, alcohol, and ether. The solution is used for
staining leather, wood, and even marble. The resin is also
an ingredient of some varnishes and lacquers. It comes
from the Moluccas, Socotra, Brazil, and Teneriffe.
Dragoon. See MoUNTED TROOPs, by GEN. J. WATTS
DE PEYSTER.
Draguignan, a town of France, capital of the depart-
ment of War, about 40 miles N. E. of Toulon. It is charm-
ingly situated in a valley between hills which are covered
with vineyards and olive trees. It has a court-house, a
botanic garden, and many public fountains; also manu-
factures of woollen fabrics, hosiery, silk stuffs, brandy,
pottery, and oil. Pop. 9819.
Brain/age, the removal of the excess of water from
the soil, either by means of canals and open ditches, or by
underground sewers, pipes, and hollow tiles. The drainage
of cities is noticed under SEw ER (which see). No part of
farm-husbandry pays a larger profit upon capital invested
than the judicious drainage of land. There is very little
ground that is not too wet in rainy weather, and too dry in
our frequent and long-continued droughts. Thorough
drainage not only relieves the first-mentioned evil, but,
strange as it at first appears, it greatly mitigates the bad
effects of dry weather. When soil is drenched with water
and dried by evaporation, it becomes hard, especially if it
be argillaceous; land that is dried by drainage is porous
and permeable to the dews and showers; while the soil
deepened by drainage permits growing crops to put forth
longer roots, and thus become secured against drought.
It appears also that good drainage diminishes the rela-
tive number of fevers, especially those of a malarial origin,
while it is almost certain that excessive moisture in the
soil is a fruitful cause of consumption. So important is
this subject considered in England that Parliament in 1846
offered in the Drainage act to advance money on easy
terms to landholders for the purpose of improving the
drainage of land. The act has proved a very great bless-
ing to the country. -
Underground drainage is the best for land that is not
decidedly' marshy; and of all underground drains those
made with tiles (hollow cylinders of porous burned clay)
are the most effective. The tiles should be laid near enough
to the surface to effect a thorough drying after rains, and
deep enough to escape the plough. It is very important to
avoid curves and angles in the vertical plane of drains,
because any earth which may enter the tiles will be sure to
lodge at depressed points, and spoil the drains.
Draining lakes and marshes is a matter requiring great
capital and much engineering skill, but it is sure to become
a very important question in our Southern and Western
States. In Holland, steam-pumps, wind-mills, and tide-
gates are used extensively. The great Haarlemer-meer
was drained and is kept drained by steam-power.
Brainage of Cities.
E. S. CHESBROUGH, C. E.
Drake (BENJAMIN M.), D. D., a distinguished minister
of the Methodist Episcopal Church South, born in North
Carolina Sept. 11, 1800. He joined the Tennessee Confer-
ence in 1820, but the next year was transferred to the Mis-
sissippi Conference, in which he rose to an imperial posi-
tion. He built the first Methodist church in New Orleans,
was president of Elizabeth Female Academy (the first
. Methodist school established in Mississippi), and was pres–
ident of Centenary College. He was greatly loved and re-
vered. He died in Mississippi in 1860. T. O. SUMMERs.`
Drake (CHARLES D.), a jurist, a son of Dr. Daniel
Drake, was born at Cincinnati, O., April 11, 1811. He
served as midshipman in the navy (1827–30), and was ad-
mitted to the Ohio bar in 1833. In 1834 he removed to St.
Louis, where he became eminent as a lawyer and politician,
was U. S. Senator (1867–71), and was appointed chief jus-
tice of the U. S. court of claims in 1871. He has published
“Law of Attachments” (1854) and “Life of Dr. Daniel
Drake’” (1871). * ‘.
Drake (DANIEL), M.D., born at Plainfield, N. J., Oct.
20, 1785. In infancy he was brought to Kentucky, then
almost a wilderness, and received a very limited prepara-
tory education. At fifteen he was apprenticed to Dr. Go-
See SEWERS AND DRAINs, by
fort, and attended lectures in the University of Pennsylvania,
where he took the degree in medicine in 1815. Soon after
this he accepted a professorship in the University of Tran-
sylvania at Lexington, Ky. ; in 1819 he founded the Medi-
cal College of Ohio at Cincinnati; then filled a chair in
the Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia; was called
twice to the school in Louisville, and finally returned to
Cincinnati, where he died. He had an intense love for the
great West, especially for Cincinnati; was ever active in
the profession, establishing journals, sustaining hospitals,
blind asylums, the temperance cause, and doing all he
could for Church and State. Dr. Drake was a true philan-
thropist, a noble patriot, a sincere Christian. Among his
works is a “Systematic Treatise on the Principal Diseases
of the Interior Valley of North America, etc.” (2 vols.,
1850–54). Died Nov. 6, 1852. PAUL F. EVE.
Drake (Sir FRANCIs), an English navigator, born in
Devonshire about 1540. He served as a captain under Sir
John Hawkins in his expedition to the Spanish Main in
1567, obtained a commission from Queen Elizabeth in 1570,
cruised in the West Indies, and enriched himself by plunder
taken from the Spaniards. He conducted in 1572 an expe-
dition against the Spanish in America, captured valuable
prizes, and saw the Pacific from the Isthmus of Darien.
IHe sailed in 1557 with five vessels on a marauding expe-
pedition against the Spaniards. He entered the Pacific,
sacked several towns of Chili and Peru, and captured a
galleon laden with silver. Hoping to find another passage
to the Atlantic, he sailed northward to lat. 48° N., but he
failed, and took shelter in the Bay of San Francisco. He
next steered to the Moluccas, returned by the Cape of Good
Hope, and arrived at Plymouth, in Sept., 1559. He was
the first Englishman who circumnavigated the globe. The
queen rewarded him with knighthood. He was appointed
commander of a fleet in 1587, when Spain was preparing
the Armada. He entered the harbor of Cadiz, where he
destroyed nearly one hundred vessels and captured im-
mense booty. The exploit was called “singeing the king
of Spain's beard.” He was vice-admiral of the fleet which
in 1588 opposed the Invincible Armada. In 1592 he was
elected to Parliament. He died near Puerto Bello Dec. 27,
1595. r -
Drake (FRANCIs SAMUEL), an American author, born
at Northwood, N. H., Feb. 22, 1828, is a son of the well-
known antiquary and historian, S. G. Drake, noticed below.
He has published a valuable “Dictionary of American
Biography” (1872), the most complete work that has been
published on the subject, and has prepared a volume of
memorials for the Massachusetts Society of the Cincinnati,
and a “Life of General Henry Knox” (1873).
Dra/ke (FRIEDRICH), a German sculptor, born at Pyr-
mont June 23, 1805, was a pupil of Rauch. He gained a
high reputation by statues and busts of many eminent
Germans of the present century, including the Humboldts,
Rauch, and Oken, and two colossal statues of King Fred-
erick William III. Among his other works is an allegor-
ical group of the “Eight Provinces of Prussia” (1844), in
the castle of Berlin. - -
Drake (Joseph RoDMAN), an American poet, born in
the city of New York Aug. 7, 1795. He studied medicine,
graduated about 1815, and married in 1816 a daughter of
Henry Eckford, a noted naval architect. He became an
intimate friend of Fitz-Greene Halleck. Among his works
are “The Culprit Fay ” and verses on the American flag,
which are greatly admired. Died Sept. 21, 1820.
Drake (SAMUET, GARDNER), an historical writer, born
at Pittsfield, N. H., Oct. 11, 1798. He opened an anti-
quarian bookstore in Boston in 1828. He published, be-
sides other works, “Indian Biography” (1832), “The
Book of the Indians” (1833), “History and Antiquities cf
Boston’’ (1856), and “Annals of Witchcraft in the U. S.”
(1869).
Drakeville, a township and post-village of Davis co.,
Ia., on the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific R. R., 137
miles S. W. of Davenport. Pop. 534.
Dram. See DRACHM.
Dram'a [Gr. 8påpa, from 8páo, to “do,” to “act;” lit-
erally, an “acting,” a “performance;” Fr. drame; Ger.,
Dutch, Dan., Sp., and Port. drama; It. dramma; Sw.
dram] signified originally the exhibition of human actions
(especially those which reveal the feelings and passions)
upon the stage. The ancient Greek drama, comedy as well
as tragedy, had its origin in the worship of Bacchus (Dion-
ysus). The Dionysian dithyrambs sung at the festivals of
Bacchus sometimes expressed wild and boisterous gayety,
at other times passionate sorrow. From the former was at
length developed the old Greek comedy, which may be said
to have attained its highest perfection in the plays of ARIS-
TOPHANES (which see); from the latter arose the Greek
DRAMATIS PERSONAE–DRAUGHTS.
1403
tragedy, which found its most perfect expression in the
immortal works of AEschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.
The Roman drama was derived from the Greek, to which,
in the opinion of all the most distinguished critics, it was
much inferior. The most celebrated Roman dramatic poets
were Plautus and Terence, who appear to have taken Me-
mander and Philemon (of the New Greek comedy) as their
models, and whose productions have exercised considerable
influence on the modern comedy. In tragedy ancient Rome
produced one truly great poet, Seneca.
The Hindoo drama, quite independent in its origin of the
drama of Europe, has produced some works of great merit,
the most celebrated of which is the “ Sakoontalā, or the
Lost Ring,” of Kãlidasa (who is supposed to have lived
about 50 B.C.)—a work which has received the highest
commendation from some of the most eminent critics of
modern Europe, and has been pronounced not unworthy
of the genius of Shakspeare. This remarkable production,
instead of being divided into five acts, like the classic and
modern drama, consists of seven acts.
The Chinese also have a drama, but greatly differing in
some respects from that of the Western nations; a single
piece, it is said, being often extended through no incon-
siderable portions of several successive days.
In modern times the drama has been cultivated with suc-
cess, it may be said, by all the principal European nations,
but more especially by the Italians, the Spaniards, the
French, the English, and the Germans. For a long period
the French were generally supposed to surpass all other
nations in the genius and skill of their dramatic writers, as
well as in the admirable performance of their actors. The
French critics usually insisted on the strictest adherence to
the rules of the classic drama, and particularly to what are
commonly termed “ the three unities.” Until the time of
Lessing the German theatre was scarcely more than a re-
flection of that of Paris, but that great author and critic
taught his countrymen to throw off the trammels and affec-
tations of a foreign school, and to give entire freedom to
the cultivation of the national genius. Since that time the
German authors, taking the English for their models rather
than the French, but without servilely following any, have
produced the finest dramatic works that have appeared in
Europe since the time of Shakspeare. Among the German
dramatic writers, Goethe and Schiller, by universal consent,
occupy the foremost rank. Denmark has also produced
some eminent dramatic writers, among whom CEHLEN-
SCHLAGER (which see) is the most celebrated. Italy can
scarcely be said to have produced any dramatic poets of
the highest order; among her best are perhaps Goldoni in
comedy, and Alfieri, Manzoni, and Silvio Pellico in tragedy.
The Spanish drama has given to the world many produc-
tions displaying rare genius, but none that are worthy to
be placed by the side of the greatest dramatic works of
Greece, England, Germany, or France. The most cele-
brated names in Spanish dramatic literature are those of
Lope de Vega and Calderon; the former surpassing all
that is recorded in the history of the human mind in the
marvellous fertility of his genius; the latter pre-eminent
for the brilliancy of his imagination, as well as for the
fertility of his invention, but neither of them producing
any work of the very highest order.
The French drama justly holds a very high place in Eu-
ropean literature. . It is not too much to say that in comedy
the writers of no other nation, either in ancient or modern
times, have equalled the French. The best plays of Mo-
lière may be said to be not only unrivalled, but unap-
proached, by those of any other author, Shakspeare alone
excepted. In tragedy, Corneille, Racine, and Voltaire all
exhibit genius of the very highest order, but Racine, in
the natural, graceful simplicity, as well as in the exquisite
finish, of his productions, is generally admitted to have
approached most nearly to the most perfect specimens of
the ancient Greek tragedy.
Though the dramatic literature of England presents us
with fewer writers of the highest order than that of France,
the former can boast of one whose dramatic genius sur-
passes everything to be found in ancient or in modern
times. While in his best comedies Shakspeare is perhaps
not inferior to Molière, in his tragedies, not merely in the
exhibition of the conflict of the mightiest human passions,
but also in his representation of the workings of the most
intricate and subtlest of human motives, he has no equal
nor second among the sons of men.
In the opinion of many critics the highest exhibition of
poetic genius is to be found in the tragic drama, which
naturally combines the fire and passion of lyric inspiration
with that representation of outward circumstances, conduct,
and events which belongs to epic poetry. It thus unites
every advantage for the exhibition of human character. It
not only shows us the external conduct, but in the various
soliloquies and discourses of the dramatis personae it re-
veals to us the hidden thoughts and passions of the soul.
In this last respect, it has a great superiority over epic
poetry, in which, though the expression of feeling occasion-
ally occurs, it is always made subordinate to the events of
the story. J. THoMAs.
Drama/atis Perso'nae, a Latin term signifying the
characters or persons represented in a drama. -
Dram’burg, a town of Prussia, in the province of
Pomerania, 53 miles E. of Stettin, has a normal School and
large woollen factories. Pop. in 1871, 5473.
Dram/men, a seaport-town of Norway, in Aggershuus,
on both sides of the river Drammen, near its entrance into
the Christiania Fiord, about 24 miles S. W. of Christiania.
It has a college, and manufactures of sailcloth, ropes, etc.
Large quantities of timber are exported from this port.
Pop. in 1870, 15,458.
Dranesville, a post-village and township of Fairfax
co., Va., 17 miles W. by N. of Washington, was the scene
of a very spirited engagement and Federal victory Dec. 20,
1861. Pop. of township, 2055.
Dra' per (JoHN WILLIAM), M.D., LL.D., a distinguished
chemist and writer, born near Liverpool, England, May 5,
1811, was educated at the University of London, and emi-
grated to the U. S. in 1833. He graduated as M. D. in the
University of Pennsylvania in 1836, was professor of chem-
istry and physiology at Hampden-Sidney College (1836–
39), and became professor of chemistry in the University
of New York in 1839. In 1841 he was appointed professor
of chemistry in the newly-founded medical department of
that university. In 1839 he took the first photographic
portrait ever taken from the life. He discovered many of
the fundamental facts of spectrum analysis, and published
them (1841–50). He published, besides other works, “Hu-
man Physiology, Statistical and Dynamical, of the Con-
ditions and Course of Life in Man * (1856), a “History of
the Intellectual Development of Europe” (1863), and a
“IHistory of the American Civil War” (3 vols., 1867–68),
and numerous monographs on mathematics, chemistry, and
optics,
Draper (LYMAN C.), an author, was born near Buffalo,
N.Y., Sept. 4, 1815. Since 1833 he has edited four volumes
of the Wisconsin Historical Society’s “Collections,” and
has written much upon the history and biography of the
West. He published in 1857 an account of Madison, the
capital of Wisconsin.
Draper (SIMEON) was born in 1804, and became a mer-
chant in New York. He was the active political friend of
W. H. Seward, fulfilled for many years important public
duties, was appointed provost-marshal of New York in
1862, and collector of the port in 1864. Died Nov. 6, 1866.
|He was a man of ability, generosity, and integrity.
Dra/pery [Fr. draperie, from drap, “cloth *], cloth or
woollen stuffs, clothing, or apparel. The dealers in such
commodities are called drapers in England. Drapery in
painting and sculpture is the clothing applied to the hu-
man figure, the various costumes and modes of dress used
by different nations and classes of people. The ancient
Greeks, although they often executed nude statues of heroes
and gods, surpassed all other artists in the representation
of drapery and costume. The art of disposing the folds of
drapery forms a considerable part of the painter's and sculp-
tor's study, and requires good taste and judgment.
Dra’pier Let/ters, The, were written under the sig-
nature of “M. B. Drapier” by Dean Swift. They attacked
the government for granting a patent in 1722 to a man
named Wood, in order to supply a deficiency of £108,000
in the copper coinage of Ireland. They created an almost
unparalleled sensation in Ireland on their first appearance
in 1723. Harding, their printer, though prosecuted and
imprisoned by the Crown, refused to betray the author.
The patent was abandoned after £40,000 in halfpence had
been coined, and Wood was compelled by the popular in-
dignation to leave the country. -
Draught, or Đraught of Water, a nautical term for
the depth a ship sinks in water when afloat. The draught
is marked from the keel upward—on the stem and on the
sterm-post.
Draughts [probably because a move was formerly called
a “ draught;” Fr. le jeu de clames; It. dama; Ger. Damen,
probably from dameh, the Egyptian name of the game],
commonly called Checkers in America, a game played by
two persons upon a board divided into sixty-four squares
of alternate colors, each person having twelve pieces or
counters, distinguished by their color from those of the op-
posite party. . The success of the game depends upon the
skill of either party in, capturing all the pieces of an ad-
versary, or hemming them in so that no further move can
be made. The counters of each player are placed before
1404
DRAUGHTSMAN–DREAM.
him upon the first three lines of squares of the same color,
and each piece is moved diagonally forward one square to
the right or left. It is the duty of each player to take the
piece of the other when a vacant square is found behind it,
which is done by jumping over into that square, and remov-
ing the piece “jumped” or passed over. Several pieces may
be jumped at one time when the diagonals forward are ex-
posed, and the taking piece is placed upon the square be-
hind the one taken last. When the last row on the opposite
side of a board is reached, the piece is called a king, and is
crowned by placing one of the counters before captured
upon it; and this king can then be moved diagonally for-
ward or backward, one square only at a time. If a piece
is touched it must be moved if possible. The piece exposed
must be taken by the player having the move; in case he
neglects to do so, his adversary may remove the piece which
should have made the capture. When lots are drawn for the
first move, he who gains the choice may move or require
his adversary to do so. The game is supposed to have origi-
nated more than 2000 years B. C., and to have preceded
chess. It was introduced into Europe from Egypt three or
four centuries ago. º
Draughts/man, a person who draws pictures, plans,
or maps; one who delineates or draws a sketch or design.
The term is not usually applied to those who produce origi-
nal designs.
Drave [anc. Dravus ; Ger. Draw ; Slavonic Drava], a
river of Europe, rises in the Tyrol, and flows nearly east-
ward, through Carinthia and Styria, to the western frontier
of Hungary. It afterwards runs south-eastward, and forms
the boundary between Hungary on the left and Croatia, and
Slavonia on the right, until it enters the Danube 14 miles
E. of Essek. Its total length is nearly 400 miles. It is
navigable for 200 miles or more.
Draw'back, a loss of advantage, success, profit, or
value; anything that deducts from a step gained; a dis-
couragement or hindrance. Commercially, an allowance
made by the government to merchants on the re-exporta-
tion of certain imported goods liable to duties; also a re-
payment or remission of a duty laid on any article pro-
duced in a country and suitable for the foreign market,
when such article is entered for exportation. In some eases
this allowance or remission consists of the whole of the cus-
toms or excise duties; in others, of a part only. In the
U. S. drawback has been regulated by various acts of Con-
gress. Such duties are, of course, an enhancement of the
natural price of the commodity on which they are imposed.
The object of the allowance or remission is to establish or
stimulate a trade with foreign countries in the commodity.
Adam Smith, in his “Wealth of Nations,” thus speaks of
the remission or repayment of the latter form of duty: “To
allow,” he says, “the merchant to draw back, upon expor-
tation, either the whole or a part of whatever excise or in-
land duty is imposed upon domestic industry, can never
occasion the exportation of a greater quantity of goods than
what would have been exported had no duty been imposed.
Such encouragements do not tend to turn towards any par-
ticular employment a greater share of the capital of the
country than what would go to that employment of its own
accord, but only to hinder the duty from driving away any
part of that share to other employments. They tend not
to overturn that balance which naturally establishes itself
among all the various employments of the society, but to
hinder it being overturned by the duty; they tend not to
destroy, but to preserve what it is in most cases advan-
tageous to preserve, the natural division and distribution
of labor in the society.” These remarks are subject to this
qualification : provided the drawback is equally applicable
to all domestic productions that are sought to be exported.
It might, perhaps, be shown also, by experience, that the
practice of giving drawbacks is liable to abuse; for, sup-
posing a great fall in the value of some excisable article, it
may be exported with a view, partly or entirely, to get the
drawback. An important species of commerce would thus
be fostered. Of course the government must guard against
deceptions by exercising an oversight of the packing,
weighing, tying, and sealing of such goods, of their owner-
ship, of the time when such goods were charged with the
duties, and of the exportation; and in some particulars it
requires a verification by oath.
REVISED BY T. D. WoOLSEY.
Draw/bridge, the name applied to the whole or part
of a bridge which may be moved to admit or hinder
communication. There are several varieties of these struc-
tures. They are respectively known as bascules or lifting
bridges, from their turning vertically on a hinge; swivel or
swing bridges, from moving horizontally on a pivot; and
rolling bridges, from being propelled on friction rollers.
They are principally used on navigable streams to permit
vessels to pass and at the portals of fortifications.
Drawbridge, a post-township of Dorchester co, Md.
Pop. 1087.
Draw’ing, in the fine arts, is the delineation of form
in contradistinction to color, light, and shade, and, as it in-
cludes a knowledge of anatomy, proportion, and perspec-
tive, is the foundation of everything in art, and the most
important feature of a finished painting. In power and
beauty of drawing the Italian and Flemish schools stand
pre-eminent. At the period when Greek art had attained
its highest perfection drawing was a regular branch of edu-
cation, as it is at present in the public schools of Germany,
Switzerland, and other European nations. In Massachu-
setts drawing is taught in the public schools of the larger
towns, and artisans, mechanics, and others who may desire
it receive gratuitous instruction in free-hand as well as me-
chanical drawing in the evening schools. Similar instruc-
tion is given in several of the larger cities of other States.
Draw-plate, a metal plate placed before or over a fire-
place, for the purpose of forcing the air through the fire;
also a steel plate with graduated orifices, through which
metals are drawn into bars or wires.
Dray'ton, a post-village of Wellington co., Ontario,
Canada, on the Guelph branch of the Great Western Rail-
way. It has some manufactures and one weekly news-
paper. Pop. about 500.
Drayton (MICHAEL), an English poet, born in Warwick-
shire in 1563. Few events of his life have been recorded.
His chief work is “Poly-Olbion ” (1613), a poetical descrip-
tion of the mountains, rivers, valleys, and forests of Great
Britain, with the traditions, connected with them. Dray-
ton was appointed poet-laureate in 1626. Among his nu-
merous works are “The Barons' Wars” (1596) and “Nymph-
idia,” a fairy poem (1627). Died in 1631.
Drayton (PERCIVAL), U. S. N., born Aug. 25, 1812, in
South Carolina, entered the navy as a midshipman Dec. 1,
1827, became a passed midshipman in 1832, a lieutenant in
1833, a commander in 1855, and a captain in 1862. He
served in the South Atlantic squadron from the fall of 1861
to the summer of 1863, commanding the steamer Poca-
hontas at the battle of Port Royal, and the iron-clad Pas-
saic during the bombardment of Fort McAlister of Mar.
3, 1863, and at the first attack upon Fort Sumter of April
3 of the same year. He is handsomely mentioned in sev-
eral of the official despatches of Rear-Admiral Dupont, who
in his last report speaks of him as an officer “ of the highest
professional capacity and courage.” He commanded the
Hartford at the great battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864,
and is thus commended by Farragut in his detailed report
of the events of that glorious day: “The Hartford, my
flag-ship, was commanded by Captain Percival Drayton,
who exhibited throughout that coolness and ability for
which he has been long known to his brother-officers. But
I must speak of that officer in a double capacity. He is
the fleet-captain of my squadron, and one of more deter-
mined energy, untiring devotion to duty, and zeal for the
service, tempered by great calmness, I do not think adorns
any navy. I desire to call your attention to this officer,
though well aware that in thus speaking of his high qual-
ities I am only communicating officially to the department
that which it knew full well before.” Early in 1865, Drayton
was appointed chief of the bureau of navigation, in the
discharge of which high office he died (Aug. 4, 1865), uni-
versally regretted. |Box HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Drayton (WILLIAM), an American officer, the father of
the preceding, was born in St. Augustine, Fla., Dec. 30,
1776. He served as colonel in the war of 1812, became a
member of Congress in 1825, and was a leader of the Union
party of South Carolina in 1830. He was chosen president
of the U. S. Bank in 1839, as the successor of Nicholas
Biddle. Died May 24, 1846.
Drayton (WILLIAM HENRY), an American patriot, born
in South Carolina Sept., 1742. He wrote political works,
was chosen chief-justice of South Carolina in 1776, and
president of that State in 1777. In 1778 he became a mem-
ber of the Continental Congress. He died Sept. 3, 1779,
leaving in MS. a. “History of the Revolution,” which was
published by his son (2 vols., 1821).
Dray'ton-in-FHales, or Market-I) rayton, a town
of England in Shropshire, on the Tern, 19 miles N. N. E.
of Shrewsbury. It has manufactures of paper and of hair
seats for chairs. Here the partisans of the house of York
defeated the Lancastrians in 1459. Pop. 5242. -
Dray'tonsville, a township of Union co., S. C. Pop.
1864. -
Dream [Lat. Somnium ; Fr. songe and réve ; Gr. Traum],
a series of thoughts, feelings, and acts of the imagination
occurring in sleep. In some cases the reasoning powers
are abnormally active in dreams, but in general the mental
action is incongruous. Dreams usually are evidence of im-
DREBBEL, VAN–DREDGING AND SCOURING.
1405
perfect sleep. They take their character from some preced-
ing state of the mind, and are often modified by the con-
ditions of the health. The Bible speaks of dreams as being
sometimes prophetic or suggestive of future events. This
belief has prevailed in all ages and countries, and there
are numerous modern examples, apparently well authenti-
cated, which would appear to favor this hypothesis. The
interpretation of dreams was a part of the business of the
soothsayers at the royal courts of Egypt, Babylon, and
other ancient nations.
Dreb/bel, van (CoENELTs), a Dutch philosopher, born
at Alkmaar in 1572. He removed to England about 1620,
and was patronized by James I. He invented several
curious machines, and wrote two works entitled “On the
Nature of the Elements’’ and “Quintessence ’’ (1621). He
is said to have invented the thermometer, but the state-
ment has been disputed. Died in London in 1634.
Dredging and Scouring, terms applied to those
processes by which materials are removed from the bottom
of ship-channels and harbors, and the navigable depth of
water increased thereby. By dredging is meant more
particularly the raising of the materials to the surface by
mechanical appliances, and their transportation and depo-
sition elsewhere, while scouring implies their gradual and
progressive removal by the force of the current. In order
to increase the effective scouring-power of streams it is
customary to narrow and straighten their natural water-
way by bulkheads, jetties, and other works of improve-
ment; and sometimes the drainage waters in inland, and
the ebb flow in tidal streams, are held back by gates, and
let out through the channel at stated periods with great
violence. This method of scouring, called flashing or flush-
ing, is a very efficient mode of dredging in the few locations
favorable for its application. At Ramsgate, Dover, and
other places in England large scouring-basins or reservoirs
to retain the water have been constructed. To facilitate
the scouring, the bottom may be loosened up by dragging
heavy rakes over it during the period of strongest current.
The oldest dredging-machines were probably of this cha-
racter, and were used in Holland. They consisted of float-
ing frames, with teeth or bars projecting down to the bottom
from the under side, which stirred up the sand and mud as
the machine was floated along by the current.
Where bars are short, with deep water on either side, or
where the bottom is lumpy, scrapers have been advan-
tageously employed to smooth off the bottom. The material
scraped from the shoal places subsides in deep water, and
the available depth is thereby increased. The scrapers
may be attached to a tug moving up and down the channel,
or to a scow towed by a tug. Fig. 1 shows a side view of
a scow and scraper designed and used by Major Houston,
U. S. corps of engineers. On each side of the scow there
is a long arm a pivoted at b, and connected at the lower
end by a crossbar c, to which the scrapers d, three in num-
ber, are attached side by side. Each scraper is a semi-
cylinder of 3-inch boiler iron, 3 feet in diameter and about
24 feet long on the longest side, open at both ends, the
lower end terminating obliquely to the axis, like a scoop.
The effective velocities of currents in moving materials
FIG. 1.
swº- Scale, 1 inch to 8 feet.
of various kinds and sizes, as established by different ob-
servers, are as follows:
0.170 miles per hour will just begin to work on fine clay.
0.340 “ “ “ will lift fine Sand. -
0.454 “ “ “ Will lift Sand.
0.682 “ “ “ will sweep along fine gravel.
1.364 “ “ “ will roll along round pebbles nearly one
inch in diameter.
2,045 “ “ “ will move slippery, angular stones the size
of a hen's egg.
Sir John Leslie gives the formula V = 4 wa for finding
the velocity required to move rounded stones or shingle,
in which V denotes the velocity of the water in miles per
hour, and a the edge of the stone if a cube, or the mean
diameter if a rounded stone or boulder.
The mode of deepening channels by stirring up the bot-
tom in streams where there are effective currents in one, or
alternately in both directions, has been successfully fol-
lowed at the mouth of the Mississippi River. The appa-
ratus used was a large double-ender dredge-boat, of like
shape and construction at both ends, provided with two
strongly built, four-bladed propellers, one at each end, on
separate shafts, powerfully driven by separate engines, and
with water compartments or tanks, such that when they
are empty and the coal-bunkers full, the boat will draw
fourteen feet, and when full twenty-two feet. The blades
of the propellers extend about two feet below the vessel’s
keel. When operating, the boat is sunk by means of her
tanks to a draught fully equal to and generally exceeding
the soundings on the bar; she then steams alternately up
and down the channel, cutting her way through and stirring
up the bottom with the propellers. The material thrown
into suspension is carried off by the current and subsides
in deep water. In exceptional cases the boat, when draw-
ing fifteen feet, has cut her way through where there were
but ten feet of water. The up-stream or stern end of the
boat has a deflector a few feet in rear of the propeller.
When steaming down stream on an ebb current, the effect
of this deflector is to carry upward into the upper and
stronger current the backwater from the propeller, and
consequently the solid material with which it is charged.
Upon one occasion the amount excavated by this dredge-
boat in four days, working twenty-eight and a quarter
hours, was upwards of 22,000 cubic yards, but this is con-
siderably in excess of the average results. Auxiliary
scrapers are also used with this boat to stir up the bottom
on each side of the propellers. To guard against stoppage
from accidents, two boats are deemed necessary to maintain
a constant depth of twenty feet at low tide. (See Fig. 2.)
In tidal streams the inward and outward flow of the
tidal wave is a most efficient scouring agent for maintain-
ing the channel at the greatest practicable depth of which it
is capable; and a judicious regulation and control of the
tidal currents, by giving uniformity in depth and width to
the channel, and straightening it wherever practicable, has
in many instances converted a narrow, crooked, and shallow
stream into a deep and navigable channel. A recognized
principle in hydraulic engineering is that the flow of the
tidal wave should be facilitated, and not obstructed ; hence
a deepening of the water-way should always accompany
a reduction in width. The tidal wave is propagated with
greater velocity in deep than in shallow channels, the ratio
of velocities for different depths being approximately as
the square roots of those depths.
Scoops of various forms, filled by drawing them along
the bottom, and then raising them to the surface and empty-
ing them into seows, have been used in many places—a de-
vice which was afterwards extended by attaching a series
of Scoops or buckets to an endless belt or chain attached
to the side of the yessel, or over an opening amidships, and
working over pulleys or wheels so arranged that the chain
can be lowered or raised to suit various depths of water.


1406
DREDGING AND SCOURING.
The buckets descènd empty, fill themselves at the bottom,
and when they rise over the upper wheel discharge into
troughs leading to Scows alongside.
Fig. 3 shows a longitudinal section, and Fig. 3a an en-
larged view of buckets and lower wheel, of a powerful
steam-dredger used on the river Clyde, Scotland. The hull
is of boiler plates and angle iron, being 161 feet long, 29
feet breadth of beam, and 10 feet greatest depth of hold.
An endless band, carrying 40 dredge-buckets of nearly 14
cubic feet capacity each, works through a well amidships,
passing over two wheels, one at either end of an iron
bucket-girder 90 feet long, and weighing 125 tons when
working, inclusive of the contents of the ascending buckets
and hoisting chains. The axis of the upper wheel is sta-
tionary at the height of about 30 feet above the Water, and
the girder revolves about this axis sufficiently, by raising
and lowering the submerged end, to allow the dredging to
be carried on at any depth from 6 feet to 30 feet. One man
by means of a lever on deck has complete control of raising
and lowering the bucket-girder. The main frame carrying
the girder and its gear is well secured and braced, so as to
distribute the strain it has to bear over a large portion of
the hull.
The dredged material is delivered, after passing over the
upper wheel, into inclined shoots at either side of the vessel,
with suitable arrangements, worked by steam, for closing
FIG, 2.
END ELEVATION.
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one shoot and opening the other simultaneously. At the
bow there are three large independent double-powered
crab winches, combined in one machine for convenience in
handling by one man. These crabs control one 13-inch
head chain and two #-inch side mooring chains, provided
for guiding the dredger to the cutting place. At the stern
four similar crabs are placed to work the stern and side
moorings. By these appliances provision is made for
moviñg the vessel ahead, astern, and athwartship. Surg-
ing heads are also fitted to the crabs to haul the hopper
barges alongside, also hand gear to work the surging heads
independent of steam. Friction gearing is provided and
adapted to work these moorings at three different speeds.
The main gearing and girder hoisting gear are also fitted
with adjustable friction-wheels, to prevent accidents in case
of undue strain coming on the buckets or girder. Steel has
º FIG.
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Canal, but the dredgings, instead of being always delivered
into scows alongside, were generally deposited on the banks
of the canal through long shoots having but a slight incli-
nation. The dredge-boats were built of boiler iron, and
the largest ones were 108 feet long, 27 feet broad, and 10}
feet deep in the hold, with 5 feet draught of water. The
engine was vertical, direct acting, and condensing, with
two cylinders, and nominally 35 horse-power, the boiler
heating surface being 1163 superficial feet. The capacity
f some of the dredge-buckets was 10.6 cubic feet, and
$thers 14.74 cubic feet. The upper rollers, over which the
endless chain carrying the buckets passed, were in some
dredges 37 feet 5 inches above the water, and in others 48
feet. For the former the shoots to deliver the materials on
the canal banks were 195 feet long, and for the latter 227}
feet long. The shoots are not supported by the dredger,
but are constructed each upon a separate barge, and are
sustained by a lattice girder resting upon the barge on
telescopic supports, so that it can be raised and lowered by
a hydraulic hoist and set at different angles of inclination.
To accommodate the changes of inclination, the attachment.
of the shoot to the dredger is made by means of a hori-
sº N sº-º-º-ºr=-º-º-º:
tº ſº ºy T ºf
SI DE ELEVATION,
been used in various parts of the machinery of this dredger,
such as the dead-eye brackets for suspending the top end
of the bucket girder, bars for upper and lower tumblers,
bearings of lower tumbler shaft, spindles of bucket rollers,
bucket cutting lips, and bushes for the bucket link-eyes.
The working power consists of a pair of horizontal con-
densing engines to drive the buckets, hoisting gear for
bucket girder, and bow crabs. Two pairs of non-condensing
engines are also provided to drive the stern crabs, side
shoots, etc. A donkey double-acting pump connected to
bilges and sea feeds the boiler, etc. -
This dredger working at full speed in 10 or 15 feet of
water can raise about 500 tons or 380 cubic yards of ordi-
nary soil per hour.
This method of dredging, considerably modified, was ap-
plied on a very extensive scale in excavating the Suez
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zontal joint, and the lattice girder can also be revolved
horizontally on its supports, so that it can be turned
parallel to the sides of the barge and of the canal when
moving it from place to place. The shoot is semi-elliptical
in cross section, being 1 foot 11% inches deep and 5 feet 11
inches wide. To aid the flow and discharge of the dredg-
ings, a stream of water is thrown into the upper end of the
shoot by two rotary pumps placed upon the dredge; and in
case this supply is insufficient a portable engine located on
the barge supporting the shoot, and working a pump capa-
ble of throwing 5000 cubic feet of water per hour, is set in
motion. This pump delivers its water along the entire
length of the shoot, through a pipe pierced with holes at
short intervals. The shoot is further provided with an
endless chain, carrying scrapers which move along in the
bottom whenever the dredgings are not voided freely by
water alone. Fine sand confined within a channel will de-
scend rapidly on an inclination of 4 to 5 feet in 100, when
washed with half its bulk of water. For clays a descent
of not less than 6 to 8 feet in 100 is necessary, but less
water is required.
Fig. 4 shows a section of dredge with long shoot. A




































































DREDGING AND SCOURING.
1407
portion of the shoot and supporting gir
in length, is omitted for want of space.
der, about 73 feet
Where the banks
of the canal were too high to use the long-shoot dredger,
an elevating apparatus was employed, consisting of a por-
table tramway supported by two parallellattice girders, the
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side by side upon a raft or float; the raft is then floated
under the lower end of the tramway, and the boxes are
hooked on, one after another, to the lower side of the tram-
way truck, and conveyed to the upper end of the tramway
and tipped by steam-power. This arrangement is shown
FIG. 5,
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FIG, 4.
lower end, about 10 feet above the water, resting upon a
barge in the canal, and the shore end, 45 feet above the
water, upon a truck running upon a railway laid along the
bank of the canal. In operating this apparatus the dredg-
ings are first delivered from the dredge into boxes arranged
-------e.
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at Fig. 5, a portion of the shore end being omitted for want
of room. The tipping is effected by two wheels attached to
the lower rear edge of the box which run up a steep incline
at the upper end of the tramway.
Wheel Dredgers.-Instead of an endless chain to carry
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the buckets, these are sometimes placed upon the perimeter
of a wheel 25 to 30 feet in diameter, or larger according to
the depth to be dredged. This wheel is set in a well in the
boat, its axle or shaft working in boxes that can be lower-
ed or raised by suitable machinery as the depth requires.
As the wheel revolves the buckets scoop themselves full at
the bottom, and in ascending lift in succession the upper
end of a shoot adjusted against the perimeter of the Wheel,
which, falling back to its place, causes the bottom of the
bucket to unlatch, and the contents to be discharged into
the shoot, and thence into a scow alongside. The dredge-
boat is drawn along by a cable leading to the engine at the
precise rate which the progress of the excavation requires.
Under favorable circumstances a 24-foot wheel carrying
four buckets has been known to excavate 1200 cubic yards
in ten working hours. (See Fig. 5a.)
FIG. 54.
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Clam-shell Dredgers.-Each dredge-boat operates but one
bucket, which is in two parts hinged together horizontally,
something like a clam shell, with arrangements by which
it is opened and closed by the same power which lowers and
raises it through the water. The bucket being open and
suspended from the end of a crane-jib, descends yertically
through the water until it rests on the bottom. ... It is then
filled by closing together the two parts, when it takes the








































DREDGING AND SCOURING.
form of a short horizontal trough or hollow semi-cylinder
closed at the ends. It is then raised out of the water, swung
round over a scow, opened and emptied.
The two parts of the bucket—each being a quarter of a
hollow cylinder with closed ends—are hinged along their
common axis, and from their outer upper edges tie-rods or
links extend to a crossbar directly over the centre or axis.
This crossbar works in guides up and down. By raising
the crossbar in the guides the two parts of the bucket are
opened; by lowering it to its lowest point the bucket is
closed. This raising and lowering of the crossbar in the
guides—and consequently the opening and closing of the
bucket—is effected by two chains passing over pulleys at
the end of the crane-jib and down to separate drums operated
by the engine. One chain is attached directly to the cross-
bar, and supports the weight of the open bucket whilst de-
Scending to the bottom. The other chain is made fast to
the groove of a pulley placed below the crossbar, and (by
means of two smaller pulleys on either side of it fixed to
FIG. 6. -
Scale, 1 inch to 16 feet.
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Perhaps the best type of the clam-shell dredger is that
manufactured by Messrs. Morris & Cuming of New York
City. Fig. 6 is a longitudinal section of their dredger
above described; Figs. 7 and 8 give enlarged views of the
bucket and grapple. For these dredges two sizes of buck-
ets are usually made; the smallest weighs 3500 to 4000
pounds, with 13 cubic yards actual capacity, or 2 yards
when heaped up, and the largest weighs 6500 or 7000 pounds,
with 3 cubic yards actual capacity, or 4% to 5 yards when
heaped up. The teeth are made from 6 to 9 inches long.
The grapples also are of various sizes, the largest being 5
feet along the hinge, and 8 feet wide between the points of
the prongs when open. In 25 feet of water three lifts can
be made in two minutes with the 3-yard bucket. The largest
dredge-boats are 80 feet long and 30 feet wide, and the
smallest 60 feet long and 25 to 30 feet wide. The power
for the heavy grapple is supplied by two 20-inch cylinders
with 20 inches stroke, 45 pounds steam-pressure, and mak-
ing from 40 to 60 revolutions per minute; for the large
buckets, two 12%-inch cylinders with 30 inches stroke, 75
pounds steam-pressure, and making from 60 to 70 revolu-
tions per minute; and for the small buckets, two 10-inch
cylinders with 24 inches stroke, 75 pounds steam-pressure,
and making from 60 to 70 revolutions per minute.
In Baltimore harbor a machine with a 3-yard bucket, ,
operating partly in soft mud and partly in oyster shells, in
26 working days, of which 7 were lost by breakages and
bad weather, leaving only 19 days’ work of 10 hours each,
raised 26,334 cubic yards, or a daily average of 1386 cubic
yards. The best day’s work was 1980 cubic yards. The
average depth of water-way was 21 feet, with occasional
lumps with 16 feet soundings. The depth to be attained was
the same shaft) working on the principle of the wheel and
axle, transmits its leverage (by means of chains fastened
to the grooves of the smaller pulleys) to the under side of
the crossbar. The strain being brought upon this last-men-
tioned chain after the bucket reaches the bottom, the cross-
bar is by this means hauled down, the two parts of the
bucket are closed, and the bucket filled before it commences
to ascend. When working in hard material like compact
clay, hard sand, or gravel, the cutting edges of the bucket
are provided with sharp teeth.
The hoisting apparatus consists of a pair of horizontal
engines, which by means of a friction-clutch can be made
to drive either of the chain drums at pleasure. The bucket
is guided in its descent by a pair of wooden poles attach-
ed to the guides of the crossbar, and working up and down
through eyes near the end of the crane-jib. For raising
stones, logs, fragments of Wreck after blasting, etc., a
strong grapple with steel-pointed prongs is used in place
of the bucket.
FIG. 7.
Scale, 1 inch to 5 feet.
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24 feet.
26 days, of which two were lost, raised 48,800 cubic yards.
In the same harbor, operating in soft mud in a 16-feet
channel, to make it 24 feet deep, a machine with a 13-yard
bucket, working 26 days, of which 7% were lost, raised
Another machine with bucket of the salue size, in
23,310 cubic yards. The best day’s work of 10 hours was
1665 cubic yards. Another machine of the same size,
working 21 days, of which two were lost, raised 19,109
cubic yards. The aggregate quantity raised by the four
dredgers during the respective periods above specified,
agreed to within about 150 cubic yards with the return made
by the engineer inspector, upon which payment for the
work was made. At South Amboy, a dredger with a 3-
yard bucket, working in stiff mud mixed with sand, in
deepening a 9-feet channel to 15 feet, raised 73,000 cubic
yards in 35 working days, an average of 2085 yards per
day of 10 hours. In the same place a 3-yard bucket,
working 12 consecutive days, raised 19,200 cubic yards, an
average of 1600 cubic yards per day of 10 hours. Another
3-yard machine averaged 1383 cubic yards per day of 10
hours. The falling off in the two last-mentioned cases was
attributed to an increase in the proportion of sand in the
material raised. In Boston harbor a Morris & Cuming
3-yard bucket, working 26 days in stiff whitish-gray clay,
raised only 3335 cubic yards, or 1283 yards per day of 10
hours. In this case the teeth did not penetrate more than
8 or 9 inches, tearing up the clay in large lumps, but not so
as to fill the bucket. At the foot of Pike street, New York,
a 13-yard bucket, working 6 days in mud, gravel, and
cobble-stones, raised 4075 cubic yards, or 679 cubic yards
per day of 10 hours.
In making shallow cuts much time is lost in moving























































































DREDGING AND SCOURING.
1409
the dredger forward. A small Morris & Cuming dredger
with a 1-yard bucket, working in a mixture of soft mud
and sand in the Savannah River, to deepen a 10-feet chan-
nel to 12% feet, had to be moved for every 15 yards raised.
In II working days of 8 hours 4054 cubic yards were
raised, or 369 yards per day. Only one scow could be kept
alongside, in consequence of the tide. The actual time lost
in fleeting and changing scows was 4 hours out of 8. The
dredger working from a fixed position would therefore have
doubled the amount of work actually performed.
The crew required for working the small dredger consists
of captain, who handles the levers; engineer, who tends to
the fire and machinery; and five deck-hands; on board
the larger dredgers about eight deck-hands are required.
When the dredged material has to be deposited at any con-
siderable distance, it has been found that with a tow of
from one to one and a half miles, one tug and two scows
will keep a dredger in constant work. When the tow is in-
creased to 7 or 8 miles, two or three tugs with seven or
eight scows are required. The power of the tugs varies
from 50 to 100 horse-power, and the sizes of their cylinders
range from 16 to 30 inches diameter. The crew of a tug-
boat consists usually of captain, engineer, fireman, cook,
mate, and two or three deck-hands. Each scow has also
one man constantly on board to attend the doors.
Single-Scoop Dredgers (Fig. 9).-By these machines
FIG. 9.
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dredging is performed with a single bucket, shaped, as the
name implies, like a scoop or dipper, having a swinging
door closing with a catch at its back, by which it is emptied.
This bucket is fixed to a beam or handle of a length suit-
able for any depth of water in which the dredger is intended
to work. The bucket with its handle is worked from a crane,
which has its post set on a movable platform placed in the
centre of the bow of the dredge-boat. The crane-post, jib,
and stay are each built of two parallel timbers, secured to
one another at the foot of the stay, neck of the post, and
end of the jib. The bucket handle works in the space left
between these parallel timbers. This beam or handle is
slotted for the greater portion of its length, and on the
back, on either side of the slot, has two racks working on
pinions whose shaft is fixed upon the crane-jib about one-
third its length from the post. These racks are kept in con-
tact with their pinions by a friction-roller pressing on the
front of the handle, and made fast by a link passing through
the slot to the shaft of the pinions. When digging, in order
to prevent the handle rising on its pinions when the hoist-
ing chain is lifting the bucket through its cut, a hand-lever,
worked by the crane-man and connected with the pinions
by an endless chain passing round a rag wheel on the pinion
shaft, stops their motion, and consequently the rising of the
handle, and compels the bucket to describe an arc of a circle
with the pinion shaft as its centre. Immediately the bucket
has made its cut the leverage is taken off and the handle
rises on its pinions. The hoisting chain is fastened near
the nose of the bucket, passes over a shive at the outer end
of the crane-jib, returns through a pulley on the bucket, is
carried over a second shive at the end of the crane-jib, and,
guided by pulleys through the centre of the swinging points
of the crane, is then carried to the hoisting drum operated
by the engine. Another chain, called the backing chain, is
fastened to the lower part of the handle near the bucket,
and is carried to the backing drum. The backing chain is
used for bringing the bucket back from its centre of gravity
to any point near the bow of the dredge-boat where the cut
is to be commenced. The bucket and handle are lowered
by their own weight, regulated by the hoisting chain, and
placed in position by the backing chain. The hoisting ap-
paratus eonsists of a pair of horizontal engines, which by
means of clutches or friction bands move either the hoist-
ing or backing drums independently of one another.
An improvement on the ordinary crane, which had a
radius of about nineteen feet, has been lately applied to the
Scoop machine manufactured by Messrs. Osgood of Troy—
namely, an extension of the end of the crane-jib, by which
a longer cut ahead can be made by the bucket and a greater
width of bottom covered by the swing of the crane, thus
saving time which would otherwise be lost in moving the
machine. The extension of the jib is carried out nearly
horizontally, the bucket being suspended as before described,
with the exception that the outer shive at the end of the
jib, becomes a travelling one, with a tendency to keep a
position directly over the bucket. In making a cut, there-
fore, the outer shive, starting from the inner edge of the
horizontal extension, follows the bucket in its cut, which is
not immediately the are of a circle with the pinion as a
centre, but a continual forward thrust until the travelling
- LTN
titºrill iſ:
shive is at the outer end of the extension, and not until
then does the pinion become the centre from which the arc
is described for the remainder of the cut. When the exten-
sion is used, the strain is carried from its outer end to the
neck of the crane-post by tie-rods, as shown in the draw-
ing. In machines with the larger-sized buckets the cranes
have a counterpoise attached. In very hard ground the
bucket is taken off and a pick or plough attached, with
which the ground is broken up, to be afterwards picked up
with the bucket. The method of operating is as follows:
the bucket, being clear of the water, is drawn back by the
backing chain, at the same time descending by the slacken-
ing of the hoisting chain and its own weight; as it strikes
the water and is drawn back, the pressure closes the swing-
ing door or back of the bucket, when it is immediately
caught and held fast by the catch. Having reached the
bottom, the strain is brought upon the hoisting chain, and
the backing chain slackened. The bucket then travels
forward as before described, the racks and pinions being
stopped at the proper time by the lever applied by the
crane-man. The bucket having passed through its cut, the
leverage is taken off, the bucket and handle raised, and the
crane on its movable platform swung to either side as de-
sired. A line attached to the catch of the Swing door at
the back of the bucket, which by the raising has come to
be the under side, is then pulled by the crane-man, the
back opened, and the bucket emptied.
These machines are made of various sizes, those most
commonly built having buckets of 3, 1%, and 13 cubic
yards capacity. The dimensions of boat for the larger
machines are about 65 feet length, 26 feet beam, and 6% feet
depth of hold, and having a hoisting chain of 13 inches.
Their power is derived from a pair of 15-inch cylinders
with 12 inches stroke. The dimensions of boat for the
smaller machines are somewhat less, being about 60 feet
length, 24 feet beam, and 5 feet depth of hold, the power
being derived from 7 to 10 inch cylinders, with from 12 to
15 inches stroke.
The larger machines of this pattern, with 3 yards capa-
city of bucket, when working in soft mud under the most
favorable circumstances—that is to say, from a fixed posi-
tion—will average in 20 feet of water about 2000 cubic
yards per day of 10 hours. Under ordinary circumstances
it may be expected, in a series of working days of 10 hours
each, to average about 1300 cubic yards of soft mud or 800
cubic yards of gravel and sand.
In the slips of New York a machine with a bucket of 14
cubic yards capacity, 7-inch cylinders with 12 inches stroke,
a steam-pressure of 60 pounds, and with 200 revolutions,
working in soft mud, in 12 days of 10 hours lifted 10,302
cubic yards, or 859 yards per day. The best day’s work
was 968 yards. The same machine working in Soft
mud at Wallabout, Brooklyn, with a cut of from 2 feet
above to 10 feet below low water, in 131 working days of
10 hours lifted 72,621 cubic yards, or nearly 555 yards per
day of 10 hours. At the same place the same machine,
working in gravel and sand, with a cut of from 15 to 22
feet below low water, in 14 days lifted 5591 cubic yards, or
nearly 399 yards per day of 10 hours.
Another machine, with a 13-yard bucket, and with cyl-





89
DREDGING AND SCOURING.
1410
/
inders of 10 inches diameter and 15 inches stroke, cutting
to a depth of 10 feet through a meadow at the junction of
the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, the material seemingly
consolidated mud, in 26 working days of 10 hours lifted
12,532 cubic yards, an average of 482 yards per day. The
same machine, near Philadelphia, working from a fixed
position, picking up soft mud which had been dumped
under it from scows, and loading into cars, lifted 1000 cubic
yards in 10 hours; its average, however, was about 800
yards per day. These working days include the time lost
in repairing chains and other slight damages incidental to
the best running machines.
The crew of one of these dredgers consists of engineer,
fireman, and two or three deck-hands, including crane-
Iſla, Il.
A tug of 100-horse power can, with 4 scows of about
150 yards capacity each, keep one of the smaller machines
busy when the tow does not exceed three miles. The
smaller dredger consumes about 13 tons, and the tug about
13 tons, of coal per day. A tug is usually manned by a
captain, engineer, fireman, cook, and one or two deck-
hands.
Pump Dredger.—A novel device for utilizing the powers .
of the centrifugal drainage pump has recently been put
in successful operation by the writer in deepening the chan-
nel over the bar at the mouth of the St. John’s River, Fla.
Upon this bar the ocean swell which constantly prevails
is of such exceptional magnitude and violence that the
usual method of dredging into lighters or scows, ordinarily
pursued in still water with either of the dredgers above
mentioned, is entirely impracticable. The plan adopted
was to provide a suitable steamer by charter, and fit her
out with a 9-inch centrifugal drainage pump, two branches
of 6-inch suction pipe, and timber bins on deck for holding
the sand pumped up from the bottom; the pump engine to
be driven by steam from the steamer’s boiler, and the Sand
to be discharged overboard at selected points by flooding
the bins with clear water from the pump.
The steamer is 132 feet long on the keel, 24% feet broad
on the beam, and when ballasted to an even keel draws
about 5% feet of water. She was modelled with a view
to speed, and carries only 100 tons on a draught of 7 feet,
is strongly built with side wheels and short guards, has
one low-pressure engine of 120-horse power, and ample
boiler capacity. A boat with more beam and a fuller
model fore and aft under the water-line would have been
better.
The Pump.–A No. 9 centrifugal drainage pump of the
Andrews patent is located on the main deck aft, about 35
feet from the stern-post. Its suction and discharge open-
ings are each 9 inches in diameter. To the suction open-
ing there are connected, by a 2-way branch-pipe, two 6-
inch suction-pipes, instead of one 9-inch, as usual, the
object being not, only to work on both sides of the boat
simultaneously, but to render the necessary handling of
the pipes as easy and prompt as possible. There is, on
the other hand, considerable disadvantage in working with
two suction-pipes instead of one, on account of a greater
amount of friction for an equivalent suction capacity;
for while a 9-inch pipe has an area of 81 circular inches,
two 6-inch pipes have an aggregate area of only 72 circular
inches. The friction surface is therefore increased as 27
to 36, making the disadvantage from or loss by friction
from this cause as 2 to 3. As a partial compensation for
this increased amount of friction, an increased velocity is
given to water in suction-pipes of less aggregate area than
the discharge-pipe, and a larger proportion of sand is
thereby carried up.
It was necessary also to encounter another disadvantage
by using several bends, of which there were two in each of
the suction-pipes and one in the discharge-pipe, those in
the suction being each one-eighth of a circle, and that in
the discharge-pipe one-fourth of a circle. These bends
reduce the delivery at the rate of 10 per cent. for each turn
of 90°, and about 6 per cent. for each turn of 45°, the re-
ductions in each case being calculated upon the quantity
passing the preceding bend. Thus, the first one-eighth
bend in the suction reduces the quantity to 94 per cent., the
second to 88 per cent., and the one-fourth bend in the dis-
charge to 79 per-cent. The disadvantages, therefore, under
which the apparatus labored may be briefly summed up as
follows: 1. The loss by friction due to the use of two 6-inch,
instead of one 9-inch, suction-pipe is increased 50 per cent. ;
2. The unestimated loss by friction due to the use of suction-
pipes three times as long as the height to which the mate-
rial is to raised; 3. The loss of 21 per cent. by bends in the
suction and discharge-pipes.
The engine uséd to drive the pump consists of two cylin-
ders connected upon one crank at right angles to one an-
other, and 10 inches in diameter by 10-inch stroke each.
Steam is conveyed from the steamer's boiler to the pump-
engine through a 3-inch iron pipe, the usual pressure car-
ried upon the boiler being about 25 pounds to the square
inch. This pressure develops about 26 useful horse-power
(after deducting 25 per cent. for friction of engines and dif-
ference of pressure in the cylinder and boiler), and gives a
speed of about 180 revolutions per minute to the engine
shaft. On this shaft is a pulley 42 inches in diameter, car-
rying a rubber belt 12 inches wide, communicating the
power to the pump-shaft through a pulley 24 inches in
diameter, thus giving the pump-disk and wings about 315
revolutions per minute. This speed in the No. 9 pump is
equal to the work of raising 3000 gallons of clear water per
minute 30 feet high through a 9-inch straight vertical pipe.
The actual height raised above the water on the St. John’s
bar varies with the amount of sand taken on board, from
10 to 11 feet, but as the pipes are 50 feet long, with bends,
and are in two branches instead of one, and as a mixture
of sand and water is heavier and more impeded by friction
than clear water, the loss by friction from all these causes
combined reduces the useful working of the pumps consid-
erably below the average attainable under more favorable
conditions. For these reasons, although 200 revolutions
of the pump-disk per minute will easily raise 3000 gallons
of clearwater 12 feet high through a straight vertical 9-inch
pipe, 300 revolutions are required to raise 2500 gallons of
sand and water 11 feet high through the two inclined suc-
tion-pipes having two turns each, discharged through a
pipe having one turn. To prevent the ends of the suction-
pipes being lifted off the bottom by the pitching of the boat,
and as a precaution against accident, a portion of each
pipe is made flexible, being composed of 6-inch rubber hose
stretched over a coil of wire. In addition the ends are
loaded with an iron frame or drag, each weighing about
250 pounds, which is intended to move flat along the
bottom during the operation of dredging. To the under
surface of this frame, directly below the mouth of the pipe,
a number of teeth or knives are attached to stir up the sand
and aid its entrance into the pipes. A chain attached to
each drag, and leading to the deck of the steamer on either
side, takes the strain from the pipe when the drag is down
and the steamer in motion. Tackles are arranged for lift-
ing the pipes from the bottom when not dredging, or when
pumping clear water to discharge the sand from the bins.
For receiving the sand, bins are located along the main
deck, fore and aft, on each side of the steamer's engine, each
bin being provided with a sliding gate over the steamer's
side, which can be opened and closed at pleasure. The
bottom of the bins slopes downward towards the gates.
They are filled from two open troughs, one from each
branch of the discharge-pipe, provided at suitable intervals
with valves or gates, so that the load can be distributed to
the bins wherever desired.
The proportion of sand that can be pumped depends
greatly upon its specific gravity and fineness. The calca-
reous and argillaceous sands flow more freely than the
silicious, and fine sands are less liable to choke the pipe
than those that are coarse. When working at high speed,
50 to 55 per cent. of sand can easily be raised through a
straight vertical pipe, giving for every 10 cubic yards of
material discharged 5 to 5% cubic yards of compact sand.
With the appliances used on the St. John’s bar the propor-
tion of sand seldom exceeded 45 per cent., generally rang-
ing from 30 to 35 per cent. when working under the most
favorable conditions. In pumping 2500 gallons, or 12.6
cubic yards, of sand and water per minute, we would there-
fore get from 3.7 to 4.3 cubic yards of sand. During the
early stages of the work, before the teeth under the drag
had been properly arranged to aid the flow of sand into the
pipes, the yield was considerably below this average, not
often exceeding, and frequently falling below, 2 cubic yards
of sand per minute during the time actually employed in
pumping.
The manner of conducting the dredging may be briefly
described as follows: The steamer, with the suction-pipes
up, first crosses the bar to the outside, then turns around
and steams slowly over the bar with just sufficient speed
to maintain steerage-way, lowering the pipes and starting
the pump as soon as the outer edge of the bar is reached.
Arriving at the inside, the pump is stopped, the pipes
raised, and the steamer turned round again. She then
crosses slowly to the outside, pumping as before ; and the
quantity of sand discharged into the bins during these two
passages over the bar is a load, whether great or small.
While the steamer is turning around on the outside, pre-
paratory to taking in another load, the side gates of the
bins are opened, the suction-pipes are raised from the bot-
tom, and the pump is run at full speed on clear water. By
this means, assisted to Some extent when necessary by men
in the bins with hoes, the sand is all discharged into deep
water by the time the steamer has again reached the outer
edge of the bar, when the dredging is resumed. The time
DRED SCOTT CASE—DRESDEN.
required to turn the steamer twice is 12 to 13 minutes, one
half of which, or the time occupied in making the turn on
the inside, is lost, as neither the work of dredging the sand
nor discharging it from the bins is in progress during that
interval.
The last work carried on with this dredger was during
the first few months of the fiscal year ending June 30,
1873, for a period of 74 days, of which 23 days were lost
by bad weather. The expenses were the same as for work-
ing days, the boat being under charter.
The average time worked per day was 6 hours; the aver-
age quantity of sand removed per hour was 78 cubic yards;
the average quantity of sand removed per day was 468
cubic yards, the total quantity in 51 working days being
23,868 cubic yards; the average cost for the entire period
was 311's cents per cubic yard. The least cost during any
one month for dredging and dumping the sand was in July,
1872, when it amounted to 23% cents per cubic yard; the
least cost during any one week was 19% cents per cubic
yard; the least cost during any one day was 15 cents per
cubic yard.
With a centrifugal drainage pump sand can be easily
discharged at a height of 30 feet above the level of the
water; and when the distance to which it has to be con-
veyed is so great that open troughs from the discharge-
pipe to the dumping-ground cannot have sufficient inclina-
tion to secure a free flow of the sand and water, it would
be necessary to make the discharge through pipes, increas-
ing the power expended in proportion to their length, so
as to ensure a velocity that will transport the sand and
prevent choking. The pump itself should in all cases be
placed as low as possible, and it would generally be prac-
ticable to locate it from three to five feet above the surface
of the water.
The first or contractor's cost of dredging under these
circumstances, with a 9-inch pump, would probably not
exceed 8 or 9 cents per cubic yard, inclusive of running
expenses, wear and tear of machinery, and all stoppages
for repairs and other contingencies. Indeed, assuming
the pump on St. John’s bar to have worked continuously
in raising sand 10 hours per day, except Sundays, during
the month of May, 1872, with the same average results per
hour actually attained while pumping, thus charging the
six working days of each week with the expense of seven,
the cost of raising the sand into the bins would have been
only 84%, cents per cubic yard, and if it could at the same
time have also been continuously discharged to the dump-
ing-ground through either open troughs or pipes, no addi-
tional expense, except a trifle for increased power, would
have been incurred. There were, moreover, constant losses
encountered on the bar while actually pumping which
would not occur in still water, and of which no account has
been taken, due to the pitching of the boat, which fre-
quently lifted the ends of the suction-pipes from the bot-
tom. It is therefore considered safe to estimate the con-
tractor's cost of removing sand at 9 cents per cubic yard
when the conditions are such that the work of raising the
sand and discharging it to the dumping-ground can be
carried on simultaneously and continuously. (See DEEP-
SEA DREDGING, by PROF. A. E. VERRILL.)
Q. A. GILLMoRE, U. S. Army.
Dred Scott Case (the case of Scott v. Sandford in
the Supreme Court of the U. S. in 1856, 19 Howard R.,
393). A slave named Dred Scott was carried by his mas-
ter (Sandford) from Missouri into Illinois and Wisconsin,
and thence back to Missouri. Scott was descended from
African ancestors, who were slaves. He brought an action
in the circuit court of the U. S. to assert his title to free-
dom. The judgment of that tribunal was carried by writ
of error to the Supreme Court. It was there decided by a
majority of the court that if Scott were assumed to be free,
he was not a “citizen of a State,” so as to bring the action;
and further that he was still a slave. Accordingly, the case
was dismissed for want of jurisdiction on the part of the
circuit court. In reaching the conclusion that he was still
a slave, the court held that the act of Congress which pro-
hibited a citizen from holding slaves in the Territories of
the U. S. north of thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes
N. latitude was unconstitutional and void. The action
of the court has been severely criticised in respect to this
last point, as being unwarranted after the decision was
made that Scott, considered as a freeman, was not a citizen.
It is maintained, on the other hand, that both questions
under the pleadings were properly decided. Some recent
information as to the circumstances under which the de-
cision was rendered will be found in letters of Justices
Campbell and Nelson in Tyler’s “Life of Chief-Justice
Taney,” pp. 382–385. The chief justice, when delivering
the opinion of the court, made an historical survey of the
public opinion of the civilized world, at the time of the
formation of the American Constitution, concerning the
1411
African race. Among other things he said: “They (the
Africans) had for more than a century before been regarded
as beings of an inferior order, and altogether unfit to asso-
ciate with the white race, either in Social or political rela-
tions, and so far inferior that they had no rights which the
white man was bound to respect.” Much injustice has been
done him by an erroneous statement, still occasionally re-
peated, that the chief-justice had himself affirmed that the
negro had “no rights which the white man was bound to
respect.” T. W. DwighT.
Dreisse/na [named in honor of Dr. Dreyssen, a Bel-
gian naturalist], a genus of fresh-water lamellibranchiate
mollusks of the mussel family (Mytilidae), differing, how-
ever, from the true mussel in having the mantle closed ex-
cept at the branchial and anal slits. Dreissena polymor-
pha, a Russian species, is remarkable for its recent arrival
into English waters, where it has invaded even the water-
pipes of London. Ten species are fossil in Europe.
Drelincourt (CHARLEs), a French Protestant minister,
born at Sedan July 10, 1595. He preached at Charenton
near Paris, and gained great popularity. He was also dis-
tinguished as a writer of polemical theology. Among his
very numerous works was “Consolations against the Fear
of Death " (1651), which was translated into English, and
passed through many editions. Died in Paris Nov. 3, 1669.
—His son, CHARLEs DRELINCOURT (1633–97), physician to
William III. and Queen Mary, was the author of numerous
medical works.
Drenthe, a province of the Netherlands bordering on
Prussia, has an area of 1032 square miles. The surface is
level, and partly occupied by marshes. . A large portion
of the soil is poor. The rearing of cattle is the principal
branch of industry. Pop. in 1870, 108,056. Capital, Assen.
Drepa/nius (LATINUS PACATUs), a Gallic rhetorician,
born in Aquitania, in the south of Gaul, is classed among
the Latin Panegyrists. He attained the rank of proconsul
A. D. 390, and under this title was addressed by Ausonius
in one of his poems, in which he pays a high tribute to
the poetical abilities of Drepanius. Of his poetry nothing
remains, but the panegyric which he delivered in the
presence of the emperor Theodosius in 389 A. D., when
he was sent to congratulate the conqueror on the overthrow
of Maximus, is extant, and is contained in the collection
entitled “Panegyrici Veteres,” edited by Jaeger, Nurem-
berg, 1799, 2 vols. 8vo. It is published separately also by
Arntzen, 1753, 4to, Amsterdam. HENRY DRISLER.
Dres/bach, a post-township of Winona co., Minn.
Pop. 311.
Dres/den, the capital of the kingdom of Saxony, is
situated in a beautiful valley on both sides of the river
Elbe, 116 miles by railway S. of Berlin and 62 miles E. S. E.
of Leipsic; lat. 51° 3' 16" N., lon. 13° 44' E. It is di-
vided by the Elbe into the old town and new town, the lat-
ter of which is on the right bank of the river, here crossed
by a fine stone bridge. Railways extending in several di-
rections connect Dresden with Berlin, Leipsic, Prague, and
other cities. The Altstadt has narrow streets bordered by
high houses. The most remarkable public edifices are the
royal palace, founded in 1534; the prince's palace; the
Japanese palace or Augusteum; the Brühl terrace; a hand-
some church called Frauenkirche, which has a tower 355
feet high; the Roman Catholic church, with a tower 378
feet high ; and the Sophienkirche. Dresden has a royal
public library containing over 300,000 volumes; an acad-
emy of art; a museum of natural history; an opera-house;
a theatre; a mint; two gymnasia; a polytechnic school,
realschulen, two normal schools, one female high School,
two schools of commerce and veterinary medicine, and asy-
lums for the blind and for the deaf and dumb ; and a cele-
brated picture-gallery, which is considered the richest
collection in Germany. It contains nearly 1500 paintings,
mostly by Italian and Flemish masters. In the royal pal-
ace are the celebrated “Green Vaults,” containing a very
large and valuable collection of gems, articles of vertu, etc.
This city has manufactures of silk and woollen stuffs, jew-
elry, porcelain, silver-ware, gloves, carpets, musical instru-
ments, chemical products, and painters’ canvas. Steam-
boats navigate the Elbe between this place and the sea.
The environs of Dresden are delightful, and are furnished
with fine gardens and promenades. The city was founded
about the eleventh century, and became the capital of Sax-
ony in 1270. It was fortified in 1510, and suffered severely
in the Thirty Years' war, and also in 1813, when it was the
head-quarters of Napoleon’s army. (See DRESDEN, BATTLE
or.) Pop. in 1871, 177,089.
Dresden, a township of Chickasaw co., Ia. Pop. 535.
Dresden, a township and post-village of Lincoln co.,
Me., on the Maine Central R. R., about 20 miles S. of Au-
gusta. Pop. 990.
1412
DRESIDEN-DRISLE.R.
Dresden, a post-village of Elk Fork township, Pettis
co., Mo., on the Missouri Pacific R. R., 70 miles W. by N.
of Jefferson City. Pop. 348. -
Dresden, a township of Washington co., N.Y. P. 684.
Dresden, a post-village of Torrey township, Yates
co., N. Y. It is situated on Seneca Lake, at the terminus
of Crooked Lake Canal, and has a steamboat landing.
Dresden, a post-village of Muskingum co., O., at the
head of navigation of the Muskingum River, is the north-
ern terminus of the Cincinnati and Muskingum Valley
R. R., 14 miles N. of Zanesville, and is on the Pittsburg
Cincinnati and St. Louis R. R. Coal is mined in the
vicinity. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1156.
Dresden, a post-village, capital of Weakley co., Tenn.,
on the Nashville and North-western R. R. It has two
churches, a high school, and one weekly newspaper. Cot-
ton and corn are the chief exports. Pop. 355.
T. H. BAKER, “WEST TENNESSEE DEMOCRAT.”
Dresden, Battle of. Dresden was occupied by a
French army of 30,000 men, when, on the 23d of Aug.,
1813, the army of the allies appeared before it. Napoleon,
with the main army, came to relieve it, and entered the
city on the 26th of the same month. Schwarzenberg, the
commander of the allied army, immediately assaulted and
bombarded the city. Having been repulsed by a sally of
the French guard on the 26th, he renewed the attack on the
27th, when a great pitched battle was fought, Napoleon
gaining the victory. -
Dress [from the Fr. dresser, to “make straight,” to
“adjust”], the general name for the artificial vesture worn
more or less by nearly all the human race. Among savage
nations such coverings were originally made of the skins
of animals, the inner bark of plants, etc., and were worn
sometimes for protection against the weather, and some-
times from a desire of ornament. As civilization advances
these primitive coverings give place to manufactured fab-
rics of silk, wool, cotton, and flax. Profane history has
no mention of a time when clothes were unknown to the
human race; and the distinction between the dresses of the
different sexes appears to have been observed from imme-
morial time. Homer mentions the “trailing robes” of the
Trojan ladies, and the oldest sculptures seem to confirm this
V le W.
Dres'sing, a term applied to gum, starch, and other
substances used to stiffen and prepare linen, cotton, and
similar fabrics.
Dressings, in architecture, mouldings and simple
sculptured decorations around doors and windows.
Dreux (anc. Durocasses), a town of France, department
of Eure-et-Loir, on the river Blaise, about 50 miles W. S. W.
of Paris and 22 miles N. of Chartres. It has a fine Gothic
church, a town-hall, and a theatre; also manufactures of
serge, woollen hosiery, hats, etc. Here the Catholic army
led by Constable Montmorenci defeated the prince of Condé
and the Huguenots in 1562. Pop. 7237.
Drew, a county in the S. E. of Arkansas. Area, 900
square miles. It is partly drained by Bayou Bartholomew,
and the Saline River forms part of the western boundary.
The soil is fertile. The surface is level, partly timbered
and partly prairie. Corn and cotton are raised. Capital,
Monticello. Pop. 9960.
Drew (DANIEL), a noted New York capitalist, was born
in Carmel, Putnam co., N. Y., in 1797, commenced active
life as a cattle-drover, became conspicuous in the steamboat
business, still later in that of railroads, especially in the
fortunes and misfortunes of the Erie road, and at last was
recognized as a chieftain in the stock speculations of Wall
street. He has also been distinguished by liberality to
certain educational interests of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, having founded the Drew Ladies' Seminary at
Carmel, N. Y., and the Drew Theological Seminary at
Madison, N. J.
Drew (SAMUEL), a noted Wesleyan theologian and met-
aphysician, was born at St. Anstell in 1765, settled in Lon-
don in 1819, and died at Helston in 1833. He was an in-
timate friend of the famous Dr. Adam Clark, and of. Dr.
Thomas Coke, the first American Methodist bishop, whose
“Life” he wrote. Among his other works, the principal
are “F'ssay on the Immateriality and Immortality of the
Soul’’ (1802), “Essay on the Identity and General Resur-
rection of the Human Body” (1809), and “History of Corn-
wall ” (1820–24). “His theological writings, though show-
ing more of ingenious subtlety than of logic, are surprising
examples of intellectual power in a special direction, and
have given him a widespread, if not a permanent, fame.”
(Stevens's History of Methodism.)
Drew Plantation, a township of Penobscot co., Me.
Pop. 85. - * -
Drew'rysville, a post-township of Southampton co.,
Va. Pop. 1811.
Drew Theological Seminary was founded in 1868
at Madison, N.J., by a donation of about half a million
dollars from Daniel Drew. (See above.) It was organized
chiefly by the Rev. Dr. J. McClintock, who became its first
president. (See McCLINTOCK.) Its real estate and build-
ings are ample and beautifully located, and its faculty
effective. It has (in 1873) about a hundred students. It
is under the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church.
Drey'se, von (Joh ANN NIKorAUs), the inventor of the
“needle-gun,” was born at Sömmerda, in Prussia, Nov. 20,
1787. He was the son of a locksmith, worked from 1809
to 1814 in a Paris gun-factory, established after his return
to Germany, in his native town, an iron-Ware factory, and
devoted his attention chiefly to the improvement of fire-
arms. After several attempts, he perfected the famous
NEEDLE-GUN (which see) in 1836. It was introduced into
the Prussian army in 1840. In 1841 he established an ex-
tensive gun and ammunition-factory. He died Dec. 9, 1867.
—His son, FRANz von DREYSE, born Mar. 2, 1822, has con-
siderably enlarged the establishment.
Drift, in geology (more fully Glacial Drift), is a term.
applied to boulder clay and collections of stones and earth
formed in the tertiary period by the agency of glaciers.
Some geologists limit the term drift to material that has
been recently moved by water, thus including Sands, marls,
and gravels, stratified and unstratified. Such deposits are
sometimes called diluvium. They include the remains of
animals that have recently inhabited the earth, and of
some species which are now extinct. Human remains have
also been found in these drift deposits in sufficient abun-
dance to render it probable that the human race existed con-
temporaneously with the elephants, rhinoceroses, and gigan-
tic deer of the tertiary period. These remains render the
drift one of the most interesting of deposits. (See GEOLOGY,
by PROF. J. W. D.Awson, LL.D., F. R. S., and GLACIAL
PERIOD.)
DRIFT, in navigation, signifies the deviation in a ship’s
course caused by the action of a contrary wind, or the angle
which the line of a ship's course makes with the meridian
when she is driven by the wind or waves, and is not gov-
erned by the helm.
Drift'way, a small subterranean gallery driven in
advance of a tunnel, is the first operation in tunnelling,
and everything depends on its being correctly planned and
located. -
Drift/wood, a township of Jackson co., Ind. Pop. 922.
Drill, or Drilling [Ger. Drillich], a strong and fine
linen fabric of a satin-like finish, used for summer clothing
for gentlemen. Ordinary plain drills are worked with five
shafts.
Drill. See BLASTING, by GEN. J.G. FostER, U. S. Army.
Drill, an old English word for an ape, is supposed by
Huxley to be the source of the name mandrill (i. e. a “man-
like ape”), but the latter word appears to be the original
one. (See MANDRILL.) The term drill is now applied
especially to the Cynocephalus leucophaeus, a baboon of
Africa.
Drill, in agriculture, the sowing of crops in rows by
means of various machines of comparatively recent inven-
tion. The advantage of this mode of cultivation is, that
it admits of destroying the weeds and stirring the soil be-
tween the rows of plants. Wheat is cultivated in drills in
parts of Europe with great success.
Drill, Military, the name given to the instruction of
soldiers and the exercises through which they are required
to pass. There are many varieties of drill, that of the cav-
alry, infantry, and artillery being all different. The bat-
talion-drill, company-drill, squad-drill, and skirmish-drill
likewise vary in the routine of exercises. In the navy, also,
the drilling of seamen is different, according to their duties.
Drip, in architecture, the same as CORONA (which see).
Dris’Ier (HENRY), LL.D., an American scholar, born
Dec. 27, 1818, graduated at Columbia College in 1839, was
classical instructor in its grammar-school for several years,
appointed tutor of the Greek and Latin languages in the
college (1843), adjunct professor in the same department
(1845), professor of Latin (1857), and transferred to the
chair of Greek on the death of Dr. Anthon, in 1867; in
the same year was acting president of the college during
President Barnard’s absence as a commissioner to the Ex-
position Universelle in Paris. For several years after leav- .
ing college he was engaged with Dr. Anthon on his series
of classical text-books, etc. Besides several pamphlets and
school-books, his contributions to classical loarning are
an enlarged edition of Liddell and Scott's translation of
Passow’s “Greek Lexicon" (1846), and a revised and
DRIVER—DROWNING.
1413
greatly enlarged edition of Yonge’s “English-Greek Lex-
icon" (1870).
Dri’ver, also called the Spanker, in navigation, is a
large quadrilateral sail hoisted on the mizzen gaff, and ex-
tended at the bottom by a boom called the driver-boom. It
is the principal “fore-and-aft " sail, and is very important
in an adverse wind.
Driving Wheel. In machinery, this term is applied
to the wheel which communicates the motion to the pinion,
or the second wheel deriving its motion from the first, which
may be either a multiplying or diminishing wheel. The
large wheels of locomotive engines are also called driving
wheels.
Drogheda’, a seaport-town of Ireland, in Leinster, on
the boundary between the counties of Louth and Meath,
and on the river Boyne, 4 miles from its entrance into the
sea, and 25 miles N. of Dublin; lat. 53° 44' N., lon. 6° 12'
W. The Dublin and Belfast Railway here crosses the Boyne
by a viaduct ninety-five feet high. It has a Roman Cath-
olic cathedral, a custom-house, and several convents; also
manufactures of cotton and linen fabrics, steam-engines,
etc. Vessels of 400 tons can ascend the river to this port,
from which grain, cattle, linen, hides, butter, and ale are
exported, mostly to Liverpool. Pop. in 1871, 16,135.
Drogheda, MARQUESSEs of (1791), earls of Drogheda
(1661), Wiscounts Moore (1621), Barons Moore (Ireland,
1616), Barons Moore of Moore Place, Kent (United King-
dom, 1801).-HENRY FRANCIS SEYMoUR MooRE, third mar-
quess, K. P., P. C., born Aug. 14, 1825, succeeded his uncle
in 1837.
Drohobicz, a town of Austria, in Galicia, is on a tribu-
tary of the Dneister, 18 miles S. E. of Sambor. It has a
castle, two handsome churches, a monastery, and extensive
salt-works. Pop. in 1869, 16,884.
Droit’wich (anc. Salinae), a town of England, in Wor-
cestershire, on the Bristol and Birmingham Railway, 7
miles N. N. E. of Worcester. It derives its prosperity
chiefly from its trade in salt, for which it has been famous
from remote times. Here are brine-springs rising from a
depth of 200 feet through new red sandstone, and yielding
'annually about 100,000 tons of salt, said to be the best in
Europe. Pop. in 1871, 3504.
Drôme, a department in the S. E. part of France, has
an area of 2519 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by
the river Rhone, and drained by the Drôme. The surface
is partly hilly and mountainous. Coal, copper, iron, lead,
and marble are found here. The highlands are covered
with forests of oak, pine, beech, and chestnut. Among the
staple productions are grapes, olives, chestnuts, silk, and
wine of excellent quality. The wine called L'Hermitage is
celebrated. Drôme is intersected by the Lyons and Avi-
gnon Railway. Capital, Valence. Pop. in 1872, 320,417.
Dromſedary [from the Gr. 8pógos, a “running,” so
named from its swiftness], (Camelus dromedarius), the name
given to the Arabian and African camel, a species differing
from the Bactrian camel in having only one hump on the
back. It has also more slenderness and symmetry of form.
Its usual pace is a trot, which it often maintains for many
hours together at the rate of nine miles an hour. The
dromedary surpasses other camels in speed, and can travel
several days without drink. It is extensively used as a
beast of burden in Africa and Arabia. (See CAMEL.)
Dromtheim. See TRONDHJEM.
Dropping Tube, in chemistry, a slender tapering tube
open at both ends, but terminating at the lower in a narrow
orifice, used to supply liquids in delicate experiments, drop
by drop. A bulb to hold the liquid is blown near the upper
extremity. The flow is regulated by placing the finger on
the open upper end, so as partially or entirely to close it.
Drop'sy [a corruption of the old English hydropsy; Gr.
#8poſt, from $80p, “water;” Lat. hydropisis; Fr. hydropisie;
Ger. Wasserswcht (i. e. “water-sickness”)], a disease cha-
racterized by excess of the natural secretion of fluid in any
of the Serous cavities of the body or in the areolar tissue.
If the cerebro-spinal fluid be increased, it constitutes hy-
drocephalus, or “water on the brain.” If the excessive
secretion (exudation) takes place from the pleura, it is
called hydrothorac, or “dropsy of the chest.” If the fluid
collect in the abdominal cavity, the disease is called ascites
(from the Gr. &orkós, a “skin’ or leathern bag for water or
wine, alluding to the form of the patient’s body), a disease
which may arise without assignable cause, but which most
frequently comes from cirrhosis of the liver, a contracted,
hardened condition of that organ, mechanically obstruct-
ing the portal circulation, and thus leading to transudation
of serum from the blood-vessels. Habitual intemperance
is its most frequent cause. General dropsy of the serous
and areolar tissues is called anasarca (from the Gr. &vá,
“ throughout,” and oráp; (gen. orapkós), the “flesh”). Ob-
structive organic disease of the heart and degenerative dis-
eases of the kidneys are the most frequent causes of gene-
ral dropsy, which is therefore a very important symptom.
Hydropericardium, or “water on the heart,” hydrarthrus,
or effusion into a joint, hydrorachis, which is seated in the
spinal canal, and hydrocele, in the scrotum, are forms of
dropsy. Ovarian dropsy or ovarian tumor is a fluid collec-
tion occurring in ovarian cysts, which may be unilocular
(of one sac) or multilocular (composed of many aggre-
gated cysts), the whole frequently forming a mass of enor-
mous size. Thus far, its only successful treatment con-
sists. in the removal of the cysts by excision, one of the
boldest, and, on the whole, one of the best, of the more
recent surgical operations. -
REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Dros’ era [from the Gr. Spoorepós, “dewy’], a genus of
perennial herbaceous plants of the order Droseraceae, popu-
larly called sun-dew, several species of which are natives
of the U. S. and of England. From the glands of the leaves
exude drops of a clear fluid glittering like dewdrops; hence
the name. The flower opens only in sunshine.
Drosera/ceae [from Drosera, one of the general, a
natural order of herbaceous exogenous plants which grow
in bogs or marshy places in many parts of the world.
They mostly have glandular hairs, and hypogynous, pen-
tamerous flowers. The fruit is a 1-celled pod or capsule. .
This order comprises the Venus's flytrap (see DIONAEA) and
the Drosera (sun-dew), several species of which are natives
of the U. S.
Drosom/eter [Gr. 8póoros, “dew,” and perpov, “meas-
ure”], an instrument for measuring the quantity of dew
which falls upon the surface of an exposed body. It is in
the form of a balance; the body under observation is sup-
ported by one arm, while the weights are placed in a scale-
pan attached to the other, and protected from the dew.
Dros'sen, a town of Prussia, in the province of Bran-
denburg, has a normal school, tanneries, cloth-factories,
and important cattle-markets. Pop. in 1871, 5231.
Drosſte zu Wisch/ering, von (CLEMENS AUGUST),
FREIHERR, a German archbishop, born Jan. 22, 1773, be-
came vicar-general in 1805, assistant bishop of the diocese
of Münster in 1825, and archbishop of Cologne in 1835.
In consequence of difficulties with the Prussian govern-
ment in regard to mixed marriages, which the archbishop
forbade the priests to solemnize unless they received the
promise that all the children would be brought up in the
Catholic religion, he was imprisoned in the fortress Minden
in 1837, but was released in 1841, and died Oct. 19, 1845.
His imprisonment called forth an extraordinary excitement
in Germany, and greatly strengthened the influence of the
Catholic Church.
Drouyn de Lhuys (Édouard), a French diplomatist,
born at Paris Nov. 19, 1805. He was appointed director
of the commercial bureau in the ministry of foreign affairs
in 1840. Having voted in the Chamber of Deputies against
the ministry, he was removed from office in 1845. He was
minister of foreign affairs in the first cabinet of Louis Na-
poleon in 1848, was sent as minister to London in 1849, and
was a conservative member of the National Assembly in
1851. He was appointed minister of foreign affairs in July,
1852, resigned in 1855, and was restored to that position in
Oct., 1862. He again resigned office in 1866.
Drown'ing, death by long-continued submersion in
water. The recovery of persons after apparent death from
drowning is a very important subject. The following rules
are derived from the experience of the best physicians: (1)
It is necessary in all cases to keep the body cool until res-
piration be re-established, since the application of warmth
(both in frozen and nearly drowned persons) seems to arouse
those dormant energies that absolutely require the aëration
of the blood, which failing, death ensues. (2) Respiration
must be artificially established, either by direct inflation
of the lungs by the breath or the bellows, or, much better,
by the “Marshall Hall method” or some of its modifica-
tions. The patient being in a horizontal position to facili-
tate the exit of water from the lungs, and the head being
slightly raised, the lungs are alternately inflated and com-
pressed by gently rolling the body from a prone to a half-
prone position (upon one side), and reversing the process.
The lungs may also be inflated by retracting the arms with
some force, and by pressure upon the thorax. (3) Expose
the face and chest to the air, unless the weather be very
cold. (4) Rub the limbs upward, and as soon as dry cloth-
ing can be procured put it upon the patient. (5) Avoid
the use of the galvanic battery, which is always dangerous,
even in experienced hands. (6) Continue these operations
until, if possible, natural respiration be re-established. Cases
are reported where artificial respiration had to be kept up
1414
DROYLSDEN–DRUMMOND OF HAWTHORNDEN.
for hours before signs of life appeared. Similar treatment
should be employed in all cases of so-called “asphyxia”
from whatever cause.
REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
DROWNING, as a capital punishment, was formerly prac-
tised in various parts of the Old World. In the Anglo-
Saxon codes women convicted of theft were condemned to
be drowned. The ancient Burgundians condemned a faith-
less wife to be smothered in mud. This form of punish-
ment was common in the Middle Ages, and seems to have
been principally inflicted upon women. It was not abol-
ished in Scotland till 1685, and in Austria, it lasted till 1776.
Droyls/den, a village of England, in Lancashire, on
the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, 4 miles E. of Man-
chester. It has extensive manufactures of cotton and sev-
eral dye-works. It has increased rapidly in recent times.
Pop. 5980. -
Droy'sen (Johan N GUSTAV), a German historian, born
at Trepton July 6, 1808. He became in 1833 lecturer on
history in the University of Berlin, in 1840 professor at
Riel, in 1851 at Jena, and in 1859 at Berlin. He published,
besides other works, a “History of Alexander the Great”
(1833), a “History of Hellenism” (2 vols., 1836–43), a
“Life of Field-marshal Count Tork von Wartenburg’” (4th
ed. 1863), and an “Outline of the Science of History” (3d
ed. 1869). His “History of Prussian Politics” (vol. i.-iv.,
1855–70) is called his most important work.
Troz (FRANÇors XAvTER Joseph), a French author and
moralist, born at Besançon Oct. 31, 1773. He produced in
1806 an “Essay on Happiness,” and gained the Montyon
prize in 1824 for his treatise “On Moral Philosophy.” His
reputation is founded chiefly on his “History of the Reign
of Louis XVI.” (3 vols., 1839–42). Died Nov. 4, 1850.
Druey (CHARLEs), a Swiss politician, born in 1799, was
a leader of the liberal party. He was president of the
provisional government formed in 1845, and was an op-
ponent of the Sonderbund. He promoted the adoption
of the new constitution in 1848, and was president of the
federal council in 1850. Died Mar. 29, 1855.
Drug [Fr. drogue; It. droga], any substance used in the
preparation of medicine. In commerce, the term includes
also dyestuffs, chemicals, varnishes, etc.
Drug'get, a coarse woollen fabric used for covering
carpets or as a substitute for carpets. It was formerly
used for clothing by the women of the lower classes.
Dru’id’s [Gr. 8putòat; Lat. druidae, thought by some to
be derived from the Celtic derw; Gr. 8p53, an “ oak,” a tree
which they revered, but perhaps from the Celtic de-rouyd,
“God’s speaker”], the priests of the ancient Celtic religion.
In Caesar’s time they formed an exclusive class, which
shared with the nobility and the knights the rule over the
people, and were free from taxes and from military service.
They presided at the sacrifices, instructed the youth, and
guarded the secret doctrines. of religion. They acted as
judges in the difficulties between different tribes, and ex-
ercised the art of prophecy and of sacred minstrelsy. They
were also skilled in medicine, in astrology, the division of
time, and other branches of knowledge, which were kept
secret from the masses of the people. They practised the
sacrifice of human beings, recognized a ruling destiny and
the immortality of the soul, and reverenced the oak, and
mistletoe as sacred. Their political importance ceased on
the subjection of Gaul to the Romans, and their religious
service was abolished by a decree of the emperor Claudius.
There were also druidesses of several ranks. Of the druid-
ical doctrines little is known.
Druids, Orders of. In London in 1781 a club of
“ Druids” was founded for mutual entertainment. The
society thus begun gradually extended, forming an organi-
zation for reciprocal assistance in cases of sickness or death.
A system of ceremonies was adopted similar to that of the
Freemasons, but professedly based on traditions handed
down from the ancient Druids. As the society extended,
many changes were introduced, and the original organiza-
tion in course of time was divided into a great number of
independent “Orders of Druids.” The oldest branch of the
Society holds its sessions - in London. Another branch,
calling itself the “Order of Druids in England,” is very
numerous in that country; in 1870 it numbered 1022 lodges,
with 52,946 members. The whole number of members be-
longing to the different orders in Great Britain, Australia,
and the U. S. is estimated at above 100,000. The first
lodge in the U. S. was founded in New York in 1833. The
society continued to extend, and at length arose the “Grand
Grove of the U. S. of the United Ancient Order of the
Druids,” under whose auspices there had been established
in 1870, 149 “groves,” numbering in all about 15,000
members. Of latter time different degrees have been insti-
tuted. In America, besides the degree conferred at the
first entrance, there are five others. Degrees have also been
instituted in England, but they are different from those
used in the U. S. Though of purely English origin, the
German element in the orders of Druids has of late ob-
tained a decided preponderance in the U. S., so that nearly
if not quite two-thirds of the “groves” conduct their pro-
ceedings in the German language.
Drum. [Fr. tambour ; Ger. Trommel], a martial musical
instrument, is a hollow cylinder of wood or metal having skin
or parchment stretched across one or both ends, on which
the drummer beats with a wooden stick called a drum-stick.
The military drum is used to give various signals, as well
as for music. There are three kinds of drums—the side
drum, the big or bass drum, and the kettle drum. The first
of these is suspended at the side of the drummer, who beats
on one end of it only. Strings of catgut, called snares, are
stretched across the other end; hence it is often called a
snare drum. The bass drum is beaten on both ends. The
kettle drum is of hemispherical form, and has but one head
or parchment. It was formerly used in martial music, but
is now confined to the orchestra. t -
DRUM, in architecture, the upright part of a cupola above
or below a dome. The term is generally applied to the
lower part. The solid part or vase of a Corinthian or
Composite capital beneath the acanthus leaves is called a
drum. The term drum is applied in machinery to a hollow
cylinder fixed upon a shaft for the purpose of driving
another cylinder by a band.
DRUM, the name given in the eighteenth century to a
crowded fashionable assembly, so styled, says Smollett,
“from the noise and emptiness of the entertainment.” . A
large assembly of the kind was called a “ drum-major.”
Trum (SIMON H.), an American officer, born in 1807 in
Pennsylvania, graduated at West Point in 1830, and Aug.
18, 1846, captain Fourth Artillery. He served at the Mili-
tary Academy as assistant instructor 1830–32; on Black
Hawk expedition 1832; chiefly at sea-board posts 1833–
36; in Florida war 1836–37 and 1838–39; removing
Cherokees to the West 1838; suppressing Canada border
disturbances 1839–41; as assistant quartermaster 1846;
in the military occupation of Texas 1846; and in the war
with Mexico 1846–47, engaged at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo,
Contreras (recaptured Capt. O’Brien’s guns lost without
dishonor at Buena Vista), Molino del Rey, Chapultepec, and ,
assault of the city of Mexico, where, after entering the
Belen Gate, and while directing the fire of a captured
9-pounder (added to the battery commanded by him) with
consummate skill, indomitable energy, and most conspic-
uous gallantry, he was killed Sept. 13, 1847, aged forty.
2. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Dru/mann (KARI, WILHELM), a German historian,
born near Halberstadt June 11, 1786. He obtained the
chair of philology at Königsberg in 1817. His most im-
portant work is a “History of Rome” (6 vols., 1834–44),
which is highly esteemed. Died July 29, 1861. -
Drum/fish (Pogonias chromis), a marine fish of the
U. S. coasts, found as far S. as Florida. It derives its name
from the peculiar sound it emits, somewhat resembling
the beat of a drum. It produces this sound after it is
caught as well as when in the water. It is caught in great
numbers on the south shore of Long Island, and when
young is delicate eating. It sometimes reaches eighty
pounds in weight. The Pogonias fasciatus of the American
Atlantic coasts emits the same sounds. These fishes are
of the family Scienidae, many members of, which can pro-
duce remarkable sounds.
Drum/mer, a person who beats on a drum. Each
company of U. S. infantry has one fifer and one drummer,
who rank as privates. They execute signals, perform at
parades, drills, and reviews, and attend the wounded on the
battle-field. The drummers and, fifers collectively consti-
tute the regimental music or drum-corps, and are under a
principal musician, sometimes called a drum-major.
Drum/mond, a county of Canada, in Quebec, has an
area of about 600 square miles. It is intersected by the
river St. Francis. Capital, Drummondville. Pop. in 1871,
14,281. - -
Drummond (THOMAs), CAPTAIN R. E., a Scottish en-
gineer, was born in Edinburgh in Oct., 1797. He was well
versed in mathematics and skilful in mechanics. He was
one of the royal military engineers employed in the trigo-
nometrical survey of Scotland. In 1825, while engaged
in this operation, he made successful experiments with in-
candescent lime to render distant objects visible. (See
DRUMMOND LIGHT.) He was appointed under-Secretary for
Ireland in 1835. Died April 15, 1840.
Drummond (WILLIAM) of Hawthornden, a Scot-
tish poet, born of a noble family, Dec. 13, 1585, was liberally
educated. He studied law in France, from which he re-
DRUMMOND GROVE–DRYING OIL.
1415
turned in 1609. He resided on his beautiful paternal estate
of Hawthornden, where he passed his life in retirement and
in literary pursuits.
1630. In 1619, Ben Jonson travelled several hundred miles
in order to visit Drummond, who wrote “Notes of Ben
Jonson’s Conversation * on this occasion. These notes are
among his most interesting productions. He was author
of sonnets, and a poem called “The River Forth Feasting.”
Died Dec. 4, 1649.
Drummond Grove, a township of Ford co., Ill. P. 568.
Drummond Island, in Lake Huron, is the most
western of the Manitoulin Islands, and belongs to Michi-
gan. It is 20 miles long and 10 miles wide.
Drummond Light [named from Thomas Drummond,
its inventor], also called Lime Light, Calcium Light,
etc., an intense light produced by throwing the oxyhy-
drogen blowpipe flame upon a pencil of lime, which is
thereby raised to very vivid incandescence. If magnesia.
or metallic magnesium be used instead of lime, the light is
very rich in actinic rays, and hence is useful in photogra-
phy. Zirconia is often employed instead of lime, on ac-
count of its non-volatility.
Drum/mondville East, a post-village, capital of
Drummond co., Quebec (Canada), in Grantham township,
and on the St. Francis River, 24 miles from Melbourne.
Pop. about 400.
Drummondville West, a post-village of Stanford
township, Welland co., Ontario (Canada), half a mile from
Niagara Falls, has two observatories, each 74 feet high,
which afford a fine view of the Falls and the surrounding
region. Pop. about 1000.
Dru/more, a township of Lancaster co., Pa., on the E.
shore of the Susquehanna. Pop. 3061.
Drunkenness. See DIPSOMANIA and INTEMPERANCE.
Drupa/ceae [from DRUPE, which see], a natural order
of plants, regarded by some botanists as a sub-order of
the Rosaceae. It is characterized by polypetalous regular
flowers, a solitary carpel, the style of which proceeds from
the apex, and a drupaceous fruit. The peach, apricot, plum,
and cherry are examples.
Drupe [Lat. drupa Gr. 8piſtrira (from 8pwirerſis, “over-
ripe,” “ready to fall from the tree”)], in botany, a 1-celled,
superior indehiscent fruit, having a single seed or kernel,
usually enclosed in a hard and bony endocarp called a stone,
as a peach or a plum. The outer part of the fruit, which
is succulent or fleshy, is called the sarcocarp or mesocarp.
The term putamen is applied to the hard, stony substance
which encloses, the kernel.
Dru'ry, a post-township of Rock Island co., III. P.1331.
Dru'ses, written also Druzes and Droozes [from El
Dorazy, a Persian and minister of state to El Hakem, sixth
Fatimite caliph in Egypt; Ger. Drusen.], a people of mixed
race (largely Persian and Arab), almost limited to the Leba-
non, Wady-el-Teim, and the Hauran, speaking the Arabic
language, and professing a religion of which until quite
recently almost nothing was known. They number, some
say, nearly 100,000; others say, only about 50,000. They
are industrious, hospitable, and very proud of their birth
and pedigree. Their chief business is the production and
manufacture of silk. For about 800 years they have main-
tained a distinct religion and an independent nationality.
El Dorazy, who was the first to assert the divinity of El
Hakem, is now repudiated by the Druses, who honor Ham-
zeh-ibn-Ahmed, another Persian, as the real founder of
their religion, which dates from the early part of the
eleventh century. They emphasize the unity of God, suc-
cessive manifestations of God, and the transmigration of
souls. A terribly bloody war between them and the Maron-
ites led, in 1860, to European intervention on behalf of the
Christians. (See MARONITEs. See also the EARL OF CAR-
NARvoN’s “Druses of the Lebanon,” 1860; REv. John WoR-
TABET, “Researches into the Religions of Syria,” 1860.)
Dru'sus (CLAUDIUS NERO), a Roman general, born in
38 B. C., was a younger brother of the emperor Tiberius.
His mother Livia was a wife of the emperor Augustus.
He married Antonia, a daughter of Mark Antony. In 13
B. C. he defeated the Germans near the Rhine. Having
conquered the Sicambri and Frisii, he extended the Roman
empire to the German Ocean and to the river Elbe. For
these victories he received the surname of GERMANICUs.
He died in 9 B.C., leaving two sons, Germanicus and Clau-
dius, the latter of whom became emperor.
Drusus (MARCUs LIVIUs), a Roman orator and poli-
tician, who became tribune of the people in 122 B.C. as a
colleague of Caius Gracchus. He supported the cause of
the senate and optimates, opposed the policy of Gracchus,
and gained popularity by planting colonies. He was elected
consul for 112 B. C. -
He married Elizabeth Logan about .
Drusus (MARCUs LIVIUs), called DRUSUs JUNIOR, was
a son of the preceding and an uncle of Cato Uticensis. He
is said to have been ambitious, proud, and arrogant, and a
champion of the senate or aristocratic party. Having been
chosen tribune of the people for 91 B. C., he courted the
popular favor by passing an agrarian law. He formed a
design to admit the Italiotes to the right of citizenship.
His official conduct was condemned by the senate. He died
in 91 B. C. -
Dry/ad [Gr. 8pvás, plu. Spwóðes (from 8pús, an “oak” or
any tree); Lat. dryades]. In Greek mythology, the dryads
were nymphs or goddesses supposed to preside over woods
and groves. -
Dry Bank Light, on the Florida Reef, stands on Som-
brero Shoal, near Dry Bank, Coffin's Patches, and Som-
brero Key, in lat. 24° 37' 36” N., lon. 81°6’ 43' W. It is an
open framework of iron 149 feet high, with a fixed white
dioptric light of the first class.
Dry Creek, a township of Blount co., Ala. Pop. 442.
Dry Creek, a township of Sacramento co., Cal. P. 603.
Dry Creek, a township of Howell co., Mo. Pop. 177.
Dry Creek, a township of Maries co., Mo. Pop. 422.
Dry/den, a post-township of Lapeer co., Mich. Pop.
1695.
Dryden, a township of Sibley co., Minn. Pop. 443.
Dryden, a township and post-village of Tompkins co.,
N. Y., on the Southern Central R. R., 32 miles N. of Owego.
It has one weekly newspaper, one large woollen-factory, a
tannery, a graded school, and a magnetic spring. Here is
the Dryden Spring Place, a resort for invalids. Total pop.
4818; of village, 672. W. E. ORUM, PUB. “HERALD.”
Dryden (JoBN), an eminent English poet, born at Ald-
winckle, Northamptonshire, on the 9th of Aug., 1631, was
a grandson of Sir Erasmus Driden, created a baronet in
1619. He was a pupil of Dr. Busby, and entered Trin-
ity College, Cambridge, in 1650. Having graduated as
master of arts in 1657, he became a resident of London.
He wrote “Heroic Stanzas on the Death of Cromwell”
(1658), and celebrated the restoration of Charles II. in
1660 by a poem entitled “Astraea Redux.” His first drama
was the “Wild Gallant” (1662). He married Lady How-
ard, a daughter of the earl of Berkshire, in 1663, and pro-
duced in 1667 a poem called “Annus Mirabilis, or Year of
Wonders.” In 1668 he was appointed poet-laureate, with
a salary of £200 annually. He afterwards wrote numer-
ous comedies and tragedies, among which are “Marriage
à la Mode,” “All for Love” (1678), and “Aurungzebe.”
His political and poetical satire of “Absalom and Achito-
phel” (1681) is a very famous and brilliant production
directed against the party of which Lord Shaftesbury and
the dukes of Buckingham and Monmouth were the leaders.
IIe announced his conversion to the Roman Catholic re-
ligion by his allegorical poem called “The Hind and the
Panther” (1687). He produced in 1696 a metrical transla-
tion of Virgil, which Pope commended as “the most noble
and spirited translation I know in any language.” It is,
however, deficient in fidelity. Among his other works
are an excellent prose “Essay on Dramatic Poesy” (1660)
and an “Ode for Saint Cecilia’s Day.” He died May 1,
1700, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. His later
works exhibit a purer taste and a more natural style than
his dramas.
Dry Dock. See Docks, by S. H. SHREve, C. E.
Dry Fork, a township of Randolph co., West Va. Pop.
659
iry Grove, a township of McLean co., Ill. Pop. 1267.
Drying Machine, a term applied to various inven-
tions for extracting the moisture from fabrics. A machine
most commonly used by dyers and large laundry establish-
ments, called an “extractor,” consists of two cylinders, one
within the other. The inner one is the receptacle for the
goods, and is made to revolve with great rapidity, expelling
the water through perforations made in the sides. The outer
cylinder receives the water, and from thence it is carried off
by means of a pipe. By this process the drying is not quite
complete, but what remains is expelled by drying in a hot
chamber or in the open air. A more simple drying machine
for domestic use is constructed of two wooden or India-rub-
ber rollers mounted one above the other. They are parallel,
and arranged in such a manner that the distance between
them can be varied at will. The end of the goods being
inserted between the rollers, one is turned by a handle, caus-
ing both to revolve and the clothes to pass between, thus
extracting the moisture by pressure.
Drying Oil, the name given to linseed and several
other seed-oils used in painting, and which have the prop-
erty of drying quickly. The process of drying is hastened
by heating the oil with oxide of lead. -
1416
IDRYOBALANOPS–DUBICZA.
Dryobalanops. See CAMPHOR.
Dry’ophis [from 8pús, a “tree,” an “oak,” and 5%ts, a
“Serpent”], a genus of snakes belonging to the Colubridae,
are natives of tropical America and the East Indies. Like
the Dendrophis, to which they are allied, they have elon-
gated forms and live on trees.
Dry Pile, a kind of voltaic pile or battery, constructed
without liquids; and furnishing a feeble electric current.
The dry piles of Zamboni and De Luc consist of disks of
copper and zinc papers placed in pairs back to back and
piled up or packed in glass tubes, with the copper surfaces
all in the same direction.
Dry Point, a sharp etching-needle used by engravers
to incise fine lines in a copper plate which is not covered
with etching-ground. No acid is applied to eat the lines
made by the dry point, which produces very delicate work.
Dry Point, a township of Shelby co., Ill. Pop. 1671.
Dry Process. See PHOTOGRAPHY, by PROF. C. F.
CHANDLER, PH. D., LL.D. f
Dry Rot, called also Sap Rot, is a diseased state in-
cident to timber, which reduces its substance to a mass of
dry dust by decomposing the fibres. It is caused by various
species of fungi, among which are Merulius lachrymans and
Polyporus destructor. In the navy-yards of Great Britain
great ravages have been ascribed to some species of Sporo-
trichwm. The ends of the timber are generally affected by
this disease, and the decay often makes great progress with-
out being suspected. The chief causes of dry rot are stag-
nation of air, as under the floor of a building or behind a
wainscot, and imperfect drying of the timber. That which
is well seasoned will resist the fungi for many centuries, as
is shown by wood brought from the frieze of the Parthenon,
which had been placed there more than 2300 years ago.
Various substances have been used for the prevention of
dry rot, one of the most successful of which is a solution
of corrosive sublimate introduced into the pores of the
wood by an air-pump.
Dry’-stove, a glazed structure designed for the protec-
tion of the plants of dry, arid climates; a hot-house in which
the air is kept less moist than in the bark stove. It is par-
ticularly adapted to succulent plants. The temperature
should be higher than that of a green-house.
Dry Tortu'gas [Sp. tortuga, a “tortoise”], a group of
ten small, low, barren islands belonging to Monroe co., Fla.,
situated over 40 miles W. of the most western of the Florida,
Keys proper. On the south-westernmost island, called
Loggerhead Key, stands a brick lighthouse 150 feet high,
with a fixed white dioptric light of the first order; lat. 24°
38' 5" N., lon. 82° 52' 53' W. There is also a smaller
light for Dry Tortugas Harbor (lat. 24° 37' 47" N., lon.
82° 52' 53' W.). This lighthouse stands inside Fort Jeffer-
son, an important fortification on Garden Key. The Dry
Tortugas served as a place of imprisonment for persons
under sentence by courts-martial during the late civil war.
Several criminals concerned in the conspiracy in which
President Lincoln was murdered were confined here.
Dry/town, a post-township of Amador co., Cal. P. 853.
Dry/wood, a township of Bourbon co., Kan. P. II99.
MDrywood, a post-township of Vernon co., Mo. P. 475.
Du'alin [so called because it is a mixture of two differ-
ent substances], an explosive compound introduced in 1868
by Dittmar, is composed of NITRo-GLYCERINE (which see)
mixed with saw-dust, or wood-pulp such as is used in paper-
mills; the latter being first treated with nitric and sul-
phuric acids. The object of the mixture is to diminish the
danger connected with the storage and transportation of
nitro-glycerine. (See ExPLOSIVES, by GEN. H. L. ABBOT,
U. S. Army.)
Du'alism [from the Lat. dualis, “ containing two "1,
in metaphysics, the doctrine that the universe exists by
the concurrence of two principles, the spiritual and the
material, each necessarily independent and eternal. The
“dualism” of Zoroaster belongs rather to religion than to
philosophy. . It assumed two independent principles—one
good, the other evil—through the collision of which was
explained the disorder, moral and physical, of the world.
The Gnostics in the second century adopted these views in
a greater or less degree. The Greek philosophers are called
dualists, imaSmuch as the most of them held to the belief
that matter and spirit were each self-existent and inde-
pendent in origin. Their statements of the doctrine differ
from each other, and are vague and indistinct. But the
Stoical doctrine of a soul of the world, contradistinguished
from matter without qualities (&motos ūAm), represents the
general drift of the Greek thought. The prevailing mode
of thought among Christian theists recognizes the real
being of mind and matter in the constitution of man and
the order of the universe, while it attributes self-existence
and creative power solely to the Supreme Mind. In con-
nection with theories of perception the term Dualism has
been used to denote the soul and the modes of matter in
relation and opposition while the mind is in the act of ac-
º; of the external world. (See HAMILTON's
ed. of Reid, p. 817.) REVISED BY M. B. ANDERSON.
Duality, Principle of (in math.). See Polar.
Du'al Num/ber, in grammar, is that form of the noun,
adjective, or verb denoting in Some languages the number
two. For example, in the ancient Greek there were three
numbers in grammar, the singular, the dual, and the plural;
but the dual was not very often used, and is never found in
AEolic or in Hellenistic Greek. It occurred most frequently
in the Attic dialect.
Duane, a post-township of Franklin co., N. Y. It has
beds of magnetic iron ore. Pop. 234.
Duane, du-ān’ (JAMEs), a mayor of New York, was
born in that city Feb. 6, 1733. He became a lawyer and
a leading revolutionist in the war of Independence, was a
member of Congress (1774–77 and 1780–82), was the first
mayor of New York in 1784, and U. S. district judge
(1789–94). Died at Duanesburg, his patrimonial estate,
Feb. 1, 1797.
Duane (JAMES C.), an American officer, born in 1824
in New York, graduated at West Point in 1848, and Mar.
7, 1867, lieutenant-colonel of engineers. He served at the
Military Academy with engineer troops and as assistant in-
structor 1848–54; in the construction of fortifications
1849–56; as lighthouse engineer 1856–58; on Utah expedi-
tion 1858; at the Military Academy as instructor of prac-
tical engineering, etc., 1858–61. In the civil war he served
in defence of Fort Pickens, Fla., 1861; in the defences of
Washington, organizing engineer troops and equipage,
1861–62; in the Virginia Peninsula 1862, engaged in com-
mand of engineer battalion at Yorktown, Gaines's Mill, and
construction of field-works, roads, and bridges; in the
Maryland campaign as chief engineer of the Army of the
Potomac 1862, engaged at South Mountain, Antietam, and
several skirmishes; as chief engineer of the department of
the South 1862–63, engaged in the attack on Fort Mc-
Allister, Ga., and operations against Charleston, S. C.; as
chief engineer of the Army of the Potomac 1863–65, engaged
at Manassas Gap, Rappahannock Station, Robertson’s Tay-
ern, Wilderness, Spottsylvania, Cold Harbor, Petersburg,
Hatcher’s Run, and Appomattox Court-house. (Brevet
lieutenant-colonel and colonel for meritorious and faithful
services in the Richmond campaign, and brigadier-general
for gallant and meritorious services in the siege of Peters-
burg and subsequent operations.) He has served since in
the construction of the defences of the eastern entrance to
New York harbor 1865–68; member of engineer boards
1867–73; and is now lighthouse engineer of the N. E.
Atlantic coast and superintendent of the fortifications in
Maine and New Hampshire. Author of “A Manual for
Engineer Troops,” 1862.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Duane (WILLIAM), an American politician and printer,
was born near Lake, Champlain, N.Y., in 1760. He passed
some years in India and in England, from which he re-
turned to the U. S. in 1795. He then became the editor of
the “Aurora,” which was published at Philadelphia, and was
the influential organ of the Democratic party. He served
in the war of 1812 as adjutant-general with the rank of
colonel, and published a “Military Dictionary’ (1810), be-
sides numerous other works, chiefly upon military subjects.
Died Nov. 25, 1835.
Duane (WILLIAM JoHN), an able lawyer and statesman,
born at Clonmel, Ireland, in 1780, was a son of the preced-
ing. He practised law in Philadelphia, and published, be-
sides other works, “The Law of Nations Investigated in a
Popular Manner” (1809). He was appointed secretary of
the treasury of the U. S. early in 1833, but was dismissed
from office in September of that year by President Jackson,
because he refused to remove the deposits of public money
from the Bank of the U. S. Died Sept. 27, 1865.
Duanesburg, a township and post-village of Sche-
nectady co., N.Y., on the Albany and Susquehanna R. R.,
24 miles N. W. of Albany. A branch railroad extends to
Schenectady. Pop. 3042.
Buban (JACQUES FáLIx), a French architect, born in
Paris Oct. 14, 1797. He completed the Palace of the Fine
Arts, and became a member of the Institute and com-
mander of the Legion of Honor (1868).
Dubhoy’, a town of the East Indies, in the dominion
of the Guico war, 38 miles N. E. of Baroach. It was once
strongly fortified. It contains handsome gates and a
splendid temple. In the last century it had 40,000 in-
habitants. - -
Dubic'za, a fortified town of European Turkey, is on
DUBLIN–DUBOSSARY.
1417
the northern frontier of Bosnia, and on the river Unna
about 10 miles from its entrance into the Save, and 23 miles
W. of Gradiska. Pop. 6000. On the opposite bank of the
Unna is Austrian Dubicza, which is a fortified town.
Dub/lin, a county of Ireland in Leinster, has an area
of 354 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Irish
Sea, and is intersected by the river Liffey, which flows into
Dublin Bay. The surface is nearly level; the soil is pro-
ductive and well cultivated. Granite, copper, lead, and
carboniferous limestone occur here. Chief town, Dublin.
Pop. in 1871, 405,625.
Dublin [said to be derived from the Irish dabh-linn,
i. e. “black pool;” anc. Eblana], the capital of Ireland,
is in the above county, on the river Liffey at its entrance
into Dublin Bay, 66 miles W. of Holyhead and 135 miles
W. of Liverpool; lat. 53° 20' 38' N., lon. 6° 17' 30" W.
Mean annual temperature, 49° F. The river, which runs
eastward, divides the city into two nearly equal parts, which
are connected by seven stone and two iron bridges. In the
north-eastern and south-eastern parts are many beautiful
squares, streets, and terraces, occupied by the aristocratic
class. The mercantile business is mostly transacted in the
central and north-western portions, where are many resi-
dences of the middle class.
Circular Road, nearly 9 miles long, which is a favorite
drive and promenade of the citizens. The most imposing
street of Dublin is Sackville street, which is 120 feet wide
and nearly 700 yards long. Among the numerous squares
is Stephen's Green, having an area of nearly twenty acres.
The most remarkable public buildings are the Bank of Ire-
land (formerly the Parliament House), Trinity College, the
custom-house, the Four Courts, Dublin Castle, occupied by
the lord lieutenant, and St. George's church with a steeple
200 feet high. Near the N. end of Sackville street is a
monument to Lord Nelson, which is 134 feet high. Among
the literary and scientific institutions are the University
(see DUBLIN, UNIVERSITY OF), the Royal College of Science,
the Roman Catholic University, the College of Surgeons,
the Royal Dublin Society, the Royal Irish Academy, the
Hibernian Academy for Paintings, and the National Gal-
lery. Dublin is the seat of a Protestant Episcopal and a
Roman Catholic archbishop. In the environs of Dublin,
which are remarkably beautiful, is Glasnevin, once the
favorite residence of Addison, Steele, Swift, and Sheridan;
and Phoenix Park, which contains nearly 2000 acres, and
is frequented by great numbers of persons for recreation.
The fine scenery of this noble park, the massive public
buildings, the spacious squares, the clean granite quays
which line the river, and the beauty of the bay which ex-
pands before the city, render Dublin one of the most beau-
tiful and agreeable capitals of Europe. Railways extend-
ing in several directions connect this place with the chief
towns of Ireland. It is the eastern terminus of the Grand
and Royal Canals, and has a good harbor, which has been
improved by the construction of two breakwaters. Vessels
of 900 tons can come up to the wharves and docks. This
city has several glass-works, foundries, and distilleries; also
manufactures of poplin, which is much celebrated. Dublin
returns two members to Parliament, besides two who rep-
resent the university. It is a very old town, and occupies
the site of the Eblana of Ptolemy. It was captured by the
Danes in the ninth century. Pop. in 1871, 246,326, of whom
195,180 were Roman Catholics, and 39,897 Protestant Epis-
copalians. REVISED BY A. J. SCHEM.
Dublin, a township of Dallas co., Ala. Pop. 707.
Dublin, a post-village, capital of Laurens co., Ga., is
near the Oconee River, and 120 miles W. by N. from Sa-
vannah.
Dublin, a post-village of Wayne co., Ind., on the Pitts-
burg Cincinnati and St. Louis R. R., 17 miles W. of Rich-
mond. Pop. 1076.
Dublin, a post-village and township of Harford co.,
Md. Pop. of village, 123; of township, 3862.
Dublin, a township of Somerset co., Md. Pop. 1454.
Dublin, a post-township of Cheshire co., N. H. P. 930.
Dublin, a township of Mercer co., O. Pop. 1599.
Dublin, a township of Fulton co., Pa. Pop. 879.
Dublin, a township of Huntingdon co., Pa. Pop. 984.
Dublin, a township and post-village of Pulaski co.,
Va., on the Atlantic Mississippi and Ohio R. R., 104 miles
W. S. W. of Lynchburg. Total pop. 2722.
Dublin, University of, otherwise called Trinity
College, Dublin, is said to have been founded in 1320,
but having gone to decay, was re-established in 1593 by
Queen Elizabeth. It was endowed by the corporation of
Dublin and by private gifts, and still further by grants of
James I., who in 1613 gave it representation in Parliament,
which it still possesses, sending since 1832 two members to
The city is surrounded by the
the House of Commons. Its government is modelled upon
that of the English universities, but its fellows (since 1840)
are at liberty to marry. It has a very full corps of pro-
fessors in all departments of knowledge, who, like the fel-
lows, are liberally supported from the income of the college.
The students are of four classes: (1) Noblemen, baronets,
and the sons of noblemen, who have peculiar privileges,
and, with the exception of baronets, obtain the degree of
B. A. without examination. They pay about $500 a year
in fees. (2) Fellow-commoners, who dine with the fellows,
and have one less examination than the third class, at
about one-half the cost in fees of the preceding. (3) Pen-
sioners, to which class most of the students belong. Their fees
are little more than half as great as those of the second class.
(4) Sizars, thirty in number, who pay a nominal fee. Each
of the ranks wears a distinctive dress. The examination
on entrance is thorough. It is possible to obtain degrees
without great exertion, but the honors can be obtained only
by severe study. No restriction is made with regard to the
admission of those who are not members of the Anglican
Church. The fees for graduation are much higher than in
American colleges. Dublin University occupies a high rank
among European institutions of learning. It has special
departments for the study of medicine, divinity, and engi-
neering. Among the eminent graduates were Berkeley,
Ussher, Swift, Burke, Goldsmith, and Sheridan. An unsuc-
cessful attempt made Mar. 11, 1873, in the British Parlia-
ment to unite the Catholic University, Magee College, Bel-
fast, and the Queen’s Colleges of Cork and Belfast to the
University of Dublin, and to abolish the Queen’s College at
Galway, led to the temporary disruption of the Gladstone
ministry. *-
Düb'ner (FRIEDRICH), a French philologist, born at
Hörselgau, in Germany, Dec. 21, 1802. He was from 1826
to 1831 professor at the gymnasium of Gotha, and after
1831 lived in Paris, where he at first took an active part in
Didot's new edition of the “Thesaurus” of Stephanus, and
was subsequently one of the editors of the “Bibliotheca
Graeca,” of the same publishers. Besides editions of a
number of Ilatin and Greek classics, he published a Greek
grammar (1855) and a French-Greek Lexicon (1860). Died
Aug. 16, 1867.
Dubmit’za, a town of European Turkey, province of
Room-Elee, on the river Djerma, 22 miles S. of Sophia. It
has extensive iron-works. Pop. about 7000.
Dub/no, a town of Russia, in Volhynia, is on the small
river Irwa, 32 miles W. of Ostrog. It has several Greek
and Roman Catholic churches. The houses are mostly built
of wood. Pop. 7628.
Dubois', a county in the S. W. of Indiana. Area, 420
square miles. It is intersected by the Patoka River, and
partly bounded on the N. by the East Fork of White River.
The surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Coal is
found here. Tobacco, wool, cattle, and grain are raised.
Capital, Jasper. Pop. 12,597.
Dubois (GUILLAUME), a French cardinal and prime
minister, born at Brives-la-Gaillarde Sept. 6, 1656. He
was preceptor to the duc de Chartres, who became duke of
Orleans and regent of France in 1715. Having gained the
favor of this prince by pandering to his vices, he was ap-
pointed a councillor of state. He exhibited much political
cunning and talent for intrigue. Among his important
diplomatic acts was the treaty between France, England,
and Holland called the Triple Alliance (Jan., 1717). He
became about 1718 minister of foreign affairs, and, though
his morals were depraved, archbishop of Cambray in 1720.
He was appointed prime minister in 1722, and retained
power until he died, Aug. 10, 1723.
Dubois (JEAN ANTOINE), ABBí, a French missionary,
born in Ardèche in 1765. He spent many years in India,
and wrote in English a valuable work on “The Character,
Manners, Customs, and Institutions of the People of India.”
(1816). Died in Paris Feb. 7, 1848.
Dubois (PAUL FRANÇois), a French politician, born
June 2, 1795, at Rennes, became professor of rhetoric at the
Lyceum Charlemagne in Paris, in 1814. As one of the
founders of the “ Globe,” he contested the restoration of
the Bourbons. In 1840 he succeeded Cousin as director of
the Normal School, and for many years took a prominent
part in public instruction.
Du Bois-Reymond (EMIL), a German physiologist,
born Nov. 7, 1818, succeeded in 1858 his teacher, Johannes
Müller, as professor at the University of Berlin, and be-
came a member of the Academy of Sciences, of which he
has been secretary since 1867. He is regarded as one of the
foremost writers on physiology, his chief work being “Re-
searches on Animal Electricity” (1857).
Dubossa’ry, a town of Russia, in the government of
ar
1418
DUBUAT—DUCK.
Kherson, on the Dniester, 85 miles N. E. of Odessa, has
several factories. Pop. 5547. -
Dubuat (THE CHEvALIER), an eminent French experi-
mentalist and writer on hydraulics. He may be said to
have laid the foundations of hydro-dynamics, being the
first who succeeded in ascribing to the different forces,
friction, cohesion, etc., which act on fluids in a state of
uniform motion, their effective share in determining their
velocity. He was the first to ascertain and measure by
striking and original observations (long neglected, but
which have since claimed attention) the effect of the co-
hesion and inertia of the air in retarding the motions of
the pendulum. His most important work is entitled “Prin-
ciples d’Hydraulique et de Pyrodynamique,” Paris, 1816;
the latter subject being the action of heat upon matter in
its different states of solid, fluid, and vapor. He was an
officer of the “corps du génie’” (engineers), in which he
became a colonel—subsequently engineer in ordinary to
the king.
Dubufe (CLAUDE MARIE), a French painter of history
and portraits, was born in Paris in 1790. He was a fashion-
able portrait-painter. Died April 21, 1864.
HDubufe (Édouard), a portrait-painter, a son of the
preceding, was born in Paris about 1818. He painted por-
traits of several eminent persons with success.
Dubuque, du-bük', a county in the E. of Iowa. Area,
600 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Mis-
sissippi River. The surface is undulating; the soil is
fertile. Cattle, grain, wool, hay, potatoes, and dairy-
products are raised. Carriages, beer, clothing, and flour
are among the chief articles of manufacture. Limestone
occurs here as a surface-rock. This county has rich
mines of lead. It is intersected by the Dubuque and Sioux
City R. R. and other railroads. Capital, Dubuque. Pop.
38,969.
Dubuque, a city of Iowa, capital of the above county,
occupying 13 square miles of plateau and bluff on the W.
bank of the Mississippi River, 470 miles N. of St. Louis,
321 miles S. of St. Paul, and 199 miles W. of Chicago. It
is the centre of a large and ever-widening railroad system,
and during the season of navigation has two lines of
steamers plying to St. Louis and St. Paul. It is distin-
guished for the excellence of its educational institutions.
It is the seat of the Iowa. Institute of Science and Arts, a
widely known and very useful institution. Dubuque is
opposite the point where the line between Wisconsin and
Illinois reaches the Mississippi, and is in one of the richest
lead-regions known. It was in 1870 the largest city in the
State except Davenport. Dubuque is the terminus of a
railroad which extends westward 327 miles to Sioux City.
The Chicago Dubuque and Minnesota. R. R. extends from
this place to La Crescent in Minnesota. This city is also
the north-eastern terminus of the Dubuque and South-
western R. R. It is the chief dépôt of the lead region of
Iowa. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic and a Protestant
Episcopal bishop. It contains a large cathedral, a city-
hall, a custom-house, three national banks, a German Pres-
byterian theological school, and an Episcopal seminary.
It has large and increasing manufactures of shot, steam-
engines, farming-implements, machinery, brick, white lead,
leather, wooden ware, etc. Three daily and six weekly
papers are published here. Dubuque is connected with
Dunleith (Ill.) by a noble railway iron bridge, which is
a “marvel of lightness and strength,” and cost several
millions of dollars. This bridge belongs to the Illinois
Central R. R. This city was named in honor of Julien
Dubuque, a French trader who, with ten others, settled
here in 1788 to mine the ores of lead. This was the first
settlement in what is now the State of Iowa. The settle-
ment was abandoned after Dubuque's death in 1810, and
the site was not again occupied till 1833. This last was
the first permanent settlement in Iowa. It is the entrepôt
of a very extensive trade, both by rail and river. Pop. in
1860, 13,000; in 1870, 18,434.
S. W. RUSSELL, FORMERLY Asso. ED. of “ HERALD.”
Du Cange (CHARLEs DU FRESNE), a French historical
writer, born at Amiens Dec. 18, 1610. He was liberally
educated and studied law. Among his most important
works are a “ History of the Empire of Constantinople
under the French Emperors” (1657), a “ Glossarium ad
Scriptores Mediae et Infimae Graecitatis” (2 vols. folio, 1688),
and a “ Glossarium ad Scriptores Mediae et Infimae Lati-
nitatis” (3 vols. folio, 1678, enlarged to 6 vols. folio in
1733–36, and reissued with additions, in 7 vols. Quarto, in
1840–50). He passed many years of his mature life in
Paris, where he died Oct. 23, 1688. -
Du'cas (MICHAEL), [Gr. Muxaxix. 6 Aoûkas], a Byzantine
historian who flourished about 1450, was related to the
imperial family of Constantinople. He wrote a “History
of the Decadence of the Byzantine Empire, 1355–1453.”
This work is a part of the collection called “Historia
Byzantina.” He retired to Lesbos when the Turks cap-
tured Constantinople in 1453. Died after 1463.
Duc'at [from the Lat. dux (gen. ducis), a “leader” or
“duke,” because it was first coined by Italian dukes; It.
ducato ; Sp. ducado], a name of a gold coin which origin-
ated in Italy, and was afterwards coined in several coun-
tries of Europe. In 1559 the ducat was adopted as a legal
coin of the German empire. There was much difference in
the value of the ducats which circulated in various coun-
tries. Those of Austria, Holland, and Hamburg contain
about 52.8 grains of pure gold, and are nearly equivalent
to two dollars of our coin. The Spanish silver ducat (du-
cado) is worth about one dollar. The ducat is said to have
been first struck in the sixth century by Longinus, duke or
duca of Ravenna, but Gibbon attributes its origin to the
dukes of Milan. -
Du Chailiu (PAUL BELLONI), a French traveller, born
about 1830, the son of a French merchant in Equatorial
Africa, was naturalized as a citizen of the U. S. He ex-
plored the Gaboon region, etc., and published, besides
other works, “Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial
Africa.” (1861), “A Journey to Ashango Land” (1867),
and “My Apingi Kingdom” (1871). He was one of the
first travellers who described the gorilla.
Duchâtel (CHARLES MARIE TANGUY), CoMTE, a French
politician, born in Paris Feb. 19, 1803. He became a po-
litical friend of Guizot, and minister of finance in Sept.,
1836. He resigned in April, 1837, and was minister of
the interior from Oct., 1840, until Feb., 1848. Died Nov. 5,
1867.
Duchâtel (PIERRE), [Lat. Castellanus], a liberal French
prelate who was born in Burgundy about 1500. He be-
came a thorough Greek scholar, assisted Erasmus, was a
proof-reader at Bâle, studied at Rome, travelled in the
East, was made bishop of Tulle by Francis I. (1539), bishop
of Mâcon (1544), bishop of Orleans (1551), grand almoner
of France (1547), and died at Orleans Feb. 2, 1552. He
was a zealous advocate of the interests of the Gallican
Church. -
Duché (JACOB), D. D., an American Episcopal clergy-
man, born in Philadelphia in 1739. He gained distinction
as an eloquent preacher, and was chosen chaplain to the
first Continental Congress in 1774. He served as chaplain
to several successive Congresses, but after the British oc-
cupied Philadelphia, he abandoned the popular cause, and
wrote to Washington a letter in which he urged him to
submit and become a Tory. Duché soon fled to England,
but he returned to Philadelphia in 1790. Died Jan. 3,
1798.
Duchesne (ANDRf.), a learned French historian, born in
Touraine in May, 1584. He became geographer and histori-
ographer to the king. He wrote many valuable works,
among which are “Ancient Historians of the Normans”
(“Historiae Normanorum Scriptores Antiqui,” 1619) and
* Contemporary Writers of the History of the Franks”
(in Latin, 5 vols., 1636–41). Died May 30, 1640.
Duch'ess [Fr. duchessel, the title given to the wife of
a duke or the female possessor of a duchy in her own
right.
Duchobor'zi (i. e. “champions of the Spirit”), a sort
of Quaker sect among the peasantry of Russia. They
seceded from the Molokan sect in the eighteenth century,
and are at present not very numerous. The sect, was
founded by one Ilarion Pobirochin, who taught the Trinity
and the transmigration of souls, forbade his followers from
serving in the army, and considered himself, it is said, to
be the son of God. They were banished in Čonsequence to
the regions near the Sea of Azof. In 1839 they were ban-
ished to the Trans-Caucasus, where they are now chiefly
| found, though they probably still exist in Small numbers
in other parts of Russia. -
| Duchonquet, a township of Auglaize co., O. It con-
tains the village of WAPAKöNETA (which see), the capital
of the county. Pop. of township, 3959.
Du/cie, EARLs of (United Kingdom, 1837), Barons Ducie
(England, 1763), Barons Moreton (United Kingdom, 1837).
—HENRY JOHN REYNOLDs MoRETON, third earl, P. C.,
F. R. S., born July 26, 1827, was M. P. for Stroud 1852–53,
and succeeded his father in 1853.
Duck [from the verb duck, to “dive;” Lat. anas ; Ger.
Ente ; Fr. canard), a name applied to many swimming
birds of the family Anatidae, belonging to the old genus
Anas, which is now divided into many smaller genera.
The true ducks, or Anatinae, frequent fresh water, feeding
on both animal and vegetable matter. They are grega-
DUCK–DUDLEY.
1419
rious, and the males are larger and handsomer than the
females. They are shot for food and for sport, and in Eu-
rope they are caught in great numbers by nets. The com-
mon domesticated duck is a descendant of the mallard
(Anas boschas), which is found wild in Europe, Asia, and
America. Eight genera of true ducks are found in North
America, and several species are common to the Old and
New Worlds. The sea-ducks (Fuligulininae) differ from
the foregoing in having a large flap or lobe under the hind
toe. The eider-duck, the canvas-back, and the surf-duck
are well-known examples of this sub-family. There are
also tree-ducks, which approach the character of geese.
The more important birds of this numerous group are de-
scribed under their alphabetical heads.
The different breeds of domesticated ducks, with the prob-
able exception of certain varieties in China and the neigh-
boring countries, are all descended from the mallard, as
above stated ; but in domestication the ducks become po-
lygamous, although they always live in pairs when wild.
The male also ceases to care for his offspring; and even the
females are sometimes not good mothers, so that it is always
better to hatch ducks' eggs under a hen. The eggs, from
their somewhat rank taste, are less prized than those of the
hem ; but the flesh of some breeds, such as the Aylesbury
duck, is considered a great delicacy. Young ducks should
be allowed free access to the water.
Duck [from the Dutch dock, “coarse linen cloth,” “can-
vas,” akim to the Ger. Tuch, “cloth "1, a name given to a
coarse, heavy linen fabric, highly glazed, which is used as
a material for clothing by sailors, men employed in smelt-
ing-furnaces, and others. Duck is also a heavy cotton or
linen fabric used for sailcloth, water–hose, etc.
Duck-bill, the English name of the Ornithorhynchus
paradoacus, a monotrematous mammal found in Van Die-
men's Land and Australia. In its bill-like jaws, its spurs,
its monotrematous character, its non-placental development,
and its anatomy, it appears to be a connecting link between
birds and mammals.
The duck-bill is the only animal of its genus. It is about
fifteen inches long, with a brown fur. It has a sort of horny
tooth near the base of each jaw or mandible, and the males
have spurs on the hind legs. The female has no nipple, but
the young (which are at first very slightly developed) draw
the milk through a slit-like opening. -
This animal inhabits ponds and quiet streams, where it
swims about on the surface of the water with its head some-
what elevated, often diving for its food, which consists of
insects and other small aquatic animals. It climbs trees
with facility, and is sometimes seen in small parties on the
limbs of trees near the water. It digs a burrow, often
thirty feet long, in the river-bank, with one opening above
and another below water. -
Duck Creek, a hundred of Kent co., Del. Pop. 4279.
Duck Creek, a township of Madison co., Ind. P. 789.
Duck Creek, a township of Stoddard co., Mo. P. 781.
Ducking-Stool, a contrivance formerly used in Great
Britain and in some parts of the U. S. for the punishment
of scolds. The most common form seems to have been
that of a strong wooden chair attached to one end of a
beam, which pivoted midway on a post planted in the
ground at the edge of a pond or stream. The woman hav-
ing been secured in the chair, the beam was worked up and
down by a chain at the other end, and she was thus plunged
into the water or “ ducked.” The practice of ducking
originated towards the close of the fifteenth century, and
very generally prevailed until the early part of the eigh-
teenth, and in some places to a later date. At Leominster,
England, a ducking-stool was in use as late as 1809.
Duck River, of Tennessee, rises in Coffee co., flows
nearly westward through Middle Tennessee, and enters the
Tennessee River in Humphries co. Length, about 250
miles.
Duck Spring, a township of Etowah co., Ala. P. 372.
Duckſtown, a post-village of Polk co., Tenn. It is in
the S. E. corner of the State, about 60 miles E. of Chat-
tanooga. It has remarkable copper-mines.
Duck'water, a township of Nye co., Nev. Pop. 145.
Duck-weed (Lemma), a genus of endogenous plants
placed by some botanists in the natural order Lemnaceae,
while others refer them to the order Araceae. They are
mostly floating plants, with unisexual flowers, without
calyx or corolla, and with loose hanging roots. They are
widely distributed over the world, and several species are
found in the U. S., covering the surface of stagnant waters
with their flat green fronds.
Duclos (CHARLEs PINEAU), a witty French writer, born
at Dinan Feb. 12, 1704. Having written several successful
romances, he was admitted into the French Academy in
1747. He was appointed his-
toriographer of France in 1753.
Among his works are moral es-
W], says entitled “Considérations
sur les Moeurs de ce Siècle”
(1750) and “Secret Memoirs of
the Reigns of Louis XIV. and
Louis XV.” Died Mar. 26, 1772.
Ducrot (ETIENNE), a French
general, born in 1817, command-
ed a brigade in the Italian cam-
paign, and the first division of
the first army corps in the Ger-
man-French war; was taken
prisoner of war at Sedan, but
escaped to Paris, where he took
a prominent part in the defence
of that city. After the capitula–
tion he was elected a delegate to
the National Assembly.
Ductil'ity [Lat. ductilitas,
; from ductilis, “easy to be drawn”
# (from duco, ductum, to “draw")],
a capability of being drawn out
into a long and slender form
without a breach of continuity.
This term is applied almost ex-
clusively to that property of cer-
tain metals which enables them
to be elongated or drawn out into
wire. The metals having the
greatest ductility are gold, sil-
ver, platinum, and iron. A grain
of gold may be drawn into 500 feet of wire, and a wire of
platinum not exceeding a 30,000th of an inch in diameter
has been obtained by placing a fine wire of platinum in
the axis of a larger silver wire, then drawing the com-
pound wire in the usual mode, and finally dissolving the
silver by nitric acid. The ductility of glass (when melted
or heated to a red heat) is almost unlimited. The ductil-
ity of many bodies is modified by temperature.
Dudevant, MADAME. See SAND, GEORGE.
Dud’ley, a parliamentary borough of England, is a
part of Worcestershire, surrounded by the county of Staf-
ford, 9 miles W. N. W. of Birmingham. It is well built,
and is one of the chief seats of the iron-trade. Here are
manufactures of glass, grates, fire-irons, nails, vices, chain-
cables, etc. Near Dudley are the ruins of Dudley Castle,
founded in 760 A.D. by Dudo, a Saxon prince. Mines of
coal and iron and quarries of Silurian limestone are worked
in the vicinity. Dudley returns one member to Parliament.
Pop. of municipal borough in 1871, 43,781. -
Dudley, a township of Henry co., Ind. Pop. 1339.
Pudley, a post-township of Worcester co., Mass., on the
º§
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ºft-
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1420
DUDLEY-L)|UENNA.
Norwich and Worcester and a branch of the New York and
New England R. R. It is the site of Nichols Academy,
and has woollen, linen, and jute mills. Pop. 2388.
Dudley, a township of Hardin co., O. Pop. 1008.
Dudley, a post-village of Huntingdon co., Pa., is the
E. terminus of the Broad Top City branch of the Hunting-
don and Broad Top R. R.
Dudley (BENJAMIN WINSLow), M. D., LL.D., was born
in Virginia in 1785. Receiving an imperfect preliminary
education, he commenced the study of medicine in Lexing-
ton, Ky., and took his degree in the University of Pennsyl-
vania in 1806. He went to Europe in 1810, and during his
four years of absence studied with Sir Astley Cooper, Aber-
methy, Cline, Larrey, Dubois, Boyer, Marjolin, and others.
In 1817, in conjunction with Blythe, Caldwell, Brown,
Richardson, Drake, etc., he organized the medical depart-
ment of the University of Transylvania, which was long
the leading school of medicine in the West. In all its
changes Dr. Dudley ever was emphatically its head; he
occupied the professorships of anatomy and surgery, which
required him to lecture nine times every week. He never
had his equal W. of the mountains, and probably but one
in America—viz. Valentine Mott. Few surgeons operated
more cautiously, although Dr. Physick may have done so.
None ever prepared his patients more thoroughly, none did
more with the roller, prescribed simpler diet or fewer medi-
cines than he. A distinguished English surgeon in London
declared him to be “the lithotomist of the nineteenth cen-
tury.” It has been published that he cut a hundred times
in succession for stone in the bladder, without a death or
failure. The last report of his lithotomy cases—and they
were all carefully selected—numbered 225, with an admis-
sion of some six deaths; unfortunately, however, the im-
portant particulars in regard to age, sex, when and where
operated upon, condition of patient, etc. etc., are generally
omitted. Nevertheless, this report is a wonderful one. Dr.
Dudley performed the lateral operation exclusively, and
almost always with the gorget, an instrument now becom-
ing obsolete. He was a small man, very active in his move-
ments, strictly temperate, using coid bathing every morn-
ing, and is said never to have worn gloves or used an over-
coat until injured by a fall on the ice in the streets of
Lexington. He died Jan. 20, 1870. PAUL F. EvK.
Dudley (CHARLEs EDWARD), a Senator, born in Staf-
fordshire, England, May 23, 1780, emigrated to the U. S.
in 1794. He was elected mayor of Albany in 1821, and a
Senator of the U.S. for an unexpired term of four years in
1829. He founded at Albany the Dudley Observatory, to
which his widow gave $70,000. Died Jan. 23, 1841.
Dudley (Joseph) was born in Roxbury, Mass., July 23,
1647. He was appointed chief-justice of Massachusetts in
1686, chief-justice of New York in 1690, and was governor
of his native province from 1702 to 1715. Died April 2, 1720.
Dudley (PAUL), F. R. S., a lawyer, a son of the pre-
ceding, was born Sept. 3, 1675. He was distinguished for
eloquence and talents, became attorney-general of Massa-
chusetts in 1702, and chief-justice in 1745; founded the
Dudleian Lecture at Harvard College. Died Jan. 25, 1751.
Dudley (THOMAs), born at Northampton, England, in
1576, served in Holland in Queen Elizabeth's army, and in
1630 came to Boston as deputy-governor of Massachusetts
Bay under his son-in-law, Governor Bradstreet. He held
the office twelve years. He was governor of the colony in
1634, '40, '45, and ’50, and became major-general in 1644.
Died July 31, 1653, at Roxbury, where he left an estate
long held by his descendants.
Dudley Lake, a township of Jefferson co., Ark. P. 292.
Dud'Ieyville, a twp. of Tallapoosa co., Ala. Pop. 1600.
Dudſweiler, a town of Prussia, in the Rhine province,
has several large coal-mines. Pop. in 1871, 8920.
Dueast’s', a township of Cabarrus co., N. C. P. 1015.
Du’el [Lat. dwellum (perhaps a contraction of duorum
bellum, a “war of two ''); Fr. duel; Ger. Duell and Zwei-
kampf; It. and Port. dwello; Sp. dwelo.] appears to have
signified originally a trial by battle resorted to by two in-
dividuals, either for the purpose of determining the guilt
or innocence of a person charged with a crime, or of de-
ciding a disputed right. In more recent times it is used
to denote a hostile meeting between two persons in conse-
quence of an affront given by one to the other, and for the
purpose of affording satisfaction to the injured party.
The practice of fighting duels as a means of deciding
private differences seems to be of comparatively recent
date. That it originated with the feudal system is suf-
ficiently clear. We should not, however, confound two
very different institutions—the appeal to arms as an alter-
native for the trial by ordeal, and the voluntary challenges
or defiances resorted to for the purpose of settling disputes
very common.
supposed to involve the honor of gentlemen. This last
custom was first elevated to the dignity of an established
institution by Philip le Bel of France (1308).
In England, duelling does not appear to have prevailed
until the latter part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth. At
this period appeared the famous “Treatise of Honor” by
Vincentio Saviolo, a fierce and punctilious Italian. He was
a fencing-master by profession. His work, published in
1594—now little known—appears to have been adopted as
a standard book of reference in cases of supposed insult.
Saviolo resolves all quarrels into the lie—that is, he sup-
poses the original insult to be followed by a regular series
of replies and retorts, until one of the parties is reduced to
give the lie direct; which, like the phrase “stupid youth *
in some German universities, was immediately followed by
the appeal to arms.
Henry II. of France issued an edict in 1547 prohibiting
the public or judicial combat. ...This decree was caused by
the death of his favorite La Chataigneraye from wounds
received in the lists. The public duel survived longer in
Italy. Its abolition in France was not followed by the good
effects which the statesmen of those days probably antici-
pated from it. Private duels, conducted with a sanguinary
spirit before unheard of, became very prevalent. Brantôme
gives instances of duellists who prided themselves on ad-
vantages which they had taken of their opponents, and
were not hess esteemed in society for having done so; there
were said to be regiments in the same service, the officers
of which were bound to fight one another whenever they
met. Lord Herbert of Cherbury mentions the honor in
which the French ladies held the brave Balagny, a man
with neither wit, figure, nor fortune, but whose merit con-
sisted in the fact that he had killed eight or nine of his
friends in single combat.
In the reign of Henry III. the custom of the seconds
taking part in the quarrels of their principals seems first to
have been established—a custom which did not cease till
the beginning of the last century. When such practices
were rife in all parts of France we can scarcely doubt the
extraordinary assertions of writers of those times—that 120
gentlemen were killed in duels in a single province in six
months; that in the reign of Henry IV. 4000 fell in two
years; and that this mania cost France more gentle blood
than thirty years of civil war. Henry IV. issued edicts
against duelling; Louis XIII. proceeded against it with
such severity that it is said wounded duellists were dragged
from the field to the gibbet; but this extreme severity, as
usual in such cases, appears to have had no good effect. In
the minority of Louis XIV. the duke de Nemours, a prince
of the blood, fell, with two of his seconds, in a quarrel with
another grandee. Soon after this many noblemen and gentle-
men of undoubted courage made a voluntary compact to
abstain from duelling. This resolution was seconded by
Louis XIV. when of age, in several edicts. It should be
remembered to the honor of that monarch that he labored
during his whole life to correct this abuse, and with con-
siderable success. One of his expedients was the establish-
ment of a court of chivalry, the members of which were the
marshals of France, which was to decide on all questions
in which a gentleman might conceive his honor to be in-
volved. Killing in duels in France is now punishable as
homicide, and a civil action lies on behalf of the friends of
the man who has been slain.
The first attempt made in England to introduce legisla-
tive enactments for the suppression of duels is said to have
taken place in 1713, when, after the famous duel of Duke
Hamilton with Lord Mohun, a bill for that purpose was
brought into the Commons, but lost on the third reading.
A challenge to fight is now a high misdemeanor. In Scot-
land as late, it would appear, as the middle of the sixteenth
century, licenses for duelling were granted by the Crown,
and formed a source of revenue ; killing in a duel without
license was murder. The new codes of Bavaria and Prussia.
contain a number of provisions against duels, challenges,
etc. In no country were duels more prevalent formerly than
in Ireland. In France the period of the restored monarchy
(1815–48) was one of those in which duels were most rife,
not only among the military, but among civilians; but
since 1848 they have greatly diminished. In Great Britain
a heavy blow was aimed at duelling in the army by the new
article of war of 1844, rendering it an offence punishable by
cashiering. For some years duels, either military or civil,
have been comparatively rare.
In America, the practice of fighting duels was formerly
But in more recent times duelling in any
part of the U. S. is rarely heard of. It is not only made
“illegal by statute, but is forbidden in the army and navy
by the Articles of War.
REVISED BY J. THOMAs.
Duen’na [Sp. dueña), the chief lady-in-waiting on the
queen of Spain. In a more general sense it is applied to a
DUER—DU
GUESCLIN. . 1421
woman holding a middle station between a governess and
a companion, and appointed to take charge of young ladies.
Du'er (John), LL.D., an able American jurist and legal
writer, born at Albany, N.Y., Oct. 7, 1782, was a son of Col.
William Duer. He practised law in New York City, whither
he removed in 1820, and was elected a judge of the superior
court of that city in 1849. Among his works is “The Law
and Practice of Marine Insurance” (2 vols. 8vo, 1845–46).
He succeeded Oakley as chief justice of the Superior court
in 1857. Died Aug. 8, 1858.
Duer (WILLIAM ALExANDER), a jurist, born in Dutchess
co., N. Y., Sept. 8, 1780, was a brother of the preceding.
His mother was a daughter of Lord Stirling. He was ad-
mitted to the bar in 1802, and became a partner of Edward
Livingston in New Orleans, but returned to the city of New
York about 1812. He was a judge of the supreme court of
New York from 1822 to 1829. In the latter year he was
chosen president of Columbia College. He was the author
of a “Treatise on the Constitutional Jurisprudence of the
U. S.” (1856). Died May 30, 1858.
Duetſ [It. duetto (from the Lat. duo, “two "); Fr. duol,
a piece of music composed for two performers, either vocal
or instrumental.
Due West, a post-village and township in Abbeville
co., S. C. It is distinguished chiefly as a seat of learn-
ing. Erskine College and Erskihe Theological Seminary,
under the control of the Associate Reformed Presbyte-
rians, are located here, as well as a female college. There
are five public libraries in the town, and one weekly paper.
Pop. 400; of Due West township, 1030.
J. I. BonRER, PUB. “Associa'ſ E REF. PRESBYTERIAN.”
Dufau (PIERRE ARMAND), a French author, born at
Bordeaux in 1795. He wrote several works on political
economy and French history, and was an editor of several
liberal journals of Paris, and is the author of several works
on the education of the blind.
Dufaure (JULES ARMAND STANISLAs), a French orator
and statesman, born at Saujon, in Charente-Inférieure,
Dec. 4, 1798. He practised law at Bordeaux, and was
elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1834. He became
an influential leader of the liberal party. After the for-
mation of the republic in 1848 he was a moderate repub-
lican member of the Assembly, and was minister of the
interior for about two months ending in December of that
year. He filled the same office from June to Oct., 1849,
and was driven from the public service by the coup-
d'état of Dec., 1851, after which he gained great emi-
nence at the bar. He was appointed minister of jus-
tice by Thiers in Feb., 1871.
Dufay (CHARLES FRANÇois DE CISTERNAY), a French
savant, born in Paris Sept. 14, 1698. He was the au-
thor of the theory of two kinds of electricity, vitreous tº
and resinous. He wrote treatises on chemistry and *
other sciences. Died July 16, 1739.
Duff (ALEXANDER), D. D., LL.D., a Scottish Pres-
byterian missionary, born in Perthshire in 1806 or
1808. He was educated at St. Andrew’s. He went to
India in 1830, and labored there with great zeal and
success for many years as a missionary. In 1839 he
published a work “On India and the Missions.” After the
disruption of the Scottish Church in 1843 he was the chief
agent of the mission which the Free Church maintains at
Calcutta. He visited the U. S. in 1854, returned to India
in 1855, and remained there until 1863. After his return
to Scotland he became professor of evangelistic theology in
the theological schools of the Free Church.
Dufferin, EARLs of (United Kingdom, 1871), Barons
Dufferin and Clanderboye (Ireland, 1800), Wiscounts Clan-
derboye (1871), Barons Clanderboye of Clanderboye (United
Ringdom, 1850). — FREDERICK TEMPLE BLACK wooD, first
earl, K. P., K. C. B., born in June, 1826, was under-secre-
tary of state for India, 1864–66, and for war 1866, and suc-
ceeded his father in 1841. He became in 1872 governor-
general of Canada.
Duffield, a post-township of Charles co., Md. Pop.
3485.
Duffield (GEORGE), D. D., was born at Strasburg, Lan-
caster co., Pa., July 4, 1794, and was educated at the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania. He was for many years a pastor
of Presbyterian churches in Philadelphia, New York, and
Detroit. He was an active leader of the “New School ’’
movement. Died at Detroit, Mich., June 26, 1869.
Duffy’s, a township of Tallapoosa co., Ala.
1273. -
Dufour (GUILLAUME HENRI), an able Swiss general,
born at Constance Sept. 15, 1787. He entered the French
army in 1809, and became a captain in the Swiss service
about 1815. In 1847 he was chosen commander-in-chief
Pop.
of the federal army raised to defend the integrity of the
republic against the Roman Catholic Sonderbund. He
quickly quelled the rebellion. In 1864 he was president
of the Geneva convention. He published, besides other
works on tactics, etc., a “Memoir upon Ancient and Mediae-
val Artillery” (1840) and “Permanent Fortification” (1850).
Duganne (AUGUSTINE Joseph HICKEY), an American
poet and novelist, born in Boston in 1823. He published a
volume of poems in 1856, and a prose work entitled a
“Class-Book of Governments and Civil Society” (1859).
Among his poems are “The Iron Harp’’ (1847) and “The
Mission of Intellect” (1852).
Dugas (Louis ALEXANDER), M. D., LL.D., was born in
Washington, Wilkes co., Ga., Jan. 3, 1806, received his
medical education at the University of Maryland and in
Europe, and was one of the original founders of the Medi-
cal College of Georgia (1832), in which he still is professor
of surgery (1874). He has published many contributions
in professional periodicals, was many years editor of the
“Southern Medical and Surgical Journal” (Athens, Ga.),
and is the author of a “New Principle of Diagnosis of Dis-
locations of the Shoulder-Joint” (1857).
Dug'dale (Sir WILLIAM), an English antiquary, born
in Warwickshire Sept. 12, 1605. He was appointed blanch-
lyon pursuivant-extraordinary in 1638, rouge-croix pur-
suivant-in-ordinary in 1640, became Chester herald in 1644,
was a royalist in the civil war, and became Norroy king of
arms in 1660, after the restoration of Charles II., and Gar-
ter king of arms in 1677. Dugdale and Dodsworth pub-
lished an important work on English monasteries entitled
“Monasticon Anglicanum ” (3 vols., 1655–73). Among his
other works are “Antiquities of Warwickshire” (1656),
which is highly esteemed, and “Origines Juridiciales.”
(1666). Died Feb. 10, 1686. (See “Life and Diary of Sir
W. Dugdale,” edited by HAMPER, 1827.)
Dughet (GASPARD), called CASPAR PoussiN, a painter
of French extraction, was born at Rome in 1613, and stud-
ied under his brother-in-law, Nicolas Poussin, whom he
followed as a painter of the heroic landscape, excelling him
in the grandeur of his distances, his development of the
middle ground, rich foliage masses agitated by the Wind,
and the bold treatment of landscapes. His chief works are
in Rome, where he died in 1675.
Du'gong [a word of Malay origin], a marine animal
of the genus Halicore, belonging to the Sirenia. The du-
Dugong.
gong of the Indian seas is generally from eight to twelve
feet long, though it is said to attain sometimes the length
of twenty-five feet. The upper lip is thick and fleshy, and
forms a kind of snout; the upper jaw bends downward al-
most at a right angle; the eyes are very small, with a nic-
titating membrane; the skin thick and Smooth. In its in-
ternal structure it has considerable resemblance to the
pachyderms, and it feeds chiefly on algae. It is also re-
markable for the ventricles of the heart being entirely
detached from each other. Its flesh is said to resemble
beef, and is prized as food. The oil is recommended as a
substitute for cod-liver oil. Various species occur in the
Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, etc. &
Duguay-Trouin (RENá), a celebrated French admi-
ral, born at Saint Malo June 10, 1673. As captain of a
privateer frigate he cruised about the high seas, and took
many prizes from the English between 1690 and 1697. In
the latter year he entered the royal marine with the rank
of captain. He served with distinction in the war of the
Spanish succession, which began in 1702. In 1707 he cap-
tured three English ships of war and about sixty trans-
ports of merchant vessels. Among his famous exploits was
the capture of Rio Janeiro in 1711. He was raised to the
rank of lieutenant-general in 1728. Died Sept. 27, 1736.
| (See his autobiographic “Memoirs,” 1740, and English
translation, 1742.)
Du Guesclin (BERTRAND), the greatest French gen-
eral of his time, was born near Rennes about 1314. He
fought against the English, who occupied many places in
France, and he defeated the duke of Lancaster at Rennes

1422
DUHAMEL DU MONCEAU-DULUTH.
in 1356. In 1366 he commanded an army which fought
for Henry de Trastamare against Peter the Cruel of Cas-
tile. He gained a victory over Peter, but he was defeated
and taken prisoner by the English Black Prince in 1867.
He paid a large ransom, and was soon released. Having
been appointed constable of France in 1369, he defended
the country against the English invaders, whom he ex-
pelled from nearly every provinee of France before 1375.
Died July 13, 1380. (See FROISSART, “ Chronicles;” JAMI-
SON, “Life of Duguesclin,” 1864.)
Duhamel du Monceau (HENRI Louis), an eminent
French botanist and rural economist, born in Paris in 1700.
Among his numerous useful works are a “Treatise on the
Culture of Land” (1751), a treatise on the structure and
physiology of plants entitled “De la Physique des Arbres”
(1758), and “Elements of Agriculture” (1762). He was a
member of the Academy of Sciences. Died Aug. 23, 1782.
HDuil/ius, or Duil/lius (CAIUs), a Roman general who
became consul in 260 B. C., during the first Punic War.
He built ships of war after the model of one taken from the
enemy, and was the first Roman who gained a naval vic-
tory over the Carthaginians, whom he defeated in the year
260 near the Lipari Islands. -
HDuil/lian Col'umn, the Columna Rostrata, which was
erected in the forum at Rome (as Quintilian states) to com-
memorate the naval victory of C. Duillius. (See DUIL-
IUs.) Columns of this kind were called rostratae, from
having the beaks of ships (rostra) projecting on each side.
The restoration of the Duillian column by Michael Angelo
is now preserved in the Palazzo de' Conservatori on the
Capitoline Hill, retaining in the pedestal a portion of the
original inscription in archaic Latin. The inscription has
been copied and printed, and may be found at the end of
the fourth book of Duker’s “Florus.”
EIENRY DRISLER.
Duis’ burg, a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the Ruhr
and near the Rhine, 16 miles N. of Düsseldorf. It is an
old town, and has a church founded in 1187. Here is a
gymnasium, with a realschule and a female high school;
and there are also manufactures of cotton and woollen fab-
rics, hosiery, porcelain, soap, etc. In the thirteenth cen-
tury it was a city of the Hanseatic League. The railway
which connects Cologne with Minden passes through this
place, which has been declared a free port. Pop. in 1871,
30,520.
Dujardin (Fá11x), a French naturalist, born at Tours
in 1801. He wrote, besides other works, a “Natural His-
tory of Infusoria.” (1841) and a “Manual of the Observer
with the Microscope” (1843). Died in 1860.
Dujardin, or De Jardyn (KAREL), a skilful Dutch
painter, born in Amsterdam about 1640, was a pupil of
Berghem. He studied in Rome and painted pastoral land-
scapes. He made also a series of fifty etchings of rural
subjects, which are much sought. During a second visit
to Italy he died at Venice Nov. 20, 1678.
HDuke [from the Lat. dua (gen. ducis), a “leader” or
“general;” Fr. due ; It. duca; Sp. duque; Ger. Herzogl,
a title originally given in the Byzantine empire to military
governors of provinces, and previous to the time of Theo-
dosius regarded as inferior to that of count. Dukes in Ger-
many became in course of time the chief princes of the
empire. In France and Italy dukes form the second rank
in the nobility, being next below princes; in England they
are first. The title was introduced in the reign of Edward
III., whose eldest son, the Black Prince, was made duke of
Cornwall. In 1351, Henry Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster,
became duke of Lancaster. The dignity thus created in
these instances was not a dukedom by tenure; it has always
remained a personal title only, hereditary according to the
limitations of the patent. The Austrian archdukes and the
Russian grand dukes are princes of the blood. The princes
of the royal house of Saxony also have the title of duke.
In Bavaria and Würtemberg the side branches of the reign-
ing family are called dukes in Bavaria and dukes of Wür-
temberg. In Prussia the title was conferred in 1840 upon
the Prince Hohenlohe Waldenburg Schillingsfürst (duke of
Ratibor), and in 1861 upon Prince Hohenlohe Ochringen
(duke of Ujest). Several reigning sovereigns of German
states have the title of duke (Anhalt, Brunswick, Saxe-
Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg) or of grand ,
duke (Baden, Hesse, Oldenburg, Saxe-Weimar, Mecklen-
burg-Schwerin, and Mecklenburg-Strelitz). Royal dukes in
Great Britain are princes of the blood. British dukes have
no territorial jurisdiction.
the peers of the royal blood and the two archbishops of
Canterbury and York, the first peers of the realm. There
were in 1873 twenty dukes in England (exclusive of the
duchess of Inverness, the widow of the duke of Sussex),
namely: Norfolk (title created in 1483), Somerset (1547),
The English dukes are next to.
Richmond (1675), Grafton (1675), Beaufort (1862), St.
Alban’s (1684), Leeds (1694), Bedford (1694), Devonshire
(1694), Marlborough (1702), Rutland (1703), Brandon
(duke of Hamilton, 1711), Portland (1716), Manchester
(1719), Newcastle (1756), Northumberland (1766), Wel-
lington (1814), Buckingham and Chandos (1822), Suther-
land (1833), Cleveland (1833). There are also seven Scotch
and one Irish duke, who, however, do not sit in the im–
perial Parliament as dukes, but as marquesses, earls, vis-
counts, or barons. REVISED BY A. J. SchEM.
Dukes, a county of Massachusetts, consisting of Mar-
tha’s Vineyard and other smaller islands in the Atlantic
Ocean, has an area of about 118 square miles. The largest
of these islands is about 5 miles from the mainland. Many
of the inhabitants are employed in fisheries. The soil is
partly fertile. Some iron ore is found, and salt is made
from the sea. Wool is the chief agricultural product. Cap-
ital, Edgartown. Pop. 3787.
This county (officially called “the county of Dukes
county’) was named from the fact that, with the province
of New York, it was under the government of the duke of
York (King James II.). It became a part of Massachusetts
in 1692.
Dulci'gmo [anc. Olcinium ; Turk. Olgoon], a town and
seaport of European Turkey, lat. 41° 54' N., lon. 19° 12'
E., is in Albania, on the Adriatic Sea, 14 miles W. S. W.
of Scutari. It is the seat of a Catholic bishop, and has a
trade in timber and oil. Pop. 7000.
Dul/cimer [Sp. dulcemele, from the Lat. dulcis, “sweet,”
and melos, “music ’j, the name of a musical instrument
shaped like a triangle, and having brass wire strings, set
in motion by rods of wood or iron. The form and nature
of the instrument called by this name in the Bible are not
known.
Dü1/ken, a town in . Germany, in the Rhine Province,
8 miles S. S. E. of Kempen. It has manufactures of cot-
ton, silk, thread, ribbons, linens, and wire. Flax is ex-
tensively cultivated. Pop. 5816.
Dulong (PIERRE Louis), a French chemist and savant,
born at Rouen Feb. 12, 1785. He discovered the chloride
of nitrogen in 1812, and became an associate of Berzelius
in chemical researches. In 1823 he was chosen a member
of the Academy of Sciences. He wrote treatises on the
theory of heat and on gases. Died at Paris July 19, 1838.
Dulse, the name given to many of the red-spored sea-
weeds. The Rhodomenia palmata, belonging to the Rho-
domeniaceae, grows on rocks on the coasts of Great Britain,
the U. S., and other regions. It has sessile fronds of a
dark-red or purple color, irregularly notched, and of a
leathery texture. It is an important article of food in Ice-
land, where it is dried and stored in casks. It is abundant
on all the British coasts, and is sometimes used as food,
either raw or cooked. The Schyzimenia edulis, of the order
Cryptonemiaceae, is also called dulse, and is used as food.
This also occurs in the U. S. “Pepper dulse,” of the
genus Lawrentia and order Laurentiaceae, is eaten in Scot-
land. It grows on our Pacific coasts.
Duluth', a city, capital of St. Louis co., Minn., is situ-
ated at the W. extremity of Lake Superior, 155 miles N.
N. E. of St. Paul. It is the eastern terminus of the North-
ern Pacific R. R., now (1874) running 452 miles westward
to the Missouri River, and the northern terminus of the
Lake Superior and Mississippi R. R., running from St.
Paul. It has 12 church-edifices—1 Catholic, 1 Episcopal,
2 Presbyterian, 1 Methodist Episcopal, 1 Congregational, 1
Swedish Methodist, 1 Swedish Lutheran, 1 Norwegian Lu-
theran, 1 German Evangelical, 1 Union or Universal, and 1
Baptist; two grain elevators, a custom-house, and a weather-
signal office. The Northern Pacific R. R. has in construc-
tion some of the largest private docks in the U. S. The
harbor, entered by a ship-canal 250 feet wide, is landlocked,
being formed by Minnesota and Rice's Points; the former
is a scythe-shaped natural breakwater running out 7 miles
into the lake. The harbor has been improved by the con-
struction of several docks and piers, independent of the
railroad company’s works. The outer harbor is protected
by a partially constructed breakwater, on which has been
expended $150,000; two-thirds of this sum by the govern-
ment. Duluth has a large stove-factory, machine and car-
building works, and other manufactories. In May, 1869,
the site of the city was a forest—the old Duluth, at that
time situated on Minnesota Point, consisted of a few cabins.
The place is named after Capt. John Duluth, a French
traveller, who visited the country and built a hut in 1760.
The town has five newspapers, two of them daily. Large
quantities of wheat and flour are shipped from here, prin-
cipally to Buffalo, N. Y. It has one national bank. Pop.
in 1869, 38; in 1870, 3131.
R. D'UNGER, ED. “HERALD.”
DULWICH-DUMONT D’URVILLE.
1423
IDul/wich, a suburb of London, England, in Surrey, 5
miles S. of London. It is pleasantly situated near Syden-
ham, and has numerous handsome villas and mansions.
Here is Dulwich College, founded in 1619 by Edward
Alleyne, a tragic actor, and a picture-gallery. -
Dumangas, a town in Panay, one of the Philippine
Islands, is near the sea. Rice abounds here. Pop. about
25,000. -
Dumas (ALEXANDRE), a popular French novelist and
dramatist, born at Willers-Cotterets (Aisne) July 24, 1803.
He was not liberally educated. He went to Paris in 1823
to seek his fortune. In 1828 he produced “Henri III.,” a
drama, which was very successful. He was a writer of
the romantic school, and was remarkable for literary fecun-
dity. Dumas displayed much skill in the construction of
lots. Among his novels are “The Three Musketeers”
(30 vols., 1844–45) and “The Count of Monte-Christo.”
(12 vols., 1845). It appears that a large part of the works
published in his name were written by other men. Died
at Puys, near Dieppe, Dec. 5, 1870.
Dumas (ALEXANDRE), a novelist and comic writer, a
son of the preceding, was born in Paris July 28, 1824.
Abandoning the imaginative romance of his father, he ap-
plied himself to the study of society, and sought by veri-
similitude to make good his deficiency in dramatic con-
struction. His works treat mostly of the equivocal aspects
of French life. His first novels, “La Dame aux Camélias”
(1848), “Diane de Lys” (1851), etc., were attended with
great success, as also the plays which afterwards chiefly
employed his pen. In 1872, in “L’Homme-Femme,” a
social tract, he attacked the French marriage system.
Dumas (ALExANDRE DAVY DE LA PAILLETERIE), a
French general, born in St. Domingo Mar. 25, 1762, was
the father of Alexandre Dumas (1803–70). His mother
was a negress. He became a general of division in 1793,
and defeated the Austrian general Wurmser at Mantua in
1796. He commanded the cavalry in Egypt in 1798. Died
in 1807.
Dumas (JEAN BAPTISTE), a French chemist and writer,
born at Alais (Gard) in 1800. He became a resident of
Paris, and married a daughter of the well-known chemist
A. Brongniart. He acquired a European reputation by his
discoveries in organic chemistry, isomerism, the law of sub-
stitutions, and other parts of chemical philosophy. In 1832
he was admitted into the Institute, and in 1834 he became
rofessor of organic chemistry in the School of Medicine.
#. chief work is a “Treatise on Chemistry Applied to the
Arts” (8 vols., 1828–45). He was minister of agriculture
and commerce from Oct., 1849, to Jan., 1851, after which
he became a Senator.
Dumas (MATHIEU), Count, a French general, born at
Montpellier Dec. 23, 1753. He fought for the U. S., in
1780–82, and was a moderate member of the Legislative
Assembly in 1791. In the Reign of Terror he was con-
demned to death, but he escaped and went into exile. He
became a general of division in 1805, and served at Ulm
and Austerlitz. In 1812 he was intendant-general of the
grand army in Russia. He wrote a narrative of the French
campaigns from 1798 to 1807, entitled “Précis des Evêne-
ments Militaires” (19 vols., 1816–26), and “Souvenirs,” an
account of his career. Died Oct. 16, 1837.
Dumbar/ton, a county of Scotland, has an area of
297 square miles. It consists of two detached parts, one
of them bounded on the E. by Loch Lomond, on the S. by
the estuary of the Clyde, and on the W. by Loch Long;
the other, much smaller, portion lying on both sides of the
Forth and Clyde Canal. The surface is mountainous, and
presents much picturesque scenery. Here are mines of coal
and iron and quarries of limestone and slate. Capital,
Dumbarton. Pop. in 1871, 58,839.
Dumbarton, a seaport of Scotland, the capital of the
above county, is on the river Leven near its entrance into
the Clyde, 13 miles N. W. of Glasgow. Steamboats ply
regularly between this port and Glasgow. It has manu-
factures of glass, machinery, and ropes. Here, on a steep,
rugged basaltic rock, rising to the height of 560 feet, stands
the famous Dumbarton Castle, which has been a stronghold
for many centuries. Pop. of parliamentary borough in 1871,
11,414.
Dumb Cane (Dieffenbachia Seguina), a West Indian
shrub, so named from its acrid juice causing the tongue to
swell. It belongs to the order Araceae. The root and the
juice have medicinal properties, and are used in sugar-re-
fining.
Dumb'ness, when associated with deafness, is usually
the result of that deafness; the child being unable to hear,
of course is unable to learn to talk; but there are at least
two important varieties of dumbness which are the direct
results of disease. The first of these is what physicians call
aphonia, a loss of voice which may be transient or perma-
ment, functional or structural. Diseases of the larynx or of
the nerves supplying it are frequent causes. A much more
formidable disease or symptom is aphasia, which is a loss
of language rather than of speech. It is a symptom of
brain disease, the patient having the power to articulate,
and even to think, but not to express his thoughts. (See
DEAF AND DUMB, revised by HoN. HENRY BARNARD, LL.D.;
also APHASIA and APHONIA.)
Dum’dum, a town of British India, in Bengal, 8 miles
N. E. of Calcutta. Here are a cantonment and a cannon-
foundry.
Dumfries’, a county in the S. of Scotland, is bounded
on the S. by Solway Frith, on the E. by Cumberland, on the
N. by Roxburgh, Selkirk, Peebles, and Lanark, and on the
W. by Ayr and Kirkcudbright. Area, 1129 square miles.
It is drained by the Annan, the Esk, and the Nith rivers.
The surface is mountainous in the N. and undulating in
the S. The valleys of the Annan, Esk, and Nith are fer-
tile. Among the minerals of this county are coal, lead,
silver, limestone, and new red sandstone. It is traversed
by two railways extending to Edinburgh and Glasgow. The
chief towns are Dumfries, Annan, Moffat, and Sanquhar.
Pop. in 1871, 74,794.
Dumfries, a seaport of Scotland, the capital of the
above county, is on the river Nith 9 miles from its entrance
into Solway Firth, and 64 miles S. by W. from Edinburgh;
lat. of Solway Frith light, 54° 48' N., lon. 3° 32' W. It is
well built of red freestone, and is regarded as the capital
of the south of Scotland. Two bridges across the river
connect it with Maxwelltown. The high tides of Solway
Frith bring vessels of sixty tons to the town, and larger
vessels to the river quays near Dumfries. Here are manu-
factures of woollen cloths (tweeds), hosiery, hats, etc.
Among the notable objects of the place is the tomb of Burns,
who here officiated as exciseman. Pop. in 1871, 15,435.
Dumfries, a post-township of Prince William co., Va.
Pop. 844.
Dü’michen (Joh ANNEs), a German Egyptologist, born
Oct. 15, 1833, studied at Berlin, and passed many years in
archaeological research in the Valley of the Nile. He has
written several treatises on Egyptian inscriptions.
Dum/mer, a township of Coos co., N. H. It has manu-
factures of lumber, etc. Pop. 317.
Dummer (Dr. JEREMIAH) was born at Boston, Mass.,
and graduated at Harvard in 1699, afterwards studying at
Utrecht, where he obtained his doctor's degree. Unsuccess-
ful as a preacher, he became the agent of Massachusetts in
England (1710–21). He wrote with great ability in defence
of colonial rights, and presented 800 volumes to Yale Col-
lege. Died in England May 19, 1739.-His brother, Lieu-
tenant-Governor WILLIAM DUMMER (1677–1761), founded
Dummer Academy at Newbury, Mass. (opened in 1763).
Dum/merston, a township and post-village of Wind-
ham co., Vt., on the Vermont Valley R. R., 5 miles N. of
Brattleboro’. Pop. 916. -
Dumont’ (EBENEzER), an American general and law-
yer, born at Vevay, Ind., Nov. 23, 1814. He became a
brigadier-general of Union volunteers in Sept., 1861, and
defeated the Confederates at Lebanon, Ky., in May, 1862.
IHaving resigned his commission early in 1863, he was a
Republican member of Congress for two terms (1863–67).
Died April 16, 1871. -
Dumont (PIERRE ETIENNE LOUIs), a Swiss author, born
at Geneva, July 18, 1759. He was a Protestant minister,
and emigrated in 1782 to St. Petersburg, where he preached
eighteen months. In 1785 he removed to England, and
became tutor to the sons of Lord Shelburne. He was in-
timate with Sir Samuel Romilly and Jeremy Bentham. He
passed the years 1790 and 1791 mostly in Paris, where he
associated with Mirabeau, whom he aided in composing his
speeches and reports. Having returned to England in
1792, he edited and popularized Bentham's works on legis-
lation—namely, “Traités de Législation’ (1802) and
“Théories des Peines et Récompenses” (1810). He died
at Milan Sept. 29, 1829, leaving “Souvenirs sur Mirabeau”
(1832). (See A. P. DE CANDoILE, “ Notice sur la Vie et
les Écrits de M. Dumont,” 1829.)
Dumont d'Urville (JULEs SáBASTIEN CfSAR), a
French navigator, born in Normandy May 23, 1790. He
commanded an expedition sent in 1826 to obtain tidings of
La Pérouse and to survey the coasts of New Zealand, New
Guinea, etc. His discoveries were published in a work
called “Voyage of Discovery Around the World’’ (22 vols.,
1832–34). In 1837 he conducted an exploring expedition
to the Antarctic regions. He discovered land, which he
called Terre Adélie, in lat. 66° 30' S.; returned in 1840,
and became a rear-admiral. Died May 8, 1842.
1424
DUMOULIN–DUNDALK.
Dumoulin [Lat. Molinaeus], (CHARLEs), an able French
jurist, born in Paris in 1500. He was a Protestant, and
was often persecuted for his religion. He wrote several
legal works which were highly esteemed, and a book against
the acts of the Council of Trent (published in 1564). Died
in 1566.
Dumouriez (CHARLES FRANÇors), a French general,
born at Cambrai Jan. 25, 1739. He served as an officer in
the Seven Years' war, was quartermaster-general in Corsica
N
in 1768, and was employed in a secret mission to Poland
by the duke of Choiseul in 1770. Between 1776 and 1787
he was commandant at Cherbourg, where he planned and
directed great naval works. In the Revolution he acted
with the Girondists. He was appointed minister of foreign
affairs in Mar., 1792, and acquired the confidence of the
king. War having broken out between France and Austria,
he resigned office in June, 1792, in order to take command
of the army; invaded Flanders, in Oct., 1792, and defeated
the Austrians at Jemmapes in November, and conquered
Belgium. According to Lamartine, he was at this period
the virtual dictator of all parties. Instead of prosecuting
the war with vigor, he plotted a counter-revolution, and
negotiated secretly with the Austrians. The Convention,
suspecting his design, sent four commissioners in April,
1793, to summon him to Paris. Dumouriez refused to obey
the Convention, and when the commissioners ordered the
soldiers to arrest him he sent them as prisoners to the Aus-
trian camp. His army refused to support him in this de-
fection, and he became a fugitive and exile. He died in
England Mar. 14, 1823. (See “Mémoires de Dumouriez,”
by himself, 2 vols., 1794.)
Dumpy Level, a levelling instrument with a short tele-
Scope of large aperture, and compass-box beneath.
Dun, a Celtic or Gothic word signifying a “hill” or
“height.” It is the root of the names of many places
(often modified into Dwm or Don), as Dunkirk, Dumbarton,
Donegal, etc.
Duna Földvar, a town of Hungary, in the county of
Tolna, 28 miles N. of Tolna, on the Danube. Here is a
Franciscan cloister and two match-factories. Pop. 12,382.
Dunbar', a royal burgh and seaport of Scotland, in
Haddingtonshire, is at the mouth of the Frith of Forth,
27 miles E. N. E. of Edinburgh; lat. 56° N., lon. 2°29' W.
The harbor will admit vessels of 300 tons. Dunbar is a
fine old town, containing the remains of Dunbar Castle,
which was the scene of many historical events. Dunbar
has valuable herring-fisheries. Cromwell gained near this
town a decisive victory over the royalists, Sept. 3, 1650.
Pop. in 1871, 3311.
Dunbar, a township of Faribault co., Minn. P. 203.
Dunbar, a township and post-village of Fayette co.,
Pa., on the Pittsburg Washington and Baltimore R. R., 4
miles S. of Connellsville. Pop. 2972.
Dunbar (John R. W.), M. D. See APPENDIx.
Dunbar (WILLIAM), an eminent Scottish poet, born at
Salton about 1460. He was a Franciscan friar and itin-
erant preacher in his youth. He was employed by James
IV. as clerk of embassy. Among his works are “The
Thistle and the Rose” (1503), an allegory in honor of the
imarriage of James IV., and “The Merle and Nightingale,”
poems showing a rich fancy. Died about 1530.
Dunbar/ton, a post-township of Merrimack co., N. H.
It has manufactures of lumber. Pop. 778.
Dunc'an, a post-twp. of Monroe co., Ark. Pop. 1334.
Duncan, a township of Mercer co., Ill. Pop. 974.
Duncan, a township of Cheboygan co., Mich. P. 831.
Duncan, a township of Sullivan co., Mo. Pop. 1064.
Duncan (ADAM), WISCOUNT DUNCAN of CAMPERDown,
a British admiral, born at Dundee July 1, 1731. He en-
tered the navy in 1746, and became a post-captain in 1761.
In 1789 he obtained the rank of rear-admiral of the blue.
With the rank of vice-ādmiral he was appointed com-
mander of a fleet in the North Sea in 1795, and waged war
against the Dutch. Many of his men mutinied and de-
serted in 1797, but finally returned to their duty. He de-
feated the Dutch near Camperdown in Oct., 1797, and was
raised to the peerage for that service. Died Aug. 4, 1804.
Duncan (JAMEs), an American officer, born in Sept.,
1810, at Cornwall, N. Y., graduated at West Point 1834,
and inspector-general U. S. A. Jan. 26, 1849, to which date
he served in the artillery. He served chiefly at seaboard
posts 1834–45; as assistant professor at the Military Acade-
my 1855; in Florida war 1855–56, engaged at Camp Izard
(wounded) and Olaklikaha; in removing Cherokees to the
West 1838; in suppressing Canada border disturbances
1838–41; in the military occupation of Texas 1845–46; in
the war with Mexico 1846–48, engaged at Palo Alto (brevet
tucky about 1790.
major), Resaca de la Palma (brevet lieutenant-colonel),
Monterey (brevet colonel), Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Ama-
Zoque, San Antonio, Churubusco, Molino del Rey, Chapul-
tepec, and the city of Mexico; and on inspection duties
1849. Died July 3, 1849, at Mobile, Ala., aged thirty-six.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Duncan (JAMES HENRY), LL.D., born at Haverhill, Mass.,
Dec. 5, 1793, graduated at Phillips (Exeter) Academy and
Harvard College 1812, admitted to Essex bar 1815, and en-
tered upon the practice of law in Haverhill, Mass., where
he resided till his death, Feb. 8, 1868. He was a member
of the Massachusetts general court 1827–28, 1837–38, and
1857; member of governor’s council 1839–40 ; from 1848
to 1852 member of Congress from the Essex district, Mass.;
for many years chairman of the board of managers of the
American Baptist Missionary Union, a trustee of Newton
Theological Institution, and a fellow of Brown University.
He was active and influential in all that concerned the wel-
fare of his town, his Church, and the general interests of
humanity.
HDuncan (Johnson K.), a general, born in Pennsyl-
vania in 1826, graduated at West Point in 1849. He en-
tered the service of the Confederate States in 1861, and
took command of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, on the
Mississippi below New Orleans. After the fleet of Farra-
gut had passed these forts Duncan surrendered them, April
29, 1862. Died in Jan., 1863.
Duncan (Joseph), an American legislator, born in Ken-
He served in the war of 1812, after
which he removed to Illinois. As a member of the senate
of Illinois he originated a law establishing common schools.
He was chosen a member of Congress in 1827, and governor
of Illinois in 1834. Died Jan. 15, 1844.
Duncan (THOMAs), A. R. A., a Scottish painter, born in
Perthshire in 1807. He painted portraits and historical
and fancy subjects with success. He was elected an asso-
ciate of the Royal Academy of London in 1843. His works
are mostly illustrative of Scottish history, life, and charac-
ter. Died in 1845. -
Duncan (WILLIAM CECIL), D. D., was born in New York
City Jan. 24, 1824, graduated at Columbia College in 1843,
and studied at Hamilton Theological Seminary. He was
ordained to the Baptist ministry in 1848. He was for some
time editor of the “South-western Baptist Chronicle,” and
for three years professor of Greek and Latin in the Univer-
sity of Louisiana. During his pastorate over the Coliseum
place Baptist church, New Orleans, he was compelled (1861)
to leave the South for a considerable time. He was the au-
thor of several volumes of religious and denominational
literature. Died May 1, 1864.
Duncan and Hinton Creek, a township of Cleave-
land co., N. C. Pop. 1242.
Duncan'non, a post-village of Penn township, Perry
co., Pa., on the W. bank of the Susquehanna, and on the
Pennsylvania, R. R., 16 miles N. by W. of Harrisburg. It
has important iron-works and one weekly newspaper.
Dun/cansby Head (anc. Berubium), a promontory
forming the N. E. extremity of Scotland and of Caithness,
is 1% miles E. of John o' Groat’s House; lat. 58° 40' N.,
lon. 39 8' W.
Dun/can’s Creek, a post-township of Rutherford co.,
N. C. Pop. 999.
Dun'ciad, The, a keen poetical satire, written by
Alexander Pope, and published complete in four books
(1742). It is a fierce onslaught on his numerous detractors,
who have thereby obtained an unenviable immortality.
Dunck'er (MAXIMILIAN WolfGANG), a German histo-
rian, born in Berlin in 1812. He became professor of his-
tory at Halle in 1842, a member of the German national as-
sembly in 1848, professor at Tübingen in 1857, and received
an appointment in the Prussian ministry in 1861. Among
his works are “Origines Germanicae" (1840) and a “ His-
tory of Antiquity” (1852).
Dun/combe (THOMAS SLINGSBY), an English radical,
born in 1797, was elected to Parliament in 1826. He repre-
sented Finsbury from 1834 to 1861, advocated the vote by
ballot, extension of Suffrage, and other reforms. He was
a witty, fluent, and popular speaker. He made in 1858 a.
motion which resulted in the relief of the Jews from politi-
cal disabilities. Died Nov. 13, 1861.
Dun/daff, a post-borough of Clifford township, Susque-
hanna co., Pa. Pop. 187.
Dundalk', a seaport-town of Ireland, the capital of
the county of Louth, is at the mouth of Castleton River
and on Dundalk Bay, 50 miles N. of Dublin, with which
it is connected by railway. It has a safe harbor, which
admits vessels drawing sixteen feet of water. The chief
articles of export are linen, timber, iron, dairy products,
DUNDAS–DUNKERS.
and live-stock. Here are manufactures of soap, pins,
leather, starch, etc. Edward Bruce took Dundalk in 1315,
and held his court here until he was killed in 1318. Pop.
in 1871, 10,893.
Dundas’, a county in Ontario, Dominion of Canada, is
bounded on the S. E. by the river St. Lawrence, and inter-
sected by the Grand Trunk R. R. Pop. in 1871, 18,777.
Dundas, a post-town of Wentworth co., Ontario, Do-
minion of Canada, is at the W. end of Lake Ontario, and at
the head of the Desjardins Canal, on the Great Western
R. R., 7 miles W. of Hamilton. It has one weekly news-
paper, and manufactures of machinery, axes, combs, wool-
lens, castings, soap, etc. It has many fine buildings. Pop.
in 1871, 3135.
Dundas (HENRY), WISCOUNT MELVILLE, a Scottish law-
yer and statesman, born about 1741 of a family distin-
guished for forensic ability through several generations,
the son of RoßERT DUNDAs, Lord Arniston (1685–1753), who
was lord advocate of Scotland (1720–25), was admitted to
the bar in 1763. He became lord advocate of Scotland in
1775, and a member of Parliament, in which he promoted
the war against the U. S. He joined the party of Pitt, who
appointed him president of the board of control in 1784,
after which he was a constant supporter of that minister.
In 1791 he was appointed secretary of state for the home
department, and in 1794 he became secretary at war. He
resigned in 1801, received the title of Wiscount Melville in
1802, and was appointed first lord of the admiralty in 1804.
In 1805 he was impeached for malversation, but he was
acquitted by the Peers. Died May 27, 1811.-His son,
ADMIRAL RICHARD SAUNDERS DUNDAs, born April 11, 1802,
commanded a fleet in the Baltic in Feb., 1855, which bom-
barded Sweaborg. Died June 3, 1861.
Dundas (Sir JAMES WHITLEY DEANs), a British admi-
ral, born Dec. 4, 1785. He commanded a fleet in the Black
Sea in 1854, during the war against Russia. Died Oct. 3,
1862.
Dundas” Strait, Northern Australia, separates Mel-
ville Island from Coburg Peninsula, and is 18 miles wide.
Dundee’ [Lat. Taodunum], a royal burgh and seaports
of Scotland, in the county of Forfar, is finely situated on
the N. side of the wide estuary of the Tay, 10 miles from
the sea and 50 miles by water N. N. E. of Edinburgh; lat.
56° 27' 36” N., lon. 2° 57 45' W, The principal public
edifices are the royal exchange, opened in 1856; the corn
exchange; St. Paul’s church, with a tower and spire 217
feet high ; the infirmary and town-hall. Here is a remark-
able tower 156 feet high, built in the twelfth century, to
which three parochial churches under one roof have been
annexed. Dundee has a theatre, a public library, and an
asylum for the insane. It is the chief seat in Great Brit-
aim of the manufacture of coarse linen fabrics—namely,
osnaburgs, sheetings, ducks, dowlas, drills, and canvas.
It has also manufactures of jute, confectionery, and ma-
chinery. The annual value of the flax, hemp, and jute
manufactures of Dundee is about £3,000,000. Dundee has
an excellent harbor, and extensive docks which cost
£600,000. It is connected with Edinburgh by a railway, the
passengers of which cross the Friths of Tay and Forth by
large steamboats. Here are a number of shipbuilding
yards. Pop. in 1871, 118,974.
Dundee, a post-village of Kane co., Ill., on Fox River,
48 miles by railroad W. N. W. of Chicago. Pop. of Dum-
dee township, 2079.
Dundee, a post-township of Monroe co., Mich. It has
four churches, two schools, and one newspaper, a bank, one
paper and two planing mills. Pop. 2384.
- John CHEEvKR, PUB. “ENTERPRISE.”
Dundee, a post-village of Starkey township, Yates co.,
N. Y., about 12 miles from Watkins and 32 miles N. by W.
from Elmira. It has one weekly newspaper, four churches,
a bank, an academy, two furnaces, mills, etc. Pop. 730.
J. M. WESCOTT, ED. “RECORD.”
Dundon'ald, EARLs of (1669), Barons Cochrane (Scot-
land, 1647).--THOMAS BARNEs CoCHRANE, eleventh 'earl,
born April 18, 1814, succeeded his father in 1860.
Dundonald (THoMAs Cochrane), TENTH EARL OF,
an able British admiral, born Dec. 14, 1775, was a son of
the ninth earl. He entered the navy in 1793, captured many ||
prizes from the French, and became a post-captain in 1801.
In April, 1809, he was selected for the daring and perilous
service of burning the French fleet in Basque Roads, and
he successfully performed that exploit. Before this date he
had been elected to Parliament by the Whig voters of West-
minster. In 1814 he was accused of complicity in fraudu-
lent stock-jobbing transactions, and of spreading a false
rumor of the fall of Napoleon to raise the price of stocks.
He was unjustly convicted, fined £1000, dismissed from the
service, and ºptioned. His constituents re-elected him
() r
1425
to Parliament, and he escaped from jail to reappear in the
House. He commanded the fleet of Chili (1818–22), and
fought for the Greeks against Turkey in 1827. He suc-
ceeded to the earldom in 1831, was restored to his rank in
the navy in 1833, and was appointed a vice-admiral in 1841.
He died Oct. 30, 1860.
Dune [from Ang.-Sax. diin, a “hill”], the name given
| to low mounds of movable sand found on sea-coasts. They
are formed by deposits of fine sand borne forward by the
wind till it is obstructed by large stones or other obstacles,
around which it accumulates. Dunes often cause great
damage by their inroads upon the country, the department
of Landes in France having been nearly overwhelmed by
them. The annual inland progress of the sand is estimated
at seventy-two feet. Trees and shrubs planted close to-
gether have been found to be the best protection against
the encroachments of the dunes. Dunes absorb and retain
much water from precipitation. The water from the dunes
on the North Sea coast is brought by aqueducts into the
interior, and the best water used at Amsterdam comes from
this source. (See Down.)
Duned/in, a seaport-town of New Zealand, the capital
of the province of Otago, is on the S. E. coast of the Middle
Isle; lat. 45° 50' S., lon. 170° 36' E. It was founded in 1848,
since when it has increased rapidly. It is the seat of an An-
glican bishop. The chief export is wool. Pop. 14,857.
Dunel'len, a post-village of Piscataway township, Mid-
dlesex co., N. J., on the Central R. R. of New Jersey, 14
miles S. W. of Elizabeth.
Dunferm/line, a handsome royal burgh of Scotland,
in Fifeshire, is on a long ridge 3 miles from the Frith of
Forth and 15 miles N. W. of Edinburgh. It derives its
prosperity chiefly from manufactures of linen, cotton,
worsted, iron, etc., and is said to be unrivalled by any
British town in the manufacture of damask linen. Here
are also several iron-foundries, collieries, dye-works, and
bleaching-works. Dunfermline was a town as early as 1100
A. D. Malcolm Canmore founded here about 1080 a Bene-
dictine, abbey, of which some ruins are still visible. Here
was also a regal palace of the Stuarts, now ruined. Robert
Bruce was buried at Dunfermline. Pop. in 1871, 14,958.
Dun/fish, in the U. S. a name given to codfish cured
in such a manner as to give them a “dun * color. Fish for
“dunning” are caught in February or in early spring.
The fish are taken in deep water, are split and incompletely
salted, then laid in a pile for two or three months in a dark
place, and covered with salt hay, eel-grass, etc., and pressed
by some weight. They are then uncovered and closely
packed for several months, when they are ready for use.
They acquire a peculiar flavor, which is greatly liked by
many. The Isles of Shoals (Me. and N. H.) are a princi-
pal seat of this method of curing.
Dungar’van, a seaport and bathing-place of Ireland,
in the county of Waterford, is on Dungarvan Bay, 40 miles
E. N. E. of Cork. Its harbor admits only small vessels.
It has three convents, and an old castle now used as a bar-
rack. Pop. in 1871, 7700.
Dung Beetle, a name given to many coleopterous
insects of the family Scarabaeidae and of the genera Copris,
Phaneus, Aphodius, Geotrupes, Bolbocerus, Troar, and others.
Some of these insects enclose their eggs in pellets or globes
of manure. There are many species in America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. The sacred scarabaeus of the Egyptians
was a true dung beetle, the Ateuchus sacer of the Old World.
Dun/geon (originally DONJON, which see), a prison; a
dark and subterraneous cell or place of confinement.
Dung/lison (ROBLEY), M.D., LL.D., was born at Kes-
wick, England, Jan. 4, 1798, received his medical educa-
tion at London and Erlangen, was professor of medicine in
the University of Virginia (1824–33), of therapeutics in the
University of Maryland (1833–36), and of the institutes
of medicine (1836–68) in the Jefferson Medical College,
Philadelphia. He published about twenty volumes, among
which are “Human Physiology” (1832), a “Medical Dic-
tionary’ (1833), a work of vast erudition and great value,
“Therapeutics and Materia Medica” (1836), and a dic-
tionary for the blind. Died April 1, 1869.
Dun/ham, a township of McHenry co., III. Pop. 999.
Dunham, a post-township of Washington co., O. P. 755.
Dun’kard, a post-township of Greene co., Pa. P. 1520.
Dunkeld’, a small town of Scotland, in Perthshire, is
on the Tay, 15 miles N. N. W. of Perth. It is in a vale en-
closed by mountains. A cathedral was built here in 1830,
several centuries after the foundation of Dunkeld, which
became the seat of a bishop in 1127. Here is the man-
sion of the duke of Athole, with the largest and finest park
in Scotland, including twenty square miles of larch woods.
Dunk/ers, Dunk'ards, or Tunk/ers [from the Ger.
1426
DUNKIRK–DUNNVILLE.
tun/cent, to “dip ’], a sect of German American Baptists,
called by themselves Brethren, said to have been founded
at Schwarzenau in Westphalia by one Alexander Mack in
1708, and named from their manner of baptism by trine im-
mersion of believers. Having been driven from Germany
by persecution between 1719 and 1729, they settled in Penn-
Sylvania, and subséquently in Ohio, Indiana, Maryland,
Virginia, and several other States. Their doctrines are
similar to those of the Mennonites, and in the simplicity
of their dress and speech they somewhat resemble the So-
ciety of Friends. They use the kiss of charity, love-feasts,
feet-washing, laying on of hands, anointing with oil, etc.
They have bishops, elders, teachers, and deacons. They
condemn war and will not engage in lawsuits. They hold
an annual meeting about Whitsuntide, which is attended
by the bishops, teachers, and representatives chosen by
the congregations. The belief in universal redemption,
though not an article of faith, is commonly held by
them. They are opposed to statistics,
which they believe to savor of pride, and
trustworthy statements of their number
can, therefore, not be given. The entire
population connected with the denomina-
tion is estimated at about 100,000. They
have a monthly publication called the
“Gospel Visitor.” From the Dunkers as
a sect must be distinguished the Seventh-
Day Dunkers, commonly called GERMAN
SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTs (which see), who
are sometimes confounded with them.
Dun/hirk [Fr. Dunkerque], a fortified
seaport-town in the extreme northern part
of France, is in the department of Nord,
and on the Strait of Dover, about 40
miles N. W. of Lille and 46 miles E. of
Dover; lat. 51° 3' N., lon. 2° 22' E. It
is the northern terminus of the Railway
du Nord. It is well built, with wide and
well-paved, streets, and is defended by a
citadel and ramparts. The harbor is
shallow, but the roadstead is large and
safe. TXunkirk has several fine churches,
a college, a theatre, a public library, and
a town-hall; also manufactures of soap,
starch, cordage, and leather, with metal-
foundries and shipbuilding yards. It
became a free port in 1826, since which it has an active
trade in wines, liqueurs, etc. A church is said to have
been built here in the seventh century among the sandhills
or dunes, and hence its name, which signifies “church of
the dunes.” Dunkirk was taken by the English in 1658,
but was sold to the French king by Charles II. in 1662.
Pop. 33,083. .
Dunkirk, a post-village and port of entry of Chau-
tauqua, co., N.Y., is on Lake Erie and on the Lake Shore
and Michigan Southern R. R., 40 miles S. W. of Buffalo.
It is the western terminus of the Erie R. R., which connects
it with New York City, 459 miles distant, and the northern
terminus of the Dunkirk Alleghany Valley and Pittsburg
R. R. It has a good harbor and an advantageous position
for trade. It has two banks, locomotive-works employing
600 men, a foundry, a coal and grain elevator, and various
mills and factories. The village is lighted by gas, and
supplied with water from Lake Erie by the Holly system,
and has nine churches, a horse railroad, an orphan asylum,
an opera-house, a library and free reading-room, etc. Two
weekly newspapers are published here. Pop. 5231; of Dun-
kirk township, 6912.
MONROE T. CUSHING, E.D. “ADVERTISER AND UNION.”
Dunkirk, a post-village of Blanchard township, Har-
din co., O., on the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R.,
84 miles E. by S. of Fort Wayne, Ind.
Dunkirk, a post-township of Dane co., Wis. P. 2179.
RDunk/lin, a county in the S. E. of Missouri. Area,
525 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the St.
Francis River. The surface is nearly level; the soil is
fertile, but partly subject to inundation. Grain, tobacco,
and wool are raised. Capital, Kennett. Pop. 5982.
IDunklin, a township of Greenville co., S. C. P. 1457.
Dunlap, a post-village of Harrison co., Ia., on the
Chicago and North-western R. R. It has one weekly news-
paper. It is a flourishing place, with an active trade.
L. F. Cook, ED. AND PROP. “REPORTER.”
MDunlap, a post-village, capital of Sequatchie co., Tenfi.,
on the Sequatchie River, about 94 miles S. E. of Nashville.
Dunlap (WILLIAM), an American painter and writer,
born at Perth Amboy, N.J., Feb. 19, 1766. Among his
paintings are “Christ Rejected” (1821) and “Calvary”
(1828). He wrote, besides other works, a “Life of Charles
Brockden Brown’” (1827), “History of the Rise and Pro-
gress of the Arts of Design in the U. S.” (1834), and a
“History of the American Theatre” (1833). Died Sept.
28, 1839. -
Dunleith’, a city of Jo Daviess co., Ill., on the Mis-
sissippi River opposite Dubuque, and 16 miles N. W. of
Galena, at the N. W. corner of the State. It is on the Illi-
nois Central R. R., which here crosses the Mississippi by a
noble bridge. The town has manufactures of machinery,
castings, agricultural implements, beer, etc., and has a trade
in grain. Pop. including Dunleith township, 1352.
Dun-le-Roi, a town of France, department of Cher,
16 miles S. E. of Bourges. It is an iron-mining district.
Pop. 5454.
Dun'in, called also Sea Snipe and Oxbird (Tringa
variabilis), is a species of sandpiper found in most parts
of North America, and Europe. . It is eight inches long, of
%|
§% |ll.
% Żºłº,
gºſ,
% A.
Dumlin.
a black, rufous, and gray color on the back, and black and
white beneath. Audubon calls it the red-backed sand-
piper (Tringa alpina).
Dunſmore, a post-borough of Luzerne co., Pa., 2
miles N. E. of Scranton. It derives its prosperity chiefly
from coal-mines which are worked in the vicinity. Pop.
4311.
Dunmore, EARLs of (1686), Wiscounts Fincastle and
Lords Murray (Scotland, 1686), Barons Dunmore (United
Kingdom, 1831).-CHARLEs ADOLPH.Us MURRAY, seventh
earl, born Mar. 24, 1841, succeeded his father in 1845.
Dunn, a county in the W. of Wisconsin. Area, 864
square miles. It is intersected by the Red Cedar River,
which enters the Chippewa River in the southern part of
the county. The surface is diversified by forests and
prairies; the soil is productive. Lumber, dairy products,
grain, wool, and hay are the staples. It is traversed by
the West Wisconsin R. R. Capital, Menomonee. Pop.
9488.
Dunn, a township of Dane co., Wis. Pop. 1172.
Dunn, a township of Dunn co., Wis. Pop. 990.
Dun/nage [etymology uncertain], on shipboard, the
name given to the loose wood, fagots, and rubbish placed
on the bottom of the hold to raise the cargo, either to keep
it dry or to keep the ship in trim.
Dun/met Head, a rocky peninsula of Scotland, 100 to
600 feet high, in Caithness, is the most northern point of
Great Britain. Here is a lighthouse 340 feet above the Sea.
Dun/ming (JoHN), Lord ASHBURTON, an eminent Eng-
lish lawyer, born at Ashburton Oct. 18, 1731. He was
called to the bar in 1756, was appointed Solicitor-general
in 1767, and became a Whig member of Parliament in
1768. He was a witty and sårcastic speaker, and stood in
the foremost rank among English advocates. He married
Elizabeth Baring in 1780, and received the title of Baron
Ashburton in 1782. Died Aug. 18, 1783.
Dunn’s, a township of Tuscaloosa co., Ala. Pop. 556.
Dunn’s, a township of Franklin co., N. C. Pop. 838.
Dunn’s Rock, a post-township of Transylvania Co.,
SN. C. Pop. 420.
Dunn'ville, a post-village of Monck co., Ontario, Can-

DUNRAVEN AND MOUNT EARL–DUPLEIX.
1427
ada, is on Grand River and the Grand Trunk R. R., 38
miles W. of Buffalo. One weekly newspaper is published
here. Steamboats can ascend the river from Lake Erie to
this place, which has a large trade, a fine water-power,
and considerable manufactures. Pop. 1452.
Dunra’ven and Mount Earl, EARLs of (1822), Wis-
counts Mount Earl (1816), Wiscounts Adare (1822), Barons
Adare (Ireland, 1800), Barons Kenry (United Kingdom,
1866), and baronets (1781).-WINDHAM THOMAS WINDHAM
QUIN, fourth earl, born Feb. 12, 1841, succeeded his father
in 1871.
Duns Sco’tus (John), surnamed THE SUBTLE DOCTOR,
a celebrated theologian and scholastic philosopher, was
born about 1265. He is claimed as their countryman by
the Scots, the English, and the Irish. He was of gentle
blood, studied at Oxford, became a Franciscan friar, and
in 1301 professor of theology at that place. In 1304 he
removed to Paris, where he taught theology with great dis-
tinction. He wrote many works on theology and meta-
physics, and was a realist in philosophy. He opposed the
teachings of Thomas Aquinas, and tried to identify their
consequences with Averroism, which denied individual im-
mortality and the freedom of the will. He held that the
faculties of the soul are not subjectively distinct from each
other. In theology he favored the doctrine of the immac-
ulate conception of the Virgin Mary. He was the founder
of a school called Scotists, who maintained for several cen–
turies a controversy with the Thomists (i. e. the disciples
of Aquinas). He died at Cologne in 1308.
Dun'stable, a township and post-village of Middlesex
co., Mass. Dunstable Station is on the Boston Lowell and
Nashua R. R., 33 miles N. W. of Boston. Pop. 471.
Pop. 515.
Dun'stan, SAINT, an English prelate, born at Glaston-
bury in 925 A. D. He was a man of extraordinary abili-
ties, and gained renown by his ascetic piety. He acquired
the favor of Edred, who began to reign in 946 A. D., and
he took a prominent part in the government during his
reign. He was banished by Edwy, but obtained the chief
power under Edgar, who became king in 959, and ap-
pointed Dunstan archbishop of Canterbury. Dunstan pro-
moted the papal Supremacy, enriched and exalted the monks,
and compelled the clergy to practise celibacy. He was de-
prived of power on the accession of Ethelred in 978. Died
May 19, 988 A. D.
Dun'ster (HENRY), the first president of Harvard Col-
lege, was born in Lancashire, England, and educated at
Magdalen College, Cambridge. He came to New England
in 1640, and entered upon his presidency Aug. 27th of that
year. In 1654 he was compelled to resign, in consequence
of having borne public testimony against the baptism of
infants, for which offence he was afterwards tried by a jury
and placed under bonds. Still later, he was again pre-
sented by the grand jury for neglect to have one of his chil-
2dren baptized. He was esteemed for learning and piety.
He assisted in the preparation of the “New England
Psalm-book” (1640). Died at Scituate, Mass., Feb. 27,
1659. (See “Life of Dunster,” by J. CHAPLIN, D. D., 1872.)
Dunſton (JoBN), an eccentric English writer and dis-
senter, born at Graffham May 4, 1659. He opened a book-
store in London about 1685, but failed in business. He
wrote, besides other works, “The Athenian Mercury” (20
vols., 1690–96), the “Dublin Scuffle” (1699), and “The Life
and Errors of John Dunton, with the Lives and Characters
of a Thousand Persons,” containing an account of a visit to
Boston and Salem, and sketches of ministers and prominent
citizens of New England in 1685 (1705; new ed. 1818).
Died in 1733.
Dunwody (SAMUEL), a minister of the Methodist Epis-
copal Church South, born in Pennsylvania Aug. 3, 1780. He
was forty-eight years a minister in the South Carolina Con-
ference, which extended into North Carolina and Georgia.
He was a bold pioneer of Methodism, a powerful controvert-
ist, an original thinker, and a successful preacher. He or-
ganized the first Methodist church in Savannah, Ga., in 1807.
IIe died in South Carolina July 8, 1854. T. O. SUMMERs.
Puodecſimals [from the Lat. duodecim, “twelve”],
called also Cross-Multiplication, is the name given to
a method by which the area of a rectangular surface is cal-
culated when the length and breadth are stated in feet,
inches, and limes. It is principally used by artificers in
finding the contents of their work. The operation is per-
formed by substituting the duodecimal scale of notation for
the decimal. w
The DUODECIMAL SCALE is the scale of notation obtained
by the division of unity into twelve equal parts. Compu-
tation in this manner has some advantages, as 12 may be
divided into so many equal parts—viz. 2, 3, 4, and 6; but
Dunstable, a township of Clinton co., Pa.
the decimal scale, which coincides with our system of nota-
tion, is now universally preferred.
Duodecſimo [from the Lat., duodecim, “twelve *l, a
term signifying “twelfth,” is applied to a book when every
sheet being six times folded forms twelve leaves. It is usu-
ally abbreviated into 12mo.
Duode/num [from the Lat. duodeni, “twelve,” be-
cause it is about twelve finger-breadths long in man], that
part of the small intestine which is nearest the stomach.
In man it is eight or ten inches in length. It is the widest,
shortest, and most fixed part of the small intestine, having
no mesentery. It is somewhat horseshoe-like in form, the
convexity to the right. It receives the secretions of the
liver and the pancreas. Its muscular fibres are more nu-
merous than in the rest of the small intestine.
Du Page, a county in the N. E. of Illinois. Area, 340
square miles. It is drained by the branches of the Du
Page River. The surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile.
Cattle, grain, wool, hay, and dairy products are the staples.
The most numerous manufactories are those of carriages.
It is intersected by the Chicago Burlington and Quincy
R. R. and the Chicago and North-western R. R. Capital,
Wheaton. Pop. 16,685.
Du Page, a post-township of Will co., Ill. Pop. 1118.
Dupanloup (FáLIx ANTOINE PHILIBERT), a French
bishop, born at Saint-Félix, in Savoy, Jan. 3, 1802. He be-
came bishop of Orleans in 1849, and was admitted into the
French Academy in 1854. He wrote, besides other works,
a popular treatise on education (3 vols., 1855–57). In 1871
he was elected a member of the National Assembly. He
was nominated archbishop of Paris in 1871, but declined
that office.
Duperré (VICTOR GUY), BARON, a French admiral, born
at La Rochelle Feb. 20, 1775. He gained the rank of vice-
admiral in 1826, and commanded the fleet which aided the
army to conquer Algiers in 1830, and was made admiral.
Died Nov. 2, 1846.
Duperrey (Louis IsIDORE), a French navigator and
hydrographer, born in Paris in 1786. He conducted an
exploring expedition in 1822 to the islands of the Pacific.
He surveyed the coasts of New Zealand and parts of Aus-
tralia, returned in 1825, and published a “Voyage Round
the World in the Corvette La Coquille” (1826–30).
Dupetit-Thouars (ABEL AUBERT), a French admiral,
born Aug. 3, 1793, was the son of ABEL AUBERT DUPETIT-
THou ARs, captain of the ship Le Tonnant, destroyed in the
battle of Aboukir, and nephew of Louis MARIE AUBERT
DUPETIT-THou ARs, botanist (born Nov. 11, 1758, died in
1831), who explored the botany of Africa, Madagascar, etc.
He was appointed commander of the naval forces in the
Pacific Ocean, and seized the island of Tahiti in 1842, but
this act was disavowed by his government. He published
a “Voyage Round the World” (10 vols., 1841–49). Died
Mar. 17, 1864.
Dupin (ANDRſ. MARIE JEAN JACQUES), a French lawyer
and statesman, born at Varzy, in Nièvre, Feb. 1, 1783. He
gained distinction as the advocate of Marshal Ney, Béran-
ger, and other persons tried for political offences. In 1826
he was elected a member of the Chamber of Deputies, in
which he acted with the liberals. He promoted the revo-
lution of 1830 and the accession of Louis Philippe. He was
chosen president of the Chamber of Deputies eight times’
between 1832 and 1848, and was admitted into the French
Academy in 1832. In Feb., 1848, he supported the count
of Paris as the successor to Louis Philippe, but he recog-
nized the republic which was then formed. . He was a
prominent member of the Constituent Assembly, and was
president of the Legislative Assembly in 1849. In 1857 he
was appointed procureur-général of France. He published,
besides other works, “Mémoires et Plaidoyeurs” (20 vols.,
1806–30). Died Nov. 10, 1865.
Dupin (FRANÇors PIERRE CHARLEs), BARON, a French
geometer, a brother of the preceding, was born at Varzy
Oct. 6, 1784. He visited England in 1816, and published
“Travels in Great Britain ’’ (6 vols., 1820–24). He became
professor of mechanics at the Conservatoire des Arts et
Métiers in 1810. He wrote on geometry and mechanics,
and did much to advance the useful arts and improve the
condition of the laboring people. In the legislature his
labors were extensive. He was an Orleanist. Died Jan.
18, 1873. i -
JDuplain', a post-township of Clinton co., Mich. Pop.
493. -
Dupleix (JosłPH), MARQUIs, a French governor, born
about 1695. He amassed a fortune by commercial opera-
tions in India, and in 1742 was appointed governor of Pon-
dicherry and all the French possessions in India. He
formed the project of founding a European empire in that
1428
DUPLICATE RATIO—DURA MATER.
country, and soon made himself master of the Carnatic,
partly by fighting and partly by political intrigues. He
was opposed by the English general Clive, who defeated the
French in several battles. Dupleix was removed from the
command in 1754, and returned to France, where he died
in 1763.
Duplicate Ratio, the ratio of squares. Thus, the
simple ratio of 2 to 4 is # = }; the duplicate ratio is 22:44
— 4 — -
— Tø – 4:- º
Du/plin, a county in the S. E. of North Carolina. Area,
660 square miles. It is intersected by the North Branch
of Cape Fear River. The surface is level; the soil is mostly
sandy, and is partly covered with forests of pine. Cotton,
corn, rice, wool, and cattle are raised. It is traversed by
the Wilmington and Weldon R. R. Capital, Kenansville.
Pop. 15,542. -
Dupon’ceau (PETER. S.), LL.D., a French lawyer and
scholar, born in the island of Rhé June 3, 1760. He emi-
grated to the U. S. in 1777, and served in the army as aide-
de-camp to Baron Steuben. He practised law in Philadel-
phia with distinction, and was president of the American
Philosophical Society. He wrote on philosophy and other
subjects. In 1838 he published a work on Indian lan-
guages. Died April 1, 1844. -
Dupont', a post-twp. of Waupacca co., Wis. Pop. 150.
Dupont (HENRY). See APPENDIx.
Dupont (HENRY A.). See APPENDIx.
Dupont (PIERRE), a popular French song-writer, born
at Lyons April 23, 1821. He composed the words and airs
to his poems at the same time. Among his works are
“The Two Angels,” a poem (1842), “Song of Bread,” and
“Song of the Workers.” Died at Lyons July 25, 1870.
Du Pont (SAMUEL FRANCIs), U. S. N., born of French
descent Sept. 27, 1803, at Bergen Point, N. J., entered the
navy as a midshipman Dec. 19, 1815, became a lieutenant
in 1826, a commander in 1842, a captain in 1855, and a
rear-admiral in 1862. To attempt to give even a brief
outline of the services of one whose naval life of fifty years
was but a record of constant and éontinuous devotion to
the navy and the country, within the limits assigned in
this volume to biography, would indeed be vain. The
writer must therefore restrict himself to saying that while
in command of the Cyane on the W. coast of Mexico dur-
ing our war with that republic, Du Pont added to a name
already distinguished a reputation for ability, sound judg-
ment, discreetness, and daring which all his after service
tended greatly to strengthen ; so that when the first act of
the drama of the civil war opened with the fall of Fort
Sumter, Du Pont stood prominently forward, by the side of
*Farragut and Foote, as one to whom might safely be en-
trusted the honor and welfare of his country in this her
hour of need. So soon, therefore, as the government had
decided “to seize and occupy one or more important points
on our Southern coast,” it confided to his care that part of
the joint army and navy expedition organized for this pur-
pose, upon which the success of the whole depended; and
when he unfurled his flag from the masthead of the Wabash,
the desk of the secretary of the navy was filled with appli-
cations from officers asking to serve under him; for all
were anxious to follow whithersoever Du Pont might choose
to lead. How well founded their confidence the result
shows;*for on the evening of the ninth day after sailing
from Hampton Roads, Du Pont, with his fleet of fifteen
vessels, was in possession of Port Royal Bay, one of the
finest and largest harbors of the South, after a brilliant
and successful engagement of four hours with two strong
forts splendidly garrisoned and mounting forty-three guns,
all but four of which were of heavy calibre. He now
established a rigid blockade of the coast, pushed his ves-
sels into almost every bay, inlet, and river of South Caro-
lina, Georgia, and Florida, and took possession of several
strong places which served as points d'appui for the army.
On the 7th of April, 1863, at 3 P. M., he engaged Fort
Sumter with eight iron-clads, and, not having silenced the
fort at 4.30 P.M., made signal then “to withdraw from
action,” intending to renew the engagement on the follow-
ing morning; but, finding that many of his vessels were
injured, and one, the Keokuk, sunk, he became convinced
that to do so would be “to convert failure into disaster,”
and abandoned his design, expressing to the department
his opinion that Charleston could not be taken “by a purely
naval attack”—a judgment that the events of the next two
years amply vindicated and sustained. In July, 1863,
being relieved from the command of the South Atlantic
fleet, he returned to his home, where he died on the 23d of
June, 1865, sincerely regretted by the whole navy.
A thorough seaman, an accomplished officer, a Christian
gentleman, he was beloved by all who came in contact with
him, and best by those who knew him best. His mind,
like his stature, was above that of ordinary men, his person
graceful and commanding, his countenance handsome,
thoughtful, and interesting; and “in looking upon him,”
as Tacitus says of the wise and virtuous Agricola, “you
would have been easily convinced that he was a good man,
and you would have been willing to believe him a great
one.” Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
T) upont de l’Etang (PIERRE), a French general, born
at Chabannais July 14, 1765. He served with distinction
at Jena (1806) and Friedland (1807). Having obtained
the command of an army in Spain, he was defeated at
Baylen in June, 1808, by De Castaños, who took from him
18,000 prisoners. For this ill-success he was disgraced
and imprisoned. Died Feb. 16, 1838. -
Dupont de l’Eure (JACQUES CHARLEs), a French
judge and legislator, born in 1767. He was liberal in poli-
tics, and represented his native department (L'Eure) in the
Chamber of Deputies (1817–48). He was chosen president
of the provisional government in Feb., 1848. Died in 1855.
Dupont de Nemours (PIERRE SAMUEL), a French
economist, born in Paris Dec. 14, 1739. He became a mem-
ber of the National Assembly in 1790, and of the Council
of Ancients in 1795. In 1795 he was admitted into the In-
stitute. He refused to take office under Napoleon, and
emigrated to Delaware in 1815. He wrote several treatises
on political economy and natural history, and “Philosophie
de l’Univers” (1796). Died Aug. 6, 1817.
Dupré (GIov ANNI), an Italian sculptor, born at Sienna
Mar. 1, 1817, first practised his father's trade of wood-
carving. His works treat mostly of religious subjects;
among them are “Abel” and a “Pietà.” Died Sept., 1869.
Dupré (JULEs), a French landscape-painter of the
realistic school, born at Nantes in 1812, was the son of a
maker of porcelain, in which occupation he first engaged.
He first exhibited in 1831. t
Dupuis (CHARLEs FRANÇors), a French philosopher,
born at Trie-le-Château (Oise) Oct. 16, 1742. He became
professor of rhetoric in the College of Lisieux in 1766, and
was a friend and pupil of Lalande the astronomer. His .
“Origine de tous les Cultes, ou la Religion Universelle”
(12 vols., 1794), contained bold speculations on religion.
Died Sept. 29, 1809.
Dupuytren (GUILLAUME), BARON, a French surgeon
and amatomist, born Oct. 6, 1777, became professor of sur-
gery in Paris in 1811. He was reputed the most skilful
French surgeon of his time, made important discoveries in
morbid anatomy, and invented several useful instruments.
Died Feb. 8, 1835. (See CRUVEILHIER, “Vie de Dupuy-
tren,” 1841.)
Duquesne, du-kain', a former borough of Alleghany
co., Pa., on the right bank of the Alleghany River. It has
been annexed to Allegheny City, of which it forms the
eighth ward.
Duquesne (ABRAHAM), MARQUIs, a famous French
naval commander, born at Dieppe in 1610. He served with
distinction against the Spaniards at Tarragona in 1641. In
1643 he defeated the Danes near Gothenburg, and compelled
them to make peace. He defeated the Spanish and Dutch
fleet under De Ruyter in the Mediterranean, near Catania,
in April, 1676. Died at Paris Feb. 2, 1688. (See ANDRſ.
RICHER, “Vie du Marquis Duquesne,” 1783.)
Duquesnoy (FRANÇOIs), called IL FIAMMINGO, a sculp-
tor, born at Brussels in 1594, was a friend of N. Poussin,
and a rival of Bernini at Rome. Died in 1646.
Duquoin, a city of Perry co., Ill., on the Illinois Cen-
tral R. R., 76 miles N. of Cairo, at its junction with the St.
Louis and Southern Illinois R. R. It has four churches,
one graded school, a park and public library, a foundry
and machine-shops, salt-works, two flouring-mills, stave-
factory, and twelve coal-mines. It has one weekly news-
paper. Pop. 2212. R. BERREY & Co., PROPs. “TRIBUNE.”
Du/ra Maſter [the Lat. for “hard” or “unyielding
mother,” so named because it is more unyielding than the
“pia mater”], the outermost of the three meninges or
membranes enveloping the brain and spinal cord in verte-
brate animals. Within the skull it is so completely joined
to the bones that it may be regarded as their endosteum.
Its inner surface is covered with pavement epithelium, and
perhaps by the parietal layer of the arachnoid membrane,
but this is denied by Kölliker. The dura mater sends out
sheaths for the nerves as they go through their foramina.
It is usually studded, except in infancy, by numerous small
whitish masses called the Pacchionian bodies, whose use is
not understood. The tentorium and the falces (fala: cerebri
and falo, cerebelli) are induplications of the dura mater
sent into the cavity of the skull. Within the spinal canal
the dura mater becomes a fibrous tube, separated from the
vertebrae (which have an endosteum) by a loose areolar
DURAMEN–DüRER.
1429
fatty tissue and a plexus of veins. It is much larger than
the spinal cord, the space between being filled by the other
meninges and by the cerebro-spinal fluid.
Dura'men [from duro, to “harden’], a Latin word
signifying a “hardening,” is a term applied in botany to
the hardened and matured central layers of exogenous
trees, commonly called “heart-wood.” It is more dense,
compact, and durable than the alburnum or sap-wood, and
its tubes are filled with the peculiar secretions of the tree,
so that the sap no longer circulates freely through them.
In many species it is of a darker color than the alburnum.
The duramen is the most valuable part of the tree for tim-
ber and for the use of the cabinet-maker.
Durance [Lat. Druential, a river in the S. E. part of
France, rises among the Cottian Alps in the department
of Hautes-Alpes. Its general direction is nearly south-
westward. It flows through the department of Basses-
Alpes, forms the south-western boundary of Vaucluse, and
enters the Rhone 3 miles below Avignon. Its total length
is nearly 200 miles. Marseilles is supplied with water from
this river by an aqueduct 51 miles long.
Durand’, a township and village of Winnebago co., Ill.,
on the Western Union R. R. Pop. 1578.
Durand, a post-village, capital of Pepin co., Wis., is
in Durand township and on the Chippewa River, about 20
miles N. of Wabashaw (Minn.). It has one weekly news-
paper. Pop. of township, 917.
S. A. FostER, E.D. “TIMES.”
Durand (AsHER BROWN), an eminent American painter
and engraver, born at Jefferson, N. J., Aug. 21, 1796. He
engraved several portraits for the “National Portrait Gal-
lery,” also Trumbull’s “Declaration of Independence.”
After 1835 he devoted himself almost exclusively to paint-
ing, and gained brilliant fame as a landscape-painter.
Among his paintings are “The Capture of Major André,”
“The Wrath of Peter Stuyvesant,” “A Primeval Forest,”
“Franconia Mountains,” and “The Rainbow.”
Durand (GUILLAUME) de Saint-Pourgain, known
as the “Most Resolute Doctor,” a scholastic divine, born at
St.-Pourgain, Auvergne, about 1280. He was a Dominican
friar in his youth. In 1318 he became bishop of Puy, and
bishop of Meaux in 1326. He died about 1332. He was a
decided nominalist, and by his independent thinking is be-
lieved to have contributed to the rise of the Reformation.
His best-known writings are commentaries on Peter Lom-
bard, and a work on the canon law (“De Origine Jurisdic-
tionum ”). In his treatise “On the State of the Pious
Dead” he attacked, the opinions of Pope John XXII.
Duran’do (GIACOMO), an Italian general, born at Mon-
dovi in 1807. He printed in 1847 a brochure in favor of
Italian unity under a constitutional government, which had
an extensive influence. He was minister of war at Turin
in 1854–55, and became a senator in 1860. In 1862–63 he
was minister of foreign affairs in the cabinet of Ratazzi.
Duran'go, a state of Mexico, bounded on the N. by
Chihuahua, on the E. by Cohahuila, on the S. by Xalisco,
and on the W. by Cinaloa. The surface is mostly moun-
tainous. It belongs to the N. part of the table-land of
Anahuac. Area, 42,645 Square miles. Gold and silver are
found here. Capital, Durango. Pop. in 1871, 185,077.
Durango, or Guadiana, a town of Mexico, capital
of the above state, is about 150 miles N. W. of Zacatecas;
lat. 24° 2' N., lon. 103° 34' W. It is nearly 7000 feet above
the level of the sea. It is the seat of a bishop, and has a
cathedral, a college, a mint, several convents, and a theatre;
also manufactures of tobacco and iron. Pop. in 1868,
12,449.
Durantſ, a post-village of Farmington township, Cedar
co., Iax, on the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific R. R.
Pop. 373.
Durant, a post-village of Holmes co., Miss., on the
Mississippi Central R. R., 59 miles N. by E. of Jackson.
Pop. 375.
Duran'te (FRANCEsco), an Italian composer, born Mar.
15, 1684, studied music at Naples under Gaetano Greco
and under Scarlatti, and in 1742 became director of the
conservatory of Sta. Maria di Loreto at Naples. His com-
positions consist solely of church music, and are marked
by loftiness and purity of style. Died Aug. 13, 1755.
Dura'zzo [Turkish Drasch ; anc. Epidamnus, after-
wards Dyrrhachium], a fortified maritime town of Euro-
pean Turkey, in Albania, is on the Adriatic; lat. 41° 18'
N., lon. 19° 28' E. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic
archbishop. It has a safe harbor and an active trade.
Grain, tobacco, and olive oil are exported from it. The
ancient Epidamnus was a populous city. The expulsion
of its aristocracy in 436 B. C. was the origin of the Pelo-
pomnesian war. The Romans changed the name to DYR-
RHACHIUM (which see). It was captured by the Norman
chief Robert Guiscard in 1082, and by the Venetians in 1205.
Pop. about 8000.
Dur’bin (John PRICE), D. D., an American Methodist
preacher, born in Bourbon co., Ky., in 1800, was educated
at Miami University and Cincinnati College, and entered
the ministry in 1819. He became president of Dickinson
College in Pennsylvania in 1834. Having visited Europe
and the Levant, he published “Observations in Europe,
principally in France and Great Britain'' (2 vols., 1844),
and “Observations in Egypt, Palestine, etc.” (2 vols., 1845).
For many years he was secretary of the Methodist Episco-
pal Church, and displayed great eloquence and adminis-
trative ability in its affairs. He resigned the presidency
of Tickinson College in 1845. He has furnished many
contributions to periodicals, etc.
Dü’ren, or Mark Düren (anc. Marcodurum), a town
of Rhenish Prussia, on the river Roer and on the Cologne
and Aix-la-Chapelle Railway, 18 miles E. of Aix-la-Cha-
pelle. It has a Catholic gymnasium, a high-school, a
female high-school, an asylum for the blind, several fine
churches, and manufactures of woollem cloth, carpets, cot-
ton goods, etc. It was besieged and taken by Charles V.
in 1543. Charlemagne held diets here in 775 and 779 A. D.
Pop. in 1871, 12,850. - -
Dü’rer (ALBRECHT), a celebrated German painter and
engraver, born at Nuremberg in 1471. The day of his
birth is uncertain, owing to the way in which it is inserted
in his father's diary, but it was probably May 21st. He
was a pupil of Michael Wohlgemuth, with whom he studied
and worked three years (1486–89). He afterwards passed
four years in travel, visiting various parts of Germany, and
returned to Nuremberg in 1494. In the same year he mar-
ried Agnes Frey, with whom he is said to have lived un-
happily, though there is no good authority for the wide-
spread belief. He visited Venice in 1505, and while there
painted a picture for the Tedeschi, or guild of German mer-
chants, which was probably “The Feast of the Rose Gar-
lands,” now in the monastery of Strahow at Prague. This
was his first picture of importance. In 1520 he went to the
Netherlands, accompanied by his wife; and during his jour-
ney, the object of which is not known, he kept a minute
diary, which was first published in Von Murr's “Journal
zur Kunstgeschichte ”(1775–88). This curious and inter-
esting record of early travel has been several times trans-
lated into English. Dürer returned home in 1521, and con-
tinued to live in his native town until his death, April 6,
1528. Dürer's works consist of paintings in oil and en-
gravings on wood and copper. He has also left a number
of etchings; and over 500 of his drawings in pen-and ink,
water-color, chalk, charcoal, India-ink, and with the silver
point, exist in public and private collections. These draw-
ings and sketches are remarkable for their precision, deli-
cacy, and firmness of touch, and for the power of observa-
tion and patient study they reveal in the master. The
finest collections are in the British Museum, the Albertina,
Gallery at Vienna, and the Uffizi at Florence. His most
celebrated paintings are “The Four Apostles,” originally
presented by him to the city of Nuremberg, but now in
Munich; his own portrait in the Uffizi Gallery at Florence;
and an “Adoration of the Magi,” a most beautiful picture,
well worthy of the place it occupies in the tribune. His
best wood-cuts are the four series “The Apocalypse,” “The
Great Passion,” “The Little Passion,” and “The Life of
the Virgin,” but there are many fine single cuts. Dürer is
not believed to have engraved all the wood-cuts that bear
his monogram, but only to have made the designs. Per-
haps the works by which Dürer is most widely known are
his engravings on copper. Of these the most famous are
the “Adam and Eve,” the “Melancholia,” the “ Knight,
Death, and the Devil,” the “Saint Eustache,” “Saint Je-
rome in his Study,” and “The Great Fortune.” These are
all large, but many among the smaller engravings are equal
miracles of execution. Dürer was much beloved by the em-
peror Maximilian I. and by many of the most distinguished
men of his time—by Luther, by Melanchthon, by Erasmus,
as well as by lesser men, such as Camerarius and Pirk-
heimer. When in Venice he received much kindness from
Bellini, and Raphael and he exchanged specimens of their
work. Dürer has left us valuable portraits of Melanchthon,
Erasmus, Pirkheimer, and many other notables of his time.
IHe was the author of several treatises—“The Art of For-
tification,” “Instruction in the Art of Mens uration with
the Rule and Compass,” with one on “The Proportions of
the Human Body,” published after his death. A work on
the “Proportions of the Horse” is now lost, as is also one
on “The Art of Fencing,” with perhaps some others whose
names are not known. (See J. HELLER, “Das Leben und
die Werke A. Diirers,” 1827–31; only the second volume
of this valuable work ever appeared. See also lives of
1430
DURESS—DUROC.
Dürer by ROTH, NAGLER, Von EYE, in German, CHARLES
NARREY in French, and in English by MRS. C. HEATON,
1869, and W. B. SCOTT, 1869.) Of late years a great in-
terest has been felt in Dürer, and many important publi-
cations relating to him have appeared in Germany. A
photo-lithographic imitation of his “Little Passion,” in
thirty-seven sheets, was published by J. W. Bouton in 1868,
and copies of his copper-plates by J. R. Osgood, Boston,
in 1872. - CLARENCE COOK.
Du’ress [Lat. duritia, “hardship”], in law, is either of
the person or of goods. 1. Of the Person.—This is exer-
cised in two modes, either by threats or by imprisonment.
I)uress by threats (per minas), according to the older au-
thorities, occurred where a person entered into a contract
or performed some other act through fear of loss of life or
limbs, or grievous bodily harm. It was even an excuse for
some crimes, but not for those of the graver class, such as
the killing of an innocent person. The modern cases do
not take quite so technical a view of the subject, and the
tendency is to make the presence of duress turn on positive
inquiry whether the threat was of a kind calculated to over-
come the will of a person of ordinary firmness and prudence.
In equity jurisprudence the word is used in a broader sense
than in the courts of common law, and includes cases where
a party is in extreme necessity and distress; and duress
may be exercised not only towards the person who makes
a contract, but in certain cases towards one standing in
confidential relations with him. Thus, a threat to prose-
cute criminally a son, whereby a father is induced to execute
a deed in order to save him from arrest, is sufficient duress
in equity to furnish a basis to set the conveyance aside. A
contract executed under duress is not void, but only void-
able at the election of the injured party. Duress of im-
prisonment can only be affirmed of the case of unlawful
restraint. -
2. Duress of Goods.--This phrase refers to a case where
a person having goods illegally detained pays money to
obtain their release. If such payment is made under pro-
test, the money may be recovered back, as being paid under
compulsion. An instance is an exaction of unauthorized
duties upon goods by the collector of a port. The mode of
making the protest in this special case is regulated in the
U. S. by act of Congress. -
The question has been raised whether the doctrine of
duress can be applied in international law to relieve a
nation from the obligations of a treaty of peace. The
answer must in general be in the negative, as the terms
of peace, however humiliating, are the chances of war to
which the parties have appealed. T. W. DWIGHT.
Duret (FRANCISQUE JosFPH), a French sculptor, born
Oct. 19, 1804, studied with his father, with Bosio, and at
Rome. His works, among them “Fisher-boy Dancing”
(1833), “Vintager” (1839), and statues of Molière and
Chateaubriand, are noble compositions of great spirit and
correctness. Died in May, 1865.
Dur'fee (JoB), LL.D., an American jurist, born at Tiver-
ton, R.I., Sept. 20, 1790, graduated at Brown University
in 1813, became a member of Congress in 1820, and chief-
justice of Rhode Island in 1835. He wrote, besides other
works, “What Cheer?” a poem on the adventures of Roger
Williams (1832). His life and writings were published by
his son (1849). Died July 26, 1847. |
D?Ur'fey (THOMAs), an English dramatist, born at Ex-
eter, gained the favor of Charles II. He wrote successful
comedies, popular songs, and odes. Died in 1723.
Durgā, or Dourga, a Sanscrit word signifying “diffi-
cult of access,” and forming one of the many names of PAR-
VATſ (which see).
Dur'ham, a county in the N. part of England, is bounded
on the N. by the river Tyne, on the E. by the German Ocean,
and on the S. by the river Tees. Area, 973 square miles.
The surface is hilly, but the greater part of the land is ara-
ble. The rocks which underlie it are new red sandstone,
carboniferous limestone, and magnesian limestone. Among
its mineral resources are coal, iron, lead, and marble. The
collieries of Durham are the most extensive and valuable
in England. Durham produces a celebrated breed of short-
horned cattle. The chief towns are Durham, Sunderland,
Darlington, South Shields, and Gateshead. Durham is one
of the three counties palatine of England. Pop. in 1871,
685,045.
Durham [Sax. Dunholme, from dum, a “hill,” and holme,
a “river”], an episcopal city of England, the capital of the
above county, is on the river Wear, 14 miles S. of Newcastle.
It is built around a steep rocky hill, the top of which is
occupied by a castle and cathedral. It is connected by
railways with Newcastle and other towns. It sends two
members to Parliament. Here is a castle founded by Wil-
liam the Conqueror about 1072. The magnificent cathedral
of Durham was founded in 1093, and is a Norman struc-
ture 507 feet long by 200 wide, with a central tower 214 .
feet high. This cathedral contains the tombs of Saints
Cuthbert and Bede. The see of Durham was long the rich-
est bishopric in England. This city is the seat of the Uni-
versity of Durham, which was opened in 1833. Pop. in
1871, 14,406. *3.
Durham, a county of Ontario, Dominion of Canada.
Area, 620 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by Lake
Ontario, and intersected by the Grand Trunk R. R. and
the Midland Railway of Canada. Capital, Port Hope.
Pop. in 1871; 37,381.
Durham, a post-village of Gray co., Ontario.
a weekly newspaper and important manufactures.
about 2500. -
Durham, a post-township of Middlesex co., Conn. It is
the seat of an academy. Pop. 1086.
Durham, a post-township of Hancock co., Ill.
1019.
Durham, a post-township of Androscoggin co., Me.
It has manufactures of carriages and cooperage. Pop. 1350.
It has
Pop.
Pop.
TXurham, a township and post-village of Strafford co.,
N. H., on the Boston and Maine R. R., 6 miles S. of Dover.
It has manufactures of brick, wall-paper, etc. Pop. 1298.
Durham, a post-township of Greene co., N. Y. It has
several tanneries and mills. Pop. 2257.
Durham, a township and post-village of Orange co.,
N. C., on the North Carolina R. R., 25 miles N. W. of Ra-
leigh. It has manufactures of tobacco. One weekly news-
paper is published here. The surrender of Gen. J. E.
Johnston, April 25, 1865, took place near by. Pop. 2323.
Durham, a post-township of Bucks co., Pa. P. 1209.
Durham, EARLs of, and Wiscounts Lambton (1833),
Barons Durham (United Kingdom, 1828).-GEORGE FRED-
ERICK D’ARCY LAMBTON, second earl, born Sept. 5, 1828,
succeeded his father in 1840.
Durham (John GEORGE Lambton), EARL OF, an Eng-
lish statesman, born in the county of Durham April 12,
1792. He was elected to Parliament by the Whigs in 1813,
and was an advanced liberal. He was created Baron Dur-
ham in 1828, became lord privy seal in the cabinet of Earl
Grey in Nov., 1830, and was one of the four persons who
prepared the Reform bill of 1831, which he supported in
the House of Lords. In 1833 he resigned the office of lord
privy seal and received the title of earl. He was sent as
ambassador to Russia in 1835, and was appointed gover-
nor-general of Canada in 1838, but returned suddenly in
Dec., 1839. Died July 28, 1840.
Durham Breed of Cattle. See SHORT HoRNs.
Dur'hamville, a post-village of Verona township,
Oneida co., and of Lenox township, Madison co., N. Y., is
on the New York and Oswego Midland R. R., 55 miles
S. E. of Oswego, and on the Erie Canal. It has manufac-
tures of glass, leather, and castings. Pop. 859.
Du'rian, or Durion (Durio Zibethinus), a tree of the
order Sterculiaceae, a native of the Malay peninsula, cul-
tivated by the Malays for its delicious fruit, which forms a
great part of their food. It is a lofty tree, with simple
leaves and large clusters of pale yellow flowers. The fruit
is globular or oval, about ten inches in diameter, and has a
hard, thick, prickly rind enclosing a creamy pulp and about
ten seeds, which are eaten roasted. It combines the most
delicious flavor with a very offensive odor, and brings a
higher price than any other fruit.
Durivage (FRANCIS ALEXANDER), was born in Boston,
Mass., in 1814. He published a “Cyclopaedia of History,”
“Stray Subjects,” and other works, including popular tales,
poems, and plays.
Dur’ltee (CHARLEs), a politician, was born at Royalton,
Vt., Dec. 5, 1807, removed to Wisconsin Territory in 1830,
was a Free-Soil member of Congress (1849–55), U. S. Sena-
tor (1855–61), and governor of Utah (1865–70). Died Jan.
14, 1870.
Durkſheim, a town of Bavaria, on the Isenach, 20
miles N. of Landau. It has a castle, a hospital, and
manufactures of paper and glass. It is surrounded by
beautiful scenery, and is a resort of invalids. It has an ac-
tive trade in wine. Pop. in 1871, 5572.
Dur’īach, a town of Germany, in Baden, on the river
Pfinz, and on a railway, 3 miles E. of Carlsruhe. It is at
the base of the Thurmberg, a hill the top of which is oc-
cupied by a ruined castle. Pop. in 1871, 6327. '
Duroc (GíRARD CHRISTOPHE MICHEL), duke of Friuli,
a French general and diplomatist, born at Pont-à-Mousson
Oct. 25, 1772. He became in 1796 aide-de-camp to Bona-
parte, whom he accompanied to Egypt in 1798. During
f
DURUY—DUTCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
1431
the consulate and empire he was sent on diplomatic mis-
sions to Berlin, Vienna, and other courts. He was a favor-
ite officer of Napoleon. He was killed at Markersdorf
May 23, 1813. -
Duruy (VICTOR), a French historian, born in Paris Sept.
11, 1811. He published many popular and excellent his-
torical and geographical works, some of which were de-
signed for schools. He was minister of public instruction
from June, 1863, to July, 1869, and made important éhanges
in the educational system of France. -
Duryea (JosłPH. T.), D. D. See APPENDIx.
Dushore, a post-borough of Sullivan co., Pa., on the
Sullivan and Erie R. R., about 35 miles N. W. of Wilkes-
barre. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 376.
Dusky Bay, of New Zealand, is a large inlet on the
S. W. coast of the Middle Island. It affords good an-
chorage. Lat. 45° 40' S., lon. 166° 20' E.
Düs'seldorf, a town of Rhenish Prussia, the former
capital of the duchy of Berg, is finely situated on the right
bank of the Rhine, at the mouth of the river Düssel, 17
miles N. N. W. of Cologne; lat. 51° 13' N., lon. 6° 45' E.
It is connected by railways with Cologne, Elberfeld, and
other towns. The Rhine is here crossed by a bridge of
boats. Diisseldorf is mostly built of brick, and has wide
and regular streets. It contains an old electoral palace, a
gymnasium, a realschule, a town-hall, a public library, a
theatre, an observatory, and several fine churches. Here are
manufactures of woollen and cotton fabrics, jewelry, hats,
leather, carpets, etc. Its prosperity is derived partly from
trade and the navigation of the Rhine. Here is a fine pub-
lic garden called the Hofgarten, and a celebrated academy of
art. This town became a free port in 1829. It has in-
creased rapidly in recent times. Pop. in 1871, 69,351.
Diisseldorf School of Painting. The Düsseldorf
Academy, founded in 1767 by Prince Charles Theodore,
led a languishing life until, under the patronage of Fred-
erick William III., Cornelius was appointed director,
which position he continued to fill until his removal to
Munich in 1826. A man of such ability and force natu-
rally quickened the growth of art, and the academy soon
became the centre of a new life. On the departure of Cor-
nelius, William von Schadow was made director, and his
great skill as a teacher, added to his proficiency in his art,
increased the reputation of the academy as a school, and
drew to it more and more of the rising, undeveloped talent
of Young Germany. The names that make this period in
the history of German art, in the eyes of Germans at
least, a modern Renaissance — Koch, Overbeck, Veit,
Schnorr, Von Schwind—are most widely known by the
frescoes with which they adorned so many palaces, villas,
churches, and public buildings in Rome, Munich, and Ber-
lin; but the artists of the Düsseldorf School have spread
the name of their Alma Mater far and wide by means of
their easel-pictures. Their chief influence outside of Ger-
many has been in America, where many of their best works
have been exhibited and sold, and whither several artists,
mostly of American birth, have brought the doctrines they
learned at Düsseldorf, either in the academy or in the
studios of German artists residing there, and have gained
much influence and a widespread reputation at home and
abroad by putting them in practice. In 1853 an exhibition
of Düsseldorf pictures, belonging to Mr. Boker, was opened
in the city of New York, and long continued one of the prin-
cipal attractions of the town. It made Americans familiar
with the names of Lessing, Hübner, Karl Sohn, Hildebrand,
Steinbrück, Andreas Achenbach, Hasenclever, and Preyer;
and as the specimens of their work contained in this gallery
were of the best, there came nearer to being a real enthusiasm
on the subject of art awakened in our Eastern States than
was ever before, or than has since, been possible. A group
of Americans, Eastman Johnson, George H. Hall, W.
Whittredge, were somewhat influenced by their studies at
Düsseldorf, but fortunately for his country other and larger
influences saved the first of these from being spoiled by
the teachings of the academy, and preserved to us one of
the best of our painters. But we were not so fortunate in
the cases of Leutze and Bierstadt, two artists of consider-
able native ability, who were fatally overmastered by the
Düsseldorf Academy, and whose influence in this country
has set art back for fifty years. While it would not be fair
to compare their works with those of the more famous
members of the school in Europe, it cannot be denied that
their pictures were the direct outcome of the system taught
at Düsseldorf, though it must be admitted, that the system
was unfortunate in its representatives—men of small cul-
ture, and working in a community where art was neces-
sarily little understood. -
The school at Düsseldorf was early divided into two
parties—the Catholic and the Protestant, the former seek-
ing to restore the ancient exclusive devotion of art, as in
the Old Cologne School, to religious, chiefly Roman Catho-
lic, subjects; the other, of which Lessing was the acknow-
ledged head, refusing to be shut up in such narrow limits,
and painting all subjects—landscape, genre, historical, and
religious—having, however, a strong leaning to the Prot-
estant side. The harm the Düsseldorf School has done is
not perhaps greater than has been done by the schools of
Berlin and Munich : it seems greater to an American, be-
cause we have suffered so much from it. It inculcates the
fatal doctrines that art can be taught, and that its minis-
try is that of a preacher of doctrines or a narrator of an-
ecdotes, religious, historical, domestic. It confounds art
With Science, and dissects where it ought to create. But
in their own narrow, pedantic field here were men of sense,
talent, learning, industry—everything but genius; the
men of genius in Germany, as everywhere, have grown up
and Worked outside of all schools—and they have had the
reward that always awaits the commonplace and the prac-
tical. They have been extremely popular, they have
Stimulated a great number of kindred minds, and they
have more than supplied the demand for works of art that
everybody can understand. \ CLARENCE COOK.
HDuston (HANNAH). See APPENDIX.
Dutch Creek, a post-twp. of Yell co., Ark. Pop. 466.
HDutch Creek, a post-township of Washington co., Ia.
Pop. 1228.
Dutch/ess, a county in the E. S. E. of New York.
Area, 810 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the
Hudson River, and is drained by Fishkill River. The
surface is hilly; the soil is generally fertile. Cattle, grain,
tobacco, wool, potatoes, hay, butter, and milk are largely
produced. The manufacturing interests are varied and
quite extensive, embracing iron, metallic wares, clothing,
flour, cooperage, sash, doors, and blinds, carriages, etc.
Limestone, marble, iron, and lead are found here. It is in-
tersected by the Hudson River R. R., the Harlem R. R.,
and the Dutchess and Columbia R. R. Capital, Pough-
keepsie. Pop. 74,041. -
Dutch Fiat, a mountain-village of Placer co., Cal., on
the Central Pacific R. R., 67 miles from Sacramento. It
has productive hydraulic gold-mines. Pop. about 2000.
Dutch Fork, a township of Lexingtón co., S. C. Pop.
1352 +
Dutch Gap Canal, a cut through the narrow isthmus
of a peninsula, known as Farrar's Island, in the James
River, about 5 miles below Richmond, Va., designed to af-
ford the national vessels a nearer approach to the Confed-
erate works, to avoid the great obstructions which had
been placed in the curve of the river, and to outflank the
heavy Howlett House batteries. It was executed under
Major P. S. Michie, by order of Gen. B. F. Butler. The
work was undertaken Aug. 15, 1864, and finished Jan. 1,
1865; but a large part of the bulkhead of clay which was
blown out by powder on that occasion fell back, so as to
obstruct navigation for the time. It was of no service to
either side during the war, but has since shortened the
navigation of the river to Richmond some seven miles.
Putch Goid, an alloy of copper and zinc, closely re-
sembling common brass, but having rather less zinc in its
composition than brass generally has. It is used for beat-
ing into thin plates, resembling gold-leaf in appearance
when new, and used for ornamentation instead of gold-leaf.
It tarnishes readily, and may be tested by the application
of strong nitric acid, which will not injure gold-leaf, but
which readily dissolves the imitation.
HDutch Guiana. See GUIANA.
Dutch Language and Eliterature. The Dutch is
the language spoken by the inhabitants of the Netherlands.
It is so closely allied to the Flemish that in their earlier
forms, at least, the two may be considered as one and the
same tongue. The Dutch belongs to the Aryan (otherwise
called the Indo-European) family of languages, and to the
Teutonic subdivision of that great family. The study of
the Dutch language is of especial interest to the student of
English, as well as to the general philologist, as presenting
one of the most important links that connect our tongue
with the German, and also as bearing a very close relation-
ship to the Lowland Scotch. t
The Dutch alphabet consists of the same letters as our
own. The vowels a, e, i, o, at are essentially the same in
sound as in French ; but u, followed by a consonant in the
same syllable, is pronounced nearly like short w in Eng-
lish. Y (now mostly replaced by j) has the sound of the
long i (i) in English. A long vowel sound before a conso-
nant in the same syllable is usually indicated by doubling
the vowel, as laat (“ late”), been (“bone *), 200m (“son”),
duur (“duration”). Ae is equivalent to long as it is now re-
placed in spelling by aa. Ei or ey sounds like long i in Eng-
1432
DUTCH DANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
lish ; eu is like eu in French ; ie like our ee. Ij, as already
intimated, is pronounced like our long i. Oe sounds like
our oo; ui or wy like oi. The consonants b, c, f, h, k, l, m, n,
p, r, s, t, ac, and z are essentially the same in sound as in
English. D at the beginning or in the middle of a word is
pronounced like the English d, but at the end of a word
sounds like tº g has nearly the sound of the German ch in
ach; v at the beginning of a word has a sound intermediate
between our f and v.; w sounds almost as in English; ch is
pronounced like ch in German; sch, however, has not, as
in German, the sound of our sh, but preserves that of the
guttural ch, with the pure sound of 8, being pronounced
somewhat like sk.
The Dutch nearly resembles the German in the inflections
of the nouns and verbs, and in the construction of the sen-
tences, as well as in many of its words, as may be seen
from the following examples:
SINGULAR.
JDutch. (German.)
Nominative, de koning (der König), the king. •
Genitive, des konings” §. Jönigés or Königs), of the king.
Dative, den koning (dem Könige), to the king.
(den König), the king.
PLURAL.
Accusative, den koming
Nom. de koningen (die Könige), the kings.
Gen. der koningen + (der Jönige), of the kings.
Dat. den koningen (den Königen), to the kings.
ACC. de koningen (die Könige), the kings.
The following is an example of the article with an adjec-
tive and substantive :
SINGULAR.
Dutch. (German.)
Nom. de goede vriend (der gute Freund), the good friend.
Gen. des goeden vriends # (desguten. Frewndes), of the good friend.
Dat. den goeden vriend § guten Frewºnde), to the good friend.
Acc. den goeden vriend (den guten Freund), the good friend.
PLURAL. -
Nom. de goede vrienden (die guten. Freunde), the good friends.
Gen. dergoede vrienden #(der guten Freunde), of the good friends.
Dat. den göeden vrienden (den guten Frewmden), to the good friends.
Acc. de goede vrienden (die guten Freunde), the good friends.
The plural of the nouns is generally formed by adding
en or n to the singular, as een boom (masc.), “a tree,” boomen,
“ trees;” eene kerk (fem.), “a church,” kerken, “churches;”
een hofd (neut.), “a head,” hofden, “heads;” bede, a
“prayer,” beden, “prayers.” Kind, a “child,” is an ex-
ception; it takes the addition of eren to form the plural, like
our word child, which originally made the plural in the
same way, child-eren, afterwards contracted into children.
Many mouns change the final consonant of the singular
into another of the same class, as dief, “thief,” dieven,
“thieves;” hwis, “house,” huizen, “houses,” etc.; often a
double vowel in the singular is changed to a single one in
the plural, as maan, “moon,” manen, “moons;” 200m, “son,”
zonen, “sons,” etc.; not unfrequently both vowels and con-
sonants are changed, as baas, “master,” bazen, “masters;”
graaf, “count,” graven, “counts,” etc. Nouns ending in
r, l, em, and em frequently form the plural by simply adding
8, as broeder, “brother,” broeders, “brothers” (also formed
by adding en, as broederen); moeder, “mother,” moeders,
“mothers;” appel, “apple,” appels, “apples;” bessem,
“broom * or “besom,” besgems, “brooms;” kindeken, a
“little child,” kinderkens, “little children.”
The Dutch numerals are as follow :
1, een. 18, achttien.
2, twee. | 19, negentien.
3, drij. 20, twintig,
4, vier. 21, een en twintig.
5, vijf. 22, twee en twintig.
6, zes. 23, drijen twintig, and so on.
7, zeven. 30, dertig.
8, acht. , 40, veertig.
9, negen. 50, vijftig.
10, tien. 60, zestig.
11, elf. 70, zeventig.
12, twaalf.
13, dertien.
14, veertien.
15, vijftien.
16, zestien.
17, zeventien,
80, tachtig.
90, negentig.
100, honderd.
200, twee honderd.
1,000, duizend.
1,000,000, millioen.
ORDINAL NUMBERS.
de dertiende, the thirteenth. .
de veertiende, the fourteenth.
de twintigste, the twentieth.
de een en twintigste, the twenty-first.
de dertigste, the thirtieth.
de veertigste, the fortieth.
de Vijftigste, the fiftieth.
de Zestigste, the sixtieth.
de Zeventigste, the seventieth.
de tiende, the tenth. detachtigste, the eightieth.
de elfde, the eleventh. de negentigste, the ninetieth.
de twaalfde, the twelfth. de honderdste, the one hundredth.
de eerste, the first.
de tweede, the second.
de derde, the third.
de wierde, the fourth.
de vijfde, the fifth.
de zesde, the sixth.
de zevende, the seventh.
de achtste, the eighth.
de negende, the ninth.
*It is proper to observe that instead of the forms des konings,
der koningen, des goeden vriends, we may also use van den koning,
van de koningen, van den goeden vriend, etc.
The principal Dutch pronouns are declined as follows:
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
(German.) (German.)
Nom. ik (ich), - wij (wir), we.
Gen. mijner (meiner), onzer (unser or onser), our.
Dat. mij (mir), Ons (wns), to us.
Acc. mij (mich), 07?S (uns), UlS.
PLURAL.”
(German.)
Nom. gij (or gifflieden) (ihr), ye, you.
Gen. van w (or wwer) (ewer), your.
Dat. w (or ulieden) (euch), to you.
Acc. w (or wiieden) (ewch), you.
SINGULAR.
Nom. hij (er), he.
Gen. van hem, or zijns (seiner), bis, or of him.
Dat. hem. (ihm), to him.
Acc. hem. (ihn), him.
PLURAL.
Nom. 2ij (sie), they.
Gen. hunner (or van hen) §: them.
Dat. hwn (or aan hen) thmen), to them.
Acc. hen (or ze) (sie), them.
PLURAL.
SINGULAR.
(German.) (German.)
Nom. 2ij (sie), she. zij (sie).
Gen. harer (ihrer), her or hers. harer (ihrer).
Dat. hadr (i.hr), to her. haar (ihnen).
Acc. hadr and 2e (sie), her. haar and 2e (sie).
JHet, “it,” has no inflections, the cases being formed by
prefixing prepositions, as van het, “ of it,” aan het, “to hit,”
etc. The plural is like the plural of zij, except that it does
not take ze in the accusative. Zich (like the German sich,
to which it corresponds exactly in pronunciation as well as
signification) signifies “himself,” “herself,” “itself,” “them-
selves;” it is only found in the oblique cases, never in the
nominative.
The Dutch pronominal adjectives are—
SINGULAR.
Masculine. JFeminime. Mewter.
Nom. de mijne, de mijne, het mijne, mine.
Gen. des mijnen, der mijne, des mijnem, of mine.
Dat. den mijnen, der mijne, den mijnen, to mine.
Acc. den mijnen, de mijme, het mijne, mine.
PLURAL.
JMasculine. Feminine. Newter.
Nom. de mijnen, de mijnen, de mijnen.
Gen. der mijnen,
Dat. den mijnen,
Acc. de mijnen,
der mijnen,
der mijnen,
de mijnen,
der mijnen.
den mijmen.
de mijnen.
De onze, “ours,” de wwe, “yours,” de zijne, “his,” de hare,
“hers,” etc., are declined in a similar manner.
The demonstrative adjectives (otherwise called demon-
strative pronouns) are deze (masc. and fem.), and dit (neut.),
“this;” in the plural deze (“these") for all three genders:
and geneſ (masc. and fem.) and geen (neut.), “that.” The
latter is often compounded with the definite article, as degene
(masc. and fem.), hetgene (neut.), “that ;” degene, “those,”
forming the plural for all three genders; and with die, dat,
as diegene (masc. and fem.), datgene (neut.), “that;” plural,
for the three genders, diegene, “those.”
The relatives are—
SINGULAR.
Masculine. Feminime. Neuter.
Nom. die, who: die, who ; dat, which.
dier, whose ;
diems, of which.
dier, to whom :
Gen. diens, whose ; º
diem, to which.
Dat. dien, to whom ;
Acc. diem, whom ; dié, whom ; dat, which.
PLURAL.
Nom. die, die, die.
Gen. dier, dier, dier.
Dat. dien, dier, diem.
Acc. die, die, die.
Welke (masc. and fem.), “who,” and welk (neut.),
“which,” are also used as relatives, especially in elevated
discourse.
The interrogative wie (masc. and fem.), “who,” and wat
(neut.), “what,” are declined like die, dat, as given above.
The following are the principal tenses, etc. of the verb
zijn, to “be :”
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
J)wich. (German.)
£k ben, (ich bin), I am.
gij zijt (ihr seid), you are (or thou art).
hij is (er ist), he is.
wij zijn (wir sind), we are.
gij (or gijlieden) zijt (ihr Seyd), you are.
2ij zijn (sie Sind), they are.
* The Dutch may be said to have, properly speaking, no second
person singular; but gij is always used, even in Scripture, for
the singular as well as the plural. -
+ Cognate with the German jener, jene, etc., which in a similar
manner is compounded with the article, as derjenige, dasjenige,
etc. -

DUTCH LANGUAGE
Imperfect.
£k was (ich war), I was, etc.
gift waart (ihr waret).
hij was (er war).
wij waren (wir waren).
gij waart (ihr waret).
zij waren (sie waren).
Jºerfect.
ik ben geweest (ich bin gewesen), Ihave been, etc.
# 2ijt geweest º Seyd gewesen).
hij is geweest er ist gewesen), etc.
In the future the Dutch use the auxiliary zal, zult, zal,
zullen, zult, zullen, as ik zal zijn (“I shall be *), gij zult zijn,
etc. (the Germans use werde, wirst, wird, werden, etc.).
Zoude (“should ''), zoudet, zowde, zowden, zowdet, zowden,
is used to form the conditional (instead of which the Ger-
mans use wirde, etc.). f
PARTICIPLES. f
(German.)
Present, 2/nde (seyend).
Past, geweest (gewesen).
The regular active verb hoorem, to “hear 33 is coniugated
3 y ©
8,S follows :
Indicative Present.
Imperfect. Perfect.
ik hoor, I hear.
ik hoorde. ik heb gehoord, I have heard, etc.
gij hoort, you hear. gij hoordet, gij hebt gehoord.
hiſ hoort, he hears. hiſ hoorde, hiſ heeſ: gehoord.
wij hooren, we hear. wift hoorden. wif hebbeh, gehoord.
gift hoort, you hear. gij hoordet, giff hebt géhoord.
zij hooren, they hear,zij hoordén. 2.j hebben gehoord.
Pluperfect. J'uture. Conditional.
tº had gehoord. ik 20:l hoorem. ik 20tude hooren.
gij hadt gehoord.
hij had gehoord.
wij hadden gehoord.
gift hadt gehoord.
zij hadden gehoord.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
hoor, hear thou.
laat hem (or hij) hooren, let him hear.
laat ons (or laten wift) hoorem, let us hear.
hooret, hear ye.
laat her (or laten 2.j) hooren, let them hear.
The subjunctive mood is omitted here, as presenting
nothing especially remarkable.
The present participle is hoorende, “hearing;” the future,
zullende hooren, “going to hear,” literally, equivalent to
“shalling to hear,” or, as the Greek neatly expresses it,
pleañow &kovſeuv.
The passive voice of verbs is formed with the auxiliary
worden (imperfect, werd or wierd), to “be” or “become,”
thus :
Indicative Present.
(German.)
ik word gehoord (ich werde gehört), I am heard,
gij wordt gehoord (dw wirst gehört) [etc.
hij wordt gehoord (er wird gehört).
wij worden gehoord (wir werden gehört).
gij wordt gehoord (ihr werdet gehöri).
zij worden gehoord (sie werden gehört).
Imperfect.
ik werd (or wierd) gehoord (ich ww.rde (or ward) gehört), Iwas
gij werdt (or wierdt) gehoord (dw ww.rdest gehört). [heard, etc.
hij werd (or wierd) gehoord (er ww.rde gehört).
wij werden (or wierden) gehoord (wir wurden gehöri).
gij werdt (or wierdt) gehoord (thr wurdet gehöri).
zij werden (or wierden) gehoord (sie ww.rden gehört).
Perfect.
ik ben gehoord worden (ich bin gehört worden), I have been
heard, etc.
Płuperfect.
ik was gehoord worden (ich war gehört worden), I had been
heard, etc.
First Future.
(ich werde gehört werden), I shall be
heard, etc.
Second Future.
ik zalgehoord worden zijn (ich werde gehört worden seyn), I shall
have been heard, etc.
Essential Resemblance between Dutch and German Words.
—This resemblance is often much greater in reality than
appears to the eye. ...Thus, the Dutch zijn and the German
seyn (to “be *), so different in appearance, have not only
the same meaning, but precisely the same pronunciation.
The same is also true of several other parts of the above-
named verb; for example, in the subjunctive mood the
Dutch zij, 2^jt, and zijn, and the German sey, Seyd, and sey'n
(for 8eyen), are pronounced exactly alike. So buigen and
beugen (to “bend”), legen and lexen (to “read”), meel and
Mehl (“meal”), meer and mehr (“more”), mijn and mein
(“my” or “mine”), nemen and nehmen (to “take”), prijzen
and preisen (to “praise”), zijn and sein (“his”), bloed and
Blut (“blood"), bloem and Blum' (for Blume, “flower”),
broeder and Bruder (“brother”), hoed and Hut (“hat”),
hoef and Huf (“hoof”), hoen and Huhn (“fowl,” “hen"),
koe and Kuh (“cow”), moed and Muth (“spirit, “cour-
age”), moes and Mus (“pap,” “sauce”), roem and Ruhm
(“fame,” “glory”), brood and Bröd (“bread”), hoon and
Hohn (“insult”), mood and Woth (“need,” “necessity”),
ik zal gehoord worden
(“stuff,” “materials,” “tools”), twig, etc., etc.
1433
rood and roth (“red”), stroo and Stroh (“straw"), troon and
Thrön (“throne”), troost and Tróst (“ comfort”), zaat and
Saat (“seed”), zacht and sacht (“soft,” “gentle”), 2and
and Sand (“sand”), zeer and sehr (“very ''), zegen and Se-
gen (“blessing”), zijde and Seide (“silk”), zin and Sinn
(“sense”), 20 and so (“thus,” “also,” “as”), zoon and Sohn
(“son”), etc.
A great multitude of instances might be cited in which
the meaning is the same, and the pronunciation nearly the
same, or the difference, at most, is between letters of the
same class, as d and t, b and v, p and f, or v and f, ch and
k, etc.; as blijven and bleiben (to “remain”), doen and
thun (to “do”), dood and Töd (“death”), dood and tâdt
(“dead”), dragen and tragen (to “bear”), and the past
tense of the same, droeg and trug (“bore ”), rijden and rei-
ten (to “ride”), roepen and rufen (to “call”), strijden and
streitem (to “fight,” to “strive”), treden and treten (to
“tread”), vallen and fallen (to “fall”), vechten and fechten
(to “fight”), vinden and finden (to “find ’’), voor and vôr
(“before ”), wraag and Frag' (for Frage, a “question ”),
werpen and werſen (to “throw ’’), wifken and weichen (to
“retire,” to “ yield”), wiſzen and weisen (to “show ’’),
zoeken and suchew (to “seek”), zwijgen and schweigen (to
“be silent”), etc.
There are, in regard to certain letters, changes that very
frequently if not invariably take place when a word passes,
so to speak, from the German to the Dutch. The following
changes take place in diphthongs and vowels: (1.) The Ger-
man aw usually becomes o or oo in Dutch ; for example,
auf (“on,” “up”) is changed to op (for the change of f to
p, and that of other consonants, see below); Baum (“tree”)
to boom; Haufe (“heap”), to hoop; Haupt (“head”) to
hoofd; kawfen (to “buy") to koopen; Lauf (a “running”)
and laufen (to “run”) to loop and loopen; Raub% (“prey,”
“plunder”), Rauber (a “robber’”) and Rauben (to “rob”)
to roof, roover, and rooven; Rauch (“smoke”) and raw-
chen (to “smoke’) to rook and rooken; Sawm (a “hem,”
“seam ”) to zoom; taub (“deaf”) to toof; tauf' or taufe
(“dipping,” “baptism”) to doop; Traum (“dream ”) to
droom. (2.) The German aw also not unfrequently becomes
wi in Dutch, as aws (“out”), wit; Bauch (“belly”), buik;
brawn (“brown "), bruin; Braut (“bride”), bruid; Dawm
(“thumb"), dwim; faul (“foul”), vuil; Faust (“fist”)
vwist; Haus (“house”), huis; Laws (“louse”), lwis; Maus
(“mouse’’), mwis; Raum (“space,” “room ''), ruim; raw-
schen (to “rush,” to “roar ”), ruischen; sawber (“clean,”
“pure”), zuiver; saufen (to “drink,” to “tipple’), zwipen;
Staub (“dust”), stuif, Strawch (“shrub"), struik; Strauss
(“ostrich *), struis ; Taube (“dove,” “pigeon’’), dwif;
Traube (“grape”), druif, Zaun (“hedge” or “fence ’’),
twin. (3.) Ei in German frequently becomes ee in Dutch,
as allein (“ alone”), alleen; Beim (“leg,” “bone”), been;
Eich (an “oak”), eek; ein (“one’), een; kein (“no,” as an
adjective), geen; Stein (a “stone”), steem, etc. (4.) But ei, as
well as ey, is often changed to j, as preisen (to “praise”)
to prijzen; sein (“his”) and seyn (to “be ') to zijn, etc., etc.
(5.) Ew and its equivalent àw, commonly become wi, having
essentially the same sound, as beugen (to “bend"), buigen;
Beule (a “boil”), buil; keusch (“chaste”), kuisch; sūugen
(to “suckle”), zuigen; sūwmen (to “delay”), zuimen; Zeug
(6.) Oe or 3
in German often becomes oo in Dutch, as böse, boos (“bad,”
“evil”); blóde, bloo or bloode (“bashful”); héren, hooren
(to “hear”); schön, schoon (“beautiful”); schönheit, schoon-
heid (“beauty”), etc. (7.) Ue or ü in German often becomes
w in Dutch, the latter being the matural equivalent of the
former; as Brücke, brug (“bridge”); bicken, bukken (to
“stoop,” to “bow ’’); Bürger, burger (“citizen”); diinken,
dunken (to “seem ’). The German mich diinkt, and Dutch
mij dunkt, explains the origin of our phrase methinks (i. e.
“it seems to me”).
In the first paragraph treating of the resemblance between
Dutch and German, the reader will see numerous examples
of the correspondence of the German long o with the Dutch
oo (as Sohn and zoon, etc.), and the German w with the
Dutch oe (as gut and goed, etc.), precisely the same sound
being represented by the corresponding words. The Ger-
man w, however, often becomes o in Dutch, as Bund, bond
(a “covenant”); Bundel, bondel (“bundle”); bunt, bont
(“variegated”); Grund, grond (“bottom,” “ground”);
Hund, hond (“dog”); Krumm, krom (“crooked”), etc., etc.
Of the consonants (1), f in German commonly becomes p
in Dutch,” as may be seen in the following verbs: helfen
(to “help”), helpen; hoffen (to “hope”), hopen; reiſen (to
“ripen"), rijpen; rufen (to “call ”), roepen; verſen (to
“ throw”), werpen. In like manner from the German
Dorf (“village”), Harfe (“harp"), reif (“ripe”), Schiff
#In a few instances the reverse occurs; that is, the sound of
p in German is changed to fin Dutch ; as Haupt, hoofd (“head”);
I)ieb (pronounced as if written diep), dief (“thief”); Raub (pro-
nounced as if written raup), roof (“plunder”), etc.
AND Ll'TERATURE.
1434
T)UTCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
(“ship’), Waffe (“weapon”), etc., we have in Dutch, dorp,
harp, rijp, schip, wapen, etc. (2.) B is usually changed to
v, as shown in the following examples: bleiben, blijven (to
“remain ''); schreiben, schrijven (to “write ”); sterben,
sterven (to “die”). (3.) S initial or medial in German be-
comes 2 in Dutch ; for example, Seyn, zijn (to “be ''); lesen,
lezen (to “read”), etc. (4.) The German 8 terminal gene-
rally becomes t in Dutch, as blóss, bloot (“mere,” “naked”);
Füss, voet (“foot ”); grö88, groot (“great”); Maas, maat
(“measure”); Schloss, slot (“ lock,” “castle”). To which
may be added es, het (“it’); das, dat (“that’’); "was, wat
(“what ”). (5.) Z initial is usually changed to t, as Zahl,
tal (“number”); záhlen, tellen (to “tell”); bezahlen, betalen
(to “pay ”); Zaum, toom (“bridle''); Zeichen, teeken
(“sign,” “token ''); Zeit, tijd (“time”); Ziegel, tegel (a
“tile”); Zimmer, timmer (a “room,” also “timber”); Zin-
ne, tinne (“pinnacle”); Zims, tins (“rent”); zu, toe (“to ”);
zwei, twee (“two "); Zweifel, twijfel (“doubt”); Zweig,
twijg (a “branch’’ or “twig"); 2welf, twaalf (“twelve”);
Zunge, tong (“tongue’); zwanzig, twintig (“twenty");
Zwist, twist (“strife,” “discord”). (6.) Ch in German is
often changed to k in Dutch, as Büch, boek (“book”);
fluchen, vloeken (to “curse”), and Fluch, vloek (a “curse”);
suchen, zoeken (to “seek”), etc.; but this is very far from
being always the case. The most numerous class of excep-
tions consists of words beginning with sch—e.g. German
Schaf, Dutch schaap (“sheep ’’); German Schiff, Dutch
schip (“ship ’’), etc.
It will be observed from the foregoing examples that
almost invariably where the Dutch consonant differs from
the German it corresponds to the English whenever there
is any English word at all resembling either; compare, for
example, the German Zeit, the Dutch tijd, and the Old
English tide, in the sense of “time ’’; German Zeichen,
Dutch teeken, English token, etc.
It has seemed proper to explain somewhat fully the prin-
ciples of such changes from the one tongue to the other as
would be likely to escape the notice of those who should
make only a cursory examination of the two languages.
But it has not been deemed necessary to dwell at length
upon the more obvious correspondences between them. It
may not, however, be without interest to present some ex-
amples of such correspondences: Band, band (a “band”);
Berg, berg (“mountain’’); bersten, bersten (to “burst.”);
bergen, bergen (to “conceal;”) Bescheid, bescheid (“infor-
mation ”); bescheiden, bescheiden (“modest,” “discreet”);
bescheiden, bescheiden (to “appoint”); Brand, brand (a
“burning”); branden, branden (to “rage"); Hand, hand
(“hand”); Handel, handel (“trade”); hangen, hangen (to
“hang”); Helm, helm (“helm” or “helmet”); Hemd, hemd
(“shirt”); Kind, kind (“child”); klein, klein (“small”);
krank, krank (“sick”); Kunst, kunst (“ art”); Land, land
(“land”); lang, lang (“long ”); Last, last (a “burden");
leider, Zeider (“alas !”); Leder, leder (“leather ”); licht,
licht (“ light”); lichten, lichten (to “lighten,” to “illumi-
nate”); Linde, linde (a “linden tree”); List, list (“cun-
ining,” “craft”); listig, listig (“crafty,” “cunning”); Lust,
lust (“ pleasure”); Markt, markt (“market”); Mast, mast
(“mast”); Merk, merk (“mark”); merken, merken (to
“mark ''); Minne, minne (“love ’’); Morgen, morgen
(“morning”) ; Wacht, macht (“ night”); Nagel, nagel
(a “nail”); nimmer, nimmer (“never”); Rad, rad (a
“wheel”); Rand, rand (“margin,” “border”); Rede, rede
(“speech”); Regen, regen (“rain”); rein, rein (“clear,”
“pure”); Rente, rente (“rent”); Spiegel, Spiegel (a “mir-
ror”); Vogel, vogel (“bird,” “fowl”); Wacht, wacht
(“watch”); Wagen, wagen (“wagon,” “carriage”); wegen,
wegen (to “weigh”); Werk, werk (“work”); Winter, winter
(“winter”).
The character of Dutch literature may be said to cor-
respond, to a great extent, to the national character, which
has been formed in a constant conflict with the most for-
midable and most unconquerable of all the ekements. “The
Dutch have taken their possessions from the dominion of
the deep; and the exercise of the perpetual thought, care,
and industry necessary first to raise and then to keep up
such mighty embankments as defend them from their con-
stant assailant, the raging sea, has educated a people ad-
venturous, brave, and cautious.” (Bosworth’s Anglo-Saacon
Dictionary, p. xcii.) The spirit of industry and energy thus
acquired may be said to pervade their literature, which is
characterized rather by solid strength than by a versatile
fancy or soaring imagination. Much of the Dutch poetry,
however, is not without the charm of unaffected simplicity
and great expressiveness of language. In fact, the dis-
tinguishing characteristics of the Dutch language may be
said to be directness of expression and descriptive energy.
In simplicity and directness indeed it bears a near resem-
blance to the English, over which its greater fulness of in-
flections gives it some decided advantages, especially on the
score of variety and flexibility. In another respect, also, .
it is on some accounts superior to our tongue. We allude
to the facilities it possesses for forming compound words.
Many technical terms which the English borrow from the
Latim or Greek are formed by the Dutch from their own
indigenous roots. In this respect the Dutch even surpasses
the German. Thus, for astronomy they have sterrekunde
(“star-knowledge”), a word which explains itself without
the necessity of having recourse to a Greek etymology.
Such Dutch terms are usually much more euphonious than
their literal English equivalents, because they generally
employ connecting vowels, thus rendering the sound much
softer, instead of running the terminal and initial conso-
nants together, as is continually done in English in the
formation of compound words; thus, we say enDLess, but
the Dutch say eindeloos; the same may be seen in the above-
cited Sterrekunde, and in numerous other compound words.
It may be proper to remark here that the Dutch having
been pre-eminently a commercial and maritime nation long
before England could boast of being the mistress of the sea,
from them have been derived many of our nautical terms
and phrases, such as boom, literally, “tree or beam;” skip-
per (Dutch schipper, the ch being hard), literally, a “ship-
per;” schooner, etc.
Some of the oldest extant specimens of the Dutch lan-
guage are supposed to date as far back as the ninth cen-
tury. They bear a near resemblance to the Low German.
All the earlier specimens, indeed, of the Teutonic dialects
prove, by the remarkable affinities which they bear to each
other, that they originated from a common source. We have
already spoken of the essential identity of the Dutch and
Flemish, the difference between these two languages being
scarcely more than a difference of pronunciation and or-
thography. The celebrated poem called “Reinaert de Vos”
(“Reynard the Fox’’), the first part of which was written
originally in the old Flemish dialect about 1150, affords one
of the finest of the early specimens of the Flcmish or Dutch
language. From it was made a free translation into Low
Saxon, “Reineke Vos,” under which form it became widely
known and very popular.
Jacob van Maerlant is regarded as the father of Dutch
poetry. He was born at Damme, in Flanders, in 1235, and
died in 1300. He made various translations into Dutch
poetry, of which the following may suffice as a specimen :
“I)iese bloemen hobben wilbesocht,
IEn uten Latine in Dietche brocht,
Ute Aristotiles boekon.”
Translated literally :
“These flowers (beauties) have we sought,
And out of Latin into Dutch brought,
Eronn Aristotle’s books.”
Perhaps his most celebrated work is his “Spiegel. His-
toriael” (“Historic Mirror”). The “Rijmkronik” (“Chron-
icle’’ in verse) of Melis Stoke was written about 1290. The
following is an interesting sample of that early rhyme:
“Dese pine ende dit ghepens
send ic u Heer Grave Florens
Dat ghi moget sien ende horen
Wanen dat ghi sijt geboren,
Endle bi wat redenen ghi in hant
Hebbet Zeelant ende Hollant ;
Endle biwat redenen dat ghi Soect
Vrieslant dat u so sere vloect.”
Literally translated:
“These labors (pains) and these thoughts
send I to you, Sir Count Florens,
that you may see almd hear (learn)
whonce [it is] that you are born
(descended), and by what right
(reasons) you have Zealand and
Holland in hand (in your possession),
and by what right you seek
Friesland, that curses you so Sorely.”
Jan van Heelu, the contemporary of Stoke, also wrote
chronicles in verse (“Rijmkronik”), which display con-
siderable poetic spirit.
The culture and development of what may be strictly
termed Dutch literature, as distinguished from the Flemish,
may be said to date from the establishment at Amsterdam
(about 1570) of a sort of literary academy called Rederijks-
kamer (“Chamber of Rhetoric"), under the auspices of
Coornhert, Spiegel, and Visscher. Somewhat later appeared
Peter Kornelius Hooft, whom Wondel calls, playing upon
his name (signifying “head"), “Dat doorluchtig Hooft der
Hollandsche poeten”—“That illustrious head of the Dutch
poets.” The merits of Hooft are so great that he has been
styled the creator of Dutch literature. He imparted a sweet-
ness and harmony to the poetry of his native language un-
known before his time, and not surpassed by any later
author. He also excelled as a writer of history. Jacob
Cats (1577–1660), or Father Cats, as his countrymen in
their affection delighted to call him, was emphatically the
poet of the people, and his productions are still admired
and loved by all classes. Joost van den Wondel (1587–
DUTCH LIQUID–DUVEYRIER.
1435
1679) is one of the greatest names in Dutch literature. He
excelled in satirical and lyric poetry, and also in tragedy.
About the end of the seventeenth century there was a de-
cline in Dutch poetry, caused in part by the influence of
the French school of criticism, but a new poetical era com-
menced in the latter half of the next century, introduced
by J. Bellamy (about 1770), whose ballad of “Rosje" is
regarded as the most beautiful in the language. In touch-
ing simplicity it reminds us of some of the finest of the
Scottish ballads. Bilderdijk (1756–1831) was not only one
of the greatest of Dutch poets, but was distinguished in
almost every department of literature. Tollens (1780–
1856) is perhaps the most popular of recent Dutch poets.
Among his most celebrated productions are “De Over-
wintering op Nova Zembla.” (“The Wintering on Nova
Zembla’’), a narrative poem giving an account of the fa-
mous expedition of Barentz (1594–96), and his splendid
war-lyric entitled “Wapencreet” (“Call to Arms”).
In classical learning the Dutch have taken a high place
among the nations of Europe. Among the most distin-
guished of their scholars are Erasmus, Lipsius, Daniel
and Nicholas Heinsius, Grotius, Gronovius, Vossius (Ger-
ard de Vos), Hemsterhuis, etc. In science they have had
Huygens, Leewenhoek, Ruysch, and Swammerdam. In
theology they can boast of Arminius, besides many others.
In philosophy there is perhaps no greater name in modern
times than Spinoza; and in medicine few, if any, more
illustrious than those of Boerhaave and Van der Kolk.
J. THOMAS.
Dutch H,iquid, or Eth/ene Chio/ride, received its
first name because it was first discovered by Dutch chemists
in 1795. It is a combination of ethene (olefiant gas, C2H4)
with chlorine, and its formula is C2H4Cl2. It is a thin, in-
flammable, colorless liquid of an agreeable fragrance and
pleasant taste, somewhat resembling chloroform. Like
chloroform, it has great anaesthetic powers when its vapor
is inhaled, but the medical profession are not satisfied of
its safety. Modifications of this compound (such as C2H3Cl,
C2H3Cl3, and C2H3Cl3) are also sometimes called Dutch
liquids, and the whole are known as the “Dutch liquid se-
ries.” .
Dutch Reformed Church. See REFORMED CHURCH
IN AMERICA.
Dutch/ville, a post-township of Granville co., N. C.
Pop. 1752.
Butens (Joseph MICHEL), a French political economist,
born at Tours Oct. 15, 1765. He published “The Philoso-
phy of Political Economy” (2 vols., 1835) and other works.
Died Aug. 6, 1848.-His uncle, Louis DUTENs, F. R. S.,
born at Tours Oct. 15, 1765, removed to England, where he
obtained from the duke of Northumberland the lucrative
living of Elsdon. He wrote a treatise maintaining the
antiquity of many discoveries, numismatical treatises, and
“Mémoires d'un Voyageur qui se repose ’’ (Paris, 1806).
Died May 23, 1812. *
Du/ties [from due, i.e. “something owed;” Fr. douane],
in their general sense, are those things which a man is, by
any natural, moral, or legal obligation, bound to do or to
refrain from doing. The word is also used commercially,
and then, in its most enlarged sense, is nearly equivalent
to taxes, embracing all impositions or charges levied on
persons or things; but in its more restricted sense it is often
used as equivalent to customs or imposts, being those taxes
which are payable upon goods and merchandise imported
or exported. (See the Constitution of the U. S., Art. I., S. 8,
n. 1, and Art. I., s. 10, n. 2.) The import duty is held to
be a personal debt, chargeable upon the importer, as well
as a lien on the goods themselves.
As used in the U. S., the term duties does not include the
taxes on property, real or personal, nor the poll-tax ; nor,
in its popular sense, does it include the excise. In the
U. S. there is no duty on exportation, nor is any State
allowed to collect duties or imposts.
Dutrochet (RENſ. JoACHIM HENRI), M. D., a French
physiologist, born in Poitou Nov. 14, 1776. He graduated
as M. D. in 1806, and devoted his time chiefly to the study
of natural history and physiology. He published “Re-
searches in Endosmosis and Exosmosis” (1828), and “Mé-
moires pour servir à l’Histoire anatomique et physiologique
des Végétaux et Animaux’” (1837). Died Feb. 4, 1847.
Dut/ton (ARTHUR H.), an American officer, born at
Wallingford, Conn., in 1839, graduated at West Point,
and was appointed brevet second lieutenant in the corps
of engineers June 24, 1861; promoted to be first lieu-
tenant of engineers Mar., 1863, and captain Oct., 1863.
During the civil war he served on staff and engineer
duty from July, 1861, to July, 1862, being assistant engi-
neer on the defences of Washington and in the Florida
expedition with Gen. H. G. Wright. He was appointed
Sept., 1862, colonel of the Twenty-first Connecticut Volun-
teers, which regiment he led at Antietam and Freder-
icksburg; commanded a brigade in the Ninth army corps
at Newport News and about Suffolk, Va., Feb. to Aug., 1863;
was chief of staff to Major-General Peck, in command of
the district of North Carolina; during the operations of
the Army of the James at Bermuda, Hundred, Va., 1864, he
commanded his regiment, distinguishing himself at the
battle of Drury's Bluff, May 16; and while reconnoitering
the Confederate works May 26 was mortally wounded. Died
at Baltimore, Md., June 5, 1864. Brevet major Dec., 1862,
lieutenant-colonel May, 1863, colonel and brigadier-general
May, 1864, for gallant and meritorious services.
Dutton (HENRY), LL.D., a jurist, was born at Ply-
mouth, Conn., Feb. 12, 1796, and graduated at Yale in 1818,
was professor of law in Yale (1847–55), became governor
of Connecticut in 1854, and was a judge of the superior
court and court of errors (1861–66). He prepared several
digests, compilations of State statutes, etc. Died April
26, 1869.
Duſty, a township in Lawrence co., Ark. Pop. 573.
Buum'viri, or Duo’viri [Lat., the plural of duumvir,
from duo, “two,” and vir (plu. viri), a “man” (i. e. the
“two men’’)], the title of various magistrates of ancient
Bome and her colonies. Two men jointly held the office,
whence the name. The duumviri, “juri dicundo ’” (“for
pronouncing judgment”), were chief magistrates in muni-
cipal towns. Naval duumviri were occasionally appointed
to equip fleets. Duumviri “perduellionis” were appointed
to try cases of treason (perduellio) and parricide. Quin-
quennial duumviri were the censors of municipal towns,
and were chosen every five years, hence called quinquem-
males (from quinque, annus), but the duties of the office
occupied only one year. The position was one of great
dignity. Sacred duumviri were sometimes appointed to
erect temples. There were also duumviri for performing
other minor duties. -
Duval', a county in the N. E. of Florida. Area, 860
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Atlantic
Ocean, and is intersected by the St. John’s River. The
surface is low and nearly level. Lumber, market veget-
ables, and rice are the most important products. It is
traversed by the Florida R. R. and the Jacksonville Pen-
sacola and Mobile R.R. Capital, Jacksonville. Pop. 11,921.
Duval, a county in the S. of Texas, partly drained by
the Nueces River. Area, 1650 square miles. Wood and
water are scarce, but the pasturage is good. Cattle and Wool
are the chief products. Pop. 1083.
Duval, a township of Lincoln co., W. Va. Pop. 604.
Duval (ALExANDRE), born April 6, 1767, served in the
American Revolution on a French vessel, was then engi-
neer, architect, and, after 1792, devoted himself to dra-
matic composition. He succeeded in mingling comic traits
with serious action, and many of his pieces have kept the
stage. Died Jan. 10, 1842.--His brother, AMAURY DUVAL,
born Jan. 28, 1760, acquired note by treatises upon antiq-
uities. Died Nov. 12, 1838.
Duvaucel (ALFRED), a French naturalist,born in Paris
in 1792, was a stepson and pupil of the celebrated Cuvier.
He passed nearly six years in the exploration of the nat-
ural history of India, to which he went in 1818. He died
near Madras in Aug., 1824.
Duvergier de Hauranne (PROSPER), a French states-
man, born at Rouen in 1798. He was elected to the Cham-
ber of Deputies in 1831, acted with the Doctrinaires, and
advocated electoral reform. He was a conservative mem-
ber of the National Assembly in 1848. He wrote a “His-
tory of Parliamentary Government in France” (2 vols.,
1857), and “On the Principles of Representative Govern-
ment, and on their Application * (1838), which is full of
admiration of English institutions.
Duvernoy (GEORGEs Louis), M. D., a French zoologist
and anatomist, born at Montbéliard Aug. 6, 1777. He
edited Cuvier’s “Lectures on Comparative Anatomy"
(1805) at his request. He succeeded Cuvier in 1837 as
professor in the College of France, and became in 1850
professor of comparative anatomy. Among his important
works is “Lectures on Organic Bodies” (1842). Died
Mar. 1, 1855. - - -.
Duveyrier (HENRI), a French traveller, born Feb. 28,
1840, was the son of Charles Duveyrier, a political and
dramatic writer, and nephew of Anne Joseph Duveyrier,
who, under the pseudonym of Mélesville, wrote a great
number of theatrical pieces in collaboration with Scribe
and others. He has published “Exploration of Sahara ''
(vol. i., 1864), and numerous papers in geographical peri-
odicals which contribute much to a knowledge of Northern
Africa and the Great Desert. He travelled two years in
1436
DUXBURY-IDWIGHT.
the interior, and under the protection of the Tuarick chiefs
penetrated to the centre of Soodan,
Dux'bury, a township and post-village of Plymouth
co., Mass., on the South Shore R. R., 5 miles N. of Ply-
mouth. It is the seat of an academy. Here the French
Atlantic telegraph terminates. Duxbury has an iron light-
house; lat. 41° 59' N., lon. 70° 38' W. It has also four
churches, a soldiers’ monument, and a monument to Miles
Standish. Pop. 2341.
Duxbury, a township of Washington co., Vt. It con-
tains the Camel's Rump Mountain, and has manufactures
of lumber. Pop. 893.
Duyc/kinck (EveRT AUGUSTUs), an American editor
and essayist, born in the city of New York Nov. 23, 1816,
and graduated at Columbia College in 1835. He was the
founder and editor of the “Literary World.” With the
aid of his brother George he published a “Cyclopaedia of
American Literature” (2 vols., 1856), which is highly es-
teemed. Among his works is a “History of the War for
the Union ” (3 vols., 1861–65).
Duyckinck (GEORGE LONG), a brother of the preced-
ing, was born in New York Oct. 17, 1823, graduated at the
University of New York in 1843. He was joint-author of
the “Cyclopaedia of American Literature” (1856), and pub-
lished several biographies, among which was a “Life of
George Herbert’” (1858). Died Mar. 30, 1863.
Dwara'ca, or Dwarka, a maritime town of India,
in Guzerat, is on the Arabian Sea a few miles S. of the
Gulf of Cutch, 95 miles N. W. of Joonaghur. Here is a
temple of Krishna, which is annually visited by multitudes
of pilgrims. The great temple is an ancient sculptured
stone structure, with a massy gate and a long flight of
steps. In front is a sacred stream.
Dwarf [Ang.-Sax. dweorg ; Ger. Zwerg ; Swedish and
Dutch, dwerg], the name given to any animal or plant
greatly below the usual size of its kind, particularly a
human being of small dimensions. In ancient times dwarfs
were kept by persons of rank for their amusement, and the
Roman ladies employed them as domestics. In Europe the
passion for dwarfs reached its height under the reigns of
Francis I. and Henry II. of France. Among the most cel-
ebrated dwarfs were the following: Philetus of Cos, a
hilosopher and poet, who lived about 330–285 B. C.;
{...; Hudson, born in 1619, who was three feet nine
inches high ; Joseph Borowlawski, born in 1739, who at-
tained the height of thirty-nine inches, and was remarkable .
for acute intellect; and Nicolas Ferry or Bébé (thirty-three
inches high), who was a favorite of Stanislas, king of
Poland. In recent times Tom Thumb (Charles S. Stratton),
born at Bridgeport, Conn., in 1837, is the most celebrated,
and his performances as an actor have been received with
applause both in Europe and America.
The dwarfs of Scandinavian mythology are represented
as deformed and crafty elves, distinguished for their skill
in magic and the working of metals.
Dwarfed Trees may be produced in three different
ways—by grafting on dwarf slow-growing stocks, as, for
example, the pear on the quince; by planting in small pots
filled with poor soil, by which the plant is starved and
stunted ; and by causing a portion of the extremity of a
branch to produce roots, and then cutting it off and plant-
ing it in a pot with poor soil. The last is the Chinese
method, and is thus performed: The extremity of a branch
two or three feet long in a fruit- or flower-bearing state is
selected, and a ring of bark is taken off at the point where
it is desired that roots should be produced. The part thus
denuded of bark is covered with a ball of clay, kept moist
with the frequent application of water. After the roots
have grown out the branch is cut off, planted in a pot of
poor soil, and sparingly supplied with water. The dwarf
tree will remain nearly of the same size for years. The
pear tree especially is often dwarfed, because in this condi-
tion it will produce fruit while still very young. Some
varieties of pear may remain unfruitful for many years
unless dwarfed.
Dwight, a post-village of Livingston co., Ill., on the
Chicago and Alton R. R., 72 miles S. W. of Chicago. It
has one weekly newspaper. It is a terminus of the west-
ern division of the same railroad. Pop. 1044; of Dwight
township, 1804. ED. “STAR.”
Dwight, a township of Huron co., Mich. Pop. 335.
Dwight (BENJAMIN WooDBRIDGE), PH. D., born at New
Haven, Conn., April 5, 1816, and graduated at Hamilton
College, N. Y., in 1835, was principal and proprietor of
a high school for boys in Brooklyn and New York City
for many years. He is the author of “The Higher Chris-
tian Education,” “Modern Philology, First and Second
Series,” “The History of the Strong Family,” 2 vols., and
also of “The History of the Dwight Family in America,”
2 vols., “Woman’s Higher Culture,” and “The True Doc-
trine of Divine Providence.” He resides now (1874) at
Clinton, Oneida co., N. Y., where he is engaged in literary
labor. -
Dwight (EDMUND), a merchant, born at Springfield,
Mass., Nov. 28, 1780. He graduated at Yale in 1799. He
was a member of business firms which established cotton-
mills at Chicopee and Holyoke. He gave $10,000 to sup-
port normal schools in Massachusetts. Died April 1, 1849.
Dwight (FRANCIs), born at Springfield, Mass., Mar. 14,
1808, graduated at Harvard College in 1827, and at the
Law School in 1830, travelled extensively in Europe, and
afterwards practised law for a few years (1834–38), but in
1838 turned the whole force of his strong nature towards
the promotion of common-school education in our country,
and established at Albany, N. Y., in 1840, “The District
School Journal,” under State patronage. Here he had
full scope for his fine, highly-cultured faculties of mind
and his glowing zeal in behalf of the most improved style
of popular education. His name stands, for honor, by the
side of that of Horace Mann in the thoughts of those who
know how the present superior style of public instruction
has been reached in those parts of the land where it is
highest in its form. He died in the fulness of his influence
for good, Dec. 15, 1845.
Dwight (Rev. HARRISON GRAY OTIs), D. D., born at
Conway, Mass., Nov. 22, 1803, graduated at Hamilton Col-
lege, N. Y., in 1825, and became a missionary of the A. B.
C. F. M. in 1830 to the Armenians, making Constantinople
the centre of his field of operations. He was abundant in
his labors with tongue and pen; and is one of the most
noted of all American missionaries hitherto for his great
skill and success in his work. He published in America
and England several volumes at different times, as “Re-
searches of Smith and Dwight in Armenia,” “Memoir of
Mrs. Elizabeth B. Dwight,” “Christianity Revived in the
East,” “A Complete Catalogue of Literature in Armenia,”
etc. He composed also several books and tracts in the
native languages of the East. He was killed suddenly,
when on a brief visit to his native land, by an accident on
the Troy and Bennington R. R., Jan. 25, 1862. -
Dwight (John) graduated at Oxford University, Eng-
land, in 1682, was secretary to three successive bishops of
Chester, England (Walton, Ferne, and Hall). He estab-
lished in 1684, at Fulham, “a manufactory of white gorges,
marbled porcelain ware, statues, and vessels never before
made in England, and also of China and Persian wares,
and the Cologne and Hessian wares.” He invented moulds
and models and processes of his own, and manufactured
the only porcelain that was made in England in his day.
His inventive talents are described in leading English
works on pottery and porcelain ware as having been of the
very highest order. The great potteries at Fulham, Chel-
Sea, etc. are ascribed to him as their real founder.
Dwight (John SULLIVAN), a musical critic, born in
Boston May 13, 1813, graduated at Harvard in 1832. He
studied divinity, entered the Unitarian ministry, and
preached about six years. In 1842 he joined the Brook
Farm enterprise at West Roxbury, Mass., where he re-
mained until the institution was broken up. In 1852 he
established “Dwight's Musical Journal,” an excellent
periodical, of which he is still the editor. Mr. Dwight
has also published many admirable reviews, lectures, etc.,
and is the author of the song “God Save the State’” (1844).
Dwight (Joseph), BRIGADIER-GENERAL, born at Hat-
field, Mass., Oct. 16, 1703, graduated at Harvard Univer-
sity in 1722, was judge of the court of common pleas of
Hampshire co., Mass., and afterwards of Berkshire county, ,
and judge of probate. He was eminent both as a judge
and a soldier. He commanded the Massachusetts artillery
at the reduction of Louisburg in 1745 with distinction, and
led a brigade at Lake Champlain in the second French war
in 1756. He was also for eleven years member of the gen-
eral council of Massachusetts. Died in 1765.
Dwight (Rev. NATHANIEL), M.D., brother to Dr. Tim-
othy Dwight of Yale College, born Jan. 31, 1770, at North-
ampton, Mass., prepared and published the first school
geography ever issued in this country. It was in the form
of questions and answers, and was extensively used. He
was also the author of “The Great Question Answered,”
and of “A Compendious History of the Signers of the
Declaration of Independence.” He resided chiefly at
Wethersfield, Conn. Died June 11, 1831, at Oswego, N.Y.
Dwight (SAMUEL), M.D., of Fulham, England, gradu-
ated at Oxford University (son of John Dwight of Fulham,
the great inventor and first manufacturer of porcelain
ware in England), was the author of three different medi-
cal works—viz. “De Vomitione” (London, 1722), “De
Hydropibus” (1725), and “De Febribus” (1731).
DWIGHT-DYEING.
1437
Dwight (SERENO EDWARDs), D.D., an American divine,
born at Greenfield Hill, Conn., May 18, 1786, was a son of
Timothy Dwight, noticed below. He graduated at Yale in
1803, and practised law with success (1810—16). He was
afterwards pastor of Park street church, Boston (1817–26),
and was president of Hamilton College (1833–35). He
wrote, besides other works, “The Hebrew Wife” and a “Life
of Jonathan Edwards,” and edited the works of the same
author (10 vols. 8vo). Died Nov. 30, 1850. -
Dwight (THEODORE), an able journalist, an uncle of the
preceding, was born at Northampton, Mass., Dec. 15, 1764.
He was a member of Congress (1806–07). He practised law
with distinction, and was a leader of the Federalist party.
He was secretary of the Hartford Convention in 1814. His
mother was a daughter of Jonathan Edwards. In 1817 he
founded the “New York Daily Advertiser,” which he edited
until 1835. He published “The Life and Character of Thomas
Jefferson’’ and “The History of the Hartford Convention.”
He was a brilliant political writer. Died July 12, 1846.
Dwight (THEODoRE), an author, a son of the preceding,
was born at Hartford, Conn., Mar. 3, 1796, and graduated
at Yale in 1814. He wrote, besides other works, a “Tour
of Italy ” (1824), a “History of Connecticut” (1841), a
“Life of Garibaldi” (1859), “A School Dictionary of
Roots and Derivatives,” “The Northern Traveller,” “The
Tour of New England,” “The Father's Book,” “First Les-
sons in Modern Greek,” “The Roman Republic of 1849,"
and “The Kansas War.” Died Oct. 16, 1866.
Dwight (THEODoRE WILLIAM), L.L.D., an American
jurist, professor, and editor, born July 18, 1822, at Catskill,
N. Y., graduated at Hamilton College, N. Y., in 1840, and
studied his profession at Yale Law School, under the late
distinguished Judge Hitchcock. In 1846 he was elected
Maynard professor of law in Hamilton College, and there
established a law school. In 1858 he was chosen professor
of municipal law in Columbia College, N. Y. . His inaug-
ural address was published. He was soon made warden of
the law school, a department of the college organized under
his direction, and now (1874) numbering 425 students,
drawn from all parts of the U. S. He received the degree
of doctor of laws from Rutgers College, N. J. (1859), and
from Columbia College (1860). He published an “Argu-
ment in Rose Will and Charity Cases * (1863), and other
arguments in leading law cases. In association with Dr.
E. C. Wines he published “Prisons and Reformatories in
the U. S.” He edited “Maine's Ancient Law.” As asso-
ciate editor of the “American Law Register” he has writ-
ten articles which have been separately published, as .
“Trial by Impeachment,” etc. He was elected non-resi-
dent professor of constitutional law in Cornell University,
N. Y. (1868), and lecturer in Amherst College, Mass., on
the same subject (1869). He was a member of the New
York constitutional convention of 1867, and early in 1873
was vice-president of the New York board of State com-
missioners of public charities, president of the New York
prison association, and an active member of the well-known
* committee of seventy’ of the city of New York. In
Jan., 1874, he was appointed by Governor Dix of New
York a judge of the commission of appeals, a court sharing
the duties of the court of appeals.
Dwight (TIMOTHY), D.D., LL.D., an eminent American
divine and scholar, born at Northampton, Mass., on the
14th of May, 1752. His mother was Mary, daughter of
Jonathan Edwards. He graduated at Yale College in 1769,
after which he was a tutor in that institution for six years.
In 1777 he married Mary Woolsey. Between 1778 and
1782 he was a chaplain in the army, or lived with his
mother at Northampton; in 1783 he became minister of a
church at Greenfield, Conn., where also he was principal
of a flourishing academy. In 1795 he was elected presi-
dent of Yale College, in which he also became professor of
theology at the same time. He was an able preacher, and
was eminently qualified as an instructor of young men.
He continued to be president of Yale College until his death.
His chief works are “The Conquest of Canaan,” an epic
poem (1785), “Theology Explained and Defended in a
Series of 173 Sermons” (5 vols., 1818), often reprinted, and
“Travels in New England and New York” (4 vols., 1821).
Died at New Haven Jan. 11, 1817. (See W. B. SPRAGUE,
“Life of T. Dwight,” in SPARKs’s “American Biography,”
vol. iv., second series; also SPRAGUE’s “Annals of the
American Pulpit,” vol. ii., pp. 152–165.)
Dwight (WILDER), an American officer, born in Spring-
field, Mass., in 1833, graduated at Harvard College in
1853, entered the army as major of the Second Massachu-
setts regiment of volunteers, and served in the Shenandoah
campaign under Gen. Banks, displaying great bravery dur-
ing the famous retreat. He was engaged at the battle of An-
tietam Sept. 17, 1862, where he was mortally wounded, but
survived till the 19th, when he expired in hospital at Boones-
ville. At the time of his death he was lieutenant-colonel of
his regiment. G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Eng’rs.
Dwight (Rev. WILLIAM THEODORE), D.D., son of Pres-
ident Timothy Dwight of Yale College, Conn., born June
15, 1795, at Greenfield Hill, Conn., graduated at Yale in
1813, practised law in Philadelphia for ten years (1821–31),
when he entered the ministry, and was settled as a Congre-
gational clergyman at Portland, Me., where he remained for
thirty-two years (1832–64), when he resigned his pastorate
on account of poor health. His ministry was one of great
success, and his influence as a thinker, preacher, superior
platform-speaker, and presiding officer in ecclesiastical
councils and conventions was very great, not only through-
out his adopted State, but also throughout the Congrega-
tional denomination at large. He was several times invited
and urged to accept of other positions of honor and influ-
ence, and was solicited in vain by three different theological
seminaries to take the chair of doctrinal theology in them.
He excelled alike in the art of fine rhetorical composition.
and of easy and effective extempore speaking. His per-
sonal appearance was—like that of his father and of his
brother, Dr. Sereno E. Dwight—fine and commanding.
He died at Andover, Mass., Oct. 22, 1865.
Dwi'na, or Duna (anc. Turunthus), a river of Russia,
rises in the government of Tver, near the source of the
Volga. Its general direction is nearly north-westward. It
forms the boundary between Livonia and Courland, and en-
ters the Gulf of Riga 7 miles below the town of Riga. Length,
about 600 miles. The navigation is obstructed by rocks
and sandbanks, but during the floods of Spring and autumn
it is easily navigated.
Dwina, or Northern Dwina, a large river of Rus-
sia, is formed by the confluence of the Sookhona and
Witchegda, which unite in the government of Vologda. It
flows nearly north-westward through Archangel, and enters
the White Sea. 20 miles below Archangel. Its length, ex-
cluding the branches above named, is estimated at 450 miles.
It is navigable, and is an important channel of trade, but
there are shoals at its mouth which obstruct the entrance
of vessels drawing more than fourteen feet of water.
Dyaks, the aborigines of BORNEO (which see, revised
by PROF. A. J. SCHEM).
Dy’berry, a post-township of Wayne co., Pa. P. 1196.
Dyce (Rev. ALEXANDER), a critic and divine, born in
Edinburgh June 30, 1797, was educated at Edinburgh and
Oxford. He removed to London in 1827, and edited several
old English dramatists and other writers, including Beau-
mont, Fletcher, and Marlowe. In 1858 he published a
good edition of Shakspeare (6 vols.), which displays much
critical ability. Died May 15, 1869.
Dyce (WILLIAM), a painter of eminence, was born in
1806 at Aberdeen, Scotland. He studied at Rome, and
practised his art in Scotland and in London, where he was
head-master of the school of design, 1838–43, and was em-
ployed upon works for Buckingham Palace. In 1845 he
painted the “Baptism of Ethelbert” for the House of Lords.
He painted various scriptural and ecclesiastical scenes, and
gained distinction by his frescoes. Died Sept. 14, 1864.
Dyck, van (ANTHONY). See WANDYKE.
Dyeing [Lat. tinctura ; Fr. teinture; Ger. Fåröen or
Färbekwnst], the art of coloring yarn or cloth, has been
practised from the most remote antiquity. The fibres and
fabrics usually dyed are either cotton, linen, silk, or wool.
(See TExTILE FABRICs.) The coloring-matters employed
are either the natural products of animals or plants, or
are the resufts of chemical processes. (See DYESTUFFS.)
Thorough cleansing of the fibres is an almost indispensable
preliminary to dyeing. Resinous and oily matters must be
removed to give the dye liquors free access to the fabrics,
and natural coloring-matters must be destroyed in order to
secure the brightest and clearest tints of the dyes. Cotton
is successively boiled with lime, soda-ash, and rosin; it is
then soured with dilute sulphuric acid, and finally treated
with hypochlorite of lime (bleaching-powder). Linen is
subjected to repeated treatment with water, alkalies, acids,
and hypochlorite of lime, alternating with exposure on the
grass to air and sunlight. Silk is boiled in a solution of
fine soap to remove the gelatinous, resinous, and fatty mat:
ters which make up a large proportion of its weight. Wool
is thoroughly cleansed by washing in weak soap or soda-
lye, putrid urine, or weak ammonia. (For the details of
these operations see BLEACHING...)
The dyeing is usually effected while the fibres are in the
yarn, although the woven cloth is dyed in some cases. The
special operations of dyeing yary with the fabric and the
coloring-matters employed. Some colors combine with the
fibres very readily as soon as they are immersed in their
solutions; such colors have been called substantive. Silk
and wool take colors much more readily than cotton and
1438
T)YEING.
linen; many dyes are therefore substantive for these ani-
mal fibres. Nearly all the aniline colors belong to this
class. With such colors the operations of dyeing are very
simple. They consist in the mere immersion of the yarn
or cloth in cold or hot solutions of the dye, with sufficient
handling to secure the even distribution of the color.
Agents are often added to fix or set the color, such as
acids, alkalies, tin salt, alum, etc. A few colors are sub-
stantive for cotton and linen, as the Safflower pink.
For dyes which will not unite directly with the fibres,
called adjective, the aid of mordants is necessary. Mor-
dants are bodies which possess an affinity for the colors,
and which can be fixed in an insoluble condition on or
within the fibres. Some are metallic oxides or salts, as
alumina, oxide of iron, oxide of tin, tannate of tin, Soap,
etc.; others, as albumen, gluten, caseine, tannin, acids, etc.,
are of a different character. The mode of applying the
mordant depends on the fabric, as well as on the character
of the mordant itself. Silk and wool, when immersed in a
solution of alum, take up a considerable quantity of the
Salt without decomposing it. The acetates of alumina and
iron are easily decomposed, with the liberation of a portion
of the acetic acid and the formation of an insoluble basic
acetate. By boiling cotton in their solutions the fibres be-
come thoroughly impregnated with the insoluble compounds,
and when the yarn is transferred to the solution of the dye-
stuff, the color unites with the mordant, forming insoluble
colored bodies in or upon the fibres which are called LAKES
(which see). The goods thus become permanently dyed.
The same decomposition of the aluminous or ferrous salt
occurs if the goods are simply immersed and then hung
up in the air. Chloride of tin is decomposed by boiling
its dilute solution, with the liberation of hydrochloric acid
and the formation of insoluble oxide of tin. Sometimes
the insoluble oxide or salt is produced by first immersing
the goods in a soluble salt, and then passing them through
a second solution of another agent. Exposing fabrics to
an iron salt, and then to an alkaline lye, fixes oxide of iron.
A lead salt and an alkaline lye fix oxide of lead. Stan-
nate of soda, followed by a solution of nutgalls, Sumach,
etc., fixes tannate of tin in the fibres.
In some cases the mordant is mixed with the color, and
both are applied simultaneously, to be subsequently fixed.
Thus, aniline colors are mixed with albumen, applied to
the cloth, and fixed by steaming, which coagulates the
albumen, rendering it insoluble. Mixtures of the acetates
of alumina and iron, of the chloride of tin, etc. with colors,
are also fixed by steaming. This method of fixing colors
is extensively practised in CALIco-PRINTING (which see), as
it renders it possible to produce patterns by applying the
colors to certain portions of the cloth, or by applying dif-
ferent colors to different portions. Mordants often affect
the natural tints of the dyes, thus enabling the dyer to pro-
duce a variety of shades with the same dye. Oxide of iron
is most remarkable in this respect; it changes the red color
of madder, logwood, Brazil-wood, etc. to shades of purple,
lilac, chocolate, and even black, according to the propor-
tions in which it is employed. The most durable blacks
are obtained with oxide of iron, combined with logwood,
sumach, catechu, etc. The oxide of tin tends to brighten the
shades, while alumina fixes them in their natural tints.
This is a very important circumstance in calico-printing,
as it enables the dyer to produce several colors on the same
cloth by one operation of dyeing; the mordants, acetate of
alumina, acetate of iron, and mixtures of the two salts in
varying proportions, being printed on the cloth. The ox-
ides are rendered insoluble by hanging the cloth in the air
(ageing), and by washing in alkaline solutions of silicate,
arseniate, or phosphate of soda (dunging). On passing the
mordanted cloth through a mixture of madder-root, Brazil-
wood, etc. in warm water, patterns in pink, red, purple,
lilac, chocolate, and black are produced. Metallic pig-
ments are often produced in the yarn or cloth by the suc-
cessive application of the agents necessary for their pro-
duction. Thus, when cloth mordanted with oxide of iron
is passed into an acidulated solution of ferrocyanide of
potassium, an insoluble Prussian blue is at once produced.
Goods impregnated with oxide of lead by immersion in ace-
tate of lead become bright yellow in a solution of bichro-
mate of potash, owing to the formation in the fibres of in-
soluble chromate of lead. By subsequently boiling with
lime-water the yellow is changed to orange basic chromate.
Pigments are also fixed upon the cloth by albumen; this is
specially the case in the application of the chromates of
lead, ultramarine, and Guignet’s green in calico-printing.
Indigo blue is produced in cotton by immersion in a solu-
tion of colorless reduced indigo (the indigo wat) and ex- .
posure to the air, when the indigo blue is regenerated by
oxidation in an insoluble form. The following are a few
of the principal methods of dyeing; more detailed state-
ments are given under the different dyestuffs:
REDS.
On Cotton.—(1) Mordant with sumach, them with red
spirits, (a solution of 2 oz. of tin in 3 oz. hydrochloric acid,
1 oz. nitric acid, and 1 oz. water); then dye in a mixture
of Lima-wood and fustic. (2) The most beautiful red on
cotton, Turkey red, is produced by boiling the cloth in a
mixture of oil and a little carbonate of soda. It is then
dried, freed from the excess of oil by pearlash, passed
through a bath of nutgalls and alum; then through hot
water holding chalk in suspension. It is then ready to be
dyed in a boiling bath of madder. It is then washed, and
the treatment with galls and alum, chalk and madder re-
peated. It is then cleared or brightened by boiling in
soap and pearlash, then in soap and protochloride of tin;
finally, it is immersed in a bath of sour bran. (3) Aniline
reds and pinks on cotton mordanted in nutgalls or sumach,
followed by perchloride of tin.
On Wool.—(4) Mordant with alum and bichromate of
potash, and dye with peach and Lima-wood, with alum.
(5) Scarlet. Cochineal, with cream of tartar, sumach, and
fustic. (6) Crimson. Cochineal, with cream of tartar and
protochloride of tin. (7) Pink. Cochineal, tartar, alum,
and red spirits. (8) Aniline shades are fixed on wool with-
out mordants.
On Silk.-(9) Peach-wood and fustic, followed by red
spirits, with annatto for Scarlets, cochineal and safflower
for finer tints, (10) Pink. Safflower, with sulphuric acid
and cream of tartar. (11) Beautiful tints have been ob-
tained from lac-dye. (12) Anilines are applied to silk in a
warm bath, slightly acidulated with acetic, tartaric, or sul-
phuric acid. -
BLUES.
On Cotton.—(13) Prussian blue produced by an iron mor-
dant, followed by ferrocyanide of potassium. (14) Indigo
vat, a solution of reduced indigo. (15) Aniline blues.
Mordant with soap, then sumach, the protochloride of tin;
dye in warm bath.
On Wool.—(16) Prussian blue, as for cotton. (17) In-
digo extract, with argol and alum. (18) Aniline blue, with
starch, sulphuric acid, and gum-arabic.
On Silk.-(19) Prussian blue, as for cotton. (20) Indigo ex-
tract and alum. (21) Anilines, with soap and sulphuric acid.
YELLOWS AND ORANGEs.
On Cotton.—(22) Chromate of lead, produced by bath of
acetate of lead, followed by bichromate of potassa, deep-
ened by the addition of annatto. (23) The chrome yellow
is deepened to orange by boiling in lime-water. (24) Mor-
dant in acetate of alumina and dye in yellow weed (weld).
(25) Mordant in weak protochloride of tin; dye in quer-
citron bark, fix with protochloride of tin. (26) Coralline
orange. Mordant with stannate of soda, then with sumach.
On Wool.—(27) Mordant in tartar and alum; dye in mix-
ture of quercitron, sumach, fustic, and red spirits. (28)
Weld, with alum and tartar. (29) Picric acid. (30) Ani-
line yellow. (31) Naphthaline yellow. (32) Orange. Su-
mach, with cochineal, fustic, tartar, and red spirits. (33)
Aniline orange.
On Silk.-(34) Yellow to orange. Annatto, with alum
and white soap. ; (35) Weld, with alum and tartar. (36)
Picric acid. (37) Aniline yellow or orange. (38) Naph-
thaline yellow. t
- GREENS.
On Cotton.—(39) Dye blue, then yellow with fustic or
quercitron bark. (40) Aniline green, on cotton mordanted
with sumach; brighten the tint with picric acid. .
On Wool.—(41) Dye yellow with fustic and alum, then
blue with indigo. (42) For olive, use fustic with logwood,
madder and peach-wood; following with copperas. (43)
Aniline green. (44) Picric acid and indigo carmine.
On Silk.-(45) Fustic, with sulphate of indigo and alum,
using logwood and copperas to darken shades. (46) La-
kao, or Chinese green, gives beautiful shades. (47) Ani-
line green, with sulphuric acid or cream of tartar. (48)
Picric acid and indigo carmine.
PURPLES, WIOLETs, AND LILACS.
On Cotton.—(49) Mordant with red spirits, and dye with
logwood, to which a little red spirits and acetate of alumina
have been added. (50) Dye light blue, then redden in log-
wood with alum. (51) Mordant in sumach, then in red
spirits, and dye in logwood. (52) Safflower lavender. Dye
light blue, then cover with safflower pink. (53) Dye mad-
der on a mordant of alumina and oxide of iron. (54) Ani-
line colors. Mordant with perchloride of tin or with su-
mach, followed by perchloride of tin or tartar emetic; fix
with gelatine or albumen.
On Wool.—(55) Cudbear, logwood, barwöod, camwood, or
peach-wood, with alum. (56) Murexide, fixed by corrosive
sublimate, acetate of soda, and acetic acid. (57) Anilines.
DYER—DYESTUFFS.
1439
sº-
On Silk.--(58) Archil or cudbear. (59) Murexide, as for
wool. (60) Anilines.
BLACKs. -
On Cotton.—(61) Sumach, followed by copperas, then
by logwood, then by weak copperas; the color is improved
by adding fustic and replacing the second copperas bath by
acetate of iron. (62) For blue-black precede 61 by the
indigo wat. (63) Aniline black is not available for dyeing,
although the best black for many styles of calico-printing.
On Wool.-(64) Camwood, followed by copperas, then
lºgwood, finally copperas. (65) Mordant in bichromate
of potassa, with alum and fustic; hang in the air; dye in
logwood, barwood, and fustic ; finish in copperas.
On Silk.-(66) Copperas and logwood, repeated; the
addition of nitrate of iron and fustic improves. (67) For
blue-black, dye in Prussian blue and follow with 66.
DRABs.
On Cotton.—(68) Sumach, followed by weak copperas,
then fustic, Lima-wood, and logwood; raised with alum.
On Wool.—(69) Madder, peach-wood, logwood, fustic,
with alum and copperas.
On Silk.-(70) Sumach, fustic, and logwood, with cop-
peras. -
|BROWNS.
On Cotton.—(71) Dye yellow, then with Lima and log-
wood, and fix with alum. (72) Catechu brown. Boil in
catechu, pass through hot bichromate of potassa, wash in
hot water containing a little soap. (73) Chocolate or
French brown. Dye in spirit yellow, 25, then in logwood,
and raise with acetate of alumina.
On Wool.—(74) Pass through a bath of fustic, mad-
der, peach, and logwood; then through dilute copperas.
(75) Bath of bichromate of potassa, argol, and alum; then
of madder, peach, and logwood. (76) Aniline brown.
On Silk.-(77) First orange, with annatto, then pass
through copperas, then bath of fustic, logwood, archil,
and alum; inodify with fustic for yellowish, peach for red-
dish, logwood for bluish brown. (78) Aniline brown.
(For special works on dyeing, see article on CALTCO-
PRINTING...) C. F. CHANDLER.
Dy'er, a county in the W. of Tennessee.
square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Mississippi
River and intersected by the Obion River. The surface is
level, the soil fertile. Lumber (mostly of the poplar or
tulip tree) is exported from this county. Cattle, grain,
wool, cotton, and tobacco are raised. Capital, Dyersburg.
Pop. 13,706.
Dyer, a township of Saline co., Ark. Pop. 512.
Dyer, a township of Washington co., Me. Pop. 24.
Byer (ALExANDER B.), an American officer, born in
1817 in Virginia, graduated at West Point in 1837, and
Sept. 12, 1864, chief of ordnance with the rank of brigadier-
general. He served in the artillery at Fortress Monroe,
Va., and in the Florida war 1837–38, and in the ordnance
at various arsenals 1838–46; as chief of ordnance of the
army invading New Mexico 1846–48, engaged at Canada,
Taos (brevet first lieutenant), and Santa Cruz de Rosales,
Mexico (brevet captain); on ordnance duty and in com-
mand of various arsenals 1848–61; and member of ord-
nance board 1859. He served in the civil war in command
of Springfield Armory 1861–64, largely extending the
manufacture of small-arms; as member of ordnance board
1860–63; and as chief of ordnance and in charge of ord-
nance bureau at Washington, D. C., since 1864. Brevet
major-general Mar. 13, 1865. Died at Washington, D.C.,
May 20, 1874. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
IDyer (Rev. GEORGE), an English antiquary and scholar,
born in London Mar. 15, 1755. He was educated at Cam-
bridge, became a Baptist minister, and preached for some
years at Oxford, from which he removed to London in 1792.
He edited Valpy's Classics, and wrote, besides other works,
a “History of the University of Cambridge” (2 vols.,
1814). Died Mar. 2, 1841.
HDyer (Rev. JoHN), an English poet, born in Carmar-
thenshire in 1700. He was originally a painter, and studied
art in Italy. He published in 1728 a poem entitled “Gron-
gar Hill,” Having taken holy orders, he obtained the
livings of Calthorpe, Coningsby, and Bedford. Among his
works are the “Ruins of Rome” (1740), and “The Fleece,”
a didactic poem (1754). Died July 24, 1758. ,
Dyer, or Dyre (Mrs. MARY), a member of the Society
of Friends who suffered death for her religion. She was
hanged on Boston Common, a willing martyr, June 1,
1660. (See HILDRETH, “History of the U. S.,” vol. i.)
Dyer (N. MAYo), U. S. N., born Feb. 19, 1839, in Mas-
sachusetts, appointed a master's mate in the volunteer navy
May 2, 1862, became an acting ensign in 1863, an agting
master in 1864, and an acting lieutenant in 1865. He re-
Area, 650
ceived a commission as lieutenant-commander in the regu-
lar navy Dec. 18, 1868. On the night of May 18, 1862,
Master's Mate Dyer, in charge of the second cutter of the
steamer R. R. Cuyler, off Mobile, boarded a blockade-run-
ner which had accidentally grounded within 200 yards of
Fort Morgan, and captured her officers and crew. Then,
observing that a gunboat was coming towards him, Dyer
set fire to the vessel, which, being filled with cotton, was
soon destroyed, and made his way in safety with his pris-
oners to the Cuyler. He served on board the Metacomet
at the battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864, and is thus
honorably mentioned by his commanding officer, Lieuten-
ant-Commander James E. Jowett, in his official report to
Rear-Admiral Farragut of the part taken by the Metacomet
in the action: “For the efficient handling of the vessel I
am much indebted to Acting Master N. M. Dyer, who had
permission to go North on leave, but volunteered to remain
to assist in the attack upon the forts.”
Fox IIALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Dyer (Rev. SIDNEY), a Baptist minister and author, was
born at White Creek, Washington co., N. Y., in 1814. He
became a soldier of the U. S. army in 1831, and remained
in the service nearly ten years. In 1842, after laborious
study, he was ordained, and afterwards was a missionary
to the Choctaws. In 1852 he became pastor of a church in
Indianapolis, and in 1859 one of the secretaries of the Bap-
tist Publication Society in Philadelphia. He has pub-
lished “Voices of Nature,” “Songs and Ballads,” many of
them very popular, “Winter's Evening Entertainment,”
“Great Wonders in Little Things,” and other works.
Dyers” Broom, called also Woadwaxen, Dyers?
Green-Weed, and Whin, a low shrub with yellow
flowers and simple leaves. It is the Genista tinctoria, a
European leguminous plant now thoroughly naturalized in
New England. It is said to be the genét, the bush which
gave its name to the Plantagenet family. It was intro-
duced into this country for garden cultivation, for its tops
were formerly used to make a yellow dye for domestic pur-
poses. It is used in Russia as a preventive to hydrophobia,
but it appears to be simply a hydragogue cathartic of no
great value. - -
Dy’ersburg, a post-village, capital of Dyer co., Tenn.,
on Forked Deer River, about 160 miles W. of Nashville.
Two weekly newspapers are issued here. Pop. 683.
Dyersville, a city of Dubuque co., Ia., on the Illinois
Central R. R., 29 miles W. of Dubuque. It has four churches,
a flour-mill, two breweries, two schools, and one weekly
newspaper. RosB & SoN, PUBs. “CoMMERCIAL.”
Dyers’ Weed or Weld, also called Woold and
Rocket, the Reseda Luteola, a European herb of the order
Resedaceae, naturalized about New York. It considerably
resembles its congener, the mignonette. It is extensively
cultivated in Holland and France, and to some extent in
England, and is a valuable yellow dyestuff. Its quality is
much improved by cultivation. It was formerly used in
medicine as a sedative, diaphoretic, and diuretic.
Dyestuffs. The bodies used to impart color to textile
fibres and fabrics are either derived from the animal or
vegetable kingdom, or are prepared artificially, either
from mineral or vegetable products. Many colors exist
already formed in plants; others are produced from color-
less bodies by oxidation or other processes. Lakes are
compounds of coloring-matters with metallic oxides, such
as alumina, the oxides of tin, lead, antimony, and barium.
They are generally prepared from cochineal, madder, weld,
Brazil-wood, coralline, aniline colors, etc. (See LAKES.)
The following are some of the most important dyestuffs:
I. ANIMAL DYES.—Cochimeal, the female insect of the
species Coccus cacti, is by far the most important. Its
coloring pringiple is carminic acid. It produces scarlets
and crimsons of great brilliancy on silk and wool. Car-
mine is nearly pure carminic acid. Kermes, kermes grains,
alkermes is the insect Coccus ilicis, one of the most ancient
dyes for red shades on silk. Lac is the Coccus lacca, a
similar insect. The Tyrian purple was obtained from mol-
lusks: it is no longer used. Galls are excrescences pro-
duced on the leaves and leaf-stalks of the oak by punctures
of the gall-wasp, made for the purpose of depositing her
eggs. Their characteristic constituent is tannic acid, which
produces drabs and blacks with iron salts. They also serve
as a mordant for some aniline colors, and are the basis of
most writing inks. Sepia is the fluid of cuttle-fish; it is
not used as a dye, but as a water-color by artists. Murea'ide
is a purple compound produced by the action of nitric acid
and ammonia on uric acid from guano; it is no longer used.
II. VEGETABLE DYES.–These are extremely numerous,
although only a few are in general use. They are derived.
from different parts of plants; (1) From roots the most im-
portant is madder (Rubia tinotorum), which contains two
1440
DYING DECLARATION.—DYNAMICs.
principles, alizarine and purpurine. These bodies produce
on cotton the most permanent reds, purples, and chocolates,
which makes them specially applicable for calico-printing.
Madder appears in commerce in the form of ground root;
flowers of madder, the ground root washed and fermented;
garancine, the ground root boiled with sulphuric acid and
washed; and extract, a tolerably pure alizarine. Recently
the alizarine has been manufactured artificially from the
anthracene of coal-tar, and there is reason to believe that
the artificial product will almost entirely supersede the
natural root. Munjeet is the Indian madder. Alkanet is
the Anchusa tinctoria, formerly used for lilac, lavender,
and purple on silk. Its colors were always fugitive. Bar-
berry produces a yellow of little importance. Turmeric, or
Indian saffron, produces a fugitive yellow. It is now
chiefly used for yellow lacquers, as a test for alkalies, for
mixing with curry-powder and with mustard. Soorangee
is a yellow much used in India. (2) Among the more im-
portant woods are logwood, containing haematoxylin, ex-
tensively used for reds, purples, violets, blues, and blacks;
Brazil-wood, comprising several species of Caesalpinia, found
in Central and South America and in Japan, known as
“Lima,” “Pernambuco,” “Santa Martha,” “Peach,” “Nic-
aragua,” “Sapan’’ or “Japan,” etc. It yields a coloring-
matter known as brazilin, which produces rich reds. , San-
dal-wood from Ceylon, and cam and bar wood from Africa,
contain saintalin, which gives reds, violets, and Scarlets.
Fustic, or “yellow wood,” is the Morus tinctoria from the
West Indies. Fustet, “ young fustic,” or “ Hungarian yel-
low wood,” is the Rhus Cotinus. (3) The only bark of spe-
cial importance is the quercitron, which produces a rich
yellow, and greens when combined with blue. Lo-kao, or
Chinese green, is a green lake prepared by the Chinese from
the bark of a species of Rhamnus, or buckthorn. (4) Leaves
of the Rhus Cotinus are known as 8wmach; they produce a
yellow, but are generally used, on account of the tannic
acid they contain, either as a mordant or to produce blacks,
etc. with iron salts. Chica, which gives an orange on cot-
ton, consists of the leaves of Bignonia Chica. (5) Flowers.
The petals of Carthamus tinctorius constitute “safflower.”
They contain a useless yellow coloring-matter, soluble in
water, and a beautiful pink (carthamin), soluble in alkalies,
which is used for red on silk and cotton. This is the ma-
terial used for dyeing red tape and for preparing red saucers.
Saffron, a beautiful yellow dye, consists of the stigmas of
Crocus sativus. (6) Fruit. “Persian,” “French,” “Tur-
key,” etc. berries are derived from several species of Rham-
nus. They contain a beautiful yellow dye (chrysorham-
nine) and olive-yellow (acanthorhamnine). They are used
in calico-printing, for paper pulp, and for lakes. Annatto
or annotto is an extract of the seed-pellicles of Biaca Orel-
lana. It is used for yellows, oranges, and with reds for
scarlet. It is also employed for coloring butter and cheese.
Divi-divi is the pod of the Caesalpinia Coriaria. It contains
tannic acid. Catechu, terra japonica, and gambir are the ex-
tracts prepared from the fruit, wood, twigs, and unripe pods
of several plants growing in India. Their active princi-
ple, as well as that of divi-divi, is tannic acid. They are
used as mordants, with iron salts for drabs and blacks, and
in tanning skins. (7) Entire plants. Indigo from various
species of the Indigofera, and woad from the Isatis time-
toria, contain a glucoside (indican) which by fermentation
yields indigo blue (indigotine). This color has long been
used as one of the most permanent blue dyes. Several
preparations are employed by the dyer: (a) solution of
colorless or reduced indigo, with which the cloth or yarn
is impregnated, and from which the insoluble blue indigo-
time is precipitated on exposure to the air; (b) in solution
in sulphuric acid as sulpho-purpuric acid, purple blue, or
as sulpho-indigotic acid, deep blue; (c) as carmine of in-
digo, the soda compounds of the above-mentioned acids.
It is used for cotton, silk, and wool, and in calico-printing.
Lichens. A variety of lichens yield, by a kind of fermen-
tation, a series of products known as archil or orgeille,
cudbear or persio, and litmus. The weeds (from the Ca-
naries, the Pyrenees, etc.) are pulverized and moistened with
urine, when certain acids they contain are changed to the
coloring-matter orcein. Archil appears in commerce as a
purple paste, cudbear as a red powder, litmus as a blue lake.
Before the introduction of the aniline colors the most beau-
tiful purples for silk were obtained from archil. Weld, the
Reseda Luteola, contains lutioline, which yields a rich but
fugitive yellow.
III. ARTIFICIAL OR CHEMICAL CoroRs.—(1) Pigments
are insoluble metallic compounds, either produced in the
yarn or cloth by successively applying the necessary re-
agents, or attached mechanically to the surface by albumen
or other adhesive substances. Prussian blue is a ferro-
cyanide of iron; chrome yellow and orange are chromates
of lead; Schweinfurt green is the aceto-arsenite of copper;
Guignet’s green is a hydrated oxide of chromium; ultra-
marine is a compound of alumina, silica, soda, and sulphur.
(2) Coal-tar colors. Within the past few years a revolu-
tion has taken place in silk and wool dyeing, and even
cotton-dyeing and calico-printing have been very consid-
erably involved. An entirely new class of dyestuffs has
been created by modern chemistry, all of which are derived
from the refuse tar produced in gas-works from bituminous
coal. These colors belong to four distinct series: (a) The
aniline series, including the red rosaniline salts, the purple,
violet, and blue substitution products derived from them,
the greens, yellows, browns, black, and pinks, all of which
are described under ANILINE COLORs (which see). (b) The
phenol, or carbolic acid series, including picric acid (yel-
low), pheniciene, coralline (red and orange), and azuline
or phenyl blue. (See PHENOL COLORs.) (c) The naphtha-
line series; Martin's yellow, dinitronaphthol yellow, Mag-
dala red, and violet and blue substitution products derived
from it. (See NAPHTHALINE COLORs.) (d) Anthracene
series, of which artificial alizarine and anthrapurpurine
are the representatives. (See ANTHRACENE, ALIZARINE,
and MADDER.)
All the important animal and vegetable dyestuffs above
mentioned are described more fully under their respective
titles. (For fuller information consult the works on dye-
ing mentioned in the article CALICO-PRINTING...)
C. F. CHANDLER.
Ly’ing Declara’tion, in law, is a statement made by
a person in the prospect of impending death with regard to
the method of his death. In most countries such state-
ments cannot be received in civil cases as evidence, and in
criminal cases only when the manner of death of the de-
ceased is the subject of the charge. They must be made
with full knowledge of approaching death, must relate to
facts only, must be complete and unqualified, and must be
freely made. They are further subject to the ordinary
rules of evidence. The theory is, that the knowledge of
the approach of death creates an obligation at least equal
to that of a judicial oath.
Dyke, or Dike [from the Dutch dijk, a “ dike” or
“wall;” Fr. digue), a term applied by geologists to the
molten material filling a wide fissure or rent in rocks, such
as often occurs in volcanic formations. This molten mat-
ter on cooling was solidified, so as to form a wall separa-
ting the edges of the disjointed strata. Such walls of in-
truded matter occur in stratified rocks of all ages, are usu-
ally nearly vertical, and are supposed to have been caused
by volcanic eruptions. A dyke differs from a fault in not
involving a shifting of the opposite sides of the fissure. The
material with which the fissure is filled is often crystalline
and porphyritic. In many cases the dyke is composed of
lava, greenstone, or trap. Trap-dykes often project above
the surface of the ground in consequence of the abrasion
or denudation of the softer rock which was contiguous, and
they form prominent objects in the landscape.
Dyke, a rampart against the encroachments of the sea.
(See DIKE, revised by GEN. J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.)
Dy/mond (JonATHAN), an English moralist and writer,
born at Exeter in 1796, was a member of the Society of
Friends and a linen-draper. He wrote an able work en-
titled an “Inquiry into the Accordancy of War with the
Principles of Christianity” (1823), and “Essays on the
Principles of Morality, and on the Private and Political
Rights and Obligations of Mankind” (1829), which are
highly esteemed and have often been reprinted. Died May
6, 1828.
Dynam’eter [from the Gr. Siſwants, “power,” and uérpov,
a “measure *] is an instrument for determining the magni-
fying power of a telescope. This power is the ratio of the
solar focal distance of the object-glass to the focal distance
of the eye-piece, considered as a single lens; and this ratio
being the same as the ratio of the effective diameter of the
object-glass of the telescope to the diameter of the image
of the same formed at the solar focus and seen through the
eye-piece, the object of the instrument is to measure the
exact diameter of this image, which can be either projected
on mother-of-pearl or measured by optical means. Rams-
den proposed for this purpose the double-image dynameter,
or micrometer, which is formed by dividing the eye-lens
of a positive eye-piece into two equal parts, and mounting
them so that the divided edges are made to slide along each
other by means of a fine screw apparatus. Each semi-
lens gives a separate image; and the distance of the two
centres, measured by the revolutions of the screw when the
borders of the two images are brought into contact, gives
the distance of the centres of the images or the diameter
of one of them. -
Dynam'ics. The term dynamics, in its literal signifi-
cation, as well as in its more modern acceptation, relates to
or designates the Science which has for its object the in-
1441
DYNAMICS.
vestigation of the laws and principles which govern the
action of forces. The science of dynamics may be divided
into various branches, each embracing the principles ap-
plicable to some special conditions of the action of forces
or of the bodies acted on, such as the subject of statics, or
the equilibrium of forces; the subject of kinetics, the action
of forces in connection with the motions and changes which
they produce; and the special applications of both these
subjects to bodies in the solid and fluid states.
The abstract idea of force is derived from our know-
ledge and experience in regard to the forces of nature—
gravitation, inertia, friction, molecular force, muscular
force, etc. These forces are so far similar and identical in
their effects as to admit of a common measure, and of being
subjected to the same laws and principles. In general they
arise from the action of one body on another, in such a
manner that this action is distributed among all the par-
ticles or is exerted through a surface. But it is nearly
always possible to assume a single force acting through a
definite point and in a particular direction, which shall be
equivalent, in its effects, to such combined or distributed
forces. The force of gravity, for instance, is an attractive
influence exerted between two bodies, which can only be
supposed to be exerted by the separate particles or mole-
cules of each, and yet a single force equivalent to the sum
of the attraction of all the particles of a body, and acting
through its centre of gravity, is usually assumed to repre-
sent this attraction. A force may thus be regarded as an
influence or action which requires three elements for its
determination—its line of action, its point of application,
and its magnitude. -
This abstract idea is applicable to all forces, and furnishes
the starting-point or basis of the system of principles which
constitutes the science of force. These principles depend
also on certain axioms of physical science derived from a
consideration of the nature of forces and their effects; and
also upon certain geometrical laws involving the relation
between the magnitudes of forces and motions, and their
equivalent components. To compare the magnitudes of
forces a standard unit or measure must be adopted which
is applicable to all forces under all ordinary conditions.
As all standards of measure are arbitrary, such a unit of
measure may be found in the effects which a given force
will produce under conditions which permit of the effect
being measured by some other known standard of measure.
To explain the standard or unit of force adopted in
dynamical science, it will be necessary to explain just what
is understood by the mass of a body. If we suppose (for
the purpose of this explanation only) that the ultimate par-
ticles or molecules of all substances are the same, and that
we may designate by the term density the degree of prox-
imity of the particles of any body to each other, then the
number of particles in a given volume may be taken to de-
note the mass of the body; i. e. this number would repre-
sent the quantity of matter in the body. This quantity of
matter or mass has important properties as regards force.
First, the action of the force of gravity upon the body is
directly proportional to the mass; and this mass possesses
a peculiar power of resistance to any force which acts to
change its condition in respect to motion. It is inert as
regards any power in itself to change, but a force of resist-
ance. is developed with the action of an impressed force.
The truth of this principle is so well established that the
following relation between an impressed force, the mass of
a body free to move without resistance (other than its
inertia), and the velocity which is produced in a unit of
time, has the force of a scientific axiom. This relation
may be stated as follows: The velocity produced in a body
free to move without resistance in a wnit of time will be di-
rectly proportional to the intensity or amount of the impressed
force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
In algebraic symbols, if v be the velocity, F the force, and
M the mass, the relation will be expressed by the equation
From this is determined the value of the force
Q) = ~.
M
F = Mv. If the mass M be that of a given volume of some
substance assumed as a standard, the unit of force may be
assumed to be that force which will produce a given
velocity—the unit of velocity, for instance—in a unit of
time. This is an absolute unit of force, and serves as a
universal measure. Another measure adopted is more
specific, but not an invariable standard. It is, however,
that in most common use, and is perhaps the most univer-
'Sally understood as the standard of measure for forces. If
the force F, instead of being any force, be taken as the
force of gravitation, the total attraction of the earth at a
given place on the mass M will be what is commonly called
the weight of the body; representing this by W, we shall
have W = Mv. If the same standard mass be chosen as
before, the weight of this mass may be taken as the unit
91
th
of force.
Such a unit has been generally adopted for dif-
ferent national standards. For English measures the mass
M is that of a piece of platinum carefully preserved, the
weight of which is called 1, or one pound. This weight
will differ for different latitudes, because the force of at-
traction of the earth varies with the latitude, and hence
this measure is not absolute in its character, but it is con-
venient for use, and is universally employed. If any mass
be allowed to fall under the influence of gravity, the ve-
locity generated in one second may be determined experi-
mentally, and the equation W = Mv will give the relation
between the weight, mass, and velocity under these circum-
stances. In the latitude of London this velocity is 32.2
feet, approximately; so that *==M. The mass of a
32.2
body is thus found by dividing the weight by 32.2. The
unit of force, for British measures, may therefore be said to
be one pound avoirdupois, and the mass of a body may be
found by dividing the weight by the number 32.2; these
quantities representing British measures referred to the
latitude of London. The corresponding French unit of
force is 1 kilogramme, equivalent to about 2.2 British units.
A force being fully represented by its magnitude, direc-
tion, and point of application, the first problems in order in
the action of impressed force, relate to the laws of equi-
librium, or the rules for finding the resultant of any mum-
ber of forces acting on a body. If the lines of direction of
the forces all pass through the same point, the resultant
may be found by the application of the geometrical theorem
called the parallelogram of forces. If two forces act upon
one point, and portions of their lines of direction be taken
to represent the magnitude of the forces, their resultant,
or a single force equivalent to the action of the two, will
be represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram con-
structed on the lines of the other two. By counting the
forces which act on a point two and two, and repeating the
process, a single resultant for all may be found. Or, to
determine graphically the resultant, from the extremity of
the line representing one of the forces draw a line parallel
to the direction of any other force, of a length representing
the magnitude of this force; then from the extremity of
this last line draw another, parallel to and equivalent to
another force, and so on; the final resultant will be a line
drawn from the extremity of the last line to the origin, or
point of application; if this line is zero, then the forces are
in equilibrium. If the forces do not all act on one point
in the body, the conditions of equilibrium require that the
action of the forces shall be such that they not only pro-
duce no motion of the body in a straight line, but there
must be no unbalanced effort to turn the body about any
line as an axis.
The moment of a force in reference to an axis is the
product of the intensity of the force into the perpendicular
distance of its line of action from that axis.
Several special cases may be considered as leading to
the most general case of the equilibrium of any number of
forces acting upon a rigid body in any direction.
1st. To find the resultant of two parallel forces acting
in the same direction, divide any line across their common
direction into parts inversely proportional to the magni-
tudes of the forces; the point of application of the resultant
may thus be found, and its magnitude will be equal to the
sum of the magnitudes of the two forces. A third force
equal and opposed to this resultant will produce equi-
librium.
2d. The resultant of any number of parallel forces acting
in one plane and in the same direction may be found by
first finding the resultant of two, then the resultant of this
with a third, and so on.
3d. For any number of parallel forces not in one plane,
the conditions of equilibrium require that the algebraic
sum of the forces shall be equal to zero, and the algebraic
sum of the moments of the forces in reference to any two
rectangular axes in the plane; that is, the combined action
of the forces must produce neither a motion of translation
nor of rotation. The resultant of such a system, if there
be a resultant, may be a single force, or two forces forming
what is called a couple.
4th. Two equal parallel and contrary forces not acting
on the same point produce a couple which has no single
resultant. -
5th. When a system of forces act in various directions and
on various points of a rigid body, if their axes be assumed
at right angles to each other, each of the forces may be re-
placed by three component forces in the direction of these
axes. The components of each force being found by mul-
tiplying the magnitude of the force by the cosine of the
angle which its line of action makes with the direction of
the component (a process which depends on the theorem
of the parallelogram of forces), then the conditions of equi-
|
w
1442
DYNAMIC UNITs—DYNAMOMETER.
librium of the system are that the algebraic sums of the
components in the directions of the three axes shall be
zero, and also the algebraic sums of the moments of the
forces in reference to these axes must be zero. -
The application of these principles to find the centres of
gravity of various lines, surfaces, and solids is made by
supposing the body to be divided into small elementary
portions, and these portions to be acted on by the parallel
forces of gravity acting on each. In a corresponding
manner the centre of pressure of fluids resting upon sur-
faces may be found. --
The various cases of equilibrium when no other forces
act on a body than the force of gravity, and the pressure
between the body and fixed supports, constitute a large
class of problems which occur in the applications of dy-
namics to engineering ; the stresses and strains which are
produced in the pieces of a structure being the principal
objects for calculation. In the action of forces where mo–
tion is produced, the elements of time, space, and velocity
enter into the discussion, as well as the mass of the body
acted on.
The three fundamental axioms or truths on which the
science of dynamics principally rests are—
1st. Every body continues in its state of rest or of uni-
form motion until compelled by impressed forces to change
its state.
2d. Change of motion is proportional to the resultant of
the impressed forces, and takes place in the direction of
the straight line in which that force acts.
3d. There can be no action of a force without a contrary
and equal reaction. g
The work of a force is the product obtained by multiply-
ing the intensity of the force by the space passed over by
its point of application. \
According to the above axioms or fundamental principles,
the effort of any force must be opposed by an equal and
bontrary effort from some other force. In cases of bodies
free to move under the influence of any force, a portion of
the resistance to the external force is always supplied by
the inertia of the body. If no other force acts upon the
body than the force which produces the motion, the whole
of the resistance will be supplied by inertia, and the ex-
pression which has been employed, F= Mv, gives the rela-
tion between the force and the resistance in terms of the
mass and velocity. The quantity Mv, called by some writers
quantity of motion, and by others momentum, may be in-
terpreted as implying that this is the measure of a force
which, acting for a unit of time, generates the velocity v.
If the force continue to act on the body so as to accelerate
the velocity, the work of the impressed force must be equiv-
alent to the work of the resistance during any given time
or through any given space. A body moving, for instance,
with a velocity v, and having by the action of an impressed
force its velocity changed to v', the change of momentum
will be M. (v-v'). The force necessary to produce this
* — a ' '
change in the time t will be F = M .*.*. If during this
time we suppose the body to have passed with a uniformly
accelerated velocity over the space s, the work of the force
F will be F8. But the space s is equal to the mean velocity
f : ..
multiplied by the time, or equal to v -j- v'. t; and we have
— an/ “. f a;2 — aſ?
Q) — v. v -- v ... t = M. vº — v
FX 8 = M-— . X
t 2
If the body start from rest, the initial velocity will be 0,
and we shall have - -
May/2
F X 8 * = 2 tº º,
The same may be proved whether the impressed force is
constant or variable; and the important principle is thus
established that the product of the mass of a body multi-
plied by half the square of the velocity with which the
body is moving, is equivalent to the work of the impressed
force which produces this velocity in the body. And gen-
" . May?
erally a change in the value of 2
to the work of the force which produces the change. The
v2 -
is always equivalent
quantity is called living force, and sometimes actual
energy of the body, because a body moving with the velocity
v will always require the expenditure of the work repre-
- 2
sented by * to bring it to rest.
In cases where external resistances act on the body in
opposition to the impressed force, the work of the resist-
ance, added to the work of inertia, will be equivalent to
the work of the impressed force. This gives rise to a very
simple enumeration of the laws of all machines—viz. the
work of the effort or prime mover must always, during any
interval of time, be equal to the total work of the resistances
added to the actual energy or living force accumulated in
the moving pieces. If during a given period the living
force of any piece is alternately increased and diminished,
the quantities of energy stored and re-stored may just
equalize each other; and such a piece may be employed
simply for the purpose of storing up and restoring work,
as a regulator. The common fly-wheel is such a piece in
machinery. -
If a body has a rotary motion about any axis, the actual
energy or living force due to the rotation is expressed in
terms of the angular velocity and the moment of inertia
of the body with reference to the axis. If the angular
velocity be represented by a, the actual energy due to rota-
tion will be #1 ; the moment of inertia I being found by .
means of what is called the radius of gyration, which is
that radius or distance in a rotating body the square of
which is the mean of the squares of the distances of the
particles of the body from the axes. It is found by geo-
metrical solution. For the fly-wheel this radius is approx-
imately equal to the mean radius of the rim.
When a body in motion is constrained to move in a curve,
the force which causes it to deviate at each instant from the
tangent is found by multiplying the mass by the square of
the velocity, and dividing by the radius of curvature. The
deviating force is equal and opposite to the influence which
tends to draw the body away from the axis, the centrifugal
force, and hence the centrifugal force is always proportional
| to the square of the velocity, and inversely as the radius of
curvature.
In the application of the laws of dynamics to fluids the
principle of living force holds true as for solids. Every
fluid mass in motion has a living force proportional to the
mass, multiplied by the square of the velocity.
The force of heat is derived from the same general dy-
namical law. It has been demonstrated that the molecules
of all bodies have a constant vibratory motion, and these
molecules having weight, the energy exerted when a body
is cooled is equivalent to the expenditure or change of liv-
ing force; and when a body is heated, the vibratory motion
of the particles being increased in velocity, living force or
actual energy is stored.
The property of matter which is called inertia, by virtue
of which masses, in motion possess a force which is appro-
priately called living force, is of great importance in the
economy of machines, and of special importance also to
living beings. In nearly all motions of animals this prin-
ciple acts to aid the muscles in the execution of particular
movements, which would otherwise be accomplished by
fatiguing exertions, and would often be otherwise imprac-
ticable. ſº
The demonstrations and applications of the various prin-
ciples which have been enunciated, with their secondary
consequences, usually occupy entire volumes. Works of
this character have generally been entitled works on me-
chanics, and are often divided into two subjects or parts,
statics and dynamics, but the tendency of modern writers.
is to exclude the word mechanics from definitions connected
with abstract science, and to employ the term dynamics to des-
ignate the whole science of force. W. P. TROWBRIDGE.
Dynamic Units are units for measuring forces and
their effects. The simple writ of force has been defined
under DYNAMICs. A unit of work combines two elements—
viz., force acting, and space through which it acts; and is
the product of a unit of force and a unit of distance.
Such is the foot-pound, which is the work done in raising
one pound one foot; or the kilogrammètre, the work done
in raising one kilogramme one mêtre. A unit of power, or
of rate of working, involves the additional consideration
of time. It is a definite amount of work conventionally
fixed upon for purposes of comparison as the work of a
unit of time. Thus, the horse-power, the unit of rate com-
monly used in this country in estimating the performance
of machines, is 550 foot-pounds per second, or 33,000 per
minute. The cheval-vapeur (French horse-power) is 75
kilogrammètres per second, or 4500 per minute; equal to
542% foot-pounds per second, or 32,550 per minute, nearly
—a little less than the former. W. P. TROWBRIDGE.
Dynamite. See ExPLOSIVES, by GEN. H. L. ABBOT,
U. S. Army.
Dynamom/eter [from the Gr. 8%wapºws, “force,” and
uérpov, a “measure”], an instrument or apparatus for
measuring energy exerted or work performed. Any con-
trivance may be so called which indicates the intensity of
a force used to produce motion. The work done is found
by multiplying the mean effort thus indicated into the
space passed over by the point where the force is applied.
A dynamometer may record only the intensities of the
force, space being ascertained independently; or it may
*
**

|DYNASTY-DZIGGETAI.
record both force and distance traversed. A spring at-
tached to a plough-beam may, by suitable mechanism, be
made to record the varying force of traction, and thus be-
come a dynamometer. The mean force shown by it, mul-
tiplied into the length of the furrow, will give the work of
the animals drawing the plough. Prony’s friction dyna-
mometer is the form most easily applied to revolving shafts.
A flexible band, enveloping either the shaft or a drum
turning with it, resists the driving force by its friction.
The resistance is measured by the weight required to keep
the band from turning with the shaft; and this weight,
multiplied by the distance it would have been carried in a
given time if it had revolved with the shaft, gives the work
of the prime-mover. Hirn's torsion dynamometer meas-
ures the force applied to a shaft, by the torsion caused by
such force in the shaft itself. The torsion dynamometer
and the spring dynamometer are best suited to measure
variable forces; but there are instruments of this class in
which force is measured by the resistance of fluids driven
through small apertures. For measuring the work of
fluid pressure, the steam-engine indicator is the dynamom-
eter in common use. In this, the pressure of the fluid
upon a small piston is resisted by a spiral spring. A pen-
cil which moves with the piston traces upon a moving slip
of paper a curve, of which the ordinates give the pressure,
while a straight line perpendicular to these shows the dis-
tance passed by the surface pressed. The mean pressure
multiplied by this distance gives the work done. (For
Brewster’s chromatic dynamometer see Poi, ARIZATION OF
LIGHT.) W. P. TROWBRIDGE.
Dy/nasty [Gr. 8vvaareia, from 8vváarms, a “lord;” Fr.
dynastie], a family of sovereigns or rulers reigning by he-
reditary succession; a series of kings of the same family.
Dyrrha’chium. See DURAzzo.
Dy/sart, a royal burgh and seaport of Scotland, in
Fiji... the #ith offorth, 13 miles N. N.E. offin.
burgh. The High street is lined with many antique houses.
Dysart has manufactures of damasks and ticking; also
shipbuilding yards. Coal-mines are worked in the vicin-
ity. Pop. in 1871, 8920. -
Dy'sartsville, a township of McDowell co., N.C. P. 767.
Dyscra’sia [from the Gr. 8vs, “evil,” and kpāorts, a
“composition,” a “mixture”], in medical terminology, a
diathesis, a tendency towards a particular disease, a consti-
tutional peculiarity which gives character to all attacks of
disease from which a patient may suffer. The word is also
used to designate a depraved and dangerous condition of
the system, not constitutional, but accidental. The term
is a vague one, and is not much employed.
Dys'entery [Gr. 8vsevrepta, from Svs, “ill,” “painful,”
and évrepa, “intestines”], a febrile disease, characterized
by paroxysms of pain in the bowels, and by scanty though
often frequent bloody, mucous stools. The glands and tis-
sue of the large intestine are inflamed, and sometimes,
though rarely, the small intestine shares the disorder. It
may be acute or chronic, and is a frequent and formidable
disease, especially in hot climates. It is sometimes epi-
demic, and then is peculiarly fatal among children. Many
times it attacks and decimates armies. Sporadic cases in
civil practice usually recover with little treatment. Pain
is relieved by opium or Dover's powder. Gentle purgatives
are extremely useful. Enemata of warm water will often
relieve tenesmus. Astringents, copaiba, opiated starch in-
jections, etc., are useful adjuvants in some cases.
Niemeyer regards epidemic dysentery as a disease dis-
tinct from the common or sporadic disease. He considers
it truly infectious. The severer cases of this disease are
not much benefited by treatment. Even the mild cases are
apt to assume a chronic form, which may prove fatal. This
disease is akin to cholera, and perhaps to intermittefit fever.
It is endemic in Southern Europe. The endemic dysentery
of Egypt is a distinct disease, caused by the presence of a
trematode worm (the Bilharzia haematobia) in the walls of
the intestine. REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Dysmemorrhoe'a [from the Gr. 8vs, “ill,” wiv, a
“ month,” and fiéo, to “flow ’’), painful and difficult men-
struation, is sometimes caused (1) by flexion or displace-
ment of the uterus, in which case the proper treatment is
the restitution of that organ to its normal position; (2) by
an excessively or morbidly excitable nervous condition, best
relieved by sedatives at the time of attack, and by support-
ing treatment and correct hygienic regimen; (3) it is said
to be caused by uterine rheumatism, in which case it may
require the treatment appropriate to rheumatism; (4) when
associated with endocervicitis or endometritis it is often
benefited by local treatment with caustics, etc.; (5) a variety
of other local troubles may cause it, and may require spe-
cial treatment.
Dyspep'sia [Gr. 8vsmelta, from 8vs, “ difficult,” and
1443
mérro, to “digest"], a disordered functional state of the
stomach without appreciable organic disease; indigestion
of food, with the resulting symptoms, such as flatulence,
pyrosis, pain, etc. . Dyspepsia may be the forerunner or
Concomitant of consumption or of Bright's disease, but it
is much more frequently the result of improper habits with
regard to food, exercise, etc. Its treatment is important.
and difficult. In cases where the coats of the stomach are
irritable, bismuth is a standard, safe, and useful remedy.
The mineral acids, as the nitro-muriatic, are believed to
correct depraved secretions. The hyposulphites are some-
times useful where microscopic plants (Sarcina and Tor:
ula) exist in the stomach. Rhubarb with alkalies, followed
by sulphate of quinia, is frequently beneficial. The bitter
tonics tend to correct gastric atony. In all cases the par
tient should have the best hygienic conditions.
When there is no gastric catarrh or ulceration there is
great, and often complete, relief obtained by sea-bathing,
nutritious food, and the administration of iron. Dyspepsia.
with depression of spirits and a red uric-acid deposit in the
urine is often cured by water-treatment, with visits to saline
mineral springs. In short, there is no disease with a
greater variety of causes and symptoms, or which requires
more judgment and skill in treatment. Neglected dyspep-
sia must be placed in the numerous class of causes which
tend, by impairing nutrition and depressing the tone of the
system, to prepare the way for pulmonary consumption.
REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER.
Dyspha/gia [from the Gr. 8vs, “ difficult,” and bayev,
“to eat”], a difficulty in swallowing, caused by paralysis,
disease of the muscles of the throat, quinsy, oesophagitis,
carcinoma, stricture, or spasm of the oesophagus; or it may
be a symptom of hysteria, tetanus, or, hydrophobia: Its
treatment is various, according to the disease of which it is
a symptom. .
Dyspho/mia [from the Gr. 8vs, “difficult,” and dovéo,
to “speak”], a difficulty in speaking. The most common
variety is the dysphonia clericorum, or “clergyman's sore
throat,” a follicular inflammation of the pharynx, accom-
panied by huskiness of the voice, with more or less cough-
ing, hawking, and expectoration. The follicles of the fauces
and the pharynx are larger or more apparent than in
health. The follicles occasionally discharge hard or elastic
lumps of mucus, greatly to the alarm of the patient. Ul-
ceration may supervene, and the patient may be constantly
inclined to swallow. Time, rest, muscular exercise, tonics,
travelling by sea or land, are all useful in the treatment.
Dyspnoe/a [Gr. 80s rvova, from 8ws, “difficult,” and trueo,
to “breathe"], a difficulty in breathing, a common symp-
tom in most diseases of the heart or lungs. If the difficulty
is increased by lying down, so that the patient can only
breathe with any comfort when erect, it is called orthopnoea.
Dyspnoea is sometimes the result of some functional or or-
ganic nervous disease, as hysteria. It is then relieved in
most cases by diffusible stimulants. In other cases the
character of the dyspnoea is remarkably varied, and the
treatment is as various; belladonna, stramonium, cannabis,
chloral, ipecac, and many other remedies are often useful.
Strict temperance in eating and drinking should always be
observed.
Dytis/cidae [from Dytiscus (the diminutive of the Gr.
83rms, a “ diver’’), one of the general, a family of aquatic
coléopterous insects formed from the Linnaean genus Dy-
tiscus, now divided into several genera. There are many
species, of which the largest attain a length of nearly two
inches. The general form is oval and the surface smooth.
They are pentamerous—that is, have all the tarsi five-
jointed. They are remarkable for the oar-like shape of
their swimming-legs. All the species are found in marshes,
lakes, and the still parts of rivers. When they come to the
surface to breathe, they rest with the back downward and
the extremity of the abdomen exposed to the air, the organs
of respiration being in the last segment....They feed vora:
ciously upon all kinds of animal food. They fly well, and
often leave the water by night. Before changing into
pupae the larvae secrete themselves in the earth. The larvae
are called “water-tigers,” from their habit of attacking and
devouring insects, tadpoles, and even fishes. -
Dziggetai, or Koulan (Asinus Onager), a species of
wild ass abounding in Eastern Turkey, Persia, Afghanis-
tan, and the Punjab. It is one of the swiftest of quadru-
peds, and cannot ordinarily be overtaken, even by the
Arabian horse, and the greyhound can follow it successfully
only on the open plains. These animals live in troops,
under a leader who rules them despotically. They are ex-
tremely wild, for they are much hunted, not only for their
excellent flesh, but for the great difficulty and excitement
of the chase. They are pursued by falconry, but are more
frequently shot with the rifle. They are of a brown color, .
with a black stripe along the back.
*
$.
1444
E—EAGLE.
E.
E (pron. ee), the fifth letter and second vowel of the
Roman and of most modern alphabets. The Greeks had
two vowels represented by the Latin e—the one short (e,
epsilon), the other long (m, eta); e stood for the number 5,
m usually represented 8. The Sanscrit has only one ey
this is always long (see SANSCRIT), and is usually repre-
sented in the Western languages by e circumflexed (é). In
, the Arabic and Persian the vowel fatha (see ARABIAN LAN-
GUAGE), being a somewhat obscure sound, is often repre-
sented in the European languages by é (short), though it
properly corresponds to short à; thus we may write el-Ko-
rán or al-Korán for “the Koran,” er-rasheed (rashīd) or ar-
rasheed, the surname of Haroon (Haroun), the celebrated
caliph of Bagdad. In like manner, the Arabian prophet's
name may be written either Mohammed or Mohammad.
The Arabs have no vowel sound corresponding to long é
(é), although this frequently occurs in the Persian.
In most of the modern European languages e occurs
more frequently than any other letter. This remark is
especially true of the French and English. One reason of
this is that e (mute) in these languages usually replaces the
terminal letter or letters of Latin or Greek words, as in the
following nouns: fame, from the Latin famA; musB (Lat.
musA; Gr. ºoja’a); plumE (Lat. plum A); bilº (Lat. bilis);
conF. (Lat. conus; Gr. Kövos); facE (Lat. facIES); so also
in adjectives, as pron F. (Lat. promus); pure (Lat. purUs);
vile (Lat. vilis), etc. All the foregoing derivative words
are French as well as English. In a few instances the final
e, though found in English, is omitted in French ; as pin E
(Lat. pin Us; Fr. pin); win E (Lat. vinuM ; Fr. vin), etc.;
but more frequently the reverse occurs, particularly in ad-
jectives; thus we have arid (Lat. aridus; Fr. arid E);
avid (Lat. avid Us; Fr. avid E); livid (Lat. lividus; Fr. li-
vide), etc., etc. (For the different sounds of our e, see
PRONUNCIATION OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.)
E in music is the third note in the diatonic natural scale.
As a Latin preposition, e is put for eac by way of euphony,
both as a separate word and in composition. -
Each'ard (John), D. D., an English clergyman, born
in Suffolk in 1636. He became a fellow of Catherine Hall,
Cambridge, in 1658. He wrote “The Ground and Ocea-
sions of the Contempt of the Clergy and Religion inquired
into ” (1670), and a “Dialogue on Hobbes' State of Nature”
(1672). He was a writer of considerable humor, but of no
great ability. Died July 7, 1697.
Ea’ die (John), D.D., LL.D., a divine of the Scottish
United Presbyterian Church, was born at Alva, Stirling-
shire, May 9, 1814, and was educated at Glasgow University.
He published a “Biblical Cyclopædia,” “Life of Kitto,” a
“Condensed Concordance to the Scriptures,” etc. .
Ead’mer, or Edmer, an English historian and monk.
He entered in his youth the Benedictine monastery at
Canterbury, and became a friend of Saint Anselm. He was
elected bishop of St. Andrew's in 1120, but the Scottish
king would not allow him to be consecrated by the arch-
bishop of Canterbury, and he soon returned to his monas-
tery. He wrote in Latin a “Life of St. Anselm,” and a “His-
tory of [his own] Times,” from 1066 to 1122, printed by
Selden in 1623. These, and other writings of his, are pub-
lished with the works of Anselm. Died Jan., 1124.
Eads (JAMEs B.). See APPENDIX.
Eagle [Lat. aquila; Fr. aigle; Ger. Adler], the name
of several species of rapacious birds of the order Raptores
and family Falconidae. They belong to the genera Aquila,
Haliaëtus, etc., and are characterized by hooked beaks and
sharp, powerful claws. About seventy species are known.
They have great powers of flight and of vision, are diurnal
and solitary in their habits, and use their claws in killing
their prey. e eagle was regarded by the ancients as a
symbol of royalty, and has the proverbial distinction of
being the king of birds. Large specimens of the eagle
measure three and a half feet in length, and nine feet from
tip to tip of the expanded wings. These birds usually
breed in mountainous districts or forests, remote from
human habitations. They are all monogamous, and it is
said that a pair will live together in perfect harmony until
death separates thefn. They build their nests on a high
tree, a ledge of rock, or on some inaccessible cliff. The nest
is imartistically constructed of sticks, which are rudely ar-
ranged. The eagle is supposed to live to a great age, more
than one hundred years. n -
The golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) is a magnificent
bird found in Europe, Asia, and North America, deriving
!
its name from the golden-red color of the feathers which
cover its head and neck. The plumage of the body is a
rich dark-brown. This species is the largest of the Euro-
pean eagles. It feeds on hares, lambs, pigs, fish, etc., which
it carries to its nest. When in pursuit of its prey it is very
audacious, and has been seen to carry off a hare before the
noses of a pack of hounds. -
It is stated that the golden eagle can be tamed, and has
been trained to catch game for its master. The flight of
this bird is very graceful, and presents an interesting spec-
tacle. It sweeps through the air in a series of spiral curves,
rising with every spire, and making no perceptible effort or
motion with its wings. According to Ruskin, “the projec-
tion of the brow is the essential point in an eagle's head.
To keep the sunshine above from teasing it, the eye is put
under a triangular pent-house, which is precisely the most
characteristic thing in the bird’s whole aspect.” The im-
perial eagle (Aquila imperialis), which inhabits Asia and
Southern Europe, is nearly as large as the golden eagle,
and is similar in appearance. It may be distinguished
from the other species by the white patch on its scapularies.
Its head and neck are covered with feathers of a deep fawn-
color. It generally builds on lofty trees.
The national bird of the U. S. is the bald eagle (Haliaetua
leucocephalus), which has a white head, neck, and tail. It
is said to lay its eggs in the same nest year after year. It
is fond of fish, which it generally steals from the osprey.
Its habit is to watch near a river or other water until an
osprey has caught a fish, which
the eagle snatches in the air or
catches as it falls from the claws
of the osprey. The bald eagle is
widely distributed through differ-
ent regions of North America, and
frequents the sea-coasts, lakes,
and large rivers. It measures
from thirty-five to forty inches in
length. (See BALD EAGLE.)
The genus Harpyia includes a
single species, the harpy eagle
(Harpyia thrasačtos), a fierce and
powerful bird of Mexico and of
Central and South America. A
single stroke of its bill has been
known to break a man’s skull.
of the U. S., is equivalent to ten
Eagle, a gold coin
dollars, and bears the figure of an eagle. The largest gold-
piece coined in the U. S. is a double-eagle = $20. The
eagle weighs 258 grains Troy, and being nine-tenths fine,
contains 2321% grains pure gold. N
Eagle is also the name of an ancient coin of Ireland, cur-
rent in the thirteenth century.
Eagle, in heraldry, a bearing of frequent occurrence,
and often assumed by sovereigns as the emblem of empire,
from having been borne on the legionary standard of the
ancient Romans. The eagle of Russia is or, with two
heads displayed, sable, each ducally crowned of the field;
the whole imperially crowned, beaked, and membered gules.
The eagle of Austria is also displayed with two heads.
The Prussian eagle has only one head. The U. S. adopted
(1785) the bald eagle, his wings displayed, proper, as the
national emblem.
The eagle was also one of the most ancient Roman mili-
tary standards. In 104 B.C. it became the distinctive en-
sign of the Roman legions. It was made of bronze or silver,
and was carried upon a short staff. An eagle of gold was
the royal emblem of ancient Persia.
Ea'gle, a township of Bradley co., Ark. Pop. 255.
Eagle, a township of Pulaski co., Ark. Pop. 889.
Eagle, a township of La Salle co., Ill. Pop. 870.
Eagle, a township of Monroe co., Ill. Pop. 2388.
Eagle, a township of Boone co., Ind. Pop. 2327.
Eagle, a township of Black Hawk co., Ia. Pop. 507.
Eagle, a township and post-village of Clinton co.,
Mich. Pop. 1008. -
Eagle, a post-township of Wyoming co., N. Y. It has
three cheese-factories. Pop. of village, 110; of twp., 1040.
Eagle, a township of Brown co., Ohio. Pop. 1166.
Eagle, a township of Hancock co., Ohio. Pop. 1330.
Eagle, a township of Vinton co., Ohio. Pop. 681.
Eagle, a township of Harrison co., W. Va. Pop. 1560.

EAGLE-EAR, ANATOMY OF THE.
Eagle, a township of Richland co., Wis. Pop. 1083.
Eagle, a post-village and township of Waukesha co.,
Wis., at the junction of the Western Union and the Prairie
du Chien division of the Chicago Milwaukee and St. Paul
R. Rs. Pop. of township, 1256.
Eagle (HENRY), U. S. N., born April 7, 1801, in the city
of New York, entered the navy as a midshipman Jan. 1,
1818, became a lieutenant in 1827, a commander in 1844, a
captain in 1855, and a commodore in 1862. He command-
ed the bomb-vessel AEtna at the siege of Vera Cruz, and
was civil and military governor of the province of Tobasco,
Mexico (1847–48). He commanded the Monticello at the
attack on Sewell's Point Battery, Va., May 19, 1861, and
from June, 1861, to July, 1862, commanded the frigate
Santee of the Gulf blockading squadron, during which
service a boat-expedition from the Santee captured and
destroyed the privateer Royal Yacht in the harbor of Gal-
veston, Texas. Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Eagle, Bald. See BALD EAGLE.
Eagle Bridge, a post-village of Hoosick township,
Rensselaer co., N.Y., on the Hoosick River and on the line
of White Creek township, Washington co. It is at the
junction of the Troy and Boston R. R. with a branch of
the Rensselaer and Saratoga R. R., 24 miles N. E. of
Troy. -
Eagle Creek, a township of Lake co., Ind. Pop. 737.
Eagle Creek, a township of Scott co., Minn. Pop.
1120.
Eagle Grove, a post-township of Wright co., Ia.
Pop, 195.
Eagle Harbor, a post-township of Keweenaw co.,
Mich. It contains the port of Eagle Harbor, whence cop-
per is shipped. Pop. of village, 233; of township, 778.
Eagle Harbor, a post-village of Gaines and Barre
townships, Orleans co., N. Y., on the Erie Canal, has a
numbér of manufacturing establishments. Pop. 315.
Eagle Hawk (Morphuus), a name given to several
species of birds of prey of the family Falconidae, similar
in form to the eagle, but inferior in size. They are natives
of South America, the East Indies, and Africa. They have
short wings and long legs. Some of them are beautiful.
Eagle Isle, a township of Hancock co., Me. Pop. 30.
Eagle Lake, a township of Otter Tail co., Minn.
Pop. 80.
Eagle Lake Plantation, a township of Aroostook
co., Me. Pop. 143.
Eagle Mills, a post-township of Iredell co., N. C.
Pop. 1090.
Eagle Pass, a post-village, capital of Maverick co.,
Tex., on the Rio Grande, about 450 miles S. W. of Austin
City. During the civil war it had a large trade with
Mexico.
Eagle Point, a post-township of Ogle co., Ill. Pop.
77.
Eagle Point, a township of Chippewa co., Wis. Pop.
I667.
Eagle River, a post-village, capital of Keweenaw co.,
Mich., on Lake Superior, about 195 miles E. N. E. of Du-
luth. Copper is mined in the vicinity and shipped here.
Eagle Wood, the fragrant wood of Aloeacylon Agallo-
chwm or Aquilaria ovata, a tree of the order Aquilariaceae,
indigenous in the tropical parts of Asia. It is used for
burning as incense. -
Ea'gre [probably from the sea-jotun CEGIR (which see)],
a Norse word used to express the sudden rise of the tide in
the mouth or estuary of a river. It is often called the BORE
(which see, by PROF. ARNOLD GUYOT, PH. D., LL.D.).
Eames (CHARLEs), an eminent lawyer and journalist,
born at New Braintree, Mass., Mar. 20, 1812, graduated at
Harvard in 1831 and studied law. In 1845 he took a situ-
ation in the navy department at Washington, and soon be-
came an editor of the Washington “Union.” He was sent
by President Polk f commissioner to the Sandwich Islands,
whence he returned in 1850. After several years of jour-
nalism he became U. S. minister to Venezuela under Presi-
dent Pierce. After his return, in 1858, he attained high
reputation as an admiralty lawyer. Died at Washington,
D. C., Mar. 16, 1867.
Ear, Anatomy of the. For the perception of sound
the essential structure is a nerve capable of receiving and
transmitting sonorous vibrations. Some animals (as spi-
ders), possessing no special organ of hearing, nevertheless
show a distinct recognition of sounds. The lowest animals,
Protozoa, have no specialized organs of sensation. In somé
of the Acalephae (belonging to the Radiata of Cuvier), as
Medusa, small sacs arranged around the margin of the disk
| prominent rim or margin is the helix.
appear to represent the ear in a rudimentary form. Many
of the Mollusca have auditory organs. In Gasteropoda (e.g.
snails) these are connected with the pedal ganglia, seeming
thus to aid directly in the guidance of locomotion. Cepha-
lopoda, the highest of the Mollusca, have the organs of
hearing connected with the head, as they are in Vertebrata.
Worms also often have auditory vesicles in the head, con-
nected with the oesophageal nervous ring. Grasshoppers
and locusts have similar organs, either at the sides of the
first abdominal segment or on the main segments of the an-
terior legs. In the lobster and other large Crustacea they
are placed in the basal joints of the first pair of antennae.
Probably they have a similar situation in some insects,
which appear to find each other by hearing sounds, made
especially by those of the male sex.
All vertebrate animals, except Amphioacus, have distinct
organs of hearing. They differ much, however, in the differ-
ent classes. Fishes have no external or middle ear, and no
cochlea in the internal ear. - Amphibia also are without a
cochlea ; some have a tympanum; others none. Reptiles,
except the crocodile, are quite destitute of external ears.
All of them except serpents have a tympanum, and several
an externally visible membrama tympani. The columella
in them is either one small bone or a row of bones in the
tympanic cavity. It is homologous with the stapes or stir-
rup-bone of mammals. Comparative anatomists generally
consider the other tympanic bones (incus and malleus) to
be homologous with the “quadrate ’’ and “jugal” bones,
which support the jaws in birds, reptiles, and fishes; being
thus, in all of these animals, outside of the ear. Some an-
atomists, however, assert the existence within the tympa-
num of reptiles of a rudimentary incus and a cartilaginous
malleus. No eacternal ear exists in any fish or reptile."
Birds, especially owls, present it in the form of a circular
arrangement of feathers. In birds the middle ear (tym-
panum) contains only a single bone, the columella, with
processes of cartilage representing the other bones. The
cochlea of the internal ear is, in birds, a conical, slightly
twisted double canal; the semicircular canals in them are
large. -
Mammals always have the internal and middle ear com-
plete, and mostly also an external ear. This is slight,
however, in diving quadrupeds, as the otter and beaver,
and wanting altogether in the whale, seal, mole, ornitho-
rhynchus, and armadillo.
valve near the entrance of the external meatus or canal of
the outer ear, which closes when they are under water, pro-
tecting the membrana tympani against excessive pressure.
The elephant also is provided with a sort of valve or ear-
flap. Bats are endowed with very large and sensitive ex-
ternal ears. Many quadrupeds (e. g. the horse and dog)
have considerable muscular power over their ears, by which
they can turn them so as to receive sound from different
directions. Man has three rudimentary muscles of the same
kind, but they are commonly powerless and without use.
The Human Ear.—This consists of three distinct, though
connected, parts—the eacternal ear, the middle ear or tym-
panum, and the internal ear or labyrinth.
Of the owter ear, the expanded part is the pinna; its
The ridge next
within this is called the anti-helix; it divides above. Its
lower and front part encircles a cavity, the concha, below
which are two opposite prominences, tragus and anti-tragus.
The lowest, soft, flexible part is the lobule. The whole ex-
ternal ear, except the lobule (which is formed of fat and
connective tissue), is composed of cartilage covered with
skin, well supplied, however, with nerves as well as blood-
vessels. The entrance to the ear is the meatus auditorius
£mi-circular Cana’s
£eszäuče
f - -
'ſillºs %
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- The Human Ear.
externus. It is about an inch and a quarter long, directed
forward and inward, slightly curved. Near its orifice are
1445
Several aquatic animals have a
•

















1446
the ceruminous glands, secreting the ear-wax. At the bot-
tom of the meatus is the membrana tympani. * 4
The middle ear, or tympanum, is a sort of drum or hol-
low organ, containing air, and through its middle a small
chain of bones—the malleus, or hammer-bone, the incus,
or anvil, and the stapes, or stirrup. The tympanum com-
municates with the throat (pharynx) by means of the Eu-
stachian tube. The fenestra ovalis, or round window of
the tympanum, is a membranous partition between the in-
ternal part of the tympanic cavity and the vestibule of the
labyrinth or internal ear. The fenestra rotunda is a round
membranous “window” between the tympanum and the
cochlea of the labyrinth. Three muscles are asserted by
most anatomists to exist in the tympanum—the tensor
tympani, luxator tympani, and stapedius. The second of
these is considered by some to be only a ligament.
The internal ear is composed of the vestibule, cochlea,
and three semicircular canals. The vestibule is the middle
portion, the cochlea is anterior, and the three canals are
above and behind the vestibule. Within the latter are two
small bodies, the otoliths, or ear-stones, composed of carbo-
nate and phosphate of lime. The semicircular canals always
differ definitely in their direction, two being vertical and
L. É # # º: ſ
The cochlea (enlarged).
one horizontal. The cochlea is shaped somewhat like a
snail-shell. In its centre is a conical bony axis, the modi-
olus. Around this is a spiral canal, within which is the
lamina spiralis, partly composed of bone and partly mem-
branous. This divides the canal into two passages or scalae—
the upper, communicating with the vestibule, scala vesti-
buli, and the lower, communicating through the fenestra
rotunda with the tympanum, scala tympani. The bony
part of the lamina spiralis has a grooved margin, the upper-
most edge of which, towards the scala vestibuli, supports a
finely-toothed membrane, lamina denticulata. From each
of these margins of the lamina spiralis is given off a fine
pººl layer—the upper one the membrane of Corti, the
ower the basilar layer. Between these is a space called by
Kölliker the scala media. Within this space are arranged
two sets of minute rod-like bodies, parallel to each other,
radiating from the axis of the cochlea, those of the two sets
being inclined towards each other- above. These are the
rods of Corti. Looked at in a certain direction with the aid
of a lens, they resemble somewhat the keys of a piano.
The whole inner surface of the bony labyrinth is lined by
a fibro-serous periosteal tissue. This secretes a thin fluid,
the perilymph. The membranous inner labyrinth, which
duplicates, as it were, the osseous wall of the vestibule and
semicircular canals, secretes a similar liquid, the endo-
lymph. The auditory nerve (portio mollis of the “seventh
pair” of cephalic nerves, according to anatomists) is sub-
divided into branches which are distributed to all the parts
of the internal ear. Those filaments which enter the cochlea.
form a sort of ganglionic plexus in the scala tympani;
thence proceed some very delicate nervous extremities,
which, in the scala media, are brought into relation with
the rods of Corti, and probably also with certain large
nucleated cells in their vicinity called the cells of Claudius.
(For the physiology of the auditory apparatus, see the arti-
clé on ACOUSTICs.) See also “Treatise on Diseases of the
Ear,” by D. B. St. JoHN RoosA, New York, 1873.
4. "HENRY HARTshor:NE.
Ear/bus, a township of Sumter co., Ala. Pop. 520.
Earl"[from the Ang-Sax. eorl, “hero,” “chief;” Norse,
Jarl], a British title of nobility, next in rank to a marquis,
and one degree higher than a viscount. It was formerly
the highest rank of hereditary nobility of England. After
the Norman Conquest the title of earl was used by the Eng-
lish to express the French comte, “count” (Lat. comes).
Hence the wife of an earl is still styled a countess. In the
reign of Edward III. earldoms were granted by letters-
patent to earls and the heirs of their bodies. Earldoms were
gradually converted from territorial into merely titular hon-
ors. The earl’s coronet is a circle of gold rising at intervals
into eight pyramidal points or spikes, each tipped with a
pearl. The style of an earl is “right honorable.”
1849.
EARBUS—EARLY.
Earl, a post-township of La Salle co., Ill. Pop. 2129.
Earl, a township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 1622.
Earl, a township of Lancaster co., Pa. Pop. 2975.
Earle (PLINY), an American inventor, born at Leicester,
Mass., Dec. 17, 1762. He invented a machine for making
cards for carding cotton and wool. Died Nov. 29, 1832.
Earle (PLINY), M. D., was born at Leicester, Mass.,
Dec. 31, 1809. He was a son of Pliny Earle, the inventor.
He was educated at the Friends’ school at Providence, R.I.,
and graduated as M.D. in 1837. He was resident physi-
cian of the insane asylum at Frankford near Philadelphia
(1840–42), physician in the Bloomingdale asylum, N. Y.
(1844–49), and has long been superintendent of the insane
asylum at Northampton, Mass. He has published many
valuable reports and papers on the treatment of the insane.
Earle (THOMAs), a lawyer, a brother of the preceding,
was born at Leicester, Mass., April 21, 1796. He practised
law in Philadelphia, was distinguished as an opponent of
slavery, and was a member of the constitutional convention
of 1837. In 1840 he was nominated for the office of Vice-
President of the U. S. by the Liberty party. Died July 14,
He published several legal and other works.
Ear’ley, a post-village of Fox township, Elk co., Pa.,
is the southern terminus of the Daguscahonda R. R. There
are coal-mines in the vicinity.
Earl/ham, a post-village of Madison township, Madi-
son co., Ia., on the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific R. R.,
30 miles W. by S. of Des Moines. Pop. 222.
Earlham College was chartered in 1859. The pres-
ident’s chair was not filled for a few years at the first. The
first president was Prof. Barnabas C. Hobbs, A. M. The
chair for five years past has been occupied by Joseph
Moore, A. M. Both sexes are admitted. There is a pre-
| paratory department, with a two years’ course of study,
two college courses, a classical and a scientific, of four years
each. In the department of instruction there are six pro-
fessors and three preparatory teachers. Number-of stu-
dents the past year, 220; number in the collegiate depart-
ment, 70. The government is designed to be as nearly as
possible that of a well-ordered family. A majority of the
students board at a general dining-hall, where a superin-
tendent and matron preside. An endowment fund of
$50,000, together with the proceeds of a farm of 160 acres,
very materially lessens the general expenses of the students.
The libraries contain 3500 volumes. A large reading-room
is furnished with the best magazines and periodicals of the
times. The college is healthfully located about 1 mile W.
of Richmond, Ind. The play-grounds, walks, groves, and
lawns are ample. - - Jose PH MooRE.
Earl Marshal, of England, one of the great officers of
state who regulates ceremonies, is the head of the college of
arms, takes cognizance of all matters relating to honor, arms,
and pedigrees, and superintends the proclamation of war
or peace. This office is at present hereditary in the family
of Howard, and is enjoyed by its head, the duke of Norfolk.
Earl/ville, an incorporated town in La Salle co., Ill., on
the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R., 73 miles W. S. W.
of Chicago. It has two manufactories, a steam-mill, and
two newspapers. ED. “ GAZETTE.”
Earlville, a post-village of Oneida township, Delaware
co., Ia., on the Dubuque and Sioux City R. R., 37 miles W.
of Dubuque.
Earlville, a post-village of Hamilton township, Madi-
son co., and of Sherburne township, Chenango co., N.Y.,
on the Midland R. R. at the junction of the Syracuse and
Chenango Valley R. R., and very near the Delaware Lack-
awanna and Western R. R. Pop. 399. -
Ear’Iy, a county in the S. W. of Georgia. Area, 500
square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Chattahoo-
chee River. The surface is level; the soil is fertile. It is
partly covered with forests of pine. Rice, cotton, corn,
and wool are raised. Capital, Blakely. Pop. 6998.
Early (JoHN), D. D., bishop of the Methodist Episcopal
Church South, was born in Bedford co., Va., in 1786, joined
the Virginia Methodist conference in 1807, was one of the
chief founders of Randolph-Macon College, Va., and was
a laborious and eminently successful preacher of Meth-
odism in his native and adjacent States. He took a prom-
inent part in the proceedings which in 1844 divided his
denomination into Northern and Southern sections, was
elected first book-agent of the Southern division, and in
1854 was ordained as one of its bishops. He was distin-
guished by long public services, administrative ability, and
great energy of character. Died Nov. 5, 1873.
Early (JUBAL. A.), an American general and lawyer,
born in Virginia about 1818, graduated at West Point in
1837. He afterwards studied law, and served in the Mex-
ican war as a major. He joined the Confederate army, was


EARNEST-EARTH, THE.
1447
a major-general at Gettysburg in July, 1863, and com-
manded an army which invaded Maryland in July, 1864.
|He was defeated by Gen. Sheridan near Winchester, and at
Fisher's Hill in Virginia, on the 19th and 20th of Septem-
ber. On the 19th of Oct., 1864, he attacked the Union army
at Cedar Creek, Va., in the absence of Gen. Sheridan, who
arrived in time to rally his retreating army and to gain a
decisive victory. After the war he returned to the practice
of law in Richmond, Va.
Ear/nest, the payment of money, the delivery of a part
of any goods sold, or the performance of a simple ceremony
to “bind a bargain.” The performance of ancient and now
meaningless ceremonies as a pledge of good faith is lawful
earnest in Scotland and some other countries, but money or
goods only are held to constitute earnest in England and
the U. S. The seller cannot sell to a third party that for
which earnest has been paid. A party who has paid earn-
est can demand the goods, but the seller is not obliged to
deliver them till the whole price is paid. If the buyer fail
to demand and pay for his goods, the seller, after due no-
tice, can sell again and keep his earnest. In some coun-
tries a party who fails to keep a contract loses his earnest,
and may be compelled to fulfil his contract besides.
Earring. See JEWELRY.
Ear-shell, the shell of various gasteropods of the
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Ear-shell.
Haliotidae family. Of these, the Haliotis tuberculata, a
mollusk of Europe and the tropics, is edible. The genera
and species, living and fossil, of this family are numerous
and widely distributed. Some of the shells are used in
inlaying, and resemble MoTHER-OF-PEARL (which see).
Earth, The, is the dwelling-place of man; the noble
garden given him by his Creator to cultivate and to enjoy;
the scene of his activity, the means of his development,
and the theatre of his history. As such it cannot fail to
become one of the most prominent objects of his study.
I. The Earth in the Universe and the Solar System.—The
earth is a star among the innumerable stars which float in
the boundless space of the heavens. Unlike those bright
bodies, however, the existence of which is revealed to us
only by the rays of light which they send to our eyes, it is
not self-luminous; it possesses no other light than the feeble
reflected rays which it borrows from the splendor of a
mighty neighbor. The earth is one of the more modest
members of a small family of similar stars, clustered and
revolving around the central luminous orb of the sun, with
which they form the SoDAR SYSTEM (which see).
The arrangement of the members of the solar system
shows law and order everywhere, and strongly favors the
idea, suggested by the celebrated astronomer Laplace, of a
common origin, which makes it really a family of stars,
whose parent is the sun.
The planets, in their order of distance from the sun, are
Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and Mars, all of small size,
which form a first group; then comes the cluster of the as-
teroids, followed by another group of four large planets—
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune—whose orbit forms
the extreme boundary of the solar system.
In the first group, that of the small planets nearer the
sun, no satellites are found except one, the moon, which
graces the earth. In the second, that of the large planets,
they are numerous. Jupiter has four. Saturn's heaven
presents the glorious spectacle of eight moons, accompanied
by the phenomenon, unique in the solar system, of a broad,
flat, luminous double ring, revolving, like its satellites,
around the body of the planet. Uranus has four, and per-
haps more; Neptune, as yet, is known to have but one.
The distances of the planets from the sun are not equal.
They gradually increase from Mercury to Neptune, so that
the distance from the orbit of Mercury to that of each fol-
º
lowing planet is nearly double the distance from Mercury
to the preceding one. That ratio fails, however, in the
case of Neptune. For each planet one revolution around
the sun is a year; one rotation on its axis, marked by a
succession of light and darkness, is a day. -
The velocity of these motions is also subject to law. The
rapidity of revolution around the sun is greatest in Mer-
cury, and gradually diminishes in the other planets, as
their distance from the sun increases, to Neptune, in which
it is slowest. The velocity of rotation, on the contrary, is
greatest in the large planets more distant from the sun,
Jupiter and Saturn turning upon themselves in about ten
hours, while the four smaller planets have, like the earth, a
day of about twenty-four hours.
The density of the planets, again, varies with their dis-
tance from the sun. Mercury is the most dense, and has a
specific gravity of about eight times that of water, which is
a little more than that of iron ; the earth five and a half,
and the other small planets nearly the same; while the
specific weight of Jupiter is one and a third, or little more
than that of water; and that of Saturn, the lightest of all
the planets, is only seven-tenths, or less than water, which
makes it comparable to a similar volume of cork or light
wood. -
Thus, in all respects, the earth occupies a happy in-
termediate position. By its size it belongs to the group
of the small planets, but it is the largest of them. Its
distance from the sun makes it equally free from the in-
tense glare and the burning heat which prevail on Mer-
cury, and from the dimness of light and the cold which
probably are the share of the mighty sister planets, Ju-
piter and Saturn. The relative length of its day, sea-
sons, and year establishes harmonious relations between
them, such as cannot exist in the outer planets, owing to
the great disproportion between the excessive shortness
of their days compared with the great length of their year.
. The earth thus seems to be better fitted than any other
member of the solar system for sustaining that noble
world of living forms, vegetable, animal, and human,
which adorn its surface and give to our globe its highest
value. Nay, whatever be the past or future destinies of
the other planets in this respect, it may be doubted
whether any of them possesses, at present, the physical
conditions without which a life-system at all similar to
our own cannot be conceived as possible. -
II. The Earth considered in itself, as a great individual
organization, can be studied under two aspects—either in
its past or its present condition. A close examination of
the earth’s crust and its organic contents shows that the
terrestrial globe, like every individual body in nature, large
or small, had its period of gradual growth before its present
perfect state. The very structure of the rocks proves a
gradual formation. The continents emerged by successive
steps from the bosom of the ocean; their surface was wrin-
kled by mountain-chains rising one after the other; tribes
of plants and minerals, different from the existing ones,
succeeded each other during untold ages. These great
phases of the existence of the earth, geology studies and
describes. (See GEOLOGY.) Physical geography considers
the globe in its present condition, as the full-grown earth,
with man upon it, in its state of highest perfection.
III. General Form and Dimensions.—The general form
of the earth, like that of most of the heavenly bodies float-
ing in space, is a sphere, on which, for the sake of conveni-
ence, we may distinguish the poles, or the two extremities of
the axis of its rotation; and the equator, which is a great cir-
cle traced midway between the two poles, the plane of which
passes through the centre of the sphere, cutting its axis into
two equal parts. The mean diameter of the earth, given by
the great geodetic measurements, by which the true form and
dimensions of the globe have been ascertained, is about
7916 English statute miles. The equatorial diameter, how-
ever, which measures 7925% miles, exceeds the length of the
polar diameter, or the length of the axis, which is only 7899,
by about twenty-six and a half miles, so that a point on the
surface of the polar region is over thirteen miles nearer the
centre of the globe than a point on the surface of the equa-
torial regions. This proves that the earth is not a perfect
sphere, but a sphere-like body, or spheroid, slightly com-
pressed about the poles and bulging about the equator.
That form is accounted for by the effect of the rotation
of the earth, which causes a tendency of the matter to fly
off and to recede from the poles, where the velocity of rota-
tion is but slight, towards the equator, where the velocity
is greatest. That small deviation from the regular spher-
ical form is in itself of little importance, but it teaches us
that at some former period the earth must have been in a
semi-fluid state, after which it was consolidated in its pres–
ent shape.
The most recent and accurate measurements seem to in-
dicate some other irregularities in the figure of various

















1448
EARTH, THE.
parts of the globe, which, however, are not yet sufficiently
determined to be mentioned here.
The following table gives the principal dimensions of the
earth in English statute miles:
Dimensions of the Earth.
Equatorial diameter....... 7925.65...Radius................3962.82 miles.
Polar diameter............... 7899.17...Radius................ 3949.58 “
Difference...................... 26.48...Difference........... 13.24 “
Mean diameter............... 7916.17... Radius................ 3968 “
Circumference at the equator 24,899 miles.
Surface of the globe............... 196,900,278 square miles.
Contents or bulk ................... 260,000 millions of cubic miles.
In round numbers easily remembered: diameter, 8000; radius,
º circumference, 25,000 miles; surface, 197,000,000 squaré
IllièS.
IV. The Globe and its Circles.—The representation of
the earth most true to nature is the artificial globe, which,
however, looks like a perfect sphere, for the polar compres-
sion is too small to be visible to the eye. "On a globe of
twelve inches the difference between the polar and equatorial
diameters would amount only to a twenty-fifth of an inch.
The outlines of the continents and oceans, the course of
rivers, and other geographical features of the surface can
be drawn correctly on the globe, while on flat maps there
can be only an approximation to their true form.
On the globe are seen several sets of circles not belonging
to the natural features ºf the surface, the object of which
will be easily understood.
Parallels and Meridians.—In order to find out the pre-
cise location of a place or of any point on the face of the
earth, two sets of circles are traced—one in the same direc-
tion as the equator, the other at right angles, passing through
both poles. The first are called parallels, because they are
parallel to the equator and to one another. The last are
called meridians (from the Latin meridies, “noon"), be-
cause all places situated on such a circle have mid-day at
thèsame time.
All the parallels except the equator are small circles—that
is, smaller than the greatest circumference. All the me-
ridians are great circles which intersect each other at the
poles, and the planes of which pass through the axis of the
earth.
All these circles, great or small, are divided into 360
equal parts, or degrees, each degree into sixty minutes, and
each minute into sixty seconds; further subdivisions are
given in decimal parts of a second. The mode of express-
ing these divisions in writing is seen in the following fig-
ures: 20° 32' 5".9//, which mean twenty degrees, thirty-
two minutes, five seconds, and nine-tenths of a second.
(See DEGREES OF LATITUDE and LoNGITUDE.)
Climatic Zones.—There are four parallels, usually made
prominent in globes and maps, which are peculiar limits in
the distribution of light on the surface of the earth. Two
are traced at the distance of about 23%.9 on each side of
the equator, and are called on the north the Tropic of Can-
cer, and on the south the Tropic of Capricorn. The other
two, 23#9 from either pole, are the North Polar and the
South Polar Circles, also called the Arctic and Antarctic Cir-
cles. The two tropics mark the extreme limits of the cen-
tral region where the sun, in its yearly course, can be seen
vertical, the sun being vertical on these parallels on the
longest days of the year—viz., the 21st of June in the north-
ern, and the 21st of December in the southern hemisphere.
The polar circles are the parallels on which the longest day
is twenty-four hours, and mark the limits of the circular
area around the poles within which the summer sun does
not set every day. The globe is thus divided into six bands,
or zones, in three groups, which, from the general character
of their temperature, are termed the warm or torrid, the
temperate, and the frigid zones. The portion of the earth’s
surface occupied by each of the zones is very unequal.
Their comparative area, in English square miles, is as fol-
lows:
North tropical zone.....39,109,628
South tropical “ .....39,109,628
North temperate zone.51,110,763
Warm regions.......... 78,219,256
sº t ºperate . 51,110,763 Temperate regions...102,221,526
North polar 8,229,748 •o re; *
South polar {{ 3.22.5%#} Cold regions............. 16,459,496
The whole globe.............. 196,900,278 English square miles.
It is thus seen that, by a wise arrangement of Providence,
the temperate regions, most favorable to man’s develop-
ment, are the most extensive; next are the warm regions;
while the frigid zones, unfit for man’s progress, cover but
an inconsiderable portion of the earth’s surface.
Ecliptic.—A last great circle is to be noted, which inter-
sects the equator at an angle of about 23#9, and touches
the two tropics. When the axis is inclined 2339 from the
perpendicular position, the plane of this circle is horizon-
tal, representing the plane of the orbit in which the earth
moves around the sun. This circle is the line through
which the plane of the orbit cuts the surface of the earth,
and marks the apparent course of the sun from one tropic
to the other during the seasons. It is called ecliptic because
eclipses happen only when the moon is in the same plane,
or very near it. -
W. Density and Weight of the Earth.--To find out the
absolute and specific weight of the enormous mass of the
earth, and by it that of all the bodies of the solar system
and of the sun itself, seems so bold an undertaking for man's
littleness as to Savor of rashness. Still, it has been done
quite satisfactorily by physicists and astronomers.
If we weigh equal volumes of pure water, stone, iron,
lead, gold, and other substances, their weights are found
greatly to differ. A cubic foot of stone weighs as much as
two cubic feet and a half of water; one of iron, as much
as seven and a half; of lead, as eleven and a half; of gold,
as nineteen. That is to say, that, under the same volume,
the last substances contain as many times more matter than
water, and their density, or specific weight, is greater in the
same proportion. By three different methods, the results
of which very nearly agree, the average density of the earth
has been found to be five and two-thirds times as great as
that of water. In other words, it would require five and
two-thirds globes of water of equal bulk to balance the
globe of the earth. The volume of the earth being known,
as well as its density, its absolute weight may be computed,
which is about 5852 trillions of tons—a number which we can
write down, but of the magnitude of which we can scarcely
form any conception. (See DENsiTY of THE EARTH.)
Considering that the materials composing the surface—
water and rocks—have a density so much smaller than the
average, we must surmise that in the interior of the globe
either the metallic substances greatly prevail, or that mat-
ter is in a state of very great compression.
VI. The Earth’s Internal Temperature.—We are so much
accustomed, at the surface which we inhabit, to look to the
Sun—that is, to an outside source—for all the heat we
enjoy, that we almost forget to ask whether the earth has
a temperature of its own, independent of that which it re-
ceives from that great common reservoir. But when we re-
member that the warm springs around which so many gather
for health or pleasure rise from beneath the surface; when
we observe the greater heat of the waters of the Artesian
wells, the even and warm temperatures of the deep mines,
and especially the torrents of hot steam, of molten rocks,
which ascend from unknown depths to the mouths of vol-
canoes and flow along their slopes, we must recognize
that the interior mass of the globe has a higher tempera-
ture than that of its surface, the source of which is in it-
self. The earth, like the sun, is a warm body in the midst
of the cold space of the heavens.
But if so, can we form an idea of the amount of that
proper heat 7 To do this, we must try to establish the
law of its increase from the surface downward.
Warm or Thermal Springs.--The temperature of the in-
numerable springs which bring back to the surface the
rain-waters absorbed by the earth-crust, feed the brooks
and rivers, and minister to the wants of life, vegetable and
animal, is generally about equal to the mean annual tem-
perature of the air and the ground at the places where they
issue. It is nearly the same in all seasons, so that spring-
water appears cold in summer and warm in winter. But
while spring-water is scarcely ever cooler than the mean
temperature of the surface-ground, it is often found to pos-
sess a much higher temperature, ranging even to that of.
boiling water. These springs, warmer than the average,
are termed thermal springs, even though their temperature
be but a little superior to that of ordinary springs.
It is believed that this higher temperature is imparted
to the spring-water by the deep-seated layers of rock among
which it circulates. The deeper the rain-water penetrates
into the earth’s strata, the warmer it becomes. This view
is sustained by the fact that the thermal springs most
abound in the mountains and in all the regions where the
earth’s strata are most disturbed, broken, and creviced, as
in the volcanic districts. (See THERMAL SPRINGs.)
The famous Geysers (or spouting springs) of Iceland,
which, volcano-like, throw out at intervals, with tremendous
force, from a vertical chimney, a column of boiling water
sometimes ten feet in diameter, and reaching often over 100
feet in height, give us a magnificent as well as instructive
exhibition of the power of steam generated and gradually
accumulated in a heated volcanic soil. Similar spouting
springs, on a still grander scale, are found at the head-waters
of the Yellowstone, Madison, and Snake rivers in the Rocky
Mountains. (See YELLOwston E WALLEY.) The temperature
of the water in the Geysers is fully 212°F., and even higher
a few feet down in the shaft. Thermal springs of all grades
of temperature are abundant in all parts of the globe.
The phenomenon of the warm springs is thus too general
to be attributed to local or accidental causes. It proves
that at no. great depth below the surface a temperature
exists which is not inferior to that of boiling water; but as
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~ EARTH, THE.
1449
we do not know from what depth these warm waters come,
they do not afford the means of ascertaining the law of
its distribution. This we have to learn from observations
made at known depths in Artesian wells and in mines.
Careful observations, made by sending down self-register-
ing thermometers to different depths in Artesian wells, give
us a clue as to the temperature of the strata in which the
water is contained, and the law of its distribution. In
order, however, to obtain the true rate of increase, we must
start from the mean annual temperature of the ground,
which is not always found at the surface. The surface
layers are affected by the heat of the seasons, and are
warmer in summer and colder in winter. But these varia-
tions gradually diminish downward to a depth at which they
become insensible, and where the degree of heat is constant,
and equal to the average annual temperature of the air
above. It is evident that the greater the extremes of heat
and cold, the deeper will they be felt below the surface. In
our latitude the layer of invariable temperature reaches the
depth of from sixty to eighty feet; while in the equatorial
regions, where the temperature is nearly the same the
whole year, it is found at a few feet, and grows gradually
deeper towards the colder and more variable latitudes.
From this invariable layer the increase downward has to be
reckoned.
Among the most remarkable of the Artesian wells in
which such observations have been made are those named
in the following table, which gives the temperature observed
in these wells at these various depths:
Temperature, Number of feet for
F
Depth in feet.
ahr increase of 19 Fabr.
Grenelle................... 98.............. 82.4 .................... 58
Neu Salzwerk........... 2288 ............. 92.5..................... 55
Mouillelonge ............ 2677 ............. 101.0..................... 51
St. Louis, Mo............ 2199.............. 79.2........... tº se e is e º e º & 88
Louisville, Ky. 2086... 82.5..................... 67
Columbus, Ohio......... 2775.............. 88.0..................... 73
This shows that the temperature invariably increases
from the surface downward, but also that temperature at
the same depth is different in different wells, and therefore
the rate of increase greater in some places than in others.
Temperature in Mines.—Observations of temperature
made in deep mines, first in France in the middle of the
last century, and since in all parts of Europe, give similar
results. The increase of heat downward is constant, but
the rate of increase often differs widely, even in mines situ-
ated at no great distance from each other, according to the
nature of rocks and their power to transmit heat. In the
Prussian mines, where a long series of investigations have
been made with the greatest care, the most rapid rate is 1°
Fahrenheit for every 27 feet; the slowest, 1° for every 197
feet—the average 19 for 92 feet. In the mines of Saxony
the average is 1° for 72 feet. Six of the largest mines in
England give 1° for 44 feet; Dalcoath mine, in Cornwall,
19 for 75 feet. In America, the Virginia coal-mines show
an increase of 1° for 60 feet. Even the frozen soil of the
middle Siberian plains, which has a thickness of nearly
600 feet, and near the surface a temperature of only 10°
Fahrenheit, shows a steady increase down to the depth at
which the temperature reaches the melting-point.
The average of all known observations, made in various
parts of the globe, both in Artesian wells and mines, gives
an increase of heat towards the interior of about one degree
of Fahrenheit for every fifty-five feet—a very rapid rate
indeed, which leads to an important conclusion.
Conclusion.—If this universally increasing temperature
in the interior of our earth continues in a regular progres-
sion downward, the temperature of boiling water will be
reached at 9000 feet, or less than two miles from the sur-
face—a distance only equivalent to a moderate-sized moun-
tain. At thirty miles the heat would be sufficient to melt
all the rocks and metals contained in the earth’s crust.
But as we have some reason to believe that the progression
becomes gradually slower, we may admit as probable that
the solid, unmelted crust has a greater thickness, reaching,
perhaps, if not exceeding, 100 miles.
Startling as this result may be, it is the hypothesis which
best accounts for the facts just mentioned, and for the phe-
nomena of geology.
Volcanoes.—Artesian wells and thermal springs prove an
internal temperature reaching the boiling-point of water;
but volcanoes, and the torrents of melted, fiery lava, which
escape from their open mouths, demonstrate the existence
in the bowels of our planet of extreme temperatures, which
tell us that the above conclusion is not a mere fancy, for
the volcanic phenomena are too general, and too much con-
nected with the great fractures of the earth’s surface, to
be accounted for, as has been tried, by mere local chemi-
cal causes. (See VoICANoes.)
Arrangement of Volcanoes on the Earth’s Surface;—
While the reader is referred to the article VoICANops for a
particular description of them, it seems proper to offer here
some remarks on their general distribution, as forming one
of the most remarkable features of the earth’s surface.
Though volcanoes are but local and apparently independ-
ent accumulations of ejected materials, they are mostly
arranged in long, straight lines, more or less interrupted.
Humboldt was the first to show that the six volcanoes of
Mexico, among which the noble Orizaba and Popocatepetl
are kings, are on a straight line which stretches across the
continent, and, when prolonged beyond in the Pacific,
strikes the volcanic islands of Revillagigedo. He draws
from that fact the plausible inference that they have all
issued from one long fissure extending across the body of
the table-land. The volcanoes of South America are all
on the long line of the Andes; those of North America on"
the line of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges. On a
similar line are also the numerous volcanoes of Sumatra,
those of Java, and many others along the coast of the
Asiatic continent.
Other volcanoes seem more isolated, or form groups com-
posed of a central volcano surrounded by secondary ones.
Vesuvius and Etna in Europe; the Canary Islands, the
Azores, and Iceland in the Atlantic; the Sandwich Islands
and the numerous groups of Polynesia in the Pacific, and
many more in the Indian Ocean, are usually considered as
examples of this class.
Linear and Central Volcanoes.—The celebrated geolo-
gist L. von Buch first called attention to this difference,
and accordingly divided volcanoes into linear and central.
The first class he conceived as raised on a single fissure;
the second, on a number of crevices radiating from a cen-
tre, as if the result of a violent vertical upheaval. This
classification, however, has hardly the importance which
has been attached to it, for the groups of the so-called cen-
tral volcanoes are mostly arranged on a line or zone; and
even in many groups, as in Iceland and the Sandwich Isl-
ands, the disposition of the single volcanoes in parallel lines
is unmistakable.
Distribution of Volcanoes.—Though volcanoes are found
in every continent and ocean, and in all latitudes, they are
not equally distributed on the surface of the globe. They
follow certain lines and cluster in distinct groups. The
most important feature of their distribution is, that nearly
all are situated along the mountain-chains and rows of
islands which border the shores of the continents, while
the interior of these great land-masses is nearly free from
them. Leaving out a few extinct volcanoes, the only well
authenticated exception to that rule is the existence of a
few volcanic centres around the Thian-Shan Mountains, in
the very heart of the continent of Asia, midway between
the Arctic and Indian oceans, nearly two thousand miles
from the sea in every direction—the volcano Bo-Shan, with
lava streams; that of Turfan ; the Solfatara of Ourumtzi,
which sometimes emits ashes. -
The number of volcanoes, extinct and active, is variously
estimated. Humboldt, in “Cosmos,” counted 407. More
recently, Dr. Fuchs enumerates 672, of which 270 are still
in a state of undoubted activity. Of these 270, 175 are on
islands, and 95 on the continents, but again mostly on the
sea-shore. This uniform proximity of volcanoes to the sea
has caused a prevalent belief that sea-water is a necessary
condition of their existence. It will be seen, however, that
this may perhaps be a hasty conclusion.
Two Great Volcanic Zones.—There are two great terres-
trial zones in which are found, arranged in long lines or
isolated groups, nearly all the volcanoes of the globe.
The first zone is the vast circle of mountain-chains, pen-
insulas, and rows of islands which surround the Pacific
Ocean and girdle it with a belt of burning mountains. Be-
ginning at the extreme point of South America, in Terra
del Fuego, with the somewhat doubtful volcano of Sarmi-
ento, it extends along the Andes, in which are found three
of the most remarkable series of volcanoes, separated by
intervals of hundreds of miles, those of Chili, Bolivia, and
Ecuador counting together sixty-seven volcanoes, twenty-
seven of which are still active. Then follows the rich group
of Central America, with fifty-seven volcanoes, twenty-two
being active. The series of Mexico has six active volca-
noes, besides full as many extinct ones. In North America,
the series of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains, the
group of Alaska, and the long series of the Aleutian Islands,
have together over eighty volcanoes, half of which are act-
ive, mostly in the Aleutian Islands. Passing to the Asiatic
continent, we find the series of Kamtchatka peninsula, with
not less than thirty-eight volcanoes, twelve of which are
active; the line of the Koorile Islands with twenty volca-
noes, half of which are now extinct; the group of the Japan
Islands, which numbers forty-six volcanoes, with only seven
active. Between Japan and the Philippine Isles twenty-
three volcanoes may be counted, of which seven are active;
in the Philippine and Molucca Isles, thirty-one, most of
which are in a state of activity. At last the Australian
1450
EARTH, THE.
line: New Guinea, with three active; New Britain, with
two active and one extinct; New Hebrides, with two; New
Zealand, with seven extinct and two active volcanic cones,
terminate that brilliant girdle of fiery beacons around the
Great Ocean. Including those which are extinct, the num-
ber of volcanoes in that zone reaches 392.
The second volcanic zone, though less continuous, is
hardly less remarkable. It is a belt of broken lands, islands,
peninsulas, and inland seas, which runs in a slanting direc-
tion around the globe, separating the northern from the
southern continents. Starting from Central America, with
its isthmus full of volcanoes, its landlocked seas, its penin-
sulas and islands, and the volcanic series of the Lesser An-
*tilles, it passes through the volcanic groups of the Azores
and Canary Islands to the Mediterranean and its penin-
sulas, including the active volcanoes of Europe—Vesuvius,
Etna, the Lipari Islands, and Santorin. Entering Asia.
Minor, with its numerous extinct volcanoes, it passes
through Arabia, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the two
peninsulas of India, all rich in traces of the activity of the
internal fires. Thence crossing the East Indian Archipel-
ago and its hundreds of burning mountains, it reaches those
of the Friendly Isles, and running through all the Polyne-
sian volcanic groups, meets again the great isthmus of Cen-
tral America. Including those of the latter region, we find
in this zone 168 volcanoes. -
The two zones just described contain therefore, together,
no less than 560, or five-sixths of all the existing volcanoes.
Where the two zones intersect each other, in Central
America, and in the East Indian Archipelago, the volcanic
forces also display their greatest intensity. Central Amer-
ica, with Mexico and the Antilles, has eighty-five vol-
canoes. In the East Indian Archipelago, the long line of
the Sunda Islands alone possesses eighty, and those of the
Philippine Islands with the Moluccas, and of New Guinea
with New Britain, swell the number to 117. Thus in these
two regions are crowded over 200, or nearly one-third of
all which are known.
The remaining volcanoes not included in these two great
belts are either scattered in the midst of the oceans, as the
Sandwich Islands group in the Pacific ; Bourbon and Mau-
ritius in the Indian; Cape Verde Islands, Ascension, St.
Helena, Tristan da Cunha, in the Atlantic Ocean ; or in the
broken polar lands, like Iceland and Jan Mayen Island in
the Arctic ; Erebus and Terror in the Antarctic Ocean.
Height of Volcanoes.—Volcanoes are of all heights, from
the submarine cones which do not reach the surface of the
ocean to that of Sahama in Bolivia, the highest of the
known volcanoes, which rises to 23,000 feet above it.
Nay, if we accept as probable the idea that such volcanoes
as Mauna. Loa, nearly 14,000 feet high, have their base at
the bottom of the deep ocean which surrounds them, the
total elevation of such a structure may even reach that of
the highest mountains of the globe.
The peculiar distribution of volcanoes on the surface of
the globe, described above, may help us to understand the
nature and the causes of volcanic action, which are not to
be confounded with the more general force which has up-
heaved the continents and sunk the basins of the oceans.
Three facts are here prominent and significant: 1st. Nearly
all volcanoes are either along the highest edge of the conti-
nents, or in the great central zone of fracture. 2d. Most
of them affect a linear arrangement. 3d. The agent at
work in these mighty engines is mainly vapor of water, or
steam-power.
If we admit, as we have every reason to do, that the in-
terior of the earth is a fiery mass, this must be considered
the primary source of volcanic action. Its effect will be
most intense in the deep fissures which establish a ready
communication with the surface. Nowhere are the earth’s
strata more deeply broken than on the very edge of the
continents; and geology demonstrates that it is on the
mighty chasms caused by the upheaval of these vast bodies
of land that mountain-chains like the Andes, the Sierra
Nevada, and the other mountains encircling the basin of
the Pacific Ocean have been raised. There also the vol-
canic vents abound in long lines, following either the top
or the foot of the mountain-chains. The same may be said
of the central zone of fracture.
It is not, however, to the heat of this fiery interior mass,
but to its slow cooling, and the contraction which is the
consequence, that we must ascribe the wrinkling and break-
ing up of the solid exterior crust, and the formation of
those grand features of the surface of our planet which add
so much to its beauty and usefulness. -
In this view, volcanic action is not the cause, but a con-
sequence, of the upheaval of mountain-chains and conti-
nents, and the frequent proximity of volcanoes to the sea
does not imply the necessity of sea-water for their forma-
tion. Rain-water and Artesian waters also, which, instead
of reappearing on the surface in the form of springs, pene-
trate a few miles deep in these subterranean cavities, may
become so overheated, under high pressure, as to explain
the usual volcanic phenomena. If so, the lavas flowing
from a volcanic chimney may not necessarily be connected
with the great reservoir of the melted interior. There can
be no doubt that a close connection exists between the phe-
nomena of volcanoes and those of earthquakes. (See EARTH-
QUAKES.)
VII. Terrestrial Magnetism.—The earth exerts a directing
force upon the magnetic needle, acting like a magnet. (See
MAGNETISM.) In whatever portion of the globe—on the
ocean or on land, on mountains or deep valleys—a mag-
netic needle, freely suspended so as to move easily in every
direction, no matter how it is placed, will always turn in a
definite direction, one pole pointing towards the north, and
the other towards the south pole of the earth. The pole of
the needle directed by the north pole of the earth, being of
contrary magnetism, is the south pole of the needle, but
for convenience is marked north on the compass, because it
points towards the geographical north.
The magnetic poles, however, do not coincide with the
geographical poles, but are found to be more than 20° from
them; nor do the magnetic meridians passing through the
poles of the needle, and the magnetic poles of the earth,
coincide with the geographical meridians. The needle,
therefore, seldom points to the true north, but usually to
the east or west of it. The difference between the magnetic
and the true north is called magnetic variation or declina-
tion. This declination may be either east or west of the
true north; but there will be also a line where the needle
points to the true north, and which is the line of no declin-
ation, from which the variation has to be counted. By
connecting together all points which have equal declination
we obtain a system of lines which show at a glance, as in
Map No. II., the direction of the needle in all parts of the
world. On the map the eastern declination is distinguished
by dotted lines and a light-brown color, and the western by
full lines and blue color, the line of no declination between
being heavier.
Secular Variation.—It is found that the declination does
not remain the same at any one place, but the magnetic poles
with their system of meridians are gradually travelling
from west to east and from east to west; and as these oscil-
lations take centuries to complete their course, this is called
secular variation. A map of the lines of declination must
therefore refer to a particular date. The one here given
shows the declinations as observed in the year 1858. It
will be seen that the line of no declination in the Western
World passes through Rio de Janeiro, the mouth of the
Amazon, somewhat west of Washington, through Lake
Huron, and the magnetic pole as found by Sir James Ross
in Boothia Felix, under the 70th degree of N. lat. In the
Eastern World it passes through the western part of Aus-
tralia, west of the peninsula of India, and through the
Caspian and White seas. A region of abnormal declina-
tions in Central Siberia, seems to indicate the existence of
a secondary magnetic pole in that part of the world.
The map shows that when crossing the Atlantic from
Liverpool to New York the voyager will find the variation
of the compass, which in Liverpool is about 25° west, in-
creasing to 30° in mid-ocean, and then rapidly diminishing
from Newfoundland to New York, where it is only about
7°. Beyond the line of no variation, passing near Wash-
ington and the great lakes, the needle points east of the
true north, and continues so across all the continent and
the Pacific Ocean, where it again begins to point west be-
fore reaching the islands and the coast of Asia. It is evi-
dent that both the traveller on land and the mariner have
to correct the indications of the needle for variation to get
the true points of the compass. The amount of declination
can easily be found by comparing the direction of the
needle with the north star.
The following table of the declinations observed in Paris
since 1580 will show the course of the secular variation in
the northern hemisphere:
Declinations observed in Paris.
Year. Declination. Year, Declination.
1580............... 11° 30' east 1816............. ..22° 25' west.
1618............... 8 1817............... 22 19 “
1663............... {{ 1823...............22 23 “
1678............... 1 30 West 1827............... 22 20 “
1700............... 8 10 “ 1828............... 22 5 “
, 1780............... 19 55 {{ 1829............... 22 12 “
1805............... 22 5 “ 1835............... 22 4 “
1814............... 22 34 “ 1854........ e e º 'º tº gº tº 22 10 “
This table shows that— -
1st. The extent of the variation was over 31°.
2d. In 1663 the declination was zero, the needle pointing
due north.
3d. From 1580 until 1814 the needle moved towards the
west.
*3
EARTH, THE.
1451
4th. Since 1814 it has moved backward towards the east.
5th. The rate of this movement is not uniform, but is
greater near the minimum, and least near the maximum
point of declination.
There are minor variations in the declination which fol-
low the periods of the day and of the year, and seem to be
in close connection with the temperature of the atmosphere
and the position of the sun. -
The mariner's compass is but a needle attached to a cir-
cular sheet of talc moving freely on a pivot, on which is
marked the direction of the winds according to thirty-two
points of the compass. The whole is placed in a box with
double suspension, so as to keep it horizontal even amid
the motion of the waves.
Magnetic Inclination.—A magnetic needle so suspended
as to move freely in a vertical direction will adjust itself in
the magnetic meridian, and in each hemisphere one of its
poles will dip towards the pole of the earth. This is called
the Magnetic Inclination, and the needle itself is called a
dipping needle. (See DIPPING NEEDLE.) At the magnetic
pole the needle stands vertical; at the magnetic equator,
horizontal; between these extremes it takes all intermediate
positions. The inclination, like the declination, is subject
to periodic and secular variation. In Paris, as will be
seen in the table below, it was 75° in 1671, while in 1853
it was only 66° 28′. -
Sir James Ross in 1832 saw the dipping needle stand
within one minute of a degree of the vertical position near
Baffin's Bay. When tracing the lines of equal dip on a
Mercator's map, we find that they coincide in a remarkable
manner with the isothermals or lines of equal mean tempe-
rature, indicating a close connection of the distribution of
heat with that of magnetism, and seemingly a common
cause for both. -
The inclination, like the declination, is subject to periodic
and secular variations. The last is shown in the following
table: -
Inclinations observed in Paris.
Year Inclination. Year. Inclination.
1671,......................... 750 00' 1820.......................... 68.0 20/
1780.......................... 71. 48 1825..........................68 00
1798.......................... 69 51 1831.......................... 67 40
1814.......................... 68 36 1853.......................... 66 28
It appears from the table that since the year 1671 the
inclination has steadily diminished at the rate of about
three to five minutes a year.
Magnetic Intensity.—The intensity of magnetic force can
be measured by causing a dipping needle to oscillate, and
counting the number of its oscillations in a given time.
The greater the number of oscillations in a minute of time,
the more intense is the attractive force. The lines of equal
magnetic force, though not identical with, are very similar
to, those of equal inclination.
Modern science is inclined more and more to consider
magnetism as but a form of electric activity, for every
electrical current causes a magnetic current moving at right
angles to it. If we admit, with the learned Ampère, that
electrical currents caused by the action of the sun on the
revolving earth are constantly moving from east to west
around the globe, we must expect a magnetic current at
right angles which will make our earth a magnet.
"If the earth is a magnet, so are, no doubt, all the other
planets, and the sun itself; and our globe is but a link in a
great chain of heavenly magnets bound together by mutual
attraction and comprising the whole solar system.
VIII. The Surface of the Earth.--The surface of the
earth, as stated before, measures 197,000,000 of English
square miles. Nearly three-quarters of it are covered by
the waters of the sea, one-quarter only of the solid crust
rising above them. Both dry land and water are sur-
rounded by the atmosphere as by a common garment.
The solid land, the liquid surface, and their gaseous en-
velope are the three geographical elements which, under
the influence of the sun, support life, vegetable and animal,
and the mutual play of which it is the province of physical
geography to consider. As the extent and forms of the
land-masses and oceans, and their relative situation, deeply
modify the nature of the climate and regulate the distribu-
tion of life, the study of their general arrangement is of
primary importance.
General Arrangement of Land and Water.—The principal
facts in this respect are the following:
1. The solid land is not gathered together in a single
large mass, nor is it uniformly scattered over the sea in
fragments of about equal size, but forms a few large bodies,
called continents, and a multitude of much smaller frag-
ments, called islands, which surround the coasts of the con-
tinents and dot the broad expanse of the oceans. . This
peculiar division into individual bodies favors diversity of
climate and richness of development in the domain of life.
The relative amount of land and water on the surface
of the globe is made clear to the eye in the following dia-
gram, in which the large square is the surface of the globe;
the inner squares, the area of the continents and islands;
and the surrounding area, the water-surface. The figures
indicate the areas in English square miles :
FIG. I.-Relative Area of Land and Water, in English Square Miles.

WATER,
144,000,000.
PROPORTION OF
ENTIRE
- CoNTINENTS, SURFACES.
SURFACE OF THE GLOBE,
50,000,000. GLOBE....................100.
196,900,000.
LAND..................... 27.
IsLANDs,
2,900,000.
2. Looking on the artificial globe from above, we see the
masses of land crowded around the North Pole to about
the 70th degree of latitude, and from there extending to-
wards the South Pole in three directions, dividing into three
bands of land, which taper as they advance, and terminate
in three points—South America, Africa, and Australia, far
away from the Antarctic Pole. Looking on the globe from
the opposite side, we see the broad sea surrounding the
South Pole, and sending three great arms between the
bands of land, the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans.
The North Pole might be called the Continental; the South
Pole, the Oceanic Pole.
3. We observe, further, that each of these main bands
of land is cut transversely in two by a region of inland
seas and broken lands, isthmuses, peninsulas, and islands;
the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, with the great
isthmus of Central America and the Antilles, separating as
well as uniting North and South America; the Mediterra-
nean Sea, with its peninsulas and islands, lying between
Europe and Africa; and the Malayan Archipelago, with
its lines of islands and landlocked seas, between Asia and
Australia.
These regions are parts of a broad transverse band, whose
position can be traced from Behring Straits as a centre, with
1452 EARTH, THE.
a meridian arc of 80° as a radius, and which we would call zone of fracture is marked by a circle passing through the
the central zone of fracture. This disposition is shown in middle of it.
the accompanying map on a polar projection, in which the 4. As the lands are nearer the North Pole, and expand
FIG. 2.-Radiating Arrangement of the Land Masses.
G
*
H
wº
\
WP
V2,
Nº.
\º,
e).
to the north while they taper to the south, the northern
the southern hemisphere, in which water correspondingly
hemisphere contains nearly three times as much land as
predominates, as shown in fig. 3.
Northern Hemisphere. FIG. 3. Southern Hemisphere.
The Old World.



* EARTH,
5. As the lands are crowded on the north and east sides
of our planet, the north-eastern hemisphere contains more
Iand and the south-western hemisphere more water than
any other we can devise. They are therefore contrasted by
the celebrated Carl Ritter as the Land and Water Hemi-
spheres. In the land hemisphere are gathered together
the largest parts of all the great continents, making over
six-sevenths of all the land, and occupying only a little
FIG.
6. The central zone of fracture divides the land masses
into three northern and three southern continents, which
form two groups of a very different nature, the northern
continents being mostly situated in the temperate and the
southern in the tropical regions.
The relative extent of the various groups just mentioned
are here tabulated for convenient reference, and the areas
given in English square miles:
5.
1453
less than one-half of the surface. In the water hemi-
sphere, Australia, the smallest of the continents, stands
alone, with only the southern points of Asia and South
America, making less than one-seventh of the land, and
leaving twelve-thirteenths of the surface to the water. .
The centre of the land hemisphere is about London; that
of the water hemisphere at some point in the ocean south
of New Zealand.
THE.
Water Hemisphere.
J, and and Water.
Land. Water. Total.
The earth........................ 52,900,000...... 144,000,000...... 196,900,000
North hemisphere........ ... .38,780,000........59,670,000........98,450,000
Southern hemisphere....... 13,965,000........ 84,485,000........98,450,000
Eastern hemisphere......... 36,100,000........62,350,000........ 98,450,000
Western hemisphere......... 15,900,000........ 82,550,000........98,450,000
Land hemisphere............. 45,000,000........53,450,000.......98,450,000
Water hemisphere............ 7,000,000........ 91,450,000...... 98,450,000
FIG. 6.-The Areas of Continents compared in English Square Miles.
EUROPE,
NoRTH AMERICA, 3,785,800.
ASIA,
8,892,000.
17,317,900.
AFRICA,
SOUTH AMERICA, 11,556,700.
6.95 & -
,957,500 AUSTRALIA,
3,425,200.
The general distribution of land and water, just con-
sidered, and the extent and relative position of the great
land masses among themselves, are of the utmost import-
ance. The action and reaction of land and water upon
each other greatly modify the distribution of heat and
moisture, due to the general laws arising, as we shall see,
from the spherical form of the globe. Land absorbs and
radiates heat more readily than water, and thus causes
extreme temperatures, which never occur on the surface of
the ocean. Similar extremes of moisture and dryness are
found only on the continents. As heat and moisture
essentially regulate the development of organic life, the
final character and value of each part of the globe, in this
respect, are determined by the size, form, and grouping of
the bodies of land in the midst of the oceans. We have
now, therefore, to turn our attention to the specific forms
of the continents and oceans, on which so much depends.
Land and its Configuration.—The portion of the solid
crust of the earth rising above the surface of the ocean is
divided, as we have seen, into six great bodies, the conti-
ments, besides innumerable smaller ones, the islands. In
both we must notice the horizontal forms, or the line of
contact of land and water as shown in the maps, and the
vertical forms, the elevations and depressions, the moun-
tains and plains, or the forms of relief. (See CoNTINENT.)
The amount of indentation in each continent is shown in
the following diagram (fig. 7), in which the inner square
represents the line enclosing the unindented area, without
the islands; the outer line, the actual length of the coast
with its windings. The difference between the two gives
the true measure of the indentation. It is easy to perceive
at a glance how much the northern continents differ from
the southern in this respect:
It is a fact full of meaning that the indented, well articu-
lated continents are also, and have always been, the abode
of the most civilized nations. The unindented ones, shut
up in themselves, and less accessible from without, have
played no important part in the drama of history. We
must remember, however, that the variety of contours is
but the expression of a more complicated inner structure,
which, together with the climatic situation of the northern
continents in the temperate regions of our globe, has a large
share in this remarkable result.
The following table gives the length of the coast lines of
the six continents compared with their area, without the
islands, in English miles:
Area and Length of the Real Coast Line of each Continent.
Area Length of
g coast line.
Europe 3,565,200 sq. miles......19,800 miles.
Asia.............................---------16,216,600 “. ...... 35,500 “
North America..................... 8,261,000 “. ...... 27,700 “
Africa...................---------------- 11,314,300 “. ...... 16,200 “
Australia...................----------- 2,948,300 “ ...... 8,760 “
South America..................... 6,889,500 “ ...... 15,700 “
The table shows that Europe has 4000 miles of coast
more than Africa, which is three times larger; and that
North America, which is only little larger than South Amer-
ica, has 12,000 miles more of coast.
We have thus far taken a view of the outward forms of
the masses of land as bounded by the Waters of the coean.

1454
EARTH,
THE.
FIG. 7.-Length of the Coast Line in each Continent, compared with the Line Enclosing its Area:
- NoFTHERN CONTINENTs.
ASIA, 35,500.
NORTH AMERICA,
27,700.
EUROPE,
19,800. 16,216,600
Square miles. 8,261,000
3,565,200 Sq. miles.
Sq. miles.
SouTHERN CoNTINENTs.
AFRICA,
16,200. SOUTH AMERICA,
15,680.
AUSTRALIA,
8760.
11,314,300
2,948,300 6,889,500
Sq. miles. Sq. miles. Sq. miles.





To complete our view we must consider them as solid
bodies, and study their vertical forms.
Vertical Forms, or Relief-The configuration of their
surface, as diversified by plains, highlands, mountains, and
valleys, constitutes the relief of the continents, the charac-
teristic features of which reveal their internal structure.
The elevation of a place above the level of the sea is
usually reckoned from the level of the sea as a common
base, and its height above the ocean is called its absolute
height or altitude.
Though the loftiest mountains of the globe, compared
with the diameter of the earth, are but as grains of sand
on a globe of several feet in diameter, this element of alti-
tude acts so powerfully on climate and organic life that its
' knowledge is of primary importance. An elevation of
level of 350 feet is sufficient to diminish the mean tempera-
ture of a place by one degree Fahrenheit; that is to say,
the effect is the same as if the place were situated seventy
miles farther north. A few thousand feet of height change
entirely the aspect and usefulness of a country. It is,
again, the relief which controls the drainage of the conti-
nents, directs the course of the flowing waters, and shapes
the river-basins. Although the forms of relief are infinite-
ly varied, we may refer them to two great classes:
1st. The elevations in mass and by great surfaces, which
are called plains or lowlands when they are only a little
elevated above the level of the ocean, and plateaus or table-
lands when their elevation is more considerable and pre-
sents a solid platform, a basis of great thickness.
2d. The linear elevations or chains of mountains, which
are distributed on the borders of the plains and table-
lands, or, more rarely, scattered in isolated groups. To
the mountain-chains the valleys' correspond, as the low
plains to the plateaus.
Plains and Lowlands.-The lowlands and plains occupy
nearly one-half of the surface of the continents. They are
most extensive and unbroken on the Arctic slopes of the
three continents of the north, and on the eastern or At-
lantic side of the New World. The great Siberian plains
extend from the north-eastern part of Asia to the Ural
Mountains and the Caspian Sea, and continue through
Russia and Northern Germany to the low land of Holland.
In North America, we find extensive lowlands marked by
the valley of the Mackenzie River and the plains of the
Mississippi Valley. In South America, the Llanos or
plains of the Orinoco, the Selvas or plains of the Amazon,
the Pampas or plains of the La Plata, basin, form an unin-
terrupted series of lowlands which continue through the
Patagonian plains to the extremity of the continent, along
a line of 3500 miles. We may mention, again, among the
large plains of the world, the interior of the Australian
continent. The historical plains of China, Hindostan, and
the Euphrates in Asia, celebrated and useful as they al-
ways have been, are smaller and of a more local character.
The nature of the surface in the lowlands is extremely
grassy steppes, in which roam the nomadic Kirgheez.
variable. The vast alluvial plains, almost perfectly level,
which are the work of the present rivers, and are formed
along the great streams and in the deltas formed at their
mouths, correspond best with the idea of a low plain. Such
are the plains of the delta of the Mississippi, including the
flat bottom, from thirty to eighty miles, comprised between
the bluffs of the river; the plains of the Amazon; those of
the Orinoco and La Plata; the plains of the lower Ganges
and Brahmapootra; the delta of the Nile; the plain of
Lombardy, and others of less note. In all these the view
stretches unobstructed, as on the broad ocean, without
meeting an elevation deserving the name of a hill. Other
plains, like those of Northern Germany, the Caspian Sea,
and a part of the Siberian plains, are the sandy bottom of
an ancient ocean, and offer slight inequalities incident to
local accumulation of sand drifted by the currents, or to
some other accidental cause. Others, again, are undulating,
like many of the vast treeless plains which cover most of
the western portion of the Mississippi basin, or, like the
eastern Siberian plain, are diversified by numerous hills.
The nature of their surface is not less varied. In the Si-
berian plains large tracts called Tundra are endless frozen
swamps full of mosses and lichens, while the hilly parts are
To the south-west stretch immense
Salt
sandy plains surround the Caspian Sea. Dense forests
cover Central Russia, open treeless but fertile prairies its
more southern plains. In North America, the wet, alluvial
plain of the Mississippi delta, the open and fertile prairies
of the upper Mississippi, the barren and, in part, salt plains
of the far West, are very distinct types, with a value to
man not less different. In South America, the Llanos of
the Orinoco, a burnt waste one half the year, a rich pastu-
rage the other half; the plains of the Amazon, covered
with a luxuriant forest of over a million of square miles;
and the treeless Pampas, with their tall grass and forests
of thistles, are all forms which exhibit the endless variety
of nature.
The low plains may be counted among the most valuable
portions of our globe. There the waters, rushing down the
slopes of the continents, meet, and bringing with them the
spoils of the uplands, accumulate the rich alluvial soil on
which at all times men have gathered by millions. There
civilization began and developed, and an inexhaustible fer-
tility supplied all the wants of the full-grown nations.
China, India, Babylonia, and Egypt had their heart and
centre in the alluvial plains, fertilized by the mighty rivers
which traverse them.
The altitude of these useful basins is remarkably small.
The central part of each of those just mentioned does not
average 500 feet above the sea-level. The Mississippi at
St. Louis, 1000 miles from the sea, is hardly 400 feet above
it. The Amazon, at a similar distance inland, does not
reach 250 feet of altitude. The Siberian plains, those of
the Ganges, Euphrates, and the valley of the Nile, have all
covered with forests.
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EARTH, THE.
1455
altitudes of the same order. It would require, therefore,
but a slight depression of the continents to cover all these
rich countries with the waters of the ocean.
The following table shows the approximate area covered
by the lowlands in each continent, in English square miles,
with the proportion to the whole surface:
Lowlands. Proportion.
Asia ................. 7,116,000 square miles........ tº ſº e º a tº tº a tº e e }
Europe............... 2,541,000 “. . ..................“ #
Africa ............... 3,614,000 “. .................... #y
North America... 3,840,000 “. .................... #
South America. 5,417,000 “. .................... #
Australia........... 2,551,000 {{ e i s = • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * #
Plateaus and Highlands.-The name of plateau is usually
applied to elevations in mass, or surface elevations, the ab-
solute height of which exceeds a thousand feet. Plateaus,
or table-lands, are swelled portions of the continents, often
raised to a great height between two chains of mountains,
which form their margin, as the plateau of the Great Amer-
ican Basin between the chains of the Rocky Mountains and
the Sierra Nevada, and that of Thibet between the snowy
chains of the Himalaya and Kuen-Lun. Or they descend
by a series of terraces to the sea, as the plateau of Mexico,
or, again, slope gradually into the lowlands, as the great
plains of the far West in North America, which from an
altitude of five or six thousand feet at the foot of the Rocky
Mountains, pass by imperceptible steps into the centre of
the Mississippi Basin.
Though the name plateau rather implies a flat surface, it
may also be hilly, or even mountainous, but in all cases the
lowest part of it still remains thousands of feet above the
ocean. If no well defined limit can be given at which a
rising surface begins to deserve the name of plateau, strik-
ing differences in the climate and the vegetable and animal
life distinguish the table-lands as one of the main types of
geographical forms.
The plateaus most remarkable for their elevation are the
elongated, valley-like highlands situated between the two
chains of the Andes in South America, which have an alti-
tude of from 10,000 to 13,000 feet, and those of Thibet be-
tween the Himalaya and the Kuen-Lun, which average
from 10,000 to 16,000 feet. These may be called plateaus
of the first order. The plateaus of a second order, though
less elevated, averaging from 4000 to 7000 feet, are the most
extensive, such as those of East Toorkestan and Mongolia.
in Central Asia; of Iran in Western Asia; the vast plateau
which extends over all the southern half of Africa and Abys-
sinia; the long and broad swell which fills the western half
of Nºrth America with a continuous mass of highlands from
Alasr a to Mexico. Plateaus of a third order, with from
2000 to 3000 feet altitude, occupy the large peninsulas of
Deccan in India, of Arabia, Asia Minor, and Spain. The
central part of France, Switzerland, and Bavaria, at the
north foot of the Alps, and Transylvania, are plateaus of the
same order.
The plateaus, together with accompanying mountain-
chains, form the backbone, or kernel, of almost every con-
tinent, determining its general shape, and to a great extent
its drainage and water-courses. But they are in nearly all
the least fertile and useful portions of the surface.
Mountains and Valleys.-Unlike the broad, elevated sur-
faces just described, the mountains rise in long and com-
paratively narrow lines or ridges, the tops of which are
often deeply indented, offering to the eye a series of peaks
apparently detached from each other. Each of these peaks
or distinct elevations being often called a mountain, and
receiving a special name, the appearance suggests for such
a structure the usual name of a chain of mountains.
A mountain-chain, therefore, is not to be considered as a
necklace of isolated mountains, touching each other only
by their base, but rather as a solid prism, with a broad
base and two opposite slopes, of which the upper edge is
either nearly even, as in the middle Appalachian chains in
Pennsylvania, or indented, as in the Rocky Mountains and
the Alps. These indentations, however, even in extreme
cases, as in the Alps, do not reach lower than half the
height, leaving the larger part an unbroken, continuous
Iſla,SS.
The top of the chain from which the waters flow on op-
posite sides is the crest, and the notches between the peaks
are the passes, from which usually descend transverse val-
leys, like deep furrows along the slopes. The mountain-
ridges are seldom isolated, but usually united into systems
of mountains, composed of a large number of more or less
parallel chains with their intervening valleys. The Alle-
ghanies, the Alps, and the Andes are such systems, and not
simple chains. -
Formation of Mountains.—Geology demonstrates that
the mountain-chains are mostly formed by the uplifting
of the layers of rock which compose the earth’s crust. (See
GEOLogy.) These rocks having been deposited at the bot-
tom of the ocean, as is proved by their texture and the
abundant marine shells which they contain, were originally
in a horizontal position, and are still so in the plains at the
foot of the mountains. In the mountain-chains, however,
the same are found in all degrees of inclination, up to a
vertical position, the marine shells and pebbles in them
standing on their edges, thus testifying that they have been
disturbed since their materials were deposited. Indeed,
most of the mountain-chains seem to have been produced
by tremendous lateral compressions in the crust of the
earth, which caused either a series of long folds, as in the
Appalachians, or, when the action was more violent, deep
fissures, whose upturned edges rose into high ridges, as in
the Rocky and Sierra Nevada Mountains, the broken strata
forming ragged peaks. There are, accordingly, two main
types of mountain-chains, very distinct from each other.
One we call mountains by folds, which are generally of
moderate elevation; and the other, mountains by fracture,
to which belong the highest of the globe. The Appala-
chian system in North America and the Jura Mountains
in Switzerland are examples of the first; the Rocky Moun-
tains, the Alps, and the Himalaya, of the second.
FIG. 8.—Chain of Mountains by Folds.
Direction of
Upheaving Force.
$º->
In the Appalachian and the Jura the mountains are
curved into arches, either entire or broken on the top,
forming a system of long, straight parallel ridges of about
equal height, with intervening trough-like valleys, justifying
THE JURA.
TRANSIVERSE SECTION.
ºases
a comparison to the folds of a garment. The crest of the
ridges, seen at the horizon, appears like a uniform unin-
dented line without sharp peaks or deep passes. The main
valleys are longitudinal, the transverse valleys being few
FIG. 9.-Chain of Mountains by Fracture.
THE ALPS.
Direction of
Upheaving Force.
MONT BLANC.
TRANSVERSE SECTION.
Direction of
Upheaving Force.
and unimportant. Here and there, however, deep gaps cut
the chains transversely to their base, allowing the rivers to
escape from one valley to the other. In systems by frac-
ture, like the Rocky Mountains and the Alps, there is one
main central with lower subordinate chains. The parallel
chains and the longitudinal valleys which separate them
have not the same regularity. The crests are deeply in-
dented, and cut down, to one-third or one-half of their
height, into isolated mountain-peaks and passes, present-
ing to the eye the appearance of a saw, or in Spanish
8terra, in Portuguese serra, which names are applied to
mountain-chains of this description. The longitudinal
valleys, though sometimes of considerable size, are few, the
transverse valleys numerous, with bald picturesque out-
lines and a series of fertile basins united by deep gorges
and defiles. These systems of mountains are not to be
conceived as one single chain; they are large mountainous
zones, several hundred miles broad, whose general slopes,
therefore, average but a few degrees. It is the peculiar
combination of mountain-systems with plateaus and plains
which constitutes the distinctive forms of relief of each
continent, and also determines its general contours.



1456
EARTH, THE.
General Laws of Relief–The examination of the general
vertical forms of the masses of dry land leads to a recog-
nition of certain great laws of relief which apply to every
continent, or to certain groups of continents, or to the
whole earth. e
1st. Each continent has on one side a large system of
highlands, plateaus, and mountain-chains which consti-
tutes the principal feature of its structure, and may be
called its main axis. On the other side, along the opposite
shore, is found a similar system, but diminutive in all its
dimensions, extending over only a part of the continent,
and forming a secondary axis. Between the two a general
depression or low plain fills the interior. . The direction of
these two fundamental lines of highlands is not parallel,
but converging, which gives to all continents the triangular
form mentioned in the article CoNTINENT (which see).
Fig. 10.—Typical Form of Continents, shown in North America.
WESTERN HIGHILANDS.
Sierra Nevada. Rocky Mountains.
Pacific
Ocean.
MAIN AXIS.
A large swell cn one side, a smaller converging one on
the other, and a depression between the two, is the typical
form of a continent. An island, however large, is never
more than a part of it.
This typical structure can be traced in all continents, but
in none more clearly than in North America. Here the
main axis is formed by the large swell of the western high-
lands, stretching from the north-west to the south-east,
without interruption, for 4500 miles, steadily growing in
height from the shores of Alaska to the south end of
Mexico, and filling from one-third to one-half of the width
of the continent. The plateaus contained between the
border chains of the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Moun-
tains average full 4000 feet, and reach in Mexico double
that altitude, the high peaks of the mountain-ranges reach-
ing from 12,000 to 15,000 feet. The secondary axis is the
Appalachian system, extending from Nova Scotia to Ala-
bama, in a south-westerly direction, for 1500 miles. Its
average width is hardly one-fifth, and its elevation, pla-
teaus, and peaks not one-half, that of the western high-
lands; but still it determines the trend of the Atlantic
coast. Between the two axes the lowlands of British
America and the vast plains of the Mississippi Basin
stretch for 3000 miles from the Arctic shores to the Gulf
of Mexico, hardly interrupted by a slight central swell
of 1000 or 1600 feet in the region of the sources of the
Mississippi.
In the sister continent of South America, the same normal
structure is evident. On the extreme western margin the
high and massive swell which bears the peaks of the Andes,
the highest of the New World, rises from the Pacific shores
as a continuous wall of 4500 miles from the Isthmus of
Panamá to Cape Horn. Opposite this main axis, on the
Atlantic side, the Brazilian plateau, with its border chains
2000 miles long and from 3500 to 9000 feet high, forms
the secondary axis. In the interior, 4000 miles of low
plains extend without interruption along the eastern foot
of the Andes, from the Llanos of Venezuela to the southern
extremity of Patagonia.
In Asia and Europe, which together form one great conti-
nental mass, the typical structure, owing to the compli-
cation of their forms of relief, is not so easily traced, but
it is none the less real. Here, instead of a continuous body
of highlands, as in North and South America, we meet
with a series of separated systems. The highest and most
prominent chains of mountains, forming the main axis, are
all nearer the southern edge—the Himalaya, the Caucasus,
the Alps, and the Pyrenees. The low and extensive plains
are all on the north, and about the centre lines of lower
mountains mark the smaller axis. Asia-Europe, however,
is divided into three distinct parts, each of which is almost
a continent, Eastern and Western Asia and Europe, which
have to be considered separately.
In Eastern Asia, the main axis is clearly marked at the
south by the gigantic swell of land contained between the
border chains of the Himalaya and the Ruen-Lun, in
which are found the highest plateaus and mountains of the
world. On the north side we recognize the secondary axis
in the chains of the Thian-shan and the Altai. Between
these two zones of highlands extend, in a vast depression,
the plains of East Toorkestan and of the so-called plateau
of Mongolia, which, though having an altitude of from
2000 to 4000 feet, lie full 10,000 feet lower than the neigh-
boring plateaus of Thibet. In Western Asia the plateau
of Iran has its main swell on the south border, in the high
mountains of Koordistan and the Taurus, and in the
eastern half the river Ilmend marks the direction of a
central depression which sinks from 4000 to 5000 feet
below the surrounding plaims.
In Europe, the highest chains, the Pyrenees, the Alps,
and the Balkans, which form the main axis, are all on the
southern edge of the continental triangle, separating the
Appalachian
Mountains.
Atlantic
§§ Ocean.
-º-º-º- –As &SA—se
CENTRAL DEPRESSION. SMALL AXIS.
Basin of Mississippi.
three Mediterranean peninsulas from the main body. In
the centre, a slanting line of lower chains, the Carpathian
and the Sudetic Mountains, the Riesengebirge, and the
chains bordering the low plains of Northern Germany,
form the minor axis. Between the two lie the low plains
of Wallachia and Hungary and the numerous basins of
Central Germany.
Africa has a double structure. The northern half con-
forms to Asia-Europe, its mountain-chains and plateaus
running east and west, which explains its projection far
into the Atlantic. The highlands of the Atlas along the
Mediterranean, and the Kong Mountains on the Sea of
Guinea, are two border swells, between which stretch the
vast plains of the Sahara, whose average altitude does not
much exceed 1500 feet. The southern half, as ascertained
by Dr. Livingstone, is an unbroken plateau with two border
swells running from north to south, as in North and South
America, the higher one on the east, the Smaller one, hardly
less elevated, on the west, and a depression two or three
thousand feet lower in the centre. -
Australia has also a main swell on the east, with plateaus
of 3000 feet and mountains of over 7000 feet; and a lower
one in the west, extensive plains filling the centre between
the two. It has, therefore, the real continental structure,
and cannot be counted, as it sometimes erroneously is,
among the islands.
2d. From this peculiar structure of the continents results
the fact that in all the line of greatest elevation is placed
out of the centre, on one of the sides, at an unequal dis-
tance from the shores of the seas. Hence arise two slopes,
unequal in length and inclination. In North America, for
example, the Rocky Mountains, which divide the Pacific
and Atlantic slopes, are 800 miles from the Pacific shore,
and over 2000 miles from the Atlantic, the western slope
being less than one-third of the eastern. In South America
the inequality is still greater. The Amazon takes its rise
hardly more than a hundred miles from the Pacific, and its
waters reach the Atlantic 2000 miles farther east, making
the eastern slope twenty times longer than the western.
This peculiarity has, as we shall see, the greatest influence
upon the character of the drainage and the arrangement
of the river-systems in each continent. . -
3d. All the prominent plateaus and mountain-systems
of the globe are found to stretch chiefly in two principal
directions. They extend either from east to west, with a
slight deviation towards the north, on a line nearly parallel
to the ecliptic, or else from north to south, slightly deviat-
ing to the east or west, and thus on a line at right angles
with the first. The direction east and west predominates
in the Old World, and controls the high ranges and pla–
teaus which form the main body of the continents of Asia,
Europe, and North Africa. The direction north and south
predominates in the American continents, and gives them
the great elongation towards the south which is character-
istic of the New World. It is also found in South Africa
and Australia. Distinguished geographers in the last cen-
tury had already noticed these prevalent directions, in
mountain-chains, and called one class parallel and the other
meridian mountains.
4th. The mountain-ranges and plateaus in the New
World all belong to the north-and-south system, the trans-
verse being almost absent; hence the great simplicity of
structure and of outlines which characterizes the American
continent. In Asia and Europe the two intersect each
other. Though the main body is due to the chains and
plateaus of the east-and-west system, it is crossed at right
angles by numerous chains of the second system, which
greatly diversify the surface and divide it into distinct
regions, and, projecting far into the sea, form the beautiful
peninsulas which so much vary their contours and enrich
these continents. The high Bolor and the Ural Mountains
in the interior of Asia, the chains which fill the peninsula's



EARTH, THE.
1457
of Kamtchatka, Corea, and of Indo-China, the Ghauts of
India, the mountains of the Hellenic peninsula, the Apen-
nines, the Scandinavian Alps, all belong to the north-and-
south system. The same can be said of the southern half
of Africa, and Australia.
5th. The altitude of both the surface elevations and the
mountain-peaks gradually increases along the axes of the
continents to a maximum which is placed beyond the cen-
tre, towards one end, from which the heights rapidly de-
crease. Here also, as in the transverse sections of the con-
tinents, there is a long and a short slope. The following
table of altitudes will exhibit this law, and also show that
the two Americas form together one system of increasing
heights from north to south, interrupted only by the zone
of broken and sunken lands in Central America, and that
Europe and Asia form another, increasing from west to
east. Volcanoes, being but exceptions in the general relief,
are omitted, unless they owe their altitude to the elevation
of the base on which they stand. (See profile in Map I.)
NEW WORLD.
North America — Western Highlands.
Surface Elevations. Eng, feet. Mountains. Eng. foet.
Plains of Alaska................ 800| Northern Rocky Mºtns......4,000
Pelly Banks, Upper Yukon.1400 Mt. Murchison, Brit. Col. 14,431
Central Plateau of British Mt. Hood, Oregon............ 11,225
Columbia ....................... 2000| Mt. Shasta, California......14,440
Great Plains of the Colum- Fremont Peak, Wyoming
bia ........................-------. 2000. Territory..................... 13,576
Great Basin, Utah, average...4500|Gray's Peak, Col. Terr......14,290
Great Salt Lake, “ ..4236; Pike's Peak, Col. Terr...... 14,000
Colorado Plateau, {{ ..6000 Mt. Whitney, Sierra Ne-
Plateau of Mexico, “ .8000|| Vada ........................... 15,000
City of Mexico, {{ .7473| Popocatepetl, Mexico......17,784
City of Toluca, “ .8818. Orizaba........................... 17,879
South America—Andes.
Surface Elevations. Eng. feet. Mountains. Eng. feet.
City of Bogotá, New Gran. 8,655 Tolima, New Granada......18,360
City of Quito, Ecuador...... 9,520 Cayambe, Ecuador........... 19,386
City of Cuzco, Peru.......... 11,500 Chimborazo, “ ........... ,414
Lake Titicaca, Bolivia...... 12,800 Ilhampu, or Nevada de
City of La Paz, “ ...... 12,230|| Sorata, Bolivia.............. 25,000
City of Potosí, “ ...... 18,330| Illimani, “ . .............. 24,155
Plateau of Catamarca, Ar- A concagua, Chili............. 22,422
gentine Republic........... 12,000 Yanteles, Patagonia......... 8,030
Valley of Tenuyam, Andes Sarmiento, Terra del Fue-
of Chili......................... 7,500 go ... 6,910
Thus the highest lands of the New World, surface eleva-
tions, and mountains are found in the plateau of Bolivia,
around Lake Titicaca, and the heights steadily increase
from the shores of the Arctic Ocean to that point for 7500
miles, while the line of descent to the Southern Ocean is
only 2500 miles.
The same law is shown in the smaller axes, along the
Atlantic in both continents, with some modification in the
Appalachian system. Here the lowest part is a little above
the middle point, about New York and New Jersey. Thenco
the heights increase towards the north and the south, but
more gradually and to a greater altitude in the southern
half, as shown in the following table: . a
Appalachian Mountains—Northern half, from South to
JWorth.
Eastern Chain. Eng. feet. Green Mountains. Eng. feet.
Mt. Wachusett, Mass.......... 2018| North Beacon, Highlands...1471
Grand Monadnock, N. H....3718| Greylock, Mass.................. 3505
Moosehillock, N. H............ 4790 Killington Peak, Vt........... 4221
Mt. Lafayette, W. Mts., N.H.,5290| Mansfield Mt.....................4389
Mt. Washington, “ “. ...6288| Mt. Marcy, Adirond’k Mts..5370
Southern half, from North to South.
The Great Central Walley. Eng. feet. Mountains. Eng, feet.
Easton, Pa........................ 165|Blue Ridge, N. J............... 1500
Harrisburg, Pa.................. 328; Peaks of Otter, Va............ 3993
Salem, Upper Roanoke...... 1čížwº Top, Va.......... . . . .;;. 5530
Mt. Airy, Va..................... 2595|Black Dome, or Mitchell's
Bristol, Va........................ 1678| High Peak, N.C............ 670
Knoxville, Tenn.............. . 900|Clingman Mt., N.C........... 6660
Great Frog Mount’m, Tenn. 4226
In South America, the Atlantic border of the Brazilian
highlands rises to an altitude of about 3000 feet in the
north, 4000 in the centre, and culminates with 9500 in the
Serra Mantiqueira, south-west of Rio de Janeiro.
OLD WORLD.
Europe and Asia, from West to East.
Surface Elevations. Eng. feet. Mountains. Eng. feet.
IPlateau of Spain.............. 2,300|Pyrenees, Pic Anethou... 11,168
{{ “ Bavaria........... 1,800|Alps, Mt. Blanc............... 15,781
{{ * Asia Minor...... 3,000|Caucasus, Mt. Elboorz..... 18,572
{{ “ Armenia. ........ 4,500 Hindoo-Koosh Chain...... 20,000
{{ “ West Iran, Per- Karakorum Chain, Mt.
sia............... 4,000| Dapsang..................... 28,278
{{ “ East Iran, Af- Dhawalagiri, Himalaya... 26,826
ghanistan.... 6,000|Gaurisankar, or Mt. Ever-
{{ “ West'n Thibet.15,000 est.............................. 9,002
{{ “ East'n Thibet..11,000|Chamalari, Bhootan........ 23,944
In the smaller axis in Europe also the heights are stead-
ily increasing from north-west to south-east. The Weser
Mountains only average 1500 feet; the Thuringian Forest,
3000; the highest peak in the Riesengebirge rises to 5254;
the culminating point in the Tatra, or High Carpathian
Mountains, has an altitude of 8685 feet.
In the smaller Asiatic axis the Altai Mountains, which
average about 5000 feet, culminate in the Bielucha, 11,000
feet, and the Sajan Mountains, 11,452 feet, in the west, and
decrease towards the north-east.
In the New World, therefore, the highest lands are piled
up in the south-west ; in the Old World, in the south-east.
In Africa, also, the land-masses increase in altitude from
west to east and from north to south. The western sys-
tems, the Kong Mountains and the Atlas, are plateaus of
from 2000 to 3000 feet in altitude, with mountain-chains in
the latter of from 7000 to 11,000 feet. The volcanic group
of the Cameroons, near the Gulf of Guinea, reaches 13,000
feet. The eastern swell rises to plateaus of 6000 to 8000
feet in Abyssinia, with mountain-peaks of 16,000 feet.
The course of the Nile marks a long slope running up from
the Mediterranean to the highlands of Abyssinia; and far
beyond, on the same line, under the equatorial sun, the
snowy peaks of Kenia and Kilimandjaro rise to 20,000
feet, and mark the culminating points of the whole conti-
ment. In the southern half also the two border swells
unite into the high plateau of 5000 feet which fills the
broad and massive point of the continent in the territory
of the Cape Colony.
In Australia, the same tendency is observed; the lands
rise towards the south-east corner, and culminate there in
the Australian Alps, where Mt. Hotham exceeds 7000 feet.
6th. On the whole, the reliefs begin with the vast low
plaims around the polar circle, and go on increasing from
the shores of the Arctic Ocean towards the tropical regions.
The highest elevations, however, are not found at the equa-
tor, but north of the Tropic of Cancer in the Old World,
in the Himalayas, 28° N. lat. ; and north of the Tropic
of Capricorn in the New World, in the Andes of Bolivia,
16° S. lat. The effect of this law is to temper the burning
heat of the tropical regions, and give them a variety of
climate which seems not to belong to these countries. If
this order were reversed, and the elevation of land went on
increasing towards the north, the now most civilized part of
the globe would become a frozen and uninhabited desert.
7th. The distribution of low plaims, plateaus, and moun-
tains is far from being uniform. Not only has each con-
tinent a different share, but also one or the other form of
relief so predominates as to give it a special character,
which has the greatest influence upon its climate and fune-
tions, both in nature and in man’s history. The large,
fertile basins of the Mississippi and Amazon are the most
valuable and characteristic parts of the American conti-
ments; they are the continents of low plains. Africa has
no low plain of any great extent, but is filled with vast
table-lands; it is the continent of plateaus. Europe in its
western and most important half is but a network of
mountain-chains without high plateaus, and is the conti-
nent of mountains. Asia, as the common root of all, has
all the forms of relief on the grandest scale and in equal
proportion; the most extensive plains in the north, the
largest plateaus in its centre, the highest mountains on its
border, with the greatest variety in their combination. It
is the master continent, the full type of all the others.
8th. All that has just been said of the general reliefs of
the globe is summed up in a single great fact which can be
thus expressed :
All the long, gentle slopes descend towards the Atlantic
and its prolongation, the Arctic Ocean, while all short and
rapid slopes are directed towards the Pacific and its de-
pendant, the Indian Ocean. - *
Formation of the Relief–These general laws which regu-
late the inequalities of our globe seem to point to a coln-
mon geological cause, which may perhaps be found in the
gradual cooling of our planet. We may conceive that ow-
ing to the contraction of the interior the hard crust, having
become too large for its contents, shrunk and shriyeled.
Vast portions of its surface subsided, and formed the
oceans where the waters are gathered together. Between
these sinking areas the other portions of the crust were
forced up in large swells, wrinkled into folds, or broken
into high mountain-ranges, and formed between the Pacific
and the Atlantic the American continents on one side,
Europe and Asia on the other; between the Indian Ocean
and the Atlantic, South Africa; between the same and the
Pacific, Australia. This view is confirmed by the fact,
pertinently pointed out by Prof. Dana, that the height of
the border mountains and plateaus is in proportion to the
width of the oceans which bathe their feet. The Pacific,
which is the larger ocean, has on its border the high chains
of the Andes and Sierra Nevada, and the short slopes;
92
1458
EARTH-CLOSET-EARTHQUAKES.
while the Atlantic has the Brazilian and the Appalachian
Mountains, and the long slopes; and a similar arrange-
ment is found in the other continents. The interior, more
remote from the seat of the upheaving force, remains de-
pressed. The cause of the typical structure of all conti-
nents above described therefore becomes evident. Thus
the almost infinite variety of the inequalities of the earth’s
surface is actually subject to a general law. Here, as else-
where, everything has been made with order and measure,
and no doubt with regard to a final aim, which it is for
science to discover by patient and intelligent research.
Islands.-The innumerable smaller bodies of land called
islands form only one-seventeenth of the total surface of
the dry land. They are of two classes—the Continental
and the Pelagic (or oceanic) islands.
The continental islands are mere fragments of the conti-
nental structures, situated by the side of them or not far
away, as the British Isles; or in lines parallel to their
coasts, as the Japanese and Australian islands and the West
Indies; or forming a continuation into the ocean of their
chains of mountains, only partially submerged, as the long
line of the Sunda Islands. They have the same kind of
rocks and of mountain forms, the same variety of plants
and large animals, as the neighboring coasts of the conti-
nents, to which they belong. They vary in size, from a
mere isolated rock to such large bodies as the British Isles,
the Japanese Islands, Madagascar, Sumatra, and the most
extensive of all (if we exclude Greenland), Papua and Bor-
neo, whose area, exceeds 2,000,000 square miles.
The pelagic (or oceanic) islands are scattered, far away
from the continents, in the midst of the oceans to which
they belong. Their size is always small. Though some-
times found in lines, they are oftener, arranged in groups.
Navigators distinguish among them two classes, the high
and the low islands, which are found actually to correspond
to two natural groups, distinct in their forms, geological
nature, and mode of growth. The high islands are vol-
canic cones with craters, many of them still active. The
low islands are all of a coralline nature, and are the tops
of submarine coral reefs. -
Volcanic Islands.--It is a remarkable geological fact that
the rocks which make up the body of the continents, such
as sandstones, slate, granite, and the various metamorphic
rocks, are entirely absent in the oceanic islands. We can-
not therefore expect here the variety of mountain forms,
hills, and valleys which diversifies the surface of the conti-
ments. The volcanic islands being the tops of volcanic cones
rising above the surface of the ocean, the more or less cir-
cular form of their outlines, their elevation and rapid slopes,
and their moderate size are easily understood. Some hardly
reach the surface, their crater being filled by the water of
the sea, as in Barren Island; others rise to alpine heights,
as the peaks of Hawaii in the Sandwich Islands, reaching
nearly 14,000 feet, the Pico de Teyde, over 12,000 feet, in
the Canary Islands, and Tahiti, over 7000. Sometimes
two or more volcanoes clustered together form a single
island, which may then have a larger size and more irreg-
ular outlines.
Coral Islands and their Formation.—The coral islands
are among the most striking phenomena of the tropical
seas. (For description, see CoRAL ISDANDs.)
IX. Water.—Water is the second great geographical ele-
ment to be considered. It is the universal solvent which,
by disintegrating and rearranging the materials of the
earth’s crust, was in geological times the principal agent in
forming what is now the solid land. It is equally indis-
pensable in fertilizing the soil and carrying on the process
of animal and vegetable life.
The common reservoir of water is the sea, which, as we
have seen, covers nearly three-quarters of the surface of the
globe. By slow but constant evaporation it is carried into
the atmosphere in the shape of invisible vapors, which,
borne by the winds over the continents, are condensed and
fall in beneficent rains. A portion of the rain-water evapo-
rates again in the atmosphere, another sinks into the
ground, through which it percolates, and reappears at the
surface in the form of springs, or fills the quiet sheets of
water which feed the Artesian wells. The remainder flows
over the surface in rivulets and brooks, which unite, and,
receiving new accessions at every step, form the mighty
rivers which carry the surplus water back to the ocean from
whence it came. -
Thus is produced the vast network of streams which,
like the arteries of the human system, convey the life-
giving element to all parts of the globe.
Surface depressions filled by streams or springs form the
numerous lakes spread over the continents.
In this ceaseless circulation we have to consider the
oceanic, the atmospheric, and the inland waters (for which
see OCEAN, RIVER, LAKE, RAINs). ARNOLD GUYOT.
Earth- closet, a form of close-stool, designed to take
the place, to some extent, of the water-closet, and fre-
quently made portable for convenience. It is well known
that dry soils have wonderful disinfecting powers, owing to
their property of absorbing ammonia and other gases. It is
upon this absorbent quality that the usefulness of manures,
when applied to soil, depends. Advantage is taken of this
absorption in the construction of the earth-closet. The
faeces are covered by a small quantity of thoroughly dried
soil or peat, which completely absorbs all unpleasant and
injurious vapors, and after a time the mass becomes per-
fectly inodorous. It is found that the same earth may, if
necessary, be used over and over again, and that finally,
when it has become thoroughly charged with excrementi-
tious principles, it is one of the best forms of concentrated
fertilizing material known. Considering the increasing
value of commercial manures, and the serious prevalence
in country as well as city, and in winter as well as in sum-
mer, of diseases caused by defective sewerage, it may be
readily seen that the earth-closet question may become ong
of much importance. (See WARING, “Earth-Closets and
Earth-Sewage.”)
Earth Currents. See MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL.
Earth'enware, a general term for all wares made of
earth, and afterwards baked. (See POTTERY, by PROF. C.
E. CHANDLER, PH. D., LL.D.)
Earth House, or Eird House, the name given in
Ireland and Scotland to a building under ground anciently
used as a place of retreat for the people in time of war. It
consisted generally of one chamber from twenty to sixty
feet long, from four to ten in width, and from four to seven
in height. It was built of unhewn stones, and entered from
the top by an opening admitting only one at a time. They
are sometimes called Picts’ houses. They were mostly
built on hillsides and other dry places. In the moor of
Clova, in Aberdeenshire, more than forty of these houses
are found near together. Bronze swords, earthen vessels,
and implements of various kinds have been found in them.
Earth Nut, a popular name given to the tubers, or
subterranean stems of several plants—viz. the Bunium
fleasuosum, an umbelliferous plant which grows in Europe;
the Cyperus rotundus, a native of Egypt; and the Arachie
hypogaea, a leguminous plant often called peanut. The
tubers of the Bunivm, which resemble chestnuts, and are
sometimes called earth chestnuts, are extensively used for
food.
Earthquakes. We are accustomed to consider the
ground on which we live as terra firma, a solid foundation
for our heaviest structures. The earthquakes teach us,
however, to our dismay, that it is by no means absolutely so.
These movements of the earth’s crust are of all degrees .
of intensity, from the almost imperceptible vibration to the
most violent convulsions, which change the face of the
ground, and reduce the most substantial works of human
handicraft to a mass of ruins.
The appalling nature of these commotions, and the phe-
nomena, attending them, were fully exhibited in the re-
markable and oft-described earthquake at Lisbon, Portugal,
on the morning of Nov. 1, 1755, the great festival of All
Saints. The churches of the city were full to overflowing,
when at forty minutes after mine a rumbling noise was
heard like distant thunder, which gradually increased until
it resembled the sound of heavy artillery. A faint shock
was followed by a more terrific one, which levelled to the
ground a greater part of the city, and in the space of six
minutes 30,000 persons were buried under the ruins of the
churches and other edifices, and 30,000 more perished be-
fore the end of the catastrophe. The ground seemed to
undulate like the waves of the sea, the surrounding moun-
tains of Arrabida and Estrella were seen rocking violently
on their base, and broad chasms were opened in the earth
and shut again. More than 3000 persons had taken refuge
on a broad marble quay just constructed on the banks of the
Tagus, when the sea, which had before retreated, came back
with fury in a wave forty feet high, and swallowed up that
unfortunate multitude, of which not one was eyer seen
again; then, rushing against the doomed city, continued its
work of devastation. These oscillations of the sea were
repeated several times, and on the spot occupied by that
massive structure several hundred feet of water were found.
Fires, kindled in the fallen dwellings, soon spread their
flames over this scene of desolation, and the mass of burn-
ing ruins presented at night the spectacle of a vast confla-
gration, which finished the work of destruction. After this
catastrophe the commotion of the ground continued for
several weeks, and a very severe shock was experienced in
December. -
One of the notable features of the earthquake of Lisbon
is the great extent of country over which it was felt. Om
land it was not confined to the Spanish Peninsula, but
shook all Western Europe, pervading France, Northern
- /
in Funchal on the island of Madeira.
EARTHQUAKES.
1459
Italy, Switzerland, Germany, the British Isles, reaching as
far as Scandinavia. The northern coast of Africa suffered
considerably; nearly all the cities in Morocco were de-
stroyed; the earth was rent asunder, letting out streams of
water. The ocean was hardly less disturbed. An English
ship, the Nancy, when 100 miles west of Cape St. Vincent,
in Portugal, experienced a shock from below so violent that
the men on the deck were thrown over a foot from the floor.
It was supposed that the ship had run against a rock and
touched bottom, while the sounding-lead indicated deep
water all around, proving that the solid floor of the ocean
had been shaken and the commotion transmitted through
the water. Huge waves, raised by these oscillations of the
earth's crust above and below the level of the sea, were
hurled on the shores of the continents. In Cadiz a mon-
strous wave sixty feet high was seen to come from the high
Sea and dash against the city. In Tangiers, on the African
coast, the sea rose and fell eighteen times, and fifteen times
These commotions
of the sea crossed even the Atlantic. In some of the Lesser
Antilles the sea rose to twenty feet, and similar waves were
observed in the harbors of New York and Boston.
The immediate area of concussion, including the portion
of the Atlantic affected by it, comprised a surface as large
as the continent of Europe. If we add the extensive area.
covered by the earthquake waves which brought to the
American shores the tidings of these convulsions, and that of
the American coast which experienced slight shocks during
the same period, the surface disturbed by the earthquake
of Lisbon amounts, according to Humboldt, to four times
that of the European continent. The propagation of the
movement seems to have been such that Lisbon was the
centre of a system of undulations or earthquake waves,
decreasing in violence with their distance from that centre.
Another earthquake, not less celebrated in the annals of
Science on account of the thoroughness with which its
phenomena were studied and recorded, is that which oc-
curred in Calabria in the year 1783. Like that of Lisbon,
it was a central earthquake, but its area, did not much ex-
ceed 500 square miles. The violence of the convulsions,
however, and the variety of their effects, were perhaps still
more remarkable. On the 5th of Feb., 1783, the first shock
threw down, in two minutes, most of the houses of the
numerous cities and villages in a radius of fourteen miles
around the city of Oppido, which seems to have been the
centre of the earthquake. The undulations were so great
that tall trees, bent to the earth, were seen touching the
ground with their tops alternately on each side of the
wave. The surrounding mountains were all in motion.
Some of them seemed to jump up and down, and the
shape of their summits was permanently changed. Houses
were thrown up bodily, as by the power of an exploding
mine, and placed on higher ground. Deep chasms opened
and shut again ; others remained gaping; land-slides ob-
structed the rivers, the courses of which were altered; and
the surface of the country changed its aspect.
Three Kinds of Motions.—The Italians long ago distin-
guished three kinds of earthquake motions. The first is
the undulatory or wave-like motion, which is the most com-
mon and the least destructive. The waves travel either in
one direction, like the waves of the sea, or from a centre in
somewhat concentric lines.
The second kind of motion is the vertical, acting from
beneath, as the explosion of a subterranean mine. When
violent, no human structure can resist its action. This
kind, as well as the first, was repeatedly exhibited in the
earthquake of Calabria. In the catastrophe which in 1797
destroyed the city of Riobamba in the Andes of Quito, says
Humboldt, many corpses of the inhabitants were thrown
several hundred feet high, on a hill beyond the brook
Lican. A similar occurrence is recorded in the terrific
earthquake of 1868. In the cemetery of Arica, on the
coast of Peru, a large number of skeletons were disinterred
and spread on the surface of the earth. The earthquake
of the 18th of Sept., 1828, in Calcutta, owed its destructive-
ness to the fact that the main shock was a vertical one.
Another one in Murcia, Spain, in 1829, destroyed or se-
verely injured more than 3500 houses.
The third kind of motion is what is termed the whirling
motion, the most dangerous, but also the rarest of all. It
is thought to be proved by facts observed in the earthquake
of Calabria, such as the twisted position of the several
stones composing the two obelisks placed in the façade of
the convent of St. Bruno in the small town of Stefano del
Bosco. In the formidable earthquake of 1692 in Jamaica.
the surface of the ground was so agitated and broken up
that some fields planted in different crops changed places,
and were found as if twisted into each other.
The normal motion, however, is the wave-like, and it is
possible that the other kinds are but the effect of various
systems of waves intersecting each other.
The propagation of these undulations takes place either
in a linear direction, along the mountain-chains, the undu-
lations being then at a right angle with them, as in most
of the earthquakes of the Andes; or from a centre, form-
ing a series of concentric waves diminishing in intensity
and gradually dying out, as in the earthquakes of Lisbon
and Calabria. The first are linear, the second central
earthquakes.
Velocity of the Earthquake Waves.—The velocity with
which the earthquake waves move is variable, according to
circumstances. Humboldt seems to assume, as an average
between extreme cases, a velocity of twenty-three to thirty-
two English miles in a minute, and this estimate does not
seem far from the truth.’
Duration of Earthquakes.—Though slight concussions or
single vibrations of the ground often occur isolated, the
great earthquakes hardly ever consist of one single shock,
but of a series of successive shocks, some of which are of
exceptional violence. These convulsions of the ground
may be repeated at longer or shorter intervals during a
period of several days and weeks, or even of several months
and years, before the earthquake is at an end. The earth-
quake of Calabria was in this respect also remarkable. A
careful and intelligent local observer, Dr. Pignataro,
counted 949 shocks in the year 1783, 501 of which were
of the first magnitude; and 151 in 1784, of which 90 were
classified by him as of the first degree of force. Nearly
four years elapsed before these oscillations ceased entirely
and the earth came again to a state of complete rest. Dur-
ing the terrific earthquake of Cumana on the coast of Ven-
ezuela, which began on the 21st of Oct., 1766, destroying
the city in a few minutes, the earth continued to be shaken
almost every hour during fourteen months, and it was only
when the commotions occurred once a month that the un-
happy inhabitants dared to begin rebuilding their houses.
After the earthquake which laid the beautiful city of Mes-
sina in ruins, the ground continued to be convulsed almost
daily for ten years, which caused a feeling of insecurity of
life which had the worst effect on the moral condition of
the inhabitants. In the appalling catastrophe which de-
stroyed the city of Lima and its harbor, Callao, in Peru, in
Oct., 1746, the shocks were repeated every seven or eight
minutes, and over 200 of the most violent kind were
counted within twenty-four hours. In the great earth-
quake of Caraccas on the 26th of Mar., 1812, fifteen shocks
were felt on the first day, and they continued numerous
every day until the 5th of April.
The general character of earthquakes seems to have been
the same in all times. The descriptions of the most ancient
on record and the most recent offer a striking coincidence.
All the phenomena above described have been repeated in
the latest of the great earthquakes, that which shook the
western coast of South America and the mountain region
of the Andes from Chili to Ecuador, on a line of over 1000
miles, in Aug., 1868. The flourishing city of Arica in Peru,
the main harbor of commerce for Bolivia, was obliterated
in a few moments. The beautiful city of Arequipa, in the
Andes of Peru, was levelled to the ground, and its 50,000
inhabitants left houseless, and soon starving in the midst
of its ruins. In the Andes of Ecuador the city of Cato-
cachy disappeared, and a lake covers the spot where it
once stood. The cities of Ibarra, Ottavalla, and others
were swallowed up, and not one of their 10,000 inhabitants
was ever seen again. Over 300,000 people were left house-
less, and the whole number of victims of that awful catas-
trophe is yet to be counted. The movements of the sea
were not less striking. In Arica, the Sea retreated from
the shore, carrying with it five ships which were in the
harbor, and returning in a high and furious wave dashed
to pieces four of them, and carried the fifth, the U. S.
steamer Wateree, two miles inland. Similar motions were
observed on the coast of Chili and of Peru, and an im-
mense earthquake wave is said to have crossed the Pacific
Ocean, striking in its course the Polynesian Islands, and
reaching the Australian shores. -
None of the natural phenomena are so immediately de-
structive of human life as earthquakes, as the recent ex-
amples just quoted suffice to show. These are equalled,
and even surpassed, by some of older times. In the earth-
quake of Sicily in 1693 over 60,000 people perished. His-
tory has recorded an earthquake in the year 19 after Christ,
at the time of the emperor Tiberius, which destroyed
120,000 lives. Another in 526, in the reign of the emperor
Justin, which destroyed a number of large cities in Syria,
among which was Antioch, cost the lives of over 200,000
human beings. Considering the greatness of the danger,
the suddenness of action, the sense of perfect helplessness
and insecurity it engenders, and all the appalling circum-
stances connected with an earthquake, no one can wonder
that the feeling of terror which it inspires is one which in-
creases with every new experience.
1460
EARTHS—EARWIG.
The number of earthquakes is much greater than is gen-
erally supposed. Carefully prepared catalogues of all re-
corded cases, such as those of Perrey, Kluge, and others,
swell their number to several thousands. Indeed, the record
of the last century, which, owing to the increased attention
bestowed on natural events, is certainly more complete,
shows that we may place earthquakes among the regular
and continuous terrestrial phenomena; for though the great
catastrophes may be rare, a week scarcely elapses without
a commotion of the ground worthy of notice taking place
somewhere on the surface of the globe.
Connection with Volcanic Eruptions.—The immediate con-
mection of earthquakes with volcanic eruptions is evident
in many instances, but these are of a special kind. On the
other hand, volcanic eruptions take place without earth-
quakes, as in the Sandwich Islands; and even in volcanic
districts the most extensive earthquakes bear apparently no
relation to the surrounding volcanoes, while a considerable
number of severe and extensive ones occur in regions far
removed from any active volcano, or even deprived of all
volcanic rocks. Though the two phenomena may have a
common cause or condition, they cannot be confounded in
the same class.
Connection with the State of the Atmosphere.—The com-
mon belief is that earthquakes are accompanied by some
extraordinary condition of the atmosphere, such as a very
low or high barometric pressure, profound calm or high
wind, Sultry and damp weather, a prolonged drought, or
peculiar electrical or magnetic disturbances; all of which
have been considered as warnings of the coming event. But
a careful scrutiny of the cases leaves this matter at present
doubtful.
Influence of the Seasons and the Hour of the Day.—The
dependence of earthquakes upon the seasons is more de-
cided. Their number seems to be greater about the time
of the equinoxes, especially the September equinox, than at
any other. In the Molucca Islands during these periods,
which are marked by the tempests accompanying the change
of monsoon, the inhabitants do not dare to remain in their
houses, but spend the season under tents. According to the
records, a greater number of earthquakes occur in winter
than in summer, which is the reverse of what is observed
in volcanic eruptions. They seem also to be more frequent
at night than in the daytime.
Astronomical Influences.—By comparing 7000 observa-
tions, Perrey found that the number of earthquakes is greater
at the time of the syzygies, when the attractions of the sum
and moon are combined and the moon is nearest to the
earth, than at the time of the quadratures, when the moon
is more distant ; and also that the shocks are more fre-
quent at the places where the moon is in the meridian.
Wolf finds a coincidence with the periodicity of the sun’s
spots, the years in which the spots are most numerous being
also those in which the earthquakes more frequently occur.
Distribution of Earthquakes.—The law of the distribu-
tion of earthquakes on the surface of the globe is of para-
mount importance for the explanation of these mysterious
phenomena. The most general facts in this respect are the
following:
1. There is no part of the globe absolutely free from
earthquakes; the phenomenon is general.
2. There are circumscribed regions in which the surface
is liable to be shaken simultaneously; such a region is an
earthquake area.
3. A very significant fact, however, is that the most ex-
tensive of these areas of concussion, and those in which the
earthquakes are the most numerous and violent, are situ-
ated within the two great zones of broken lands described
above—the border zone around the Pacific Ocean, and the
central Zone separating the northern from the southern
continents. In the first are found the celebrated earthquake
areas of the Andes, that of the western coast of North Amer-
ica, and those of Kamtchatka, Japan, and New Zealand.
In the second we meet with the great Mediterranean area
from Spain to Syria, with Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, and
North Africa. The Arabian and Indian areas are in the
same zone; and the two regions of the earth most convulsed
by these terrific shocks, the earthquake areas of Central
America, with the Antilles, and that of the East Indian
Archipelago, the really classic soil of earthquakes, are situ-
ated at the intersection of the two zones. Outside of these
two zones only a few more large areas are found like that
of which Iceland is the centre, and which extends to Scot-
land and Scandinavia, and another in Central Asia.
.The analogy of this distribution with that of volcanoes
is evident, but the domain of earthquakes, as remarked
above, extends far beyond that of volcanoes. Both are most
intense in their action along the great fractures of our
planet, but it would be rash to infer from this fact that one
is the cause of the other; they only require similar condi-
tions for their manifestation.
Theory of Earthquakes.—Many explanations of the phe-
nomenon of earthquakes have been proposed, but science
must confess its inability to give, at present, a satisfactory
one. Earthquakes are obviously due to various causes.
Those preceding or accompanying a volcanic eruption
must be, no doubt, referred to the action of the volcano;
but the extensive earthquakes disturbing areas of hundreds
of thousands of miles, and those which take place outside
of volcanic districts, require a more general cause. Per-
haps this may be found, which is also the opinion of Prof.
Dana, in the increasing tension produced in the earth strata
by the steady contraction of our cooling planet. To this
cause geology refers the rising of mountain-chains on long
fissures in the hard terrestrial crust, in the form of prisms
with inclined planes, or of a succession of folds with large
internal cavities. The settling under their own weight of
these vast structures, and the lateral tensions thus engen-
dered, coming from time to time to a paroxysm, might per-
haps explain these crackings of the ground and convulsions
along the mountain-chains and in the broken parts of the
earth. In this view every difference of pressure, atmos-
pheric or astronomical, from lunar and solar attraction, may
have a share of influence in the phenomenon.
As to the influence of the seasons, the time of the day,
of electricity, magnetism, and the solar spots, they show
once more, if finally proved, how intimate are the relations
of all physical agencies with each other, and how close an
analysis is required to understand so complex a phenom-
€Il OIl. ARNOLD GUYOT.
Earths, in chemistry, a term applied to compounds con-
sisting each of a metal combined with oxygen. The earths
proper are the dyad-oxides, glucina, thoria, didymia, lan-
thana, yttria, and erbia. They and their carbonates are
insoluble in water. Alumina, zirconia, and ceria (tetrads)
are of the same general character, and are properly called
earths. Magnesia, baryta, Iime, and strontia are called al-
kaline earths, because they are less soluble in water than
true alkalies, though they exhibit alkaline reactions.
Earth-shine, a reflection of the sun’s light from the
earth to the moon, and back to the earth again. This phe-
nomenon is often seen when the moon is very old or very
new, the outlines of the full moon being rendered visible
by the reflection.
Earth/works, a military term applied to fortifications
or constructions, whether for attack or defence, in which
earth is the principal material employed. (See FoRTIFICA-
TIONs, by CAPT. O. H. ERNST, U. S. Army.)
Earth'worm (Lumbricus), the popular name of a
genus of Annelida of the order Terricolae. The species are
numerous, and they are found wherever the soil contains
sufficient moisture to sustain their life. The earthworm
has no head distinct from its body. It is composed of a
succession of rings, sometimes amounting to 120 in mum-
ber; it is without eyes or other external organs, excepting
that on each ring it has eight short bristles pointing back-
ward, which it uses in locomotion as the Snake uses its
scales. The mouth consists of two lips, the upper one
being elongated; it has no teeth, and subsists by swallow-
ing particles, of earth, which, after the digestible matter
has been extracted, is voided often on the surface of the
ground in small intestine-shaped masses called worm-cºsts.
It respires through pores which communicate with little
sacs. It is hermaphrodite, but mutual fecundation takes
place. The eggs often contain two embryos. The earth-
worm is covered with mucus, which enables it to glide
through the ground without retaining a particle of the
soil. Targe specimens attain a length of nearly a foot.
Eart/mon, a post-village, capital of Dodge co., Ga., on
the Macon and Brunswick R. R. (See EASTMAN.)
Ear Trumpet, an instrument for the relief of defec-
tive hearing. Ear trumpets are of a great variety of forms,
but they all depend upon the same principle—that of col-
lecting and condensing the sound waves, and thereby in:
tensifying the impression made upon the ear. It is found
in practice that a nice adjustment of parts is not necessary;
sound being readily reflected , along conical tubes, either
straight or coiled, with great facility. Cases of compara.
tively slight deafness are aided by the wearing of “cornets,”
or small lear trumpets attached by a spring to the ear, and
concealed by the hair of the wearer. -
Ear Wax. See CERUMEN.
Ear’wig [Ang-Sax. eor-wiega, literally, “ear-beetle;”
Fr. perce-oreille; Ger. Ohrwurm], (Forficulariae), a family
of insects, so named from the popular delusion that they
have a propensity to creep into the ear. They form a con-
necting link between the Coleoptera and the true Orthop-
tera. They have a narrow body, strong and horny mandi-
bles, long antennae, and a pair of forceps at the extremity
of the abdomen.
EASELY-EAST BRUNSWICK,
1461
Easely, a township of Pickens co., S. C. Pop. 1089.
Easement, a legal term denoting, in its most compre-
hensive sense, the right which the public or an individual
has in the lands of another, not inconsistent with a general
property in the latter. It is in the nature of a charge or
burden upon land. It is called a dominant right, while the
land burdened is termed the servient estate. Easements
may be mere personal rights, when they are said to be in
gross, or they may be connected with the ownership of land.
The latter only will be considered. 1. They are incor-
poreal. 2. They are imposed on corporeal property. 3.
They confer no right to the substance of the land. 4. There
must be two distinct estates—the dominant, to which the
right belongs; and the servient, upon which the obligation
rests. They are affirmative or negative. Affirmative, when
the owner of the dominant estate may do some act on the
servient; and negative, when the owner of the servient
estate must refrain from doing some act, otherwise lawful,
on his land. The most important instances are the right of
way (the right of the owner of one piece of land to paśs
over the land of another), of water (the right of the owner
of the dominant estate to receive water from or discharge
it across the servient estate), of support of the soil or of
the buildings of the dominant estate by the adjacent soil
or buildings of the servient estate.
Easements exist at common law, and may be created
by statute. Common-law easements may arise in various
modes. 1. By nature. This is a brief form of expression
of a legal rule, that the owners of adjoining parcels of land
may have a burden imposed upon them not to disturb the
natural state of things. Thus, where a natural stream of
water flows from the land of one owner through the land
of another, the former cannot divert or diminish the quan-
tity of water which would otherwise descend to the propri-
etor below, nor can the latter prevent the stream from dis-
charging its water across his land. Each has an easement
“by nature” in the land of the other. 2. By dedication.
This means an appropriation of land by its owner to a
public use; e.g. as a street or park or public landing-place.
The legal title to the land dedicated is not changed, but the
public acquires a right to use it for the special purpose to
which it is dedicated. These easements are sustained in
law on the doctrine of estoppel, although there is no spe-
cific grantee. No particular form or ceremony is necessary
to constitute a dedication. It is sufficient if the intention
to dedicate appear, either by positive acts of the owner or
long-continued acquiescence, and the public act accord-
ingly. 3. By actual grant. In this case the nature and
extent of the easement are determined by the words of the
instrument creating it, which must be sealed. 4. By im-
plied grant. An easement is created by implied grant
when it is necessary for the enjoyment of that which is ex-
pressly granted or reserved. Thus, if A is the owner of
two lots, the first of which can be approached only over
the second, and conveys either to B, the owner of the back
lot has by implication a right of way across the front lot.
5. By prescription. This is the enjoyment of the right or
privilege for so long a time as to raise the presumption of
a grant. The length of time necessary to raise this pre-
sumption varies in different States, but, after the analogy
of the statute barring disputed claims to land, it is usually
twenty years. To obtain by prescription an easement in
the land of another its enjoyment must have been uninter-
rupted for the required number of years, adverse to the
owner of such land, and exercised under a claim of right.
It must be open, so that the owner may be presumed to
know of it. In England it is held to be a rule of the com-
mon law that the right to light may be obtained by pre-
scription. This is called the doctrine of “ancient lights.”
It would take place where the owner of one lot of land had
windows opening on the vacant lot of another for twenty
years. He would acquire such a right that buildings could
not be constructed on the vacant lot so as to shut out the
light from his windows. But in the U. S. this rule has fre-
quently been repudiated by the courts as inapplicable to
our rapidly growing and rapidly changing condition; and
in a number of States an easement of light can be acquired
only by express or implied grant.
Easements may be extinguished by a release given by
the owner of the dominant to the owner of the servient
estate, or by abandonment. The failure to make use of an
easement (technically called non-user) for twenty years is
strong evidence of abandonment if the easement was ac-
quired by prescription, although the presumption may be
rebutted; but if the easement were acquired by actual
grant, no length of mere non-user would operate as an
abandonment. In that case there must be acts inconsistent
with the existence of the easement. An easement may
also be extinguished by a union of the two estates in the
same person. This is technically called “merger.”
T. W. DWIGHT.
East, a township of Monroe co., Ala. Pop. 859.
East, a township of Carroll co., Q. Pop. 827.
East Ab'ington, a post-village and the principal di-
vision of Abington township, Plymouth co, Mass., 20 miles
S. by E. of Boston, on the Old Colony R. R. It has a
savings bank, a newspaper, three churches, and is well
supplied with stores. It has large manufactures of boots
and shoes. Pop. about 4500. (See new town of Rock-
LAND.) J. S. SMITH, E.D. “STANDARD.”
Eastaboga, a post-twp. of Talladega co., Ala. P. 973.
East Al’bany is the N. part of Greenbush village,
Rensselaer co., N. Y. It is on the Hudson River, directly
opposite Albany, with which it is connected by bridges. It
has extensive freight-houses and machine-shops.
East Al'ien, a twp. of Northampton co., Pa. P. 1180.
East Alli’ance, a post-village of Smith township,
Mahoning co., O., is a suburb of ALLIANCE (which see).
Eastaloe, a post-twp. of Pickens co., S. C. P. 1099.
East Am/well, a twp. of Hunterdon co., N. J. P. 1802.
East An' dover, a post-village of Andover township,
Merrimack co., N. H., 25 miles N. W. of Concord, on the
Northern R. R. It has manufactures of hosiery, lasts,
lumber, and woollens.
East Arſlington, a post-village of Arlington township,
Bennington co., Vt. It has manufactures of wooden ware.
Eastatoee, a twp. of Transylvania, co., N. C. P. 351.
East Auro/ra, a post-village of Aurora township, Erie
co., N. Y., is beautifully situated on the Buffalo New York
and Philadelphia R. R., 17 miles S. E. of Buffalo. It has
a weekly newspaper, an academy, six churches, five hotels,
a foundry, numerous stores and shops, and is the business
centre of a wealthy farming region. The above descrip-
tion includes the neighboring village of Willink. East
Aurora was once the residence of ex-President Fillmore.
C. C. BowsFIELD, ED. AND PROP. “ERIE Co. ADVERTISER.”
East Baton Rouge, a parish in the S. E. of Louisi-
ana. Area, 500 sq. m. It is bounded on the E. by the Amite,
and on the W.by the Mississippi. The surface is level;
the soil fertile. Corn, cotton, sugar, and molasses are pro-
duced. Pop. 17,816. Capital, Baton Rouge.
East Bay, a twp. of Grand Traverse co., Mich. P. 466.
East Bear River, a twp. of Yuba co., Cal. Pop. 603.
East Bend, a twp. of Champaign co., Ill. Pop. 643.
East Bend, a post-township of Yadkin co., N. C.
Has an academy. Pop. 1353.
East Beth/lehem, a post-township of Washington
co., Pa. Pop. 1621.
East Bir/mingham, a borough of Alleghany co., Pa.,
on the Monongahela River, about 2 miles S. E. of Pitts-
burg. Has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 9488.
East Bloom/field, a post-twp. and village of Ontario
co., N. Y., has an academy. Pop. 2250; of village, 320.
East/bourne, a watering-place of Sussex, England, 3
miles N. N. E. of Beachy Head, in a chasm between two cliffs,
has a martello tower, a fort, and a chalybeate spring. P. 5795.
East Boy/er, a township of Crawford co., Ia. P. 231.
East Brad/ford, a twp. of Chester co., Pa. P. 1033.
East Bra’dy, a post-borough of Clarion co., Pa., is
situated about 70 miles N. of Pittsburg, on the Alleghany
River. It has had a remarkably rapid growth, having at-
tained its present population (about 3000) in four years.
The iron-works of the Brady’s Bend Iron Company are lo-
cated on the opposite bank of the river, and give employ-
ment to 1500 persons. East Brady is but 7 miles distant
from the Butler county oil-regions, and to this place much
of the oil produced is run in pipe-lines, whence it is shipped
to Pittsburg and other markets. It contains the usual
number of schools, churches, business houses, etc., and one
weekly newspaper. Pop. in 1870, 728.
SAMUEL YouNG, E.D. AND PROP. OF “INDEPENDENT.”
East Bran/dywine, a twp. of Chester co., Pa. P. 1011.
East Bridgewater, a post-township of Plymouth co.,
Mass., on the Old Colony and Newport R. R., 25 miles S. E.
of Boston. It has valuable water-power, and large man-
ufactures of brick, lumber, cotton-gins, iron, chains, nails,
boots, shoes, and other goods. There are five churches, a
savings bank, good Schools, and one weekly newspaper.
Pop. 3017. ED. OF “ NEWS.”
East Brook, a twp. of Hancock co., Me. Pop. 187.
East Brook/field, a thriving post-village of Brook-
field township, Worcester co., Mass. -
East Bruns/wick, a township of Middlesex co., N. J.
Its inhabitants are extensively engaged in fruit-culture for
the New York market. Pop. 2861.
1462
EAST BRUNSWICK–EASTER.
East Brunswick, a twp. of Schuylkill co., Pa. P. 1661.
East Buffalo, a twp. of Union co., Pa. Pop. 1011.
East/burn (JAMES WALLIS) was born in London, Eng-
land, Sept. 26, 1797, and graduated at Columbia College in
1816. He was ordained deacon Oct. 20, 1818, by Bishop
Hobart in Trinity church, New York, and soon after became
rector of St. George’s, Accomac, Va. He wrote an admir-
able Trinity hymn, besides versions of some of the Psalms.
In 1817–18 he and his friend Robert C. Sands produced a
poem called “Yamoyden.” He died at sea Dec. 2, 1819.
Eastburn (MANTON), D. D., a Protestant Episcopal
bishop, a brother of the preceding, was born in England
Feb. 9, 1801. He came to New York, graduated at Co-
lumbia College in 1816, was ordained in 1822, became rector
of the church of the Ascension in New York in 1827, and
bishop of Mass. in 1843. He published lectures and ad-
dresses, “Lectures on the Epistle to the Philippians”
(1833), and other works. Died Sept. 12, 1872.
East Caln, a township of Chester co., Pa. Pop. 1309.
East Canaan, a post-village of Grafton co., N. H., on
the Northern R. R., 52 miles N. of Concord. It has five
churches, one newspaper, two steam-mills, and numerous
stores and shops. Principal business, farming and the man-
ufacture of lumber. C. O. BARNEY, ED. “REPORTER.”
East Chatham, a post-village of Chatham township,
Columbia, co., N. Y., on the Boston and Albany R. R., 29
miles S. E. from Albany, has a number of manufactories.
East Chester, a post-township of Westchester co.,
N. Y. It contains Mt. Vernon and numerous other sub-
urban villages near New York City. Pop. 7491.
East Chester, a twp. of Chester co., S. C. Pop. 732.
East Chi'na, a twp. of St. Clair co., Mich. Pop. 297.
East Cleveland, a p.-twp. of Cuyahoga co., O. P. 5050.
East Cocal’ico, a twp. of Lancaster co., Pa. P. I992.
East Conemaugh, borough, Cambria co., Pa. P. 381.
East Cov’entry, a p.-twp. of Chester co., Pa. P. 1318.
East Deer, a township of Alleghany co., Pa. P. 1390.
East Don’egal, a twp. of Lancaster co., Pa. P. 3254.
East Dorset, a post-village of Dorset township, Ben-
nington co., Vt., on the Harlem Extension R. R., 25 miles
S. of Rutland. It has marble-quarries of great value.
East Douglas, a post-village of Douglas township,
Worcester co., Mass., on the Boston Hartford and Erie
R. R., 16 miles S. S. E. of Worcester and 46 miles S. W.
of Boston. The extensive works of the Douglas Axe Co.
are here. Pop. about 1500. SPENCER BROTHERs,
PUBs. OF THE “WoRCESTER SOUTH COMPENDIUM.”
East Earl, a township of Lancaster co., Pa. Pop. 2310.
East Eden, Me. See EDEN.
East Elma, a post-village of Elma township, Erie co.,
N. Y. Pop. 112.
Easter [Ger. Oster; Gr. trāaxa ; Lat. pas’cha; Fr.
páques; etymology doubtful], the principal festival of
the Christian year, observed in commemoration of the
resurrection of our blessed Lord. The returns of this
anniversary were originally regulated, and in imitation
of this early usage have always continued to be, by the
calendar of Judea, in which the months were conterminous
with the revolutions of the moon. A mean lunation being,
roughly, twenty-nine and a half days long, twelve lunar
months, or a lunar year, fall short of a solar year by about
eleven days. The beginning of the Jewish year therefore
goes backward on the natural year eleven days annually,
requiring an intercalary month to be introduced in the third
year, and again in the sixth, ninth, eleventh, fourteenth,
and so on. Any anniversary regulated by such a calendar
as this is consequently movable in reference to a calendar
regulated by the sun. The Resurrection took place just after
the Jewish feast of the Passover, which was held on the
fourteenth day of Nisan, the first month of the year—-that
is to say, the fourteenth day of the moon, or not far from
the time of full moon. The Christians of Jerusalem, and
after them those of the Asiatic churches generally, were
accustomed to hold the feast of Easter on this same day
or simultaneously with the Jewish Passover. This usage
was unacceptable to the Gentile churches in Italy and the
West generally, which preferred to celebrate Easter on the
Sunday following the fourteenth day of the moon; and
the difference of practice in this particular led to grave
dissensions between the East and West, which were at
length pacified by the agreement reached in the Council of
Nicaea (A. D. 325), to make the Western usage universal.
Since this early period Easter has always been observed
throughout the world on the Sunday following the four-
teenth of that lunation of which this fourteenth day falls
on the 21st of March or next later. In order to find the
time of Easter for any given year, it would seem that we
should calculate the exact time of the new moon in that
year for March, and try whether the fourteenth day of that
moon (the day of new moon itself being counted the first)
would fall not earlier than the 21st; in which case the Sun-
day following this fourteenth day might be presumed to be
Easter. But should this fourteenth day fall earlier than
the 21st of March, we should conclude that the new moon
of April must be taken. The ecclesiastical calendar, how-
ever, is only nominally dependent on the moon in the
heavens, the true moon and the calendar moon sometimes
differing in their age more than two days. The practical
reason for this is, that if the astronomical time of new
moon is taken, this time will not be the same in the local
times of different longitudes; so that a meridian may
always be assigned such that the same new moon may
fall on different calendar days on different sides of it. And
if the calculation is very nicely made, when new moon
happens exactly at midnight of Saturday or Sunday in the
middle of a large city like London, the east and west
halves of the city may have their Easter upon two very
different days. The ecclesiastical moon is therefore an
ideal or artificial moon; and in determining the beginning
and end of each lunation no account is taken of any differ-
ences smaller than a day. In order to divest the ecclesias-
tical calendar as much as possible of complexity, advantage
is taken of the fact discovered by Meton, an Athenian as-
tronomer in the fifth century before our era, that in a period
of nineteen solar years the Sun and the moon return almost
exactly to the same relative positions which they occupied at
the beginning of this period, the difference amounting to
little more than the space the moon would move over in
two hours. The calendar therefore assumes that the moons
determining Easter will recur in the same order every nine-
teen years throughout an entire century, and sometimes
throughout two or three centuries. The Easters them-
selves do not therefore necessarily recur on the same days
of the month of March or April in each of these successive
series of nineteen years, but would do so if the same days
of the week always corresponded to the same days of the
month. This, however, is not usually the case; and as
Easter must be Sunday, it is necessary, in order to fix
definitely the date of Easter in any given year, to know
both the place of the year in the series of nineteen (or in
the Metonic cycle) and also the day of the week on which
the year began, or (what is practically the same thing) the
dominical letter for the year. Various methods have been
given for finding Easter, but all of them commence, ex-
pressly or implicitly, with the determination of these two
elements. The rules given by Prof. de Morgan in the
“Companion to the British Almanac" for 1845 occupy
about a page. The formulae of Delambre, in the first
volume of his “ History of Modern Astronomy,” and those
of Gauss, given in the first volume of the “Theoretical and
Practical Astronomy '' of the same writer, though concise
as mathematical expressions, involve much laborious com-
putation in their practical application. The following rules,
however, originally devised by the writer of the present
article, are very simple and easy. . It is to be observed,
first, that the fourteenth day of the Easter moon, being
approximately the time of full moon, is called the paschal
full moon. The number of the year in the lunar cycle is
also called the Golden Number. (See GOLDEN NUMBER.)
Then, supposing that we know the golden number and the
dominical letter, we find, for the present century, the pas-
chal full moon as follows:
If the golden number is odd: To four times the golden
number add ten and
If the golden number is even : To four times the golden
number add twenty-five.
The result, in either case, if greater than twenty and less
than fifty, is the date of paschal full moon, considered as a
day of March (that is to say, if it happens to be, say, thirty-
three, it is the thirty-third of March = the second of April,
and so on). If not greater than twenty and less than
fifty, add thirty, or subtract thirty, or twice thirty, if ne-
cessary to make it so, and the result is once more paschal
full moon.
Then, to find Easter: To the constant number eighteen
add the numerical value of the dominical letter (i. e. A = 1;
B = 2; C = 3, etc.), and the sum, if greater than the value
of paschal full moon just found, is the date of Easter; but
if not, add seven, or twice seven, or three times seven, and so
on till a total is obtained which exceeds that value; and this
total is the date of Easter considered as a day of March.
To find the golden number and the dominical letter: In
either case first separate the hundreds in the number ex-
pressing the given year of our Lord from the years less
than a hundred, and treat the parts independently of each
other. First, for the dominical letter: If the hundreds be
divided by four, the remainder from the division will have
EASTER.
1463
one or other of the following values—viz., 0, 1, 2, 3. And
the dominical letters belonging to the hundreds which give
these remainders respectively will be A, C, E, G = 1, 3, 5, 7.
These, for convenience, call centurials. Then for the years
take half the largest number divisible by four—i.e. half
the number of the latest leap-year—increase this by seven,
and subtract the excess of fours (i. e. the remainder left in
the previous division by four). To this result add the cen-
turial, and the excess of sevens in the sum will be the
value of the dominical letter; it being observed that if
there is no excess the dominical letter has the value of
seven itself, or is G. Leap-years have two dominical let-
ters—one for January and February; the other, which is
less than the former by a unit, for the remainder of the
year. This last, which only is used in finding Easter, is
that given by the rule.
To find the dominical letter for Old Style the process is
the same except as to the centurial. The centurial for old
style is found by adding three to the number of hundreds,
and suppressing sevens. Thus, if the hundreds be fifteen,
we have 15 + 3 = 18. And 18 with seven dropped as often
as possible, leaves 4, which is the old style centurial. If
there is no excess of sevens, the centurial is seven itself.
Secondly, for the golden number: Add a unit to the num-
ber expressive of the given year; then divide the years by
twenty, and add the quotient to the remainder. Next divide
the centuries by four, and add the quotient to five times the
remainder. Finally, add the two results, and the sum, if
nineteen or less, is the golden number. If it exceeds nine-
teen, drop nineteen, or, if necessary, twice nineteen, and
the number left, being not greater than nineteen, will be
the golden number.
Take, as an example, the year 1873. For the dominical
letter: 18 + 4 gives 2 remainder, and the centurial is ac-
cordingly 5. The number of the largest leap-year in 73 is
72, and the half of this is 36. Then 36 + 7 = 43, and 43
— 1 = 42. Finally, 42 + 5, with the sevens suppressed, is
evidently 5 = E, which is the dominical letter of 1873.
For the golden number: 1873 + 1 = 1874. Then, 74-- 20
= 3, with 14 remainder, and 14 + 3=17. Also, 18+ 4 = 4,
with 2 remainder, and 2 × 5 + 4 = 14. Then, 17 -- 14 = 31,
and 31–19 = 12, the golden number for 1873.
For Easter in 1873 : 12 × 4 + 25 = 73. Then 73 — 30 =
43, or paschal full moon is the 43d day of March. To 18
add 5, the value of the dominical letter, and the result, 23,
is smaller than the date of paschal full moon. But 23 + 7
+ 7 +7= 44, which is greater than that date (43), and
Easter is the 44th day of March, or the 13th day of April.
There is one case not provided for in the foregoing. If
in finding paschal full moon we obtain a result which is
exactly twenty or eacactly fifty, adding or subtracting thirty
will not bring it between those limits. In this case paschal
full moon must be taken at 49. There is also an irregu-
larity arbitrarily introduced by the mathematicians of
Pope Gregory XIII., by whom the calendar was regulated,
which is this: Should the rules above laid down give
forty-nine directly as the date of paschal full moon, this
must be reduced to forty-eight in case the golden number is 12
or upward; not otherwise.
For centuries earlier or later than the present, the rules
are the same, except that the numerical terms ten and
twenty-five used in finding paschal full moon are liable to
variation (but do not always vary) in passing from century
to century. The second of these terms always exceeds the
first by fifteen. The first may be found for any century up
to the forty-second by the following rule: From the num-
ber of the centuries take its fourth part and its third part
(disregarding fractions in both cases), and increase the re-
sult by two. Thus, for the twentieth century we have 20–
5 – 6 + 2 = 11. Hence, these numerical terms for the next
century will be 11 and 26. In old style dates these numer-
ical terms are invariable, and are always two for odd golden
numbers and seventeen for even. For more complete infor-
mation on this subject the reader is referred to the essay
above mentioned. The author of this article has also
designed an instrumental contrivance for finding Easter
by inspection, for any year from the beginning of the
Christian era down to the end of hundredth century, in
old style or new. This is constructed of card-board, and
a facsimile of it, reduced in size, is given below. In the
centre is a rotary disk, on the lower border or limb of which
are inscribed the numbers below 100 which consist of even
twenties, and ālso the zero. These are called vigesimals.
On the upper limb appear all the numbers less than twenty,
called residuals, the leap-year numbers being written twice.
Around this disk is a fixed ring, bearing the dominical let-
ters above and the centurial numbers below—the new style
centurials being on the left, and the old style centurials on
the right. The centurial numbers here employed are
simply the remainders left in dividing the hundreds by 4
for new style and by 7 for old style. To use this for find-
ing the dominical letter, turn the disk till the proper vigesi-
mal of the given year stands opposite the proper centurial;
then opposite the proper residual will be found the do-
minical letter (or letters) of the year. In case of leap-
years there will be found two such letters, of which the
lesser or right-hand one is the Easter dominical letter.
Around the fixed ring here described is a rotary ring
bearing the numbers from 1 to 19 (the golden numbers),
twice repeated, and at the left of these the vigesimals, ar-
ranged in regular order. Outside of this rotary ring is a
second fixed ring, which bears on the left the numbers 0 to
19, arranged en échelon, so as to allow the natural sequence
to be observed. These are called the centurials of the lunar
cycle, and are simply what remains after suppressing the .
nineteens out of the hundreds in the given year of our
Lord. Thus, in the year 4173 there are forty-one hun-
dreds, from which, if we suppress 19 × 2 = 38, there will
remain 3, which is the centurial for the forty-second cen-
tury. On the right the same fixed ring bears the residuals,
or excesses of twenties in the years of the incomplete cen-
tury, in which it is not necessary to duplicate the leap-year
numbers. When the movable ring is turned so that the
proper vigesimal stands opposite the proper centurial, the
golden number for the year will be found opposite the
proper residual.
On this same fixed ring, outside of the numbers already
mentioned, is an annular row of figures distributed without
any obvious order, which embraces all the possible golden
numbers from 1 to 19, each entered twice. Of these, all up
to 11 are printed in full face; all from 12 to 19 inclusive in
outline. Their use will presently appear.
Around this second fixed ring is a second rotary ring, on
which are inscribed all the days of March and April on
which paschal full moon or Easter can fall; together with
the calendar letters belonging to them severally. From the
17th to the 25th of April the day numbers and letters are
entered twice, the second or inner series being advanced
beyond the outer by a single place. This same rotary ring
also bears an arrow, which is designed to be used as an in-
dex. Finally, surrounding this rotary ring there is another
fixed ring, in the several divisions of which are written the
centuries from 15 up to 100, none below 15 being necessary,
as the new style, or Gregorian reckoning, began in 1582.
The use of the last-mentioned rotary ring is to find, first,
the date of paschal full moon, and subsequently, by conse-
quence, the date of Easter. In employing it, the ring is
turned until the arrow points to the golden number for the
year, when the date of paschal full moon will be found op-
posite the proper centurial number in the outer fixed ring.
Then, looking along the series of letters to the right of the
date of the paschal moon, Easter will be found immediately
over the next succeeding dominical letter for the year. If
the time of Easter for years before 1582 is sought, the
paschal moon will be found, not opposite the century, but
opposite the words “Old Style” written in one of the com-
partments into which the outer fixed ring is divided, and
Easter will be opposite the proper dominical letter next
following, as before.
As it is arbitrarily ruled that the paschal full moon shall
never fall later than April 18th, and as a consistent method
of computation or of instrumental determination would
make it sometimes fall on the 19th, the double series of
days and letters is introduced at the end of April in the
outer revolving ring to meet this case. When, therefore,
in the use of the instrument, paschal full moon would seem
to fall on the 19th of April by the series of outer, full-faced
figures, we must pass to the inner series of figures printed
in outline, which will give paschal full moon on the 18th.
Also, if the outer series of full-faced figures should at any
time directly give paschal full moon on the 18th, we must
pass to the inner series again, and make paschal full moon
the 17th, provided the arrow stands opposite a golden mum-
ber printed in outline, but not otherwise. When the light-
faced numbers are thus used instead of the full-faced for
the paschal moon, the light-faced letters must of course also
be used in finding Easter. -
The table in the figure is adjusted for the Easter of 1873.
In 73 the vigesimal is 60 and the residual is 13. For 18
(centuries) the centurial is 2, and the Easter sought belongs
to new style. It is seen that, 60 being opposite 2, the resi-
dual, 13, is opposite E; which is the dominical letter of
J.873. In the first rotary ring the same vigesimal, 60, is
opposite the golden number centurial, which is 18; and
under the residual 13 we have 12, the golden number for
1873. Bringing, finally, the arrow of the outer rotary ring
opposite to the golden number, 12, we find under 18 in the
outer row of centuries, the 12th of April, which is the date
of paschal full moon for 1873; and opposite E, the domini-
cal letter of the year next following the date of the paschal
full moon thus found, we have April 13th for the date of
Easter.
1464
EASTER ISLAND–EASTERN QUESTION.
This little instrument is useful in the solution of many
questions connected with chronology and the calendar, be-
Any
sides that for which it was expressly constructed.
person possessed of a little mechanical skill can construct
a working instrument of this kind for himself, by copying
this diagram on a scale about one-fourth larger.
The Churchman’s Companion to the Calendar.
BY PRESIDENT BARNATRID.
The principal festivals and fasts of the Church dependent
for the time of their celebration upon Easter are Septua-
gesima Sunday, nine weeks before Easter; Ash Wednes-
day, which is the Wednesday of the seventh week before
Easter; Good Friday, which is the Friday next before
Easter; Ascension Day, which is the Thursday of the sixth
week after Easter; Whitsun Day, the seventh Sunday after
Easter; and Trinity Sunday, the eighth Sunday after Easter.
F. A. P. BARNARD, Columbia College.
Eas’ter Island, a small island of volcanic origin in
the Pacific Ocean, is in lat. 27°6' S., lon. 109° 30' W., and
is 12 miles long and 4 miles wide. It rises 1200 feet above
the level of the sea, and is scantily supplied with water. It
is the easternmost inhabited Polynesian island. Its people
are cannibals. They have traditions of their ancestors hav-
ing come from the island of Oparo, 1900 miles distant. The
island has wonderful colossal statues in stone, but the na-
tives have no account of their sculptors.
Eas’tern Archipel/ago, The, also called The Ma-
lay Archipelago and Australasia, comprises all those
islands which lie in the north-eastern part of the Indian
Ocean. Area, about 650,000 square miles. They are di-
vided, according to their position, into three groups. The
first group comprises the Molucca Islands, the Spice Isl-
ands, Banda, Amboina, Ternate, and the Philippines;
the second group consists of Sumatra, Java, and the Small
Sunda Islands east of Java, from Bali to Timorlaut ; and
the third comprises Borneo and Celebes, together with a
large number of smaller islands, as Billiton, Banca, Sin-
gapore, etc.
connection between Asia and Australia. The Soil is very
fertile, and resembles in its products that of the neigh-
boring countries of Asia. It has therefore attracted at
all ages almost every nation. The original inhabitants
In its position this archipelago forms the
consisted of many tribes, but all belonged to one race
called the MALAY RACE (which see). At a later age the
Arabs came to these islands, and as a consequence Mo-
hammedanism gained a good many followers. At last,
the Europeans came, and subjugated almost the entire
archipelago, and especially the Dutch have become mas-
ters of the greatest number of islands; while the Spaniards
have only the Philippines; the Portuguese, Dilli and part
of Timor; and the British, Singapore and Labuan. Be-
sides these races, a large number of Chinese are found
throughout the islands. The total population is estimated
at 22,829,000.
Eastern Churches is a title given to certain bodies
of Christians of Western Asia, Eastern Europe, and of
Africa. These are the Greek, the Armenian, the Jacobite
(or Syrian), the Nestorian, the Coptic, and the Abyssinian
Church, and the Christians of St. Thomas. The entire popu-
lation connected with the Eastern churches may be estimated
at about 76,500,000, of whom 70,000,000 are of the Greek
Church, 3,000,000 are Armenians, 3,000,000 Abyssinians,
and the remainder belong to the other communions.
Eastern Empire.
Eastern Question, in European diplomacy, signifies
the problem of the future of Turkey, especially of the Eu-
ropean portion; and in a more extended sense expresses
those difficulties which have from time to time arisen with
regard to the relations of Turkey to Russia, Austria-Hun-
gary, Greece, and Egypt; the affairs of the Danubian
provinces; the navigation of the Black Sea; the supposed
ambitious designs of Russia; and the difficulties between
Christians and Mohammedans in Palestine, Crete, and
other parts of the East. These questions have led to some
of the most serious complications which have happened in
See BYzANTINE EMPIRE.

EASTERN RITE–FAST HENRIETTA.
1465
Europe during the last one hundred years. (See TURKEY,
RUssíA, CRIMEAN WAR.) -
Eastern Rite, or Oriental Rite. Those branches
of the Roman Catholic Church which acknowledge the su-
premacy of the pope, but which do not employ the Latin
ritual, are said to be of the Eastern rite. In fact, they em-
ploy several different rituals. According to the “Roman
Almanac" for 1872 (“La Gerarchia Cattolica ’’), there were
bishoprics of the following rites: I. Armenian ; II. Coptic
(1, Egyptian; 2, Ethiopian or Abyssinian); III, Greek
(1, Roumanian; 2, Ruthenian ; 3, Bulgarian; 4, Melchite);
IV. Syrian (1, Syrian; 2, Syro-Chaldaean ; 3, Maronite).
The aggregate number of episcopal sees, according to the
same authority, in 1872, was 78; of which five were patri-
archal,and twenty-six archiepiscopal. The United Chris-
tians of St. Thomas have no bishop of their own, but are
under the vicar-apostolic of Verapoli, who is of the Latin
rite, but the people and clergy use, in part, a modified
Syrian rite.
The Eastern rite differs from the Latin, not only in the
languages employed in the service (Greek, Slavic, Arme-
nian, Syriac, Ethiopic, Coptic), but generally also in the
use of both elements for the laity in the Eucharist, and in
the permission of marriage to the lower clergy.
Eastern Shore, a name given to those parts of Mary-
land and Virginia, which are E. of Chesapeake Bay,and some-
times applied to the whole peninsula, including, in addition,
the entire State of Delaware. The Eastern Shore has been
proverbial for its conservatism, and from the character of
its inhabitants claimed the title of “the land of gentle-
men;” but it is now traversed by railroads, and the excel-
lence of its soil and climate for peach-culture and market-
gardening has caused the development of much industrial
enterprise. Its western side is remarkably indented by
navigable rivers and creeks, affording great commercial
advantages. The waters on both sides abound in oysters,
which are a source of great wealth. The fisheries are also
extensive. Most of the surface is low and level, but healthy.
Malarial fevers are endemic at some places. The climate is
singularly mild. Bog-iron ore of fine quality is exten-
sively mined in some parts. Kaolin is found in the ex-
treme N. Oak timber is cut in some parts for market. The
Eastern Shore was the scene of many of the labors and tri-
umphs of Asbury and the early Methodists, and it is still
one of the strongholds of their faith. Its people are famed
for hospitality and generosity.
East Ev’ans, a post-village of Evans township, Erie
co., N. Y., 4 miles from Angola Station, on the Lake Shore
R. R. Pop. 100.
East Fair/field, a twp. of Crawford co., Pa. P. 741.
East Fal/lowfield, a township of Chester co., Pa.
It is traversed by the Wilmington and Reading R. R. Pop.
I291. -
East Fallowfield, a township of Crawford co., Pa.
It is traversed by the Franklin branch of the Atlantic and
Great Western R. R. Pop. 1167.
East Felician'a, a parish in the E. of Louisiana.
Area, 480 square miles. The Mississippi River touches the
S. W. extremity of this parish, which is bounded on the E.
by the Amite. The surface is undulating; the soil is fer-
tile. It is traversed by the Clinton and Port Hudson R. R.
Corn and cotton are the chief products. Capital, Clinton.
Pop. 13,499.
East Finſley, a post-village and township of Wash-
ington co., Pa., 17 miles S. S. W. of Washington, the
county-seat. Pop. 1186.
East Fish/kill, a post-township of Dutchess co., N.Y.,
on the New York Boston and Northern R. R. Pop. 2306.
East/ford, a post-township of Windham co., Conn.
Eastford Village is 11 miles W. of Putnam, a station on
#. Norwich and Worcester R. R. It has a savings bank.
Op. 984.
ast Fork, a township of Conway co., Ark. Pop. 410.
East Fork, a post-township of Montgomery co., Ill.
It is 11 miles E. of Hillsborough, a station on the St. Louis
Alton and Terre Haute R. R. Pop. 1421.
East Fork, a township of Barton co., Mo. Pop. 452.
East Fork, a township of Douglas co., Nev. Pop. 132.
East Fork, a township of Haywood co., N. C. P. 286.
East Fox/borough, a post-village of Foxborough
township, Norfolk co., Mass., 22 miles S. S. W. of Boston,
on the Boston and Providence R. R.
East Frank'lin, a township of Armstrong co., Pa.
Pop. 1451.
East Gale/na, a twp. of Jo Daviess co., III. P. 856.
East Ger/mantown, a post-village of Jackson town-
ship, Wayne co., Ind. Pop. 536. -
East Glouc'ester, a post-village of Gloucester town-
ship, Essex co., Mass., on the Seashore, 2 miles from Glou-
cester. It is a fashionable summer resort, and has a fine
soldiers’ monument.
East Go'shen, a township of Chester co., Pa. P. 696.
East Gram/by, a post-township of Hartford co., Conn.
Pop. 853. It is 3 miles E. of Granby Station, which is
on the New Haven and Northampton R. R.
East Green/bush, a post-township of Rensselaer co.,
N. Y. Pop. 1845.
East Green/wich, a post-village and township, capital
of Kent co., R. I., is on Narragansett Bay and on the
Providence and Stonington R. R., 14 miles from Provi-
dence. It has a national bank, a savings bank, an acad-
emy (under the supervision of the Boston University), a
Weekly newspaper, two cotton-mills, one woollen-mill,
print-works, free library, six churches (one of them built
and supported by a single individual), three hotels, a
court-house and jail, and a good harbor. It is one of the
healthiest places on the seaboard. Incorporated Oct. 31,
1677. Pop. of township, 2660.
W. N. SHERMAN, ED. “R. I. PENDULUM.”
East Grove, a township of Lee co., Ill. Pop. 765.
East Had'dam, a post-township of Middlesex co.,
Conn., on the Connecticut River, 30 miles below Hartford,
has a national and Savings bank, a newspaper, a music sem-
inary, 7 churches, 13 cotton-mills, 3 britannia-shops, etc.
Pop. 2951. J. E. SELDEN, ED. “ADVERTISER.”
East/ham, a post-township of Barnstable co., Mass.,
on the Cape Cod R. R., 24 miles from Barnstable. Pop. 668.
East Ham’burg, a post-township of Erie co., N. Y.
It has five churches, and is the seat of “East Hamburg
Friends’ Institute.” It is 7 miles E. of Hamburg Station,
which is on the Lake Shore R. R. Pop. 2270.
East Ham'ilton, a post-village of Hamilton township,
Madison co., N. Y. It is on the Utica, division of the Del-
aware Lackawanna and Western R. R. Pop. 53.
East Hampſton, a post-village of Chatham township,
Middlesex co., Conn., on the New Haven Middletown and
Willimaantic R. R.
East Hampton, a post-village of Hampshire co.,
Mass., on the New Haven and Northampton R. R., 5 miles
S. W. of Northampton, and on a branch of the Connecticut
River R. R. It has a national and a savings bank, and
manufactures of suspenders, pumps, thread, vulcanized rub-
ber, buttons, etc., and is the seat of Williston Seminary, an
excellent school for young men. It has four churches, a
public library, a fine town-hall, a fire department, and fif-
teen public schools. Pop. of East Hampton township, 3620.
East Hampton, a post-township of Suffolk co., N. Y.
Pop. 2372. At the beach of East Hampton is very fine
surf-bathing. The township is the easternmost part of
Long Island.
East Han’over, a twp. of Dauphin co., Pa. P. 1723.
East Hanover, a post-township of Lebanon co., Pa.
Pop. 1737. -
East Hard'wick, a post-village of Hardwick town-
ship, Caledonia co., Vt., on the Portland and Ogdensburg
R. R., 31 miles N. W. of St. Johnsbury. It has one weekly
newspaper.
East Hart/ford, a post-township of Hartford co.,
Conn., on the Connecticut River opposite Hartford, with
which it is connected by a bridge, and by the Hartford
Providence and Fishkill R. R. Pop. 3007.
East Ha’ven, a post-township of New Haven co.,
Conn. It is on the Shore Line R. R. and on Long Island
Sound, 4 miles E. of New Haven. Here is Saltonstall Lake,
which affords large quantities of ice. Copper-smelting is
largely carried on here. Pop. 2714.
East Haven, a post-township of Essex co., Vt. P. 191.
East Hat/ley (called also Hatley and Charleston-
Hatley), a post-village of Hatley township, Stanstead co.,
Quebec, Canada, 2% miles from Massawippi Station, is the
seat of Charleston Academy, and has a large cheese-factory.
Pop. about 300.
East Ha’verhill, a post-village of Haverhill township,
Grafton co., N. H., on the Boston Concord and Montreal
R. R., 5 miles E. of Haverhill. It has manufactures of
lumber, charcoal, and starch. Here is the Owl's Head, a
lofty cliff of rock. The village stands at the base of Moose
Hillock Mountain.
East Hempſfield, a post-township of Lancaster co.,
|Pa. It is on the Lancaster branch of the Reading and
Columbia R. R. (Petersburg Station). Pop. 2602.
East Henriet’ta, a village of Henrietta township,
Monroe Co., N. Y., is the seat of Monroe Academy.
1466
EAST HUMBOLDT MOUNTAINS-EASTMAN.
East Humboldt Mountains, a lofty range in Elko
co., Nev., some of whose peaks exceed 15,000 feet in height.
Secret Valley and Fremont Pass cut the range, which is in
parts well timbered with pines and firs, affording lumber.
Its snows feed the springs by which Lakes Franklin and
Ruby are supplied. Silver is reported to exist in the
Imountains.
East Hunt/ingdon, a township of Westmoreland co.,
Pa. Pop. 2134.
East In’dia Com/pany, a famous joint-stock trading
company formed in England to carry on commerce with the
East Indies. In 1600 a royal charter was granted to a
number of London merchants under the title of “The Gov-
ernor and Company of Merchants of London trading to the
East Indies.” This charter gave them an exclusive right
to trade for fifteen years within certain limits, which were
of immense extent. They established factories at Surat,
Cambay, and other places in India about 1612. The charter
was renewed from time to time. Madras was founded in
1639, and Calcutta in 1645. In 1698 the king granted a
charter to a rival company, but the two companies were
united in 1702 under a new charter, with the title of “The
United Company of Merchants trading to the East Indies.”
Every person who held £500 of the company’s stock became
a member of the court of proprietors, who annually chose
a court of directors composed of twenty-four members, each
of whom must own £2000 of the stock. The executive
power of the company was vested in this court of directors,
each of whom retained his office for four years.
In 1708, Parliament granted the company the exclusive
privilege of trading to all places eastward of the Cape of
Good Hope to the Strait of Magellan. The monopoly of
the China trade was abolished in 1833, and the company
was then deprived of its original character as a commercial
association. Many years before this date the company had
become a great territorial power, and had laid the foun-
dation of the British empire in India. By conquest and
other means the company obtained sovereign power over
vast regions of Hindostan. This region was coveted by
the company not only as a source of commercial profit, but
as a field in which their relatives might enrich and distin-
guish themselves by political and military enterprises. By
the act 3 and 4 William IV. the functions of the East India,
Company were rendered merely political. It was to con-
tinue to govern India, with the concurrence and under the
supervision of the board of control. All the real and per-
sonal property belonging to the company on April 22, 1834,
was vested in the Crown, and to be held or managed by
the company in trust for the same ; and the stockholders
were to receive an annual dividend of 10% per cent. on a
capital of £6,000,000 out of the revenues of India. The
Sepoy mutiny of 1857, which was repressed with a great
expenditure of life and treasure, combined with other causes,
induced Parliament to transfer the dominion of India to the
Crown. This change was effected, after strenuous oppo-
sition from the company, in 1858. (See INDIA.) The po-
litical affairs of British India are now managed by a min-
ister, who is styled secretary of state for India, and a council
of fifteen members.
The Scottish East India Company was formed in 1695,
but soon met a calamitous fate.
The Danish East India Company was first organized in
1618. It was dissolved in 1634 and reorganized in 1670.
A new company was formed in 1686, and a fourth in 1731.
The king purchased the rights of the company in 1777.
The charter was renewed in 1792, but the company has
long since ceased to exist.
The Dutch company was formed in 1595, and several
companies of the kind were united into one in 1602.
The French company was established in 1664, and dis-
solved by Louis XV. in 1770. A new one was formed in
1785, and dissolved in 1790.
A Swedish company was formed in 1741, and reorganized
in 1806.
The Ostend India Company was created in 1718. In
1721 all Dutchmen were prohibited from supporting it, on
}. of death. The emperor Charles VI. dissolved it in
1731.
East In’dies [Fr. Les Indes Orientales], a collective
term vaguely applied to Hindostan, Farther India, and the
Malay Archipelago. (See INDIA.) -
East Irºving, a village of Iowa.township, Benton co.,
Ia. Pop. 84.
East Jaffrey, a post-village of Jaffrey township, Ches-
hire co., N. H., on the Monadnock R. R., 10 miles N. of
Winchendon, Mass. It has a national and a savings bank,
three churches, and manufactures of wooden-Ware, shoes,
boxes, and cotton drillings.
East Kings/ton, a post-township of Rockingham co.,
N. H., on the Boston and Maine R. R. It has manufactures
of shoes, etc. Pop. 553.
East Lackawan/nock, a township of Mercer co., Pa.
Pop. 672.
East Lake, a township of Dare co., N. C. Pop. 251.
East/lake (Sir CHARLEs Lock), F. R. S., D. C. L., an
English historical painter, born at Plymouth Nov. 17, 1793.
He visited Italy in 1817, and passed about nine years in
Rome (1820–29). In 1828 he exhibited an admired picture
of “Pilgrims to Rome Coming in Sight of the Holy City.”
He was chosen a Royal Academician in 1830, and became
president of the Royal Academy in 1850. Among his
works are “Christ Weeping over Jerusalem” (1841), “He-
lena ’’ (1849), “Violante” (1853), and “Beatrice” (1855).
He was appointed director of the National Gallery in 1855,
and wrote “Materials for a History of Oil Painting”
(1847), “Contributions to the Literature of the Fine Arts,”
and other works. He translated Goethe’s “Farbenlehre *
and Kugler’s “History of Painting.” Died Dec. 23, 1865.
A biography of Eastlake was published by Lady Eastlake
(born Elizabeth Rigby) in the second series of the “Con-
tributions to the Literature of the Fine Arts” (1870).
East Lam’peter, a tp. of Lancaster co., Pa. P. 2263.
East Lan’caster, a village of Berne township, Fair-
field co., O. Pop. 566.
East/land, a county in N. Central Texas, has an area.
of 790 square miles. It is drained by the sources of Leon
River. The eastern part is densely timbered with oak. A
part of the county is rocky and hilly, but there are fine
level plains which are fertile. Pop. 88.
Eastland, a village of Eastland co., Tex. Pop. 88.
East Lew’istown, a post-village of Beaver township,
Mahoning co., O., 5 miles N. of Columbiana, which is on
the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R. Pop. 105.
East Liberty, a suburb of Pittsburg, Pa. (Allegheny
co.), 5 miles E. of the city, on the Pennsylvania, R. R., is
the seat of the Western Pennsylvania Hospital, and has
many fine residences.
East Lin'coln, a twp. of Logan co., Ill. Pop. 3397.
East Liv’ermore, a post-township of Androscoggin
co., Me., on the Androscoggin R. R. and River, 71 miles
N. of Portland. It has manufactures of lumber, condensed
milk, clothing, carriages, needles, ploughs, etc. Pop. 1004.
East Liv’erpool, a post-village of Columbiana co., 0.,
on the Ohio River and the Cleveland and Pittsburg R. R.,
44 miles W. N.W. of Pittsburg; has potteries and manufac-
tures of stone-ware, and two weekly newspapers. P. 2105.
East Lyme, post-tp. of New London co., Conn. P. 1506.
East Machi’as, a post-township of Washington co.,
Me., 4 miles N. of Machias Port. It has an academy, three
churches, and extensive manufactures of lumber, carriages,
etc. Pop. 2017.
East Maho'ning, a twp. of Indiana co., Pa. P. 1139.
East/man, a post-village, capital of Dodge co., Ga., on
the Macon and Brunswick R. R., 56 miles S. S. E. of Macon.
It has a fine court-house, presented to the county by Messrs.
W. E. Dodge of New York and W. P. Eastman (from whom
the county and town are respectively named), these gentle-
men having large lumber and land interests in the county.
It has a weekly newspaper. It was formerly called EARTMON.
East'man, a post-tp. of Crawford co., Wis. P. 1214.
Eastman (CHARLEs GAMAGE), an American poet and
journalist, born at Fryeburg, Me., June 1, 1816. He edited
the “Spirit of the Age” and the “Vermont Patriot,” which
latter was published at Montpelier. He has also been con-
nected with other journals and contributed much to period-
ical literature. In 1848 he produced a volume of poems.
Eastman (MARY HENDERSON) was born in Warrenton,
Va., in 1818. Her father was Dr. Thomas Henderson, and
in 1835 she married Captain Seth Eastman of the U. S.
army, and long resided on the frontier. She has published
many works illustrative of Indian character, among which
are the following: “I)ahcotah’” (1849), “Romance of In-
dian Life” (1852), “Chicora” (1854), and also “Aunt
Phillis's Cabin’” (1852), a reply to “Uncle Tom’s Cabin.”
Eastman (PHILIP), LL.D., born in Chatham, N. H.,
Feb., 1799, graduated at Bowdoin College in 1820, became
a lawyer, and practised at North Yarmouth, Harrison, and
Saco, Me. Died Aug. 7, 1869. He was one of the editors
of the “General Statutes of Maine '' (1840), and published
a “Digest” of Maine law reports (1849).
Eastman (SETH), an army officer, born in Brunswick,
Me., Jan. 24, 1808, graduated at West Point in 1829. He
entered the infantry, and was teacher of drawing at West
Point (1833–40). He published a “Treatise on Topograph-
ical Drawing ” (1837) and a “History, etc. of the Indian .
EASTMANN–EAST RIVER BRIDGE.
1467
Tribes" (1850–57). In 1863 he was retired with the rank
of lieutenant-colonel and brevet brigadier-general.
East/mann, a township of Pulaski co., Ark. P. 1731.
East Mari’borough, a twp. of Chester co., Pa. P. 1401.
East Mauch Chunk, a post-borough of Carbon co.,
Pa., on the Lehigh River opposite Mauch Chunk, and on
the Lehigh and Susquehanna R. R. Pop. 1585.
East Monroe, a post-village of Fairfield township,
Highland co., 0., on the Marietta and Cincinnati R. R.
(Monroe Station). Pop. 163.
East Montpe/lier, a post-township of Washington
co., Vt. It has manufactures of woollen goods and musical
instruments, and produces much maple-sugar. Pop. 1130.
|East Morrisa/nia, a village of New York City, has
an academy and a convent of Ursuline nuns. -
East Mor/row, a village of Salem township, Warren
co., O., is a suburb of MoRRow (which see). Pop. 262.
East Mount Wer/non, a village of East Chester
township, Westchester co., N. Y. Pop. 500.
East Nant/meai, a twp. of Chester co., Pa. P. 920.
East Nas'sau, a post-village of Nassau township,
Rensselaer co., N. Y. Pop. 192.
East Nel’son, a twp. of Moultrie co., III. Pop. 1021.
East New Mar’ket, a post-township of Dorchester
co., Md. Pop. 2347.
East New York, a post-village of New Lots township,
Kings co., N. Y., on the Brooklyn Central branch of the
Long Island R. R., 6 miles S. E. of New York City. It
has two weekly newspapers and manufactures of shoes, etc.
It is connected with the Brooklyn ferries by horse-railroads.
East Norwe'gian, a twp. of Schuylkill co., Pa. P. 983.
East Not/tingham, a twp. of Chester co., Pa. P. 1400.
East Oak’land, a twp. of Coles co., Ill. Pop. 1500.
Easſton, a post-twp. of Fairfield co., Conn. P. 1288.
Easton, a post-twp. of Leavenworth co., Kan. P. 1169.
Easton, a post-village, capital of Talbot co., Md., is on
Tred Haven Creek, a navigable branch of the Great Chop-
tank River, 16 miles from Chesapeake Bay and 35 miles
E. S. E. of Annapolis, and on the Maryland and Delaware
R. R., 42 miles from Clayton, Del., in a fine peach-growing
region. It has a good trade, a national bank, a building
association, a peach-canning establishment, a fruit-drying
house, and manufactures of lumber, sash, castings, and farm-
ing implements. It has six churches, an orphan asylum,
gas-works, and a high school. It is the seat of a Protestant
|Episcopal bishop, and has the schools of the diocese of
Easton. It has three weekly newspapers. Pop. 2110; of
Easton district, 4637. THOMAs K. ROBSON, ED. “STAR.”
Easton, a post-township of Bristol co., Mass., on the
Old Colony R. R., 18 miles from Boston, has a very exten-
sive shovel-manufactory, a national and a Savings bank, a
free library, a weekly newspaper, and manufactures of
boots, shoes, hinges, thread, etc. Pop. 3668.
D. S. HASTY, ED. “Journ AL.”
Easton, a post-township of Ionia co., Mich. P. 1401.
Easton, a post-village of Marion township, Buchanan
co., Mo., on the Hannibal and St. Joseph R. R. Pop. 318.
Easton, a post-township of Washington co., N. Y.
Pop. 3072. It is the seat of Marshall Seminary, and has
important manufactures. Excellent limestone abounds.
Easton, a city, the capital of Northampton co., Pa., is
situated at the confluence of the Delaware and Lehigh
rivers, the scene of the famous treaty with the Five Na-
tions, recorded as having taken place at the Forks of the
Delaware. It is 75 miles from New York by the Central
R. R. of New Jersey and the Morris and Essex R. R., and
60 miles from Philadelphia by the Belvidere Delaware
R. R. The Lehigh Valley and the Lehigh and Susquehanna
R. R.S. traverse the coal-regions and connectit with the North
and West, and the unfinished Easton and Amboy R. R. will
extend to New York Bay. Easton is the seat of Lafayette
College, and has numerous churches, a fine opera-house,
gas and water works, two national and two savings banks,
three street railways, two daily and four weekly newspa-
pers, etc. Its vicinity abounds in rolling-mills, furnaces,
and other manufactories. Pop., exclusive of its extensive
suburbs, 10,987. CoLE & MoRWITz, PUBs. “ARGUs.”
Easton, a post-township of Adams co., Wis. Pop. 338.
Easton (Col. JAMEs), a Revolutionary officer, born at
Hartford, Conn. He became a resident of Pittsfield, Mass.,
in 1763. He raised a Berkshire regiment in 1775, served
at Ticonderoga, and in Canada under Montgomery, ex-
pending his whole fortune in the service. In 1776, after
receiving the thanks of Congress, he was obliged by his
enemy, Benedict Arnold, to leave the army, and died at
Pittsfield, Mass., in poverty.
Easton (NICHOLAs), born about 1593, emigrated from
Wales to Ipswich (Mass.) in 1634, and afterwards lived in
Newbury, Mass., and Hampton, N. H. Having had trouble
with the officials, he removed to Rhode Island in 1638, and
built the first house in Newport. He was governor of the
United Colonies (Rhode Island, Providence, etc.) 1650–52.
Died Aug. 15, 1675.-His son, JoHN EASTON, was governor
of Rhode Island (1690–95), and wrote a “Narrative of the
Causes which led to Philip's Indian War,” which was pub-
lished in 1858.
East Or'ange, a pleasant post-township of Essex co.,
N. J., on the Morris and Essex R. R., 12 miles from New
York. It has fine suburban residences. Pop. 4315.
East Ot/to, a post-township of Cattaraugus co., N.Y. It
has four churches and five cheese-factories. Pop. 1164.
East Pai’estine, a post-village of Unity township,
Columbiana co., O. (Palestine R. R. Station), on the Pitts-
burg Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R.
East Par’is, a village of Bourbon co., Ky. (See PARIs.)
Pop. 212.
East Pem'broke, a post-village of Pembroke and
Batavia townships, Genesee co., N. Y., is the seat of an
academy. Pop. 156.
East Penn, a township of Carbon co., Pa. Pop. 862.
East Penns’ borough, a township of Cumberland co.,
Pa. Pop. 2719.
East Pikeland, a township of Chester co., Pa. P. 826.
East Pike Run, a twp. of Washington co., Pa. P. 817.
East Point, a post-village of Fulton co., Ga., 6 miles
from Atlanta, at the junction of the Atlanta and West Point
and the Macon and Western R. Rs.
East/port, a port of entry of Washington co., Me., is
on Moose Island in Passamaquoddy Bay, at the extreme
eastern point of the territory of the U. S. It has a good
harbor, in which the tide rises twenty-five feet; also a
national bank, seven churches, a Savings bank, a fire insur-
ance company, and a newspaper. Its prosperity is mostly
derived from the lumber-trade and fisheries. It is a place
of great natural beauty. Steamers ply to Boston, Port-
land, Calais, and St. John, N. B. Pop. of township, 3736.
Eastport, a village of Mill township, Tuscarawas co.,
O. Pop. 25.
Eastport, a village of Southampton township, Suffolk
co., N. Y. Pop. 135. .
East Port’land, a post-village of Multnomah co., Or.
Pop. 830.
East Prov'idence, a twp. of Bedford co., Pa. P. 1274.
East Providence, a post-township of Providence eo.,
R. I., on a branch of the Boston and Providence R. R., 4
miles E. of Providence. The township is traversed also
by the Providence Warren and Bristol R. R., and is on the
E. bank of Providence River. Pop. 2668.
East Ran’dolph, a post-village of Randolph town-
ship, Cattaraugus co., N. Y., contains several manufactories
and has a weekly newspaper.
East River, a post-village of New Haven co., Conn.,
on the East River, a stream flowing into Long Island
Sound, and on the Shore Line R. R., 18 miles E. of New
Haven. -
East Riv'er, of New York, is a strait connecting Long
Island Sound with New York Bay, and separating the city
of New York from Brooklyn, which is about three-fourths
of a mile distant. It is nearly 20 miles long, and is navi-
gable by large vessels. A bridge is now (1874) in course
of construction across this strait at New York. About 7
miles from that city, on this strait, is a narrow and formerly
dangerous pass called HELL GATE (which see), from which
the obstructions are being removed. The East River is an
important arm of New York harbor, and for miles its shores
are lined with piers and slips for shipping. Its tides are
higher and somewhat later than those which enter the har-
bor through the Narrows. Hence the phenomenon of
double tides often observed in the North River.
East River, a township of Page co., Ia. Pop. 977.
East River, a twp. of Mercer co., W. Va. Pop. 1419.
East River Bridge, a structure now (1874) in pro-
cess of construction over the East River, for the purpose
of connecting the cities of New York and Brooklyn. Mr.
John A. Roebling, of Trenton, N. J., was at first the chief
engineer for its construction. He had already built two of
the finest bridges of this kind in the world—that at Niag-
ara Falls and that at Cincinnati, both of which will be far
surpassed in dimensions by the East River suspension
1468
bridge. Including its approaches, it will be over one mile
long, and the bottom will be, in clear height, 130 feet over
the channel of the river. Mr. Roebling was spared long
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East River Bridge.
The bridge will have only two piers, situated on the
shores, thus not in any way obstructing navigation. They
are 1620 feet apart, and 280 feet in height—higher than
the cross on the spire of Trinity church, the highest in
New York. The base of these piers, at the water-line,
is 134 feet long and 56 feet wide; their height, 130 feet
below the floor and 150 above it, not including balustrade
and ornamental blocks. In each pier are two arches for
entrances to the bridge; each archway, being 32 feet wide,
gives passage to a railroad-track, a carriage-way, and a
sidewalk. These openings, or archways, are intended to
be 120 feet high. The piers are built wholly of granite,
and hollow ; each will contain over 900,000 cubic feet of
stone, and weigh over 70,000 tons. The bridge will weigh
3600 tons; its maximum transitory weight by crowds of
people, railway-trains, carriages, and horses being 1400
tons, gives together 5000 tons. As the base of each pier is
nearly 5000 square feet, there is a weight of about 17 tons
per foot, which cannot be safely constructed without en-
larging the foundation considerably. At the lower part of
the foundation, therefore, the surface will be 17,000 square
feet, reducing the pressure from 17 tons to a little over four
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chorage will be 5600 tons, which is only about one-tenth
of the breaking strain of the structure. -
The cables have, however, not to support the whole bridge.
It is also secured by straight stays running from the top
of each pier towards the bottom of the bridge, as seen in
the engraving. Mr. Roebling asserts that the bridge would
not fall even if the cables were removed, the stays being
sufficient to hold it—only it would sag in the middle. The
cables have, therefore, only to sustain a portion of the
weight and to give stiffness to the bridge, so that it will not
be swayed by heavy gales. A simple arrangement of the
cables increases this stiffness against side pressure. The
outside cables are much farther apart at the piers than
the width of the bridge, and approach each other; while
with the two middle cables the reverse is the case. They
are near together at the piers, where they pass over the
middle between the two arches, and widen towards the mid-
dle of the bridge. -
The bridge will commence in New York City at the City
Hall Park, at the foot of Chatham street. Slowly rising 3%
feet in 100, it will cross William street and Franklin Square,
so high that no interruption of street travel will result. It
will be supported by arches, girders, and trusses till it ar-
rives at the anchorage of the chains, 90 feet above high
Section of Caisson for East River Bridge.
EAST RIVER BRIDGE.
enough to complete the plans for this colossal work, the
execution of which is, since his death, entrusted to his son,
Col. W. e
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NEW YORK,
tons per square foot, which is perfectly safe, especially in
view of the considerable depth to which the foundation
will be laid, the nature of the compact, gravelly sand on
the Brooklyn side, and the rock which probably will be
reached on the New York side.
The whole bridge will be supported by four cables, con-
sisting of parallel steel wires, stretched in a bundle nearly
one foot thick. These cables are anchored in solid walls,
1337 feet from the pier on the New York side, and 837 feet
from the pier on the Brooklyn side. The real span of the
suspension bridge, from anchor-wall to anchor-wall, is thus
1337 -- 1620 + 837, or 3794 feet. The approaches beyond
these points are of arched masonry, thrown, like the half-
spans between anchorage and piers, over houses and streets.
Each of the four cables enters the anchor-walls through
the masonry to a distance of twenty feet, where it connects
with the anchor-chains, composed of ten links, each 12 feet
or more in length, together measuring 130 feet, and forming
a downward curve of a quarter of a circle, in order to con-
vert a portion of the tension into downward pressure—a
plan always followed in the anchorage of suspension bridges.
The tension, or pull, of each of these four cables on the an-
tide, located in the block bounded by Cherry, Water, and
Dover streets, where the suspension commences; and the
whole structure runs over all the houses to the pier at the
river-side, a distance of 1337 feet. Here the full sweep of
the cables, passing over the top of the piers, 260 feet high,
descends 130 feet below that point, and rises to the same
height on the Brooklyn pier, to descend to the Brooklyn
anchorage, situated in James street; and, beyond that, by
an archway of masonry and trusses, to extend to the junc-
tion of Fulton and Sand streets, almost on a level with
Brooklyn Heights.
Having thus given a general description of the bridge as
a whole, we will proceed to the details of construction. The
first step is, of course, the laying of the foundation for the
piers. The labor on the Brooklyn pier was commenced Jan.
3, 1870, and was afterwards continued by means of dredging-
machines, etc., preparatory to sinking the colossal caisson.
A caisson is literally a chest. Applied to bridge-build-
ing, the term signifies a wooden box or frame of strong
timbers, used for laying the foundations of a bridge in situ-
ations where the coffer-dam cannot be employed. In the
present instance there having been no suitable rock foun-
dation found on the Brooklyn shore, the caisson itself was
made part of the foundation, as we shall show. The system






































EAST RUSH VILLE-EAST
TENNESSEE UNIVERSITY. 1469
adopted involves also the principle of the pneumatic pile,
which is usually a tubular pile or cylinder of large dimen-
sions forced down by atmospheric pressure. In this case,
however, the atmospheric pressure was assisted by the con-
tinual excavation of material beneath the mass. In fact,
there was also something of the diving-bell in this apparatus.
The caisson proper, or chamber within which the work
of excavation was carried on, was rectangular in shape, 168
feet long and 102 wide on the outside, and about 15 feet
high. The sides were wedge-shaped in section, the lower
edge being eight inches, and the upper eight feet three
inches thick. The roof resting on these sides was five feet
thick, leaving a working-chamber (the dimensions of roof
and sides being allowed for) 166 by 98 feet in ground-area,
and 9 feet in height. The whole was constructed of yellow-
pine timbers a foot square; the seams were payed with a
vegetable tar, to render them impervious to water; and be-
tween the outside layers of timber was a sheathing of tin
between two of felt, intended to prevent air from leaking
through. As the sharp lower edges were intended to facili-
tate the sinking of the caisson, they were made very strong.
The first course of timber was oak: to this was bolted a cast-
iron shoe, eight inches wide and oval on its face, being
three inches thick in the centre. Around the shoe was placed
an armor of boiler-iron, extending three feet above, on both
sides of the wall, the whole being strengthened by heavy
interior angle-irons. Especial pains were taken to prevent
the corners at the bottom from “spreading” under the great
pressure to which they were subjected. At each corner in the
second course was inserted a knee of hard-wood timber, ex-
tending twenty feet each way. The timbers of the caisson
were all bolted together vertically, horizontally, and diagon-
ally, with 14-inch bolts, varying in length from two to seven
feet. The bolts were, on an average, eighteen inches—none
more than two feet eight inches—apart throughout the
whole structure; and the heads and nuts were made air-
tight by rubber washers.
As this huge frame was sunk to its desired position, thirty
feet below low tide, additional courses of timber were laid
on the top to the height of fifteen feet, and filled in with
concrete; and when the whole mass had become fixed in its
final resting-place, the tower was built on the solid founda-
tion thus obtained.
Six shafts, lined with half-inch boiler-iron, passed through
the roof of the caisson. The two outside ones were rectan-
gular, and 6 feet 6 inches by 7 feet in size. These were the
water-shafts, in which the water collecting in the caisson
rose by the atmospheric pressure to the height of the tide
outside. Next to these were the two man-shafts or supply-
shafts, circular in form. Through these the workmen could
pass and the earth be hoisted. The last pair were the air-
shafts, also circular, and 42 inches in diameter. The shafts
were made in couples, both for convenience and for safety.
Through the air-shafts large air-pumps forced air into the
caisson, expelling the water, and enabling the workmen to
descend and work upon the bottom. The earth excavated
was deposited around the square water-shafts; and a Cum-
mings dredging-machine lifted the mud and dumped it
into scows. Gas was introduced for lighting the caisson.
The following figures will give some idea of the size and
importance of this construction : Length of caisson, 168
feet; width, 102 feet; height, 15 feet; height, including
Superincumbent timber and concrete, 30 feet; timber in
caisson, 1,500,000 feet (105,000 cubic feet); weight of
caisson, 2500 to 3000 tons; wrought iron employed in bolts,
angle-irons and plates, 100 tons; lumber in launching-
frames and ways, 127,000 feet.—Manuf. and Build., N. Y.
(See BRIDGE, by GEN. J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.)
East Rush'ville, a village (Rushville P. O.) of Rich-
land township, Fairfield co., O., on the Cleveland Colum-
bus Cincinnati and Indianapolis R. R. Pop. 221.
East Sag’inaw, a city of Saginaw co., Mich., on the
navigable Saginaw River, 17 miles from its mouth, and on
the Flint and Père Marquette, the Jackson and Saginaw,
the Saginaw and St. Clair, and the Saginaw Valley and St.
Louis R. R.S. It is well laid out and substantially built,
has Holly waterworks, two horse-railroads, and a good
System of public schools. It has a large trade by lake and
rail in lumber and salt, having seventeen saw-mills, ca-
pable of producing 135,000,000 feet of lumber per annum,
and eleven salt-manufactories, which can produce nearly
200,000 barrels of salt in a year. The assessed valuation
in 1873 was $3,304,663. In that year $1,000,000 were ex-
ended in erecting buildings, of which five alone cost
$400,000. The surrounding country is very fertile, but
manufacturing is the chief pursuit. It is a very thriving
and enterprising town, the increase in population being
some 40 per cent. per annum. It has the car-shops of the
Flint and Père Marquette R. R., six large machine-shops,
three national banks, a library association, eleven fine
churches, two daily and three weekly newspapers, and is
the base of supplies for a large lumber-region. It is nearly
opposite the city of Saginaw. Pop. 11,350.
- E. CowLEs, E.D. “CourTER.”
East Salaman ſca, a post-village of Salamanca town-
ship, Cattaraugus co., N.Y., at the junction of the Erie
and the Atlantic and Great Western R. R.S., 413 miles from
New York. It has large repair-shops and manufactures of
leather and lumber.
East Spring/field, a post-village of Springfield town-
ship, Otsego co., N. Y., is the seat of a seminary.
East Springfield, a post-village of Salem township,
Jefferson co., O. Pop. 170.
East St. Lou’is, a post-village of St. Clair co., Ill.,
on the Mississippi River opposite St. Louis. It is the ter-
minus of several railroads. It is the seat of a Roman
Catholic college. Two weekly newspapers are issued here.
Pop. 5644.
East Stough/ton, a thriving post-village of Stough-
ton township, Norfolk co., Mass., on the Old Colony R. R.,
17 miles S. of Boston. It has extensive manufactures of
boots.
East Strouds/burg, a post-village of Monroe co., Pa.,
on the Delaware Lackawanna and Western R. R., 1 mile
N. of Stroudsburg, the county-seat. Stroudsburg R. R.
Station is at this point.
East Taunton, Mass. See TAUNTON.
, East Ta’was, a post-village of Iosco co., Mich., on
Tawas Bay, Lake Huron, 2 miles E. of Tawas City, the
county-seat.
East Tem/pleton, a post-village of Templeton town-
ship, Worcester co., Mass. It has manufactures of chairs.
East Tennessee University. In 1806 the U. S.
ceded to the State of Tennessee certain public lands, upon
condition that Tennessee should appropriate 100,000 acres
of land for the use of two colleges, “one in East Tennes-
see and one in West Tennessee.” In 1807 the State estab-
lished East Tennessee College at Knoxville, as one of the
beneficiaries of this endowment. The legislature, how-
ever, failed to fulfil its trust concerning the appropriated
lands, and the college languished for many years. Blount
College was incorporated in 1792, while Tennessee was yet
the “Territory south of the river Ohio.” By consent of
its trustees its charter was annulled, and its small property
transferred to East Tennessee College. In 1838 the legis-
lature partially remunerated the college for the almost
total loss of its original endowment by appropriating to it
a half township of land in the “Ocoee District.” With
the fund derived from that source the college entered upon
a period of comparative prosperity. In 1840 it obtained a
university charter. Owing to several causes, the institu-
tion began to decline a few years later, and from 1850 until
1858 was in a very depressed condition. It then revived,
but the war intervened, and from 1862 to 1866 it was en-
tirely suspended. Its buildings were seriously injured by
the U. S. army, which occupied them for nearly two years,
and its cabinets, apparatus, and library were nearly or
altogether destroyed.
In these circumstances, and with little available pecuni-
ary means in the hands of the trustees, the prospect in
1866 was discouraging. To add to the difficulties of the
situation, education in the State, especially because of its
long interruption by the war, had fallen into an extremely low
condition, and but few youth could be found able and will-
ing to enter college classes. Notwithstanding, the college
was reopened, and the work of instruction began with a
crude mass of pupils in the preparatory department. At
length higher classes were formed, and in 1871, 1872, and
1873 students were graduated. In 1869 the legislature ap-
propriated to East Tennessee University the proceeds of
the land script received by the State from the U.S. under
the law of Congress approved July 2, 1862, for the main-
tenance of a college. The trustees accepted the trust with
its conditions, and proceeded to establish the Tennessee
Agricultural College, in which three courses of study are
provided. Each succeeding year it increases in usefulness.
The number of students entered in 1872–73 was 271, of
whom 187 were appointed by the State.
The names of the presidents of East Tennessee College
(now University) from its foundation are as follows, viz.:
Rev. Samuel Carrick, A. M., from 1808 to 1809; Rev.
David Sherman, A. M., from 1820 to 1825; Rev. Charles
Coffin, D. D., from 1827 to 1832; James H. Piper, A. M.,
from 1833 to 1834; Joseph Estabrook, A. M., from 1834 to
1850; Hon. Wm. B. Reese, LL.D., from 1850 to 1853;
Rev. George Cooke, A. M., from 1853 to 1857; Rev. Wm.
D. Carnes, A. M., from 1858 to 1860; Rev. Joseph I. Rid-
ley, D. D., from 1860 to 1862; Rev. Thomas W. Humes,
S. T. D., from 1865 to © T. O. SUMMERs.
1470
EAST TOLEDO—EATON.
East Toledo, O. See ToI.E.Do.
East/town, a township of Chester co., Pa. Pop. 736.
East Troy, a post-township of Walworth co., Wis.
Pop. 1431.
East U/nion, a village of Stock township, Noble co., 0.
Pop. 857. *
East Union, a post-township of Wayne co., O. Pop.
1865.
East Union, a township of Schuylkill co., Pa.
614.
East/ville, a post-village, capital of Northampton co.,
Va., is on a narrow peninsula, “the Eastern Shore,” be-
tween the Atlantic Ocean and Chesapeake Bay, about 4
miles E. of the latter and 180 miles by water E. of Rich-
mond. Pop. of Eastville township, 3395.
East Win/cent, a post-township of Chester co., Pa.
Pop. 1961.
East Waſco, a village of McLennan co., Tex. P. 612.
East Waſterloo, a township of Black Hawk co., Ia.
Pop. 913.
East Wal/lingford, a post village of Wallingford
township, Rutland co., Vt., on the Central Vermont R. R.
(Rutland division), 13 miles S. S. E. of Rutland. (See
WALLING For D.)
East Wey’mouth, a post-village of Weymouth town-
ship, Norfolk co., Mass., on the South Shore R. R., 14%
miles S. of Boston. It has important manufactures of
boots, nails, etc. (See WEYMoUTH.)
East Wheat/field, a township of Indiana co., Pa.
Pop. 1104. f
East Whiteland, a township of Chester co., Pa. Pop.
1222.
Pop.
East/wick (EDwARD B.), an English Orientalist, born
in 1814, entered the service of the East India Company,
became in 1845 professor of Hindostanee and Teloogoo,
and 1850 librarian at the college of the company in Hailey-
bury. He published a “Vocabulary of the Sindhi Lan-
guage * (1843), a “Grammar of the Hindoostanee Lan-
guage * (1847), Sadi’s “Gulistan ’’ and a translation of it
(1850), and several Indian works.
East Wilton, a post-village of Wilton township,
Franklin co., Me., near the Androscoggin R. R., 5 miles S.
of Farmington. It has manufactures of scythes, pegs,
lumber, and other goods. (See WILTON.)
East Wind's or, a post-township of Hartford co., Conn.
Pop. 2882.
East Windsor, a township of Mercer co., N. J. Pop.
2383.
Eat/on, a county in S. Central Michigan. Area, 576
Square miles. It is intersected by Grand River, and also
drained by Battle Creek. The surface is undulating; the
soil is fertile and deep. Lumber, cattle, grain, wool, pota-
toes, hay, and butter are produced. It is traversed by the
Grand River Valley R. R. and the Peninsular R. R. Cap-
ital, Charlotte. Pop. 25,171.
Eaton, a township of Aroostook co., Me. Pop. 522.
Eaton, a post-township of Eaton co., Mich. Pop. 2035.
Eaton, a post-township of Carroll co., N. H. Pop. 657.
Eaton, a post-township of Madison co., N. Y., con-
tains Morrisville, the county-seat, and several canal reser-
voirs. Eaton Village has the county poor-house, a bank, a
tannery, a distillery, a woollen-mill, a forge, and other
manufacturing interests. Pop. of township, 3690.
Eaton, a township of Lorain co., O. Pop. 1052.
Eaton, a post-village, capital of Preble co., O., on
Seven-Mile Creek and the Cincinnati Richmond and Chi-
cago R. R., 53 miles N. of Cincinnati. It has one national
and one independent bank, three newspapers, five churches,
two school-houses, one grist-mill, three saw-mills, several
stores, two machine-shops, one school-seat factory, three
benevolent societies, and is surrounded by a fine farming
country. Pop. 1748.
W. F. ALBRIGHT & Co., PUBS. or “REGISTER.”
Eaton, a post-township of Wyoming co., Pa. Pop. 830.
Eaton, a township of Brown co., Wis. Pop. 358.
Eaton, a township of Clarke co., Wis. Pop. 316.
I Eaton, a post-township of Manitowoc co., Wis. Pop.
468.
Eaton, a township of Monroe co., Wis. Pop. 392.
Eaton (AMos), an American botanist, born in Chatham,
N. Y., in 1776, graduated at Williams College in 1799. He
studied law and was admitted to the bar. In 1828 he be-
came principal and senior professor of Rensselaer Institute
at Troy. He published, besides other works, a “Manual
of the Botany of North America” (1833; 7th ed. 1836).
Died May 6, 1842.
Eaton (AMos B.), an American officer, born in 1806 in
New York, graduated at West Point in 1826, and June 29,
1864, commissary-general of subsistence U. S. A., rank of
brigadier-general. He served as infantry officer, chiefly on
the Northern frontier, till July 7, 1838, when he was trans-
ferred to the subsistence department, and served as com-
missary in the Florida war 1837–41, during Canada bor-
der disturbances, and in New York City 1841–46; as chief
commissariat of Major-General Taylor's army in Mexico
1847–48, engaged at Buena Vista (brevet major), of the
department of the Pacific 1851–55, and at New York City
1855–61. In the civil war was dépôt commissary at New
York City, and purchasing commissary for the armies in
the field 1861–64; and since June 28, 1864, has been in
charge of the commissary bureau at Washington, D. C.
(Brevet major-general U. S. A. for faithful, meritorious,
and distinguished services.)
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Eaton (DANIEL CADY), an American botanist, was born
at Fort Gratiot, Mich., Sept. 12, 1834, graduated at Yale in
1857, and at Lawrence Scientific School (Harvard) in 1860.
He became professor of botany at Yale in 1864. He is the
author of that part of Chapman’s “Flora of the Southern
States” (1860) which treats of the Ferns, and the corre-
sponding part of “Gray’s Manual” (5th ed. 1867), and has
published various scientific papers.-His cousin, DANIEL
CADY EATON, is professor of the history and criticism of art
in Yale College.
Eaton (GEORGE W.), D. D., LL.D., an American scholar
and Baptist minister, was born at Henderson, Huntingdom
co., Pa., July 3, 1804, and was educated at Ohio University
and Union College, Schenectady, N.Y.; he was a fellow and
tutor in Union College (1829–30), professor of ancient Jan-
guages in Georgetown College, Ky. (1831–33), professor of
mathematics and natural philosophy (1833–37) and eccle-
siastical and civil history (1837–50) at the Literary and
Theological Institution, Hamilton, N. Y., and professor of
Systematic theology at the same place (1850–61); president
of Madison University (1856–68), president of Hamilton
Theological Seminary and professor of homiletics (1861–71).
Died Aug. 3, 1872.
Eaton,(HoRACE), M. D., was born at Barnard, Vt., June
22, 1804, graduated at Middlebury in 1825, graduated in
medicine in 1828, was professor of chemistry and natural
philosophy at Middlebury College (1848–54), and governor
of Vermont (1846–48). Died July 4, 1855.
Eaton (JoBN, JR.), PH. D., an American educator, born
Dec. 5, 1829, at Sutton, N. H., graduated at Dartmouth in
1854, was superintendent of public schools, Toledo, O. (1856–
59), studied theology at Andover (Mass.) Theological Semi-
nary (1859–61), ordained by the Maumee (O.) Presbytery
(1861), commissioned chaplain of the Twenty-seventh Ohio
Volunteers (Aug. 15, 1861), appointed superintendent of
contrabands (Nov. 14, 1862) by General Grant, general su-
perintendent of freedmen for Mississippi, Arkansas, West
Tennessee, and North Louisiana (Dec. 15, 1862), and served
as such till May 27, 1865, commissioned colonel of the Sixty-
third U. S. colored troops (Oct. 2, 1863), brevetted brigadier-
general of volunteers (Mar. 13, 1865), assistant commissioner
of the bureau of refugees, freedmen, and abandoned lands
(May 27, 1865), established and edited the “Daily Post” at
Memphis, Tenn. (1866–70), State superintendent of public
instruction for Tennessee (1867–69), secretary of the board
of visitors to the West Point Military Academy (1869), and
was appointed U. S. commissioner of education (Mar. 17,
1870), which position he still occupies. He has published
many addresses and reports, chiefly upon education and the
public affairs with which he has been connected.
Eaton (John HENRY), politician, was born in Tennessee
about 1790, and represented that State in the U. S. Senate
(1818–29), was secretary of war under his friend Gen. Jack-
son (1821–31), governor of Florida Territory (1834–36), and
U. S. minister to Spain (1836–40). He published a “Life
of Jackson’’ (1824). Died Nov. 17, 1856.
Eaton (Gov. THEoPHILUs) was born in Stony Stratford,
England, about 1591, and was the son of a clergyman. He
was for a time English agent at the Danish court, and after-
wards was a reputable merchant of London. He came to
Massachusetts in 1637, and was chosen a magistrate. He
went to New Haven in 1638, and was the first governor of
the New Haven colony (1638–57). Died Jan. 7, 1657.
Eaton (WILLIAM), GENERAL, an American officer, born
at Woodstock, Conn., Feb. 23, 1764, was educated at Dart-
mouth College, and entered the army in 1792. He became
consul at Tunis in 1799, and displayed courage and enter-
prise in a successful expedition which he conducted against
Derne. He was about to attack Tripoli, when his opera-
EATON CORNER—EBER HARD.
1471
tions were suspended by a treaty of peace between the U. S.
and Tripoli in 1805. The Massachusetts legislature granted
him 10,000 acres of land in Maine as a reward for his valor.
Died June 1, 1811.
Eaſton Corºner, a post-village of Eaton township,
Compton co., Quebec, Canada, is the seat of an academy.
Pop. about 200.
Eatſon Rap/ids, a post-village of Eaton co., Mich.,
on Grand River and the Grand River Valley R. R., 24
miles N. N. W. of Jackson. It is noted for its mineral
magnetic springs, which are visited annually by thousands,
and has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1221; of Eaton Rap-
ids township, 3636.
Eat/onton, a post-village, capital of Putnam co., Ga.,
on a branch of the Central Georgia R. R., 21 miles N. N. W.
of Milledgeville, has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1240.
Eat/ontown, a post-village of Monmouth co., N. J., on
the New Jersey Southern R. R., 4 miles S. of Long Branch.
Eau Claire, 5 klair', a county in the W. of Wisconsin.
Area, 648 square miles. It is partly drained by the Eau
Claire River, an affluent of the Chippewa, which flows
through the north-western part of the county. The soil is
mostly fertile. Grain, wool, and lumber are produced. It
is intersected by the West Wisconsin R. R. Pop. 10,769.
Capital, Eau Claire.
Eau Claire, a city, capital of Eau Claire co., Wis., at
the junction of Eau Claire and Chippewa rivers, and on the
West Wisconsin R. R. and head of navigation on Chippewa
River, has a national bank, a bank of deposit, one daily
and two weekly newspapers in English, and one in Ger-
man, two foundries, thirteen saw-mills, three planing-mills,
four grist-mills, three graded schools and one common
school, a Wesleyan seminary, two parks, six hotels, ten
churches, carriage and railroad bridge over the Chippewa,
two carriage and railroad bridges over the Eau Claire, and
a large number of stores and wagon and boiler shops. The
principal business is lumbering, over 150,000,000 feet being
manufactured in the vicinity yearly, and over 250,000 feet
in the city and its immediate vicinity. It is the chief com-
mercial city of N.W., Wisconsin. The improvements dur-
ing the past four years in the city have cost $1,694,000.
Pop. in 1870, 1476.
BRACKETT & HUNNER, PROPs. “DAILY FREE PREss.”
Eau Claire City, a village of Eau Claire co., Wis., is
near the Chippewa River, 1 or 2 miles W. of Eau Claire,
the county-town. It has many steam saw-mills and an ac-
tive trade in lumber. Pop. 2293.
Eau de Cologne, Ö deh ko-lön’ (Fr. pron. Ó deh ko'-
loń"), or Cologne Water, a celebrated liquid perfume
invented by Farina of Cologne, where large quantities of
it are prepared. It is also made in France and almost all
other countries. The following recipe affords a good imita-
tion of the original article: Take of alcohol 1 pint; of the
oils of bergamot, orange peel, and rosemary, each 1 drachm;
of bruised cardamom seeds, 1 drachm; orange-flower water,
1 pint: distil one pint from a water-bath.
The secret of the composition of true cologne has been
carefully preserved by the Farina family, and the different
business-houses of Cologne bearing the name of Farina
prepare perfumes which are by no means identical in odor.
One of the family is reported to have published in 1863
the following as the formula for genuine eau de cologne:
Take of oil of lavender 4 ounces; purified benzoin, oil of
rosemary, each 2 ounces; strong alcohol, 9 gallons: dis-
solve the oil and benzoin in the alcohol, and to the solution
add successively oil of neroli, oil of young orange (huile
des petits grains), oil of lemon, each 10.4 ounces; oil of
sweet orange, oil of lime-peel, oil of bergamot, each 20.8
ounces; tincture of rose-geranium flowers, a sufficient
quantity. Macerate for several weeks, and then bottle the
mixture. There are hundreds of recipes, many of which
are vouched for as the genuine, but all, no matter how
complicated the formula, are simply aromatized alcohol.
It is essential that the alcohol be perfectly deodorized and
freed from fusel oil before use.
There is a class of cologne-water obtained by macerat-
ing aromatic substances in alcohol for some time, and then
distilling the whole. But these waters require to be al-
lowed a few months of rest to develop their better quali-
ties. It is probable that the original article was of this
class. Good colognes have a rich and permanent odor,
not clearly alcoholic. Not one of the essential oils em-
ployed should be recognizable by the sense of smell. The
best brands have long borne the name of Jean Maria Farina,
and there are many claimants to the original proprietor-
ship of the name. In Cologne all children who can law-
fully bear that name are promptly baptized with it.
Eau de Javelle, or Javelle’s Solution, a chlori-
nated solution of potash, analogous to Labarraque’s solu-
tion of soda. It has bleaching and disinfecting properties,
and is employed in removing fruit-stains, etc. from linen.
When swallowed in considerable quantity it has remark-
ably poisonous effects.
Eau de Luce (Aqua luciae), a soapy limiment made
of ammonia-water mixed with tincture of oil of amber,
mastic, and sometimes Mecca balsam. It is employed in
Europe and the East as a remedy for the bites of snakes
and insectS.
Bau de Vie, the French for BRANDY (which see).
Eau Galle, a post-township of Dunn co., Wis. P. 978.
Eau Galle, a township of St. Croix co., Wis. P. 535.
Eau Pleine, a post-twp of Portage co., Wis. P. 333.
Eaux Bonnes, 5 bon (i.e. “good waters”), a fashion-
able resort of France, department of Basses-Pyrénées, 22
miles S. of Pau. Here are warm sulphur-springs, which are
efficacious for affections of the lungs and chest, the skin, etc.
Eaux Chaudes, Les, láz Ö shöd, a village of France,
2 or 3 miles S. W. of Eaux Bonnes, has warm medicinal
springs. The waters have a wide range of usefulness in
the diseases of the lungs, joints, and skin. -
Eaux Wives, a town of Switzerland, canton of Geneva,
near the city of Geneva. Pop. in 1870, 5875.
Eaves [Ang.-Sax. efese, “brim,” “brink,” “eaves”], in
architecture, the lowest edges of the inclined sides of a
roof, which project beyond the face of the wall, so as to
throw off the water from the roof. The eaves are sometimes
provided with a gutter and a downpipe, or they discharge
the water directly on the ground.
Ebai. See GERIZIM.
Eb'bert (Is AAc), D. D., a minister of the Methodist
Episcopal Church South, born at Ellicott's Mills, Md., Mar.
2, 1817. He graduated at Augusta College, and joined the
Ohio Conference in 1840. At the division of the Church
he joined the Kentucky Conference, the Memphis Confer-
ence in 1858, and in 1870 the Little Rock Conference. He
died in Paducah, Ky., in 1872. T. O. SUMMERS.
E/bel (HERMANN WILHELM), one of the most prominent
writers on Celtic language and literature, born in 1820, be-
came in 1858 professor at the gymnasium in Schneidemühl.
He published, among other works, a new edition of Zeuss's
“Grammatica, Celtica,” (1871), and many essays in the
“Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung,” and in
Ruhn’s and Schleicher’s “Beiträge zur vergleichenden
Sprachforschung,” some of which have been translated
into English under the title “Celtic Studies” (1863).
Ebe'liams [called in Germany, Mucker, “hypocrites”],
a sect of religionists, taking their name from Johann Wil-
helm Ebel (1784–1861), one of their founders. Ebel, a
preacher of Königsberg, was a follower of Schönherr the
theosophist. Teaching the doctrine that the relation of the
sexes is a symbol of the relation between the spiritual and
material principles, he was joined by many even of the
upper classes, and his followers are accused of making this
doctrine a pretext for immorality.
° Ebena/ceae [from the Lat. eb'enus, the “ebon tree”
(see EBONy)], a natural order of exogenous plants (trees or
shrubs), mostly natives of tropical countries. They are
allied to Oleaceae and to Aquifoliaceae. They have alternate
entire leaves and axillary flowers, which are monopetalous
and usually unisexual. Some species of this order are re-
markable for the hardness and blackness of their wood, as
the ebony. This order comprises the American persimmon
(Diospyros Virginiana) and the Chinese kaki, the fruit of
which is edible, like that of many other species. There
are eight or ten genera and numerous species, of which a
large majority are tropical.
Ebene’zer, a post-village of West Seneca township,
Erie co., N. Y. Pop. 449.
Ebenezer, a township of York co., S. C. Pop. 2157.
Eb/ensburg, a post-borough, capital of Cambria co.;
Pa., is on the Ebensburg and Cresson branch of the Central
R. R., 26 miles W. of Altoona. It has two weekly news-
papers and one monthly publication. Pop. 1240.
E/ber [Lat. Ebe'rus], (PAUL), a German Protestant
theologian, born at Ritzingen Nov. 8, 1511. He became
professor of Hebrew at Wittenberg in 1556. Among his
works are an “Exposition of the Gospels” and a “History
of the Jews” (1561). He was a friend of Melanchthon.
Died Dec. 10, 1569.
Eb'erhard (Johan N AUGUST), D. D., a German philoso-
pher, born at Halberstadt Aug. 31, 1739, studied theology
at Halle. He gained distinction as an elegant Writer, and
became professor of philosophy at Halle in 1778. He was
a rationalist in theology, and an adversary of Kant in,
philosophy. Among his best works are an “Apology for
Socrates” (1772), a “Theory of the Fine Arts and Sci-
1472
EBER HARD–ECCE HOMO.
ences” (1783), a “General History of Philosophy” (1788),
and an excellent “Dictionary of German Synonyms” (6
vols., 1793–1802). Died Jan. 6, 1809.
Eberhard (KonRAD), a German sculptor and painter,
born in Bavaria, Nov. 25, 1768. He became professor of
sculpture in the Academy of Munich in 1816. Among his
works are statues of St. George and St. Michael. His best
works are in Munich. Died Mar. 12, 1859. -
Eberhard im Bart, the first duke of Würtemberg,
born in 1445, became count of Würtemberg when only four-
teen years old, and led a wild and dissipated life, but re-
formed after a voyage to Palestine, and became one of the
most popular princes of Germany. Having consolidated
his part of Würtemberg with that of his cousin, the em-
peror created him in 1495, in consequence of his services
to the empire, duke of Würtemberg. Died in 1496. (See
PFISTER, “Eberhard im Bart, erster Herzog in Würtem-
berg,” 1822.)
Eb'erle (John), M.D., an American medical writer, born
in Hagerstown, Md., Dec. 10, 1787. He was professor in
Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, and other medical
colleges, and published a “Treatise on Therapeutics” and
other works. Died at Lexington, Ky., Feb. 2, 1838.
E/berling (CHRISTOPH DANIEL), a German scholar and
writer, born at Hildesheim Nov. 20, 1741. He devoted
himself chiefly to geographical studies, and for his great
work, “Geography and History of North America.” (Ham-
burg, 5 vols., 1793–99), he was thanked by the Congress of
the U. S. His valuable collection of books and maps re-
Jating to this subject was purchased in 1818 by Israel
Thorndike, and presented to Harvard College. Died June
30, 1817. -
E/bernburg, a small town of Bavaria, on the river
Nahe, 20 miles S. W. of Mentz. Here is an old ruined
castle which belonged to Franz von Sickingen, and was
used as a place of refuge by Melanchthon and other Re-
formers.
E/bers (GEORG MoRITz), an eminent Orientalist, born in
1837, lectured since 1865 in Jena on the language, history,
and monuments of ancient Egypt, and became in 1870 pro-
fessor of Egyptian archaeology in Leipsic. His chief work
is a “Commentary on the Books of Moses” (“Die Bücher
Moses. Sachlicher Commentar zu Genesis und Exodus,”
vol. i., 1868). He also published a novel, “The Daughter
of an Egyptian King’” (3d ed. 1873), which was translated
into English, both in London and in the U. S.; an essay in
Virchow and Von Holtzendorf’s collection, “Hieroglyph-
isches Schriftsystem’’ (1871), and “Through Goshen to
Sinai,” an account of his travels in Palestine (1872). In
this work he agrees with Lepsius, and differs with Robin-
son, in making Serbal the mountain of the Law.
E^bert (FRIEDRICH ADoIPH), a German bibliographer,
born near Leipsic July 9, 1791. He became chief librarian
of the royal library at Dresden in 1828. He published,
besides other works, a “Universal Bibliographic Diction-
ary’’ (2 vols., 1821–30). Died Nov. 13, 1834.
Ebert (Johan N ARNOLD), a German poet, born at Ham- º,
burg in 1723. He translated Young’s “Night Thoughts”
into German, and wrote several original poems. Died Mar.
19, 1795.
Eberus. See EBER.
E/bingen, a town of Würtemberg, 39 miles S. W. of
Stuttgart, has large velvet, hat, and shoe factories. Pop.
in 1871, 5029.
E/bionites [Heb. ebiom, “poor”], a name given at first
to all Christians, on account of their poverty; then given
by Gentile Christians to Jewish Christians; and finally re-
stricted to heretical Jewish Christians. Irenaeus (between
182—188 A.D.) is the first to mention the Ebionites by name,
though they are thought to be the “heretics” spoken of by
Hegesippus some years earlier. The Pharisaic Ebionites
rejected the writings of Paul, insisted upon the observance
of the Mosaic ritual, and were humanitarians and mille-
narians. The Essenic Ebionites were more speculative and
ascetic. Ebionism dates, according to Gieseler, from about
107, A. D., and in the fifth century had wholly disappeared.
Eblana. See DUBLIN.
E/boli, or Evoli (anc. Eburi), a town of Italy, prov-
ince of Salerno, about 16 miles E. S. E. of Salerno. It
has an annual fair. Pop. in 1861, 6946.
Eb'oli (ANA DE MENDOZA), PRINCEss of, a Spanish
lady, born in 1535, became the wife of the prince of Eboli.
She was a mistress of Philip II. of Spain, and was accused
of complicity in the assassination of Escovedo. Schiller
has idealized her character in his “ Don Carlos.”
Eb’onite [named from its resemblance to ebony], a
hard black compound obtained by blending caoutchouc
with variable proportions of sulphur, generally about half
its weight. It is called vulcanite in the U. S.
Eb’ony [Lat. eb/enum; Fr. ebène], a very hard, heavy
wood of a deep black color, is the duramen or heart-wood
of several species of Diospy'ros, a tree of the natural order
Ebenaceae. It is heavier than water, takes a good polish,
and emits an aromatic odor when burned. Ebony of ex-
cellent quality is obtained from the Diospy'ros ebºenum,
which abounds in Ceylon and attains a large size. The
ebony which comes from Mauritius and Madagascar is the
produce of the Diospy'ros reticula'ta. Another species of
Diospyros produces the beautiful wood called CALAMANDER
(which see). Ebony is also obtained from the Diospyros
tomento'sa, which grows in India. This wood is mentioned
by Virgil as coming from India: “Sola India nigrum fert
ebenum.” (Georgics, book ii. 116.) It is used by cabinet-
makers. Ebony is produced in Texas, Mexico, and Cali-
fornia from the japote or persimmon (Diospyros Teacana).
Eboulemens, a post-village of Charlevoix co., Quebec,
Canada, on the N. shore of the St. Lawrence River, 69 miles
below Quebec. Pop. about 2400.
E/brard (Joh ANN HEINRICH AUGUST), a German Prot-
estant theologian, born at Erlangen Jan. 18, 1818. He
obtained the chair of theology at Erlangen in 1847, be-
came in 1853 consistorial councillor in Spires, and resigned
in 1861. He is a prominent representative of the orthodox
school. Among his works are “Christian Dogmatics " (2
vols., 1852), “The Divine and Human in Christianity”
(1844), and a “Manual of the History of the Christian
Church and Doctrines” (4 vols., 1864–66).
E/bro [anc. Ibe'rus ; Fr. Ebre], a river of Spain, rises
in the Cantabrian Mountains near the northern boundary
of the province of Burgos. It flows nearly south-eastward
through the provinces of Navarre and Saragossa, forms
the boundary between Huesca and Teruel, and enters the
Mediterranean 22 miles E. of Tortosa. The chief towns on
its banks are Logroño, Tudela, Saragossa, and Tortosa. Its
whole length is about 350 miles. Its navigation is ren-
dered difficult by rapids and rocks. A canal nearly 100
miles long has been cut along the Ebro below Tudela.
Ebul’Iioscope [from the Lat. ebul/lio, to “boil,” to
“bubble,” and the Gr. orkotréo, to “see ‘’l, an instrument for
ascertaining the strength of alcohol or other distilled liq-
uids by observing the boiling-point and the barometrical
pressure at the time of the experiment. These instruments
are of various kinds; those of Vidal and of Conatty are the
best known.
Ebulli’tion [from the Lat. ebullio, to “boil”], boiling;
the violent agitation into which liquids are thrown by the
rapid escape of their vapor when sufficiently heated. Before
ebullition begins, if sufficient heat is applied, the tempera-
ture of the liquid continually rises; but when the liquid
reaches the “boiling-point”—the point at which ebullition
is seen—the temperature is constant. Ebullition is caused
by the rapid escape of vapor. (See BOILING-PoſNT.)
Eburi. See EBOLI.
Eburovices. See Iv1çA.
Ecbat/ana, or Agbatana [Fr. Ecbatane], a cele--
brated ancient city, the capital of Media, was situated near
the base of Mount Orontes (Elwend), about 165 miles S.W.
of Teheran. Its foundation is attributed by tradition to
Semiramis, but according to Herodotus it was founded by
Deioces (708 B. C.). It stood on a conical hill, and was
surrounded by seven concentric walls, each of which was
higher than the next outer one. It was the favorite sum-
mer residence of the kings of Media and Persia, who had
here a magnificent palace and a citadel of immense strength.
Alexander the Great captured it in 331 B. C., and obtained
a very large booty. This city is called Achmetha in the
book of Ezra. Some recent writers believe it to be the
modern HAMADAN (which see). Rawlinson attempts to
identify it with the ruined Takht-i-Soleimón.
Eccaleo/bion [from the Gr. ŠkkaAéo Bíov, “I call out
life”], a mechanical contrivance for hatching eggs by arti-
ficial heat. It consists of an oven with shelves, on which
the eggs are placed, ranged one above the other. The
temperature is kept of uniform warmth by steam or hot
water conveyed in pipes. A somewhat similar machine
has long been employed in Egypt with success.
Ec/ce Ho/mo [Lat., meaning “Behold the Man P1, the
words uttered by Pilate (John xix. 5) when he brought
Jesus forth to the people. Monkish tradition points out the
spot, now marked by an arch called Ecce Homo, only the
piers of which appear to be ancient. It spans the Via Do-
lorosa at its highest point, and has “a narrow gallery or
chamber on the top.” “Ecce Homo" is the name given to
pictures of Christ crowned with thorns. Correggio's, in the
National Gallery, London, is generally considered the best.

*
ECCENTRIC–ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY.
1473
In 1864, Prof. Seeley, then of London, now of Cambridge,
England, published a book entitled “Ecce Homo,” which
made a great stir.
Eccen'tric [from the Gr. 3x, “ out of,” and kévrpov (Lat.
cen/trum), a “point,” a “centre”], in machinery, a device
by which circular motion gives rise to “to-and-fro * mo-
tion. In one of the forms of the eccentric a disk is made
to revolve around a point not in its centre. The disk turns
in a metallic collar, which is thrown back and forth by the
revolutions, and to the collar a rod is attached which re-
ceives the required to-and-fro motion. This arrangement is
often used to give motion to sliding valves in steam-engines.
Ecchelensis. See ECHELLENSIs.
Ec'cles (HENRY), Q.C., a Canadian barrister, born at
Bath, England, in 1817, was educated by his father, an
accomplished army officer, long resident in Canada. He
was called to the bar in 1842, became queen's counsel in
1856, and attained the highest rank in his profession. Died
at Toronto Nov. 22, 1863. -
Ec/clesfield, a parish of England, in the West Riding
of Yorkshire, 5 miles N. of Sheffield. It has manufactures
of cutlery, linen, and nails. Coal mines are worked in the
vicinity. -
Eccle/sia [Gr. 3xxxnata, an “assembly,” from ék, “out,”
and kaAéo, to “call”], the Latin name for CHURCH (which see).
Ecclesia [for etymology see above], the great assem-
bly of the Athenians, in which every free citizen might
vote. Although possessing supreme authority in the state
from a very remote period, it was after a time seldom con-
vened, so that the management of the state fell into , the
hands of the archons, who were elected from the nobles.
Solon afterwards appointed it to meet four times every
thirty-five days, besides extraordinary occasions on which
it might be assembled. The subjects discussed in the ec-
clesia were restricted by Solon to such as had passed
through the senate of five hundred, but this rule was not
strictly observed. The magistrates who managed these as-
semblies were the prytanes, prohedri, and epistates; the
first convened the people, the second proposed the subjects
on which they were to decide, the third presided over the
whole. The name ecclesia was afterwards given generally
to any public assembly regularly convoked.
Ecclesias/tes [Septuagint Gr. "EkkAmortaatſis, the
“preacher,” from ēkkamata, an “assembly;” Hebrew Kohe-
leth, a noun feminine in form, meaning “preacher” or
“gatherer”], a canonical book of the Old Testament. Its
author is called “ Koheleth’ (i. e. the “preacher”), and he
is described as king in Jerusalem and son of David—i.e.
Solomon. Since the time of Grotius (1644) the Solomonic
origin of the book has been denied by continental critics
generally, even by orthodox writers like Hengstenberg, Keil,
and Delitzsch, the dates assigned ranging from 536 to 150
B. C. Its post-Solomonic origin has been argued (1) from
the Aramaic and other foreign words which occur in it; (2)
from the sentiments expressed. On the other hand, the old
traditional ascription of the book to Solomon has been de-
fended by such scholars as Schelling, Van Essen, Hahn,
Pusey, Wordsworth, and Tayler Lewis. The two leading
ideas of the Preacher are the vanity of earthly good and the
certainty of judgment. The alleged epicureanism of sev-
eral passages, so much emphasized by some critics, is thought
by others to be simply ironical.
Ecclesias’tical Commissioners, in England and
Wales, are the archbishops, bishops, the principal deans,
several of the principal judges, the chief baron of the ex-
chequer, the master of the rolls, and twelve lay members,
all churchmen, who are appointed for the purpose of ex-
amining the state of dioceses and the episcopal revenues,
of uniting or dividing parishes (when expedient), and of
carrying out other measures for the benefit of the Estab-
lished Church. Much popular indignation has been ex-
cited by their large expenditures of money in renewing and
improving the bishops’ palaces; and it is evident, whatever
may be the good or evil they have accomplished, that there
is a large possibility that their powers may be misused.
The commission was established in 1835.
Ecclesiastical Courts, in England and Wales,
until 1857, had important jurisdiction not only in mar-
riage and divorce cases and the probate of wills, but in
some cases they could exercise the discipline of the Church
for heresy, incontinence, defamation, and other faults,
though in more recent times the latter duties were exer-
cised only in cases where clergymen, were accused. It is
said that the publication of Dickens's novel “David Cop-
perfield” hastened the transfer of non-ecclesiastical busi-
ness from these courts to those of the civil law. There are
(1) “peculiar courts” of many grades, from the royal to
the parochial; (2) archdeacons’ courts; (3) commissaries’
courts; (4) diocesan courts; and (5) provincial courts at
London and York. (See ARCHES, Court of ; DELEGATEs,
CourT OF; and DoCTORs' CoMMONs.) In civil causes their
jurisdiction is virtually at an end.
Ecclesiastical History. . I. Nature and Object.—
Ecclesiastical history or church history is one of the four
divisions of theological science—viz., exegetical (or bibli-
cal), historical, Systematic (or philosophical), and practical
(homiletical and pastoral) theology. Of these divisions
the historical is the most extensive in bulk, and furnishes
material to all the rest. In importance it yields only to
exegetical theology, which has to do with the interpreta-
tion of the Holy Scriptures. Historical theology begins
with the creation of man in the image, and for the glory,
of God, and comes down to the present as its relative goal,
but will go on till the general judgment or the final settle-
ment of all the affairs of men. It embraces within these
limits all that belongs to the religious development of the
race within the line of revelation—the origin, progress, and
fortunes of the kingdom of God, and its relations to the
kingdoms of this world. Since the fall of man it has as-
sumed the character of a history of redemption (and is so
represented, for instance, by Jonathan Edwards in his well-
known popular book). In a narrower sense, church his-
tory is the history of Christianity from the birth of Christ,
or, according to others, from the day of Pentecost (A. D.
30), when Christianity first assumed an organized form
distinct from Judaism, down to the present time.
II. Church History and Secular History.—They differ as
Church and State, as Christianity and humanity, as the
order of grace and the order of nature. Yet they are in-
separably connected and interwoven, and the one cannot
be understood without the other. Among the Jews the
spiritual and secular history together form one history of
theocracy. Both currents intermingle in the old Byzantine
empire, in the European states and the Latin Church dur-
ing the Middle Ages, in the period of the Reformation,
during the colonial period of America, and in all countries
where Church and State are united. Gibbon’s “History
of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire’ is in great
part also a “History of the Rise and Progress of Chris-
tianity,” which survived the fall of the Old and New Rome,
and went forth to conquer the barbarian conquerors by
Christianizing and civilizing them. Every history of the
papacy is also a history of the German empire; and vice
versä. No history of the sixteenth century can be written
without constant reference to the Protestant Reformation
and the Roman Catholic reaction. (Compare, e.g., Hume,
Macaulay, and Burnet for England; Ranke for Germany;
Motley for Holland.) The Puritan settlements of New
England are the beginning alike of the ecclesiastical and
secular history of North America. In modern times the
tendency is more and more towards separation of the
spiritual and temporal, the ecclesiastical and civil powers;
nevertheless, the Church will always be more or less influ-
enced by the surrounding state of civil society, and must
adapt itself to the wants of the age and progress of events;
while, on the other hand, the world will always feel the
moral influence, the restraining, ennobling, stimulating,
purifying, and sanctifying power of Christianity, which
works like a leaven from within upon all ramifications of
society. -
III. Periods and Epochs.-These represent the different
stages in the religious development of the race, and must
not be arbitrarily made according to a mechanical scheme
(such as the centurial division adhered to by Mosheim), but
taken from the actual stops or starting-points (éroxi) and
circuits (treptodos) of the history itself. The following are
the natural divisions: -
A. Sacred or Biblical History, the history of the Divine
revelation from the creation to the close of the apostolic
age, running parallel with the Scriptures from Genesis to
Revelation. Here we must distinguish the dispensation of
the Law and the dispensation of the Gospel, or the history
of the Old Testament religion and of that of the New Tes-
tament religion. ->
(a) Under the Old Dispensation, from the creation down
to John the Baptist. Subdivisions: The antediluvian
period; the patriarchal period; the Mosaic period (the es-
tablishment of the Jewish theocracy); the period of the
Jewish monarchy and prophecy; the period of the Baby-
lonian exile; the period of the restoration, the Maccabees,
the Roman rule till Herod the Great (or down to the de-
struction of Jerusalem). .
(b) Under the New Dispensation. Christ and the apos-
tles, or primitive and normative Christianity in its divine-
human founder and inspired organs. Subdivisions: The
preparatory mission of John the Baptist; the life of Christ;
the founding of the Church by the apostles; the labors of
Peter, Paul, and John. -
B. Christian History, or Church. History proper, from the
close of the apostolic age to modern times. Subdivisions:
93
1474
ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY.
(a) History of Ancient Christianity, embracing the first
six centuries to Gregory I. (590): Graeco-Latin, patristic,
Catholic, the common stock from which the Greek, the
Roman, and the Protestant churches have sprung. Sub-
divisions: (1) The apostolic age (see A b); (2) the age of
persecution to Constantine the Great and the Council of
Nicaea (325); (3) the age of patriarchs, Christian emperors,
and oecumenical councils (to 590). Some historians carry
the age of ancient Christianity down to Charlemagne, A. D.
800 (so as to include John of Damascus, the last of the
Greek Fathers), and the beginning of the German Roman
empire and the temporal power of the papacy. In this
case we have a fourth subdivision, from Gregory I. to
Charlemagne (A. D. 590 to 800).
(b) History of Mediaeval Christianity, from the close of
the sixth to the beginning of the sixteenth century, or from
Gregory I. (A. D. 590), the first mediaeval pope, to Luther
(A. D. 1517). Character: The Greek and Roman churches,
divided, pursue their independent course; the Latin Church
extending west among the Celtic and Germanic races, the
Greek north-east among the Slavonians (in Russia); con-
version of the barbarians; conflicts with Mohammedanism ;
the Crusades; rise and progress of the papacy, scholasti-
cism, mysticism; the reformatory councils of Pisa, Con-
stance, and Bāle; revival of letters; invention of printing;
discovery of America, ; biblical theology; forerunners of
Protestantism (Wycliffe in England, Huss in Bohemia, Sa-
vonarola in Italy, Wessel in Holland, etc.). Subdivisions:
(1) The missionary period of the Middle Ages, from Greg-
ory I. to Hildebrand or Gregory VII. (590 to 1049); (2)
the palmy period of the papacy, from Gregory VII. to Boni-
face VIII. (1049 to 1294); (3) the decay of the mediaeval
papacy and scholasticism, and the preparation for the Ref-
ormation, from Boniface VIII. to Leo X. or Martin Luther
(1294–1517). -
(c) History of Modern Christianity, from the Reformation
of the sixteenth century to the present time. Protestant-
ism and Romanism; founding of the various evangelical
churches, the Lutheran, Calvinistic, Anglican, etc.; prog-
ress of Christianity among the Teutonic races; restoration
of Romanism; Jesuitism; Jansenism; Puritanism and
Methodism in England; Pietism and the Moravians in Ger-
many; settlements in North America; growth of the Greek
Church in Russia, and of the Protestant in the United
States; revival and triumph of ultramontane Romanism;
conflict of faith with modern rationalism and infidelity;
immense activity in theology, literature, missions, and all
forms of Christian philanthropy. Subdivisions: (1) The
age of the Protestant Reformation and the Roman Catholic
counter-reformation or reaction (from 1517 to 1600, perhaps
better to 1648); (2) the age of scholastic and polemic con-
fessionalism in conflict with non-conformity and subjective
piety (from the middle of the seventeenth to the middle of
the eighteenth century); (3) the age of revolution and revi-
val, and conflict between Christianity and various forms of
skepticism and secularism (from deism in England and the
French Revolution to our time).
IV. Sources.—They are mostly written, in part unwrit-
ten. The written sources include (a) the official documents
of ecclesiastical and civil authorities, such as acts of coun-
cils, creeds, liturgies, hymn-books, church laws, papal bulls
and encyclicals; (b) the writings of the personal actors in
the history, and contemporary observers and reporters, such
as the Fathers for ancient Christianity, the Schoolmen for
mediaeval, the Reformers and their opponents for the
Reformation period; (c) inscriptions on walls, pictures,
churches, tombstones, and other monuments.
The whvritten sources are works of Christian art, as
churches, chapels, pictures, sculptures, crosses, crucifixes,
relics, and other remains which symbolize and embody the
spirit of Christianity in different epochs and phases. Thus,
the Roman catacombs, with their vast extent, their solemn
darkness, their labyrinthine mystery, their rude epitaphs
and sculptures, their symbols of faith and their relics of
martyrdom, give us a lifelike idea of the Church in the pe-
riod of persecution, its trials and sufferings, its faith and
hope, its simple worship and devoted piety. “He who is
thoroughly steeped in the imagery of the catacombs will be
nearer to the thoughts of the early Church than he who has
learned by heart the most elaborate treatises of Tertullian
or Origen.” The basilicas are characteristic of the Nicene,
the Byzantine churches of the Byzantine age, the Gothic
cathedrals of the palmy days of the Middle Ages, the Re-
naissance style of the revival of letters. Even now most
churches and sects can be best appreciated in the locali-
ties and in view of the monuments and the people where
they originated or have their centre of life and action.
V. Duty of the Historian.—He must (1) master the sources
in the original languages in which they were written (Greek,
Latin, and the modern languages of Europe); separating
the genuine from the spurious, the original from corrup-
tions and interpolations; sifting the truth from falsehood,
the facts from fiction and partisan judgment; comparing
the accounts of all actors, friend and foe, narrator, eulogist,
advocate, and antagonist, whether orthodox or heretic,
whether Christian, Jew, or Gentile; aiming in all this labo-
rious investigation at “the truth, the whole truth, and
nothing but the truth.” (2) He must then reproduce the
clearly ascertained facts and results of his investigation in
a faithful and lifelike narrative, so as to present the ob-
jective course of history itself as it were in a miniature
photograph. The genuine writer of history differs as much
from the dry chronicler of isolated facts and dates as from
the novelist; history has a body and a living soul, and its
facts are animated by thoughts and principles. The histo-
rian must exhibit both ; he must be able to particularize
and to generalize, to descend into minute details, and to
take a comprehensive bird’s-eye view of whole ages and
periods. He must have a judicial mind, which deals im-
partially with all persons and events coming before his tri-
bunal, and is swayed by no consideration but that of strict
justice. This aim should be constantly kept in view,
although in the limited and imperfect state of our informa-
tion, and the inability to emancipate one's self from all the
influences of education and prevailing opinions and preju-
dices, we can expect no more than an approximate solution
of the difficult task. It is the exclusive privilege of the
Divine Mind to view all things sub specie etermitatis, to see
the end from the beginning. We can only know things con-
secutively and in fragments. But history is its own best
interpreter, and the farther it advances the more we are
able to understand and appreciate the past.
VI. Value.—The study of history enables us to under-
stand the present, which is the fruit of the past and the
germ of the future. It is the richest storehouse of wisdom
and experience. It is the best commentary of Christianity.
It is full of comfort and encouragement. It verifies on every
page the promise of the Saviour to be with his people al-
ways, and to build his Church on a rock against which the
gates of hell cannot prevail. It exhibits the life and power
of Christ in all its forms and phases, and the triumphant
march of his kingdom from land to land and generation to
generation. Earthly empires, systems of philosophy have
their day, human institutions decay, all things of this world
bloom and fade away like the grass of the field; but the
Christian religion has the dew of perennial youth, survives
all changes, makes steady progress from age to age, over-
comes all persecution from without and corruption from
within, is now stronger and more widely spread than ever
before, directs the course of civilization, and bears the hopes
of the human race. The history of the world is governed
in the interest and for the ultimate triumph of Christianity.
The experience of the past is a sure guarantee of the future.
VII. Literature.—(1) Works on General Church. History :
EUSEBIUs (died 340), “ Church History,” from the birth of
Christ to Constantine the Great (324). His successors in
the Greek Church : Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret. The
“Magdeburg Centuries,” by MATTHIAs FLACIUs (died 1575)
and other Lutheran divines of Germany (Bâle, 1559–74),
covering thirteen Christian centuries in as many volumes,
the first history from a Protestant point of view in opposi-
tion to the claims of Romanism. The “Ecclesiastical An-
nals’’ of CAESAR BARONIUs (died 1607), in 12 folio volumes,
published at Rome, 1588 sqq., to which were added the con-
tinuations of Raynaldus, Spondanus, and others—a work of
astounding learning and industry, but altogether in the in-
terest of the papacy. TILLEMONT (died 1698); in his invalu-
able “ Mémoires” (Paris, 1693–1712, 16 vols.), wrote the
history of the first six centuries from the sources, in bio-
graphical style and in the spirit of the more liberal Gallican
Catholicism. GoTTFRIED ARNOLD (died 1714), of the Pie-
tistic school of Spener, in his “Impartial History of the
Church and of Heretics” (Frankfort, I699 sqq., 4 vols. fol., to
A. D. 1688), advocated the interests of practical piety and
the claims of heretics and schismatics and all who suffered
persecution from an intolerant hierarchy and orthodoxy.
J. L. Mosh EIM (died 1755) wrote his “Institutes of Eccle-
siastical History” (in Latin, Helmstädt, 1755, and often since
in several translations) in the spirit of a moderate Lutheran
orthodoxy, with solid learning and impartiality, in clear
style, àfter the centurial arrangement of Flacius, and fur-
nished a convenient text-book which (especially in Mur-
dock's translation) has continued in use in England and
America even to this day. ScHROECKH's “Christian Church
History” (Leipsic, 1768–1810, in 45 vols.) is a far more ex-
tensive and far less readable work, but invaluable for refer-
ence, full of reliable information from the sources; it for-
sakes the mechanical centurial division, and substitutes for
it the periodic arrangement. HENKE (died 1809) followed
with a thoroughly rationalistic work in 9 vols. (1788–1810).
NEANDER (professor of church history in Berlin, died 1850)
marks an epoch in this branch of theological literature, and
ECCLESIASTICAL LAW-ECHIMYS.
1475
by his truly Christian, conscientious, impartial, truth-lov-
ing, just, liberal, and withal thoroughly learned and pro-
found spirit and method, he earned the title of “father of
church history.” His “General History of the Christian
Religion and Church’” (Hamburg, 1825–52, 11 vols.), though
incomplete (it stops with the Council of Bâle, 1430) and
somewhat diffuse and monotonous in style, is an immortal
monument of genius and learning; it pays special attention
to the development of Christian life and doctrine, and is
edifying as well as instructive. It has been naturalized in
England and America by the translation of Prof. Torrey
(Boston, 1847–52, 5 vols.; 12th ed. 1872), and will long be
studied with profit. Equally valuable, though of an alto-
gether different plan and spirit, is the “Church. History”
of GIESELER (Bonn, 1824–56), translated from the German
first by Cunningham in Philadelphia (1846), then by David-
son and Hull in England, and revised by H. B. Smith of New
York (1857 sqq.). The text is merely a meagre skeleton of
facts and dates, but the body of the work consists in care-
fully selected extracts and proof-texts from the sources,
which furnish the data for an independentjudgment. BAUR's
“Church History” (partly published after his death, Tii-
bingen, 1861, in 5 vols.) is distinguished for philosophic
grasp, critical combinations, and bold conjectures, especial-
ly in the treatment of the ancient heresies and systems of
doctrine. HAGENBACH's “Church. History '' (now completed
in 7 vols., Leipsic, 1873) is an admirable digest of the vast
material for the lay reader. SchAFF's “History of the
Christian Church " (New York, 1859–67, in 3 vols.; Ger-
man ed. Leipsic, 1868) is the first general church history
prepared on American soil, but not yet completed (two more
volumes are in course of preparation). Of English church
historians, WADDINGTON represents the general history in
six volumes to the Reformation, inclusive (1835 sqq.); ROB-
ERTSON in three (1854 sqq.) to the close of the Middle Ages.
The older work of MILNER (died 1797) is written in popular
style for edification. Of the numerous compends of church
history in one or more volumes, we mention those of DöL-
LINGER, MöHLER, RITTER, ALzog, among Roman Catholics;
HASE, NIEDNER, GUERICKE, KURTz, EBRARD, among Prot-
estants: all in German, some also translated into English.
(2) Works on special departments of church history. On
Old Testament history: MILMAN (“History of the Jews"),
EwALD (“History of Israel,” 7 vols., translated by Russell
Martineau), STANLEY (“History of the Jewish Church”).
Life of Christ: NEANDER (German and English), LANGE
(German and English, 6 vols.), PRESSENSá (French and
English), ELLICOTT, ANDREws, EwALD, RIGGENBACH, SEPP
(R. C.), PAULUS (rationalistic), STRAUss (mythical theory),
RENAN (legendary theory). History of the Apostolic Church
from A. D. 30 to 100: NEANDER, LANGE, THIERSCH, SCHAFF,
REUss, CoNYBEARE and Howson (on St. Paul). History
of Christian Doctrines, or Dogmatic History : PETAVIUS
(R. C.), MüNSCHER, BAUMGARTEN CRUSIUs (2 vols.), HA-
GENBACH (translated by Buch, revised by H. B. Smith, New
York, 1861, 2 vols.), NEANDER (1 vol., posthumous), BAUR
(Leipsic, 1867, posthumous, 3 vols.; also a compend in 1
vol.), SHEDD (New York, 1863, 2 vols.), BECK, SCHWANE
(R. C.); “History of Protestant Theology,” by DoRNER
(Munich, 1867; also in English, Edinburgh, 1871); “His-
tory of Roman Catholic Theology,” by WERNER (Munich,
1866). History of special doctrines: BAUR on the “Trinity
and Incarnation” (3 vols.), on the “Atonement * (1 vol.);
DoRNER on “Christology” (2 vols.; also in English);
EBRARD on the “Lord's Supper.” History of Councils:
MANSI, HARDOUIN, WALCH, FUCHS, HEFELE. History of
Church Polity: PLANCK, RITschi, SUGENHEIM, GREENWOOD.
History of Missions: BLUMHARDT, WIGGERs, and numerous
monographs. Patrology and Patristics: the Benedictine
editions, and large collections of the works of the Fathers
by GALLAND1, MIGNE, etc. The biographical and literary
works on the Fathers, by TILLEMONT, DU PIN, CEILLIER,
CAvH., LUMPER, MöHLER, FESSLER, . ALZOG, BöHRINGER.
Separate biographies of Tertullian and Chrysostom, by NE-
ANDER ; Justin Martyr, by SEMISCH ; Origen, by THOMA-
sIUs; Augustine, by BINDEMANN; Jerome, by ZöCKLER.
Ecclesiastical Antiquities, by BINGHAM, AUGUSTI, SIEGEL,
CoLEMAN. On Ancient Christianity: MoSHEIM, MILMAN,
ScHAFF, PRESSENSá; “History of the Greek (Eastern)
Church,” by DEAN STANLEY (London and New York, 1862);
“History of Latin Christianity,” by DEAN MILMAN (to the
Pontificate of Nicholas W., London and New York, 1860
sqq.); “History of the Crusades,” by MICHAUD, WILKEN,
Spitt.D.E.R. The Papacy: WALCH, PLANCK, SPITTLER,
GREEN wood (“Cathedra Petri”), RIDDLE, BAUER, WYLIE ;
also many monographs on single popes, as VoIGT on Greg-
ory VII., HURTER on Innocent III. (4 vols.), REUTER on
Alexander III. (3 vols.). Scholasticism and Mysticism of
the Middle Ages: STöCKL (“History of the Philosophy
of the Middle Ages,” Mayence, 1864 sqq., 3 vols.); GöRRES
(“History of Christian Mysticism,” 1836–42, 4 vols.); and
the monographs of HASSE on Anselm of Canterbury, WER-
NER and WAUGHAN on Thomas Aquinas, NEANDER and
MoRISON on St. Bernard, CHRISTLIEB on Scotus Erigena,
LIEBNER on Hugo of St. Victor. History of Monasticism :
SPITTLER, MüNCH, DöRING, MonTALEMBERT, and especially
the colossal biographical work of the Jesuits, “Acta Sanc-
torum ” (for every day in the year, not yet completed).
Revival of . Letters and Forerunners of the Reformation:
ULLMANN on the “Reformers before the Reformation” (2
vols., Hamburg, 1841); VAUGHAN on John Wycliffe (London,
1854); LECHLER on Wycliffe (Leipsic, 1873, 2 vols.); HEL-
FERT and GILETTE on Huss and Jerome of Prague; MEIER,
RUDELBACH, PERRENS, MADDEN on Savonarola; MüI.LER
on Erasmus; STRAUss on Ulrich von Hutten; SEEBOHM on
“The Oxford Reformers, John Colet, Erasmus, and Thomas
More” (London, 1869). “History of the Reformation,” by
MARHEINEKE, NEUDECKER, RANKE, MERLED’AUBIGNí, DöL-
LINGER (R. C.), FISHER (just published, New York, 1873),
KAHNIS (1873); not to mention the numerous monographs
on Luther, Melanchthon, Zwingli, Calvin. On the English
Reformation in particular: STRYPE (“Ecclesiastical Memo-
rials and Annals of the Reformation;” also his “Memo-
rials of Cranmer, Parker, Grindal, Whitgift,” etc.); BUR-
NET, CoLLIER (non-juror), DoDD (R.C.), CARDwDLL, FUL-
LER, SOAMES, FROUDE (from the fall of Wolsey to the death
of Elizabeth). On the Reformation in Scotland: BUCHANAN
(“Rerum Scoticarum Historia”), J. KNox (till 1567), CALD-
ERWOOD, ROBERTSON, M’CRIE (“Life of John Knox"),
IHETHERINGTON, RUDLOFF. On the literature of the modern
history of the principal churches and sects see the respec-
tive articles. PHILIP SCHAFF.
Ecclesiastical Law. See CANON LAw.
Ecclesias’ ticus [Gr. ŠkkAmortgarukós, probably meaning
the “church-book,” because anciently read in “church "
(ékkAmata)], or the Wisdom of Jesus the Son of
Sirach, a book considered apocryphal by Jews and
Protestants, and received as canonical by the Roman Cath-
olic and Greek churches. By the Anglican Articles it is
recommended to be read for edification. It appears to
have been written in Hebrew by one Jesus (Joshua), the
Son of Sirach, at Jerusalem, at an uncertain date.
Ecclesiol’ogy [Gr. 3xxxmorta, “church,” and A6)0s,
“treatise”], a word denoting properly the doctrine of the
Church and its government, but commonly applied to the
building and furnishing of church edifices. The subject
has attracted much attention in Great Britain of late years.
There are societies for promoting the study, a journal (“The
Ecclesiologist”) is published, and there is “A Handbook
of English Ecclesiology” (London, 1847). -
Echellen'sis (ABRAHAM), a learned Maronite, born at
Eckel in Syria. He was professor of Arabic and Syriac at
Rome, and removed about 1630 to Paris, where he assisted
in the edition of Le Jay's polyglot Bible. He was the
author of an “Oriental Chronicle.” Died in Italy in 1664.
Echelon [a French word signifying the “round * of a
ladder], a military term applied to a certain arrangement
of troops when several divisions are drawn up in parallel
lines, each to the right or the left of the one preceding it,
like “steps” or the rounds of a ladder, so that no two are
on the same alignment. Each division by marching di-
rectly forward can form a line with that which is in ad-
vance of it. There are two sorts of échelon, direct and ob-
lique, the former of which is used in an attack or a retreat.
chewin [Lat. scabinus] in France from the time of
Charlemagne to the Revolution (1789), a royal officer of
justice and of finance, whose duties were various in differ-
ent periods. For the last six hundred years of the duration
of the office it was chiefly exercised in the cities. The
échevins of Paris were assessors, and had authority as
magistrates in some kinds of civil business.
Echid/na [Gr.”ExtSvoj, in Greek mythology, a monster,
half serpent and half woman, supposed to be the daughter
of Tartarus, and the mother of Cerberus and the Chimaera.
Echidna, a genus of Australian quadrupeds belong-
ing to the order Monotremata. The Echidna is covered
with spines, and is nearly as large as a hedgehog. It de-
viates in a remarkable manner from the typical structure
of the Mämmalia in the organization of the generative and
osseous systems. ' The muzzle is elongated and slender,
and the mouth destitute of teeth. The feet are 'armed
with claws, which enable the Echidna to burrow with great
rapidity. It feeds on ants, which it catches by means of a
long adhesive tongue. . . . . . ; ; ;
Echi/mys [from the Gr. exivös, a “hedgehog,” and pºs,
a “mouse”], a South American genus of rodent mammals
called “spiny rats.” They are about the size of large rats,
and have numerous spines scattered through their hair.
They are of six or eight species, and are a kind of link be-
tween the rats and the true porcupines.
z
67
1476
ECHINADES-ECIJA.
Echin'ades [Gr. "Exºváčes, from éxivos, a “hedgehog,”
alluding to their irregular, sharp outlines], the ancient
Greek name of a group of islands of the Ionian Sea, off the
mouth of the Achelous. Some of the ancient islands have
been joined to the mainland by alluvial deposits. The
islands are small, rocky, and unimportant. Seventeen of
these islands have names, but only nine are cultivated.
They are now called Kurtzelari Islands, and the largest is
named Petalá; but Oxiá, Makrí, and Wrómona are the most
important. Lat. of the S. end of Oxiá, 38° 17' N., lon. 21°
E. -
Ech’inate [from the Gr. ºxivos, a “hedgehog”], in
botany, furnished with rigid hairs or prickles, as the husk
of the chestnut. -
Echim’ida [named from Echi'nus, one of the general,
called also Ech’inoids or Sea Ur/chins (urchin being .
the old English for hedgehog), an order of echinoderms
with calcareous shells more or less globular, and composed
of symmetrically-arranged plates, bearing tubercles armed
with movable spines. They have no arms like star fishes,
but the five radiations are distinctly marked by holes,
through which the ambulacra are protruded. These holes
occur in the alternate plates. These animals are divided
into regular sea urchins (Cidaridae), often spherical or oval,
and irregular sea urchins, of which there are several fam-
ilies. Many species of echinoids occur in the American seas.
Echinoder’mata (plu.), or Ech’inoderms [from the
Gr. exivos, a “hedgehog,” and 8épp.a., a “skin ’’I, the highest
class of animals of the Cuvierian sub-kingdom Radiata,
having a tough covering, containing more or less calcareous
matter, or composed of pieces which are either movable or
bound together and covered with spines (whence the name);
the body divided into two parts, the actinal (or oral) and
the abactinal portion. Along certain of the rays are reg-
ular rows of tube-like suckers (ambulacra) used in locomo-
tion. The muscular system is well developed. The inter-
nal vessels, etc. have walls of their own. The principal
nerve-centre is a peri-oesophageal ring; all are oviparous.
Echinoderms have their parts in multiples of five. The
living species are all marine. They are divided into five
orders—the holothurians, the sea urchins (echinoids), the
star fishes (asteroids), the ophiuroids, and the crinoids.
To these some append the sipunculoids as a sixth order. .
Echinus [Gr. exivos, a “ hedgehog,” a name applied to
&\"\
ſº "G
Shell of Sea Urchin (Echinus), with the spines.
this genus on account of its spines], a genus of Echino-
dermata, of the family Cidaridae, comprising a large num-
a ſº
3 ºf:
ſº
*%
ºft
* *
Echinus, divested of its spines.
ber of European sea-urchins, several species of which are
used as food. Forbes counted on one of these animals
more than 300 polygonal plates, over 4000 spines, and
nearly 1900 suckers.
Echinus, in architecture, a moulding consisting of a
series of egg-shaped or alternately egg- and anchor-shaped
ornaments. It especially appears as an ornament of the
Doric capital or cushion, and is one of the characteristic
decorations of early Greek art. It is said to have taken its
ºnal form and its name from the chestnut and its spiny
{{I’I’.
Echmiedzin', or Eschmiazin, a celebrated Arme-
nian monastery in the province of Erivan, in Asiatic Rus-
sia, 15 miles W. of Erivan. It is the residence of the ca-
tholicos or head of the entire Armenian Church. Twelve
archbishops and bishops, four vartabeds, about sixty cler-
ical and five hundred lay monks live in the monastery,
the archbishops, bishops, and vartabeds constituting the
synod of the catholicos, which must be consulted on all
important occasions. The monastery was founded in 524.
Ech’o [Gr. 'HX6], in classic mythology, was a nymph
who aided Jupiter in escaping the watchfulness of Juno, by
detaining the latter with her amusing talkativeness; but
that goddess, discovering the deception, ordained that she
should not be able to speak until some person had spoken
to her, nor to be silent after any one had spoken to her.
Cherishing for Narcissus a passion which was not requited,
she pined away until nothing remained of her but her
voice. -
Echo [for etymology see preceding article], the reflection
of sound from a distant surface. Several conditions must
be fulfilled before an echo can be produced. The ear must
be situated in the line of the reflection; and in order that
the person who emits the sound may himself hear the echo,
this line must be perpendicular to the reflecting surface,
but if there are several such surfaces the sound may be
brought back by a series of successive reflections. The
opposing surface must be at a certain distance from the
ear, for if the direct and reflected sounds succeed each
other with great rapidity, they are confounded. Thus,
vaulted caves and large rooms have a strong resonance,
but produce no echo.
Sound passes through the atmosphere at the rate of about
1125 feet in a second; hence, a person placed at half that
distance.would hear the echo exactly one second after the
sound was emitted by him. The least distance of the re-
flecting surface from the point whence the sound is emitted
must be about fifty feet.
Unless the surface reflecting the sound is of considerable
extent, the echo will be too feeble to be heard. Some con-
cavity in the surface by which diverging rays of sound are
concentrated at the point where the echo is audible, is favor-
able, if not absolutely essential, to the production of echoes.
It is a property of the ellipse that every sound proceeding
from one of its foci and impinging against the curve is re-
flected into the other focus; whence two persons placed in
the two foci of an elliptic chamber may converse with each
other in a whisper, and not be heard by those who are in
the other parts of the room. Thus, walls or buildings ap-
proaching the elliptic form return sounds with great force
and distinctness. The faintest sound is conveyed from one
side of the “whispering gallery” of St. Paul’s, London, to
the other, but is not heard at any intermediate point. Some
echoes are remarkable for their frequency of repetition. An
echo in Woodstock Park, England, repeats seventeen syl-
lables by day and twenty by night. An echo in the Simo-
| netta palace, near Milan, is said to repeat the report of a
pistol sixty times. *
EcHo, in music, is the repetition of a musical phrase often
written for the organ, by the stops of which it can be pro-
duced with facility.
Ech’o, a township of Dale co., Ala. Pop. 950.
Ech’o Cañ’on, Utah Territory, is a remarkable ravine
or defile visible to passengers on the Union Pacific R. R.,
975 miles from Omaha. It is in Summit co., and is enclosed
between high vertical walls of rock. The scenery is of sur-
prising grandeur and beauty.
Ech’o Cit/y, a post-village of Summit co., Ut., on the
Union Pacific R. R., 39 miles S. E. of Ogden. It is pictu-
resquely situated more than 5000 feet above the sea.
Echºols, a county in the S. of Georgia. Area, 400
square miles. It is intersected by the Allapaha River. The
surface is level; the soil Sandy. Corn, rice, and wool are
raised. It is traversed by a branch of the Atlantic and
Gulf R. R. Capital, Statenville. Pop. 1978.
Ecija, à/the-Hā (anc. A8'tigi), a city of Spain, in Anda-
lusia, on the river Genil, about 50 miles E. N. E. of Seville.
It is well built, and has numerous churches, convents, and
hospitals; also manufactures of linens and coarse woollen


ECK, VON.—ECLIPSE.
1477
-—
fabrics. On the border of the river is an alameda (promen-
a.de) adorned with statues and fountains. Many Roman
remains are found here. The climate is so hot that Ecija
is called “the frying-pan of Andalusia.” The ancient Aſs-
tigi was one of the chief towns of Hispania. Baetica. Pop.
in 1860, 27,216. -
Eck, von (Johann Mayr), [Lat. Eck/ius, or Eoſcius],
D. D., a German theologian and able adversary of Luther,
was born at Eck, in Suabia, Nov. 13, 1486. He was a pro-
fessor in the University of Ingolstadt, and was noted for
his skill in disputation. He went to Rome in 1520, and
instigated the pope to persecute Luther. At the Diet of
Augsburg held in 1530 he controverted the Lutheran con-
fession of faith. Among his works is a “Manual of Con-
troversy.” Died Feb. 10, 1543.
Eck’art, the greatest among the mystic writers of Ger-
many during the Middle Ages, was vicar of the Dominican
order in Erfurt, then vicar-general in Bohemia, and in 1327
provincial in Cologne. He introduced many reforms into
the monasteries, attracted great attention by his sermons
in the German language, and was connected with the
Brethren of the Free Spirit. A papal bull issued soon
after his death condemned twenty-eight sentences in his
sermons. He has been called the “father of modern pan-
theism,” and is regarded as one of the greatest men of the
German race, and one of the deepest thinkers of all ages.
Died in 1329, near the beginning of the year. A collection
of his writings, as far as they have been preserved, has been
published by Pfeiffer in the second volume of “Deutsche
Mystiker” (1857).
Eck’ert (THOMAS THOMPsox), born in St. Clairsville, 0.,
April 23, 1824. In 1849 he was appointed postmaster at
Wooster, and placed in charge of the telegraph-office there;
in 1852 he was appointed superintendent of telegraph, which
position he held till 1859, when he accepted the management
of a gold-mining company in North Carolina, which he re-
tained till the spring of 1861, when on the outbreak of war
he was compelled to abandon all he possessed. He reached
Cincinnati nearly destitute. His information of the con-
dition of affairs in the South was valuable, and he was in-
vited to Washington by the authorities for consultation.
He was at once placed in charge of the military telegraph-
office at the head-quarters of Gen. McClellan. In 1862 he
accompanied the Army of the Potomac as superintendent
of military telegraph, with the rank of captain and acting
quartermaster. In Sept., 1862, he was called to Washing-
ton to establish the head-quarters of the military telegraph
at the war department, with the rank of major. His ser-
vice in organizing and conducting the immense system was
freely acknowledged, and he enjoyed the confidence of both
President Lincoln and Secretary Stanton. In the latter
part of 1864 he was made assistant secretary of war, which
office he retained till Aug., 1866. (Brevet lieutenant-col-
onel 1864, brevet brigadier-general 1865.) Immediately
after his retirement from the war department he accepted
the general superintendence of the Western Union Tele-
graph in the East; which position he now holds, perform-
ing the duties of his office with great ability, and securing
valuable results both to the public and the telegraph service,
and to himself a high reputation as a telegraph manager.
G. C. SIMMONs, Clerk Board of Engineers.
Eck'ford, a township of Calhoun co., Mich. Pop. 1011.
Eckford (HENRY), born in Scotland Mar. 12, 1775, re-
moved to the city of New York in 1796. During the war
of 1812–14 he was employed by the U.S. to build fleets for
the lakes. He also built ships of war for foreign nations.
His ships were remarkable for strength and speed. . In
1831 he entered the service of the Turks as naval construc-
tor. Died at Constantinople Nov. 12, 1832.
Eckley, a post-village of Foster township, Luzerne co.,
Pa., on a branch of the Lehigh Valley R. R. It has pro-
ductive mines of excellent anthracite coal.
Eckſmiihl [Ger. Eggmühl), a village of Bavaria, 13 miles
S. S. E. of Ratisbon. Here on the 22d of April, 1809, Na-
poleon defeated the Austrian archduke Charles, who lost.
5000, killed and wounded, besides 7000 prisoners. Da-
youst received the title of prince of Eckmühl for his con-
duct in this battle. -
Eclectic [Gr. Škaskrikós, from ºr, “out,” and Aéyo, to
“choose ;” Lat. eclecticus ; Fr. Éclectique], selected or
chosen from several others. This term was applied to
philosophers who endeavored to select from the systems of
various schools the true or most probable doctrines, and to
combine these into a harmonious system. An eclectic spirit,
it is evident, can only exist or prevail at a period of some
maturity in philosophical speculation. In one sense of the
word, Plato and Aristotle may be regarded as eclectics, for
they both availed themselves largely of the doctrines of
preceding philosophers. But in the hands of these great
thinkers the discerpta membra are endued with a principle
of vitality, and reunited as coherent parts of a harmonious
system. The term eclectic is especially applied to phil-
osophers of a later age and inferior order. Among these
may be classed Epictetus, Potamon, Plutarch, and Plotinus.
Plutarch, a man of great and various endowments, may be
taken as an example of false eclecticism. His great object
seems to have been to reconcile the profound speculations
and pure morality of the philosophers with the fanciful in-
ventions and gross mythology of the poets and priests. Plo-
tinus and others endeavored to reconcile Neo-Platonism with
Christianity. Among the most eminent modern eclectics
Victor Cousin, the brilliant expounder of the history of phil-
osophy, affords a favorable specimen of the eclectic spirit.
He was perhaps the mostingenious thinker of modern France.
(See his “Lectures on the History of Philosophy.”)
Eclipse [Gr. Škaevipts, from ékAsimo, “to fail;” Lat. de-
fectus], in astronomy, the obscuration of a celestial body by
another. Eclipses are divisible into three classes, viz.:
1, the obscuration of the sun by the moon, which is called
a solar eclipse ; 2, the obscuration of the moon by the
shadow of the earth, which is a lunar eclipse ; and 3, the
obscuration of a satellite of a planet by the shadow of the
primary, which is called the eclipse of a satellite, as dis-
tinguished from an occultation of the satellite, by which is
to be understood the disappearance of the satellite behind
the body of the primary. The most interesting of these
phenomena are the eclipses of the sun and moon. The
earth, and the moon cast their shadows in a direction oppo-
site to the sun; and as the earth and moon are nearly
spherical, and the sun is larger than either, it is evident
that these shadows must be nearly conical in form. The
moon is eclipsed when it enters the shadow of the earth;
in other words, when the earth is interposed between it and
the sun. This can occur only at the time of full moon, or
when the moon is in opposition to the sun, and when both
bodies are at the same time, near one of the moon’s modes;
that is to say, near to the points in which her orbit inter-
sects the plane of the ecliptic. When at the time of mean
full moon the difference of the mean longitude of the moon
and of her mode is greater than 13° 21', there cannot be an
eclipse; when less than this, there may be; and when less
than 7° 41', there must be. These distances are called the
lunar ecliptic limits. If only part of the moon’s disk enters
the earth’s shadow, the eclipse is called partial; but if the
whole disk is involved in the shadow, it is total. The orbit
of the moon is inclined about 5° to the plane of the ecliptic,
and this is the reason why eclipses do not happen every full
moon. The moon cannot be eclipsed more than twice during
the year, and it may escape eclipse for an entire year alto-
gether. Lunar eclipses are visible to all parts of the earth
at which the body is above the horizon at the time of their
OCCUlrreſhCe.
Solar eclipses occur at the time of new moon, or when the
moon is between the sun and the earth. If at the time of
mean new moon the difference between the mean longitudes
of the sun or moon and the node is greater than 19° 44',
there cannot be an eclipse; if less than this, there may be;
and if less than 13° 33', there must be. These distances
are called the solar ecliptic limits. They are greater than
the lunar ecliptic limits; and hence eclipses of the sum are
more frequent than those of the moon. To all parts of the
earth on which the moon’s true shadow or umbra falls, the
eclipse is total; to those from which only a portion of the
solar disk is concealed, it is partial; and the diminution of
the sun's light over these regions defines what is called the
penumbra or partial shadow. The greatest breadth of the
moon’s true shadow on the earth’s surface never exceeds
127 miles; the breadth of the penumbra may reach 4900
miles. At the time of new moon, or when the moon is
between the sun and the earth, her shadow or penumbra may
fall on a part of the disk of the earth, and produce the
phenomenon of a total or partial eclipse of the sun, which
is limited to the portions of the earth on which the moon’s
shadow or penumbra happens to fall. The shadow of the
moon does not always extend so far as the earth. In the
two following diagrams the former represents the case in
which the shadow does reach, and the latter illustrates the
case in which it does not reach, the surface of the earth.
T
The shadow of the moon in the first diagram falls upon a
portion of the earth between m and m', and the inhabitants
of that portion will witness a total eclipse of the sun. But
in the second diagram, where the shadow of the moon does

1478
ECLIPTIC–ECOUTES.
not reach the earth, if we suppose the dark conical shadow
m n' to be produced into the small opposite come m m',
meeting the surface of the earth, it will be obvious that to
any spectator within this latter cone, or any inhabitant of
the portion m mſ of the earth, the central part of the sun's
disk will be covered or obscured by the moon, and the un-
obscured part of the sun will present the appearance of a
beautiful luminous ring or ammulus. This phenomenon is an
annular eclipse of the sun. In other cases, the moon’s
penumbra N N' is projected against a portion of the earth's
surface, so as to cause a partial eclipse. The diagram, owing
to the disproportion between the relative distances and
magnitudes of the bodies, exaggerates the extent of the
penumbra, which is never large enough to cover the entire
disk of the earth. w
The largest number of eclipses of both Sun and moon
which can occur in any one year is seven, of which five will
be of the sun and two of the moon. The SImallest number
possible in one year is two, both of which will be of the
sun. The sun passes each of the moon’s nodes once only
in a year, unless the first passage occurs near the first of
January, in which case, owing to the retrogradation of the
nodal points, it may pass one node twice and the other
once. Two solar eclipses may then occur in January, two
in midsummer, and one in December, making five in all.
But owing to the limited extent of the earth’s surface to
which solar eclipses are visible, they are less frequently
observed at the same place than lunar. The eclipses of
Jupiter's satellites, which can be calculated long before-
hand, afford a convenient method of determining longitude.
The duration of an eclipse is the time between the im-
mersion and the emersion. Immersion signifies the moment
when the luminary begins to be obscured, and emersion is
the reappearance of the luminary from behind the body by
which it has been obscured. The term digit is used to de-
note one-twelfth part of the diameter of the sun’s disk, and
the eclipse is said to be of ten digits if ten out of twelve
parts of its diameter are obscured when the phase is max-
imum. A total eclipse of the sun is an impressive phe-
nomenon, and was regarded by the ancients as a very
portentous, supernatural, and alarming event. The Chris-
tians of the Dark Ages offered formal prayers in order to
avert the recurrence of eclipses. Even brute animals are
filled with dismay by the lurid gloom or peculiar twilight
of a total eclipse, during which the temperature of the air
sinks rapidly. The duration of such an eclipse is usually
only about three or four minutes, but may extend to eight.
A total eclipse of the sun was visible in some parts of the
U. S. Aug. 7, 1869, when the duration of totality was two
minutes and forty-two seconds. The corona of this eclipse
is thus described by a person who observed it: “On look-
ing up, one of the grandest spectacles met the eye of which
it is possible to conceive. Surrounding the dark body of the
moon was a crown of light, with rays shooting out in five
great sheaths to a distance equal to the sum’s diameter, or
nearly a million of miles. We gazed for eight or ten seconds
with astonishment at this magnificent spectacle. No paint-
ing can represent it, and no pen can describe it.” “The pe-
culiar phenomena which have attracted so much attention
in solar eclipses are only visible during the brief period of
totality. The difficulty of observing them lies in this exceed-
ing brevity, and in the fact that however much the observer
may have studied the experiences of others, the phenomena
come upon him as a complete surprise. The moment that
the last ray of light disappears with the extinguishment of
Bailly’s beads there bursts upon him a vision so marvel-
lously beautiful, so startling by its novelty, that his self-
possession and self-control desert him.” “No one,” he
adds, “who has not seen a total eclipse can fully appreciate
the grandeur of the occasion. As the light, ray by ray, is
cut off, a strange and ghastly darkness comes down upon
us; not like the darkness of night, but a violet-colored
darkness, which maakes the faces of our neighbors turn ashy
pale, and gives to the landscape the hues which it takes
in a stereoscopic picture.” (Annual of Scientific Discovery
for 1870.) A total eclipse occurs very infrequently at any
one place. J. P. Nichol states that no total eclipse was
visible at London for a period of 575 years (1140–1715).
The occurrence of eclipses at the exact time predicted by
astronomers is a signal demonstration of the constancy of
the laws of Nature, and of the undeviating punctuality with
which her grand operations are performed.
Great importance has heretofore been attached to spec-
troscopic and polariscopic observations of the sun's enve-
lopes and coronal appendages during solar eclipses. Re-
cently, however, it has been found practicable to make such
observations quite as satisfactorily when the body is en-
tirely unobscured. These observations have already added
much to our knowledge of the physical condition and
chemical constitution of our great central luminary; and
there is reason to expect that in coming years they will be
still more fruitful in interesting discovery. (See SUN and
CoRONA.) &
Eclipſtic [so called because eclipses can only occur
when the moon is on or very near its plane], in astronomy,
the great circle of the heavens which the sun appears to
describe in his annual revolution. It is the circle to which
longitudes and latitudes in the heavens are referred. From
time immemorial the ecliptic has been divided into twelve
equal parts, called signs of the zodiac-Aries, Taurus,
Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius,
Capricornus, Aquarius, and Pisces. These signs, however,
do not coincide with the constellations of the same names,
but are merely arcs of thirty degrees reckoned from the in.
tersection of the ecliptic and equator, which is not a fixed
point, so that they are carried backward by the precession
of the equinoxes. The sign Aries is now in the constella-
tion Pisces. The angle which the plane of the ecliptic makes
with the plane of the equator is called the obliquity of the
ecliptic, which is a variable quantity—about 23° 27' 30".
The change of seasons is the result of this angle.
Eclogue, ék/log [Lat. ecºloga; Gr. Škaoyi, a “selec-
tion ”], originally the select pieces of an author. The word
usually signifies a pastoral poem, the main and proper sub-
jects of which are the loves of shepherds or their adven-
tures. These shepherds, however, are mostly imaginary per-
sonages, whose sentiments and circumstances belong rather
to an ideal golden age than to the realities of common life.
The “Bucolics " of Virgil are often called eclogues, but
they have not all the true pastoral character, some of them
being occasional poems on events of the day, only slightly
enveloped in the pastoral costume. Spenser and Philips
are among the eminent English pastoral poets. It is worthy
of notice that this species of composition is now nearly ob-
solete. -
Ecole Polytechnique. See Poly TECHNIC ScHool,
Econom’ic Geol’ogy, also called Practical Ge-
ology, is that branch of the science which relates to the
distribution, modes of occurrence, properties, and uses of
minerals employed by man. The applications of geology
are—I, to agriculture, in the knowledge it conveys of the
composition, structure, and origin of soils, the distribution
and properties of mineral fertilizers, etc.; 2, to architecture,
in materials for construction ; 3, to engineering, in drain.
age, excavations, and construction ; 4, to manufactures, in
its revelations of the distribution, properties, and uses of
ores, fuels, clays, oils, asphalts, gems, and other minerals
employed in the arts. It also includes the theory and prac-
tice of mining. By its investigations into the structure and
resources of the earth, economic geology may have an im-
portant bearing upon the health, wealth, occupations, and
history of every community and nation.
Econ'omy [Lat. oecono’mia; Fr. Économie, from the Gr.
oikos, a “house,” and vôpos, “law'” or “regulation ”], the
regulation and government of a household or family; a
frugal and prudent use of money or commodities; prudent
management of affairs; sometimes the regular operations
of nature in the reproduction, nutrition, and preservation
of animals and plants. Rural economy is nearly synonymous
with agriculture and the pursuits of farmers.
Econºomy, a post-village of Beaver co., Pa., on the
Ohio River and on the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago
R. R., 18 miles N. W. of Pittsburg. It was settled by Ger-
man socialists called the Harmony Society. It has manu-
factures of cotton and wool. Pop. of Economy township,
1324. (See HARMONISTs.)
Economy, Political. See PoliticAL ECONOMY.
Ecora Fabra, a township of Ouachita co., Ark. Pop.
2325.
Ecorché, AſkoR'shā' [a French word, past part. of
écorcher, to “flay,” to “skin’), is a figure used as a model
by artists, in which the muscles are represented deprived
of the skin. In a portion of the figure the upper muscles
are also removed, so that those lying below them may be
seen. The écorché is sometimes represented in action. This
was first done by the French artist and anatomist Salvage.
Ecorse, a post-township of Wayne co., Mich. P. 2211.
Ecoutes, ā'koot' [a French word from écowter, to
“listen’], in military engineering, are small galleries ex-
cavated at regular intervals beyond the glacis and towards
the enemy’s works, whose mining operations may by this
means be heard and estimated.

ECRASEUR—ECUA DOR.
1479
Ecraseur, à-kIRá'zúR [Fr., signifying “crusher,” from
écraser, to “crush ’], a surgical instrument for performing
amputation, invented by Chassaignac of Paris. The cutting
is done by a small but very strong steel chain, a loop of
which is passed around the tumor or other part to be re-
moved. The two ends of the chain run through a steel tube,
and in operation are drawn through the tube by an endless
screw with a lever handle, which puts the ends of the chain
into tension, diminishing the size of the loop and very slowly
but irresistibly tearing away the enclosed substance. Its
use is always to be preceded by an anaesthetic. Its advan-
tages are that the haemorrhage following its judicious use
is usually slight, and that healing takes place rapidly, with
comparatively little suppuration. The shock is also com-
paratively slight; but it can never be used where nice dis-
section and skilful operation are required; and it is also
somewhat unmanageable in its effects. Its use is becoming
limited to a small and peculiar class of operations, chiefly
upon mucous surfaces; in these cases its value is great,
Ectozo'on (plu. Ectozo'a), [from the Gr. ekrós, “with-
out,” “outside,” and goév, an “animal”], a term used in
contradistinction to Entozoa [ćvrós, “within,” and gºodu, an
“ animal”], to indicate parasitic animals which live upon
the outside of other animals, such as lice and ticks, and the
crustaceans found upon fishes and whales. A more com-
mon name for these creatures is EPIzoA (which see).
Ecuador, ék-wā-dòR/ [Fr. L’ Equateur; Port. Equador],
(i.e. “equator”), a republic of South America, so called
because it is situated under the equator. It extends from
lat. I* 35' N. to 5° 50' S., and is about 800 miles long
from E. to W. Area, estimated at 250,000 square miles;
Guyot says 206,692. It is bounded on the N. by Colombia,
on the E. by Brazil, on the S. by Peru, from which it is
separated by the river Amazon, and on the W. by the Pa-
cific Ocean. Its limits are nearly the same as those of the
former Spanish province of Quito. -
Physical Features and Climate.—This region presents a
great variety of surface and climate in its lofty mountains,
elevated valleys or plateaus, and low tracts called tierras
calientes, the temperature of which is intensely hot. The
surface is mostly mountainous, except the plains called
Llanos in the eastern part. Ecuador is traversed by two
Cordilleras of the Andes, many peaks of which, called neva-
dos, rise above the limit of perpetual snow. About sixteen
active volcanoes occur in this republic, one of which, Coto-
paxi, is 18,875 feet high, and is remarkable for its symmet-
rical form, resembling a truncated cone. The highest peak
in Ecuador is Chimborazo, which rises 21,424 feet above
the level of the Sea, and belongs to the western range. The
culminating points of the Eastern Cordillera are Cayambe,
19,535 feet, and Antisana, 19,137 feet high. Between these
two cordilleras is the long valley or table-land of Quito,
which is 9543 feet above the level of the sea, and enjoys a
temperate and very equable climate. Here and in the high
valleys of Cuenca and Hambato prevails delightful weather,
like perpetual spring. Winter is only distinguishable from
summer by a greater quantity of rain. Copious rains often
fall at Quito, and a regular rainy season prevails in the
vicinity of Guayaquil on the coast, where the temperature
is often above 100° Fahrenheit. Ecuador is subject to fre-
quent earthquakes. -
The chief rivers are the Amazon (here called the Marañon)
and its tributaries, the Napo, Tigre, Pastaza, and Putumayo
or Iga. The last of these forms the north-eastern boundary
of the republic. . They flow in a south-east direction, except
the Marañon, which flows nearly eastward. They are navi-
gable for steamboats in the lower part of their course. The
Putumayo and Napo are said to be navigable for 500 miles
Or In Ore.
Minerals, Animals, and Plants.-Granite, syenite, tra-
chyte, and porphyry abound in the Andes of Ecuador.
Among its mineral resources are gold, silver, mercury, cop-
per, antimony, lead, iron, zinc, and salt. The forests are
infested with the cougar (Felis concolor), the jaguar or
American tiger, the panther, the bear, and the ounce. The
tapir, armadillo, Vicuña, guanaco, monkey, sloth, llama,
and antelope are also found here. Large numbers of wild
horses and cattle roam over the plains or llanos. Noxious
reptiles and insects are very numerous and troublesome in
some parts of the country. Ecuador is partly covered with
extensive forests of large timber, and is said to surpass most
other countries in trees suitable for shipbuilding and cabi-
net-work. The cinchona abounds here. Among the vegetable
productions are vanilla, cocoa, balsam of tolu, caoutchouc,
croton oil, the orange, cherimoya, pineapple, and many other
tropical fruits. Cotton, sugar-cane, rice, pepper, coffee, and
the banana are cultivated in the lowlands, and maize, wheat,
and barley flourish in the high table-lands of Quito.
JDivisions, Towns, Population, Religion, Edweation. —
Ecuador is divided into three departments—viz., Assuay,
Pichincha, and Guayas, which, after their capitals, are also
called Cuenca, Quito, and Guayaquil. The departments are
subdivided into provinces, the department of Quito contain-
ing the provinces of Pichincha, Imbabura, Leon, Chimbo-
razo, Esmeraldas, and Oriente; the department of Guaya-
quil, the provinces of Guayaquil and Manane; and the
department of Cuenca, the provinces of Cuenca, and Loja.
The chief towns are Quito (which is the capital), Cuenca,
Riobamba, Guayaquil, and Loja. Guayaquil is the prin-
cipal seaport of the republic. According to Villavicencio
(“Geografia de la Republica del Ecuador,” 1858), the popu-
lation amounted in 1858 to 1,108,082, exclusive of 200,000
uncivilized Indians. Wappäus (“Geograph. Handbuch,”
new ed. 1871) estimates it, on the basis of an official census
of 1856, at 881,943, exclusive of 150,000 uncivilized Indians.
About 600,000 inhabitants are of Spanish or European ex-
traction; the remainder, with the exception of a small num-
ber of negroes (about 8000) and mestizoes (about 36,000),
are Indians. All the races enjoy political equality. The
entire population, except the uncivilized Indians, belong to
the Roman Catholic Church, and the public exercise of any
other form of religion is forbidden. The Roman Catholic
Church has in Ecuador the archdiocese of Quito and the
dioceses of Cuenca, Guayaquil, Riobamba, Ibarra, Loja, and
Puerto Viejo, the last four of which have been established
by Pius IX. The republic has a university at Quito (estab-
lished in 1684), four colleges, eleven other high Schools,
several seminaries, and about 290 primary schools, of which
only thirty are for girls. The Indian population grows up
almost entirely without education. In accordance with the
concordat of 1863, the entire public instruction is in agree-
ment with the Catholic Church. *
Government, Finances, Commerce, Army, and Navy.—The
constitution of Ecuador, which is democratic and republi-
can, was adopted in 1845, and amended in 1852 and 1853.
The executive power is vested in the president, and in case
of a vacancy of the presidential chair, in the vice-president.
According to a law passed in 1869, the minister of the in-
terior is at the same time vice-president of the republic.
The legislative power is vested in a congress, consisting of
a senate of eighteen members and a house of representatives
consisting of thirty members. Congress assembles annually
at Quito on Sept. 15, without being convoked by the presi-
dent. The revenue of the republic amounted in 1870 to
1,813,870 piastres (1 piastre = 1 dollar), the chief source of
the revenue (more than two-thirds) being duties on imports.
The expenditures amount to about 1,400,000 piastres. The
home debt was, in 1865, 9,390,554 piastres; the foreign
debt, 3,692,955 piastres. Nearly the whole foreign trade
passes through the port of Guayaquil, the ports of Manta
and Esmeraldas being as yet of only small importance.
The aggregate value of the exports from Guayaquil during
the year 1871 amounted to 3,807,105 piastres, exclusive of
precious metals, the exports of which in 1870 amounted to
1,135,467 piastres. The most important articles of export
are cacao (2,134,000 piastres), gum (867,000 piastres), straw
hats (93,000 piastres), cinchona bark (115,000 piastres), cot-
ton (38,000 piastres). The total number of vessels entering
the port of Guayaquil in 1870 was 125 (among which were
72 English and 18 German), of an aggregate tonnage of
55,310. The army consists of one regiment of artillery,
four battalions of infantry, and three regiments of cavalry;
in all, 3151 men. The navy is composed of only two steamers
and one pilot-boat. The roads throughout the republic are
in a shocking condition, and at the close of the year 1872
no beginning had been made yet with the construction of
either railroad or telegraph.
According to the traditions of the Indians, Ecuador was
anciently a mighty kingdom, consisting of fifty provinces,
and probably much larger than it is at present. The name
of the kingdom was Quito, and that of its inhabitants
Quitoos or Quichoos. About the tenth century a strange
people called Cara, who had come from the coast, conquered
the Quitoos, and reigned for about 500 years. In 1475
the nation was conquered by the inea Huayana-Capac,
called the “Great,” who divided his dominions between his
two sons, Huascar and Atahuallpa. Huascar became inca
of Peru, and Atahuallpa king of Quito. Dissensions be-
tween the two brothers ultimately led to war, and in 1530
Huascar was conquered and kept a prisoner in his own
capital. Atahuallpa thus became ruler of the whole em-
pire of the incas, but in the war against the Spaniards
he lost his throne and his life. (See PERU.) The Span-
iards, after subduing the entire country, made Quito a
presidency in the vice-kingdom of New Spain, which for
nearly three centuries yielded to Spain large quantities of
gold and silver, and was at one time its richest and most
profitable colony. In some of its districts, however, the
mines were utterly destroyed by the Indians, who by
Spanish despotism were driven to desperation.
The first attempt to establish their independence was
Y *
1480
ECUMENICAL–EDELINCK.
made by the colonists in 1809, but it was unsuccessful. A
second attempt in 1812 had the same fate. More successful
was the revolution which in 1820 began at Guayaquil under
the leadership of Bolivar. Two years later, Ecuador joined
the republic of Colombia, which had been formed by New
Granada and Venezuela, and in Dec., 1824, the battle of
Ayacucho for ever overthrew the Spanish rule. In 1831,
Ecuador separated from Colombia and became an inde-
pendent republic, of which General Juan José de Flores,
the companion of Bolivar, was the first president. Since
then the history of Ecuador has been an almost uninter-
rupted series of revolutions and wars with neighboring re-
publics. Flores remained at the head of the republic, either
as president or as general-in-chief, until 1845, when he was
forced to sign an agreement that he would leave the coun-
try. An insurrection attempted by the party of Flores in
Oct., 1846, against the new president, Vicente Roca, was
unsuccessful. In 1850 the candidate of the clerical party,
Noboa, was elected president, but as early as July, 1851, he
was deposed and exiled. President Urbina (1851–56) was
a representative of the ultra-democratic party. During the
administration of his successor, General Francisco Robles
(1856–59), the French decimal system of currency, weights,
and measures was adopted. A war with Peru led to the
blockade of the port of Guayaquil, and was terminated by
a convention concluded between Gen. Guillermo Franco,
the commander of Guayaquil, and the commander of the
Peruvian squadron. President Robles refused to ratify the
convention, resigned, and went to Chili. In Jan., 1861, a
national convention elected Dr. Garcia, Moreno, the leader of
the conservative and clerical party, president, while Flores
was appointed governor of Guayaquil. Two wars with
New Granada, which were carried on during the administra-
tion of Moreno, ended unfortunately for Ecuador. Moreno
resigned in 1865; a defensive and offensive alliance which
he had arranged with Chili was rejected by congress during
the administration of his successor, Geronimo Carrion, but
on Jan. 30, 1866, Ecuador joined the alliance of Chili, Peru,
and Bolivia against Spain. Carrion, who resigned in Nov.,
1867, was succeeded by Dr. Espinosa. In Aug., 1868, the
country severely suffered from a terrible earthquake, by
which more than 3000 persons perished. In Jan., 1869, a
revolution, headed by Moreno, overthrew the administra-
tion of Espinosa. Moreno was for a short time dictator,
until in May a national convention elected Dr. Carvajal
provisional president.
Moreno was again elected president. In 1872 an insurrec-
tion of the Indians took place, which was not suppressed
until many farms had been laid waste. In June, 1872, a
large college, embracing schools of art, a polytechnic school,
and an astronomical observatory, was opened at Quito under
the direction of European professors.
A. J. SCHEM.
Ecumen'ical [Lat. oecumen'icus ; Fr. oecuménique or
écuménique, from the Gr. oikovačvn, the “habitable world”],
a term signifying universal, applied to councils of the
Christian Church in which all parts of the world are repre-
sented. (See CouncIL, OECUMENICAL.) The latest of the
councils called ecumenical (the Roman Catholic Council
of the Vatican, 1869–70) proclaimed the infallibility of
the pope. -
Ecusson. See EscutchEoN.
Ec'zema [Gr. gkºsua, an “eruption,” from ék, “out,”
and gée, to “boil”], commonly called Salt Rheum, a
vesicular disease of the skin, characterized by watery
blisters smaller than those of herpes and larger than ordi-
dinary sudamina, such as are sometimes seen in the diffi-
culty known as “prickly heat.” Eczema is often accom-
panied by intense itching, and is frequently transformed
into a pustular or scabbing disease. It is generally chronic.
Its treatment is both local and general. The local treat-
ment, when the epidermis is thickened, is by alkaline ap-
plications with or without tarry or astringent admixtures.
The “benzoated ointment of oxide of zinc * is an excellent
application. If the system has received a specific taint,
the iodides, with mercury judiciously used, are indispen-
sable, and produce the happiest results. Arsenic in small
doses is an extremely useful tonic in many cases. Change
of air and visits to thermal and other springs and baths,
though not strictly curative, often appear to be wonderfully
palliative.
Edam’ [Lat. Eda'mum], a town of Holland, province
of North Holland, has a port on the Zuyder Zee, 12 miles
N. N. E. of Amsterdam. It derives its prosperity from ship-
building and a trade in cheese and wood. Pop., in 1867,
5267. ſº
Ed/da [Norse for “great-grandmother,” so named by
Bishop Sveinsson, either on account of its great age, or,
according to some, as being a compilation of “grandmothers'
tales”], a collection of ancient Scandinavian poems and tales
At the new presidential election
illustrating the mythology of the Northern nations. It con-
sists of two parts—(1) the poetic, old, or Saemundic Edda,
named from its compiler, Saemund Sigfusson Frodi (1054–
1133), who was a priest in Iceland: this was first pub-
lished by Sveinsson in 1643; (2) the prose, or New Edda,
called also “Snorro’s Edda,” which is the work of several
writers, though ascribed to Snorro Sturleson (1178–1241).
Editions of the older Edda are those of Rask (1818), Munch
(1847), and Möbius (1859).
the prose Edda also. The extreme antiquity of the Eddas
has been called in question by some German critics, but in
arguments which have attracted very little attention.
Ed/dington, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me.
Pop. 776. - -
Eddy (SAMUEL), LL.D., jurist, was born at Johnston,
R. I., Mar. 31, 1769, and graduated at Brown University in
1787, became a lawyer, was clerk of the Supreme court of
Rhode Island (1790–93), secretary of state (1798–1819),
member of Congress (1819–25), and chief-justice of the
supreme court of Rhode Island (1827–35). Died at Provi-
dence Feb. 2, 1839. He published a volume of “Antiqui-
ties” and valuable historical papers.
Eddy (THOMAs M.), D. D., an eloquent Methodist di-
vine, was born Sept. 7, 1823, in Hamilton co., O., studied
in the classical seminary of Greensboro’, Ind., joined the
Indiana conference in 1842, was editor of the “North-
western Christian Advocate ’’ from 1856 to 1868, served as
pastor in Baltimore three years, was appointed to the Me-
tropolitan church, Washington, D. C., in 1872, and elected
the same year corresponding secretary of the Methodist
Missionary Society. He was pre-eminent as a journalist, and
is author of a “History of Illinois during the Civil War,”
2 vols. 8vo. Died in New York Oct. 7, 1874.
Eddy (ZACHARY), D. D., son of the Rev. Isaac Eddy,
and the seventh in descent from the Rev. William Eddy,
vicar of Cranbrook, Kent, England, was born at Stock-
bridge, Vt., Dec. 19, 1815, was ordained by the (Cumber-
land Presbyterian) presbytery of Pennsylvania in 1835; was
for several years a home missionary in Western New York
and Wisconsin, was pastor of the Congregational church at
Warsaw, N. Y., from 1850 to 1855, of the First church at
Northampton, Mass., from 1857 to 1867, of the Reformed
(Dutch) church on the Heights in Brooklyn, N.Y., from
1867 to 1871, and was then settled over the Central Congre-
gational church in Chelsea, Mass. Besides occasional ser-
mons and pamphlets, he has published “Immanuel, or the
Life of Jesus Christ,” 1868, and was the principal compiler
of “Hymns of the Church’” (Reformed), 1869.
Ed/dystone Lighthouse is in the English Channel,
14 miles S. S. W. of Plymouth Breakwater, and 9 miles
from the coast of Cornwall; lat. 50° 10' 54" N., lon. 4° 15'
53" E. It stands on the Eddystone Rocks, which are daily
submerged by the tide, and it rises about eighty-five feet
above the high-water mark in the form of a circular tower,
which gradually, decreases in diameter, with a curved out-
line resembling the trunk of a tree, from the bottom to the
top. It was erected in 1757–59 by Mr. Smeaton. (See
LIGHTHouse.) The material is Portland limestone. It has
a fixed light seventy-two feet high, visible at a distance of
13 miles. The first lighthouse here (1699–1703) was de-
stroyed by a storm. The second was burned in 1755.
Ed/dytown, a post-village of Starkey township, Yates
co., N.Y., is the seat of Starkey Seminary, under the pa- .
tronage of the Christian denomination.
Ed'dyville, a post-village of Wapello co., Ia, on the
river Des Moines and the Central Iowa. R. R. where it con-
nects with the Des Moines Valley R. R., 16 miles N. W. of
Ottumwa, has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1212.
Eddyville, a post-village, capital of Lyon co., Ky., on
the Cumberland River, near the Elizabethtown and Padu-
cah R. R., about 36 miles E. by S. from Paducah. Pop. 386.
Eddyville, a village of Kingston township, Ulster co.,
N. Y., on Rondout Creek, 2% miles above Rondout, is the
terminus of the Delaware and Hudson Canal, and has a
cement-factory.
Ede, a town of the Netherlands, in the province of
Gueldern, 24 miles E. of Utrecht. Pop. in 1867, 10,452.
Ed/elinck (GERARD), an excellent Flemish engraver,
born at Antwerp in 1649. He worked for many years
in Paris, and was patronized by the French court and
Louis XIV. He engraved portraits of many eminent per-
sons, the “Holy Family,” after Raphael, the “Virgin,”
after Guido, and several works of Lebrun. His engrav-
ings are commended for fidelity of design, freedom of
touch, and harmony. He carried what is called color in
engraving to greater perfection than any artist before his
time. He is ranked among engravers of the first order.
Died April 2, 1707.
The edition of Rask includes:
years.
FDEN–EDGEMONT.
1481.
E/den [a Hebrew term signifying “delight”], the name
given in Genesis to the region including the garden where
at first dwelt Adam and Eve, the first parents of mankind,
and from which they were expelled in consequence of diso-
bedience. Much discussion has prevailed among critics as
to the country where this early paradise was situated. Cey-
lon, the Vale of Cashmere, the lower, middle, and upper re-
gions of the Euphrates, the Caucasus, Toorkistan, and other
regions, have been named. At present our choice appears
to lie between Armenia and Babylonia, with a preponder-
ance of argument and authority in favor of the latter. The
difficulty consists in identifying the four rivers mentioned
in the biblical marrative. Some commentators believe the
story of Eden to be allegorical.
E’den, a township of Alameda co., Cal. Pop. 3341.
Eden, a township of La Salle co., III. Pop. 1523.
Eden, a township of La Grange co., Ind. Pop. 930.
Eden, a township of Benton co., Ia. Pop. 804.
Eden, a township of Clinton co., Ia. Pop. 985.
Eden, a township of Decatur co., Ia. Pop. 1065.
Eden, a post-township of Fayette co., Ia. Pop. 927.
Eden, a post-township of Marshall co., Ia. Pop. 649.
Eden, a post-township of Hancock co., Me., on Mount
Desert Island, is famous for its beautiful scenery, and is a
place of summer resort. It has fourteen hotels, and manu-
factures of lumber. Pop. 1195.
Eden, a post-township of Erie co., N. Y. Pop. 2270.
Eden, a village of Brown township, Delaware co., O.,
on the Cleveland Columbus and Cincinnati R. R. (P. O.
name, LEONARDSBURG.) Pop. 191.
Eden, a township of Licking co., O. Pop. 782.
Eden, a township of Seneca co., O. Pop. 1483.
Eden, a township of Wyandot co., O. Pop. 1423.
Eden, a township of Lancaster co., Pa. Pop. 1075.
Eden, a post-township of Lamoille co., Vt. It has
manufactures of lumber and starch. Pop. 958.
Eden, a post-twp. of Fond du Lac co., Wis. Pop. 1448.
E’denburg, a post-village of Shenandoah co., Va., on
the Manassas division of the Washington City Virginia
Midland and Great Southern R. R., 106 miles W. of Alex-
andria. Pop. 452.
E/denkoben, a town of Bavaria, in the circle of Pfalz,
is on a railway, 7 miles N. of Landau. It has mineral
springs and manufactures of firearms. Pop. 5103.
Eden Hake, a township of Stearns co., Minn. P. 244.
Eden Prairie, a post-twp.of Hennepin co., Minn. P.576.
Edenta'ta (plu.), [from the Lat. e, privative, and dens,
dentis, a “tooth "J, an order of mammals named by Cuvier
from the fact that they are either without teeth, or in other
cases without incisors. Wagner and others extend the order
so as to include the MonotREMATA (which see), but the ar-
rangement which places the latter animals below the mar-
supials is the more philosophical. Indeed, the Monotre-
mata among non-placental appear to represent the Eden-
data among placental mammals. The order includes the
sloths, the armadilloes, the true ant-eaters, etc., mostly
natives of the warm parts of the southern hemisphere. The
fossil bones of the Megatherium, Glyptodon, etc., which are
found in Brazil and other countries, show that animals of
this order were once large and numerous. &
E’denton, a port of entry and the capital of Chowan
co., N. C., is on Edenton Bay, which opens into Albemarle
Sound, and about 150 miles E. of Raleigh. It has a news-
paper office. Pop. 1243; of Edenton township, 3664.
Edes (BENJAMIN), a Revolutionary journalist, was born
at Charlestown, Mass., Oct. 14, 1732. With John Gill he
began in 1755 to publish the “Boston Gazette and Country
Journal,” a newspaper zealously advocating the cause of
liberty, and which he continued to edit for forty-three
Died Dec. 11, 1803. -
Edes'sa [Fr. Edesse], or Callirrhoe, an ancient city
of Mesopotamia, supposed to be on or near the site of Ur
of the Chaldees, mentioned in Genesis xi. The extreme
antiquity of its origin is undoubted. It was 78 miles S. W.
of Diarbekir. It became the capital of an independent
kingdom in 137 B.C., and was tributary to Rome in the
reign of Trajan. In 216 A.D. it became a Roman mili-
tary colony. It was an important place in the early his-
tory of the Christian Church, contained numerous mon-
asteries, and was the residence of Ephraem Syrus. For
many years it was the principal centre of Oriental learning.
Baldwin, a leader of the crusaders, and afterwards king of.
Jerusalem, became prince or count of Edessa in 1097 A.D.,
and made it the capital of a Latin principality. This city
was captured about 1144 by the Saracen chief Noor-ed-
Deen, who massacred the inhabitants. It was afterwards
possessed successively by the Byzantine emperors, the
Mongols, Persians, and Turks. The site is occupied by
the modern town of Oof PA (which see).
Edessa, the ancient capital of Macedonia, about 46
miles N. W. of Salonica (Thessalomica). It continued to
be the burial-place of the Macedonian kings after the court
was removed to Pella. Philip, father of Alexander the
Great, was killed here. This site is occupied by Vodina.
Edesville, a post-township of Kent co., Md. P. 3343.
Ed/foo, or Edfou [anc. Apollinopolis Magna; Coptic,
Atbol, a small town of Upper Egypt, on the W. bank of the
Nile, about 60 miles above Thebes. . It has two temples, the
larger one of which, recently cleared out by Mariette, is on
a grand scale, and being in excellent preservation gives a
good idea of the Egyptian temples in their glory. It was
built chiefly by Ptolemy Philometor (181–145 B.C.), the
last king of Egypt who is noticed in sacred history. Its
entire length (including court and temple) is 405 feet. On
each side of the entrance is a pyramidal tower 108 feet 2%
inches high, adorned with gigantic sculptures. The town
has manufactures of blue cotton cloth and earthenware, and
is noted for the importunity and insolence of its beggars.
Pop. 2000.
Ed/ford, a township of Henry co., Ill. Pop. 948.
Ed/gar, a county of Illinois, bordering on Indiana.
Area, 600 square miles. It is partly drained by Little Em-
barras River. The surface is nearly level, the soil fertile.
Grain, cattle, wool, hay, butter, etc. are produced. Car-
riages, saddlery, etc. are among its most important manu-
factures. A large part of the county is prairie. It is in-
tersected by the Indianapolis and St. Louis, the Paris and
Decatur, and the Paris and Danville R. Rs. Pop. 21,450.
Capital, Paris.
Edgar, a township of Edgar co., Ill. Pop. 1617.
Edgar, a post-village, capital of the parish of St. John
the Baptist, La., is situated on the W. bank of the Mississippi
fiver. It has a court-house, two Catholic and two Prot-
estant churches, sugar-mills, one steam rice-mill, a number
of stores, and two newspapers.
DUMEz & BELLow, EDs. of “THE MESCHAcáBá.”
Ed/gartown, a port of entry and the capital of Dukes
co., Mass., is on the E. shore of the island of Martha’s Vine-
yard, 30 miles from New Bedford. It is a much-frequented
watering-place, containing the noted camp-meeting grounds
of Oak Bluffs. It has a national bank, a savings bank, a
newspaper, three churches, good schools, and numerous
hotels. It has a small but safe harbor, and a pier on which
is a fixed light 37 feet high, in lat. 41° 23'25" N., lon. 70°
29' 51" W. This place formerly sent out many whaling-
ships, but that business has of late declined. Edgartown
has communication by steamboat with the mainland. Pop.
of Edgartown township, 1516.
E. MARCHANT, ED. “WINEYARD GAzeTTE.”
Edgecomb, a post-twp. of Lincoln co, Me. P. 1056.
Edgecombe, a county in the N. E. of North Carolina.
Area, 600 square miles. It is intersected by the Tar River.
The surface is nearly level; the soil is mostly sandy. Cot-
ton, rice, and corn are raised. The Wilmington and Wel-
don R. R. passes through the western part of the county.
Capital, Tarborough. Pop. 22,970.
Edgefield, a county in the W. of South Carolina. Area,
1540 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Saluda
River and on the S. W. by the Savannah. The surface is
diversified by hills of moderate height; the soil is fertile.
Grain, cattle, cotton, wool, and lumber are produced. It is
intersected by the Charlotte Columbia and Augusta R. R.
and the South Carolina R. R. Pop. 42,486. Capital, Edge-
field Court-house. . Since the census of 1870 a part of this
county has been included in the new county of Aiken.
Edgefield, a village of Davidson co., Tenn., on the
right bank of the Cumberland River, opposite Nashville,
with which it is connected by a suspension bridge. Pop.
4.389.
Edgefield Court-house, a post-village, the capital
of Edgefield co., S. C., is about 24 miles N. of Augusta, Ga.
It has three or four churches and one weekly newspaper.
Pop. 846.
Edgehill, a ridge in England, in Warwickshire, 7 miles
N.W. of Banbury, was the scene of the first great battle of
the civil war, which occurred Oct. 23, 1642. The royalist
army was commanded by Charles I., and that of the Par-
liament by the earl of Essex. Prince Rupert, by a charge
of cavalry, broke the left wing of the Parliamentarians,
whom he pursued to Keinton, while the right wing of Es-
sex's army defeated the royalists. * *
Edgemont, a post-twp. of Delaware co., Pa. Pop. 678.
1482
EDGERTON.—EDINBURGH.
Edg’erton, a post-village of St. Joseph’s township,
Williams co., O. Pop. 690.
Edgerton, a post-village of Rock co., Wis., on the
Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., 25 miles S. E. of Madison.
Good cream-colored bricks are made here.
Edgewater, a post-village of Middletown and South-
field townships, Richmond co., N. Y. It is on Staten Island,
and is inhabited chiefly by New York business-men and
their families. -
Edgewater, a borough of Allegheny co., Pa. Pop.
Edgeworth (MARIA), a popular English authoress,
born near Reading Jan. 1, 1767. She removed with her
father, Richard Lovell Edgeworth, to Edgeworthstown, in
Ireland, in 1782. She assisted him in the composition of a
“Treatise on Practical Education” (1798) and in an “Essay,
on Irish, Bulls” (1802). In 1801 she produced “Castle
Rackrent,” the first of a series of novels, which have a
good moral tendency, are pervaded with agreeable humor
and sound sense, and give a graphic delineation of cha-
racter. Among these novels, which obtained a durable
popularity, are “Belinda '' (1803), “Leonora.” (1806),
“Patronage" (1814), “Ormond” (1817), and “Helen?”
(1834). She also published “Popular Tales” (1804) and
“Tales of Fashionable Life" (1809–12). Died May 21,
1849. . “The writings of Miss Edgeworth,” says Lord
Jeffrey, “exhibit a singular union of sober sense and in-
exhaustible invention, and a minute knowledge of all that
distinguishes, manners or touches on happiness in every
condition of human fortune.” (See “Edinburgh Review”
for July, 1809, July, 1812, and Aug., 1817; also SIR WAL-
TER ºr. critique in the “Edinburgh Review " for Jan.,
1814.
Edgeworth (RICHARD LovELE), F. R. S., an English
writer and philosopher, the father of the preceding, was
born at Bath in 1744. He inherited from his father an
estate at Edgeworthstown, in county Longford, Ireland.
He married a Miss Elers about 1764, after which he resided
in Berkshire, England, where he associated intimately with
Dr. Darwin and Thomas Day. In 1782 he removed to
Edgeworthstown. Among his works are “Professional
Education,” a “Treatise on Practical Education ” (1798),
“Irish Bulls” (1802), and autobiographic memoirs. He
was a man of genial temper and versatile talents. Died
June 13, 1817.
Edg’ington, a post-township of Rock Island co., Ill.
Pop. 1106.
E/dict [Lat. edie’tum; Fr. Édit], a public decree or proc-
lamation issued by a sovereign or other potentate; an in-
strument signed and Sealed as a law. In ancient Rome the
power of making edicts was principally exercised by the
praetor wrbanus and the praetor peregrinus, who on coming
to office published rules for regulating the practice of their
courts, etc. The edicts of a praetor were not binding on his
successor, but if confirmed by the latter they were called
edicta vetera (old edicts), as distinguished from the edicta
nova (new edicts) framed by himself. A digest of the best
decisions of the praetors was made under the emperor Ha-
drian by Sylvius Julianus. It was called “Edictum Per-
petuum,” and made the invariable standard of civil juris-
prudence. The “Edict of Milan * was issued, after the con-
quest of Italy, by Constantine (313 A.D.), to secure to
Christians their civil and religious rights.
Edict of Nantes, one of the most famous edicts of his-
tory, was issued by Henry IV. of France in 1598, to secure
to the Protestants the free exercise of their religion. This
act was repealed by Louis XIV. in 1685, and its revocation
led to a renewal of the bloody scenes which before the issu-
ing of this edict had been carried on against the Huguenots.
The depopulation caused by the sword was also increased
by emigration. Above half a million of her most useful
and industrious subjects deserted France, and exported, to-
gether with immense sums of money, those arts and manu-
factures which had chiefly tended to enrich the kingdom.
About 50,000 refugees passed over into England, and many
more into Germany and America; and there can be little
doubt that the cruelties perpetrated by the king of France
tended to excite the suspicion of the English against their
own Roman Catholic sovereign, and accelerated the revo-
lution of 1688.
Edi'na, the county-seat of Knox co., Mo., 40 miles
N. W. of Quincy, Ill., on the Quincy Missouri and Pacific
R. R. It has two newspapers, five churches, a public
School building completed at a cost of $10,000, and two
hotels. Pop. 807. -
JAMES C. CLAYPOOL, ED. of “SENTINEL.”
Edinboro, a post-borough of Erie co., Pa. It is the
seat of a State normal school. Pop. 801.
Edinburg, a post-village of Johnson co., Ind., on the
Blue River and Indianapolis and Louisville R. R., 29 miles
S. of Indianapolis. It has one bank, three churches, a high
School, two homimy-mills, a starch-factory, good water-
power, and one newspaper. Pop. 1799.
A. M. ERNSBERGER, ED. “WATCHMAN.”
Edinburg, a township of Penobscot co., Me. Pop. 55.
Edinburg, a post-village, capital of Hidalgo co., Tex.,
on the Rio Grande, about 50 miles above Brownsville. It
has a custom-house.
Ed'inburgh, capital of Scotland and of Edinburgh-
shire or Mid-Lothian, is picturesquely situated about 1
mile S. of the Frith of Forth, 399 miles by railway N.
N. W. of London; lat. 550 577 N., lon. 39 12' W. It is
divided into the Old and New Town, the former of which
occupies the middle and highest of three ridges extending
E. and W. The Old Town is separated by a narrow hollow
or ravine from the New Town, which is built on a broader
ridge with more gently sloping sides. Edinburgh is re-
markable for the elegance and solidity of its buildings,
which are all of stone. The adjacent country is pleasantly
diversified with hills and plains. On the south-eastern border
of the city a hill called Arthur's Seat rises to the height of
822 feet, and about 4 miles S. W. of Edinburgh is the range
of the Pentland Hills. -
The principal street of the Old Town is that which ex-
tends along the crest of the ridge, bearing in different parts
the names of Canongate, High street, Lawn Market, and
Castle Hill. It is more than a mile long, and rises with a
regular but rather steep acclivity from the palace of Holy-
rood, which is at its eastern end, to the huge rock on which
stands Edinburgh Castle, 443 feet above the level of the sea.
This street is lined with lofty and antique residences, many
of which have seven or more stories. The houses of the
New Town are built of a fine white freestone quarried in
the vicinity, and are remarkably handsome. Here are three
parallel avenues called Queen street, George street, and
Prince's street, the last of which extends along the S. side
of the New Town, close to the hollow which separates it
from the Old. Prince's street is the most agreeable prom-
enade in the city, and as it is lined with houses only along
its northern side, it commands a fine view of the Old Town
with its lordly castle and of the intervening valley adorned
with public gardens. At the eastern end of this street is a
rocky eminence called Calton Hill, the broad verdant sum-
mit of which commands a beautiful view of the Frith of
Forth, here about 6 miles wide. Arthur’s Hill and another
high hill called Salisbury Crags afford prospects of almost
unrivalled beauty and magnificence.
The most remarkable public edifices and monuments are
the castle, which is a large fortress capable of accommo-
dating 2000 men, and is one of the oldest structures in the
city; the royal palace of Holyrood, or Holyrood House, the
oldest part of which was built about 1528: this palace is
quadrangular in form, with a central court 94 feet square,
and is famous as the residence of Mary queen of Scots; the
cathedral of St. Giles, a large and ancient edifice of un-
known date, in the later Gothic style; Victoria Hall, or
Assembly Hall, a magnificent structure, which stands at the
head of High street, has a spire 241 feet high, and is the
place where the General Assembly of the Church of Scot-
land annually meets; the Parliament House, now a hall
connected with the courts of law; and the admirable monu-
ment erected to Sir Walter Scott, which stands on Prince’s
street, is 200 feet high, and is unequalled among the monu-
ments of this metropolis for artistic beauty. Among the
other objects of interest are the old Tron church; the Free
St. George's church ; the Free High church; the university
buildings; the observatory; the National Gallery of Art;
the Royal Institution, a beautiful Grecian edifice contain-
ing the apartments of the Royal Society; a chapel belong-
ing to the ruined abbey of Holyrood, founded by David I.
about 1128; the theatre; and the National Monument (an
imitation of the Parthenon) on Calton Hill.
In 1861, Edinburgh contained 115 churches and chapels,
classified as follows: Free Church, 31; Church of Scotland,
26; United Presbyterian, 18; other Presbyterian, 3; Epis-
copal, 13; Baptist, 7; Congregational, 3; Roman Catholic,3;
Methodist and Evangelical, 4; Unitarian, 1 ; other bodies, 6.
It is the seat of a bishop of the Episcopal Church and of a
Roman Catholic vicar-apostolic. It has numerous large and
richly endowed hospitals and charitable institutions, among
which is Heriot's Hospital, founded for the education and
maintenance of poor boys. This city is important as a
centre of learning, and is distinguished for the number and
excellence of its literary, scientific, and educational institu-
tions. The aristocracy, the literati, and professional men
form an unusually large proportion of its population, which
is extensively engaged in the business of printing and pub-
lishing books. Edinburgh is the head-quarters of the book-
EDINBURGH-EDMONSON.
1483
trade in Scotland, and as a literary mart is second only to
London among British cities. Here is the celebrated Uni-
versity of Edinburgh, founded by James VI. in 1582, which
has a library of about 140,000 volumes. (See separate arti-
cle.) The other chief educational institutions are the High
School, which occupies a handsome Doric edifice 270 feet
long; the New Academy (or college) of the Free Church;
the Royal College of Surgeons; the medical School; the
Royal Academy of Fine Arts, and the Royal Society. The
Advocates' Library has the largest and most valuable col-
lection of books in Scotland—about 170,000 volumes.
Edinburgh is the seat of the supreme courts of Scotland,
the principal of which is the court of session, composed of
thirteen judges. This court tries all civil causes, and de-
cides not only on the law of the case, but also in questions
of equity. This city returns two members to Parliament.
By virtue of ancient charters and modern acts of Parlia-
ment it is a royal burgh, governed by a town council
elected by popular vote, and by a lord provost, who is elect-
ed by this town council. It is the terminus of important
railways—viz., the North British, the Edinburgh and Glas-
gow, and the Caledonian Railway. This city has two ports
on the Frith of Forth—Leith and Granton, the former of
which is 2 miles from the Cross of Edinburgh. Pop. in
1871, 196,500.
History.—This place was recognized as a burgh by David
I. in 1128, and a Parliament was held here in 1215. It be-
came the capital of Scotland about 1436, when its castle
was selected as the only place of safety for the royal house-
hold and the Parliament. It was enclosed by walls in the
fifteenth century, and for a long period was confined to the
central ridge. The hollow between this and the northern
ridge was filled with water, called the North Loch. The
New Town originated about 1765, when a bridge was
erected across that loch to connect the Old Town with the
New. Here occurred in May, 1843, the disruption of the
|Fstablished Church, from the General Assembly of which
203 members seceded and organized the Free Church. Sir
Walter Scott and Lord Brougham were born here.
Edinburgh, a post-village of Grundy co., Mo., is the
seat of Grand River College, founded in 1858.
Edinburgh, a post-township of Saratoga co., N. Y. It
has manufactures of lumber. Pop. 1405.
Edinburgh, a post-township of Portage co., O. P. 929.
Edinburgh (ALFRED ERNEST ALBERT), DUKE of, sec-
ond son of Victoria, queen of Great Britain, was born at
Windsor Castle Aug. 6, 1844. He was educated chiefly by
private tutors. He entered the British navy in 1858, and
served chiefly on foreign stations. In 1862 he declined the
crown of Greece, which was offered him, and in 1866 took a
seat in the House of Peers by his present title. In 1867 he
set sail in command of the frigate Galatea, visiting Austra-
lia, Japan, China, India, etc. At a picnic at Clontarf, New
South Wales, Mar. 12, 1868, he was slightly wounded by a
pistol-shot fired by a Fenian named O’Farrell. The latter
was soon afterwards executed. The full title of this prince
is, “His Royal Highness Prince Alfred Ernest Albert, Duke
of Edinburgh, Earl of Kent, and Earl of Ulster, K. G., K. P.”
He is also a duke of Saxony and prince of Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha.
Edinburgh Review, a celebrated critical journal
founded at Edinburgh in 1802, is the oldest of the great
British quarterly reviews. Francis Jeffrey, Sydney Smith,
Henry Brougham, and Francis Horner were the founders and
first contributors of this review, which was a strenuous ad-
vocate of Whig principles. Sydney Smith edited the first
number, of which 750 copies were printed. Mr. Constable
was the original publisher. Lord Jeffrey became its editor
in 1803, and conducted it with great ability and success for
twenty-six years. The brilliant wit, the critical keenness,
the eloquent style, and the extensive knowledge displayed
by the contributors produced a great sensation in the lite-
rary world. Its circulation had risen to 9000 in 1808, and
12,000 or more in 1813. Among the eminent men who
contributed largely to this review were Macaulay, Carlyle,
Lord Brougham, Sir J. Mackintosh, and Henry Rogers.
Macvey Napier succeeded Lord Jeffrey as editor in 1829.
The price paid to contributors was at first ten guineas a
sheet, but it was soon raised to sixteen guineas.
Ed'inburghshire, or Mid-Lothian, a county in
the S. E. part of Scotland, has an area of 397 square miles.
It is bounded on the N. by the Frith of Forth. The surface
is diversified by plains and high ridges, among which are
the Moorfoot Hills and the Pentland Hills, composed of
porphyry. The highest point of the Pentland Hills rises
1839 feet. The rocks of this county belong mostly to the
carboniferous and Silurian formations. Valuable coal mines
are worked in the valley of the Esk. The soil is generally
fertile and well cultivated. Near the metropolis are many
nurseries, dairy pastures and vegetable gardens. It is trav-
ersed by five great railways. Pop. in 1871, 328,335. Cap-
ital, Edinburgh. - - - - -
Edinburgh, University of, was founded by James
VI. of Scotland in 1582. In 1600 the senatus academicus
consisted of a principal and four regents. The first chair
of theology was founded in 1642, and the first professor of
medicine was appointed in 1685. In 1760 the sematus aca-
demicus consisted of a principal and eighteen professors.
Since that date ten chairs have been added. In 1858 its
constitution was changed by an act of Parliament, which
took the government out of the hands of the lord provost
and town council of Edinburgh, and gave it to the senatus
academicus and a university court. The patronage of the
chairs was then transferred to seven curators, three of whom
are nominated by the university court and four by the town
council. The university consists of the faculties of arts,
medicine, theology, and law. The faculty of arts comprises
the chairs of humanity, Greek, mathematics, logic and meta-
physics, moral philosophy, natural philosophy, rhetoric and
belles-lettres, universal history, astronomy, agriculture, and.
music. Connected with this university are a large library,
a museum of natural history, and a botanic garden.
Ed/isto, a river of South Carolina, is formed by the
North and South Edisto, which unite at Edisto, a station
on the South Carolina R. R. The North Edisto is the
boundary between Barnwell and Orangeburg counties.
The main stream flows south-eastward and southward
through Colleton county, and enters the Atlantic Ocean
by two channels, called the North and South Edisto Inlets,
between which is Edisto Island.
Edisto Island, one of the most important of the Sea
Island group, is in Charleston co., S. C., between the North
and South Edisto Inlets. It produces sea-island cotton.
It has a post-office of the same name. Pop. 2762.
Ed’meston, a post-twp. of Otsego co., N.Y. P. 1744.
Ed/monds (FRANCIS W.), an American painter, born
at Hudson, N. Y., Nov. 22, 1806. He visited Rome in
1840, before which date he had exhibited, besides other
works, “The City and Country Beaux’’ and “Dominie
Sampson.” Died about 1860.
Edmonds (John WoRTH), an eminent American jurist,
was born at Hudson, N. Y., Mar. 13, 1799, and graduated
at Union College (now Union University) at Schenectady,
N. Y., in 1816. In 1819 he was admitted to the bar, and
in 1820 commenced the successful practice of law in his
native town. In 1831 he entered the New York legislature
as a member of the Assembly, and in 1832 became a State
senator. In 1836 he was appointed a U. S. Indian agent.
He retained the position for two years, and became familiar
with several Indian languages. In 1841 he re-entered upon
the practice of law, and opened an office in New York City,
which was from that time his home. In 1843 he was ap-
pointed one of the State prison inspectors, and labored with
zeal and success in introducing reforms in prison discipline.
In 1845 he was appointed a circuit judge, and in 1847 be-
came one of the judges of the supreme court, New York. In
1852 he was appointed to the bench of the court of appeals,
from which in 1853 he retired to the private practice of law,
in which he was after a time a partner with Hon. William
H. Field. In 1851, Judge Edmonds became a convert to
the doctrines of Spiritualism, and in 1853 openly avowed
and defended his belief of that unpopular faith by the pub-
lication of a work entitled “Spiritualism.” He subsequent-
ly published many other writings in favor of his belief, of
which he became one of the leading champions. He also
became an active medium, and believed himself to be in
almost constant communication with departed spirits.
There can be no doubt that his advocacy of Spiritualism
cost him his place on the bench. Judge Edmonds was a
man of cultivated mind and of singularly pure and amiable
character. In public and private life alike he was honor-
able and universally respected. As a lawyer he was able,
and learned. As a judge he was sound, wise, and above
any suspicion of wrong-doing. He avowed his peculiar
religious views, with the greatest courage and persistency,
and there can be no question that he was fully convinced
of the truth of what he professed. During the latter part
of his life he suffered much from a severe chronic disease,
but his legal advice was much sought in difficult cases to
the last. He died April 5, 1874, an unwavering believer
in the truth of Spiritualism.
Ed/mondson, a county in S. W. Central Kentucky.
Area, 230 square miles. It is intersected by Green River.
The surface is undulating or hilly; the soil fertile. Tobacco
and grain are staple crops. Beds of coal and cavernous
limestone underlie this county, in which the celebrated
Mammoth Cave is situated. Capital, Brownsville. P. 4459.
Ed/monson, a township of Crittenden co., Ark. Pop.
0.
1484
EDMONTON.—EDUCATION.
Ed’m onton, a post-village, capital of Metcalfe co.,
Ky., about 50 miles E. of Bowling Green. Pop. 146.
Ed/mund I., king of the Anglo-Saxons, born about 922
A. D., was a son of Edward the Elder and a grandson of
Alfred the Great. He became king in 941, and conquered
the Britons of Cumbria. He is said to have been a brave
and prudent ruler. He was assassinated by Liof May 26,
946, and was succeeded by his brother Edred.
Edmund II., surnamed IRONSIDE, king of England,
born in 989 A. D., was a son of Ethelred II. At the death
of the latter, in 1016, the Danes possessed the greater part
of England. Edmund, who was renowned for courage,
waged war against Canute the Dane, and gained several
victories, but was defeated at Assandun. The two rivals
then agreed to divide the kingdom, of which Edmund re-
ceived the southern part. He died Nov. 30, 1016, and
Canute then became sole king.
Ed/munds, a township of Washington co., Me. P. 448.
- Ed/munds (GEORGE F.), an American lawyer and Sen-
ator, born at Richmond, Vt., Feb. 1, 1828. He was chosen
in 1854 a member of the legislature of his native State,
which in 1865 elected him to the Senate of the U. S. He
was re-elected as a Republican for a term of six years
(1869–75). In Dec., 1872, he was appointed chairman of
the committee on the judiciary. * *
Ed/na, a post-township of Cass co., Ia. Pop. 367.
Ed/neyville, a post-township of Henderson co., N. C.
Pop. 1125.
Edom, a name of Esau (which see).
Edom, a country of Asia. See IDUMAEA.
Ed/red, king of the Anglo-Saxons, was a son of Ed-
ward the Elder. He succeeded his elder brother, Edmund
I., in 946 A. D. Saint Dunstan acquired, an ascendency
over Edred, and was his most powerful minister. Edred
died Nov. 23,955, and was succeeded by his nephew Edwy.
Ed/riophthal’ma (from the Gr. 36patos, “fixed,” and
359axºds, “eye”] are a group of crustaceans called the ses-
sile-eyed Crustacea, because their eyes are placed directly
upon the shell, instead of being mounted upon footstalks.
They have the organs of respiration connected with the
organs of locomotion. None of the Edriophthalma attain
more than an inch and a half in length. They are gen-
erally marine, though some of them of the order Amphip-
oda inhabit fresh water, and a few, belonging to the Isop-
oda, such as the wood-louse, are terrestrial, but inhabit
damp places. To the Amphipoda belong the common sand-
hoppers, which are found in myriads along sandy shores.
Some of the Edriophthalma are parasitic on other marine
animals. *
Edri'sí, or Edree'see, an eminent Arabian geogra-
pher, was born at Ceuta, in Africa, about 1100. He was
descended from the royal family of Edrisites. He travelled
extensively in Europe and Asia, and passed many years at
the court of Roger II., king of Sicily, by whom he was
liberally patronized. Edrisi made for this prince a sil-
ver terrestrial globe, and wrote a large book on geography,
which was long a standard work. M. Jaubert published a
French translation of it in 1836. Died about 1175.
Ed’son, a township of Chippewa co., Wis. . Pop. 231.
Educa/tion [Lat. educatio). The word educate signi-
fies “to lead out,” or, as applied to the human mind or
body, to draw forth its faculties into vigorous action. Edu-
cation may be defined, the process of developing and train-
ing the powers and capacities of human beings. It pertains
not to any part, as the mind in distinction from the body
or the moral faculty, but in its widest and truest sense it
relates to the whole of man. The education of any part
exclusively or unduly results in disproportion or distortion
in development, and destroys harmony and symmetry in
mind and character. -
In determining beforehand what course of education
shall be adopted, it is essential to have a definite concep-
‘tion of the object to be attained. Different opinions as to
the proper object to be sought will lead to the choice of dif-
ferent courses and methods. Each enlightened nation of
both ancient and modern times has had its own general
theory of the purpose of education, and has made its prac-
tice conform thereto. The object, and therefore the method,
of education in ancient Greece and ancient Rome were es-
sentially unlike. And so the several nations of modern
Europe have differed in their views on this subject, and
have illustrated their differences in their educational sys-
tems. In the U. S. there has prevailed an ideal, and a cor-
responding practice, unlike those of any other country.
Different sections or states in the same nation have also
had their peculiar views and usages. Ancient Athens and
Sparta had very little resemblance, though both were
prominent cities in the same country.
Without attempting to give even an outline of the vari-
ous theories as to the object of education, and of the sys-
tems based upon them, the following is suggested as a
Supreme object which can hardly fail to commend itself to
candid and thoughtful persons. Education, wisely di-
rected, should aim to accomplish three things: (1) the im-
parting and acquiring of knowledge as extensive, various,
and comprehensive, and also as thorough and complete, as
practicable; (2) the training, discipline, and culture of all
the faculties, physical, intellectual, social, and moral, to as
high a degree of effectiveness for their several functions as
opportunities and circumstances permit; and (3) the eleva-
tion of the whole man to as high and worthy a character
as can be attained. To lead men to know, to do, and to
become—these three results education should achieve.
1. The imparting and acquiring of knowledge. This is
the first step in human development. The mind of a new-
born child is an utter blank. The miniature man contains
the germs and possibilities of all that he may afterwards
become. The body has the organs of sense, by which its
indwelling soul is to communicate with the outward world,
and the soul has those latent susceptibilities and faculties
and tendencies which will be disclosed as development and
education draw them forth into activity. The theory of
“innate ideas” has also strong claims to be recognized as
true. The opposite theory, that all knowledge is derived
from communication between the soul and the visible world
through the senses, is manifestly not true. But education,
while it should recognize the reality and high importance
of these “innate ideas”—e.g. those of right and justice,
of extension and duration—is mainly concerned, at first,
with the giving and receiving of knowledge respecting
those objects which come within the range of the child’s
observation. The aspects and qualities of any object are
new and strange and wonderful to the infant's opening
mind. He is perpetually investigating and examining and
inquiring, and thus gathering up new truths. The ceaseless
inquisitiveness of children is sometimes sharply rebuked.
Doubtless, it is somewhat annoying, but it is inevitable.
The little world in which they live is, for them, full of
wonders and mysteries, and their minds crave knowledge
as eagerly as their bodies crave food. A healthy mind
healthily trained never loses this instinctive longing for
new truth. The sources and objects of knowledge are
innumerable. The material world gives rise to the ever-
increasing number of sciences, or rather branches of sci-
ence, for every science is connected, nearly or remotely,
with every other. The human body is itself a most inter-
esting and important subject of study. But careful thought
respecting the body naturally suggests further inquiry as to
the nature and source of the life that dwells within it, and
this leads by easy transition to the discussion of the nature
and the faculties of the human soul, or from material to
mental science. Then the pursuit of this latter science
leads upward from man to higher beings, even to the
Highest of all. Thus, the acquirement of knowledge is,
in point of time, the beginning of education, though it
may also continue through all subsequent life. •
2. The discipline, culture, and training of the several
faculties. The mere acquisition of knowledge is not edu-
cation. In early childhood it is doubtless the most import-
ant part, and almost the only part that is practicable. But
it calls into exercise chiefly the observing or perceptive
powers and the memory; the latter faculty being employed,
at that stage of education, in storing up an ever-growing
multitude of facts. But the development of memory alone
is not education. Knowledge is the food of the mind. In
order that food may strengthen the body, it must be duly
digested and assimilated. And so knowledge must be not
merely grasped, in its rudiments, by the indiscriminating
memory, but must be comprehended, and, so to speak,
digested, in order that it may nurture the mind. The
body is of more worth than the food that sustains it;
the mind is of more value than all the knowledge it can
acquire. In the process of mastering that knowledge it
puts its powers into exercise, and thus learns how to use
them. Knowledge is good in itself, and may wisely be
sought for its own sake. But the immense majority of
mankind can spend but a very small part of their lives in
acquiring it. Necessity demands of them to make some
practical use of their powers, both of body and 'mind.
Their education must not be for the gratification of taste
nor for display, but must fit them for some active service
in the world. It is a common error to suppose that the
ability to excite astonishment by the array of learning is
proof of thorough education. But he who, in mastering
knowledge, acquires full mastery of himself, and is thus
able to employ any faculty as duty or inclination may re-
quire, is most truly educated. Power is what men instinct-
ively desire. They can gain it by so training their faculties
as to have them always at command. To know how to use
EDUCATION.
1485
the mind or the body is to have given it a real education.
It is well known that great scholars are often men of little
practical efficiency. Cloistered students, who seldom min-
gle with the world, are more useful to it than is generally
believed, but not many can thus serve their generation.
The education demanded is one that shall train the facul-
ties, by exercising them, for wielding power. The body,
the intellect, the conscience, the affections, the will, the
whole man, is to be disciplined and cultured to labor in and
for the world.
3. But the kind of power which a man shall wield is
even more important than the degree. The quantity of
power in any man depends upon his natural gifts, and his
acquired ability to use them effectively; the quality of his
power is determined by his character. The world is un-
happily too familiar with those who have used great power
in doing great harm. Selfishness, ambition, greed of gain, .
indifference to the rights and the sufferings of others, have
characterized multitudes of the world’s great men. Any
person, whether his power be great or small, is a blessing
or a curse to his generation and to the world, according as
his character is good or evil. The moral element of educa-
tion determines its quality. The spirit of gentleness, kind-
ness and beneficence invariably carries joy and gladness
wherever it goes; the opposite spirit as invariably pro-
duces pain and grief. Character determines what kind of
exertion any one shall put forth, and what direction shall
be given to it. A noble character is the grandest and
most permanent result of education. Knowledge is at the
best partial and fragmentary. Only an infinitesimal part
of the universe of truth can be grasped by any mind.
Human wisdom or power, however great, is weakness
itself when compared with the boundless physical power
that is latent in nature, and is nothing in comparison with
the wisdom and might of the Infinite One. Let knowledge
be increased. Let discipline and culture be carried upward
to the highest attainable point. But, especially, let educa-
tion be directed towards the building up of strong, sym-
metrical, well-balanced, pure, exalted, perfect character.
Learning is good, power is good, culture is good, but
character is more important than all of them. Inowledge
and culture are in the man, but character is the man.
Education should regard what he is to know, and what he
shall be able to do, but, above all, what he is to become.
It should develop and train him with continual reference
to the destiny that awaits him as heir to an endless, God-
like existence.
Since the object to be sought by education is nothing
less than the perfecting of human character and the exalta-
tion of human nature, the next point to be considered is,
How may this be most surely accomplished 2 The difference
between a human being at the beginning of his existence,
and that which he may become when ennobled, by means
of education, to the highest conceivable perfection, is almost
infinite. The process of thus lifting him up ever higher
and higher cannot be an easy nor a sudden one. The work
is so great, and the difficulties so many; the workers, the
instruments, and the material wrought upon are so im-
perfect; and the time requisite for completing the work is
so long, that the perfected result must come, if at all, in
tºe far-off future. But a high ideal is of great worth, even
though it be far beyond present attainment.
Any process of education, to be successful, must conform
to the natural order of human development.
regular fixed succession in the growth of the human soul,
as in the growth of the body.
1. Physical education demands the earliest care. This
includes the observance of the laws of health in respect to
food, clothing, cleanliness, pure air, and exercise and rest
in due measure and alternation. Soon comes the period
for practising and training the various members of the
body, to strengthen them, and to give the will perfect con-
trol over them, so that they shall perform their several
functions accurately, vigorously, and promptly. The habits
of the body as regards its modes of action are acquired
very early. The flexible limbs of children may readily be
trained to easy, graceful motions. Those persons whose
earliest years are passed in cultivated society acquire
almost unconsciously an ease and freedom of manner
which no later training could impart. The impressions
which the human body receives and the lessons which it
learns in its infancy can never afterwards be effaced.
Children instinctively imitate older persons, even in trifling
particulars. The importance of good models and correct
examples is therefore obvious. Education in manners,
though it may seem to be merely superficial, has a closer
connection with character than is often believed. -
2. The intellect is the part of man most commonly con-
sidered in education. In the process of intellectual educa-
tion a careful observance of the mind's natural order of
development is indispensable. The mental faculties are
There is a
mandates.
developed in an unvarying order. (a) The perceptive
powers are first called into activity. There is an exact
adaptation of these powers to the phenomena of the visible
world. The newly-awakening senses observe these phe-
nomena, curiosity is excited, and ideas of form, size, color,
space, and distance are acquired. Especially does a young
child learn very early to read human character, and to in-
terpret with accuracy the meaning of tones of voice and
expressions of countenance. Beauty and brightness attract
him, and he distinctly reveals his preference for gentleness
and kindness. A very few years are past ere he has gained
complete use of his bodily senses, and of the perceptive
powers that are so intimately connected with them. ... The
other mental faculties await their time while these powers
are unfolding. Their office is to ascertain facts, and to
report them to the memory, which holds them in readiness
for subsequent use. (b) Next appears in activity the power
of eacpressing the ideas that have been acquired; in other
words, the use of language. The learning of a language
requires the recollection of a large number of words and
of their several meanings. A child's memory is adapted to
this kind of recollection. It lays hold of particulars, and
retains them singly, while he is not yet able to grasp their
connections. So readily do children acquire language that
many cases have been known of their learning simul-
taneously to talk in two or more languages, and to use
each correctly in conversing with those unacquainted with
the others, passing readily from one to another in address-
ing different persons. But for the great majority a single
language suffices. Those early years are the time when it
should be learned correctly. Vicious habits of speech com-
monly result from incorrect early training, and, like other
lessons of early childhood, they are seldom perfectly un-
learned. Children have also a strong propensity to copy
visible objects. Next to a living animal itself, they admire
a picture of it, and they soon desire to make such a picture.
Their first efforts of this kind are necessarily crude and
unsuccessful, but the disposition to make such efforts is a
clear indication, in the order of mental development, that
education at that period should be directed to training the
eye and the hand in the useful arts of writing and drawing.
Working with Nature, and at the time which she indicates
as the best, will be most successful. (c) A little, later in
the process of intellectual development comes the power of
perceiving the connections of truths. The understanding
is developed, and facts acquire new meaning as their rela-
tions and combinations are understood. There is a unify-
ing of the knowledge previously gained, and principles are
recollected instead of isolated facts. This perception of the
logical relations of truths enables the learner to think con-
secutively and to reason correctly. He can advance into
new regions of thought and master new truths, acquainting
himself with them not in their isolation, but as parts of a
harmonious system. The man who has not learned to
think logically may accumulate in memory vast numbers
of facts, but he cannot use them; they are a burden and a
hindrance to further mental growth. He cannot be a man
of power, for he has not learned to use his acquisitions.
(d) But logical power is not the highest development of
the mind. Togic arranges knowledge and makes it avail-
able. Higher than mere logic is the reason. This faculty
connects man most nearly with his Maker. It rests not
upon the opinions and deductions of men; it is not depend-
ent upon the processes of logic; but it summons all human
thoughts and opinions before its tribunal, and pronounces
upon them in accordance with the eternal principles of
right and truth. It takes cognizance of truths and laws
of which the senses can give no evidence, and perceives a
unity where the multiplicity of facts tends to produce con-
fusion. It leads up from all visible things, and from the
phenomena of the self-conscious soul, to the invisible and
almighty Author of all.
3. The moral faculty of the soul also requires education.
The development of this faculty and of the intellect ad-
vance simultaneously. Moral education is the training of
the will to act firmly in accordance with the dictates of con-
science. This training should begin with infancy. Intel-
lectual training culminates in the development and Suprem-
acy of reason; moral training, in the complete subordi:
nation of all propensities and desires to the control of
conscience. Every child has an inborn perception of the
distinction between right and wrong, but experience abun-
dantly proves that the tendency to disregard the inward
command to do right is universal. There is from the out-
set a necessity for strengthening the moral faculty, and for
educating the young to obey its commands. The inclination
to disobey or disregard it tends to weaken it, and to detract
from the clearness of its perceptions and the force of its
This tendency must be resisted and overcome
by education. At first, this education must involve obedi-
ence to authority. A command is to be given in accordanoe
1486
EDUCATION. :
with the right, and absolute submission to such command
must be enforced. Afterwards the right and wrong of
proposed conduct must be shown, and the child trained to
do the right because it is right. When he does this volun-
tarily, he has begun to submit his will to his conscience.
By constant, careful, and persistent training, with judicious
encouragement and aid, or, if necessary, with occasional
severity, he learns self-control. Moral education must lead.
to the voluntary doing of the right and rejection of the
wrong. The decision for the right must be reached in spite
of temptations and inclinations to the contrary. The most
weighty reason for choosing the right is that it conforms to
the will of the Supreme Author and Controller of human
destiny. Perfected moral education results in entire con-
formity to that Will which is in supreme accord with Right.
Physical, intellectual, and moral education includes all
the powers and capacities of man. To train all these
aright is to fit him for his duties and his destiny—to make
him, ultimately, the wise, exalted, and happy being that
he is fitted to become. But the relations in which men
stand to each other and to Him who made them may prop-
erly receive a brief consideration. From the first-named
relation certain duties result, for which preparation is
requisite. This preparation may be termed—
4. Social or Political Education.—Social education is
acquired chiefly by intercourse with mankind. It is largely
the result of the incidental connection of people with each
other in the ordinary transactions of life. But an essential
part of a right social education is a careful regard for the
rights of others, and a manifest desire to promote their
enjoyment. This connects it closely with moral education.
There is a social training which is wholly superficial, which
is profuse in professions of interest and good-will, but
deficient in proof of them. There is another kind which
unduly neglects to manifest interest and regard that are
really felt. Both the feeling and the manifestation, in due
measure, are requisite to a symmetrical social education.
Political education concerns the relations of the citizen to
the government. In a nation where the government is “ of
the people, by the people, and for the people,” the necessity
and importance of this education are obvious. The rights
and duties of citizens; their obligation of obedience to
law; of seeing that good laws are enacted and enforced;
that the weak and helpless are protected; that the grasping
and unjust are restrained and evil-doers punished; that
the enacting, explaining, and enforcing of laws are en-
trusted to competent and trustworthy men; that the rights
of both labor and capital are duly protected; that the
nature and rights of property are understood; and that
all necessary burdens of taxation are equitably adjusted,
and all productive industries properly encouraged,—these
are some of the lessons included in political education.
5. The relation of man to his Maker necessitates religious
education. This explains the intuitive conceptions and
feelings of the soul with regard to what it recognizes as
good and right, and teaches that the Author of the soul is
supremely just and good. It shows in what way his will is
made known, and what are the proofs that he has revealed
himself to man. It declares his earnest desire that all shall
be perfect in rightness and happiness, and shall attain to
the Godlike mobility and glory for which they are to be
qualified by being made “partakers of the Divine nature.”
Especially, it declares his inconceivable gentleness, good-
ness, and condescension, and his boundless compassion and
helpfulness for those who struggle upward towards the
good, in opposition to downward tendencies, both without
and within. It tells of an endless future destiny, and of
the divine Deliverer from evil and Redeemer unto purity
and nobleness of life, the climax of which shall be another”
life, whose enjoyment and progress and duration shall have
no limit. Religious teaching, like all other, should have
careful regard to the natural order of intellectual and
moral development. It should begin at a very early period
of life, and should be adapted to the advancement of the
child in knowledge and character. It should continue not
through childhood only, but through life. No part of edu-
cation, whether of body, mind, or conscience, is ever abso-
lutely completed, but religious education, as it has the
widest scope and pertains to the most enduring interests,
should continue to the end of life.
Having thus considered the object of education, and the
mode of accomplishing that object, the way is prepared for
answering the inquiry, By whom shall education be con-
ducted 2 In other words, Who shall make sure that the
benefits of education are shared as generally and as com-
pletely as possible? Preliminary to the determining of
this question, two others arise—viz., How many shall be
educated? and, to what eactent 3 The answer to these
questions is near at hand: all should receive at least the.
rudiments of education, and in each case the training
should be as complete and thorough as practicable. As
regards the education of children—to which this part of the
discussion will be mostly restricted—all must be done for
them. They are not competent to know what they need,
much less to devise the means for gaining it. When a
person has passed beyond childhood, and is fitted by
maturity of mind and knowledge of himself to decide what
his future training shall be, he may safely be left to him-
self and to such advisers as are within his reach. Profes-
sional education is of this kind, and therefore is not here
to be discussed. The extent and completeness of that kind
of education must be decided in each case by the inclina-
tion, the opportunity, or the resources of the student. But
for securing ordinary and general education some provision
must be made. Who shall make that provision ? and who
shall see that it is sufficient and well directed 2 . -
1. In the order of nature the earliest teachers are the
parents. The instinctive love of parents for their children
leads them naturally to do what they can for their depend-
ent little ones. Bodily care and training devolve by nature
upon parents alone. The duty of providing for the intel-
lectual and moral education of children is also the untrans-
ferable duty of parents. The development of an infant's
mind, the gradual manifestation of consciousness, observa-
tion, perception, and knowledge, cannot but interest pro-
foundly every parent’s heart. And when there comes at
length the necessity for imparting instruction, the mother
is the person designated by the law of nature to perform
that service. But the time arrives when the teaching of a
household would require more time and thought and labor
than this first and natural teacher can bestow. Successful
teaching is an art, to be acquired, like any other art, by
study and labor. In every country where education has
been duly regarded, persons have devoted themselves to the
distinctive work of teaching. Families or communities
depute this work to persons believed to be fitted for per-
forming it. But who shall select teachers? and who shall
decide upon their qualifications? Primarily, this is the
duty of parents, and their responsibility for it can never be
transferred. But if the children of several families are to
be educated together, some agreement for this purpose must
be made between the parents. In this way a school comes
into existence. But if it is actually established in this
manner, some part, and possibly the larger part, of the
children may not be reached by it. Social or class preju-
dices, or the poverty of some parents, or the indifference
of others, or family feuds, or other causes, may effectively
shut out multitudes of the young from all opportunity of
education. This is not mere theory. In thousands of
cases precisely this result has been witnessed. How shall
these neglected multitudes be reached? The gifts of the
benevolent have been profusely bestowed to remedy the
evil, and it has thus been much diminished. But such
gifts can benefit only particular places, which will naturally
be those where wealth most abounds and where education
is appreciated. The communities most destitute of educa-
tional opportunities are those last reached by the occasional
beneficence of individuals. Excellent as the schools thus
founded may be, they cannot be extended into a complete
system; they cannot fully supply the imperative want of
the entire country. There is need of some agency that
shall be felt everywhere and shall reach every part of the
land. This agency some would find in an organization
which exists in all Christian countries, and this organiza-
tion is— ? t
2. The Church.-The earliest endeavors to educate all
the people originated in the Christian Church. Through
all the centuries of Christianity the great power of the
Church has been generally in favor of education, though
corruptions within it have at times given it the opposite
tendency. The church schools of the early centuries were
designed especially to give instruction in Christian doc-
trines, and the same class of schools in later times have
usually the same object. If this kind of instruction satis-
fies the wants of the people, and if they are substantially
of one mind in regard to accepting it, it may for the time
suffice. But where there is freedom of religious thought,
different sects will spring up, each strenuous for its own
particular tenets. No one party in the Church can then
claim the right to control the instruction of all the people.
If such a claim were made it would be strenuously, resisted
by all other parties. Not even a majority may rightfully
compel the whole to accept what education the stronger
party may choose. But why not permit each sect to have
its own schools and to educate its own children 2 This
would draw the lines of sectarian division deeper than
they now are, and would aggravate an evil already too
great. Some sects are wealthy, others comparatively poor;
some zealous for education, others comparatively indiffer-
ent. There are also large numbers not belonging to any
sect. For these the scheme now under consideration would
make no provision. Furthermore, in small communities
EDUCATIONAL REFORM
IN JAPAN AND CHINA. 1487
several feeble schools might be established where a much
smaller number would better serve the people. Then,
again, the day for church dogmas as the staple of educa-
tion is past. Religion is not less esteemed, but intelligent
people wish their children to be taught something more
closely connected with the active business of life than the
ancient church dogmas. In whatever way the subject is
regarded, the theory that the Church, or any part of it,
shall control education is at variance with the spirit of the
age and the necessities of the times. } *
3. But if parental control alone, or when supplemented
by the liberality of the benevolent, cannot cover the whole
ground, and if church control will not meet the emergency,
where shall the direction of education be placed ? There
is need of an agency coextensive with the entire com-
munity, and equally concerned with all classes of people.
This agency may be found in the civil government. There
are three institutions which exist by the same divine au-
thority—the Family, the Church, and the State. The
necessary and intimate relations of the first of these to
education has already been pointed out. The historical
connection of the second with the instruction of the people
has been recognized, and its duty to teach them religion is
undemiable. But that is its controlling object. It would
train only one part of the human being, and thus destroy
the harmony which should prevail between the several
parts. The State has the same kind and degree of connec-
tion with men of all sects and parties. It can therefore
act impartially towards them all. It aims to promote their
welfare in all their relations. Especially, it must protect
itself from the perils inseparable from widely prevailing
ignorance. It must recognize the need of both intelligence
and good morals to its safety and perpetuity. It must ac-
cordingly provide that the schools under its control give
attention to the morality as well as the intelligence of their
pupils. It may even provide for instruction in the general
70rinciples of religious truth, giving no place to sectarian
peculiarities. The control of education by the civil au-
thority is no mere theory. It has been tried for centuries,
and is successfully operating to-day in the best-educated
nations of the world. Other nations are adopting it, and it
bids fair to prevail at last in every enlightened part of the
world.
Thus have been considered in succession the object, the
method, and the agency of universal education. The world
has much yet to learn upon this subject. . A few years may
bring changes of opinions and of systems, but education
in the future will certainly be more general and more com-
plete than in the past. John G. BAIRD,
. Asst. Sec. Conn. Board of Education.
Educational Reform in Japan and China.
The first full annual report of the new educational depart-
ment of Japan has lately been received in this country.
The plans which it unfolds are surprisingly liberal, com-
prehensive, and wise. If once thoroughly carried out,
they will in due time work a marvellous transformation of
the nation. Japan has at one bound jumped from the
fifteenth to the nineteenth century. The material, intel-
lectual, and moral advancement has been truly marvellous,
but of all her progressive movements her educational plans
are the most significant and prophetic. Recognizing the
fact that ignorance has proved to them a source of waste
and weakness, the Japanese have already demonstrated
that knowledge is power. They fully appreciate the bear-
ing of popular education on national industry, thrift, and
prosperity.
Schools are no new thing in Japan. They have long
existed, and education is far more general than in any
other country of the East. The following are the more
prominent features of the newly adopted system: 1. It is
to embrace youth of all classes, without distinction of caste
or rank, so that education shall become truly universal
throughout the empire. 2. The new system is to be uni-
form throughout the whole country, and to incorporate
and remodel all the existing schools and educational insti-
tutions. 3. Its administration will be national rather than
provincial, and will be under the charge of the central
educational department. 4. The whole empire is divided
into eight collegiate departments, and in each a college is
to be organized. 5. Each collegiate division is to contain
thirty-two academies or high schools, making 256 academies.
in all. 6. Each academic division is to contain on an average
210 schools, making 53,760 schools in all. 7. Attendance
is to be compulsory for children over six years of age. 8.
Female education having hitherto been less cared for, pro-
vision is to be made for the education of girls as well as
boys. 9. Teachers are to be selected irrespective of sex.
10. Normal schools are to be established. II. Charity
schools, evening schools, and schools for the trades are to
be encouraged. 12. Technical institutions for applying
science to industrial pursuits are to be established. 13. An
educational report is to be published annually by the de-
partment of education. 14. The number of government
students to be sent abroad annually is 180. 15. At home
promotion is to be made from grade to grade solely on the
ground of merit. 16. “Foreign students” are to be selected
by competitive examination—thirty from the colleges, who
are to be allowed each $1600 annually, and 150 from the
secondary schools, who are to receive each $1000 per year.
Students under fourteen years of age will be allowed $800
a year. All these sums are paid in gold. 17. Scholarships
and other rewards will be offered to the most meritorious in
the schools at home. 18. In the primary schools no foreign
language will be taught. 19. In the higher schools students
can pursue any three modern languages they may select.
The above outline is enough to show that the new system
of the Japanese is neither American nor European. It is
not a mere copy or imitation of any foreign system. After
studying all other improved plans, they have wisely con-
structed one for themselves, fitted to their exigencies, in
some measure built upon old foundations, so as to intro-
duce innovations without doing violence to cherished tra-
ditions. The fact that it is thus a truly Japanese system,
both in its nature and origin, is one of its characteristic
excellences. Obviously, no foreigner could get up a System
“ready made” that would “fit.” It could not be “made
to order” without the most intimate knowledge of the
Japanese, such as they only can have. The plan for this
empire, therefore, should not be the Swiss, German, English,
or American. It should not seem exotic. If not indigenous
in origin, it must be grafted on a native stock, and become
thoroughly acclimated. *
The most important institution yet organized in Japan is
the Imperial College of Yedo (or Tokei, as it is now called).
Five years ago this institution, though a college in name,
was little more than a large school, especially of foreign
languages, and English and other foreign clerks, bar-
tenders, and even sailors, were tried as teachers. For-
tunately, a scholarly American missionary of the Dutch
Reformed Church, Rev. Guido F. Werbeck, was called to
preside over this institution. He found in it 1100 pupils
and 77 teachers, seventeen of whom were foreigners. A
native of Holland, educated in the U. S., well versed in the
Japanese language and familiar with Japanese character,
from a twelve years’ missionary service there, he has rare
qualifications for his important post. He has won the
confidence both of the government and the people, has
thoroughly reorganized the college, reduced the number
about one-half, “relieved” the incompetent teachers, and
selected with care able and cultured assistants from abroad.
The new instructors well merit the name of a faculty.
The present is a critical time in the history of the
Japanese. They have been the victims of frauds and
spoliations by foreign traders and contractors. Enormous
outlays have been made in the grand system of internal
improvements now so rapidly progressing. . A debt for
$140,000,000 has been contracted, besides a large amount
of paper currency now in circulation. Until the renewal
of the treaties with the other powers, they are debarred the
privilege of a proper and remunerative tariff, for in some
cases the customs have little more than paid the expense
of their collection; yet Japan is, and still more is to be, a
country of vast resources, mineral, agricultural, and manu-
facturing. When the new tariff is established, and their
mines and varied industries fully developed, their means
will be ample. - • * *
The educational system outlined above is prospective;
as yet it is a plan on paper. Even such a grand ideal will
be an inspiration to the nation. Ardent, hopeful, and en-
thusiastic, perhaps the Japanese consider less the obstacles
to be overcome than the advantages to follow the introduc-
tion of a system of universal education.
NEw EDUCATIONAL MovKMENTS IN CHINA.—The present
educational movement of China is justly regarded as a new
departure for the oldest and largest nation of the globe;
If wisely managed at the outset, it will expand into broad
agencies and vast results. This scheme originated with
Mr. Yung-Wing, whose peculiar history evinces his special
fitness for this work. He graduated at Yale College in
1854, where he took high rank as a scholar, and won prizes
even for English composition. He has since gained still
higher eminence and influence in his native country.
Eight years ago he was sent to America to secure the most
improved modern inventions and machinery of various
kinds, but especially for the manufacture of firearms. The
modeis which he took home, the large and successful
arsenals since established, and the other new or improved
manufactures thus introduced, demonstrated the Superiority
of our inventions, applied science, and mechanic arts. The
success of the new arsenals, now manned by Chinese engi-
neers and artisans, has produced a profound impression.
There are made the best of breech-loading rifles and
1488
EDUCATION, COMMISSIONER OF-EDWARD V.
“repeaters.” There their gunboats, iron-clads, and forts
are supplied with light and heavy ordnance. The result
has verified the remark which Yung-Wing made soon after
his graduation: “By introducing the practical and material
advantages of modern science, I can accomplish more for
the improvement of my country and the introduction of
Western culture than by direct missionary service.” New
ideas of growth and power now pervade the land. New
methods of developing the mineral wealth and exhaustless
resources of that vast country are introduced and are
highly appreciated.
The great material progress already made is, however,
only a preparation for higher intellectual and moral achieve-
ments in the future. “The wall” of exclusiveness is broken
down and prejudice is yielding. An American missionary,
Rev. Dr. Martin, presides in the new Imperial College at
Peking, and now Chinese youth are sent by their govern-
ment to America, for a thorough course of education.
present educational mission to this country is the result of
plans of Mr. Yung-Wing, formed years ago, and steadily
pursued in the face of many obstacles. It is a striking
feature of this movement that it is wholly Chinese in its
origin. Other schemes for national improvement or for the
increase of international intercourse and influence have
been prompted, if not pushed, by foreigners, but in this.
case the Chinese element predominates. No outside pres-
sure has been used to induce the government to take this
step. The plan is Chinese in its execution as well as its
origin. This plan contemplates the thorough education of
120 Chinese students in this country. They are to remain
fifteen years, so as to allow time for a complete course of
study, academic, collegiate, and professional. Four Chinese
commissioners come to supervise this movement. Under
their direction one hour a day is devoted to the study of
the writings of Confucius and Chinese language and liter-
ature generally. As these youth are preparing for positions
of responsibility at home, the knowledge of their vernacular
and history should be kept up and enlarged. The thirty-
two of these boys who have been in Connecticut and Massa-
chusetts nearly one year are models of studiousness and good
deportment. Thirty others have since arrived, and at once
begin their course of study. They are evidently “picked
specimens.” Having been invited by the commissioners to
aid in the organization of this plan, the writer has been highly
gratified by the remarkable progress of these students. They
are contented and happy, as well as studious and exemplary.
The hope that they may become the exponents of our cul-
ture, science, and civilization, and thus the benefactors of
their country, is already an inspiration to these ambitious
youth. Filial piety and patriotism are carefully inculcated.
Love of country is manifestly a strong incentive to them,
and to a rare degree they appreciate their privileges and
responsibilities. Sixty other boys will in due time follow
the students now here, and it is not improbable that soon,
like the Japanese students, they will come by hundreds.
Nothing should be omitted on our part to give efficiency
and success to this comprehensive scheme. The movement
is most significant and prophetic. It is already seen and
felt that the education of the boys will necessitate the
higher culture of the girls. Those who here learn the
refinements and amenities of our best society will need
companions of kindred taste and culture.
B. G. NoFTHROP, Sec. Conn. Board of Education.
Education, Commissioner of. By act of March
2, 1867, the Congress of the U. S. established a department
of education, consisting of a commissioner and three clerks.
The commissioner of education is appointed by the Presi-
dent, subject to confirmation by the Senate. His duties
are “to collect such statistics and facts as shall show the
condition and progress of education in the several States
and Territories;” to diffuse such “information respecting
the organization and management of schools and school
systems and methods of teaching as shall aid the people
. . . in the maintenance of efficient school systems, and
otherwise promote the cause of education;” . . . and also
“to present annually to Congress a report embodying
the result of his investigations and labors, together with a
statement of such facts and recommendations as will in his
judgment subserve the purpose for which the department
is established.” In 1868 the department was abolished,
and the commissioner of education became an officer of the
department of the interior, but his duties remain substan-
tially as before. -
Edward, surnamed THE CONFESSOR, an Anglo-Saxon
king of England, was born at Islip in 1004. He was a son
of Ethelred II. After the death of Ethelred, in 1016,
Canute the Dane became master of the kingdom, and
married Emma, the mother of Edward. The latter suc-
ceeded his half-brother, Hardicanute, in 1042. He married
Editha, a daughter of Earl Godwin, but did not permit her
The
to share his bed, and for this ascetic virtue was surnamed
“the Confessor.” He died Jan. 5, 1066, and was succeeded
by his wife's brother, Harold. Edward the Confessor is
honored as a saint in the Roman Catholic Church.
Edward I., surnamed LONGSHANKs, king of England,
the eldest son of Henry III. and his wife Eleanor, was
born at Westminster in 1239. He fought for his father
against the barons in the war which began in 1263. In
1265 he gained a decisive victory at Evesham. He took
part in a crusade to Palestine in 1271, and returned to
England and took his deceased father's throne in 1274.
The conquest of Wales he completed in 1282, after a war
of several years. In 1291 several competitors for the crown
of Scotland recognized. Edward as lord-paramount, and
chose him as umpire. He decided in favor of John Baliol,
who took the oath of fealty to the English king. The
Scots took arms to maintain their independence. In 1296,
Edward invaded Scotland, dethroned Baliol, and made
himself master of the kingdom. The national cause was
bravely defended by Sir William Wallace, who gained a
victory at Stirling in 1297. Edward invaded Scotland in
1303, and captured Wallace, who was hanged as a traitor
in 1305. The English king was marching against Robert
Bruce, who had renewed the contest, when he died near
Carlisle July 7, 1307. Edward was an ambitious and able
ruler, having great political talents as well as military
genius. He greatly promoted the improvement of law and
the reformation of civil abuses. Among the important
events of his reign was the institution of the House of
Commons. He was succeeded by his son, Edward II.
(1284–1327), a feeble prince.
Edward III., king of England, the eldest son of
Edward II., was born at Windsor Nov. 13, 1312. He as-
cended the throne Jan. 24, 1327, but during his minority
the royal power was exercised by the queen-mother and
Roger de Mortimer. Edward married Philippa of Hai-
nault in 1328. In 1330, Mortimer was arrested, tried, and
executed by the order of the young king, who then assumed
the royal power. To support Edward Baliol, who claimed
the Scottish throne at the death of Robert Bruce, Edward
invaded Scotland, and defeated the Scotch at Halidon Hill
in 1333. The Scottish people generally refused to recog-
nize Baliol, and although the English army ravaged their
country in several campaigns, they again and again ral-
lied and fought resolutely for independence. When his
uncle, Charles IV. of France, died without male issue, Ed-
ward claimed the throne of France, but Philip of Valois
was recognized by the French people. The English king
began war in 1339, but hostilities were several times sus-
pended by truce. In 1346, Edward, with his son, the Black
Prince, invaded France, marched to the gates of Paris, and
gained a complete victory at Crécy (Aug. 26). He took
Calais after a siege of several months in 1347, and a long
truce was then concluded between the two powers. The
war having been renewed in 1356, the Black Prince de-
feated the French at the great battle of Poitiers, Sept. 19th
of that year, and took King John prisoner. In 1360, the
war was suspended by a treaty, in accordance with which
Edward retained the French provinces which he had con-
quered. King John's successor, Charles V., renewed the
war in 1370, gained a series of victories, and recovered
nearly all the French territory which the English had occu-
pied. Edward died June 21, 1377, and was succeeded by
his grandson, Richard II. He was popular, and left a
high reputation for ability.
Edward IV., king of England, born at Rouen in 1441,
was a son of Richard, duke of York. After the death of
his father, in 1460, Edward was the head of the house of
York, then waging a civil war against the Lancastrians, who
fought for Henry VI. Edward gained a victory at Morti-
mer’s Cross, near Hereford, entered London in February,
and was proclaimed king Mar. 4, 1461. His courage, hand-
some person, and other popular qualities rendered him a
favorite of the people of London. The cause of the Lan-
castrians was supported by Margaret of Anjou, the am-
bitious queen of Henry VI., whose army was defeated at
Towton in Mar., 1461. Edward gained another victory at
Hexham in 1464, and took Henry VI. a prisoner. By his
marriage with Elizabeth Woodville (1464), Edward of-
fended the earl of Warwick, the most powerful of his sub-
jects. Warwick expelled Edward from the country, in
i470; but the latter returned in 1471, defeated Warwick
at Barnet (April 14), and recovered the throne. On May
4, 1471, he gained a decisive victory at Tewkesbury, which
ended the War of the Roses. He died April 9, 1483.
Edward W., king of England, born in Westminster
Nov. 4, 1470, was the eldest son of Edward IV., whom he
succeeded April 9, 1483. His uncle Richard, duke of Glou-
cester, then became protector of the kingdom, and obtained
possession of the person of Edward V. The young king
EDWARD VI.-EDWARDS.
1489
and his brother disappeared in June, 1483, and were prob-
ably murdered in the Tower by the order of Richard, who
then usurped the throne.
Edward VI., king of England, a son of Henry VIII.
and Jane Seymour, was born at Hampton Court Oct. 12,
1537, and succeeded his father Jan. 28, 1547. His uncle,
Edward Seymour, earl of Hertford (afterwards duke of
Somerset), acted as regent with the title of lord protector.
The latter promoted the Protestant cause. During this
reign the images were removed from the churches, the arti-
cles known as the “Bloody Statute” were repealed, and the
Reformation made great progress in England. Somerset
invaded Scotland, because the Scottish government refused
to form a matrimonial alliance between Mary Stuart and
Edward VI. He defeated the Scots at Pinkie in 1547.
Somerset's enemy, John Dudley, earl of Warwick, obtained
the ascendency in 1550, and caused him to be executed.
Dudley persuaded the young king to exclude the princesses
Mary and Elizabeth from the throne, and to appoint Lady
Jane Grey as his successor. Edward died July 6, 1553.
(See SHARON TURNER, “History of the Reigns of Edward
WI., Mary, and Elizabeth,” 1829.)
Edward, prince of Wales, called the Black Prince
(from the color of his armor), born June 15, 1330, was the
eldest son of Edward III. of England. He commanded a
part of his father's army at the battle of Crécy (1346), and
then adopted the crest of ostrich feathers and the motto
Ich dien (“I serve *). This crest and motto had been borne
by John, king of Bohemia, who was slain at that battle.
Ever since it has been borne by the princes of Wales. He
gained in 1356 a brilliant victory over the French at Poi-
tiers, and took their king, John, a prisoner. In 1361 he
married his cousin Joanna, a daughter of the earl of Kent,
and received from his father the title of prince of Aquitaine.
He defeated Henry de Transtamare in battle, and in 1367
restored Henry’s rival, Peter the Cruel, to the throne of
Castile. He died June 8, 1376, leaving a son, who became
king as Richard II. The Black Prince was a splendid ex-
ample of the virtues and qualities fostered by the spirit of
chivalry.
Ed/wardes (Sir HERBERT BENJAMIN), K. C. B., an Eng-
lish officer, born in Shropshire Jan. 17, 1820. He entered
the army of the East India Company in 1840, and defeated
the Dewan Moolraj near Chenab in 1848. In 1851 he pub-
lished “A Year on the Punjaub Frontier, 1848–49.” He
was appointed commissioner of Peshawur in 1853. Died
Dec. 23, 1868.
Ed/wards, a county in E. S. E. Illinois. Area, 200
square miles. It is partly drained by the Little Wabash
River, an affluent of the Wabash, which latter touches the
S. E. corner of the county. The soil is fertile. Cattle, grain,
tobacco, and wool are raised. Capital, Albion. Pop. 7565.
MEdwards, a county in the S.W. of Texas. Area, 1225
square miles. It is partly drained by the East Fork of the
Rio Nueces. It is a rocky region, and has forests of cedar.
Edwards, a post-township of St. Lawrence co., N.Y.
Pop. 1076.
Edwards, a township of Wilks co., N. C. Pop. 1556.
Ed’wards (ARTHUR), an able Methodist journalist, was
born in Ohio in 1834, graduated at Ohio Wesleyan Univer-
sity in 1858, entered the ministry in the Detroit conference
in 1858, during the civil war was chaplain in the army for
two years and a half, and served for some years as assistant
editor of the “North-western Christian Advocate,” the offi-
cial organ of his denomination in that part of the country.
His superior editorial ability led, in 1872, to his election as
editor-in-chief of that journal.
Edwards (BELA BATEs), D. D., an American theolo-
gian, born in Southampton, Mass., July 4, 1802, graduated
at Amherst College in 1824. In 1833 he founded the
“American Quarterly Observer.” He became editor of the
“Biblical Repository” in 1835, professor of Hebrew at
Andover in 1837, and editor of the “Bibliotheca Sacra, ’’ in
1844. In 1848 he obtained the chair of biblical literature
at Andover Seminary. He was equally distinguished for
the exactness of his scholarship and for the modesty and
beauty of his character. He published a “Life of Elias
Cornelius” (1842), a work on the Epistle to the Galatians,
and other works. Two volumes of his sermons, addresses,
etc., with a memoir of his life by Prof. E. A. Park, were
published in 1853. Died April 20, 1852.
Edwards (BRYAN), an English writer, born at West-
bury May 21, 1743, passed many years in Jamaica, where
he became a wealthy planter. . He wrote an interesting
“History of the British Colonies in the West Indies” (1793),
which was highly esteemed, and an “Historical Survey of
St. Domingo” (1797). He died in England July 15, 1800.
Edwards (GEORGE), F. R. S., an English naturalist,
born in Essex April 3, 1694. He travelled on the Conti-
ment, and acquired skill in drawing and coloring figures of
animals. He published a good “Natural History of Birds,”
with colored plates (1743), and “Gleanings of Natural His-
tory” (1763). Died July 23, 1773.
Edwards (HENRI MILNE). See MILNE-EDWARDS.
Edwards (HENRY WAGGAMAN), LL.D., born in New
Haven, Conn., in 1779, was a grandson of Jonathan Ed-
wards. He graduated at Princeton in 1797, and studied
at Litchfield law-school, was a member of Congress from
Connecticut (1819–23), U. S. Senator (1823–27), Speaker of
the House in the State legislature (1830), and governor
(1833 and 1835–38), besides holding other important offices.
Died at New Haven July 22, 1847. -
Edwards (JonATHAN), a celebrated divine and meta-
physician, born at East Windsor, Conn., Oct. 5, 1703. His
father, Timothy Edwards, a man of talents and of uncom-
mon learning for those times, was settled as minister at
IEast Windsor. Jonathan is said to have commenced the
study of Latin when only six years old. When he was ten
years of age he composed an essay in which he ridiculed
the idea, which some one had recently put forth, of the ma-
teriality of the human soul. In 1716 he entered Yale Col-
lege, and graduated in 1720. Strong religious impressions
appear to have been made on his mind in early childhood,
but he dated his “conversion ” from about his seventeenth
year, after which all nature seemed changed in his view,
everything revealing to his purified understanding the wis-
dom, glory, and love of God. In 1723 he took at Yale the
degree of master of arts. He was tutor at Yale two years
(1724–26). In the early part of 1727 he was settled as pas-
tor of a church at Northampton. He was soon after mar-
ried to Miss Sarah Pierrepont of New Haven, who in the
sweetness and purity of her spirit, in the elevation of her
character, and in her entire devotion to duty, may be said
to have greatly resembled him. After some years of com-
parative peace and happiness, a difficulty arose in his con-
gregation which put his firmness and conscientiousness to
a severe test. It had become a custom in the church to
admit to the communion-table all who professed with the
congregation, without any inquiry as to whether they had
been truly converted, or whether their spirit and life were
consistent with their external profession. Jonathan Ed-
wards believed that it was his duty to adopt a higher and
purer standard. But his attempted reform caused great
dissatisfaction, and he was at length driven forth from his
congregation, not knowing whither to go and without any
means of support for his family. Not long afterwards, how-
ever, he was offered the situation of missionary at Stock-
bridge, among the Housatonic Indians. About this time he
wrote out his celebrated treatise on the “Freedom of the
Will,” the plan of which had been matured, it is said, while
he was still a student at college. In 1757 he was appointed
president of Princeton College in New Jersey, where he
died March 22, 1758.- -
As a close and subtle reasoner Edwards has no superior,
perhaps no equal, among those who have written in the
English language. But he has a still higher claim to our
respect and admiration—the spotless purity of his character
and the faultless consistency of his Christian life.
Among his various writings are a “Treatise concerning
the Religious Affections” (1746), and “An Inquiry into the
Qualifications for Full Communion in the Church” (1749);
his great work, “An Inquiry into the Modern Prevailing
Notions respecting that Freedom of the Will which is sup-
posed to be Essential to Moral Agency” (1754); “The
Great Christian Doctrine of Original Sin Defended '' (1757);
“The History of Redemption,” etc. His works were pub-
lished at Worcester, Mass., in 1809, in eight volumes; and
again, including much new material, in 1829, in ten volumes.
A work of his, entitled “Charity and its Fruits,” was pub-
lished in 1852 for the first time. (See S. EDWARDS DWIGHT,
“Ilife of Jonathan Edwards,” 1830; SAMUEL HoPKINS,
“Life of Jonathan Edwards;” and his life in SPARKs's
“American Biography,” written by SAMUEL MILLER; also
THOMAS’s “Dictionary of Biography and Mythology.”)
Edwards (JonATHAN), D. D., a son of the preceding,
was born at Northampton, Mass., May 26, 1745, and gradu-
ated at Princeton in 1765. He was minister of a church at
White Haven, near New Haven, Conn., from 1769 to 1795,
and was dismissed for his religious opinions. He became
president of Union College, Schenectady, in 1799, and pub-
iished several sermons and theological treatises. He is
commonly known as “the younger Edwards.” Died Aug.
1, 1801. -
Edwards (JonATHAN W.), a lawyer, a son of the pre-
ceding, was born at New Haven, Conn; Jan.5, 1772, and
graduated at Yale with distinction in 1789. He practised
law at Hartford. Died April 3, 1831.
94
1490
EDWARDS—-EFFINGHAM,
Edwards (JUSTIN), D. D., an American clergyman and
writer, born at Westhampton, Mass., April 25, 1787. He
graduated at Williams College in 1810, and for fifteen years
was pastor of a Congregational church at Andover. He re-
moved to Boston, where he preached for two years more.
He resigned on account of failing health, and became sec-
retary of the American Temperance Society, of which he
was the originator. While in this office he prepared the
“Temperance Manual,” of which nearly 200,000 copies
have been printed. He was one of the founders of the
Tract Society at Boston. Of his “Sabbath Manual” over
500,000 copies have been printed. Died at Virginia Springs
July 23, 1853.
Edwards (NINIAN), an American lawyer and Senator,
born in Montgomery co., Md., in Mar., 1775. In 1808 he
became chief-justice of the State of Kentucky, and in 1809
governor of Illinois. He was U. S. Senator from Illinois
(1818–24), and governor (1826–30). Died July 20, 1833.
His wife was a sister of Mrs. Abraham Lincoln.
Edwards (OGDEN), a son of Pierrepont Edwards, was
born in Connecticut in 1781. He became a prominent mem-
ber of the New York bar, and, besides holding other public
offices, was a circuit judge (1821–41) of the first judicial
district. Died at Staten Island April 1, 1862.
Edwards (PIERREPONT), a lawyer, and son of Jonathan
Edwards, born April 8, 1750. He commenced practice in
New Haven in 1771. He served in the Revolutionary army,
and was a member of the old Congress (1787–88). At the
time of his death he was judge of the U. S. district court
of Connecticut. Died April 14, 1826.
Edwards (TRYon), D. D., great-grandson of Jonathan
Edwards, was born at Hartford, Conn., Aug. 7, 1809, and
graduated at Yale in 1828. He has been pastor of churches
at Rochester, N. Y., and at New London, Conn. He has
published memoirs of Bellamy and of the younger Jonathan
Edwards, “The World’s Laconics” (1852), “Wonders of
the World” (1853), and numerous other works, chiefly of a
religious character.
Edwards (WILLIAM), an American inventor, born
Nov. 11, 1770, at Elizabethtown, N. J. His father was a
son of Rev. Jonathan Edwards, president of the college
at Princeton, N.J., in 1755, and his mother was a sister of
Aaron Ogden, a governor of New Jersey. William Ed-
wards introduced the system now employed in nearly all
American tanneries by which leather is made in about one-
fourth of the time required by the old European process.
His first tannery was built at Northampton, Mass., and
the first leather made in it was sent to Boston in 1794.
The supply of hemlock bark having failed in the valley
of the Connecticut, he turned his eyes towards the vast
hemlock forests on the Catskill Mountains; and in 1817
he removed to Hunter, Greene co., N. Y., and erected on
the Schoharie Creek his model tannery, which was capable
of converting imported hides into sole leather with marvel-
lous rapidity. From this establishment about 10,000 sides
of sole leather were sent to the city of New York annually.
He not only invented several machines, but he adapted
many devices previously used for other purposes to the art
of tanning, and thus he was enabled to make water-power
take the place of manual labor to a great extent. The
success which has attended the manufacture of leather in
the U. S. must be ascribed not only to the plentiful supply
of tanning material, but also to the improved methods first
employed by Edwards. Died Dec. 1, 1851; at Brooklyn,
N. Y. SAMUEL D. THLLMAN.
Edwardsburg, a post-village of Ontwa township,
Cass co., Mich., on the Peninsular R. R. Pop. 297.
Ed/wardsport, a village of Vigo township, Knox co.,
Ind., on the Indianapolis and Vincennes P. R., 20 miles N.
E. of Vincennes, and on the West Fork of the White River.
Here are mines of excellent coal.
Ed’wardsville, a post-village, cap. of Cleburne co., Ala.
Edwardsville, a post-village, capital of Madison co.,
III., on Cahokia Creek and the Toledo Wabash and West-
ern R. R., 19 miles N. E. of St. Louis, Mo. It has three
weekly newspapers. Pop. 2193.
Eeck/hout, van den (GERBRAND), an eminent Dutch
painter, born at Amsterdam Aug. 19, 1621, was a pupil of
Rembrandt, whom he imitated with success. He excelled
in history and portraits, and was very skilful in the expres–
sion of character. Among his masterpieces is “Christ in
the midst of the Doctors.” Died July 22, 1674.
Eeckhout (JACOB Joseph), one of the most prominent
Dutch painters of the nineteenth century, born in 1793,
was first jeweller, then sculptor, and, after his twenty-eighth
year, painter. He published in 1822 a lithographie collec-
tion of 60 portraits of Dutch masters. -
Ee’cloo, or Eccloo, a town of Belgium, province of
East Flanders, 11 miles N. W. of Ghent. It has a town-
hall, a convent, and several churches; also salt-refineries,
oil-mills, and manufactures of cotton and woollen fabrics,
hats, soap, tobacco, etc. Here is a large Weekly market for
grain. Pop. in 1866, 9564.
Eel [Lat. angwilla ; Fr. angwille ; Ger. Aal; Ang.-Sax.
al], a name applied to many fishes of elongated and more
or less serpentine shape, but properly belonging to the An-
guillidae, a family of apodal malacopterygians, of which
the type is the common fresh and salt water eel (Anguilla
vulgaris), having in Europe and America many varieties,
which by most writers are considered distinct species. The
CoNGER (which see), the Gymnotus (see ELECTRICAL FISHEs),
and the Muraena are among the most remarkable eels. The
Sand-eels, or launces (Ammodytes), have a very long dorsal,
a long anal, and a forked caudal fin. They are all marine,
and bury themselves in the sand.
Eel, a township of Cass co., Ind. Pop. 160.
Ee/lee, EIe, Ili, or Gooldja, a fortified city for-
merly in the Chinese empire, now (1874) in the newly formed
empire of Jakoob Kushbegi, on the river Eelee. It was a
place of banishment for Chinese criminals, is enclosed by
a stone wall, and contains barracks, forts, granaries, many
mosques, and Chinese temples, etc. It is one of the most
important commercial towns of Central Asia. It is about
lat. 43° 46' N., lon. 82° 30' E. Pop. 80,000.
Eelee, a river of Central Asia, rises on the N. side of
the Thian-shan Mountains, flows through a part of Chinese
Tartary (the new Kushbegi empire), and empties itself, .
after a course of 600 miles, into Lake Balkash. At various
times the valley of the Eelee has been the course of Oriental
nations who have invaded Europe, while at present the
Russians make it their course for approaching China.
Eel Riv'er, of Indiana, rises in Allen co., flows south-
westward, and enters the Wabash at Logansport. It affords
abundant water-power. Length, about 100 miles. Another
Eel River rises in Boone co., Ind., and after a course of
nearly 100 miles enters the West Fork of White River, in
Greene co.
Eel River, a post-twp. of Humboldt co., Cal. P. 827.
Eel River, a post-township of Allen co., Ind. P. 1217.
Eel River, a township of Greene co., Ind. Pop. 501.
Eel River, a township of Hendricks co., Ind. P. 1676.
Effect’ [Lat. effectus, from efficio, effectum, to “accom-
plish,” “effect,” or “bring to pass;” Fr. effet], that which
is produced by a cause or agent; a result of causation; a
consequence; validity, reality. Cause and effect are cor-
relative terms in natural science. In the plural, effects
signifies goods, chattels, or personal property. In the fine
arts, effect is that quality whose tendency is to give partic-
ular efficacy to other qualities, so as to attract the eye of the
spectator, or the impression which a picture produces when
seen at a distance so great as to render the details invisible.
Effen, van (JUSTUs), a popular Dutch writer, born at
Utrecht in 1684. He was the chief editor of an able re-
view called “The Literary Journal,” published in French
at The Hague (1715–18). He published in Dutch the
“Hollandsche Spectator” (1731–35), which was formed
on the model of Addison’s “Spectator,” and obtained a
durable popularity. He passed several years in London as
secretary of embassy. Died in Bois-le-Duc Sept. 18, 1735.
Efferves’ cence [from the Lat. effervesco, to “boil
over”], the agitation caused by the sudden escape of gas
when certain substances are mixed or combined; the escape
of gaseous matter from liquids. An example of efferves-
cence is seen when carbonate of lime is put into dilute
muriatic acid. All liquids from which bubbles of gas es-
cape rapidly are said to effervesce.
Effervescing Powders, in medicines, are of various
kinds, usually put up in two papers—one éontaining an
alkaline bicarbonate, and the other citric or tartaric acid.
After dissolving and mixing the solutions, carbonic acid
escapes with effervescence. These powders are useful re-
frigerants, and are gently laxative. Rochelle salts are often
added to increase the laxative effect, constituting what are
called Seidlitz powders.
Effigy [Lat. effigies, from effingo, to “form,” to “fash-
ion ”], a representation of a person; sometimes applied to
a portrait, but more usually to a sculptured figure on a
monument, and to the heads of monarchs, etc. stamped on
coins and medals. (See BRASSES, MONUMENTAL.)
Effingham, a county in the E. of Georgia. Area, 480
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Savannah
River and on the W. by the Ogeechee. The surface is
nearly level; the soil is sandy. Rice and corn are staple
products. It is intersected by the Central Georgia R. R.
Capital, Springfield. Pop. 4214.
EFFINGHAM—EGG HARBOR,
Effingham, a county in S. E. Central Illinois. Area, 500
square miles. It is intersected by the Little Wabash River.
The surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Lumber, grain,
cattle, wool, hay, butter, etc. are produced. A large part of
it is prairie. It is traversed by the Chicago division of the
Illinois Central R. R., and by the St. Louis Vandalia and
Terre Haute R. R. Capital, Effingham. Pop. 15,653.
Effingham, a post-village, capital of the above county,
is on the Chicago division of the Central R. R. where it
crosses the St. Louis Vandalia and Terre Haute R. R., 98
miles E. N. E. of St. Louis, and 199 miles S. by W. from
Chicago. It has two weekly newspapers and extensive
manufactures of bricks. Pop. 2383.
Effingham, a post-township of Carroll co., N. H. It
has six churches, a literary institute, and manufactures of
baskets, spools, rakes, etc. Pop. 904.
Effiores' cence [from the Lat. ºffloresco (ef (for eac),
“out,” and ſtoresco, to “bloom''), to “flower” or “bloom”],
in botany, the expansion of the flower-buds, or the time of
flowering; in chemistry, the spontaneous conversion of
transparent or saline crystals to powder, in consequence
of the loss of their water of crystallization.
Efflu'vium (plu. Efflu'via), a Latin word signifying
a “flowing out” [from effluo, to “flow out”], is applied to
vapors or exhalations arising from putrefying matter, es-
pecially to vapors of a morbific quality.
Eft, or Ev'et, the popular name of many small lizards
and of several tailed batrachians. One of the best known
is the common red salamander (Salomandra rubra), a ba-
trachian of the U. S. There are numerous allied species,
which are incorrectly believed by many to be venomous.
Effu'sion [Lat. effusio], the act of pouring out or shed-
ding, as effusion of blood; the escape of any liquid out of
its natural vessel or viscus into another cavity or into the
cellular texture; also openness of heart or exuberance of
sympathy.
JEgalité [Fr. for “equality”], one of the popular watch-
words of the first French revolution—“Liberté, égalité,
fraternité" (“Liberty, equality, fraternity”). The duke
of Orleans (1747–93) assumed in 1792 the name of “Citizen
Egalité.” (See ORLEANs, Louis PHILIPPE JoSEPH, DUKE OF.)
E’gan, a township of Dakota co., Minn. Pop. 670.
Egan (PIERCE), an author, artist, and journalist, born
in London, of Irish descent, in 1815. He has published
more than twenty novels, among which are “Robin Hood,”
“The Flower of the Flock,” and “The Poor Girl.” He has
furnished many excellent designs on wood for the “Illus-
trated London News,” and was long an editor in London.
He has contributed largely to English and American jour-
nals.
Eg'bert, surnamed THE GREAT, a Saxon king of Eng-
land, was a descendant of Cerdic. . He passed many of his
early years at the court of Charlemagne, and began to reign
in 800 A. D. At this date England was divided into three
separate kingdoms, Mercia, Northumbria, and Wessex..
He defeated the Mercians at Ellandune in 823, soon after
which he completed the conquest of Mercia and Northum-
bria, ruled over all the states of the Heptarchy, and gave
the name of England to the whole. In 835 he defeated an
army of Danes who had invaded England. He died in 836
A. D., and was succeeded by his son Ethelwulf. (See LAP-
PENBERG’s “History of England under the Anglo-Saxon
Kings,” translated by Thorpe, 1845.)
Eg'ede (HANs), a Danish missionary, born at Harstad,
Norway, Jan. 31, 1686. He became pastor of the church
of Vaagen in 1707, and went in 1721 to Greenland, where
he founded a mission for the conversion of the natives.
He labored in Greenland about fifteen years, and endured
great privations. His wife, who had accompanied him,
died in 1735, and he then returned to Copenhagen, where
he was appointed a bishop in 1740. He wrote an account
of his missionary labors (1738), and a “Description of
Greenland” (1741–44). Died Nov. 5, 1758. (See RUDEL-
BACH, “ Christl. Biographie,” part vi.) His son PAUL, born
in 1708, went with his parents to Greenland in 1721. He
assisted Hans in the work of converting and teaching the
heathem, and remained, there until 1740. He became bishop
of Greenland in 1776. He published a valuable dictionary
(1754) and grammar (1760) of the Esquimaux ; and also
“Information on Greenland ” (1789), besides other works.
Died June 3, 1789. -
Eg'er, a river of Bohemia, rises near the town of Eger,
and enters the Elbe 33 miles N. N. W. of Prague, after a
course of about 125 miles.
Eger, a town of Bohemia, on the river Eger, 92 miles
W. of Prague, was formerly fortified. It is situated at the
junction of six railroad lines. It is built on a rock, and
was an important fortress. Here are the ruins of a citadel
1491
or castle formerly the residence of kings and emperors.
Eger has seven churches, a fine town-hall, and two mon-
asteries; also manufactures of broadcloth, cotton goods,
chintz, and soap. Wallenstein was assassinated here in
1634. Near it is the watering-place Franzensbad, with five
springs. Pop. in 1869, 13,441. *
Eger, in Hungary. See ERLAU,
Ege'ria [Fr. Egérie], a nymph who, according to the
Roman mythology, was one of the Camenae, and was a
prophetic divinity from whom Numa derived religious in-
spiration and directions respecting the forms of worship.
The poets feigned that Numa had interviews with her in a
grove, and that when he died she melted away in tears,
which became a fountain.
Egeria, one of the asteroids of the solar system, was
discovered at Naples in Nov., 1850, by De Gasparis.
Egerton (FRANCIS HENRY). See BRIDGEWATER, EARL
OF.
Eg’erton (FRANCIs LEVESON Gower), EARL of ELLEs-
MERE, an English author and patron of art, was born in
London Jan. 1, 1800. He was the second son of the first
duke of Sutherland, and his original name was Francis
Leveson Gower, but he assumed the name of Egerton in
1833, when he inherited the estate of the last duke of
Bridgewater. He entered the House of Commons in 1820,
became chief secretary for Ireland in 1828, and was secre-
tary at war for several months in 1830. Among his works
is a poem called “The Camp of Wallenstein.” He was
created earl of Ellesmere in 1846. His gallery of paint-
ings was one of the most valuable collections in England.
Died Feb. 18, 1857. f
Egg [Lat. o'vum; Fr. oeuf; Ger. Eij is properly the name
of the ovum of certain animals (birds, reptiles, fishes, in-
sects, etc.) which discharge the embryo with its envelopes
before the development of the organism. The name is
frequently used in an extended sense to include all ova.
The most perfect examples of the egg are those of birds
and the higher reptiles. These eggs consist of a shell
(puta' men) consisting of carbonate of lime, a little animal
matter, and traces of magnesia, phosphorus, iron, and sul-
phur. Lining the inside of the shell, we find the tough
shell-membrane. The albumen, or white of egg, differs from
the albumen of the blood in some of its chemical reactions,
and is distinctively known as egg-albumen. It is of great
importance in the arts, chiefly in the preparation of albu-
menized paper for photographers' use. In medicine it is
used as an antidote for poisoning by corrosive sublimate
and sulphate of copper, with which it forms insoluble com-
pounds. The yolk (vitellus) is a highly nutritious substance,
containing large proportions of nitrogenous and fatty mat-
ter. The structure and development of the different parts
of the egg are described under EMBRYologY (which see).
Egg, or Eigg, an island of Scotland, is 8 miles S. W.
of Skye, and 12 miles from the W. coast of Inverness-shire.
Length, 4% miles. Here are some remarkable cliffs of trap
or basalt, and columns of pitchstone nearly two feet in
diameter.
Egg (AUGUSTUs), an English painter, born in London
May 2, 1816. He was elected an associate of the Royal
Academy in 1848. Among his works are illustrations cf
comic scenes in Shakspeare's plays, and “The Life and
Death of Buckingham.” Died at Algiers Mar. 26, 1863.
Eg'ga, a populous town of Africa, in Guinea, on the
right bank of the Niger, in lat. 8°42' N. and lon. 6° 20'
E. It extends nearly 2 miles along the river. The houses
are mostly small huts of clay. Narrow cotton cloth is
manufactured here in large quantities. Egga has an ac-
tive trade in corn, yams, calabashes, dried fish, etc.
Egg Bird, or SQotſy Term (Sterna fuliginosa), the
name of a bird belonging to the gull family, and having
the back and wings sooty black and the under parts white.
The wings and tail are long and pointed, the latter deeply
forked. It abounds in the West Indian seas and in Florida.
It lays its eggs in a small excavation in the sand. Its flesh
is said to be very delicious, and is much sought after.
Eg’ger (ÉMILE), DR. T.I.T., was born of German descent,
in Paris July 13, 1813, and received his degree in letters in
1833. He has held various professorships of ancient lan-
guages in Paris, and is well known for his editions of the
less known Latin writers. He is a member of the Institute
and of the Academy, and an officer of the Legion of Honor.
He has published “Latini Sermonis Vetustioris Reliquae
Selectae" (1843), “Notions Élémentaires de Grammaire
Comparée" (1852), “Mémoires d’Histoire Ancienne et de
Philologie” (1863), and numerous other works.
Egg Harſbor, a township of Atlantic co., N. J. Pop.
3585. -
Egg Harbor, or Egg Harbor City, a post-village
1492
EGG HARBOR—EGYPT.
of Galloway township, in Atlantic co., N.J., on the Camden
and Atlantic R. R. The large majority of the inhabitants
are Germans. It has one English and two German weekly
newspapers, and four German churches. Pop. 1311.
Egg Harbor, a post-township of Door co., Wis. Pop.
165.
Eg'gleston, a township of Muskegon co., Mich. Pop.
233.
Eggleston (EDwARD), D.D., a distinguished Methodist
divine and author, was born in Vevay, Ind., in 1837, joined
the Methodist ministry in his nineteenth year, and preached
during ten years in Minnesota. He began his literary ca-
reer in 1866 as editor of “The Little Corporal,” commenced
in 1867 the “Sunday-School Teacher,” in 1870 went to New
York City and became editor of “The Independent,” was
some time editor of “ Hearth and Home,” and contributor
to “Scribner's Monthly.” His tales commanded immediate
and general interest, and his success led him to retire from
editorial life and devote his time exclusively to authorship.
In 1871 appeared his “Hoosier Schoolmaster,” the remark-
able excellences of which immediately determined his rank
as among the first of American novelists; it has been ex-
tensively reproduced in translations in Europe. In 1872
was published his “End of the World,” and in 1873 “The
Mystery of Metropolisville.” -
Egg Plant (Sola/mum Melonge/ma), an annual herba-
ceous plant of the same genus as the potato and night-
shade, is a native of India, and Northern Africa. The fruit
is a globose or egg-shaped berry about four inches in diam-
eter, but the size varies much according to the quality
of the soil and climate. It is cultivated for food in India,
the U. S., and various warm climates, and is cooked before
it is eaten. This plant flourishes in New Jersey, but not so
well in the more northern States of the Union. The seeds
should be sown in a hot-bed in April, and transplanted in
May or June. There are several varieties of this plant,
which produce respectively purple, white, and red fruits.
In some countries it is called auberjine or aubergine.
Eg/ham, a village of England, in Surrey, on the Thames,
18 miles W. of London and 3 miles E. of Windsor. Here is
the field of Runnymede, where King John and the barons
held a conference which resulted in the signing of Magna
Charta in 1215. Egham is near Cooper’s Hill, which was
the subject of one of Denham’s poems.
Egidistadt. See NAGY ENYED.
Egina. See AEGINA.
Eginhard, or Eginard, a French historian, was born
in Austrasia, and was a pupil of Alcuin. He gained the
confidence of Charlemagne, who appointed him his secre-
tary. He accompanied that emperor in his journeys and
military expeditions. After the death of Charlemagne he
passed into the service of Louis le Débonnaire. According
to a doubtful tradition, he married Emma, a daughter of
Charlemagne. His chief works are a “Life of Charle-
magne” (in Latin), which Parke Godwin characterizes as
“a meat and lively specimen of biography,” and “Annals
of the French Kings from 741 to 829;” best edition of
both in Pertz, “Monumenta, Germaniae Historica,” vols. i.
and ii. Died in 844 A. D.
Eg’lantine [Fr. Églantine, probably akin to the Fr.
aigwille, a “needle,” so called on account of its prickles],
a name of the Roſsa rubigino'sa, a species of rose some-
times called sweetbrier. It is a native of Europe, and is
naturalized in the U. S. The flower is single, and fragrant.
The leaves also emit a peculiar fragrant odor from their
russet-colored glands. This plant sometimes attains the
height of eight feet, and is often found in fields and road-
sides.
Eg'linton Castle, in Ayrshire, Scotland, 2 miles N.
of Irvine, is a magnificent Gothic structure, surrounded by
a park of 1200 acres. (See next article.)
Eg'linton and Winſton (ARCHIBALD WILLIAM Mont-
GOMERIE), EARL of, a British peer, born Sept. 29, 1812. He
succeeded the fourteenth earl of Eglinton in 1819. In poli-
tics he was a conservative. He was appointed lord lieu-
tenant of Ireland in 1852 and in 1858. A famous tourna-
ment occurred at his castle (above noticed) in 1839, and
was attended by Louis Napoleon, afterwards emperor.
Died in Oct., 1861.
Eg'mont or Egmond (LAMoRAL), Count of, and
PRINCE DE GAVRE, an eminent Flemish nobleman and
general, born in 1522. He was descended from the dukes
of Gelderland, and married Sabina, duchess of Bavaria,
about 1545. He served in the armies of Charles V., who
created him a knight of the Golden Fleece in 1546. In
1557 he commanded the cavalry of the Spanish army, and
defeated the French at Saint-Quentin. He gained a decis-
ive victory at Gravelines in 1558, and acquired much popu-
larity. As an associate of William, prince of Orange, he
opposed the intolerant and despotic policy of Philip II.,
but he constantly adhered to the Catholic Church. He was
appointed a member of the council of state in 1559. He
ceased to act with the popular party after they revolted
against the Spanish king, but the latter regarded him with
jealousy and hatred, and sent the duke of Alva to Flanders
with viceregal power in 1567. Alva was a bitter enemy of
Egmont, and is said to have brought his death-warrant
from Philip. Egmont and Count Horn were arrested, tried
for treason, and executed June 5, 1568, at Brussels. This
cruel act provoked a general revolt against Philip II. The
story of Egmont is the subject of a tragedy by Goethe.
(See MoTLEY, “Rise of the Dutch Republic,” chap. ii., part
3; BRUNELLE, “Eloge du Comte Egmont,” 1820.)
Eg'mont, Mount, an active volcano of New Zealand,
is in the northern island or New Ulster, 18 miles S. of New
Plymouth. It rises 8840 feet above the level of the sea.
Egmont, Port, is on the N. coast of West Falkland
Island, between Keppel and Saunders islands. It affords
good anchorage and fresh water, but the adjacent shore is
nearly destitute of wood.
Eg/remont, a township of Berkshire co., Mass. Pop.
931.
E’gret, or Aigret [the diminutive of the provincial
Fr. Égron or aigron, a “heron’], a name applied to several
species of heron. The egret is a handsome bird with soft
flowing plumage, pure white excepting the train, which has
a creamy tinge. The plumes are much used for ornamental
purposes, particularly those of the little egret (Ardea gar-
zetta). The egret frequents low, marshy grounds, and sub-
sists on fish, frogs, snakes, lizards, etc.
Egripo, or Egripos, a town of Greece. See CHALCIS.
E’gypt [Gr. Atyvirros; Lat. Ægyp’tus ; Heb. Mizr or
Mizraim ; Fr. Egypte ; Ger. Aegypten, Coptic, Cham or
Khem : It. Egitto ; Arab. Misr or Musr], a country in the
N. E. part of Africa, is bounded on the N. by the Mediter-
ranean Sea, on the E. by the Red Sea, on the S. by Nubia,
and on the W. by the Great Desert. Being isolated on
several sides by seas and sandy deserts, its limits have re-
mained nearly the same in all the successive periods of its
history. It extends from lat. 24° 2' to 31° 37' N., and is
about 525 miles long N. and S. It comprises the lower por-
tion of the valley of the Nile, from the cataract of Asswan
to the mouth of the river. This region is unique in several
respects, and is renowned as the home of the first civilized
nation of the world—the foremost pioneers in the march of
human progress. When Plato was born the monuments of
Egypt had stood for many centuries, and they still exist.
The area of Egypt Proper is estimated, in the official “Guide
Général d'Egypte’’ (Alexandria, 1870), at 216,200 square
miles, of which only 97.37 are under cultivation, and only
2040 square miles more are adapted for cultivation. But
the rulers of Egypt also claim jurisdiction over all the
Soodan, embracing all Nubia, Sennaar, Dongola, Taka,
‘Fazogloo, Kordofan, the provinces of the White Nile, and
Khartoom. In this wider sense the area of Egypt is gene-
rally estimated at about 659,000 square miles; but E. de
Regny, in his “ Statistique de l’Egypte d'après des docu-
ments officiels’’ (Alexandria, 1872), claims 927,000.
Besides the Delta and several oases in the Desert, Egypt
Proper is a valley about 500 miles long, confined between
two ridges or continuous chains of barren limestone hills.
Anciently, the desert east of the Nile supported a consider-
able population, chiefly pastoral. The altitude of the high-
est hills is not much over 1200 feet. The average breadth
of the valley is about seven miles. The fertility and ver-
dure of this narrow tract present a remarkable contrast
to the aridity and desolation that prevail on either side.
The most important physical feature of Egypt is its great
and unique river, the Nile, which in the last 1300 miles of
its course receives no tributary stream, and is the source of
all the country’s fertility. The periodical overflow of this
once mysterious river is among the most remarkable in-
stances of the stability of the laws of nature. For several
thousand years the average height and duration of the in-
undation have continued nearly the same. The ordinary
rise of the water at Thebes is about thirty-six feet, and at
Cairo about twenty-five feet. The average rate of addition
to the soil is about four and a half inches in a century.
About 100 miles from the sea, the Nile divides into seve-
ral channels, and its narrow valley expands into the vast
level and alluvial plain of the Delta. According to
Herodotus, the Nile had seven mouths in ancient times,
but at present there are only two large navigable chan-
nels—namely, the Damietta and the Rosetta mouths. This
country is divided into three primary divisions—the Said
or Upper Egypt, the Vostani or Middle Egypt, and the
Delta or Lower Egypt. The term Delta, however, is some-
EGYPT.
1493
times restricted to the triangular tract enclosed between
the two main channels of the Nile.
The great Libyan desert lying W. of the Nile is diversi-
fied by several fertile oases. The Great Oasis, situated near
the W. border of Upper Egypt, is nearly 100 miles long.
The oasis of Seewah (anc. Ammonium) is about 300 miles
W. of Cairo. Here was the site of the famous temple of
Jupiter Ammon. The date-palm, grapevine, and fig tree
flourish in this oasis, but all the divisions of Egypt are des-
titute of forests and deficient in timber. But forests have
been planted by the khedive in the Delta, and it is asserted
that the annual rainfall has already been greatly increased
thereby. It appears that all the ancient temples were built
to shed rain. The climate is remarkably dry, serene, and
equable. Rain seldöm falls in Upper Egypt. In the Delta
the mean temperature of winter is about 54°Fahrenheit, and
that of summer 82°. A hot and pernicious south wind called
khamseen or simoom prevails for nearly two months in
spring. During eight months in the year the north wind
blows, and favors those who wish to sail up the river. The
Nile, replenished by the annual rains which fall on the
highlands of Abyssinia, begins to overflow in July, and
continues to rise until September. The inundation reaches
its maximum near the autumnal equinox. The water, in
which fertilizing mud and slime are suspended, is distrib-
uted over the valley by numerous canals, for the purpose of
irrigating the land in summer. In October the country re-
sembles a sea, in which the towns and villages appear as
islands. After the inundation has subsided, grain and seeds
are sown, and the earth is rapidly covered with verdure, so
that nature here displays the brightest green in the winter
months of December and January. The chief productions
are wheat, barley, maize, cotton, tobacco, sugar, beans, mil-
let, durrah (Sorghum vulgare), indigo, hemp, flax, onions,
clover, oranges, figs, and grapes. Two crops are raised in
a year on the same piece of land. The wheat harvest
comes in April, or earlier in some parts of Egypt. The soil
in the Delta is said to be fifteen feet deep.
Minerals, Animals, etc.—Limestone, sandstone, and red
granite or syenite are abundant here. The last is found in
the southern part, at Asswan, the ancient Syene, from the
cliffs of which were obtained the material for the obelisks
and other colossal monolithic monuments of ancient Egypt.
Between Asswan and Esneh is an extensive sandstone for-
mation, which supplied material for the great temples at
Thebes and other ancient cities. The Pyramids are built
of limestone quarried in their vicinity. In the Jebel Mo-
kattem, between the Nile and Suez, is a tract covered with
the silicified trunks of trees. A similar phenomenon of a
petrified forest occurs also in the desert of the matron lakes
near the western border of the Delta. The soil of Lower
Egypt is an alluvium deposited by successive inundations,
and consists of a dark-brown mould or argillaceous loam
mixed with sand. This delta has increased enormously
within the historic period. Among the minerals of Egypt
are alabaster, porphyry, and emeralds. The principal wild
animals are the wolf, hyaena, jackal, antelope, crocodile,
and jerboa. The hippopotamus was formerly found here.
The domestic animals of Egypt are camels, horses, horned
cattle, asses, sheep, etc. Among the birds are the vulture
and the ibis, the latter reputed sacred by the ancient Egyp-
tians. The flora of Egypt abounds in dicotyledonous plants
armed with thorns and bearing pale-green leaves, as the
acacia. The principal trees are the date-palm (which is
commonly cultivated), the doum-palm, the sycamore, the
cypress, and the tamarisk. Among the indigenous plants
are the papyrus, the lotus, a species of water-lily, and the
Acacia vera (or milotica), from which gum-arabic is ob-
tained.
The Turks have been the ruling class in Egypt since they
conquered the country, and they still occupy most of the
high places in the civil administration as well as in the
army. The ruling dynasty is descended from them, but of
late has begun to favor the Arabic element of the popula-
tion in preference to the Turkish. The Bedouins, whose
number is officially estimated at about 400,000, are the un-
mixed descendants of the Arabs; while the Arabs of the
towns and the Fellahs, the peasants and laborers, are be-
lieved to descend from a mixture of the ancient Arabs and
the ancient Egyptians. The CoPTs (which see) are the un-
mixed descendants of the ancient Egyptians. Nominally,
Egypt is still a pashalic of Turkey, but in 1841 a hatti-
sherif made the rule over it hereditary in the family of
Mehemet Alee, the oldest living male member of the family
being entitled to succession in accordance with the law
which also predominates at Constantinople. In 1866 the
Sultan, at the request of Ismaeel Pasha, changed the law
of succession so as to make the pashalie hereditary in the
direct male line of the ruling prince. At the head of the
administration are a council of state, established in 1852,
and consisting in 1872 of the eldest Son of the khedive as
is a governor called moodeer.
president, of a son-in-law of the khedive, and five of the
most prominent statesmen; and of a state ministry, which
in 1872 was divided into seven departments—namely, jus-
tice and grace, foreign affairs, finances, interior, public in-
struction and public works, war, and navy. An assembly
of deputies was for the first time convoked by the khedive
on Nov. 27, 1866, and has since met annually. It is to
control the administration of the country and to fix the
budget. For administrative purposes Egypt Proper is di-
vided into fourteen provinces, at the head of each of which
The cities of Cairo, Alex-
andria, Suez, Port Saeed, Damietta, Rosetta, and Cossaieer
do not belong to any of the provinces, but have their spe-
cial governors. The provinces are subdivided into districts,
and these into cantons. Special governors have also been
appointed at Massowah and Sooakin, who are dependent
upon the governor-general of the Soodan, who resides at
Khartoom. A large majority of the inhabitants are Mo-
hammedans of the Sunnite sect. The Supreme authority
for all matters of religious law is the council of ulemas at
Cairo, consisting of the heads of each of the four orthodox
rites of the Sunnites, of the head of the Cairo University,
of the chief kadi of Cairo, and the nakees or chiefs of the
descendants of the Prophet. Among the Mohammedan high
schools, the one which is connected with the Mosque al Az-
har at Cairo, often called the University of Cairo, is the
most celebrated. It was formerly one of the chief seats of
Arabic learning, and had sometimes as many as 20,000 stu-
dents; and even at present it attracts students from all parts
of the Mohammedan world. A great progress in the cause
of education was made by the establishment in 1868 of
government schools in the large towns of the countries.
These schools numbered in 1870 about 4000 pupils, and
embrace both primary and secondary instruction. In the
latter department a number of special schools, as a poly-
technic school, a law school, a philological school, an art
school, a medical school, a naval academy, are included,
and more recently Prof. Brugsch of the University of Göt-
tingen has received and accepted a call from the Egyptian
government to organize an academy of Egyptian archae-
ology. The periodical press is still in its infancy. In 1870
there was only one weekly newspaper published in the Ara-
bic language; all the other papers appeared in the French,
Italian, or Greek language.
The population of Egypt Proper was in Mar., 1871, offici-
ally estimated at 5,203,405; inclusive of the Soodan, it was
believed to amount to 8,000,000. The number of foreign
residents was 90,000, embracing 34,000 Greeks, 24,000
Italians, 17,000 Frenchmen, 6000 Austrians, 6000 English-
men, and 1100 Germans. The two largest cities are Cairo,
the capital, and Alexandria. The revenue in the budget
for the year Sept., 1871, to Sept., 1872, was estimated at
1,458,729 purses (1 purse = $20); the expenditures, at
1,283,830 purses; the surplus, at 174,900 purses. The pub-
lic debt in Jan., 1872, amounted to £40,550,000. The value
of the imports of Alexandria in 1871 was 560,900,000 pias-
tres, that of exports, 999,500,000; in the same year, 2921
vessels entered the port of that city, and 2787 were cleared.
The army, which is recruited by conscription, numbers
about 14,000 men, and the navy consists of twelve steamers.
A ship-canal connecting the Mediterranean with the Red
Sea has been cut through the Isthmus of Suez under the
direction of M. de Lesseps. It was opened on the 17th of
Nov., 1869; it is about 100 miles long, 25 feet deep, and 71
feet wide at the bottom. The receipts during the year
1871 were 13,276,674 francs; the expenditures, 15,918,579
francs. In 1871 the canal was traversed by 765 vessels, of
761,467 tons; during the first nine months of 1872, by 827
vessels, of 880,096 tons. In Jan., 1872, Egypt had 711 Eng-
lish miles of railroad in operation; the aggregate length of
telegraph lines was 3904 miles, and of telegraph wires, 8292
miles.
Ancient History and Monuments.--tº Egypt,” says Bunsen,
“is the monumental land of the earth, as the Egyptians are
the monumental people of history.” The same writer calls
the Egyptians “ the chronometers of universal history.”
The sacred history of the Hebrews informs us that the
Egyptians were descendants of Ham. The other chief
authorities in relation to the antiquities and chronology
of Egypt are Bunsen, Champollion, Lepsius, Wilkinson,
Sharpe, and Poole, who differ widely in their computations.
The first mortal who is recorded to have reigned over all
Egypt was Menes, the founder of the first of thirty dynas-
ties. His epoch is fixed by Bunsen at 3643, by Lepsius at
3892, and by Poole at 2717 B. C. Before Menes, Egypt was
perhaps divided into two or more independent kingdoms.
Menes is said to have founded Memphis, but no contempo-
rary monuments of his reign exist. The great pyramid of
Cheops is supposed to have been built by a king of the fourth
dynasty, and is among the oldest Egyptian monuments that
are extant. According to a somewhat doubtful tradition,
1494
EGYPT.
Cheops, who reigned nearly 500 years after Menes, oppressed
his subjects with forced labor in the construction of this
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pyramid. Memphis was the capital of many of the kings
who reigned before the time of the eleventh dynasty. Each
king appears to have founded a pyramid as a memorial of
his reign or as a monument for himself. Among the oldest
cities of Egypt was Thebes (Dios' polis, called No or No-
Ammon in the Bible), the temples and palaces of which are
at this day the most magnificent ruins on the globe. Before
the foundation of Carthage and Rome, Egypt was the cen-
tral point of the civilization of the world. Among the
famous kings of the twelfth dynasty was the warlike Osir-
tesen I., who is supposed to have been the Sesostris of the
Greeks. An obelisk which he erected at Heliopolis is still
standing. Amenemha, a king of the twelfth dynasty, ex-
cavated Lake Moeris, and constructed the famous Laby-
rinth, which Bunsen describes as “the most gorgeous edifice
on the globe.” It contained twelve palaces and 3000 sa-
loons. (Seo LABYRINTH.) After the fourteenth dynasty the
Hyksos or “shepherd kings,” who were of foreign origin,
ruled over Lower Egypt for several centuries. According
to some writers, the Hyksos invaded Egypt about 2200 B.C.
With the eighteenth dynasty, about 1525 B.C., commences
the most brilliant period of Egyptian history and the great-
ness of Thebes. Among the most famous of the Theban
kings were Amenoph I., Thothmes I., Thothmes III., Am-
enoph II. and III., and Horus, of the eighteenth dynasty,
and Sethos and Rameses II. of the nineteenth. These
kings builded the grand temples and palaces of Karnak
and Luxor. Their conquests and victories over the Assyr-
iams, Ethiopians, and other nations are recorded on obelisks,
temples, and tombs with elaborate art and very copious de-
tails. “The most splendid period of the empire of Thebes,”
says Heeren, “must have occurred between 1800 B.C. and
1300 B. C.” Probably no ancient nation has worked with
such assiduity and ingenuity to perpetuate the record of
its life and actions, and to eternize the memory of its ideas
and institutions. In consequence of the peculiarly dry and
equable climate and the solidity of Egyptian architecture,
the monuments of this country have surpassed all others in
durability. The permanence of the institutions of Egypt
was doubtless promoted by the sight of public monuments
which had defied the corroding power of time. “No people,
ancient or modern,” says Champollion, “ has conceived the
art of architecture on a scale so sublime, broad, and grand-
iose as the ancient Egyptians.” “In ancient art,” says the
“Encyclopædia Britannica,” “the Egyptian has the high-
est place with respect to intention, and equals that of Greece
and Assyria in the excellence with which that intention has
been carried out.” According to Bunsen, the “Egyptians
left imperishable monuments of deep ethical thought, of
high artistic instincts, and of noble institutions.”
A king of the twenty-second dynasty, called Shishak in
the Bible, captured Jerusalem in the reign of Rehoboam,
about 972 B. C. The Hebrew writers employ the name of
Pharaoh as a general title of the kings of Egypt. Among
the notable kings of the twenty-sixth dynasty was Psammet-
ichus, who began to reign about 670 B.C., and favored the
immigration of the Greeks into Egypt. A revival of art
occurred in his long reign, which was an important epoch.
His son and successor, Necho, defeated Josiah, king of
Judah, at Megiddo. Egypt was conquered about 525 B.C.
by Cambyses, king of Persia, but regained its independence
under Amyrtaeus, a king of the twenty-eighth dynasty. In
the year 350 B.C., Egypt was again conquered, by the army
of Darius Ochus, king of Persia, and Nectanebus II., the
last king of the thirty dynasties, ceased to reign. The
succession of Egyptian monarchs, embracing a period of
3553 years, is unexampled in history. . In 332 B. C., Alex-
ander the Great invaded Egypt, which became an easy
conquest, as the natives refused to fight for their Persian
masters. He founded Alexandria, and partially Hellenized
the country, but the Egyptians continued to be governed
by their own laws. The regulations which he made for the
government of Egypt were equally wise and popular. The
privileges of the priests were secured to them, but the
Greeks became the dominant class. Egypt continued to
be a prosperous and powerful kingdom under several Gre-
cian or Macedonian kings named Ptolemy. Under the rule
of the Ptolemies, and of the Romans, who became masters
of Egypt about 30 B.C., Alexandria was a famous centre
of learning and philosophy, as well as a great commercial
emporium. According to some Egyptologists, the first
seventeen dynasties were not consecutive, but some of them
were contemporaneous, and two kings reigned at the same
time over different portions of the country. (Some notice
of the ancient monuments of Egypt may be found under
the heads of THEBEs, EDF00, KARNAK, PYRAMID, and OBE-
LISK.
* the peculiarities of this nation was the hiero-
glyphic mode of writing, and the practice of covering their
obelisks and the outer and inner walls of temples and
palaces with sculptured bas-reliefs and hieroglyphic sym-
bols, which not only recorded historical events, but also
represented in copious detail their social customs and pri-
vate life. They lavished labor and expense on temples and
tombs, while their private houses were plain and inexpen-
sive. The priests were the ruling class, and were distin-
guished by their superior science, which they kept secret.
The government was a limited hereditary monarchy. The
priests were in ordinary times the real governing body.
**
* •' º'
. They were the sole depositaries of learning and Science.
The chief priests were the judges of the land, the council-
lors of the sovereign, the legislators, and the guardians of
the great mysteries. The king himself was anciently a
priest. Nowhere in the ancient world was the number of
temples so great as in Egypt; nowhere was ordinary life so
intimately blended with religion. The ancient Egyptians
were people of a devout, serious, and contemplative dispo-
sition. They believed in the immortality of the soul, and
apparently also in the resurrection of the body, but they
worshipped beasts, reptiles, and even vegetables, probably
as symbols. They were brave in war, and less cruel than
the Assyrians. They excelled in magic arts, and had made
much progress in various sciences before the time of Moses,
who was “learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians.”
They calculated solar and lunar eclipses, and carried as-
tronomy to the highest point it could attain without the
aid of modern instruments. They appear to have been
well versed in geometry, arithmetic, mechanics, and hy-
draulics, and must have had a considerable knowledge of
chemistry. Herodotus and Cicero concur in the opinion
that they were the most learned and accurate of all nations
in relation to their native annals. More than 1000 years
before Phidias was born they had attained great proficiency
in sculpture. Champollion, in a letter dated at Thebes,
says: “I write these lines almost in the presence of bas-
reliefs which the Egyptians executed with the most elegant
delicacy of workmanship 1700 years before the Christian
era.” In their temples and palaces we see massive grandeur
of form, noble taste in design, exquisite finish in decoration,
and a pervading expression of repose which is one of the
highest results of art. Among the arts in which they ac-
quired skill was music, and it appears that they played on
the harp, lyre, and sistrum during the twelfth dynasty or
earlier. The Greeks attributed to them the invention of
the lyre and flute. They also fabricated glass bottles and
beads, some of which are marked with symbols indicating
a date of 1500 B. C. Women enjoyed nearly equal rights,
and were so well treated that their condition was more
favorable in Egypt than in other ancient nations. Several
women, among whom was Nitocris, a queen of the sixth
dynasty, inherited the throne and exercised royal power.
The soldiers, who were all landholders, constituted the
highest class except the hereditary priesthood. According
to Strabo, there were only three castes—priests, soldiers,
and husbandmen (farmers). The stamp of caste was not
indelible. The land was divided into three unequal por-
tions, of which one belonged nominally to the king, and
was held by tenants, who paid a low rent or one-fifth of
the crop; another portion was possessed by the priests, who
paid no rent or tax; the third part was held by the mili-
tary class or order, who amounted to 410,000 men, and had
six acres each, for which they paid no rent, but they were
bound to serve in the army in time of war. They used
many war-chariots, which appear to have been introduced
about the time of the eighteenth dynasty. The ancient
Egyptians carried on an extensive commerce, for which
their position was very advantageous. The navigation of
the Nile (the longest inland navigation known to the an-
cients) and the Red Sea enabled them to command the trade
of several foreign countries. The rich products of India.
and Arabia have in almost all ages passed through Egypt
on their way to Europe. Necho, the Nekao II. of Man-
etho, and the Pharaoh-Necho of Scripture (611–595 B.C.),


EGYPT.
1495
of the twenty-sixth dynasty, is said to have been the first
of their kings who had a navy of war-vessels. His navy
was built by Phoenicians in the Red Sea, and having sailed
around Africa, entered through the Strait of Gibraltar into
This statement is doubted by some
the Mediterranean.
nº. º º
iſºft iſ § %iºs
º 3.
ſ
s!
i
till
;
writers. Diodorus states that the population amounted to
7,000,000 in the Pharaonic era.
The style of architecture and decorative art which pre-
vailed in ancient Egypt was one of the characteristic and
almost unchangeable peculiarities of the race. For example,
- *:::::::-, 3r
[. i §§ §§ § † §§§ 3;
ńſki | | | \, \ º \{ |||}|\ll \D}#}\#
Wilsº lººs & *}.
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the celebrated temple of Denderah has been assigned to a
date of the most extreme antiquity, though it is now gen-
erally referred to the early Roman period. The ceiling of
this temple is adorned with figures arranged in the style of
a zodiac, and well known as “the Zodiac of Denderah;”
but some recent writers deny that it has any astronomical
significance. The temple itself is believed to have been
dedicated to the service of the goddess Athor, the Egyptian
Venus.
Modern History.—When the Roman empire was divided,
on the death of Theodosius in 395 A. D., Egypt became a
part of the dominions of Arcadius, emperor of the East.
For several centuries after the time of Constantine the
Great (306–337 A. D.), Egypt was greatly disturbed by
religious controversies and violent tumults between the
different sects or parties of Christians, who were very
numerous there. The Arians and orthodox shed torrents
of blood in Egypt. In 640 A.D. the Arabs, led by Amroo,
a general of the caliph Omar, invaded Egypt. The op-
pressed Egyptians, being disaffected to the emperor He-
raclius, and having no strong motive to fight, offered little
resistance, and the conquest of the country was easily
effected in December, 640. Amroo wrote to Omar that “he
had taken a city [Alexandria] which beggared all descrip-
tion, in which he found 4000 palaces, 400 theatres,” etc.
Greek civilization and literature, which had flourished in
this country for 900 years, then came to an end, and Egypt
became a part of the kingdom of the caliphs who reigned
at Damascus and afterwards at Bagdad. About 970 A.D.,
Egypt was conquered by the Fatimite dynasty, under which
Cairo was founded and became the capital. Saladin, the
famous adversary of the crusaders, obtained the sovereign
power as sultan of Egypt about 1170. He died in 1193,
leaving several sons, among whom his extensive empire was
Temple of Denderah.
divided. Louis IX. of France conducted a crusade against
Egypt in 1248, but was defeated and taken prisoner by the
Saracens. In 1250 the government was revolutionized by
the Mamelukes (slaves of Turkish or Caucasian origin),
who deposed the Sultan and usurped the chief power. This
country was conquered in 1517 by the Ottoman Sultan, Selim
I., who reduced it to a Turkish province. The turbulent
Mamelukes afterwards filled the country with disorder for
more than two centuries, and it was under their domina-
tion when it was invaded by the French in 1798. A French
army of about 35,000 men, commanded by Bonaparte, was
conveyed to Egypt by a fleet, and arrived at Alexandria in
July, 1798. This expedition was accompanied by a large
number of savants and artists, among whom were Ber-
thollet, Monge, and Denon. Bonaparte defeated the Mam-
elukes at the battle of the Pyramids, July 23d, and took
Cairo on the 24th. The conquest of Egypt was soon com-
pleted. The French savants and artists explored the to-
pography, natural history, and antiquities of Egypt, and
obtained materials for a great descriptive work, which was
published by the government under the title of “Descrip-
tion de l’Egypte, etc.,” with more than 900 engravings (25
vols., 1826). In Aug., 1799, Bonaparte returned to France,
leaving his army, under the command of Gen. Kleber, to
contend against the combined forces of Great Britain and
the Turkish sultan. After several battles at Heliopolis,
Aboukeer, etc., the French were expelled from Egypt in 1801.
Mehemet Alee was appointed pasha of Cairo in 1804, and
massacred a large number of the Mamelukes in 1811. He
founded colleges and schools, promoted commerce and man-
ufactures, and introduced European civilization. As viceroy
of Egypt he was nominally a vassal of the Turkish sultan,
but his power was nearly absolute. In 1830 he invaded
and conquered Syria. He afterwards revolted against the














































1496
F.G.YPT-EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
Sultan, whose army he defeated at Nizeeb in Syria in June,
1839, soon after which the great powers of Europe inter-
vened to check his victorious progress. Peace was restored
in 1841 by a treaty which made the viceroyalty hereditary
in the family of Mehemet Alee. When Mehemet Alee be-
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came imbecile (he died Aug. 2, 1849) the Turkish govern-
ment in July, 1848, appointed his adopted son Ibraheem,
and after Ibraheem's death (Nov. 10, 1848) a grandson of
Mehemet Alee, Abbas Pasha, regent of Egypt, who showed
himself a fanatical Mohammedan, and repealed many of
s
* Zodiac of Denderah.
the reforms which had been introduced by his predecessors.
His successor was Saeed Pasha, a younger son of Mehemet
Alee, who reigned from 1854 to Jan., 1863, and was suc-
ceeded by Ismaeel Pasha, a son of Ibraheem, who in 1867
received from the Turkish government the title of khedive.
(See BUNSEN, “Aegyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte,” 5
vols. 8vo, 1845–57, and English translation of the same;
LEPSIUs, “Denkmäler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien,” 12
vols. folio, 1849–59; WILKINSON, “Manners and Customs
of the Ancient Egyptians,” 6 vols. 8vo, 1840–47; SHARPE,
“History of Egypt,” 2 vols., 1838; 5th ed. 1870; LANE,
“Modern Egyptians,” 2 vols. 8vo, 1842; MARIETTE-BEY,
“Apergu de l’Histoire d’Egypte,” 2d ed. 1870; STEPHAN,
“Das heutige Aegypten,” 1872; REGN.Y., “Statistique de
1’Egypte d'après des documents officiels,” published annu-
ally since 1870.) REVISED BY A. J. SchrºM.
E^gypt, a township of Ashley co., Ark. Pop. 513.
Egypt, a township of Yancey co., N. C. Pop. 781.
Egyptian Architecture is characterized by an almost
monotonous simplicity, and a wonderful solidity and heavi-
ness of structure. It has been assumed, perhaps too hastily,
that the sloping walls and ponderous, almost imperishable,
structure of the Egyptian temples was an imitation of the
caverns or of the excavations in which its inhabitants are
assumed to have dwelt in prinitive times; and facts are not
wanting which would appear to confirm the opinion that the
pre-historic Egyptians were troglodytes or cave-dwellers.
The pyramid, though not peculiar to Egyptian architec-
ture, seems to have lent its solidity to all the important
buildings, the walls of which generally incline inward, and
are never more than one story high. The use of columns,
often monolithic, far exceeded the requirements of safety
or strength, the shafts being very large and short, and set
very near each other. The form of many is suggestive of
that of the date-palm with its crown of leaves. They are
sometimes polygonal. Burnt or sun-dried brick, granite,
limestone, marble, syenite, and a great variety of materials
were employed. The roof of important buildings was of
great masses of stone, requiring the use of numerous in-
terior columns. The roofs, though flat, are said to be
always inclined, so as to shed rain. All buildings, with
scarcely an exception, were rectangular. ;3
The decorations were chiefly of a hieroglyphic character;
and those which were not hieroglyphic had to a great ex-
tent, it is believed, an emblematic purpose. Many other
decorations were illustrative of the daily life and industries
of the people. The vastness, darkness, and enduring cha-
racter of these prodigious structures were well calculated to
impress the mind with feelings of the mystery and dignity
of the religious system which so completely pervaded the so-
cial life of ancient Egypt. The palm-branch, the lotus, the
vulture’s wings, the human head, and various emblems from
animal and vegetable life, adorn the capitals of columns.
Whether the Egyptians invented the arch is not known,
but it was used, it is said, as early as the eleventh dynasty,
but at no period was it very freely employed. It is still a
great mystery how the ancient Egyptian builders could
have raised to position the prodigious blocks of stone which
they employed in building. -






























































































EGYPTIAN VULTURE–EIDER.
1497
Egyptian (or Maltese) Vulture, called also Pha- Aster, the projector of all the works at Coblentz. The pres-
raoh’s Hen (Neophrow percnopterws), a small vulture of
Southern Europe, Northern Africa, and of Asia, having
Egyptian Vulture.
almost perfectly white plumage with black quill-feathers.
These birds are protected by law and custom, and are valu-
able scavengers, and consequently are half domesticated.
Ehninger (John WHETTox), an American artist, born
in New York July 22, 1827. He graduated at Columbia
College, and studied art in Europe, was a pupil of Cou-
ture in Paris, and was much in Düsseldorf and the great
European capitals. His pictures have merit, but he is
best known by his illustrative drawings and etchings, sev-
eral series of which have been published and gained a wide
popularity.
Ehrenberg, a post-village, capital of Yuma co., Ara.,
7 miles S. of La Paz, on the Colorado.
Eh’renberg (CHRISTIAN GoTTFRIED), M. D., an emi-
nent German naturalist and microscopist, born at Delitzsch,
in Prussian Saxony, April 19, 1795. He studied medicine
at Leipsic, and graduated as M. D. in 1818. Among his
favorite studies was botany, on which he wrote several
treatises in his youth. In company with Dr. Hemprich, he
visited Egypt, Arabia, and Syria, and spent about six years
(1820–26) in the exploration of the natural history of those
countries. Having returned to Berlin, he obtained in 1826
a chair of medicine in the university of that city. He pub-
lished in 1828 “Scientific Travels through Northern Africa
and Western Asia,” and “Physical Symbols of Birds, In-
sects, etc.” (in Latin). In 1829, Humboldt and Ehrenberg
performed together an excursion to the Ural and Altai
mountains. Ehrenberg afterwards made interesting discov-
eries with the microscope, and published important works
entitled “The Infusoria as Perfect Organisms” (1838) and
“Mikro-Geologie” (1854–56). He discovered that creta-
ceous and other strata of great extent are composed of mi-
croscopic organisms. His reputation as an observer is justly
great, while the conclusions he has drawn from his obser-
vations are frequently faulty.
Ehrenbreitstein, a 'ren-brit'stin (i.e. “honor's broad
stone”), a fortified town of Rhenish Prussia, is pictur-
esquely situated on the E. bank of the Rhine, opposite Cob-
lentz, with which it is connected by a bridge of boats. It
stands at the base of a rocky hill. On the summit of this
hill stands the citadel of Ehrenbreitstein, situated on a
rocky promontory which rises 400 feet above the water, in-
accessible on three sides, and defended on the N. and only
attackable front by a double intrenchment. It contains
casemates for the whole garrison, artillery, and stores, and
forms the key of the whole fortified position of Coblentz.
It has been a fortress from time immemorial, the first origin
of it dating from the time of Drusus, when the Romans
erected various castles and strongholds on the Rhine, and
a stone bridge over that river at Engers, between Coblentz
and Neuwied, where Caesar is also supposed to have con-
structed his first bridge. It was besieged without success in
1688 by the French, who took it after a long siege in 1799.
The citadel was rebuilt in 1815 by the Prussian general
ent improved construction has been by some military writ-
ers regarded as impregnable except to famine, as the old
castle sustained a siege of eleven months with a
small garrison; but modern developments of
artillery-power furnish new elements which may
have some influence in forming a present judg-
ment on this point. The artillery is mostly in
casemates, of which there are 181, and the Eng-
lish colonel Humfreys states that “with suffici-
ent artillery a battalion (say 1000 or 1200 in all)
could hold the position ” against an attack in
force. Pop. in 1871. (without the garrison), 2504.
J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Eibenstock, i'ben-stock, a town of Saxony,
16 miles S. S. E. of Zwickau. It has manufac-
tures of muslim, lace, chemical products, and tin-
ware. Tin-mines have been opened in the vicin-
ity. Pop. in 1871, 6362.
Eibergen, a town of the Netherlands, in Gel-
derland. It has calico-factories. Pop. 5324.
Eich’berg (JULIUs), a musical director, was
born in Germany in 1825, and was educated at
the Conservatory of Brussels, where he received
; several first prizes for excellence. He was after-
wards musical director in Germany and Switzer-
§§ land, and in 1856 established a conservatory of
A music at Boston, Mass., where for some years he
has been principal music-teacher in the public
schools. He was one of the directors in the Peace
Jubilee of 1872 at Boston, and is the author of
successful operas, etc., such as “The Doctor of
Alcantara,” “The Rose of the Tyrol,” etc.
Eichhoff (FREDERIC GUSTAvL), a philologist,
born at Havre Aug. 17, 1799, was the son of a mer-
chant formerly of Hamburg. He devoted himself at Paris to
Oriental languages, and established his reputation by his
“Parallèle des Langues” (1836). He has written on the In-
dic origin of the Slavic tongues, the mythology of the Edda,
the roots of the German language, the poetry of the Hindoos,
and a “Grammaire Générale Indo-Européenne” (1867).
Eich'horn (JoHANN GOTTFRIED), an eminent German
scholar and biblical critic, was born at Dörenzimmern Oct.
16, 1752. He was educated at Göttingen, and became pro-
fessor of Oriental languages at Jena in 1775. In 1788 he ob-
tained the chair of Oriental and biblical literature at Göt-
tingen, which he filled nearly thirty-eight years. He edited
the “General Repository of Biblical Literature” (10 vols.,
1787–1801), and wrote numerous works, which display
an almost unequalled knowledge of Oriental and biblical
antiquities. As a biblical critic he belongs to the ration-
alistic school. Among his principal works are an “In-
troduction to . the Old Testament” (3 vols., 1783), an
“Introduction to the New Testament’’ (2 vols., 1804–10),
“Primitive History '' (“Urgeschichte,” 3 vols., 1790–93),
a “Universal History” (5 vols., 1799), and a “History of
Literature from its Origin to the Most Recent Times”
(6 vols., 1806–12). Died June 25, 1827.
Eichhorn (KARL FRIEDRICH), a jurist and historian, a
son of the preceding, was born at Jena Nov. 20, 1781. He
was professor of German law at Göttingen from 1817 to
1828. He published, besides other works, a “German Po-
litical and Legal History” (4 vols., 1808–23; 5th ed. 1843–
45). Died in July, 1854.
Eichstädt, ik'stét, or Aichstädt [Lat. Aurea’tum or
Dryop'olis], a town of Bavaria, on the river Altmühl, about
42 miles W. S. W. of Ratisbon. It has a Gothic cathedral
founded in 1259, a ducal palace once belonging to Eugene de
Beauharnais, a public library, a museum, and the castle of
St. Wilibald, now used as a barrack; also manufactures of
hardware, cotton and woollen fabrics, stoneware, etc. A
bishopric was founded here about 745 A. D. Eichstädt was
given to Prince Eugene de Beauharnais in 1817. Pop. in
I871, 7011. -
Eich/wald (EDwARD), an eminent Russian naturalist
of German extraction, was born at Mitau in 1795. He
visited the Caspian Sea and Persia, and became professor
of mineralogy and zoology at St. Petersburg in 1838, after
which he made scientific excursions to several parts of Rus-
sia and Italy. Among his works are “Travels to the Cas-
pian Sea and the Caucasus” (1834), “Fauna Caspio-Qau-
easia” (1841), “The Primitive World in Russia” (“Die
Urwelt Russiands,” 4 vols., 1840–47), and “The Palaeon-
tology of Russia” (1851).
Eider, iſ der [Lat. Eidera], a river of Germany, form-
ing the boundary between Sleswick and Holstein, rises
about 10 miles S. W. of Kiel, flows nearly westward, and
enters the German Ocean at Tönning. It is about 90 miles
long, and is navigable from its mouth to Rendsburg. A


1498
EIDER DUCK–EITELBERGER VON EDELBERG.
canal cut from Rendsburg to Kielfiord opens a communi-
cation from the Baltic to the North Sea.
Ei’der Duck [Old Icelandic acdr, the name of the bird
º:
F:
º
-ºs-
fº §=
—-Kº
-º-º-º-º---------- ſº
ºf
Eight Mile Grove, ap.-twp. of Cass co., Neb. P. 480.
Ei'kon Basil’ike, or I/con Basil/ice [Gr. eiköy
Baguawki, “the royal likeness”], a famous book descriptive
of the sufferings of King Charles I. of
England, was long believed by the royal-
ists to have been written by the king him-
self, but most critics now believe that it was
_- § š composed by Bishop Gauden (1605–62).
<= Ş sº 2% Eilenburg, I’lem-boorG', a town of
- ~~~~~~ ſº. º. . . . \\ WN NYN N * 4% - & * * gº :--
--~~~~2: sº N N N 2°º *. Prussian Saxony, on an island in the river
Éss. º, &= - 3. Mulde, 27 miles #.N.E. of Merseburg. It
Hºsº sº- sº is enclosed by walls, and has an old castle
****-------~~~~ % º * . §sy ºš and two bridges; also manufactures of
--------- º sº == ###$ ºf. calico, Woollen yarn, brandy, starch, and
* / ſºft - º, tobacco. Pop. in 1871, 10,135.
§ ºù) * e
* # º sº ~ Einbeck, or Einbeck, a town of
$ --- Sº, "º Germany, in the Prussian province of
%. ºš Hanover, is on the river Ilme, about 40
º miles S. S. E. of the city of Hanover. . It
§§§ sº
§§ºss Šs
*sº
ºš
Fº º:
N
&
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sº
Eider Ducks.
in question; regarded as a primitive form], (Somateria), a
genus of sea-ducks, natives of the northern parts of Europe
and America. The Somateria mollissima is larger than
the common duck, and the color of the plumage in the
male varies with the changing seasons. The female is of a
light reddish-brown color, transversely marked with darker
shades. They construct their nests of fine mosses and sea-
weeds, and their eggs, from five to seven in number, are
about three inches long and two broad, and of a light green
color. During incubation the female deposits in the nest
the down which she plucks from her breast. When this is
removed by the hunters she furnishes another supply, and
if this is taken the male contributes down from his breast.
This down is of the finest quality, and is an important arti-
cle of commerce. The eggs also are highly prized as food.
The king eider (Somateria spectabilis) is found in great
numbers on the coasts of Nova Zembla, Greenland, Spitz-
bergen, etc., but is rarely seen in Britain or the U. S.
Eight-hour Law, a measure to provide for the im-
provement of the condition of the laboring classes which
has been agitated in the U. S. since 1866. A law of this
name, adopted by Congress in 1868, and by the legisla-
tures of New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, and Iowa,
in 1868 and 1869, provides that all government work is to
be performed in eight hours’ work per day; and when the
government officials gave this law the interpretation that
the laborers should only receive four-fifths of their former
wages when they worked ten hours per day, President
Grant decided that they should receive their full pay;
which decision was sustained by both houses of Congress.
The object of the workingmen’s associations throughout the
country is to reduce the length of a working day to eight
hours, with the same or very nearly the same wages. This
question was first agitated in England, where it was de-
cided by parliamentary investigation that a legal restric-
tion of laboring time was necessary for the preservation of
Society; because otherwise, through the weakness of the
laborers in their opposition to capital, they are overworked,
their health ruined, their mean length of life reduced from
fifteen to twenty-five years, their moral education neglected,
their capability for self-help and self-rule destroyed; whence
great dangers for the state and for the community may
arise. Since 1840 a number of laws have been passed re-
ducing the length of a working day from sixteen or twenty
hours, which had been not uncommon as a day’s work up
to that time for adult persons, and very little less for chil-
dren, first to twelve, then to eleven, and at last to ten, and
for children to eight hours. The reports of the govern-
ment inspectors of factories, as well as those of physicians,
state that these laws will produce the most beneficial effects
upon both laborers and employers. How, indeed, some oc-
cupations, like that of farmers, with whom longer hours of
labor are necessary at some times, will fare under the eight-
hour law, only the future can determine. A. J. SCHEM.
§ #º
º Ž ãº
§ Nºë
*: ſº
§ %;sº
§§ **
is enclosed by old ruinous walls, and is
less important than it was in the fifteenth
century. It has three churches; also man-
ufactures of cotton and woollen goods and
chemical products. Pop. in 1871, 6189.
Ei’meo, one of the Society Islands, in
the Pacific Ocean, about 30 miles N. W.
of Tahiti. Taloo Harbor is in lat. 17° 30'
S., lon. 149° 47' W. Eimeo is 9 miles long
and 5 miles yide. The surface is diversi-
fied by valleys and hills, which produce
excellent timber. Here is a missionary
station connected with the London Mis-
sionary Society.
Binsiedeln, in 'see-deln, a town of
Switzerland, in the canton of Schwytz,
about 24 miles S. S. E. of Zurich. Here is a famous Bene-
dictine abbey, containing a black image of the Virgin
Mary, which is visited annually by about 150,000 pilgrims.
An abbey was built here in the ninth century, but the
present edifice was erected about the year 1720. It con-
tains a library of 28,000 volumes. Zwingle the Reformer
was curate of Einsiedeln in 1516. Pop. in 1870, 7633.
Eisenach, i'ze-nāK, a town of Germany, in Saxe-
Weimar, is finely situated amid wooded hills on the river
Hörsel and on the railway from Leipsic to Cassel, about 48
miles W. of Weimar. It is well built, with wide and clean
streets, is enclosed by walls, and has a handsome ducal
palace, several churches, and a school of design. It is the
chief town in the Thuringian Forest. Here are manufac-
tures of cotton and woollen fabrics, carpets, soap, white
lead, etc. In close proximity to this town is the castle of
Wartburg, formerly a residence of the landgraves of Thu-
ringia, and memorable as the place of refuge in which
Luther remained secreted ten months (1521–22), having
been carried thither for safety by his friend the elector of
Saxony. Pop. in 1871, 13,967.
Ei'senberg, a town of Germany, in Saxe-Altenburg,
is near the Saale, 26 miles E. of Weimar. It has a castle,
an observatory, and a town-house; also manufactures of
porcelain and woollen stuffs. Pop. in 1871, 5261.
Ei'senburg [Hun. Vas], a county of South-western
Hungary, is bounded on the N. by Odenburg, on the E. by
Veszprem, on the S. by Zala, and on the W. by Styria.
Area, 1945 square miles. The soil is very fertile. The
chief products are grain, tobacco, flax, wine, and fruit.
Pop. in 1869, 331,602. *
Eisenerz, iſ zen-èRts' (i. e. “iron ore ”), also called
Innerberg, a town of Austria, in Styria, is at the base
of the Erzberg, 20 miles W. N. W. of Bruck. The Erzberg,
which is 2800 feet high, is a solid mass of iron ore of rich
quality. Mines have been worked here for 1000 years.
Eisenerz has twelve smelting-furnaces. Pop. in 1869, 3841.
Ei'senstadt [Hung. Kis Márton], a royal free town of
Hungary, is near the W. bank of Lake Neusiedl, 12 miles
N. N. W. of CEdenburg. Here is a palace of Prince Ester-
hazy, having 200 chambers for guests. Connected with
this palace is a zoological garden, an orangery, and a con-
servatory containing 70,000 exotic plants. P. in 1869, 2476.
Eis’leben, a town of Prussian Saxony, about 20 miles
W. of Halle, with which it is connected by a railway. It
is divided into the old and the new town, the former of
which is enclosed by walls. It has an old castle and a
gymnasium, also manufactures of potash and tobacco.
Copper and silver are mined in the vicinity. Martin Lu-
ther was born here in 1483, and died here in 1546. Pop.
in 1871, 13,434.
Eit'elberger von E/delberg (RUDoºr), a German art-
historian, born in 1817, became in 1852 professor of art-his-
%#














































































EJECTMENT—ELAIN.
1499
tory at the University of Vienna, and has contributed much
to the improvement of Austrian industry and art. He wrote,
among other works, “Die Reform des Kunstunterrichts”
(1848), “Mittelalterliche Kunstdenkmale des Oesterreichis-
chen Kaiserstaats” (2 vols., 1858–60), and “Quellenschrif-
ten zur Geschichte der Kunst des Mittelalters und der Re-
naissance” (1871).
Ejectſment [Lat. ejec'tio fir’ma, from ejic’io, ejec'tum,
to “cast out”], in law, is a mixed action, as it is resorted
to in order to recover the possession of land, and damages
for the wrongful withholding of it, though the damages are
nominal. Originally, it was a “possessory” action—that is,
adapted to the recovery of the possession of land. By a
series of fictions it finally came to be a convenient means of
testing the title. The substance of the fiction was a suppo-
sition that a lease for a certain number of years had been
made to a tenant, John Doe, who had entered into posses-
sion, and had then been ejected by a person supposed to
represent the party to be ultimately made defendant. This
person was termed “a casual ejector,” and was usually re-
presented as Richard Roe. An action was then brought
substantially under the following title: “Doe, as tenant of
Edwards (claiming the land), against Roe.” A written
notice was thereupon sent in the name of Roe by Edwards's
attorney to the opposing claimant (Archer), who is the party
in possession. By this notice Archer was advised to defend
the action, otherwise Roe would allow judgment to be taken
against him and the possession would be lost. Archer, on
making application to be made defendant, was allowed to
defend upon condition that he would admit the validity of
the fictitious portion of these proceedings; so that the mat-
ter was narrowed down to a trial of the merits of the case.
The action was now deemed really to be between Edwards
and Archer, though Doe still remained plaintiff on the re-
cords of the court. It is a well-settled rule in this action
that the plaintiff can only recover upon a legal title, as dis-
tinguished from a title in a court of equity. He can suc-
ceed only upon the validity of his own title, and not upon
the weakness of that of his adversary. He must also have,
in legal phrase, a “right of entry.” Where that does not
exist, another form of action must be adopted. There was
one serious practical inconvenience following this method
of procedure. There was no limit in law to the number of
successive actions of ejectment that could be brought by a
plaintiff, although he had been worsted. He had only to
substitute another fictitious tenant in the place of Doe, and
all the proceedings might be gone through with again. The
only check upon repeated actions of this kind was a resort
to a court of equity for an injunction to prevent harassing,
and perhaps exhausting, litigation. The fictitious portion
of the proceeding was abolished in England by the Com-
mon-Law Procedure act of 1852, and the action placed upon
satisfactory grounds. . The same result had been accom-
plished as early as 1830 in New York.
Should the plaintiff succeed in his action, he has also an
independent cause of action for the loss of profits sustained
by reason of the defendant's wrongful possession. This is
known as an action of trespass for mesne (intermediate)
profits. In some of the American States—e.g. New York—
this cause of action may be united with the action of eject-
ment. The recovery would, by the statute of limitations,
commonly be limited to the mesne profits for the last six
years. T. W. DWIGHT.
Ejutla, ā-Hoot'lä, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Oajaca, about 250 miles S. S. E. of the city of Mexico.
Pop. about 7000. |
Ekaterinburg, a town of Russia, in the government
of Perm, 160 miles S. E. of Perm. It was founded in 1722,
has straight broad streets, many churches, a government
mint for copper coins, is the principal city of the mining
district in the Ural Mountains, and is surrounded by moun-
tains on every side. Pop. in 1867, 24,508.
Ekaterinoslav, a government of South-western Rus-
sia, is bounded on the N. by Kharkof and Poltawa, on the
E. by the country of the Cossacks of the Don, on the S. by
Tauria, and the Sea of Azof, and on the W. by Kherson.
Area, 13,758 square miles. It is traversed by the Dnieper,
the Samara, and the Waltschija, and consists almost entirely
of large steppes. The soil is fertile. Pop. in 1867, 1,281,482.
Ekaterinoslav, a city of Russia, capital of the above
government, 115 miles S. W. of Kharkof, on the Dnieper.
It has a monument of Catherine II., a large cloth factory,
and many other manufactures. Pop. in 1867, 22,548.
Ek'ron, an important city of the ancient Philistines,
was in Judea, about 25 miles W. by N. from Jerusalem. Its
site is identified with the modern Akir or Akree.
El is the Arabic definite article, often spelled al, the
vowel employed in Arabic being the short, obscure a, whose
sound approaches that of our short e. El is also the mascu-
line article in Spanish. El occurs frequently as an initial
or as a final syllable in Hebrew proper names. It is one
of the Hebrew names of God. -
E/Ia, a post-township of Lake co., Ill. Pop. 1277.
Ela (JACOB H.) was born in Rochester, N. H., July 18,
1820. He became a printer, was an editor of Free-Soil Dem.
ocratic journals, holding several important public offices.
He was U. S. marshal for New Hampshire (1861–66), M. C.
(1867–69); is, 1874, fifth auditor U. S. treasury.
Elaeagna/ceae [from Elaeag'nus, one of the general, a
natural order of exogenous plants (trees or shrubs), natives
of Europe, North America, and other parts of the northern
hemisphere, being rare south of the equator. They have
entire leprous or scurfy leaves, superior ovary, and apetal-
ous flowers. Several species indigenous in Persia and Ne-
paul bear edible berries. This order also comprises the
Shepher/dia argen/tea or buffalo berry, which grows near
the upper Missouri River, and bears a pleasant acid fruit;
this and the Shepherdia Canadensis and the Elaeagnus
argentea (silver berry of the North-west) are the only known
North American species. The oleaster (Elaeag'nus angusti-
fo' lia) is a native of the Levant and Southern Europe.
This tree is often planted in shrubberies for the sake of its
fragrant yellow flowers and its silvery white foliage. It
attains a height of nearly twenty feet. g
Elaeagnus. See ELAEAGNACEAE.
Elaeſis [from the Gr. 3Aatov, “oil”], a genus of trees of
the natural order Palmaceae. The Elaeºis Gwineen'sis, or
oil-palm, a native of Western Africa, produces the palm
oil which is extensively used in the manufacture of candles
and soap. This tree abounds in the tropical parts of Africa,
and bears a very large quantity of fruit, from the outer
fleshy rind or coating of which the oil is obtained by boil-
ing in water. This oil is made into soap more readily than
any other known oil. A still further supply of oil can be
obtained from the fruit by treatment of the boiled fruit.
This is called “palm-nut oil.” This species and others of
the genus have been naturalized to some extent in tropical
America, where they are cultivated for their oil. They also
yield a pleasant alcoholic drink.
Elaeocarpa/ceae [from Elaeocar'pus, one of the genera
(from the Gr. Aatov, “oil,” and kapirós, “fruit”)], an order of
exogenous plants allied to the Tiliaceae, are mostly natives
of the East Indies. Several species produce edible fruit.
Elaeococ'ca [from the Gr. Aatov, “oil,” and kökkos, a
“berry’], a genus of plants of the natural order Euphor-
biaceae. Useful oil is obtained from the seeds of several
species. A tree called Elaeococ"ca verruco'sa is cultivated
in Mauritius and Japan for its oil, which is used for burn-
ing. One or more species in China yield drying oils, used
in that country for preparing varnishes and paints. These
oils have acrid properties. -
Elaeoden’dron [from the Gr. Aatov, “oil,” and 8évôpov,
a “tree”], a genus of trees belonging to the order Celas-
traceae. Elaeodendron croceum, commonly called saffron-
wood, grows near the Cape of Good Hope, where it is
prized for building and cabinet-work. Elaeodendron glaw-
cum, found in Southern India, is called the Ceylon tea tree.
Some of the species yield a fixed oil resembling oil of
olives. -
Elaeop/ten [from the Gr. Aatov, “oil,” and irrivös,
“flying,” hence “volatile ”], the liquid portion of certain
volatile oils when separated from the concrete part, which
is called Stearopten. .e
Elagaba'ius, or Heliogaba'lus [Fr. Elagabale or
Héliogabale], (MARCUs AURELIUS ANTONINUs), a Roman
emperor, born at Antioch in 204 A. D. His original name
was VARIUS AviTUs BASSIANUs, but on being appointed a
priest of the god whom the Syrians called Elagabal, he as-
sumed that name. On the death of Caracalla, in 218 A.D.,
he was proclaimed emperor by the army, through the in-
trigues of his grandmother Julia. He was cruel, and in-
dulged in excessive debauchery. He was assassinated by
his soldiers in 222 A. D., and was succeeded by Alexander
Severus. Elagabalus was one of the most infamous of all
the Roman emperors.
El Ahsa. See LAHSA. -
Ela'im [from the Gr. Aatov, “oil”], that portion of oil
or fat which remains liquid at ordinary temperatures; the
oily principle of solid fats. It is generally called olein,
and is not of invariable composition ; but in all eases it
consists of oleic acid, or of some acid homologous with the
oleic, combined in various definite proportions with glycerin.
Drying oils and volatile oils do not contain elain. The elain
of commerce is chiefly a crude oleic acid prepared from
palm oil in the British candle-factories, “Lard oil” is a
similar product derived from lard in the U. S. Both are
now chiefly used for oiling machinery.
1500
ELAM—ELATER.
E/I am, the name given in the Bible and in the cunei-
form inscriptions to that part of the ancient Persian em-
pire called Susiana and Cissia by the Greeks; for the
Elymais of the Greeks appears to have been only that part
of Susiana, next the Persian Gulf. Shushan or Susa was
its chief city. The ancient, like the modern, people were
chiefly nomadic. The northern part is mountainous, the
Southern flat, the gulf coast marshy and unproductive.
E’land [the Dutch name for the elk, incorrectly applied
Eland.
to this animal], (Antilope, or Boselaphus oreas), a species
of African antelope, the largest of the family. It is about
the size of a horse, measuring five feet high at the shoulder,
with two horns, nearly straight, about a foot and a half
long and turned backward. In form it somewhat resembles
the ox tribe, being much less slender in the body and limbs
than other antelopes. It also has a large protuberance on
the larynx, like that of the elk. The elands are gregari-
ous, and are found in large herds in South Africa. A
variety has been discovered by Dr. Livingstone marked
with narrow white bands across the body. The flesh of
the eland is highly prized. The eland has been bred in
England with complete success. His flesh is considered
equal to the best beef, and has considerably less bone than
that of the ox. The eland is a great eater, and hence his
domestication may prove unprofitable. His flesh is re-
markably tender. It is asserted by the best authorities
that the eland never drinks, even upon his dry native
plains. He is always fat, and hence is so unable to run
that he falls an easy prey to the hunter. The eland is
called impoofo or pohu by the natives. There are several
varieties, besides the bastard eland (Boselaphus Carina),
which is generally regarded as a distinct species. It is
somewhat smaller than the true eland, but much resembles it.
Elanet (Elanus), a genus of birds of the kite kind, but
differing from them in having the claws, except that of the
middle toe, rounded, and the tarsi partly covered with
feathers. The black-shouldered hawk (Elanus dispar) is
found in the U. S., and Elamus melanopterus is a native of
Africa, and India, and is found in Europe, and even in
Australia. The elanet is a bold and active little bird, feed-
ing mostly on insects, but often capturing snakes, and
more rarely mice and birds. Several other species of the
genus are described.
E’Iaps [Lat. elaps ; Gr. &Aoil; originally the name of
a harmless serpent], a genus of mostly venomous snakes,
natives of tropical America, Australia, etc. Three species
are found in the U. S. They are very slender in form,
often brilliant in color, and feed chiefly on other reptiles.
The Elapes of the U. S. are scarcely venomous. The best
known of them is the Elaps fulvius, or bead snake, which
is often dug up in sweet-potato fields in the Southern
States. It is one of the handsomest snakes known, having
bands of jet black, carmine red, and golden yellow. It
has erect poison-fangs, but is never known to use them. It
may be handled without fear, since it is of very gentle dis-
position. The Labarri snake of South America (Elaps
lemniscatus) is a large, fierce, and mortally poisonous rep-
tile. The same is true of Elaps lubricus of that continent.
El Araiseh, called Carache, or Larache, a forti-
fied town of Morocco, in the province of Aygar, at the
mouth of the Luccos, which forms an excellent but shal-
low harbor. It is 15 leagues S. W. of Tangier. The
surroundings are covered with olive groves and rich pome-
granate and orange orchards, but they are unhealthy. It
has a fine old mosque and market-place. The exports of
corn, cork, wool, and beans are considerable. Lat. 36°
13° N., lon. 6° 9'W. The name signifies “The Garden
of Enjoyment.” Pop.4000. -
El Arish (anc. Rhinocolura), a walled town of Egypt,
on the confines of Palestine, near the “river of Egypt.”
(Wady el Arish). It is situated on an eminence half a mile
from the Mediterranean, in lat. 31° 6' N., lon. 33° 56' E.,
195 miles N. E. of Cairo, and 52 miles S. of Gaza. It has
a few remains of the Roman period. Pop. in 1871, 2255.
The ancient Rhinocolwra or Rhinocorura is said to have
taken its name (signifying “ the cutting off of the nose’)
from the fact that King Actisanes of Æthiopia founded it
as a penal colony, and the convicts sent thither had their
noses cut off. Before the rise of Alexandria it was a great
emporium of the Red Sea trade.
The Wady el Arish is supposed to be the “river of Egypt.”
mentioned in the Bible (in Num. xxxiv. 5 and elsewhere).
It drains the central part of the peninsula of Sinai, and
empties into the Mediterranean at El Arish. It is a small
brook, which dries up in the summer.
Elas/tic Curve, in mechanics, is defined by James
Bernoulli as the figure which would be assumed by a thin
horizontal elastic plate if one end were fixed and the other
loaded with a weight. The equation of the curve to rect-
angular co-ordinates, of which the origin is at the fixed
extremity and the abscissa axis horizontal, is y = b (3aa.”
— acº), where b is a small quantity depending on the ratio of
the attached weight to the elastic force of the plate, whose
length is a.
Elastic/ity [from the Gr. 3Aaatſis, “that which drives
or strikes,” from éAaúvo, to “drive,” to “strike,” and hence
to “strike back,” as a spring] is that property in physics
possessed by certain bodies of recovering their original
form and size after the external force is withdrawn by which
they have been compressed. Matter is believed to be com-
posed of molecules or small particles, acted upon by attract-
ive and repulsive forces; and from the combined action of
these forces result the various forms and properties of mat-
ter. According to this view, molecules are not in contact,
but at an infinitesimal distance from cach other, which,
however, may be increased or diminished. When the body
is at rest the opposite forces which any of its molecules
exercise on each other are in equilibrium. If the distance
between the molecules be increased within the limits of the
action of the forces, both forces are diminished; and if the
distance is lessened, both are increased, but not in the same
proportion. Solid bodies are imperfectly elastic, and do not
entirely recover their form when the disturbing force is re-
moved ; but there seems to be no limit to the elasticity of
gases. The phenomena of elastic bodies are—1, That a
perfectly elastic body exerts the same force in restoring
itself as that with which it was compressed; 2, The force
of elastic bodies is exerted equally in all directions, but the
effect takes place chiefly on the side where the resistance is
least; 3, When a solid elastic body is made to vibrate by a
sudden stroke, the vibrations are made in equal times to
whatever part of the body the stroke may be communicated.
No theory of elasticity founded on any assumed hypothesis
as to the molecular constitution of matter has as yet been
found satisfactory when applied to solids. In this case,
therefore, the theory of elasticity is best investigated with-
out resorting to any such hypotheses.
Elas/tic Tis'sue, a form of fibrous tissue sometimes
called Yellow Fibrous Tissue, is so named from its
peculiar property of allowing its fibres to be drawn out to
twice their original length, and returning again to the same.
It is found in the membranes which connect the cartilagi-
mous rings of the trachea and various other structures of
the animal body requiring elasticity. In the human body
perhaps the most remarkable example of the elastic tissue
is seen in the ligamenta subflava, or intervertebral ligaments.
Almost all other ligaments are unyielding and inelastic,
but these are extremely elastic. Their action is to help
restore the spinal column to its vertical position when it has
been deflected by muscular action. In some of the lower
animals the ligamentum nuchae, the great ligament of the
nape of the neck, is highly elastic, and, serves to maintain
the proper equilibrium between the muscles that erect
and those that depress the head, as when the animal
is grazing.
El/ater [Gr. Aarip, a “ driver’], a Linnaean genus of
coleopterous insects, now the type of a very large and dis-
tinct family of the serricorn Coleoptera, called Elateridae.
They have a narrow, elongated body, and are distinguished
by the presence of a strong spine projecting from the pos-
terior margin of the prosternum, and a groove or socket
fitted for the reception of the spine. If they fall on their
back, they recover their feet by a violent muscular effort,
which throws them into the air with a jerk and a clicking

ELATERIUM-ELCHE.
1501
sound. Hence they are called click-beetle, Snap-bug, etc.
This movement is the rebound caused by the sudden disen-
gagement of the spine from its socket. The wireworms of
the U. S. are larvae of the Elateridae, and are very destruc-
tive to growing crops. The elaters feed on flowers, leaves,
and other soft parts of plants. The firefly of tropical
America is the Elater or Pyrophorus noctilucus, and it has
been discovered that the larvae of at least one North Amer-
ican species of Melanactes are luminous.
Elate'rium [Gr. Aaróptov, a “cathartic,” from éAajvo,
to “force"], a drug obtained from the Ecbalium agreste, or
wild cucumber, called also squirting cucumber. It is an
annual belonging to the order Cucurbitaceae, with a trailing
stem, heart-shaped leaves, lobed and toothed, yellow flow-
ers, axillary; fruit grayish-green, about an inch and a half
long, covered with soft prickles. The fruit in parting from
its stalk expels the seeds, along with a mucus, through the
opening in which the stalk was inserted. Elaterium is con-
tained in the thick green mucus surrounding the seeds. It
is a powerful and dangerous cathartic, and is very irritat-
ing to the eyes and skin. The active principle called ela-
terin is obtained from it. Elaterium is sometimes used in
dropsy.
E/lath [Heb. Eloth, “trees;” Lat. Æla/ma or Elaſma],
a town several times mentioned in the Bible, was built at
the foot of the valley El Ghor in Idumaea, and at the head
of the Elamitic arm of the Red Sea (now known as the Gulf
of Akabah), near lat. 29° 30' N., lon. 30° E., ten miles E.
of Petra. It was conquered by King David, and under
Solomon became an important commercial emporium. It
continued to be a seaport of importance under the Romans.
It was twice taken by the Crusaders (1116 and 1182 A.D.),
but after their time fell into decay. It stood on or near the
spot now occupied by the fortress of Akabah, which is held
by a small garrison of Egyptian troops. Extensive ruins
are found there.
El’ba [Fr. Elbe; anc. Ilºva and Ætha’lia; Gr. At 9axia],
an island of Italy, is in the Mediterranean Sea, between
Corsica and Tuscany, from which latter it is separated by a
channel about five miles wide. It is about 18 miles long, and
varies in width from 2% to 10 miles. The coasts are bold,
and deeply indented by several gulfs which form good har-
bors. The surface is mountainous, and the highest point
has an altitude of about 3500 feet. Among the productions
are iron, good wine, wheat, olives, and various fruits. Pop.
in 1862, 20,340. Capital, Porto-Ferraio. By the treaty of
Paris this island was designated as the residence of Na-
poleon I., who removed to it in May, 1814, and escaped in
Feb., 1815.
El’ba, a post-village, capital of Coffee co., Ala., on Pea
Biver, about 75 miles S. by E. from Montgomery.
Elba, a township of Knox co., Ill. Pop. 1045.
Elba, a township of Gratiot co., Mich. Pop. 323.
Elba, a township of Lapeer.co., Mich. Pop. 1001.
Elba, a post-township of Winona co., Minn. Pop. 681.
Elba, a township of Genesee co., N. Y. Pop. 1905.
Elba, a township of Dodge co., Wis. Pop. 1496.
El Bacharieh (anc. Oasis Trinytheos), one of the
Libyan oases, N. of El Khargeh, about lat. 28° N. It
yields fruit and alum, and is chiefly remarkable for its
ancient Artesian wells. It has ruins, principally of the
Roman period. tº.
Elbe ſanc. Al/bis; Bohemian, La'be; Dutch, El've],
an important river of Germany, rises in the N. E. part
of Bohemia, among the mountains called Riesengebirge.
One of its sources is about 4500 feet above the level of
the sea. It flows generally in a north-western direction,
drains the northern part of Bohemia, intersects Saxony
and Prussia, and enters the German Ocean near Cuxhaven.
It drains an area of 59,000 square miles. Its total length
is about 700 miles. This river is several miles wide at
every point between its mouth and Altona, a distance of
nearly seventy miles. Its principal affluents are the Havel,
the Moldau, the Saale, and the Eger. The chief towns on
its banks are Dresden, Magdeburg, Hamburg, and Altona.
Between Dresden and Aussig it flows between high rocky
banks like natural battlements, and presents very pictu-
resque scenery. Vessels drawing fourteen feet of water can
ascend at all times to Hamburg. Small steamboats navi-
gate the Elbe between Hamburg and Magdeburg, and be-
tween Meissen and the mouth of the Moldau.
E1’berfeld, an important manufacturing town of Rhen-
ish Prussia, is on the Wipper, 16 miles E. of Dusseldorf,
with which it is connected by a railway. Tt is irregular in
plan, and is several miles long. The newer streets are well
paved. Barmen, a rich and prosperous town, is contiguous
to the eastern part of Elberfeld, which has a gymnasium, a
museum, a public library, and a school of manufactures.
Here are extensive manufactures of silk stuffs, velvets, cot-
ton fabrics, merinoes, ribbons, and tapes. Elberfeld has about
seventy dyeing establishments, ten bleaching-grounds, and
several print-works. It is famous for the dyeing of Turkey
red, and this dye is said to be imparted here at a cheaper
rate and with more firmness of color than at any other town.
in Europe. Pop. in 1871, 71,394.
E1'bert, a county in the E. N. E. of Georgia. Area,
420 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Sa-
vannah River, and on the S. by the Broad River. The
surface is hilly; the soil is partly fertile. Corn, cotton, and
wool are staple products. Capital, Elberton. Pop. 9249.
Elbert (SAMUEL), a Revolutionary officer, born in South
Carolina in 1743. He distinguished himself as colonel in
the war for independence. In 1785 he became governor of
Georgia. At the time of his death he was major-general
of militia. Died Nov. 2, 1788.
Elberton, a post-village, capital of Elbert co., Ga., lies
near the Savannah River, 78 miles N. W. of Augusta. It
has four churches, one male and one female academy, one
newspaper, one hotel, one mill, and a number of stores, all
of which are sustained by the cotton-trade.
J. T. McCARTY, ED. “GAzETTE.”
Elbeuf, or Elboeuf, a town of France, department of
Seine-Inférieure, is beautifully situated on the left bank
of the Seine, 12 miles above Rouen and 75 miles N. W. of
Paris. Several of the newer and finer streets converge to
a spacious open area called the Champ de Foire. It has
eight artesian wells and six public fountains, and is lighted
with gas. Among the finest edifices are the churches of
St. Etienne and St. Jean Baptiste. Steamers ply daily
between this place and Paris and Havre. It has important
manufactures of fine flannels, billiard-table covers, habit
cloths, chequered stuffs, woollen fabrics, chemical products,
machinery, etc. Pop. 21,784.
El’bing [Lat. Elbingal, a fortified town and river-port
of Prussia, is on the navigable river Elbing, 5 miles from
its entrance into the Frische Haff, and about 40 miles
E. S. E. of Dantzic. It has eight or more Protestant
churches, a gymnasium founded in 1536, and a large pub-
lic library also manufactures of cotton and linen fabrics,
Sailcloth, soap, tobacco, leather, etc. Here are a number
of iron-foundries, dye-works, print-works, sugar-refineries,
and breweries. Nearly 500 vessels are employed in the
trade of Elbing, which is connected by a railway with Ber-
lin and other towns. Pop. in 1871, 31,162. -
I ºridge, a post-township of Edgar co., Ill.
807.
, ºridge, a township of Oceana co., Mich. Pop.
524.
Pop.
Elbridge, a township and post-village of Onondaga
co., N. Y. The village is nearly 2 miles from the Central
R. R., and 16 miles W. of Syracuse. Chairs, buckets, etc.
are made here. It is the seat of a collegiate institute with
a very fine building. Pop. of village, 463. The township
contains several other villages. Total pop. 3796.
Elbrooz', Elbruz, or Elburz, a range of high
mountains in Asia, in the northern part of Persia, form-
ing the connecting chain between the Anti-Taurus and the
Kuen-Lun. The Elboorz extends nearly parallel with the
S. shore of the Caspian Sea, and forms the southern bound-
ary of the basin of that sea. The highest point of this
range is the volcanic peak of Demavend, which rises 20,000
feet or more above the level of the sea. This name is also
applied to the loftiest range and summit in the Caucasus,
between the Black and Caspian seas. Mount Elboorz is
situated in lat. 43°20' N., lon. 60° E.; its altitude is 18,526
English feet.
Elces/aites, or Elkesaites [a name said to be de-
rived from Elacai, their pretended founder, though it is
believed by some that the name is derived from Elkesi, a
village of Galilee, while others say it is from Ela'ai, a book
which was their great authority in doctrine], a sect of Es-
senian Ebionites, or of Jewish Christians who mingled
Judaism and Christianity in their doctrines, adding to
them certain pagan or Gnostic views and magical prac-
tices. This sect appears to have originated in the early
part of the second century, and probably lasted till the
fourth century.
El’che (anc. Il'ici or Il/lice), a town of Spain, in the
province of Alicante, about 6 miles from the sea and 15
miles S. W. of the city of Alicante, is enclosed by walls. It
is situated on both sides of a steep ravine, which is crossed
by a handsome bridge. It has an Oriental aspect, being
built in the Moorish style and surrounded by large groves
of date-palms. Among the remarkable edifices are an old
castle, and a church which has a majestic dome and a fa-
mous organ. It has manufactures of cotton and linen stuffs,
1502
ELCHINGEN-ELECAMPANE,
brandy, wine, cigars, and soap. Many dates are exported
hence. Pop. about 18,000.
E1’chingen, a village of Bavaria, on the left bank of
the Danube, 8 miles N. E. of Ulm. Here the French mar-
shal Ney defeated the Austrians on the 13th of Oct., 1805.
El’cho (FRANCIS Wemyss-Charteris), Lord, eldest
son of the earl of Wemyss, was born in Edinburgh, Scotland,
in 1818, and was educated at Oxford. He became a con-
Servative member of the House of Commons in 1841, and
a lord of the treasury in 1853. He took a prominent part
in the formation of the national rifle association in 1860.
In 1866 he opposed the Reform bill of Russell and Glad-
stone, and was connected with the party called “Adullam-
ites.” He represented Haddingtonshire in Parliament for
twenty years or more.
El Dakkel (anc. Oasis Minor), the third of the five
Egyptian or Libyan oases, situated in lat. 29° 10' N. It is
well watered and has warm springs. It anciently yielde
much wheat, and now furnishes dates, olives, etc. s
E1’der [Fr. Sureau ; Ger. Holunder], (Sambw'cus), a
genus of shrubby plants belonging to the order Caprifo-
liaceae. The common elder (Sambucus migra) is indigenous
to Europe and parts of Asia and Northern Africa. It
sometimes attains the size of a small tree, having pinnate
leaves, terminal cymes of creamy white flowers, and small
black berries, 3-seeded. The young shoots contain a great
deal of pith. The common elder (Sambucus Canadensis)
of North America grows from five to ten feet high. An-
other American species is the red-berried elder (Sambucus
pubens), which is found in rocky woods and among moun-
tains. The Sambucus glauca grows in the West. There is
also a scarlet-fruited elder (Sambwews racemosa) found in
some parts of Europe, which is prized as an ornamental shrub
in Great Britain. The dwarf elder or damewort (Sambucus
JEbulw8) is seen occasionally in Great Britain. It was for-
merly believed to have sprung from the blood of Dames killed
in the Anglo-Saxon wars. The flowers of the elder are used
in medicine, and elder-flower water, employed in perfumery,
is distilled from them. Wine is also made from the berries.
Elder [Heb. 2&ken, “an old man;” Gr. ºrped Börepos,
“senior”], a term in use among the Hebrews and other
ancient nations, originally indicative of age, but acquiring
in time a secondary official sense. Bach Hebrew town had
its senate of elders, who administered justice. (Deut. xix.
12.) Commonly, each Synagogue had also its board of
elders, although in smaller towns there was often but a
single rabbi. The early Christian Church is believed by
many to have borrowed its eldership from the Jewish
synagogue. In the New Testament elder and bishop are
thought by many Christians to be identical, but opinion on
this point is by no means uniform. But at least as early
as the second century (in the Ignatian Epistles) we find the
three orders of bishops, presbyters (or elders), and deacons.
Presbyterians have both “teaching” and “ruling” (or lay)
elders, but whether this distinction existed in the apostolic
age is still a mooted question.
Elſdon (John Scott), EARL OF, lord chancellor of Eng-
land, was born at Newcastle June 4, 1751. He was educated
at Oxford, where he gained in 1771 a prize of £20 for an
English prose essay. In 1772 he contracted a clandestine
marriage with a lady named Elizabeth Surtees, and by this
act forfeited a fellowship which he had obtained in the col-
lege. He studied law in the Middle Temple, was called to
the bar in 1776, inherited £3000 from his father in that year,
and began to practise in the northern circuit. After four
years of moderate success, he gained great distinction, and
rose rapidly to fame and affluence. He became in 1783 a
member of Parliament, in which he supported Mr. Pitt, and
showed himself an able debater. He was appointed solicitor-
general in 1788, and attorney-general in 1793. During the
excitement of the French revolution he prosecuted Horne
Tooke and others who were accused of treason, but they
were defended by Erskine and acquitted. In 1799 he be-
came chief-justice of the court of common pleas, was created
Baron Eldon, and entered the House of Peers. On the for-
mation of a new ministry by Mr. Addington in 1801, Lord
Eldon was appointed lord chancellor. He appears to have
owed this promotion to the favor of the king. He continued
to fill that high office under several successive administra-
tions for a period of twenty-six years, except an interval
of nearly a year in 1806–07. His reputation as a judge was
very high, but as a statesman his merit was not great. He
was an enemy of religious liberty, and opposed the abolition
of the slave-trade and parliamentary reform. He received
the title of earl in 1821, and was compelled to resign the
great seal when Canning became prime minister in 1827.
He died Jan. 13, 1838. His brother William was an emi-
ment judge, and bore the title of Lord Stowell. (See TWIss,
“The Public and Private Life of Lord Eldon,” 3 vols.,
1844; LoRD CAMPBELL, “Lives of the Lord Chancellors.”
Eldo'ra, a post-village, capital of Hardin co., Ia, on the
Iowa River and the Central R. R. of Iowa, about 66 miles
N. N. E. of Des Moines. It has two newspaper-offices. It
has a State reform school. Pop. 1268; of Eldora twp., 2070.
Eldora, a township of Surry co., N. C. Pop. 858.
El Dora/do, a Spanish term signifying “golden’’ re-
gion, was the name given by the Spaniards in the sixteenth
century to a country supposed to be situated in South
America between the rivers Amazon and Orinoco. By
fabulous reports, which were generally credited, this region
was represented as abounding in gold and precious stones,
and surpassing Peru in riches and splendor. Expeditions
were conducted by Sir Walter Raleigh and others to dis-
cover this imaginary paradise of gold-seekers, but they
were not successful. The term El Dorado has passed into
the language of poetry, in which it is used to express a land
of boundless wealth, or a region in which richcs and pleas-
ure are as abundant as they were supposed to have been in
the Elysium of the Greeks and in the primeval golden age.
El Dora’do, a county of California. Area, estimated
at 1800 square miles. It is drained by the Middle and
South Forks of the American River, and bounded on the
N. E. by Lake Tahoe. The eastern part is occupied by the
high mountains of the Sierra Nevada, and is covered with
forests from which good pine and oak timber is procured.
Rich gold-mines have been opened here. Cattle, wheat,
barley, fruit, wine, wool, butter, etc. are produced. Capi-
tal, Placerville. Pop. 10,309.
El Dorado, a post-village, capital of Union co., Ark.,
about 145 miles S. by W. from Little Rock. It has two
newspaper-offices. Pop. of El Dorado township, 2349.
Eldorado, a twp. of McDonough co., Ill. Pop. 1105.
El Dorado, a post-township of Saline co., Ill. Here
the Cairo and Vincennes R. R. crosses the St. Louis and
South-eastern R. R., 76 miles N. E. of Cairo. Pop. 1691.
Eldorado, a township of Benton co., Ia. Pop. 777.
El Dorado, the capital of Butler co., Kan., on Walnut
River, has a mational bank, a newspaper, an academy, two
churches, a flouring-mill, three hotels,and good water-power.
It is in a fine agricultural region. Pop. of township, 797.
T. B. MURDOCK, E.D. ÁND PROP. “TIMEs.”
Eldorado, a twp. of Montgomery co., N. C. Pop. 887.
Eldorado, a post-twp. of Fond du Lac co., Wis. P. 1674.
EI’dred, a township of Jefferson co., Pa. Pop. 832.
Eldred, a township of Lycoming co., Pa. Pop. 739.
Eldred, a township of McKean co., Pa. Pop. 897.
Eldred, a township of Monroe co., Pa. Pop. 937.
Eldred, a township of Schuylkill co., Pa. Pop. 968.
Eldred, a township of Warren co., Pa. Pop. 557.
E’lea, or We'lia, an ancient Greek city of Southern
Italy, in Tucania, on the Mediterranean Sea. It was the ma–
tive place of Parmenides and Zeno. (See ELEATIC School.)
Eleanor (elſe-nor) [Fr. Eléonore] of GUIENNE, queen
of France, and subsequently queen of England, was born
about 1122. She was the daughter and heiress of the last
duke of Aquitaine, and was married in 1137 to Louis VII.
of France, with whom she went to the Holy Land in 1147.
She was divorced from Louis in 1152, and was soon mar-
ried to Henry II. of England. It appears that she insti-
gated her sons to rebel against their father (Henry II.),
who imprisoned her for fifteen years. She acted as regent
while her son, Richard I., conducted a crusade to Palestine.
JDied in 1203.
Eleat'ic School, a system of philosophy founded by
Xenophanes of Elea, who flourished about 530 B.C. While
the Ionic school gave their attention to outward nature,
and investigated the laws which regulate its progress, the
Eleatic philosophers directed their speculations to the idea
of Being in itself, which they conceived to be the only ob-
ject of real knowledge. They regarded as vain and illu-
sory the world of change and succession, which they des-
ignated to yºyvouévov (“that which becomes or happens,” as
by accident). Time, space, and motion they considered as
phantasms, caused by the deceiving senses, and incapable
of scientific explanation. They distinguished between the
pure reason, the correlative of being, and opinion or com-
mon understanding, which judges according to the impres-
sions of sense. Parmenides and Zeno were the most cele-
brated disciples of Xenophanes; the former was the author
of an epic poem on the Eleatic and Ionic systems.
Elecampane (Inſwla), a genus of plants belonging to
the order Compositae. The common elecampane (Inula
Helenium) is indigenous to Middle and Southern Europe,
and grows in various parts of the U. S. The root some-
what resembles camphor in taste, and has sudorific and
diuretic properties. It contains the principles helenin or
elecampane camphor, and inulin, which resembles starch.
ELECTION.—ELECTORS,
1503
Elec'tion [Lat, elec'tio, from elec’tum (from e, “out,”
and le/go, to “gather”), to “choose,” to “read”], in law.
The law frequently imposes upon a party the duty to choose
between two inconsistent or alternative rights or claims.
This obligation may present itself in all branches of the
law, and often occurs as a rule of practice. In a court of
law, as distinguished from equity, there may be a case of
election where a contract is to be performed in the alterna-
tive, as where an insurance company stipulates that in case
of loss of a building by fire it may either pay its value or
rebuild. In such a case, should the company elect to re-
build, its election would be irrevocable. It may also hap-
pen that a creditor will have a right, from the circumstances
of the case, to elect one of two persons as his debtor. A case
of this kind occurs in the law of agency, when an agent
purchases goods on credit for an undisclosed principal; the
seller, on subsequently discovering the principal, may elect
to regard the sale as having been made to him or to the agent,
as he may see fit. An instance of election in the case of
real estate is that of dower in land which the husband ex-
changed for other land. The widow has her choice to take
dower in either parcel, but she cannot take it in both.
In courts of equity the doctrine of election assumes great
importance. The case may occur where alternative benefits
may be presented to a person by a will or other legal in-
strument, or more generally he may be required to choose
between a gift made to him and something to which he is
already entitled. The duty to choose in such a case is not
a positive rule of law, but a matter of equity practice, and
is not imperative when this artificial doctrine is not known
to be a legal rule by the party to whom the gift is made.
The fact of election must be shown by some positive act;
and if a party who ought to elect holds two estates under
inconsistent titles, there is no evidence of an election hav-
ing been made. A person under a duty to elect between the
retention of his own property and the gift of another, may
retain his own without forfeiting the gift, but must make
due compensation. Thus, if a testator devises an owner of
property land of his own, and then assumes to dispose of
the property of the devisee, and the latter elects to retain
his own property, he does not forfeit the devise, but is re-
quired to make compensation to the testator's estate equiva-
lent in amount to the property retained by him. Election
in procedure may take place in the choice of remedies; as
where an owner has been wrongfully deprived of a chattel,
he may elect to sue for its value or for the chattel itself. A
court will in some cases require a party to an action to elect
as between inconsistent allegations as to the cause of action.
* T. W. DWIGHT.
Election, in politics, is the choice of public officers by.
those persons who possess the right of suffrage, as distin-
guished from “appointment,” which is such choice made
by superior officers. Popular elections were held in ancient
times, as, for example, in the Roman comitia and the Athe-
nian popular assemblies; but soon after the establishment
of the Roman empire elections, outside the Christian Church,
became obsolete. Elections reappear in mediaeval Europe
in the choice of representative burgesses, who stood for the
third estate. Certain monarchs, as the German emperors
and the kings of Poland, were also elected to their place,
but not as popular representatives. In no other European
country did the election of representatives become so im-
portant in the Middle Ages as in England; and the repre-
sentative systems of other nations have been chiefly imita-
tions of, and in some cases improvements upon, the Eng-
lish system. Especially is this the case in the U. S. (See
REPRESENTATIVE SYSTEM.) Elections are called direct
when officers are chosen by a direct vote of their constitu-
ency; indirect, when electors are chosen for the purpose of
designating the persons who shall exercise official powers.
With regard to the officers voted for, political elections
are distinguished into local or municipal elections, at which
officers for some particular town or locality are chosen ;
general or State elections, at which officers for the whole of a
commonwealth are elected (the most important of which are
the gubernatorial and presidential elections for filling the
places of governor and President); and congressional or
legislative elections, at which members of Congress or legis-
latures are voted for. Vacancies in offices are sometimes
filled, and the acceptance or rejection of particular laws is
decided, by special or supplementary elections. All questions
relating to political elections must be fully provided for in
the election laws of the State. The great interests which
are frequently at stake at elections naturally tempt bad men
to election frauds, which have assumed in some countries,
and in particular in some parts of the U. S., the most alarm-
ing dimensions. In view of them honest statesmen con-
sider it their duty to improve, as much as possible, the
existing election laws. Special attention has been given
for that purpose to stringent registration laws, requiring
every voter to register his name some time before the day
favor of one.
of election; in order to enable the authorities to verify his
claim to taking part in the election. The inspectors of elec-
tions, whether appointed or élected, are generally taken
from the different political parties which engage in the
contest. The excitement which often prevails at political
elections is apt to lead to election riots. These are of fre-
quent occurrence in England, Ireland, and Greece, and have
also of late caused considerable trouble in the U. S.; they
are almost unknown in France and Germany. As in most
cases the instigators and leaders of election riots are acting
under the influence of intoxicating liquors, many States
have provided by law that on election days all liquor-stores
must be closed. When the defeated party believes or claims
that the declared majority owes its success to election frauds,
the elections are likely to be contested. At elections to
legislative assemblies these assemblies decide finally on the
claims of rival candidates; in most other cases the decision
rests with the courts. If a presidential election is con-
tested in republics, there is danger of civil war, of which,
in particular, the republics of South and Central America
furnish many examples. Of still more frequent occurrence
have been, in consequence of the weakness of the federal
authority, the civil wars in the particular states constitut-
ing these federal republics in case the election for governor
is contested. The U. S., which, on the whole, have been
free from the sad experience of the South and Central
American republics, had in 1873 a conspicuous instance
of a contested gubernatorial election and its disastrous con-
sequences in Louisiana, where for several months two rival
governors claimed each to be the lawful executive of the
State, and tried to enforce his claim, until on May 22, 1873,
the President of the U. S. interfered by a proclamation in
(See also NoMINATION, PLíBISCITE, REPRE-
SENTATIVE SYSTEM, SUFFRAGE, and WotC.)
Election, in theology. See CALVINISM, by PROF. A.
A. HoDGE, S. T. D.
Elec'tive Gov'ernments are those in which the
rulers and public functionaries are chosen by popular vote
or by the votes of a privileged class. The republics of
ancient Athens and Rome were elective governments.
Elec'tor [Fr. 6lecteur; Ger. Kurfürst; Lat. elec'tor,
from el’igo, elec'tum, to “choose ’j, a title of those German
princes who had the right or privilege of electing the em-
peror of Germany. There were originally (1256 A. D.)
seven—namely, the electors of Cologne, Mentz, Treves,
Bohemia, Brandenburg, Saxony, and the elector Palatine.
The first three were archbishops of Cologne, Mentz, and
Treves. The electors had several important privileges, and
a very peculiar position in the empire. They usually chose
the heir or near relative of the preceding emperor. As the
electoral dignity of the Palatine had been transferred to
the dukes of Bavaria, an eighth electorate was established
by the peace of Westphalia in 1648 for the Palatine, which
ceased in 1777, when the House of Bavaria became extinct.
In 1692 the electorate or dignity of elector was conferred
on the dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg, who were afterwards
styled electors of Hanover. The electors were entitled to all
royal dignities and honors except the title of majesty. In
1803 the duke of Würtemberg, the margrave of Baden, the
landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, and the archbishop of Salzburg
were made electors in the place of the electorates of Co-
logne and Treves, which were abolished. On the dissolu-
tion of the German empire in 1806, the office became obso-
lete, but the title was retained by the rulers of Hesse-Cassel
until 1866, when that state was united to Prussia.
Electoral Crown, or Cap, was a scarlet cap worn
by the electors of the German empire. It was surmounted
with a golden demicircle, which was ornamented with
pearls and a golden cross at the top.
Elec/tors, in the political system of the U. S., is the
title of the persons who are chosen by the people of the sev-
eral States to elect the President and Vice-President. Each
State chooses a number of electors equal to the whole num-
ber of members it sends to both houses of Congress. No
Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of
profit or trust under the U. S., can be appointed an elector.
The electors must be chosen on the same day in all the States
—that is, on the Tuesday next after the first Monday in No-
vember. The Constitution ordains that the electors shall
meet in their respective States on the first Wednesday in
December, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-Presi-
dent, one of whom at least shall not be an inhabitant of the
same State with themselves; and they shall make distinct
lists of all persons voted for as President, etc., and of the
number of votes for each; which lists they shall sign and
certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of government of the
U.S., directed to the president of the Senate. The electors
of all the States constitute the electoral college. A majority
of the whole number of electoral votes is necessary to elect
the President and Vice-President. In 1872 the whole num-
1504
ber of electors was 366. They meet at the capitals of their re-
spective States. The electoral votes are opened and counted
on the second Wednesday of February by both houses of
Congress, which meet in the chamber of the Representatives.
In the actual mode of performing their duty the electors do
not exercise any judgment or discretionary power in the
choice of President and Vice-President, but cast their votes
for the candidates previously nominated by their party,
usually in a national convention. If no candidate has a
majority of all the votes, the House of Representatives has
a right to choose either of the three persons having the
highest number of votes.
Electra [Gr. 'HAéktpa], a daughter of Agamemnon, king
of Mycenae, was sister of Orestes and wife of Pylades. She
was sometimes called Laodice. Her story is the subject of
dramas written by Æschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, and Ra-
cine. The most perfect of the ancient tragedies of “Elec-
tra’ is that of Sophocles; in this she stimulates her brother
Orestes (whose life she has saved from the violence of her
father’s murderers) to avenge the death of that parent.
This he accordingly does, with the aid of Apollo.
No less than five other persons of this name occur in the
Greek mythology.
Elec/trical Fishes are remarkable as being probably
the only animals having the power to give sensible shocks
of electricity. Nine or more species of very diverse cha-
racter are known to have this power. Three species of Tor-
pe/do (of the ray family), one of which is occasionally found
on our Atlantic coast, are among the best known electric
fishes. The Trichiu'rus, a sword-fish of the Indian seas,
and the Tetraſodom, a balloon-fish of the Comoro Islands,
have not been as well studied. The Gymnoſtus electricus,
a fresh-water eel of South America, sometimes twenty feet
long, has the power of overcoming men, and even horses,
by its tremendous shocks. Two species of Malapteru'rw8
(Silu'rus) of the African rivers are also electric. Faraday
observes that the Gymnotus may produce a shock equal to
that of fifteen Leyden jars, containing in all 3500 square
inches, charged to the highest degree. The force is ordi-
nary static electricity, and readily affords a spark. The
Torpedo and Gymnotus have electric organs intimately con-
nected with the nervous system, consisting of a series of
highly vascular cells or hollow prisms containing a watery *
fluid. Other electric fishes have a less definite apparatus for
this function. It is not known that this remarkable power
is of any service to these fishes, except in self-protection.
Elec/tric Clocks are of several kinds, but are nearly
all constructed on one of the two following principles: (1)
electricity is the motive-power which propels the machinery
of the clock; or (2) power is obtained from weights or
springs, and electricity is used for controlling or regulating
the motion.
In some electric clocks there is an electro-magnet, which
attracts a soft iron keeper whenever a current passes through
it. The keeper gives motion to the clock-hands by an ex-
tremely simple arrangement of levers and wheels. The
current is made and interrupted by the vibrations of a
standard clock, which may serve to give time to any num-
ber of secondary electric clocks, even if they are at a great
distance from each other.
Bain’s clock has a soft, hollow electro-magnet for a pen-
dulum, swinging between the like poles of two permanent
magnets, the current in the pendulum being broken and re-
versed in every swing, so that it is forcibly repelled from
each magnet.
Electric clocks are capable of running a long time with-
out attention, but when moved by electricity alone are not
very regular in their motion, owing to slight irregularities
in the electric currents; but when electricity is used as a
regulating power, it is capable of rendering important ser-
vices in making ordinary clocks do accurate work. For
example, an astronomical clock of great precision is con-
nected in the proper manner by telegraph wires with a great
number of common clocks, in such a way that signals are
sent at given intervals. Now, suppose that any one of the
common clocks has gained or lost a small interval of time
between two signals, the electric current is found in prac-
tice to retard or accelerate the motion just enough to correct
the work, and to impart to all the common clocks the precis-
ion of the astronomical clock. In these cases the common
clocks are often fitted with a Bain’s pendulum, but there are
other successful modes of attaining the same result.
Electric Col’umn, an instrument formed of nume-
rous alternating disks of zinc-leaf, silver-leaf, and paper, was
invented by De Luc. It is generally called a “dry battery’
or “dry voltaic pile.” The moisture of the air is an essen-
tial element in the operation of the “dry pile;” for if the
apparatus be placed in an artificially dried atmosphere, it
ceases to work, while in ordinary air it will act for years,
with a somewhat feeble current.
ELECTRA –ELECTRICITY.
lectrig/ity. 1.
The science of elec-
tricity owes its
# name to an obser-
# vation attributed
by Diogenes Laer-
: tius to Thales, one
* of the Seven Wise
Men, who about
= the year 500 B.C.
= flourished, like his
remote successor,
Franklin, as a
statesman and nat-
ural philosopher. The observation in question was, that
when amber had been rubbed it acquired the property of
attracting light bodies, and from the Greek name of amber
(#Aekirpov) comes our term Electricity.
As knowledge was extended, however, it was found that
many effects, such as those produced by magnets and by
chemical action upon certain metals, which had at first
sight no relation to this property of amber, were never-
theless due to the same force; and thus the title “elec-
tricity” in its widest sense comes to include the science
relating to all those actions depending upon the force first
Šeen in the amber, and must be divided into Statical or
frictional, Dynamic or galvanic, and Magnetic electricity.
Of these we will first consider the one first named—
STATICAL ELECTRICITY. +
2. The observation of Thales may be well regarded as
one of the fundamental facts of the science, and as ex-
tended and modified by subsequent observers may be thus
described :
If a light body A, such as a pith-ball, is attached to the
FIG. 1. end of a thread of shellac, a straw, or
other light rod, suspended in the manner
shown in the accompanying figure (Fig.
1), it will form a very sensitive means
of recognizing the existence of forces of
attraction or repulsion. If, then, a piece
of amber, rosin, sulphur, glass, or the like
is rubbed or beaten with a woollen cloth,
A silk handkerchief, piece of fur, or any
similar material, and brought near to the
pith-ball A, it will be found that this
moves towards it, giving evidence of attraction.
3. A piece of metal held in the hand and similarly
treated will fail to produce any such effect, but if sup-
ported on a rod of glass, or cut off from contact with the
body by any of the above-mentioned substances, it will act
as well as the others; and in fact we shall find that if the
proper precautions are taken, not amber alone, but all
bodies, can exhibit this power of attraction after friction.
We see, however, already, that this action is due to
something which is carried off and lost by metals and the
human body, but retained by glass, rosin, etc. We are
therefore led at once to divide substances into electric
“conductors,” or those which will transmit this influence
from one place to another, and “non-conductors,” which
refuse so to do. A wider experience, however, shows us
that this is only a question of degree, the best conductor
offering some obstacle or “resistance” to the transfer of
electric force through it, and the worst conductor allowing
some to pass; and that, moreover, every degree of trans-
mitting power can be found in some substance or other—
from silver, which is the best conductor, to dry air or other
gas, which is perhaps the worst.
4. Returning to our first experiment, if we allow the ball
A, when attracted by the rubbed or “excited” amber or
other like body, to touch it, we shall find that the condi-
tions are now reversed, and that in place of being attracted
by the “excited ” substance, it is repelled. This at once
Electricity.
seems to indicate that whatever caused the excitement of
the amber and its attractive action is self-repellent in its
nature, since a portion of it, communicated by contact to
the pith-ball, and reacting with the remainder in the am-
ber, has overcome the attraction before exhibited and sub-
stituted a repulsion. If, again, while the pith-ball is still
in this new (or, as we call it, “charged”) state, we bring
néar it the “rubber” (i. e. woollen cloth or other substance
with which the excitement was produced), the ball will be
very powerfully attracted. , Care, of course, must be taken
that the “excitement” in this as in the previous case is not
lost by contact with the hand or other conductor.
This last experiment teaches us that there is something
developed in the “rubber” opposite in character to that
found in the amber, since where the latter repels, it attracts.
Again, if we take a rod of glass and a silk handkerchief,
and rub them together, and then, while the ball is still in
the condition which causes it to fly from the amber, ap-
proach it with the excited glass, we shall find that the

ELECTRICITY.
1505
glass attracts it as did the woollen cloth, while at the same
time the silk handkerchief repels it as did the amber.
We thus learn that the cause of the opposite excitements
first noticed in the amber and cloth did not lie in the fact
of one being the rubber and the other being rubbed, but in
the nature of the substances themselves. . -
5. Similar experiments repeated with a great number of
bodies will show us that this ability to secure one or other
of these sorts of excitement is not of éssence, but of degree;
so that if all bodies were arranged in a list according to
this ability, any one when rubbed with a substànce above
it would acquire one kind, and with one below it the other
kind of excitement.
These kinds of excitement are for distinction called posi-
tive and negative, the kind produced in glass when it is
rubbed with silk being positive, and that developed in
amber when rubbed with wool, negative. These contrary
terms are only employed to distinguish, and not to describe,
the states, the negative being just as active, powerful, and
efficacious for practical purposes as the positive.
A few familiar bodies are arranged in accordance with
this view in the following table:
Most Positive.— Wood,
Catskin, . Sealing-wax,
Diamond, Rosin,
Flannel, Amber,
Ivory, Sulphur,
Rock-crystal, India-rubber,
Wool, Gutta-percha,
Glass, Prepared paper (i. e. parch-
Cotton, ment paper),
Linen cloth, Collodion,
White silk, Gun-cotton.—Most Negative.
The dry hand,
(De la Rive, “Traité d'Électricité,” tome ii., p. 549.)
6. To take an example from the foregoing table: Sup-
pose a fragment of rock-crystal to be rubbed against some
ivory; the crystal would acquire negative excitement, but
if it were rubbed with wool it would be positive. Of course
the most powerful effect would be obtained by selecting the
substances at the extremities of the table, but the question
of convenience from a mechanical point of view will here
have great weight.
Another table frequently quoted gives the following
order of many substances not included in the foregoing:
Positive.—Fur, Paper, .
Smooth glass, Silk, C.
Woollen cloth, Lac, -
Feathers, Rough glass,
Wood, Sulphur.—Wegative.
The difference between the positions of smooth and
rough glass will indicate the cause of the great deteriora-
tion which the plate, of an electrical machine suffers when
it gets scratched to any considerable extent. . Of course, all
substances in nature might be arranged in such a table,
but these brief lists will answer as a scaffolding into which
we may fit such other members as we may from time to
time wish to locate.
7. With the few simple facts which have been so far
stated we can now proceed to an intelligible explanation of
the electrical theories generally in use; which, however, are
regarded rather as convenient means of associating and
remembering the facts of the subject than as philosophical
explanation of their ultimate cause.
The theory which owes its origin to Franklin, and is
also called the single-fluid theory, assumes that all matter
in its normal condition contains an imponderable fluid
which attracts matter generally, but is self-repellent.
Friction of dissimilar substances causes this substance to
accumulate in one at the expense of another. Thus, the
surcharged body attracts unexcited bodies generally, and
repels others like itself, while the bodies more or less
emptied of electricity are likewise attracted by unexcited
matter, by reason of the reduction of repellent force be-
tween their fluid and that of the normal substances. The
repulsion of negatively excited substances is due likewise
to the Superior attraction of surrounding matter generally,
aided by certain actions called induction, to be presently
explained. , Conduction would on this theory be simply
the flow of this fluid, and its tendency to pass from a
positive to a negatively excited substance resemble the
rush of air from a compressed reservoir into a vacuum.
8. The theory of double fluid, due to Dufay, assumes
the existence of two fluids, alike in certain properties, but
opposite in what we regard as their electric actions.
These, in a proportionate mixture, exist in all substances
without affording any indication of their presence. Fric-
tion of unlike materials separates them, and each being
self-repellent, but attractive of the other, all the phe-
latter, non-conductors or insulators.
nomena of attraction and repulsion already mentioned are
equally well accounted for on this hypothesis.
9. Other theories, such as a dynamical theory, which
represents the positive and negative states as vibrations
of an opposite character, have also been proposed, but
these, while deficient in that fulness and precision which
can entitle them to confidence, are far less effective than
the old ones as mnemonic aids, and have therefore, we
think, deservedly failed to replace the former in the lan-
guage of science or in works of reference and general
treatises on this subject.
As regards the former (or fluid) theories, no facts now
known to science are fatal to either of them ; and though
the general tendency of discovery in cognate subjects leads
us to feel that the true theory is something else than either
of these, we do not believe that this “true” theory has been
as yet developed.
Minutely to discuss the merits of the two theories would
be here out of place; suffice it to say that either will serve,
and that the experiments regarded at one time as fatal to
the first have been proved not to be so, and that it is rather
gaining than losing ground at the present day.
. As, however, the double-fluid theory furnishes us with
the simplest and most direct expression for the co-ordina-
tion of facts, and is to be more generally encountered in
works of reference, we shall adopt it in the present exposi-
tion as a matter of convenience.
The Double-fluid Theory.—10. According, then, to this
view, a non-excited body contains equal or equivalent
quantities of the two opposite fluids, which we may well
designate by the signs -- and —. When two such bodies
are excited by friction, some of the positive fluid goes out
of one into the other, being replaced at the instant by an
equal amount of negative fluid leaving the second. Ex-
citement therefore does not, imply a change in the total
amount of the fluids in a body, but only in the proportion
of the mixture, the interchange being invariably reciprocal,
as above stated. Thus, A being a normal or unexcited
A B C.
–4–7–4 – ++–4–4 + ––––––
+ — + — + — + + + + — + + + — — —H — -H — —
— — — — — — — — — — — —- + – + — -- + — — — —H — — —
10 + 16 –H 4 +
11 — 5 — 17 —
body, with about equal numbers of positive and negative
units, B would be the same, positively charged, in which 6
positive units had been substituted for 6 of the negative
ones; while C would represent the same in an equal neg-
ative state, having 6 negative units more than A.. To in-
troduce a single positive or negative unit without abstract-
ing a corresponding one of the opposite kind in each case,
is to be regarded as, in the nature of things, impossible.
Every transfer is an interchange.
11. Remembering the self-repellent character of each
fluid, it will be easily understood that in charged bodies
the particles of the fluid in excess, flying as far as possible
from each other, will accumulate on the surface, and espe-
cially on points and edges. -
If B and C were brought into contact, the excess of
positive fluid in B would go to C, receiving in exchange
the excess of negative from this last; and so both would be
left in the condition of A.
The amounts of the fluids which we can displace in
bodies it must, however, be remembered, are very small as
compared with the total quantities which they contain.
12. Some bodies allow the electric fluids to pass freely
from particle to particle, while others resist their transfer,
and allow them to move from one to another only when a
certain change or “polarization” (to be more fully con-
sidered under “Induction ”) has reached a high degree
of intensity.
Bodies of the first class are called conductors, and of the
This, however, is a
distinction of degree, since no known body is either a
“perfect” conductor or insulator, while every degree of
perfection in one property or the other may be found
among existing substances.
13. When the electric fluids, by reason of excessive ac-
cumulation of single kinds at certain points, acquire power
enough to force their way through a resisting material,
their passage through is always accompanied by an evolu-
tion of light and heat. This is not the result of the ming-
ling of the opposite fluids, but of the resistance offered to
their mutual approach.
Sources oF ELECTRICITY. — 14. Friction, as , we have
already seen, is the most evident source of electric action;
and in order that it should be developed by this means
with the greatest facility certain electrical machines have
been from time to time devised. We will select typical
forms of the most important classes.
95 -
1506
FLECTRICITY.
The Plate Electrical Machine.—This consists, in the first
place, of a glass disk A mounted on an axle and turned by
a handle. Against this is caused to press a “rubber” (be-
low and to the right of B), which is made of two brass
plates covered on their faces with leather sprinkled with
**; mosaic gold” (bisulphide of tin), and held against the
opposite sides of the plate by a stiff brass spring sustained
by the column under B. At F are two brass rods, armed
on their inner sides with points, which are turned towards
the surfaces of the plate rotating between them. These are
supported from the end of a metal cylinder G, resting on a
glass column, and called the prime conductor.
FIG. 2,
*
& t ''/jjº • *
|N |...}(i.
spesº". Fººlſ *E=\!
The operation of the apparatus is as follows: The glass
plate, by friction, takes positive fluid from the rubbers,
giving them negative in exchange, and passes in the direc-
tion BEF inside of a silk bag or apron. When the plate
comes between the points attached to F, it gives to them
positive fluid, receiving negative at the same time until it
has been restored nearly to a normal state. The positive
fluid thus brought to F passes into G, and is diffused gen-
erally over it. If B were allowed to remain insulated, of
course the amount of positive electricity which it could give
up would be soon exhausted; we therefore connect it by a
chain or wire with the ground, which is best done by pass-
ing the chain over a gas or water pipe. If we desire to col-
lect negative electricity, we connect the “prime conductor”
G with the ground, in place of B, and then get our supply
of negative fluid from B. -
A cylinder of glass is sometimes used in place of the
disk, but the principle and mode of action are identical in
the two cases.
The Hydro-Electrical Machine.—15. An accidental ob-
servation with a leaking boiler, followed up by Armstrong,
led to the construction of this curious machine. (Phil.
Mag., 1840, vol. xvii., pp. 370–452, etc.) It was after-
wards thoroughly investigated by Faraday (Phil. Trans.,
1843, p. 17), who showed the true source of the very
Fig. 3.
powerful effects which it develops. It
consists essentially of a steam-boiler
placed on insulated supports, and pro-
vided with a series of outlets or jets, by
which wet steam (i.e. steam carrying
particles of water) may be made to es-
cape with much friction. Fig. 3 shows
the structure of the individual jets. The
particles of water carried by the steam
play the part of the glass plate in the
ordinary machine, while the metal sur-
faces of the jets act as the rubber. The
jets and boiler thus become megatively
charged, while the water-spray is positive, and will com-
municate that electricity to a set of points presented to it.
16. The electrophorus and its development, the Holtz
machine, will be explained under “Induction,” as this action
is essentially involved in their operation; and the induc-
tion coil will be fully described after the points in galvan-
ism and electro-magnetism necessary for its explanation
have been handled.
17. Not only does actual friction tend to develop elec-
tricity, but anything resembling friction, such as the split-
ting or fracturing of crystals, or the act of solidifying in
certain instances. So likewise does a change of tempera-
ture in some crystals, such as the tourmaline. Chemical
action, as we shall presently see in connection with gal-
vanism or dynamic electricity, is another fertile source.
18. All are familiar with the existence of electrical dis-
turbances in the atmosphere, but their cause is rather a
subject of conjecture than knowledge. (De la Rive, “Elec-
tricité,” Walker's translation, vol. iii., p. 116.)
By attaching to an arrow a fine wire whose farther end
terminated in an instrument for measuring electricity,
Becquerel showed that positive tension was manifested
when the arrow was shot up, but none appeared when it
was shot in a horizontal direction.
order to keep the ball at a certain distance.
The connection which, in the opinion of many, has been
shown between the auroral displays and solar disturbances
gives a cosmical interest to this special portion of our
atmospheric excitement.
Animal electricity is noticed under “Galvanism,” far-
ther on.
APPARATUS For THE RECOGNITION AND MEASUREMENT
of ELECTRICITY.-19. The gold-leaf electroscope is one of
the simplest of these, and consists of two strips of gold-
leaf hung side by side from an insulated metallic support
within a cylinder of glass, on whose inner surface are
attached strips of tin-foil. When an excited body is
brought in contact with the metallic support, the fluid,
entering both strips of gold-leaf alike, causes them to re-
cede from each other; and lest they should be in danger of
touching and clinging to the glass, the strips of tin-foil are
placed there to discharge them and make them fall back.
20. In the modification known as Bohnenberger's elec-
troscope a single strip hangs between two plates which
form the terminals of a “dry pile” (see farther on, under
“Galvanic Batteries”), and are therefore feebly and con-
stantly charged in opposite senses. If, then, the leaf re-
ceives any charge, it will strongly incline towards the
plate of the opposite kind.
21. The electrometer of Coulomb consists of a light rod
carrying pith-balls at each end, or one ball with a counter-
weight suspended by a silk thread within a glass case. A
rod with brass balls at each end enters through the side
of the case. This being charged, attracts one of the pith-
balls, or after contact repels it, the force being measured
by the amount of twist necessary to give the thread in
This instru-
ment was much improved by Snow Harris.
22. Peltier's electrometer, shown in the figure, consists
FIG. 4. of a convenient support, etc.
carrying a light bent rod of
aluminum turning on a pivot,
and having a small compass- .
needle attached to it. The
needle gives it a delicate di-
rective force, and a charge
###iff communicated to the central
| |#
part, which is insulated, will
cause the aluminum rod to be
repelled from the heavier brass
one. The amount of dis-
placement is read directly on
the graduated circle.
23. . Thomson’s quadrant
# electrometer consists of four
--- - # metallic segments supported in
iHHH the same plane, but not in con-
iſſiſ |W. tact. #. are connected ai.
ternately with the two pro-
jecting rods and balls at the
right. Over these hangs a
of aluminum by a fine wire from the inside of a
eyden jar feebly charged. If, now, one pair of sectors.
are charged, while the others are connected with the earth,
the strip will move towards them if the charge is opposite
to that of the
jar; or away
from the m
and over the
others if the
charge is the
same in kind
as that of the
º jar. To give
| directive force
| W a small mag-
| net is at-
tached with
the aluminum
strip, and for
measurement
a minute mir-
ror (a) is also
f a ste n e d
above it, and
a r a y of
light reflect-
|||||
-->
<= -º-Iſº-: ed by this
Ét ſtill hi º upon a scale.
####|s|| || ## =E, gº * -
*=#|.*- º ###Hºiſi @ A much
ãºjš====Fºllº ." º
iºniiſºmº more delicate
3# - § and elaborate
#º º
Riº ; ; instrument is
| described by
Sir W. Thomson in the “British Association Reports” for
1867, part i., p. 489.
























ELECTRICITY.
1507
INDUCTION.—24. Next in importance to the simple yet
fundamental facts of attraction and repulsion between
electrically excited bodies, or, in the words of theory,
between bodies containing excess of the positive or neg-
ative fluids, we come to the action of induction.
Induction is the general term used to designate the
mutual or reciprocal action of the electric fluids in adjacent
but electrically separated bodies, and is sometimes described
as “action at a distance” or “excitement by influence.”
All the effects produced by this means are called inductive.
This force is not like that of gravity, unaffected by the
interposed material, but acts with different amounts of
energy through different substances. This difference in the
power of transmitting this influence is designated as
specific inductive capacity; and by Faraday and Harris
the following values have been assigned to different sub-
stances:
Air .. 1.00 Wax 1.86
Spermaceti....................... 1.45 Glass......................... . . . . . . 1.90
Resin .............................. 1.76 Shellac............................. 2.00
Pitch 1.80 Sulphur........................... 2.24
The higher the inductive capacity of a substance, the
greater will be the action which it transmits.
25. Passing now to a study of the action of induction,
we will at once take an illustration, as an example will be
worth more than any amount of general definition in such
a case. Let A and B be metal spheres suspended by silk
threads or sustained by FIG. 6.
any other non-conduct-
ing supports, and let A
be positively charged
(i.e. have some of its
normal negative elec-
tricity replaced by posi-
tive). Let B, however,
A B
+++\/~t-
+++)| – + —
be in its normal state, or + –H + +
charged with equal quan- -
tities of both fluids. We know that the positive fluid in A
will strongly attract the negative in B, and as strongly repel
its positive; hence, we may well figure B as having all its
negative on its left, and all its positive on its right side.
This representation must not carry us too far, however, and
make us think that these exact locations have any special
meaning; rather we should regard the positive fluid as put
in the condition of trying to escape, and the negative as so
contracted or drawn together as to allow room for more.
The mode of representation used is, however, convenient
for expression.
. Let us now suppose that for a moment B is put in con-
nection with the earth, a practically infinite reservoir of both
electricities. Evidently, the repelled positive fluid will es-
cape, and its place will be supplied by negative, and the body
B will be now negatively charged. But will its condition
be exactly that of a single body with a negative charge 2
The negative fluid added to B was brought there solely by
the mastering attraction in A, and if it had had any power
of repulsion under that influence, it could not have been
forced against its nature to enter with the negative fluid
already in B. It is simply because it has been seized, cap-
tured, and bound by the positive A that it is now in B, and
therefore cannot, while under this influence, exert its
natural powers like a free agent. If, however, A is re-
moved, then B will become in all respects a body negatively
charged, and capable of giving out its excess of negative
fluid, and influencing other bodies in its turn. The nega-
tive fluid in it, however, while A is present, is very appro-
priately called “bound electricity.”
26. The subject of induction owes its thorough exposi-
tion to Faraday, according to whose view it is an action
propagated or conveyed through the substance separating
the bodies under consideration by successive polarization
or forcible rearrangement of its particles. Thus, in the
case just given the attractive and repellent influence of the
fluid in A is transmitted to B by a successive change in the
particles of the intervening air. This change might be
considered as identical in character with that already
described in B before it was connected with the ground,
though it is usual to associate it with a change of position
or polarization in the material particles. Thus, if the little
circles in Figs. 7 and 8 represent the atoms of air, and
FIG. 7.
^@ G (2) G (D_*
() (Z) () (D
Q (D e (2 e
their black halves the negative fluid, we may imagine them
when between two normal bodies, as in Fig. 7, to have
these negative sides turned in all directions. If, however,
as in Fig. 8, A is positively charged, then in the adjacent
particles the negative sides or negative fluids will be turned
towards A by reason of their attraction for the positive
fluid in it, and, as a consequence, their positive sides will
FIG. 8.
* D D G) O (D
(D (D
face the other way. The positive fluid in these will then
exert a similar influence upon the next row of particles,
and so on. This change, it should be remembered, may be
regarded either as a rotation of the particles, with fixed
positions for their fluids, which is the stricter idea of
polarity, or as a shifting of the fluids in the particles, ex-
actly as in the case of B in Fig. 6.
27. When this action has reached a certain intensity, a
transfer of the fluids occurs bodily from one particle to
another, and this is conduction; the difference between
good and bad conductors consisting simply in this, that in
the former but little inductive excitement is needed to bring
about the transfer, while in the latter this must reach a
high degree of intensity, and a large amount of the oppo-
site fluids must be brought to the adjacent surfaces of the
particles before this transfer or discharge can take place.
28. Induction plays an important part in almost every
action connected with electricity, and, simple as it is in
principle, develops some complex results. We will briefly
consider a few of the more important cases, beginning with
the simplest.
Induction concerned in Simple Illustrations of Attraction
and Repulsion.—When an excited body is brought near to
a neutral one, the unlike fluid of the latter is drawn near,
and its like fluid repelled, and even expelled if any outlet
is available; and thus the effectiveness of the attractive
force is increased. Moreover, the “induced” excitement
of the second body will react upon the “mixed” fluids
which still exist, as we have before mentioned, in even the
most powerfully charged object, and by separating them in
the same manner as its own were before separated will yet
further intensify the action.
29. It is in consequence of this reaction or reinforcement
of action that the attractive forces in excited bodies do not
always vary, like those of gravitation, light, heat, etc., in-
versely as the squares of the distances, but according to
laws which depend upon the conditions by which this rein-
forcement or the reverse action is controlled. Thus, as has
been shown by Snow Harris, if a small surface which is
maintained at a constant degree of charge is caused to act
with another which is insulated, so that its repelled elec-
tricity cannot escape, the force of attraction will vary in-
versely as the square roots of the distances. (Phil. Trans.,
1834, part ii., p. 213.) If, however, the charge of the first
surface could be kept constant, while the other was allowed
to give up its repelled fluid and take the opposite, but not to
cause a rise of charge by reaction in the first, the attrac-
tion would vary inversely with the squares of the distances.
Again, if the reaction, as well as action, were allowed full
play, the force would vary inversely with the cube of the
distance. These last points have been developed, and Har-
ris's results in the same connection corrected, by Sir Wil-
liam Thomson. (See “Phil. Mag.,” 1854, vol. viii., p. 42.)
The same laws hold good with reference to repulsion,
although much greater difficulties are experienced in mak-
ing the measurements. If an excited ball were placed in
the centre of a hollow sphere, its inductive force would be
equally distributed on all sides, and would decrease out-
ward as the square of the distance increased; but if the
ball be made to approach one side of the globe, almost the
entire inductive force will be concentrated on that point, to
the neglect of the other and more distant parts.
As we have already noticed, a large part of the apparent
repulsion exhibited by excited bodies is due to the attrac-
tion of surrounding objects excited by induction. This is
welf shown by the following familiar experiment: To an
ordinary electrical machine is attached a doll's head cov-
ered with long hair; on working the machine the individ-
ual hairs stand out in every direction by their mutual
repulsion. If now the hand or any other conductor con-
nected with the ground is brought near, all the hairs in its
vicinity turn towards it, and even crowd upon each other
to approach it. The same actions of induction, and conse-
quent exhibitions of attraction and repulsion, are illus-
trated in the numerous electrical toys with which most col-
lections of apparatus are profusely furnished, such as the
chime of bells, the sportsman and birds, dancing figures,
dancing pith-balls, etc. - *
The Electrophorus.-30. One of the most important in-



1508
ELECTRICITY.
struments in which induction is largely involved is the elec-
FIG, 9.
trophorus. This consists of a
metal dish filled with rosin or
shellac, or similar non-conductor
easily excited, and also of a me-
tallic plate smaller than the dish
and provided with an insulating
handle. To use this apparatus,
we first beat the shellac with as
cat skin or other appropriate rub-
ber, and then, setting the plate \
on the surface of the shellac,
touch it with the finger. After -...sº
this, if the plate is lifted up by its insulated handle, it will
be found to have acquired a positive charge.
31. The theory of its operation is as follows: The fric-
tion with the fur excites in the shellac negative electricity.
When the metal plate rests upon it the repulsion existing
between the negative electricities causes that of the brass
plate to be repelled, and to escape in part when the plate
is touched with the finger, its place being supplied by an
equal amount of positive entering from the hand at the same
time. This, however, as long as the plate is near the shellac,
is “bound,” exactly as was the case in the first instance of
induction, which we illustrated with the bodies A and B in
Fig. 6. But when we raise the plate by its handle, the re-
straining force is escaped as the plate recedes from the shel-
lae, and the lately “bound” fluid exhibits its properties
as free positive electricity.
As often as ye please we can discharge the movable
plate, and by merely placing it on the shellac and touching
it can restore its charge; for, taking nothing from the
shellac, it in no way exhausts its charge. The plate is of
course attracted by the shellac, and the force expended in
pulling it away is the full mechanical equivalent of the
electric action developed. -
32. A pretty application of the electrophorus is found in
the many effective and artistic contrivances for lighting
gas by its means which have been devised by Mr. Robert
E. Cornelius of Philadelphia; and a development of the
same principle, which is one of the most striking discov-
eries in connection with this subject, is exhibited in the
Holtz machine, which may be well defined as a continuous
electrophorus.
A convenient form of this machine is that shown in the
figure, which represents a modification devised and con-
FIG. 10.
; il,
4
i; # ji |
|
*N
º i
- §
º
†
i
ºf; £ºt
7.
{ w
4Sº
Sºm.
;|| | i
—--~ : ſºft ill
% - -
=#ºmmiſſiſſinſ;
structed by Mr. E. S. Ritchie of Boston. In this a large
vertical plate of glass serves as the support for the various
parts of the machine. From its edges are sustained fºur
glass sectors, and between these and the plate is a glass
disk capable of rapid rotation, and driven by the pulley
seen at the left. Between this disk and the large plate,
moreover, are four combs, corresponding to the sectors, and
connected with the discharging posts by wires piercing the
plate. On one edge of each sector is a narrow strip of var-
nished paper with a projecting point.
33. The action of the machine is briefly as follows: We
set the disk in rotation, and at the same time hold an ex-
cited body, such as the plate of an electrophorus, a piece
of charged vulcanite, or the like, against one of the paper
slips. This gives the paper a charge—let us say, of posi-
tive electricity; this, acting upon the disk, repels the posi-
tive electricity from the corresponding part of its farther
surface into the metallic combs which are there located. If
the disk stood still, this would happen, once for all, at a
single point; but as the disk rotates, every point is in suc-
cession brought under the same influence. The portions
of the plate passing away from this place as it rotates are
therefore negatively charged, having lost some of their
positive, and therefore having acquired a corresponding
amount of negative fluid. As soon, however, as they pass
the farther edge of the first sector, or that one on whose
edge was the paper we began with, they experience the fol-
lowing action with the point attached to the paper of the
next sector: Being negatively charged, they tend to repel
negative electricity, and thus this negative charge, being
on the farther side of the disk, repels some negative from
the nearer side, and drives it into the paper strip, so mak-
ing it negative. Thus, while the first paper was positive, the
second will be negative; hence it will tend to drive out of
the rotating disk into the second comb exactly that negative
fluid which had been drawn from the first comb; and so,
the first comb being made positive, this will be negative.
Exactly the same action will be observed in the case of
the other sectors, which will be successively positive and
negative, and each will feed the paper strip of its suc-
cessor, so that the action being once started will continue
indefinitely without further assistance. Here, however, as
in the case of the electrophorus, the reacting bodies attract,
and the force required to maintain the motion in opposition
to this is an exact expression of the mechanical equivalent
of the electric force developed; not all of which, however,
is necessarily available. -
There are many curious reactions involved in this ma-
chine, and many improvements or modifications in its
structure, which we cannot even enumerate here, but will
refer the reader to the following papers, in which he will
find the subjects extensively discussed: “Cosmos,” 1865,
p. 689; “Journal of the Franklin Institute,” vol. lii., pp.
281–420; vol. liii., pp. 36, 119, 121, 253, 255,344; vol. lvii.,
p. 335; vol. lviii., p. 32; vol. lx., pp. 58, 117. Also to Pog-
gendorff’s “Annalem,” vol. cxxv., p. 469; vol. cxxvi., p.
157; vol. cxxvii., pp. 177 and 320; vol. cxxx..., pp. 287 and
518; vol. cxxxi., pp. 215 and 495; Vol. cxxxv., p. 120;
vol. cxl., pp. 168, 276, and 560; vol. cxliii., p. 285; vol.
cxlv., pp. 1 and 333; vol. cxlvi., p. 288. Also Ganot,
“Traité de Physique,” edition of 1870.
34. The next application of induction is found in the
Leyden jar. This consists of a glass jar coated inside and
out to within a few inches of its edge with tin-foil, and
FIG. 11 having a wooden cover, through which passes a
* *** metallic rod terminating above in a knob or ball,
w and below being in connection with the inner lining
of tin-foil. Suppose this jar to stand on a table
and within a short distance of an electric machine,
so that a spark might go to its knob. If a spark
of positive electricity enter, it will diffuse itself over
the inner surface of the glass by aid of the conduct-
| ing power of the tin-foil, and by induction it will
ºf draw into the outer coating and surface of the glass
" a nearly equal quantity of negative fluid. The mu-
tual attraction of these, acting through the glass, will cause
each to bind the other to a great extent, and thus the orig-
inal positive charge, in place of having a tendency to escape
to surrounding objects, is largely confined by this attractive
action to the inner surface of the glass.
... In acting through the glass a certain resistance is en-
countered, and thus the charge drawn to the outside must
be always less than that drawing it; and again, this ex-
terior charge will lose some of its power in transmission.
If, for example, this difference amounts in all to one-tenth,
then evidently nine-tenths of the interior charge will be
bound, and only one-tenth will be free. The tendency to
escape and resistance to the entrance of additional fluid
depends only on the free electricity; therefore in such a
case ten times as much electricity can be stored in a given
space as if no such action were made available.
The form of a jar is of course in no way essential for the
principle here stated, and in fact plates of non-conductors
coated with tin-foil are largely used when we want to store
electricity in a small space for any purpose.
35. The same principle of induction is similarly involved
in the case of that attachment to an electroscope known as
a condenser. In this case the upper cap of the instrument
carries a varnished metallic plate, on which can be placed
another plate of equal size having a glass handle. The
plates being superposed, if a feeble source of electricity is
connected, with the lower one, and the upper one is con-
nected with the ground by being touched with the finger, a
charge of “bound” electricity will” accumulate, just as in
the case of the Ileyden jar above described. On removing
the upper plate this charge will be set free, and will produce
its effect upon the indicating parts of the instrument.
* &






















ELECTRICITY.
1509
Sir William Thomson has devised a number of beautiful
applications of induction as a means of developing elec-
trical charge, such as a series of drops of water falling
within a cylinder, a flame similarly placed, copper filings
running from one vessel to another, and various more com-
plex instruments. (See “Proc. Roy. Soc.,” June 20, 1867;
“Phil. Mag.,” Jan., 1868.)
TRANSFER OF ELECTRICITY.-36. There are three meth-
ods by which electricity may pass from place to place—
namely, Conduction, Convection, and Discharge.
Conduction has already been discussed to some extent
(see 333 and 27); and in addition we may say that it might
be defined as the passage of electricity between particles
sensibly in contact.
When the conducting substance is of such a nature and
amount as to carry the electric force without much resist-
ance, no visible effect is produced; but if this is not the
case, striking phenomena of heat and light may be ex-
hibited. Thus, if the united charge of several Leyden jars
is caused to traverse a strip of gold-leaf enclosed between
slips of glass, the gold will be fused into the glass, causing
a purple stain, and a flash of light will at the same moment
be seen. Fine wires similarly treated may be fused, and
the effects of lightning on bell-wires and other small con-
ductors illustrate the same thing.
Different substances possess this property of conduction
in the most various degree, but this action will be more
fully discussed under “Galvanism,” or dynamical elec-
tricity, where the means for its accurate measurement will
be described.
37. The velocity with which an intense charge of elec-
tricity travels in a good conductor under certain conditions
was shown by Wheatstone (Phil. Trans., 1834, p. 589) to
be 288,000 miles in a second. His method, which was a
very beautiful one and most fruitful in applications, con-
sisted in viewing in a rapidly rotating mirror the images
of three sparks taken at the ends and in the centre of a
long line. The displacement of any image as compared
with the others gave a means of finding the time of its
occurrence when the velocity of the mirror was known.
It was shown by Faraday that the velocity of conduction
varied with the intensity of the charge and with the nature
of the conductor.
38. Convection is the transfer of electricity from one
body to another by moving particles of an interposed
fluid. Thus, if a charged conductor stands exposed in
the air, particles of that fluid touch it, are charged, are
repelled, and travel off to distant objects, to which they
give up their charge, and then are ready to return for
more. This action can be well illustrated by holding a
candle near a point projecting from an electrical machine.
The flame will be almost blown out by the current of
charged particles flying away.
39. Discharge, which may be of various kinds, consists
in general of the simultaneous transfer of the electricity
developed by induction along a line of resisting particles
between two conductors, and is always accompanied by
some development of light and heat. The passage of the
fluids may be variously resisted, and thus the character of
the discharge be modified to any extent; but we may con-
veniently divide discharges into two kinds—the flash,
spark, or disruptive discharge, and the flame, or diffused
discharge. -
40. The spark discharge is illustrated in its simpler form
by the flash which passes from the prime conductor of an
electrical machine to the hand or any other conductor
brought suddenly near to it. It then appears, through
persistence of vision, as a blue, irregular line. . When a
greater amount of electricity is accumulated, as in the
Leyden jar, the spark or flash looks whiter. By modifica-
tions of Wheatstone's revolving mirror and other methods
its character, duration, and composition have been studied
by Feddersen (Pogg. Ann., vol. ciii., p. 69) and Prof. O. N.
Rood. The last-named physicist, who has carried out his
researches in a most complete manner, has proved that the
discharge of a jar charged by an induction coil consists of
a series of acts whose total duration varies with the area.
of coated surface, the distance of the electrodes, etc., but
that the first and brightest portion does not last, with a jar
having a surface of 114.4 square inches, more than the 175-
billionth of a second. Prof. Rood has also proved that
with a jar having a surface of 11 square inches, the dura-
tion was only 40-billionths of a second. The successive dis-
charges or other steps involved in this act have been made
the subject of extended investigations by Prof. Rood, pub-
Iished with the above in the “Amer. Jour. of Science” for
1872, vol. iv., pp. 249 and 371; 1869, vol. xlviii., p. 153;
also 1871, vol. ii., p. 160, and 1872, vol. iv., p. 249.
41. The spark is in all cases found to carry away with it
minute particles of the bodies between which it leaps, which
are intensely heated by the action; and it has thus become
a very useful means for the spectroscopic study of certain
substances. (See Huggins, “Phil. Trans.,” 1864, part ii.,
p. 139.) By taking the "spark between a platinum wire
and the surface of a solution, metallic elements present in
the solution may in many cases be recognized by the aid
of the spectroscope. -
With powerful sources of electricity, such as the Holtz
machine or the induction coil, which will be subsequently
described, many beautiful illustrations of spark discharge
may be exhibited. Thus, if the terminals of a large coil
are brought near the extremities of a long sheet of metallic
paper, such as is often used for enveloping tea and coffee,
and whose surface has been broken by rumpling, at each
discharge brilliant flashes of light will stream across in
lightning-like paths. Again, narrow strips of tin-foil hav-
ing been attached in a convoluted but continuous line to a
plate of glass, a knife is drawn across them at points cor-
responding to the outlines of some design, such as a bird
or flower. When this is made the line of a series of dis-
charges, the design appears pricked out in stars of light.
42. Besides the influence on the duration of the spark
exerted by the size of the charged surface, as shown by
Rood, an effect is produced by the nature of the transmit-
ting material. Thus, the spark from a Leyden jar carried
directly to points immersed in loose gunpowder will scatter
the powder without igniting it; but if part of the circuit
consists of a wet string or like imperfect conductor, the
spark will pass more slowly, and will ignite the powder.
43. The most magnificent. display of the disruptive dis-
charge is, however, furnished in the lightning. Here
ſlashes occur as much as three miles in length. The failure
of some attempts to measure their duration has occasioned
a general impression that they are exceedingly brief.
Faraday, however, in 1857 noticed that some flashes seemed
to him fully as long in duration as one second, and Prof.
O. N. Rood, with a very efficient form of apparatus, has
extensively investigated the subject, with the following
result: He finds that lightning-flashes generally consist
of several acts, varying individually in duration from less
than one one-thousandth of a second to more than one-
twentieth of a second; even these extreme varieties being
found at times in a single flash, whose total duration may
be fully one second.” The cause of this great duration is
probably to be found in the extent and character of the
electric distribution in the cloud. |
The brush and glow discharges are simply aggregations
of numerous and very minute sparks. The glow sometimes
seen on the spars of vessels, and called Saint Elmo's fire,
is of this character.f
44. While air at its normal density and temperature
offers so great a resistance to the passage of electricity, it
is found that when highly rarefied its power of transmis-
sion is greatly increased, and that under these conditions
FIG. 12 the discharge passes in a diffused and
*S." flame-like form. To exhibit the cha-
Q} (i. racteristics of this discharge in va-
iſ \t rious gases and at various degrees of
M. - rarefaction, we employ glass vessels,
º either of an egg shape or globular
form, provided with metallic caps se-
curely cemented to their ends, and
sliding rods, stopcocks, etc. These
may be exhausted with the air-pump,
and the flashes of a coil being passed
through, the appearances of the dis-
charge may be studied. Under these
conditions we find that the color of
the discharge varies in different parts,
being usually blue near the negative
pole, and pinkish near the positive,
and variously tinted, moreover, ac-
cording to the degree of the rarefac-
tion and the nature of the gas. Thus,
| under certain states of rarefaction,
nitrogen gas gives a light of a pink-
purple, carbonic acid of a green, hy-
drogen of a violet, and oxygen of a
peach-blossom tint.
45. Moreover, at a certain degree
of exhaustion the discharge is seen
to be crossed by dark layers or strata,
as shown in Fig. 12. These have
been elaborately studied by De la
| Rive, who considers them to be due
to variations in density produced in
the rarefied gas by the electric force
prior to the actual passage of the
discharge. (Ann. de Chem. et de Phys, Aug., 1866, vol. viii.,
* “American Journal of Science,” 1873, Vol. V: p.168. & ſº º
+ “Spectrum of Glow,” “Am. Jour. of Science,” 1867, vol. xliii.,
. 394.
HºN N
§ N w
º ºš: º, .
ºšS-2.
$Eº
|: ; |
º tº
ºše.
º
"ºº-ºº:
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tº intº
-: *
l l ===< ||
Ü Fr. Tºyº
p











1510
‘ELECTRICITY.
p. 437.) Plucker found that these strata, and also the
streams and glows of the discharge, obeyed magnetic influ-
ences in a remarkable way. (Phil. Mag., 1858, p. 119.)
These discharges were also studied by Gassiot, and pro-
duced by a galvanic battery, as well as by other forms of
electrical generators. (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1859, p. 36.)
46. Geissler, a very skilful glassblower in Bonn, was
employed by Plucker FIG. 13 *
to make some perma- tº dº. Sº º
nently exhausted tubes
for such experiments,
and, enlarging on the *
idea, has developed one
of the most beautiful
illustrations in the
who le range of the
subject. These instru-
ments, called “Geissler
tubes,” are of an infi-
nite variety in pattern,
containing different
gases variously rare-
fied, thereby giving （Gez
every imaginable tint. |
They are also often
m a de of fluorescent
glass, or are surrounded
with glassjackets (as in
Fig. 13), which are
filled with fluorescent
solutions, thereby yet
further increasing the
brightness and beauty
of their appearance.
DYNAMIC ELECTRIC. -
ITY, OR GALVANISM.– 9/
47. To the accidental *—
observation that a frog’s leg made a convulsive movement
when brought in contact with two dissimilar metals, this
subject owes its introduction into the world of science, and
from Galvani, professor of physics at Padua, by whom the
observation was made and followed up, it has derived its
name. Without following the history of the steps by which
the true nature of the action observed by Galvani, and soon
afterwards much further developed by Volta, has been elu-
cidated, we will pass at once to a consideration of this as a
condition, of those electric fluids which we have already
assumed as the cause of electric phenomena in general.
48. If a plate of zinc, or other metal having a strong
affinity for oxygen, is immersed in some such liquid as
water, which contains oxygen and is capable of being
decomposed, the metal will, by reason of its superior chem-
ical attraction, take a certain portion of oxygen to itself,
so liberating a corresponding amount of hydrogen. In
this act of separation, however, not only are the material
particles of the oxygen and hydrogen drawn asunder, but
the electric fluids also are divided, the negative going with
the oxygen to the zinc, and the positive with the hydrogen
being repelled.
49. We may make a material illustration of this by com-
paring the water to a mixed mass of spun glass and silk
fibres. If the silk could be pulled out at one side and the
glass threads at the other, we should evidently have the
silk powerfully excited negatively by the friction involved
in this act of separation, and the glass as highly charged
with positive, fluid. Returning to our actual case of the
water, the force which was able to separate the electricities
would evidently be able to keep them apart, but yet there
would be a strong tendency towards a return and recom-
bination, and this would render it more and more difficult
for the zinc to decompose successive portions of the water,
since it would be obliged to force the hydrogen and positive
fluid into a surrounding region, getting more and more
highly charged with this same fluid. A point would there-
fore soon be reached where the power of the zinc to decom-
pose more water would be annulled by the tendency of the
positively charged and liberated hydrogen to return into
combination.
Under these conditions, suppose that some good con-
ductor which is entirely without chemical action on the
solution is introduced in some other part of the vessel, and
connected by a wire with the zinc. "It will at once share
with the zinc its negative charge, and so become as attrac-
tive to the hydrogen and positive fluid as the zinc, but will
be without any of that chemical force which acted as a re-
pellent influence in the case of the zinc and hydrogen.
The freed hydrogen will therefore run to this conducting
plate with its negative fluid, discharge itself, and relieve
the tension in the liquid, so that the action of the zinc upon
the water may go on freely again. The power of separat-
ing the electricities of the water possessed by the zinc or
2.
Fl
|
!
-
==
I
*-
|
other active metal constitutes what is called the “electro-
motive force” of the system. This evidently is due to the
difference between the attractive energies of the zinc and
the hydrogen of the water for the oxygen; they pull against
each other, and the resulting available force is simply their
difference. To this we can even give a numerical expression
in any case; thus, the total mechanical equivalent of zinc
being 42.575 units per atom, and that of hydrogen being
33.808, the available energy, or “electro-motive force,”
would be 8.767, or, in other words, about one-fifth of the
total amount residing in the metal consumed. The electro-
motive force would of course vary with the nature of the
liquid and active element used, depending upon the relation
of their attractive forces. h
50. The above considerations will show us at the outset
what is the relation between the conditions of the present
subject and of that before discussed. We have here the
fluids separated by a relatively feeble power of dissociation,
but in quantities which will be very great if the resistance
opposed to their reunion is slight. To give a physical
illustration, we may regard this action of the metal on the
liquid with reference to either of the electric fluids as a
power of raising its level. Thus, suppose that a sieve
placed vertically in a trough of water had the power of
pushing the water towards one end, and so raising the level
a very little on one side. When the water had reached the
full height at which the power of the sieve would maintain
FIG. 14.
it, all further action would cease; but if we
now made a communication by which the
= water from the higher side could run.around
to the lower, then the sieve would continue
to keep up the head, and a constant current
would result. Again, if several sieves were
- ==l placed in series, then each in turn starting
with the water which had been raised by its predecessor,
and raising it higher, the level at the end of the tank would
be as much higher as the sieves were more numerous.
This is not, of course, intended to be a statement of fact
about sieves and water, but to be a purely imaginary illus-
tration, which may aid us in remembering the general fact
that the nature of the action of the elements in a galvanic
couple on the electric fluids is to accumulate, each one
slightly on opposite sides; in consequence of which they
act in all respects as would material liquids in whose level
a similar slight change had been effected. It will, in fact,
be found to be of the greatest convenience to acquire the
habit of thinking of the electricities developed in galvanic
actions as fluids with certain “levels,” which give the cor-
responding tendencies to flow.
51. Carrying this view back into our former subject, we
would regard the fluids in charged bodies as having a
great “head” or high level. It will be evident on this
view that a sufficient number of galvanic elements in
series (as illustrated above by the succession of sieves)
should give us a “head’ equal to that of a statically
charged body. In fact, Gassiot, with a battery of 3400
pairs of zinc and copper plates in distilled water, produced
all the effects of attraction, repulsion, discharge, etc. which
are obtained from bodies excited by friction (Phil. Th'ams.,
1844, p. 39), and the present writer, with a series of 15,000
such cells, made by Mr. Charles T. Chester of New York,
has obtained similar results in a yet more striking manner.
Indeed, with the delicate instruments now at command We
can readily exhibit the actions of attraction and repulsion
with the electricity set free by a single galvanic couple of
the simplest description, thus proving the identity in nature
of the two actions of frictional and chemical “excitement.”
52. Such being a general view of the condition of gal-
vanic electricity, we will next pass to the methods used for
its development. We have above spoken only of a metal
(say zinc) and water as the active agents; but in fact there
would be practical difficulties in using these alone, among
which we will first consider only the fact that the oxide of
the metal would soon cover its surface and cut off all ae-
tion. For this reason, as well as others, we introduce with
the water, some acid capable of dissolving the metallic
oxide, but not able to attack the other conductor. . This
introduces another element. The solution of the oxide in .
the acid furnishes another source of force, and our numer-
ical relation of energies thus takes a new shape, which is
well expressed by Rankine as follows:
Total “equivalent” due to oxidation of zinc and solution ...
in sulphuric acid and Water............................................ 300
Total “equivalent” consumed in liberating hydrogen from
the dilute acid......................................................--------- 2106
Total “equivalent” of force developed...................... 900
These numbers, expressing “British thermal units,” we can
easily reduce at once to a practical expression, and say that
the total force which can be developed by a pound of zinc
in such a combination would be 900 × 722 = 694,800 foot-
pounds, or about one-sixteenth of that developed by burn-

ELECTRICITY.
ing a pound of pure coal or carbon. We of course have
neglected all causes of loss in both cases, but this is the
highest result possible with all causes of loss excluded.
53. There are evidently two directions in which this
result can be improved: 1st. By increasing the relative
attraction between the active element and the liquid which
is the first cause of the action; 2d. By reducing the attrac-
tion to be overcome in separating the expelled element
from the liquid.
For the first object we may use in place of zinc some
more chemically active body, such as magnesium or sodium,
or substitute some other fluid for water. But in practice
it has been found that no substance which by reason of its
cost or other considerations is available will give us better
results than zinc and water acidulated with sulphuric acid.
With reference to the second point, however, much may
be done. Thus, if sulphate of copper were mixed with the
acidulated water, that compound would as a final result be
decomposed, its copper being deposited on the inactive ele-
ment as a substitute for the hydrogen. Now, the expul-
sion of copper from this compound does not require as
much force as does the liberation of hydrogen from water,
and thus we get an obvious increase of effect, as follows:
Total equivalent of combination of zinc with oxygen, sül-
phuric acid, and water.................................................... 06
Total equivalent consumed in expelling copper from solu-
tion of sulphate * .e. e. n w w w e s e s e e s sº see e º e s t e º e s s 1587
Total equivalent of force developed.......................... ... 1419
1419 × 722 = 1,095,468 foot-pounds per pound of zinc ;
which is, however, less than one-tenth of the total force
developed by the combustion of a pound of pure coal or
carbon. * * - -
54. The decomposition of mitric and chromic acids re-
quires still less force than does that of sulphate of copper,
and thus by substituting these still better results may be
obtained; but we must not forget that the upper limit, or
highest attainment of theoretical perfection, would be to gain
the whole 3006 units due to the combination and solution
of the zinc, which would, after all, amount to but one-fourth
the total energy developed by a pound of pure coal.
Passing from these general considerations to questions
of detail, we notice, in the first place, that if in the sim-
plest form of galvanic apparatus we employ a plate of
ordinary zinc and one of copper immersed in a vessel of
diluted sulphuric acid, as was at first done, several diffi-
culties are encountered.
55. In the first place, impurities, in the shape of specks
of iron, cadmium, etc., scattered through the zinc, impair
the action by establishing “local circuits,” in which the
impurity acts as the second element, and sends a part of
the current back to the zinc without traversing the con-
necting conductor, so causing it to elude our use. This
difficulty is remedied by coating the zine with mercury.
This substance dissolves a portion of the zinc and forms a
sort of metallic varnish, which is of course perfectly homo-
geneous and covers up all irregularities. The mercury
does not dissolve in the acid, but yields the zinc, itself
dissolving a fresh supply as fast as it is required.
56. Secondly, the hydrogen going to the copper plate
collects on it in a layer of bubbles, by which the contact
with the liquid is diminished, and which, moreover, by
reason of its strong negative condition, tends to combine
with oxygen and reverse the battery action. (See “Gas
Battery,” farther on.) To remedy this difficulty, Smee
proposed the use of platinum plates covered with fine par-
ticles of platinum, obtained by electric decomposition (see
“Electrolysis,” farther on), which “shed” the hydrogen
bubbles. He also used silver plates coated with platinum,
or plates of lead first silvered and then coated with pla-
tinum. The silver plates in time become brittle, and the
others lose their coating; and this has led to the adoption
of plates of compact carbon, made from the graphitic
deposit found in coal-gas retorts. These are also platinized
by painting them with a solution of platinic chloride, and
then immersing them in their own solutions, with the cir-
cuit closed for a few minutes. -
57. The present writer has used with good effect, where
a continuous, uninterrupted action for a limited time was
required, and where the first cost of the apparatus was
important, a combination of zinc and sheet-iron plates in
acidulated water. A battery of this sort, having a zinc
surface of about 240 square feet, was used on several occa-
sions for twelve hours at a time, with a very satisfactory
result.
58. The employment of sulphate of copper was first in-
troduced by Prof. Daniell, and in order to prevent the
copper from depositing on the zinc, and thus establishing
local circuits which would soon have interfered with the
useful action of the battery, he divided the vessel into two
parts by a porous partition made of parchment, bladder,
leather, or porous earthénware. In one part was placed:
1511
the zinc surrounded by acidulated water, and in the other
a copper plate immersed in solution of sulphate of copper.
We may here explain that it is not supposed, when a
molecule of water is decomposed by the action of the zinc,
that its hydrogen atom travels bodily across to the other
plate, but that it simply displaces the hydrogen in the next
molecule of water, and this in turn acts on the next, and
so on. Thus, in the Daniell battery the liberated hydrogen
travels by such successive displacements through the acid-
ulated water, with which the porous partition also is
soaked ; and when the copper solution is reached, the dis-
placement of a copper atom is substituted for that of
hydrogen, the hydrogen atom taking at its entrance oxygen
from a molecule of oxide of copper, and so setting free the
copper atom, which is thenceforth “exchanged ” on, until
the last in the series is reached, when a particle of the
metal is thrown down on the copper plate.
59. This form of battery has many advantages, but is
open to two serious objections: the porous cell or other
partition, while allowing the transfer of elements to take
place through it, does not do so without offering a con-
siderable resistance; and again, the copper is liable to de-
posit in its metallic state in the porous part, so closing it,
and finally, getting upon the zinc, destroys its efficiency by
local circuits or local action. To remedy these defects a
great variety of modifications have been adopted, which
may be called as a rule gravity batteries. These depend
upon the difference in density of the solutions, to maintain
their separation. Thus, the first of the class, invented by
Meidinger, consisted of a plate of copper attached to an
insulated wire and placed at the bottom of the jar; upon
this was thrown a quantity of sulphate of copper.
was then filled up with water, with a little sulphate of zinc
to give it conducting power, and in this was hung the zinc. -
The superior weight of the sulphate of copper solution was
relied upon to keep it away from the zinc. This was much
modified in detail, and was in many cases effective, so that
such batteries could be left in closed circuit for months
without getting out of order.
60. A recent modification of this gravity battery, known
as the Lockwood battery, seeming to involve some action
which has not yet been fully determined, appears to be won-
derfully efficient in practice.
61. When nitric acid was introduced by Grove, a porous
cell of earthenware became absolutely requisite, and a plate
of platinum for the negative element. For this last, Bunsen
substituted gas carbon to diminish the expenss; then Pog-
gendorff proposed a mixture containing free chromic acid
to replace the nitric. This mixture is obtained by mixing
1 part by weight of bichromate of potash with 10 of water
and 3 of common oil of vitriol. This has the advantage of
cheapness, and also of avoiding fumes, as chromic acid re-
duces to a solid sesquioxide of chromium, which of course
remains in the solution. Its disadvantage is that it is less
efficient than the nitric acid, and soon loses effect in closed
circuit through the accumulation of sesquioxide of chro-
mium upon the negative element, this body requiring time
to dissolve. This difficulty has been met by the addition
of nitric acid to the solution. In this case the nitric acid
first loses its oxygen, but immediately takes it again from
the chromic acid; thus, while no fumes of nitrous acid are
developed, the action on the chromic acid is diffused more
generally, and we have the quickness of the nitric acid,
combined with the good qualities of the other material.
62. The above chromic-acid mixture, without nitric acid,
may be used in a battery of zinc and carbon plates, pro-
vided these be only immersed when in use. The convenient
“French flask batteries” are thus made, and for use with
the large electro-magnet of the Stevens Institute of Tech-
nology, and his own induction coil, where great power in a
The jar
2.
compact form is needed for a short time, the present writer
caused to be constructed four sets, of three cells each, on
the same general principle. These expose surfaces of about
five square feet of zinc in each cell, or sixty feet in the ag-
gregate. During three years' constant use they have given
entire satisfaction for the purposes named.
63. A battery of zinc and carbon, in which the exciting
fluid is a strong solution or paste of acid sulphate of mer-
cury, is very convenient for medical use. The present
writer pointed out some years ago that this substance
could be replaced with advantage by a mixture of glauber
salt and chloride of mercury, and that even glauber salt, a
harmless and non-corrosive substance, would in many
cases answer very well alone. (Jour. of the Franklin Insti-
tute, vol. 1., p. 68, 1865.)
64. The Maynooth battery, in which the elements are
zinc and cast iron, the iron being in contact with a mix-
ture of strong sulphuric and nitric acids, makes a very
powerful combination, but the fumes evolved in filling and
emptying it are very objectionable.
* • * r
65. For running electric clocks and such work, not re-
1512
ELECTRICITY.
quiring much force, the Leclanche battery is found to be
very convenient. This consists of a square-shaped glass
vessel, within which is set a porous cylinder containing a
plate of carbon, and small fragments of black oxide of
manganese packed tightly around it. In one corner of
the square vessel is placed a rod of zinc, and the vessel is
partly filled with a strong solution of sal-ammoniac. (Les
Mondes, 1868, vol. xvi., p. 532.) Chloride of zinc is formed
in this battery, and the hydrogen liberated is taken up by
oxygen of the oxide of manganese, or escapes.
Dry Piles.—66. The slight amount of moisture which
even ordinary paper will retain is sufficient to produce a
galvanic action with dissimilar metals, and this may be—
come quite appreciable if a sufficient number of elements
are used. Thus, if we take silver paper and paint one side
with a mixture of black oxide of manganese and gum, and
when dry fold it up and with a wad-cutter strike out many
thousand disks, these, placed in a tube to keep them in
position, will exhibit opposite electric excitement at their
opposite ends. This arrangement was devised by Zam-
boni, who found that such an arrangement, containing
some 20,000 disks of paper, would keep a light ball in
motion between brass balls connected with its poles for
years. A thorough drying caused all action to cease, but
exposure to moist air restored it. As before mentioned, a
dry pile is used in Bohnenberger's electroscope.
Grove’s Gas Battery.—67. We have already mentioned
that a plate of platinum covered with hydrogen was
strongly positive, and, following out this principle, Grove
constructs what has been called a gas battery. In this a
number of vessels are provided each with two platinum
strips. The vessels contain acidulated water, and the
strips, partly immersed in this, are covered with bell jars,
one containing oxygen, the other hydrogen. Under these
conditions the hydrogen in contact with the platinum acts
like zinc, and combines with some of the oxygen of the
water, setting free other hydrogen, which, passing to the
other strip, there combines with some of the free oxygen.
68. On a principle suggested by this action and some of
its relations are constructed what are called Secondary
Piles. If, for example, we immerse two or more plates of
lead in a solution of glauber salt, and pass the current of a
small battery for some time between the plates, there will
be formed on one plate a film of oxide of lead, while the
other will acquire a layer of excited hydrogen. If the
charging battery be now removed, and the terminals of the
other arrangement brought together, a brief but very pow-
erful current will be developed by the combination of the
hydrogen at one side and the oxygen at the other.
(For a very full discussion of this subject, see J. Thom-
son, “Pogg. Ann.,” 1865, vol. cxxiv., p. 498, and of an im-
proved form by G. Plaute, “Phil. Mag,” 1868, vol. xxxvi.,
p. 159.)
Instruments for the Measurement of the Galvanic Current.
The Voltameter.—69. This instrument is based upon the
principle that a current can only pass through such a sub-
stance as water by decomposing it, and that thus the
amount of water decomposed or of gas liberated will
afford a true indication of the amount of electricity which
has been transmitted. For all practical purposes this is
strictly true, whatever may be thought as to the absolute
accuracy of the statement. We have therefore, for this
purpose, a vessel with two strips of platinum entering it
from below, partly filled with slightly acidulated water,
and a graduated bell-jar or closed tube filled with water
placed over them. When a current passes, bubbles of oxy-
gen and hydrogen gases will rise, and the quantity col-
lected in a minute will give us an indication of the amount
of the electric current that has passed. . The amount of
force required to carry an electric current through the re-
sisting liquid is, however, very great, and thus for very
many purposes this instrument would not be available.
70. In 1820, OErsted discovered that when a galvanic
current was passing through a wire a magnetic needle
tended to set itself at right angles to the wire. The di-
rection in which the needle turned from a position parallel
to the wire depended upon the direction of the current and
upon the location of the wire (i. e. whether it was above
or below the needle). It thus came about that if a needle
was suspended in a coil, the parts of the coil above and
below would reinforce each other in their action on the
needle, and that a reversal in the direction of the current
would be indicated by a reversal in the position of the
needle. Moreover, certãin relations may be established
between the amount of angular deflection of the needle
and the quantity of the current by means of which this last
may be determined. -
A galvanometer, then, in general consists of a magnetic
needle suspended in a coil of wire, which is placed in the
magnetic meridian (i.e. N. and S.), or in the same direction
as the needle. To the needle is attached a pointer, by which
FIG. 15.
the angular dis-
placement which
it suffers may be
read off on a di-
vided circle.
For v a rious
uses differ ent
forms and com-
b in a tion s are
adopted, of which
we shall mention
the principal.
The T'ang ent
Galvanometer. —
71. A simple
trigonometrical
discussion (see
Sabine on the
** Electric Tele-
graph,” p. 237)
will show that if
the needle is very
small in compari-
son with the size
of the coil—say,
one-fifteenth of
its diameter—-the
force of the cur-
rent will vary as
the tangent of the
angle of deflec-
tion for small dis-
placements. With
a coil so distant
from the needle
as this condition
involves it would
ſºuth
only be possible to measure very powerful currents in this
way; but Gangain has shown that if the coil be wound in
the surface of a
frustum of a cone
whose apex passes
through the centre
of the needle, the
same relation be-
tween the current
and deflection will
be maint a in ed,
- - \\ even when the di-
sºil # ill ameter of the coil
=ºº is but five or six
times the length
of the needle. For
certain purposes
the coil in this in-
strument is made
in two equal parts,
so that either half
or all of it may be
used at pleasure.
Fig. 16 shows one
of these instru-
ments, as made by
Messrs. Knox &
Shain of Philadel-
sº- hia.
The Sine Galvanometer.—72. In this instrument the coil
is movable, and in making observations it is rotated until
its plane coincides in direction with the meedle. Under
these circumstances it may be shown that the force of the
current varies with the sine of the angle of deflection. (See
Sabine on the “Electric Telegraph,” p. 241.) -
The Astatic Galvanometer.—73. Yet further to increase
the delicacy of this instrument we diminish the directive
FIG. 17. force of the needle without di-
• minishing the influence of the
coil upon it, by uniting two
needles rigidly, but at a dis-
tance, one over the other, with
their poles reversed. By this
means, if the needles were ab-
solutely equal they would stand
E. and W.; and if not abso-
lutely equal, they take some in-
termediate position between this and the magnetic merid-
ian, with a directive force which is diminished as their
complete equality is approached. The astatic combi-
nation is then so introduced in the coil that one of the
needles is inside, and the other outside. If we now bear
FIG. 16.
in mind that the direction in which the needle tends to












ELECTRICITY.
1513
move is reversed—1st, by a reversal of the current; 2d, by
a reversal of the magnet in relation to it; and 3d, by re-
versal of its relation with reference to being above or
below—we will see that the action of the currents on the
two needles will coincide in direction, and so assist each
other in producing the deflection.
74. One of the most complete instruments of this type is
Sir W. Thomson’s double FIG. 18,
coil astatic galvanometer. º
In this instrument we have .
two coils, which are exactly
equal in resistance and in
their effect upon the in-
cluded magnets. These two
magnets are rigidly con-
nected with reversed poles,
and the upper one carries a º
small mirror. Above them li
is a bar magnet, which * .
serves to regulate their
sensitiveness by counter-
acting more or less the in-
fluence of the earth’s mag-
netism, and also to give us
a means of bringing them
to a fixed position. The
binding screws at the base
allow us to bring the two
coils into any relation we
please, either to use them
in combination or opposed
to each other. The instru-
ment here represented has
its coils composed of very
fine wire in very many
turns, but it is also made
with a short thick wire for
other purposes.
*
§
f
*||
º
|
|
The movements of the #i § tº
- - * * Æli #ºtill!!!E.
astatic combination of nee- ###|ſº *=º
dles is read in the follow- ºś ºr. º
ing manner: At a distance tº ºftii iſitº”.
of about two feet in front gºs ºc * G
of the instrument is placed
the frame and lamp shown in Fig. 19. (The instrument
would be to the right, as
this is shown in the cut.)
The light from the lamp,
passing through the vertical
slit in the frame, falls on the
mirror in the upper part of
the galvanometer, which is
curved so as to throw an
image of the flame back
upon a scale attached to the
other side of the frame. The
motion of this image indi-
cates the movement of the
needles.
Resistance Coils.—75. For
use with these various in-
struments we have sets of
“known resistances,” con-
sisting of bobbins of insulated German silver wire, care-
fully graduated to correspond with fixed standards. These
bobbins are placed in a box with their terminals attached
to a series of heavy brass pieces, between which fit conical
plugs. When these plugs are in place they form with the
brass pieces a conductor of inappreciable resistance, but by
taking out any one, the current is obliged to pass through
the corresponding coil, and so experience its resistance.
These resistances are expressed in units called “ohms.”
Of these there are two standards, slightly differing—one,
known as Siemen’s unit, defined to be the resistance of a
-
|
º
prism of pure mercury of one square millimëtre section, and
one mêtre long, at 0°C.; the other, known as the British
Association unit, or B. A. unit, is founded on an absolute
determination of the relation of resistance to work or
energy through the production of heat. The unit first ob-
e ‘IIlctre & -
tained, and known as the ... unit, when raised to the
seventh power, gives us the B. A. unit, or ohm, whose rela-
tion to Siemen’s ohm is as 1.0456 to 1. One million of ohms
make a megohm; one-millionth of an ohm is a microhm.
Thermo-electric Couples.—76. A separation of the elec-
tricities similar in character to that which we have just
described as accomplished by chemical force is brought
about by the direct action of heat on dissimilar conductors
in contact. Thus, if we have a series of
bars of antimony and bismuth united at
their alternate ends, as shown in Fig. 21,
and heat one side, DC, while the other,
AB, is either exposed to the air or other-
wise cooled, a separation of the electric
fluids will be effected, and one extremity
of the series will acquire a positive, while
D C the other gains a negative, charge. As
can easily be imagined, the electro-motive force is very
feeble in this case, and thus very delicate instruments are
required to recognize the effect. Moreover, the internal
resistance of the system will be very small, since it consists
entirely of conductors, and we must therefore employ low-
resistance circuits for the measuring instruments to be used
With it.
By uniting a large number of minute bars of antimony
and bismuth in the manner indicated into a square prism,
a “thermo-electric pil e” is
formed. This is generally en-
closed in a brass case, provided
with hollow conical reflectors,
such as a, for its ends, and sup-
ported on a stand. It then forms
with an astatic galvanometer
(see 3 73) the most delicate
means we possess of indicating
changes in temperature, the
change in temperature being
estimated from the effect of the
electric action which it produces.
Many experiments have been
made by Becquerel, Bunsen, Mar-
cus, and others on the develop-
tº ment of this source of electric
ſlºw force. (See “Phil. Mag.,” 1865,
– vol. xxix., pp. 159,406; also vol.
xxx., p. 77; likewise “Jour. of Fr. Inst.,” vol. xlix., p.
420.) Much also has been done in this line by Moses G.
Farmer of Boston. -
ANIMAL ELECTRICITY. —77. It has been shown that pieces
of muscular tissue from animals recently killed will develop
actions identical in character with those produced by chem-
ical or heat forces, as before described, and moreover that
certain animals, notably the torpedo and electric eel, have
the power of giving at pleasure heavy discharges by means
of a special apparatus which resembles in its structure a
series of galvanic couples. (Faraday, Phil. Trans., 1839,
part i., p. 1.) It has been shown by Matteucci that in
living animals an electric current is perpetually circulating
between the internal and external portions of the muscles.
This no doubt derives its source from the chemical actions
constantly in progress in connection with the vital pro-
C6SSéS.
Other, and what may be called secondary, methods of ex-
citing galvanic electricity, such as that of induction from
another current or from a magnet, will be given farther on,
after the subject of induction itself has been discussed.
Mechanical Effects of Electric Currents.-78. Our con-
sideration of that form of electrical development known as
galvanic or dynamic has led us thus far rather to notice
its close resemblance to, or rather general identity with, the
statical or frictional form of the same action; but while
there is this exceedingly close relation between the two—
while, in fact, they only differ in the degree of some of
their conditions—it is yet true that this amount of differ-
ence is great enough to warrant the division of the subject
which exists, and to make two classes of phenomena, which,
while equally eacisting in both, are each of them pre-eminent
in one of the two subjects, and practically inappreciable in
the other. .
These marked differences are in the quantity and in-
tensity of the electric disturbances. In the case, of the
simple galvanic couple already described the amount of the
fluids which can be separated is immense, but the separat-
ing force is so deficient in intensity that it can accomplish
no condensation of the fluid in an insulated conductor, but
can only do its work when the fluids are allowed to flow
round and unite as fast as they are developed. It is like
FIG. 21.
º:==>






























1514
ELECTRICITY.
one of the great wheels used in draining the Haarlem Lake,
which by rotating in a broad canal pushed the whole body
of water along, and raised it only a few inches. It could
produce the current as of a river through a nearly level
channel, but for producing a “head” of water or high
pressure it was all but powerless.
On the other hand, the frictional methods of excitement
give us a means of packing away or condensing the fluid
to any extent, but are able to put but little in motion at a
time. To carry out our former illustration, they might be
compared to the pumps of hydrostatic presses, which can
produce a tremendous “head” of water, but deliver only a
few ounces at each stroke.
The great self-repellent force of each fluid makes the
condensation of even, a small amount into a limited space
a work requiring great intensity of power, while the want
of weight in the electric substance makes the movement of
great quantities a matter dependent simply on what might
be called frictional resistance (i.e. the obstacle offered by
the transmitting material or conductor to their passage).
It thus comes that while in statical electricity we have
chiefly to do with what we may consider highly compressed
fluids forcibly accumulated in different bodies, in dynamical
electricity we have to consider the flow of large volumes
of the same fluids but little compressed, and thus having
little mutual repulsion or tendency to diverge. Thus, it
comes that in the first case we can only have marked results
as a rule from the properties these fluids possess when at
rest. There will not be volume enough to produce any
effect if let out as a current. It would be like letting out
the water from a hydraulic press against a mill-wheel.
And so, on the other hand, we must have a clear circuit
and free passage for the fluids in order to obtain the
dynamical phenomena. The quietly flowing river can
swing round a hundred wheels, but would not push down
a handful of earth that fenced it off from some child’s ex-
cavation in its beach.
While, therefore, there are tension and accumulation and
every effect resulting from the properties of the fluids when
at rest, in dynamic electricity; we have to consider mainly
the effects of currents flowing easily in closed circuits. Ac-
cording to our double-fluid theory, we know that if the
positive fluid is moved into one body, the negative equally
goes into the other, and that thus the flow of one in one
direction will involve the flow of the other in the opposite.
It therefore becomes an unnecessary repetition to go over
each description a second time, simply reversing the order,
and we therefore commonly confine our descriptions to the
motions of the positive fluid, assuming that the negative
follows the same track, “ the other way round.”
Attractions and Repulsions of Electric Currents.-79. The
attraction for light bodies exhibited by those excited by
friction evidently depends upon the accumulation of one
or the other fluid in the excited body; but nothing like
this can exist with a current, which being, as we have seen,
duplex in its character (i.e. an equal flow of positive in
one direction and negative in the other), can have no accu-
mulation or charge of either fluid at any point. Thus, no
phenomena of attraction and repulsion are to be expected
from closed circuits upon light bodies.
We may, however, expect that two currents, or the con-
ductors carrying two currents, should attract or repel each
other, and that this attraction and repulsion should depend
upon the relation of their directions. This is indeed found.
to be the case. If two currents flow in parallel wires in
the same direction, the wires tend to approach; if the
directions are opposite, they tend to recede. This fact
may be illustrated in a variety of ways, but perhaps that
which is at once the simplest and most striking is to have
two pieces of wire bent so as each to form three sides of a
square; then so to weight these by rods rigidly attached
that they will stand on their ends. Four slight hollows
containing mercury are then so arranged as to receive the
ends of these wires when they stafid close together and
parallel. If, then, the mercury cups are so connected that
a current from a battery will traverse the two wires succes-
sively in the same direction, they will be seen to approach;
if in opposite directions, they will recede.
80. If straight conductors carrying currents are so
placed as to form an angle with each other, they will
attract if both currents go towards or from the apex of
the angle, but will repel if one approaches and the other
recedes. This is, however, a direct consequence of the
former law. The action of a sinuous current is equal to
that of a rectilinear one equal to its length in projection.
81. From the law of angular currents we easily derive
the law regarding currents at right angles to each other—
one in a fixed conductor and the other movable round an
axis or in any direction parallel with itself. If the current
in the movable conductor approaches the fixed one, then it
will cause the movable conductor to advance in a line paral-
lel to that of the fixed conductor, in a direction opposite to
that of its current, and in the same direction as this cur-
rent if the direction of the current in the movable wire be
away from the fixed one. Consequently, a vertical rectan-
gle or circle carrying a current will tend to assume a posi-
tion parallel to a horizontal conductor, and so as to bring
the horizontal currents of both into the same direction.
82. Again, as a direct consequence of the reactions of
angular currents not in the same plane, we will see that a
current in a wire occupying the relation of a radius to the
line around which it is free to move will tend to perform a
continuous rotation if acted upon by a current in a tan-
gent or circumferential
conductor in or parallel
to its plane of motion.
FIG. 23.
A 4–4 tº e B
G D A current in a wire per-
E. | - pendicular to this same
O O plane would be similarly
w - , -" affected.
—- Thus, if a current is
made to pass up through a central column, and then divide
in opposite directions through wires A B, then descending
into a trough of mercury while another current or a contin:
uation of the same passes through a surrounding ring of
wire, EF, a continuous rotation will be maintained.
These are some of the results of the simple general law
that currents in the same direction attract, and in opposite
directions repel. . . . .
Relations between Magnets and Currents.-83. The theory
of Ampère, fully explained in another place (see “Mag-
netism”), develops all the properties of magnets, from the
assumption that they are equivalent to spirals carrying
currents, or are made up of particles, each of which has in
it a closéd circuit, all moving in the same direction. (See
Figs. 24 and 25.) From this it would naturally follow
that mutual actions would exist between magnets and our-
FIG. 25.
rents, such as might be derived from the elementary law
and examples given above. Such is indeed the case. .
Moreover, the earth itself playing the part of a powerful
magnet, we should expect certain relations to subsist be-
tween its directive force or polar action and the movements
of free conductors carrying currents. These also we find.
84. Thus, we have, as perhaps first in importance, the
fruitful fact discovered by OErsted that a magnet tended to
set itself at right angles to the line of a current, and recip-
rocally that a conductor carrying a current would set itself
at right angles to a magnet. Regarding the magnet sim-
ply as a series of currents in planes perpendicular to its
jength, these actions are simply examples of the tendency
of currents to get into parallel planes, resulting, from the
first simple law of their attraction and repulsion. For
exactly similar reasons, free conductors carrying currents
place themselves at right angles to the magnetic meridian;
85. The rotations of magnets around conductors and
conductors around magnets, which flow from this same
relation, are as numerous as their explanation, by refer-
ence to the above general considerations, is obvious. For
an extended discussion of these the reader is referred to De
la Rive's “Traité d’Électricité,” tom. i., chap. 2.
86. A solenoiá is a helix or spiral, with the wire of which
it is formed returned along its axis. When therefore a
current traverses it the longitudinal effect of the spiral is
counterbalanced by that of the return wire, and it becomes
in all respects equivalent to a series of equal, and parallel
circular currents. In fact, it fulfils exactly Ampère's de-
scription of a magnet. As might be expected, therefore,
it behaves in all respects exactly like one. - º
Magnetization by Currents.-87. If a bar of soft iron is
inserted in a solenoid, it is found to become powerfully
magnetic as long as the wire is traversed by a current, the
order of the poles being as follows: if the current passes
round in the direction of the hands of a Watch, the pole
on the near side will be a south pole. • * -
If in place of a solenoid, we surround the iron bar with
a multiple coil of many layers of insulated wire, the cur:
rent acting repeatedly will produce a greatly-increased
effect. By this means magnets of the greatest power are
produced. They are called, for distinction, electro-mag-
nets, and, as has been already remarked, lose their power
practically with the cessation of the current.

FLECTRICITY.
The largest and most efficient electro-magnet yet con-
structed is one built, after the designs prepared by Prof. A.
M. Mayer and the present writer, by Mr. William Wallace
of Ansonia, Conn., for the Stevens Institute of Technol-
1515
ogy. It weighs with its armatures about 1800 pounds, has
cores of soft iron six inghes in diameter and three feet three
inches each in length, and Surpasses any similar instrument
in the intensity of its effects.
FIG. 26.
º fit
III.（
§:
liſſilſº
ºne º
billſº |
| º ſº | #
#
º
tº ------ it.
# |}}}|..}}
# |#
hºrrº
（lºi
- &
§
º#g
ºº
f
f
On the peculiar properties of the electro-magnet was
founded the invention of the electro-magnetic telegraph.
(See TELEGRAPH.) -
88. The great power which an electro-magnet exerts on
a body near it has led many to attempt the application of
this as a motor in driving machinery. A consideration
of the numerical results given at 3% 52 and 53, in con-
nection with the explanation of the origin of the galvanic
force, will, however, show us that zinc consumed in one of
the forms of galvanic battery which does not involve the
use of some other very expensive material will yield us but
about one-tenth to one-sixteenth the force produced by coal
in its combustion; and even if made perfectly available by
Some discovery not yet even hinted at, would be but one-
fourth as effective as coal. The price of zinc is moreover at
present about forty times that of coal. Our present steam-
engines give us about five per cent., or one-twentieth, of
the total force evolved by their fuel; so that with an abso-
lutely perfect battery and electro-motor the economic rela-
tion would be eight times in favor of the steam-engine
with such batteries as could be used—twenty and thirty-
two times if the engine were absolutely perfect; but with
the best form of engine yet devised it would be 100 to 160
times more expensive to obtain power by a galvanic motor
than by a steam-engine.
Laws of Electro-Magnetism.—89. It has been shown by
Lenz and Jacobi that with an uniform current—1st, Mag-
netism in any given bar is directly proportional to the num-
ber of coils which act upon it. 2d, The diameter of the coils
has no effect, the greater length of the larger coil exactly
compensating for its greater distance. 3d, The thickness
of the wire has no effect, the condition first named of a
constant current being maintained. Of course, with the
same battery the amount of the current will be largely influ-
enced by the size and consequent resistance of the wire.
4th, The strength of the magnetism is proportional to the
quantity of the current. This and certain other relations,
it will be readily seen, have a limit in the capacity of a bar
of iron to receive a magnetic charge. 5th, The attractive
power of the electro-magnet for a saturated steel bar
varies with the inverse square of the distance, but for a
bar of soft iron, where induction comes in, with some func-
tion approaching the inverse cube of the distance. 6th,
The retentive power varies with the square of the charge
or of the quantity of current. 7th, The amount of mag-
netism developed is largely influenced by the surface of the
iron, though not depending only on that; so that a tube
whose thickness is about one-sixth its diameter would be
equivalent to a solid bar of the same diameter. 8th, The
length of the bar has no effect on its magnetic force, beyond
that of diminishing the interfering action of the opposite
poles by separating them. 9th, The position of the bar in
the helix, whether in or out of its axis, is immaterial.
An excellent research on several of these points, involving
a very beautiful and accurate method for comparison of
magnetic forces, was published by Prof. A. M. Mayer in
the “Am. Jour. of Science” for Sept., 1870.
Electrolysis, or Chemical Action of an Electric Current.
–90. As a chemical combination is on the one hand an
effective source of the electric current, so on the other side
tºº ºl. §§§ll||jā; …rººrºººººº-º-º-º-º-º: t
#iº º TºllTill||
|
|
* |
º
it tº t & 4 & 8 h & e º 'º
t ºt # iii. #
º
|
|
ºil lift|
º
this current may expend itself in reversing this action, or
in decomposing such compounds as in their formation gave
it birth. Thus, if the current from a series of galvanic
elements be made to pass through a solution of sulphate
of zinc, the oxide of zinc will be decomposed, metallic zinc
appearing at one side, and oxygen gas being given off at
the other. So with the sulphate of copper and other salts
not too difficult to decompose; and in such cases it is found
that if the conductor to which the oxygen goes is of a metal,
such as copper, iron, zinc, etc., which can combine readily
with that element, an oxide will be formed and dissolved
by the liberated acid. .
On this fact are founded the various processes of electro-
plating, of electrotyping, and the like.
A conducting matrix or mould or object is suspended in
a solution of the metal to be deposited, in connection with
the zinc or negative pole of the battery, and a plate of the
same metal is suspended in the same liquid and in con-
nection with copper, carbon, or other positive pole of the
battery. The metal is then deposited gradually on every
portion of the mould or object, and may either be left there,
as in plating, gilding, etc., or stripped off, as in electrotyp-
ing, where it becomes the cast or duplicate original which
is to be used.
91. The firmer the union of the elements or compounds
the more difficult it is to separate them. Thus, if such a
salt as sulphate of soda is placed in solution between the
poles of a moderate battery, we can readily separate the
acid from the base, but not the elements of the base. For
this a very powerful combination is required, such as was
used by Davy when he first separated, and so discovered,
the metallic elements of the alkalies and earths. The ele-
ments of water are not very difficult thus to dissociate,
and this has been adopted as a convenient means for
measuring the quantity of the current. By employing the
most intense means at our command, we can even act upon
the elementary gases, so as to effect a possible separation
of these. (See OzoNE.) -
92. A fluid state, as might naturally be expected, allow-
ing of motion among the particles, seems to be essential to
electrolysis, and we obtain this either by solution or fusion
where it does not exist already ; and we find that in all
cases the most electro-negative element or component of
the compound collects on the zinc pole, and the more pos-
itive on the other.
TRANSFER OF DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY-Conduction.—93.
Conduction in dynamic electricity resembles in all respects
the same action in the statical condition of the fluids. It
varies in the same way with different substances, but can
be more readily studied and measured. Moreover, on
account of the inappreciable “ condensation * of a current,
the conductor does not act mainly by its surface, but by its
entire section. The following list will give some idea of
the relation of a few substances in this respect.
Silver............. *. *. tº ſe - º
Copper, pure..................................------------------. *
pper, best commercial................................. 85–95.
“ ordinary “ ................................ 40–70.
Brass.........................................------------------------ ;
Zinc ...........................---------------------------------------. 29.
Steel .............................---------------------------- about 16.










































1516
ELECTRICITY.
Iron......... about 15.
German silver....... * as e e s • * * * * * * 12–16.
Lead..........--------- t 8.3
Platinum.......----------------------------------------------------- 6.9
Mercury. 1.6
Pure graphite.............. ::-------------------------------------. 0.069,3
Coke, or coal-gas graphite 0.038,6
Tellurium ...... 0.000,77
Red phosphorus ... 0.000,001,23
Solution of sulphate of copper, Saturated............. 0.000,000,005,4
Sulphuric acid and water, 1-11 Vols...................... 0.000,000,088
Sulphate of zinc, Saturated solution..................... 0.000,000,005,7
&é “ “ half saturated........................... 0.000,000,007
44 “ “ quarter “ “........................ 0.000,000,005,4
From this table will be noticed the great effect which the
presence of any impurity has upon the conducting power
of a metal, and the very inferior conducting power of
alloys as compared with their constituents.
Again, we see the vast difference between the conductivity
of metals and that of non-metallic bodies, and solutions,
and that, moreover, in some solutions the conductivity
reachés a maximum at a certain strength, and declines
either by concentration or dilution.
94. It is observed, moreover, that in the case of metals
the conductivity varies inversely with the temperature,
while the non-metallic ones rise in conductivity as the tem-
perature is elevated. Thus, in gutta-percha used to in-
sulate cables for submarine telegraphy, the conductivity
increases about thirty-six times in passing from 32° to 90°
F. Glass at a red heat becomes a good conductor. The
same general action takes place in liquids, conductivity in-
creasing with temperature; and thus we find a moderate
heat favorable to battery-action and to electrolysis.
95. Gases under ordinary circumstances are almost per-
fect insulators, but it has been shown by Andrews, Hankel,
E. Becquerel, and Buff that some slight indications of con-
duction could be obtained, and Magnus found that hydrogen
exceeded other gases in this respect. When intensely
heated, however, as in certain spectrum or Geissler tubes,
gases seem to conduct with a sensible facility; possibly
also in the electric arc.
Heating and Luminous Effects.-96. When a galvanic
current passes through a conductor, heat is developed to a
degree varying with the amount of the current and the
resistance of the wire. Other things being equal, an in-
crease of resistance will diminish the amount of the current,
but if we keep the current constant by ädding to the electro-
motive forces urging the current, then we shall find the
heat developed increase with the resistance. If the quan-
tity of the current is increased, the heat will increase as
the square of this quantity. In ordinary experiments it
is more easy to increase the amount of the current trans-
mitted by decreasing the length of the resistance, and thus
obtaining a greater development of heat in a part of the
line. Thus, if we have a platinum wire stretched between
two rods or posts, and, connecting one of them with one
pole of a powerful battery, draw the other terminal along
the wire, beginning with the farther end, the heat in the
wire will increase as the part through which the current
passes decreases in length, until, if the battery is sufficiently
powerful, the wire is at last even fused. Again, if a wire
of some length is kept at a red heat by a battery, we may
make one part glow much more brightly by cooling another
with cold water. The reason is, that by cooling we increase
the conducting power or diminish the resistance of that
part, and so allow more current to be forced through the
remaining portion. Many similar examples might be cited
did space permit.
97. The interesting conclusion has been reached by
Favre (Comptes Rendus, vol. lv., p. 56) that the total
amount of heat generated by the solution of a given quan-
tity of zinc in galvanic circuit is constant, being diminished
in the battery as it is increased in the exterior circuit; and
moreover that heat is lost when motion is produced just
in the proportion that Joul’s theory and equivalent would
require.
98. From what has been said above, we see that if elec-
tric fluid could be forced in any amount through a non-
conducting substance, very intense effects of heat and light
ought to be produced. This is in fact observed in the case
of the statical discharge in air, which affords us the most
intense exhibition of these forces with which we are ac-
quainted. With galvanic electricity it is, however, under
ordinary conditions, impossible to obtain sufficient concen-
tration to rupture the resistance of air. If, however, the
poles of a powerful battery of, say, forty or fifty Grove or
Bunsen elements are brought into contact, and then slightly
separated, a bridge of particles torn off from the positive
and hurled upon the negative pole is formed, and main-
tàins the connection. Resistance enough, however, is
offered to develop a light of the most.dazzling brightness.
It is found most convenient to make the terminals in
this case from a very dense and, in an ordinary sense, in-
combustible carbon or “coal-gas graphite” (such as is used
for elements in the battery cells, except that a finer and
purer preparation is here essential). Even this material
is slowly dissipated in the intense heat of the electric arc,
and various forms of self-adjusting regulators have there-
fore been devised by which the carbon points are made to
approach each other as they are consumed.
99. If the lower carbon is hollowed into, a cup, various
substances, such as the metals and salts, ean be placed in
it, and converted into incandescent vapor by the action of
the discharge. By this means the peculiar colored lights
which they emit may be analyzed with a prism and pro-
jected as “spectra” on a screen with a very beautiful
effect;
While, as we have already shown (388), a galvanic cur-
rent derived from chemical actions involving the use of
zinc and other expensive materials is not at all able to com-
pete with the coal-consuming engine as a source of me-
chanical power, yet by reversing the order of conversions
and employing the cheap mechanical power of the steam-
engine to develop a galvanic current (see # 104), and using
this to produce light as above, something useful may be
accomplished. In an interesting paper on the cost of the
electric light (Am. Jour. of Science, 1868, vol. xlv., p. 113),
Moses G. Farmer has shown that where a ſlight of about
1000 candles was required it could in this way be produced
at one-tenth the cost of the same amount of gas-light.
Galvanic or Dynamic Induction.—100. This action, whose
theoretical explanation has defied the insight even of Fara-
day, is in its simplest form of exhibition as follows: Sup-
pose that two wires are arranged side by side, but mutually
insulated for some length, and that one of them is con-
nected in closed circuit with a delicate galvanometer, while
the other may be made at will the path of a current from
a galvanic battery. If this connection is made, we will
notice an instantaneous movement of the needle in the
galvanometer, indicating a momentary current in the op-
posite direction to that of the battery. While this battery
flows all is absolutely at rest, but the moment that an in-
terruption occurs, another instantaneous current is shown
by the galvanometer, but now in the same direction as the
battery current followed. These momentary currents are
called secondary or induced currents, and that producing
them is called the “primary’ current.
If the two wires, in place of being in parallel straight
lines, had been wound each in a flat spiral, and these spirals
had been in close proximity, the effect would have been the
same. In this case, moreover, if instead of causing the
primary current to start and stop, we allowed it to flow
continuously, but brought the spirals quickly together and
then as quickly separated them, the same induced currents
would have been generated as before.
Bearing in mind, as has been already stated, that a mag-
net represents in all respects a spiral carrying a current, it
is evident that the mutual approach and separation of
magnets and helices should produce secondary currents in
the latter, and so likewise the charging and discharging
of electro-magnets in the presence of spirals or other con-
ducting circuits. º
101. Again, this “induced current” may be developed in
the primary circuit or wire itself. It is then called the
extra current. Also, as Prof. J. Henry has shown, the
secondary current may in its turn be made to develop an-
other, and this again a fourth, and so on to an indefinite
limit.
In addition to their great scientific interest, these actions
above briefly noticed have developed two of the most
remarkable instruments for the production of electric
phenomena, the induction coil and the magneto-electric
machine.
102. The induction coil consists of a thick wire wound
into a spiral around a bundle of soft iron needles. This
receives, through a “break-piece” or “interrupter,” either
automatic or moved by hand, a discontinuous current from
a galvanic battery. Around this primary spiral, but most
thoroughly insulated from it, even by a heavy glass jar, is
another or secondary spiral of very fine wire and of great
length. The terminals of this furnish the positive and
negative fluids. To do away with the interfering action
of the “extra current,” a condenser is connected with the
primary circuit at either side of the break-piece. This
condenser is equivalent to a Leyden jar of great surface,
and is made of tin-foil separated by oil-silk.
The battery connections being made, and the interrupter
put in action, at each break of circuit flashes of elec-
tricity pass between the terminals with a length and bril-
liancy depending upon the size and perfection of the
instrument. One of these coils, built for the present writer
by Mr. E. S. Ritchie of Boston, to whom the instrument
owes its efficient and practical development (Jour. of the
Franklin Institute, vol.xl., p. 64), is shown in the accom-
t
ELECTRICITY.
1517
panying cut. (See Fig. 27.) The outer or secondary coil
of this instrument contains fifty miles of wire, .007 inch in
diameter, covered with silk; the primary wire is 200 feet
FIG. 27.
105. Siemen’s armature consists of a small cylinder of
iron having two deep grooves cut along its length on
opposite sides. In these grooves the wire is wound, and
by this means the whole piece can
be placed between the poles of a se-
ries of horseshoe magnets, or other-
#
|
cº-º-º-º-º->
#| || ºfflºw
º:
|
|
|
viºlii
Yº-º-º-º-º-º-º:
*T*--------
Fºr º:
long and 0.1655, or about one-sixth of an inch, thick. The
condenser contains 325 square feet of coated surface. With
three cells of battery, each having in use, when freshly
charged, not more than half a square foot of active surface,
this instrument throws sparks in the air through a distance
of twenty-one inches, and pierces solid blocks of glass three
inches thick. When connected with a large Leyden jar the
sound of its discharge is painful.
103. In addition to its numerous applications in scientific
connections, this instrument has been used with great suc-
cess as a means of lighting instantaneously the numerous
gas-burners in public buildings, such as theatres. Many
of these buildings in Boston, New York, and Philadelphia
are so lit up. It is also employed in the Lenoir gas-engine
to ignite the mixture of gas and air in the cylinder.
Magneto-Electric Machines.—104. If a coil of wire is
rapidly caused to approach and recede from a permanent
magnet, a series of induced currents will be developed in
it. An easy way of securing this approach and withdrawal
is to make several such coils rotate in front of large mag-
nets in the manner shown in the cut. (See Fig. 28.) If
bars of soft iron are fixed in the coils, they will receive and
§
|
§||
lose their charge, and so greatly add to the effect. Thus,
then, such a machine may be constructed, and by terminat-
ing the coils in plates on opposite sides of the axis, which
thus will alternately touch springs resting against it on
either side, we may correct the reversal of the currents, and
get them from these springs in a constant direction. This
machine has received a great number of modifications, of
which the important ones are Siemen’s armature and
Wilde's application of cumulative action.
iºº ºù
# wº
§ wise in a very intense field of force.
#. It is moreover in a form admirably
a- adapted for rapid rotation.
106. Wilde was the first to apply
the discovery that the current devel-
oped by one magneto-electric ma-
chine could charge electro-magnets
with a far greater force than ex-
isted in the magnets of the first ma-
chine. Thus, by having one machine
to charge the electro-magnets of
another, a very great electric cur-
rent could be readily produced.
This plan was adopted in the ma-
chine shown in the accompanying
cut. (See Fig. 29.) A number of
# permanent magnets placed above
# produce in the armature rotating
ãºijº be tween them a current which
- charges the large electro-magnets
below, and the armature rotating
within these electro-magnets yields
a current of great power. , -
107. Ladd of London has carried this idea, yet farther
s==
==
wº
É
FIG. 29.
by dispensing with the upper machine, and causing part
of the current developed by the large armature to circulate
in the magnets around it. Some trace of magnetism will
be found in any piece of iron, and this is enough to start
the action, which, reacting on itself, soon brings the ma-
chine to its maximum energy of action.
108. These developments of electric action are not ob-
tained without corresponding expenditure of force. The
armatures are powerfully attracted by the magnets, and
must be forcibly pulled away. Indeed, one of Wilde's
machines when producing a very intense electric, light re-
quires about five horse-power to drive it.* -
109. Not only do magnets develop currents of electricity
in coils of wire, but also in any moving conductors, and
the currents so produced react upon the magnets, and also
in passing through the conductors themselves develop heat.
Thus, if a copper disk or tube is rotated in a powerful
magnetic field, it will become very hot; indeed, fusible
metal placed in such a tube may even be melted. So,
again, a disk of copper rotated under a magnetic needle
will cause this to be displaced. The magnet induces cur-
rents in the rotating disk, and these in turn affect the
magnet.
IFLECTRICAL MEASUREMENTs. – General Considerations
and Definitions.—110. We have already at the outset,
when considering the source of galvanic electricity, pretty
fully discussed the meaning of electro-motive force, and
have shown that it means simply the power of separating
* These machines are now employed with entire success to
deposit copper for electrotyping, as at the establishment of Mr.
L. L. Smith, 135 West Twenty-fifth street, New York, and for
some lighthouses. An account of the magneto-electric machine
of M. Gramme, in the London, “Standard” of April 9, 1873, con:
firmed by other information, leads to the belie that a decided
improvement has been made in these machines.


































1518
ELECTRICITY.
the electric fluids resulting from a difference in chemical
attractions under certain conditions. We have compared
this power, with reference to each of the fluids considered
separately, to an imaginary property which we might Sup-
pose some substance to possess of forcing water through it
in one direction until a slight difference in level had been
established on opposite sides, when the action would be
restrained by the hydrostatic pressure or head of the higher
level. Now, it is evident that the quantity of liquid made
to pass by such an action would depend on two things—on
the intensity of the moving force (electro-motive force),
and on the total resistance experienced to such motion, in-
cluding both the resistance in the source of force itself (the
sieve, for instance, in our illustration) and the channel by
which the liquid could descend again to its first level.
Clearly, if the propelling force were constant the amount
of liquid moved (there being in this case no question of
inertia) would be so much the more as the resistance was
less, and vice versé. We therefore see that this simple
equation will express the relation between these three
things; Q being the quantity of fluid moved, E the electro-
This is the
famous law of Ohm, on which is founded the whole science
of electrical measurement. - - • *
111. We will now consider a few cases in detail as a
means of more clearly understanding the relations of this
principle. Suppose that we have a number of electro-
motive elements, such as galvanic battery couples, and
arrange them in series (i. e. each one working into the
next, as it were), and have an outside connection so short
and of such a good conductor that it will offer no appre-
ciable resistance. What will be the quantity of fluid set in
motion in such a case, as compared with what a single ele-
ment would yield with the same good outside connection ?
To make our equation full in its expression, we would
nE
have Q=F. *R, + r.
the number of elements; R being the resistance of the ele-
ment itself, and r that of the exterior connection. Now,
it is evident that if r = 0, as we have supposed in the case
nE_E
- nR. R.' Or
identical with the first; or, in other words, that the series
of cells, however great their number, will set in motion no
more fluid than a single one.
* E
motive force, and R the resistance: = .
for
for the single element, and Q’ =
taken above, the second equation becomes Q' =
Let us give the above a numerical shape. Let E = 50,
R = 20 and n = 10: then Q-º- = 2.5, and Q’= 10X 50
ºnan-w 2010–4.9, a 10 × 20 + 0
:= 200 = 2.5.
112. Let us now consider the reason of this in the light
of our illustration. Suppose we have a single sieve forcing
water through a trough, and that this yater can flow back
with perfect freedom. There will then be no appreciable
head acting against the sieve, and it will therefore force all
the water that it is capable of transmitting. Now, suppose
another sieve to take the water which has passed through
the first; it will simply transmit it as did the other, with-
out giving it any head or otherwise affecting it; for it must
be borne in mind that we are not dealing with a dense ma-
terial, which can acquire momentum, but with an impon-
derable fluid. -
But now let us suppose that the exterior resistance was
considerable—that, for example, the water raised to one side
in the trough could only flow out by a narrow tube. Then
clearly the sieve would produce a difference of level ap-
proaching that which was its maximum, and could then
only pass on more water as the pipe allowed the accumulated
quantity to flow back.” If, now, a second sieve were added
to the first, it would take the water at the height to which
the first sieve had raised it, and would raise it just as much
higher, so giving it twice the head to force it through the
pipe; and for a fluid without weight this would cause a
double flow. Returning to our equation, we would then
have this case expressed as follows, making r no longer
E nE
e = *-* ----- // = e
equal to 0, but, say, to 30: Q R. -- ; and Q nR + r *
0 ()
Q 50 = 1 and Q” – sº X 5 –*=2.17. In
20 + 30 10 × 20 + 30 230
other words, in place of having the same quantity in both
cases, as before, we now have more than twice as much in
the one instance as in the other. It thus becomes evident
that to obtain the best effect a certain proportion ought to
exist between the exterior resistange and that of the electro-
motor or battery, and our illustration will give us an easy
way of seeing what this must be.
* Moreover, this flow would evidently depend for its quantity
on the amount of head propelling it.
113. It is, in the first place, evident that if the resist-
ance of the exterior circuit is greater than that of the bat-
tery, the latter will “pump up * the fluid faster than it can
come down again, and that so its whole capacity will not
be utilized; while, on the other hand, if the exterior resist-
ance is less than that of the battery, then the latter will be
doing unnecessary work in raising the fluid to a higher
level and giving it a greater “head” to flow down than is .
needed to keep up the supply; or, in other words, that we
could very greatly decrease the number of active elements,
and thus the expenditure of force, and yet but little dimin-
ish the amount of fluid put in motion. Thus, suppose we
have 30 elements, each with an electro-motive force of 12
and a resistance of 2, and have an exterior resistance of 40;
in E 30 × 12 360
then Q =
nRE, T 30×2 + 40 T 100
away 10 elements, or diminish the expenditure of material by
m]. "20 × 12 240
*R, + r. 20 × 2 + 40 80 3,
or a diminution in the current of only .6, or one-sixth of
its former amount.
These examples, with the foregoing definitions, render
the meaning of electro-motive force and Ohm’s law suf-
ficiently clear; and we will therefore pass to the next point,
or the meaning of the terms—
Tension or Potential.—114. These terms are used to in-
dicate the condensation or accumulation of the fluids at
any points, as compared with some standard assumed con-
stant for the time being; or, turning to our former and
convenient illustration, the tension or potential of any part
of a circuit is the “head” or “hydrostatic column” of fluid
at that point. Thus, suppose that A, B, C, D, E represented
a series of galvanic elements or cells, with their negative
pole connected with the ground at N, and the positive pole
Fig. 30.
= 3.6. If we now take
one-third, we will have Q’ =
d =
insulated; then the successive levels a, b, c, d, e would in-
dicate the + tensions of the various points, the relative
tensions being expressed by vertical lines drawn to a com-
mon level. This shows us also at a glance the relation
between electro-motive force and tension. The tension
due to each cell equals its electro-motive force, and the
total tension or maximum tension of the series is equal to
the sum of the electro-motive forces; but the tension of
each point is different, while the electro-motive force is
uniform. &
FIG. 31.
Again, let us suppose that the + pole of battery E of the
last diagram were connected by a long wire with the earth
at F; then the positive tension at F would be nothing, and
at various points in the line would be represented by the
heights of corresponding points on the line ef. Or, to
revert to our hydrostatic comparison, suppose water to be
supplied to a pipe GF at G, and to run out freely at F,
the head at any intermediate point, H, might be supposed
to be HI. As we have before remarked, we do not propose
this as an illustration in hydraulics, though by adding the
necessary conditions it could be carried out in that shape,
but simply as giving a physical shape to the idea of the
electric state, which may render it more easy to handle.
Derived Circuits.-115. When more than one passage is
presented to an electric fluid, it will divide itself between
them in proportion to the ease of passage, or inversely to
the resistance. Thus, suppose two circuits open to the cur-
rent, one offering a resistance of 9 and the other of 1 unit.
Then one-tenth of the current will flow through the first,
and nine-tenths through the second; and whatever be the



ELECTRICITY.
1519
number, and however great the difference of the circuits,
this rule will be rigorously carried out.
separate circuits have resistances of 2 in one case and 9 in
another, and we wish to find what their resistance would
amount to when they both acted together as parallel roads
for the fluid, we easily derive it in this manner. If their
resistances are 9 and 2 respectively, their conducting powers
will be one-ninth and one-half, or the reciprocals of their
resistances. Now, the sum of these, which would evi-
- e I
dently be their united conducting power, would be 9t l
2
_2 + 9 - e e .
T 9 × 33 but this being the conducting power, the resist-
ance is its reciprocal or *-*–13
r procal, or ; Tā 11 TT.
above example we can derive the rule—namely, the resist-
ance of a compound of two parallel circuits is the product
of the resistances divided by their sum.
116. One of the applications of this principle is in the
use of what are called shunts. These are resistances bear-
ing some convenient relation to that of the galvanometer
used, and therefore diverting a proportional amount of the
current, so that we can measure with an instrument a cur-
rent which would otherwise be much too powerful. Sup-
pose, for example, that we have a coiled wire whose resist-
ance is to that of the galvanometer as 1 to 9; then the total
amount of current transmitted will be that due to their
“combined” resistance when they form parallel connections.
9 × 1 9 . e e -
Thus, ji= T0. will be the resistance of this “ combined
circuit,” and hence its transmitting Röwer will be 1.9; while
the galvanometer resistance being 9, its transmitting power
will be #, or one-tenth of this; hence, with this shunt in
action, the force measured by the galvanometer will be
one-tenth of the total amount passing, and hence all its
indications should be multiplied by ten. In the same way
We may use shunts whose resistances are to those of the
galvanometers as 1:99 or 1:999, and so measure the one
one-hundredths and one one-thousandths of the current.
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCEs.-‘‘ Wheatstone's Bridge.”
—117. Suppose that the positive pole of a battery, with a
But from the
FIG. 32.
A
+ -
H' -
3. | ... r /
H' !]
tension represented by the height AB, is connected at B to
two wires, BC and BD, whose resistances are represented
by the lengths of those lines, and that these lines are both
connected with the earth at their ends, C and D respect-
ively. They will then of necessity have the same tension
at B, and none at all at C and D, and at any point between
their tensions would be represented by the heights of lines
drawn to AC and AD respectively. Now, if any line be
drawn parallel to BD, cutting AC and AD, as at F and G,
it is evident—1st, that the tensions of the corresponding
points H and I of the wires will be equal, being measured
by the equal lines FH' and GI’, and hence that if these
points were connected by a conductor no current would
pass, as there would be no reason for it to go from F to G
or from G to F. 2d, By the similarity of triangles ACD
and AFG, AG : AF :: GD : FC, from which we would con-
clude that if we unite two points in two circuits, so that
the four segments are proportional in their resistance, no
FIG. 33.
current will pass. We have only considered the one fluid,
the positive, but of course the same reasoning would apply to
the negative, and being true for each would be true for both.
Again, if two
Let us now consider an application of this general prin-
ciple. Suppose that we have adjustable and known resist-
ances so arranged that a battery current entering at A
divides on AG and AF; that from G to CD are arranged
other known resistances, while between F and CD we intro-
duce some unknown resistance which we wish to measure.
The points G and F are connected through a galvanometer.
118. Suppose, then, that we make the adjustable resist-
ance on AG 10, and that on AF 100, and then introduce re-
sistances on G–CD until the galvanometer ceases to show
any current. We will then know that AG : AF :: G–CD :
F–CD, or ac. If therefore we had found it necessary to in-
troduce resistances of 173 at G–CD, we would have 10 :
100 :: 173 : æ, ac = 1730. This method, which admits of a
very wide range of application, is perhaps more exten-
sively used than any other. s
With a double-coil galvanometer we may measure resist-
ances by making the current divide and pass in opposite
senses through the two coils. If each branch has an equal
resistance, the two currents will be exactly equal, and their
effects upon the needle or needles will neutralize each other.
The unknown resistance being introduced in the one branch,
we place known resistances in the other until a balance
is obtained, and then know that the resistance so intro-
duced equals the unknown one. Where the resistance is
too great for our standards, we can, by introducing shunts
on that side, increase their value 10, 100, or 1000 times.
For resistances higher than can be measured in this way
we note the deflection produced by the current, and com-
pare it with that obtained with known resistances, either
with or without shunts.
Induction.—119. This action in the case of insulated
wires is exactly the same as that already discussed in the
Leyden jar. It is measured by noting the deflection pro-
duced by charging and discharging the insulated wire im-
mersed all but its ends in water connected with the other
pole, and comparing this deflection with that obtained by
like treatment with condensers of known capacity. The
unit here used is the farad, for whose relations to other
measures see “Electrical Units.” -
Resistance of Batteries.—120. With a double-coil gal-
vanometer this measurement presents little difficulty. We
connect one or more cells of the battery with a set of ad-
justable resistances, and pass the current through one coil
of the galvanometer, introducing as much resistance as is
necessary to bring the deflection to a sensitive point. We
note this effect, and then know that it or Q = E−, ;
• R + 2 + r."
R being the battery resistance, r the resistance of the gal-
vanometer, and r" the additional resistance which we have
introduced. We now pass the current through both coils
in the same direction, and add resistance until we get the
same deflection as before. We then know that since by
passing twice as often round the needle the electro-motive
force has been doubled in efficiency, and yet has only pro-
duced an equal effect, the resistances must all have been
doubled. Now, r is doubled by the use of the second coil,
and we know the amount of r", which is what we added
to regulate the deflection; therefore any additional quan-
tity which we have employed must be the duplicate of R,
the battery resistance. -
121. To compare the electro-motive force of batteries,
we first determine their resistance, and then, connecting
them successively to the same galvanometer, add resist-
ances till they all make the same deflection; then their
electro-motive forces will be inversely as the total resist-
ances in the several cases, including those of the batteries
themselves.
122. We have here given all the fundamental processes
of measurement, but there are of course countless modifica-
tions which cannot be even named within our present brief
limits. For these we must refer the reader to the works of
Sabine, Clark, and Culley on this special subject, and to
the numerous papers in the “Reports of the British Asso-
ciation” and in the scientific journals.
123. As a matter of interest to the general reader, we
may mention that the location of faults in submerged
cables is accomplished by the application in some modified
form of one or other of the methods already described,
according to the nature of the fault. Thus, if the fault is
an entire rupture, it is located by comparing the resistance
of the piece left with that of known lengths of the same
wire. # the conductor is fractured inside of its insulating
sheath, the inductive charge is measured, and we thus know
how much wire remains on the nearer side of the break.
Of course complicated cases require special treatment.
ELECTRICAL UNITs.-The writ of resistance or ohm has
been already given at 3 75.
The unit of tension or electro-motive force, or volt, does
not differ much from that of a Daniell’s cell. One million
volts make a megavolt, and one-millionth of a volt is a


1520
ELECTRICITY, AN IMAL–ELECTRO-DYNAMIC ENGINE.
microvolt. Sir W. Thomson makes the volt equal to .9268;
the electro-motive force of a Daniell’s cell or the Daniell =
1.079 volts. *
The unit of quantity is a farad, the megafarad and
microfarad bearing the same proportion of a million times
and a millionth as with the ohms and volts. The farad is
that quantity of electricity, which with an electro-motive
force of one volt would flow through the resistance of one
megohm in one second. The British Association unit of
current is a current of one farad per second. ==º
The Electro-chemical Unit.—Experiment shows that a
unit current decomposes in one second .143 grains of water,
or liberates 1.02 cubic inches of mixed gas.
HENRY MORTON.
Electricity, Animal. See ELECTRICITY, & 77, p.
1513, by PREs. HENRY MoRTON, PH. D.
Electric Light is the result of heat produced by the
force of electricity, which is usually evoked by the chem-
ical reaction of a metal and an acid. This combination is
termed a battery, and from its opposite ends the opposite
kinds of electricity are conducted by wires, terminating in
pencils of hard coke. These pencils being brought into
contact and then separated, the opposing electric currents
rush together to form again neutral electricity, and this
act gives rise to a very great amount of heat. This heat
will ignite the intermediate stratum of air to a point at
which it evolves light, but this amount of light is small
compared with that given out by the ignited ends of the
coke pencils and the particles of carbon thrown off by these
pencils. The most beautiful of all artificial lights is pro-
duced in this way. -
In using the electric light it is found that the carbon
points waste rapidly, the positive point especially so. One
of the best methods of keeping the light constant is a de-
vice by Duboscq, whereby clockwork is made to move the
points, slowly towards each other—the positive at about
twice the rate of the negative point. In order to prevent
the points from striking each other the current is made to
pass through a coil around an electro-magnet, which at-
tracts a keeper, thus stopping the clock; but when the
points are burned away the clock is started by the falling
of the keeper, and the current is so quickly renewed (if the
apparatus be good) that no sensible disturbance of the light
takes place. This light is much employed for experimental
purposes, and has been used with success in lighthouses.
Electric Telegraph. See TELEGRAPH, by PROF. A.
M. MAYER, PH. D.
Electrodes (plu.), [from electricity and the Gr. 886s,
a “way”], the surfaces by which electricity passes into and
out of different media. The poles of the voltaic battery or
pile are especially termed electrodes. The so-called positive
electrode is the “ anode,” and the negative is the “cathode.”
Electro-dynamic Engine, a form of engine in which
electro-magnetism is the motive-power.
the invention of the electro-magnet in 1827 by Prof. Henry,
the instantaneousness with which, in this contrivance, force
may be developed, destroyed, or reversed, led many persons
of an inventive turn to attempt its application to some use-
ful purpose in the arts. Many forms of vibrating and rotat-
ing apparatus were constructed by Prof. Henry and others
to illustrate the principle ; but the first electro-dynamic
engine, properly so called, was the invention of Thomas
Davenport of Vermont, by whom it was exhibited to Prof.
Henry in 1835, and brought out publicly in New York a
year or two later. In this machine a number of fixed elec-
tro-magnets were arranged, with poles presented inward,
upon the circumference of a horizontal circle, within which
an equal number, V-shaped in form, with their branches in
the direction of radii, revolved. By a system of pole-chang-
ing thimbles the battery current in the revolving magnets
was reversed at the moment of nearest approach of the fixed
and movable poles, so that during approach they were at-
tracted towards each other, and after the passage repelled.
The success of a small machine of this construction was
such as to encourage Mr. Davenport to attempt one on a
scale sufficiently large, by calculation, to drive a power-
printing-press; but this last proved a complete failure, and
the engine was heard of no more. The discrepancy in this
case, as in many others where similar disappointment has
been encountered, between calculation and experimental re-
sults, was in great part owing to the fact that moving mag-
nets, whether permanent or temporary, always generate, in
closed conducting circuits in their neighborhood, secondary
or induced electric currents, which act in opposition to the
primary currents, and tend in all electro-dynamic engines
to diminish the effective energy of the magnets, whether
they act by attraction or by repulsion.
difficulty existed, the engine would hardly have been an
economical success, since the materials, consumed in the bat-
tery, metallic zinc and acids or salts, are products of indus-
Immediately after
But had not this
try prepared by the aid of heat; and the heat necessary for
such preparation is capable, if directly applied to the pro-
duction of steam, of performing a larger amount of work
than would be derived from the electro-dynamic engine,
even were it not subject to the disadvantage above men-
tioned. Indeed, it has long since been regarded as settled
that motive-power derived from electro-magnetic combina-
tions can only be secured at an expense which forbids its
employment upon a large scale; but for many minor pur-
poses, in which the consideration of cost is unimportant, the
convenience of application of this power has secured for it
an acceptance which in France and England is becoming
every year more general. -
The extensive introduction into families of the sewing-
machine has created a special demand for small powers;
and it is here that the electro-magnetic engine finds a field
of usefulness to which it is peculiarly adapted. An engine
of this kind, the invention of Mr. J. H. Cazal of Paris, was
exhibited in the Universal Exposition of 1867, and received
from the jury the distinction of an honorable mention.
This is exceedingly compact, and as the driving machinery
takes the place and has the appearance of the fly-wheel of
the common sewing-machine, it adds nothing to the weight
or to the seeming complication. It is formed of a thick
disk of soft iron cut into the shape of a gear-wheel, a deep
groove being afterwards cut down in the middle of the cir-
cumference, which is wound with insulated wire. The ends
of the wire are soldered to insulated thimbles, which, by
means of tangent-springs, introduce the battery current in
the usual way. Surrounding this magnetic wheel is a heavy
iron ring, indented on its interior surface in a manner to
present elevations corresponding to the teeth or salient
points of the wheel. This ring is fixed, and the whole ap-
paratus is more or less concealed by a neat annular metallic
envelope. When the teeth of the wheel pass before the
prominent parts of the surrounding ring, there is a near
approach to contact, and the attraction is strong. When
these teeth are halfway between those points, the opposite
attractions are balanced. At the moment of nearest ap-
proach the current is arrested; it is renewed again at the
intermediate position. In the interval, while the current
is not flowing, the magnetic wheel maintains the motion in
the manner of a fly-wheel.
Another engine was exhibited in the same exposition by
a company calling itself the Birmingham Electro-Magnetic
Manufacturing Company, established at Birmingham in
England. This engine is provided with four sets of fixed
electro-magnets of the U or horseshoe form, two sets at each
end of an oscillating beam, by which the power is to be
utilized. The magnets of each set are arranged in two tiers,
one above the other. The armatures of these several mag-
nets are carried by rods depending from the ends of the
beam, but the rods pass freely through these armatures,
without being fastened to them. When, therefore, an ar-
mature, in the descent of the rod, comes into contact with
the magnet to which it belongs, the rod continues its mo-
tion, and leaves the armature resting there. In the return
motion the rod lifts the armature again by means of a col-
lar or enlargement which has been given to it at the place
intended. Each armature has thus its collar, and these
several collars have been so fixed upon the suspended rods
that the armatures reach the faces of their respective mag-
nets successively, and no two at the same time. In the
action of the machine the battery current actuates the mag-
nets on the side of the descent, while on the other side the
current is cut off. The machine acts therefore only by at-
traction. The armatures are of soft iron. As these arma-
tures approach their magnets successively, it will happen
that whenever one becomes inefficient, by coming into con-
tact with its magnet, the next will be in position to exert
a very high attractive force. And this force increases until
this next makes contact with its magnet in like manner.
The arrangements of this machine, though extremely simple,
are not unfavorable to the object of securing the largest
amount of effective power from a given battery current.
A third motor of this class, which made its appearance at
the same Exposition, was the invention of Krayogl of Inns-
bruck in the Tyrol, and is described by Robert Sabine, Esq.,
member of the British commission to the Exposition, to be
“a hollow heavy wrought-iron wheel, rotated by means of
a permanent magnet, creeping up inside it... In principle,
the apparatus resembles exactly a treadmill. . Inside the
outer case of iron, in the centre of the section, is a circular
tube of brass, and in the annular space between the two
tubes three coils of insulated wire are wound at right angles
to the tangents of the periphery, and connected with con-
tacts properly placed at the axis. Inside the interior brass
tube or ring is a magnet carried on anti-friction wheels,
and occupying perhaps one-third of the whole circle. When
a current is sent through the wire surrounding the magnet,
the latter is deflected, or creeps up the ring on one side or
ELECTRO–DYNAMICS-ELECTROTYPE.
1521
the other according to the direction of the current, and by
doing so displaces the centre of gravity of the whole sys-
tem towards that side. In consequence, the wheel must
turn slightly on its axis to compensate this displacement.
But while it does so the magnet creeps up still farther, so
that the wheel acquires a continuous rotatory motion. There
is very little friction in this machine, and it is probably one
of those in which the equivalent of mechanical force, gained
by an expenditure of a unit of current, would be found the
highest. This is not saying much, however, for in the best
constructed machine this found value must fall far short of
the theoretical equivalent.” From this statement it appears
that, whatever may be the coefficient of effective force in the
machine described, the absolute amount of work which it is
capable of performing must always be extremely limited,
since at maximum it cannot exceed the weight of the mag-
net lifted through a space equal to that described by a point
in the periphery of the wheel, taken at the mean distance
of the magnet from the centre of motion. In the machine
exhibited the magnet, though of course concealed from ob-
servation, could not, from the visible dimensions of the
apparatus, have exceeded a pound or two in weight. To
construct a machine on this principle of any considerable
power it would be necessary very greatly to enlarge these
dimensions.
Many other inventions of this kind might be enumerated,
but the foregoing will suffice to show the principles on which
they must all depend. F. A. P. BARNARD.
Electro-Dynam'ics is the science which treats of .
the phenomena of electric currents.
J’REs. HENRY MoRtoN, PH. D.)
Electrol’ysis [from electricity and the Gr. Alſo, to “set
free”], the chemical decomposition of a substance by means
of electricity. If the poles of a galvanic battery are ter-
minated by slips of platinum, and these are immersed in
water slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid, they will im-
mediately become covered with bubbles of gas, which soon
begin to rise through the water, and these gases will be
found to be oxygen and hydrogen, the two components of
water; the oxygen rising from the positive and the hydro-
gen from the negative pole. This process can only take
place when the substance to be decomposed is in the liquid
state; for it includes, if it does not wholly depend on, a
convective action, during which the parts of the body are
transferred, one to one side, the other to the other; and it
therefore requires the free mobility of the liquid form.
During electrolysis the components of the electrolyte are
resolved into two groups, one of which goes to the positive
pole, and the other to the negative pole; and the electro-
lytic action of the current is the same at all parts of the
circuit. The quantity of the electrolyte decomposed in a
given time is in simple proportion to the strength of the
current; and the same quantity of electricity decomposes
chemically equivalent quantities of different electrolytes.
When several electrolytes are mixed, a strong current will
generally act a little on all of them, and the quantity in
which the elementary bodies appear will dº upon the
quantities of the compounds in the mixture, and on the
relative ease with which they yield to decomposition.
Electro-Magnetism. See ELECTRICITY, by PREs.
HENRY MoRTON, PH. D.
Electro-Metallurgy. See ELECTROTYPE.
Electrom’eter [from electricity and the Gr. perpov, a
“measure") is sometimes used as the name of an instru-
ment employed in detecting electric excitation, but more
commonly called electroscope; but the term properly des-
ignates those instruments by which the attempt is made to
measure the amount of the electric force. Coulomb's elec-
trometer measures this force by the amount of twist it will
give to a silken thread; others measure the arc through
which a suspended pith ball is repelled by electricity.
Electroph’orus [from electricity and the Gr. ºdoo,
to “produce”], is an instrument for obtaining electricity
by means of induction. . . A shallow brass or tin tray,
called the form, is filled with a compound of equal parts of
shell-lac, resin, and Venetian turpentine. A tin plate with
well-rounded edges and a glass handle is made to cover the
resinous plate very nearly, without approaching too closely
to the edges of the form. The resinous plate is then struck
or rubbed with warm and dry catskin or flannel, and thus
(See ELECTRICITY, by
becomes negatively electrified. The tin plate is placed on
the resin and touched by the finger, which conducts off a
certain amount of the natural negative electricity of the
tin plate; the latter has therefore become positively electri-
fied, and on withdrawing the finger and raising it will fur-
nish a positive spark. As the negative electricity of the
resin, acts only inductively, the process may be repeated
indefinitely.
Electro-plating is the covering of the surface of ar-
| decomposition.
ticles formed of the cheaper metals with gold, silver, pla-
tinum, nickel, copper, or other costly metal by means of the
electric current, on the same principle as that which is em-
ployed in electrotyping. German silver is one of the best
substances to receive an electro-plate, though copper and
its alloys are excellent. If iron, zinc, or pewter are to be
used, they are first plated with copper, and they then
readily take the electro-plate of gold or silver. All articles
to be plated are most carefully cleaned and scoured. They
are then dipped in a solution of nitrate of mercury, and re-
ceive therefrom a thin film of mercury, which causes the
plate to adhere firmly. The bath of silver, gold, or pla-
tinum contains 100 parts of water, 10 of potassium cyan-
ide, and 1 of the cyanide of the precious metal to be em-
ployed. The articles to be plated are suspended in this
bath, and treated as described in the article ELECTROTYPE
(which see). After removal, they are brushed and bur-
nished. The above account is necessarily very general, for
though the principle is simple, there are in practice many
details which require careful attention in order to secure
success. This process is of great importance in the arts,
one of its latest applications being the operation of NICKEL-
PLATING (which see.)
Elec'troscope [from electricity and the Gr. o.koirée, to
“see’’), an instrument for the detection of the presence of
electricity. Suspended balls of pith or slips of gold-leaf,
from their extreme lightness, will readily diverge from
each other; and this, or some similar device, is the essen-
tial element of most electroscopes. They depend for their
action on the elementary law, that bodies charged with like
electricity repel, while those charged with unlike electricity
attract each other. The electroscope most used is Bennet's
gold-leaf electroscope. This consists of a glass shade with
a wide mouth, which is closed by a wooden stopper which
can be taken out and replaced at pleasure. A glass tube
passes vertically through the centre of the wooden stopper,
while a metallic rod is fixed in the centre of the glass tube.
The lower end of the rod terminates in a small flat plate,
to the sides of which two narrow strips of gold-leaf are
soldered, and are thus attached opposite each other; and
the upper end of the rod is furnished either with a circular
horizontal plate or with a brass knob. . If an electrified
body be brought near to the top of the instrument, the top
becomes electrified oppositely to the body presented, and
the gold leaves similarly. As they are both charged with
the same kind of electricity, they repel each other, and
diverge more or less in proportion to the strength of the
charge and to the nearness of the electrified body; and
thus show us the presence of free electricity. Besides Ben-
net’s electroscope, there are the single gold-leaf electroscope,
Volta’s condensing electroscope, and Bohnenberger's elec-
troscope. *
Elec'trotint, an art by which drawings are made with
any substance insoluble in the solution of sulphate of cop-
per. When the design is completed the plate is immersed
in the solution, and a reverse made by the electro-copper-
ing process, called electrotype or voltatype.
Elec'trotype [from electricity and type] is the name
given to the cast of an object procured by the gradual de-
position of a metal from a solution by means of a current
of electricity. When two pieces of clean platinum are put
into a solution of sulphate of copper, no change takes place.
But if an electric current is transmitted through the solu-
tion by means of these platinum platés, copper is at once
precipitated upon the platinum, which forms the cathode,
the anode remaining clean. If the current be reversed,
the copper will be transferred from the platinum plate on
which it had been deposited to the clean plate. By thus
reversing the direction of the current the copper may be
sent backward and forward, being always deposited upon
the negative pole, or that surface by which the electric cur-
rent leaves the electrolyte or solution that is undergoing
By continuing the electric currents, and
keeping up the strength of the solution by adding fresh
portions of the salt of copper, the metallic film on the
cathode may be made of any required thickness, and after-
wards peeled off the platinum surface. The texture of the
copper deposited varies with the battery-power employed
and with the strength and temperature of the solution, and
may be hard, brittle, and crystalline, or tough and malle-
able, according to the management of the operator. A
current of low intensity, a moderately strong solution of
sulphate of copper acidulated with sulphuric acid, and a
temperature not below 60°, are the most favorable circum-
stances for obtaining the best deposit of copper. When
the negative pole or cathode is irregular (like a coin or
medal), instead of being a plane surface of platinum, an
exact impression of the device may be taken off on the
precipitated copper. Gold and other metals may be sub-
stituted for copper by proper management, or if the pre-
96 *
1522
ELECTRUM-ELEPHANT.
cipitated metal be left upon the surface on which it is
thrown down, gilding, silvering, etc. may be done exten-
sively and with fine effect. This art is called electro-pla-
ting. Proficiency in electrotyping or the galvano-plastic
art requires but little apparatus, and involves no great ex-
pense. A medal may be either copied directly, and an
inverted impression obtained from which a second electro-
type can be taken, or a cast of the medal may be first made
in stearin or plaster. In the latter operation, which is the
most generally used, the mould, if of plaster, must be first
soaked in oil, tallow, or melted spermaceti, so as to render
it impervious to water. It must then be made a conductor
of the current, and this is done by thoroughly brushing
black lead over the surface which is to be reproduced. In
case the medal itself is used, in order to prevent the depo-
sition of copper which would take place upon the edges and
upon the reverse of the medal, those parts should be cov-
ered with sealing-wax, varnish, or shell-lac. The introduc-
tion of this valuable art has been ascribed to different per-
sons. Daniell is said to have been the first to notice the
deposition of metallic copper by electricity while working
with his battery; Jacobi of St. Petersburg first published
in 1839 a practical application of this fact, which publica-
.tion called out announcements from Spencer and Jordan,
two Englishmen, who were both working independently at
the same object as Jacobi. Messrs. Elkington soon after
applied the process to the gilding and plating of goods on
a large scale. Electrotyping has to some extent super-
seded the old stereotype process for making plates for
printers’ use, especially for the reproduction of engravings
and where large numbers are to be printed. In large elec-
trotyping establishments, gutta percha moulds are almost
exclusively employed at present, and in place of galvanic
batteries magneto-electrical machines driven by steam are .
used. -
Elec'trum, the Latin name of AMBER (which see); also
a natural alloy of gold and silver, in the proportion of two
of gold and one of silver. It is found in Siberia, Norway,
and California, and occurs in tabular crystals or imperfect
cubes of a silver-white color.
Elec'tuary [Lat. electua’rium, from the Gr. Šk, “out,”
and Aetxo, to “ lick,” because designed to be licked with the
tongue from the spoon], in pharmacy, a variety of confec-
tion thinner than a conserve, and composed of powdered
ºs-ºs--- ~~~<º
*#2 Eº-º. -sº:
3% -º-º:
x. F. Wºº B
sº
-- §: £: Fº
* . . ;-ºr sº:- “…sºſz, £º
Sg."-º . . -- *
drugs mingled with honey, syrup, glycerin, or other ve-
hicle. Electuaries are not now recognized in the U. S. and
British pharmacopoeias. -
E!'egy [Lat. elegia; Gr. Aeyeta; Fr. Élégie; Ger. Elegie],
the name given by the ancient Greeks and Romans to poems
of various kinds, being applied to the martial lyrics of
Tyrtaeus, the aphorisms of Theognis and Solon, the melan-
choly effusions of Mimnermus, and the erotic poems of
Ovid, Catullus, and Tibullus. In modern times the name
is applied chiefly to poetical compositions of a melancholy
character.
El’ement [Lat. elemen/tum ; Fr. Élément], a term used
in various senses; a first principle; a rudiment; a con-
stituent part of a compound; sometimes the proper state or
sphere of a person or an animal. In the plural, the first
principles or rules of a science or art; also the bread and
wine in the Eucharist. Ancient philosophers applied this
term to fire, air, earth, and water, each of which, in their
several systems, was supposed to be the first principle of
all things. The elements of the alchemists were sulphur,
mercury, and salt. As a modern scientific term, element
signifies a simple substance, or one which chemists have not
yet decomposed.
ELEMENTs, in astronomy, are the data required in
order to compute the place of a planet, satellite, or comet;
those numerical quantities, etc. which are employed in the
construction of tables exhibiting the motions of the moon
and planets. They comprise the greatest, least, and mean
distances of the planets from the sun, the eccentricity of
their orbits, their mean motions, daily and annual, their
masses, densities, etc. -
Elements, Chemical.
GEORGE F. BARKER, M. D.
E1/emi, the name of a fragrant resinous substance pro-
cured from several species of trees of the natural order
Amyridaceae. It exudes from incisions made in the bark,
is at first soft, but becomes hard and brittle. It is generally
pale yellow, semi-transparent, and soluble in alcohol except
a residue called elemin. It is obtained from the Icica Iei-
cariba, which grows in Brazil; from Elaphrium elemiferum,
of Mexico; and from Canarium commune, of Manila. El-
emi is used in the preparation of ointments and plasters.
E1/ephant [Gr. Aébas; Lat. elephas, gen, elephantis],
See CHEMISTRY, by PROF.
§ §§§ - Sº, “ .
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Ş
º §
§ SS §
\º & ~ S §
º §§ &
*:S
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- º º º
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f Wºº
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1:
African Elephant. .
a gigantic animal of the order Proboscidea, is the largest
and heaviest of existing quadrupeds, and is celebrated for
sagacity and docility. The genus is characterized by hav-
ing grinders composed of alternating vertical plates of
ivory, enamel, and caementum ; and two ivory tusks in the
upper jaw. Elephants are the only living Mammalia that
have a proboscis or trunk longer than the head. Cuvier
included the genus Elephas and the extinct mastodon in a
family of pachyderms, which he called Proboscidians. The
proboscis is a very remarkable feature, and presents an as-
tonishing combination of flexibility and strength. It is an
organ of touch, is four or five feet long, has neither bone
nor cartilage; and this constitutes the peculiarity of its
mechanism. Two tubes or canals, which are prolongations
of the nostrils, extend through its whole length. The
mechanism of the trunk is unique among animal structures,
and renders it capable of performing operations as different
as picking up a pin and tearing up a tree by its roots. The
animal uses his trunk to convey food and drink into his
mouth, but he rarely uses it as a weapon. As an organ of
touch the trunk is exquisitely fine. The elephant has so
high an opinion of the importance of its trunk that when
<
























*
ELEPHANTA—ELEPHANTIASIS.
1523
attacked by a tiger or exposed to other danger he carries
it high in the air. The tusks, which correspond to the
canine teeth of other quadrupeds, sometimes measure nine
feet in length and weigh 150 pounds each, but the average
weight is not over 100 pounds. The tusks are formidable
defensive and offensive weapons. The curvature of the
tusks is subject to great variations. Some of the Indian
elephants have their tusks varying from a projecting hori-
zontal but rather elevated curve to a form almost straight.
Others resemble in shape the letter S.
stance of which they are composed, called ivory, is differ-
ent from the bone of other teeth, it is formed, like other
teeth, by successive secretions from a pulpy root. The
tusk has no adhesion to this root, but is held in its alveole
(socket) as a nail is held in a plank. The elephant feeds
on vegetable food exclusively, and the construction of its
grinding teeth is a striking example of the adaptation of
the teeth of every animal to its peculiar mode of subsist-
ence. The duration of the teeth of quadrupeds is in pro-
portion to their ordinary term of existence. To an animal
that feeds on grass, leaves, etc. the destruction of the teeth
involves a speedy death. Each grinder is composed of ver-
tical laminae covered with enamel, and joined together by a
substance like ivory. This latter, being much softer than
the enamel, wears away faster, so that the enamel remains
higher, and the surface of each grinder always presents
several ridges. Thus, by the renewal of the grinding sur-
face the teeth of the elephant will last 100 years or more.
According to Pliny and Aristotle, the elephant is capable
of living 200 years.
Besides many species which are extinct, the genus Ele-
phas comprises only two species now living—namely, the
Asiatic or Indian elephant (E!'ephas In"dicus) and the Af-
rican (Elephas Africa/nus). The former has small ears
and a concave forehead, and its skull is higher in propor-
tion to its other dimensions. The forehead of the African
species is somewhat convex, and it has enormous ears,
which cover the shoulders. The ear is the most conspicu-
ous external character by which the two species may be
distinguished. The height of the Indian elephant from the
ground to the top of the shoulder seldom exceeds ten feet.
The African is larger, and sometimes measures twelve feet
high. F. Cuvier and others regard it as of a distinct
genus, and name it Loacodonta Africana. There is a skele-
ton of an elephant in the Museum of St. Petersburg which
measures sixteen and a half feet in height.
A large elephant weighs about 7000 pounds. The ordi-
nary period of gestation is twenty months and some days;
only one calf is produced at a birth. The quantity of food
consumed daily by a full-grown elephant is enormous, prob-
ably not less than 300 pounds. The skin is hard, thick, and
nearly naked, or furnished with a few scattered hairs.
The Asiatic species is found in all the southern countries
of Asia and in the adjacent islands. The African abounds
in nearly all parts of the continent S. of the Desert of Sa-
hara. Both species live in large herds, reigning the almost
exclusive occupants of immense forests, and marshy plains
covered with long grass and jungle. Their favorite habitat
is in well-watered regions and plains or lowlands where the
vegetation is luxuriant. It is stated that more than 1000
have been seen in one herd. “A herd of elephants,” says
Pringle, “browsing in majestic tranquillity amidst the wild
magnificence of an African landscape, is a very noble
sight.” The people of Africa do not tame the elephant or
use it as a beast of burden, but they kill great numbers
for the sake of the ivory, which they sell, and the flesh,
which they esteem as food. “There were periods in the
history of the refined nations of antiquity when the de-
struction of the elephant was as great as in modern times;
when Africa yielded her tribute of elephants’ teeth to the
kings of Persia; when the people of Judaea built ivory
palaces (Psalm xiv. 8); when the Etruscan attributes of
royalty were sceptres and thrones of ivory; when the an-
cient kings and magistrates of Rome sat in ivory seats
(sellae curules); and when colossal ivory statues of their
gods were raised by the Greeks of the age of Pericles.”
(Library of Entertaining Knowledge.) The ancient Cartha-
ginians and other nations employed elephants in war, not
only as beasts of burden, but as combatants. These ani-
mals formed part of the army which Hannibal led across
the Alps, and they are said to have decided the victory at
the battle of Trebia. For a long period the elephant was
as important an arm of war as the artillery of modern na-
tions. The Asiatic species was also employed for this pur-
pose, and Seleucus is said to have had more than 100 ele-
phants at the battle of Ipsus.
The African hunters shoot them in the head or heart
with rifles, and sometimes disable them by cutting the ham-
string or tendon of the hind leg with a sword. Two hunt-
ers, naked, mounted on the back of the same horse, will ap-
proach an elephant, and when he assumes the offensive will
Although the sub-
'retreat in a circuitous course with many.devious turns. At
length, one of the men, armed with a sword, alights on the
ground near the elephant, and while the horseman occupies
his attention in front the footman cuts the tendon just above
the heel. At this critical moment the horseman wheels,
takes his companion up behind him, and rescues him from
the enraged animal by riding off at full speed. The chase
of the elephant is attended with great danger, and many
hunters have been killed in it. It appears that no people
of Africa, now capture elephants alive, or avail themselves
of their services in a domesticated state, but in Asia large
numbers of them are caught and tamed. The various
modes of capturing wild elephants in India have prevailed
without much change for centuries, and are practised in
several Asiatic countries where elephants are required to
maintain the splendor of Oriental luxury and figure in the
pomp and pageantry of monarchs. In 1794 the nabob of
Oude went upon a hunting expedition with 1000 elephants.
The rudest mode of capturing them is by digging a pit
which is covered with loose boards or with boughs and
grass, and a tame elephant decoys a herd of them to tread
on the trap. Pliny, who mentions the taking of elephants
in pits, says the companions of one who has been thus en-
trapped will endeavor to liberate him by throwing mate-
rials into the pit. In other methods of capturing them
man avails himself of the docility of tame female elephants,
who serve as decoys and display a treacherous ingenuity
as well as a desire to assist their masters in this business.
While the female by her caresses diverts the attention of a
wild animal, one hunter fetters his fore legs with a strong
rope, and another ties his hind leg to a tree. If no tree is
near in the first instance, they fasten to his leg a long cable,
which trails behind him when he moves, until he comes near
a large tree, to which he is secured. He is kept bound in
that position until his rage is exhausted, and he is left to
the further operation of hunger until he is subdued into
docility. Among the animals which will attack an ele-
phant are the tiger and rhinoceros. The animals to which
the elephant is most nearly allied are the horse, pig, and
rhinoceros.
According to Pliny, it was not uncommon at Rome to
see tame elephants hurl javelins in the air and catch them
with their trunks, and then execute a pyrrhic dance. They
also danced upon a rope. This feat of dancing or walking
on a rope is confirmed by other ancient writers. One of the
strongest instincts of the elephant is that which impels him
to try the stability and strength of any structure or surface
which he is required to cross, before he will expose himself
to the risk of breaking it down with his weight.
Remains of extinct species of elephant have been found .
in many parts of Europe, North America, and Siberia.
Among them is the mammoth (Elephas primigenius), which
occurs in the post-pliocene deposits. An entire specimen
was discovered in 1799 in the frozen soil at the mouth of
the river Lena in Siberia. (See MAMMOTH.) In the cave of
Kirkdale, Yorkshire, England, the bones of elephants were
found by Prof. Buckland, mixed with those of the rhino-
ceros and hyaena. Many of these fossils have also been
dug up in the U. S., near the Ohio River and at other
places. “There is not a canton in Siberia,” says Pallas,
“which does not possess fossil bones of elephants.” Their
tusks are there so abundant as to be an important article
of commerce. - WILLIAM JACOBs.
Elephan/ta, an island of British India, in the harbor
of Bombay, 7 miles from that city, derived its name from a
gigantic stone figure of an elephant which formerly stood on
the shore. The island is 6 miles in circumference. Here are
several remarkable ancient cave-temples excavated out of
the native rock, and adorned with numerous sculptured
figures of the Hindoo mythology. The largest of these
cave-temples is about 133 feet long, and is supported by
twenty-six pillars.
Elephant Bay, an inlet of the Atlantic, in Benguela,
Africa, is in lat. 13° 14' S., lon. 12° 33' E. It affords good
anchorage, but no fresh water. -
Elephanti/asis [from the Gr. Aébas, an “elephant,”
because it was fancied that the legs of those who suffered
with it resembled those of an elephant], as at present used,
designates the disease anciently known as elephantiabis
Arabum, the “elephantiasis of the Arabians,” so called to
distinguish it from the elephantiasis Græcorum, the “ele-
phantiasis of the Greeks,” which was probably identical
with leprosy. Elephantiasis is rare in Europe and North
America, though not unknown in either. It is endemic in
the Levant and the East and West Indies. The foot and
leg, or sometimes other parts, become greatly enlarged and
enormously increased in density and hardness, the skin
assuming a remarkable roughness and usually a darkness
of hue. The prognosis is usually grave, very few cases
recovering, though many cases remain completely station-
1524
ELEPHANTINE–ELF ARROW-HEADS.
ary after the disease is once established. In fatal cases
suppuration and erysipelas are the active symptoms. The
treatment is thus far unsatisfactory. The use of iron,
iodine and quinia, with bandaging, is recommended.
Elephan’tine, an island of the river Nile, on the
boundary between Egypt and Nubia, is opposite to Asswän
(the ancient Syene). It is 1 mile long, and is partly occu-
pied by gardens and houses interspersed among ruins of
ancient temples erected by the Pharaohs. Among its
monuments is the Nilometer, mentioned by Strabo, and
designed to record the height of the inundations of the
Nile. Here are quarries of syenite, a variety of granite.
This island was garrisoned by the ancient Persians and
Romans. It is now inhabited by Nubians.
Elephant Seal (Macrorhinus proboscidents), sometimes
called the Proboscis Seal and Sea Elephant, is by
far the largest of the Phocidae or seal family, being some-
times thirty feet in length, and having a circumference at
the thickest part of nearly eighteen feet. The color is
generally bluish-gray, but occasionally dark brown. Its
body is unevenly covered with short hair, the tail not more
than six inches long, the swimming paws very large and
strong, and having five nails; the hind paws, which are
constructed like the webbed foot of a bird, are without even
the rudiments of nails. The head is large, the eyes large
and prominent, and there are no external ears. The canine
teeth resemble tusks in their size and massiveness; the nose
of the male is prolonged into a proboscis about a foot long,
which, however, does not serve the same purpose as that
of the elephant. The skin is very thiók and strong, and is
of great value for harness-making; the flesh is dark and
unwholesome, the tongue only being prized as food.- These
seals are found in the Falkland Islands, South Georgia,
Kerguelen's Land, etc. They are hunted to a great extent
for their oil, which is of excellent quality and yielded in
great quantity, one seal sometimes affording seventy gal-
lons. They migrate to the south early in the summer, and
northward in the beginning of winter. They feed chiefly
‘on cuttlefish and other cephalopods.
Elephant’s Foot (Testudinaria elephantipes), a plant
sometimes called “Hottentots’ bread,” belongs to the order
Dioscoriaceae, having a large, fleshy root-stock, abruptly
truncated at the end. This root-stock is eaten by the Hot-
tentots. It is covered with a soft, rough bark, from which
springs a climbing stem, bearing the leaves and flowers.
The same name is also given to a genus of the order Com-
positae (Elephantopus), of which two species are found in
the southern Atlantic States.
Eletz, a town of Russia, in the government of Orel, 220
miles S. S. E. of Moscow, on the Sosna. It has many fac-
tories, and has a large trade in wheat flour. Pop. in 1867,
30,182.
Eleusi’me, a genus of grasses (Graminaceae), comprises
several species which are natives of India and other warm
climates, and are cultivated for food. Elusine Coracana is
extensively cultivated for its large farinaceous grain in In-
dia, China, and Japan. The grain called tocusso in Abys-
sinia is produced by the Elusine Tocusso. The Elusine In-
dica is naturalized about dooryards, etc. in the U. S.
Eleusin'ia, or Elepsin'ian Mys’teries [Gr. ‘Exev-
orivia], an annual festival celebrated in ancient Greece in
honor of Demeter (Ceres) and Persephone (Proserpine).
.The worship of Demeter originally took place at Eleusis
only, but after the conquest of that city by the Athenians
feasts were celebrated in her honor in various Grecian cities.
The origin of these mysteries is uncertain, but the popular
tradition was that Demeter herself, while searching for her
daughter Persephone, came to Attica, where she taught the
inhabitants the use of corn and instituted the mysteries.
The festival consisted of the greater and the lesser mys-
teries. The lesser feast was held in the month of Anthes-
terion at Agra, on the Ilissus, and was only a preparation
for the real or greater mysteries. The latter took place in
the month of Boédromion, beginning on the 15th and end-
ing on the 23d. On the first day, called &yvpués (the “as-
sembling ”), the mystae—i.e. those who had been initiated
in the lesser Eleusinia—assembled at' Athens. On the
second they walked to the sea in procession and were puri-
fied. The third day appears to have been a day of fasting,
and, according to some authorities, sacrifices of fish and
cakes of barley from the Rarian plain were offered. On
the fourth day the procession of the sacred basket (káAo.90s
ká0080s) took place. This basket contained pomegranates
and poppy-seeds, and was drawn on a cart by oxen, and
followed by women bearing mystic cases. The fifth day
appears to have been known as the torch-day, and prob-
ably symbolized the search of Demeter for Persephone.
The mystae walked with torches to the temple of Demeter
at Eleusis, where they seem to have remained all night.
The sixth day, called Iakchos, from a son of Demeter, was
the most solemn of all. A decorated statue of Iakchos
was carried from Athens to Eleusis, where the votaries
again passed the night and were initiated into the last
mysteries. Under an awful oath of secresy they were ad-
mitted into the inner sanctuary, where they were allowed
to see the sacred things, after which they were called . .
epoptoe—i.e. “contemplators.” On the seventh day they
returned to Athens with jests and music, resting at the
bridge over the Cephisus, where they ridiculed all who
passed. The eighth day is supposed to have been added
to the original number, so that those might be initiated
who had been unable to attend on the 'sixth day. On the
ninth and last day two vessels filled with wine or water
were emptied—one towards the east, the other towards, the
west—by the priests, who at the same time uttered some
mystical words. Besides these ceremonies there were seve-
ral others, of which the Eleusinian games, supposed to
have taken place on the seventh day, and to have been the
most ancient in Greece, were the chief. Nothing certain is
known respecting the doctrines revealed to the initiated,
but they are supposed to have contained comforting assur-
ances with regard to a future state. Distinctions of class
were abolished at the Eleusinia, and with this view Lycur-
gus forbade any woman to ride in the procession in a cha-
riot, under penalty of a heavy fine.
Eleu’sis [Gr. 'EAeva is or 'EAevarív], an ancient and cele-
brated city of Greece, was situated in Attica, near the
northern shore of the Gulf of Salamis, and about 12 miles
N. W. of Athens. It was the chief seat of the worship of
Ceres, whose mystic rites, called ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES
(which see), were here performed annually with great
pomp. Here was a large temple of Ceres. The site of
Eleusis was near the modern village of Levsina. (See.
WoRDsworth, “Greece,” 1853.)
Eleu’thera, one of the Bahama Islands, in the Atlantic
Ocean, is about 50 miles N. E. of New Providence. It is
80 miles long and about 10 miles wide. The soil is rather
fertile, and produces pineapples, oranges, cascarilla bark,
etc. Lat. of the northern point, 25° 34' N., lon. 76° 43' W.
Eleutheºria [from the Gr. "Exeſ 9epos, “free”], a national
festival of the ancient Greeks, instituted in 479 B.C. to com-
memorate their deliverance from the Persian armies which
had invaded Greece. It was celebrated annually at Plataea
in the early part of autumn.
Elevaſtion [Lat. elevaſtio, from el/evo, elevoſtum, to
“lift up ’’ or “raise”], the act of raising to a higher level
or place; the act of exalting in rank; altitude; height
above the surface; sometimes exaltation of mind or style;
a hill or elevated ground. In engineering and architec-
ture, a geometrical representation of a building or other
object, as if projected (hence also styled a projection) upon
a vertical plane by perpendicular lines drawn through its
defining lines or points. It differs from a true pictorial
representation or perspective view in this, that the pro-
jecting lines in the latter converge to the eye, as do visual
rays; from a section, in that the latter represents, instead
of the visible eacterior, what would be exposed to the eye
were all that part of the object in front of an intersecting .
vertical plane removed. -
ELEVATION, in astronomy, the angular height or the alti-
tude of a celestial object above the horizon, measured by
the arc of a vertical circle passing through it and the
zeniths Thus, the elevation of the pole denotes the arc of
the meridian intercepted between the pole and the horizon,
and is always equal to the latitude of the observer. The
greatest elevation of a star occurs when that star is on the
meridian. -- g
ELEvATION in gunnery is the inclination of the axis of
the cannon or gun above the object aimed at, to counteract
the effect which the force of gravity causes. It waries with
the range.
Eleva/tion, a township of Johnston co., N. C. Pop.
1459. - -
Elevation of the Host (eleva/tio hos’tiae), in the Ro-
man Catholic ritual of the mass, is the lifting up of the
elements after consecration for the adoration of the people.
Elf, plu. Elves [Ang-Sax. aelf; Ger. Elfe; Swed, elf;
Dan. alf]. Elves are a class of imaginary beings whose
existence is especially believed in among the peasantry of
Scandinavia and North-western Europe, in whose mythology
they had a prominent place. They were of two kinds, the
good and bad elves, and their exploits gave origin to a great
number of marvellous tales. It appears that the elves were
celebrated among Germanic peoples, and especially among
the Norse, while fairies were described in Celtic legends;,
but in England, at least, the names were confounded.
Elf Ar’row-heads, called also Elf Stones, etc.,
the popular name in Great Britain of the flint arrow-heads
which were used by the pre-historic inhabitants. Accord-
ELGIN–ELIOT.
1525
ing to a prevailing superstition, they were shot at human
beings and cattle by the fairies or elves. These stones are
worn as a talisman against witchcraft and poison.
E1/gin, a royal burgh of Scotland, the capital of the
county of Moray or Elgin, is on the river Lossie, 5 miles
from the sea and 118 miles N. of Edinburgh, with which it
is connected by a railway. It is beautifully situated in a
fertile valley, has ten churches, a hospital, and an institu-
tion which Gen. Anderson endowed with £70,000 for the
education of orphans. Elgin has the ruins of a cathedral
founded in 1224. These are the most extensive and beau-
tiful of ancient Scottish remains. Here are the ruins of a
castle which was the residence of the earls of Moray. El-
gin, has iron-foundries and woollen-factories. Pop of par-
liamentary burgh in 1871, 7339.
E1/gin, a county of Ontario, Dominion of Canada, has
an area of about 700 square miles. It is bounded on the S.
by Lake Erie, and partly drained by the river Thames.
The soil is productive. It is intersected by the London and
Port Stanley R. R. Capital, St. Thomas. Pop. 33,666.
Elgin, a city of Kane co., Ill., on Fox River, 36 miles
W. by N. from Chicago, has a fine water-power and more
than twenty manufacturing concerns, including a large
woollen-mill, mower-and-reaper manufactory, engine and
boiler works, and a wringer-factory. It is the seat of the
National watch-factory, employing 1000 skilled operators,
the Northern Insane Asylum, costing $500,000, and the
Borden milk-condensing factory. It has an excellent acad-
emy and several fine churches. One of the chief industries
is cheese and butter making in factories. Has two national
banks and three newspapers, one monthly. Three railroads
pass through the city—the Chicago and North-western, the
Chicago and Pacific, and the Fox River R. Rs. Pop. 5441;
of Elgin township, exclusive of the city, 1298.
S. L. TAYLOR, ED. AND PROP. “ADvocate.”
Elgin, a township of Plymouth co., Ia. Pop. 429.
Elgin, a post-township of Wabashaw co., Minn. Pop.
878.
Elgin (JAMEs Bruce), EIGHTH EARL of, born in Lon-
don July 20, 1811, was educated at Oxford. He succeeded
his father in 1841. This earldom was a Scottish peerage,
which did not admit him into the House of Lords. He be-
came governor of Jamaica in 1842, and of Canada in 1846.
Canada prospered under his administration, which lasted
eight years. He was created a peer of the United King-
dom in 1849, was sent on a mission to China in 1857, and
negotiated the treaty of Tien-Tsien (1858). In 1859 he
was postmaster-general, and in 1861 was appointed gov-
ernor-general of India. Died Nov. 20, 1863.
Elgin (THOMAS Bruce), seveNTH EARL of, the father
of the preceding, was born in Scotland in 1766. He ob-
tained the rank of general in the army, and was sent as
envoy extraordinary to Berlin in 1795. In 1799 he was
appointed ambassador to Constantinople. He expended a
large sum of money (about £50,000) in the removal of
statues, bas-reliefs, and other remains of ancient art from
the Parthenon and Acropolis of Athens to England. (See
ELGIN MARBLEs.) Died Nov., 1841.
Elgin Marbles, a collection of sculptures taken from
the Acropolis, mainly from the Parthenon at Athens. They
are so called from the earl of Elgin, who, by permission of
the Porte, brought them to England, from 1808 to 1812.
The government bought them in 1816 for £35,000, a little
more than two-thirds of the cost of excavating and trans-
porting them. They consist of colossal statues and pieces
of statues, bas-reliefs, caryatides, bits of column, urns, etc.
The marbles from the Parthenon exhibit Greek art in its
highest perfection. Their influence on English art has been
very great. The students of art in America have them in
the form of casts. Lovers of plastic art are grateful to
Lord Elgin, instead of indignant with him, for bringing
within their reach these masterpieces of beauty. (See Lyon,
“Outlines of the Elgin Marbles,” 1816; “The Elgin Marbles
from the Temple of Minerva at Athens,” 1816; LAWRENCE,
“Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon at Athens,” 1818; and
ELLſs, “The Elgin and Phigalian Marbles,” 2 vols., 1836.)
EI'ginshire, a county of Scotland, is bounded on the
N. by the German Ocean, on the E. by Banffshire, on the
S. by Inverness, and on the W. by Nairn. Area, 473 square
miles. It is divided into two separate parts by a part of
Inverness-shire. The climate is mild and dry, and the soil
open, sandy, and gravelly, and very fertile in the N., The
chief products are wheat, oats, and other kinds of grain. It
was formerly called the granary of Scotland. Here are
some manufactories of woollen goods. The chief articles
of export are cattle, salmon, grain, and timber. It sends,
together with Nairnshire, one member to Parliament. Pop.
in 1871, 43,598. Chief town, Elgin.
Elia. See LAMB (CHARLEs).
Eli’as Levi’ta, a learned Jewish rabbi, born in 1472,
was probably a native of Italy. He taught Hebrew at
Rome and Venice, was distinguished as a grammarian, and
published numerous works, among which are a “Hebrew
Grammar,” a “Chaldaic, Talmudic, and Rabbinical Lexi-
con,” and “Massorah,” containing critical notes on the text
of the Bible. Died at Venice in 1549.
Eli'da, a post-village of Winnebago township, Winne-
bago co., Ill. Pop. 468.
Elida, a post-village of German township, Allen co., 0.
Pop. 533.
Elie de Beaumont (JEAN BAPTISTE ARMAND Louis
Lío NCE), a French geologist, born at Canon (Calvados) in
1798. He was educated in the Polytechnic School, and be-
came professor of geology in the College of France in 1832,
chief ongineer of mines in 1833, and a member of the In-
stitute in 1835. In conjunction with Dufrénoy he prepared
a geological map of France (1841). Among his works are
“Lectures on Geology" (3 vols., 1845 et seq.) and a “Trea-
tise on the Mountain Systems,” giving his theories on the
elevation of mountain-ranges (1852). He succeeded Arago
as perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences in 1853.
Died Sept., 1874. .
Elim (a “place of fountains and palm trees”), the sec-
ond mentioned in the march of the Israelites after cross-
ing the Red Sea (Ex. xv. 27). It has been identified
with Ghurundel, about halfway between Suez and Sinai.
Elimina/tion [from the Lat. elim/ino, elimina’tum, to
“send out” (from e, “out” or “out from,” and li'men, li-
minis, a “threshold” or “limit”) j, in mathematics, is the
process of causing a quantity or letter which is common to
two or more equations to disappear by framing out of the
two a new equation in such a way as to omit the quantity in
question. In other kinds of reasoning, not mathematical,
climination “is the extrusion of that which is superfluous or
irrelevant.” The term “to eliminate” is frequently but in-
correctly used in the sense of “to elicit.”
E1/iot (ANDREW), D. D., was born Dec. 28, 1718, and
graduated at Harvard in 1737. He became pastor of the
New North church, Boston, Mass., in 1742, and filled that
position till his death, Sept. 13, 1778. He was elected
president of Harvard University, but declined the honor.
Eliot (CHARLEs WILLIAM), LL.D., born Mar. 20, 1834,
at Boston, Mass., educated at the Boston Public Latin School
(1844–49) and at Harvard College (1849–53), was tutor in
mathematics at Harvard College (1854–58), assistant pro-
fessor of mathematics and chemistry (1858–61), of chem-
istry (1861–63), professor of chemistry in the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (1865–69), became president of
Harvard College (May 19, 1869). He has published, with
F. H. Storer, sundry chemical investigations, a manual
of chemistry, and a manual of qualitative chemical analy-
SiS. •
Eliot (GEORGE). See Evans (MARIAN C.).
Eliot (John), a minister of Roxbury, Mass, called “the
apostle to the Indians,” was born in England in 1604. He
was educated at Cambridge, and came to Boston in 1631.
He acquired the language of the Indians, and from 1646 he
devoted himself to improving their condition and convert-
ing them to Christianity. He travelled extensively among
them, enduring great privations and passing through many
dangers. He succeeded in acquiring great influence over
them, and many of them embraced the Christian faith. He
translated the Bible into the Indian tongue (1661–63), pub-
lished an Indian grammar (1666), and a number of other
works, mostly relating to his missionary labors. Died May
20, 1690. - - -
Eliot (John), D. D., an American preacher and biogra-
pher, born in Boston May 31, 1754, graduated at Hair-
ward in 1772. With Jeremy Belknap, he founded the Mas-
sachusetts Historical Society. He was the author of a
“New England Biographical Dictionary” (1809) and other
works. Died Feb. 14, 1813. . & a
Eliot (SAMUEL), LL.D., an American historian, born.
in Boston Dec. 22, 1821, graduated at Harvard in 1839.
Having visited Rome and travelled in Europe, he prºjected
a “History of Liberty,” a part of which he published in
1849, two volumes, entitled “The Liberty of Rome.” “The
Early Christians” (2 vols., 1858) is the second part of the
same work. Among his writings is a “Manual of United
States History from 1492 to 1850” (1856). He was presi-
dent of Trinity College, Hartford, in 1860–64.
Eliot (SAMUEL ATKINs), a merchant of Boston, was born
Mar. 5, 1798, and graduated at Harvard in 1817. He was
father of President C. W. Eliot of Harvard College, was
mayor of Boston (1837–39), a prominent State politician,
member of Congress. (1850–51), and was treasurer of Har-
vard College. Died Jan. 29, 1862.
1526
ELIOT-ELIZABETH CHRISTINA.
Eliot (THOMAs D.), born in Boston, Mass., Mar. 20,
1808, graduated with honors at Columbian College, D.C.,
in 1825, and was admitted to the bar. He was a Republi-
can member of Congress (1854–69); and took a prominent
part in “reconstruction * and in business-relative to the
freedmen after the late civil war. Died June 12, 1870.
E/lis [Gr. *HAts; Fr. L’Elide], a small state of ancient
Greece in the N. W. part of the Peloponnesus, was bounded
on the N. by Achaia, on the E. by Arcadia, on the S. by
Messenia, and on the W. by the Ionian Sea. It is inter-
sected by the rivers Alpheus (now Rowphia) and Peneus
(Gastuni). The surface is diversified by hills and fertile
plains and valleys. Elis was divided into three districts—
Hollow Elis, Pisatis, and Triphylia. The chief towns were
Elis, Cyllene, Pylos, and Olympia. The Olympic games,
the greatest national festival of the Greeks, were celebrated
at Olympia. Elis now forms with Achaia a nomarchy of
the kingdom of Greece. -
Elis, an ancient city, the capital of the above state,
was on the river Peneus, about 10 miles from its mouth.
It is mentioned as a town of the Epeii by Homer (“Iliad,”
ii.). It had an acropolis on a hill nearly 500 feet high, and
was the only fortified town in the country. It contained
several fine temples, a theatre, and the largest gymnasium
in Greece. All the athletes who contended at the Olympic
games were required to undergo one month’s previous
training in this gymnasium. When Pausanias visited Elis
(about 175 A.D.) it was one of the most splendid and pop-
ulous cities of Greece. The site is occupied by the modern
Paléopoli or Kaloscopi.
Eli’sors. These are persons named by the court to re-
turn a jury when the sheriff and coroners are incompetent.
They are two in number, and, according to Lord Coke, are
named from the fact that they are chosen by the court (ab
eligando). "Against their return no challenge can be taken
to the array of jurors, though there may be a challenge to
individual jurors or to the polls.
Eliſza, a post-township of Mercer co., III. Pop. 767.
Eliz’abeth, a post-twp. of Jo Daviess co., Ill. P. 1618.
Tº lizabeth, a post-village of Posey township, Harrison
co., Ind. Pop. 216.
Elizabeth, the capital of Union co., N. J., is situated
on Staten Island Sound and Elizabeth River. It has com-
munication with New York, distant 14 miles, by three rail-
roads—the Pennsylvania, the New Jersey Central, and the
Newark and New York, which last has a branch extending
to Elizabeth. It has also a line of steamboats running
thither, making several trips a day. It has a horse-rail-
road which is about 4 miles in length. Elizabeth contains
twenty-five churches, two national and four savings banks,
an orphan asylum, costing $60,000, besides several other
public institutions. It has three daily, one semi-weekly,
and two weekly newspapers. It is remarkable for the num-
ber of New York business-men who reside here with their
families, having nearly a thousand commuters who regu-
larly travel over the roads to and from New York. Eliza-
beth is celebrated for the beauty of its situation and the
number of its paved streets. The city, though not largely
engaged in manufactures, has a number of such, which is
every year increasing, the most notable of which is Singer’s
Sewing-machine Company, which employs 1200 hands.
There are, besides, extensive oil-cloth factories and several
foundries. The city has an electric fire-alarm telegraph,
several parks, and is surrounded by some of the finest and
richest farming country in the State. Elizabeth was for-
merly the capital of New Jersey, and ceased to be such in
1790. Pop. 20,832. F. W. FootB, ED. “DAILY Journ AL.”
Elizabeth, N. C. See ELIZABETHTown.
Elizabeth, a township of Lawrence co., O. Pop. 3357.
Elizabeth, a township of Miami co., O. Pop. 1236.
Elizabeth, a village of Centre township, Morgan co.,
O. Pop. 1325.
Elizabeth, a post-borough of Allegheny co., Pa., on
the right (E.) bank of the Monongahela River, 16 miles S.
by E. from Pittsburg. Pop. 1196; of township, 2937.
Elizabeth, a township of Lancaster co., Pa. P. 955.
Elizabeth, a township of Wirt co., West Va. P. 804.
Elizabeth, from 1558 to 1603 the ruler of England,
and the last sovereign of the House of Tudor, was born
at Greenwich on the 7th of Sept., 1533. She was a
daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn. Her child-
hood was passed in comparative retirement, and she was
educated by persons who favored the Reformed religion.
She learned the Latin, Greek, French, and Italian lan-
guages of the famous Roger Ascham. In 1554 she was
confined in the Tower by order of Queen Mary, who re-
garded her with jealousy because she was the favorite of
took Cadiz in 1596.
Sidney, and Raleigh.
the Protestant party. It appears that Elizabeth narrowly
escaped death, and that some of the bishops and courtiers
advised Mary to order her execution. After she had passed
several months in the Tower, she was removed to Wood-
stock, and appeased Mary by professing to be a Roman
Catholic.
On the death of Queen Mary (Nov. 17, 1558) Elizabeth
ascended the throne, and the majority of the people re-
joiced at her accession. She appointed William Cecil sec-
retary of state, and Nicholas Bacon keeper of the great
seal. She retained several Roman Catholics in her privy
council, but she refused to hear mass in the royal chapel.
The Protestants were the majority in the Parliament which
met in 1559, abolished the mass, adopted the Thirty-nine
Articles as the religion of the state, and recognized the
queen as the head of the Church. “Thus,” says Hume,
“in one session, without any violence or tumult, was the
whole system of religion altered by the will of a young
woman.” She declined an offer of marriage made to her
by Philip II. of Spain. Her foreign policy was pacific.
She waged no war for conquest, but to promote the sta-
bility of her throne she aided the Protestant insurgents in
Scotland, France, and the Netherlands with money and
troops. In 1563 the Parliament, anxious that she should
have an heir, entreated her to marry, but she returned an
evasive answer, and would neither accept the hand of any
of her suitors nor decide in favor of any claimant of the
throne. Among her suitors were the French duke of Anjou,
the archduke Charles of Austria, and Robert Dudley, earl
of Leicester, who was for many years her chief favorite.
William Cecil, Lord Burleigh, was her prime minister and
most trusted adviser during the greater part of her reign,
the prosperity of which is ascribed to his prudence and
influence.
Mary queen of Scots, fleeing from her rebellious subjects,
took refuge in England in 1568, and was detained as a pris–
oner by Elizabeth. The latter regarded Mary as a danger-
ous rival, because the English Catholics wished to raise
her to the throne of England, and formed several plots and
conspiracies for that object. (See MARY STUART.) Mary
was beheaded Feb. 8, 1587. Philip II. of Spain had long
meditated a hostile enterprise against Queen Elizabeth,
who had offended him by aiding his revolted Dutch sub-
jects and by persecuting the English Catholics. For the
invasion of England he fitted out the Invincible Armada,
which consisted of about 130 vessels, with over 19,000
soldiers, and sailed in May, 1588. A violent storm dis-
persed the Spanish ships, many of which were wrecked,
and the rest were encountered by the English fleet, mostly
consisting of small but excellently equipped vessels, under
Admiral Howard, and thoroughly beaten, Aug. 8, 1588.
The disastrous failure of this expedition did not terminate
hostilities between England and Spain. An English fleet
After the earl of Leicester died
(1588) the earl of Essex was the queen’s favorite courtier.
The Puritans were severely persecuted in the latter part
of her reign. She died Mar. 24, 1603, and was succeeded
by James VI. of Scotland, who became James I. of Eng-
land. Her reign is considered one of the most prosper-
ous and glorious in English history, and she displayed
superior abilities as a ruler, but her personal character is
deformed by serious faults. She was vain and selfish, and
was more feared than loved by her attendants. The Eliz-
abethan age was almost unequalled in literature, and was
illustrated by the genius of Shakspeare, Spenser, Bacon,
(See FROUDE, “History of Eng-
land,” vols. vii. to x.; HUME, “History of England;”
CAMDEN, “History of Queen Elizabeth,” 1625; DR. THOMAs
BIRCH, “Memoirs of the Reign of Queen Elizabeth,” 1754.)
Elizabeth (PHILIPPINE MARIE HíIièNE), a French
princess, a sister of Louis XVI., was born in 1764. She
was commonly styled Madame Elisabeth. In the Reign
of Terror she was exposed to dangers and sufferings which
she endured with fortitude. She was imprisoned in Aug.,
1792, and guillotined in May, 1794.
Elizabeth'an Arch/itecture, a term applied to a
style of architecture which appeared in England on the de-
cline of the Gothic, and mostly prevailed during the reigns
of Elizabeth and James I. It is sometimes called the Tudor
style, a name more correctly applied to the Latest Gothic.
It is characterized by a rich but cumbrous style of orna-
ment, both within and without, by apartments and galleries
of vast extent, and by enormous square windows. It is re-
garded as a debased style, and was chiefly employed in
domestic architecture. Its later form is called Jacobean.
Elizabeth Christi'na, queen of Prussia, born at
Brunswick Nov. 8, 1715, was a daughter of the duke of
Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. She was married to . Frederick
the Great in 1732. She had a high reputation for virtue
and piety. Died Nov. 13, 1797.
º
ELIZABETH
Elizabeth City, a county in the S. E. of Virginia, at
the extremity of a peninsula formed by James and York
rivers. Area, about 50 square miles. It is bounded on the
E. by Chesapeake Bay, and on the S. by Hampton Roads.
Grain, sweet potatoes, etc. are produced. Capital, Hamp-
ton. Pop. 8303. -
Elizabeth City, the capital of Pasquotank co., N. C.,
is situated 20 miles W. of the Atlantic, on the Pasquotank
River. It has a fine harbor, safe and sufficiently deep for
large vessels. A large portion of the inhabitants are of
Northern origin. It has 5 churches, 2 banks, 2 hotels, 1
newspaper, 2 steam grist-mills, 4 steam saw-mills, 2 shin-
gle-factories, and 1 planing-mill. It is surrounded by a
cotton, corn, and wheat growing country, and is 50 miles
S. of Norfolk, Va., with which it communicates by the
Dismal Swamp Canal. It is partly in Elizabeth City and
partly in Nixonton townships. Pop. 930.
PALEMON JoHN, ED. & PROP. of “NoFTH CAROLINIAN.”
Elizabeth City, a post-township of Pasquotank co.,
N. C. Pop. 2006. -
Elizabethgrad, a town of Russia, in the government
of Kherson, 160 miles N. E. of Odessa. It is a military
settlement, with 31,968 inhabitants. -
Elizabethine Nuns, a congregation of monastic
women in the Roman Catholic Church, belonging to the
third order of St. Francis. The name Elizabethines was at
first applied to voluntary associations of women who im-
itated the zeal of Saint Elizabeth of Hungary, without tak-
ing monastic vows or retiring from the world. But from
the tradition that. Saint Elizabeth belonged to the third
order of Saint Francis, the name is sometimes given to
Franciscan nuns. It is probable, however, that the Fran-
ciscan nuns of the third order were not established till 1395,
Iong after Saint Elizabeth’s death, and that their foundress
was Angelina, the widow of the count de Civitelle. From
1428 to 1459 they were an independent congregation, but
in the latter year were placed under the general of the
Observantine Franciscans.
Elizabeth Islands, a group of sixteen small islands
belonging to Dukes co., Mass., lying between Vineyard
Sound and Buzzard’s Bay. They constitute since 1864 the
township of Gosnold. Pop. 99, principally on Cuttyhunk.
The islands were once densely populated. Cuttyhunk was
the seat of Bartholomew Gosnold’s first colony in “Wir-
ginia,” founded in 1602, but abandoned the same year, on
account of troubles of the colonists with each other and
with the Indians. The islands are a favorite resort for
fishing and yachting. The islands, in the order of their
size, are Naushon, Nashawena, Pasque, Cuttyhunk, Nona-
messet, Uncatena, Penikese, and several small islets. Cut-
tyhunk Light, near the southern point of this group, is in
lat. 41° 24.8' N., lon. 70° 56.7' W. One of the islands,
Penikese or Pune, was presented in Mar., 1873, by John
Anderson of New York, to Prof. Agassiz, for the purpose
of establishing a school of natural history upon it. Mr.
Anderson also gave $50,000 in money towards the endow-
ment of the school, which is indirectly connected with the
Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, Mass. The
school was opened in the summer of 1873. The island con-
tains 100 acres of land.
Elizabeth Petrov'na, empress of Russia, born in
Dec., 1709, was a daughter of Peter the Great and Catherine
I. She was dissolute in morals, and appears to have been
unambitious, as she made little effort to obtain the throne.
Ivan, an infant, was proclaimed emperor in 1740, but the
French surgeon Lestocq and other partisans of Elizabeth
conspired against Ivan with success, and she became em-
press in 1741. As an ally of Austria and France, she waged
war against Frederick the Great in the Seven Years’ war.
Her army gained a victory at Kunersdorf, and entered Ber-
lin in 1760. She had several children by Count Rasumov-
ski, who was first her servant, subsequently her chamber-
Iain, and was at length secretly married to her. She died
Jan. 5, 1762, and was succeeded by her nephew, Peter III.
Elizabeth Port, a post-office in the city of Elizabeth,
Union co., N.J., on Staten Island Sound, and a station on
the Central New Jersey R. R., 7 miles S. of Newark and 12
miles W. S. W. of New York. It has several iron-foundries
and factories, and is an important point for the shipping
of coal. *
Elizabeth, SAINT, of Hungary, a daughter of Andrew
II., king of Hungary, was born at Presburg in 1207. She
became in 1221 the wife of Louis, landgrave of Thuringia,
who died in 1227 at Otranto, on his way to the Holy Land
(the third crusade). His eldest brother (Henry) seized his
possessions, and banished his widow and children. The
knights of Thuringia restored her son Herman to the throne,
and Elizabeth received as a dower the city of Marburg,
where she retired with her daughters, and spent the re-
CITY – ELK. 1527
mainder of her life in what became one continued penance.
“Of all ” (says Mrs. Jameson) “the glorified—victims must
I call them, or martyrs ?—of that terrible but poetical fa-
maticism of the thirteenth century, she was one of the most
remarkable; and of the sacred legends of the Middle Ages
hers is one of the most interesting and most instructive.”
She died Nov. 19, 1231. (See CHARLES DE MONTALEMBERT,
“Vie de S. Elizabeth de Hongrie,” 1836, which has been
translated into English; also CHARLEs KINGSLEY’s “Saint's
Tragedy.”)
Elizabeth Stuart, queen of Bohemia, a daughter of
James I. of England, was born Aug. 19, 1596. She was
married in 1613 to Frederick W., elector palatine, who was
chosen king of Bohemia in 1619 by the Protestant party.
She is said to have been beautiful, and is considered a
heroine. Her husband was defeated in battle in 1620, and
she passed the remainder of her life in exile and adversity.
She was the mother of the famous Prince Rupert and nu-
merous other children. Died Feb. 13, 1662. George I. of
England was her grandson. (See MISS BENGER, “Memoirs
of Elizabeth Stuart,” 1825.)
Eliz’abethton, a post-village, capital of Carter co.,
Tenn., on the Watauga River, about 300 miles E. of Nash-
vile. Pop. 321.
Eliz’abethtown, a post-village, capital of Hardin co.,
Ill., on the Ohio River, 90 miles above Cairo, has one
newspaper-office. There are rich lead-mines in the vicinity.
Elizabethtown, a post-village of Sand Creek town-
ship, Bartholomew co., Ind., on the Jeffersonville Madison
and Indianapolis R. R. (Madison division). Pop. 294.
Elizabethtown, a post-village, capital of Hardin co.,
Rºy., on the Louisville and Nashville and Great Southern
R. R.s., 42 miles S. by W. from Louisville. It is the east-
ern terminus of the Elizabethtown and Paducah R. R. It
has one bank, eight churches, two hotels, two mills, and one
newspaper. Pop. 1743.
RICHARD LA RUE, ED. AND PROP. of “NEws.”
Elizabethtown, a post-village of Colfax co., N. M.,
92 miles N. of Santa Fé.
Elizabethtown, a post-village, capital of Essex co.,
N.Y., on Bouquet River, about 125 miles N. of Albany. It
has a court-house, jail, and weekly newspaper, and the
township has extensive iron-mines and iron-works. Pop.
of Elizabethtown township, 1488.
Elizabethtown, a post-village, capital of Bladen co.,
N. C., on Cape Fear River, 50 miles above Wilmington.
Pop. 62; of Elizabethtown township, 1904. -
Elizabethtown, a village of Wills township, Guernsey
co., O. Pop. 44.
Elizabethtown, a village of Perry township, Licking
co., O. (P. O. name, PERRYTON.) Pop. 113.
Elizabethtown, a post-borough of Lancaster co., Pa.,
18 miles.N. W. of Lancaster City, the county-seat, on the
line of the Pennsylvania R. R., is at equal distance, 18
miles, from the county-seats of four counties—Lancaster,
Dauphin, Lebanon, and York. It has 1 newspaper, 1
national bank, 4 hotels, 5 churches, a farming-implement
manufactory, and a machine-shop. Principal business is
farming and storekeeping. Pop. 858. -
John G. WESTAFER, ED. “CHRONICLE.”
Elizabeto/pol, a government of Transcaucasia, is
bounded on the N. by Tiflis, on the E. by Baku, on the S.
by Persia, and on the W. by Erivan. Area, 17,038 square
miles. The government consists in the W. of high moun-
tains, while the E. is more level. It is drained by the Kur
and numerous other small streams. Chief town, Elizabeto-
pol. Pop. 503,282.
Elizabetopol, or Gandscha, the capital of the gov-
ernment of the same name, in Russian Transcaucasia, is
situated 90 miles S. E. of Tiflis. It has a number of
churches, mosques, and fruit-gardens. Silkworms are raised
here. Pop. 14,971.
Eli’zaville, a post-village of Fleming co., Ky. P. 180.
Elizay, a township of Macon co., N. C. Pop. 525.
Elk (Alces malchis), a species of deer, is a native of the
northern parts of Asia and Europe. It is one of the largest
animals of the deer family or Cervidae, is about six feet high,
and sometimes weighs 1200 pounds. It has a short, com-
pact body raised on long, stilt-like legs, a short, thick neck,
and a large, narrow head, nearly two feet long. The neck
is covered with a short thick mane. The antlers of the
full-grown elk are flattened, displaying a broad blade with
numerous snags on each horn. The tail is only four or five
inches long. The color of its hair is brownish black. Elks
can run with great speed. They frequent marshy districts
and swampy forests, feeding on lichens, leaves, and branches
of trees. Their flesh is esteemed for food. -
1528
ELK, IRISH-ELK MOUND.
The true American elk, commonly called the moose (Alces
4mericanus), so closely resembles the above species that
% º
|Sºft
º
some writers regard them as identical. But the differences
are now generally considered sufficiently great to justify
the opinion that the two are specifically distinct. The
moose is still found in Maine and Northern New York, and
north-westward. It is much hunted for its flesh and skin
in winter, when the frozen crust of the snow, not strong
enough to bear the animal’s weight, seriously impedes its
progress, its great speed at other times making its capture
difficult. When brought to bay, a blow with its fore foot
or horns is a serious matter for the huntsman. It is the
largest known animal of the deer family now existing.
The beast generally known in America as the elk is the
wapiti (Cervus Canadensis), an animal nearly as large as
the moose. It goes in large herds, and is hunted for its
flesh, and especially for its skin, which is highly prized.
Several other large species of deer (as in Ceylon) or of
antelope (as in South Africa) are known locally as elks.
The true elks have a broad hairy muzzle, with a bald spot
between the nostrils, horns large and palmated, with no
basal snag ; true deer have a basal Snag, and more or less
rounded horns; the muzzle is bare and moist.
Ełk, Irish (Megaceros Hibernicus), the name given to
a fossil deer found in the pleistocene strata, distinguished
from other deer by the great size and peculiar form of its
antlers. The beam of the antler is wide and flattened into
a palm, and in one specimen the distance between the ex-
treme tips was nearly eleven feet. There is a brow snag, as
in the fallow deer, and also a back snag. The weight of
the antlers in one specimen was eighty-one pounds. These
fossils, though most abundant in Ireland, are met with in
England and on the Continent. -
Elk, a county in N. W. Central Pennsylvania.
600 square miles. It is partly drained by Clarion River
and its branches. The surface is hilly, and mostly covered
with forests. Bituminous coal is found here. Lumber,
grain, and wool are produced. This county is intersected
by the Philadelphia and Erie R. R. Capital, Ridgeway.
Pop. 8488.
Elk, a township of Clayton co., Ia.
Elk, a township of Delaware co., Ia.
Elk, a township of Cloud co., Kan.
Elk, a township of Sanilac co., Mich. Pop. 633.
Elk, a township of McDonald co., Mo. Pop. 941.
Elk, a township of Stoddard co., Mo. Pop. 621.
Elk, a township of Wilkes co., N. C. Pop. 675.
Elk, a township of Noble co., O. Pop. 1655.
Elk, a township of Vinton co., O. Pop. 2063.
Area,
Pop. 901.
Pop. 927.
EIk, a township of Chester co., Pa. Pop. 839.
Elk, a township of Clarion co., Pa. Pop. 1055.
Elk, a township of Tioga co., Pa. Pop. 172.
Elk, a township of Warren co., Pa. Pop. 469.
Elk, a township of Barbour co., W. Va.
Ełk, a township of Harrison co., W. Va.
Elk, a township of Kanawha co., W. Va. Pop. 2451.
EIk, a township of Mineral co., W. Va. Pop. 423.
El Ka’der, a post-village, capital of Clayton co., Ia.,
on Turkey River, about 50 miles N. W. of Dubuque. It
has two newspaper-offices and a national bank. Pop. 697.
Tºlk City, a post-village of Montgomery co., Kan.
Elk Creek, a township of Jasper co., Ia. Pop. II80.
Elk Creek, a township of Watauga co., N. C. Pop. 265.
Elk Creek, a post-township of Erie co., Pa. Pop. 1462.
Pop. 1010.
Pop. 1361.
Pop. 561. . . . . .
Elk Creek, a post-township of Grayson co., Va. Pop.
4116.
Elk Falls, a post-village, capital of Howard co., Kan.,
about 130 miles S. by W. from Topeka. “Pop. of Elk Falls
township, 1160. -
Elk Fork, a township of Pettis co., Mo. Pop. 2404.
Elk Garden, a township of Russell co., Va. Pop. 2023.
Elk Grove, a post-township of Cook co., Ill. P. 1120.
Elk Grove, a post-township of La Fayette co., Wis.
Pop. 1377. -
El Khar'geh, a town of Upper Egypt, capital of the
Great Oasis; lat. 25°28' N., lon. 30°40' E. Here are ruins
of a temple and an ancient necropolis. El Khargeh is also
the name of the Great Oasis itself, which is 80 miles long
and 10 miles broad, and was anciently larger than at pres-
ent. It abounds in acacia and doum-palm trees, and has
many ruins, chiefly Macedonian and Roman. There are
many warm and cold springs and a stream of water; and
rice is here cultivated.
Elk/hart, a county in the N. of Indiana. Area, 467
square miles. It is drained by the Elkhart and St. Joseph’s
rivers, which here unite. The surface is undulating, the
soil fertile. Cattle, grain, wool, hay, butter, etc. are pro-
duced, and flour, lumber, furniture, carriages, cooperage,
etc. are manufactured. It is intersected by two divisions
of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern R. R. Capital,
Goshen. Pop. 26,026. -
Elkhart, a post-village and township of Logan co., Ill.
Total pop. 1325; of village, 378.
Elkhart, a city of Elkhart co., Ind., on the Elkhart
River, at the junction of the old and the air-line divisions
of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern R. R., 100 miles
E. by S. from Chicago. It contains a large T-rail rolling-
mill, a machine-shop, and a round-house of the railroad
company. In the works are employed more than 800 men.
Here are also two paper-mills, two machine-shops, three
flour and two starch mills, besides other factories. The
combined water-power is estimated at 8300 horse-power.
The town has two banks, a school-house which cost $50,000,
and four newspapers, one of which is a daily. Pop. 3265.
CHAs E & KENT, PROPs. “Evening REview.”
Elkhart, a post-township of Elkhart co., Ind. Pop.,
exclusive of the city of Goshen, 1477.
Elkhart, a township of Noble co., Ind. Pop. 1541.
Elkhart, a post-township of Polk co., Ia. Pop. 744.
EIk/horn, a township of San Joaquin co., Cal. P. 1428.
Elkhorn, a township of Brown co., Ill. Pop. 1150.
Elkhorn, a township of Warren co., Mo. Pop. 2479.
Elkhorn, a post-village of Douglas co., Neb., on the
Union Pacific R. R. and on the Elkhorn River, 29 miles W.
of Omaha. It is a shipping-point for grain. Pop. of town-
ship, 296.
Elkhorn, a township of McDowell co., W. Va. P. 416.
Elkhorn, a post-village, capital of Walworth co., Wis.,
65 miles due N.W. from Chicago, Ill., and 45 miles S. W.
from Milwaukee, is on the Western Union R. R., which
connects here with the St. Paul R. R. It has a court-house,
a national bank, a newspaper, a beautiful park of six acres
of large oaks, 5 churches, 1 fine Union school-building, 2
hotels, and 30 stores. It is in one of the richest farming
districts in the State. Pop. 1205. FRANK LELAND,
ED. AND PUB. OF “WALworTH Co. INDEPENDENT.”
Elkhorn Grove, a post-township of Carroll co., Ill.
Pop. 662.
Elkhorn River, Nebraska, rises in the N. E. part of
the State, flows nearly south-eastward through the counties
of Madison, Stanton, Cuming, Dodge, and Douglas, and
enters the Platte in the western part of Sarpy county.
Length, estimated at 250 miles.
El’kins, a township of Clarke co., Ark. Pop. 584.
Ełk/land, a post-township of Tuscola co., Mich. Pop.
511.
Elkland, a township of Sullivan co., Pa. Pop. 705.
Elkland, a post-borough of Tioga co., Pa. Pop. 332.
Elk Lick, a post-township of Somerset co., Pa. It
includes the borough of Salisbury, on Casselman’s River,
the terminus of the Salisbury and Baltimore R. R. It is
25 miles N. W. of Cumberland, Md., and is the centre of
the Salisbury coal-basin. It is on the proposed Trans-
alleghany Canal, has a weekly newspaper, four churches,
a shook-shop, iron-foundry, planing-mill, etc. . (P. O. Elk
Lick.) Pop. of Salisbury, 291; of Elk Lick township,
1012. SuHRIE & SMITH, EDs. “WALLEY INDEPENDENT.”
Elk Mound, a township of Dunn co., Wis. Pop. 433.

ELKO—ELLET.
1529
E1/ko, a county in the N. E. of Nevada, bordering on
Idaho and Utah, is drained by Humboldt River. The sur-
face is partly mountainous; the soil in some places is fer-
tile. Silver is found here, and some grain and cattle are
raised. It is intersected by the Central Pacific R. R. Cap-
ital, Elko. Pop. 3447.
Elko, a post-village, capital of the above county, is on
Humboldt River and the Central Pacific R. R., 603 miles
N. E. of San Francisco. It has two newspaper-offices,
three large freight dépôts, a good hotel, and numerous
stores; also silver-smelting works and manufactures of
farming tools. Here are hot mineral springs of great
value for bathing purposes. Pop. of Elko township in
1870, 1160, but the population has increased largely since
that time. A
Elk Point, a post-village, capital of Union co., Dak.,
on the Missouri River, about 30 miles S. W. of Sioux City
Ia.). -
( Elk Prairie, a township of Jackson co., Ill.
1354. -
Elk Rap’ids, a post-village, capital of Antrim coº,
Mich., on the east arm of Grand Traverse Bay, about 18
miles N. E. of Grand Traverse City. It has one news-
paper-office. Pop. of township, 370.
Elk Riv'er, of West Virginia, flows nearly westward
through Braxton and Clay counties, and enters the Great
Kanawha at Charleston. Length, nearly 150 miles.
Elk River, a post-township of Clinton co., Ia.
1296.
Elk River, a village (Elk River Station P. O.) in
Sherburne co., Minn., 38 miles N. W. from the capital of
the State, and situated on the Mississippi and Elk rivers,
with the St. Paul and Pacific R. R. running through the
town. It has one newspaper, a number of stores and
manufactories, a large brick school-house capable of hold-
ing 500 scholars, and four different grades of schools.
Principal business, lumber, grain, and stock. It is in a
good farming-region. Pop. of Elk River township, 537.
John M. THOMson, Ed. “SHERBURNE Co. NEws.”
Elk Run, a township of Columbiana, co., O. Pop. 1335.
Elk Run, a township of Rockingham co., Va. Pop.
2341.
Pop.
Pop.
Elk’ton, a post-village, capital of Todd co., Ky., about
50 miles N. W. of Nashville (Tenn.). It has three or four
churches. \ - -
Elkton, a village of Washington co., III. Pop. 160.
Elkton, a post-village, capital of Cecil co., Md., on
the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore R. R., 52
miles E. N. E. from Baltimore, and at the head of naviga-
tion on the Elk River. It has a national bank, six churches,
an academy and a public school, two weekly newspapers,
and four hotels. There are flour, iron, and paper mills in
the vicinity. Elkton was settled by the Swedes in 1694.
Pop. 1797; of Elkton township, 4170.
- R. C. MACKALL, ED. “ DEMocrat.”
Ell [Lat. wina ; Fr. aune; Ger. Elle ; Dutch elm], a mea-
sure of length adopted from the length of a man’s fore arm.
The English ell is 3 feet 9 inches, and the Flemish is equal
to 27 inches, or three-fourths of a yard.
Ellag'gic Acid, a constituent of certain animal con-
cretions, as the bezoar-stones of the antelope; also pro-
duced by the decomposition of gallic acid. -
E1/laville, a post-village, capital of Schley go., Ga.,
about 44 miles E. S. E. of Columbus. Pop. 157.
Ellaville, a post-village of Madison co., Fla., at the
junction of the Ocopilco and Suwanee rivers, has very ex-
tensive saw-mills, with a railroad several miles long ex-
tending into the forests to supply rough timber for the
mills. The village is on the Jacksonville Pensacola and
Mobile R. R., 95 miles W. of Jacksonville.
EI'lenboro, a post-township of Grant co., Wis.
*_F e
Pop.
EI'lenborough (EDWARD Law), LoRD, an able Eng-
lish lawyer, born in Cumberland Nov. 16, 1750. He was
'engaged in 1785 as the leading counsel for the defence in
the trial of Warren Hastings, for whom he pleaded with
success. He became attorney-general in 1801, and lord
chief-justice of the king's bench in 1802. In the same year
he was created Baron Ellenborough. He was a Tory in
politics. Died Dec. 13, 1818.
Ellenborough (EDw ARD Law), EARL of, a statesman,
a son of the preceding, was born Sept. 8, 1790, and suc-
ceeded his father as baron in 1818. He was lord privy seal
in 1828–29, and gained distinction as an orator in the
IIouse of Lords. In 1841 he was appointed governor-
general of India, but he was recalled in 1844 by the East
India Company, and then received the title of earl and
viscount. He was first lord of the admiralty in 1846 for a
short time in the cabinet of Peel. On the formation of a
new Tory ministry in Feb., 1858, he became president of
the board of control. One of his despatches censuring
Wiscount Canning for his conduct in India offended the
public, and caused such an outcry that he had to resign in
1858. Died Dec. 22, 1871. By his death the earldom and
viscounty became extinct.
EI’lenburgh, a post-village and township of Clinton
co., N. Y., on the railroad from Ogdensburg to Rouse’s
Point. The township has four churches, and manufactures
of lumber, starch, leather, etc. Pop. of township, 3042.
E1’len Creek, a township of Martin co., Minn. Pop.
188. - - -
E1’Iendale, a township of Alexander co., N. C. Pop.
El’lensburg, a post-village, capital of Curry co., Or.,
on the Pacific Ocean at the mouth of Rogue River, about
200 miles S. by W. of Salem. • *
EII enville, a post-village of Wawarsing township,
Ulster co., N. Y., 30 miles W. of the Hudson River, on the
Delaware and Hudson Canal. It is the terminus of the
Ellenville branch of the Midland R. R., and is situated
in a beautiful and fertile valley at the foot ºf the Shawan-
gunk Mountains. It is a very beautiful and thriving place.
Its streets are shaded with maples. Its sidewalks are
flagged at a cost of $50,000; its waterworks cost $40,000;
it has many handsome public and private buildings, six
churches, three weekly newspapers, graded public schools,
one savings and two national banks, a glass-manufactory,
cutlery-works, stoneware pottery, bluestone quarries, and
manufactories of leather and boats. It has superior hotels,
is a favorite summer resort, and is the seat of Ulster Sem-
inary. S. M. TAYLOR, Ed. “Journal.”
EI'lery, a post-township of Chautauqua co., N. Y., on
Chautauqua Lake. Pop. 1616. -
Ellery (WILLIAM), an American patriot, born at New-
port, R.I., Dec. 22, 1727. He was a merchant in his youth,
and began to practise law in 1770 at Newport. Having
gained a high reputation for integrity and wisdom, he was
chosen a delegate from Rhode Island to the national Con-
gress of 1776, in which he signed the Declaration of
Independence. He was re-elected, and remained in Con-
gress until 1785. In 1790 he was appointed collector of
Newport. He supported the Federal party. Died Feb. 15,
1820. -
EI'let (CHARLEs), an American engineer, born at Penn’s
Manor, in Bucks co., Pa., Jan. 1, 1810. Destined by his
father to the life of a farmer, his own strong brain led him
to mathematical and engineering pursuits. First as ā
rodman, then as a voluntary, and subsequently as a paid
assistant, on that great work of early American engineer-
ing, the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, he acquired know-
ledge and pecuniary means to visit Europe and complete
his self-education in Paris, following the course of the
Ecole Polytechnique. Subsequently an engineer on the
Utica and Schenectady Railroad, then on the Erie, then
chief engineer of the James River and Kanawha Canal, he
was author of an “Essay on the Laws of Trade” (devoted
to works of internal improvement in the U.S.) and of other
works of a similar character. He shares with Roebling the
honor of being a pioneer of wire suspension bridges, build-
ing in 1842 the bridge across the Schuylkill at Fairmount (on
the site of the famous “Colossus” wooden bridge destroyed
in 1838 by fire), “the first structure of its kind, in this
country, and considered at the time a triumph of engineer-
ing skill.” In 1845 he affirmed that a bridge might be
built across the Niagara below the Falls, secure and fitted
for railroad uses; and he was in 1847 the designing and
constructing engineer of the preliminary wire suspension
bridge (a light foot-bridge), intended as a service bridge
for the construction of the main work. Among his most
noteworthy labors was his investigation of the hydraulics
of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, and his work, published
by the Smithsonian Institution, he regarded as “the crown-
ing conception of his professional career.” He was among
the first to advocate the use of “steam-rams,” suggesting
a plan to the Russian government by which to destroy the
allied fleet before Sebastopol, and soon after urging the
matter upon our government. He was unheeded until the
event of the famous Monitor and Merrimack battle in
Hampton Roads, when he was commissioned by the war
department to do what he could to protect the Mississippi
gun-boat squadron against a fleet of hostile rams understood
to be coming up the river. He hastily equipped a fleet of
nine, river steamboats as “rams,” of which he was given
the command. In a subsequent battle (June 6, 1862), ter-
minating in a decisive defeat of the Confederate squadron,
three of their vessels were sunk outright by two of his

1530
ELLET-ELLIOTT.
rams; but he received a wound, from which his already
enfeebled frame rapidly gave way, and he died at Cairo,
Ill., on the 21st of June. A great engineer, his power as
such was worthily devoted to the maintenance of the in-
tegrity of his country, and with it his life; thus in his
death uniting in one, the engineer, the soldier, the patriot.
J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Ellet ( Charles RIVERs), M. D., son of the above, was
born at Philadelphia in 1841. When the civil war broke
out he entered the army as a surgeon, became colonel, and,
commanded with success a marine brigade of steam “rams,”
etc. on the Mississippi. Died Oct. 29, 1863.
Eliet (ELIZABETH FRIES), an American authoress, born
at Sodus Point, N.Y., in Oct., 1818. Her maiden name was
LUMMIs. She produced a volume of poems (1835), “Women
of the American Revolution ” (1848), “Summer Rambles
in the West” (1853), “Queens of American Society” (1865),
and numerous other works.
Ellet (WILLIAM HENRY), M. D., an American chemist,
born in New York about 1804, was the husband of the pre-
ceding. He obtained a chair in Columbia College (of which
he was a graduate) in 1832, and became professor of chem-
istry in South Carolina College in 1835. He invented a
method of preparing gun-cotton. Died Jan. 26, 1859.
E1/lettsville, a post-village of Richland township, Mon-
roe co., Ind., 7 miles N. W. of Bloomington, on the Louis-
ville New Albany and Chicago R. R. It has one private
bank, two flouring-mills, one woollen-mill, four churches,
two hotels, and one newspaper.
H. L. McCollough, ED. “REPUBLICAN.”
Ellezelles, élſzel’, a town of Belgium, in the province
of Hainaut, 16 miles N. E. of Tournay.
tures of linen, a salt refinery, and breweries. Pop. 5527.
E1/licott, a township of Chautauqua co., N. Y. It in-
cludes Jamestown and other villages. Pop. 6679.
Ellicott (ANDREW), an American civil engineer, born
in Bucks co., Pa., Jan. 24, 1754. He - founded Ellicott’s
Mills in Maryland, and removed to Baltimore. He was a
friend of Dr. Franklin and of Washington. In 1790 he was
employed by the Federal government to survey and lay out
the capital of the U. S. He was appointed surveyor-gen-
eral of the U. S. in 1792, and became professor of mathe-
matics and engineering at West Point in 1812. Died at
West Point Aug. 29, 1820.
Ellicott (CHARLEs JoHN), D. D., since 1863 bishop of
Gloucester and Bristol, was born at Whitwell, near Stam-
ford, England, in 1819. In 1859 he was appointed Hulsean
lecturer, and in 1860 Hulsean professor of divinity, at Cam-
bridge. His commentaries on the Epistles of Saint Paul,
which began to appear in 1854, have put him into the front
rank of biblical scholars. His “Histórical Lectures on the
Life of Our Lord Jesus Christ” (1860) were the Hulsean
Lectures for 1859. His first work was a “Treatise on Ana-
lytical Statics,” 1842.
Eilicott City, capital of Howard co., Md., situated on
the Patapsco River and the Baltimore and Ohio R. R., 10
miles from Baltimore and 31 miles from Washington. It
has two newspapers, two cotton-factories, one flouring-mill,
turning out 400 barrels of flour per day, one large barrel-
factory, machine-shop and foundry, six churches, and three
colleges, one of which is for females. Pop. 1722.
I. Wolf ERSBERGER, ED. of “PROGREss.”
EI'licottville, a post-village of Cattaraugus co., N. Y.,
is on the Great Valley Creek, about 44 miles S. by E. from
Buffalo. It has a large steam saw-mill and flouring-mill,
an exchange and banking-office, two hotels, a large union
school, four or more churches, and one newspaper-office.
Pop. 579; of Ellicottville township, 1833.
IED. “CATTAR AUGUS UNION.”
EI'lijay, a post-village, capital of Gilmer co., Ga., on
Ellijay River, about 75 miles N. of Atlanta. -
E1/lington, a post-twp. of Tolland co., Conn. P. 1452.
Ellington, a township of Adams co., III. Pop. 2298.
Ellington, a township and post-village of Hancock co.,
Ia. Pop. 342.
Ellington, a post-twp. of Tuscola C.O., Mich. Pop. 452.
Eliington, a post-township of Dodge co., Minn. P. 258.
Ellington, a township and post-village of Chautauqua
co., N. Y. Pop. of village, 314; total pop. 1556.
Ellington, a township of Outagamie co., Wis. P. 1248.
E1/liot, a post-township of York co., Me., on the Ports-
mouth Saco and Portland R. R. It has a fire insurance com-
pany. Pop. 1769.
EIIiot (GEORGE HENRY), born at Lowell, Mass., Măr. 28,
1831, graduated at West Point in 1855 as a lieutenant of
artillery; served on the frontier of Texas, and in 1857 was
River.
It has manufac- .
transferred to the engineers; was engaged in the construc-
tion of fortifications on the Pacific until 1870; was a mem-
ber and the engineer secretary of the lighthouse board,
1870–74, and chief engineer of the Washington aqueduct
1870–71. He was engaged in an inspection of European
lighthouse systems from May to Sept., 1873, and is (1874)
major and assistant to the chief of engineers at Washing-
ton, D. C. GEO. C. SIMMONs.
EI'liott, a county of Kentucky, in the N. E. part of the
State. Its surface is mountainous. It is traversed by sev-
eral small streams, the head-waters of the Little Sandy
Area, about 150 square miles. Grain and tobacco
are the chief products. Capital, Sandy Hook. Pop. 4433.
Elliott, a post-township of San Joaquin co., Cal. P. 954.
Elliott, a township of Louisa co., Ia. Pop. 370.
Elliott (CHARLEs), D.D., LL.D., a Methodist minister,
born in the county of Donegal, Ireland, May 16, 1792. He
emigrated to Ohio, where he edited the “Western Chris-
tian Advocate ’’ and other journals. He was a professor of
languages at Madison College, Uniontown, Pa. (1827–31),
and was president of Iowa Wesleyan University (1856–60
and 1864–67). He was the author of “A Treatise on Bap-
tism,” “Life of Bishop Roberts,” “Delineation of Roman
Catholicism,” 2 vols. 8vo; “Sinfulness of American Sla-
very,” “History of the Great Secession,” “The Bible an
Slavery,” etc. Died Jan. 3, 1869. . -
Elliott (CHARLEs LORING), an American portrait-painter,
born in Scipio, N.Y., in Dec., 1812. He worked in the city
of New York, and painted the portraits of several eminent
men. His works are commended for fidelity of likeness.
Died in Albany, N. Y., Aug. 25, 1868. -
Elliott (CHARLEs WYLLYs), descended from John Eliot,
“the apostle of the Indians,” was born in Guilford, Conn.,
May 27, 1817. Author of “St. Domingo” (1855), a “History
of New England from the Discovery of the Continent by the
Northmen in 986 to 1776” (1857), besides other works.
Elliott (CHARLOTTE), sister to the author of the “Horae
Apocalypticae.” She has written many excellent hymns;
amongst others, “Just as I am, without one plea.”
Elliott (EBENEzER), an English poet, called the “Corn-
law Rhymer,” was born near Rotherham, Yorkshire, Mar.
17, 1781. He was not liberally educated, and was consid—
ered a dull boy at school. In early youth he worked in an
iron-foundry, in which his father had been employed. He
produced in 1798 “The Vernal Walk,” a poem. After he
had worked for many years in the foundry, he married, and
removed in 1821 to Sheffield, where he engaged in the iron-
trade on his own account, and was successful. His most
popular poems are “The Corn-law Rhymes,” which pro-
moted the repeal of the corn laws, and were much admired.
He afterwards wrote “The Village Patriarch " (1829),
“Byron and Napoleon’” (1831), “Love,” and other poems.
His works are commended for their energy and the sym-
pathy with the poor which they exhibit. Died Dec. 1, 1849.
Elliott (EDWARD BISHOP), an English clergyman, was
born about 1795, and educated at Cambridge. He is best
known as author of the “Horae Apocalypticae,” 4th ed.
1851; 5th ed. 1862.
Elliott (EzekiEL BROWN) was born in Sweden, Monroe
co., N. Y., July 16, 1823, and graduated at Hamilton Col-
lege in 1844. He was for some years a teacher, and after-
wards was for a time superintendent of certain telegraph.
lines, and later (1855–56) an actuary in a life insurance
company in Boston, Mass. In 1861 he became actuary of
the U. S. Sanitary Commission. In 1863 was a member of
the International Statistical Congress at Berlin. In 1865
he became secretary of the commission for revising the U. S.
revenue laws. In 1871 he entered the civil service reform
commission. Mr. Elliott is the author of a number of import-
ant papers, among which are the following: Life, annuity,
and other useful tables involving quantities depending on
the duration of life, with discussions of the principles under-
lying different methods of construction, based on Prussian,
English, Belgian, Massachusetts, and other data, and pub-
lished with the proceedings of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science at its sessions in Albany,
1856, and in Montreal, 1867; a statistical report to the
Sanitary Commission, made in 1862, on the mortality and
sickness of the U. S. volunteers; a memoir on the “Mili-
tary Statistics of the United States,” published in connec-
tion with the proceedings of the International Statistical
Congress at its fifth session, held at Berlin in 1863; a sec-
ond table of Prussian mortality, prepared in 1864 and pub-
lished in the “Zeitschrift” of the Royal Statistical Bureau
of Prussia; “Tables of the Money, Weight, and Measure of
the Principal Commercial Countries in the World,” pub-
lished in the appendix to “Webster's Counting-house Dic-
tionary,” ed: 1868; “Letters to the Secretary of the Treas-
*
ELLIOTT–ELLSWORTH.
1531
ury on the Credit of the U. S. Government, as indicated by
the Market-prices of its Securities,” published in 1871 and
1872; life and annuity tables, based on the returns of the
U. S. census of 1870, in comparison with corresponding
data for other countries, with an analysis of the method of
construction, prepared for the superintendent of the census,
and published in the second volume of his report—that on
vital statistics.
Among other papers prepared by Mr. Elliott may be
named: in 1850, a demonstration of the principle that from a
single voltaic battery may be simultaneously supplied, with-
out sensible interference, the voltaic current for several tele-
graphic conducting wires; in 1860, a discussion, by quater-
nions, of the law which governs mutual action of elements
of electric currents, resulting in a modification of the usu-
ally accepted formula of Ampère; in the same year, a
memoir on the calculus of affected quantities of the second
order (qnaternions); several communications, in 1869,
1870, and 1871, on the simplification of international coin-
age; and one, in 1872, on the relation obtaining between
the frequency of auroras and the periodical lengthening
and shortening of the sun’s radius-vector.
Elliott (JESSE DUNCAN), an American commodore, born
in Maryland July 14, 1782. He gained the rank of lieu-
tenant in 1810, and was second in command under Com.
Perry at the battle of Lake Erie, in Sept., 1813. Congress
voted him a gold medal for his conduct in this action. He
became a captain in 1818. Died Dec. 10, 1845.
Elliott (JonATHAN) was born in England in 1784, emi-
grated to the U. S. about 1802, and fought in New Granada
under Bolivar. In 1814 he went to Washington, where he
was for thirteen years editor of the “Washington Gazette.”
He was author of “The American Diplomatic Code’’ (1827)
and other works. Died Mar. 12, 1846.
Elliott (STEPHEN), LL.D., an American naturalist, born
at Beaufort, S. C., Nov. 11, 1771, graduated at Yale College
in 1791. He was professor of natural history in the med-
ical college at Charleston, and president of the Bank of
South Carolina. He wrote for the “Southern Review,” and
published “The Botany of South Carolina and Georgia.”
(2 vols., 1821–24), a work of merit. Died Mar. 28, 1830.
Elliott (STEPHEN), D.D., son of the preceding, and pro-
fessor of sacred literature in South Carolina College, was
born at Beaufort, S. C., Nov. 13, 1805. He became bishop
of Georgia in 1841. Died Dec. 21, 1866.
Elliott (STEPHEN, JR.), a brigadier-general in the Con-
federate army, born at Beaufort, S. C., 1832. On the out-
break of the civil war he organized and equipped the bat-
tery known as the Beaufort Artillery. He commanded at
Pinckney Island Aug., 1862, and was promoted for gallant
conduct; was in command of Fort Sumter during the pro-
tracted bombardment to which it was subjected; and in
1864 was severely wounded by the mine explosion near
Petersburg, which incapacitated him from further active
service for the remainder of the war. In 1865 he sub-
scribed to the oath requiring him to support the Constitu-
tion of the U. S. and his own State. Received the nomi-
nation for Congress. Died at Aiken, S. C., Mar. 21, 1866.
Elliott (WASHINGTON L.). See APPENDIX.
Elliott (WILLIAM) was born at Beaufort, S. C., April
27, 1788. He was a member of the legislature of that State,
and opposed nullification in 1832. He wrote against seces-
sion about 1851, and was the author of “Fiesco,” a tragedy
(1850). Died in Feb., 1863.
E1/liottsville, a township of Shelby co., Ala. Pop.
501. -
Elliottsville Plantation, a township of Piscataquis
co., Me. Pop. 42.
Ellipse [Gr. 3AAethts, “ omission ” or “defect,” so called
because the square of the ordinate is less than, or differs in
defect from, the rectangle under the parameter and abscissa],
a hypotrochoid curve of the second order, one of the conic
sections, found by cutting a come by a plane passing ob-
liquely through the opposite side of the cone. If two fixed
points be taken in a plane, and a third point be conceived
to move around the two fixed points in such a way that
the sum of the distances of the moving point from the fixed
point shall always be the same, the moving point will de-
scribe an ellipse. The fixed points are the foci of the el-
lipse, and a point in the same straight line with the foci,
and equally distant from each, is the centre. That axis of
the ellipse which passes through the foci is the transverse
or major axis; an axis perpendicular to the transverse is
the conjugate or minor axis.
If a moving circle roll along the concavity of the circum-
ference of a fixed circle in the same plane, the radius of the
former circle being half that of the latter, any given point
in the plane of the rolling circle, within or without, will
describe an ellipse. Various instruments for marking the
ellipse have been devised on this principle. . *
E1/lis, a county in W. Central Kansas. Area, 900 squar
miles. It is intérsected by Saline and Smoky Hill rivers,
branches of the Kansas. The surface is nearly level, and
is mostly prairie-land, well suited for stock-raising. It is
traversed by the Kansas Pacific R. R. Capital, Hays
City. Pop. 1336. -
Ellis, a county in N. Central Texas. Area, 1000 square
miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Trinity River.
It contains fertile rolling prairies and forests of hard tim-
ber. Cattle, fruit, wool, corn, cotton, and swine are raised.
It is intersected by the Houston and Texas Central R. R.
Capital, Waxahachie. Pop. 7514.
Ellis, a township of Hardin co., Ia. Pop 518.
Ellis (GEORGE EDWARD), D. D., a Unitarian minister
and author, born in Boston Aug. 8, 1814, graduated at Har-
vard in 1833. He was ordained pastor at Charlestown about
1838. He wrote for Sparks's “American Biography” lives
of William Penn and others. In 1857 he became professor
of theology in the Divinity School at Cambridge. Among
his works is a “Half Century of the Unitarian Contro-
versy " (1857). -
Ellis (HARVEY W.) was born in Kentucky. He settled .
in Tuscaloosa, Ala., where he was repeatedly elected to the
legislature of that State. He died in 1842. --
E1/lisburgh, a post-village and township of Jefferso
co., N. Y. The township is on Lake Ontario, is traversed
by the Rome Watertown and Ogdensburg R. R., and has
some manufactures. There is an academy at Belleville.
This township is one of the wealthiest in the State. There
was an engagement here in 1814 between the Americans
and a superior British force. The latter were defeated.
Pop. of township, 4822. -
El/lison, a post-township of Warren co., III. P. 1258.
EI'lis Station, a post-tp. of Ellis co., Kan. Pop. 120.
E1/lisville, a post-township of Fulton co., Ill. P. 657.
Ellisville, a post-village, capital of Jones co., Miss.,
on the Tallahalla River, 144 miles S. E. of Jackson.
Ellore, él’lör', a town of India, presidency of Madras,
38 miles N. of Masulipatam, is a British military station.
It is reported to be populous. The climate is unhealthy.
Ellora, Hindostan. See ELORA.
Eils/worth, a county in Central Kansas. Area, 720
square miles. It is intersected by the Smoky Hill Fork
of the Kansas River. The surface is nearly level, and is
generally fertile. Cattle and grain are raised and coal is
found. It is traversed by the Kansas Pacific R. R. Cap-
ital, Ellsworth. Pop. 1185.
Ellsworth, a township of Emmet co., Ia. Pop. 98.
Ellsworth, a township of Hamilton co., Ia. Pop. 186.
Ellsworth, a post-village, capital of Ellsworth co.,
Ran., is on the Kansas Pacific R. R., 223 miles from Kan-
sas City and 415 miles from Denver. It is one of the lead-
ing markets for Texas cattle in the State, not less than
150,000 head being distributed from this point every year.
It has a bank, a newspaper, five hotels, and a brick school-
house costing $20,000. The country adjoining is unsur-
passed for grazing. Pop. of Ellsworth township, 448.
G. A. ATwood, ED. “REPORTER.”
Bllsworth, a port of entry and capital of Hancock
co., Me., on the navigable Union River, 2 miles from its
mouth and 30 miles S. E. of Bangor. Several bridges
cross the river here. Its trade is considerable, and its
main industries are lumbering, shipbuilding, and cooper-
age. It has fifteen saw-mills, two steam-mills, a savings-
bank, five churches, a public library, and one-newspaper.
Pop. of township, 5257. -
A. F. DRINKw ATER, E.D. “AMERICAN.”
EIIsworth, a township of Meeker co., Minn. P. 270.
Ellsworth, a post-township of Nye co., Nev. P. 54.
IEllsworth, a post-twp. of Grafton co., N. H. Pop. 193.
Ellsworth, a post-village of Pierrepont township, St.
Lawrence co., N. Y., on Racket River. Called also EAST
PIERREPONT. Pop. 179.
Ellsworth, a post-twp. of Mahoning co., O. Pop. 652.
Ellsworth, a township of Tyler co., W. Va. P. 1890.
Ellsworth, a post-village, capital of Pierce co., Wis.,
40 miles S. E. of St. Paul, Minn., has a steam saw-mill,
stave-mill, three hotels, and one newspaper. Pop. of
township, 747. M. B. KIMBALL, ED. “HERALD.”
Ellsworth (EPHRAIM ELMER), an American officer,
born in Mechanicsville, Saratoga co., N. Y., April 23, 1837,
became a resident of Chicago. He organized a well-dis-
ciplined body of Zouaves before the civil war, and in Mar.,
1532
1861, he escorted President Lincoln to Washington. In
April he became colonel of a Zouave regiment of New
York firemen. When the government troops (May 24,
1861) took possession of the shores of the Potomac (in-
cluding the city of Alexandria) opposite Washington, to Col.
Ellsworth’s regiment was assigned the seizure and occupa-
tion of that city. Observing a secessionist flag flying over
the “Marshall House” (a hotel kept by one Jackson), he
ascended to the roof himself and took it down. Descend-
ing with it in his hand, he was met and shot dead by the
innkeeper, who immediately encountered a similar fate
from the attendant soldiers. -
Ellsworth (HENRY LEAvrTT), born at Windsor, Conn.,
Nov. 10, 1791, graduated at Yale in 1810, and studied law
at Litchfield. He resided mostly in Connecticut, but was
for some time a resident commissioner of the U. S. with the
South-western Indians, and from 1845 to 1857 lived in La-
fayette, Ind. He was (1836–45) U. S. commissioner of
patents. He published a series of valuable agricultural re-
ports, from the patent office; also a “Digest of Patents’
(1840). Died Dec. 27, 1858.
JEIIsworth (OLIVER), LL.D., chief justice of the U. S.,
was born in Windsor, Conn., April 29, 1745, and graduated
at Princeton in 1766. He studied law, was admitted to the
bar in 1771, and elected a delegate to the Continental Con-
gress in 1777. In 1784 he was appointed a judge of the
superior court, and in 1787 was a member of the convention
which framed the Federal Constitution. Having joined the
Federal party, he was elected in 1789 to the Senate of the
U. S., in which he gained distinction as a debater and sup-
ported Washington's administration. He was appointed
chief-justice of the Supreme Court by Washington in 1796.
In 1799 he was sent as envoy extraordinary to Paris, where
he and his colleagues negotiated a treaty with France. He
resigned the office of chief-justice in 1800. Died Nov. 26,
1807.
Ellsworth (WILLIAM Wolcott), LL.D., was born at
Windsor, Conn., Nov. 10, 1791, and graduated at Yale in
1810, became a lawyer, was professor of law in Trinity Col-
lege, Hartford, Conn. (1827–68), member of Congress (1829–
33), governor of Connecticut (1838–42), and a justice of the
State supreme court (1847–61). Died at Hartford Jan. 15,
1868.
Ellſwangen, a town of Würtemberg, on the Jaxt, 45
miles E. N. E. of Stuttgart. It has a cathedral, a castle,
a hospital, and a gymnasium; also tanneries and bleach-
works. Pop. in 1867, 3895.
Ellſwood (THOMAs), an English writer, born in Oxford-
shire in 1639, was a minister of the Society of Friends. His
friend Isaac Penington procured for him in 1662 the posi-
tion of reader to the poet Milton, who was then blind and
lived in London. “I went,” says Ellwood, “every day in
the afternoon (except on the first days of the week), and
sitting by him in his dining-room, read to him in such books
in the Latin tongue as he pleased to hear.” After he had
passed six weeks in this occupation, Ellwood went to the
country for the sake of his health, which was impaired.
IIe visited Milton at Giles-Chalfont in 1665, when the poet
showed him the manuscript of “Paradise ‘Lost,” and re-
quested him to take it home and read it. On returning the
manuscript, Ellwood suggested to Milton the idea of “Par-
adise Regained,” by asking, “What hast thou to say of
Paradise Found 2 He made no answer, but sat some time
in muse.” Among Ellwood’s works are a “Sacred History”
(1705), a poem called “Davideis” (1712), and “Memoirs
of his own Life” (1714). Died Mar. 1, 1713.
Elm [Lat. w!'mws; Ger. Ul/me; Fr. orme], a genus of
trees of the order Ulmaceae, natives of Europe and North
America, with alternate serrate leaves, which are oblique
or unequally heart-shaped at the base. The ovary is 2-
celled, with a single anatropous ovule. The fruit is a 1-
celled membranaceous Samara, winged all round. This ge-
nus comprises numerous species, five or more of which are
indigenous in the U. S. The most remarkable of these is
the Ulmus America'ma (white or American elm), a large
ornamental tree, usually with spreading branches and
drooping, pendulous boughs. It grows rapidly, often at-
tains the height of 100 feet, and is considered one of our
most noble and beautiful forest trees. Its favorite habitat
is in moist woods where the soil is rich, and in the vicinity
of rivers and creeks. The trunk sometimes ascends with-
out branches fifty or sixty feet, and then separates into a
few primary limbs, which gradually diverge and present
long arched pendulous branches floating in the air. The
wood of this tree is used for making hubs of wheels. An-
other species native of the U. S. is the slippery elm (Ulmus
fulºva), a smaller tree with a very mucilaginous inner bark,
which is used in medicine as a demulcent. Among the im-
portant trees of this genus is the common English elm (Ul-
mus campestris), which grows in many parts of Europe, and
ELLSWORTH-ELMG).R.E.
is extensively planted in Great Britain. It is one of the
chief ornaments of English scenery. The wood of this
tree is compact, fine-grained, very durable in water, and
is used for various purposes by wheelwrights, machinists,
joiners, and shipbuilders. It has a mucilaginous bark,
which is esteemed as a medicine. The Ulmus monta'na,
or wych elm, is a native of Scotland, and a tree of rapid
growth, valuable for timber, which is used for the same
purposes as the English elm. Europe also produces the
cork-barked elm (Ul'mats gubero'sa), a tall tree extensively
planted in England, and named with reference to the corky
ridges or wings on its branches. A valuable fine-grained
wood is obtained from the Ul'mus ala'ta, winged elm or
wahoo, which grows wild in the Southern U. S., and has
corky-winged branches. -
Elm, a township of Wayne co., Ill. Pop. 968.
Elm, a township of Putnam co., Mo. Pop. 1640.
E1/ma, a township and post-village of Erie co., N. Y.
It has important manufactures. P. 165; of township, 2827.
Elm Creek, a township of Saline co., Kan. Pop. 2027.
Elmendaro, a post-township of Lyon co., Kan. P. 533.
E1/mer, a post-village of Pittsgrove township, Salem
co., N. J. It is a station on the West Jersey R. R., 26
miles S. of Philadelphia, and at the junction of the branch
railroad to Salem, N. J. Pop. 347. -
Elmer (LUCIUs Q. C.), LL.D., born at Bridgeton, N.J.,
in 1793, graduated at Princeton in 1824, was a prominent
lawyer and State politician, a member of Congress from
New Jersey (1843–45), attorney-general of the State (1850-
52), and a judge of the State supreme court (1852–59). He
published a “Digest” of New Jersey laws (1838).
Elm Grove, a township of Tazewell co., Ill. P. 1072.
Elm Grove, a township of Louisa co., Ia. Pop. 701.
Elmi'na, a fortified town and seaport of Africa, the
former capital of the Dutch possessions on the Guinea
coast, is in lat. 5° 5' N., and lon. 1923' W. It is defended
by a strong fort. Elmina was taken from the Portuguese
by the Dutch in 1637. Pop. estimated at 15,000. On April
6, 1872, it was ceded, with the Dutch possessions in Guinea,
to Great Britain. In 1873 it was burned by the British
troops on account of its sympathy with Ashantee.
Eimi/ra, a post-village of Woolwich twp., Waterloo co,
Ontario, Canada, 12 miles from Berlin, the county-seat. It
has factories and mills, and one weekly newspaper. P. 850.
Elmira, a post-township of Stark co., Ill. Pop. 1108.
Elmira, a township of Olmsted co., Minn. Pop. 1055.
Elmira, a city, the capital of Chemung co., N. Y., at
the crossing of the Erie and Northern Central R. R.S., 274
miles by rail N. W. by W. of New York. The Chemung
Canal extends to Seneca Lake, and the Junction Canal con-
nects Elmira with the interior of Pennsylvania. It is on
the Chemung River, and is the largest city in that part of
the State. There is one rolling-mill and one blast-furnace,
each with $1,500,000 capital, and in full operation; one
woollen-mill, ten shoe-and-boot factories, three iron-foun-
dries, a manufactory of steam fire-engines, besides maehine-
shops and other like industries, including the large shop of
the Pullman Car Company for the manufacture and repair
of-cars. " The large shops of the Erie R. R. and the prim-
cipal shops of the Northern Central R. R. are situated here,
There are 19 churches—5 Roman Catholic, 2 Episcopal, 2
Presbyterian, 3 Baptist, 3 Methodist, 1 Congregational, and
3 colored. The State Reformatory, now in process of erec-
tion, will be an imposing structure. The Elmira Female
College (Presbyterian) is large and well endowed. . The
public-school system is excellent. Many of the school.
houses are very fine. Eldridge Park, containing over 300
acres, was established by private enterprise, and is finely
laid out. The city has a fine court-house, a jail, a water-
cure, a surgical institute, an orphans’ home, etc. There
are two State, one national, one private, and one savings
bank, two daily and two weekly newspapers, a steam
fire department, street railways, and water-works With
a storing reservoir holding 120,000,000 gallons of water.
The future of the city is full of promise. Its trade with
the surrounding country is very extensive. The township,
outside of the city, is very fertile and has several stone-
quarries. The city was incorporated in 1865. It was
during the late civil war a great recruiting rendezvous, and
immense barracks were erected here, which have since
been removed. It was also the site of a military prison,
where many Confederate prisoners were confined. Pop.
of city, 15,873; of township, exclusive of city, 1190.
Ausºu RN Town ER, LoCAL ED. “ELMIRA ADVERTISER,”
El Mon/te, a township of Los Angeles co., Cal. P. 1254.
EI'more, a county in E. Central Alabama. Area, 775
square miles. It is bounded on the E. and S. by the Talla-
poosa River, and intersected by the Coosa. These rivers

ELMORE–ELPHINSTONE.
1533
unite on the southern border of this county to form the
Alabama River. The soil is productive. Grain, cotton,
and wool are raised. The S. and N. Alabama R. R. passes
through the south-western part. Cap.Wetumpka. P. I4,477.
Elmore, a township of Daviess co., Ind. Pop. 865.
Elmore, a post-township of Faribault co., Minn. P. 470.
Elmore, a post-village of Harris township, Ottawa co.,
O., on Portage River, 20 miles from Lake Erie, and on the
Southern division of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern
R. R., 16 miles S. E. of Toledo. It has one bank, eight
churches, two hotels, and one newspaper. Pop. 1131.
- - J. E. CRofoot, E.D." Courier.”
Elmore, a post-township of Lamoille co., Vt. It has
manufactures of lumber and starch. Pop. 637.
Elmore (FRANKLIN HARPER), an American lawyer and
financier, born in South Carolina in 1799. He became a
member of Congress in 1837, and president of the Bank of
the State of South Carolina in 1840. He was elected to the
U. S. Senate in 1850, and died May 29 of the same year.
Elmore (RUSH), a son of Gen. John Elmore, was edu-
cated for the bar, served in the Mexican war, and was, in
1854, by President Pierce, appointed a judge of the U. S.
court in Kansas. He died during the war.
EI'mo’s Fire, Saint [Elmo is an Italian form of the
name Elijah], an electrical light which at sea sometimes at-
taches itself to the ends of masts and spars. When two
such lights are seen it is called Castor and Pollux, and is
considered by sailors a sign of fair weather and good luck;
one ball of light, called Helena, is regarded as a bad omen.
Elms/horn, a town of Germany, in the Prussian prov-
ince of Sleswick-Holstein, on the river Krückau and on the
Riel and Altona Railway, about 22 miles N. W. of Ham-
burg. It has an active trade in grain and manufactures of .
shoes, etc. Pop. in 1871, 4832. -
Elm Spring, a township of Washington co., Ark. P.
1071. - -
Elmſwood, a post-village of Peoria, co., Ill., on a
branch of the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R., 163
miles S. W. of Chicago. It has one newspaper office. Pop.
1476; of Elmwood township, including village, 2410.
Elmwood, a township of Leelenaw co., Mich. P. 535.
Elmwood, a township of Tuscola co., Mich. P. 369.
Elmwood, a post-township of Saline co., Mo. P. 1538.
Elmwood, a post-township of Cass co., Neb. P. 317.
Eloge, A(lozh’, a French term signifying “eulogy,” is
applied in France to the panegyrical orations pronounced
in honor of elminent deceased persons, and particularly of
members of the French Academy and Institute. The duty
is now performed by the new member elected as the suc-
cessor of the deceased. Fontenelle was one of the first who
excelled in this species of composition.
E’lon, a township of Amherst co., Va. Pop. 3193.
Elonga'tion [from the Lat e, “out,” and lon/gus,
“ long ”], in astronomy, is the apparent angular distance
of a planet from the sun. The greatest elongation of Mer-
cury amounts to about 28° 30', that of Venus to about 47°
48', and that of the superior planets may have any value
up to 180°.
El'oquence [Lat. eloquentia; e, “out,” and loquor, to
“speak”] is the expression of thought or emotion in such a
manner as to produce conviction or corresponding emotion
in others. The term was originally applied to public speak-
ing alone, but the rules for that art being generally appli-
cable to writing, it was used in a wider sense. In Greece in
the age succeeding Pericles arose a school of rhetoricians,
who sought to graft upon eloquence the subtleties of logic.
Gorgias and Isocrates belonged to this school, and in this
age Grecian eloquence attained its highest perfection in
Demosthenes. Soon after this it declined rapidly, and the
names of Athenaeus and several others have been preserved
from oblivion chiefly by the writings of Longinus. When
the liberal arts began to flourish at Rome by the exertions
of Greeks, the senate in the year of the city 592 decreed
the banishment of all rhetoricians. But the Romans a few
years later were so charmed with the eloquence of Carme-
ades, Diogenes, and Critolaus, the ambassadors from Athens
to Rome, that they made the study of oratory part of a
liberal education. It made the most rapid progress, and
was at last crowned by the appearance of Cicero. From
his writings we learn that many great orators existed at
Rome before the age of Augustus. The despotic character
of the government in succeeding ages checked the growth
of the art, which quickly declined. The history of eloquence
in England records the names of Pitt, Burke, Fox, Sheri-
dan, and others of the first eminence. The statesmen of
Ireland have as a class been remarkable for their excellent
oratory. In Germany there has been so little opportunity
temples is not known.
for the display of forensic or senatorial eloquence that its
growth has been in a measure checked; and the same may
be said of Spain, Italy, and Portugal, which, however, have
been rich in pulpit eloquence. The French language is
essentially a colloquial one, but the great names of Bossuet,
Bourdaloue, Massillon, Lacordaire, Lamennais, and Hya-
cinthe illustrate its capabilities for pulpit oratory, while the
Revolution brought out many powerful public speakers in
politics. Of these Mirabeau is the most celebrated. In
the U. S. public speaking is one of the great social powers,
and it is accordingly cultivated with assiduity and success.
Of the earlier American orators, Fisher Ames was per-
haps the most finished. The “great triumvirate,” Webster,
Clay, and Calhoun, in public affairs, Wirt and Choate at
the bar, and Samuel Davies, John Mason, and not a few
other pulpit-orators, have attained great eminence. The
names of Everett and Wendell Phillips also deserve men-
tion. -
IElo'ra, or Ellora, a decayed town of Hindostan, near
Dowlatābād; lat. 20° 5' N., lon. 75° 13' E. Here are nu-
merous remarkable cave-temples, which surpass in magni-
tude all others in India, and are adorned with statues and
other sculptures. Besides the cave-temples hewn out in
the slope of a rocky hill, there are vast edifices or pagodas
carved out of solid granite hills, so as to form magnificent
monoliths, having an exterior as well as interior architec-
ture, richly decorated. They are among the most stupendous
monuments ever raised by man. The most remarkable of
these is the temple called Kailasa, which is about 145 feet
long and 100 feet high, and is supported by four rows of
pilasters with colossal elephants beneath. In the court
which surrounds the temple of Kailasa are several obelisks,
sphinxes, and colonnades. Many mythological figures are
carved on the walls. The date of the construction of these
According to Mr. Fergusson, they
were executed not later than 200 B.C. (See FERGUSSON,
“Handbook of Architecture.”)
Eloºra, a post-village of Ontario, Dominion of Canada,
in Wellington county and on Grand River at its falls, 12
miles N. W. of Guelph, on the Wellington Grey and Bruce
Railway. It has two newspapers, a large trade, and ex- .
tensive manufactures. Pop. in 1871, 1498.
El Pa’so, &l pá'so (i.e. “the passage” or “gap.”), a
county in the central part of Colorado, has an area of about
2600 square miles. It is drained by several small affluents
of the Arkansas River. The western part is mountainous,
the eastern a broken plain. The highest point of this
county is Pike's Peak, which rises 11,497 feet above the
level of the sea. It abounds in grand scenery. Stock-
raising and lumber-cutting are the chief industrial pur-
suits. Grain, wool, and dairy products are the agricul-
tural staples. It is intersected by the Denver and Rio
Grande R. R. Capital, Colorado City. Pop. 987.
El Paso, a county which forms the W. extremity of
Texas, is bounded on the S. W. by the Rio Grande, which
separates it from Mexico. The surface is mostly sandy
plains, but some parts are very mountainous. There are
several salt-lakes with no outlets. Wine, salt, and fine
onions are exported. Silver ore abounds. The county
contains many Mexicans and Pueblo Indians. Area, 9450
square miles. Capital, El Paso. Pop. 3671.
El Paso, a city of Woodford co., Ill., on the Illinois
Central R. R. where it crosses the Toledo Peoria and War-
saw R. R., 17 miles N. of Bloomington and 33 miles E. of
Peoria. It has one newspaper-office. A coal-shaft is now
going down. Two large mills, five grain-elevators, one
carriage-manufactory, and two agricultural-implement
works are among the business industries of the place.
Pop. 1564, or, including El Paso township, 2416.
E. T. BALDWIN, ED. “Journ AL.”
El Paso, a post-village, capital of El Paso co., Tex.,
on the Rio Grande, near lat. 31°42' N. Near this place the
river passes through a gap or gorge in a mountain called
El Paso del Norte (“North Pass”), which is the chief tho-
roughfare between Mexico and New Mexico. -
El Paso, a post-township of Pierce co., Wis. Pop. 248.
El Paſso del Norſte (“the pass of the north *), a fer-
tile valley in the Mexican state of Chihuahua, on the Rio
Grande, about 350 miles S. by W. from Santa Fé. Here
are produced wine and brandy, which are called Pass wine
and Pass brandy. -
Elphinstone (Hon. MoUNTSTUART), a British historian,
born in 1778, was a younger son of Lord Elphinstone. He
was sent as ambassador to the court of Cabool in 1808, and
became governor of Bombay in 1819. Bishop Heber ex-
pressed the opinion that he was “in every respect an extra-
ordinary man,” and that his Indian policy was wise and
liberal. Mr. Elphinstone resigned in 1827, and returned to

1534
EL ROSARIO-ELY.
England. He published an “Account of the Kingdom of
Cabool” (1815) and a “History of India: the Hindoo and
Mohammedan Periods” (2 vols., 1841), both of which are
highly esteemed. Died Nov. 20, 1859. -
El Rosar’io, a town of the Mexican state of Cinaloa,
55 miles E. of Mazatlan. Here were rich gold-mines, which
are no longer worked. It is an entrepôt of trade between
Mazatlan and the interior. Pop. 5000.
Elroy, a post-village of Juneau co., Wis. It is the
S. E. terminus of the West Wisconsin R. R., at its junc-
tion with the Chicago and North-western R. R., 210 miles
N. E. of Chicago. It has a weekly newspaper.
Elsass [i. e. “the country of the ‘Sassen ' (settlers) on
the Ill;” Lat. Alsatia ; Fr. Alsace], a German country,
bounded on the E. by the Rhine, on the S. by Switzerland,
and on the W. by the Vosges Mountains, which separate it
from France. Area, about 3350 square miles. It was ceded
to France by the emperor of Austria in 1648, and became
a province of that country. After the division of France
into departments, about 1790, it formed the departments of
Haut Rhin and Bas Rhin (Upper and Lower Rhine), which
in 1866 contained a population of 1,119,255. Chief towns,
Strasburg, Colmar, and Mülhausen. After the German
armies had defeated and captured Napoleon III. in 1870,
Bismarck and his king insisted on the annexation of El-
sass to Germany as one of the conditions of peace. The
French therefore continued to fight for it, but at last they
were compelled to cede it (with the exception of the fort-
ress Belfort and its rayon) by the treaty of May 10, 1871.
The total population, according to the census of 1871, was
1,059,279, a decrease of about 60,000 since 1866.
EIsasser (F. A.), a German landscape-painter, born in
1810, went to Italy in 1832, where he lived chiefly in Rome.
Italian history and scenery form the subjects of his most
celebrated works, among which are “The Campo Santo
mear Pisa by Moonlight,” “The Siren Grotto in Tivoli,”
and “The Imperial Palace in Rome.” Died in 1845.
Elsass-H, othringen [Fr. Alsace-Lorraine], the name
of a new German country formed of those portions of Alsace
and Lorraine which in 1870 were ceded by France to Ger-
many. It has not been annexed to any particular German
state, but it is a Reichsland (imperial land), immediately
subject to the emperor. Area, 5596 square miles. It is
divided into three districts (Bezirke)—Ober-Elsass, Unter-
Elsass, and Lothringen. The first corresponds to the for-
mer French department of Haut Rhin, the second to the
former French department of Bas Rhin, while the third
contains all the territory which has been ceded of the French
departments of Moselle, Meurthe, and Vosges. The dis-
tricts have been subdivided into circles (Kreise), which in.
extent do not correspond to the former French arrondisse-
ments. Ober-Elsass contains seven, Unter-Elsass eight,
and Lothringen eight circles. Pop. 1,549,459.
It is estimated that about six-sevenths of the population
(about 1,340,000) speak the German language, and 210,000
French. Of the latter, 180,000 belong to Lothringen, and
15,000 to Ober-Elsass and Unter-Elsass each. About 81 per
cent. of the population belongs to the Roman Catholic re-
ligion, which in Elsass-Lothringen is more predominant
than in any other German state ; Bavaria, the next in
order, numbering only 71 per cent. of Catholics. The leg-
islative functions are exercised by the German Reichstag,
in which Elsass-Lothringen will, until Jan. 1874, not be
represented. At the head of the administration is an Ober-
präsident, who is subordinate to the imperial chancellor;
the imperial chancery has a special division for the affairs
of Elsass-Lothringen. The revenue and expenditure
amounted for 1872 to 45,142,991 francs each. The new
country is as yet without a public debt. At the time when
the country was ceded to Germany 770 kilometers (1 kilo-
meter = 0.62 English miles) of railroads were in operation,
which, with a few exceptions, belonged to the Société des
Chemins de Fer de l’Est, from which the German empire
bought them for 325,000,000 francs. The navigable rivers
are the Rhine, Ill, Moder, Saar, and Moselle. The soil is
fertile, and rich in mines of iron, copper, and coal. The
chief productions of the soil are grain, wine, beet-root, to-
bacco, madder, and linseed. Mülhausen (Mulhouse) is the
seat of important manufactures of cotton prints, muslims,
flowered silk stuffs, linen damasks, etc. Capital, Stras-
burg.
El-Seewah (anc. Ammonium), the most northerly of ,
the five Egyptian oases, about 440 miles W. N.W. of ancient
Thebes. It is six miles long and three broad. The oasis
abounds in salt and alum, which were anciently exported
in great amount.
are produced in surprising quantities. Sheep and cattle
are bred in great numbers. It abounds in fresh-water
springs, and is in part rather marshy. The ruins of the
Dates, pomegranates, and other fruits
temple of Ammon, and of other ancient buildings are still
in existence. Pop, about 8000. Chief town, Kebir.
Els' heimer (ADAM), a skilful German landscape-painter,
born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1574, was called IL TE-
DEsco (i. e. “the German *) by the Italians. He worked in
Rome, where he died in 1620. His works are highly finished.
Pſe excelled in chiároscuro. -
E1’sie, a post-village of Clinton co., Mich., has one
monthly publication.
7 E1’simborough, a township of Salem co., N. J. Pop.
00. 2.
- /
Elsinore [Dan. Helsingörj, an old and interesting
town and seaport of Denmark, is on the island of Seeland
and on the western shore of the Sound (here only 2% miles
wide), 24 miles N. by E. of Copenhagen; lat. 56° 2' N.,
lon. 12° 37' E. It is defended by the castle of Kronborg,
which commands the Sound at its narrowest part. It has a
cathedral, a custom-house, and a royal palace called Marien-
list, from which is obtained a magnificent view of the Sound
and of Helsingborg in Sweden. At Elsinore the Sound
dues were formerly collected from foreign vessels navigat-
ing the Sound. It has an active trade, and some manufac-
tures of arms, brandy, hats, etc. Here was laid the scene
of Shakspeare's “Hamlet.” Pop. in 1870, 8891. -
Elsinore, a post-township of Allen co., Kan. P. 452.
E1’ssler (FANNY), a German dancer, born at Vienna in
1811. She performed with success in Berlin, Paris, and
London. In company with her sister Therese, who was
also a danseuse, she visited the U. S. in 1841. She retired
from the stage with a large fortune in 1851. Her sister
Therese was united in morganatic marriage with Prince
Adalbert of Prussia in 1850, and was made Freifrau von
Barnim by the king in the same year.
E1/ster, Black, a river of Germany, rises in Saxony,
flows north-westward, and enters the Elbe 8 miles E. of
Wittenberg. Length, 105 miles.
Elster, White, a river of Germany, rises near the
north-western frontier of Bohemia, flows northward, and
after a course of 110 miles enters the Saale 3 miles S. of
Halle (Prussia).
Elton’, a shallow saline lake of Russia in the basin of
the Caspian, government of Astrachan, about 49° 15' N.
lat., and 46° 30' E. lon., 150 miles S. S. E. of the town of
Saratof. It is 14 miles long, and has an area of 78 square
miles. About 100,000 tons of salt are annually procured
from it. In the summer it presents an appearance as if it
were covered with Snow. -
E1/ton (Romeo), D.D., LL.D., was born at Bristol, Conn.,
in 1790, and graduated at Brown University in 1813. He
was ordained as a Baptist minister in 1817, and was (1825–
43) professor of ancient languages in Brown University,
He resided for a time in England (1845–69). He published
sermons, biographical works, etc. Died Feb. 5, 1870, leav-
ing $20,000 to Brown University, and the same amount to
Columbian College, D. C. *
EIutria’tion [from the Lat. elu'trio, elutria’tum, to
“cleanse”], the process of preparing earths and pigments
by washing them in large quantities of water, so that the
heavier particles sink to the bottom, and the finer parti-
cles, remaining longer suspended, are gradually deposited.
This operation is a very important one in preparing clay
for the porcelain manufacture and some ores of iron and
other métals for the furnace. The apparatus used for this
purpose is a vat in which grinding wheels revolve, and
into which a stream of water flows, but there are many
special adaptations of the process.
EI’vas [Sp. Helves or Yelves], a fortified frontier city
of Portugal, in the province of Alemtejo, is about 125 miles
E. of Lisbon and 12 miles W. of Badajos (Spain). It stands
on a steep hill, is enclosed by walls, and is said to be the
strongest fortress in Portugal. It contains many antique
Moorish buildings, also a cathedral, several convents, a
theatre, an arsenal, and a college. Elvas is supplied with
water by a large Moorish aqueduct with several tiers of
arches rising to the height of 250 feet. Its bishop is a
suffragan of the archbishop of Evora. Pop. 11,088.
Elves. See ELF. -
Elvira, a post-township of Johnson co., Ill. Pop.
268. -
JE1'wood, a township of Vermilion co., Ill. Pop. 1987.
Elwood, a post-village of Pipe Creek township, Madi-
son co., Ind., on the Columbus Chicago and Indiana Cen-
tral R. R. It is called also QUINCY and DUCK CREEK. Pop.
310.
Ely, ee'le, an episcopal city or cathedral town of Eng-
land, is in the country of Cambridge, and on the river Quse,
72 miles N. N. E. of London and 16 miles N. N. E. of Cam-
~~
ELY, ISLE OF–EMANCIPATION, PROCLAMATION OF.
1535
bridge. It is situated in the fen country called the Isle of
Ely. A monastery was founded here about 673 A. D. Here
is a fine cathedral which is 535 feet long by 190 feet wide,
and exhibits a combination of Early Norman and Gothic
styles. It was commenced about 1080, and additions were
made in the twelfth and fourteenth centuries. Ely became
a bishop’s see in 1107. It contains Trinity church, a hand-
some structure founded in 1321. Pop. in 1871, 8098.
Ely, Isle of, a level, fenny tract of England, in Cam-
bridgeshire, is the southern part of the Bedford Level. It
is bounded on the S. by the river Ouse. It was formerly
in great part covered with water, but has been drained and
reclaimed by numerous canals and ditches. Aquatic birds
and marsh plants abound here. The soil is fertile, and
produces good crops of hemp, flax, wheat, oats, etc.
Elyria, the capital of Lorain co., O., is beautifully situ-
ated at the confluence of the E. and W. branches of Black
River, 25 miles W. of Cleveland and 7 miles S. of Lake
Erie, at the junction of the Lake Shore and Michigan
Southern and Lake Shore, and Tuscarawas Valley R. Rs.
It has a national bank, savings bank, three newspapers, a
public library, telegraph college, seven churches, a gas-
factory, and some of the finest business-houses in the State.
It has valuable water-power. The manufacturing and sale
of cheese, grindstones, building-stone, tobacco, confection-
ery, and screws are the chief businesses. The place has a
rapid growth. Pop. in 1870, 3038; of Elyria township, in-
cluding village, 4076. F. S. REEFY,
ED. “LoRAIN CONSTITUTION ?” AND “ELYRIA VoI. KSFREUND.”
Elys’ian, a post-township of Le Sueur co., Minn. P. 852.
Elysium, or The Elysſian Fields [Gr. Ajatov
treStov; Fr. Elysée or Champs Elysées], in classic mythology,
the place to which the souls of the virtuous were supposed
to be transported after death. Elysium was variously rep-
resented as a part of Hades or as an island in the Western
Ocean. Some of the ancients imagined that the kingdom
of Pluto was divided into two regions—Tartarus, in which
the wicked were punished, and Elysium, the abode of the
good.
Elysville (P. O. name, ALBERTON), a village of Howard
co., Md., on the Baltimore and Ohio R. R. Pop. 302.
E/Iyton, a post-village, capital of Jefferson co., Ala., on
the Alabama, and Chattanooga R. R., 54 miles N. E. of
Tuscaloosa. It has one weekly newspaper. There are ex-
tensive iron-works in the vicinity.
E1’ze (KARI, FRIEDRICH), a German philologist, born in
1821, became professor at the gymnasium in Dessau. He
wrote, among other works, “The English Language and
Literature in Germany ” (1864), “Sir Walter Scott’” (1864),
“Lord Byron’ (1867), and published editions of English
and American authors. He also edits (since 1868) the
“Yearbook” of the German Shakspeare Society.
El/zevir, or Elzevier, the name of a family of Dutch
printers who lived at Amsterdam, Leyden, and other places,
and were celebrated for the accuracy and beauty of their
typography. They published excellent editions of several
classic authors between 1583 and 1681. The first eminènt
printer of the family was Lewis or Lodewijk, who was born
about 1540. He lived at Leyden, and died about 1617,
leaving four sons—Matthew, Lewis, Gilles (or Ægidius),
and Bonaventure, who were all publishers. The business
was continued by Abraham, a son of Matthew, and his
partner Bonaventure, who published duodecimo editions of
the classics which are still highly prized for their beauty
and correctness. The Greek New Testament is among
their masterpieces. A press was established in Amster-
dam in 1638 by Lewis Elzevir (a grandson of Lewis first
mentioned), who published good editions of numerous
authors. Several other members of the family were dis-
tinguished printers. -
Emana/tion [from the Lat. e, “out,” and ma^no, ma-
ma/twm, to “flow ’’I, in the religions of India, of ancient
Persia, in Neo-Platonism, and in Gnosticism, a theory of
ontology and of cosmogony which ascribes the origin of
the universe and of all inferior beings to an outflow from
the Deity. The name has also been applied to the good
and evil influences which the heavenly bodies were for-
merly believed to send forth, and which were thought to
determine the destinies of men.
Emancipation [from the Lat. eman'cipo, emancipa'-
tum, to “liberate” (from e, “from,” and mancip’ium, a
“slave”)], the act of freeing from subjection of any kind.
In Roman law a son was regarded as the slave of his father,
and could by a fiction of that law be freed by being sold
(mancipatw8) three times by the father. This enfranchise-
ment was termed emancipation. Different modes of eman-
cipation were afterwards recognized by Roman jurispru-
dence. In countries where that law prevails the word sig-
nifies the exemption of the son from the power of the father,
either by express act or implication of law. By the civil
law of France, majority (and emancipation) are attained at
twenty-one, and a minor is emancipated by marriage. The
word emancipation is used in a general Sense to signify the
liberation of a slave, or the admission of certain classes to
the enjoyment of civil rights, as CATHOLIG EMANCIPATION
(which see). - -
Emancipation, Proclamation of, the most im-
portant document ever issued by a President of the U. S.,
was issued by President Lincoln Sept. 22, 1862, as a notice
to the Confederates to return to their allegiance, emancipa-
tion being proclaimed as a result which would follow their
failure so to return. The real Proclamation of Emancipa-
tion was the supplementary document of Jan. 1, 1863. This
act was simply a war-measure, based solely upon the Presi-
dent’s authority as commander-in-chief of the army and
navy.
PROCLAMATION OF EMANCIPATION.
I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, and
Commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy thereof, do
hereby proclaim and declare that hereafter, as heretofore,
the war will be prosecuted for the object of practically re-
storing the constitutional relation between the United States
and the people thereof in those States in which that rela-
tion is, or may be, suspended or disturbed; that it is my
purpose upon the next meeting of Congress to again recom-
mend the adoption of a practical measure tendering pecu-
niary aid to the free acceptance or rejection of all the Slave
States, so called, the people whereof may not then be in re-
bellion against the United States, and which States may
then have voluntarily adopted, or thereafter may volun-
tarily adopt, the immediate or gradual abolishment of Sla-
very within their respective limits, and that the effort to
colonize persons of African descent, with their consent, upon
the continent or elsewhere, with the previously obtained
consent of the government existing there, will be continued;
that on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord
one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons .
held as slaves within any State, or any designated part of
a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against
the United States, SHALL BE THEN, THENCEFoRWARD, AND
For EvKR FREE ; and the military and naval authority
thereof will recognize and maintain the freedom of such per-
sons, and will do no actor acts to repress such persons, or any
of them, in any efforts they may make for actual freedom ;
that the Executive will, on the first day of January afore-
said, by proclamation, designate the States and parts of
States, if any, in which the people thereof respectively shall
then be in rebellion against the United States; and the fact
that any State, or the people thereof, shall on that day be
in good faith represented in the Congress of the United
States by members chosen thereto, at elections wherein a
majority of the qualified voters of such State shall have
participated, shall, in the absence of strong countervailing
testimony, be deemed conclusive evidence that such State
and the people thereof have not been in rebellion against
the United States. -
That attention is hereby called to an act of Congress en-
titled “An act to make an additional article of war,” ap-
proved March 13, 1862, and which act is in the words and
figures following:
“Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representa-
tives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled,
That hereafter the following shall be promulgated as an addi-
tional article of war for the government of the Army of the
United States, and shall be observed and obeyed as such :
“ARTICLE —. All officers or persons of the military or
naval service of the United States are prohibited from em-
ploying any of the forces under their respective commands
for the purpose of returning fugitives from service or labor
who may have escaped from any persons to whom such ser-
vice or labor is claimed to be due ; and any officer who shall
be found guilty by a court-martial of violating this article,
shall be dismissed from the service.
“SEC. 2. And be it further enacted, that this act shall
take effect from and after its passage.”
Also to the ninth and tenth sections of an act entitled
“An act to suppress insurrection, to punish treason and re-
bellion, to seize and confiscate property of Rebels, and for
other purposes,” approved July 17, 1862, and which sec-
tions are in the words and figures following:
“SEC. 9. And be it further enacted, that all slaves of per-
sons who shall hereafter be engaged in rebellion against the
Government of the United States, or who shall in any way
give aid or comfort thereto, escaping from such persons and
taking refuge within the lines of the army; and all slaves
captured from such persons or deserted by them, and com-
ing under the control of the government of the United
States, and all slaves of such persons found on (or being
within) any place occupied by Rebel forces and afterwards
1536
EMANUEL–EMBANKMENT,
occupied by the forces of the United States, shall be deemed
captives of war, and shall be for ever free of their servitude
and not again held as slaves. - -
“SEC. 10. And be it further enacted, that no slave escap-
ing into any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia,
from any of the States, shall be delivered up, or in any way
impeded or hindered of his liberty, except for crime or
some offence against the laws, unless the person claiming
said fugitive shall first make oath that the person to whom
the labor or service of such fugitive is alleged to be due, is
his lawful owner, and has not been in arms against the United
States in the present rebellion, nor in any way given aid
or comfort thereto; and no person engaged in the military
or naval service of the United States shall, under any pre-
tence whatever, assume to decide on the validity of the claim
of any person to the service or labor of any other person, or
surrender up any such person to the claimant, on pain of
being dismissed from the service.” -
And I do hereby enjoin upon, and order all persons en-
gaged in the military and naval service of the United States :
to observe, obey, and enforce within their respective spheres
of service the act and sections above recited.
And the Executive will, in due time, recommend that all
citizens of the United States who shall have remained loyal
thereto throughout the rebellion, shall (upon the restoration
of the constitutional relation between the United States and
their respective States and people, if the relation shall have
been suspended or disturbed) be compensated for all losses
by acts of the United States, including the loss of slaves.
In witness whereof, I have hereinto set my hand and
caused the seal of the United States to be affixed.
Dome at the city of Washington, this twenty-second day
of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight
hundred and sixty-two, and of the Independence of the
United States the eighty-seventh. -
By the President: ABRAHAM LINCOLN.
WM. H. SEWARD, Secretary of State.
SUPPLEMENTARY PROCLAMATION.
Whereas, On the twenty-second day of September, in the
year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-two,
a proclamation was issued by the President of the United
States, containing among other things the following, to wit:
That on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord
one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons
held as slaves within any State, or any designated part of
a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against
the United States, shall be thenceforward and for ever free,
and the Executive Government of the United States, in-
cluding the military and naval authority thereof, will recog-
nize and maintain the freedom of such persons, and will do
no act or acts to repress such persons, or any of them, in
any efforts they may make for their actual freedom :
That the Executive will, on the first day of January afore-
said, by proclamation, designate the States and parts of
States, if any, in which the people thereof respectively shall
then be in rebellion against the United States, and the fact
that any State, or the people thereof, shall on that day be
in good faith represented in the Congress of the United
States by members chosen thereto at elections wherein a
majority of the qualified voters of such State shall have
participated, shall, in the absence of strong countervailing
testimony, be deemed conclusive evidence that such State
and the people thereof are not then in rebellion against the
United States:
Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the
United States, by virtue of the power in me vested as Com-
mander-in-chief of the Army and Navy of the United States,
in time of actual armed rebellion against the authority and
Government of the United States, and as a fit and neces-
sary war-measure for repressing said rebellion, do, on this
first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand
eight hundred and sixty-three, and in accordance with my
purpose so to do, publicly proclaim for the full period of
one hundred days from the day of the first above-mentioned
order, and designate, as the States and parts of States
wherein the people thereof respectively are this day in re-
bellion against the United States, the following, to wit:
Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, except the parishes of St. Ber-
nard, Plaquemine, Jefferson, St. John, St. Charles, St.
James, Ascension, Assumption, Terre Bonne, Lafourche,
St. Mary, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the city of
New Orleans, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South
Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia, except the forty-
eight counties designated as West Virginia, and also the
counties of Berkeley, Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth
City, York, Princess Ann, and Norfolk, including the cities
of Norfolk and Portsmouth, and which excepted parts are,
for the present, left precisely as if this proclamation were
not issued,
And by virtue of the power and for the purpose afore-
said, I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves
within said designated States and parts of States are, and
henceforward shall be, free; and that the Executive Gov-
ernment of the United States, including the military and
maval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the
freedom of said persons. -
And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be
free, to abstain from all violence, unless in necessary self- .
defence, and I recommend to them, that in all cases, when
allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable wages. -
And I further declare and make known that such persons
of suitable condition will be received into the armed service
of the United States to garrison forts, positions, stations,
and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said ser-
W1Ge.
And upon this, sincerely believed to be an act of justice,
warranted by the Constitution, upon military necessity, I
invoke the considerate judgment of mankind and the gra-
cious favor of Almighty God. \
In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and
caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. -
Done at the city of Washington, this first day
of January, in the year of our Lord one thou-
sand eight hundred and sixty-three, and of the
Independence of the United States of America
the eighty-seventh. -
By the President: ABRAHAM LINCOLN.
WILLIAM H. SEWARD, Secretary of State. •
Eman’uel, a county in the E. S. E. of Georgia. Area,
1000 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the
Ogeechee River and intersected by the Great Ohoopee.
The surface is nearly level. Cattle, corn, rice, oats, to-
bacco, cotton and wool are raised. Capital, Swainsboro’.
Pop. 6134 * -
Emar'ginate [from the Lat. emar’gino, emargina’tum,
to “take away the edge "I, a botanical term applied to
leaves which are notched or indented at the apex.
[L. S.]
Em’aus, a post-village of Salisbury township, Lehigh
co., Pa. Pop. 477. -
Em’ba, or Jem, a river of Asia, in Toorkistan or the
Kirgheez territory. It flows south-westward, and enters
the Caspian Sea. Length, about 250 miles.
Embalm’ing [remotely from the Gr. §v, “in,” and
gáAarapov, “balm,” “resin,” alluding to the ancient pro-
cess], the preservation of dead bodies from decay by the
application of antiseptic drugs or of suitable chemical re-
agents. This art early attained great perfection in Egypt.
It appears to have arisen from belief in a future life and
in the resurrection of the body. It was practised in vari-
ous ways. In the most expensive method the brain and
viscera were removed, their places being filled with bitu-
men and aromatic substances; the body was washed in
the oil or tar of cedar, bound up in linen smeared with
spices, asphalt, and various gums; and the whole was
placed in a solution of natron (saltpetre or sodium nitrate)
for seventy days. This process cost a silver talent, nearly
$2000. The cheap methods dispensed with the eviscera-
tion, and yet many mummies (embalmed bodies) are found
completely preserved by the inferior methods. It appears
also that salt was freely used; and some authors believe
that heat was also employed in the process. Embalming
was also practised to some extent by the Jews, Assyrians,
and ancient Persians, as also by the early Christians, who
embalmed the bodies of some of the martyrs, probably by
the simple application of aromatics. Throughout mediaeval
Europe rude embalming was practised upon the bodies of
princes, and during the present century many improve-
ments have been made in the process, which no longer aims
at rendering bodies imperishable, but merely preserves
them indefinitely. Various methods, are now used. In
some, arsenical liquids are injected into the blood-vessels.
The chlorides of zinc, mercury, and aluminium, various
other salts of aluminium, solutions of creasote from wood-
tar, preparations of phenol or carbolic acid and of cresol or
cresylic acid from coal-tar, etc., are successfully employed.
Some of the very best methods are said to be secret.
Embank/ment, a mound of earth for a pier or quay,
for defence against the sea or streams, or for carrying a
roadway. In building embankments the slopes should be
of a permanent nature, and the weight of the bank should
not be so great as to force out the foot. The materials
should be placed according to that angle at which they
would begin to move if left to themselves. Gravel or hard
stone may be laid at 34°, while clay is liable to slip if the
materials are dressed to an angle of more than 26°. If
required to resist the pressure of water on one side, the
slope towards the water had better be 34°, and that towards
the country 26°. The tendency of the subsoil of an em-
bankment to be compressed under the load brought upon it
EMBARGO – EMBRASURE.
1537
may be resisted by filling the core with light materials and
by widening the base. The best way to counteract this
tendency is to isolate the foundation by driving piles.
Càre should be taken to free the seating of an embank-
ment from any water that may filter through it. Covering
the slopes with turf is a useful precaution, but this cannot
be done when the bank is formed of gravel.
Among the greatest embankments of modern times are
one of 1,750,000 yards on the Ulm and Augsburg Railway,
and the Oberhäuser embankment of 2,500,000 yards cube
on the Augsburg and Lindau line. &
Embar'go [a Spanish word signifying “arrest,” “im-
pediment”], a restraint or prohibition imposed by the gov-
ernment of a country on merchant-vessels or other vessels
to prevent their leaving its ports. Embargoes are usually
imposed in time of war, or when war is believed to be im-
pending. They may sometimes prohibit the arrival as well
as the departure of vessels. In Dec., 1807, the Congress
of the U. S., at the request of President Jefferson, laid an
embargo as an offset or retaliation against the British
“Orders in Council.” This embargo was repealed by Con-
gress in Feb., 1809. (See FNTERNATIONAL LAW No. II., by
PRES. T. D. Wools EY, S. T. D., LL.D.)
Embarras, a township of Edgar co., Ill.
Embassador. See AMBAss ADOR.
IEm/bassy [for etymológy see AMBASSADOR; Fr. ambas-
sade; Ger. Gesandschaft; Lat. legatio], a diplomatic mis-
sion; the function of an ambassador. In a technical or
limited application, embassy signifies a mission presided
over by an ambassador; that is, a diplomatic agent of the
highest rank. The term is sometimes applied to a company
of persons sent on a mission, including one or more envoys,
Secretaries, etc. -
Emb’den, a post-township of Somerset co., Me. P. 803.
Em/berton, a post-borough of Venango co., Pa. Pop.
8. -
Pop. 1280.
48
Em/ber Week [Lat. gua'twor tem/pora, the “four sea-
sons” (from this the English is probably a corruption); Fr.
quatre-temps; Ger. Quatember; Dutch temper], a name given
in the calendars of the Anglican and Roman Catholic churches
(1) to the week after the first Sunday in Lent; (2) to the
week after Whitsunday; (3) to that after the 14th of Sep-
tember; and (4) to that after the 13th of December. The
Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday of these weeks are “em-
ber days,” fasts for imploring the Divine blessing on the
fruits of the earth and upon the ordinations which are per-
formed at these times. The fasts are said to have been in-
stituted by Pope Calixtus I. in 229 A.D., but the times were
fixed by Gregory VII., and confirmed by the Council of Pla-
centia (1095).
Embez'zlement, in criminal law, is the act of fraudu-
lently appropriating to one's own use property held under
Some fiduciary relation, such as that of clerk or ser-
vant. It is not to be confounded with larceny. The defi-
nition of this offence is rigid, so that this branch of the
criminal law is entangled with perplexing distinctions.
Larceny is defined to be “the felonious taking and carry-
ing away the personal property of another.” The word
“taking,” as here employed, has been closely interpreted
by the courts, and generally considered not to include the
case of property held in trust, particularly where it came
into the possession of the trustee without first having passed
into the possession of the real owner. There must have
been a taking equivalent to a trespass. It became a maxim
that without a trespass there could be no theft or larceny.
So refined a distinction as the following has been main-
tained: Should a clerk or servant authorized to sell goods
actually sell them, and, having received the price, convert
the money to his own use, there is no larceny, because the
master never had the possession of the money, and so the
clerk could not be said to have “taken º’ it from him. On
the other hand, if the clerk had put the money received on
the sale into the master’s money-drawer, and had after-
wards fraudulently abstracted it, he would have committed
larceny, for the act of depositing the money in the drawer
would have placed it constructively in the master's posses-
sion. The moral quality of the two acts is substantially the
Same, yet by the common law the one is a crime, and the
other is a simple breach of trust, for which the servant is
responsible in a mere action for damages.
This imperfection in the law led, many years ago, to a
statute in England, which created a new form of crime
called “embezzlement.” The early English statutes only
included the case of misappropriation by clerks or ser-
vants of individuals or private corporations. This form
of legislation was copied in this country. There is now
in England a much more comprehensive scheme. (See 24
and 25 Vict., c. 96.) The present act not only includes the
former cases, but embraces a great variety of cases of
breach of trust, such as that by factors, brokers, agents,
trustees of charitable societies, officers of cities, and public
servants generally. The range of each enactment of this
kind is very comprehensive, including not only positive
wrongs, but all forms of wilful or fraudulent neglect of duty.
It is by no means necessary under this legislation that the
officer should appropriate the funds of a city to his own use.
It is enough if he fraudulently appropriates or permits them
to be appropriated to any other use than that to which they
rightfully belong. The punishment is severe. The crime
is made a felony, punishable by not more than fourteen nor
less than three years of penal servitude, or else by impris-
onment at hard labor for a fixed period. In the civil law
embezzlement is recognized as a wrong, subjecting him who
commits it to an action for damages or other proceeding by
way of reparation. A salvor may forfeit his share of sal-
vage compensation by “embezzlement;” the forfeited share
accrues, not to the other members of his class, but to the
owner of the property saved. T. W. DWIGHT.
Embla^zonry, pictures or figures on shields and coats-
of-arms. Emblazoning is the art of adorning with ensigns
armorial. (See BLAZONRY.)
Em’blem [Gr. 3p}Amua (from év, “in,” and BáAAw, to
“cast,” to “put"), literally, “something inserted;” Lat.
emble/ma; Fr. embléme, probably applied originally to a
symbolical figure inserted in a shield or coat-of-arms], a
figurative representation which by the power of association
suggests to the mind some idea not expressed to the eye;
a symbol; a type; thus, a balance is an emblem of justice.
In bibliography, the term “book of emblems” is applied
to a book containing a series of plates or pictures of em-
blematic subjects, with explanations, as the poems of Jacob
Cats.
Em’blements [Norman Fr., probably from the Fr. blé,
“grain,” with the particle em, “in” or “on,” prefixed], a
term applied to the growing crops of cereal grains and
vegetables raised by a tenant. By the law of England a
tenant for life, whose estate depends on an uncertain event,
or other tenant is entitled to the emblements, although his
lease may terminate before harvest-time. If a tenant for
life die, his personal representatives may after his death
claim the products of his labor. But if a term be brought
to a close by the voluntary act of the tenant, he is not en-
titled to the emblements. - t
Em’blica Officina/lis [the generic name is of Malay
origin], a species of trees of the matural order Euphorbi-
aceae, is a native of India and the Malay Archipelago. It
produces a small round fruit, which is very acid, has medi-
cinal properties, and is used to make pickles. The wood is
hard and valuable. The bark is used for tanning and for
dyeing cotton black.
Em/bolism [Gr. 3p}oxworp.6s, from év, “in,” and BáAAø,
to “throw ’’, in the calendar, is an intercalation of a day,
as the 29th of February in leap-year, or of a lunar month,
as in the Greek and Hebrew calendars.
EMBOLISM, in pathology, is the presence of a clot (em/bo-
lus) in the arteries or veins. Some writers also apply the
name to the fixed venous clot (thrombus). Embolism in the
brain is a recognized cause of apoplexy. An extensive em-
bolism of the lungs may lead to sudden death; a smaller one
may lead to local pneumonia, abscess, pyamia, or gangrene.
Embolism, though frequently fatal, is sometimes followed
by recovery. The best treatment is the frequent adminis-
tration of concentrated food and stimulants, keeping the
patient in fresh air, and allaying irritation by opiates. Be-
sides the above, some emboli appear to originate from a
precipitation of pigmentary matter. Such cases are the
result of disease.
Embolite, a chloro-bromide of silver, found in the
'silver ores of Mexico and Chili. . . .
Embos’ sing [from boss, a “protuberance”], in sculp-
ture, carving, and architecture, is the forming in relief of
any figure. The figures are said to be in high, middle, or
low relief (alto, mezzo, or basso rilievo).
Embouchure [Fr., from emboucher, to “empty,” lite-
rally, to “put into the mouth * or to “put the mouth to ”],
the mouth of a river; also that part of a wind musical in-
strument to which the lips of the performer are applied.
Embra/cery, in law, the offence of endeavoring to
corrupt or bribe a jury or to influence a jury by any cor-
rupt motive. To use indirect means to cause one's self to
be chosen a juryman is also embracery. This offence i
punishable by fine and imprisonment. -
Embra'sure [etymology doubtful], in fortification, an
opening made in the parapet of a fortified place or the
breastwork of a battery through which the guns are pointed.
The embrasures are usually made about two feet wide at
the interior extremity or neck, and half as thick as the
97
1538
EMBRO—EMBRYOLOGY.
parapet at the exterior crest. The sole or lower surface is
at the height of about two and a half, feet above the plat-
form on which the carriage of the gun is placed.
Em/bro, a post-village of West Zorra township, Oxford
co., Ontario, Canada, 10 miles from Woodstock, the county-
town, has two weekly papers and about 600 inhabitants.
Embroi’dery [from the Fr. broder, to “embroider,”
probably from the Gaelic brod, a “goad,” “something
pointed”] is the art of working figures with a needle and
thread on muslim and other fabrics. Embroidery on heavy
materials is generally executed with silk, wool, or gold and
silver thread, and is used for banners, church vestments,
furniture covers, etc. Muslim embroidery is performed
mostly with cotton, and employed for collars, caps, and
various other articles of apparel. Embroidery with the
common needle consists usually of a combination of ordi-
nary Stitches. A machine has recently been introduced into
England and the Continent by which the most complicated
patterns can be accurately executed by one person with 130
needles, all moving at once.
forms daily the work of fifteen hand-embroiderers. Several
kinds of sewing-machines can be used for embroidering. The
art of embroidery is of very ancient origin, and was brought
to great perfection by the women of Greece and Sidon. It
was extensively practised in mediaeval times in Europe. The
Women of Some barbarous races, like the North American In-
dians, often exhibit a marked degree of skill in embroidery.
Em/bryo [Gr. Šugpwos, “budding inwardly,” from év,
“within,” and 8piſo, to “swell like a bud’ before bloom-
ing], in animal anatomy and physiology, is the immature
germ of the future organism; an account of the develop-
ment of which is given in the article EMBRYology.
In botany, the embryo is the rudimentary plant found in
the seed of phaenerogamous plants. It consists of a radicle
or undeveloped stem ; of one, two, or more cotyledons or
future seed-leaves; and the plumule, an incipient leaf or
bud at the summit of the radicle. The dodders, and per-
haps a few other dicotyledonous (or more strictly exoge-
nous) plants, have no cotyledons, but only a spirally coiled,
thread-like embryo inside the albumen, with sometimes a
few plumule scales.
Embryol’ogy [from the Gr. ºpagpuov, “ something that
grows or sprouts internally,” and A6)0s, a “ discourse’], the
history of the development of the young animal before
birth. Embryology proper includes the description of all
the changes, both anatomical and physiological, which take
place in the body of the imperfect young, within either the
uterus or the egg, in all classes of animals. The present
article, however, will be devoted more especially to the em-
bryology of the Vertebrata, or those animals having a bony
skeleton, since the general plan of development is the same
throughout this class, and is particularly important as il-
lustrating the development of the embryo in the human
species.
In all cases the development of the young animal begins
from an ovum, or egg. The ova exist originally in the in-
terior of the body of the female parent, where they are pro-
duced in certain organs contained in the cavity of the ab-
domen, termed ovaries. The ovaries, containing ova, are
thus characteristic of the female organization, and form an
essential part of its original structure. The ova, after being
produced in the ovaries, at a certain period arrive at ma-
turity, and are spontaneously discharged. If fecundated at
this time by the influence of the male, they become devel-
oped into embryos; if not, they lose their vitality after a
short period and perish. Thus the production of the em-
bryo depends upon the concourse or combination of two
sexual elements—namely, the ovum produced by the female,
and the fecundating material or sperm produced by the
male. -
In some kinds of animals, such as birds, batrachians,
and most of the reptiles and fishes, the egg is first dis-
charged from the body of the female, and the development
of the embryo takes place within it subsequently, the young
animal being at last hatched from the egg externally; such
animals are called oviparous, or egg-laying animals. In
other instances, as in some fishes and reptiles, all the true
quadrupeds, and the human species, the ova are retained
within the body of the female while the development of the
embryo is going on ; so that at last the fully formed em-
bryo is produced alive; such animals are called viviparows,
because they produce living young, instead of laying eggs
like the former. Nevertheless, the process is essentially the
same in both cases, and differs only in the time during which
the ovum is retained within the body of the female parent.
The ovum in its simplest form consists of a globular mass
of albuminous matter mixed with oleaginous granules, and
invested by a transparent, colorless, homogeneous mem-
brane. The oleo-albuminous mass is termed the vitellus, or
yolk; the investing layer is called the vitelline membrane.
One of these machines per-
Of these two, the vitellus is the essential part of the ovum.
It is that which yields the material for the first formation
of the body of the embryo. The vitelline membrane is
simply a covering intended to protect the vitellus, to main-
tain its shape, and to regulate for a short time the absorp-
tion of fluids. The vitellus, while still remaining in the
ovary, contains a delicate, transparent vesicle, termed the
“germinative vesicle,” marked with a minute dot, called
the “germinative spot.” These names have been given to
the bodies in question from the idea that they might have
something to do with the commencement of growth or ger-
mination of the embryo, but it is doubtful whether they have
any such significance; and it is generally believed that they
are rather connected with the growth and maturity of the
ovum itself before impregnation has occurred.
In the human species and in the quadrupeds generally
the ovum, as above described, forms a little sphere about
rºw of an inch in diameter. It is therefore nearly invisible
to the naked eye, and requires examination by the micro-
scope in order to distinguish its characters. . . -
- FIG. 1. In the quadrupeds this minute
form , and simple structure are
amply sufficient, since the im-
pregnated ovum is retained with-
in the body of the female during
the development of the embryo,
and abundantly supplied with
nourishment from the parent or-
ganism. But in the oviparous
classes, where the development
F. º º of the embryo takes place outside
fied 90 diameters: a, vi- the body of the parent, the egg is
tellus; b, vitelline mem- larger in size and more compli-
brane; c, germinative cated in structure, and contains a
jºle; 4. germinative store of nutritious material, as
pOL. well as certain additional protec-
tive envelopes. In the common fowl, for example, the vi-
tellus or yolk, which is the only part of the egg produced
in the ovary, is nearly an inch in diameter, and contains a
great abundance of oleaginous as well as albuminous ma-
terial. After its discharge from the ovary, and during its
downward passage through the generative canal, the size
of the egg is still further increased by the deposit around
the yolk of a layer of pure albumen, secreted by the lining
membrane of the canal, and forming the so-called “white
of egg.” In the lower portion of the generative passage
there are added to the outside of the albumen two fibrous
membranes, called the “shell-membranes;” and lastly, the
calcareous shell, formed of a consolidated layer of the salts
of lime. These fibrous and calcareous envelopes serve to
protect the embryo, while the albumen and the yolk supply
it with the requisite nourishment during its formation in
the egg.
FIG. 2.
º: ºzºF
FIG. 2. a, yolk; b. vitelline membrane; c, albumen; d, shell-
membranes; 6, egg-shell.
In all instances, without exception, the first indication of
the commencing formation of the embryo in the ovum is
what is called the spontaneous division or segmentation of
the vitellus. This process consists in the separation of the
globular vitellus into two smaller globules or hemispheres
by the appearance of a furrow running round the vitelius
like an equator, which gradually deepens until it has com-
pletely separated the two hemispheres from each other. At
the same time, or a little later, a second furrow, placed at
right angles to the first, runs round the vitellus in another
direction; and thus the two secondary globules are divided
into four. By a repetition of this process the vitellus, which
had originally the form of a simple sphere, becomes con-
verted into a mulberry-shaped mass of minute globules,
called the “vitelline spheres.” These globules become con-
densed into the form of organized cells; and from these cells,
in the simplest cases, the body of the embryo is directly
formed, without the production of any accessory organs.


EMBRYOLOGY.
1539
In the vertebrate animals the vitelline spheres, resulting
from the segmentation of the vitellus, when converted into
organized cells, form a cellular layer or continuous mem-
9 @ 9 @
FIG. 3. Segmentation of the Vitellus and formation of
dermic membrane. It is the first appearance of a truly or-
ganized structure in the interior of the impregnated ovum,
and forms the basis for the formation of the body of the
embryo. In some instances, in the lower orders of the ver-
tebrate class, where the impregnated eggs are laid in the
water, and where an abundance of warmth, oxygen, and
nutritious fluid is supplied by the surrounding medium—as,
for example, in the frog—the subsequent process is very
simple, or at least is not complicated with the formation of
any accessory organs. In these cases the whole of the vitel-
lus, and consequently the whole of the blastodermic mem-
brane, is directly converted into the body of the embryo.
The plan upon which this development takes place is as
follows:
An elongated oval spot appears upon a certain part of
the blastodermic membrane, where the tissue of the mem-
brane is thicker, denser, and more opaque than elsewhere.
This spot, which is the first sketch of the actual form of the
future embryo, is called the embryonic, spot. Its anterior
extremity will subsequently become the head, and its pos-
terior extremity the tail. As the cells of the embryonic
spot become more numerous, Smaller, and more closely
amalgamated, its appearance changes towards its central
portions, where, instead of being opaque, it becomes homo-
geneous and pellucid in appearance. The central area or
space in which this change occurs is called the area pellw-
cida; and finally there appears, in the middle of this trans-
parent space, a longitudinal line or trace, indicating the
position of the future spinal column, and known by the des-
ignation of the primitive trace. *
FIG. 4.
º
# º
/
§/
(C
|
ºº
ſ
*
;
IG
(Q)
§[3]
Q
(S)
ról
§
§
à
§*
S5)
Ø
§
§
t
ºs§§º
§:
W
§§)
Šgº
sº
sº
(6)
º
§
º
㺠ſº
sº
sº
sº
º º: -
ššššš
FIG. 4. Impregnated ovum of the rabbit, showing the blasto-
dermic membrane formed of cells, the embryonic spot, the
area pellucida, and the primitive trace.
In this way is determined the location of the fundamental
part of the structure of the vertebrate animal, for the spinal
column is the most important portion of the whole skeleton,
and the formation of all the remaining parts of the body
takes place with reference to it.
In every vertebrate animal the subsequent development
of the body goes on simultaneously in two different direc-
tions—namely, from before backward, and from behind for-
ward. From the edges of the primitive trace, on the right
and left sides, the substance of the blastodermic membrane
becomes thickened and elevated into two longitudinal and
parallel ridges, which of course include between them a
longitudinal furrow. These ridges are called the dorsal
plates. As they increase in growth their upper edges ap-
proach each other, and the furrow between them becomes
deeper and more like a canal. In this canal, which is still
open along the back, are formed the spinal cord and the
brain. But the dorsal plates, constantly approaching each
other, at last meet, and unite by their edges along the me-
dian line of the back; thus converting the furrow which
existed between them into a closed cavity, in which are now
contained the brain and spinal cord. Thus, the dorsal
plates, by their union with each other along the median line,
complete the formation of the external parts of the body in
brane upon the surface of the impregnated ovum. This
membrane, formed exclusively of similar flattened cells, ad-
herent to each other by their edges, is called the blasto-
the embryo in Ascaris acuminata, a parasitic worm.
a posterior direction, and the brain and spinal cord are
enclosed in an elongated cavity situated behind the column
of the bodies of the vertebrae.
At the same time a similar condensation and growth ex-
tends from the edges of the primitive trace in a direction
outward and forward. These growing portions are called
the abdominal plates of the blastodermic membrane; and
they continue to extend forward until they embrace the ab-
dominal cavity in front, just as the dorsal plates embraced
the spinal canal behind. At last they also unite with each
other by their edges, and the external parts of the body are
then cicatrized and consolidated upon the median line, both
anteriorly and posteriorly. The alimentary canal and its
accessory organs are thus enclosed by the abdominal plates
in an abdominal cavity, situated in front of the column of
the bodies of the yertebrae.
As thus far described, the process of development relates
to the growth of the external portions of the body, and that
part of the nervous system which corresponds with them—
namely, the brain and spinal cord, and the nerves derived
therefrom. The dorsal and abdominal plates, as they grow
thicker and more condensed, begin to show in their sub-
stance the distinction of the various tissues. The external
integument, the tissue of the voluntary muscles, the car-
tilages and bones, the organs of special sense, the nerves
of sensation and voluntary motion, and the white and gray
matter of the brain and spinal cord, are thus formed in the
substance of the growing material. All the organs and tis-
sues just enumerated, notwithstanding their different func-
tions, are closely related to each other in one respect; that
is, they are destined to bring the animal body into relation
with the external world by means of sensation, conscious-
mess, volition, voluntary movement, and the mechanical
reception and expulsion of nutritious or effete materials.
They are accordingly known as the “organs of animal life;”
and they are all formed from the original cells of the eac-
termal layer of the blastodermic membrane.
There is also, however, an internal layer of the blasto-
dermic membrane; and from this layer are formed the ali-
mentary canal and its glandular appendages, or the organs
in which digestion, absorption, and secretion are to be car-
ried on, and in which the muscular actions are involuntary
and unconscious. They may, therefore, be regarded as the
“ organs of vegetative life.” The alimentary canal is at
first an oval sac, enclosed on all sides by the external ab-
dominal walls. But subsequently two openings are formed,
one at its anterior and one at its posterior extremity—
namely, the mouth and the anus; and the original sac is
thus converted into a true canal, open at both ends. At the
same time the alimentary canal grows very rapidly in the
direction of its length, thus becoming converted into a com-
paratively long, narrow, and convoluted tube, and after-
wards showing the distinctions between the oesophagus, the
stomach, and the different parts of the small and large in-
testine.
These are the general features of the development of the
embryo in all vertebrated animals. There are other details
which relate to the special growth of particular parts, and
to the so-called metamorphoses or transformations which
take place in particular species, and which are nothing more
than the successive appearance and disappearance of par-
ticular organs, which are adapted to the life of the animal
at different stages of growth. Thus, in the young tadpole,
when first hatched from the egg, the mouth is a round ori-
fice provided with a suctorial apparatus and adapted for
feeding on vegetable matters; respiration is entirely aqua-
tic, and is performed by means of gills; there are no limbs,
but voluntary movement is accomplished by a large and
muscular tail, the animal living altogether under the sur-
face of the water. Afterwards the mouth enlarges into a
wide transverse opening, adapted for the seizure of living
prey; the gills disappear and lungs are developed, while
the mode of respiration changes from aquatic to ačrial; and
finally, anterior and posterior legs grow from the correspond-
ing parts of the body, becoming powerful organs for both
swimming and leaping, while the tail ceases to grow, be-
comes atrophied, and disappears. Thus, the tadpole grad-








































1540
EMBRYOLOGY.
ually acquires the organs and the appearance of a perfect
frog. This change, in the case of the tadpole, is called a
“transformation,” because it happens after the young ani-
mal has escaped from the egg; but equally important
changes take place in the embryo of the higher animals
while they are still retained within the egg or in the uterus
of the female parent.
Besides the essential and general features of embryonic
development detailed above, there are, in all the higher
classes, certain secondary or accessory organs developed
during embryonic life, which will require a further descrip-
tion. -
The first of these is known as the wºmbilical vesicle. In
the process of development, as already described, the ab-
dominal walls, growing together upon the median line,
enclose directly the whole of the vitelline cavity, which
subsequently, of course, becomes the cavity of the intes-
time.
birds and quadrupeds, the abdominal walls approach each
other before they have embraced the whole of the vitellus,
so that the vitelline cavity is thus separated, by a kind of
constriction, into two parts. The internal part, which is
fully embraced by the abdominal walls, is, as before men-
tioned, the cavity of the intestine; but the external part,
which is left by this éonstriction outside the abdomen, is
the umbilical vesicle. This name is given to it because it
is really a vesicle, containing some of the remains of the
vitellus, and because it still communicates with the cavity
of the intestine through the umbilicus or navel. This com-
munication is at first short and wide; but as development
proceeds, the umbilical vesicle gradually retreats farther
from the abdomen, while the passage of communication
becomes converted into a comparatively long and narrow
canal. In many of the quadrupeds and in the human spe-
cies the walls of this canal even coalesce with each other at
an early period, so that the umbilical vesicle then forms a
separate cavity or sac, connected with the abdomen only
by a slender solid pedicle. One or two minute blood-ves-
sels run out along this pedicle, and ramify upon the surface
of the umbilical vesicle. The umbilical vesicle is undoubt-
edly at first a reservoir of nutritious material, and remains
so throughout embryonic life in all those species where the
vitellus was originally of large size; but in the quadrupeds
it very early loses its importance, and is superseded by other
sources of nourishment. In the human subject it is difficult
to distinguish it after the third month of embryonic exist-
€Il Ce.
The next accessory organ of the embryo is the amnion.
This is a delicate and transparent membrane, which turns
up from the edges of the abdominal walls over the back
of the embryo, and thus envelops it in a secondary cavity.
This is called the “cavity of the amnion ;” the albuminous
liquid which it contains, and in which the embryo is bathed,
is called the “amniotic fluid.” The amnion is accordingly
an extension of the outer layer of the blastodermic mem-
brane, and is continuous with the integument of the embryo.
In other words, the external layer of the blastodermic
membrane in these cases is developed into two different
parts. That which immediately invests the body of the
embryo is its integument, and part of its permanent struc-
ture; that which turns backward at the edges of the ab-
dominal opening is the amnion, and an organ of embryonic
life. The amnion at first closely embraces the body of the
embryo, but afterwards it expands more rapidly, and the
amniotic fluid increases in quantity, so that the young ani-
Imal may move freely within its cavity when the muscular
system begins to exhibit signs of activity.
The third and last accessory embryonic organ is the al-
lantois.
“sausage,” because in many cases it is a sac or bag of an
elongated cylindrical form. In all instances it is an out-
growth from the lower part of the intestine. It shows it-
self at first as a small bud or diverticulum, shaped somewhat
like the finger of a glove, which protrudes from the abdom-
inal opening in front, and then rapidly expands in every
direction until it has entirely enveloped the embryo, as well
as the amnion, in a second exterior covering. Its walls are
exceedingly vascular, their vessels being derived from those
of the intestine, of which the allantois itself is an offshoot.
Thus, when the allantois has become completely formed, the
external surface of the embryonic mass is a continuous vas-
cular membrane, in which the blood-vessels of the embryo
ramify in great abundance.
This anatomical feature will serve to indicate the useful-
ness and the function of the allantois. It is the organ of
nourishment and respiration for the embryo. In the fowl's
egg, the allantois, which is placed immediately underneath
the calcareous shell and shell-membranes, is very active dur-
ing the latter half of the period of incubation. It absorbs
oxygen from the external air through the porous egg-shell,
and exhales carbonic acid, thus serving to renovate and
But in many of the fishes and reptiles, and in all
arterialize the blood, as the lungs will do in the young
chick after being hatched. In the viviparous animals, as
FIG. 5.
FIG. 5. Embryo. of the chick on the
seventh day of incubation : a, body
of the embryo ; b, amnion ; c, a por-
tion of the umbilical vesicle; d, com-
mencing growth of the allantois.
the quadrupeds, the ac-
tion of the allantois is
still more important.
The ovum in these ani-
mals being of minute
size, without any abun-
dant store of nutritious
material, and being re-
tained, after fecunda-
tion, within the body of
the female parent, the
young embryo is entire-
ly dependent upon the
maternal system both for
respiration and nourish-
ment. The vascular al-
lantois here, enveloping
the embryo, comes in
contact with the vascu-
It is so called from the Greek &AAäs, &AA&vros, a
lar lining membrane of the uterus, and thus the blood-ves-
sels of the embryo constantly absorb from the blood-vessels
of the mother the substances requisite for its nourishment
and growth. In many kinds of animals the allantois even
contracts a more or less intimate adhesion with the lining
FIG. 6.
wº/ %2
: º ſº * . s º
*º
º - \º º
}
W.
| W
º
aſºº
§ { wº
sº º |
|
...W. \
W §
d º sº
º º
º sº W sº
\. º § ſº
ºwº % %
Nºs §§º º *\\
Sº
sº
sº
§§ºğ
FIG. 6. Egg of fowl on the twelfth day of incubation. The shell
and shell-membranes have been removed, showing the vascu-
lar allantois, which has grown so as to envelop all the remain-
ing portions of the egg.
ºss
membrane of the uterus at particular spots, where the pro-
cess of absorption and transudation is carried on with
greater rapidity.
In the human species the allantois commences its growth
in the same manner as in the inferior animals, but exhibits
certain modifications in its subsequent development which
have caused it to be known by another name. It does not
present the form of an elongated cylindrical sac, but is, on
the contrary, irregularly globular in form, corresponding
to the shape of the cavity of the uterus in which the em-
bryo is developed. It forms, however, a complete envelope
or external tunic for the embryo, consisting of a continuous
vascular membrane of more or less fibrous consistency and
texture. It has accordingly received the name of the cho-
rion. The human embryo, therefore, is enveloped in two
distinct membranes—namely, the chorion externally and the
amnion internally. Both these membranes are vascular, but
the blood-vessels of the amnion are derived from the integ-
ument of the embryo, those of the chorion from the intes-
timal canal. - -
Another important modification of the human chorion is
that at an early period it becomes shaggy or velvety by the
growth of a multitude of minute filamentous projections or
# villosities” upon its outer surface. These villosities be-
come branched and divided, forming so many tufted fila-
ments, by which the power and activity of absorption by
the chorion is greatly augmented. Soon after the first
month, however, these villosities cease their growth over
about three-quarters of the surface of the chorion, which
thus becomes smooth and bald, while over the remaining
quarter they grow more rapidly than before, become exces:
sively developed both in numbers and in ramification and
vascularity, so that the chorion here becomes converted
into a thickened and spongy mass of villosities, which are
penetrated everywhere with an abundance of looped and
ramifying blood-vessels. When this portion of the chorion
is fully developed, it forms a distinct organ, which is known
by the name of the placenta. The placenta, accordingly,
in the human species, is the especial organ of nourishment
for the embryo. It has become well developed, and easily
*3


















































































EMBURY-EMERSON.
1541
distinguishable from the remaining portions of the chorion,
by the end of the third month of embryonic life.
The amnion and the chorion, therefore, although they are
termed the “membranes” and the “appendages,” are in
reality a part of the body of the embryo—as much so as
any other of its external or internal organs. The placenta,
however, includes also a portion of the tissues of the
mother; for at the same time that the chorion is becoming
excessively shaggy and vascular at the spot which is after-
wards to be the placenta, the lining membrane of the uterus
also assumes, at the corresponding point, a similar in-
creased development. In both cases it is the blood-vessels
which preponderate over the remaining tissues, becoming
adherent to each other, and mutually interpenetrating
through the entire thickness of the organ. Thus, the pla-
centa, when fully formed, is a double organ, containing
both embryonic and maternal vessels, and presenting an
extensive vascular surface for reciprocal absorption and ex-
udation. There is at no time any actual communication
between the cavities of the two sets of vessels, but the nu-
tritious materials transude through the thin vascular walls,
and in this way supply to the embryo everything essential
to its growth.
When the development of the embryo is complete the
muscular walls of the uterus contract, the membranes are
ruptured, the placenta is separated from its attachments,
and the whole expelled from the uterine cavity. The pla-
centa is then no longer available as an organ of nourish-
ment, and is cast off as a useless appendage. But in the
mean time the lungs and the alimentary canal have been
gradually becoming developed by internal growth, and are
now capable of performing their natural functions. After
birth, accordingly, the act of respiration and the absorption
of nourishment are accomplished in the young infant inde-
pendently by the aid of internal organs, while during em-
bryonic life they were performed by the placenta, supplied
in great part for this purpose by the blood of the mother.
J. C. DALTON.
JEm/bury (EMMA CATHERINE), an American writer whose
maiden name was MANLEY, was born in New York in 1806,
and was married in 1828 to Daniel Embury, Esq., of Brook-
lyn. Among her works are “Guido and other Poems,”
“Constance Latimer, or the Blind Girl,” and “Nature’s
Gems, or American Wild Flowers.” Died Feb. 10, 1863.
Embury (PHILIP), recognized as the “founder of Amer-
ican Methodism,” was born at Bally garane, Ireland, in
1728. He became a member and “local preacher” of Wes-
ley’s society at Court-Mattress, Ireland. In 1760 he emi-
grated to New York. He began to preach there in 1766 in
his own house, mostly to his own countrymen. Later he
preached in an old rigging-loft, and at last succeeded in
erecting “Old John street church.” Embury, being a car-
penter, worked on it himself. He built with his own hands
its pulpit, and on the 30th of Oct., 1768, preached from it
the dedicatory sermon of the humble structure—the first
Methodist chapel of the New World. Embury afterwards
settled in Salem, N. Y., where also he founded his denomi-
nation, and where it grew into the prosperous Troy con-
ference, and where he died in 1775. His church commem-
orates these by a monument.
Em/den, or Emb’den, a fortified seaport-town of
Prussia, in the former kingdom of Hanover, is on the N.
shore of the Dollart, near the mouth of the Ems, about 70
miles W. N. W. of Bremen; lat. 53° 22' N., lon. 79 12' 38”
E. It is intersected by several canals, which are crossed by
about thirty bridges. It is well built, and contains a hand-
some town-hall, an exchange, a custom-house, a gymna-
sium, a school of navigation, and a deaf and dumb asylum.
Here are manufactures of linen fabrics, hosiery, hats, sail-
cloth, starch, soap, etc. The port of Emden has shallow
harbors, outer and inner, but the roadstead is deep enough
for large ships. Pop. in 1871, 12,588.
Em’erald [Gr. ouápay80s; Fr. Émeraude; Sp. esmeralda;
Ger. Sma'ragd], a beautiful green precious stone, a variety
of beryl, a silicate of alumina and glucina. It occurs in
six-sided prisms, which are highly prized as ornamental
gems. Its color, which is perhaps the most beautiful of all
the varieties of green, is ascribed to the oxide of chromium
that it contains. It is stated that a perfect specimen of this
gem has been sold for $5000. Its value depends chiefly on
its color. The largest emeralds occur in Siberia on the river
Tokowoia; one in the Royal collection weighs sixteen and
three-fourths pounds Troy, another six pounds. The finest
modern emeralds are found in South America, especially at
Muzo in Colombia. Emeralds of inferior quality are pro-
cured at Canjargum in Hindostan, and in the Henbach
Valley near Salzburg. F. Cailliaud rediscovered (about
1818), in Mount Zabarah in Upper Egypt, the emerald-
mines from which the ancients obtained many emeralds.
A rare green variety of Sapphire is sometimes called Ori-
ental emerald. Emerald copper is a synonym of dioptase;
emerald nickel for Zaratite, a compound of carbonate and
hydrate of nickel, found at the chrome-mines of Texas, Pa.
Emerald, a township of Faribault co., Minn. Pop. 748. "
Emerald, a township of Paulding co., O. Pop. 717.
Emerald, a township of St. Croix co., Wis. Pop. 206.
Emerald Bird of Paradise (Paradis’ea ap'oda),
[that is, the “footless,” so called from the old fable that the
Emerald |Bird of Paradise.
bird of paradise has no feet, but always flies without rest-
ing], the best known and most elegant of the birds of para-
dise, is a native of New Guinea (Papua), where it is killed
in great numbers for its beautiful plumage, which brings a
high price in the market.
The skins with the plumage are used in the East for or-
namenting turbans, and in Europe and America for adorn-
ing ladies' head-dresses. About 1500 or 2000 are annually
imported into Europe, chiefly by way of Batavia. The
back part of the neck is of a pale gold color, the throat and
fore part of the richest changeable golden green, the breast
a deep purple, the body and tail a fine chestnut. The body
feathers are frequently dyed to improve the natural tint.
The female is said to furnish the most highly prized feath-
ers, though during life, at least, it appears that the male is
by far the more splendid bird, being provided with con-
spicuous floating plumes of astonishing beauty.
Emer'sion [Lat. emer'sio, from emer'go, emer'sum, to
“emerge or rise into view"), in astronomy, is the reappear-
ance of the sun, moon, planet, or star from behind the celes-
tial body by which it was hidden in an eclipse or occulta-
tion. The phenomena of immersion and emersion are use-
ful in determining the longitude of places.
Em’erson, a township of Gratiot co., Mich. Pop. 590.
Emerson (GEORGE BARRELL), LL.D., an American
teacher and writer, born in Kennebunk, Me., Sept. 12, 1797.
He lived in Boston for many years, and was president of
the Boston Society of Natural History. He was the first
head-master (1821–23) of the Boston English High School
for boys. Among his works are “Lectures on Education ”
and a “Report on the Trees and Shrubs growing naturally
in the Forests of Massachusetts’’ (1846).
Emerson (REv. JoHN S.), missionary, was born at
Chester, N. H., in 1801, graduated at Dartmouth in 1826,
and at Andover in 1830. He went to the Sandwich Islands,
and aided in preparing an “English Hawaian Dictionary.”
Died Mar. 28, 1867.
Emerson (RALPH WALDO), LL.D., an American poet
and essayist. Lord Clarendom said of Lord Falkland, sec-
retary of state to Charles I., that, as his house was within
ten miles of Oxford, “the most polite and accurate men of
that university frequently resorted and dwelt with him, as
in a college situated in purer air; so that his house was a
university in less volume, whither they came not so much
for repose as study.” W *
There seems still to be some benignant Fate which pro-
vides suitably for the suburbs of university towns. Within
ten miles of Harvard College there has been for many years
one modest roof which has afforded to “the most polite and
accurate men’’ of that university some such “college in purer
air;” for it has been the residence of Ralph Waldo Emerson.
Mr. Emerson was born in Boston, Mass., May 25, 1803,
and was the son of Rev. William Emerson and Ruth (Has-
kins) Emerson. He had a minister for an ancestor in every
generation for eight generations back, either on the pater-
mal or maternal side. He was fitted for college at the pub-
lic schools of Boston, and graduated at Harvard College in



1542
EMERSON.
1821. He was not among the very highest scholars of his
class, but in his junior year won a “Bowdoin prize " for a
dissertation on the “Character of Socrates,” and another in
his senior year for an essay on “The Present State of Eth-
ical Philosophy.” He also won a “Boylston prize” for
declamation, and he was “class poet.” For five years after
leaving college he taught school, chiefly in Boston, where
he assisted his elder brother, William, in conducting a suc-
cessful school for girls. In 1826 he was “approbated to
preach,” though his name does not appear among the gradu-
ates of the Harvard Theological School. In March, 1829,
he was ordained as colleague to Rev. Henry Ware of the
Second Unitarian church in Boston. In 1832 he resigned
his pastoral charge, having announced in a sermon his un-
willingness longer to administer the rite of the Lord’s Sup-
per. This sermon was never published, but copies of it exist
in manuscript. In Dec., 1832, he sailed for Europe, re-
maining absent nearly a year. Soon after returning he be-
gan his career as a lecturer before the Boston Mechanics’
Institute, his subject being “Water.” He gave also three
other lectures—two on “Italy,” and one on the “Relation
of Man to the Globe.” In 1834 he gave in Boston a series of
biographical lectures on Michael Angelo, Milton, Luther,
George Fox, and Edmund Burke; the first two of which
were published in the “North American Review.” Since
that time he has given many courses of lectures in Boston,
and has been one of the best-known lecturers throughout
the United States. Perhaps no other man has rendered
such continued service in this field. It is said that he lec-
tured for forty successive seasons before the Salem (Mass.)
Lyceum. He has also made repeated lecturing tours in the
Western States, and has even lectured in California and in
England.
In 1835, Mr. Emerson took up his residence in Concord,
Mass., and published in the following year a thin volume
called “Nature.” It marked a new era in American thought—
was received with sharp criticism from many quarters, and
with corresponding enthusiasm by a small circle of admi-
rers. It took twelve years to sell five hundred copies. This
was followed by several orations before literary societies on
such themes as “The Method of Nature,” “Man Thinking,”
and “Literary Ethics.” More important even than these
was his remarkable “Address before the Senior Class at
Divinity College, Cambridge,” delivered July 15, 1838.
From these various addresses and publications may be dated
the intellectual movement then vaguely stigmatized as
“Transcendentalism.” This was a reaction against formal-
ism and tradition, and brought together a variety of minds,
some profoundly mystical, others full of projects for action.
It led to some excesses and affectations, but was on the
whole a valuable impulse towards many good things. The
four volumes of “The Dial” contain a lasting memorial of
that important seed-time of thought.
Mr. Emerson’s two volumes of “Essays” were collected
and published in 1841 and 1844, and his “Poems” in 1846.
His miscellaneous addresses remained uncollected till 1849,
in America, though they had been reprinted collectively in
England in 1844. Visiting the mother-country in 1847, Mr.
Emerson found awaiting him a large circle of admirers,
whose allegiance he has always retained. In 1850 he pub-
lished “Representative Men,” given previously as a course
of lectures in Boston. In 1852 he took part in preparing the
memoirs of Margaret Fuller Ossoli. His “English Traits”
appeared in 1856, “The Conduct of Life” in 1860, and “May-
Day and other Poems” and “Society and Solitude” in 1869.
Though Mr. Emerson is often assigned to the class of
metaphysicians or “philosophers,” yet the actual traits of
his intellect clearly rank him rather among poets or liter-
ary men. All his methods are literary rather than scientific,
although he has won some of his warmest admirers among
Scientific men, as in the case of Professor Tyndall. His
statements are sometimes subtle, sometimes profound, some-
times noble and heroic, but scarcely ever systematic. He
rests in his intuitions, rarely attempts even the rudiments
of method, but constantly recognizes, in his own words,
“the opposite negations between which, as with cords, our
being is swung.” But it is claimed by his admirers that
(quoting his words again) “We are too young by some ages
yet to form a creed,” and that, while not aiming at the kind
of work done by Herbert Spencer, for instance, Emerson
often gives in some single phrase an illumination that seems
to extinguish Herbert Spencer’s lights, as a sunbeam makes
gas-lamps superfluous.
In viewing Mr. Emerson simply as a literary artist, the
reader must still complain of this tantalizing fragmentari-
ness, this disregard of all the unities, this structural defect.
Even in his poems his genius is like an aeolian harp, that
now gives, now wilfully withholds, its music; while some of
his essays seem merely accidental collections of loose leaves
from a note-book. Yet as one makes this criticism, one is
shamed. into silence by remembering many a passage of
prose and verse so majestic in thought and rhythm, of quality
So rare and utterance so delicious, as to form a permanent
addition to the highest literature of the human race.
Mr. Emerson wrote in 1844 that all our books were Eu-
ropean, that we were “sent to a feudal school to learn de-
mocracy;” and demanded that Americans should “advance
out of all hearing of others' censures, out of all regrets of
their own, into a new and more excellent social state.”
More than any previous literary man among us, he set the
example of ignoring European traditions, methods, and
literary properties wherever, these could be better super-
seded by our own. He drew his habitual illustrations from
American society and Imanners, and was more ready to
write of the pine woods and the humble-bee than of the
nightingale and asphodel. It seems hardly credible that
this should have been ridiculed by the critics as “a foolish
affectation of the familiar;” but the fact of the ridicule
shows the need of the innovation. If that state of things
has now passed by, and if our literature is no longer pro-
vincial, it is to Mr. Emerson that we are most indebted.
It is well known that his position on religious questions
has been that of a philosophical radical, and that he has
been quite detached from the church organizations of the
time. He took this position, once for all, in a sentence
which attracted much attention in his “ Divinity Hall Ad-
dress:” “The assumption that the age of inspiration is
past, that the Bible is closed, the fear of degrading the
character of Jesus by representing him as a man, indicate
with sufficient clearness the falsehood of our theology.”
His precise attitude as to the conception of a Deity and the
belief in personal immortality might be harder to define.
He declares eloquently, however, in one of his orations, that
“there is a sublime and friendly Destiny by which the hu-
man race is guided—the race never dying, the individual
never spared—to results affecting masses and ages.”
Though Mr. Emerson is, like Goethe, a prophet of Self-
Culture, he has never held himself aloof, like Goethe, from
the immediate public agitations of his time, but has always
practically recognized the truth of his own formula, “To-
day is a king in disguise.” He has always lent his voice
in behalf of any momentous public interest. He was al-
ways frankly identified with the anti-slavery movement,
and, though averse to extemporaneous speech, and ill at
ease in that form of service, he often took part in the meet-
ings of the abolitionists. In 1844 he gave an elaborate and
remarkable address on the anniversary of emancipation in
the British West Indies. IIe signed, with his wife, the call
for the first “National Woman’s Rights Convention ” in
1850. He is a vice-president of the Free Religious Asso-
ciation, and has several times addressed its conventions.
He is also an overseer of Harvard University, and received
from that institution the degree of doctor of laws in 1866.
He is a member of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, of the American Philosophical Society, and of the
Massachusetts Historical Society.
Mr. Emerson has been twice married—once, in 1830, to
Ellen Louisa, Tucker of Boston, who died the following
year; and again, in 1835, to Lidian Jackson of Plymouth.
He has three children, two daughters and one son. The
son, Edward Waldo, graduated at Harvard College in 1866,
and has since pursued the study of medicine. Of the
daughters, the elder, Ellen, is unmarried; the younger,
Edith, is the wife of William H. Forbes, Esq., of Milton,
Mass., and has several children. Mr. Emerson has just re-
turned with his elder daughter from Europe, reaching home
May 27, 1873. On his arrival at the Concord station he
found all the children of the public schools drawn up to
receive him, accompanied by many citizens and by a band
of music. They all escorted him in a procession to his
house, which had been destroyed by fire just before his de-
parture from home, and was rebuilt in his absence. A
triumphal arch, decorated with flowers and bearing the word
“Welcome,” had been placed before it. Beneath this, and
between two lines of children, Mr. Emerson and his daugh-
ter entered their home. It was a spontaneous tribute to
the love and reverence won for this eminent author in his
own village by his gracious manners and his simple and
noble life. T. W. HIGGINSON.
Emerson (REv. WILLIAM), the father of Ralph Waldo
Emerson, was born at Concord, Mass., May 6, 1769. His
grandfather, Rev. Joseph Emerson, was minister of Mal-
den, and his father, Rev. William Emerson, died a chaplain
in the Revolutionary army in 1776. The younger William
Emerson graduated at Harvard College in 1789. He was
the first minister of Harvard, Mass., and afterwards (1799–
1811) pastor of the First church (Unitarian) of Boston,
Mass. He published various discourses, a “Selection of
Psalms and Hymns” (1808), and wrote a “History of the
First Church of Boston,” which was published in 1812.
He was an accomplished writer, and one of the best orators
of his day. Died May 12, 1811.
sprinkle it with water or oil on their lead-wheels.
EMERY.
1543
Emery, one of the hardest minerals known, ranking next
to the diamond in its power of cutting or abrading hard sub-
stances. It is a variety of the species corundum or sap-
phire, of a dark reddish-brown, black, or gray color, and con-
sists of nearly pure alumina and oxide of iron. It is found
in large masses, and much resembles fine-grained iron ore,
for which it has often been mistaken. It is obtained chiefly
from Asia Minor and the island of Naxos in the Grecian
Archipelago. At Naxos 60,000 quintals are sold annually
at from twelve to fourteen drachmae (about thirteen francs)
the quintal. Nearly half of the quantity is exported to
England, generally as ballast in homeward-bound vessels,
where it is used chiefly in grinding glass. It has also been
found at Chester, Mass., in a vein with magnetic iron,
from which considerable quantities have been extracted.
It was discovered at Chester by Dr. Charles T. Jackson of
Boston, and in Asia Minor, near Ephesus, by Dr. J. Law-
rence Smith, an American mineralogist in the service of
the Turkish government. Both discoveries are good ex-
amples of the value of accurate mineralogical knowledge.
Emery is scarcely inferior to the Sapphire or ruby in
hardness, and it will not only cut the hardest steel or
chilled castings, but will wear away quartz, agate, topaz,
and other gems, being for the last-named purpose the
chief reliance of the lapidary. It was used by the ancients
for cutting gems. Dioscorides mentions it under the name
of smyris as the stone with which ergzaved gems are pol-
ished; and there is even a rabbinical tradition which indi-
cates that the “smyris” was used for gem-engraving in
the time of Moses. How far it was known and used in
pre-historic times must be left to conjecture, but the many
neatly cut and polished stone implements and ornaments
indicate the use of a material not less hard than emery.
Theophrastus mentions whetstones made of the mineral
used to engrave gems, and cites Armenia as furnishing
the best kind. Naxian whetstones are also mentioned by
ancient authors, and Pliny speaks of polishing marble
statues and filing down gems. The backs of antique in-
tagli have deep furrows upon them, indicating that they
were filed into shape by rubbing with an emery-stone. It
is thus probable that the massive emery was extensively
used as a tool, and that it was employed for the sculpture
of hard rocks, not only by the Romans, but by the ancient
Egyptians. -
It is now used in the arts in a pulverized form, being
obtained in grains or in powders of various degrees of
fineness by crushing and sifting or by elutriation. The
lumps, as they come from the mine, are broken in a breaker
or under stamps, and the fragments are sifted through
sieves or wire-cloth having from sixty to ninety wires to
the inch, by which the grades of the emery are determined.
Thus, a sieve of sixty wires to the inch gives a No. 60
grade. The numbers range as high as 120, or “flour
emery.” These higher numbers are obtained by washing,
or by collecting the fine dust which floats in the air of the
crushing-rooms and settles on the beams and shelves.
There is considerable difference in the effective abrasive
power of commercial emery from different localities. It
varies according to the composition, the state of aggrega-
tion, and the purity. The better qualities of crystalline
corundum are believed to be superior to emery in abrasive
powers, and powdered sapphire to be superior to corundum.
But the experiments which are cited in support of this are
by no means as complete and conclusive as they should be.
The following shows the relative abrasive powers, as usu-
ally stated, of the Sapphire, of corundum, and of emery
from some of the principal localities: Sapphire from India,
100; ruby, India, 90; corundum, Asia Minor, 77; emery,
Kulali, 40 to 57; of Samos, 56; of Nicaria, 50; of Gu-
much, 42 to 47; of Naxos, 46; of Chester, Mass., 43 to 45,
Sapphire contains 97% per cent. of alumina, and corun-
dum about 92 per cent. The percentage in emery ranges
from 60 to 78, with 25 to 35 per cent. of oxide of iron, a
few per cent. of silica and of water.
The methods of application are various. Lapidaries
Mixed
with glue or other adhesive substances, it is spread in a
thin layer upon wood, leather, paper, or cloth, or it is
moulded into solid blocks or wheels. It is in the latter
form, known as “solid emery-wheels,” that the mineral
has the widest application and its greatest utility.
Emery-wheels.-Solid wheels, consisting of a mixture of
powdered emery with shellac, fused and rolled upon a stick,
appear to have originated with the lapidaries of India.
Small wheels of a few inches only in diameter have been
in common use for many years, especially by dentists for
shaping hard porcelain teeth, but they are now made by
improved methods from one to thirty-six inches in diam-
eter, and from one quarter of an inch to four inches in
thickness. When carefully mounted upon a mandril and
run at a high speed, the abrading power of such wheels is
wonderful. They will instantly take the teeth off the
hardest file and reduce it to a plane, smooth surface, or
will cut away parts of chilled castings that a file will not
touch. Such wheels are shaping-tools of the first order,
as far exceeding files in efficacy as the emery exceeds steel
in hardness, and as the velocity of a wheel exceeds the
velocity of a file upon the work. A file in the hands of an
expert Workman moves, say, 60 feet in a minute, but the
proper velocity of an emery-wheel at its cutting surface is
5500 feet in a minute. It is evident that such wheels are
destined to replace files wherever they can be brought to
bear upon the work. The grains of emery are the cutting
points or teeth, and do not grow dull although brought into
contact with metal hard enough to turn the teeth of a file
at one stroke.
The rapidity of abrasion depends not only on the velo-
city of movement, but upon the size of the grains of emery.
For very heavy work, such as taking the rough edges off
castings, very coarse emery is used, while the finer sorts
are made into wheels for fine grinding and surface-work
on brass or steel. The following table shows approxi-
mately the cuts of emery as compared with files. The
numbers represent the standard grades of emery:
Nos. of Emery. &
8–10 represents the cut of a wood rasp.
16–20 $4 {{ “ rough file.
24–30 {{ {{ “ middle-cut file.
36–40 £4. {{ “ bastard file.
46–60 & & {{ “ second-cut file.
70–80 44 {{ “ smooth file.
90–100 {{ {{ “ superfine file.
120-flour emery {{ “ dead-Smooth file.
The Tanite Company make five general classes of wheels:
Class No. 1, coarse-hard ; Class No. 2, medium-hard ; Class
No. 3, medium-soft; Class No. 4, fine-hard; Class No. 5,
fine-soft.
In using emery-wheels care must be taken to maintain
the proper speed, and not to press the work too strongly
against the surface. If too much pressure is used, the
wheels will not cut so fast, and are liable to wear away un-
equally and to get out of true. A rest should always be
used to support the work and prevent it from vibrating
upon the wheel. The bearings should be kept in good
order and well lubricated.
Much attention is now given to the manufacture of ma-
chines for mounting emery-wheels. The mandrils are
made of steel very carefully turned and fitted to the boxes,
and frequently two or more wheels are mounted on the
same mandril. The edges of the wheels are variously
shaped to suit the work for which they are designed.
Manufacturers now use them not only for trimming and
shaping castings, but for shaping and sharpening hardened
steel tools, such as the knives of planes and of wood-
moulding machines, and for gumming saws. For the lat-
ter purpose they are particularly well adapted, and save
time, labor, and files.
The following are outlines of some of the forms of the
faces of emery-wheels:
^





JAN2V-->~~~
Good emery-wheels are uniform in texture. The ma-
terial with which the emery is combined must have great
cohesive strength to resist the tendency of the wheels to
fly asunder when revolving at high speed, and to retain
the grains of emery firmly, and yet wear away evenly,
leaving the cutting angles exposed, and not glaze or “gum
up.” It must not soften or melt under the heat generated
1544 - EMETIC–EMIGRATION.
by the friction in cutting the work, and must be free from
noxious qualities. As such wheels are run at high veloci-
ties, they require to be very carefully and exactly hung,
and to be kept perfectly true so as to prevent vibrations.
They should not “wedge" upon the mandril, or even fit it
closely, for expansion by heat might burst the wheel, and
the flanges at the side should not be too strongly screwed
up. . A wheel thirty-six inches in diameter may have 611
revolutions per minute, and one of twelve inches, 1800
revolutions. Athough the emery is so extremely hard,
diamonds will cut the wheels, and this gem in its crude or
rough form is used as a tool to turn them true or to cut
their faces into any desired form. . W. P. BLAKE.
Emetic [Gr. Šuertkós, from épée, to “vomit”], a medi-
cine capable of causing the stomach to contract and dis-
charge its contents through the oesophagus. Emetics are
of two classes: (1) those which appear to stimulate the ac-
tion of the muscular coat of the stomach directly by their
presence, such as alum, cupric sulphate (blue vitriol), and
zinc sulphate (white vitriol): they act promptly, and are
hence very useful in some cases of poisoning; (2) those
which enter the circulation, and cause emetic action by
their operation upon the nervous centres. To this class be-
long ipecacuanha, tartar emetic, lobelia, bloodroot, and
many others. They are in general arterial sedatives, and
may cause profound and even dangerous disturbances if
unskilfully used. -
Emeu. See EMU.
Emigration [Lat. emigratio, from e, “out,” and mi-
gro, to “remove,” to “change one's abode”], the voluntary
removal of inhabitants from one country to another with
the object of permanent residence. for the purpose of dis-
tinguishing inward from outward migration, the term emi-
gration has been restricted by modern authors to the latter
use, and immigration employed for the former. The obvi-
ous convenience of this arrangement is procuring its gen-
eral adoption. (The annual movement of birds and other
animals from one climate to another is treated under the
head MIGRATION, and the systematic deportation of crim-
inals under TRANSPORTATION. See also ExILE, ExoDUs,
and SLAVERY.) -
The earliest historical and one of the most remarkable
examples of migration is that recorded in Exodus. Another
remarkable example is what is commonly known as the
Indo-Germanic migration. It seems probable, both from
ethnographical and philological evidence, that Northern Eu-
rope was peopled from Asia. The topographical peculiarity
of the temperate zones of these continents also favors this
view. The boundless plains of Asia are prolonged through
Russia, Poland, Germany, and Holland. A man may walk
from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean, a distance of over
6000 miles, without encountering any elevation of more
than a few hundred feet or any water-course difficult to ford.
There is also evidence that Asia has undergone a slow up-
ward movement, resulting in the drying of her ancient
water-courses, and necessarily compelling migrations of her
\ people to the lower levels of Europe.
S. It has also been held that the Toltecs or aboriginal Aztec
race of the Pacific coast of America originally migrated
from some distant country, a tradition of the sort having
been prevalent among the civilized tribes conquered by the
Spanish invaders.
In modern times the most noted instances of migration
have been those from Europe to various parts of America.
The population of the western hemisphere is now 84,524,000.
Nearly all of these persons or their progenitors have mi-
grated from the eastern hemisphere since the beginning of
the sixteenth century; the whites, who form the main por-
tion, voluntarily and from Europe. This migration, due
originally to love of conquest, adventure, or the pious de-
sire, real or affected, to propagate Christianity among the
heathen, was afterwards sustained by other motives, and
America became the refuge of races and sects who fled from
political and religious persecution in Europe. Religious
toleration has since become common in almost all countries,
yet migration continues, and is due to political and econom-
ical considerations, the stream flowing in all directions, but
mainly from countries where the common people, by being
denied political and social equality, are reduced to hard-
ship, penury, and military or other servitude, to countries
where social privileges, conceded alike to all, enable them
to secure a fair chance in the struggle for existence. The
main course of migration has been from Northern Europe,
principally from Ireland and Germany, to the United States
and Canada; another important flow has been from Eng-
land to Australia; a third from China and British India.
to the British colonies, Spanish America, and the United
States; and a fourth from Southern Europe, principally
from Italy and Spain, to South America.
The statistics of early migration to this country are
shrouded in considérable doubt. From a comparison of
Blodget, Seybert, and Bromwell, the best authorities on the
subject, it seems probable that the following numbers fairly
represent the immigration by sea into the British colonies
of North America, afterwards the United States, from 1776
to the date of the establishment of official returns under the
act of 1819. The periods are so divided as to be susceptible
of comparison with other estimates:
1776 to 1783, inclusive........ 8 years.............................. 25,000
1784 to 1790, “ ........ 7 “ .............................. 28,000
1791 to 1800, “. ........ 10 “ .............................. 50,000
1801 to 1810, “. ........ 9 “ .............................. 70,000
1811 to 1819, “. ........ 9 “ ....... ...................... 105,615
Total........................................................ ............ 278,615
The following are the official returns: the year
ends Sept. 30, up to and including 1850; after-
wards Dec. 31 :
1820..................... ------ tº º tº 8,385
1821 to 1830................................................. 143,439
1831 to 1840................................................. 599,125
1841 to 1850......................... .......................1,713,251
1851 to 1860............................ • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 2,598,214
1861 to 1870........................ ........................2,491,451
871 ..............-----------.................................. 346,938
1872 ......... --------...-----------............................ 443,892—8,344,695
Total...................................................................8,623,310
Up to 1867, when the immigration returns were first col-
lated by the bureau of statistics, they were vitiated by
many irregularities, and the above figures are only approx-
imate. They include large numbers of persons not intend-
ing to settle in the U. S., or who have been here before,
estimated in the census of 1860 as high as 14% per cent. of
the whole; they omit the Canadian overland immigration,
and contain other important errors. The chief countries
from which the immigrants have come are, approximately,
as follows: England, 662,000; Wales, 16,000; Ireland,
2,846,000; Scotland, 114,000; United Kingdom not speci-
fied, 563,000; total, United Kingdom, 4,201,000; British
America (so far as reported), 380,000; total, Great Britain,
4,581,000; North Germany, 2,624,000; France, 259,000;
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, 242,000; China, 125,000;
Switzerland, 69,000; Austria, 21,000; Russia, including
Poland, 10,000; all other countries, 184,000; countries not
specified, 508,000; grand total, 8,623,000. About five-
eighths of the whole number were males. An equal pro-
portion of the whole number stated or had no occupation,
this class comprising most of the women and nearly all of
the children. Of the males, about 1,500,000 were laborers,
1,000,000 farmers, and 750,000 mechanics. According to
the immigration returns, the immigrants have consisted
mainly of farmers and farm-laborers, and persons healthy
and in the prime of life. The census returns prove that
they settle mainly in cities, and die much faster than the
native population.
Seven-eighths of the entire immigration have come from
Ireland, Germany, and England. Formerly, Ireland sent
the bulk of emigrants. This was owing to the operation
of the “Encumbered Estates bill,” which in 1841–51 de-
stroyed 355,689 “fourth-class” (one-room) mud cabins,
and evicted their miserable tenants; and to the famine of
1847. Since 1854, Germany has sent the most. This mi-
gration was greatest during the years 1852–54, and next
greatest in the year 1867, and is attributed to political dis-
turbances in Europe and the fear of conscription in Ger-
many at those periods. Irish and German migration is
subsiding, and English and Scandinavian increasing. The
influence of high prices and ample room in attracting im-
migrants to America, though not without importance, seems
to have been much exaggerated, the immigrants coming
chiefly from countries like England, where prices are high-
est, instead of those like Thuringia, where they are lowest.
(Commercial Relations, 1871, p. 395.) It is also observable
that the German immigrants are generally from the most
thinly populated agricultural sections of their own country,
in no part of which has the capacity of the natural re-
sources to subsist a population been tested to one-half the
extent found to be amply sufficient in Che-Kiang, An-
Hwuy, and other parts of China. (Ibid., p. 73.) But 10,000
persons have emigrated to this country from Russia, in-
cluding Poland. This is due to the severe laws of that
country interdicting emigration, banishment to Siberia.
being the punishment for an attempt to leave the country,
or for attempting to induce another to leave it, without
official permission—a thing rarely granted. On the other
hand, Russia, ever since the reign of Peter the Great, has
warmly encouraged immigrants to settle within her own
borders.
In most European countries a formal relinquishment of
the rights and duties of citizenship by the emigrant and
the government respectively is necessary in order to render
emigration lawful. The official practice with regard to the
change of allegiance by the emigrant varies in different
EMIGRATION.
countries, and is not definitely settled in any ; the general
rule being to disregard such change, and hold the subject
“always a subject.” The policy of the U. S. with regard
to the right of self-expatriation seems equally unsettled,
the government having strenuously maintained it in the
Koszta case in 1853, but virtually abandoned it in the case
of the Prussian enlistment of American naturalized citi-
zens in 1858.
Although the attention of Congress was directed over.
fifty years ago to the subject of overcrowding in immigrant
vessels, and resulted in the passage of the act of March 2,
1819, which provided for adequate space, rations, and at-
tendance on board ship, but little reform has been effected.
Additional legislation on the same subject was provided in
1847–49; and on March 3, 1855, a very comprehensive law
was passed, superseding all former legislation, and requiring
ample space, rations, ventilation, hospitals, booby-hatches,
cabooses, closets, disinfectants, discipline, and reports. To
this a supplemental act was passed in 1860 for the protec-
tion of female passengers. Yet the Federal commissioner of
immigration reported (Feb. 28, 1866) “that of the ships
which had arrived at New York since the existence of his
(the deputy commissioner's) office, there were none which
had not violated the act of 1860,” and the Federal director
of statistics reported in 1868 that the most deplorable abuses
existed in defiance of the act of 1855, and had resulted in
many cases of pestilence and a high rate of mortality.
Many of these abuses have disappeared with the substitu-
tion of steam for sailing vessels that has taken place during
the past few years. The voyage is now much shorter, and
the steerage passengers are better cared for.
The subject of criminal and pauper emigrants has been
frequently debated in Congress. Before the American Revo-
lution, England used to send large numbers of these classes
of persons to America. To guard against the continuance
of this practice, most of the States have enacted severe laws.
In Georgia, an alien felon is punishable with banishment,
and for a second offence “he shall suffer death without
benefit of clergy.” In Massachusetts, a town rendered liable
for the expense of supporting or burying any pauperim-
migrant may maintain an action of debt for the same
against the master of the vessel who brought him in. In
Rhode Island, the importation of “any person of a notori-
ously dissolute, infamous, and abandoned life and charac-
ter” is punishable with heavy fines. In the States of New
York, New Hampshire, Maine, Maryland, Louisiana, and
Texas, the shipmaster must indemnify the State against the
expense of maintaining any pauper immigrants he may
bring in. Commutation-money may in certain cases be
substituted. This is the practice in New York. The ship-
ping of criminals and paupers to this country is still con-
tinued by some of the continental nations, and elicited
severe comments in the Senate debates of Mar. 19, 1866, and
Jan. 3, 1867. -
Immigration has always been encouraged by the Federal
and State governments of this country, and by many of the
latter the inducements held out to the settlers are very at-
tractive. The Federal Homestead act of May 20, 1862,
however, continues to remain the most substantial provis-
ion of this sort. It secures to every actual settler, the
head of a family, 160 acres of public lands, substantially
gratis, in absolute fee simple. A fact likely to prove of
considerable importance to the future history of this coun-
try is the disposition of migrators to confine themselves to
isothermal lines. Our immigrants from the United King-
dom and Germany will be found settled mainly in the same
latitudes they left—viz., on the Ohio, Northern Mississippi,
and Missouri rivers and their affluents, and on the shores
of the great lakes. The Scandinavians settle in the most
northern States. The Southern States are almost destitute
of foreign population, migrators from Italy and Spain
going chiefly to South America. This may be due to lan-
guage or religion, but is mainly to be attributed to climate
and the similarity of agricultural productions, the staples of
our Southern States, cottom and tobacco, being unfamiliar
to the peasants of Southern Europe. These facts would in-
dicate a serious diminution of immigration whenever the
causes that now superinduce it from Northern Europe to
this country shall cease to prevail.
Attempts have frequently been made to estimate the
capital brought into this country by immigrants. So far
as money is concerned, these attempts are fully stated in
the first volume of the census of 1860. The total capital—
money, clothing, tools, and furniture---has been roundly
estimated at $250 for each person, but such computations
are essentially vitiated by the consideration that sometimes
the passage-money, and always the cost of subsistence after
landing, and until the immigrant reaches his final destina-
tion and is engaged in remunerative production, should be
deducted. Equally defective are all computations of the
“capitalized value” of immigrants to a country: this, if
1545
indeed it has any existence at all beyond the sphere of taxa-
tion and military responsibility, being chiefly due to moral
and social considerations insusceptible of pecuniary calcu-
lation. Besides the Federal bureau of immigration, which
has its chief office in the department of state at Washing-
ton, and a branch office at New York, most of the States
of the Union hayé established local bureaux of immigra-
tion, that of the State of New York, located in the city of
New York, being the most important. These bureaux
assume charge of the immigrants on their arrival in the
country, furnish them with information, and direct them to
their destinations.
The foreign-born population of the United States was
as follows at the dates mentioned:
1850................................ * * * * * * * * * * 2,244,602
1860......................................... 4,138,697
1870..........................................5,566,546
In 1870 there were in the United States 10,892,015 persons
having one or both parents foreign; 10,521,233 having a
foreign father; 10,105,627 having a foreign mother; and
9,734,845 having a foreign father and mother.
The British account of emigration from the United King-
dom. to Canada is as follows:
1815 to 1820..................... 70,438||1851 to 1860..................... 235,285
1821 to 1830..................... 189,269||1861 to 1870..................... 195,250
1831 to 1840..................... 322,485/1871................................ 32,671
1841 to 1850..................... 429,044
These numbers include foreigners as well as natives of the
United Kingdom. A portion of these emigrants are be-
lieved to have subsequently emigrated to the United States.
The Norwegian account of the total emigration, and the
emigration to America, from Sweden and Norway since
1856, is as follows:
TOTAL. To AMERICA.
'sweden. Norway. Together. Sweden. Norway. Together
1856–60..... 3,500 831 4,331 3,160 743 3,903
1861–65..... 5,200 3,963 9,163 4,710 1,884 6,594
1866.......... 16,050 7,206 23,256 15,455 4,466 19,921
1867.......... 13,328 9,334 22,662 12,828 5,893 18,721
1868.......... 13,934 27,024 40,958 13,209 21,472 34,681
1869.......... 18,762 39,064 57,826 18,055 32,050 50,105
The British account of emigration from the United King-
dom to the Australian colonies and New Zealand is as
follows: 1841–50, 127,124; 1851–60, 506,802; 1861–70,
280,198; 1871, 12,227. This emigration reached its cul-
minating point in 1852–54, and has since greatly declined.
The colonial account of immigration from, and emigration
to, all countries, at Victoria, is as follows:
Immigration. Emigration.
1886–55........................ 428,219......................... 156,682
1856............................. 41,594 ....................... 21,187
1857............................. 74,255........................ 20,471
1858............................. 56,168........................ 25,882
1859.... ........................ 32,735 19,615
1860............................. 29,037 21,689
1861............................. 26,912........................ 35,898
1862............................. 37,836........................ 38,203
1863.................. .......... 38,983........................ 34,800
1864............................. 36,156........................ 21,779
1865............................. 30,976 ....................... 25,292
1866. 32,178........................ 27,629
1867............................. 27,242........................ 25,142
A system of “free and assisted ” emigration has been
established between England and her several colonies of
Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia,
Cape of Good Hope, Natal, Tasmania, and some of the
provinces of New Zealand. Under this system, 144,362
of the immigrants into Victoria up to 1865 were assisted.
The total number of “assisted ” emigrants from England
to all her colonies named was, from 1853 to 1865, inclusive,
276,837. This system has become unpopular in the colo-
nies, and has been refused further support.
The total emigration from the United Kingdom to all
countries during the fifty-seven years from 1815 to 1871 was
7,266,072 persons, but a small portion of whom were for-
elgners.
Emigration from China has already assumed considerable
proportions, as many as 200,000 emigrants per annum hav-
ing embarked for foreign countries. The better class of
these emigrants go to Manila, the Straits, and California;
the remainder to various colonial possessions, the Sandwich
Islands, etc. They generally emigrate voluntarily, though
many of them are kidnapped by the Chinese sew-choo-tsy,
or itinerant coolie-brokers. They are shipped under con-
tracts, made through Chinese agents, to be held to service
for a term of years. These contracts fetch from $150 to
$400 in the colonies. The coolies require an advance of
passage-money and sufficient to sustain their families until
they can support them out of their earnings. Strictly
speaking, the coolies do not emigrate. They go abroad
temporarily to better their condition, and invariably with the
intention to return—an intention almost certain to be car-
ried out if the emigrants’ lives and health are spared. The
*
1546
EMILIA—EMMET.
success that generally attends their pilgrimage is attested
by the fact that most of those who go to the shipping-ports
in Sailing junks return in steamers. The high mortality
that has attended them, and the outrages of the coolie-
brokers, which, though punishable with death, are often
committed, have rendered coolie emigration odious to the
Chinese authorities and people, and every impediment has
been placed in its way, mainly through regulations approved
by the prince of Kung, Mar. 5, 1866. This has caused a
great diminution in the emigration from Chinese ports, and
confined it to Hong Kong, Macao, etc. An act was passed
by the United States Congress Feb. 19, 1862, prohibiting
the transportation of coolies in American vessels, unless
they were accompanied by certificates setting forth the fact
of their “voluntary emigration,” and extending to them
the benefits of the passenger acts.
The coolie emigration from British India sprang up in
1834 upon the passage of the act of (negro) emancipation.
The manifest indisposition of the newly-made freedmen to
work rendered it necessary for the preservation of the valu-
able estates in the British Colonies to substitute for negro
labor that of apprentices from India. The government
offered no obstacle to the project, and imposed no restric-
tions as to numbers. The coolies were obtained in Bengal,
Madras, and Bombay, and shipped to Mauritius, the West
Indies, Reunion and Natal, and British Guiana; mainly to
the two former places. The statistics of emigration exhibit a
constant outward and return flow of coolies, the movement
possessing much the same features as the Chinese emigra-
tion. The British Indian account gives the total number
of emigrants since 1857 from British India to all the colo-
nies named above, as follows:
1857.................... ............ 12,555|1862................................. 31,358
1858................................. 20,758|1863................................. 12,490
1859................................. 45,025|1864................................. 10,258
1860,------.......................... 41,777|1865................................. 21,545
1861................................. 21,872|1866 ................................ 27,779
The immigration into the Argentine Republic (Buenos
Ayres) has been as follows for the years named:
1858 ................................... 4654|1863........................... ..... 10,258
1859 .4735||1864................................. 11,682
1860................................... 5656 |1867. * * * * * * * * 17,000
1861 ................................... 6301 |1870................................. 41,058
1862 .................................... 6716|1872 (first six months)...... 38,000
Of the numbers reported in 1870, there were 23,814 Italian,
5748 Spanish, 4105 French, 2053 Swiss, 821 English, 411
German, and 4105 from other countries. About two-thirds
of the whole number were male adults, and about three-
fourths were agriculturists and laborers." The immigration
into this country of Italian and Spanish peasants is the
only considerable instance of the kind, and for this reason
possesses much interest in connection with the question of
the possible future immigration of Europeans into the
southern portions of the United States.
Emigration between other countries than those specified
in this article has been conducted upon an exceedingly
limited scale, and is not deemed worthy of notice in this
connection. ALEX. DELMAR.
Emil’ia. [Lat. Æmilia, called after the celebrated Via
AEmilia of the Romans], the ancient name of that part of
Northern Italy which contains the larger part of the former
duchies of Parma and Módena and the papal delegations
of the Romagna, or the present Italian provinces of Parma,
Piacenza, Módena, Reggio, Bologna, Ferrara, Forlí, Ra-
venna, and Massa-Carrara. The name was officially re-
vived in 1859. Area, 8604 square miles. Pop. 2,273,812.
Eminence, a post-twp. of Logan co., Ill. Pop. 1362.
Eminence, a post-village of Henry co., Ky., on the
Louisville Cincinnati and Lexington R. R., 26 miles W. of
Frankfort. It has a woollen and a flouring mill, three
churches (one colored), a bank of deposit, two colleges open
to both sexes, two hotels, and one newspaper. The prin-
cipal business is farming and stock-raising. The location
is healthy, surrounded by a beautiful blue-grass region.
There is a valuable mineral spring in the vicinity.
W. A. Holl, AND, E.D. “ConstLTUTIONALIST.”
Eminence, a post-village, capital of Shannon co., Mo.,
on Current River, about 120 miles S. W. of St. Louis.
Em/iment Domainſ. Domain is the territory under
the jurisdiction of a sovereign, and eminent domain the in-
herent sovereign power which the people or government
retain over the estates or private property of individuals
to resume or appropriate the same for public uses, and for
public uses only. The difference between the power of tax-
ation and the right of eminent domain should be carefully
noted. Taxation proceeds upon the motion of contribution;
it falls upon a class of persons, and is apportioned among
them by rule. In the exercise of the right of eminent do-
main the state takes from an individual his property with-
out reference to a burden imposed upon any other person.
The right can be exercised in this country either by a State
or by the United States. The power to decide whether the
property should be taken for any public use rests with the
legislature, and its discretion is not reviewable by the
courts, though it is conceived that the judicial power has
the right to determine whether the use itself is public
rather than private. Were this not so, the legislature
might, under the pretence of taking property for public
uses, transfer one man's property to another.
It is not necessary, however, that the exercise of the
power should benefit the entire public. It is enough if it
promotes the industrial capacity or resources of a consider-
able number of inhabitants, or in any manner indirectly
contributes to the general welfare. It is not necessary that
the State should act directly. The power may be delegated
to a municipal body or to a private corporation. A State
may delegate it to the United States. The mode of exer-
cising it is regulated by constitutional provisions and by
statutes. In some cases only an easement in land is ac-
quired; at other times the entire fee is appropriated. The
constitutional prohibition (U. S. Constitution, Amendments,
Art.W.) against taking private property for public use with-
out just compensation is a limitation on the power of the
Eederal government, and not on that of the States. There
are similar provisions in the State constitutions binding the
State legislatures. The compensation includes not only the
property actually taken, but consequential damages to ad-
joining property. This has recently been carried so far in
England by the House of Lords as to hold that a riparian
owner on the banks of a navigable stream (the Thames) is
entitled to compensation for the act of cutting off his ap-
proach to the river, on the ground that the right of access
to a tide-water stream is a legal right, which would justify
an action by the owner against one who interfered with it,
unless Parliament had sanctioned the interference. (Case
of the Duke of Buccleuch, Law Reports, 5, House of Lords’
Cases, 478, A. D. 1872.) Still, if no property is taken, a
claim cannot be made for consequential damages. The
same right to compensation as is secured in this country
by constitutional provisions is recognized generally among
civilized nations, and may be considered as a general rule
in jurisprudence. T. W. DWIGHT.
E/mir, or Emeer' (written also Amir and Ameer),
an Arabic word signifying “chief” or “ruler.” The caliphs
took the title of emir-al-Mumenin, “chief or commander of
the faithful.” The title is now given by prescriptive usage
to those who are the real or reputed descendants of Mo-
hammed through his daughter Fatima. Many independent
chiefs of Northern Africa, assume the title of emir. The
word emir, joined to another word, occurs in several official
titles, as emir-al-Omrah, formerly the title of the first min-
ister of the caliphs and moguls, and at present sometimes
the title of the pashas of large Turkish provinces.
Em’Ienton, a post-village of Venango co., Pa., has one
weekly newspaper.
Em/ly, a small town of Ireland, in the county of Tip-
perary, was formerly a bishop's see, which was united to
Cashel in 1568.
Emman’uel [Port. Manoel], surnamed THE GREAT, king
of Portugal, was born in May, 1469. He succeeded John
II. May 3, 1495, and married Isabella, a daughter of Fer-
dinand and Isabella of Castile. He promoted education,
maritime enterprise, and commerce. During his prosper-
ous reign the power and glory of Portugal were increased
by the discoveries and victories of Vasco da Gama, Albu-
querque, and Almeida in India and Brazil. Portugal was
probably the greatest naval power of the world in his reign,
which constitutes the golden age of Portuguese history.
His power and renown were greater than any Portuguese
monarch ever possessed, either before or since his time;
but he greatly injured his country by the banishment of
all Jews and the enforced conversion of their young chil-
dren. His third wife was Eleonore, a sister of the emperor
Charles W., whom he married in 1519. He died Dec. 13,
1521, and was succeeded by his son, John III.
Em/men, a town of Holland, in the province of Dren-
the, 31 miles S. E. of Groningen. Pop. in 1867, 5437.
Emmerich, ēm’mer-rir', a walled town of Prussia, is
on the right bank of the Rhine, about 50 miles N. N. W.
of Düsseldorf and 20 miles S. E. of Arnheim, with both
of which it is connected by a railway. It has a custom-
house, gymnasium, and several churches; also manufac-
tures of woollen cloth, limens, hosiery, etc. P. in 1871, 7817.
Emmet, a post-township of St. Clair co., Mich. P. 960.
Em/met (ROBERT), an Irish patriot and orator, born in
Cork in 1780. He was devoted to the independence of Ire-
land, and was a leader of the United Irishmen, who desired
to liberate their country from British domination. Having
secretly collected arms and powder in Dublin and formed
a conspiracy, he and his friends revolted in July, 1803.
EMMET_EMORY.
1547
The insurgents killed the chief-justice, Lord Kilwarden, but
were soon dispersed by a party of soldiers. Emmet was
arrested and tried for treason. He pleaded his own cause
in a long and very eloquent speech, which has been pre-
served, but he was convicted and executed Sept. 20, 1803.
His fate and his affection for Miss Curran are the subjects
of two of Moore’s “Irish Melodies.”
Emmet (THOMAS ADDIs), LL.D., an Irish lawyer, a
brother of the preceding, was born in Cork in 1764. He
was a leader of the United Irishmen, and as such was ar-
rested in 1798, and confined in prison for nearly three
years. His sentence was commuted into exile, and he emi-
grated in 1804 to New York City, where he practised law
with distinction. He was elected attorney-general of the
State of New York in 1812. He was an eloquent advocate,
and had great qualities as an orator. Died in New York
Nov. 14, 1827.
Emmett, a county in the N. N. W. of Iowa. Area,
450 square miles. It is intersected by the West Fork of
the Des Moines River, and contains several small lakes.
Grain and wool are raised. Capital, Estherville. Pop.
I392.
Emmett, a county of Michigan, which forms the ex-
treme northern part of the Lower Peninsula. It is bounded
on the N. W. by Lake Michigan, from which Little Traverse
Bay extends into the southern part of the county. Grain
and potatoes are staple products. Capital, Little Traverse.
Pop. 1211.
Emmett, a township of McDonough co., Ill. P. 957.
Emmett, a post-township of Emmett co., Ia. P. 232.
Emmett, a township of Calhoun co., Mich. Pop. 1309.
Emmett, a township of Dodge co., Wis. Pop. 1375.
Emmettsburg, a post-village, capital of Palo Alto
co., La., on the Des Moines River, 55 miles N. N. W. of
Fort Dodge and 25 miles W. of Algona. It is the only
village in the county, and is a thrifty business-place. It
has a saw-mill and a flouring-mill, and is the proposed
junction of the McGregor and Missouri River R. R. with
the Des Moines Valley R. R. Both are surveyed, and have
land-grants through the county, and considerable grading
has been done on the former. It has one weekly news-
paper. Pop. in 1870 of village, 44; of township, 316.
ED. “ADVANCE.”
Emmettsville, a village of Greene township, Ran-
dolph co., Ind. Pop. 67.
Emmittsburg, a post-village of Frederick co., Md.,
8 miles N. of Mechanicstown, 1 mile from Mason and
Dixon's Line, and 10 miles from Gettysburg, Pa. It was
laid out by William Emmitt, its founder, about the year
1773. The original population were Scotéh and Irish.
Mount St. Mary’s College was established near it in 1809
by Rev. John Dubois, late bishop of New York; it is a
Roman Catholic institution, one of the largest in the U. S.
There are 200 students at present in attendance. Rev.
John McCloskey (brother of the present bishop of New
York) is the president of the institution. St. Joseph's
Academy, about half a mile from town, was established in
1810, by Mrs. Eliza Ann Seton of New York. It is the
mother-house of the Sisters of Charity in the U. S., and
numbers 2000 members, and has the largest educational
building in Maryland, perhaps in the U. S. There are
$1,500,000 surplus in the treasury. There are five churches
in the village. Pop. 706; of township, 3168.
WM. NEED, E.D. “CATOCTIN CLARION.”
Emmon’s, a township of Davidson co., N. C. P. 941.
Em/mons (EBENEZER), M. D., an American geologist,
born at Middlefield, Mass., May 16, 1799. He became in
1833 professor of natural history in Williams College. He
was one of the geologists selected by the governor of New
York in 1836 to make a geological survey of that State. In
1838 he became professor of chemistry in the Albany Med-
ical College. In 1856 he became State geologist for North
Carolina, where he remained until his death. He wrote
several reports, which were published in the “Natural His-
tory of New York;” also a report of the quadrupeds of
Massachusetts, three reports of the geology of North Car-
olina, and several text-books on mineralogy and geology.
Died Oct. 1, 1863.
Emmons (GEORGE F.), U. S. N., born Aug. 23, 1811,
at Clarendon, Rutland co., Vt., entered the navy as a mid-
shipman, April 1, 1828, became a passed midshipman in
1834, a lieutenant in 1841, a commander in 1856, a captain
in 1863, a commodore in 1868, and a rear-admiral in 1872.
He served in the South Sea exploring expedition from 1838
to 1842, and on the west coast of Mexico during the war
with that country. In the early part of our civil war he
was in command of various vessels of the Gulf blockading
squadron and Admiral Dahlgren's fleet, and was captain for
some months in 1863 during the operations against Fort
Sumter. From 1864 to the close of the war he commanded
a division of the blockading fleet in the Gulf of Mexico.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Emmons (NATHANAEL), D. D., one of the most emi-
ment of American theologians, was born April 20 (0. S.),
1745, at East Haddam, Conn., and graduated with honor
at Yale in 1797. He was ordained pastor of the Congre-
gational church in Franklin, Mass., in 1773, and was its
pastor until his death, and its sole pastor for fifty-four
years. In addition to his pastoral labors he trained nearly
one hundred young men for the ministry, many of them
afterwards eminent. He was also a prominent advocate
of foreign missions, and of the anti-slavery cause. His
theological views were nearly those of his friend Dr. Samuel
Hopkins, and his sermons, distinguished by logical thought
and by dignity and power of style, were in many instances
characterized by ingenious efforts at solving the problems
suggested by the doctrines of the Divine government and
the freedom of the human will. Died Sept. 23, 1840. His
works (sermons, essays, etc.), published at different times
during his life, were after his death published (1842) in
seven and afterwards (1861) in six volumes octavo, with
memoirs of his life, in the first edition by J. Ide, D. D.,
and in the second by Prof. E. A. Park.
Em’ory, a township of Stanislaus co., Cal. Pop. 843.
Emory, a post-village, capital of Rains co., Tex. It
is very near the geographical centre of the county.
Emory, a post-village of Washington co., Va., on the
Atlantic Mississippi and Ohio R. R., 10 miles E. of Abing-
don. It has one newspaper, and is the seat of Emory
and Henry College, which is sustained by the Methodist
Episcopal Church South. There are two hotels and five
or six churches in the immediate vicinity.
C. M. BROWN, ED. “BANNER.”
Emory (John), D. D., an eminent writer and bishop of
the Methodist Episcopal Church, born in Queen Anne co.,
-Md., April 11, 1789, was educated a lawyer, became a Metho-
dist preacher in 1810, preached extensively for many years
through the Middle States, and was sent as delegate of his
denomination, in 1820, to the British Wesleyan conference.
He was appointed in 1824 book agent at New York, and
elected bishop in 1832. Died Dec. 16, 1835. In 1817 he had
a pamphlet controversy with Bishop White of Philadelphia.
Pſe was author of “The Divinity of Christ Windicated,”
“Defence of Our Fathers,” and other publications, which
show much logical ability and a pure and vigorous style.
Emory (RobHRT), D.D., son of the preceding, an emi-
nent divine and educator of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, born in Philadelphia July 29, 1814, was president
of Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa., and author of the “Life
of Bishop Emory” and “History of the Discipline of the
Methodist Episcopal Church.” Died May 18, 1848.
Emory (WILLIAM H.), an American officer, born in
1811 in Queen Anne's co., Md., graduated at West Point in
1831, colonel Fifth Cavalry Oct. 27, 1863, and Sept. 25,
1865, major-general U. S. Volunteers. He served as lieu-
tenant of artillery and of mounted rangers till he resigned,
Sept. 30, 1836; chiefly at sea-board posts, 1831–36; in
Charleston harbor, 1832–33, during the threatened nullifica-
tion of South Carolina ; and in the Creek nation, 1836–38.
He was appointed first-lieutenant topographical engineers,
July 7, 1838, and major of cavalry Mar. 13, 1865, serving
on Delaware river improvements and in topographical bu-
reau, 1839–44; on north-east boundary survey, 1844–46;
in the war with Mexico, 1846–48, on the staff of Brigadier-
General Kearny ; engaged in the actions on his march to
California (captain and brevet major); as lieutenant-colonel
Maryland and District of Columbia Volunteers; as astrono-
mer of boundary between California and Mexico, 1848–53,
and commissioner and astronomer, 1854–57 (brevet lieu-
tenant-colonel); in suppressing Kansas disturbances and
on Utah expedition, 1858, and on frontier, board, and in-
spection duties, 1858–61. He resigned May 9, 1861, and
was reappointed May 14, 1861. He was lieutenant-colonel
of Sixth Cavalry, serving in Virginia peninsula, 1862; en-
gaged at Yorktown, Williamsburg, and Hanover Court-
house (brevet colonel); in department of the Gulf, 1862–63,
engaged at Port Hudson, Camp Bisland, Lafourche Cross-
ing, and Donaldsonville; in Red River campaign, 1863–64;
engaged at Sabine Cross-roads, Pleasant Hill, and Cane
River; in command of Nineteenth Corps, 1864–66; en-
gaged at Marksville, defence of Washington, D.C., Ope-
quan, Fisher's Hill (brevet brigadier-general), Cedar Creek
(brevet major-general), and in command (1865–66) of the
department of West Virginia; in command of department
of Washington 1869–71, and department of the Gulf since
1871. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
1548
EMORY COLLEGE–EMPHYTEUSIS.
Emory College is in Oxford, Newton co., Ga., 40
miles E. of Atlanta, and 1 mile from the Georgia R. R.
Its literary, social, and religious advantages are of the
highest order. It was chartered in 1837, and was opened
to students in 1838, under the presideney of Rev. Ignatius
A. Few, D. D., LL.D. It is under the control of the
Methodist Episcopal Church South. The sons of itinerant
preachers in the States of Georgia and Florida are edu-
cated free of tuition fees. The curriculum of study em-
braces Latin, Greek, mathematics, natural science, with
mental and moral science, evidences of Christianity, belles
lettres, and the English Bible. There is also a scientific
course, which embraces all of these branches except Latin
and Greek. The number of graduates from July, 1841,
when the first class graduated, to July, 1873, is over 500,
about 20 per cent. of whom are ministers of the gospel, and a
still larger percentage has been devoted to the work of teach-
ing. The faculty of the college embraces six professors, and
it has the usual appliances for thorough and efficient in-
struction, such as library, cabinet, philosophical and chem-
ical apparatus. The literary societies have good halls,
well furnished, and good libraries and reading-rooms. The
college has been under the presidency of the following named
gentlemen: Rev. Ignatius A. Few, D. D., LL.D., Rev. A. B.
Longstreet, LL.D., Rev. Bishop George F. Pierce, D. D.,
LL.D., Rev. A. Means, D. D., LL.D., Rev. J. R. Thomas,
D. D., Rev. Luther M. Smith, D. D., and Rev. O. L. Smith,
D. D. The trustees of the college are now erecting new lec-
ture-rooms and a new and commodious chapel, proposing to
afford advantages equal in all respects to those of any insti-
tution of like grade in the land. The average number of
students for the last few years has been about 200. Two
hundred and fifty dollars per annum will cover all expenses
of board, tuition, and books. O. L. SMITH.
Emo/tion [from the Lat. e, “out,” and moveo, motum, to
“ move,” hence to “feel”] is a psychological term which may
be most easily explained by its relation to that of sensation.
A sensation is simply the consciousness of a peculiar state
of the body, pleasurable or painful; which consciousness re-
acts on the body purposing to continue or discontinue its
present state. When, for some reason or other, no such re-
action takes place, but the consciousness of a certain state
of the body flows over into the imagination, the sensation
becomes an emotion; when it passes into the intellect, it
becomes a cognition.
Empan’nel, or Impannel, to enrol a list of jurors;
to write a list of the names of men who shall serve as jurors
in any trial. The sheriff summons a number of persons,
and prepares lists called the panels of the jury.
REmped'ocles [Gr. 'EutrečokAñs], a celebrated Greek
philosopher, born at Agrigentum in Sicily, lived about 450
B. C. He acquired great fame and influence by his talents
and varied attainments in science. It is said that his
fellow-citizens offered him the crown, but he declined it,
and used his influence to found a republic in his native
state. He was regarded as a public benefactor, a great
poet, and a predicter of futurity. He maintained the
theory that the world is developed or compounded from
four primary elements, fire, air, earth, and water. He
wrote, besides other works, a poem on “Nature,” of which
fragments are extant. It appears that he accepted the
doctrine that the Souls of some men, at least, ame destined
to migrate through animal or vegetable bodies in order to
purify them. The tradition that he threw himself into the
erater of Mt. Etna to immortalize his name is not general-
ly credited. He was admired by Aristotle and Lucretius,
the latter of whom eulogizes him in his poem “De Rerum
Naturâ.” The fragments of Empedocles have been edited
by Stein (1852) and others. (See RITTER, “History of Philos-
ophy;” GLADISCH, “Empedocles und die Aegypter,” 1858.)
Em' peror [Lat. impera/tor, from im/pero, to “com-
mand;” Fr. empereur; Ger. Kai'ser], the sovereign who rules
over an empire. The title imperator was conferred by the
ancient Romans on their consuls in their military capacity,
after this authority had been confirmed to them by the co-
mitia curiata. The signification of imperator depended on
that of imperium, which was the name given to the supreme
power of the Senate and people of Rome over the city and
subject provinces. An officer clothed with authority by
law exercised this imperium within the limits and time of
his command. After any great victory the soldiers were
accustomed to salute their commander as imperator as a
compliment, though, as exercising the imperium attached.
to his command, he was already such in fact. He might
be a consul or a proconsul, and the imperium was as ne-
cessary for a governor of a province as for a general who
merely commanded an army. Under the republic there
might be many imperatores at one time. On the subversion
of the republic the title was conferred on Augustus for life.
The authority of the Roman emperors was acquired by the
combination of the chief offices of the former republic in a
single person; besides which, some extraordinary powers
were granted or usurped. Thus, Octavius held the title of
imperator and the office of consul by successive elections.
He was made tribune, which gave inviolability to his per-
son, and pontifex maximus and censor, which gave him
control of religion and morals. He was also invested with
perpetual proconsular authority, which gave him supreme
control in all the provinces, and declared chief (princeps)
of the senate, and Augustus, which last designation was
assumed by his successors. The title imperator was as-
sumed by the emperors on the occasion of victories of
themselves or their armies. Aurelius is represented on a
coin as imperator for the eighth time. With the early
Roman emperors the term imperator did not denote the
sovereign power. It is not easy to determine at what time
the word came to be used in the modern sense of emperor
as the proper name for the sovereign of the Roman state.
The term princeps was used as a convertible term with it.
The Roman emperors appointed their own successors, who
received the title of caesar during the life of the emperor
who appointed them. After the court was removed to Con-
stantinople, the old titles and forms of the republic gradu-
ally vanished, and the emperors assumed the style of Ori-
ental princes. The title of emperor of the Romans was
conferred on Charlemagne by Pope Leo III. in 800 A. D.,
and was borne by his successors until the dissolution of the
Holy Roman Empire in 1806.
On the 18th of Jan., 1871, King William I. of Prussia
assumed the title of emperor of Germany at the request of
all the German princes. Napoleon I. assumed the imperial
style in 1804, and Napoleon III. in 1852. The latter was
deposed after the battle of Sedan on the 2d of Sept., 1870.
After the Greek empire had been divided into two parts in
1204, the rulers of both parts continued to bear the title of
emperor, the Latin emperor residing at Constantinople, and
the Greek emperor at Nicaea. In 1263 the two parts were
reunited, and in 1328 the Greek empire was again divided .
into the empire of Constantinople and that of Trebizond.
After the Turks had conquered these empires, the Sultans
assumed the title of emperor, which was recognized by the
European powers in 1606. Czar Peter I. of Russia assumed
the imperial title in 1721. After the dissolution of the Holy
Roman empire in 1806 the rulers of Austria assumed the
title of emperor of Austria. Outside of Europe there is at
present only the empire of Brazil, though the British pos-
sessions in Asia constitute the “Indian empire,” and the
sovereign of Great Britain has the title of emperor of
India. Several attempts have been made to establish
other empires in America, but all have failed. In Mexico,
Iturbide assumed the title of emperor in 1822, and Maxi-
milian of Austria, in 1864. In Hayti the negroes Chris-
tophe in 1811, and Soulouque in 1849, reigned for a short.
time as emperors, but were soon deposed. The rulers of
Morocco, China, and Japan are also sometimes called em-
perors. The modern idea of an empire in general seems
to be a union of states, each with a local government, under
the protection or political preponderance of one powerful
state. The personal sovereign of such a state may by con-.
quest or election become the emperor, sustaining a special
governing relation to his own hereditary dominions, and a
general control as emperor over the confederated, yet sub-
ordinate, states of the empire. But there is a tendency to-
wards a looser use of the term as a mere title of the head of
a kingdom.
Emperor Moth (Saturnia pavonia minor), the largest
British lepidopterous insect, is allied to the silkworm moth,
and belongs to the Bombycidae. Its wings when expanded
measure three and a half inches, each wing having a large
transparent spot. The peacock moth (Saturnia pavonia
major) is five inches across the wings, being the largest spe-
cies in Europe. Silk is obtained from cocoons of certain
species of this genus.
Em/phasis [Gr. ºpdaorts, a “setting forth,” from ép-
datvo, to “show;” Fr. emphase], in elocution, the stress laid
on particular words or syllables in a sentence in order to
express or enforce an idea or a meaning; sometimes a pe-
culiar impressiveness or earnestness of expression.
Emphyse/ma [from the Gr. §v, “in,” and divorá0, to
“flow,” to “puff up.”], in pathology, an inflation pro-
duced by air or gas in the cellular tissue. Emphysema of
the lungs is owing to dilatation of the air-vesicles.
Emphyteu/sis [Gr., from év, “in,” and bureto, to “plant”
or “graft”] is a contract in civil law by which lands or
tenements are given to be possessed for a long term or for
ever, and an annual rent (canon emphyteuticus) in money,
grain, etc. reserved and made payable to the grantor, in
recognition of his paramount title. The grantee acquires
the dominium wille or usufruct, while the grantor reserves
the dominium directum. The Scottish grant in feu-farm is
EMPIRE-EMU WREN.
similar to the emphyteusis. The word fief is supposed to
have been derived from emphyteusis. - •
Empire. See EMPEROR.
Em/pire, a township of Stanislaus co., Cal. Pop. 2993.
Empire, a township of McLean co., Ill. Pop. 2133.
Empire, a post-township of Leelenaw co., Mich. Pop.
50. -
Empire, a post-township of Dakota co., Minn. P. 995.
Empire, a post-township of Fond du Lac co., Wis.
Pop. 1055.
Em/pire Cit’y, a post-village of Clear Creek co., Col.,
is on Clear Creek, about 48 miles W. of Denver. It is sur-
rounded by high mountains. Here are gold and silver
mines.
Empire City, a post-township of Ormsby co., Nev.
Pop. 626.
Empire City, a thriving post-village, capital of Coos
co., Or., is on Coos Bay, 130 miles S. S. W. of Salem. Ex-
cellent lignitic coal is exported.
Empir’ic [Gr. Špire-pukós, “experienced;” Lat. empir-
icts; Fr. empirique], one whose knowledge or skill is
founded on experience or experiment. In the time of Cel-
sus and Galen there was a medical sect called Empirici,
supposed to have originated with Philinus of Cos and Se-
rapion. These empirics were opposed to the Dogmatic
sect or school, and considered that medical Science should
be based on experience rather than theory. They became
so notorious for ignorance that the term empiric is now gen-
erally applied to quacks and practitioners who are ignorant
of medical science. In its application to philosophy em-
piric denotes one who depends for truth entirely upon sen-
sual experience, independent of those limitations of the
mind's constitution which condition and supplement it.
Empiricism is a name applied by many of the German
chools of philosophy to the system which may be called
that of observation and induction, relying upon phenomena
which are made evident in consciousness. They apply the
term to the methods of Locke, Reid, and Stewart, without
properly discriminating them from the materialists, to whom
the term, in both ancient and modern times, has been le-
gitimately applied. -
Empir’ical Laws are expressions which set forth a
general relationship in any class of phenomena, without at-
tempting to explain the principle underlying that relation-
ship. The underlying principle may, in fact, be unknown,
as in the case of BoDE’s LAW (which see). Bode's law is
one of the most remarkable of all the empirical formulas
known to science. -
Empiricus. See SExTUs EMPIRICUs.
Em/poli, a town of Italy, in the province of Florence,
is on the river Arno, 16 miles W. of Florence, with which it
is connected by a railway. It is in a beautiful and fertile
district, is well built, and has an interesting church, which
was founded in 1093, and is adorned with paintings by
Giotto. Here are manufactures of cotton fabrics, straw
hats, etc. Pop. in 1861, 5805.
Empo’ria, a post-village, capital of Lyon co., Kan.,
near the Atchison Topeka and Santa Fé R. R. where it
crosses the Missouri Kansas and Texas R. R., 61 miles S.
S. W. of Topeka. It is between the Neosho and Cotton-
wood rivers, 6 miles above their junction, in a fine agricul-
tural and stock-raising region. It has a large trade, and
is one of the best-built towns in the State. It is the seat
of the State normal school, with a fine large building and
250 students. It has a court-house, two national, one pri-
vate bank, two newspapers, flouring-mill, furniture, soap,
and carriage factory. Pop. 2168; of Emporia township,
II.82. JACOB STOTLER, ED. “EMPORIA NEWs.”
Emporium, a post-village, capital of Cameron co., Pa.,
at the junction of the Buffalo New York and Philadelphia
R. R. with the Philadelphia and Erie R. R., 99 miles W.
N. W. of Williamsport. It has three newspaper offices and
an important lumber-trade. Valuable salt-wells abound in
the vicinity. Pop. 898.
IEmpyreu’m a [Gr. 3ptſpevºla, from epitrupeljo, to “kin-
dle"), the odor emitted by animal and vegetable substances
when they are burned or decomposed by a strong heat. The
oils obtained by the destructive distillation of organic sub-
stances at high temperatures are called empyreumatic oils.
Ems (anc. Ami'sia or Ami'sius), a river of Germany,
rises in Prussian Westphalia, near Paderborn. Its general
direction is northward. After a course of about 200 miles
it enters the Dollart, an inlet of the North Sea, near the
town of Emden. It is connected by a canal with the Lippe.
Ems, or Bad-Ems (i. e. “bath of Ems ”), a celebrated
watering-place of Germany, in the Prussian province of
1549
Hesse Nassau, on the river Lahn, about 7 miles S. E. of
Coblentz. It is surrounded by picturesque scenery, and is
situated in a beautiful valley among wooded hills. Here
are warm mineral saline springs, the temperature of which
varies from 93° to 135° Fahrenheit. It has good hotels,
and is frequented by many visitors, including English and .
other foreigners. Pop. in 1871, 5458. In 1785 the arch-
bishops of Treves, Mayence, Cologne, and Salzburg formed
an agreement here, called the “Punctation of Ems,” in
which they demanded in twenty-three articles the change
of several papal privileges in favor of the German arch-
bishops. The real object, however, was the establishment
of a national German Church. But in consequence of the
opposition of their own bishops, and the firmness of the
pope, they were compelled to submit to the authority of
the pope within a year. On July 13, 1870, the French am-
bassador, Count Benedetti, had at Ems the famous inter-
view with King William of Prussia, which precipitated the
outbreak of the great war between France and Germany.
Em/ser (HIERONYMUs), a German Catholic theologian
and adversary of Luther, born at Ulm Mar. 26, 1477. He
was secretary to George, duke of Saxony. He issued (1527)
a translation of the New Testament, which he called his
own, but which is only a copy of Luther's, with some un-
important verbal alterations. Died Nov. 8, 1527.
E/mu, or E/meu (Dromaius Novae Hollandiae), a large
§ - Australian bird, belonging
º to the Struthionidae and
ſº allied to the ostrich and
cassowary. It differs from
the latter in being taller,
having the bill horizon-
tally depressed, and in
being destitute of the bony
, crest and pendent wattles.
# When full-grown it is of a
brown color, mottled with
## gray. It has only rudi-
## mentary wings, but is ex-
ceedingly fleet in running.
The eggs are dark green,
and about seven in num-
ber. Both the eggs and flesh are esteemed excellent for
the table. Its plumage is long and almost hair-like. The
plumes are readily dyed of various colors, and appear to
some extent in commerce as a substitute for ostrich feath-
ers. It has become rare in the more settled parts of Aus-
tralia, having been hunted for the sake of its oil, which the
skin contains in large quantities. It feeds mostly on fruit,
herbage, etc., and is easily domesticated.
Emu Wren (Stipiturus malachurus), a passerine bird
of Australia, nearly allied to the wrens of Europe and Amer-





1550 EMULSIN–ENAR.E.A.
ica. The genus includes about a dozen Australian species. | With reddish marks, and is red beneath. Its flesh is very
This bird haunts marshy districts, never alighting on high good.
trees, and seldom taking to flight, but run-
ning rapidly about the grass with its long
tail-feathers erect. It takes its name from
these feathers, which are six in number,
and have a real or fancied resemblance to
the feathers of the emeu. -
Emul'sin (Synaptase), an albuminous
Substance found in almonds, which acts as
a ferment upon the glucoside amygdalin
of bitter almonds, transforming it into bit-
ter almond oil (hydride of benzoyl), hydro- ###
cyanic (prussic) acid, and glucose (grape
Sugar).
Emul’sion [from the Lat. emul/geo, to
“milk”], the name of a liquid preparation resembling milk The little spotted tortoise (Emys guttata), from five to
in color and consistence, and obtained by mixing oil and nine inches long, is found throughout a great part of the
water by means of some other substance, mucilaginous or U. S., is black, with roundish speckles or spots above, and
Salt-water Terrapin (Emys palustris), salt marshes of Eastern U. S.
Saccharine. Emulsions are useful in pharmacy. is black and yellow beneath. It is sometimes caught on the
E/mys [Gr.], a genus of chelonians or fresh-water tor- land. ...--
toises. They differ from land-tortoises in having the feet The salt-water terrapin (Emys palustris) is from five to
more webbed and expanded, and the shell of the back more | Seven inches long, being found in brackish tidal waters and
flattened. The painted tortoise (Emys picta) and alligator | Salt marshes of our Atlantic coast, especially northward.
tortoise (Emysaura serpentina) are abundant in North Amer- It is one of the most highly prized of the terrapins. It is dug
ica. Several species are natives of Southern Europe. DeKay 9ut of the mud in winter, when it is very fat, and marketed
makes the genus to include nearly all the fresh-water spe- in considerable numbers for table use. Many other terra-
pins are known in the U. S., especially southward and
Westward.
Enaliosau’rians [from the Gr. ŠváAtos, “ma.
§§§
W § § # º ſº | 8 º º * e ** *
º § º ſº rine” (ºv, “in,” and &As, the “sea’’), and gaipos, a
šº #º ŠS$ iº “lizard”], a group of extinct saurians having paddles
sºlº) tº for swimming instead of true feet, and having croco-
Aº- E-ºxº tº-ºxº º §§º
†:
º ºğ dilian teeth and biconcave vertebrae like those of
fishes. Their remains first appear in the carbonifer-
ous rocks, and disappear in the cretaceous, being
most numerous in the Jurassic strata. They appear
to have bcen mostly or all marine. Ichthyosaurus is
one of the most important of the genera.
, -º-' Enam'el [Fr. 6mail, from the Late Lat. Amal’tum,
- *** *- : ****º. Fº-Nº-ºº: - “smalt,” the blue color of enamel], a name given to
- -—-- - various opaque or semi-opaque glasses used in glaz-
Wood Terrapin (Emys insculpto), U.S. and Canada. ing or i. the . ; ... iron, ºniº.
cies in America, including fifteen or twenty in the U. S. elry. Common glass fused with oxide of antimony or tin
They are generally known as terrapins, and many of them becomes a white enamel ; oxide of cobalt produces a deep
are prized for the table. Fossil remains of the genus are blue; manganese, an amethyst; cuprous oxide, a ruby-red;
found in the eocene. - cupric oxide, green, etc. The hard external layer of the
teeth is called “the enamel ;” it contains
a large percentage of oxide of lime.
Enamelled Ileather, leather the
surface of which is rendered glossy by
successive coats of linseed oil, and finally
*** ***.*.*.
* T. º º § § § 3, iº º copal and asphaltum.
ſº |W º §º €0. LIEATHIER,
º º W ãº
º Enamel Painting, the art of ap-
######º plying artistic painting to glass, pottery,
or the metals, most glass-staining at pres-
ent being simply enamel painting. The
various colors (chiefly oxides of lead,
SE- platinum, gold, titanium, uranium, chro-
###### - -º-º-º: #= mium, etc.) are mixed with some glass or
Radºmº, ------4- => ºcºtº- -- “flux,” ground, made into a paint with
p oil of spike or some other volatile oil, and
The wood terrapin (Emys insculpta), found in the U. S. then applied with a soft brush, the outline being usually
and Canada, is eleven inches long, of a reddish-brown color, first applied, and then burnt in at a great heat in a glowing
with radiating lines of yellow. It is found in fresh waters, muffle. Afterwards the outlines are filled up by repeated
but perhaps oftener in fields and woods. paintings and burnings, different colors requiring different
treatment. Some faint idea of the needed
skill may be formed from the fact that the
painter has to work not with actual colors,
but with substances which he knows will
produce these colors after firing. Never-
theless, delicate shades and shadows can
be thus produced, and there have been
many famous and accurate enamellers of
portraits. This art was well known in
ancient Egypt and Etruria, and in medi-
aeval times its use, derived from Byzantine
s§ § º§ ºw-
-
>
-
-
---
=###$ºš 3. and Moorish workmen, became common in
-ºššº S$ºğº::=> - France and Italy.
- º-º-º: & ... - -
SSSs: - ăş.
SSSº Š:= == - Emara, or Enare, a large lake of
-:# == - Russia, in Lapland, about lat. 69° N. and
*==#E=T lon. 28° E. Area, 1050 square miles.
‘Fă: T
== Enarea, a country of Africa, in Abys-
sinia, lies S.W. of Shoa. Its limits have
not been accurately ascertained. It is
The red-bellied terrapin, common in the New York mar- mostly included between lat. 7° and 9° N., and is inhab-
kets, is from ten to seventeen inches long, dusky in color, ited by Gougas. The chief exports are ivory, slaves, and
Spotted Tortoise (Emys guttata), U. S.










































































ENARTHROSIS-ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
1551
coffee, the last of which is cultivated extensively. Capital,
Sakka.
Enarthro’sis, the name given in anatomy to that kind
of articulation which permits the widest range of motion.
It is known as the ball-and-socket joint, and is formed by
inserting the round end of one bone in the cavity of another,
as in the hip and shoulder.
Encamp/ment [Fr. campement], the position occupied
by an army or body of troops, having pitched tents or
erected huts for temporary lodgings; sometimes the act of
pitching tents or encamping. Also a name used for the di-
visions of certain secret societies, as the so-called “Knights
Templar.”
Encaus/tic [Gr. §ykavatuki, from kaijaws, a “burning”],
a durable species or method of painting which was prac-
tised by the ancient Greeks, and was so called from the
process of burning the picture when completed. It was
not developed until the later or more perfect period of
Greek art. The pictures were executed with wax colors
(cerae), and finished by the application of a hot iron. The
effect of an encaustic picture was probably similar to that
of an ordinary tempera or water-color painting. Both tem-
pera and water-color pictures were polished with a wax or
encaustic varnish. Encaustic painting has not been prac-
tised with much success or to much extent by the moderns.
Encaustic Tiles, a variety of tiles used for the floor-
ing of halls, churches, and public and private buildings.
They were extensively made in the Middle Ages, and were
then frequently employed for the ornamentation of walls.
At present figured tiles are also extensively used in mak-
ing flower-boxes for window culture. Encaustic tiles are
plain or ornamented. Plain tiles are white or colored, and
are sometimes glazed. They are made by pressing dry clay
into a mould by powerful hydraulic presses, and afterward
burning them. Figured tiles are moulded from moist clay,
and the figures are added to the surface before burning.
These tiles constitute an excellent though expensive ma-
terial for floors. Fine examples of figured tile floors are
to be seen in the Capitol at Washington. Holland and
Belgium had anciently famous manufactures of tiles, but
at present they are chiefly made in England.
Enceinte [Fr., from enceindre, to “gird about,” to
“enclose ’’), in fortification, signifies the main enclosure or
the (generally) continuous enclosing line of wall and para-
pet of a fort or fortress.
main ditch, and, according to its “trace” or “system,” upon
which its contour is broken, it distinguishes the character
of the work as “bastioned,” “polygonal,” “tenaillé,” etc.
(See ForTIFICATION, by CAPT. O. H. ERNST, U. S. Army.)
Enchirid’ion [Gr. §yxelpí8vov, from év, “in,” and xsip,
the “hand”], in literature, a brief and useful compilation;
a manual. An ethical treatise of Epictetus is termed his
“Enchiridion.”
Encho'rial [Gr. §yxöptos, from év, “in,” and x&pa,
“country;” that is, belonging to the country, not foreign],
or Demotic Writing, a cursive or short-hand alphabet
used in ancient Egypt. It was an abbreviation of the hie-
ratic writing, which was itself an abridged form of the true
hieroglyphics. Its remains are difficult to decipher. It
began to come into use about the origin of the twenty-sixth
dynasty (672–525 B.C.), and was still used in 200 A. D.
It contained forty-two letters and forty-eight syllabic cha-
racters. It appears on the Rosetta Stone, and was exten-
sively employed even in public documents. Remnants of.
this alphabet appear in the Coptic.
Encina. See ENZINA, DE LA (JUAN).
Enckſe (JOHANN FRANZ), a German astronomer, born at
Hamburg Sept. 23, 1791. He received a prize for his de-
termination of the orbit of the comet of 1680 (called Hal-
ley’s comet), and published a work entitled “The Distance
of the Sun” (2 vols., 1822–24). In 1825 he was appointed
director of the Royal Observatory at Berlin and secretary
of the Academy of Sciences. He investigated the orbit and
movements of the comet which Pons discovered in 1818,
and which is now designated Encke's comet... In 1830 he
began to edit the “Astronomische Jahrbücher.” Died Aug.
26, 1865.
Enck’e’s Com’et was observed by Pons Nov. 26, 1818.
In 1819, Encke first demonstrated that the same comet had
been seen as early as 1786, and several times subsequently.
He also found that its period was about 1200 days (3.303
years), its successive returns being accelerated and its
period shortened by a minute interval of time. It has the
shortest period and the least aphelion distance of all the
known comets. sº s
Enclaves [from the Lat., clavis, a “key *] are small
parts of one country which are entirely surrounded by an-
other country.
It is the inner boundary of the
En’oratites [Gr.'Eykparitat, the “self-restraining,” the
“continent”], a name applied by the Church Fathers to a
supposed Gnostic sect; though, in the opinion of most mod-
ern critics, the title belongs collectively to many Gnostics,
but not to any particular sect, representing, a principle,
rather than a community or organization. The Encratites
were dualistic, and in some instances were hardly Christian,
so peculiar were their doctrines and practices. They con-
tributed much to the spread of asceticism in the Church.
Tatian, Marcion, Cassian, Saturninus, and other prominent
men were reckoned as Encratites. They forbade marriage,
the eating of flesh, the drinking of wine, and in some cases
substituted water for wine in the Eucharist.
En’orinal Limestone, a name given by geologists to
any limestone which is largely composed of the remains of
crinoids, but more specifically applied to certain beds in
the Helderberg and Hamilton groups in New York. -
En’orinites (“stone lilies”), the popular name for
crinoids, radiated animals which form an order in the class
Echinodermata. The encrimites form many genera and
species, nearly all of which are fossil. They abound in the
palaeozoic rocks, and are quite numerous, in the mesozoic
formations. In the present seas they are exceedingly rare,
until recently only one species (Pentacrinus caput Medusae
of the West Indian seas) being known. The late deep-sea
dredging expeditions have brought to light two or three
more. Comatula in its early stage of existence so much
resembles the encrimites that it was described as a crinoid
(Pentacrinus Europaeus), but in Comatula the stem is tem-
porary, in the crinoids permanent. The stem consists of
disks like button-moulds in form, set in a pile together, and
in the living animal has some flexibility. It is mostly round
or pentagonal, and is often finely sculptured on the articu-
lating surfaces. Each joint of the arms is furnished with
two cirri or appendages, which the animal uses in capturing
its prey. The number of joints in the Pentacrinus Briareus
is, according to Buckland, about 150,000. Immense num-
bers of these animals lived in the seas of the palaeozoic
ages. “We may judge,” says Dr. Buckland, “ of the de-
gree to which the individual crinoids multiplied among the
first inhabitants of the sea from the countless myriads of
their petrified remains which fill so many limestone beds
of the older formations.”
Encum/brance. See INCUMBRANCE. &
Encyclopae'dia, or Cyclopaedia [Gr. evºkxtos and
Tatóeig (i. e. a circular or general course of education)], a
compilation usually, but not always, in alphabetic arrange-
ment, which professes to impart information, more or less
complete, upon the whole circle or range of human know-
ledge. The most noted of the earlier cyclopaedic works
were--the work of Speusippus (the nephew of Plato, died
B. C. 339), not now extant; the great collections of Varro,
of the Elder Pliny, of Stobaeus, Suidas, Isidorus, and Ca.
pella, crude summaries of the then known arts and sciences ;
the “Speculum Majus,” in 4 parts, of Vincent de Beauvais
(1264), in 3 vols.; and other similar compilations. We
should note also the work of Alfarabi of Bagdad (died A. D.
950). The earliest of modern encyclopaedias was that of
J. H. Alsted (1630, 35 books). L. Moreri's “Grand Diction-
naire” appeared in 1673; Hofmann’s “Lexikon Univer-
sale,” 1677, 2 vols.; T. Corneille’s “Dictionnaire des Artes,”
1694, 2 vols.; and P. Bayle’s “Dictionnaire Historique et
Critique,” 4 vols., Rotterdam, 1697. In the eighteenth cen-
tury the principal works were—J. Harris’s “Lexicon Tech-
nicum,’ 2 vols. folio, London, 1710; Ephraim Chambers's
“Cyclopædia,” 2 vols. folio, 1728; Zedler’s “Universal Lex-
ikon,” 64 vols., Leipsic, 1732–50; the French “ Encyclopé-
die” of the “Encyclopédists” Diderot, D'Alembert, Voltaire,
Rousseau, Grimm, and Helvétius, 28 vols., 1751–72; 7 vols.,
1776–80; the “Encyclopædia Britannica,” 3 vols., 1771;
2d ed. in 10 vols., 1776–83; a 3d ed. in 18 vols., 1797; the
“Deutsche Encyclopädie” of Köster and Roos, 1778–1804;
and the “Encyclopédie Méthodique par Ordre des Ma-
tières,” 1781–1832, 201 vols. In the nineteenth century the
first European work was Dr. A. Rees’s “Cyclopædia,” 1802–
19, in 45 vols. A work called the “British Encyclopædia,”
edited by Thomas Dobson, was published in Philadelphia
1798–1804; Dr. Brewster’s “Edinburgh Encyclopædia,” 18
vols., 1810–30, followed. The “Conversations-Lexikon”
of F. Brockhaus, Leipsic, 1812, and of which 11 eds. have
appeared, was the basis of many other cyclopædias. The
“Encyclopaedia Metropolitana,” 1818–45, 30 vols. 4to, was
a series of scientific treatises, as was also “Lardner's Cy-
clopædia.” The “Encyclopaedia Americana,” 1829–33, 13
vols., and supp. vol., 1848, edited by Prof. Lieber, was
based on the “Conversations-Lexikon.” The “Penny Cy-
clopaedia,” 28 vols., 1833–43, subsequently rearranged in
4 divisions and 27 vols. as the “English Cyclopaedia;” and
5 new eds, of the “Encyclopædia Britannica,” the 7th and
1552
ENDECAGON.—ENDOSMOSE.
8th in 21 vols.; the “London Encyclopaedia,” 22 vols., 1829–
—; and Messrs. W. & R. Chambers’s “Cyclopaedia,” 4 vols.,
1861–68, are the principal British cyclopaedias of this cen-
tury. In German the “Allgemeine Encyclopädie.” of Ersch
and Gruber, 1818–7–, 160 vols. issued; Meyer’s “Grosse
Conversations-Lexikon,” 52 vols., 1840–55; Pierer’s “ Uni-
versal Lexikon,” 1840–46, 34 vols.; 5th ed. 1867–71, 19 vols.
—are the best cyclopaedias. The French have “Encyclo-
pédie des Gens du Monde,” 1833–44, 22 vols. 8vo; “Ency-
clopédie Moderne,” 36 vols. 8vo, 1848–57; “Encyclopédie
Catholique,” – Vols., 1856; “Dictionnaire de la Conversa-
tion,” etc., 68 vols., 1839–51; a later edition not yet com-
plete. . The later American cyclopædias have been—“The
New American Cyclopaedia,” 16 vols., 1857–63, now under-
going revision as “The American Cyclopaedia;” a serial in 50
numbers, called “The Popular Encyclopaedia,” 1869; Zell’s
“Dncyclopædia,” 2 vols. large 4to, 1869–72; an abridg-
ment, in 1, vol. 4to, 1872; an edition of “Chambers’s Cy-
clopædia,” printed from imported plates, 11 vols. 8vo;
Schem’s “German-American Encyclopædia,” 1869, to be
completed in 11 vols.; and “Johnson’s New Universal Cy-
clopædia,” 1874, to be completed in 3 imp. 8vo vols. Works
treating of only a single department of science, literature,
or art have been called improperly encyclopædias. They
are really dictionaries. L. P. BROCKETT.
Rºndecagon. See HENDECAGON.
Endem/ic [from the Gr. ev, “in” or “within,” also
“among,” and &fnos, a “people”]. A disease is called en-
demic when it is either peculiar to some locality, or, much
more frequently, when it often occurs in a particular region.
“Epidemics” visit a community for a time, and then disap-
pear. “Endemics’ are diseases which are very frequent in
a community, and which do not disappear after running
their course. Thus, cholera is epidemic in Europe and the
U. S., while it is endemic along the lower Ganges.
Endemic influences are receiving profound study from
students of medicine and social science. The investiga-
tions deal with climate, topography, geology, water supply,
personal habits and character, moral, religious, and politi-
cal conditions, and (since the origin of the germ-theory of
disease) with the study of minute animal and vegetable or—
ganisms. The study of endemic influences has given rise
to the new science of medical geography. (See MijFIRY,
“Noso-Geographie,” 2 vols.; Boup1N, “Traité de Géo-
graphie et de Statistique Médicales, et de Maladies Endém-
iques,” 2 vols., 1857; SIR. RANALD MARTIN, “On the In-
fluence of Tropical Climate;” the “British Army Medical
Reports,” annual since 1859.)
Ender/mic [from the Gr. 3v, “in,” and 8épua, the “skin"]
Meth’od, a manner of administering medicines formerly
sometimes employed, by which the skin was made to ab-
sorb the remedy used. In some instances a blister was
raised, and the medicine—for example, sulphate of mor-
phia—was applied to the blistered surface. This plan,
though often surprisingly effective, has been superseded
by the hypodermic method, in which the medicine is in-
troduced under the skin by a small needle-pointed syringe.
En’dicott (John), colonial governor of Massachusetts,
was born at Dorchester, England, in 1589. He came to
America, in 1628, and was chosen governor of Massachu-
setts colony in 1644, again in 1649, and was re-elected to
the same office every year from 1650 to 1665, except in
1654. He was a bold and energetic man, a zealous Puri-
tan, and intolerant of whatever he considered wrong. Un-
der his administration, from 1659 to 1661, four Quakers
who refused to obey the laws, which banished them from
the colony, under pain of death if they returned, were ex-
ecuted in Boston. He died Mar. 15, 1665.
En’olive [Lat. intw'bum or intyóum], (Cicho'rium En-
di/via), a biennial herbaceous plant of the order Com-
positae, cultivated in the gardens of Europe and natural-
ized in the East. Its blanched radical leaves are used as a
salad. The varieties which have the leaves much curled
are preferred. It is a native of Eastern Asia.
End/less Screw, a piece of mechanism formed by com-
bining the screw with a cog-wheel, or by making a screw
act on the threads of a female screw sunk in the edge of a
wheel. The axis of the screw may be either in the plane
of the wheel or at right angles to it; in the latter case it is
called the American endless screw. In its mechanical prin-
ciple the endless screw is a combination of the inclined
plane and the lever. \
End/licher (STEPHEN LADISLAUs), an eminent botanist
and linguist, born at Presburg, in Hungary, June 24, 1804.
He studied several Oriental languages and the natural sci-
ences. In 1828 he became director of the Imperial Library
of Vienna. He obtained in 1840 the chair of botany in the
university of that city. He published several works on
botany, which were splendidly illustrated. Among his
numerous works are “Genera of Plants, arranged accord-
ing to the Natural Order” (in Latin, 1836–40), “Icono-
graphia Generum Plantarum ” (1838), and “Rudiments of
Chinese Grammar” (1845). He favored the popular cause
* revolutionary movement of 1848. Died Mar. 28,
Endocardi’tis [from endocardium and the termina-
tion -ītis, denoting “inflammation ”], an inflammation of
the endocardium. It is generally of rheumatic character,
and, though not often immediately fatal, it is a frequent
cause of organic disease and deformity of the heart and its
valves. It is frequently associated with pericarditis, and
its occurrence is one of the results always to be feared in
rheumatic fever. It is usually attended by pain or discom-
fort about the heart, and is detected by auscultation. It
produces peculiar murmurs in the heart, the significance
of which can only be appreciated by the trained physician.
The disease is very intractable. Sedatives, such as hydro-
cyanic acid, belladonna, aconite, and digitalis, may be use-
ful in acute stages. The alkaline treatment for rheumatism
is often advantageous. Patients sometimes, though not
very frequently, entirely recover.
Endocar'dium [from the Gr. 8v8ov, “within,” and
Kapòia, the “heart”], a name applied to the serous mem-
brane lining the chambers and valves of the heart.
En/docarp [from the Gr. Švčov, “within,” and kapirós,
“fruit”], a botanical term applied to the inner coat or
layer of a fruit, as the stone of the cherry and peach.
JEn/dochrome [from the Gr. 8v8ov, “within,” and xpapa,
“color”], the coloring-matter of plants, especially of the lower
classes of plants. In the higher classes of plants it is called
chlorophyll when green, and various modifications of it are
believed to produce the colors of flowers, of autumn leaves,
etc. Several theories have been proposed to account for
these various colors, but none are quite Satisfactory. The
endochrome of the lowest plants has been pronounced by
some chemists to be identical with chlorophyll, except when
stained by the presence of iron, etc., as in diatoms.
En’ologens, or Endog'enous Piants [from the Gr.
evöov, “within,” and yévo, to “be born,” to “grow ’’], one
of the primary classes of plants, are sometimes called
Monocotyledonous. All flowering or phaenogamous
plants are divided into two classes, the endogens and the
exogens. The former are so called because their stems grow
by additions to the inside, so that the outer part is the
oldest and hardest. The stems present no manifest dis-
tinction into bark, wood, and pitb, but the woody fibre and
vessels are in bundles which are irregularly imbedded in
the cellular tissue. They have no true medullary rays, nor
proper bark, nor concentric annual rings. The leaves are
mostly parallel-veined, and sheathing at the base. The .
stems of most endogens produce terminal buds, but no lat-
eral buds, and therefore are unbranched. The stem gen-
erally ceases to increase in thickness at an early stage of
its growth, long before it attains its full height. In many
of the grasses the stem is hollow or fistular. The endogens
of temperate and cold climates are mostly small herbaceous
plants, as grasses, lilies, and rushes; but in warm climates
occur numerous endogenous trees, as the palm and pan-
danus or screw-pine. The embryo of all endogens has a
single cotyledon, and the plumule has alternate leaves.
Most endogens have the parts of the flower in threes, and
the leaves in the vast majority are parallel-veined.
En’olor, an ancient village of Palestine, on the northern
declivity of Little Mount Hermon, 18 miles S. E. of Acre.
Endorse [from the Lat. in, “on,” and dor'sum, “the
back”], in heraldry, the smallest diminutive of the pale;
an ordinary containing the fourth part of a pale.
Endorse, or in dorse, to write on the back of a
promissory note or other written instrument; to sanction;
to become responsible for (a bill or note). The party who
endorses is called the endorser. Each endorser is liable for
the payment of a bill or note in case the drawee or acceptor
fails to pay, as the case may be, provided that protest is
legally made in time. - -
Em/dosmose, or Endosm o'sis [from the Gr. Šv8ov,
“within,” and 6960, to “impel”], and Exosmose, to-
gether called Điquid Diffusion, Osmose or Osmotic
Action, are properties of animal and vegetable membranes
first observed by Dutrochet (Ann. Chim. Phys., xxxvii. 191),
and subsequently investigated very fully by Graham. If
two different liquids or gases which are capable of mixing
with each other, as water and alcohol, are separated from
each other by such a membrane as paper, ca.outchouc, or a
bladder, the one liquid being suspended in a bladder in the
other, the liquid in the bladder will pass through the bladder
into the other (exosmose), or the liquid without will pass
into the bladder (endosmoge), or both endosmose and exos-
mose will take place at the same time; and in this case the
ENDOWMENT—ENFIELD.
1553
current continues until there is an equal proportion of both
liquids on either side of the bladder. These phenomena
are due to the attraction which the two liquids have for
each other and for the diaphragm separating them. These
phenomena are essential to organic life, and perform im-
portant parts in many physiological acts. Advantage is
taken of them in dialysis and many other operations of the
chemist.
Diffusion is applied in France and Germany to the ex-
traction of the Saccharine juice from beets and to the sepa-
ration of alkaline salts from beet molasses. For the latter
purpose the “osmogene” was devised by Dubrunfaut.
(Comptes Rendus, lxv. 692. See also WALKHOFF's “Rüben-
R
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Dubrunfaut's OSmogene.
zucker-fabrikant.”) The osmogene consists of a box (B B)
containing sheets of parchment paper (H. H) held in a ver-
tical position by wooden frames with rubber padding (AA).
A stream of water (MV) flows through the box, filling half
the spaces between the diaphragms. At the same time a
stream of molasses (RV’) flows through, filling the alternate
spaces. The alkaline salts diffuse through the parchment,
purifying the molasses to such an extent that the process is
a profitable one for the manufacturer.
Endow’ment, the act of appropriating a fund for the
support of a charitable institution, a professorship, or a
college; also the fund or revenue devoted to such a pur-
pose or permanently appropriated to any object; sometimes
a gift of nature, an innate faculty or quality.
Endröd, a village of Hungary, in the county of Bekes-
Csanad, on the river Körös, 90 miles E. S. E. of Pesth.
Pop. in 1869, 8714.
Endym’ion [Gr. 'Evêvatov], in the Greek mythology, a
beautiful youth beloved by Diana (Selene), who cast him
into an everlasting sleep. One tradition represents him as
a son of Zeus (Jupiter), who gave him immortality and
perpetual sleep. Some persons suppose that Endymion is
a personification of the sun or of the plunge of the setting
sun into the Sea.
En’ema [from the Gr. ºvinut, to “send in ’’), a liquid
substance thrown into the rectum by injection, either as
medicine or nourishment.
En/emy [from the Lat. in, negative, and ami/cus, a
“friend;” Fr. enemi; Ger. Feind], one hostile to another; a
foe, an adversary, an antagonist; applicable to an individual
or a nation. Also one who dislikes any individual or cause;
a hostile army or force. In international law, the enemy is
one who has publicly declared war against us, or, against
whom we have made such a declaration. This declaration
must be made by a duly organized state or kingdom, for
such a declaration by any turbulent body of men is not
sufficient. Hostilities having been formally declared, every
subject or citizen of the hostile nations becomes an enemy
of the opposing state, and all intercourse or communication
between the citizens of one hostile state and those of the
other is unlawful. An enemy cannot, as a general rule,
enter into any contract which can be enforced in the courts
of law; except, for example, when a state permits expressly
its own eitizens to trade with the enemy; and perhaps a
contract for necessaries or for money to enable the indi-
vidual to get home might be enforced. An alien enemy
cannot, in general, sue during the war a citizen of the U. S.,
either in the courts of the U. S. or those of the several
States. The word enemy, in a still more extended sense,
includes any of the subjects or citizens of a state in amity
with the U. S. who have commenced, or who have made
preparations for commencing, hostilities against the U. S.;
and also the citizens or subjects of a state in amity with
the U. S. who are in the service of a state at war with
them. The Latins had a particular term (hostis) to denote
a public enemy, and distinguished from him a private en-
emy by the term inimiſcus. In our language we have but
one word for these two classes of persons. (See CONTRA-
BAND, EMBARGo, PIRACY, and WAR.)
En’ergy [Gr. ºvépyeva, from év, “within,” and épyov,
“work”], in physics, the capability of effecting physical
changes; that is, of doing work or overcoming resistances.
It is called actual energy in reference to the Work it is
doing, and potential energy in reference to that which it is
capable of doing, but has not yet done. A bent spring
possesses potential energy; the same spring set free exerts
zctual energy. Energy is called visible when motion is di-
rectly perceptible in the moving body; it is called molecu-
lar energy when the motion occurs among the particles of
a substance, and is not directly perceptible. Visible en-
ergy is called kinetic, when it is due to visible motion; the
kinetic energy of a moving body is equal to the weight in
pounds multiplied by the square of the velocity, and di-
vided by twice the acceleration due to gravity. When a
body moves to the highest point in its course, its kinetic
energy is exhausted, or rather converted into potential en-
ergy, which is due entirely to advantage of position. As
kinetic energy decreases, potential energy increases, and
the sum of the two in any moving body is always the
same. Molecular energy is due to heat, actinism, chemism,
electricity, etc. Various machines, such as the steam-
engine, the telegraph apparatus, etc., depend for their
action upon the conversion of molecular into kinetic en-
ergy. (See CoRRELATION OF FORCES.)
Enfantin (BARTHáLEMI PROSPER), a French socialist
and leader of the Saint-Simonians, was born in Paris Feb.
8, 1796. He became in 1825 a disciple of Saint-Simon,
after whose death he and Amand Bazard were the chief
priests of the sect. They formed in 1830 an association of
Saint-Simonians, who had their property in common, but
they soon disagreed and ceased to co-operate. Enfantin
assumed the name of the “Living Law and the Messiah.”
He wrote several socialist works and advocated “free love.”
In 1832 he was imprisoned on a charge of corrupting pub-
lic morals. Died May 31, 1864.
En/field, a town of England, in Middlesex, on the Lion-
don and Cambridge Railway, 10 miles N. of London. Here
y
is a large manufactory of small-arms belonging to the gov-
ernment. Pop. 16,053.
Enfield, a post-township of Hartford co., Conn. It
contains a settlement of Shakers, and has important manu-
factures. Pop. 6322. -
Enfield, a post-township of White co, Ill., at the cross-
ing of the Špringfield and Illinois South-eastern and the
St. Louis and South-eastern R. R.S. Pop. 2426.
Enfield, a post-township of Penobscot 09: Me., on the
European and North American R. R., 35 miles from Ban-
gor. Pop. 545.
Enfield, a post-village and township of Hampshire 99;
Mass. It has important manufactures. It is on Swift
River and on the Athol and Enfield R. R. Pop. 1023.
Enfield, a post-township of Grafton cog N, H, 43 mile;
N.W. of Cóndord, is on the Northern R. R. The United
society of Shakers occupy a portion of the town ; they
manufacture brooms, tubs, and pails, and raise garden-
seeds. The three lakes in the town and the beautiful see:
nery around them make this one of the most delightful
summer resorts in New Hampshire. There are two hotels,
two woollen-mills, five churches, and one monthly medical
journal. It has also manufactures of furniture, flannels,
leather, lumber, knit goods, carriages, etc. Pop. 1662.
ELí ó. Jon Es, M.D., E.D. “N. E. E. MEDICAL Journ AL.”
Enfield, a post-township of Tompkins 99. N. Y. En-
field Falls, 230 feet high, are on Ten-mile Creek, and are
very beautiful. Pop. 1693. -
Enfield, a post-village of Halifax, co., N. Gº is on the
Wilmington and Weldon R. R., 18 miles from Weldon and
144 from Wilmington. It contains several steam saw-mills



















98
1554
ENFIELD–ENGEL.
and one steam grist-mill. It has one newspaper. There
is a large wine-manufactory in the vicinity. The principal
export is cotton ; it ships annually 5000 bales of cotton,
15,000,000 feet of lumber, 500,000 staves, 3000 bushels of
early peaches, besides shingles, wine, and brick. A gold-
mine is worked in the neighborhood. Pop. about 500.
DANIEL BOND, E.D. “TIMEs.”
Enfield (WILLIAM), LL.D., an English dissenter and
writer, born at Sudbury in 1741. He preached in the Uni-
tarian churches of Liverpool, Warrington, and Norwich,
and published several volumes of sermons and a “Preach- |
er's Directory” which is highly commended. Amongst his
other works is a “History of Philosophy” (1791), abridged
from Brucker’s history. Died Nov. 3, 1797.
Enfield Rifle-Musket, a variety of small-arms manu-
factured at Enfield, England, at the royal Small-arms fac-
tories. During the late civil war the U.S. government and
the Confederates each purchased large quantities of these
and other European arms, on account of the difficulty of
supplying the large numbers of troops with the necessary
weapons. The Enfield rifle, though a very serviceable
weapon, much better than the Belgian and Austrian arms
then imported, was in almost every respect inferior to the
old Springfield (U. S.) rifle-musket, which it much re-
sembles. All these weapons have now given place to vari-
ous breech-loading arms.
Enfilade. [Fr.], a discharge of musketry or artillery
made in a direction parallel to the length of a line of troops
or of a line of rampart, so that the shot rakes the whole
line. A trench or parapet is said to be enfiladed when guns
are so placed that the shot can be fired into it in a direc-
tion coincident with its length.
Engadine, or Engadin, an extensive valley in Switz-
erland, canton of Grisons, is about 45 miles long, and has
an average width of 1% miles. The noble Bernina Moun-
tains separate this valley from the Waltelline. It is the
upper part of the valley of the river Inn, which runs along
it in a north-east direction between two chains of the Alps.
The highest part of the valley is 5900 feet above the level
of the sea. The climate is very cold, and snow and frost
occur even in July. The valley is divided into the Upper
and Lower Engadine. There are several glaciers and a
number of valuable mineral springs. The inhabitants
number about 12,000, and speak a peculiar Romanic dia-
lect, called Ladin. The people are mostly Protestants.
The valley is very beautiful, and affords much timber and
pasturage. The Lower Engadine is well cultivated, but
less beautiful than the upper valley. The people are a
pious, simple class of peasantry. The young men are
known throughout Europe as good confectioners and coffee-
house keepers. They usually amass a competence, and
return to enjoy their small fortunes in their native valley.
The government is a pure democracy. The noble Cembra
pines which adorn this valley are of great value.
Eng (“right”) and Chang (“left”), the Siamese
Twins. They were born at Bangesau, Siam, April 15, 1811,
of a Chinese father and a Chino-Siamese mother, and
brought to the U. S. in 1829. Since that time they have
been on exhibition in America and Europe a number of
times, and died, after having lived, as Eng and Chang
Bunker, about twenty years in the neighborhood of Mount
Airy, N. C., in Jan., 1874, the death of Chang preceding
that of Eng a few hours. They differed in appearance,
character, and strength more than average twins, per-
formed their physical functions separately, and were ad-
dicted to different habits, Chang being intemperate and
irritable, Eng sober and patient. Both were married
and had large families of children, a number of whom died
young, but none exhibited any malformation. Chang
received a paralytic stroke in Aug., 1870. He died unex-
pectedly while his brother was asleep, after having been
affected with an inflammatory disease of the respiratory
organs. Eng died a few hours afterwards, probably chiefly
from the influence of the nervous shock on learning the
sudden death of his brother. They are the best known of
the “double monsters” on record, none others of whom ever
lived to the advanced age of sixty-three. The “Hunga-
rian Sisters,” Judith and Helena, who were born in 1701,
and connected at their sacral regions, lived up to twenty-
one years of age, and the “Two-headed Nightingale,” two
mulatto girls of North Carolina, born in 1851.
The connection of the Siamese Twins took place in their
epigastric regions, between the navel, which was common
to both, and the ensiform processes, which were bent out
in a forward direction and met very closely, held together
by a ligamentous apparatus. The connecting band was a
few inches long, after having elongated a little during the
long life of the twins, and eight inches in circumference
(two and a half in diameter). It was covered with skin,
which in the median line had a narrow zone with common
sensitiveness. Inside the skin there was normal subcu-
taneous and muscular tissue, portions of the muscles of
one crossing those of the other. The interior was occupied
by the prolongation of the peritoneum in such a manner
that at the post-mortem examination a hand introduced,
into the abdomen of Chang entered two pouches reach-
غ
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Eng and Chang (the Siamese Twins).
ing into Eng, and a hand introduced into the abdominal
cavity of Eng entered one pouch (lying between the two
of Chang's) which was long enough to be extended into
the abdomen of Chang. The livers of the twins were lo-
cated in close proximity to the connecting band, and con-
nected with each other by small blood-vessels, which were
lined with a thin layer of genuine liver tissue. Thus, the
question whether a separation of the twins, by surgical
means would have been possible, must be answered nega-
tively. The severing knife would have injured the peri-
toneum of both brothers; and resulted in a very dangerous
(although perhaps not necessarily fatal) inflammation.
The greatest danger would have resulted, however, from
the lesion of the short connecting blood-vessels, particu-
larly the vein, and the accompanying liver tissue. Two
separations, by surgical interference, of “double monsters”
are on record: one is reported by König in 1689, one by
Boehm in 1866. (Virchow's Archiv.) The latter operated
on his own twin daughters in 1861; one died after three
days, the other was alive in 1866, at the age of five years.
In both cases the connection of the twins took place in the
exact place where the Siamese Twins were attached to each
other, but the connection was confined to the skin and sub-
cutaneous tissue only. A. JACOBI.
Engamo, an island of the Malay Archipelago, is near
the S. W. coast of Sumatra. It is over 30 miles in circuit,
and is rather high and well wooded. Area, 400 square
miles. The people are of Malay race, and are independent.
The island has a good harbor, but is mostly surrounded by
coral-reefs. Lat. 5° 21' S., lon. 102° 20' E.
En-gedi [Heb. Eyn Gedi, the “kid’s fountain;” the
modern Ain Jidy of the Arabs], a town several times men-
tioned in the Bible, and also called Hazezon-tamar, alluding
to its palm trees, which have now disappeared. It stood
on the W. side of the Dead Sea, at a point about equally
distant from its N. and S. extremities. Here are found
some ruins of the old town, which stood in a very fertile
spot near the fine fountain which gave it a name. There
are numerous caves in the vicinity. These served as hiding-
places for King David and his followers in the days of their
outlawry during the reign of Saul.
Eng/el (ERNST), a very prominent German statistician,
born in 1821, became in 1860 director of the statistical
bureau in Berlin, and presided in 1863 in the International
Statistical Congress in Berlin. He published the “Zeit-
schrift des statistischem Bureau” (since 1860), the “Jahr-
buch für die amtliche Statistik des Preussischen Staates’’
(since 1863), and “Preussische Statistik” (since 1866).
Engel (Joh ANN JAKOB), a German author of much merit,
was born at Parchim Sept. 11, 1741. He became professor
of belles lettres in Berlin in 1776. Among his works are
“Ideen zu einer Mimic * (2 vols., 1785), and “Lorenz
Stark” (1795), a romance which was very popular. His















ENGEL–ENGINE.
1555
works are characterized by a refined taste and great ele-
gance of diction. Died June 28, 1802.
Engel (Joseph), a German anatomist, born in 1816, be-
came professor of descriptive anatomy at the University
of Zurich in 1844, professor of pathological anatomy in
Prague in 1849, and of descriptive anatomy at the Joseph
Academy in Vienna in 1854. He published, among other
works, “Specielle pathologische Anatomie ’’ (1856), “Das
Knochengerüst des Menschlichen Antlitzes” (1850), and
“Compendium der topographischen Anatomie” (1859).
Eng’elberg, a village in a valley of the same name, in
the cantom of Unterwalden, Switzerland, at the foot of
Mount Titlis. It is famous for its school, which is con-
nected with a stately Benedictine abbey, Mons Angelorum,
founded by Pope Calixtus II. in 1120, and rebuilt in 1729.
It has a good old library and some valuable paintings.
Here is also a famous cheese-cellar of great extent.
Engelbert, a voluminous old Benedictime author, was
abbot of Admont in Styria, and died in 1331. He was of
noble birth. Of his numerous works the most important
was a Roman history, “De ortu, progressu et fine imperii
Romani,” published in 1553 and 1603. Several theological
tractates of his production have been published by Pez,
with a biography and a full list of his works.
Engelbert, SAINT, a son of Engelbert, count of Berg-
Geldern, was born in 1185. He became in 1215 elector of
the empire and archbishop of Cologne, having when twenty-
two years old declined the bishopric of Münster. He paid
off the debt of the electorate, enlarged its territories, and
reformed its administration. When the emperor Frederick
II. went to Italy, Engelbert was the principal regent in
Germany. He reformed the corrupt clergy, checked the
power of the nobles, and zealously advanced that of the
Church. His energy and rigor made many enemies, and
he was murdered by his own nephew Nov. 7, 1225. The
murderer, Count von Isenburg, was broken on the wheel, and
his accomplices, the bishops of Osnabrück and Münster
received excommunication. Saint Engelbert is one of the
characteristic figures of German mediaeval history, recall-
ing Saints Dunstan and Thomas à Becket, but he seems to
have possessed more zeal for the purity of the Church than
they showed, and an energy equal to theirs in extending
its power. His life was written by Caesar of Heisterbach,
and in recent times by Ficker. -
Engelbrecht (Joh ANN), a German enthusiast, born at
Brunswick in 1599. He was a tailor’s son, and worked at
his father’s trade until his health failed. He was liable to
cataleptic attacks, during which he went for many days
without food or drink. In 1622 he set himself up for a
prophet, in all sincerity regarding himself as a divinely-
inspired teacher. His writings have been in part trans-
lated into English. Though he was quite unlettered, some
of Engelbrecht’s books, like his addresses, display con-
siderable power and an insight into spiritual things. After
suffering imprisonment and enduring much obloquy, he
retired from public life and died in 1642.
Eng/elmann (GEORGE), M.D., a German botanist and
physician, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main Feb. 2, 1809,
was educated at Frankfort, Berlin, and Heidelberg, re-
moved to the U. S. in 1832, and settled at St. Louis in
1835. He founded there a journal called “Das Westland.”
He is especially eminent for his researches in the Cactaceae,
the dodders, the euphorbias, junci, conifers, and other diffi-
cult departments of botany. He has published various
monographs on botany and meteorology.
Eng’elstöft (CHRISTIAN THORNING), a Danish theolo-
gian, born in 1805, became in 1845 professor of theology at
the University of Copenhagen, and in 1851 bishop of Füh-
nen. He wrote, among other works, a “Manual of Church
History" (1845).
Enghien, a town of Belgium, province of Hainaut,
about 20 miles S. W. of Brussels, with which it is connected
by railway. It has a superb château of the Aremberg fam-
ily, and manufactures of cotton and linen fabrics. The
family of Bourbon-Condé derived from it the title of duke.
Pop. in 1866, 3852. The great Condé was styled in his
youth Duc d'Enghien. * -
Enghien, d” (Louis ANToINE HENRIDE Bourbon), DUC,
a French prince, born at Chantilly Aug. 2, 1772, was the
eldest son of the duke of Bourbon. He became an émigré
in 1789, and joined in 1792 the army of the prince of Condé,
who was his grandfather. He fought against the French
republic until 1799. In 1804 he married the princess Char-
lotte of Rohan-Rochefort, and became a resident of Etten-
heim in Baden. Here he was seized by the order of Bona-
parte, carried to Vincennes, tried by a military court, and
shot Mar. 21, 1804, on the pretext that he was an accom-
plice of Cadoudal in a conspiracy against Bonaparte. This
act excited great indignation, as it is generally believed that
D'Enghien was not guilty.
En’gine [probably from the Latin ingenium, “natural
capacity,” “invention”], a name given to a variety of me-
chanical contrivances designed to apply the forces of na-
ture in performing useful work. In a general sense, the
word is often applied to any powerful machine, but its use
in industry is restricted to prime movers. Here also a dis-
tinction is to be observed. Prime movers of great sim-
plicity, like windmills and water-wheels, are not called
engines. Something implying the exercise of ingenuity
(ingenium) in the combination of parts and the adaptation
of means to ends is necessary to entitle a machine to be
ranked in this class.
The forces which engines are employed to apply and
utilize are principally heat, gravity, and electricity. Those
in which the efficient force is heat, called in general thermo-
dynamic engines, occupy the first rank as it respects their
industrial value; and among these the class of engines in
which steam is the vehicle employed to utilize the heat are
the most important of all. The varieties of steam-engines
are almost as numerous as the uses to which they are ap-
plied; but in most the elastic force of the steam is employed
to impart, by direct pressure, a reciprocating rectilinear
motion to a piston within a cylinder, this motion being
usually converted into a rotary motion by means of a crank.
Such is the principle of all the large stationary engines
used to drive the machinery of factories, foundries, etc.,
and generally of those employed to propel vessels on in-
land waters or on the ocean, or to drag trains upon rail-
ways. Such also is the principle of most of the steam-
engines used in the minor industries, and of the portable
engines (called by the French locomobiles) employed in
agriculture and for miscellaneous purposes. -
The real or supposed disadvantages attendant on the use
of crank motion have led many inventors to seek a form of
construction for the engine in which rotary motion should
be produced by the direct action of steam. Hence there
has sprung up a very numerous tribe of “rotary engines;”
none of which, however, have secured a very general ac-
ceptance. (See RotARY STEAM-ENGINE.) A plan of ma-
rine engine has also been proposed, and perhaps constructed,
in which the rotary and reciprocating motions are in a cer-
tain sense combined, the piston being a plane passing
through the axis of the cylinder, around which (axis) it
vibrates through a considerable arc. The object in this
case is to economize space, and to keep the heavy parts of
the engine as low down in the ship as possible. Finally,
Bishop’s disk engine, another marine engine intended for
driving propeller screws, employs as a piston a disk, which,
moving in what may be called an equatorial spherical sec-
tor upon a ball-and-socket joint at the centre of the sphere,
gives to the polar axis a motion of nutation by which the
crank is driven. This construction is said to have been
very successful. *
The first application of steam to produce a useful effect
was made by Captain Thomas Savery, a British engineer,
in a contrivance for the drainage of mines or the elevation
of water generally, of which he exhibited a model in 1669
to the Royal Society of London—a contrivance usually but
improperly called Savery’s engine. This consisted of a
vessel, or pair of vessels, of metal, ellipsoidal in form,
called receivers, connected at the bottom by a tube having
a valve opening upward with the water to be raised, and
having a pipe descending to the bottom of the receiver
within, but furnished with a stop-cock at top, which com-
municates upward with the level at which the discharge is
to take place. In this apparatus, the cock being open, the
air is first expelled by steam introduced from a boiler; the
cock being then closed, the steam is condensed by means
of cold water applied to the surface of the receiver; into
the vacuum formed by this condensation the water then
enters by force of atmospheric pressure, lifting the valve;
the receiver being full, the cock is once more opened, the
valve closing spontaneously, and steam is introduced at the
highest point of the vessel, pressing on the surface of the
water, and driving it upward through the discharge-pipe.
Owing to the small conducting power of fluids for heat
downward, the temperature of the water is very little
raised during this operation, and that only near the sur-
face. This contrivance, though very wasteful of heat,
came into quite general use in England. One of the first
uses to which the inventor himself applied it was for the
raising of water to be used by its fall to turn a mill-wheel;
and it is said (Encycl. Brit., art. “Steam-Engine") that
several engines of this kind were erected at Manchester to
impel the machinery of some of the earliest cotton-mills
and manufactories of that district. It should be here ob-
served that the marquis of Worcester, in his “Century of
Inventions,” published in-1663, described a machine iden-
tical in principle with that of Savery, which he asserts
1556
ENGINEERING.
that he actually constructed and operated successfully;
but as no evidence of this remains but his own record, the
statement is to be received with some hesitation.
In 1690, Denis Papin, a French physicist (at that time,
however, curator of the Royal Society of London), devised
a project—or rather, it may be said, suggested the possi-
bility—of an engine in which the efficient power should be
the pressure of the atmosphere; this to be brought into
play by creating a vacuum beneath a piston in a cylinder
by the explosion of gunpowder or by the condensation of
steam. Dr. Papin, however, did not follow out his idea. It
was taken up by two common mechanics, Newcomen and
Cawley of Dartford, who some years later (the precise date
of the invention is not preserved) produced a machine
having a real industrial value, which, under the name of
Newcomen’s engine, continued to be used, chiefly in the
drainage of mines, for nearly a century. In this engine a
vacuum was produced beneath a piston in an upright open
cylinder by first filling the cylinder with steam, and then
condensing the steam by the application of cold water to the
exterior. The downward pressure of the atmosphere—
about fifteen pounds to the square inch, or a ton to the
square foot—then caused the piston to descend, dragging
after it the working-beam of the engine or (in raising
water) the handle of the pump. Two important improve-
ments were made soon after the introduction of this engine.
The first was the condensation of the steam by means of a
jet of cold water thrown into the interior of the cylinder,
instead of applying water to the surface. The discovery of
the superior efficacy of this method was the result of an
accidental leakage, through the piston, of the cold water
always kept on top to prevent the entrance of air, in conse-
quence of the imperfect fitting of the piston to the cylinder.
The sudden descent of the piston on the occurrence of a
free influx of water thus occasioned suggested an arrange-
ment for the purposed introduction of the jet at the proper
instant, whereby the movements of the engine were greatly
accelerated. The second improvement consisted in attach-
ing rods to the working-beam, so connected with the cocks
by which the steam and condensation water were alternately
admitted to the cylinder as to cause those cocks to be opened
and closed at the proper moments by the action of the ma-
chine itself. The engine thus became automatic; and this
most valuable addition to its capabilities of usefulness is
said to have been made by a boy named Humphrey Potter,
employed to tend the engine, and charged with the monot-
onous duty of opening and closing these cocks by hand.
Observing that the opening of one of the cocks was neces-
sary at the beginning of the stroke, and that of the other at
the end, also that when one was opened the other must be
closed, he attached strings to the handles of the cocks, and
so connected them with the beam as to produce the desired
effects in their proper order. In planning and successfully
executing this contrivance the youthful inventor had not
particularly in view the benefit to the world it was capable
of yielding, but only his own personal relief from an irk-
some task. He designed, therefore, to keep it a secret, in
order that he might enjoy the liberty it secured him. But,
the very excellence of his invention betrayed him. The en-
gine provided with his attachments immediately began to .
work with a uniformity and regularity unknown before,
exciting the curiosity of the attendants to discover the
cause ; so that the secret was brought to light. The mame
given to Newcomen's engine was not “the steam-engine,”
but “the atmospheric fire-engine.”
In 1725 appears to have been produced the first engine
(for the machine of Savery was not properly an engine)
in which the direct pressure of steam was employed as a
motive-power. This was invented by one Jacob Leupold,
whose contrivance embraced a piston in an open cylinder,
like Newcomen’s, but employed high-pressure steam, not
only to balance the pressure of the atmosphere, but to drive
at the same time the piston of a force-pump elevating a
column of water.
This was the state of things in regard to thermo-dynamic
engines when in 1765 the attention of James Watt, a mathe-
matical instrument maker of Glasgow, was called to the sub-
ject, in consequence of his having been called upon to make
some repairs upon a model Newcomen engine used to illus-
trate the physical lectures of the university of that city. In
the hands of Watt this contrivance completely changed its
character, and became, in the proper sense of the word, a
steam-engine. (For the further history of this most import-
ant of the mechanical aids to the industrial progress of the
world, for a description of the variety of forms which have
-been given to it, and of the accessory apparatus by which
its efficiency has been improved, and for an account of the
physical and mathematical theories of its action, we must
refer the reader to the proper heads, STEAM-ENGINE and
HEAT.)
Thermo-dynamic engines have been proposed, in which
ammoniacal gas or the vapor of ether or that of some other
volatile liquid should be made the vehicle of the thermal
force. These have been in some instances actually tested,
but they have never gained a general acceptance. The
argument urged in their favor has been of course economy,
but the basis of this economical argument has been greatly
narrowed by the recognition of the doctrine of the conser-
vation of force as one of the fundamental truths of physical
science. There remain, nevertheless, certain questions re-
lative to this point still open, which will be found briefly
discussed in the article HEAT. Other forms of thermo-dy-
namic engines, which have secured to themselves a place
among the aids to industry, are those which employ as a
direct or indirect source of motive-power the explosive
force of combustible gases when inflamed in mixture with
atmospheric air, and those in which the elastic force of
heated air itself is used to drive a piston. (For descriptions
and theories of these, see HEAT, HoT-AIR ENGINE, and IN-
FLAMMABLE-GAS ENGINE.)
The attempt to make electricity subservient as a motive-
power to the uses of the arts has been many times made,
but never with a high degree of success. There is no diffi-
culty whatever about the undertaking, considering it merely
as a mechanical problem. From the point of view of econ-
omy, however, such attempts will always be failures, unless
there should be discovered some source of electro-motive
force less expensive than any now known. (For informa-
tion on this subject, see ELECTRO-DYNAMIC ENGINEs.)
Hydro-dynamic engines are those in which water is em-
ployed not simply to produce motion by its own gravity, as
in falling upon an overshot or breast wheel, or by its mo-
ment, as in driving an undershot or flutter wheel, but by the
hydrostatic pressure of a natural head, or of what may be
called an artificial head, produced by confining a large vol-
ume of water in a strong cylinder, and compressing it by
means of a heavily loaded piston in the cylinder. Such
engines are usually of Small dimensions, but work under a
very high pressure—a pressure sometimes of three or four
hundred atmospheres. They were originally introduced by
Sir William Armstrong to control the heavy cranes and
other lifting machinery used in foundries, and were first
publicly exhibited by him in the great International Expo-
sition of 1851, held in London. In the management of the
ponderous “converters” used in Bessemer steel-works they
may be said to be indispensable. (See on this subject the
article HYDRO-DYNAMIC ENGINES.)
F. A. P. BARNARD.
Engineering. “The engineer is he who, by art and
science, makes the mechanical properties of matter serve
the ends of man. In the widest sense, almost every man
is more or less an engineer. The first man who bridged a
torrent with a fallen tree had in him something of the en-
gineer; the first man who dug a new channel for a brook,
the first man who cleared a pathway in the forest, had in
him something of the engineer; but the title of engineer is
more properly restricted to those who make the useful ap-
plication of mechanical science their peculiar study and
profession.” # w
Hence, engineering is the art and science by which “the
mechanical properties of matter are made to serve the ends
of man,” or, as otherwise defined, it is “the useful applica-
tion of mechanical science” to those ends.
The branches of science which are applicable to the en-
gineer, says the same eminent authority, “fall under the
general head of mechanics; but they are distinct in method
and application (though not in principle) from astronomi-
cal mechanics, which treats of the motion of the stars, and
from those parts of physical mechanics which relate to such
subjects as the transmission of sound and light. They are
also so far to be kept distinct from pure or abstract me-
chanics that, in treating specially of mechanics as applied
to engineering, certain fundamental principles are to be
taken for granted, the demonstration of which forms part
of the course of natural philosophy. To that course also
must be left all mechanical problems which are interesting
in a scientific point of view only, and not practically useful.
“The objects to which the science of the engineer relates
are divided under two heads—viz., Structures and Machines.
“Strictly speaking, all machines are structures, though
all structures are not machines; but it is convenient to limit
the term structures to those combinations of Solid materials
whose parts are not intended to have relative motion, and
which are thus to be distinguished from machines, whose
parts are intended to have relative motion and to perform
work.
“The theory of structures is founded on the principle of
statics, or the science of equilibrium. It is divided into two
parts, relating respectively to the two requisites of a struc-
* The late W. J. Macquorn Rankine on “The Science of the
Engineer.”
ENGINEERS, CORPS OF.
1557
ture, stability and strength—stability being the power of
resisting forces tending to overthrow the structure, or to
derange the parts of which it is made from their proper
relative positions; and strength, the power of resisting
forces tending to alter the figures of those parts or to break
them in pieces. -
“For example, in a bridge, stability requires certain re-
lations to exist between the distribution of the load, the
figure of the arch, and the dimensions of the abutments, in
order to prevent the dislocation of the arch-stones or the
overthrow of the abutments; and strength requires the
arch to be of a thickness sufficient to resist the tendency to
crush it. -
“In applying the principles of stability and strength to
structures, regard must be had to the special properties of
the materials employed, whether earth, stone, bricks, cement,
timber, iron or other metals, as well as to the kind of work-
manship to which each material is subjected, and the forms
in which it is used.
“The end to be aimed at in every scientifically designed
structure is to adjust exactly the position, form, and size
of the whole, and of each part, to the forces which it has to
sustain. The more nearly this end is attained, the better
will the structure be, not only in efficiency, durability, and
economy, but also in beauty. This, independently of orna-
ment, is the fundamental principle of beauty in architec-
ture as well as in engineering.
“The theory of machines is founded on the principles
of cinematics, or the science of motion considered in itself,
and on those of dynamatics, or the science of the relations
between motion and force.
“Pure mechanism is the name which has been given to
the cinematical part of the theory of machines, or that
which takes into consideration their action in transmitting
and modifying motion only, without regard to the force
which is at the same time transmitted. As examples of its
application may be cited parallel motion, the arrangement
and proportioning of wheels, and the correct shaping of
their teeth. The science of pure mechanism has of late been
brought to a very complete state, and reduced entirely to
the consequences of one general principle.
“The dynamical part of the theory of machines considers
them as transmitting at once both motion and force, or per-
forming work. It treats of the resistances, whether from
solids or fluids, which impede the action of machines, the
means of regulating that action, and the mature of the
sources of motive-power, whether animal strength, the
gravitation of water, the currents of the air, or the me-
chanical action of heat. The entire theory of the work of
machines is founded on one principle, that of the conserva-
tion of energy.
“Machines have further to be considered with reference
to their strength, or capacity for sustaining without injury
the forces which they transmit.
“The term civil engineering is applied to a wide and
somewhat indefinite range of subjects, but it may be defined
as embracing those applications of mechanics, and of the
arts of construction generally, which belong to lines of
transport for goods and passengers, whether roads, rail-
ways, canals, or navigable rivers; to works for the convey-
ance of water, whether for drainage or water-supply; to
harbors and works for the protection of the coast. All
these kinds of works are combinations of structures and
machines; they comprise structures—in earthwork, as cut-
tings, embankments, and reservoirs; in masonry, timber,
and iron, as bridges, viaducts, aqueducts, locks, basins,
piers, and breakwaters; they comprise machines—such as
carriages and locomotive engines, lock-gates, sluices, and
valves, pumping steam-engines, and dredging-machines.
Their principles, therefore, consist to a great extent of the
general principles of construction and machinery, combined
and adapted to suit the circumstances of each kind of work.
“But civil engineering has besides some principles pecu-
liar to itself. It involves the art of laying out lines of trans-
port and selecting the sites for works in the best manner
possible with reference to the features of the country, so as
to secure economy in execution and working. Hydraulic
engineering involves the laws of rainfall and of the supply
and the flow of streams; and the engineering of coast-
º: requires a knowledge of the action of the waves and
tides.” -
In addition to the above, geology and mineralogy, chem-
istry in so far as it relates to the treatment of metals and
of building materials, botany and vegetable physiology
with special reference to timber trees, are indicated as
departments of science which every engineer would do
well to study.
An art or science which makes the mechanical properties
of matter serve the ends of man embraces also military en-
gineering, of which the object is the application of these
properties to the operations of war. In a technical sense,
military engineering is more restricted, and embraces forti-
fication, whether permanent or temporary, and its auxil-
iaries, such as floating obstructions and torpedoes for harbor
defence; the works of attack or defence of fortresses, or, in
other words, sieges, both active and passive; the construe-
tion and the laying of military bridges; reconnaissances
and surveys for military purposes, including the operations
of armies in the field; the works of field fortification,
whether lines for the holding of extensive areas of the the-
atre of war, or those transient works (fortifications impro-
visées) by which troops are protected in line of battle; and
in general, if we make the distinction which has already
been made in another place, it embraces the constructions
for military purposes as distinguished from warlike ma-
chines, though perhaps the line is not so sharply drawn as
in civil engineering. Military engineering, among all the
great military powers of the world at the present day, is
made the special subject of study, as distinct from other
branches of the art of war; but the exercise of its func-
tions is committed to special military organizations called
“corps of engineers,” or its equivalent. (For more particu-
lar information on this subject consult “The Royal En-
gineer,” by SIR FRANCIs B. HEAD; HEYDT, “Recherches sur
l'organisation du Corps du Génie en Europe;” and ALLENT,
“Histoire du Corps du Génie.”)
In a more general sense, military engineering embraces
also artillery, gunnery, military pyrotechny, transportation,
including vehicles, railways (especially their repair and
preservation, and the renewal of destroyed bridges in war),
and in general all those branches of civil engineering which
are involved in the foregoing.
Another great department of engineering science is that
which relates to the extraction of metallic ores, coal, and
other valuable minerals from the earth. Its general prin-
ciples are those of civil engineering, but the circumstances
under which they are applied impose the necessity of ma-
terially modifying the methods. Mining engineering may
be said, then, to embrace the methods of underground sur-
veys, which in many respects differ from those on the sur-
face; the proper modes of reconnoitering, reaching, and
attacking mineral deposits; drifting galleries, sinking
shafts, and timbering and walling the same; the ways and
means of interior transportation; methods of hoisting in
shafts or slopes; the construction of engines for lifting
minerals or miners, and of pumps for the extraction of
mipe water; and, finally, the proper ventilation of under-
ground works. It describes the miner's methods of attack
in detail, the dangers which he has to encounter, and his
means of precaution and defence; and further treats of the
mechanical preparation or milling of ores, and of those con-
structions in the open air which are part of the plant of a
mine, but which are operations referable to civil engineer-
ing and building.
(For more particular information in regard to special
branches of engineering science, see AQUEDUCT, ARTIL-
LERY, BREAKw ATER, BRIDGE, DOCK, DYNAMICS, FORTIFICA-
TION, GUNNERY, HARBOR, HYDRO-DYNAMICS, JETTY, LIGHT-
House, MACHINERY, MENSURATION, MINING, NAVIGATION
(INLAND), OCEAN NAVIGATION, RAILWAY, ROAD, SHIP-
BUILDING, THERMO-DYNAMICs, TUNNEL.)
J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Engineers, Corps of. Among all modern nations
assuming to be military powers, the engineering service is
organized into separate corps (see ENGINEERING), and, for
the training of éleves for service in them, special military
schools are generally provided. (For information as to the
organization of these corps see HEYDT, “Recherches sur
l'organisation du Corps du Génie en Europe.”) . In the
U. S. the existing Corps of Engineers owes its origin to the
act of Congress of Mar. 16, 1802, by which the President
was authorized to organize and establish a Corps of En-
gineers, which was (ultimately) to consist of 1 colonel, 1
lieutenant-colonel, 2 majors, 4 captains, 4 first lieutenants,
4 second lieutenants, and a limited number of cadets (i. e.
the total number not to exceed 20); and it was further pro-
vided, that the said corps, when so organized, shall be sta-
tioned at West Point in the State of New York, and shall
constitute a Military Academy; and the engineers, assistant
engineers, and the cadets of the said corps shall be subject
at all times to do duty in such places and on such service
as the President of the U. S. shall direct. Thus, by their
common organic law the Corps of Engineers and the Mili-
tary Academy were identical. The 63d Article of War
(April 10, 1806) says: “The functions of the engineers
being generally confined to the most elevated branch of
military science, they are not to assume, nor are they sub-
ject to be ordered on, any duty beyond the line of their
immediate profession, except by the special order of the
President of the U. S.,” etc. -
Most of the officers of the newly-created Corps were soon
called to duties along the seaboard in constructing our for-
1558
ENGINEERS IN THE U. S. NAVY-ENGLAND.
tifications, while, as the wants of the service and of the
Academy have become more clearly recognized, the number
of cadets has been increased, to supply not only the En-
gineers and Artillery, but officers of all arms of the service;
and the various professorships and departments of instruc-
tion now existing have been established at the Academy.
In 1838 (July 5) the Corps was increased to number
forty-seven officers; and at the same time a corps of Topo-
graphical Engineers of about the same number (engineers
under the designation having been before authorized) was
organized. In 1846 (May 15) a company of “sappers,
miners, and pontoneers” was authorized to be “attached
to and compose a part of the Corps of Engineers, and be
officered by officers of that corps, as at present organized;
they shall be instructed in and perform all the duties of
sappers, miners, and pontoneers, and shall aid in giving
practical instructions in these branches at the Military
Academy,” etc. With some slight changes these corps were
thus constituted at the commencement of the civil war. In
1861 three additional companies of engineer soldiers were
authorized by Congress, which, with that already existing,
were styled the “battalion of engineers;” and a company
was also organized for the Corps of Topographical Engineers.
In 1863 the latter corps was abolished, and its officers
merged with the Corps of Engineers, the organization of
which, as confirmed by the peace establishment of 1866, is
one Chief of Engineers, with the rank, pay, and emoluments
of a brigadier-general; six colonels, twelve lieutenant-
colonels, twenty-four majors, thirty captains, and twenty-
six first and ten second lieutenants. Under this organiza-
tion the Corps of Engineers, embracing its commissioned
officers and companies of sappers, miners, and pontoneers,
constitutes a special arm of the service, and is charged with
all duties relating to the selection, purchase, and survey of
the sites, and the plan, construction, and repair of all forti-
fications, whether permanent or temporary, and their care
when not garrisoned; with all channel and river obstruc-
tions, including torpedoes, required for coast defence; with
all works for the attack and defence of places; with all fixed
and movable bridges for the passage of rivers; with all lines,
redoubts, intrenched camps, bridge-heads, etc. required for
the movements and operations of armies ifi the field; and
with making such reconnaissances and surveys as may be
required for these objects. It is also charged with the sur-
vey, plan, and construction of harbor and river improve-
ments; with military and geographical explorations, recon-
naissances, and surveys, including the geodetic survey of
the lakes; and with all engineer duties, confided to other
departments than that of war, which may be specially as-
signed to the corps by acts of Congress or orders of the
President of the United States.
By act of Congress of July 12, 1866, the Superintendency
of the Military Academy, which had still been confined to
the corps, was opened to all arms of the service; and at
that date the intimate connection between the academy and
the corps with which it was originally identified may be
said to have terminated. The Corps of Engineers may truth-
fully be said to have made a record worthy of its title. As
the Military Academy, it has been the “nursing father”
of the U. S. army. Among its chiefs and superintendents
we find in Williams, Swift, Armistead, Macomb, Totten,
Thayer, etc. names identified with our military history, and
conspicuous for their services in the field as well as in
peace. During the Mexican war its officers rendered con-
spicuous services, recognized and mentioned by Generals
Scott and Taylor, while in our civil war the names of
Meade-McClellan, Halleck, McPherson (killed), Humph-
reys, Rosecrans, Meigs, Gillmore, Cullum, Benham, War-
ren, Woodbury, Tower, Wright, Newton, Alexander, Fos-
ter, Morton (killed), Franklin, W. F. Smith, Michler, Parke,
Abbot, Poe, Duane, Comstock, Weitzel, Reese, Babcock,
Cross (killed), O’Rorke (killed), John R. Meigs, (killed),
Michie, etc. stood conspicuous; and some of the ablest of
the Confederate officers, Lee, Beauregard, J. E. Johnston,
etc., had been officers of the corps. In its services to sci-
ence it claims the Academy, the great superintendent of
which, Sylvanus Thayer (recently deceased), is with justice
styled the “father of the Military Academy.” The names of
Bache, Bailey, Davies, Bartlett, Church, Mahan, Web-
ster, Mitchell, Norton, F. H. Smith, Ewell, etc. are evi-
dences of its influences upon science and educational insti-
tutions.
civil engineering it has had no insignificant share, and the
names of J. G. Swift, Long, McNeill, W. H. Swift, Totten,
Abert, Douglass, Turnbull, etc. are among those of the
fathers of American engineering. Finally, in its own pe-
culiar sphere, the devising and constructing of our great
system of sea-coast defences (of which it may be said to be
the first to lay down principles, as distinct from those of
the somewhat pedantic art of “fortification ” of the text-
books), and in its numerous works of harbor and river im-
In the development of the country by works of
provement and in the Delaware Breakwater, it has erected
enduring monuments of its services.
J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Engineers in the U. S. Navy are non-combatant
commissioned officers who have charge of the machinery
of steam vessels. Engineers are not only required to be
practically acquainted with the management of nautical
steam-machinery, but they must be good mechanics, capable
of superintending necessary repairs; and they are further
required to have acquaintance with the physical properties
and powers of steam, and with the collateral departments
of science. There are first and second assistant engineers,
who are also commissioned officers.
England [Lat. Anglia; Fr. Angleterre; Ger. England],
the southern and larger division of the island of Great Brit-
ain, and the principal member of the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland. All that belongs to the United
Kingdom at large, its geography and statistics, as well as
its history from the time when the permanent union of Scot-
land with England and Ireland united the three countries
into one empire, will be treated of under the head of GREAT
BRITAIN, while in this article we shall confine ourselves to
what is peculiar to England and to its history up to the
time of the union.
England is bounded on the N. by Scotland, E. by the
German Ocean, S. by the Straits of Dover and the English
Channel, S. W. by the Atlantic, and W. by St. George's
Channel and the Irish Sea. It is situated between lat. 49°
57' 30" and 55° 47' N., and lon. 1946' E. and 5° 41' W.,
the greatest length N. and S. being 400 miles, and the
greatest breadth 280 miles. In shape it resembles a triangle,
of which Berwick may be considered the apex, and a line
from the Land’s End to the North Foreland the base. The
sea-coast, if measured from one headland to another, is
about 1200 miles; if the principal indentations are followed,
about 2000 miles. The area amounts to 58,320 square miles,
of which 7397.6 belong to Wales and 50,922.4 to England
proper. Taken by themselves, England and Wales are more
densely populated than any other European country except
Belgium, the average population of a square mile amount-
ing to 389. Since the beginning of the present century the
population has increased about 150 per cent. It amounted
in 1801 to 8,892,536, in 1831 to 13,896,797, and in 1871 to
22,704,108. Since the days of the great Alfred the country
has been divided into counties or shires, and these again
generally into hundreds, and always into parishes. The
northern counties are divided into wards, instead of hun-
dreds; Kent and Lincoln, into lathes and sokes; and York,
into ridings, each of which is regarded as a county by itself.
The following table exhibits the area in statute acres (640
acres=1 square mile) and the population of each of the
fifty-two counties at the date of the census of 1871:
ENGLAND. ENGLAND.
unties or Pop. in Counties or . i
º Acres. *|º. Acres. Pºin
Bedford...... 295,582 146,256 Suffolk........ 947,681 348,479
Berks.......... 451,210 196,445|Surrey........ 478,792 1,090,270
Buck'gham. 466,932 175,870|Sussex. ...... 936,911 417,407
Cambridge. 525,182 186,363|Warwick ... 563,946 633,902
Chester...... 707,078 561,131|Westmore-
Cornwall.... 873,600 362,098 land......... 485,432 65,005
Cumb’land. 1,001,273 220,245|Wilts.......... 865,092 257,202
Derby......... 658,803 380,538|Worcester... 472,165 338,848
Devon......... 1,657,180 600,814|York (East
Dorset........ 632,025 195,544 Riding) 768,419 269,505
Durham ..... 622,476 685,045 “ (City) 2,720 43,796
Essex......... 1,060,549 466,427| “ (North
Gloucester... 805,102 - 534,320 Riding) 1,350,121 291,589.
Hereford..... 534,823 125,364 “ (West
#;. # *; Riding) 1,709,307 1,831,223
unt’gdon. 229,5 ,672 a- - - - -ºº º Aº Aº 2.2,
FC º * * * * g g ſº 1,039, ; 2 ;47,507 Tot. of Eng.:32,590,39721,487,688
Lancaster... 1,219,2 ,818,904
i.eicester.... '514,164 "268,764 WALEs.
Lincoln...... 1,775,457 436,163|Anglesey. ... 193,453 50,919
Middlesex... 180,136 2,538,882|Brecon........ 460,158 59,904
Monmouth. 368,399 195,391 |Cardigan.... 443,387 73,488
Norfolk....... 1,354,301 438,511|Carmarthen 606,331 116,944
Nºthampton 630,358 243,896 |Carnarvon... 370,273 106,122
Northum- - Denbigh..... 386,052 104,266
berland.... 1,249,299 386,959|Flint.......... 184,905 76,245
Nottingham 526,076 319,956|Glamorgan. 547,494 396,010
Oxford........ 472,717 177,956|Merioneth... 385,291 47,369
Rutland...... 95,805 22,070|M’tgomery. 483,323 67,789
Salop. ........ . 826,055 248,064|Pembroke... 401,691 91,936
§: we e º te & #. § Radnor ...... 272,128 25,428
S'thampton. 1,070, j - * *m-mº
gºº. %3; ##|Total Wales 4784486 1216,420
Total of England and Wales......... ...... 37,324,883 22,704,108
During the last twenty years the urban districts have
grown much more rapidly in population than the country
districts; and while in 1851 the population of 141 districts
and 57 sub-districts, which included the chief towns, was
9,155,964 to 8,771,645 of the rural districts, which contained
the small towns and the rural parishes, the population of
the former had in 1871 risen to 12,900,297, against only
ENGLAND.
1559
9,803,811 of the latter. No country of Europe has so large
a number of populous cities as England. London, with its
more than 3,000,000 inhabitants, contains one-fourth of the
entire urban population of the country, which, besides, had
in 1871 eleven other towns with a population of upwards
of 100,000 inhabitants—namely, Liverpool, Manchester,
Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Bristol, Bradford, Newcastle-
on-Tyne, Salford, Hull, and Portsmouth. The number of
births in 1871 was 797,143; of deaths, 515,000; of mar-
riages, 190,000. The proportion of male to female children
born is as 104,811 to 100,000; the equilibrium between the
sexes is restored about the tenth year of life, and is finally
changed, by emigration, war, and perilous male occupations,
to the extent that there are in all about 100,000 women to
95,000 men in England and Wales.
England and Wales have their own State Church, which
is different from the State Church of Scotland, while Ireland
at present has no State Church at all. The sovereign of
England is by law the supreme governor of the Church of
England, possessing the right to nominate or to appoint to
the vacant archbishoprics and bishoprics. The Church has
in England 2 archbishops, 26 bishops, and about 12,000
parishes. . No information concerning the membership of
the Church of England, or any other religious denomination
of England, is given in the official censuses of 1861 and
1871. The estimates of the population connected with the
Established Church differ from 12,700,000 (MARTIN, “States-
man's Manual” for 1873) to 17,781,000 (RAvENSTEIN, “De-
nominational Statistics of England and Wales,” London,
1870). The number of Roman Catholics is estimated at
from 2,000,000 (Martin) to 1,058,000 (Ravenstein). The
entire number of sects having places registered for the per-
formance of divine worship was, on Oct. 1, 1872, 125, and
the entire number of registered places of worship, 18,996.
History.—England was undoubtedly known to the Phoe;
nicians, Carthaginians, and Massilians, all of whom are
supposed to have traded with it; but its real history does
not begin until the establishment of the Roman rule by
Caesar in 55 B. C. The rule of the Romans, who called the
present island of Great Britain Britannia, lasted till the
beginning of the fifth century, when they withdrew. (See
BRITANNIA.) In consequence of the inroads of the Picts
and Scots from the north, and the quarrels of the British
chiefs among themselves, the country appears to have soon
become a prey to complete anarchy. A British prince of
Kent, Vortigern (Gwrtheyrn), is said to have been the first
to secure the aid of two Saxon chiefs, commonly called
Hengist and Horsa, in his struggles against the northern
invaders. The statements as to the first appearance of the
Saxons in England are conflicting and untrustworthy, and
even the names of their leaders are considered by some his-
torians as fabulous. Certain it is, that in the course of about
130 years the Saxons, Jutes, and Angles completed the con-
quest of the greater part of England, establishing three
Saxon kingdoms (Sussex, Wessex, and Essex), one Jutish
(Kent), and four Anglian (Bernicia, Deira, East Anglia,
and Mercia). The British maintained for a somewhat
longer period five states (Strath-Clyde, Cumbria, North
and South Wales, and Cornwall). Egbert, king of Wessex,
is commonly believed to have become about 830 the first
king of all England. During his reign the invasions of the
Danes began, who for a period of twenty-four years (1017–
41) became masters of the kingdom. In 1041 the crown
again devolved on an Anglo-Saxon prince, Edward the
Confessor, but his authority was little more than nominal,
six powerful earls, Danes and English, dividing the country
between them. At his death, in 1066, Harold, earl of Wes-
sex, seized the throne by force, but in the decisive battle of
Hastings (Oct. 14, 1066) against another claimant to the
throne, William, duke of Normandy, he was defeated and
killed. With the reign of William, surnamed “the Con-
queror,” a new era of English history begins. The lands
were divided into 60,000 knights’ fees or estates among the
föllowers of the Conqueror as feudal lords, and thus on the
Solid basis of extensive landed estates the firm foundation
was laid of a powerful aristocracy, which amidst the social
revolutions of centuries has more successfully defended its
ascendency than that of any other country of Europe. The
population of England at this time appears to have been
from 2,000,000 to 3,000,000, and about 100 boroughs were
governed by municipal customs or under the protection of
the kings, nobles, or prelates, from whom in after times
they purchased their franchises. In the course of time the
distinction between the Norman conquerors and the con-
quered Saxons passed away, and from their union arose
the English people as it now exists. The Norman line
gave to England only three kings—William I. and his two
sons, William II. and Henry I. The death of the latter in
1135 was followed by a war of succession between Stephen
of Blois, his nephew, and his only daughter, Matilda, who
was married to Geoffrey of Anjou. In 1155 the son of
Matilda, Henry II., was generally recognized as king of
England. He was the founder of the house of Plantagenet,
which in direct line ruled in England until 1485. Henry
possessed, besides England, the provinces of Anjou, Tou-
raine, and Maine in France, to which he added Guienne
and Poitou by marriage and Brittany by conquest. He
conquered Ireland in 1171, and by the Constitutions of
Clarendon in 1164 curtailed the privileges of the Church,
but was forced, in consequence of the assassination of Arch-
bishop Becket, to make his peace with the Church. He
was in 1189 succeeded by his eldest son, Richard I. (“Coeur
de Lion”), who distinguished himself in the Crusades, but
could not prevent the nobility from increasing their power at
the expense of the crown. The reign of his younger brother,
John (“Lackland,” 1199–1216), is one of the most inglorious
in the English annals. He lost nearly all the possessions of
the English sovereigns in France, and in 1213 consented to
hold the English crown as a gift from Rome. His weak-
ness, however, had some good results for the people of Eng-
land. The separation of the Normans of England from those
of France hastened the consolidation of the English nation ;
and when involved in disputes with the pope, he had to
conciliate the barons, who were backed by the people, by
the concession of the celebrated Great Charter (Magma
Charta), signed at Runnymede in 1215. The charter se-
cured to the English people, in advance of any other peo-
ple of Europe, two great rights—that no man should suffer
arbitrary imprisonment, and that no tax should be imposed
without the consent of the council of the nation. When
John showed an unwillingness to carry out some of his
promises, the barons called Louis of France (son of the
king, Philip Augustus) to their aid, who conquered a
large portion of the country, but was compelled, soon
after the death of John (Oct. 17, 1216), to make peace
and renounce the project of annexing England to France.
But while the national pride of the English people suc-
cessfully prevented its subjection to France, anarchy rap-
idly increased during the reign of John’s son, Henry
III. (1216–72). As Henry at the death of his father was
only a boy of nine years, the government was carried on
first by the earl of Pembroke, and after his death by Hu-
bert de Burgh and the bishop of Winchester, neither of
whom was able to check the demands of the nobility for
greater power. When Henry assumed the government
himself, an open war with the barons soon broke out, who
extorted from the king an enlargement of the Great Char-
ter, and in 1264 took him and his eldest son, Edward, cap-
tives. The next year the first English Parliament was
convened by the leader of the rebels, the earl of Leicester;
but soon Prince Edward, who had been set free, broke the
power of the barons in the battle of Evesham, in which the
earl of Leicester fell, and restored the authority of the king.
Henry deemed it, however, best to pursue a conciliatory
policy, and in particular to confirm the Great Charter.
Edward I. (1272–1307) had sufficient energy and statesman-
ship to put an end to the confusion into which the country
in the latter years of his father’s reign seemed to relapse,
and considerably promoted the consolidation of the king-
dom. He conquered in 1283 the last prince of Wales,
and united this country, which thus far had been semi-
independent, for ever with England, conferring on his eld-
est son the title of prince of Wales, which has ever since
been borne by the eldest son of the English sovereign.
He obtained a decisive victory over Scotland in the battle
of Falkirk (1299), but under the leadership of Wallace,
Comyn, Fraser, and Bruce the Scotch saved their independ-
ence. In a war with France the last English possession on
the Continent, Guienne, was lost, but it was restored through
the mediation of the pope. For the development of the
English constitution his reign was of the greatest import-
ance, as the council of the realm assumed a form resembling
that of the modern Parliament by the separation of the
greater barons from the tenants in chief, the latter ceasing
to be summoned to Parliament, and being present only
through their representatives. The first sitting of the Com-
mons in a separate chamber took place in 1295, and in the
following year the famous statute was passed that no man-
ner of tax should be imposed without the common consent
of the bishops, barons, and burgesses of the realm. Ed-
ward II. (1307–27) lost the footing which his father had
gained in Scotland, and was finally dethroned by the prel-
ates and nobles, who assumed the power of a Parliament.
The reign of his son, Edward III. (1327–77), is regarded
as one of the most brilliant periods of English history.
His claim to the throne of France involved him in a war
which, with few interruptions, lasted from 1337 to 1374,
and which, notwithstanding the brilliant English victories
of Cressy (1346) and Poitiers (1364), finally led to the sur-
render by the English king of all the English possessions
in France, except Bordeaux, Bayonne, Calais, and a dis-
trict of Gascony. The great expenditures required by the
1560
ENGLAND.
war made the king dependent on his Parliament, which
henceforth was directed by statute to be summoned annu-
ally. Another important result of the war was the entire
fusion of the Normans and Saxons into the English na-
tionality. The spirit of chivalry attained at the court of
Edward its highest point of exaltation, but on the other
hand the laboring-classes made their power felt for the first
time; for as their service had become more valuable in con-
sequence of the terrible ravages of the great pestilence in
1349, they demanded and received higher wages, and a
series of despotic edicts ordering them to work at the former
wages proved entirely inefficient. During the reign of Ed-
ward, Wycliffe began (about 1360) his attacks upon the
abuses in the Church, and he was supported by Edward's
fourth son, John of Gaunt, and by some of the principal
nobility. . As the king's eldest son, Edward, prince of
Wales, known as the “Black Prince,” died one year before
his father (1376), the latter was succeeded by his grandson,
Richard II. (1377–99), during whose weak reign an attempt
to enforce the tyrannical labor laws brought on the famous
rebellion of the peasantry under Wat Tyler, which, though
suppressed with much bloodshed, relaxed the servitude of
the peasantry. Richard was dethroned by his cousin Henry,
duke of Lancaster, who ascended the throne as Henry IV.
(1399–1413). His reign, which was greatly disturbed by
rebellions and conspiracies, is remarkable for two events
in the history of the English constitution—the fixing by
statute of the parliamentary right of election for counties
in all freeholders (afterwards restrained under Henry VI.
to those who were worth forty shillings per annum), and
the recognition of the two houses as bodies possessing dis-
tinct privileges, not to be interfered with by each other.
The religious reformation of Wycliffe found in Henry a
determined opponent, the act for the punishment of heretics
under which so many atrocities were committed for nearly
two hundred years being passed during his reign (1401).
His son, Henry V. (1413–22), put down the religious move-
ment of the Lollards with a strong hand, and renewed the
claims of his ancestors to France. The new war between
the two countries was favorable to England; Henry entered
Paris, and on his death a large portion of France recog-
nized, with England, his son, Henry VI. (1422–61), then
only a boy of nine months, as king. After many cam-
paigns the French were, however, ultimately successful, the
exploits of Joan of Arc, Count Dunois, and other French
leaders putting for ever an end to the English attempts to
conquer France. Soon after that terrible civil war known
as the war of the Red and White Roses began (see Roses,
RED AND WHITE), Richard, duke of York, a descendant of
the duke of Clarence, third son of Edward III., claimed
a title to the throne preferable to that of King Henry, on
the ground that the latter was only a descendent of the fourth
son of Edward III., and that the pretensions of the king's
grandfather, Henry IV., to be descendant from Edward,
earl of Lancaster, according to popular tradition the eldest
son of Henry III., and excluded from the succession on
account of deformity, were apocryphal. Richard, duke of
York, fell in the battle of Wakefield, Dec. 30, 1460, leaving
his claims to his eldest son, Edward, the earl of March, a
youth of nineteen, who was proclaimed king as Edward IV.
in 1461, and maintained himself until his death (1483), with
a short interruption (1470–71), when the rebellion of the
earl of Warwick, formerly the most prominent among his
supporters, compelled him to flee to Holland, and restored
for the time Henry VI. The son of Edward (Edward W.),
a minor, was after a reign of only thirteen days dethroned
by his uncle, the duke of Gloucester, placed in confinement,
and soon disappeared. The usurper made himself king
under the name of Richard III. (1483–85), but soon a coa-
lition of disaffected Yorkists and of the Lancastrians was
formed against him, at the head of whom was Henry Tudor,
earl of Richmond, who through his mother descended from
the House of Lancaster, and to satisfy the Yorkists was to
marry Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of Edward IV. In
the decisive battle of Bosworth Field, in 1485, Richard lost
his crown and his life, and Tudor ascended the throne as
Henry VII. With him a new era begins in English his-
tory. . The first years of Henry (1485–1509) were greatly
disturbed by pretenders to the throne, who, personating
the head of the House of York, claimed to be the legitimate
heirs to the crown. But the chief feature of his reign is the
large increase of the royal power at the expense of the high
nobility and the Parliament. Many of the principal nobles
having perished in the wars of the Roses, Henry succeeded
in enforcing against the barons the laws forbidding them to
give badges and liveries and to employ retainers. The
change thus produced in the relation of the nobility to roy-
alty became still greater from the fact that the former began
to value money-payments from their tenants and depend-
ants higher than personal services, while the lower classes
of the people began to understand that hereafter they had
to support themselves and to respect the laws, instead of
looking to the nobility for support and for impunity in case
they had committed lawless acts. The great event in the
reign of his son, Henry VIII. (1509–47), was the separation
of the Church of England from Rome. Henry was a vio-
lent opponent of Luther and the German Reformation, but
when the pope refused to grant him a divorce from his
wife, Catharine of Aragon, he renounced his communion
with the pope and assumed the title of the Head of the
Church. (See ENGLAND, CHURCH of.) His only son, Edward
VI. (1547–53), succeeded at the age of nine years, and
the country thenceforth was governed by a council of re-
gency favorable to the Reformation, which now advanced
from questions of government to questions of doctrines.
The duke of Northumberland, who had caused one of his
sons to marry Lady Jane Grey, great-granddaughter of
Henry VII., caused Edward to bequeath the crown to his
daughter-in-law; but the reign of Lady Jane lasted only
ten days, when Mary (1553–58), the daughter of Henry
VIII. and his first wife, Catharine of Aragon, ascended the
throne. Mary was a devout Catholic, who obtained the
consent of her Parliament to repeal (1553) the legislation
of Edward VI. and that (1555) of Henry VIII., thus re-
establishing the papal authority. When the chiefs of the
Protestant party opposed the counter-reformation more
than 200 of them suffered at the stake. Her marriage with
Philip II. of Spain did not, however, save to the Catholic
Church its ascendency in England, for Mary died in 1558
without issue, and on the other hand it cost England the last
possession in France, Calais, which was taken by the duke
of Guise. Mary was succeeded by her half-sister, Elizabeth
(1558–1603), the daughter of Henry VIII. by his second
wife, Anne Boleyn, who was strongly opposed to the Su-
premacy of the pope, by whom she had been declared to be
a bastard. Parliament in 1559 restored the royal suprem-
acy of the Church, which, by the adjustment of the Prayer-
Book and the Thirty-nine Articles, substantially received
the form in which it still exists. The power of the Roman
Catholics in England was completely broken; and when most
of them embraced the cause of Mary, queen of Scotland, who,
on seeking an asylum in England, had been imprisoned,
Elizabeth ordered Mary to be executed. Abroad, she aided
the Protestants of France and the Netherlands, and the
crushing defeat of the Spaniards, whose Armada was de-
stroyed in 1588, elevated England to a higher position
among the countries of Europe than she ever had had be-
fore. Ireland was reduced to a state of entire submission,
and the commerce and naval power of the country received
a wonderful impulse by the establishment of commercial
intercourse with India. Elizabeth was the last sovereign
of the House of Tudor; she was succeeded by James VI.,
the son of the unfortunate Mary. Thus England, Scotland,
and Ireland became united under one sovereign; and al-
though the legislative union with Scotland was not consum-
mated until 1707, and that of Ireland not until 1800, the
three countries were, in fact, one empire, whose subsequent
history we treat of in the article GREAT BRITAIN.
Chronological Table of the Sovereigns of England from
the Conquest to James I.
Kings and Queens. Reigned. Age.
NORMAN LINE.
William the Conqueror........ 1066–1087 60
William Rufus.................... 1087–1100 H 43
Henry I.............................. 1100–1135 67
Stephen of Blois.................. 1135–1154 49
HOUSE OF PLANTAGENET.
Henry II............................ 1154–1189 55
Richard I........................... 1189–1199 43
John....................--------------. 1199–1216 60
Henry III........................... 1216–1272 65
Edward I............................ 1272–1307 67
Edward II .......................... 1307–1327 43
Edward III......................... 1327–1377 65
Richard II.......................... 1377–1399 33
House of LANCASTER
Henry IV........................... 1399–1413 46
Henry V............................. 1413–1422 33
Henry VI..................... ...... 1422–1461 49
HOUSE OF YORK.
Edward IV.......................... 1461–1483 41
Edward V........................... 1483–1483 12
Richard III........................ 1483–1485 42
HOUSE OF TUDOR.
Henry VII.......................... 1485–1509 52
Henry VIII........................ 1509–1547 55
Edward VI......................... 1547–1553 15
Queen Mary........................ 1553–1558 42
Queen Elizabeth.................. 1558–1603 69
HOUSE OF STUART. º
James I.............................. 1603–1625 59
A. J. SCHEM.
#
i

Genealogical Table of the Kings of England, from Egbert to James I.
SAXON LINE.
Egbert (first king of
king, * , d. 8
England),
36.
NORMAN LINE.
William I. (the onvºy king in 1066, died 1087.
|Ethelwolf, * 836, d. 857.
|Ethelbald Ethelbert Ethelred I. Alfred the Great,
king, $58, ſing, 860, iſing, 866, king, 871, d. 900.
d. 860. d. 866. d. 871.
Edward the Elder, |
king, º d. 925.
|Athelstane, king, 925, d. 941. Edmund I., king, 941, d. 946. Edred, king, 946, d. 955. Thyra, married Gormon, |
y | king of Denmark.
} ing. 955, d. 957. fägar, king, 957, d. 975.
Edwy, king, 955, gar, k º y |Harold, king of Denmark,
| Edward the Martyr, Ethelred II, king, 978, d. *
king, 975, d. 978. d. 1016. te
—l- |Sweyne, king, 1013,
| Edmund II. (Ironside), Edward the Confessor, d. 1014.
king, 1016, d. 1017. king, 1041, d. 1066. *
Godwin, duke of |Canute the Great, king, 1017,
Kent. d. 1041.
|Harold II, ſºfarold I, king, Hardicanute, king, 1039,
king, 1066, 1036, d. 1039. d. 1041.
d. 1066.
HOUSE OF ANJOU.
I william II, Adele, married in 1081 Henry I, king,
king, 1087, Stephen, count of 1100, d. 1135.
d. 1100. Blois. |
FMatilda married to
Stephen of Blois, Geoffrey of Pian-
} º tagenet, count of
Anjou.
|Henry II, king, 1155,
d. 1189.
|Richardgºurdelion), John (Lackland),"
king, 1189, d. 1199. ** 1199,
X, - . 1216.
|
|Henr *
y III., king, 1216
*g, *.
Edward I, * 1272, d. 1307.
Edward II, * 1807, d. 1327)
| Edward, prince of Wales
(the Black Prince),
d. 1376.
|
|Richard II., king, 1377,
d. 1399.

House of LANCASTER (Red Rose).
John of Gaunt, duke
Lionel, duke of Clarence.
- of Lancaster,
| Philippina of Clarence, d. º
married Edmund
Mortimer.
|Roger Mortimer, declared heir |
| Henry IV, king, 1899
yº tº
to the crown in 1385,
d. º |
| Anne Mortimer, married Richard |
of York, count of Cambridge.
Hous E OF TUDOR.
|Henry VII., king, 1485, d. 1509; married Elizabeth of York,
daughter of pawn IV.
|Henry VIII., * 1509, d. 1547.
ſºHenry V., king, 1413,
d. 1422.
| Henry VI., king, 1422,
deposed 1461, d. 1472.
John Beaufort, count
of Somerset,
d. 1410.
|John Beaufort, count
of Somerset,
d. *
| Margaret, d. 1509; |
married Edmund
Tudor.
Elizabeth, queen,
|Mary (Bloody), queen,
1 8. 1558, d. 1603.

553, d. 155
Edward VI, ki
1547, d. 1553,
ng,
| Edward III, king, 1827, d. 1877.
HousE of York (White Rose).
Edmund Langley, aft of York, d. 1402.
| Richard of York, count of Cambridge, d.145; l.
married Anne Mortimer.
Richard, * of York.
Edmund, count of Lan-
caster, d. 1296.
–4–4–
|Henry, count of Lan-
caster, #. 1345.
|Henry, duke of Lan-
caster, #. 1361.
|Blanche, d. 1369; mar-
ried John of Gaunt,
fourth son of Ed-
Ward III.
Edward ºv, * 1461, d. 1483.
Richard III, king, 1483, d. 1485.
Edward v, king, 1483, d. 1483.
| HOUSE OF STUART.
Margaret, married J me IV. of Scotland."
| James W., king of * d. 1547.
ſ Mary Stuart, queen º Scotland, d. 1587. |
James I, king of Great Britain, 1603, d. 1625.
Elizabeth, married Henry VII.
1562
ENGLAND, CHURCH OF.
England, Church of, that portion of the Christian
Church which has existed in England since the time of
Saint Augustine (A. D. 597). The title is also sometimes
given to the English Church with reference only to the
period since the Reformation, but with no great accuracy,
since the Church of England, like the other national churches
of Europe, is, both in law and fact, a continuous body.
Christianity was introduced into England, if not in the
days of the apostles, at least very soon after them; and it
speedily made its way even beyond the limits of the Ro-
man settlements. The abandonment of Britain by the
Romans, the invasion of the Saxons, and the consequent
neglect or pérsecution of the native Christians, gave a seri-
ous check to the progress of the infant Church, and in the
sixth century its influence was limited to the northern parts
of the island, whither many of the Britons had retired to
escape from the invaders. The mission of Augustine, how-
ever, was strictly to the heathen Saxons. Pope Gregory
the Great had contemplated undertaking this mission in
person, but upon his elevation to the papal throne had been
compelled to abandon his design. Augustine (or Austin),
prior of St. Andrew’s monastery at Rome, was selected as
his substitute. After a brief delay in France, where he was
consecrated bishop by Vigilius of Arles, Saint Augustine
arrived in Kent in the autumn of 596.
crowned with success. The conversion of the kingdom of
Kent was followed by the triumph of Christianity in all the
kingdoms of the Heptarchy. The influence of the Italian
missionaries, however, did not extend far, if at all, beyond
the limits of the kingdom of Kent. The whole northern
part of England was converted by British and Irish clergy.
There was also, for many years, much jealousy between the
native and foreign churchmen, but in process of time the
two missions melted into-one church; and it has long been
customary to date the historical beginning of the Church
of England and the succession of its prelates from the
foundation of the see of Canterbury by Saint Augustine
(A. D. 597).
At that time there was but one Christian Church, and the
doctrines of the Church of England were of course the
common faith of Christendom. In considering, as will be
done presently, the events of the sixteenth century in Eng-
land, it should be borne in mind that the abuses which were
then removed had no existence in the sixth. The primacy
of the pope had not then developed into a supremacy, but,
as appears from the letters which passed between Gregory
the Great and Saint Augustine, the authority of the former
was limited to giving advice and counsel. The controver-
sies about image-worship, which gave occasion to the Coun-
cils of Nice and Frankfort, did not reach their height until
the eighth century. The mediaeval teachings of purgatory
and pardons were not fully developed until the twelfth, and
the growth of the idea of papal supremacy was necessarily
kept in check by the Eastern patriarchs until the eleventh.
The final impetus was given to its growth by the separation
of the Eastern and Western churches, and the general ac-
ceptance in the West of the pseudo-Isidorian Decretals.
As time went on these teachings made progress in Eng-
land, as they did in the rest of Western Europe. As the
papal authority took the obnoxious form of claiming a
right to confirm the nominations of bishops and to hear
appeals, it was met with frequent and vigorous opposi-
tion—not only in England, but also in the other kingdoms
of Europe. Appeals to Rome had been prohibited in Eng-
land from a very early period, and a vacancy in an episco-
cal see was apt to lead to a protracted controversy between
the pope and the reigning sovereign, neither of whom was
willing to admit the pretensions of the other.
When in the reign of Henry VIII. the Church and Par-
liament of England resolved to put an end to appeals to
Rome, and to the claims of the pontiffs to a right to confirm
the nominations of bishops (which, under certain circum-
stances, had been stretched into a claim to nominate in the
first instance), they conceived that they were merely re-
asserting those ancient rights of the Church of England
which, though they had been suffered to fall into disuse,
had never been abandoned. This position was taken with
great unanimity, and was adhered to consistently by Bishop
Gardiner and the national (or, as it might now be called, the
old Catholic) party in England. The king was drawn into
the violent measures of the dissolution of the monasteries.
and the spoliation of the Church by other counsellors.
The efforts of the Church of England to regain its ancient
liberties were contemporaneous with, though distinct from,
the continental Reformation. That event, however, was not
without its influence in England; and in the reign of Ed-
ward VI, men who sympathized with Luther or Calvin, or
even with the teachings of Zuinglius, had gained control
over the English Church and nation. Under their influence,
indeed, England was becoming rapidly Protestantized; and,
in all likelihood, had not their career been cut short by the
His labors were,
death of the king, the religious condition of England would
have been much the same as that of Switzerland or Scot-
land.
The accession of Queen Mary led to a violent reaction.
The Protestant school of Cranmer and Ridley was forcibly
suppressed, and the national party, of which Gardiner was
the leader, was compelled to change its ground. The au-
thority of the pope was restored in more than mediaeval
plenitude. Attempts were made not only to revive the state
of things which existed in the early part of the reign of
Henry VIII., but actually to destroy the ancient liberties
of the Church of England. It is a grave question among
historians whether Edward or Mary, both acting doubtless
from the most conscientious motives, would, had their
reigns been prolonged, have done more serious injury to
the Churéh.
Queen Elizabeth, on coming to the throne, found herself
encompassed with difficulties. There were then three schools
or parties in the English Church: first, that of Gardiner and
his followers, which had changed its ground, and was now
disposed to maintain the papal Supremacy, with all that it
involved; second, that of Parker, which went beyond the
former national school in its desire to reform what it be-
lieved to be abuses; and third, the Protestants, many of
whom had taken refuge in Switzerland during the reign
of Mary, and who returned full of admiration of the form
of religion which they found established there, and anxious
to introduce it into England. The private opinions of the
queen, if indeed she had formed any, were not distinctly
known, and it was for some time doubtful to which school
she would give her influence and approbation. It may
seem strange to minds educated in the ideas of the present
age that the religious belief of great nations should have
been directed or influenced by the private opinions of their
sovereigns; but in the sixteenth century, and even later,
the Church formed a part of the constitution of the nations
of Western Europe. There was no idea that there could be
more than one religious Society in a nation, and therefore
no idea of toleration or religious liberty. The history of
England in the sixteenth century is not different from that
of other European states. If the civil authority could carry
out a reformation of religion in England and Sweden, it
could suppress it in France and Spain and Italy.
Thus it was the purpose of any party that might succeed
in gaining the favor of the queen to become not merely
dominant, but exclusive. Its peculiar views were to be
forced on all men. The Protestant (or, as it was soon after-
wards called, the Puritan) school speedily put itself out of
the question by the fact that its teachings would have led
to the destruction of the Church of England, and the estab-
lishment of a new form of religion upon the plan adopted
at Geneva. Various circumstances tended to alienate the
queen from the papal (or, as it began to be styled, the
Roman Catholic) party. The haughty discourtesy with
which Pope Paul IV. received the information of her acces-
sion, which she sent to him in the usual form; the assump-
tion of the title of queen of England by Mary of Scotland,
with the great probability that France and Spain would
proceed to assert the claims of the Scottish queen by force
of arms; and the persistent attitude of opposition to all re-
forms maintained by the Marian bishops, compelled Eliza-
beth to put herself in the hands of the national or reform-
ing party, of which Matthew Parker was the acknowledged
leader. Like the national party in the reign of Henry
VIII., this school was prepared to remove the jurisdiction
which the pope had exercised within the realm of England.
Like those earlier leaders, it desired to preserve the faith
and discipline of the Church unaltered, but it went beyond
them in proposing to remove certain abuses of teaching and
practice which it conceived had led the people into super-
stition. These were the use of images, the invocation of
the saints, the popular idea of purgatory, and the peculiar
definition of the manner of the Real Presence in the blessed
sacrament which is known as transubstantiation. These
were doubtless developments, but, in the view of the school
of thought which became dominant in England, unlawful de-
velopments of true doctrines. The Reformers thought that
they could trace the progress of variation from the simpler
teachings of the earlier Church, and their purpose was to
carry back the Church of England, as nearly as possible, to
its primitive simplicity. Whether they succeeded or not is
a question which need not be now discussed; it will be suf-
ficient to say that they proceeded to carry out their plans
with promptitude and vigor. Parker was made archbishop
of Canterbury in the place of Pole, who had died almost at
the same time as Queen Mary. The majority of the bish-
ops, refusing to co-operate with him, were removed or re-
signed their sees, and their places were filled by men whom
he could trust. Attention was at once given to the reform
of the service-books of the Church. Two prayer-books,
compiled partly from the old Latin Uses of the Church of

ENGLAND.
1563
England, had been set forth in 1549 and 1552, but had been
suppressed in the reign of Mary. After much deliberation,
it was determined to make the second of these the basis of
the Prayer-Book, which was henceforth to be in English.
The reforms in doctrine to which allusion has been made
were indeed carried out, but care was taken to avoid touching
any part of the common faith of Christendom. The famous
principle of Vincent of Lerins, of universal acceptance as
the test of Christian truth, was affirmed, and the authority
of general councils was acknowledged. These arrange-
ments received the approbation of Convocation and Parlia-
ment. Concessions had been made to both the extreme
parties—to the Puritans, in adopting the second instead of
the first prayer-book of Edward VI.; to the Roman Catho-
lics, in leaving out certain expressions which were justly
obnoxious to them—and it was thought that religious unity
would thenceforward prevail in England.
This settlement, the joint work of Convocation and Par-
liament, was accepted by the great body of the nation;
and, since all men continued to frequent the parish churches
for about ten years, it was hoped that the unity of the Eng-
lish Church would continue unbroken. In 1570, however,
after the excommunication of Queen Elizabeth by Pius W.,
the party afterwards called Roman Catholics, acting under
the direction of the pope, separated from the Church. In
those ages politics and religion were so singularly inter-
mingled in Western Europe that any religious agitation
commonly involved plots and treasons against the state,
and sometimes open war. In this respect England was no
better nor worse than other countries; and in this condi-
tion of affairs the true motive is to be found for the stringent
laws which were enacted and put in force against “popish
recusants.” The penal laws, however, were the work of
the State rather than of the Church; and they were in-
tended not as a measure of unnecessary persecution, but
as a precaution against the plots for the destruction of
queen and government, which followed one another in quick
SliCCéSSłOn.
Some of the extreme Protestants followed the example
of separation in 1580 under the leadership of Robert Brown,
who, however, returned to the Church and died in its com-
munion. They were known at first by the name of Brown-
ists, afterwards as Independents, and finally as Congrega-
tionalists. Others remained in the Church and demanded
a further reformation, which, however, has never been con-
ceded. The Prayer-Book has indeed been twice reviewed,
but the tendency on both occasions has been to bring it into
nearer accordance with the first book of Edward VI., which
2is supposed to have contained the true sentiments of the
earlier Reformers.
The remaining history of the Church of England may be
passed over briefly. After its suppression during the civil
war—the success of which has, by some writers, been attrib-
uted to a temporary though secret combination between the
extreme sections of its enemies—it was restored in 1660,
since which time no change has been made in its doctrine
or discipline. The exciting scenes of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, the successive attempts to restore
the supremacy of the pope, culminating in the ill-ādvised
measures of James II. and the consequent irritation of the
people, led, first, to a reaction, and after the revolution of
1688 to a long period of religious indifference. The latter
part of the seventeenth century was an age of immorality;
the earlier part of the eighteenth was a time of negligence
and indifference. Since the middle or early part of the
eighteenth century there have been three great religious
revivals. The first was..that of John and Charles Wesley,
both priests of the Church of England, who set themselves
to the task of developing personal holiness (the great want
of an age of religious indifference and immorality) in the
members of their Church. Their labors were crowned with
great and immediate success; but, partly by reason of the
absence of encouragement from the leaders of the Church,
and partly from the impatience of some of their own foll
lowers, they failed in accomplishing their designs. The
Wesleys themselves lived and died in the communion of the
Church, but many of their followers withdrew from it and
formed a new body of dissenters.
The second revival was that of the “Evangelicals,” as
they were called, about 1798, of which such men as the Rev.
Charles Simeon and the late Bishop Daniel Wilson were the
leaders. The guiding thought in this movement also was
the development of personal holiness. The movement was
Well adapted to the times, and may be regarded as success-
ful while it lasted, but it lacked the elements of permanence.
Its weakness lay in neglecting definite dogma, which expe-
rience has shown to be essential to any form of religion.
The work of these good men, however, is worthy of all reve-
rence. They accomplished a great deal in their generation,
and they prepared the way for the revival which is now in
progress.
and of 5,701,700 for the sittings.
While the aim of the Oxford divines, as they were called,
was, equally with the others, the development of personal
holiness, they endeavored to avoid the tendency of the
first to schism, and of the second either to neglect dogma.
altogether or to give undue prominence to one or two points
of Christian doctrine. Hence, they naturally dwelt much
upon the authority of the Church; and their object seems,
in their early history (1833–63), to have been simply to
teach the Church to carry out in practice the doctrine, dis-
cipline, and manner of life which are set forth in the Prayer-
Book. Of late years, however, the leaders of this school
have given much thought to the relations of the Church of
England to the rest of Christendom, and to the question
of the restoration of visible unity among Christians. These
points are discussed in the “Eirenicon" of the celebrated
Dr. Pusey. Hence, much attention has been given to the
study of church history, and the history of the English
Church may be said to have been re-written within the last
thirty years.
Both these schools still exist, and are commonly known
as Low Church and High Church. The former claims, and
no doubt justly, to be the representative of the Protestant
or Puritan part of the Church in the reign of Elizabeth;
the latter, of the Catholic or national school, which then
gained the predominance, and, with the exception of the
forty years of the evangelical revival, has always retained
it. The peculiar character of the former is its claim to great
liberty of private judgment; of the latter, its deference to
authority. With the exception of a small party which has
lately arisen, of which Dean Stanley is one of the leaders,
and which is somewhat eclectic in its teachings, these two
great historical schools may be regarded as comprising the
whole Church of England.
The discipline of the Church of England has continued
unchanged for many centuries. The bishoprics, with the
addition of two or three which were created by Henry VIII.,
and those of Ripon and Manchester, erected within the
present century, still remain in their ancient seats; and the
succession of the bishops, of whom lists are extant, is traced
in them to the sixth or seventh century. England and
Wales are divided into two provinces, under the archbishops
of Canterbury and York. The former has under him twenty
bishops, the latter six. The episcopal incomes amount to
£154,200. The population of the province of Canterbury in
1872 was about 15,742,404; of York, 7,174,638. In the for-
mer there were 4,374,880 church sittings; in the latter,
1,326,820; making a total of 22,917,042 for the population,
The actual church pop-
ulation is about 12,500,000:s. The system of parishes in-
troduced by Theodore, the seventh archbishop of Canter-
bury (668–693), still exists. There were in 1872 12,837
parish priests and 6.187 curates. The canon law, derived
from the acts of successive English councils, still forms the
basis of the ecclesiastical system. The revenues of the
Church have been estimated at £5,000,000. S.,
The great aehievement of the English Church during the
present century has been the establishment of the colònia!--~~
episcopate. . This began with the sending of Bishop Heber
to Calcutta in 1814; there were in 1872 fifty-four dioceses
in the English colonies and in, missions. There are 1977
clergymen, and the income of the bishops is about £53,718.
The amount raised in England for missions in 1871 by the
members of the Church alone was £324,782, most of which
was expended in the colonies. The total amount of Brit-
ish contributions for foreign missions in the same year (in-
cluding those of nonconformists and of Scotch and Irish
societies) was £855,742. -
From time immemorial the archbishop of Canterbury has
been held to be entitled to the dignity, though he has never
borne the name, of a patriarch. That this is something
more than an empty dignity would seem to be implied by
the unanimity with which the late Archbishop Longley was
accepted as the president of the conference or synod of
bishops which sat at Lambeth in 1867, and by the general
disposition to consider him as the spiritual head of the
Anglican communion. This includes the Church of Eng-
land (with Wales), of Ireland, the Church in the colonies,
and the Episcopal churches in Scotland and in the United
States of America. These churches, while they are one in
doctrine, regulate their internal affairs for themselves, yet
they may meet, as they have done once, in a synod of their
bishops when any question of general interest arises. The
whole number of episcopal sees and jurisdictions, as at
present arranged, is 150, though the actual number of bish-
ops is a little larger.
BEVERLEY R. BETTS, Lib. of Columbia Coll.
Eng/land (JoHN), D. D., was born in Cork, Ireland,
Sept. 23, 1786. He was educated at Carlow College, and
took orders in the Roman Catholic Church in 1808. He
was greatly distinguished for his zeal, his benevolence, and
his bold championship of Catholic emancipation. He was
M
--"

*** -/-,
1564
ENGLAND–ENGLISH LAKE.
also a prominent journalist, and was once fined £500 for
his boldness in discussing political questions. In 1820 he
became bishop of Charleston, S. C., and there founded the
“Catholic Miscellany,” the first journal of his Church in
America. Died April 11, 1842. His works, in 5 vols. 8vo,
appeared in 1849. Bishop England’s heroic behavior dur-
ing an epidemic of yellow fever in Charleston endeared
him to all classes of citizens. He was a man of great en-
ergy, profound learning, and much zeal for his Church, but
possessed kind and liberal feelings for those who had views
unlike his own.
England (Sir RICHARD), G. C. B., a son of Lieut.-Gen.
Sir Richard England, an officer of Irish origin, distin-
guished in the British service during our Revolutionary
war. The younger Sir Richard was born at Detroit, Mich.,
in 1793; entered the British army at the age of sixteen,
and served against Napoleon I. He subsequently gained
distinction in South Africa, India, Afghanistan, and the
Crimea, and was made (1863) a full general in the army. He
also became a grand officer of the Legion of Honor, colonel
of the Forty-first Foot, etc.
England’s Point, a post-office in Cherokee co., N.C.,
18 miles from Murphey, the county-seat.
Eng’le (FREDERICK), a rear-admiral of the U. S. navy,
', was born in 1799 in Delaware co., Pa.; became in 1814 a
midshipman, in 1825 a lieutenant, in 1841 a commander,
and in the Mexican war commanded the Princeton, in
which he rendered distinguished services during the block-
a.de. In 1855 he was made a captain. During the civil
war he commanded the Hartford for a time, but owing to
advanced age was soon assigned to less difficult positions,
and was for a time governor of the naval asylum. In 1866
he was appointed a rear-admiral and placed upon the re-
tired list. Died at Philadelphia Feb. 12, 1868.
Eng’Ieman’s Mills, a post-village of Dade co., Mo.,
8 miles from Greenfield, the county-seat.
Eng/les (Joseph PATTERSON), D. D., a Presbyterian di-
vine, was born at Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 3, 1793, and grad-
uated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1811. In 1813
he became co-master of the grammar-school of that insti- |
tution, and was (1817–45) master of the Classical Institute,
of which he was one of the founders. In 1845 he became
publishing agent of the Presbyterian Board of Publication.
He was the editor of an edition of the Greek Testament
and the author of several volumes, mostly for the young.
Died April 14, 1861.
Engles (WILLIAM MoRRIson), D. D., was born in Phila-
delphia Oct. 12, 1797, and graduated at the University of
Pennsylvania in 1815. Afi, 1820 he became pastor of the
Seventh Presbyteriań church in Philadelphia, in 1834
editor of the “Présbyterian,” and in 1863 president of the
Presbyterian Bóard of Publication. Died Nov. 27, 1867.
He was a may of marked ability and excellence. He pub-
Hished “Regórds of the Presbyterian Church,” a “Bible
Díctºry,” and other works, chiefly devotional.
Eng/lewood, a post-will ge of Cook co., Ill., at the
junction of the Michigan Söuthern, the Pittsburg Fort
Wayne and Chicago, and the Chicago Rock Island and
Pacific R. Rs., 7 miles S. of Chicago. It is the site of the
county normal school, which has a fine building and is
very successful. This school is designed strictly for the
education of school-teachers; both sexes are admitted.
The school has a normal department, a training-school,
and a high-school department. The tuition is free for
residents of the county, but others pay $30 a year for in-
struction. -
Englewood, a post-township of Bergen co., N. J., on
the Northern New Jersey R. R., 14 miles N. of New York.
The village is near the Palisades of the Hudson River, and
has one weekly newspaper, four churches, four hotels, and
a bank. It is a thriving place, and many of its citizens do
business in New York. The township has been organized
since the U. S. census of 1870. . . . ." .
Englewood, a post-village of Robertson co., Tex., on
the International R. R., 15 miles N. E. of Hearne.
Eng/lie Har’bor, a settlement in the N. part of New-
foundland, near the entrance to Canada. Bay, which is 15
miles long and from 2 to 3 miles in breadth. The shores
abound in good timber, marble, and limestone.
Eng/lish, the post-office name of the village of Hart-
ford, in Sterling township, Crawford co., Ind., 8 miles N. W.
of Leavenworth, which is on the Ohio River.
English, a township of Iowa co., Ia. . Its post-office
is at Millersburg, 18 miles S. of Marengo, the county-seat.
Pop. 1627. -
English, a township of Lucas co., Ia. Pop. 960.
English (EARL), U. S. N., born Feb. 18, 1834, at Bur-
lington, N.J., entered the navy as a midshipman Feb. 25,
1840, became a passed midshipman in 1846, a lieutenant in
1855, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a commander in 1866,
a captain in 1871. He was in the engagement with the
Barrier-forts at the entrance to the Canton River, China, in
1856, and during 1862 and 1863 commanded several vessels
of the Gulf blockading squadron. In 1864 and 1865 he
commanded the steamer Wyalusing of the North Atlantic
blockading squadron, and participated; in Oct., 1864, in the
capture of Plymouth, N. C. F. A. PARKER, U. S. N.
English (GEORGE BETHUNE), an adventurer and author,
was born at Cambridge, Mass., Mar. 7, 1787, and graduated
at Harvard College in 1807. He studied law and was ad-
mitted to the bar, afterwards read divinity, was licensed to
preach, and in 1813 published a work in favor of Judaism,
which Edward Everett and others answered in 1814. He
tried in vain to enter the army; became a newspaper editor,
was for a time a resident of New Harmony, Robert Owen’s
community, and then became a lieutenant of U.S. marines.
He went to Egypt, resigned his commission, became (ac-
cording to some accounts) a Mohammedan, entered the
Egyptian service, in which he gained distinction in 1820
in the expedition against the Mamelukes and hostile tribes
of Nubia, serving as an officer of artillery. He afterwards
became U. S. agent in the Levant. In 1827 he returned to
the U. S., and went to Washington, D. C., where he died
Sept. 20, 1828. He possessed a great, readiness for the
acquisition of languages, and was the author of several
works, chiefly respecting religious questions, and a “Nar-
rative of the Expedition to Dongola,” etc. (1823). Mr.
Everett accuses and convicts English of wholesale plagiar-
ism, flagrant dishonesty in perverting the sense of quoted
passages, and gross indelicacy and indecency of language
and sentiment. He was a man of remarkable talents, but
of reckless and inconstant character.
English (JAMEs E.), an American statesman, was born
at New Haven, Conn., in Mar., 1812. He became a suc-
cessful merchant and manufacturer, was a Democratic
member of Congress (1861–65), and was elected governor
of Connecticut in 1868 and 1870.
English (THOMAS DUNN), M. D., an American poet
and lawyer, born in Philadelphia June 29, 1819. He be-
came in 1856 a medical practitioner near New York City.
Among his works are several successful dramas, numerous
novels, among them “Walter Woolfe’’ (1844), and a volume
of poems (1855). Dr. English has won a high reputation
as a humorist and critic, and has been long prominently
connected with important journals. -
English Centre, a post-village of Lycoming co., Pa.,
in Pine township, 20 miles N. W. of Cogan Station, which
is on the Williamsport and Elmira R. R.
English Channel [Fr. La Manche, “the sleeve”],
that portion of the Atlantic which separates England from
France. It extends on the English side from Dover to
Land’s End, and on the French from Calais to the island
of Ushant. On the E. it communicates with the German
Ocean by the Strait of Dover, 21 miles wide, and on the W.
it opens into the Atlantic by an entrance 100 miles wide.
At its greatest width it is about 150 miles. On the English
side, off the coast of Hampshire, lies the beautiful Isle of
Wight. Guernsey, Jersey, and the other Channel Islands
are situated off the N. coast of France. The Channel has
a current that sets from the westward, and it is noted for
its disagreeable roughness, which causes its passage to be
dreaded by tourists. Portions of the Channel are of dan-
gerous navigation, but chiefly near the shores. There are
extensive and important fisheries both on the English and
French coasts.
English Cove, a fishing-village of Conception Bay
district, Newfoundland, 3 miles distant from Brigus.
English Harbor, in the island of Antigua, is one of
the finest ports in the West Indies, and is capable of re-
ceiving vessels of the largest class. It has a dockyard and
a naval hospital, and is perfectly secure in all winds. It
is on the S. side of the island, in lat. 17° 3' N., lon. 61°
45' W.
English Harbor (WEST), a port of entry of Fortune
Bay district, Newfoundland, has extensive cod and her-
ring fisheries. Pop. 210.-There are several fishing-towns
of Newfoundland called English Harbor, one of which, a
post-village of Trinity district, 7 miles by road and ferry
from Trinity, has a pop. of 350.-Another English Harbor
is a small settlement on Greenspond Island, off the E. coast
of Newfoundland.—English Harbor East is a settlement
on the N. side of Fortune Bay, Newfoundland, near its
head. Pop. about 100.
English Lake, a post-village of Starke co., Ind., at the
outlet of English Lake, an expansion of the Kankakee River,
and on the Columbus Chicago and Indiana Central R. R., 4
miles S. E. of La Crosse, Ind. It is in Jackson township.
* :
--,
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
1565
English Language and Literature. The English
language is the speech of the people and the descendants
of the people who between A. D. 425 and 600 took posses-
sion of the greater part of the island before known as
Britain. From the time of their settled possession of this
country they and their language were called English, and
their land was called England, at home and abroad. In
later years, and for a long time, they have been called An-
glo-Saxons, and their language Anglo-Saxon, but this com-
pound name is fictitious, and was unknown to them. They
were so called by historians because, according to the ear-
liest accounts of their migration or conquest, at a time when
migration meant conquest, they were chiefly composed of
two tribes, the Angles and the Saxons, with whom, in
smaller numbers, were another tribe called the Jutes, of
whom little more is known than their name. These people
|came from a small tract of country about the union of the
peninsula of Denmark with the mainland, which is now
known as Sleswick-Holstein. They were an offshoot of
that branch of the Indo-European, or Aryan, race known
as the Teutonic family, which itself branched into three
divisions—the Scandinavian, the Gothic, and the Teutonic
proper. The Scandinavian went northward; its repre-
sentatives are now the people of Norway, Sweden, Iceland,
and Denmark. The Gothic branch was the southernmost.
It has perished by absorption, and the only remnants of
its language, which has been dead for nearly a thousand
years, are a mutilated translation of the Gospels, a trans-
lation of St. Paul’s Epistles, fragments of Esdras and Ne-
hemiah, made by Bishop Ulfilas about A. D. 350, and a cal-
endar. The main branch, the Teutonic proper, filled the
country now somewhat vaguely known as Germany. The
Germans, however, do not call themselves or their language
German, but Deutsch, and this Deutsch people divided
itself into two branches, the Hoch Deutsch, or “High Ger-
man,” and the Platt Deutsch, or “Low German.” The
people who went from what is now called Sleswick-Holstein
to what, at the time of their going, was called Britain, be-
longed to the latter branch of the Teutonic stock. The
English language is therefore, by origin and main affinity,
a Platt-Deutsch tongue. Among living tongues it is nearest
of kin to the Frisian, which is still spoken by a small people
on the shore of the North Sea, on the borders of Holland
nearest to Denmark. In the formation of the English lan-
guage the kindred Norse or Scandinavian folk had a di-
rectly and an indirectly modifying influence, which shall
be considered hereafter. The English, or “Anglo-Saxon,”
language must have been spoken in the country from which
the Angles and the Saxons came, but no trace of it was
left there; and chiefly because the emigration of the peo-
ple to Britain was so complete that it left the country for
a time bare and almost desolate. The English language,
as it was taken into Britain by the men who were to sup-
plant the Britons and to change the very name of the
country, was simple and unmixed, so far as any language
can be simple and unmixed; and it so remained for cen-
turies. The Celtic dialect of the subdued Britons had no
influence upon the sturdy speech of the Teutonic invaders,
who ere long filled the whole island from the Grampians to
the English Channel with their language as with themselves.
And it should be here remarked that the language spoken
from the Grampians southward was English, or “Anglo-
Saxon,” and that what is called Lowland Scotch owes none
of its peculiarities to any Gaelic influences, but is as purely
and absolutely English as the dialect spoken in any other
part of the island; and, indeed, that what is sometimes
called “broad Scotch” is probably more like the original
speech of the Angles than that more cultivated and lite-
rary speech which has, by a certain right, arrogated to it-
self exclusively the name English.
The Early English, or “Anglo-Saxon,” was a simple or
homogeneous language; that is, its words were all, or as
nearly as possible all, of one stock—the Platt-Deutsch
branch of the Teutonic stock. It was also a synthetic or
inflectional language; that is, it expressed time, condition,
number, and person by changes in the forms of words, like
the Latin and the Greek, and not by the use of “auxiliary’
words. In this condition it remained in England for about
six hundred years (A. D. 450 to 1066), changing somewhat,
as all living or spoken languages change, and receiving
very slight additions from the Celtic tongue of the Britons,
and more considerable accessions from that of the Danes,
who began their inroads about the end of the eighth cen-
tury, and who at last distributed themselves over the north-
eastern part of the island, and even obtained control over
it, under Cnut, for about fifty years. When they were
driven out as a ruling power they left behind them, of
course, many descendants, and also memorials of their
presence in many words which had been taken into the
language, and in many names of places. The termination
by, as in Derby, Whitby, Naseby, Holdenby, etc., marks
hate and work and
their presence. The terror and confusion consequent upon
the ravages of the furious Danes helped to sweep away the
little that there was of scholarship and literature among
the English (or Anglo-Saxons); but even they were not
too rude to escape the intellectual ruin which spread over
Europe in the Dark Ages, and the light of their little learn-
ing was going out of its own feebleness when it was extin-
guished by an utterly barbarous violence.
Upon a country thus harried, distracted, and oppressed
there came yet another change—that of the conquest by
William of Normandy, A. D. 1066. The Normans took
absolute possession of the island, over which they spread
themselves, carrying with them their retainers, bringing
with them their priests, and England became a Norman
possession and colony; the speech of the conquerors be-
coming, consequently, that of the court, of courtly circles,
and of all public documents and transactions. The Normans
belonged to the Scandinavian branch of the Teutonic stock,
which had spread northward, even to Iceland. Sailing
southward, some of them had taken possession of a prov-
ince of France, called from them Normandy; but these
retained neither their Scandinavian tongue nor manners.
They adopted those of the French whose land they had
seized. Although they had been in Normandy only about
two hundred years when William set out for his invasion
of England, they then spoke a dialect which is known as
Norman-French. For their day, they were an accomplish-
ed and an elegant people. The English (or Anglo-Saxon)
tongue, being reduced to the position of a language spoken
only by rude tillers of the soil and artisans at that dark
period of the world's history, soon lost its distinctive forms
and its nicer inflections; a process by which, although at
the time deteriorating, it was prepared to become with
greater ease an analytical language on its amalgamation
with the Norman-French. Yet it never became in any
sense French or Romanic, but remained in its essence and
in its structure English.
The elements of our present composite English are there-
fore (1) pure English or “Anglo-Saxon,” (2) British or
Celtic, (3) Danish or Norse, (4) Norman-French, (5) Latin,
(6) Greek, (7) words adopted from all languages, including
Arabic, Hebrew, and even those of the savage aborigines
of Africa and America. Words of the last class are com-
paratively few in number; their presence in the language
does not at all affect it in its structural or historical aspect,
nor do they in any way distinguish it from other Indo-
European tongues.
1. Pure English, or Anglo-Saxon, which entered Britain
about A. D. 450, and became the dominant tongue about
A. D. 600, furnishes modern standard English with its
strength, its stability, its vitality, and its real character.
It is the distinctive element of our speech; and not only
so, but it forms, except from a lexicographer's point of
view, the bulk of the spoken language. If all other ele-
ments were taken away, the language would yet exist with
its life and vigor unimpaired. We could live and love and
play and worship, and express all our
wants and our feelings, tell tales and sing Songs. But were
this element to be removed, the language would fall to
pieces in heterogeneous, disconnected, and lifeless masses.
And yet in all copious dictionaries of the English language
the words of other than purely English origin are quite
three-fourths of the whole vocabulary. This seeming par-
adox is owing to the fact that all or almost all our words
of commonest and most necessary use, including those par-
ticles which connect the others and modify their meaning,
are pure English, while those which belong to literature,
science, and art, which express abstract ideas and the sub-
tle variations of thought, are, in the main, of foreign, and
chiefly of Romanic, origin. The words which are used by
all, men, women, and children, learned and unlearned, and
used by all most often, belong to the former class: those
which are used chiefly by the more or less learned classes,
and much the greater number of them rarely even by those,
belong to the latter. This is a phenomenon which appears
in no other language, at least in anything like so great a
degree. It makes modern English a two-sided, and, as
we have words of both classes for many nearly identical
thoughts and things, almost a double-faced language. The
proportion of pure English used in literature is unavoid-
ably different in the works of various writers and at various
times. But although our speech has grown upon its Ro-
manic side for centuries, and not at all of course upon its
Inglish side, on which it has rather dwindled, the propor-
tion of the former element in use by a writer is not de-
termined only by the period at which he lived: his taste,
the character of his mind, his associations, and the nature
of his subject, all influence his conscious, but generally his
unconscious, choice of his medium of expression. Sir
Thomas Browne and John Bunyan were contemporary,
but they wrote almost in different languages; that of the
1566
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
former being as nearly as possible Romanic, that of the
latter as nearly as possible pure English. S.
The computations of Trench and of Marsh upon this
subject are the most valuable and interesting that have
been made. The former, supposing the English language
of the present day to be divided into one hundred parts,
apportions these parts, in round numbers, thus: Saxon, 60;
Latin, including that which has come through the French,
30; Greek, 5; leaving 5, which he well says is perhaps too
large a residue, to be divided among all other languages
from which we have adopted isolated words. This estimate
is founded upon such a vocabulary as that in Webster’s or
in Worcester’s Dictionary, in which there are thousands of
words, foreign in origin, which the general reader would
not meet with once in his lifetime. Mr. Marsh found that
in the vocabulary of the “Ormulum ” (which was written
about A. D. 1225)—that is, in the total of the several words.
used in it—97 per cent. of the words are Anglo-Saxon;
that in the vocabulary of our English Bible 60 per cent.
are native; that in that of Shakspeare the proportion is
about the same; while in Milton's poetical works the home-
born words are less than 33 per cent. But this computa-
tion tells us nothing of the comparative frequency with
which words of English and of foreign origin are used.
On an examination of various works of thirty representa-
tive authors who wrote between A. D. 1300 and the present
day, and of four books of the New Testament, he found
that Robert of Gloucester used 96 per cent. of English
words; the author of “Piers Ploughman,” in four entire
divisions of his work, from 84 to 94 per cent. ; Chaucer, in
four tales, from 88 to 93 per cent. ; the New Testament,
represented by thirteen chapters from “John,” “Matthew,”
“Luke,” and “Romans,” gave from 90 to 96 percent., St.
Paul’s proportion being the smallest, St. John’s the largest.
Shakspeare, estimated by one act from each of three plays,
gave from 88 to 91 per cent. ; Milton, on a like computa-
tion, from 80 to 90 per cent. ; Addison, 82 per cent. ; John-
son, in the Preface to his Dictionary, sunk to 72 per cent. ;
and Gibbon, in one chapter of his History, to 70 per cent.
of home-born words. From this level the writers of the
present day are found to have risen in their use of the
Teutonic element; Bryant using from 84 to 92 per cent. ;
Browning, 84 per cent. ; Tennyson, 87 to 89 per cent.;
Longfellow, 87 per cent. ; and even Ruskin, critical writer
on art although he is, from 73 to 84 per cent. of true Eng-
lish words. These are the most characteristic writers of
the thirty well chosen by Mr. Marsh for examination upon
this interesting point; for it is only by the consideration of
such facts as those presented above that, seeing the pages
of our dictionaries, and even the columns of our newspa-
pers, so overwhelmed with words of Latin, French, and
Greek origin, the reader who has not made a special study
of language can rightly estimate the greatness and the
strength of the native or Anglo-Saxon element in modern
English. For example, Shakspeare and Milton use many
stranger words but once, and many more but twice, but the
home-born words hundreds, and in case of the particles
thousands, of times; and a like usage is common with the
best writers of the present day; yet similar, conjunction,
and domiciliary each count one in a dictionary, as well as
like, and, and home. The simpler and more direct a writer
is, the more purely English will his language be, unless he
writes upon philosophy, natural science, art, or literature.
To paraphrase a well-known passage of Shakspeare's,
homely brevity is the soul of our language—foreign tedi-
ousness its limbs and outward flourishes.
Notwithstanding what has just been said, we have now
to remark that in the language of English-speaking peoples
to-day the purely English part is so unlike that spoken by
their forefathers before the Norman Conquest, who yet
called their speech English and their country England, as
to be, to all intents and purposes, a different language.
The English of Alfred is far more unlike that of Victoria,
than the Greek of Homer is unlike the dialect now spoken
in the Morea; although between the former there are only
one thousand years, and between the latter more than three
thousand, or about two thousand five hundred if we reckon
from the redaction of the Homeric poems by Pisistratus.
And yet the course of the language is distinctly traceable
step by step ; for in its remnants and records of early litera-
ture English is richer than any other tongue known to
philology, Sanscrit being left out of consideration. The
question has therefore arisen, What propriety is there in
any distinction between English and Anglo-Saxon, and
where shall the line of demarcation be drawn 2 It is urged
by some philologists, and with much reason, that as a man
is the same individual in infancy, youth, maturity, and
old age, although no recognizable likeness could be found
between the old man and the infant, so English is English
under all the varieties of form which it has taken. How
far this is true for what may be called practical purposes
'6e Öaer gewordene waron.
we shall now see in a brief examination of its structure in
some of its earlier stages. For example:
“Bá ča hig férdon, Šá comon sume 6a weardas on Öa
ceastre, and cy'édon &aera sacerda ealdrum ealle &a ping
Bá gesammodon &a ealdras hig
and worhton gemót and sealdon &am pegnum micel feoh,
and cwa-don, Secgeap 6aet hys leorning-cnihtas comon
nihtes, and forstaelon hyme, Ša we slépon.”
That passage is not to be understood by any reader,
however intelligent and well instructed, who has not made
a special study of the language in which it is written,
although its meaning is familiar to almost every person,
literate or illiterate. Only three words, and, we, and hys,
would seem to him at all vernacular, and yet it was the
every-day English of English people who lived in Eng-
land. It is the Anglo-Saxon version of verses 11, 12, and
13 of Matthew, ch. xxviii., with our present version of
which it would be well to compare it:
“Now when they were going, behold, some of the watch
came into the city, and shewed unto the chief priests all
the things that were done. And when they were assembled
with the elders, and had taken counsel, they gave large
money unto the soldiers, saying, Say ye his disciples came
by night and stole him away while we slept.”
Strange and foreign to us as the first passage is—as
foreign as French or German—a brief examination of it
will make clear to any person, although entirely unac-
quainted with Anglo-Saxon, that it is written in a tongue
with the accents of which he is not entirely unfamiliar.
Férdon is fared, went; comon, came ; 8wme, some ; weardas,
wards, watch; ceastre, or caster, city (as in Lancaster);
cyödon, quoth, told; sacerda, priests (sacred persons);
ealdrum, elders; ealle, all; waron, were ; worhton, worked;
gemót, a meeting; 8ealdon, sold, gave ; pegnum, thanes;
micel, mickle, much; feoh, fee, pay, money; 8ecgeap, say;
leorning-cnihtas, learning-knights, disciples; nihtes, nights;
forstaelon, stole; hyme, him; 8/6pon, slept. It thus appears
that almost all the words in this passage are essentially
English now. In the lapse of eleven hundred years they
have changed somewhat in form, and somewhat, but not
essentially, in meaning. It will help us to understand the
nature of the change which took place in the language if
we compare with the foregoing another version of the pas-
Sage—Wycliffe's—which, although from the Vulgate, is suf-
ficiently correspondent to the others for our purpose:
“The whiche when thei hadden gon, loo, summe of the
keperis camen into the cytee, and tolden to the princes of .
prestis alle thingis that weren don. And they gedrid to gidre
with the eldere men, a council takun, gaue to the knigtis
plentenous money, saying, Seie şe, for his disciplis camen
by nigte and han stolen him, us slepinge.”
Wycliffe or his co-workers made his translation about
six hundred years after the first quoted above, and which
was the first that was made into any form of English; in
the making of which the Venerable Bede took part. This
passage in the Wycliffite version gives us some notion of
the mature and extent of the changes which had taken
place during that period, for, although antiquated, it is
unmistakably English—almost as easily understood by
any intelligent person as if it had been written to-day,
although it was written about five hundred years ago. But
certain forms in it at once attract our attention. They are
hadden (had), camen (came), tolden (told), werem (were),
han (have). This ending in en is no rude or dialectical
form of language. It will be found that the nominatives
to all these verbs are plural. They are therefore plural
forms of the verb which have been dropped since Wycliffe's
day. They are a remnant of the elder form of the lan-
guage; for, looking back to the earlier version, we find
like plural terminations, but instead of en we find on—
férdon (fared), comon (came), waron (were), worhton
(worked), etc. In the Wycliffe version we find also the
plural forms keperis, prestis, thingis, knightis, which since
Wycliffe's day have passed into keepers, priests, things, and
Knights. In the earlier version we find, a like syllabic
plural in s, but instead of is, as—weardas (wards), ealdras
(elders), enihtas (knights). Besides the forms already re-
marked upon, we find in the earlier version ealdrum, mean-
ing elders, as ealdras does, but elders in another relation,
the same which is indicated by a like termination in peg-
num. Seegeap is “ say,” but it is “say” imperatively. The
old imperative therefore was in th, but this had begun to
pass away five hundred years ago, for Wycliffe writes seic
(say). Another form in the earlier version attracts our
attention: nihtes, meaning by night, “comon nihtes;”
“ they came by night,” as we say ; but this nihtes is a
genitive form, and means “of night;" but so even now-
* The true genitive of niht is nihte, and nihtes has been re-
garded as an adverb. But it seems rather to have been con-
formed to dºges. Daeges and nihtes means, “ of (or by) day and
of (or by) night.”
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
1567
a-days, among some people, we hear such phrases as “He
came o’ nights.” But the fashion of expressing this
thought by a change in the word niht had passed away
before Wycliffe's day, for he uses a preposition and writes
“by night.”
Ry this brief comparison of these passages we have a
suggestive illustration, but nothing more, of the changes
which the old English language underwent in the course
of years, until, about A. D. 1525, it assumed substantially
the form in which we have it now. Those changes may be
succinctly said to have been the gradual disappearance of
the case-endings of nouns, except the possessive, which
was contracted from es to 's, and the nominative plural,
which was changed from as to es, and in many words to
simple sº a like change, but complete in the adjective,
which loses all distinction of the form and the sense of
case and of number, and does not conform to or agree with
its substantive; the entire disappearance of gender; the
loss of the infinitive and imperative form of the verb, with
the distinctions of person except in the third person sing-
ular; the only other inflectional changes remaining being
those of the preterite and present or indefinite participle
in the weak verbs (love, loved, loving), to which is added
the perfect or definite participle in the strong verbs (sing,
singing, sang, sung). The verb to be is not at variance with
this assertion, its several tenses, and even persons, being
taken from three distinct verbs; which appears to have
been the case in the whole Indo-European family of speech,
the Sanscrit included, from the earliest ages. Truly in-
flected case and personal endings are preserved only in the
pronouns; and even there imperfectly or irregularly, for
although his and him are inflectional forms of he, me and
mine are not inflected forms of I, nor ws and owns of we.
Briefly, in this regard grammatical forms, with a few excep-
tions, disappeared, and with them the grammatical con-
struction required or permitted by those forms.
The modern English sentence is built only upon the logi-
cal relation of thought, not upon the formal relations of
words. Besides these changes there is another, that of
contraction, a kind of phonetic degradation which is con-
stantly going on more or less in all languages. Syllables
are dropped or contracted, so that not only does lufiath
become love, maken, make, hlaford, lord, and the like, but
what used to be, only two hundred and fifty years ago,
work-ed has for a long time been spoken and is now writ-
ten by some persons workt. Letters are also dropped
which do not affect the syllabic sound of the word, as
wow’d and show'd, for would and should, in which, within
the memory of living men, old people used to pronounce
the l. Language appears to shut up on itself like a tele-
SCOO €,
#. next change in the English language in the order
of time—one which, in fact, began long before that just
sketched was completed—is the introduction of the Ro-
manic element; that is, of words which came directly or
indirectly from the Latin language. These words are of
three sorts: First, those which came through the Norman-
French, and which are ours by inheritance from the Nor-
mans who eight hundred years ago made England their
home, and who in the course of two centuries became fused
with the English people; of which castle, faith, spy, per-
8on, poor, custom, sermon, voice, place, and rage are exam-
ples. Secondly, words of general use formed by scholars
in later years directly from the Latin, or from some one of
the Romanic languages, or which have been adopted with-
out modification from those languages; examples of the
first sort under this class being indeae, consul, circus, opera;
of the second, trait, chagrin, portmanteau, puisne or puny.
Thirdly, words common to science in all languages, which
have come into simple or metaphorical use in English by
reason of the diffusion of knowledge and the immediate,
every-day connection of Science with the affairs of common
life. Examples of this class are zenith, diameter, tangent,
ellipse, fulcrum.
The Romanic or Latin elements of the English language
have been divided into Latin of the First Period—that
which is a mere trace of the Roman occupation of Britain,
and which appears chiefly in the compound of castra, “a
camp,” in the names of places, as Lancaster, Doncaster, etc.;
Latin of the Second Period—ecclesiastical terms consequent
upon the conversion of the English or Anglo-Saxons to
Christianity about A. D. 600; Latin of the Third Period—
that large formative element which came in through the
Norman-French; and Latin of the Fourth Period—all
Romance words which have been brought in since the
beginning of the sixteenth century. But for an under-
standing of the formation and growth of the language the
division first set forth seems the better, as the Latin of the
* The earliest English or “Anglo-Saxon" had various plural
and genitive forms, which, for the sake of brevity and conve-
nience, are here passed over.
so-called first and second periods is very small in propor-
tion, and has had a very little formative influence, while
the Latin of the so-called fourth period includes the two
very diverse elements (1) of Romanic words which have
been really taken into the language and subjected to its
formative influence; and (2) those which, originally little
more than signs or technical names counmon to science or
to the arts the world over, have been transferred into speech
in a literal or a metaphorical sense. In tracing the history
of our language the only Romanic element of high im–
portance is that which is due chiefly to the presence of the
Normans in England, and which became welded into Eng-
lish speech about A. D. 1350.
For about one hundred years after the Norman Conquest
the conquerors and the conquered held themselves as much
as possible aloof from each other—in scorn on the one side
and sullenness on the other. And for nearly two centuries
more the government of England, politically and ecclesi-
astically, was carried on in Latin and in Norman-French.
These two languages prevailed in the court, in the universi-
ties, in Parliament, and in the courts of law; and even in the
grammar-schools the boys construed their Latin into Nor-
man-French. But as the Normans were few and politic, and
the English were many and sturdy, there was unavoidably
some mingling of the two languages as well as of the two
peoples, and the English gradually prevailed. Political and
patriotic motives, which cannot be here noticed in detail,
combined with the natural influences already mentioned to
turn Normans into Englishmen, both in feeling and in speech,
until, about A. D. 1350, English took the place of Latin in
the schools and in the courts of law, and the speech of the
whole of the people of England became English. It was
not, however, the English which the Norman invader heard
at Hastings which obtained this compensating victory, but
a speech much modified and largely mixed with strange
elements. What has come down to us of that which was
written in England during these three hundred years is
worthless as literature. Words could hardly express its
barrenness of thought and of feeling and the rudeness of
its structure. But its worth in the history of the language
cannot be overrated.
Before the Conquest there were two broad dialectic dis-
tinctions in English speech—the Northern and the South-
ern. The Northern dialect, showing the influence of the
Angles and having a marked infusion of Norse, is known
as the Anglian. It has left very few literary records of
its existence; partly, it has been supposed, because of the
destruction of the monasteries by the Danes. The South-
ern was more Saxonish, free from Danish mixture, a softer
speech, more cultivated, and it left a literature which
may almost be called copious. But the change to which
living language is always subject, and which is greater
and more rapid when the mass of the people can neither
write nor read, and their speech is excluded from literature,
from the court, and from public transactions, caused such
modifications after the Conquest that in the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries three great dialects of English can be
plainly distinguished—the Northern, the Midland, and the
Southern. These differed from each other even more in
their inflections and in their construction than in their
vocabularies. It was not the Southern that prevailed and
became standard English, or “the king's. English,” as it
has been called, but the Midland, and this was modified
more by influence from the North than from the South.
Of the English written between A. D. 1100 and 1350
that of hardly any two authors was alike. The language,
having no recognized standard, was used by each scribe
according to the mode of speech that prevailed among the
people among whom he was bred and for whom he wrote.
Writing was therefore as dialectical as speech, and owing
to the immobility of the people and the lack of communi-
cation between them, a separation of fifty miles made a
difference of dialect which is quite perceptible upon close
comparison. -
For the purposes of the present sketch it is unnecessary
even to glance at more than the few most prominent and
most significant of the English writings of this period.
Layamon’s “Brut” is a rhymed chronicle of the tradi-
tionary history of Britain. It was a translation, with large
additions, from the Anglo-Norman poet Wace’s “ Brut
d’Angletérre,” itself a translation from the Latin of Geoffry
of Monmouth, which professes, probably with truth, to be
founded upon a British or so-called Welsh original.T Laya-
mon’s work was written about A. D. 1200. The dialect is
the Southern, and is regarded by Sir Frederic Madden,
whose authority is very high, as a fair representative of the
language which prevailed among the more cultivated people
+Welsh is not a national or folk name. It means merel
“foreigner.” . The Teutones, Teutch, or Deutch, whom we call
Germans, ealled foreigners Welsh, as the Greeks called them
JBarbarians. -
1568
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
throughout the south and west of England. It is marked
by departures from the inflectional forms of Anglo-Saxon
or pure English, and by a consequent disregard of the
construction founded upon them, which shows that the
original English was already broken down even in the
South, where it held its own longest, and was far advanced
in the transition to Modern English. Gender has almost
disappeared; the imperative takes to before it; the govern-
ment of prepositions is disregarded ; strong verbs have
sometimes weak preterites and participles; and a appears
as an article. But although many Norse words are found
in the “Brut,” it is important to remark that the number
of Norman-French words is very few indeed. Less than
fifty are found in the whole poem (if so it must be called)
of 32,250 lines. Considering that Layamon’s work is a
translation by a priest from a poem in the Norman-French,
then spoken by the rulers of England, which was itself
translated from the Latin, this is a very significant fact. It
shows that the English, although it had broken up as to its
forms, had yet kept itself almost entirely free from Romanic
intermixture during one hundred and fifty years. The same
interesting fact is established by a very important work, a
metrical paraphrase of the Gospels, written about the same
time by a monk named Orm or Ormin, and which was called
by its author, from his own name, the “Ormulum.” This
specimen of Early English versification has a peculiar
value in the history of the language, from the fact that the
writer undertook to express the exact pronunciation of
words by a system of spelling peculiar to himself. This
was the indication of the short sound of a vowel by the
doubling of the following consonant, while in the case of
a long vowel the following consonant would be single, the
effect being like that of the final e with us; as, for instance,
pin and pine. Thus, Orm would write “thin ’’ thinn, but
“thine” thin, and “pan’’ pann, but “pane” pan, “ own "
on, but “on” onn. He writes for example
d “Nu brotherr Wallterr, brotherr min.”
all
“pe Goddspell unnderrstanndenn.”
Thus early was the first attempt at phonographic Eng-
lish spelling. The means taken was an application of a
rule which has prevailed always more or less even to the
present day, only that we call in the final e or accept its
aid. For example, pull, pule, tall, tale, mall, male, pill,
pile, till, tile, tiller, tiling, fill, file, filler, filing. This pho-
nographic freak of Orm’s, together with the rhythm of his
verse (unfortunately, he did not use rhyme), gives a very
clear motion of the pronunciation of English as he spoke
it; and considering the remote period at which he lived,
and the unfixed state of the language then, it is remark-
able how small and few cómparatively have been the
changes in the sound and accent of English words. Orm’s
dialect is East Anglian; the infusion of Norse words in
his vocabulary is very strong; and altogether his work is
a characteristic representative of the Northern form of
English about the beginning of the thirteenth century.
Like Layamon’s “ Brut,” it is notably free from any inter-
mixture of Norman-French. Considering these points, it
is very remarkable that the “Ormulum ” is, of all import-
ant writings of its period, the most like modern English;
a fact which indicates the very strong influence which the
Northern dialects exerted in the formation of our standard
English speech. -
We have thus far had “English undefiled” under our
consideration, but we have now reached a period at which
a flood of French or Romanic words was turned into that
“pure well.” The interfusion of the languages was the
consequence and the sign of an interfusion of the people.
Englishmen did not become Normans—that was impossi-
ble—but the Normans became Englishmen—Englishmen
of a high and haughty class, a noble order, but still Eng-
lishmen; and taking for their own use the language of the
people whose country they had also taken for their own
use, they brought a large and in most respects a valuable
store of words from the speech of their race as their con-
tribution to the common stock. The introduction of French
words was largely due, there can be no doubt, to the in-
fluence of the priests. These men were dependent upon
the Norman nobles; they were their beneficiaries, their
chaplains. The higher members of the priesthood, and a
very large proportion of the whole order, were of Norman
race. Their professional language was Latin, of which
Norman-French was a dialect. Their intercourse with
women and children, and the reverence in which they were
held by them, weak and plastic, but still the makers and
the stuff of future Englishmen, gave them an influence
upon the language of the eountry, which can hardly be
overrated. . What sort of English the priests began to use
about this period is shown by the “Ameren Riwle,” a
treatise on monastic life which was written by a priest for
the guidance of three ladies about A. D. 1220. Intended
for private use, it so commended itself by its matter and
style to general favor that it soon became widely diffused,
and there are in existence several copies of it, no two of
which, however, are exactly alike, and some of which differ
greatly from the original. The difference, however, is
chiefly, if not altogether, dialectical. This little work is of
interest enough in both a literary and a linguistic point
of view to make a brief passage worthy of our considera-
tion. The following description of the glutton is pic-
turesque and humorous:
“pe guire glutun is bes feondes manciple. Uor he stikeč
euer iče celere, o&er ièe kucheme. His heorte is ióe dis-
ches; his pouht is ióe neppe; his lif ibe tunne; his soule
iöe crocke. Kumeč foró biuoren his Louerde besmitted
and bismeoruwed, a dischs ine his one hand and a scoale
in his oëer; maºeled mid wordes, and wigleč ase uor-
drunken mon bet haueð imunt to uallen; bohalt his greate
wombe, and teueond laugweó pet he to bersteð;”—which
being modernized is as follows:
“The greedy glutton is the fiend’s manciple [purveyor].
For he sticketh either in the cellar or in the kitchen. His
heart is in the dishes; his thought is on the map [napery,
table-cloth]; his life in the tun; his soule in the crock
[pitcher]. He cometh forth before his Lord, besmutted
and besmeared, a dish in his one hand and a bowl in his
other. He babbleth with words, and wiggleth as a for-
drunken man that haveth a mind to fall, beholds his great
womb, and the fiend laugheth that he to-bursteth.”
The modern air of this not exceptional passage is re-
markable. As far as the structure of the sentence is in-
volved, it might almost have been written to-day. And as
to the words, only a few of them have dropped out of use,
and a few of them have changed a little in signification—
none of them at all essentially. The same facts are not
less apparent in the following passage, which is given first
in the dialect of Dorsetshire, in which the “Ancren Riwle”
is supposed to have been originally written; next, for the
sake of a comparison of the variations, in that of Salop,
to which the copyist was plainly accustomed:
“Anore ne schalnout forwuröen Scolmeistre, ne turnen
Ancre ne schal nawt for-wurče Scolemeister, ne turnen
An anchoress shall not become a schoolmaster, nor turn
hire ancre hus to childrene, scole. . . . Hwon 5e
ancres hus to childrene scole. . . . Hwen ge
her anchoress-house into a children's school. . . . When ye
beoč i-leten blod, gene schulen don no bing peo preo
arn i-leten blod, gene schulen do preo daies ma ping
CZ]*ē let blood, ye shall do nothing for three
dawes pet on greue; auh talke'6 mid ouer meiden-
- # on greves; ah talkes to owre servanz,
days that grieves [irks] you; but talk with your maids,
es and mid peaufule talem schurteč ou togederes. Ge
J wid peawfule tales schurtes ow togederes. Ge
and with moral tales pastime (?) you together. Ye
muwen don so ofte hwon on puncheº heuie, o&er
mwhen swa don ofte, hwen ow punches hevie, o&er
7may do so often when you think [feel] heavy, or
beo8 uor sume worldliche binge sorie O'Ser seke. So
arn for sum worldliche ping sarie očer seke. Swa.
are for some worldly thing sorry or sick. So
wisliche witeå ou in our blod-letunge; and holdeº
wisliche wites ow in owre blod-leting, j haldes
wisely care you in your blood-letting, and hold
ou ine swuche reste bet 5e longe berefter muwen ine
ow in swuch rest, f, ge longe prafter muhen i
you in such rest that ye long thereafter may in.
Godes seruise be monluker swinken; and also hwon 5e
Godes servise be monluker swinken; and alswa, hwen ge
God's service the brisklier work; and also when ye
iueleč eni secnesse; vor, muchel sotschipe hit is uorto
felen ani secnesse ; muche sotschipe hit is to
feel any sickness; for much folly ºf ºs to
uorleusen, uor One deie, tene očer tweolue. Wasche & ou
lose for an dai tene očer twelve. Wasches ow
lose for one day ten or twelve. Wash you
hwarse habbe's neode ase ofte ase Sewullet. Anore
hwer se med is as ofte as ge wiln. Anker
where the need is as oft. as ye will. An anchoress
bet naueð nout neih hond hire uode, beoč bisie
# naves nawt meh hond hire fode, beos bisi
that hath not nigh at hand her food, let there be busy
one pet bileave euer at hom, on o’er pet
leave eaver at hame, an oëer $
at home, another that
two Wummen ;
twa wimmen; an '#
two wome?, one that stays ever
wende ut hwon hit is neod; and peo beo ful unorne,
wende at hwen ned drives; and lat beo ful unorne
goes out when there is need; and be she very coarse
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
oëer of feir elde; and bi be weie ase heo ge&
očer feir ealde; By be wei, as ho gas,
or of well-stricken age; and by the way as she goeth
go singinde hire bedden; ne ne holde heo nout non tale
ga, seiende hire beddes; nine halde na, tale
go she singing her prayers; nor hold she not no talk
mid mon mi mid wummon ; me me sitte ne ne stonde,
wid mon ne wid wummon; ni sitte ne stonde
with man nor with woman; nor sit she not nor 8tand
bute pet leste bet heo mei, er pen heo kume hom.
bute ºf leaste § ho mei, ear pen ho ham cume.
but the least that she may before that she come home.”
But perhaps the most important fact in regard to the
“Ancren Riwle,” a fact very important when considered
with the other facts of the modern structure of its sentences,
and its having been originally written in English (for most
of the writings of this period are translations from the
Norman-French), is that the number of words of the lat-
ter origin in it is three times as great, for instance, as that
in Layamon’s “ Brut,” the date of which is at most only
about twenty years earlier. Its editor suggested that as it
was written by a churchman for the guidance of ladies of
the higher classes in conventual life, the number of Ro-
manic words in it might be due to its ecclesiastical cha-
racter. This, however, I find not to be the case. The num-
ber of such words in the whole work is 496, and a division
of them into classes gives only 75 as of ecclesiastical ori-
gin or meaning, and 421 of such as may be regarded as re-
ferring to the affairs of common life. The proportion is
therefore more than six and one half of the latter to one
of the former.
The “Ancren Riwle” merits the exceptional considera-
tion which it has received at our hands, because of its
being an original English composition—a very rare thing
at this period of our literature—and because it is in prose,
to which poetry is in almost every way inferior in the
study of language; poets, whether mere dull rhyming
chroniclers or men gifted with the “faculty divine,” being
ever ready to use old words or new, and to take any liberty
with form, sense, or construction, for the sake of rhythm,
rhyme, picturesqueness, or impressiveness, if in any way
they may be understood.
But although the “Romance of Kyng Alisaunder’’ and
Robert of Gloucester’s “Chronicle * are in verse, and trans-
lations, the first from the Norman-French, and the second
from the Latin, these may be taken with some allowance as
fairly indicative of the state of the language among the
more cultivated speakers at the time of their production,
which was about A. D. 1300. They both show that toward
the end of this century Norman-French was shooting its
bright glancing threads across the sturdy warp of English
speech so freely as to change manifestly its tone and tex-
ture. The number of Norman-French words used in
“Kyng Alisaunder’ is 1140, that in Robert of Gloucester
853; and in both works these Romanic words are of all
sorts and of all shades of meaning. And now we find an
increase of the words compounded from the two languages,
showing that the two-blooded English people were now
welding them together, and that they were exercising upon
each other a reciprocal if not a mutual influence.
Our attention has thus far been chiefly given to writings
of southern English origin. But as we near the birth-
time of modern English we are brought to face the fact
that our language, as it has been written and spoken for
five hundred years by standard authors and in the most
cultivated society, is not a representative of the Southern
dialect, although that dialect was spoken in London and
in the counties south of the Thames and somewhat north
of it. It was not at the king of England’s court that the
king’s English had its origin. The earliest representative
of English essentially modern in substance, form, and
structure is found in the “Handlyng Synne,” written by Rob-
ert Manning of Brunne or Bourne, in Lincolnshire, about
A. D. 1305, it having been begun in 1303. The “Hand-
lyng Synne’’ is a translation in rhyming verse of a Nor-
man-French poem written about thirty years before. But
it is not to the influence of its original that we owe the
flood of Romanic words which pours through it, and in
which respect it surpasses all previous known English
writings, even “Kyng Alisaunder” and the “Ancren
Riwle.” There are not many lines, comparatively speak-
ing, that do not contain a Romanic word; and as many
contain two or even three, it may be said to have one at
least for every line. About one-third of the writer's nouns,
adjectives, and adverbs are Norman-French or of Latin
derivation, which is, roughly speaking, about the propor-
tion in good English of the present day. But not only
have we to remark Robert Manning’s use in the “Hand-
lyng Synne’’ of this large proportion of French words,
but that, of the consequently smaller proportion of Teu-
1569
tonic words used by him, a very considerable proportion
were soon to pass out of sight and hearing. Another work
of Manning’s, a translation of Peter de Langtoft's rhym-
ing chronicle of England, is also marked with these traits
of language, but the infusion of Norman-French is not
quite so great. He tells us in that work that he undertook
it, and also we may be sure the “Handlyng Synne,” for
the good of what might be called “the average English-
man” of his day, and thus gives us reason to believe that
it represents, nearly at least, that day’s average English.
IHe asks his hearers or readers to listen to
“All be story of Inglande,
Als Robert Mannyng wryten it fand,
& on Inglysch has it schewed,
Not for the lerid bot for pe lewed,
For tho that in this land wonn,
pat be Latyn no Frankys conn.”
The “lewd" were the ignorant, the un-‘‘lerid,” the com-
monalty. Let us, then, examine a passage written by an
author who addressed himself in the first quarter of the
fourteenth century to the generality of his countrymen,
and to those who were ignorant of both French and Latin.
The following lines are Manning's version, in the “Hand-
lyng Synne,” of St. Paul’s description of charity—a de-
scription, like his definition of faith, never surpassed or to
be surpassed:
“ poghey speke as wey! wyb tung
As any man or aungel hap Song,
And y lyve mat wyp charyte
No pyng avaylep hyt to me.
For y do pan ryght as be bras
And as be tympan bat bete was ;
pe bras to oper Syvep grete sown,
And bet hym self up and down.
And poghe y speke al yn prephecye
And have pe kunnyng of every mayStrye,
And wyp gode beleve myghte Seye
pe hylles to turne yn to pe valeye,
Gyf hyt me be wyp charyte wroghte
Elles he seyp pat y am noghte.
pogh y gyve alle my worldes gode
Unto pore mennys fode,
And gyve my body for to brenne
Opunly oper men to kenne,
But gyf thar be charyte wyp alle
My mede parfore shal be ful smalle.”
This passage no modern reader, who will attend to the
sound rather than to the spelling of the words, and who
will remember that p expresses exactly what we express
imperfectly by th, and that 5 is the sign of a guttural
sound between those of g and y, can have the slightest
difficulty in understanding. He will rather be struck by
its conformity to the established version—a conformity the
more remarkable because even Wycliffe’s translation had not
yet been made. Manning’s language, irideed, is, to all in-
tents and purposes, modern English, spelling being an
altogether unessential part of speech, and what is called
the orthography of our day, being in great part a conven-
tional use of letters imposed upon us by pedants and
printers. In Robert of Brunne we find the verb-change
established which gave us, for example, “he loves" for “he
loveth;” and he brings down the Northern scho (she) in
place of hi, and uses bey (they) and per (their) instead of
hi or hei and hire or heare. He gives us the present or in-
definite participle both in the Southern ing-form and in
the East Midland in and (89/mging, 83/mgand). For loren,
the old past participle of leosan (to lose), and which we
still preserve in composition, forlorn, he uses lost; and
(still more strange to English of the day then but little
past) for that luse, the second person singular of the pre-
terite, he has “bou lostest.” Even now we preserve the old
gerundial infinitive and say “you are to blame” and “this
house to let;” but Manning, as if anticipating the squeam-
ishness of people who generally can neither speak nor
understand idiomatic English, wrote “pey beb (are) to be
blamed.” We find in his “Handlyng Synne * very early,
if not the earliest, examples of these phrases: somebody,
some one, one of these days, oftentime, herebefore, inasmuch,
as well as, once forever, to and fro, thereunto, would God
that 1 side by side, body and bone, all to pieces, do to death.
He uses a participle, and a French participle at that, for an
English preposition, “passing all things,” for “before all
things.” And whereas earlier writers had given foreign
words English endings, as he did in writing felumlyche
(felon-like), he gave an English word a foreign ending,
translating the French vileinage by adding the Romanic
age to the English bond, thus giving us bondage, and set-
ting an example of composition which since his time has
been continuously followed. • *
The man who wrote this English was born a few miles
99
1570
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
from the extreme southern angle of Lincolnshire (the most
northern of the midland counties), just where it borders
upon the shires of Rutland, Northampton, and Cambridge.
Manning was born and bred and lived all his life in Lin-
colnshire, and we may be therefore sure that we have in his
writing the common speech of that county, and particu-
larly that of its southern part. And there it was, one
hundred miles (like five hundred now) from the king and
his court, that the English of after courtly life and of
literature took form. It was the speech of the rural Mid-
land Englishmen, strongly influenced by the Anglian speech
of the North, and much by the Norse invaders, tempered
by the softer dialect of the South, that gave us the lan-
guage which from the time of Chaucer to the present day
has been the vehicle of a literature without an equal except
that of the tongue of Homer and of Plato. The evidence
of this philological deduction remains also in the speech of
the peasantry of the country thereabout. The learned
Latham has remarked: “The particular district where the
difference between the language of the educated portion of
the community and the masses is at its minimum, I believe
to be the parts between St. Neots in Huntingdonshire and
Stamford on the borders of Lincoln, Rutland, and North-
amptonshire.” And it must be always remembered that,
using again his words, “it is the literature that resembles
the dialects, rather than the dialects that emulate the
literature.”
The new English language was now fully formed. The
changes which it afterward underwent did not appreciably
affect its structure; and as to its substance, that was
changed only by such loss and gain as in some degree must
be wrought in all living speech. The language was in its
structure and in all its vital substance Teutonic ; it was
English or “Anglo-Saxon.” But amalgamated with it by
centuries of contact and of friction was a mass of Nor-
man-French or Romanic words, which, except from the nar-
rowest and most bigoted Anglo-Saxon point of view, must
be regarded as a part of the native English language. For
the words were not adopted from another language, but two
peoples having mingled their blood, they mingled their
speech also ; they who furnished the fewer numbers fur-
nishing only a like proportion to the language. All Ro-
manic words which are found in English writings (not
Norman-French written in England) before A. D. 1350
seem to have justly a birthright in our modern English
uninflected speech. -
Although the English language was formed, there was
yet no English literature worthy of the name, no writing
which deserves to be read for its intrinsic merits. One
author soon appeared who is worthy of notice because of
the wide circulation of his book, which was due on the one
hand to its subject, and on the other, we may be sure, to
the fact that its style made it easily understood by all the
people of England who were educated and intelligent
enough to take an interest in any book. This book was
Sir John Mandeville’s “Travels,” written first in Latin,
then by the author in French, and last in English. It has
no national character whatever, nor indeed any individual
character derived from the mental traits or temperament
of its author. Its interest to his contemporaries consisted
only in its marvellous relations: to posterity its value is
purely philological, and chiefly in its evidence of the
copious admixture of Romance words which at the time
when it was produced, soon after 1350, prevailed in the
speech of English people. The story of this prose-writer,
telling bare facts in bald language, contains a larger pro-
portion of Romanic words than is found in the works of
any poet of his century. Marsh supposes, with reason,
that Mandeville used about fourteen hundred Romanic
words not known in the previous century, and that between
A. D. 1300 and 1350 as many Latin and French words were
introduced into the English language as there were in the
whole period of nearly two centuries and a half between
A. D. 1066 and 1300.
Standing between the old English and the new, uniting
the form of the one to the spirit of the other, is the author
of “Visio Willelmi de Petro le Plowman,” usually called
“Piers Ploughman,” an anonymous work of which there
is reason to believe that the author was William Langland,
Longland, or Langley, a clerk or churchman of some grade,
who was born at Cherbury Mortimer in Shropshire. “The
Vision of Piers Ploughman,” to which the author or some
other writer thoroughly imbued with his spirit afterwards
added “The Creed,” is a satirical poem written in the allit-
erative verse which was common to the Anglo-Saxon and
Danish bards. This alliterative verse is without rhyme,
and is dependent for its formal charm upon rhythm and
the regular recurrence of words beginning with the same
letter. The first of two verses, or the first part of a verse—
that before, the cesural pause—must contain two accented
syllables, and the second, one, having the same initial Sound.
At the time when “Piers Ploughman ’’ was written, about
A. D., 1365, this verse was quite out of fashion among
courtly rhymers, but we may be sure that it was familiar
in ballads and folk-songs to the common people, to whom
this poem was addressed and in whose interest it was writ-
ten. It is remarkable that such being the purpose of the
writer, and that his success being exceptionally great, the
proportion of Norman-French or Romanic words used by
him was not less than that found in the works of any of
his immediate predecessors—evidence unmistakable again
of a thorough interfusion of the two tongues in common
speech at or before the middle of the fourteenth century.
The “Vision and the Creed of Piers Ploughman’” together
form a great national work, the first great original work in
English literature. Neither the Vision nor the Creed has
much coherence of plan, but the latter has more than the
former. The writer was a humane satirist, and his purpose
was to set forth the wrongs of his humbler countrymen
suffered at the hands of nobles and priests and lawyers,
but chiefly at those of the priesthood. He gave voice to
the sorrow, the shame, and the subdued indignation of a
deceived, oppressed, and pillaged people. The tiller of
the soil from whose labors nearly all wealth springs, and
who then, as often since, starved amid the food that he
raised for others, found in him an advocate, and the grasp-
ing moble, and the corrupt churchman a just judge and a
pitiless satirist. The pathos and the humor of his work
are not less remarkable than its causticity. It is in these
respects, as in all others, thoroughly English in its tone
and character; and as an exposition of popular feeling,
and no less a picture of contemporary manners, it has not
a superior in the whole range of literature. The following
brief passages are characteristic of the author's style and
of his subject-matter:*
“And thanne cam Coveitise kan I hym naght discryve,
So hungrily and holwe sire Hervey hym loked.
He was bitel-browed and babber-lipped also,
With two blered eighen as a blynd hagge;
And as a lethern purs lolled hise chekes
Wel sidder than his chyn thei cheveled for elde;
And as a bondman of his bacon his berd was bi-draveled,
With an hood on his heed a lousy hat above
And in a tawny tabard of twelve wynter age,
Also torn and baudy' and ful of lys crepyng
But if that a lous couthe han lopen the bettre,
She sholde noght han walked on that welthe so was it
thred-bare.” |Vision, Passus v.
“And as I wente by the way wepynge for sorowe
I seigh a sely man me by opon the plough hongen.
His cote was of a cloute that cary was y-called;
|FIis hod was ful of holes and his heare oute
With his knoppede shon clouted ful thykke;
JHis ton toteden out as he the lond tredede ;
His hosen over-hongen his hok-shynes' on everiche a syde
Al beslomered in fen as he the plow folowed.
Tweye myteynes as meter maad al of cloutes,
The fyngres weren for—werd - and ful of fen honged.
This wit was eled in the feen almost to the ancle
Foure sotheren hym by forme that feble were worthi:
Men mighte reknen ich a ryb so senful they weren.
His wiif walked hym with with a long gode,
In a cuttede cote cutted ful heyghe,
Wrapped in a wynweshete to weren her fro wederes
Bar-fot on the bare iis that the blod folwede.
And at the londes ende lyth a little crom-boile,
And thereon Jay a lytel chylde lapped in cloutes
And tweyne of tweie yeres olde • opon another Syde
And al they songen o songe that sorwe was to heren;
They crieden alle o cry a kareful note
The sely man sighed sore and seyde, Children, beth stille.”
The Creed, etc.
It is worthy of remark that the first great work in Eng-
lish literature was written in a language formed neither by
scholars nor courtiers, but by the people at large, and that
it was a protest against wrong, against fraud, against priest-
craft and hypocrisy—a demand for the recognition of hu-
man rights, for personal freedom and liberty of conscience.
The “Vision,” and more particularly the “Creed,” of
Piers Ploughman bear the stamp of a great historical
period. At the time of their production, John Wycliffe
and his followers were disturbing the established religion
of England at its very foundations, and the author or all-
thors of “Piers Ploughman,” if not openly attached to the
Lollard party, must be reckoned as of it. As regards the
“Creed,” this fact was recognized in the most emphatic
* As these passages are quoted for their matter, and not for
their language, I have chosºn the text edited by Wright, and
with him have modernized the p and the 3, in preference to fol-
§: the more accurate but less generally readable text of
€3.5.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
1571
manner by the ministers of the prevailing religion, for
they caused the copies of it to be so thoroughly destroyed
that, whereas the old manuscripts of the “Vision ” are
many, of the “Creed ” not one is known to exist. “Piers
Ploughman,” itself equally valuable as a record of the con-
dition of language and religion, was thus one of the writ-
ings that ushered in that great work, itself equally import-
ant as to religion and language, the Wycliffite translation
of the Bible. This was made from the Latin Vulgate by
Wycliffe and some of his followers about A. D. 1380. No
other single work ever exercised so much influence upon the
political, moral, literary, and linguistic future of a people as
the Wycliffite Bible did, except perhaps Luther's transla-
tion of the same Scriptures into High German nearly two
hundred years afterward. It was the beginning of a revo-
lution which freed Englishmen from the rule of a foreign
hierarchy, and ended in the deposition of the Stuarts and
in the Bill of Rights. Although it added little to the
English vocabulary, it enriched English expression—we
might almost say English idiom—with a strong and pecu-
liar phraseology which sprang from the contact between
Hebraic thought and English speech, and which, having
been preserved through three hundred years, even to the
revised translation of 1611, and having been read and
listened to and taken to heart by so many generations of
Englishmen, came to affect in a measure the whole popular
cast of thought and of speech. It was the Wycliffite ver-
sion that did this; for although there was, as we have seen,
an Anglo-Saxon version of the Bible, this did not spread
among the English people, and being almost forgotten and
quite incomprehensible to the English people at the middle
of the fourteenth century, there was no such connection
between it and the Wycliffite version as there was between
the latter and the received translation : in fact, there was
no connection at all. This translation, completed about
A.D. 1380, was revised by John Purvey, a learned Wyc-
liffite writer who had made the subject of translation a
profound study, and who sought to render this version
more exact and more conformed to English idiom, which
end he attained with admirable skill, finishing his work
about A. D. 1390. Apart from the peculiar Anglo-Hebraic
phraseology before mentioned, this translation tended to
modernize the language. It was, as to simplicity of forms of
words and the untrammelled construction of the sentence, in
advance of the general English writing of its day; and its
unparalleled literary influence led to the confirmation of this
freedom from grammatical restraint among all English peo-
ple, particularly those of the middle and lower classes.
This could be illustrated only by the examination of very
much longer passages than it would be possible to quote
within the limits of such an article as this; and it may
now be added that having brought our sketch down to the
appearance of modern English, we must hereafter concern
ourselves rather with literature than with language, rather
with the writers than with their materials. The need fits
the occasion; for whereas before the production of “Piers
Ploughman’” the language was all and the literature was
naught, we now see rising, in Geoffrey Chaucer, the day-
star of English literature—not only a herald of the morn,
but one whose bright rays have been neither dimmed nor
eclipsed in the lapse of five centuries. Chaucer was a
younger contemporary of the author or authors of “Piers
Ploughman,” having been born A. D. 1328, and having
died about A. D. 1400. He was connected with the court,
having married the sister-in-law of John of Gaunt, the
father of Henry IV. He was pensioned, employed in
diplomacy, and made comptroller of the customs. As
Langland’s poems were addressed to the middle and lower
classes, and written in their interest, so Chaucer wrote for
the nobles and gentry; and the tone of his poems was
suited to the temper of his audience. -
Chaucer was a voluminous writer, but his chief works
are “The Canterbury Tales,” “Troilus and Creseide,”
“The Romaunt of the Rose,” and of his minor poems,
“The Flower and the Leaf.” Of these the “Canterbury
Tales” are the most original and the most characteristic of
his genius, although “Troilus and Creseide” is as fine a nar-
rative poem, not of the heroic cast, as exists in any litera-
ture. Chaucer is essentially a narrative poet. He is the
earliest poet since the revival of literature after the Dark
Ages who has awakened an enduring sympathy in the cha-
racters and the feelings and the fate of his personages. He
is the first, indeed, who portrayed real individuality of
character. Each one of the personages in the pilgrimage
to Canterbury, which is the occasion of the “Tales,” exists
to this day in the minds of his readers as a living character
that has as real and independent a being as any creature
of flesh and blood that we meet in our daily lives. In this
respect he is a rival of Scott (in his novels), and almost
of Shakspeare. Like the former, he paints them; like
the latter, he makes them uncónsciously paint themselves.
He is English in all the traits of his mind and his style;
and in nothing more so than in his humor. So early (also
in “Piers Ploughman’’) did this peculiar trait of English
literature, in which it is unrivalled by that of any other
people, appear, and with all its inexpressible and human-
izing charms in fullest bloom and subtlest fragrance. As
an historical picture of the time in which they were written,
the “Canterbury Tales” are as if the veil of five centuries
were lifted and we looked in upon a gathering of our fore-
fathers in the free enjoyment of each other’s society. But
above all Chaucer’s other charms is that of his strong and
clear imagination. What he described he saw in his mind’s
eye as clearly as if it appeared before him in the body.
We see with him the very personal traits and tricks of the
people that he sets before us, no less than the adventures
through which they pass or which they relate. There is
all the freshest charm of nature in him, joined with the
elegance of an accomplished man of the world. So in
his language there lingers some of the homely roughness
of Early English, while at the same time it is strongly
marked with the dainty splendor of the speech that, like
some other pretenders, came over with the Conqueror. But
he was not remarkable for an excessive or an unusual ad-
diction to the new Romanic vocabulary. Spenser having
applied to him, with more felicity of expression than truth,
the phrase “well of English undefiled,” he was for that
reason, and because of his antiquity, accepted, even by
those whose intelligence and knowledge should have
taught them better, as the greatest exemplar of pure Eng-
lish—whatever that may be ; so ready are men to adopt a
compact phrase which saves them the trouble of thinking,
and which, although full of emptiness, seems to be full of
meaning. But it having been discovered that his lines are
heavily charged with Romanic words, he was next regard-
ed by Anglican purists as the chief defiler of English. And
now that view also has been found, as we have seen, to be
entirely unjustified by fact. The truth is, that the phrase
in question is a perfect example of those utterly meaning-
less and worthless fine sayings which obtain acquiescence
and currency because of their seeming sententiousness and
the high authority of their origin. Chaucer's language was
merely that of his time, and, like all really great imagina-
tive writers, he concerned himself much with the ideas of
men and things that he wished to present, and little with
that of the admissibility of the words in which he present-
ed them. The chief peculiarities of his language, upon
which the rhythm of his verse much depends, are the re-
taining of the old plural in en, the infinitive of the same
termination, the possessive in es, the imperative in eth, and
the lightly-sounded final e, without which a large propor-
tion of his verse is mere prose. Chaucer stands alone, not
only in his merits, but in his literary position. He had no
fellows; few contemporaries worth mentioning; and after
his period “ the blanket of the dark” fell upon our litera-
ture, through which peeped a few dim and struggling lights
whose only function was to make darkness visible.
John Gower, a barrister, born about A. D. 1320, was the
chief of Chaucer’s contemporaries. His reputation during
his life was great. Chaucer himself speaks of him with def-
erence, and calls him the “moral Gower.” But the dull,
dead weight of his style has sunk him out of sight, and
left only his name floating upon oblivion. His “Con-
fessio Amantis,” or “Confession of the Lover,” is a long
nondescript poem, to read which through requires the pa-
tient, self-sacrificing courage of a conscientious investi-
gator of the history of our older literature. It has little
claim to attention even as a contemporary record of man-
ners and morals. -
Of all the poets of Chaucer's day, and even of the fifteenth
century, which he ushered in, John Barbour was the only
one worthy even of comparison with him. Barbour was,
according to the political division of the country, a Scotch-
man. But political divisions have nothing to do with
literature or with language, and Barbour merely wrote in
Northern English as Chaucer wrote in Southern. Barbour
and his neighbors called their language, and rightly called
it, English, and so it continued to be called until toward
the end of the sixteenth century, when local pride and po-
litical jealousy caused it to be called Scotch—a change of
designation which has been the cause of much misappre-
hension and confusion. Nothing more truly English in
speedh or in spirit was ever written than this passage from
Barbour's principal work—a long epic, or at least historical
narrative poem, “The Bruce”: -
“Ah! Freedome is a noble thing
IFredome mayss man to haiff liking
Fredome all solace to man giffis
He levys at ess that frely levys.
A noble hart may haiff mane ess,
Na elly's mocht that may him pless,
Gyff fredome faily he for fre liking
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
Is yharnyt our all othir thyng.
Na, he that ay hass levyt fre
May nocht knaw well the propyrte,
The anger na, the wretchyt dome
That is cowplyt to foule thyrldome.
But gyff he had assayit it
That all perquer he suld it wyt ;
And suld think fredome mar to pryss
Than all the gold in warld that is.” .
Book I., II. 225–240.
The seeming difference between the language of this pas-
sage and that of the same passage written by Chaucer or
one of his neighbors is little more than a difference of spell-
ing, indicative, in Some cases, of a difference, unessential,
of pronunciation. For instance, the strangest-looking
word, yharmyt, is merely our yearned, pronounced almost ex-
actly as it was pronounced by our own grandfathers. Bar-
bour had not Chaucer’s imagination, his delicate portrait-
painting touch, his wit, or his humor, but he was a lively
narrator and a strong and earnest thinker. Many passages
of his poem show him to have been the possessor of true
epic power. His language in all essential points shows a
rapid passing away of even the traces of the old English.
He preserves the present participle in and indeed, com-and,
pleas—and, purches-and, but the final e counts for nothing
with him; and although he often uses the old Saxon swa,
it becomes 8a, on its way to go, within a few verses.
No less remarkable than the sudden uprising of such a
poet as Chaucer, and we may even say of Barbour, is the
fact that within their century there came no writers of
either poetry or prose who were worthy of being called
their followers. For nearly two hundred years after the
death of Chaucer the darkness which we have already men-
tioned fell upon the English mind. For this there were
two reasons that we can now see; perhaps others hidden
from us by the distance of time. The first is the violent
repression of all free thought which was brought about by
the efforts of the Church to crush Lollardism and extin-
guish the very embers and sparks of the fire kindled by
the Wycliffites; next the desolating War of the Roses,
which broke out A. D. 1455, and desolated England with
civil war and its consequences for quite half a century,
although the war itself lasted but thirty years. Of the anti-
Wycliffite' writers the most eminent was Bishop Pecocke,
who had some vivacity of style if no strength of thought.
The most remarkable prose-book of the latter part of the
fifteenth century is Sir Thomas Mallory’s “Morte d’Arthur,”
compiled and translated from the French about A. D. 14.70—
a work which in its animation, and sometimes its simplicity
and tenderness of style, does something to relieve the lit-
erary barrenness of its century. Mallory's language is re-
markable for its freedom from Romanic words, to which fact
it owes much of its directness and its strength.
At this period printing was introduced into England by
Caxton, who printed his first book, “The Game and Playe
of the Chesse,” in 1474. Caxton was a translator and an
adapter as well as a printer, but not even his wonderful
mechanical art had at first much influence upon either lit-
erature or language. Of poets, or writers of rhyming verse,
in this period we have Occleve (about 1370–1454) and Lyd-
gate (about 1370–1450), whose names only need be men-
tioned in a sketch like this.
It was in the North that the best literary work was done
at this period, although Andrew of Wyntoun, a clerical
chronicler in verse who flourished about the beginning of
the fifteenth century, is little more than a rude rhymester,
the value of whose work is chiefly historical. But James I.
of Scotland, in his “ King's Quair,” shows fancy, fine con-
ceit, and the fruit of a careful study of Chaucer, whose
works soon began to exercise a great influence, upon our
poetical literature. Robert Henryson (or Henderson) not
only studied and imitated him, but wrote a continuation
of “Troilus and Creseide,” which he called “The Testa-
ment of Fair Creseide,” which has been with some reason
deemed not unworthy of being printed in company with
Chaucer's poem. Of all the extreme Northern English
poets, Henryson and James I. show most the influence of
the Southern language and literature. Henryson, who lived
until about A. D. 1500, is the author of other poems of
merit, among them the beautiful pastoral “Robin and
Makeyne,” which was reprinted in the Percy Collection.
A poet known as Henry the Minstrel, or Blind Harry, com-
posed a long poem of which the life of William Wallace
was the theme. It is a genuine strong piece of poetical
“making,” quite Homeric in a rude and humble way and
full of hatred of “the Saxon;” Blind Harry himself being
probably as good a Saxon or “Anglo-Saxon * as there was
to be found south of the Tweed. After this period the
so-called Scots literature shows a wider divergence in
spirit and in form from that of the South, or of England
proper.
The first part of the sixteenth century produced in Sir
Thomas More, King Henry VIII.'s second lord chancellor,
the first English prose-writer of merit after Chaucer, whose
prose, although not equal to his poetry, was, like that, the
best of its kind that England saw for more than a century.
More was a man of learning for his time, wise, humorous,
penetrative, and of noble impulse and purpose. He wrote
many controversial works of timely interest, and in Latin
his famous “Utopia.” Of his English writings the most
important is his “Life and Reign of Edward W.” (called
his “Life of Richard III.”). In this his narrative power
and his characterization of the personages whom he sets
before us give him a conspicuous as well as an early place
in the true historical English literature. His writings
were produced between about A. D. 1515 and 1535, when
he was beheaded. About the same time was written Sir
Thomas Elyot's political work, “The Governour.” It was
theology, however, which now again gave new life to Eng-
lish literature, upon which William Tyndal and his fol-
lowers conferred a benefit only inferior in degree to that
which they bestowed upon the cause of freedom of con-
science and purity of religion. Tyndal made the first
translations of parts of the Bible into English from the
original Hebrew and Greek. But although he went to the
original tongues, he did not lay aside the Wycliffite version,
but on the contrary he kept it in mind, if not before his
eye, and seems to have endeavored to preserve its phrase-
ology as far as was consistent with a faithful rendering of.
the original text and a necessary conformity to the general
speech of his own day. To this endeavor we owe the con-
tinued life of that grand, strong, simple phraseology which
English-speaking men recognize at once as “the language
of the Bible,” and which has for more than four hundred’
and fifty years exercised an elevating and purifying influ-
ence upon the English language and literature. Tyndal’s
translation is the most important literary and philological
fact between the time of Chaucer and that known as the
Elizabethan period. Tyndal was also a voluminous writer
in commentary and controversy, and a stout and a success-
ful disputant with Sir Thomas More. His English, like
his thought, is notably vigorous, manly, and clear, and he
with his followers—among whom John Frith, a Kentish-
man, was conspicuous—were the salt of English literature
in the first part of the sixteenth century—a salt which has
not yet lost its savor, which, let us hope, it never may lose
to the taste of men of English blood. These men wrote in
a simpler, homelier style, and in more nearly unmixed
English words, than any writers after the beginning of the
third quarter of their century. Archbishop Cranmer, and
notably Bishop Latimer, were in their sermons and contro-
versial writings apostles of simple English as well as of
gospel truth. Latimer preached to the common people in
their daily speech and with the most unstudied homeliness
of diction and illustration. About this time there was an
effort at English purism. Sir John Cheke, one of the few
Greek scholars in England, began a translation of the New
Testament, in which, as in his other writings, he was studi-
ous to represent Greek words by English equivalents, and
went so far as to coin such words as fore-shewers for proph-
ets, hundreders for centurions, and again-birth for regener-
ation. His friend Roger Ascham wrote his “Toxophilus.”
less to teach his countrymen how to draw the bow, which
they had drawn pretty well at Hastings and at Agincourt,
than to show them an example of a pure, idiomatic, and
elegant English style, which he did most effectually. In
this effort he was seconded heartily by Thomas Wilson in
his “Arte of Rhetoricke” (A. D. 1553), and thirty years
later by George Puttenham in his “Arte of English Poesy.”
All these critical writers condemn with little reserve what
Wilson calls “inkhorne terms.” But praiseworthy in cer-
tain respects as their efforts were, Anglo-Saxon and Nor-
man-French were by this time too thoroughly welded
together to be torn apart by criticism; and the addiction
of the age to theological literature, which, written by
“ clerks,” was filled with words and phrases transferred
directly from the Latin, tended strongly to further Roman-
ize the language.
Passing by the Northern poet, Gawin Douglas, we come
upon the poets and prose-writers who were to usher in the
brightest period of the world’s literature since that out-
burst of Greek genius which took place in the age of
Pericles. - -
John Skelton, Lord Surrey, and Sir Thomas Wyat were
almost contemporary poets, but the first was in every re-
spect singularly unlike the last two. Skelton was the more
learned, and in his day had the greater reputation, Eras-
mus having styled him the light and ornament of English
letters. But Erasmus doubtless had in mind only his Latin
verses, which are esteemed by scholars as remarkably pure;
for anything written in a “vulgar’—i.e. a living—tongue
was even then regarded as much unworthy the considera-
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
tion of such a scholar as Erasmus. Skelton's English poetry
is fantastic, extravagant, sometimes so incoherent as to be
almost incomprehensible, and often so coarse as to be re-
pulsive. But he introduced liveliness of movement and
freedom of versification, much needed in English poetical
literature, and with all his coarseness he was not without
brightness of fancy and grace of expression. His “Philip
Sparrow,” a poem of nearly 1400 lines, has many passages
distinguished in these respects. In his verse we find Ro-
manic words still often, if not generally, accented in the
Norman-French way—e.g. licotár, coloër, 8wccoãr. He
died A. D. 1529. -
Sir Thomas Wyat, a traveller, a courtier, a satirist, and
a writer of lyric poetry, was born A. D. 1537, and published
his poems in 1557. He and his friend Lord Surrey (Henry
Howard)—who translated part of the “AEmeid,” introduced
blank verse into English poetry, and first wrote English
sonnets—were the first true refiners of modern English
style. They became the models of grace and elegance to
their contemporaries and immediate successors. They
died within a short time of each other, the former A. D.
1542, the latter on the block A. D. 1547.
We can only mention the names of Thomas Tusser (A. D.
1523–80), who wrote “A Hundred Points of Good Hus-
bandrie,” and whose verses have value only as bucolical
antiquities; George Gascoigne, a dramatist, satirist, and
critic of merit, who was one of the earliest of our writers
of blank verse (A. D. 1536–77); and Thomas Sackville,
earl of Dorset (A. D. 1527–1608), the author, with Thomas
Norton, of the first regular English tragedy, “Gorboduc,
or Ferrex and Porrex,” which was also written in blank
verse. But more than a passing notice must be taken of
Sir Walter Raleigh, whose bright intellect, daring spirit,
and chequered life make him one of the most conspicuous
figures in English history and literature. Born (A. D.
1552) in the ranks of the gentry, but without advantages
of fortune, he was a soldier, a courtier, a discoverer, a
politician, a poet, and an historian; and in each and all
of these various functions he won the applause and the
envy of his contemporaries and the admiration of posterity.
He was praised by Spenser, and his praise added to Spen-
ser's glory. His poetry is remarkable for manly simplicity
and freshness of feeling, mingled with sententiousness;
his political writing for sagacity and knowledge of man-
kind; and his “History of the World” is full of wisdom,
and closes with one of the grandest passages in English
prose. He was beheaded in 1628, through the envy of the
mean and crafty James I. and the envious persecution of a
leading party of the court.
Somewhat like Raleigh in the circumstances of his life,
although not at all so in the character of his mind, was Sir
Philip Sidney. A younger Scion of a noble family, he too
was a soldier, a courtier, a scholar, and a poet. According
to all accounts, he was the most accomplished, the most
admirable, and the most lovable among English gentlemen
of his day. Being elected king of Poland, he was pre-
vented from accepting the honor by Queen Elizabeth, who
was unwilling, as she said, “to lose the jewel of her times.”
He was a patron of literature as well as a man of letters.
His claim to notice as an author in the history of English
literature rests upon his “Arcadia,” a collection of roman-
tic and chivalric tales bound together with a slender thread
of plan, somewhat longsome and wearisome, but full of
graceful and animated passages; some poems, generally
cold and conceitful, but in a few instances lofty in tone and
lovely in imagery; but chiefly upon his “Apologie for
Poetry,” the earliest example of aesthetic criticism in our
literature, and admirable for the beauty of its style and
the soundness of its critical judgments, few of which have
been set aside or superseded. Sidney first recognized the
fact that the English language had been freed from the
trammels of formal grammar. He was born A. D. 1554,
and fell in 1586 on the field of Zutphen in Holland, giving
up to a wounded soldier the water that was brought to
slake his own dying thirst, saying, “Thy necessity is greater
than mine.” - ~
Sidney has the credit, which he probably deserves, of
having made possible the poetical career of one of Eng-
land's greatest poets, Edmund Spenser. Spenser, born we
know not exactly when, but about 1553, after having writ-
ten “The Shepherd's Calendar,” it is supposed at Pens-
hurst, the seat of the Sidneys, where his friend Sir Philip
took him to reside for some years, received a grant of 3000
acres of crown land in Ireland, whither he went and where
he wrote the first three books of his “Fairie Queen,” when,
going to London to have them printed, Raleigh presented
him to Queen Elizabeth, who, in consideration of his
poem, gave him, in addition to his lands, a pension of £50,
quite equal to $1500 now. There and then he wrote,
among other poems, “Mother Hubbard’s Tale.” Return-
ing to Ireland in 1592, he wrote two more books and two
1573
cantos of a third of his great poem; his series of eighty-
eight sonnets; “Amoretti,” celebrating his courtship of the
lady whom he married; his “Epithalamion ” on his mar-
riage, “Colin Clout's Come Home Again,” “Astrophel,”
and other poems. Driven from his home by some of the
insurgents in Tyrone’s rebellion, he returned to London,
and died there in 1599. If not the greatest of the poets
of the Elizabethan period (which may be regarded as in-
cluding the half century from 1575 to 1625), Spenser was
second to one only, and he was the greatest of all those
who lived entirely in Elizabeth's reign. Among all English
poets he has but two superiors—Shakspeare and Milton—
although it is only in the elevation of his aim and in the
fine and luminous flame of his fancy that he surpasses
Chaucer. Spenser is the most purely poetical of all Eng-
lish poets. His great work, “The Fairie Queen,” is poetry
and nothing else. It is not dramatic, or theological, or
satirical, or, strictly speaking, narrative; and although it
did fashion “the twelve moral Virtues,” it is not didactic
after the weary fashion of most moral poems. It is alle-
gorical, but its peculiar merit is not in the allegory; rather
is the allegory somewhat of a hindrance to the reader
who is not capable of setting the didactic purpose of the
poem aside and enjoying for itself the golden wealth of its
rich fancy. In its language it was somewhat old-fashioned
for Spenser's own day. He used not only words that were
not them familiar household words, but forms and inflec-
tions that had passed away; for instance, the old plural
IIl 677.
Among the Elizabethan writers a theologian like Richard
Hooker (A. D. 1553–1600) must at least be mentioned. His
sagacity and the logical clearness of his thought gained
him the title of “the judicious,” and his style places him
high among the masters of English prose.
John Lyly's writings mark a change in the character of
that prose. He introduced a fanciful and almost fantas-
tical style of writing. He affected fine phrases, and wrote
for courtiers and those who would have finer bread than is
made of wheat. His language is much Romanized when
compared with that of his immediate predecessors. The
title, “The Euphuist” (one who speaks well), is derived
from his principal work, “Euphues and his England,”
which had much influence, and even brought about a style
of speech and writing called euphuism. But it would be
very wrong to assume that this work is a mass of fanciful
folly in affected language. The book is full of good sense
and knowledge of the world. He also wrote six court
comedies, which have little genuine dramatic interest, but
which are very elegant and highly-finished productions of
their kind. Born A. D. 1553, he died A. D. 1600.
Fulke Greville, Lord Brooke, “friend to Sir Philip Sid-
ney,” a poet, dramatist, and critical writer, whose style is
cumbrous, but whose thought is far-reaching and weighty,
can only be thus mentioned. ->
In the galaxy of poets that lighted up the Elizabethan
sky even a merely superficial glance distinguishes William
Warner, Samuel Daniel, Michael Drayton, Bishop Joseph
Hall, Joshua Sylvester, and George Chapman, the first
translator of the whole of Homer's poems into English,
and whose version, often inexact and rude, has an occa-
sional sinewy strength and pithiness and a felicity of
phrase which his more polished and scholarly successors
have not attained. Chapman was also a dramatist, but
his dramatic work, although always indicative of poetic
ability, was loose in structure and in style confused and
headlong.
But we must hasten to the consideration of that remark-
able school of writers, the Elizabethan dramatists proper.
At this period the theatre was the chief intellectual enter-
tainment of all classes and conditions of men, from the
highest to the lowest. It filled the place now occupied by
the novel and the newspaper. . Young men of literary
ability who found themselves in need of money in London
turned to the stage as a means of supplying their necessi-
ties. The proprietors of the theatres kept poets in their
pay, and ordered plays to be written sometimes by one,
sometimes by two, and sometimes by half a dozen of their
retainers. Conspicuous among these dramatic adventurers
was Christopher or “Kit” Marlowe, a man of genius, but
of genius wild, irregular, ill-trained. Both mind and man
(if a man may be separated from his mind) lacked moral
balance. The fierce extravagance and gilded bombast of
his style can hardly be overrated; but from this turbid mass
flash out gleams of brightest poetry. His characterization
is often so strong as to be mere caricature, but it is charac-
terization; his personages have individuality; and he first
introduced the modern style of dramatic Writing. To him
also we owe the introduction of free and flowing blank
verse upon the stage. His principal dramas are “Faus-
tus,” “Tamburlaine the Great,” and “Edward II.” Born
about A. D. 1564, after a life of Wretched irregularity he
1574
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
was killed in a brawl, A. D. 1593. Colaborers with Mar-
lowe were George Peele (about 1552–98) and Robert Greene
(about 1560–92), men of much lighter weight and smaller
calibre; the former an agreeable versifier and capable of
tenderness; the latter essentially comic in the bent of his
genius, giving us foretaste both of the high and the low
comedy of after years. With these men there was a crowd
of others who have left names, and even works, known to
literary antiquarians, but long ago forgotten in literature
and on the stage; but from among them sprang one in all
supreme—the greatest poet, the greatest dramatist, the
brightest intellect of recorded time.
William Shakspeare, the son of a Warwickshire yeoman
and a lady of the minor gentry of that neighborhood (both
of English or “Anglo-Saxon’ blood), left Stratford (where
he was born A. D. 1564) at about twenty-one years of age,
and went to London as an adventurer. There he became
a player and a playwright; obtained an interest in the
company which played at the Blackfriars and Globe thea-
tres; and by the plays which he wrote for this company—
writing them as daily labor, just as a journalist now-a-days
writes leading articles and criticisms—he made himself
“ the gréatest name in all literature.” To attempt here a
criticism upon Shakspeare's genius would be futile. Briefly,
it may be said that he owed nothing either to his pre-
decessors or to his contemporaries, if we except the lan-
guage in which he wrote and the form of his dramas, which
were those of his time. He attempted nothing new ; he
simply was new himself—the most original, inexplicable,
and hitherto absolutely unexplained fact in the history of
literature. He seemed to know the secrets of nature and
of man’s heart, and to penetrate the depths of wisdom and
of philosophy by intuition. He was a creator of his kind,
for at a touch of his pen he spoke men and women into
an existence individual and immortal. His style can
hardly be described, it cannot be analyzed, and it has
never been imitated. And there was no limit to the ca-
pacity of his genius. He sounded man's nature and the
range of human thought from the top to the bottom of its
compass. The grandest and the profoundest of all writers,
he was at the same time not only the most delicate and the
most fanciful, but the most comic. There is no tragedy, no
philosophy, no pathos, no fancy, no humor like Shakspeare's
tragedy, Shakspeare's philosophy, Shakspeare's pathos,
Shakspeare's fancy, and Shakspeare's humor. We say all
that we can say when we call them Shakspearian. To men-
tion the titles of his principal dramas is quite needless.
All the world knows that “Hamlet,” “ King Lear,”
“Othello,” and “Macbeth * are his greatest tragedies, but
it may well be said that his wisest play is one never played
now and too little read—“Troilus and Cressida.” He wrote
at first in conjunction with other playwrights, after the
manner of his time, but his facility in composition soon
freed him almost altogether from the trammels of collab-
oration, and nearly all the great comedies, histories, and
tragedies that bear his name are of his own unaided pro-
duction. His Sonnets are inferior in thought and in ex-
pression only to his best plays. They alone would have
won him immortality. His most inferior works are those
upon which he labored most and rested the only literary
fame he coveted—his poems “Venus and Adonis” and
“Lucrece.” He attained his purpose and retired to Strat-
ford in the prime of life, a prosperous gentleman; and
there he died A. D. 1616, entirely regardless of his poetic
fame, having no predecessors or successors except in the
order of time. None of his contemporaries were like him.
There was an Elizabethan period of poetry and of the
drama, but no Shakspearian school of either.
Chief among Shakspeare's contemporaries was his friend
Benjamin Jonson, who for some time was regarded by the
critical, but never by the public, as his superior. But
gifted as Jonson was, the difference between them is so
great as to be absolutely immeasurable. Jonson’s best
comic vein, as in “Every Man in his Humour,” “The Al-
chemist,” and “Bartholomew Fair,” is simply a humorous
—and yet not very humorous—picture of what passed be-
fore his eyes—persons and manners. His tragedy is an
unsuccessful attempt at the imitation of classic models.
In some of his tragedies founded on classic subjects—e.g.
“Sejanus”—no inconsiderable part of the speeches are
translations, more or less free, from Latin authors. He
was overlaid with his learning. He was nevertheless a
robust thinker, and at times a graceful one. Some of his
minor poems, particularly his songs, have a peculiar charm
which makes them the best known of all his works. He
wrote one of our earliest English grammars, and in his
“Timber * some of our earliest literary criticism.
Francis Beaumont (1586–1616) and John Fletcher (1576–
1625), two gentlemen by birth, wrote together, although
we have many plays by Fletcher alone. They were poets,
wits, and dramatists, but not of a very high order, although
of the high imaginative school. Comedy was their forte,
and they first brought upon the English stage the comedy
of intrigue. Their works are very voluminous, and suffer
from a diffusion of powers by no means exhaustless. If
they had written less they would have written better.
Their most meritorious works are “The Maid's Tragedy,”
“The Elder Brother,” “Philaster,” and “The Faithful Shep-
herdess,” the last of which was written by Fletcher alone,
who had more fertility, more constructive power, and a
livelier fancy than Beaumont.
Among the second-rate men of this period whose names
only can be mentioned here were Philip Massinger (1584–
1640), who had tragic powers, but who was destitute of
fancy and humor; John Ford (1586—about 1639), whose
forte was pathos; John Webster, and John Marston, who
dealt in the tragedy of horrors; Thomas Dekker, who had
in a marked degree both pathos and humor, but whose
wretched life gave him little opportunity to finish his
work; John Middleton, a man of pleasing mediocrity;
and Thomas Haywood, the most voluminous of them all,
that being his chief distinction. James Shirley (1594–
1666) closes the array of Elizabethan dramatists, and is
the link between the times of Elizabeth and James and
those of Charles and the Commonwealth.
Among the great intellects of the Elizabethan era only
one man—and we might almost say hardly he—is more
conspicuous than Francis Bacon. His universal misnomer
is a notable recognition of his greatness. He became lord
high chancellor and a peer, his title being Lord Verulam,
but the man was far above his peerage, and he is called
Lord Bacon. His distinction was in this, that he was the
wisest man of modern times, almost the wisest of the sons
of men. To no man since the revival of learning may the
term “philosopher” be so well applied. As a scientific in-
vestigator he has had many superiors; his scheme of in-
ductive philosophy may not be original; but if he had not
written the “Novum Organon ’’ he would yet have taken
the stand which he has held for the two centuries, adown
which from his sun-like mind has poured a blaze of intel-
lectual light; for he had the grandeur. and the poise and
the far-reaching power which make a central luminary,
and whatever he uttered bore the stamp of his supremacy.
To English literature, strictly speaking, his contributions
were not large, for the most of his writings were in Latin.
IHis “Essays,” by which he is chiefly known to general
readers, were written in English, and they alone would
have made his name immortal. Such a solid body of clear,
compact wisdom was never uttered to the world from an
uninspired source before his day or since. They show in
every page the largeness, the breadth, and depth of his
great intellect. In style they are models of concentration,
giving results, not processes, and yet revealing the founda-
tions of eternal truth upon which their judgments stand.
Bacon was born in the reign of Elizabeth, A. D. 1561, and,
living through that of James I., died in 1626. It is worthy
of remark that there is no evidence in the writings of
either that he and Shakspeare, the two brightest intellects
of modern times, strictly contemporaries and living in the
same place, knew of each other’s existence; the reason of
which strange fact is that one was a statesman and a phil-
osopher, the other a player and a playwright.
n the reign of James, Robert Burton (1576–1640) pro-
duced the “Anatomy of Melancholy,” a hash of curious
learning made piquant by the original spice of splenetic
humor and jocular sneers with which the quoted passages
are seasoned to bring out their flavor. It is so filled with
Latin that it is hardly an English book, but it is a typical
specimen of a school or fashion of learned writing which
prevailed about this time; and notwithstanding its pedan-
tic air it has been, and ever will be, a source of delight
and a quarry of suggestion to a large class of highly-culti-
vated readers, and greatly so to those who themselves are
writers. The names of Donne (1573–1631), a metaphysical
poet; of Sir Thomas Overbury (1581–1613), the author of
“The Wife;” of Richard Sibbes (1577–1635), a Puritan
divine; of John Hales (1584–1656), a theologian and the
author of “Golden Remaines;” and of William Drum-
mond of Hawthornden (1587–1649), a Scotch poet of merit
and a historian of Scotland,-must be mentioned in an at-
tempt to give a view of English literature at this period.
A notably important fact in regard to the Elizabethan
era, in literature is, that the English language, which was
fully formed at the beginning of the sixteenth century,
was used in that era, with a freedom from formal restraint
that since then has been unknown. The parts of speech
changed places at the will of the writer. Not only were
adverbs used as adjectives and adjectives as adverbs, but
adverbs as mouns, and not only were nouns, but even pro-
nouns, used as verbs. A like freedom reigned as to other
parts of speech and in the construction of the sentence.
Thus was born at a blow, in full strength and activity, the
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
1575
genius of the English language, which is that the nature
and quality of a word depend not upon its form, but upon
its place in the sentence and its logical relation to other
words. Thus the English of the Elizabethan period was
more truly and absolutely English than that of any period
before or since. This freedom prevailed most remarkably
in the writings of the poets and the dramatists of the
period, and chiefest of all the latter. But it pervaded all
writing and all speech. That it was prevented from de-
generating into chaotic license is probably due in a large
measure to the preparation and diffusion of the revised or
King James’s translation of the Bible, which was published
in 1611. In this translation, which was made with ex-
tremest care and the interchanged labor. of forty-seven of
the most competent scholars in England, the language of
the previous versions was not only kept in view, but re-
tained whenever it was consistent with the original, and
sufficiently modern to be comprehensible without losing
the dignity which pertains to antiquity, or taking on the
strangeness which goes with novelty. The translators
touched the sacred old structure with reverent hands, and
while they renovated and strengthened it they did not
whitewash the mellow tints of time with glaring newness.
This book was at once published abroad throughout Eng-
land, and since that time it has been printed and reprinted
and scattered, and read daily by people of English race as
no other book was ever read by any other people. Its in-
fluence upon English literature has been as great as—per-
haps, alas! we should say even greater than—upon the mo-
rality of English life. It has been the treasure-house and the
stronghold of the English language. It contains the best,
the purest, the manliest, and the sweetest English that was
ever written. Its narrative style is beyond that of all
other writing in its own or in other tongues for simplicity,
for clearness, and for strength. No exhortation is like its
exhortation; no other counsel comes to us clothed in such
impressive dignity of phrase. In it the rich and glowing
diction of its Oriental original is preserved, and yet tem-
pered with something of the cool directness, the honesty,
and the homely freshness of the Anglo-Saxon nature.
influence upon the English language has been the most
pervading and the most wholesomely conservative that was
ever exercised by a single force. Its authority has sur-
passed that of any possible Academy. It is a marvellous
book; and whatever our faith or our lack of faith in the
literal truth of all its declarations, it cannot be read with
too much of admiration or of thankfulness.
After the death of Bacon and of James I. a few names
of note attract our attention as we pass to the period of
the Commonwealth : George Wither (A. D. 1588–1667), a
poet chiefly sacred, nervous in style, and remarkable for
his simple, clear English; Thomas Hobbes (A. D. 1588–
1679), a writer upon social and moral subjects, a strong,
clear, but not always logical thinker, and our first master
of regularity and symmetry of style: he translated Homer
into homely halting verse; Thomas Carew (died 1639), a
tender and graceful writer of light amatory verse, which,
based upon French models, has the merit of character;
Robert Herrick (1591–1674), who, writing both sacred and
amatory verse, is known chiefly by the latter, in which he
clothes exquisite conceits in a rich, pulpy style; Isaac Wal-
ton (1593–1683), a meek and pious angler, whose love of
nature and simple pedestrianism of life and style win him
admirers generation after generation: he wrote “The Com-
plete Angler” and the lives of Donne, Hooker, and other
divines; George Herbert (1593–1632), whose collection of
short poems called “The Temple” had an amazing popular
favor, twenty thousand copies having been sold, according
to his biographer Walton, in a few years. Herbert belongs
to the metaphysical school of Donne. His thoughts are
almost a continued succession of quaint conceits and are
steeped in ecclesiasticism; but they are pervaded with the
spirit of true piety and uttered in English notably simple
and manly. -
To the time of the Commonwealth and the Restoration be-
longs Edmund Wallér; who was born A. D. 1605 to a large
estate, and who devoted himself to politics and to litera-
ture. His verse unites grace and dignity, although he is
Sometimes tempted into extravagance.
Girdle” express one of the most exquisite amatory fancies
in our love-literature. He had a charming fancy, but little
imagination. Contemporary with him were Thomas Ran-
dolph (1605–34), whose poems are tame, but in whose plays
there linger echoes of the Elizabethan grandeur and free-
dom; Sir William Davenant, playwright and poet-laureate,
but a poor creature; Sir John Suckling (1609–41), a dainty
poet and an amorous; and the gallant Sir Richard Love-
lace (about 1618–58), whose songs give the soul of chivalry
and true love voice, but who loved honor more than love,
whose cheery voice reaches us through his prison bars, and
only dies with him in misery. ".
Its
His lines “On a
But all the poets of this period were eclipsed by the
grand and luminous shadow of a man who was a school-
master and Latin secretary to the Commonwealth council
of state—John Milton. Milton was of a Roman Catholic
family of the minor gentry, but was born into a middle-
class condition in life, his father having been disinherited
for embracing the Protestant faith. His father, however,
acquired money enough to retire into country life and to
give his gifted son a university education (at Cambridge),
to enable him to devote himself to study at home for five
years after taking his master’s degree, and then to travel
on the Continent, particularly in Italy. He was summoned
home by the beginning of the great civil war, in which he
at once ranged himself with his pen—which being in the
hands of a man “supremely great" was “mightier than
the sword ”—on the side of the Parliament. He went heart
and soul into the struggle, and wrote many controversial
works which need not here be noticed. Their value was
chiefly for their time, and neither in them nor in any other
of his prose works did his genius show, except fitfully, its
peculiar power. Indeed, his prose, although strong in
thought, is in style involved, cumbrous, and awkward. Of
these the ablest are “IEikonoklastes,” “A Defence of the
People of England,” “Tetrachordon,” including “The
Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce,” “The Tenure of Kings
and Magistrates,” “A Tractate of Education,” and “Areo-
pagitica, a Plea for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing.”
But it is as a poet that Milton lives in the world’s memory,
and of modern epic poets he is incomparably the greatest.
His earlier and minor works have a serene and lofty grace
of expression, united with a sustained power, that preludes
the coming epos. But their merits, great as they are, are
less imaginative than fanciful, although the fancy is of the
very highest order. “L’Allegro” shows that he could even
be playful. The phrase “the light fantastic toe” is quoted
by thousands yearly who not only do not know whence it
comes, but who would be surprised at learning that it was
written by the grave Puritan author of “Paradise Lost.”
His sonnets have been much praised of later years, partic-
ularly since Wordsworth’s saying that in his hand the son-
net “became a trumpet.” And the opinion that most of
them are unworthy of his genius, heavy in thought rather
than weighty, cumbrous in style rather than stately, must
perhaps be set down as peculiar to the present writer.
Milton's genius did not adapt itself easily to small things.
Ilike some huge birds he could not take a short flight grace-
fully. He needed space and time to soar on high and
show the steady strength of his vast sweep of wing. These
he found in the subject which he chose early for his great
epic poem, upon the writing of which, after long previous
incubation, he spent seven years. This poem has the singu-
lar advantage of the grandest theme, the theme most in-
teresting to all Christendom, and the most suggestive of
sublime thought, that could have been chosen. Had its
author failed, even measurably, the subject would certainly
have been taken up by some poet in after years; but oc-
cupying it absolutely and triumphantly as he did, it was
ever afterward foreclosed against all comers. The style of
the “Paradise Lost” in its finest and most characteristic
passages has an almost indescribable grandeur and strength.
Its lines are adorned with a wealth of illustration com-
pelled from all literature and all history, sacred and pro-
fane; and its author marches along his royal road of verse
like some great conqueror whose triumph is made splendid
with the spoils of subject peoples. But these are the mere
tokens and decorations of his own power. His thought
and his purpose are always Supreme. He is able to handle
such subjects as omnipotence and archangelic rebellion,
primeval purity and the ruin of a race, transcendent love,
redemption, “fate, free-will, foreknowledge absolute,” and
to keep himself up to the lofty level of his stupendous
theme. At least he very rarely falls below it; and on one
occasion, at least, when he does so—the introduction of
gunpowder and artillery into the fight between Satan and
the Almighty—his error may be assigned to the unavoid-
able anthropomorphism of his machinery, and the then
comparative novelty and terror of the engines of death
which he used. There were neither fire-crackers nor re-
volving pistols in Milton's day. ... In the “Paradise Lost”
and the “Paradise Regained ”’ the poet worked out to the
utmost bound of possibility mere hints in the sacred writ-
ings of the Hebrews and the Christians, and thus became
the originator of many of the popular views of theology
since his day. Milton is not, properly speaking, an Eng-
lish poet or an English prose-writer. His style and the very
character of his thought are eminently un-English. His
spirit is Hebraic, his form that of Latin and Greek models.
His last work, and one of his greatest, “Samson Agonistes,”
is remarkable in this respect. In its form it is modelled
upon AEschylus; its spirit is caught from Joshua, from
| Ezekiel, and from Isaiah. The hatred between the One-
1576 \
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
God-loving race and the Gentile had had no such fierce
and terrible utterance since the return from the second
captivity. In one remarkable respect Milton is eminently
un-English : he is entirely without humor, that peculiarly
English, or at least Teutonic, quality of mind which mani-
fests itself in some degree in almost every other eminent
writer of that race. In all his controversial writing, Sav-
age as it is, there is no touch of humor. His only effort in
this way—the suggestion that while the archangel and
Adam talk in Eden, as Eve prepares their meal of fruits,
there is “no fear lest dinner cool”—is one of the least
happy among his few unhappy thoughts. Milton sold the
copyright of the “Paradise Lost” for £5, and a further
payment of £5 upon the sale of 1300, and £5 upon the
sale of 1300 more. Milton received the first additional
£5, the second edition having been published in 1674;
and his widow parted with all her right in the copy for £8
upon the publication of the third edition in 1678; which
must be regarded as a remarkable success for a poem of
such a character at such a time. And yet Milton, cele-
brated as a controversial writer and a scholar almost from
his youth, did not achieve fame as a poet during his life-
time. The “Paradise Lost’’ was not appreciated highly,
not to say at its full worth, until after a series of criticisms
by Addison in the “Spectator,” and “Comus ” and his
other minor poems were first brought into general notice
by Pope and Warburton. Milton, great as he was, does
not ständ in the front rank of poets—that is occupied by
but three men, Homer, Dante, and Shakspeare—but first
in the second rank without a doubt is the author of the
“Paradise Lost.” Milton, who had been blind for some
years before he began to write out his great work by others’
hands, died in London A. D. 1674. The creator of “Eve’
married three wives, one of them “a saint,” and was sepa-
rated for a time from his first, not the saint. Of his three
daughters, one was so unlettered that she could not write
at all, and another could not spell her own name rightly.
Abraham Cowley (1618–67) was a contemporary of Milton
of whom great things were thought during his lifetime and
for many years afterwards. Milton himself, with that mis-
appreciation of contemporary work so common even with
great intellects, said that the three greatest English poets
were Spenser, Shakspeare, and Cowley; an opinion extrav-
agant to absurdity. Cowley produced no work of large de-
sign, but made translations and wrote “Pindaric Odes,”
“The Mistress,” a collection of amatory verse, “Davideis,”
elegies, and the like. He belonged to the metaphysical
school of Donne, of whom he was a weak imitator. His
cold conceits and extravagant fancies are passing into de-
served oblivion. Sir John Denham (1615–68) was his su-
perior in every natural gift, and wrote in a much higher
school, philosophical but cold. His “Cooper's Hill,” his
best work, will always command admiration for its nervous
thought and fine imagery. It contains the fine apostro-
phe to the Thames: -
“Oh, could I flow like thee, and make thy stream
My great example, as it is my theme—
Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull;
Strong without rage; without o'erflowing, full ;”
which is perhaps the most-to-be-admired example of that
mosaic verse which was so much in vogue in the early part
of the next century.
Of the prose-writers of the period of the Commonwealth,
the most conspicuous and characteristic are Sir Thomas
Browne (1605–82), Thomas Fuller (1608–61), Jeremy Tay-
lor (1613–67), the earl of Clarendon (1609–74), and Rich-
ard Baxter (1615–91). A Browne wrote “Religio Medici,”
“Pseudodoxia Epidemica, or a Treatise on Vulgar Errors,”
“Hydriotaphia, or a Treatise on Urn-Burial,” and “The
Garden of Cyrus.” But notwithstanding the nature of
these subjects and the fact that he was a physician, the
interest of his writings does not consist in any contribution
that he makes to morals, to science, or to the history of
art. Their charm is only in the strange, fantastic thoughts
which he weaves around his subjects in language which
would have won him the applause of John Lyly, the
Euphuist. His vocabulary is so Romanized that it is
hardly English. Jeremy Taylor, a Cavalier clergyman
who became bishop of Down and Connor, has been called
the Shakspeare and the Spenser of English prose. The
latter comparison is the better. His style is like a rich
tapestry full of glowing color and striking figures, that
would be startling but for their beauty and their harmo-
nious succession. Through the splendor of his fancy there
runs a vein of sweet and tender yet glowing, piety. His
“Holy Living” and “Holy Dying ” beget even in this
faithless day a religious fervor in the reader. . He has the
honorable distinction of being the first earnest advocate
of complete and absolute religious toleration, his argu-
ment for which is set forth in “Theologia Eclectica, a
Discourse of the Liberty of Prophesying.” Fuller exhib-
ited in the highest, most typical form the witty divine—a
character assumed by many of the clergymen of his period,
who filled their sermons even upon the gravest themes with
quips and quiddities and puns. He has the credit of being
one of the wittiest, although not one of the most humorous,
of English writers. The crackling of his jests is incessant,
and although they are not always brilliant, they are rarely
forced. His principal works are “The Holy and, Profane
State,” “History of the Holy War,” and “The Worthies
of England.” Clarendon was the first of our regular his-
torians. His “ History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars”
is valuable chiefly because he was a witness of the facts
which he relates with his judgment of the actors. His
style is poor, often cumbrous, and often incorrect. Baxter
was also a typical man. He was almost a perfect example
of a clergyman who was a purely religious writer, rather
than ecclesiastical or even theological. Fervor is his chief
characteristic. His style is pure, and for its purpose it can
hardly be, and never has been, surpassed. He wrote much,
but is now chiefly known as the author of the “Saint’s
Everlasting Rest” and the “Call to the Unconverted.”
But above all the prose-writers of this period, and high
among those of any country or any time, rises one mighty
figure—that of the Puritan tinker of Elstow, John Bun-
yan. “The Pilgrim’s Progress,” the book which has won
its author a fame that like an English oak strengthens and
broadens with the lapse of centuries, is an allegory purely
religious in its original purpose; and of all allegories ever
written it is the one which most effectually attained its
end. But in its literary character, with which we have to
do here, it is a work of fiction, a tale of human expe-
rience and of human passion, a story of trial, of strug-
gle, of sorrow, and of triumph. Thus considered, it is
matchless: in all literature there is nothing like it. Of
its millions of readers, of all climes and all ages, compar-
atively few think while they read of its allegorical mean-
ing. They are absorbed in the fortunes of Christian, of
Faithful. To them Apollyon is the fiend and Giant Despair
is the giant of which all the other fiends and giants of
poetry and romance are the faint and feeble and theatrical
imitations; and Greatheart is such a champion of distress-
ed womanhood as might have shamed Cervantes into leav-
ing his immortal satire unwritten. The youth who when
he first reads it does not rush on “as if he would devour
the way ” must have a dull mind or a sluggish nature. The
secret of all this is Bunyan’s marvellous union of dramatic
insight and dramatic power with a vivid and fiery imagina-
tion, beside which the imagination of all other prose-writers
is pale and feebly imitative. Moreover, the style of the
“Pilgrim’s Progress”—not always correct, according to
the laws of pedants and grammarians—shows a mastery
of English in which its writer has no rival. It is an un-
conscious mastery, and it unites in absolute perfection
strength and delicacy. Of no book except the Bible, and
perhaps Shakspeare's plays, have so many copies been
printed; and of no book without exception, we may be
sure, have so many copies been read through and through
again. It has been translated into nearly all the languages
of the world; and of all peoples above the level of barbar-
ism it has taken a mighty hold. Bunyan wrote another
allegory of almost equal power, “The Holy War;” and his
other works show his peculiar vigor of thought and of
style. But the “Pilgrim” is his Moses’ divining-rod.
Bunyan was born in the humblest condition of life A. D.
1628, and after a life of poverty and persecution died A. D.
1688. A monument has been erected to him in his native
village, and his statue stands in the new Houses of Parlia-
ment. •
To the period of the Commonwealth we owe the appear-
ance of the newspaper, which was to have such an influ-
ence upon society and upon literature. News-letters, as
they were called, had been published earlier in the century,
the oldest known being “News Out of Holland,” published
in 1619; but it was not until the exciting times of the
Long Parliament that the genuine newspaper was de-
manded by the eagerness of the public for information as
to what was taking place from day to day. Published at
first once a week, newspapers at last came to be published
every other day.
The political, religious, and social influences which were
dominant during the Commonwealth were of an ascetic
character, and tended strongly to the repression of the
lighter forms of literature, For several years the theatres
were closed, the drama was crushed, and lyric poetry lan-
guished. Upon the Restoration the repressed forces of
society burst forth, and with the extravagance of reaction
ran riot in high carnival. One of the earliest of the en-
during fruits of the rank new growth was “Hudibras,” a
satirical poem by Samuel Butler (1612–80). The germ of
this highly witty and humorous although coarse perform-
ance was in “Don Quixote.” In Butler's poem the hero is
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
1577
a Puritan knight in whom selfishness and hypocrisy take
the place of the crazy chivalry and extravagant gallantry
of the Knight of the Rueful Countenance. He too has a
squire who greatly aids the dramatic movement of the
composition. “ Hudibras” was of course unfair to the
Puritans, but it is choke full of knowledgé of human nature,
which is ventilated in witty expressions that succeed each
other so rapidly and so sharply that it is like the letting
off of a pack of fire-crackers. Not only Puritanism, but
astrology, one of the weaknesses of the age, suffers dread-
ful exposure under the author's remorseless knife. Butler
was the first English poet to make free use of double
rhymes, upon the ridiculous effect of which many of his
fine points depend. The couplet
“Compound for sins they are inclined to
By damning those they have no mind to,”
is a characteristic specimen of the gnomic portions of this
immortal jew d'esprit.
The dramatists of a period to which the court of Charles
II. gave the tone were, as might be expected, not only free
and gay, but licentious to the last degree. They revelled
in the violation of external decency, and the nature of
their plots was such that it would seem as if they were in-
tended to illustrate the life of their royal master. All that
they sought to present on the stage was amorous intrigue
and wit; and it must be admitted that in both points they
succeeded to admiration. Of the minor poets and wits of
this period we shall make brief mention only of Charles
Cotton (1630–87), who, besides his indecent verse, wrote
the second part of the “Compleat Angler” and translated
Montaigne into sound and nervous English; Sir George
Etherege (about 1636–94), who wrote three plays, the best
of which is “The Man of Mode,” and who is the father
of the modern comedy of intrigue; Sir Charles Sedley
(1639–1701), a writer of exquisite wit and no less charm-
ing style; Wycherley (about 1640–1715); and the earl of
Rochester (1647–80), the most indecent and perhaps the
most gifted of them all, and who is the author of the best
epigram (written on the bed-chamber door of Charles II.)
in the language, for which he may be forgiven much :
“Here lies our sovereign lord the king,
Whose word no man relies on;
Be never says a foolish thing,
And never does a wise one.”
The chief poet of this period was John Dryden, the son
of a Puritan gentleman, and who was born A. D. 1632. He
began to write as early as 1649, but his most active period
was from 1662 to the end of the century, his death occur-
ring in 1700. Dryden began his poetical career in the
school of Donne and Cowley, and in the extravagant ab-
surdity of his conceits he out-Heroded Herod. Whoever
wishes to learn what conceit is in poetry may best learn by
studying it in the form of monstrous and loathsome carica-
ture in Dryden’s “Lines on the Death of Lord Hastings.”
But there was other stuff than this in the man, who merely
began, as most young geniuses do, whether in literature,
in music, or in painting, by imitating some one of their
predecessors. Dryden, however, was nearly forty years
old before he showed his power, which is that of an im-
petuous flow of versification, embodying cogent argument,
stinging satire, or graphic portraiture. Of passion, of
tenderness, and of pathos he showed none in his poetry,
having, it would seem, none in his nature. He is fierce,
but never warm, impetuous, but never earnest. He shows
great strength, but not the greatest, which always carries
with it a delicacy of touch to which weakness can never
attain. His sentiments are never of the highest or the
purest kind. He belongs to the race of time-servers and
men-pleasers. But his satirical power is almost equal to
Juvenal’s, and his portraits of his contemporaries—as, for
instance, in “Absalom and Achitophel,” the best of his
more important works—are grand historic caricatures,
heroic in scale and in spirit. His best lyric composition,
“Alexander's Feast,” was once thought the finest thing of
the kind in English literature, but time has been gradu-
ally, and surely and justly, diminishing its reputation. He
wrote thirty plays, both comedies and tragedies. They
have little poetic merit and no real dramatic power. They
were, however, written as many of the best works in liter-
ature were written, merely for the money they would bring.
But in the prefaces to some of these plays Dryden stepped
upon the field of dramatic criticism, of which he showed
himself a master. They are the earliest work of the kind
in our language, and they remain among the very best.
Dryden was not a great poet, but he seems like a great
poet in arrested development. In another age, under dif-
ferent circumstances, he might have developed into a great
poet if he had been more richly endowed with wider and
warmer sympathies and deeper feeling. But lacking those
he was suited to his time and he fulfilled his function. The
perpetuity of his fame is due to the splendor of his style
and the vigorous freedom of his versification. He was in
these respects, and by his power of crowding an epigram
into a couplet or touching off a portrait in a quatrain, the
introducer of a new school in poetry, which prevailed dur-
ing the early part of the century succeeding his death.
The latter part of the seventeenth century was adorned
by several prose-writers of eminence other than those
already mentioned: Ralph Cudworth (1617–88), Andrew
Marvel (1620–78), Algernon Sydney (1621–84), Sir William
Temple (1628–98), Isaac Barrow (1630–77), John Tillotson
(1630–94), Robert South (1633–1726), and Gilbert Burnet
(1643–1715); as to whom, however, we can spare room
enough only for their names. But one man of this period,
John Locke, demands more particular attention, as being
an original thinker and one of the most eminent of Eng-
land's philosophical writers. Locke is, indeed the father
of political and social ideas which since his time have
shaped the political and the social development of the
English race in Great Britain and America. In his “Con-
siderations of the Consequences of Lowering the Interest
and Raising the Value of Money” he first taught the po-
litical and commercial necessity of absolute good faith on
the part of government as the creator of the legal repre-
sentative of value and the medium of exchange of com-
modities, and that the issue of a depreciated currency was
a breach of good faith. In his “Letter concerning Toler-
ation * he not only nobly sustains the arguments of Milton
and Jeremy Taylor on the same subject, but he broaches
the theory now established and acted upon, that the func-
tion of government is to make secure the personal liberty
and the civil interests of the individual, and that when it
attempts to do more it oversteps its proper limits. His
“Treatises on Civil Government” develop and enforce this
important political theory, resting it chiefly on an implied
contract between the governing power and the governed.
His “Thoughts concerning Education” have controlled,
and wisely controlled, the action of the English peoples
almost until the present time, although the cold austerity
of his views has been modified by a warmer infusion of
parental feeling. But it is his “Essay concerning Human
Understanding” which has given him his most enduring
fame and power, in that he was the first to popularize
the study of mental philosophy, and to turn the mind’s
eye of the whole world inward upon itself. To John Locke
more than to any other writer is owing the introspective
character of the literature, even the imaginative and ficti-
tious literature, of the present age. Of Locke it was justly
and admirably said by Mackintosh that “his writings have
diffused throughout the world the love of civil liberty, the
spirit of toleration in religious differences, the disposition
to reject whatever is obscure, fantastical, or hypothetical
in speculation, to reduce verbal disputes to their proper
value, to abandon problems which admit of no solution, to
distrust whatever cannot be clearly expressed, to render
theory the simple explanation of facts, and to prefer those
studies which most directly contribute to human happi-
ness.” His style has the fault of being in spirit unimagi-
native and in form too diffuse and vague. He was born in
1632 and died in 1704. He is to be read not for his man-
ner, but his matter.
Contemporary with Locke were two distinguished men
of science, one of them of the first eminence—Robert Hooke
and Sir Isaac Newton. Hooke (1635–1703) was an inves-
tigator and an inventor, but chiefly a critic and a disputant,
presuming, ill-tempered, and insolent. He did not hesitate
to attack Newton’s theory of light and colors. Newton
(1642–1727) is admitted to have been the greatest master
of exact science that ever lived. His discovery of the law
according to which the force of gravitation acts, and of the
refraction and composite nature of the ray of light, are the
most important in their kind of modern times. His genius,
although sublime and far-reaching, was eminently practical;
and to him England was indebted for the regulation of the
dire confusion of her coinage. His works hardly come
within the range of pure literature, but the splendor of
his genius and the grandeur of his fame forbid them to be
passed by without notice. -
Locke and Newton were the great literary and philosoph-
ical ornaments of the reign of William and Mary, which was
sadly in need of all the glory that could be shed upon it by
their genius; for the Revolution of 1688 crushed literature
far more effectually than that did which brought in the
Commonwealth; one reason of which doubtless is that there
was a much feebler thing to crush. For twenty years the
annals of literature are bare of interest except that which
attaches to Locke and to an early performance of Matthew
Prior's “The Country Mouse and City Mouse.” But Prior's
career (1664–1721) stretched well into the eighteenth cen-
tury, in the first quarter of which appeared that galaxy of
admirable writers known as the wits of Queen Anne, among
1578
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
whom Prior must be reckoned. The others were Swift, Pope,
Steele, Addison, Gay, Garth, and Arbuthnot; of whom
the last three, with Prior, may be passed without further
notice. -
Jonathan Swift, Irish by birth (1667), but the most English
of men by blood and nature, first appeared in literature by
the publication in 1704 of his renowned “Tale of a Tub”
and “Battle of the Books,” the former a religious satire,
the latter a literary one, both highly flavored with a coarse
kind of comedy. The success of these works was very
great, and their reputation has continued even to the
present day. But it is safe to say that only their reputa-
tion has survived; and that there are few even of the most
cultivated readers now-a-days who can read these comic
allegories (for such they are) with much enjoyment of
their wit, or even with a very keen appreciation of their
satire. But their writer has few equals as a wit or as a
satirist in any literature. When he stepped upon the
broad field of human nature he produced that which will
be the source of delight and instruction until human na-
ture has become other than that which he found it. It is
as the author of “Travels by Lemuel Gulliver” that he
commands the widest circle of readers. This production
had a political purpose; like most of its author's works,
and contains allusions to and caricatures of some of the
statesmen, churchmen, and other public men of that day;
but the genius of its author impelled him to deal with
mankind even more than with party, and his satire is
upon the human race. This is indeed the weakness as
well as the strength of Swift's writing—his contempt for
his fellow-men. His own personal tastes, no less than his
personal feelings, put in a strong appearance in all his
writings; and nothing does he show with so little reserve
as his aversion from his kind. The disgust which he
makes the king of the horses in his “ Houyhnhnms” feel
for the Yahoos is plainly but an utterance of his own sen-
timents. Christ tells us to love our enemies: this Christian
minister seems to have hated his friends. But notwith-
standing this unpardonable sin against the holy Spirit of
humanity, notwithstanding an indecency which does not
consist in a public exposure of those ardent passions which
the least reserved of men conceal, but in a revelling in
physical filth, Swift's insight into men's motives is so keen,
his satire is so splendid, as well as so savage, his wit and
Humor are so fine and so continuous, and his style so sim-
ple, and so nervous, that great pleasure and good counsel
can be extracted from almost all that he wrote. He has
been compared to both Rabelais and Cervantes. He was
far below either in spirit and purpose, but more like the
former than the latter in his style. He wrote poetry, or
rather verse, which had all the characteristics of his prose,
and no others, being entirely without imagination, fancy,
or beauty of form. His best known works, in addition to
those already mentioned, are the “Drapier Letters,” “Po-
lite Conversation,” “Directions for Servants,” and “Modest
Proposal for Preventing the Children of Poor People in
Ireland from being a Burden to their Parents, and for
making them Beneficial to the Publick”—to wit, by eating
them. He died in a state of wretched imbecility A. D.
1745; and it is not improbable that his intense egoism
made him somewhat mad, with a selfish method in his
madness, during no small part of his life.
Alexander Pope, born A. D. 1688 of Roman Catholic
parentage, began to write verses in his childhood, and be-
fore he was thirty years old had a massed a moderate for-
tune by his pen, and had taken a position which makes
his name the most ikustrious in the literary roll of the
eighteenth century. Pope's first work of conspicuous
merit was the “Essay on Criticism,” written when he was
but twenty-one or twenty-two years old. Containing no
new or striking views of literature, it is yet admirable for
the soundness of its judgments and the epigrammatic ele-
gance of its style. His “Rape of the Lock,” a mock-heroic
poem—in fact, a burlesque social epic—is the most charm-
ing and exquisitely finished composition of its kind ever
written. Pope was, like Dryden, whom he began by imita-
ting, a satirist, and, like Swift, an egoist. But, unlike
either of them, he had tact and delicacy, and was an ac-
complished man of the world. Where one used a broad-
sword and the other a bludgeon, he used a rapier. His
mind had also a strong philosophical turn, and this he
showed in his “Essay on Man,” which is the finest didac-
tic poem in any language, unmatched for closeness of
thought, felicity of illustration, and delicacy of finish. He
never wrote with passion or with strong imagination, but
in his “Epistles of Eloisa to Abelard” and “Sappho to
Phaon ’’ he did attain a warmth of feeling which is almost
like the fervor of real love; and in writing of his own feeble,
crippled, weary physical life (“Epistle to Arbuthnot.”) he
utters his woes with a simple pathos which is touching and
dignified. With the assistance of some minor versifiers of
the day he translated Homer, making a brilliant and very
readable version, which has the one great defect of mis-
representing the original both in form and in spirit. He
edited Shakspeare, but his real editorial work is of little
worth, and the only valuable part of the edition is in the
preface, which is full of excellent criticism written gener-
ally in admirable English. Pope was not a great poet;
he was rather a colossal epigrammatist and the most skil-
ful of versifiers. He wrote almost always in the ten-syl-
lable heroic couplet, which he brought to the highest per-
fection of which it seems to be capable. He died in afflu-
ence A. D. 1744, having established a school of poetry, and
leaving hosts of imitators, who filled the first half of the
eighteenth century with evidences of how easy it was to
imitate his form, but how hard to attain his finish or to ap-
proach his style of thought. His last important work was
the “Dunciad,” a Savage satire not easily understood now
by those who are not familiar with the literary squabbles
of his day. Satire has its place in literature, and
“is of use
To teach good manners and to curb abuse,”
but personal satire is not always admirable, or éven justi-
fiable; and it is sad to reflect how much fine ability has
been prostituted to the mean purpose of giving personal
all l.
p Two of the eminent men of this period are not only nobly
free from the reproach of injurious motives and of egoism,
but remarkable for the humanizing and elevating purpose
of their writings: they are Richard Steele and Joseph
Addison. To the former we owe the introduction into our
literature of the brief periodical essay, which since his time
has held such an important place in our literature; and we
owe to him also the bringing to light the remarkable powers
of the latter, the master of this kind of writing. Steele
began the publication of the “Tatler” in 1709. It ap-
peared three times a week, and only a few numbers had
been published when he induced Addison to become one of
its regular contributors, the others being Swift and Hughes.
Addison wrote about fifty papers. Afterward, in the
“Spectator,” Addison assumed a more important position,
and wrote most of the papers which gave that publication
its unrivalled reputation. The purpose of Steele and Ad-
dison was the elevation of English society in intellectual
and moral tone, and in manners. This they accomplished
by a series of papers which have never been surpassed in
the easy charm of their style, and in which wit and satire
were directed, not against individuals, but against gross-
ness, meanness, and frivolity, and which did more than
any one other single agency to diffuse a taste for litera-
ture, for art, and for all the refinements of social life among
English-speaking peoples. Addison’s style, although not
nearly so correct as it was once supposed to be, deserves
for many qualities all the admiration that it has received.
For its constant grace and its general clearness, for lam-
bent humor, for good-nature, wit which like Ariel’s music
gives delight and hurts not, for a certain tone of social ele-
gance, and for a purity far remote from squeamishness, it
has no Superior, hardly an equal. Addison’s literary criti-
cisms in the “Spectator’ first raised that department of
English literature into a recognized art. To him, as it has
been said above, English literature owes the establishment
of Milton’s fame. In this respect, as in matters of society,
he was a benefactor to the English people. Nor was Steele
much behind him. Less profound and subtle than his
great colleague, less exquisite in his humor, he had a larger
heart and a richer nature, and there is a warm cordiality
in his writing, the lack of which is Addison’s chief defect. .
But throughout the papers published by this admirable
pair there is a dignified familiarity which has a peculiar
charm, and the characters to which they introduce us be-
come our valued acquaintances, and almost our friends.
Sir Roger de Coverley is not only an historical type, but a
man that we know and love and admire. Steele and Ad-
dison both wrote plays, the former a few comedies of some
merit, the latter a cold, didactic, classical tragedy, “Cato,”
which enjoyed for a time a considerable reputation. But
it is as the essayists of the “Tatler,” the “Spectator,” and
the “Guardian ’’ that their names live in our grateful
memories. Addison died in 1719, Steele in 1729. Like
Pope, they established a school, and their century was
filled with their imitators, whose writings, often not with-
out merit, demand no particular attention. But we must
mention Lady Mary Wortley Montague (1690–1762), whose
letters are models of the familiar epistolary style.
We must turn back a few years for a brief consideration
of three dramatic writers who gave some brilliancy to our
stage in the reigns of William III. and of Anne—William
Congreve (1670–1729), John Vanbrugh (1606–97), and
George Farquhar (1678–1707). Of these, Congreve was
the man of highest aims. He was poetical, if not a poet,
and wrote sententious verse in a dramatic form. His
,”
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
1579
tragedy, “The Mourning Bride,” contains some passages
which are still remembered ; in his comedies his wit keeps
up a continual flash as of heat-lightning. But he created
no character and had no real dramatic force. Vanbrugh
had what Congreve lacked, and lacked what Congreve had,
except wit. His plots are ingeniously constructed, and his
characters are strongly if not truthfully drawn. Farquhar's
comedies are chiefly remarkable for a flow of animal spir-
its. But no one of these men added much to the real glory
of the English drama.
In the year when Addison died there appeared a work
of fiction which has been more widely read than any other
in English fiction, except perhaps “The Pilgrim’s Prog-
ress.” It was “The Life and Strange Surpassing Adven-
tures of Robinson Crusoe, Mariner.” Its author, Daniel
Defoe, was then fifty-eight years old, having passed his
life until that very mature period chiefly in writing an
almost incredible number of political pamphlets in favor
of liberal or Whig principles. “Robinson Crusoe’’ imme-
diately commanded the attention of all sorts and conditions
of men. It was read with avidity, and not only with
avidity, but with credulity. It was not looked upon as a
novel, a fiction from beginning to end: it was accepted as
a plain, unvarnished narrative of fact. And in the quality
which caused it to produce this impression is its great and
its only merit. Defoe has, in a greater degree than any
other writer, the art of giving to fiction the air of reality.
So impressive is the real-seeming of his stories that when,
as we are reading, we pause for a moment and reflect that
they are not true, we are startled; for then it seems as if
our own lives and all that goes on around us might also be
fiction. This effect is a consequence of a certain strength
of imagination; but it is also due in a great measure to the
continuous relation of trifling, matter-of-course, and utterly
insignificant events, which, being told naturally, seem as
if they were part of a life passing minute by minute before
us—an inferior kind of imagination and of constructive-
J
mess, reducing that which is produced by it to the lowest
level of the real School of art. Defoe was a manly and an
incorruptible political writer; but as a literary artist he
had the grand and fatal defects of a want of passion, of
Sentiment, and of tenderness, and also of any remarkable
insight into character and power of portraying it. His
“History of the Plague” is as real-seeming as “Robin-
son Crusoe,” and is almost as purely fiction. His other
works are now little read, and his satirical poem, “The
True-born Englishman,” is known chiefly by name. Born
in 1663, he died in 1731.
After Swift and Pope and Addison and Steele had ceased
to write there was a long dearth of originality in English
literature. But contemporary with them, or immediately
following them, we have to notice among the poets Matthew
Prior (1664–1742); Isaac Watts (1674–1748); Edward
Young (1681–1765); Thomas Warton (1687–1745); John Gay
(1688–1732); William Collins (1720–56), whose “Odes” are
among the best we have; and, far superior to all the others,
yet still a poet of the third or fourth class, James Thomson
(1700–48), author of “The Seasons” and “The Castle of
Indolence.” Among the prose-writers of the period the
following demand honorable mention: Richard Bentley
(1662–1741), eminent as a classical scholar and critic;
Lord Shaftesbury (1671–1713), whose “Characteristics”
are elegant, independent, thoughtful, but not profound;
George Berkeley (1684–1753), who became bishop of
Cloyne, and who broached an ideal system of philosophy,
the cardinal principle of which was that perception is all
that we know of reality; and Lord Chesterfield (1694–
1773), the apostle of etiquette and good breeding.
In the middle of the eighteenth century the English
people were startled by the sudden appearance in fiction
of nature, an element which had been previously unknown
therein. Defoe's power had been that of reality, which is
akin to nature, but is not nature. The new style was in-
troduced by Samuel Richardson, a man born in humble
life, bred to a mechanical trade, and finally a bookseller.
He at the age of fifty-two produced “Pamela,” which was
followed by “Clarissa Harlowe” and “Sir Charles Grandi-
Son.” The success of these books, particularly of the first
and second, was prodigious. But as we look back at them,
and wade through the endless succession of letters from
and to their high-strung, sentimental heroines, we wonder
at the avidity with which such masses of moral “spoon-
ing” were devoured, and can attribute such appetites only
to a long course of starvation. Or, as Scott, in his explan-
ation of this phenomenon, says, “Had we been acquainted
with the huge folios of inanity over which our ancestors
yawned, we should have understood the delight they must
have experienced from this unexpected return to truth and
nature.” Richardson was minute, like Defoe, and his per-
sonages being flesh-and-blood creatures of the period, and
his sentiment genuine of its kind, although inordinate in
quantity, he also awakened the keen interest which always
watches over the vicissitudes of those whose experience is
what we feel that ours might have been. But his books
are a weariness to the flesh. It may be possible for some
people now to read all of “Pamela,” but who for two gen-
erations has been able to struggle through “Clarissa Har-
lowe” and “Sir Charles Grandison " ?—the hero of which is
like a Washington in plain clothes turned beau, and eter-
nally bowing over the hand of some pretty piece of female
Fº who worships him as if, instead of being a man,
e were a fetish. But Richardson was the occasion of the
appearance of a real master of human nature. Henry
Fielding (1707–54), a gentleman by birth and a man of
liberal education, was tempted to write a burlesque of
“Pamela;” and, as in the case of some other performances
of like motive, the burlesque proved more true to nature
than the original. Fielding's novel was “Joseph An-
| drews;” and as Pamela's chief object of life was to pre-
serve through six or seven volumes the point of female
honor, so Joseph, her supposed brother, devotes himself to
the assertion and preservation of his continence against
the wiles of the opposite sex. The vigor and spirit of .
Fielding's style and his creative power have never been
surpassed. He showed that highest ability in fiction, the
power of creating personages which are at once individuals
and types. His Parson Adams, Lady Booby, Squire West-
ern, Tom Jones, and Amelia have a vitality and a truth
far above that which is producible by the most elaborate
work in the realistic school. They come from a knowledge
of the real, from which the truth of highest art eliminates
the non-essential. They are created from Within, not built
up from without. Fielding's humor is rich, free, and
pervades his comic scenes like the natural atmosphere.
That he was sometimes coarse, according to modern stand-
ards of taste, is the fault of his time. Tobias Smollett
(1721–71), who soon appeared upon the field, was a much
coarser artist. His object seems merely to tickle his reader
into laughter by a succession of scenes which seem like
farce put into narrative form. But he has fine touches of
satirical humor, and his “Peregrine Pickle” and “Rode-
rick Random * and “ Humphrey Clinker” will always give
leasure to readers of robust tastes and strong stomachs.
n the latter part of his life he wrote a continuation of the
history of England from the point to which it was brought
down by Hume, who next engages our attention.
David Hume (1711–76) was a Scotchman, who first ap-
peared in the field of philosophy, in which he showed him-
self an original and daring thinker. His philosophical
works are a “Treatise on Human Nature” (republished as
“Philosophical Essays concerning the Human Understand-
ing ”), “An Inquiry concerning the Principles of Morals,”
and “The Natural History of Religion.” In the treatment
of these subjects he disregarded authority and accepted
belief, making fact and reason his only guides. He was
by nature a doubter and an inquirer. These works placed
him in the front rank of modern moral and metaphysical
writers, and produced an effect which seems destined to be
permanent. His views as to the possibility and the neces-
sity of miracles arrayed against him all the theologians of
his day; but a large number of the ablest and most sincere
theologians of the present time accept his views, as being
sound in the main and not at War with the interests of
true religion. Having taken this position, he turned his
attention to history, and wrote in three instalments what
is known as his “History of England,” bringing his work
down to the Revolution of 1688. This work is not of high
authority as to matters of fact, and it is strongly tinctured
with the writer's personal prejudices. But its happy ar-
rangement, the clearness and vivacity of its style, its char-
ity and toleration of spirit, notwithstanding the obvious
prejudices before referred to, make it one of the most in-
teresting of modern histories, as it was the first of the
modern school of historical writing. Hume's style is too
strongly marked with Northern peculiarities to be regard-
ed as a good example of standard English.
Contemporary with Hume, but younger than he, was
Edward Gibbon (1737–94), who produced between 1776
and 1788 his “ History of the Decline and Fall of the Ro-
man Empire,” a work upon which he was engaged for
twenty years. The magnificent plan of this history, the
vast extent of time which it covers, its colossal erudition—
it being the fruit of original investigation of facts hidden
for the most part in the dimmest recesses of the Dark Ages—
and its imposing style, make it the greatest work of its kind
known to literature. Its style, however, is too conscious,
too pretentious, too much infested with Romanic words and
Gallic forms of thought, to be regarded as really English.
It is Gibbonese.
Forming one of a group of three contemporary historical
writers of eminence was William Robertson (1721–93), who
wrote the history of Scotland, of Charles W., and of Amer-
1580
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
ica—works of sound and unpretending merit, written in an
agreeable style, somewhat too strongly marked with Scot-
ticisms.
The middle of the eighteenth century was adorned by
the brief but highly-finished poems of Thomas Gray (1716–
71), whose function in poetry seemed to be to show how
high a point could be reached by a man who had a poetic
nature, strong poetic feeling, and an exquisite ear for
rhythm, but who was without genuine poetic inspiration.
Gray’s “Elegy in a Country Churchyard” has probably
been more widely read than any other poem in the lan-
guage, and it has certainly furnished more phrases to our
collection of household words than any other that ever
was written; almost the whole of it has become a part of
familiar speech. It is a beautiful union of tender thought-
fulness and graceful expression. Contemporary with Gray
was William Shenstone (1714–63), a poet of considerable
merit, whose best-remembered work is “The Schoolmis-
tress,” an admirable imitation of Spenser's style, but more
admirable as a poetical picture of a type and of a time.
To this period, too, we owe the works of Laurence Sterne
(1713–68), one of the greatest humorists in English or in
any other literature. His is the only humor that could be
named with that of Shakspeare or of Cervantes. His sa-
tire has the charm of a delicacy so exquisite that it seems
like pungent aroma filling the atmosphere of his thought.
His style has a corresponding daintiness, although it is
sometimes disfigured with affectation. Admiration of
“The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy” and of “A
Sentimerital Journey through France and Italy” has grown
with the passage of each year since their first appearance.
Throwing the shadow of its sad humanity all athwart
the latter half of the eighteenth century stands the burly
bulk of Samuel Johnson, who was born in Litchfield A. D.
1709, and died in London A. D. 1784. Johnson was one
of the most miscellaneous, and really one of the most des–
ultory, of writers. He was a poet, a dramatist, an essay-
ist, a biographer, and a lexicographer. In fact, like many
other literary men of equal and of less note, he wrote for
bread that which he was called upon to write; but he im-
pressed upon all that he did write the stamp of his own
strong individuality. His purely literary fame was ac-
quired chiefly as a moral and a critical writer. Not always
just, not always right (who is ?), he is distinguished by a
love of truth and of purity, by sturdy independence and
colossal common sense. Of original thought he produced
little, but he added to axioms the charm of novelty by the
earnestness and the weight with which he gave them utter-
ance. His style, too ponderous and too formal, has never-
theless the great merit of clearness and of strength; and
it would be well if many of the shambling, slipshod writers
of the present day would take a hint from his advice in
regard to Addison, and give their days and nights to the
study of “the Johnsonian period.” His “Rambler” es-
says, which he wrote twice a week for two years, exhibit
in their most characteristic form his merits and his defects
as a writer. If heavy sometimes in style, they are always
laden with the weight of humanity. Johnson’s “Diction-
ary,” having been compiled before the establishment of
the modern school of comparative philology, has compar-
atively little etymological value, but it was the first Eng-
lish dictionary made upon the proper principle of an in-.
vestigation of the history of words as exhibited in English
literature; and it has been the model and the quarry of
almost all subsequent works of its kind. Johnson is,
however, best known through the minute report of his daily
life and his intercourse with his literary friends furnished
in his memoirs by James Boswell. He was a sort of king
in the literary circles of his time, and exercised a personal
influence the effects of which have not yet quite passed
away. He was often overbearing, and sometimes even
brutal; but nevertheless he stands, rugged, sad, tender,
generous, true, a solemn figure to be admired, and even
loved.
Among his eminent contemporaries two must be passed
by with mention inadequate to their merits or their fame—
Adam Smith (1723–90), who has the honor of being the
founder of the science of political economy; and Sir Philip
Erancis (1740–1818), who under the signature of “Junius”
was a terror to the statesmen of his time, and even of his
party; and who remains the great English master of invee-
tive. The style of the letters of Junius is still worthy of
all the admiration of which they were ever made the Sub-
ject; and that of the best political leading articles in
the journalism of subsequent times owes much to those
celebrated letters, which may be said to have founded
the modern school of anonymous and irresponsible jour-
malism.
It is remarkable that of the great masters of modern
English, four of the greatest were by birth and early edu-
cation Irishmen—Swift, Sterne, Goldsmith, and Burke—
and of these the foremost is the last. Edmund Burke
(born 1736) is beyond all doubt the greatest master of
English prose. Goldsmith is his equal in purity, simplicity,
and grace; but in Burke there is a fulness of thought, a
wealth of words, a sustained power of utterance, a grand
Sweep of the period, with a subtle yet most naturally in-
wrought richness of illustration, to say nothing of mere
accuracy of expression and clearness of construction, which
place him far beyond all other writers. Burke's mastery
of language is like Beethoven’s mastery of melody and
harmony. His department of literature is that of philoso-
phical statesmamship, in which he stands side by side with
Cicero, if not a little before the great Roman. The saying
that he to party “gave up what was meant for mankind”
is one of those glittering fallacies of thought which poets
have unfortunately the power of perpetuating. On the
contrary, his fault as a party-man was that he thought
too much of mankind and had too much poetic feeling—
thought perhaps not always logically, and sometimes with
too much sentiment of the highest kind, but rarely in un-
wisdom. Indeed, he is the wisest of all modern politicians.
His “Reflections on the Revolution in France,” “Letter
on a Regicide Peace,” and “Letter to a Noble Lord ” are
his principal works. Of his purely literary essays, that on
“The Sublime and Beautiful” was at first widely known
and read. But among the earliest fruits of his laborious
life it is that of the least permanent value. His strength
grew with his years, and his most powerful as well as his
most brilliant efforts were made after he had passed his
º and even just before his death, which took place
in 1797.
Of Goldsmith (1728–74) Dr. Johnson well wrote, “Nullum
non tetigit quod non ornavit,” and he touched many things,
but he lives in literature as the author of four works of
very various form : a novel, “The Vicar of Wakefield,” a
comedy, “She Stoops to Conquer,” a poem, “The Deserted
Village,” and a satirical criticism of society, “The Citizen
of the World.” He wrote other poems, many essays, and
much criticism, all charming in style and full of humor
and a gentle wisdom, but the works named above are his
masterpieces. The “Vicar of Wakefield,” faulty in con-
struction, is matchless and immortal as a gentle revelation
of the weakness of human nature, and is the first of our
novels of domestic life; and “She Stoops to Conquer” is,
whether for its construction or its humor, the best comedy
of the same range in English dramatic literature.
The eighteenth century was rounded with the life of a
poet, William Cowper (1731–1800), who to minds of a re-
ligious tone and unspeculative cast speaks in accents which
cherish and comfort them and sustain their faith. He is
pre-eminently the poet of Christian morality, of true piety,
and of all the softer and sweeter social graces. Incapable
of bitterness, he was not incapable of gentle and dignified
satire ; and although his style has too much of the for-
mality and conscious precision of his time, he has many
passages marked with great sweetness and freshness of
feeling. His longest and most ambitious original works
are “The Table Talk” and “The Task,” but incomparably
his best are his “Lines on my Mother's Picture * and
“John Gilpin,” an outburst of pure fun and humor strange-
ly and delightfully incongruous with his usual style. He
translated Homer very ambitiously, but without corre-
sponding success.
Robert Burns (1759–96), who died only four years be-
fore Cowper, was the greatest writer of English poetry born
north of the Tweed. He is regarded as a “Scotch” poet,
but even his “Scotch” poems are in a mere dialect of the
English language, as has been remarked above; and some
of his more serious poems, and not a few of his songs, are
in as pure standard English as any compositions of his
contemporary, Cowper himself. As a lyric poet, Burns,
when we consider both the number of his poems and their
merit, must be placed at the head of his class. No songs
so full of the direct utterance of passion, of tenderness,
and of love-lit fancy exist in the English language—hardly
in any other; and his idyls spring from the soil like grass,
and with the purple bloom and the sweetness of heather.
Entirely uninstructed, he was fashioned by Nature from
his cradle to be her singer. The very trials of his shift-
ing life, the very failings of his unstable character, were
to him sources of the purest poetic utterance. He indeed
did learn in suffering what he taught in song. Having
wrecked his life upon his passions, and wreaked his woes
upon expression, he died in misery, and left a name around
which burns a glow of tender glory. Two of his country-
men deserve mention among the poets of their land—
James Hogg (1772–1835) and Allan Cunningham (1785–
1842), -
In the eighteenth century the English race began to
manifest its power in a new quarter of the world. The
men who had left the old England, and had crossed the
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
1581
Atlantic to found a new England free from some of the
civil and religious restraints which galled them in the
land of their birth, were, very many of them, not only en-
ergetic and enterprising, but intelligent, and of more than
moderate intellectual and social culture. In New England
education was one of their earliest cares. Colonial litera-
ture has, however, nothing worthy of notice in a sketch
like the present (for the Māthers, Increase, the father, and
Cotton, the Šon, produced nothing that has any intrinsic
literary value) until we reach Jonathan Edwards (1703–
58), a theological and metaphysical writer whose power
was at once recognized in the mother-country, and whose
“Enquiry into the Freedom of the Will” is still the strong-
hold of the necessitarian theologists. He merited the
judgment pronounced by his biographer Mark. Hopkins,
that he was a man of considerable learning, extensive
reading, sound judgment, and great argumentative acute-
ness. The next author of eminence among his countrymen
was Benjamin Franklin (1706–90), the great apostle of com-
mon sense. Franklin was a philosopher, but in his company
Philosophy wore her homeliest garb and addressed herself
by the simplest means to the most practically useful ends.
He was above all things “ utilitarian,” of which school in
social science he was one of the founders. He is hardly
better known for his discoveries in electricity and the great
diplomatic services he rendered the colonies at European
courts than for the prudential maxims of his “Poor Rich-
ard’s Almanac.” His style is very plain, clear, and con-
vincing. Among Franklin’s younger contemporaries were
the men who roused the colonists to resistance to the ty-
rannical government of George III., and finally brought
about the severance from the mother-country—John Adams
(1735–1826), Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), Patrick Honry
(1736–99), Thomas Paine (1737–1809), Jonathan Trum-
bull (1750–1831), Philip Freneau (1752–1832), and Alex-
ander Hamilton (1757–1804). Of these, Adams was sound
in judgment, logical in reasoning, a lawyer, and a man
having respect for authority and demanding respect for
it; Jefferson a calm but earnest and persistent advo-
cate of equality before the law in all things, whose au-
thorship of the Declaration of Independence not only
secures him immortality, but gives him some claim to
having helped to light the fires of the French Revolu-
tion; Patrick Henry an orator of masculine tone and fer-
vid phrase, equally daring and dexterous; Thomas Paine
an intellectual iconoclast and a rebel against all authority,
whose “Common Sense” and “Rights of Man” have done
more to spread skepticism, if not to quicken it, than any
other books ever written; Philip Freneau a poet of genuine
patriotic feeling and lyrical skill; Hamilton a statesman
of true formative power, who was endowed with the ability
of uttering his schemes and putting his arguments in a
style of remarkable elegance and force. He was the prin-
cipal author of “The Federalist,” a series of papers which
did much to bring about the formation of the American
Union. But the place of all these men in literature is not
a notable one, and is very inconsiderable compared to that
which they filled in the great political movement of their
time. They had very little influence on the literary tone
of their own country, and are hardly discernible in the
great stream of English literature which now flows yearly
fuller and stronger with the inpouring of its American
tributary. But it was not until well on in the first quarter
of the nineteenth century that Anglo-American writers
showed native, independent power. -
The period succeeding the American war of Independ-
ence and the French Revolution was one of great activity
in English literature, all departments of which were filled
by a throng of new writers who sprang up with the spon-
taneousness of mushrooms, but not with their shortness of
life. And now, as there are no longer any material or sig-
nificant changes in language to be noticed, as authors crowd
upon us—authorship having become so common that we all
write, learned and unlearned—and as we have reached a
period within the memory of living men, our remarks, even
upon writers of eminence, must be mgre brief than they
have been heretofore, and it will be convenient for the
reader that we shall consider the various departments of
literature each by itself.
Poetry.—The bonds of continuity between eras, however
unlike, are rarely if ever entirely wanting unless they are
broken by some prolonged as well as violent political and
social convulsion, such as we have remarked in the case of
the Wars of the Roses; and the link that binds the poetry
of the eighteenth century to that of the nineteenth is George
Crabbe (1754–1832), in whose works both the form and the
spirit which more or less pervaded English poetry from
the time of Pope to that of Wordsworth are so manifest,
yet with the modification produced by a tendency towards
the contemplation of simple nature and of the reality of
lowly, life, as to win him the sobriquet of “Pope in worsted
and the style of his versification.
stockings.” Crabbe's poems show close observation, a
loving sympathy with nature, and not a little shrewd
humor. Walter Scott (1771–1832), who followed soon
after him, was very unlike him in the choice of his subjects
Scott is the poet of
chivalry and romance, and the story of his poems is always
removed from modern times; he writes loosely and freely,
but with great spirit and vivacity of movement; his fancy
flies low, but his imagination is strong, and his love of
nature and of the external signs of man’s presence, as
churches, castles, and buildings of all kinds, is very great.
No poems ever received so quickly so large a share of pub-
lic attention as his. They effected an entire change in the
poetic taste of the time. After working his peculiar vein
out, he turned his pen to prose fiction, and we shall meet
him again in the ranks of the novelists. He was replaced
in public favor, as a poet, by Lord Byron (George Gordon),
(1788–1824), who, entirely unlike him in the spirit of his
poetry, had some strong points of resemblance to him in
the form and structure of his compositions. Like Scott’s,
Byron’s principal poems are narrative, and have a freedom
of versification and ease of style entirely opposed to the
eighteenth-century manner. The heroic couplet and the
epigrammatic period had disappeared from English litera-
ture, perhaps for ever. Byron’s style is rich, sensuous, and
brilliant; his motive, rarely high or pure. He is satirical,
but because of a contempt for his kind rather than a hatred
of what is bad and base. His descriptions, whether of
natural objects or human action, are truly splendid; and
in some passages, notably in his greatest work, “Childe
Harold,” he rises into the higher regions of poetry. But
the tendency of his writings is debasing, less because of
their sensual and epicurean tone than by reason of their
derangement of the moral perceptions and their defiance
of the moral sense. His heroes are unnatural combina-
tions of incongruous qualities; his women mere compounds
of beauty and unrestrained passions; and a gloomy and
fierce egoism pervades his writing. But he is the richest
in style and the most copious in fancy of all modern Eng-
lish poets. He was followed in public favor by his friend
Thomas Moore (1779–1852), a poet of Irish birth, who
wrote “Lalla Rookh’’ and “The Loves of the Angels,”
but whose real excellence was in lyric compositions.
Moore’s songs are charming in their tenderness, their
lively fancy, and the sweet cadence of their verse, but they
do not rise into the highest range of lyric writing. They
smack of society, and have about them the odor either of the
drawing-room or the dinner-table. Next in the galaxy of
poets which distinguished the reign of George IV. we have
to notice Thomas Campbell (1777–1844), a Scotsman by
birth and a Celt by blood, who yet stands high in the an-
nals of English literature. His “Pleasures of Hope” and
“Gertrude of Wyoming” are his longest and his most am-
bitious poems. They are full of bright fancy, generous
sentiment, and earnest humanity of feeling. But his lyric
poems are his best, and they are of a very high order.
They have the true fire and energy of the highest lyric
school, mingling in rare combination fancy, passion, and
reflection. His critical and biographical writings added
largely to his literary reputation. Percy Bysshe Shelley
(1792–1822) and John Keats (1795–1828) should be noticed
here, although greater names are awaiting us. They both
lived uncompleted lives, neither of them producing a work
which attained the excellence of which they seemed capa-
ble. Shelley’s life was one of revolt against Society, and
his longer poems are an utterance of his rebellious spirit.
His minor poems express the exquisite tenderness and
sweet fancies of a really lovely nature. Keats’s “Endym-
ion ” and “Eve of St. Agnes,” full of beautiful passages,
lack the coherence and consistency of style requisite in
poetry of a high order; but perhaps it may justly be said
that he died too young for us to know the real calibre of
his mind. -
Among the poetical writers of this period these must be
mentioned: the brothers Horace (1779–1849) and James
Smith (1775–1839), the authors of the famous “Rejected
Addresses,” parodies or burlesques of subtle humor and in-
herent merit; Mrs. Felicia Hemans (1794–1835) and Miss
Letitia. E. Landon (1802–35), graceful and sentimental
poetesses; Robert Montgomery (1807–55), the author of
“Satan” and other religious poems; Theodore Hook (1788–
1841), the author of irreligious poems and jests that belied
his name; Joanna Baillie (1762–1851), known as the au-
thoress of an elaborate series of “Plays on the Passions”
which could not be played and are never read ; and Sir
Thomas Noon Talfourd, a common-law judge, whose one
tragedy, “Ion,” made a lasting reputation for himself,
and for more than one representative of its title part, and
is read with delight by those who eschew the theatre.
At this time appeared what was very loosely styled the
Lake School of Poets, the first and chief of which was
... 1582
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
William Wordsworth (1770–1850), whose poem, “An Even-
ing Walk, addressed to a Young Lady from the Lakes of
the North of England,” was probably the occasion of the
name given to him and his imitators. Wordsworth began
to write in the old style, as appears by some poems written
in 1786 which he preserved. But reaching manhood, he
broke loose from this style, owing his emancipation chiefly
to the influence of German literature, which then began to
be much read in England. The reflective cast of this lite-
rature suited his mind, and he made himself the most med-
itative—we might almost say, the most ruminative—poet
in English literature. He set out to reform English poetry,
and his effort was toward an admirable end—simplicity and
truth to nature. One means by which he hoped to attain
his end was, in his own language, “by fitting to metrical
arrangement a selection of the ‘real language of men in a
state of vivid sensation.” He failed in accomplishing this
end, which is incompatible with the requirements of any
poetry; and one result of his efforts in this direction was
the putting in some form of verse, generally a sonnet,
almost every incident of an externally prosaic life. All
his best works had their excellence (as his friend Cole-
ridge said) in a treatment entirely at variance with his
own theory, in conforming to which he produced of what
was good only some short and simple poems of a remark-
ably picturesque beauty; but the rest of his verses, wrought
out according to his theory, excited only the ridicule of
his contemporaries, and have fallen into merited oblivion.
Wordsworth in the best manifestation of his powers was a
descriptive philosophical poet. He lacked passion, had no
dramatic power, even enough to take himself out of him-
self, and his constructive ability was small. Of lyric power
he had none whatever, and his versification has no peculiar
charm. But in two styles of poetry he is without a supe-
rior, almost without an equal, in English literature. The
first, which is almost peculiar to himself, is marked with a
thoughtful and tender simplicity in the expression of the
feelings of very humble people. It may be regarded as a
very refined and elevated style of ballad-writing, the fidel-
ity of the best old ballad style to the facts of nature being
carefully preserved. The other style—and that in which
the greater part of his best poetry is written—is specula-
tive, deeply penetrative into the human heart and the rela-
tions of man with God and nature. It is grand, but when
prolonged becomes somewhat wearisome. His sonnets,
which are very numerous, are, with a few conspicuous ex-
ceptions, cold and dry, and seem, too many of them, to
have been written under the pressure of a sense of duty.
He wrote much, and we cannot here spare the room even
to enumerate his important works. He was made poet-
laureate in 1844, succeeding Southey, whom we next notice.
Robert Southey (1774–1843) wrote much verse, but little
poetry. What he might have produced had he concen-
trated his efforts we cannot tell. But he surely might have
been one of the first of English prose-writers. The amount
of writing that he did in verse and prose is really prodig-
ious. But the essence of poetry is concentrated thought,
or at least concentrated expression of thought; and that
he lacked. He was in all things diffuse, although clear
and simple and manly in style. His English is much ad-
mired by the best critics. But he was without originality
even in style. Of all his verse not a line or a phrase has
passed into the phraseology of common life except one—
“deeply, darkly, beautifully blue”—which owes its circu-
lation to Byron's having quoted it.
his rambling, humorous “Doctor” is now read; but he was
one of the most conspicuous literary personages of his
time. -
Younger by a year or two than Southey, and his friend
and Wordsworth's, was Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772–
1834), a man who, if he had been content with being only
a poet, wofºld have been a poet of the highest rank, ex-
cluding the three who stand together—Homer, Dante, and
Shakspeare. Coleridge began life by being an enlisted
dragoon; he next projected a Utopian republic on the
banks of the Susquehanna; next he became a Unitarian
preacher; he afterward turned Trinitarian and Tory; and
he passed the remainder of his life writing and talking with
a marvellous mingling of grandeur and subtlety, but leav-
ing nothing complete except a few short poems. He was
one of the last of the great talkers, the very last being
Macaulay; and like him he spoke soliloquy. Referring to
his Unitarian period, he once said to Lamb, “ Charles, did
you ever hear me preach 7” “Samuel,” replied the stutter-
ing wit, “I n-n-never heard you do anything else.” All
this is characteristic of the man. He was a grand intel-
Iectual torso, or rather a succession of unfinished clay
models of what he might have been. The author of “The
Ancient Mariner,” of “Christabel,” of “Love,” of “Gene-
vieve,” of the “Hymn to Chamouni,” of “The Devil’s
Walk,” of the lines upon “Cologne,” and the translator of
Of all his works only
“Wallenstein,” had the capacity of a great poet of very.
varied, powers. But he was beset by the demon of criti-
cism, that foe of the creative faculty; he could not resist
the temptation to wander away into the fields of meta-
physical speculation; he sapped his mind and shattered
his body with opium-eating; and so he ended his life, a
splendid wreck, leaving the wealth that he bore scattered
upon the shores of immortality.
Mentioning Samuel Rogers (1763–1855), the banker-
poet, the author of the “Pleasures of Imagination,” a
writer who formed himself rather upon the eighteenth-
century models, and who, as Byron said, “when he was
delivered of a couplet took to his bed and tied up his
knocker;” and Thomas Hood (1798–1845), one of the
most charining of our humorous poets, and one who com-
bined his humor with a pathos peculiarly his own, whose
“Song of a Shirt” and “ Bridge of Sighs” have touched,
and will ever touch, all true hearts with sadness, we pass
to poetical writers of our own day. - .
Chief among the elders of our living poets are Bryant,
Longfellow, and Tennyson. William Cullen Bryant (born
1794) first commanded public attention by a poem, “Than-
atopsis,” written when he was nineteen years old—a grand
monody upon the end appointed for all living, the inspi-
ration of which was perhaps caught from a passage in
“Measure for Measure,” and which has taken a place
among the classic poems in our language. After accom-
plishing threescore and ten years he has made a translation
of Homer which disputes the palm of superiority with all
its predecessors. Between these periods of a laborious
life he has written not much poetry, but none unworthy
of the fame he won so early and has sustained so late. In
purity of style, in the finish of his verse, in the elevation
of his thought, and in his loving portraiture of nature he
is unsurpassed among living poets. His writings make us
wish that poetry had been the business and not the mere
adornment of his life.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (born 1807), on the con-
trary, has passed his life in the pursuits of the higher
literature. " His two earliest books, “Outre Mer” and
“Hyperion,” were prose, but the prose was that of a man
of poetical temperament. Then came the “Voices of the
Night,” which at once commanded the attention of the
whole English-speaking public, and which have been
translated into German and into other languages. Since
then he has given the world many volumes of poetry which
have enjoyed as great a popularity in Europe as in Amer-
ica. Mr. Longfellow’s poetry has the rare quality of ad-
dressing itself directly to the minds and hearts of all men.
IIigh and low, educated and uneducated, all acknowledge
its charm. Singularly refined in his every utterance, he is
the most popular of living English poetical writers. His
poems are galleries of characters uttering sentiments that
sink into the general heart. To his original works he has
added a translation of Dante, the singular fidelity of which
to the original in thought and in form shows no less his
mastery of his own tongue than his thorough and subtle
knowledge of that of the great Florentine poet. -
Alfred Tennyson (born 1809), who succeeded Wordsworth
as poet-laureate, has since the death of his predecessor
held the first place among living British poets. It would
seem in his case almost that the poet was made, not born,
for his first volume, published in 1830, gave no promise
of his future fame; and it was not until twelve years after-
ward, when Longfellow had published his “Voices of the
Night,” his “Ballads and Other Poems,” his “Poems on
Slavery,” and had in press “The Spanish Student,” by
which his style of versification and the character of his
thought were fully displayed, that Tennyson published his
second volume, “Poems chiefly Lyrical,” in which the
“Morte d’Arthur’’ and “Locksley Hall” gave unmistaka-
ble indications of his genius. These facts dispose of the
assertion, which has been unwarily made, that the New
England poet is an imitator of his British contemporary, a
somewhat younger man and a very considerably later poet.
Since the publication last mentioned, Tennyson's poetic
faculty has grown greatly, and with it his fame. Tennyson
is eminently a poet whose powers have been developed,
almost made, by discipline and by culture. Like Words-
worth, he has held himself apart from the world, conse-
crating his life to his Muse. His style is elevated, pure,
and deeply thoughtful. He deals with the great problems
of the human soul—but incidentally, none of his works
having a distinctly metaphysical or even a moral aim.
His “In Memoriam ” is in this way very characteristic of
his mind, and with his “Idyls of the King” presents the
highest manifestation of his powers. He always writes
with a high aim, but always shows a consciousness that he
is doing so. The deficiency of his poetry is in spontane-
ousness and energetic utterance. He rarely catches “a
grace beyond the reach of art.” But some of his lyric
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
poems, like the one beginning “Break, break, break on
thy cold gray rocks, 0 Sea, l’ have an exquisite charm of
sentiment. -
If the dramatic writing of the day were worthy of clas-
sification as literature, Robert Browning (born 1812) should
be regarded as at the head of the dramatic poets of the
day. This place would be his, not so much by virtue of
his plays as because all that he writes is imbued with the
purest and highest dramatic spirit. He is not only the
greatest English dramatist of the age, but the greatest
since Shakspeare. He has that power so admirable, so
rare, of creating living personages whose characters be-
come known to us not by description, but by their own
actions and utterances. In these characters he entirely
loses his own identity, and even, it would seem, his own
consciousness. He thinks their thoughts and feels their
feelings. This is true in what seem to be descriptive
poems; and the well-chosen names of two of his volumes,
“Men and Women’’ and “Dramatic Lyrics,” show a con-
sciousness on his part of this power. His versification is
often rough, his style careless, his thought involved; but
those, who understand him forgive these defects (which he
sometimes compels into charms, if not into beauties) for
the delight they take in his rare dramatic genius. He
married Elizabeth Barrett (1809–61), the most eminent of
English poetesses, whose “Portuguese Sonnets” (in which
the love crowned by that marriage is covered by a very
transparent veil) are admirable for fervor and freedom of
utterance, and whose “Aurora, Leigh' is in fact a novel
of Society wrought skilfully into a charming narrative
O6rYle
p James Russell Lowell (born 1819) and Matthew Arnold
(born 1822) are exemplars of the union of the poetical and
the critical faculty in an uncommon degree. No one can
read Mr. Lowell’s “Legend of Brittany,” his “Sir Laun-
fal,” his “Commemoration Ode,” and his minor poems
without wishing that he had given his life to the develop-
ment and the perfection of the great natural poetic gift
which they indicate. As a humorist he has few equals,
and he is most widely known by the “Biglow Papers,” a
series of humorous satirical poems in the rustic New Eng-
land dialect, of which Lowell is a perfect master. His
critical essays, collected in “Among my Books” and “My
Study Windows,” are marked by searching independence
of thought and the fruits of a wide range of reading, en-
livened by touches of his rare and racy humor. Of Mat-
thew Arnold’s poems, his dramatic “Sohrab and Rustum”
is the finest exhibition of his power in this direction. It
has the true antique grandeur, with the antique simplicity
and directness. His essays and critical writings, which
are mumerous, are marked by unusual subtlety of thought
and an exquisite finish of style. He is perhaps the most
polished living writer of English.
Algernon Charles Swinburne (born 1837), the most prom-
inent, if not the most admirable, of the younger English
poets, first commanded attention by his poetical drama,
“Atalanta in Calydon,” which is remarkable for its ex-
quisite fancy, its wealth. of language, and its strong infu-
sion of the old Greek spirit. His other dramatic poems,
although not equal to this, delight admirers of strong pas-
sion and unreserved utterance. A volume of “Poems and
Ballads” exhibits the same qualities in a greater degree,
clothed in a versification the external richness and strength
of which compel an admiration sometimes unwillingly given
to such exhibitions of nakedness of soul and body.
But there are two kinds of nakedness, both of soul and
of body: the purer kind never was seen in a more alluring
form than in the poems of William Morris (born 1833),
whose “Jason’’ and “Earthly Paradise” have placed him
high in the second rank of English poets. Mr. Morris
goes to the legends of ancient Greece and of the Middle
Ages for his subjects; and he tells these old tales with
such vividness of imagination, such picturesque and sen-
suous richness of description, and such sweet simplicity of
feeling that he renews and freshens all their old beauty and
adds to it a charm of his own. His versification is remark-
able for its easy flow and for the luscious richness of its
Sound. But his great strength lies in his imagination. He
sees before him the subject of his verse. As a narrative
poet he has no superior or equal but Chaucer, of whom
he professes himself the scholar; and thus, in our day at
least, we see the cycle of English poetry returning to the
point whence it started.
Of the poets of minor fame we must mention Whittier,
who has produced some fine—perhaps the purest modern—
examples of true ballad poetry—high praise, for the true
ballad, one of the most charming forms of lyric compo-
sition, is, in modern days, among the rarest of poetical
productions; and the author of “Barclay of Ury,” “Maud
Muller,” and “Barbara Frietchie,” always pure, fervid,
and direct, will be remembered when many a more vol-
—a-—
1583
uminous and ambitious writer is forgotten; T. W. Parsons,
the master of a true and strong poetic utterance; Jean In-
| gelow; Bret Harte, whose humorous poems in dialect have
qualities regarded as peculiarly “American ;” Bayard Tay-
lor, who has made the best translation of “Faust;” Richard
H. Stoddard, George H. Boker, Edmund C. Stedman; and
Walt Whitman, who amid heaps of commonplace rubbish
in fantastic form has dropped some lines weighted with
thought and true feeling.
The principal dramatists of the present century are
Sheridan Knowles, Dion Boucicault, Tom Taylor, and
Robertson, but no one of them has written a play which
has any value except upon the stage. In the English lan-
guage dramatic literature seems to have ceased to exist.
Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751–1816), belonging partly
to the last century and partly to this, is the last of the
dramatic school. But even his comedies are comedies of
wit, not of character, and the wit is always that of Sher-
idan, not of the personages who utter it.
Movels.-In no department of literature has the increased
intellectual activity of the present century been so copiously
manifested as in that of prose fiction. The writers of novels
are to be numbered now-a-days by the hundred. Merely
mentioning the names of Hannah More (1745–1833), the
authoress of “Coelebs in Search of a Wife?” and other writ-
ings of a pietistic-social purpose; William Beckford (1760–
1844), whose “Vathek,” originally written in French, does
not for its merit deserve a notable place in English lit-
erature; Anne Radcliffe (1764–1823) and Matthew Greg-
ory Lewis (1775–1818), (called “Monk” Lewis, from the
title of his most celebrated work), both of whom revelled
in horrors and mysteries; and the two sisters, Jane (1776–
1850) and Anna Maria Porter (1781–1852), the priestesses
of the goddess of sensibility—all of whom belong rather
in spirit, as they do much in time, to the eighteenth cen-
tury — let us pass to the consideration of the later and
stronger writers of fiction, only the most eminent and
characteristic of whom can be noticed here. The great
novelist of the century and of our language—and, it is
not too much to say, of the world—is Sir Walter Scott,
who, as we have seen, holds also so high a place among
its poets. “The Waverley Novels,” so called from the
title of the first one of the series, are chiefly historical—
that is, their plots are interwoven with historical inci-
dents, and some of their principal personages are figures
taken from history. In correctness of historical detail,
as also in correctness of style, they are open to adverse
criticism. But trifles of that kind are, or ought to be, dis-
regarded by even the best-informed and most cultivated
readers as they are borne onward upon the strong, steady
stream of the story. Scott was simply the greatest writer
of stories that ever lived. His imaginative realization of
his personages, and his dramatic evolution of their charac-
ters and management of their intercourse with each other,
are inferior only to Shakspeare's, from whom to him, in
imaginative writing, criticism may take one great leap.
No other writer but Shakspeare has filled the world’s mem-
ory with such a throng of living figures, so varied in their
types, so lifelike and real-seeming in their action. He
spends little time in analyzing motives and in dissecting
character; but with strong clear touches, every one of
which has meaning, he places the man or the woman be-
fore us, and we know them, as we know our friends or our
enemies, for ever after, and at once we become interested
in their feelings, their actions, their experience, and their
fate. Scott is a singularly healthy writer. There is hardly
a morbid passage or an injurious one in any sense in all
his works. We rise from them refreshed, delighted, invig-
orated, elevated. In narrative power, in truthfulness, in
picturesqueness, in lifelike action, in the clear management
of a complicated action, in united strength and delicacy of
portraiture, in grandeur of movement, in humor, and in
charm of style he is without a rival. Miss Jane Austen
(1785–1817), who followed him as a younger contemporary,
is one of the best of English domestic novelists. Her works
will always be read for their intrinsic interest and as faith-
ful and pleasing pictures of the society of her time. George
P. R. James (1801–60) was an imitator of Scott, and although
a prolific writer and a favorite with the public of his day,
he has shared the fate of all imitators, and is now little
read. But the author of “Philip Augustus” and “One
in a Thousand ’’ was a novelist of no mean powers. Ed-
ward Lytton Bulwer (1806–74), afterwards Lord Lytton,
in his first novel, “ Pelham,” introduced to the world what
is distinctively known as the novel of fashionable Society.
He afterwards extended his field and wrote historical
novels, sentimental novels, novels descript and nonde-
script. A man of high culture, of various acquirements,
and a writer of considerable power, he commanded for
many years the admiration of a wide circle of readers.
But he was in no way original; his sentiment was equally
1584
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false and excessive; his style was artificial; he had no
dramatic power; and his personages have no true life or
character, but are bundles of clothes with something in
them that talks what Edward Bulwer thought. No one
of them lives except Pelham, a typical high-class dandy
of the latest Georgian era. His best works are “The Cax-
tons” and “My Novel,” written in imitation of Sterne.
Benjamin Disraeli (born 1805)—the son of Isaac Disraeli
(1768–1848), an accomplished Hebrew who was converted
to Christianity, and who is widely known as the author of
“The Curiosities of Literature,” “The Amenities of Litera-
ture,” and “The Calamities of Authors”—is the author of
several novels, the earliest of which is “Vivian Grey’”
(1825) and the last “Lothair” (1870). His works are bril-
liant, and have always commanded attention, but they are
fantastic, extravagant, and untruthful as representations
of human nature or of society at any time or in any
country. Most of them have a political or a social purpose,
and are believed to contain portraits of contemporary poli-
ticians and other persons of distinction. But “Henrietta
Temple’” has been regarded by some-critics as one of the
most natural love-stories ever written. His last book,
“Lothair,” is directed against the proselyting policy of
the Roman Catholic Church. His writings indicate a
strong prepossession in favor of the Hebrew race. His
chief distinction is in the field of politics. He has been
twice chancellor of the exchequer, and is now premier.
Charles Dickens (1812–70), a man not of high but of
singularly original powers, next appeared upon this field.
He was a humorist, and found congenial subjects among
characters of low, or at least of humble, life. Of these his
caricatures—for he rarely drew except to caricature—are in-
finitely amusing. His attempts to rise above this plane
were, with one notable exception, “The Tale of Two Cities,”
conspicuous failures. His sentiment is generally exagger-
ated, and his pathos often false, But as a humorist, pure and
simple, he is unrivalled in the present generation. William
Makepeace Thackeray (1811–63), also a humorist, was a
writer of a very different stamp. His novels are satires
upon society. But his style is pure, his satire delicate, his
caricature little exaggerated, and his pathos is true and
often profound. His personages generally belong to the
cultivated classes of society, and his representations of
gentlemen and ladies, both as to, their manners and their
motives, are always worthy of admiration. The author of
“Vanity Fair,” “Pendennis,” and “Henry Esmond’ has
a high and a permanent place among English writers of
fiction. Charles Kingsley (born 1819) is the author of
novels of very considerable merit, among which are “Alton
Locke,” “Yeast,” and “Amyas Leigh.”
Among the many women of the day who have written
novels, Charlotte Bronté (1816–54), the authoress of “Jane
Eyre,” holds a conspicuous place. Her few works are
chiefly remarkable as giving, with great subtlety of per-
ception and boldness of utterance, the woman-view of
man’s character, and as to women their view of themselves
in relation to man. Very introspective and analytic, they
dissect motives with a hand at once bold and delicate. In
this respect, however, as in all others, she must yield to .
the writer who appeared under the name of “George
Eliot,” but whose real name was Marian C. Evans (born
about 1820), and who is one of the most conspicuous per-
sons in English literature of the present day. “George
Eliot’s ” constructive power is small; she is not a great
teller of tales. In her subtle analysis of character and
revelation of motives she allows the movement of her story
to lag; she crowds her canvas with too many figures, all
painted like miniatures, until she and the reader both begin
to forget the main purpose in hand. To this criticism,
however, her earlier sketches, her first novel, “Adam
Bede,” and above all “Romola,” are in a great measure
exceptions. “Romola,” as the history of two lives, and in
the revelation of character and the motives—the unac-
knowledged and almost self-unknown motives—of its prin-
cipal male character, Tito—is a ‘marvelous work of art.
“George Eliot,” like the generality of female writers, is
most successful in describing what she has seen. Her per-
sonages are studies from life, but she has a vivid imagina-
tion and great dramatic power. Her views of life and of
human nature are gloomy and depressing. Her style is
in all respects admirable.
Charles Reade (born 1814) has written many novels
which by their vividness of portraiture, their vivacity of
movement, and their humor have taken a firm hold upon
the public. Whatever the nicely fastidious may think of
the taste of much that he has written, even they cannot
fail to be interested in the fortunes of his personages. His
effects are theatrical, and sometimes seem as if they were
contrived for the stage. He leaves little impression of re-
served power. His best works are “Christie Johnstone,”
“Peg Woffington,” and “The Cloister and the Hearth;”
the last an historical novel which needed only condensation
to have taken a high place among works of that class.
To prose fiction America has contributed little, and of
that little the works of but one author are of a very high
order. . In the last century, Charles Brockden Brown (1771–
1810) wrote novels which have some power of enlisting,
the attention, but the morbid tone of which made them
repulsive, and they have been wisely allowed to pass
into oblivion. James Fenimore Cooper (1789–1851) at-
tained a greater and more enduring celebrity. This was
chiefly, however, because his scenes were laid in frontier
life, among hunters, trappers, and Indians. They pleased
those whose taste delighted in adventure, and in Europe
they commanded attention because they were regarded as
peculiarly “American.” As tales of adventure they are
interesting to those who are not fastidious as to the truth-
ful seeming of what they read; but they have no value as
studies or pictures of human nature. The characters are
impossible, and the style is poor, mean, and unpolished.
They are chiefly adapted to the tastes of very young men
and boys. Cooper's sea-novels are of greater merit, if
not of a higher order. After Cooper there was no Ameri-
can novelist worthy of special notice until the appearance .
of Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804–64), whose “Scarlet Letter”
at once commanded the admiration of the whole literary
world. Hawthorne was a writer of the most marked orig-
imality and at the same time of the highest finish in style.
His novels are highly dramatic; but their dramatic power
is as unlike that of Scott's, for instance, as can be. He
deals with the inner life of his personages. We see them
indeed, but chiefly we live their lives. His death cut short
what promised to be a brilliant career, but he left enough
behind him to secure an enduring fame. Edgar Allan Poe
(1811–49) produced no novel, but as a writer of tales, the
strange incidents of which he had the singular power of
making seem not only probable, but actual and real, he at-
tained distinction at home and abroad. He writes like a
gifted reporter of extraordinary and incredible scenes which
pass before his eyes. With him it is difficult to draw the
line where the possible ends and the impossible begins.
His fanciful poems and his trenchant criticism added to
his reputation, but he does not take a place among those
who have nature as a model. Probably no modern Work
of fiction was so widely read as Mrs. Harriet Beecher
Stowe's (born 1812) “Uncle Tom's Cabin;” but the interest
which it excited was due chiefly to the sensitiveness of the
public mind all over the world upon the subject of slavery
in the U. S. The same lady's other novels, although su-
perior to that which made her known, have failed to re-
ceive anything like equal marks of public favor.
The novel of modern society has attained what would
seem to be its highest and most perfect development in the
voluminous works of Anthony Trollope (born 1815). His
discernment of character is subtle and true; his apprecia-
tion of social relations and of their effects upon external
and internal life has never been equalled, and it would
seem cannot be surpassed, because it is perfect. He is not
specially humorous, or satirical, or sentimental, or sensa-
tional; and yet humor and satire and sentiment and sensa-
tion all appear in his novels, simply by their being so true
a reflex of individual and social life. Reading one of his
novels is like being a secret observer of the lives of other
people—so much so that it sometimes carries along with it
a sense of shame. We feel as if we had not a right to be
thus watching our neighbors, and following them into the
inmost recesses of their souls as well as their houses. Mr.
Trollope's effects are produced only by the choice of cha-
racters and the grouping; the charm of his stories is that
of simple nature, but nature as it is seen in the most high-
ly cultivated and complex society. . If they are ever tame
and commonplace, it is because that society is tame and
commonplace; and their many characters which are noble,
and their many passages which are colored with the warm
hues of strong or tender feeling, show that all that is arti-
ficial and conventional in modern society does not re-
press, but sometimes tends even to heighten and to quick-
en, the emotions of unchanging human nature. In the
completest contrast to the novels of this author are the
vivid and picturesque sketches of California life, in prose
and verse, of Francis Bret Harte (born 1831), who has
rapidly attained the reputation of being the first, writer
of fiction whose works are marked by a peculiarly “Amer-
ican " tone and atmosphere; and possibly there may be
something in them of this kind which is not due only to
their characters and the social conditions which they rep-
resent. However this may be, their interest is peculiar
and their humor delicious.
Thomas Hughes (born 1823) became celebrated as the
author of “Tom Brown’s Schooldays” and “Tom Brown.
at Oxford,” two novels written for very young readers; but,
like all good books of that kind, they were full of interest
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
1585
for those of riper years. The manliness of tone in these
books, their sound morals, far removed from all priggish
pretension to goodness, and the thorough understanding of
boy-nature which they show, have made them classics in
their kind. In style they are as simple and as manly as
they are in spirit. Charles Shirley Brooks (1815–74)
should be mentioned as a society novelist of very con-
siderable powers; and William Wilkie Collins (born 1824)
as the author of tales remarkable for their striking and
well-contrived but not very probable plots.
Among the crowd of novelists of the day whose very
names cannot be mentioned cxcept in their aggregate form
of Legion, that of William Black is rising into distinction.
The author of “A Princess of Thule” can hardly fail to
take a high place in fictional literature. The most vivid
and truthful presentation of American social life in the
great centre of its wealth and commerce that has yet
appeared is “Never Again” by William Starbuck Mayo,
M. D. (born 1812), a book of which the humor, the know-
ledge of the world, that mark its every page will cause re-
gret that it is, and will probably remain, its author’s only
novel. George William Curtis (born 1824) has also written
one novel, “Trumps,” but he will rather be remembered as
the author of “ Prue and I,” a series of confessions of a
simple-minded old bookkeeper of exquisite tenderness and
sweetness of sentiment, and of the “Potiphar Papers,” a
burlesque of New York society, and of his “Howadji”
travels, in the style of Kinglake’s “Eothen.”
Essayists and Miscellaneous Writers.-Few tasks are
more difficult than the classification of books and their
writers; and as to the latter, those of the present century
are in many cases so various in the subjects which they re-
spectively treat that this difficulty increases as we approach
our own day. But turning to the past generation, where
shall we place William Cobbett (1762–1835), who wrote
upon politics, gardening, language, and what not ? It is
chiefly as a political essayist, however, that he will be re-
membered. His writings show strong common sense,
strong prejudices, independence of thought, set forth in a
direct, manly, incisive style. William Godwin (1756–
1836) wrote a novel, “Caleb Williams,” the fame of which
still lives, but his chief distinction was that of a political
essayist and historian of robust mind and strong liberal
tendencies. His wife, Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–97), by
her “Vindication of the Rights of Woman’” took the lead
in a movement which seems to be still advancing. Charles
Lamb (1775–1834) will be always read, and always loved,
for the gentleness of soul and the exquisite humor, some-
times falling into mere personal whim, which appear in his
“Essays of Elia " and his correspondence. To him there
could not be a stronger contrast than Walter Savage Lan-
dor (1775–1864), who had all the virtues and most of the
faults peculiar to the Anglo-Saxon race, and embodied
them in his writings, although his peculiarities of temper
kept him so at war with his kindred, and even his country,
that he passed most of his life in voluntary exile. His
“Pericles and Aspasia,”
“Last Fruit off an Old Tree,” and “Dry Sticks” show a
wide range of learning and strong critical sense, but nar-
row sympathies, and an absence of that great lubricator
of the friction of life—humor. John Wilson (1785–1854),
although he wrote some poetry, is remembered for his
“Christopher North * papers upon literature and sporting
subjects, which were published in “Blackwood's Maga-
zine,” of which in its earlier years he was editor. His
critical taste was sound, but much of his writing is mere
animal spirits put on paper, and he was chief of a school
all of whose pages reek with the fumes of whisky and to-
bacco, which cannot, however, entirely becloud their strong
sense and their scholarship. For whisky and tobacco
Thomas De Quincey (1785–1859) substituted opium, to
which we owe his “Confessions of an Opium-Eater,” and
perhaps its effects may be traced in “Sursum Corda” and
in many of his subsequent voluminous writings, which are
crowded with the evidences of a wide range of desultory
scholarship, with subtle criticism, rich fancy, and a pecu-
liar humor, all embodied in a style of remarkable richness
and splendor. William Hazlitt (1778–1830) was the nine-
teenth-century embodiment of the ideal literator. He lived
from early manhood until his death, not very happily, upon
the miscellaneous products of his pen as a contributor to
various periodical publications of his day. He was con-
sequently able to do little as we may be sure he would
have liked and was able to do it. But as a critic of lit-
erature and art and of society he holds a high place, which
he owes in a great measure to his manly and thoroughly
English style. James Henry Leigh Hunt (1784–1859),
another writer of the same sort, has less force, but is
always graceful and pleasing. But the great modern
master in English of grace and eage, and of a lambent
humor much like that of Addison, is Washington Irving
“Imaginary Conversations,”
(1783–1859), whose “Sketch Book,” “ Knickerbocker's
History of New York,” and “Legends of Sleepy Hollow ’’
do more to secure his enduring fame than most of his more
ambitious works, including his “Life of George Washing-
ton.” Notably unlike Irving in every way is Thomas
Carlyle (born 1795), whose style is rugged and whose hu-
mor grim, but who is a critic of the first class, and whose
“Sartor Resartus” is a subsoil plough driving deep be-
neath the surface conventionalities of society. A like
purpose prevails in his “Latter-Day Pamphlets” and
“Hero-Worship.” It is to be remarked that Carlyle's pe-
culiar style—so peculiar that it has been called “Car-
lylese"—does not appear in his earlier works. Mr. Car-
lyle the reformer appears as a scornful, scourging critic,
and in that spirit he has written his historical works, “The
French Revolution * and “Frederick the Great.” To him
Ralph Waldo Emerson (born 1803) has been not very
happily compared. The purpose of the two writers may
be the same, but their manner is entirely different. Emer-
Son has the calm observance and the serene thoughtful-
ness of a philosopher, and he shows a strong love of ex-
ternal nature of which Carlyle seems scarcely conscious.
His style is aphoristic and epigrammatic; but although
both his prose and his poetry are full of wisdom, they not
unfrequently degenerate into commonplace, or what would
be commonplace were not what is common in it used with
Such a keen knowledge of its significance and its relations.
Perhaps Caroline Elizabeth Norton (born 1808), a miscel-
laneous writer who inherited some of the talent of her
grandfather, the great Sheridan, should not be left unmen-
tioned.
Among the wits of the generation which is passing away
two were pre-eminent—Sydney Smith (1771–1845) and
Douglas Jerrold (1803–57), but their wit was almost their
only point of likeness. Jerrold’s wit was a scourge, while
Sydney Smith’s was the genial laughter of a lover of his
kind. His essays touch many of the most important topics
in which men of these times are interested, and they are
loaded with sagacity. His style is remarkable for its
clearness and manly dignity. Another wit whose wisdom
is greater than his wit is Oliver Wendell Holmes, M. D.
(born 1809), of whose writings his “Breakfast-Table”
books—the “Autocrat,” the “Poet,” and the “Professor”
—exhibit his mind and his style at their best. They pre-
sent a curious and careful study of that variety of human
nature which is found in the New England of the nine-
teenth century, and are threaded through and through with
gentle satire. The study of human follies and human
weakness and of the conventional forms of modern society
which took Holmes to the breakfast-table and Sydney
Smith to the dinner-table, drove Henry David Thoreau
(1827–62) to a hermit’s life, in which he lived in a cabin of
his own building, chiefly upon beans of his own growing.
He studied birds and beasts and inanimate objects for
the purpose of reflecting severely upon man. But his love
of mature was genuine, his love and knowledge of litera-
ture great, and his own style beautiful. He cannot be
read without forgiveness for his gentle mistaken misan-
thropy. Arthur Helps (born 1817) has won for himself
a peculiar, and if not a very high, we may be sure a long-
enduring, place in literature. Without the least affectation
of singularity, either in the style or the plan of his works
(all of the most important of which are in the form of
essays with dialogues upon them), with little that is strik-
ingly new in his thought, he commands the respectful at-
tention of a large circle of the very highest class of readers.
This he does by the very clear and earnest way in which
he brings up and presses home half-forgotten truths which
concern the daily life of all cultivated people. We may
think that we have heard what he says before, but we are
almost sure to think that we never heard it said so well.
He presents homely common sense in the most elegant
dress. He has written two novels, “Realmah,” over which
his Friends in Council entertain themselves and his readers
with wise and witty chat, and “Ivan de Biron.” Among
other writers of this class in America even such a sketch
as this must notice Donald Grant Mitchell (born 1822), a
polished satirist of society and an observant critic of rural
life; Thomas Wentworth Higginson (born 1823), whose
essays are strong protests against physical and mental
weakness; Edward Everett Hale (born 1822), whose ser-.
mons, essays, and sketches all show a strong, clear, Subtle
mind, a lover of freedom, and a Christian of the Broad
Church; and William Dean Howells (born 1837), whose
pictures of European and New England life are marked
with penetrating observation, humor, and a charming
grace of style. *— e.
Critician of the Arts of Desigm, like those arts them-
selves, sprang up late, and at first grew feebly, among the
English-speaking peoples. George Hogarth's (1697–1764)
“Analysis of Beauty” and Sir Joshua Reynolds's (1723.
10
1586 ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
92). “Lectures,” although not without suggestions of some
value, are chiefly distinguished as the works of eminent
painters. And Burke’s “Essay on the Sublime and Beau-
tiful” is all awry from its purpose. Its very style lacks all
its author's peculiar charm. Rev. Archibald Alison (1757–
1839) wrote “Essays on Taste” which promoted culture in
this respect, but which are now rarely referred to ; but Sir
Uvedale Price’s “Essays on The Picturesque,” published
in 1810, may still be read with profit, and have since been
reprinted. Mrs. Anna Jameson's (1797—1860) works upon
Christian art contain much that is valuable, both of history
and criticism. But it was not until the appearance of John
Ruskin (born 1819) that we had a truly subtle, profound,
and thoroughly qualified critic of fine art—one who to his
critical perceptions joined the ability to communicate them
with beauty and impressiveness of style. Mr. Ruskin’s
chief distinction as a critic is that he never writes without
making his hearers think, even when they smile at his
utopian theories of society and of political economy.
James Jackson Jarves (born 1818) has written with know-
ledge, thoughtfulness, and honesty about art, and partic-
ularly ancient art; and Philip Hamerton is a pleasant and
Safe drawing-room companion to the lover of art who does
not care to be profound.
Criticism has been raised to a special branch of literature
during the present century, toward which the establishment
of the great British Reviews, the “Edinburgh,” the “Lon-
don Quarterly,” the “Westminster,” and in America, the
“North American,” contributed largely; their influence,
and example have been such that now no magazine or
newspaper of the first class, either in Great Britain or
America, appears without such critical reviews of litera-
ture in all its branches, of art, and of science, as fifty years
ago were produced nowhere, and which, with allowance for
much ignorance, presumption, and bad taste, on the whole
guide the public mind a right. In this department of lite-
rature many of the writers who have already been men-
tioned attained distinction.
Of those not hitherto mentioned, Lord Francis Jeffrey
(1773–1850), William Gifford (1757–1826), and John Gib-
-Son Lockhart (1794–1854) deserve special mention. They
were all severe, as well as able and generally honest, in
their criticism, and did much toward the formation of the
public taste in the early part of the century. Henry Hal-
lam’s (1778–1833) “Literature of Europe” contains a
mass of various learning and generally sound critical
opinion. It is, and will probably remain, the standard
Work upon its subject in the English language.
Philology, using the word in its widest sense, includes
all writing upon language, even the well-known grammar
of Lindley Murray (1745–1826), the American Quaker who
for so long gave the law of the construction of their lam-
guage to all English-speaking people. But comparative
philology, which alone is worthy of the latter half of its
name, is the product of the present century, and had its
rise in the discovery and study of the Sanscrit language,
the oldest known representative of the speech of the Aryan
or Indo-European peoples. This discovery, which is due
to Sir William Jones (1746–94), established a connection
between the modern world and that of pre-historic times,
and 'revealed the bond which binds together all the Indo-
European peoples. But before this discovery an analytic
philologist (or etymologist) of great ability, John Horne
Tooke (1786–1812), had appeared in England. His “Di-
versions of Purley,” although not without errors, is a mon-
ument to his learning, sagacity, and fine linguistic sense.
In the last and the present generation Joseph Bosworth
(1788) has investigated the field of Teutonic and Scandi-
navian languages; George P. Marsh (born 1801) has phil-
osophically recorded the growth of the English language
and its literature; Robert Gordon Latham (born 1812) has,
with a profound and a vast range of knowledge, developed
theories of ethnological philology, has dissected the Eng-
lish language, written its grammar on philological princi-
ples, and completed an English dictionary based upon
Johnson's. William D. Whitney (born 1827) has pushed
his investigations of the Oriental languages and of the
wide field of the higher philology to what seems almost
the verge of attainable knowledge; James Hadley (born
1821) has shown that he might have been his rival; Max
(Frederick Maximilian) Müller (born 1827) has delighted
and stimulated all students of philology by his brilliant
generalizations in the “science of language” in its broad-
est sense; March has produced his great Anglo-Saxon
grammar; and Trench and Farrar and Garnett and Hel-
fenstein and Craik and Skeat and Childs have distinguish-
ed themselves by works of narrower scope, but hardly of
less interest. The Early English Text Society, under the
management of the able and indefatigable Frederick J.
Furnivall, has published a great mass of well-edited Eng-
lish writing of the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth cen-
turies, and made accessible to eager students materials
which they are using for the elucidation of the philology
of their mother tongue. >
History.—In no department of literature has a greater
change been manifest during the present century, both in
form and in spirit, than in history. This change—the re-
sult of the combined influences of the comparative system
introduced by Niebuhr, of the strong tendency toward a
positive or scientific treatment in all branches of intellect-
ual endeavor which rest in any way upon facts, and of the
increased appreciation of the value of the minutest matters
of record which show the intellectual, moral, and social
condition of a whole people, the middle and lower, as well
as the noble and educated classes—has caused the histo-
rians of the modern school to extend their researches, to en-
large their plans, and to endeavor to portray upon a vast field
not only the great vicissitudes of nations and the eminent
individuals who controlled, or seemed to control them, but
the whole political, moral, and social life of the people and
the periods whose stories they undertake to tell. Hence,
histories are now at once more fragmentary and more mi-
nute than they were of old. These changes, however, do
not appear in the earlier historical writings of the cen-
tury; but they increase as it advances.
English History.—Dr. John Lingard (1771–1851) wrote a
history of England down to the abdication of James II.,
which is valuable for its research, the mass of facts ac-
cumulated, its calm tone, and its skilful arrangement.
But it was written from the Romanist point of view, with
a Romanist purpose; and its value is seriously impaired
for Protestant readers by its skilful perversions and sup-
pressions of fact. Sharon Turner's (1768–1847) “History
of the Anglo-Saxons and of England during the Middle
Ages” is the only thorough and systematic presentation of
its subject in the English language. Trustworthy as to
fact, it is deformed by an ambitious, involved, un-English
style. Lord Mahon (Earl Stanhope, born 1805) must be
mentioned as the faithful and thoughtful, although some-
what spiritless, historian of England from 1718 to 1783.
Sir James Mackintosh, who failed to do all that his unques-
tioned abilities gave reason to expect, produced a compact
“History of England” (3 vols., Lardner’s “Cyclop.”) re-
markable for a clear and philosophical treatment of politi-
cal and constitutional questions. But the great constitu-
tional historian of England is Henry Hallam (before men-
tioned). He is learned, thorough, candid, and, although
liberal in tendency, judicially calm, as becomes his subject.
His “History of Europe during the Middle Ages” has the
same qualities, but lacks picturesqueness of presentation.
The subject of the constitutional history of England has
been ably continued by Sir Thomas Erskine May (born
1815). Sir Archibald Alison (1792–1867) is the author of
a “History of England” from the beginning of the French
Revolution to the Restoration of the Bourbons, which has
the great value due to an industrious collection and sys-
tematic arrangement of facts by an almost contemporary
writer. But it is diffuse, prolix, and deformed by a style
both pretentious and ungraceful. It is best read in his
own abridgment of it. Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800–
59) produced, in his “History of England from the Ac-
cession of James II.,” the most striking and picturesque
historical work of the century. Written with strong par-
tisan prejudices, if not with a partisan purpose, it is filled
with masses of moral light and shade, and must be read
with corresponding allowance as to facts and its represen-
tation of individuals. But in its grouping of facts, in its
pictures of social life, and in the splendor and the graceful
ease of its style it is without a rival in our literature. The
great research upon which it was founded and the minute-
ness of its picture-painting made it impossible for the au-
thor to bring it down, as he had intended, to a period within
the memory of living men. Its five octavo volumes cover
a period of only fifteen years. With its author's essays
upon the characters of Bacon, Milton, Addison, Walpole,
Johnson, Byron, and Hastings, it forms a body of histori-
cal writing of almost unequalled splendor and interest.
James Anthony Froude (born 1818) has produced a very
valuable history of England during the times of the Refor-
mation. His investigations have led him to take new
views of the characters of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth,
which the authorities quoted by him seem to support; but
upon the much-vexed question as to the characters of the
two Maries of Scotland and of England he ranges himself
at the head of their condemners. On the history of Ire-
land he has also written vigorously and after much orig-
inal research. Edward Arl?reeman (born 1823) is the au-
thor of a “History of the Norman Conquest” written
from an entirely new point of view, in which he presents a
philosophical appreciation of the causes which led to the
invasion, of the condition of insular and continental so-
ciety at that period, and of the social and political conse-
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
1587
quences of the conquest. Its great merit gave him at
once a high position in historical literature. The various
biographical works of Mr. John Forster (born 1812) have
so marked an historical bearing that he deserves honorable
mention as a writer in this department. -
Continental History has been illustrated by two English
writers of eminent ability. Thomas Carlyle’s “History
of the French Revolution” is rather an expression of the
spirit of the time of that great event than a record of its
facts, a knowledge of which is almost assumed by the
writer. But it is perhaps the most complete and charac-
teristic manifestation of its author's peculiar genius. His
“History of Frederick the Great” is truly historical, and
presents new results of original research. It is written in
“Carlylese,” and is full of fantastic and grimly humorous
passages, but its truly historical value is nevertheless very
great. John Lothrop Motley (born 1814) has taken the
highest position as the historian of the Netherlands and
the Dutch Republic. To the results of patient research
and logical analysis he adds the attraction of a fervid
style and an almost enthusiastic love of his subject.
The History of the United States has been written by
George Bancroft (born 1800) with a minuteness of detail
which often produces the impression that he looks at small
and commonplace occurrences through the magnifying
and glorifying medium of their consequences. His style
may also be regarded as often too ambitious for the subject
immediately in hand. But as a whole his work is worthy
of the admiration it has received and of the authoritative
position it has attained. Richard Hildreth (1807–65)
wrote his “History of the United States” in a style di-
rectly opposite. It is cold, dry, unpicturesque, and rigidly
judicial. But as a clear and well-connected record of facts
it is of great value, and may be safely relied upon. James
Parton (born 1822) has produced several biographies of
eminent citizens of the U. S. which have an historical pur-
pose and value.
Southern America, and Spain as connected, with it,
have been illustrated by the labors of William Hickling
Prescott (1796–1859), perhaps the most charming of all
English historical writers, and inferior to none in patient
research. His histories of Ferdinand and Isabella, of
Philip II., and of the conquest of Mexico and the con-
quest of Peru, are rightly regarded as the most fascinating
series of historical works in our language. Arthur Helps
has written a “ History of Slavery,” which, animated by a
thoroughly humane and loftily philanthropic spirit, pre-
sents his subject with his characteristic calmness and re-
Serve.
The history of Greece has been written by William Mit-
ford (1744–1827) with learning and the feeling of a true
scholar for his great theme; Bishop Thirlwall (born 1797)
has also produced a valuable history of the Hellenic peo-
ples; but the work which displaces all others in English
literature upon this subject is that of George Grote (1794–
1871), who seems to have penetrated the very heart of
Greek life, political, social, moral, and intellectual. His
“History of Greece.” and his “Plato” seem to present to
us all that we can hope to know of the national experience
and the best intellectual period of the great people who
were the sources of modern civilization.
Roman history to the end of the Second Punic war has
been treated by the manly pen of Thomas Arnold (1795–
1842), a worthy disciple of Niebuhr, who added a certain
simple English tone and charm to the manner of his mas-
ter. His “Lectures on Modern History ‘’ are also admir-
able in the same way. Herman Merivale (born 1808)
wrote a “History of Rome under the Empire” which sup-
plements acceptably Arnold’s more vigorous work. Henry
Hart Milman (1791–1868), a poet, and the author of
“Fazio,” a powerful and successful tragedy, wrote a “His-
tory of the Jews,” a “History of Greek Christianity,” and
a “History of Latin Christianity,” which form an admir-
able trilogy of religious history. -
Of war histories, the two most important are Sir Edward
Creasy's (born 1812) “Fifteen Decisive Battles of the
World,” in which the author treats only of such battles as
have had a manifest effect upon the course of civilization;
and Alexander William Kinglake's (born 1802) “History
of the Crimean War” (yet unfinished), which as to fact is
a clear result of careful investigation, but which in spirit
is a fierce impeachment of the emperor Louis Napoleon.
Perhaps the volume of William Russell (the well-known
London “Times” correspondent) upon the same subject
should here be mentioned. Of the histories of the civil
war in the U. S. none have much value; all having been
written by partisans living too near the events which they
describe. - d s * * *
An entirely new kind of historical writing has been pro-
duced by the speculative and investigating spirit of the
age. It is the history, not of nations or of men, but of
man. Pre-eminent in this department is the “History of
Civilization,” left unfinished by Henry Thomas Buckle
(1822–62), who sought, and with an admirable iſ not a
perfect measure of success, to discover and describe the
successive evolution of the moral influences which brought
about the changes in the course of the history of the mod-
ern world. Of a like kind are the “History of Rational-
ism * and the “History of Morals'’ written by William
Lecky (born 1838)—works which do to a certain extent
pluck out the heart of the mystery of man’s moral nature
and social life. And historians who deal with mere exter-
nal facts now go beyond the historical period, and we have
in such books as “Pre-historic Times” and “The Origin
of Civilization,” by Sir John Lubbock (born 1834), and
“Pre-historic Man” by . Daniel Wilson (born 1816), in-
genious attempts, marvellously successful to a certain
point, in reconstructing the physical life of man at those
dimly remote periods of which there is neither record nor
tradition.
Books of travel are so considerable an element of mod-
ern literature, whether regarded as a means of literary
entertainment or in their more important function of dif-
fusing a knowledge of mankind and enabling us to study
it under different climes and different forms and degrees
of civilization, that they cannot properly be passed over
even in the briefest compendium of literary history. But
so vast has been their number in these latter days that
only those can be noticed here which have some peculiar
literary excellence, or which mark a period, or which have
exercised some notable influence upon opinion. -
John Ledyard (1751–88) belongs in time to the eigh-
teenth century, but he is noticeable as being the first of
that series (almost school) of travellers who set out with
a purpose of establishing, verifying, or illustrating some
cosmical fact—who are discoverers, not of new countries,
but of the geographical relations and topographical con-
dition of countries already known. Ledyard was the first
of those travellers who have set out with the purpose of ex-
amining the Polar regions, and he made his journeys on
foot; but after he had reached Yakootsk in Siberia, the
jealousy of the Russian government interrupted his jour-
ney, stayed his further progress, and thrust him out of the
country. He afterwards undertook to discover the source
of the Niger, but died in Africa with his purpose unat-
tained. He did discover what he wrote in a passage that
will never die—that in all climes, amid the snows of Siberia,
or on the sands of Africa, woman is gentle, kind, com-
passionate, and helpful. Among the many British travel-
lers who have described, or professed to describe, the con-
dition and the character of the people of the U.S., Frances
Trollope (1778–1863) did more than any other to form the
opinion upon that subject which has prevailed in Europe.
until very recently. She was a keen observer, wrote in a
clear and very pleasing style, and many of her most dam-
aging assertions were literally true. But she entered the
country at its then wildest and most uncultivated parts,
the frontier towns of the South and West, and did not be-
come acquainted with the society which two centuries had
developed in America until she was about leaving the
country; and of this she said little. She thus produced at
once a very amusing book and a very erroneous impres-
sion, which the passage of a century will hardly obliterate.
Another woman, Harriet Martineau (born 1802), of mascu-
line traits of mind, treated the same subject in an entirely
different spirit, and after careful and candid study pro-
duced in her “Society in America,” a somewhat successful
attempt at a calm and philosophical appreciation of the
American people and Américan political institutions. It
will always be valuable as a record and an analysis of the
facts and the spirit of American life at the time when it
was written.
Of Eastern travellers the most conspicuous are Eliot
Bartholomew George Warburton (1810–52), the author of
some novels, whose studies of Oriental life were embodied
in “The Crescent and the Cross;” Austin Henry Layard
(born 1817), whose series of works giving the results of
his excavations and investigations of the ruins of Nineveh
are the most valuable contribution to the antiquarian and
art history of the East ever made by an Englishman;
Alexander William Kinglake, whose “Eothen * tells with
such a wonderfully picturesque power the impressions
which Oriental landscape, life, and manners make upon a
civilized Christian from the West, and which has justly
been called the most charming book of travel ever written.
Africa and its geographical mysteries, particularly that
of the source of the Nile, has given to Ledyard not a few
followers. Of these the most important are David Liv-
ingstone (1817–74), who penetrated to the heart of the
country, crossing it twice at about 10° S. lat., traversing
vast regions before wholly unknown to civilized man, and
making geographical discoveries of very great importance;
1588
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
and Sir Samuel White Baker (born 1821), who followed
the wonderful river up to a great lake which is one of its
two principal reservoirs, and which he named the Albert
N’yadza. The records of their toils, exposures, perils,
observations, and discoveries by these two distinguished
explorers have an interest which reaches the degree of
fascination, and takes them to a certain extent out of the
region of geographical science into that of general litera-
ture.
Their rival in the interest of his contribution to the lit-
erature of exploration, if not in the value of his dis-
coveries, was Elisha Kent Kane (1820–57), eminent among
those for whom the North Pole and a possible north-west pas-
sage from the Atlantic to the Pacific has had an irresistible
attraction. His narrative of his experience in this region
of icy blankness has the interest of romance with the
stamp of literal truth, not surpassed even by the fiction of
Defoe's “ Robinson Crusoe.” -
Conspicuous among American explorers, both in regard
to antiquities and geography, is Ephraim G. Squier (born
1821), whose works upon the mounds of the Mississippi
Valley and upon Nicaragua, Honduras, and contiguous
regions of Central America are recognized as having a
great and permanent value. John L. Stephens (born 1805)
has also in his “Travels in Yucatan and Chiapas’ re-
vealed to the modern world a mass of interesting fact con-
cerning the relics of the extinct races of Central America.
Frederick Law Olmstead (born 1822), first known by his
“Walks and, Talks of an American Farmer,” afterwards
wrote “A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States,” “A
Journey through Texas,” and “A Journey in the Back
Country,” which are historically perhaps the most import-
ant books of travel that have been published in regard to
this century, giving as they do, with all the candor and
charity consistent with a love of freedom, an exact de-
Scription of the social, moral, intellectual, and physical
condition of the Southern States of the American Union a
few years before the war of secession. Bayard Taylor
(born 1825) has visited no previously unknown, or even
very remote regions, but the extent of his travels, his care-
ful observation, sound judgment, good-nature, and agree-
able style have gained his works in this department of
literature a wide popularity.
Philosophy.—The philosophical writers of the English-
speaking peoples during the present century have shown
the influence of German or of Scotch thought, or have
been chiefly critical of other writers or of earlier schools.
Thomas Reid (1710–96), although belonging in time to the
last century, belongs by affinity to the Scotch metaphysical
School of the present, which he may be said to have found-
ed by his “Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Princi-
ples of Common Sense ’’ and his “Essays on the Intellect-
ual Powers,” “Essays on the Active Powers,” etc. He op-
posed the theory of Locke, and found in the innate and
instinctive powers and consciousness of the mind the prime
source of its knowledge and its stimulus to action. The
objections against this theory were answered with great
ability by Dugald Stewart (1753–1828), the next in order
of the Scotch metaphysicians, whose “Elements of the
Philosophy of the Human Mind’ and “Dissertation on
the Progress of Metaphysical and Ethical Philosophy,”
the former by its acute analysis, the latter by its wide-
reaching knowledge and attractive style, take a high place
in philosophical writing of the second or non-originative
class. Among works of this class Sir James Mackintosh’s
“View of the Progress of Ethical Philosophy” should be
mentioned. Chief of this school, and perhaps ablest of
modern metaphysicians, is Sir William Hamilton (1788–
1856), whose writings upon the philosophy of perception,
on eclecticism, and on logic are the fruit of a profundity and
grasp of his deep and subtle subjects which, whatever may be
thought of their absolute soundness, even their opponents
regard as efforts in the very highest style of metaphysical
dissertation. William Whewell (1795–1866) took an envi-
able position in this department of literature by his work
on the inductive sciences. And here should be mentioned
Richard Whately, archbishop of Dublin (1787–1863), whose
treatises on logic, on rhetoric, essays on some of the diffi-
culties in the writings of Saint Paul, and whose anti-
Tractarian “Cautions for the Times,” and indeed all his
writings, even those of a specially ecclesiastical character,
are philosophical in tone and style, and almost so in pur-
pose, and whose wide range of knowledge and vigorous
intellect made a strong impression upon the general thought
of his day. John Stuart Mill (1806–73), by his “Examina-
tion of Sir William Hamilton’s Philosophy,” his “System
of Logic,” and his “Dissertations and Discussions,” etc.,
takes, a high place among modern philosophers of the
Positive School, although he cannot be regarded as a dis-
ciple or an apostle of Positivism according to Comte. His
philosophical principles have been ably criticised by Dr.
James McCosh (born 1811), who by a series of works, all
opposed directly or indirectly to the positive and material
tendencies of the day, has taken a prominent position on
the conservative and religious side of philosophy. Of the
same school was Dr. Francis Wayland (1796–1865), who
by his “Elements of Moral Science,” “Elements of Polit-
ical Economy,” “Intellectual Philosophy,” and treatise on
the “Limitations of Human Responsibility,” gave to the
American—or, we should rather say, the New England—
branch of the literature of morals and philosophy an admit-
ted claim to the highest respect and consideration. George
Henry Lewes (born 1817) should be mentioned as a con-
tributor to philosophical literature by his “Biographical
History of Philosophy,” “Aristotle,” and “History of
Philosophy from Thales to Comte.”—works of a philo-
sophical interest and value not always merely historical.
Nor should Henry James (born 1811), a subtle and aggres-
sively independent thinker upon the philosophy of re-
ligion, and the master of a singularly impressive and sug-
gestive style, be passed over; nor Dr. Mark Hopkins (born
1802), in virtue of his “Lectures on Moral Science” and
“Love as Law and the Law of Love;” nor George Ripley
(born 1802), the author of “Discourses on the Philosophy
of Religion ” and “Letters on the Latest Form of In-
fidelity.”
Theology.—As every clergyman is supposed to be more
or less a man of education and of intellectual ability, and
as every settled minister of a parish or congregation is re-
quired to prepare at least one sermon in every week, the
amount of writing more or less theological in the English
language is beyond computation, and increases weekly.
Of this a quantity unaccountably large is printed. We
can, however, notice here only a very few even of the more
distinguished clergymen who have made themselves known
in literature in the present century. Robert Hall (1764–
1831), a Baptist minister who for eloquence has been com-
pared to Burke, and for fanciful richness of illustration
to Jeremy Taylor, is distinguished not only by his ser-
mons, but by his “Christianity Consistent with the Love
of Freedom,” his “Apology for the Freedom of the Press,”
and his “Modern Infidelity.” John Forster (17 70–1843),
also a Baptist minister, was not remarkable for pulpit elo-
quence, but his essays, particularly those on “Decision of
Character” and the “Evils of Popular Ignorance,” are among
the most thoughtful and weighty productions of their class
in English literature. Thomas Chalmers (1780–1847) has
probably been unapproached in eloquence and the vigor
of his personality by any clergyman of the century. He
was the most fervid and earnest of pulpit orators. His
“Institutes of Theology,” “Commercial Discourses,” “Evi-
dences of Christianity,” and “Astronomical Discourses”
are his principal works. Isaac Taylor (1789–1865), a re-
ligious essayist of distinguished learning and ability, has
discussed in “Ancient Christianity” the doctrine and the
discipline of the early Christians, directing himself to the
teachings of “Tracts for the Times,” a very remarkable
and influential series of religious publications with a strong
leaning toward Romanism, of which the principal writers
were Edward Bouverie Pusey (born 1800), John Henry
Newman (born 1801), John Keble (1792–1866), and Richard
H. Froude (1803–36), all clergymen of the Church of Eng-
land and of the extreme High Church school, and all
writers of independent theological works which have had a
strong but, it begins to appear, not an enduring effect upon
the tone of religious thought among the members of that
Church. Frederick W. Robertson (1816–53), a preacher
whose sermons produced more effect upon the lives of men
than those of any other modern minister of which there is
literary record, stood at the very ecclesiastical antipode of
the Tractarian men. His style was fervent, strong, and
direct, his thought independent; he labored for the better-
ing of the working-classes, and he was suspected of ration-
alism in religion and socialism in politics. Doubts which
must have occurred to many thoughtful readers as to the
literal truth of many passages in the historical parts of the
Old Testament, particularly in the earlier books, found
strange and unreserved expression in a series of volumes
by an eminent mathematician and clergyman of the Church
of England, John William Colenso (born 1814), bishop of
Natal, the first of which was “The Pentateuch and the
Book of Joshua Critically Examined.” Bishop Colenso
had previously written several mathematical works, and he
brought to his task habits of close reasoning and a calcu-
lating spirit, which led him to test these books by a stand-
ard to which Oriental writers, profane or sacred, never
thought of conforming. Coming from such a quarter, his
books, which he did not regard as at all impairing the di-
vine origin of the Christian religion, produced a profound
impression and very serious disturbance in the English
Church, by the Convocation of which they were condemned.
Theodore Parker (1810–60), at first a Unitarian minister,
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
1589
was a doubter of a very different character. His faith was
in God and in man, but not at all in revealed religion. A
man of wide and varied learning, of independent spirit,
of a tender and loving nature, the champion of the op-
pressed, the benefactor of the poor, his preaching the
earnest utterance of his own strong personal convictions,
he did much to unsettle the belief and to confirm the dis-
belief of a very large number of the most intelligent and
purest minds in New England. Octavius B. Frothingham
(born 1822), the ablest of his disciples, has hitherto pub-
lished little except from the pulpit; but his ability, his
earnestness, and the polish of his style, in which he is su-
perior to his master, make him the leader of rationalistic
religion in America. Henry Ward Beecher (born 1813),
the ablest member of an intellectually gifted family, and
a Congregational minister of the broadest and most liberal
theological views, is regarded as the greatest pulpit-orator
in America—an eminence which the style of his published
sermons perhaps hardly warrants. But the stenographer
can report the orator's words, but not the orator. Mr.
Beecher is the leader of the most independent and liberal
school of Christians in the U. S. His writings are volum-
inous and various. Among them are “Lectures to Young
Men,” “Star Papers,” a series of miscellaneous essays, and
“Norwood,” a novel.
Political and Social Science, properly speaking, are the
product of the present century. Among the English works
in this field the most important are those of Jeremy Ben-
tham (1749–1832), to whom, next to Adam Smith, belongs
the honor of originating the science of political economy.
The mere titles of the various works produced by him in
his laborious and self-sacrificing life would fill half this
page. The spirit of all of them is concentrated in his
famous saying, “The greatest good of the greatest num-
ber”—good here meaning material comfort and the happi-
ness consequent thereupon. ~ David Ricardo (1772–1823)
published works of authority on the principles of political
economy, giving his attention chiefly to the subjects of
labor and currency. Thomas Robert Malthus (1766–1834),
also a political economist, in his “Essay on the Principles
of Population as it Affects the Future Welfare of Society”
showed that population always rises to the level of possible
subsistence. This work, in the words of Brougham, “ di-
- vides (with Ricardo) claims to a second place after the
‘Wealth of Nations.’” The greatest of Bentham’s dis-
ciples, John Stuart Mill (1806–73), by his “Essays on Un-
settled Questions in Political Economy,” his “Principles
of Political Economy,” his essay on “Liberty,” his “Con-
siderations on Representative Government,” and his “Sub-
jection of Women,” has wrought into a systematic work-
ing form the principles of the Benthamite school, of which
he was, and will probably long be, regarded as the chief
apostle. His works are masterpieces of far-reaching
thought and subtle reasoning. Of less note, but of high
and well-deserved reputation, are the works of Henry
Fawcett (born 1833). Francis Lieber (1800–73), born and
educated in Germany, but for the greater part of his ma-
ture life a citizen of the U. S., is the author of several pro-
found works in this department of literature, of which the
most celebrated are his “Manual of Political Ethics,”
“Legal and Political Hermeneutics,” “Essays on Property
and Labor,” and “Civil Liberty and Self-Government.”
The champion of the “protective” system of political
economy as opposed to free trade and all unrestrained com-
mercial intercourse, particularly in articles which are or
may be of domestic manufacture, is Henry C. Carey (born
1793), whose “Principles of Political Economy” and vari-
ous other works embody in stringent phraseology all that
can be said on this side of the question. Most of Mr.
Carey's works have been translated into nearly all the
languages of Europe. Herbert Spencer is the most emi-
nent of recent writers in this department. His works
cover the ground of psychology, biology, what he calls
“sociology”—i. e. the philosophy of society—and moral-
ity, which it would be difficult to separate from the latter.
In a word, he has attempted to work out a complete sys-
tem of practical philosophy. His views on education are
original and far-reaching. Indeed, he is one of the clear-
est and coolest thinkers of the age.
Of British writers upon education, one of the most im-
portant subdivisions of this department of literature, and
which has recently received attention commensurate with
its importance, the Rev. Henry Parr Hamilton (born 1794),
the variously learned Francis William Newman (born
1805), and the distinguished physiologist Huxley (men-
tioned again below), must be mentioned. In America, two
of the most distinguished are Henry Barnard and Fred-
erick A. P. Barnard. The latter’s “Letters on College
Government” is regarded as “the ablest treatise on the
higher education yet published in the U. S.” He is also
the historian of the U. S. Coast Survey and the author of
an “Analytical Grammar.” Besides these, Horace Mann,
Francis Wayland, A. D. Bache, and W. T. Harris have
written upon this subject with marked and widely recog-
nized ability. -
Jurisprudence is hardly a part of literature in the com-
mon acceptation of that term, even although we do not re-
gard it as the equivalent of the somewhat old-fashioned
hrase belles-lettres. But the “Commentaries” of Sir
Wijn Blackstone (1723–80) upon the laws of England
added a lustre and a charm to their dry and technical sub-
ject, and perhaps even deserved the conventional term
“elegant” which was applied to them. They have cer-
tainly much of the interest of history. Appearing soon
after the middle of the eighteenth century, they occupied
this field with such a weight of authority that there seemed
nothing to be done but to accept them and to comment
upon them. For we pass over, of course, mere reports
and technical treatises, like, for instance, Fearne on “Con-
tingent Remainders” or Chitty on “Pleading,” which
have no more literary interest or character than demon-
strations of mathematical problems or than tables of log-
arithms. . In this department mere mention must be made
of Delolme's (1745–1867) work on the British constitution;
“The Federalist,” a collection of papers by Alexander
Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, which had a
very important influence in bringing about the adoption
of the Federal Constitution of the U. S.; Edward Living-
ston’s (1764–1836) “Plan of the Penal Code of Louisi-
ana” and “System of Penal Law'” for that State; John
Marshall (1755–1835), whose judicial decisions, according
to an eminent British critic, “would have done honor to
Westminster Hall in the proud season of British law;”
James Kent’s (1763–1847) “Commentaries on American
Law,” which for their style, as well as for their matter, are
in Europe, as in America, successful rivals of Blackstone's;
Joseph Story's (1779–1845) “Commentary on the Consti-
tution of the United States;” Henry Wheaton’s (1785–
1848) “Elements of International Law,” which has become
authoritative; Lord John Campbell’s (1779–1861) “Lives
of the Lord Chancellors” and “Lives of the Chief-Justices
of England;” Theodore Dwight Woolsey’s (born 1801)
“Introduction to the Study of International Law,” which
has given him, distinguished as a classical scholar, an
authoritative position universally recognized upon its
subject; George Ticknor Curtis's (born 1812) “Comments
on the Jurisprudence of . . . the Courts of the United
States” and “History of the Constitution of the United
States;” Walter Bagehot's work on the “English Consti-
tution;” Sir Henry J. S. Maine's (born 1822) “Ancient
Law " and “Village Communities;” and perhaps Sir
Arthur Helps' wise treatise on “Government” should be
added. This list is incomplete, but it is believed to in-
clude the principal works of this class which have been
produced in this century, and which can be regarded as
within the pale of literature.
Here, between our record of the literature of political
and social science, of jurisprudence, and of natural science,
is the fittest place to mention Henry, Lord Brougham
(1779–1868), who wrote upon all these subjects, and who
never wrote or spoke without impressing readers or hearers
with the weight of his thought and the intelligent earnest-
ness of his manner. The extent of his acquirements caused
him to be called “a man of vast and various misinforma-
tion,” and on his being made lord chancellor subjected him
to the remark by Sugden, that “if the new lord chancellor
only knew a little law, he would know a little of everything.”
But these were the jeers of specialists envious that the man
who was great in their department of intellectual effort
could also attain distinction in others; a not uncommon
manifestation of human weakness. By his varied and vo-
luminous writings Lord Brougham produced a marked and
an enduring effect upon his time; and his efforts were
always for the diffusion of knowledge, and toward liberty
of thought and of action, subject to good morals and well-
established law.
Natural Science, like jurisprudence, is hardly literature
(whence the distinction so constantly drawn, “science and
literature”), but it would be difficult to deny a very high
literary quality to the works of many of the naturalists
who have given to the present century that scientific em-
inence which is its peculiar glory. Of these the most em-
inent are Joseph Priestley (1733–1804), who, living into
the present century, labored chiefly in the last, a distin-
guished leader in the modern school of natural Science.
He wrote upon government, history, and even upon gram-
mar; but the works by which he impressed the world were
those in which he brought natural science to the support
of materialism ; Joseph Black (1728–99), whose discoveries
of the properties of fluids and of latent heat led to great
results, and whose lectures became celebrated throughout
the world; Thomas Young (1773–1829), the reviver and
1590
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE-ENGLISH ROSCIUS, THE.
demonstrator of the truth of the undulatory theory of light,
who first deciphered hieroglyphics by the aid of the inscrip-
tions on the Rosetta Stone, whose “Lectures on Natural
Philosophy” are even at this day a treasure-house of sci-
entific truth to the investigator, and whom Tyndall has
pronounced to be the greatest intellectual power in Eng-
land since Newton’s day; Sir Humphry Davy (1778–1829),
the discoverer of the qualities of nitrous oxide and of the
metals of the alkalies, the inventor of the miner’s safety-
lamp, and whose scientific sagacity was adorned with a
charming style which makes his “Salmonia.” and “Conso-
lations in Travel” classic books; Sir David Brewster (1781–
1868), whose works cover an extended field of science, in-
cluding biographical appreciations of great natural phil-
osophers, but whose most interesting philosophical writings
are those which record his investigations and develop his
theories upon light; Sir John Frederic William Herschel
(1792–1871), the eminent son of an eminent father, whose
principal works are his “Treatise on Physical Astronomy”
and “Results of Astronomical Observations at the Cape
of Good Hope,” which map out the whole starry heavens;
Sir Charles Lyell (born 1797), first of English geologists,
by whom attention was drawn to the ancient changes in
the earth and its inhabitants as illustrated by its geological
monuments, and whose books of travel in the U. S. are
among the few of much value; William Buckland (1784–
1856), who brought a profound acquaintance with geology
and mineralogy to the support of religion; Sir Charles
Bell (1778–1842), who made surgery one of the fine arts,
and by his work on “The Hand, its Mechanism and Vital
Endowments,” revealed marvels and mysteries of design
where the unlearned reader would least expect them; Sir
Roderick Impey Murchison (1792–1871), who attained the
highest geological distinction by the conception and estab-
lishment of his Silurian system, by which he brought under
scientific light a formation of rock beneath the old red
sandstone; this, named Silurian from the place in England
where he studied it, he followed into Norway and Sweden,
and finally into Russia, his book recording his geological
survey of which vast country is one of the most important
works of modern science; Michael Faraday (1794–1867),
the most eminent of English experimental chemists; Mary
Somerville (1780—187—), one of the very few real women
of science the world has seen (the womanhood being as
true as the science), whose works on the “Mechanism of
the Heavens” and the “Connection of the Physical Sci-
ences” have won the highest approval both for their pro-
fundity and their clear and simple style; and Hugh Miller
(1802–56), a quarryman who from observations made
during his daily labor became one of the leading geol-
ogists of his day, adding to exact knowledge a beauty of
style and a richness of illustration rarely found in scientific
books. He took his place among those men of science who
seek to support revealed religion and to reconcile the Mo-
saic cosmogony with the records of nature. His principal
works are “The Old Red Sandstone” and “The Testimony
of the Rocks.” In 1845 appeared an anonymous volume,
“Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation,” a work
which, at first spoken of slightingly by scientific men as
the fruit of presuming sciolism, proved to be the first ut-
terance of the new school of development. Its style, no
less than its startling views, won it worldwide attention,
but as to its authorship, it still remains the “Junius” of
scientific literature. Charles R. Darwin (born 1809,
grandson of Erasmus Darwin, 1731–1802, author of the
“Botanic Garden’ and “Zoonomia,”) is the leader of the
School of development. He had published several works
on natural Science, the high value of which was recognized,
when his “Origin of Species by means of Natural Selec-
tion.” renewed the surprise which followed the publication
of the “Vestiges of Creation;” and yet, although it pre-
pared the way for, and led naturally to, his last work,
“The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation, to Sex,”
that book was received with a mingling of admiration and
horror for the author who seemed to prove that “man is
descended from a hairy quadruped furnished with a tail and
pointed ears, and probably arboreal in its habits.” Louis
John Rodolph Agassiz (1807–74) is eminent among the natu-
ral philosophers of the century by his works upon fishes, liv-
ing and fossil, but chiefly by his glacial theory of certain
geological formations, which he developed in his “Studies
of Glaciers.” In comparative zoology and comparative
physiology his investigations have been of great import-
ance and interest. He did not accept the theory'of develop-
ment. John Tyndall (born in 1823) is also distinguished
for his glacial researches, his analysis of the solar ray, his
discoveries as to light and heat, and is one of the school
of philosophers to which Darwin and Huxley and the
author of the “Vestiges” belong. His writings and his
lectures have an intrinsic charm besides their scientific
value. Thomas Henry Huxley (born 1825) is distinguished
as the author of “Man’s Place in Nature,” “Lectures on
Comparative Anatomy,” “Lessons in Elementary Physi-
ology,” and other works, all of a “positive” or quasi
“ positive” character and, materialistic tendency. Of .
American scientific writers, some of the most distinguish-
ed are Alexander Dallas Bache (1806–67), whose place in
education has already been mentioned, but who was emi-
nent in magnetic and meteorological Science, whose many
contributions to the proceedings of the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science are among the most
valuable in the repertory of that society, and whose work
as superintendent of the U. S. Coast Survey makes the
shore of our northern continent his monument; Samuel
George Morton (1799–1851), naturalist and ethnologist,
author of “Crania Americana” and “Crania, Egyptiaca;”
George R. Gliddon (1807–57) and J. C. Nott, whose “Types
of Mankind” and “Indigenous Races of the Earth,”
although criticised severely by men of science and theolo-
gians, are filled with effective groupings of significant facts
illustrated by ingenious suggestions; Asa Gray (born 1810),
one of the most eminent botanists of the day, as he has shown
in his various works upon the flora of North America; Ben-
jamin Silliman (1776–1864), the geologist and mineralogist;
John Torrey (born 1798), botanist, chemist, and metallur-
gist; and Arnold Henry Guyot (born 1807), who brought to
his adopted country a profound acquaintance with physical
geography, previously set forth to the scientific world in
works of recognized value, and now diffused among younger
students by his books of elementary instruction. Among
naturalists, John James Audubon (1780—1851) must not be
forgotten, because of his close observation of the habits
of birds and his great series of life-size paintings of the
birds of America. Henry Maudsley’s writings upon what
may be called mental physiology are of the profoundest
scientific and psychological interest, and have a singular
literary charm. His “Body and Mind” and “Psychologi-
cal Essays”—in the latter of which is a subtle appreciation
of the character of Hamlet—and his “Physiology and
Pathology of Mind,” are his principal works. The latter
of these works, rich with the lore of various ages and
climes, not only interpreting what we are not sure that the
greatest intellect the world has produced meant to be in-
terpretable, but seeking to penetrate to the very seat and
reveal the very mode of thought, was published in 1873.
To such a point has the English language and literature
advanced from the rude condition and remote period at
which we first considered it. RICHARD GRANT WHITE.
English Mills, a post-village of Lycoming co., Pa.. .
English Pale, called also the Irish Pale, or simply
The Pale, denotes in history that part of Ireland which
was under English law previously to the final and complete
subjugation of Ireland. In a general way, the English
Pale may be defined as corresponding with the present
province of Leinster, besides Cork, Kerry, Waterford,
Tipperary, and Limerick. But, in point of fact, the actual
Pale was much smaller than this, and, though of extremely
variable limits, scarcely ever reached the dimensions indi-
cated above. The counties of Dublin, Meath, Carlow, Kil-
kenny, and Louth were almost always within the Pale;
Wexford and Waterford, though hardly within the Pale,
were firmly English; while Wicklow and Kildare, though
nominally within the Pale, were Celtic, and to a consider-
able extent independent. In strict language the Pale de-
notes the “boundary-line,” but it is commonly used for the
whole region indicated above.
English Prairie, a post-village of McHenry co., Ill.,
in Burton township, 6 miles E. of Richmond, 2 miles S. of .
the Wisconsin line, and 50 miles N. W. of Chicago.
English River, an estuary of South-eastern Africa,
communicates with Delagoa Bay about lat. 25° 58' S. and
lon. 32° 36' E. It receives several broad but unimportant
streams (Tembia, Mattol, and Dundas rivers), and is sur-
rounded with mangrove flats.
English River, in Iowa, is a branch of the Iowa
River. It rises by two forks, the North and South, which
unite and flow eastward, entering the Iowa River 15 miles
S. of Iowa City.—Another English River enters the Red
Cedar River in Black Hawk co., Ia. -
English River, a township of Keokuk co., Ia. P. 1221. .
English River, a township of Washington co., Ia.
Pop. 1501. - &
English Roscius, The, a title often bestowed upon
David Garrick (1716–79), the eminent actor. The title
of “the Young Roscius” in like manner was given to W.
H. W. Betty (1791–1874), an English actor who acquired
when a child great fame and fortune upon the stage, though
his appearances as an actor in adult life were failures. So
also Samuel Foote (1722–77) was called the “English Aris-
tophanes;” John Oldham (1653–83) the “English Juve-
ENGLISH's CREEK–ENGRAVING.
1591
nal;” Dean Swift (1667–1745) the “English Rabelais.”
Mary D. Robinson (1758–1800), a beauty, wit, and Della-
Cruscan poetess, was called the “English Sappho.” She
was a mistress of George IV. Richard Cumberland (1732–
1811) was called the “English Terence,” and the kings
Henry VII. and James I. were each called the “English
Solomon.” w
Eng/lish’s Creek, a post-village of Egg Harbor town-
ship, Atlantic co., N. J., on a creek of the same name, 15
miles S. W. of Absecon.
English Settlement, a post-village of Clay town-
ship, Marion co., Ia., 8 miles S. W. of Pella. -
English Seventh-Day Baptists. See SEVENTH-
DAY BAPTISTs.
Eng/lishtown, a post-village of Manalapan township,
Monmouth co., N. J., on the Freehold and Jamesburg Agri-
cultural R. R., 5 miles W. N. W. of Freehold.
Eng/lishville, a post-village of Kent co., Mich., 6 miles
E. of Belmont. It is on the Grand Rapids Newaygo and
Lake Shore R. R.
Engraft'ing, or Grafting [a word kindred to the Gr.
ypáðw, to “write;” ypaſhtov, a “pencil,” referring to the
pencil-shape of the scion or graft], the uniting of a shoot
(the scion or graft) of one variety of plant (mostly of fruit
trees) upon the stock of another variety, or even another
species, so that the scion shall live and grow as if a part
of the tree upon which it is grafted. Many reports have
been published of trees grafted upon species of widely dif-
ferent genera and orders of plants, but it is believed that
such reports are not founded in truth. Whether grafting
could be practised upon animals has been disputed; but
skin-grafting (the transplanting of a small piece of skin
to denuded portions of the human body, there to grow and
cover the whole naked patch) is an established operation
in surgery; and many reports of the successful grafting
of spurs, feathers, combs of cocks, etc. have of late fre-
quently been published, mostly from French sources. These
experiments are somewhat damaging to our ideas of per-
sonal identity, but there seems to be no reason why en-
grafting should not succeed upon animals as well as upon
plants.
In selecting stocks for grafting, care should be taken
not to insert a free-growing variety upon one which is
slow of growth, lest an unsightly over-development take
place above the point of union. In some cases, however,
as when dwarfs are desired, the stock to be grafted upon is
to be of much smaller growth. Thus, the pear is dwarfed
when set on the quince; the cherry on the mahaleb ; the
apple on the thorn. There are many styles of grafting,
but in all the principle is to place the alburnum or sap-
wood and the cambium (or new wood) of the scion against
that of the stock. The hard wood of scion and stock never
unites. There is no question but that some stocks decidedly
affect, for better or for worse, the quality of the fruit grown
upon the graft, but in most cases the effect is not strongly
marked. º
Among the more important kinds of engrafting we may
mention: (1) cleft-grafting, very commonly employed where
the stock is much larger than the scion. Here the stock is
sawn across, its end split once or more, and one, two, or
more scions, the lower end flattened into a wedge, are in-
serted in the cleft. (2) Crown-grafting is cleft-grafting
when more than one cleft is made; or in other cases it is
the insertion of a scion, the lower end of which is cut
very thin, into a space between the wood and bark of a
large stock, which is cut off, as in cleft-grafting. This
method is highly approved. (3) Splice or whip grafting
is done with a stock of the same size as the scion. They
are simply spliced together, tied and waxed, as hereafter
shown. (4) Saddle-grafting is accomplished by shaping
the upper end of the stock into a wedge and cutting a cor-
responding notch in the Scion. (5) Tongue-grafting is the
reverse of this, the scion forming the wedge. (6) Peg-
grafting, rarely used, is like tongue-grafting, except that
a hole is bored in the end of the stock, and the Scion, neatly
sharpened into a peg, is fitted exactly to the stock. (7)
Shoulder-grafting is done by cutting shoulders in both
stock and Scion, which are otherwise fitted as in splice-
grafting. (8) Budding is a kind of grafting in which the
bud of one kind of tree is inserted under the bark of
another. (9) Flute-grafting differs from budding in that
a ring of bark is taken off with the bud and inserted upon
the stock in the place of a piece of bark of corresponding
size which has been taken off. (10) Inarching, or arcua-
tion, takes place when the scion,is not detached from the
parent stem until after union has taken place between
stock and Scion. (11) Side-grafting is the insertion of a
Scion into the side of the stock without cutting the stock
Off.
In all varieties of grafting, except cleft and crown-graft-
ing, it is necessary to tie the scion to its place. Strips of
bass matting or of waxed muslin are generally used. In
all cases it is necessary to exclude the air from the cut,
either by means of grafting-wax (a mixture of resin and
beeswax, softened with tallow) or of clay mixed with
horse-dung, a compound now seldom employed.
Grafting succeeds best when the scions have been kept
for some time and become partly dried. The scion should
be cut before the buds begin to swell. Grafting is done in
the spring, but budding may be performed in autumn also.
Engrailed, in heraldry, a line or other object edged
with small semicircles or crescents, the points of which are
turned outward, is said to be engrailed. The semicircular
marks or dots around the edge of a coin are called engrail-
ments. The term doubtless comes from the French grèle,
“ hail.”
Engra/tia, SAINT, lived at Saragossa in Spain in 304.
She was persecuted as a Christian under the emperors Dio-
cletian and Maximianus Hercules; and, according to the
poet Prudentius, she underwent the most fearful tortures,
but notwithstanding the dreadful mutilations which she
received, she survived to a great age, and died in the odor
of sanctity. Her relics are preserved at Saragossa. She
is honored by the Roman Catholic Church on April 16.
Engraving. Engraving on precious stones, glass, or
metals, in such a manner as to represent the figures or ob-
jects in relief, is a very ancient art, and, strictly speaking,
a branch of sculpture. -
We shall in this article confine ourselves wholly to the
engraving, on metal or wood, of figures or designs, in such
a way that when charged with any coloring-matter and
pressed upon paper or parchment, an exact representation,
in outline and shadow, of the engraved figures or designs
will be produced. The impressions thus made are called
engravings. This term is also applied in popular language
to stone-printing or lithography, but as ordinarily there
are no incisions made upon the face of the stone, and the
processes differ widely from engraving proper, we prefer
to treat of this branch of art under its appropriate title.
Engraving, in this restricted sense, is a modern inven-
tion, and grew into use and importance with the art of
printing, of which, in fact, it forms a constituent part.
Whether we consider the difficulty attending its execution,
its value in multiplying the essentials of other departments
of art, its use in illustrating science and industrial pro-
cesses, engraving takes an elevated position, both from an
aesthetic and a practical point of view.
In giving some account of the technical processes of
various kinds of engraving we shall not hold in mind the
necessities of the professional engraver seeking aid for per-
fecting himself in the art, but rather those of the general
reader or connoisseur, who seeks the elementary knowledge
requisite for an intelligent estimate of the best products of
the engraver's skill. It has been well said by Adam Bartsch
that it is impossible to convey in writing any but the most
general instructions regarding the technical processes of the
art. We shall, therefore, in the outline which we propose
to give, exclude all details of handling not pertinent to the
end we have in view.”
1. Wood Engraving.—This is the most ancient branch
of the art, and for the purposes of illustration has been
held to be of the greatest value from the time of its intro-
duction. Boxwood is most generally used by engravers,
although any hard and close-grained wood may be made
available. It is first sawed across the fibre, in thickness
equal to the length of ordinary metal types. The surface
of the wood is then made smooth and covered with flake-
white. Upon this is drawn in fine lines with pen or lead-
pencil the design required. In many instances now the
oxpense of drawing is entirely superseded by photograph-
ing, directly upon the block, the subject to be engraved;
and there is still another process in use whereby the subject
is copied by transferring an impression with ink upon the
block, which also avoids the expense of drawing and greatly
facilitates the work of the engraver. The white or untouch-
ed parts between the lines of the drawing are then cut out
by means of variously formed chisels and gouges. This pro-
cess leaves the outlines and shadows elevated, like the faces
of type in a printer's form. When the blocks are inked by
aſ ordinary roller, impressions may be taken off upon paper
by means of a press. In point of fact, however, the wooden
blocks are now scarcely ever used for printing. When the
engraver’s work upon the wood has been completed, a
% Publishers' Noże.—For a more practical view of some of the
details of engraving, see the article ENGRAVING STEEL AND
COPPER PLATES, ETC., written by a practical steel engraver of
New York City. Though the two articles to some extent cover
the same ground, their great excellence will, it is believed, war-
rant the publication of both.
1592
ENGRAVING,
mould of wax is taken from the block, and within this
mould a thin plate of copper is deposited by electro-gal-
vanic action. Upon the back of this copper a casting of
type-metal is fixed, which by means of tin-foil is amalga-
mated with the copper, forming a solid plate of sufficient
strength to be securely fastened upon a wooden block of the
proper thickness for the printer's form. By this means
also, a much larger number of clear impressions can be se-
cured than from the block itself. In wood engraving effects
are generally produced by parallel lines. In finer work,
however, cross-hatching (or the use of lines transversely
intersecting each other) is introduced, by which artists ap-
proach the delicate transitions and effects of line engraving
on steel or copper. --
2. Etching.—For this process a plate of metal, generally
copper, is prepared with a perfectly even and smooth sur-
face. It is then thinly covered with a varnish composed of
various proportions of white wax, black and white pitch, and
asphaltum. This varnish, technically called the “ground,”
is spread in a thin coating over the prepared plate, and
afterwards smoked to give a black surface, the better to
show the drawing of the artist's design. The drawing is
made in reverse upon the varnished plate, generally by
transfer of a drawing made upon paper with colored chalk.
When the outlines are clearly marked upon the blackened
surface, they are cut through the varnish by the etching-
needle, laying bare the surface of the copper or metal used.
The etching-needle is a steel instrument similar to a sharp-
ened lead-pencil, and points of different degrees of fineness
are used as a finer or heavier line is desired. When the
outlines and shadows of the object to be etched are thus cut
through the “ground,” a rim, or dike, of wax is made around
the border of the plate, and some corroding mixture (gen-
erally nitric acid mixed with an equal quantity of water) is
poured upon the plate. By the action of the acid the lines
laid bare with the etching-needle are bitten into the plate,
each with a breadth corresponding to the surface laid
bare by the needle. If it is desired that the lines shall be
of unequal depth, the acid is poured off, and the lines
whose depth is deemed sufficient are in technical language
“stopped out” by being washed with water, dried, and
covered with varnish, while upon the remaining parts the
process of corrosion is continued till the unprotected lines
are as deep as the etcher may desire. The ground or var-
nish is then removed from the plate, the oxidized portions
are cleansed, and a proof is taken. If the work is in any
part unsuccessful, it may be touched up and rendered more
expressive by the “dry-point.” This is a fine and sharply
pointed steel instrument, by which scratches or shallow
grooves of great delicacy are made on the smooth portion
of the plate. Some etchers use the dry-point very little, if
at all. Others rely upon it for their finest effects.
3. Line Engraving.—This is the most elaborate and
costly process for the reproduction of works of art. The
metal plates, whether of copper or softened steel, are pre-
pared as for etching, but with a more careful polish. The
work of art to be engraved is drawn from the original in
the reduced size required for the engraving. The plate is
generally covered with a thin coating of wax. The pencil
drawing is then laid with its face upon the wax, and gently
rubbed by a burnisher. This, as in the preparation for
etching, transfers the outline to the wax. The design is
then traced through the wax upon the metal with an etch-
ing-needle. The wax, when melted off, leaves the outline
marked on the plate, ready for the burin. The burin or
graver is a square, or lozenge-shaped, piece of steel inserted
in a pear-shaped handle, the instrument itself being suf-
ficiently thick not to bend under strong pressure of the
hand. The end is diagonally ground, so that one side of
the instrument presents an acute angle, which, when pushed
forward by the hand, cuts out triangular grooves in the
metal. The burnisher, above alluded to, is a piece of hard-
ened steel, smooth and rounded for the purpose of toning
down work too deeply cut, or for polishing the plate in case
of accident to the surface. The “scraper,” also used, is a
triangular piece of steel, otherwise shaped like a knife,
with its angles brought to a sharp edge, and inserted in a
handle. This is used to scrape off the furrow of metal
which is raised on the plate by the action of the graver.
This raised furrow is called the “burr.” Thus equipped,
the engraver cuts grooves into the plate which, when filled
with ink, come to represent by their curves, crossings, and
varying depth and breadth all the outlines, shadows, and
transitions of the picture from which he works. Of the
combination of other modes of engraving with lines we,
shall speak hereafter.
4. Mezzotint.—This process was invented at a later period
than either of those which we have described. It has been
attributed to Prince Rupert by some, but on the authority
of Heinecken to a German military officer named Von Sie-
gen. The plate should be prepared as for the graver. By
their manifold changes.
‘the means of a rocker used by the hand, or a machine cov-
ered with fine teeth, the whole surface of the plate is cov-
ered with a compact series of minute incisions—so compact
that if filled with ink the plate would give a printed sur-
face on paper quite black. Upon this surface, thus covered
with “burr,” the outlines of the picture are drawn, and
where lights are desired the burr is removed by the scraper
and made smooth by the burnisher. The transitions from
the high lights to the deep shadows are delicately marked
by the continuously increasing amount of the “burr” which
is left on the plate. -
5. Stippling.—This consists in puncturing the metal
plate by dots made with the point of the graver or by
corrosion with acid. Sometimes these dots are made by
slight blows upon the graver. The greater or less number
of these dots gives in printing all varieties of shading.
This was a favorite method with Bartolozzi and his school.
6. Aquatint.—This method of engraving, now little used,
is designed to imitate drawings in India ink, bistre, or
Sepia, especially those which are on a large scale. The
method generally followed is this : The outline of the ob-
jects is first etched in the usual manner. The plate, when
cleaned, is evenly covered with finely powdered mastic. It
is then warmed till the mastic particles are melted suf-
ficiently to cause them to adhere to the plate. Between the
particles of the mastic bare spots are left, upon which the
acid can afterwards act. Upon those parts of the plate
where shadows are not required a thick varnish is laid on
with a brush, to protect it. The acid is then poured on as
in etching. When the lightest shadows are sufficiently
bitten by the acid, those parts are stopped out by varnish,
and the work is permitted to go on until the deepest shadows
are finished. For landscapes or trees, where special free-
dom is required, modifications of this process are made
which are not sufficiently important for description.
7. Graphotype.—This is a modern invention, a descrip-
tion of which we copy from a recent writer: “Finely pow-
dered chalk is spread thickly on a metal plate, and then
subjected to hydraulic pressure till it becomes a solid mass
with a beautiful white surface, slightly shining, but not
inconveniently brilliant. On this surface the artist draws
in a glutinous ink, perfectly black, flowing 'from a finely
pointed little brush; the pen cannot be used, on account
of the friability of the chalk. The ink glues the particles
of chalk where it passes, and when the drawing is complete
the white spaces between the lines are easily hollowed by
rubbing them gently with a piece of velvet or a light
brush. The black lines remain in relief, like the lines of a
wood-cut. The plate is then dipped in a solution of flint,
and so hardened, after which a stereotype cast or an elec-
trotype copy is taken from it, and this is used as a stereo-
type or electrotype.” The effect produced is somewhat
similar to that of wood engraving.
8. Combination of Processes.—For the sake of clearness
we have described the different modes of engraving as dis-
tinct processes, but they are quite often combined. In
etching, the dry-point is constantly made use of, and not
seldom the graver. In line engravings the outlines are
often etched, while the most important and expressive
parts are worked out with the graver. Stippling is made use
of at times to give softness to the expression of the face.
In etching, parts of the plate are sometimes made to give
delicate shadows and transitions by the “burr' used in
mezzotint. In line engraving, short lines or dots are in-
serted in the lozenge-shaped intervals between the cross
hatchings made by the graver. -
9. Handling. — Every engraver of note adopts some
methods of producing his desired effects peculiar to him-
self. This is technically called “handling.” Many of the
elements which enter into handling are common to the
painter and the engraver. Both alike must attend to
drawing, anatomy, and perspective, both linear and ačrial;
to chiaroscuro, or the general distribution of lights and
shadows in a picture, and the various gradations of depth
and delicacy of the latter as they recede from the focus of
light. They must both alike seek for truth and force in the
representation of the outline surface and texture of bodies;
they must alike take account of the variations which distance,
quality of the light, and atmosphere produce in objects by
In addition to these, the engraver
(if he does not engrave his own design) must be a transla-
tor of another's thought into a different language. This he
can never accomplish without the greatest familiarity with
his own language, as well as that of the painter. Literal
interpretation will fail as really as in the case of transla-
ting a great poem. The chief study of the engraver is so to
arrange his lines as to mark the character of each object
and feature, distinguish it from every other, and give it the
proper prominence and importance with regard to the total
scene or event which the picture is designed to represent.
The color of the picture, it is true, cannot be, strictly speak-
ENGRAVING.
1593
ing, translated, but it is possible to convey an accurate idea
of the relations of the lights and shadows which the differ-
ent colors embody. Painters select colors with reference to
their desire to make special objects prominent, and to at-
tract and fix upon them the eye of the spectator. Now, the
engraver, if he cannot imitate the color, can produce by his
lines such an effect as shall imitate the emphasis which the
painter expresses by actual color. From this point of view
critics speak of “color” in an engraving. The methods in
which different artists express color, flesh, hair, drapery,
etc. would extend this article beyond the limits we have set
to ourselves. These are best studied by the learner in the
works of eminent engravers through a comparison of their
methods with each other.
10. Printing.—Much of the effect of all engravings is de-
pendent upon printing. In wood engraving, by reason of
the lines being raised in relief like types, the difficulty of
printing is less than in other branches of the art. It re-
quires, however, to make good impressions, all the accesso-
ries for the best work of the printer's art. Clearness, deli-
cacy, and softness in wood-cuts are greatly dependent upon
the skill and judgment of the printer. In those depart-
ments of the art in which the ink or coloring-matter is
received into grooves or dots sunk beneath the surface,
the process of printing is much slower and more difficult.
The ink is forced carefully into the depressions with a soft
ball or dabber, and afterwards the portions of the plate be-
tween the grooves, and also the lightly worked parts which
represent the lights, are carefully cleaned with a soft cloth
and the palm of the hand before it is ready for the press.
This process is a slow one, and requires special training on
the part of workmen. The printing of etchings is so im-
portant that many etchers provide themselves with hand-
presses, and work off their own proofs. Hamerton, in his
“Etching and Etchers,” names specially one house in Paris
and one in London which alone he speaks of as capable of
good work in printing etchings. A copper plate soon wears
so much as to give blurred and imperfect impressions. Two
hundred impressions of an etching and five hundred of a
line engraving are said to be the limit which a copper plate
can furnish without an appreciable deterioration of quality.
Since the art of coating the copper plates with a thin layer
of steel has been introduced, a much larger number can be
produced. Since the time of our countryman, Jacob Per-
kins, who introduced the use of steel plates, copper has been
to a great extent laid aside, so far as line and mezzotint
engraving is concerned. Steel has been made especially
useful in engraving banknotes, in which especial complica-
tions and delicacy of lines are desirable in order to increase
the difficulty of counterfeiting. Engraved steel plates, when
hardened, are capable of giving to steel cylinders rolled
over them, under enormous pressure, a representation in re-
lief of the sunken lines of the plate. These cylinders, when
hardened, are made to transfer the lines to other plates of
softened metal, which in turn are hardened and used for
printing. These plates, when worn, are retouched by reap-
plication of the same cylinders. In this way plates may
be duplicated, or the same plate be made to give an almost
unlimited number of impressions.
At an early period the practice of using two or more
blocks in wood engraving was introduced. The outline
was made by one block, and the different degrees of sha-
‘ding by others. This was called engraving in chiaroscuro.
This led to printing in gradations of color by means of
several blocks, each giving a single color or shade. This
has been carried to a high degree of perfection. A similar
process has been introduced in lithography. By this
means chromo-lithographs, as they are called, have been
printed which imitate the colors of small pictures with an
accuracy which, though necessarily somewhat mechanical,
is really surprising. In all methods which lay on colors by
successively applied stones or blocks the matter of printing
becomes of chief importance.
11. Painter-Engravers.--This is the designation given by
Bartsch to those artists who have engraved their own de-
signs, either as studies for paintings or with a purpose of
giving them no further representation in color. These
works are not translations or copies, as are ordinary engrav-
ings, but real autographs—direct expressions of the artist's
mind. In the modern tendency to specialize and divide
labor, artists have to a great extent laid aside this practice,
but with the older artists it was very common. Collectors
place a high value upon these autographs. They are be-
coming rare, and are of course much advanced in commer-
cial value. Bartsch's great work (“Peintre-Graveur,” in
21 vols.) is devoted entirely to engravings and etchings of
this class.
12. Relative Artistic Value.—The relative importance, for
art purposes, of the different modes of engraving is difficult
to determine. Each has its own advantages and limita-
tions. New processes like the graphotype have not yet
been sufficiently tested to determine their permanent value.
Wood engraving has a very decided advantage over the
other forms of the art in respect to cheapness and facility
of execution and printing. These circumstances adapt it
to the purpose of illustrating books, magazines, and news-
papers, and also render it liable to degradation through
haste and carelessness in execution. In the hands of good
artists, however, it is capable of high excellence. The
best wood engraving has a softness and grace which are
attractive to all. But in all the elements of truthfulness
and force the distinct, sharp lines of the etching-needle
and dry-point are vastly superior. In etching, the artist
must secure his effects by clear outlines, each of which must
tell its own distinct story. The softness and amenity of
wood engraving are denied to the etcher, but he may ac-
complish results which are vastly superior in all the higher
elements of expression. For this very reason etching is
never popular with persons untaught in the grammar of
art. It generally fails in rendering the delicate gradations
of shadow in clouds, and rarely succeeds in perfect model-
ling of flesh. But in “freedom, precision, and power” it
is superior to all methods of engraving. For this reason,
high success in etching requires special capacity, which
stands somewhat apart from the art-faculty in general.
Mezzotint, like wood engraving, is popular from its soft-
ness and the perfect gradations of tint which it secures.
The process is also cheaper than that of line engraving, and
the facility with which it can represent strong contrasts in
lights and darks and the faces of the young and fair make it
a process next in popularity to wood engraving. . In the
hands of masters like Earlom, McArdell, and Bond it has
given us works of great beauty and power. Line engrav-
ing, if not the most difficult, is the most laborious method
of engraving, and for this reason, as well as for its inherent
capacity for force and variety of effect, stands in the first
rank among methods of engraving. It is likely, by the
time which it consumes and the great manual dexterity
which it requires, to become mechanical, and deficient in the
breadth, freedom, and boldness of etching. But when, under
the hand of a real artist, it combines these elements with
perfect moulding of flesh, delicacy of tone, and gradation
of shadows, it stands unrivalled among its sister branches
of the art. The strength of Goltzius and Cornelius Visscher,
the bold relief and brilliant contrasts of Strange and Ede-
linck, the aërial grace and spiritual expression of Raphael
Morghem and Toschi, are sufficient to vindicate the claim
of line engraving to the position which the common judg-
ment has assigned it. i
History of Engraving.—The origin of this invention is
obscure. It is, however, well settled that playing cards
were printed from wood blocks in the beginning of the four-
teenth century, and this is ordinarily supposed to be the
origin of the invention. Papillon, a French wood en-
graver, and author of a treatise on wood engraving in two
volumes (Paris, 1766), professed, however, to have seen a
volume of wood-cuts engraved at Ravenna by Alexander
Alberic Cumio and his twin-sister Isabella, during the pa-
pacy of Honorius IV., A. D. 1285–87. The practice of
printing cards from wood blocks continued in various parts
of Europe through the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
In the early part of the fifteenth century images of Saints
and other religious pictures were produced. A picture of
St. Christopher, dated 1423, was until recently regarded as
the earliest known wood-cut with a date, but within a few
years past it has been claimed that earlier dated specimens
have been discovered. At this same period, within the first
half of the fifteenth century, began to appear in Holland
and Germany those works now known as block-books (see
Typography), which were printed from engraved wood
blocks. Immediately on the invention of printing with
movable type, ornamental letters were cut on wood and
used to beautify the printed pages. The Psalter of Guten-
berg (1457) was thus ornamented. The idea seems to have
been to imitate manuscript of the period, and in 1475 a.
Durandus was published by Zainer, at Ulm, with an orna-
mental vignette border to the first page, after which such
borders engraved on wood were frequently used. The first
book with wood-cut illustrations was a book of fables,
printed at Bamberg by Pfister in 1461. Numerous books
of the fifteenth century were illustrated with wood-cuts, and
the art was extensively practised. We do not know the
names of any wood engravers of the earliest period, but
towards the close of the century we begin to meet with
names. Michael Wohlgemuth is among the first, if he be not
the first, wood engraver whose name can be connected with
his work. To him are attributed the illustrations of the
great “Chronicle" of Schedel, commonly called the “Nu-
remberg Chronicle,” published at Nuremberg in 1493; and
he is named in the work as one of the Superintendents of
its execution. -
The early style of wood engraving was rude, but not
de

1594
IENGRAVING.
without artistic force. In general, however, little was
attempted, by the early engravers beyond outline repre-
sentation. Shading and what is sometimes called “color ’’
were unknown at the first. The earliest specimen of shad-
ing by cross lines, commonly called cross-hatching, is found
º sº * on the title-page of Breydenbach (Mentz,
Wohlgemuth dealt freely in heavy shading, and other
work of his time shows the advance of the art in Germany.
It was not, however, until the influence of Albert Dürer
began to be felt that the old conventional styles were
abandoned. Dürer was a pupil of Wohlgemuth. In 1498
he published his “Apocalypsis.” It was the beginning of
a new era in the art. Dürer applied to the work of draw-
ing on wood, in so far as they were applicable, the same
principles which governed oil painting. The result was
that a wood engraving became a history or a poem. Ger-
many at first, and afterward all Europe, felt the new inspi-
ration. Artists appeared in all directions, and the most
eminent painters did not disdain to draw on wood. During
the sixteenth century a very large proportion of published
books were illustrated with wood-cuts. Even statutes and
books of instruction in the practice of law were illustrated.
Contemporary with Dürer were such artists as Hans Burg-
mair, Hans Schauffelin, Urse Graff, Wechtlin, Holbein, Lu-
cas Cranach, and many others in Germany. In regard to
Hans Holbein’s engravings much uncertainty exists. Some
inferior work is signed with his name or initials, and pretty
much all the good work of the period is attributed to him
by his admirers.
Considerable discussion has been wasted on the question
whether any, and if any which, of the artists actually cut
wood blocks with the graver. The subject is of slight im-
portance. They drew pictures on the wood to be engraved
there, and probably directed the workmen if they did not
handle the tools. They are as properly called wood engra-
vers as Canova and Thorwaldsen are called sculptors. Lucas
Cranach appears to have been the inventor of the applica-
tion of wood engraving to printing in chiaroscuro, which
consisted in the engraving of two or more blocks to be used
in impressing different colors on the same print. An en-
graving of this kind by Cranach is extant, bearing date
1509. Ugo da Carpi in Italy, about 1518, adopted the
suggestion of Cranach, or invented the plan anew, and the
art reached great perfection in Italy, though almost aban-
doned in Germany.
In France the art of wood engraving was seized with
alacrity in the latter part of the fifteenth century, and ap-
plied with great skill to the ornamentation of the borders
of pages. The superb books of devotion which issued from
the Parisian presses at this period are unrivalled elsewhere.
It is impossible, however, to name with any certainty a
French engraver on wood until the period of the fine issues
of the presses at Lyons, after 1520, when Bernard Solo-
mon, commonly called “Little Bernard,” executed very
beautiful illustrations of the Bible, Ovid, etc.
The early history of the art in Italy is also obscure.
Some Italian publications of the fifteenth century seem to
have been illustrated by German workmen or from their
designs. Others, however, are unmistakably Italian, the
vast Superiority of drawing, especially of the human form,
being at once visible.
At the close of the fifteenth and beginning of the six-
teenth century there seems to have been in the north of
Italy, possibly at Venice, an artist on wood who was em-
ployed by the book publishers in that city, in Milan, and
elsewhere, and who was evidently the father of the art in
Italy. Numerous cuts by him are found with the signa-
ture 3 Å, and the name Joan Andrea has been given to
him. His name is, however, doubtful. The “Poliphilus ”
published by Aldus (1499) was doubtless illustrated by
him, and is the masterpiece of wood-cut illustration in
Italy for the fifteenth century.
The art flourished in Europe till the close of the six-
teenth century, when its decadence was manifest, and in
the seventeenth century it passed almost entirely out of
use, except in rude and worthless styles, of which exam-
ples are seen in old chap-books and cheap works for the
common people. Metal engraving had usurped its place
in the illustration of books. The revival of the art is to
be attributed to Thomas Bewick, an English wood engraver
(born 1753), whose “British Birds” (1804), drawn and en-
graved by himself, present manifold instances of rare truth-
fulness and beauty. His work, at first rude, improved rap-
idly, and at length took high rank in the art. He was
followed by his own pupils and by a succession of others,
but it is only since 1830 that the art began to assume the
high character which it now possesses. At present few of
the eminent artists who draw on wood engrave their own
designs. It is consequently difficult to determine the rela-
tive contributions to the total excellence of the brilliant
wood engraving of the present day which have been made
respectively by the draughtsman and the engraver. The
importance of division of labor is so well understood that
the draughtsman and engraver are seldom the same person.
Some of the best painters draw on blocks for engrayers,
whose work is to give an adequate representation of the
design. Birket Foster, Harrison Weir, John Tenniel, Gil-
bert Maclise, Stanfield, Leech, Doyle, Creswick, either
painters or professional draughtsmen on wood, have been
interpreted by Evans, Vizitelly, Greenaway, Palmer,
Wright, Dalziel, Folkard, Thomas, Swan, and Williams.
(A long list of designers and engravers on wood will be
found at the end of the eighth chapter of JACKSON and
CHATTO's “History of Wood Engraving.”)
The origin of the art of metal engraving has been dis-
puted. Germany claims that the oldest dated specimens
are by German artists. Italy claims the invention for Fini-
guerra, and the claim of Italy is now generally acquiesced
in. Maso Finiguerra was a Florentine goldsmith, and
according to Vasari, about A. D. 1460, having engraved a
metal plate to receive enamel for ornamental use, poured
on it some melted sulphur to take a cast, when he observed
that the dirt in the incisions had adhered to the Sulphur,
making a picture in black. He thereupon rubbed ink into
the lines of the engraving, and took an impression with
wet paper. Since Vasari’s time it has been well estab-
lished that Finiguerra took impressions as early as 1450,
and possibly 1445. Baccio Baldini, another Florentine
goldsmith, seems to have learned the art from Finiguerra,
and executed some plates, among which were nineteen
which appeared in an edition of Dante published at Flor-
ence in 1481. The first book illustrated with copper plates
was “Il Monte Sancto di Dio,” published at Florence in
1477, containing three large plates, which are probably by
Baldini. The art advanced rapidly to its highest state in
Italy. In the commencement of the sixteenth century
there were numerous copperplate engravers of great emi-
mence in Italy, at the head of whom stood Marc Antonio
Raimondi, whose works mark an important era in Italian
engraving, and good impressions of whose prints are now
valued at fabulous prices. He obtained the friendship of .
Raphael, and engraved under the painter's own eye very
many of his works. His handling is peculiar, and though
his engravings are deficient in “color” and effective dis-
tribution of light and shadow, he still holds a position
among the very ablest engravers of any time. His scholars,
who worked with him while living, Marco of Ravenna and
Agostino of Venice, succeeded him and perpetuated his
style. Giorgio Ghisi, born in 1524 at Mantua, and Bona-
soni of Bologna (1498–1570) were engravers of distinction,
and also painters. Cornelius Cort, a Dutch engraver (born
1536, died 1578), removed to Italy, where he was brought
under the influence of Titian, and introduced a better rep-
resentation of chiaroscuro and a breadth of manner not
before attained. Agostino Caracci (born 1558 at Bologna,
died 1602) was a pupil of Cort, and engraved a large num-
ber of plates, attaining high reputation, especially for his
drawing. Martin Rota, a Dalmatian, whose prints range
from 1558 to 1586, was an imitator of the school of Cort.
Agostino Caracci, already named, Spagnaletto. Guercino,
Carlo Maratti, Guido Reni, Salvator Rosa, Claude Lor-
rain, Canaletti, and Piranesi were also known as painter-
engravers, and maintained the reputation of this branch
of Italian art. In later years, Volpato, Raphael Morghem,
Toschi, and Longhi have produced works representing the
great masters of Italy, which take a higher rank relatively
than contemporary Italian painting:
Copperplate engraving seems to have been practised in
Germany in the middle of the fifteenth century, and Ger-
man work of the latter part of that century is superior to
the Italian. Prints are extant with signatures of unknown
artists which antedate those of artists who are known.
Martin Schoen (or Schoengauer) of Colmar is regarded as
the father of the art in Germany. The dates of his birth
and death are in dispute, but his work was in the last
quarter of the fifteenth century. He executed a large num-
ber of prints.which are extant, and of which good impres-
sions are highly prized. He was contemporary with many
other copperplate engravers, and seems to have lived until
the time of Dürer. The art reached high excellence in Ger-
many in the time of Dürer (who died 1528). Marc Antonio
in Italy confessed his indebtedness to Germany by repro-
ducing in facsimile a considerable number of the works of
Dürer. Dürer was also, if not the inventor, one of the
earliest practitioners, of the process of etching. The prin-
cipal German engravers after Dürer are his pupil Aldegrayer,
the two Behams, Altdorfer, Bink, Penz, etc. But the Ger-
man school proper soon became absorbed in that of Italy,
losing its peculiar characteristics. Since the beginning of
the nineteenth century, engraving, like all branches of lit-
erature and art, has made steady progress in Germany.
*

ENGRAVING,
1595.
Among the large number of distinguished men a few only
can be named. C. F. Müller, though he died at thirty-
three, is reckoned among the ablest engravers of all time.
His “Madonna di San Sisto * is unrivalled. Steinla has a
very high repute. The revival of the old religious style
of art by Cornelius, Overbeck, and Kaulbach has had its
effect upon engraving, and produced a peculiar style of
handling, marked by the simplicity, purity, and religious
feeling of the great painters just named. Amsler, the
Felsings, Merz, and Mandel, though some of them may be
charged with mannerism, are artists of great truthfulness
and power. w
France did not accept copperplate engraving at an early
period, and hence contributed little to the early history of
the art. The earliest engravings on metal which take rank in
history are a collection due to artists employed in the decora-
tion of the palace of Fontainebleau, about the middle of the
sixteenth century. A large number of these are described
by Bartsch under the name of the school of Fontainebleau.
º: of them are anonymous, though they are thought to be
the work of the painters themselves. The real history of the
French school, as it is ordinarily understood, begins with
the administration of Colbert, under Louis XIV. Among
those we may name the Audran family, of whom Gerard is
by far the ablest. He is said to be the first who united line
engraving and etching in the same plate. Gerard Edelinck,
though born at Antwerp, is placed in the French school.
His facility and skill in execution were remarkable, and he
carried “color” in engraving to a perfection never before
reached. Nanteuil, the three Drevets, Callot (remarkable
as an etcher), Leclerc, Chereau, Beauvarlet, Dupuis, not to
name others, produced works in large numbers which are
marked with great excellence and power. Wille, though a
German by birth, belongs to this school, and is specially
noted for his skill in imitating particular objects and arti-
cles of dress. It must be admitted that this school allowed
their mechanical dexterity to lead them away from the
higher ends of artistic expression. French engravers of the
present day devote themselves in a great degree to the re-
production of modern paintings. Among these are Des-
noyers, who died in 1857, Prevost, Forster, Richehomme,
Lignon, Gerard, Prudhomme, C. R. J. François, and Girar-
det. There is now a society of etchers in Paris, which has
published a series of yearly volumes which contain many
etchings of great spirit and beauty. Lalanne, Calame,
Meryon, Jacquement, and Hillemacher stand out among
other names as etchers of high reputation.
Holland and Belgium have been prolific in engravers.
The earliest of note is Lucas von Leyden. He was a con-
temporary of Albert Dürer, born in 1494. The Sadeler
family and Abraham Bloemart carried forward the art,
while Goltzius, Lucas Kilian, and Saerendam maintained
the reputation early acquired by their masters. A class of
engravers gathered around Rubens who profited by his sug-
gestions. Among these are the Bolswerts, Vosterman, Paul
Pontius, and Peter de Jode the younger. As painter-en-
gravers we may name the incomparable Rembrandt, Ostade,
Waterloo, Swanenelt, Paul Potter, Berghem, Karel du Jar-
din, Everdingen, and De Hooghe. These produced their
effects mainly by etching, and as they engraved their own
designs, their works have a constant artistic value as the
autograph expressions of men of genius.
England seems to have had no great artists in wood or
metal until a late period. It is probable that some rude,
wood-cuts were executed there in the fifteenth century, but
the best illustrated books then published were illustrated
by cuts imported from the Continent until the seventeenth
century. The art of mezzotint engraving, in which English
artists have greatly excelled, was introduced into England
at the time of the Restoration. Hollar, a Bohemian by
birth, was among the first English engravers of European
reputation. William Faithorne first made mezzotint en-
graving popular in England. George Vertue, Vivares, and
John Brown maintained the reputation of the art till the
time of Strange. Strange was born in the Orkneys in
1721, and died in 1792. He was the father of line engrav-
ing in England. In this branch he reached at a bound
the very highest point of excellence. Good impressions
of his works are now sought for at high prices by all in-
telligent collectors. Woollett (born in 1735) is another
engraver of high rank, especially in landscape. Sharpe
has a high reputation in portrait engraving. McArdell,
Green, and Earlom carried mezzotint engraving to high
perfection. Etching has of late been revived in England,
and the attention of the public has been attracted to it by
the brilliant work of P. G. Hamerton, already mentioned.
Turner exercised his genius in etching. Ruskin, his eulo-
gist, has etched many of the illustrations of his works.
Whistler, an American by birth, has achieved a high repu-
tation in this branch of art. Haden, an amateur artist, has
been given a very high position by Hamerton. Hamerton
himself, in the pages of the “Portfolio,” has given many
pleasing illustrations of his devotion to this department of
engraving, while his writings are likely to add greatly to
its popularity among connoisseurs. Cruikshank and Doyle
have been known as etchers, but have made the art sub-
servient to caricature.
Engraving in Spain did not flourish until about the mid-
dle of the eighteenth century. A considerable number of
Spanish engravers are given by historians of the art, but
their works are not widely known beyond their own coun-
try. Carmona (born in Madrid in 1740) and his pupil,
Selma, are names of special distinction.
Unless it be in the department of banknote engraving,
Americans have not developed anything which may be
called a school of the art. In the department named they
are unrivalled, and have shown mechanical and artistic skill
which, with proper patronage from the public, would com-
mand success in any sphere of the art. Wood engraving
has taken relatively a higher rank than the other processes.
But it is difficult without doing injustice to make critical
estimates of artists of merit who may not have reached
their highest degree of excellence, and we forbear to make
selections.
The place of engraving in the general study of art is im-
portant. It interprets all the fundamental ideas of paint-
ing with the exception of color. This, within certain
limits, it can suggest, if it cannot imitate. Printing in
colors, even if the imitation be mechanical, tends to develop
a taste for better things. Autograph engravings, or etch-
ings from artists of distinction, enable the art-student or
amateur to study in his own lines the artist’s chosen ex-
pressions for his thought. In a country like ours, in which
access to large collections of paintings is not possible, en-
graving furnishes the readiest, cheapest, and most practi.
cable means of studying the history and growth of the arts
of design in all departments. Architecture, sculpture, and
pottery are alike dependent upon engraving for making
their results intimately known to the great majority of those
“interested in their study. Relatively to art in general it
sustains the same relation as does printing to literature.
It makes the best ideas of the few available for the elevation
of the many. As a means of popular education in art, en-
gravings stand unrivalled. No lover of elegant culture can
fail to rejoice that so many large and valuable collections
of engravings are in the process of formation in all parts
of our country.
The literature of the subject is extensive. The collector
will find catalogues of the works of the most eminent en-
gravers published as separate volumes, and often many
catalogues of the same engraver by various editors. He
will find general catalogues of all the important engravers,
as “Le Peintre-Graveur º’ of Bartsch and the “ Kunstler-
Lexicon ’’ of Nagler. (We append the titles of various
authorities which are of most importance to the student of
the art: DUPLESSIs, GEORGES, “Essai de Bibliographe con-
tenant l’indication des ouvrages relatifs a l’histoire de la
gravure et des graveurs,” Paris, 1862; OTTLEY, “Inquiry
into the Origin and Early History of Engraving,” 2 vols.,
London, 1816; PALGRAvH., F.T., “Essay on the First Cen-
tury of Italian Engraving ” (in Kugler’s “Hand-book of
Painting,” vol. ii.); J. D. PASSAVANT, “Le Peintre-graveur,”
6 tom., Leipsic, 1860–66; BARTSCH, “Anleitung zur Kup-
ferstichkunde,” 2 bile., Weiss., 1821;, DUSMENIL, RoRDRT,
“Le Peintre-graveur Français,” 10 tom., Paris, 1835–69;
BRULLIOT, FRANÇors, “Dictionnaire des Monogrammes,
Marques figurées, Lettres Initiales,” etc., Munich, 1832;
BARTSCH, ADAM, “Le Peintre-graveur,” 21 vols. and sup-
plement, Vienna, 1803–21; BRYAN, MICHAEL, “A Bio-
graphical and Critical Dictionary of Painters and En-
gravers,” new ed. by GEORGE STANLEY, London, 1858;
JACKSON and CHATTO, “A Treatise on Wood Engraving,”
London, 1861; HEINECKEN, “Idée Générale d’une collec-
tion complette d’estampes,” etc., Leipsic, 1771; “Bio-
graphical History of the Fine Arts,” SPOONER, New York,
1845; NAGLER, “Neue Allgemeine Kunstler-Lexicon,” etc., .
18 vols., Munich, 1835–48; HAMERTON’s “Etching and Etch-
ers,” London, 1866.) M. B. ANDERSON.
ENGRAVING MAPs AND CHARTs.—The best maps are en-
graved on copper, and sometimes on steel, which is, how-
ever, at present not much used, being liable to rust. The
design is drawn on paper, and is transferred to tracing
paper by going over the lines of the drawing with a mate-
rial composed of Frankfort black and urine. The design
is then divided both ways through the centre by lines drawn
to match similar lines on the copper plate. g
The copper is burnished after all the imperfections are re-
moved. It is then “coaled ” over with mahogany charcoal,
and is next rubbed with oil and rotten-stone, and after-
wards thoroughly washed with soap and water and dried,
and then rubbed with whiting. The plate is then warmed
and white wax is applied. The wax having melted, a folded
#,
1596
ENGRAVING.
rag is drawn across it until the wax is of even thickness.
The plate is cooled, and is then ready for use. The tracing
paper, with the design upon it, is laid face downward upon
the waxed surface. The tracing paper is rubbed with the
burnisher, which causes the transfer of the lines to the wax.
The coast-lines, rivers, railways, and common roads are en-
graved upon the copper by suitable gravers, towns are in-
dicated by the stroke of a punch, boundary-lines are run
over by the roulette, and the lines are finished after the wax
is removed. Topographic marks (mountains, etc.) are dry-
pointed lightly. The wax is then removed by melting; the
cut lines are scraped to remove the “burr;” the plate is
coaled and rubbed. The topography, coast or water lines,
and the necessary lettering are next cut.
gree-lines (parallels, meridians, etc.) are ruled in. The
mountains or topography are usually bitten-in by acid (see
paragraph “Etching” in the article ENGRAVING), the heavy
shadings being commonly added by means of the square
graver. The tools employed are the eye-glass, burnisher,
scraper, roulette, gouge, callipers, rules, gauges, gravers,
punches, etc.
At present, maps are not printed directly from the copper
plates, but the printing is generally done by the lithographic
process, as follows: The copper plate is used for making an
impression upon autographic paper, prepared with a coat-
ing of starch, gum, etc. in variable proportions. The ink
used is a mixture of ordinary lithographic ink with oil,
soap, tallow, varnish, etc. The impression is made with
great care upon the starched side of the paper. This paper,
carefully moistened, is laid upon a polished lithographic
stone, “backed” with great care by folds of paper, and
then pressed with great force, in a lithographic press, upon
the stone. The paper, on being stripped away, leaves, if
the work is well done, all its lines beautifully transferred to
the stone. After washing and drying, the stone is used for
printing as in ordinary lithography. From two to five
thousand first-class impressions can be taken from one
transfer if skilfully done.
Lithography proper [from the Gr. Atôos, a “stone,” and ||
'ypáquo, to “write ”] may be considered as a branch of en-
graving. It owes its existence to the fact that certain slates
of the middle oolite (found in the highest perfection at
Solenhofen in Bavaria) and various subcarboniferous and
other limestones of greatly inferior quality, found in Mis-
souri, Canada, and other regions, though compact, have a
surface of somewhat open grain, capable of absorbing and
retaining water, oils, and inks made with fats, etc. Now,
if parts of the smooth stone be covered with a drawing in
oil, the remaining parts can be wet without wetting the
oiled parts. If “fat" ink be now applied to the stone, it
will adhere to the dry parts, but not to the wet. By alter-
nately wetting and inking the stone, a great number of
impressions can be taken. -
There are several methods of drawing upon the stone,
besides the transferring process mentioned in the paragraph
on måp engraving. Drawing is done by the crayon, pen,
or brush. The stone is often cut by the needle or dry-point,
the latter being true engraving. , Engraved stone, however,
though capable of giving fine results if great care be used,
is ordinarily very much, inferior to engraving upon steel or
copper plates.
Color-printing on stone, or chromo-lithography, has of
late years been employed with surprising success in the
production of cheap imitations of oil paintings; for although .
it is true that the greater part of this kind of imitation is
inferior in quality, the best examples are in reality artistic,
and are highly admirable. Each color is applied by using
a different stone.
In all processes, except in stone engraving with the dry-
point, relief is generally given to the design by washing the
stone in dilute acid, which attacks the parts unprotected by
oil, and thus, when skilfully handled, gives increased clear-
mess to the impression. One of the latest inventions in this
line is photo-lithography.
ENGRAVING STEEL AND CoPPER PLATEs.-The origin
of engraving on metal, from which printed impressions
were taken, dates A. D. 1450. In that year, Maso Fini-
guerra, an engraver on gold and silver plate, a native of
Florence, being engaged on an engraving of a “pax” or—
dered by the brothers of the church of St. John, and wish-
ing to see the effect of his work, filled the lines cut by his
graver with a mixture of oil and soot. A pile of damp
linen was, by chance, placed upon the silver plate thus pre-
pared, and the cut lines filled with the black mixture were
transferred upon the linen. The original plate of the
“Coronation of the Virgin,” a niello engraved in 1452 by
Maso Finiguerra, is in the Uffizi Gallery at Florence, and
the only known impression from it is carefully preserved in
the Bibliothèque de Paris.
The first engravings on metal plates for the purpose
of printing therefrom, executed in Italy, are found in
the date of 1461.
After this, de-
the “Monte Santo di Dio " (1477) and in an edition of
Dante (1481). Sandro Botticelli, a great painter, Sup-
plied the designs and assisted in the engraving; but the
oldest copperplate print in existence—a German one—bears
Before the close of the fifteenth century
many books were published which were filled with illustra-
tions and maps printed from metal plates. The graver was
skilfully used by many eminent painters, such as Albert
Dürer, Rembrandt, and Vandyke, while Raphael had Marc
Antonio and other Italian engravers transfer his designs
to plates for reproduction. The discovery of etching—that
is, where the work is “bitten, in ’’ on the plate by acid—is
attributed to both Parmegiano and to Albert Dürer. The
spread of the art of engraving on metal was rapid, and it
was known in England as early as 1483. The earlier styles
or processes were confined to line, executed entirely with
the graver, and to etching, done by a sharp point or needle.
The style called mezzotinto or mezzotint was probably in-
vented about 1600, for François Aspruck engraved in 1601,
by means of a process resembling mezzotint, a series of
thirteen plates of Christ and the apostles, and one of Venus
and Cupid. In the year 1643, Louis of Siegen, a German
officer, employed it for his portrait of Amelia. Elizabeth,
the landgravine of Hesse-Cassel; and Prince Rupert, the
nephew of Charles I., was led to its discovery when living
in retirement at Brussels after the year 1649, through ob-
serving a sentinel scraping the rust from his gun-barrel;
yet the honor of its first invention cannot be ascribed to
him. The aquatint process, which resembles mezzotint in
its results, was invented by J. B. Leprince about 1787. The
stipple or dot style has been used for a long time in com-
bination with other styles of engraving; it is chiefly em-
ployed in the rendering of flesh and in producing copies
of statuary. Another style, termed the chalk style, has its
use in representing sketchy subjects done with the pencil,
chalk, or crayon.
Up to the year 1815—except a single print in London in
1805—copper was exclusively used to engrave upon. En-
graving on steel is an American invention, due to Jacob
Perkins of Newburyport, Mass. In 1814 he went to Phila-
delphia, where he associated himself with an engraving
firm for the purpose of carrying his invention into practi-
cal operation. The processes for engraving on steel or
copper are similar, but the superiority of steel plates, in
consequence of their hardness, the sharpness and piquancy
of the printed impressions therefrom, and the great num-
ber of impressions that can be taken before the plate is
worn, renders them preferable for engraving purposes, un-
less it be for letter engraving when small numbers are re-
quired to be taken from the plate.
Engraving on Steel, the Processes.—The plate on which
the engraving is executed is ground and polished by the
plate-maker until its mirror-like surface is free from all
scratches or blemishes. The edges are bevelled, so that it
may readily pass between the rollers of the printing-press
when completed. An etching-ground is then laid upon the
plate by the engraver. This ground consists of a mixture
of burgundy pitch, rosin and asphaltum ; it is applied to
the heated plate by “dabbing” it over the surface; it re-
sists acid, but great care must be taken in preventing any
dust settling in the ground when heated, else when the acid
is applied “false biting” of dust-specks will result. When
the ground is cold, the outline of the subject, prepared by
finely-traced lines with the “dry-point ’’ on gelatime paper,
is transferred upon the ground by laying thereon the traced
side of the paper filled with scrapings from a lead-pencil
or red chalk, and the back of the paper gently rubbed with
a burnisher. The etching process is then commenced by
cutting the lines or dots desired with the dry-point through
the etching-ground. The width between the lines or dots
is carefully studied, and laid in with reference to the final
result when “bitten-in.” When completed, a wall of wax is
placed around the edges of the plate to prevent the acid
from running off, and the “biting-in" process is begun by
pouring on the acid (generally one part of nitric acid to
three parts of water), which is immediately poured off for
the more delicate biting, and water washed over the work
and removed, and the surface blown dry with a common
bellows. The delicate work is then “stopped out” with
asphaltum varnish, and the biting resumed until the dark-
est or heaviest lines are bitten sufficiently. The ground is
then removed with turpentine, and such parts of the work
needing further biting may be “re-bitten’ by laying a re-
biting ground dexterously dabbed on the surface, so as to
leave each line or dot perfectly clean; and then proceed
with the acid as at first. Most plates are etched at first,
whether completed in line, mezzotint, or stipple style, the
style of the etching being varied according to the manner
in which the work is to be finished. Pure line engraving
is produced by cutting lines, broken lines, or dots on the
steel with a tool called the graver; but this style is now
ENGRAVING, BANK-NOTE–ENGSTLEN ALP.
1597
rarely ever used except in banknote engraving, the vigs
nettes of which are engraved in this style, on die steel,
which is hardened for transferring to other steel plates;
and so any number of copies of the original plate may be
duplicated on other softer plates, which, when hardened,
are used in printing the engravings. Line-and-stipple en-
graving is rendered by cutting or etching the lines on dra-
peries, and dotting (stippling) the lighter parts of draperies
and flesh with the graver or dry-point. Mezzotint engrav-
ing is produced by laying a “mezzotint ground * over the
surface of the etched subject by means of a “rocking-tool”
(sometimes termed a “cradle”) with fine teeth, which are
impressed into the plate by a rocking motion of the tool;
after rocking over the plate a great number of “ways,” the
surface becomes filled with fine dots, which, if printed from,
would give a perfectly black tint. The high lights, half tints,
and gradations are then “scraped” out with a tool termed
the “scraper,” and the work finished with the burnisher.
This style produces a very soft and pleasing engraving, and
with a well-prepared etching of under-work in line-and-
stipple is extensively used by some engravers in producing
the finest engravings. It is more generally known as the
mixed style—line, mezzotint, and stipple. Pure mezzotint
engraving has become quite obsolete, as it will not admit
of being printed from in large quantities, but when mixed
with other styles from 30,000 to 50,000 fair impressions may
be taken from a single plate. Aquatint engraving is often
confounded with mezzotint from its resemblance to it, but
the process is quite different. An aquatint ground is laid
on the surface of the plate by pouring a resinous substance
which has the peculiarity of separating its particles so as
to leave bare spaces, or eccentric rings left bare, which
when exposed to acid are corroded. The laying of the
ground requires the greatest dexterity and judgment, and
must be done in a dry atmosphere. The tone produced re-
sembles that of a washed drawing in India ink, soft and
harmonious. Aquatint engraving is used for reproducing
geological specimens, as fossils, shells, stones, etc., with
great success.
Steel and Copper Plate Printing.—When the engraver has
completed his work, a proof of the same is taken, and usu-
ally on India paper, which has the quality of taking up the
ink more perfectly from the engraved lines or dots, and
leaving the precise tone of the work, than ordinary white
plate paper. Proofs on India paper are considered much
more valuable than plain impressions. The process of plate-
printing is as follows, viz.: the paper is “wet down" in
alternate layers of wet and dry sheets, and allowed to moisten
evenly. Much depends on the even moisture of the paper
in obtaining good impressions. The plate is warmed by
soapstone plates heated underneath, and the ink rolled upon
its surface. It is then removed, and the ink “wiped,” by
several rags or pieces of millinet, from the surface; and
finally the entire surface of the plate is polished with whit-
ing on the palm of the hand. The plate is then placed on
the press, consisting of a bed-piece running between two
heavy iron rollers, with blankets around the upper roller
to prevent injury to the plate; and a sheet of the damp-
ened paper adjusted carefully to the inked surface of the
plate, and passed through the press. The impression is
then dried, and pressed in a “standing press,” to give the
surface of the paper its proper finish or polish.
GEO. E. PERINE, Engraver on Steel, New York City.
Engraving, Bank-note, embraces the chief charac-
teristics of general engraving, with a number of special
processes peculiar to itself. It is a combination of the
highest style of the art and the greatest perfection in ma-
chinery and in the details of the business, requiring a sys-
tem of accounts and checks, together with discipline and
watchfulness, almost unknown in any other pursuit. The
variety of its work makes necessary the employment of the
best talent in all branches, and the constant demand for
something new where with to baffle illegitimate imitation
brings into use the inventive faculties and skill of the best
experts in the business. .
Bank-note or vignette engraving, while it is in the order
of line engraving and etching as otherwise described, re-
quires special treatment to render it useful for the purposes
designed. Boldness must be produced without destroying
the delicacy of the work, the object being to render the
subject capable of reproduction by machinery without los-
ing in the process the faintest line which the genius of the
artist conceived necessary for the perfection of the picture.
The great expense attending the execution of these engrav-
ings makes this reproduction necessary, so that a limited
number of vignettes and pieces of lathe-work, variously
combined for different notes, may, in effect, be as practi-
cally distinct from each other as if special work had been
used for each. The invention of Jacob Perkins, known as
the “transfer press,” here becomes most potent, and, com-
bined with a thorough knowledge of the manufacture of
steel and its treatment in the various processes of harden-
ing and softening, the power to reproduce the original en-
graving to an unlimited extent is effected. -
The original engraving, or “bed-piece,” as technically
known, is hardened to a degree rendering it capable of re-
sisting a pressure of twenty tons without breaking the steel
or even crushing the delicate engraving. The experience
required to determine the precise temperature necessary
for complete and perfect hardening here becomes manifest,
when it is understood that a degree of heat beyond the ex-
tent required will destroy the engraving and render useless
the labor of weeks. The bed-piece being properly hardened,
a polished steel cylinder or “roll” is passed over the bed-
piece, and the engraving “taken up" on the roll in relief.
This roll is then hardened, and becomes the “die,” to be
used indefinitely.
Another and most important adjunct to the business of
bank-note engraving is the geometrical lathe. This ma-
chine is used in making the “counters” on bank-notes,
which are the pieces of work usually containing the de-
nominations. The borders and the backs of notes are also
made up of this class of engraving. The geometrical lathe
is the invention of Asa Spencer of Philadelphia in the early
part of the present century, whose machine, however, merely
made an eccentric motion, producing a waved line. Cyrus
Durand improved upon this, and added a second motion.
Other improvements followed to the extent of five distinct
motions, beyond which no further progress was made until
within a few years past, when, under the manipulation of
C. W. Dickinson of Newark, N.J., the power and usefulness
of the invention have been wonderfully developed. The form
of the work to be produced is the mental conception of the
artist, followed by an algebraic calculation. The machine
is then arranged to meet the result of this calculation, and,
so far as the machine is concerned, success is certain. The
piece of steel to be operated upon is attached to the “chuck”
of the machine, which is movable, its motion varying in
accordance with the pattern to be produced. An exami-
nation of any of these lathe-cuttings reveals to the eye a
number of different forms of lines, apparently added one
after another, and yet it is really one unbroken line, which,
if stretched out, would occupy many thousand feet. The
beautiful patterns thus produced by the interlacing of these
lines are truly wonderful, and the accuracy of the machine
is no less marvellous. To produce the proper depth of line
the point often travels at least twenty-five times through
the grooves made by it, and frequently in such close prox-
imity to other portions of the same groove that the divid-
ing space is almost imperceptible; and yet the movement
is so true that these spaces are never broken down or un-
necessarily encroached upon. The piece of steel when com-
pleted is hardened, and the “die” produced as before de-
scribed.
A not unimportant feature of bank-note engraving is the
lettering and ornamentation, which are as distinct from
vignette engraving as either is from lathe-work. The ar-
rangement of the wording of bank-notes, the style and sym-
metry of the individual letters, and the necessary orna-
mental work to blend the whole into perfect' harmony,
bring into action the best cultivated taste and capacity for
designing. In the leading bank-note establishments much
of the lettering and ornamentation is done by machinery—
inventions conceived and built by their own mechanicians,
and used exclusively in the execution of their own work.
Bank-note engraving, in its present perfection, is the re-
sult of improvements and skill encouraged and fostered ex-
clusively in the U. S.; and in this particular branch of the
arts our country is supreme, sending its handiwork to all
parts of the civilized world. The American tourist abroad
is often pleasantly reminded of home when the well-known
imprint of the “American Bank-note Company, New York,”
meets his eye on the paper issues of the country in which
he is travelling. The advantage of thus using the best
available talent in the production of these issues is fast
gaining ground wherever currency of this nature is required,
and the superiority of the American manufacture is every-
where admitted. C. L. WAN ZANDT.
Engros’sing [from the Fr. grossoyer, to “write in a
large hand”], the writing of a deed in proper legible cha-
racters. Among lawyers it signifies especially the copying
of any instrument or document on parchment or stamped
paper. In the English statute law engrossing signifies the
purchase of large quantities of any commodity, in order .
to sell it again at an exorbitant price, or in order to raise
the market-price of the same.
Eng’stlem Alp, a beautiful place of Alpine resort, just
S. W. of Engelberg, canton of Unterwalden, Switzerland.
It rises 6092 feet, and its beautiful pastures, with the neigh-
boring lake, Engstlensee, the Wunderbrunnen (an intermit-
tent spring), the falls of the Engstlenbach, the glaciers near

1598
ENGSTRöM—ENNIUS,
at hand, and the loftier snow-clad peaks around, render it
a place of great attractiveness to tourists.
Eng/ström (Johan), a Swedish poet, novelist, traveller,
and physician, born April 7, 1794, at Kaernebo, in the gov-
ernment of Kalmar, received his medical license in 1817,
and until 1825 was employed as an army-surgeon. Author
of “Resa genom Norrland och Lappland” (1834); “Resa.
genom södra Lappland, Jemtland, Trondhem och Dalarne”
(1835); “Nordiska Dikter af Eivin” (1821); “Eols Har-
pan” (1830); “Förbundsbröderna” (1833–34); “Nybyg-
garne” (1838); “Björn Ulftand” (1840). s
Engue/ra, a town of Spain, in the province of Valen-
cia, 46 miles S. W. of Valencia, has manufactures of linen
and woollen goods. Pop. 5989.
IEmharmon/ic [Gr. §v, “in,” and &ppovia, “harmony,”
“concord”], in music, one of the three genera (chromatic,
diatonic, and enharmonic) of ancient music. The enhar-
monic genus of the Greeks was distinguished by the use of
small intervals or quarter tones. In modern music, inter-
vals much less than a semitone owe their origin to the slight
difference of pitch which the same (nominal) note takes ac-
cording as it is adjusted to one or another fundamental
note or tonic. Thus C# and D b are, at least on keyed in-
struments, practically the same note, though strictly the
former should be produced by # of the whole string sound-
ing; the latter, by #5. The passage from one to another
of these intervals is called an “enharmonic change,” and
a change of key so effected, an “enharmonic modulation.”
Enigſma [Gr. alviyua, from aiviorarowav, to “speak dark-
ly ” (from aivos, a “fable"); Fr. 6nigme], an obscure ques-
tion; a riddle; a proposition put in obscure or ambiguous
terms to puzzle or exercise the ingenuity in discovering its
meaning. Formerly it was deemed a matter of such im-
portance that Eastern monarchs sometimes sent embassies
for the solution of enigmas. Among the famous enigmas
of antiquity were that which Samson proposed to the Phil-
istines and that which the Sphinx propounded to GEdipus.
(See SPHINX.)
Enkhuysen, &nk-hoi'sen, or Enkhuisen, a fortified
seaport-town of the Netherlands, is in the province of
North Holland, on the Zuyder Zee, 30 miles N. E. of Am-
sterdam. It has a fine town-hall, several churches, a can-
non-foundry, and several shipbuilding yards. Butter,
cheese, timber, and fish are exported hence. This was once
a town of 40,000 inhabitants, and had a great herring-fleet,
but the silting up of its harbor has wrought its decay. It
still has a fine appearance from without. Its town-house,
built in 1588, and the Westerkerk, are the most remark-
able buildings. Here Paul Potter, the great painter, was
born in 1625. It was founded in 1200, and was sometimes
called Enchusa. Pop. 5625.
Enlist/ment, the voluntary enrolment of men in the
military or naval service. In the U.S. service enlistments
are under a detailed officer styled superintendent of the
` general recruiting service, assisted by other officers, each
detailed for.two years by the war department. The super-
intendent's office is in New York. Men are enlisted for five
years’ duty in every branch of service. Recruits are en-
listed (1874) at twenty rendezvous, one at each of the fol-
lowing cities: Albany, Baltimore, Boston, Brooklyn, Buffalo,
Chicago, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Detroit, Dubuque, Elmira
(N. Y.), Evansville (Ind.), Indianapolis, Jersey City, Lou-
isville, New York City (two rendezvous), Philadelphia,
Springfield (Ill.), and St. Louis. They are sent for exami-
nation and training to two dépôts—one at Fort Columbus,
Governor's Island (N. Y. Harbor), and one at Newport Bar-
racks, Ky. Thence they are assigned to regiments by
order of the war department. -
En’na, an ancient city of Sicily, very near the centre
of the island, on a lofty hill, almost inaccessible except at
a few points. It was anciently a place of great import-
ance. Its site is now occupied by the decayed town of
CASTRO GIov ANNI (which see). Enna is memorable as a
seat of the ancient worship of Demeter, and the shore of
a small lake near by was the scene of the mythical rape of
Persephone, a favorite subject with poets and artists. Com-
paratively few remains of the ancient city have survived
the ravages of the Greek, Punic, Roman, servile, Arabian,
and Norman conquests.
En’meagom [from the Gr. 3vvéa, “ nine,” and yovia, an
“angle "], a plane rectilineal figure having nine sides and
angles. The area of a regular or equilateral enneagon is
approximately 6.18182 times that of the square of one of
its sides. ---.
Ennean/dria [from the Gr. ºvvéa, “ nine,” and &vip,
&v8pós, a “man” or “male "I, the ninth class of plants in
the artificial system of Linnaeus, so called because each
flower has nine stems. The term emned malrous is applied to
these plants or flowers, which are not numerous, and the
27,
distinction itself is unimportant; accordingly, the name is
now seldom used. -
En/mel, a picturesque lake of Ireland, in the county of
Westmeath. From it flows the river Brosna. It contains
Some wooded islands, and its shores are adorned with fine
residences. It is near Mullingar, the county-seat.
En’nemo'ser (JOSEPH), M. D., a German writer on
physiology and animal magnetism, was born in the Tyrol
Nov. 15, 1787. He fought against Napoleon in 1813 and
1814, and graduated as M. D. at Berlin, in 1816. He be-
came in 1820 professor of medicine at Bonn, and removed
in 1841 to Munich, where he practised with success.
Among his works are “Magnetism in its Relations to Na-
ture and Religion ” (1842) and “History of Magnetism”
(1844), the first volume of which (the “History of Magic”)
º translated into English by William Howitt (1854). D.
in 1854. -
Enſnerdale Lake, a picturesque sheet of water in the
mountain-region of Cumberland, England, 7 miles N. E. of
Egremont. It is an expansion of the river Eken, 2% miles
long and less than 1 mile wide.
En/mis, a market-town of Ireland, the capital of the
county of Clare, on the river Fergus, 20 miles W. N. W. of
Limerick. It has a town-hall, a classical school called
Ennis College, and the ruins of an abbey founded in 1240.
It returns one member to Parliament. Here is a valuable
limestone quarry. Ennis has a lunatic asylum, a jail, an
infirmary, a hospital, a public library, a fine court-house,
three banks, and two newspapers, a brisk trade and some
manufactures, and a colossal statue of O’Connell by Cahill.
Four bridges cross the Fergus, and railways extend to
Limerick and Athenry. Ennis is one of the see-towns of
the diocese of Killaloe (Roman Catholic). P. in 1871, 6101.
Ennis, a post-village of Ellis co., Tex., on the Houston
and Texas Central R. R., 20 miles N. by W. of Corsicana.
En’miscorthy, a market-town of Ireland, in the county
of Wexford, on the river Slaney, 14 miles N. N. W. of
Wexford. It has a splendid Roman Catholic church, and
a stately Norman castle many centuries old, but still entire.
It has a large trade in grain, is at the head of barge navi-
gation, is connected by railway with Dublin and Wexford,
has a convent, five churches and chapels, two banks, two
weekly newspapers, and a lunatic asylum. The Irish
rebels took it by storm and burned it in 1798. Pop. in
1871, 5804.
Enſmiskillen, a parliamentary borough of Ireland,
the capital of the county of Fermanagh, is finely situated
on the river Erne, which connects the Upper and Lower
Lough Erne, about 75 miles W. S. W. of Belfast. It has
a town-hall, two barracks, six churches and chapels, three
newspapers, a court-house, a prison, an infirmary, tanneries,
straw-hat works, a flax-market, a market for corn, pork,
and butter, two forts, a linen hall, and manufactures of
cutlery. There are handsome mansions and beautiful
scenery in the vicinity. The people of Enniskillen warmly
supported the Protestant cause in 1689. Here the troops
of William III. defeated those of James II. in that year. It
is connected by railway with Dundalk, Londonderry, and
Bundoran, and steamers ply on the Erne. P. in 1871, 5906.
Enniskillen, a post-village of Queens co., N. B., on
the European and North American Railway, equidistant
from Fredericton and St. John, 34 miles from each. It
has a good lumber-trade.
Enniskillen, Earls of (1789), Wiscounts Enniskil-
len, 1776; Barons Mountflorence (Ireland, 1760), have
seats in Parliament as Barons Grinstead (United King-
dom, 1815).-WILLIAM WILLough BY Cole, third earl,
D. C. L., LL.D., F. R. S., was born Jan. 25, 1807, and suc-
ceeded to his father’s title in 1840. He was educated at
Oxford, and before 1840 was distinguished in the House of
Commons as Lord Cole, and acted in the Conservative in-
terest.
En/nisville (post-office name INNISVILLE), a village
of Drummond township, Lanark co., Ontario, Canada, on
a navigable stream called the Mississippi. A steamboat
plies to Carleton Place, 9 miles distant.
En’nius (QUINTUs), a celebrated Roman epic poet, born
of a Greek family at Rudiae, in Calabria, about 240 B. C.
IHe acquired the rights and privileges of a Roman citizen,
and enjoyed the friendship and patronage of Cato and
Scipio Africanus. It is said that he supported himself by
teaching the Greak language. He contributed greatly to the
formation of the national literature of Rome, and was the first
great Latin poet. His most important work was an historical
epic poem entitled “The Annals,” which was for many years
the most popular poem in the language. His works, which
included tragedies and comedies, are all lost except some
fragments. His poetry was admired by Lucretius and by
ENNS–ENTAIL.
1599
Cicero, who often quotes him. He died in 169 B. C.
Among the best editions of his works are those by Span-"
genberg (1825) and Vahlen (1869). (See SELLAR, “Roman
Poets of the Republic,” chap. iv.; VossIUS, “De Poetis
Latinis.”) -
Enns, or Ens (anc. An’isus or An'esus), a river of Aus-
tria, rises in the crown-land of Salzburg, 11 miles S. of Rad-
stadt. It flows through Styria, forms the boundary between
Upper and Lower Austria, and enters the Danube 11 miles
below Lintz. Length, about 120 miles.
Enns, a town of Austria, on the Danube, at or near the
mouth of the Enns, about 96 miles W. of Vienna. It has
manufactures of iron, steel, and cotton. It was the head-
quarters of Napoleon in 1809. Pop. in 1869, 3784.
E/noch, or He/noch [Heb., “initiated” or “teacher”],
the name of five persons mentioned in the sacred books
(canonical and apocryphal) of the Hebrews. The secondim
the order of time, and the most important, was “the Seventh
from Adam,” who “prophesied,” and was translated at the
age of 365. (Gen. v. 23.) _)
Enoch, Book of, quoted by the apostle Jude (vv. 14,
15), an apocryphal book of 108 chapters, of unknown au-
thorship and of uncertain date, critical conjecture ranging
from 144 B.C. to 135 A. D. It was probably Written in
Hebrew by a Palestinian. The early Christian Fathers
used it, but for some centuries only fragments of it were
known to European scholars, till in 1773 James Bruce
brought home with him from Africa three copies of an
Ethiopic version of it, made apparently from the Greek
about 350 or 400 A. D. It was published in 1838 by Arch-
bishop Laurence, who had previously (in 1821) published
an English translation of it, and by Prof. Dillmann (1851).
The book contains many curious passages, but its leading
idea is that of Divine justice dealing sternly with sinners.
Special works on the book of Enoch have been written by
Ewald (1854), Philippi (1868), and others.
Enoch, a post-township of Noble co., O. Pop. 1362.
E/non, a post-township of Bullock co., Ala. Pop. 1748.
E/nos (anc. AE'nos or Ænus), a seaport-town of Euro-
pean Turkey, in Room-Elee, on the Ægean Sea, at the
mouth of the river Maritza (Hebrus), about 75 miles S. by
W. from Adrianople, of which it is the port. Its har-
bor admits only small vessels. Pop. about 6500. Here is
a small bay called the Gulf of Enos. Afºnos is mentioned
by Homer in the “Iliad,” book iv.
E/nos (RogBR), GENERAL, born in 1736, was a lieuten-
ant-colonel in Arnold's Quebec expedition (1775), but by a
council of war held on the Dead River in Maine was sent
back to Cambridge with a part of the troops, on account of
the lack of provisions. He commanded at Castleton, Vt.,
in 1781, and became afterwards a major-general of Vermont
militia, and one of the first men of the State. Died at Col-
chester, Vt., Oct. 6, 1808. a
E/nosburg, a township and post-village of Franklin
co., Vt., on the eastern division of the Vermont Central
R. R. It has nine churches, and manufactures of leather,
carriages, lumber, woollens, and other goods.
Enrol/ment signifies in law the registering or enter-
ing of a document or lawful act in the rolls of the chan:
cery or superior courts of common law or in the records of
the quarter sessions. Such enrolment was rendered neces-
sary in different cases by statute. In the reign of Henry
VIII. of England a statute was enacted that no transfer of
land should be effected by bargain and sale unless the deed
were enrolled within six months after its date. A decree in
chancery does not take full effect until it has been enrolled.
Before the enrolment the cause may be removed to the
court of appeal, which may reverse the decision, but after
the enrolment it can only be heard in the House of Lords.
Ens (gen. Entis), a Latin term used in metaphysics to
denote being, entity, or essence (Gr. to Öv). Ens reale, a
positive or real being, is distinguished from ens rationis,
which exists only in idea. The mediaeval alchemists and
pharmaceutists used the word ens in a variety of senses.
Thus, they speak of the ens Dei, “the power of God;” ens
astrorum, “the influence of the stars;” eng morborum, the
“principle of diseases;” ens de potentibus spiritibus, the
“activity of powerful spirits.” Ens primum, the “first
essence,” was a hypothetical preparation believed to have
power to transmute the metals. Eng martis was a certain
preparation of iron; ens veneris, the “essence of Venus”
(or copper), was cupric ammonio-chloride.
Enschede, én'skä'deh, a frontier town of the Nether-
lands, province of Overyssel, about 90 miles E. by S. from
Amsterdam. It has manufactures of cotton. Pop. in 1867,
5134.
Ensemble, ÓN'sóMb’1’, a French word gignifying “to-
Pop. 2077.
gether” or “the whole,” is used to express the general
effect produced by a picture or by the various parts of a
musical performance; also the masses and details of a
painting considered with relation to each other.
En’siform Car’tilage [Lat. cartila'go ensifor’mis, from
ensis, a “sword,” and forma, “shape”], called also the Xi-
phoid Cartilage or Ensiform Appendix, in human
anatomy, is the third and lowest piece of the sternum or
breast-bone. It is smaller than either the first piece (manu-
brium) or the second (gladiolus). It is of various form,
usually more or less dagger-shaped, sometimes perforated,
sometimes 2-pointed, and is usually cartilaginous until the
seventeenth or eighteenth year, when a centre of Ossifica-
tion appears in its upper part, and the whole takes on, very
slowly, a somewhat bony character. It appears to repre-
sent the united haemal spines of those vertebrae to which
the floating (eleventh and twelfth) ribs are attached.
En’sign [Lat. insig'me, neut. of insig'mis, “remarkable,”
“striking” (from in, “in” or “for,” and signum, a “sign");
Fr. enseigne or drapeaw], the national flag or banner car-
ried by a ship of war, and usually hoisted at the peak or on
a flagstaff at the stern. Its chief purpose is to indicate the
nationality of a ship when it meets another vessel at sea.
In the navy of the U. S. the ensign is the national flag.
All British men of war since 1864 carry the St. George's
ensign—viz., a white ensign with a red cross, and a union-
jack in the left-hand upper quarter. The English ensign
is a red, white, or blue flag, having the union in the upper
corner next the mast.
BNSIGN is the title of the lowest commissioned officer in
the British army. He performs the usual duties of a sub-
altern. There are as many ensigns in a regiment of in-
fantry as there are companies, and the junior of these car-
ries the regimental colors.
DNSIGN in the U. S. navy is the eighth grade of commis-
sioned officers, ranking below that of master and above that
of midshipman. The highest pay is $1400 a year.
Ensinal', a county in the S. of Texas. Area, , 1610
square miles. The Rio Nueces touches the north-eastern
corner of this county, which is drained by several affluents
of the Nueces. . It is almost exclusively devoted to sheep
and cattle ranges. Water and wood are scarce. Pop. 427.
Ensſley, a post-township of Newaygo co., Mich. Pop.
06.
Ens Mar’tis [Lat.], (i. e. the “essence of Mars ” (iron)),
an old alchemical name for the ammonio-chloride of iron,
formerly used in medicine. It is an uncertain aperient and
chalybeate tonic. -
Entab’lature [Mod. Lat. intabulamen’tum, from in,
“upon,” and tab'ula, a “board ” or “plank;” literally,
“ placing boards upon;” applied originally to the roofing
of a house, and especially to the horizontal covering which
rested upon the upright supports of a building], in archi-
tecture, the portion of a building between the columns and
the roof, running round the edifice. It consists of archi-
trave, frieze, and cornice. In ordinary building the term is
applied to the course of masonry on a wall immediately be-
low the roof. -
Entail/. By this term is meant an estate in fee limited
to certain classes of descendants. Thus, a fee simple would
be regularly created by the word “heirs,” as, for example,
to “A and his heirs,” and would descend to any heirs, how-
ever remote. An estate given to “A” and “the heirs of his
body” would be confined to descendants. This is an ex-
ample of the proper words to create an estate tail. The
descent might be still more strictly confined, as to male
issue or the issue born of some specified mother. The
peculiar features of an entail depend upon a well-known
English statute termed De domis, the regular effect of which
was to confine the property to the specified mode of de-
scent. The result was that the tenant in tail had the gen-
eral characteristics of owner, except that he could not sell,
and that the land could not be seized for his debt. The
courts permitted the entail to be destroyed by a fictitious
legal proceeding called a “fine,” and more completely by
another like proceeding called a “common recovery,” in-
stituted in behalf of the tenant. He could thus, if he saw
fit, become absolute owner. The “common recovery '' is
now abolished by statute in England, and under certain
limitations the tenant may resort to a conveyance called
a “ disentailing deed,” and thus acquire a fee simple.
In the United States words constituting an estate tail ac-
cording to English law will usually be construed to create
a fee simple, unless the property is given over to some other
person on default of issue surviving the first taker; in
which case the secondary gift would be upheld, and would
take effect should no issue survive. This last point will be
more fully noticed under the titles PERPETUITIES and RE-
MOTENESS,
1600
ENTASIS-ENTHYMEME.
En’tasis [Gr.], a delicate and almost imperceptible
swelling of the shaft of a column, is found in nearly all an-
cient Greek examples. It was adopted to prevent the shafts
being strictly frusta of cones, in which case there would,
by a simple optical law, be an incorrect impression made
upon the eye as to the proportions of the column. The
curve of the entasis was usually either part of a hyperbola.
or of a conchoid. It was one of the most delicate yet
important of the refinements of Greek architecture, and
has not been accurately attained in modern imitations. In
the columns of the Parthenon the entasis amounts to go
of the whole height of the column.
Entel'echy [from évrexís, “perfect,” and ºxeiv, to
“have "I is a metaphysical term from the Aristotelian
philosophy, denoting the fundamental idea of the whole
system. Cicero defined this idea as energy, but the Greek
philosophers who, in the fifteenth century, moved from
Constantinople to Italy—and among them especially Ar-
gyropolus—ridiculed him for the definition, and gave per-
fection as the constituent element of the idea. Melanch-
thon, however, and Leibnitz, and all modern philosophers
almost without exception, follow Cicero; and when the
“Entelechy’ of Aristotle is compared with the “Idea” of
Plato or the “Absolute Negativität " of Hegel, or other
fundamental ideas of other philosophical systems, it is
evident that energy covers a much larger part of the Aris-
totelian idea than perfection. The abstract repose of the
Platonic “Idea,” is supplanted by the energy of reality
in the Aristotelian “Entelechy;” its potentiality becomes
actuality. Aristotle calls truth an idea, but the soul he
defines as an évrexéxeva ; and when Dr. Reid tells his
readers that he can make no sense of this definition, he
seems to forget that there are confessions which it is utterly
unnecessary to make. The best explanations of the entel-
echy, and its relations to the whole system of Aristotelian
philosophy, are given by Brandis in his “Aristoteles und
seine Akademischen Zeitgenossen,” Berlin, 1857, and by
Thurot in his “Etudes sur Aristote,” Paris, 1860.
Entel'Ius, one of the mythical companions of Æneas.
He was an aged hero of Troy or Sicily, who, at the games
in honor of Anchises defeated in a boxing contest the
youthful champion Dares, who was almost killed in the
struggle.
Entel'Ius Monkey, or Honuman (Semnopithecus
Entellus), a species of East Indian monkey, having long
limbs and a very long and powerful but not prehensile tail.
#SN
&) Q (
§ſ, Ş N.
{ §
§§
}%ffſ.
§º
Entellus Monkey.
It is regarded as sacred by the Hindoos, who dedicate tem-
ples to it, and erect hospitals for it when sick or wounded.
It exhibits a familiarity bordering on impudence, and often
plunders gardens with impunity, as the Hindoos consider
it an honor to be robbed by it. They believe that it is a
metamorphosed prince, and to kill it is considered a deadly
sin; and hence these monkeys absolutely swarm in many
places, especially in the vicinity of the temples.
Enteral’gia [from the Gr. iv.repov, the “intestine,” and
#xyos, “pain”], a name given in some medical works to
colie, especially of the form attended by spasmodic con-
tractions in the muscular coat of the intestine. This in-
tensely painful form of disease is often chronic in character,
though the individual attacks are usually short—a cha-
racter in which it differs from spasms of the stomach, which
are often long continued. The disease is best relieved by
hot applications and by the cautious use of chloroform.
The tendency of late writers is to limit the use of the term
enteralgia to cases of NEURALGIA (which see) of the in-
testines.
Enteri’tis [from the Gr. ºvirepov, “bowel,” “intestine,”
and the termination -ītis, denoting, in modern medical no-
menclature, “inflammation "l, an inflammation of the small
intestines. The term is somewhat vaguely used by medical
writers. Active inflammation of the bowels, in adults at
least, is very frequently confined, for the most part, to the
peritoneal coat, and the disease is hence called peritonitis.
When the mucous coat of the bowels alone is actively in-
volved, it is frequently a fatal disease in children, but in
adults, with care, the majority of cases recover. Catarrhal
enteritis is benefited, and generally cured, by gentle purga-
tion. But in active disease of this kind cathartics will
often greatly aggravate the evil. Such cases are best
treated by rest, opiates, poultices to the abdomen, and
bland nourishment. “Typhlo-enteritis" or inflammation
of the caecum, when caused by abscess or perforation of the
appendix caeci, is not unfrequently fatal; when otherwise
caused, recovery is to be looked for.
En’terprise, a post-village, capital of Volusia co.,
Fla., 12 miles below the head of steamboat navigation on
St. John’s River (although steamers have ascended sixty
miles higher), 80 miles S. of St. Augustine. It is a place
of winter resort, and the head-quarters of sportsmen (both
for fishing and gunning) in this part of Florida. Here is
the “Green Spring,” a remarkable sulphur spring 80 feet
in diameter and 100 feet deep. Enterprise has a court-
house and good hotels.
Enterprise, a post-village, capital of Clark co., Miss.,
has two weekly newspapers.
Enterprise, a township of Linn co., Mo. Pop. 322.
Enterprise, a village of Lanier township, Preble co.,
O. Pop. 61.
Enthu'siasm [Gr. ºvgovo-vaguós, “inspiration,” from év,
“within,” and 9eós, a “god”] refers to the emotions; in-
spiration to the imagination; revelation to the intellect.
An idea may burst upon a man as a revelation; he throws
it upon the world as an inspiration; it belongs to the world
to receive it with enthusiasm. Enthusiasm is merely pas-
sive, a merely receptive state of mind; and it is important,
both in religion and aesthetics, to be
fully aware of this being its true
character, for in religion it causes
pitiful misery when every upheaval
of our feelings is mistaken for a di-
ſ vine revelation—the more so as en-
% % thusiasm, in accordance with its
%%2 merely passive nature, is as ready
to run after a foolish whim as it is
to follow the exalted wisdom. And
in aesthetics nine-tenths of that dis-
agreeable stuff with which modern
literatures are loaded under the
names of poems, novels, tales, etc.
would never have been read, per-
haps even not written, if people had
understood thoroughly that art de-
pends for its production wholly on
inspiration, whilst enthusiasm only
makes us fit for the enjoyment of
its gifts. -
En'thymeme [from the Gr. ºv,
“in,” and 6 wités, “mind”], in logic, a
syllogism of which one of the three
parts (generally the major premise)
is suppressed or held in mind—e.g.
“The freedmen ought not to vote,
because they cannot read.” Ac-
cording to De Quincey (Historical
*~~ Essays, vol. ii., p. 215 seq.), the
Aristotelian enthymeme is an argument in respect to mat-
ters probable rather than demonstrable. . (So also THOMSON,
ſº
“Laws of Thought,” p. 284.) Aristotle's own definition for
the rhetorical enthymeme is, “a syllogism from probable
propositions or from signs.” By probable propositions he
means those which are general, but not at all universal, as
“Injured men seek revenge.” By signs he designates facts
or marks, such as attend upon other facts or conceptions,
so that from the presence of the sign we suspect or know
that the thing signified is also present. The rhetorical en-
thymeme, when based on signs, is always affirmative, taking
no account of negative indications. Its results are universal,
and may amount to practical or even formal demonstration.








ENTOMOLOGY.
Entomology is the department of zoology which
treats of Insects. It includes the study of their form,
structure, development, habits, names, classification, and
geographical distribution; and also the examination of the
relations which Insects sustain to other animals and to
Man. The name of the science is derived from two Greek
words—gvropov, entómon, an “insect,” and Aéyos, logos, a
“discourse.”
In general terms it may be stated that the science of
Entomology dates from the time of Aristotle; for this
accurate observer and learned scholar, whose writings on
Natural History are the more admired the more they are
studied, considered insects also, as well as other animals,
scientifically, pointing out the limits of this interesting
group of animals, and subdividing them into minor groups,
with a wonderful degree of accuracy. From the time of
Aristotle for a period of about 1800 years, little or nothing
was done, so far as we know, in the science of Entomology.
After this long period of inactivity in this science, Conrad
Gesner, a poor Swiss, born in 1516, became a physician at
Zurich, and, in addition to his other duties, gave much time
to natural history subjects, collecting all that was then ||
known of the natural history of animals in general, and
writing special papers on Insects, which were published
after his death, by Thomas Mouffet, an English physician
and naturalist, who died about the year 1600, and whose
entomological writings were published in one folio volume,
illustrated with 500 wood-cuts, in London, in 1634.
From the times of Gesner and Mouffet the science of
Pºntomology has always had many votaries—so many that
the whole space allotted to this article would not contain
even a list of their names and the titles of the books and
papers which they have published on this interesting and
important subject. Nay, it requires two octavo volumes
to enumerate the writers on Entomology and to give the
full titles, and dates, and places of their publications, as
may be seen by examining Dr. Hagen’s valuable work,
“Bibliotheca Entomologica,” 2 vols. 8vo, Leipsic, 1862–63.
And it should be added here, that since the publication of that
work new writers have come forward, so that several scores
of writers and hundreds of papers must be added to the
lists enumerated in Dr. Hagen’s volumes of ten years ago.
But while no complete list even of the names of the
writers on Entomology can here be given, we must not fail
to mention a few such names as Redi, Goedart, Malpighi,
Swammerdam, Lyster, Madame Merian, Leuwenhoeck, Wal-
lisnieri, Ray, Réaumur, Linnaeus, Charles de Geer, Roesel
de Rosenhof, Bonnet, Clerck, Lyonnet, Sepp, Geoffroy,
Schaeffer, Brunnich, Pallas, Drury, Cramer, Fabricius, Es-
per, Stoll, Moses Harris, Schrank, Schiffermuller, Vil-
ſiers, Thunburg, Rossi, Olivier, Smith and Abbot, Pierre
André Latreille the “Prince of Entomologists,” Panzer,
Herbst, Sturm, Illiger, Marsham, Kirby and Spence,
Palisot de Beauvois, Paykul, Meigen, Jurine, Savigny,
the Hubers (father and son), Schoenherr, Treviramus, Wied-
man, Ramdohr, Gyllenhal, Ochsenheimer, Hubner, Fallen,
Herold, Klug, Gravenhorst, Meckel, Marcel de Serres,
Leach, Suckow, Walckenaer, Macleay, Carl Ernst von Baer,
Straus-Durckheim, Lepelletier de St. Fargeau, Dalman,
Waldheim, Dumeril, Dufour, Duponchel, Curtis, Stephens,
Stainton, Swainson, Wood, Horsfield, Gebler, Germar,
Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Eschscholtz, Godart, Bo-
nelli, Carus, Mannerheim, Guérin-Méneville, Rathke, Mac-
quart, Audouin, Zetterstedt, Milne-Edwards, Boisduval,
Rennie, Spinola, Kolliker, Leuckart, Brullé, Gené, Guénée,
Pictet, Rambur, Kollar, Dahlbom, Say, Van der Hoeven,
Zaddach, Lucas, Dejean, Wagner, De Castelnau, Griffith,
.Lacordaire, Audinet-Serville, G. R. Gray, White, Walker,
Dallas, Smith, Doubleday, Cuvier, Burmeister, Shuckard,
Westwood, Erichson, Dujardin, Herrich-Shaeffer, Newport,
Blanchard, Longchamps, Bowerbank, Le Conte, Haldeman,
Harris, Siebold, Gegenbaur, Rondani, Murray, Lucaze-
Duthiers, Agassiz, Hagen, Melsheimer, Giebel, Berendt,
Uhler, Fitch, Loew, Duval and Migneaux, Wollaston,
Osten-Sacken, Langstroth, Huxley, Wallace, Leidy, Pack-
ard, Scudder, Grote, Norton, Edwards, Trimble, Claparède,
Gerstaecker, Lubbock, MacLachlan, Walsh, Thorell, etc., etc.
The vast numbers of insects, their varied forms, beauti-
ful and in many cases splendid, colors, wonderful trans-
formations, and their not less wonderful instincts, and
habits, and the intimate and important relations which
they sustain to other animals and to Man, combine to
render the science of Entomology exceedingly fascinating
and highly important, and worthy the attention it has re-
ceived and is still receiving from the ablest minds.
The science of Entomology is of the highest import-
ance, when considered merely from the so-called practical
point of view; for it teaches what kinds of insects are ben-
eficial to man, and what kinds are injurious, and thus it shows
him which to preserve and which to destroy. It makes
him acquainted with the habits of insects, and thus enables
1601
him the better to preserve those that are beneficial, and to
meet and resist the ravages of those that are injurious to
the crops of the field, orchard, and garden, and of those
which are injurious to the food and clothing in the store-
rooms and closets.
The important relations, however, which insects hold to
Man, and the corresponding importance of Entomology,
are but little understood except by those who have given
some attention to these animals and to this fascinating
and exceedingly important science. The masses of men
little realize the fact that some kinds of insects destroy
millions of dollars’ worth of property annually in every
country, and that other kinds furnish the world with many
of the comforts and even with the luxuries of civilized life
—with silks, satins, and velvets, and with dyes whose fame
is as old as history and as wide as the civilized world, and
even with every drop of black ink which flows from the
pen of the schoolboy, accountant, philosopher, and poet.
The position which Insects hold in the Animal Kingdom
may be readily seen by the following classification:
Mammals,
- Birds,
Vertebrates.................. & Reptiles,
Batrachians,
Fishes.
Insects,
Crustaceans,
Worms.
Cephalopods,
Gasteropods,
Acephals,
Brachiopods,
Tunicates,
Polyzoans or Bryozoans.
Echinoderms,
Acalephs,
Polyps.
{ Infusoria,
Arti * – f.
Mollusks.....................
Prºdºrºa's
Porifera,
Rhizopoda.
It is thus seen that Insects are the highest class of the
Articulates; and it is this class with which the science of
Entomology exclusively deals. And this class is now to
be defined and classified, so far as our limits permit.
Insects are animals whose bodies are divided transversely
into rings or joints more or less movable upon one another,
and whose hard parts are upon the outside, and whose res-
piratory apparatus consists of air-holes, called stigmata,
placed along the side of the body, and which open into a
system of air-tubes which branch throughout the interior
of the body, and thus carry air into every part. These air-
tubes each consist of two membranes enclosing between
them a spirally coiled fibre, thereby having great strength
and flexibility. As in all other articulated animals, their
alimentary canal occupies the central line of the body,
and above it is the dorsal vessel or so-called heart; and
their nervous system consists of a sort of brain lying above
the oesophagus, from which two threads, passing around
and below the oesophagus, extend beneath the alimentary
canal along the floor of the general cavity of the body, and
connect at certain distances small nervous centres or gan-
glia, whence arise the nerves of the body and limbs.
The class of Insects is by far the largest in the Animal
Kingdom. It is regarded as much larger than all other
classes combined. About 200,000 species of insects are.
already known, and the whole number may be safely esti-
mated as high as 500,000 species. The species are mostly
small—many are microscopic in size—but some kinds in
the warm regions are several inches, even a foot, in length.
The average length, however, is probably much less than
one inch. This vast class may be divided into three
groups, which Leuckart and many others regard as orders:
Protozoans..................
I. HEX APODA, or Insects proper, as Bees, Butter-
flies, Flies, Beetles, Bugs, Grasshoppers and
Dragon-flies.
II. ARACHNIDA, as Spiders and Scorpions.
III. MYRIAPODA, as “Galley-worms,” Centipedes,
etc. - -
Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr., in his valuable work entitled “A
i
i
Guide to the Study of Insects,” givés the following tabular
view of the Classification of Insects, which we gladly insert
here, as valuable both to the entomological student and to
the general reader: - , ;
| THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
Order I. — Segments grouped into three
distinct regions; eyes compound and
simple; two pairs of wings (some kinds | HEXAPODA,
are wingless, and some, as the Diptera, . Or
have only one pair); six, thoracic legs; ſ Six-FootBD
one pair of jointed abdominal append- INSECTS.
ages. A more or less complete meta-
morphosis.
* .
1602
ENTOMOLOGY.
Order II. — Segments grouped into two
regions, a false cephalothorax (the so-
called cephalothorax of Spiders is not
like that, region in Crabs, the head being
much freer from the thorax), and an
abdomen; no antennae; eyes simple;
wingless; four pairs of thoracic legs;
three pairs of jointed abdominal append-
ages (spinnerets) often present. No
metamorphosis. J
Order III.-Body cylindrical and worm-
like. Segments not grouped into regions
(except in the recently hatched young). MYRIAPODA,
Head free; eyes simple; antennae pres- } Or
ent; wingless; yolk-sac present for a CENTIPEDEs.
short period after hatching. No meta-
morphosis.
These three groups or orders may now be briefly noticed.
H E X: A Po D A.—The first order, Insects proper, is com-
posed of insects which have their body divided into three
plainly marked regions—the head, thorax, and hind-body
or abdomen. The head is furnished with mouth, eyes and
antennae; to the thorax are appended the legs and wings;
and the abdomen contains the principal organs of digestion,
and other viscera, and to it also belong the piercer and
sting with which many kinds of insects are provided.
The Insects proper have only six legs—and hence are
often called Hexapod Insects—and these are attached to
the under side of the thorax, one pair to each of the three
rings of which the thorax is composed. The leg consists
of the hip-joint, by which it is fastened to the body, the
thigh, the shank, and the foot, the last consisting generally
of five pieces placed end to end and called tarsi, and gen-
erally armed at the end with one or two claws. The wings
are normally four, but in some, as in Flies, etc., there are
only two, and in others, as in Fleas, etc., these organs are
wholly wanting. The wings of insects are at first little,
soft, sac-like bodies containing tracheae. They grow from
the side of the thorax of the pupa at points above the in-
sertion of the legs. During the pupa stage they are pad-
like, but when the pupa-skin is shed, they rapidly expand
with air and become broad and delicate wings. The wings
of insects are thus simple expansions of the general cover-
ing of the body spread over a network of horn-like tubes.
These tubes, it may be remarked here, are found to be
double, consisting of a central air-tube enclosed within a
larger tube filled with blood; and hence the aération of the
blood is also carried on in the wings, and thus these organs
serve both the purpose of lungs and of flight. And it may
be further remarked here that the number and position of
these veins are of very great importance to the entomolo-
gist in classifying the genera and species of insects. The
typical number of primary veins is five. They diverge
from the base of the wing, and divide into veinlets, from
which cross-veins arise, all together forming a network of
veins and veinlets. The five main veins are, beginning at
the front edge, the costal, the sub-costal, the median, the
sub-median, and internal. Sometimes the median divides
into four. The front or costal vein is undivided; the sub-
costal and median are divided into several branches; the
submedian and internal are generally simple. The piercer
mentioned above is properly an ovipositor, and is in some
cases a jointed tube, and is used for conducting eggs into
holes where they are to be left to be hatched; in other
cases it is a scabbard containing a central borer, or saws
ARACHNIDA,
> Ol'
SPIDERs.
in some cases, which are used in making holes in which,
eggs are to be deposited. The sting with which many in-
sects, as bees and wasps, are provided, is merely a modified
ovipositor, and consists of a sheath covering a sharp instru-
ment for inflicting wounds, and connecting with it inside
of the body is a sac of poison.
The digestive system of insects consists of a mouth
whose parts are variously modified in the different groups
Š $
ğs sº º
*Tº §
Mouth and Tongue of the Bee, magnified.
of these animals. In some kinds the mouth parts are
modified for biting and chewing purposes; in others they
are so modified as to be adapted for sucking organs. The
parts called mandibles are organs situated on each side
of the mouth-opening, and they vary greatly in form and
size. They usually consist of a single joint; and this
joint or part is often subdivided into three parts, each
ending in a sort of tooth for the purpose of cutting food.
The cutting edges are opposed to each other, or overlap,
and their motion is horizontal or side-wise, instead of ver-
tical as in the motion of the jaws of vertebrated animals.
The parts called maxillae are much more complicated
organs than the mandibles, and are inserted on the under
side of the head, and just behind the mouth. Their func-
tion is to seize food and retain it within the mouth, and to
aid the mandibles in commimuting it. Each maxilla con-
sists of a basal joint, beyond which it is divided into three
lobes—namely, the footstalk, the palpus-bearer, and the
blade. The maxillary palpi are slender-jointed organs,
very flexible and sensitive. Insects have a pharynx, a
gullet, a first stomach or crop, a second stomach or gizzard,
a small intestine, a caecum, etc.
The circulatory system is imperfect, as it exists only in a
rudimentary form. Just under the covering of the back
there is a long tube which is called the heart, and this
organ performs regular alternate movements of contraction
and dilatation. The blood enters this tubular organ by
openings along its sides, the openings being furnished with
valves which prevent its return, and the blood escapes at
the foremost end as the organ contracts, and thus the blood
is kept in motion throughout the interior of the animal,
and thus the waste of the body is supplied and growth
secured. The blood of Insects is colorless, and, as already
indicated, is not contained in arteries and veins as in the
higher animals, but it fills all the interior of the animal.
not occupied by internal organs, and it permeates the tissues
of the organs themselves.
As already indicated, the respiratory system is very dif-
ferent from that of the higher animals. On the sides of the
body are generally breathing-holes or stigmata, nine on
each side, and these open into air-tubes called tracheae,
which branch throughout the body, carrying air into every
part, and thus aérating the blood in the most perfect man-
ner, and thereby fitting these animals for rapid and long-
continued motion.
The muscular system of Insects is beneath but continuous
with the integument, and it corresponds to the jointed
structure of these animals. It consists of straight fibres,
more or less isolated, and not gathered into bundles as in
the vertebrates, although they are in many cases striated,
as in the latter branch. The muscles are colorless, or
transparent, or yellowish-white, and very soft. The mus-
cular system is found to be the simplest in the lowest in-
sects, and in the larvae of all forms; and it is more com-
plex in the head than elsewhere, and more complex in the
thorax than in the abdomen. The muscles in Insects are
exceedingly numerous. Lyonnet found 3993 muscles in a
single larva (Cossus ligniperda), 228 of these being in the
head. The muscular power of Insects is perfectly enor-
mous. It is stated on good authority that the flea can leap
200 times its own height, that beetles have been known to
gnaw through lead pipes, and that the European Stag-beetle
(Lucanus cervus) has gnawed a hole an inch in diameter
through the side of an iron canister in which it was confined
The organs of sight in Insects consist of ocelli and eyes.
Theoretically, the ocelli are the most anterior organs of the
head, but in the process of development they are carried
backward, so that in the adult insect they appear on top of
the head. The ocellus is the simplest form of the eye. The
ocellus consists of a “very convex, smooth, single cornea,
beneath which is a spherical crystalline lens, resting upon
ºr ºf ... º.º. the plano-convex
surface of the ex-
panded vitre ous
humor, the ana-
logue of the trans-
parent cones of the
$º compound eyes.”
º The ocelli consti-
Sºº
= organs of most of
= the Myriapod, of
all of the Arachmid,
and of the larvae
of many of the Hex-
apod Insects. The
number of ocelli
in adult insects is
generally three.
These organs are
generally present
The real eyes of
FIead and Eyes of the Bee, magnified.
except in the large majority of Beetles. º
Insects are compound, and are made up of a congeries of
simple eyes. During the development or growth of the
















JENTOMOLOGY.
insect the simple eyes of the larvae increase in number, and
The num-
ber of facets or corneae in the compound eye is very
great in some kinds of insects, 3650 having been counted
in the eye of a butterfly. The form of the facets is gener-
at length coalesce to form the compound eye.
ally hexagonal, but in some species it is quadrangular.
As to the organs of hearing, smell, taste, and touch, but
The antennae seem to serve the
purpose of feelers, and it is believed that they are also con-
nected with the sense of hearing. But it should be re-
marked here that Siebold found an auditory apparatus in
little is positively known.
the fore legs of some species of grasshoppers.
jº
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1603
Their nervous system, as already stated, consists of a
double series of nervous ganglions or knots of nervous
matter connected by a double chain of nervous threads;
and these are situated along the ventral side of the animal,
connected, however, with a nervous centre in the head.
From these ganglia arise the nerves of the body and limbs.
It is hardly necessary to say that insects are never spon-
taneously generated, as some persons suppose, but they are
produced from eggs, which are hatched after they are laid
in some favorable place; or, in some cases, they are hatched
in the body of the parent insect, and then brought forth as
moving forms.
%
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Nº.
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The Luna Moth (Tropaea luna): 1, Imago; 2, Pupa or Chrysalis; 3, Larva.
In passing from the egg state to the adult state, Insects
undergo great changes of form and habit. These changes
are called transformations or metamorphoses, and they are
So great in most cases that the same insect at different ages
may easily be mistaken, by one not an entomologist, for as
many different animals. There are at least three more or
less distinctly marked stages in the life of every insect
after it leaves the egg—viz., the larva, the pupa or chrysa-
lis, and the imago state.
In the larva state Insects are more or less worm-like,
and consist of thirteen or fourteen apparent segments,
besides the head; and they pass most of their time in eat-
ing, and as a consequence of this they grow very rapidly.
When the larva of an insect has attained its full growth as
a larva, it retires to some suitable place, and in many cases
it spins a silken covering called a cocoon, then sheds its
skin, and appears as a much shortened, oblong, oval, or
conical body, apparently lifeless; in this form it is called a
pupa or chrysalis. In a majority of species, however, no
silken covering or cocoon is made, but the pupa itself is
essentially of the same form as those found enclosed in a
cocoon. At the end of the pupa state, which varies greatly
in duration in the different species, the insect sheds its pupa-
skin and comes forth fully grown, and in most species pro-
yided with wings; and in this state it is called a perfect
insect or imago. After insects enter upon the adult or
imago state they do not increase in size. They now pro-
vide for a continuation of their species, and then, in most
cases, soon perish. All insects which pass through the
changes described above are said to undergo a complete
transformation. This word “transformation” does not,
however, convey the exact idea of the changes, for the
changes are those resulting merely from growth and de-
velopment, and not from true transformations. In a word,
the animal is one and the same during all its various
forms. -
sº
But there are some kinds of insects which do not ap-
parently pass through all the changes enumerated above,
but whose larvae pass by insensible gradations to the pupa.
state, and from the latter to the perfect insects, all the
while remaining in a state of activity. These are said to
undergo only a partial transformation. The grasshopper,
for example, is hatched from the egg as a wingless insect.
It eats voraciously, grows rapidly, hops about without the
use of wings, sheds its skin more or less regularly, and
appears after each shedding with longer wings and more
completely developed limbs, until at length it ceases to
grow, and then, shedding the skin for the last time, comes
forth an imago or adult grasshopper. The larvae of those
insects which undergo only a partial transformation have
only six legs, the same as adult insects. But of the larvae
which undergo a complete transformation, some kinds, as
maggots, have no legs; others have a pair of legs to each
of the three first segments; others have a pair to each of
the three first segments, and, besides these, several fleshy
legs, ten or more, placed beneath the abdominal segments,
and known as prop-legs. -
Insects proper have been variously classified, and differ-
ent ranks have been assigned to the groups into which they
have been divided. According to Packard and others,
Insects proper may be divided into seven groups (first
proposed by Linnaeus) or sub-orders, thus:
1. Hymenoptera, as Bees, Wasps, Ichneumons, Ants, Saw-flies, etc.
2. Lepidoptera, as Butterflies and Moths. -
3. Diptera, as Flies, Mosquitoes, etc.
4. Coleoptera, as Beetles, &
5. Hemiptera, as Bugs, Cicadas, Plant-lice, etc.
6. Orthoptera, as Grasshoppers, Crickets, etc., ..
7. Newropterd, as Dragon-flies, May-flies, Ant-lions, etc.
Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr., recognizes two series in these
seven sub-orders—a higher and a lower—and arranges
them thus:














































































^,
1604 j
ENTOMOLOGY.
First and Higher Series.—Body usu-
ally cylindrical; prothorax small;
l
mouth-parts more generally haus- 1. HYMENOPTERA.
tellate (formed for sucking); met- } 2. LEPIDOPTERA.
amorphosis complete; pupa inact- || 3. DIPTERA.
ive; larva usually cylindrical, yery
unlike the adult.
Second and Lower Series.—Body
usually flattened; prothorax large
and squarish; mouth-parts usually : COLEOPTERA.
6
7
. HEMIPTERA.
. ORTHOPTERA.
. NEUROPTERA.
adapted for biting; metamorphosis #
incomplete; pupa often inactive;
larva flattened, often resembling
the adult. ſ
In order to show, in a general way, the relative rank of
the seven sub-orders and of two series of Six-footed In-
sects, Dr. A. S. Packard gives the following diagram:
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Neuroptera.
It must be here stated that many naturalists regard these
groups as real orders instead of sub-orders; and they stand
as orders in many books which the student and reader may
have occasion to consult on this subject. -
A brief motice of each of these groups may now be given,
with such illustrations as will give the general reader a
clear idea of some of the characteristic forms in each group.
HYMENOPTERA.—The Hymenoptera (juñv, hymen, a “mem-
brane;” trepôv, pteron, a “wing”) have four membranous
wings, the hind pair the smaller, and all traversed by a
comparatively few veins. These insects have four jaws,
the upper pair fitted for biting, and the lower pair the
longer and softer, and with the lower lip in many cases
adapted for collecting honey. The females are provided
with stings, but the males have no weapons excepting their
jaws. In passing from the egg state to the imago state
they undergo a complete transformation. All of the Hy-
menopters are diurnal in their habits, and they fly swiftly.
They are regarded by Dana as exhibiting the normal size
of the Insect type. Of all the Hymenoptera, the Bees are
of the greatest popular interest, even if we may not say
that they are of the greatest scientific interest; and a vol-
ume might well be devoted to their intensely interesting
and fascinating history. Thanks to Réaumur, the Hubers,
and others, we have volumes of interesting and reliable
information in regard to the Hive-Bee (Apis), the most
wonderful representative of this group.
In general, Bees are eminently social in their habits, and
the species are composed of three sorts of individuals—
females or queens, males or drones, and imperfectly devel-
oped females or workers ; the last are smaller than the
others, and are often improperly called newters. In a
single community of the Hive-bee (Apis mellifica) there
are sometimes 50,000 workers, 2000 males, but only one
adult queen. This species has now been introduced in all
countries of the civilized world. The celebrated Italian bee
is regarded as one of its varieties. The Hive-bee has en-
gaged the attention of the best observers for more than one
hundred and fifty years, and many interesting and wonder-
ful things have been found out regarding its structure and
habits; but much still remains to be studied in connection
with this wonderful insect. - -
As regards the workers, they are believed to be of two
kinds—the nurses, whose function is to build the cells,
collect honey, and feed the larvae ; and the wax-makers,
which, from the food they eat, secrete wax beneath their
ventral segments, from which it is taken in thin scales.
The bee cells are theoretically hexagons with pyramidal
bases, and the greater angles are given as 109° 28′, and the
lesser as 70° 34'. I say that the cells are hexagons, the-
oretically, because it has been shown by Prof. Jeffries
Wyman (Proc. Am. Acad. of Arts and Sci., vol. vii., 1866)
that the cells are all more or less imperfect when considered
mathematically. And it may be added here that it is still
an open question as to the exact way in which the form of
the cell is secured or brought out. Some naturalists re-
gard the cell as the result of the labor of the bee directed
by mere instinct; others believe the bee to be directed in
the work by a sort of reason; and others, still, believe that
the form of the cell is a necessary resultant of the labor
of bees working together. -
The cells are of sizes in accordance with the three sizes—
queens, drones, and workers—of bees to be produced. The
ordinary cells are arranged horizontally—that is, the comb
is made to assume a vertical position; but the queen cells,
where the queens are reared, are in a vertical position,
mouth downward, and are somewhat pear-shaped, and
vastly larger than ordinary cells. The bottoms of the
cells of the two tiers do not come directly opposite each
other, cell to cell, but the bottom of each cell forms a portion
of the bottom of each of three opposite cells, and thus the
strength of the cells is greatly increased. The diameter
of the cells for the larvae of the workers is two and two-
fifths lines; for the larvae of the males, three and one-third
lines; and the male cells are generally in the middle of the
combs.
The bee-larvae are fed with bee-bread, after it has been
worked over in the stomach of the bee; this bread is com-
posed of the pollen of flowers. When bees lose a queen
they select an ordinary larva, and by giving it more room
and better food they cause it to develop into a queen bee.
When the larvae are ready to go into the pupa state the
foster-parents close up the cells with a lid of wax, convex
on the drone-cells, and nearly flat on the worker-cells; then
the larvae spin their cocoon. The queen is about sixteen
days in coming to maturity; workers twenty days, and
drones twenty-four days. The queen sometimes lays 2000
to 3000 eggs in a day, and during her lifetime—perhaps
five years—she lays more than a million of eggs. The
laying of worker eggs begins in January and February;
after this, in the spring, male eggs are laid.
Bees gather the nectar or honey of flowers, pollen, and
resinous wax or propolis. When covered with pollen they
collect every particle and knead it into little masses, one
of which is placed on each hind leg, and in this way it is
carried home to the hive. They get the resinous wax or
propolis from resinous leaf-buds and leaves, and they use
it in finishing the combs and in stopping crevices, etc.
But our space will not allow us to describe these insects
at length, and so we may take our leave of them by enum-
erating here a few of their instincts and habits mentioned
above, together with a few others not less wonderful than
these. We may here say, then, that when about to swarm
Hive-bees send out scouts; they follow their queen;
they carefully cleanse their selected abode; they stop all
crevices with propolis; they ventilate the hive by the rapid
movements of their wings; they guard the entrance; they
keep equal spaces between their combs in the hive; they
solder the angles of cells and polish the interior; they
produce a yellow tinge to the comb, as is believed, by a
sort of varnishing ; they extract honey from flowers; they
collect pollen, and, as is believed, only from one species of
flower on a given excursion; they hasten home on the
approach of rain; they find their way back after the most
extended wanderings; they feed their companions on their
return to the hive; they store away the surplus pollen;
they swallow pollen and change it into fit food for the
larvae; they feed the larvae with the right sort of food;
they cover the grub-cells with a waxen lid, convex or con-
cave according as the grub is a drone or a worker; they
cleanse the cells after the young bees leave them; they
retain, the young queens in the cells till they are wanted,
and they feed them while thus kept confined; they release
the queens in the order of their age, the oldest being re-
leased first; they cause the queens to fight, and they
devotedly follow the survivors, and if they lose their queen
they immediately go to work to raise another by giving
extra food and room to an ordinary larva or grub; they
kill the drones, and drag them from the hive when they are
not wanted; and finally, they all have their appropriate
parts to perform, and they perform these parts with un-
erring regularity and in the most perfect manner.
The Humble-Bees (Bombus) are in general of large size,
and have exceedingly hirsute bodies. They build their
nests in or on the ground, and their cells are large, oval,
and more or less separate, and their communities are much
Smaller than those of the hive-bee, but there are in some
ENTOMOLOGY.
1605
cases several hundreds of humble-bees in a single com-
munity, and each community arises from a single female
which has survived, the storms of winter; for the com-
munity, as a community, does not survive the winter.
The Wasps (Vespidae) are other representatives of the
Hymenoptera, and like the Bees many species live in
colonies composed of females, males, and workers. They
construct complex nests under ground or attached to over-
hanging rocks, to trees, fences, or buildings. These nests
consist of tiers of hexagonal cells with their mouths down-
ward, and supported by pedicels; and the cells in a single
nest, in some cases, number 16,000. These representatives
of the Hymenoptera are especially interesting as being
the first paper-makers. Their nests are made of a paper-
like substance, which is merely wood reduced to a paste by
the action of the jaws of these insects, and this, put into
the required form, is left to dry—essentially the same
thing that our paper-manufacturers are doing by other
processes and on a large scale in their mills to-day. The
Wasp communities, like those of the Humble-Bees, are
dissolved on the approach of winter; and each female that
survives the winter founds a new colony the ensuing
spring. Some kinds of wasps, however, are solitary in
their habits.
The Ants (Formicidae) are other members of the Hy-
menoptera which live in communities composed of females,
males, and workers; the two former are furnished with
loosely attached wings, and the last are destitute of wings.
The workers have the care of the nest and of the rearing
of the young; they go in search of food, feed the larvae,
take them into the sunshine in fine weather, and back
again into the nest at night or when bad weather comes,
and they watch over them with a wonderful fidelity. Most
ant-hill communities are composed of individuals of one
and the same species; but in some cases the workers pro-
cure auxiliaries by visiting the ant-hills of other species,
and forcibly taking the larvae and pupae and bringing
them to their own nest, and, there having them reared and
trained to work for the community in which they are reared
The Ichneumons (Ichneumonidae) are members of the
Hymenoptera which are interesting not only on account
of their structure, but because of the fact that they are
very destructive to other insects, especially to those, as
the Lepidoptera, which in the larva state are injurious to
vegetation. They are therefore very useful insects. Ich-
neumons deposit their eggs on the eggs, larvae, and pupae
of other insects, and upon these the larva-ichneumon feeds
when hatched. These insects have the body long and nar-
row, the antennae long, the ovipositor generally long and
protected by two thread-like organs of the same length as
==º -
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Ichneumon.
the ovipositor itself. The color of the Ichneumon is gener-
ally black, varied with red, yellow, or white. Some species,
however, are wholly reddish.
Of all the Hymenoptera none are more interesting, con-
sidered from one point of view, than the Gall-flies (Cynip-
idae), since these small insects, by puncturing a species
of oak growing in Western Asia, produce the nut-galls of
commerce, and these supply the world with ink. The
Gall-flies have the head short and broad, the thorax thick
and oval, and the abdomen much compressed’ and attached
to the thorax by a very short peduncle.
numerous, and the different kinds attack different kinds of
plants. Some species attack the Oak, others the Rose, etc.
The females have a long ovipositor, with which they insert
their eggs into leaves and other parts of plants, and these
=# leather, meat, lard, and even wax.
They are very
punctures cause galls; and the form and nature of the gall
depends both upon the kind of gall-fly and upon the kind
and part of the plant punctured.
Among the largest of the Hymenoptera are those Boring
Saw-flies known as “Horntails,” which have the body
long, nearly cylindrical, and the blunt abdomen ending in
a horny point. Beneath this abdomen they have a long
saw-like and powerful borer, with which they bore holes
into trees, in which they deposit their eggs; and it may be
added that their larvae are among the great host of tree-
borers.
There are other saw-flies belonging to the Hymenoptera,
but they belong to a separate family—namely, to the Ten-
thredinidae. These Saw-flies are of various species, some
of which attack the Rose, others the Vine, others the Elm,
etc. All have an ovipositor consisting of double saws,
lodged under the body and covered by two pieces as a
sheath. They are sluggish in their habits. Their larvae
have from eighteen to twenty-two legs, and are found in
communities on the leaves of birch and alder, holding fast
by their true legs, while the rest of the body is curved up-
ward. Other species, however, appear like slugs on the
leaves of the rose and of fruit trees. The larva of the
Elm Saw-fly is large, and covered with a thick skin with
numerous transverse wrinkles, and when at rest it is coile
So as to somewhat resemble a snail-shell.
LEPIDOPTERA.—The second group of Insects proper—
namely, the Lepidoptera (Aetris, lepis, a “scale;” Trepév,
pteron, a “wing ”)—is composed of insects which have
four wings covered with scales that are easily removed.
The Lepidoptera, have a tongue consisting of two grooved
threads placed side by side, so that the grooved
sides come together and form a channel by their
junction, and thus the tongue is adapted for
sucking purposes; and accordingly these insects
drink the dew and feed upon the honey of
flowers. When not in use this tongue is rolled
up like a watch-spring beneath the head, and
tº more or less concealed on each side by an organ
called a palpus. The legs of the Lepidopters are
six in number, but the forward pair is short, and
sometimes rudimentary, or wanting. In the
larva state these insects are called caterpillars,
and they have from ten to sixteen legs. Most
kinds of caterpillars feed upon plants. Some
kinds eat the leaves, others the blossoms, others
the seeds, others the stems, and others the roots.
Other kinds, however, eat fabrics, furs, feathers,
In coming
£º to their full growth as larvae they usually change
== their skins four times.
The Lepidopters include the Butterflies and
the Moths. The former are readily distinguished
by their knobbed antennae, and by the fact that
they hold their wings erect when they alight.
The Moths have variously formed, but never
knobbed, antennae, and their wings are sloping
when they alight. All of the Lepidopters pass through a
complete transformation in coming to maturity. Many of
the caterpillars of the Moths spin cocoons; many, however,
do not, and none of the caterpillars of the Butterflies spin
COCOOIAS.
The Butterflies of North America are numerous, and
many of them are exceedingly beautiful, as any one may
see by examining them, or the splendidly illustrated works
of Edwards, and those of Scudder, as well as the illustra-
tions of our butterflies in foreign works.
Of the Moths we have room only to mention the Sphinges
or Hawk Moths, and a few of the broad-winged moths.
The Hawk Moths (Sphingidae) are mostly very large lepi-
dopters, and the wings are long and comparatively narrow.
These moths fly with great rapidity, and with few excep-


1606 .
IENTOMOLOGY.
tions they visit the flowers to secure honey in the morning
and evening twilight; and as they balance themselves be-
fore the petunias and other flowers, by the rapid movements
of their wings, they may easily be mistaken for humming-
birds. Their tongue is exceedingly long—in some cases
five or six inches. The caterpillars of these moths are very
large, and they assume curious attitudes. Supporting them-
selves on their hind legs, they elevate the forward part of
the body, and remain for hours in this sphinx-like position.
Some of the broad-winged or Silkworm Moths (Bomby-
cidae), as Cecropia, Polyphemus, Luna, etc., are remark-
able for their large size; others, as the beautiful Deiopeia
and the Wood-Nymphs (Eudryas), are remarkable for their
beauty; and all in the larva state spin silken cocoons, in
l º º
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§
Silkworm, Moth, Larva, and Chrysalis.
which they pass into the pupa state. One of the most
common of the small broad-winged moths, is the Tent-
caterpillar Moth, which in the larva state lives upon
neglected apple trees, and upon wild-cherry trees, and
spins the well-known tent-like nests.
DIPTERA. — The Diptera (8ts, dis, “double;” irrepôv,
pteron, a “wing”) are so named from the fact that they
have only two real wings, the place of the hind wings being
occupied by two knobbed threads called poisers or bal-
ancers. Their mouth is modified for either sucking
or lapping. The sucker or proboscis is composed
of two to six bristle-like organs, in some cases as
sharp as are the sharpest needles, and either en-
closed in the grove of a sheath terminated by two
lips, or covered by one or two laminae which serve
the purpose of a sheath. They undergo a complete
transformation in coming to maturity. Their larvae
are without feet, and are called maggots. The
pupae are in most cases enclosed in the dried skin
of the larvae. Some kinds of dipters, as Mosqui-
toes, lay their eggs in the water, and their larvae
may be seen in summer in all stagnant pools, where 3
they are popularly known as “wrigglers.” They
rest with their head downward, and the hind ex-
tremity, which contains the respiratory organs, is
at such times at the surface of the water. They are
very active, and move with a wriggling motion
through the water, but come to the surface from
time to time to secure air through their respiratory
organs. At the end of their larval state they shed
their skin, but still remain in the water, and move
only about one-tenth of an inch in length. The females
lay their eggs on the young blades of wheat, and the eggs
hatch in about four days, producing pale red maggots.
The larvae crawl down the leaf, and get between the latter
and the main stalk near the joint, and here they injure
and often destroy the plant by sucking the sap. The
Wheat-fly, on the contrary, lays its eggs in the opening
flowers of the wheat, also in those of rye, barley, and oats.
In about eight days the eggs hatch, producing little yellow
larvae or maggots, which are found within the chaffy scales
of the grain.
Several species of the Diptera are very injurious, or at
least annoying, to cattle and horses. One of these is known
as the Black Horse-fly (T'abanus atratus, Fabricius), another
as the Orange-belted Horse-fly (T.
cinctus, Fabr.), and another the Lined
Horse-fly (T. lineola, Fabr.). All of
these have the eyes very large, cover-
ing nearly the whole head, and they
have a proboscis enclosing six sharp
lancets in the female, and four in the
male.
Other members of the Diptera, as
the Asilus Flies (Asilici), are very
long-bodied, and very destructive in
their larva state to the roots of plants,
and in the adult state they are very
rapacious, seizing and destroying other
insects.
Other dipters still are the Bot-flies
(CEstridae), which in the larva state
inhabit various parts of the body of
herbivorous animals, as horses, cattle,
sheep, etc. These flies have very short
antennae, large head, and the wings
cover the balancers; and the hind-
body of the females has a conical tube
bent under the body, and with it they
lay their eggs when flying. One spe-
cies lays her eggs upon the fore legs
of the horse, another upon the lips, and
another on the throat. By biting the
parts where the eggs are laid, the horse
gets them into his mouth, and swallows them. The larvae,
by means of hooks, cling to the walls of the stomach till
they come to the end of their larval life. Another species
(CEstrus bovis, Fabr.) lays her eggs on the backs of the
cattle, and the larvae penetrate the skin and live there in
open sores. Another species (Cephalomyia ovis, Linn.) lays
her eggs in the nostrils of sheep, and the larvae crawl into
the cavities of the head, and in many cases produce death.
But by far the largest group of all the Diptera is that
&
º
º
by means of their hind-body; but now they assume
a different attitude, and the respiration is carried
on through two tubes situated on the thorax. At
the end of the pupa state, which lasts only a few
days, the skin splits upon the back, between the breathing-
tubes, and the winged insect or imago appears, and after
resting a while on its empty pupa-case as it floats upon
the water, it flies away in search of a victim whom it may
pierce for blood. These kinds of dipters discharge a poi-
sonous fluid into the wounds which they inflict, and this is
the cause of the irritation which follows their attacks.
Some species of the Diptera, as the Hessian Fly (Cecido-
myia destructor, Say) and the Wheat-fly (Cecidomyia tritici,
Kirby), are very injurious to the farmer, sometimes de-
stroying whole wheat-fields. The Hessian Fly received its
name from the popular belief that it was brought to this
country, in straw, by the Hessian troops. It is very small,
which Latreille called the Muscidae, which includes about
one-third of all the members of this sub-order, and which
are known under the popular names of House-flies, Flesh-
flies, Blow-flies, Cheese-flies, etc. Meigen has already, a
long time ago, described 1700 species of these flies as
belonging to Europe, and there is probably even a greater
number in this country. These flies have a wonderful
power of reproduction. Some species, as the Flesh-flies,
are viviparous. Réaumur found 2000 larvae in a single
specimen of this sort.
Among the Diptera, there are, as in other groups, some
apparently anomalous forms. One of these is seen in the
Fleas (Pulicidae), which are wingless flies with hard, com-


































ENTOMOLOGY.
pressed bodies, with two simple eyes instead of compound
eyes, a sucker-like arrangement of mouth-parts, and hind
legs specially adapted for leaping. By many writers the
Flea's are regarded as constituting a distinct order—
“Aphaniptera” (äſbavigo, aphamizo, “to hide;” trepôv, pteron,
a “wing”). Other anomalous forms of the Diptera are
seen in the Horse-ticks (Hippobosca), Sheep-ticks (Mello-
phaga), Bird-ticks (Ornithomyia), etc. These have a
horny flattened body, flat head, large eyes, rudimentary
antennae, and a proboscis formed by the labrum and
maxillae. They are parasites, and differ from all other
insects in their mode of development. Each female pro-
duces only one or two larvae, and when first hatched the
larva is not divided into rings, but is smooth and egg-like,
the whole covering being a puparium-like case in which
the larva becomes a pupa immediately after it is born.
The spider-shaped Bat-ticks (Nycteribidae), which are
parasites on the Bat, and the Bee-lice (Braulina), minute,
wingless, blind insects, parasites on Bees, are other anom-
alous forms of the Diptera.
CoLEOPTERA.—The Coleoptera (koxeós, coleos, a “sheath;”
trepôv, pteron, a “wing ”) or Beetles are insects whose upper
or anterior wings, called elytra, are more or less horny, and
they meet in a straight line upon the top of the back; and
in general there is a small triangular piece, called scutellum,
between their bases. Their hind or under wings are thin,
and when not in use are folded longitudinally and trans-
versely. The Coleoptera have two pairs of jaws, which
move sidewise, and the larvae, which are called grubs,
undergo a complete transformation in coming to maturity.
There are probably more than 100,000 species of these
insects, and they present a great diversity of form, size,
color, structure, and habits.
Some kinds, as the Tiger Beetles (Cicindelidae), have a
large head, globose eyes, long antennae, and toothed man-
dibles, and are very rapacious in their habits, devouring
other insects, which constitute their principal food. Their
larvae are provided with powerful jaws, and, like the adults,
are rapacious in their habits. . These larvae dig vertical
holes in the ground, in which they remain, the head just
fitting the entrance, and when any insect passes near
enough they seize it and de- r
vour it. ſºy, is
The Predaceous Ground §§
Beetles (Carabidae) are also :-3
rapacious, and several spe- ^\s
cies are known as Caterpillar
Hunters, on account of the sºftā
warfare which they wage
against various kinds of lepi-
dopterous larvae.
Other kinds of beetles, as
the Dytiscidae, are fitted for a
residence in the water, and
these have their hind legs
specially fitted for swimming.
They are also exceedingly ra-
pacious, both in the larva and in the adult state, devouring
all kinds of small aquatic animals, even fishes.
Other kinds of beetles, as the Gyrindae, are found mov-
ing in all sorts of curves and gyrations on the smooth sur-
face of standing waters; and these too swim by means of
the fringed hind legs.
Some kinds, as the Carrion Beetles (Silphidae), are true
scavengers. Living together in great numbers, they per-
form a most useful service in removing noxious substances.
Some species of this family have the habit of burying all
the small dead animals which they find. They dig beneath
the animal till they sink it out of sight, then deposit their
eggs in it; and as soon as the young hatch, the latter begin
to devour it, and thus the noxious substance is soon con-
verted into living tissues.
The Dermestidae are small beetles which in the larva
state attack skins and bodies and all parts of dried animals.
They often commit great havoc in Zoological collections.
The Horn-bugs (Lucanidae) are beetles whose head is
very large and broad, and whose upper jaws are very large,
curved, and often branched. They fly only in the night.
In the grub state they live in the roots and trunks of trees,
and some of the species are six years in coming to maturity.
But of all the groups of the Coleoptera, the Scarabaeans
(Scarabaeidae) are one of the most extensive. Here belong
the May-Beetle, Rose-Chafers, Goldsmith Beetles, and a
host of others. They differ from one another in many im-
portant respects, but agree in having a rather short convex
form, the antennae ending in a knob composed of three or
more leaf-like pieces, a visor-like piece which extends for-
ward over the face, and their legs are fitted for digging.
The Buprestians (Buprestidae) are beetles which have
the head apparently sunk into the thorax nearly up to their
eyes, and the whole form somewhat flattened and very solid.
Cicindela campestris (Imago
and Larva).
1607
The lustre is metallic, more or less bronze-like. They are
found on trees, and feign death when disturbed. In the
larva state they bore the peach, plum, pine, oak, hickory, etc.
The Elaters (Elateridae) are also beetles which have a
hard body, and their head sunk to the eyes in the thorax,
and the latter is as broad as any part of the body. In the
larva state they are called wire-worms, and in this state
they devour roots and wood. In the adult state they have
attracted much attention from their habit of springing up-
ward w h a jerk after they have been placed upon the back.
Some of the representatives of the Coleoptera are very
important in their relations to pharmacy. This is true of
the Cantharides (Meloidae), extensively used for blistering
purposes. They have a broad head, long antennae, and soft
wing-covers, which are more or less bent downward.
The Stylopidae are minute beetles, so apparently abnor-
mal in their appearance and structure that they have by
Some naturalists been referred to a distinct order called
Stylops Dali'i: A, male, natural size; B, the same magnified; C, a
bee, with the head of a stylops (a) projecting from between
the abdominal rings; D, female, magnified.
“Strepsiptera” (from atpépts, strepsis, a “twisting,” and
Trepév, a “wing ”). In the larva state these beetles live as
parasites in the body of the bee.
Of the small members of the Coleoptera, none are more
destructive than the Weevils (Curculionidae). Some kinds
of weevils attack the pea, others the plum, others grain,
others rice, others stored grain, and others the pine, etc.
All of the Curculios are hard-shelled, and the fore part of
the head is generally prolonged into a slender snout, at the
extremity of which is the mouth armed with small horny
jaws. In the larva state they are white grubs.
The Long-horn Beetles (Cerambycidae) are those which
have exceedingly long antennae. When caught they gen-
erally make a squeaking noise. The larvae are wood-borers,
and they are the most destructive of all wood-eating insects.
In some species they are three or more years in coming to
maturity as larvae; they then go into the pupa state in
their burrows, and at length appear as adult beetles. To
the Long-horns belong the Oak-Pruner (Stenocorus villosus,
Fabr.), the Beautiful Clytus (Clytus speciosus, Say), the .
Painted Clytus (Clytus fleawosus, Fabr.), the Apple-tree
Borer' (Saperda bivittata, Say), etc.
A large number of beautiful, golden, green, and blue bee-
tles are included under the name of Chrysomelidae. Their
form is hemispherical or oval, the head is sunken, and the
antennae are wide apart. All of these are gayly colored.
And lastly we may notice the Lady-birds (Coccinellidae)
as representatives of the Coleoptera. These are small bee-
tles, more or less hemispherical in form, and of a black, red,
or yellow color, ornamented with spots. They are rapacious
in their habits, both in the larva and in their adult state,
devouring plant-lice.
HEMIPTERA.—The Hemiptera (hut, hemi, “half;” trepôv,
pteron, a “wing”) are insects which have the mouth-parts
in the form of a slender horny beak, consisting of a horny
sheath enclosing three sharp bristle-like organs, the whole
being fitted for a sucking apparatus. When not in use this
beak is bent under the body, and lies upon the breast.
Bugs, Cicadas, Plant-lice, etc. are familiar examples of this
group of insects. The Bugs may be regarded as the typi-
cal members of the group, as their wings are thick in their
basal portion and thin towards their tips; that is, in gen-
eral terms, half of the wing is of one degree of thickness,
and the other half of another degree, and hence the name
Hemiptera. As the wings of Bugs thus differ in the two
regions, basal and terminal, these insects are often called
Hemiptera heteroptera. - -
On the contrary, other hemiptera, as Cicadas, Plant-



1608
ENTOMOLOGY.
lice, etc., have the wings of uniform thickness throughout,
and they do not lie flat upon the back, as in the Hemip-
tera heteroptera; and having wings of uniform thickness
throughout, they are called Hemiptera homoptera. Of
the Hemiptera, homoptera, few if any are more interesting
than the Cicadas or Harvest-flies (Cicadidae). These in-
sects have a broad head, large eyes, and three eyelets on
the crown. Both pairs of wings are transparent and dis-
timetly veined. The males are furnished with an apparatus
by which they produce a loud buzzing sound. This ap-
paratus consists of a pair of organs which have been aptly
compared to a pair of kettle-drums—one situated in each
side of the abdomen, and each formed of convex pieces of
a parchment-like membrane, finely plaited, and played
upon by means of muscular fibres fastened to the inside;
and thus, by the rapid contraction and relaxation of these
fibres, the drum-heads are alternately tightened and loos-
ened, and the sounds above named produced. And it may
be added here that the intensity of the sounds is greatly
increased by other cavities within the body, formed, or at
least separated, by thin transparent membranes. The
female cicadas are provided with a piercer for perforating
the limbs of trees, in which they lay their eggs. This
piercer consists of three pieces—two outer ones, which are
grooved on the inside, and toothed on the outside like a
saw, and a central piece, which is a sort of spear-pointed
borer, which moves freely between the other two. -
The Cicadas have attracted much attention from very
early times. The Greeks, we are told, were charmed with
their “singing;” and they often kept these insects in cages
that they might enjoy their “music.” And the Greeks
also used them as food, eating both the pupae and the per-
fect cicadas. Our common species are the Dog-day Cicada
or Harvest-fly (Cicada canicularis, Harris) and the Seven-
teen-year Cicada (Cicada septendecim, Linn.), often incor-
\
grass, herbs, and trees, upon the sap of which they subsist,
imbibing such quantities that it oozes out of their bodies
in the form of little bubbles, thus soon covering the insect.
in a mass of frothy foam. Of all the Hemiptera, none are
more remarkable than these for their curious, and, in many
cases, grotesque forms.
Of the very small and minute Hemiptera homoptera,
none perhaps are more remarkable than the Plant-lice
(Aphidae) and the Bark-lice (Coccidae). The former have
on the hind part of their short body two minute tubes or
pores, from which exude minute drops of a sweet fluid.
And this fact explains the reason why ants collect in great
numbers wherever plant-lice abound, for the ants delight
to feed upon this honey-like fluid, and the most friendly
relations exist between these two kinds of insects. The
ants even caress the plant-lice with their antennae, ap-
parently soliciting them to give out the sweet fluid; and it
is stated, on what seems to be good authority, that an aphis
or plant-louse has been seen to give a drop of fluid to each
of a number of ants waiting to receive it ! The Aphidae
multiply with astonishing rapidity, and in this multi-
plication they admirably illustrate what has been callcd
Parthenogenesis. #
It is well understood among physiologists that it is the
contact of the male sperm-cell with the yolk, which fer-
tilizes the egg, and that from the moment of this contact
the life of the embryo, which is to be the future animal,
begins. This fertilization of the female germ by means of
the male element through the pairing of the sexes, is the .
general rule among bisexual animals. But among insects
there are exceptions, so that in some species an embryo
may, and does, begin its life without the interposition of
the male; and this mode of reproduction has been called
by Owen, Parthenogenesis.
The young aphides are hatched in the spring from im-
pregnated eggs laid the previous autumn, and
Soon they come to maturity, and the whole
–– -
* N \l
--~~... -- ==s *
- SNW | | *s brood consists of wingless females. These
##$º sº § 4% º *S females bring forth living young, each female
š. §§2's *2 producing in some cases twenty in a day.
sº gº &: 4N & These young are also wingless females, and
*------. > soon they bring forth living young, which are
-.
X-C
8.
ºº:
ºx. &
a Pº
**†
* .
European Cicada.
rectly called the Seventeen-year Locust. It is believed
that the latter insect appears in the same locality only at
intervals of seventeen years, and hence its specific name.
The Seventeen-year Cicadas come in swarms in the early
part of summer, and the forests then resound with their
singing from morning till night. After pairing, the females
lay their eggs. Selecting small branches, they clasp them
with their legs, and then they repeatedly thrust their
piercers obliquely into the bark and wood in the direction
of the fibres, and at the same time they detach little splin-
ters of wood at one end, and these serve as a fibrous cover
to the perforations. After thus forming a fissure, they de-
posit therein from ten to twenty eggs, which are conveyed
to their places by means of the grooved side-pieces of the
piercers. When one fissure is filled, another is made and
filled, and so on, till each female has deposited her whole
stock of four or five hundred eggs. When the eggs hatch,
the young fall to the ground and immediately burrow to
the roots of the tree, upon whose juices they subsist. They
live in this way till the time of their transformation ap-
proaches, when they gradually ascend towards the surface,
and at length they leave the ground, generally or always
in the night, and crawl up the trunks of trees, where they
fix their feet firmly to the bark. Their covering is now dry
and hard. After some effort they open a longitudinal
fissure in the skin of the back, and through this opening
the perfect Cicada comes forth, leaving its dry and empty
pupa skin attached to the tree.
Other examples of the Hemiptera homoptera are seen in
the little Tree-hoppers (Cercopidae) which are found upon
ce- agübſ AR-KENRW.INN.
also wingless females, and in their turn bring
forth living young. And in this way brood
after brood is brought forth, even to the four-
teenth generation, in a single season ; and
this, too, without the appearance of a single
male. But the latest brood in autumn is com-
posed of both males and females, which have
wings; these pair, stock the plants with eggs,
and then perish. We get some idea of the
rapidity of the multiplication of these ani-
mals when we remember that Réaumur has
proved that a single plant-louse may become,
in five generations, the progenitor of 6,000,-
000,000 descendants
The Bark-lice (Coccidae) are Hemiptera
in which the males alone are winged; the
females always remaining in a sort of scale-
like form, such as may be found at all times
on the apple tree. Coccidae are famous for
the dyes which they have furnished the world for hun-
dreds and even thousands of years. They furnished the
Rokkos of the Greeks, the Coccus of the Romans, the
Rºermes of the Arabs, the Alkermes of the Persians; and the
Scarlet Grain of Poland and the Cochineal of Mexico are
insects of this family of the Hemiptera.
Some kinds of the Hemiptera, as the Boat-flies (Notonec-
tidae), live in the water, and are noted for their habit of
swimming on their backs; others, as the Scorpion-bugs
(Nepidae), live in the water, and are adapted for seizing
prey by their fore legs, which flex upon themselves, and
thus act as pincers; others, as the Water-measurers (Hy-
drometridae), are found on the water, over the surface of
which they move with a gliding motion.
To the Hemiptera also belong the Squash-bugs (Coreidae),
the minute insects included in the Thripsidae, the Bed-bugs
(Cimicidae), and the Lice (Pediculidae).
ORTHOPTERA.—The Orthoptera (bp66s, orthos, “straight,”
Trepôv, pteron, a “wing ”), named from the nature of their
wings, which lie straight along the back, have their upper
wings rather thick, the under ones the larger and thinner,
and folded in plaits like a fan. As already shown in our
general remarks, they do not undergo a complete trans-
formation, but they pass by insensible gradations from the
larval to the adult stage, all the while remaining active.
Some kinds, as the so-called Earwigs (Forficulidae), have
the body flattened and armed at the hind extremity with
a pair of pointed nippers. Others, as the Cockroaches
(Blattidae), have the body broader, flattened, and the hind
extremity furnished with conical articulated appendages.







ENTOMOLOGY.
1609
Others, as the Walking-sticks and Walking-leaves (Phas-
midae), closely resemble twigs and leaves. Others, as the
Mantes (Mantidae), are much elongated, and have the fore
legs formed for seizing and holding prey; and they sit for
hours holding up their fore legs, ready to seize any insect
within their reach. Still others, as the Crickets (Gryllidae),
have an oblong flattened body, long stylets at the hind
extremity of the body, and the females are provided with
a very long ovipositor for introducing their eggs into the
ground; and the males have the membranes and nervures
sº
t
S$
à
#ºs:### º
==ºe"
_*: == --~~~ T-" --~~~~
yº \!\!\ ^ =
The Crested Locust (Locusta cristata).
at the base of the wings so specialized that, by the rubbing
the wings upon each other, they can produce a sound
known as a chirrup. Others, as the Locusts (Locustidae),
are grasshopper-like, and have very long antennae and four
jointed tarsi, and the females have a long ovipositor.
Some kinds of the Locustidae, as Ceuthophilus, are wingless
and live under stones; others, as the Katydid (Cyrtophyllus
concavus, Scudder), have the wings broad in the middle, and
concave; others, as the Oblong Leaf-winged Grasshoppers
(Phylloptera), have the wing-covers shorter than the under
wings; others (Phaneroptera) have the ovipositor curved
sharply upward; others (Conocephalus) have the head end-
ing in a conical projection;
and others (Orchelimum) have
the ovipositor sabre-like in
form.
The Migratory Locusts and
their allies (Acrydii of La-
treille) are orthoptera, which
have a large head, short an-
tennae, three-jointed tarsi, in-
stead of four-jointed, as in the
Locustidae, and they have no
projecting ovipositor. Such
are the Red-legged Locusts
(Caloptemus), the Coral-wing-
ed, and the Carolina. Locusts
(OEdipoda), etc. .
NEUROPTERA. — The Neu-
roptera (ve à pov, newron, a
“nerve;” Trépôv, pteron, a
* wing ”) have a long body,
and four long, thin, mem-
branous, and finely-netted
veined wings, the anterior
pair generally, or at least
sómetimes, being the smaller;
in some genera, however, the
hind pair is the smaller, or
even obsolete. These insects
have large eyes and large
mandibles. They are destitute
of weapons, except their jaws,
being without a sting or pier-
N --
cer. Most of the Neuropters are aquatic in the larva and
pupa state. Many species do not undergo a complete
metamorphosis.
Some of the representatives of the Neuropters, as the
White Ants or Termites (Termitidae), inhabit only warm
countries, and in the larva state feed upon wood, devouring
all kinds of wooden furniture, and even whole houses, as
they have done in the Isle of France. Those called Stone-
flies (Perlidae) are oblong, depressed, and have many-
/ W.
%
jointed antennae, and the abdomen has two long-jointed
appendages. In the larva and pupa state they are found
under stones in the water. Some families, as the May-flies
(Ephemeridae), are very short-lived, living in the imago
state scarcely more than a few hours or a day, although their
larva and pupa state extends through several years, all of
which they pass in the water. *
The Dragon-flies (Odonata) are among the best repre-
sentatives of the Neuroptera, and have a long body, ex-
ceedingly large eyes, powerful jaws, and large and lustrous
wings. They fly with great velocity and
remain long upon the wing. In the
larva and pupa state they live in the
water; and when the time comes for
them to complete their transformation,
they crawl up the stems of plants, and,
having withdrawn from the pupa-skin,
which remains fixed to the plant, and
having become dry, they fly swiftly
away. . At all periods of their life they
are exceedingly rapacious, feeding upon
all insects which they can capture.
To the Neuroptera also belong the
Horned Corydalis and its allies (Sia-
lidae), the Ant-lions and other. Lace-
wings (Hemerobini), and the Caddice-
flies (Phryganidae). The Ant-lions are
famous for the pitfalls which, while in
the larva state, they make in the sands,
and at the bottom of which they lie con-
cealed, all but the jaws, and there await
insects which fall into their pit; these
they at Once seize and devour.
Some of the Neuroptera are wing-
less, and are called degradational forms,
and closely resemble the Myriapoda.
Such are the Spring-tails (Thysanoura.
or Podaridae), which have a cylindrical
scaly or hairy body, short and four- to six-jointed antennae,
four to eight simple eyes on each side, and whose anal
bristles are united and bent under the body, forming a sort
of spring by means of which these insects leap. They are
seen in gardens, and also on the surface of pools of water.
Such also are the Bristle-tails (Lepismatidae), which have
a long body covered with silvery-like scales, and the ab-
domen furnished with three long bristles. They are found
among old books and woollens, and also under stones and
rubbish in damp situations. The species of both these
f
families are small, the largest rarely having bodies over an
inch in length.
*
w
CC`
*—l * * *—t--→ * ~ -
- #III.iiirº
s; Sºzº:
º: - TA_X^-º-'32&
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º §º
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§
- 9ttº
Dragon-fi
A R A c HN ID A –The Arachnida are insects which have
the body divided into only two well-marked regions, the
head and the hind-body, the head and thorax being closely
united into one piece, thereby resembling in this respect
(AEschna).
the head and thorax of the Crustaceans. The Arach-
mids have simple eyes, four pairs of legs, attached to
the thorax, and they are without antennae, compound eyes,
and wings; and they do not change in general form in
coming to maturity, which they reach after moulting the








1610
ENTOMIOLOGY.
skin six times. The Arachnids are divided into three sub-
orders :
1. Araneina, or Spiders proper.
2. Pedipalpi, or Scorpions.
3. Acarina, or Mites.
ARANEINA.—The Araneina (aranea, a “spider”), or Spi-
ders proper, have mandibles formed exclusively for biting,
a more or less spherical abdomen, which is not divided
into segments, and this abdomen is attached to the cephalo-
thorax by a slender pedicel. They perform their respira-
tion by means both of lungs and tracheae, and they undergo
no metamorphosis in coming to maturity. The mandibles
end in a powerful hook, in the end of which there is an
opening to a duct which connects with a poison-gland
situated in the head. The palpi resemble shorter legs;
they are in fact the maxillae. In the female they are sim-
ple, but in the male the terminal joint is modified so as to
be a sexual organ. Most species of Spiders have eight
ocelli, but some have only six, some have only two, and
certain cave species are said to be blind.
One of the most curious things about Spiders is their
silk-spinning apparatus. On the abdominal extremity
there are from four to six protuberances, each of which is
perforated with a great number of minute holes—in some
species as many as a thousand, in each protuberance. From
these minute holes passes the adhesive fluid or liquid silk,
which has its origin in internal reservoirs; and as soon as
the fine streams of this material come to the air they harden
into silk. It is said that the Spider has the power of unit-
ing all the minute fib-
res into one or into
several threads, ac-
cording to the use it
would make of the silk.
The Spiders' webs are
very curiously con-
structed, and well re-
pay the most careful
observation and study.
The eggs of Spiders
##$ *
ãº
§ºſ
º | º º | jº
º º º ºft
º
āş
§
§
are enclosed in cocoons M
spun from the same §§§
kind of material of
which they construct
their webs, and the
förm of the egg-cases $
or cocoons varies ac-
cording to the species.
The young remain in
the cocoon for a long
time, and grow to dou-
ble the size which they have when hatched, apparently
without food.
The Tetrapneumones are large hairy spiders which have
four lung-sacs and four stigmata, and two pairs of spin-
nerets. They live in cylindrical holes which they make in
the earth. They are found mainly in warm climates. Here
belong the Trap-door Spiders, described by some writers
under the name of Territelariae, or “ Under-ground Weav-
ers,” and by others under the name of Mygale. These
spiders are named from the fact that they close the entrance
of their burrows with a sort of trap-door. This door is
made of earth lined beneath with silk, or in some species
it is wholly of silk. -
The Dipneumones, and all other true spiders except the
preceding family, have two lung-sacs, two or four stigmata,
and three pairs of spinnerets. Some of the species of this
family are known as the “Wanderers,” others: as the “ Se-
dentary’ spiders. The latter spin webs, and watch them
that they may secure prey. Some kinds (Clubiome) con-
Spider's Spinning-Apparatus,
magnified.
. . struct tubes of silk under the bark of trees and under
stones. Others, as the Water Spider (Argyroneta aquatica,
Linn.) of Europe, live under the surface of the water,
there making their nest, which is filled with air. Others
(Tegenaria) make a horizontal web, connected with which
is a tubular retreat, where the spider remainstill some fly
or other insect becomes entangled in the web. Those be-
longing to the genus Theridion have the four inner ocelli
larger than the four outer ones, and the first and last pair
of legs longest; and they make webs of threads crossing
in all directions. The genus Epeira, includes those which
have a large globular abdomen. They are sedentary
species, constructing a web formed of spiral threads, and
other threads radiating from a centre. Wephila is a genus
of large spiders characterized by a long, cylindrical abdo-
men. Nephila plumipes of the Southern States has become
celebrated from the interesting experiments made with it
by Dr. B. G. Wilder, in the production of silk. The genus
Thomºsus includes “wanderers” which have very Small
cheliceres. Dolomedes includes wanderers which hide under
stones, and not unfrequently dive under water, and which
i.
make an orbicular cocoon which is carried by the mother.
Lycosa is a genus of large hairy spiders, with large chel-
iceres, with the fourth pair of feet the longest, and the
third pair shortest. The species make no silk. They
- hide under
stones. The
Tara n tu 1 a
be long S to
this genus.
} The genus
4% Salticus in-
cludes the
leaping Spi-
der s; they
have a large
square ce-
phalothorax,
and the hind-
body is of an
oval cylindri-
cal form.
PEDIPALPI.
— Here be-
long theScor-
pions and al-
lied form s.
They have
The Tarantula of Europe, Lycosa tarantula. .
the maxillary palpi greatly enlarged, and in most cases
ending in forceps, and their abdomen is distinctly jointed;
and in the true scorpions the hind-body is very long, and
ends in a curved point or sting which discharges a pois-
onous fluid contained in an internal reservoir. -
The True Scorpions (Scorpionidae) have enormous for-
ceps-like maxillae. The False Scorpions (Pseudo-scorpiones)
are minute forms which have maxillary palpi resembling
the claws of the true Scorpions. They are often found
in old books and in neglected drawers. The Harvestmen,
or Daddy Long-legs (Phalangidae), have a cephalothorax
which is not jointed, the abdomen is short and thick, and
the maxillary palpi end in a single claw, and the mandi-
bles end in forceps, and their legs are excessively elongated.
ACARINA.—The Acarina or Mites are arachnids which
have oval or rounded bodies which exhibit no articulation
or divisions into segments, the cephalothorax and abdomen
being merged together. Most of the species are very minute
in size; a few, however, as the Ticks—which are the largest
of all—attain the length of half an inch. The Red Mites
(Trombididae) are common in hot-houses and in hot-beds,
and in the dry warm beds of the garden. The Water-
mites (Hydrachnidae) are found in both fresh and salt.
water. The Ticks (Ixodidae) are large mites with leather-
like bodies, and they attach themselves to man and ani-
mals, especially in warm countries. Some species, how-
ever, are found in temperate regions. Of the true Mites
(Acaridae), we may mention the Sugar-mite (Tyroglyphus
Sachari), common in unrefined sugar; the Cheese-mite
(Tyroglyphus Siro), the Flour-mite (Tyroglyphus farinae),
the Itch-mite (Sarcoptes scabiei); the last being the insect
which, by burrowing and breeding under the skin, causes
the loathsome disease which bears its name; and to the
true Mites belong various species inhabiting domestic ani-
mals, and which entomologists refer to the genus Dermato-
dectes ; and here also belongs the curious animal known as
the Nose-mite, which buries itself in the follicles of the
human nose.
M. Y. R. I. A Po D A.—The insects which belong to this order
are more or less worm-like, and are composed of ten to two
hundred or more segments. The head is free from the
body, and is similar to that of typical insects. They may
be divided into two sub-orders:
1. Chilopoda.
2. Chilognatha.
CHILOPODA.—The sub-order of Chilopoda (xe?Aos, cheilos,
a “lip,” and troºs, tro86s, pow8, podos, a “foot”), or the
highest group, includes those myriapods which have each
segment or ring simple, and bearing but a single pair of
feet, and which have the head divided into two regions,
one before and the other behind the mouth. To this sub-
order belong the so-called “Earwigs” (Lithobiidae), which
have a broad and flat head and forty-jointed antennae,
and which feed mainly upon earth-worms; the Centipedes
(Scolopendridae), which have from twenty-one to twenty-
three feet-bearing segments, and which in some species, as
those of the tropics, are six to nine inches long; and the
Geophilidae, which are characterized by their slender form,
and by their great number of segments, varying in the
different species from thirty to two hundred, each formed
of two complete sub-segments, and bearing only a single
pair of feet.
CHILoGNATHA.—The Chilognaths (xe?Aos, cheilos, a “lip;”

























ENTOMOSTRACA–EOGENE.
yvá60s, gnathos, a “jaw”) have very short and few-jointed
antennae, very numerous segments, and each segment has
two pairs of feet. Here belong the Millipedes, also known
as “Thousand Legs” (Julidae), which have the body long,
nearly cylindrical, and made up of numerous nearly equal
segments. And here also belong the Polydesmidae, which
have the body broad and flattened and the head large;
and the Glomeridae, which have the form of the body half
cylindrical, and composed of twelve or thirteen segments,
the head large and free, the first thoracic ring small, and
the last ring of the body shield-shaped.
And now, having given a brief outline of the nature and
of the history of the science of Entomology, and having
described and illustrated a few of the more important typ-
ical forms of which it treats, we leave the subject with our
readers, commending it as one worthy of the attention of
the ablest minds. SANBORN TENNEY.
Entomos' traca [from the Gr. Švropov, an “insect,”
and Šarpaków, a “shell”], one of the orders of crustaceans,
including those species having normally five or six cephalic
Segments in the form of a shell, and five or more rings of
the foot series, the hinder ones being generally obsolete.
The abdomen has no appendages. The species of this di-
vision are very numerous, and most existing species are of
Small size, except the king-crab (Limulus), which some re-
cent theorists place in a new order by itself. Many of
them are found in fresh and salt water, and some are par-
asitic. They differ greatly in general form, and in the
number of their organs of locomotion, which in some spe-
cies are more than 100, and in others are entirely absent.
The order includes the carcinoids, ostracoids (with the cir-
ripeds), limuloids (doubtful), and rotifers. Entomostracous
shells are peculiarly abundant in certain palaeozoic rocks.
They first appear in the Silurian strata.
Entozo'a [from the Gr. ºvirós, “in” or “within,” and
£óov, an “animal”], a name applied to those animals which
dwell within the bodies of other animals. They belong to
the Vermes (true worms), the lowest form of articulate an-
imals. They are divided into (1) cestoid worms, or tape-
worms, which are all more or less jointed, of a ribbon-like
form, each joint of hermaphrodite conformation, and dwell-
ing in the intestines. The embryonic worms penetrate the
tissues, become surrounded by a cyst, and are known as
“cystic" worms. They have no alimentary canal. (2)
The flukes or trematode worms, of flat oval form, smooth,
soft, and not jointed. They have an hermaphrodite devel-
opment, the sexual organs pervading a great part of the
body of the adult. They afford many wonderful examples
of the so-called alternate generation and of parthenogen-
esis in some of the generations. The disease called “rot”
in sheep is caused by their presence in the biliary passages.
In man they cause the hamaturia prevailing at the Cape
of Good Hope and the endemic dysentery of Egypt. They
inhabit the liver, kidneys, lungs, etc. Among the genera
are Distoma, Bilharzia, and many others. When perfect,
they have an alimentary canal without vent. (3) The Ne-
matelmia or round worms, having long, cylindroid forms,
and in the more perfect forms an intestinal canal with
mouth and vent, and distinct sexes. This class includes
pinworms, Ascarides, the Trichina, the Guinea worm, and
many others. -
Entre Douro e Minho (“between the Douro and the
Minho,” rivers which bound it on the S. and N. respective-
ly), a province of Portugal, is bounded on the N. by Spain,
on the E. by Traz os Montes and Beira, on the S. by Es-
tremadura, and on the W. by the Atlantic. Area, 2808
square miles. It is the most populous, the richest, and
the best cultivated province of the kingdom. Everywhere
are fertile valleys, rich meadows, fields, and vineyards.
The products are fruit, wine, oil, figs, oranges, barley, rye,
and wheat. Chief town, Oporto. Pop. 988,985.
Entre Rios, én/trá ree'ês (i. e. “between the rivers”),
a province of the Argentine Republic, is bounded on the N.
by the province of Corrientes, on the E. by the river Uru-
guay, and on the S. and W. by the Paraná. Area, 52,110
square miles. The surface is level, and partly occupied
by swamps and prairies or grassy plains. Many cattle and
horses feed on these plains. The chief exports are hides,
horns, and tallow. Pop. in 1869, 134,271. Capital, Con-
cepcion.
Entry, the act of entering. In criminal law, in addition
to breaking, entry is necessary to constitute the crime of
burglary, but this need not be with the whole body. If the
hand or any part of the body goes into the building with
intent to commit a felony, it is sufficient; and if only the
instrument intended to be used in the commission of the
crime enters, it is enough to constitute the offence.
In the law of real estate, entry is the taking actual pos-
session of land. A writ of entry was a common-law action,
1611
now disused, to recover the possession of land from one who
wrongfully withheld it. Any going upon the land of an-
other is often termed an entry, and unless done with the
permission of the owner, is in most instances unlawful and
a trespass. -
En’velope [from the Fr. envelopper, to “wrap up,” to
“cover,” “enclose ’’), in geometry, a curve or surface gene-
rated by the repeated intersections of given curves or sur-
faces, whose position, form, and magnitude are allowed to
vary according to some invariable law. A tubular surface
is the envelope generated by a moving sphere of constant
radius; the plane curve is the envelope of its tangent, etc.
Envelopes, for letters, are a comparatively recent de-
velopment of civilization, the demand for them having been
created by cheap postal service. They were at first cut,
folded, and gummed by hand, but the great call for them
stimulated the production of machines for doing the work.
These machines are of various kinds; and, not to specify
the names of the somewhat numerous rival inventors, it
may be remarked that in latter years these machines turn
out surprising numbers of envelopes, and that the quality
of the work is absolutely perfect—very far ahead of what
could be done by hand. Stamped envelopes for letters and
newspapers are issued and sold by nearly all civilized gov-
ernments, but the products of private enterprise are more
generally used.
En’voy [from the Fr. envoyer, to “send” (that is, to
“put or start on the way ”), from em, “in” or “om,” and
voie, “way”], a person sent on any mission, but particu-
larly one sent on business to a foreign court; a diplomatic
minister of the second order; one who is inferior in rank
to an ambassador, and who cannot demand a private au-
dience of the sovereign to whom he is accredited, but must
negotiate with the minister of foreign affairs. Besides the
ordinary envoy, there is a class of diplomatists styled en-
voys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipo-
tentiary, the title of the principal representatives of the
U. S. government at the capitals of the following nations:
Great Britain, France, Russia, Germany, Austria, Italy,
Spain, China, Brazil, Mexico, Peru, and Chili. They rank
next below ambassadors and next above ministers resident.
They are appointed by the President and confirmed by the
Senate. Their salaries are as follows: ministers to Great
Britain and France, each $17,500 annually; to Italy, Peru,
and Chili, $10,000; to the other countries mentioned,
$12,000.
Eny’o [Gr. Evv8], the goddess of war in the Greek my-
thology. (See BELLONA.)
Enz'ina (or Encina), de la (JUAN), a popular. Span-
ish poet, born in Old Castile in 1468. He was patronized
by King Ferdinand V. In 1496 he published a volume
containing several comedies and odes and a poem called a
“Vision of the Temple of Fame.” He is considered the
founder of the Spanish theatre. Among his dramas, which
are remarkable for purity of style and natural imagery, is
“Placida y Victoriano.” He performed a pilgrimage to
Palestine in 1519. Died in 1534. -
Enzio, or Enzo, a natural son of the emperor Fred-
erick II. of Germany, was born about 1224. He fought
for his father against the pope and the Guelphs, and as-
sumed the title of king of Sardinia. Having obtained com-
mand of the imperial fleet, he gained a great Iraval victory
over the Genoese in 1241. In 1249 he was taken prisoner
by the Guelphs, who confined him until his death in 1272.
E/ocene [from the Gr. #6s, “dawn,” and kawós, “re-
cent;” that is, belonging to the dawn of the cenozoic
period], in geology, a term applied to the lower tertiary
strata, and originally suggested by the occurrence in those
strata of a few faint dawnings of living species of fossils.
The term was originally limited by the percentage (3%) of
recent or living to extinct species found in a collection of
older tertiary shells of the Paris basin, but it is now known
that all the eocene species are extinct. The eocene beds
rest on the chalk, and occupy small areas compared with
the older formations. They are generally well developed
in the vicinity of the three great capitals of Western Eu-
rope, London, Paris, and Brussels, each of which is built
on a special tertiary basin of this period. ... They contain
many interesting fossils of vertebrates, mollusks, radiata,
etc. The eocene strata are divided into upper, middle, and
lower eocene. The London clay belongs to the lower di-
VISIOIO .
In America, the eocene strata form a belt of outcrop ex-
tending from New Jersey around, parallel with the Atlantic
and Gulf coasts, to the Mississippi, and are represented in
the interior of the continent by certain estuary and fresh-
water deposits of Wyoming Territory, etc. On the west
coast the eocene has not been distinctly recognized. In
1612
EOLIAN HARP-EPACT.
Eastern America, the eocene strata are divided into the
Claiborne, Jackson, and Vicksburg beds, of which the last
are most recent. They contain numerous fossils, mostly
marine mollusks, but also include some gigantic vertebrates,
as Zeuglodon cetoides, a carnivorous cetacean seventy feet
in length, and Carcharodon megalodon, a shark of which
the teeth are sometimes six inches in length. Leaves and
fruits occur in the eocene at Brandon, Vt., and in Missis-
sippi. Like the flora of the European eocene, they indicate
a tropical or sub-tropical climate. The eocene beds of
Wyoming have furnished the remains of a remarkable group
of mammals, which are thought by Prof. Marsh to form a
new order, which he has named “Dinocerata.” The largest
of these (Dinoceras mirabilis) had the bulk of an elephant,
and was provided with three pairs of horns and a pair of
great sabre-like canine teeth. Many other vertebrate re-
mains from these deposits have been described by Profs.
Marsh and Cope.
Eolian Harp. See AEOLIAN HARP.
Eon de Beaumont, d” (CHARLEs GENEviève Louis
AUGUSTE ANDRf. TIMOTHáE), called Chevalier d’EOm2
a French diplomatist and writer, born at Tonnere Oct. 5,
1728. He was employed in an important mission to Rus-
sia in 1755, and served as captain in the French army in
1759. About 1761 he became minister plenipotentiary in
London, but he was soon deprived of that office by secret
intrigues of his enemies in Paris. He remained as an exile
in England for many years, during which much sensation
was excited by a report that he was a female. He returned
to France in 1777, after which he wore the female dress, in
compliance, it is said, with the order of the king. He died
poor in London May 21, 1810.
Eon (or Eudo) de Stella, a fanatic of the twelfth
century, an ignorant (and perhaps insane) nobleman of
Bretagne, who, having heard, during the act of exorcism,
the words “through Him” (per Ewm, etc., in Latin) “who
will come to judge the quick and dead,” concluded, from
the resemblance between his own name Eon and the Latin
Eum, that he was the one appointed as the final judge of
mankind. He taught a reformed doctrine, and gained many
disciples. He was captured in 1148, and many of his follow-
ers (called Eonians) were burned, but Eon himself was pro-
nounced insane, and seems to have been spared.
E’os [Gr. 'Hôs, the “dawn’], in the Greek mythology,
a daughter of Hyperion, a sister of Helios (the sun), and
the wife of Tithonus. She corresponds to the Latin Au-
rora, the goddess of the morning. (See AURORA.)
Flötvös, or Eoetvoes (Joseph), FREIHERR voN, an emi-
nent Hungarian author and statesman, born at Buda Sept.
3, 1813, was educated at the University of Pesth. About
the age of twenty he produced “Revenge,” a tragedy, and
two successful comedies entitled “The Critics” and “The
Wedding.” His “Carthusian * (1838–41), a novel, was gen-
erally admired. He also gained distinction as a political
writer and orator of the popular party. Among his works
are a political novel entitled “The Village Notary” (1844–
46), which was translated into English, a work on the “Equal
Rights of Nationalities” (1851), and another on “The In-
fluence of the Ideas of the Nineteenth Century” (2 vols.,
1851–54). He was minister of public instruction in 1848,
but he resigned the same year. In 1865 he began to edit a
political paper. In 1867, after the reconciliation between
the Magyars and the emperor of Austria had been effected,
he was again appointed minister of public instruction,
which place he retained until his death. Died Feb. 2, 1871.
Eozo'on [from the Gr. 36s, the “dawn,” and göov, an
“animal,” implying an animal existing at the dawn of
creation], one of the oldest geological representatives of
animal life, a gigantic marine animal whose remains have
been found in the Laurentian rocks of Canada. The Eozoon
Canadense belonged to the Foraminifera, animals of very
low organization, even lower in the scale than sponges. It
had no proper organs, but consisted probably of a jelly-like
mass, having the power of secreting a calcareous shell. It
was doubtless sessile, adding as it grew crust after crust of
chalky matter, probably living on from age to age until it
constituted whole beds of limestone. What are supposed
to be other species of Eozoon have been found in the oldest
rocks of Europe. The organic character of Eozoon is de-
nied by many palaeontologists. **
Epacrida/ceae [from Epo/cris, one of the general, a
natural order of exogenous plants (shrubs and small trees),
mostly natives of Australia, Polynesia, and the Indian Ar-
chipelago. They resemble Ericaceae in many respects, but
differ from them in the structure of the anther, which is 1-
celled and destitute of appendages. The leaves are parallel-
veined and have no midrib. The corolla is generally tubu-
lar; the fruit is in many cases an edible berry, in others a
capsule or drupe. The Lissan'the sap'ida bears an edible
/
fruit, which is called the Australian cranberry. Several
species of Epacris are cultivated in greenhouses for their
very beautiful flowers. This order also comprises the Sphe-
motoma, Lysinema, Styphelia, and many other genera.
E/pact [Gr. 3rakrós, “added,” from épáyo, to “ bring
to "l, the excess of the mean solar month (the twelfth part
of a tropical year) over the mean lunar synodical month, or
mean lunation; that is, inasmuch as the mean lunation is
less than the mean Solar month, the epact is properly the
amount to be added to the former to bring it up, or make
it equal, to the latter. Practically, in the Church calendar,
however, the epact is the number of days which intervene
between the end of the ecclesiastical year in December and
the first day of January succeeding ; or, as it is commonly
expressed, the epact is the age of the moon, estimated in
entire days, at the beginning of the civil year. According
to the definition given first above, it is manifest that the
epact must increase from month to month, but for the pur-
poses of the ecclesiastical calendar this monthly increase is
not considered; the entire increase for each year being Sup-
posed to take place at the end of the year. This calendar
is extremely artificial, the calendar moon being a sort of
fiction of which the periods only approximately correspond
with those of the moon in the heavens; so that the calendar .
months and the true or mean astronomical lunar months
rarely begin or end exactly together. In the reckoning of
the epact the following arbitrary assumptions are made:
1. The mean synodical month is 294 days long (it is, in
fact, 44 minutes 2.84 seconds longer). 2. The lunar year
consists of 12 lunar months, or 354 days. 3. The solar year
is always 365 days (it is really 5 hours 48 minutes 46.05444
Seconds longer). 4. The calendar months are alternately
30 days and 29 days long. Thus, the first day of the second
ecclesiastical month is the 31st of January ; the first day
of the third ecclesiastical month is the 1st of March; of the
fourth, March 31st ; of the fifth, April 29th, and so on.
Thus, the last day of the lunar year is December 20th ; so
that if new moon occurs at the beginning of the civil year
exactly, the epact at the beginning of the next civil year is
11. In another year this epact will be doubled, and become
22; and at the end of a third it will be 33 days, or more
than a month; so that on the 1st of January the moon will
be somewhat advanced in a second lunation. The com-
pleted lunation is counted 30 days, and the epact is thus
reduced to three days at the beginning of the fourth year.
The month thus passed over, or dropped, is called an em-
bolismic month. As the epacts accumulate, six such embo-
lismic months of 30 days each are dropped; and finally we
reach a point where the epact is 29, which we consider to be
a complete embolismic month also, and drop it; so that the
next following year begins with the epact 0, like the first.
This occurs at the end of the nineteenth year, so that in every
cycle of nineteen years the epacts recur in the same order.
All the foregoing assumptions are separately inexact,
but in combination their inaccuracies nearly balance each
other; and accordingly it happens that, at the end of the
nineteen-year cycle, the calendar moon, the true moon, and
the sun occupy almost exactly the same relative places as
at the beginning. That is, supposing the sun and the true
moon to leave some determinate point—say the equinox—
together at the beginning of the cycle, then at the end of
the nineteenth year or the beginning of the twentieth the
Sun will be truly in the equinox again, and the moon very
nearly so, but not quite, being behind by about two hours
and four and a half minutes. In something less than twelve
cycles (about 220 years), therefore, the true moon will have
lost a day on her epact. If the calendar moon lost nothing,
its epact would consequently be too great. But the calendar
moon loses more than the true moon, as will appear from
the following comparison, made for a period of four cycles,
or 76 true astronomical (tropical) years and 940 lunations:
940 calendar lunations, of 29# days each, give......... 27,730 days.
24 embolismic months too long, and 4 too short, add 10 “
19 intercalary days, ignored in the lunar calendar. 19 “
Total days in 4 calendar cycles...................... 27,759.000
{{ “ 940 true lunations 27,758.753
{* “ 76 true years 27,758.407
It thus appears that the calendar moon falls behind the
true moon 0.247 of a day, or nearly 6 hours, in 76 years;
and its epact not only absolutely diminishes, but diminishes
relatively to that of the true moon also. The effect of this
is to cause the successive calendar new moons to occur too
late by an amount slowly but constantly increasing; the in-
crease amounting to one entire day in something more than
4 times 76, or 304 years—more exactly 308 years. No account
of this circumstance was taken, however, for nearly sixteen
centuries after the commencement of our era. At the time
of the reformation of the calendar by Pope Gregory XIII.,
in 1582, the epact had become too small by nearly five days.
It was not this discrepancy, however, which led to the
reformation, though occasion was taken at that time to cor-
EPAMINONDAs.
rect it. The real cause which prompted the action of Pope
Gregory was the observation that, through the error of the
Julian intercalation (of one day in every four years—every
leap-year, as it is called), the adjustment of the months to
the seasons was becoming slowly displaced, the equinox
going backward towards the first of March. At the time
of the Council of Nicaea (A. D. 325) the equinox fell, or was
supposed to fall, on the 21st of March; in 1575 it fell upon
the 11th. A retrogradation of ten days had occurred in
1250 years. Pope Gregory thought it expedient to put back
the equinox again to the 21st, which he could do in no other
way than by adding ten to the count of every day in the
year; and this he accordingly did. It did not matter at
what place in the year the change of count began. He
actually commenced by calling the fourth day of October,
1582, the fourteenth day of that month. This change has
had no other practical effect but to perplex systematic chro-
mology. The displacement of the seasons had not become
so great as to occasion any inconvenience. It was, how-
ever, desirable to provide against any further displacement
for the future; and this part of Pope Gregory's reform is
only to be spoken of in terms of admiration. The Julian
intercalation of one day in every fourth year produces an
error of excess in the calendar year, which by accumulation
amounts to about three-quarters of a day in a century, or
three days in every four centuries. The intercalary day is,
therefore, in the Gregorian system, omitted in the centurial
years which are not multiples of 400, and retained in those
which are. The dropping of an intercalary day has the
effect to make the succeeding year begin a day sooner than
it otherwise would, and it therefore diminishes the moon’s
epact by the same amount. The Gregorian correction of
the civil year accordingly requires a reduction of the epact
by three days in every four hundred years. If the epact,
as it had been previously reckoned, had been truly adjusted
to the astronomical year, this correction would be all that
would be necessary to keep it permanently right. But in
point of fact the Julian intercalation made the mean year
too long, in reference to the moon, by about six hours in 76
years, or one day in 304 years (if the more exact numbers
are taken, one day in 308 years), making the epact corre-
spondingly too great. The principal mathematician em-
ployed on the calendar by Pope Gregory, Christopher Cla-
vius, made the period 31.2% years, which would give eight
days in 2500 years. To correct the epact to the Julian year,
therefore, it is necessary to add to it eight days in every
twenty-five centuries; and to correct it from the Julian to
the true year, it is necessary to subtract three days in every
four centuries. In 100 centuries the epact is accordingly
increased by 32 days, and diminished by 75 days, the diminu-
tion amounting on the whole to 43 days. The larger of
these corrections, called the solar, which is subtractive, is
applied of course in each non-bissextile centurial year. The
smaller has to be applied at periods regulated by arbitrary
rule. As 25 is not divisible by 8 without a remainder, the
intervals between the corrections cannot be entirely uniform.
There are seven intervals of three centuries each, and an
eighth of four centuries. The first application of this cor-
rection after the promulgation of the Gregorian reforma-
tion was made in 1800, which century was assumed to end
one of the periods of twenty-five. The correction is to be
made at the end of every third century after 1800, until
3900, after which it will be deferred till the year 4300. In
the Church Prayer-Book, at the end of the introductory
matter relating to the calendar, there are three tables called
General ; of which the second embraces the resultant effect
of these corrections of the epact up to the end of the eighty-
fifth century, when the correction amounts to one entire
embolismic month of thirty days. -
The use of the epact of the year in the calendar of Pope
Gregory was to lead to the determination of paschal full
moon, and so, by consequence, of Easter. (See EASTER.)
The epact being the age of the moon in entire days at the
beginning of the (lunar) month, the place of new moon in
March would be found by counting backward from the 30th
of March (which we have seen to be the last day of the third
lunar month), including this 30th day itself in the count,
a number of days equal to the epact. The date in March
thus found is the first day of the moon, and thirteen days
more added bring us to the fourteenth; the day of March
thus found will be the date of paschal full moon, unless it
happens to be less than the 21st. In this latter case we
must go to the month of April, and count backward from
the end of the fourth lunar month, which is April 29th.
To facilitate this counting backward, or to make actual
counting unnecessary, Clavius introduced a row of numeral
letters into the calendar page opposite the days of the
month, in reversed order, I. being opposite March 30, and
XXX., or 0, standing opposite March 1. This is extended
through all the months in the year, as in the following illus-
tration, which presents the months of March and April only:
on the same day of the month.
1613
.# MARCH § ; APRIL. É
§ 3 Epact S; § # Epact. *
1 0, or XXX D 1 XXIX. G
2 XXIX. E 2 XXVIII. A.
3 XXVIII F 3 XXVII B
4 VII . G. 4 XXVI., 25 C
5 XXVI., 25 A 5 XXIV., XXV D
6 XXV. B 6 XXIII. E
7 XXIV C 7 XXII. F
8 XXIII D 8 XXI. G
9 XXII E 9 XX. A.
10 XXI. F. 10 XIX. B
11 XX. G- 11 XVIII. C
12 XIX. A. 12 XVII D
13 XVIII B 13 XVI. E
14 XVII C 14 XV. F
15 XVI D 15 XIV G.
16 XV E 16 XIII A.
17 XIV F. 17 XII B
18 XIII G. 18 XI. C
19 XII A. 19 X. D
20 XI. B 20 IX. E
21 Y. C 21 VIII F
22 IX. D 22 VII G.
23 VIII E 23 VI. A.
24 VII F 24 V. R
25 VI. G. 25 IV. C
26 V. A. 26 III HD
27 IV. B 27 II. F.
28 III C 28 I. F
29 II. D 29 0, or XXX. G.
30 I. E 30 XXIX. A.
31 0, or XXX. F

In this little table one peculiarity will attract attention.
Though the third lunar month has thirty days, and the
fourth only twenty-nine, yet each has thirty epact numbers.
There seemed to be a necessity for this; otherwise, when the
epact is XXIX. it would be equivalent to zero in the short
months (the hollow months as they were called), but not so
in the full months. The epacts XXIV, and XXV. are there-
fore placed opposite the same day. During the same cycle
three consecutive numbers like XXIV., XXV., and XXVI.
will never all be found among the epacts. When XXIV. and
XXV. are both present, XXVI. will be absent; and in that
case XXV. is transferred to the place of XXVI., as indi-
cated by the Arabic numeral 25 opposite that epact. Thus,
notwithstanding this duplication, two epacts will never fall,
(For a more full explana-
tion of this matter, see the little treatise by the Writer of
this article, entitled “How to Find the Church Festivals.”)
The use of epacts for finding paschal full moon and
Easter is not very convenient. The simple rules given in
the article on EASTER in this volume will be found much
more so. But this is a suitable place to explain how to
find the value of the numerical term proper to be used in
calculating the date of paschal full moon in the article re-
ferred to. The General Table II. of the Prayer-Book,
above spoken of, contains the resultant corrections of the
epact for all the centuries from 1600 to 8500. From 1600 to
1700 this correction was zero. From 1700 to 1800, and
further from 1800 to 1900, it is 1; and in Subsequent cen-
turies it goes on, somewhat irregularly, to increase. Now,
the numerical term in the formula given in the article
EASTER for computing the date of paschal full moon (when
the golden number is odd) is at present 10, from 1600 to
1700 was 9, and after 1900 will be 11. It is, in short, always
9, increased by the correction of the epact found in the
General Table II. just mentioned; which for convenience
we may call the secular correction of the epact. And an
extremely simple rule for finding this numerical term is the
following: From the number of the centuries in the given
year of our Lord take its fourth part and its third part (dis-
Žegarding fractions), and increase the result by Two. . This
is true up to 4200. But in that year and the centuries fol-
lowing, up to 6700, the number of the century must be
diminished by one before taking the third part. . In other
respects the rule remains unaltered. In 6700 and the cen-
turies following, up to 9200, the number of the century
must be diminished by two before taking the third part.
In 9200, and up to 11,700, the rule is the same as given at
first, except that the result is to be increased by three
instead of two. The Gregorian calendar will, however, itself
require correction before the year 4000. As an example,
let it be required to find the numerical term for the compu-
tation of paschal full moon during the century beginning
with 4100 and ending with 4200. Putting S for this term, we
have S = 41–4 (41) — (41) + 2 = 41 – 10 – 13 + 2 = 20.
In General Table II. of the Prayer-Book we find opposite
to 4100 the number II. And 11 + 9 = 20, thus verifying the
statement made above. F. A. P. BARNARD.
Epaminon’das [Gr. 'Etraustvávöas or 'Etrap.tvövôas], an
illustrious Greek statesman and general, born at Thebes
about 418 B. C. He was a pupil of Lysis, a Pythagorean
1614
lººp. His youth was passed in retirement and study.
e was temperate and virtuous, and is said to have de-
spised riches. He formed an intimate friendship with
Pelopidas. In 385 he served with distinction at the battle
of Mantinea, after which he passed many years in private
life. He was one of the deputies sent by Thebes in 371 B. C.
to a congress of the Grecian states, in which he opposed
the policy of Sparta and defended the interest and rights of
Thebes in an eloquent speech. War speedily ensued be-
tween Sparta and Thebes, and Epaminondas was chosen
commander of the Theban army, which amounted to only
6500 men. He defeated the Spartans in 371 B. C. at the
battle of Leuctra, which was fatal to the supremacy of
Sparta. In this action he displayed great military genius,
and owed his success partly to his novel manoeuvres and
combinations. He invaded Peloponnesus in 369, and
marched against Sparta, which was defended with success
by Agesilaus. He commanded the Theban army which
defeated the Spartans at Mantinea in 363 B.C. (or, as some
say, 362), but he was killed in this action. He left a pure
and exalted reputation as a patriot, a statesman, and a
sage, and is universally admitted to have been one of the
greatest captains of antiquity. Cicero expressed the opin-
ion that Epaminondas was the greatest man that Greece
has produced. (See CoRNELIUS NEPOs, “Epaminondas;”
GROTE, “History of Greece,” chaps. lxviii., lxix., and lxxx.;
E. BAUCH, “Epaminondas und Theben's Kampf um die
Hegemonie,” 1834.)
Epanome’ria, a town at the N. W. point of the island
of Santorini (Thera) in the Grecian Archipelago. The
houses are partly excavated in the face of a cliff of pozzu-
olana, which is nearly perpendicular and is close to the sea.
The lowest of fifteen tiers of houses is about 400 feet above
the sea.' -
Ep/arch [Gr. Šmapxos, from émi, “upon ’’ or “over,” and
āpx?, “government’’], in ancient Greece the title of the
governor of a province, a ship’s master, a satrap, or the
prefect of a region under the Roman rule. The province
itself was called an eparchy. In modern Greece the primary
subdivision of a nomarchy is called an eparchy. In Russia.
an eparchy is the diocese or archdiocese of a bishop or arch-
bishop of the Greek Church. -
Epaulement [Fr., from epaule, “shoulder”], a mil-
itary term which, from its derivation, would signify, as de-
fined by Webster, a side work, a work to cover sidewise—
e.g. a traverse, or a short parapet made at the flank of a
battery or end of a parallel; but practically its meaning is
extended to any covering made of earth, stone, wood, or
iron, when intended simply as a screen—e.g. to cover cav-
alry waiting to be brought into action. (See MAHAN, “Mil-
itary Engineering.”)
Epaulette, an ornamental article of uniform of military
and naval officers, worn on the shoulders, as the name indi-
cates; a plate or strap extending along the shoulder from
near the collar, and terminating with a fringe of gold or silver
bullion, which falls over the shoulder. Rank is indicated
by the size of the bullion and by devices on the strap, such
as stars, anchors, crowns, etc. In the American army the
epaulette, hitherto worn by officers of all grades (as still in
the navy), is now confined to general officers, its place be-
ing supplied, for the lower grades, by the “shoulder-knot ”
of gift cord. The practice varies in the different services
of Europe.
E^pe, a town of the Netherlands, province of Guelder-
land. Pop. in 1867, 7705.
Epée, de I” (CHARLEs MICHEL), ABBá, a French teacher
of the deaf and dumb, was born at Versailles Nov. 25, 1712.
He was a Jansenist preacher, and for some time canon at
Troyes. About 1755 he began to devote himself to the
gratuitous instruction of the deaf and dumb. He is said to
have been the first who used gestures or the language of
signs in their education, on which subject he wrote several
treatises. He founded in Paris an institution which was
successful. Died Dec. 23, 1789.
Epeirus. See EPIRUs.
Epei'ra [from the Gr. ºrt, “on,” “ together” and eipo,
to “fasten’], a genus of spiders belonging to the Epeiridae,
are distinguished for the brilliancy of their colors and the
geometric regularity of their webs, which are formed by
concentric circles and straight radii. Epeira diadema is a
large species found in Great Britain. These spiders are
very numerous in tropical countries, where they grow to
great size. Several species occur in the U. S.
Eperies, ā'për-yésh or ā'pá-re-ésh, or Heperjes
[Lat. Eperiae or Fragopolis], an old town of Hungary, the
capital of the county of Saros, is on the river Tarcza, about
148 miles N. E. of Pesth. It is surrounded by walls, and
is one of the most beautiful towns of Upper Hungary. It
is a bishop’s see, has five churches, a college, and manufac-
EPANOMERIA—EPHEMERIS.
tures of linens, woollen goods, and earthenware. A royal
salt-mine is worked in the vicinity. Pop. in 1869, 10,772.
Epernay, à'péR'nā’ [Lat. Aquae Perennes], a town of
France, in the department of Marne, on the river Marne,
about 80 miles E. by N. from Paris. It is on the railway
from Paris to Chalons, 20 miles W. N. W. of the latter. It
is well built, clean and well paved, and has a town-hall and
a public library. Here are manufactures of hosiery, earth-
enware, and refined sugar; also many elegant villas, with
wine-vaults. Epernay is a great entrepôt or market for
champagne wine, which is produced in the vicinity. Pop.
11,704.
Eperſua, a genus of trees of the order Leguminosae, one
species of which (Eperwa falcata), called wallaba, is abun-
dant in Guiana. Its hard, durable, heavy, resinous tim-
ber, which is of a bright red-brown color, with white veins,
is much used for shingles. The tree has pinnate leaves
and a regular monopetalous flower.
E’phah, a Hebrew measure of capacity containing 27.83
pints, or three English pecks and three pints.
Ephem’ era [from the Gr. ºuepos, “lasting for a day”
(from étt, “on” or “for,” and huépa, a “ day ”)], a genus
of neuropterous insects, commonly called day-fly or may-fly,
are allied to the dragon-flies or Libellulidae. In the larva
and pupa states they live a year or more in the water, but
their existence in the perfect state is very brief. They are
used by anglers as bait. They give name to the family
Ephemeridae, of which many species occur in the U. S.
Ephem’eris [Gr. ºnwepts, a “ diary,” from étri, “on”
or “for,” and huépa, a “ day ”I, Astronomical Ephem •
eris, Nautical Almanac. Ephemeris and almanac
are chiefly applied to two distinct classes of publications.
An almanac is usually an annual which gives a calendar
of the civil and ecclesiastical divisions of the year, with
the dates of festivals and fasts and other days of special
commemoration, and for each day or some longer interval
the times of passing the meridian and of the rising and
setting of the sun, moon, and principal planets, and their
places in the zodiac, together with the phases of the moon
and the times of eclipses and other important astronomical
phenomena. With these is combined a variety of other
matter, according to the special object of the publication.
The astronomical tables which almanacs contain are ordi-
marily given with little precision, and are for the most part
adapted only to a particular latitude. Such tables are
said to have been constructed even in the time of Ptolemy.
They were indispensable to the astrologers of later days,
who doubtless had them for finding the positions of the
planets at some future or past date, compiled with suffi-
cient accuracy to make their prognostications.
Since the invention of printing, almanacs have appeared
in large numbers in every part of the civilized world. They
supplied an extensive popular demand, but added to the
real information which they contained astrological and
meteorological predictions, and other matter much more
objectionable. &
The “British Almanac,” published by the Society for
the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, for the year 1828, in-
troduced a decided reform in this class of works. And
now there are many, and in all civilized countries, which
contain valuable statistics of various kinds and essays on
various subjects, such as are adapted to the classes of
readers for which each may be specially designed. Some
of them have a permanent value as works of reference.
The “Tidal Almanac * of the U. S. Coast Survey is an ex-
ample of a special class.
An ephemeris of a fixed star is a table of its apparent
right ascension and declination at equal intervals of time.
An ephemeris of a primary body of the solar system gives
for each day, or for some regular longer or shorter interval,
its direction and distance from the earth or sun, or both.
The apparent semi-diameter, horizontal parallax, phases,
and degree of brilliancy may also be given at stated inter-
vals. The ephemerides of satellites give their positions
with reference to their primaries, with their occultations,
eclipses, and transits.
Observations furnish the data for computing the elements
of a planet's orbit, and the ephemeris is prepared either
directly from these elements or from tables derived from
them, constructed to facilitate computations, and in which
the attractions of other bodies are taken into account. The
places of the planet tabulated in the ephemeris, whether
for past or future times, may readily be compared with
those derived from observations; and thus, as observations
accumulate, the astronomer may determine more accurately
the planet's orbit, and by a new and more trustworthy
ephemeris again subject the theory of its motion to the
test of observations. The history of astronomy furnishes
an instructive example of the alternate improvement in the
means and methods of observation, and the advance of
EPHESIANS, THE EPISTLE OF SAINT PAUL TO THE-EPHIALTES.
1615
theory and Scientific knowledge. At one time observations
are more precise than theory; at another, the theory of the
motions of a heavenly body may give its position more
accurately than any single observation. It has been by
such successive advances, alternately in theory and in the
precision of observations, that practical astronomy has
attained its present approximation to perfect accuracy.
Tables of some of the planets are extended to several cen-
turies in the future, with full confidence that an astronomer
of those remote times will find them not only within the
field of his telescope, but near its centre.
An astronomical ephemeris is a collection of such ephem-
erides for a particular year or series of years, with the
times of eclipses, occultations, and other astronomical phe-
nomena, or the means of determining them. The more
complete works of this kind are intended to furnish the
astronomical observer, whether at an observatory, in the
field of a survey, or at sea, with all the data relating to the
Sun, moon, planets, and some of the principal fixed stars,
which he needs to facilitate the prosecution of his work.
From the design of some of them, and the special adap-
tation of portions to the wants of navigators, they are also
called “nautical almanacs.”
Although prepared for a particular meridian, they can
readily be adapted to any other by interpolating for the
difference of longitude or of the local times of the two
meridians.
stricted to any part of the earth.
The earliest astronomical ephemeris noticed in astronom-
ical bibliographies is that of Iarchus in 1150; the first
printed ephemerides were published in 1475 for the years
1475 to 1506, and in 1499 for the years 1475 to 1531, though
doubtless portions were prepared earlier; both were pre-
pared by Regionontanus. The latter extends through
three cycles of nineteen years, and gives the longitudes of
the Sun and moon, and the phases of the moon and of
eclipses occurring from 1483 to 1530, with explanations. and
useful tables. These have been the precursors of a succes-
sion of ephemerides, defective at first, but improving as
astronomy advanced.
The “Connaissance des temps ou des mouvements cé-
lestes,” commenced by Picard for the year 1679, has ap-
peared for each succeeding year, without interruption, to
the present time. Additions and improvements were made
by La Lande in 1760, who subsequently added lunar dis-
tances, with the design of making it more useful at sea.
This and almost all the subsequent volumes have been en-
riched by valuable memoirs by the most eminent French
astronomers, thus carrying out the purpose of La Lande to
make this annual a journal of astronomy. For many years
it has been prepared under the direction of the Bureau des
Longitudes of France. Improvements have been made in
it from time to time by the use of more precise tables in
its preparation. At present it is under the immediate su-
pervision of M. Mathieu, and is among the most valuable
of this class of works.
The “Nautical Almanac and Astronomical Ephemeris,”
published by the British Admiralty, was commenced by
Maskelyne for the year 1767. He undertook its prepara-
tion, after a plan sketched by La Caille, for the purpose
of meeting the wants of navigators, and especially of sup-
plying facilities for using the method of finding the longi-
tude by the distance of the moon from the sum or a star,
which Halley had proposed in 1731. Mayer's new tables
of the moon for the first time gave the moon’s place with
sufficient precision to make this method available. The
successive annual volumes have been issued, usually three
years in advance, to the present time. It was not until
1834 that it came up to the requirements of an astronomical
ephemeris. Other improvements and additions have since
been made. Under its present superintendent, Mr. J. R.
Hind, new tables of the sun, moon, and all but two of the
planets have been introduced, so that it has no superior
either as an astronomical ephemeris or an almanac for the
use of navigators. Many of its volumes contain valuable con-
tributions to practical astronomy by English astronomers."
The “Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch" first appeared
for the year 1776, and has been continued by Bode, Encke,
and its present superintendent, Prof. Foerster, without in-
terruption. It was mainly designed to supply the wants
of astronomers, though those of the navigator were not
overlooked. As an astronomical ephemeris it was in ad-
vance of all others until the later improvements in its
British contemporary. Its volumes contain valuable as-
tronomical memoirs from many of the most distinguished
German astronomers. Of later years it has contained
ephemerides of most of the asteroids.
The preparation of the “American Ephemeris and Nau-
tical Almanac ’’ was begun in 1849, under the superintend-
ence of Lieutenant (now Rear-Admiral) Davis, U. S. navy,
in accordance with an act of the Congress of the U. S. The
Their use, therefore, is general, and not re-
theoretical portions of the work were placed under the spe-
cial direction of Prof. Benjamin Pierce of Harvard Uni-
versity. The construction of tables of the moon and of
some of the planets, with corrected elements and in a form
which would facilitate the computation of their ephemer-
ides, was first undertaken, and so successfully accomplish-
cd that from its commencement the “American Epheme-
ris” has ranked among the highest works of this class in
extent, completeness, and adaptation to the wants of
astronomers and navigators. The first volume was for
1855. In the preparation of later volumes new and more
accurate tables of the sun and planets (except Jupiter and
Saturn) have been employed. Several of its volumes con-
tain valuable papers by American astronomers.
It consists of two parts—the first arranged specially for
the use of navigators, and computed for the meridian of
Greenwich; the other prepared for astronomers, and
adapted to the meridian of Washington. The first part
is also published separately. Tables of the moon, Mercury,
Venus, the standard stars, and four asteroids have also
been published. The preparation of ephemerides of twenty-
three asteroids discovered by American astronomers has
also been undertaken.
Prof. Joseph Winlock, U. S. navy, now director of Har-
vard Observatory, succeeded Admiral Davis in the charge of
the work; in 1866 it was placed under the direction of the
writer of this article. The successive volumes have ap-
peared for each year without interruption, and that for
1876 was published in Sept., 1873. Several of them con-
tain valuable memoirs. The continuance of the work is
dependent upon annual appropriations by Congress.
- - - J. H. C. COFFIN.
Ephe’sians, The Epistle of Saint Paul to the,
was written probably in the year 61 or 62, during the apos-
tle's first imprisonment at Rome, and shortly after the
Epistle to the Colossians. The words āv Edéa.g., “at Ephe-
sus ” (i. 1), are wanting in the “Codex Sinaiticus” and some
other manuscripts, but the weight of diplomatic evidence
on the whole preponderates in their favor. The absence
of personal greetings is not so easily explained. It is one
of the richest and most glowing of the Pauline Epistles.
The first three chapters are doctrinal ; the last three, horta-
tory and practical. Of the many commentaries which have
been written, those of Harless (German), 1834–58, and
Eadie (Scotch), 1854, are among the best.
Eph’esus [Gr. "Eóegos; Fr. Ephèsel, an important an-
cient Greek city of Asia Minor, in Lydia, on the river Cay-
ster near its entrance into the sea, 35 miles S. S. E. of
Smyrna. It was one of the twelve Ionian cities, and had
several ancient names, among which were Samorna and Or-
tygia. The name of Ephesus does not occur in the Homeric
poems. According to Strabo, it was founded by Androclus,
a son of Codrus. It passed successively under the dominion
of the kings of Lydia and those of Persia. The Spartan.
general Lysander entered in 407 B. C. the port of Ephesus
with a fleet, and defeated the Athenians at Notium near
Ephesus. Here was a famous temple of Diana (Artemis),
which was one of the Seven Wonders of the World, and was
burned by Herostratus in 356 B. C. It was rebuilt with
greater splendor, but 220 years passed before the new tem-
ple was finished. It was a marble edifice of the Ionic order,
425 feet long by 225 feet wide, and was adorned with 127
columns sixty feet high. This was the largest of all the
Greek temples, and was embellished by numerous works of
eminent sculptors and painters. It was nearly destroyed
by the Goths in 280 A. D. Ephesus was an important
commercial city. Strabo, who lived in the reign of Au-
gustus, states that it was in his time “the greatest place of
trade of all the cities of Asia west of Mount Taurus.”
Ephesus was the place where the Romans usually landed
when they visited Asia. The apostle Paul passed three
years in this city, where he planted a church. In the book
of Revelations the church of Ephesus is placed first among
the seven churches of Asia. It was the native place of
Parrhasius the painter, of Hipponax the poet, of Callinus;
and of Heraclitus and Hermodorus, eminent philosophers.
The third general council of the Church was held here in 431
A. D. During the reigns of the Christian emperors of the
East, Ephesus was styled “the first and greatest metropolis
of Asia.” The site is now occupied by a village called
Ayasalook, and remains of a large theatre, a stadium 687
feet long, and other ruins. The disappearance of so large
a mass as the temple of Diana can only be explained by the
fact that the materials have been carried away for modern
buildings. (See FALKENER's work on Ephesus, 1862.)
Ephial/tes [Gr. ‘EówáArms; Fr. Ephialte], an Athenian
statesman and general, was a friend of Pericles. He was
the chief promoter of a law which reduced the power of the
Areopagus and converted the government into a pure dem-
ocracy. He was assassinated by the aristocrats in 456 B. C.
1616
EPHIALTES—EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY.
Ephial/tes, the name of a famous giant in the Greek
mythology, said to have been a son of Neptune.
Ephiaites [Fr. cauchemar; Lat. in/cwbus], a name for
nightmare, an affection consisting of horrid dreams, with a
sensation of pressure upon the body and of unavailing efforts
to run away and cry for help.
Eph’od [from the Heb. aphad, to “put on ”], a Jewish
robe or tunic worn originally by the high priest; afterwards
by all priests. It was made of fine linen. The ephod of
the high priest had a breastplate attached to it containing
twelve precious stones, on which were engraved the names
of the twelve tribes. The relation of these twelve stones to
the Urim and Thummim is still an open question.
Eph/ori, or Eph’ors [Gr. (bopov (sing. Édopos, from
girl, “on” or “over,” and 6páo, to “see”); Lat. ephorij, the
title of magistrates common to many of the Dorian states
of ancient Greece. In the political constitution of Sparta
the ephors exercised supreme power. The Spartan ephors
were five in number, and were elected from the body of the
ruling caste. Their term of office was one year. Besides
their judicial authority, they exercised a control over the
functions of the kings and the Senate, and sometimes, re-
called the former from their foreign expeditions. They
negotiated treaties with foreign states, and possessed nearly
all the executive power of the government.
Eph’orus [Gr. "Eóopos], an eminent Greek historian who
flourished about 380–340 B.C., was a pupil of Isocrates the
orator. He wrote a general history of Greece and the Bar-
barians from the siege of Troy to 340 B. C., which is not
extant. It was esteemed a valuable work. gºt
E/phraem (or Ephraim) THE SYRIAN [Lat. Ephrae'-
mus Sy’rus], a celebrated ecclesiastic and writer, born at
Nisibis, in Asia, Minor. He was a young man when he
attended the Council of Nice in 325 A. D. He was a zeal-
ous opponent of Arianism, became a hermit or anchorite
in the prime of life, and lived in a cave near Edessa. He
was venerated as a saint and a prophet by his contempo-
raries, and received the offer of the bishopric of Edessa,
but he declined it. He wrote in Syriac numerous religious
works, among which are hymns and commentaries on Scrip-
ture. Died about 378 A. D. His works were published in
Syriac and Greek at Rome by the Assemani, in 6 vols.,
1732–46. A German translation of a selection of his works
was published by Zingerle (6 vols., 1830–37).
E/phraim, one of the Hebrew patriarchs, was the
second son of Joseph, and the head or founder of one of
the twelve tribes of Israel. The territory of the tribe of
Ephraim extended from the river Jordan to the Mediterra-
nean Sea, and was bounded on the N. by Manasseh and on
the S. by Benjamin and Dan; and was about 55 miles from
E. to W. by 70 from N. to S.
Ephraim City, a post-village of San Pete co., Ut., 8
miles N. N. E. of Manti.
Ephraſta, a post-township of Lancaster co., Pa. Pop.
2695. In the eighteenth century Ephrata was for a long
time the centre of a religious denomination called the
Seventh-Day German Baptists. Ephrata Springs are a
pleasant summer resort for health and pleasure.
Eph/ratah [Heb. “fruitful”], the grandmother of Caleb
the spy (1 Chron. ii. 19, 50), and the ancient name of Beth-
lehem (Gen. xxxv. 19), the birthplace of Christ (Mic. v. 2;
Matt. ii. 6). -
Ephraſtah, a post-township of Fulton co., N. Y. It
has manufactures of leather. Pop. 2207. *
Ep’ic [from the Gr. eros, a “word,” also a “narrative”
or “tale”], relating to epic poetry; also an epic poem.
(See EPIC PoHTRY.)
Ep’icarp [from the Gr. &mt, “upon,” and kapirós, “fruit”),
in botany, the outermost layer of the pericarp or fruit. When
the walls are separable into three layers, the outer layer is
named either exocarp or epicarp.
Epichar/mus [Gr. Erixoppos], an eminent Greek poet
and philosopher, born in the island of Cos about 540 B.C.,
was a pupil of Pythagoras. He removed about 485 B. C.
to Syracuse, where he passed the greater part of his ma-
ture life. According to Aristotle, he was the inventor of
comedy. Plato assigns him as high a rank among comic
writers as that of Homer among epic poets. Epicharmus
wrote, besides dramas, treatises on philosophy, mythology,
etc. He appears to have been an original genius and ele-
gant writer. His works are not extant. Died about 450
B. C. (See O. MüLLER, “The Dorians;” HARLEss, “De
Epicharmo,” 1822.)
Ep’ic Po’etry, or The Ep’os, is that class of poetry
which relates the history of a series of events, taking the
series as a whole, apart from what precedes or follows. Epic
poetry is chiefly of a narrative nature, and represents the
subject of which it treats as a unit, with a definite begin-
ning and an end. In a wider sense, epic poetry comprises
the ballad, the romance, and even the fable, but in its more
limited use it may simply denote the popular legends and
tales of a nation or tribe which have been collected and ar-
ranged. Of the Greek epics, two only, the “Iliad” and the
“Odyssey,” have come down to us, and the study of these
has helped us very much to understand the true nature of
the epic. Until the close of the last century, Homer was
regarded as the original author of these epics. But in 1795
F. A. Wolf, a learned German philologist, broached the
theory that the poems of Homer were not the work of one,
but of many poets. In fact, they appear to be, to some
extent at least, a collection of Greek legends and tales, ar-
ranged (as is now generally admitted) by the master-mind
of a great poetic genius. A similar origin must be predi-
cated for the Hindoo epics “Rāmāyana” and “Mahābhā-
rata,” the “Shah Nameh” of the Persian Firdousee, the
Finnish “Kalevala,” and the German “Nibelungen.”
From the manner in which it originated, the nature of
the epic is easily deduced. As the poetical summation of the
popular legends of a race or tribe, in which all the thoughts
and feelings of the race are depicted, it must embody the
peculiarities of the nation, and must be a complete and true
picture of the life and doings of a race. Thus it is that in the
same nation different epics may exist. While, for instance,
the “Iliad” is a collection of the war-legends of the Greeks,
the “Odyssey” treats of the family life and travels on land
and on sea. But as the epic must be such a complete picture,
and must be, in contrast to the former legends, a complete
whole, it takes from the primitive history of the nation a
prominent fact as a central figure, and groups around this
the single legends; and this centre is only the frame which
holds together the single, otherwise unconnected, legends.
This form of an epic is only possible in the early youth
of a nation, when the legends still circulate among the
people and are believed by them. But there have never-
theless been attempts at epics in later times, which have
been the work of a single poet. This is the difference be-
tween Virgil and Homer. Among the more prominent epic
poets of modern times are Dante, Ariosto, Tasso, Camoens,
Milton, and Klopstock. But the more practical and prosaic
the world becomes, the more this form of poetry will dis-
appear, and it is only a romantic or a comic epic, like By-
ron’s “ Don Juan,” that will be successful in these days,
while the novel takes the place of the epic. (See ZIMMER-
MANN, “Ueber den Begriff des Epos,” 1848.)
Epicte’tus [Gr.’Eirikrºtos; Fr. Epictete; Ger. Epiktet;
It. Epitetto], an eminent Stoic philosopher, born at Hier-
apolis, in Phrygia, about 60 A. D. . He was in his youth a
slave of Epaphroditus, a favorite of the emperor Nero, and
lived at Rome. He became a freedman, and was banished
with other philosophers from Rome by Domitian in 89 A.D.,
after which he lived at Nicopolis in Epirus. He was a man
of excellent moral character, and acquired a high reputa-
tion as a teacher of philosophy, but he wrote little if any-
thing. His temper and doctrines were less austere than
those of most other Stoics, and were essentially Christian
in their nature. It does not appear, however, that he had
any connection with the Christian Church, or that he was
a believer in the mysteries of that religion. Among his
favorite maxims was “Suffer and abstain.” His disciple
Arrian collected his maxims and doctrines in a work called
“Enchiridion,” which has been translated into English by
Mrs. Carter (1758), and by T. W. Higginson (1865). (See
RITTER, “History of Philosophy;”. G. BoILEAU, “Wie
d'Epictete et sa Philosophie,” 1655, in English by J.
DAVIES, 1670; FARRAR, “Seekers after God,” 1869.
Epicure'an Philosſophy, a system of philosophical
teaching which took its name from Epicurus (337–270 B.C.),
its founder. It originated in a reaction against the teach-
ings of Socrates and his followers. Throughout the period
of Greek decline and the last ages of republican Rome it
exercised a profound influence, which was perpetuated
through the days of the Roman empire, in spite of the op-
position of Stoicism and of Christianity. It is a remark-
able fact that it always remained substantially as Epicurus
left it. -
The writings of Epicurus are lost, with the exception of
fragments chiefly preserved by Cicero, Seneca, and Diog-
enes Laertius, but the sublime poem of Lucretius, “De Re-
rum Natură,” is an exposition of the teachings of Epicurus.
In theology, Epicureanism was essentially atheism. The
gods were eternal, immutable, and entirely unconscious of
human affairs. Human responsibility for Wrong-doing was
consequently reduced to the minimum. The highest positive
duty was made to be the pursuit of pleasure—not neces.
sarily sensual enjoyment, for Epicurus himself taught that
repose was the highest pleasure. Whatever the virtues of
Epicurus may have been, the results of his system of ethics
were thoroughly bad. The moral corruption of ancient Greece
EPICURUS—EPIDEMIC.
1617
and Rome was in part the fruit of this system. The genial
temper, the elegant habits of life, and the moral indifference
exhibited in the writings of Horace were among the least
objectionable of the effects of the widespread Epicuream
teachings. It is not too much to assert that Epicureanism
produced not one thoroughly admirable characterin ancient
history. -
The physical doctrine taught by Epicurus and Lucretius
was not unlike that of certain modern evolutionists. They
held that matter is uncreated, indestructible, and that all
material things were self-evolved, without a supervising or
directing Intelligence. (See LUCRETIUs, “De Rerum Na-
turä;” GAssENDI, “Syntagma Philosophiae Epicuri;” and
HENNE’s article “Epicure” in the “Dictionnaire des Sci-
ences Philosophiques.”) -
Epicu'rus [Gr. Emikovpos], a celebrated Greek philos-
opher, the founder of the Epicurean sect, was born in the
island of Samos in 337 (or, as some say, 341) B. C. He was
a son of Neocles, an Atheniam, and is said to have been a pu-
pil of Xenocrates, but he professed to be self-taught. He
visited Athens at the age of eighteen, afterwards travelled in
Ionia, and opened a school at Mitylene, where he taught new
doctrines. About the year 306 he removed to Athens, where
he purchased a garden and founded a celebrated school of
philosophy. He was very popular as a teacher, and gained
a great number of disciples. He recognized pleasure as the
chief good, and consequently was calumniated by the Sto-
ics, but it appears that his habits were temperate and vir-
tuous. His physical philosophy was based on the atomic
theory of Democritus. He treated ethics as the most im-
portant department of philosophy, and studied nature with
an ethical rather than a scientific purpose. He opposed
the popular superstition, and refused to recognize the gods
of the Greek mythology, but taught that the gods live in a
state of passionless tranquillity, and give no attention to
sublunary affairs, which they consider beneath their notice.
Epicurus took no part in political affairs. He wrote nume-
rous works on ethics, natural philosophy, etc., which are not
extant, but several of his letters have been preserved by
Diogenes Laertius. His opponents admitted that he was
personally amiable and virtuous. Our knowledge of his
doctrines is derived chiefly from the works of Cicero and
Lucretius, who in his poem “De Rerum Naturâ " amply
illustrates his philosophy, and expresses great admiration
of Epicurus. Among the eminent men who favored Epicu-
rean principles were Horace, Atticus, Gassendi, Rousseau,
and Voltaire. Died in 270 B.C. (See GAssENDI, “De
Vita et Moribus Epicuri,” 1647; RITTER, “History of
Philosophy;” G. H. LEWEs, “Biographical History of
Philosophy.”)
Ep'icycle [from the Gr. 3ri, “upon,” and kūkaos, a
“circle”], in ancient astronomy, a circle haying its centre
moving along the circumference of another circle. It was
a favorite opinion of the Greek astronomers that all the
celestial motions must be uniform and circular, because the
circle is the most perfect of plane figures. The phenomena
of the stations and retrogradations of the planets were ap-
parently inconsistent with this notion; and in order to ex-
plain them, Apollonius of Perga imagined the theory of
epicycles and deferents. He supposed every planet to move
uniformly in the small circle or epicycle, the centre of which
is carried uniformly forward along the circumference of the
large circle or deferent, of which the earth occupies the
centre. Hipparchus, having discovered the eccentricity
of the solar orbit, supposed the motions to be performed
in eccentric circles. The celebrated astronomer Ptolemy
adopted the hypotheses both of Apollonius and Hipparchus;
that is, he supposed the earth to be placed at a small dis-
tance from the centre of the deferent circle (which conse-
quently was called an eccentric), and the planet to move
uniformly in the epicycle, the centre of which also moves
uniformly in the deferent. By means of these suppositions,
and by assigning proper ratios (determined by observation)
between the radius of the deferent and the radius of the
epicycle, and also between the velocity of the planet in the
epicycle and the velocity of the centre of the epicycle on
the deferent, he was enabled to represent with considerable
accuracy the apparent motions of the planets, and particu-
larly their stations and retrogradations. As a first step
towards connecting the sciences of astronomy and geometry
the hypothesis of epicycles does great honor to its inventors.
Epicy’cloid [etymology same as for EPICYCLE], a curve
traced by a point on the circumference of a circle which
rolls on the convex side of a given fixed circle. It belongs
to the class of curves called roulettes, and is not invariably
a transcendental curve. It is always of a finite order when
the circumferences of the two circles are commensurable.
The normal of the epicycloid is easily constructed; it always
coincides with the line which joins the generating point to
the corresponding point of contact of the two circles. The
evolute of the epicycloid is a similar epicycloid, the radii
of the circles being merely altered in a certain ratio. When
the circles are equal the epicycloid is similar, and similarly
placed to the pedal of the fixed circle with respect to a point
in the circumference. The curve is the cardioid, which is
the inverse of a parabola. The epicycloid was invented by
Romer, the Danish astronomer, who about 1674 proposed
this curve as the best form for the teeth of wheels, in order
to prevent friction. Newton gave its rectification in his
“Principia.”
Epidamnus. See DURAzzo.
Epidau’rus [Gr.’Etríðavpos], an ancient town of Greece,
on the E. coast of the Peloponnesus and on the Saronic
Gulf, about 45 miles S.W. of Athens. It was an independ-
ent state, and possessed a small territory called Epidauria.
As early as 600 B.C. it was one of the chief commercial
cities of the Peloponnesus. It derived much importance
from its temple of Æsculapius (situated 5 miles from the
town), which was one of the most celebrated sanctuaries
in Greece, and was frequented by patients from all of the
Hellenic states. They came to be cured of their diseases.
Here are the ruins of a magnificent theatre, which Mr.
Leake says is in better preservation than any other in
Greece. It is 370 feet in diameter. Once in four years a
festival was celebrated here in honor of Æsculapius, with
musical and gymnastic games. On or near the site of Epi-
daurus is a small village called Epidavro, at which the
Greek congress assembled in 1821. -
Epidau’rus Lime'ra, an ancient seaport-town of
Greece, on the eastern coast of Laconia. In the Middle
Ages it was the most important Greek town in the Morea.
The ruins of its temples are visible at Old Monemvasia, 3
miles N. of Monemvasia.
Epidem'ic [from the Gr. Šti, “upon,” and 8%uos, a
“people”]. A disease is said to be epidemic when it at-
tacks a considerable number of people, spreading rapidly
throughout a community for a time, but not becoming per-
manent and endemic (i. e. not remaining as a disease cha-
racteristic of that particular community). Few subjects
connected with medicine have given rise to more specula-
tion than the cause and progress of epidemics. It appears
certain that there must be either distempered conditions
influencing the people who are subject to an epidemic, and
predisposing them to the reception of disease-poisons, or
else, what is more probable, that some peculiar disease-
germs are present in air, water, or food during epidemics.
Contagious epidemics, such as smallpox, measles, etc., are
demonstrably propagated in this way. Others, like in-
fluenza and cholera, will propagate themselves in spite of
personal quarantines, cordons militaires, and even of inter-
vening oceans, though they may be intensified by near
association with the sick. Some observers ascribe certain
epidemics to the excess or deficiency of ozone in the air.
The germ-theory, which ascribes disease to microscopic
vegetation, is a favorite with many; and some observers
believe that they have detected the cause of various epi-
demics. For example, the cause of measles has been as-
cribed with confidence to the presence in the air of the
spores of an organism identical with the rust of barley
straw. Further observations will quickly establish or over-
throw all such theories.
Mental epidemics, such as the dancing mania, lycan-
thropy, witchcraft, and the mania for suicide, are not im-
probably owing to physical conditions, like other epidemics.
The following laws or general statements with regard to
epidemics appear to be established: (1) An “epidemic in-
fluence” appears at times to intensify disease, and im-
mensely to stimulate the propagation of endemic diseases,
thus converting them into epidemics. Thus, Smallpox,
typhus, typhoid, and scarlatina, usually endemic, some-
times rage with great violence as epidemics. (2) Sometimes
an epidemic influence shows itself in the character of non-
epidemic diseases. Thus, in some seasons pneumonia is
of an active, sthenic type; at other times it almost uni-
formly assumes a low or typhoid character. In some sea-
sons nearly all inflammations take on an erysipelatous form.
(3) When a decided epidemic prevails, non-epidemic disease
is very apt to show some of the features of the prevailing
epidemic. Even before the advent of an epidemic these
features may be observed. (4) The first onset of an epi-
demic is usually, not always, its most severe and fatal
stage, but many such diseases have periods of exacerbation
and of intermission. (5) Epidemics would appear to alter-
nate in successive cycles, smallpox being followed, for ex-
ample, by measles, scarlatina, or typhoid... (6) Some dis-
eases occur both as epidemics and as sporadic diseases. In
the former case the disease usually exhibits a greater tend-
ency to depression and a larger proportionate mortality.
(7) The lower animals to some extent share with man in
special epidemic influences.
I (#2
1618
EPIDENDRUM-EPILOGUE.
Facts are not wanting which give reason to hope that
epidemics will become limited in their ravages. The plague
and other destructive epidemics have become localized or
endemic; and the introduction of thorough sewerage in
cities, underground drainage in the country, habits of per-
sonal cleanliness, and other hygienic conditions cannot fail
to accomplish much good. CHARLEs W. GREENE.
Epiden/drum [from the Gr. 3rt, “upon,” and Sévôpov, a
“tree”], a large Linnaean genus of epiphytic orchids, which,
as originally constituted, included the vanilla, and many
other species now excluded. It is worthy of mention as
affording within the limits of the U. S. two examples of the
tree orchids or epiphytes so abundant in the tropics. The
Epidendrum conopseum grows principally upon magnolia
trees, and is found in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida.
Epidendrum venosum grows in Florida. Both have green-
ish-purple flowers in large clusters. Some of the tropical
species have cathartic properties. g
Epider/mis [from the Gr. ºrt, “on,” and 8épua, “skin.”],
called also Cuſticle or Scarf-skin, in anatomy, is in
structure a modification of the epithelium, accurately
moulded to the papillary layer of the true skin or derma.
When exposed to pressure and friction it becomes hard and
thick, as in the palms of the hands; otherwise it is soft.
It is composed of agglutinated, flattened cells, but in the
deep layers the cells are rounded or columnar, and filled
with soft contents. In most races of men these deep cells
contain more or less pigmentary matter, which gives the
skin its various shades from black to white. The epider-
mis is penetrated by the ducts of the sweat-glands and oil-
glands of the skin. Its cells are developed in the liquor
sanguinis, which is poured out on the external surface of
the true skin. The hair and nails in man, and also the
horns in lower animals, are modifications of the epidermis.
The epidermis in plants is a layer of thick-walled cells,
of character varying extremely in different species. It is
entirely homologous in structure with animal epidermis.
Upon leaves it is penetrated by the stomata, and both
transmits exhalations and absorbs carbonic acid, the most
important part of the plant’s food.
Ep’idote [from the Gr. &mi, “upon’” (implying “addi-
tion ”), and Siôopºv, to “give,” so named, it is said, because
the series of the secondary forms are an enlargement on
the base of the primary], a mineral which consists essen-
tially of silica and alumina, combined with portions of lime,
oxide of iron, or peroxide of manganese. A variety con-
taining lime is called zoïsite, and another containing man-
ganese is termed pistacite. It is often found crystallized in
prisms, and sometimes occurs massive. The color is gene-
rally green, yellow, or red.
Epidoſtes [Gr. Eirtóórms, the “liberal giver”], a Greek
divinity worshipped at Lacedaemon. Of his mythus little is
known. Also, the god of sleep, worshipped at Sicyon. The
name was also a title of Zeus and other beneficent deities.
Epigae'a [from the Gr. Štri, “on,” and y?, “earth,”
“ground”], the name of a genus of plants. (See next
article.)
Epigae'a reſpens, the botanical name of the trailing
arbutus or mayflower, an early spring flower of the U. S.,
well known for its beauty and fragrance. It belongs to
the Ericaceae, and in the Southern States is called ground
laurel. It has decided diuretic powers.
Epiglot’tis [from the Gr. &mi, “upon,” and y\orris,
the “glottis,” a mame suggested by its position], the thin
fibro-cartilaginous lid of the glottis. It is attached in front
to the thyroid cartilage by two ligaments constituting a
narrow neck. During respiration the epiglottis is vertical,
and in the act of swallowing it automatically falls back-
ward and closes the larnyx, thus preventing the passage of
food into that organ. -
Epigſoni [Gr. 'Etriyovo, (from émi, “on” or “after,” and
'yevo, to “be born ?”) ; Fr. Epigones], a term signifying “suc-
cessors” or “heirs,” was a collective appellation of the sons
of the seven Greek chiefs who conducted the expedition
against Thebes. Their names were Alcmaeon, Thersander,
Diomedes, Ægialeus, Promachus, Euryalus, and Sthenelus.
They renewed the war and took Thebes. In the history of
literature the name is sometimes applied to those writers
who confine themselves to the further development of the
ideas of the great masters of the classic period.
Ep’igram [Gr. &miypapºua, from étri, “on,” and ypádio, to
“write;” Fr. 6pigramme], originally an “inscription ” or
brief writing; a short poem or piece of verse which has only
one subject, and ends with a witty or ingenious turn of
thought; an interesting idea expressed happily in a few
words. The first of these definitions is nearly correct for a
modern epigram, but differs widely from the original sense
of the word in Greek. The Greek epigram was at first a
short collection of lines inscribed on a monument or statue,
y
|
and the word was afterwards transferred to short poems
suitable for inscriptions. The general characteristics of
Greek epigrams are perfect simplicity and the seemingly
studied absence of that point which characterizes the modern
epigram. But perhaps this seeming pointlessness is due to
our ignorance of the circumstances under which they were
written and to which they allude. It appears that the first
and indispensable requirement of an epigram is not brevity
nor sharpness, but antithesis. Epigrams are nearly all in
one form of metre, the elegiac. Some of the epigrams of
Catullus and Martial present the modern epigrammatic
character; and Martial has in fact afforded the model on
which the modern epigram has been framed. The French
writers have been more successful in epigrams than any
other modern writers, and they excel especially in those
which are intended to be satirical and piquant.
Epig'ynous [from the Gr. 3ri, “upon,” and yuvi, a
“female’], a botanical term applied to stamens and petals
which grow on the summit of the ovary. These sometimes
appear to be inserted of the ovary, in consequence of the
coherence of the calyx with the ovary.
Ep’ilepsy [Lat. epilep'sia; Gr. Štruxmibia, from émi,
“upon,” and Aap.g4vo, to “take,” to “seize”], a disease of
the nervous system, in which there are occasional seizures
or fits of sudden and complete loss of consciousness, usu-
ally associated with convulsions, which become clonic, and
finally impede respiration. The attack may last from two
to twenty minutes, and is followed by exhaustion and sleep.
In other cases, called petit mal (Fr. for “little sickness”),
the loss of consciousness is but momentary, and there is no
convulsion or falling down, as in ordinary attacks.
It has been customary to say that this disease is merely
functional, because in most cases there is little or no appa-
rent organic change of the brain, observable after death;
but the present opinion of pathologists appears to be that
sufficiently careful observation will detect lesions, however
minute, sufficient to account for the symptoms. Dilatation
of blood-vessels in the medulla oblongata is frequently ob-
served. The disease itself is of a frightful character, apart
from the unhappy effects it may produce upon the mind of
the patient.
When occurring in childhood, and especially during the
period of dentition, it may after a time be spontaneously
cured. It is sometimes hereditary, and often is caused by
various excesses, by blows on the head, or by excessive
fright.
The treatment during the paroxysm, if it be habitual, is
simply to place the patient where he cannot hurt himself,
to loosen his clothing, and give him plenty of fresh air.
Between the paroxysms the patient should avoid all ex-
cesses of eating, of drinking, or of any other kind. Syste-
matic exercise, and even gymnastics, never carried so far
as to produce much weariness, are often beneficial. Nu-
tritious food, with avoidance of coffee, tobacco, and stimu-
lants, is usually advisable. A seton in the back of the
neck is frequently useful. Of medicines, the bromides of
potassium and of ammonium are useful in warding off the
attacks, but they have little curative influence. Indeed, in
the adult patient there is usually but little prospect of cure,
though perfect recovery is not unknown. Tonics, such as
iron, arsenic, and quinia, are useful in special cases, but in
others are apparently worse than useless.
Notwithstanding the terrible effects of this disease upon
the minds of many of its victims, not a few distinguished
men have been epileptics, as were Cambyses, Caesar, Mo-
hammed, Petrarch, Henry IV. of England, Napoleon, and
Byron. The ancients, it is said, sometimes called this dis-
ease morbus basilicus (“kings' disease”), from the idea that
great men were especially liable to it; and among its nume-
rous names was morbus sacer (the “sacred disease ’’), because
the gods were believed to have especial care over its victims.
Epilo'bium [barbarously derived from the Gr. Śri Ao-
god tov, a “violet on a pod”], or Willow Herb, a genus
of herbaceous perennial plants of the natural order Onagra-
ceae, natives of temperate and cold climates. They have
eight stamens and four petals. The fruit is an elongated
many-seeded pod or capsule. Some of the species bear
beautiful flowers. The Epilobium angustifolium, a native
of Europe and of the U. S., has showy pink-purple flowers,
and is sometimes planted in gardens. Several other spe-
cies are indigenous in the U. S. The popular name willow
herb was given in reference to the leaves, which resemble
those of a willow. These leaves have astringent properties,
and are reputed to have other active powers.
Epſilogue [Gr. 3rixoyos, from étri, “upon” or “ after,”
and Adyos; Lat. epilogus], in dramatic poetry, the closing
address to the audience at the end of a play. It was usu-
ally spoken by one of the actors, and was cheerful and
familiar in tone. The term was sometimes applied to the
conclusion of an oration.
1619
EPIMACHUS—EPISCOPAL CHURCH, THE PROTESTANT.
Epim’achus, a genus of tenuirostral birds inhabiting
Australia and Papua, and formerly classed with the birds
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Epimachus Magnus, or Grand Plume-Bird.
of paradise. The Epimachus albus is of a fine violet-black
color, with a broad collar of feathers, margined with green,
at the base of the neck. Floating plumes, very long, white
and silky, arise from the back and rump. Twelve of the
lowest of these end in long thread-like points; hence it has
been called the “twelve-threaded bird of paradise.” The
grand plume-bird (Epimachus magnus) is found in Papua.
Its body is one foot long, its tail three feet. Its color is
black-brown, the side-feathers curled and raised upward,
glittering with changeable blue and green tints. The head
and belly are of a lustrous blue. It is one of the most
beautiful of all known birds. 2
Epimenſides [Gr. Eirigeviðms; Fr. Epiménide], a famous
Greek poet and prophet, was a native of Crete, and flourished
about 600 B.C. According to tradition, he fell asleep in a
cave, and awaked after the lapse of more than fifty years
with a large increase of wisdom and inspiration. He wrote
a poem on the voyage of the Argonauts. At the request
of the Athenians, who were afflicted with the plague, he
visited Athens about 596 B.C. and purified that city.
Goethe wrote a poem called “Des Epimenides Erwachen.”
Epime/theus [Gr. 'Etrum0sús; Fr. Epiméthée], a per-
sonage of the Greek mythology, was said to be a brother
of Prometheus and the husband of Pandora. His name
(from émi, “on” or “after,” and pī80s, “ consideration,”
“ thought”) signifies “afterthought.”
Epinal, à'pe'nāl', a handsome town of France, capital
of the department of Vosges, is pleasantly situated at the
western base of the Vosges Mountains, on both sides of the
Moselle, about 200 miles E. S. E. of Paris. It has a ruined
castle, a fine Gothic church, a theatre, a hospital, a public
library, and a museum of pictures and antiquities. Here
are manufactures of cutlery, paper, hosiery, lace, chemicals,
pottery, and linen fabrics. Pop. in 1866, 11,870.
Epinay, d’ (Louise FLORENCE PáTRONILLE DE LA
Live), MADAME, a French literary lady, bgrin about 1725.
She was married at an early age to M. d'Epinay, but they
~.
were soon separated. She was intimate with Rousseau, for
whom she built the hermitage at Montmorenci. Her work
on education, entitled “Conversations of Emilie” (1783),
gained a prize of the French Academy. Died in April,
1783. She left autobiographig memoirs (3 vols., 1818).
(See FALLU, “La Marquise d'Épinay,” 1866.)
Epiphania. See HAMAH. a -
Epipha/nius [Gr. 'Etrºpévvos; Fr. Epiphane], SAINT, a
bishop and polemic, born at Eleutheropolis, in Palestine,
about 310 A. D. He was educated in Egypt by certain
monks, who instilled into his mind ascetic notions, and be-
came afterwards a disciple of Hilarion. In 367 he became
bishop of Constantia (formerly Salamis) in the island of
Cyprus. He was an adversary of Origen, whom he de-
nounced as a heretic, and he co-operated with those who
deposed Chrysostom. He wrote, besides other works in
Greek, a treatise against heresies, entitled “Panarium,”
which is one of the most important sources of information
for the history of the ancient Christian Church. Best edi-
tion of his works by W. Dindorf (5 vols., 1859–63). (See
LIPSIUs, “Zur Quellenkritik des Epiphanius,” 1865.) Died
in 402 A. D. *
Epiph'any [Gr. "Erudëveta, from émi, “on,” “over,”
“Abefore,” and baivopal, to “appear;” Lat. Epiphani/a; Fr.
Epiphanie], the name of a festival in the Christian Church,
celebrated the twelfth day after Christmas (Jan. 6), to com-
memorate four events: (1) Christ's baptism; (2) his birth;
(3) his manifestation to the magi; (4) the manifestation of
his divinity in the miracle at Cana. Later, especially in the
Western Church, it popularly commemorated the visit of
the three wise men to the infant Jesus. The eve of Epiph-
any, called “Twelfth Night” in England and “Three Kings’
Night” in Germany, was anciently a great popular festival.
Its celebration is still kept up.
Epiphe'gus [from the Gr. 3rt, “upon,” and Önyós, a
“beech tree,” because it is found growing on the roots of
that tree], a genus of herbs of the order Orobanchaceae.
Like all the order, it is a root-parasite, growing apparently
from the ground, but really from the roots of trees. This
genus is found only under beech trees; the herbs are pur-
plish or yellow-brown, slender branched, with scales in place
of leaves, and from six to twelve inches high. The Epiphe-
gus Virginiana, common in the U. S., is called “cancer
root,” from the idea that it is curative of cancer.
Epſiphyte [from the Gr. &mi, “upon,” and Övrév, a
“plant”], the name of a parasitical plant which at-
taches itself to the bark of decaying trees, and derives
its mourishment chiefly from the air, whence the popular
name of air-plant. These plants are found generally in
tropical countries, and prefer moist and shady situa-
tions. The orchideous epiphytes have recently been
cultivated with great success in green-houses. Many
of them are of exquisite beauty, and others are remark-
able for their singular and grotesque forms.
Epi'rus, or Epei'rus [Gr. "Hire-pos; Fr. Epire], a
country of ancient Greece, bounded on the E. by the chain
of Pindus, on the S. by the Ambracian Gulf, and on the W.
by the Ionian Sea. It corresponds to the southern portion
of the modern Albania, a wild and mountainous region
which in all ages has been occupied by semi-civilized and
robber tribes, called Epirots or Epirotes. It is adapted to
pastoral pursuits, and its fine horses, oxen, and Molossian
dogs were celebrated in antiquity. The three most import-
ant tribes of Epirots were the Chaones, Molossi, and Thes-
proti. The Molossi eventually became the masters of all
Epirus. Among the Molossian kings was Alexander, whose
sister Olympias was married to Philip of Macedon. The
most celebrated king of Epirus was Pyrrhus, under whose
reign this kingdom attained its greatest power and splen-
dor. He waged war against the Romans in Italy. Died
in 272 B. C. Epirus became a Roman province in 168 B.C.,
and was conquered by the Turks in 1466. The chief towns
of Epirus were Ambracia, Buthrotum, and Dodona. This
region is still frequently called Epirus or “the Epirus.”
(See MERLEKER, “Das Land und die Bewohner von Epi-
rus,” 1841.) . . 4.
Episcopal Church, The Protestant, the religious
body formerly known as “the Church of England in Amer-
ica.” The full official title of this communion is “The
Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of Amer-
ica,” a name assumed, it has been surmised, to distinguish
it from those Christians, on the one hand, who acknowledge
the papal Supremacy, and from those, on the other, who
reject the authority of bishops. Whether this were really
intended or not is perhaps doubtful; the name, however,
describes with sufficient accuracy the relations of this
Church to the other religious bodies in the United States.
The Episcopal Church is the descendant and representa-
tive of that branch of the Church of England which was




































1620
EPISCOPAL CHURCH, THE PROTESTANT.
established in the North American colonies in the seven-
teenth century. The English adventurers of that and the
preceding age, like the Spaniards and Portuguese, carried
their national religion with them, and introduced it where-
ever they gained a footing. The instructions given to Sir
Humphrey Gilbert in 1578 gave him authority to settle in
any country which was not in the possession of any Chris-
tian prince. He was to govern his colonies by laws agree-
able to the policy of England, and not against the Christian
faith professed in the Church of England. This expedition
terminated, indeed, in disaster and in the death of the
commander; but similar principles guided the expedition
which set sail for the “western parts of America” in 1607,
under the command of Captain Newport, of which the Rev.
Robert Hunt, a man of energy and ability in civil affairs,
as well as a learned and devout divine, was the chaplain.
Under his guidance and supervision the foundations of the
Church in Virginia were laid; and although it doubtless
suffered from his early death, it gradually increased in
strength and influence, and became the established religion
of that colony. In Maryland, and in what are now called
the Middle States, the Church of England was introduced
at an early date. In New England, where Puritanism had
a predominating influence, churchmen were longer in gain-
ing a footing, which, when gained, they were obliged to
make good against determined opposition.
Without tracing the history of the Church through the
colonial period, it may be sufficient to say that, notwith-
standing many drawbacks, it had in the year 1776 gained
a very respectable position. It had been all along, how-
ever, obliged to contend not only with open enemies, but
with injudicious friends. The violent measures of Andros
and others had tended in some places to increase the dislike
to the English Church which was felt by the Puritans of New
England and New York, and by the numerous sectaries
who, attracted by Lord Baltimore's proclamation of a gen-
eral toleration, had swarmed into Maryland. The attempts
which were made from time to time to procure bishops for
America had failed, principally from political causes, and
the Church, thus deprived of the presence of the highest
order of its ministry, was necessarily crippled in the per-
formance of its functions. The want of bishops threw dif-
ficulties in the way of raising up a native ministry. Young
men who sought holy orders were obliged to make a long
and perilous voyage to England to be ordained, and they
were fortunate if they returned in safety. The smallpox
in the eighteenth century was the peculiar scourge of the
colonists’ who visited England; and this disease, justly
dreaded in those days, carried off many of the most prom-
ising youths of America. The devotion of colonial church-
men, however, to their religion continued firm and unwav-
ering; and although they encountered further trials at the
time of the Revolution, they were able not merely to over-
come them, but to place their Church in a position which
has enabled it ever since to increase in influence and mem-
bers. - -
At the beginning of the Revolutionary war there were in
the Middle and Eastern States about eighty parochial cler-
gymen. These gentlemen, with the exception of those in
the great cities, were for the most part dependent for their
support upon the Society for the Propagation of the Gos-
pel. This society, however, withdrew its gifts after the
termination of the war. In other respects, also, the con-
clusion of peace left the Church in a depressed condition.
Many of the clergy and laity had adhered to the Crown
during the struggle, and at its close withdrew themselves.
to England or to the colonies which continued loyal. The
peace was soon followed by the confiscation of the landed
endowments of the Church in Virginia, and the numerous
churchmen in that State were thrown upon their own re-
sources. The Church was poor, and its prospects were not
hopeful. -
Two important measures were immediately necessary—
to obtain an episcopate, and to promote a closer union be-,
tween the churches in the several States. The first was
necessary to the existence, the second to the well-being, of
the Church. Under the old Confederation the States re-
garded themselves as independent sovereignties, and by
consequence the churches in them conceived themselves to
be so many national churches. . This position, if it had
continued, would not indeed have affected their faith and
doctrine, which are unchangeable, but it might neverthe-
less have produced many inconveniences. By the princi-
ples of the Church of England, every national church,
while it is bound to adhere to the common faith of Chris–
tendom as a heritage from the apostles, has a wide liberty
in regulating its own ceremonial, discipline, and worship.
Thus, the Prayer-Book might have been altered in a differ-
ent way in different States, and divergences in discipline
and government might have been developed to such an
extent as to make the relations between the churches an
Carolina.
alliance rather than a union. This danger was averted,
almost by an accident. . A few clergymen from New York,
New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, met at New Brunswick, in
New Jersey, to take measures for reviving an old society
(which still exists) for the support of the widows and chil-
dren of the clergy. They naturally discussed the condition
of the Church, and made arrangements for a larger meet-
ing to be held soon afterwards in New York, to which rep-
resentatives of the laity were to be invited. This meeting,
however, did little more than lay down certain general
principles—with reference particularly to episcopacy and
the Common Prayer-Book, which they rightly conceived
would tend to promote a real union between the churches
in the several States—and issue a call for a similar meeting
to be held the next year in Philadelphia. . This was the be-
ginning of the General Convention, which has ever since
been regarded as the governing body of the Church in the
United States.
The constitution of this body, as it was soon afterwards
established, required it to consist of all the bishops, and of
four clergymen and as many laymen from each State. By
later amendments, when more than one bishop was placed
in a State, every diocese or episcopal jurisdiction became
entitled to a representation of four clerical and four lay
deputies, and the lay députies were required to be commu-
nicants. All the bishops were entitled to seats ex officio;
and it was arranged that as soon as there should be three
or more they should sit in a separate house. Every act was
to receive the approbation of both houses. Authority was
given to the General Convention to prescribe the qualifica-
tions for ordination and to set forth a Book of Common
Prayer—the two: things that were most necessary for estab-
lishing such a union as was desired. It was also directed
that there should be a convention in every State, consisting
of clergy and laity, the powers of which were not in any
way defined. It seems to have been assumed, however,
that these conventions were to exercise supervision over
the affairs of the Church in every State—or, to use the
more recent expression, in every diocese—in all matters
which did not come within the immediate jurisdiction of
the bishop.
This constitution was adopted in the several States,
though not immediately in all. The Convention of 1785
had consisted of delegates from what were afterwards called
the Middle States, and from Maryland, Virginia, and South
Much doubt was felt in the East, particularly in
Connecticut, as to the wisdom of some of its provisions.
The introduction of the laity especially into what was con-
ceived to be a Church council was regarded as an experi-
ment of questionable expediency, and some of the powers
which were given them were thought to be without prece-
dent. These objections, however, were gradually removed
or waived; and in 1789, Bishop Seabury, with a deputation
from Connecticut, took his seat in the General Convention,
and the union of the Episcopal churches in the United
States was completed. Although the constitution proposed
in 1785, and adopted in an amended and completed form
in 1789, all along contemplated the presence of bishops,
there really were none in the United States at that time
except Bishop Seabury, who took no part in the proceed-
ings of the Convention. This gentleman (the second of a
family which for five generations has furnished a line of
clergymen, all able and some distinguished) had been sent
to England soon after the peace by the clergy of Connec-
ticut to obtain consecration from the English bishops. He
had found an obstacle, however, in the oath of allegiance,
which forms a part of the English consecration office, and
which, of course, could not be taken by äny one but a Brit-
ish..subject. After some delay, and much negotiation, he
succeeded in obtaining consecration from the Scottish bish-
ops, and, returning to America in 1785, was received as
bishop of Connecticut and Rhode Island. -
The rule of the Church, believed to have come down from
the apostles themselves, requires the presence of at least
three bishops at every consecration; and it was necessary
that there should be at least that number in the United
States to maintain an episcopal succession. Application
was therefore made in 1786 to the English bishops in behalf
of the Rev. William White and the Rev. Samuel Provoost,
who had been chosen to the episcopate in Pennsylvania and
New York. The obstacle arising from the oath of allegi-
ance was removed by an act of Parliament; but a new dif-
ficulty was found in a revised Prayer-Book which had been
proposed for use in the United States in 1785, and in which
the English bishops thought that they perceived indications
of a disposition to depart from the doctrine of the Church
of England. After a correspondence between some of the
most learned divines in England and the United States, in
which the principle was clearly brought out that “this
Church does not intend to depart from the Church of Eng-
land in any essential point of doctrine, discipline, or wor-
EPISCOPAL SYSTEM.–EPISODE.
1621
ship, or further than local circumstances require,” it was
agreed to proceed with the consecration of these gentlemen,
and they were accordingly consecrated bishops on the 4th
of February, 1789, in the archbishop's chapel at Lambeth,
by the Most Rev. John Moore, archbishop of Canterbury,
assisted by other bishops. Partly because it was desirable
that there should be more than the lowest number of bish-
ops necessary to maintain a succession, and partly to keep
up the succession in the English line, the Rev. James Madi-
son obtained consecration in 1790 as bishop of Virginia.
The “Proposed Prayer-Book,” as it was called, which
had never met with much favor, was allowed to fall into
oblivion, and it has now become one of the curiosities of
ritual literature. A new revision of the Prayer-Book was
made upon the principle just indicated. The English
Prayer-Book was retained, with such alterations as were
necessary to adapt it to the changes in the political condi-
tion of the country, and with many other (chiefly verbal)
modifications. The promise, however, to adhere to the doc-
trine, discipline, and worship of the Church of England was,
upon the whole, strictly adhered to. The most important
changes were the introduction of a communion office closely
resembling that of the Scottish Episcopal Church, and more
nearly approaching the older liturgies of England, which
was done at the request of Bishop Seabury and at the in-
stance of the Scottish bishops; the omission of the Atha-
nasian Creed; and the leaving out the precise directions
about confession which occur in the English Office for the
Visitation of the Sick. This omission was perhaps bal-
anced, and the mind of the Church sufficiently declared, by
the stringent rules about confession which are found in the
Office for the Visitation of Prisoners, borrowed from the
Irish Prayer-Book. The Prayer-Book, thus revised, was
ratified in 1789. It came into immediate and general use,
and has ever since been, without material alteration, the
s use of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United
tates.”
The two objects which the Convention had in view in 1785
were thus attained in 1789. There was a sufficient number
of bishops, and the union of the Church in the United States
was perfected. Since that time a hundred bishops have
been consecrated, of whom fifty-one are living. There are
nearly 3000 priests and deacons, and the number of com-
municants is computed at 235,000. The Church has ex-
tended into every State and Territory, and its missionaries
have penetrated into Western Africa, China, and Japan.
In the General Convention of 1789 (that in which the union
of the Church was perfected) two bishops sat with twenty-
nine clerical and lay deputies. That of 1871 consisted of
forty-two bishops and three hundred and twelve clergymen
and laymen. The number of churches and chapels is esti-
mated at about 2700. There is a general theological semi-
nary in the city of New York, and there are divinity schools
in Connecticut, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Wiscon-
sin, and Minnesota. Several colleges are connected with this
Church, among which are Trinity College, Hartford, Hobart
College, Geneva, Racine College and Burlington College, in
the States of Connecticut, New York, Wisconsin, and New
Jersey. The University of the South was begun a few
years ago with some prospects of success, but the events of
the war delayed its progress, and its usefulness will prob-
ably be rather in the future than in the present. Faculties
of divinity and grammar-schools are attached to several of
the colleges. St. Stephen's College, Annandale, N. Y., re-
ceives at an early age youths who are designed for holy
orders, and carries them to the point at which they begin
their theological training. Trinity School, N. Y., an en-
dowed grammar-school established in 1706, receives sev-
enty-two boys on the foundation.
The doctrine of the Episcopal Church is that of the
Church of England, believed to have been the common faith
of Christendom while it continued undivided. The rela-
tions of this Church to the rest of Christendom were clearly
defined by the bishops who met in conference at Lambeth in
1867. More than seventy bishops from England, Scotland,
Ireland, the colonies, and the United States met in that
year to take into consideration the state and best interests
of the churches of the Anglican communion. One of their
first acts was to express the deep sorrow with which they
viewed “the divided condition of the flock of Christ through-
out the world,” and to record their conviction that “unity
will be most effectually promoted by maintaining the faith
in its purity and integrity, as taught in the Holy Scriptures,
held by the primitive Church, summed up by the creeds, and
affirmed by the undisputed general councils; and by draw-
ing each of us closer to our common Lord, by giving our-
Selves to much prayer and intercession, by the cultivation
of a spirit of charity and a love of the Lord’s appearing.”
The Episcopal Church, while it receives the Holy Scrip-
tures as the ultimate rule of faith, does not throw them
open to the varying interpretations of every man’s private
cidental narrative or digression in a
judgment, but explains them by the aid of traditions which
it believes to have come down through an unbroken line of
teachers from the apostles themselves, by the creeds, and by
the definitions of Christian doctrine made by the general
councils. Candidates for baptism are required to confess
their faith in the words of the Apostles' Creed—adults in
person, and infants by their sponsors. Communicants must
receive also the Nicene Creed, which contains the same
teachings in a more expanded form. Nothing is required
from laymen, beyond acceptance of the Prayer-Book and
a proper deference to the instructions of the clergy, who
are believed to derive their doctrine and their right to
teach by a successions from the apostles. The XXXIX.
Articles of the Church of England (except the twenty-first,
“of the power of Christian princes in relation to general
councils”) are still commonly bound up with the Prayer- .
Book, but the practice of signing them has been laid aside
since the Revolution. The clergy sign, instead, a general
declaration that they “believe the Holy Scriptures of the
Old and New Testament to be the Word of God, and to con-
tain all things necessary to salvation;” and they “solemnly
engage to conform to the doctrines and worship of the
Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States.” The
mode in which the teachings of Holy Scripture are ascer-
tained has been already pointed out.
Thus, the Episcopal Church would seem to be one of the
most liberal and comprehensive of religious bodies. It may
contain within itself (it is not, however, asserted that it does)
those, on the one hand, who apparently differ from Roman
Catholics in little more than in denying the pope's jurisdic-
tion in countries which are or have been included in the
British empire, and, on the other, those who are to be dis-
tinguished from Presbyterians only by their acceptance of
episcopacy and the Prayer-Book. Within these possible
limits there would appear to be ample scope for religious
thought ; and the great freedom of religious thought ac-
counts for the schools of teaching which have long existed.
As men incline toward authority on the one hand, or indi-
vidual judgment on the other, they are said to be High
Church or Low Church. The lines of thought, however,
are not sharply drawn, and the schools melt into each other
by imperceptible degrees. The principles laid down by the
Fathers at Lambeth (themselves men of every conceivable
school of thought) have been long tested, and have been
found sufficient to maintain the unity and harmony of the
Church. -
BEVERLEY R. BETTs, Lib. of Columbia Coll.
Episcopal System, in the Roman Catholic Church,
is that theory according to which the highest clerical power
is vested in the whole body of bishops. This theory was most
prominently brought forward in the papal elections of the
fourteenth century, and its followers declared the Church, as
represented in its general assemblies, to be above the pope.
In France the University of Paris was the chief supporter
of this theory, and the Gallican Church accepted it as one
of its fundamental laws. In Germany the coadjutant bishop
of Treves, Nikolaus von Hontheim, who was one of its chief
supporters, wrote a celebrated book, in which he clearly de-
fined the episcopal system, “De statu ecclesiae et legitima
potestate Romani Pontificis” (1763). The Punctations of
Ems (see EMs) had the same fundamental idea, and al-
though they failed in their purpose, the system continued
to spread in Germany. But the declaration of papal infal-
libility has put an end to these differences, and made an im-
possibility of the episcopal system. In the German Prot-
estant churches the episcopal system is that theory accord-
ing to which the authority of the bishops, which had been
suspended in the Protestant countries in consequence of the
peace of 1555, was transferred to the ruler of the country.
Episco/pius (SIMON), a learned Dutch divine whose
original name was BISSCHOP, was born in Amsterdam in
Jan., 1583. He was distinguished for his liberality, mode-
ration, and other virtues, and became the chief pillar and
champion of the Arminians or Remonstrants. He was ap-
pointed professor of theology in the University of Leyden
in 1612, but he was accused of Socinianism by the Calvin-
ists (Gomarists), and was banished in 1618 by the Synod
of Dort. He retired to France, returned to Holland in 1626,
and became rector of a college in Amsterdam in 1634. His
principal works are the “Confession of the Remonstrants”
(1621) and “Institutiones Theologicae.” Died in 1643.
Ep’isode [Gr. ºretsé8tov, from étt, “on,” “in addition
to,” eis, “in” or “into,” and 686s, a “road,” a “journey,” a
“coming;” i.e. something that comes in besides the main
plot or poem] was originally one of those parts of an an-
cient classical drama which were performed between the
entrances of the chorus. In modern use it signifies an in-
poem, more or less
connected with the main plot, but not essential to its de-
velopment.
1622
EPISTATES-EPIZOOTIC.
Epis’tates [Gr. 3rºgrárms, from girl, “on” or “over,”
and tatapat, to “be placed,” to “stand”], literally, “one
set or placed over,” the title of the presidents of the two
great councils of the ancient Athenians—viz., the Ecclesia
and the Senate of Five Hundred. Their term of office was
one day.
Epistle [Lat. episºtola; Gr. 3rtaroxi, from grwaréAAw, to
“Send "J, literally, a thing 8ent, hence a letter. The name
is now given especially to the twenty-one epistles of the
New Testament. The writings ascribed to the so-called
Apostolic Fathers (Clement of Rome, Barnabas, Ignatius,
Polycarp, and Hermas) are for the most part epistolary
in form. Of quite inferior dignity and value are the fol.
lowing undoubtedly spurious epistles: Abgarus of Edessa
to Christ, and Christ to Abgarus; Lentulus to the Roman
Senate; several of the Virgin Mary; Paul to the Laodi-
ceans; the Third of Paul to the Corinthians, and one of
the Corinthians to Paul; Peter to James; eight of Seneca
the philosopher to Paul, and six of Paul to Seneca.
Episºtolae Obscuro/rum Viro/rum [Lat. for “let-
ters of obscure men’], a famous collection of satirical let-
ters directed against the monks and the Roman Catholic
Church. They were published in three parts—the first at
Haguenau (1515), the second at Băle (1517), and a third at
a later date. They were probably written jointly by Ulrich
von Huttºn, Crotus Rubianus, and Buschius. They are an
admirable imitation of the barbarous Latinity of the monks
of those days. Certain Dominicans at Cologne, under the
lead of one Pfefferkorn, a baptized Jew, advocated the ex-
pulsion of all Jews from Germany, the forcible education of
their children in Christian doctrine, and the burning of their
books. This attempt was opposed by Reuchlin; and pend-
ing the decision of the question by the pope the “Epistolae''
appeared. Says Sir William Hamilton : “The ‘Epistolae'
are at once the most cruel and most natural of satires, and
as such they were the most effective. They converted the
tragedy of Reuchlin's persecution into a farce; annihilated,
in public estimation, the enemies of intellectual improve-
ment; and even the friends of Luther, in Luther's lifetime,
acknowledged that no other writings had contributed so
powerfully to the downfall of the papal domination.” Many
editions of the “Epistolae " have been published, the best
of which is that of Boecking, Leipsic, 1858.
Ep’itaph [Lat. epita'phium, from the Gr. ºri, “upon,”
and Tábos, a “tomb ''} was anciently the name of the monu-
ment or tomb over a grave, and was especially applied to
the funeral oration delivered at the grave. It is, however,
universally applied at present to the inscriptions upon
tombstones. The literature of epitaphs is very consider-
able. , Greek epitaphs are preserved in great numbers in
the Anthology. Of Latin epitaphs, many exist both in
literature and upon the tombs themselves. Numerous in-
teresting examples of early Christian epitaphs have been
taken from the Catacombs. Many collections of remark-
able epitaphs in modern languages have also been made.
Epithala/mium [from the Gr. 3rt, “on” or “near,”
and 64Aapos, a “bridal chamber;” also “marriage”], a
bridal hymn ; a chorus sung, in ancient Greece, near the
door of the bridal chamber. It appears to have been a
formal part of the marriage ceremony. Among the ancient
Romans the rude Fescennine songs, which seem to have been
of a phallic character, were often sung at weddings, and are
hence called epithalamia. The term is often given to formal
poems composed in honor of a particular marriage. Anac-
reon and Pindar composed poems of this kind. The most
perfect example of it now extant is the epithalamium of
Peleus and Thetis, by Catullus.
Epithelio/ma [from EPITHELIUM, which see], a variety
of cancer which attacks most frequently the surfaces which
are covered with pavement epithelium or with epidermis.
Many pathologists class it with “cancroid” disease, because
it appears to be less malignant than true cancer. Indeed,
if removed early, the patient has a fair prospect of future
exemption from the disease, but in neglected cases it as-
sumes the malignancy and other dreadful characters of true
cancer. The lips, especially the upper lip, are the most fre-
quent seat of epithelioma, but it may attack even internal
organs. Histologically, it appears to be composed of epi-
thelial elements.
Epithe’lium [from the Gr. 3rt, “on,” and 93Avs, “soft,”
“delicate,” “tender,” because used to protect the delicate
tissues beneath], in anatomy, is the layer of cells which
lines the serous (or closed) and the mucous (or open) cavi-
ties of the body, the mucous epithelium being continuous
with the epidermis, which is a modification of the epithe-
lium.
Epithelium is of two principal kinds: (1) “Pavement”
epithelium, consisting of rounded or polygonal cells. This
variety is especially found in the closed cavities, but is not
confined to them. (2) “Columnar” or cylinder epithelium,
found chiefly upon mucous membrane. This kind has many
varieties of form, one of the most important being “ciliated
epithelium,” which is provided with fine hair-like processes
(cilia), whose length varies from one one-thousandth to one
twelve-thousandth of an inch. These cilia have a rapid
automatic motion in one direction, moving from 150 to 250
times in a minute. These motions are no doubt highly im-
portant in physiology, but their mechanism is little under-
stood. In some instances these motions obviously assist in
discharging excretions, etc., but in others their use is quite
unknown. The epithelial cells have a very important part
in the secretion of many fluids. For example, mucus is
formed by the bursting of epithelial cells and the dis-
charge of their soft contents, mingled with the débris of
the old cell-walls. This process of destruction is attended
by continual renewal of the cells.
Ep'ithet [from émi, and riðmut, to “put upon”], a word
or clause which expresses some attribute of an object that
is prominent in thought, but is not made the basis of a
discrimination or classification; e. g. “ Frail man is
mortal;” “Earthly pleasures, which are fleeting and wnsub-
stantial, are not the highest for man.” Used in opposition
to DEFINITIVE (from de and finio, to “mark out the fines
or boundaries”), by which we understand a word or clause
which expresses some attribute that is made the basis of a
discrimination or classification; e. g. “Good men [i. e.
only good men] are a blessing to the community;” “Those
pleasures that are from the carth are not the highest for
man.”
Great care should be taken that epithets be not too fre-
quently employed, and that there be something in the
thought to which they actually and exactly correspond.
The felicitous employment of epithets is one of the attri-
butes of genius which gives to literature its highest charm.
See Milton’s
“Drew from tears down Pluto's cheek.”
Epit’ome [Gr. Tvropºj, a “cutting short” (from émvréºvo,
to “cut,” to “gash,” also to “abridge")], in literature, an
abridgment; a work in which the contents of a former
work are reduced into a smaller space by curtailment and
condensation. In the declining age of the Western Roman
empire the practice of epitomizing the works of older writ-
ers, especially in history, became very prevalent. In sev-
eral instances a valuable original work has been lost which
perhaps would have been preserved if an epitome had not
been substituted for it. Among the best known works of
this class are the epitome of Florus, “Epitome Rerum Ro-
manarum,” and that of Eutropius, “Breviarum Historiae
Romanae,” both abridgments of the history of Rome.
Epitro’choid [from the Gr. Ští, “on,” and rpáxos, a
“wheel”] is a curve traced by a point in the plane of a
circle which rolls on the convex side of a fixed circle. The
curve thus generated is one of the family of roulettes, and
becomes an epicycloid when the generating point is in the
circumference of the rolling circle. When the two circles
are equal the epitrochoid becomes similar to the pedal of the
fixed circle with respect to a certain fixed point in its plane.
But the pedal being always the inverse of the reciprocal of
the primitive curve, the epitrochoid in this case must be
the inverse of a conic with respect to one of its foci, which
latter is a curve of the fourth order, belonging to the Carte-
sian ovals, and called the limaçon. Epitrochoids are gen-
erally transcendental curves; it is only when the circum-
ference of the fixed and rolling circles are commensurable
that the epitrochoid returns into itself and becomes an alge-
braical curve.
Epizo'a [a Gr. term, from émi, “on,” and göov, an “ani-
mal”], a name given to animals living upon the skin and
among the hairs of other animals, as fleas, lice, ticks, mites,
etc. Some of these, like the itch-mites, are Acarina—spiders
of low grade of development—but most are insects of spider-
like character, low forms of Diptera and Hemiptera. Most
mammals, many birds, and a great many insects are infested
by insect parasites. The Cyamus ceti, or whale-louse, living
upon whales and fishes, is a crustacean. Many Cirripedia
live in a similar way upon whales and sharks. Most Epi-
zoa live as true parasites upon the blood and secretions of
the animal which they infest. Others, especially the Cirri-
pedia, appear to feed upon other food, making the skin of
a larger animal merely their place of abode. The very
great majority of Epizoa are articulate animals.
Epizo&t/ic [from the Gr. dirt, “upon,” and göov, an
“animal”], a disease which attacks the lower animals, or any
one species of them, as epidemics attack men. . The term is
objectionable, because, with some limitations, these diseases
chiefly attack but one species, instead of all animals; and
moreover, as man is an animal, all epidemics are epizootics.
The so-called epizootic diseases follow the general laws of
epidemics, and they would appear to attack especially the
E PLURIBUS UNUM.–EQUATION.
1623.
domesticated animals. Some diseases attack both man and
the lower animals. Thus, smallpox affects the horse, cow,
and sheep, assuming in each a modified form. Among the
more important epizootic diseases are the rinderpest, the
contagious pleuro-pneumonia, and the “foot-and-mouth
disease” (all attacking neat cattle); the remarkable influ-
enza, which attacked horses and mules, arising in Canada
Sept. 30, 1872, and rapidly moving southward and west-
ward over the whole of North America; the scab, foot-rot,
and other diseases of sheep. The “reds,” the muscardine,
pébrine, and other diseases of the silkworm have been the
cause of serious calamities to operatives, and at times have
almost threatened the existence of the silk manufacture.
The epizootic influenza of 1872–73, above alluded to, de-
stroyed, according to Dr. A. B. Judson of New York, 1500
horses and mules in New York, or 4 per cent. of the total
number in the city. The disease reached Chicago Oct. 29,
St. Louis Dec. 1, Salt Lake Jan. 11, 1873, and San Fran-
cisco April 15. It is thought that the disease spread chiefly
by contagion, and not by atmospheric influence.
E Plu'ribus U/num [Lat.], “One composed of many,”
the motto of the U. S., consisting of many States confede-
rated.— Webster. [Lat.], “One of many,” the motto of the
U. S.; the allusion being to the formation of one federal
government out of several independent States.— Worcester.
After the Declaration of their independence by the
States was announced on the 4th of July, 1776, and before
the adjournment of that day’s session, it was resolved,
“That Dr. Franklin, Mr. J. Adams, and Mr. Jefferson be
a committee to prepare a device for a seal for the United
States of America.” The result of their joint work was
the present seal of the U. S., which has not been changed
since its first adoption. The six sections, or quarterings,
upon the escutcheon or shield were intended to denote the
countries (England, Scotland, Ireland, France, Germany,
and Holland) from which the States so united had been,
respectively, chiefly peopled. The motto adopted on this
Seal, and which has ever since been retained, was intended
to denote the character of the federal government in its
formation, as stated by the great American lexicographers,
Webster and Worcester, in their above definitions. Trom
the six quarterings on the shield, with the necessary seven
attending spaces outside of the sections or quarterings, arose
the original thirteen stripes, as they are called, which were
transferred to the flag of the Union in 1777. The stars
were intended to represent the number of the States, while
the origin of the stripes was the quarterings or sections of
the shield, as stated. ALEXANDER. H. STEPHENs.
Eppard’s Point, a twp. of Livingston co., Ill. P. 861.
Ep/ping, a town of England, in Essex, is at the N. end
of Epping Forest, 16 miles N. N. E. of London. It is noted
for its cream, butter, and sausages. Epping Royal Forest,
formerly Waltham Forest, covers 60,000 acres, but was once
much more extensive. 12,000 acres are in woods and
wastes, and the other part is enclosed. Pop. 5566.
Epping, a post-township of Rockingham co., N. H., on
the Portsmouth R. R., 39 miles S. E. of Concord. It has four
churches, and manufactures of shoes, brick, lumber, wool-
len goods, etc. Pop. 1270.
Epps, a township of Butler co., Mo. Pop. 263.
Ep’som, a market-town of England, county of Surrey,
14 miles by railway S. S. W. of London. It has a mineral
spring containing sulphate of magnesia, which derives from
this place the name of Epsom salt. Here is a royal medical
college. Epsom is famous for its horse-races, which are
held yearly on the Downs, 1% miles S. of the town. The
races last four days, one of which is called “Derby Day,”
and are more numerously attended than any other races in
the kingdom. Pop. 4882.
Epsom, a post-township of Merrimack co., N. H. It
has manufactures of lumber, etc. Pop. 993.
Ep’som Salt [Lat. magnesiae sulphag (i.e. “ sulphate
of magnesia.”); Ger. Schwefelsaure Magnesia], the magne-
sium sulphate (SO4M57OH2), a salt, when pure, usually
found in colorless acicular crystals derived from the right
rhombic prism, and containing 51.22 per cent. of water of
crystallization. It is somewhat efflorescent, for at 32° Fah-
renheit water will dissolve over one-fourth its weight of the
anhydrous salt, and as the temperature is raised the solu-
bility increases. The salt was formerly manufactured from
the waters of the mineral spring of Epsom, England. It
also exists largely in sea-water, from which it was formerly
prepared in large quantities. In Italy it is now prepared
from a schistose rock; in England, from dolomite; in Penn-
Sylvania and Maryland, from magnesite. This salt is used
in medicine as a cooling and generally safe cathartic. It is
nauseous to the taste, but may be easily taken in “soda-
water” with lemon syrup. In the household it is an excel-
lent addition to starch, decidedly increasing its stiffening
t
powers. Mixed with ordinary whitewash, it gives a fine
pearly whiteness to walls.
Equal’ity, a post-village of Gallatin co., Ill. Pop. 356.
Equality, a township of Miller co., Mo. Pop. 1068.
Equation [Lat. aequa'tio, aequa're, to “make equal”],
in algebra and the calculus, an expression denoting that tvo
quantities symbolically expressed are equal. The sign =
placed between the two quantities equated denotes this rela-
tion. Either quantity may be expressed in a single term, or
in more terms than one, connected by the sign + or —. The
term or terms on the left of the sign of equality constitutes
what is called the first member of the equation; the term
or terms on the right, the second member. In analysis
there occur equations of two classes, distinguished as alge-
braic and transcendental. Algebraic equations are those
in which the quantities employed are subjected to no opera-
tions but the operations of common algebra, including addi-
tion, subtraction, multiplication, division, and involution
to powers or evolution of roots, expressed by constant in-
dices. Transcendental equations are those whereinto rela-
tions are introduced to which the ordinary operations of
algebra are inadequate, as when the exponents of powers
are variable, or when the trigonometrical functions of va-
riable angles enter as terms or factors. Such relations are
called transcendental (see TRANSCENDENTALs), and give
name to the equations in which they occur. The object
of algebraic equations is usually to ascertain the value
of some unknown quantity through its relations to other
quantities which are known. If there is but one unknown
quantity, a single equation will suffice for the solution. If
there are two or more, there must be as many equations ex-
pressing relations independent of each other as there are
unknown quantities. If the number of independent equa-
tions is smaller than the number of unknown quantities,
the problem to which they belong is indeterminate. It
can then be made determinate by forming a sufficient num-
ber of independent equations with arbitrary conditions.
If the number of independent equations is greater than the
number of unknown quantities, the problem to which they
are supposed to belong is impossible. In this case some
of the conditions which these equations express are incom-
patible with each other; but if, after eliminating all the
unknown quantities from them, we treat the constants
which remain as if they were unknowns—that is, make
them arbitrary constants—the resolution of the group with
respect to these will show what relations they must have
to each other, or the conditions which must exist, in order
to render the original set of equations determinate. They
are therefore called equations of condition; which term is
generally applicable to all equations which express neces-
sary relations between quantities, without any regard to
their absolute value. -
The equality between the members of an equation is not
affected by subjecting both to the same operation. Thus,
if both members be multiplied or divided by the same
quantity, increased or diminished by the same quantity,
raised to the same power, depressed to the same root, made
the values of similar trigonometrical functions of the same
angle, or taken as the exponents or logarithms of the same
assumed constant or variable, under all these transforma-
tions the relation of equality between them is preserved.
If any term be transposed from one member to the other
of an equation, the equality is still maintained, provided
the sign of the term transposed be changed from + to —,
or from — to +, at the same time. If all the terms of one
member be thus transposed to the other, this member is
reduced to 0, but the equality is still preserved. In all
general discussions of the theory of equations it is com-
mon to consider the equation under this form; i. e. with
the significant terms on one side and zero on the other.
An identical equation is one in which precisely the same .
terms are found on one side as on the other, or in which
this exact similarity is producible by performing operations
on one side or the other, which change the form without
altering the value. Thus, • "
2 –- zºo-2 2 2
cy” + ca.” + 2azy-E ay” + 2ca:y-H acc = (a + y)”
Cz-H c
is an identical equation, because, by properly arranging the
terms of the first member, and actually performing the
division by a + c, and by developing the second member at
the same time, we have ac” +2acy + y2 = ac” + 2a:y + y”. An
identical equation is obviously no help towards the solution
of a problem. r
The degree of an algebraic equation is denoted by the
highest power of the unknown quantity contained in it, if
it has but one, and by the greatest sum that can be found
by adding together the exponents of all the unknowns
which are factors in any single term, if there are several.
An equation of the first degree is called a simple equation.
If it has but one unknown, it is resolved by transposing
1624
EQUATION OF TIME-EQUATION, PERSONAL.
all the terms into which the unknown enters to the first
member, and all those into which it does not enter to the
second; then resolving the first member into two factors,
of which one shall be the unknown ; and, finally, dividing
both members by the second factor of the first member—
that is, by the coefficient of the unknown quantity. If a
simple equation contains more than one unknown, then
singly it is indeterminate. To be determinate there must
be just as many equations (not transformable into each
other) as there are unknowns. In this case, if we find from
one of the equations the value of one of the unknown quan-
tities in terms of the others (i.e. by treating all the other
unknowns as knowns for the time being), and substitute
the value so found in all the remaining equations, we shall
have eliminated, or got rid of, one of the unknowns, and
have made the number of equations one less at the same
time. Following up this mode of proceeding, we shall at
length have but one equation and one unknown quantity;
of which last therefore the value is obtainable in known
terms. The values of the rest are then easily deducible by
successive substitutions.
Equations of the second degree can always be reduced to
the form ac” + 2pac = q. For if originally there are many
terms containing ac” and ac, and also many known quan-
tities, all the unknowns having been brought to the first
member and the knowns to the second, the term or group
of terms containing ac” may be resolved into two factors,
of which one shall be ac” itself, and the whole equation may
then be divided by the other factor. Then all the knowns
forming the coefficient of ac may be represented by 2p, and
the entire second member may be represented by q. In
this case it may happen that the coefficient of ac is negative.
If so, the implicit value of p is said to be negative, while
its explicit sign is positive. This matter must be attended
to when the values which p replaces are restored. The
quadratic having the form above, its solution, which pre-
sents two values, either of them capable of satisfying the
equation, is as follows:
ac-—p + wig-F p”,
ac = —p — w q + p?.
Any equation, whatever its degree, which contains but
two powers of the unknown, is reducible precisely like a
quadratic, provided that the indexes of the two powers are
in the relation of 2 to 1. For, supposing the two powers
to be m and n, we can always reduce the equation to the
form acm + 2pacn = q, or a 2n + 2p2* = q. Hence, from what
°.
–=-1.
has just been said it appears that a = (– p + aſ q + p”)ń.
For the manner of reducing cubic, biquadratic, and higher
equations resort must be had to systematic treatises. The
following are a few of the propositions of general interest
in regard to the theory of equations which are admissible
in an article having the necessarily limited Scope of the
present. -
Every equation of whatever degree (say the mº) is capa-
ble of being reduced to the form a " + Azº-, + Bx”-4--
Cºcm-3...... + Pv +Q = 0; in which the coefficients A, B, C,
etc. are positive or negative, whole or fractional, real or.
imaginary, as it may happen. If an equation has as many
real roots as its degree indicates, the coefficient A will be
the sum of all these roots with signs reversed. If the sev-
eral roots are a, b, c, etc., the equation itself is the product
of the binomial factors ac- a, ac – b, ac - c, and so on; so
that the constant (or known) term Q is the product of all
the roots a, b, c, etc., with signs reversed. If there are not
so many different real quantities which will satisfy the
equation as the number of units in the exponent of the
degree, then there will be imaginary roots (quantities con-
taining an even root of a negative quantity), and these,
when present, are always present in pairs, each member
of a pair containing the same real and imaginary terms,
the imaginary term with contrary signs. Such pairs of
roots are called conjugate roots. If one of the real roots
(as a) of an equation is known, the equation is divisible by
the binomial c – a, and may thus be depressed in degree
to the next lower order. If the coefficients of all the differ-
ent powers of the unknown quantity from m downward are
whole numbers, all the commensurable roots are whole num-
bers. Every equation in which some of the coefficients are
fractional can be transformed into another of the same form
as given above, in which all the coefficients shall be whole
numbers; but in this case ac will have to give place to some
other unknown, as y in the expression y = ka. After the
transformation we shall have y” + A'y”-1 + Bºy”-” +
C’ym–3...... Pac-i-Q’= 0.
Every equation can be transformed into another in which
the second term shall be wanting by assuming •=y–º
and substituting this value of a for ac itself in the given
equation. This transformation is always necessary
liminarily to the reduction of cubics, and generally to that
pre-
of biquadratics. Every equation in which the signs are
all positive must have all its real roots negative. Every
complete equation (i.e. one in which all the powers of w are
present) which has its signs alternately positive and nega-
tive must have all its real roots positive; and this will be
true of incomplete equations if we replace the missing terms
by zeros. When the last (the known) term of an equation
is positive, the number of its real positive roots is even;
when it is negative, the number of such roots is uneven.
Every equation of an even degree, in which the coefficients
are real and the last term negative, has at least two real
roots—one positive, and the other negative. Every equa-
tion of an odd degree, in which the coefficients are real, has
at least one root of a sign contrary to that of the last term.
When the roots of an equation are all real, the number of
positive roots is equal to the number of variations of sign
(changes from + to —, or the contrary in proceeding from
left to right), and the number of negative roots is equal to
the number of permanences of sign.
The number of real roots of any numerical equation in
which the roots are all unequal may be found by means of
its first derivative (see DERIVATIVE), as follows: Operate
on the equation and its derivative as for finding greatest
common measure, using only positive multipliers or divi-
sors in preparing the several steps, and change the signs
of the successive remainders thus found. Set down then
in a row the first terms (only) of the given equation, the
derivative, and the several remainders prepared as above
(including the last remainder, which will have but one
term), with their signs. Suppose the unknown to be pos-
itive, and write under each term of this row the sign
of that term resulting from this supposition. Then sup-
pose the unknown to be negative, and write under the
sign last written the sign resulting from this second sup-
position. Count the number of variations in the first of
these rows of resultant signs, and also the number of vari-
ations in the second of the rows. The difference between
these numbers is the number of real roots in the original
equation.
If, as above supposed, the original equation has no equal
roots, no common measure will be found by the first opera-
tion above, and the last remainder will be a constant. But
if it has equal roots, a common measure will be found. In
this case divide the original equation by this common meas-
ure, and the quotient will be a new equation having the
same roots as the given one, the equal roots of that equa-
tion entering it but once. Proceed with it as above. If
the given equation contain but one set of equal roots, the
greatest common measure found in the operation above de-
scribed will be a binomial, or a complete power of a bino-
mial; and the common value of the equal roots will be
found by extracting the numerical root of the known term
which corresponds in degree to this power. If the given
equation contained more than one set of equal roots, the
greatest common measure found as above will be the pro-
duct of the same number of binomials or binomial powers;
and by putting this equal to zero, and pursuing with it the
same treatment as with the original equation, the number
of real roots in it will be ultimately found.
If, instead of taking the first terms of the quantities
above specified—viz. the equation, the derivative, and the
remainders (with signs reversed) — those expressions be
written out in full, and their resultant signs ascertained
and written down for any assumed value of the unknown,
as p, and for other values as p, p2. . . . pm, etc., increasing
or diminishing by minute differences; and if at length a
value, as pn, be found which gives one variation more or
one fewer than the value pn-1, next greater, or next less;
then one of the real roots of the equation lies between pn-1
and pn. It thus appears that all the real roots of any mu-
merical equation of whatever degree may be found by ap-
proximation. F. A. P. BARNARD.
Equa/tion of Time is the difference in mean solar
time between the sun's apparent or true right ascension and
its mean right ascension; or, in other words, the difference
between sun time and clock time. This difference arises—
(1st) from the sun's unequal motion in longitude because
of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit; (2d) from the obliq-
uity of the ecliptic; and (3d) to some small extent from the
perturbations of the moon and planets. Sun time and clock
time agree about Dec. 25th, April 16th, June 16th, and
Sept. 1st. The equation of time is greatest about Nov. 1st,
when the clock is sixteen minutes and sixteen seconds faster
than the Sun.
Equa/tion, Per’sonal. It is found by experience
that different persons, in recording the results of astronom-
ical observations, will make various errors, some anticipa-
ting the event, but others failing to record it at the proper
time. When it is found possible, by examining a long
series of records made of the same events by two observers,
EQUATOR-EQUISETACEAE.
1625
to discover the average difference between their records of
events, a very important correction of time-intervals may
sometimes be introduced into a computation based upon
such records. Such a correction is called the relative per-
sonal equation of the two astronomers. When it is found
that an observer habitually makes, or is likely to make, a
certain error in his time-records, such error (or absolute
personal equation) can be readily allowed for.
Equator [Lat. aequa'tor, from aequo, acqua'twm, to “make
equal;” Sp. ecuador], literally, “that which makes equal,”
or which divides equally the surface of the earth, in geo-
graphy, is a great circle of the terrestrial sphere which is
equidistant from the two poles, and divides the earth into
northern and southern hemispheres. Latitudes are counted
from the equator along the meridian, and longitudes are
measured on the equator or on some circle parallel with it.
EQUATOR, in astronomy, is the great circle of the celestial
sphere, of which the plane is perpendicular to the axis of
the earth's diurnal motion. It is called the equator because
when the sun is in its plane the days and nights are exactly
equal all over the world. The equator divides the sphere
into northern and southern hemispheres, and is often styled
the equinoctial. The apparent diurnal motions of all the
celestial bodies are performed in circles which are parallel
to it. The right ascensions are measured on it.
Equatorial Current. See CURRENTs, MARINE.
Equato/rial Tel’escope, a telescope mounted upon
a fixed axis parallel to the axis of the earth, and turning
also upon a second movable axis parallel to the equator, for
the continuous observation of heavenly bodies, and for
noting their right ascension and declination. The motion
of the telescope round its fixed or “polar’’ axis is neces-
sarily parallel to the equator, and this gives the instrument
its name. In order to maintain the object observed steadily
in the field of view, the telescope is made to revolve round
the polar axis by an attached clockwork, which admits of
being regulated so as to vary the velocity of rotation, ac-
cording as the object under examination is the Sun, the
moon, a planet, or a fixed star.
Eques’ trian [Lat. eques/tris, “belonging to a horse or
horseman’’ (from eſquus, a “horse’’)], pertaining to horses;
riding on horseback; skilled in horsemanship ; represent-
ing a person on horseback, as a statue.
IEques/trian Or’der [Lat. or’do equesſtris or equites,
the plu. of eſques, a “horseman "], also called Knights,
the name of an important division of the citizens of ancient
Rome. They were originally a military organization, and
formed the cavalry of the Roman army. According to
Livy, Romulus constituted three centuries (300) of equites,
to whom he gave the several names of Ramnenses, Titi-
enses, and Luceres. Down to the year 123 B.C. the equites
formed simply a division of the army, and their centuries
were composed of patricians and plebeians, but C. Gracchus
in that year procured the passage of the Lear Sempronia,
which instituted a new class or political order called ordo
equestris, from whom all the judices (judges) must be selected.
The reform of Sulla deprived them of the sole right of being
chosen as judices, who thenceforth were selected from the
senators, equites, and tribuni aerarii. The equites also en-
joyed the privilege of officiating as publicani or farmers of
the public revenue. According to Cicero, who belonged to
this order, these publicani “ comprised the flower of the
Roman chivalry, the ornament of Rome, the firm support
(firmamentum) of the republic.” The badges of the equites
were a gold ring and a robe with a narrow purple border.
Eques/trian Stat/ue, a complete figure of a person
on horseback, executed generally in bronze or stone. In
ancient Greece, where plastic art attained its highest per-
fection, statues of men and of horses were often of the first
excellence; but horses were more commonly represented as
attached to the chariot. In Rome, equestrian statues of
the emperors were common. The finest extant Roman work
of the kind is a bronze equestrian statue of M. Aurelius An-
toninus. Among the famous modern equestrian works are
the noble colossal statue of Peter the Great at St. Peters-
burg, and that of Frederick the Great at Berlin by Rauch.
Recent works of the kind are very numerous.
Equian/gular, having equal angles. A figure is equi-
angular when all its angles are equal, as a square. Two or
more figures of the same kind (usually rectilinear) are said
to be equiangular when the angles of the one taken consecu-
tively are respectively equal to the angles of the other.
Equian/gular Spi'ral, a term applied to the logarith-
mic spiral, from its having the property of cutting all its
polar radii vectores at the same angle.
Eq/uidae [from the Lat. equws, a “horse”], the family
which is formed by the horse, ass, etc., a section (Solidun-
gula) of the order Ungulata. The most characteristic fea-
ture of the Equidae is the solid, one-toed foot formed by the
its sides are equal.
union of the central phalanges and the atrophy of the lat-
eral ones. Single-toed horses began in the pliocene. In
the miocene epoch our horses were represented by Hippa-
rion, etc., which had two small lateral toes or hoofs, of which
some traces may be often found in living horses. In the
lower miocene Anchitherium represents the Equidae, and con-
nects the horse with Palaeotherium, Pliolophus, etc. of the
eocene and with the tapirs of the present day. The gene-
alogy of the Equidae is better known and more instructive
than that of any other group of mammals. Nearly twenty
species of equine quadrupeds have been described from the
tertiary and quaternary deposits of America, but it is sup-
posed that no horse existed with the New World at the time
of the advent of the Europeans. (See HoRSE and HIPPA-
RION.) -
Equilat'eral [from the Lat aeſquus, “equal,” and la’tus
(gen. lat’eris), a “side ’’), having equal sides. In geom-
etry a rectilinear figure is said to be equilateral when all
If, moreover, its angles are all equal,
it is called regular. Every equilateral figure inscribed in a
circle is equiangular, and therefore regular. The converse
theorem, however, is only true for polygons with an odd
number of sides. An equilateral hyperbola is that of which
the axes are equal.
Equilib’rium [Lat. aequilibrium, from aeſquus, “equal,”
and li/bra, a “balance;” Fr. 6quilibre], the state of rest.
produced by two or more mutually counteracting forces;
equipoise. Equilibrium is the foundation of the theory
of mechanics; it is, in its generalized meaning, the physical
law of the universe. EQUILIBRIUM, in the fine arts, the just
place or balance of a figure or other object, so that it may
appear to stand firmly. Also the due equipoise of objects,
lights, shadows, etc. against each other.
Equinoctial. See EQUINox. -
Equinocºtial Points, the two opposite points of the
celestial sphere in which the ecliptic and equator intersect
each 6ther, the one being the first point of Aries, and the
other the first point of Libra. These points do not retain
a fixed position in relation to the stars, but retrograde from
E. to W. with a slow motion, requiring 25,000 years to ac-
complish a complete revolution. This motion is called the
“precession of the equinoxes.”
E/quinox [from the Lat. ae'quus, “equal,” and moa,
“night,” i. e. the time when the night equals the day in
length], in astronomy, the time when the sun passes through
the equator in one of the equinoctial points. When the sun
is in the equator the days and nights are equal all over the
world, hence the derivation of the term. This happens
twice every year—viz., about the 21st of March and the
22d of September; the former is called the vernal, and the
latter the autumnal equinox. The equinoxes do not divide
the year into portions of equal length, but the interval
from the vernal to the autumnal equinox is greater than
that from the autumnal to the vernal; in other words, the
sun continues longer on the northern than on the southern
side of the equator, because it is more distant from the
earth in our summer than in winter, and its angular motion
in its orbit is consequently slower between March and Sep-
tember than in the other part of the year. In 1800 the
difference amounted to seven days sixteen hours and fifty-
one minutes.
Eq/uipage [from the Fr. Équiper, to “equip,” to “fit
out,” to “furnish *l in ordinary language signifies the car-
riage, horses, and liveries which indicate the fortune or
rank of a nobleman or gentleman; a carriage of state; a
retinue; ornamental furniture. In marine affairs it signi-
fies the crew of a ship, together with all a ship's furniture,
masts, sails, ammunition, etc. In military language the
term “camp and garrison equipage” is applied to the tents
and other furniture of an army.
Equip/ment, the act of equipping or fitting for an
expedition; furniture, accoutrements, or warlike apparatus.
The equipment of a private soldier comprises his clothes,
arms, and other necessary articles. In civil engineering
the term is applied to the rolling stock of a railroad—i.e.
the locomotives and cars.
Equipment and Recruiting, Bureau of, in the
U. S. navy department, has charge of supplying cables, rig-
ging, anchors, sails, blocks, and fuel for ships in commis-
sion. It controls the government ropewalks and other
manufactories of that class of goods which it supplies. It
also has control of naval enlistments of seamen, landsmen,
and boys, and of the recruiting rendezvous and the receiv-
ing ships.
Equiseta/ceae [from Equise/tum, one of the general,
a natural order of cryptogamous plants, growing in ditches,
wet ground, and rivers in many parts of the world. They
have no decided affinity with any known order, and have
no medicinal qualities. They have hollow and jointed
1626
EQUISETUM–EQUITY.
stems. They are found fossil in coal, and were in ancient "
geologic periods very much larger and more numerous than
at present.
Equise’tum [from e^gwus, a “horse,” and se/ta, a
“bristle”], a genus of plants of the order Equisetaceae,
comprises numerous species called horsetail. The fructi-
fication is in the form of a cone or spike. To the base of
each spore are attached four thread-like and club-shaped
elastic filaments, which roll up closely around the spore
when moist, and uncoil when dry. The Equisetum hyemale
(scouring rush) is indigenous in the U. S. and also in
Europe. The abundant silex in its cuticle renders it use-
ful for polishing furniture and for scouring utensils. The
U. S. have also several other species. True Equiseta date
back to the trias, when they were numerous, and attained
the height of twenty feet. In the carboniferous rocks the
Equiseta are represented by Calamites, Calamodendron, etc.
Eq/uitant [from eq’wito, to “ride”], a botanical term
signifying “riding astride,” is applied to leaves which
overlap each other without any involution, as those of the
ITIS.
Equites. See EQUESTRIAN ORDER.
Eq/uity [Lat. aequitas, “equality,” “justice,” from aequ-
ws, “just,” “even,” “equal”]. This word is used to in-
dicate a portion of the mass of English jurisprudence, de-
rived from the decisions of courts and the rules of approved
text-writers. It originated in the same general way as that
branch of jurisprudence technically called “common law.”
It is, in a sense, common law itself when considered in con-
trast with statutes. The relation of equity to common law
can be best understood by a brief historical survey. After
the Norman conquest of England the king was deemed to
be the fountain of justice. Ultimately, certain great courts
of general jurisdiction came into active operation, known as
“king’s courts.” These were the common pleas, the king's
bench, and the exchequer. At first, their functions were
quite distinct, but in course of time, by fictions of law, juris-
diction was assumed, so that in some respects it became con-
current in these tribunals. The regular mode of bringing
a question before one of these courts for adjudication was
by an action, in which there was a plaintiff and a defend-
ant. A formal statement of the plaintiff's claim and of the
defendant’s defence was made in written allegations termed
pleadings, and the question thus raised was called the is-
sue. A judge and jury disposed of issues of fact. The
action must be commenced by a so-called writ, purporting
to emanate from the king and addressed to the sheriff, who
caused the defendant to be brought before the court. There
was an office in chancery, from which the writs issued. They
were framed in a technical manner. The clerks would only
grant a writ when they could find a precise precedent in
their office. Actions were real, personal, or mixed. A real
action was adapted to the recovery of land; personal actions
were used to recover money; and the two were combined
in a mixed action. The personal actions were framed on the
theory either of contract or wrong (technically called tort).
Originally, they were debt, covenant, and detinue in cases
of contract; and in case of tort, trespass, trover, and re-
plevin. The object of the action of debt was to recover a
specific sum of money due to the plaintiff. The action of
covenant was brought upon an instrument under seal. “De-
tinue” was resorted to in order to recover a specific chattel
which the defendant had received as a bailee. (See BAIL-
MENT.) The action of trespass was instituted for an imme-
diate and direct injury to person or property; trover was
the appropriate means to recover the value of personal
property wrongfully converted by the defendant; while re-
plevin was used to recover the property itself.
It was found at an early day that the personal actions
were quite insufficient to give full relief. A statute was
enacted in 13 Edw. I. (ch. 24) which led to the introduc-
tion of a new form of action, termed “trespass on the case.”
This was a comprehensive name for all actions for wrongs
where the injury was indirect and consequential, as in the
case of negligence. It also included many cases now recog-
nized as strictly actions upon contract, and called “assump-
sit.” If this statute had been wisely interpreted, no court
of equity would have been necessary, nor would any prob-
ably have arisen. But the judges of the so-called common-
law courts adopted very strict and narrow rules of construc-
tion, and confined the remedy under the statute to the same
kind of relief as had been already recognized. All the re-
lief granted in these courts may be summed up in a single
phrase: one can recover money only or specific real or per-
sonal property. As society advanced in wealth and civil-
ization, such a system of remedial justice was lamentably
imperfect. Out of its imperfection grew the jurisdiction of
courts of equity. The residuum of justice not granted to
the common-law courts remained in the king. It became
a practice to address petitions to him in particular cases
for relief which those courts could not grant. These were
referred to the privy council, a powerful body of men se-
lected by the monarch for their wealth or capacity. In pro-
cess of time the disposal of these petitions devolved upon one
of their number, the lord chancellor, who was a great officer,
and who had usually the legal training which would fit
him to dispose of the important questions submitted to him.
Such matters were not presented by writ, as in the common-
law courts, but by an application in the nature of a peti-
tion; and this commonly closed with the stereotyped phrase
that the petitioner, having no sufficient remedy at common
law, asked for relief “for the love of God and in the way
of charity.” At an early day the chancellor devised a writ
called a writ of subpoena, whereby a party to a suit could be
compelled to disclose upon his oath facts bearing upon the
controversy between him and the opposite party. This is
called “discovery.” No such power inhered in common-
law courts. In this way the court of chancery became a
regular tribunal for the administration of justice. It fol-
lowed precedent, and has worked out a scientific system of
equity jurisprudence. It has now become so bound down
by rules that new principles can only be introduced by legis-
lation. This point is treated in a masterly manner by Mr.
Maine in his work on “Ancient Law.” “It should be re-
marked that other courts besides the court of chancery ae-
quired equity jurisdiction. Thus, the court of exchequer.
had until modern times equity powers. There may thus be
courts of equity which are not strictly courts of chancery.
When English jurisprudence had assumed a precise and
fixed character, there were thus two sets of tribunals, called
respectively courts of common law and courts of equity.
In some cases the jurisdiction of the two courts was con-
current; in others the equity court had exclusive authority,
as in the case of trusts. The courts differed in three prin-
cipal respects: two of these were in matters of procedure,
while the third distinction was radical and substantial.
They differed as to the mode of proof and of trial, and in
respect to the nature of the relief granted. The first two
distinctions have been largely modified in this country in a
considerable number of the States. In these law and equity
are administered by a single court and under the same sys-
tem of pleading, so that there is no distinction between an
action at law and a suit in equity. Even in these States
the difference in relief still continues. When the action is
for the recovery of money only, or of specific real or per-
sonal property, a writ issues to the sheriff to carry the
judgment into effect. In other (or equity) actions, as when
a defendant is required to execute, or cancel a written in-
strument, or to refrain from doing an act, the order of the
court is directed to him; and if he wilfully disobeys it, he
may be punished for contempt of court. This consolida-
tion of law and equity was first attempted in a “code of
procedure” adopted in New York in 1848. This has been
substantially enacted in a number of other States, and has
had much effect upon legal opinion in England. Courts of
equity have adopted certain maxims which have had a large
influence on the development of the system. They are such
as these: (1) Equity follows the law; (2) He who comes
into equity must come with clean hands; (3) He who asks
equity must do equity; (4) Where the equities are equal,
the legal title must prevail; (5) Equality is equity; (6)
Equity regards that as done which ought to be done.
A brief exposition of a few of these maxims will show
the principles' which guide the action of the court. The
maxim that “He who comes into equity must come with
clean hands,” does not refer to general moral delinquency.
It only applies to the subject before the court. It then as-
sumes a comprehensive meaning. Under it the court would
not protect the copyright of an immoral book, or a trade-
mark which was so used as to deceive the public. The
maxim that “He who asks equity must do equity,” means
that the court will only grant relief to a plaintiff upon the
condition that he will render justice to the defendant. For
example, a borrower could not succeed in setting aside an
instrument on the ground of usury, except upon the con-
dition of paying to the creditor the debt and lawful interest.
The maxim that “Where the equities are equal, the legal
title must prevail,” means that the court will not, on the
application of a plaintiff, deprive a defendant, being a
purchaser for a valuable consideration, of a title recognized
in a court of common law, unless he has acted in bad faith
or with notice of the existing rights of the plaintiff. An
illustration will show its application. If A has taken an
informal mortgage upon land, and accordingly one not
valid in law, and yet a good claim in equity, and B, with-
out notice of A's rights, has taken, for a valuable consider-
ation, a subsequent regular or formal mortgage or convey-
ance, B will have superior legal rights, which will be recog-
nized in a court of equity. If B had acted with notice
of the informal mortgage, A’s equity would have been
superior. The rule that “Equality is equity” is applied
EQUITY OF REDEMPTION.—ERASMUS.
1627
to persons who ought to bear a common burden equally,
as in case of the duty of co-suretics to contribute equally
to pay the debt for which they are bound, or in cases of
general average in the law of shipping. It is the prin-
ciple which underlies the distribution of assets among
creditors in cases of bankruptcy, or in the administration
of the estates of intestates. The rule that “Equity regards
that as done which ought to be done,” is one of great im-
portance. It leads to a doctrine peculiar to this court,
known as “equitable conversion.” . This phrase means that
the owner of property, by the mere expression of his will
according to legal rules, can change its legal character, and
thus give to money the qualities of land, or to land those of
money. Thus, if a testator orders his land to be sold and
converted into money, the land from the moment of his
death is deemed to be personal property. The same result
would follow if he had directed money to be laid out in
land. So, if an owner of land contracts to sell it, his in-
terest before any conveyance is made is deemed to be
money, while that of the purchaser is regarded as land.
This doctrine is attended with important practical conse-
quences, to which the limits of this article do not permit a
reference.
It is an important rule that the jurisdiction of this court
attaches to the person of a litigant, without reference to
the situation of the property in controversy. Thus, the
court of chancery in England might order a defendant
within its jurisdiction to execute a conveyance of land situ-
ated in this country. It would proceed upon the theory
that he was under a legal duty or obligation to do the act
which as a matter of conscience he was bound to perform.
The court was at one time termed a “court of conscience,”
and in the older law digests or abridgments, the equity law
is placed under that head. It should be added that mere
gratuitous executory promises are not enforceable in this
court. Attention is only paid to the claims of purchasers
for a valuable consideration. -
The topics of equity jurisprudence are usually consider-
ed by text-writers in their relations to the jurisdiction of the
courts of common law. In this aspect equity jurisdiction
may be regarded either as auxiliary to the jurisdiction of
those courts, or as concurrent or exclusive. This method
is necessarily discarded in those States where law and
equity are administered under a uniform system of plead-
ing and practice, as in New York. The principal subjects
may be enumerated under the following heads: Cases of
accident or mistake (as where a clause is omitted from an
instrument by accident); cases of fraud, either actual or
constructive; specific performance of contracts (e. g. re-
quiring a party who has promised to execute a conveyance
to fulfil his contract); cases of interpleader, whereby a
mere stakeholder can be relieved from the results of a liti-
gation; cases of accounts, including a variety of instances;
cases of trusts, whether created by express words or arising
from implication of law. The court also protects all per-
sons under actual or legal disability, such as infants, mar-
ried women, and persons of unsound mind. Under these
and other heads the court may cancel, modify, or reinstate
instruments, and in general adjust the rights of the respec-
tive parties to the controversy. In some of these cases ac-
tions may be brought in a court of law. Thus, in case of
fraud, if the injured party desired pecuniary damages, he
would bring his action at law; if he desired to set an in-
strument aside, he would proceed in equity. A person who
would have a good defence on the ground of fraud to an
action at law, may in some instances become plaintiff in
equity, and have the instrument cancelled, as in the case
of a negotiable promissory note. The most extensive of
all of these topics is the subject of trusts. Strict trusts are
solely cognizable in this court.
The remedies in this court are flexible and readily adapt-
ed to the exigencies of the case. The most liberal rules
prevail as to parties. Every person can be made a party
whose presence is necessary to a complete determination of .
the matter in controversy. The court has power to prevent
apprehended injuries to property by means of an injunc-
tion, or to place the property itself in the possession of
one of its own officers, termed a receiver, until the rights
of the parties are finally established.
The tendency of modern times would seem to be to blend
the two systems of common law and equity jurisprudence
into one, when the common law will prevail as modified by
the rules of equity. T. W. DWIGHT.
Eq/uity of Redemp’tion, the right which the owner
of mortgaged property has to redeem it after the condi-
tion of the mortgage has been broken. A mortgage is
in form a conveyance of property, with a provision that
it shall be void on the performance by the maker, within
a given time, of a certain condition, usually the payment
of a sum of money; and by the common law, if the con-
dition is not performed the conveyance becomes absolute,
and the maker of the mortgage, called the mortgagor,
loses all right to the property. But the English court of
chancery, an equity tribunal, as early as the reign of
Charles I. asserted its power to remedy this hardship by
compelling the mortgagee to give up the land on payment
of the debt with interest. This right in equity to redeem
the property after the conveyance has become absolute at
law has in modern times come to be regarded as an estate
in the land, and can be conveyed or mortgaged or de-
vised by its owner. It passes by descent to his heirs; it
is liable for the debts of his creditors, and can be sold
on execution against him, and is subject to dower and cur-
tesy. This right to redeem lasts till cut off by foreclosure
of the mortgage, which is usually effected by an action in
a court of equity. The foreclosure may result in giving a
complete title to the mortgagee (called a strict foreclosure),
or it may result in a sale of the premises and the pay-
ment of the debt out of the proceeds, the surplus being
returned to the mortgagor or to those who claim under
him. The right to redeem from the mortgage extends
to all who acquire an interest in the land under the mort-
gagor after the making of the mortgage; and all such
persons must be made parties to a proceeding to foreclose
the mortgage, otherwise their right to redeem will not be
affected. Formerly, unless restrained by some clause in
the mortgage, the mortgagee could at once take possession
of the premises, although equity compelled him to account
for the rents and profits upon redemption. Now, how-
ever, the mortgagor has in general the right of possession
till the condition is broken, and in some States till fore-
closure, except when after default, where the security is in-
adequate, a receiver is appointed to take charge of the prop-
erty under the direction of the court. T. W. DWIGHT.
Equivalents, Chemical. See CHEMISTRY.
Equivocal Term, in logic, a term which has several
significations applying respectively and equally to several
objects. A word is generally said to be employed equivo-
cally where the middle term is used in different senses in
the two premisses, or where a proposition is liable to be
understood in various Senses.
Equus, the name of the genus which includes the horse,
ass, zebra, etc., and type of the family EQUIDAE (which see).
E/ra [Lat. ae/ra; Fr. Ére, probably from a root akin to
the Basque era, “time”], a period of time; an account of
time reckoned from some particular date or epoch; a suc-
cession of years computed from some fixed point of time.
Era, Christian. See CHRISTIAN ERA.
Erard (SíBASTIEN), an inventor and maker of musical
instruments, born in Strasbourg April 5, 1752. He was the
son of a poor cabinet-maker. His first pianoforte, con-
structed in 1780, may be said to have introduced that in-
strument into France. He soon became the best pianoforte
manufacturer in Europe. He, in connection with his brother,
established a manufactory in London. To Erard the piano
owes some of its noblest qualities as a musical instrument.
The grand piano, with single and double action, was his in:
vention. He built the great organ for the royal chapel of
the Tuileries. The pianos of Erard still preserve their
reputation, though great improvements have been made in
the instrument since his day, in a very large degree by
American manufacturers. Sébastien Erard was inventor
of a double-action harp which had immense popularity in
London, and took out patents for many other improve-
ments, all of which were of value. Died near Paris in 1831.
A nephew, who succeeded him in the business, wrote an
account of his uncle's work.
Erased [from the Lat. e, “out” or “off” and rado,
raysum, to “scratch,” to “scrape”], in heraldry, signifies
that an object is forcibly torn off, so that the edges are
ragged or jagged.
Erasis/tratus [Gr. 'Epagiarparos], an eminent Greek
physician and anatomist, is supposed to have been born
in the island of Ceos. He flourished about 300–260 B.C.,
and practised for many years at Alexandria, where he
taught anatomy and founded a school. He attended. All-
tiochus, the son of Seleucus Nicator, at the court of the
| latter, and discovered that his malady was caused by a se-
cretamorous passion for Stratonice, his stepmother. His
principal discoveries were those of the viº lactea and the
functiºns of the brain and nerves. He wrote several works,
which are not extant. a'
Eras'mus (DESIDERIUs), [Fr. Didier or Désiré Erasme],
a celebrated Dutch scholar and philosopher, born at Rotter:
dam on the 28th of October, 1465. He was a natural son of
Gerard Praet, and was called in his childhood GERHARDUS
GERHARDI, which he exchanged for the Latin and Greek
equivalents, each signifying “ the well-beloved.” He at-
tended for about six years the school of the Brethren of the
Common Life at Deventer, where he was a pupil of Alex-
1628
ERASTIANS-ERCKMANN-CHATRIAN.
ander Hegius. Having become an orphan about 1478, he
was urged by his guardians to enter a monastery, in order
that they might defraud him of his patrimony. Although
he regarded a monastic life with aversion, he was at length
induced in 1482 or 1483 to enter the Augustinian convent
of Stein by the hope that he might there have opportunity
for study. He pursued the study of the classics and dis-
tinguished himself as a Latin scholar. He became in 1492
a priest and secretary to the bishop of Cambray, with whom
he remained nearly five years, and in 1496 went to Paris,
probably for the purpose of completing his education. He
was then nearly destitute of pecuniary resources, and gained
a subsistence in Paris by teaching school. Between 1498
and 1500 he passed about two years in England, where he
formed friendships with Sir Thomas More and John Colet.
He resided at both the universities, and during his third
and longest visit (1511–14) was professor of Greek at Cam-
bridge. Impelled by a strong passion for travel, he visited
various countries of Europe, and never remained long in
one place. In 1508 he commenced a tour in Italy, where
he passed several years, perfected his knowledge of the
Greek language, and associated with the most eminent
scholars. He obtained from the pope a dispensation from
his monastic vows, and received the degree of D. D. at
Turin. He revisited England in 1511, and was appointed
professor of Greek at Cambridge. In 1511 he published
“The Praise of Folly (“Encomium Moriae"), a witty satire,
in which he exposed the follies and foibles of monks, priests,
and men of various other professions. It was generally ad-
mired, and obtained a large circulation.
Having established his reputation as the most eminent
scholar and the most witty writer of his time, he received
invitations from several monarchs, and in 1514 or 1515
visited the court of the archduke Charles (afterwards
Charles W.), who gave him the title of royal councillor,
with a pension of 400 florins, and liberty to travel or re-
side wherever he might prefer. He produced in 1516 a
good edition of the Greek New Testament—the first edition
ever printed—with a corrected Latin version and notes.
He was on friendly terms with Luther in the first stage of
the Reformation, which he efficiently promoted by his witty
satires against the monks and priests, and by his censure
of the corruptions of the Church of Rome. But he disliked
dogmatism, was too liberal and moderate to please the zeal-
ous supporters of either side in a religious controversy, and
he dissented from some of the doctrines of Luther, who de-
nounced him in severe terms as a coward and time-server.
Erasmus became a resident of Bâle about the year 1515,
and published there in 1527 his celebrated “Colloquies”
(“Colloquia”), which some consider his capital work. It
is ostensibly intended for the instruction of youth in Latin
and morals, but abounds in satire and invective directed
against the monks and the abuses of the Roman Church.
It is stated that 24,000 copies of it were sold in one year.
He was involved in a dispute with Luther on the doctrine
of free will in 1524, and wrote on that subject “De Libero
Arbitrio.” He was condemned as a heretic by the Sorbonne
of Paris, but he persisted in maintaining the attitude of a
neutral or mediator, and never formally revolted against
the pope. In 1529 he removed to Freyburg, where he
passed several years. . He died at Băle on the 12th of July,
1536. Among his works is “ Adagia,” a collection of prov-
erbs, which displays immense learning. He greatly ex-
celled as an editor of the Greek and Latin classics, for which
he was qualified by superior critical sagacity as well as
accurate scholarship. He was pre-eminent as a restorer of
classical learning and sound philosophy. His voluminous
“Epistles” contain valuable materials for literary history.
His complete works were published by Beatus Rhenanus (9
vols., 1541), and by Leclerc (10 vols., Leyden, 1603–06).
(See BURIGNY, “Wie d’Erasme,” 1757; KNIGHT, “Life of
Erasmus,” 1726; Jort.IN, “Life of Erasmus,” 1758; ADOLPH
MüLLER, “Life of Erasmus” (in German), 1828; CHARLEs
BUTLER, “Life of Erasmus,” 1825; GLASIUs, “Erasmus
alt Kirchenreformator,” 1850.)
Erasſtians, a name given to the adherents of the Swiss
physician Erastus on church discipline. Erastus earnestly
opposed the use by Protestant churches of ecclesiastical
censures and punishments, and held that the Church ought
merely to decide who by soundness of faith were to be re-
garded as members, but should not take upon herself to
punish moral offences by withholding her privileges. This
view is particularly developed in his posthumous work,
“Explicatio gravissimae quaestionis utrum excommunica-
tio mandato nitatur divino an,” etc. (1589). The common
belief that Erastus intended to subject all ecclesiastical
bodies to the control of the state authorities is at least an
exaggeration. During the great conflict in the Church of
Scotland which led to the establishment of the Free Church,
those who maintained that the Church had no power to
nullify by law the operation of lay patronage were called
a pupil of Callimachus the poet.
by their opponents Erastians, but they protested against
this use of the word.
Eras’tus (THOMAs), M. D., a Swiss physician and theo-
logian, whose proper name was LIEBLER or LIEBER, was
born at Baden in Switzerland (according to others, at
Angen, near Badenweiler), Sept. 7, 1524. He took the de-
gree of M. D. at Bologna, wrote several medical treatises,
and became a skilful practitioner. He was appointed phy-
sician to Frederick, the elector palatine, and was for many
years professor of medicine at Heidelberg, which was the
capital of that prince. As member of the church council
he advocated the Zwinglian views of the Lord's Supper
and of church discipline. He was charged with Socinian-
ism, but without just ground. In 1580 he obtained a chair
of moral philosophy at Bâle, where he died Dec. 31, 1583.
His views on church discipline excited much controversy.
(See ERASTIANs.)
E’rath, a county in N. Central Texas. Area, 1000 square
miles. It is drained by Bosque River, which rises in it, and
by Paloxy Creek. The surface is broken and hilly, but is
partly prairie. The soil is good. Stock-raising is the chief
industry. Grain and wool are raised. Timber abounds, as
well as building-stone. Capital, Stephensville. Pop. 1801.
Er'ato [Gr. 'Epartól, the sixth in order of the Nine
Muses. She was the muse of the poetry of love, that being
the significance of her name. -
Eratos/themes [Gr. 'Eparoorgévms], a celebrated Greek
astronomer and geometer, born at Cyrene in 276 B.C., was
He became superinten-
dent of the great library of Alexandria in the reign of
Ptolemy Euergetes, and rendered important services to the
sciences of astronomy and geography. He displayed great
versatility of genius, and wrote numerous works on phil-
osophy, history, grammar, etc. Among his memorable per-
formances was the measurement of the obliquity of the
ecliptic, which he computed to be 23° 51' 20". In an at-
tempt to ascertain the dimensions of the earth he invented
a method which has been employed with success in modern
times. His writings are not extant, but fragments of his
work on chronology have been preserved by Syncellus.
His computation of Egyptian chronology has been adopted
by Bunsen. “Eratosthenes was,” says Bunsen, “next to
Aristotle, the most illustrious of Greek men of learning,
and as far superior to him in the extent of his knowledge
as inferior in grasp of intellect.” Died about 196 B. C.
The fragments of his works were published by Bernhardy
(1822).
Er/ben (HENRY), U. S. N., born Sept. 6, 1832, in the
city of New York, entered the navy as a midshipman June
17, 1848, became a passed midshipman in 1855, a lieuten-
ant in 1856, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a commander
in 1868, took part in the engagements at Fort Pillow, Mem-
phis, Vicksburg, and Baton Rouge during the year 1862,
and in 1863 in the operations against Fort McAllister, Ga.,
and Forts Sumter and Moultrie, S. C.
Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Er/bium [named from the last two syllables of Ytterby,
a town of Sweden, whence gadolinite is procured], a rare
dyad earth-metal, chiefly procured, as an oxide called erbia,
from gadolinite, along with yttria, both earths existing
naturally as silicates. Metallic erbium (symbol E; atomic
weight, 112.6) has not been separated. Its salts have mostly
a rose-color.
Erci'Ila y Zuñi'ga (ALONso), a Spanish epic poet,
born Aug. 7, 1533, was a son of Fortunio Garcia, lord of
Ercilla. He was in his youth a page of Philip II, whom
he accompanied in a voyage to England in 1554. Having
enlisted in the army, he went to South America in that year
to fight against the Araucanians, a warlike tribe whom the
Spaniards were never able to subjugate. He served with
distinction in this war, returned to Spain in 1562, and pub-
lished his “ Araucana” (first part, T569), which is consid-
ered the best heroic poem in the Spanish language, and is
said to be a faithful narrative of the events which he had
witnessed. He was afterwards a gentleman of the bed-
chamber to the emperor Rudolph II., but appears to have
passed his latter years in poverty and obscurity. Died
after 1590. (See TrokNort, “History of Spanish Literature.”)
Erckmann-Chatrian, the name of two French nov-
elists whose works are jointly produced, and whose names,
like those of Beaumont and Fletcher, are inseparably united.
Emile Erckmann, born at Pfalzburg May 20, 1822, Was
the son of a bookseller, and after studying at the college
of Pfalzburg applied himself to reading law in Paris. Al-
exandre Chatrian was born at Soldatenthal, near Pfalz-
burg, Dec. 18, 1826, and was an usher in the Pfalzburg
college when he made the acquaintance of Erckmann in
1847. The two became fast friends, and composed numer-
ous stories, feuilletons, and dramatic pieces without much
FRCSI-ERICSSON.
1629
success. Unable to live in this way, Erckmann applied
himself to the law, while Chatrian found employment in a
railway-office. “L'Illustre Docteur Mathéus ” (1859) was
the first of their writings which attained any popularity.
Their novels upon the events of the Revolution and the
First Empire were much read, and after the German annex-
ation of Alsace they produced a novel under the title of
“The Story of the Plébiscite, related by one of the 7,500,000
who voted Yes,” which made quite a sensation. Also, their
drama “Le Juif Polonais” was very successful.
Ercsi, an Hungarian town, in the county of Stuhlweiss-
enburg, on the Danube, 18 miles S. S. W. from Pesth. Its
industries are weaving, brewing, and tilemaking. Pop.
5540. \ .
Erd’ mann (JoBANN EDUARD), born June 13, 1805, in
Livonia, became professor of philosophy at Halle in 1836.
He wrote, among other works, “Versuch einer wissenschaft-
lichen Darstellung der Geschichte der neueren Philosophie”
(3 vols., 1834–53), “Grundriss der Logik und Metaphysik”
(4th ed. 1864), and “Grundriss der Geschichte de Philoso-
phie’’ (2 vols., 1866). -
£rdmann (OTTo LINNá), a German chemist, born at
Dresden April 11, 1804. He became in 1830 professor of
chemistry at Leipsic. Died Oct. 9, 1869. Among his works
is a valuable “Manual of Chemistry” (1828). He pub-
lished after 1834 the “Journal für praktische Chemie.”
Er'ebus [Gr. "Epegos, probably from épébo, to “cover”],
in classic mythology, the son of Chaos; also the name of
a dark and gloomy region or subterranean cavern through
which souls were supposed to pass after death.
Erebus, Mount, and Mount Terror, are two vol-
canoes in South Victoria, Land, in lat. 77%9 S., discovered
by J. C. Ross Jan. 27, 1841. Mount Erebus, 12,400 feet
high, is, as far as is known, the nearest volcano to the south
pole, and when discovered was emitting flame and smoke in
great profusion. Mount Terror, 10,900 feet high, is believed
to be an extinct volcano. These two mountains were named
from the British ships in which Ross's expedition sailed.
Erechthe'um [Gr. "Epéx9etov], in ancient Athens a sa-
cred edifice on the Acropolis, consisting of the two temples
of Athena, Polias and Pandrosus. Its name was derived
from Erechtheus (see below). It was burned by the Per-
sians, rebuilt about 393 B. C., and became the most sacred
of all the Athenian sanctuaries. The renewed Erechtheum
was a most beautiful structure of the Ionic order. Unlike
all other Grecian temples, it had three porticoes. It an-
ciently contained a salt-well made by Poseidon’s trident
(not flowing in modern times), also the sacred olive tree
of Athena, and the olive-wood image of that goddess, which
is fabled to have fallen from the sky. The ruins of the
Erechtheum stand north of the Parthenon, and are among
the most interesting relics of antiquity. The six caryatides
. (gigantic female figures gracefully draped) which sup-
ported the roof of the southern portico are particularly
fine. One of these is now in the British Museum.
Erech/theus [Gr. 'Epex9eſs; Fr. AEreothée], a hero of
ancient Greek legends, was said to be a son of Vulcan or of
Pandion, and the father of Cecrops. Homer represents him
as a king of Athens. According to tradition, he was the
founder of the Erectheum, a temple of Minerva on the Acrop-
olis of Athens. He was sometimes called Erichthonius.
Er'eglee", or Erekli (anc. Heraclea), a seaport of
Asia Minor on the Black Sea, 122 miles E. by N. of Con-
stantinople. It has a good harbor, from which timber, silk,
and wax are exported. ... The ancient Heraclea was an im-
portant town. Lat. 41° 17' N., lon. 31° 25' E.
Ereſtria [Gr. "Epérpta ; Fr. Erétrie], an ancient city on
the island of Euboea, is mentioned by Homer (“Iliad,” book
ii.). At an early period it was a prosperous and independ-
ent state, and one of the chief maritime cities of Greece. It
was captured and ruined by the Persians in 490 B.C., but
was soon rebuilt. Eretria, was the seat of a celebrated school
of philosophy, founded by Menedemus about 330 B.C.
Er'furt, or Erfurth [Lat. Erphordia and Erfurtum],
a fortified town of Prussian Saxony, on the river Gera and
the Thuringian Railway, 15 miles W. of Weimar and 14
miles E. of Gotha. It is defended by two citadels, and is
important as a military position. It has an old Gothic
cathedral with a bell which weighs 275 hundredweight,
fourteen Protestant churches, a royal academy, a public
library of about 50,000 volumes, a normal school, and an
edifice formerly occupied by the University of Erfurt, which
was founded in 1392 and closed in 1816. Here was the Au-
gustine convent of which Luther was an inmate for several
years; it is now used as an orphan asylum. Erfurt has
manufactures of cotton and woollen fabrics, hosiery, shoes,
leather, etc. It was more populous in the Middle Ages than
it is now. The Congress of Erfurt, held here in Sept.-Oct.,
1808, was attended by Napoleon and Alexander I. of Russia.
In March and April, 1850, the so-called “Union Parlia-
ment ’’ held its sessions here. (See GERMANY.) Pop. in
1871, 43,616.
Er'got [from the Fr. ergot, a “cock's spur;” Late Lat.
ergota ; Ger. Mutterkornj, or Spurred Rye, a curious
fungus, the compact mycelium of the Claviceps purpurea
of Tulasne, growing frequently in the heads of rye, though
found on all grasses and some Cyperaceae. It was long be-
lieved to consist of diseased kernels of rye, but microscop-
ical examination shows that it has nothing at all in common
with the rye, but growing originally from the ovary, it na-
turally assumes something of the shape of the mould in
which it grows. It is believed that spores of this plant are
taken up by the roots of the rye, and that they germinate
in the ovary, where they are deposited from the sap.
Ergot is generally procured from rye after threshing. It
is usually shaped somewhat like a cock's spur, and is from
half an inch to one inch and a half long. It contains a
volatile alkaloid secalia, identical or perhaps only isomeric
with propylamia; also ergotic acid, and several other com-
pounds which are little understood, including an oil which
appears to be inert, and mycose, a peculiar sugar.
Ergot is much used in medicine, especially for the pur-
pose of exciting uterine contractions in child-bearing. As
a rule, it should never be administered except by persons
skilled in its use. The contractions induced by ergot differ
from the natural uterine effort, which is intermittent, with
intervals of more or less perfect rest, while ergot causes a
uniform and constant expulsive effort. In skilled hands it
is a remedy of great value. Administered late in labor, it
often prevents dangerous loss of blood, and it is further use-
ful in some cases of memorrhagia and other haemorrhages.
It is also useful in puerile paralysis, and probably in other
diseases requiring treatment which produces contraction
of the museular coat of the blood-vessels. -
Er'gotism, or Rapha’nia, a disease or train of symp-
toms produced by the long-continued use of grain in which
ergot is mixed. It is characterized by stupor, convulsions,
diarrhoea, and vomiting, often accompanied by morbid in-
crease of appetite, by purpura, and at last by a dry, chronic
gangrene of the extremities. Rye and wheat are especially
apt to be infested with ergot when sown late in the season;
and in some years the ergot has been observed in parts of
Europe to exceed one-fourth of the whole amount of the
winnowed grain ; and several severe epidemics of this fatal
disease have been observed in Europe. It is rare in the
U. S., but in 1819 the cattle throughout a part of the State
of New York suffered extensively from an epizootic of this
nature, caused by ergot in the blue-grass crop (Poa praten-
sis). The poisonous qualities of the darnel grass (Lolium
temulentum), so well known even in Virgil's time, are now
ascribed to the presence of ergot, which is well known to
infest many of the grasses. The treatment to be pursued
is a supporting one—the use of concentrated food, stimu-
lants, pure air, bathing, friction of the skin, with gentle
purgation. No antidote to the severer effects of ergot is
known.
The medicinal use of ergot is very seldom followed by
any of the above-mentioned symptoms, but a few well-
established cases are on record, showing the danger of ex-
cessive and long-continued use of the drug.
Erºic XIV., king of Sweden, born Dec. 13, 1533, was
a son of Gustavus Vasa, whom he succeeded in 1560. He
made an overture of marriage to Queen Elizabeth of Eng-
land, but he married a Swedish peasant named Catharine
Monsdoter. He was capricious, imprudent, momentarily
insane, and always addicted to violent paroxysms of anger
and cruelty. In his reign Sweden was involved in a war
against Denmark. Several noblemen were unjustly put to
death by his order. A conspiracy was formed against him
by his own brothers and other nobles, who deposed him in
1568, and confined him in prison, where he died Feb. 16,
1577. - -
Erica/ceae, or Heathworts [from Erica, one of the
general, a large natural order of beautiful exogenous plants,
mostly shrubs, natives of Europe, Asia, South Africa, and
North America. The leaves are entire, generally evergreen,
and rigid or coriaceous. The anther is 2-celled. This order
comprises about 900 known species, many of whieh have
beautiful flowers. Among those which are natives of the
U. S. are the KALMIA, WAccINIUM, AzALEA, RHODODENDRON,
PyRoDA, GAULTHERIA, CLETHRA, and EPIGAEA, which will
be noticed under their respective heads. The genus Erica
(heath) abounds in South Africa. (See HEATH.) Many
of the Ericaceae are social plants, and a single species in
some cases covers a tract of ground, of which it forms the
almost exclusive vegetation. Several species bear edible
berries, as Vaccinium and Gaultheria (wintergreen).
Er'icsson (John), L.L.D., an eminent mechanician, was
born in Vermeland, a province of Sweden, July 31, 1803.
1630
ERIC THE RED–ERIGENA. \
Showing decided mechanical ingenuity in childhood, he
was appointed at the age of eleven to a cadetship in the
engineer corps, in which he rose to a lieutenancy. In 1826
he visited England to introduce a “flame engine” of his
own invention, but it was discovered that though it worked
with a wood-fire, it failed when coal was used. e made
improvements in steam boilers, and in 1829 produced a
locomotive, the “Novelty,” which ran fifty miles an hour,
a great advance in speed over anything then attained,
winning a prize of £500. He soon after made a steam
fire-engine (1832) and a hot-air engine (1833). He also
first successfully applied the screw to the propulsion of
steam-vessels; but the invention not being at first well re-
ceived in England, he came in 1839 to New York, and the
U. S. screw-steamer Princeton was built under his direction.
Since then, this invention, with many modifications, has
come into very extensive use. In 1852 the ship Ericsson,
propelled by hot air, was launched. He has also invented
a “solar engine,” a pyrometer, an alarm barometer, a sea-
lead, a hydrostatic gauge, and numerous other ingenious
instruments. Mar. 9, 1862, his iron-clad vessel, the Mon-
itor, just built, attacked and repulsed the Confederate iron-
clad ram Virginia, formerly the U. S. steamer Merrimack.
Thus Ericsson has the honor of first successfully employing
the armed turret in naval shipbuilding.
Eric the Red, a reputed discoverer of America, was
a Norwegian who emigrated to Iceland about 982 A. D.
He made a voyage to Greenland, and there founded a
colony. In 1000 A. D. his son Liefr sailed southward,
visiting a country called by him Markland (perhaps Nova
Scotia), and another called Vinland, which appears to have
been South-eastern New England. With far less prob-
ability it is said that Eric planted a colony in Vinland.
E’rie, a county in the W. of New York. Area, 1071
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by Tonawanda
Creek and on the W. by Lake Erie and Niagara River.
It is drained by Buffalo Creek and other streams. The
surface is undulating; the soil fertile. Dairy products,
grain, wool, hay, fruit, and cattle are the staples. The
manufactures and commerce are treated of in the article
on BUFFALO (which see). Iron ore- and limestone are
found here. It is intersected by the Erie Canal, the Buffalo
New York and Philadelphia, and the Lake Shore and
Michigan Southern R. R.s., and by several branches of the
Central and Erie R. R.S., converging to Buffalo, which is
the capital of the county. Pop. 178,699.
Erie, a county in the N. of Ohio. Area, 250 square
miles. It is bounded on the N. by Lake Erie, and inter-
sected by Huron and Vermilion rivers. The surface is
nearly level; the soil is alluvial and very fertile. Cattle,
grain, wool, hay, fruit, and dairy produce are raised. The
fisheries are important. The manufactures include flour,
clothing, wine, brick, cooperage, shipping, carriages, etc.
Fine limestone valuable for building abounds here. This
county is traversed by the Lake Shore and . Michigan
Southern R. R., the Sandusky Mansfield and Newark R. R.,
and the Cincinnati Sandusky and Cleveland R. R. Cap-
ital, Sandusky. Pop. 28,188.
Erie, a county constituting the N. W. extremity of
Pennsylvania. Area, 740 square miles. It is bounded on
the N. W. by Lake Erie, and partly drained by Conneaut
and French creeks. The surface is mostly undulating; the
soil is clayey and productive. Cattle, grain, wool, potatoes,
hay, dairy products, and fruit are the staples. Flour,
leather, lumber, machinery, iron, saddlery, carriages, furni-
ture, and metallic wares are manufactured. Sandstone and
slate occur here as surface-rocks. It is intersected by the
Philadelphia and Erie, the Erie and Pittsburg, the Atlantic
and Great Western, the Buffalo Corry and Pittsburg, and
the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern R. Rs. Capital,
Erie. Pop. 65,973. -
Erie, a post-village of Boulder co., Col., on the Boulder
Valley R. R., 34 miles N. E. of Denver. It is an import-
ant coal-mining centre.
Erie, a post-township of Whitesides co., III. Pop. 695.
" Erie, a township of Miami co., Ind. Pop. 599.
Erie, a township and post-village of Neosho co., Kan.
Pop. 1350; of village, 418.
Erie, a post-township of Monroe co., Mich. Pop. 1527.
Erie, a post-township of McDonald co., Mo. Pop. 615.
Erie, a township of Ottawa co., O. Pop. 455.
Erie, a city and the county-town of Erie co., Pa., is the
only lake-port of the State. It has the largest land-locked
harbor on Lake Erie, being 5 miles in length by 1 in width.
The Pennsylvania R. R. Company runs a line of first- .
class propellers between this port and the upper lakes, and
over fifty sailing-vessels are owned here. The imports are
principally grain, lumber, and iron ore, and the exports
bituminous and anthracite coal and the merchant and pig
iron, engines, and other manufactured products of the port.
It is very nearly equidistant from Cleveland and Buffalo
on the Lake Shore R. R., which gives communication E.
and W., and is the northern terminus of the Philadelphia
and Erie R. R., which penetrates the lumber-region of the
State, and also gives connection with Harrisburg and
Philadelphia and the anthracite coal-fields. Erie is also
the northern terminus of the Erie and Pittsburg R. R.,
which passes through the bituminous coal-regions. The
Pennsylvania, Petroleum R. R., now building, will give
direct communication with the oil-producing section, and
furnish a competing route to the bituminous coal-mines.
The facilities for the receipt of raw material and cheap
fuel, and the shipment of products by rail and water, have
given Erie manufacturing interests a great impetus since
about 1866. A brief summary shows 24 iron-works, in-
cluding a car manufactory producing 15 complete cars and
300 wheels per day; a blast-furnace, a rolling-mill, 2 very
large stove-foundries, 4 tanneries, 2 boot-and-shoe factories,
6 oil-refineries, 1 church-organ and 2 parlor-organ factories,
1 piano-factory, 1 paper-mill, 13 planing-mills, 4 pump-
factories, 2 spice-mills, 7 breweries, 3 malt-houses, 5 brick-
yards, 1 stoneware-factory, 2 limë companies, 4 steam
flouring-mills, 2 grain-elevators, 10 chair, carriage, and
other woodworking factories, 1 daily and 6 weekly news-
papers, etc. Erie is the market for a rich farming country.
It has a custom-house, 4 national banks, 26 churches, 1
academy, a very complete free-school system, and water-
works which cost $750,000. It is already the largest and
most central point in a section covering the ten north-
western counties of Pennsylvania, and its growth hence-
forth promises to be marvellous. Pop. 19,646.
* F. A. CRANDALL, ED. “GAzETTE.”
E’rie Canal', the most important, as well as the largest,
canal in the U. S., extends from Buffalo to Albany, N. Y.,
and is 363 miles long. De Witt Clinton, whose name is
identified with the construction of this great public work,
was in 1809 appointed a member of a commission to explore
and survey a route for the proposed canal from the lakes to
the Hudson; and his memorial to the State legislature in
1815 ensured the success of the undertaking. The bill for
its construction was passed in 1817, but the “canal policy”
was for years strenuously opposed. In 1825 the canal was
completed at a cost of $7,602,000, and navigation was
opened in October with great rejoicings. Its original width
was forty feet at the surface, with a depth of four feet; but
the canal has been subsequently so enlarged that the sur-
face-width is seventy feet, the bottom-width forty-two feet,
and the depth seven feet. The commercial importance
of this canal is very great. It is chiefly employed for
transporting grain and such other bulky articles as do not
require quick transit. (See INLAND NAVIGATION.)
Erie, Lake, one of the chain of great lakes drained
by the St. Lawrence, is bounded on the N. by Ontario, a
province of the Dominion of Canada, and on the S. by
Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. It is the lowest of
that chain of lakes, except Lake Ontario, into which its
water is discharged through the Niagara River. It is 290
miles long, is 57 miles wide at the broadest part, and has
an area of about 10,000 square miles. The surface is 334
feet higher than Lake Ontario. It is shallow compared
with the other lakes of this series, the greatest depth yet
obtained being 312 feet. The mean depth is about 120
feet. The principal supply of water comes through Detroit
River, which enters the W. end of the lake. The chief
cities on its shores are Buffalo, Cleveland, Toledo, Erie,
and Sandusky, which have good harbors. This lake is
very important as a channel of trade and steam navigation.
It is liable to violent storms, which sometimes cause disas-
trous shipwrecks. Large vessels can pass from Lake Erie
into Lake Ontario through the Welland Canal. The navi-
gation of the former is suspended for three or four months
in winter, in consequence of the shallow parts being frozen.
The fisheries are important.
Com. Perry of the U. S. navy gained an important vic-
tory over the British commander Barclay in the western
part of this lake, Sept. 10, 1813. This was called the battle
of Lake Erie, and was fought near the Bass Islands, about
36 miles E. of Toledo.
Erie Shale, the name given by the Ohio geologists to .
the westward extension of the Chemung and Upper Port-
age rocks of New York. The oil-wells of Western Penn-
sylvania are bored on this foundation, though the petroleum
which is found in it emanates from the Huron shale below.
E/rieville, a post-village of Nelson township, Madison
co., N.Y., has 3 churches and an important canal reservoir.
Erig’ema (i. e. the “Irishman’’), (Joh ANNEs Scotus),
the boldest and most brilliant thinker of his century. The
events of his life are involved in some obscurity. He was
ERIGERON-ERMAN.
1631
probably born in Ireland between 800–815 A.D., and edu-
cated in the Irish monasteries. Between 840–845 he appears
to have gone to France, where he was patronized by Charles
the Bald. He is credited with one of the best repartees on
record. At table one day the king asked him, “Quid dis-
tat inter Sotum et Scotum ?” Erigema instantly replied,
“Mensa tantum.” What happened to him after the death
of Charles the Bald, in 877, is not so clear. According to
one account, he went to England. about 883, on the invita-
tion of Alfred the Great, and was murdered by his pupils
at Malmesbury in 891. Some who deny the Malmesbury
story, say that Scotus Erigena has been confounded with
an Anglo-Saxon monk whom Alfred invited over from
France to teach at Oxford. Erigena has been called “the
morning star of scholasticism.” He rebelled against Au-
gustinianism, asserted the supremacy of reason, and wrought
out a vague pantheism. He also translated into Latin the
works (spurious) of Dionysius the Areopagite (of the fourth
or fifth century), and thus planted the seeds of the mediae-
val mysticism. He wrote against Gottschalk (851 A. D.)
on predestination, and against Paschasius Radbert on tran-
substantiation, and was condemned as a heretic at Paris in
1209. Of his other works, the most important is a treatise
in five books, “De Divisione Naturae.” It was printed at
Oxford in 1681. (See THEoDoR CHRISTLIEB's “Leben und
Lehre des Johannes Scotus Erigena,” 1860; and JoHANNES
HUBER's “Johannes Scotus Erigena,” 1861.)
Erig'eron [Gr. ºptyépov, “early old,” from hp, “spring,”
and yéptov, an “old man,” because the plants have a hoary
appearance], a genus of herbs of the order Compositae, in-
cluding the fleabanes (which are weeds of several species,
very common in Europe and North America) and other
plants, such as poor robin's plantain (Erigeron bellidifo-
lium), etc. The Erigeron Philadelphicum, Erigeron Cana-
dense, and others are used as diuretics, and contain a vola-
tile oil which varies somewhat in different species. The
oil has a pungent, disagreeable odor, and sometimes takes on
a tarry or oleo-resinous character. It is used in medicine.
Erin. See IRELAND.
Er’in, a post-village and township of Wellington co.,
Ontario, Canada, has quarries of building-stone and manu-
factures of various kinds. Pop. of village, about 600.
Erin, a township of Stephenson co., Ill. Pop. 877.
Erin, a township of Macomb co., Mich. Pop. 2466.
Erin, a township of Rice co., Minn. Pop. 526.
Erin, a post-township of Chemung co., N.Y., has a valu-
able mineral spring and manufactures of lumber. Pop. 1392.
Erin, a post-village, capital of Houston co., Tex.
Erin, a post-township of St. Croix co., Wis. Pop. 1024.
* Pop. 1266.
Erin, a township of Washington co., Wis.
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Erinaceus Europaeus, the European Hedgehog.
the Old World, of which there aré several species, inhabiting
Asia, Africa, and Europe. The common hedgehog of Eng-
land, may be considered a type of the group. It is a harm-
less little nocturnal animal, which subsists mainly on in-
sects, though sometimes eating fruit and even reptiles. The
back of the hedgehog is covered with spines, and when
attacked he rolls himself into a ball from which they radi-
ate in every direction, and serve as a defence that enables
him to defy all his enemies but man. Zoologically, the
hedgehog is of special interest, as he stands at the head of
the order of Insectivora, and, though the sport of the School-
boy and scorn of his dog, he is king of the moles and
shrews.
Erin’na [Gr. "Howval, a Greek poetess who lived about
600 B.C., and was a friend of Sappho. She acquired a
high reputation by her lyric and other poems, among which
was “The Distaff.” It is said that she died at the age of
nineteen. -
Erin’mys [Gr. "Epww.js or 'Epwiſs ; plu. Erin’nyes], a
name given to the Furies or EUMENIDEs (which see).
Eriocaulona'ceae [from Eriocaulon, one of the gen-
era], a natural order of herbaceous endogenous plants, are
nearly allied to Restiaceae. They are mostly natives of the
tropical parts of America and Australia. Many of the
species are aquatic or grow in marshes. The flowers grow
in close heads. Some of the Eriocaulons of Brazil are six
feet high. Those of the U. S. are stemless. The Eriocau-
lon septangulare (pipewort) is indigenous both in the U. S.
and in Ireland, and is interesting in reference to geograph-
ical distribution. It grows in ponds. Three genera and .
seven species of the order are found in the Atlantic States.
Erioden'dron [from the Gr. ºptov,. “wool,” and 8évôpov,
a “tree”], a genus of trees of the natural order Sterculia-
ceae, natives of tropical climates. They have large and
beautiful flowers. They are sometimes called wool trees,
because the capsules enclose a fibrous woolly or cottony
substance. The cotton of Eriodendron Samanna is used in
Brazil for stuffing pillows. The Eriodendron awfractuosum,
which grows in the East Indies, Africa, etc., has edible
seeds about the size of a pea. Other species yield useful
medicines. The cotton produced by these trees cannot be
spun, but its use in the paper manufacture has been pro-
posed. f
Erivān’ [Lat. Erivana; Pers. Rewan or Revānj, a for-
tified town of Russian Armenia, in the government of Eri-
van, on the river Zenga, an affluent of the Aras, and near
the latter river, 115 miles S. by W. from Tiflis. It has a
citadel on a high rock, several Armenian churches, a large
bazaar, and a few mosques; also a cannon-foundry and
manufactures of cotton goods, earthenware, and leather.
It was stormed and taken by the Russian general Paske-
witch in 1827, and was ceded to Russia by Persia in 1828.
Pop. in 1867, 14,342.
Er(Iangen, a handsome town of Bavaria, on the river
Regnitz and on the railway from Bamberg to Nuremberg,
II miles N. of the latter. It is enclosed by walls, and is
divided into the old and new town, the latter of which is
very well built. Here is the University of Erlangen, which
was founded in 1742, and is celebrated as a school of Prot-
estant theology. It has a library of 100,000 volumes, and
a botanic garden. Erlangen has manufactures of hosiery,
gloves, mirrors, plate glass, combs, and hats. Pop. in
1871, 12,511.
Erlau, &R/loii [Hung. Eger], a
fortified episcopal city of Hungary,
capital of the county of Heves, is on
the river Erlau or Eger, about 75
miles E. N. E. of Pesth. It is en-
closed by walls, and is pleasantly
situated amid vine-clad hills. It
has a cathedral, a bishop's palace,
a gymnasium, a normal school, a
lyceum, and a richly endowed hos-
pital. Here are manufactures of
linen and woollen fabrics. Erlau
has an extensive trade in red wine
of superior quality, which is pro-
duced in the vicinity. A bishopric
was founded here in the eleventh
century. Pop. in 1869, 19,150.
Erl/king [Ger. Erlkönig; Dan.
Elverkonge, i. e. “king of the
clves”], in German and Scandina-
vian mythology, a fabulous being,
which through seductive allure-
ments causes injury and destruc-
tion to human beings, especially to
children. This tale has become
widely known through the ballad
of that name by Goethe.
Er/man (GEORG ADoDF), a German natural philosopher,
born in Berlin May 12, 1806. He performed in 1828–30 a.
voyage around the world, during which he made a series
of magnetic observations, and published a “Voyage Around
the World, through Northern Asia and the Two Oceans ''
(5 vols., 1833–42). He became professor of physics in the
University of Berlin.
Erman (PAUL), a natural philosopher, the father of the
ſ








1632
ERMENON VILLE-ERNESTI.
preceding, was born in Berlin Feb. 29, 1764. He became
professor of physics in the university of that city and sec-
retary of the Academy of Sciences. He wrote on electricity
and other branches of physics, as well as mathematical and
other subjects. Died Oct. 11, 1851.
Ermenonville, a village of France, department of
Oise, 7 miles S. E. of Senlis. Here is a beautiful château
with an extensive park, which is visited in summer by
many Parisians. Among the attractions of the place is the
tomb of J. J. Rousseau, who died here in 1778.
Ermine, er’min, in heraldry, one of the furs used in
blazonry. It represents the skin of the ermine, white,
spotted or timbered with black. The arrangement of the
spots varies with the wearer’s rank. A black fur with
white spots is called contre ermine or ermines.
Ermine, or Stoat (Putorius erminea), a carnivorous
W § *
ū
§§§
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º,
º:
º ſ
ºf
sº
}###ºx
animal nearly allied to the weasel, which it resembles in
its slender form and its habits, but it is larger and has a
longer tail. It is a native of the northern parts of Asia
and Europe, and perhaps of America. It is about ten
inches long, exclusive of the tail. In the summer the color
of the upper parts is a pale reddish brown, and that of the
under parts nearly white. In winter the whole of the body
is covered with white fur, slightly tinged with yellow, but
the tip of the tail remains black in all seasons. The fur is
closer and finer in winter, and that which is obtained from
Siberia, Norway, and other cold countries is one of the most
valuable of furs. It is used for ladies’ winter apparel and
for the robes of kings and nobles. When made up the tails
are inserted one to each skin, at regular distances and in
the quincunx order or otherwise, according to the wearer's
rank. The fur called miniver is a variety of spotted,
“powdered,” or “timbered” ermine. The ermine fur forms
the distinctive doubling of the state robes of sovereigns
and nobles, as well as of their crowns and coronets. It is
also worn by judges in some countries. The ermine preys
on mice, poultry, eggs, young rabbits, etc. Most of the
so-called ermine fur of commerce is simply white rabbit
fur, with spots of black rabbit fur inserted. r
The U. S. have several white weasels which are properly
classed as ermines, having white winter fur and the tip of
the tail black.
mon white weasel; Putorius Kamei, or Kane's ermine, ‘of
Alaska and Siberia; Putorius Cicognonii, a small species;
Putorius Richardsonii, called little ermine; Putorius longi-
cawda, or long-tailed ermine, etc. North America, however,
furnishes a very small part of the ermine fur of commerce.
The ermines, like the other weasels, have the power of
emitting a most offensive odor when irritated. The com-
mon stoat of Great Britain produces a fur much inferior to
that of the same species in the far North. It is regarded
as vermin, and zealously hunted by foresters, warreners,
and park-keepers, for it is a most destructive pest among
rabbits, hares, and fowl, wild and domestic. It is caught
in snares or traps. It is most active by night.
Erne, erm [from the Ang.-Sax. earn, an “eagle”], or
Sea Eagle (Haliaëtus), a genus of eagles differing from
other eagles in having no feathers on the toes and the lower
part of the tarsi, also in the greater length of the bill. They
have less courage than the eagle, and resemble the vulture
in feeding on carrion as well as other prey. The common
erne, cinereous eagle, or sea eagle (Haliaëtus albicilla) is
the only species known in Great Britain. It makes its
Such are Putorius moveboracensis, or com-
nest on the ledges of high precipices on the sea-coast, and
sometimes near inland lakes, feeding on fish and Waterfowl.
It is about thirty-three inches long, the plumage brown,
with a paler tinge on the head, and the tail of the adult
pure white. The American white-headed eagle or bald eagle
(Haliaëtus leucocephalus) is found throughout the whole of
North America, frequenting the sea-coasts as well as the
mouths of large rivers. (See BALD EAGLE.) There is also
an Australian species (Haliaëtus leucogaster) and the Pon-
dicherry kite (Haliaëtus Ponticerianus), an Indian species,
both of smaller size than the sea eagle. *
Erne, a river of Ireland, in Ulster, flows nearly north-
westward through the county of Fermanagh, and expands
into two beautiful lakes, called Upper and Lower Lough
Erne. After a course of 72 miles it enters Donegal Bay.
The Lower Lough is 20 miles long, 7 miles wide, and over
200 feet deep. The Upper Lough is smaller. Each of them
encloses numerous islands. The banks of these lakes and
of the river present fine scenery. The town of Enniskillen
stands upon an island between the loughs. On another
island is the seat of the marquis of Ely. The loughs cover
40,000 acres, and are 140 feet above the sea. The salmon
and other fisheries are very productive. The river and
both loughs are deep, and have lines of steamboats, but
the river has several cataracts.
Ernée, a town of France, in the department of Mayenne,
17 miles N. W. of Laval. It manufactures carpet-tacks
and linseed oil, and trades in hemp, flax, and cloverseed.
Pop. 5476.
Ernest (Ernst), elector of Saxony, the founder of the
line called Ernestine or Ernestinian, was born Mar. 25,
1441. He succeeded his father, Frederick II., in 1464, and
annexed Thuringia, to his dominions in 1482. “This
prince loved a quiet life, and sought, it by all the means
in his power, at the same time permitting no man to offend
him with impunity.” He did much for the development
of the resources of his territories. Died Mar. 22, 1486.
Ernest (Ernst) I., surnamed THE PIOUS, duke of
Saxe-Gotha, born Dec. 24, 1601, at the castle of Altenburg,
was a brother of the famous Bernard of Saxe-Weimar. In
the Thirty Years' war he served with distinction under
Gustavus Adolphus as a colonel of horse. He completed
the victory of the Swedish army at Lützen, where Gus-
tavus was killed. He was a zealous Protestant, and a ruler
of great wisdom and activity. He instituted reforms,
some of which were very fruitful of good. Many of his
institutions exist to this day. Died in 1675.
Ernest (Ernst) IV., or Ernst II. of Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha, duke of Saxe-Coburg, was born at Coburg June 21,
1817. His younger brother, Albert, married Queen Victoria
of England. He succeeded his father in 1844, and sympa-
thized with the efforts to promote the unity and nation-
ality of the Germans. He composed operas entitled
“Zayre.’” and “Casilda.” In 1863 he declined the crown
of Greece.
Er/nest Augus’tus, king of Hanover, born Jan. 5,
1771, was a younger son of George III. of England. . . He
was styled the duke of Cumberland before he became king,
and was a field-marshal in the British army. On the death
of his brother, William IV., in 1837, he inherited the throne
of Hanover, which was then separated from Great Britain,
because it was not lawful for a woman to reign over Han-
over. He was the object of intense popular dislike both
in England and Germany. In the House of Lords he be-
longed to the extreme Tory party. In Hanover he was a
tyrant, the unyielding defender of absolutism.
generally considered, and with good reason, to be a man
Pſe was
of grossly licentious habits. Died Nov. 18, 1851. He was
succeeded by his blind son, George W., the last king of
Hanover and the present duke of Cumberland.
Ernes/ti (AUGUST WILHELM), a German philologist,
born in Thuringia, Nov. 26, 1733, was a nephew of the fol-
lowing. He became a good Latin scholar, and was profes-
sor of eloquence at Leipsic in 1770. He produced a good
edition of Livy (3 vols., 1769) and other works, several of
which were explanatory of the text of Livy's writings, and
are still valued. Died July 20, 1801.
Ernesti (Johan N AUGUST), a celebrated German critic
and the founder of a school of theology, was born at Tenn-
stedt, in Thuringia, Aug. 4, 1707. He was liberally edu-
cated at Wittenberg and Leipsic, and was so excellent a
Latin scholar that he was called the “German Cicero.”
He became professor of ancient literature in the Univer-
sity of Leipsic in 1742, and obtained the chair of rhetoric
in 1756, to which the chair of theology was added in 1758.
In theology he was liberal or rationalistie. He proposed a
new system of biblical criticism in his “Institutes of an
Interpreter of the New Testament” (“Institutio Interpre:
tis Novi Testamenti,” 1761). He wrote other theological







EROS—ERSKINE.
1633
works, and published an excellent edition of Cicero (5 vols.,
1737–39), to which he added a “Clavis Ciceroniana.” Died
Sept. 11, 1781. (See A. W. ERNESTI, “Memoria J. A.
Ernesti,” 1781; J. VAN WOORST, “Oratio de J. A. Ernesto,”
1804.)
E/ros ["Epos (gen. "Eporos)], the Greek name of the god
of Love, corresponding to the Cupi’do of the Romans. In
Hesiod, Eros is one of the great cosmogomic powers," but
later poets represent him as a son of Aphrodite (Venus).
(See CUPID.)
Ero/sion [from the Lat. e, “out,” “away,” and ro’do,
ro/sum, to “gnaw” or “eat”], a geological term used to ex-
press the action of a river in excavating or enlarging its
channel, the gradual abrasion of strata, by rain, frost,
glaciers, etc. The deep hollows occupied by most lakes
and rivers are supposed to have been formed by the action
of rivers or glaciers, and are called “valleys of erosion.”
The action of atmospheric agencies, glaciers, etc. in wear-
ing away the general surface of a country or district is
called 8wrface erosion or denudation. The changes wrought
by this agency on the superficial features of the earth are
much more grand, and interesting than they are generally
supposed to be; and it may be said that the surface con- |
figuration of the earth, and indeed the whole “ aspects of
nature,” are the result of the antagonistic action of surface
erosion and internal elevatory forces. (See SURFACE GE-
OLOGY.) .
Erot'ic [Gr. Športkós, from épos, “love” (see ERos); Fr.
érotique], an epithet applied generally to that which relates
to love or excites amorous passion. In a more restricted
sense it is applied to poems of which love is the subject,
and to classic authors of whom love is the favorite theme,
as Anacreon, Sappho, Ovid, and Tibullus.
Erpe'nius, or Van Er’pen (THOMAs), an eminent
Dutch Orientalist, born at Gorkum Sept. 7, 1584. He gradu-
atěd at Leyden in 1608, after which he visited France, Eng-
land, Italy, and Germany. In 1613 he became professor
of Arabic and other Oriental languages at the University
of Leyden. A second chair of Hebrew was founded for him
in 1619. He printed a number of Arabic works with a press
which he kept in his own house. He produced in 1613 an
“Arabic Grammar,” the first ever written in Europe.
Among his other works are a “Collection of Lokmån’s
Arabic Proverbs,” with Latin version, and “ Historia, Sara-
cenica,” which is an edition of Elmacin’s history with a
Latin translation (1625). Died in Nov., 1624.
Errard (CHARLEs), a French painter and architect, born
at Nantes in 1606. He was patronized by Louis XIV., for
whom he adorned the Louvre, Tuileries, and other palaces.
He was one of the twelve artists who founded the Academy
of Painting in Paris in 1648, and was the principal founder
of the French Academy of Art in Rome (1666). He died
in Rome May 15, 1689.
Erraſta [the plu. of the Latin erra’tum, a “mistake,”
from er’ro, erra’tum, to “err”], a term applied to the list
of errors or faults committed in printing a book. This list
is usually placed at the end or the beginning of the book.
Erratic Blocks, or Erratics, a geological term ap-
plied to fragments of rock which are found on the surface
of the ground, and have been transported from a distance
by glaciers, icebergs, etc. They are most numerous in
northern regions. “The erratics which cover the Jura,”
says Lyell, “present a phenomenon which has perplexed
the geologist for more than half a century. No conclusion
can be more incontestable than that these angular blocks
of granite, gneiss, and other crystalline formations came
from the Alps, and that they have been brought for a dis-
tance of fifty miles across one of the widest and deepest
valleys in the world.” Many of them are as large as cot-
tages. (See DRIFT.)
Er'roll, a post-township of Coos co., N. H. Pop. 178.
Ersch (JoBANN SAMUEL), a German bibliographer, born
at Gross-Glogau, in Silesia, June 23, 1766. He became
professor of geography at Halle in 1803, and published, be-
sides other works, a “Handbook of German Literature from
the middle of the Eighteenth Century” (4 vols., 1812–14)
and a “General Repertory of Literature * (8 vols., 1793–
1809). His capital work is the excellent “Encyclopædia
of Sciences and Arts” (“Allgemeine Encyklopädie, der
Wissenschaften und Künste”), which he began conjointly
with Gruber, and of which he edited seventeen volumes
(1818–28). After his death, which occurred Jan. 16, 1828,
it was continued by Gruber and others. He is called the
founder of German bibliography.
Erse. See GAELIC LANGUAGE.
Ers/Hine (DAVID STEwART), F. R. S., ELEvºNTH EARL
OF BUCHAN, and Loſt D CARDROSS, born in 1742, a brother
of Lord Chancellor Erskine, was the author of several an-
tiquarian papers, “Lives and Writings of Fletcher of Sal-
toun and the Poet Thomson’’ (1792), and other works. He
was a man of eccentric character. Died in 1829. g
Erskine (EBENEZER), a Scottish preacher and the
founder of the Secession Church, was born June 22, 1680.
He preached at Portmoak, in Kinross, from 1703 to 1731,
and acquired a high reputation. In 1731 he removed to
Sterling, where he advocated popular rights in the settle-
ment of ministers, and differed from the majority of the
General Assembly in relation to lay patronage. He was
deposed or suspended in 1733. In 1736, Erskine and his
friends formally seceded and organized the Secession Church.
Died June 22, 1756. In 1847 the Secession Church united
with the Relief Church to form the United Presbyterians.
Erskine (HENRY), an able Scottish lawyer, born in
Edinburgh in 1746, was a brother of Thomas, Lord Erskine,
noticed below. He was a Whig in politics, became lord
advocate of Scotland in 1782, and again in 1806. He was
eloquent and witty, and was distinguished for tact and fas-
cination of manner. During some part of his career he was
the most eminent member of the Scottish bar. Died in 1817.
Erskine (John), eleventh earl of Mar, a Scottish Jaco-
bite and ambitious politician, was born at Alloa in 1675.
He was appointed secretary for Scotland in 1708. In Sept.,
1715, he took arms for the Pretender, and obtained the com-
mand of about 12,000 insurgents. He was defeated by the
duke of Argyle at Dunblane in November of that year, and
soon escaped to the Continent. Died in May, 1732.
Erskine (John), D. D., a Scottish divine, a son of the
preceding, was born June 2, 1721. He was ordained min-
ister of Kirkintilloch in 1744, and of Culross in 1753. In
1758 he was translated to the New Grey Friars' church,
Edinburgh, where he became the leader of the orthodox and
popular party in the Church. He was promoted in 1767 to
the Old Grey Friars' church, where he was a colleague of
Dr. Robertson, who was the leader of the moderate, party.
Erskine wrote many theological works, which are highly
esteemed. Died Jan. 19, 1803. (See SIR. H. M. WELLwooD,
“Life of John Erskine,” 1818.)
Erskine (John) of CARNOCH, an eminent Scottish jurist,
born in 1695, was a son of Col. John Erskine and a grandson
of Lord Cardross. He was appointed professor of Scottish
law in the University of Edinburgh in 1737, and filled that
chair until 1765. He published in 1754 “Principles of the
Law of Scotland,” and wrote an important standard work
entitled “Institutes of the Law of Scotland,” which was
published in 1773. It is a work of high authority. Died
in 1765.
Erskine (RALPH), a Scottish theologian, born at Moni-
laws March 18, 1685, was a brother of Ebenezer, noticed
above. He was ordained minister of Dunfermline in 1711,
and attained eminence as a preacher. In 1737 he joined
the Secession Church. He was author of “Gospel Sonnets”
and other religious works. Died Nov. 6, 1752.
IErskine (THOMAs), LoRD, a celebrated British orator
and lawyer, born in Edinburgh Jan. 21, 1750, was the
youngest son of Henry David, earl of Buchan. His father,
whose income was about £200 a year, could not afford to
give him a liberal education for a learned profession. Young
Erskine therefore entered the navy in 1764 as a midship-
man, after he had attended the High School of Edinburgh.
Four years later he purchased a commission in the army,
and in 1770 he married a daughter of Daniel Moore, M. P.
In the social circles of London he was admired for his ele-
gant manners, colloquial powers, and genial disposition.
Renouncing the military profession, which he disliked, he
resolved to study law, and was admitted as a student in
Lincoln’s Inn in April, 1775. In Jan., 1776, he entered
Trinity College, Cambridge, as a gentleman commoner. It
is said that in this part of his career he was very poor, suf-
fered great privations, and boasted that he did not know a
lord out of his own family. He was called to the bar in
1778, and obtained immediate and rapid success in his pro-
fession. One of his first clients was Capt. Baillie, prose-
cuted for a libel on Lord Sandwich, who was then a cabinet
minister. He made his début in a court crowded with
eminent men, yet when the judge interrupted him by the
assertion that Lord Sandwich was not before the court, he
had the courage to reply, “I know that he is not before the
court, and for that reason I intend to bring him before the
court.” Lord Campbell expresses the opinion that Erskine's
plea in this case was “the most wonderful forensic effort of
which we have any account in our annals.” In 1781 he
defended Lord George Gordon, who was tried for treason
and was acquitted. He was elected in 1783 to Parliament,
in which his success was not so brilliant as in the forum.
He was a Whig in politics, and was re-elected in 1790. In
several political trials that occurred during the excitement
of the French revolution he bravely defended the liberty of
I ()3
1634 .
ERSKINE–ESCALADE.
the press and the friends of reform whom the ministers
prosecuted on a charge of constructive treason. He was
counsel for Mr. Hardy and Horne Tooke, who were tried
in 1794 and were acquitted. On the formation of a Whig
ministry by Fox and Grenville in Feb., 1806, he was ap-
pointed lord chancellor, and was raised to the peerage as
Baron Erskine of Restormel Castle. He resigned this office
when the Tories came into power early in 1807. He was
the author of “Armata,” a political romance, and a “View
of the Causes and Consequences of the War with France,”
which ran through forty-eight editions. He died Nov. 17,
1823, leaving a son and several daughters. Many persons
consider him the greatest advocate who ever practised at
the English bar. “He spoke,” says Lord Campbell, “as
his clients respectively would have spoken, being endowed
with his genius; and those who heard him seemed to be in-
spired with a new ethereal existence.” His printed speeches,
enriched with noble thoughts, brilliant imagery, and beauti-
ful diction, retain in a great measure their original impres-
siveness. (See LoRD CAMPBELL, “Lives of the Lord Chan-
cellors;” LoRD BROUGHAM, “Memoir of Erskine,” prefixed
to a collection of Erskine's speeches, 4 vols., 1847.)
Erskine (THOMAs) of LINLETHAN, a member of the
Scottish bar, who published several theological treatises,
the best known and most valuable of which is “On the
Internal Evidence for the Truth of Revealed Religion,”
3d ed. Edinburgh, 1821.
Erskine College, at Due West, Abbeville co., S. C.,
was organized in 1839, with the Rev. E. E. Pressly (after-
wards made D. D.) for its president, assisted by several
professors, and belongs to and is under the supervision of
the Associated Reformed Synod of the South. Although
the college had to struggle with low salaries for professors,
with the want of suitable buildings, libraries, and scien-
tific apparatus, and other inconveniences, it had a reason-
able share of prosperity for the first seven years of its ex-
istence. Dr. Pressly resigned the presidency in 1846, and
was succeeded by the Rev. R. C. Grier, D. D. About 1853
the plan of endowing the college by the sale of scholar-
ships was adopted, and the result was that some $50,000
were raised. These figures were enlarged afterwards by
private donations of Capt. John Blair and Col. William
Wright of Yorkville, S. C., and of Christopher Strong,
Esq., of Tennessee, making the sum-total amount to $70,000.
In the mean time four large and beautiful buildings were
erected for college uses—the college proper, Lindsay Hall,
the Euphemian and Philomathean Halls—while a fine tel-
escope, the gift of William Johnson of Alabama, crowns
the observatory. In 1858, Dr. Grier, finding that the
presidency of the college and the pastorate of Due West
congregation were too exacting on his time and ability,
resigned the former, that he might devote himself more
fully to the latter. In 1859 the Rev. E. L. Patton was
elected president, but the war breaking out some two years
afterwards, he resigned, soon after which the institution
was suspended.
The college was re-opened at the close of the war under
unfavorable auspices, the country being demoralized and
private and public institutions impoverished. Dr. Grier
was re-elected in 1867, and with the assistance of the pro-
fessors and other friends succeeded in resuscitating the
college. Unfortunately, however, he died in 1871, leaving
a vacancy which was hard to fill. In September of that
year the synod elected the Rev. William Moffat Grier to
fill the place of his father. For the last few years the insti-
tution has subsisted chiefly on what is termed the “five
years’ endowment.” Efforts are now being made to raise
a new and more permanent endowment of $100,000, and if
successful the institution will no longer be in a precarious
condition. -
The faculty now consists of the Rev. William M. Grier,
D. D., president and professor of mental and moral science;
Rev. J. P. Pressly, D. D., professor of Greek; Rev. J. N.
Young, professor of mathematics and the natural sciences;
William S. Lowry, A. M., professor of the Latin language;
and William Hood, A. M., professor of chemistry, history,
and belles lettres. WILLIAM M. GRIER.
Er'ving, a post-township of Franklin co., Mass., on the
Vermont and Massachusetts R. R., 42 miles W. of Fitch-
burg. Pop. 579.
Er/win, a township of Steuben co., N. Y. It has ex-
tensive manufactures of lumber and other commodities, and
contains the village of Painted Post. Pop. 1977.
Erwin (ALExANDER R.), D. D., a minister of the
Methodist Episcopal Church South, born in Louisiana Jan.
12, 1820. His father was a Baptist minister. He was
licensed to preach in 1840, and joined the Tennessee Con-
ference in 1842. He occupied a high rank in the ministry,
resided over the Clarksville Female Academy and the
#iºn. Female College, and while stationed in Nash-
ville received the degree of D. D. from the Nashville Uni-
versity. He died of consumption in Huntsville, Ala., Jan.
10, 1860. T. O. SUMMERS.
Erysip/elas [Gr, pvariºrexas, probably from épwépás, “red,”
and tréAos, akin to the Lat. pellis, “skin’], a disease prob-
ably of miasmatic origin, sometimes associated with a pecu-
liar rose-colored eruption of the skin, whence the name. The
inflammation attending this disease is of a peculiar low
type which is but little understood. It may terminate
favorably by resolution, less favorably by abscess (which is
apt to be diffuse—i. e. not limited to a single spot—and is
then very dangerous), or the termination may be in gan-
grene and the death of the patient. The disease is very
common in military hospitals, seating itself in wounds, when
it proves frequently fatal. Erysipelatous diseases some-
times assume an infectious and almost an epidemic charac-
ter. Puerperal fever, peritonitis, phlebitis, and a long cata-
logue of diseases of low type are akin to erysipelas. Its in-
fectious character is admitted. The famous old “Dread-
naught” hospital-ship in the Thames became so poisoned
by it that she had to be destroyed. The best treatment is
a sustaining one. Pure air, a milk diet, and the use of
quinia, and iron, with stimulants, are in general indicated.
The Sulphites and other disinfectant remedies may be em-
ployed. Externally, it is safest to use only the blandest
applications, carbolized lotions, etc.
Erzgebirge, éRts-ga-beer'ga (i. e. “ore mountains”),
a mountain-chain of Southern Germany, extends along the
boundary between Bohemia, and Saxony, and is nearly 120
miles in length. The Schwarzwald and Keilberg, the high-
est parts of this chain, have an altitude of about 4000 feet,
and are of granitic formation. The Erzgebirge is rich in
minerals, among which are silver, tin, iron, and cobalt. On
the S. E. side it presents a steep, abrupt declivity.
Erzroom', Erzroum, or Erzrum [i.e. “land of
Rome” or Byzantium, so called because it was originally
founded under the Eastern Roman empire], a fortified town
of Armenia (Asiatic Turkey), is on a fertile plain on the
river Kara-Soo, a branch of the Euphrates, about 120 miles
S. E. of Trebizond. It is about 6000 feet above the level of
the sea. The streets are narrow and filthy; the houses are
mostly built of mud, wood, or sun-dried bricks. It is the
seat of an Armenian archbishop. It has a large citadel, a
custom-house, about forty mosques, several Armenian and
Greek churches, and a number of bazaars. Its position
renders it an important military post. Erzroom has an
extensive trade, which is carried on partly by caravans.
Pop. estimated at 50,000, five-sixths of whom are Turks.
A town called Theodosiopolis was founded here in 415 A.D.
In 1201 it was taken by the Seljooks, who are said to have
destroyed here 100 churches. In 1859 an earthquake de-
stroyed a considerable portion of the town.
Esarhad'don [called in the cuneiform inscriptions
Asshwºr-akh-iddina], the Old Testament name of an As-
syrian king, the son and successor of Sennacherib. He ap-
pears to have reigned from 680 to about 667 or 660 B. C. He
is shown by the monuments to have been one of the most
powerful of Assyrian monarchs. His rule extended north-
ward to Armenia, on the west it included Syria and Cy-
prus, while on the south Egypt, and even Ethiopia, were
claimed by him. He built a palace at Babylon. Among
the numerous and splendid remains of his reign is the
south-west palace of Nimrood.
E’sau (“rough,” “hairy”), the elder twin-brother of
the patriarch Jacob (Israel), and the son of Isaac and Re-
bekah. He took his name from his hairiness of body. The
story of his marriage to two Canaanitish and an Ishmaelite
woman, of his loss of birthright through the craft of Re-
bekah and Jacob, and of his quarrel and reconciliation with
Jacob, are beautifully told in the book of Genesis. He was
the progenitor of the Edomites, who dwelt in Mount Seir,
otherwise called Edom.
Escalade [Lat. scala, “ladder”], an operation of war,
is an assault aided by ladders as the instrument of sur-
mounting the obstacles presented by the scarp and counter-
scarp walls (or slopes) of a fortification in which no breach
has been made; sometimes even a rapid blow directed at
an unbesieged place with hope of success by surprise (e.g.
the capture by the English troops of Almarez, Sept., 1812).
Among the most famous escalades are those of Adrianople
by the Goths; of Beauvais by Charles the Bold, in 1472;
of Fecamp in 1593; of Prague in 1741: still more remark-
able, that at Corfu in 1717 by Count Schulenberg, who, re-
duced to extremity in the defence by the capture of the
outworks, hastily prepared ladders, and by a desperate as-
sault by escalade, retook them, and thus saved the place.
The second siege of Badajos (1812) presents an event un-
paralleled in the history of sieges, that after twenty days'
open trenches and the opening of three practicable breaches,
ESCALOP SHELL–ESCAPEMENT.
1635
two entire divisions of troops should, at the moment of as-
sault, be employed to escalade the defences where entire;
that each should succeed, while the regular assault on the
breaches should be repulsed with terrible slaughter. The
castle was successfully scaled where the walls were eighteen
to twenty-four feet high, and “tolerably flanked;” the Bas-
tion St. Vincente had a scarp-wall thirty-one and a half
feet high, flanked by four guns, palisaded covered way, a
counterscarp wall twelve feet high, and a “cunette” ditch
five and a half feet deep. J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army.
Escalop Shell, in heraldry, is a shell used to decorate
palmers and crusaders, and signifies that the bearer has
made long voyages by sea. The common name is scallop
shell. The edible escalop of Europe (Pecten maacimus) is
considered a great delicacy. It belongs to the oyster family.
The heraldic escalop shell, worn by palmers, belonged to
the Pecten Jacobaeus, which, as monkish writers assert, was
the cognizance of Saint James the Great. The genus is
very large and worldwide in distribution, there being more
than 100 living and nearly 500 extinct species.
Escam"bia, a county in the S. of Alabama. Area, 1000
Square miles. It is intersected by the Conecuh and Escam-
bia rivers. The surface is level. Corn, rice, and wool are
staple products. It is traversed by the Mobile and Mont-
gomery R. R. Capital, Pollard. Pop. 4041.
Escambia, a county which forms the W. extremity of
Florida, bordering on the Gulf of Mexico. It is bounded on
the E. by the Escambia River and on the W. by the Per-
dido. The surface is level; some of the soil sandy, but a
part is very fertile. There are extensive forests of pine and
hard wood. Lumber, rice, wool, etc. are the chief products.
It is traversed by the Pensacola and Louisville R. R. Cap-
ital, Pensacola. Pop. 7817.
Escanaw/ba, or Escanaba, a post-village, capital
of Delta co., Mich., 360 miles N. of Chicago, on the N. end
of Green Bay and on the line of the Peninsular division of
the Chicago and North-western R. R. It has a savings
bank, three churches, a blast-furnace, eight hotels, and one
newspaper. It has a good harbor, and the principal busi-
ness is shipping Lake Superior iron ores: upwards of
500,000 tons are sent yearly. Pop. of township, 1370.
CHARLES D. JEWELL, PROP. “TRIBUNE.”
Escape, in law, means the departure of a prisoner from
confinement before he has been released by process of law.
Any liberty given to a prisoner not authorized by law is
technically an escape. Escapes may occur either in civil
or criminal cases. They are either negligent or voluntary
—negligent, when the prisoner escapes without the consent
of the officer having him in custody; voluntary, when such
officer consents to the escape. In criminal cases an escape
is a public offence, of which the prisoner may be convicted,
as also the officer through whose act or neglect the escape
occurs. In civil actions there is an important distinction
between mesne and final process, the former being that
which is issued between the commencement and the termi-
nation of the action; and the latter, that which is used to
enforce the judgment. . If the escape be voluntary, the
officer is liable in either case; but if he be negligent, he
will not be liable in the case of mesne process if the pris-
oner is returned to his custody before an action is com-
menced against him for his neglect; though he will be lia-
ble in any event in the case of final process. The damages
recoverable are measured by the injury sustained. In final
process these would in general be the amount of the judg-
ment. . Nothing will excuse an escape but an act of God
or of the public enemy or of the law. An instance of the
latter would be an order of the House of Representatives
at Washington directing the attendance of a person as a
witness who was held by a sheriff of a State court in cus-
tody under an execution in a civil action against his person.
Escapement, in watches and clocks, the device by
which the rotatory motion of the wheels gives rise to or
perpetuates the vibration of a pendulum or balance-wheel.
Escapements have received various forms, many of which
are still in use. The earliest, introduced by Huyghens, about
1650, was called the crown-wheel or vertical escapement.
The crown-wheel has its teeth not in the plane of the wheel,
but in a cylindrical surface of which the axis of the wheel
is the axis. In the crown-wheel of the clock or watch, the
teeth were acute-angled, and inclined in a common direction
like saw-teeth. The axis of the pendulum, or balance, was
longer than the diameter of the crown-wheel over which it
extended. It carried two short arms or projections, called
pallets, set in different azimuths, in such a manner that
when one of them, being encountered by a tooth, was pushed
out of the way by the advancing wheel, the opposite one
was caught by another tooth, which pushed in the opposite
direction. . Thus the wheel made an intermittent progress
as the teeth successively escaped from the pallets. .
In a clock, when the pendulum is disturbed from the
mean position, it is brought back by gravity. In the watch
the same result is produced for the balance wheel by the
action of the spiral spring attached to the verge, called the
hair spring. The escapement most commonly in use for
both clocks and watches is the anchor escapement, first in-
troduced by Hooke in 1656. It is so called from its resem-
blance to the flukes of an anchor, the shaft of the anchor in
the clock being parallel to the pendulum and connected with
it. The escapement-wheel is a spear-wheel. The pallets
project from the extremities of the anchor flukes, meeting
the wheel at the points where tangent lines from the centre
of motion would touch it. When one pallet is engaged with
the wheel, the other is free; and v. v. The extremity of the
pallet is inclined in such a manner that, as the tooth es-
capes, it gives an impulse to the pendulum. As, after the
pallet first engages a tooth, the swing continues for some
time in the same direction, anchor escapements are of two
kinds, according to the manner of their action upon the
train during this swing. In Hooke's escapement, the sur-
faces of the pallets are so inclined that by their pressure on
the tooth, they turn the train slightly backward, or cause it
to recoil, up to the end of the swing. In the dead-beat es-
capement, invented by Graham early in the last century,
the surfaces of the pallets are circular arcs having the cen-
tre of motion for their centre; so that during the swing
the train simply stands still. Though the dead-beat es-
capement is now generally used in clocks, there are not
wanting those who prefer the recoiling escapement. Be-
sides the anchor dead-beat, there are several other very in-
genious forms, among which may be mentioned Lepante's
pin-wheel escapement, McDowall's ruby-disk escapement,
and Denison's three-legged dead escapement. -
The only escapement used for watches till about 1700,
was the crown-wheel escapement. Graham invented the
cylinder escapement, so called because a hollow cylinder of
steel or ruby replaces in part the verge of the balance.
This cylinder is cut away on one side for about one-fourth
of the circumference, in order to allow the pallets, which
are small triangular pieces of steel, to enter the interior.
During the swing the pallet, rests with little friction on the
smooth exterior or interior surface. In entering and in
escaping, it gives an impulse to the balance. The pallet is
not in the plane of the wheel, but stands on a short stem at
right angles to this plane. Hence, the cylinder must be
much more extensively cut away at the point where the
wheel passes; and on this account, the cylinder escape-
ment, though performing very well, is too frail to be popti-
lar in use. The duplex escapement of Lepine receives its
name from having a double escapement. The escapement-
wheel carries spur teeth rather widely separated, which en-
gage at every double vibration with a notch in a cylinder
forming part of the verge, and constructed of a gem. The
verge itself carries also an arm which engages with a set
of pins, or crown-wheel teeth, fixed in the escapement-
wheel at right angles to its plane. The impulse is chiefly
derived from the escapes of this arm, but proceeds to some
extent from those of the spur teeth also. It takes place
only in one direction, and hence the system is called by the
French an escapement & coup perdu. The duplex escape-
ment, though attended with little friction and running with-
out oil, is subject to the disadvantage that a sudden jerk
may check the swing of the balance and prevent the escape.
If a single such failure occurs, the watch will stop.
The lever escapement is a dead-beat anchor escapement,
first applied to the watch by Mudge, in 1793. The lever is
attached to the anchor, generally crosswise, or at right
angles to the proper position of the anchor-shaft. At one
extremity it presents a notch into which a pin attached to
the verge strikes at each swing in either direction. This
tilts the anchor and allows a tooth to escape. Except at
these moments of locking and unlocking, the balance swings
entirely free. The lever carries also a pin just at the sum-
mit of the notch, which enters an indent in the verge as the
lever passes. As there is no other indent, the lever cannot
tilt except when the verge pin strikes it.
The escapement which interferes least with the uniformity
of movement of the train, is the chronometer escapement,
introduced into England about a century ago by Earnshaw,
though said to have originated in France. In this, the train
is locked by a tooth projecting from a light bar tangent to
the escapement-wheel, which yields by bending and not by
turning on a pivot, the fixed extremity being a spring.
The free extremity carries another delicate spring parallel
to itself and extending a little beyond it. A tooth on the
verge passes this slight spring in one direction without sen-
sible resistance. On its return the bar behind the spring
prevents its bending, and so is carried along with it, un-
locking the train. The train being released, a tooth of the
escapement-wheel strikes a pin, or enters a notch, con-
nected with the verge, and gives an impulse to the balance.
1636
ESCARPMENT—ESCHATOLOGY.
This, like the duplex, is an escapement & coup perdu, and
is liable like that to stop when subjected to sudden jerks.
Hence chronometers carried on the person sometimes stop ;
but with nautical chronometers this accident hardly ever
OCCUITS.
The chronometer escapement is sometimes called a free
escapement; since the balance is wholly free from contact
with any other part of the work, except in the instant of
unlocking and receiving the impulse. This is true also of
the lever escapement; but in that, the unlocking requires,
more force, and is attended with larger friction. (See
CLOCK.) F. A. P. BARNARD.
Escarp/ment, a geological term applied to the steep
faces which are often presented by the abrupt terminations
of strata, and resemble sea-cliffs. These have been caused
by subaërial denudation, according to Lyell, who thinks the
term escarpment “should be confined to the outcrop of par-
ticular formations having a scarped outline, as distinct from
cliffs due to marine action.”
Escataw/ba, a post-township of Washington co., Ala.
Pop. 585.
Eschar, és/kar [from the Gr. 3ozápa, “scurf,” “scab''],
a term applied to the slough caused by fire or caustics; the
crust or scab, which is dry, rough, and of a gray color.
(The word “scar.” is supposed to have been derived from
eschar.) t
Eschatol’ogy [Gr. 3axaro'Xoyia, “ doctrine respecting the
last things”] is that section in dogmatics which treats of
the second advent, the intermediate state, the resurrection,
the last judgment, heaven, and hell. Upon these themes
revelation does not go, into minute details, while yet the
salient points are strongly marked. The passages which
must be relied upon to furnish the data are Matt. xxv., 1
Cor. xv., 2 Thess. ii., Rev. xx. and xxi.
As regards the second advent, the statement in the Apos-
tles' Creed expresses the catholic faith. Christ “ascended
into heaven, and sitteth at the right hand of God the Father
Almighty; from thence he shall come to judge the quick and
the dead.” According to this symbol, which unquestionably
presents the doctrine current in the primitive Church, there
is no advent of Christ upon earth, after his ascension, until
he leaves his session with the Father and comes directly to
the final judgment of all mankind. This statement pre-
cludes millenarianism. According to this theory, there are
two resurrections—the first of the righteous dead only at
the time of the second advent of Christ, and the second
that of the righteous and the wicked at the end of the world.
Between these two resurrections a thousand years intervene,
during which time Christ reigns personally, in corporeal
presence, upon the renovated earth. Millenarianism was a .
revival of the later Jewish doctrine of the Messianic king-
dom. Its most flourishing period was between 150 and 250
A. D. That it was not the general belief of the Church
even then is proved by the above-quoted statement in the
Apostles' Creed. Since that time it has had occasional ad-
vocacy, as by the Anabaptists of the Reformation period
and the modern Millenarians. -
The doctrine of the intermediate state has been somewhat
fluctuating in its form, owing to the paucity of the Scrip-
ture data. The representation in the parable of Lazarus
and Dives has furnished the basis of the general statement
that the believer is happy and the unbeliever is wretched
between death and the final judgment; yet the resurrection
of the body adds somewhat to both the happiness of the
believer and the misery of the lost. The majority of the
ancient Fathers, in the opinion of Hagenbach, believed
that men do not receive their full recompense of either re-
ward or penalty until after the resurrection of the body.
The doctrine of the intermediate state was soon vitiated,
so far as the righteous dead are concerned, by the papal
notion of purgatory; according to which the believer be-
tween death and the resurrection goes through a painful
process that cleanses him from remaining sin. The Protest-
ant rejects this, and affirms that at death the soul of a be-
liever is made perfect in holiness. What precisely is the
difference between the condition of a believer as disem-
bodied and as re-embodied he does not affirm. He is con-
tent with denying purgatorial pains and purification, as
well as an unconscious sleep of the soul between death and
the resurrection.
The doctrine of the resurrection of the body was from
the beginning a cardinal and striking tenet of Christianity.
Perhaps no article of the new faith made greater impres-
sion at first view upon the pagan. When the philosophers
of Athens “heard of the resurrection of the dead, some
mocked, and others said, We will hear thee again of this
matter.” All the early Fathers maintain this dogma, with
great earnestness and unanimity against the objections of
skeptics, of whom Celsus was acute and scoffing in his at-
tack. Most of them believed in the resuscitation of the
very same body materially. Justin Martyr says that crip-
ples will rise as cripples, but at the instant of resurrection,
if believers, will be made physically perfect. The Alex-
drine school alone adopted a spiritual theory of the resur-
rection. Origen went so far in this direction as to assert
that a belief in the resurrection of the body is not abso-
lutely essential to the profession of Christianity, provided
the immortality of the soul were maintained. But these
idealizing views were generally combated with great ear-
nestness, and in some instances evoked an extremely gross
and carnal view in opposition. The Patristic theory of the
resurrection passed into the Middle Ages with little varia-
tion, excepting that in connection with the materialism of
the papacy it naturally became more materialistic in its
structure. The poetry of Dante and the painting of An-
gelo powerfully exhibit it. In the Protestant Church the
existence of a real body, and of a body that preserves the
personal identity, is affirmed; but the materialism of the
Papal, and to some degree of the Patristic, Church is
avoided by a careful attention to Saint Paul’s dictum :
“There is a natural body (orópa Juxvicov), and there is a
spiritual body (orópa Tveuparuköv).”
The doctrine of the last judgment was, from the first,
immediately connected with that of the resurrection of the
body. Mankind “must all appear before the judgment-
seat of Christ, that every one may receive the things done
in his body.” 2 Cor. v. 10. The Fathers founded their
views of the day of doom upon the representations and
imagery of Scripture. They believed that a general con-
flagration will accompany the last judgment which will de-
stroy the world, though some ascribed a purifying agency
to it. Some of them, like Tertullian and the more rhetorical
of the Greek Fathers, enter into minute details, while others,
like Augustine, endeavor to define dogmatically the facts
couched in the figurative language of the Bible. In the
Middle Ages representations varied with the bent of the
individual theologian. One popular opinion was that the
judgment will be held in the valley of Jehoshaphat.
Aquinas maintained that the last judgment will take place
mentaliter, because the oral trial of each individual would
require too much time. In the modern Church the course
of thought upon this doctrine has been similar to that in
the ancient and mediaeval. The symbols of the different
Protestant communions explicitly affirm a day of judgment
at the end of the world, but enter into no description. In-
dividual speculations, as of old, vibrate between the ex-
tremes of materialism and idealism.
That the blessedness of the redeemed is endless has been
the uniform faith of the Church. Representations concerning
the nature of this happiness vary with the culture and intel-
lectual spirit of the age and the individual. Justin Martyr
regards the blessedness of heaven as consisting mainly in
the continuation and increase of the happiness of the mil-
lennial reign. Origen holds that the blessed dwell in the
aërial regions, and pass from one heaven to another as they
advance in holiness; at the same time he condemns those
who expect merely sensuous enjoyment. The Greek theo-
logians Gregory of Nazianzum and Gregory of Nyssa follow
Origen. Augustine believed that the heavenly happiness
consists in the enjoyment of peace which passes knowledge
and the beatific vision of God. One important element in
it consists in deliverance from all hazard of apostasy—the
non posse peccare et mori. The Schoolmen held the Patristic
theories, but with an endeavor to systematize. They divided
heaven into three parts—the visible heaven, or the firmament;
the spiritual heaven, where saints and angels dwell; and the
intellectual heaven, where the beatific vision of the Trinity
is enjoyed. The modern Church maintains the doctrine of
everlasting blessedness in substantially the same form with
the ancient and mediaeval. The tendency to materialize or
to spiritualize it varies with the grade of culture and modes
of thinking.
The punishment inflicted upon the lost was regarded by
the ancient Church as endless. The principal exception
appears in the Alexandring school, represented by Clément
and Origen. But Clement is careful to say that the doc-
trine of endless perdition must be preached, in order to de-
ter men from sin; although the hope of the final restoration
of all is permitted to the thinker. Some faint traces of a
belief in the remission of penalty in the future life are vis-
ible in the writings of Didymus of Alexandria. Gregory
of Nyssa speaks more distinctly, pointing out the correc-
tive design of punishment inflicted upon the wicked. The
annihilation of the wicked was broached by Arnobius. The
mediaeval Church was likewise a unit in holding to the
endlessness of punishment. The modern Church has also
received the historical faith upon the subject, though re-
cently a tendency appears in individuals and parties to the
doctrine of a second probation and the final restoration of
all mankind. The argument most relied upon is derived
from the general nature of the Divine benevolence, rather
ESCHEAT—ESDRAS, BOOKS OF.
1637
than from the testimony of Scripture. It is generally al-
lowed, even by opponents, that the Bible, taken as a whole,
apparently teaches the doctrine of endless punishment, and
especially that the descriptions which Christ gives of the
transactions and decisions of the day of judgment preclude
the idea of a second probation. W. G. T. SHEDD.
Escheat’, a reverting of lands to their original owner
(lord of the fee) because of some obstruction in the course
of descent, either by failure of heirs or attainder of treason
or felony; and the estate itself thus reverting is sometimes
called an escheat. It differs from forfeiture in the fact
that the latter is a penalty for a crime, and the property
forfeited accrues to the king; while escheat depends solely
on the failure of heirs, and the land reverts to the former
proprietor. It was one of the incidents of the feudal sys-
tem that when the heirs of the person last seized failed, the
land reverted to the lord of the fee from whom it was de-
rived. In this country, where the feudal tenure does not ex-
ist, the doctrine of escheat has a limited application; still, if
an owner of land dies without heirs it escheats to the state.
Incorporeal rights, such as ways and commons, do not es-
cheat, but become extinct. It is still an unsettled question
whether a trust estate will escheat by the death of the bene-
ficiary without heirs, some authorities maintaining that the
trustee is rather discharged from the trust. The land of a
corporation, in case it becomes extinct, reverts to the grant-
or, and not to the state. The state takes an eScheat subject
to any charges or encumbrances attaching to the land when
its title accrued. A proprietor may prevent an escheat by
conveying or devising his estate. In this country the sub-
ject is generally regulated by statute.
Eschſenbach’, von (Wolf RAM), a famous German
mediaeval poet or minnesinger, was born in Bavaria of a
noble family. In the year 1204 he came to the court of
Hermann, landgrave of Thuringia, whose bounty he en-
joyed. He died after 1218 and before 1225. His principal
poems are “Parcival” and “Titurel,” which have been trans-
lated into modern German, and are much admired. They
display a rich imagination and great mastery of language.
Eschſenmay'er (KARL ADOLF), a German philosopher
and mystic, born at Neuenberg, in Würtemberg, July 4,
1768. He became professor of philosophy and medicine at
Tübingen in 1811, and obtained the chair of practical phil-
osophy there in 1818. He wrote, besides other works, “The
Philosophy of Religion” (3 vols., 1818–24). Died Nov. 17,
1852.
Esch'er (Joh ANN HEINRICH ALFRED), a Swiss lawyer
and statesman, born at Zurich Feb. 20, 1819, was liberal in
politics. He opposed the Jesuits and the Sonderbund, was
elected a member of the council of the interior in 1845, and
became president of the grand council in 1847. He advo-
cated a reform of the federal system and a greater central-
ization. In Dec., 1848, he was chosen president of the new
council of regency.
Eschscholt/zia Califor’nica, the systematic name
of a plant of the natural order Papaveraceae, a native of
California. It is cultivated for the beauty of its flowers,
which are yellow. The calyx separates from the flower-
stalk when the flower expands, and resembles the extin-
guisher of a candle. This genus was named in honor of
J. F. Eschscholtz (1795–1831), a German botanist.
Eschwege, ésh-vá/ga, a walled town of Prussia, in the
province of Hesse-Nassau, is on the river Werra, 26 miles
E. S. E. of Cassel. It has a castle, a realschule, and man-
ufactures of linen and woollen goods. Pop. in 1871, 7377.
Eschweiler, ésh/viſler, a town of Rhenish Prussia, is
on the railway from Cologne to Aix-la-Chapelle, 8 miles by
railway E. N. E. of the latter. It has extensive manufac-
tures of ribbons, canvas, needles, glass, machinery, and
woollen goods. Mines of zinc and lead occur in the vicin-
ity. Pop. in 1871, 15,550.
Escobar' y Mendo’za (ANTONIO), a Spanish Jesuit
and casuist, born at Walladolid in 1589. He wrote “Moral
Theology” (1646), “Summula Casuum Conscientiae" (1626),
and other works. The lax morality of his writings was
censured by Pascal in some of his “Provincial Letters.”
Died July 4, 1669.
Escosu'ra, de la (PATRICIO), a Spanish author, was
born in Madrid Nov. 5, 1807. He was banished as early
as 1824 on account of his connection with a secret p0-
litical Society. In 1826 he returned and joined the army,
after having studied in Paris and London. In 1829 he be-
came an officer, and joining the Carlists was exiled in 1834,
but returned in 1835. Having been again banished, he was
made secretary of state (in 1843) under Narvaez, and min-
ister of the interior. Besides several novels, plays, and
poems, he published a “Constitutional History of England”
(1859), “Artistic and Monumental Spain,” and other works.
Escrow, a deed deposited by a grantor with a third
person, to be delivered to the grantee on the happening of
a certain condition. Until the condition is fulfilled and the
escrow delivered, it has no effect as a deed, and the title of
the estate remains in the grantor. It takes effect, in gem-
eral, as a deed from the second delivery. Where the ends
of justice require it, it may be referred, for its validity by
a fiction of law, termed “relation,” back to the first de-
livery.
Escu'rial, or Esco/rial [Sp. escoria, “dross,” applied
to all places where there are old or exhausted mines], a
monastery and royal palace near Madrid, in Spain, built
by Philip II., and dedicated to Saint Lawrence on occasion
of the victory of St.-Quentin in 1557, on that saint’s day.
It is whimsically built in the form of the gridiron on which
that saint is said to have been broiled alive. The work was
begun by Juan Bautista de Toledo in 1563, and completed
by his pupil, Juan de Herrara, in 1584. The cross-bars of
the gridiron are represented by ranges of buildings sepa-
rated by intervening courts, and which were formerly in-
habited by monks and ecclesiastics. The main portion of
the building is 740 Spanish feet long, and 580 in breadth.
The projection which forms the royal palace is 460 feet in
length. The height of the edifice is about sixty feet, and
at each angle is a square tower 200 feet high. It is one
of the largest and perhaps one of the most tasteless build-
ings in Europe, though grand from its size. The church in
the centre of this enormous mass of stone is very large and
rich. The Pantheon, a repository beneath this church, is
the place of interment for the royal family, whose remains
are deposited in tombs of marble placed in niches, one above
another. The richest part of this edifice, however, was that
which contained the valuable pictures, and which altogether
formed the best collection of the productions of the first
masters that any place in Europe displayed. The French,
when in possession of the Escurial, removed many of its
best treasures, which included the finest productions of
Rubens, Titian, Spagnoletto, Raphael, Baroccio, Velasquez,
Murillo, and others. The most valuable treasures of the
Escurial, however, are the immense collection of ancient
manuscripts preserved in the library, especially those of the
Arabian writers. (Encyc. Brit.) In 1872 it was fired by
lightning, suffering some damage.
Escutch'eon [Fr. Écusson, from the Lat. Scutum, a
“shield’], a heraldic term applied to a shield on which
arms are represented. The points of the escutcheon are
mine in number, being the parts named in order to express
the local position of the charges borne on the field. An
escutcheon of pretence is the shield on which a man carries
the arms of his wife, if she is an heiress and has children.
It is placed in the centre of his own shield, and is mostly
of the same form. -
Escutcheon, or The Milk Mirror, in the Guénon
method of selecting milch cows, is the shield-like outline
upon the back of the cow's udder and the adjacent parts, .
formed by the upward growth of the hair. . Some writers
call the whole outline the “mirror,” and the upper part
only the “escutcheon.” It is found by careful observation
that the size and perfection of these marks afford valuable
means of judging of the milking qualities of cows, though
much experience is required in learning to make the esti-
mate. (See C. L. FILINT, “Milch Cows and Dairy Farm-
ing,” 1859.)
Esdrae'lon, in the apocryphal book of Judith, Es-
drelom [from the Gr. 'EarSpamAá, a corruption of the He-
brew Jezreel], the most picturesque, most fertile, and his-
torically most important plain in Palestine, “ lying between
Tabor and Carmel, and between the hills of Galilee on the
north and those of Samaria on the south.” In Scripture
it is twice (2 Chron. xxxv. 22; Zech. xii. 11) called “the
valley (plain) of Megiddo.” Jezreel is properly the south-
eastern part of it, although this name is sometimes given
to the whole. It is triangular in form, the length of its
south-eastern side being about 15 miles, its south-western
about 18 miles, and its northern about 12 miles. Its sur-
face, whose elevation is about 400 feet above the Mediter-
ranean, is slightly undulating. It sends off towards the
Jordan three great arms or branches, which are separated
from each other by the mountains of Gilboa and Little
Hermon. Only one of these arms, however (the middle
one), declines eastward. The greater part of the plain is
drained by the Kishon, which empties into the Mediter-
ranean near Acre. This great plain has been the scene of
several important battles, and with it are associated the
names of Barak, Gideon, Saul, Josiah, and Napoleon. (See
RoBINSON, “Physical Geography of the Holy Land,” 1865.)
Es/dras, Books of, are certain books of the Old Tes-
tament and of the Apocrypha ascribed to Ezra, whose name
is Graecised into Esdras, following the Septuagint. The
canonical books of Ezra, and Nehemiah (as they are called
in the authorized English version) are denominated in the
1638
ESEC-ESPLANADE.
Vulgate and in the Thirty-nine Articles of the Anglican
Church the first and second books of Esdras, while the
apocryphal books, now generally known as the first and
second of Esdras, are there called the third and fourth of
Esdras. The Geneva Bible (1560) first adopted the present
nomenclature, calling the two apocryphal books first an
second Esdras. -
The first (apocryphal) book of Esdras was written in very
good Greek, but whether in Palestine or in Egypt, and at
what time, cannot be determined. It is not without his-
torical value, and is for the most part a history of the res-
toration of the Jews after the Babylonian captivity. It is
not received into the canon of either Jews or Christians.
The second apocryphal book of Esdras is purely pseud-
epigraphic, being a record of pretended revelations made to
Ezra for the encouragement of the suffering Jews. Many
interpolations have been made to it by some over-zealous
Christian. The original is believed to have been written
by a Jew of Egypt in the Greek tongue, either just before
or soon after the Christian era. The original Greek is lost,
but Latin, Ethiopic, and Arabic versions exist. It is canon-
ical in the Abyssinian Church. English versions are the
authorized, from the Latin, Ockley's, from the Arabic (1711),
and Laurence's, from the Ethiopic (1820).
Esk, a small river of Scotland, in the county of Dum-
fries, flows southward through Eskdale Muir, and enters
Solway Frith. Length, about 40 miles. Its valley is noted
for picturesque scenery. Another river Esk is formed by
the union of the North and South Esk, which meet in Dal-
keith Park, Edinburghshire. It enters the Frith of Forth
at Musselburgh. f
Esk’ee Sa’ra, or Eski Sagra, a town of European
Turkey, province of Room-Elee, on the south slope, of the
Balkan Mountains, 70 miles N. W. of Adrianople. It has
manufactures of carpets, coarse linen, and leather. Here
are several mineral springs. Pop. estimated at 18,000.
IEskilstuna, a Swedish town, 55 miles W. of Stock-
holm. It is the principal place for the manufacture of the
better sorts of iron. Pop. 5088.
Eskridge, a thriving post-village of Wabaunsee co.,
Kan., near the centre of the county, has one weekly news-
paper.
Es/men, a township of Livingston co., Ill. Pop. 917.
Esmeral'da, a county in the S. W. of Nevada, bor-
dering on California. The surface is mountainous; the
soil is sterile except along the streams. It contains Walker's
Lake, which is about 30 miles long and has no outlet. Sil-
ver-mines have been opened in several parts of the county.
Gold, copper, iron, salt, lead, and mercury are found.
Cattle and grain are raised. Capital, Aurora. Pop. 1553.
Es/neh, Esmé (anc. Latopolis), a town of Upper
Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile, about 30 miles above
Thebes. It has manufactures of blue cotton and pottery;
also an active trade with Sennaar and Abyssinia. Here are
the ruins of the populous ancient city of Latopolis, so called
from the worship of the latus fish. Among them is a well-
preserved portico of a grand temple, with twenty-four beau-
tiful columns standing, and a zodiac on the ceiling like that
at Denderah. All the rest of the temple is literally buried,
the houses of the modern town standing even upon its roof.
In visiting the portico, one goes down as into a deep vault.
It was cleared of rubbish by order of Mohammed Ali in
1842. An older temple appears to have been built there by
Thothmes III. of the eighteenth dynasty, but the present
edifice dates from the times of Tiberius, Vespasian, Tra-
jan, Hadrian, and Antoninus. On the river-bank are also
the remains of a Roman quay. Pop. 12,000.
Esop. See AESOP.
Eso'pus, a post-township of Ulster co., N. Y. It con-
tains Port Ewen and other villages, produces much ice,
fruit, and hydraulic cement, and is a place of summer re-
sort. It takes its name from a tribe of Algonkin Indians
long since extinct. Pop. 4557.
Esoteric, čS-o-tér’ik [from the Gr. earorepukós, “inner,”
“intimate”], a term applied to those doctrines which are
designed for the initiated only. The ancient philosophers
are supposed to have had a set of mysterious doctrines,
which they imparted to their more enlightened and inti-
mate disciples, and other doctrines, more popular, for the
benefit of the multitude. This opinion is to some extent
well founded as regards Aristotle, except so far as relates
to the suspicion of intentional concealment, which is im-
plied. His exoteric or published writings appear to have
been written as dialogues, and are not extant. His esoteric
works, as may be inferred from the synonymous term ac-
roamatic, were not intended to supersede the necessity of
oral instruction to render them intelligible, and this may
account for the perplexed arrangement, brevity, and repe-
titions of his surviving works.
E’sox, a genus of fishes which includes the pikes, and
the type of the family of
# = <sº the Esocidae. These are
* - #== gº the most voracious of all
* > º, fresh-water fishes, attain
# a large size, and live to a
I º great age. The habits of
§: the European pike (Esox
sº lucius) have been often
É described. In N or th
America, there are many
species of the genus Esox,
of which the largest and
finest is the muskallunge
(Esoa. Estor). The pick-
erel (Esox reticulatus) is perhaps the most common and
best known of our pikes. •
Espalier [Fr.], in horticulture, a railing or trellis-work
used as a substitute for a wall, on which to train fruit trees
or ornamental shrubs. The objects are to hasten the ripen-
ing of fruit by exposing the foliage of the plants more
freely to the light, to prevent the branches from being
blown about by the winds, and to economize space. The
espalier is constructed of wood or iron, and consists of hori-
zontal rails supported by upright posts. Apples, peaches,
and pears are trained on espaliers in England.
Esparte/ro (JoAQUIM BALDoMERo), duke of Vittoria,
was born Feb. 27, 1792, at Gramatula, La Mancha. He was
the son of a cartwright. He enlisted in the army in 1808,
served as an officer against the French, against Bolivar
(1815–25), and against the Carlists (1833–40). He became
a lieutenant-general in 1835, a grandee in 1838, regent of
Spain in 1841, was banished by Narvaez in 1843, and be-
came prime minister in 1854. Under King Amadeus (1872)
he was senior captain-general of the army. (See J. S.
FLOREz, “Espartero: Historia de sa Vida,” 3 vols., 1844.)
Esparſto (Sti'pa or Macroch/loa tenacis'sima), a species
of grass growing in Spain, Barbary, etc., has a very strong
fibre, which is used by the Spaniards for making cordage,
mats, nets, etc. Large amounts are used in Great Britain
in the manufacture of paper. Its culture in the U. S. has
been recommended. Esparto, the halfa of Algiers, was
first used for paper by an Englishman named Routledge,
whose patent was issued in 1846. The paper produced is
generally of good quality.
Es/perance, a post-township of Schoharie co., N. Y.
Pop. 1276.
Espinasse, de l’ (CLAIRE FRANÇorSE, or JULIE
JEANNE ELíoNoRE), a fascinating French lady, born in
Nov., 1732. She was distinguished for her imagination and
sensibility. In 1752 she went to live in Paris as companion
to Madame du Deffaud, in whose house she remained nearly
ten years. She gained the affection of D'Alembert, and be-
came about 1762 mistress of a salom which was frequented
by a brilliant literary coterie. Died in May, 1776. Her
published letters are much admired.
Espinasse (ESPRIT CHARLES MARIE), a French gen-
eral, born at Saissac, in Aude, April 2, 1815. He served in
the Crimean war as a general, and distinguished himself at
the Tchernaya (1855). In 1858 he was minister of the in-
terior for about four months. He was killed at the battle
of Magenta June 4, 1859.
Espinel’ (VINCENTE), a popular Spanish poet, born at
Ronda, about 1544. He learned several ancient and mod-
ern languages, and became a priest. It is stated that he
served some years as a soldier, and led an adventurous life
in several foreign countries. Among his works are nume-
rous songs, the “House of Memory” (“La Casa de Memo-
ria”), and a novel entitled “Marcos de Obregon’’ (1618),
from which Le Sage borrowed incidents of “Gil Blas.”
Espinel ranked among the best poets of his time. Died in
1634;
Espinha'go, Ser'ra-do, a mountain-chain of Brazil,
in the provinčes of Bahia and Minas Geraes. It contains
diamond-mines.
Espir'ito San’to (i.e. “Holy Spirit”), [Port.], a prov-
ince of Brazil, is bounded on the N. by Bahia, on the E. by
the Atlantic, on the S. by Rio Janeiro, and on the W. by
Minas Geraes. It is partly drained by the Rio Doce. The
soil is very fertile, but a large part of the province is still
covered with forests, in which are many valuable Woods
and drugs. The lowlands along the coast produce sugar,
cotton, rice, and manioc. Capital, Vittoria. Pop. 65,000,
of whom 15,000 are slaves.
Espiritu Santo [Sp.], a town of Cuba, near the middle
of the island, about 240 miles E. S. E. of Havana. Pop.
about 10,000.
Esplanade, és' plan-ād’ in fortification, is an open
-*-*****, *
*-*~~~-
§ §=
#Nº.
Esox lucius.




ESPY-ESSAY.
1639
space of ground left between the glacis of a citadel or fort
and the houses of a town, in order to prevent the enemy
erecting breaching-batteries under cover of buildings. The
term has also been applied to the glacis of the counterscarp,
or the slope of the parapet of the covered way towards the
country. z
Es/py (JAMES P.), an American meteorologist, styled
the “storm-king,” born in Washington co., Pa., May 9,
1785. He was the author of a theory of storms which
excited some controversy, and which he published in 1841,
in systematic form, under the title “The Philosophy of
Storms.” According to this theory, every great atmospheric
disturbance commences with the uprising of a body of air
which has been rarefied by heat. The heavier air, flowing
in beneath, creates currents converging from all directions
to the central point. The rising mass dilates as it rises, in
consequence of diminished pressure, and its temperature
falls, in consequence of this dilatation, down to the dew-
point and below, precipitating its contained vapor in the
form of cloud. The latent heat of elasticity thus liberated
dilates the air still more, and disturbs the equilibrium
anew, so that the rising continues to go on, till the moisture
in the air forming the upward current is practically ex-
hausted. As the heavier air flowing in beneath finds a
diminished pressure above it, this air also rises, causing
still greater drafts upon the surrounding air, and establish-
ing permanent converging currents, which meet in the
centre and rush upward, with constantly increasing vio-
lence. The vast amount of aqueous vapor precipitated
during this atmospheric commotion gives rise to heavy
rains. Mr. Espy's theory found many adherents. The
physical principles on which it rests are sound, and it is so
far supported by observation. It received also the approval
of the French Academy of Sciences in a formal report. But
his views as to the mechanics of storms are untenable, and
are contrary to observed facts. Converging currents in-
variably produce rotation, and hence, though storms doubt-
less often originate in the causes assigned by him, their
characteristic action is rotatory or spiral. A lively con-
troversy was for some time maintained between the sup-
§: of Mr. Espy and those of his principal opponent,
r. Redfield, who held the rotatory theory. This long ago
ceased, and the rotatory theory is now generally accepted.
It has given to meteorology the familiar term cyclone. It
has also been made the basis of instructions, for the use of
navigators, by the British Admiralty and the U. S. bureau
of navigation. -
Mr. Espy entertained a sanguine belief that rains could
be brought on at any time by means of great fires, kept up
long enough and over a sufficiently large surface to initiate
a powerful upward movement, relying on natural causes to
maintain the current when once started. He even supposed
that it might be possible in this way to maintain the navi-
gation of the upper Ohio River through the dry season.
He therefore petitioned Congress and the legislature of
Pennsylvania to make a sufficient appropriation to enable
him to try the experiment; but without success. He re-
ceived, however, an appointment as meteorological observer
under the government; and while holding this position he
made arrangements, in accordance with a judicious sugges-
tion of the Hon. A. H. Stephens of Georgia, with the press
and with the various lines of telegraph converging to the
capital, to publish daily bulletins of the state of the
weather in different and distant localities. These were
doubtless the first weather-telegrams ever regularly made
public. The system, discontinued during the war, has
been since revived and largely extended. It has also been
introduced into England and into parts of continental
Europe. While enjoying its benefits the world should not
forget the meritorious observer with whom it originated.
He died in Cincinnati Jan. 24, 1860. F. A. P. BARNARD.
Esquimaux, es'ke-mo' (plu.), [a French orthography of
the Algonquin eskemo, an “eater of raw flesh;” called in
their own tongue Innuit, “men”], a race of men inhabiting
the Arctic coasts of North America and its islands, and the
coast of Labrador nearly as far south as the Gulf of St.
Lawrence; also found on the extreme north of the Pacific
coast of Alaska, and to some extent in the N. E. part of
Asia. They are short, though broad and muscular, very
seldom exceeding five and a half feet in height. In color
they are of a rather light brown, and in features they ap-
proach the Mongolian type. Their food consists of the flesh
of whales, seals, the walrus, birds, and fish. They have re-
markable skill in fishing and hunting. Their only domestic
animal is the dog, of which they possess a large and pow-
erful variety, very useful to them, not only in the chase, but
for drawing sledges. Their personal habits are extremely
filthy. Their dress is made of skins, and is nearly the same
in both sexes. Their religion is a rude superstition, in
which only the vaguest notions of a Supreme Being can be
found. In Greenland and on the Labrador coast the Mo-
ravian and the Danish Lutheran missionaries have, since
1721, brought to many of them the knowledge of Christian-
ity.
The ethnological relations of the Esquimaux are not well
understood. Physically, they approach the Mongolian type,
and their presence in Asia would appear to confirm this
view of their origin, but their language is of the American
structure and inflection. There appears to be a remarkable
uniformity in their vocabulary throughout the whole race.
The opinion of Pritchard, that they are a link in the chain .
connecting the Mongolian and the American races, seems
to be the prevailing belief with ethnologists. Their num-
bers in America are estimated at 47,500, of whom about
20,000 are in Greenland, 1500 in Labrador, 4000 on the
coasts of Hudson's Bay, and 17,000 in Alaska. (See Montſ-
MONT, “ Moeurs et Coutumes des Esquimaux,” 1841; C. F.
HALL, “Life with the Esquimaux,” 1864.)
Esquire [from the Sp. escude'ro (i. e. a “ shield-
bearer”); Old Fr. escuyer], a name originally given to an
armor-bearer, an attendant on a knight. As this office in times
of chivalry was mostly borne by persons of good family, the
word esquire came to be used in England for the rank next
below knight and above simple gentleman. The younger
sons of peers, who are now called honorables, their eldest
sons, and those of knights, the justices of the peace, sher-
iffs of counties, sergeants-at-law, and doctors of divinity,
are esquires by virtue of their rank or office. Heads of an-
cient families are esquires by prescription, and hence the
word has come to be used as a common addition to the
names of all who hold the rank of gentleman. An esquire
was formerly created by the king by putting a silver collar.
of SS around his neck and bestowing on him a pair of sil-
ver spurs. Aº
Esquirol (JEAN ETIENNE DOMINIQUE), M.D., a French
physician and philanthropist, born at Toulouse Jan. 4, 1772.
He founded at Paris in 1799 an asylum for the insane, which
was a model institution, and he initiated a reform in the
treatment of the insane. In 1817 he began a course of
clinical lectures for mental maladies, on which he wrote a
valuable work, “Des Maladies Mentales’’ (2 vols., 1838).
He became in 1826 chief physician of the asylum at Cha-
renton. Died Dec. 12, 1840.
Esquiros (HENRI ALPHONSE), a French poet and novel-
ist, born in Paris in 1814. On account of his work, “The
Gospel of the People,” he was in 1840 sentenced to eight
months' imprisonment, during which time he became an in-
timate friend of Lamennais. After the revolution of 1848
he was elected a member of the Legislative Assembly, in
which he belonged to the extreme Left. In consequence
of the coup-d'état of 1851, he had to leave France, and
lived in England until 1869, when the amnesty proclaimed
by Napoleon allowed him to return. Soon after he was
elected a member of the Legislative Body. After the over-
throw of the empire, in Sept., 1870, the provisional govern-
ment sent him as administrator-general of the department
of Rhone to Marseilles, where he succeeded in suppressing
anarchical tendencies. He favored the separation of the
south of France from the north, and for a while refused to
recognize the decree of Gambetta, which suspended him,
but finally resigned in Nov., 1870, in order to avoid a civil
war. In Feb., 1871, he was elected a member of the Na-
tional Assembly, and took his seat at the extreme Left. He
published, besides other works, “The Magician’” (1837),
“Charlotte Corday,” a novel (1840), “The Gospel of the
People” (“Evangile du Peuple,” 1840), “The History of
the Mountain’” (“Montagnards,” 1847), “La Morale Uni-
verselle” (1859), “I’Angleterre et la vie anglaise” (5 vols.,
1859–70); and in the English language, “Religious Life in
England ” (London, 1867), “English Seamen” (1868).
Ess, van (LEANDER), a German Catholic theologian,
distinguished at once for his learning and his liberality of
opinion, especially with respect to the circulation of the
Scriptures, was born at Warburg, in Westphalia, Feb. 15,
1772. In 1790 he entered the Benedictine monastery of
Marienmünster in Paderborn, in 1796 became priest, after-
wards pastor at Schmalenberg, and in 1813 professor ex-
traordinary of theology at Marburg. He aided his cousin,
Karl van Ess (1770–1824), in publishing a German trans-
lation of the New Testament (1807), and twelve years later
(1819), without assistance from his cousin, who had mean-
while given up his liberal opinions, published also a trans-
lation of the Old Testament. His edition of the Vulgate
appeared in 1822, and his edition of the Septuagint in 1824.
He lived in seclusion for several years, and died Oct. 13,
1847. His library, rich in Bibles, patristic, mediaeval, and
Reformation literature, and making some 18,000 volumes,
now belongs to the Union Theological Seminary in New
York City.
Es’ say [Fr. essail, an attempt; an experiment; a lit-
1640
ESSEK–ESSEX.
erary composition. In literature this title is generally
given to short disquisitions on subjects of taste, philos-
ophy, morality, etc. In this sense it has been applied to
periodical papers published at regular intervals under a col-
lective name by one or more writers. From the 'appearance
of the “Tatler,” which was chiefly written by Sir Richard
Steele, this species of literature continued to be a favorite
in England for seventy years. Many series of essays were
produced, the best of which are united in one collection
under the name of “The English Essayists.” The most
celebrated of these writings was “The Spectator,” to which
Addison contributed the best essays; and next to it the
“Rambler,” chiefly written by Dr. Johnson. Among the
eminent essayists of more recent times is Macaulay. The
title of essay has been also adopted by way of indicating
diffidence in the completeness of their work by authors of
more extended performances, as by Locke, “Essay on the
IHuman Understanding.”
Essek. See EszEK.
Es/sen, a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the Cologne and
Minden Railway, and near the river Ruhr, 27 miles by
railway N. E. of Düsseldorf. It has a cathedral, a gym-
nasium, a realschule, and a female high School; also manu-
factures of steam-engines, firearms, woollen cloth, paper,
and iron wares. It derives its prosperity chiefly from the
rich coal-mines, which surround it. In the vicinity is a
large iron-foundry, copper-mills, and Krupp’s extensive
manufactory of steel. Pop. in 1871, 51,526.
Es'sen (HANs HENRIK), Count of, a Swedish general,
born in West Gothland in 1755. He was appointed gov-
ernor of Stockholm in 1795, and obtained in 1807 the com-
mand of an army with which he defended Stralsund against
the French. He was sent as ambassador to Paris by Charles
XIII., who became king in 1809. In 1814 he was raised to
the rank of field-marshal and governor-general of Norway.
Died July 28, 1824.
Essence, a solution of an essential oil in alcohol or rec-
tified spirit. (See EssBNTIAL OILs.)
Es/sence [Lat. essen/tia, from esse, “to be,” literally,
“being ”]. Chauvin, in his “Lexicon Rationale” (1713),
gives the following definition of this word: “All that by
virtue of which anything is, and is what it is.” The “es-
sential qualities” of an object or being consist of those ele-
ments each and all of which are necessary to its existence.
The term essence is used to denote the sum of these essential
qualities. The term is used as a general name for the es-
sential qualities or elements of all objects or beings in gen-
eral, or to denote similar elements in a single object or be-
ing. Much confusion in thought arises from the failure to
distinguish between the general and singular use of this
term and the closely allied word substance. By the modern
Blatonists the word is used to denote the real being, “idea,”
or spiritual substance of objects, as distinguished from the
matter which represents the “idea,” to the outward senses.
The Scholastics, who adopted the Aristotelian distinction
of “matter’’ and form, departed somewhat from the Aris-
totelian conception, and called the matter of any object its
substance, and the “form * or force which shaped the mat-
ter and determined its genus or species, the essence of the
object, as made up of all those modalities without which the
object, as such, would cease to exist. This mode of state-
ment was specially adopted by the Scotists. Descartes so
defined substance that the term was applicable to God only,
and denominated by essence all those forms of matter which
determine species and genera, and without which they
would cease to be. The words e88ence and swbstance in
modern writers are often used as substantial synonyms, de-
noting all that in any object the knowledge of which is im-
possible to the human mind; while quality or accident is
used to name all that can be actually known. Few terms
in philosophy and theology are used with more confusion
and vagueness. It is always requisite in reading discus-
sions in which they frequently occur to ascertain the exact
or inexact sense in which an author uses them.
Essenes, és-seenz’ [Gr. "Earonvot; Lat. Esse/mij, or
Essaeans [Gr. Eargatov], the latest, and apparently the
smallest, of the three Jewish sects in existence in the time
of Christ. They are not mentioned in the New Testament.
The etymology of the name is doubtful, and the history of
the sect obscure. The Essenes were mystics, and most of
them celibates. They are not to be confounded with the
Therapeutae, although a kindred sect. The greater part of
them lived by themselves near the N. W. shore of the Dead
Sea, but they were also scattered in various parts of Pales-
tine, and are supposed to have numbered in all some 4000
or 5000. The first distinct trace of them is about 110 B.C.,
and they disappear from history after the destruction of
Jerusalem by the Romans.
Essen/tial Oils [so called because they were formerly
supposed to contain the essence or active principle of the
plant or substance from which they are extracted], called
also Wol’atile Oils, a large class of compounds, mostly
of vegetable origin, though some are derived from animal
sources. They mostly exist already formed in plants. With
a few exceptions they are colorless, and have in most
cases a powerful odor and pungent taste, resembling that -
of the plant whence they are derived. A large number of
them are isomeric (or identical in composition) with oil of
turpentine and with caoutchouc. These are called terpenes
(C10H16); others are aldehydes; still others appear to be
compounds of alcohol radicals with organic acids, etc. A
very few contain sulphur. Most of them are obtained by
distillation with water, others by pressure. They are in
many cases changed by time and exposure into resins, or
resolved into several distinct substances.
Essequiſbo, a river of British Guiana, rises near the
S. frontier, flows northward through forests of gigantic
trees, and enters the Atlantic by an estuary 20 miles wide;
lat. 7° 0' 20" N., lon. 56°42' 31" W. Length, 500 miles.
It is navigable 60-miles.
Es/ses, Collar of, or Collar of SS, a heraldic orna-
ment composed of S-shaped links joined together or em-
broidered somewhat after the manner of a chain. It enters
into the insignia of various officers in England, and was,
it is said, anciently worn by all esquires. It is claimed by
some that the SS is emblematic of Saint Simplicius.
Es/sex [“East Saxons"], a county of England, bounded
on the E. by the North Sea and on the S. by the estuary of
the Thames. Area, 1657 square miles, of which nine-tenths
are arable. It is partly drained by the Stour, the Lea, and
the Chelmer rivers. The surface is pleasantly diversified,
except the flat marshy land near the sea. The soil is mostly
a fertile loam, which produces wheat, barley, oats, beans,
hops, potatoes, etc. Essex is an agricultural county, hav-
ing comparatively few manufactures. Many sheep are
raised. The chief towns are Chelmsford (the capital), Col-
chester, Harwich, and Maldon. Essex was a kingdom of
the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy, which comprised Essex and
parts of Middlesex, Hertford, and Bedford. Pop. 466,427.
Essex, a county which forms the S. W. extremity of
Ontario, Dominion of Canada. Area, 677 square miles. It
is bounded on the N. by Lake St. Clair, on the S. by Lake
Erie, and on the W. by Detroit River. The soil is product-
ive. It is intersected by the Great Western Railway. Cap-
ital, Sandwich. Pop. in 1871, 32,697.
Essex, a county which forms the N. E. extremity of
Massachusetts. Area, 500 square miles. It is bounded on
the E. by the Atlantic Ocean and on the S. E. by Massa-
chusetts Bay. It is intersected by the Merrimack River,
and has several good harbors on the coast. The surface
near the sea is rugged and rocky, but the Soil is gene-
rally fertile. Fruit, hay, grain, and garden and dairy pro-
ducts are raised extensively. The inhabitants of Glouces-
ter, Marblehead, Beverly, Salem, and Newburyport are ex-
tensively employed in commerce and the fisheries. Essex
county is traversed by the Boston and Maine, the Essex,
the Eastern, and the Newburyport R. Rs. Here are exten-
sive manufactures of carriages, leather, shoes, machinery,
cotton, linen, wool, and many other goods. Lawrence,
Lynn, Haverhill, Salem, Marblehead, Peabody, Gloucester,
Newburyport, Andover, Amesbury, and Danvers are large
and important towns. Ice and granite are largely ex-
ported. T. Capitals, Salem, Newburyport, and Lawrence.
Pop. 200,843. -
Essex, a county in the N. E. of New Jersey. Area,
about 130 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the
|Passaic River and Newark Bay, and on the W. by the
Passaic River. The surface is nearly level, except the
western part; the soil is productive. Hay, grain, dairy
and garden produce are raised extensively. The manufac-
tures include boots, shoes, metallic wares, saddlery, car-
riages, and a great variety of commodities. It is intersected
by the Morris and Essex, the Paterson and Newark, and
the New Jersey R. Rs. ; also the Morris Canal. This is the
most populous county in the State. Capital, Newark. Pop.
143,839.
Essex, a county in the N. E. of New York. Area, 1926
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by Lake Cham-
plain, and contains several small lakes. The Au Sable
River forms part of the northern boundary of the county,
which is partly drained by the Hudson River. The surface
is mountainous, and mostly, covered with forests. Essex
county comprises a large part of the Adirondac Mountains,
and Mount Marcy, the highest point in the State, here
rises 5467 feet above the level of the Sea. Among its min-
eral-resources are iron ore and limestone. Potatoes, grain,
wool, hay, and dairy products are raised extensively.
Lumber, leather, cooperage, iron, and starch are among
ESSEX—ESTATE.
1641
the manufactured commodities.
Pop. 29,042.
Essex, a county which forms the N. E. extremity of
Vermont. Area, 790 square miles. It is bounded on the
E. by the Connecticut River, and is partly drained by the
Passumpsic. The surface is mountainous. It is intersected
by the Grand Trunk and the Portland and Ogdensburg
R. Rs. Capital, Guildhall. Pop. 6811.
Essex, a county in the E. of Virginia. Area, 300 Square
miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the navigable Rap-
pahannock River. The soil is sandy and moderately fer-
tile. Grain and wool are produced. Capital, Tappahan-
mock. Pop. 9927.
Essex, a post-village of Middlesex co., Conn., on the
Connecticut River, 7 miles from its mouth, and about 17
miles W. of New London. It has one national bank, and
manufactures of carriages and soap. Pop., including Essex
township, 1669.
Essex, a township of Kankakee co., III. Pop. 990.
Essex, a township of Stark co., Ill. Pop. 1538.
Essex, a township of Porter co., Ind. Pop. 228.
Essex, a post-township of Essex co., Mass., on a branch
of the Eastern R. R. It has ten shipyards. Essex-built
vessels have a high reputation. Pop. 1614.
Essex, a post-township of Clinton co., Mich. Pop. 1501.
Essex, a post-township of Essex co., N. Y. romantic-
ally situated on Lake Champlain. It has manufactures of
iron, lumber, lime, shipping, woollen goods, etc. Pop.
1600.
Essex, a post-township of Chittenden co., Vt., 8 miles
E. of Burlington, at the junction of the Burlington di-
vision with the main line of the Vermont Central R. R.
Essex has a classical institute, and manufactures of wall-
paper, gloves, shirts, metallic wares, furniture, brick, and
other goods. Pop. 2022.
Essex (ROBERT Devereux), SECOND EARL of, an Eng-
lish courtier, born in Herefordshire Nov. 10, 1567, was the
eldest son of Walter, the first earl of Essex. He served
with distinction at the battle of Zutphen in 1586, and be-
came master of the horse in 1587. In 1588 he succeeded
the earl of Leicester as the prime favorite of Queen Eliza-
beth. He had a handsome person, agreeable manners, and
other popular qualities. He married, in 1590, Sir Philip
Sidney’s widow, who was a daughter of Sir Francis Wal-
singham. He commanded the land forces of the expedi-
tion which took Cadiz in 1596, and he became earl-marshal
of England in 1597. He was appointed lord lieutenant of
Ireland, and was sent in 1599 to subdue a revolt of the
Irish, but was not successful. Having been removed from
office in disgrace, he returned to London, and provoked the
queen by his rash and disrespectful conduct. It is stated
that he tried to excite an insurrection in London. He was
tried for treason, and beheaded Feb. 25, 1601. He was
brave and generous, but too vain and ambitious.
Essex (THOMAs CROMWELL), EARL OF. See CROMWELL.
Ess/ling, a village of Austria, on the Danube, 7 miles
E. of Vienna, was the scene of an indecisive battle between
Napoleon and the Austrians in May, 1809. (See ASPERN.)
Esslingen, a town of Würtemberg, on the river Neckar,
9 miles by rail E. S. E. of Stuttgart. It is on the railway
which connects Stuttgart with Ulm, is enclosed by walls,
and has an old castle. It has a splendid Gothic church,
built in 1440, with a spire 230 feet high, a handsome town-
hall, and a richly endowed hospital. Here are important
manufactures of machinery, cotton and woollen stuffs,
paper, silver-ware, and wine. Esslingen became in 1209 a
free city of the German empire. Pop. in 1871, 17,941.
Established Church, a term applied to any church
organization which is exclusively recognized by the govern-
ment of a country, or which has peculiar privileges under
any government. Most Mohammedan and heathen coun-
tries have an established religion, though in nearly all more
or less freedom of opinion is allowed. Christianity first be-
came the established religion of the Roman world under
Constantine the Great. Charlemagne strengthened the
Church establishment in the West; and throughout the
Middle Ages the unity and authority of the Church exer-
cised a great, and in some respects a very salutary, influence
upon the crude society of those times. Some of the early
Protestant Reformers advocated a separation of Church
and State, but in every European country where Protestant-
ism prevailed some one of its divisions became the State
Church; and the same was the case in most of the English
North American colonies. Whatever may have been the
effect for good or evil in those times, it is not only the
popular opinion, but the conclusion of the best thinkers of
our time, that the day for church establishments has gone
Capital, Elizabethtown.
by, and that the voluntary system is on all accounts greatly
to be preferred.
Estafette, és/táſfét', a French word which is used in
nearly all the countries of Europe to signify an express em-
ployed to convey packages, letters, etc. Articles sent by
the estafette are consigned to the care of successive postil-
ions, who are changed with every relay of horses.
Estaing, d? (CHARLES HECTOR), Count, a French naval
officer, born in Auvergne in 1729. He served in the land
army in India, and was appointed lieutenant-general of the
naval armies in 1763. He commanded as vice-admiral a
fleet sent in 1778 to fight for the U. S. His fleet was
damaged by a storm near Newport in August of that year.
He soon repaired his ships, and sailed to the West Indies,
where he captured Grenada in 1779. In September of that
year he attacked the British at Savannah without success.
He returned to France in 1780, and was guillotined April
28, 1794.
Estaires, a town of France, department of Nord, on
the Lys. It has considerable manufactures of linen, nap-
kins, soap, candles, and oil. Pop. 7120. -
Estate, a word sometimes used to indicate property
generally, whether real or personal. Sometimes it includes
land alone. In law it denotes the interest which one may
have in property. It means the time during which owner-
ship exists, as for a year, or for life, or for ever. Under
the common law, estates in land are divided, as regards the
quantity of interest, into two general divisions: 1st, free-
hold estates; 2d, estates less than freehold.
1st. A freehold is an estate which may last for life or
longer. An estate which is circumscribed within a certain
number of years, or one in which the possessor has no fixed
right of enjoyment, is less than freehold; and although, in
fact, it may endure longer than the life of its first possessor,
still the law regards it as a lower estate than a freehold; it
is in the eye of the law personal property, and does not de-
scend to heirs, though it may pass to executors or adminis-
trators. .
E’reehold estates are divided into estates of inheritance,
which pass to heirs, and estates not of inheritance; the for-
mer are again divided into estates in fee simple and estates
in fee tail. A fee simple is the most extensive and highest
interest a man can have in land. If not aliened or devised,
it passes to heirs generally. A fee tail, on the other hand,
is an estate which is limited to certain particular heirs or
to a certain class of heirs, to the exclusion of the others, as
to the heirs of one’s body, which excludes collateral heirs,
or to the heirs male of one’s body, which excludes females.
Fee tails have had only a limited existence in this country,
and are now, in general, abolished. In New York, by the
law of 1782, they were changed into estates in fee simple.
Treeholds not of inheritance are for life only, either for
the life of the tenant or of some other person or persons,
when the estate is called an estate pur autre vie. Life
estates are created by the act of the parties or by operation
of law. An example of the former is where A conveys
land to B for the term of his natural life, or where A con-
veys land to B without expressing the duration of the term.
Here, under the common law, B would take only a life estate,
but by statute in New York and many other States a grant
or devise of real estate passes all the interest of the grant-
or or testator, unless the intent to pass a less estate or in-
terest appears in express terms or by necessary implication.
Curtesy and dower are life estates created by act or opera-
tion of law. When a man marries a woman seized at any
time during the coverture of an estate of inheritance, and
has issue born alive during the life of the wife, which
might possibly inherit from the mother, the husband on the
death of the wife has an estate for his life in her land, which
is termed curtesy. In many of the States a wife may alien
or devise her land so as to defeat this estate, and in Some it
is altogether abolished. When a husband dies, the wife has
a life estate in a third of all the land in which at any time
during coverture he had an estate of inheritance. This
estate of the wife is termed dower. In some of the States,
by statute, a wife is entitled to dower only in the land of
which her husband died seized, and in most of the States
the interest which a wife takes in the land of her deceased
husband has been a matter of statutory regulation.
2d. Estates less than freehold. These are divided into
estates for years, at will, and by sufferance. An estate for
years is an estate for a determinate period, whether it be
for a longer number of years than a human life, or for only
a portion of one year. An estate at will is where one man
lets land to another to hold at his will, as well as that of
the lessee. Such an estate is terminated by either party
on due notice. Out of estates at will a class of estates has
grown up called estates from year to year, which can be
terminated only by six months’ notice, expiring at the end
of the year. An important element in creating this estate
f
1642
ESTATES, THE THREE–ESTERHAZY DE GALANTHA.
is the payment of rent. An estate by sufferance arises
when one comes into the possession of land by agreement,
and holds over after his original estate has expired, and
without any agreement, express or implied, by which it is
continued. The landlord has a right to enter at any time,
and dispossess the occupant without notice.
These estates may be created upon condition—that is,
their existence may depend on the happening or not hap-
pening of some event whereby the estate may be created, en-
larged, or defeated. A fee, a freehold, or a term for years may
thus be upon condition. The condition must either be pre-
cedent—that is, must happen before the estate can vest or
be enlarged—or subsequent, when it will defeat an estate
already vested.
Estates may also be legal or equitable. They are called
“equitable” when the formal ownership is in one person
and the beneficial ownership is in another. Another form
of expression is that a trust is created. This distinction
does not affect the nature of the estate. Thus, a trust es-
tate may be a life estate or a fee, and in the latter case is
transmissible to heirs as though it were a strict legal estate.
In regard to the time of enjoyment, estates are divided
into estates in possession and estates in expectancy. An
estate in possession is one in which there is a present right
of enjoyment. Estates in expectancy are those which give
either a vested or contingent right of future enjoyment.
They are subdivided into remainders, which are created by
the express words of the parties, as where one gives a life
estate in land to A, and the remainder to B; and rever-
sions, which arise by operation of law, as where one gives
an estate for life to A ; here, on the death of A, the estate
reverts to the grantor or his heirs, who, until the termina-
tion of A’s estate, are said to have a reversion in the land.
Besides these, there are future estates introduced into the
law by the doctrine of uses (see USEs) which are not gov-
erned by the technical rules applicable to remainders. They
are called “springing and shifting uses.” Similar pro-
visions in a will are termed “executory devises.”
In regard to the number of owners, estates are divided
into estates in severalty, in joint tenancy, in common, and
in coparcenary. An estate in severalty is one which has
only a single owner. An estate in joint tenancy is an estate
owned jointly by two or more persons, whose title is created
by the same instrument. The distinguishing characteristic
is the right of survivorship. On the death of any tenant
his interest is extinguished, and the estate goes to the sur-
vivors. By the common law, where an estate is conveyed
to two or more persons without indicating how it is to be
held, it is understood to be in joint tenancy. But in most
of the U. S. this rule has been changed by statute, and per-
Sons to whom an estate is conveyed or given take as ten-
ants in common, unless they hold as trustees. An estate
in common is where separate and distinct but undivided
interests in land are held by two or more persons. Each
tenant is considered as solely seized of his share, which on
his death descends to his heirs. An estate in coparcenary
is the estate which female heirs take in the land of an in-
testate ancestor. In this country this estate is essentially
extinguished, and heirs take as tenants in common.
The English classification of estates in land has been
much modified by statute in the U. S., but it forms the basis
of the law of real estate throughout the American Union,
except in Louisiana, where the civil law prevails.
- - T. W. DWIGHT.
Estates, The Three, or the Estates of the Realm
[Fr. Les États Générawal, the political name designating the
three classes of feudal society: I, the nobles; 2, the clergy;
and 3, the commons, including the bourgeois or middle class
of towns and the peasantry. The term “estates of the realm ’’
was used in Scotland before the Union (1707) as synonym-
ous with Parliament. It consisted of lords spiritual (or
mitred clergy), lords temporal (including the nobles and the
commissioners of shires and stewartries), and the represen-
tatives, called burgesses or commissioners, of royal burghs.
They met in one assembly, and usually voted in one body.
The “States General” of France were rarely convened after
the fourteenth century, and had little or no legislative power.
One of the exciting causes of the French Revolution was the
dispute which arose between the “third estate” (tiers átat),
or bourgeois, and the nobles and clergy, as to whether the
third estate had a right to sit with the first and second.
This dispute arose in 1789. In Sweden there were four
estates—nobles, clergy, bourgeois (middle class), and peas-
ants, each sitting in a separate house; but since 1865 there
are but two legislative houses, both representative. A con-
vention of the States General was long (1580–1795) the su-
preme power in the Dutch republic.
Esºte (anc. Ateş’te), a town of Italy, in the province of
Padua, is picturesquely situated on the slope of the Eu-
ganean Hills, 18 miles, by rail, S. S. W. of Padua. Here
is a fine feudal castle called Rocca belonging to the noble
family of Este; also an interesting Romanesque church
with a leaning tower. Este has manufactures of silk goods,
hats, and earthenware. Pop. 8697.
Es/te, an ancient sovereign family of Italy, from which
the monarchs of Great Britain are descended. Among the
first princes of this family was Oberto I., who married a
daughter of Otho, king of Italy, and died about 927 A.D.,
leaving a son, Oberto II. The family received several dis-
tricts and towns to be held as fiefs of the German empire.
Albertazzo II., who succeeded Oberto II. about 1020, mar-
ried a German princess of the house of Guelph or Welf.
Their son, Guelph IV., received in 1071 the investiture of
the duchy of Bavaria. He was the ancestor of the houses
of Brunswick and Hanover. Obizzo took the title of mar-
quis of Este in 1137, and Azzo VI., marquis of Este, was
chosen as their sovereign by the people of Ferrara in 1208.
Azzo VII. of Este was the chief of the Guelph faction in
the civil war which they waged against the Ghibelines. He
died after a long reign in 1264. His successor, Obizzo II.,
added to his dominions in 1288 the city of Módena, at the
request of its citizens, who chose him as their sovereign.
Died in 1293. Ercole (or Hercules) I., who began to reign
in 1433, was noted as a patron of literary men. His son,
Alfonzo I., duke of Ferrara and Módena, who reigned from .
1505 to 1534, was an able statesman and general. He mar-
ried the notorious Lucretia. Borgia. He was succeeded by
his son, Ercole II., who married Renée, the Protestant
daughter of Louis XII. of France. Died in 1559. The
next duke of Ferrara was Alfonzo II., a son of Ercole II.
He was a patron of the poet Tasso, whom he afterwards
imprisoned and treated with cruelty. He died without issue
in 1597, when his cousin Cesare became duke of Módena,
but lost Ferrara, which was annexed to the Papal States.
The dukes who reigned after the death of Alfonzo II. were
comparatively obscure and feeble. Alfonzo IV., who be-
came duke of Módena in 1658, had a daughter Mary, who was
the second wife of James II. of England, and a son, Francis
II., who died without issue in 1694. The title was then in-
herited by Rinaldo, who, by his marriage with a daughter
of the duke of Brunswick-Luneburg, united the Italian
and German branches of the family. He died in 1737, and
was succeeded by his son, Francis III., who died in 1780.
Maria Beatrice, a granddaughter of Francis III., was mar-
ried to Ferdinand, archduke of Austria. They had a son,
Francis, who became duke of Módena in 1814, and died in
1846, leaving a son, Francis V., who was the last duke of
Módena. He was deposed in 1859 by his revolted subjects
joining the general movement for Italian unity. (See POM-
PEO LITTA, “Famiglia Celebri Italiane.”)
Estella [Sp. pron. És-tél’yā], a city of Spain, in the
province of Navarre, 22 miles S. W. of Pampeluna. It is
well built, and has a fine church with a lofty tower, a col-
lege, and a hospital; also manufactures of linen and wool-
len fabrics, brandy, and earthenware. Pop. 5593.
Este'pa (anc. Astapa), a town of Spain, in the province
of Seville, 60 miles E. S. E. of Seville. It has a church
which is a noble specimen of Gothic architecture, and a
fine palace; also manufactures of baize, oil, etc. Marble
is quarried in the vicinity. Pop. 8133.
Estep o'na, a town of Spain, in the province of Malaga,
on the Mediterranean, 63 miles E. of Cadiz. It has an old
Roman castle, is well built, and has extensive Sardine-fish-
eries. Pop. 9316.
Es/terhazy, an ancient and noble family of Hungary,
which has produced many eminent men and which owns
large estates.
Esterhazy (NICHOLAs Joseph), a grandson of Paul,
was born Dec. 18, 1714. He became a privy councillor
and field-marshal-general. He was a liberal patron of mu-
sicians. Died Sept. 20, 1790.
Esterhazy de Galantha (NICHOLAs), PRINCE, a son of
the preceding, was born Dec. 12, 1765. He was distinguished
as a diplomatist, and obtained the military rank of field-
marshal. He was employed as ambassador to Paris, Lon-
don, and St. Petersburg between 1801 and 1816. He owned
an immense fortune, and founded a rich collection of paint-
ings in Vienna. Died Nov. 25, 1833.
Esterhazy de Galantha (PAUL), PRINCE, was born
Sept. 8, 1635. He became a field-marshal in the Austrian
army before the age of thirty, and was chosen palatine of
Hungary in 1681. In 1686 he took Buda, from the Turks,
and in 1687 was created a prince of the empire. Died
Mar. 26, 1713.
Esterhazy de Galantha (PAUL ANTONY), PRINCE,
born Mar. 10, 1786, was a son of Nicholas, noticed above.
He was ambassador from Austria, to London in 1815–18,
and again in 1830–38. In Mar., 1848, he became min-
ister of foreign affairs in the liberal ministry of Hungary,
ſº
ESTHER—ESTOVERS.
1643
but he prudently resigned about the time when the war
broke out, and he took no part in the war. He owned
more land than any subject of the Austrian empire, and
had a fine palace at Eisenstadt. Died May 21, 1866.
Es/ther [which means “star”], the Persian name of
Hadas'sah [which means “myrtle’’], a beautiful Jewish
maiden, who became the queen of Xerxes, king of Persia
(B. C. 486-465).
cousin, of Mordecai the Benjamite, who became prime min-
ister of Persia in place of Haman the Amalekite. She is
certainly not to be identified with Amestris, the “Persian
Jezebel.” Her connection with Xerxes was subsequent to
his disastrous invasion of Greece.
Esther, Book of, one of the latest of the canonical
books of the Old Testament, consisting of ten chapters,
and relating events which gave rise to the Jewish feast of
Purim. The Jews call it emphatically Megillah, “the
Roll.” The whole of it is read in Jewish synagogues
every year at the feast whose origin it explains; and still,
in many synagogues, with noisy demonstrations, such as
hissing, and clapping of hands, and stamping of feet at
the mention of Haman’s name. The inspiration of the
book and its right to a place in the canon have been
sharply questioned. Much account is made of the singu-
lar fact that the name of God does not once occur; that,
although fasting is spoken of, no mention is made of
prayer; and that the religious tone of the book through-
out is low. On the other side it is urged that the provi-
dence of God is magnified; that we have a vivid picture
of manners and morals at the Persian court; and, above
all, a most valuable exemplification of the unspiritual cha-
racter of that portion of the Hebrew people who chose not
to return to the Holy Land. The book appears to have
been written in Persia, soon after the occurrence of the
events related in it, but by whom critics are not agreed.
Its authorship cannot be determined.
Esther, Apocryphal Book of, consists of the ten
canonical chapters described above, with interpolations
here and there, and the addition of six chapters at the
end. These additions are found in the Septuagint, and in
versions made from it, but not in the IHebrew. For this
reason Jerome placed them together at the end of Esther,
but Luther was the first to place them in the Apocrypha.
The object of the unknown author was to give a more re-
ligious tone to the book of Esther than it originally pos-
sessed. Though considered spurious by all Protestant
churches, the Greek, Armenian, and Roman Catholic
churches accept these additions as canonical.
, Estherville, a post-village, capital of Emmett co., Ia,
is a rapidly growing town, pleasantly situated on the E.
branch of the Des Moines River. It has a school-house
costing $8000, and superior educational advantages, a bank,
newspaper, machine-shop, two hotels, two saw and grist
mills, two churches, etc. Principal business, farming and
stock-raising. Pop. of village, T68; of township, 480.
DAY. & JENKINS, EDs. “WINDICATOR.”
Estho'nia, or Reval [Ger. Esthland], a government
of Russia, and one of the Baltic provinces, is bounded on
the N. by the Gulf of Finland, on the E. by St. Peters-
burg, on the S. by Livonia, and on the W. by the Baltic
Sea. Area, 7610 square miles. The surface is generally
flat, and extensively covered with forests of pine; the soil
is Sandy, and in some parts marshy. The staple products
are grain, hemp, flax, tobacco, and cattle. The population
of the towns and the nobility are predominantly German,
while the people of the rural districts are mostly Estho-
nians, who belong to the Finnish race. Ninety-six per cent.
of the population belongs to the Lutheran Church. The
language of the Esthonians is soft and melodious. Their
literature consists chiefly of poems, the most important of
which is the epic poem “Kalexa Poig.” The Esthonian
tribe inhabits also a part of Livonia, and embraces an ag-
gregate population of about 600,000. Esthonia was con-
quered from the Swedes by Peter the Great in 1710. Cap-
ital, Reval. Pop. in 1867, 322,668.
Es’till, a county in E. Central Kentucky. Area, 300
square miles. It is intersected by Kentucky River. The
surface is hilly; the soil fertile. Coal and iron are found.
º and tobacco are produced. Capital, Irvine. Pop.
198.
Es’tillville, a post-village, capital of Scott co., Va.,
about 350 miles W. by S. from Richmond. Pop. of Estill-
ville township, 2400.
Estop'pel, a principle of law, whereby one is bound by
his previous admission or declaration—not on the ground
that it is true, but because to dispute it is regarded as con-
trary to Sound policy or as subversive of the ends of jus-
tice. Estoppels are: of record, of deed, and in pois.
1. Estoppel of Record.—By record is here meant the
Some critics make her a niece, others a
record of a tribunal of a judicial character. No one is per-
mitted in a legal proceeding to contradict an admission made
by him in his pleading. So the judgment of a court of com-
petent jurisdiction is in most instances absolutely unim-
peachable. If the judgment is in rem.—that is, if it deter-
mines the status of a person or thing—it is binding on all
persons, whether rendered by a domestic or a foreign tri-
bunal. If the judgment is in personam, it is conclusive if
rendered by a domestic court, and the better opinion is that
the same rule applies to a foreign judgment, unless it be
shown in either case that the court which pronounced it
did not acquire jurisdiction, or that the judgment was ob-
tained by fraud. This respect for the decisions of foreign
tribunals is based on the comity which nations show each
other, and on the necessities of commerce. The Constitu-
tion of the U. S. provides that full faith and credit shall be
given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial
proceedings of every other State. Under this provision the
judgments of the courts in one State are binding on the
tribunals of another State, without reference to the doctrine
of the comity of nations. But a judgment in personam has
no binding force except as to the parties to the action in
which it is rendered, and those who claim under them, who
are technically said to be in privity with them. . The doc-
trine of estoppel by record does not prevent one injured by
a judgment from taking direct proceedings to attack it, and
judgments are often set aside on application to the court
in which they are rendered. In certain cases courts of
equity interfere by injunction to stay proceedings on judg-
ments obtained in courts of law.
2. Estoppel by Deed.—A party to an instrument under
seal is bound by the statements contained in it to those who
have acted upon such statements, or, as Lord Mansfield puts
it, no man is allowed to dispute his own solemn deed. The
estoppel applies to recitals as well as to direct averments.
To create an estoppel the recital must be clear and of a
material fact, and consistent with the general scope of the
deed. As a general rule, estoppels of this class are recip-
rocal. Thus, in the case of a lease, while the tenant cannot
dispute the title of the landlord, the latter cannot deny the
right of the tenant. There is also an estoppel by deed of
a more technical nature. This grows out of a covenant of
warranty. Thus, should a person having no title to land
convey with covenant of warranty, and afterwards acquire
the title, he would be estopped by his covenant from as-
serting his claim to the land. The object of this rule is to
avoid “circuity of action.”
3. Estoppel in Pais.-In the time of Lord Coke this di-
vision of the principle was applied only to certain acts rela-
tive to the title of real estate which the law regarded as
possessing equal solemnity and notoriety with a deed. Since
then the principle has been greatly extended, and now pre-
sents a twofold aspect. In the first place, it is rigorously
applied, from motives of general policy, to certain classes
of cases. A bailee in general cannot dispute the title of his
bailor, neither is the endorser or acceptor of negotiable pa-
per allowed to deny the genuineness of any of the preced:
ing names to the paper. In the second place, it is applied
when good conscience requires that one should not be al-
lowed to insist on his strict legal rights. The rule which
governs its application here may be thus stated: Where one
has made a representation or an admission by his words,
his action, or, in cases where it is his duty to speak, by his
silence, with the intent or expectation, or reasonable grounds
for expectation, that others should rely and act thereon, he
shall not be permitted to prove that the representation or
admission was untrue, if thereby injury would result to one
who has in good faith acted upon it. It was at one time
supposed that fraud was an essential element to constitute
an estoppel in pais. The better opinion is that no fraudu-
lent design is necessary. It is enough if the party claim-
ing the benefit of the estoppel has acted upon the represen:
tations as before stated. The principle, thus limited and
applied, is free from the technicalities and harshness which
for a long time caused the doctrine of estoppel to be regarded
with suspicion by the courts: it is constantly invoked for
the prevention of fraud and injustice, and has become one
of the most effective agencies of the law. A few instances
of its practical application may be cited: A principal may
by his conduct be estopped to deny that a certain person is
his agent; one who has permitted himself to be held out as
a member of a mercantiſe firm may be estopped as to cred-
itors from denying his membership; a man who has held
out a woman as his wife may be estopped from proving that
she is not as to tradesmen who have in good faith supplied her
with the necessaries of life on his credit. The principle has
been extended to the law of real estate. An owner of land
who has induced another to incur heavy expenditure on the
representation that the latter was owner would be estopped
from asserting his own title. T. W. DWIGHT.
Esto’vers, the right of a tenant to take wood from the
1644 ESTRADES,
D’—ETHER.
demised premises for fuel, fences, and general agricultural
purposes. This right may be claimed by any tenant,
whether for life, for years, or at will, unless forbidden in
his lease. But only a reasonable amount of wood can be
taken; the tenant must not destroy the timber, nor do any
permanent injury to the inheritance.
Estrades, d” (GoDEFROI), CoMTE, a marshal of France
and able diplomatist, born at Agen in 1607. He negotiated
the cession of Dunkirk to France in 1662, and rendered im–
portant military services in Holland between 1672 and 1675.
He represented France at the congress of Nymwegen, 1678.
Died Feb. 26, 1686.
Estray’ [remotely from the Lat. eartra, “outside,” and
vagor, vagari, to “wander’], in law, is a domestic animal
(the owner of which is unknown) found wandering outside
the pasture or other enclosure where it belongs. In Eng-
land the owner has a year and a day to claim such cattle
in, and the proprietor of the enclosure where they are
found must make due proclamation in a church and in two
market-towns. When these conditions are fulfilled, they
belong to the proprietor of the enclosure where they are
found. The law of estrays varies in the different States
of the Union. In some, after the estray has been duly
advertised and kept a certain length of time, it is sold to
pay the charges for advertising and keeping, any balance
going to the town treasury. Cattle running about con-
trary to local, municipal, or other regulations, or breaking
into growing crops and doing damage to them or to other
property, can in most places be sent to a public pound, and
after a short time sold to pay damages and expenses.
Estrées, d” (GABRIELLE), a beautiful Frenchwoman,
born in 1571, was a sister of the first duke of Estrées. She was
the mistress of Henry IV., who gave her the title of duchess.
It is said that he intended to marry her, but he was pre-
vented by her early death (April 10, 1599). She was ami-
able and graceful. Her brother, the duc d’Estrées, was a
marshal of France, and had a son who was also a marshal.
Estremadu'ra, a province of Portugal, is bounded on
the N. by Beira, on the E. and S. by Alemtejo, and on the
W. by the Atlantic, and intersected by the river Tagus.
Area, 6873 square miles. The surface is mostly hilly; the
soil is partly fertile and partly sterile. It is subject to
frequent earthquakes. Among the minerals are granite,
marble, and coal. The staple productions are wine, oil,
cork, fruits, and grain. Pop. in 1868, 837,451. Capital,
Lisbon.
Estremadu'ra, a former province of Spain, was
bounded on the N. by Leon, on the E. by New Castile, on
the S. by Andalusia, and on the W. by Portugal, and in-
tersected by the rivers Tagus and Guadiana. Between
these rivers a long chain of mountains extends nearly E.
and W. The northern and southern parts are also moun-
tainous. The soil is fertile, but not cultivated to much ex-
tent. Large flocks of sheep are pastured on it. This prov-
ince contains mines of copper, lead, silver, and coal, which
are neglected. It is comprised in the present provinces of
Badajos and Cacéres. Pop. in 1867, 733,749.
Estremoz’, a fortified town of Portugal, in Alemtejo,
is about 23 miles N. E. of Evora, and 82 miles E. of Lis-
bon. It has a strong castle on a hill, around the base of
which the town is built. Here are famous manufactures of
porous jars which have the property of keeping water cool.
The forms of these jars are said to be classical. Pop. in
1863, 7274. * .
Es’tuary, or AEs’tuary [Lat. aestwa’rium, from aes’tus,
the “tide,” because the tide is apt to be felt even more in
an estuary than in the open seal, in geography, a term ap-
plied to the wide mouth of a river where the tide meets the
current; also an arm of the sea, or a frith.
Esz’ek, Es’ sek, or Esseck (anc. Mur/sia or Mur'sa),
a strongly fortified town of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy,
the capital of Slavonia, is on the river Drave, 13 miles from
its entrance into the Danube, and 150 miles S. by W. from
Pesth. It has a prosperous trade, facilitated by the steam
navigation of the river. It contains an arsenal, a town-
house, and a normal school. Pop. in 1869, 17,247.
Etampes, formerly Estampes (ane. Stam/pſe), a town
of France, in the department of Seine-et-Oise, is on the
Paris and Orléans Railway, 31 miles by rail S. S. W. of
Paris. It has an old Gothic church, a castle, and many
flouring mills; also manufactures of hosiery, linen thread,
counterpanes, and soap. Pop. in 1866, 8288. t
Etampes, or Estampes (ANNE), DUCHESS OF, a French
lady, born in 1508. She was a favorite mistress of Francis
I., and exerted much influence over public affairs. She is
said to have been a woman of superior talents. Died in 1576.
Et/amin [Arab.], the fixed star called y Draconis. Ob-
servations made on this star by James Bradley led him in
1727 to the discovery of the aberration of the fixed stars.
Eta’wah, a decayed town of India, in the N. W. Prov-
inces, is on the Jumna, about 70 miles below Agra, and on
the East Indian Railway, 97 miles N. W. of Cawnpore, and
837 miles from Calcutta. It presents some remains of for-
mer grandeur. Pop. about 20,000.
Etching. See ENGRAVING, by PRES. M. B. ANDERSON,
LL.D.
Ete/ocles [Gr. 'Eteokåås], a mythical king of Thebes
(in Boeotia) and a son of GEdipus. He and his brother
Polynices agreed to reign alternately over Thebes, but
Eteocles usurped the throne when his brother's turn came
to reign. The famous expedition of the Seven against
Thebes was undertaken to restore Polymices, who killed
Rteocles in single combat.
Ete/sian Winds [Gr. 3rmatat, or étmaríaw &vepot; i.e. “an-
nual (or periodical) winds,” from éros, a “year”], northerly
and north-easterly winds which prevail in summer through-
out a great part of Europe and in Northern Africa. The name
occurs in its Greek form in several ancient writers, and is now
occasionally seen in meteorological works. These winds
arise in a great degree from the heat of the African Sahara.
Etex (ANTOINE), a sculptor, painter, engraver, architect,
and author, was born at Paris Mar. 20, 1806, was educated
at Paris and Rome, and has achieved distinction in all the
departments to which he has given attention. He has pub-
lished an “Essai sur le Beau” (1851), “Cours Elémentaire
de Dessin” (1859), and “J. Pradier, Ary Scheffer: Etudes”
(1859).
Ethal. See SPERMACET1, by PROF. B. SILLIMAN, M. D.
Eth’eibert, king of Rent, ascended the throne about
560 A. D. He became the head or most powerful prince
(bretwalda) of the Heptarchy about 590.
a daughter of the king of Paris, was a Christian, and in-
duced Ethelbert and his subjects to profess Christianity in
597 A. D. Saint Augustine was instrumental in their con-
version. Ethelbert gave to the Anglo-Saxons their first
written code of laws. Died in 616 A. D.
Ethelbert, Anglo-Saxon king of England, was a son
of Ethelwolf. He began to reign over Kent, Essex, and
Sussex in 852 A. D., and obtained also the throne of Wes-
sex on the death of his brother Ethelbald in 860. He died
in 865 A. D.
Eth’elred (or Æthelred) I., Anglo-Saxon king of
England, succeeded his brother Ethelbert in 866 A. D. In
the first year of his reign the island was invaded by Danes,
who conquered a large part of his kingdom. His brother
Alfred defeated the Danes in 870. Ethelred was killed in
battle at Merton in 871 A. D., and was succeeded by Alfred
the Great.
Ethelred II., surnamed THE UNREADY, Anglo-Saxon
king of England, a son of Edgar, was born in 968 A.D.
His mother was Elfrida, notorious for her crimes. He suc-
ceeded his half-brother, Edward the Martyr, in 978. In his
disastrous, and inglorious reign the kingdom was invaded
and ravaged by the Danes, to whom he paid large sums of
money to purchase peace, but they soon renewed their
piratical incursions. The Danish king Sweyn took London
in 1014, and Ethelred fled to the court of the duke of Nor-
mandy, who was his wife's brother. He died in 1016, leav-
ing two sons—Edmund Ironside and Edward the Confessor.
Eth/elwolf, Anglo-Saxon king of England, was the
eldest son of Egbert, whom he succeeded in 836 A. D. His
kingdom was harassed by several incursions of the Danes,
who pillaged London in 851. He defeated these invaders at
Okely in that year. He married, in 856, Judith, a daughter
of Charles the Bald, king of France. Died in 858 A.D. He
left four sons—Ethelbald, Ethelbert, Ethelred, and Alfred
the Great.
Etheme. See ETHYLENE.
E/ther [Gr. atóñp; Lat. aeſther, originally applied to the
purer upper air; hence any subtile fluid], in organic chemis-
try, is a name given to numerous compounds, which are
usually very volatile, fragrant, and, with a few exceptions,
highly inflammable; they are generally derived from alco-
hols by the action of acids. When the alcohols are simply
dehydrated by the action of the acid, “simple ethers” are
produced, which are oxides of the alcohol radicals analo-
gous to metallic oxides. Thus,
Common Alcohol. Common Ether. Water.
2C2H5.H.0 = (C2H5)30 + H20.
When the acids combine with the alcohol radical, “com-
pound ethers” are produced, analogous to metallic salts.
Thus,
Common Acetic Ethyl
S Alcohol. Acid. Acetate. Water.
C2H5.H.0 + PI.C2H302 = C2H5.C2H3O2 + H20.
“Haloid ethers” are compounds of the alcohol radicals
with the halogens, chlorine, bromine, iodine, etc. They
His wife Bertha, .
ETHER—ETHIOPIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
1645
are analogous to common salt (NaCl). Amyl chloride
(C5H11Cl) and methyl iodide (CH3T) are examples.
Sulphur, selenium, etc. form compounds analogous to the
simple or oxygen ethers. -
Common ether, properly known as ethylic ether, commonly
and very incorrectly called sulphuric ether (C2H5)20, is gene-
rally regarded as an oxygen ether, and in this view is some-
times called ethyl oxide. It is formed by the action of sul-
phuric acid or some other dehydrating agent upon strong
ethylic (common) alcohol. Ethylic ether is a fragrant, color-
less, transparent, and highly mobile liquid, with a specific
gravity of .720, and a boiling-point of 96° Fahrenheit. It
is extremely combustible, and so volatile that when applied
to the hand it causes a profound sensation of cold. Though
very light in the liquid state, its vapor is more than twice
as heavy as air. It is very useful in the chemical labora-
tory, especially as a solvent of fats and oils.
Ether is much used in medicine and surgery, both as a
diffusible stimulant and as an anaesthetic. It was prob-
ably the first complete anaesthetic ever employed. It was
introduced by Dr. Morton of Boston, Mass. (See ANACs-
THETICS.)
The other more important ethers are “acetic ether”
(ethyl acetate, C2H5.C2H302), an exceedingly fragrant stimu-
lant and antispasmodic ; “butyric ether” (ethyl butyrate,
C2H5.C4H102), used in preparing artificial pineapple syrup;
“pelargomic ether” (ethyl pelargonate), for making artificial .
quince flavor; “amyl acetate,” for making “jargonelle pear
essence,” extensively used in confections, besides an im-
mense number of other ethers and mixtures used in arti-
ficial flavoring; “iodic ether” (ethyl iodide), used in med-
icine; “nitrous ether” (ethyl nitrite, C2H5.N02), used in
making “sweet spirits of nitre.”
Ether, a hypothetical medium which is assumed to per-
Vade all space, and which is regarded as possessing extreme
tenuity and elasticity, and as being the medium of the
transmission of light and heat, these forces being trans-
mitted by vibrations or undulations of this ether.
Etherege, or Etheridge (Sir GEORGE), an English
dramatist, born in 1636. He wrote “Love in a Tub,” “Sir
Fopling Flutter, or the Man of Mode,” and other successful
comedies. He was a wit and libertine. Died about 1692.
Ethics. See MoRAL PHILOSOPHY, by PRES. NoAH POR-
TER, S. T. D., LL.D.
Ethio/pia [Lat. Æthiopia; Gr. Atóworta, from aigo, to
“burn,” and &l, “face;” Heb. Cush], a name given by
ancient, geographers to the regions situated S. of Egypt
and Libya. The name Ethiopians was originally ap-
plied by the Greeks to all the peoples who lived in the
southern parts of the known world, including the dark-
colored natives of India. As the ancient Greeks and Ro-
mans had but little intercourse with the Ethiopians, the
accounts which they have transmitted to us are very de-
fective and uncertain. They supposed Ethiopia to be in-
habited by several races called Troglodytes, Pygmies, Ma-
crobii, and Blemmyes. According to some traditions, the
Egyptians derived their civilization or came themselves
from Ethiopia. The connection between Egypt and Ethio-
pia was at all periods intimate, but it is now generally be-
lieved that civilization ascended the Nile, instead of de-
scending it. In its extended sense, Ethiopia corresponded
to the modern Nubia, Sennaar, Kordofan, and Northern
Abyssinia. The population of this vague region was a
mixture of Arabian and Libyan races with the genuine
Ethiopians. The latter had well-formed limbs, and a facial
outline resembling the Caucasian in all but its inclination
to prominent lips and a somewhat sloping forehead. Their
language was Semitic. The Nubians and Shangallas of the
present time are probably their descendants.
The term Ethiopia Proper was restricted to the kingdom
of Meroë.
by historians and confirmed by monuments, was confined
to the island of Meroë and Æthiopia Ågypti. The king-
dom of Meroë was bounded on the E. by the river Asta-
boras (Atbara) and on the W. by the desert of Bahiouda.
It probably extended southward to the junction of the Blue
Nile with the White Nile. The capital of this kingdom
was Napata, on the Nile. It became one of the most
powerful and civilized nations of the world as early as
1000 B. C. The government was a sacerdotal monarchy,
the priests being the ruling class, as in Egypt. The mili-
tary power of the Ethiopians was celebrated by Isaiah
(xx. 5) and other Hebrew prophets, and the sacred history
records their invasion of Palestine. In the eighth century
B. C. an Ethiopian dynasty (the twenty-fifth of Egypt)
reigned in Lower Egypt. The first king of this dynasty
was Sabaco, whose son and successor, Sebichus (the So or
Seva of the Bible), was an ally of Hoshea, king of Israel, in
722 B.C. It is stated that in the reign of the Egyptian
king Psammetichus (630 B.C.) the military caste, number-
The high civilization of Ethiopia, as attested .
ing 240,000, migrated into Ethiopia. It was invaded by
the army of Cambyses, king of Persia, in 530 B. C. Ac-
cording to Josephus, he conquered Meroë. In the reign
of Augustus Caesar, Candace, queen of Ethiopia, waged
war against the Romans. Having been defeated, she sued
for peace and became tributary to him in 22 B. C., but the
Roman tenure of Ethiopia was always precarious. Early
in the fourth century many Christian churches were planted
in Ethiopia. (See ABYSSINIA, by PROF. A. J. SCHEM.)
Ethiopic Hanguage and H,iterature. The name
“Ethiopic language” is at present generally applied to the
old written language of the Abyssinian Church. The name
“Chaldaean language,” which was given to it at the time
when the knowledge of it was first introduced into Europe
by J. Potken (1513), was incorrect. But even the name
“Ethiopic language,” by which it has been known since the
middle of the sixteenth century, does not seem to fit exactly,
for it has nothing in common with the language of that race
called by the ancients Æthiopes (the Cushites of the Bible);
and in the large empire of Abyssinia, which was called in
the Middle Ages Ethiopia, there were and still are many
other languages, some of which are related to, while others
are of entirely different stock from, the Ethiopian. The
native name is the Geez language. Geez, or, in the plural,
Ag’ &zi (i.e. “those who have travelled,” or “the free ??),
was the name which the race who once spoke this language
applied to itself, and consequently to its language; and
modern philologists have begun to use “Geez” as the more
accurate, in preference to “Ethiopic” language, the more
general term. The Geez were one of the Semitic tribes, who
had emigrated from Arabia, to Abyssinia, and had settled
in Tigre and its capital, Axoom. In the large Abyssinian
empire which grew up around Axoom, and which was gradu-
ally Christianized after the fourth century, this Geez lan-
guage became the official and the church language, beside
which the dialects and languages of the different native
tribes still continued to exist, but were not used as written
languages. In this ruling position as the official language
of the empire it continued to maintain itself until the mid-
dle of the thirteenth century, when, in consequence of a
change of dynasties, the Amharic language gradually gained
the ascendency at the imperial court, and entirely super-
seded the Ethiopic as the official language. But its posi-
tion as the language of the Church and of the scholars of
Christian Abyssinia it did not lose in consequence of this
political revolution. The clergy and literary men were for
centuries compelled to have a knowledge of it, and under-
stood it even well enough to write books; and even at the
present day the old Geez books continue to be copied.
During the last three hundred years books of all kinds have
been prepared in the Amharic language, which is more
familiar to the people, and even the Bible or parts of it have
been translated, especially at the instance of the Protestant
missionaries, into the modern languages of Abyssinia, in
particular into the Amharic and Tigre, without diminishing,
however, the influence of the old Geez’ translations. As a
popular language the Geez has died out even in Tigre, its
original home, or rather it has been modified in the mouths
of the people into dialects. Among these descendants of the
Geez languáge two principal dialects are distinguished: the
Tigre, which is closely allied to the Geez, and which is
spoken by nomadic tribes in the extreme north, in the re-
gions bordering on Nubia and Sennaar, which for a long
time have been cut loose from Abyssinia; and the Tigriña,
which is spoken in the old province of Tigre and the neigh-
boring districts, and which has degenerated more than the
other in sounds, forms, and fulness of words, and is largely
mixed with Amharic words. (A grammar of this language
has recently been published by Praetorius, “Grammatik der
Tigriñasprache,” 1872.)
The Geez is a purely Semitic language, but still, in its
way, is very peculiar, and is justly regarded as a special
branch of the Semitic family. Its relation to the language
of the Himyaritic monuments can hardly be said to be
nearer than its relation to the Arabic as now written. It has,
however, much in common with the entire Arabic group of
languages, not only in regard to the stock of words, but also
in regard to the system of sounds and the formation of
words; and although it has never attained the fulness of
forms of the Arabic, it has developed some Semitic pecu-
liarities, even more consistently than the Written Arabic.
But in many words, roots, forms, and even in many Syn-
tactic forms, it agrees more with the northern Semitic lan-
guages, especially with the Hebrew, but also with the Ara-
maic and the Assyrian. It must therefore be assumed that
the Geez, after its branching off from the northern Semitic,
continued to develop itself in connection with the southern
Semitic (Arabic) languages, but separated itself very early
from these, and continued to go along its own path. For
this reason it has still many peculiarities of the ancient
Semitic languages—peculiarities which have been aban-
1646
ETHIOPS MINERAL–ETHYL-CARBAMIDES.
doned even in the Arabic ; and in some respects has re-
tained the most ancient forms (e. g. it has no article).
Other forms it has developed in a peculiar manner, contrary
to the method of all other Semitic languages (e.g. most of
the prepositions and conjunctions). Especially in the
method of construction it has formations which are hardly
to be found in the other Semitic languages, and has acquired a
flexibility of syntax which distinguishes it favorably from all
the other languages related to it. On the other hand, besides
many ancient and peculiar forms in the Geez, we meet, strange
to say, with many forms which the other Semitic languages
only reached in their latest stages of development (e.g. the
disappearance of the inner passive and of the participial
form, the dropping of short vowels, etc.); and we may infer
from this that the Geez, as it is presented to us in the Abys-
sinian books, has already passed through a long stage of de-
velopment. From this it is seen that the study of the Geez
is very important and instructive to the Semitic philologist.
The Geez has never been grammatically treated by native
(Abyssinian) scholars. In Europe, after several very incom-
plete attempts in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
it was treated of in a grammatical and lexicographical ex-
position, which for its time was excellent, by Hiob Ludolf
(“Grammar and Lexicon,” 1661; 2d ed., Lexicon, 1699,
Grammar, 1702). In accordance with the demand of modern
linguistics, and on the basis of a much fuller knowledge of
Ethiopic literature, the language has recently been treated
of by A. Dillmann (“Grammar,” 1857; “Lexikon,” 1865).
The Geez is written with peculiar characters, which orig-
inally were identical with the Himyaritic and old Arabic
characters found in the inscriptions of Syria and Assyria,
and were afterwards only slightly modified. It is written
not from right to left, but from left to right, and is also re-
markable in that it separates the single words by two
dots (:), and that the writing of vowels by means of little
lines and hooks, which are attached to the consonants, is
uniformly carried out. These characters were subsequently
used in Abyssinia for the other dialects and languages also,
especially for the Amharic and the Tigriña, but enriched
by several new characters, so that they can be said to have
become the universal alphabet of Abyssinia.
The oldest monuments of the Ethiopic characters and
language which are known at present do not date beyond
the first centuries of our era. They are coins and inscrip-
tions; among the latter especially the large inscriptions of
Axoom, which have been made known to the world by Rüp-
pel in the account of his travels. They mostly show an
archaic mode of writing the consonants, and the vowel-signs
are only in their infancy. An Ethiopic literature began to
exist since the introduction of Christianity into Abyssinia.
(in the fourth century), and has always retained a predomi-
nantly religious character. Its basis was the translation of
the Bible, both the Old and New Testament, together with the
semi-biblical, apocryphal, and pseudepigraphic books be-
longing thereto, which in the other churches were rejected
or lost (as the book of Jubilees, of Enoch, the Apocalypse
of Ezra, the Ascension of Isaiah, the Shepherd of Hermas,
and others). The entire translation has been made from
the Greek, but was afterwards revised several times—the
Old Testament at last even from the Hebrew ; and we must
therefore distinguish between the old, middle, and latest re-
visions of the text. The pseudepigraphic books are nearly
all printed. A critical edition of the Old Testament has
been begun by Prof. Dillmann, but has only progressed to
the second book of Kings. The Psalms and Solomon’s
Song have been published already several times. The
New Testament was printed at Rome in 1548, and was re-
produced in the London Polyglot with many mistakes. The
edition (now out of print) of the English Bible Society (by
P. Platt, 1826) gives a mixed text, which cannot be used for
critical purposes. The other literature consists, for a large
part, of translations of Greek and even Coptic works, and
after Mohammedanism had taken root in Egypt, the mother-
country of the Abyssinian Church, Arabic works also were
translated. The literature comprises theological and religi-
ous works of every kind, such as collections of old canons
(Clementina, Didascalia, Synodus), catenae, and homilies,
exegetical and dogmatic writings (especially those of Cyril,
Epiphanius, Chrysostom, and also of the Syrian Fathers,
especially those of the Monophysitic Church); Haimānóta.
Aban (i.e. a large collection of confessions of faith of the
monophysitic teachers); lectionaries for the whole year, es-
pecially for the fasts and the Passion-time; horologia, lit-
urgies of the mass, and church-books for the other sacra-
ments, and for burials, church discipline (Faus Manfasawi),
and church law (Fetha Nagast), Acta Sanctorum (Synaxa),
a large number of monastic rules and monastic writings;
in sacred and profane history and chronology the works
of Joseph Ben Gorion, George Ben Amid, Abuschaker, and
others, and even something relating to philosophy and the
natural sciences.
Among the native productions of the Abyssinians them-
selves are dogmatic treatises, pseudonymous apocalyptical
writings, numerous prayer-books and formulas, meditations,
eulogies and biographies of Saints, martyrs, monks, and
archangels in prose and verse, mostly productions of monk-
ish imagination and an insane belief in miracles. More
important in their way are the large ancient hymn-books
(Degna, Marās’et, Me'raf), with hymns and antiphonies,
not only for Sundays and holidays, but also for every day
in the year, and containing formulas for the ceremonies in
honor of all the saints of the calendar, with peculiar notes
for singing, the use of which has been very imperfectly
explained up to the present time. Most of these works,
which indicate a considerable progress in religious poetry
and music, have been traced back to a certain Jared in the
sixth century. Besides these there were also large works
on native history, and explicit annals of the several kings
(from which J. Bruce in the second volume of his travels
has given extracts), which were written in a peculiar lan-
guage, a mixture of the Geez and the Amharic. After the
extinction of the Geez a beginning of grammatical and lex-
icographical works was made, and was deposited in many
Ethiopic-Amharic glossaries (Savasey). . Much was also
written in this period on medicine, witchcraft, exorcism,
and divination for the superstitious people, either in Ethio-
pic-Amharic or entirely in the Amharic language. The
poetry was almost entirely in the service of the Church and
of religion. At all events, poems on secular affairs in the
Geez language have not come down to us. Besides the pe-
culiarly arranged hymns, only lyrical poetry was developed.
The poems are divided into strophes of equal length. The
construction of the strophes shows many varieties: the
lines are rhymed; the syllables are neither measured nor
counted. Of real poetic genius there are but few traces in
these poems; many have of poetry nothing but the rhyme.
Of the entire literature very little has been printed be-
sides the Bible. But it is at present very fully represented
in manuscripts in all the large libraries of Europe, espe-
cially in Rome, Paris, Oxford, London, Tübingen, Frank-
fort-on-the Main, Vienna, and Berlin. The largest collec-
tion of manuscripts until lately was in the possession of
Antoine d’Abbadie in France. But since the Abyssinian
war the collection of the British Museum has been so
largely increased that it is without doubt the largest in
Europe. All the older and most of the later manuscripts
are written on beautiful parchment. Among the manu-
scripts brought to Europe within the last century none date
farther back than the fifteenth century.
AUGUST DILLMANN.
of the University of Berlin, Germany.
E/thiops Min/eral, the black powder obtained by
triturating mercury with sulphur. It is a sulphide of
mercury. The term Ethiops was formerly applied to Óther
black powders.
Eth/moid [from the Gr. 996s, a “sieve,” and eiðos,
“form *] Bone, a spongy, irregularly cubical bone, situ-
ated below the anterior part of the brain, between the orbits
of the eyes and at the roots of the nose. In man it consists
of four parts—the cribriform plate, the perpendicular plate,
and the two lateral masses. It is developed from three cen-
tres, commencing about the fifth month of foetal life, and is
completed about the sixth year of childhood. It appears
to be formed of the united neurapophyses of the first cepha-
lic vertebra.
Ethnology. See MAN AND HIs MIGRATIONS. By PRES.
M. B. ANDERSON, LL.D.
E/thyl, or E/thule [from the Gr. atóñp and 5Aſ, “sub-
stance;” literally, a “substance of ether”], a name given
to the organic radical (C2H5) contained in ether and alcohol.
It may be obtained by the action of zinc on ethyl iodide.
It is at ordinary temperatures a colorless and invisible gas,
possessing a slight ethereal odor, and burning with a bril-
jiant white flame. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in
alcohol. It may be condensed to a liquid by the pressure
of two and one-fourth atmospheres.
Ethyl/amin, a compound ammonia in which one atom
of the hydrogen of the NH3 is replaced by ethyl, C2H5.
Thus,
Ammonia. Ethylamin.
2 C2H5,
N | H, N \ H,
H. H.
It is a mobile liquid, with a boiling-point of only 66°Fah-
renheit, and a specific gravity of 0.6964. It has the odor
and many of the reactions of ammonia, being a powerful
alkaline base. Its vapor, however, is inflammable. There
is also a diethylamin, NH(C2H5)2, a triethylamin, N(C2H5)3,
and a tetrethylammonium, N(C2H5)4.
Ethyl- Carbamides, or Ethyl-Ureas, compounds
derived from carbamide or urea by the substitution of one
ETHYLENE–ETRURIA.
1647
or more atoms of ethyl for a corresponding number of
atoms of hydrogen.
Carbamide or urea = N2(CO)” H4.
Ethyl-carbamide = N2(CO).”C2H5.H3.
Diethyl-carbamide = N2(CO)"(C2H5)2B2.
Triethyl-carbamide = N2(CO)"(C2H5)3PI.
Eth’ylene (C2H4), Ethene, Olefiant Gas, or Bi-
carburetted Hydrogen, produced by heating alcohol
with strong sulphuric acid or boric anhydride; also by.
the dry distillation of many organic bodies, as fats, resins,
wood, coal, many Salts of organic acids, etc. It is an im-
portant constituent of coal gas, the illuminating power of
which is largely due to its presence. It is a colorless gas,
having a faint ethereal odor, which is attributed to a slight
contamination with ether vapor. Its specific gravity is
0.9784. By pressure and cold it may be condensed to a
limpid liquid. It burns in the air with a bright white
flame which is very luminous. It is a diatomic radical,
uniting with two atoms of Cl, B2, Cy, and other monatomic
radicals, and with one atom of O, S, and other diatomic
radicals. By replacing hydrogen in two or more molecules
of ammonia, it produces diamines, triamines, etc. (See
ETHYLENE BASEs.) Its compound with chlorine (C2H4C12)
has long been known as “Dutch liquid.”
Eth/ylene Baſses. By the action of ethylene chlor-
ide, bromide, or iodide on ammonia, when heated in sealed
tubes, Cloez, Nalanson, and Hofmann have shown that a
series of compound ammonias are generated. When a
molecule of ethylene replaces an atom of hydrogen in each
of two molecules of ammonia, an ethylene diamine is pro-
H2
duced, C2H8N2 = N2 (C2H4)”. Two molecules of ethy-
H2
lene, replacing two atoms of hydrogen in each molecule of
ammonia, yield diethylene-diamine. Three ethylenes, re-
placing all six atoms of H, yield triethylene diamine, N2
(C2H4)''3. In the same manner, by replacements of hydro-
gen in three and four molecules of ammonia by ethylene,
there are produced triamines and tetramines of various
grades. The hydrogen remaining in the triamine or tetra-
mine may be further replaced by the monatomic alcohol
radicals, methyl, ethyl, etc.
Eth/yiene Car/bamides, or Ethylene Ureas,
compounds produced by the action of cyanic acid and the
cyanic ethers on ethylene-diamines. Ethylene-dicarba-
mide may be considered as formed of two molecules of
urea or carbamide, in each of which one atom of hydrogen
is replaced by a molecule of ethylene, thus: Urea = N2
(CO).” H4; ethylene-dicarbamide=N4(CO)2"(C2H4)." Hg =
N2(CO)" ,, ſ H3.
§§%} (C2H4) { H3.
Ethylenic Alcohols. By replacing two, four, six or
more atoms of hydrogen in as many molecules of water,
ethylene gives rise to a series of alcohols.
Etiola/tion [Fr. Étiolement, from étiolé, “blanched”],
the state of a plant which is deprived of green color by the
exclusion of light. When it is obtained by keeping plants
in the dark in order to render them tender and less acrid,
it is called blanching, as in the case of celery.
Etiquette [from the Gr. 590s, plu. #9ea, “manners” or
“morals,” and the Fr. affix ette, meaning “little;” literally,
“minute morals or manners”], the name given to the cere-
monial forms required by good breeding to be observed in
social or official life. Ceremonial observances were carried
to the greatest extent by the Byzantine court, but the spirit
of etiquette was probably never so tyrannical and predomi-
nant as at the court of Louis XIV.
Et/ive, H., och, in Scotland, is a salt-water lake or inlet
of the sea in the county of Argyle. It is 20 miles long, and
varies in width from half a mile to 3 miles. It receives the
river Awe, and communicates with the Frith of Lorn. Grand
and romantic scenery occurs along its banks.
Et/na [Gr. Attvm; Lat. Æt/na; Sicilian, Mongibel/lo1, a
celebrated volcanic mountain of Sicily, is in the N. E. part
of the island, adjacent to the sea and very near to the city
of Catania. It is an isolated mass of conical form, having
no connection with the other Sicilian mountains, from which
it is separated by the valley of the river Alcantara. It has
an altitude of 10,935 feet above the level of the sea, and its
base is about 90 miles in circumference. The volcanic
phenomena which it presents on a greater scale than is
elsewhere seen in Europe early attracted the attention
of the ancients, and were described by Pindar, who men-
tions the rivers of fiery lava rolling down its sides into
the sea. Thucydides informs us that an eruption occurred
in 425 B. C. Four violent eruptions are recorded to have
occurred in a period of twenty years—viz., 140, 135, 126,
and 121 B. C. It appears that the volcanic action of Etna
was in ancient, as it continues to be in modern times, irregu-
*
lar and intermittent. The city of Catania has repeatedly
been nearly ruined by the eruptions and earthquakes. From
the expressions of Strabo in his description of Etna, it is
evident that in his time the ascent of the mountain to its
Several ancient wri-
Summit was a common achievement.
‘petual snow, but at present the snow remains only eight or
nine months of the year. Sir John Herschel, who ascended
to the top of Etna in 1824, describes parts of its scenery in
these terms: “Ascending from Catania, you skirt the stream
of lava, which destroyed a large part of that city in 1669,
and which ran into the sea, forming a jetty or breakwater
that now gives Catania, what it never had before, the ad-
vantage of a harbor.” “Among the remarkable features
of Etna is that of its flanks, bristling over with innumera-
ble smaller volcanoes. For the height is so great that the
lava now scarcely ever rises to the top of the crater, for be-
fore that its immense weight breaks through at the sides.”
“From the summit,” he adds, “extends a view of extraor-
dinary magnificence.” The last great eruption was in 1868.
Etna, a township of Kosciusko co., Ind. Pop. 1007.
Etna, a township of Whitley co., Ind. Pop. 429.
Etna, a township of Hardin co., Ia. Pop. 1849.
Etna, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me., on the
Maine Central R. R., 17 miles from Bangor. Pop. 844.
Etna, a post-village of Dryden township, Tompkins co.,
N. Y. Pop. 230. i.
JEtna, a post-township of Licking co., O. Pop. of vil-
lage, 258; of township, 1224.
Etna, a post-borough of Shaler township, Allegheny
co., Pa. Pop. 1447.
Etna Green, a village in Etna township, Kosciusko
co., Ind. Pop. 397.
Eſton, a town of England, in the county of Bucks, is
on the Thames, opposite Windsor, 22 miles W. of London.
It is the site of Eton College, one of the most famous edu-
cational institutions of England, founded and richly en-
dowed in 1440 by Henry VI., but the buildings were not
completed until 1523. It is a favorite school of preliminary
instruction for the sons of the nobility and gentry. Many
scholars are at the age of seventeen elected to valuable
scholarships at King’s College, Cambridge. Eton is gov-
erned by a provost and seven fellows. The main portion
of the establishment, numbering nearly 900, consists of the
oppidans, who live outside of the college, and for whose
tuition the same price is paid as for that of the collegers or
scholars. The number of the latter is limited to seventy.
Et/owah, a county in the N. E. of Alabama. Area,
650 square miles. It is intersected by the Coosa River.
The surface is partly hilly; the soil is productive. Corn,
wheat, cotton, tobacco, and wool are staple products. It
is traversed by the Alabama and Chattanooga R. R. Cap-
ital, Gadsden. Pop. 10,109.
Etru’ria, or Tuscia, an important country of ancient
Italy, was called Tyrrhenia (Tväänvía) by the Greeks. It
was bounded on the N. by the Apennines, on the E. by the
Tiber, and on the W. by the Mediterranean or Tyrrhenian
Sea. The inhabitants were called Etruscans (Etrusſei) and
Tuscans (Tusſci) by the classic Latin writers, but the Greeks
always called them Tyrrhenians or Tyrsenians. Their na-
tional name in the Etruscan language was Rasena.
Among the physical features of this country are the Monte
Amiata, which rises 5794 feet above the level of the sea, the

\
1648
ETRURIA—ETTY.
river Arnus (now Arno), and the Lacus Trasimenus, now
called Lago Trasimeno or Lake of Perugia. Ancient writers
concur in the statement that the government of the Etrus-
cans was a confederacy of twelve cities or cantons, each of
which was independent and had the right of internal self-
government. The chief rulers bore the general title of
lucwmo. The cities which composed the league of Etruria.
Proper are universally reckoned as twelve in number, but
these cannot be all identified, as no ancient writer has pre-
served a list of their names. Among the most important
of these twelve cities were Tarquinii, Veii, Clusium, Wol-
sinii, Cortona, Caere, Perusia, Arretium. The early tradi-
tions mention several Etruscan kings, as Porsena, king of
Clusium, but during the greater part of the historic period
the political constitution was an aristocracy. The Etrus-
cans were very superstitious, and distinguished for their de-
votion to their national religion and the zeal with which they
performed its rites and ceremonies (a word derived from
Caere). The most important of the deities whom they wor-
shipped were Tinia or Tina (Jupiter), Capra (Juno), and
Minerva, whose name was the same in the Etruscan as in
the Latin language. Besides these, and others whose names
have been preserved, there were twelve divinities (six male
and six female) whose proper names were unknown, but
who were termed collectively Dii Consentes, and were coun-
sellors of Tinia. They were believed to preside over the
powers of nature. Superior to these, and to Tinia himself,
were certain mysterious Dii Involuti, who were supposed to
exercise an irresistible controlling power over the gods, like
the Fates of the Greek and Roman mythology.
Origin and History.—The question of the origin and
affinities of the Etruscans has long exercised the ingenuity
of scholars and antiquaries, but it still remains undecided.
The opinion generally adopted by Roman writers ascribed
to them a Lydian origin. The earliest authority for this
tradition is Herodotus, who states that he received it from
the Lydians. This opinion was rejected by Hellanicus,
who represents the Etruscans as Pelasgians, and by Dio-
nysius of Halicarnassus, who considered them indigenous
(awtochthones), and states that in his time they were very
distinct from every other people in language as well as
manners and customs. Niebuhr maintained that they were
a mixture of Pelasgians and Umbrians with a race of north-
ern, invaders (Rasena), who conquered the same at an un-
known date. He believed that the Rasena or Etruscan
nobility came originally from the Rhaetian Alps. Our
knowledge of the history of the Etruscans, even during the
period of their greatest power and prosperity, is very vague
and imperfect. The Etruscan language is thought to be
Indo-European in its grammatical construction, though its
vocabulary, so far as ascertained, cannot be with any cer-
tainty affiliated. There is no Etruscan literature extant,
and no bilingual inscriptions of any length have been
found. There were three Etrurian centres of occupation:
(1) from the Tiber northward to Pisa, where the Etruscans
seem to have been limited by the Ligurians; (2) the settle-
ment on the Po, of which Bologna, Verona, and Mantua.
were the principal cities; the Etrurian population is shown
by inscriptions to have extended northward to the Rhaetian
Alps; (3) that in the Phlegraean plains surrounding Capua
and Nola, which are regarded as Etruscan cities. Livy
informs us that before the Romans became the dominant
people of Italy the power of the Tuscans was widely ex-
tended both by sea and land. Several Greek writers at-
test the facts that they were bold and enterprising navi-
gators, and fitted out large fleets for naval warfare. In
538 B. C. they fought a naval battle against the Phocaeans
at Corsica. The Tuscans and Carthaginians were allies
on this occasion, and in other battles against the Greek
colonies of Italy. Besides the twelve cities of Etruria,
Proper, these people possessed another state or confed-
eracy on the northern side of the Apennines. Accord-
ing to the Roman traditions, the Tuscans were a power-
ful nation before the foundation of Rome, 752 B. C. It
probably attained its greatest power about 150 years later.
The Tuscan cities of Clusium and Veii were involved in
several wars against the rising power of Rome. Tradition
indicates the establishment of an Etruscan dynasty at Rome
under the later kings, the two Tarquins, and assigns to this
period of Etruscan domination the construction of the Cloaca.
Maxima and the Capitol. About 508 B. C., Porsena, king
of Clusium, marched against Rome, which the best critics
think he captured. Hostilities continued, with occasional
intervals, between the Romans and the Veientes from 483
B. C. to 396 B.C., when Veii was captured by Camillus and
destroyed. It does not appear that the other Tuscan cities
gave any aid to Veii during this period. This apparent
neutrality may be explained by the fact that their northern
frontier was then infested by predatory hordes of Gauls,
whom they were scarcely able to repel. In the subsequent
Wars it was sometimes Tarquinii and sometimes Wolsinii
that fought against Rome. About 309 B. C. the combined
forces of several Etruscan cities were defeated by Fabius
Maximus in a battle which gave the first decisive blow to
their power. The conquest was completed by a victory
which the Romans gained at the Vadimonian Lake in 283
B. C. The Etruscans, however, retained long after this
event their own language, customs, religious rites, and na-
tionality. They were admitted to the Roman franchise in
89 B. C.
Arts and Civilization.—Ancient writers concur in repre-
Senting the Etruscans as the most cultivated and refined
people of ancient Italy, and as especially skilful in orna-
mental and useful arts. They often evince a singular simi-
larity to Egyptian ideas and patterns which has astonished
antiquarians. The Romans derived from them many
arts and inventions that conduce to the comfort of life, be-
sides the toga and other articles of dress, the curule chair,
and the triumphal pomp. The genius of the Etruscans
appears to have been practical rather than speculative.
They excelled in agriculture, navigation, engineering, and
in useful public works. They had made great progress in
architecture, sculpture, and painting. The so-called Tus-
can order of architecture is a modification of the Doric.
The Cloaca, Maxima at Rome proves that they were ac-
quainted with the true principle of the arch, and exempli-
fies their skill in the construction of sewers. Of their
temples, theatres, and amphitheatres no considerable re-
mains, have been preserved. Among the existing monu-
ments of their massive and cyclopean masonry are frag-
ments of walls which defended the cities of Cortona, Faesulae,
Clusium, and Volaterrae. Their tombs present one of the most
peculiar features in Etruscan antiquities. These are in some
cases chambers hewn in a cliff or solid rock, and adorned
outside with façades of temples. The interior walls are
decorated with paintings, and the tombs contain vast num-
bers of vases, tripods, urns, etc. The Etruscans excelled
in several branches of plastic art, especially in the fabrica-
tion of bronze articles and pottery. Bronze statues and
utensils were exported from Etruria in immense numbers.
Among the extant specimens of their bronze-work are the
figure of a she-wolf in the Capitol of Rome, and the Chi-
maera in the Museum of Florence. It appears that the
painted vases called Etruscan which have been found in
great numbers especially at Chiusi (Clusium) and Vulci are
Greek in design and workmanship. The metallic specula
or mirrors, one side of which is adorned with figures, are
peculiarly Etruscan, and are prized as illustrative of their
customs, mythology, etc. (See K. O. MüILER, “Die Etrus-
ker,” 2 vols. 8vo, 1828; ABEKEN, “Mittel Italien,” 1843;
DENNIS, “Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria,” 2 vols. 8vo,
1848; INGHIRAMI, “Monumenti, Etruschi,” 7 vols. 4to,
1821–26; MICALI, “Storia degli Antichi Popoli Italiani,”
3 vols., 1832.) .
Etruria, a township of Halifax co., N. C. Pop. 2938.
Etruria, Kingdom of, in Italy, was founded by
Napoleon I. Mar. 21, 1801. Louis, duke of Parma (1773–
1803), was the first king. His son Charles Louis succeeded
him May 27, 1803, but Napoleon annexed the kingdom in
1807 to the French empire. Its capital was Florence.
Etruscan Hanguage. See ETRURIA.
Etruscans. See ETRURIA.
JEtshmiadzin. See ECHMIEDZIN.
JEt/thingen, a town of Baden, on the river Alb and on
a railway, 4 miles by rail S. of Carlsruhe. It has manu-
factures of gunpowder, cotton goods, and paper. Pop. in
1871, 5092. -
Ett'miller (ERNST MORITZ LUDWIG), a German phil-
ologist and antiquary, born at Gersdorf, near Löbau, Oct.
5, 1802, studied at Leipsic and Jena. He became professor
of German at Zurich in 1833, and gained distinction by his
researches in mediaeval German literature. He produced
in 1844 an epic poem called “The Chiefs of the Royal Ger-
man Houses” (“Deutsche Stammkönige”), and in 1852 an
“Anglo-Saxon Lexicon.” He also edited several old Ger-
man poets.
Et/trick, a pastoral vale of Scotland, in Selkirkshire,
extends along the Ettrick River, which, after a course of 28
miles, enters the Tweed 2 miles below Selkirk. It is re-
markable for beautiful scenery. Ettrick Forest, a royal
hunting tract, included all Selkirkshire. It is nearly di-
vested of trees. James Hogg the poet, called the “Ettrick
Shepherd,” was born in the vale and parish of Ettrick.
Ettrick, a post-township of Trempealeau co., Wis. Pop.
1214.
Et/ty (WILLIAM), an English painter, born at York Mar.
10, 1787, was a pupil of Sir Thomas Lawrence. He was
admitted as a student into the Royal Academy in 1806, and
visited Italy in 1816. In 1821 he exhibited in the Academy
“Cleopatra arriving in Cilicia.” He was elected an acade-
ETYMOLOGICUM MAGNUM–EUCHARIST.
1649
mician in 1828. Among his works, which were greatly ad-
mired and brought high prices, are “Pandora Crowned by
the Seasons” (1824), “The Combat: Woman pleading for
the Vanquished” (1824), three pictures illustrating the acts
of Judith (1827–31), “Joan of Arc’’ (1847), “The Judgment
of Paris” (1826), and “Youth at the Prow and Pleasure at
the Helm'' (1832). He was an excellent colorist. Died
Nov. * 1849. (See A. GILCHRIST, “Life of William Etty,”
1855.
Etymolog/icum Mag/num, a valuable lexicon or
vocabulary of the Greek language by an unknown author.
It is said to be the oldest extant Greek lexicon, and it con-
tains many traditions respecting old and uncommon words.
It is referred to the tenth century A. D. Editions of it
have been published by Sylburg (1594), Schäfer (1816),
Sturz (Leipsic, 1818), and Gaisford (Oxford, 1849).
Etymol’ogy [from the Gr. ºrvuov, “literal sense,” and
Aóyos, a “ discourse”] is that branch of philology which
traces the history of a word and of its grammatical vari-
ation from its primitive roots, and which shows the rela-
tionship of different languages by finding the same roots in
these different languages. In grammar it is used in a more
limited sense, as the name of that part of grammar which
treats of the various parts of speech, the variations of de-
clension, conjugation, etc. It is often used as nearly sy-
nonymous with the word “ derivation.” The study of the
derivation of words is almost as old as civilization. Moses,
Homer, and other very ancient writers often give explana-
tions of the origin of proper names. Many tales of the
Greek mythology give real or fanciful accounts of the ap-
pellations of gods and heroes. The Greek philosophers, the
Alexandrian grammarians, the Roman Varro, and the later
scholiasts wrote much upon the derivation of words, but to
little purpose. They went to work with scanty informa-
tion and with defective knowledge of the principles under-
lying a sound philology. Many of the derivations sug-
gested by them are simply ludicrous, being suggested by
mere resemblances of sound. Our knowledge of their labors
is principally derived from the “Etymologicum Magnum ”
and “Etymologicum Gudianum,” both probably written in
the tenth century.
The revival of learning in the fourteenth century aroused
anew the interest in etymological science; but it was not
till the British occupation of India, and the beginning of
the study of Sanscrit literature, that etymology received
philosophical treatment. It is now known that the lan-
guages are properly regarded as members of greater or
Smaller groups or families; our own language being a mem-
ber of the Teutonic group, which is itself a subdivision of
the great Indo-European family, which comprehends many
of the languages of Asia, and by far the greater number of
those of Europe. A philosophic etymology seeks the deri-
vation of words by judicious comparison of the vocabularies,
the religious faith, the history, and the literature of nations
ethnologically related, rather than by the comparison of
words of any one or two languages.
The great etymologists are all modern, and are nearly all
German, as is shown by the names of Adelung, Bopp, Pott,
W. Humboldt, Grimm, Curtius, Benfey, and Schleicher. For
Ugrian etymologies, the Finlanders Carsten and Ahlquist
are high authorities.
Eu [Lat. Att'ga or Augium], a town of France, depart-
ment of Seine-Inférièure, is about 20 miles E. N. E. of Di-
eppe and 5 miles from the sea. It has a fine Gothic church,
and manufactures of lace, silk, and soap. Here is the châ-
teau d’Eu, which was owned by King Louis Philippe, and
is surrounded by a large and beautiful park. It contains a
unique portrait-gallery, which is said to be the finest collec-
tion of historical portraits in France. Pop. in 1866, 4168.
Eu (PRINCE Louis PHILIPPE MARIE FERDINAND GASTON
D'ORLÉANS), CoMTE D', was born at the château of Neuilly,
April 28, 1842, the eldest son of the duc de Nemours, and a
grandson of Louis Philippe, king of the French. In 1864
he married Isabella, daughter of Dom Pedro II., emperor
of Brazil. . As marshal of the empire he took command of
the allied forces operating against Paraguay, and Mar. 1,
1870, the war was ended by the death of the dictator Lopez,
who was killed in a battle at Aquidubon.
Euboe'a [Gr. Eö8oug; Fr. Eubée; Turkish, Egripo or
Egriposº It. Negroponte], formerly called Negropont, a
Greek island, the largest island in the AEgean Sea, is about
90 miles long and comparatively narrow; the greatest
breadth is about 30 miles. Area, 1574 square miles. It is
separated from the N. E. coasts of Attica and Boeotia by
the narrow channels of Egripo (Euripus) and Talanta. It
is connected with the mainland of Boeotia by a bridge across.
the channel at Chalcis. The surface is mountainous. Mount
Delphi, near the middle of the island, is said to be 7266 feet
high. It is of limestone formation. The soil of the valleys
is fertile, and produces cotton, wheat, grapes, etc. Among
the exports are wool, hides, and oil. The chief towns are
Chalcis and Carystus. In ancient times Euboea belonged
to the Athenian republic. It now forms a nomarchy of the
kingdom of Greece. Pop: in 1870, 82,541.
Eubu'lides [Gr. EvgovXi8ns], a Greek philosopher of
the Megaric school, flourished about 350 B. C. He was a
native of Miletus, a disciple of Euclid, and an adversary
of Aristotle. He was the inventor of several Sophistical
syllogisms, including the gorites.
Eubu’lus [EWgovXos], an Athenian comic poet of the
middle comedy, flourished about 375 B. C. He wrote mu-
merous comedies on mythological subjects, of which only
small fragments are extant. His language is elegant.
Eucalyp’tus (plu. Eucalypti), a genus of trees of
the natural order Myrtaceae, comprises numerous species,
mostly natives of Australia. They form a characteristic
feature of the peculiar vegetation of that island, having
entire leathery leaves, of which one edge is directed towards
the sky, so that both surfaces are equally exposed to the
light. The Eucalypti are called “gum trees,” because they
abound in resinous exudations. The timber is excellent,
and is used for shipbuilding and other purposes. The Eu-
calyptus gigantea, called “stringy bark,” it is said some-
times attains a height of 480 feet and a diameter of 27 feet.
Mr. George Robbins reports trees of this kind 500 feet
high. They are probably the tallest trees on the globe.
The bark of several species abounds in tannin, and is used
for tanning leather. The Eucalyptus resinifera, which
grows to a great height, yields a red astringent gum, which
is called “Botany Bay kino,” and is used in medicine as a
substitute for kino. An exudation resembling Imanna in
medicinal properties is obtained from the leaves of Euca-
lyptus mannifera and dumosa. The blue gum (Eucalyptus
globosa) produces ship-timber of the best quality. It is
said to furnish a febrifuge principle surpassing quinia in
efficiency. Several species of Eucalyptus have been suc-
cessfully introduced into California and Europe.
Eu/charist [Gr. ebxaptoria, “the giving of thanks”], a
name applied to the sacrament of the Holy Communion, or
the feast of the Lord’s Supper, in allusion to the blessing
and thanksgiving with which the last supper of our Saviour
with his disciples began and ended. This solemn festival
has been kept in all Christian churches from the time of the
resurrection, in commemoration of the passion and death
of our Lord, and in obedience to his own divine institution.
Among the earliest disciples in Judaea, the Lord's Supper
seems to have been a regular meal, probably the principal
meal of the day in each family, into which the commemo-
rative breaking of bread and partaking of the cup of bless-
ing were introduced as a part. Subsequently the disciples
of many families came together and held a festival in com-
mon—a practice in which originated the 3-yarm, or love-
feast, in the course of which the brethren saluted each other
with a holy kiss. The abuses which grew out of this, and
which are severely rebuked by Saint Paul in the First
Epistle to the Corinthians, led to a separation of the two
institutions; and the commemorative observance has since
been celebrated, with a solemnity in harmony with its cha-
racter, by itself.
No part of the Christian practice and doctrine has given
rise to larger diversities of opinion or to a more voluminous
polemical literature than the sacrament of the Eucharist.
These controversies were not known to the Church during
its first eight or nine centuries. It seems entirely just to
believe that, during all this early period, the visible elements
employed in the celebration, the consecrated bread and
wine, were regarded only as symbols and emblems of the
body and blood of Christ given for our redemption; inas-
much as the expression of an opinion or doctrine different
from this appears to have been first publicly made in the
year 831 by a monk, subsequently abbot of Corbey in
France, named Pascasius Radbert, who maintained the two
following propositions, which he declared to be the true
doctrine of the Church, but which were received with loud
and general remonstrance: viz., first, that, “ after the con-
secration of the bread and wine in the Lord's Supper,
nothing remains but the outward figure, under which the
body and blood of Christ are really and locally present”—
that is to say, the doctrine more recently known under the
name of transubstantiation; and secondly, that “the body
of Christ thus present in the Eucharist is the same body
that was born of the Virgin, that suffered on the cross, and
that was raised from the dead.” The excitement which
followed this announcement was such that the emperor of
Germany, Charles II. (I. of France, called “the Bald”),
directed counter-expositions to be prepared by Johannes
Scotus, and Ratramn (otherwise called Bertramn). The
work of Scotus, though often cited in subsequent centuries,
has perished; that of Ratramn is still extant. Both held
that the consecrated bread and wine in the Eucharist are
I ()4.
1650
only signs or symbols, and not the veritable body and blood
of Christ; but in the work of Ratramn there are some things
said on this point which are ambiguous or obscure, while
Scotus, on the other hand, is said to have been perspicuous,
distinct, and intelligible. Out of this dispute arose some
extraordinary and repulsive secondary controversies, as to
the natural consequences of taking into the stomach and
digesting the consecrated elements, whatever view be taken
of their nature, for which those who desire to understand
them must refer to the ecclesiastical histories.
The doctrine of Pascasius, or at least his first proposi-
tion, found no small number of adherents, but the struggle,
though warm, was a struggle of private opinions, and not
of opinions with authority. The Church set forth no defini-
tion of her own views on the subject, and the excitement after
a time abated. About two centuries later, however, the
controversy was renewed in a manner which presently led
to the interposition of the Roman pontiffs, and subse-
quently of councils of the Church. The first incident in
this renewal was a declaration, in 1004, by Leutheric, arch-
bishop of Sens, to the effect that none but the sincerely
pious receive the body of Christ in the Holy Communion.
It is easy to see what questions may arise out of a doctrine
like this, especially with those who hold the certainty of the
Real Presence. Later, in 1045, the celebrated Berenger, at
that time archdeacon of Angers, taking the work of Johan-
nes Scotus, above mentioned, as his text and guide, attacked
with vehemence the doctrine of the Real Presence. He was
met by Bruno, his own bishop (of Angers), and also by Hugh
of Langres and Adelman of Bresse. But his most powerful
and most dangerous antagonist was the pope, Leo IX., who
assembled two councils in 1050—one at Rome and one at
Vercelli—where he caused the writings of Berenger to be
condemned and burned, and excommunicated their author.
Retiring into Normandy, Berenger sought the support of
William (afterwards “the conqueror” of England), but this
prince having convened an assembly of the principal prel-
ates and theologians of his province, the unfortunate polem-
ist was again condemned; and in the Council of Paris, called
by Henry I. in the same year (1050), he was not only con-
demned still a third time, but deprived of his benefices.
The subsequent history of Berenger is a painful one. On
three different occasions, under three different successive
popes, Victor II., Nicholas II., and Gregory VII., he was
compelled by threats and intimidation to renounce his
opinions; and on two of these occasions, to subscribe to
declarations drawn up for him by his enemies. The first
of these declarations, made at what may be called his
Second trial, under Nicholas II., was to the effect that
“the bread and wine after consecration are not only a sac-
rament, but also the real body and blood of Jesus Christ;
and that this body and blood are handled by the priests
and consumed by the faithful, and not in a sacramental
sense, but in reality and truth, as other sensible objects
are.” This declaration he was not only forced to sub-
scribe, but also to confirm with an oath; but hardly had
he returned to France before he abjured it utterly, and re-
sumed the teaching of his former views. He was accord-
ingly arraigned a third time, and this arraignment took
place under Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), who seems him-
self not to have partaken of the extreme views of Berenger's
relentless persecutors, yet to have felt compelled to oblige
him to renounce his own. The unfortunate man constrained
himself consequently to subscribe to his belief of the follow-
ing proposition, and to confirm this declaration by an oath—
viz., that “the bread laid on the altar becomes, after conse-
cration, the true body of Christ, which was born of the Vir-
gin, suffered on the cross, and now sits at the right hand of
the Father; and the wine placed on the altar becomes, after
consecration, the true blood which flowed from the side of
Christ.” There was affirmed to be an ambiguity in this de-
claration, perhaps growing out of the construction to be
put upon the words “laid, or placed, upon the altar.” At
any rate, it did not satisfy the enemies of Berenger, and he
was therefore subjected to the humiliation of subscribing and
making oath to still another confession of faith, in the fol-
lowing words—viz., that “the bread and wine are, by the
mysterious influence of the holy prayer and the words of our
Redeemer, substantially changed into the true, proper, and
vivifying body and blood of Jesus Christ;” to which was .
added, that “the bread and wine are, after consecration,
converted into the real body and blood of Christ, not only
in quality of external signs and Sacramental representations,
but in their essential properties and substantial reality.”
This form of submission having been fully completed, Pope
Gregory dismissed the humbled prelate with many marks
of personal esteem, and visible and liberal evidences of his
friendship. Notwithstanding which, no sooner was Berenger
in his own country again, than he retracted this last decla-
ration, as he had done all the former, and prepared an
elaborate refutation of the doctrines to which he had just
EUCHARIST.
subscribed. The pope took no notice of this retractation,
whence the inference has been drawn that Gregory himself
was personally not far from entertaining the same opinions
as Berenger. The evening of the days of this greatly tried
champion of the right to freedom of opinion where the
Church has not spoken, was passed in acts of penance and
mortification, to which he subjected himself in expiation
of the guilt of his dissimulation and perjury at Rome.
It was not till the assembling of the fourth Lateran Coun-
cil by Innocent III., in the year 1215, that the voice of the
Roman Church was authoritatively uttered as to the true
doctrine of the Eucharist. That pope, through a decree of
that council, declared the true faith to be that the elements
of bread and wine are really and truly, after consecration,
the body and blood of Jesus Christ in actual substance, re-
maining bread and wine only to outward appearance; and,
he himself invented and introduced the term “transubstan-
tiation,” by which this doctrine has been ever since known
and recognized as a doctrine of the Roman Church. . It was
a natural consequence of the admission of this doctrine as
an established dogma, that that view of the Eucharist which
regards the ceremonial consecration and placing upon the
altar of the elements, as a sacrifice, in which the original
great Sacrifice upon Calvary is perpetually renewed, found
easy acceptance; and other consequences have been the
worship of the consecrated elements, as being a worship.
directly paid to Christ himself; the elevation of the Host
in the celebration of mass, that it may be seen and rever-
enced by the people; and the custom, prevalent in Roman
Catholic countries, of carrying this consecrated bread about
in solemn processions through the public streets, to be ad-
ministered to the sick and dying.
Another controversy in regard to the Eucharist arose in
the sixteenth century, which continues still to divide opin-
ions, the Church not having formally declared on either
side. It was (and is) held by the Jesuits and Dominicans,
that the Sacraments have in themselves an instrumental
and efficient power, by virtue of which they work in the
soul, independently of any previous preparation or state of
the propensities, a disposition to receive the divine grace;
and this they call the opus operatum. Thus, according to
their view, neither knowledge, nor wisdom, nor humility,
nor faith, nor devotion is necessary to the efficacy of the
Sacraments, whose prevailing energy nothing but a mortal
sin can resist. Hence, therefore, according to them, priests
may give immediate absolution to all who confess their mis-
deeds and evil thoughts and wicked sentiments and pro-
pensities, and admit them directly to the use of the sacra-
ments. This view was resisted by the Jansenists, and is
rejected by all in the Roman communion who have the pro-
gress of vital and practical religion truly at heart. These
demand that none shall be admitted to the sacrament of the
Holy Communion, who do not give evidence of true peni-
tence, and of an intent henceforth to lead a new life, follow-
ing the commandments of God, and walking in His holy
Ways.
The same century saw the great uprising against the
abuses which had gradually crept into the Church of Rome,
commonly called the Reformation, inaugurated by the monk
Martin Luther. It soon appeared that, upon some essential
points of doctrine, there was as little harmony of doctrine
in the ranks of the Reformers, as there had been in those of
the Church. In regard to the Eucharist, the difference be-
tween Luther and Zwingle, if not quite so wide, was at least
'as irreconcilable as that between the Jesuits and the Jan-
senists, or that of the ninth century between Radbert and
Scotus. Iuther maintained that the body and blood of
| Christ are really, though in a manner far beyond human
comprehension, present in the Eucharist, and are exhibited
together with the bread and wine. This is the doctrine
since known as “consubstantiation.” Zwingle, on the other
hand, regarded the bread and wine as being only symbols
present, and typifying the body and blood of Christ, which
themselves are absent. Numbers of zealous and able men
enrolled themselves in this controversy, on both sides, and
the consequent danger to the common cause of Protestant-
ism was such, that Philip, margrave of Hesse, whose devo-
tion to this cause was deep and sincere, appointed a con-
ference to be held at Morpung between Luther, Zwingle,
and other doctors of both parties. The result, so far as the
main point is concerned, was a failure. The two great
leaders separated without either having been able to con-
vince the other, and without having been able to agree upon
any statement of doctrine in regard to Christ's presence in
the Eucharist which both could accept.
The doctrine of the Anglican Church, which is that of the
Episcopal Church in America on this subject, is briefly set
forth in the catechism, where, after defining a sacrament to
be an outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual
grace, and affirming the object for which the sacrament of
the Lord's Supper was ordained to have been “for the con-
EUCHEE ANNA-EUGENE.
1651
tinual remembrance of the sacrifice of the death of Christ,
and of the benefits which we receive thereby,” it is declared
that in this sacrament the outward and visible part or sign
is the “bread and wine which the Lord hath commanded to
be received,” and that the thing signified is “the body and
blood of Christ, which are spiritually taken and received by
the faithful in the Lord's Supper.” And in the “Articles
of Religion, as established by the bishops, clergy, and laity
of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of
America, in convention, on the 12th day of September, in
the year of our Lord 1801,” which are, with some alterations
of minor importance, identical with the Thirty-nine Arti-
cles of the Church of England, it is declared (in “Art.
xxviii.; of the Lord's Supper”) that “transubstantiation
(or the change of the substance of the bread and wine) in
the supper of our Lord, cannot be proved by Holy Writ;
but is repugnant to the plain words of Scripture, over-
throweth the nature of a sacrament, and hath given occa-
sion to many superstitions.” And further, “that the body
of Christ is given, taken, and eaten in the Supper, only
after an heavenly and spiritual manner. And the mean
whereby the body of Christ is received and eaten in the
Supper, is faith.” F. A. P. BARNARD.
Euchee Anna. See UCHEE ANNA.
Euchlorine [from the Gr. e5xxopos, “bright green”],
a name given to a green gas liberated when potassic chlo-
rate is acted upon by hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. 'The
gas is a mixture probably of chlorine (CI) and perchloric
oxide (C1204). It possesses bleaching properties. It is
prepared by heating gently a mixture of two parts of sul-
phuric acid, two of water, and one of chlorate of potash.
Eu/chre, a game of cards, originally German, but now
a favorite in the U. S., chiefly as a social game. “Four-
handed” euchre, where four persons are engaged, is the
best form of the play, but two, three or even more than
four persons may play, the rules being variously modified
to suit such changes. Properly, two or four persons should
play. The “euchre deck” contains the aces, the face-cards,
and all spot-cards above the sixes, though many players
reject all below the nines. In four-handed play the par-
ties draw for deal, which falls to the one who draws the
first jack. The right-hand adversary cuts, and the cards
are dealt by threes and twos, or twos and threes, from left
to right. The uppermost undealt card is turned for trump;
the oldest hand “orders up ’’ this card as trump if he sees
fit; otherwise he “passes” to the next, who exercises the
same choice, and so on. If not “ordered ” or “taken º'
up the first time around, the players have in turn their
choice of making a new trump or passing again. When a
trump is “ordered” or “taken,” the dealer may discard
his poorest card, and take up the trump from the deck.
The side which orders or takes up must take at least three
tricks (one point), or lose two points (a euchre) to the other
side. Four tricks also count one, but five tricks (a march)
count two. In case one of the four players has a strong
hand, he is at liberty to play alone, without his partner's
help. In this case, if he makes a march, his side scores
four; if he is euchred, the opposite side scores four. Five
points make the game.
Another peculiarity of the game is, that the highest
trump (right bower) is always the jack of trumps; the jack
of the “next?’ suit—that of corresponding color—being
always second best trump (left bower), the ace of trumps
is third, the king fourth, etc. Jacks of a suit not trumps
rank next below the queen of their suit. Euchre is an
easy and simple game, and is consequently popular as a
social pastime. Many varieties of it have sprung up, and
at present almost every coterie has its own set of rules;
some having a blank card for the highest trump, the bowers
following; others allowing the victors to count on the next
game all the points they have made above the five neces-
sary to the victory, or allowing the possessor of a “lone
hand” to call for his partner's best card, etc.
Euclase [from the Gr. e8, “good,” “well,” “easily,”
and KAáo, to “break,” because it is so easily broken], a sili-
cate of alumina and glucina, which occurs in greenish crys-
tals in Peru and Brazil. It is well adapted for jewelry, on
account of its great hardness and the fine polish of which
it is susceptible, but it is not much used as a gem in conse-
quence of its rarity and fragility.
Eu’clid [Gr. Eukaetóns] of ALEXANDRIA, a celebrated
Greek, called the “father of geometry.” He was born at
Alexandria in Egypt, and lived about 300 B.C., and is said
to have belonged to the Platonic school of philosophy. The
events of his life are mostly unknown, except that he taught
mathematics in the reign of Ptolemy I. (Soter), who died
about 282 B. C. He made important discoveries in geom-
etry, and surpassed all preceding geometers in the rigorous
method and arrangement of his demonstrations. When
Ptolemy I. asked him if geometry could not be mastered by
an easier process than the ordinary one, he returned the
celebrated answer, “There is no royal road to geometry.”
His “Elements of Geometry” present the most ancient sys-
tem of that science that is extant, and have been considered
an excellent standard work for 2000 years. (See SMITH,
“Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography.”)
Euclid of MEGARA, an eminent Greek disciple of So-
crates, flourished about 400 B. C. He is said to have wit–
messed the death of Socrates (399 B.C.), after which he
founded at Megara, a School called the Megaric or Dialectic.
His system was based on or partly derived from the prin-
ciples of the Eleatic school, to which he added the ethics
of Socrates.
Euclid, a post-village of Clay township, Onondaga
co., N. Y. Pop. 138.
Euclid, a post-township of Cuyahoga co., O. P. 2188.
Eude/mus [Gr, Eöðmugs] of RHODEs, a Greek Peripa-
tetic philosopher who lived about 320 B.C., was a disciple
of Aristotle. He was a meritorious editor and commen-
tator of Aristotle’s works, and he wrote a “History of
Geometry and Astronomy,” which is not extant.
Eudiom/eter [from the Gr. e5, “good,” and Atós, the
genitive of Zeiſs, “Jupiter,” regarded as the personification
of the atmosphere, and uérpov, a “measure”], an instru-
ment originally intended for ascertaining the proportion
of oxygen in the air, with a view of judging of its purity
or impurity; but it is also employed to test the composi-
tion of any mixed gases. Many forms have been used,
but one of the best consists of a graduated glass tube hav-
ing two platinum electrodes within it, the tube closed at
one end. To test the composition of air, for example, the
carbon dioxide (carbonic acid) of the air within the tube is
removed by strong liquor potassae over a mercury bath,
when the rise of the mercury within the tube indicates the
proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. A large
but determinate proportion of hydrogen is then introduced
and exploded by means of the electrodes. After cooling,
one-third of the loss of gas by explosion is the volume of
free oxygen in the tube. Allowing for the hydrogen uncon-
sumed, the volume of nitrogen is readily seen. The results
are then reduced to a percentage of volumes.
Eudo’cia [Gr. EV8okta.; Fr. Eudocie], sometimes called
Eudoxia, a beautiful Roman empress, born at Athens
about 394 A. D. She was originally named ATHENAïs, and
assumed the name of Eudocia when she was converted to
the Christian religion. In 421 she was married to the em-
peror Theodosius II. She was a woman of superior talents,
and author of several poems. Having offended Theodosius
and his sister Pulcheria, she was banished in 449, after which
she resided in Palestine, and founded several convents in
that country. Died in 460 or 461 A. D.
Eudo/ra, a post-village of Douglas co., Kan., on the
Kansas River and the Missouri Pacific R. R., 8 miles E. of
Lawrence. Pop. of Eudora township, 1901.
Eudox’us [Gr. Eğ8ošos], a Greek astronomer, born at
Cnidos in Caria, flourished about 366 B. C. He was a
pupil of Archytas and of Plato, and he opened a school at
Athens or Cnidos. Cicero called him the prince of astron-
omers. Eudoxus computed the length of the year to be
365+ days, and appears to have originated the doctrine of
concentric solid crystalline spheres, by which he explained
the apparent motions of the sun, moon, and planets.
Eufa'la, a township of Tallapoosa co., Ala. Pop. 595.
Eufau’la, a city of Barbour co., Ala., is on the right
bank of the Chattahoochee River, which is navigable to
this point for the largest boats at all seasons, 350 miles by
river from Appalachicola, and 80 miles E. S. E. from Mont-
gomery by the Montgomery and Eufaula R. R. It is the
terminus of three railroads—the South-western Georgia,
the Montgomery and Eufaula, and the Vicksburg and
Brunswick. It has five churches, a Jewish synagogue, a
female college, a school for colored people, and three pri-
vate banking-houses, besides a building and loan, and a
savings bank and loan association, four cotton-Warehouses,
a public hall, a fair-ground, and one daily, one tri-weekly,
and two weekly newspapers. Over 30,000 bales of cotton
are sold here annually. Pop. 3185.
ſ J. M. MACON, ED. “TIMES.”
Eugene, a post-township of Vermillion co., Ind. Pop.
of village, 347; of township, 1396. -
Eugene, u-jeen' [Fr. Eugène; Ger. Eugen], PRINCE, or,
more fully, François Eugène de Savoy, a celebrated
general, born in Paris Oct. 18, 1663. He was a son of Eu-
gène Maurice, count of Soissons, and Olympia Mancini, a
niece of Cardinal Mazarin. Having been offended by Louis
XIV. of France, he entered the service of the emperor of
Austria in 1683. He served with distinction in the War
against the Turks, and was rapidly promoted. In 1691 he
1652
EUGENE CITY-EUMENES.
\
obtained command of the imperial army in Piedmont, where
he fought against the French. Louis XIV. afterwards of.
fered him a marshal's bâton if he would enter the French
service, but he declined. Having been appointed com-
mander of the Austrian army in Hungary, he gained a de-
cisive victory over the Turks at Zenta Sept. 11, 1697. In
the great European war of the Spanish succession, which
broke out in 1701, Eugene first commanded in Italy, where
he was opposed by the able French marshal Catinat, and
afterwards by Willeroi, whom he surprised at Cremona and
took prisoner in Jan., 1702. An indecisive battle was fought
at Luzara in Aug., 1702, by Prince Eugene and the duke of
Vendôme. About the end of that year he was appointed
president of the council of war in Vienna. He commanded
the imperial army which co-operated in Germany with the
English army under the duke of Marlborough. These allies
defeated the French and Bavarians at the great battle of
Blenheim, Aug. 13, 1704. In 1705 he took command of the
army in Italy, and was defeated by the duke of Vendôme
at Cassano in August of that year. He gained a victory
over the French duke of Orleans at Turin in Sept., 1706,
expelled the French from Italy, and returned to Vienna in
1707. The seat of war was next transferred to Flanders,
where Prince Eugene was associated with the duke of Marl-
borough in the command of the combined armies. They
defeated the French at Oudenarde (1708), and claimed the
victory at the great battle of Malplaquet (Sept. 11, 1709),
although they lost there about 25,000 men. In 1712 he was
sent to London on a diplomatic mission, the object of which
was to persuade the English to continue the war and to re-
store Marlborough to the command, but he was not success-
ful. A victory which Marshal Villars gained over Prince
Eugene at Denain in July, 1712, induced Austria to nego-
tiate for peace. In Mar., 1714, he signed a treaty of peace
at Rastadt. He defeated a large Turkish army at Peter-
wardein Aug. 5, 1716, and took Belgrade from the same
enemy in 1717. After the end of this war, in 1718, he ren-
dered important services as a statesman, and enjoyed the
confidence of the emperor of Germany. He died in Vienna
April 21, 1736. He was never married. Though he made
no great improvement in tactics, he is reputed one of the
greatest generals of modern times, being distinguished for
his rapidity of perception, his decision, and his promptitude
to rectify his errors. (See Jon N CAMPBELL, “ Military His-
tory of Prince Eugene and Marlborough,” 2 vols., 1736.)
Eugene City, the capital of Lane co., Or., is on the
W. bank of Willamette River, here navigable for steam-
boats, and on the Oregon and California R. R., 71 miles S.
of Salem. The State university is to be established here.
It has two weekly newspapers. Pop. 861.
Euge/nia, a genus of trees and shrubs of the natural
order Myrtaceae, nearly related to the myrtle. It comprises
numerous species, which are natives of tropical and sub-
tropical countries, and some of them produce delicious
fruits remarkable for their pleasant balsamic odors. The
fruit is a berry of one or two cells, with one seed in each
cell. The allspice or pimento of commerce is the unripe,
sun-dried berry of the Eugenia Pimenta, which is indige-
nous in the West Indies. The Eugenia Malaccensis, a ma–
tive of the Malayan Archipelago, is a small tree which
bears a red fruit nearly as large as an apple, with a juicy
pulp and an agreeable odor like that of a rose; hence
it is called rose apple. The last name is also applied to
the fruit of the Eugenia Jambos, an East Indian tree, now
cultivated extensively in many tropical countries. The
Eugenia Ugni, a native of Chili, has a small edible fruit,
from which a refreshing beverage is obtained. Florida.
has five or more unimportant species.
Eugenia, a post-village of Grey co., Ontario, 28 miles
from Collingwood. It is noted for its scenery. Here the
Beaver River falls 334 feet in a mile, including a perpen-
dicular descent of 70 feet. There are manufactures of
lumber and woollen goods. Pop. about 100.
Eugénie, or, more fully, Eugénie Marie de Mon-
tijo, empress of France, was born at Granada, in Spain,
May 5, 1826. Her father was the Spanish count de Mon-
tijo, and her mother was Maria Manuela Kirkpatrick, a
woman of Scottish extraction. Eugénie was styled the
countess of Teba in her youth. She was married to Na-
poleon III. in Jan., 1853, and bore a son in Mar., 1856.
As a zealous Catholic she used her influence to promote
the power of the pope. In Oct., 1869, she made a voyage
to Venice, Constantinople, and Egypt, was present at the
formal opening of the Suez Canal (Nov. 17), and returned
to France at the end of November. After Napoleon put
himself at the head of the army, about Aug. 1, 1870, she
acted as regent until the people of Paris proclaimed a re-
public, Sept. 4, 1870. She then escaped to England.
Euge'nius I. was chosen pope in 654 A. D. as the
successor of Martin I., who was banished by the emperor
Constans. Died in 658. t -
Eugenius II., a native of Rome, succeeded Pascal I.
as pope in 824 A. D. He called a council, which met at
Rome in 826 for the reformation of the clergy. He died in
827, and was succeeded by Valentinus.
Eugenius III., a native of Pisa, was chosen pope in
1145, in place of Lucius II. The Romans, excited by the
preaching of Arnaldo da Brescia, had revolted against Pope
Lucius. Eugenius, being unable to enforce his authority,
retired to France and held a council at Rheims in 1148.
He also promoted the second Crusade. He died in 1153,
and was succeeded by Anastasius IV.
Eugenius IV. (GABRIELE ConDoIMER0), a native of
Venice, was chosen pope in 1431 as the successor of Mar-
tin V., who had convoked a council at Băle. This council
refused to recognize the Supremacy of the pope. Eugenius
therefore issued a bull proclaiming that the Council of Bâle
was or, must be dissolved, and he called another council at
Ferrara in 1437. The Council of Bâle in 1438 deposed the
pope, and elected as his successor Amadeus of Savoy, who
assumed the name of Felix V. The result of this election
was a schism in the Church, for Eugenius continued to act
as pope in Rome, and was recognized by several powers.
At the Council of Ferrara, Eugenius and John Palaeologus
signed in 1439 a convention for the union of the Greek and
Latin churches, but this convention had no permanent effect.
He died in 1447, and was succeeded by Nicholas V.
Euguſbian Tables, the name of certain bronze tab-
lets found near Gubbio (the ancient Iguvium) in 1444. Five
of the inscriptions are in Etruscan and Umbrian characters,
the other two in Latin. They were published by Lepsius
in his “Inscriptiones Umbricae et Oscae'' (1841).
Eula’lia, a post-township of Potter co., Pa. Pop. 353.
Eu’lenburg (FRIEDRICH ALBERT), GRAF ZU, a Prus-
sian statesman, was born Jan. 29, 1815, went in 1859 as
envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to China,
Japan, and Siam, concluded (Jan. 1, 1861) a treaty of havi-
gation with the government of Japan, and in September
of the same year another with China. He became, Dec. 9,
1862, minister of the interior.
Eu’lenstein (KARL), born in Heilbronn, Würtemberg,
in 1802, was apprenticed in youth to an ironmonger, who
would not allow him to cultivate his musical tastes, which
were naturally strong. As a last resort, he took up the
Jew’s harp, and, devoting his spare time to that instrument,
he acquired such astonishing skill in playing it that his
reputation extended throughout Europe.
Eu’ler (LEONARD), an eminent Swiss geometer, born at
Bale April 15, 1707. He was educated at the university
of that city, and went to St. Petersburg with his friend
Daniel Bernoulli. In 1733 he became professor of mathe-
matics in the Academy of St. Petersburg. He displayed
great fecundity and inventive genius by the composition
of a multitude of treatises on mathematics. It is said that
he wrote more than half of the forty-six quarto volumes
published by the Academy between 1727 and 1783. Hay-
ing been invited by Frederick, the Great, he removed to
Berlin in 1741. He improved the integral calculus and the
science of mechanics. Among his numerous works are
“Mechanics, or the Science of Motion analytically ex-
plained" (in Latin, 2 vols., 1736–42), a “Treatise on Naval
Science” (1749), a “Treatise on the Integral Calculus ”
(“Institutiones Calculi Integralis,” 1768), “Letters to a
German Princess” (in French, 1768), a “Treatise on Diop-
trics” (1771), and “Theory of the Moon's Motion” (1772).
He became blind about 1767, after which he resided in St.
Petersburg until his death, Sept. 7, 1783. Condorcet, who
wrote a eulogy on him, says, “He multiplied his productions
marvellously, and yet was original in each.”
Eu/logy [Gr. e.vxoyta, “praise,” from sö, “good,” and
Aóyos, “word;” Fr. Éloge], an encomium pronounced on a
person; a laudatory, speech or written composition. In
ecclesiastical history it was applied to a present bestowed
on the Church after having been blessed.
Eu/lytine, Silicate of Bismuth, Bismuth-
blende, a rare mineral found at Schneeberg in Saxony.
Eu/menes [Gr. Ebuévºs], a favorite officer of Alexander
the Great, was born at Cardia, in Thrace, about 360 B. C.
IHe had a high command in the army which Alexander
conducted against Persia in 334 B. C., and gained the
confidence of that prince. On the death of Alexander, Eu-
menes became governor of Cappadocia and Pontus. As
an ally of Perdiccas he defeated Craterus in the year 321,
soon after which Antigonus and Antipater formed a coa-
lition against him. Eumenes was captured and put to .
death by Antigonus in 317 or 316 B. C. (See PLUTARCH,
“Life of Eumenes.”) -
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EUMENIDES-EUPHRATES.
Eumenſides [Gr. Eöplevées (from eş, “good,” and uévos,
“mind,” “disposition ”), i.e. the “gracious ones,” so called
for the sake of propitiating them], or Erinnyes, the
Greek name of the Furies, whom the Romans called Furiae
or Dirae. They were supposed to be goddesses who pun-
ished crimes and pursued the guilty with burning torches.
According to the later tradition, there were three Furies—
namely, Tisiphone, Alecto, and Megaera. The Cave of the
Eumenides is at the N. E. angle of the Areopagus, imme-
diately below the seats of the judges. T
Eumol/pus [Gr. Eöwoxtros], a personage of the Greek
mythology, was supposed to be a Thracian bard, a son of
Neptune, and the founder of the Eleusinian mysteries.
Musæus is said to have had a son named Eumolpus, who
was an instructor of Hercules.
Eunaſpius [Gr. Eòvários], a sophist and physician,
born at Sardis, in Lydia, about 348 A. D. He was a Neo-
Platonist, an opponent of Christianity, and a partisan of
Julian the Apostate. He lived at Athens, and wrote in
Greek “The Lives of Philosophers and Sophists,” which is
highly prized. It was published by Boissonade in 1822.
Died about 420. -
Euno’mians, the followers of Eunomius, a strict
Arian, who was made bishop of Cyzicus, in Asia Minor,
in 360 A. D., but soon resigned on account of his theolog-
ical opinions. The Eunomians were for a time very nume-
rous, but the sect soon died out.
Euno’mius [Gr. Eòvápºtos], the founder of an Arian sect
called Eunomians, was born in Cappadocia. He was ap-
pointed bishop of Cyzicus in 360 A.D. by Eudoxius, bishop
of Antioch, who afterwards deposed him for heresy. Euno-
mius was a man of superior abilities, and maintained the
extreme Arian doctrines, for which he was several times
banished. Died in 394 A. D.
Eu’much [Gr. evojkos (from sövä, a “bed,” and éxo, to
“have" or “keep ’’), i. e. “having charge of the beds or
chambers of the women’] was at first the title of servants
who had the care of bed-chambers; and from the custom
of placing women's apartments under the care of mutilated
persons, the name came to be applied to the latter class ex-
clusively. Mutilation was a very ancient practice, and was
especially frequent in Syria and the East. It is a natural
consequence of the system of polygamy. . In Greece it
was not common until the Byzantine period. In Rome
under the emperors many eunuchs were kept. It is as-
serted that they were made to a considerable extent in
mediaeval Europe. In Italy they were formerly kept for
their fine soprano singing. At present they are chiefly
found in Mohammedan countries. At Moscow a commu-
mity of eunuchs exists, who are jewellers by profession, and
who add to their numbers by the purchase and mutilation
of children. Eunuchs as a class are small, beardless, and
weak, with a jealous, cowardly, and intriguing character;
yet some, like Bagoas, the Persian minister, Philetaerus,
king of Pergama, and Narses, the Byzantine general, have
possessed energy and ability. As used in the Bible and the
classics, the word often means simply a chamberlain.
Euon’ymus [from the Gr. et, “well,” “propitious,” and
6vvua, a “name,” by euphemism because it is poisonous], a
genus of shrubs of the natural order Celastraceae, natives
of Europe and the U. S. The fruit is a capsule, with seeds
enclosed in a red aril. The flowers, foliage, and fruit of
some of the species are poisonous. The wood of the Eu-
onymus Europaeus, an ornamental shrub, is strong, compaët,
and yellow, and is applied to various useful purposes. The
Euon'ymus atropwrpw’reus (burning bush or wahoo), a na-
tive of the U. S., is an ornamental shrub, with crimson
fruit drooping on long peduncles. The bark is used as a
remedy for dropsy and other diseases, and has active prop-
erties. The Euonymus Americanus, or strawberry bush, is
often cultivated for ornament.
Eupato'ria, formerly Koslof, a seaport of Russia,
in the government of Taurida, is on the Black Sea, and
on the W. coast of the Crimea, 38 miles W. N. W. of Sim-
feropol. It has a shallow harbor, a custom-house, a hos-
pital, and a handsome Tartar mosque. Grain, wool, hides,
and salt are exported from this place. The English and
French armies landed here in Sept., 1854, and the Russians
were repulsed here in Feb., 1855. Pop. 7730.
Eupato/rium [Gr. eitraróptov, said to have been named
in honor of Eu'pator, a king of Pontus], a genus of plants
of the natural order Compositae, having the florets all tubu-
lar and perfect. It comprises many species of perennial
herbs, mostly American. The Eupato'rium perfolia’tum,
called boneset and thoroughwort, is a native of the U. S.,
and is used in medicine as a tonic, stimulant, and sudorific.
The leaves, as the specific name denotes, are connate-per-
foliate—i.e. united at the base around the stem. The hemp
agrimony (Eupato'rium cannab’inum), which grows wild in
1653
England, has been used in medicine. The Eupatorium pur-
pureum and several other American species appear to have
valuable diuretic properties. .
Euſpen, oi'pen [Fr. Néau], a manufacturing town of
Rhenish Prussia, on the Vesdre, and in a beautiful valley
10 miles by rail S. S. W. of Aix-la-Chapelle. It is well
built and flourishing, and derives its prosperity chiefly from
its manufactures of woollen goods (broadcloths and cassi.
meres). It has fourteen woollen-mills, dyeworks, and man-
ufactures of machinery. Pop. 14,696.
Euphemia, a post-village of Harrison township, Preble
co., O. Pop. 107. -
Eu/phemism [Gr. eidmºtorwds], a figure in rhetoric by
which an unpleasant idea is expressed by indirect and
milder terms. The euphemisms of the ancient heathens
generally originated in a desire to deprecate the ill-will of
malevolent powers, by attributing to them characteristics
opposite to those which really belonged to them. Thus, the
Furies were termed Eumenides, “gentle,” by the Greeks. .
Eu/phony [Gr. eidovia, “goodness of voice ’’ (from eş,
“good,” and bovň, “voice ’’)], agreeable sound; that quality
in language which results from happy combinations of the
enunciative elements, such especially as, though essentially
different in their characteristic powers, easily melt into or
blend with each other, so as to maintain an uninterupted
flow. It is the reverse of cacophony.
Euphor/bia [named in honor of Euphor/bus, physician
to Juba, king of Mauritania], a genus of plants of the natu-
ral order Euphorbiaceae, having an acrid, milky juice and
monoecious flowers, included in a cup-shaped, four to five-
lobed involucre resembling a calyx. Almost 100 species of
this genus are natives of the U. S. An acrid drug called
euphorbium is obtained from the Euphorbia officina’rum and
from other species. Several species bear the popular name
of spurge. The seeds of “caper spurge” (Euphorbia Lathy-
ris) of Europe and the U. S. yield the fixed oil known as
oil of euphorbia, a powerful cathartic. Some African Eu-
phorbias are large trees. ---
Euphorbia’ceae [from Euphor/bia, the typical genus],
a large natural order of exogenous plants which abound in
tropical America, and are found in nearly all parts of the
globe. They mostly have an acrid and poisonous milky
juice and diclinous or monoecious flowers. They may be
distinguished from other diclinous orders by their tricoccous
or 3-lobed fruit, and their definite suspended anatropous
ovules. This order comprises, besides the EUPHORBIA (which
see), the Rieſinus (castor-oil plant), the Croton, which yields
croton oil, the Siphonia, from which caoutchouc is obtained,
the Buac'ws semper'virens (common box), and the Jatropha
Manihot, the stem of which yields a nutritious food called
cassava, manioc, or tapioca.
Euphor/bium, an acrid and inodorous gum-resin, is
produced by the Euphorbia officinarum of Southern Africa,
and some other species, including Euphorbia Canariensis of
Western Africa and Euphorbia antiquarum of the Levant.
It is a violent emetic and purgative, and is sometimes used
in the composition of plasters and in veterinary medicine.
Eupho’rion [Eööoptov], an Athenian tragic poet, was a
son of Æschylus. He gained prizes with his father's
dramas when Sophocles and Euripides were competitors.
Euphorion, an eminent Greek poet and grammarian,
born at Chalcis in Euboea, flourished about 250–220 B.C.
He became librarian to Antiochus the Great. He produced
epic poems entitled “Hesiodos,” “Mopsopia,” and “Chili-
ades,” which were very popular; also several prose works.
None of his works are extant.
Euphraſnor [Ełópávop], an eminent Greek painter and
sculptor, born at Corinth, flourished about 350 B.C., and
was a contemporary of Apelles. He excelled both in paint-
ing and in sculpture. Among his works, which are highly
praised by Pliny and Plutarch, was a painting of the feigned
insanity of Ulysses.
Eu/phrasy [Gr. eidpaoria, from eidpaivo, to “ delight”],
or Eyebright, a plant of the order Scrophulariacae; the
Euphraſsia officina/lis, a small annual herb from two to
eight inches high, a native of Asia, Europe, and North
America. Milton in his “Paradise Lost’’ speaks of its vir-
tues in clearing the eyesight. It is not improbably some-
what useful in inflammation of the eyes, from its astringent
character. Some varieties are said to have in their blos-
soms a spot or “signature” resembling the eye, and this
spot caused, or at least strengthened, the popular faith in
its powers.
Euphraſtes [Gr. Eiðpárms; Turk. El-Frat], a large
river of Western Asia, celebrated in all periods of his-
tory for the important events which have occurred on its
banks, and the magnificence of the cities whose walls it
washed. It rises in Armenia, in the Anti-Taurus Moun-
*-
1654
EUPHROSYNE–EUROCLYDON.
tains, by two branches—the Moorad and Kara-Soo-which
unite near lat. 39° N. and lon. 39° E. The stream formed
by this junction flows first south-westward, effects a passage
through a defile of Mount Taurus, and forms the boundary
between ancient Syria and Mesopotamia. Near the town
of Bir it approaches within 100 miles of the Mediterranean.
After crossing the 36th parallel of N. latitude it pursues a
general south-eastern direction, flows through the extensive
alluvial plains of Babylonia and Chaldaea, and enters the
Persian Gulf at its north-western extremity. Its total
length, says Guyot, is 1750 miles, and the area of its drain-
age is 255,000 square miles. It is navigable from Someisat
to its mouth, 1195 miles. Its principal affluent is the Tigris,
which is nearly as large as the Euphrates itself. It receives
no large tributary from the right hand. The width in some
places is nearly 600 yards, but below Hillah its volume and
width are reduced by numerous canals cut for irrigation.
The name Shatt-el-Arab is given by the natives to that
part of the river below the mouth of the Tigris._The melted
snows of the mountains of the Taurus and Anti-Taurus cause
a periodical inundation of the Euphrates in the spring.
The water is highest in May and June. In some parts of
its course above Someisat the river passes through deep and
narrow defiles or gorges between precipices nearly 1500 feet
high, and presents much picturesque scenery. In ancient
times the chief city on its banks was Babylon. -
Euphros’yne [Gr. Eöðpoa ºvn, from eş, “good,” “easy,”
and Öpfiv, “mind”], one of the three Graces in Greek myth-
ology, was supposed to be the daughter of Venus, and was.
a personification of the genius of mirth or joy.
Eu/phuism [from the Gr. eiðvis, “graceful " (from et,
“good,” and ºvá, “growth,” “form")], an affected style of
speaking and writing which became a fashion in the reign
of Queen Elizabeth. The term originated in the title of a
pedantic romance called “Euphues” (1580), which was
written by John Lilly (Lyly) and which abounded in af-
fected conceits and extravagant antitheses. This style was
ridiculed by Shakspeare and Ben Jonson.
Euſpion [from the Gr. e8, “good,” “very,” and triov,
“fat,” “rich,” named Tin allusion to its oily nature], a
limpid, inodorous, and oily liquid obtained by destructive
distillation of various vegetable and animal substances, as
coal, wood, oils, bones, etc. It is of a highly inflammable
nature, dissolves in ether and alcohol, but is insoluble in
water. Its specific gravity is 0.74, and it boils and evapo-
rates at 340°. It consists essentially, according to Frank-
land, of hydrate of amyl, C5H11.H.
Eu/polis [EºmoAls], an eminent Athenian comic poet of
the Old Comedy, was born about 446 B. C. He was a com-
petitor of Aristophanes, whom, as some critics, think, he
surpassed in the charms of diction. Horace considered him
worthy to be ranked with Cratinus and Aristophanes. Eu-
polis often satirized the persons and conduct of his eminent
contemporaries, including Alcibiades. Died about 410 B.C.
His works are lost except Small fragments.
Eura'sians [contracted from Europe and Asia], or
Half-Castes, is the name given in East India to the de-
scendants of Europeans and Indian mothers, who are espe-
cially numerous in the large cities, as Calcutta, Madras, and
Bombay. They generally receive a European education,
but, although they speak the English grammatically, they
have a peculiarly disagreeable pronunciation. The girls
are often very beautiful, and generally marry English offi-
cers; while the young men enter the government offices or
serve as clerks with merchants. They are very useful in
this position, but as soon as they become rich, or advance
to higher offices, they generally become insolent and wild.
The Europeans, who also call them. “Wepery Brahmins,”
do not hold them in high estimation. The natives call
them “Tschitschi.” Their number is estimated at 91,000.
Eure, a department in the N. W. part of France, is a
part of the old province of Normandy. It is bounded on
the N. by Seine Inférieure, on the E. by Oise and Seine-
et-Oise, on the S. by Eure-et-Loir, and on the W. by Orne
and Calvados. Area, 2301 square miles. It is intersected
by the rivers Seine and Eure, and is bounded on the N. W.
by the estuary of the former. The surface is mostly level;
the soil is fertile. The staple productions are grain, hemp,
flax, apples, and pears. Good horses, cattle, and sheep are
reared here. Eure has important manufactures of cotton
and woollen stuffs, paper, glass, stoneware, and copper-ware.
Pop. in 1872, 377,874. Capital, Evreux.
Eure-et-Loir, a department in the N. W. part of
France, is bounded on the N. by Eure, on the E. by Seine:
et-Oise and Loiret, on the S. by Loir-et-Cher, and on the
W. by Sarthe and Orne. Area, 2268 square miles. It is
drained by the rivers Eure and Loir. The surface is partly
level, and is in some parts diversified by hills and valleys.
The soil is very fertile, and produces large crops of wheat.
Good cavalry horses are raised here. This department is
traversed by a railway connecting Paris with Chartres and
Le Mans. Capital, Chartres. Pop. in 1872, 282,622.
Eure/ka, a post-village, capital of Humboldt co., Cal.,
is on Humboldt Bay, 7 miles from the ocean and about 225
miles N. N. W. of San Francisco. It has a safe harbor, with ,
fifteen feet of water at low tide, and a daily and one weekly
newspaper. Redwood lumber is largely shipped from this
point. Pop. of Eureka township, 2049. -
“HUMBOLDT TIMES.”
Eureka, a township of Nevada co., Cal. Pop. 1249.
Eureka, a township of Sierra co., Cal. Pop. 350.
Eureka, a post-village of Olio township, Woodford co.,
Ill., at the crossing of the Toledo Peoria and Warsaw and
the Chicago Pekin and South-western R. Rs., 19 miles E.
of Peoria. It has three churches and one weekly newspa-
per, and is the seat of Eureka College, connected with which
is a normal school and a biblical school of the Disciples of
Christ. Pop. 1233. E. LowRY, PUB. “Journal.”
Eureka, a city, capital of Greenwood co., Kan., 110
miles S. S. W. of Topeka, in the centre of a fine grazing-
region. It has one weekly newspaper, fine county build-
ings, public school-house, and five churches. Pop. of town-
ship, 1040. S. G. MEAD, ED. & PROP. of “ HERALD.”
Eureka, a township of Montcalm co., Mich. P. 2775.
Eureka, a township of Dakota co., Minn. Pop. 924.
Eureka, a post-village of Lander co., Nev., is situated
about midway between Salt Lake and San Francisco, and
80 miles S. of the Central Pacific R. R. The town will be
connected by rail with the Central Pacific at Palisade, the
branch, marrow gauge, being in course of construction.
Eureka is the second town in importance in the State, Vir-
ginia City alone excelling it. The principal business is
mining. It produces daily about 100 tons of lead and sil-
ver ore. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of Eureka
district, 640. GEORGE W. CASSIDY, ED. “SENTINEL.”
Eureka, a post-village of Rushford township, Winne-
bago co., Wis. Pop. 317.
Eurip’ides [Gr. Eòpuríðms], an eminent Athenian dram-
atist, and the latest of the three great tragic poets of
Greece, was born in the island of Salamis in 480 B. C., or,
according to the Arundel Marbles, in 485. According to a
tradition, he was born on the day of the battle of Salamis,
Sept. 23, 480. He was the son of an Athenian citizen
named Mnesarchus, who sought refuge in Salamis when the
Persian army captured Athens. He was a pupil of the great
philosopher Anaxagoras, and he studied rhetoric under
Prodieus. He also enjoyed the intimate friendship of Soc-
rates. About 456 B. C. he produced “Peliades,” the first
of his dramas that was performed. As a rival of Sophocles
he gained the first prize in several dramatic contests. His
religious opinions were liberal, and excited the hostility of
the conservative party, of which Aristophanes was the cham-
pion. Like Socrates, he was accused of impiety and unbelief
in the gods. It appears that it was the violence and scur-
rility of these unscrupulous enemies that induced Euripides
to remove from Athens about the year 408. He then re-
tired to the court of Archelaus, king of Macedon, who treated
him with kindness. Euripides composed seventy-five, or,
as some say, ninety-two, tragedies, of which eighteen are ex-
tant—namely, “Alcestis ‘’ (438 B. C.), “Medea." (431),
“Hippolytus” (428), “Hecuba’ (424), “Heraclidae '’
(421 2), “Supplices” (421?), “Ion,” “Hercules Furens,”
“Andromache,” “Troades” (415), “Electra,” “Helena’’
(412), “Iphigenia in Tauris,” “Orestes” (408), “Phenissae,”
“Bacchae,” “Iphigenia in Aulis,” and “Rhesus.” His style
is remarkable for its brilliancy and pompous elegance.
Among the warm admirers of Euripides were Aristotle (who
calls him the most tragic of poets), Cicero, and Milton.
“He was,” says A. W. Schlegel, “a man of infinite talent
and invention, possessed of the most varied intellectual ac-
complishments; but, although abounding in brilliant and
attractive qualities, he wanted the sublime earnestness and
artistic skill which we admire in AEschylus and Sophocles.”
According to a doubtful tradition, he was killed by hounds
in 406 B. C., and buried at Pella. His works display great
insight into human passions and skill in the analysis of
character. Though his plots are censured as inartistic, he
stands pre-eminent among the Greek tragic poets in the
vigorous expression of individual passions and in know-
ledge of human nature. Among the best editions of Eurip-
ides are those of Musgrave, Oxford (4 vols., 1778), of Mat-
thiae, Leipsic (9 vols., 1813–20), of Kirchhoff, Berlin (2
vols., 1855), and of Nauck (2 vols.; 2d ed. 1857).
Euroc'Iydon [Gr. ebpokAjöov, from eşpos, the “east
wind,” and k\}8tov, a “billow ’’), the name of a violent wind
of the Mediterranean, mentioned in Acts xxvii. 14. The
Vulgate renders it euro-aquilo, i.e. “north-east wind.”
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EUROPA—EUROPE.
1655
* =s=-
But in some of the best manuscripts (Sinaitic, Vatican, and
Alexandrian) etpakiſ&ov, “E. N. E. wind,” is the reading,
instead of eipokaijóov, “ N. E. wind;” and this reading is
adopted by the best recent editors. The wind in question
is said to be half a point N. of E. N. E. (See SMITH's
“Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul,” 1856; 3d ed. 1866.)
Euro/pa [Gr. Eòpºſtm], in classic mythology, a daughter
of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, and a sister of Cadmus. Ac-
cording to the poetic legend, she was carried to Crete by
Jupiter, who for that occasion assumed the form of a bull,
and she was the mother of Mimos and Rhadamanthus.
Eu’rope [Gr. Ebp3rm; Lat. Europa; by the ancients de-
rived from Europa, a Phoenician princess; modern etymolo-
gists derive it from the Semitic word ereb, “dark,” thus
representing Europe as the dark or mysterious country, as
compared with Asia] is the fourth among the great divis-
ions of the globe in point of extent, the second in point of
º and the first as regards density of population.
for more than 2000 years it has marched at the head of the
Old World in everything that relates to progress and civili-
zation. Nearly the whole of Australasia, the larger portion
of Asia, and a considerable part of Africa and America are
the dependencies of European countries, and notwithstand-
ing the rapid rise of the New World, it continues to be the
foremost standard-bearer of Christianity, for three-fourths
of the entire Christian population of the globe live in Europe.
The superficial area of Europe is estimated at about
3,814,600 square miles. (See BEHM and WAGNER, “Bevöl-
kerung der Erde,” Gotha, 1872.) It is bounded on the N.
by the Arctic Ocean, on the E. by Asia, on the S. by Asia,
and the Mediterranean Sea (which separates it from Africa),
and on the W. by the Atlantic. The greatest extent of Eu-
rope is from S. W. to N. E., a line from Cape St. Vincent to
the mouth of the Rara River measuring about 3400 miles,
while the distance from Cape Nordkun, the northernmost
point of Scandinavia, to Cape Matapan, the southern ex-
tremity of Greece, amounts to 2400 miles.
most cape of Europe is the North Cape, on the little island
of Mageroe, lat. 71° 11' 40' N. and lon. 25° 46' E.; the
southernmost, Cape Tarifa, lat 35° 59' 57" N. and lon. 5°
37' W.; the connecting line between these two lines is 2406
miles long. The most western point is Cape la Roca, lat.
38° 46' 30" N. and lon. 9° 297 W.; the eastern extremity
lies in the Ural Mountains; the connecting line has 3200
miles. With the exception of a small tract reaching beyond
the polar circle, the whole of Europe is situated in the
northern temperate zone.
The coast-line of Europe is very fully developed, and it is
more accessible from the sea-side than either Asia or Africa.
The coast of its continent is estimated at 20,700 miles, of
which about 2600 belong to the Arctic Ocean, 10,900 to the
Atlantic Ocean, and 7200 to the Mediterranean and Black
Seas. The bulk of Europe has the shape of an almost right-
angled triangle, which covers about two-thirds of the entire
area, and in the west more and more loses its continental
character, and in its stead becomes oceanic. The points of
the triangle are—to the S. W., the angular point of the Bay
of Biscay; to the N. E., that of the Karskaia Gulf; and to
the S. E., the northern extremity of the Caspian Sea. The
proportion of the peninsulas to the main body is as one to
four. The Arctic Ocean has only the small peninsulas of
Kanin and Kola ; Scandinavia, Jutland, Normandy, and
Bretagne stretch into the Atlantic Ocean; the Pyrenean
peninsula (Spain and Portugal) is washed by both the At-
lantic and the Mediterranean, and forms the transition to
Africa; the Balkan peninsula in the East connects with Asia
Minor and the Crimea ; the most south-eastern limb of the
continent belongs to the Black Sea. The situation of the
islands, which cover an area of 191,000 square miles (about
one-twentieth of all Europe), is one very conducive to the
progress of commerce and civilization. The most important
of them are Great Britain, Ireland, the Balearic Islands,
Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, Malta, Crete, the Ionian Islands;
Iceland, though it lies nearest to Greenland, is regarded as
belonging to Europe, because from thence it has been peo-
pled and civilized. Of the Portuguese possessions, the
Azores and Madeira are generally included in the area of
Europe. By means of a large number of navigable rivers
and canals the inland countries to a large extent partici-
pate in the advantages of the maritime situation of Europe.
Political Divisions.—Politically, Europe was in 1873 di-
vided into twenty sovereign states, of which three were em-
pires (Germany, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, and Rus-
sia), one a sultanate (Turkey, also sometimes counted among
the empires), nine kingdoms (Great Britain, Portugal, Italy,
Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark,
Greece), one grand-duchy (Luxemburg), two principalities
(Liechtenstein and Monaco), and five republics (Switzer-
land, San Marino, Andorra, France, and Spain). Four of
these states (Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino, and An-
The northern-
dorra) are so insignificant that many geographers do not
enumerate them among the sovereign states. T Luxemburg
has the same ruler as the Netherlands, and Norway the same
as Sweden; but, as they have nothing else in common, they
must be counted as sovereign states. Germany and Swit-
zerland are federal states, consisting, the former of twenty-
six states (three of which are free cities), and the latter of
twenty-two cantons, which have ceded part of their sov-
ereignty to the central power of the federal state, but re-
served to themselves the sovereignty in all points not ex-
pressly ceded. A large majority of the European states
are monarchies, but only. Turkey is a despotism. Since
1848 absolutism has steadily been losing ground, and in
nearly every European country the sovereign shares the
legislative function with a representative body, which in
some is elected by universal suffrage. In one monarchy
(Norway) the king has only a suspensive veto. Republican
tendencies are at work in nearly every monarchy of Eu-
rope; and as they have been successful in France in 1848,
and again in 1870, and in Spain in 1873, they are expected
to extend ere long the territory of republicanism at the ex-
pense of monarchical institutions.
The following table exhibits the area and population of
each sovereign country of Europe at the beginning of 1873:
Countries. Sq. Miles. Population.
German empire................................. 208,619 41,058,139
Austro-Hungarian monarchy............. 240,348 35,904,435
Principality of Liechtenstein............. 62 8,32
Republic of Switzerland..................... 15,992 2,669,147
Kingdom of Denmark (inclusive o
Faröe Islands and Iceland).............. 55,020 1,864,496
Ringdom of Sweden.......................... 170,592 4,168,525
Kingdom of Norway.......................... 122,280 1,753,000
Kingdom of the Netherlands............. 12,680 3,688,337
Grand-duchy of Luxemburg............... 999 197,504
Ringdom of Belgium......................... 11,373 5,021,336
Kingdom of Great Britain, and Ire-
land (inclusive of Heligoland, Gib-i > 121,260 31,977,377
raltar, and Malta)...........................
Republic of France........................... 204,090 36,102,821
Republic of Spain (inclusive of the
Canary º: i ( lciusive o fth 195,774 16,641,880
Ringdom of Portugal (inclusive of the
. and Madeira Isles)............... 35,812 4,360,974
Republic of Andorra......................... 149 12,000
Kingdom of Italy.............................. 114,295 26,716,809
Principality of Monaco...................... 3,6 3,127
Republic of San Marino..................... 22 7,303
Turkey in Europe (inclusive of the 133,995 10,510,000
Principality of Roumania............... (46,710) (4,500,000)
Principality of Servia..................... (16,817) (1,319,283)
Principality of Montenegro)........... (1,701) (100,000)
Russia in Europe (inclusive of Poland -
and Finland)............... .................. 2,059,226 71,195,405
Kingdom of Greece......... * * * e s e s is e º e º e s a e is a 19,353 1,457,894
Total........................................ 3,787,178 301,605,227
With regard to their size, population, and power, the
states of Europe are divided into states of the first, second,
third, and fourth class. To the first class belong Great
Britain, France, Germany, Austria, Russia, and Italy.
Their aggregate area and population is more than double
the area and population of all the remainder of Europe.
They are therefore commonly called the “great powers of
Europe.” Whenever they agree on international questions
their agreement is the law of Europe; and they frequently
hold international conferences to avert, if possible, impend-
ing wars. Nine of the European states (Great Britain,
Turkey, the Netherlands, Russia, Spain, France, Portugal,
Denmark, and Sweden) have possessions in other divisions
of the world, the aggregate area of which is nearly five
times as large as that of all Europe, while their population
(250,000,000) does not quite reach that of Europe. -
Physical Geography.—With regard to its orographic
condition, Europe may be divided into two large, unequal
portions. North-eastern Europe is a vast plain of great
uniformity, while South-western Europe is a table-land,
but frequently intersected by small plains, and therefore
presenting considerable variety. The table-land of Europe
is estimated at over two-sevenths of the entire area, while
not quite five-sevenths consists of plains. The central
table-land of Europe contains a vast triangle of mountains,
the system of the Älps forming the base, and the European
Middle Mountains furnishing the sides. The principal por-
tions of the latter are the French Middle Mountains, the
highest point of which is Mont Dore; the German Middle
Mountains, with the Riesengebirge as the highest range;
and the Carpathian Middle Mountains, which reach their
highest point in the Gerlsdorfer Spitze. The system of the
|Balkan, which traverses Turkey and Greece, and the Apen-
nines of Italy, are also connected with the Alps, while the
Pyrenees, the mountains of the Iberian and the Scandina-

1656°
EUROPE.
vian peninsulas, as well as those of the British and other
islands, are isolated masses. The character of the Eu-
ropean mountains, in comparison with those of other large
divisions of the globe, is more distinguished for a variety
of combinations than for grand developments. The moun-
tains yield, on the whole, but small amounts of the precious
metals, while, in accordance with the prevailing feature of
the physical geography of Europe, the useful metal, iron, is
found in very large quantities. - -
The hydrographic relations of Europe are characterized
by abundance and variety. Europe has no river-system of
such colossal dimensions as are found in Asia and America,
and the largest European river, the Volga, sends its water
eastward to the Caspian Sea, which Europe has in common
with Asia. On the other hand, the rivers of Europe are
more advantageously distributed than those of any other
large continent.
every country, and give to each a considerable share in its
flourishing commerce and industry. These advantages are
still further increased by the numerous canals which the
fortunate formation of the soil has allowed to be constructed
for the connection of the large rivers. The largest number
of European rivers flow into the Atlantic Ocean, which re-
ceives the Tornea in Sweden, the Neva, Duna, Niemen, and
Pregel in Russia, the Vistula, Oder, Elbe, Weser, Ems in
Germany, the Rhine and Scheldt in the Netherlands and
Belgium, the Thames and Severn in England, the Seine,
Loire, Garonne in France, the Duero, Tagus, Guadiana, and
Guadalquivir in Spain and Portugal. The Ebro in Spain, the
Rhone in France, the Arno, Tiber, Po, and Adige in Italy,
flow into the Mediterranean; the Danube, Dniester, Dnieper,
and Don into the Black Sea; the Volga into the Caspian;
and the Petchora and the Dwina into the Arctic Ocean.
In inland lakes Europe is richer than any other great di-
vision of the globe except North America. The lakes group
themselves around two centres, the Baltic Sea and the Alps.
To the former class belong the Ladoga, and Onega lakes,
the largest fresh-water lakes of Europe.
The following parts of Europe, according to the map in
Lyell’s “Principles of Geology,” consist chiefly of primitive
or transition formations: The Uralian Mountains in Russia;
nearly the whole of the Scandinavian peninsula; most of
Scotland, one-half of Ireland, the western part of Wales,
the northern counties and Devon and Cornwall in England;
a large portion of Northern and Central France; the high
ranges of the Alps; a large portion of Central Italy and of
the adjacent islands (Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily); of the
Austro-Hungarian monarchy, Bohemia, Carinthia, Styria,
parts of Hungary, and Transylvania; the eastern half of
the Balkan peninsula and the central chain of the Caucasus.
The parts principally composed of secondary formations
are—in the British Isles, the Lowlands of Scotland, the
centre of Ireland, the north-eastern, central, and most of
the southern counties of England; most of France and
Western Germany; the loftiest summits of the Pyrenees;
Southern and part of Central Italy; of the Austro-Hunga-
rian monarchy, Istria, Dalmatia, Galicia, and the eastern
districts of Transylvania; of Russia, some extensive tracts
on the Volga and Kami, and the northern declivity of the
Caucasus. The remainder of Europe—in particular most
of Russia, and Prussia, all Denmark, North-western Ger-
many and Holland, a large portion of Belgium, the northern
part of Switzerland, the basins of the Loire, Rhone, and
Garonne in France, the plains of Lombardy, Hungary,
Wallachia, and Bulgaria—is chiefly occupied by tertiary,
alluvial, and diluvial formations. Granite, gneiss, and
syenite are among the chief primary rocks of the great table-
land of Europe. Gneiss is the rock in which the Saxon,
Bohemian, and Austrian metallic mines are principally situ-
ated, while granite abounds in most of the countries where
primary formations are found. Active volcanoes at present
are only met with in Italy (Stromboli, Vesuvius, and Etna)
and Iceland, but there are traces of former volcanic activity
in France, Greece, Germany, and other countries. Of min-
eral springs Europe has an abundance and a great variety.
Europe is the only one among the great divisions of the
globe which nowhere touches the torrid zone, and only a
comparatively small portion extends about 280 miles into the
northern frigid zone. The bulk of the continent belongs to
the northern temperate zone. The climate of Europe is a
mixture of the continental and the oceanic, and is through-
out more temperate than in non-European countries of equal
latitude. In North-eastern Europe the continental climate
prevails, with its clear sky and dry air, while Southern and
South-western Europe have more an oceanic, uniform, and
mild climate, with humid air and frequent winter rains.
The extremes of temperature are—58° and 106°Fahrenheit.
In the geography of European plants four zones may be
distinguished: 1. The northern zone embraces Iceland, the
Scandinavian peninsula, north of 64°, and Russia, north of
62°. The vegetation of this zone is poor. Lichens and
3.
They penetrate every part of it, fertilize.
mosses are frequent; the only species of grain to be found
are oats, rye, and barley, the two former only along the
southern margin of the zone, but barley up to 70°. The
forests consist of birches and firs, but they are crippled N.
of 64°. 2. The northern middle zone, extending south-
ward to 51° and 48°, comprises the British Isles, Den-
mark, Southern Scandinavia, Finland, Central Russia,
Northern France, Belgium and the Netherlands, Northern
Germany and Italy. Besides the species of grain found
in the northern zone, wheat is also found. Buckwheat,
potatoes, leguminous plants, hemp, flax, and many kinds
of northern fruit, as apples, pears, cherries, etc., are exten-
sively cultivated. The beech and the oak prevail in the
forests. 3. The Southern middle zone extends southward
to the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Balkan. Southern
France, Switzerland, Southern Germany and Lombardy,
the Carpathian countries, the larger portion of Turkey and
Southern Russia, belong to this zone. The mountains have
forests of pine trees; the plains, oaks, beeches, and chest-
nut. Wheat and wine are extensively grown. 4. The
Southern or evergreen zone, embracing the three southern
peninsulas and the southern coast of France. The vegeta-
tion of, this zone is luxurious; it is noted.for its olives and
evergreen woods and its fiery wines. The orange flourishes
in the southern portion of it, and rice is cultivated in North-
ern Italy and Eastern Spain.
The character of the European fauna fully corresponds to
the physiognomy of the continent. Vast formations are wholly
wanting. The class of rapacious animals has its largest
representatives in the wolf, lynx, and bear. The number of
reptiles is small. On the other hand, the domestic animals
are more largely extended and more improved in Europe
than in any other country of the world. Peculiar to the
north of Europe is the reindeer. The birds are inferior to
those of other divisions in their size and brilliancy of color,
but are noted for the sweetness of their voices and their
melodious songs. Northern Europe has a larger number
of species of animals, but the south has a larger number
of individuals. The northern seas, lakes, and rivers have
a larger abundance of fish than those of the south.
Population, Races of People, Language, and Religion.—
The entire population of Europe at the beginning of the
year 1873 amounted to 300,800,000. The vast majority
of the inhabitants belong to the Caucasian race; only about
one-nineteenth are Mongolians. The Caucasian race com-
prises in Europe three large groups, which conjointly con-
stitute the bulk of the population, and several fragments
of nations which, in former times widely extended, are now
reduced to small limits. The three large groups are the
Germanic, the Greco-Romanic, and the Slavic. The Ger–
manic is subdivided into the Germans proper, inclusive of
the Dutch, Frisians, and Flemish (about 56,500,000), the
Scandinavians (8,000,000), and the Anglo-Saxons or Eng-
lish (about 29,500,000), in all, 94,000,000, or 31.2 per cent.
of the population of Europe. The whole of Germany, Hol-
land, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Great Britain is occupied
by the Germanic race, which also prevails, as to influence,
in the western half of Austria and the Baltic Provinces
of Russia ; as regards number, in Belgium; and as regards
both influence and number, in Switzerland. The Greco-
Romanic group occupies the south and the south-west of
Europe. The chief nationalities belonging to it are the
French, 41,260,000; Italian, 27,620,000; Spanish and Por-
tuguese, 16,320,000; Daco-Rumanian and Macedo-Walla-
chian, 8,100,000; Greek, 2,450,000; and Albanians, 1,440,000;
in all, 97,200,000, or 32.3 per cent. of the entire population.
It controls the destinies of France, Spain, Portugal, Italy,
seven cantons of Switzerland, Greece, and Rumania; it
predominates in several provinces of European Turkey,
Southern Hungary, and Transylvania; and its influence
prevails in Belgium, though it does not form the majority
of its population. The Slavic group, though in numbers
somewhat inferior to the Germanic and Greco-Romanic,
and containing only 27.3 per cent. of the aggregate popu-
lation of Europe, occupies fully three-fifths of its area. . Its
chief branches are the Russians and Ruthenians, 54,530,000;
the Poles, 9,420,000; the Czechs and Wends, 6,900,000; the
Servians, Croatians, and Sloventzi, 7,200,000; the Bulga-
rians, 4,080,000. It rules in only one large sovereign coun-
try, Russia; to which may be added the principality of
Montenegro and the semi-independent principality of Ser-
via; but both in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy and in
European Turkey it constitutes a plurality of the popula-
tion, and even in the formerly Polish districts of Prussia it
constitutes a compact population of over 2,000,000. Be-
sides these three large groups, the Caucasian race also em-
braces the remnants of the Celts, Lithuanians, and Iberians
or Basques. The Celts, who at one time ruled in Northern
Italy, France, and the British Isles, now only linger in
French Bretagne, in Wales, Ireland, and High Scotland,
In France their language is still spoken by a population of
EUROPE.
1657
1,100,000, and in the British Isles by about 2,300,000. The
Lithuanians, embracing the Lithuanians proper, the Letts,
and the Prussians, live on the Baltic Sea, and number
2,900,000, while the Basques, the descendants of the ab-
original inhabitants of Spain, live in the Western Pyrenees,
and have been reduced to about 1,000,000. To the Se-
mitic race belong about 5,000,000 Israelites, who are scat-
tered throughout Europe. There are also a few hundred
thousand Gypsies. A branch of the Mongolian race, the
Finns, which was formerly spread over a vast area, includes
the Finns proper, the Esthonians and Livonians, the Lapps,
the Samoyedes, and other tribes on the Arctic Ocean, and,
as far as the language is concerned, also the Magyars, who
by some ethnographic writers are classed as a branch of the
Mongolians different from the Finns. These Finnish tribes
number in all about 10,000,000. Whether the Turks be-
long to the Mongolian or to the Caucasian race is still a
matter of dispute, though most writers regard them as Mon-
golians, and explain the Caucasian features which have been
observed by their mixture with the Caucasian tribes living
near and among them. The Calmucks of Russia are an-
other Mongolian tribe. -
Religion.—The entire population of Europe, with the
exception of 5,000,000 Jews, 6,800,000 Mohammedans, and
500,000 Pagans in Russia and Turkey, belongs to Chris-
tianity, which by doctrinal differences is split into three
main divisions—the Roman Catholic, the Orthodox Greek,
and the Protestant churches. By far the largest population
belongs to the Roman Catholic Church, to which the over-
whelming majority of the Greco-Romanic nations also ad-
heres, as well as nearly one-half of the Germanic; the Poles,
Czechs, Croatians, Slovacks, Ruthenians, among the Slavi;
the majority of the Magyars, the Lithuanians, the Celts of
Ireland and France, and the Basques. It comprises more
than 98 per cent. of the population in Spain, Portugal,
Italy, Belgium, Luxemburg, and France; 92 per cent. in
Cisleithan and 59 in Transleithan Austria; from 40 to 36
per cent. in Switzerland, the Netherlands, and Germany; 17%
per cent. in Great Britain and Ireland; and less than 10
per cent. in every other country of Europe. The aggregate
population connected with it was estimated in 1872 at
147,700,000, or over 49 per cent. of the population of Eu-
rope. The Orthodox Greek Church (with a population of
69,200,000, or 23 per cent. of all Europeans) embraces the
large majority of all the Slavic tribes and the Greeks and
Rumanians of the Greco-Romanic. It constitutes about 99
per cent. in Servia, 97 in Greece, 95 in Rumania, 85 in Rus-
sia, 48 in Turkey, and 17 per cent. in Transleithan Austria.
Protestantism, which is subdivided into a number of re-
ligious denominations, has its stronghold in the Germanic
countries, where more than one-half of the entire popula-
tion belongs to it. Sweden, Norway, and Denmark are
almost entirely Protestant (over 99 per cent. of the total
population); in Great Britain and Ireland the Protestant N
population is estimated at 83 per cent., in Germany at 62,
in the Netherlands at 61, in Switzerland at 59. Outside
of the Germanic world Protestantism also prevails in the
grand duchy of Finland (97.7 per cent.), among the Letts
in the Baltic Provinces of Russia, and among the Celts of
Wales and Scotland.
Bistory.—The authentic history of the European states
begins with the tribes of Greece, which also occupied the
coast of Asia Minor, and which, after founding a number
of flourishing commonwealths in the territory of the modern
kingdom of Greece and the southern part of modern Tur-
key, vied with the Phoenicians in establishing flourishing
colonies on the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Black
Sea. But they never succeeded in founding a powerful
state, which, for the first time in Europe, was done in
the fourth century B. C. by Alexander the Great, whose
achievements were, however, of comparatively little in-
fluence on the destinies of Europe, as they mostly con-
cerned Asia, and as his world-empire collapsed at his pre-
mature death. Of more lasting influence was the rise of
the Roman republic, which in Europe annexed not only the
whole of Italy, but Greece, Gaul, Spain, and portions of
Germany, Britain, and Eastern Europe, and which, by con-
solidating a large portion of Europe under one rule, con-
tributed considerably to the rapid spread of the Christian
religion. (See the Map of Europe under the Romans.)
Under the emperors the vast extent of the state was not
only preserved, but even enlarged; but with the increase
of territory also increased the corruption of the masses
and the weakness of the government, which at the close
of the fourth century of the Christian era found itself no
longer able to resist the onset and invasion of the vigor-
ous but barbarian tribes of Germans and Mongolians. In
476 the Western Roman empire succumbed to the attack of
the German prince Odoacer, and was shattered to pieces,
many of which, in Italy, Spain, Gaul, and Britain, were re-
constructed as Germanic kingdoms. Under the Merovin-
pression in the Crusades.
gians the kingdom of the Franks became the predominant
power in Central Europe, and under Charlemagne the in-
corporation with it of nearly the whole of modern Germany
made-it the great Christian empire of the globe, whose
rulers on that account appeared to be well entitled to the re-
vived title of Roman emperor. (See the Map of Europe
under the Carlovingians.) About the same time the union
of the smaller divisions of Britain laid the foundation of the
kingdom of England, and in North-eastern Europe the first
Slavic states were organized. The empire of Charlemagne
was divided by his grandsons into France, Germany, and
Italy, and though for short intervals the whole empire was
reunited in one hand, these divisions, to which for several
centuries a kingdom of Burgundy was added as the fourth,
became permanent. In Spain, where the Mohammedans
had established on the ruins of the Christian kingdoms of
the Germanic tribes the powerful and flourishing califate
of Córdova, the Christians, who at the time of Charlemagne .
only maintained themselves with difficulty in the north-
western kingdom of Asturias, gradually gained ground in
the tenth and eleventh centuries, and at the time of the
Hohenstaufens, in the twelfth century, had reconquered
more than one-half of the Peninsula and reconstructed it
into several Christian kingdoms. In Eastern Europe the
Slavi organized the large Christian empires of Poland and
Russia in North-eastern, and the smaller states of Servia
and Bulgaria in South-eastern, Europe, and even the large
kingdom founded by the Mongolian tribe of Magyars be-
came Christianized. While thus the division of Europe
into independent states became perpetuated, the Christian
religion became a powerful bond of union, notwithstanding
'the split into the Eastern (or Greek) and the Western (or
Roman) Catholic churches. The theocratic supremacy
which several great popes like Gregory VII. and Innocent
III. succeeded in establishing over all the states belonging
to the Roman Catholic Church, created the consciousness
of a community of interests, which found its strongest ex-
In Eastern Europe the Eastern
Roman or Byzantine empire, which ever since the division
of the Roman empire into an eastern and a western half,
had gradually been declining in extent and influence, was
shaken to its foundation by the invasion of the Turks, who
finally (in 1453) conquered Constantinople and established a
Mohammedan despotism. On the other hand, the Moham-
medans constantly lost ground in the Pyrenean peninsula,
until at the close of the fifteenth century their last strong-
hold was conquered. At the same time Russia succeeded
in throwing off the yoke of the Mongolians, in driving them
back to Asia, and in building up a powerful Christian em-
pire in the east of Europe. Thus the whole of Europe, with
the single exception of the Balkan peninsula, which had
fallen under Mohammedan rule, was occupied by Christian
nations, which during this period, by circumnavigating
Africa, by gaining a firm footing in Southern Asia, and by
discovering and conquering America, greatly extended the
influence of European civilization and of the Christian
religion over the other great divisions of the globe. The
religious Reformation of the sixteenth century added an-
other to the two large divisions which had existed in the
Christian Church since the ninth century. England, the
Scandinavian kingdoms, the Netherlands, and a number
of the German states and Swiss cantons seceded from the
Roman Catholic Church, and established new forms of
religious organization. Several wars, among which the
Thirty Years' war (1618–48) was the most terrible, sprang
from this ecclesiastical separation; but the revolt against
the spiritual authority, which demanded from all minds
(and enforced as much as it could) absolute submission to
its decrees, and the emulation between the states embracing
the new form of religion and those adhering to the old
Church, gave a powerful impulse to the progress of civil-
ization, literature, and art, and in particular to free politi-
cal institutions.
The two most powerful princes of Christendom, the em-
peror of Germany (who was at the same time king of
Spain) and the king of France, both repelled the Ref-
ormation and remained in connection with the Church of
Rome; and when the power of the former became more
and more neutralized by the growing independence of the
princes, one-half of whom were Protestants, the emperors
of Austria—who since 1526 had united the lands of the
Hungarian crown with their own dominions, and who, with
only one short interval, remained German emperors until
the dissolution of the empire in 1806—became the steadfast
and influential patrons of the interests of the Catholic
Church. But the union of Scotland with England estab-
lished at the beginning of the sixteenth century the first
Protestant great power of Europe, and the kingdom of
Prussia, which was founded in 1701, fully established by
the Seven Years' war (1756–63) its claim to be regarded
as the second. The same rank could now no longer be re-
1658
EUROTAS–EUSEBIUS PAMPHILI.
fused to Russia, which had snatched from Sweden its pos-
sessions on the Baltic Sea, and extended its rule far into
Asia. Another large country of Eastern Europe, Poland,
which under more favorable circumstances might likewise
have become one of the great powers of Europe, was at the
close of the eighteenth century dismembered and divided
between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, after its vitality had
long been fully exhausted by chronic anarchy. The as-
cendency of France, Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and
Russia, as the five great powers of Europe, was thus fully
established when the French Revolution of 1789, and still
more the empire of the first Napoleon, which arose out of
its ashes, shook the whole system of European states to its
foundation. The subjection, direct or indirect, of Spain,
Portugal, Italy, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and a large
portion of Germany to the rule of Napoleon (see the Map
of Europe under Napoleon I.) appeared to usher in a new
world-empire; but his downfall in 1814 and 1815 re-
stored, on the whole, the frontiers of the European states
as they existed before the Revolution. The five great
powers reassumed their former ascendency, and at the Con-
gress of Vienna (1816), arranged anew the map of Europe.
This arrangement suffered during the next fifty years but
few changes, the most important of which was the estab-
lishment of the new kingdoms of Greece (1821) and Bel-
gium (1830). In 1848 a new revolution made France again
a republic, and called forth in Germany, Austria, and Italy
a powerful agitation for a radical reconstruction of these
countries. The French republic soon gave way to the em-
pire of Napoleon III., who believed it in his interest to en-
courage the aspirations of the suppressed and dismembered
nationalities for a reconstruction of their national unity.
The struggles and conflicts arising out of the nationality
question are one of the prominent features of the history of
Europe since 1851. (The great conflicts which are described
in the following lines are illustrated by the Map of the
Languages of Europe.) The first great success was won by
the Italians, who by the Congress of Vienna had been placed
under nine different governments, and who at once organ-
ized a movement for the establishment of a united Italy.
Until 1848 the Austrian bayonets kept this movement at
bay; a temporary success in 1848 ended simultaneously
with the downfall of the French republic; but in 1859 the
king of Sardinia, who had made himself the banner-bearer
of the union party, snatched, with the aid of France, Lom-
bardy from Austria, and annexed the duchies of Central
Italy and two-thirds of the Papal territory, to which in the
next year the kingdom of the Two Sicilies was added.
The new kingdom of Italy in 1866 joined Prussia in her
war against Austria, and received as a reward the kingdom
of Venetia. Thus the bulk of the Italian nationality be—
came one state, to which in 1870 the remainder of the Papal
territory was added as soon as the French patronage ceased,
and which is now generally recognized as one of the grea
powers of Europe. cº
The agitation of the German people for the reconstruction
of a united Germany was chiefly retarded by the rivalry of
Austria, and Prussia, which in 1866 led to a short but most
decisive war between these two countries; in consequence
of which Austria had to surrender the leadership in German
affairs to Prussia, which organized the North German Con-
federation, and annexed Hanover, Hesse, Nassau, and Frank-
fort to its own dominions. The real question at issue in the
memorable war of 1870 between France and Germany was
whether Germany was strong enough to effect, or France
strong enough to prevent, the progress of Germany to a
complete reconstruction of the German empire. The over-
whelming success of the Germans, which crushed Napoleon,
reannexed the lost Reichsland, Elsass-Lothringen, and re-
established their empire, was the second grand triumph of
the nationality principle. In other parts of Europe many
of the nationalities which are subject to foreign rule are
still struggling to establish their independence. The Poles
are undismayed by their want of success during the last
century, and while they are unable to make headway in
Prussia, and Russia, they have obtained considerable con-
cessions to their nationality from the weak government of
Austria. The Czechs of Bohemia and Moravia, the Slo-
vacks of South-western Austria, the Croatians and Servians
in Southern Austria, and North-western Turkey, the Ruma-
nians in South-eastern Austria, and North-eastern Tur-
key, the Bulgarians in Turkey, are all dreaming of achiev-
ing the establishment of either independent kingdoms of
their own nationalities, or at least a separate administration
of their affairs on a strictly national basis. The final issue
of these national aspirations will decide the ultimate fate
of Austria, and Turkey. A large portion of the Germans of
Austria, are looking forward to a reunion with Germany,
and among the Slavic tribes of Austria and Turkey the
Panslavic movement, which aims at a close confederation
of all the Slavic countries under the protectorate of Russia,
*
is gaining strength to an alarming extent. Turkey, in par-
ticular, is threatened by the increasing power of the Slavi.
It was only the intervention of England and France which,
in the Crimean war, prevented Russia from solving the East-
ern question according to her own plans; but the early
downfall of the Turkish rule is regarded as inevitable by
nearly all prominent European statesmen. While the at-
tention of Eastern Europe is almost wholly absorbed by
the nationality question, Western Europe is considerably
agitated by the struggle between the republican and mo-
narchical forms of government. The crushing defeat of
Louis Napoleon, as was to be expected, was followed by a
revolution in Paris and the proclamation of the republic,
which successfully suppressed a civil war begun by the
Paris Commune, and which under the administration of
Thiers maintained itself for two years, until in May, 1873,
the majority of the National Assembly accepted the resig-
nation of Thiers and elected as president Marshal Mc-
Mahon, who was expected to co-operate with the majority
of the National Assembly in restoring a monarchical rule.
In Feb., 1873, the example of France was imitated by
Spain, where, after the voluntary abdication of King
Amadeus, the majority of the Cortes proclaimed the re-
public. At the first election of a Constituent Assembly
in May, 1873, an overwhelming majority of the electoral
districts chose deputies favorable to the establishment of
a federal republic. Different from the republicans as a
party is the Internationale, a socialistic organization founded
in 1867, which aims nqt only at overthrowing all the mon-
archies of Europe, but also at destroying the Christian
religion, and at a radical change of the present relation
between labor and capital. The Internationale already has
its representatives in most of the legislative assemblies
of Europe, and constitutes an element in European society
which can no longer be overlooked. In addition to these
conflicts of nationalities, forms of government, and sys-
tems of society, the relation between Church and State
occupies a large share of the attention of every European
legislature. The system of state-churchism, which at the be-
ginning of the century existed in every European state, has
been greatly modified. The state governments are loosening
their hold of the government of the churches, and conced-
ing to them a higher degree of self-control; and even the
principle of a complete separation of Church and State
has made considerable progress. The proclamation of
papal infallibility by the Vatican Council in 1870 has
added new fuel to the conflicts already existing between
the Roman Catholic Church and a number of state govern-
ments. (See HoFFMANN, “Europa und seine Bewohner,”
1835–40, 8 vols.; ScHUBERT, “Handbuch der allgemeinen
Staatskunde von Europa,” 1835–48, 7 vols.; BRACHELLI,
“Die Staaten Europa’s,” 2d ed. 1864.)
º A. J. Schl:M.
Euroſtas [Gr. Eòptótas], the ancient name of a river of
Greece (in Laconia), now called Vasilee or Vasiliko. The
city of Sparta was situated on this river, which flows through
beautiful scenery into the Gulf of Kolokythia (anc. Lacon-
teus Sinus).
Euryd/ice [Gr. Epw8tkm], the wife of Orpheus, died in
consequence of the sting of a serpent. According to the
poetic legend, Orpheus descended to the infernal regions,
and persuaded Pluto to restore her to him on condition
that she should walk behind Orpheus, and that he should
not look back until they had reached the upper world. But
he was tempted to look back, and finally lost her. (See
VIRGIL, “Georgics,” book iv. 454.) -
Eusebius, bishop of Emesa, was born near Edessa
about 300 A. D. He declined the bishopric of Alexandria,
which was offered to him when Athanasius was deposed in
the year 341, but he afterwards accepted that of Emesa.
He appears to have held the principles called Semi-Arian,
and to have been distinguished for his moderation and
aversion to controversy. He died at Antioch in 360 A.D.,
leaving many eloquent homilies, some of which are extant.
Euse/bius [Gr. Eborégios] of NICOMEDIA, an ambitious
Arian prelate, was a member of the Council of Nice in
325 A. D., having previously become bishop of Nicomedia.
He was banished because he defended Arius in this council,
but was soon restored to his bishopric, and gained great in-
fluence at court. After the death of Arius, Eusebius was
the head of the Arian party, who were often called Euse-
bians. In 339 A. D. he became patriarch of Constanti-
nople. Died in 342 A. D.
Euse/bius Pam'phili, bishop of Caesarea, an emi-
ment theologian and writer of ecclesiastical history, was
born in Palestine about 265 A. D. e assumed the sur-
name PAMPHILI in honor of his friend Pamphilus the
martyr. He became bishop of Caesarea in 314 or 315.
A. D., and took a prominent part in the Council of Nice
EUSTACHIAN TUBE–EVANGELICAL AILIANCE.
1659
(325 A.D.). The emperor Constantine the Great, who
was his friend, selected him to open this council by an
oration. Eusebius was inclined to moderation and peace,
used his influence to reinstate Arius, and was a leader of
the Semi-Arians. He was one of the bishops who censured
Athanasius at the Council of Tyre (334). He was very
eminent for learning, as well as for talents. He wrote in
Greek, besides several works that are lost, an “Ecclesiasti-
cal History from the Christian Era to 324 A. D.,” which is
of great value, a “Life of Constantine the Great,” “Gos-
pel Preparation” (“Praeparatio Evangelica”), a “Univer-
sal History or Chronicle,” and a work “On the Proof or
Demonstration of the Gospel” (“De Demonstratione Evan-
gelica ’). Died about 340 A. D. Complete editions of his
works have been published by Migne in his Patrologia
Graeca (6 vols., 1856–57), and by Dindorf (1865, seq.). A
new critical edition of his historical works has been pub-
lished by Heinichen (1868, seq.). (See BAUR, “Die Epo-
chen der Kirchlichen Geschichtschreibung,” 1852.)
Eusta'chian Tube [named in honor of Eustachius,
its discoverer], in anatomy, a canal leading from the mid-
dle ear to the pharynx. In man the Eustachian tube is
nearly two inches long. Beginning at the ear, its first half
inch is formed by a passage in the temporal bone, between
the petrous and the squamous portions. The fishes have
no true Eustachian tube, though some of them have a homol-
ogous passage from the ear-to the air-bladder; but it exists
in the true reptiles, in birds, and in mammals. Its use is
probably to enable the hearer unconsciously to increase, or
diminish the tension of the air within the tympanum, and
thus to increase or decrease the sensitiveness to sounds.
Closure of the tube impairs the hearing. This organ is
sometimes the seat of disease, which may be reached by
the catheter, the syringe, and other instruments. Its sur-
gical treatment requires great skill. -
Eusta'chius [It. Eustachio or Eustachi), (BARTHOLO-
MAEUs), an eminent Italian anatomist, born at San Severino
in the March of Ancona, studied medicine in Rome. The
events of his life are mostly unknown. He was a professor
in the College della Sapienza, Rome, 1562. He made im-
portant discoveries in anatomy, among which was the Eu-
stachian tube, and was the first anatomist who illustrated
his works with good engravings on copper. His anatomi-
cal plates were engraved in 1552, but were lost for a long
time, and were not published until 1714. He wrote a work
“On the Controversies of Anatomists” (“De Anatomicorum
Controversiis”), which is not extant. He published “Opus-
cula Anatomica” (1563). He died in poverty in 1574. (See
G. C. GENTIL1, “Elogio di B. Eustachio,” 1837.)
Eusta'thius, one of the Church Fathers of the fourth
century, is well known on account of his firm adherence to
the canons of Nicaea. He was banished in 331 because he
would not associate with some anti-Nicaeans who had been
recalled from exile, and Meletius, then bishop of Sebaste,
was appointed in his place. But his adherents did not
recognize Meletius, and formed the separate party of the
Eustathians. Died about 360.
Eustathius, a monk in Pontus, and after 355 bishop
of Sebaste in Armenia, introduced monachism into Pontus.
He went so far in his ideas of asceticism as to be condemned
by the synod of Gangra in Paphlagonia, because he com-
pletely rejected marriage. His followers (the Eustathians)
rejected holy ceremonies if performed by married priests,
persuaded women to leave their husbands, and are said to
have fasted on the Sabbath, which was condemned as heret-
ical.
, Eustathius, a celebrated Greek commentator on Homer,
was first deacon and then teacher of rhetoric in Constanti-
nople, and after 1155 archbishop of Thessalonica, where he
died in 1198. His chief work, a commentary on Homer
(7 vols., Rome, 1542–50; 3 vols., Bâle, 1559–60; 4 vols.,
Leipzie, 1825–30), is considered a rich source of philological
learning. Of his commentary on the odes of Pindar only
the Proemium has been preserved.
Eus’tis (ABRAHAM), born at Boston, Mass., Mar. 28,
1786, graduated at Harvard in 1804, was called to the bar
in 1807, entered the army as captain of artillery in 1808,
served with distinction in the war of 1812–15, received in
1834 a brevet of brigadier-general, and in the same year
became colonel of the First Artillery. Died June 27, 1843.
Eustis (GEORGE), LL.D., born at Boston, Mass., Oct. 20,
1796, graduated at Harvard in 1815, was private secretary
to his uncle, Gov. William Eustis, when the latter was min-
ister at The Hague, removed to New Orleans in 1817, ad-
mitted to the bar in 1822, where he took a prominent part
in public affairs, and was for some years chief-justice of the
State supreme court. He was profoundly versed in the civil
law. Died Dec. 23, 1858.
Eustis (HENRY L.AwRENCE), an American officer and
and mutual recognition.
engineer, born Feb. 1, 1819, at Fort Independence, Mass.,
studied at Harvard, and graduated at West Point in 1842,
served as lieutenant of engineers in the construction of for-
tifications, etc., and assistant professor at the Military Acad-
emy till he resigned (Nov.30, 1849), to become professor of
engineering in Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard Uni-
versity, Mass. In the civil war he was colonel of the
Tenth Massachusetts Volunteers, serving at Williamsport,
Fredericksburg, Marye Heights, Salem, Gettysburg, Rap-
pahannock Station, Mine Run, Wilderness, Spottsylvania,
Cold Harbor, and many minor actions; and became briga-
dier-general of volunteers in 1863, but resigned June 27,
1864, to resume his professorship at Cambridge, Mass.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Eustis (WILLIAM), L.L.D., a physician, born in Cam-
bridge, Mass., June 10, 1753. He served as a surgeon in the
war of Independence, after which he practised medicine in
Boston, and was a member of Congress (1800–05 and 1820–
23). He was secretary of war from 1809 to 1812, and was
sent as minister to Holland in 1814. In 1823 he was elected
governor of Massachusetts. Died Feb. 6, 1825.
Eu'taw, a township and post-village, capital of Greene
co., Ala., on the Alabama and Chattanooga R. R., 35 miles
S. W. of Tuscaloosa. It has three churches, two semina-
ries, and one weekly newspaper. Pop. of township, 1920.
W. O. Monroe, Ed. “WHIG AND OBSERVER.”
Eu'taw Springs, Battle of, was fought in South
Carolina, about 60 miles N.W. of Charleston, Sept. 8, 1781.
Gen. Greene, having about 2000 men, attacked a British
force under Col. Stuart, who was compelled to retreat, and
lost about 630, including prisoners. Gen. Greene lost 535,
killed, wounded, and missing.
Eutro/pius, or Flavius Eutropius, a Latin his-
torian who flourished about 350–375 A. D. The events
of his life are mostly unknown, except that he was secre-
tary to the emperor Julian, and accompanied him in his
expedition against the Parthians. He wrote an “Ipit-
ome of Roman History" from the foundation of Rome to
the time of Valens (“Breviarium Rerum Romanarum”),
which became very popular, and has been extensively used
as a school-book in modern times. His Latinity is pure
and his style simple.
Eu’tyches [Gr. Eòrjyms], the founder of the heretical
sect of Eutychians, was superior of a monastery near Con-
stantinople. He was a zealous opponent of the doctrines
of the Nestorians, and was charged with teaching that there
is in Christ only one nature—that is, the divine. He was
condemned by the Council of Constantinople in 448 A.D.,
but this decision was reversed by the Council of Ephesus
in 449. This triumph was obtained by the violent and dis-
orderly acts of the soldiery and monks. The doctrines of
Eutyches were again condemned as heretigal by the general
Council of Chalcedon in 451 A. D. He was then above
seventy years of age. The Eutychians were often called
Monophysites. (See MONOPHYSITEs and JACOBITEs.)
Euxine Sea. See BLACK SEA.
Evagºoras [Gr. Eſſayópas], king of Salamis in Cyprus,
was descended from Teucer, a famous hero. He began to
reign in 410. B. C., and as an ally of the Athenians and
Egyptians waged a long war against the king of Persia,
who invaded Cyprus. He was assassinated in 374 B. C.,
and was succeeded by his son Nicocles. *
Eva'grius, a Church historian, born about 536, was
at first a lawyer, and defended the patriarch Gregory of
Antioch so well that he was appointed city prefect by the
emperor Mauricius. He continued the Church histories
of Socrates and Theodoret in six books from 431–594. His
Church history is compiled with great care and impartial-
ity. The best edition was published by Reading (Cam-
bridge, 1720). - -
Evangelical Alliance. This is a voluntary associ-
ation of evangelical Christians from different churches and
countries for the purpose of promoting religious liberty,
Christian union, and co-operation in every good work. It
owes its origin to a widespread and growing desire for a
closer union among Protestants, both for its own sake and
for a more successful conflict with infidelity on the one
hand and superstition on the other. Its object is not to
create a union, but to acknowledge, exhibit, and strengthen
that spiritual union which has always existed among true
Christians as members of Christ's body, but which is sadly
marred and obstructed by the many divisions and rivalries
of Protestant denominations and sects. It aims not at an
organic union, nor at a confederation of churches as such,
but simply at a free Christian union of individual members
from different churches who hold essentially the same
faith; although such a union will naturally tend to bring
gradually the churches themselves into closer fellowship
It claims no official and legis-
1660.
EVANGELICAL AILIANCE.
lative authority that might in any way interfere with the
internal affairs of the denominational organizations or the
loyalty of its members to their particular communion. It
relies solely on the moral power of truth and love. After
a number of preparatory meetings and conferences, the
Alliance was founded in a remarkable and enthusiastic
meeting held in Freemasons' Hall in London Aug. 19–23,
1846, composed of some eight hundred Christians—Epis-
copalians, Presbyterians, Independents, Methodists, Bap-
tists, Lutherans, Reformed, Moravians, and others, and
including many of the most distinguished divines, preach-
ers, and philanthropists from England, Scotland, Ireland,
Germany, France, Switzerland, the U. S., and other coun-
tries. Sir Culling Eardly, Bart., presided and became the
first president of the British branch. Eloquent addresses
were delivered, fervent prayers offered, and nine doctrinal
articles adopted; not, however, as a binding creed or confes-
sion, but simply as an expression of the essential consen-
sus of evangelical Christians whom it seemed desirable to
embrace in the Alliance. These articles are as follows:
“1. The divine inspiration, authority, and sufficiency of
the Holy Scriptures. r -
“2. The right and duty of private judgment in the in-
terpretation of the Holy Scriptures.
“3. The Unity of the Godhead, and the Trinity of the
Persons therein.
“4. The utter depravity of human nature in consequence
of the Fall. -
“5. The incarnation of the Son of God, his work of
atonement for the sins of mankind, and his mediatorial in-
tercession and reign.
“6. The justification of the sinner by faith alone.
“7. The work of the Holy Spirit in the ‘conversion and
sanctification of the sinner. -
“8. The immortality of the soul, the resurrection of the
body, the judgment of the world by our Lord Jesús Christ,
with the eternal blessedness of the righteous and the eternal
punishment of the wicked.
“9. The divine institution of the Christian ministry,
and the obligation and perpetuity of the ordinances of
Baptism and the Lord's Supper.”
Some regard this doctrinal statement as too liberal, others
as too marrow (especially on account of Art. 9, which ex-
cludes the Quakers, and Art. 8, which excludes the Uni-
versalists), while still others would have preferred no creed,
or only the Apostles' Creed, the simplest and most gene-
rally accepted of all creeds. Nevertheless, it has answered
a good purpose, and maintained the positive evangelical
character of the Alliance. The American branch, at its
organization (1867), adopted the nine London articles,
with the following important explanatory and qualifying
preamble:
“Resolved, That in forming an Evangelical Alliance for
the U. S. in co-operative union with other branches of the
Alliance, we have no intention to give rise to a new de-
nomination; or to effect an amalgamation of churches, ex-
cept in the way of facilitating personal Christian inter-
course and a mutual good understanding; or to interfere
in any way whatever with the internal affairs of the vari-
ous denominations; but simply to bring individual Chris-
tians into closer fellowship and co-operation, on the basis
of the spiritual union which already exists in the vital
relation of Christ to the members of his body in all ages
and countries.
“Resolved, That in the same spirit we propose no new
creed; but, taking broad, historical, and evangelical cath-
olic ground, we solemnly reaffirm and profess our faith in
all the doctrines of the inspired word of God, and in the
consensus of doctrines as held by all true Christians from
the beginning. And we do more especially affirm our be-
lief in the divine-hwman person and atoning work of our
Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, as the only and sufficient
source of salvation, as the heart and soul of Christianity,
and as the centre of all true Christian union and fellow-
ship.
*owed, That, with this explanation, and in the spirit
of a just Christian liberality in regard to the minor differ-
ences of theological schools and religious denominations,
we also adopt, as a summary of the consensus of the vari-
ous Evangelical Confessions of Faith, the Articles and
Explanatory Statement set forth and agreed on by the
Evangelical Alliance at its formation in London, 1846, and
approved by the separate European organizations; which
articles are as follows,” etc. -
The Evangelical Alliance thus auspiciously organized
soon spread throughout the Protestant world. Branch
Alliances were formed in Great Britain, Germany, France,
Switzerland, Sweden, and even among the missionaries in
Turkey and East India; quite recently also in Australia,
in Brazil, and among the Protestant missionaries in Japan
(Dec., 1873). There is no central organization with any
controlling authority, and the General Alliance appears in
active operation only from time to time when it meets in
general conference, which has assumed the character of a
Protestant Oecumenical council, but differs from the oecu-
menical councils of the Greek and Roman churches in
claiming only moral and spiritual power. The various
national branches are related to each other as members of
a confederation with equal rights. The British branch, .
being the oldest and largest, and having the most complete
organization, with a house (in London, No. 7 Adam street,
Strand) and regular officers who devote their whole time to
it, has been heretofore the most influential; the continental
branches are more elastic, and confine themselves to occa-
sional work; the American branch, which was organized
at the Bible House, New York, in 1867 (a previous attempt
having failed on account of the anti-slavery agitation be-
fore the civil war), has in a short time become the most
vigorous and popular; for in the U. S., where all Chris-
tian sects are represented on a basis of equality before the
law, there is also the greatest appreciation of religious
freedom, the strongest desire for Christian union and co-
operation, and the widest field for the realization of the
idea of a universal Christian brotherhood on the basis of a
free development of denominational peculiarities in dogma,
discipline, and worship. We now give a brief summary
of the history and results of the Alliance.
1. As regards the promotion and defence of religious
liberty wherever assailed. The Alliance assumed from
the beginning that freedom of conscience and Christian
union, far from being inconsistent with each other, are one
and inseparable; that freedom is the basis of union, and
union the result and support of freedom; that a union
without freedom is only a dead mechanical uniformity;
that true union implies variety and distinction, and a full
recognition of the rights and peculiar gifts and mission of
other members and branches of Christ's kingdom. The
Roman Church maintains union at the expense of freedom,
and, while advocating liberty of conscience for herself, de-
nies it to all others in principle, and, where she has the
power, in practice also. Since the formation of the Alli-
ance many cases of persecution more or less severe have
occurred, especially in Southern Europe, under the ope-
ration of penal laws against religious dissenters; and the
united efforts of the different branches of the Alliance,
through the press and by deputations, have had a consid-
erable moral influence in bringing about those remarkable
changes in favor of religious liberty which have taken
place among the Latin races and in Turkey within the last
twenty years. The Alliance has successfully exerted its
influence for the release of the Madiai family in Tuscany,
and of Matamoros, Carrasco, and their friends who, during
the reign of Queen Isabella in Spain, were thrown into
prison and condemned to the galleys for the sole crime of
reading the Bible and holding private meetings for de-
votion. It aided in inducing the Sultan of Turkey to
abolish the death-penalty for apostasy from Mohammed-
anism in his dominions. It interceded for the Methodists
and Baptists in Sweden, which has since abrogated the
penal laws against Roman Catholics and Protestants not
belonging to the Lutheran Confession. It sent in 1871 a.
large deputation, in which prominent citizens of the U. S.
took the leading part, to the czar of Russia to plead for
the oppressed Lutherans in the Baltic Provinces, and
these have not been disturbed since that time. It sent a
similar deputation to the embassy from Japan, when they
visited this country and the courts of Europe in 1872, to
remonstrate against the persecution of Christians, mostly
Roman Catholics, in that distant empire of the East, and
the persecution has since ceased. It has not forgotten the
Nestorians in Persia, who appealed to the Alliance for pro-
tection against the oppression of a Mohammedan govern-
ment; and just now (1874) it prepared a memorial to the
czar on the persecution of Baptists in the south of Russia.
The force of public opinion on the subject of freedom of
conscience and religious worship, as expressed by the Alli-
ance, has always found a respectful hearing, and must
sooner or later be obeyed by every civilized government
on the globe.
2. As regards the cause of Christian wrion, which is the
other great object of the Alliance, it is promoted mainly by
means of general conferences of an international and interde-
nominational character, which are arranged from time to time
in different capitals by the branch in whose bounds it meets,
with the co-operation of the sister branches. These meetings
last several days, and are spent in prayer and praise, broth-
erly communion, and discussions of the most important re-
ligious questions of the age. Six general conferences have
been held so far. The first general conference took place
in London in 1851, the year of the great éxhibition of the
works of industry of all nations in the British metropolis;
the second in Paris, 1855; the third in Berlin, 1857; the
EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION.—EVANS.
1661
fourth in Geneva, 1861; the fifth in Amsterdam, 1867; the
sixth in New York, 1873. Rome is spoken of as the place
for the next conference. These meetings were all well at-
tended, and left a most favorable impression upon the
delegates and the country in which they were held. But
the most popular, enthusiastic, and effective of all was the
one held in New York, Oct. 2–12, 1873, which from the be-
ginning to the close was a most complete success, surpass-
ing every expectation. For the first time in history, Amer-
ican, European, and Asiatic Christianity met face to face
in the New World, and took counsel together on the state
of Christendom, on Christian union, Christian life, Chris-
tianity and infidelity, Christianity and superstition, Chris-
tianity and civil government, Christian missions at home
and abroad, Christian philanthropy and reform of social
evils. The religious community of our commercial me-
tropolis took the deepest interest, and thronged the meet-
ings by thousands in the several churches and public halls
from morning till might, and the secular and religious press,
without exception, spread the reports among millions of
readers. The foreign delegates were deeply impressed
with the life and energy of American Christianity and
American institutions, and spread their new convictions all
over the Old World. “It is quite impossible,” writes
Charles Reed, an influential member of the British Parlia-
ment, and one of the delegates (in one of the British peri-
odicals), “to describe the course of these meetings in New
York, much less the spirit in which they were conducted.
The numbers of delegates from all parts of Europe and
Asia, the attendance daily for ten days of thousands of
persons, the subjects of discussion, are evidence of the
success of the gathering, while the full reports by the daily
press and the attention paid by public bodies showed that
the influence spread far and wide among the population
of the city. . . . It was occasionally felt that such a con-
ference could not have been held elsewhere than in New
York. . . . No words can convey the sense I have of the
importance of this conference, as inaugurating a new era in
the history of Christian union.” The same testimony, in
even more enthusiastic language, came back after the re-
turn of the delegates from every part of Europe, and the
effect of the conference in encouraging faith and Christian
work and cementing the bond of union, especially between
Great Britain and America, cannot be estimated. For a
full report of the addresses and proceedings see the stately
volume, “History, Essays, Orations, and other Documents
of the Sixth General Conference of the Evangelical Alli-
ance held in New York,” edited by Schaff and Prime, and
published by the Harpers, New York, 1874 (pp. 773). The
proceedings of the previous meetings were published by
the British branch in English, and also in German, Dutch,
and French by the continental branches. The American
branch has issued ten documents of minor importance from
its office in the Bible House, New York. Biennial meetings
are hereafter to be held in the U. S. for the discussion of
topics of general interest to the religious community in
America. PHILIP SCHAFF.
Evangel'ical Association, popularly but incorrectly
known as the German Methodist Church, a body of
American Christians, chiefly of German descent, organized
by the Rev. Jacob Albright, a native of Eastern Pennsyl-
vania. Regarding the doctrines and morals that prevailed
in the German churches of that part of Pennsylvania as
corrupt, Albright undertook about 1790 a work of reform
among them. At a meeting of his converts in 1800, called
for the purpose of deliberating on the measures best suited
for advancing the new religious movement, Albright was
unanimously elected pastor or bishop, and authorized to
exercise all the functions of the ministerial office over the
members of the organization. In the course of time annual
conferences were established, and in 1816 the first general
conference was held in Union co., Pa., consisting of all the
elders in the ministry. Since 1843 the general conference,
consisting of delegates from the annual conferences, has reg-
ularly met once every fourth year. During the first thirty
years of its existence the Evangelical Association met with
violent opposition, but since then it has quietly and rapidly
advanced. As the church repeatedly took action on the
slavery question and sided with the anti-slavery churches,
its progress was wholly within the boundaries of the North-
ern States, and even in 1873 no conference had been es-
tablished in the Southern States. In 1863 there was one
in Canada and one in Germany.
In doctrine and theology the Evangelical Association is
Arminian; with regard to sanctification, Wesleyan ; in the
form of government and mode of worship it generally agrees
with the Méthodist Episcopal Church (of which Albright,
prior to beginning his reformatory labors in the German
churches, was a member). The ministers, who, like the
Methodists, practice itineracy, are divided into deacons
and elders; the bishops and presiding elders are elected
for a term of only four years—the former by the general
conference, the latter by the individual conferences. The
general conference is the highest legislative and judicial
authority in the Church ; the transactions of the annual
and quarterly conferences are mostly of an executive and
practical mature. A charitable society for the support of the
widows and orphans of poor itinerant preacherswäs estab-
lished in 1835, and a missionary Society in 1838. There is
moreover a Sunday school and tract society, and church-
building societies have been established in several confer-
ences. A denominational publishing-house at Cleveland,
O., publishes six periodicals—three in German and three
in English; besides, two periodicals are published in Ger–
many. The literary institutions of the Church in 1872
were—the North-western College, in Naperville, Ill; the
Union Seminary, in New Berlin, Pa.; the Blairstown
Seminary, in Blairstown, Ia, ; and the Ebenezer Orphan
Institution, at Flat Rock, O. In 1871 the Church had
fifteen annual conferences, inclusive of those of Canada.
and Germany, 587 itinerant and 401 local preachers; 905
churches; 1033 Sunday-schools, with 56,028 scholars and
11,646 officers and teachers; and 72,979 members. A his–
tory of the Association has been begun by W. W. Orwig.
Evange1/ical Church Con/ference, the name ap-
plied to periodical meetings of the Protestant state churches
of Germany. The idea of these meetings originated with
King William of Würtemberg in 1815. The first confer-
ence, held at Berlin in 1846, had representatives from
almost every German state. At the second conference,
held in 1852 at Eisenach, an official central organ was es-
tablished at Stuttgart (“Allgemeine Kirchenblatt für das
evangel. Deutschland”). The conferences from 1855 to
1868 were all held at Eisenach. -
Evangel’ical Chur’clies are those bodies of Christians
which believe in the divinity of Christ, in the necessity of
his atonement, and in personal repentance and faith as
essential to salvation. *
“Evangelische Kirche” (“Evangelical Church”) is the
official title of the Established Church of Prussia, formed
in 1817 by the union of the Lutheran and the Reformed
churches. The Lutherans and Reformed (Calvinistic)
churches of Baden, Würtemberg, and other German states
have been similarly united.
The “evangelical party’ in the Church of England is
that section of the Church which professes to attach especial
importance to the teachings of the New Testament, and
which is charged with neglecting or slighting church au-
thority and underrating the efficacy of the sacraments.
Evangel'ical Coun'sels [Lat. consilia evangelica]
are such directions or admonitions in the Roman Catholic
Church as are not in themselves obligatory upon any one,
but are recommended by the Church to some persons as
highly advantageous to spiritual excellence. The chief
evangelical counsels are voluntary virginity, poverty, and
obedience, to monastic rules. Some writers reckon as evan-
gelical counsels the scriptural recommendation to turn the
left cheek to the man who has struck one’s right cheek, to
go two miles with a person who desires one’s company for
one mile, etc. There are reckoned twelve of these counsels.
Evangel'ical U’nion, a body of Scotch Independents,
called Morisonians, from Rev. James Morison, their or
iginal leader. In 1843 they left the United Secession Church.
They have been joined by some Congregational churches
of Scotland and England. They reject a part of the Calvin-
istic doctrines, and have a theological school at Glasgow.
Evan'geline, a twp. of Charlevoix co., Mich. Pop. 90.
E’vans, a post-village, capital of Weld co., Col., 47
miles N. by E. of Denver, where the Denver Pacific R. R.
crosses South Platte River and also the Golden and Jules-
burg R. R. It has one bank, three hotels, two churches, a
court-house, a large flouring-mill, and one newspaper. It
is the centre of the St. Louis Western colony. It has a
thriving trade, good water-power, and ample means for
irrigating the excellent lands which surround the town.
Pop. 189. A. C. ToDD, Ed. “Evans Journ AL.”
Evans, a township of Marshall co., III. Pop. 1989.
Evans, a twp. and post-village of Erie co., N. Y. The
township lies on Lake Erie, and contains a number of vil-
lages. Pop. of Evans Centre, 150; of township, 2593.
Evans (AUGUSTA J.; since 1868 Mrs. L. M. WILSON),
born near Columbus, Ga., in 1836, removed in childhood,
with her father, to Texas, and in 1849, removed to Mobile.
She has published “Inez, a Tale of the Alamo,” “Beulah”
(1859), “Macaria” (1864), “St. Elmo’’ (1866), “Washti.”
(1869). She is a novelist of great talent.
Evans (Sir DE LACY), D. C. L., a British general, born
at Moig, in Ireland, in 1787. He served at the battles of
Baltimore (1814), New Orleans (1815), and Waterloo (1815).
Eſe was a Liberal member of Parliament from 1831 to 1841.
1662
EVANS-EVANSTON.
In 1835 he was appointed commander of a legion of 10,000
men raised in Great Britain to fight for the queen of Spain.
He defeated the Carlists at several places in 1836 and 1837.
In 1846 he was returned to Parliament for Westminster,
which he represented for many years. Having been räised
to the rank of lieutenant-general, he Čommanded a division
at the battle of the Alma and at Sebastopol, in Oct., 1854.
Died Jan. 9, 1870.
Evans (ELLICOTT), LL.D., was born at Batavia, Genesee
co., N.Y., June 19, 1819, and was educated at Harvard. In
1860 he became professor of law and political economy at
Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y.
Evans (FREDERICK WILLIAM), born at Leominster,
England, June 9, 1808, came in 1820 to the U. S. with his
father. He was apprenticed to a hatter, and occupied his
leisure hours with study. He became in theory a socialist,
and studied the works of Owen, Fourier, and other leaders
in the various projects for social reform. He visited Eng-
land, and after his return went to visit the communities of
United Shakers at Mount Lebanon, N. Y., for the purpose
of studying their system, to which he became a convert.
He afterwards became the presiding elder brother of the
communities of that place and the leader of the sect in the
U. S. His teachings have added new dogmas and con-
siderably modified the old doctrines of Shakerism. He is
known as a public lecturer, a contributor to periodical lit-
erature, and author of an “Autobiography,” “Anne Lee,”
“Religious Communism,” and other works.
Evans (GEORGE), born at Hallowell, Me., Jan. 12, 1797,
graduated at Bowdoin in 1815, called to the bar in 1818,
was a member of Congress from Maine (1829–41), U. S.
Senator (1841–47), and held various important offices in
his native State. Died April 5, 1867.
Evans (HUGH DAvy), LL.D., born at Baltimore, Md.,
in 1792, was a prominent jurist and strong friend of the
Protestant Episcopal Church. He wrote an “Essay on
Pleading” (1827), “Maryland Common-Law Practice”
(1839), and “Essays” upon various Church questions
(1844, 1851, 1855, etc.). Died July 16, 1868.
Evans (John), M. D., geologist, was born at Ports-
mouth, N. H., Feb. 14, 1812, graduated at the St. Louis
Medical College, served on several State and Territorial
geological surveys under Dr. D. D. Owen, and discovered
remarkable fossil deposits in the Bad Lands of Ne-
braska. He afterwards performed the U. S. geological
survey of Oregon and Washington Territory. Died April
13, 1861.
Evans (MARIAN C.). See LEWEs (MARIAN E.).
Evans (OLIVER), an American inventor, born in 1755
at Newport, Del. Died in New York April 25, 1819. His
most valuable inventions were the automatic flour-mill and
the high-pressure steam-engine. Before his time grain and
flour were moved in the mill by manual labor. His im-
provements, which effected a complete revolution in the
manufacture of flour, consisted of the elevator, the con-
veyer, the hopper-boy, the drill, and the descender. By
means of this machinery grain was conveyed from a wagon
or a boat into the mill, then cleaned, ground, bolted, and
delivered into barrels without the intervention of human.
hands. After great opposition these improvements were
introduced into the celebrated Ellicott Mills, near Balti-
more, where 325 barrels of flour were daily made. The
saving there effected by Evans's contrivances was estimated
at more than fifty cents per barrel. As the production of
wheat alone in the U. S. in 1870 exceeded 287,000,000
bushels, the benefits arising from the use of the automatic
flour-mill are not likely to be over-estimated.
In 1772, while yet an apprentice, Evans endeavored to
discover some substitute for animal power in moving wag-
ons; fortunately, an incident, related by his brother, gave
the right direction to his investigations. In a blacksmith
shop near by about a gill of water was poured into a gun-
barrel, after stopping up its touch-hole; then a tight wad
was rammed into the barrel, and it was placed in the smith's
fire; “presently the barrel discharged itself with a loud
crack, as if it had been loaded with powder.” It instantly
occurred to Evans that this was the power he wanted. He
subsequently found a book containing a description of the
atmospheric steam-pump used at the English coal-mines, and
was astonished to find that steam was solely employed for
obtaining a vacuum by its condensation, thus allowing only
the pressure of the atmosphere to move the piston. He
made experiments in which the pressure of steam moved
the piston, and in 1781 announced that he could propel
boats and wagons, by means of steam. No attempt was
made to introduce this invention until after the close of the
Revolutionary war. In 1786 the State of Pennsylvania.
gave him the exclusive right to use in that State his flour-
mill, but refused to grant the same right to use his steam-
wagon. In 1787, however, Maryland granted him the right
to use both inventions in that State. In order to obtain
assistance in building his road-engine, he exhibited his
drawings and plans to capitalists and engineers; failing to
find one who would join him in the enterprise, he twice sent
his plan and specifications to England, in the vain hope of
convincing foreign engineers of the feasibility of his device.
Finally, in 1801 he decided to devote all his earnings from
his other inventions, about $3700, to the construction of a
stationary steam-engine on the direct-pressure plan. It
was completed and put into operation in the city of Phila-
delphia, and continued to be used successfully for many
years in sawing marble and grinding gypsum. Thus, 1801
marks a new era—the introduction of the most important
of all engines. Soon after, by order of the board of health
of Philadelphia, Evans constructed a device for cleaning or
dredging docks. It consisted of a small scow or flatboat,
with a small steam-engine of five-horse power and boiler on
board to work the dredging machinery. In order to show
its adaptability to locomotion, he connected his engine, by
means of pulleys and bands, with four wooden wheels turn-
ing on wooden axles beneath the boat, also with a paddle-
wheel behind it. This singular contrivance for moving on
land and water he called the “Eructor amphibolis.” By
steam alone it was driven over the highway from his work-
shop to the Schuylkill River, about one mile and a half,
where it was launched, and from thence propelled down the
Schuylkill to its mouth, and up the Delaware River to the city,
a distance of fourteen or fifteen miles. This was the first ap-
plication of the high-pressure principle to locomotion, and
the Evans engine, with important improvements made since
his day, drives all the locomotives and steam-carriages now
in use. Evans also invented the cylinder boiler, with a
cylindrical internal flue, commonly known as the “Cornish
boiler.” - -
Three varieties of steam-engines are now in use—namely,
the condensing or low-pressure engine, the non-condensing
or high-pressure engine, and a combination of these two,
called the compound engine. In the condensing and the
compound engines power is derived from heat, which con-
verts water into steam ; also from cold, which reconverts
steam into water. These engines are only available where
the large quantity of cold water required for condensing
steam can be readily obtained. No such condition attends
the use of the Evans non-condensing engine, in which the
direct action of high-pressure steam on a relatively small
piston moving with great velocity gives the required power.
Compared with the other two, it is small, of simple con-
struction, cheap, always available, and therefore of almost
universal application. Experience warrants the assertion
that the high-pressure steam-engine is the most valuable
prime mover ever devised. A great invention when brought
into practical operation is an important element in human
progress, for its power outlasts its originator and increases
with time. It is a continual source of wealth, because labor
saved is, virtually, labor gained. The devices of Oliver
Evans were of this stamp, and have won for him a high
place among the benefactors of our race.
SAMUEL D. TILLMAN.
Evans (RoPIEY D.), U. S. N., born Aug. 18, 1844, in
Floyd co., Va., entered the navy as a midshipman Sept. 20,
1860, became an ensign in 1863, a lieutenant in 1866, a
lieutenant-commander in 1868, served in both attacks upon
Fort Fisher, N.C., and in the attempt to storm the fort was
four times wounded. Fox HALL A. PARKER, U. S. N.
Ev’ansburg, a post-village of Sadsbury township, Craw-
ford co., Pa. Evansburg Station (STONY PoſNT P.O.) is 2}
miles S., on the Atlantic and Great Western R. R. The
village is on Conneaut Lake, which is 1074 feet above the
sea. Pop. 174. -
Evans Centre (Evans P.O.), a village of Evans town-
ship, Erie co., N. Y., on Big Sister Creek, 1% miles from
Angola, has some manufactures. Pop. 150.
Evans Mills, a post-village of Le Ray township, Jef-
ferson co., N.Y., on the Rome Watertown and Ogdensburg
R. R., 11 miles N. N. E. of Watertown. Pop. 500.
Ev’ansport, a post-village of Tiffin township, Defiance
co., O. Pop. 191.
Ev’anston, a post-village of Cook co., Ill., on Lake
Michigan and the Chicago and North-western R. R. (Mil-
waukee division), 12 miles N. of Chicago. It is a very
handsome suburban town, the seat of the North-western
University, a wealthy and flourishing institution, having
substantial and costly buildings, extensive libraries, and a
museum. It is noted for its pleasant situation, its numerous
churches, rapid growth, and social attractions. It has one
newspaper, two banks, gas-works, numerous stores, etc.
No intoxicating liquors can legally be sold within 4 miles
of the university. It is also the seat of Garrett Biblical
EVANSTON.—EVERETT.
1663
Institute. Many of its citizens do business in Chicago.
Pop. of township, 3062. & -
ALFRED L. SEWELL, ED. of “INDEx.”
Evanston, a post-village, county-seat of Uintah co.,
Wy. Ter., situated on Bear River and on the Union Pacific
R. R., 76 miles E. of Ogden, and halfway between Omaha
and San Francisco. The railroad machine-shops are here,
employing over 100 men; it has also a large steam saw-
mill, one library, three churches, public school, four hotels,
a railroad eating-house, two banks, and thirty business-
houses. An abundance of coal is found within three miles,
of which over 100 cars are shipped per day. Iron ore is
also found. It has one weekly newspaper.
3. W.M. E. WHEELER, PROP. “AGE.”
Ev/ansville, a city and port of entry, capital of Van-
derburg co., Ind., is on the Ohio River, 185 miles below
Louisville and 192 above Cairo. It is the southern termi-
nus of the Wabash and Erie Canal, and of the Evansville
and Crawfordsville R. R., which connects it with Terre
Haute, 109 miles distant. It is 161 miles E. S. E. of St.
Louis by the St. Louis Evansville Henderson and Nash-
ville R. R. Evansville is pleasantly situated on a high
bank, has an extensive trade, and is the principal shipping-
point of South-western Indiana. It has a fine court-house,
a U. S. marine hospital, several public halls, and four na-
tional banks; also a number of flour-mills, iron-foundries,
machine-shops, and manufactures of wool, leather, etc.
Four daily newspapers are issued here. Pop. in 1860,
11,484; in 1870, 21,830.
Evansville, a post-township of Douglas co., Minn.
Pop. 250. -
Evansville, a post-village of Rock co., Wis., on the
Chicago and North-western R. R. (Madison division), 22
miles S. by E. of Madison. It has a national bank, one
weekly newspaper, a graded school, seminary, one machine-
shop, one steam cabinet-manufactory, grist-mill, five
churches, and two hotels. Principal business, farming.
I. A. Hox1F., E.D. “REview.”
Evapora’tion [from the Lat. e, “out,” “off,” and vapor,
“steam ” or “vapor;” literally, the act of going off as va-
por] is the passage of a substance from the liquid or solid
state to the condition of vapor, especially applied to such
a change when it takes place at a temperature below the
boiling-point. It was once taught that the air had a sponge-
like power of taking up or dissolving a certain quantity of
vapor of water and other liquids, and that this power in-
creased with the temperature; but it is now known that
evaporation takes place to the same degree in a vacuum as
in the air, and far more rapidly. . It has been shown by
Dalton that the elastic force of all vapors is the same,
whether mixed with gas or air, or not; and that air is never
truly saturated with vapor unless it contains an amount
sufficient to saturate a vacuum of the same extent.
Heat is the great cause of evaporation; so that the hot-
ter the air becomes the more rapidly is vapor formed. When
the air is at rest the space near an evaporating surface be-
comes loaded with vapor, and the process becomes much
slower than when the air is in motion, both by reason of
increased tension and of loss of heat; for evaporation is a
great absorber of heat. Indeed, the most intense degree
of cold with which we are acquainted is caused by the
evaporation of volatile liquids, such as ether, rhigoline,
etc.; the lowest point yet reported being —220° F., artifi-
cially produced by the evaporation in vacuo of a mixture
of liquid nitrous oxide (N2O) and carbon disulphide
(CS2). -
Ev’art, a post-village of Osceola co., Mich., situated in
the heart of a great lumber country, about midway between
the two great lakes. It is a place of two years' growth, and
has seven saw and shingle mills, a foundry and machine-
shop, two church Societies, and one newspaper. Pop. of
township, 168. HESS & CHASE, P RoPs. “REv1Ew.”
Ev’arts (JEREMIAH), an American editor, born in Sun-
derland, Vt., Feb. 3, 1781, graduated at Yale College in 1802.
Having studied law, he was admitted to the bar in 1806, and
became editor of the “Panoplist,” a religious paper of Bos-
ton, about 1810. In 1821 he was chosen corresponding sec-
retary of the board of commissioners for foreign, missions.
Died May 10, 1831. He was a man of rare fineness and
force of character.
Evarts (WILLIAM MAxwell), LL.D., an eminent law-
yer, a son of the preceding, was born in Boston, Mass., in
Feb., 1818. He graduated at Yale College in 1837, and
studied law, which he practised with great distinction in
the city of New York, where he was admitted to the bar in
1840. He became a Republican soon after that party was
organized. He was the leading counsel employed for the
defence of President Johnson in his trial before the Senate
in April and May, 1868, and was attorney-general of the
N. Y., has a flourishing evening school of design.
U. S. from July, 1868, to Mar. 4, 1869. He was one of three
lawyers appointed by President Grant in 1871 to defend the
interests of citizens of the U. S. before the tribunal of arbi-
trators who met at Geneva to settle the “Alabama claims.”
He is one of the most eloquent advocates in the U. S. He
has written several legal works. t
Eve, a township of Monroe co., Ark. Pop. 297.
Eve (Joseph A.), M. D. See APPENDIX.
Eve (PAUL FITzsimons), M. D., was born June 27, 1806,
near Augusta, Ga., graduated at the University of Geor-
gia in 1826, graduated as M. D. at the University of Penn-
sylvania in 1828, and studied several years in Europe, was
a surgeon in the Polish revolution of 1831, and received the
Golden Cross of Honor of Poland in that year, became pro-
fessor of surgery in the Medical College of Georgia in 1832,
in Louisville University (Ky.) in 1849, in Nashville Uni-
versity (Tenn.) in 1850, and in Missouri Medical College,
St. Louis, in 1868. In 1870 he became professor of ope-
rative and clinical surgery in the University of Nashville.
Prof. Eve was president of the American Medical Associ-
ation in 1857. He served as a surgeon in the Confederate
army. He has been editorially connected with professional
journalism for many years, and is the author of very nume-
rous monographs upon surgery, etc. Dr. Eve has long held
a high position among the surgeons of the U. S. He has
crossed the Atlantic fourteen times in the interest of his
profession. His youthful service in Poland was voluntary
and without pay. In the Medical College of Ga. he deliv-
ered eighteen courses of lectures. He has declined profes-
sorships in New York City and Philadelphia, and the sur-
geon-generalship of Tennessee. He has had remarkable
success as a lithotomist. Of 92 bilateral operations for
stone in the bladder, 8 only terminated fatally ; of the last
48 cases, 46 recovered; of 105 applicants for relief, not one
was refused. -
Evec/tion [from the Lat. e, “out,” and veho, vectum, to
“carry;” literally, “being carried out” of its proper or
natural position], an inequality of the moon’s motion, de-
pending on the position of the transverse axis of the moon's
orbit, as compared with the earth's radius vector. The ec-
centricity of the lunar orbit varies with the relative position
of these lines. It is maximum when they are coincident,
and minimum when they are perpendicular to each other.
The variation of the eccentricity affects the equation of
the centre, increasing or diminishing correspondingly the
moon’s mean longitude. This inequality is called evection.
Ev’eline, a township of Charlevoix co., Mich. Pop. 294.
Evening Schools are established in many of the larger .
towns of Great Britain and Ireland, and in the greater part
of the cities of the U. S., for the instruction of artisans and
others who have been unable to receive education in child-
hood. In many instances such schools have been main-
tained by private benevolence, but of late years they are,
at least in the U. S., generally established, and wholly or in
part maintained, by local or municipal authorities. Their
sphere of usefulness is rapidly extending, and the course
of study becomes more and more important. Boston, Mass.,
has an evening high school, and in our larger cities, as in
nearly all the important towns of Massachusetts, industrial
and free-hand drawing is taught. The Cooper Union,
Nearly
22,000 names of pupils were registered in the evening
schools of N. Y., for the year 1869–70.
Evening Shades, a post-village, capital of Sharpe co.,
Ark., about 22 miles N. of Batesville. - -
Ev/erdingen, van (ALDERT), a painter of landscapes,
born in Holland in 1621. His taste was for wild scenery,
rocks, torrents, the stormy sea; his pencil was bold, his
coloring strong and effective. His etchings are famous.
Died in 1675.
Everest, Mount, the highest mountain of the earth, is
in the eastern range of the Himalayas, in Northern Nepaul;
lat. 276 59% N., lon. 86° 54' E. According to the measure-
ment of Waugh in 1856, the altitude is 29,002. -
Everett, a thriving post-township of Middlesex co.,
Mass. Until 1870 it formed a part of Malden. It is Sup-
plied with water from the Spot Pond Works of Malden. It
is two miles from Boston, and connected therewith by the
Eastern R. R. and the Middlesex horse-railroad. It has
four churches and excellent schools; also one weekly news-
paper. Pop. 2220. - & &
G.I.Ay & METCALF, EDs. AND PUBs. “PIONEER.”
Everett, a township of Newaygo co., Mich. Pop. 231.
Everett, a post-township of Cass co., Mo. Pop. 905.
Everett, a township of Burt co., Neb. Pop. 277.
Everett, a post-village of Bedford co., Pa., has one
weekly newspaper.
1664
EVERETT.
Ev’erett (ALExANDER HILL), L.L.D., an American
scholar and diplomatist, born in Boston Mar. 19, 1792, was
a brother of Edward Everett, noticed below. He graduated
at Harvard in 1806, and studied law in the office of John
Q. Adams, with whom he went to Russia as secretary of
legation in 1809. Having returned home in 1812, he began
to practise law in Boston, and married Lucretia Peabody.
|He was chargé d'affaires at The Hague for nearly six years
(1818–24), and published in 1821 an able work entitled
“Europe, or a General Survey of the Principal Powers,”
etc. In 1825 he was appointed minister to the court of
Spain by President Adams. | During his residence at Mad-i
rid he wrote “America, or a General Survey of the Political
Situation of the Several Powers of the Western Continent *
(1827). He returned home in 1829, and became editor of
the “North American Review,” which he conducted with
ability for about five years. He became an active Demo-
cratic politician. He was appointed commissioner to China
by President Polk in 1845. Died at Canton June 29, 1847.
Pverett (EDw ARD), L.L.D., D. C. L., an orator and states-
man, born in Dorchester, Mass., April 11, 1794. He was a son
of Rev. Oliver Everett, who died in 1802. He attended a
school in Boston, at which Daniel Webster for a short time
supplied the place of his brother, Ezekiel Webster, the
regular master. He was twice a “Franklin medal scholar.”
of the Boston public schools, and for a few months a pupil
of Exeter Academy. In 1811 he graduated at Harvard
University with the highest honors of his class, being then
little more than seventeen years of age. In 1812 he was
appointed a tutor at Harvard while pursuing theological
studies in preparation for the ministry. On Feb. 9, 1814,
he was ordained as pastor of the Brattle street (Unitarian)
church in Boston, where the fascination of his manner and
the power and beauty of his sermons made the deepest
impression on his hearers. In Mar., 1815, he accepted the
Eliot professorship of Greek literature at Harvard, and
terminated his career as a settled clergyman before he was
quite twenty-one years- of age. Proceeding at once to
Europe, he studied for two years at the University of Göt-
tingen, of which he became Ph.D. in 1817, and then travel-
led extensively in Europe, making special visits to Athens
and Constantinople with a view to thorough preparation
for the studies of his professorship, upon which he entered
soon after his return in 1819. A brilliant course of lec-
tures on ancient Greece and its architecture, with illustra-
tions of the magnificent ruins which he had just visited,
inaugurated his accession to the chair, which he held until
1825. His fame as a secular orator—which will probably
outlast all his other titles to the remembrance of posterity
—may be dated from the delivery of his Phi Beta Kappa
oration at Cambridge in Aug., 1824, when the presence of
La Fayette inspired him with an eloquence which had
never been equalled within the walls of the university,
and which won for him a widespread popular celebrity.
Succeeded as it was in a few months by his oration at
Plymouth on the 22d of December of the same year, an
enthusiastic admiration was kindled and kept alive, which
could only be satisfied by calling him into political service.
A nomination for Representative in Congress soon followed,
and Mr. Everett served the district of Middlesex in that
capacity from 1825 to 1835, distinguishing himself greatly
by unwearied devotion to duty, as well as by elaborate
and masterly speeches. In 1836, after ten years of con-
gressional service at Washington, he was called home to be
governor of Massachusetts, and was continued in that of.
fice, by successive annual elections of the people, until 1840.
A single vote, out of more than a hundred thousand, de-
feated his re-election. Going at once, for a second time,
to Europe, he established himself in one of the Medicean
villas at Florence, and prepared to enter upon his long-
cherished purpose of writing history. “Rome in the time
of Cicero’ was one among many of the congenial themes
which he had meditated. But hardly a year had elapsed
before he received a call to proceed without delay to Lon-
don as minister plenipotentiary of the U. S., and he en-
tered upon that mission in 1841 at a moment when ques-
tions of the greatest delicacy were pending between the
two nations. Returning home in 1845 after four years of
diplomatic service in England, he was met almost at the
wharf on landing with an inexorable demand that he
should assume the then vacant presidency of the univer-
sity at Cambridge. Accepting the position reluctantly, he
gave three years of anxious and strenuous labor to its
duties, and then eagerly laid them down. A brief interval
of rest, which he sorely needed and had richly earned, af-
forded him time to establish himself again in Boston with
a choice library around him, and to contemplate afresh
Some larger literary work than had yet seriously engaged
him. But the death of Mr. Webster in Nov., 1852, left a
vacancy in the department of state at Washington, which
he was immediately summoned to fill; and on the expira-
tion of his brief term as secretary of state, by the termi-
nation of President Fillmore's administration in 1853, he
was elected by the legislature of Massachusetts a Senator
in Congress. . He held that place but a single year, when,
owing to ill-health, he retired finally, as it proved, from
the cares and burdens of official life. In 1860, indeed, he
*accepted a nomination for the vice-presidency of the U. S.,
but failed of an election; and the last ten years of his life
were thus left undisturbed by political responsibilities.
But nothing like private life, as that phrase is commonly
understood, awaited his retirement. Calls were soon heard
from a hundred sources for the exercise of his personal in-
fluence and his oratorical powers in behalf of some chari-
table institution, or in commemorating some historical
event, or in eulogizing some illustrious person. It was
not in his nature to decline such calls. During the first
half of these last ten years his topics were within the
common range of occasional discourses—“Dorchester (his
native place) in 1630, 1776, and 1856;” “The Uses of As-
tronomy;” “The Importance of Agriculture;” “Charitable
Institutions and Charity;” “Daniel Webster;” “Thomas
Dowse;” “Academical Education;” “The Dedication of
the Boston Public Library,” of which he was one of the
building commissioners, as well as president of the trus-
tees. To this period also belongs his memorable and pa-
triotic pilgrimage in the cause of rescuing Mount Vermon
from the danger of falling into the hands of speculators,
and securing it as a national possession ; during which he
delivered his address on “The Character of Washington”
in all quarters of the Union, and paid over about $60,000
to the treasurer of the fund as the product of his eloquence.
But the remainder of these last ten years of his life was
to be mainly devoted to more painful and pressing themes.
The opening of the civil war gave a new field to the labors
of his pen and of his tongue, and from “The Flag-raising
in Chester Square” (Boston), on the 27th of April, 1861,
to his last utterance for “The Relief of Savannah,” in
Faneuil Hall on the 9th of Jan., 1865, just six days before
he died, his thoughts, his time, and almost all his numerous
addresses, filling nearly 350 pages of an octavo volume,
were given to the support of the Union cause. He died
in Boston Jan. 15, 1865. -
Of such a career the records are happily abundant. His
political and congressional speeches and his official papers
have, it is true, never been collected, and are to be found
only in separate pamphlets or in the columns of news-
papers. They would make an interesting and valuable
volume. His literary essays, too, must be sought for in
the pages of the “North American Review,” of which he
was for several years editor, and to which he contributed
many admirable articles. An attractive and instructive
volume of literary miscellanies cannot fail to be forthcom-
ing at no distant day from these materials. His contri-
butions to the “New York Ledger” during the war were
collected and published by himself in a volume entitled
“The Mount Vernon Papers.” So also he published, in
an independent volume, his “Biography of Washington,”
prepared for the “Encyclopædia Britannica” at the re-
quest of Lord Macaulay. His “Defence of Christianity,”
a little work printed as long ago as 1814, is to be found on
the shelves of public libraries or among the rarities of
bookworms, but it ought never to be omitted from the cat-
alogue of his earliest and most remarkable manifestations.
His fame, however, as a scholar, an orator, a philanthro-
pist, and a patriot will mainly rest on the four substan-
tial volumes of his “Orations and Speeches”—two of them
published in 1850, the third in 1859, and the fourth (by
his sons) in 1868. The exhaustive index to the three first,
prepared as a labor of love by Dr. Allibone, affords an
easy reference to their rich and curiously diversified con-
tents. They form together a most striking illustration of
the times in which he lived, as well as an almost perfect
picture, in the choicest mosaic, of the man himself. The
materials of a complete autobiography might wellnigh be
found in them, in language which could not be improved.
The ardent and gifted young scholar, the accomplished
and devoted professor, the cautious and conservative
statesman, the sincere and earnest patriot, the exhaustless
and consummate rhetorician are depicted in these volumes
with the exactness of a photograph. The true man, the
ever-obliging and faithful friend, the good citizen, are not
less clearly delineated. It is too early to pronounce upon
the permanent influence of such a career. His life must
be taken as a whole, in order to form any adequate appre-
ciation of its value. Certainly, there have been wiser and
profounder statesmen among us, and scholars as learned
and accomplished; but we think the annals of our country
to the day of his death will be searched in vain for another
so ready, prolific, and brilliant a writer and speaker, or for
one who has done more both to adorn American literature
and to advocate and advance every public interest and
EVERETT–EVERLASTING FLOWERS.
1665
patriotic cause. The statue of him by Story, ordered by
his fellow-citizens, and placed (by no means to advantage)
in the Public Garden of Boston, portrays him in the re-
lation to his times in which he will longest be remembered
—as one whose every word and gesture was untiringly
and grandly employed in animating his hearers to the best
and loftiest ends.
Mr. Everett's repeated visits to Europe, and his residence
in London as American minister for four years, afforded
him an opportunity of becoming personally known and
appreciated in other lands besides his own. Sir Robert
Peel and Lord Aberdeen, Rogers, Hallam, and Macaulay,
were among his warmest English friends. Lord Macaulay
died with an unfinished letter to him on his table or in his
pocket. He received the highest literary honors from
Cambridge and Oxford at a time when those universities
were more chary than of late in decorating Americans.
Humboldt and Guizot were among his friends on the Con-
tinent. The Institute of France enrolled him as a corre-
sponding member. At home he enjoyed the lifelong in-
timacy and confidence of Daniel Webster, whose collected
works he edited and published in 1851 in six volumes,
with a carefully written biography in the first volume.
In 1822, Mr. Everett married Miss Charlotte Gray,
daughter of the Hon. Peter C. Brooks, a distinguished
merchant of Boston, of whom he prepared an elaborate
memoir, which is included in the third volume of his
“Orations and Speeches.” Two sons and a daughter sur-
vived him. ROBERT C. WINTHROP.
Everett (Hor ACE), LL.D., born in 1780, graduated at
Brown University in 1797, settled as a lawyer at Windsor,
Vt., became a prominent politician, holding important po-
sitions in Vermont. He was a member of Congress (1829–
43), and was distinguished as a friend of the Indians.
Died Jan. 30, 1851.
Ev’erghem, a Belgian town, a railway station in East
Flanders. It makes cotton lace and beer. Pop. 6447.
Ev’erglades, a marshy region in Southern Florida, S.
of Lake Okeechobee, itself resembling a great shallow lake
abounding in low islands, which are covered with a dense
jungle of pines, palmettoes, vines, and tropical trees, many
of which are found only in this State and the West Indies.
The water between the islands is from one to six feet deep,
and is covered with tall grass, which grows from the bottom
and gives the region a beautiful appearance. The Ever-
glades will no doubt in time become valuable for the culti-
vation of bananas and tropical fruits. They abound in
game. They are 160 miles long and 60 broad. There are
about 300 Seminole Indians remaining here. The Ever-
glades are elevated several feet above the sea, which often
approaches within half a mile. Their drainage could
therefore be easily accomplished.
Ev’ergreen, a post-village, capital of Conecuh co.,
Ala., on the Mobile and Montgomery R. R., 97 miles N. E.
of Mobile. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of Ever-
green township, 1760. -
Evergreen, a township of Montcalm co., Mich. P. 489.
Evergreen [Lat. Sempervirens], a term applied to trees
and shrubs whose leaves are not deciduous, but persistent,
retaining their verdure throughout the winter. Evergreen
leaves are mostly thicker and firmer in texture than the
leaves of deciduous trees. The greater part of the trees of
the natural order Coniferae are evergreen, as the pine and
cedar. Among other evergreens are the holly, orange, ivy,
myrtle, box, and laurel. In general, the duration of the
life of leaves is in inverse ratio to the activity of their
evaporation. According to W. B. Carpenter, “Trees and
shrubs which are spoken of as evergreen do not really
retain their leaves for more than a year; but they are not
cast off until a new crop appears, and the exchange does
not take place suddenly, but gradually.” (Vegetable Physi-
ology.) “There are some falling leaves,” says De Candolle,
“ as those of firs, which remain two, three, or more years,
but which ought not to be confounded with persistent
leaves, although both constitute the permanent foliage of
evergreen trees and shrubs.” -
The following is a list of the more important coniferous
evergreen trees indigenous to the United States. º
Common Names. Botanic Names.
White Spruce............................ Abies alba.
Hemlock................................... Abies Canadensis.
California Spruce...................... Abies amabilis.
Douglass Spruce........................ Abies Douglassii.
Menzies Spruce.......... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Abies Menziesii.
Mexican Spruce........................ Abies Mexicana.
Black Spruce............................ Abies nigra.
Red Spruce.............................. Abies rubra.
Sabine's California, Spruce......... Abies Sabinii.
California. White Cedar............ Libocedrus decurrens.
White Cedar............................ Cupressus thyoides.
Lambert's Cypress.................... Cupressus Lambertiana.
Great Coned Cypress................. CupreSSus macrocarpa.
Common Names.
Botanic Names.
Mexican Cypress...................... Cupressus Mexicana.
Red Cedar............................... Juniperus Virginiana
Great Flowered Magnolia.......... Magnolia grandiflora.
Balsam Fir .............................. Abies balsamea.
California Noble Fir................. Abies nobilis.
White Pine ............................. Pinus strobus
Yellow Pine ............................ Pinus mitis.
California Yellow Pine........ ...; Pinus brachypterus.
California. Nut Pine.................. Pinus edulis.
Jersey Pine Pinus inops.
Scrub Pine......................... ..... Pinus Banksiana.
Pitch Pine........... • ‘º e e s e s e º e º ºs e s s a sº s Pinus rigida.
Long-leaved Pine..................... Pinus australis.
Pond Pine.. Pinus serotina.
Spruce Pine.............. ---------------. Pinus glabra.
Mountain Pine......................... Pinus pungens.
Loblolly Pine........................... Pinus taeda.
Lambert's Californian............... Pinus Lambertiana.
Red Pine.................................. Pinus resinosa.
Bald Cypress Taxodium distichum.
American Yew......................... Taxus baccata Canadensis.
Florida Yew............................. Taxus Floridana.
American Arbor Vitae............... Thuya occidentalis.
Giant Arbor Vitae..................... Thuya gigantea.
Florida Torreya........................ Torreya taxifolia.
California Torreya.................... Torreya Californica.
Great California tree................ Sequoia gigantea.
Redwood................................... Sequoia sempervirens.
Foreign coniferous evergreen trees common in the nur-
series of this country:
Common Names.
Botanic Names.
Silver Spruce. ......................... Abies argentea.
Dwarf Alpine Spruce................ Abies crunoniana.
Blue Spruce ...Abies cerulea.
Norway Spruce....................... Abies excelsa.
Spruce, Himalaya..................... Abies morinda.
Spruce, Mucronate. .................Abies mucronata.
Spruce, New Holland................ Abies Novae Hollandia.
Spruce, Yew-leaved.................. Abies taxifolia.
Spruce, Narrow-leaved..............Abies tenuifolia.
Chili Pine ...............................Araucaria imbricata.
Chinese Lance-leaved Pine........ Araucaria lanceolata.
Brazil Pine Araucaria Braziliensis.
Bidwill's Pine........................... Araucaria Bidwillii.
Moreton Pine........................... Araucaria Cunninghamii,
Norfolk Island Pine........ • e º e º see s s Araucaria excelsa.
Graceful Pine........................... Araucaria gracilis.
Cedar, African Green...... ......... Cedrus Africanus viridis.
Cedar, Deodar, silvery foliage.....Cedrus deodara.
Cedar, Green Deodar................. Cedrus deodara viridis.
Cedar of Lebanon..................... Cédrus Libani.
Mount Atlas Silvery Cedar........ Cedrus Libani argentea.
Japan Dark-green Yew............. Cephalotaxus adpressus.
Fortune's Chinese Yew............. Cephalotaxus Fortunei.
Mountain Yew......................... Cephalotaxus montana.
Chinese Yew............................ Cephalotaxus Chinensis.
Japan Weeping Cypress............. Cryptomeria Japonica.
Japan Dwarf Cypress................ Cryptomeria nana.
Cypress, Australian.................. Cupressus Australis.
Cypress, Spreading.................... Cupressus expansa.
Cypress, Chinese....................... Cupressus funebris.
Cypress, Graceful...................... Cupressus gracilis.
Cypress, Weeping..................... Cupressus pendula.
Cypress, Pyramidal.................. Cupressus pyramidalis.
Cypress, Sacred........................ Cupressus religiosa.
Juniper, Silver-leaved...............Juniperus argentea.
Juniper, Spanish Incense..........
Juniper, Berry-bearing............. Juniperus' bacciformis.
Juniper, Bermuda Cedar........... Juniperus Bermudiana.
Juniper, Chinese....................... Juniperus Chinensis.
Juniper, English....................... Juniperus communis.
Juniper, Cracow....................... Juniperus Cracovia.
Juniper, Himalaya....................Juniperus excelsa.
Juniper, Irish Spiral................. Juniperus. Hibernica.
Juniper, Hudson’s........... ......... Juniperus Hudsonii.
Juniper, Japan............... • a c e is a e s e n Juniperus Japonica.
Juniper, Phoenician.................. Juniperus Phoenicia.
Juniper, Sacred........................ Juniperus religiosa.
Juniper, Swedish...................... Juniperus Suecica.
Juniperus thurifera.
Fir, or Spruce, European Silver:Picea pectinata.
Fir, Weeping Silver.................. Picea pectinata pendula.
Fir, Kumaon Pindrow...............
Fir, Altaic...............................
Fir, Mount Atlas...................
Fir, Nepal purple-coned............
Pine, Austrian Black.................
Pine, Calabrian.....................
Pine, Siberian Cembran............
Picea Pilléirow.
. Picea Sibirica.
...Picea pinsapo.
Picea, Webbiana.
Picea Austriaca.
...Pinus Calabriensis.
Pinus cembra.
Pine, Nepal short-leaved........... Pinus Gerardiana.
Pine, Haguenea Pinus Haguensis.
Pine, Aleppo. .......................... Pinus Halepensis.
Pine, Dwarf Mountain............. Pinus pumilio.
Pine, Italian Stone.................. .Pinus pines.
Pine, Scotch Pine, or Fir.......... Pinus Sylvestris.
Yew, English........................... Taxus baccata.
Yew, Silver-striped. ...............
..Taxus baccata argenteia.
Yew, Weeping.......................... Taxus Dovastonii pendula.
Yew, Irish Spiral...................
Arbór Vitae, Fern-leaved...........
...Taxus Hibernica fastigiata.
Thuya asplenifolia.
Arbor Vitae, Australian............. Thuya Australis.
Arbor Vitae, Japan ................... Thuya Japonica.
Arbor Vitae, Nepaul, or Tarta- -
rian....................................... Thuya Nepalensis.
3.
Arbor Vitae, Chinese.................
Arbor Vitae, Siberian.............
Everlasting Flowers,
Thuya Orientalis.
...Thuya Sibirica.
the common name of several
genera of the order Compositae, having flowers which if
I ();
1666
EVERSI,EY-EVIDENCE.
dried and preserved retain their form and color many years.
They are often called immortelles.
Ev’ersley (CHARLEs SHAw-LEFEvPE), Viscount, D. C.
L., an English liberal, was born in London Feb. 22, 1794,
was educated at the University of Cambridge, and was ad-
mitted to the bar. From 1830 to 1857 he was a member of
Parliament, and for eighteen years (1839–57) was Speaker
of the House of Commons. He became Viscount Eversley
in 1857.
E’versmann (EDUARD FRIEDRICH), a German traveller
and naturalist, born in 1794, went to Bokhara, with the Rus-
sian embassy in 1820, to the shores of the Caspian Sea in
1825, and afterwards to the Southern Ural, Caucasia, and
Algeria. In 1828 he became professor of zoology and bot-
any in the University of Kasam, and died there in 1860.
He published several accounts of his travels.
Ev’erts (W. W.), D. D., a Baptist minister, born in
Granville, N. Y., in 1815, graduated at Madison University
in 1839, preached in New York City (1839–50), in Louis-
ville (1852–59); since which time he has been a pastor in
Chicago. He has published the “Pastor's Handbook,”
“Life of Foster,” “Bible Manual,” “Free Manhood,”
“Childhood, its Promise and Training,” “Bible Prayer-
book,” and other works. -
Evesham, a parliamentary borough of England, in
Worcestershire, is on the navigable river Avon and in the
beautiful Vale of Evesham, 15 miles S. E. of Worcester.
It has remains of an abbey built about 700 A. D. It sends
one member to Parliament. Here Edward, prince of Wales,
afterwards Edward I., defeated Simon de Montfort and the
barons in 1265. Pop. in 1871, 4887.
Evesham, a township of Burlington co., N. J. Pop.
3351.
JEvic’tion [Lat. evic/tio, from e (eac), “out,” and vin/co,
victum, to “conquer”], the act of dispossessing one of his
lands or tenements, as when a third person evicts a tenant
by means of a title superior to that of the landlord, or a
vendee by a title superior to that of the vendor. Techni-
cally, an eviction must be by judgment of law, but in the
case of a tenant many acts done by the landlord to impair
the enjoyment of the premises will amount to an eviction
in law, and justify the tenant in leaving them ; but in such
cases he must actually leave, otherwise he cannot claim
to have been evicted. When the grantee of premises is
evicted, if the conveyance to him was with a covenant of
warranty, he can recover from the grantor the considera–
tion-money, with interest, but not, in general, the increased
value of the premises, even if caused by improvements
made by him on them. If evicted from part of the prem-
ises only, he recovers a proportionate part of the con-
sideration. In case of a lessee, however, as the rent is re-
garded only a fair compensation for the use of the premises,
and as it ceases on eviction, he can as a general rule re-
cover only the expenses of defending his possession. When
a lessee is evicted in part by one having a superior title,
the rent is apportioned.
Evidence [Lat. evidentia, from e, “out,” implying
“clearness,” and video, to “see '’), in law, is the means of
establishing an allegation made in a court of justice. In
an action the respective parties make written statements of
their cause of action and defence. The matter thus in dis-
pute between them is called an issue. The object of evi-
dence is to establish or disprove the propositions alleged.
The result of the evidence is called proof. Evidence may
be considered under a number of divisions: 1. Its nature
and the doctrine of presumptions; 2. The rules that gov-
ern in the production and exclusion of testimony; 3. Its
effect; 4. The instruments of evidence, including witnesses,
and the mode of making use of them as well as writings.
1. Its Nature, etc.—The object of evidence is to establish
a fact. It presupposes a disposition in the mind of a listener
to believe upon sufficient grounds. Belief on the part of
mankind is instinctive, yet this instinct is modified by the
results of observation and reflection. When evidence is
offered in a court of justice, it is assumed to be addressed
to minds competent to give it such weight as its quality
justifies. It may be either direct or circumstantial. It is
said to be direct when it is offered simply to establish the
fact which it concerns; it is circumstantial when its object
is to lead the mind of the hearer to deduce or infer some
other fact from it. In the case of circumstantial evidence
the minds of the jury or judge, as the case may be, go
through a process of reasoning to arrive at the principal
fact in dispute. It must be resorted to with caution, in
order that the conclusion arrived at may be sound and
logical.
Reference may now be made to the subject of presump-
tions. These are of two kinds—of law and of fact. Pre-
sumptions of law are either conclusive or disputable. A
conclusive presumption of law takes place when a legal
conclusion is arrived at which no evidence is admissible to
rebut. This doctrine is based largely on public policy, and
leads to a series of artificial and arbitrary subordinate rules.
An illustration is, that a child under seven years of age
cannot commit a felonious crime. The doctrine of estop-
pel is another illustration. When evidence can be offered
to rebut a presumption of law, it is said to be disputable.
An instance is the ordinary rule in criminal law, that one
charged with crime is presumed to be innocent until he is
proved to be guilty, or that one having possession of stolen
goods immediately after a theft became possessed of them
unlawfully. Under this theory, when a state of facts is
once established, it is presumed to exist until there is some
evidence to the contrary. Thus, a man engaged in trade
is assumed to follow the ordinary course of business, or the
incumbent of a public office to perform its duties in the
usual manner. Life is presumed to continue unless there
is evidence of death, or sanity until evidence is offered to
establish insanity. A presumption of fact is not a rule of
law which can be announced to a jury as binding upon
them, but in each case must be found by them as a matter
of fact, though the court may direct their attention to the
propriety of forming the conclusion. An illustration is the
testimony of an accomplice, which is generally deemed to
be untrustworthy without corroboration from other and
trustworthy sources, and an observation to that effect may
be made by the judge. Still, the jury has the legal power
to find a verdict upon the uncorroborated testimony of an
accomplice. .
2. The Rules which prevail as to the Production of Evi-
dence.—The leading rules are the following: Rule 1. Cer-
tain matters may be judicially taken notice of without proof;
Rule 2. Evidence must correspond with the allegations in
the pleadings, and be confined to the points in issue; Rule
3. Only the substance of the issue need be proved; Rule
4. The burden of proof is with him who holds the affirma-
tive; Rule 5. The best evidence must be produced of which
the nature of the case admits; Rule 6. Hearsay evidence is
in general inadmissible; Rule 7. Testimony should in gen-
eral concern matters of knowledge as distinguished from
opinion (though to this rule there are well-established ex-
ceptions); Rule 8. Certain evidence, otherwise admissible,
is excluded on grounds of public policy; Rule 9. In cer-
tain cases, principally by statute law, written evidence must
be resorted to rather than oral; Rule 10. Oral contempora-
neous evidence is not admissible to vary the terms of a writ-
ten instrument. These rules require some explanation. It
should be premised, however, that on a trial, with or with-
out a jury, it rests with the judge to determine whether the
evidence is admissible under these rules. Whichever way
he may decide, the opposing party may except, and make
his exception the subject of an appeal.
Ičule 1. There are certain facts of general motoriety in re-
spect to which it is not worth while to take up time to ad-
duce evidence, such as the recurrence of the seasons. The
same rule applies to the existence of foreign nations recog-
nized by the executive power of the nation, and to general
statutes of the legislature. Of Such facts a court is said to
take “judicial notice,” and, if necessary, may resort for in-
formation to books and other sources of knowledge.
I?ule 2. The second rule excludes all immaterial evidence,
and confines the trial to matters in issue. Immaterial alle-
gations in the pleadings cannot be proved. For example,
evidence of the intent of a party would not be admissible
unless intent was material; and the same remark may be
applied to evidence of good or bad character. In an action
to recover money loaned, evidence of the bad intent of the
debtor in delaying payment, or of the creditor's bad cha-
racter, would be plainly inadmissible, while in an action for
slander the plaintiff's character would be to a certain extent
in issue.
Rule 3. This rule means that the minor and unimportant
allegations relating to the issue need not be established as
stated. They are such as the statements respecting the
time or place where an event occurred, or the value of an
item of property. Still, even allegations in their nature
unimportant may become material by the mode in which
they are stated, as if they are made descriptive. In such
a case a difference between the pleadings and the evidence,
called a variance, may be fatal. The effect of this stringent
rule has in a number of the States of this country been
greatly modified as to civil actions by statutes of amend-
ments. The criminal law is still disfigured by extreme tech-
nicality in this respect, and needs the hand of a discreet re-
former, who, while he carefully preserves in favor of one
accused of crime all necessary safeguards, at the same time
subserves the interests of the public by removing all use-
less impediments to the due administration of justice.
Rule 4. Under this rule he who makes an allegation which
is disputed, so as to be at issue, must establish it by evi-
EVIDENCE.
1667
dence. The burden of proof is usually with the plaintiff,
though in some instances it devolves upon the defendant,
as where he admits the plaintiff’s case, but seeks to avoid
its effect by new allegations—as, for example, infancy. The
person who has the burden of proof has the right to open
the case and close it. This in jury trials is often deemed
to be a matter of much importance, so that each of the re-
spective parties insists on an adjudication that the burden
of proof belongs to him.
Rule 5. Under this rule evidence is divided into primary
and secondary. If the primary evidence is accessible, it
must in general be produced; if it be lost or destroyed, re-
sort may be had to that which is secondary. Thus, where
the law requires a contract to be reduced to writing, or
where the parties have written out a contract which might
have been oral, the written instrument must itself be pro-
duced if it can be obtained. The rule is relaxed in certain
cases where public convenience may require it. For this
reason a public record may be proved by an authorized copy,
without the production of the record itself.
Rule 6. The word “hearsay” is infelicitous, including
not only what is said, but what is written, or even acted.
The rule means that evidence must be given in by one who
is personally cognizant of the fact to be proved, and not by
one who may have gained his knowledge at second hand,
from the act or narration of another. Bentham distin-
guished between a “perceiving” and a “narrating” witness
with the same general view. The reasons for excluding
“hearsay ” evidence are so obvious that it is unnecessary
to refer to them. Great care must be taken in distinguish-
ing between hearsay evidence and that which is original.
Thus, when the very subject of inquiry is whether a certain
thing was or was not said by a person, evidence that it was
Said is clearly admissible. So when a statement forms a
part of a transaction, or, in technical language, res gesta,
evidence of it is not hearsay. Where the testimony is clearly
hearsay, there are certain exceptional instances in which it
is admissible, as in matters of public or general interest, or
of ancient possessions, or of dying declarations in cases of
homicide. It should be added that the admissions or con-
fessions, when voluntary, of a party to an action are re-
ceived in evidence against him on mixed grounds, partly as
a substitute for more regular methods of proof, and partly
as a branch of the law of res gestae. "
Rule 7. Under this rule a witness must in general testify
only to facts of which he is personally cognizant, without
giving his opinions as to their effect. There is a class of
witnesses, termed “experts,” who are allowed to give their
opinions upon facts of which they have no personal know-
ledge. For example, the testimony of persons acquainted
with the facts may be read over to the expert, and his opin-
ion asked as to the conclusion which should be drawn from
it ; or a hypothetical question, embracing the facts assumed
to be established, may be put to him. An “expert” is one
skilled in a particular trade, art, or profession. An instance
is a superintendent of an insane asylum as to matters con-
nected with the subject of insanity. There are a few instances
in which persons who are not experts are from the necessity
of the case, or by a special rule of law, allowed to testify as
to their opinions.
IRule 8. This rule shuts out evidence in a number of
cases where strong reasons of a public nature demand that
it should be excluded. A leading instance is that of confi-
dential communications between an attorney and client, and
similar communications between husband and wife. It also
prevents a judicial inquiry into “secrets of state,” and, to
a certain extent, into the deliberations of judges in forming
a judgment or of juries in arriving at a verdict.
Rule 9. There is a great statute in the English law,
termed the “statute of frauds,” requiring certain transac-
tions to be evidenced by writing, such as conveyances or
leases of land; wills of land, and some executory contracts,
as, for example, contracts to convey land or to be answer-
able for the debt of another. These are but instances of a
more extended class of cases. Without the writing as evi-
dence these contracts or transactions cannot be established.
It should, however, be added, that if such contracts, etc.
have once been written and cannot be produced, their con-
tents may be proved by oral evidence.
Rule 10. This is an inflexible rule, applicable to con-
tracts, wills, etc. Even if a contract need not have been
written, yet if the parties choose to have it so, no contem-
poraneous oral evidence can be offered to show different
or additional terms. There is a conclusive presumption of
law that the parties intended to merge all anterior and con-
temporaneous propositions in the writing. That is the sole
repository of their intention ; the rule, from the nature of
the case, does not preclude oral proof of a subsequent modi-
fication of the contract, nor does it prevent the introduction
of oral evidence to explain the writing. Thus, the mean-
ing of technical words may be shown by the testimony of
experts, and oral evidence may be used to show the circum-
stances surrounding the transaction, so as to place the
court in the position of the parties. This is a rule of inter-
pretation. It assumes that the instrument is valid. When
the validity of the instrument itself comes in question the
rule has no application. Oral evidence may accordingly be
offered to show that the instrument is void. So if a clause
has been omitted or inserted by mistake, a court of equity
will, on sufficient oral evidence, rectify the instrument, or,
in technical language, “re-form” it, and give it the form
intended by the parties.
3. The Effect of Evidence.—In general, evidence is to be
weighed by the jury or judge, as the case may be, and a
decision to be rendered in view of all the circumstances of
the case. In some instances its effect is governed by tech-
nical rules. This remark is particularly applicable to mat-
ters embraced under the head of estoppel. (See ESTOPPEL.)
The evidence in this class of cases is conclusive. The most
important instance of the application of this principle is
that of a judgment recovered in a court of justice. Judg-
ments are of two general classes—in rem or in personam.
In the one case the action or proceeding is instituted against
a “thing,” such as a ship or article of merchandise, to fix
its ownership, or to establish the stattus of a person, as
to have an adjudication that he is a lunatic. The judgment
itself accomplishes the result declared. The person in the
case supposed becomes, in legal view, a lunatic, whether he
be so in fact or not. So the ownership of the property is
in the same way established, as in the case of the adjudica-
tion of prizes in time of war. The effect of the judgment
is accordingly conclusive. By a fiction of law all persons
are supposed to be parties to such a proceeding, and to be
bound by it. An action in personam is brought against a
person to obtain a judicial declaration or sentence concern-
ing his duty or obligation. The sentence does not of itself
accomplish the required result, but a mandate to an execu-
tive officer is necessary, in the nature of an execution.
(See ExECUTION.) It is illustrated by an ordinary judg-
ment for a sum of money. The sheriff proceeds to sell the
debtor's property, and thus obtains the money. A judg-
ment in this class of cases is only conclusive evidence upon
the same subject matter between the parties to the action
and those claiming under such parties, such as heirs and
administrators. There must also have been an adjudication
upon the merits of the case. Thus, if an action be dis-
missed because it is prematurely brought—e.g., before a
claim is due—a new action can be instituted. It is a further
remark that the judgment is only conclusive upon matters
really in issue, and therefore not upon such as were inci-
dentally considered, nor upon matters that could be inferred
by argument from the judgment. There is an admirable
statement of the rule in all its branches by Lord Chief-
Justice de Grey in the famous case of the Duchess of
Kingston (20 Howell’s State Trials, 538).
It should be added that in some cases the law gives to
certain acts the force of primá facie evidence, which, as the
phrase implies, is liable to be rebutted. Thus, a promissory
note is presumptively made upon a valuable consideration.
Statute law frequently declares that a particular transaction
shall have this force. The rules of evidence are under the
control of the legislature so long as they do not impair
vested rights or violate in any manner constitutional law in
its letter or spirit.
4. The Instruments of Evidence.—These are either witnesses
or writings. (1.) Witnesses.—A witness, when within the
jurisdiction of the court, must in general attend in person.
He can be compelled to attend by a writ termed a subpoena,
and in the same way to bring writings which are required.
When beyond the jurisdiction, his testimony is taken under
a commission issuing from the court in which the case is
pending. This matter is in some respects governed by
statute, though in some of the courts, as in equity and ad-
miralty, there is an inherent power to issue commissions.
The testimony, when taken in the foreign country, is re-
turned to the court, subject to any objections which may
properly be taken to it. Certain classes of persons are excluded
from testifying. The rules upon this subject are to some ex-
tent arbitrary. They have been modified in recent times by
statute. Thus, parties to the action were at one time wholly
excluded in the courts of common law. They are now by
statutes generally admitted. The same remarks may be
made as to persons having a pecuniary interest in the event
of the litigation. Persons are still incompetent who have a
defect of understanding, or who are supposed to be insen-
sible to the obligations of an oath. Thus, persons convicted
of an infamous crime are excluded from testifying in the
courts of the State where the conviction took place. The
tendency of modern law is to allow as wide a range as pos-
sible, and to permit objections to witnesses which were
formerly grounds of exclusion to be only urged as affecting
the value of their testimony. In technical language the
1668
EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY, THE.
objection does not go “to the competency, but to the credi-
bility of the witness.” The examination of witnesses is
governed by rules which are to some extent discretionary,
and in other respects absolutely binding. The principal
rules are these : a. Leading questions are not, in general,
to be asked on the direct examination. b. The party call-
ing the witness cannot attack his character, though he may
show by independent testimony that his version of the facts
is not correct. c. The range of cross-examination is much
wider than the direct, and leading questions are permis-
sible. A witness cannot on cross-examination be asked a
collateral question for the purpose of contradicting him in
case his answer should be untrue. He may, however, be
asked, under proper limitations, with a view to contradic-
tion and the discredit of his testimony, if he has not given
out of court a different version of the facts from that to
which he now testifies, and in the same way as to expres-
sions of hostility towards the party against whom the testi-
mony is given. d. A witness is privileged from answering
a question if such answer would tend to convict him of a
crime or to subject him to a penalty or a forfeiture, though
this rule would not extend to the case where he might simply
be made liable in a civil action for a debt, etc. How far he
can refuse to answer a question which if answered would
tend to degrade him in the estimation of his fellows, is not
fully settled. e. The character of a witness may be attacked
by the opposing party, either by direct evidence of his bad
character, or rather reputation, or by showing that he has
from time to time given different versions of the facts. f. A
cross-examination is to be confined to the matters brought
out on the direct examination, and the same remark is ap-
plicable to the re-direct and subsequent examinations. (2.)
Writings for the purposes of the law of evidence are either
public or private. Public writings are either judicial or
not judicial. The law provides compulsory modes of pro-
ducing public writings for the purposes of testimony. Copies
are in general resorted to, on grounds of public convenience.
The officer having the document in custody has, in general,
the power to give a certified copy, which is admissible in
evidence. Copies of judicial records are of three varieties:
exemplified (a copy either under the great seal of state or
under the seal of the court), office (certified by the clerk or
other custodian), or sworn. A sworn copy is authenticated
by the testimony of a witness who has compared the original
with the copy. An act of Congress, authorized by the U. S.
Constitution, provides a convenient mode of authenticating
a judgment or decree of the courts of record of one State to
be used in the courts of another State. Should a record be
destroyed, its contents may be proved by oral evidence. A
private writing is proved by the production of the writing
itself, and its existence established by the testimony of a
witness. Where the writing cannot be produced, secondary
evidence of its contents may be given. In the special case
where it is in the possession of the opposite party reason-
able notice should be given to him to produce it at the trial.
If he fails to produce it, secondary evidence may be given
as before. When a private writing is executed in the pres-
ence of a witness subscribing his name at the request of the
maker of it, this witness, called a “subscribing witness,” is
the proper person to prove it. If he be dead, or for any
sufficient reason cannot be produced, his handwriting may
be proved, with some evidence to identify the party to the
action as being the person who executed the instrument.
When there is no subscribing witness, the proper course is
to call a witness acquainted with the handwriting of the
maker of the instrument to testify that in his opinion the
instrument or the signature is in the handwriting of the
party. Though this is matter of opinion, it is admitted
from the necessity of the case. Knowledge of the hand-
writing may be acquired in various modes, usually by see-
ing the person write or by having transactions or corre-
spondence with him. The testimony of experts as to hand-
writing is in some cases admitted, though the law as to the
oxtent to which they may be examined varies in the differ-
ent States. In some of the States there are convenient
statutory modes of proving private writings. A single in-
stance may be cited from the law of New York, which allows
nearly every contract, if acknowledged by the maker before
an authorized officer, such as a notary public, to be put in
evidence without other testimony by way of authentication.
The final remark may be made, that the rules of evidence,
though positive and in some respects arbitrary, are largely
based upon public convenience, and are adapted to the
wants and habits of the community.
T. W. DWIGHT.
Evidences of Christianity, The. The Evidences
of Christianity, by the very fact of their existence, afford
a strong presumption in its favor. They place it before
the world as at least claiming to be founded in truth and
suited to the reason of man. Had it made its way by
mere force and policy, or did it now require assent without
testimony and argument, there would be no need even to
investigate its merits. It might be classed at once with
the false religions which are confessedly without reasonable
evidence, if not beneath discussion. But in distinction
from all other systems it possesses a recognized body of
proof which has been accumulating for eighteen centuries
under the most varied and searching criticism, and which,
when examined, is found to be all that the case admits or
that an intelligent inquirer could demand. Such an in-
quirer may therefore be challenged at the threshold to ac-
quaint himself with the history of the Christian evidences
before he proceeds to judge them in detail.
History of the Christian Evidences.—The history of
Christianity is, in one view, but the history of its evi-
dences. Externally, at least, its course through the world
has been marked by successive crises, when it encountered
various forms of incredulity which it became necessary to
repel with suitable evidence; and out of every such con-
flict it has emerged with a triumphant vindication of its
claims and a fresh contribution of proof to after genera-
tions.
Its first conflict was with Judaism. On its native soil
and at its very origin it excited the bitter unbelief of the
Jewish rulers and people, who repudiated it as an impious
caricature of their own ancient religion, stigmatized its
author as an impostor or false Messiah, and at length com-
pelled him by the death of the cross to become the first
great martyr to its truth. Judaism, as a distinct system,
from that moment declined into a mere dead tradition, and
has since, by its own predicted fate, served but as an un-
willing witness for that Christianity which has been spread-
ing over the globe and becoming the common heritage of
all nations and races. The life and death of our Lord, in-
cluding his discourses, parables, and miracles, as recorded
in the four Gospels, constitute the evidences of Christian-
ity afforded at its origin.
Its next conflict was with Paganism. No sooner had it
been proclaimed outside of Judaea as a gospel to the na-
tions than it encountered the decaying religions of Greece
and Rome, which desperately rallied against it as a com-
mon enemy. But its course from city to city was marked
with crowds of converts, as well as with persecutions and
conflicts, everywhere accelerating the decline of those old
mythologies, which now figure only in the classic literature
made tributary to its own defence and illustration. The
planting and training of the Church, as marrated in the
Acts and Epistles of the apostles, together with the Apolo-
gies of Justin, Tatian, Athenagoras, and Theophilus, yield
the evidences belonging to this period.
Its next conflict was with Philosophy. So long as it was
contending with mere Jewish and heathen superstitions the
learned class could treat it with disdainful silence, such
great writers as Plutarch, Seneca, and Tacitus alluding to
it only in the most distant manner; but as its exclusive
claims gradually became known, its advance was met by
an infidel wing of the Neo-Platonic school, led by Celsus,
Porphyry, and Hierocles, who assailed it as a vulgar im-
posture, and at length provoked the series of bloody perse-
cutions which filled the cities of the empire with Christian
martyrs. Its apparent defeat, however, was followed by
a victory almost ruinous. It had already won from the
very ranks of Plato its first great apologist, Justin Martyr,
and it now wrested so much of philosophy itself as could
be wrought into its own theology; and at length appeared
upon the throne of Constantine as the visible head of a
new Christian civilization. Besides these worldly trophies,
its direct evidences for this period are to be found in the
testimony of the martyrs and the apologetical writings of
Tertullian, Clement, Origen, Eusebius, Cyril, Arnobius,
Lactantius, and Augustine.
Its next conflict was with Barbarism. In the Dark Ages
following the barbarian conquest and the wreck of the
Roman empire, though it was now deprived of all earthly
aid, it subdued the rude religions of the North as it had
already vanquished the classic mythologies of the South,
and treasured up from the civilization of the past all that
was valuable for that of the future. While contending
with such savage foes it could have no other evidences than
such as appeared practically in the Germanic missions and
in the great Christian schools of the Middle Ages.
Its next conflict was with Mohammedanism. The Sara-
cen was invading its domains with the Sword and the
Roran from the East to the shores of Spain; but the
fierce Goths whom it had trained into Christian knights
now by successive crusades battled for the tomb of the Sa-
viour, until Europe was delivered from the infidel. Its
evidences for this epoch were all that could be expected—
the exploits of Christian chivalry, the prizes wrested from
Arabian learning, and the apologetical writings of the
Schoolmen against the Jews and Mohammedans in Moor- .
ish Spain.
EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY, THE.
1669
Its next conflict was with modern Rationalism. Divided
at the Reformation into Catholicism and Protestantism, it
encountered a treacherous foe which for several centuries
past, under various guises, has been subjecting its divine
revelations to the test of mere human reason. But hither-
to the strength of its evidences has only been proved by
each successive assault. The Italian naturalists of the
sixteenth century, such as Pomponatius, Caesalpin, and
Cremoninus, who held Aristotelian opinions subversive of
revealed religion at the very court of Rome and under
feigned respect to the Church, wrought their own defeat by
their shameless hypocrisy and vice. The English deists of
the seventeenth century (such as Herbert, Hobbes, and To-
land), and of the eighteenth century (such as Collins, Tyn-
dal, and Bolingbroke), who professed mere natural religion
as essential Christianity, were so completely repulsed by
the great apologists, Cudworth, Bentley, Berkeley, and But-
ler, that their very works have become obsolete or linger
only as brilliant names in literature. The French atheists
of the last century, such as Helvetius, Diderot, and D'Hol-
bach, who assailed Christian morality itself with a sensual
fatalism, only precipitated that terrible Revolution which
has made them infamous as enemies of civilization, no less
than of religion. The German pantheists of the present
century, such as Strauss, Bauer, and Feuerbach, who have
been striving to resolve Christianity into mere mythology,
were routed upon their own ground and with their own
weapons by such learned and acute writers as Neander,
Ebrard, and Ullmann. And it is safe to predict that the
sciolists of our own day, who are opposing it with science
falsely so called, are but ensuring a like failure and defeat.
But the still remaining and perhaps final conflict is to be
with modern Heathenism. Having developed for itself in
the western nations of Europe and America during the
last eighteen hundred years a civilization the highest the
world has yet ever seen, it would be strange if it could not
now cope with those eastern nations of Asia and Africa
which meanwhile have remained stationary or relapsed to
a savage state. And accordingly, for the last half century
it has been slowly enveloping the globe with a network of
missions, which, in connection with advancing science,
commerce, and diplomacy, already betokens the ultimate
triumph of Christian civilization over heathen barbarism
throughout the earth. -
Classification of the Christian Evidences.—On reviewing
now the evidences which have thus been accumulating dur-
ing this exciting history, we at once become embarrassed
by their richness and fulness. Much ingenuity has, in
fact, been exercised in digesting and arranging them, but
the most common and serviceable classification is that by
which they are divided as eacternal and internal, with suit-
able subdivisions.
The external evidences are such as relate to the fact or
existence of Christianity, rather than to its nature or sys-
tem—the mere credentials of revelation as distinguished
from its contents. They will naturally distribute them-
selves into the following groups: 1st, Prophecies, which
have been fulfilled in the course of ancient empires, in the
coming of Messiah, in the fortunes and fate of the Jews,
and in the progress of the Christian Church; 2d, Miracles,
which were wrought by prophets and apostles in attestation
of their divine commission as teachers, disclosed in the life
and death of Christ, the Son of God, and confirmed by the
supernatural success of Christianity in the first age; 3d,
Historical Testimonies to the authenticity and genuineness
of the sacred writings, afforded not only by undesigned
coincidences among them, but by contemporaneous heathen
literature and by modern antiquarian research. Collections
of the first kind of evidence may be found in the works of
Newton and Keith; of the second, in those of Watson,
Sherlock, Lesley, and Campbell in reply to Gibbon, Hume,
and Paine; and of the third, in those of Lardner, Paley,
Norton, Greenleaf, and Rawlinson.
The internal evidences are such as appear in Christianity
itself, in the purport of the revelation which has been so
miraculously attested. An argument for its divine excel-
lence may be traced in all that distinguishes it from other
mere human systems: 1st, in its doctrines, transcending the
highest philosophy, such as the existence, perfections, and
policy of the Creator, the origin of the world, the scheme of
redemption, the state and destiny of man; 2d, in its pre-
cepts, surpassing the purest ethics, such as the Ten Com-
mandments, the Sermon on the Mount, the counsels of the
apostles; 3d, in its examples, unapproached by worldly
heroes, such as those of evangelists, Saints, and martyrs,
and, above all, the immaculate Jesus himself; 4th, in its
effects, not only upon the welfare of individuals, but upon
the interests of society, as seen in works of charity and
philanthropy, in the arts of peace, in humane laws and free
institutions, and in the entire civilization which for centu-
ries it has been unfolding. Specimens of such arguments
may be found in the treatises of Jenyns and Warburton,
of Archibald Alexander, Hopkins, and McIlvaine, and of
Luthardt and Delitsch.
Still further classes of evidence are of a mixed nature,
being partly external and partly internal, and serving to
show the connection and consistency of Christianity with
other facts and truths. They also may be indicated under
several heads: 1st, Eaſperimental evidences, acquired by
those who have personally tested in their own faith and
practice the doctrines, precepts, and promises of the gospel,
and thus offer new and original testimony; 2d, Scientific
evidences, collected from the sciences which illustrate the
existence and attributes of the Deity, and confirm the inci-
dental allusions of Scripture to physical, mental, and moral
phenomena; 3d, Philosophical evidences, derived from right
reason and large experience as to the probable existence of
a Divine government, a future state, a supernatural revela-
tion, and a scheme of redemption, such as are found in the
Scriptures, and also from the view of religion and nature as
but consistent parts of one system, having the same Author.
Examples of such high orders of evidence may be seen in
the works of Locke, Browne, Butler, Paley, the Bridge-
water Treatises, and the recent Bampton Lectures.
These various classes of evidence, when grouped together
in one view, tend to produce a conviction which has been
well likened by Bishop Butler to what is called the effect
in architecture or other works of art. Bxamined sepa-
rately, they may excite as little emotion as scattered stones
upon a plain, but when combined, as they have been by this
great architectonic genius, in one compact, cumulative argu-
ment, their resulting impression is like that of the same
materials after they have been chiselled and fashioned into
a magnificent building. But we already trench upon the
next topic.
Logic of the Christian Evidences.—A far more important
question than the mere classification of these evidences is
that of their logical nature and value. Viewed from this
point, they must ever take rank as the highest branch of
applied logic, as well for the difficult problems which they
involve as for the kinds of reasoning employed. And the
practical bearing of the inquiry is shown by the fact that
different apologists, in treating of the evidences, have more
or less consciously exaggerated one class of them at the ex-
pense of the other, until, like a divided army wrangling in
the face of an enemy, they have allowed infidels to involve
both of them in doubt and suspicion. Of the two evidential
schools which have thus taken opposite grounds, the one
would render Christianity reasonable, the other present it
as simply credible; the one would claim for it demonstra-
tive evidence carrying full conviction, the other seek only
probable evidence accumulating towards certainty; the one
would dwell upon the internal philosophical proof, the other
upon the external historical testimony ; and at length the
one ends in testing the whole content of revelation by mere
reason, whilst the other virtually destroys all rational con-
ditions of faith. The former method has been successively
pursued to its extreme by Descartes, Clarke, and Wolf, and
the latter by Butler, Chalmers, and Mansel. . .
It is enough here to assert the validity of both methods
within the limits they impose upon each other. Each has
had its value at different times and for different minds. The
primitive apologists needed the external evidence for the
Jews, who required a sign, as well as the internal evidence
for the Greeks, who sought wisdom. And from that day
till the present there have been infidels who were won by
the doctrine and example of Jesus before they could admit
his miracles, as there have been believers who ceased to find
difficulties in Scripture after they had accepted it as an at-
tested revelation. The simple truth is, that neither kind
of proof can be spared from the high argument, and that
both must be ultimately combined in Örder to ensure full
conviction. - -
At this point the logical question we are considering be-
gins to involve an ethical or moral element. It should be
carefully observed that the apparent deficiency in the Chris-
tian evidences neither necessitates unbelief nor releases from
obligation. On the contrary, the inquirer simply becomes
accountable in proportion to the evidence perceived and the
interests at stake. He is still to be tested and judged by
the light which he has. Moreover, his incredulity may be
his own fault. It is certain that the Christian evidences
have hitherto proved sufficient for the greatest minds of the
race. Are they now on the wane or on the increase ? This
is the remaining question.
Progress of the Christian Evidences.—A distinguished
mathematician of the seventeenth century, John Craig, pro-
fessed to calculate, on the hypothesis that the suspicions
against historical evidence increase with the square of the
time, that the evidence of Christianity will become ex-
tinct about the year 3150, when the Son of man will come
and no longer find faith on the earth. And a school of
1670
EVIL–EVOLUTION, HYPOTHESIS OF.
modern skeptics, including poets as well as philosophers, is
already sighing over the decay of Christianity as but the
last of the world’s mythologies, destined to be superseded
by the perfect religion of the future. If all that is meant
by such writers is the decay of their own Christian faith, it
need not be denied that many restless, speculative minds are
breaking away from their moorings in false creeds and cor-
rupt systems claiming to be Christian; but if the appre-
hension is that Christianity itself is dying out or losing its
hold upon the world, such forebodings are to be no more
seriously treated than the outcries of men losing their an-
chorage who fancy it is the immovable shore and not their
own little vessel that is drifting away. Christianity has in
fact lost nothing of the evidence which it has been accumu-
lating since the time when first its miracles were wrought
and its prophecies spoken. Not only does the testimony to
those miracles remain unimpeached, not only is the fulfil-
ment of those prophecies still passing before our eyes, but
the human sciences since then unfolded are yielding it a new
class of evidences, affording it fresh confirmation and illus-
tration, and commending it to the highest intellect and cul-
ture of the time; and the reasonable presumption is that,
one after another, they will yet corroborate all revealed
facts and doctrines, until everywhere there shall be an in-
telligible triumph of the Divine through the human reason
over all earthly error and sin.
That such an increase of evidence in this quarter is prob-
able may be argued from the very nature of science and
revelation as complementary factors of knowledge. It is
inconceivable that the word of God should contradict his
works, or that human reason could supersede a divine rev-
elation; and when any discrepancies appear between Na-
ture and Scripture, we must simply assume that there has
been some wrong induction from either or both of them,
and that ultimately, after the whole truth is known, they
will confirm and illustrate each other. This has, in fact,
been the result of past conflicts between the scientific and
religious parties. Geography, in the early Church, repu-
diated the idea of an inhabited globe as contrary to the
Scriptures, but ships now carry the same Scriptures to the
antipodes. Astronomy, during the Middle Ages, described
the heavens as huge crystal spheres revolving about our
earth, but the very same heavens, as devoutly interpreted
by Kepler, Newton, and Herschel, still declare the glory of
God. Geology, of late years, has seemed inconsistent with
the long-received interpretation of Genesis, but the story
of the earth itself, as read by Miller, Hitchcock, and Guyot,
still tells how it was made in six days. Anthropology, at
the present moment, is full of conflicting theories, some of
which menace the Scripture doctrine of the first Adam, but
he must simply prejudge the whole question against all
precedent who asserts that man was not made in the image
of God. And in the region of the mental, moral, and
social sciences, where the need and fact of a revelation are
so much more obvious, the likelihood increases that there
will hereafter be still higher and grander illustrations of
Christian doctrine.
It is an encouraging sign of progress in the evidences of
Christianity that so many organized efforts are on foot for
their promotion, and some of them in the interest of true
science as well as of religion. The Royal Society itself
was founded by philosophers and divines who vindicated
the consistency of natural with supernatural knowledge.
Other institutions have followed, expressly designed for the
defence of the Christian religion, such as the Boyle Lectures,
the Bampton Sermons, the Bridgewater Treatises, the Bur-
met Essays in Great Britain, and the Lowell, Graham, and
Ely Lectures in this country, together with more perma-
ment educational appliances, such as chairs of Christian
apologetics in divinity schools and of science and religion
in our colleges. And the literature which has grown up in
connection with these institutions, and by other independent
efforts, is already of surprising extent and richness. Notices
of this literature may be found in the appendix to Farrar's
“Critical History of Free Thought,” and the Abbé Migne
has published a series of twenty volumes, 4to, entitled
“Demonstrations Evangéliques,” containing a full collec-
tion of the principal evidential treatises, of all schools in all
ages, chronologically arranged, as a work equally import-
ant to the infidel, to the skeptic, and to the believer.
CHARLEs W. SHIELDs.
E^vil, the total or partial absence or negation of good,
and the presence of imperfection, suffering, or sin. The
question of the origin of evil has in every age attracted the
attention of thoughtful minds. The Zoroastrians and Gnos-
ties tried to solve it by the dualistic theory of the opposi-
tion of a good and an evil principle. Others have main-
tained that evil is a necessary part of the Divine economy,
and that under the superintendence of Infinite Wisdom
evil will result in the highest possible good. It seems cer-
tain that moral freedom itself implies at least the possibility
of an evil choice, so that evil must potentially exist where
goodness exists. The solution of such questions is, how-
ever, beyond the power of any finite mind.
Evil Eye; the mysterious power of injury which in
former ages was generally ascribed to the look of a malevo-
lent person. The Greek and Roman classics contain numer-
ous references to this belief, which was also very common
in the Middle Ages in Europe. In Mohammedan and un-
civilized countries this superstition is still almost universal,
and it is by no means extinct among the peasantry of more
civilized lands. It especially prevails in Western Africa.
It is perhaps based upon the supposed powers of fascination
possessed by serpents, of which much exaggerated stories
were told and believed. Charms were much worn to pre-
vent the mischief which it was believed could be done by
the evil eye, which was considered especially dangerous to
young children.
Ev’olute [for etymology see Evolution], literally,
“something unfolded or unwrapped,” in mathematics, is
a curve, plane or otherwise, around which, if a flexible and
inextensible string be wrapped, and then unwrapped under
tension, there result other parallel curves called involutes,
one of which is described by every point of the tense
string in unwinding. Every plane curve has its plane evo-
lute, besides an infinite number of helical evolutes lying in
the curved surface of the solid generated by the motion of
the given plane curve parallel to itself. The common cy-
cloid, the epicycloids, and the hypocycloids have plane
evolutes exactly similar to themselves, but inverted in posi-
tion. The logarithmic spiral is the only curve having all
its evolutes similar to itself.
Evolution [Lat. evolu’tio, from e, “out,” and vol/vo, vo-
lw/tum, to “roll,” whence evol'vo, to “unfold” or “evolve”],
the act of unfolding, development; in algebra and arithme-
tie, the extraction of roots; in other words, the inverse
operation to involution. The object of evolution, therefore,
is to ascertain the quantity which multiplied by itself a
stated number of times yields a given. result. In a wider
sense, evolution may be regarded as synonymous with the
solution of a binomial equation, for it is obvious that the
nº root of any number a satisfies or is a root of the equa-
tion ** a = 0. This root is indicated by the symbol
Wa or a”.
Evolution, Hypothesis of ; also called The The-
ory of Development. According to this, in its simplest'
form, the universe as it now exists is the result of “an im-
mense series of changes,” related to and dependent upon
each other, as successive steps, or rather growths, consti-
tuting a progress; analogous to the unfolding or evolving
of the parts of a growing organism. Evolution is defined
by Herbert Spencer as consisting in a progress from the
homogeneous to the heterogeneous, from general to special,
from the simple to the complex; and this process is con-
sidered to be traceable in the formation of the Worlds in
space, in the multiplication of the types and species of
plants and animals on the globe, in the origination and
diversity of languages, literature, arts, and Sciences, and in
all the changes of human institutions and Society.
History.—Faint gleams only of the idea of evolution ap-
peared among the ancients. An old Egyptian cosmological
myth was that of a chaotic or mundane egg, from which all
things successively emerged; with the belief, also, that
repeated creations and destructions of the world have oc-
curred. Thales taught that in the beginning all matter
was in a fluid state. Anaxagoras held that all consisted at
first of atoms, infinitely numerous, and eternal; among
which orderly arrangement was produced by a shaping
Nows or intelligent Power, infinite and self-existent. Op-
posed to this conception was that of Democritus and
Epicurus, as represented in the poem of Lucretius, “De
Rerum Natură,” according to which chance, not intelli-
gence, wrought, in infinite time, out of numberless atoms,
all existing things. Not far removed from this was the
notion of Empedocles, mentioned by Aristotle (Phys. ii. 8),
that many monsters were formed by the spontaneous efforts
of nature before man appeared. More clear seems the
reference to creative development in the words of David
(Psalm exxxix.): “My substance was not hid from thee,
when I was made in secret, and curiously wrought in the
lowest parts of the earth. Thine eyes did see my sub-
stance, yet being unperfect; and in thy book all my mem-
bers were written, which in continuance were fashioned,
when as yet there was none of them.” -
Leibnitz, in modern times, first definitely proposed the
opinion that the world was once in a fluid condition (Pro-
togea, 1693). De Maillet (who died in 1738) and Wright
of Durham, as well as, perhaps, Lambert, preceded Kant
in expanding this thought. But Kant, in his “Theory of
the Heavens” (1755), originated the nebular hypothesis.
EVOLUTION, HYPOTHESIS OF.
1671
Laplace (Système du Monde, 1796, and Mécanique Céleste,
1799–1825) elaborated this into a theory of the solar sys-
tem; while Sir William Herschel (Proc. Têoyal Society, 1811)
gave it a nearer approach to perfection in its gºneral cos-
mic relations as a theory of the stellar universe. Sir John
Herschel’s hypothesis of “sidereal aggregation * presents a
further modification of this. (See NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS.)
In biology, Buffon (Histoire Naturelle, 1749–88) is cred-
ited with distinctly advocating the transmutation of species.
The most important beginning, however, of those induc-
tions which have made possible the Science of embryology,
and have contributed most largely to the general theory of
development, was that of Wolff (Epigenesis, 1759; Theoria
Generationis, 1764). He first discerned the importance of
the transmutations of structure and form which the parts
of plants and animals undergo, by means of which, from
almost formless seeds or eggs, come their diverse and com-.
plex organisms. Goethe (Metamorphose der Pflanzen, 1790)
apprehended, independently, the same truth. Oken (His-
tory of the Development of the Intestinal Canal, 1803), Pan-
der (1817), and, still more important, Von Baer (from 1819),
carried out this idea, as an extensive generalization, Sup-
ported by numberless facts. Many other laborers have since
Worked in the same field.
In like direction have tended the results of inquiries into
the ultimate elementary forms and proximate materials of
animal and vegetable tissues: Schleiden and Schwann (1838)
showing the cell-form to be common to both kingdoms in
all their classes and orders; and Wom Mohl and Max Schultze
(1850–61), that a protoplasmic material, similar but not iden-
tical, is found in them all. (See CELLs and PROTOPLASM.)
In regard to the transmutation of species, Lord Monboddo
in 1774 suggested the possible origin of man from the ape.
With more scientific ability and knowledge, Lamarck (Phi-
losophie Zoologique, 1809) proposed the hypothesis of organic
development, which is chiefly associated with his name. One
of his leading conceptions was that of the elevation of an
animal (e. g. ape) to a higher range of faculties and appro-
priate organs by the prolonged and repeated efforts made
by it to attain to conditions and advantages just within, or,
at first, beyond, its reach. Dr. Erasmus Darwin (author of
“Phytologia,” “Zoonomia,” etc.) about 1794–95 published
speculative views containing at least the germ of the “Dar-
winism" of to-day. Dr. W. C. Wells proposed the applica-
tion of natural selection to the natural history of man in
1813. W. Herbert in 1822 asserted the probable transmu-
tation of species in plants. Prof. R. E. Grant advocated the
same opinion about 1826.
Immediately connected with this progress of investigation
were some important inquiries concerning the correlation
of forces in nature, and the conservation or “persistence
of force.” First in the order of generalization or logical
discovery on this subject are to be named B. Thompson
(Count Rumford), 1798–1806, and Oersted, 1812–20; next
to these, Seguin of France, Grove and Joule of England,
Mayer of Germany, and Colding of Denmark; all of whom
about 1842 announced, independently of each other, the
idea of the essential unity of force, as involved in the mu-
tual convertibility of the “modes of motion,” observed by
us as mechanical movement, heat, light, and electricity,
into each other, under changed conditions. Since that time
the correlations of the physical forces have been studied
especially by Helmholtz, Faraday, Henry, and Tyndall.
Vital force has been regarded as belonging to the same
series of correlations in the writings of Liebig, Carpenter,
Hinton, Waters, Barker, and others; and even mind-force
is so included by Morell, Laycock, and Maudsley, as well
as by Moleschott, Büchner, and other materialists. .
Returning to the path of biological inquiry, we find that
Geoffroy St.-Hilaire contended against Cuvier, in the early
part of the present century, in favor of the transmutation
of species. Popular interest in this subject was awakened
by the publication, in 1844, of the “Vestiges of Creation,”
an anonymous work showing great ingenuity, but only a
moderate acquaintance with the facts of science. Alexander
Humboldt also, in 1844, declared his conviction that species
are not immutable. Richard Owen, in 1850, referred to the
struggle for existence as a cause of destruction of types
least fitted for the conditions around them, and proposed
about the same time the theory of the origin of species by
“ derivation” in a pre-ordained succession. Naudin, a French
botanist, and Prof. Asa Gray of Cambridge, Mass., as early
as 1856, drew somewhat similar inferences from their obser-
Vations. More prominently, however, than any other since
1852, has the name of Herbert Spencer been connected with
the theory of development, both in cosmology and biology.
His “First Principles of Philosophy,” “Illustrations of
Universal Progress,” and “Principles of Biology” have,
with much labor both of synthesis and analysis, and great
adroitness of reasoning and clearness of expression, wrought
out what may be called a philosophy of evolution. Baden
Powell of Oxford, England, in an able work on the “Unity
of Worlds,” in 1855, argued forcibly for the probable con-
tinuity of the process of creation throughout time. Alfred
R. Wallace and Charles Darwin, in 1858, separately pro-
posed the hypothesis of the origin of species by spontaneous
variation, and the survival of the fittest through natural
selection and the struggle for existence. In 1859 appeared
Darwin's treatise on the “Origin of Species.” (See DAR-
WINISM.)
Strenuous opponents as well as advocates of the views
above referred to have not been wanting. B. Peirce, R.
Proctor, and others among astronomers have found serious
difficulties in the way of adopting the nebular hypothesis
as a finality. Organic evolution, including the transmuta-
tion of species, has been opposed by De Blainville, Milne
Edwards, Sedgwick, Brewster, Balfour, Agassiz, Barrande,
Dana, and Dawson. Besides those already named, it has
been accepted in some form (not always that of Darwin)
by Huxley, Vogt, Fritz Müller, Haeckel, Gegenbaur, Mi-
vart, Hooker, Lubbock, and others in Europe, and by
Clark, Cope, Hyatt, Hayden, and other naturalists in
America. Among its ablest defenders has been Prof. E. L.
Youmans. (See an “Exposition of the Development Hy-
pothesis” by this author, and an admirable “Criticism *
of the same, in “Johnson’s Natural History,” by Julius
H. Seelye, D. D.) A majority of the scientists of the
present day are on the side of the general theory of evo-
lution. “Scarcely a single competent general naturalist,”
wrote in 1873 Prof. Wyville Thomson of Edinburgh, “fails
to accept it, in some form or other.” In the words of
Prof. Youmans (Popular Science Monthly, Nov., 1872),
“Darwin may be in error, Huxley may be wrong, Mivart
may be wide of the mark, Haeckel may be mistaken, Cope
may misjudge, and Spencer be at fault; but, in common
with a large and increasing body of scientific men, they
are all agreed as to one thing, that evolution is a great and
‘established fact—a wide and valid induction from the ob-
served order of nature, the complete elucidation of which
is the grand scientific task of the future.” -
The application of the idea of development to sociolog
and history has been made by Herbert Spencer, J. W.
Draper, and Bagehot, although earlier suggested by Her-
der (Ideas of the Philosophy of the History of Mankind)
about the beginning of the present century. George Dar-
win has written recently upon development in dress; and
Dr. James Ross upon natural selection in the causation
of diseases (The Graft Theory of Disease, 1872). In the
above list of authors, moreover, we have not mentioned
several of eminence who have written especially upon the
relation of the theory of development to theology; as Leif-
child (Higher Ministry of Nature), the Duke of Argyll (The
Reign of Law), and Dr. McCosh (Christianity, and Positiv-
ism). (See, also, The Evolution of Life, by H. C. Chap-
man, * and Philosophy of Evolution, by B. T. Lowne,
1873.
Without space in this work for an exhaustive discussion
of the subject of evolution, its importance requires a brief
statement of the main elements of the inquiry.
Is Progress a Fact in Nature ? Cosmologists and mat-
uralists are all agreed upon this. In the language of the
Duke of Argyll, “It is as certain as any fact of science
that creation has had a history. It has not been a single
act, done and finished once for all, but a long series of
acts—a work continuously pursued through an inconceiv-
able lapse of time. It is another fact, equally certain, re-
specting this work, that as it has been pursued in time, so
also it has been pursued by method. There is an observed
order of facts in the history of creation, both in the organic
and in the inorganic world.” Prof. Leconte asserts 390 co-
incidences in the solar system which are conformable to the
nebular hypothesis. Some experimental support for it has
also been afforded by the physicist Plateau. Lord Rosse's
telescope diminished for a time the strength of the evidence
in its favor by resolving many nebulae into star-clusters,
and leaving it in doubt whether there were any really con-
sisting of unorganized “star-dust” or “world-stuff.” Hug-
gins, however, with the spectroscope, ascertained in 1864
that a nebula in the constellation Draco consists of gaseous
matter; and since that time several others have been found
to have that character. (See SPECTROSCOPE.) The spiral
form of a number of nebulae, and the annular shape of
others, agree well with the rotary movement supposed in
world-formation according to the nebular hypothesis.
Some astronomers also consider that a sudden appearance
in r Coronae, observed in 1868, indicated an alteration in
the substance of that star, such as the incandescence of a
gaseous material like hydrogen would produce. R. Proc-
tor has written upon “star-drifts,” showing a certain or-
derly arrangement of the bodies in space outside of our
solar system. The spectroscope has contributed much
towards the theory of cosmic development, by exhibiting
1672
EvoluTION, HYPOTHESIS OF.
the close correspondence in the material composition of all
the worlds. . Durocher also (Essai de Géologie Comparée;
1857) proved the originally molten condition of our earth’s
surface by a careful comparative study of the specific grav-
. and the order of successive deposition of crystalline
I’OCKS.
embryology, and botany unite in asserting progress. (See
GEOLOGY.) Prof. Dana, one of the highest authorities in
natural science, and an opponent of the development hy-
pothesis, may be quoted to this effect (Teact-Book of Geol-
ogy, pp. 250, 255): “Life commenced among plants in sea-
Weeds, and it ended in palms, oaks, elms, the orange, rose,
etc. It commenced among animals in Lingulae (mollusks
standing on a stem like a plant) and in crinoids and trilo-
bites, if not earlier in the simple, systemless protozoans’’
(see Eozoox); “it ended in man. Sea-weeds were followed
by ferns and other flowerless plants, and by gymnosperms,
the lowest of flowering plants; these finally by the higher
flowering species, the palms and angiosperms. Radiates,
mollusks, and articulates of the Silurian afterwards had
fishes associated with them; later, reptiles; later, birds
and inferior mammals; later, higher mammals, as beasts
of prey and cattie ; lastly, man.” “There were higher
and lower species created through all the ages, but the suc-
cessive populations were still, in their general range, of
higher and higher grade; and thus the progress was ever
upward.” “With every new fauna and flora in the pass-
ing periods there was a fuller and higher exhibition of the
kingdoms of life.” - -
Admitting, then, this universal fact of progress in na-
ture, some further propositions. may be laid down as
proven :
1. The method of progress has been, on the whole, from
generalized types to those more special—i.e. with multipli-
cation of organs and functions, or differentiation. Com-
prehensive types of earlier periods have sometimes been.
called by palaeontologists “prophetic” types, containing
elements which become distributed amongst those which
succeed them. Examples of these are the following: Ichthyo-
sawrws, comprising or combining the types of the fish and
the reptile; Pterodactyl, Archaeopteryac, and Compsognathus,
those of reptile and bird; Archegosaurus, of amphibian and
true reptile; Sivatherium, called in description a “pachy-
dermoid antelope;” Oreodom, a “ruminating hog;” Amom-
opus, an “ornithoid, marsupialoid quadruped.” All of these
are fossil, and now extinct. Examples of an analogous
kind are seen in a few animals of to-day, as Ornithorhynchus,
a duck-billed quadruped; Lepidosiren, which combines some
of the characters both of the reptile and the fish, etc. The
molluscan group of cephalopods represents, in a manner,
all four of the great types of Cuvier. “The beak, com-
plex eye, tongue, ear, crop, gizzard, and cartilages analogous
to the spine, point to the vertebrates; sucker-bearing arms
and long axis, to radiates; cut off the mouth and its sur-
roundings from the rest of the body, and we have the sem-
blance of the star-fish; while the tentacles lead to the an-
tennae of the articulates.” (Ward, Descriptive Catalogue
of Fossils, etc.) Among plants, the fossil Lycopodia com-
prehend characters both of ferns and pines; Cycads, pecu-
liarities of ferns, pines, and palms, etc. ---
2. Unity of plan pervades all organic nature, as exhibited
in the homology or correspondence of parts which prevails
throughout the animal and vegetable kingdoms. (See AN-
ATOMY, and CoMPARATIVE ANATOMY.)
3. Many gradations and transitional forms intervene be-
tween those great groups into which animals and plants
are divided or classified. The comprehensive types above
mentioned may be regarded as transitional. Such, too, are
the Odontornithes (birds with teeth) and Ichthyornithes
(fish-like birds), lately described by Marsh, and the Eoba-
sileidae and other tertiary forms between proboscidians and
ungulates, described by Leidy, Marsh, and Cope. The last-
named naturalist (Evolution and its Consequences, 1872)
enumerates many genera in which, between the so-called
species, there are determinable gradations; as of birds,
Corvus, Empidonaz, Buteo, Falco; reptiles, Entaenia, Anolis,
Lycodon, Naja, Cawdisona, Elaps; batrachians, Rana, Hyla,
Choraphilus, Borborocoetes, Amblystoma, Spelerpes; fishes,
Ptychostomw8, Plecostomus, Salmo, Perca, and others. A
group of worms receives the name Gephyraea, because of
its “bridging over” the gap between Vermes and Echino-
dermata. Amphioacus (lancelet) appears to connect verte-
brates with the mollusca. Between Polycistina and Spongia,
as Carpenter shows, comes Acanthometrina. Among fun-
gous plants, especially those discerned by aid of the micro-
scope, distinctions of a permanent kind are difficult to
establish, and Kiitzing and Schleiden have asserted that
“there are no species, but only forms, of Algae.”
4. A very remarkable correspondence prevails amongst
animals and plants in three orders of relative succession :
a, in geological time; b, in zoological rank; c, in embryo-
In organic nature on the earth, geology, zoology, .
logical development. No naturalist has done more to es-
tablish the generality of this threefold correspondence than
Agassiz, who, nevertheless, continues to oppose the hypothe-
sis of evolution by transmutation or modification of specific
types. What is meant by the above proposition is, that
when one animal is known to be, geologically, more recent
in its appearance on the globe than another somewhat allied
to it, it will (generally) be found also to rank higher than
it in the zoological scale, as measured by complication of
structure, variety of powers, and, in some groups at least,
greater intelligence; also, the more recent type passes, in
its embryological development, through successive stages of
change, including those of the less recent allied type, whose
adult condition represents, more or less nearly, an immature
or embryonic state of the higher and later, more advanced
type. Some of the examples of this parallelism have long
been familiar to naturalists; others have been but lately
fully studied, especially by E. D. Cope in Salamandridae
(Origin of Genera, 1868) and Alpheus Hyatt in Cephal-
opoda (Fossil Cephalopods, etc., 1872). A few instances
will answer our purpose. Trilobites, of the palaeozoic era,
resemble the embryonic state of Limulus of to-day. Laby-
rinthodon, of the trias, is like an arrested development of
the later saurians. Anoplotherium recalls an embryonic
stage of ruminants; the extinct dodo has been compared to
an incompletely developed duck or goose; the siren mani-
fests a similar relation to the lung-breathing batrachians.
“Man presents in his earliest stages of embryonic growth
a skeleton of cartilage, like that of the lamprey; also, five
origins of the aorta and five slits on the neck, like the lam-
prey and the shark. Later, he has but four aortic origins,
and a heart now divided into two chambers, like bony fishes;
the optic lobes of his brain also having a very fish-like pre-
dominance in size. Three chambers of the heart and three
aortic origins follow, presenting a -condition permanent in
the Batrachia; then two origins, with enlarged hemispheres
of the brain, as in reptiles. Four heart-chambers, and one
aortie root on each side, with slight development of the
cerebellum, agree with the characters of the crocodiles, and
immediately precede the special mammalian conditions—a
single aortic root and the full development of the cerebel-
lum. Later comes that of the cerebrum also in its higher
mammalian and human traits.” In all this succession and
parallelism it is important to remember that the human
embryo at no time assumes the eacact or entire character of
that of any other order of mammals, or that of reptile, bird,
or fish. It is only assimilated to these lower types, without
ever being identified with either of them. Yet this assimi-
lation is a fact of very great importance. -
5. Teleology is the name given to the study of another
class of facts, coextensive with our acquaintance with na-
ture, and especially obvious in the structures of the higher
beings—viz., those which display adaptation and give evi-
dence of purpose. These are most of all familiar in our
own bodies, as the complex formation of the eye as an in-
strument of vision, with a nerve to convey the impression
of light and a brain to perceive it, the hand for prehen-
sion, the mouth for speech, the foot for support and locomo-
tion, the stomach for digestion, etc. Natural Science fur-
mishes no more beautiful and wonderful instances of Such
adaptation than those carefully studied and described by
Darwin in the formation of many plants, so as to be fertil-
ized by the interposition of insects which visit the flowers
for their food. (Darwin on the Fertilization of Orchids ;
Gray, How Plants Behave.) Such facts, and thousands of
others in nature proving adaptation, are too-clear to be
ignored, although speculative reasoning has introduced a
question in regard to their origin or causation. The sim-
ple truth is, that design is to be inferred, as purposve
adaptation adheres to the facts; is itself a fact.
6. Modification according to surrounding conditions oc-
curs, to a limited extent, both in animals and plants. Some
dependence upon conditions is inevitable. . Thus, the ear-
liest consolidation of the surface of the earth made it ready
only for the simplest and lowest of plants. The animals of
primitive periods were all aquatic. The first land-plants and
land animals appeared on the earth in the Devonian age.
The soil of the mesozoic period, almost certainly, would
not have supported our vegetation, nor any vegetation
capable of maintaining the now existing types of animal
life. The atmosphere, the oceanic and inland waters, and
all other terrene conditions have been different in the suc-
ceeding epochs. The mould of the field and forest of our
day is the result of an immensely complex series of pro-
ductions and decompositions going on through all ages
since the azoic era. Each time, by its actions and reac-
tions, prepares the way for the next. Man was, probably,
necessarily, the last created animal, because the highest
and most complicated, and thus requiring the latest and
highest elaboration of terrestrial conditions.
But modification by changed conditions, acting upon ex-
EVOLUTION, HYPOTHESIS OF.
1673
isting types, appears only within limitations. In organisms
of little motility a law may be enunciated—that “exten-
sion occurs chiefly in the direction of least resistance, and
increase of density in the direction of greatest resistance.”
It is proper to give some examples to illustrate “condi-
tional action ” on individuals and species in nature.
Fungi are said by some botanists to be very variable,
according to the places and circumstances of their growth.
With higher aquatic plants, some individuals of which may
have their leaves out of and others in the water, the air-pores
or stomata are often on the under side in the former case,
and on the upper side in the latter. Tendrils of climbing
plants cease growing when finding nothing to clasp, but
grow thick and strong after taking hold of a support.
Shells of oysters are thicker on a wave-washed shore than
where the water is always tranquil. Tadpoles develop into
frogs in a few weeks when exposed to sunlight; in the dark,
they may be kept as tadpoles for months. Cysticercus, a
small animal parasite, when lodged in the liver or brain of
a man, ox, or hog, becomes a hydatid surrounded by a
watery tumor; in the intestinal canal, a tape-worm ten or
twenty feet long. When the queen-bee of a hive is de-
stroyed, the workers will select a neuter larva, and by pla-
cing it in a royal cell and feeding it with queen’s food, con-
vert it into a queen. Late observations (Am. Naturalist,
May, 1873) make it appear that the sex of butterflies may be
controlled by diminishing or increasing the supply of food
to the caterpillars; short allowance promoting a preponder-
ance of the male sex. Wallace found in the Malay Archi-
pelago a marked influence of locality in the characteristics
of Papilionidae. Some moles have rudimentary eyes, as if
they had lost them gradually by want of use ; and the
same may be said of blind fish in large caves. (See AM-
BLYoPsis.) Lewes (Nature, Mar. 27, 1873) mentions that,
while the young of Salamanders usually undergo their trans-
formation in the water, Salamandra atra, living high upon
mountains, is born completely formed. M. Baray has ob-
served that frogs in the volcanic island of Guadaloupe go
through the tadpole changes in the egg. Domestic ducks
have the leg-bones heavier; wild ones, those of the wings.
Udders of cows in the domestic state are much larger than
when wild. The drooping ears of several domestic animals
follow the change from the wild condition. The heads of
wild hogs, and those of the horses of steppes or pampas,
are larger than those of the domesticated animals. Artificial
selection and breeding cause great diversities.in animals and
plants. Of the latter, witness the double flowers and num-
berless varieties “created” by the horticulturists, and such
changes as those from the wild to the cultivated cabbage,
broccoli, and cauliflower. Ancon sheep and the Otter breed
of cattle are merely extreme instances of the many effects
of utilized and directed variations. English greyhounds
taken to hunt on a high Mexican plateau, 9000 feet above
the level of the ocean, failed for want of breath, but their
offspring acquired a capacity to run as well there as else-
where. Acquired instincts are familiar, yet remarkable; as
the fear of man amongst wild birds and animals, those of a
newly-visited country being always “tame.” Hounds of
different breeds, pointers, setters, retrievers, require almost
no training to fit them for their parts in hunting, yet no
such proclivities belong to the dog in the wild state; they
are undoubtedly transmitted by inheritance. While several
generations must be required to make a breed or variety
with such distinct endowments, yet variations are sometimes
quite suddenly established. Darwin mentions this of the
black-shouldered peacock, occurring in five distinct cases
among those of the ordinary kind, and, in at least one case,
to the extinction of the previously existing breed. The
same authority (Animals and Plants under Domestication,
vol. i.) states that “climate directly affects the skin and
hair of cattle.” Angora goats, of the same original stock
as those of Europe, acquire a long silky fleece. Sheep and
some other animals are subject to enormous fattening of
the tail near the Cape of Good Hope. Other examples
might be easily added.
7. Conditions favorable to the support of particular spe-
cies of plants and animals do not necessitate their existence.
Prof. Asa Gray (On the Derivation of American Plants:
Pop. Science Monthly, Oct., 1872) illustrates this fact as fol-
lows: “When we see how Australian eucalyptus trees thrive
upon the California coast, and how our redwoods flourish
upon another continent; how the so-called wild oat (Avena
sterilis of the Old World) has taken full possession of Cali-
fornia; how that cattle and horses, introduced by the Span-
iards, have spread as widely and made themselves as much.
at home on the plains of La Plata as those of Tartary; . . .
when we consider how the indigenous flora of islands gen-
erally succumbs to the foreigners that come in the train of
man, and that most weeds (i. e. the prepotent plants in open
soil) of all temperate climates are not ‘to the manor born,'
but are self-invited intruders, we must needs abandon the
notion of any primordial and absolute adaptation of plants
and animals to their habitat which may stand in lieu of ex-
planation.” While a few naturalists (as Mivart, and, in re-
gard to races of mankind, Agassiz) have advocated the view
that the same species may have originated independently
in several localities, the weight of evidence seems to be
largely in favor of the opinion that each species (if not every
greater group or type) has had but one origin; all “repre-
sentative ’’ species, such as those nearly, sometimes quite,
identical on the two sides of the Atlantic, or otherwise
locally remote from each other, being really the same in
stock, only more or less modified after divergence and per-
manent separation in place and circumstances.
8. Certain types vary, through long periods, very little, wh-
der any circumstances. Among domestic species the turkey
and peacock are examples of considerable stability. Gould
asserts of humming-birds that, with many thousands of them
passing through his hands, he has “never observed an in-
stance of any variation which would lead to the supposition
that it was the result of a union of two species.” (Introduc-
tion to Trochilidae.) Several “persistent types,” through
extremely long periods, are well known to geologists. Lin-
gula, Discina, Rhyncomella, Crania have continued from the
Silurian age to the present time. Some palaeozoic corals
are yet building islands or reefs in the ocean. Genera of
carboniferous plants, insects, and Arachnida, closely resem-
ble some of those of to-day. The Araucarict of the oolite has
left comes scarcely distinguishable from those of the same
genus now growing. Plewracanthw8, a fish of the Devonian
and carboniferous eras, was as similar to sharks now exist-
ing as they are to one another. Some triassic mammals
were equally close in alliance to those of recent times. Car-
penter and Wyville Thomson have proved that a cretaceous
fauna exists now at the bottom of the ocean. Hence is to
be inferred the propriety of the admission of Darwin: “I
believe in no law of necessary development.” . Huxley also,
who has especially studied these persistent types, emphat-
ically declares that their existence must be recognized in
any theory of evolution. -
9. While progress has been the rule (as already shown)
in the great changes of nature through geological time, evi-
dence also exists of the decline and eactinction of types. Says
Dana : “Five hundred species of trilobite lived in the course
of the palaeozoic ages; afterwards there were none. Nine
hundred species of the ammonite group existed in the meso-
zoic—not all at once, but, as in the case of the trilobites, in
a succession of genera and species; the last then disap-
peared. There have been 450 species of the nautilus tribe
in existence; now there are but two or three, and these are
peculiar to the present age. Seven hundred species of
ganoids have been found fossil; the tribe is now nearly ex-
tinct.” Barrande has studied trilobites exhaustively; he
remarks (Thilobites, par Joachim Barrande, a Prague et à
Paris, 1871) upon the notable diminution of their size, as
well as of the numbers of their genera and species, after a
maximum in the second of the three periods of their history;
also, that such an order of increase, culmination, and decline
was observed in all quarters of the globe alike. The same
naturalist has likewise examined in detail the history of
ancient cephalopods (Distribution des Cephalopodes dans les
contrées Siluriennes, 1870), and points out the occurrence
of some simple forms, later than others which were more
complex. Alpheus Hyatt has given attention to the same
succession; and he, with some others, understands the fossil
Cephalopoda to exhibit, as it were, the biography of a type,
closely analogous, in all its changes, to that of an individual
cephalopod. Opening with the straight Orthoceras of the
Silurian, it advanced through the coiled and more complex
ammonite of the Jurassic, and declined through half-un-
coiled forms of the cretaceous, to end in the straight bacu-
lite. Also, the ammonite family itself, beginning with the
Goniatites of discoidal shape, passed through the compactly
coiled and elaborate true ammonites, to decline through the
half-coiled Scaphites; the last being the old age of the type.
Other instances would probably be more familiarly known
if the attention of naturalists was generally directed towards
this class of facts. -
10. Rudimentary parts furnish one of the strongest argu-
ments in favor of the hypothesis of a genetic connection
among all animals (including man); at least among all
those belonging to the same great types. By rudiments,
in anatomy, are meant organs or structures imperfectly
developed, so as to be almost or entirely without func-
tional use. Each of them represents in germ, as it were,
in one animal (or plant) that which is perfect and useful
in another type. Examples are as follows: In plants, in-
complete petals, stamens, or pistils in a great many in-
stances; notably, undeveloped pistils in the male florets
of some Compositae. Among animals, the minute and
useless wings of certain beetles and other insects; teeth in
the jaws of foetal whalebone whales, which are toothless
1674
EVOLUTION, HYPOTHESIS OF.
when mature; teeth also in the front part of the upper
jaw in the embryos of ruminant quadrupeds (as the ox)
and of a few birds; the mammary teats of male mammals;
two imperfect udders in cows; imperfect wings of the pen-
guin and apteryx; the splint-bones of the horse; unused
hinder toes of several quadrupeds; small limb-bones under.
the skin of serpents, and similar ones of the pelvis and
hinder limbs of whales. Man has a number of clearly
marked rudimentary parts. Such are the three small and
useless motor muscles of the external ear; the platysma,
myoides of the neck, homologous with the useful pan-
niculus carnosus of the horse and ox; the little fold or ca-
runcle at the inner margin of the eye, representing the
mictitating membrane of birds; the os coccygis at the lower
end of the spinal column, in place of the tail of lower ani-
mals, and which at one time in the human foetus is longer
than the limbs; the vermiform appendix of the large intes-
tine, which in man has no use, but in one marsupial is
three times the length of its body. The “lanugo” or
hairy covering of the human foetus at the fifth month is
supposed by Darwin to be a rudimentary appearance of
the first hairy covering of other mammals. Some anato-
Inists regard the whole outer ear in man as a mere rudi-
ment of the movable external ears of quadrupeds. The
last molar (wisdom) tooth has the character of incomplete
development, especially among civilized races of men. For
the existence of any of those which are certainly rudiments
no rational “final cause” has ever been proposed. It is
intelligible only upon the supposition of their being relics
of a long past descent from a common stock with those spe-
cies, genera, or larger groups which now present the same
organs in perfect development and answering a useful pur-
pose. Their gradual disappearance when their utility has
ceased is not strange upon such a view. Paget has given
an additional reason why that disappearance should not be
sudden, in the facts of “complementary nutrition;” that is,
as every part, by taking some material from the blood,
makes it more exactly fitted to the nutrition of the rest,
rudimentary organs may serve this purpose for a while,
after their own direct functional action has ceased.
Different Theories of Evolution.—It is a popular error
that “Darwinism" is a precise synonym of “the theory
of development.” Several distinct views have been held,
agreeing merely ās to the one belief, of a genetic relation
between the present and the past in all parts of nature;
which is what we mean by evolution. Thus, for the origin
of diverse species amongst plants and animals there have
been (though not altogether mutually exclusive) the follow-
ing hypotheses: 1. Self-elevation by “appetency,” or use
and effort: Monboddo, Lamarck, and Cope. 2. Modification
by the surrounding conditions of the “medium :” Geoffroy
St.-Hilaire, Quatrefages, Draper, and Spencer. 3. Natural
selection, under the struggle for existence, with spontaneous
variability, causing the “survival of the fittest:” Darwin,
Wallace, and Haeckel. 4. Derivation by “pre-ordained
succession of organic forms,” under an “innate tendency *
or “internal force:” Owen and Mivart. 5. Evolution by
“unconscious intelligence:” Morell, Laycock, Murphy. 6.
Less defined, so far, as a distinct hypothesis, but clearly
implied in the writings of Prof. Asa Gray, Dr. McCosh,
Baden Powell, the Duke of Argyll, and others, is the view
of orderly creation “by law,” through the immanent action
and direction of Divine Power, working by the purposive
collocation and adjustment of natural causes or forces. This
is not accurately described as a theory of “supernatural or
miraculous interference.” It should be designated, rather,
as that of creative evolution.
Mivart, the Duke of Argyll, and others have abundantly
shown that there is no antagonism whatever between the
two ideas of creation and evolution. Excluding a very few
atheists and positivists, the great controversy has been, of
late years, upon the question whether a right interpretation
of the facts should lead us to conclude that creative power
was exerted only at the beginning, all afterwards being only
the manifold progressive results of “natural laws” acting
without traceable design; or that, instead, the immanence
of Divine Power is everywhere shown by nature in forms
and processes specially exhibiting design, in such a sense
that, in the words of David Hume (Dialogues concerning
Matural Religion, Part iv.), “the whole chorus of nature
raises one hymn to the praise of its Creator.”
Descent of Man.--Darwin gives the following conclusion
in his work on this subject (1871): “The most ancient
progenitors in the kingdom of the Vertebrata at which we
are able to obtain an obscure glance apparently consisted
of a group of marine animals resembling the larvae of ex-
isting ascidians. These animals probably gave rise to a
group of fishes as lowly organized as the lancelet; and from
these the ganoids, and other fishes like the lepidosiren, must
have been developed. From such a fish a very small ad-
vance would carry us on to the amphibians. We have seen
that birds and reptiles were once intimately connected to-
gether; and the Monotremata now, in a slight degree, con-
nect mammals with reptiles. But no one can at present
say by what line of descent the three higher and related
classes—namely, mammals, birds, and reptiles—were de-
rived from either of the two lower vertebrate classes—
namely, amphibians and fishes. In the class of mammals
the steps are not difficult to conceive which led from the
ancient Monotremata to the ancient marsupials, and from
these to the early progenitors of the placental mammals.
We may, thus ascend to the Lemuridae; and the interval
is not wide from these to the Simiadae. The Simiadae then
branched off into two great stems, the New World and Old
World monkeys; and from the latter, at a remote period,
man, the wonder and glory of the universe, proceeded.”
Wallace (Essays on Natural Selection, 1870) furnished, in
anticipation of Darwin's work on that subject, what still
remains to be the most effective reply to its arguments in
favor of the sufficiency of the hypothesis of natural selec-
tion to explain the origin of man. Wallace shows that in
several important respects the advances from the simian to
the human type of organization are such as cannot be ac-
counted for by any possible fitness for success in the strug-
gle for existence—namely, the superiority of the human
larynx for voice and musical expression, of man’s foot for
progression in the erect posture, of his hand for delicate
touch and varied prehension, the greatly increased size and
capacity of his brain, and the entire absence of hairy cover-
ing from his back and shoulders. Hence Wallace writes
(op. citat.) as follows: “The inference I would draw from
this class of phenomena is, that a superior Intelligence has
guided the development of man in a definite direction and for
a special purpose, just as man guides the development of
many animal and vegetable forms.” It need scarcely be
remarked that this evidence, coming from one of the origi-
mators of the hypothesis of natural selection, has still fur-
ther importance in suggesting that this “intelligent gui-
dance in definite directions for special purposes,” so obvious
in the nature of man, who is best known to us, will be likely
to be equally manifest elsewhere in the organic kingdom
when our knowledge of all its parts becomes more complete.
Sexual selection, urged by Darwin to supplement his
theory, falls short of its purpose in several ways—especi-
ally as a general hypothesis—because it requires consider-
able intelligence in all the animals which exercise it as a
supposed means of advancement in beauty of form, color,
etc.; and yet very remarkable developments of similar
traits and endowments appear in invertebrated animals
(e.g. butterflies and other brilliantly beautiful insects, and
varied and elegant shells of mollusks), and in the high or-
namentation of flowers and leaves in many plants. An-
other cumbrous rather than serviceable speculative addition
of Darwin’s to his general theory has been that of pamgene-
sis. Something very much like it was suggested by Owen
in 1849, in his treatise on parthenogenesis, but it is quite as
incredible, if not as inconceivable, as the “monadology "
of Leibnitz. (See PANGENESIS.)
Evolution of Mind and Consciousness.-On this topic
Darwin (Descent of Man and Expression in Man and Ani-
mals) has written with much ability; and so, amongst
others, also have Cope (Evolution and its Consequences :
Penn Monthly, Aug., 1872) and Chauncey Wright (North
American Review, April, 1873, on the “Evolution of Con-
sciousness”). Some success has been undoubtedly reached
by these authors in framing a conceivable hypothesis for
the transition from the “rudimentary * mental faculties of
brutes to those fully developed in the human mind. Con-
science is thus traced back, by Darwin, to a germinal ap-
pearance in the higher animals, originated by conflicts be-
tween “permanent: social instincts and affections” and
“more transitory individual instincts and propensities.”
Yet there is obviously truth in the statement of Huxley,
that between the mind of the highest anthropoid apes and
that of man there is an “enormous gap *—a distance
“practically infinite.” Tyndall also is often quoted on
this subject (Address to Physical Section of British Associ-
ation, 1868) as follows: “The passage from the physics of
the brain to the corresponding facts of consciousness is un-
thinkable. . . . Were our minds and senses so expanded,
strengthened, and illuminated as to enable us to see and
feel the very molecules of the brain; were we capable of
following all their motions, all their groupings, all their
electric discharges, if such there be ; and were we inti-
mately acquainted with the corresponding states of thought
and feeling, we should be as far as ever from the solution
of the problem, ‘How are these physical processes con-
nected with the facts of consciousness?” The chasm be-
tween the two classes of phenomena would still remain in-
tellectually impassable.” Aristotle was impressed with a
similar conviction more than two thousand years ago, when
he wrote (De Gen. Anim. II., iii., 10) that reason has
EVOLUTION, HYPOTHESIS OF.
1675
nothing in common with the material elements of the body,
but that it alone comes from without, and is divine : “Ast-
trerai Ös row votiv wovov 6-ſpa.6ev ćtreestéval kai 6etov eivat ºdvov.”
It does not need for us to determine here upon a precise
theory of the nature of mind to enable us to see how these
conclusions bear upon the supposition of the spontaneous
evolution of mind from matter, as well as somewhat less
directly upon that of the spontaneous ascent of the mind
of the brutes up to that of man.
The probable method of evolution of instincts in ani-
mals, by “accumulated and transmitted experiences” (Dar-
win, Spencer), or as “lapsed intelligence” (G. H. Lewes),
has been well studied of late by the authors quoted, and by
Carpenter, Spalding, Wallace, and many others. (See
INSTINCT.) Here also we have to stop, at last, at the yet
unbridged gap between insensitive, unconscious matter and
sensitive, impressible nerve-substance, capable at first of
reflex automatic action, and then, higher, of intelligence,
impulse, and volition.
We are now prepared to approach a conclusion by at-
tempting an answer to the question whether the facts giv-
ing strength to the hypothesis of evolution really eliminate
the evidence of design, of special purposes, in nature; and
whether, admitting “creation '' in any sense, science com-
pels us to remit it altogether to an inconceivably remote
origin of the universe. For the following reasons, princi-
pally, we must unite with Carpenter, Dana, Agassiz, Henry,
Sir John Herschel, Sir William Thomson, Asa Gray, and
many other recent scientists of the highest class in denying
absolutely the insufficiency of the proofs of design in na-
ture; and also in refusing to admit the elimination of spe-
cial creative action or direct modification of nature from
all periods since the first origination of the universe.
1. As Whewell (Indications of the Creator) has pointed
out, the nebular hypothesis is null without a creative act to
produce the required “inequality of distribution ” of cos-
mic matter in space. Haeckel (Nat. History of Creation,
Berlin, 1868) admits that the hypothesis is weak on at least
two points—the heat of the gaseous nebular mass, and its
rotary motion. “Every attempt,” he adds, “to explain
these facts leads us inevitably to the untenable theory of an
absolute beginning.” We may avoid the contradiction
herein involved by holding simply that what is inevitable
must be pre-eminently a tenable conclusión. Herbert Spen-
cer has also committed himself to a self-destructive process
of reasoning in his “First Principles,” as has been clearly
shown by an American reviewer (New Englander, Jan.,
1872, and Jan., 1873). The “instability of the homogene-
ous,” on which Spencer builds large consequences, might,
as that reviewer observes, account for chaos, but never for
a universe. For action and reaction there must be hetero-
geneity, a plurality of factors. Traced backward, the
principle of “uniformity of force” in physics must neces-
sarily have been powerless to make any beginning whatever.
Carried forward without designing will-force to modify
them, natural cosmic forces tend always to equilibration,
and consequent dissolution. The universe must thus be-
come, as it has been said, “its own cemetery.” Sir William
Thomson asserts (On Geological Dynamics) that “as energy
is being continually lost from the earth by conduction
through the upper strata, the: whole quantity of plutonic
energy must have been greater in past times than in the
present.” Yet in organic nature there has been a con-
stantly increasing complexity and exaltation of types—in-
tegration of matter with accumulation of force (“bottled
sunshine’’ of some authors); and this under the “struggle
for existence” against a steadily increasing resistance. As
stated by Prof. Cope (Method of Creation of Organic Types,
1871), “While the amount of growth-force potential in
adult living animals has varied very irregularly throughout
the animal kingdom, there being large and small, simple
and complex, in every division, it would seem to have ac-
cumulated, on the whole, with the rising scale of animal
types.” Mivart's special hypothesis of an “internal force”
determinative of evolutionary changes in organisms is
vague and unsatisfactory while detached from the “will-
force” (Wallace) of an immanent Creative Power. The
“unconscious intelligence ’’ of Morell, Laycock, and J. J.
Murphy is certainly an unthinkable phrase, a “pseudo-
idea,” when proposed as the designation of an active power
in nature. The presumption against organic evolution,
with true ascent of types, being in any sense the result of
the action of mere cosmic forces, is of the same nature
with that against perpetual motion; it contradicts the
doctrine of the conservation or persistence of force. As
Leifchild puts it (Higher Ministry of Nature, pp. 325, 327),
the assertion that “ No-will has evolved will” is as absurd
as “ex nihilo aliquid.”
2. Variation is necessary to the Darwinian or any other
“non-teleological” theory; and no such theory accounts for
variation. Darwin requires also almost infinite variability
of plants and animals; but, so far from infinite, observation
shows it to be confined within very narrow limits. The
non-fertility of hybrids of two nearly-allied species is a very
important indication of the present fixedness of those lim-
itations. Also, species do not pass, in any case, into each
other. Palaeontology and recent Zoology and botany are
declared by Agassiz, Barrande, Dawson, Gould, Balfour,
and Thomson to establish this. Thus writes Sir William
Thomson (Nature, Nov. 9, 1871): “In successive geolog-
ical formations, although new species are constantly appear-
ing, and there is abundant evidence of progressive change,
no single case has yet been observed of one species passing
through a series of inappreciable modifications into an-
other.” Embryology is regarded by Agassiz as affording
concurrent testimony in regard to the essential diversity
of types. In a lecture at Cambridge, Mass., Mar. 6, 1873,
he used the following language: “No invertebrate animal
has any structural relation to man whatever, while every
member of his own type has an intimate structural relation
with him. You may compare a quadruped in certain
phases of its growth with the adult condition of some lower
kinds of vertebrates, and be amazed at the resemblance; but
you cannot carry the comparison over into the type of ar-
ticulates, or into any other º: of the animal kingdom
based upon a different plan. ithin each type the devel-
opment has a character as distinct as the plan on which the
type is built. An insect, for instance, can never at any time
of its development, after it has passed out of that universal
condition of the ovarian egg to which I alluded, be com-
pared to an oyster or a fish, but it passes through phases
where it can hardly be distinguished from a worm ; that is,
in the course of its development it bears a transient likeness
to the adult condition of a being standing lower in the type
of articulates to which they both belong. In short, every
animal belonging to any one of the higher groups, during
the transformations by which he reaches the adult state,
may pass through modified conditions, in each of which he
resembles some being of his own type of the animal king-
dom for whom that condition is final.”
3. Were variation infinite, without the regulation of se-
lective or directive design, a simple calculation of probabil-
ities (see “North British Review,” June, 1867) shows that
a merely chaotic complication of forms must result, the
“struggle for existence” notwithstanding.
4. Infinite time has been proposed as affording a solution
of the difficulties of natural selection. But infinite time
would not alter the nature of the necessary result of infinite
variations, nor would it regulate finite ones. Further, Sir
William Thomson, Croll, and Gould have shown, from vari-
ous data, that so far from infinite time, not more than one
hundred millions of years can have been the duration of
the present relation of our planet to the Sun—a period
quite too short (were any duration of time sufficient) for
the genesis of organic nature merely by spontaneous modi-
fication and natural selection.
5. Without design (as Mivart has shown) incipient struc-
tures, which become useful only when completely developed,
have no explanation at all. Further items of fact unex-
plained, apart from teleology, are—the opposition of the
seases in plants and animals; the metamorphoses of insects;
the cessation of the individual life; and the renewal of life-
progress by parental reproduction. Moreover, as to the or-
igin of a new species, whose relation to an earlier allied
species is supposed to be similar to the connection between
the different stages of the life of one individual, we have
the fact of individual reproduction exemplified under our
knowledge; but what corresponds, in the birth of a new
type, to the sexual reproduction of a new individual, espe-
cially in the case of the first created type 2
Accepting, then, with Herbert Spencer, the evidence found
everywhere of the unity of the “inscrutable universal
Power" which is the Cause of nature, there is proof, also, in
the multiplicity and adjustment of the manifestations of that
Power, that it has the attributes of Intelligence and Will.
Every specialization, each true elevation of type (which is
a different thing from modification on the same plane of
being), involves new force-expenditure. Certain factors
have been added in the evolution of nature whose origin is
a “mystery’’ as yet quite unsolved by science. It is ra-
tional and philosophical, therefore, in the absence of any
solution by secondary causation, to refer them, provision-
ally at least, to the direct creative action (whether sudden
or gradual we cannot know) of the First Cause. Such “fac-
tors,” superadded from time to time in the past history of
our globe, have been—1, life; 2, animality, as distinct from .
vegetative life; 3, mind-force, instinct, intelligence, livXī);
4, ºrvegua or spirit (see 1 Cor. xv. 46), possessed by man alone
of all creatures on the earth. While Theism must rest es-
sentially upon evidence other and higher than that of phys-
ical science, it would appear that the facts of evolution
tend to confirm and strengthen that evidence. “If there
^
1676
EVOLUTIONS, MILITARY-EWALD.
has been an evolution,” writes Canon Kingsley, “there
must be an Evolver.” “Let us hope,” says Prof. Gray
(Address before Am. Associa. for Adv. Science, 1872), “that
the religious faith which survived, without a shock, the
notion of the fixity of the earth itself, may equally outlast
the notion of the absolute fixity of the species which in-
habit it—that in the future, even more than in the past,
faith in an order, which is the basis of science, will not (as
it cannot reasonably) be dissevered from faith in an Or-
dainer, which is the basis of religion.” We find develop-
ment in the succession of divine dispensations described in
the Old and New Testaments—of the patriarchs, of Moses,
the judges, prophets, and kings in the Old, and of Christ
in the New Covenant. “The law made nothing perfect, but
the bringing in of a better hope did.” (Heb. vii. 19.)
Evolution in Human History—Dr. McCosh has referred
(Christianity and Positivism, 1872) to some phases of the
progress of mankind, of which three stages are distinguish-
able—the era of the predominance of physical force, that
of intellectual supremacy, and that (hardly culminated as
yet) of moral and spiritual power.
As a question, in archaeology, it has been often argued
whether man was originally savage (Tylor, Lubbock, Dar-
win), and thence self-elevated into civilization, or was at
the beginning (Whately) supernaturally gifted with such
knowledge as prepared him for refined life and culture,
afterwards, in many places, to be lost and regained, again
and again, through the ages. Neither Öf these alternatives
compels our entire or exclusive assent. Probably man was
at first infantile or puerile, both in innocency and ignor-
ance. (See “Primeval Man,” by the Duke of Argyll.)
Normally in communion with his Maker, his destination
was to continue morally pure and to advance in mental
culture. History shows, instead, barbaric degeneration to
have been the rule before the Christian era, with partial
renewals and expansions of civilization in certain localities
at different times. There is no proven instance of any
nation or race having initiated its own advancement out
of barbarism, while there are many examples of the dete-
rioration of powerful empires and centres of magnificent
culture into the savage or almost savage state. Always a
force from without has begun the elevation of a race or
community. Where history has failed to reach such be-
ginnings, tradition, follows its clues towards them, and al-
ways with the same indication—Egypt from India, Greece
by Cadmus, Rome from Greece, Europe first from Rome,
and afterwards from Palestine.
If India and China furnish no clear traces of such for-
eign origins of their advancement, what does this amount
to ? In the one instance, an old culture vanishing away;
in the other, petrifaction into a half civilization, ceasing,
many centuries since, to make further progress. After
Greece and Rome had exemplified and fallen from the very
culmination of intellectual and imperial development, the
world (it may be believed) would have totally degenerated
into a more than mediaeval darkness but for the coming of
a “force from above” in the advent of Christianity. By
it, as now known in Europe and America, has been made
possible and actual, for the first time in the world’s his-
tory, a continuously progressive civilization.
We may conclude this article by a brief general state-
ment upon the whole subject of development: “The only
idea of creation which is at all conceivable is creation by a
process, the steps of which have a succession, which, if
known, would be rationally comprehensible.” So regarded,
evolution or development is the only expression according
to which any consistent statement of the facts of nature
can be made. But evolution is not a force, cause, or
“law.” It is a summary term for the general mode of
succession of the complex results of all natural forces and
laws under the Divine government.
HENRY HARTSHORNE.
Evolutions, Mil'itary, the movements by which
troops change the order, position, and direction of their
primary formation. All such movements as marching,
countermarching, changing front, forming line, facing,
wheeling, defiling, deploying, etc., come under the general
head of evolutions. All evolutions are performed accord-
ing to a regulated system, which differs in its details in the
armies of different nations.
Ev’ora (anc. Ebora and Liberalitas Julia), a town of
Portugal, capital of the province of Alemtejo, is pleasantly
situated about 73 miles by rail E. by S. from Lisbon. It
has two ruined forts, a large Gothic cathedral founded in
1186, several convents, and a library of about 50,000 vol-
It has been an archbishop’s see since 1541. Here
are manufactures of ironware and leather. Ebora was
taken by Sertorius about 80 B.C. Here are Roman antiq-
uities which are more interesting than any others in Por-
tugal. Among them are an aqueduct said to have been
built by Sertorius; a temple of Diana with beautiful Co-
rinthian columns; and a brick tower adorned with columns
of the Ionic order. Pop. 11,965. -
Evremond (CHARLEs DE SAINT-DāNIs), seigneur de
Saint-Evremond, a French courtier and littérateur, born
near Coutances, in Normandy, April 1, 1613. He was witty
and accomplished, a perfect specimen of an Epicurean of
that time, squandering his life in the pursuit of frivolous
pleasures, but ready to give it up at any moment for the
sake of a bon-mot. He entered the army about 1629, and
became a friend of Turenne and the prince of Condé. Hav-
ing given offence to Louis XIV. by his raillery and sarcastic
wit, he took refuge in England in 1662. He gained the
favor of Charles II., who granted him a pension of £300,
and he never returned to France. He wrote dramas, essays,
and letters, of which his “Comedie des Academistes pour
la Reformation de la Langue Francois” is an exceedingly
witty, elegant, and entertaining production. . His “Sir
Politics,” which he made in company with Buckingham,
is very weak. Died in Sept., 1703.
vreux, 3/vruH' (anc. Mediolanum, afterwards Eburo-
vices), a city of France, capital of the department of Eure,
is pleasantly situated on the Iton about 67 miles by rail
W. N. W. of Paris, with which it is connected by railway.
It is a bishop's see, and has a fine old cathedral, an episco-
pal palace, a theatre, a clock-tower built in 1417, and a
botanic garden. Here are manufactures of cotton and
woollen fabrics, leather, etc. Evreux has sustained numer-
ous sieges. It was taken and pillaged by Rollo the Norman
in 892 A. D., and was burned by Henry I. of England in
1119. Pop. 12,320.
Evron, a town of France, in the department of Mayenne.
Here is an ancient Benedictine abbey. The chief manu-
facture is table linen. Pop. 5243.
Ew'ald (Johan NEs), a Danish poet, was born in Copen-
hagen in 1743. In his early youth he lost his father, who
was a minister, and soon after, yielding to the fantastic
impulses of his mature, he gave up his studies and enlisted
in the Prussian army. He felt very disappointed, how-
ever, as people of his character always do when they meet
the reality. He deserted and joined the Austrians. But
they did not satisfy him either. He deserted a second
time, and returned to Copenhagen, where he spent the rest
of his life as a literary man. He died in 1781 in utter pov-
erty and degradation: he was a drunkard. In his literary
business, however, Ewald was very industrious and con-
scientious. All his works bear evidence of great study,
deep meditation, and untiring labor; there is no rashness,
no halfness about them. He did the very best he could.
Yet his writings—with the exception of some few genuine
pearls among his songs, as “King Christian,” which be:
came the national hymn of the Danes, “Liden Gunver,”
“Rungsted’s Lyksalighed,” etc., and his essay “On Bache-
lors,” which is a specimen of the most elegant humor—are
marked with the same empty enthusiasm and fantastic
excitement as was his life. The innermost kernel of his
tragedies “Adam and Eve” and “Balder's Death" is
vapor. To a sound taste they are tiresome and unpleasant.
They are interesting only as historical documents to the
scholar who does not consider them from a merely artistic
point of view, but looks at them in their connection with
the period in which they were produced. Holberg had
taught the Danish people how to read. He had made
them eager after books. Through his influence it had be-
come as necessary for them to have a literature as to keep
an army. But he had not taught them how to write. He
had left them as types no models which could be used ;
and it took two generations before he came who “did—
Adam Oehlensläger. Meanwhile, the public arranged it-
self into two camps—one, “The Norwegian Club,” import-
ing French forms and French tastes; and the other, “The
Danish Society,” importing German ideas and German
principles. Klopstock lived at that time at the Danish
court, from which he had a pension, and Ewald, who was
his admirer, and who in the Danish literature represents
the same ideas, though not the same influence as Klop-
stock in the German, became the hero of “The Danish
Society.” A fearful battle issued between these two par-
ties—noise and smoke, rattling and booming, as from the
fight of two hostile armies. What was said during the
evening in the club or in the society became the topic of
conversation next day all over the country, from the draw-
ing-room to the barber-shop, and fifty years later old men
would still tell with pride how they had been present when
this or that epigram was first recited or this or that song
first sung. Fearful also was the result of the battle, for in
artistic respects it was next to nothing.
Among all which the Danish literature produced between
Holberg and Oehlensläger that which is good can be read
in one short hour, and no great harm would be done if it
EWALD, VON.—EXARCHATE.
1677
were forgotten in the next. But by studying the period in
its details, it is possible to show how all the mental powers
of the nation then awakened, and how they sought and
found the same course, until at last, through Oehlenslöger,
they broke forth in one broad, glittering stream, useful to
the world; and in this study every line of Ewald is inter-
esting and important. CLEMENS PETERSEN.
E/wald, von (GEORG HEINRICH AUGUST), a celebrated
German Orientalist and biblical critic, born at Göttingen
Nov. 16, 1803. He became in 1831 professor of philosophy
in the University of Göttingen, and he obtained the chair
of Oriental languages in 1835. . In 1837 he was removed on
account of his liberal political opinions; he and five other
professors, among whom were Gervinus and Grimm, sol-
emnly protesting against the abolition of the free consti-
tution which the Hanoverian king had felt himself com-
pelled to give during the revolutionary commotions in
1830. Ewald went to Tübingen as professor in theology
in 1838, but his position here was not very pleasant, as he
had to defend himself against the attacks and intrigues
both of the Roman Catholic party and the Hegelians. He
was reinstated in his chair at Göttingen in 1848, and was
elected a member of the North German Parliament in 1869.
Among his numerous works are a “Hebrew Grammar”
(8th ed. 1870), “The Poetical Books of the Old Testament”
(4 vols., 1835–37), a “History of the People of Israel until
the Advent of Christ” (“Geschichte des Volkes Israel bis
auf Christus,” 7 vols., 3d ed. 1864–69), “The History of
Christ and his Time” (1857), and “The History of the
Apostolic Age” (1858). In 1848 he founded at Göttingen
“The Year-Book of Biblical Science” (“Jahrbuch der
Eiblischen Wissenchaft”). About the influence which he
exercised on the theological study of the Bible there may
be different opinions, but his contributions to a better
understanding of the language of the Old Testament are
of undoubted value.
Ew/bank (THoMAs), a writer on mechanics, was born
in the county of Durham, England, Mar. 11, 1792. He
emigrated to New York in his youth, and was appointed
commissioner of patents by the President of the U. S., in
1849. He published, besides other works, a “Descriptive
and Historical Account of Hydraulic and other Machines,
Ancient and Modern '' (1842), and “Thoughts on Matter
and Force” (1858). Died Sept. 16, 1870.
Ew/e11 (BENJAMIN S.), LL.D., an American officer and
educator, born in 1810 in the District of Columbia, gradu-
ated at West Point in 1832, served while lieutenant of artil-
lery as assistant professor at the Military Academy, till he
resigned, Sept. 30, 1836; civil engineer (1836–39), professor
of mathematics at Hampden–Sidney College, Va. (1839–42),
and of mathematics and natural philosophy (1842–46), pro-
fessor of mathematics and military science in Washington
College, Va. (1846–48), professor of mathematics and acting
president of William and Mary College, Va. (1848–49), pro-
fessor of mathematics and natural sciences (1849–61), and
president of William and Mary College (1854–61) and since
the civil war. GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Ewell (RICHARD StopDARD), GENERAL, born Oct., 1816,
in the District of Columbia, graduated at West Point in
1840, served on the Western frontier (1840–45), on coast
survey (1846), in the war with Mexico (1846–48), engaged
at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Churubusco, Molino
del Rey, and Chapultepec ; became captain of dragoons in
1849, and did frontier duty in New Mexico (1850–61), and
engaged on the Gila and Pinal Apache expeditions (1857
and 1859), encountering the Apaches on the Gila River in
a skirmish. Resigning May 7, 1861, from the U. S. army,
he joined the Southern forces in the civil war, serving in
the Mamassas campaign (1861), engaged at Blackburn's
Eord and Bull Run (1862), engaged at White Oak Swamp
and Cedar Mountain, defeated at Kettle Run, and engaged
at Manassas (1862), in the Maryland campaign (1862), in
which he was severely wounded; became lieutenant-general
in 1863, and succeeded Stonewall Jackson at his request,
being in command of Second Corps at Winchester, Gettys-
burg, Wilderness, and subsequent operations of the cam-
paign; and was captured April 6, 1865, at Sailor's Creek.
|He was a bold, blunt, honest soldier, and on the collapse of
the Southern Confederacy accepted in good faith its results.
Died Jan. 25, 1872, near Spring Hill, Tenn.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, U. S. Army.
Ew’ing, a post-village in Franklin co., Ill., 8 miles
N. E. of Benton, noted for its large woollen-factory, and as
the seat of the Ewing High School, a flourishing institu-
tion. J. S. BARR, PUB. “BENTON STANDARD.”
Ewing, a township of Mercer co., N. J. Pop. 2477.
Ewing, a post-village of Washington township, Hock-
ing co., O. Pop. 50.
Ewing (CHARLEs), LL.D., born in Burlington Co.,
N. J., July 8, 1780, graduated at Princeton in 1798, was
called to the bar in 1802, practised at Trenton, and was
chief-justice of New Jersey 1824–32. Died Aug. 5, 1832.
Ewing (Rev. FINIs), one of the fathers of the Cumber-
land Presbyterian Church, was born in Bedford co., Va.,
July 10, 1773, of Scotch-Irish stogk, and is said to have
studied for a time in college. He removed to a place near
Nashville, Tenn., and in 1823 married a daughter of Gen.
William Davidson, joined a Presbyterian church, and soon
after removed to Kentucky. Awakened in 1800 to a new
religious life, he was licensed to preach, and in 1803 was
ordained by the Cumberland Presbytery. His ordination
not being recognized by the Kentucky synod, the presby-
tery being dissolved, and the action of the synod being
sustained by the General Assembly, he with two others in
1810 formed the germ of the new Cumberland Presbyterian
Church. In 1820 he removed to Missouri. Died at Lexing-
ton, Mo., July 4, 1841.
JEwing (John), D. D., an American Presbyterian minis-
ter, born in Nottingham, Md., June 22, 1732. He became
pastor of the First Presbyterian church of Philadelphia in
1759, and provost of the University of Pennsylvania in
1779. Died in Sept., 1802.
Ewing (THOMAs), LL.D., a statesman, was born in
Ohio co., Va., Dec. 28, 1789. In 1792 he removed with his
parents to Ohio. In his youth he prepared himself for col-
lege by night-study while employed in the Kanawha salt-
works. In 1815 he graduated at Ohio University at Athens,
receiving the first degree of A. B. ever conferred in that
State. He was called to the bar in 1816, and was U. S.
Senator from Ohio (1831–37 and 1850–51), U. S. secretary
of the treasury (1841) under Harrison, and secretary of the
interior under Taylor (1849). He was the father of Gen.
Thomas Ewing and father-in-law of Gen. W. T. Sherman.
Died Oct. 26, 1871.
JEwing (THOMAs, J.R.), a son of the foregoing, was born
at Lancaster, 0., Aug. 7, 1829, was educated at Brown Uni-
versity, was private secretary of President Taylor (1849–50)
studied law at Cincinnati, removed in 1856 to Leavenworth,
Kan., was chief-justice of Kansas (1861–62), colonel of the
Eleventh Kansas Volunteers, 1862, served with distinction
in the civil war, chiefly in Missouri and Arkansas, becom-
ing a brigadier-general of volunteers in 1863, and major-
general by brevet in 1864. Since the war he has been a
lawyer in Washington, D. C.
Ew’ington, a post-village of Huntingdon township,
Gallia co., O. Pop. 191.
Ex’actions [from Lat. earactiones, tallice] was a legal
term of ecclesiastical jurisprudence, used in the Middle
Ages to denote such duties or contributions, demanded by
the clergy of their parishioners, as were extraordinary,
either because they were new and against custom, or be-
cause their amount was unduly increased. They were il-
licit, and it was found necessary repeatedly to denounce
their unlawfulness. The power of the clergy over their
parishioners, or of the bishops over the subordinate clergy,
was so great that it was easy for them to make the most
outrageous exactions. In 589 the third Council of Toledo
forbade the bishops “exactiones diociesi vel damna infli-
gare;” and the meaning of this is more exactly defined by
Leo IV., who in 853 forbade the bishops to exact from the
clergy and ecclesiastical institutions of their dioceses “da-
tiones ultra statuta patrum aut super appositae in angariis.”
Yet, in 1179, Alexander III. found it necessary to repeat:
“Prohibemus me ab abbatibus, vel episcopis, aliisve prae-
latis novi census imponantur ecclesiis, nec veteres augean-
tur, nec partem redituum suis usibus appropriare praesu-
mant.”
Exarch [Gr. §§apxos, a “leader”] was in ancient Greece
the title given to him who conducted the dramatic chorus
during the performance, as distinguished from the cory-
phaeus and the choregos; the former of which titles denoted
the teacher of the chorus, him who taught them the songs
and dances, which office generally was filled by the author
of the play; while the latter title, that of choregos, simply
was given to some rich citizen who supplied the costs of
the outfit of the chorus.
Later on the title was used in the Eastern Church to de-
note the highest ecclesiastical dignity, and was bestowed on
the bishops of Alexandria, Antioch, Ephesus, Caesarea,
and Constantinople, but was soon exchanged in most places
for that of patriarch, though it never was wholly abolished.
At present it denotes a chancellor or deputy under the pa_
triarch in the Russian Greek Church. He travels as a dele-
gate from the patriarch through the diocese, investigating
the discipline of the monasteries and the observance of the
canons, and forming a kind of court of appeals in all eccle-
siastical cases arising between the clergy and the people.
Ex’archate, the title of exarch was, for some time, ap-
1678
ExAUVILLIEZ—ExCHANGE.
plied also to civil dignitaries of the highest rank—to the
viceroys who ruled over those border provinces of the By-
zantine empire which were most exposed to the danger of
being invaded by the barbarians. Thus, an exarchate was
established in Africa in 534, and existed till 698, when it
was finally overthrown by the Arabian conquest. The
most important of these exarchates, however, was that es-
tablished in Italy in the time of Justinian I. by Narses.
In 552, Narses, who originally was a eunuch belonging to
the household of Justinian, but who turned out a military
commander and statesman of great talent, led an army con-
sisting of Lombards, Huns, Heruli, Armenians, and Per-
‘sians—which incongruous mass he swayed with indomit-
able power—along the coasts of the Adriatic, until he, S.
of Ravenna, crossed the Apennines and met the Goths at
Tagina, where he totally defeated them ; their king Totila,
fell in the battle. Narses now took Rome, and the end of
the Ostrogothic empire in Italy was at hand. Teias, the
successor of Totila, was defeated and slain in a battle at
the banks of the Sarno, near Naples, which lasted two
days, and Narses immediately commenced the organization
of Italy as a province of the Byzantine empire. He had
to fight once more, however. New swarms of barbarians,
mostly consisting of Franks and Alemanni, poured down
the Alps and spread devastation before them wherever they
came. Narses waited for some time, but when he saw that
the luxurious and riotous life to which Italy induced them
had thoroughly demoralized them, he attacked them at
Casilinum in Campania, and hardly 5000 out of 75,000
escaped from the massacre. From this time (554–567) Nar-
ses ruled Italy as a province of the Byzantine empire, under
the title of exarch, and with full civil, military, and judi-
cial authority. After his death, in 567, followed Flavius
Longinus, and the Roman exarchate continued to exist,
though with various fortunes, till 752. The exarchs placed
duces (dukes) at the head of the administration of the dif-
ferent provinces, but the dukes of Venice and Naples soon
made themselves independent. So did the bishop of Rome,
Gregory II., and the dominion of the exarchs, by degrees,
dwindled down to a very limited extension, comprising only
a few provinces of Central Italy around the city of Ravenna,
which was their residence. The last exarch was Eutychius.
In 752, Aistulf, king of the Lombards, conquered Ravenna,
but in 755 he had to give most of the possessions of the
exarchate to the see of Rome, compelled to do so by Pe-
pin the Little. The title of exarch was used, however, in
Western Europe as a civil and military title till the middle
of the twelfth century. CLEMENS PETERSEN.
Exauvilliez (PHILIPPE-IR£NíT BoISTEL D’), a French
author, was born at Amiens Dec. 6, 1786. In 1815 he lost
the greater part of his fortune, and went to seek some em-
ployment. Having failed to secure any, he turned to lit-
erature, and wrote a great number of religious and moral
sketches and pamphlets, which were not without effect. His
essay, “Le Bibliothéque de Saint-Gervais,” 1831, gave the
first impulse to the establishment of small libraries all over
France, which have proved of great benefit to the general
elevation of the people. Exceedingly curious is his trans-
lation of Walter Scott's novels (1840), from which he blot-
ted out every passage which in any way could be inter-
preted as telling against the Roman Catholic religion, and
also all love-passages as far as possible. He was editor of
the “Journal des Personnes pieuses.” Died in 1858.
Excam/bion [from the It. cam/bio, “exchange ’’], in
Scotland, is the legal name for an exchange of lands, or the
contract by which one piece of land is exchanged for an-
other. Heirs possessing under deeds of entail are em-
powered to exchange or excamb certain portions of the
entailed lands. -
Ex Cathedrā, a Latin phrase originally applied to de-
cisions given by popes or prelates from their cathedrá (chair),
i. e. in a solemn judicial manner. Hence it is applied to
every decision pronounced by any one in the exercise of his
proper authority, as a judge on the bench, etc. :
Ex/cellency [Lat. eaccellen'tia, from excello, to “ex-
cel”], a title of honor which was borne successively by the
mediaeval Lombard kings, by several emperors of the West,
and by other Italian potentates. It is now given to am-
bassadors, governors of British colonies, and the governor
of Massachusetts. The President of the U. S. and the gov-
ernors of many of the States have the same title by cour-
tesy. i -
Excelmans, or Exelmans (REMr Joseph ISIDORE),
BARON, a French marshal, born at Bar-le-duc Nov. 13,
1775. He entered the army in 1791, and became aide-de-
camp to Murat in 1801. He served with distinction at
Austerlitz (1805), and gained the rank of general of bri-
gade for his conduct at Eylau (1807). In the Russian
campaign (1812) he commanded a division, and gave proof
of much skill. He directed a corps at the battle of Water-
loo (1815), after which he passed four years in exile. He
was restored to his title as a peer in 1831, and became a
marshal of France in 1851. Died July, 1852.
Excel'sior [the comparative degree of the Lat. eaccel/-
sus, “high,” “elevated”] signifies “higher.” It is the
motto of the State of New York.
Excelsior, a post-township of Hennepin co., Minn.
Pop. 335. -
Excelsior, a township of Sauk co., Wis. Pop. 874.
Exchanges in commerce, is a term of various applica-
tion—to places of rendezvous of merchants, bankers, and
tradesmen; to the stock-markets and to markets generally ;
and to the financial relations existing between different
markets, domestic or foreign, as indicated by the difference
of value in their respective currencies. “In every depart-
ºrnéât of human affairs,” says John Stuart Mill (“Pol. Ec.,”
vol. i.), “practice long precedes science; systematic inquiry
into the modes of action of the powers of nature is the
tardy product of a long course of efforts to use those
powers for practical ends.” Thus, society consists of an
immense mass of practice, not yet reduced to scientific
order. It is only within a comparatively short period
that even the most advanced nations have become suffi-
ciently enlightened to contemplate the possibility of their
existence without the necessity of a vast organization of
physical forces for mutual defence or assault. Happily,
this very necessity has set in motion and developed the
more beneficent applications of those forces, and converted
the military power itself, measurably, into an auxiliary of
commercial interests. And so great has been the energy
of the people, so numerous their inventions, and so rapid
the growth of society in modern times, that the scientific
principles of organization have been, so to speak, clogged
by the accumulation of physical affairs under the spur of
immediate necessity. The vast increase in the number and
variety of transactions in all parts of the civilized world
has outstripped the knowledge of law, and its application
to the correction of disorders by which the labor of all
countries is oppressed, yielding neither to the producer nor
to the capitalist a certain and satisfactory reward for his
exertions, excepting in solitary instances. The effect of
this state of things, in which law ceases to be recognized as
having any connection with practical affairs, cannot be
otherwise than disastrous; and it is from the very midst
of disasters which press from every quarter that the first
steps are taken towards scientific organization. It is in
strict accordance with these natural principles of develop-
ment that the commercial exchange or rendezvous of mer-
chants and dealers has been organized in all large, cities
of active trading countries. Hence, there is a stock-brokers'
eacchange, where, whatever abuses exist, there is a severe
inquest maintained concerning the validity of investments
and the real value for income of all public and corporate
securities in the shape of stocks and bonds. Before any
new securities are allowed to be quoted or sold on the ex-
change they are subjected to rigid examination by a com-
mittee. A system of arbitration supersedes all appeals to
the law for the settlement of disputes. The denunciations
which are frequently heard of the “board of brokers,” and
of its “gambling transactions,” are mostly by ignorant
people who know nothing whatever of the character and
objects of the association. The general influence of it is
favorable to fair and upright dealing. But for the super-
vision that it maintains over the innumerable shapes of
investment which are thrown upon the market there would
scarcely be any effective bar to imposition and fraud. What
the stock exchange is to financial securities, the produce
eacchange is to the staples of food. It maintains inspection
of all articles to prevent adulterations, classifies them, and
adopts marks or brands whereby they become known in the
markets of all countries. It recognizes superior qualities,
establishes grades, and takes cognizance of methods of
preparation for export to foreign markets, by which the
general facilities of commerce are improved and great
economies secured. So advantageous have these inspec-
tions and precautions proved that every important branch
of business has come to be represented by its exchange.
There is a cotton eacchange in all ports and cities where that
staple has its entrepôt. Likewise, there is a mechanics' ea:-
change and a real-estate earchange in almost every consid-
erable town in the U. S. In some places all branches of
business are embraced by the same association, each hav-
ing its department, with bureaus of record and informa-
tion, and committees to arbitrate differences, wherchy
vexatious and expensive litigation is prevented. One of
the most commodious and remarkable exchanges in the
world is that of Hamburg, Germany. Besides the usual
bureaus representing every important branch of business,
it has a library of near 50,000 volumes relating to subjects.
of commercial interest in all parts of the world, and also .
A
EXCHANGE, BILL
OF-EXCHEQUER, 1679
a valuable collection of maps and charts of all seas and
coasts. No traveller stops at Hamburg without visiting
the Exchange, to which admission is granted by having
his name inscribed on the books through the introduction
of a member. The great hall is surrounded by spacious
galleries, from which the movements of the crowd on the
main floor may be observed. The acoustic properties of
this hall are such as to produce the most extraordinary
reverberations of sound, resembling at first, when the mem-
bers begin to congregate, a noise like that of a small cata-
ract. As the crowd increases it gains depth and volume,
until at “high 'change ’’ the roar is an exact counterpart
of a stupendous fall and rush of waters, in which all in-
ferior sounds are swallowed up. As there is no distinct
source to which the immense reverberation of sound can
be traced, the visitor looks about in amazement to discover
its origin. Notwithstanding the roar, personal conversa-
tion is carried on even in the most moderate tones without
the slightest inconvenience.
Bills of Ecchange.—Exchange as a method of com-
mercial settlement is probably of nearly coincident date
with the origin of commerce. De Paw says that bills of
exchange were used at Athens, and were known among
the Arabs. The Abbé Raynal says they were known in
the East Indies when the Portuguese first arrived there.
Macpherson says there is no express mention of them in
any known record until the beginning of the thirteenth
century, when the pope, in the plenitude of his power as
sovereign of the world, offered the kingdom of Sicily and
Apulia to King Henry III. on the condition that he would
drive Manfred out of it. Henry accepted it for his second
son, and authorized the pope to carry on the war against
Manfred at the expense of England; whereupon the pope
took up large sums from the Italian merchants, who were
compensated by drawing bills on the English prelates, and
sending agents to collect them. Owing to the balance of
trade or debt between any two places, either domestic or
foreign, there may be a difference of value between a given
quantity of gold or silver in such places respectively.
This difference is called the exchange, and it is generally
expressed by a percentage on the bill that is bought for
remittance. The exchange is said to be at par when there
is no such difference, or “when a given quantity of gold
in one country is convertible at the market-price into such
an amount of the currency of that country as will purchase
a bill of exchange on the other country for such an amount
of the currency of that other country as will there be con-
vertible at the market-price into an equal quantity of gold
of the same fineness.” Exchange is said to be in favor of a
country when a given quantity of gold purchased in it is
convertible into such an amount of the currency of another
country as will there be convertible into a greater quantity
of gold of the same fineness; and it is said to be adverse,
or against a country, when the proceeds of a bill of ex-
change will yield in the country to which it is transmitted
a smaller quantity of gold of the same fineness. The
effective limitation, therefore, to the price of a bill of ex-
change designed for transmission to another country is the
cost of sending gold. The exchange will ordinarily rise
to the height of the cost of transmitting gold, which is
made up of freight, insurance, interest, and brokerage;
but if there is little gold in a country, and if the sources
of supply are uncertain, it may greatly exceed that cost,
especially if the balance of foreign debt be adverse. The
principal circumstance which determines the cost of gold
in a country is the state of its foreign account. If its
exports are continuously less than its imports, it must
transmit gold or silver to pay the difference. It is as-
Sumed by some writers that the state of the domestic cur-
rency exerts an influence on the price of exchange; but if
So, it must be by secondary action, either by favoring the
amount of imports, or by such derangement of productive
labors as will reduce the exports. Whatever incidental
conditions may transiently affect the state of debt between
two countries, as the waiving of a present demand for pay-
ment or the immaturity of debt, it still returns to this:
What is the state of the foreign debt 2 Every other term
may be laid aside to get a clear understanding of the mean-
ing of exchange, which thus becomes perfectly simple and
intelligible. The masterly financial system of England
practically gives to the U. S. but one foreign creditor to
deal with. England is the agent of all foreign markets.
Whatever debt may exist between the U. S. and France,
Germany, or Brazil, is compounded in the rate of exchange
between England and the U. S. The interest on the na-
tional debt of the U. S. held in foreign countries is round-
ly stated at $100,000,000 a year. In addition to this, there
is the balance of commercial debt, which has generally been
adverse, with exceptional years of short harvests in Europe,
when American breadstuffs have come into active demand.
Besides the yearly drain of $100,000,000 of gold to pay the
PROF. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.
interest on our debt held abroad, an eccentric element en-
ters into the rate of exchange between the U. S. and other
countries through our domestic financial policy. It is for-
eign commerce, and foreign commerce exclusively, that gov-
erns the flow of the precious metals from one country to an-
other. These having been adopted by all nations as the
common medium of liquidation, they should be held insep-
arable from that function. It is a violation of agreement
for a government to abstract and hold estranged from use
any part of this common medium; and moreover, it is an
act of commercial injustice to the weaker markets, which
may thence be forced on financial pressure and disorders de-
structive to their trade and industry. Since the year 1846
the government of the U.S. by its financial policy has held
in positive and complete abstraction from all use many mil-
lions of the precious metals, whereby not only have all mar-
kets in common suffered injury, but especially the domestic
market through the effect of this policy on the foreign ex-
change, both directly in controlling its price, and indirectly
by the discouragement of productive labors and the depres-
sion of the export trade. Thus, the rate of the foreign ex-
change for near thirty years past has been continuously
subject to the adverse action exerted by a complete separa-
tion of our treasury balances from their legitimate function
in the scales of commerce. Those balances have varied
from a minimum of $25,000,000 to a maximum which has
ranged from $80,000,000 to over $100,000,000. It cannot
be doubted that this unnatural separation of the most vital
part of the currency from its proper function has frequent-
ly, for a shorter or longer time, had the effect to give an
adverse exchange in the mass of our dealings with foreign
markets; when, if such separation had not been enforced,
the exchange would have been favorable to the U. S. There
are no means of determining the exact injury inflicted on
our commerce by this pernicious policy. Twice during its
term the country has been forced into the suspension of
specie payments; and for the greater part of the period
from the adoption of that policy to the present time our
labor, industry, trade, and commerce have been subject to
disorder, embarrassment, and disaster. In the year 1853,
when Mr. Guthrie took charge of the treasury department,
he advised Congress that the accumulation of gold in the
vaults of the government was such as to create alarm in
commercial and financial circles, and that it was an imme-
diate necessity to adopt measures for the restoration of the
treasury accumulations to the channels of commerce. In
pursuance of an act of Congress authorizing the secretary
of the treasury in his discretion to purchase the public debt
at the current market-price, he paid out of the national
treasury on that account, between Mar., 1853, and Nov.,
1856, $48,060,787. “If there had been no public debt,” he
said in his report to Congress on the subject, “and no means
of disbursing this large sum and again giving it to the
channels of commerce, the accumulated revenue would have
acted fatally on the banks and on trade.” How could this
accumulation of gold in the treasury have acted fatally
otherwise than through the foreign exchange 2 Since the
suspension of specie payments in Dec., 1861, the treasury
balances have been subject to depletion by the payment of
interest on the public debt and by sales of gold in the mar-
ket, all other disbursements of the government being made
in the paper currency. The amount of gold on hand has
varied from $80,000,000 to above $100,000,000, and of gold
and currency together from $130,000,000 to $175,000,000.
The cost of gold in currency has been entirely independent
of the state of our commercial debt with foreign countries.
Being no longer in circulation as money, it has taken the
place of a commodity in the market, and like any other
commodity has been subject to all the accidents of extreme
fluctuation. The following quotations exhibit the currency
price of gold for ten years following 1862:
Lowest. Highest. Ilowest. Highest.
1862 100 134 1868............... 132............... 150
1863............... 122............... 161 | 1869............... 119............... 145
1864............... 151............... 285 1870 ..110............... 123
1865............... 128............... 235 | 1871............... 110............... 115
1866............... 125............... 168 1872............... 109............... 116
1867 . 182 146
During this period of financial anarchy the foreign ex-
change was quoted in gold, without reference to its domes-
tic fluctuations in currency. J. S. GIBBONs.
MExchange, Bill of. See BILL OF EXCHANGE, by
|Exchange Hotel, a township of Montgomery co.,
Ala. Pop. 1600. .
Excheq'uer [It. Scacco, a “chessboard”; Ger. Schatz,
a “treasure”], a British court of record which takes cog-
nizance of all matters relating to the customs, excise, and
revenue affairs generally; also, one of the courts of com-
mon law in England. “The court of exchequer was ori-
ginally the court wherein all matters relating to the royal
1680
EXCHEQUER CHAMBER, COURT OF-EXCISE.
revenues were adjudicated upon.” The British exchequer
is to the Crown what the treasury of the U. S. is to the
government. The chancellor of the exchequer is the first
finance minister of the Crown. In 1697, while the old
metallic money of the realm was in process of recoinage,
the embarrassment both of the government and of the Bank
of England became extreme. The credit of both sunk to
a very low point. The government issued exchequer tallies
and orders on the exchequer, but these very soon fell to 60
per cent. discount. The bank-bills were at 20 per cent.
discount. The bank resorted to a very bold expedient for
the restoration of its affairs; it advertised for £1,000,000
of new capital, and agreed to take four-fifths of it in the
discredited exchequer tallies and orders. The whole amount
was eagerly subscribed. The “tottering exchequer” was
relieved of £800,000 of “promises to pay,” and the sub-
scribers to the whole million were involved in the necessity
of carrying the bank through its crisis of embarrassment.
The chancellor of the exchequer appreciated the great ser-
vice rendered by the institution, and obtained a renewal
of its charter for five years, with an exemption from all
rate, tax, assessment, or imposition of its capital stock, with
all profits accrued. These measures improved the credit
of the bank, and the chancellor was inspired to invent a
new instrument which became known as an eacchequer bill.
The exchequer bill is an exact counterpart of the treasury
note of the government of the U. S., being nothing more or
less than a promissory note payable at a certain date with
interest. It is issued by authority of Parliament in emer–
gencies of great pressure. Exchequer bills are a security
held as a reserve by the bankers and by the Bank of Eng-
land, which freely makes advances upon or purchases them
outright. They are a recognized security, differing in no
essential respect from the U. S. treasury notes, of which
they are probably the original. But the British govern-
ment, like that of the U. S., has occasionally allowed itself
to issue more than the country could readily float. Between
Mar. 13 and April 24, 1847, there was an extraordinary
export of gold in payment for breadstuffs, and about the
same time the government had occasion to borrow of the
bank £3,500,000 to pay its dividends. A severe pressure
ensued, and the bank refused to grant loans on exchequer
bills. (For the best account extant of the operations and
conduct of the British exchequer, see Gladstone’s budget
speeches for 1853, 1860–63, and on tax-bills 1861, and cha-
rities 1863, 1 vol., London.) J. S. GIBBONs.
Exchequer Chamber, Court of, in England, was
originally a court of all the judges in England, assembled
for the decision of matters of law. By 1 Will. IV. c. 70,
this court is constituted the proper tribunal for the trial
of writs of error from the three superior courts of common
law. The judges of two of these courts always form the
court of appeal, which reviews the decisions of the third.
(See Courts, by GEORGE CHASE, LL.B.)
Exchequer, Chancellor of the, is the title of the
highest finance minister of the British government. This
office is from its nature necessarily entrusted to a com-
moner. When the prime minister is a member of the
House of Commons, he sometimes holds the office of chan-
cellor of the exchequer.
Exchequer, Court of, in England, is one of the su-
preme courts of common law. It was originally established
for the recovery of the king's debts and ordinary revenues
of the Crown. The judges of this court consisted origi-
mally of the lord treasurer, the chancellor of the exchequer,
and three puisne judges, which last were called barons of
the exchequer. In its modern shape it is, in fact, a com-
bination of eight distinct ancient courts. It acquired con-
current jurisdiction with the other two superior courts in
all personal actions by the fiction of the plaintiff being a
debtor to the king—a fiction which is now removed. It
has exclusive jurisdiction in cases in which the royal reve-
nue is concerned. It had formerly also an equitable juris-
diction, which was abolished by 5 Vict. c. 5, and trans-
ferred to the court of chancery. The court now consists
of five judges—viz., the chief baron and four barons of ex-
chequer. From this court an appeal lies in error to the
court of ExchequER CHAMBER (which see; also CourTs).
Ireland has a court of exchequer, consisting of a lord
chief-baron, three barons, and a master, with the necessary
clerks and other inferior officers. Scotland had anciently
an exchequer court which decided questions relating to
revenues and customs, and to honors, estates, forfeitures,
and penalties arising to the Crown. This court has been
lately abolished, but there is still a lord ordinary in ex-
chequer for Scotland.
Exchequer Tailies. The English exchequer for-
merly checked its accounts by means of wooden tallies, as
follows: Seasoned wands of hazel, ash, or, willow were in-
scribed on one side with the sum for which the tally was
an acknowledgment, and on the other with the Roman cha-
racters indicative of the same sum, with the date and payer's
name. Notches of varied appearance stood for various
amounts. The deputy chancellor then split the stick with
knife and mallet in such a way that each check was di-
vided; and when the payer presented his tally for pay-
ment, it was first matched with its corresponding tally in
the exchequer office. This ancient and clumsy device was
nevertheless an almost perfect protection against forged
applications for money. The use of the tally was a very
ancient device, and was not abolished in England until
1783. The old tallies were stored in the Parliament House,
and their presence in 1834 is believed to have caused the
destruction of that building by fire.
Excip’ient [Lat. excip’iens, pres. part. of the verb
earcip’io, to “receive”], or Ve'hicle, in pharmacy, is an
inert substance used to give form and consistence to solid
preparations, such as pills and dragées, or to give palata-
bility and the necessary qualities for administration to any
medicine. The various conserves, also honey, treacle,
simple syrups, glycerine, white of egg, and mucilage of
acacia are among the most useful excipients.
Excise [from the Lat. eaccido, eaccisum, to “cut off,” from.
cado, “to cut”], in Europe, a tax on the production, annual
use, sale, or consumption of domestic commodities. In
the U. S. the term is confined to the tax on the production
or sale of spirituous or fermented liquors, or the productive
capacity of liquor stills, revenue from liquor stamps, etc.
The term “internal revenue tax,” used here, comprises all
that is or was formerly meant in Europe by excise, as well
also the taxes on slaughtered animals, gross receipts, licenses,
incomes, legacies, passports, the dividends, circulation, de-
posits, or capital of banks, insurance and railway com-
panies, and newspapers, penalties, etc. (See INTERNAL
REVENUE.) Excise or accize is traceable to the fifteenth
century, and was the method by which the towns and
boroughs of continental Europe recouped themselves from
their inhabitants for the talliages levied upon them by the .
sovereign, each district imposing such excises as best
suited its peculiar circumstances. This, in Holland, even-
tually ripened into a system of national taxation; and in
this form it found its way to England in the early part of
the seventeenth century, where it has since remained firmly
established. From England it was transplanted to this
country. Excise is imposed here not only by the Federal,
but also by the State and municipal governments. The
former first imposed excise in the year 1792. The tax was
discontinued in 1801, having meanwhile caused a rebellion
in Pennsylvania. It was again imposed in 1814, during
the war with England, and discontinued in 1817. In 1863,
during the civil war, it was imposed again, and has con-
tinued to the present time. During the first period its
product sustained the average proportion of 4 per cent. to
the total gross revenues of the Federal government from all
sources; during the second period, 64.5 per cent. ; and
during the present period it has averaged, so far, about 10
per cent. This leaves out of view the heavy customs duties
on imported liquors and the excise taxes levied by the
various States and municipalities. The following table
exhibits the annual product of the Federal excise at each
period named:
Total revenues Total revenues
Calendar from various | Calendar from various
year. taxes on dis- | year. taxes on dis-
tilled spirits. tilled spirits.
1792 ..... • , s a e º e e s s = e s e s • e s • * * * * $631,170 || 1799.......................... $573,086
1793 ... ........................ 422,026 1800.......................... 577,559
1794 ............................ 480,229 | 1801 .............. ........... 04,902
1795 ... ................ -------- 397,728 — .......................... ——
1796 481,947 | 1814 .................... ..... 1,681,08
1797......... .................. 565,984 | 1815 .......................... 3,048,906
1798........ .......... 584,923 ''1816.......................... 2,002,761
I)istillation, capa- - - -
Fiscal city, sales, j. Taxes on sºlº, W’ine rº, S
stamps and license, fermented March 7 fron) from
year. and taxes on dis- liquors. 1864 ' grapes. excise
tilled spirits. - • -
1863............#5,176,530....... $1,628,934..................58,824...#6,814,288
1864............ 30,329,150........ 2,290,009...#176,039.28,303.32,823,501
1865............18,731,422........ 3,734,928... 252,690.34,739.22,753,779
1866............33,268,172........ 5,220,553... 200...51,616.38,540,541
1867. ....33,542,952........ 6,057,501.............................. 39,600,453
1868. 18,655,631........ 5,955,869.............................24,611,500
1869. 45,026,402........ 6,099,880............................. 51,126.282
1870............ 55,581,599....... 6,319,127..................-----------61,900,726
1871. ..........46,281,848........ 7,389,502.................. • * * * * * * * * * *53,671,350
The principal excise tax has been that on the production
of distilled spirits. The rate of this tax during the last
(present) period was first fixed by act of July 1, 1862, at 20
cents per gallon. This was equal to nearly 100 per cent.
ad valorem, the average wholesale price of spirits in New
York having been in 1858, 24+ cents; 1859, 27 cents; 1860,
22 cents: 1861, 184 cents; and 1862, 29 cents. It afterwards
rose in 1863 to 53 cents (paper currency, the same in which
the tax was imposed), in 1864, to $1.45, and to still higher
EXCITO-MOTOR, ACTION-EXECUTOR.
1681
prices afterwards, though it was frequently sold for less
than the amount of the tax. On March 7, 1864, the pro-
duction tax was raised to 60 cents per gallon; on July 1,
1864, this was further raised to $1.50 per gallon, and on
Jan. 1, 1865, to $2 per gallon. This rate was continued
until by the act of July 20, 1868, it was lowered to 50
cents, where it now stands. The violent fluctuations shown
in the product of the tax were the result of speculation and
jobbery in anticipating the passage of laws imposing or
changing the rates. The annual consumption of Spirits in
the U. S. was estimated by Alexander Hamilton in 1792 at
three gallons per capita of population; in 1810, by Adam
Seybert, at four and a quarter gallons; in 1860, by the
superintendent of the census, at about three gallons; and
this is believed to be the average consumption still, it being
borne in mind that a large portion of this is consumed in
the arts and for other purposes than beverages. . The dif-
ference between this amount of consumption and the results
shown by the tax returns is chiefly accounted for by illicit
distillation. (See TAxATION.)
Distilled spirits in the U. S. are made for the most part
from grain, and it is estimated that about 40,000,000 bush-
els per annum, mainly of Indian corn, are used up in this
, Way. ALEX. DELMAR.
Ex/cito-mo/tor Action, in physiology, is that va-
riety of reflex action which, arising from impressions made
at the periphery (internal or external), is first transmitted
by afferent nerve-filaments to a nerve-centre, and thence
reflected without volition along motor (deferent) nerve-
filaments to a muscle, which is thereby aroused to action.
For example, a sudden impression of light causes the pupil
of the eye to contract; the presence of a particle of food in
the glottis causes intense involuntary coughing. (See RE-
FLEX ACTION.) Excito-motor action is peculiarly active in
very young children and in many of the lower animals. In
Some diseases (tetanus, hydrophobia, strychnia poisoning)
it is immensely increased. Chloral, belladonna, curari
poison, and especially the alkaloid curaria, all appear
powerfully to reduce action of this kind.
Exclu'sion Bill, in English history, a bill which was
designed to exclude the duke of York (King James II.)
from the throne, because he was a Roman Catholic. It
was adopted by the House of Commons in 1679, but was
rejected by the House of Lords.
Excommunica/tion [Lat. eaccommunicatio, from eac,
“out ’’ or “out from,” and communico, communica/tum, to
“share,” to “partake;” the act of putting one out from, so
that he has no share in, the privileges and protection of the
Church], the formal expulsion of a person from privileges
religious or social, inflicted by church authority upon persons
accused of misconduct or heresy. The ancient Israelites
excommunicated offenders by exclusion from the camp, by
“cutting off from the people,” and in later times by “put-
ting out of the synagogue.” This punishment, in extreme
cases at least, was a social interdict of the severest kind.
Excommunication in the Christian Church was established
by Christ's teachings, and by the precept and example of
the apostles, and was necessary both for the self-preserva-
tion of the Church and for the spiritual and moral good of
the offender. In early times—as also in the Roman Catho-
lic, and in several Protestant churches at present—there was
a lesser and a greater excommunication; the former a virtual
suspension from church privileges, the latter a formal ex-
pulsion. The greater excommunication in the Latin Church
is less severe than the anathema. Excommunication was
not unfrequently employed by the popes in former times as
a punishment for refractory monarchs, and even for whole
nations, but in later times it has not been so employed, the
so-called excommunication of Victor Emmanuel in 1860
being merely a statement of the ecclesiastical penalties
which the pope might inflict upon the invaders of the pon-
tifical domains. In Prussia and Switzerland the excom-
munication of the Old Catholic priests by the Catholic
bishops has recently brought on severe conflicts between
the State and the Church.
Exe (anc. Isaca), a river of England, rises in Exmoor,
in Somersetshire, flows generally southward through Dev-
onshire, and after a course of 54 miles enters the English
Channel at Exmouth. The chief towns on its banks are
Tiverton and Exeter.
Execution [Lat. execu'tio, from eac, “out,” and se/quor,
secutus, to “follow;” literally, a “following or carrying
out” of some design or of a legal sentence], the infliction
of the death-penalty by the proper civil, military, or naval
authorities. In the U. S. this act is performed by the
county, sheriff in the precincts of a jail or prison, in pres-
ence of certain officials and other witnesses, and hanging is.
the only method employed. Military executions are per-
formed by a provost-marshal and his guard, either by shoot-
ing with small-arms or by hanging. Naval executions are
generally by hanging at the yard-arm. In Western Europe
hanging is the more common method in civil cases, except
in France, where the guillotine is employed, and in Spain
the garrote takes its place. Burning, drowning, stoning,
and a great variety of methods have been practised in
former times. In the Indian mutiny of 1857 many of the
captured Sepoys were blown from the cannon's mouth.
Execution, the formality of signing, sealing, and de-
livering a deed, or of signing and publishing a will; in
criminal law, the carrying into effect the sentence of the
law by putting the criminal to death; in civil actions, the
carrying out the final judgment of the court, or, more strictly,
the writ directing the sheriff, coroner, or marshal to carry
such judgment into effect.
Under the law of England, there were three writs in con-
stant use to enforce a judgment for the payment of money:
1st, a writ of fieri facias, commonly called a fi, fa., direct-
ing the officer to cause to be made the amount of the judg-
ment out of the goods and chattels of the debtor; 2d, a writ
of elegit, given by statute of 13 Edw. II., directing the officer
to deliver the goods and chattels of the debtor to the creditor
at an appraised value, in satisfaction of the judgment, and,
if these are insufficient, to put him in possession of one-half
the debtor's land till the rents and profits satisfy the judg-
ment; 3d, a writ of capias ad satisfaciendum, commonly
called a ca. s.a., directing the officer to arrest the debtor and
keep him in confinement till he satisfies the judgment.
The English practice has been somewhat changed in the
State of New York. There are two writs of execution—one
against the property, and one against the person, of the
debtor. The former, which resembles the fi, fa., directs the
sheriff to satisfy the judgment out of the personal property
of the debtor within the county, and, if sufficient cannot be
found, then out of his real property, and to return the writ
within sixty days. The latter, like the ca. 8a., directs the
officer to arrest the debtor and keep him in jail till he pays
the judgment or is discharged according to law. Since the
act of 1831 abolishing imprisonment for debt, this writ is
allowed in comparatively few cases, as when the debt was
contracted in fraud, or the debtor has attempted to remove
his property, or has violated his duty in some trust relation.
Under the execution against the property the sheriff sells at
public auction the real and personal property of the debtor,
though a variety of articles necessary for the prosecution
of a business and support of a family are exempted, as also
a homestead to the value of one thousand dollars, subject
to certain conditions. If the judgment is for the recovery
of specific real or personal property, the execution directs
the sheriff to deliver such property to the plaintiff. Many
of the other States have closely followed the New York
practice.
Although these proceedings are instituted by the party
in whose favor the judgment is rendered, they are con-
sidered as the acts of the law, and the officer entrusted with
their performance is responsible to the party aggrieved for
any misconduct or neglect of duty.
Executive Department, The, in the U. S. govern-
ment, is that branch of the public service which attends to
the execution of the laws of the general government. This
department is under the direct control of the President, who is
the principal executive officer. The duties of the executive
department are the most extensive of all. It makes all
civil, naval, and military appointments, and manages the
army and navy, collects customs and internal revenue, sells
public lands, and pays all appropriations authorized by
Congress. Each of the secretaries of inferior departments,
including the postmaster-general and attorney-general, take
rank next the President as officers of the executive depart-
ment. They together constitute the so-called “Cabinet,”
which, by usage, has become a consulting, or advisory coun-
cil to the President. These officers are the secretary of
state, of the treasury, of the interior, of war, of the navy,
and the postmaster-general and the attorney-general. (See
UNITED STATES.)
Exec/utor [from the Lat. ex:, “out,” and sequor, secutus,
to “follow ’j, one to whom a testator commits the execu-
tion of his last will. The will is the source of the executor’s
title, and the probate (or proof) of the will is merely evi-
dence of it. As a general rule, any one capable of making
a contract can be an executor. By the law of England, an
infant can act as executor after the age of seventeen. In
many of the U. S. it is provided by statute that no person
under twenty-one is competent to act as executor. The
chief duties of an executor are to bury the deceased in a
manner suitable to the estate which he leaves, to prove the
will, make an inventory of his goods, collect the assets, and
pay the debts and legacies. An executor has general con-
trol over the personal estate, and possesses the same prop-
erty in it as the testator had when living, and the same
remedies to recover it. He has no power over the real
T06 .
1682
EXEGESIS.
estate, unless it is given to him by the will, or unless the
local law gives it to him when the personal property is in-
sufficient to pay the debts. When he has authority given
to him in a will to control the real estate, he is not deemed
to act as an executor, but either as a trustee or the grantee
of a power, according to the nature of the authority con-
ferred upon him. -
An executor de son tort is one who interferes with the
goods of a deceased without lawful authority. He has the
trouble of an executor without the advantages. He may
be sued as executor if any assets have come into his hands,
but cannot bring an action as executor. -
In some States, executors are required to give bonds for
the faithful discharge of their duties, and in others the pro-
bate court has a right to require them to furnish security
if there is any doubt of their solvency.
Exege’sis, or Exeget/ical Theol'ogy [Gr. &##ymats,
from éényéopat, to “lead,” also to “teach,” to “expound”
(from ēš for ék, “out,” also “intensive,” and hyāouat, to
“lead,” to “guide,” to “point out the way ’’); &#myntºis,
originally, among the Athenians, the interpreter of the
oracles of Delphi, the signs of heaven, and sacred rites;
among Christians, the interpreter of the Holy Scriptures],
is the first and most important part of theological science,
and covers the whole field of biblical literature, or all that
pertains to the learned explanation of the Old and New
Testaments. It originated among the Jewish rabbis, but
was afterwards far more extensively cultivated among the
Christian Fathers, the Reformers, and the divines of all
ages. It is taught as a science and practised as an art in
all theological institutions, and its results are applied from
every pulpit throughout the Christian world. No know- |
ledge is more useful and indispensable to a clergyman
than the knowledge of the Bible, which he has to explain
from Sunday to Sunday, and which among Protestants is
the only infallible source and rule of faith and morals and
all that pertains to the eternal interests of men.
I. Kinds of Exegesis.--(1) Philological or grammatico-
historical exegesis is the basis on which all other interpre-
tation and application must rest. It aims simply at the
meaning of the writer according to the recognized laws of
language and the usus logwendi at the time of composition,
and according to the historical situation of the writer, ir–
respective of any doctrinal or sectarian bias. It implies a
thorough knowledge of Greek and Hebrew, and familiarity
with contemporary literature. (2) Theological exegesis
develops the doctrinal and ethical ideas of the writer in
organic connection with the whole teaching of the Scrip-
tures and according to the analogy of faith. (3) Homileti-
cal or practical exegesis is the application of the well-ascer-
tained results of grammatical and theological interpretation
to the wants of the Christian congregation, and belongs
properly to the pulpit.
II. Awaziliary and Supplementary Branches.—(1) Sacred
Philology, the science of the languages in which the Bible
was originally written—viz., the Hebrew in the Old Testa-'
ment (with a few sections in the cognate Semitic dialect
called Chaldee or East Aramaic), and the Greek in the New
Testament. The latter is not the classical Greek, but the
Macedonian or Alexandrian dialect, with a strong Hebrew
coloring (hence called the Hellenistic, because spoken by
the Hellenists, i. e. the Greek Jews) and the infusion of the
spirit of Christianity, which created new words or inspired
a deeper meaning into old words. The New Testament
Greek requires, therefore, a particular study, special gram-
mars (i. e. Winer, Buttmann, Jr.), and special dictionaries
(Wahl, Bretschneider, Wilke, Grimm, Cremer, Robinson).
(2) Biblical Archæology or Antiquities—i.e. a systematic
description of the external and internal condition of the
nations among which, and the countries in which, the Bible
was composed. This includes, again, the geography and
natural history of Palestine and adjacent countries, the
topography of Jerusalem, an account of the domestic habits,
Social institutions, agriculture, arts and science, religious
rites, and ceremonies of the Hebrews. The material of
Jewish antiquities is derived mostly from the Bible itself,
but also from Philo and Josephus, the “Talmud,” the
monumental remains of Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, and the
accounts of modern explorers down to the labors of the
English and American Palestine Exploration Societies now
in progress. Dr. Robinson of New York (died 1863) broke
the way for truly independent critical research of the local-
ities of Jerusalem above the surface, while the Palestine
Exploration Society of England has begun to make us
acquainted with subterranean Jerusalem as it was before
the destruction. -
(3) Biblical Criticism aims at the approximate restora-
tion of the original text of the Bible as it came from the
hands of the inspired authors. The autographs being lost,
we are confined to the oldest uncial manuscripts, which date
from the fourth and fifth centuries. Besides, we have par-
tial and secondary sources of the Greek text in the very
numerous Scripture quotations of the Christian Fathers
(Origen, Irenaeus, Chrysostom, etc.), and the old transla-
tions (especially the Syriac, Peshito, and the Latin Itala and
the improved Vulgate of Jerome). , Textual criticism in-
cludes a discussion of the merits of the received text (textus
receptus, derived from Erasmus, Stephens, Beza, and Elze-
vir), the principles for ascertaining the oldest and purest
text, the classification of manuscripts and different read-
ings, and a history of the printed text from Erasmus and
the Complutensian Polyglot down to Lachmann, Tischen-
dorf, and Tregelles. There is a gradual approach to an
agreement among the best critics, and the conviction of the
essential integrity of the primitive text has been greatly
strengthened by the latest discoveries (e. g. the “Codex
Sinaiticus”) and investigations.
(4) Historico-Critical Introduction to the Books of the Old
and New Testaments is a literary history of the Bible, and
includes all the introductory information necessary for the
proper understanding of its contents, as the question of the
genuineness and integrity of the book, the persons addressed,
the place and time of composition, the object and aim of the
writer. It gives also a history of the canon or collection of the
several books of the Bible into one authoritative code, dis- .
tinct from all other books, and recognized as a rule (kavºv)
of faith and morals by those who receive them. The prin-
cipal works on introduction are by De Wette, Hug, Reuss,
Bleek, Guericke, Horne, Davidson. Compare also the
“Bible Dictionaries” of Kitto (3d ed. by William L. Alex-
ander, 3 vols.), William Smith (ed. with improvements by
Hackett and Abbot, in 4 vols.), Fairbairn, Winer, Schenkel.
(5) Biblical Hermeneutics—i.e. the science of the prin-
ciples of interpretation, and the necessary qualifications
for an expounder of the Scriptures. These qualifications
are partly intellectual (familiarity with the general laws of
thought and speech, knowledge of the particular languages
of the Bible, sound judgment) and partly moral (freedom
from prejudice, readiness to do justice to the author, sym-
pathy with his spirit and ideas).
(6) Biblical Theology of the Old and New Testaments is a
summing up of the results of exegesis in systematic order,
and presents a full view of the teaching of the Scriptures,
irrespective of the subsequent systems of denominational
dogmatics and ethics derived from them. This branch of
exegetical theology is of recent growth, and has thus far
been mostly cultivated by Continental scholars. There are
also special treatises on the theology of Christ, the theology
of Paul, John, and Peter. Each of the apostles, as he has
his own peculiar style, represents also a special aspect of
the Christian system; yet all harmonize and exhibit to-
gether the fulness of the gospel. (Compare the works of
Schmid and Van Oosterzee on New Testament Theology,
recently translated into English ; Ewald, Schultz, and
Oehler on Old Testament Theology.)
III. History of Eacegesis and Principal Commentaries.—
(1) Jewish exegesis, confined to the Old Testament. It be-
gan soon after the close of the canon. It was especially
devoted to the Law (the Thorah), i. e. the Pentateuch, and
derived from it minute rules for the individual, social, and
ecclesiastical relations. The body of these interpretations
is called Midrash. The prevailing method of exegesis was
the rabbinical or literal; it excluded all foreign ideas, and
was subservient to the strict legalism of the Pharisees. But
among the Hellenist (Greek-speaking) Jews, especially in
Alexandria, the allegorizing method obtained favor, espe-
cially through Philo (died about 40 A. D.), who endeavored
to combine the Mosaic religion with Platonic philosophy,
and prepared the way for the allegorizing exegesis of Cle-
ment and Origen of Alexandria. The Jewish rabbins of the
Middle Ages cultivated grammatical exegesis at a time
when the knowledge of Hebrew had died out in the Chris-
tian Church. The most distinguished among them are Ibn
Ezra (died 1167), R. Sal. Isaak or Raschi (died 1105),
David Kimchi (died 1190), Moses Maimonides (died 1204).
Their commentaries are printed separately, and also in the
so-called Rabbinical Bibles (e.g. of Buxtorf, Bâle, 1618, 3
vols. fol.). -
(2) Patristic Exegesis. The first use made of the Bible
in the Church was practical and homiletical. It was to the
early Christians what it still is to the great mass of be-
lievers, and will be to the end of time—a book of life, of
spiritual instruction and edification, of hope and comfort.
Scientific or learned exegesis began when the Bible was
perverted by heretics and made to serve all sorts of errors.
... The Greek Church took the lead. Origen (180–254), the
greatest scholar of his age, a man of genius and iron indus-
try, is the father of critical exegesis. He is full of sug-
gestive ideas, but far from being sound. His theory of her-
meneutics is untenable, and opens the way for the most
fanciful and arbitrary expositions or impositions. He dis-
tinguishes three senses in the Bible, corresponding to the
EXETER—EXILE.
1683
three parts of man : (a) a literal or bodily sense; (b) a
moral or psychic sense; (c) an allegorical or mystic, spirit-
ual sense. Where the literal sense is offensive, he escaped
the difficulty by adopting a purely spiritual sense. The
greatest commentators of the Greek Church are Chry-
sostom (died 407), who in his “Homilies” explained the
principal books of the Old and New Testaments, Theodore
of Mopsuestia (died 429), Theodoret of Cyros (died 457).
Among the Latin Fathers, Augustine (died 430) is the pro-
foundest and most spiritual, Jerome (died 419) the most
learned expounder. The latter achieved the highest merit
by his improved Latin version of the Bible (the Vulgate),
which remains to this day the standard version of the Ro-
man Church. The Council of Trent forbade the interpre-
tation of Scriptures except according to “the unanimous
consent of the Fathers.” But this rule would prevent all
progress in theology; and besides, such a “unanimous
consent’’ does not exist except in the most fundamental
doctrines. -
(3) Mediæval exegesis was purely traditional, and con-
sisted of brief glosses (glossaria) or of extracts from the
Fathers (called catenae Patrum). The original languages of
the Bible were unknown in the West, and even the first
among the scholastics had to depend upon Jerome's version
for their knowledge of God’s word. The prevailing method
distinguished four senses of the Scriptures: (a) the literal
or historical; (b) the spiritual or mystic, corresponding to
faith, teaching what to believe (credenda); (c) the moral or
tropological, which corresponds to love or charity, and
teaches what to do (agenda); (d) the anagogical, which re-
fers to hope (speranda). The principal patristic compila-
tions are (a) in the Greek Church, those of CEcumenius
(died 990), Theophylactus (died 1007), Enthymais Zigabe-
nus (died 1118), and Nicephorus (fourteenth century); (b)
in the Latin Church, Wallafried Strabo (died 849), Thomas
Aquinas (died 1274). The Catena awrea in Evangelia of
Aquinas has been recently reproduced in an English trans-
lation by Pusey, Keble, and Newman. Among the more
independent biblical scholars of the Middle Ages who pre-
pared the way for the Reformation must be mentioned
Nicolaus à Lyra (died 1340: “Si Lyra non lyrasset, Lu-
therus non saltasset”), and Laurentius Valla (died 1465).
(4) The exegesis of the Protestant Reformers of the six-
teenth century marks a new epoch. It is full of enthusiasm
for the word of God in the Bible as the only rule of Chris-
tian faith and practice, and free from the slavery of eccle-
siastical tradition. It went directly to the original Greek
and Hebrew Scriptures, and furnished the best translations
for the benefit of the people, while Romanism regards the
Bible as a book for the priesthood, and discourages or pro-
hibits efforts for its general circulation without note or com-
ments. All the Reformers wrote commentaries more or less
extensive on various books of the Bible—Luther (died 1546),
Melanchthon (died 1560), Zwingli (died 1531), CEcolampad-
ius (died 1531)—but the ablest of them are Calvin (died 1564)
and his pupil Beza (died 1603). Calvin combines almost
all the qualifications of an expounder in rare harmony, and
his commentaries on Genesis, the Psalms, the Prophets, and
all the books of the New Testament (except Revelation) are
valuable to this day.
(5) Protestant commentaries of the seventeenth and eigh-
teenth centuries by Hugo Grotius (died 1645, Arminian),
Vitringa (died 1722, Dutch Calvinist), Hammond (died
1660, Church of England), Mathew Poole (Presbyterian,
died 1679, “Annotations upon the Whole Bible,” an Eng-
lish synopsis from his Latin synopsis), Matthew Henry
(Independent, died 1714, the best homiletical commentator
of England), John Gill (Baptist, died 1771), Philip Dodd-
ridge (Independent, died 1751, author of “Family Expos-
itor”), Calovius (Lutheran, died 1686, “Biblia, Illustrata.”
versus Grotius), J. A. Bengel (Lutheran, died 1752, author
of the “Gnomon of the New Testament,” in Latin, twice
translated into English, an admirable specimen of multum
in parvo). Collective works: “Critici Sacri,” London, 1660,
9 tom.; Amsterdam, 1698–1732, in 13 vols. (compiled from
the principal commentators as an appendix to Walton’s
“Polyglot,” under the direction of Bishop Pearson and
others); PooDE’s “Synopsis Criticorum aliorumque S.
Scripturae interpretum,” London, 1669–76, 4 vols. in 5 fol.
(a very useful abridgment from the “Critici Sacri” and
other commentators). -
(6) Modern commentaries, chiefly German, English, and
American : (a) On the whole Bible: LANGE’s “Bibelwerk,”
Bielefeld and Leipsic, 1857 seq. (a threefold commentary,
critical, doctrinal, and homiletical, prepared by a number
of Continental, mostly German, divines, and to be com-
pleted in about 30 parts, chiefly for the use of ministers
and students); the same in English, with large improve-
ments and additions by more than forty American scholars
of all denominations, under the editorial care of Philip
Schaff, New York and Edinburgh, 1864 seq. (to be com-
pleted in 23 vols., of which 18 had appeared in 1873);
“The Speaker's Commentary,” suggested by the Speaker
of the House of Commons, ed. by Canon F. C. Cook, aided
by a number of bishops and presbyters of the Church of .
England, London and New York, 1871 seq., to be com-
pleted in 8 vols. (so far two vols., from Genesis to Kings,
mainly for the lay reader). (b) On the New Testament:
Olshausen, De Wette, and especially Meyer (the first philo-
logical commentator now living), among the Germans, Al-
ford and Wordsworth among the English; all for critical
students. Of popular commentaries of the New Testament,
Barnes has had by far the widest circulation in America
and England. The present century has also produced a
large number of exegetical works of the first order on
separate books of the Bible, which it would be impossible
here to enumerate. Among recent commentators on one or
more books of the Old Testament, Gesenius, Ewald, Hup-
feld, Hitzig, Hengstenberg, Delitzsch, Schlottmann, Stuart,
Joseph A. Alexander, occupy the first rank. Of New Testa-
ment commentators must be mentioned Winer, Fritzsche,
Tholuck, Lücke, Bleek, Harless, Godet, Stuart, Hodge,
Stanley, Jowett, Ellicott, and Lightfoot. Among these,
again, Tholuck on Romans and the Sermon on the Mount,
Lücke on the Writings of St. John, Harless on Ephesians,
Hodge on Romans, Ellicott on Galatians, Ephesians, Thes-
salonians, and Pastoral Epistles (republished in Andover),
Lightfoot on Galatians and Philippians, are most useful for
the critical study of the Greek Testament.
PHILIP SchAFF.
Exete/r [Lat. Isca or Eaconia], a city and seaport of
England, the capital of Devonshire and a separate county,
is on the river Exe, about 10 miles from the sea, and 170
miles W. S. W. of London, with which it is connected by
railway. It is pleasantly situated on the sides and summit
of an acclivity, and is well built, well paved, and liberally
supplied with water. Exeter is the see of a bishop, and has
a magnificent cathedral, which was commenced in 1280;
it is 408 feet long, and has two Norman towers 145 feet
high. The W. front is richly decorated, and presents a
façade which is one of the most beautiful in England. In
one of the towers is the Great Tom of Exeter, or Peter’s
Bell, which weighs 12,500 pourids. Exeter contains a the-
atre, twenty-four Episcopal churches and chapels, and a
lunatic asylum. It returns two members to Parliament.
Vessels of 400 tons can ascend the Exe to this place, from
which dairy produce, fruits, and other articles are export-
ed. Here are several large nurseries. Pop. of municipal
borough in 1871, 34,646. -
Exeter, a post-village of Huron co., Ontario, Canada,
has quite extensive manufactures and a thriving trade.
Pop. about 1000.
Exeter, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. It has
manufactures of lumber, shingles, carriages, etc. P. 1424.
Exeter, a post-township of Monroe co., Mich. P. 1067.
Exeter, a post-village, one of the capitals of Rocking-
ham co., N. H., on the Squamscott River and the Boston
and Maine R. R., 50 miles N. of Boston. It has the county
offices, a national bank, two savings banks, four hotels,
Phillips Academy, a richly-endowed institution founded
in 1781, Robinson’s Female Seminary, a high school, one
weekly newspaper, seven churches, a large cotton-mill and
machine-shop, railroad round-house, and manufactures of
lumber, castings, and carriages. Pop. of Exeter township,
3437. CHARLES MARSEILLES, PUB. “NEws LETTER.”
IExeter, a post-twp. of Otsego co., N. Y. Pop. 1256.
Exeter, a township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 2239.
Exeter, a post-township of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 742.
IExeter, a township of Wyoming co., Pa. Pop. 211.
Exeter, a post-twp. of Washington co., R. I. P. 1462.
Exeter, a post-township of Green co., Wis. Pop. 949.
Exeter Hall, a building in the Strand, London, erect-
ed in 1831, and remodelled in 1850. It is celebrated as
the place of assembly of many of the religious and philan.
thropic societies of England. “Exeter Hall philanthropy”
is a term applied to public efforts in behalf of the poor and
degraded, implying (often with injustice) that such efforts
are ostentatious and ineffectual.
Ex/ile. This word is used of the person who, either
voluntarily or by penal sentence, leaves his own country in
order to escape the consequences to life, liberty, or property
that residence at home would bring with it. It also de-
notes the state of such an exile, as we say to go into eacile.
It thus answers to two Latin words, eacSul or eacwl, and eac-
illum, which stand related like consul and consilium, and
are derived from eac, and the root of solum, “ soil,” “ground,”
as the Latins said of an exile, qui Solum vertit, “he who
changes his soil” or “dwelling-place.” It differs from
banishment (derived from ban, “edict,” “proclamation”), in
1684
EXIRA—EXODUS, THE BOOK OF.
that the latter strictly implies a penalty or act of the su-
preme authority, driving a person away from his home and
country, while eacile has no such necessary sense. It differs
from captivity in a foreign land, in that a captive is not a
free person, but under the enemy's power. The Greeks in
their usages and legislation were familiar with voluntary
exile on account of involuntary homicide, with ostracism,
a political contrivance, especially at Athens, in order to get
rid of a powerful party-leader, and with exile especially for
life. In the two former cases a man retained his property,
and return to his native land was allowed; in the last, be-
sides lifelong absence, he suffered the ills of confiscation of
his goods. At Rome, while the republic lasted, a person,
before sentence for crime, could go to a foreign country;
and there were even treaties with certain states by virtue
of which a Roman, and vice versá, a eitizen of such a state,
had a liberty of living in exile in each other’s country con-
ceded to them. Verres and Milo, with many others, thus left
the Roman dominions to escape a sentence. Exile was also
a penalty for certain crimes, or, as in the case of Cicero,
was decreed by vote of the comitia. It was called aquae
et ignis interdictio—i. e. prohibition from the use of fire and
water within certain limits. Under the empire the forms
of exile in use went by the names of relegatio and deportatio.
Relegation either excluded the person affected by it from
a particular place or territory, or it required him to reside
at a particular place or within a particular country, with-
out depriving him of property, citizenship, or a father's
power, and did not necessarily prevent his return. De-
portation, called also deportation to an island, was intro-
.duced under the emperors, and involved loss of citizenship
and of property. The poet Ovid was relegated, under Au-
gustus and by an edict, to Tomi in Lower Moesia, where
he died after ten years of exile. -
Exile is as a punishment unknown to English law, un-
less it be in the form of transportation by act of Parlia-
ment, or as a condition of pardon by the executive for a
capital or other severe punishment.
Free countries, unless overawed by superior power, have
generally given refuge to political exiles, and seldom have
they delivered them up on demand from the exile's country.
This was the boast of Athens, which Demosthenes calls the
common place of refuge for Greece; who also pronounces
it to be the common usage of all men to give shelter to an
exile. The connection of the exile with his native land of
course ceases. The jurisdiction over him depends on the laws
of the land where he is domiciled. If, as sometimes happens,
he engages in plots with accomplices in his native country,
he is amenable to the law of his domicile for any crimi-
nal acts he rhay commit within its jurisdiction. Such a
person is sometimes demanded by the authorities of his
original home, in order to be proceeded against by its laws
and modes of trial. But a free country will refuse to sur-
render its territorial rights in such cases. T. D. WooDSEY.
Exiſra, a post-village, capital of Audubon co., Ia.,
beautifully situated on the Nishnabatona River, 70 miles
W. of Des Moines, in a fertile, well-timbered region abound-
ing in lignite, peat, potters’ clay, and chalybeate mineral
springs. It has a public square, two churches, a weekly
newspaper, and a fine school-house. Pop. of village, 161;
of township, 426. D. M. HARRIs, ED. “ DEFENDER.”
Ex/moor For’est, England, is partly in Devonshire
and partly in Somersetshire. It is mostly uncultivated, and
is occupied by dark ranges of hills and lonely valleys. The
surface-rocks are Devonian slate and new red sandstone.
The highest point of the hills is 1668 feet. Exmoor is partly
covered with heath, and contains considerable meadow-land.
It gave name to a breed of sheep, now nearly extinct. Area,
19,270 acres. Ponies are bred extensively, and iron is
mined. -
Ex’ mouth, a town and watering-place of England, in
Devonshire, is on the English Channel at the mouth of the
Exe, 10 miles S. E. of Exeter. The mildness of the climate
and the beauty of its scenery render it a favorite place of
resort. The fisheries and lace-making are the principal in-
dustries. Here Sueno the Dane landed in 1003. Pop. with
surroundings, 7538.
Ex’ mouth (EDwARD Pełiew), Viscount, an English
admiral, born at Dover April 19, 1757. He served with dis-
tinction at the battle of Lake Champlain in Oct., 1776, and
became a post-captain in 1782. In 1804 he obtained the
rank of rear-admiral, and in 1808 that of vice-admiral of
the blue. He was created Baron Exmouth in 1814, and
was raised to the rank of admiral. He commanded a fleet
which in 1816 was sent to enforce a treaty which the dey
of Algiers had violated. This fleet, aided by a Dutch fleet,
bombarded Algiers in August of that year, and reduced the
dey to submission. He received the title of viscount in Dec.,
1816. Died Jan. 23, 1833. The title is still extant, and in
the Pellew family.
Ex’ner (FRANZ), a German philosopher, born in 1802,
became in 1831 professor of philosophy in the University
of Prague, and was appointed counsellor in the Austrian
ministry of public education in 1848. Died in 1853. He
wrote, among other works, “Die Psychologie der Hegel’-
schen Schule” (1842–44), and “TJber die Lehre von der
Einheit des Denkens and Seins '' (1845).
Exodus [Gr. Eşoôos, “a going forth”]. The migration,
whether by compulsion or otherwise, of any considerable
body of people, as of the Moors from Spain in 1492, of the
Huguenots from France after the Revocation of the Edict
of Nantes in 1685, or of the Irish to the U. S. since 1847,
may be called an exodus, but the term is commonly ap-
plied almost exclusively to the departure of the Israelites
from Egypt under the leadership of Moses. From the bib-
lical narrative it is not quite clear how long they had been
in Egypt—whether a little more than four centuries, or
only a little more than two. In Exodus xii. 40, we read:
“Now the sojourning of the children of Israel, who dwelt
in Egypt, was four hundred and thirty years.” But the
Septuagint and the Samaritan Pentateuch agree in mak-
ing the four hundred and thirty years cover also the pre-
vious residence in Canaan. And this appears to have been
the chronology of Paul (see Gal. iii. 17). Josephus some-
times (Ant., 2, 9, 1; Jew. W., 5, 9, 4) says 400 years, but
in Ant., 2, 15, 2, he says that “the Israelites left Egypt
430 years after the entrance of Abraham into Canaan,
and 215 years after Jacob’s coming into Egypt.” The
great increase in population, from the nomadic family of
seventy persons to the agricultural nation of two and a
half millions, would seem to require the longer period, un-
less we assume the incorporation by circumcision of a large
body of dependants into the original stock. From the
genealogical tables in the first book of Chronicles, and else-
where, it is evident that unless the time was much longer
than 215 years, the generations followed one another with
great rapidity; for although only four generations are
named of the family to which Moses belonged, Bezaleel,
the artificer, was in the seventh generation from Judah (1
Chron. ii. 3–20), the five daughters of Zelophehad in the
seventh generation from Joseph, through Manasseh (Num.
xxvi. 28–33), and Joshua in the eleventh generation from
Joseph, through Ephraim (1 Chron. vii. 22–27). And what
proof have we that in any case the links are all given 2
Malthus says: “It has been constantly remarked that all
new colonies, settled in healthy countries, where room and
food were abundant, have constantly made a rapid prog-
ress in population.” Bgypt, it is well known, was famous
amongst the nations of antiquity not only for its animal
fecundity, but also for the fertility of its human occupants.
And yet the rapid increase of the Israelites in Egypt is
emphasized in the history, and referred to afterwards (Ps.
cv. 23, 24), as something extraordinary. It is consequently
impossible for us to say whether the biblical narrative re-
quires 430 or only 215 years.
As to the points of contact between Egyptian and Hebrew
history, the time has not yet come for final conclusions.
Egyptian history itself is undergoing reconstruction. But
the best biblical scholars now incline to the opinion that
the Israelites entered Egypt under the twelfth dynasty
(Abrahám under one of its earlier, and Jacob under one
of its later, kings), and came out under the eighteenth,
but the exact chronology has not yet been determined.
They dwelt probably in the Delta, and took their depart-
ure by the Wady-t–Tumeylat, which is about halfway be-
tween the Mediterranean and the present head of the Red
Sea. The point at which they crossed this sea is generally
supposed to have been not far from where Suez now stands.
From this point to Sinai the distance is about 150 miles.
Their route to Sinai was probably through the Wady Feiran.
And if the Exodus occurred in the time of Thotmes II., the
fifth king of the eighteenth dynasty, the way was entirely
open to them, for it has been recently ascertained that the
copper-mines of the Sinaitic peninsula, which they had to
pass, were not worked by the Egyptians from the reign of
Thotmes I. to the seventeenth year of Thotmes III. Ka-
desh Barnea, the point at which they first touched the
borders of Palestine, and to which, after thirty-eight years
of penal wandering, they returned, has not been certainly
identified, Robinson finding it on the E. side, and Palmer
on the W. side, of the desert. If the Israelites were to be
civilized by contact with another people, no better place
could have been found, and on the whole no safer, than
Egypt. The miracles by which they were delivered, and
which attended them all the way through the desert until
they were finally planted in their former home, made a
profound impression upon the national character.
R. D. HITCHCOCK.
Exodus, The Book of, was so named by the Alex-
andrian translators of the Old Testament. The Hebrews
W
FXOGENOUS PLANTS-EXPATRIATION.
1685
of Palestine designated it by its opening words, Elleh She-
moth, “these are the words.” It consists of two distinct
portions; the former (chaps. i.-xix.) describing the deliv-
erance of the Israelites from Egypt; the latter (chaps. xx-
xl.) describing the giving of the Law. Its Mosaic author-
ship, though denied by some, is generally conceded. Its
date depends, of course, upon that of Moses himself.
Exog'enous Plants, or Ex/ogens [from the Gr. §§o,
“without,” and yévo, to “be born,” to “grow’], the first or
most highly developed of the two primary classes of phae-
nogamous or flowering plants. They are called exogens
because their stems grow by successive external additions,
and are sometimes termed dicotyledonows, because the seed
has usually two cotyledons. This class is characterized by
net-veined (reticulated) leaves, and by stems which present
distinct formations of bark, wood, and pith, the Wood form-
ing a zone between the other two, and increasing, when the
stem continues from year to year, by the annual addition
of a new layer to the outside. The flowers are usually
formed on a quinary, more rarely on a quaternary, type.
The bark is very distinct from the woody or fibro-vascular
part which it surrounds. A transverse section of the stem
exhibits a central cellular substance (pith), an external
cellular and fibrous ring or bark, and an intermediate woody
mass traversed by medullary rays, which radiate from the
pith to the bark. A viscid secretion called cambium is
formed between the bark and the alburnum (Sap-wood) in
the spring, and is supposed to be the matter out of which
new wood is made. The age of exogenous trees can often
be computed by the concentric rings annually produced.
More than 1200 rings or layers have been counted on a
stump. All trees of cold or temperate climates, and most
trees of tropical regions, are exogenous. The total number
of exogenous plants is much greater than that of the en-
dogens. The medullary rays are thin plates of cellular
tissue, which on a cross section appear like fine lines, but
in wood cut lengthwise, parallel to them, they present an
appearance called silver grain, and their faces show as
glimmering plates.
Ex/orcism [Gr. &#opkworwäs, from é; (for Šk), “out,” and
öpkigo, to “adjure” (from épkos, an “oath *)], a ceremony
designed to expel daemons or evil spirits from persons,
places, or things. Exorcisms of various kinds have been
practised from remote antiquity in nearly all nations and
races. The ancient Jews, as we learn from Josephus, the
Talmud, and the New Testament, had a class of persons
professing to be skilled in casting out devils. Miracles of
this kind are recorded as having been performed by Christ
and his apostles, and in the early ages of the Church a
separate class of exorcists arose who claimed special powers
of controlling evil spirits. Many ceremonies were instituted
by them, and their powers were exerted not only over those
possessed by the devil, but over all candidates for baptism,
over the baptismal water, and other sacred things and places.
At present in the Church of Rome there is a special order
of exorcists, one of the four orders of the minor clergy. All
persons in superior orders must pass through this degree.
In the Greek Church a similar order exists. Exorcism is
now obsolete in all Protestant denominations, though for-
merly recognized in several.
Exosmose. See ENDoSMOSE.
Exoteric. See EsotºRIC.
Exosto'sis [Gr. §§6a-roots (from the Gr. §§, “without,”
and Öatéov, a “bone”)], a bony tumor, a circumscribed,
non-malignant mass of bone, usually an abnormal out-
growth from one of the bones of the skeleton. In man
the disease especially seats itself upon the femur or on
Some of the bones of the skull. In the latter case it some-
times assumes a peculiar ivory-like character (eburnized
exostosis), from the presence of an excess of calcium phos-
phate. It is usually developed from an inflammation-
exudate, and is ordinarily formed with the exact structure
of true bone. The disease is commonly painless. Some
classes arise from a syphilitic taint, others from a rheum-
atic or gouty diathesis, others from no known cause.
Some writers include all bony outgrowths, malignant and
other, under this head, but the best pathologists restrict the
name to the one disease. Discutient remedies, mercurials
and iodides, have been recommended for this disease, but
ordinarily the only cure is in ablation, which, however, is
liable to be followed by erysipelas.
Expan'sion [Lat. expansio, from ear, “out,” and pando,
pansum, to “open,” to “spread”], an increase in the bulk
of solid, liquid, or gaseous matter, due to the increase of
heat. Heat is believed to consist of a very rapid molecular
vibration, and the addition of this motion to a collection
of particles must obviously tend to separate them and en-
large the mass. Expansion accordingly takes place in
nearly all solids on the addition of heat up to the point
of fusion; and in most substances expansion continues
through the process of fusion, and beyond it; but ice, bis-
muth, antimony, paraffin, and a few other substances con-
tract in fusing, but go on expanding if heat be added after
fusion.
Iodide of silver contracts uniformly under heat; and it
is certain that some crystals expand in some directions and
contract in others, the general result being an expansion.
Non-crystalline bodies usually expand uniformly in every
direction, provided heat be uniformly applied. Liquids,
like solids, expand at an increasing rate with the increase
of heat. Gases expand almost uniformly zºo of their vol-
ume for 19 Fahrenheit.
Allowance is always made for expansion and contraction
in large iron bridges, buildings, etc.; for if no play were
allowed at the joints, hot and cold weather would distort or
destroy such structures; and it must especially be remem-
bered that superficial expansion is twice as great, and cu-
bical expansion three times as great, as the linear.
Ex Par'te, a Latin legal phrase signifying “ of one
party.” A commission eac parte in chancery is that which
is taken out and executed by one side or party alone, the
other party neglecting or refusing to join.
Expatriation [from the Lat. eac, “out,” and patria,
“one's native land ”], the voluntary abandonment of one's
native country with the intention of becoming a citizen of
another state. The right of a person to throw off the obli-
gation of allegiance has been denied by eminent writers
and some governments. The true view would seem to be
that the power to determine when the allegiance of the citi-
zen may cease belongs to the state of which he is a mem-
ber, rather than to himself. At the same time, the freedom
of intercourse between nations in modern times and the in-
terests of civilization require that the various nations
should provide liberal rules by which at proper times the
relation of the citizen to the state may cease, and the indi-
vidual, freed from the ties of burdensome allegiance, may
assume another citizenship if he so desire. In this spirit
may now be found statutory declarations by leading states
on this subject, as well as treaty stipulations. By the act
of Congress of July 27, 1868, 31, it is recited that the act.
of expatriation is a natural and inherent right of all people,
and it is enacted that any declaration or instruction or de-
cision of any officer of the government which denies, re-
stricts, or questions the right of expatriation is inconsistent
with the fundamental principle of the government. In
England, by 33 Vict. ch. 14, 36, British subjects in general
cease to be such upon becoming naturalized in a foreign
state. The laws of the various states upon this subject are
collected under the direction of the U. S. government in a
publication entitled “Opinions of the Principal Officers of
the Executive Departments, and other papers, relating to
Expatriation, Naturalization, and Change of Allegiance,”
Washington, 1873.
If the right of expatriation be admitted except in certain
cases, such as where the person holds a public trust, or is
liable to do military service, or is charged with crime, a
question of practical difficulty remains as to the mode in
which his election to abandon his citizenship shall be evi-
denced. In some countries—e.g. France and Prussia—it
may be shown by the fact that the person has taken his
domicile in a foreign country in such a sense that he has
abandoned all intent to return to his former home. This
rule is not very satisfactory, as questions of domicile are
frequently very difficult of solution, as they depend upon a
judicial inquiry into the intent of the party, and this in
turn depends upon an examination into a great variety of
circumstances, and often ranging over many years. A
much more convenient test is that of the English statute
already cited. This provides that naturalization in a for-
eign country shall be evidence of an intent to renounce
English citizenship. Should the former subject wish at any
time to resume his relations with England, he can be natu-
ralized under the laws of that country. The whole subject
is not so important in the domain of private law as it was
formerly, when aliens were subject to serious disabilities,
particularly in respect to the acquisition of land. In a
political aspect it is, however, of much consequence, and it
is quite desirable that Congress should pass a comprehen-
sive statute setting forth upon what terms expatriation
may take place, the evidence by which it may be properly
established, and how citizenship may be resumed. The
general declaration in the law of July 27, 1868, that ex-
patriation is a natural right, etc., is of but little practical
... in settling the questions that from time to time arise
up&n this intricate subject. There is a special point of
considerable moment as to the status of maturalized citizens
of the U. S. becoming again domiciled in their native coun-
try, as to whom other considerations are presented from
those which prevail in the case of such a domicile by one
1686
EXPECTORANT—EXPLOSIVES.
who was born an American citizen. (For further informa-
tion, consult INTERNATIONAL LAW, and text-books upon
that subject; also CITIZEN.) T. W. DWIGHT.
Expectorant [from the Lat. ear, “out,” and pectus
gen. pectoris), the “breast”], a medicine which facilitates
or causes the discharge of mucous secretions from the air-
passages within the chest. Many balms, gums, and nause-
ating medicines, as well as demulcents and other drugs, are
reputed to have expectorant properties. Some medicines
not usually considered expectorant appear to stimulate the
Secretion of mucus in the air-passages, as the ammonium
chloride (sal-ammoniac) and the potassium hypophosphite.
Among the most useful expectorants are ipecac, squill, lo-
belia, and blood-root. These are also emetics, sedatives,
and diaphoretics.
Expira’tion [Lat. eaſpiratio, from eac, “out,” and spiro,
spiratum, to “breathe ”j, in physiology, the operation or
movement by which the air that has been changed by the
respiratory process is expelled from the lungs. This move-
ment is effected partly by the elastic contraction of the
lungs and the walls of the chest, which were dilated by the
act of, inspiration, but the resiliency of the chest-walls is
greatly assisted by the action of numerous muscles, espe-
cially in forcible expiration.
Exploitation [from exploiter, to “improve,” to
“work”], a French term signifying the improvement of
lands, the working of a mine; in general, the act of using
anything as a source of profit or rendering it profitable.
Exploits, River of, traverses nearly the whole breadth
of Newfoundland from S. W. to N. E. It is māvigable for
steamers 12 miles to the rapids, and above these small boats
can go to within 50 miles of the S. W. coast. Its valley is
level, well timbered, and abounds in game and fish, but has
few inhabitants. This valley is recommended for coloni-
zation by the provincial government, and is believed to
contain nearly all the habitable land in the interior of that
large island.
Explo'sion [Lat. explo'sio, from explo’do, explo'sum,
to “explode,” “hiss off the stage or drive out”], a bursting
with a loud report; in natural philosophy, the sudden and
violent expansion of the parts of a body, caused by heat or
chemical affinity. Explosions are often caused by the elastic
force of steam confined in boilers, etc. The explosion of
gunpowder is the result of the sudden formation and ex-
pansion of gases; into which the powder is converted by
chemical agency. This term is also applied to the violent
eruption or discharge of a volcano. Humboldt heard the
explosion of Cotopaxi at the distance of 130 miles.
Explo’sives [from the Lat. eac, “out,” and plaudo, to
“make a burst of sound”]. Under this head will be con-
sidered the compounds practically available in war, in
mining, and in general use for the sudden development of
immense force. They comprise gunpowder; guncotton;
Schultze powder; nitro-glycerine, with its compounds
known as dynamite, or giant powder, glyoxiline, lithofrac-
teur, and dualin; admixtures of potassium chlorate with
readily oxidizable substances; and the picrate compounds.
The various fulminates of mercury, silver, copper, etc.,
although very powerful agents, are too liable to accidental
explosion for practical use, except in very small quantities,
as primings for percussion-caps, fuses, etc., and they are
therefore excluded from consideration. -
Gunpowder, which was first employed in war about the
year 1350, is the oldest and most generally useful of these
agents. It is a mechanical mixture of potassium nitrate,
carbon, and sulphur, in proportions usually varying but
little from 75, 13, and 12 respectively. Purity is essential
to excellence. The manipulations of manufacture consist,
in general terms, in very finely pulverizing the ingredients,
thoroughly incorporating them, compressing them into a
cake, granulating it, separating the different sizes of grain
by sieves, glazing, drying, and finally removing all dust
by the use of fine sieves.
In the storage of gunpowder special precautions against
fire and moisture are needed. A spark, friction between
hard bodies, or a temperature raised suddenly to 572 de-
grees Fahrenheit, determine an explosion; while slight
moisture, which may readily be absorbed from damp air,
produces caking and deterioration. A wetting is perma-
nently destructive to the compound. Frost produces no
injurious effects, either temporary or permanent.
Being a simple mechanical mixture, the properties of
gunpowder may readily be varied to suit the requirements
of a quick-burning or a slow-burning explosive. Its ex-
pansive power is due to two distinct causes—the sudden
transformation from a solid to a gaseous form of vastly
greater volume, and the heat developed by the chemical
change, which induces enormous tension. It is apparent,
therefore, that a variation in the relative proportions and
condition of the ingredients, by changing the chemical
ent calibres.
products of the explosion, must affect the expansive force;
and also that a similar result may be obtained by mechan-
ical means directed to modifying the duration of the time
required for combustion.
It is to a skilful application of the last method that the
recent improvements in gunpowder designed for heavy ord-
nance are due. General Rodman, of the U. S. army, in-
augurated a series of experiments directed to this end in
1856, and from the results of his labors this country was
provided in advance of European nations with an explo-
sive suited to modern cannon. His mammoth and perfor-
ated-cake powders—the former consisting of large irregu-
lar grains, tested by two standard sieves of six-tenths and
nine-tenths of an inch respectively, and the latter of hex-
agonal or cylindrical cakes perforated by holes—have been
copied in the English pebble and pellet, and the Russian
prismatic powders; by the aid of which the recent improve-
ments in their artillery have been rendered possible. Peb-
ble powder is simply pressed cake, broken into large irreg-
ular pieces and glazed. Pellet powder consists of mealed
powder compressed into small blocks, of regular and some-
times indented forms, and of dimensions varying for differ-
Prismatic powder consists of mealed powder
compressed into flat, perforated cakes of hexagonal form,
about an inch thick and an inch and a half on the longest
diameter. This subject is still undergoing investigation;
the facts having been developed that the time of burning,
and hence the strain upon the gun for a given initial ve-
locity in the projectile, may be modified by varying the
size and form of the grains, their density and hardness,
and the mechanical condition of the exterior.
By replacing a part of the carbon with uncarbonized
peat, Mr. Oliver now manufactures a variety of gunpowder
which, when well rammed, is claimed to give a higher in-
itial velocity with a less recoil and less smoke than the
ordinary grades. This advantage is attributed to slow
burning.
The maximum pressure of exploded gunpowder, unre-
lieved by expansion, has been investigated by various
parties, whose results range from 7 tons to 662 tons to
the square inch, the latest authorities indicating about 40
tons.
The difficulty of obtaining saltpetre in large quantities,
and hence its cost, has induced many attempts to replace
it by other nitrates, such as those of sodium, lead, and
barium; but although good blasting powders have been
thus prepared, none suited to propelling purposes have
been obtained. -
Gumcotton.—In 1832, Braconnet discovered that by dis-
solving starch in nitric acid, and adding water, a white ex-
plosive substance was precipitated, to which the name
xyloidin was given. Shortly after, Pelouse obtained a
similar compound by treating paper, or cotton or linen
fabrics, with nitric acid, and named it pyroxilin. These
were the precursors of guncotton, which was discovered by
Schönbein in 1846, and at once excited much attention as
a possible substitute for gunpowder. Adverse official re-
ports, however, were soon made in France, the U. S., Ger-
many, England, and Austria, and the explosive fell into
general disfavor on account of its liability to spontaneous
explosion, its corroding residua, and its excessively violent
and irregular character, all of which unfitted it for most
military uses. Baron von Lenk, a member of the Austrian
commission, was not so readily discouraged. He continued
a series of experiments for several years, which ultimately
led to so great improvements in manufacture that in 1853
he was able to construct a successful twelve-pounder bat-
tery employing guncotton. This led to its temporary in-
troduction into the Austrian military service, and again
attracted the attention of foreign nations to the new ex-
plosive.
Baron von Lenk's system consisted in cleansing the long-
staple variety of raw cotton in an alkaline wash, followed
by one in pure water; thoroughly drying it; steeping it
for forty-eight hours in a cold mixture of strong nitric and
sulphuric acids—one part of the former to three parts of the
latter by weight; freeing the resulting tri-nitro-cellulose
from the acids by a centrifugal machine, by thorough rins-
ing, and finally by the action of running water for a period
of six or eight weeks, alternated with a boiling potash bath
and hand washing; air-drying it; rinsing it in a hot solu-
tion of potassium silicate to retard the rapidity of combus-
tion; and, lastly, again washing and thoroughly drying it.
He partially regulated the suddenness of explosion by
twisting the guncotton into ropes or weaving it into cloth
to secure a more uniform density. Musket cartridges were
formed by wrapping the thread around wooden plugs, to
prevent unequal ramming. An admixture of a certain pro-
portion of ordinary cotton was also employed to reduce the
violence of action.
In 1863, Mr. Abel, as a member of a committee appointed
gen.
EXPLOSIVES.
1687
by the British war office, undertook an experimental inves-
tigation into the merits of this system, and succeeded in
materially improving it. Instead of the costly long-staple
cotton, he employs ordinary cotton waste, which is treated
with the mixed acids, one part of nitric to three of sul-
phuric by weight, without any preliminary process except
careful drying. It is then rinsed in a large volume of water,
and dried by a centrifugal apparatus three or four times.
Next, it is placed in a pulping engine, like those commonly
used in the manufacture of paper, and reduced to a state
of fine subdivision. It is then transferred, in quantities of
at least ten hundredweight, to a poaching engine, where it
is beaten for about forty-eight hours until it remains uni-
formly suspended in a large volume of warm water, con-
tinually renewed, and finally rendered slightly alkaline. It
is then dried in a centrifugal machine, and moulded into
disks of the desired form and dimensions, which receive a
pressure ranging from four to six tons per square inch. Up
to this point the guncotton has been in a damp, and conse-
quently entirely safe, state, and if desired it may be so
stored for an indefinite period of time without losing its
péculiar properties. To prepare it for use it is dried upon
hot plates, freely open on every side to the air. This sys-
tem of manufacture is the best now known, and yields a
product so uniform and safe as to be omployed in England
almost to the exclusion of all the other modern explosives.
In appearance, Abel guncotton consists of regular cylin-
ders, of dimensions varying with the use proposed. It is
white in color, hard to the touch, and sinks readily in Water.
Ignited, unconfined, by a flame, it burns with a strong
blaze. Fired by a detonating fuse, or raised to a tempera-
ture of about 340° Fahrenheit in a strong case, it explodes
with great violence—a single ounce being sufficient to in-
dent a plate of iron or disrupt a thin slab of stone upon
which it is loosely laid. The character of the detonation
varies with the fulminate employed, being most sudden with
fulminating mercury. Even in a damp state—containing
twenty per cent. of moisture—it may be exploded without
much loss of power by a disk of dry guncotton in contact.
It is believed, upon good grounds, to be free from danger
of spontaneous explosion. The English government has
adopted it as the explosive best suited to submarine war-
fare, and has accumulated large quantities in store.
Guncotton produces little smoke, and leaves a very small
residuum of solid matter, the chief products of combustion
being carbonic oxide, carbonic acid, water, and nitrogen.
It is unalterable in water, no matter how long submerged.
It contains about 2 per cent. of moisture in its normal con-
dition, and even when exposed to ordinary damp air it ab-
sorbs but little more—a property which gives it a great ad-
vantage over gunpowder. Chemically, the purest guncotton
may be regarded as cellulose, in which three atoms of hy-
drogen are replaced by three molecules of peroxide of nitro-
Thus constituted, it is insoluble in mixtures of ether
and alcohol. If, however, great care has not been observed
in the manufacture, less simple compounds are formed,
which may readily be dissolved in these mixtures, forming
collodion, so much used in photography and the arts. .
Quite recently, Punshon has succeeded in so reducing the
quickness of action of guncotton by mixing with it nitre
and crystals of cane-sugar as to make it well suited for use
in small-arms. Indeed, the present subject for investiga-
tion in connection with guncotton appears to be the admix-
ture with it of some oxidizing agent, such as potassium or
sodium nitrate; experiments have indicated that an in-
crease of power may thus be gained.
Schultze Powder.—The conversion of lignin or wood-fibre
into an explosive similar to guncotton was attempted soon
after the discovery of that compound, especially by Captain
. Schultze, acting for the Prussian government. His method
consisted in soaking the wood—preferably alder—in water,
to give it toughness; cutting it by fine saws into a kind of
cross-grained veneering; and subsequently punching it into
small cubes, of which the size varied with the use for which
the powder was designed. The grains thus produced were
boiled in a solution of soda, and afterwards alternately ex-
posed to steam and washed in a solution of chlorine to free
them from resins, etc. They were next treated for several
hours with mixed nitric and sulphuric acids, kept cool by
constant stirring, and afterwards were thoroughly washed
and dried. In this state the powder is but slightly explosive,
and it may be kept in store indefinitely. For use, the grains
must be submerged for about twenty minutes in a solution
of nitrate of potassa, and baryta, and then carefully dried
and sifted. The necessary oxygen having been now sup-
plied, the powder has a high explosive power. It burns
with but little solid residuum or smoke, and is said to be
both cheaper and stronger than common gunpowder, weight
for weight. It, however, readily attracts moisture, is liable
to form dust by attrition, and is more bulky than gunpow-
der, in the proportion of 3 to 1.
Nitro-glycerine or glonoin oil was discovered in 1847 by
Ascagne Sobrero, but remained unapplied to practical uses
until 1864, when Alfred Nobel, a Swedish engineer, began
to develop its industrial value. Since then it has been
largely employed upon the continents of Europe and Amer-
ica. It is prepared by the action of a mixture of concen-
trated nitric and sulphuric acids upon glycerine introduced
drop by drop. At ordinary temperatures it is an oily
liquid, usually colorless if made from good glycerine, but
Sometimes discolored by causes not well understood. It has
no odor, and is of a sweet and slightly pungent taste. It
is highly poisomous, even short contact with the skin being
sufficient to produce severe headache. Its specific gravity
is 1.6. When first made it has a milky appearance, which
ultimately disappears. Nitro-glycerine incompletely freed
from the acids undergoes spontaneous decomposition, is
dangerous to handle, and ultimately may lose its explosive
properties. When pure it congeals at from 40° to 45° Fah-
renheit, and is then nearly or quite incapable of explosion.
At 212° Fahrenheit it begins to decompose; at 365° Fah-
renheit it throws off yellow or reddish fumes; at 423° Fah-
renheit it deflagrates violently. When uncongealed, nitro-
glycerine may readily be exploded by concussion, which
renders it quite unfit for transportation in that state. In
store it should be kept in a cool place, under pure water, in
open vessels, and, if practicable, in a frozen condition. For
use, it should be thawed very gradually, by placing the can
in warm water raised to a temperature not exceeding blood
heat. Any leakage should be carefully avoided at all times,
and emptied cans should be destroyed. Flame applied to
small quantities of nitro-glycerine causes it to burn with dif-
ficulty like ordinary oil, but a fulminate exploded in contact
with it produces a tremendous detonation. To develop its
full effect, fulminating mercury, in quantities not less than
fifteen Troy grains, and confined in a strong copper capsule,
is recommended. Its advantages as an explosive consist
in its instantaneous development of force, due to the fact
that, pound for pound, it produces at least three and a half
times as much gas, and twice as much heat, as gunpowder;
its high specific gravity, which permits the use of small drill
holes; its admitting of water, or loose clay, or even air,
tamping; and finally, the facility with which it can be made
upon the spot for immediate use. Its disadvantages are the
severe headaches it causes to those not habituated to its use,
its liability to spontaneous explosion, the dangers sure to
attend its careless handling, and, especially for military uses,
its unfitness for being kept long on hand, unless prepared
and treated with a degree of care not readily to be secured.
To these may be added the fact that its rate of explosion is
not under control, which restricts its economical use to
blasting in hard rock or under water. In soft rock or clay
its power at equal cost is inferior to that of common gun-
powder, because its action is akin to a sudden blow, rather
than to a continued push.
Dynamite, called in the United States “giant powder,”
was invented in 1866–67 by Nobel ; it consists of nitro-
glycerine absorbed by some porous inert solid. The per-
centage of the former is of course limited by the capacity
of the absorbent. The best material is a silicious infusorial
earth found in Hanover, and known as kieselguhr. It is
when dried a white, impalpable powder, showing under the
microscope a cellular structure. It will absorb and safely
retain three times its weight of nitro-glycerine. Many ex-
periments were made in Paris during the late siege to dis-
cover the most suitable substitute there available. Finally,
a residue from the gas-works was adopted, which would
take up and retain a little more than its own weight of
nitro-glycerine.
Dynamite made from kieselguhr has the appearance and
consistence of heavy brown sugar. It possesses most of the
virtues of the parent nitro-glycerine, with some peculiar to
itself; of which the chief are, exemption from liability to
spontaneous explosion and to detonation from moderate
shocks, both of which result from the exceedingly fine
granulation of the nitro-glycerine. It has been very largely
used in this country, especially in California, and these im-
portant advantages are now generally admitted. Dynamite
possesses another decided advantage over nitro-glycerine.
If kept in the state of loose powder without compression
into cartridges, it may be exposed to any natural tempera-
ture without losing its explosive properties when subjected
to the action of a primer charged with fifteen grains of ful-
minating mercury; and this too without becoming more
sensitive to ordinary shocks and handling. In the form of
compressed cartridges it is as inexplosive when thoroughly
frozen as nitro-glycerine itself. Saturated with water, it
loses only a very small percentage of its explosive power,
but requires a primer much more powerful than those ordi-
narily used. Ignited by a flame, and unconfined, it burns
quietly without detonation. Experiment indicates that its
explosive force is not quite so instantaneous as that of pure
1688
EXPONENT—EXPOSITION, INTERNATIONAL AND UNIVERSAL.
nitro-glycerine; hence, in certain kinds of resisting media,
where a sustained pressure is required, the mechanical
work performed by three-quarters of a pound of nitro-
glycerine in the form of dynamite may largely exceed that
produced by a full pound of the unabsorbed material. This
apparent paradox actually occurs in submarine mines, usu-
ally called torpedoes. For rock-blasting, dynamite should
be pressed firmly home and tamped with sand.
Dynamite possesses another merit. By combining its
ingredients in judicious percentages, a certain control can
be exerted over the quickness of its action, and a classifi-
cation similar to that of the different grades of gunpowder,
but much more restricted in range, may be made.
Various have been the attempts to improve upon dynamite
by replacing its inert base with different explosive materials.
Of such compounds, glyoxiline, lithofracteur, and dualin are
the best known; but none of them are believed to be im–
provements for rock-blasting, chiefly for the reason that the
bulk is increased in a higher ratio than the power, and
hence, as the cost is largely dependent upon the size of the
drill-holes, no real economic gain is made.
Glyoaciline was invented by Abel shortly after the intro-
duction of dynamite. It consisted of a mixture of gun-
cotton pulp and potassium nitrate, saturated with nitro-
glycerine, and was made both in a granular and a cake
form. It proved to be less troublesome in handling, owing
to the granules being coated with an impermeable material
which reduced the tendency to produce headache, but it
was never largely introduced into practical use.
Lithofracteur was devised about the same time by Prof.
Engels of Cologne. Its precise composition is not made
public, further than that it consists of 525 parts of nitro-
glycerine, 225 parts of silica, and 250 parts of mineral
bodies; and analyses of different samples have exhibited
varying results. One authority (Trauzl) reports 52 parts
of nitro-glycerine, 30 parts of kieselguhr, 12 parts of coal,
4 parts of sodium nitrate, and 2 parts of sulphur. Others
place the proportion of sodium nitrate as high as 25 per
cent. ; others add guncotton. Lithofracteur is a pasty Sub-
stance of dark color. Like the other compounds of nitro-
glycerine, it burns quietly when ignited by a flame, and
explodes violently when fired by a detonating fuse. Water
dissolves the sodium nitrate, and thus sets free a certain part
of the nitro-glycerine—of course a decided disadvantage.
The compound exhibits explosive properties similar to dy-
namite, and offers equal security against concussion. Its
use heretofore has been restricted chiefly to Germany and
Belgium, although it has been experimentally tried in Eng-
land, and was employed by the Germans in the late war
with France.
Dwolin was invented by Dittmar shortly after dynamite,
and its use has been chiefly restricted to Germany and the
U. S. The patent describes it as consisting of “cellulose,
nitro-cellulose, nitro-starch, nitro-mannite, and nitro-gly-
cerine, mixed in different combinations, depending on the
degree of strength which it is desired the powder should
possess in adapting its use to various purposes.” A sample
supplied by the inventor for trial at the Hoosac Tunnel was
found by analysis to consist of 60 per cent. of nitro-gly-
cerine and 40 per cent. of washed sawdust, not treated
with nitric and sulphuric acids. Trauzl reports it as con-
sisting of 50 parts of nitro-glycerine, 30 parts of fine saw-
dust, and 20 parts of potassium nitrate. The best variety
now manufactured is believed to be cellulose derived from
poplar pulp, treated with nitric and sulphuric acids, and
saturated with nitro-glycerine.
Having a less specific gravity than dynamite, dualin is
slightly inferior to it, bulk for bulk, in explosive energy.
When thoroughly soaked in water, it can only be exploded
by a very violent detonation, much exceeding that of the
ordinary fuse, and even then it loses more than half its
power. It congeals at about 45° Fahrenheit, and in this
state readily explodes, becoming so sensitive to friction as
to make it dangerous to tamp in cold weather. In other
respects its properties resemble those of dynamite.
The Chlorates.—The violent action of potassium chlorate
upon readily oxidizable substances has given rise to many
attempts to employ it in the preparation of substitutes for
gunpowder. Under the names of white gunpowder and
German gunpowder a mixture of this salt with potassium
ferro and ferri-cyanide and sugar has long been known.
Mixed with nut-galls, resins, and other vegetable sub-
stances, it has been repeatedly introduced to temporary
use as Horsley's powder, Ehrhardt's powder, etc. The
form best known in this country consists of potassium
chlorate, potassium nitrate, and crude gamboge, which,
under the name of Oriental powder, or safety compound
of the Oriental Powder Company, was at one time con-
siderably employed in the oil-wells of Pennsylvania and
for other blasting purposes. Its dangerous sensibility to
friction, and the consolidating effect of heat upon the gum,
have prevented its general use. With some of these chlo-
rate compounds sulphur enters as an ingredient, which in-
tensifies the chief objection against them—their liability to
explode from slight friction or percussion. As a class, they
have many times the explosive intensity of gunpowder, but
are also more dangerous to handle. For special purposes
they are extremely useful—for instance, a mixture of potas-
sium chlorate and sulphur, formed into a paste, and dried
to fit small cartridge-cases of lead, has been found to be
terribly effective as a charge for explosive bullets. They
may be fired with safety from a musket, but explode with
great violence, even in penetrating flesh.
The Picrates.—Picric acid was discovered in 1788 by
Haussman while treating indigo with concentrated nitric
acid. Within a few years chemists have derived it from
other substances, especially from carbolic acid. It has been
called amer d’indigo, amer de Welter, carbo-nitric acid, nitro-
picric acid, carbazotic acid, and tri-nitro-carbolic acid. It
is a crystalline body of a brilliant golden yellow, very bit-
ter to the taste, and is largely used as a dye. When heated
to 600° Fahrenheit it detonates with violence.
The salts obtained by treating many of the bases with
picric acid possess its characteristic properties; that best
known is the potassium picrate. This forms golden crys-
tals having a metallic reflection. Insoluble in alcohol, and
but slightly soluble in water, it detonates violently at 600°
Fahrenheit. Its action is akin to that of the fulminates in
suddenness; and to regulate this property, Designolle has
mixed it with charcoal and potassium nitrate, thus forming
a compound similar to, but more powerful than, ordinary
gunpowder. To obtain the maximum explosive energy, he
employs equal parts of potassium nitrate and potassium
picrate. For use in rifles from 12 to 20 pér cent. of potas-
sium picrate is used, with a small amount of charcoal. For
cannon only from 8 to 12 per cent. of potassium picrate is
employed. Under the name of powdre Designolle this com-
pound has been considerably manufactured in France for
military purposes, both for large guns and for torpedoes.
Brugière powder consists of an admixture of ammonium
picrate and saltpetre. It is comparatively a slow powder,
less liable to attract moisture than ordinary gunpowder, and
yielding but little smoke. In England, Abel has experi-
mented with a similar compound, to which he has given the
name of picric powder, and which he considers especially
suited for use in shells, because, although little liable to
explode from concussion or friction—the great objection to
the potassium picrate compounds—its effects when strongly
confined are more violent than those of gunpowder.
H. L. ABBOTT, U. S. Army.
Expo'nent [Lat. earpo'nens, from eac, “out,” “forth,”
and pono, to “put,” to “set”], literally “setting forth’’ or
indicating; hence an index or representative; in algebra,
a number or symbol representing a number which, when
written above and at the right hand of any symbol of
quantity, indicates a corresponding power of that quantity.
Thus as denotes the third power of a, and 3 is said to be
the eacponent or index of that power; usually, though less
correctly, it is called the exponent of a. Thus a” is merely
an abbreviation of aga, and from the definition of an ex-
ponent it follows at once that a***= a”aº. The nota-
tion of exponents was introduced by Descartes, and being
very convenient was soon extended. The convention on
which the extension is based is the general truth of the
above equation. Thus, if we ask for the meaning of a nega-
tive or fractional exponent, on the hypothesis that the
above equation shall hold for all values of m and m, we find
that since am = a m + 9 = ama", a0 must be a symbol for 1,
no matter what a represents. •
Exponen/tial Equa/tion is one involving terms
wherein the unknown quantity is an exponent or constitu-
ent of an exponent. The simplest form of such an equation
is aa = b ; one of its solutions is the logarithm of b to the
base a, or, what is the same thing, the ratio of the logarithm
of b to that of a, the bases being the same, but arbitrary.
This is one solution only; the equation has many other im-
aginary roots, and is consequently transcendental. A curve
in whose equation the co-ordinates appear as exponents is
also called an exponential curve. The logarithmic curve is
an example.
Exports. See CoMMERCE, by J. S. GIBBONS.
Exposition, Interna/tional and Univer'sal, a
name applied to the great public exhibitions which have
been held, within the last twenty-five years, in various
countries, of the products of the industry and of the evi-
dences of culture, intellectual and aesthetic, of all nations;
notably, to those of London in 1851 and 1862; to those of
Paris in 1855 and 1867; and to that of Vienna of the
present year (1873). These grand displays may be re-
garded as the development on the largest scale of an idea
which, for the preceding fifty or sixty years, had had many
EXPOSITION, INTERNATIONAL AND UNIVERSAL.
1689
less imposing manifestations—the idea that, in order to the
improvement of the arts of industry, the first requisite and
the most effectual incitement is to be found in acquainting
a people with the actual state of those arts as they exist.
These expositions, therefore, though nominally universal,
comprehended in their first conception and in their earliest
practical illustrations only what are called the useful arts,
in contradistinction to the liberal and the fine arts; and
they furthermore omitted from their scheme the evidences
of that kind of moral activity among peoples, which aims
to ameliorate the condition of the human race by repressing
vice and crime, by relieving distress, by diminishing the
amount of disease, by the improvement of prison disci-
pline, by softening the horrors of war, and by other means
analogous to these; all of which have been kept more or
less in view in the later. The early international exposi-
tions, moreover, omitted to provide, or at least provided
only on a limited Scale, for the display of animals useful
to man, or of living and growing vegetables, plants and
flowers, or for illustrating the operations of the garden, the
field, the farm, and the dairy. The later have given to
these objects a very large portion of their space.
Public exhibitions of the products of industry were in the
first instance held as marts or fairs. (See FAIRs.) The ear-
liest held not for commercial purposes, but strictly for the
promotion of improvements in the useful arts, were insti-
tuted by the Society of Arts of London. This society has
held such exhibitions annually since 1760. The first prop-
erly national exhibition of this kind, the first that is to say
organized under government direction, took place in France
in 1798. Since that time, the French government has given
a similar exhibition every four or five years. The effect has
been greatly to improve the quality and to enlarge the quan-
tity of production in all the departments of industry through-
out France. “The French writers,” says Judge Daly (Ad-
dress before the Am. Inst., 1863), “attribute the wonderful
progress of French industry to four causes: 1, the diffusion
of knowledge, scientific and practical, among the working
classes, through the establishment of free local libraries, mu-
seums, drawing-Schools, and other means of practical in-
struction; 2d, inventions and discoveries; 3d, the repeal
of restrictive laws; and lastly, the effect of the great indus-
trial exhibitions. The effect of these exhibitions may be
briefly stated. They have focalized the industry of the
country, by bringing it under view as one spectacle, thus
enabling all to know from time to time, the exact state of
it. They have afforded means of comparison which did not
previously exist, not only to those engaged in a particular
pursuit, but also to those employed in those pursuits which
act reciprocally upon each other. They have created a mu-
tual interest between the man of science, the manufacturer,
the capitalist, and the working classes. The intelligent
criticism to which they have given rise in the various in-
dustrial journals, not only from scientific men but from
manufacturers and workmen, has been of the greatest
benefit. Their regular recurrence has kept up a spirit of
emulation, in the desire to produce something better and
cheaper than before. They have served as a means of ad-
vertising new or superior productions, upon a scale the most
extensive; and have led to the gradual development of the
business theory of large sales with small profits. They have
stimulated inventions, by keeping up the constant desire
for new discoveries, improved methods, and better machin-
ery; and lastly they have dignified labor by giving it some-
thing more to struggle for than mere pecuniary compensa-
tion.”
In the United States, since early in the present century,
exhibitions for the encouragement of agricultural or me-
chanical industry have been annually held under State and
county organizations, with partial aid from the State gov-
ernments, in some States of the Union, and more recently in
many. The Franklin Institute, founded in 1824, in Phila-
delphia, the American Institute established four years later
in New York, and many less conspicuous though perhaps
not less useful associations organized for promoting indus-
trial improvement, have relied on public exhibitions as
among the most effectual means of accomplishing their ob-
jects. -
Of international expositions, the first in the series, that
of 1851 in London, was undertaken at the suggestion, and
successfully carried out through the influence, of Prince
Albert, who was at that time the president of the London
Society of Arts. A building was erected in Hyde Park for
the accommodation of the objects entered for exhibition,
upon a design of an entirely novel and original character.
proposed by Joseph (afterwards Sir Joseph) Paxton, a land-
Scape gardener, at that time in charge of the gardens of the
duke of Devonshire at Chatsworth. The materials employed
were almost exclusively iron and glass, whence the structure
received the name of “the crystal palace,” a name which
has been applied to other similar constructions since. The
plan was a long rectangle with a transept crossing the cen-
tre, the whole covering an area of more than twenty acres
of ground. In the contract for the erection of the building
it was stipulated that, at the close of the exhibition, it should
remain the property of the contractors, which stipulation
reduced the cost to the commissioners by £100,000 or half
a million of dollars. The total cost for building, mainte-
nance, superintendence, recompenses to exhibitors, legal ex-
penses, etc. etc., was about £293,000. The total receipts from
all sources were £506,000, showing that the exhibition,
apart from the large and permanent indirect benefits ac-
cruing from it, was a direct financial success. This cannot
be said of any of those which have succeeded it. *
The universal admiration attracted by the exposition of
1851 and its brilliant results, stimulated a similar under-
taking, two years later, in New York. The short interven-
ing time allowed for preparation, and the distance of the
place of exhibition from the countries most advanced in
manufactures and other productive arts, suggested a large
reduction in the scale of the display. The location selected
was a public square, 445 feet by 455 feet only in dimensions,
or about 4% acres. Upon this a “crystal palace” was
erected octagonal in ground plan, but having above two
naves intersecting symmetrically at right angles, each 365
feet 5 inches by 149 feet 5 inches. The intersection was
crowned by a hemispherical dome, 100 feet in diameter, the
height of the springing line being 70 feet, and the total
height to the summit above the crown 123 feet. In order
to increase the extent of floor surface for the purposes of the
exhibition, spacious galleries were constructed in the arms
of the building, the total surface thus secured amounting to
250,000 square feet or 5% acres. The cost of the building
was about $200,000, to defray which and to maintain the
exhibition, money. was raised by an issue of stock, at first
to $300,000, afterwards increased to $500,000, in shares of
$100 each. These shares soon rose in value, and they were
at one time at a premium of 75 per cent. The enterprise
nevertheless resulted in loss, the destruction of the building
by fire a few years later having finally destroyed all pros-
pect of redeeming its fortunes.
During the same year, 1853, a similar international ex-
hibition was held in Dublin, in a building forming a series
of parallel halls. The cost was £80,000; the receipts,
£47,000.
The Paris International Exposition of 1855 was in effect
a private enterprise, but it was conducted by a commission
appointed by the government, who also undertook to se-
cure it against loss. The principal building on this occa-
sion was erected of masonry in the Champs Elysées. The
great hall devoted to the exposition was lighted from the
roof. This building provided an extent of 1,770,000 square
feet of floor surface to the industrial departments not em-
ploying machinery in motion. The machinery was estab-
lished in an “annex” on the bank of the Seine, four thou-
sand feet long. The fine arts were provided for in another
building; and the tapestries and carpets of the imperial
establishments, as well as the crown jewels, in still another.
This exposition cost 11,264,520 francs =$2,253,000, not in-
cluding the cost of the main building, which was preserved
as the property of the government, under the name of the
“Palais de l’Industrie,” to be used for annual exhibitions
of various kinds and for public ceremonials.
The second London Universal Exposition was held in
1862. For this, the location chosen was upon a ground
which had been purchased at South Kensington by the
commissioners of the exposition of 1851, with the surplus
proceeds of that exposition and some aid from the gov-
ernment. . The principal building was nearly rectangular,
and covered about seven acres. The whole area covered
by roofs was about twenty-three acres. The buildings
were subsequently removed, the space occupied by them
being required for government purposes, and the principal
one was transferred to the north of London, where, under
the name of the Alexandra Palace, it was totally destroyed
by fire in June, 1873.
The international exposition of 1867 at Paris was the
most comprehensive in its plan, the most elaborate in its
preparations, and the most colossal in its dimensions, of
all which had been held up to that time. The government
announced its intention four years in advance. In June,
1865, an imperial decree created a commission to direct the
work, under the presidency of Prince Napoleon, who
shortly after resigned, and was replaced, in February, 1866,
by the Prince Imperial. The place fixed upon for the
principal exhibition was the Champ de Mars, the large
parade-ground in front of the École Militaire, containing
about 111 acres. For the exhibition of farm and dairy
operations, animals and stock, the island of Billancourt in
the Seine, two and a half miles from the Champ de Mars,
was chosen, having an area of 74 acres. For the competi-
tive trials of mowers and reapers and other field operations,
1690 °
EXPOSITION, INTERNATIONAL AND UNIVERSAL.
portions of the emperor's farms at Fouilleuse near St. Cloud,
and of those at Vincennes, were given up as occasion re-
quired. The margin of the Seine in front of the Champ
de Mars (from which it is separated by the quay D’Orsay)
offering an area of about three acres, was devoted to ob-
jects connected with navigation, to diving apparatus, and
to machinery for raising water. Here also was found a
convenient place for a chemical laboratory in which experi-
mental lectures were delivered during the exposition. The
principal exposition building was constructed mainly of
iron, and was of enormous dimensions. The entire space
enclosed within its exterior walls was 36 acres, but there was
an open central court of about one acre in the centre. This
building occupied the centre of the Champ de Mars. The
surrounding area was called the park, and was allotted to
the different countries represented in the exposition, for
the construction of buildings to accommodate objects or to
facilitate operations which could not be allowed in the
main building, or to illustrate the characteristic domestic
or school architecture of different peoples; or for more
imposing structures representing the temples and palaces
of pre-historic antiquity. The entire area of the park
was about 75 acres; but of this, 12% acres, in the south-
eastern angle, were cut off from the rest by an enclosure,
and devoted to a horticultural and botanical exhibition
under the name of the Reserved Garden. The park and
the garden, as well as the farming and agricultural exhibi—
tions at Billancourt, were new features in these great un-
dertakings; and to many visitors the two former were
quite as attractive as the display within the palace, or even
more so. The whole area was laid out with much taste,
the grassplots, always vividly green, being intersected by
winding walks with here and there a limpid stream, the
various buildings erected without any obvious order pre-
senting an endless variety of aspects from different points
of view. In the reserved garden, an immense structure
of glass occupying an artificial eminence protected a mag-
nificent collection of tropical trees and plants, while the
shrubbery of all the forests of Europe covered the side
slopes. Two huge aquaria, also, within this same enclosure,
presented specimens of the most remarkable and the most
interesting inhabitants of the ocean and of inland waters.
The construction of these was such that the spectator as
he advanced found himself in a cavern beneath the surface
of the water, through the glazed roof of which he saw the
animals sporting above his head, while they were at the
same time around him on every side.
The principal building, or so called palace, was con-
structed without any attempt at architectural effect, but with
the design to make as conspicuous as possible the method
of arrangement with reference to the plan of classification
by correlated groups of objects, and by countries; and so to
facilitate to the visitor the study of the exhibition and to
enable him readily to find any particular object sought. It
had the form of an ellipse with flattened sides, or more
properly of a parallelogram with circular ends, the extreme
length being 490 metres, or 1607.64 feet, and the extreme
breadth 380 metres, or 1246.74 feet. The entire cost of
the structure, including the necessary excavations and other
earthworks, was about 11,785,000 francs = $2,357,000. Dur-
ing the last six months of 1866, there were employed in the
Champ de Mars, principally upon the palace, 1477 work-
Iſle Ol.
In plan, the palace was divided into seven concentric halls,
or galleries, corresponding to seven of the ten groups in the
scheme of classification. The other three groups embracing
live stock, agricultural exhibitions, etc., could not be intro-
duced into the building. These halls were intersected by
radial lines, forming boundaries between the spaces allotted
to the different countries. This plan had the apparent dis-
advantage of allotting to every country the same propor-
tionate space for the several groups; while in these several
groups different countries are differently prolific. This dis-
advantage, however, was got over by allowing departures
when necessary from the regularity of the elliptical divisions,
without, however, allowing the elliptical passages, or prom-
enades, to be interfered with. Sixteen of the radial divis-
ions were formed by open passages, the principal entrance,
on the main axis, being 15 métres, or 49% feet wide; the op-
posite one, at the other extremity of this axis, 10 metres, or
32.81 feet; which latter breadth was also given to the pas-
sages corresponding to the minor axis. Besides these, there
were 12 other radial passages, 5 metres, or 16.41 feet wide.
The gallery of the fine arts, which formed the inner hall,
though divided by partitions to mark the countries, afforded,
through large open doors, an unobstructed passage around
the whole ellipse; and the same was true of the gallery of
machinery which was outermost. There were, besides these,
three other perfectly free concentric passages, of 5 métres, or
16.41 feet each, making the complete circuit of the building.
Averandah roof exterior to the main building surrounded it
entirely, sheltering a “gallery of aliments,” or series of res-
taurants, characteristic of different countries, 10 mêtres ==
32.81 feet broad, and also a colonnade 5 metres = 16.41 feet
wide, beyond this. As an afterthought, an additional gal-
lery was introduced into the plan, during the construction
of the building, inside the gallery of the fine arts, 8% mêtres
=27.9 feet wide, within which still was a sheltered prom-
enade 5.65 mêtres = 18.55 feet wide, and within that the cem-
tral court, adorned with fountains and flowers. Finally, in
the midst of this court, stood a beautiful pavilion, where
there were exhibited the standard weights and measures of all
nations, and all their varieties of coins. Surmounting the
dome of this pavilion was a large artificial globe, with its
axis parallel to the axis of the earth, which, being driven
by clockwork, revolved like the earth, once in the twenty-
four hours.
The park, besides the objects which have been mentioned
above, contained “annexes” in which were exhibited ob-
jects which might be called the overflow of the palace—the
space allowed the exhibitors within the buildings not suf-
ficing for their purposes. Thus, here were seen the most
magnificent displays of galvanoplastic work, of photo-
graphic enamelling for stained-glass windows, of costly
India shawls, etc. etc. Here also were seen objects not
enumerated in the original scheme, especially ordnance
and the material of war generally; first-class lighthouses
of full dimensions; the ambulances and other apparatus
of the American Sanitary Commission, and of similar as-
sociations in other countries; objects gathered by Christiaa
missions among savage nations, with specimens of the pub-
lications of missionary societies in all languages; a com-
plete model in relief of the valley of the Nile; a diorama
showing the Suez ship-canal throughout its whole length,
with models of the machines employed in its construction,
and others illustrating the system of traction, by which
vessels are conducted through it from Sea to sea. These
are only examples of a very numerous and miscellaneous
class of exhibitions of high interest, which found their
place in the park.
The total expense of the exposition on all accounts,
from the beginning to the final liquidation, amounted to
22,983,817.99 francs = $4,596,764. The total return pro-
duced by the exposition was only 14,114,662.09 francs =
$2,822,900; but there was a “subvention * of 6,000,000 by
the government, and another of like amount from the city
of Paris, making the total receipts 26,114,662.09 francs;
giving an excess of 3,130,844.10 francs = $626,000 above
expenditure.
The number of exhibitors, visitors, jurors and awards
at each of the four great international expositions as yet
held, is presented in the following summary:

No. Of No. of No. of No. of
Year. Place. E *śrs. viii. J tº. Aºi.
1851 || London. 15,500 || 6,039,195 || 313| 5,248
1855 Paris...... 23,954 5,162,330 398 || 11,073
1862, London...] 28,653 6,225,000 || 620 | 13,423
1867 Paris...... 52,200 || 9,238,967 693 l 19,776
The awards in every instance include honorable mentions
as well as the more substantial recompenses. The number of
honorable mentions has usually been something less than half
the entire total. The number of visitors as given for 1867, em-
braces only the paying visitors, and includes the subscribers
for the season or for various lengths of time from a week
upward, 95,688 in all, only once each; whereas the holders
of subscription tickets probably used them many times.
Moreover, the exhibitors and their assistants, the em-
ployés of the administration, the foreign commissioners,
the jurors, and the royal and imperial visitors, entered free.
From calculations made by the imperial commissioners in
their final report, it appears that the actual number of ad-
missions to the exposition during its continuance, including
repeated admissions of the same person, was 15,000,000, or
upwards, and the average number of admissions daily was
nearly 70,000. The total number of exhibitors given above
(52,200) includes 381 entries made by different sovereigns
and governments, which, not being designed for competition,
should be deducted. Curiously enough, the French final re-
portineludes these entries “hors concours” among the awards.
They should be deducted on both sides, when the result will
be, exhibitors, 51,819; awards, 19,395, of which the distribu-
tion among the principal countries is as follows: France
I5,804 exhibitors, 9938 awards; U. S. of America, 536 ex-
hibitors, 291 awards; Holland, 587 exhibitors, 198 awards;
Bavaria, 404 exhibitors, 183 awards; Belgium, 1909 ex-
hibitors, 972 awards; Prussia and North Germany, 2447
exhibitors, 1132 awards; Austria, 2018 exhibitors, 1035
awards; Switzerland, 1001 exhibitors, 351 awards; Spain,
2636 exhibitors, 509 awards; Portugal, 1881 exhibitors,
268 awards; Sweden and Norway, 1077 exhibitors, 323
awards; Italy, 4144 exhibitors, 795 awards; Turkey, 4196
EXPOSITION, THE INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSAL.
1691
exhibitors, 134 awards; Brazil, 1336 exhibitors, 97 awards;
Great Britain, 6032 exhibitors, 1702 awards.
The management of a great international exposition is
an undertaking which exacts for its success the exercise of
administrative and executive ability of the highest order.
The difficulties which attend the task are peculiar. A for-
midable one, which presents itself in the very beginning, is
the selection of a suitable site. So vast has been the scale
which the more recent exhibitions of this kind have spon-
taneously taken, as illustrated at Paris, and in the exposi-
tion now in progress at Vienna, that no open areas ade-
quate to their purposes can any longer be looked for in
the interior of large cities. Yet it is only in presence of
large cities that such expositions can exist; for the great
multitude of exhibitors and visitors whom they invite
must have the accommodations which only such cities can
furnish. If not held in cities, therefore, they must be held
in the immediate vicinity of cities, and in situations easy
of access from them. The site must also lie upon some
great line of transportation, or better at the point of con-
vergence of many such lines; and if possible it should be
approachable for vessels of burden by water. The next
difficulty arises out of the necessity of improvising struc-
tures of great magnitude and of very substantial charac-
ter, for the accommodation of the objects to be exhibited,
in very brief time. The preparation of suitable grounds,
also, is sometimes a work of almost equal magnitude. In
the Champ de Mars, for example, one hundred and twenty
acres of arid sand were converted into a lovely landscape
garden in a single season. In the preparation of these
buildings and grounds, moreover, provision must be made
for thorough ventilation, drainage, water supply, and gas
lighting, on a scale to meet the wants of fifty thousand
people constantly, and the occasional wants of more than
twice as many. The hydraulic service must be ample, so
as to meet at once and effectually any danger from fire;
and it should have a head above the level of the highest,
buildings. There must furthermore be a watchful and in-
telligent sanitary service, not only to afford relief in case
of accident or sudden illness among the assembled multi-
tudes, but also to guard against the first possible ap-
proaches of epidemic. The daily care of the buildings
and grounds, for purposes merely of security and cleanli-
ness, requires the employment and constant supervision of
an army of inferior employés; and to all these provisions
must be added that of an efficient police, subject to the
direction of the managers of the exposition. The installa-
tion of the objects to be exhibited is another task of im-
mense magnitude, of which the difficulty is enormously
enhanced, not only by the brevity of the time allowed in
which to accomplish it, but on account of the almost end-
less multiplicity of details which it involves. Compared
with this, to move the material of an army of a hundred
thousand men is a work of comparative simplicity; for in
that case the material, though cumbrous, is in great homo-
geneous masses, the masses are limited in variety, and the
sources from which supplies are to be drawn are few and
generally known. In the case of the exposition, the ma-
terial to be received and disposed of is almost infinite in
variety, and it comes in an endless number of independent
parcels. All these parcels, to the extent of many thou-
Sands of tons, arriving almost simultaneously, render the
regulation of the system of transportation and of installa-
tion, a task exceedingly perplexing. Many of the objects,
especially the machines, are so cumbrous as to require
foundations of masonry to be provided for them; and
these require excavations; all which work has to be done
for all nations within the space of a few weeks. The ar-
rangements necessary for the supply of motive-power to
the machines, it being consistent neither with safety nor
with comfort to allow powerful engines with their furnaces
and boilers within the building, add another element to the
complication; so, that, taking all things into consideration,
the punctuality with which the great expositions have been
hitherto opened on the days originally appointed, is evi-
dence that they have been ably and efficiently directed;
notwithstanding that here and there exhibitors have been
caught unprepared. In regard to these accidents, it must
be borne in mind that the chief commissioners have no
such absolute control over exhibitors as a general has over
his troops; and that they cannot always force the laggards
who have once secured their places, to complete their ar-
rangements with the promptness demanded.
Since the exposition of 1867, the question has been
somewhat discussed whether the advantages secured by
displays so ephemeral, on a scale so gigantic, are sufficient
to compensate for the great labor, expense, loss of time
and temporary locking up of capital, which necessarily at-
tend them. The benefits are undeniably great, but it is
just as they are beginning to be really felt, that the whole
scene disappears. To study and understand a display of
such magnitude, is a task which may occupy the clearest
mind for weeks or months. The opportunity is lost just as
the visitor who comes to learn is beginning to profit by it.
The imperial commissioners of 1867, therefore, in their
final report, express, very decidedly, their opinion, that
hereafter, temporary expositions should no more be encour-
aged; but that permanent museums of industry should be
established in large capitals, or in their neighborhood, em-
bodying and even improving upon the best features of
those great industrial displays which have gone before;
and keeping constantly under the eyes of all mankind
everything which may serve in any manner as an indica-
tion of the existing state of the world’s civilization. Of
course, to sustain such permanent museums, the commer-
cial feature must enter in. The commissioners believe that
such a modification is practicable, and that it will be ad-
vantageous to the industrial interests of the capitals where
such museums shall be established. The experience to be
acquired at the exposition of the present year (1873) at
Vienna, and at the centennial exposition of the U. S. at
Philadelphia in 1876, may throw some additional light
upon this question. Meantime a company in New York
has obtained a charter from the legislature for the estab-
lishment of a permanent industrial exposition in that city;
and it is possible that an experiment upon such a plan may
be there tried. F. A. P. BARNARD.
Exposition, The International Universal, at
Vienna, Austria, 1873, was opened on the first day of May
and closed on the third day of November. The attention
of the Austrian people appears to have been directed to-
wards holding a great exhibition some time before the Paris
Exposition of 1867 was projected, but the attempt to realize
their wishes in the fullest degree was postponed in favor
of the French enterprise. An exhibition of considerable
pretensions was, however, held in the year 1866, under the
auspices of the government, through the department of
agriculture and forestry. The Prater was the locality. It
was opened on the 17th of May, and closed on the 14th of
June. Its duration appears to have been cut short by the
war with Prussia. The first proposition to hold a great
international exhibition at Vienna in the year 1873 is said
to have proceeded from the Trades’ Union of the city, a
very wealthy and influential organization, with Baron
Wertheimer, a safe-manufacturer, at its head.
It was supposed that it could be so carried out that the
receipts would nearly cover the expenditures; at any rate,
it was decided that a guarantee-fund of 3,000,000 florins
would be sufficient to cover all possible deficiencies, and
subscriptions to this amount having been obtained, chiefly
among members of the society, the government was induced
to take an active part in the matter, and to announce, May
24, 1870, by an imperial and royal decree, “that, under the
august patronage of His Imperial and Royal Majesty the
emperor, an international exhibition will be held at Vienna
in the year 1873, having for its aim to represent the present
state of modern civilization and the entire sphere of national
economy, and to promote its further development and prog-
ress.” The enterprise was thus from the outset under the
immediate patronage and control of the imperial govern-
ment. It had not only its sanction, but its heartiest Sym-
pathy and support, and it was finally sustained by govern-
ment appropriations.
An imperial commission was named, consisting of 175
members, selected from the chief officers of the depart-
ments of the government, and from the leading men of
science, art, and industry in the empire, especially of
those who had taken part in former international exhibi-
tions as members of the commissions or as jurors, delegates,
or reporters, and who had gained honor and distinction in
their respective spheres of duty. The archduke Charles
Louis was named as the protector, and the archduke Reg-
nier the president.
By the imperial decree of the 29th Sept., 1871, the whole
direction, administration, and carrying out of the exhibi-
tion, as also by private imperial letter and decree of Jan. 9
of the same year, were conferred upon the privy counsellor
Dr. William Baron von Schwarz-Senborn, as administrator
of the exhibition, with the title of the Imperial and Royal
General Director. To a high and just appreciation of the
functions of great international exhibitions, and of their
importance to nations and civilization, the baron added
great experience in their organization and management by
his official connection with them as commissioner of the
Austrian government in London in the years 1851 and 1862,
and in Paris in 1867. All the imperial and royal author-
ities were obliged in their intercourse with the general
director to assist him as much and as promptly as possible.
A regiment of sappers and miners was detailed for duty in
the exhibition grounds, and not only assisted in the con-
struction, but in guarding the buildings after the opening.
The location selected was the famous Prater, the park
1692
EXPOSITION, THE INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSAL.
and place of resort of the Viennese, lying about one and
a half miles from the centre of the city, and between it and
the Danube. It was also in the immediate vicinity of the
great engineering work undertaken for the regulation of
the flow of that river. The surface consisted of the almost
level alluvion of the river, and was raised in some por-
tions by the addition of about four feet of gravel dredged
from the river-bed.
About 280 acres, or 1,131,235 square mêtres, were en-
closed by a high board fence. The extreme length of the
tract, approximately a rectangle in form, extending E. and
W., was about 1400 metres, and the width 720 metres. The
total length of the fencing was about 4500 mêtres, or 14,763
feet.
The principal buildings, all of one story and without
galleries, were the Industry Palace, Machinery Hall, Art
Buildings, and Agricultural Halls, ranged side by side in
three zones. The total length of the Industry Palace was
about 3000 feet, and its floor-area, exclusive of the courts,
78,328 square mêtres, or 19.35 acres. It consisted of one
main transept, crossed by sixteen galleries, giving thirty-
two arms or wings, each 75 mêtres long by 25 mêtres wide.
Between these galleries there were open courts, most of
which were roofed over to gain additional space. The ro-
tunda, rising in the centre of the transept, was the chief
architectural feature of the exhibition; it was designed by
Mr. Scott Russell, and constructed of wrought iron. It is
a flat truncated cone, with a pitch or slope of about 31°;
a diameter to the edge of the base of 354 feet 8 inches, and
is supported on thirty-two wrought-iron columns 24.4 mêtres
high. The interior height to the base of the large lantern
is 158 feet, and to the top of the crown 276 feet. It cost
$500,000. (For dimensions and form, as compared with St.
Peter's and other domes, see ROTUNDA.) The plan of the
Machinery Hall was a simple rectangle, 2620 feet long and
165 feet wide, covering an area of 9 acres. The Fine Art
Gallery afforded 30,800 feet of wall-length, and covered 1%
acres; the three agricultural buildings covered 6 acres; and
the building for the amateurs’ exhibition and museum, 0.8
of an acre; giving a total floor-area, for these chief build-
ings of nearly 37 agres. This is exclusive of several build-
ings and of the covered courts.
The official maps and lists of buildings in the three zones
of the exhibition-area enumerated no less than 185 separate
constructions, many of them of a costly character, erected
as types of the architecture of the different nations. Be-
sides these, there were the permanent attractions of the
adjoining “Wurstel,” or People's Prater, outside of the
gates, numbering 103 buildings, chiefly restaurants and
places of amusement. To the E. of the chief enclosure of
the exhibition there was an almost unlimited space of open
ground, where the exhibitions of cattle and horses, and the
races, were held. -
The façades of the Industry Palace and of the Art
Buildings, as well as several smaller constructions, were
elegantly decorated by cornices and bas-reliefs of stucco
formed of plaster or cement, and colored to resemble stone.
The floors of all the buildings were of wood, with marrow
spaces left between the planks for the dust to fall through.
The main entrances were at the S. and W. The access was
chiefly by carriages, horse-railways, and omnibuses, but
was not by any means adequate, and was never equal to
emergencies, such as storms or special attractions drawing
a larger crowd than usual.
The regulations and details of the conduct of the exhi-
bition were early made known to the world by a series of
carefully prepared circulars, numbered from 1 to 104, and
onward. These were printéd in German, English, and
French in quarto form, and they give a very complete
view of the organization and progress of the undertaking.
Among these are several upon special industries or features
of the exhibition, giving very comprehensive views of the
condition and needs of those industries.
The classification comprised twenty-six groups, with
numerous subdivisions. The arrangement of the objects
did not follow the sequence of the groups. It was not
systematic, and it was unsatisfactory. The space was ap-
portioned “in block” to each country, and the placing or
installation of the objects was left to the convenience or
caprice of each of the foreign commissions. A geographical
order of succession of the countries was adopted, the East-
ern nations taking space at the eastern ends of the build-
ings, and the Western nations at the western ends. Japan
thus occupied one end, and the U. S. the other end, while
Prussia and Austria occupied the central portions.
Regret was very generally expressed, not only by the
commissioners and jurors, but by the visitors and exhibit-
ors, that the dual system of arrangement introduced in the
Paris Exhibition of 1867 had not been adopted at Vienna.
By this system, as is well known, similar objects from dif-
ferent countries are placed together, while at the same time
the grouping by countries is preserved. Such an arrange-
ment greatly facilitates study and comparison, and conse-
quently promotes one great object of exhibitions—educa-
tion. It saves a great deal of time and confusion, and
makes the labors of jurors and experts much more satis-
factory. In Vienna, it was extremely difficult to find all
the objects of any one group or class, and the direct com-
parison of such objects was impossible. The form of the
building rendered such a systematic arrangement imprac-
ticable, and the only approximation to it was placing the
machinery in one building, the agricultural implements in
another, manufactures and products in a third, and fine
arts in a fourth.
The display in all departments was very large and costly,
and exceeded that in Paris in 1867. The aggregate weight
and number of objects, and the outlay for show-cases and
decorations, were much greater. The number of exhibitors
is stated at 70,000. -
The exhibition was particularly rich in the educational
appliances and statistics of all countries, special attention
to the subject having been requested in the official pro-
grammes. The collections so brought together are to re-
main in a special museum at Vienna. The several depart-
ments of government of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy
made extensive and instructive exhibitions, particularly in
forestry, mining, and commerce. The special exhibitions
in Group I. (mining, metallurgy, etc.) by Prussia, Carin-
thia, and other countries, were remarkable for the thor-
ough representation of those industries in a liberal and
costly way. Japan made a very complete and creditable
exhibition, giving a better representation of the arts and in-
dustries and resources of that empire than has ever before
been seen. The machinery and agricultural implements
from the U. S. were very creditable, and attracted much
attention, but in these and in other departments the repre-
sentation was by no means commensurate with the extent
and resources of the country.
The international jury consisted of about 600 members
from all countries, appointed by each commission in the
general ratio of one juror for every 100 exhibitors in each
group. The officers of the jury were apportioned among
the nations by the imperial commission. The jury-work
commenced in July, and the announcement of the awards
was made in August. These awards were not internation-
ally comparative, but were absolute, and were liberally be-
stowed. The medals were all of bronze, and of the same
size, each seven centimétres in diameter, but of five differ-
ent kinds, though not in gradation of merit or value; namely,
1, medal for fine arts; 2, medal for good taste; 3, medal
for progress; 4, medal for co-operators; 5, medal for merit.
The medal for fine arts was reserved for distinguished art
productions exhibited in Group XXV. The medal for good
taste was designed for exhibitors of articles of industry, the
form and color of which constitute the characteristic fea-
tures for adjudication. The medal for progress was given
to exhibitors in Groups I. to XXIII., and in Group XXVI.,
who, compared with the productions exhibited at previous
exhibitions, proved noticeable progress made since then in
new inventions, in the introduction of new materials and
contrivances, etc. The medal for co-operators was desig-
mated for persons who, as managers of manufactories,
as foremen, designers of patterns, modellers, or as assist-
ants in a general way, were nominated on the part of the
exhibitors on account of the leading part they had taken
in the features of excellence of the productions or in the
increase of their sale. It shows on the reverse side a me–
chanic examining the parts of a machine which his aspir-
ing assistant has just finished, and for the completion of
which, as an acknowledgment, the Genius of Labor pre-
sents him with a laurel wreath. The medal of merit was
awarded to exhibitors who could lay claim to excellence
and perfection in material and workmanship, large extent
of production, the opening of new markets, the employ-
ment of improved tools and machinery, and cheapness of
production. There were also diplomas of merit and of
honor, the latter having the character of a peculiar distinc-
tion for eminent merit in the domain of science and its ap-
plications.
A succession of international congresses during the prog-
ress of the exhibition was a marked feature, and contributed
to its interest and good results. The Medical Congress, the
Congress on a Uniform Numbering of Yarn, the Flax Con-
gress, and the International Patent Congress were among
the most important. The latter was well attended, and
resulted in the formation of a permanent international ex-
ecutive committee under the presidency of Baron Schwarz-
Senborn, with power to enroll members and call another
meeting in 1876 or before.
From the opening until November 3 there were 7,254,687
visitors or entries recorded by the turnstiles. This num-
ber includes all, whether paying or free, and of course does
EX POST FACTO—EXTRADITION.
1693
not represent different persons, each visit of the same per-
son counting one. This number is equivalent to about 20
per cent. of the population of Austria. The visitors in
London in 1862 were equal to about 20 per cent. of the
population of Great Britain.
There were several concurrent unfavorable conditions
tending to prevent a large influx of visitors. In the first
place, the exhibition was not fairly ready to receive visitors
until after the first of June. The month of May was cold
and rainy, and the first impression produced on the public
was unfavorable. The press also was in a critical mood,
and the vexations and fatigue attending a study of the
exhibition disgusted those who arrived with the expecta-
tion of being satisfied without effort. Later in the season
the presence of cholera to a limited extent sufficed to keep
away many tourists who had deferred their visits. The
sovereigns of Europe visited the exhibition in succession.
Delegations of artisans were sent by Switzerland and other
nations. The free list was large, including all the foreign
commissioners, jurors, and exhibitors.
The receipts were much less than was expected, being
only about 2,600,000 florins (or $1,300,000) from visitors,
as far as ascertained at the closing; but this does not repre-
sent all, as the full reports had not been received from the
railways. There were in addition certain revenues from
the rent of space, each country paying a small sum per
square mêtre, and from the concessions. The buildings
are also to be sold. But the gross revenues will probably
not exceed $2,000,000 in round numbers, while the expend-
itures are reported as equivalent to $9,850,000, leaving a
deficiency of $7,850,000, already mostly provided for by
government appropriations. WM. P. BLAKE.
Ex post Fact’o, a legal term introduced from the civil
to the common law. Its literal translation is, “ by subse-
quent matter,” or “in consequence of something done after-
wards.” An eac post facto law is a law that operates by
after-enactments. By the Constitution of the U. S., neither
Congress nor the State legislatures can pass ea post facto
laws, and the meaning of the term thus used has been often
defined and is fully settled by judicial decisions. It refers
to criminal and penal statutes only, and not to those which
simply affect private property. Chief-Justice Marshall de-
fined an eac post facto law to be one which rendered an act
punishable in a manner in which it was not punishable
when it was committed. The more specific definition
usually laid down by the courts is : 1, any law which makes
an innocent act, done before its passage, criminal; 2, any
law which aggravates a crime, and makes it legally greater
than when it was committed; 3, any law which changes the
punishment, and inflicts a greater punishment than the law
affixed to the crime when it was committed, or perhaps one
different in kind; 4, any law that alters the legal rules of
evidence applicable to an offence already committed, and
to the injury of the offender.
Express’ [from the Lat. eac, “out,” and premo, pressum,
to “press,” to “drive”], a messenger or conveyance that
performs particular errands; a public parcels delivery. Be-
yond the province of news-carrying, the express system has
hitherto made little progress in Europe, owing to its divided
nationalities, their varied customs and passport regulations,
and their unconnected railway and packet lines. The near-
est approach to the comprehensive system known in the U.S.
as express lines are the local parcels deliveries in London,
Paris, etc. In the U. S. the system penetrates to all parts
of the country, even the remotest villages and frontier set-
tlements being brought within its operation; and without
leaving their residences persons at the greatest distances
apart can despatch parcels to one another, with assurance
of the same certainty and celerity as ordinarily attend the
operations of the post-office. The express lines, moreover,
undertake collections of money, draw inland bills of ex-
change, and convey freight, the invoice for, as well as the
charges on which, is collectable on delivery. Not only
goods, but bank-notes, bullion, and even live animals, are
gonveyed by express. Under the State banks system, as
well as under the present National banking system, the ex-
press lines conveyed the circulating notes of the banks from
the centres of trade, whither they had found their way, to
the places of issue for redemption; and the government now
employs one or more lines (the Adams Express Company,
étc.) to transport funds to and from the Treasury. The ex-
press system in this country owes its origin, as it does in
Europe, to the desire of obtaining early information of
public events. Hale & Halleck of the New York “Journal
of Commerce’’ established a horse express, with eight re-
lays, from Philadelphia to New York in 1833. This was
afterwards extended to Washington, employing twenty-four
relays and performing the distance in twenty hours. The
Cincinnati “Gazette” ran an express, conveying the Presi-
dent's message, from Washington to Cincinnati in sixty
hours, at a cost of two hundred dollars, in 1835. In 1839,
Alvin Adams and William F. Harnden and brother, of
Boston, started expresses on the Providence and Worcester
Railroad. The Harndens had been railway guards or con-
ductors, and were frequently desired to carry newspapers,
parcels, and money. These facts suggested the express
business. In 1841, Harnden and Adams extended their
lines to Philadelphia. In 1843, Gay and Kingsley started
an express line between New York and Boston. The first
express W. of Buffalo was established in 1845 by Wells,
Fargo, and Dunning. Adams and Company started a Cali-
fornia express in 1849, soon after the opening of the mines.
Previous to the completion of the Pacific Railway, Butter-
field's Pony Express crossed the Plains with letters and
parcels in eight days. The numerous out-of-town lines
once in operation have gradually become consolidated into
a few leading ones, as shown below; each of the great
railway lines and connections being usually monopolized
by a single express company. The local lines, confined to
separate cities and towns, are still numerous, though in
some of the large cities consolidation has taken place with
these as well.
Table showing the Statistics of the Principal Out-of-town
Earpress Lines in the U. S.
Par
* Walue Amount DiYi- When - La
Name of Line. f Outstanding. dend Payable. Dºd.
Shares.
| |
Adams Ex. Co. $100 || $10,000,000 || 2 | Q.-M. Mar. 3, 1873
Amer’n Mer-
ch’ts Union. 100 18,000,000 || 3 || J. and J. Jan. 2, 1873
U. S. Exp. Co. 100 6,000,000 || 2 Q.-F. Feb. 1, 1873
Wells, Fargo &
Co.'s Exp..... 100 5,000,000 || 3} | J. and J. (Jan. 1, 1873
ALEX. DELMAR.
Ex’tra, a township of Ashley co., Ark. Pop. 603.
Ex’tract [Lat. extractum, from eac, “out,” and traho,
tractum, to “draw "J, in pharmacy, is a name given to any
solid substance (called simply an extract) or to a liquid
substance (fluid extract) made by evaporating solutions
containing medicinal principles, chiefly of vegetable origin.
These solutions are made (1) by expressing the juices of
fresh plants, or of dried ones after maceration, by means
of hydraulic or other presses; (2) by means of liquid sol-
vents, as water, alcohol, or ether, from which result “aque-
ous,” “alcoholic,” and “ethereal” extracts. These various
methods are employed, some extracts being better prepared
by one and some by another process. Sometimes the men-
struum is allowed slowly to percolate and repercolate
through the powdered drug, the solvent being at last re-
moved by evaporation or distillation. Evaporation is
frequently carried on in vacuo with great advantage,
for a high degree of heat is injurious to many vegetable
principles.
Extract of Meat [Lat. eactractum carnis] is a prep-
aration of beef, and sometimes of mutton, or of both com-
bined, in which the muscular fibre, fat, and gelatine are
removed, and the highly nitrogenous elements preserved
and condensed into a semi-solid mass of about the consist-
ence of ordinary butter. Commercial extract of beef is
prepared on a large scale in the Argentine Republic, in
Texas, and in other countries. Most of what is sold in
Europe and the U. S. comes from Buenos Ayres, where its
manufacture was first established under the supervision of
the chemist Liebig. One establishment at Fray Bentos
slaughters 400 oxen daily. In general, the finely cut beef
is allowed to stand for a few hours in cold water; the liquid
is then boiled for a time, and afterwards evaporated in a
vacuum-pan. In some places the mincemeat is steamed,
and the resulting liquids evaporated on rapidly revolving
steel plates. In other establishments superheated steam is
employed under pressure; the material is then submitted
to powerful hydraulic compression, and the expressed
liquid partially dried in vacuo.
Extract of meat is of variable quality and composition,
and at the best but imperfectly represents the beef it was
made from. Nevertheless, it is useful in preparing soups,
and especially in nourishing those who are sick of low
fevers, pyamia, and other like diseases.
Extraction of Roots. See Evolution.
Extradi’tion [from the Lat. eac, “out,” and trado, tra-
ditum, to “convey’], the surrender by one state or nation
to another of fugitives from justice. The subject will be
considered under two general divisions: 1, the surrender
of fugitives from justice from one State of the U. S. to an-
other; 2, the like surrender as between one nation and an-
other.
1. The U. S. Constitution provides that “a person
charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime,
who shall flee from justice and be found in another State,
1694
EXTREME UNCTION-EYE.
shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State
from which he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the
State having jurisdiction of the crime.” A like clause is
found in the Articles of Confederation. The propriety and
necessity of such a provision in the case of States bound so
closely together as are those of the American Union, and
yet, exercising independent criminal jurisdiction, will not
be questioned. It tends to promote harmony between the
States and to repress crime, while it aids in the discharge
of a high moral obligation. An act of Congress of 12th
Feb., 1793, ch. 7, 3 1, carries the constitutional provision
into practical effect by declaring that the demand shall be
accompanied by a copy of an indictment found against the
alleged fugitive, or by an affidavit made before a magis-
trate of a State, etc., charging the fugitive with having
committed a crime. These documents are to be certified
as authentic by the governor or chief magistrate of the
State whence the demand comes. It is thereupon made the
duty of the governor on whom the demand is made to issue
his warrant and to cause the fugitive to be arrested and de-
livered over to the agent of the demanding State. The es-
sential ingredients of the case are—that there must be a
charge that an act has been committed which is a crime
under the laws of the State where it took place, and that
the person so charged has fled from justice. The governor
of the State where the fugitive is found is bound to comply
with the demand when properly made and authenticated.
Still, there are no legal means whereby, in case that he
fails to do his duty, he can be compelled to perform it.
(Kentucky against Governor Dennison of Ohio, 24 Howard’s
Reports, 66.) If the fugitive is supposed to be arrested
on insufficient papers, the regular course to test their valid-
ity in his behalf is to apply for a writ of habeas corpus.
If they turn out to be defective, he will be discharged.
When the proceedings are sustained, the effect of them is
to return the fugitive to the State whence he came, where
he will be entitled to his trial under the ordinary course of
judicial proceedings. -
2. Extradition as between separate nations. This is a
topic belonging to international law, and will be noticed
under that general subject. It was at one time supposed
that it was the duty of a state under the law of nations to
surrender up a fugitive from justice upon demand after the
civil magistrate had ascertained the existence of reasonable
grounds for subjecting the accused to a criminal trial.
Those who maintained this doctrine found much difficulty
in drawing the line between the graver crimes to which it
was claimed that this rule was applicable and those of a
minor character to which it could scarcely be considered
that it would extend. (1 Kent’s “Commentaries,” 37.)
The better opinion now is, that whatever obligation may
exist in such a case is an imperfect one, and cannot be in-
sisted upon by the demanding nation unless there be a
treaty stipulation. It is quite clear that courts have no
power in such cases independent of treaties, and it is a
matter of grave doubt whether the executive authority can
properly exercise it. So a State of the Union cannot assume
to make a surrender of an alleged fugitive to a foreign
nation, and an act of a State legislature authorizing it is
unconstitutional and void. (People against Curtis, 50 New
York Reports, 321, A.D. 1872.) The U. S. have treaties upon
this subject with a large number of foreign nations, includ-
ing Great Britain, France, Austria, the German empire,
Norway, Sweden, Italy, Switzerland, Mexico, etc. The
treaties are not precisely identical, though of the same gen-
eral scope and character. They all include the more heinous
crimes, such as murder and piracy, while some of them em-
brace robbery, burglary, arson, rape, embezzlement, and the
fabrication and circulation of counterfeit coin or paper.
The words here employed would refer to the offences named
as understood in the general jurisprudence of the two na-
tions, and accordingly would not extend to a new statutory
crime established by one of the States of this country, and
called by a name used in the treaty, such as forgery. This
conclusion was reached in England in the case of Winsor,
6 Best & Smith's Reports, 522. On the other hand, it has
been considered that the word “piracy,” as used in the
treaty with England, does not refer to that offence as re-
cognized in the law of nations, as the offender can be tried
in the state where he is. Its reference is to piracy under
the municipal law of the state making the demand. (In re
Tivnan, 5 Best & Smith, 645.) The treaties require that the
offence should be committed within the “jurisdiction ” or
within the “territories and jurisdiction ” of the demanding
nation. An interesting question has recently arisen in this
country whether these words would include the case where
a nation by statute law made it a crime for one of its own
subjects to commit an act like murder beyond its own ter-
ritory, so that a surrender could be demanded by that na-
tion, though the act were committed within the territory
of a nation with which the U. S. had no extradition treaty.
This was the case of Vogt, and though the attorney-general
of the U. S. advised against the surrender, the point can
scarcely be deemed to be finally settled. In order to carry
an extradition treaty into practical effect, domestic legisla-
tion is necessary. Under the laws of Congress and the
practice of the courts the following points must be observed:
(1) There must be a demand from the supreme political
authority of the state seeking the return of the fugitive;
(2) There should be an authorization or a mandate by the
President of the U. S., directed to a judge or U. S. com-
missioner, to examine into the case; (3) Complaint under
oath should be made to the judge or commissioner by a
proper person, such as a consul-general of the foreign coun-
try, showing the commission of the act on which the demand
for the surrender is based; (4) There should be a warrant
by the commissioner, etc. for the apprehension of the party
charged; (5) The charge should be sustained before the
commissioner by suitable evidence, such, for example, as
would justify his commitment had the act taken place here;
(6) On the certificate of the judge or commissioner that
there is a probable ground to believe that the offence has
been committed, and such certificate is satisfactory to the
President of the U. S., the surrender is made to the agent
of the demanding state. If the proceedings are defective,
the prisoner may be discharged on a writ of habeas corpus.
The statutes will be found in 9 U. S. Stat. at Large, 302
(12 Aug., 1848); 12 id., 84 (22 June, 1860); 15 id., 337
(Mar. 3, 1869). Consult also Matter of Farez, 7 Blatchford
Reports, 345, 491; BRIGHTLY's and ABBOTT's “Digests,”
title Eastradition; W HEATON’s “International Law,” notes
of LAWRENCE and DANA; CLARKE “On Extradition,” etc.;
the recent English statutes, 33 & 34 Vict. ch. 52 (1870); 36
& 37 Vict. ch. 60 (1873). T. W. DWIGHT.
Extreme Unction [Lat. eactrema wnctio, the “last
anointing ”], the fifth of the seven sacraments of the Ro-
man Catholic Church, consisting of the application, by a
priest, of consecrated oil of olives to the eyes, ears, nostrils,
lips, hands, feet, and reins of a dying person or of one
whose illness is alarming. It is administered after confes-
sion and the Eucharist, and is believed to remove the last
stains of sin. The Greek and Coptic churches recognize
unction (which is by no means always administered in
eactremis) as a sacrament, and the Jacobites and Arme-
nians have a similar practice. Certain ritualists among
the Anglicans and Lutherans advocate a return to this
ceremony.
Exuda/tion [Lat. eacudatio, from eac, “out,” and sudo,
sudatum, to “sweat”], the passage of a liquid outward
through the walls (or membranes) of the vessel containing
it. The term is also applied to certain substances which
eacwde or come out of trees, as gum-resin, manna, etc. In
pathology, a material product of inflammation; a gaseous,
liquid, or solid substance foreign to the tissues, and result-
ing from disease. These morbid products, when solid,
sometimes become organized and capable of growth.
Exu'ma, Great and Little, two of the Bahama
Islands. The former is about 30 miles long and 3 miles
wide, and has one of the best harbors in the Bahamas.
Salt is exported from them. Great Exuma is crossed by
the Tropic of Cancer. The N. W. point is in lat. 23°42'
N., lon. 76° W.
Exu'viae (plu.), [Lat. for “cast-off clothing”], in nat-
ural history, the name for the slough or cast-off skin of
reptiles, crustaceans, etc.; the moulted feathers of birds;
the hair of quadrupeds, which is shed at a particular season
of the year. It is sometimes a general name for fossil or-
ganic remains. It was anciently used to designate the per-
sonal spoils taken from an enemy in battle, hence it some-
times meant all booty taken in War.
Eyck, van (HUBERT and JAN), two brothers, born at
Maaseyk, Holland—Hubert in 1366, Jam about four years
later. They lived and wrought as artists together. Their
chief works were executed in Ghent. The two brothers
are considered the founders of the Flemish School of paint-
ing. (An account of their labors, with an estimate of their
merits and a just assignment of their place in art, may be
found in a book on “Early Flemish Painters” by CAVAL-
CASELLE, London, 1856, and in DR. LüBKE’s “History of
Art,” translated by F. E. BUNNETT, London, 1868; STAN-
LEy’s “Dutch and Flemish Painters,” Bohn’s ed.) Jan
died in 1440, Hubert in 1426. The former is often called
“John of Bruges.” -
Eye, a market-town of England, is in the county of
Suffolk, 75 miles N. E. of London. The houses are low,
with thatched roofs, and the streets unpaved. Pop. 6721.
Eye, the organ of vision in animals. In organisms be-
low the rank of the Echinodermata eyes can scarcely be
said to exist, but among star-fishes and Echinida eye-spots
EYE-BOLT—EYE-PIECE.
1695
connected with nerve-filaments are found. Among the low-
est articulates rudimentary eyes are seen, not always on the
head, but on various parts of the body, and sometimes even
at the end of the tail. In tunicaries and true mollusks
vision exists, sometimes performed by means of eyes of con-
siderably high development. Most of the high articulates
have compound eyes. Insects have large eyes, each with a
vast number of hexagonal or quadrangular doubly convex
facets, every one of which brings to a focus the rays re-
ceived in one particular direction. In the Mordella beetle
the eyes have 25,000 of these facets or corneas (Carpenter),
but the number is usually very much less. Faceted eyes
are common among crustaceans, and are often well marked
in the remains of trilobites. Spiders and others of the lower
insects have only a few eyes, which are not compound.
Many facet-eyed insects have also single rudimentary eyes.
The vertebrates nearly all have eyes which approximate
more or less completely to those of man, some, as the birds,
probably far surpassing man in visual power. The eye of
fishes and cetaceans is peculiar in its spherical and dense
crystalline lens. There are many other special modifica-
tions in the eyes of lower animals, adapting them to their
peculiar modes of life.
The human eye is placed in a bony cavity called the
orbit, and is further protected by the fatty cushion within
which it rests, as well as by the brows, eyelids, and eye-
lashes. Other appendages are the tear-glands and the sac
connected with it; the Meibomian glands, whose secretion
lubricates the eyelids and the eye itself; the numerous
muscles which direct its range, and the nerves and blood-
vessels which supply it.
The human eye is a globe, with the segment of a smaller
globe planted upon its anterior aspect. Its antero-posterior
diameter is one inch, its transverse one, #} of an inch. The
larger sphere has about five-sixths of the whole surface.
The two eyes have their axes almost parallel, except that in
looking at near objects they decidedly converge. The eye
is invested by three coats: First, the sclerotica, a white,
tough, fibrous substance, the “white of the eye,” visible
through the delicate conjunctiva, which lines the orbit and
is reflected over the sclerotica and cornea. Inwardly it is
brown. The muscles are attached to it, and through a
sieve-like, “cribriform lamina,” it transmits the filaments of
the optic and other nerves and blood-vessels.
The anterior one-sixth of the eye's surface is occupied by
the cornea, a concavo-convex lens, projecting, transparent,
and in intimate structure resembling the sclerotica. It is
composed of more than sixty laminae, the innermost and
outermost of which are highly elastic. The posterior layer
is lined by a “pavement” epithelium of polygonal cells.
The cornea is well supplied with nerves, called ciliary.
Choroid and Iris.
The second coat of the eye is composed of the choroid
tunic, the iris, the ciliary processes, muscle, and ligament.
The choroid is a vascular, thin, chocolate-colored membrane,
lining the Sclerotica, and separated from it by the delicate
membrana fusca. The choroid itself has three layers: an
owter, consisting chiefly of blood-vessels (vasa vorticosa)
and pigment-cells; a middle layer, of fine capillary vessels
(Ruysch’s layer); and an inner layer, of tesselated, hex-
agonal cells, laden with pigmentary matter, except in
albinoes. The ciliary processes are folds or plaits running
forward from the edge of the choroid to the suspensory
ligament of the crystalline lens. They number about 70.
The iris (“rainbow”) takes its name from its various colors
in different persons. It is the colored curtain which sur-
rounds the pupil, its central opening. It contains both cir-
cular and radiating involuntary muscle-fibres—the circular
to contract, the radiating to expand, the pupil. The cili-
ary ligament unites the choroid and cornea. The circular
sinus is a canal which runs around the eye outside the cili-
ary ligament. The ciliary muscle is a circular band of in-
voluntary muscle-fibre which passes back from the junction
of the cornea and sclerotic to the choroid. It is probable
that through the ciliary processes it acts upon the lens, ad-
justing the eye for nice observations. -
The third coat of the eye is the retina. Without is the
choroid—within, the vitreous humor. The retina has four
layers. The outer, or Jacob’s membrane, consists of columnar
rods and bulbous, hollow cones filled with fluid. The granu-
lar layer consists of globular particles, lined inwardly by a
hyaline substance. The nummular layer looks on the inside
as if composed of particles resembling pieces of money seen
edgewise. The nervous layer of the retina is an expansion
of the optic nerve, and consists of both tubular and vesicu-
lar neurine. This layer is separated within from the vitre-
ous humor by the exceedingly delicate membrana limitans,
and by the hyaloid membrane; the former regarded as be-
longing to the retina, the latter to the vitreous humor.
The contents of the eye are the aqueous humor, the crys-
talline lens, and the vitreous humor. The aqueous humor
consists of about four or five grains of water, with a very
Small proportion of common salt and others matters in
solution. It occupies the space between the cornea in front
and the crystalline lens behind. This space is divided into
the anterior and the posterior chambers, which the iris
separates from each other. After birth these chambers
communicate through the pupil. (Fig. 2, Vertical section of
the human eye.) Behind the aqueous humor comes the
FIG. 2.
&/erciſe
Choroid.
Acáma
rendon ºf REctus
& Ligament
/ Cºziary Muscle
Jºaſaid:Rembrane
sº
:º
§
§
º
º
º
º
W
Nwº
º*.
Cºrcular, Simº
canaſ of Petit
Vertical Section of the Eye.
crystalline lens, suspended in the capsule, an elastic, trans-
parent membrane which is retained in place by the ciliary
processes and a suspensory ligament. Between this liga-
ment and the hyaloid membrane is the space called the
canal of Petit. The lens itself consists, as is seen when it
has been boiled or hardened in alcohol, of layers of trans-
parent matter arranged in three triangular segments. The
vitreous humor occupies four-fifths of the cavity of the
eyeball. Like all the contents proper of the eye, it is
transparent. It consists of a thin, jelly-like, albuminous
fluid. When the aqueous humor has been evacuated by
accident or operative interference, it is speedily restored
like other serous fluids, but if the vitreous humor is once
lost, it is never renewed.
(The wonderful physiology and physics of the eye, its nice
self-adjusting powers, and its almost perfect achromatism
are considered in the articles LIGHT and VISION. The
various diseases of the eye are treated each under its own
name.) CHARLEs W. GREENE.
Eye-Bolt, on shipboard, a pointed iron bar with a
hole in the thick end. It is intended to be driven into one
of the timbers, and then to have a rope passed through the
hole. -
Eyebright. See EUPHRASY.
Eye-Piece, the lens or combination of lenses used in
microscopes and telescopes to examine the aërial image
formed at the focus of the object-glass. The ordinary eye-
piece is a combination, and may be either positive or negative.









1696
EYE-STONES.–EZRA, THE BOOK OF.
The former consists of two plano-convex lenses, with their
convex sides towards each other, and is used for microm-
eters. The negative consists of similar lenses with the con-
vex sides turned away from the eye. Besides these, there
are in use for observations of the sun a diagonal eye-piece,
in which a very small percentage of the sun’s light and heat
is reflected from the first surface of a prism, the rest being
transmitted; and Dawes's solar eye-piece, in which the light
is reduced by observing only a very minute part of the solar
surface. --
Eye-Stones (oculi cancrorum) is the name given to the
two semi-circular calcareous concretions which are found in
the common European crawfish, in August, shortly before the
moulting season, in the space between the inner and outer
coats of the stomach. They consist of carbonate and phos-
phate of lime and animal gelatin, and were formerly used
in a powdered state in medicine as an antacid. They are
sometimes used to remove small particles of dirt from the
eyes, a method which is entirely to be condemned. They
are collected in brooks in Dauphiny, near Astrakham, etc.
Eye, von (Johann LUDOLF AUGUST), a German art-his-
torian, born 1825, wrote many valuable works on ancient
and modern art. Among these are “Kunst und Leben der
Vorzeit.” (3 vols., 3d ed. 1868), “Leben und Wirken Al-
brecht Dürer’s” (1860). He also wrote several philosophical
works, the most prominent of which is “Wesen’und Werth
des Daseins” (1870). - -
Eylau, or Đilau, I'löw', often called Prussian Ey-
lau, a small town of Prussia, is in the province of Prussia,
on the Pasmar, 22 miles S. of Königsberg. A great battle
was fought here Feb. 8, 1807, between Napoleon, who had
about 80,000 men, and the allied armies of Russia and Prus-
sia, commanded by Gen. Bennigsen, who had fewer men, but
more guns. Both sides claimed the victory. The allies lost
about 20,000, and retreated from the field, but the French
loss was probably the greater. Pop. in 1867, 3518.
Ey/iert (RUHLEMANN FRIEDRICH), born at Hamm, West-
phalia, April 5, 1770, studied at Halle, and in 1794 began
to preach in his native town, became court-preacher at
Potsdam in 1806, and in 1817 Prussian superintendent and
minister of public instruction. He was at first a moderate
rationalist, but became orthodox, and was one of the founders
of the national Church of Prussia, and of its liturgy. He
had great influence with King Frederick William III. Died
Feb. 3, 1852, leaving numerous writings, chiefly religious.
Ey/meric (NICHOLAs), a famous inquisitor, born at
Girona, a town of Catalonia, Spain, became a Dominican
friar in 1334, was appointed by Innocent VI. to be inquisi-
tor-general of Aragon (1356), and became chaplain and
judge of heresies to Gregory XI. at Avignon (1371). Died
at Girona Jan. 4, 1399. As an inquisitor his zeal was so
great that he was for some years suspended from his office.
IIe especially pursued the followers of Raymond Lully.
His “Directorium Inquisitorum” (1503; 6th ed. 1607) was
his principal work.
Eyo/ta, a township and post-village of Olmstead co.,
Minn., has a monthly publication. It is on the Winona.
and St. Peter R. R., 37 miles W. of Winona. Pop. 1140.
Eyre (Most Rev. CHARLEs), archbishop of Anazarba in
partibus, and apostolic delegate of the Roman Catholic
Church for Scotland, was born in 1817 in Yorkshire, Eng-
Iand, and was educated at Durham and at Rome. He re-
ceived his present position in 1869. He has published a
“History of Saint Cuthbert” (1849).
Eyre (EDwARD JoHN), an English explorer, born in 1817.
He emigrated to Australia about 1833, and began in 1840
the exploration of the unknown region between South Aus-
tralia and Western Australia. In this sterile region he per-
formed a journey of nearly 1000 miles almost alone. He
published in 1845. “Discoveries in Central Australia.” In
1862 he was appointed governor of Jamaica, where he sup-
pressed an insurrection in Oct., 1865. He was censured and
removed from his office for the execution of Gordon by
court-martial. John Stuart Mill and others took measures
to try him for murder, but failed, Eyre being justified or
excused by the British public.
Eyre (JoBN), an Anglican clergyman, born at Bodmin,
Cornwall, in Jan., 1754, was apprenticed to a clothier, but,
having become awakened to a religious life, was driven
from his father’s house. He went to Lady Huntingdon's
college at Trevecca, studied for a time at Oxford, and soon
entered the ministry. He was a popular speaker, and was
chiefly distinguished for his benevolence and zeal for mis-
Ssions. He was one of the founders of the London Mission-
ary Society and of Hackney Seminary. Died Mar. 28, 1803.
Eyre (Sir VINCENT), K. C. S. I., C. B., born about 1810,
received a military education in the college of Addiscombe,
joined the Bengal artillery in 1828, was badly wounded at
Cabul in 1842, while serving in the horse artillery, and was
taken prisoner by the Afghans, but escaped in Sept., 1842.
He has published “Military Operations at Cabul” (1843),
“Metallic Boats and Floating Wagons” (1854), and “A
Fortnight's Tour among French Ambulances” (1870).
Eyriès (JEAN BAPTISTE BENoiT), a French savant,
born in Marseilles, published numerous geographical pa-
pers, mostly translations, wrote much for the “Biographie
Universelle,” and, with John Pinkerton, published an
“Abridgment of Modern Geography” (1827), a work of
value in its day. He was one of the originators of the
Geographical Society. Died in 1846. *
Eys/ter (MICHAEL), an American Lutheran minister,
was born May 16, 1814, in York co., Pa., was educated at
Gettysburg, and licensed to preach in 1838. His influence
as a pulpit orator was very great. Died Aug. 12, 1853.
Ey/telwein (JoBANN ALBERT), an excellent Prussian
civil engineer and physicist, born at Frankfort-on-the-
Main Dec. 31, 1764, entered the artillery in his youth,
where he acquired the foundation of his future eminence.
He afterwards held important civil offices, and was employ-
ed on a great variety of public works. Died Aug. 18,
1848. He published a “Handbook of Mechanics, of Solids,
and of Hydraulics” (1801), “Handbook of the Statics of
Solid Bodies” (1808), “Handbook of Perspective” (1810),
“Elements of the Higher Analysis” (1824), etc.
Eze/lºiel (i.e. “God will strengthen "), one of the four
greater prophets of the Hebrew Scriptures, the author of a
canonical book which bears his name. He was the son of
a priest, and was one of those who were carried away in
what is known as the second of the four deportations (597
D. C.). He was sent to dwell on the river Chebar or Cha-
boras, a branch of the Euphrates. From that place he ex-
ercised his prophetical calling by pronouncing warnings
and rebukes against Jerusalem so long as it stood, and also
by denouncing woes upon Judah’s heathen neighbors for
their attitude towards her in her distress. His activity
covered a period of twenty-two years, from the fifth to the
twenty-seventh year of the Captivity. The book consists
of two parts, the former (chaps. i.-xxiv.) containing pre-
dictions delivered before the destruction of Jerusalem in
586 B. C.; the latter (chaps. xxv-xlviii.) containing pre-
dictions delivered after that event. Having formed an ideal
of what the restored Israel was to be, he describes the new
temple, the reformed ritual, and a re-division of the country
into twelve parts, which is set forth in mathematical and
geometrical descriptions. These descriptions do not apply to
anything which ever existed, either before or after, and this
has been a ground of much unfounded anxiety lest here
should be an unfulfilled prophecy. It is evident, however,
that the prophet had a vision of a restored, perfect, and
ideal theocracy, and this is set forth in mathematical and
geometrical arrangements which are ideally perfect, and
take no note of physical circumstances. In his general tone
Ezekiel is independent of Jewish dogmas. He gives fresh
and true interpretations and applications of the Mosaic law,
which contradict the traditional interpretations. His view
of the Gentiles is also free from the severity of the tradi-
tional dogma of Israel’s election. Fürst finds authority in
the “Talmud” for the assertioſ, that, on account of these
things, the position of the book of Ezekiel in the canon was
uncertain at the time of our Lord.
E/zion=ge/ber, or Ezione gaber, an ancient port
on the Elanitic arm of the Red Sea. From this point
Solomon sent a fleet to Ophir, and King Jehoshaphat also
built ships here for the same destination. . It probably
stood near Elath, and is thought by many to have been at
the north-western extremity of the Gulf of Akabah. It is
believed that no trace of it now remains.
Ez/ra [Heb. “help;” Gr. "Egópas], the name of several
persons mentioned in the Bible, the most important of whom
was the famous priest and scribe who came with some 6000
Hebrew exiles from Babylon to Jerusalem about the year
458 B.C. In no long time, probably, he went back to Baby-
lon, and returned to Jerusalem with Nehemiah in 445 B.C.
As he is not mentioned after Nehemiah’s return to Babylon
in 433 B.C., he had probably died, or gone back to Baby-
lon, before this. His reputed sepulchre is shown at a place
on the Tigris, near its junction with the Euphrates.
Ez/ra, The Book of, called in the Thirty-nine Arti-
cles of the Anglican Church “The First Book of Esdras,”
following the Vulgate. It narrates the history of the Jew-
ish nation on their return to Jerusalem from the Babylo-
nian captivity, and during the subsequent period of their
re-establishment in the land of their fathers. It is a con-
tinuation of the books of Chronicles, and is mostly a com-
pilation, probably by Ezra, who, though he put the whole
together, himself wrote only the last four chapters. It is
written partly in Hebrew and partly in Chaldee, the Chal-
dee portion beginning at iv. 8 and extending to vi. 18.
TESTIMONIALS
FROM
GENTIEMEN DISTINGUISHED IN PUBLIC AFFAIRS, SCIENCE, ART, EDUCATION, El Eið.
From His Excellency the President of the United States, Gen. U. S. Grant, LL.D.
MR. A. J. JoHNSON, No. 11 Great Jones st., New York: DEAR SIR-I find awaiting my arrival
here a copy of your valuable publication, the NEW UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA, which you were good
enough to send to me through the Secretary of State. I beg to be allowed to give you my sincere
thanks for the work, and for your thoughtful kindness in sending it to me. Should the succeeding
volumes prove, as I have no doubt they will, as valuable as this first one, the complete work will
supply a want long felt, by furnishing a complete cyclopædia which will be available for all.
From the Vice-President of the United States, Hon. Henry Wilson.
A. J. JoHNSON, ESQ.: MY DEAR SIR-I have been running over with some care the first volume
of your UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA, which I have just received, and have been very favorably im-
pressed with both its design and execution, and with the amount of valuable information it
contains and the compact form in which it is presented.
From the Chief-Justice of the U. S., Hon. M. R. Waite, LL.D.
MESSRs. A. J. JoEINSON & SON: MY DEAR SIRS—I have taken great pleasure in looking over the
copy of the first volume of JOHNSON's NEW UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA, which you were kind enough
to send me. It seems to be very complete. The names of your editors and contributors furnish
an abundant guaranty that the work you have undertaken has been, and will be, well done.
From the Secretary of State, Hon. Hamilton Fish, LL.D.
A. J. JoHNSON, ESQ., 11 Great Jones street, New York: DEAR SIR-I desire to make my grateful
acknowledgment to you for the beautifully bound volume of your NEW UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA
which you have kindly presented to me. The mechanical execution of the book is very fine, and
the examination which I have been able to give it commends to me very strongly the plan of the
work and its literary and scientific excellence. I have already spent an hour with much interest
and instruction in looking into a subject which was presented shortly after the volume arrived.
A diffuse book of reference, running into numerous volumes, becomes next to useless as a book
of reference. I have no doubt that the work will prove all that it aims to be.
From the Secretary of War, Gen. William W. Belknap.
MESSRS. A. J. JoHNSON & SON, No. 11 Great Jones street, New York: DEAR SIRS–I have received
the first volume of JoHNSON'S NEW UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA, published by your firm, and bear
hearty testimony to its value as a work of reference. I have examined it carefully, and, judging
from the volume before me, am satisfied that it will commend itself to the favorable consideration
of all those who stand in need of such a work.
From the Quartermaster-General of the U. S. Army, Gen. M. C. Meigs, M. N. A. S.
PRES. F. A. P. BARNARD, Editor-in-Chief: DEAR SIR-I have examined with care the first volume
of JoHNSON's NEW UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA. The plan of the work is well devised, and it appears
to be executed in a most liberal manner. I have read carefully the articles which I felt myself
the best entitled to speak of, and I find them evidently prepared by persons well skilled and learned
in the branches of knowledge of which they treat. Comparing the volume with that standard work,
The Penny Cyclopædia, in twenty-nine volumes, I find that under the letter A, JOHNSON's gives nearly
twice as many articles. But these articles are compressed into much fewer words and pages than
are devoted to the letter A in The Penny Cyclopædia. I believe that Mr. Johnson has succeeded in
this volume in making what is so well set forth as the need of the man of affairs—a book to lie
always ready on the desk or table, and Containing what is desired on almost all the subjects for
which such a dictionary is consulted. -
From Gen. Q. A. Gillmore, Lt.-Col. U. S. Eng’rs and Bvt. Maj.-Gen. U. S. Army.
PUBLISHERS OF JOHNSON'S NEW UNIVERSAL CyCLOPEDIA: GENTLEMEN-I have received and care-
fully examined the first volume of your Cyclopædia with unqualified satisfaction. I believe it to
be unsurpassed in general excellence and usefulness by any similar work heretofore published.
The leading articles are not only interesting in style, but able and exhaustive, while the briefer
definitions are suitably condensed and full of most instructive information. I predict for the book
a very extensive sale, and for the enterprising publishers a handsome and well-earned remuneration.
From Gen. Adam Badeau, Consul-General of the U. S. at London, Eng.
General Badeau presents his compliments and best thanks to the Editor and Publisher of JOHN-
SON's UNIVERSAL Cy CLOPAEDIA for the handsome and most acceptable present of a copy of Vol. I.
of that work, which they have been so very good as to forward to him. He finds the publication
itself most valuable, useful, and interesting, and wishes for it a success commensurate with its
merits; which is all that its best friends need desire.
From Samuel D. Tillman, LL.D., Prof. of Mechanical Phil. and Technology Am. Inst., New York City.
REV. DR. F. A. P. BARNARD : MY DEAR DOCTOR-A careful examination of JOHNSON's NEW UNI-
VERSAL CYCLOPEDIA has led me to the conclusion that its Editor-in-chief cannot be too highly
º l - [over.]
TESTIMO.W.I.A. LS CO.W. T.I.W’UED.
commended for his work thus far. The first volume is a marvel of abbreviation, being both con-
cise and comprehensive. It is not an abridgment by simple curtailing, nor by omitting such
essential parts as would disclose deformity. Brevity has not been attained by keeping out of view
any fruitful portion of the field of knowledge, but rather by that judicious lopping of a luxurious
overgrowth of thought and opinion which more clearly reveals the solid trunk and root of truth.
This method of condensation, which deals only with verified and significant facts, will meet the
approval of all who desire a reliable work of ready reference. Allow me to add, your fitness for
the editorial chair is not only shown by the productions of your own pen, but in the choice of your
leading assistants. In the main articles on Science, and its application in the arts, the latest and
most important discoveries and inventions are clearly set forth by authors of acknowledged standing
and ability. A perusal of its expositions on other branches of knowledge will convince the reader
that this Cyclopædia is not a mere epitome of Older works, but is an original compendium just
adapted to the present wants of the American public.
From Hon. Charles O'Conor, LL.D., New York.
MY DEAR PRESIDENT BARNARD : Hitherto, the main object of the encyclopædist has been com-
pleteness. Aside from some slight and unavoidable regard to a limit in cost, universality of grasp,
with fulness and accuracy in details, seems to have been his sole aim. Consequently, his book,
whenever equal to his design, was something very like a perfect library of knowledge. This was
quite natural as things were before the higher utilities of steam and electricity as mechanical
agents had been developed. Whilst adding to the enjoyments of life, these discoveries have cre-
ated necessities before unfelt. Among them is a new form of the encyclopædia. For purposes of
literary intercourse all civilized nations now sit together in social proximity. Each family circle at
its daily reunions, and as well each studious Or laborious individual on resuming his daily task,
may find in view an account of all events deserving notice which have occurred upon the previous
day anywhere within the widespread regions known to human commerce. The grand moving
panorama of the world's entire life being thus kept, as it were, under immediate observation, it is
obviously desirable that some ready means of comprehending its infinitely diversified features
should be ever at command. The thing needed to this end is a handbook comprising the whole
circle of science, literature, and art; and this could be formed only by selecting from the vast
records of knowledge the large and distinctive features of each article, to the careful exclusion of
all such minor details as thorough skill could pronounce not essential for the purposes of ordinary
or incidental reference. The necessity not having become apparent until a recent period, the first
conception of such a design appears in JoHNSON's NEW UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA. I have examined
with some care the advance volume of this work, as it has been prepared under your editorial
supervision, and take the liberty of saying that, according to my best judgment, it exhibits in great
perfection the indispensable qualities—that is to say, compactness and brevity, without any sacri-
fice of adequacy to the end in view. I think it will be found extremely useful to all classes. It
was fit that a scholar of our own country should be the first to detect and supply a need mainly .
resulting from the inventions of Fulton and Morse. - .
From Hon. John Norton Pomeroy, LL.D., Rochester, N. Y.
A. J. JoHNSON, ESQ.: MY DEAR SIR-I have examined with some care the first volume of
JoELNSON'S UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA. In its general plan and arrangement, in the execution of that
plan, in the various special essays upon important and leading topics, in the imposing list of con-
tributors whom you have secured to prepare these special articles, and in the manner in which
the printing itself is done, it is not surpassed, and, in my opinion, not equalled, by any similar
publication, American or English. There are features of it which make it more valuable to the
American student or reader than even the larger and costlier English works which are so univer-
sally known. I refer to the careful and exhaustive discussion and treatment of so many subjects
purely American—discussions which give the result of the latest and most accurate thought and
investigation. Your Cyclopædia tells many things which will be of the highest interest to European
scholars, public men, and intelligent readers in general, and which they cannot find elsewhere;
and it will doubtless be the means of furnishing, for the first time and in a compendious form, a
correct account of many of our internal affairs and modes of thought and life to the educated
mind of Europe. For the American author, student, editor, and other persons in similar employ-
ments, it will be simply invaluable from its compactness, accuracy, and fulness. In regard to
certain classes of topics embraced within this volume, I am able to testify of the accuracy and
completeness of the treatment given in the special articles, and have a right to assume that the
same qualities exist in all the other portions of the work. It is a book which ought to be in the
possession of every family which desires to have a means of ready access to information upon
almost all subjects. . -
From Hon. Lewis H. Morgan, LL.D., Rochester, N. Y.
I have examined with care the first volume of JOHNSON’s UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA, and com-
mend it for the number and thoroughness of its original articles, for the care with which other arti-
cles have been revised, for the richness of its illustrations, and for its breadth and range. As a
; of individual enterprise, and in mechanical execution, it is more than creditable to its
publisher.
From Rev. W. A. Stearns, D. D., LL.D., Pres. of Amherst College, Amherst, Mass.
From an examination of JoHNSON's UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA, in connection with what I have
learned respecting it from other sources, I have come to regard it as a book of no common merit.
Bappily conceived, admirably executed, clear, sufficiently full, condensed, while it will be welcomed
by scholars, it seems better adapted for ordinary uses than any other work of the kind with which
I am acquainted.
2 [ovº.R.]
TESTIMO.W.I.A. LS CO.W. T.I.W'UED.
From Rev. W. S. Tyler, D. D., LL.D., Williston Prof. of the Greek Lang. and Lit. in Amherst Coll., Mass.
I have examined carefully some of the articles of the first volume of JoHNSON'S NEW UNIVERSAL
CYCLOPEDIA, and find that they bear the test well. The subjects are judiciously selected, they
cover so wide a field that the work deserves the epithet “Universal,” and they are treated with the
conciseness, fulness, clearness, and accuracy which constitute the chief merit of a cyclopaedia.
Comprehensive without being superficial, comprising the whole circle of useful knowledge within
the compass of three large royal octavo volumes, the entire work promises to meet a felt want, not
only of professional and educated men, but of cultivated families generally and an intelligent
community. -
From Edward Hitchcock, A. M., M. D., Prof. of Hygiene and Physical Education, and Lecturer on
Natural History in Amherst College, Mass.
I am very glad to look over the first volume of JOHNSON'S UNIVERSAL CycLOPAEDIA just from the
press. . It pleases me, because it seems to be based on common sense, is fresh, and fully up to the
times in both theory and fact. I believe it will prove a public benefaction.
From R. H. Mather, Prof. of Greek and German in Amherst College, Amherst, Mass.
A brief examination of the first volume of JOHNSON'S UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA convinces me
that it is correctly called a “Treasury of Knowledge.” I do not believe it is possible to find else-
where the same amount of interesting, useful, and accurate information within the same compass
as you offer here. The great mass of readers, to whom the many-volumed cyclopædias are a sealed
book because of their expense, ought to be very grateful to you for giving them in such a compact
and intelligible form that which heretofore it has taken half a dozen large volumes to express. It
bears the marks of careful and thorough scholarship, and the typographical execution is every-
thing that could be desired. .
From E. S. Snell, LL.D., Prof. of Math. and Nat. Philosophy in Amherst College, Mass.
The ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA published by Mr. Johnson pleases me much. I judge, from the
examination which I have given to the first volume, that it answers well to its descriptive title,
“A Scientific and Popular Treasury of Useful Knowledge.” The many distinguished names among
its editors and contributors are a sufficient guaranty of the fidelity and thoroughness with which
the work will be performed. •
From E. P. Crowell, Prof. of Latin in Amherst College, Amherst, Mass.
An examination of some of the articles in JOHNSON's ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA upon subjects
in which I am especially interested has enabled me to appreciate the ability with which this work
has been prepared, and its superior merits. It seems to me to be an invaluable book of reference
for every household and every student. -
From Elijah P. Harris, Ph.D., Prof. of Chemistry in Amherst College, Amherst, Mass.
From a brief examination of the first volume of JOHNSON'S UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA, I conclude
that it is well adapted to the most general use. The most essential matter is condensed to conve-
nient articles, which are clear and comprehensive. It lacks the more elaborate character of much
larger works, which renders them valuable to a few, but tedious, cumbersome, and too expensive
for the many.
From John W. Burgess, LL.B., Prof. of History and Political Science in Amherst Coll., Mass.
I have examined those articles in the first volume of JoHNSON'S UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA which
pertain more nearly to my own line of work, and am able to express myself as highly pleased with
the same. They bear the stamp of original investigation and composition by men of learning and
experience in the departments to which they relate.
From Charles Upham Shepard, M.D., LL.D., Massachusetts Prof. of Nat. Hist. in Amherst Coll., Mass.
I have carefully examined Vol. I. of JOHNSON's UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA, and am fully satisfied
that if completed on the same plan it will constitute the most valuable work of a similar character
in the English language. - -
From George A. White, A. M., Instructor in Latin and Greek in Amherst College, Amherst, Mass.
I have examined with some care several articles in JOHNSON'S UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA, especially
such articles as the teachers of our schools need to consult. I find them complete and accurate,
and calculated to supplement the information given in our school text-books. If the articles I am
not able to judge of are as valuable as those I have seen, the work is superior to any now in use,
while its reasonable price will place it within the reach of thousands in our State, who have always
felt the need of such a work, and have not been able to procure it. I believe that parents and
teachers will find it a wonderful help in enlarging their own knowledge and bringing it up to the
times, and in answering the many questions which bright children are constantly asking. I should
º them to examine this work before purchasing books on the various subjects to which they
need to refer. -
From W. L. Montague, Prof. of French, Italian, and Spanish in Amherst College, Amherst, Mass.
An examination of the first volume of JOHNSON's NEW UNIVERSAL CyCLOPAEDIA has given me a
very favorable impression of the work. It is excellent in design and in execution. It is concise,
and at the same time comprehensive. Though it contains many subjects which are not found in
other works of a similar character, still, all the important topics are treated with great clearness,
and with a fulness amply sufficient for the general reader. As a library of useful information it is
a work which is almost indispensable to every scholar and every reader of literature.
3 - [over.]
TESTIMO.W.I.A.LS Cow'TI.YUED. *
t
From W.S. Clark, Ph.D., Pres., and Prof. of Botany and Horticulture in Mass. Agr. Coll., Amherst, Mass.
Having carefully examined the first volume of your NEW UNIVERSAL CycLOPEDIA, I am greatly
pleased with many of its peculiar merits. It seems to me that, after the Bible and the Dictionary,
it is the most indispensable book for every library. The number of topics is immense, and the
treatment of them admirable. As a gazetteer and biographical dictionary it is worth its cost, while
its scientific articles are rendered specially valuable by the appended names of their authors, who
are without exception first-rate men in their several departments. This “Treasury of Useful
Knowledge,” faithfully studied, will render any person of Ordinary ability really intelligent and
well informed. g
From Lieut. A. H. Merrill, U. S. Army, Prof. of Mil. Sci. and Tactics in Mass. Agr. Coll., Amherst, Mass.
I have examined the first volume of JOHNSON'S UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA, and I esteem it to be
a work well worthy of national pride. I heartily commend this volume, above others of its kind,
for its clear, terse, and able treatment of so great a number of current issues, and especially those
in reference to all matters of technical science. -
From Henry W. Parker, M.A., Prof. of Mental, Moral, and Social Sci. in Mass. Agr. Coll., Amherst.
The names of its editors and principal contributors vouch for the excellence of JoHNSON's
UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA. They are well known as men of high rank in their departments of study.
Every family should possess some work of this kind, though at the cost of abstinence from some
luxuries.
From Henry H. Goode!I, M.A., Prof. of Modern Languages in Mass. Agr. Coll., Amherst, Mass.
After a careful comparison of JOHNSON'S NEW UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA with other works of the
same nature, we can heartily commend it to the public. In all matters of art and science it pre-
sents the latest information, carefully prepared by the best scholars. If the succeeding volumes
carry out the promise of the first, it will indeed be what it claims, “a Treasury of Useful Know-
ledge” for every household.
From Hon. Levi Stockbridge, Professor of Agriculture in Mass. Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass.
I have examined the first volume of JOHNSON'S UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA, and can find no fault
in it. In perfection and thoroughness it abundantly sustains the reputation of your editors and
contributors, and cannot fail of being extremely valuable to all who have occasion to consult a
work of the kind.
From William B. Graves, Prof. of Physics and Civil Engineering in Mass. Agr. Coll., Amherst, Mass.
A cursory examination of the first volume of JOHNSON'S NEW UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA impresses
me very favorably. It seems to be all that is claimed for it, brief, comprehensive, exact. The
amount of matter condensed in so small a space is surprisingly large. This fact, together with its
comparative cheapness, will cause it to be welcomed by those whose means will not allow the
more expensive works of the same class.
From S. T. Maynard, Assist. Prof. of Botany and Horticulture in the Mass. Agr. Coll., Amherst, Mass.
I find, after a careful examination of JOHNSON'S UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA, that it is very com-
plete in botanical information, giving, as it does, a concise and accurate description of the different
families of plants, a careful description of each genus, and also of all the useful or particularly,
interesting species, making it quite as valuable as any botanical dictionary we now have. It is par-
ticularly valuable in that it contains the latest information upon this as upon all other subjects.
From Prof. J. Thomas, M. D., LL.D., Philadelphia, Pa.
MESSRS. A. J. JoHNSON & SON : DEAR SIRS–I have examined with much interest the first volume
of JoHNSON’s UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA, and have been exceedingly pleased with it. On account of
its great comprehensiveness, as well as the Superiority of its leading articles, I do not hesitate to
place it above every other cyclopædia with which I am acquainted. The names of the many emi-
ment men connected with the work, either as editors or contributors, are an ample guaranty of
its high character, and give the fullest assurance that the articles furnished by them ably and
adequately represent their respective departments. I may add, in conclusion, that this volume
contains a vast amount of valuable information not to be found in any other cyclopædia, or indeed
in any other work, of whatever class, hitherto published.
|
From Henry Hartshorne, A. M., Prof. of Hygiene in the University of Pa.
(Extract from a Letter to the Publisher.)
A. J. JoHNSON: DEAR SIR-Absence from home has delayed acknowledgment of receipt of first
volume of JOHNSON'S UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA ; for which, thanks. Examination satisfies me that it
is the best table-book of facts—of things, places, persons, and events—in existence; its especial
merits being freshness, reliableness, and availability.
From Prof. S. S. Haldeman, of the University of Pa.
In my opinion, JoHNSON's NEW UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA is worthy of the patronage of an intel-
ligent public. The sciences are well represented by writers of known ability, the results are brought
down to the latest period, and the necessary figures and maps are given in illustration. Judging
from the names associated with important articles which come later in the alphabet, I anticipate a
high degree of excellence for the entire work. -
From John G. Whittier, West Amesbury, Mass.
(Extract from a Letter to the Editor-in-chief.)
MY DEAR PRESIDENT BARNARD; I have received the first volume of JoHNSON's UNIVERSAL CycLo-
PAEDIA, and have looked it over with admiration at its completeness and accuracy. It more than
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TESTIMO.W.I.A. LS COJWTI.W’UED.
fulfils the promise of its publisher. One is appalled at the amount of labor it suggests on the part
of its editors and writers.
From Prof. Joseph Henry, LL.D., M. N. A. S., Sec. of Smithsonian Institute.
(Extract from a Letter to the Editor-in-chief.)
PRES. F. A. P. BARNARD, LL.D. : MY DEAR SIR-I am much pleased with the plan and with the
execution of your Cyclopædia so far as the latter has been carried out. If the work is completed
in the same manner in which it has been commenced, it will truly be a convenient and trustworthy
. . useful knowledge. It will give me pleasure to be associated with it by the contribution
Of articles.
From Edmund R. Peaslee, M. D., LL.D., Prof. Med. Dept. of Dartmouth College, N. H.
(Extract from a Letter to the Editor-in-chief.)
I have seen enough of JOHNSON'S NEW UNIVERSAL CyCLOPEDIA to give me a very high estimate
of the value of the work.
From John Ordronaux, LL.B., M.D., Prof. of Med. Jurisprudence, Columbia College, N. Y.
(Extract from a Letter to the Editor-in-chief.)
MY DEAR SIR: Your CYCLOPEDIA is a magnificent collection of sterling monographs, which
have the flavor of Originality about them to a degree not common in American Cyclopædias.
From Hon. J. L. M. Curry, S.T.D., LL.D., Pres, of Richmond college, Va.
MESSRS. A. J. JOHNSON & SON: DEAR SIRs—JOHNSON's NEW UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA has been
Iying on my table long enough for me to appreciate its great value. For accuracy and fulness of
information, brought down to the latest date, condensed in a brief and manageable compass, so as
to facilitate reference—for all that constitutes a vade mecwm for students and men of business—the
Cyclopædia is invaluable.
From W. D. Whitney, Ph.D., LL.D., M. N. A. S., Prof. of Sanscrit and Com. Philology in Yale Coll.
(Extract from a Letter to the Editor-in-chief.)
PRES. F. A. P. BARNARD, LL.D.: MY DEAR SIR—I have felt a little embarrassed about expressing
myself in praise of JOHNSON’s UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA, because such testimonials coming from
expected collaborators have a little the look of “mutual-admiration-society’’ proceedings. As I
have not, however, contributed anything to this first volume, I do not think there can be any serious
objection to my reporting my very favorable impressions of its ability and value. No one person
is capable of really judging of more than a Small part of such a work, nor any one, perhaps, with-
out long experience of it or a week of labor devoted to testing it; and I have tried it in neither
way. But I have been much struck with the ability and freshness of many of the articles at which
I have looked, and by the comprehensiveness, within moderate compass, of the plan of the whole;
and I feel no doubt that it will prove to the end a collection of very high value and utility.
From Benjamin Silliman, M. D., M. N. A. S., Prof. of Chemistry in Yale College.
MESSRS. A. J. JOHNSON & SON: GENTLEMEN-I have examined the first volume of JOHNSON'S UNI-
VERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA, especially in the departments which fall within the range of my own special
studies. I have also examined many of the other articles, and I am happy in being able to say that
I find it a very valuable contribution to knowledge, presenting a large amount of matter prepared
especially for this work by the most eminent men in their various departments in this country and
Europe. It is not the province of an encyclopædia to present original Contributions to human
knowledge, but where its leading articles are prepared by authors who are themselves prominent
in original investigations, the quality of the work rises much above that of a mere compilation.
This is the distinguishing character, as it appears to me, of your Cyclopædia, which is truly “a
Scientific and Popular Treasury of Useful Knowledge.” The names of its Editors-in-chief, and of
their Associate and Assistant Editors, are a guaranty of its high character; and an examination
of the 1677 closely-printed pages of the first volume will show, by the frequent recurrence of emi-
nent names, that the editorial labors have been faithfully performed. -
From George Woods, LL.D., Chancellor of the Western University, Pittsburg, Pa.
MESSRS. A. J. JoHNSON & SON: I have examined with care JOHNSON'S UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA, and
find it to be a scientific and popular “Treasury of Useful Knowledge,” and, as such, well suited to
the people, and also equally well adapted to the scholar and professional man. The editors and
authors of the important articles are among the most accomplished Scholars in their departments
in our own and other countries, and are the highest authorities on the Subjects on which they
write. The novel feature, in such a work, of giving the names of the writers, will enable the
intelligent reader to judge of the value of the authority. The clearness, conciseness, and at the
same time the completeness of the articles, the binding—of the most durable kind—and the
extremely low price for a work containing so much valuable knowledge, so ably prepared, render
this work the best of the kind ever, within my knowledge, offered to the public, and Cannot fail to
secure for it a wide circulation.
From Edward P. Crane, Prof. of Logic and Rhetoric in the Western University, Pittsburg, Pa.
I have of late made frequent chance reference to the first volume of JOHNSON'S NEW UNIVERSAL
CYCLOPEDIA—the only one as yet issued—and have carefully read several of the more extended
articles. The expectations raised by my confidence in Mr. J. as what I may term a literary engineer
—no small matter in such a connection—and by my familiarity with the names appended to the
articles in question, were in no instance disappointed. I regard this work as eminently adapted
to meet the wants of the great mass of the constituency it has in view—the intelligent, but not
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TESTIMO.W.I.A.LS CONTINUED. .
necessarily learned and scientific, American public. In the praiseworthy endeavor to put the
average reader in possession of the prominent facts and principles of history, literature, the arts,
science, and even theology, I have detected nothing that struck me as loose, slipshod, or of but merely
local and ephemeral interest. Considering the object of the publisher, to furnish us with a table
encyclopædia, as distinguished from an alphabetically arranged library of recondite treatises, I think
the condensed form in which the matter is presented a recommendation rather than the contrary.
As to price, Mr. Johnson has certainly done his best to realize Mr. Greeley's germ-idea—that of put-
ting the most valuable encyclopædic matter within reach of the million, whose thirst for exact
knowledge brings them so often into contact with the limits of their resources. *
From Rev. M. W. Jacobus, S. T. D., LL.D., Professor in the Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa.
We are most agreeably surprised to find such a wealth of valuable material compacted within
the covers of Johnson's UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA. It well answers the admirable purpose of the
editors—to make it a manual for most convenient use, to be at the elbow for most familiar refer-
ence. The names of the distinguished Editors-in-chief, as well as of the several Associate Editors,
had prepared us to expect much, but we find more than we had expected within this compass.
Everything cannot be set forth in full under such limitations of space and cost; but, comparing it
with Appleton’s last edition on our shelves, we find thirty additional geographical items on one page
of this work, taken at random, and on the next page eight additional items—historical, geographi-
cal, and botanical—between two words. And as yet we have found no item in Appleton's not found
in this, though there may be such. We write this as part of our testimony to the very valuable
and wonderfully complete material to be found in this Cyclopædia, justifying the epithet of “Uni-
VéI'Sa,I. -
From Rev. Wm. H. Hornblower, S. T. D., Professor in Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa.
I have examined the first volume of JOHNSON's UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA. It is literally a “Trea-
sury of Knowledge.” While not intended as a substitute for other cyclopædias, it contains infor-
mation on such a variety of subjects not usually found within the compass of such works that it
may be regarded as a valuable supplement with which even literary men cannot dispense, and for
business, practical men, and men who can afford only one such costly work of reference, or have
not time to consult others, it promises to be the best cyclopædia in the English language.
From Prof. S. J. Wilson, D. D., Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa.
I have examined the first volume of JOHNSON’s UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA, and can cordially recom-
mend it. The aim of the publisher is to make a cyclopædia which shall contain the greatest
amount of accurate information on a wide range of subjects in the most condensed and available
form. Thus far, the plan has been carried out with a remarkable degree of success. I know of
no single volume which gives so much varied and valuable information in the same space as this
volume gives.
From Ransom Dexter, A.M., M.D., Lecturer on Com. Anat. and Zoology in the Univ. of Chicago.
(Extract from a Letter to the Editor-in-chief.)
PRES. F. A. P. BARNARD, LL.D. : MY DEAR SIR-I have the pleasure as well as the honor to
acknowledge the receipt of the first volume of JoHNSON's NEW UNIVERSAI, CYCLOPEDIA, for which
please accept my thanks. Please allow me to gratuitously add that I think its value is much
enhanced by the pronunciation of its terms, its concise and yet precise style of dealing with its
subjects, as well as its very general excellence in almost every other particular. It is in my opinion
the best cyclopædia for general use published.
From Rev. William Porter, A. M., Prof. of Latin in Beloit College, Wis.
I think it may be safely, said of JOHNSON’s UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA—the first volume of which
I have examined with care—that it promises to rank among the very best of the works of its class.
On a very wide range of subjects it gives in the most compact form just the information one seeks
from such a work. In its treatment of all the more important subjects it presents in clear, full,
accurate, and often quite exhaustive statements the best thoughts and the best results of study and
research of many of the ablest thinkers and writers of our century—of men who in their several
departments have earned the right to speak with authority on the subjects of which they treat.
In the matter of American biography and geography I think the work can have no equal. I do
not believe it possible to find elsewhere within the same compass and at so small a cost such an
amount of information on such a variety of subjects—such a treasury of really useful knowledge.
From James H. Eaton, Ph. D., Prof. of Chemistry and Mineralogy in Beloit College, Wis.
I have carefully examined several of the science-articles of the first volume of JOHNSON'S NEW
|UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA. They are admirable. They are concise, and at the same time are adapted
to the understanding of those who have not made a special study of the sciences themselves. They
contain the results of recent investigations, and have been written by men who are familiar with
the present stand-points of theoretical science. The list of authorities at the close of each article
is of great value. If the entire work is of equal excellence, as it doubtless will be, judging from the
names of the contributors, it will be for every one a “Treasury of Useful Knowledge.”
From P. Hendrickson, A. M., Prof. of Modern Languages in Beloit College, Wis.
The practical writer and the man of affairs want at their hands fäcts and statistics clear and
easily accessible, upon which to build premises and from which to draw conclusions. The common
reader and the critic want answers to innumerable questions, and explanations of the many allu-
sions which are continually met in the newspapers and other publications of the time. JOHNSON'S
|UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA meets these wants in a most satisfactory manner, and, I think, better than
any other publication of the kind. Almost every question in history, geography, anº is
- 6 OWER.
TESTIMO.W.I.A.LS CO.WTI.W'UED.
clearly and concisely answered, many beautifully illustrated, in three manageable volumes. As a
means of self-culture this work is invaluable, and renders ignorance more inexcusable than ever.
From Rev. H. M. Whitney, A. M., Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature in Beloit College, Wis.
I have just spent several hours with great pleasure in examining JoHNSON's NEW UNIVERSAL
CYCLOPAEDIA, Vol. I. It seems to me to combine in an admirable manner correctness and thorough-
ness with compactness. For busy men it seems to possess, in this fact, an advantage over works
entering more largely into criticism or detail. The prepossession which I received from the names
of its editors and principal contributors is confirmed by careful reading of several articles in
different departments.
From T. C. Chamberlin, A. M., Professor of Geology, Zoology, and Botany in Beloit College, Wis.
I have examined the first volume of JOHNSON's NEW UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA with care, giving
especial attention to those subjects with which I am most familiar, and I find it to be clear, concise,
thorough, and reliable. The selection of matter is excellent and the authors are trustworthy. It
is well adapted to serve the purpose for which it is designed.
From Rev. Joseph Emerson, A. M., Williams Prof. of Greek in Beloit College, Wis.
JoHNSON's NEW UNIVERSAL CycLOPAEDIA is truly a “Treasury of Knowledge.” I know not where
else so much, so varied, and such fresh information can be had at so small expense of time, pains,
and means.
From I. W. Pettibone, M.A., Principal of the preparatory school of Beloit college, Wis.
Having devoted some little time to an examination of the first volume of JoHNSON'S UNIVERSAL
CYCLOPAEDIA, I am greatly pleased with the plan and execution of the work, so far as completed.
Its articles, ably written and thoroughly condensed and digested, place before the reader just the
information he is most likely to need upon any topic, in its most accessible form.
From Prof. Wm. F. Phelps, A. M., Pres. of First State Normal School of Minn.
Having made a careful and thorough examination of the first volume of JoHNSON's NEW ILLUS-
TRATED UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA, and having compared it with other publications of its class, I feel
prepared to express my unqualified preference for it over any other work of the kind that has come
under my notice. In the breadth and comprehensiveness of its scope, in the fulness of its details,
in the severe conciseness of its style, in the accuracy of its statements of fact, and in the beauty of
its artistic and mechanical execution, I know of nothing that can compare with it. If this great
enterprise shall be completed as it has been begun, as it unquestionably will be, it will supply to
the student and the man of business a library of information drawn from every field of human
thought, within a compass and at a price never before realized.
In the absence of any special examination, I should have considered the names of the eminent
men comprised in the catalogue of its Editors and Contributors a sufficient guaranty of its extra-
ordinary merit as a “Treasury of Universal Knowledge.” The freshness and originality of its more
important articles are in striking contrast with the mere compilations of many similar publications,
and are among its crowning excellences. The work will certainly prove to be an enduring monu-
ment to American Scholarship and American enterprise. It cannot fail to receive a welcome com-
mensurate with its inestimable value. r
From James B. Angelſ, LL.D., President of the University of Michigan.
I have examined the first volume of JOHNSON’s UNIVERSAL CyCLOPAEDIA. The plan is happily
conceived, and the execution of the plan is excellent. The geographical, biographical, and scien-
tific articles seem to be especially well done. The writers of the important articles on scientific
topics will be recognized everywhere as “authorities in their respective fields.
From Benjamin F. Cocker, D.D., Professor in the University of Michigan.
I have taken time to carefully examine JOHNSON's NEW UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA, and feel justified
in expressing my full approval both of the plan and execution of the work. I feel sure it will meet
a real want which has been felt by the public, and must become the most popular of all the cyclo-
paedias. There is a large amount of valuable information judiciously condensed in the articles,
especially the scientific articles, where the business-man, the farmer, and the college-student in his
early career will find much that they need to know without wading through large treatises; and
they may be sure that their information is accurate. Were a young man of limited means to ask
me which encyclopædia, he should procure, I should certainly recommend this in preference to
Chambers's, or even the American. I certainly prefer the scientific articles I have looked over in
JoHNSON'S to those in the American.
From C. K. Adams, Professor of History in the University of Michigan. -
I have devoted the greater part of an evening to an examination of JOHNSON'S UNIVERSAL CYCLO-
PAEDIA, and I have no hesitation in saying, as the result of this examination, that, in my opinion,
as a work of reference it is superior to any other work with which I am acquainted. For the pur-
poses of a student I cannot see how a work could be more convenient or more valuable. . It con-
tains a greater variety of information than the larger cyclopædias, and for this reason it is likely
for Ordinary purposes to be quite as valuable.
From Gen. Alexis Brialmont—at the head of an important branch of the Ministry of War of Belgium—
a distinguished military writer, and the highest authority in Europe on subjects of Fortification and
National Defence. -
(Extract from a Letter to GEN. J. G. BARNARD.)
MY DEAR GENERAL: I received, ten or twelve days since, the first volume of the UNIVERSAL
CYCLOPAEDIA, which Mr. Johnson has had the kingles to send me. I beg you will expº to him
OVER.
TESTIMO.W.I.A.LS Co. WTTW'UED.
my gratitude for the magnificent present, which will hereafter constitute the finest ornament of my
library. I do not think that there has been published in any language, nor in any country, a
work containing, in one so compact a volume, so great a number of interesting subjects, arranged
with so much Order and method. ...As regards the material and execution, scarce anything better
could be produced. The book will doubtless be universally appreciated as a chef d’aeuvre of typog-
raphy, and, what is of more importance, as a publication of the greatest popular utility. I regret
I have not been able, for want of time, to contribute more extensively to this work, in which you,
justly, take SO Warm an interest; but my official occupations increase daily in number and
importance.
From Hon. P. Caland, Knight of the Order of the Netherlands Lion, and Vice-Chairman of the Royal
Institution of Engineers of Holland.
A. J. JoHNSON, ESQ.: DEAR SIR-I have received through the kind interveniency of General
Barnard a copy of the first volume of JOHNSON's NEW UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA, and I can but com-
pliment you about the contents and execution of this magnificent work. I do not believe that we
have in Europe any work of this kind as useful, as universal, as complete, and of such a beautiful
execution as yours. There is no doubt that it will find on this continent a great many readers, and
I think that Scientific men can do no better than purchase it as soon as possible. In my few hours
of leisure I have tried to acquaint myself with the contents of the Cyclopædia, and I have found
but matter of praise, and for congratulating myself upon the possession of this publication.
- From an Editorial in the Pittsburg Evening Chronicle.
'º. NEW UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA. New York: A. J. JoHNSON & SON; Pittsburg: W. D.
UMMINGS.
We were somewhat surprised on learning last week from a literary and journalistic friend, Mr. J.
C. Purdy, that a new cyclopædia had made its appearance in New York. Such works require so large
an amount of preliminary labor that attentive newspaper readers are pretty sure to hear of them
long and often before they make their appearance. Well, with JOHNSON'S CYCLOPAEDIA the case has
been different—at least so far as we are concerned. The work was projected and shaped in its chief
salient points by the late Horace Greeley, a man who on many accounts was just the person who
could indicate the scope and purpose of a handbook of universal knowledge. In his long life he
doubtless often felt the need of a good cyclopædia that would supply him, in the briefest and most
correct form, with concise and sufficiently ample information on all sorts of subjects, such as they
arise before the eyes of an editor. Mr. Greeley was for a number of years a member of Mr. A. J.
Johnson's family, a publisher such as the learned world honors for sterling worth, sound knowledge,
and enthusiastic enterprise. To him Mr. G. unbosomed his mind on the subject in frequent con-
versation. The principles laid down were that it should be a table-book, a book of facts, and uniformly
accurate, and brought up in every article to the actual state of knowledge at the date of publication.
We have now before us the first concrete shape of these plans—a stately volume of 1700 pages,
made of excellent paper and splendid press-work; in short, so far as typographic execution is con-
cerned, a volume of which the American press can justly be proud. The conscientious labors of pub-
lishers and editors and numerous co-laborers have been directed for three years to this end. It is
expected that the second volume will be issued next year, and in the Centennial year the third and
concluding volume will be finished. -
The Editors-in-chief of JoHNSON's CYCLOPEDIA are Frederick A. P. Barnard, S.T.D., LL.D.,
L. H. D., M. N. A. S., President of Columbia College, New York, and Arnold Guyot, Ph.D., LL.B.,
M. N. A. S., as noted scholars as our country has ever produced; these are supported by over twenty
Associate and Assistant Editors, each one being of the highest order of talent in his profession, and
including such names as Woolsey, Dwight, Chandler, Drisler, Krauth, Seelye, Stevens, Summers,
etc. etc., each one taking an active and important share in the labor necessary to ensure perfection
in their several departments. . These men have secured contributions from writers of distinguished
eminence in every department of letters and science in the United States and in Europe, who have
written special articles on important subjects in every branch of learning. For instance, in Our Own
city “Calvinism” is a subject on which accurate information may be required. We find over six
pages devoted to it, and at the end we find the name of Archibald A. Hodge, S.T. D., Professor of
Theology in Allegheny Seminary. Who will ask for better authority on that subject? And when
we find President Henry Morton's name appended to the magnificent article on “Electricity,” or
C. F. Chandler's to “Chemistry,” or “America's prodigy,” Edward D. Cope's, to “Comparative Anat-
omy,” or Prof. Guyot's to “The Earth,” or Henry Hartshorne's to “Evolution,”—where else shall we
look for thorough work if not to such names? And yet these are less than a half score of several
hundred distinguished scholars whose names appear at the end of important articles on art, Science,
literature, mechanics, geography, biography, etc. etc. etc. in this and succeeding volumes.
Over 450 gentlemen connected with the press, etc. in the principal centres of population in the
'United States have furnished for this volume succinct accounts of cities, towns, and villages where
they live—a feature which ensures accurate information in every case. For instance, we find our
neighboring city of Cleveland written up by one of the editors of the Cleveland Leader; Cincinnati
by G. Bruhl, M.D., a gentleman thoroughly acquainted with all its interests. Our own city will be
written up by a gentleman whose life has been passed within her limits, and who can truly tell the
world of her great and growing industries, etc. Every town, city, and county in the United States
is given, with the Federal census of 1870. -
That we may show the hearty approval which a capable, careful, and critical examination of the
work wins on the part of those whose judgment is authority, we allude to the testimonials given by
eminent scholars among us. The utterances are those of men who are known to all as men emi-
nent for intellectual attainments and literary jºgment
TESTIMO.W.I.A.LS Co. WTI.YUED.
From Rev. P. A. Chadbourne, D.D., LL.D., Pres. of Williams College, Williamstown, Mass.
An examination of the first volume of JOHNSON'S UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA has convinced me of
its great excellence. Its articles are well written, and such reference is given to other cognate arti-
cles as to render most of the topics more complete than they could otherwise be without greatly
enlarging the work. The list of writers given as contributors to the two remaining volumes is a
guarantee for excellent material, and the well-known character of the Editors gives assurance that
the work, as a whole, will have all that thoroughness and accuracy SO essential in a standard book
of reference. -
From Hon. Henry Stockbridge, Attorney-at-law, Baltimore, Md.
(Extract from a Letter to the Editor-in-Chief.)
MY DEAR PRES. BARNARD : I have given the first volume of your Cyclopædia the test of several
weeks’ constant reference on a wide range of subjects, and of special examination of the articles
connected with my own (the legal) profession. The result has been satisfactory far beyond antici-
pation—almost beyond belief, as it seems hardly credible that so much breadth, fulness, clearness,
and accuracy of information can be brought within the number of pages composing the volume.
I have not found that the extreme condensation—which enables the work to be in fact as well as
in name a “cyclopædia *-has involved any obscurity or inaccuracy. On the contrary, the defini-
tions of technical terms and statements of abstract propositions are as precise and clear as the dis-
cussions are learned, candid, wise. The dissatisfying part is that we must wait a year or two for the
other volumes. .
From Hon. L. Q. C. Lamar, Member of Congress from Miss. -
(Ectract from a Letter to the Editor-in-Chief.)
Johnson's UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA treats with ability and unusual fairness all political questions,
giving the views of the best minds on all sides. I have had occasion to examine with special care
the contributions of Dwight, Stephens, and others. The articles from the former are marked by
great clearness and precision as well as by their exhaustive treatment of the subjects, and with
Stephens my own views are in such perfect accord that a criticism would be out of place. I have
already formed the habit of referring to the Cyclopædia for information, and I find it very valuable.
From Hon. William Windom, United States Senator from Minn.
From an examination of JoHNSON's NEW UNIVERSAL Cy CLOPEDIA, I fully concur in the estimate
of Prof. W. F. Phelps in relation to its great value and its adaptation to meet a public want not
hitherto supplied by any similar work. The distinguished names of its editors and contributors are
a sufficient guarantee of its trustworthiness.
From Paul F. Eve, M.D., Prof. of Operative and Medical Surgery in the University of Nashville, Tenn.
JoHNSON's NEW ILLUSTRATED UNIVERSAL CycLOPAEDIA convinces me, after an examination of the
work, that no expense has been spared and no labor withheld from making it just what is so much
required in our households—reliable information of events, of things, of locations, and of brief
biographical sketches of noted persons the world over. I know of no better book, except the Bible,
than this one for our families.
From Rev. Dr. Ludwig Niffert, A. M., Director of the Theological School, Frankfort, Germany.
JoHNSON'S UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA is a treasure indeed; it cannot fail to be highly prized as a
book of reference, especially by students and literary workers. I place it as one of the very best
standards in the library of our theological school. Its brief articles are well condensed, retaining
all essential data; its larger papers, on more important topics, are unusually able. Of the latter
class, the articles on CALVINISM, by Dr. Hodge, and on ARMINIANISM, by Dr. Whedon, are of sterling
worth, and show the complete impartiality of the work. The plan of this Cyclopædia is unique,
and renders it a special convenience for literary men, without detracting from its popular adaptation.
From. Rev. Dr. Sulzberger, A. M., Prof. in Theological School, Frankfort, Germany.
JoHNSON'S UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA is a masterly production, sound and full in its science and
extraordinary in its practical adaptations. Mr. Greeley’s suggestion of such a work as a table-book
for ready and reliable reference was one of the wisest things in that great journalist's life; and Mr.
Johnson has completely exemplified the suggestion. I find its articles severely and uniformly
accurate. The comparative treatment of subjects in the long and the short articles is a striking
feature of the work. The former are given thoroughly and with the latest results of science; the
latter are given with skilful condensation. Literary men, as well as intelligent families, have much
needed just such a work. It deserves a place in the first rank of encyclopædias by its literary and
Scientific ability, while its merits, on the score of practical adaptation, are quite peculiar to it.
From S. H. McCollester, LL.D., Pres. of Buchtel College, Akron, Ohio.
After having spent some time in examining the contents of the first volume, comparing many
of its articles with those on the same subjects in four other cyclopædias, I am forced to the con-
clusion that for accuracy, completeness, taste, and scholarship it is not surpassed by any work of
the kind. Its publication must be hailed with satisfaction by all scholars who learn its intrinsig
worth, and must be acknowledged an invaluable treasury of information for all who would seek and
know. It is a perfect library of itself. It is marvellous how so much knowledge could be so ably
prepared, carefully compiled, and neatly presented in three volumes for so small a sum of money
as advertised. It is a fund of knowledge placed within the reach of the mass. It would seem that
almost every laboring man could afford to purchase the work. No home ought to be without it.
Let the young be educated to make daily use of it, and they cannot fail to grow in wisdom and ex-
tensive learning, for it furnishes the best products of many of the best minds. [ J
9 * OVER.
SPECIAL NOTICE TO OUR PATRONS,
* ~ *-*.
x-y ºr
IN presenting to the public the first volume of the New Illustrated Universal Cyclopædia,
the undersigned avail themselves of the opportunity to assure their patrons that the remaining
Volumes shall be in no respect inferior to this, in respect either to comprehensiveness of Scope,
or to the fulness and accuracy of the information given, or to the conscientious fidelity with which
every part of the work, literary or mechanical, shall be executed. On the other hand, the ex-
perience acquired in constructing the present volume, and the large additions recently made to
the number of able contributors, justify the pledge, which the undersigned do not hesitate to
make, that the work shall continue to improve rather than to decline in value to the end. The
literary labor of the second volume is already nearly completed, and that of the third is far ad-
vanced. +
The preparation of the plates of volume second is in progress, and will be prosecuted without
interruption, and with as great rapidity as the nature of the work will allow. It is hoped and
expected that the second volume will be ready for delivery to subscribers during the year 1875.
A. J. JOHNSON & SON,
PUBLISHERs.
THE undersigned, editors, in compliance with the request of the publishers, add their assur-
ance to that above given that the character which the present volume of this work shall be found
to possess as a compendium of information shall in every respect be maintained in the volumes
yet to be published.
JEditors-in-Chief.
FREDERICK A. P. BARNARD,
ARNOLD GUYOT.
Associate Editors.
MARTIN B. ANDERSON, ASA GRAY, PHILIP SCHAFF,
JOHN G. BARNARD, WILLIAM T. HARRIs, JULIUS H. SEELYE,
CHAS. F. CHANDLER, ROSWELL D. HITCHCOCK, ALEXANDER. H. STEPHENs,
AARON L. CHAPIN, CHARLES P. KRAUTH, ABEL STEVENs,
HENRY DRISLER, GEORGE P. MARSH, THOMAS O. SUMMERs,
THEODORE W. Dwight, JOHN S. NEwBERRY, WILLIAM P. TRow BRIDGE,
OCTAVIUS B. FROTHINGHAM, FOXHALL A. PARKER, THEODORE D. WOOLSEY.
WILLARD PARKER,
Assistant Editors.
LINUs P. BROCKETT, CHARLES W. GREENE,
CHARLES G. LELAND, CLEMENS PETERSEN.
TO THE SUBSCERIEEERS
JOHNSON'S NEW UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA.
THE plan of this work, as stated in its prospectus, contemplates its completion in three volumes.
This limit has been constantly kept in view in the prosecution of the work thus far, and it will
not be overpassed, unless it shall appear that a strict adherence to it will materially diminish the
Value of the work as a whole.
It is stated in the Preface that it is a part of the design to supply in later editions any impor-
tant omissions which may be ascertained to have been made in the volumes published; and,
although every title of interest found in any existing Cyclopædia will be found in this, together
with a multitude of others never before introduced into any similar work, yet it could hardly be
doubted that, after all, some topics would be overlooked which we should have desired to include.
Such omitted topics it has been the purpose of the Editors and Publishers to bring together in the
form of a Supplement, to be annexed, in future editions, in separate portions, to the volumes already
made up, and presented to subscribers who should have been previously supplied, in a small volume
by itself. -
The enlargement of the volumes beyond the dimensions of the one already published seems,
however, to be undesirable, and is not likely to be favored by subscribers. Our plan, therefore, at
present, is to make the Supplement a part of volume third. But this can only be accomplished by
employing a degree of condensation in the remaining volumes which, in the opinion of the Editors,
may have the effect of sensibly impairing their value. To such a consequence, the undersigned are by
no means disposed to submit. We would prefer rather to depart from the original design so far
as to extend the work from three to four volumes, if that should be necessary to give it the com-
pleteness intended.
The second volume is now far advanced in the type foundry, and the material of that volume,
and much of that of volume third, is in an advanced state of preparation. It exceeds in amount
the calculations of the Editors, and it no less exceeds their anticipations as to merit. There is
little in this valuable collection of original papers from authorities of the highest character which
they would willingly exclude. There is nothing which, in their opinion, the subscribers would de-
sire to have them exclude. Nevertheless, it is their purpose, if it should be found possible, to keep
within the limit of three volumes; but if this limit is exceeded, it will be in the full conviction that
the interests of the subscribers to the work will thus be best subserved. In no event will the number
of volumes eacceed four.
A. J. JOHNSON & SON,
PUBLISHERS.
The undersigned approve of the above statement made by the publishers of Johnson's New
Universal Cyclopædia, and they intend, if possible, to complete the work in three volumes, includ-
ing the Appendix.
JEditors-in-Chief.
IFREDERICK A. P. BARNARD,
ARNOLD GUYOT.
A380ciate Editors.
MARTIN B. ANDERSON, JOHN G. BARNARD, CHARLES F. CHANDLER,
AARON L. CHAPIN, HENRY DRISLER, THEODORE. W. DWIGHT,
OCTAVIUs B. FROTHINGHAM, ASA GRAY, WILLIAM T. HARRIS,
Roswell, D. HITCHCOCK, CHARLES P. KRAUTH, / GEORGE P. MARSH,
JoBIN S. NEWBERRY, FOXHALL A. PARKER, WILLARD PARKER,
PHILIP SCHAFF, JULIUS H. SEELYE, ALEXANDER. H. STEPHENS,
ABEL STEVENS, THOMAS O. SUMMERS, WILLIAM P. TROWBRIDGE.
THEODORE D. WoOLSEY,
A8&istant Editors.
LINUS P. BROCKETT, CHARLES W. GREENE,
CHARLES G. LELAND, CLEMENS PETERSEN.
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